images generously made available by gallica (bibliothèque nationale de france) at http://gallica.bnf.fr. bibliographical antiquarian and picturesque tour. printed by william nicol, at the shakespeare press. [illustration: t. f. dibdin, d.d. engraved by james thomson from the original painting by t. phillips esq. r.a. london. published june by r. jennings, poultry.] a bibliographical antiquarian and picturesque tour in france and germany. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin, d.d. member of the royal academy at rouen, and of the academy of utrecht. second edition. volume i. london: published by robert jennings, and john major. . to the reverend john lodge, m.a. fellow of magdalen college, and librarian to the university of cambridge. my dear friend, most grateful it is to me, at all times, to bear in remembrance those pleasant discussions in which we were wont so frequently to indulge, relating to the libraries upon the continent:--but more than ordinarily gratifying to me was _that_ moment, when you told me, that, on crossing the rhine, you took the third volume of my tour under your arm, and on reaching the monasteries of mölk and göttwic, gave an off-hand translation to the venerable benedictine inmates of what i had recorded concerning their mss. and printed books, and their hospitable reception of the author. i studiously concealed from you, at the time, the whole of the gratification which that intelligence imparted; resolving however that, should this work be deemed worthy of a second edition, to dedicate that republication to yourself. accordingly, it now comes forth in its present form, much enhanced, in the estimation of its author, by the respectability of the name prefixed to this dedication; and wishing you many years enjoyment of the honourable public situation with which you have been recently, and so deservedly, invested, allow me to subscribe myself, your affectionate and obliged friend, t.f. dibdin. wyndham place, june , . contents of volume i. contents. volume i. letter i. _passage to dieppe_ letter ii. dieppe. _fisheries. streets. churches of st. jacques and st. remy. divine worship. military mass_ letter iii. _village and castle of arques. sabbath amusements. manners and customs. boulevards_ letter iv. rouen. _approach. boulevards. population. street-scenery_ letter v. _ecclesiastical architecture. cathedral. monuments. religious ceremonies. the abbey of st. ouen. the churches of st. maclou, st. vincent, st. vivien, st. gervais, and st. paul_ letter vi. _halles de commerce. place de la pucelle d'orleans. (jeanne d'arc). basso-rilievo of the champ de drap d'or. palace and courts of justice_ letter vii. rouen. _the quays. bridge of boats. rue du bac. rue de robec. eaux de robec et d'aubette. mont ste. catherine. hospices--générale et d'humanité_, letter viii. _early typography at rouen. modern printers. chap books. booksellers. book collectors_ letter ix. _departure from rouen. st. george de boscherville. duclair. marivaux. the abbey of jumieges. arrival at caudebec_, letter x. _caudebec. lillebonne. bolbec. tankarville. montmorenci castle. havre de grace_ letter xi. _havre de grace. honfleur. journey to caen_ letter xii. caen. _soil. society. education. a duel. old houses. the abbey of st. stephen. church of st. pierre de darnetal. abbé de la sainte trinité. other public edifices_ letter xiii. caen. _literary society. abbé de la rue. messrs. pierre-aimé. lair and lamouroux. medal of malherbe. booksellers. memoir of the late m. moysant, public librarian. courts of justice_ letter xiv. bayeux. _cathedral. ordination of priests and deacons. crypt of the cathedral_ letter xv. bayeux. _visit near st. loup. m. pluquet, apothecary and book-vendor. visit to the bishop. the chapter library. description of the bayeux tapestry. trade and manufacture_ letter xvi. _bayeux to coutances. st. lo. the cathedral of coutances. environs. aqueduct. market-day. public library. establishment for the clergy_ letter xvii. _journey to granville. granville. ville dieu. st. sever. town and castle of_ vire letter xviii. vire. _bibliography. monsieur adam. monsieur de la renaudiere. olivier basselin. m. séguin. the public library_ letter xix. _departure from vire. condé. pont ouilly. arrival at_ falaise. _hotel of the grand turc. castle of falaise. bibliomaniacal interview_ letter xx. _mons. mouton. church of ste. trinité, comte de la fresnaye. guibray church. supposed head of william the conqueror. m. langevin, historian of falaise. printing offices_ letter xxi. _journey to paris. dreux. houdan. versailles. entrance into paris_ list of plates. vol. i. portrait of the author fille de chambre, caen portrait of the abbé de la rue vol. ii. anne of brittany medal of louis xii pisani denon comte de brienne stone pulpit, strasbourg cathedral vol. iii. fille de chambre, manheim monastery of saints ulric and afra prater, vienna list of autographs. vol. page. artaria, dom. manheim iii. barbier, antoine alexandre; paris ii. bartsch, adam de; vienna iii. beyschlag, recteur; augsbourg iii. brial, dom; paris ii. brunet, libraire; paris ii. bure, de, freres; paris ii. chateaugiron, marquis de; paris i. xxxviii dannecker; stuttgart iii. denon; paris ii. gaertner, corbinian; salzburg iii. gail; paris ii. hartenschneider, udalricus; chremsminster monastery iii. henri ii. ii. hess, c.e.; munich iii. lamouroux; caen i. lançon, durand de; paris i. xxxviii langevin; falaise i. langlès, l.; paris ii. larenaudiere, de; vire i. lebret, f.c.; stuttgart iii. may, jean gottlob; augsbourg iii. millin, a.l.; paris ii. pallas, joachim; mölk monastery iii. peignot, gabriel; dijon i. xxvii poitiers, diane de ii. renouard, ant. aug.; paris ii. schlichtegroll, frederic; munich iii. schweighæuser, fils; strasbourg ii. van praet; paris ii. veesenmeyer, g.; ulm iii. willemin; paris ii. young,.t.; vienna iii. preface. preface to the second edition. if i had chosen to introduce myself to the greatest possible advantage to the reader, in this preface to a second edition of the "_bibliographical, antiquarian, and picturesque tour_," i could not have done better than have borrowed the language of those foreigners, who, by a translation of the work (however occasionally vituperative their criticisms) have, in fact, conferred an honour upon its author. in the midst of censure, sometimes dictated by spite, and sometimes sharpened by acrimony of feeling, it were in my power to select passages of commendation, which would not less surprise the reader than they have done myself: while the history of this performance may be said to exhibit the singular phenomenon, of a traveller, usually lauding the countries through which he passes, receiving in return the reluctant approbation of those whose institutions, manners, and customs, have been praised by him. it is admitted, by the most sedulous and systematic of my opponents--m. crapelet--that "considering the quantity and quality of the ornaments and engravings of this tour, one is surprised that its cost is so moderate."[ ] "few books (says the bibliographer of dijon) have been executed with greater luxury. it is said that the expenses of printing and engraving amounted to l.--to nearly , franks of our money. it must be admitted that england is the only country in which such an undertaking could be carried into effect. who in france would dare to risk such a sum--especially for three, volumes in octavo? he would be ruined, if he did."[ ] i quote these passages simply to shew under what extraordinary obliquity of feeling those gentlemen must have set down to the task of translation and abuse--of that very work, which is here admitted to contain such splendid representations of the "bibliographical, antiquarian, and picturesque" beauties of their country. a brief account of this foreign _travail_ may be acceptable to the curious in literary history. mons. licquet, the successor of m. gourdin, as chief librarian to the public library at rouen, led the way in the work of warfare. he translated the ninth letter relating to that public library; of which translation especial mention is made at p. , post. this version was printed in , for private, distribution; and only copies were struck off. m. crapelet, in whose office it was printed, felt the embers of discontent rekindled in his bosom as it passed through his press; and in the following year he also stepped forward to discharge an arrow at the traveller. like his predecessor, he printed but a limited number; and as i have more particularly remarked upon the spirit of that version by way of "introduction" to the original letter, in vol. ii. , &c. i shall not waste the time of the reader by any notice of it in the present place. these two partial translators united their forces, about two years afterwards, and published the whole of the tour, as it related to france, in four octavo volumes, in . the ordinary copies were sold for francs, the large paper for francs per copy. the wood-cuts only were republished by them. of this conjoint, and more enlarged production, presently. encouraged by the examples of messrs. licquet and crapelet, a bookbinder of the name of lesnÉ (whose poem upon his "craft," published in , had been copiously quoted and _commended_ by me in the previous edition) chose to plant his foot within this arena of controversy; and to address a letter to me; to which his model, m. crapelet, was too happy to give circulation through the medium of his press.[ ] to that letter the following metrical lines are prefixed; which the reader would scarcely forgive me if i failed to amuse him by their introduction in this place. "_lesné, relieur français, à mons. t.f. dibdin, ministre de la religion, &c._" avec un ris moqueur, je crois vous voir d'ici, dédaigneusement dire: eh, que veut celui-ci? qu'ai-je donc de commun avec un vil artiste? un ouvrier français, un _bibliopégiste_? ose-t-on ravaler un ministre à ce point? que me veut ce _lesné_? je ne le connais point. je crois me souvenir qu'à mon voyage en france, avec ses pauvres vers je nouai connaissance. mais c'est si peu de chose un poète à paris! savez-vous bien, monsieur, pourquoi je vous écris? c'est que je crois avoir le droit de vous écrire. fussiez-vous cent fois plus qu'on ne saurait le dire, je vois dans un ministre un homme tel que moi; devant dieu je crois même être l'égal d'un roi. the letter however is in prose, with some very few exceptions; and it is just possible that the indulgent reader may endure a specimen or two of the prose of m. lesné, as readily as he has that of his poetry. these specimens are equally delectable, of their kind. immediately after the preceding poetical burst, the french bibliopegist continues thus: d'après cet exorde, vous pensez sans doute que, bien convaincu de ma dignité d'homme, je me crois en droit de vous dire franchement ma façon de penser; je vous la dirai, monsieur. si vous dirigiez un journal bibliographique; que vous fissiez, en un mot, le métier de journaliste, je serai peu surpris de voir dans votre trentième lettre, une foule de choses hasardées, de mauvais calembourgs, de grossièretés, que nous ne rencontrons même pas chez nos journalistes du dernier ordre, en ce qu'ils savent mieux leur monde, et que s'ils lancent une epigramme, fût-elle fausse, elle est au moins finement tournée. mais vous êtes anglais, et par cela seul dispensé sans doute de cette politesse qui distingue si heureusement notre nation de la vôtre, et que vos compatriotes n'acquièrent pour la plupart qu'après un long séjour en france." p. . towards the latter part of this most formidable "tentamen criticum," the irritable author breaks out thus--"c'est une maladie française de vouloir toujours imiter les anglais; ceux-ci, à leur tour, commencent à en être atteints." p. . a little farther it is thus: "enfin c'est _en imitant_ qu'on reussit presque toujours mal; vous en êtes encore, une preuve évidente. j'ai vu en beaucoup d'endroits de votre lettre, que vous avez voulu imiter _sterne_;[ ] qu'est-il arrivé? vous êtes resté au-dessous de lui, comme tous les imitateurs de nôtre bon la fontaine sont restés en deçà de l'immortel fabuliste." p. . but most especially does the sensitive m. lesné betray his surprise and apprehension, on a gratuitous supposition--thrown out by me, by way of pleasantry--that "mr. charles lewis was going over to paris, to establish there a modern school of bookbinding." m. lesné thus wrathfully dilates upon this supposition: "je me garderai bien de passer sous silence la dernière partie de votre lettre; _un bruit assez étrange est venu jusqu'à vous_; et charles lewis doit vous quitter pour quelque temps pour établir en france une école de reliure d'apres les principes du gôut anglais; mais vous croyez, dites-vous, que ce projet est sûrement chimérique, ou que, si on le tentait, il serait de courte durée. pour cette fois, monsieur, votre pronostic serait très juste; cette demarche serait une folie: il faudrait s'abuser sur l'engouement des amateurs français, et ceux qui sont atteints de cette maladie ne sont pas en assez grand nombre pour soutenir un pareil établissement. oui, l'on aime votre genre de reliure; mais on aime les reliures, façon anglaise, faites par les français. pensez-vous done, ou charles lewis pense-t-il, qu'il n'y ait plus d'esprit national en france? allez, le sang française coule encore dans nos veines; nous pourrons éprouver des malheurs et des peines, que nous devrons peut être à vous autres anglais; mais nous voulons rester, nous resterons, français! ainsi, que charles lewis ne se dérange pas; qu'il cesse, s'il les a commencés, les préparatifs de sa descente; qu'il ne prive pas ses compatriotes d'un artiste soi-disant inimitable. nous en avons ici qui le valent, et qui se feront un plaisir de perpéteur parmi nous le bon gôut, l'élégance, et la noble simplicité. p. .[ ] so much for m. lesne. i have briefly noticed m. peignot, the bibliographer of dijon. that worthy wight has made the versions of my ninth and thirtieth letters (first edition) by m.m. licquet and crapelet, the substratum of his first brochure entitled _variétés, notices et raretés bibliographiques_, _paris_, : it being a supplement to his previous work of _curiosités bibliographiques_."[ ] it is not always agreeable for an author to have his works reflected through the medium of a translation; especially where the translator suffers a portion, however small, of his _own_ atrabiliousness, to be mixed up with the work translated: nor is it always safe for a third person to judge of the merits of the original through such a medium. much allowance must therefore be made for m. peignot; who, to say the truth, at the conclusion of his labours, seems to think that he has waded through a great deal of _dirt_ of some kind or other, which might have been better avoided; and that, in consequence, some general declaration, by way of _wiping, off_ a portion of the adhering mud, is due to the original author. accordingly, at the end of his analysis of m. licquet's version, (which forms the second letter in the brochure) he does me the honour to devote seven pages to the notice of my humble lucubrations:--and he prefaces this "_notice des ouvrages de m. dibdin"_, by the following very handsome tribute to their worth: si, dans les deux lettres où nous avons rendu compte des traductions partielles du voyage de m.d., nous avons partagé l'opinion des deux estimable traducteurs, sur quelques erreurs et quelques inconvenances échappées a l'auteur anglais, nous sommes bien éloigné d'envelopper dans le même blame, tout ce qui est sorté de sa plume; car il y auroit injustice a lui refuser des connaissances très étendues en histoire littéraire, et en bibliographie: nous le disons franchement, il faudroit fermer les yeux à la lumière, ou être d'une partialité revoltante, pour ne pas convenir que, juste appréciateur de tous les trésors bibliographiques qu'il a le bonheur d'avoir sous la main, m. dibdin en a fait connoitre en détail toute la richesse dans de nombreux d'ouvrages, ou très souvent le luxe d'érudition se trouve en harmonie avec le luxe typographique qu'il y a étalé. at the risk of incurring the imputation of vanity, i annex the preceding extract; because i am persuaded that the candid reader will appreciate it in its proper light. i might, had i chosen to do so, have lengthened the extract by a yet more complimentary passage: but enough of m. peignot--who, so far from suffering ill will or acerbity to predominate over a kind disposition, hath been pleased, since his publication, to write to me a very courteous letter,[ ] and to solicit a "continuance of my favours." agreeably to the intimation expressed in a preceding page, i am now, in due order, to notice the labours of my translators m.m. licquet and crapelet. their united version appeared in , in four octavo volumes, of which the small paper was but indifferently well printed.[ ] the preface to the first two volumes is by m. licquet: and it is not divested of point and merit. it begins by attacking the _quarterly review_, (june , p. .) for its severity of animadversion on the supposed listlessness and want of curiosity of the french in exploring the architectural antiquities of their country; and that, in consequence of such supineness, the english, considering them as their own property, have described them accordingly. "the decision (says the french translator) is severe; happily it is without foundation." after having devoted several pages to observations by way of reply to that critical journal, m. licquet continues thus:--unless i have unintentionally misrepresented him. the englishman who travels in normandy, meets, at every step, with reminiscences of his kings, his ancestors, his institutions, and his customs. churches yet standing, after the lapse of seven centuries; majestic ruins; tombs--even to the very sound of the clock--all unite in affecting, here, the heart of a british subject: every thing seems to tell him that, in former times, here was his country; here the residence of his sovereigns; and here the cradle of his manners. this was more than sufficient to enflame the lively imagination of mr. d. and to decide him to visit, in person, a country already explored by a great number of his countrymen; but he conceived that his narrative should embody other topics than those which ordinarily appeared in the text of his predecessors. "his work then is not only a description of castles, towns, churches, public monuments of every kind:--it is not only a representation of the general aspect of the country, as to its picturesque appearances--but it is an extended, minute, though occasionally inexact, account of public and private libraries; with reflections upon certain customs of the country, and upon the character of those who inhabit it. it is in short the personal history of the author, throughout the whole length of his journey. not the smallest incident, however indifferent, but what has a place in the letters of the bibliographer. thus, he mentions every inn where he stops: recommends or scolds the landlord--according to his civility or exaction. has the author passed a bad night? the reader is sure to know it on the following morning. on the other hand, has he had a good night's rest in a comfortable bed? [dans un lit _comfortable_?] we are as sure to know this also, as soon as he awakes:--and thus far we are relieved from anxiety about the health of the traveller. cold and heat--fine weather and bad weather--every variation of atmosphere is scrupulously recorded. what immediately follows, is unworthy of m. licquet; because it not only implies a charge of a heinous description--accusing me of an insidious intrusion into domestic circles, a violation of confidence, and a systematic derision of persons and things--but because the french translator, exercising that sense and shrewdness which usually distinguish him, must have known that such a charge _could_ not have been founded in fact. he must have known that any gentleman, leaving england with those letters which brought me in contact with some of the first circles on the continent, must have left it without leaving his character _behind_ him; and that such a character could not, in the natural order of things--seen even through the sensitive medium of a french critic--have been guilty of the grossness and improprieties imputed to me by m. licquet. i treat therefore this "damnation in wholesale" with scorn and contempt: and hasten to impress the reader with a more favourable opinion of my norman translator. he _will_ have it that "the english traveller's imagination is lively and ardent--and his spirit, that of raillery and lightness. he examines as he runs along; that is to say, he does not give himself time to examine; he examines ill; he deceives himself; and he subjects his readers to be deceived with him. he traverses, at a hard trot, one of the most ancient towns in france; puts his head out of his carriage window--and boldly decides that the town is of the time of francis i."![ ] p. xviij. there is pleasantry, and perhaps some little truth, in this vein of observation; and it had been better, perhaps, for the credit of the good taste and gentleman-like feeling of mons. licquet, if he had uniformly maintained his character in these respects. i have however, in the subsequent pages,[ ] occasionally grappled with my annotator in proving the fallacy, or the want of charity, of many of his animadversions: and the reader probably may not be displeased, if, by way of "avant propos," i indulge him here with a specimen of them--taken from his preface. m. licquet says, that i "create scenes; arrange a drama; trace characters; imagine a dialogue, frequently in french--and in what french--gracious god!--in assigning to postilions a ridiculous language, and to men of the world the language of postilions." these be sharp words:[ ] but what does the reader imagine may be the probable "result" of the english traveller's inadvertencies?... a result, ("gracious heaven!") very little anticipated by the author. let him ponder well upon the awful language which ensues. "what (says m. licquet) will quickly be the result, with us, of such indiscretions as those of which m. dibdin is guilty? the necessity of shutting our ports, or at least of placing a guard upon our lips!" there is some consolation however left for me, in balancing this tremendous denunciation by m. licquet's eulogy of my good qualities--which a natural diffidence impels me to quote in the original words of their author. "a dieu ne plaise, toutefois, que j'accuse ici le coeur de m. dibdin. je n'ai jamais eu l'honneur de le voir: je ne le connais que par ses ecrits; principalement par son _splendid tour_, et je ne balance pas à déclarer que l'auteur doit être doué d'une ame honnête, et de ces qualités fondamentales qui constituent l'homme de bien. il préfère sa croyance; mais il respecte la croyance des autres; son érudition parait....[ ] variée. son amour pour les antiquités est immense; et par antiquités j'entends ici tout ce qui est _antique_ ou seulement _ancien_, quellesque soient d'ailleurs la nature et la forme des objets." pref. p. xv. xvij. once more; and to conclude with m. licquet. after these general observations upon the _text_ of the tour, m. licquet favours us with the following--upon the _plates_. "these plates (says he) are intended to represent some of the principal monuments; the most beautiful landscapes, and the most remarkable persons, comprehending even the servants of an inn. if _talent_ be sought in these engravings, it will doubtless be found in them; but strangers must not seek for _fidelity_ of representation from what is before their eyes. the greater number of the designs are, in some sort, ideal compositions, which, by resembling every thing, resemble nothing in particular: and it is worthy of remark that the artist, in imitation of the author, seems to have thought that he had only to shew himself _clever_, without troubling himself to be _faithful_." to this, i reply in the very words of m. licquet himself: "the decision is severe; luckily it is unjust." the only portions of the designs of their skilful author, which may be taxed with a tendency to extravagance, are the _groups_: which, when accompanied by views of landscapes, or of monuments, are probably too profusely indulged in; but the _individuals_, constituting those groups, belong precisely to the _country_ in which they are represented. in the first and second volumes they are _french_; in the third they are _germans_--all over. will m. licquet pretend to say that the churches, monasteries, streets, and buildings, with which the previous edition of this tour is so elaborately embellished, have the slightest tendency to imagined scenery? if he do, his optics must be peculiarly his own. i have, in a subsequent page, (p. , note) slightly alluded to the cost and risk attendant on the plates; but i may confidently affirm, from experience, that two thirds of the expense incurred would have secured the same sale at the same price. however, the die is cast; and the voice of lamentation is fruitless. i now come to the consideration of m. licquet's coadjutor, m. crapelet. although the line of conduct pursued by that very singular gentleman be of an infinitely more crooked description than that of his predecessor, yet, in this place, i shall observe less respecting it; inasmuch as, in the subsequent pages, (pp. , , , , &c.) the version and annotations of m. crapelet have been somewhat minutely discussed. upon the spirit which could give rise to such a version, and such annotations, i will here only observe, that it very much resembles that of searchers of our street-pavements; who, with long nails, scrape out the dirt from the interstices of the stones, with the hope of making a discovery of some lost treasure which may compensate the toil of perseverance. the love of lucre may, or may not, have influenced my parisian translator; but the love of discovery of latent error, and of exposure of venial transgression, has undoubtedly, from beginning to end, excited his zeal and perseverance. that carping spirit, which shuts its eyes upon what is liberal and kind, and withholds its assent to what is honourable and just, it is the distinguished lot--and, perhaps, as the translator may imagine, the distinguished felicity--of m. crapelet to possess. never was greater reluctance displayed in admitting even the palpable truths of a text, than what is displayed in the notes of m. crapelet: and whenever a concurring sentiment comes from him, it seems to exude like his heart's life-blood. having already answered, in detail, his separate publication confined to my th letter[ ]--(the th of the second volume, in _this_ edition) and having replied to those animadversions which appear in his translation of the whole of the second volume, in this edition--it remains here only to consign the translator to the careful and impartial consideration of the reader, who, it is requested, may be umpire between both parties. not to admit that the text of this edition is in many places improved, from the suggestions of my translators, by corrections of "names of persons, places, and things," would be to betray a stubbornness or obtuseness of feeling which certainly does not enter into the composition of its author. i now turn, not without some little anxiety, yet not wholly divested of the hope of a favourable issue, to the character and object of the edition here presented to the public. it will be evident, at first glance, that it is greatly "shorn of its beams" in regard to graphic decorations and typographical splendour. yet its garb, if less costly, is not made of coarse materials: for it has been the wish and aim of the publishers, that this impression should rank among books worthy of the distinguished press from which it issues. nor is it unadorned by the sister art of _engraving_; for, although on a reduced scale, some of the repeated plates may even dispute the palm of superiority with their predecessors. several of the groups, executed on _copper_ in the preceding edition, have been executed on _wood_ in the present; and it is for the learned in these matters to decide upon their relative merits. to have attempted portraits upon wood, would have inevitably led to failure. there are however, a few new plates, which cannot fail to elicit the purchaser's particular attention. of these, the portraits of the _abbé de la rue_ (procured through the kind offices of my excellent friend mr. douce), and the _comte de brienne_, the _gold medal of louis xii_. the _stone pulpit of strasbourg cathedral,_ and the _prater near vienna_--are particularly to be noticed.[ ] this edition has also another attraction, rather popular in the present day, which may add to its recommendation even with those possessed of its precursor. it contains fac-similes of the autographs of several distinguished literati and artists upon the continent;[ ] who, looking at the text of the work through a less jaundiced medium than the parisian translator, have continued a correspondence with the author, upon the most friendly terms, since its publication. the accuracy of these fac-similes must be admitted, even by the parties themselves, to be indisputable. among them, are several, executed by hands.. which now cease to guide the pen! i had long and fondly hoped to have been gratified by increasing testimonies of the warmth of heart which had directed several of the pens in question--hoped ... even against the admonition of a pagan poet ... "vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare longam." but such hopes are now irretrievably cut off; and the remembrance of the past must solace the anticipations of the future. so much respecting the _decorative_ department of this new edition of the tour. i have now to request the reader's attention to a few points more immediately connected with what may be considered its _intrinsic_ worth. in the first place, it may be pronounced to be an edition both _abridged_ and _enlarged_: abridged, as regards the lengthiness of description of many of the mss. and printed books--and enlarged, as respects the addition, of many notes; partly of a controversial, and partly of an obituary, description. the "antiquarian and picturesque" portions remain nearly as heretofore; and upon the whole i doubt whether the amputation of matter has extended beyond _an eighth_ of what appeared in the previous edition. it had long ago been suggested to me--from a quarter too high and respectable to doubt the wisdom of its decision--that the contents of this tour should be made known to the public through a less costly medium:--that the objects described in it were, in a measure, new and interesting--but that the high price of the purchase rendered it, to the majority of readers, an inaccessible publication. i hope that these objections are fully met, and successfully set aside, by the work in its present form. to have produced it, _wholly divested_ of ornament, would have been as foreign to my habits as repugnant to my feelings. i have therefore, as i would willingly conclude, hit upon the happy medium--between sterility and excess of decoration. after all, the greater part of the ground here trodden, yet continues to be untrodden ground to the public. i am not acquainted with any publication which embraces all the objects here described; nor can i bring myself to think that a perusal of the first and third volumes may not be unattended with gratification of a peculiar description, to the lovers of antiquities and picturesque beauties. the second volume is rather the exclusive province of the bibliographer. in retracing the steps here marked out, i will not be hypocrite enough to dissemble a sort of triumphant feeling which accompanies a retrospection of the time, labour, and money devoted.. in doing justice, according to my means, to the attractions and worth of the countries which these pages describe. every such effort is, in its way, a national effort. every such attempt unites, in stronger bonds, the reciprocities of a generous feeling between rival nations; and if my reward has not been in _wealth_, it has been in the hearty commendation of the enlightened and the good: "mea me virtute involvo."[ ] i cannot boast of the commendatory strains of public journals in my own country. no intellectual steam-engine has been put in motion to manufacture a review of unqualified approbation of the work now submitted to the public eye--at an expense, commensurate with the ordinary means of purchase. with the exception of an indirect and laudatory notice of it, in the immortal pages of the author of waverley, of the sketch book, and of reginald dalton, this tour has had to fight its way under the splendour of its own banners, and in the strength of its own cause. the previous edition is now a scarce and a costly book. its successor has enough to recommend it, even to the most fastidious collector, from the elegance of its type and decorations, and from the reasonableness of its price; but the highest ambition of its author is, that it may be a part of the furniture of every circulating library in the kingdom. if he were not conscious that good would result from its perusal, he would not venture upon such an avowal. "felix faustumque sit!" [ ] m. crapelet is of course speaking of the previous edition of the tour. he continues thus: "m. dibdin, dans son voyage en france, a visité nos départemens de l'ouest et de l'est, toutes leurs principales villes, presque tous les lieux remarquables par les antiquités, par les monumens, par les beautés du site, ou par les souvenirs historiques. il a visité les châteaux, les églises, les chapelles; il a observé nos moeurs, nos coutumes; nos habitudes; il a examiné nos musées et nos premiers cabinets de curiosité; il s'est concentré dans nos bibliothéques. il parle de notre littérature et des hommes de lettres, des arts et de nos artistes; il critique les personnes comme les choses; il loue quelquefois, il plaisante souvent; la vivacité de son esprit l'égare presque toujours." a careful perusal of the notes in this edition will shew that my veracity has not "almost always led me astray." [ ] gabriel peignot; _variétés, notices et raretés bibliographiques, , vo. p. _. [ ] _lettre d'un relieur francais à un bibliographe anglais; à paris, de l'imprimerie de crapelet_, , vo. p.p. . [ ] it is a little curious that m. lesné has not been singular in this supposition. my amiable and excellent friend m. schweighæuser of strasbourg had the same notion: at least, he told me that the style of the tour very frequently reminded him of that of sterne. i can only say--and say very honestly--that i as much thought of sterne as i did of ... william caxton! [ ] copious as are the above quotations, from the thoroughly original m. lesné, i cannot resist the risking of the readers patience and good opinion, by the subjoining of the following passage--with which the brochure concludes. "d'après la multitude de choses hasardées que contient votre lettre, vous en aurez probablement recu quelques unes de personnes que vous aurez choquées plus que moi, qui vous devrais plutôt des remercimens pour avoir pris la peine de traduire quelques pages de mon ouvrage; mais il n'en est pas de même de bien des gens, et cela ne doit pas les engager à être autant communicatif avec vous, si vous reveniez en france. je souhaite, dans ce dernier cas, que tous les typographes, les bibliothècaires, les bibliognostes, les bibliographes, les bibliolathes, les bibliomanes, les biblophiles, les bibliopoles, ceux qui exercent la bibliuguiancie et les bibliopégistes même, soient pour vous autant de bibliotaphes; vous ne seriez plus à même de critiquer ce que vous sauriez et ce que vous ne sauriez pas, comme vous l'aviez si souvent fait inconsidérément: mais tous vos procédés ne nous étonnent pas, c'est le sort des français de faire des ingrats; on les voit servir ceux qui leur furent nuisibles; je crois que sur ce point ils sont incorrigibles. je vous avouerai cependant que je suis loin d'être fâché de vous voir en agir ainsi envers mes compatriotes: je désirerais que beaucoup d'anglais fissent de même; cela pourrait désangliciser ou désanglomaniser les français. vous, monsieur, qui aimez les mots nouveaux, aidez-moi, je vous prie, à franciser, à purifier celui-ci. quant à moi je ne fus pas nourri de grec et de latin, j'appris à veiller tard, à me lever matin, la nature est le livre où je fis mes études, et tous ces mots nouveaux me semblent long-temps rudes; je trouve qu'on ne peut très bien les prononcer sans affectation, au moins sans grimacer; que tous ces mots tirés des langues étrangères, devraient être l'objet de critiques sévères. faites donc de l'esprit en depit du bon sens, on vous critiquera; quant à moi j'y consens. je terminerai cette longue lettre de deux manières: à l'anglaise, en vous souhaitant le bon jour ou le bon soir, suivant l'heure à laquelle vous la recevrez; à la française, en vous priant de me croire, monsieur, votre très humble serviteur, lesnÉ. [ ] the above brochure consists of two letters; each to an anonymous bibliographical "confrere:" one is upon the subject of m. crapelet's version--the other, upon that of m. licquet's version--of a portion of the tour. the notice of the works of the author of the tour; a list of the prices for which the books mentioned in it have been sold; a notice of the "hours of charlemagne" (see vol. ii. ) and some account of the late mr. porson "librarian of the london institution"--form the remaining portion of this little volume of about pages. for the "curiosités bibliographiques," consult the _bibliomania_, pp. , , &c. &c. [ ] this letter accompanied another work of m. peignot, relating to editions and translations of the roman classics:--and as the reader will find, in the ensuing pages, that i have been sometime past labouring under the frightful, but popular, mania of autographs, i subjoin with no small satisfaction a fac-simile of the autograph of this enthusiastic and most diligent bibliographer. [autograph: votre tres humble et obéissant serviteur, g. peignot] [ ] see page xviii.--ante. [ ] m. licquet goes on to afford an exemplification of this precipitancy of conjecture, in my having construed the word _allemagne_--a village near to caen--by that of _germany_. i refer the reader to p. post, to shew with what perfect frankness i have admitted and corrected this "_hippopotamos_" error. [ ] more especially at pages , , . [ ] "sharp" as they may be, they are softened, in some measure, by the admission of my bitterest annotator, m. crapelet, that "i speak and understand the french language well." vol. ii. p. . it is painful and unusual with me to have recourse to such apparently self-complimentary language; but when an adversary drives one into a corner, and will not allow of fair space and fair play, one must fight with feet as well as with hands ... "manibus pedibusque" ... [ ] this _hiatus_ must not be filled by the author: ... "haud equidem tali me dignor honore." [ ] see vol. ii. p. - . [ ] see vol. i. p. , vol. ii. pp. , , . the other fresh plates are, _portrait of the author_, frontispiece; bird's-eye views of the _monasteries of st. peter's, salzburg, and of molk:_ vol. iii. pp. , , , _black eagle inn_, munich, p. . but the reader will be pleased to examine the _list of plates prefixed_--in a preceding page. [ ] among these distinguished literati, i here enrol with peculiar satisfaction the names of the marquis de chateaugiron and mons. durand de lancon. no opportunity having occurred in the subsequent pages to incorporate fac-similes of the autographs of these distinguished _bibliophiles_, they are annexed in the present place. [autographs: m. de chateaugiron, d. de lancon] [ ] it is more than a negative consolation to me, to have lived to see the day, that, although comparatively impoverished, _others_ have been enriched by my labours. when i noticed a complete set of my lucubrations on large paper, valued at _l_. in a bookseller's catalogue, (mr. pickering's) and afterwards learnt that this set had found a purchaser, i had reason to think that i had "deserved well" of the literature of my country: and i resolved to live "mihi carior" in consequence. bibliographical antiquarian and picturesque tour. the notes peculiar to this edition are distinguished by being inserted between brackets: as thus:--[] *** the index is placed at the end of the first volume, for the purpose of equalising the size of the volumes. [illustration] letter i. passage to dieppe. _dieppe, april , _. at length then, my dear friend, the long projected "_bibliographical, antiquarian_,[ ] and _picturesque tour"_ is carried into execution; and the tourist is safely landed on the shores of normandy. "vous voilà donc, monsieur à dieppe!"--exclaimed the landlord of the grand hôtel d'angleterre--as i made my way through a vociferating crowd of old and young, of both sexes, with cards of addresses in their hands; entreating me to take up my abode at their respective hotels.... but i know your love of method, and that you will be angry with me if i do not "begin at the beginning." it was surely on one of the finest of all fine days that i left my home, on the th of this present month, for the land of castles, churches, and ancient chivalry. the wind from the south-east was blowing pretty smartly at the time; but the sky was without a cloud, and i could not but look upon the brilliancy of every external object as a favourable omen of the progress and termination of my tour. adverse winds, or the indolence or unwillingness of the captain, detained us at brighton two whole days--instead of sailing, as we were led to expect, on the day following our arrival. we were to form the first ship's company which had visited france this season. on approaching our gallant little bark, the _nancy_,[ ] commanded by captain blaber, the anchor was weighed, and hoisting sail, we stood out to sea. the day began to improve upon us. the gloomy appearances of the morning gradually brightened up. a host of black clouds rolled heavily away. the sun at length shone in his full meridian splendour, and the ocean sparkled as we cut through its emerald waves. as i supposed us to near the french coast, i strained my eyes to obtain an early glimpse of something in the shape of cliff or jettie. but the wind continued determinedly in the south east: the waves rose in larger masses; and our little vessel threw up a heavy shower of foam as we entered on the various tacks. it is a grand sight--that vast, and apparently interminable ocean-- .... maria undique et undique coelum! we darted from beechy head upon a long tack for the french coast: and as the sun declined, we found it most prudent to put the captain's advice, of going below, into execution. then commenced all the miseries of the voyage. the moon had begun to assert her ascendancy, when, racked with torture and pain in our respective berths, a tremendous surge washed completely over the deck, sky-light, and binnacle: and down came, in consequence, drenched with the briny wave, the hardiest of our crew, who, till then, had ventured to linger upon deck. that crew was various; and not without a few of the natives of those shores which we were about to visit. to cut short my ship-narrative, suffice it only farther to say, that, towards midnight, we heard our captain exclaim that he saw "the lights of dieppe"--a joyful sound to us miserable wretches below. i well remember, at this moment, looking up towards the deck with a cheerless eye, and perceiving the light of the moon still lingering upon the main-sail,--but i shall never forget how much more powerfully my sensations were excited, when, as the dawn of day made objects visible, i looked up, and saw an old wrinkle-visaged sailor, with a red night cap on begirt with large blue, puckered, short petticoats--in possession of the helm--about to steer the vessel into harbour![ ] about seven we were all upon deck. the sea was yet swoln and agitated, and of a dingy colour: while .... heavily with clouds came on the day, as we slowly approached the outward harbour of dieppe. a grey morning with drizzling rain, is not the best accompaniment of a first visit to a foreign shore. nevertheless every thing was new, and strange, and striking; and the huge crucifix, to the right, did not fail to make a very forcible impression. as we approached the, inner harbour, the shipping and the buildings more distinctly presented themselves. the harbour is large, and the vessels are entirely mercantile, with a plentiful sprinkling of fishing smacks: but the manner in which the latter harmonized with the tint and structure of the houses--the bustle upon shore--the casks, deal planks, ropes, and goods of every description upon the quays,--all formed a most animated and interesting scene. the population seemed countless, and chiefly females; whose high caps and enormous ear-rings, with the rest of their paraphernalia, half persuaded me that instead of being some few twenty-five leagues only from our own white cliffs, i had in fact dropt upon the antipodes! what a scene (said i to my companion) for our calcott to depict![ ] it was a full hour before we landed--saluted, and even assailed on all sides, with entreaties to come to certain hotels. we were not long however in fixing our residence at the _hotel d'angleterre_, of which the worthy mons. de la rue[ ] is the landlord. [ ] [mons. licquet, my translator, thinks, that in using the word "_antiquaire_"--as appears in the previous edition of this work, incorporated in the gallicised sentence of "_voyage bibliographique antiquaire_, &c."--i have committed an error; as the word "_archéologique_" ought, in his opinion, to have been adopted--and he supposes that he best expresses my meaning by its adoption. such a correction may be better french; but "archaeological" is not exactly what is usually meant--in our language--by "antiquarian."] [ ] this smart little vessel, of about tons burden, considered to be the fastest sailing packet from dieppe, survived our voyage only about eighteen months. her end had nearly proved fatal to every soul on board of her. in a dark night, in the month of september, when bound for dieppe, she was struck by a heavy london brig. the crew was with difficulty saved--and the vessel went down within about twenty-five minutes after the shock. [ ] the english are not permitted to bring their own vessels into harbour--for obvious reasons. [ ] [this "scene" has been, in fact, subsequently depicted by. the masterly pencil of j.m.w.turner, esq. r. a: and the picture, in which almost all the powers of that surprising artist are concentrated, was lately offered for sale by public auction. how it was suffered to be _bought in_ for three hundred and eighty guineas, is at once a riddle and a reproach to public taste.] [ ] [i learn that he is since deceased. thus the very first chapter of this second edition has to record an instance of the casualties and mutabilities which the short space of ten years has effected. mons. de la rue was a man of worth and of virtue.] letter ii. dieppe. fisheries. streets. churches of st. jaques and st. remy. divine worship. military mass. the town of dieppe contains a population of about twenty-thousand souls.[ ] of these, by much the greater _stationary_ part are females; arising from one third at least of the males being constantly engaged in the fisheries. as these fisheries are the main support of the inhabitants, it is right that you should know something about them. the _herring_ fishery takes place twice a year: in august and october. the august fishery is carried on along the shores of england and the north. from sixty to eighty vessels, of from twenty-five to thirty tons burthen each, with about fifteen men in each vessel, are usually employed. they are freighted with salt and empty barrels, for seasoning and stowing the fish, and they return about the end of october. the herrings caught in august are considerably preferable to those caught in october. the october fishery is carried on with smaller vessels, along the coast of france from boulogne to havre. from one hundred and twenty, to one hundred and thirty vessels, are engaged in this latter navigation; and the fish, which is smaller, and of inferior flavour to that caught upon the english coasts, is sent almost entirely to the provinces and to paris, where it is eaten fresh. so much for the herring.[ ] the _mackarel_ fishery usually commences towards the month of july, along the coast of picardy; because, being a sort of fish of passage, it gets into the channel in the month of april. it then moves towards the straits of dover, as summer approaches. for this fishery they make use of large decked-vessels, from twenty to fifty tons burthen, manned with from twelve to twenty men. there are however dieppe boats employed in this fishery which go as far as the scilly islands and ushant, towards the middle of april. they carry with them the salt requisite to season the fish, which are afterwards sent to paris, and to the provinces in the interior of france. the _cod fishery_ is divided into the fresh and dried fish. the former continues from the beginning of february to the end of april--and the vessels employed, which go as far as newfoundland, are two deckers, and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty tons burthen--although, in fact, they rarely carry more than fifteen tons for fear of spoiling the fish. the dried-cod fishery is carried on in vessels of all sizes; but it is essential that they be of a certain depth, because the fish is more cumbersome than weighty. the vessels however usually set sail about the month of march or april, in order that they may have the advantage of the summer season, to dry the fish. there are vessels which go to newfoundland laden with brandy, flour, beans, treacle, linen and woollen cloths, which they dispose of to the inhabitants of the french colonies in exchange for dried cod. this latter species of commerce may be carried on in the summer months--as late as july. in the common markets for retail trade, they are not very nice in the quality or condition of their fish; and enormous conger eels, which would be instantly rejected by the middling, or even lower classes in england, are, at dieppe, bought with avidity and relished with glee. a few francs will procure a dish of fish large enough for a dozen people. the quays are constantly crowded, but there seems to be more of bustle than of business. the town is certainly picturesque, notwithstanding the houses are very little more than a century old, and the streets are formal and comparatively wide. indeed it should seem that the houses were built expressly for noblemen and gentlemen, although they are inhabited by tradesmen, mechanics, and artizans, in apparently very indifferent circumstances. i scarcely saw six private houses which could be called elegant, and not a gentleman's carriage has been yet noticed in the streets. but if the _dieppois_ are not rich, they seem happy, and are in a constant state of occupation. a woman sells her wares in an open shop, or in an insulated booth, and sits without her bonnet (as indeed do all the tradesmen's wives), and works or sings as humour sways her. a man sells gingerbread in an open shed, and in the intervals of his customer's coming, reads some popular history or romance. most of the upper windows are wholly destitute of glass; but are smothered with clothes, rags, and wall flowers. the fragrance emitted from these flowers affords no unpleasing antidote to odors of a very different description; and here we begin to have a too convincing proof of the general character of the country in regard to the want of cleanliness. a little good sense, or rather a better-regulated police, would speedily get rid of such nuisances. the want of public sewers is another great and grievous cause of smells of every description. at dieppe there are fountains in abundance; and if some of the limpid streams, which issue from them, were directed to cleansing the streets, (which are excellently well paved) the effect would be both more salubrious and pleasant--especially to the sensitive organs of englishmen. we had hardly concluded our breakfasts, when a loud and clattering sound was heard; and down came, in a heavy trot, with sundry ear-piercing crackings of the whip, the thundering _diligence_: large, lofty, and of most unwieldy dimensions: of a structure, too, strong enough to carry a half score of elephants. the postilion is an animal perfectly _sui generis_: gay, alert, and living upon the best possible terms with himself. he wears the royal livery, red and blue; with a plate of the fleur de lis upon his left arm. his hair is tied behind, in a thick, short, tightly fastened queue: with powder and pomatum enough to weather a whole winter's storm and tempest.[ ] as he never rises in his stirrups,[ ] i leave you to judge of the merciless effects of this ever-beating club upon the texture of his jacket. he is however fond of his horses: is well known by them; and there is all flourish and noise, and no sort of cruelty, in his treatment of them. his spurs are of tremendous dimensions; such as we see sticking to the heels of knights in illuminated mss. of the xvth century. he has nothing to do with the ponderous machine behind him. he sits upon the near of the two wheel horses, with three horses before him. his turnings are all adroitly and correctly made; and, upon the whole, he is a clever fellow in the exercise of his office. you ought to know, that, formerly, this town was greatly celebrated for its manufactures in _ivory_; but the present aspect of the ivory-market affords only a faint notion of what it might have been in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. i purchased a few subordinate articles (chiefly of a religious character) and which i shall preserve rather as a matter of evidence than of admiration. there is yet however a considerable manufacture of _thread lace_; and between three and four thousand females are supposed to earn a comfortable livelihood by it.[ ] my love of ecclesiastical architecture quickly induced me to visit the churches; and i set out with two english gentlemen to pay our respects to the principal church, st. jaques. as we entered it, a general gloom prevailed, and a sort of premature evening came on; while the clatter of the sabots was sufficiently audible along the aisles. in making the circuit of the side chapels, an unusual light proceeded from a sort of grated door way. we approached, and witnessed a sight which could not fail to rivet our attention. in what seemed to be an excavated interior, were several figures, cut in stone, and coloured after life, (of which they were the size) representing the _three maries, st. john, and joseph of arimathea_.. in the act of entombing christ: the figure of our saviour being half sunk into the tomb. the whole was partially illuminated by some two dozen of shabby and nearly consumed tallow candles; affording a striking contrast to the increasing darkness of the nave and the side aisles. we retired, more and more struck with the novelty of every object around us, to our supper and beds, which were excellent; and a good night's rest made me forget the miseries of the preceding evening. the next morning, being sunday, we betook ourselves in good time to the service of st. jaques:[ ] but on our way thither, we saw a waxen figure of christ (usually called an "ecce homo") enclosed within a box, of which the doors were opened. the figure and box are the property of the man who plays on a violin, close to the box; and who is selling little mass books, supposed to be rendered more sacred by having been passed across the feet and hands of the waxen christ. such a mongrel occupation, and such a motley group, must strike you with astonishment--as a sunday morning's recreation. [illustration] by half past ten the congregation had assembled within the church; and every side-chapel (i think about twelve in number) began to be filled by the penitent flocks: each bringing, or hiring, a rush-bottomed chair--with which the churches are pretty liberally furnished, and of which the _tarif_ (or terms of hire) is pasted upon the walls. there were, i am quite sure, full eighteen women to one man: which may in part be accounted for, by the almost uniform absence of a third of the male population occupied in the fisheries. i think there could not have been fewer than two thousand souls present. but what struck me as the most ludicrously solemn thing i had ever beheld, was a huge tall figure, dressed like a drum-major, with a large cocked hat and three white plumes, (the only covered male figure in the congregation,) a broad white sash upon a complete suit of red, including red stockings;--representing what in our country is called a _beadle_. he was a sturdy, grim-looking fellow; bearing an halberd in his right hand, which he wielded with a sort of pompous swing, infusing terror into the young, and commanding the admiration of the old. i must not, however, omit to inform you, that half the service was scarcely performed when the preacher mounted a pulpit, with a black cap on, and read a short sermon from a printed book. i shall long have a distinct recollection of the figure and attitude of the _verger_ who attended the preacher. he followed him to the pulpit, fastened the door, became stationary, and rested his left arm over the railings of the stairs. anon, he took out his snuff-box with his right hand, and regaled himself with a pinch of snuff in the most joyous and comfortably-abstracted manner imaginable. there he remained till the conclusion of the discourse; not one word of which seemed to afford him half the satisfaction as did the contents of his snuff-box. _military mass_ was performed about an hour after, at the church of st. remy, whither i strolled quietly, to witness the devotion of the congregation previous to the entry of the soldiers; and i will not dissemble being much struck and gratified by what i saw. there was more simplicity: a smaller congregation: softer music: a lower-toned organ; less rush of people; and in very many of the flock the most intense and unfeigned expression of piety. at the elevation of the host, from the end of the choir, (near which was suspended a white flag with the portrait of the present king[ ] upon it) a bell was rung from the tower of the church; the sound, below, was soft and silver-toned--accompanied by rather a quick movement on the organ, upon the diapason stop; which, united with the silence and prostration of the congregation, might have commanded the reverence of the most profane. there is nothing, my dear friend, more gratifying, in a foreign land, than the general appearance of earnestness of devotion on a sabbath day; especially within the house of god. however, i quickly heard the clangor of the trumpet, the beat of drums, the measured tramp of human feet, and up marched two or three troops of the national guard to perform military mass. i retired precipitately to the inn, being well pleased to have escaped this strange and distracting sight: so little in harmony with the rites and ceremonies of our own church, and in truth so little accordant with the service which i had just beheld. [ ] [mons. licquet says that there were about , souls in ; so that the above number may be that of the amount of its _present_ population. "several changes (says my french translator) have taken place at dieppe since i saw it: among the rest, there is a magnificent establishment of baths, where a crowd of people, of the first distinction, every year resort. her royal highness, the duchesse de berri, may be numbered among these visitors.] [ ] [the common people to this day call a _herring_, a _child of dieppe._ licquet.] [ ] ["sterne reproaches the french for their hyperbolical language: the air of the country had probably some influence on m. dibdin when he adopted this phrase." licquet.] [ ] ["signifying, that the french postilions do not ride like the english." licquet.] [ ] ["dieppe for a long time was the rival of argentan and caen in the lace-manufactory: at the present day, this branch of commerce is almost annihilated there."--licquet.] [ ] [in a note attached to the previous edition--i have said, "here also, as well as at rouen; they will have it that the english built the churches." upon which m. licquet remarks thus: "m. dibdin's expression conveys too general an idea. it is true that _popular_ opinion attributes the erection of our gothic edifices to the english: but there exists _another_ opinion, which is not deceptive upon this subject." what is meant to be here conveyed? either the popular opinion is true or false; and it is a matter of perfect indifference to the author whether it be one or the other. for mons. licquet's comfort, i will freely avow that i believe it to be _false_.] [ ] [louis xviii.] letter iii. village and castle of arques. sabbath amusements. manners and customs. boulevards. as i had received especial injunctions from our friend p--- not to leave dieppe without paying a visit to the famous _chateau d'arques_[ ], in its neighbourhood, i resolved to seize the opportunity of a tolerably fair, or rather gray-looking day, to go and pay due homage to those venerable remains of antiquity. the road thither is completely rural: apple-trees, just beginning to burst their blossoms; hamlets, small farm-houses: a profusion of rich herbage of various kinds--delighted and regaled me as i pursued my tranquil walk. the country is of a gently-undulating character; but the flats or meadows, between the parallel ranges of hills, are subject to constant inundation from the sea; and in an agricultural point of view are consequently of little use, except for summer grazing of the cattle. it was drawing on to vespers as i approached the _village of arques_. the old castle had frequently peeped out upon me, in my way thither, from its elevated situation; but being resolved to see "all that could be seen," a french village, for the first time, was not to be overlooked. for a country church, i know of few finer ones than that of arques.[ ] the site of the castle is admirable. my approach was to the western extremity; which, as you look down, brings the village and church of arques in the back ground. if the eye were to be considered as a correct judge, this venerable pile, composed of hard flint-stone, intermixed with brick, would perhaps claim precedence, on the score of antiquity, over most of the castles of the middle ages. a deep moat, now dry pasture land, with a bold acclivity before you, should seem to bid defiance, even in times of old, to the foot and the spear of the invader. there are circular towers at the extremities, and a square citadel or donjon within. to the north, a good deal of earth has been recently thrown against the bases of the wall. the day harmonised admirably with the venerable object before me. the sunshine lasted but for a minute: when afterwards a gloom prevailed, and not a single catch of radiant light gilded any portion of the building. all was quiet, and of a sombre aspect,--and what _you_, in your admiration of art, would call in perfectly "fine keeping." i descended the hill, bidding a long adieu to this venerable relic of the hardihood of other times, and quickened my pace towards dieppe. in gaining upon the town, i began to discern groups of rustics, as well as of bourgeoises, assembling and mingling in the dance. the women never think of wearing bonnets, and you have little idea how picturesquely the red and blue[ ] (the colours of raffaelle's madonnas) glanced backwards and forwards amidst the fruit trees, to the sound of the spirit-stirring violin. the high, stiff, starched cauchoise, with its broad flappers, gave the finishing stroke to the novelty and singularity of the scene; and to their credit be it spoken, the women were much more tidily dressed than the men. the couples are frequently female, for want of a sufficient number of swains; but, whether correctly or incorrectly paired, they dance with earnestness, if not with grace. it was a picture à la teniers, without its occasional grossness. this then, said i to myself, is what i have so often heard of the sabbath-gambols of the french--and long may they enjoy them! they are surely better than the brutal orgies of the pot-house, or the fanatical ravings of the tabernacle.[ ] a late plain dinner, with my favourite vin ordinaire, recruited my strength, and kept me in perfectly good humour with dieppe. the deportment of the _dieppois_[ ] towards the english, is, upon the whole, rather gracious than otherwise; because the town profits by the liberality and love of expense of the latter. yet the young ones, as soon as they can lisp, are put in training for pronouncing the _g---- d----_; and a few horribly-deformed and importunate beggars are for ever assailing the doors of the hotels. but beggary is nothing like so frightful an evil as i had anticipated. the general aspect of the town seems to indicate the poverty of the inhabitants; their houses being too large to be entirely occupied. bonaparte appears to have been anxious about the strengthening of the harbour; the navigation into which is somewhat difficult and intricate. the sides of the walls, as you enter, are lofty, steep, and strong; and raised batteries would render any hostile approach extremely hazardous to the assailants. there is no ship-building at this moment going on: the ribs of about half a dozen, half rotted, small merchant-craft, being all that is discernible. but much is projected, and much is hoped from such projects. dieppe has questionless many local advantages both by land and by sea; yet it will require a long course of years to infuse confidence and beget a love of enterprise. in spite of all the _naval zeal_, it is here exhibited chiefly as affording means of subsistence from the fisheries. i must not however conclude my dieppe journal without telling you that i hunted far and near for a good bookseller and for some old books--but found nothing worth the search, except a well-printed early _rouen missal_, and _terence_ by _badius ascensius_. the booksellers are supplied with books chiefly from rouen; the local press being too insignificant to mention. [ ] the french antiquaries have pushed the antiquity of this castle to the th century, supposing it to have been built by _william d'arques_, count of tallon, son of the second marriage of richard duke of normandy. i make no doubt, that, whenever built, the sea almost washed its base: for it is known to have occupied the whole of what is called the _valley of arques_, running as far as _bouteilles_. its position, in reference to the art of war, must have been almost impregnable. other hypotheses assign its origin to the ninth or tenth century. whenever built, its history has been fertile in sieges. in , it was commanded by a flemish monk, who preferred the spear to the crosier, but who perished by an arrow in the contest. of its history, up to the sixteenth century, i am not able to give any details; but in the wars of henry iv. with the league, in , it was taken by surprise by soldiers in the disguise of sailors: who, killing the centinels, quickly made themselves masters of the place. henry caused it afterwards to be dismantled. in the first half of the eighteenth century it received very severe treatment from pillage, for the purpose of erecting public and private buildings at dieppe. at present (in the language of the author of the _rouen itinerary_) "it is the abode of silence--save when that silence is interrupted by owls and other nocturnal birds." the view of it in mr. cotman's work is very faithful. [ ] the _itinéraire de rouen_, , p. , says, absurdly, that this church is of the xith century. it is perhaps with more truth of the beginning of the xivth century. a pleasing view of it is in mr. dawson turner's elegant tour in normandy, , vo. vol. it possessed formerly a bust of henry iv., which is supposed to have been placed there after the famous battle of arques gained by henry over the duke of mayenne in . [ ] the blue gown and red petticoat; or vice versa. [ ] [i am anxious that the above sentence should stand precisely as it appeared in the first edition of this work; because a circumstance has arisen from it, which could have been as little in the anticipation, as it is in the comprehension, of the author. a lady, of high connections, and of respectable character, conceived the passage in question to be somewhat indecorous; or revolting to the serious sense entertained by all christians, and especially by christian ministers, of the mode of devoting the sabbath day. in consequence, being in possession of a copy of this work, she divided it into two; not being willing to sully the splendour of the plates by the supposed impurity of such a passage:--and the prints were accordingly bound apart. the passage--as applied to the french people--requires neither comment nor qualification; and in the same unsophisticated view of religious duties, the _latter_ part may be as strictly applied to the english.] [ ] the dress of the _sailors_ is the same as it was in the xivth century; and so probably is that of the women. the illuminations in froissard and monstrelet clearly give us the norman cauchoise. letter iv. rouen. approach. boulevards. population. street scenery. here i am, my excellent good friend, in the most extraordinary city in the world. one rubs one's eyes, and fancies one is dreaming, upon being carried through the streets of this old-fashioned place: or that, by some secret talismanic touch, we are absolutely mingling with human beings, and objects of art, at the commencement of the sixteenth century: so very curious, and out of the common appearance of things, is almost every object connected with rouen. but before i commence my observations upon the _town_, i must give you a brief sketch of my _journey_ hither. we had bespoke our places in the cabriolet of the diligence, which just holds three tolerably comfortable; provided there be a disposition to accommodate each other. this cabriolet, as you have been often told, is a sort of a buggy, or phaeton seat, with a covering of leather in the front of the coach. it is fortified with a stiff leathern apron, upon the top of which is a piece of iron, covered with the leather, to fasten firmly by means of a hook on the perpendicular supporter of the head. there are stiffish leathern curtains on each side, to be drawn, if necessary, as a protection against the rain, &c. you lean upon the bar, or top of this leathern apron, which is no very uncomfortable resting-place. and thus we took leave of dieppe, on the th day after our arrival there. as we were seated in the cabriolet, we could hardly refrain from loud laughter at the novelty of our situation, and the grotesqueness of the conveyance. our postilion was a rare specimen of his species, and a perfectly _unique copy_. he fancied himself, i suppose, rather getting "into the vale of years," and had contrived to tinge his cheeks with a plentiful portion of rouge.[ ] his platted and powdered hair was surmounted with a battered black hat, tricked off with faded ribband: his jacket was dark blue velvet, with the insignia of his order (the royal arms) upon his left arm. what struck me as not a little singular, was, that his countenance was no very faint resemblance of that of _voltaire_, when he might have been verging towards his sixtieth year. most assuredly he resembled him in his elongated chin, and the sarcastic expression of his mouth. we rolled merrily along--the horses sometimes spreading, and sometimes closing, according to the size of the streets through which we were compelled to pass. the reins and harness are of _cord_; which, however keep together pretty well. the postilion endeavours to break the rapidity of the descent by conducting the wheels over small piles of gravel or rubbish, which are laid at the sides of the road, near the ditch; so that, to those sitting in the cabriolet, and overlooking the whole process, the effect, with weak nerves, is absolutely terrific. they stop little in changing horses, and the diligence is certainly well managed, and in general no accidents occur. the road from dieppe to rouen is wide, hard, and in excellent condition. there are few or no hedges, but rows of apple-trees afford a sufficient line of demarkation. the country is open, and gently undulating; with scarcely any glimpses of what is called forest-scenery, till you get towards the conclusion of the first stage. nothing particularly strikes you till you approach _malaunai_, within about half a dozen miles of rouen, and of course after the last change of horses. the environs of this beautiful village repay you for every species of disappointment, if any should have been experienced. the rising banks of a brisk serpentine trout stream are studded with white houses, in which are cotton manufactories that appear to be carried on with spirit and success. above these houses are hanging woods; and though the early spring would scarcely have coated the branches with green in our own country, yet _here_ there was a general freshness of verdure, intermingled with the ruddy blossom of the apple; altogether rejoicing the eye and delighting the heart. occasionally there were delicious spots, which the taste and wealth of an englishman would have embellished to every possible degree of advantage. but wealth, for the gratification of picturesque taste, is a superfluity that will not quickly fall to the lot of the french. the revolution seems to have drained their purses, as well as daunted their love of enterprise. along the road-side there were some few houses of entertainment; and we observed the emptied cabriolet and stationary voiture, by the side of the gardens, where monsieur and madame, with their families, tripped lightly along the vistas, and tittered as john bull saluted them. moving vehicles, and numerous riding and walking groups, increased upon us; and every thing announced that we were approaching a _great and populous city_. the approach to rouen is indeed magnificent. i speak of the immediate approach; after you reach the top of a considerable rise, and are stopped by the barriers. you then look down a strait, broad, and strongly paved road, lined with a double row of trees on each side. as the foliage was not thickly set, we could discern, through the delicately-clothed branches, the tapering spire of the cathedral, and the more picturesque tower of the abbaye st. ouen--with hanging gardens, and white houses, to the left--covering a richly cultivated ridge of hills, which sink as it were into the _boulevards_, and which is called the _faubourg cauchoise_. to the right, through the trees, you see the river seine (here of no despicable depth or breadth) covered with boats and vessels in motion: the voice of commerce, and the stir of industry, cheering and animating you as you approach the town. i was told that almost every vessel which i saw (some of them of two hundred, and even of three hundred tons burthen) was filled with brandy and wine. the lamps are suspended from the centre of long ropes, across the road; and the whole scene is of a truly novel and imposing character. but how shall i convey to you an idea of what i experienced, as, turning to the left, and leaving the broader streets which flank the quay, i began to enter the _penetralia_ of this truly antiquated town? what narrow streets, what overhanging houses, what bizarre, capricious ornaments! what a mixture of modern with ancient art! what fragments, or rather ruins, of old delicately-built gothic churches! what signs of former and of modern devastation! what fountains, gutters, groups of never-ceasing men, women, and children, all gay, all occupied, and all apparently happy! the _rue de la grosse horloge_ (so called from a huge, clumsy, antiquated clock which goes across it) struck me as being not among the least singular streets of rouen. in five minutes i was within the court-yard of the _hôtel vatel_, the favourite residence of the english. it was evening when i arrived, in company with three englishmen. we were soon saluted by the _laquais de place_--the leech-like hangers-on of every hotel--who begged to know if we would walk upon the boulevards. we consented; turned to the right; and, gradually rising, gained a considerable eminence. again we turned to the right, walking upon a raised promenade; while the blossoms of the pear and apple trees, within a hundred walled gardens, perfumed the air with a delicious fragrance. as we continued our route along the _boulevard beauvoisine_, we gained one of the most interesting and commanding views imaginable of the city of rouen--just at that moment lighted up by the golden rays of a glorious sun-set--which gave a breadth and a mellower tone to the shadows upon the cathedral and the abbey of st. ouen. the situation of rouen renders it necessarily picturesque, view it from what spot you will. the population of rouen is supposed to be full one hundred thousand souls. in truth, there is no end to the succession of human beings. they swarm like bees, and like bees are busy in bringing home the produce of their industry. you have all the bustle and agitation of cheapside and cornhill; only that the ever-moving scene is carried on within limits one-half as broad. conceive bucklersbury, cannon-street, and thames-street,--and yet you cannot conceive the narrow streets of rouen: filled with the flaunting cauchoise, and echoing to the eternal tramp of the sabot. there they are; men, women, and children--all abroad in the very centre of the streets: alternately encountering the splashing of the gutter, and the jostling of their townsmen--while the swift cabriolet, or the slow-paced cart, or the thundering _diligence_, severs them, and scatters them abroad, only that they may seem to be yet more condensely united. for myself, it is with difficulty i believe that i am not living in the times of our henry viii. and of their francis i.; and am half disposed to inquire after the residence of _guillaume tailleur_ the printer--the associate, or foreign agent of your favourite _pynson_.[ ] [ ] [mons. licquet here observes, "this is the first time i have heard it said that our postilions put on rouge." what he adds, shall be given in his own pithy expression.--"où la coquetterie va-t-elle se nicher?" what, however is above stated, was stated from a _conviction_ of its being true] [ ] [the third english printer.] see the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. ii. p. , . letter v. ecclesiastical architecture. cathedral. monuments. religious ceremonies. the abbey of st. ouen. the churches of st. maclou, st. vincent, st. vivien, st. gervais, and st. paul. i have now made myself pretty well acquainted with the geography of rouen. how shall i convey to you a summary, and yet a satisfactory, description of it? it cannot be done. you love old churches, old books, and relics of ancient art. these be my themes, therefore: so fancy yourself either strolling leisurely with me, arm in arm, in the streets--or sitting at my elbow. first for the cathedral:--for what traveller of taste does not doff his bonnet to the _mother church_ of the town through which he happens to be travelling--or in which he takes up a temporary abode? the west-front,[ ] always the _forte_ of the architect's skill, strikes you as you go down, or come up, the principal street--_la rue des carmes_,--which seems to bisect the town into equal parts. a small open space, (which however has been miserably encroached upon by petty shops) called the _flower-garden_, is before this western front; so that it has some little breathing room in which to expand its beauties to the wondering eyes of the beholder. in my poor judgment, this western front has very few elevations comparable with it[ ]--including even those of _lincoln_ and _york_. the ornaments, especially upon the three porches, between the two towers, are numerous, rich, and for the greater part entire:--in spite of the calvinists,[ ] the french revolution, and time. among the lower and smaller basso-relievos upon these porches, is the subject of the daughter of herodias dancing before herod. she is manoeuvering on her hands, her feet being upwards. to the right, the decapitation of st. john is taking place. the southern transept makes amends for the defects of the northern. the space before it is devoted to a sort of vegetable market: curious old houses encircle this space: and the ascent to the door, but more especially the curiously sculptured porch itself, with the open spaces in the upper part--light, fanciful and striking to a degree--produce an effect as pleasing as it is extraordinary. add to this, the ever-restless feet of devotees, going in and coming out--the worn pavement, and the frittered ornaments, in consequence--seem to convince you that the ardour and activity of devotion is almost equal to that of business.[ ] as you enter the cathedral, at the centre door, by descending two steps, you are struck with the length and loftiness of the nave, and with the lightness of the gallery which runs along the upper part of it. perhaps the nave is too narrow for its length. the lantern of the central large tower is beautifully light and striking. it is supported by four massive clustered pillars, about forty feet in circumference;[ ] but on casting your eye downwards, you are shocked at the tasteless division of the choir from the nave by what is called a _grecian screen_: and the interior of the transepts has undergone a like preposterous restoration. the rose windows of the transepts, and that at the west end of the nave, merit your attention and commendation. i could not avoid noticing, to the right, upon entrance, perhaps the oldest side chapel in the cathedral: of a date, little less ancient than that of the northern tower; and perhaps of the end of the twelfth century. it contains by much the finest specimens of stained glass--of the early part of the xvith century. there is also some beautiful stained glass on each side of the chapel of the virgin,[ ] behind the choir; but although very ancient, it is the less interesting, as not being composed of groups, or of historical subjects. yet, in this, as in almost all the churches which i have seen, frightful devastations have been made among the stained-glass windows by the fury of the revolutionists.[ ] respecting the monuments, you ought to know that the famous rollo lies in one of the side-chapels, farther down to the right, upon entering; although his monument cannot be older than the thirteenth century. my attachment to the bibliomanical celebrity of john, duke of bedford, will naturally lead me to the notice of his interment and monumental inscription. the latter is thus; _ad dextrum altaris latus_ _jacet_ ioannes dux betfordi _normanniæ pro rex_ _obiit anno_ mccccxxxv. the duke's tomb will be seen engraved in sandford's genealogical history,[ ] p. ; which plate, in fact, is the identical one used by ducarel; who had the singularly good fortune to decorate his anglo-norman antiquities without any expense to himself![ ] there is a curious chapter in pommeraye's _histoire de l'eglise cathedrale de rouen_, p. , respecting the duke's taking the habit of a canon of the cathedral. he attended, with his first wife, anne of burgundy, and threw himself upon the liberality and kindness of the monks, to be received by them as one of their order: "il les prioit d'être receu parmy eux comme un de leurs frères, et d'avoir tous les jours distribution de pain et de vin, et pour marque de fraternité d'être vétu du surplis et de l'aumusse: comme aussi d'être associé, luy et sa très généreuse et très illustre épouse, aux suffrages de leur compagnie, et à la participation de tous les biens qu'il plaira à dieu leur donner la grace d'opérer," p. . a grand procession marked the day of the duke's admission into the monkish fraternity. the whole of this, with an account of the duke's superb presents to the sacristy, his dining with his duchess, and receiving their portion of "eight loaves and four gallons of wine," are distinctly narrated by the minute pommeraye. as you approach the _chapel of the virgin_, you pass by an ancient monument, to the left, of a recumbent bishop, reposing behind a thin pillar, within a pretty ornamented gothic arch.[ ] to the eye of a tasteful antiquary this cannot fail to have its due attraction. while however we are treading upon hallowed ground, rendered if possible more sacred by the ashes of the illustrious dead, let us move gently onwards towards the _chapel of the virgin_, behind the choir. see, what bold and brilliant monumental figures are yonder, to the right of the altar! how gracefully they kneel and how devoutly they pray! they are the figures of the cardinals d'amboise--uncle and nephew:--the former, minister of louis xii.[ ] and (what does not necessarily follow, but what gives him as high a claim upon the gratitude of posterity) the restorer and beautifier of the glorious building in which you are contemplating his figure. this splendid monument is entirely of black and white marble, of the early part of the sixteenth century. the figures just mentioned are of white marble, kneeling upon cushions, beneath a rich canopy of gothic fretwork. they are in their professional robes; their heads are bare, exhibiting the tonsure, with the hair in one large curl behind. a small whole-length figure of _st. george_, their tutelary saint, is below them, in gilded marble: and the whole base, or lower frieze, of the monument, is surrounded by six delicately sculptured females, about three feet high, emblematic of the virtues for which these cardinals were so eminently distinguished. these figures, representing faith, charity, prudence, force, justice, and temperance, are flanked by eight smaller ones, placed in carved niches; while, above them, are the twelve apostles, not less beautifully executed.[ ] on gazing at this splendid monument of ancient piety and liberality--and with one's mind deeply intent upon the characters of the deceased--let us fancy we hear the sound of the great bell from the south-west tower ... called the _amboise tower_ ... erected, both the bell and the tower, by the uncle and minister amboise. know, my dear friend, that there was _once_ a bell, (and the largest in europe, save one) which used to send forth its sound, for three successive centuries, from the said tower. this bell was broken about thirty years ago, and destroyed in the ravages of the immediately succeeding years.[ ] the south-west tower remains, and the upper part of the central tower, with the whole of the lofty wooden spire:--the fruits of the liberality of the excellent men of whom such honourable mention has been made. considering that this spire is very lofty, and composed of wood, _it is surprising that it has not been destroyed by tempest, or by lightning_.[ ] the taste of it is rather capricious than beautiful. i have not yet done with the monuments, or rather have only commenced the account of them.[ ] examine yonder recumbent figure, to the left of the altar, opposite the splendid monument upon which i have just been dilating. it is lying upon its back, with a ghastly expression of countenance, representing the moment when the last breath has escaped from the body. it is the figure of the grand seneschal de breze,[ ]--governor of rouen, and husband of the celebrated diane de poictiers--that thus claims our attention. this figure is quite naked, lying upon its back, with the right hand placed on the stomach, but in an action which indicates _life_--and therefore it is in bad taste, as far as truth is concerned; for the head being fallen back, much shrunken, and with a ghastly expression of countenance--indicating that some time has elapsed since it breathed its last--the hand could not rest in this position. the cenotaph is of black marble, disfigured by the names of idle visitors who choose to leave such impertinent memorials behind. the famous goujon is supposed to be the sculptor of the figure, which is painfully clever, but it strikes me as being too small. at any rate, the arms and body seem to be too strong and fleshy for the shrunken and death-stricken expression of the countenance. above the seneschal, thus prostrate and lifeless, there is another and a very clever representation of him, on a smaller scale, on horseback. on each side of this figure (which has not escaped serious injury) are two females in white marble; one representing the virgin, and the other diane de poictiers:[ ] they are little more than half the size of life. the whole is in the very best style of the sculpture of the time of francis i. these precious specimens of art, as well as several other similar remains, were carried away during the revolution, to a place of safety. the choir is spacious, and well adapted to its purposes; but who does not grieve to see the archbishop's stall, once the most curious and costly, of the gothic order, and executed at the end of the xvth century, transformed into a stately common-place canopy, supported by columns of chestnut-wood carved in the grecian style? the library, which used to terminate the north transept, is--not gone--but transferred. a fanciful stair-case, with an appropriate inscription,[ ] yet attest that it was formerly an appendage to that part of the edifice. before i quit the subject of the cathedral, i must not fail to tell you something relating to the rites performed therein. let us quit therefore the dead for the living. of course we saw, here, a repetition of the ceremonies observed at dieppe; but previously to the feast of the _ascension_ we were also present at the confirmation of three hundred boys and three hundred girls, each very neatly and appropriately dressed, in a sort of sabbath attire, and each holding a lighted wax taper in the hand. the girls were dressed in white, with white veils; and the rich lent veils to those who had not the means of purchasing them. the cathedral, especially about the choir, was crowded to excess. i hired a chair, stood up, and gazed as earnestly as the rest. the interest excited among the parents, and especially the mothers, was very striking. "voila la petite--qu'elle a l'air charmant!--le petit ange!"....a stir is made ... they rise... and approach, in the most measured order, the rails of the choir ... there they deposit their tapers. the priests, very numerous, extinguish them as dexterously as they can; and the whole cathedral is perfumed with the mixed scent of the wax and frankincense. the boys, on approaching the altar, and giving up their tapers, kneel down; then shut their eyes, open their mouths; and the priests deposit the consecrated wafer upon their tongues. the procession now took a different direction. they all went into the nave, where a sermon was preached to the young people, expressly upon the occasion, by a monsieur quillebeuf, a canon of the cathedral, and a preacher of considerable popularity. he had one of the most meagre and forbidding physiognomies i ever beheld, and his beard was black and unshaven. but he preached well; fluently, and even eloquently: making a very singular, but not ungraceful, use of his left arm--and displaying at times rather a happy familiarity of manner, wholly exempt from vulgarity, and well suited to the capacities and feelings of his youthful audience. his subject was "belief in christ jesus;" on which he gave very excellent proofs and evidences. his voice was thin, but clear, and distinctly heard. and now, my dear friend, if you are not tired with this détour of the cathedral, suppose we take a promenade to the next most important ecclesiastical edifice in the city of rouen. what say you therefore to a stroll to the abbey of st. ouen? "willingly," methinks i hear you reply. to the abbey therefore let us go. leaving the cathedral, you pass a beautifully sculptured fountain (of the early time of francis i.) which stands at the corner of a street, to the right; and which, from its central situation, is visited the live-long day for the sake of its limpid waters. push on a little further; then, turning to the right, you get into a sort of square, and observe the abbey--or rather the _west-front_ of it, full in face of you. you gaze, and are first struck with its matchless window: call it rose, or marygold, as you please. i think, for delicacy and richness of ornament, this window is perfectly unrivalled. there is a play of line in the mullions, which, considering their size and strength, may be pronounced quite a master-piece of art. you approach, regretting the neglected state of the lateral towers, and enter, through the large and completely-opened centre doors, the nave of the abbey. it was towards sun-set when we made our first entrance. the evening was beautiful; and the variegated tints of sun-beam, admitted through the stained glass of the window, just noticed, were perfectly enchanting. the window itself, as you look upwards, or rather as you fix your eye upon the centre of it, from the remote end of the abbey, or the _lady's chapel_, was a perfect blaze of dazzling light: and nave, choir, and side aisles, seemed magically illumined ... seemed all on fire--within, around; deep sacristy and altar's pale; shone every pillar foliage-bound.... _lay of the last minstrel_. we declared instinctively that the abbey of st. ouen could hardly have a rival;--certainly not a superior. [illustration] as the evening came on, the gloom of almost every side chapel and recess was rendered doubly impressive by the devotion of numerous straggling supplicants; and invocations to the presiding spirit of the place, reached the ears and touched the hearts of the bystanders. the grand western entrance presents you with the most perfect view of the choir--a magical circle, or rather oval--flanked by lofty and clustered pillars, and free from the surrounding obstruction of screens, &c. nothing more airy and more captivating of the kind can be imagined. the finish and delicacy of these pillars are quite surprising. above, below, around--every thing is in the purest style of the xivth and xvth centuries. the central tower is a tower of beauty as well as of strength. yet in regard to further details, connected with the interior, it must be admitted that there is very little more which is deserving of particular description; except it be _the gallery_, which runs within the walls of the nave and choir, and which is considerably more light and elegant than that of the cathedral. a great deal has been said about the circular windows at the end of the south transept, and they are undoubtedly elegant: but compared with the one at the extremity of the nave, they are rather to be noticed from the tale attached to them, than from their positive beauty. the tale, my friend, is briefly this. these windows were finished (as well as the larger one at the west front) about the year . one of them was executed by the master-mason, the other by his apprentice; and on being criticised by competent judges, the performance of the _latter_ was said to eclipse that of the former. in consequence, the master became jealous and revengeful, and actually poniarded his apprentice. he was of course tried, condemned, and executed; but an existing monument to his memory attests the humanity of the monks in giving him christian interment.[ ] on the whole, it is the absence of all obtrusive and unappropriate ornament which gives to the interior of this building that light, unencumbered, and faery-like effect which so peculiarly belongs to it, and which creates a sensation that i never remember to have felt within any other similar edifice. let me however put in a word for the _organ_. it is immense, and perhaps larger than that belonging to the cathedral. the tin pipes (like those of the organ in the cathedral) are of their natural colour. i paced the pavement beneath, and think that this organ cannot be short of forty english feet in length. indeed, in all the churches which i have yet seen, the organs strike me as being of magnificent dimensions. you should be informed however that the extreme length of the interior, from the further end of the chapel of the virgin, to its opposite western extremity, is about four hundred and fifty english feet; while the height, from the pavement to the roof of the nave, or the choir, is one hundred and eight english feet. the transepts are about one hundred and forty feet in length. the central tower, upon the whole, is not only the grandest tower in rouen, but there is nothing for its size in our own country that can compare with it. it rises upwards of one hundred feet above the roof of the church; and is supported below, or rather within, by four magnificent cluster-pillared bases, each about thirty-two feet in circumference. its area, at bottom, can hardly be less than thirty-six feet square. the choir is flanked by flying buttresses, which have a double tier of small arches, altogether "marvellous and curious to behold." i could not resist stealing quietly round to the porch of the _south transept_, and witnessing, in that porch, one of the most chaste, light, and lovely specimens of gothic architecture, which can be contemplated. indeed, i hardly know any thing like it.[ ] the leaves of the poplar and ash were beginning to mantle the exterior; and, seen through their green and gay lattice work, the traceries of the porch seemed to assume a more interesting aspect. they are now mending the upper part of the façade with new stone of peculiar excellence--but it does not harmonise with the old work. they merit our thanks, however, for the preservation of what remains of this precious pile. i should remark to you that the eastern and north-eastern sides of the abbey of st. ouen are surrounded with promenades and trees: so that, occasionally, either when walking, or sitting upon the benches, within these gardens, you catch one of the finest views imaginable of the abbey. at this early season of the year, much company is assembled every evening in these walks: while, in front of the abbey, or in the square facing the western end, the national guard is exercised in the day time--and troops of fair nymphs and willing youths mingle in the dance on a sabbath evening, while a platform is erected for the instrumental performers, and for the exhibition of feats of legerdemain. you must not take leave of st. ouen without being told that, formerly, the french kings used occasionally to "make revel" within the abbot's house. henry ii, charles ix, and henry iii, each took a fancy to this spot--but especially the famous henri quatre. it is reported that that monarch sojourned here for four months--- and his reply to the address of the aldermen and sheriff of rouen is yet preserved both in ms. and by engravings. "the king having arrived at st. ouen (says an old ms.)[ ] the keys of the tower were presented to him, in the presence of m. de montpensier, the governor of the province, upon a velvet-cushion. the keys were gilt. the king took them, and replacing them in the hands of the governor, said--"mon cousin, je vous les baille pour les rendre, qu'ils les gardent;"--then, addressing the aldermen, he added, "soyez moi bons sujets et je vous serai bon roi, et le meilleur roi que vous ayez jamais eu." next to the abbey of st. ouen, "go by all means and see the church _st. maclou_"--say your friends and your guides. the abbé turquier accompanied me thither. the great beauties of st. maclou are its tower and its porch. of the tower, little more than the lantern remains. this is about english feet in height. above it was a belfry or steeple, another feet in height, constructed of wood and lead--but which has been nearly destroyed for the sake of the lead,--for the purpose of slaughter or resistance during the late revolution.[ ] the exteriors of the porches are remarkable for their elaborate ornaments; especially those in the _rue martainville._ they are highly praised by the inhabitants, and are supposed to be after the models of the famous goujon. perhaps they are rather encumbered with ornament, and want that quiet effect, and pure good taste, which we see in the porches of the cathedral and of the abbey st. ouen. however, let critics determine as they will upon this point--they must at least unite in reprobating the barbarous edict which doomed these delicate pieces of sculptured art to be deluged with an over-whelming tint of staring yellow ochre! of the remaining churches, i shall mention only four: two of them chiefly remarkable for their interior, and two for their extreme antiquity. of the two former, that of _st. vincent_ presents you with a noble organ, with a light choir profusely gilded, and (rarer accompaniment!) in very excellent taste. but the stained glass is the chief magnet of attraction. it is rich, varied, and vivid to a degree; and, upon the whole, is the finest specimen of this species of art in the present ecclesiastical remains of the city. _st. vivien_ is the second of these two former. it is a fine open church, with a large organ, having a very curious wooden screen in front, elaborately carved, and, as i conceive, of the very earliest part of the sixteenth century. i ascended the organ-loft; and the door happening to be open, i examined this screen (which has luckily escaped the yellow-ochre edict) very minutely, and was much gratified by the examination. such pieces of art, so situated, are of rare occurrence. for the first time, within a parish church, i stepped upon the pavement of the choir: walked gently forwards, to the echo of my own footsteps, (for not a creature was in the church) and, "with no unhallowed hand" i would hope, ventured to open the choral or service book, resting upon its stand. it was wide, thick, and ponderous: upon vellum: beautifully written and well executed in every respect, with the exception of the illuminations which were extremely indifferent. i ought to tell you that the doors of the churches, abroad, are open at all times of the day: the ancient or more massive door, or portal, is secured from shutting; but a temporary, small, shabby wooden door, covered with dirty green baize, opening and shutting upon circular hinges, just covers the vacuum left by the absence of the larger one. of the two ancient churches, above alluded to, that of _st. gervais_, is situated considerably to the north of where the _boulevards cauchoise_ and _bouvreuil_ meet. it was hard by this favourite spot, say the norman historians, that the ancient dukes of normandy built their country-houses: considering it as a _lieu de plaisance._ here too it was that the conqueror came to breathe his last--desiring to be conveyed thither, from his palace in the city, for the benefit of the pure air.[ ] i walked with m. le prevost to this curious church: having before twice seen it. but the _crypt_ is the only thing worth talking about, on the score of antiquity. the same accomplished guide bade me remark the extraordinary formation of the capitals of the pillars: which, admitting some perversity of taste in a rude, norman, imitative artist, are decidedly of roman character. "perhaps," said m. le prevost, "the last efforts of roman art previous to the relinquishment of the romans." among these capitals there is one of the perfect doric order; while in another you discover the remains of two roman eagles. the columns are all of the same height; and totally unlike every thing of the kind which i have seen or heard of. we descended the hill upon which _st. gervais_ is built, and walked onward towards _st. paul_, situated at the further and opposite end of the town, upon a gentle eminence, just above the banks of the seine.[ ] m. le prevost was still our conductor. this small edifice is certainly of remote antiquity, but i suspect it to be completely norman. the eastern end is full of antiquarian curiosities. we observed something like a roman mask as the centre ornament upon the capital of one of the circular figures; and mr. lewis made a few slight drawings of one of the grotesque heads in the exterior, of which the hair is of an uncommon fashion. the _saxon whiskers_ are discoverable upon several of these faces. upon the whole, it is possible that parts of this church may have been built at the latter end of the tenth century, after the normans had made themselves completely masters of this part of the kingdom; yet it is more probable that there is no vestige left which claims a more ancient date than that of the end of the eleventh century. i ought just to notice the church of _st. sever_,[ ] supposed by some to be yet more ancient: but i had no opportunity of taking a particular survey of it. thus much, or rather thus little, respecting the ecclesiastical antiquities of rouen. they merit indeed a volume of themselves. this city could once boast of upwards of _thirty parish churches_; of which very nearly a _dozen_ have been recently (i mean during the revolution) converted into _warehouses_. it forms a curious, and yet melancholy mélange--this strange misappropriation of what was formerly held most sacred, to the common and lowest purposes of civil life! you enter these warehouses, or offices of business, and see the broken shaft, the battered capital, and half-demolished altar-piece--the gilded or the painted frieze--in the midst of bales of goods--casks, ropes, and bags of cotton: while, without, the same spirit of demolition prevails in the fractured column, and tottering arch way. thus time brings its changes and decays--premature as well as natural: and the noise of the car-men and injunctions of the clerk are now heard, where formerly there reigned a general silence, interrupted only by the matin or evening chaunt! i deplored this sort of sacrilegious adaptation, to a respectable-looking old gentleman, sitting out of doors upon a chair, and smoking his pipe--"c'est dommage, monsieur, qu'on a converti l'église à"--he stopped me: raised his left hand: then took away his pipe with his right; gave a gentle whiff, and shrugging up his shoulders, half archly and half drily exclaimed--"mais que voulez vous, monsieur?--ce sont des événemens qu'on ne peut ni prévoir ni prévenir. voilà ce que c'est!" leaving you to moralize upon this comfortable morceau of philosophy, consider me ever, &c. [ ] a most ample and correct view of this west front will be found in mr. _cotman's norman antiquities_. [ ] it is about english feet in width, by about in the highest part of its elevation. the plates which i saw at mr. frere's, bookseller, upon the quai de paris, from the drawings of langlois, were very inadequate representations of the building. [ ] the ravages committed by the calvinists throughout nearly the whole of the towns in normandy, and especially in the cathedrals, towards the year , afford a melancholy proof of the effects of religious animosity. but the calvinists were bitter and ferocious persecutors. pommeraye, in his quarto volume, _histoire de l'eglise cathedrale de rouen_, , has devoted nearly one hundred pages to an account of calvinistic depredations. [ ] [mr. cotman has a plate of the elevation of the front of this south transept; and a very minute and brilliant one will be found in the previous edition of this tour--by mr. henry le keux: for which that distinguished artist received the sum of guineas. the remuneration was well merited.] [ ] [mons. licquet says each clustered pillar contains thirty-one columns.] [ ] this chapel is about ninety-five english feet in length, by thirty in width, and sixty in heighth. the sprawling painting by philippe de champagne, at the end of it, has no other merit than that of covering so many square feet of wall. the architecture of this chapel is of the xivth century: the stained glass windows are of the latter end of the xvth. on completing the circuit of the cathedral, one is surprised to count not fewer than _twenty-five_ chapels. [ ] [mons. licquet is paraphrastically warm in his version, here. he renders it thus: "les atteintes effroyables du vandalisme révolutionaire," vol. i. p. .] [ ] sandford, after telling us that he thinks there "never was any portraiture" of the duke, thus sums up his character. "he was justly accounted one of the best generals that ever blossomed out of the royal stem of plantagenet. his valour was not more terrible to his enemies than his memory honourable; for (doubtful whether with more glory to him, or to the speaker) king lewis the eleventh being counselled by certain envious persons to deface his tomb (wherein with him, saith one, was buried all english men's good fortune in france) used these indeed princely words: 'what honour shall it be to us, or you, to break this monument, and to pull out of the ground the bones of him, whom, in his life time, neither my father nor your progenitors, with all their puissance, were once able to make flie a foot backwarde? who, by his strength, policy and wit kept them all out of the principal dominions of france, and out of this noble duchy of normandy? wherefore, i say first, god save his soul; and let his body now lie in rest, which when he was alive, would have disquieted the proudest of us all. and for this tomb, i assure you it is not so worthy or convenient as his honour and acts have deserved.'" p. - , ed. [a] the famous missal, once in the possession of this celebrated nobleman, and containing the only authenticated portrait of him (which is engraved in the _bibliog. decameron_, vol. i. p. cxxxvii.) is now the property of john milner, esq. of york place, portman square, who purchased it of the duke of marlborough. the duke had purchased it at the sale of the library of the late james edwards, esq. for l. s. [a] [upon this, mons. licquet, with supposed shrewdness and success, remarks,--"all very well: but we must not forget that the innocent joan of arc was burnt alive--thanks to this said duke of bedford, as every one knows!"] [ ] [a different tale may be told of one of his successors in the same anglo-norman pursuit. the expenses attending the graphic embellishments alone of the previous edition of this work, somewhat exceeded the sum of _four thousand seven hundred pounds._ the risk was entirely my own. the result was the loss of about l.: exclusively of the expences incurred in travelling about miles. the _copper-plates_ (notwithstanding every temptation, and many entreaties, to _multiply_ impressions of several of the subjects engraved) were destroyed. there may be something more than a mere negative consolation, in finding that the work is rising in price, although its author has long ceased to partake of any benefit resulting from it.] [ ] a plate of this monument is published in the tour of normandy by dawson turner, esq. [ ] the cardinal died in his fiftieth year only; and his funeral was graced and honoured by the presence of his royal master. guicciardini calls him "the oracle and right arm of louis." of eight brothers, whom he left behind, four attained to the episcopal rank. his nephew succeeded him as archbishop. see also _historia genealogica magnatum franciae_; vol. vii. p. ; quoted in the _gallia christiana_, vol. xi. col. . it was during the archiepiscopacy of the successor of the nephew of amboise--namely, that of charles of bourbon--that the _calvanistic persecution_ commenced. "tunc vero coepit civitas, dioecesis, universaque provincia lamentabilem in modum conflictari, saevientibus ob religionis dissidia plusquam civilibus bellis," &c. but then the good archbishop, however bountiful he might have been towards the poor at _roncesvalles_, (when he escorted philip ii.'s first wife elizabeth, daughter of henry ii. to the confines of spain, after he had married her to that wretched monarch) should not have inflamed the irritated minds of the calvinists, by burning alive, in , _john cottin_, one of their most eminent preachers, by way of striking terror into the rest! well might the chronicler observe, as the result, "novas secta illa in dies acquirebat vires." about - , the calvinists got the upper hand; and repaid the catholics with a vengeance. charles of bourbon died in : so that he had an arduous and agitated time of it. [ ] how long will this monument--(matchless of its kind)--continue unrepresented by the burin? if mr. henry le keux were to execute it in his best style, the world might witness in it a piece of art entirely perfect of its kind. but let the pencils of messrs. corbould and blore be first exercised on the subject. in the mean while, why is gallic art inert? [ ] the choir was formerly separated from the surrounding chapels, or rather from the space between it and the chapels, by a superb brass grating, full of the most beautiful arabesque ornaments--another testimony of the magnificent spirit of the cardinal and prime minister of louis xii.: whose arms, as well as the figure of his patron, st. george, were seen in the centre of every compartment ... the revolution has not left a vestige behind! [ ] [in this edition, i put the above passage in _italics_,--to mark, that, within three years of writing it, the spire was consumed by lightning. the newspapers of both france and england were full of this melancholy event; and in the year , monsieur hyacinthe langlois, of rouen, published an account of it, together with some views (indifferently lithographised) of the progress of the burning. "it should seem (says mons. licquet) that the author had a presentiment of what was speedily to take place:--for the rest, the same species of destruction threatens all similar edifices, for the want of conductors." i possess a fragment of the lead of the roof, as it was collected after a state of _fusion_--and sent over to me by some friend at rouen. the fusion has caused portions of the lead to assume a variety of fantastic shapes--not _altogether_ unlike a gothic building.] [ ] let me add that the whole length of the cathedral is about four hundred and forty feet; and the transept about one hundred and seventy-five; english measure. the height of the nave is about ninety, and of the lantern one hundred and sixty-eight feet, english. the length of the nave is two hundred and twenty-eight feet. [ ] he died in . both the ancient and yet existing inscriptions are inserted by gilbert, from pommeraye and farin; and formerly there was seen, in the middle of the monument, the figure of the seneschal habited as a count, with all the insignia of his dignity. but this did not outlive the revolution. [ ] it must be admitted that diana, when she caused the verses _indivulsa tibi quondam et fidissima conjux vt fuit in thalamo, sic erit in tumulo_. to be engraved upon the tomb of the seneschal, might well have "moved the bile" of the pious benedictine pommeraye, and have excited the taunting of ducarel, when they thought upon her subsequent connexion, in the character of mistress, with henry the second of france. henry however endeavoured to compensate for his indiscretions by the pomp and splendor of his processions. rouen, so celebrated of old for the entries of kings and nobles, seems to have been in a perfect blaze of splendor upon that of the lover of diana--"qui fut plus magnifique que toutes celles qu'on avoit vu jusqu'alors:" see _farin's hist. de la ville de rouen_, vol. i. p. , where there is a singularly minute and gay account of all the orders and degrees of citizens--(with their gorgeous accoutrements of white plumes, velvet hats, rich brocades, and curiously wrought taffetas) of whom the processions were composed. it must have been a perfectly dramatic sight, upon the largest possible scale. it was from respect to the character or the memory of diana, that so many plaster-representations of her were erected on the exteriors of buildings: especially of those within small squares or quadrangles. in wandering about rouen, i stumbled upon several old mansions of this kind. [ ] the inscription is this: _si quem sancta tenet meditandi in lege voluntas, hic poterit residens, sacris intendere libris_. pommeraye has rather an interesting gossiping chapter [chap. xxii.] "de la bibliothêque de la cathédrale;" p. : to which franÇois de harlay, about the year , was one of the most munificent benefactors. [ ] _christian interment_.]--"les religieux de saint ouen touchez de compassion envers ce malheureux artisan, obtinrent son corps de la justice, et pour reconnoissance des bons services qu'il leur avoit rendus dans la construction de leur église, nonobstant sa fin tragique, ne laissèrent pas de luy fair l'honneur de l'inhumer dans la chapelle de sainte agnes, ou sa tombe se voit encore auec cet epitaphe: _cy gist_ m. alexandre de berneual, _maistre des oeuvres de massonnerie._ [ ] even dr. ducarel became warm--on contemplating this porch! "the porch at the south entrance into the church (says he) is much more worthy of the spectator's attention, being highly enriched with architectonic ornaments; particularly two beautiful cul de lamps, which from the combination of a variety of spiral dressings, as they hang down from the vaulted roof, produce a very pleasing effect." p. . [ ] consult the account given by m. le prevost in the "_précis analytique des travaux de l'academie, &c. de rouen_," for the year , p. , &c. [ ] farin tells us that you could go from the top of the lantern to the cross, or to the summit of the belfry, "outside, without a ladder; so admirable was the workmanship." "strangers (adds he) took models of it for the purpose of getting them engraved, and they were sold publicly at rome." _hist. de la ville de rouen_, , to. vol. ii. p. . there are thirteen chapels within this church; of which however the building cannot be traced lower than quite the beginning of the xvith century. the extreme length and width of the interior is about by feet english. even in du four's time the population of this parish was very great, and its cemetery (adds he) was the first and most regular in rouen. he gives a brief, but glowing description of it--"on va tout autour par des galeries couvertes et pavées; et, deux de ces galeries sont decorées de deux autels," &c. p. . alas! time--or the revolution--has annihilated all this. let me however add that m. cotman has published a view of the _staircase_ in the church of which i am speaking. [ ] ordericus vitalis says, that the dying monarch requested to be conveyed thither, to avoid the noise and bustle of a populous town. rouen is described to be, in _his_ time, "populosa civitas." consult duchesne's _historiæ normannor. scrip. antiq._ p. . [ ] a view of it is published by m. cotman. [ ] _st. sever_. this church is situated in the southern fauxbourgs, by the side of the seine, and was once surrounded by gardens, &c. as you cross the bridge of boats, and go to the race-ground, you leave it to the right; but it is not so old as _st. paul_--where, farin says, the worship of adonis was once performed! letter vi. halles de commerce. place de la pucelle d'orleans (jeanne d'arc.) basso-rilievo of the champ de drap d'or. palace and courts of justice. you must make up your mind to see a few more sights in the city of rouen, before i conduct you to the environs, or to the summit of _mont st. catherine_. we must visit some relics of antiquity, and take a yet more familiar survey of the town, ere we strive ... superas evadere ad auras. indeed the information to be gained well merits the toil endured in its acquisition. the only town in england that can give you any notion of rouen, is chester; although the similitude holds only in some few particulars. i must, in the first place then, make especial mention of the halles de commerce. the _markets_ here are numerous and abundant, and are of all kinds. cloth, cotton, lace, linen, fish, fruit, vegetables, meat, corn, and wine; these for the exterior and interior of the body. cattle, wood, iron, earthenware, seeds, and implements of agriculture; these for the supply of other necessities considered equally important. each market has its appropriate site. for picturesque effect, you must visit the _vieux marché_, for vegetables and fish; which is kept in an open space, once filled by the servants and troops of the old dukes of normandy, having the ancient ducal palace in front. this is the fountain head whence the minor markets are supplied. every stall has a large old tattered sort of umbrella spread above it, to ward off the rain or rays of heat; and, seen from some points of view, the effect of all this, with the ever-restless motion of the tongues and feet of the vendors, united to their strange attire, is exceedingly singular and interesting. leaving the old market place, you pass on to the _marché neuf_, where fruits, eggs, and butter are chiefly sold. at this season of the year there is necessarily little or no fruit, but i could have filled one coat pocket with eggs for less than half a franc. while on the subject of buying and selling, let us go to the _halles_ of _rouen_; being large public buildings now exclusively appropriated to the sale of cloths, linen, and the varied _et-ceteras_ of mercery. these are at once spacious and interesting in a high degree. they form the divisions of the open spaces, or squares, where the markets just mentioned are held; and were formerly the appurtenances of the palaces and chateaux of the old dukes of normandy: the _latter_ of which are now wholly demolished. you must rise betimes on a friday morning, to witness a sight of which you can have no conception in england: unless it be at a similar scene in _leeds_. by six o'clock the busy world is in motion within these halls. then commences the incessant and inconceivable vociferation of buying and selling. the whole scene is alive, and carried on in several large stone-arched rooms, supported by a row of pillars in the centre. of these halls, the largest is about three hundred and twenty english feet in length, by fifty-five in width. the centre, in each division, contains tables and counters for the display of cloth, cotton, stuff, and linen of all descriptions. the display of divers colours--the commendations bestowed by the seller, and the reluctant assent of the purchaser--the animated eye of the former, and the calculating brow of the latter--the removal of one set of wares, and the bringing on of another--in short, the never-ceasing succession of sounds and sights astonishes the gravity of an englishman; whose astonishment is yet heightened by the extraordinary good humour which every where prevails. the laugh, the joke, the équivoque, and reply, were worth being recorded in pointed metre;--and what metre but that of crabbe could possibly render it justice? by nine of the clock all is hushed. the sale is over: the goods are cleared; and both buyers and sellers have quitted the scene. from _still_, let me conduct you to _active_ life. in other words, let us hasten to take a peep at the _horse and cattle market_; which is fixed in the very opposite part of the town; that is, towards the northern boulevards. the horses are generally entire: and indeed you have scarcely any thing in england which exceeds the _norman horse_, properly so understood. this animal unites the hardiness of the mule with the strength of his own particular species. he is also docile, and well trained; and a norman, from pure affection, thinks he can never put enough harness upon his back. i have seen the face and shoulders of a cart-horse almost buried beneath a profusion of ornament by way of collar; and have beheld a farmer's horse, led out to the plough, with trappings as gorgeous and striking as those of a general's charger brought forward for a review. the carts and vehicles are usually balanced in the centre upon two wheels, which diminishes much of the pressure upon the horse. yet the caps of the wheels are frightfully long, and inconveniently projecting: while the eternally loud cracking of the whip is most repulsive to nervous ears. on market days, the horses stand pretty close to each other for sale; and are led off, for shew, amidst boys, girls, and women, who contrive very dexterously to get out of the way of their active hoofs. the french seem to have an instinctive method of doing that, which, with ourselves, seems to demand forethought and deliberation. of the streets, in this extraordinary city, that of the _great clock--(rue de la grosse horloge)_ which runs in a straight line from the western front of the cathedral, at right angles with the _rue des carmes_, is probably the most important, ancient, and interesting. when we were conveyed, on our entrance, (in the cabriolet of the diligence) beneath the arch to the upper part of which this old fashioned clock is attached, we were lost in admiration at the singularity of the scene. the inhabitants saw, and enjoyed, our astonishment. there is a fountain beneath, or rather on one side of this arch; over which is sculptured a motley group of insipid figures, of the latter time of louis xiv. the old tower near this clock merits a leisurely survey: as do also some old houses, to the right, on looking at it. it was within this old tower that a bell was formerly tolled, at nine o'clock each evening, to warn the inhabitants abroad to return within the walls of the city.[ ] turning to the left, in this street, and going down a sharp descent, we observed a stand of hackney coaches in a small square, called _la place de la pucelle_: that is, the place where the famous jeanne d'arc[ ] was imprisoned, and afterwards burnt. what sensations possess us as we gaze on each surrounding object!--although, now, each surrounding object has undergone a palpable change! ah, my friend--what emotions were _once_ excited within this small space! what curiosity, and even agony of mind, mingled with the tumults of indignation, the shouts of revenge, and the exclamations of pity! but life now goes on just the same as if nothing of the kind had happened here. the past is forgotten. this hapless joan of arc is one of the many, who, having been tortured as heretics, have been afterwards reverenced as martyrs. her statue was, not very long after her execution, almost _adored_ upon that very spot where her body had been consigned with execrations to the flames. the square, in which this statue stands, contains probably one of the very oldest houses in rouen--and as interesting as it is ancient. it is invisible from without: but you open a wooden gate, and quickly find yourself within a small quadrangle, having three of its sides covered with basso-rilievo figures in plaster. that side which faces you is evidently older than the left: indeed i have no hesitation in assigning it to the end of the xvth century. the clustered ornaments of human figures and cattle, with which the whole of the exterior is covered, reminds us precisely of those numerous little wood-cut figures, chiefly pastoral, which we see in the borders of printed missals of the same period. the taste which prevails in them is half french and half flemish. not so is the character of the plaster figures which cover the _left_ side on entering. these, my friend, are no less than the representation of the procession of henry viii. and francis i. to the famous champ de drap d'or: of which montfaucon[ ] has published engravings. having carefully examined this very curious relic, of the beginning of the sixteenth century, i have no hesitation in pronouncing the copy of montfaucon (or rather of the artist employed by him) to be most egregiously faithless. i visited it again and again, considering it to be worth all the "huge clocks" in rouen put together. i hardly know how to take you from this interesting spot--from this exhibition of beautiful old art--especially too when i consider that francis himself once occupied the mansion, and held a council here, with both english and french; that his bugles once sounded from beneath the gate way, and that his goblets once sparkled upon the chestnut tables of the great hall. i do hope and trust that the royal academy of rouen, will not suffer this architectural relic to perish, without leaving behind a substantial and faithful representation of it.[ ] while upon the subject of ancient edifices, let me return; and, crossing the _rue de la grosse horloge_, contrive to place you in the centre of the square which is formed by the palais de justice. the inhabitants consider this building as the principal _lion_ in their city. it has indeed claims to notice and admiration, but will not bear the severe scrutiny of a critic in gothic architecture. it was partly erected by louis xii. at the entreaty of the provincial states, through the interest of the famous cardinal d'amboise, and partly by francis i. this building precisely marks the restoration of gothic taste in france, and the peculiar style of architecture which prevailed in the reign of francis i. to say the truth, this style, however sparkling and imposing, is objectionable in many respects: for it is, in the first place, neither pure gothic nor pure grecian--but an injudicious mixture of both. greek arabesque borders are running up the sides of a portal terminating in a gothic arch; and the gothic ornaments themselves are not in the purest, or the most pleasing, taste. too much is given to parts, and too little to the whole. the external ornaments are frequently heavy, from their size and elaborate execution; and they seem to be _stuck on_ to the main building without rhyme or reason. the criminal offences are tried in the hall to the right, and the prisoners are confined in the lower part of the building to the left: above which you mount by a flight of stone steps, which conducts you to a singularly curious hall,[ ] about one hundred and seventy-five english feet in length--roofed by wooden ribs, in the form of an arch, and displaying a most curious and exact specimen of carpenter's work. this is justly shewn and commented upon to the enquiring traveller. parts of the building are devoted to the courts of assize, and to tribunals of audience of almost every description. the first presidents of the parliament lived formerly in the building which faces you upon entrance, but matters have now taken a very different turn. upon the whole, this _town hall_, or call it what you will, is rather a magnificent structure; and certainly superior to most provincial buildings of the kind which we possess in england. i should tell you that the courts for commercial causes are situated near the quays, at the south part of the town: and monsieur riaux, who conducted me thither, (and who possesses the choicest library[ ] of antiquarian books, of all descriptions, relating to rouen, which i had the good fortune to see) carried me to the _hall of commerce_, which, among other apartments, contains a large chamber (contiguous to the court of justice) covered with _fleurs de lys_ upon a light blue ground. it is now however much in need of reparation. fresh lilies and a new ground are absolutely necessary to harmonise with a large oil-painting at one end of it, in which is represented the reception of louis xvi. at rouen by the mayor and deputies of the town, in . all the figures are of the size of life, well painted after the originals, and appear to be strong resemblances. on enquiring how many of them were now living, i was told that--all were dead! the fate of the _principal_ figure is but too well known. they should have this interesting subject--interesting undoubtedly to the inhabitants--executed by one of their best engravers. it represents the unfortunate louis quite in the prime of life; and is the best whole length portrait of him which i have yet seen in painting or in engraving. it is right however that you should know, that, in the tribunal for the determination of commercial causes, there sits a very respectable bench of judges: among whom i recognised one that had perfectly the figure, air, and countenance, of an englishman. on enquiry of my guide, i found my supposition verified. he _was_ an englishman; but had been thirty years a resident in _rouen_. the judicial costume is appropriate in every respect; but i could not help smiling, the other morning, upon meeting my friend the judge, standing before the door of his house, in the open street--with a hairy cap on--leisurely smoking his pipe--and wherein consisted the harm of such a _delassement_? [ ] [i apprehend this custom to be prevalent in fortified towns:--as rouen _formerly_ was--and as i found such custom to obtain at the present day, at strasbourg. mons. licquet says that the allusion to the curfew--or _couvre-feu_--as appears in the previous edition--and which the reader well knows was established by the conqueror with us--was no particular badge of the slavery of the english. it had been _previously_ established by william in normandy. millot is referred to as the authority.] [ ] _the famous_ jeanne d'arc.] goube, in the second volume of his _histoire du duché de normandie_, has devoted several spiritedly written pages to an account of the trial and execution of this heroine. her history is pretty well known to the english--from earliest youth. goube says that her mode of death had been completely prejudged; for that, previously to the sentence being passed, they began to erect "a scaffold of plaster, so raised, that the flames could not at first reach her--and she was in consequence consumed by a slow fire: her tortures being long and horrible." hume has been rather too brief: but he judiciously observes that the conduct of the duke of bedford "was equally barbarous and dishonourable." indeed it were difficult to pronounce which is entitled to the greatest abhorrence--the imbecility of charles vii. the baseness of john of luxembourg, or the treachery of the regent bedford? the _identical_ spot on which she suffered is not now visible, according to millin; that place having been occupied by the late _marché des veaux_. it was however not half a stone's throw from the site of the present statue. in the _antiquités nationales_ of the last mentioned author (vol. iii. art. xxxvi.) there are three plates connected with the history of joan of arc. the _first_ plate represents the _porte bouvreuil_ to the left, and the circular old tower to the right--in which latter joan was confined, with some houses before it; the middle ground is a complete representation of the rubbishing state by which many of the public buildings at rouen are yet surrounded; and french taste has enlivened the foreground with a picture of a lover and his mistress, in a bocage, regaling themselves with a flagon of wine. the old circular tower ("qui vit gémir cette infortunée," says millin) exists no longer. the second plate represents the fountain which was built in the market-place upon the very spot where the maid suffered, and which spot was at first designated by the erection of a cross. from the style of the embellishments it appears to have been of the time of francis i. goube has re-engraved this fountain. it was taken down or demolished in ; upon the site of which was built the present tasteless production--resembling, as the author of the _itinéraire de rouen_ (p. ) well observes, "rather a pallas than the heroine of orleans." the name of the author was stodts. millin's _third_ plate--of this present existing fountain, is desirable; in as much as it shews the front of the house, in the interior of which are the basso-rilievos of the _champ de drap d'or_: for an account of which see afterwards. millin allows that all portraits of her--whether in sculpture, or painting, or engraving--are purely ideal. perhaps the nearest, in point of fidelity, was that which was seen in a painted glass window of the church of the _minimes_ at chaillot: although the building was not erected till the time of charles viii. yet it might have been a copy of some coeval production. in regard to oil paintings, i take it that the portrait of judith, with a sword in one hand, and the head of holofernes in the other, has been usually copied (with the omission of the latter accompaniment) as that of jeanne d'arc. i hardly know a more interesting collection of books than that which may be acquired respecting the fate of this equally brave and unfortunate heroine. [ ] far be it from me to depreciate the labours of montfaucon. but those who have not the means of getting at that learned antiquarian's _monarchie françoise_ may possibly have an opportunity of examining precisely the same representations, of the procession above alluded to, in _ducarel's anglo-norman antiquities_, plate xii. till the year this extraordinary series of ornament was supposed to represent the _council of trent_; but the abbé noel, happening to find a salamander marked upon the back of one of the figures, supposed, with greater truth, that it was a representation of the abovementioned procession; and accordingly sent montfaucon an account of the whole. the abbé might have found more than one, two, or three salamanders, if he had looked closely into this extraordinary exterior; and possibly, in his time, the surfaces of the more delicate parts, especially of the human features, might not have sustained the injuries which time and accident now seem to have inflicted on them. [a beautiful effort in the graphic way representing the entire interior front of this interesting mansion, is said to be published at rouen.] [ ] in the previous edition of this work, there appeared a facsimile of a small portion of this bas-relief, representing--as i imagine--the setting out of francis to meet henry. nothing, as far as correctness of detail goes, can give a more faithful resemblance of the precise state in which the original appears: the defaced and the entire parts being represented with equal fidelity. mons. langlois has given a plate of the entire façade or front--in outline--with great ability; but so small as to give little or no notion of the character of the original. [ ] in ducarel's time, "the ground story consisted of a great quadrangle surrounded with booksellers shops. on one side of it a stone staircase led to a large and lofty room, which, in its internal as well as external appearance, resembled, though in miniature, westminster hall. here (continues ducarel) i saw several gentlemen of the long robe, in their gowns and bands, walking up and down with briefs in their hands, and making a great show of business." _anglo-norman antiquities_, p. . [according to mons. licquet, this "singularly curious hall" was begun to be built in . it was afterwards, and is still called, _la salle des procureurs_.] [ ] _the choicest library_] monsieur riaux, archiviste de la chambre de commerce. this amiable man unites a love of literature with that of architectural antiquities. the library of m. le prevost is however as copious as that of mons. r. letter vii. the quays. bridge of boats. rue du bac. rue de robec. eaux de robec et d'aubette. mont ste. catharine. hospices--gÉnÉral et d'humanitÉ. still tarrying within this old fashioned place? i have indeed yet much to impart before i quit it, and which i have no scruple in avowing will be well deserving of your attention. just letting you know, in few words, that i have visited the famous chemical laboratory of m. vitalis, (_rue beauvoisine_) and the yet more wonderful spectacle exhibited in m. lemere's machine for sawing wood of all descriptions, into small or large planks, by means of water works--i must take you along the quays for a few minutes. these quays are flanked by an architectural front, which, were it finished agreeably to the original plan, would present us with one of the noblest structures in europe. this stone front was begun in the reign of louis xv. but many and prosperous must be the years of art, of commerce, and of peace, before money sufficient can be raised for the successful completion of the pile. the quays are long, broad, and full of bustle of every description; while in some of the contiguous squares, ponderous bales of goods, shawls, cloth, and linen, are spread open to catch the observing eye. in the midst of this varied and animated scene, walks a well-known character, in his large cocked hat, and with his tin machine upon his back, filled with lemonade or coffee, surmounted by a bell--which "ever and anon" is sounded for the sake of attracting customers. he is here copied to the life. [illustration] as you pass along this animated scene, by the side of the rapid seine, and its _bridge of boats_, you cannot help glancing now and then down the narrow old-fashioned streets, which run at right angles with the quays--with the innumerable small tile-fashioned pieces of wood, like scales, upon the roofs--which seem as if they would be demolished by every blast. the narrowness and gloom of these streets, together with the bold and overwhelming projections of the upper stories and roofs, afford a striking contrast to the animated scene upon the quays:--where the sun shines with full freedom, as it were; and where the glittering streamers, at innumerable mast-heads, denote the wealth and prosperity of the town. if the day happen to be fine, you may devote half a morning in contemplating, and mingling with, so interesting a scene. we have had frequent thunder-storms of late; and the other sunday evening, happening to be sauntering at a considerable height above the north-west boulevards, towards the _faubourg cauchoise_, i gained a summit, upon the edge of a gravel pit, whence i looked down unexpectedly and precipitously upon the town below. a magnificent and immense cloud was rolling over the whole city. the seine was however visible on the other side of it, shining like a broad silver chord: while the barren, ascending plains, through which the road to caen passes, were gradually becoming dusk with the overshadowing cloud, and drenched with rain which seemed to be rushing down in one immense torrent. the tops of the cathedral and of the abbey of st. ouen were almost veiled in darkness, by the passing storm; but the lower part of the tower, and the whole of the nave of each building, were in one stream of golden light--from the last powerful rays of the setting sun. in ten minutes this magically-varied scene settled into the sober, uniform tint of evening; but i can never forget the rich bed of purple and pink, fringed with burnished gold, in which the sun of that evening set! i descended--absorbed in the recollection of the lovely objects which i had just contemplated--and regaled by the sounds of a thousand little gurgling streamlets, created by the passing tempest, and hastening to precipitate themselves into the seine. of the different trades, especially retail, which are carried on in rouen with the greatest success, those connected with the _cotton manufactories_ cannot fail to claim your attention; and i fancied i saw, in some of the shop-windows, shawls and gowns which might presume to vie with our manchester and norwich productions. nevertheless, i learnt that the french were extremely partial to british manufactures: and cotton stockings, coloured muslins, and what are called ginghams, are coveted by them with the same fondness as we prize their cambric and their lace. their best articles in watches, clocks, silver ornaments, and trinkets, are obtained from paris. but in respect to upholstery, i must do the rouennois the justice to say, that i never saw any thing to compare with their _escrutoires_ and other articles of furniture made of the walnut tree. these upright escrutoires, or writing desks, are in almost every bed-room of the more respectable hotels: but of course their polish is gone when they become stationary furniture in an inn--for the art of rubbing, or what is called _elbow-grease_ with us--is almost unknown on either side of the seine. you would be charmed to have a fine specimen of a side board, or an escrutoire, (the latter five or six feet high) made by one of their best cabinet-makers from choice walnut wood. the polish and tone of colour are equally gratifying; and resemble somewhat that of rose wood, but of a gayer aspect. the _or-molu_ ornaments are tastefully put on; but the general shape, or contour, of the several pieces of furniture, struck me as being in bad taste. he who wishes to be astonished by the singularity of a scene, connected with _trade_, should walk leisurely down the rue de robec. it is surely the oddest, and as some may think, the most repulsive scene imaginable: but who that has a rational curiosity could resist such a walk? here live the _dyers of clothes_--and in the middle of the street rushes the precipitous stream, called _l'eau de robec_[ ]--receiving colours of all hues. to-day it is nearly jet black: to-morrow it is bright scarlet: a third day it is blue, and a fourth day it is yellow! meanwhile it is partially concealed by little bridges, communicating with the manufactories, or with that side of the street where the work-people live: and the whole has a dismal and disagreeable aspect--especially in dirty weather: but if you go to one end of it (i think to the east--as it runs east and west) and look down upon the descending street, with the overhanging upper stories and roofs--the foreshortened, numerous bridges--the differently-coloured dyed clothes, suspended from the windows, or from poles--the constant motion of men, women, and children, running across the bridges--with the rapid, _camelion_ stream beneath--you cannot fail to acknowledge that this is one of the most singular, grotesque, and uncommon sights in the wonder-working city of rouen. i ought to tell you that the first famous cardinal d'amboise (of whom the preceding pages have made such frequent honourable mention) caused the _eau de robec_ to be directed through the streets of rouen, from its original channel or source in a little valley near _st. martin du vivien_. formerly there was a much more numerous clan of these "teinturiers" in the rue de robec--but they have of late sought more capacious premises in the fauxbourgs _de st. hilaire_ and _de martainville_. the neighbouring sister-stream, _l'eau d'aubette_, is destined to the same purposes as that of which i have been just discoursing; but i do not at this moment recollect whether it be also dignified, in its course, by turning a few corn mills, ere it empties itself into the seine. indeed the thundering noise of one of these mills, turned by the robec river, near the church of st. maclou, will not be easily forgotten. thus you see of what various, strange, and striking objects the city of rouen is composed. bustle, noise, life and activity, in the midst of an atmosphere unsullied by the fumes of sea coal:--hilarity and apparent contentment:--the spruce bourgeoise and the slattern fille de chambre:--attired in vestments of deep crimson and dark blue--every thing flits before you as if touched by magic, and as if sorrow and misfortune were unknown to the inhabitants. "paullò majora canamus." in other words, let us leave the town for the country. let us hurry through a few more narrow and crowded alleys, courts, and streets--and as the morning is yet beautiful, let us hasten onwards to enjoy the famous panorama of rouen and its environs from the mont ste. catharine.... indeed, my friend, i sincerely wish that you could have accompanied me to the summit of this enchanting eminence: but as you are far away, you must be content with a brief description of our little expedition thither.[ ] the mont ste. catharine, which is entirely chalk, is considered the highest of the hills in the immediate vicinity of rouen; or rather, perhaps, is considered the point of elevation from which the city is to be viewed to the greatest possible advantage. it lies to the left of the seine, in your way from the town; and the ascent begins considerably beyond the barriers. indeed it is on the route to paris. we took an excellent _fiacre_ to carry us to the beginning of the ascent, that our legs might be in proper order for scrambling up the acclivities immediately above; and leaving the main road to the right, we soon commenced our ambulatory operations in good earnest. but there was not much labour or much difficulty: so, halting, or standing, or sitting, on each little eminence, our admiration seemed to encrease--till, gaining the highest point, looking towards the west, we found ourselves immediately above the town and the whole of its environs.... "heavens, what a goodly prospect spread around!" the prospect was indeed "goodly--" being varied, extensive, fertile, and luxuriant ... in spite of a comparatively backward spring. the city was the main object, not only of attraction, but of astonishment. although the point from which we viewed it is considered to be exactly on a level with the summit of the spire of the cathedral, yet we seemed to be hanging, as it were, in the air, immediately over the streets themselves. we saw each church, each public edifice, and almost each street; nay, we began to think we could discover almost every individual stirring in them. the soldiers, exercising on the parade in the champ de mars, seemed to be scarcely two stones' throw from us; while the sounds of their music reached us in the most distinct and gratifying manner. no "diable boiteux" could ever have transported a "don cleophas léandro perez zambullo" to a more favourable situation for a knowledge of what was passing in a city; and if the houses had been unroofed, we could have almost discerned whether the _escrutoires_ were made of mahogany or walnut-wood! this wonder-working effect proceeds from the extraordinary clearness of the atmosphere, and the absence of sea-coal fume. the sky was perfectly blue--the generality of the roofs were also composed of blue slate: this, added to the incipient verdure of the boulevards, and the darker hues of the trunks of the trees, upon the surrounding hills--the lengthening forests to the left, and the numerous white "maisons de plaisance"[ ] to the right--while the seine, with its hundred vessels, immediately below, to the left, and in face of you--with its cultivated little islands--and the sweeping meadows or race-ground[ ] on the other side--all, or indeed any, of these objects could not fail to excite our warmest admiration, and to make us instinctively exclaim "that such a panorama was perfectly unrivalled!" we descended mont ste. catharine on the side facing the _hospice général_: a building of a very handsome form, and considerable dimensions. it is a noble establishment for foundlings, and the aged and infirm of both sexes. i was told that not fewer than twenty-five hundred human beings were sheltered in this asylum; a number, which equally astonished and delighted me. the descent, on this side the hill, is exceedingly pleasing; being composed of serpentine little walks, through occasional alleys of trees and shrubs, to the very base of the hill, not many hundred yards from the hospital. the architecture of this extensive building is more mixed than that of its neighbour the _hospice d'humanité_, on account of the different times in which portions of it were added: but, upon the whole, you are rather struck with its approach to what may be called magnificence of style. i was indeed pleased with the good order and even good breeding of its motley inhabitants. some were strolling quietly, with their arms behind them, between rows of trees:--others were tranquilly sitting upon benches: a third group would be in motion within the squares of the building: a fourth appeared in deep consultation whether the _potage_ of to day were not inferior to that of the preceding day?--"que cherchez vous, monsieur?" said a fine looking old man, touching, and half taking off, his cocked hat; "i wish to see the abbé turquier,"--rejoined i. "ah, il vient de sortir--par ici, monsieur." "thank you." "monsieur je vous souhaite le bon jour--au plaisir de vous revoir!" and thus i paced through the squares of this vast building. the "portier" had a countenance which our wilkie would have seized with avidity, and copied with inimitable spirit and fidelity. [ ] bourgueville describes this river, in the sixteenth century, as being "aucune fois iaulne, autrefois rouge, verte, bleüe, violée & autres couleurs, selon qu'vn grand nombre de teinturiers qui sont dessus, la diuersifient par interualles en faisant leurs maneures." _antiquitez de caen_, p. . [ ] _expedition thither_.]--when john evelyn visited this neighbourhood, in , "the country so abounded with _wolves_, that a shepherd, whom he met, told him that one of his companions was strangled by one of them the day before--and that, in the midst of the flock! the fields (continues he) are mostly planted with pears and apples and other cider fruits. it is plentifully furnished with quarries of stone and slate, and hath iron in abundance." _memoirs of the life and writings of john evelyn_, vol. i. p. . edit. . my friend mr. j. h. markland visited mont st. catharine the year after the visit above described. he was of course enchanted with the view; and told me, that a friend whom he met there, and who had travelled pretty much in italy, assured him there was nothing like it on the banks of either the _arno_ or the _po_. in short, it is quite peculiar to itself--and cannot be surpassed. [ ] it is thus prettily observed in the little _itineraire de rouen_ --"ces agréables maisons de plaisance appartiennent à des habitants de rouen qui y viennent en famille, dans la belle saison, se délasser des embarras de la ville et des fatigues du commerce." p. . [ ] _race-ground_]--when the english cavalry were quartered here in - , the officers were in the frequent habit of racing with each other. these races were gaily attended by the inhabitants; and i heard, from more than one mouth, the warmest commendations bestowed upon the fleetness of the coursers and the skill of the riders. letter viii. early typography at rouen. modern printers. chap books. booksellers. book collectors. now for a little gossip and chit-chat about _paper, ink, books, printing-offices_, and curiosities of a graphic description. perhaps the most regular method would be to speak of a few of the principal _presses_, before we take the _productions_ of these presses into consideration. and first, as to the antiquity of printing in rouen.[ ] the art of printing is supposed to have been introduced here, by a citizen of the name of maufer, between the years and . some of the specimens of rouen _missals_ and _breviaries_, especially of those by morin, who was the second printer in this city, are very splendid. his device, which is not common, and rather striking, is here enclosed for your gratification. [illustration] few provincial towns have been more fertile in typographical productions; and the reputation of talleur, gualtier, and valentin, gave great respectability to the press of rouen at the commencement of the sixteenth century. yet i am not able to ascertain whether these presses were very fruitful in romances, chronicles, and old poetry. i rather think, however, that they were not deficient in this popular class of literature, if i am to judge from the specimens which are yet lingering, as it were, in the hands of the curious. the gravity even of an archiepiscopal see could never repress the natural love of the french, from time immemorial, for light and fanciful reading. you know with what pertinacity i grope about old alleys, old courts, by-lanes, and unfrequented corners--in search of what is curious, or precious, or rare in the book way. but ere we touch that enchanting chord, let us proceed according to the plan laid down. first therefore for printing-offices. of these, the names of pÉriaux, (_imprimeur de l'academie_,) baudry, (_imprimeur du roi_) mÉgard, (_rue martainville_) and lecrene-labbey, (_imprimeur-libraire et marchand de papiers_) are masters of the principal presses; but such is the influence of paris, or of metropolitan fashions, that a publisher will sometimes prefer getting his work printed at the capital.[ ] of the foregoing printers, it behoves me to make some mention; and yet i can speak personally but of two: messieurs périaux and mégard. m. periaux is printer to the _académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de rouen_, of which academy, indeed, he is himself an accomplished member. he is quick, intelligent, well-bred, and obliging to the last degree; and may be considered the _henry stephen_ of the rouen printers. he urged me to call often: but i could visit him only twice. each time i found him in his counting house, with his cap on--shading his eyes: a pen in his right hand, and a proof sheet in his left. though he rejoiced at seeing me, i could discover (much to his praise) that, like aldus, he wished me to "say my saying quickly,"[ ] and to leave him to his _deles_ and _stets_! he has a great run of business, and lives in one of those strange, old-fashioned houses, in the form of a square, with an outside spiral staircase, so common in this extraordinary city. he introduced me to his son, an intelligent young man--well qualified to take the labouring oar, either upon the temporary or permanent retirement of his parent.[ ] of monsieur mÉgard, who may be called the ancient _jenson_, or the modern _bulmer_, of rouen, i can speak only in terms of praise--both as a civil gentleman and as a successful printer. he is doubtless the most elegant printer in this city; and being also a publisher, his business is very considerable. he makes his regular half yearly journeys among the neighbouring towns and villages, and as regularly brings home the fruits of his enterprise and industry. on my first visit, m. mégard was from home; but madame, "son épouse, l'attendoit à chaque moment!" there is a particular class of women among the french, which may be said to be singularly distinguished for their intelligence, civility, and good breeding. i mean the wives of the more respectable tradesmen. thus i found it, in addition to a hundred similar previous instances, with madame mégard. "mais monsieur, je vous prie de vous asseoir. que voulez vous?" "i wish to have a little conversation with your husband. i am an enthusiastic lover of the art of printing. i search every where for skilful printers, and thus it is that i come to pay my respects to monsieur mégard." we both sat down and conversed together; and i found in madame mégard a communicative, and well-instructed, representative of the said ancient jenson, or modern bulmer. "enfin, voilà mon mari qui arrive"--said madame, turning round, upon the opening of the door:--when i looked forward, and observed a stout man, rather above the middle size, with a countenance perfectly english--but accoutred in the dress of the _national guard_, with a grenadier cap on his head. madame saw my embarrassment: laughed: and in two minutes her husband knew the purport of my visit. he began by expressing his dislike of the military garb: but admitted the absolute necessity of adopting such a measure as that of embodying a national guard. "soyez le bien venu; ma foi, je ne suis que trop sensible, monsieur, de l'honneur que vous me faites--vû que vous êtes antiquaire typographique, et que vous avez publié des ouvrages relatifs à notre art. mais ce n'est pas ici qu'il faut en chercher de belles épreuves. c'est à paris." i parried this delicate thrust by observing that i was well acquainted with the fine productions of _didot_, and had also seen the less aspiring ones of himself; of which indeed i had reason to think his townsmen might be proud. this i spoke with the utmost sincerity. my first visit concluded with two elegant little book-presents, on the part of m. megard--one being _heures de rouen, à l'usage du diocese_, , mo. and the other _etrennes nouvelles commodes et utiles_; , mo.--the former bound in green morocco; and the latter in calf, with gilt leaves, but printed on a sort of apricot-tinted paper--producing no unpleasing effect. both are exceedingly well executed. my visits to m. mégard were rather frequent. he has a son at the collége royale, or lycée, whither i accompanied him, one sunday morning, and took the church of that establishment in the way. it is built entirely in the italian style of architecture: is exceedingly spacious: has a fine organ, and is numerously attended. the pictures i saw in it, although by no means of first-rate merit, quite convince me that it is in churches of _roman_, and not of _gothic_ architecture, that paintings produce the most harmonious effect. this college and church form a noble establishment, situated in one of the most commanding eminences of the town. from some parts of it, the flying buttresses of the nave of the abbey of st. ouen, with the seine at a short distance, surmounted by the hills and woods of canteleu as a back ground, are seen in the most gloriously picturesque manner. but the printer who does the most business--or rather whose business lies in the lower department of the art, in bringing forth what are called _chap books_--is lecrene-labbey--_imprimeur-libraire et marchand de papiers_. the very title imports a sort of _dan newberry's_ repository. i believe however that lecrêne-labbey's business is much diminished. he once lived in the _rue de la grosse-horloge_, no. : but at present carries on trade in one of the out-skirting streets of the town. i was told that the premises he now occupies were once an old church or monastery, and that a thousand fluttering sheets are now suspended, where formerly was seen the solemn procession of silken banners, with religious emblems, emblazoned in colours of all hues. i called at the old shop, and supplied myself with a dingy copy of the _catalogue de la bibliothéque bleue_--from which catalogue however i could purchase but little; as the greater part of the old books, several of the _caxtonian stamp_, had taken their departures. it was from this catalogue that i learnt the precise character of the works destined for common reading; and from hence inferred, what i stated to you a little time ago, that _romances, rondelays_, and chivalrous stories, are yet read with pleasure by the good people of france. it is, in short, from this lower, or _lowest_ species of literature--if it must be so designated--that we gather the real genius, or mental character of the ordinary classes of society. i do assure you that some of these _chap_ publications are singularly droll and curious. even the very rudiments of learning, or the mere alphabet-book, meets the eye in a very imposing manner--as in the following facsimile. [illustration] _love, marriage_, and _confession_, are fertile themes in these little farthing chap books. yonder sits a fille de chambre, after her work is done. she is intent upon some little manual, taken from the _bibliothèque bleue_. approach her, and ask her for a sight of it. she smiles, and readily shews you _catéchisme à l'usage des grandes filles pour être mariées; ensemble la manière d'attirer les amans_. at the first glance of it, you suppose that this is entirely, from beginning to end, a wild and probably somewhat indecorous manual of instruction. by no means; for read the _litanies_ and _prayer_ with which it concludes, and which i here send; admitting that they exhibit a strange mixture of the simple and the serious. litanies. _pour toutes les filles qui désirent entrer en menage_. _kyrie,_ je voudrois, _christe_, être mariée. _kyrie_, je prie tous les saints, _christe_, que ce soin demain. _sainte marie_, tout le monde se marie. _saint joseph_, que vous ai-je fait? _saint nicolas_, ne m'oubliez pas. _saint médérie_, que j'aie un bon mari. _saint matthieu_, qu'il craigne dieu. _saint jean_, qu'il m'aime tendrement. _saint bruno_, qu'il soit juli & beau. _saint francois_, qu'il me soit fidele. _saint andré_, qu'il soit à mon gré. _saint didier_, qu'il aime à travailler. _saint honoré_, qu'il n'aime pas à jouer. _saint severin_, qu'il n'aime pas le vin. _saint clément_, qu'il soit diligent. _saint sauveur_, qu'il ait bon coeur. _saint nicaise_, que je sois à mon aise. _saint josse_, qu'il me donne un carrosse. _saint boniface_, que mon mariage se fasse, _saint augustin_, dès demain matin. oraison. seigneur, qui avez formé adam de la terre, et qui lui avez donné eve pour sa compagne; envoyez-moi, s'il vous plait, un bon mari pour compagnon, non pour la volupté, mais pour vous honorer & avoir des enfants qui vous bénissent. ainsi soit il. among the books of this class, before alluded to, i purchased a singularly amusing little manual called "_la confession de la bonne femme_." it is really not divested of merit. whether however it may not have been written during the revolution, with a view to ridicule the practice of auricular confession which yet obtains throughout france, i cannot take upon me to pronounce; but there are undoubtedly some portions of it which seem so obviously to satirise this practice, that one can hardly help drawing a conclusion in the affirmative. on the other hand it may perhaps be inferred, with greater probability, that it is intended to shew with what extreme facility a system of _self-deception_ may be maintained.[ ] referring however to the little manual in question, among the various choice morceaus which it contains, take the following extracts: exemplificatory of a woman's _evading the main points of confession_. _confesseur_. ne voulez vous pas me répondre; en un mot, combien y a-t-il de temps que vous ne vous êtes confessée? _la pénitente._ il y a un mois tout juste, car c'étoit le quatrième jour du mois passé, & nous sommes au cinquième du mois courant; or comptez, mon pere, & vous trouverez justement que ... c. c'est assez, ne parlez point tant, & dites moi en peu de mots vos péchés. _elle raconte les péchés d'autrui._ _la pénitente_. j'ai un enfant qui est le plus méchant garçon que vous ayez jamais vu: il jure, bat sa soeur, il fuit l'école, dérobe tout ce qu'il peut pour jouer; il suit de méchans fripons: l'autre jour en courant il perdit son chapeau. enfin, c'est un méchant garçon, je veux vous l'amener afin que vous me l'endoctriniez un peu s'il vous plaît. c. dites-moi vos péchés. p. mais, mon père, j'ai une fille qui est encore pire. je ne la peux faire lever le matin: je l'appelle cent fois: _marguerite: plait-il ma mere? lève-toi promptement et descends: j'y vais_. elle ne bouge pas. _si tu ne viens maintenant, tu seras battue._ elle s'en moque. quand je l'envoie à la ville, je lui dis _reviens promptement, ne t'amuse pas_. cependant, elle s'arrête à toutes les portes comme l'âne d'un meûnier, elle babille avec tous ceux qu'elle rencontre; & quand elle me fait cela, je la bats: ne fais-je pas bien, mon père? c. dites-moi _vos_ péchés et non pas ceux de _vos enfans_. p. il se trouve, mon père, que nous avons dans notre rue une voisine qui est la plus méchante de toutes les femmes: elle jure, elle querelle tous ceux qui passent, personne ne la peut souffrir, ni son mari, ni ses enfans, & bien souvent elle s'enivre, & vous me dites, mon père, quelle est celle-la? c'est ... c. ah gardez-vous bien de la nommer; car à la confession il ne faut jamais fair connoitre les personnes dont vous déclarez les péchés. p. c'est elle qui vient se confesser après moi: grondez-la bien, car vous ne lui en sauriez trop dire. c. taisez-vous donc, & ne parlez que de _vos_ péchés, non pas de ceux _des autres_. _elle s'accuse de ce qui n'est point péché._ _pénitente_.--ah! mon père, j'ai fait un grand péché, ah! le grand péché! hélas je serai damnée, quoique mon confesseur m'ait defendu de le dire j'amais, néanmoins mon père je vais vous le declarer. c. ne le dites point, puisque votre confesseur vous l'a defendu, je ne veux point l'entendre. p. ah! n'importe; je veux vous le dire, c'est un trop grand péché: j'ai battu ma mère. c. vous avez battu votre mère! ah! misérable, c'est un cas réservé & un crime qui mérite la potence. et quand l'avez-vous battue? p. quand j'étois petite de l'âge de quatre ans. c. ah! simple, ne savez-vous pas que tout ce que les enfans font avant l'âge de raison, qui est environ l'âge de sept ans, ne sauroit être un péché. there is however one thing, which i must frankly declare to you as entitled to distinct notice and especial commendation. it is, the method of teaching "catechisms" of a different and higher order: i mean the church catechisms. both the cathedral and the abbey of st. ouen have numerous side chapels. within these side chapels are collected, on stated days of the week, the young of both sexes. they are arranged in a circle. a priest, in his white robes, is seated, or stands, in the centre of them. he examines, questions, corrects, or commends, as the opportunity calls for it. his manner is winning and persuasive. his action is admirable. the lads shew him great respect, and are rarely rude, or seen to laugh. those who answer well, and pay the greater attention, receive, with words of commendation, gentle pats upon the head--and i could not but consider the blush, with which this mark of favour was usually received, as so many presages of future excellence in the youth. i once witnessed a most determined catechetical lecture of girls; who might be called, in the language of their matrimonial catechism, "de grandes filles." it was on an evening, in the chapel of our lady in st. ouen's abbey, that this examination took place. two elderly priests attended. the responses of the females were as quick as they were correct; the eye being always invariably fixed on the pavement, accompanied with a gravity and even piety of expression. a large group of mothers, with numerous spectators, were in attendance. a question was put, to which a supposed incorrect response was given. it was repeated, and the same answer followed. the priest hesitated: something like vexation was kindling in his cheek, while the utmost calmness and confidence seemed to mark the countenance of the examinant. the attendant mothers were struck with surprise. a silence for one minute ensued. the question related to the "holy spirit." the priest gently approached the girl, and softly articulated--"mais, ma chère considerez un peu,"--and repeated the question. "mon pere, (yet more softly, rejoined the pupil) j'ai bien considerée, et je crois que c'est comme je vous l'ai déjà dit." the priest crossed his hands upon his breast ... brought down his eyebrows in a thoughtful mood ... and turning quickly round to the girl, addressed her in the most affectionate tone of voice--"ma petite,--tu as bien dit; et j'avois tort." the conduct of the girl was admirable: she curtsied, blushed... and with eyes, from which tears seemed ready to start, surveyed the circle of spectators ... caught the approving glance of her mother, and sunk triumphantly upon her chair--with the united admiration of teachers, companions, parents and spectators! the whole was conducted with the most perfect propriety; and the pastors did not withdraw till they were fairly exhausted. a love of truth obliges me to confess that this reciprocity of zeal, on the part of master and pupil, is equally creditable to both parties; and especially serviceable to the cause of religion and morality. let me here make honourable mention of the kind offices of _monsieur longchamp_, who volunteered his friendly services in walking over half the town with me, to shew me what he justly considered as the most worthy of observation. it is impossible for a generous mind to refuse its testimony to the ever prompt kindness of a well-bred frenchman, in rendering you all the services in his power. enquire the way,--and you have not only a finger quickly pointing to it, but the owner of the finger must also put himself in motion to accompany you a short distance upon the route, and that too uncovered! "mais, monsieur, mettez votre chapeau ... je vous en prie ... mille pardons." "monsieur ne dites pas un seul mot ... pour mon chapeau, qu'il reste à son aise." among book-collectors, antiquaries, and men of taste, let me speak with becoming praise of the amiable and accomplished m. auguste le prevost--who is considered, by competent judges, to be the best antiquary in rouen.[ ] mr. dawson turner, (a name, in our own country, synonymous with all that is liberal and enlightened in matters of virtù) was so obliging as to give me a letter of introduction to him; and he shewed me several rare and splendid works, which were deserving of the commendations that they received from their owner. m. le prevost very justly discredits any remains of roman masonry at rouen; but he will not be displeased to see that the only existing relics of the castle or town walls, have been copied by the pencil of a late travelling friend. what you here behold is probably of the fourteenth century. [illustration] the next book-collector in commendation of whom i am bound to speak, is monsieur duputel; a member, as well as m. le prevost, of the _academy of belles-lettres_ at rouen. the abbé turquier conducted me thither; and i found, in the owner of a choice collection of books, a well-bred gentleman, and a most hearty bibliomaniac. he has comparatively a small library; but, withal, some very curious, scarce, and interesting volumes. m. duputel is smitten with that amiable passion,--the love of printing for _private distribution_--thus meriting to become a sort of roxburghe associate. he was so good as to beg my acceptance of the "nouvelle édition" of his "_bagatelles poétiques,"_ printed in an octavo volume of about pages, at rouen, in . on taking it home, i discovered the following not infelicitous version of our prior's beautiful little poem of _the garland_. _la guirlande_. _traduction de l'anglais de prior_. pour orner de chloé les cheveux ondoyans, parmi les fleurs nouvellement écloses j'avais choisi les lis les plus brillans, les oeillets les plus beaux, et les plus fraîches roses. ma chloé sur son front les plaça la matin: alors on vit céder sans peine, leur vif éclat à celui de son teint, leur doux parfum à ceux de son haleine. de ses attraits ces fleurs paraissaient s'embellir, et sur ses blonds cheveux les bergers, les bergères les voyaient se faner avec plus de plaisir qu'ils ne les voyaient naître au milieu des parterres. mais, le soir, quand leur sein flétri eut cessé d'exhaler son odeur séduisante, elle fixa, d'un regard attendri, cette guirlande, hélas! n'aguères si brillante. des larmes aussi-tôt coulent de ses beaux yeux. que d'éloquence dans ces larmes! jamais pour l'exprimer, le langage des dieux, tout sublime qu'il est, n'aurait assez de charmes. en feignant d'ignorer ce tendre sentiment; "pourquoi," lui dis-je, "ô ma sensible amie, pourquoi verser des pleurs? et par quel changement abandonner ton ame à la melancholie?" "vois-tu comme ces fleurs languissent tristement?" me dit, en soupirant, ce moraliste aimable, "de leur fraîcheur, en un moment, s'est éclipsé le charme peu durable. tel est, hélas! notre destin; fleur de beauté ressemble à celles des prairies; on les voit toutes deux naître avec le matin, et dès le soir être flétries. estelle hier encor brillait dans nos hameaux, et l'amour attirait les bergers sur ses traces; de la mort, aujourd'hui, i'impitoyable faulx a moissonné sa jeunesse et ses graces. soumise aux mêmes lois, peut-être que demain, comme elle aussi, damon, j'aurai cessé de vivre.... consacre dans tes vers la cause du chagrin auquel ton amante se livre." p. . the last and not the least of book-collectors, which i have had an opportunity of visiting, is monsieur riaux. with respect to what may be called a rouennoise library, that of m. riaux is greatly preferable to any which i have seen; although i am not sure whether m. le prevost's collection contain not nearly as many books. m. riaux is himself a man of first-rate book enthusiasm; and unites the avocations of his business with the gratification of his literary appetites, in a manner which does him infinite honour. a city like rouen should have a host of such inhabitants; and the government, when it begins to breathe a little from recent embarrassments, will, i hope, cherish and support that finest of all patriotic feelings,--a desire to preserve the relics, manners, and customs of past ages. normandy is fertile beyond conception in objects which may gratify the most unbounded passion in this pursuit. it is the country where formerly the harp of the minstrel poured forth some of its sweetest strains; and the lay and the fabliaux of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which delight us in the text of sainte palaye, and in the versions of way, owed their existence to the combined spirit of chivalry and literature, which never slumbered upon the shores of normandy. farewell now to rouen.[ ] i have told you all the tellings which i thought worthy of communication. i have endeavoured to make you saunter with me in the streets, in the cathedral, the abbey, and the churches. we have, in imagination at least, strolled together along the quays, visited the halls and public buildings, and gazed with rapture from mont ste. catharine upon the enchanting view of the city, the river, and the neighbouring hills. we have from thence breathed almost the pure air of heaven, and surveyed a country equally beautified by art, and blessed by nature. our hearts, from that same height, have wished all manner of health, wealth, and prosperity, to a land thus abounding in corn and wine, and oil and gladness. we have silently, but sincerely prayed, that swords may for ever be "turned into plough-shares, and spears into pruning-hooks:"--that all heart-burnings, antipathies, and animosities, may be eternally extinguished; and that, from henceforth, there may be no national rivalries but such as tend to establish, upon a firmer footing, and upon a more comprehensive scale, the peace and happiness of fellow-creatures, of whatever persuasion they may be:--of such, who sedulously cultivate the arts of individual and of national improvement, and blend the duties of social order with the higher calls of morality and religion. ah! my friend, these are neither foolish thoughts nor romantic wishes. they arise naturally in an honest heart, which, seeing that all creation is animated and upheld by one and the same power, cannot but ardently hope that all may be equally benefited by a reliance upon its goodness and bounty. from this eminence we have descended somewhat into humbler walks. we have visited hospitals, strolled in flower-gardens, and associated with publishers and collectors of works--both of the dead and of the living. so now, fare you well. commend me to your family and to our common friends,--especially to the gorburghers should they perchance enquire after their wandering vice president. many will be the days passed over, and many the leagues traversed, ere i meet them again. within twenty-four hours my back will be more decidedly turned upon "dear old england"--for that country, in which her ancient kings once held dominion, and where every square mile (i had almost said _acre_) is equally interesting to the antiquary and the agriculturist. i salute you wholly, and am yours ever. [ ] the reader may possibly not object to consult two or three pages of the _bibliographical decameron_, beginning at page , vol. ii. respecting a few of the early rouen printers. the name of maufer, however, appears in a fine large folio volume, entitled _gaietanus de tienis vincentini in quatt. aristot. metheor. libros_, of the date of --in the possession of earl spencer. see _Æd. althorp_. vol. ii. p. . from the colophon of which we can only infer that maufer was a _citizen of rouen_. [according to m. licquet, the first book printed at rouen--a book of the greatest rarity--was entitled _les croniques de normandie, par guillaume le talleur_, , folio.] [ ] [since the publication of the first edition of this tour, i have had _particular_ reason to become further acquainted with the partiality of the rouennois for parisian printing. when m. licquet did me the honour to translate my ixth letter, subjoining notes, (which cut their own throats instead of that of the author annotated upon) he employed the press of mons. crapelet, at paris: a press, as eminently distinguished for its beauty and accuracy, as its director has proved himself to be for his narrow-mindedness and acrimony of feeling. m.l. (as i learnt from a friend who conversed with him, and as indeed i naturally expected) seemed to be sorry for what he had done.] [ ] _like aldus, "say my saying" quickly_.] consult mr. roscoe's _life of leo x._ vol. i. p. - , vo. edit. unger, in his life of aldus, _edit. geret._ p. xxxxii. has a pleasant notice of an inscription, to the same effect, put over the door of his printing-office by aldus. [it has been quoted to satiety, and i therefore omit it here.] [ ] [mons. périaux has lately published a dictionary of the streets of rouen, in alphabetical order; in two small, unostentatious, and useful octavo volumes.] [ ] [mons. licquet translates the latter part of the above passage thus:--"avec quelle facilité nous parvenons à nous abuser nous-mêmes,"--adding, in a note, as follows: "j'avais d'abord vu un tout autre sens dans la phrase anglaise. si celui que j'adopte n'était pas encore le veritable, j'en demande sincèrement pardon à l'auteur." in turn, i may not be precisely informed of the meaning and force of the verb "_abuser_"--used by my translator: but i had been better satisfied with the verb _tromper_--as more closely conveying the sense of the original.] [ ] m. le prevost is a belles-lettres antiquary of the highest order. his "mémoire faisant suite à l'essai sur les romans historiques du moyen âge" may teach modern normans not to despair when death shall have laid low their present oracle the abbe de la rue. [i am proud, in this second edition of my tour, to record the uninterrupted correspondence and friendship of this distinguished individual; and i can only regret, in common with several friends, that m. le prevost will not summon courage sufficient to visit a country, once in such close connexion with his own, where a hearty reception has long awaited him.] [ ] [the omission, in this place, of the entire ixth letter, relating to the public library at rouen, must be accounted for, and it is hoped, approved, on the principle laid down at the outset of this undertaking; namely, to omit much that was purely bibliographical, and of a secondary interest to the general reader. the bibliography, in the original ixth letter, being of a partial and comparatively dry description--as relating almost entirely to ancient volumes of church rituals--was thought to be better omitted than abridged. another reason might be successfully urged for its omission. this ixth letter, which comprehends pages in the previous impression, and about pages in the version, having been translated and _separately_ published in , by mons. licquet (who succeeded m. gourdin as principal librarian of the library in question) i had bestowed upon it particular attention, and entered into several points by way of answer to his remarks, and in justification or explanation of the original matter. in consequence, any _abridgement_ of that original matter must have led to constant notice of the minute remarks, and pigmy attacks, of my critical translator: and the stream of intelligence in the text might have been diverted, or rendered unpalatable, by the observations, in the way of controversy, in the notes. if m. licquet considers this avowal as the proclaiming of his triumph, he is welcome to the laurels of a conqueror; but if he can persuade any common friends that, in the translation here referred to, he has defeated the original author in one essential position--or corrected him in one flagrant inaccuracy--i shall be as prompt to thank him for his labours, as i am now to express my astonishment and pity at his undertaking. when m. licquet put forth the brochure in question--(so splendidly executed in the press of m. crapelet--to harmonise, in all respects, with the large paper copies of the original english text) he had but recently occupied the seat of his predecessor. i can commend the zeal of the newly-appointed librarian in chief; but must be permitted to question alike his judgment and his motives. one more brief remark in this place. my translator should seem to commend what is only laudatory, in the original author, respecting his countrymen. sensitively alive to the notice of their smallest defects, he has the most unbounded powers of digestion for that of their excellences. thus, at the foot of the above passage, in the text, mons. licquet is pleased to add as follows--in a note: "si m. dibdin ne s'était livré qu'à des digressions de cette nature, il aurait trouvé en france un chorus universel, un concert de voeux unanimes:" vol. i. p. . and yet few travellers have experienced a more cordial reception, and maintained a more _harmonious_ intercourse, than he, who, from the foregoing quotation, is more than indirectly supposed to have provoked opposition and _discord!_] letter ix. departure from rouen. st. george de boscherville. duclair. marivaux. the abbey of jumieges. arrival at caudebec. _may_, . my dear friend. in spite of all its grotesque beauties and antiquarian attractions, the city of rouen must be quitted--and i am about to pursue my route more in the character of an independent traveller. no more _diligence_, or _conducteur_. i have hired a decent cabriolet, a decent pair of horses, and a yet more promising postilion: and have already made a delightfully rural migration. adieu therefore to dark avenues, gloomy courts, overhanging roofs, narrow streets, cracking whips, the never-ceasing noise of carts and carriages, and never-ending movements of countless masses of population:--adieu!--and in their stead, welcome be the winding road, the fertile meadow, the thickly-planted orchard, and the broad and sweeping seine! accordingly, on the th of this month, between the hours of ten and eleven, a.m. the rattling of horses' hoofs, and the echoes of a postilion's whip, were heard within the court-yard of the _hôtel vatel_. monsieur, madame, jacques--and the whole fraternity of domestics, were on the alert--"pour faire les adieux à messieurs les anglois." this jacques deserves somewhat of a particular notice. he is the prime minister of the hôtel vatel.[ ] a somewhat _uncomfortable_ detention in england for five years, in the character of "prisoner of war," has made him master of a pretty quick and ready utterance of common-place phrases in our language; and he is not a little proud of his attainments therein. seriously speaking, i consider him quite a phenomenon in his way; and it is right you should know that he affords a very fair specimen of a sharp, clever, french servant. his bodily movements are nearly as quick as those of his tongue. he rises, as well as his brethren, by five in the morning; and the testimonies of this early activity are quickly discovered in the unceasing noise of beating coats, singing french airs, and scolding the boot-boy. he rarely retires to rest before mid-night; and the whole day long he is in one eternal round of occupation. when he is bordering upon impertinence, he seems to be conscious of it--declaring that "the english make him saucy, but that naturally he is very civil." he always speaks of human beings in the _neuter_ gender; and to a question whether such a one has been at the hotel, he replies, "i have not seen _it_ to-day." i am persuaded he is a thoroughly honest creature; and considering the pains which are taken to spoil him, it is surprising with what good sense and propriety he conducts himself. about eleven o'clock, we sprung forward, at a smart trot, towards the barriers by which we had entered rouen. our postilion was a thorough master of his calling, and his spurs and whip seemed to know no cessation from action. the steeds, perfectly norman, were somewhat fiery; and we rattled along the streets, (for the _chaussé_ never causes the least abatement of pace with the french driver) in high expectation of seeing a thousand rare sights ere we reached havre--equally the limits of our journey, and of our contract with the owner of the cabriolet. that accomplished antiquary m. le prevost, whose name you have often heard, had furnished me with so dainty a bill of fare, or carte de voyage; that i began to consider each hour lost which did not bring us in contact with some architectural relic of antiquity, or some elevated position--whence the wandering seine and wooded heights of the adjacent country might be surveyed with equal advantage. you have often, i make no doubt, my dear friend, started upon something like a similar expedition:--when the morning has been fair, the sun bright, the breeze gentle, and the atmosphere clear. in such moments how the ardour of hope takes possession of one!--how the heart warms, and the conversation flows! the barriers are approached; we turn to the left, and commence our journey in good earnest. previously to gaining the first considerable height, you pass the village of _bapeaume_. this village is exceedingly picturesque. it is studded with water-mills, and is enlivened by a rapid rivulet, which empties itself, in a serpentine direction, into the seine. you now begin to ascend a very commanding eminence; at the top of which are scattered some of those country houses which are seen from mont ste. catharine. the road is of a noble breadth. the day warmed; and dismounting, we let our steeds breathe freely, as we continued to ascend leisurely. our first halting-place, according to the instructions of m. le prevost, was _st. george de boscherville_; an ancient abbey established in the twelfth century, this abbey is situated about three french leagues from rouen. our route thither, from the summit of the hill which we had just ascended, lay along a road skirted by interminable orchards now in full bloom. the air was perfumed to excess by the fragrance of these blossoms. the apple and pear were beautifully conspicuous; and as the sky became still more serene, and the temperature yet more mild by the unobstructed sun beam, it is impossible to conceive any thing more balmy and genial than was this lovely day. the minutes seemed to fly away too quickly--when we reached the village of _boscherville_; where stands the church; the chief remaining relic of this once beautiful abbey. we surveyed the west front very leisurely, and thought it an extremely beautiful specimen of the architecture of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; for certainly there are some portions more ancient than others. a survey of the chapter-house filled me with mingled sorrow and delight: sorrow, that the revolution and a modern cotton manufactory had metamorphosed it from its original character; and delight, that the portions which remained were of such beautiful forms, and in such fine preservation. the stone, being of a very close-grained quality, is absolutely as white and sound as if it had been just cut from the quarry. the room, where a parcel of bare-legged girls and boys were working the respective machineries, had a roof of the most delicate construction.[ ] the very sound of a _monastery_ made me curious to examine the disposition of the building. accordingly, i followed my guide through suites of apartments, up divers stone stair-cases, and along sundry corridors. i noticed the dormitories with due attention, and of course inquired eagerly for the library:--but the shelves only remained--either the fear or the fury of the revolution having long ago dispossessed it of every thing in the shape of a _book_. the whole was painted white. i counted eleven perpendicular divisions; and, from the small distances between the upper shelves, there must have been a very considerable number of _duodecimos_. the titles of the respective classes of the library were painted in white letters upon a dark-blue ground, at top. _bibles_ occupied the first division, and the _fathers_ the second: but it should seem that equal importance was attached to the works of _heretics_ as to those called _litterae humaniores_--for each had a division of equal magnitude. on looking out of window, especially from the back part of the building, the eye rests entirely upon what had once been fruitful orchards, abundant kitchen gardens, and shady avenues. yet in england, this spot, rich by nature, and desirable from its proximity to a great city, would, ere forty moons had waned, have grown up into beauty and fertility, and expanded into luxuriance of condition. the day was now, if possible, more lovely than before. on looking at my instructions i found that we had to stop to examine the remains of an old castle at _delafontaine_--about two english miles from _st. george de boscherville_. these remains, however, are but the fragments of a ruin, if i may so speak; yet they are interesting, but somewhat perilous: for a few broken portions of a wall support an upper chamber, where appears a stone chimney-piece of very curious construction and ornament. on observing a large cavity or loop-hole, about half way up the outer wall, i gained it by means of a plentiful growth of ivy, and from thence surveyed the landscape before me. here, having for some time past lost sight of the seine, i caught a fine bold view of the sweep of that majestic river, now becoming broader and broader--while, to the left, softly tinted by distance, appeared the beautiful old church we had just quitted: the verdure of the hedges, shrubs, and forest trees, affording a rich variety to the ruddy blossoms of the apple, and the white bloom of the pear. i admit, however, that this delicious morceau of landscape was greatly indebted, for its enchanting effect, to the blue splendour of the sky, and the soft temperature of the air; while the fragrance of every distended blossom added much to the gratification of the beholder. but it is time to descend from this elevation; and to think of reaching duclair. duclair is situated close to the very borders of the seine, which has now an absolute lake-like appearance. we stopped at the auberge to rest our horses; and i commenced a discourse with the master of the inn and his daughter; the latter, a very respectable-looking and well-behaved young woman of about twenty-two years of age. she was preparing a large crackling wood-fire to dress a fish called the _alose_, for the passengers of the _diligence_--who were expected within half an hour. the french think they can never _butter_ their victuals sufficiently; and it would have produced a spasmodic affection in a thoroughly bilious spectator, could he have seen the enormous piece of butter which this active young _cuisinière_ thought necessary to put into the pot in which the '_alose_' was to be boiled. she laughed at the surprise i expressed; and added "qu'on ne peut rien faire dans la cuisine sans le beurre." you ought to know, by the by, that the _alose_, something like our _mackerel_ in flavour, is a large and delicious fish; and that we were always anxious to bespeak it at the table-d'hôte at rouen. extricated from the lake of butter in which it floats, when brought upon table, it forms not only a rich, but a very substantial dish. i took a chair and sat in the open air, by the side of the door--enjoying the breeze, and much disposed to gossip with the master of the place. perceiving this, the landlord approached, and addressed me with a pleasant degree of familiarity. "you are from london, then, sir?" "i am." "ah sir, i never think of london but with the most painful sensations." "how so?" "sir, i am the sole heir of a rich banker who died in that city before the revolution. he was in partnership with an english gentleman. can you possibly advise and assist me upon the subject?" i told him that my advice and assistance were literally not worth a sous; but that, such as they were, he was perfectly welcome to both. "your daughter sir, is not married?"--"non, monsieur, elle n'est pas encore épousée: mais je lui dis qu'elle ne sera jamais _heureuse_ avant qu'elle le soit." the daughter, who had overheard the conversation, came forward, and looking archly over her shoulder, replied--"ou _malheureuse_, mon père!" a sort of truism, expressed by her with singular epigrammatic force, to which there was no making any reply. do you remember, my dear friend; that exceedingly cold winter's night, when, for lack of other book-entertainment, we took it into our heads to have a rummage among the _scriptores historiae normannorum_ of duchesne?--and finding therein many pages occupied by _gulielmus gemeticensis_, we bethought ourselves that we would have recourse to the valuable folio volume yeleped _neustria pia_:--where we presently seemed to hold converse with the ancient founders and royal benefactors of certain venerable establishments! i then little imagined that it would ever fall to my lot to be either walking or musing within the precincts of the abbey of jumieges;--or rather, of the ruins of what was once not less distinguished, as a school of learning, than admired for its wealth and celebrity as a monastic establishment. yes, my friend, i have seen and visited the ruins of this abbey; and i seem to live "mihi carior" in consequence. but i know your love of method--and that you will be in wrath if i skip from _duclair_ to jumieges ere the horses have carried us a quarter of a league upon the route. to the left of _duclair_, and also washed by the waters of the seine, stands _marivaux_; a most picturesque and highly cultivated spot. and across the seine, a little lower down, is the beautiful domain of _la mailleraye_;--where are hanging gardens, and jets d'eaux, and flower-woven arbours, and daisy-sprinkled meadows--for there lives and occasionally revels _la marquise_.... i might have been not only a spectator of her splendor, but a participator of her hospitality; for my often-mentioned valuable friend, m. le prevost, volunteered me a letter of introduction to her. what was to be done? one cannot be everywhere in one day, or in one journey:--so, gravely balancing the ruins of still life against the attractions of animated society, i was unchivalrous enough to prefer the former--and working myself up into a sort of fantasy, of witnessing the spectered forms of dagobert and clovis, (the fabled founders of the abbey) i resolutely turned my back upon _la mailleraye_, and as steadily looked forwards to jumieges. we ascended very sensibly--then striking into a sort of bye-road, were told that we should quickly reach the place of our destination. a fractured capital, and broken shaft, of the late norman time, left at random beneath a hedge, seemed to bespeak the vicinity of the abbey. we then gained a height; whence, looking straight forward, we caught the first glance of the spires, or rather of the west end towers, of the abbey of jumieges.[ ] "la voilà, monsieur,"--exclaimed the postilion--increasing his speed and multiplying the nourishes of his whip--"voilà la belle abbaye!" we approached and entered the village of jumieges. leaving some neat houses to the right and left, we drove to a snug auberge, evidently a portion of some of the outer buildings, or of the chapter-house, attached to the abbey. a large gothic roof, and central pillar, upon entering, attest the ancient character of the place.[ ] the whole struck us as having been formerly of very great dimensions. it was a glorious sun-shiny afternoon, and the villagers quickly crowded round the cabriolet. "voilà messieurs les anglois, qui viennent voir l'abbaye--mais effectivement il n'y a rien à voir." i told the landlady the object of our visit. she procured us a guide and a key: and within five minutes we entered the nave of the abbey. i can never forget that entrance. the interior, it is true, has not the magical effect, or that sort of artificial burst, which attends the first view of _tintern_ abbey: but, as the ruin is larger, there is necessarily more to attract attention. like tintern also, it is unroofed--yet this unroofing has proceeded from a different cause: of which presently. the side aisles present you with a short flattened arch: the nave has none: but you observe a long pilaster-like, or alto-rilievo column, of slender dimensions, running from bottom to top, with a sort of roman capital. the arched cieling and roof are entirely gone. we proceeded towards the eastern extremity, and saw more frightful ravages both of time and of accident. the latter however had triumphed over the former: but for _accident_ you must read _revolution_. the day had been rather oppressive for a may morning; and we were getting far into the afternoon, when clouds began to gather, and the sun became occasionally obscured. we seated ourselves upon a grassy hillock, and began to prepare for dinner. to the left of us lay a huge pile of fragments of pillars and groinings of arches--the effects of recent havoc: to the right, within three yards, was the very spot in which the celebrated agnes sorel, mistress of charles vii, lay entombed:[ ]--not a relic of mausoleum now marking the place where, formerly, the sculptor had exhibited the choicest efforts of his art, and the devotee had repaired to breathe a prayer for her soul--and pass on! what a contrast to the present aspect of things!--to the mixed rubbish and wild flowers with which every spot is now well nigh covered! the mistress of the inn having furnished us with napkins and tumblers, we partook of our dinner, surrounded by the objects just described, with no ordinary sensations. the air now became oppressive; when, looking through the few remaining unglazed mullions of the windows, i observed that the clouds grew blacker and blacker, while a faint rumbling of thunder reached our ears. the sun however yet shone gaily, although partially; and as the storm neared us, it floated as it were round the abbey, affording--by means of its purple, dark colour, contrasted with the pale tint of the walls,--one of the most beautiful painter-like effects imaginable. in an instant almost--and as if touched by the wand of a mighty necromancer--the whole scene became metamorphosed. the thunder growled, but only growled; and the threatening phalanx of sulphur-charged clouds rolled away, and melted into the quiet uniform tint which usually precedes sun-set. dinner being dispatched, i rose to make a thorough examination of the ruins which had survived ... not only the revolution, but the cupidity of the present owner of the soil--who is a _rich_ man, living at rouen--and who loves to dispose of any portion of the stone, whether standing or prostrate, for the sake of the lucre, however trifling, which arises from the sale. surely the whole corporation of the city of rouen, with the mayor at their head, ought to stand between this ruthless, rich man, and the abbey--the victim of his brutal avarice and want of taste.[ ] the situation of the abbey is delightful. it lies at the bottom of some gently undulating hills, within two or three hundred yards of the seine. the river here runs gently, in a serpentine direction, at the foot of wood-covered hills--and all seemed, from our elevated station, indicative of fruitfulness, of gaiety, and of prosperity,--all--save the mournful and magnificent remains of the venerable abbey whereon we gazed! in fact, this abbey exists only as a shell. i descended, strolled about the village, and mingled in the conversation of the villagers. it was a lovely approach of evening--and men, women, and children were seated, or sauntering, in the open air. perceiving that i was anxious to gain information, they flocked around me--and from one man, in particular, i obtained exact intelligence about the havoc which had been committed during the revolution upon the abbey, the roof had been battered down for the sake of the _lead_--to make bullets; the pews, altars, and iron-work, had been converted into other destructive purposes of warfare; and the great bell had been sold to some speculators in a cannon-foundery at rouen.[ ] the revolutionary mania had even brutalized the abbot. this man, who must be considered as ....damned to everlasting fame, had been a monk of the monastery; and as soon as he had attained the headship of it, he disposed of every movable piece of furniture, to gratify the revolutionary pack which were daily howling at the gates of the abbey for entrance! nor could he plead _compulsion_ as an excuse. he seemed to enjoy the work of destruction, of which he had the uncontrouled direction. but enough of this wretch. the next resting-place was caudebec: a very considerable village, or rather a small town. you go down a steep descent, on entering it by the route we came. as you look about, there are singular appearances on all sides--of houses, and hanging gardens, and elaborately cut avenues--upon summits, declivities, and on the plain. but the charm of the view, at least to my old-fashioned feelings, was a fine old gothic church, and a very fine spire of what _appeared_ to belong to another. as the evening had completely set in, i resolved to reserve my admiration of the place till the morrow. [ ] [i am ignorant of his present destination; but learn that he has quitted the above situation a long time.] [ ] [mr. cotman has published views of the west front, the south east, the west entrance, and the south transept, with sculptured capitals and basso-relievos, &c. in the whole, seven plates.] [ ] [mr. cotman has published etchings of the west front: the towers, somewhat fore-shortened; the elevation of the nave--and doorway of the abbey: the latter an extremely interesting specimen of art. a somewhat particular and animated description of it will be found in _lieut. hall's travels in france_, vo. p. , . [in the first edition, i had called the west end towers of the abbey--"small." mons. licquet has suggested that i must have meant "_comparatively_" small;--in contradistinction to the centre-tower, which would have been larger. we learn also from m. licquet that the spire of this central tower was demolished in , by the abbé le veneur, bishop of evreux. what earthly motive could have led to such a brutal act of demolition?] [ ] ["i know perfectly well, says m. licquet, the little inn of which the author here speaks. i can assure him that it never formed any portion of the "chapter house." it was nevertheless une _dependance exterieure_ (i will not attempt a version of this phrase) of the abbey. dare i venture to say it was the _cowhouse_? (étable aux vaches). thank you, good mons. licquet; but what is a cow-house but "an _outer building_ attached to the abbey?" vide supra.] [ ] [the heart and entrails only of this once celebrated woman were, according to m. licquet, buried in the above spot. the body was carried to loches: and belleforest _(cosmog._ vol. i. part ii. col. - . edit. , folio) gives a description of the mausoleum where it was there entombed: a description, adds m. licquet, which may well serve for the mausoleum that was at jumieges.] [ ] [not the smallest portion or particle of a sigh escapes us, on being told, as my translator has told us, that the "soil" in question has become the property of another owner. "laius est mort"--are the emphatic words of m. licquet.] [ ] [one of the bells of the abbey of jumieges is now in the tower of that of st. ouen, at rouen. licquet.] letter x. caudebec. lillebonne. bolbec. tankarville. montmorenci castle. havre de grace. my last concluded with our entrance into caudebec. the present opens with a morning scene at the same place. for a miracle i was stirring before nine. the church was the first object of attraction. for the size of the place, it is really a noble structure: perhaps of the early part of the sixteenth, or latter part of the fifteenth century.[ ] i speak of the exterior generally, and of a great portion of the interior. a little shabby green-baise covered door (as usual) was half open, and i entered with no ordinary expectations of gratification. the painted glass seemed absolutely to warm the place--so rich and varied were its colours. there is a great abundance of it, and especially of figures of family-groups kneeling--rather small, but with great appearance of portrait-like fidelity. they are chiefly of the first half of the sixteenth century: and i own that, upon gazing at these charming specimens of ancient painting upon glass, i longed to fix an artist before every window, to bear away triumphantly, in a portfolio of elephantine dimensions, a faithful copy of almost every thing i saw. in some of the countenances, i fancied i traced the pencil of lucas cranach--and even of hans holbein. this church has numerous side chapels, and figures of patron-saints. the entombment of christ in white marble, (at the end of the chapel of the virgin,) is rather singular; inasmuch as the figure of christ itself is ancient, and exceedingly fine in anatomical expression; but the usual surrounding figures are modern, and proportionably clumsy and inexpressive. i noted one mural monument, to the memory of _guillaume tellier_, which was dated .[ ] few churches have more highly interested me than this at caudebec.[ ] from the church i strolled to the _place_, where stood the caffé, by the banks of the seine. the morning view of this scene perfectly delighted me. nothing can be more picturesque. the river cannot be much less than a mile in width, and it makes a perfect bend in the form of a crescent. on one side, that on which the village stands, are walks and gardens through which peep numerous white villas--and on the other are meadows, terminating in lofty rising grounds--feathered with coppice-wood down to the very water's edge. this may be considered, in fact, only a portion of the vast _forest de brotonne_, which rises in wooded majesty on the opposite heights. the spirit and the wealth of our countrymen would make caudebec one of the most enchanting summer-residences in the world. the population of the town is estimated at about five thousand. judge of my astonishment, when, on going out of doors, i saw the river in a state of extreme agitation: the whole mass of water rising perpendicularly, as it were, and broad rippling waves rolling over each other. it was the _coming in of the tide_.... and within a quarter of an hour it appeared to have risen upwards of three feet. you may remember that, in our own country, the severn-tides exhibit the same phenomenon; and i have seen the river at glocester rise _at once_ to the height of eight or ten feet, throwing up a shower of foam from the gradually narrowing bed of the river, and causing all the craft, great and small, to rise up as if by magic, and to appear upon a level with the meadows. the tide at caudebec, although similar in kind, was not so in degree; for it rose gradually yet most visibly--and within half an hour, the elevation could not have been less than _seven_ or _eight_ feet. having walked for some time on the heights of the town, with which i was much gratified, i returned to my humble auberge, ordered the cabriolet to be got ready, and demanded the reckoning:--which, considering that i was not quite at an hôtel-royale, struck me as being far from moderate. two old women, of similar features and age, presented themselves as i was getting into the carriage: one was the mistress, and the other the fille de chambre. "mais, monsieur (observed one of them) n'oubliez pas, je vous prie, la fille-de-chambre--rappellez-vous que vos souliers ont été supérieurement décrottés." i took out a franc to remunerate the supposed fille-de-chambre--but was told it was the _mistress_. "n'importe, monsieur, c'est à ce moment que je suis fille-de-chambre--quand vous serez parti, je serai la maitresse." the postilion seemed to enjoy this repartee as much as ourselves. i was scarcely out of the town half a mile, when i began to ascend. i found myself quickly in the middle of those rising grounds which are seen from the promenade or _place du caffé_, and could not look without extraordinary gratification upon the beautiful character of spring in its advanced state. the larch was even yet picturesque: the hazel and nut trees were perfectly clothed with foliage, of a tender yet joyous tint: the chestnut was gorgeously in bloom; the lime and beech were beginning to give abundant promise of their future luxuriance--while the lowlier tribes of laburnum and box, with their richly clad branches, covered the ground beneath entirely from view. the apple and pear blossoms still continued to variegate the wide sweep of foliage, and to fill the air with their delicious perfume. it might be switzerland in miniature--or it might not. only this i know--that it seemed as though one could live embosomed and enchanted in such a wilderness of sweets--reading the _fabliaux_ of the old norman bards till the close of human existence! i found myself on a hard, strait, chalky old road--evidently roman: and in due time perceived and entered the town of lillebonne. but the sky had become overcast: soft and small rain was descending, and an unusual gloom prevailed ... when i halted, agreeably to my instructions, immediately before the gate of the ancient _castle_. venerable indeed is this norman castle, and extensive are the ruins which have survived. i have a perfect recollection how it peeped out upon me--through the light leaf of the poplar, and the pink blossom of the apple. it lies close to the road, on the left. an old round tower, apparently of the time of william the conqueror, very soon attracts your attention. the stones are large, and the interstices are also very considerable. it was here, says a yet current report, that william assembled the barons of normandy, and the invasion of england was determined upon. such a spot therefore strikes an english beholder with no ordinary emotions. i alighted; sent the cabriolet to the inn, and wished both postilion and horses to get their dinners without delay. for myself, i had resolved to reserve my appetite till i reached _bolbec_; and there was food enough before me of a different description, to exercise my intellectual digestion for at least the next hour. knocking at the massive portals, i readily obtained admittance. the area, entirely a grass-plat, was occupied by several cows. in front, were evidently the ruins of a large chapel or church--perhaps of the xivth century. the outer face of the walls went deeply and perpendicularly down to the bottom of a dry fosse; and the right angle portion of the building was covered with garden ground, where the owner showed us some peas which he boasted he should have at his table within five days. i own i thought he was very likely to carry his boast into execution; for finer vegetables, or a finer bed of earth, i had scarcely ever beheld. how things, my dear friend, are changed from their original character and destination! "but the old round tower," say you!--to "the old round tower" then let us go. the stair-case is narrow, dark, and decayed. i reached the first floor, or circular room, and noticed the construction of the window seats--all of rough, solid, and massive stone. i ascended to the second floor; which, if i remember rightly, was strewn with a portion of the third floor--that had fallen in from sheer decay. great must have been the crash--as the fragments were huge, and widely scattered. on gaining a firm footing upon the outer wall; through a loop-hole window, i gazed around with equal wonder and delight. the wall of this castle could not be less than ten feet in thickness. a young woman, the shepherdess of the spot, attended as guide. "what is that irregular rude mound, or wall of earth, in the centre of which children are playing?" "it is the _old roman theatre_, sir." i immediately called to mind m. le prevost's instructions--and if i could have borrowed the wings of a spirit, i should have instantly alighted upon the spot--but it was situated without the precincts of the old castle and its appurtenances, and a mortal leap would have been attended with a mortal result. "have you many english who visit this spot?" said i to my guide.--"scarcely _any_, sir--it is a frightful place--full of desolation and sadness.." replied she. again i gazed around, and in the distance, through an aperture in the orchard trees, saw the little fishing village of _quillebeuf_,[ ] quite buried, as it were, in the waters of the seine. an arm of the river meanders towards lillebonne. having gratified my picturesque and antiquarian propensities, from this elevated situation, i retrod, with more difficulty than toil, my steps down the stair-case. a second stroll about the area, and along the skirts of the wall, was sufficient to convince me only--how slight and imperfect had been my survey! on quitting the portal through which i entered, and bidding adieu to my shepherdess and guide, i immediately hastened towards the roman theatre.[ ] the town of lillebonne has a very picturesque appearance from the old mound, or raised terrace, along the outer walls of the castle. in five minutes i mingled with the school boys who were amusing themselves within the ruins of all that is left of this probably once vast and magnificent old theatre. it is only by clearing away a great quantity of earth, with which these ruins are covered, that you can correctly ascertain their character and state of preservation. m. le prevost bade me remark that the walls had much swerved from their original perpendicularity,--and that there was much irregularity in the laying of the bricks among the stones. but time, design, and accident, have each in turn (in all probability) so contributed to decompose, deface, and alter the original aspect of the building, that there is no forming a correct conjecture as to its ancient form. earth, grass, trees, flowers, and weeds, have taken almost entire possession of some low and massive outer walls; so that the imagination has full play to supply all deficiencies which appear to the eye. from the whole of this interesting spot i retreated--with mixed sensations of melancholy and surprise--to the little auberge of the _three moors_, in the centre of the town. it had begun to rain smartly as we took shelter in the kitchen; where, for the first time since leaving england, i saw a display of utensils which might have vied with our own, or even with a dutch interior, for neatness and order of disposition. some of the dishes might have been as ancient as--not the old round tower--but as the last english duke of normandy who might have banquetted there. the whole was in high polish and full display. on my complimenting the good _aubergiste_ upon so creditable a sight, she laughed, and replied briskly--"ce n'est rien, ceci: pentecôte est tout près, et donc vous verrez, monsieur!"--it should seem that whitsuntide was the season for a general household purification. some of her furniture had once belonged to the castle: but she had bought it, in the scramble which took place at the dispersion and destruction of the movables there, during the revolution. i recommend all travellers to take a lunch, and enjoy a bottle of vin ordinaire, at _les trois-nègres._ i was obliged to summon up all my stock of knowledge in polite phraseology, in order to decline a plate of soup. "it was delicious above every thing"--"but i had postponed taking dinner till we got to bolbec." "bon--vous y trouverez un hôtel superbe." the french are easily pleased; and civility is so cheap and current a coin abroad, that i wish our countrymen would make use of it a little more frequently than they appear to do. i started about two for bolbec. the rain continued during the whole of my route thither; but it did not prevent me from witnessing a land of plenty and of picturesque beauty on all sides. indeed it is scarcely possible to conceive a more rich and luxuriant state of culture. to the left, about half a league from lillebonne, i passed the domain of a once wealthy, and extremely extensive abbey. they call it the _abbey of valasse._ a long rambling bare stone wall, and portions of a deserted ruin, kept in sight for full half an english mile. the immediate approach to bolbec is that of the entrance to a modern and flourishing trading town, which seems to be beginning to recover from the effects of the revolution. after rouen, and even caudebec, it has a stiff modernized air. i drove to the principal inn, opposite the church, and bespoke dinner and a bed. the church is perfectly, modern, and equally heavy and large. crowds of people were issuing from _vespers_, when, ascending a flight of steps, (for it is built on ground considerably above the ground-floor of the inn) i resolved to wait for the final departure of the congregation, and to take a leisurely survey of the interior, while dinner was getting ready. the sexton was a perfect character in his way; old, shrewd, communicative, and civil. there were several confessionals. "what--you confess here pretty much?" "yes, sir; but chiefly females, and among them many widows." i had said nothing to provoke this ungallant reply. "in respect to the _sacrament_, what is the proportion between the communicants, as to sex?" "sir, there are one hundred women to twelve men." i wish i could say that this disproportion were confined to _france_. quitting this heavy and ugly, but large and commodious fabric, i sought the inn and dinner. the cook was in every respect a learned professor in his art, and the produce of his skill was equally excellent and acceptable. i had scarcely finished my repast, and the _gruyere_ cheese and nuts yet lingered upon the table, when the soft sounds of an organ, accompanied by a youthful voice, saluted my ears in a very pleasing manner. "c'est le pauvre petit savoyard, monsieur"--exclaimed the waiter--"vous allez entendre un air touchant! ah, le pauvre petit!"--"comment ça?" "monsieur, il n'a ni père ni mère; mais pour le chant--oh dieu, il n'y a personne qui chante comme le pauvre petit savoyard!" i was well disposed to hear the song, and to admit the truth of the waiter's observation. the little itinerant stopped opposite the door, and sung the following air:-- _bon jour, bon soir_. je peindrai sans détour tout l'emploi de ma vie: c'est de dire _bon jour_ et _bon soir_ tour-à-tour. _bon jour_ à mon amie, lorsque je vais la voir. mais au fat qui m'ennuie, _bon soir_. _bon jour_ franc troubadour, qui chantez la bombance; la paix et les beaux jours; bacchus et les amours. qu'un rimeur en démence vienne avec vous s'asseoir, pour chanter la romance, _bon soir_. _bon jour_, mon cher voisin, chez vous la soif m'entraîne: _bonjour_--si votre vin est de beaune ou du rhin; mon gosier va sans peine lui servir d'entonnoir; mais s'il est de surêne, _bon soir_. i know not how it was, but had the "petit savoyard" possessed the cultivated voice of a chorister, i could not have listened to his notes with half the satisfaction with which i dwelt upon his history, as stated by the waiter. he had no sooner concluded and made his bow, than i bought the slender volume from which his songs had been chanted, and had a long gossip with him. he slung his organ upon his back, and "ever and anon" touching his hat, expressed his thankfulness, as much for the interest i had taken in his welfare, as for the trifling piece of silver which i slipt into his hand at parting. meanwhile all the benches, placed on the outsides of the houses, were occupied--chiefly by females--to witness, it should seem, so novel and interesting a sight as an englishman holding familiar discourse with a poor wandering savoyard! my friend the sexton was among the spectators, and from his voice and action, appeared especially interested. "que le bon dieu vous bénisse!" exclaimed the savoyard, as i bade him farewell. on pursuing my route for a stroll upon the heights near the town, i had occasion to pass these benches of spectators. the women, almost without any exception, inclined their heads by way of a gracious salute; and monsieur _le sacristain_ pulled off his enormous cock'd hat with the consequence of a drum-major. he appeared not to have forgotten the donation which he had received in the church. continuing my pursuit, i gained an elevated situation: whence, looking down upon the spot where i had left the savoyard, i observed him surrounded by the females--each and every one of them apparently convulsed with laughter! even the little musician appeared to have forgotten his "orphan state." the environs of _bolbec_, especially in the upper part, are sufficiently picturesque. at least they are sufficiently fruitful: orchards, corn and pasture land--intermixed with meadows, upon which cotton was spread for bleaching--produced altogether a very interesting effect. the little hanging gardens, attached to labourer's huts, contributed to the beauty of the scene. a warm crimson sun-set seemed to envelope the coppice wood in a flame of gold. the road was yet reeking with moisture--and i retraced my steps, through devious and slippery paths, to the hôtel. evening had set in: the sound of the savoyard's voice was no longer heard: i ordered tea and candles, and added considerably to my journal before i went to bed. i rose at five; and before six the horses were harnessed to the cabriolet. having obtained the necessary instructions for reaching _tancarville_, (the ancient and proud seat of the montmorencis) i paid my reckoning, and left bolbec. as i ascended a long and rather steep hill, and, looking to the right and left, saw every thing in a state of verdure and promise, i did all i could to persuade myself that the journey would be agreeable, and that the castle of montmorenci could not fail to command admiration. i was now in the high and broad "_roúte royale_" to havre le grace; but had scarcely been a league upon it, when, looking at my instructions, we struck out of the high road, to the left, and followed a private one through flat and uninteresting arable land. i cannot tell how many turns were taken, or how many pretty little villages were passed--till, after a long and gradual ascent, we came upon a height, flanked the greater part by coppice wood, through one portion of which--purposely kept open for the view--was seen at a distance a marvellously fine group of perpendicular rocks (whose grey and battered sides were lighted up with a pink colour from the morning sun) in the middle, as it were, of the _seine_--which now really assumed an ocean-like appearance. in fact, these rocks were at a considerable distance, and appeared to be in the broadest part of the embouchure of that river. i halted the cabriolet; and gazed with unfeigned delight on this truly magnificent and fascinating scene!... for the larks were now mounting all around, and their notes, added to those of the "songsters of the grove," produced an effect which i even preferred to that from the organ and voice of the "pauvre petit savoyard." the postboy partook of my rapture. "voilà, monsieur, des rochers terriblement perpendiculiers--eh, quelle belle vue de la rivière, et du paysage!" leaving this brilliant picture, we turned rather to the left, and then found our descent proportionably gradual with the ascent. the seine was now right before us, as hasty glimpses of it, through partial vistos, had enabled us to ascertain. still _tancarville_ was deemed a terrible way off. first we were to go up, and then we were to go down--now to turn to the right, and afterwards to the left--a sort of [greek: polla d'ananta katanta] route--when a prepossessing young paysanne told the postilion, that, after passing through such a wood, we should reach an avenue, from the further end of which the castle of _montmorenci_ would be visible.. "une petite lieue de distance." every thing is "une petite lieue!" it is the answer to every question relating to distance. though the league be double a german one, still it is "une petite!" here however the paysanne happened to be right. we passed through the wood, gained the avenue, and from the further end saw--even yet towering in imposing magnitude--the far-famed _chateau de montmorenci_. it might be a small league off. i gained spirits and even strength at the sight: told the postilion to mend his pace--of which he gave immediate and satisfactory demonstration, while the echoes of his whip resounded along the avenue. a closer road now received us. knolls of grass interwoven with moss, on the summits of which the beech and lime threw up their sturdy stems, now enclosed the road, which began to widen and to improve in condition. at length, turning a corner, a group of country people appeared--"est-ce ici la route de tancarville?"--"tancarville est tout près: c'est là, où on voit la fumée des cheminées." joyful intelligence! the post-boy increased his speed: the wheels seemed to move with a readier play: and in one minute and a half i was upon the beach of the river seine, and alighted at the door of the only auberge in the village. i know you to be both a lover of and connoisseur in rembrandt's pictures: and especially of those of his _old_ characters. i wish you could have seen the old woman, of the name of _bucan_, who came out of this same auberge to receive us. she had a sharp, quick, constantly moving black eye; keen features, projecting from a surface of flesh of a subdued mahogany tint; about her temples, and the lower part of her cheeks, were all those harmonizing wrinkles which become old age--_upon canvas_--while, below her chin, communicating with a small and shrunken neck, was that sort of concavity, or dewlap, which painters delight to express with a minuteness of touch, and mellowness of tint, that contribute largely to picturesque effect! this good old woman received us with perfect elasticity of spirits and of action. it should seem that we were the first englishmen who had visited her solitude this year. her husband approached, but she soon ordered him "to the right about"--to prepare fuel, coffee, and eggs. i was promised the best breakfast that could be got in normandy, in twenty minutes. the inn being sufficiently miserable, i was anxious for a ramble. the tide was now coming up, as at caudebec; but the sweep and breadth of the river being, upon a considerably larger scale, its increase was not yet so obvious--although i am quite sure that all the flats, which i saw on my arrival as a bed of mud, were, within a quarter of an hour, wholly covered with the tide: and, looking up to the right, i perceived the perpendicular walls of _montmorenci castle_ to be washed by the refluent wave. it was a sort of ocean in miniature before me. a few miserable fishing boats were moored upon the beach; while a small number of ill-clad and straggling villagers lingered about the same spot, and seemed to look upon the postboy and myself as beings dropt from the sky! on ascending a considerable elevation, i had the gratification of viewing _quillebeuf_ a little more nearly. it was almost immediately opposite: while, to the right, contemplating the wide sweep of the river towards its embouchure, i fancied that i could see _havre_. the group of rocks, which had so charmed us on our journey, now assumed a different character. on descending, i could discover, although at a considerable distance, the old woman standing at the door of the auberge--apparently straining her eyes to catch a glimpse of us; and she was almost disposed to scold for having put her reputation of giving good breakfasts to so hazardous a trial. the wood was blazing, and the room was almost filled by smoke--but a prolonged fast, and a stage of sixteen or eighteen miles, in a keen morning air, made mr. lewis and myself only think of allaying our hunger. in every public house, however mean, you see the white metal fork, and the napkin covering the plate. a dozen boiled eggs, and a coffee pot and cups of perfectly brobdignagdian dimensions, with tolerable bread and indifferent butter, formed the _materiél_ of our breakfast. the postboy, having stabled and refreshed his horses, was regaling himself in the kitchen--but-how do you think he was regaling himself?--truly, in stretching himself upon a bench, and reading, as old ascham expresses it, "a merry tale in boccace." in other words, he was reading a french version of the decameron of that celebrated author. indeed, i had already received sufficient proof of the general propensity of the common people to _read_--whether good or bad books ... but let us hope and believe the former. i left the bibliomaniacal postboy to his boccaccio, and prepared to visit the castle... the once proud and yet commanding residence of the family of montmorenci. i ascended--with fresh energies imparted from my breakfast. the day grew soft, and bright, and exhilarating ... but alas! for the changes and chances of every thing in this transitory world. where was the warder? he had ceased to blow his horn for many a long year. where was the harp of the minstrel? it had perished two centuries ago, with the hand that had struck its chords. where was the attendant guard?--or pursuivants--or men at arms? they had been swept from human existence, like the leaves of the old limes and beech trees by which the lower part of the building was surrounded. the moat was dry; the rampart was a ruin:--the rank grass grew within the area... nor can i tell you how many relics of halls, banqueting rooms, and bed-rooms, with all the magnificent appurtenances of old castellated architecture, struck the eager eye with mixed melancholy and surprise! the singular half-circular, and half square, corner towers, hanging over the ever-restless wave, interested me exceedingly. the guide shewed me where the prisoners used to be kept--in a dungeon, apparently impervious to every glimmer of day-light, and every breath of air. i cannot pretend to say at what period even the oldest part of the castle of montmorenci was built: but i saw nothing that seemed to be more ancient than the latter end of the fifteenth century.[ ] perhaps the greater portion may be of the beginning of the sixteenth; but, amidst the unroofed rooms, i could not help admiring the painted borders, chiefly of a red colour, which run along the upper part of the walls, or wainscoats--giving indication not only of a good, but of a splendid, taste. did i tell you that this sort of ornament was to be seen in some parts of the eastern end of the abbey of jumieges? _here_, indeed, they afforded evidence--an evidence, mingled with melancholy sensations on reflection--of the probable state of magnificence which once reigned throughout the castle. between the corner towers, upon that part which runs immediately parallel with the seine, there is a noble terrace, now converted into garden ground--which commands an immediate and extensive view of the embouchure of the river. it is the property of a speculator, residing at havre. the cabriolet meeting me at the bottom of the mound upon which the castle is built, (having paid the reckoning before i left the inn), i had nothing to do but to step in, and push forward for _havre_. retracing the road through which we came, we darted into the _route royale_, and got upon one of the noblest high roads in france. between _tancarville_ and _havre_ lie _hocher_ and _harfleur_; each almost at the water's edge. i regretted i could not see the former; but on our approach to harfleur i observed, to the right, some delightfully situated, and not inelegantly built, country villas or modern chateaux. the immediate run down to harfleur is exceedingly pleasing; and though we trotted sharply through the town, the exquisite little porch of the church was not lost upon me. few places, i believe, for its dimensions, have been more celebrated in the middle ages than harfleur. the seine to the left becomes broader and bolder; and, before you, beneath some wooded heights, lies havre. every thing gives indication of commerce and prosperity as you gain upon the town. the houses increase in number and respectability of appearance--"voyez-vous là, monsieur, à droite, ces belles maisons de plaisance?--(exclaimed the charioteer)--"c'est la où demeurent messieurs vos compatriotes: ma foi, ils ont un joli gout." the first glance upon these stone houses confirmed the sagacity of the postilion. they are gloriously situated--facing the ocean; while the surrounding country teems with fish and game of every species. isaac walton might have contrived to interweave a pretty ballad in his description of such trout-streams as were those before us. but we approach the town. the hulls of hundreds of vessels are seen in the commodious docks; and the flags of merchantmen, from all quarters of the globe, appear to stream from the mast-heads. it is a scene of bustle, of business, and variety; and perfectly english. what a contrast to the gloomy solitude of montmorenci! the outer and inner gates are passed. _diligences_ issue from every quarter. the centinels relieve guard. the sound of horns, from various packet-boats immediately about to sail, echoes on all sides.... driving up the high street, we approached the hôtel of the _aigle d'or,_[ ] kept by justin, and considered to be the best. we were just in time for the table d'hôte, and to bespeak excellent beds. travellers were continually arriving and departing. what life and animation!... we sat down upwards of forty to dinner: and a good dinner it was. afterwards, i settled for the cabriolet, and bade the postboy adieu!--nor can i suppress my feelings in saying that, in wishing him farewell, i felt ten times more than i had ever felt upon taking leave of a postilion. [ ] the nave was begun in . licquet. [ ] corrected by mons. licquet: with thanks from the author. it was, before, . [ ] lieutenant hall has well described it. i did not see his description till more than a twelvemonth after my own had been written. a part may be worth extracting.... "the principal object of attraction is the church, the gothic spire of which is encircled by fillets of roses, beautifully carved in stone, and continued to the very summit of the steeple. the principal portal too is sculptured with no less richness and delicacy than that of st. maclou at rouen. its interior length is about feet by of width. the central aisle [nave] is flanked on either side by ten massive circular columns, the capitals of which represent vine leaves and other decorations, more fanciful, and not less rich, than the corinthian acanthus.... in one of the chapels there is a rude monumental effigy of the original architect of this church. it consists of a small skeleton, drawn in black lines, against a tablet in the wall: a mason's level and trowel, with the plan of a building, are beside it, and an inscription in gothic characters, relating that the architect endowed the church he had built with certain lands, and died anno ." _travels in france_, p. , , vo. i take this to be guillaume tellier--mentioned above: but in regard to the lands with which tellier endowed the church, the inscription says nothing. licquet. [ ] small as may be this village, and insignificant as may be its aspect, it is one of the most important places, with respect to navigation, in the whole course of the river seine. seven years ago there were not fewer than _four-score_ pilots settled here, by order of government, for the purpose of guarding against accidents which arise from a want of knowledge of the navigation of the river. in time of peace this number would necessarily be increased. in the year there were upwards of english vessels which passed it--averaging, in the whole, , tons. it is from _quillebeuf_ to _havre_ that the accidents arise. the author of a pompous, but very instructive memoir, "_sur la topographie et la statistique de la ville de quillebeuf et de l'embouchure de la seine, ayant pour objet-principal la navigation et la pêché_," (published in the transactions of the rouen society for the year , and from which the foregoing information has been obtained) mentions three or four _wrecks_ which have taken place in the immediate vicinity of quillebeuf: and it should seem that a _calm_ is, of all things, the most fatal. the currents are strong, and the vessel is left to the mercy of the tides in consequence. there are also rocks and sand banks in abundance. among the wrecks, was one, in which a young girl of eighteen years of age fell a victim to the ignorance of the pilot. the vessel made a false tack between _hode_ and _tancarville_, and running upon a bank, was upset in an instant. an english vessel once shared the same calamity. a thick fog suddenly came on, when the sloop ran upon a bank near the _nez de tancarville_, and the crew had just time to throw themselves into the boat and escape destruction. the next morning, so sudden and so decisive was the change wrought by the sand and current, that, of the sloop, there remained, at ebb-tide, only ten feet of her mast visible! it appears that the _quillebois_, owing to their detached situation, and their peculiar occupations, speak a very barbarous french. they have a sort of sing-song method of pronunciation; and the _g_ and _j_ are strangely perverted by them. consult the memoir here referred to; which occupies forty octavo pages: and which forms a sequel to a previous communication (in ) "upon the topography and medical properties of quillebeuf and its adjacent parts." the author is m. boismare. his exordium is a specimen of the very worst possible taste in composition. one would suppose it to be a prelude to an account of the discovery of another america! [ ] ["the roman circus (says m. licquet) is now departmental property. many excavations have already taken place under the directions of mons. le baron de vanssay, the present prefect of the department. the most happy results may be anticipated. it was in a neighbouring property that an antique bronze gilt statue, of the size of life, was lately found," vol. i. . of this statue, mr. samuel woodburn, (with that spirit of liberality and love of art which have uniformly characterised his purchases) became the owner. the sum advanced for it was very considerable; but, in one sense, mr. w. may be said to have stood as the representative of his country; for the french government declining to give the proprietor the sum which he asked, mr. woodburn purchased it--solely with the view of depositing it, on the same terms of purchase, in a national gallery of art, of which the bequest of mr. payne knight's ancient bronzes and coins, and the purchase of mr. angerstein's pictures, might be supposed to lay the foundation. this statue was accordingly brought over to england, and freely exhibited to the curious admirers of ancient art. it is the figure of an apollo--the left arm, extended to hold the lyre, being mutilated. a portion of the limbs is also mutilated; but the torso, head and legs, are entire: and are, of their kind, of the highest class of art. overtures were made for its purchase by government. the trustees of the british museum were unanimous both in their admiration and recommendation of it: it was indeed "strongly recommended" by them to the treasury. several months however elapsed before an answer could be obtained; and that answer, when it _did_ come, was returned in the negative. the disappointment of reasonably indulged hopes of success, was the least thing felt by its owner. it was the necessity of transporting it, in consequence, to enrich a _rival capital_--which, were its means equal to its wishes and good taste, it must be confessed, makes us frequently blush for the comparative want of energy and liberality, at home, in matters relating to ancient art.] [ ] mr. cotman has a view of the gateway of tancarville, or montmorenci castle. [ ] i am not sure whether this inn be called the _armes de france_, or as above. letter xi havre de grace. honfleur. journey to caen. _caen, may_, . well, my friend!... i have at length visited the interior of the abbey of st. stephen, and have walked over the grave of william the conqueror and of mathilda his wife. but as you dearly love the gossip of a travelling journal, i shall take up the thread of my narrative from the place in which i last addressed you:--particularly as our route hither was marked by some circumstances worthy of recital. first, however, for _havre_. i staid there only long enough to express my regret that the time of my residence could not be extended. it happened to be a fine afternoon, and i took a leisurely stroll upon the docks and ramparts.[ ] the town was full of animation--whether relating to business or to pleasure. for the former, you must visit the quays; for the latter, you must promenade the high street, and more especially the _boulevards_, towards the heights. the sun shone merrily, as it were, upon the thousands of busy, bustling, and bawling human creatures.. who were in constant locomotion in this latter place. what a difference between the respective appearances of the quays of dieppe and havre? although even _here_ things would assume a rubbishing and littered aspect compared with the quays at _liverpool_ or at _hull_, yet it must be admitted, for the credit of gallico-norman commerce, that the quays of havre make a very respectable appearance. you see men fiddling, dancing, sleeping, sitting, and of course talking _à pleine gorge_, in groups without end--but no drunkenness!.. not even an english oath saluted my ear. the southampton packets land their crews at havre. i saw the arrival of one of these packets; and was cruel enough to contrast the animated and elastic spirits of a host of french _laqnais de place_, tradespeople, &c.--attacking the passengers with cards of their address--with the feeble movements and dejected countenances of the objects of their attack. from the quays, i sauntered along the ramparts, which are flanked by broad ditches--of course plentifully supplied with water; and passing over the drawbridge, by which all carriages enter the town--and which absolutely trembles as if about to sink beneath you, as the _diligence_ rolls over it.--i made for the boulevards and tea-gardens; to which, business being well nigh over, the inhabitants of havre flock by hundreds and by thousands. a fine afternoon throws every thing into "good keeping"--as the artists say. the trees, and meadows, and upper lands, were not only bright with the sun-beam, but the human countenance was lighted up with gladness. the occupations partook of this joyful character. accordingly there was dancing and singing on all sides; a little beyond, appeared to sit a group of philosophers, or politicians, upon a fantastically cut seat, beneath laburnums streaming with gold; while, still further, gradually becoming invisible from the foliage and winding path, strolled pairs in more gentle discourse! meanwhile the whoop and halloo of school-boys, in rapid and ceaseless evolutions, resounded through the air, and heightened the gratification of the scene.... and young and old came out to play upon a sun-shine holiday. gaining a considerable ascent, i observed knolls of rich verdure, with fine spreading trees, and elegant mansions, to be in the foreground--in the middle-ground, stood the town of havre:--in the distance, rolled and roared the expansive ocean! the sun was visibly going to rest; but his departing beams yet sparkled upon the more prominent points of the picture. there was no time for finishing the subject. after a stroll of nearly a couple of hours, on this interesting spot, i retraced my steps over the draw-bridge, and prepared for objects of _still_ life; in other words, for the examination of what might be curious and profitable in the shape of a _boke_. the lamps were lighted when i commenced my _bibliomaniacal voyage_ of discovery among the booksellers. but what poverty of materials, for a man educated in the schools of fust and caxton! to every question, about rare or old books, i was told that i should have been on the continent when the allies first got possession of paris. in fact, i had not a single _trouvaille_. the packet was to sail by nine the next morning, precisely. for a wonder, (or rather no wonder at all, considering what had occurred during the last twenty-four hours) i had an excellent night's rest, and was prepared for breakfast by eight. having breakfasted, i accompanied my luggage to the inner harbour, and observed the _honfleur_ packet swarming with passengers, and crammed with every species of merchandize: especially tubs, casks, trunks, cordage, and earthenware. we went on board, and took our stations near the helm; and after experiencing a good deal of _uncomfortable_ heaving of the ocean, got clear from the mouth of the harbour, and stood out to sea. the tide was running briskly and strongly into the harbour. we were in truth closely stowed; and as these packets are built with flattish bottoms, and low sides, a rough sea would not fail to give to a crew, thus exposed, the appearance of half-drowned rats. luckily the wind began to subside, and by degrees old ocean wore a face of undisturbed serenity. our crew was a motley one; but among them, an abbess, with a visage of parchment-like rigidity, and with her broad streaming bands, seemed to experience particular distress. she was surrounded by some hale, hearty market women, whose robust forms, and copper-tinted countenances, formed a striking contrast to her own. a little beyond was an old officer or two, with cocked hats of the usually capacious dimensions. but the poor abbess was cruelly afflicted; and in a gesture and tone of voice, of the most piteous woe, implored the steward of the vessel for accommodation below. fortunately, as i was not in the least annoyed by sickness, i had leisure to survey the heights of honfleur before we landed; and looking towards the course of the river seine, as it narrowed in its windings, i discovered _harfleur_ and _hocher_ nearly opposite; and, a good deal lower down, the little fishing town of _quillebeuf_, apparently embedded in the water. honfleur itself is surely among the most miserable of fishing towns[ ]--or whatever be the staple commodity that supports it. but the environs make amends for the squalidness of the town. a few years of peace and plenty would work wonders even in the improvements of these environs. perhaps no situation is more favourable for the luxury of a summer retirement.[ ] i paid only eight sous for my passage; and having no passport to be _viséd_ (which indeed was the case at havre,) we selected a stout lad or two, from the crowds of lookers on, as we landed, to carry our luggage to the inn from which the diligence sets off for caen. it surprised us to see with what alacrity these lads carried the baggage up a steep hill in their trucks, or barrows; but we were disgusted with the miserable forms, and miserable clothing, of both sexes, which we encountered as we proceeded. i was fortunate to be in time to secure my place in the diligence. the horses were in the very act of being put to, as i paid my reckoning beforehand. judge of our surprise and gratification on seeing two well-dressed, and apparently well-bred englishmen, securing their places at the same time. it is not always that, at first sight, englishmen associate so quickly, and apparently so cordially, as did these gentlemen with ourselves. they were the messrs. d*** of _l_**** _hall_ in yorkshire: the elder brother an oxford man of the same standing with myself. the younger, a cantab. we were all bound for caen; and right gladly did we coalesce upon this expedition. we proceeded at a good sharp pace; and as we ascended the very high hill on the direct road to caen, with fine leafy trees on each side, and upon a noble breadth of road, i looked out of the diligence to enjoy the truly magnificent view of the seine--with glimpses of _harfleur_ and _havre_ on the opposite coast. the cessation of the rain, and the quick movement of the vehicle, enabled me to do this in a tolerably commodious manner. the ground however seemed saturated, and the leaves glistened with the incumbent moisture. there was a sort of pungent freshness of scent abroad--and a rich pasture land on each side gave the most luxuriant appearance to the landscape. nature indeed seemed to have fructified every thing in a manner at once spontaneous and perfect. the face of the country is pasture-land throughout; that is to say, there are comparatively few orchards and little arable. i was told to pay attention to the cattle, for that the farmers prided themselves on their property of this kind. they may pride themselves--if they please: but their pride is not of a lofty cast of character. i have been in lincolnshire, herefordshire, and gloucestershire--and have seen and enjoyed, in these counties, groups of cattle which appeared calculated for the land and the table of giants, compared with the lilliputian objects, of the bucoline species, which were straying, in thin flocks, through the luxuriant pastures of normandy. that triumphant and immutable maxim of "small bone and large carcase" seems, alas! to be unknown in these regions. however, on we rode--and gazed on all sides. at length we reached _pont l'eveque_, a pretty long stage; where we dined (says my journal) upon roast fowl, asparagus, trout, and an excellent omelette, with two good bottles of vin ordinaire--which latter, for four englishmen, was commendably moderate. during dinner the rain came down again in yet heavier torrents--the gutters foamed, and the ground smoked with the unceasing fall of the water. in the midst of this aquatic storm, we toasted old england right merrily and cordially; and the conducteur, seeing us in good humour, told us that "we need not hurry, for that he preferred a dry journey to a wet one." we readily assented to this position; but within half an hour, the weather clearing, we remounted: and by four o'clock, we all got inside--and politics, religion, literature, and the fine arts, kept us in constant discourse and good humour as we rolled on for many a league. all the way to _troarn_ (the last stage on this side of caen) the country presents a truly lovely picture of pasture land. there are occasionally some wooded heights, in which english wealth and english taste would have raised villas of the prettiest forms, and with most commanding views. yet there is nothing to be mentioned in the same breath with the country about rodwell in glocestershire. nor are the trees of the same bulk and luxuriant foliage as are those in our own country. a fine oak is as rare as an uncut _wynkyn de worde_:[ ] but creeping rivulets, rich coppice wood, avenues of elms and limes, and meadows begemmed with butter-cups--these are the characteristics of the country through which we were passing. it is in vain however you look for neat villas or consequential farm houses: and as rarely do you see groups of villagers reposing, or in action. a dearth of population gives to french landscape a melancholy and solitary cast of character. it is in cities that you must look for human beings--and _for_ cities the french seem to have been created. it was at _troarn_, i think, or at some halting place beyond, that our passports were demanded, and the examination of our trunks solicited. we surrendered our keys most willingly. the gentlemen, with their cocked hats and blue jackets--having a belt from which a sword was suspended--consulted together for a minute only--returned our keys--and telling us that matters would be thoroughly looked into at caen, said they would give us no trouble. we were of course not sorry at this determination--and the messrs. d---and myself getting once more into the cabriolet, (a postboy being secured for the leaders) we began to screw up our spirits and curiosity for a view of the steeples of caen. unluckily the sun had set, and the horizon had become gloomy, when we first discovered the spires of _st. stephen's abbey_--the principal ecclesiastical edifice at caen. it was hard upon nine o'clock; and the evening being extremely dusky, we had necessarily a very indistinct view of the other churches--but, to my eye, as seen in a lengthened view, and through a deceitful atmosphere, caen had the appearance of oxford on a diminutive scale. the town itself, like our famous university, is built in a slanting direction; though the surrounding country is yet flatter than about oxford. as we entered it, all the population seemed collected to witness our arrival. from solitude we plunged at once into tumult, bustle, and noise. we stopped at the _hotel d'espagne--_a large, but black and begrimed mansion. here our luggage was taken down; and here we were assailed by garçons de place, with cards in their hands, intreating us to put up at their respective hotels. we had somehow got a recommendation to the _hotel royale, place royale_, and such a union of _royal_ adjuncts was irresistible. accordingly, we resolved upon moving thither. in a trice our trunks were placed upon barrows: and we marched behind, "in double quick time," in order to secure our property. the town appeared to improve as we made our different turnings, and gained upon our hotel. "le voilà, messieurs"--exclaimed our guides and baggage-conductors--as we got into a goodly square, and saw a fair and comely mansion in front. the rush of landlord, waiting maids, and garçons de place, encountered us as we entered. "messieurs, je vous salue,"--said a huge, ungracious looking figure:--which said figure was nothing less than the master of the hotel--mons. lagouelle. we were shown into a small room on the ground floor, to the right--and ordered tea; but had scarcely begun to enjoy the crackling blaze of a plentiful wood fire, when the same ungracious figure took his seat by the side of us ... to tell us "all about the duel." i had heard (from an english gentleman in the packet boat from havre to honfleur) something respecting this most extraordinary duel between a young englishman and a young frenchman: but as i mean to reserve my _caen budget_ for a distinct dispatch, and as i have yet hardly tarried twenty hours in this place, i must bid you adieu; only adding that i dreamt, last night, about some english antiquaries trying to bend the bow of william the conqueror!--can this be surprising? again farewell. [ ] evelyn, who visited havre in , when the duke de richlieu was governor, describes the citadel as "strong and regular, well stored with artillery, &c. the works furnished with faire brass canon, having a motto, "_ratio ultima regum_." the haven is very spacious." _life and writings of john evelyn_, edit. , vol. i. p. . havre seems always to have been a place of note and distinction in more senses than one. in zeiller's _topographia galliae,_ (vol. iii.) there is a view of it, about the period in which evelyn saw it, by jacques gomboust, ingénieur du roy, from which it appears to have been a very considerable place. forty-two principal buildings and places are referred to in the directions; and among them we observe the boulevards de richelieu. [ ] it was so in evelyn's time: in , "it is a poore fisher towne (says he) remarkable for nothing so much as the odd yet usefull habites which the good women weare, of beares and other skinns, as of raggs at dieppe, and all along these coasts." _life and writings of j. evelyn_; , to. vol. i. p. . [ ] [it is near a chapel, on one of the heights of this town, that mr. washington irving fixes one of his most exquisitely drawn characters, annette delabre, as absorbed in meditation and prayer respecting the fate of her lover; and i have a distinct recollection of a beautiful piece of composition, by one of our most celebrated artists, in which the _heights of honfleur_, with women kneeling before a crucifix in the foreground, formed a most beautiful composition. the name of the artist (was it the younger mr. chalon?) i have forgotten.] [ ] [my translator says, "un wynkyn de worde non coupé:" qu. would not the _debure_ vocabulary have said "non rogné?"] letter xii. caen. soil. society. education. a duel. old houses. the abbey of st. stephen. church of st. pierre de darnetal. abbÉ de la sainte trinitÉ. other public edifices. i have now resided upwards of a week at lagouelle's, the _hotel royale_, and can tell you something of the place and of the inhabitants of caen. caen however is still-life after rouen: but it has been, and yet is, a town exceedingly well-deserving the attention of the lounging traveller and of the curious antiquary. its ecclesiastical edifices are more ancient, but less vast and splendid, than those of rouen; while the streets and the houses are much more wide and comfortable. this place is the capital of the department of calvados, or of lower normandy: and its population is estimated at forty thousand souls. it has a public library, a school of art, a college, mayoralty, and all the adjuncts of a corporate society.[ ] but i must first give you something in the shape of political economy intelligence. caen with its arrondissemens of _bayeux, vire, falaise, lisieux, pont l'eveque_, is the country of pasturage and of cattle. it is also fertile in the apple and pear; and although at _argences_ there have been vineyards from time immemorial, yet the produce of the grape, in the character of _wine_,[ ] is of a very secondary description. there are beautiful and most abundant market gardens about caen; and for the last seventy years they have possessed a garden for the growth and cultivation of foreign plants and trees. it is said that more than nine hundred species of plants and trees are to be found in the department of calvados, of which some (but i know not how many or how few) are considered as indigenous. of forests and woods, the number is comparatively small; and upon that limited number great injuries were inflicted by the revolution. in the arrondissement of caen itself, there are only _hectares_.[ ] the truth is, that in the immediate neighbourhood of populous towns, the french have no idea of planting. they suffer plain after plain, and hill after hill, to be denuded of trees, and make no provision for the supply of those who are to come after them. thus, not only a great portion of the country about rouen--(especially in the direction of the road leading to caen--) is gradually left desolate and barren, but even here, as you approach the town, there is a dreary flatness of country, unrefreshed by the verdure of foliage: whereas the soil, kind and productive by nature, requires only the slightest attention of man to repay him a hundred fold. what they will do some fifty years hence for _fuel_, is quite inconceivable. it is true that the river orne, by means of the tide, and of its proximity to the sea, brings up vessels of even tons burthen, in which they may stow plenty of wood; but still, the expenses of carriage, and duties of a variety of description--together with the _dependence_ of the town upon such accidental supply--would render the article of fuel a most expensive concern. it is also true that they pretend that the soil, in the department of calvados, contains _coal_; but the experiments which were made some years ago at _littry_, in the arondissement of _bayeux_, should forbid the caennois to indulge any very sanguine expectations on that score. in respect to the trade of the town, the two principal branches are _lace_ and _cap_ making. the former trade is divided with bayeux; and both places together give occupation to about thirty thousand pairs[ ] of hands. people of all ages may be so employed; and the annual gross receipts have been estimated at four millions of francs. in _cap_ making only, at caen, four thousand people have been constantly engaged, and a gross produce of two millions of francs has been the result of that branch of trade. a great part of this manufacture was consumed at home; but more than one half used to be exported to spain, portugal, and the colonies belonging to france. they pretend to say, however, that this article of commerce is much diminished both in profit and reputation: while that of _table linen_ is gaining proportionably in both.[ ] there were formerly great _tanneries_ in caen and its immediate vicinity, but lately that branch of trade has suffered extremely. the revolution first gave it a violent check, and the ignorance and inattention of the masters to recent improvements, introduced by means of chemistry, have helped to hasten its decay. to balance this misfortune, there has of late sprung up a very general and judiciously directed commercial spirit in the article of _porcelaine_; and if caen be inferior to its neighbouring towns, and especially to rouen and lisieux, in the articles of cloth, stuffs, and lace, it takes a decided lead in that which relates to _pottery_ and _china_: no mean articles in the supply of domestic wants and luxuries. but it is in matters of higher "pith and moment" that caen may claim a superiority over the towns just noticed. there is a better spirit of _education_ abroad; and, for its size, more science and more literature will be found in it. this place has been long famous for the education of lawyers. there are two distinct academies--one for "science and the belles-lettres"--the other for agriculture and commerce. the _lycée_ is a noble building, close to the abbey of st. stephen: but i wish its façade had been gothic, to harmonise with the abbey. indeed, caen has quite the air of oxford, from the prevalent appearance of _stone_ in its public buildings. the environs of the town afford quarries, whence the stone is taken in great blocks, in a comparatively soft state--and is thus cut into the several forms required with the greatest facility. it is then exposed, and every succeeding day appears to add to its white tint and durable quality. i saw some important improvements making in the outskirts of the town,[ ] in which they were finishing shafts and capitals of columns in a manner the most correct and gratifying. still farther from the immediate vicinity of caen, they find stone of a closer grain; and with this they make stair-cases, and pavements for the interior of buildings. indeed the stone stair-cases in this place, which are usually circular, and projecting from the building, struck me as being equally curious and uncommon. it is asserted that they have different kinds of _marble_ in the department of calvados, which equal that of the south of france. at _basly_ and _vieux_ white marble is found which has been judged worthy of a comparison with parian; but this is surely a little presumptuous. however, it is known that cardinal richelieu brought from vieux all the marble with which he built the chapel in the college of the sorbonne. upon the whole, as to general appearance, and as to particular society, caen may be preferable to rouen. the costume and manners of the common people are pretty much, if not entirely, the same; except that, as to dress, the _cauchoise_ is here rather more simple than at dieppe and rouen. the upper fille-de-chambre at our hotel displays not only a good correct model of national dress, but she is well-looking in her person, and well-bred in her manners. mr. lewis prevailed upon this good-natured young woman to sit for her likeness, and for the sake of her costume. the girl's eyes sparkled with more than ordinary joy at the proposal, and even an expression of gratitude mingled itself in her manner of compliance. i send you the figure and dress of the fille-de-chambre at the _hotel royale_ of caen.[ ] [illustration: fille de chambre, caen.] caen is called the dépôt of the english.[ ] in truth there is an amazing number of our countrymen here, and from very different causes. one family comes to reside from motives of economy; another from those of education; a third from those of retirement; and a fourth from pure love of sitting down, in a strange place, with the chance of making some pleasant connection, or of being engaged in seeking some strange adventure: good and cheap living, and novel society, are doubtless the main attractions. but there is desperate ill blood just now between the _caennois_ (i will not make use of the enlarged term _francois_) and the english; and i will tell you the cause. do you remember the emphatic phrase in my last, "all about the duel?" listen. about three weeks only before our arrival,[ ] a duel was fought between a young french law-student, and a young englishman; the latter the son of a naval captain. i will mention no names; and so far not wound the feelings of the friends of the parties concerned. but this duel, my friend, has been "the duel of duels"--on the score of desperation, and of a fixed purpose to murder. it is literally without precedent, and i trust will never be considered as one. you must know then, that caen, in spite of all the "bouleversemens" of the revolution, has maintained its ancient reputation of possessing a very large seminary, or college for students at law. these students amount to nearly in number. most young gentlemen under twenty years of age are at times riotous, or frolicsome, or foolish. generally speaking, however, the students conduct themselves with propriety: but there had been a law-suit between a french and english suitor, and the judge pronounced sentence in favour of our countryman. the hall was crowded with spectators, and among them was a plentiful number of law-students. as they were retiring, one young frenchman either made frightful faces, or contemptible gestures, in a very fixed and insulting manner, at a young englishman--the son of this naval captain. our countryman had no means or power of noticing or resenting the insult, as the aggressor was surrounded by his companions. it so happened that it was fair time at caen; and in the evening of the same day, our countryman recognised, in the crowd at the fair, the physiognomy of the young man who had insulted him in the hall of justice. he approached him, and gave him to understand that his rude behaviour should be noticed at a proper time and in a proper place: whereupon the frenchman came up to him, shook him violently by the arm, and told him to "fix his distance on the ensuing morning." now the habit of duelling is very common among these law-students; but they measure twenty-five paces, fire, and of course ... miss--and then fancy themselves great heroes ... and there is an end of the affair. not so upon the present occasion. "fifteen paces," if you please--said the student, sarcastically, with a conviction of the backwardness of his opponent to meet him. "five, rather"--exclaimed the provoked englishman--"i will fight you at five paces:"--and it was agreed that they should meet and fight on the morrow, at five paces only asunder. each party was under twenty; but i believe the english youth had scarcely attained his nineteenth year. what i am about to relate will cause your flesh to creep. it was determined by the seconds, as _one_ must necessarily _fall_, from firing at so short a distance, that only _one_ pistol should be loaded with _ball_: the other having nothing but _powder_:--and that, as the frenchman had challenged, he was to have the choice of the pistols. they parted. the seconds prepared the pistols according to agreement, and the fatal morning came. the combatants appeared, without one jot of abatement of spirit or of cool courage. the pistols lay upon the grass before them: one loaded only with powder, and the other with powder and ball. the frenchman advanced: took up a pistol, weighed and balanced it most carefully in his hand, and then ... laid it down. he seized the other pistol, and cocking it, fixed himself upon the spot from whence he was to fire. the english youth was necessarily compelled to take the abandoned pistol. five paces were then measured ... and on the signal being given, they both fired ... and the frenchman fell ... dead upon the spot! the frenchman had in fact _taken up_, but afterwards _laid down_, the very pistol which was loaded with the fatal _ball_--on the supposition that it was of too light a weight; and even seemed to compliment himself upon his supposed sagacity on the occasion. but to proceed. the ball went through his heart, as i understood. the second of the deceased on seeing his friend a reeking corpse at his feet, became mad and outrageous ... and was for fighting the survivor immediately! upon which, the lad of mettle and courage replied, that he would not fight a man without a _second_--"but go," said he, (drawing his watch coolly from his fob). i will give you twenty minutes to come back again with your second." he waited, with his watch in his hand, and by the dead body of his antagonist, for the return of the frenchman; but on the expiration of the time, his own second conjured him to consult his safety and depart; for that, from henceforth, his life was in jeopardy. he left the ground; obtained his passport, and quitted the town instantly ... the dead body of his antagonist was then placed on a bier: and his funeral was attended by several hundreds of his companions--who, armed with muskets and swords, threatened destruction to the civil and military authorities if they presumed to interfere. all this has necessarily increased the ill-blood which is admitted to exist between the english and french ... but the affair is now beginning to blow over.[ ] a truce to such topics. it is now time to furnish you with some details relating to your favourite subjects of architectural antiquities and bibliography. the former shall take precedence. first of the _streets_; secondly of the _houses_; and thirdly of the _public buildings_; ecclesiastical and civil. to begin with the streets. those of _st. pierre, notre dame_, and _st. jean_ are the principal for bustle and business. the first two form one continuous line, leading to the abbey of st. stephen, and afford in fact a very interesting stroll to the observer of men and manners. the shops are inferior to those of rouen, but a great shew of business is discernible in them. the street beyond the abbey, and those called _guilbert_, and _des chanoines_, leading towards the river, are considered among the genteelest. ducarel pronounced the _houses_ of caen "mean in general, though usually built of stone;" but i do not agree with him in this conclusion. the open parts about the _lycée_ and the _abbey of st. stephen_, together with the _place royale_, where the library is situated, form very agreeable spaces for the promenade of the ladies and the exercise of the national guard. the _courts_ are full of architectural curiosities, but mostly of the time of francis i. of _domestic_ architecture, those houses, with elaborate carvings in wood, beneath a pointed roof, are doubtless of the greatest antiquity. there are a great number of these; and some very much older than others. a curious old house is to the right hand corner of the street _st. jean_: as you go to the post office. but i must inform you that the residence of the famous malherbe yet exists in the street leading to the abbey of st. stephen. this house is of the middle of the sixteenth century: and what corneille is to _rouen_, malherbe is to _caen_. "ici naquit malherbe," &c. as you will perceive from the annexed view of this house, inscribed upon the front of the building. malherbe has been doomed to receive greater honours. his head was first struck, in a series of medals, to perpetuate the resemblances of the most eminent literary characters (male and female) in france: and it is due to the amiable pierre-aimé lair to designate him as the father of this medallic project. [illustration] in perambulating this town, one cannot but be surprised at the absence of _fountains_--those charming pieces of architecture and of street embellishment. in this respect, rouen has infinitely the advantage of caen: where, instead of the trickling current of translucent water, we observe nothing but the partial and perturbed stream issuing from ugly _wells_[ ] as tasteless in their structure as they are inconvenient in the procuring of water. upon one or two of these wells, i observed the dates of and . the public edifices, however, demand a particular and appropriate description: and first of those of the ecclesiastical order. let us begin therefore with the abbey of st. stephen; for it is the noblest and most interesting on many accounts. it is called by the name of that saint, inasmuch as there stood formerly a chapel, on the same site, dedicated to him. the present building was completed and solemnly dedicated by william the conqueror, in the presence of his wife, his two sons robert and william, his favourite archbishop lanfranc, john archbishop of rouen, and thomas archbishop of york--towards the year : but i strongly suspect, from the present prevailing character of the architecture, that nothing more than the west front and the towers upon which the spires rest, remain of its ancient structure. the spires (as the abbé de la rue conjectures, and as i should also have thought) are about two centuries later than the towers. the outsides of the side aisles appear to be of the thirteenth, rather than of the end of the eleventh, century. the first exterior view of the west front, and of the towers, is extremely interesting; from the grey and clear tint, as well as excellent quality, of the stone, which, according to huet, was brought partly from vaucelle and partly from allemagne.[ ] one of the corner abutments of one of the towers has fallen down; and a great portion of what remains seems to indicate rapid decay. the whole stands indeed greatly in need of reparation. ducarel, if i remember rightly,[ ] has made, of this whole front, a sort of elevation, as if it were intended for a wooden model to work by: having all the stiffness and precision of an erection of forty-eight hours standing only. the central tower is of very stunted dimensions, and overwhelmed by a roof in the form of an extinguisher. this, in fact, was the consequence of the devastations of the calvinists; who absolutely sapped the foundation of the tower, with the hope of overwhelming the whole choir in ruin--but a part only of their malignant object was accomplished. the component parts of the eastern extremity are strangely and barbarously miscellaneous. however, no good commanding exterior view can be obtained from the _place_, or confined square, opposite the towers. but let us return to the west-front; and opening the unfastened green-baize covered door, enter softly and silently into the venerable interior--sacred even to the feelings of englishmen! of this interior, very much is changed from its original character. the side aisles retain their flattened arched roofs and pillars; and in the nave you observe those rounded pilasters--or alto-rilievo-like pillars--running from bottom to top, which are to be seen in the abbey of jumieges. the capitals of these long pillars are comparatively of modern date. to the left on entrance, within a side chapel, is the burial place of matilda, the wife of the conqueror. the tombstone attesting her interment is undoubtedly of the time. generally speaking, the interior is cold, and dull of effect. the side chapels, of which not fewer than sixteen encircle the choir, have the discordant accompaniments of grecian balustrades to separate them from the choir and nave. there is a good number of _confessionals_ within them; and at one of these i saw, for the first time, _two_ women, kneeling, in the act of confession to the _same priest_. "c'est un peu fort," observed our guide in an under-voice, and with a humourous expression of countenance! meanwhile mr. lewis, who was in an opposite direction in the cathedral, was exercising his pencil in the following delineation of a similar subject. [illustration] to the right of the choir (in the sacristy, i think,) is hung the huge portrait, in oil, within a black and gilt frame, of which ducarel has published an engraving, on the supposition of its being the portrait of william the conqueror. but nothing can be more ridiculous than such a conclusion. in the first place, the picture itself, which is a palpable copy, cannot be older than a century; and, in the second place, were it an original performance, it could not be older than the time of francis i:--when, in fact, it purports to have been executed--as a faithful copy of the figure of king william, seen by the cardinals in , who were seized with a sacred phrenzy to take a peep at the body as it might exist at that time! the costume of the oil-painting is evidently that of the period of our henry viii.; and to suppose that the body of william--even had it remained in so surprisingly perfect a state as ducarel intimates, after an interment of upwards of four hundred years--could have presented such a costume, when, from ducarel's own statement, another whole-length representation of the same person is _totally different_--and more decidedly of the character of william's time--is really quite a reproach to any antiquary who plumes himself upon the possession even of common sense. in the middle of the choir, and just before the high altar, the body of the conqueror was entombed with great pomp; and a monument erected to his memory of the most elaborate and costly description. nothing now remains but a flat black marble slab, with a short inscription, of quite a recent date. in the present state of the abbey,[ ] and even in that of ducarel's time, there is, and was, a great dearth of sepulchral monuments. indeed i know not whether you need be detained another minute within the interior; except it be, to add your share of admiration to that which has been long and justly bestowed on the huge organ[ ] at the west end of the nave, which is considered to be the finest in all france. but normandy abounds in church decorations of this kind. leaving therefore this venerable pile, endeared to the british antiquary by a thousand pleasing associations of ideas, we strike off into an adjoining court yard, and observe the ruins of a pretty extensive pile of building, which is called by ducarel the _palace of the conqueror_. but in this supposed palace, in its _present_ state, most assuredly william i. _never_ resided: for it is clearly not older than the thirteenth century: if so ancient. ducarel saw a great deal more than is now to be seen; for, in fact, as i attempted to gain entrance into what appeared to be the principal room, i was stopped by an old woman, who assured me "qu'il n'y avoit rien que du chauffage." it was true enough: the whole of the untenanted interior contained nothing but wood fuel. returning to the principal street, and making a slight digression to the right, you descend somewhat abruptly by the side of a church in ruins, called _st. etienne le vieil_. in ducarel's time this church is described as entire. on the exterior of one of the remaining buttresses is a whole length figure, about four english feet in height (as far as i could guess by the eye) of a man on horseback--mutilated--trampling upon another man at its feet. it is no doubt a curious and uncommon ornament. but, would you believe it? this figure also, in the opinion of bourgueville,[ ] was intended for william the the conqueror--representing his triumphant entry into caen! as an object of art, even in its present mutilated state, it is highly interesting; and i rejoice that mr. cotman is likely to preserve the little that remains from the hazard of destruction by the fidelity of his own copy of it.[ ] it is quite clear that, close to the figure, you discover traces of style which are unequivocally of the time of francis i. the interior of what remains of this consecrated edifice is converted "horresco referens" into a receptacle for ... carriages for hire. not far from this spot stood formerly a magnificent cross--demolished during the memorable visit of the calvinists.[ ] in the way to the abbey of the trinity, quite at the opposite or eastern extremity of the town, you necessarily pass along the _rue st. pierre_, and enter into the market-place, affording an opening before the most beautiful church in all normandy. it is the church of _st. pierre de darnetal_ of which i now speak, and from which the name of the street is derived. the tower and spire are of the most admirable form and workmanship.[ ] the extreme delicacy and picturesque effect of the stone tiles, with which the spire is covered, as well as the lightness and imposing consequence given to the tower upon which the spire rests, are of a character peculiar to itself. the whole has a charming effect. but severe criticism compels one to admit that the body of the church is defective in fine taste and unity of parts. the style is not only florid gothic, but it is luxuriant, even to rankness, if i may so speak. the parts are capriciously put together: filled, and even crammed, with ornaments of apparently all ages: concluding with the grecian mixture introduced in the reign of francis i. the buttresses are, however, generally, lofty and airy. in the midst of this complicated and corrupt style of architecture, the tower and spire rise like a structure built by preternatural hands; and i am not sure that, at this moment, i can recollect any thing of equal beauty and effect in the whole range of ecclesiastical edifices in our own country. look at this building, from any part of the town, and you must acknowledge that it has the strongest claims to unqualified admiration.[ ] the body of the church is of very considerable dimensions. i entered it on a sunday morning, about eleven o'clock, and found it quite filled with a large congregation, in which the _cauchoise_, as usual, appeared like a broad white mass--from one end to the other. the priests were in procession. one of the most magnificent organs imaginable was in full intonation, with every stop opened; the voices of the congregation were lustily exercised; and the offices of religion were carried on in a manner which would seem to indicate a warm sense of devotion among the worshippers. there is a tolerably good set of modern paintings (the best which i have yet seen in the interior of a church) of the _life of christ_, in the side chapels. the eastern extremity, or the further end of _our lady's chapel_, is horribly bedaubed and over-loaded with the most tasteless specimens of what is called gothic art, perhaps ever witnessed! the great bell of this church, which has an uncommonly deep and fine tone, is for ever swinging slow with solemn roar! that is to say:--it is tolling from five in the morning till ten at night; so incessantly, in one side-chapel or another, are these offices carried on within this maternal parish church.[ ] i saw, with momentary astonishment, the leaning tower of a church in the _rue st. jean_,[ ] which is one of the principal streets in the town: and which is terminated by the _place des cazernes_, flanked by the river orne. in this street i was asked, by a bookseller, two pounds two shillings, for a thumbed and cropt copy of the _elzevir-heinsius horace_ of ; but with which demand i did not of course comply. in fact, they have the most extravagant notions of the prices of elzevirs, both here and at rouen. you must now attend me to the most interesting public building, perhaps all things considered, which is to be seen at caen. i mean, the _abbey of the holy trinity_, or l'abbaye aux dames.[ ] this abbey was founded by the wife of the conqueror, about the same time that william erected that of st. stephen. ducarel's description of it, which i have just seen in a copy of the _anglo-norman antiquities_, in a bookseller's shop, is sufficiently meagre. his plates are also sufficiently miserable: but things are strangely altered since his time. the nave of the church is occupied by a manufactory for making cordage, or twine; and upwards of a hundred lads are now busied in their _flaxen_ occupations, where formerly the nun knelt before the cross, or was occupied in auricular confession. the entrance at the western extremity is entirely stopped up: but the exterior gives manifest proof of an antiquity equal to that of the abbey of st. stephen. the upper part of the towers are palpably of the fifteenth, or rather of the early part of the sixteenth century. i had no opportunity of judging of the neat pavement of the floor of the nave, in white and black marble, as noticed by ducarel, on account of the occupation of this part of the building by the manufacturing children; but i saw some very ancient tomb-stones (one i think of the twelfth century) which had been removed from the nave or side aisles, and were placed against the sides of the north transept. the nave is entirely _walled up_ from the transepts, but the choir is fortunately preserved; and a more perfect and interesting specimen of its kind, of the same antiquity, is perhaps no where to be seen in normandy. all the monuments as well as the altars, described by ducarel, are now taken away. having ascended a stone staircase, we got into the upper part of the choir, above the first row of pillars--and walked along the wall. this was rather adventurous, you will say: but a more adventurous spirit of curiosity had nearly proved fatal to me: for, on quitting daylight, we pursued a winding stone staircase, in our way to the central tower--to enjoy from hence a view of the town. i almost tremble as i relate it. there had been put up a sort of temporary wooden staircase, leading absolutely to ... nothing: or, rather, to a dark void space. i happened to be foremost in ascending, yet groping in the dark--with the guide luckily close behind me. having reached the topmost step, i was raising my foot to a supposed higher or succeeding step ... but there was _none_. a depth of eighteen feet at least was below me. the guide caught my coat, as i was about to lose my balance--and roared out "arrêtez--tenez!" the least balance or inclination, one way or the other, is sufficient, upon these critical occasions: when luckily, from his catching my coat, and pulling me in consequence slightly backwards, my fall ... and my life ... were equally saved! i have reason from henceforth to remember the abbaye aux dames at caen. i gained the top of the central tower, which is not of equal altitude with those of the western extremity, and from thence surveyed the town, as well as the drizzling rain would permit. i saw enough however to convince me that the site of this abbey is fine and commanding. indeed it stands nearly upon the highest ground in the town. ducarel had not the glorious ambition to mount to the top of the tower; nor did he even possess that most commendable of all species of architectural curiosity, a wish to visit the crypt. thus, in either extremity--i evinced a more laudable spirit of enterprise than did my old-fashioned predecessor. accordingly, from the summit, you must accompany me to the lowest depth of the building. i descended by the same (somewhat intricate) route, and i took especial care to avoid all "temporary wooden stair-cases." the crypt, beneath the choir, is perhaps of yet greater interest and beauty than the choir itself. within an old, very old, stone coffin--at the further circular end--are the pulverized remains of one of the earliest abbesses.[ ] i gazed around with mixed sensations of veneration and awe, and threw myself back into centuries past, fancying that the shrouded figure of matilda herself glided by, with a look as if to approve of my antiquarian enthusiasm! having gratified my curiosity by a careful survey of this subterraneous abode, i revisited the regions of day-light, and made towards the large building, now a manufactory, which in ducarel's time had been a nunnery. the revolution has swept away every human being in the character of a nun; but the director of the manufactory shewed me, with great civility, some relics of old crosses, rings, veils, lachrymatories, &c. which had been taken from the crypt i had recently visited. these relics savoured of considerable antiquity. tom hearne would have set about proving that they _must_ have belonged to matilda herself; but i will have neither the presumption nor the merit of attempting this proof. they seemed indeed to have undergone half a dozen decompositions. upon the whole, if our antiquarian society, after having exhausted the cathedrals of their own country, should ever think of perpetuating the principal ecclesiastical edifices of normandy, by means of the _art of engraving_, let them begin their labours with the abbaye aux dames at caen. the foregoing, my dear friend, are the principal ecclesiastical buildings in this place. there are other public edifices, but comparatively of a modern date. and yet i should be guilty of a gross omission were i to neglect giving you an account, however superficial, of the remains of an apparently castellated building, a little beyond the abbaye aux dames--or rather to the right, upon elevated ground, as you enter the town by the way we came. as far as i can discover, this appears to have escaped ducarel.[ ] it is doubtless a very curious relic. running along the upper part of the walls, there is a series of basso-relievo heads, medallion-wise, cut in stone, evidently intended for portraits. they are assuredly not older than the reign of francis i. and may be even as late as that of henry ii. among these rude medallions, is a female head, with a ferocious-looking man on each side of it, either saluting the woman, or whispering in her ear. but the most striking objects are the stone figures of two men, upon a circular tower, of which one is in the act of shooting an arrow, and the other as if holding a drawn sword. i got admittance within the building; and ascending the tower, found that these were only the _trunks_ of figures,--and removable at pleasure. i could only stroke their beards and shake their bodies a little, which was of course done with impunity. whether the present be the _original_ place of their destination may be very doubtful. the abbé de la rue, with whom i discoursed upon the subject yesterday morning, is of opinion that these figures are of the time of louis xi.: which makes them a little more ancient than the other ornaments of the building. as to the interior, i could gather nothing with certainty of the original character of the place from the present remains. the earth is piled up, here and there, in artificial mounds covered with grass: and an orchard, and rich pasture land (where i saw several women milking cows) form the whole of the interior scenery. however the _caennois_ are rather proud of this building. leaving you to your own conclusions respecting the date of its erection, and "putting the colophon" to this disquisition respecting the principal public buildings at caen, it is high time to assure you how faithfully i am always yours. [ ] ["besides her numerous public schools, caen possesses two schools of art--one for design, the other for architecture and ornament--where the students are _gratuitously_ instructed." licquet.] [ ] it is called _vin huet_--and is the last wine which a traveller will be disposed to ask for. when henry iv. passed through the town, he could not conceive why such excellent grapes should produce such execrable wine. i owe this intelligence to mons. licquet. [ ] somewhere about english acres. [ ] [i had before said _twenty_--but mons. licquet observes, i might have said--thirty thousand pairs of hands.] [ ] caen was celebrated for its table linen three centuries ago. consult bourgueville: _antiquitez de caen_; , vo. p. . [ ] the fauxbourgs of caen, in the present day, wear a melancholy contrast to what they appear to have done in the middle of the xvith century. consult the pleasantly penned description of these fauxbourgs by the first topographer of the place, bourgueville: in his _antiquitez de caen_, pp. , , . it may be worth subjoining, from the same interesting authority, that long after the time even of the publication just referred to, the town of caen was surrounded by lofty and thick stone walls--upon the tops of which three men could walk a-breast: and from thence the inhabitants could discern, across those large and beautiful gardens, "the vessels sailing in the river orne, and unloading their cargoes by the sides of walls." it appears indeed to have been a sort of lounge, or fashionable promenade--by means of various ladders for the purposes of ascent and descent. among the old prints and bird's-eye views of caen, which i saw in the collection of de boze at the royal library at paris, there is one accompanied by three pages of printed description, which begins with the lines of guillaume breton "villa potens, opulenta, situ spatiosa decora." see first edition, vol. i. p. . evelyn, in , thus describes the town of caen. "the whole town is handsomely built of that excellent stone so well knowne by that name in england. i was lead to a pretty garden, planted with hedges of alaternus, having at the entrance, at an exceeding height, accurately cut in topiary worke, with well understood architecture, consisting of pillars, niches, freezes, and other ornaments, with greate curiosity, &c. _life and writings of j. evelyn_, , to. vol. i. p. . [ ] see the opposite plate. [ ] it was a similar dépôt in ducarel's time. [ ] the story was in fact told us the very first night of our arrival, by m. lagouelle, the master of the hotel royale. he went through it with a method, emphasis, and energy, rendered the more striking from the obesity of his figure and the vulgarity of his countenance. but he frankly allowed that "monsieur l'anglois se conduisait bien." [ ] [the affair is now scarcely remembered; and the successful champion died a natural death within about three years afterwards. mons. licquet slenderly doubts portions of this tragical tale: but i have good reason to believe that it is not an exaggerated one. as to what occurred _after_ the death of one of the combatants, i am unwilling to revive unpleasant sensations by its recapitulation.] [ ] bourgueville seems bitterly to lament the substitution of wells for fountains. he proposes a plan, quite feasible in his own estimation, whereby this desirable object might be effected: and then retorts upon his townsmen by reminding them of the commodious fountains at _lisieux, falaise and vire_--of which the inhabitants "n'ont rien espargné pour auoir ceste decoration et commodité en leurs villes."--spiritedly adding--"si j'estois encore en auctorité, j'y ferois mon pouuoir, et ie y offre de mes biens." p. . [ ] [i am most prompt to plead guilty to a species of _hippopotamos_ error, in having here translated the word _allemagne_ into germany! now, although this translation, per se, be correct, yet, as applicable to the text, it is most incorrect--as the _allemagne_ in question happens to be a _parish in the neighbourhood of caen_! my translator, in turn, treats me somewhat tenderly when he designates this as "une méprise fort singulière." vol. ii. p. .] [ ] the plate of ducarel, here alluded to, forms the fourth plate in his work; affording, from the starch manner in which it is engraved, an idea of one of the most disproportioned, ugly buildings imaginable. mr. cotman has favoured us with a good bold etching of the west front, and of the elevation of compartments of the nave; the former is at once faithful and magnificent; but the lower part wants characteristic markings. [ ] it should be noticed that, "besides the immense benefactions which william in his life time conferred upon this abbey, he, on his death, presented thereto the _crown_ which he used to wear at all high festivals, together with his _sceptre and rod_: a cup set with precious stones; his candlesticks of gold, and all his regalia: as also the ivory bugle-horn which usually hung at his back." _anglo-norman antiquities_, p. . note. the story of the breaking open of the coffin by the calvinists, and finding the conqueror's remains, is told by bourgueville--who was an _eye witness_ of these depredations, and who tried to "soften the obdurate hearts" of the pillagers, but in vain. this contemporaneous historian observes that, in his time "the abbey was filled with beautiful and curious stained-glass windows and harmonious organs, which were all broken and destroyed--and that the seats, chairs, &c. and all other wooden materials were consumed by fire," p. . huet observes that a "dom jean de baillehache and dom matthieu de la dangie," religious of st. stephen's, took care of the monument of the conqueror in the year , and replaced it in the state in which it appeared in huet's time." _origines de caen_; p. . the revolution was still more terrible than the calvinistic fury;--for no traces of the monument are now to be seen. [ ] the west window is almost totally obscured by a most gigantic organ built close to it, and allowed to be the finest in all france. this organ is so big, as to require eleven large bellows, &c. _ducarel_, p. . he then goes on to observe, that "amongst the plate preserved in the treasury of this church, is a curious silver salver, about ten inches in diameter, gilt, and inlaid with antique medals. tradition assures us, that it was on this salver, that king william the conqueror placed the foundation charter of the abbey when he presented it, at the high altar, on the dedication of the church. the edges of this salver, which stands on a foot stalk of the same metal, are a little turned up, and carved. in the centre is inlaid a greek medal; on the obverse whereof is this legend, [greek: ausander aukonos] but it being fixed in its socket, the reverse is not visible. the other medals, forty in number, are set round the rim, in holes punched quite through; so that the edges of the holes serve as frames for the medals. these medals are roman, and in the highest preservation." [ ] yet bourgueville's description of the group, as it appeared in his time, trips up the heels of his own conjecture. he says that there were, besides the two figures above mentioned, "vn autre homme et femme à genoux, comme s'ils demandoient raison de la mort de leur enfant, qui est vne antiquité de grand remarque dont je ne puis donner autre certitude de l'histoire." _antiquitez de caen_; p. . now, it is this additional portion of the group (at present no longer in existence) which should seem to confirm the conjecture of my friend mr. douce--that it is a representation of the received story, in the middle ages, of the emperor trajan being met by a widow who demanded justice against the murderer of her son. the emperor, who had just mounted his horse to set out upon some hostile expedition, replied, that "he would listen to her on his return." the woman said, "what, if you never return?" "my successor will satisfy you"--he replied--"but how will that benefit you,"--resumed the widow. the emperor then descended from his horse, and enquiring into the woman's case, caused justice to be done to her. some of the stories say that the murderer was the emperor's own son. [ ] [since the publication of the first edition of this work, the figure in question has appeared from the pencil and burin of mr. cotman; of which the only fault, as it strikes me, is, that the surface is too rough--or the effect too sketchy.] [ ] bourgueville has minutely described it in his _antiquities_; and his description is copied in the preceding edition of this work. [ ] bourgueville is extremely particular and even eloquent in his account of the tower, &c. he says that he had "seen towers at paris, rouen, toulouse, avignon, narbonne, montpelier, lyons, amiens, chartres, angiers, bayeux, constances, (qu. coutances?) and those of st. stephen at caen, and others, in divers parts of france, which are built in a pyramidal form--but this tower ot st. peter exceeded all the others, as well in its height, as in its curious form of construction." _antiq. de caen_; p. . he regrets, however, that the _name of the architect_ has not descended to us. [it is right to correct an error, in the preceding edition, which has been committed on the authority of ducarel. that antiquary supposed the tower and spire to have been built by the generosity of one nicholas, an englishman." mons. licquet has, i think, reclaimed the true author of such munificence, as his _own_ countryman.--nicolas langlois:--whose name thus occurs in his epitaph, preserved by bourgueville. _le vendredi, devant tout droict_ _la saint cler que le temps n'est froit,_ _trespassa_ nicolle l'anglois, _l'an mil trois cens et dix sept._] &c. &c. reverting, to old bourgueville, i cannot take leave of him without expressing my hearty thanks for the amusement and information which his unostentatious octavo volume--entitled _les recherches et antiquitez de la ville et université de caen, &c_. (à caen, , vo.) has afforded me. the author, who tells us he was born in , lived through the most critical and not unperilous period of the times in which he wrote. his plan is perfectly artless, and his style as completely simple. nor does his fidelity appear impeachable. such ancient volumes of topography are invaluable--as preserving the memory of things and of objects, which, but for such record, had perished without the hope or chance of recovery. [ ] [ten years have elapsed since this sentence was written, and the experience gained in those years only confirms the truth (according to the conception of the author) of the above assertion. such a tower and spire, if found in england, must be looked for in salisbury cathedral; but though this latter be much loftier, it is stiff, cold, and formal, comparatively with that of which the text makes mention.] [ ] [for six months in the year--that is to say, from lady day till michaelmas day--this great bell tolls, at a quarter before ten, as a curfew.] [ ] a plate of it may be found in the publication of mr. dawson turner, and of mr. cotman. [ ] of this building mr. cotman has published the west front, east end, exterior and interior; great arches under the tower; crypt; east side of south transept; elevation of the north side of the choir: elevation of the window; south side exterior; view down the nave, n.w. direction. [ ] bourgueville describes the havoc which took place within this abbey at the memorable visit of the calvinists in . from plundering the church of st. stephen (as before described p. ,) they proceeded to commit similar ravages here:--"sans auoir respect ni reuerence à la dame abbesse, ni à la religion et douceur feminine des dames religieuses."--"plusieurs des officiers de la maison s'y trouucrent, vsans de gracieuses persuasions, pour penser flechir le coeur de ces plus que brutaux;" p. . [ ] unless it be what he calls "the fort of the holy trinity of caen; in which was constantly kept a garrison, commanded by a captain, whose annual pay was single crowns. this was demolished by charles, king of navarre, in the year , during the war which he carried on against charles the dauphin, afterwards charles v., &c." _anglo-norman antiquities_, p. . this castle, or the building once flanked by the walls above described, was twice taken by the english; once in , when they made an immense booty, and loaded their ships with the gold and silver vessels found therein; and the second time in , when they established themselves as masters of the place for years. _annuaire du calvados_; - ; p. . letter xiii. literary society. abbÉ de la rue. messrs. pierre-aimÉ lair and lamouroux. medal of malherbe. booksellers. memoir of the late m. moysant, public librarian. courts of justice. from the dead let me conduct you to the living. in other words, prepare to receive some account of _society_,--and of things appertaining to the formation of the intellectual character. caen can boast of a public literary society, and of the publication of its memoirs.[ ] but these "memoirs" consist at present of only six volumes, and are in our own country extremely rare. [illustration: abbÉ de la rue aetat. lxxiv.] among the men whose moral character and literary reputation throw a sort of lustre upon caen, there is no one perhaps that stands upon _quite_ so lofty an eminence as the abbÉ de la rue; at this time occupied in publishing a _history of caen_.[ ] as an archaeologist, he has no superior among his countrymen; while his essays upon the _bayeux tapestry_ and the _anglo-norman poets_, published in our _archæologia_, prove that there are few, even among ourselves, who could have treated those interesting subjects with more dexterity or better success. the abbé is, in short, the great archaeological oracle of normandy. he was pleased to pay me a visit at lagouelle's. he is fast advancing towards his seventieth year. his figure is rather stout, and above the mean height: his complexion is healthful, his eye brilliant, and a plentiful quantity of waving white hair adds much to the expression of his countenance.[ ] he enquired kindly after our mutual friend mr. douce; of whose talents and character he spoke in a manner which did equal honour to both. but he was inexorable, as to--_not_ dining with me; observing that his order was forbidden to dine in taverns. he gave me a list of places which i ought to visit in my further progress through normandy, and took leave of me more abruptly than i could have wished. he rarely visits caen, although a great portion of his library is kept there: his abode being chiefly in the country, at the residence of a nobleman to whose son he was tutor. it is delightful to see a man, of his venerable aspect and widely extended reputation, enjoying, in the evening of life, (after braving such a tempest, in the noon-day of it, as that of the revolution) the calm, unimpaired possession of his faculties, and the respect of the virtuous and the wise. the study of _natural history_ obtains pretty generally at caen; indeed they have an academy in which this branch of learning is expressly taught--and of which monsieur lamouroux[ ] is at once the chief ornament and instructor. this gentleman (to whom our friend mr. dawson turner furnished me with a letter of introduction) has the most unaffected manners, and a countenance particularly open and winning. he is "a very dragon" in his pursuit. on my second call, i found him busied in unpacking some baskets of seaweed, yet reeking with the briny moisture; and which he handled and separated and classed with equal eagerness and facility. the library of m. lamouroux is quite a workman-like library: filled with sensible, solid, and instructive books--and if he had only accepted a repeated and strongly-pressed invitation to dine with me at lagouelle's, to meet his learned brother pierre-aimÉ lair, nothing would have been wanting to the completion of his character! you have just heard the name of pierre-aimé lair. prepare to receive a sketch of the character to which that name appertains. this gentleman is not only the life and soul of the society--but of the very town--in which he moves. i walked with him, arm in arm, more than once, through very many streets, passages, and courts, which were distinguished for any relic of architectural antiquity. he was recognised and saluted by nearly one person out of three, in our progress. "je vous salue"--"vous voilà avec monsieur l'anglois"--"bon jour,"--"comment ca va-t-il:"--the activity of pierre-aimé lair is only equalled by his goodness of heart and friendliness of disposition. he is all kindness. call when you will, and ask for what you please, the object solicited is sure to be granted. he never seems to rise (and he is a very early riser) with spleen, ill-humour, or untoward propensities. with him, the sun seems always to shine, and the lark to tune her carol. and this cheerfulness of feeling is carried by him into every abode however gloomy, and every society however dull. but more substantial praise belongs to this amiable man. not only is pierre-aimé lair a lover and collector of tangible antiquities--such as glazed tiles, broken busts, old pictures, and fractured capitals--all seen in "long array", up the windings of his staircase--but he is a critic, and a patron of the _literary_ antiquities of his country. caen (as i told you in my last despatch) is the birth-place of malherbe; and, in the character now under discussion, it has found a perpetuator of the name and merits of the father of french verse. in the year our worthy antiquary put forth a project for a general subscription "for a medal in honour of _malherbe_,"[ ] which project was in due time rewarded by the names of _fifteen hundred_ efficient subscribers, at five francs a piece. the proposal was doubtless flattering to the literary pride of the french; and luckily the execution of it surpassed the expectations of the subscribers. the head is undoubtedly of the most perfect execution. not only, however, did this head of malherbe succeed--but a feeling was expressed that it might be followed up by a _series of heads_ of the most illustrious, of both sexes, in literature and the fine arts. the very hint was enough for lair: though i am not sure whether he be not the father of the _latter_ design also. accordingly, there has appeared, periodically, a set of heads of this description, in bronze or other metal, as the purchaser pleases--which has reflected infinite credit not only on the name of the projector of this scheme, but on the present state of the fine arts in france. yet another word about pierre-aimé lair. he is not so inexorable as m. lamouroux: for he _has_ dined with me, and quaffed the burgundy and champagne of lagouelle, commander in chief of this house. better wines cannot be quaffed; and malherbe and the duke of wellington formed the alternate subjects of discourse and praise. in return, i have dined with our guest. he had prepared an abundant dinner, and a very select society: but although there was no wand, as in the case of sancho panza, to charm away the dishes, &c. or to interdict the tasting of them, yet it was scarcely possible to partake of one in four... so unmercifully were they steeped and buried in _butter!_ the principal topic of discourse, were the merits of the poets of the respective countries of france and england, from which i have reason to think that pope, thomson, and young, are among the greatest favourites with the french. the white brandy of pierre-aimé lair, introduced after dinner, is hardly to be described for its strength and pungency. "vous n'avez rien comme ca chez vous?" "je le crois bien, (i replied) c'est la liquéfaction même du feu." we broke up before eight; each retiring to his respective avocations--but did not dine till five. i borrowed, however, "an hour or twain" of the evening, after the departure of the company, to enjoy the more particular conversation of our host; and the more i saw and conversed with him; the greater was my gratification. at parting, he loaded me with a pile of pamphlets, of all sizes, of his own publication; and i ventured to predict to him that he would terminate his multifarious labours by settling into consolidated bibliomaniacism. "on peut faire pire!"--was his reply--on shaking hands with me, and telling me he should certainly meet me again at _bayeux_, in my progress through normandy.[ ] my acquaintance with this amiable man seemed to be my security from insults in the streets. education here commences early, and with incitements as alluring as at rouen. poisson in the _rue froide_ is the principal, and indeed a very excellent, printer; but bonneserre, in the same street, has put forth a vastly pretty manual of infantine devotion, in a brochure of eight pages, of which i send you the first, and which you may compare with the specimen transmitted in a former letter.[ ] [illustration] chapolin, in the _rue-froide-rue,_ has recently published a most curious little manual, in the cursive secretary gothic, entitled "_la civilité honnête pour les enfans qui commence par la maniere d'apprendre et bien lire, prononcer et écrire_." i call it "curious," because the very first initial letter of the text, representing c, introduces us to the _bizarrerie_ of the early part of the xvith century in treatises of a similar character. take this first letter, with a specimen also of those to which it appertains. [illustration] this work is full of the old fashioned (and not a bit the worse on that account) precepts of the same period; such as we see in the various versions of the "de moribus juvenum," of which the "_contenance de la table,"_ in the french language, is probably the most popular. it is executed throughout in the same small and smudged gothic character; and, as i conceive; can have few purchasers. the printers of caen must not be dismissed without respectful mention of the typographical talents of le roy; who ranks after poisson. let both these be considered as the bulmer and bensley of the place. but among these venders of infantine literature, or of cheap popular pieces, there is no man who "drives such a trade" as picard-guerin, _imprimeur en taille-douce et fabricant d'images_," who lives in the _rue des teinturiers,_ no. . i paid him more than one visit; as, from, his "fabrication," issue the thousands and tens of thousands of broadsides, chap-books, &c. &c. which inundate lower normandy. you give from _one_ to _three_ sous, according as the subject be simple or compound, upon wood or upon copper:--saints, martyrs, and scriptural subjects; or heroes, chieftains, and monarchs, including the duke of wellington and louis xviii. le désiré--are among the taille-douces specified in the imprints. madame did me the honour of shewing me some of her choicest treasures, as her husband was from home. up stairs was a parcel of mirthful boys and girls, with painting brushes in their hands, and saucers of various colours before them. upon enquiry, i found that they received four sous per dozen, for colouring; but i will not take upon me to say that they were over or under paid--of so _equivocal_ a character were their performances. only i hoped to be excused if i preferred the plain to the coloured. in a foreign country, our notice is attracted towards things perhaps the most mean and minute. with this feeling, i examined carefully what was put before me, and made a selection sufficient to shew that it was the produce of french soil. among the serious subjects were _two_ to which i paid particular attention. the one was a metrical cantique of the _prodigal son,_ with six wood cuts above the text, exhibiting the leading points of the gospel-narrative. i will cut out and send you the _second_ of these six: in which you will clearly perceive the military turn which seems to prevail throughout france in things the most minute. the prodigal is about to mount his horse and leave his father's house, in the cloke and cock'd hat of a french officer. [illustration] the _fourth_ of these cuts is droll enough. it is entitled, "_l'enfant prodigue est chassé par ses maîtresses."_ the expulsion consists in the women driving him out of doors with besoms and hair-brooms. it is very probable, however, that all this character of absurdity attaches to some of our own representations of the same subject; if, instead of examining (as in pope's time) ... the walls of bedlam and soho, we take a survey of the graphic broadsides which dangle from strings upon the wall at hyde park corner. another subject of a serious character, which i am about to describe to you, can rarely, in all probability, be the production of a london artist. it is called "_notre-dame de la bonne délivrande_," and is necessarily confined to the religion of the country. you have here, first of all, a reduced form of the original: probably about one-third--and it is the more appropriate, as it will serve to give you a very correct notion of the dressing out of the figures of the virgin and child which are meant to grace the altars of the chapels of the virgin in most of the churches in normandy. is it possible that one spark of devotion can be kindled by the contemplation of an object so grotesque and so absurd in the house of god? [illustration: sainte marie, mÈre de dieu, priez pour nous] to describe all the trumpery which is immediately around it, in the original, would be a waste of time; but below are two good figures to the right, and two wretched ones to the left. beneath the whole, is the following _accredited_ consoling piece of intelligence: l'an , _des barbares descendent dans les gaules, massacrent les fidèles, profanent et brûlent les eglises. raoul, duc de normandie, se joint à eux; l'image de la ste. vierge demeure ensevelie sous les ruines de l'ancienne chapelle jusqu'au règne de henri i. l'an . beaudouin, baron de douvres, averti par son berger qu'un mouton de son troupeau fouillait toujours dans le même endroit, fit ouvrir la terre, et trouva ce trésor caché depuis tant d'années. il fit porter processionnellement cette sainte image dans l'eglise de douvres: mais dieu permit qu'elle fut transportée par un ange dans l'endroit de la chapelle où elle est maintenant révérée. c'est dans cette chapelle que, par l'intercession de marie, les pécheurs reçoivent leur conversion, les affligés leur consolation, les infirmes la santé, les captifs leur delivrance, que ceux qui sont en mer échappent aux tempêtes et au naufrage, et que des miracles s'opèrent journellement sur les pieux fidèles_. a word now for bibliopolists--including _bouquinistes_, or venders of "old and second-hand books." the very morning following my arrival in caen, i walked to the abbey of st. stephen, before breakfast, and in the way thither stopped at a book stall, to the right,--and purchased some black letter folios: among which the french version of _caesar's commentaries,_ printed by verard, in , was the most desirable acquisition. it is reserved for lord spencer's library;[ ] at a price which, freight and duty included, cannot reach the sum of twelve shillings of our money. of venders of second hand and old books, the elder and younger manoury take a decisive lead. the former lives in the _rue froide_; the latter in the _rue notre dame._ the father boasts of having upwards of thirty thousand volumes, but i much doubt whether his stock amount to one half of that number. he unhesitatingly asked me two _louis d'or_ for a copy of the _vaudevires_ of olivier basselin, which is a modern, but privately printed, volume; and of which i hope to give you some amusing particulars by and by. he also told me that he had formerly sold a paper copy of _fust's bible of ,_ with many of the illuminated initials cut out, to the library of the arsenal, at paris, for louis d'or. i only know that, if i had been librarian, he should not have had one half the money. now for manoury the younger. old and young are comparative terms: for be it known that the son is "agé de soixante ans." over his door you read an ancient inscription, thus: "_battu, percé, lié, je veux changer de main_." this implies either (like aladdin's old lamps for new) that he wishes to give new books in exchange for old ones, or that he can smarten up old ones by binding, or otherwise, and give them a renovated appearance. but the solution is immaterial: the inscription being as above. the interior of the younger manoury's book repository almost appalled me. his front shop, and a corridor communicating with the back part of the house, are rank with moisture; and his books are consequently rotting apace. upon my making as pitiable a statement as i was able of this melancholy state of things--and pleading with all my energies against the inevitable destruction which threatened the dear books--the obdurate bibliopolist displayed not one scintillation of sympathy. he was absolutely indifferent to the whole concern. in the back parlour, almost impervious to day-light, his daughter, and a stout and handsome bourgeoise, with rather an unusually elevated cauchoise, were regaling themselves with soup and herbs at dinner. i hurried through, in my way to the upper regions, with apologies for the intrusion; but was told that none were necessary--that i might go where, and stay as long, as i pleased--and that any explanation would be given to my interrogatories in the way of business. i expressed my obligations for such civility; and gaining an upper room, by the help of a chair, made a survey of its contents. what piles of interminable rubbish! i selected, as the only rational or desirable volume--half rotted with moisture--_belon's marine fishes_, , to; and placing six francs (the price demanded) upon the table, hurried back, through this sable and dismal territory, with a sort of precipitancy amounting to horrour. what struck me, as productive of a very extraordinary effect--was the cheerfulness and _gaieté de coeur_ of these females, in the midst of this region of darkness and desolation. manoury told me that the revolution had deprived him of the opportunity of having the finest bookselling stock in france! his own carelessness and utter apathy are likely to prove yet more destructive enemies. but let us touch a more "spirit-stirring" chord in the book theme. let us leave the _bouquiniste_ for the public library: and i invite you most earnestly to accompany me thither, and to hear matters of especial import. this library occupies the upper part of a fine large stone building, devoted to the public offices of government. the plan of the library is exceedingly striking; in the shape of a cross. it measures one hundred and thirty-four, by eighty, french feet; and is supposed, apparently with justice, to contain , volumes. it is proportionably wide and lofty. m. hÉbert is the present chief librarian, having succeeded the late m. moysant, his uncle. among the more eminent benefactors and bibliomaniacs, attached to this library, the name of francois martin is singularly conspicuous. he was, from all accounts, and especially from the information of m. hébert, one of the most raving of book-madmen: but he displayed, withal, a spirit of kindness and liberality towards his favourite establishment at caen, which could not be easily shaken or subdued. he was also a man of letters, and evinced that most commendable of all literary propensities--a love of the literature of his country. he amassed a very large collection of books, which was cruelly pillaged during the revolution; but the public library became possessed of a great number of them. in those volumes, formerly belonging to him, which are now seen, is the following printed inscription: "_franciscus martin, doctor theologus parisiensis, comparavit. oretur pro co_." he was head of the convent of cordeliers, and prefect of the province: but his mode of collecting was not always that which a public magistrate would call _legitimate_. he sought books every where; and when he could not _buy_ them, or obtain them by fair means, he would _steal_ them, and carry them home in the sleeves of his gown! he flourished about a century ago; and, with very few exceptions, all the best conditioned books in the library belonged to this magisterial book-robber. among them i noted down with singular satisfaction the aldine edition of _stephanus de urbibus_, , folio--in its old vellum binding: seemly to the eye, and comfortable to the touch. nor did his copy of the _repertorium statutorum ordinis cartusiensis_, printed by _amerbach, at basil_, in a glorious gothic character, , folio, escape my especial notice--also the same bibliomaniac's beautiful copy of the _mentz herbal_, of , in to. but the obliquities of martin assume a less questionable aspect, when we contemplate a noble work, which he not only projected, but left behind ready for publication. it is thus entitled: _athenæ normannorum veteres ac recentes, seu syllabus auctorum qui oriundi è normannia, &c._ it consists of one volume, in ms., having the authority of government, to publish it, prefixed. there is a short latin preface, by martin, followed by two pages of latin verses beginning thus: _in auctorum normannicorum syllabum. prolusio metrica. en syllabus prodit palàm contextus arte sedula ex litteratæ neustriæ auctoribus celebribus._ &c. &c. among the men, the memories of whom throw a lustre upon caen,[ ] was the famous samuel bochart; at once a botanist, a scholar, and a critic of distinguished celebrity. he was a native of rouen, and his books (many of them replete with valuable ms. notes) are among the chief treasures of the public library, here. indeed there is a distinct catalogue of them, and the funds left by their illustrious owner form the principal support of the library establishment. bochart's portrait, with those of many other benefactors to the library, adorns the walls; suspended above the books: affording a very agreeable coup-d'oeil. indeed the principal division of the library, the further end of which commands a pleasant prospect, is worthy of an establishment belonging to the capital of an empire. the kindness of m. hébert, and of his assistant, rendered my frequent sojournings therein yet more delectable. the portrait of his uncle, m. moysant, is among the ornaments of the chief room. though moysant was large of stature, his lungs were feeble, and his constitution was delicate. at the age of nineteen, he was appointed professor of grammar and rhetoric in the college of lisieux. he then went to paris, and studied under beau and batteux; when, applying himself more particularly to the profession of physic, he returned to caen, in his thirtieth year, and put on the cap of doctor of medicine; but he wanted either nerves or stamina for the successful exercise of his profession. he had cured a patient, after painful and laborious attention, of a very serious illness; but his patient chose to take liberties too soon with his convalescent state. he was imprudent: had a relapse; and was hurried to his grave. moysant took it seriously to heart, and gave up his business in precipitancy and disgust. in fact, he was of too sanguine and irritable a temperament for the display of that cool, cautious, and patient conduct, which it behoveth all young physicians to adopt, ere they can possibly hope to attain the honours or the wealth of the _halfords_ and _matons_ of the day! our moysant returned to the study of his beloved belles-lettres. at that moment, luckily, the society of the jesuits was suppressed; and he was called by the king, in , to fill the chair of rhetoric in one of the finest establishments of that body at caen. he afterwards successively became perpetual secretary of the academy of sciences, and vice-president of the society of agriculture. he was next dubbed by the university, dean of the faculty of arts, and was selected to pronounce the public oration upon the marriage of the unfortunate louis xvi. with marie antoinette. he was now a marked and distinguished public character. the situation of public librarian was only wanting to render his reputation complete, and _that_ he instantly obtained upon the death of his predecessor. with these occupations, he united that of instructing the english (who were always in the habit of visiting caen,) in the french language; and he obtained, in return, from some of his adult pupils, a pretty good notion of the laws and liberties of old england. the revolution now came on: when, like many of his respectable brethren, he hailed it at first as the harbinger of national reformation and prosperity. but he had soon reason to find that he had been deceived. however, in the fervour of the moment, and upon the suppression of the monastic and other public libraries, he received a very wide and unqualified commission to search all the libraries in the department of _calvados_, and to bring home to caen all the treasures he might discover. he set forth upon this mission with truly public spirited ideas: resolving (says his nephew) to do for normandy what dugdale and dodsworth had done for england--and a _monasticum neustriacum_ was the commendable object of his ambition. he promised much, and perhaps did more than he promised. his curious collection (exclusively of the cart-loads of books which were sent to caen) was shewn to his countrymen; but the guillotine was now the order of the day--when moysant "resolved to visit england, and submit to the english nobility the plan of his work, as that nation always attached importance to the preservation of the monuments, or literary materials, of the middle ages."--he knew (continues the nephew) how proud the english were of their descent from the norman nobles, and it was only to put them in possession of the means of preserving the unquestionable proofs of their origin. moysant accordingly came over with his wife, and they were both quickly declared emigrants; their return was interdicted; and our bibliomaniac learnt, with heart-rending regret, that they had resolved upon the sale of the national property in france. he was therefore to live by his wits; having spiritedly declined all offer of assistance from the english government. in this dilemma he published a work entitled "_bibliothèque des ecrivains français, ou choix des meilleurs morceaux en prose et en vers, extraits de leurs ouvrages_,"--a collection, which was formed with judgment, and which was attended with complete success. the first edition was in four octavo volumes, in ; the second, in six volumes ; a third edition, i think, followed, with a pocket dictionary of the english and french languages. it was during his stay amongst us that he was deservedly admitted a member of the society of antiquaries; but he returned to france in , before the appearance of the second edition of his _bibliothèque_; when, hawk-like, soaring or sailing in suspense between the book-atmospheres of paris and caen, he settled within the latter place--and again perched himself (at the united call of his townsmen) upon the chair destined for the public librarian! it was to give order, method, and freedom of access, to the enormous mass of books, which the dissolution of the monastic libraries had caused to be accumulated at caen, that moysant and his colleagues now devoted themselves with an assiduity as heroic as it was unintermitting. but the health of our generalissimo, which had been impaired during his residence in england, began to give way beneath such a pressure of fatigue and anxiety. yet it pleased providence to prolong his life till towards the close of the year : when he had the satisfaction of viewing his folios, quartos, octavos, and duodecimos, arranged in regular succession, and fair array; when his work was honestly done; and when future visitors had only to stretch forth their hands and gather the fruit which he had placed within their reach. his death (we are told)[ ] was gentle, and like unto sleep. religion had consoled him in his latter moments; and after having reposed upon its efficacy, he waited with perfect composure for the breathing of his last sigh! let the name of moysant be mentioned with the bibliomaniacal honours which, are doubtless its due!... from librarians, revert we to books: to the books in the public library of caen. the oldest printed volume contained in it, and which had been bound with a ms, on the supposition of its being a manuscript also, is numeister's impression of _aretinus de bella adversus gothós_, , folio; the first book from the press of the printer. i undeceived m. hébert, who had supposed it to be a ms. the lettering is covered with horn, and the book is bound in boards; "all proper." the oldest _latin bible_ they possess, is of the date of ; but there is preserved one volume of sweynheym and pannartz's impression of _de lyra's commentary upon the bible_, of the date of - , which luckily contains the list of books printed by those printers in their memorable supplicatory letter to pope sixtus iv. the earliest latin classic appears to be the _juvenal_ of , with the _commentary of calderinus_, printed at rome; unless a dateless impression of _lucan_, in the earliest type of gering, with the verses placed at a considerable distance from each other, claim chronological precedence. there is also a _valerius maximus_ of , by cæsaris and stol, but without their names. it is a large copy, soiled at the beginning. of the same date is gering's impression of the _legenda sanctorum_; and among the fifteeners i almost coveted a very elegant specimen of _jehan du pré's_ printing (with a device used by him never before seen by me,) of an edition of _la vie des peres_, , folio, in its original binding. i collected, from the written catalogue, that they had only forty-five works printed in the fifteenth century; and of these, none were of first-rate quality. among the mss., i was much struck with the beautiful penmanship of a work, in three folio volumes, of the middle of the sixteenth century, entitled; _divertissemens touchant le faict de la guerre, extraits des livres de polybe, frontin, vegece, cornazzan, machiavel, et autres bons autheurs."_ it has no illuminations, but the scription is beautiful. a _breviary of the church service of lisieux_, of the fifteenth century, has some pretty but common illuminations. it is not however free from injury. of more intrinsic worth is a ms. entitled _du costentin_, (a district not far from caen,) with the following prefix in the hand-writing of moysant. "ces mémoires sont de m. toustaint de billy, curé du mesnil au-parc, qui avoit travaillé toute sa vie à l'histoire du cotentin. ils sont rares et m'ont été accordes par m. jourdan, notaire, auquel ils appartenoient. le p. (père) le long et mons. teriet de fontette ne les out pas connu. moysantz." it is a small folio, in a neat hand-writing. another ms., or rather a compound of ms. and printed leaves, of yet considerably more importance, in folio volumes, is entitled _le moreri des normans, par joseph andrié guiat de rouen:_ on the reverse of the title, we read, "_supplément au dictionnaire de moreri pour ce qui concerne la province de normandie, et ses illustres_." a short preface follows; then an ode "aux grands hommes de normandie." it is executed in the manner of a dictionary, running in alphabetical order. the first volume extends to the letter i, and is illustrated with scraps from newspapers, and a few portraits. it is written pretty fully in double columns. the portrait and biography of _bouzard_ form an admirable specimen of biographical literary memoirs. the second volume goes to z. the third volume is entitled "_les trois siècles palinodiques, ou histoire générale des palinods de rouen, dieppe, &c._--by the same hand, with an equal quantity of matter. it is right that such labours should be noticed, for the sake of all future bliss-like editors of provincial literature. there is another similar work, in folio ms. volumes, relating to _coutance_. before we again touch upon printed books, but of a later period, it may be right to inform you that the treasures of this library suffered materially from the commotions of the calvinists. those hot-headed interpreters of scripture destroyed every thing in the shape of ornament or elegance attached to book-covers; and piles of volumes, however sacred, or unexceptionable on the score of good morals, were consigned to the fury of the flames. of the remaining volumes which i saw, take the following very rapid sketch. of _hours_, or _church services_, there is a prodigiously fine copy of an edition printed by _vostre_, in to., upon paper, without date. it is in the original ornamented cover, or binding, with a forest of rough edges to the leaves--and doubtless the finest copy of the kind i ever saw. compared with this, how inferior, in every respect is a cropt copy of _kerver's_ impression of a similar work, printed upon vellum! this latter is indeed a very indifferent book; but the rough usage it has met with is the sole cause of such inferiority. i was well pleased with a fair, sound copy of the _speculum stultorum_, in to., bl. letter, in hexameter and pentameter verses, without date. nor did i examine without interest a rare little volume entitled "_les origines de quelques coutumes anciennes, et de plusieurs façons de parler triviales. avec un vieux manuscrit en vers, touchant l'origine des chevaliers bannerets_; printed at caen in , mo.: a curious little work. they have a fine (royal) copy of _walton's polyglot_, with an excellent impression of the head; and a large paper copy of _stephen's greek glossary_; in old vellum binding, with a great number of ms. notes by bochart. also a fine large paper _photius_ of , folio. but among their large papers, few volumes tower with greater magnificence than do the three folios of _la sainte bible_, printed by the elzevirs at amsterdam, in . they are absolutely fine creatures; of the stateliest dimensions and most attractive forms. they also pretend that their large paper copy of the first edition of _huet's praeparatio evangelica_, in folio, is unique. probably it is, as the author presented it to the library himself. the _basil eustathius_ of , in volumes folio, is as glorious a copy as is mr. grenville's of the roman edition of .[ ] it is in its pristine membranaceous attire--the vellum lapping over the fore-edges, in the manner of mr. heber's copy of the first aldine aristotle,--most comfortable to behold! there is a fine large paper copy of _montaigne's essays_, , folio, containing two titles and a portrait of the author. it is bound in red morocco, and considered by m. hébert a most rare and desirable book. indeed i was told that one collector in particular was exceedingly anxious to obtain it. i saw a fine copy of the folio edition of _ronsard_, printed in , which is considered rare. there is also a copy of the well known _liber nanceidos_, from bochart's library, with a few ms. notes by bochart himself. here i saw, for the first time, a french metrical version of the works of _virgil, by robert and anthony chevaliers d'agneaux freres, de vire, en normandie_; published at paris in , in elegant italic type; considered rare. the same translators published a version of horace; but it is not here. you may remember that i made mention of a certain work (in one of my late letters) called _les vaudevires d'olivier basselin_. they preserve here a very choice copy of it, in to., large paper; and of which size only ten copies are said to be in existence. the entire title is "_les vaudevires poesies du xvme. siècle, par olivier basselin, avec un discours sur sa vie et des notes pour l'explication de quelques anciens mots: vire, _." vo. there are copies upon pink paper, of which this is one--and which was in fact presented to the library by the editors. prefixed to it, is an indifferent drawing, in india ink, representing the old castle of vire, now nearly demolished, with basselin seated at a table along with three of his boosing companions, chaunting his verses "à pleine gorge." this basselin appears in short to have been the french drunken barnaby of his day. "what! (say you:) "not _one_ single specimen from the library of your favourite diane de poictiers? can this be possible?"--no more of interrogatory, i beseech you: but listen attentively and gratefully to the intelligence which you are about to receive--and fancy not, if you have any respect for my taste, that i have forgotten my favourite diane de poictiers. on looking sharply about you, within this library, there will be found a magnificent copy of the _commentaries of chrysostom upon the epistles of st. paul_, printed by _stephanus et fratres a sabio, at verona_, in , in three folio volumes. it is by much and by far the finest greek work which i ever saw from the _sabii_ press.[ ] no wonder colbert jumped with avidity to obtain such a copy of it: for, bating that it is "un peu rogné," the condition and colour are quite enchanting. and then for the binding!--which either colbert, or his librarian baluze, had the good sense and good taste to leave _untouched_. the first and second volumes are in reddish calf, with the royal arms in the centre, and the half moon (in tarnished silver) beneath: the arabesque ornaments, or surrounding border is in gilt. the edges are gilt, stamped; flush with the fore edges of the binding. in the centre of the sides of the binding, is a large h, with a fleur de lis at top: the top and bottom borders presenting the usual d and h, united, of which you may take a peep in the _bibliographical decameron._ the third volume is in dark blue leather, with the same side ornaments; and the title of the work, as with the preceding volumes, is lettered in greek capitals. the h and crown, and monogram, as before; but the edges of the leaves are, in this volume, stamped at bottom and top with an h, surmounted by a crown. the sides of the binding are also fuller and richer than in the preceding volumes. this magnificent copy was given to the library by p. le jeune. it is quite a treasure in its way. another specimen, if you please, from the library of our favourite diana. it is rather of a singular character: consisting of a french version of that once extremely popular work (originally published in the latin language) called the _cosmography of sebastian munster._ the edition is of the date of , in folio. this copy must have been as splendid as it is yet curious. it contains two portraits of henry the second ("henricvs ii. galliarvm rex invictiss. pp.") and four of holofernes ("olofarne.") on each side of the binding. in the centre of the sides we recognise the lunar ornaments of diane de poictiers; but on the back, are five portraits of her, in gilt, each within the bands--and, like all the other ornaments, much rubbed. two of these five heads are facing a different head of henry. there are also on the sides two pretty medallions of a winged figure blowing a trumpet, and standing upon a chariot drawn by four horses: there are also small fleur de lis scattered between the ornaments of the sides of the binding. the date of the medallion seems to be . the copy is cruelly cropt, and the volume is sufficiently badly printed; which makes it the more surprising that such pains should have been taken with its bibliopegistic embellishments. upon the whole, this copy, for the sake of its ornaments, is vehemently desirable. and now, my dear friend, you must make your bow with me to m. hébert, and bid farewell to the public library at caen. indeed i am fully disposed to bid farewell to every thing else in the same town: not however without being conscious that very much, both of what i have, and of what i have not, seen, merits a detail well calculated to please the intellectual appetites of travellers. what i have seen, has been indeed but summarily, and even superficially, described; but i have done my best; and was fearful of exciting ennui by a more parish-register-like description. for the service performed in places of public worship, i can add nothing to my rouen details--except that there is here an agreeable protestant church, of which m. martin rollin, is the pastor. he has just published a "_mémoire historique sur l'etat eclésiastique des protestans françois depuis françois ler jusqu'à louis xviii_:" in a pamphlet of some fourscore pages. the task was equally delicate and difficult of execution; but having read it, i am free to confess that m. rollin has done his work very neatly and very cleverly. i went in company with mrs. and miss i---- to hear the author preach; for he is a young man (about thirty) who draws his congregation as much from his talents as a preacher, as from his moral worth as an individual. it was on the occasion of several young ladies and gentlemen taking the sacrament for the first time. the church is strictly, i believe, according to the geneva persuasion; but there was something so comfortable, and to me so cheering, in the avowed doctrine of protestantism, that i accompanied my friends with alacrity to the spot. many english were present; for m. rollin is deservedly a favourite with our countrymen. the church, however, was scarcely half filled. the interior is the most awkwardly adapted imaginable to the purposes either of reading or of preaching: for it consists of two aisles at right angles with each other. the desk and pulpit are fixed in the receding angle of their junction; so that the voice flies forth to the right and left immediately as it escapes the preacher. after a very long, and a very tediously sung psalm, m. rollin commenced his discourse. he is an extemporaneous preacher. his voice is sweet and clear, rather than sonorous and impressive; and he is perhaps, occasionally, too metaphorical in his composition. for the first time i heard the words "_oh dieu!_" pronounced with great effect: but the sermon was made up of better things than mere exclamations. m. rollin was frequently ingenious; logical, and convincing; and his address to the young communicants, towards the close of his discourse, was impressive and efficient. the young people were deeply touched by his powerful appeal, and i believe each countenance was suffused with tears. he guarded them against the dangers and temptations of that world upon which they were about to enter, by setting before them the consolations of the religion which they had professed, in a manner which indicated that he had really their interests and happiness at heart. a word only about courts of justice. "a smack of the whip" will tingle in my ears through life;[ ] and i shall always attend "_nisi prius_" exhibitions with more than ordinary curiosity. i strolled one morning to the _place de justice_--which is well situated, in an airy and respectable neighbourhood. i saw two or three barristers, en pleine costume, pretty nearly in the english fashion; walking quickly to and fro with their clients, in the open air before the hall; and could not help contrasting the quick eye and unconcerned expression of countenance of the former, with the simple look and yet earnest action of the latter. i entered the hall, and, to my astonishment, heard only a low muttering sound. scarcely fifteen people were present, i approached the bench; and what, think you, were the intellectual objects upon which my eye alighted? three judges ... all fast asleep! five barristers, two of whom were nodding: one was literally addressing _the bench_ ... and the remaining two were talking to their clients in the most unconcerned manner imaginable. the entire effect, on my mind, was ridiculous in the extreme. far be it from me, however, to designate the foregoing as a generally true picture of the administration of justice at caen. i am induced to hope and believe that a place, so long celebrated for the study of the law, yet continues occasionally to exhibit proofs of that logic and eloquence for which it has been renowned of old. i am willing to conclude that all the judges are not alike somniferous; and that if the acuteness of our giffords, and the rhetoric of our denmans, sometimes instruct and enliven the audience, there will be found judges to argue like gibbs and to decide like scott.[ ] farewell. [ ] _mémoires de l'academie des belles lettres de caen. chez jacques manoury, , vols. crown vo. rapport générale sur les travaux de l'academie des sciences, arts, et belles lettres de la ville de caen, jusqu'au premier janvier, . par p.f.t. delariviere, secrétaire. a caen, chez chalopin_. an. - . vols. on different paper, with different types, and provokingly of a larger form than its precursor. [ ] [on consulting the addenda of the preceding edition, it will be seen that this work appeared in the year , under the title of _essais historiques sur la ville de caen et son arondissement_, in small octavo volumes. with the exception of two or three indifferent plates of relics of sculpture, and of titles with armorial bearings, this work is entirely divested of ornament. there are some useful historical details in it, taken from the examination of records and the public archives; but a history of caen is yet a desideratum.] [ ] [by the favour of our common friend mr. douce, i have obtained permission to enrich these pages with the portrait of this distinguished archaeologist, from an original drawing in the possession of the same friend. see the opposite plate.] [ ] he has recently ( ) published an octavo volume entitled "_histoire des polypiers, coralligènes flexibles, vulgairement nommés zoophytes. par j.v.f. lamouroux_. from one of his epistles, i subjoin a fac-simile of his autograph. [illustration: lamouroux] [ ] the medallic project here alluded to is one which does both the projector, and the arts of france, infinite honour; and i sincerely wish that some second simon may rise up among ourselves to emulate, and if possible to surpass, the performances of gatteaux and audrieu. the former is the artist to whom we are indebted for the medal of malherbe, and the latter for the series of the bonaparte medals. [has my friend mr. hawkins, of the museum, abandoned all thoughts of his magnificent project connected with such a national work?] [ ] see post--under the running title bayeux. [ ] see page ante. [ ] it is described in the d vol. of the Ædes althorpianÆ; forming the supplement to the bibliotheca spenceriana: see page . [ ] goube, in his _histoire du duché de normandie_, , vo. has devoted upwards of thirty pages to an enumeration of these worthies; vol. iii. p. . but in _huet's origines de la ville de caen;_ p. - , there will be found much more copious and satisfactory details. [ ] i am furnished with the above particulars from a _notice historique_ of moysant. [ ] [a copy of this roman edition of , of equal purity and amplitude, is in the library of the rev. mr hawtrey of eton college: obtained of messrs. payne and foss.] [ ] when i was at paris in the year , i strove hard to obtain from messrs. debure the copy of this work, upon vellum, which they had purchased at the sale of the macarthy library. but it was destined for the royal library, and is described in the _cat. des livres imp. sur vélin_, vol. i. p. . [ ] [twenty-eight years have passed away since i kept my terms at lincoln's inn with a view of being called to the bar; and at this moment i have a perfect recollection of the countenances and manner of messrs. bearcroft, erskine, and mingay,--the pitted champions of the king's bench--whom i was in the repeated habit of attending within that bustling and ever agitated arena. their wit, their repartee--the broad humour of mingay, and the lightning-like quickness of erskine, with the more caustic and authoritative dicta of bearcroft--delighted and instructed me by turns. in the year i published, in one large chart, an _analysis of the first volume of blackstone's commentaries_--called the rights of persons. it was dedicated to mr. (afterwards lord) erskine; and published, as will be easily conceived, with more zeal than discretion. i got out of the scrape by selling the copper plate for shillings, after having given guineas for the engraving of the analysis. some fifty copies of the work were sold, and were struck off. where the surplus have lain, and rotted, i cannot pretend to conjecture: but i know it to be a very rare production!] [ ] [so in the preceding edition. he who writes notes on his own performances after a lapse of ten years, will generally have something to add, and something to correct. of the above names, the first was afterwards attached to the _master of the rolls_, and to a _peerage_: with the intervening honour of having been _chief justice of the common pleas_. my admiration of this rapid elevation in an honourable profession will not be called singular; for, after an acquaintance of twenty years with lord gifford, i can honestly say, that, while his reputation as a lawyer, and his advancement in his profession, were only what his friends predicted, his character as a man continued the same:--kind hearted, unaffected, gentle, and generous. he died, 'ere he had attained his th year, in .] letter xiv. bayeux. cathedral. ordination of priests and deacons. crypt of the cathedral. _bayeux, may _, . two of the most gratifying days of my tour have been spent at this place. the cathedral (one of the most ancient religious places of worship in normandy)[ ] has been paced with a reverential step, and surveyed with a careful eye. that which scarcely warmed the blood of ducarel has made my heart beat with an increased action; and although this town be even dreary, as well as thinly peopled, there is that about it which, from associations of ideas, can never fail to afford a lively interest to a british antiquary. the diligence brought me here from caen in about two hours and a half. the country, during the whole route, is open, well cultivated, occasionally gently undulating, but generally denuded of trees. many pretty little churches, with delicate spires, peeped out to the right and left during the journey; but the first view of the cathedral of bayeux put all the others out of my recollection. i was conveyed to the _hôtel de luxembourg_, the best inn in the town, and for a wonder rather pleasantly situated. mine hostess is a smart, lively, and shrewd woman; perfectly mistress of the art and craft of innkeeping, and seems to have never known sorrow or disappointment. knowing that mr. stothard, jun. had, the preceding year, been occupied in making a fac-simile of the "famous tapestry" for our society of antiquaries, i enquired if mine hostess had been acquainted with that gentleman: "monsieur," "je le connois bien; c'est un brave homme: il demeura tout près: aussi travailla-t-il comme quatre diables!" i will not disguise that this eulogy of our amiable countryman[ ] pleased me "right well"--though i was pretty sure that such language was the current (and to me somewhat _coarse_) coin of compliment upon all occasions: and instead of "vin ordinaire" i ordered, rather in a gay and triumphant manner, "une bouteille du vin de beaune"--"ah! ça," (replied the lively landlady,) "vous le trouverez excellent, monsieur, il n'y a pas du vin comme le vin de beaune." bespeaking my dinner, i strolled towards the cathedral. there is, in fact, no proper approach to this interesting edifice. the western end is suffocated with houses. here stands the post-office; and with the most unsuspecting frankness, on the part of the owner, i had permission to examine, with my own hands, within doors, every letter--under the expectation that there were some for myself. nor was i disappointed. but you must come with me to the cathedral: and of course we must enter together at the western front. there are five porticos: the central one being rather large, and the two, on either side, comparatively small. formerly, these were covered with sculptured figures and ornaments; but the calvinists in the sixteenth, and the revolutionists in the eighteenth century, have contrived to render their present aspect mutilated and repulsive in the extreme. on entering, i was struck with the two large transverse norman arches which bestride the area, or square, for the bases of the two towers. it is the boldest and finest piece of masonry in the whole building. the interior disappointed me. it is plain, solid, and divested of ornament. a very large wooden crucifix is placed over the screen of the choir, which has an effect--of its kind: but the monuments, and mural ornaments, scarcely deserve mention. the richly ornamented arches, on each side of the nave, springing from massive single pillars, have rather an imposing effect: above them are gothic ornaments of a later period, but too thickly and injudiciously applied. let me now suppose that the dinner is over, and the "vin de beaune" approved of--and that on a second visit, immediately afterwards, there is both time and inclination for a leisurely survey. on looking up, upon entering, within the side aisle to the left, you observe, with infinite regret, a dark and filthy green tint indicative of premature decay--arising from the lead (of that part of the roof,) having been stript for the purpose of making bullets during the revolution. the extreme length of the interior is about english feet, by high, and the same number of feet in width. the transepts are about feet long, by wide. the western towers, to the very top of the spires, are about english feet in height. one of the most curious objects in the cathedral, is the crypt; of which, singularly enough, all knowledge had been long lost till the year . the circumstance of its discovery is told in the following inscription, cut in the gothic letter, upon a brass plate, and placed just above the southern entrance: _en lan mil quatre cens et douze tiers iour d'auril que pluye arrouse les biens de la terre, la journee que la pasques fut celebree noble homme et reverend pere jehan de boissey, de'la mere eglise de bayeux pasteur rendi l'ame a son createur et lors enfoissant la place devant la grand autel de grace trova l'on la basse chapelle dont il n'avoit ete nouvelle ou il est mis en sepulture dieu ueuille avoir son ame en cure. amen_. it was my good fortune to visit this crypt at a very particular juncture. the day after my arrival at bayeux, there was a grand _ordination_. before i had quitted my bed, i heard the mellow and measured notes of human voices; and starting up, i saw an almost interminable procession of priests, deacons, &c., walking singly behind each other, in two lines, leaving a considerable space between them. they walked bareheaded, chanting, with a book in their hands; and bent their course towards the cathedral. i dressed quickly; and, dispatching my breakfast with equal promptitude, pursued the same route. on entering the western doors, thrown wide open, i shall never forget the effect produced by the crimson and blue draperies of the norman women:--a great number of whom were clustered, in groups, upon the top of the screen, about the huge wooden crucifix;--witnessing the office of ordination going on below, in the choir. they seemed to be suspended in the air; and considering the piece of sculpture around which they appeared to gather themselves--with the elevation of the screen itself--it was a combination of objects upon which the pencil might have been exercised with the happiest possible result. an ordination in a foreign country, and especially one upon such an apparently extensive scale, was, to a professional man, not to be slighted; and accordingly i determined upon making the most of the spectacle before me. looking accidentally down my favourite crypt, i observed that some religious ceremony was going on there. the northern grate, or entrance, being open, i descended a flight of steps, and quickly became an inmate of this subterraneous abode. the first object that struck me was, the warm glow of day light which darted upon the broad pink cross of the surplice of an officiating priest: a candle was burning upon the altar, on each side of him: another priest, in a black vesture, officiated as an assistant; and each, in turn, knelt, and bowed, and prayed ... to the admiration of some few half dozen casual yet attentive visitors--while the full sonorous chant, from the voices of upwards of one hundred and fifty priests and deacons, from the choir above, gave a peculiar sort of solemnity to the mysterious gloom below. i now ascended; and by the help of a chair, took a peep at the ceremony through the intercolumniations of the choir: my diffidence, or rather apprehension of refusal, having withheld me from striving to gain admittance within the body. but my situation was a singularly good one: opposite the altar. i looked, and beheld this vast clerical congregation at times kneeling, or standing, or sitting: partially, or wholly: while the swell of their voices, accompanied by the full intonations of the organ, and the yet more penetrating notes of the _serpent_, seemed to breathe more than earthly solemnity around. the ceremony had now continued full two hours; when, in the midst of the most impressive part of it, and while the young candidates for ordination were prostrate before the high altar (the diapason stop of the organ, as at dieppe,[ ] sending forth the softest notes) the venerable bishop placed the glittering mitre (apparently covered with gold gauze) upon his head, and with a large gilt crosier in his right hand, descended, with a measured and majestic step, from the floor of the altar, and proceeded to the execution of the more mysterious part of his office. the candidates, with closed eyes, and outstretched hands, were touched with the holy oil--and thus became consecrated. on rising, each received a small piece of bread between the thumb and forefinger, and the middle and third fingers; their hands being pressed together--and, still with closed eyes, they retired behind the high altar, where an officiating priest made use of the bread to rub off the holy oil. the bishop is an elderly man, about three score and ten; he has the usual sallow tint of his countrymen, but his eye, somewhat sunk or retired, beneath black and overhanging eyebrows, is sharp and expressive. his whole mien has the indication of a well-bred and well-educated gentleman. when he descended with his full robes, crosier, and mitre, from the high altar, me-thought i saw some of the venerable forms of our wykehams and waynefletes of old--commanding the respect, and receiving the homage, of a grateful congregation! at the very moment my mind was deeply occupied by the effects produced from this magnificent spectacle, i strolled into _our lady's chapel_, behind the choir, and beheld a sight which converted seriousness into surprise--bordering upon mirth. above the altar of this remotely situated chapel, stands the image of the virgin with the infant jesus in her arms. this is the usual chief ornament of our lady's chapel. but what drapery for the mother of the sacred child!--stiff, starch, rectangularly-folded, white muslin, stuck about with diverse artificial flowers--like unto a shew figure in brook green fair! this ridiculous and most disgusting costume began more particularly at caudebec. why is it persevered in? why is it endured? the french have a quick sensibility, and a lively apprehension of what is beautiful and brilliant in the arts of sculpture and painting ... but the terms "joli," "gentil," and "propre," are made use of, like charity, to "cover a multitude of sins" ... or aberrations from true taste. i scarcely stopped a minute in this chapel, but proceeded to a side one, to the right, which yet affords proof of its pristine splendour. it is covered with gold and colours. two or three supplicants were kneeling before the crucifix, and appeared to be so absorbed in their devotions as to be insensible of every surrounding object. to them, the particular saint (i have forgotten the name) to whom the little chapel was dedicated, seemed to be dearer and more interesting than the general voice of "praise and thanksgiving" with which the choir of the cathedral resounded. before we quit the place you must know that fourscore candidates were ordained: that there are sixty clergy attached to the cathedral;[ ] and that upwards of four hundred thousand souls are under the spiritual cognizance of the bishop of bayeux. the treasures of the cathedral were once excessive,[ ] and the episcopal stipend proportionably large: but, of late years, things are sadly changed. the calvinists, in the sixteenth century, began the work of havoc and destruction; and the revolutionists in the eighteenth, as usual, put the finish to these devastations. at present, from a very respectable source of information, i learn that the revenues of the bishop scarcely exceed _l_. per annum of our own money. i cannot take leave of the cathedral without commending, in strong terms of admiration, the lofty flying buttresses of the exterior of the nave. the perpendicular portions are crowned with a sculptured whole length figure, from which the semi-arch takes its spring; and are in much more elegant taste than any other part of the building. hard by the cathedral stood formerly a magnificent episcopal palace. upon this palace the old writers dearly loved to expatiate. there is now however nothing but a good large comfortable family mansion; sufficient for the purposes of such hospitality and entertainment as the episcopal revenues will afford. i have not only seen, but visited, this episcopal residence. in other words, my friend pierre-aimé lair having promised to take his last adieu of me at bayeux, as he had business with the bishop, i met him agreeably to appointment at the palace; but his host, with a strong corps of visitors, having just sate down to dinner--it was only one o'clock--i bade him adieu, with the hope of seeing the bishop on the morrow--to whom he had indeed mentioned my name. our farewell was undoubtedly warm and sincere. he had volunteered a thousand acts of kindness towards me without any possible motive of self interest; and as he lifted up his right hand, exclaiming "adieu, pour toujours!" i will not dissemble that i was sensibly affected by the touching manner in which it was uttered ... and pierre aimÉ lair shall always claim from me the warmest wishes for his prosperity and happiness.[ ] i hurried back through the court-yard--at the risk of losing a limb from the ferocious spring of a tremendous (chained) mastiff--and without returning the salute of the porter, shut the gate violently, and departed. for five minutes, pacing the south side of the cathedral, i was lost in a variety of painful sensations. how was i to see the library?--where could i obtain a glimpse of the tapestry?--and now, that pierre aimé lair was to be no more seen, (for he told me he should quit the place on that same evening) who was to stand my friend, and smooth my access to the more curious and coveted objects of antiquity? thus absorbed in a variety of contending reflections, a tall figure, clad in a loose long great coat, in a very gracious manner approached and addressed me. "your name, sir, is d----?" "at your service, sir, that is my name." "you were yesterday evening at monsieur pluquet's, purchasing books?" "i was, sir." "it seems you are very fond of old books, and especially of those in the french and latin languages?" "i am fond of old books generally; but i now seek more particularly those in your language--and have been delighted with an illuminated, and apparently coeval, ms. of the poetry of your famous olivier basselin, which..." "you saw it, sir, at monsieur pluquet's. it belonged to a common friend of us both. he thinks it worth..." "he asks _ten louis d'or_ for it, and he shall have them with all my heart." "sir, i know he will never part with it even for that large sum." i smiled, as he pronounced the word "large." "do me the honour, sir, of visiting my obscure dwelling, in the country--a short league from hence. my abode is humble: in the midst of an orchard, which my father planted: but i possess a few books, some of them curious, and should like to _read_ double the number i _possess_." i thanked the stranger for his polite attention and gracious offer, which i accepted readily.... "this evening, sir, if you please." "with all my heart, this very evening. but tell me, sir, how can i obtain a sight of the chapter library, and of the famous tapestry?" "speak softly, (resumed the unknown) for i am watched in this place. you shall see both--but must not say that monsieur ---- was your adviser or friend. for the present, farewell. i shall expect you in the evening." we took leave; and i returned hastily to the inn, to tell my adventures to my companion. there is something so charmingly mysterious in this little anecdote, that i would not for the world add a syllable of explanation. leaving you, therefore, in full possession of it, to turn and twist it as you please, consider me as usual, yours. [ ] [mons. licquet supposes the crypt and the arcades of the nave to be of the latter end of the eleventh century,--built by odo, bishop of bayeux, and brother of william the conqueror; and that the other portions were of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. i have very great doubts indeed of any portion being of a date even so early as .] [ ] [another demonstration of the fickleness and changeableness of all mundane affairs. mr. stothard, after a successful execution of his great task, has ceased to be among us. his widow published his life, with an account of his labours, in a quarto volume in . mr. stothard's _monumental effigies_, now on the eve of completion, is a work which will carry his name down to the latest posterity, as one of the most interesting, tasteful, and accurate of antiquarian productions. see a subsequent note.] [ ] see page , ante. [ ] ["that was true, when m. dibdin wrote his account; now, the number must be reduced one half." licquet, vol. ii. p. .] [ ] cette église ... étoit sans contredit une des plus riches de france en vases d'or, d'argent, et de pierreries; en reliques et en ornemens. le procès-verbal qui avoit été dressé de toutes ses richesses, en , contient un détail qui va presque à l'infini." bezières, _hist. sommaire_, p. . [ ] [but one letter has passed between us since this separation. that letter, however, only served to cement the friendliness of our feelings towards each other. m. pierre aimé lair had heard of the manner in which his name had been introduced into these pages, and wished a copy of the work to be deposited in the public library at caen. whether it be so deposited, i have never learnt. in , this amiable man visited england; and i saw him only during the time of an ordinary morning visit. his stay was necessarily short, and his residence was remote. i returned his visit--but he was away. there are few things in life more gratifying than the conviction of living in the grateful remembrance of the wise and the good; and that gratification it is doubtless my happiness to enjoy--as far as relates to mons. pierre aimÉ lair!] letter xv. visit near st. loup. m. pluquet, apothecary and book-vender. visit to the bishop. the chapter library. description of the bayeux tapestry. trade and manufacture. well, my good friend! the stranger has been visited: his library inspected: his services accepted: and his character partly unfolded. to this i must add, in the joy of my heart, (as indeed i mentioned slightly in my last) that both the chapter library and the famous tapestry have been explored and examined in a manner, i trust, worthy of british curiosity. i hardly know what sort of order to adopt in this my second and last epistle from bayeux; which will be semi-bibliomaniacal and semi-archaeological: and sit down, almost at random, to impart such intelligence as my journal and my memory supply. the last was almost a purely _ecclesiastical_ dispatch: as i generally first take off my cap to the towers and turrets of a cathedral. now then for the stranger! ... for it would be cruel to prolong the agony of expectation. mr. lewis having occupied himself, almost exclusively, with his pencil during the whole morning, i persuaded him to accompany me to _st. loup_. after dinner we set out upon our expedition. it had rained in the interim, and every tree was charged with moisture as we passed them ... their blossoms exhaling sweets of the most pungent fragrance. the road ran in a straight line from the west front of the cathedral, which, on turning round, as we saw it irradiated by partial glimpses of sunshine, between masses of dark clouds, assumed a very imposing and venerable aspect. i should tell you, however, that the obliging monsieur ---- came himself to the hôtel de luxembourg, to conduct us to his humble abode: for "humble" it is in every sense of the word. about two-thirds of the way thither, we passed the little church of _st. loup_: a perfect gothic toy of the xiith century--with the prettiest, best-proportioned tower that can be imagined.[ ] it has a few slight clustered columns at the four angles, but its height and breadth are truly pigmy. the stone is of a whitish grey. we did not enter; and with difficulty could trace our way to examine the exterior through the high grass of the church yard, yet _laid_ with the heavy rain. what a gem would the pencil of blore make of this tiny, ancient, interesting edifice! at length we struck off, down a lane slippery with moisture--when, opening a large swinging gate--"here (exclaimed our guide)--lived and died my father, and here his son hopes to live and die also. gentlemen, yonder is my hermitage." it was a retirement of the most secluded kind: absolutely surrounded by trees, shrubs, hay-stacks, and corn-stacks--for monsieur ---- hath a fancy for farming as well as for reading. the stair-case, though constructed of good hard norman stone, was much worn in the middle from the frequent tread of half a century. it was also fatiguingly steep, but luckily it was short. we followed our guide to the left, where, passing through one boudoir-like apartment, strewn with books and papers, and hung with a parcel of mean ornaments called _pictures_, we entered a second--of which portions of the wainscoat were taken away, to shew the books which were deposited behind. row after row, and pile upon pile, struck my wondering eye. anon, a closet was opened--and there again they were stowed, "thick and threefold." a few small busts, and fractured vases, were meant to grace a table in the centre of the room. of the books, it is but justice to say that _rarity_ had been sacrificed to _utility_. there were some excellent, choice, critical works; a good deal of latin; some greek, and a sprinkle of hebrew--for monsieur ---- is both a general and a sound scholar. on pointing to _houbigant's hebrew bible_, in four folio volumes, , "do you think this copy dear at fourteen francs?" said he!--"how, sir," (replied i, in an exstacy of astonishment)--you mean to say fourteen _louis_?" "not at all, sir. i purchased it at the price just mentioned, nor do i think it too dear at that sum"--resumed he, in the most unsuspecting manner. i then told him, as a sort of balsamic consolation, that a late friend (i alluded to poor mr. ormerod) rejoiced on giving £ . for a copy by no means superior. "ah, le bon dieu!...." was his only observation thereupon. when about to return to the boudoir, through which we had entered, i observed with mingled surprise and pleasure, the four prettily executed english prints, after the drawings of the present lady spencer, called "_new shoes"--"nice supper_" &c. monsieur ---- was pleased at my stopping to survey them. "ce sont là, monsieur (observed he), les dames qui me font toujours compagnie:"--nor can you conceive the very soft and gentlemanly manner, accompanied by a voice subdued even to sadness of tone, with which he made this, and almost every observation. i found, indeed, from the whole tenor of his discourse, that he had a mind in no ordinary a state of cultivation: and on observing that a great portion of his library was theological, i asked him respecting the general subjects upon which he thought and wrote. he caught hold of my left arm, and stooping (for he is much taller than myself, ... which he easily may be, methinks i hear you add...) "sir, said he, i am by profession a clergyman ... although now i am designated as an _ex-curé_. i have lived through the revolution... and may have partaken of some of its irregularities, rather, i should hope than of its atrocities. in the general hue-and-cry for reform, i thought that our church was capable of very great improvement, and i think so still. the part i took was influenced by conscientious motives, rather than by a blind and vehement love of reform;... but it has never been forgiven or forgotten. the established clergy of the place do not associate with me; but i care not a farthing for that--since i have here (pointing to his books) the very best society in the world. it was from the persuasion of the clergy having a constantly-fixed eye upon me, that i told you i was watched ... when walking near the precincts of the cathedral. i had been seeking you during the whole of the office of ordination." in reply to my question about his _archaeological_ researches, he said he was then occupied in writing a disquisition upon the _bayeux tapestry_, in which he should prove that the abbé de la rue was wrong in considering it as a performance of the xiith century. "he is your great antiquarian oracle"--observed i. "he has an over-rated reputation"--replied he--"and besides, he is too hypothetical." monsieur ---- promised to send me a copy of his dissertation, when printed; and then let our friend n---- be judge "in the matter of the bayeux tapestry." from the open windows of this hermitage, into which the branches absolutely thrust themselves, i essayed, but in vain, to survey the surrounding country; and concluded a visit of nearly two hours, in a manner the most gratifying imaginable to honest feelings. a melancholy, mysterious air, seemed yet, however, to mark this amiable stranger, which had not been quite cleared up by the account he had given of himself. "be assured (said he, at parting) that i will see you again, and that every facility shall be afforded you in the examination of the bayeux tapestry. i have an uncle who is an efficient member of the corporation." on my way homeward from this ramble, i called again upon m. pluquet, an apothecary by profession, but a book lover and a book vender[ ] in his heart. the scene was rather singular. below, was his _pharmacopeia_; above were his bed-room and books; with a broken antique or two, in the court-yard, and in the passage leading to it. my first visit had been hasty, and only as a whetter to the second. yet i contrived to see from a visitor, who was present, the desirable ms. of the vulgar poetry of olivier basselin, of which i made mention to m.----. the same stranger was again present. we all quietly left the drugs below for drugs of a different description above--books being called by the ancients, you know, the "medicine of the soul." we mounted into the bed-room. m. pluquet now opened his bibliomaniacal battery upon us. "gentlemen you see, in this room, all the treasures in the world i possess: my wife--my child--my books--my antiquities. "yes, gentlemen, these are my treasures. i am enthusiastic, even to madness, in the respective pursuits into which the latter branch out; but my means are slender--and my aversion to my _business_ is just about in proportion to my fondness for _books_. examine, gentlemen, and try your fortunes." i scarcely needed such a rhetorical incitement: but alas! the treasures of m. pluquet were not of a nature quite to make one's fortune. i contrived, with great difficulty, to pick out something of a _recherché_ kind; and expended a napoleon upon some scarce little grammatical tracts, chiefly greek, printed by stephen at paris, and by hervagius at basil: among the latter was the _bellum grammaticale_ of e. hessus. m. pluquet wondered at my rejecting the folios, and sticking so closely to the duodecimos; but had he shewn me a good _verard romance_ or a _eustace froissart_, he would have found me as alert in running away with the one as the other. i think he is really the most enthusiastic book-lover i have ever seen: certainly as a bibliopolist. we concluded a very animated conversation on all sides: and upon the whole, this was one of the most variously and satisfactorily spent days of my "voyage bibliographique." on the morrow, the mysterious and amiable m. ---- was with me betimes. he said he had brought a _basket of books_, from his hermitage, which he had left at a friend's house, and he entreated me to come and examine them. in the mean while, i had had not only a peep at the tapestry, but an introduction to the mayor, who is chief magistrate for life: a very cæsar in miniature. he received me stiffly, and appeared at first rather a priggish sort of a gentleman; observing that "my countryman, mr. stothard,[ ] had been already there for six months, upon the same errand, and what could i want further?" a short reply served to convince him "that it would be no abuse of an extended indulgence if he would allow another english artist to make a fac-simile of a different description, from a very small portion only."[ ] i now called upon the abbé fétit, with a view to gain admission to the _chapter library_, but he was from home--dining with the bishop. in consequence, i went to the palace, and wrote a note in pencil to the bishop at the porter's lodge, mentioning the name of m. lair, and the object of my visit. the porter observed that they had just sat down to dinner--but would i call at three? it seemed an age to that hour; but at length three o'clock came, and i was punctual to the minute. i was immediately admitted into the premises, and even the large mastiff seemed to know that i was not an unexpected visitor--for he neither growled, nor betrayed any symptoms of uneasiness. in my way to the audience chamber i saw the crosier and robes which the bishop had worn the preceding day, at the ceremony of ordination, lying picturesquely upon the table. the audience chamber was rather elegant, adorned with gobeleins tapestry, quite fresh, and tolerably expressive: and while my eyes were fastened upon two figures enacting the parts of an arcadian shepherd and shepherdess, a servant came in and announced the approach of monseigneur l'eveque. i rose in a trice to meet him, between doubt and apprehension as to the result. the bishop entered with a sort of body-guard; being surrounded by six or seven canons who had been dining with him, and who peeped at me over his shoulder in a very significant manner. the flush of good cheer was visible in their countenances--but for their diocesan, i must say that he is even more interesting on a familiar view. he wore a close purple dress, buttoned down the middle from top to bottom. a cross hung upon his breast. his countenance had lost nothing of its expression by the absence of the mitre, and he was gracious even to loquacity. i am willing to hope that i was equally prudent and brief in the specification of the object i had in view. my request was as promptly as it was courteously granted. "you will excuse my attending you in person; (said the bishop) but i will instantly send for the abbé fétit, who is our librarian; and who will have nothing to do but to wait upon you, and facilitate your researches." he then dispatched a messenger for the abbé fétit, who quickly arrived with two more trotting after him--and enlivened by the jingling music of the library keys, which were dangling from the abbé's fingers, i quickened my steps towards the chapter library. we were no sooner fairly within the library, than i requested my chief conductor to give me a brief outline of its history. "willingly" he replied. "this library, the remains of a magnificent collection, of from , to , volumes, was originally placed in the chapter-house, hard by. look through the window to your left, and you will observe the ruins of that building. we have here about volumes: but the original collection consisted of the united libraries of defunct, and even of living, clergymen--for, during the revolution, the clergy, residing both in town and country, conveyed their libraries to the chapter-house, as a protection against private pillage. well! in that same chapter-house, the books, thus collected, were piled one upon another, in layers, flat upon the floor--reaching absolutely, to the cieling ... and for ten long years not a creature ventured to introduce a key into the library door. the windows also were rigidly kept shut. at length the revolutionists wanted lead for musket balls, and they unroofed the chapter-house with their usual dexterity. down came the rain upon the poor books, in consequence; and when m. moysant received the orders of government to examine this library, and to take away as many books as he wanted for the public library at caen... he was absolutely horror-struck by the obstacles which presented themselves. from the close confinement of every door and window, for ten years, the rank and fetid odour which issued, was intolerable. for a full fortnight every door and window was left open for ventilation, ere m. moysant could begin his work of selection. he selected about volumes only; but the infuriated revolutionists, on his departure, wantonly plundered and destroyed a prodigious number of the remainder ... "et enfin (concluded he) vous voyez, monsieur, ce qu'ils nous out laissé." you will give me credit for having listened to every word of such a tale. the present library, which is on the first floor, is apparently about twenty-five feet square. the abbé made me observe the xiiith. volume of the _gallia christiana_,[ ] in boards, remarking that "it was of excessive rarity;" but i doubt this. on shewing me the famous volume of _sanctius_ or _sanches de matrimonio sacramentario_, , folio, the abbé observed--"that the author wrote it, standing with his bare feet upon marble." i was well pleased with a pretty _illuminated ms. missal_, in a large thick quarto volume, with borders and pictures in good condition; but did not fail to commend right heartily the proper bibliomaniacal spirit of m. fétit in having kept concealed the second volume of _gering's latin bible_--being the first impression of the sacred text in france--when m. moysant came armed with full powers to carry off what treasures he pleased. no one knows what has become of the first volume, but this second is cruelly imperfect--it is otherwise a fair copy. upon the whole, although it is almost a matter of _conscience_, as well as of character, with me, to examine every thing in the shape of a library, and especially of a public one, yet it must be admitted that the collection under consideration is hardly worthy of a second visit: and accordingly i took both a first and a final view of it. from the chapter i went to the college library. in other words, there is a fine public school, or lycée, or college, where a great number of lads and young men are educated "according to art." the building is extensive and well-situated: the play-ground is large and commodious; and there is a well-cultivated garden "tempting with forbidden fruit." into this garden i strolled in search of the president of the college, who was not within doors. i found him in company with some of the masters, and with several young men either playing, or about to play, at skittles. on communicating the object of my visit, he granted me an immediate passport to the library--"mais, monsieur, (added he) ce n'est rien: il y avoit autrefois _quelque chose_: maintenant, ce n'est qu'un amas de livres très communs." i thanked him, and accompanied the librarian to the library; who absolutely apologized all the way for the little entertainment i should receive. there was indeed little enough. the room may be about eighteen feet square. of the books, a great portion was in vellum bindings, in wretched condition. here was _jay's polyglot_, and the matrimonial _sanctius_ again! there was a very respectable sprinkling of _spanish and french dictionaries_; some few not wholly undesirable _alduses_; and the rare louvain edition of _sir thomas more's works_, printed in , folio.[ ] i saw too, with horror-mingled regret, a frightfully imperfect copy of the _service of bayeux cathedral_, printed in the gothic letter, upon vellum. but the great curiosity is a small brass or bronze crucifix, about nine inches high, standing upon the mantlepiece; very ancient, from the character of the crown, which savours of the latter period of roman art--and which is the only crown, bereft of thorns, that i ever saw upon the head of our saviour so represented. the eyes appear to be formed of a bright brown glass. upon the whole, as this is not a book, nor a fragment of an old illumination, i will say nothing more about its age. i was scarcely three quarters of an hour in the library; but was fully sensible of the politeness of my attendant, and of the truth of his prediction, that i should receive little entertainment from an examination of the books. it is high time that you should be introduced in proper form to the famous bayeux tapestry. know then, in as few words as possible, that this celebrated piece of tapestry represents chiefly the invasion of england by william the conqueror, and the subsequent death of harold at the battle of hastings. it measures about english feet in length, by about nineteen inches in width; and is supposed to have been worked under the particular superintendance and direction of matilda, the wife of the conqueror. it was formerly exclusively kept and exhibited in the cathedral; but it is now justly retained in the town hall, and treasured as the most precious relic among the archives of the city. there is indeed every reason to consider it as one of the most valuable historical monuments which france possesses. it has also given rise to a great deal of archaeological discussion. montfaucon, ducarel, and de la rue, have come forward successively--but more especially the first and last: and montfaucon in particular has favoured the world with copper-plate representations of the whole. montfaucon's plates are generally much too small: and the more enlarged ones are too ornamental. it is right, first of all, that you should have an idea how this piece of tapestry is preserved, or rolled up. you see it here, therefore, precisely as it appears after the person who shews it, takes off the cloth with which it is usually covered. [illustration] the first portion of the needle-work, representing the embassy of harold, from edward the confessor to william duke of normandy, is comparatively much defaced--that is to say, the stitches are worn away, and little more than the ground, or fine close linen cloth, remains. it is not far from the beginning--and where the colour is fresh, and the stitches are, comparatively, preserved--that you observe the portrait of harold.[ ] you are to understand that the stitches, if they may be so called, are threads laid side by side--and bound down at intervals by cross stitches, or fastenings--upon rather a fine linen cloth; and that the parts intended to represent _flesh_ are left untouched by the needle. i obtained a few straggling shreds of the _worsted_ with which it is worked. the colours are generally a faded or bluish green, crimson, and pink. about the last five feet of this extraordinary roll are in a yet more decayed and imperfect state than the first portion. but the designer of the subject, whoever he was, had an eye throughout to roman art--as it appeared in its later stages. the folds of the draperies, and the proportions of the figures, are executed with this feeling. i must observe that, both at top and at bottom of the principal subject, there is a running allegorical ornament;[ ] of which i will not incur the presumption to suppose myself a successful interpreter. the constellations, and the symbols of agriculture and of rural occupation, form the chief subjects of this running ornament. all the inscriptions are executed in capital letters of about an inch in length; and upon the whole, whether this extraordinary and invaluable relic be of the latter end of the xith, or of the beginning or middle of the xiith century[ ] seems to me a matter of rather a secondary consideration. that it is at once _unique_ and important, must be considered as a position to be neither doubted nor denied, i have learnt, even here, of what importance this tapestry-roll was considered in the time of bonaparte's threatened invasion of our country: and that, after displaying it at paris for two or three months, to awaken the curiosity and excite the love of conquest among the citizens, it was conveyed to one or two _sea-port_ towns, and exhibited upon the stage as a most important _materiel_ in dramatic effect.[ ] i think you have now had a pretty good share of bayeux intelligence; only that i ought not to close my despatches without a word or two relating to habits, manners, trade, and population. this will scarcely occupy a page. the men and women here are thoroughly norman. stout bodies, plump countenances, wooden shoes, and the cauchoise--even to exceedingly _tall copies_ of the latter! the population may run hard upon ten thousand. the chief articles of commerce are _butter_ and _lace_. of the former, there are two sorts: one, delicate and well flavoured, is made during winter and spring; put up into small pots, and carried from hence in huge paniers, not only to all the immediately adjacent parts of the country, but even to paris--and is shipped in large quantities for the colonies. they have made as much as , lb. weight each season; but _isigny_, a neighbouring village, is rather the chief place for its production. the other sort of butter, which is eaten by the common people, and which in fact is made throughout the whole of lower normandy, (the very butter, in short, in which the huge _alose_ was floating in the pot of the lively cuisiniere at duclair[ ]) is also chiefly made at isigny; but instead of a delicate tint, and a fine flavour, it is very much the contrary: and the mode of making and transporting it accords with its qualities. it is salted, and packed in large pots, and even barrels, for the sake of exportation; and not less than , lb. weight is made each week. the whole profit arising from butter has been estimated at not less than two millions of francs: add to which, the circulation of specie kept up by the payment of the workmen, and the purchase of salt. as to _lace_, there are scarcely fewer than three thousand females constantly employed in the manufacture of that article. the mechanics here, at least some of them, are equally civil and ingenious. in a shop, in the high or principal street, i saw an active carpenter, who had lost the fore finger of his right hand, hard at work--alternately whistling and singing--over a pretty piece of ornamental furniture in wood. it was the full face of a female, with closely curled hair over the forehead, surmounted by a wreath of flowers, having side curls, necklace, and platted hair. the whole was carved in beech, and the form and expression of the countenance were equally correct and pleasing. this merry fellow had a man or two under him, but he worked double tides, compared with his dependants. i interrupted him singing a french air, perfectly characteristic of the taste of his country. the title and song were thus: tou jours. toujours, toujours, je te serai fidèle; disait adolphe à chaque instant du jour; toujours, toujours je t'aimerai, ma belle, je veux le dire aux échos d'alentour; je graverai sur l'écorce d'un hètre, ce doux serment que le dieu des amours, vient me dieter, en me faisant connaître; que mon bonheur est de t'aimer toujours. _bis_. toujours, toujours, lui répondit adèle, tu régneras dans le fond de mon coeur; toujours, toujours, comme une tourterelle, je promets bien t'aimer avec ardeur; je pense à toi quand le soleil se lève, j'y pense encore à la tin de son cours; dans le sommeil si quelquefois je reve, c'est au bonheur de te chérir toujours. he was a carver on wainscoat wood: and if i would give myself "la peine d'entrer," he would shew me all sorts of curiosities. i secured a favourable reception, by purchasing the little ornament upon which he was at work--for a napoleon. i followed the nimble mechanic (ci-devant a soldier in bonaparte's campaigns, from whence he dated the loss of his finger) through a variety of intricate passages below and up stairs; and saw, above, several excellently well finished pieces of furniture, for drawers or clothes-presses, in wainscoat wood:--the outsides of which were carved sometimes with clustered roses, surrounding a pair of fond doves; or with representations of cupids, sheep, bows and arrows, and the various _emblemata_ of the tender passion. they would have reminded you of the old pieces of furniture which you found in your grandfather's mansion, upon taking possession of your estate: and indeed are of themselves no despicable ornaments in their way. i was asked from eight to twelve napoleons for one of these pieces of massive and elaborately carved furniture, some six or seven feet in height. in all other respects, this is a town deserving of greater antiquarian research than appears to have been bestowed upon it; and i cannot help thinking that its ancient ecclesiastical history is more interesting than is generally imagined. in former days the discipline and influence of its see seem to have been felt and acknowledged throughout nearly the whole of normandy. adieu. in imagination, the spires of coutances cathedral begin to peep in the horizon. [ ] [mr. cotman has an excellent engraving of it.] [ ] he has since established himself at paris, near the luxembourg palace, as a _bookseller_; and it is scarcely three months since i received a letter from him, in which he told me that he could no longer resist the more powerful impulses of his heart--and that the phials of physic were at length abandoned for the volumes of verard and of gourmont. my friend, mr. dawson turner, who knew him at bayeux, has purchased books of him at paris. [the preceding in .] [ ] mr. stothard, jun. see page ante. mr. s's own account of the tapestry may be seen in the xixth volume of the archæologia. it is brief, perspicuous, and satisfactory. his fac-simile is one half the size of the original; executed with great neatness and fidelity; but probably the touches are a _little_ too artist-like or masterly. [ ] [the facsimile of that portion of the tapestry which is supposed to be a portrait of harold, and which mr. lewis, who travelled with me, executed, is perhaps of its kind, one of the most perfect things extant. in saying this, i only deliver the opinions of very many competent judges. it must however be noticed, that the society of antiquaries published the whole series of this exceedingly curious and ancient representation of the conquest of our country by william i. of this publication, the figures measure about four inches in height: but there is also a complete, and exceedingly successful fac-simile of the first two figures of this series--of the size of the originals (william i. and the messenger coming to announce to him the landing of harold in england) also published from the same quarter. the whole of these drawings were from the pencil of the late ingenious and justly lamented thos. stothard, esq. draftsman to the society of antiquaries.] [ ] a complete copy is of rarity in our own country, but not so abroad. it is yet, however, an imperfect work. [ ] there have been bibliographers, and there are yet knowing book-collectors, who covet this edition in preference to the leipsic impression of sir t. more's works of ; in folio. but this must proceed from sheer obstinacy; or rather, perhaps, from ignorance that the latter edition contains the _utopia_--whereas in the former it is unaccountably omitted to be reprinted--which it might have been, from various previous editions. [ ] this figure is introduced with pursuivants and dogs: but great liberties, as a nice eye will readily discern, have been taken by montfaucon, when compared with the original--of which the fac-simile, in the previous edition of this work, may be pronounced to be perfect. [ ] something similar may be seen round the border of the baptismal vase of st. louis, in millin's _antiquités nationales_. a part of the border in the tapestry is a representation of subjects from aesop's fables. [ ] of a monument, which has been pronounced by one of our ablest antiquaries to be "the noblest in the world relating to our old english history," (see _stukely's palæog. britan._ number xi. , to. p. - ) it may be expected that some archæological discussion should be here subjoined. yet i am free to confess that, after the essays of messrs. gurney, stothard, and amyot, (and more especially that of the latter gentleman) the matter--as to the period of its execution--may be considered as well nigh, if not wholly, at rest. these essays appear in the xviiith and xixth volumes of the archæologia. the abbé de la rue contended that this tapestry was worked in the time of the second matilda, or the empress maud, which would bring it to the earlier part of the xiith century. the antiquaries above mentioned contend, with greater probability, that it is a performance of the period which it professes to commemorate; namely, of the defeat of harold at the battle of hastings, and consequently of the acquiring of the crown of england, by conquest, on the part of william. this latter therefore brings it to the period of about , to --so that, after all, the difference of opinion is only whether this tapestry be fifty years older or younger, than the respective advocates contend. but the most copious, particular, and in my humble judgment the most satisfactory, disquisition upon the date of this singular historical monument, is entitled, "_a defence of the early antiquity of the bayeux tapestry_," by thomas amyot, esq. immediately following mr. stothard's communication, in the work just referred to. it is at direct issue with all the hypotheses of the abbé de la rue, and in my opinion the results are triumphantly established. whether the _normans_ or the _english_ worked it, is perfectly a secondary consideration. the chief objections, taken by the abbé, against its being a production of the xith century, consist in, first, its not being mentioned among the treasures possessed by the conqueror at his decease:--secondly, that, if the tapestry were deposited in the church, it must have suffered, if not have been annihilated, at the storming of bayeux and the destruction of the cathedral by fire in the reign of henry i., a.d. :--thirdly, the silence of _wace_ upon the subject,--who wrote his metrical histories nearly a century after the tapestry is supposed to have been executed." the latter is chiefly insisted upon by the learned abbé; who, which ever champion come off victorious in this archæological warfare, must at any rate receive the best thanks of the antiquary for the methodical and erudite manner in which he has conducted his attacks. at the first blush it cannot fail to strike us that the abbé de la rue's positions are all of a _negative_ character; and that, according to the strict rules of logic, it must not be admitted, that because such and such writers have _not_ noticed a circumstance, therefore that circumstance or event cannot have taken place. the first two grounds of objection have, i think, been fairly set aside by mr. amyot. as to the third objection, mr. a. remarks--"but it seems that wace has not only _not_ quoted the tapestry, but has varied from it in a manner which proves that he had never seen it. the instances given of this variation are, however, a little unfortunate. the first of them is very unimportant, for the difference merely consists in placing a figure at the _stern_ instead of the _prow_ of a ship, and in giving him a bow instead of a trumpet. from an authority quoted by the abbé himself, it appears that, with regard to this latter fact, the tapestry was right, and wace was wrong; and thus an argument is unintentionally furnished in favour of the superior antiquity of the tapestry. the second instance of variation, namely, that relating to taillefer's sword, may be easily dismissed; since, after all, it now appears, from mr. stothard's examination, that neither taillefer nor his sword is to be found in the tapestry," &c. but it is chiefly from the names of Ælfgyva and wadard, inscribed over some of the figures, that i apprehend the conclusion in favour of the tapestry's being nearly a contemporaneous production, may be safely drawn. it is quite clear that these names belong to persons living when the work was in progress, or within the recollection of the workers, and that they were attached to persons of some particular note or celebrity, or rather perhaps of _local_ importance. an eyewitness, or a contemporary only would have introduced them. they would not have lived in the memory of a person, whether mechanic or historian, who lived a _century_ after the event. no antiquary has yet fairly appropriated these names, and more especially the second. it follows therefore that they would not have been introduced had they not been in existence at the time; and in confirmation of that of wadard, it seems that mr. henry ellis (secretary of the society of antiquaries) "confirmed mr. amyot's conjecture on that subject, by the references with which he furnished him to _domesday book_, where his name occurs in no less than six counties, as holding lands of large extent under _odo_, bishop of bayeux, the tenant in capite of those properties from the crown. that he was not a _guard_ or _centinel,_ as the abbé de la rue supposes, but that he held an _office of rank_ in the household of either william or odo, seems now decided beyond a doubt." mr. amyot thus spiritedly concludes:--alluding to the successful completion of mr. stothard's copy of the entire original roll.--"yet if the bayeux tapestry be not history of the first class, it is perhaps something better. it exhibits general traits, elsewhere sought in vain, of the costume and manners of that age, which, of all others, if we except the period of the reformation, ought to be the most interesting to us;--that age, which gave us a new race of monarchs, bringing with them new landholders, new laws, and almost a new language." mr. amyot has subjoined a specimen of his own poetical powers in describing "the minstrel taillefer's achievements," in the battle of hastings, from the old norman lays of gaimar and wace. i can only find room for the first few verses. the poem is entitled, the onset of taillefer. foremost in the bands of france, arm'd with hauberk and with lance, and helmet glittering in the air, as if a warrior knight he were, rush'd forth the minstrel taillefer borne on his courser swift and strong, he gaily bounded o'er the plain, and raised the heart-inspiring song (loud echoed by the warlike throng) of _roland_ and of _charlemagne_, of _oliver_, brave peer of old, untaught to fly, unknown to yield, and many a knight and vassal bold, whose hallowed blood, in crimson flood, dyed _roncevalle's_ field. [ ] m. denon told me, in one of my visits to him at paris, that by the commands of bonaparte, he was charged with the custody of this tapestry for three months; that it was displayed in due form and ceremony in the museum; and that after having taken a hasty sketch of it, (which he admitted could not be considered as very faithful) he returned it to bayeux--as it was considered to be the peculiar property of that place. [ ] see p. ante. letter xvi. bayeux to coutances. st. lo. the cathedral of coutances. environs. aqueduct. market-day. public library. establishment for the clergy. i send you this despatch close to the very cathedral, whose spires, while yet at bayeux, were already glimmering in the horizon of my imagination. the journey hither has been in every respect the most beautiful and interesting that i have experienced on _this_ side the seine. i have seen something like undulating pasture-lands, wooded hills, meandering streams, and well-peopled villages; and an air of gaiety and cheerfulness, as well as the charm of picturesque beauty, has accompanied me from one cathedral to the other. i left the _hôtel de luxembourg_, at bayeux, in a hired cabriolet with a pair of horses, about five in the afternoon, pushing on, at a smart trot, for st. lo: which latter place i entered by moon-light. the road, as usual, was broad and bold, and at times undulating; flanked by beech, elm, and fir. as i just observed to you, i entered st. lo by moon-light: the double towers of the great cathedral-like looking church having a grand and even romantic effect on approaching the town. an old castle, or rather a mere round-tower relic of one, appeared to the left, upon entering it. passing the porch, or west end of the church, sometimes descending, at others ascending--midst close streets and overhanging roofs of houses, which cast a deep and solemn shadow, so as to shut out the moon beams for several hundred yards--and pursuing a winding route, i at length stopped at the door of the principal hôtel--_au grand coq!_ i laughed heartily when i heard its name; for with the strictest adherence to truth the adjective ought to have been _petit!_ however, the beds seemed to be in good order, and the coffee, with which i was quickly served, proved to be excellent. i strolled out, on a _reconnoissance_, about half-past nine; but owing to the deep shadows from the moon, arising from the narrowness of the streets, i could make out nothing satisfactory of the locale. the church, however, promised a rich treat on the morrow. as soon as the morrow came, i betook myself to the church. it was sunday morning. the square, before the west front of the church, was the rendezvous both of townsmen and countryfolks: but what was my astonishment on observing in one corner of it, a quack doctor vending powder for the effectual _polishing of metals_. he had just beaten his drum, in order to collect his audience; and having got a good assemblage, was full of the virtues of his wares--which were pronounced to be also "equally efficacious for _complaints in the stomach!_" this man had been preceded, in the situation which he occupied, by a rival charlatan, on horseback, with _powders to kill rats_. the latter stood upon the same eminence, wearing a hat, jacket, and trowsers, all white--upon which were painted _black rats_ of every size and description; and in his harangue to the populace he took care to tell them that the rats, painted upon his dress, were _exact portraits_ of those which had been destroyed by means of his powders! this, too, on a sunday morning. but remember dieppe.[ ] having despatched my breakfast, i proceeded to survey the church, from which the town takes its name. first, for the exterior. the _attached_ towers demand attention and admiration. they are so slightly attached as to be almost separated from the body or nave; forming something of that particular character which obtains more decidedly at the cathedral of coutances. i am not sure whether this portion of the church at st. lo be not preferable, on the score of regularity and delicacy, to the similar portion at this latter place. the west front is indeed its chief beauty of exterior attraction; and it was once rendered doubly interesting by a profusion of alto-rilievo statues, which _disappeared_ during the commotions of the revolution. you ascend rather a lofty flight of steps to this entrance; and into which the whole town seemed to be pouring the full tide of its population. i suffered myself to be carried away along, with the rest, and almost startled as i entered the nave.[ ] to the left, is a horribly-painted statue of the virgin, with the child in her arms. the countenance is even as ugly, old, and repulsive, as the colouring is most despicable. i never saw such a daub: and what emotions, connected with tenderness of feeling, or ardour of devotion, can the contemplation of such an object excite? surely the parish must have lost its wits, as well as its taste, to endure such a monstrous exhibition of art. as i advanced towards the choir, i took especial notice of the very singular, and in my opinion very ugly, formation both of the pillars and arches which sustain the roof. these pillars have _no capitals_, and the arch springs from them in the most abrupt manner. the arch itself is also very short and sharp pointed; like the tops of lancet windows. this mode obtains pretty generally here; but it should be noted that, in the right side aisle, the pillars have capitals. there is something unusual also in the row of pillars which spring up, flanking the choir, half way between the walls of the choir and the outward wall of the church. nor am i sure that, destitute of a graceful, superadded arch, such massive perpendicular lines have either meaning or effect. whether st. lo were the _first_ church upon which the architect, who built both _that_ and the cathedral at _coutances_, tried his talents--or whether, indeed, both churches be the effort of the same hand--i cannot pretend to determine; but, both outwardly and inwardly, these two churches have a strong resemblance to each other. like many other similar buildings in france, the church of st. lo is closely blocked up by surrounding houses. i prepared to leave st. lo about mid-day, after agreeing for a large heavy machine, with a stout pair of horses, to conduct me to this place. there are some curious old houses near the inn, with exterior ornaments like those of the xvith century, in our own country. but on quitting the town, in the road to coutances,--after you come to what are called the old castle walls, on passing the outer gate--your eye is struck by rather an extraordinary combination of objects. the town itself seems to be built upon a rock. above, below, every thing appears like huge scales of iron; while, at the bottom, in a serpentine direction, runs the peaceful and fruitful river _aure_.[ ] the country immediately around abounds in verdant pasture, and luxuriantly wooded heights. upon the whole, our sortie from st. lo, beneath a bright blue sky and a meridian sun, was extremely cheerful and gratifying. a hard road (but bold and broad, as usual) soon convinced me of the uncomfortableness of the conveyance; which, though roomy, and of rather respectable appearance, wanted springs: but the increasing beauty of the country, kept my attention perfectly occupied, till the beautiful cathedral, of coutances caught my notice, on an elevated ground, to the left. the situation is truly striking, gaze from what quarter you will. from that of st. lo, the immediate approach to the town is rendered very interesting from the broad _route royale_, lined with birch, hazel, and beech. the delicacy, or perhaps the peculiarity of the western towers of the cathedral, struck me as singularly picturesque; while the whole landscape was warmed by the full effulgence of an unclouded sun, and animated by the increasing numbers and activity of the _paysannes_ and _bourgeoises_ mingling in their sabbath-walks. their bright dark _blues_ and _crimsons_ were put on upon the occasion; and nought but peace, tranquillity, and fruitfulness seemed to prevail on all sides. it was a scene wherein you might have placed arcadian shepherds--worthy of being copied-by the pencil of claude. we entered the town at a sharp trot. the postilion, flourishing his whip, and causing its sound to re-echo through the principal street, upon an ascent, drove to the chief inn, the _hôtel d'angleterre_, within about one hundred yards of the cathedral. vespers were just over; and i shall not readily forget the rush and swarm of the clergy who were pouring out, from the north door, and covering the street with one extensive black mass. there could not have been fewer than two hundred young ecclesiastics--thus returning from vespers to their respective homes; or rather to the college, or great clerical establishment, in the neighbourhood. this college, which has suffered from violence and neglect, through the revolution and bonaparte's dynasty, is now beginning to raise its head in a very distinguished and commanding manner. it was a singular sight--to see such a crowd of young men, wearing cocked hats, black robes, and black bands with white edging! the women were all out in the streets; sitting before their doors, or quietly lounging or walking. the afternoon was indeed unusually serene. i ordered a late dinner, and set out for the cathedral. it was impossible to visit it at a more favorable moment. the congregation had departed; and a fine warm sun darted its rays in every surrounding direction. as i looked around, i could not fail to be struck with the singular arrangement of the columns round the choir: or rather of the double aisle between the choir and the walls, as at st. lo; but here yet more distinctly marked. for a wonder, an _unpainted_ virgin and child in our lady's chapel, behind the choir! there is nothing, i think, in the interior of this church that merits particular notice and commendation, except it be some beautifully-stained glass windows; with the arms, however, of certain noble families, and the regal arms (as at bayeux) obliterated. there is a deep well in the north transept, to supply the town with water in case of fire. the pulpit is large and handsome; but not so magnificent as that at bayeux. the organ is comparatively small. perhaps the thirteenth century is a period sufficiently remote to assign for the completion of the interior of this church, for i cannot subscribe to the hypothesis of the abbé de la rue, that this edifice was probably erected by tancred king of sicily at the end of the eleventh, or at the beginning of the twelfth century. the exterior of this church is indeed its chief attraction.[ ] unquestionably the style of architecture is very peculiar, and does not, as far as i know, extend beyond st. lo, in normandy. my great object was to mount upon the roof of the central tower, which is octagonal, containing fine lofty lancet windows, and commanding from its summit a magnificent panorama. another story, one half the height of the present erection from the roof of the nave, would put a glorious finish to the central tower of notre dame at coutances. as i ascended this central tower, i digressed occasionally into the lateral galleries along the aisles. to look down, was somewhat terrific; but who could help bewailing the wretched, rotten, green-tinted appearance of the roof of the north aisle?--which arose here, as at bayeux, from its being stripped of the lead (during the revolution) to make _bullets_--and from the rain's penetrating the interior in consequence. as i continued to ascend, i looked through the apertures to notice the fine formation and almost magical erection of the lancet windows of the western towers: and the higher i mounted, the more beautiful and magical seemed to be that portion of the building. at length i reached the summit; and concentrating myself a little, gazed around. the view was lovely beyond measure. coutances lies within four miles of the sea, so that to the west and south there appeared an immense expanse of ocean. on the opposite points was an extensive landscape, well-wooded, undulating, rich, and thickly studded with farm-houses. _jersey_ appeared to the north-west, quite encircled by the sea; and nearly to the south, stood out the bold insulated little rock of _granville_, defying the eternal washing of the wave. such a view is perhaps no where else to be seen in normandy; certainly not from any ecclesiastical edifice with which i am acquainted. the sun was now declining apace, which gave a wanner glow to the ocean, and a richer hue to the landscape. it is impossible to particularize. all was exquisitely refreshing and joyous. the heart beats with a fuller pulsation as the eye darts over such an expansive and exhilarating scene! spring was now clad in her deepest-coloured vesture: and a prospect of a fine summer and an abundant harvest infused additional delight into the beholder. immediately below, stood the insulated and respectable mansion or palace of _the bishop_; in the midst of a formal garden--begirt with yet more formally clipt hedges. as the prelate bore a good character, i took a pleasure in gazing upon the roof which contained an inhabitant capable of administering so much good to the community. in short, i shall always remember the view from the top of the central tower of the cathedral of coutances! i quitted such a spot with reluctance; but time was flying away, and the patience of the cuisinier at the hôtel d'angleterre had already been put somewhat to the test. in twenty minutes i sat down to my dinner, in a bed-room, of which the furniture was chiefly of green silk. the females, even in the humblest walks, have generally fine names; and _victorina_ was that of the fille de chambre at the hôtel d'angleterre. after dinner i walked upon what may be called the heights of coutances; and a more delightful evening's walk i never enjoyed. the women of every description--ladies, housekeepers, and servant maids--were all abroad; either sitting upon benches, or standing in gossiping groups, or straying in friendly pairs. the comeliness of the women was remarkable; a certain freshness of tint, and prevalence of the embonpoint, reminded me of those of our own country; and among the latter, i startled--as i gazed upon a countenance which afforded but too vivid a resemblance to that of a deceased relation! certainly the norman women are no where more comely and interesting than they are at coutances. the immediate environs of this place are beautiful and interesting: visit them in what direction you please. but there is nothing which so immediately strikes you as the remains of an _ancient aqueduct_; gothicised at the hither end, but with three or four circular arches at the further extremity, where it springs from the opposite banks. fine as was yesterday, this day has not been inferior to it. i was of course glad of an opportunity of visiting the market, and of mingling with the country people. the boulevards afforded an opportunity of accomplishing both these objects. corn is a great article of trade; and they have noble granaries for depositing it. apparently there is a great conflux of people, and much business stirring. i quickly perceived, in the midst of this ever-moving throng, my old friend the vender of rat-destroying powders--busied in the exercise of his calling, and covered with his usual vestment of white, spotted or painted with black rats. he found plenty of hearers and plenty of purchasers. all was animation and bustle. in the midst of it, a man came forward to the edge of a bank--below which a great concourse was assembled. he beat a drum, to announce that a packet boat, would sail to jersey in the course of the afternoon; but the people seemed too intent upon their occupations and gambols to attend to him. i sat upon a bench and read one of the little chap books--_richard sans peur_--which i had purchased the same morning. while absorbed in reflections upon the heterogeneous scene before me--and wishing, for some of my dearest friends in england to be also spectators of it--the notes of an hand-organ more and more distinctly stole upon my ear. they were soft; and even pleasing notes. on looking round, i observed that the musician preceded a person, who carried aloft a virgin, with the infant jesus, in wax; and who, under such a sign, exhorted the multitude to approach and buy his book-wares. i trust i was too thorough-bred a _roxburgher_ to remain quiet on the bench: and accordingly starting up, and extending two sous, i became the fortunate purchaser of a little _chap_ article--of which my friend bernardo will for ever, i fear, envy me the possession! the vender of the tome sang through his nose, as the organ warbled the following _cantique spirituelle_. en l'honneur du trÈs-saint sacrement, _qui est exposé dans la grande eglise cathédrale de st. pierre et st. paul de rome, pour implorer la miséricorde de dieu_. air: du théodore français. approchez-vous, chrétiens fidèles, afin d'entendre réciter: ecoutez tous avec un grand zèle, avec ferveur et piété, le voeu que nous avons fait, d'aller au grand saint jacques; grace à dieu nous l'avons accompli, pour l'amour de jésus christ. dieu créa le ciel et la terre, les astres et le firmament; il fit la brillante lumière, ainsi que tous les autres élémens, il a tiré tout du néant, ce qui respire sur la terre: rendons hommage à la grandeur de notre divin créateur. [ ]tous les jours la malice augmente, il y a très-peu de religion; la jeunesse est trop petulante, les enfans jurent le saint nom. et comment s'étonneroit-on si tant de fléaux nous tourmentent? et si l'on voit tant de malheurs, c'est dieu qui punit les pécheurs. souvent on assiste à l'office, c'est comme une manière d'acquit, sans penser au saint sacrifice; ou s'est immolé jesus christ. on parle avec ses amis, de ses affaires temporelles, sans faire aucune attention aux mystères de la religion. réfléchissez bien, pères et mères, sur ces morales et vérités: c'est la loi de dieu notre père; c'est lui qui nous les a dictées: il faut les suivre et les pratiquer, tant que nous serons sur la terre. n'oublions point qu'après la mort, nos ames existeront encore. the day was beginning to wear away fast, and i had not yet accomplished the favourite and indispensable object of visiting the public library. i made two unsuccessful attempts; but the third was fortunate. i had no letter of introduction, and every body was busied in receiving the visits of their country friends. i was much indebted to the polite attention of a stranger: who accompanied me to the house of the public librarian, his friend, who, not being at home, undertook the office of shewing me the books. the room in which they are contained--wholly detached--and indeed at a considerable distance from the cathedral--is about sixty english feet long, low, and rather narrow. it is absolutely crammed with books, in the most shameful state of confusion. i saw, for the first time in normandy, and with absolute gladness of heart, a copy of the _complutensian polyglot bible_; of which the four latter volumes, in vellum binding, were tall and good: the earlier ones, in calf, not so desirable. for the first time too, since treading norman soil, i saw a tolerably good sprinkle of _italian_ books. but the collection stands in dreadful need of weeding. indeed, this observation may apply to the greater number of public collections throughout normandy. i thanked my attendant for his patient and truly friendly attention, and took my leave. in my way homewards, i stopped at m. joubert's, the principal bookseller, and "beat about the bush" for bibliographical game. but my pursuit was not crowned with success. m.j. told me, in reply to black-letter enquiries, that a monsieur a----, a stout burly man, whom he called "un gros papa"--was in the habit of paying yearly visits from jersey, for the acquisition of the same black-letter treasures; and that he swept away every thing in the shape of an ancient and _equivocal_ volume, in his annual rounds. i learnt pretty nearly the same thing from manoury at caen. m. joubert is a very sensible and respectable man; and is not only "_seul imprimeur de monseigneur l'evêque"_ (pierre dupont-poursat), but is in fact almost the only bookseller worth consulting in the place. i bought of him a copy of the _livre d'eglise ou nouveau paroissien à l'usage du diocèse de coutances_, or the common prayer book of the diocese. it is a very thick duodecimo, of double columned pages, printed in a clear, new, and extremely legible character, upon paper of sufficiently good texture. it was bound in sheepskin, and i gave only _thirty sous_ for it new. how it can be published at such a price, is beyond my conception. m. joubert told me that the compositor or workman received francs for setting up pages, and that the paper was francs per ream. in our own country, such prices would be at least doubled. it is impossible not to be struck here with the great number of young ecclesiastics. in short, the establishment now erecting for them, will contain, when completed, (according to report) not fewer than four hundred. it is also impossible not to be struck with the extreme simplicity of their manners and deportment. they converse with apparent familiarity with the very humblest of their flock: and seem, from the highest to the lowest, to be cordially received. they are indifferent as to personal appearance. one young man carries a bundle of linen to his laundress, along the streets: another carries a round hat in his hand, having a cocked one upon his head: a kitchen utensil is seen in the hand of a third, and a chair, or small table, in that of a fourth. as these clergymen pass, they are repeatedly saluted. till the principal building be finished, many of them are scattered about the town, living quite in the upper stories. in short, it is the _profession_, rather than the particular candidate, which seems to claim the respectful attention of the townsmen. [ ] see page ante. [ ] mr. cotman has a view of this church, in his work on normandy. [ ] i suspect that the "peaceful" waters of this stream were frequently died with the blood of hugonots and roman catholics during the fierce contests between montgomery and matignon, towards the latter half of the sixteenth century. at that period st. lo was one of the strongest towns in the bocage; and the very pass above described, was the avenue by which the soldiers of the captains, just mentioned, alternately advanced and retreated in their respective attacks upon st. lo: which at length surrendered to the victorious army of the _latter_; the leader of the catholics. seguin: _histoire militaire des bocains_; _p. - _; , _ mo_. [ ] the reader will be doubtless gratified by the artist-like view of this cathedral, by mr. cotman, in his _architectural antiquities of normandy_. [ ] it cannot fail to be noticed that the following sentences are in fact _rhyming verse_, though printed prose-wise. letter xvii. journey to granville. granville. ville dieu. st. sever. town and castle of vire. _vire_. since my last, i have been as much gratified by the charms of nature and of art, as during any one period of my tour. prepare, therefore, for miscellaneous intelligence; but such as, i will make bold to predict, cannot fail to afford you considerable gratification. normandy is doubtless a glorious country. it is fruitful in its soil, picturesque in the disposition of its land and water, and rich in the architectural relics of "the olden time." it is also more than ordinarily interesting to an englishman. here, in the very town whence i transmit this despatch--within two hundred and fifty yards of the hotel of the _cheval blanc_, which just now encloses me within its granite walls--here, i say, lived and revelled the illustrious family of the de veres.[ ] hence william the conqueror took the famous aubrey de vere to be a spectator of his prowess, and a sharer of his spoils, in his decisive subjugation of our own country. it is from this place that the de veres derive their name. their once-proud castle yet towers above the rushing rivulet below, which turns a hundred mills in its course: but the warder's horn has long ceased to be heard, and the ramparts are levelled with the solid rock with which they were once, as it were, identified. i left coutances with something approaching to reluctance; so completely _anglicised_ seemed to be the scenery and inhabitants. the evening was beautiful in the extreme: and upon gaining the height of one of the opposite hills, within about half a league of the town, on the high granville route, i alighted--walked, stopped, and gazed, alternately, upon the lovely landscape around--the cathedral, in the mean time, becoming of one entire golden tint from the radiance of the setting sun. it was hardly possible to view a more perfect picture of its kind; and it served as a just counterpart to the more expansive scene which i had contemplated, but the preceding evening, from the heights of that same cathedral. the conducteur of the diligence rousing me from my rapturous abstraction, i remounted, and descended into a valley; and ere the succeeding height was gained, a fainter light floated over the distant landscape ... and every object reminded me of the accuracy of those exquisite lines of collins--descriptive of the approach of evening's ... gradual, dusky veil. for the first time, i had to do with a drunken conducteur. luckily the road was broad, and in the finest possible condition, and perfectly well known to the horses. every turning was successfully made; and the fear of upsetting began to give way to the annoyance experienced from the roaring and shouting of the conducteur. it was almost dark when i reached granville--about twelve miles from coutances; when i learnt that the horses had run six miles before they started with us. on entering the town, the road was absolutely solid rock: and considering what a _house_ we carried behind us (for so the body of the _diligence_ seemed) and the uncertain footing of the horses, in consequence of the rocky surface of the road, i apprehended the most sinister result. luckily it was moon-light; when, approaching one of the sorriest looking inns imaginable, whither our conducteur (in spite of the better instructions of the landlord of the hôtel d'angleterre at coutances) had persuaded us to go, the passengers alighted with thankful hearts, and bespoke supper and beds. granville is fortified on the land side by a deep ravine, which renders an approach from thence almost impracticable. on every other side it is defended by the ocean, into which the town seems to have dropt perpendicularly from the clouds. at high water, granville cannot be approached, even by transports, nearer than within two-thirds of a league; and of course at low water it is surrounded by an extent of sharply pointed rock and chalk: impenetrable--terrific--and presenting both certain failure and destruction to the assailants. it is a gibraltar in miniature. the english sharply cannonaded it a few years since, but it was only a political diversion. no landing was attempted. in the time of the civil wars, and more particularly in those of the league, granville, however, had its share of misery. it is now a quiet, dull, dreary, place; to be visited only for the sake of the view from thence, looking towards _st. malo_, and _mont st. michel_; the latter of which i give up--as an hopeless object of attainment. granville is in fact built upon rock;[ ] and the houses and the only two churches are entirely constructed of granite. the principal church (i think it was the principal) is rather pretty within, as to its construction; but the decidedly gloomy effect given to it by the tint of the _granite_--the pillars being composed of that substance--renders it disagreeable to the eye. i saw several confessionals; and in one of them, the office of confession was being performed by a priest, who attended to two penitents at the same time; but whose physiognomy was so repulsively frightful, that i could not help concluding he was listening to a tale which he was by no means prepared to receive. an hour's examination of the town thoroughly satisfied me. there was no public conveyance to _vire_, whither i intended immediately departing, and so i hired a voiture to be drawn by one sturdy norman horse. to a question about springs, the conducteur replied that i should find every thing "très propre." having paid the reckoning, i set my face towards vire. the day, for the season of the year, turned out to be gloomy and cold beyond measure: and the wind (to the east) was directly in my face. nevertheless the road was one of the finest that i had seen in france, for breadth and general soundness of condition. it had all the characteristics, in breadth and straitness, of a roman route; and as it was greatly undulating, i had frequently some gratifying glimpses of its bold direction. the surrounding country was of a quietly picturesque but fruitful aspect; and had my seat been comfortable, or after the fashion of those in my own country, my sensations had been more agreeable. but in truth, instead of _springs_, or any thing approximating to "très propre," i had to encounter a _hard plank_, suspended at the extremities, by a piece of leather, to the sides; and as the road was but too well bottomed, and the conveyance was open in front to the bitter blast of the east, i can hardly describe (as i shall never forget) the misery of this conveyance. fortunately the first stage was _ville dieu_. here i ordered a voiture and post horses: but the master of the poste royale, or rather of the inn, shook his head--"pour les chevaux, vous en aurez des meilleurs: mais, pour la voiture il n'y en a pas. tenez, monsieur; venez voir." i followed, with miserable forebodings--and entering a shed, where stood an old tumble-down-looking phaeton--"la voilà, c'est la seule que je possède en ce moment"--exclaimed the landlord. it had never stirred from its position since the fall of last years' leaf. it had been--within and without--the roosting place for fowls and other of the feathered tribe in the farm yard; and although literally covered with the _evidences_ of such long and undisturbed possession, yet, as there was no appearance of rain, and as i discovered the wished for "_ressorts_" (or _springs_) i compromised for the repulsiveness of the exterior, and declared my intention of taking it onward. water, brooms, brushes, and cloths, were quickly put in requisition; and two stately and well fed horses, which threatened to fly away with this slender machine, being fastened on, i absolutely darted forward at a round rattling gallop for _st. sever_. blessings ever wait upon the memory of that artisan who invented ... _springs_! the postilion had the perfect command of his horses, and he galloped, or trotted, or ambled, as his fancy--or rather our wishes--directed. the approach to our halting place was rather imposing. what seemed to be a monastery, or church, at st. sever, had quite the appearance of moorish architecture; and indeed as i had occasional glimpses of it through the trees, the effect was exceedingly picturesque. this posting town is in truth very delightfully situated. while the horses were being changed, i made our way for the monastery; which i found to be in a state rather of dilapidation than of ruin. it had, indeed, a wretched aspect. i entered the chapel, and saw lying, transversely upon a desk, to the left--a very clean, large paper, and uncut copy of the folio _rouen missal_ of . every thing about this deserted and decaying spot had a melancholy appearance: but the surrounding country was rich, wooded, and picturesque. in former days of prosperity--such as st. sever had seen before the revolution--there had been gaiety, abundance, and happiness. it was now a perfect contrast to such a state. on returning to the "_poste royale_" i found two fresh lusty horses to our voiture--but the postilion had sent a boy into the field to catch a _third_. wherefore was this? the tarif exacted it. a third horse "réciproquement pour l'année"--parce qu'il faut traverser une grande montagne avant d'arriver à vire"--was the explanatory reply. it seemed perfectly ridiculous, as the vehicle was of such slender dimensions and weight. however, i was forced to yield. to scold the postboy was equally absurd and unavailing: "parce que la tarif l'exigea." but the "montagne" was doubtless a reason for this additional horse: and i began to imagine that something magnificently picturesque might be in store. the three horses were put a-breast, and off we started with a phaeton-like velocity! certainly nothing could have a more ridiculous appearance than my pigmy voiture thus conveyed by three animals--strong enough to have drawn the diligence. i was not long in reaching this "huge mountain," which provoked my unqualified laughter--from its insignificant size--and upon the top of which stands the town of vire. it had been a _fair_-day; and groups of men and women, returning from the town, in their blue and crimson dresses, cheered somewhat the general gloom of the day, and lighted up the features of the landscape. the nearer i approached, the more numerous and incessant were these groups. vire is a sort of _rouen_ in miniature--if bustle and population be only considered. in architectural comparison, it is miserably feeble and inferior. the houses are generally built of granite, and look extremely sombre in consequence. the old castle is yet interesting and commanding. but of this presently. i drove to the "_cheval blanc_," and bespoke, as usual, a late dinner and beds. the first visit was to the _castle,_ but it is right that you should know, before hand, that the town of vire, which contains a population of about ten thousand souls, stands upon a commanding eminence, in the midst of a very beautiful and picturesque country called the bocage. this country was, in former times, as fruitful in civil wars, horrors, and devastations, as the more celebrated bocage of the more western part of france during the late revolution. in short, the bocage of normandy was the scene of bloodshed during the calvinistic or hugonot persecution. it was in the vicinity of this town, in the parts through which i have travelled--from caen hitherwards--that the hills and the dales rang with the feats of arms displayed in the alternate discomfiture and success of coligny, condÉ, montmogery, and matignon.[ ] but for the castle. it is situated at the extremity of an open space, terminated by a portion of the boulevards; having, in the foreground, the public library to the left, and a sort of municipal hall to the right: neither of them objects of much architectural consequence. still nearer in the foreground, is a fountain; whither men, women, and children--but chiefly the second class, in the character of _blanchisseuses_--regularly resort for water; as its bason is usually overflowing. it was in a lucky moment that mr. lewis paid a visit to this spot; which his ready pencil transmitted to his sketch-book in a manner too beautiful and faithful not to be followed up by a finished design. i send you a portion of this prettily grouped picture; premising, that the woman to the right, in the foreground, begged leave purposely to sit--or rather stand--for her portrait. the artist, in a short time, was completely surrounded by spectators of his graphic skill. [illustration] the "_cheval blanc_"--the name of the hotel at which i reside--should be rather called the "_cheval noir_;" for a more dark, dingy, and even dirty residence, for a traveller of any _nasal_ or _ocular_ sensibility, can be rarely visited. my bed room is hung with tapestry; which, for aught i know to the contrary, may represent the daring exploits of montgomery and matignon: but which is so begrimed with filth that there is no decyphering the subjects worked upon it. on leaving the inn--and making your way to the top of the street--you turn to the left; but on looking down, again to the left, you observe, below you, the great high road leading to _caen_, which has a noble appearance. indeed, the manner in which this part of normandy is intersected with the "_routes royales_" cannot fail to strike a stranger; especially as these roads run over hill and dale, amidst meadows, and orchards, equally abundant in their respective harvests. the immediate vicinity of the town is as remarkable for its picturesque objects of scenery as for its high state of cultivation; and a stroll upon the heights, in whatever part visited, will not fail to repay you for the certain disappointment to be experienced within the streets of the town. portions of the scenery, from these heights, are not unlike those in derbyshire, about matlock. there is plenty of rock, of shrubs, and of fern; while another _derwent_, less turbid and muddy, meanders below. thus much for a general, but hasty sketch of the town of vire. my next shall give you some detail of the _interior_ of a few of the houses, of which i may be said to have hitherto only contemplated the _roofs_. and yet i must not close my despatch without performing my promise about the castle; of which indeed (as you will see by the subjoined miniature view) only a sort of ruinous shell remains. its age may be a little towards the end of the thirteenth century. the stone is of a deep reddish tint: and although what remains is only a portion of the _keep_, yet i can never suppose it, even in its state of original integrity, to have been of very capacious dimensions. its site is most commanding. [illustration] [ ] the reader will find the fullest particulars relating to this once-distinguished family, in _halstead's genealogical memoirs of noble families, &c_.: a book it is true, of extreme scarcity. in lieu of it let him consult _collin's noble families_. [ ] [mons. licquet tells us, that in , a seigneur of gratot, ceded the rock of granville to an english nobleman, on the day of st. john the baptist, on receiving the homage of a hat of red roses. the nobleman intended to build a town there; but henry vi. dispossessed him of it, and built fortifications in . charles vii. in turn, dispossessed henry; but the additional fortifications which he built were demolished by order of louis xiv. &c.] [ ] an epitomised account of these civil commotions will be found in the _histoire militaire des bocains, par_ m. richard seguin; _a vire_, ; mo. of which work, and of its author, some notice will be taken in the following pages. letter xviii. bibliography. monsieur adam. monsieur de larenaudiere. olivier basselin. m. sÉguin. the public library. it is a sad rainy day; and having no temptation to stir abroad, i have shut myself up by the side of a huge wood fire--(surrounded by the dingy tapestry, of which my last letter did not make very honourable mention) in a thoroughly communicative mood--to make you acquainted with all that has passed since my previous despatch. books and the bibliomania be the chief "burden of my present song!" you may remember, in my account of the public library at caen, that some mention was made of a certain olivier basselin--whom i designated as the drunken barnaby _of normandy_. well, my friend--i have been at length made happy, and comforted in the extreme, by the possession of a copy of the _vaudevires_ of that said olivier basselin--and from the hands, too, of one of his principal editors ... monsieur lanon de larenaudiere, avocat, et maire, de tallevende-le-petit. this copy i intend (as indeed i told the donor) for the beloved library at althorp. but let me tell my tale my own way. hard by the hotel of the _cheval blanc_, (the best, bad as it is--and indeed the only one in the town) lives a printer of the name of adam. he is the principal, and the most respectable of his brethren in the same craft. after discoursing upon sundry desultory topics--and particularly examining the _books of education_, among which i was both surprised and pleased to find the _distichs of muretus_[ ]--i expressed my regret at having travelled through so many towns of normandy without meeting with one single copy of the _vaudevires of olivier basselin_ for sale. "it is not very surprising, sir, since it is a privately printed book, and was never intended for sale. the impression too is very limited. you know, sir, that the book was published here--and--" "then i begin to be confident about obtaining it"--replied i. "gently, sir;--" resumed monsieur adam--"it is not to be bought, even here. but do you know no one...?" "not a creature." "well, sir, take courage. you are an englishman. one of its principal editors--a very gallant _bibliomaniac_--who is a great collector and lover of the literature of your country--(here i picked up courage and gaiety of heart) lives in this town. he is president of the tribunal. go to him." seeing me hesitate, in consequence of not having a letter of introduction--"ce n'est rien (said he) allez tout-droit. il aime vos compatriotes; et soyez persuadé de l'accueil le plus favorable." methought monsieur adam spake more eloquently than i had yet heard a norman speak.[ ] in two seconds i quitted his shop, (promising to return with an account of my reception) and five minutes brought me into the presence of monsieur lanon de larenaudiere, président du tribunal, &c. it is not possible for me to convey to you a notion of the warmth, cordiality, and joyousness of heart, that marked the reception which this gentleman instantly gave me: and i will frankly own that i was as much "abashed" as ever our ancient friend caxton had been--in the presence of his patroness the duchess of burgundy. i followed my new bibliomaniacal acquaintance rapidly up stairs; and witnessed, with extreme pleasure, a few bundles of books (some of them english) lying upon the window seats of the first landing-place; much after the fashion followed in a certain long, rambling, and antique residence, not quite three quarters of a mile from the towers of westminster abbey. on gaining the first floor, mine host turned the keys of the doors of two contiguous rooms, and exclaimed, "voila ma bibliotheque!" the air of conscious triumph with which these words were uttered, delighted me infinitely; but my delight was much increased on a leisurely survey of one of the prettiest, most useful, and commendable collections of books, chiefly in the department of the belles-lettres, which i had ever witnessed. monsieur de larenaudiere has a library of about volumes, of which _eight hundred are english_. but the owner is especially fond of poetical archaeology; in other words, of collecting every work which displays the progress of french and english poetry in the middle and immediately following ages; and talks of _trouveurs_ and _troubadours_ with an enthusiasm approaching to extacy. meanwhile he points his finger to our warton, ellis, ritson, and southey; tells you how dearly he loves them; but yet leads you to conclude that he _rather_ prefers _le grand, ginguené, sismondi_, and _raynouard_. of the venerable living oracle in these matters, the abbé de la rue, he said he considered him as "un peu trop systématique." in short, m. de larenaudiere has almost a complete critical collection, in our tongue, upon the subject of old poetry; and was most anxious and inquisitive about the present state of cultivation of that branch of literature in england: adding, that he himself meditated a work upon the french poetry of the xiith and xiiith centuries. he said he thought his library might be worth about , francs: nor did i consider such a valuation overcharged. he talks rapidly, earnestly, and incessantly; but he talks well: and spoke of the renown of a certain library in _st. james's place_, in a manner which could not fail to quicken the pulse and warm the blood of its librarian. i concluded an interview of nearly two hours, by his compliance with my wish to dine with me on the following day: although he was quite urgent in bargaining for the previous measure of my tasting his _pôtage_ and _vol au vent_. but the shortness and constant occupation of my time would not allow me to accede to it. m. de larenaudiere then went to a cabinet-like cupboard, drew forth an uncut copy, stitched in blue spotted paper, of his beloved _vaudevires_ of olivier basselin:[ ] and presenting it to me, added "conservez le, pour l'amour de moi." you may be assured that i received such a present in the most gracious manner i was capable of--but instantly and honestly added--"permettez qu'il soit déposé dans la bibliothèque de milord s...? "c'est la même chose"--rejoined he; and giving me the address of the public librarian, we separated in the most cordial manner till the morrow. i posted back to monsieur adam, the printer and bookseller, and held aloft my blue-covered copy of the _vaudevires_ as an unquestionable proof of the successful result of my visit to monsieur la renaudiere. leaving the precious cargo with him, and telling him that i purposed immediately visiting the public library, he seemed astonished at my eagerness about books--and asked me if i had ever _published_ any thing _bibliographical_? "car enfin, monsieur, la pluspart des _virois_ ne savent rien de la litérature angloise"--concluded he ... but i had just witnessed a splendid exception to this sweeping clause of censure. i then sought the residence of the abbé du mortueux, the public librarian. that gentleman was from home, at a dinner party. i obtained information of the place where he might be found; and considering _two_ o'clock to be rather too early an hour (even in france) to disturb a gentleman during the exercise of so important a function, i strolled in the neighbourhood of the street, where he was regaling, for a full hour and half: when, at the expiration of that time, i ventured to knock at the door of a very respectable mansion, and to enquire for the bibliographical abbé. "he is here, sir, and has just done dinner. may i give him your name?" "i am a stranger: an englishman; who, on the recommendation of monsieur larenaudiere, wishes to see the public library. but i will call again in about an hour." "by no means: by no means: the abbé will see you immediately." and forthwith appeared a very comely, tall, and respectable-looking gentleman, with his hair en plein costume, both as to form and powder. indeed i had rarely before witnessed so prepossessing a figure. his salutation and address were most gracious and winning; and he told me that i had nothing to do but to accompany him to the place which i wished to visit. without even returning to his friends, he took his hat--and in one minute, to my surprise, i found myself in the street with the abbé de mortueux, in the high way to the public library. in our way thither our discourse was constant and unrestrained. "you appear here; monsieur l'abbé, to be partial to literature;... but allow me first to congratulate you on the beautiful environs of your town." "for literature in general, we are pretty well disposed. in regard to the beauties of the immediate neighbourhood of vire, we should be unworthy inhabitants indeed, if we were not sensible of them." in five minutes we reached the library. the shutters of the room were fastened, but the worthy abbé opened them in a trice; when i saw, for the first time in normandy, what appeared to be a genuine, old, unmutilated, unpillaged library. the room could be scarcely more than twenty-two feet square. i went instantly to work, with eyes and hands, in the ardent hope, and almost full persuasion, of finding something in the shape of a good old greek or roman classic, or french chronicle, or romance. but, alas, i looked, and handled the tomes in vain! the history of the library is this:--the founder was a monsieur pichon; who, on being taken prisoner by the english, at the capture of louisburg in , resided a long time in england under the name of tyrrel, and lived in circumstances of respectability and even of opulence. there--whether on the dispersion of the libraries of our meads, foulkes', and rawlinsons, i know not--he made his collection; took his books over with him to jersey, where he died in : and bequeathed them, about in number, to his native town of vire. m. du mortueux, who gave me these particulars, has drawn up a little memorial about pichon. his portrait, executed by an english artist, (whilst he lived among us) adorns the library; with which i hope it will go down to a distant and grateful posterity. the colouring of this portrait is faded: but it is evident that monsieur pichon had an expressive and sensible physiognomy. wonderful to relate, this collection of books was untouched during the revolution; while the neighbouring library of the _cordeliers_ was ransacked without mercy. but i regret to say that the books in the cupboards are getting sadly damp. do not expect any thing very marvellous in the details of this collection; the old-fashioned library doors, of wood, are quite in character with what they protect. among the earlier printed books, i saw a very bad copy of _sweynheym and pannartz's_ edition of the _de civitate dei_ of st. austin, of the date of ; and a large folio of _gering's_ impression of the _sermons of leonard de utino_ printed about the year . this latter was rather a fine book. a little black-letter latin bible by froben, of the date of , somewhat tempted me; but i could not resist asking, in a manner half serious and half jocose, whether a napoleon would not secure me the possession of a piquant little volume of black-letter tracts, printed by my old friend guido mercator?[ ] the abbé smiled: observing--"mon ami, on fait voir les livres ici; on les lit même: mais on ne les vend pas." i felt the force of this pointed reply: and was resolved never again to ask an ecclesiastic to part with a black-letter volume, even though it should be printed by "my old friend guido mercator." seeing there was very little more deserving of investigation, i enquired of my amiable guide about the "library of the cordeliers," of which he had just made mention. he told me that it consisted chiefly of canon and civil law, and had been literally almost destroyed: that he had contrived however to secure a great number of "rubbishing theological books," (so he called them!) which he sold for _three sous_ a piece--and with the produce of which he bought many excellent works for the library. i should like to have had the sifting of this "theological rubbish!" it remained only to thank the abbé most heartily for his patient endurance of my questions and searches, and particularly to apologise for bringing him from his surrounding friends. he told me, beginning with a "soyez tranquille," that the matter was not worth either a thought or a syllable; and ere we quitted the library, he bade me observe the written entries of the numbers of students who came daily thither to read. there were generally (he told me) from fifteen to twenty "hard at it"--and i saw the names of not fewer than _ninety-two_ who aspired to the honour and privilege of having access to the bibliotheca pichoniana. for the third time, in the same day, i visited monsieur adam; to carry away, like a bibliomaniacal jason, the fleece i had secured. i saw there a grave, stout gentleman--who saluted me on my entrance, and who was introduced to me by monsieur a. by the name of sÉguin. he had been waiting (he said) full three quarters of an hour to see me, and concluded by observing, that, although a man in business, he had aspired to the honour of authorship. he had written, in fact, two rather interesting--but wretchedly, and incorrectly printed--duodecimo volumes, relating to the bocage,[ ] in the immediate vicinity of vire; and was himself the sole vender and distributer of his publications. on my expressing a wish to possess these books, he quitted the premises, and begged i would wait his return with a copy or two of them. while he was gone, m. adam took the opportunity of telling me that he was a rich, respectable tradesman; but that, having said some severe things of the manufactures of vire in his _first_ publication,[ ] relating to the _civil_ history of the bocains, his townsmen sharply resented what they considered as reflections thrown out against them; and m. séguin was told that perhaps his personal safety was endangered ... he wanted not a second hint--but fled from home with precipitancy: and in his absence the populace suspended his effigy, and burnt it before the door of his house. this, however, did not _cool_ the ardour of authorship in m. séguin. he set about publishing his _military_ history of the bocains; and in the introductory part took occasion to retort upon the violence of his persecutors. to return to m. séguin. in about ten minutes he appeared, with two copies in his hand--which i purchased, i thought dearly, at five francs each volume; or a napoleon for the four books. after the adventures of this day, i need hardly tell you that i relished a substantial dinner at a late hour, and that i was well satisfied with vire. yesterday m. de larenaudiere made good his engagement, and dined with me at five, in the salle à manger. this is a large inn; and if good fare depended upon the number and even elegance of female cooks, the traveller ought to expect the very best at the _cheval blanc_. the afternoon was so inviting--and my guest having volunteered his services to conduct me to the most beautiful points of view in the immediate neighbourhood--that we each seemed to vie with the other in quickly dispatching what was placed before us; and within thirty-five minutes, from the moment of sitting down, we were in the outskirts of vire. never shall i forget that afternoon's ramble. the sun seemed to become more of a golden hue, and the atmosphere to increase in clearness and serenity. a thousand little songsters were warbling in the full-leaved branches of the trees; while the mingled notes of the _blanchisseuses_ and the milk-maids, near the banks of the rippling stream below, reached us in a sort of wild and joyous harmony--as we gazed down from the overhanging heights. the meadows were spotted with sheep, and the orchards teemed with the coming fruit. you may form some notion of the value of this rich and picturesque scenery, when i tell you that m. de larenaudiere possesses land, in the immediate vicinity of vire, which lets per acre at the rate of _ l._ _ s._ english. my guide was all gaiety of heart, and activity of step. i followed him through winding paths and devious tracks, amidst coppice-wood and fern--not however till i had viewed, from one particular spot upon the heights, a most commanding and interesting panorama of the town of vire. in our perambulation, we discoursed of english poetry; and i found that thomson was as great a favourite with my guide as with the rest of his countrymen. indeed he frankly told me that he had translated him into french verse, and intended to publish his translation. i urged him to quote specimens; which he did with a readiness and force, and felicity of version, that quite delighted me. he thoroughly understands the original; and in the description of a cataract, or mountain torrent, from the summer, he appeared to me almost to surpass it. my guide then proceeded to quote young and pope, and delivered his opinion of our two great whig and tory reviews. he said he preferred the politics and vivacity of the _edinburgh_, but thought the _quarterly_ more instructive and more carefully written. "enfin (he concluded) j'aime infiniment votre gouvernement, et vos écrivains; mais j'aime moins le peuple anglois." i replied that he had at least very recently shewn an exception to this opinion, in his treatment of _one_ among this _very_ people. "c'est une autre chose"--replied he briskly, and laughingly--"vous allez voir deux de vos compatriotes, qui sont mes intimes, et vous en serez bien content!" so saying, we continued our route through a delightful avenue of beech-trees, upon the most elevated part within the vicinity of the town; and my companion bade me view from thence the surrounding country. it was rich and beautiful in the extreme; and with perfect truth, i must say, resembled much more strongly the generality of our own scenery than what i had hitherto witnessed in normandy. but the sun was beginning to cast his shadows broader and broader, and where was the residence of monsieur and madame s----? it was almost close at hand. we reached it in a quarter of an hour--but the inmates were unluckily from home. the house is low and long, but respectable in appearance both within and without. the approach to it is through a pretty copse, terminated by a garden; and the surrounding grounds are rather tastefully laid out. a portion of it indeed had been trained into something in the shape of a labyrinth; in the centre of which was a rocky seat, embedded as it were in moss--and from which some fine glimpses were caught of the surrounding country. the fragrance from the orchard trees, which had not yet quite shed their blossoms, was perfectly delicious; while the stillness of evening added to the peculiar harmony of the whole. we had scarcely sauntered ten minutes before madame arrived. she had been twelve years in france, and spoke her own language so imperfectly, or rather so unintelligibly, that i begged of her to resume the french. her reception of us was most hospitable: but we declined cakes and wine, on account of the lateness of the hour. she told us that her husband was in possession of from fourscore to a hundred acres of the most productive land; and regretted that he was from home, on a visit to a neighbouring gentleman; assuring us, if we could stay, that he would be heartily glad to see us--"especially any of his _countrymen_, when introduced by monsieur de larenaudiere." it was difficult to say who smiled and bowed with the greater complacency, at this double-shotted compliment. i now pressed our retreat homewards. we bade this agreeable lady farewell, and returned down the heights, and through the devious paths by which we had ascended, while talk of various kind deceived the road. a more active and profitable day has not yet been devoted to norman objects, whether of art or of nature. tomorrow i breakfast with my friend and guide, and immediately afterwards push on for falaise. a cabriolet is hired, but doubts are entertained respecting the practicability of the route. my next epistle will be therefore from falaise--where the renowned william the conqueror was born, whose body we left entombed at caen. the day is clearing up; and i yet hope for a stroll upon the site of the castle. [ ] "_les distiques de muret, traduits en vers français, par aug. a_. se vend à vire, chez adam imprimeur-lib. an. . the reader may not be displeased to have a specimen of the manner of rendering these distichs into french verse: . dum tener es, murete, avidis hæc auribus hauri: nec memori modò conde animo, sed et exprime factis. . imprimis venerare deum; venerare parentes: et quos ipsa loco tibi dat natura parentum. &c. . _jeune encore, ô mon fils! pour être homme de bien, ecoute, et dans ton coeur grave cet entretien_. . _sers, honors le dieu qui créa tous les êtres; sois fils respectueux, sois docile à tes maîtres. &c_. [ ] [smartly and felicitously rendered by my translator mons. licquet; "jamais bouche normande ne m'avait paru plus éloquente que celle de m. adam." vol. ii. p. .] [ ] the present seems to be the proper place to give the reader some account of this once famous bacchanalian poet. it is not often that france rests her pretensions to poetical celebrity upon such claims. love, romantic adventures, gaiety of heart and of disposition, form the chief materials of her minor poems; but we have here before us, in the person and productions of olivier basselin, a rival to anacreon of old; to our own richard braithwait, vincent bourne, and thomas moore. as this volume may not be of general notoriety, the reader may be prepared to receive an account of its contents with the greater readiness and satisfaction. first, then, of the life and occupations of olivier basselin; which, as goujet has entirely passed over all notice of him, we can gather only from the editors of the present edition of his works. basselin appears to have been a _virois_; in other words, an inhabitant of the town of vire. but he had a strange propensity to rusticating, and preferred the immediate vicinity of vire--its quiet little valleys, running streams, and rocky recesses--to a more open and more distant residence. in such places, therefore, he carried with him his flasks of cider and his flagons of wine. thither he resorted with his "boon and merry companions," and there he poured forth his ardent and unpremeditated strains. these "strains" all savoured of the jovial propensities of their author; it being very rarely that tenderness of sentiment, whether connected with friendship or love, is admitted into his compositions. he was the thorough-bred anacreon of france at the close of the fifteenth century. the town of vire, as the reader may have already had intimation, is the chief town of that department of normandy called the bocage; and in this department few places have been, of old, more celebrated than the _vaux de vire_; on account of the number of manufactories which have existed there from time immemorial. it derives its name from two principal valleys, in the form of a t, of which the base (if it may be so called--"jambage") rests upon the _place du chateau de vire_. it is sufficiently contiguous to the town to be considered among the fauxbourgs. the rivers _vire_ and _viréne_, which unite at the bridge of vaux, run somewhat rapidly through the valleys. these rivers are flanked by manufactories of paper and cloth, which, from the xvth century, have been distinguished for their prosperous condition. indeed, basselin himself was a sort of cloth manufacturer. in this valley he passed his life in fulling his cloths, and "in composing those gay and delightful songs which are contained in the volume under consideration." _discours préliminaire_, p. , &c. olivier basselin is the parent of the title _vaudevire--_which has since been corrupted into _vaudeville_. from the observation of his critics, basselin appears to have been the father of bacchanalian poetry in france. he frequented public festivals, and was a welcome guest at the tables of the rich; where the vaudevire was in such request, that it is supposed to have superseded the "conte, or fabliau, or the chanson d'amour."[b] p. xviij: sur ce point-là, soyez tranquille: nos neveux, j'én suis bien certain, se souviendront de basselin, _pere joyeux du vaudeville:_ p. xxiij. i proceed to submit a few specimens of the muse of this ancient anacreon of france; and must necessarily begin with a few of those that are chiefly of a bacchanalian quality. _vaudevire ii_. ayant le doz au feu et le ventre à la table, estant parmi les pots pleins de vin délectable, ainsi comme ung poulet je ne me laisseray morir de la pepie, quant en debvroye avoir la face cramoisie et le nez violet; quant mon nez devendra de couleur rouge ou perse, porteray les couleurs que chérit ma maitresse. le vin rent le teint beau. vault-il pas mieulx avoir la couleur rouge et vive, riche de beaulx rubis, que si pasle et chétive ainsi qu'ung beuveur d'eau. _vaudevire xi_. certes _hoc vinum est bonus_: du maulvais latin ne nous chaille, se bien congru n'estoit ce jus, le tout ne vauldroit rien que vaille. escolier j'appris que bon vin aide bien au maulvais latin. ceste sentence praticquant, de latin je n'en appris guère; y pensant estre assez sçavant, puisque bon vin aimoye à boire. lorsque maulvais vin on a beu, latin n'est bon, fust-il congru. fy du latin, parlons françois, je m'y recongnois davantaige. je vueil boire une bonne fois, car voicy ung maistre breuvaige; certes se j'en beuvoye soubvent, je deviendroye fort éloquent. _vaudevire xxii_. he! qu'avons-nous affaire du turc ny du sophy, don don. pourveu que j'aye à boire, des grandeurs je dis fy. don don. trincque, seigneur, le vin est bon: _hoc acuit ingenium._ qui songe en vin ou vigne, est ung présaige heureux, don don. le vin à qui réchigne rent le coeur tout joyeux, don don. trincque, seigneur, le vin est bon: _hoc acuit ingenium_. &c. the poetry of basselin is almost wholly devoted to the celebration of the physical effects of wine upon the body and animal spirits; and the gentler emotions of the tender passion are rarely described in his numbers. in consequence, he has not invoked the goddess of beauty to associate with the god of wine: to "drop from her myrtle one leaf in his bowl;" or, when he does venture to introduce the society of a female, it is done after the following fashion--which discovers however an extreme facility and melody of rhythm. the burden of the song seems wonderfully accordant with a bacchanalian note. _vaudevire xix_. en ung jardin d'ombraige tout couvert, au chaud du jour, ay treuvé madalaine, qui près le pié d'ung sicomorre vert dormoit au bort d'une claire fontaine; son lit estoit de thin et marjolaine. son tetin frais n'estoit pas bien caché: d'amour touché, pour contempler sa beauté souveraine incontinent je m'en suys approché. sus, sus, qu'on se resveille, voicy vin excellent qui faict lever l'oreille; il faict mol qui n'en prent. je n'eus pouvoir, si belle la voyant, de m'abstenir de baizotter sa bouche; si bien qu'enfin la belle s'esveillant, me regardant avec ung oeil farouche, me dit ces mots: biberon, ne me touche. belle fillette à son aize ne couche avecq celuy qui ne faict qu'yvrongner, &c. &c. the preceding extracts will suffice. this is a volume in every respect interesting--both to the literary antiquary and to the book-collector. a new edition of this work has appeared under the editorial care of m. louis dubois, published at caen in , vo. obtainable at a very moderate price. [b] the host, at these public and private festivals, usually called upon some one to recite or sing a song, chiefly of an amatory or chivalrous character; and this custom prevailed more particularly in normandy than in other parts of france: usaige est en normandie, que qui hebergiez est qu'il die fable ou chanson à son oste. see the authorities cited at page xv, of this discours préliminaire. [ ] some account of this printer, together with a fac-simile of his device, may be seen in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. ii. p. - . [ ] the first publication is entitled "_essai sur l'histoire de l'industrie du bocage en général et de la ville de vire sa capitale en particulier, &c._" par m. richard seguin. _a vire, chez adam, imprimeur, an_ , mo. it is not improbable that i may have been the only importer of this useful and crowdedly-paged duodecimo volume; which presents us with so varied and animated a picture of the manners, customs, trades, and occupations of the bocains and the virois. [ ] i subjoin an extract which relates to the dress and character of the women. "quant au costume des femmes d'aujourd'hui, comme il faudrait un volume entier pour le décrire, je n'ai pas le courage de m'engager dans ce labyrinte de ridicules et de frivolités. ce que j'en dirai seulement en général, c'est qu'autant les femmes du temps passé, etaient décentes et chastes, et se faisaient gloire d'être graves et modestes, autant celles de notre siècle mettent tout en oeuvre pour paraître cyniques et voluptueuses. nous ne sommes plus au temps où les plus grandes dames se faisaient honneur de porter la cordélière.[c] leurs habillemens étaient aussi larges et fermés, que celui des femmes de nos jours sont ouverts et légers, et d'une finesse que les formes du corps, au moindre mouvement, se dessinent, de manière à ne laisser rien ignorer. a peine se couvrent-elles le sein d'un voile transparent très-léger ou de je ne sais quelle palatine qu'elles nomment point-à-jour, qui, en couvrant tout, ne cache rien; en sorte que si elles n'étalent pas tous leurs charmes à découvert, c'est que les hommes les moins scrupuleux, qui se contentent de les persifler, en seraient révoltés tout-à-fait. d'ailleurs, c'est que ce n'est pas encore la mode; plusieurs poussent même l'impudence jusqu'à venir dans nos temples sans coiffure, les cheveux hérissés comme des furies; d'autres, par une bizarrerie qu'on ne peut expliquer se dépouillent, autant qu'il est en leur pouvoir, des marques de leur propre sexe, sembleut rougir d'être femmes, et deviennent ridicules en voulant paraitre demi-hommes. "après avoir deshonoré l'habit des femmes, elles ont encore voulu prostituer celui des hommes. on les a vues adopter successivement les chapeaux, les redingotes, les vestes, les gilets, les bottes et jusqu'aux boutons. enfin si, au lieu de jupons, elles avaient pu s'accommoder de l'usage de la culotte, la métamorphose était complette; mais elles ont préféré les robes traînantes; c'est dommage que la nature ne leur ait donné une troisième main, qui leur serait nécessaire pour tenir cette longue queue, qui souvent patrouille la boue ou balaye la poussière. plût à dieu que les anciennes lois fussent encore en vigueur, ou ceux et celles qui portaient des habits indécent étaient obligés d'aller à rome pour en obtenir l'absolution, qui ne pouvait leur être accordée que par le souverain pontife, &c. "les femmes du bocage, et sur-tout les viroises, joignent à un esprit vif et enjoué les qualités du corps les plus estimables. blondes et brunes pour le plus grand nombre, elles sont de la moyenne taille, mais bien formées: elles ont le teint frais et fleuri, l'oeil vif, le visage vermeil, la démarche leste, un air étoffé et très élégantes dans tout leur maintien. si on dit avec raison que les bayeusines sont belles, les filles du bocage, qui sont leurs voisines, ne leur cèdent en aucune manière, car en général le sang est très-beau en ce pays. quant aux talens spirituels, elles les possèdent à un dégré éminent. elles parlent avec aisance, ont le repartie prompte, et outre les soins du ménage, ou elles excellent de telle sorte qu'il n'y a point de contrées ou il y ait plus de linge, elles entendent à merveille, et font avec succès tout le détail du commerce." p. . these passages, notwithstanding the amende honorable of the concluding paragraph, raised a storm of indignation against the unsuspecting author! nor can we be surprised at it. this publication is really filled with a great variety of curious historical detail--throughout which is interspersed much that relates to "romaunt lore" and romantic adventures. the civil wars between montgomery and matignon form alone a very important and interesting portion of the volume; and it is evident that the author has exerted himself with equal energy and anxiety to do justice to both parties--except that occasionally he betrays his antipathies against the hugonots.[d] i will quote the concluding passage of this work. there may be at least half a score readers who may think it something more than merely historically curious: "je finirai donc ici mon histoire. je n'ai point parlé d'un grand nombre des faits d'armes et d'actions glorieuses, qui se sont passés dans la guerre de l'indépendance des etats-unis d'amérique où beaucoup de bocains ont eu part; mais mon principal dessein a été de traiter des guerres qui ont eu lieu dans le bocage; ainsi je crois avoir atteint mon but, qui était d'écrire l'histoire militaire des bocains par des faits et non par des phrases, je ne peux cependant omettre une circonstance glorieuse pour le bocage; c'est la visite que le bon et infortuné louis xvi. fit aux bocains en . ce grand monarque dont les vues étaient aussi sages que profondes, avait résolu de faire construire le beau port de cherbourg, ouvrage vraiment royal, qui est une des plus nobles entreprises qui aient été faites depuis l'origine de la monarchie. les bocains sentirent l'avantage d'un si grand bienfait. le roi venant visiter les travaux, fut accueilli avec un enthousiasme presqu'impossible à décrire, ainsi que les princes qui l'accompagnaient. sa marche rassemblait à un triomphe. les peuples accouraient en foule du fond des campagnes, et bordaient la route, faisant retentir les airs de chants d'alégresse et des cris millions de fois répétés de vive le roi! musique, processions, arcs de triomphe, chemins jonchés de fleurs; tout fut prodigué. les villes de caen, de bayeux, de saint-lo, de carentan, de valognes, se surpassérent dans cette occasion, pour prouver à s.m. leur amour et leur reconnaissance; mais rien ne fut plus brillant que l'entrée de ce grand roi à cherbourg. un peuple immense, le clergé, toute la noblesse du pays, le son des cloches, le bruit du canon, les acclamations universelles prouvérent au monarque mieux encore que la pompe toute royale et les fêtes magnifiques que la ville ne cessa de lui donner tous les jours, que les coeurs de tous les bocains étaient à lui." p. . [c] "ceinture alors regardée comme le symbole de la continence. la reine de france en décorait les femmes titrées dont la conduite était irréprochable." _hist. de la réun. de bretagne a la france par l'abbé irail_. [d] "les soldats huguenots commirent dans cette occasion, toutes sortes de cruautés, d'infamies et de sacrilèges, jusqu'à mêler les saintes hosties avec l'avoine qu'ils donnaient à leurs chevaux: mais dieu permit qu'ils n'en voulurent pas manger." p. . letter xix. departure from vire. condÉ. pont ouilly. arrival at falaise. hotel of the grand turc. the castle of falaise. bibliomaniacal interview. _falaise_. here i am--or rather, here i have been--my most excellent friend, for the last four days--and from hence you will receive probably the last despatch from normandy--- from the "land (as i told you in my first epistle) of "castles, churches, and ancient chivalry." an old, well-situated, respectably-inhabited, and even flourishing, town--the birth-place too of our renowned first william:--weather, the most serene and inviting--and hospitality, thoroughly hearty, and after the english fashion:--these have all conspired to put me in tolerably good spirits. my health, too, thank god, has been of late a little improved. you wish me to continue the thread of my narrative unbroken; and i take it up therefore from the preparation for my departure from vire. i breakfasted, as i told you i was about to do, with my friend and guide mons. de larenaudiere; who had prepared quite a sumptuous repast for our participation. coffee, eggs, sweetmeats, cakes, and all the comfortable paraphernalia of an inviting breakfast-table, convinced us that we were in well-furnished and respectable quarters. madame did the honours of the meal in perfectly good taste; and one of the loveliest children i ever saw--a lad, of about five or six years of age--with a profusion of hair of the most delicate quality and colour, gave a sort of joyous character to our last meal at vire. the worthy host told me to forget him, when i reached my own country;[ ] and that, if ever business or pleasure brought me again into normandy, to remember that the maire de tallevende-le-petit would-be always happy to renew his assurances of hospitality. at the same time, he entreated me to pay attention to a list of english books which he put into my hands; and of which he stood considerably in need. we bade farewell in the true english fashion, by a hearty shake of the hands; and, mounting our voiture, gave the signal for departure. "au plaisir de vous revoir!"--'till a turning of the carriage deprived us of the sight of each other. it is not easy--and i trust it is not natural--for me to forget the last forty-eight hours spent in the interesting town of vire! our route to this place was equally grand and experimental; grand, as to the width of the road, and beauty of the surrounding country--but experimental, inasmuch as a part of the _route royale_ had been broken up, and rendered wholly impassable for carriages of any weight. our own, of its kind, was sufficiently light; with a covering of close wicker-work, painted after the fashion of some of our bettermost tilted carts. one norman horse, in full condition of flesh, with an equal portion of bone and muscle, was to convey us to this place, which cannot be less than twenty-two good long english miles from vire. the carriage had no springs; and our seat was merely suspended by pieces of leather fastened at each end. at _condé_, about one-third of the distance, we baited, to let both man and horse breathe over their dinners; while, strolling about that prettily situated little town, we mingled with the inhabitants, and contemplated the various faces (it being market-day) with no ordinary degree of gratification. amidst the bustle and variety of the scene, our ears were greeted by the air of an itinerant ballad-singer: nor will you be displeased if i send you a copy of it:--since it is gratifying to find any thing like a return to the good old times of the sixteenth century. vive le roi, vive l'amour. françois premier, nous dit l'histoire, etoit la fleur des chevaliers, près d'etampes aux champs de gloire il recueillit myrtes et lauriers; sa maîtresse toujours fidèle, le payant d'un tendre retour, lui chantant cette ritournelle; _vive le roi, vive l'amour_. henri, des princes le modèle, ton souvenir est dans nos coeurs, par la charmante gabrielle ton front fut couronné de fleurs; de la ligue domptant la rage, tu sus triompher tour-à-tour, par la clémence et ton courage: _vive le roi, vive l'amour_. amant chéri de la vallière, des ennemis noble vainqueur, louis savoit combattre et plaire, guidé par l'amour et l'honneur; a son retour de la victoire, entouré d'une aimable cour, il entendoit ce cri de gloire: _vive le roi, vive l'amour_. &c. there was a freshness of tint, and a comeliness of appearance, among the bourgeoises and common people, which were not to be eclipsed even by the belles of coutances. our garçon de poste and his able-bodied quadruped having each properly recruited themselves, we set forward--by preference--to walk up the very long and somewhat steep hill which rises on the other side of conde towards _pont ouilly_--in the route hither. perhaps this was the most considerable ascent we had mounted on foot, since we had left rouen. the view from the summit richly repaid the toil of using our legs. it was extensive, fruitful, and variegated; but neither rock nor mountain scenery; nor castles, nor country seats; nor cattle, nor the passing traveller--served to mark or to animate it. it was still, pure nature, upon a vast and rich scale: and as the day was fine, and my spirits good, i was resolved to view and to admire. _pont ouilly_ lies in a hollow; with a pretty winding river, which seems to run through its centre. the surrounding hills are gently undulating; and as we descended to the inn, we observed, over the opposite side of the town, upon the summit of one of the hills, a long procession of men and women--headed by an ecclesiastic, elevating a cross--who were about to celebrate, at some little distance, one of their annual festivals. the effect--as the procession came in contact with a bright blue sky, softened by distance--was uncommonly picturesque ... but the day was getting on fast, and there was yet a considerable distance to perform,--while, in addition, we had to encounter the most impassable part of the road. besides, i had not yet eaten a morsel since i had left vire. upon holding a consultation, therefore, it was resolved to make for the inn, and to dine there. a more sheltered, rural, spot cannot be conceived. it resembled very many of the snug scenes in south wales. indeed the whole country was of a character similar to many parts of monmouthshire; although with a miserable draw-back in respect to the important feature of _wood_. through the whole of normandy, you miss those grand and overshadowing masses of oak, which give to monmouthshire, and its neighbouring county of glocester, that rich and majestic appearance which so decidedly marks the character of those counties. however, we are now at the inn at pont ouilly. a dish of river fish, gudgeons, dace, and perch, was speedily put in requisition. good wine, "than which france could boast no better!" and a roast fowl, which the daughter of the hostess "knew how to dress to admiration" ... was all that this humble abode could afford us." "but we were welcome:"--that is, upon condition that we paid our reckoning.... the dinner would be ready in a "short half hour." mr. lewis, went to the bridge, to look around, for the purpose of exercising his pencil: while i sauntered more immediately about the house. within five minutes a well-looking, and even handsome, young woman--of an extremely fair complexion--her hair cut close behind--her face almost smothered in a white cap which seemed of crape--and habited in a deep black--passed quickly by me, and ascended a flight of steps, leading to the door of a very humble mansion. she smiled graciously at the _aubergiste_ as she passed her, and quickly disappeared. on enquiry, i was told that she was a nun, who, since the suppression of the convent to which she had belonged, earned her livelihood by teaching some of the more respectable children in the village. she had just completed her twentieth year. i was now addressed by a tall, bluff, shabby-looking man--who soon led me to understand that he was master of the inn where my "suite" was putting up;--that i had been egregiously deceived about the nature of the road--for that it was totally impossible for _one_ horse:--even the very best in normandy--(and where will you find better? added he, parenthetically--as i here give it to you) to perform the journey with such a voiture and such a weight of luggage behind." i was struck equally with amazement and woe at this intelligence. the unpitying landlord saw my consternation. "hark you, sir... (rejoined he) if you _must_ reach falaise this evening, there is only one method of doing it. you must have _another horse_." "willingly," i replied. "yes, sir--but you can have it only upon _one_ condition." "what is that?" "i have some little business at falaise myself. allow me to strap about one hundred weight of loaf-sugar at the back of your conveyance, and i myself will be your garçon de poste thither." i own i thought him about the most impudent fellow i had yet seen in normandy: but there was no time for resistance. necessity compelled acquiescence. accordingly, the dinner being dispatched--which, though good, was charged at six francs a-head--we prepared for our departure. but judge of my surprise and increased consternation, when the fellow ordered forth a little runt of a quadruped--in the shape of a horse--which was hardly higher than the lower part of the chest of the animal which brought us from vire! i remonstrated. the landlord expostulated. i resisted--but the fellow said it was a bargain; and proceeded quietly to deposit at least _two_ hundred weight of his refined sugar at the back of the carriage. this lilliputian horse was made the leader. the landlord mounted on the front seat, with our vire post-boy by the side of him; and sounding his whip, with a most ear-piercing whoop and hollow, we sprung forward for falaise--which we were told we should reach before sunset. you can hardly conceive the miseries of this cross-road journey. the route royale was, in fact, completely impassable; because they were repairing it. alarmed at the ruggedness of the cross-road, where one wheel was in a rut of upwards of a foot deep, and the other elevated in proportion--we got out, and resolved to push on a-foot. we walked for nearly two leagues, before our conveyance overtook us--so harassing and so apparently insurmountable seemed to be the road. but the cunning aubergiste had now got rid of his leader. he said that it was only necessary to use it for the first two or three leagues--which was the most difficult part of the route--and that, for the remainder, about five english miles, our "fine norman horse" was perfectly sufficient. this fine norman horse was treated most unmercifully by him. he flogged, he hallooed, he swore ... the animal tript, stumbled, and fell upon his knees--more than once--from sheer fatigue. the charioteer hallooed and flogged again: and i thought we must have taken up our night quarters in the high-way;--when suddenly, to the left, i saw the fine warm glow of the sun, which had set about twenty minutes, lighting up one of the most perfect round towers, of an old castle, that i had yet seen in normandy. voilà falaise!--exclaimed the ruthless charioteer; ... and in a quarter of an hour we trotted hard down a hill (after the horse had been twice again upon his knees) which terminated in this most interesting place. it will be difficult for me to forget--after such a long, wearisome, and in part desperate journey--our approach to falaise:--and more especially the appearance of the castle just mentioned. the stone seemed as fresh, and as perfectly cemented, as if it had been the work of the preceding year. moreover, the contiguous parts were so fine and so thoroughly picturesque--and the superadded tradition of its being, according to some, the birth place--and according to others, the usual residence--of william the conqueror ... altogether threw a charm about the first glimpse of this venerable pile, which cannot be easily described. i had received instructions to put up at the "_grand turc_"--as the only hotel worthy an englishman's notice. at the door of the grand turk, therefore, we were safely deposited: after having got rid of our incumbrances of two postilions, and two hundred weight of refined sugar. our reception was gracious in the extreme. the inn appeared "tout-à-fait à la mode anglaise"--and no marvel ... for madame the hostess was an englishwoman. her husband's name was _david_. bespeaking a late cup of tea, i strolled through the principal streets,--delighted with the remarkably clear current of the water, which ran on each side from the numerous overcharged fountains. day-light had wholly declined; when, sitting down to my souchong, i saw, with astonishment--a _pair of sugar-tongs_ and a _salt-spoon_--the first of the kind i had beheld since i left england! madame david enjoyed my surprise; adding, in a very droll phraseology, that she had "not forgotten good english customs." our beds and bed rooms were perfectly comfortable, and even elegant. the moat which encircles, not only the castle, but the town--and which must have been once formidable from its depth and breadth, when filled with water--is now most pleasingly metamorphosed. pasture lands, kitchen gardens, and orchards, occupy it entirely. here the cattle quietly stray, and luxuriously feed. but the metamorphosis of the _castle_ has been, in an equal degree, unfortunate. the cannon balls, during the wars of the league--and the fury of the populace, with the cupidity or caprice of some individuals, during the late revolution--helped to produce this change. after breakfast, i felt a strong desire to survey carefully the scite and structure of the castle. it was a lovely day; and in five minutes i obtained admission at a temporary outer gate. the first near view within the ramparts perfectly enchanted me. the situation is at once bold, commanding, and picturesque. but as the opposite, and immediately contiguous ground, is perhaps yet a little higher, it should follow that a force, placed upon such eminence--as indeed was that of henry the fourth, during the wars of the league--would in the end subdue the garrison, or demolish the castle. i walked here and there amidst briars and brushwood, diversified with lilacs and laburnums; and by the aid of the guide soon got within an old room--of which the outer walls only remained--and which is distinguished by being called the _birth-place_ of william the conqueror. between ourselves, the castle appears to be at least a century later than the time of william the conqueror; and certainly the fine round tower, of which such frequent mention has been made, is rather of the fourteenth, if not of the beginning of the fifteenth century;[ ] but it is a noble piece of masonry. the stone is of a close grain and beautiful colour, and the component parts are put together with a hard cement, and with the smallest possible interstices. at the top of it, on the left side, facing the high road from vire,--and constructed within the very walls themselves, is a _well_--which goes from the top apparently to the very bottom of the foundation, quite to the bed of the moat. it is about three feet in diameter, measuring with the eye; perhaps four: but it is doubtless a very curious piece of workmanship. we viewed with an inquisitive eye what remained of the _donjon_: sighed, as we surveyed the ruins of the _chapel_--a very interesting little piece of ecclesiastical antiquity: and shuddered as we contemplated the enormous and ponderous portcullis--which had a _drop of_ full twenty feet ... to keep out the invading foe. i was in truth delighted with this first reconnoissance of falaise--beneath one of the brightest and bluest skies of normandy! and--within walls, which were justly considered to be among the most perfect as well as the most ancient of those in normandy. leaving my companion to take a view of the upper part of this venerable building, i retreated towards the town--resolved to leave no church and no street unexplored. on descending, and quitting the gate by which i had entered, a fine, robust, and respectable figure, habited as an ecclesiastic, met and accosted me. i was most prompt to return the salutation. "we are proud, sir, of our castle, and i observe you have been visiting it. the english ought to take an interest in it, since it was the birth-place of william the conqueror." i readily admitted it was well worth a minute examination: but as readily turned the conversation to the subject of libraries. the amiable stranger (for he was gaining upon me fast, by his unaffected manners and sensible remarks) answered, that "their _own_ public library existed no longer--having been made subservient to the inquisitorial visit of m. moysant of caen[ ]: that he had himself procured for the bishop of bayeux the _mentz bible_ of --and that the chapter-library of bayeux, before the revolution, could not have contained fewer than , volumes. "but you are doubtless acquainted, sir, with the comte de la fresnaye, who resides in yonder large mansion?"--pointing to a house upon an elevated spot on the other side of the town. i replied that i had not that honour; and was indeed an utter stranger to every inhabitant of falaise. i then stated, in as few and precise words as possible, the particular object of my visit to the continent. "cela suffit"--resumed the unknown--"nous irons faire visite à monsieur le comte après le diné; à ce moment il s'occupe avec le pôtage--car c'est un jour maigre. il sera charmé de vous recevoir. il aime infiniment les anglois, et il a resté long-temps chez vous. c'est un brave homme--et même un grand antiquaire." my pulse and colour increased sensibly as the stranger uttered these latter words: and he concluded by telling me that he was himself the curé of _ste. trinité_ one of the two principal churches of the town--and that his name was mouton. be assured that i shall not lose sight of the comte de la fresnaye, and monsieur mouton. [ ] [only one letter has passed between us since my departure; and that enables me to subjoin a fac-simile of its author's autograph. [autograph: de larenaudiere] [ ] [it was in fact built by the famous lord talbot, about the year . a similar castle, but less strong and lofty, may be seen at castor, near yarmouth in norfolk--once the seat of the famous sir john fastolf, (a contemporary with talbot) of whom anstis treats so fully in his _order of the garter_, vol.i. p. .] [ ] see p. ante. letter xx. mons. mouton. church of ste. trinitÉ. comte de la fresnaye. guibray church. supposed head of william the conqueror. m. langevin, historian of falaise. printing offices. i lose no time in the fulfilment of my promise. the church of sainte trinitÉ, of which monsieur mouton is the curé, is the second place of worship in rank in the town. during the revolution, mons. mouton was compelled, with too many of his professional brethren, to fly from the general persecution of his order. one solitary and most amiable creature only remained; of the name of langevin--of whom, by and by, monsieur mouton did me the honour of shewing me the interior of his church. his stipend (as he told me) did not exceed francs per annum; and it is really surprising to observe to what apparent acts of generosity towards his flock, this income is made subservient. you shall hear. the altar consists of two angels of the size of life, kneeling very gracefully, in white glazed plaister: in the centre, somewhat raised above, is a figure of the virgin, of the same materials; above which again, is a representation of the trinity--in a blaze of gilt. the massive circular columns surrounding the choir--probably of the fourteenth century--were just fresh painted, at the expense of the worthy curé, in alternate colours of blue and yellow--imitative of marble;--that is to say, each column, alternately, was blue and yellow. it was impossible to behold any thing more glaring and more tasteless. i paid my little tribute of admiration at the simplicity and grace of the kneeling figure of the virgin--but was stubbornly silent about every thing else. monsieur mouton replied that "he intended to grace the brows of the angels by putting a _garland_ round each." i felt a sort of twinge upon receiving this intelligence; but there is no persuading the french to reject, or to qualify, their excessive fondness for flower ornaments. projecting from the wall, behind the circular part of the choir, i observed a figure of _st. sebastian_--precisely of that character which we remark in the printed missals of the fifteenth century,--and from which the engravers of that period copied them: namely, with the head large, the body meagre, and the limbs loose and muscular. it was plentifully covered, as was the whole surface of the wall, with recent white wash. on observing this, my guide added: "oui, et je veux le faire couvrir d'une teinte encore plus blanche!" here i felt a second twinge yet more powerful than the first. i noticed, towards the south-side door, a very fine crucifix, cut in wood, about three feet high; and apparently of the time of goujon. it was by much the finest piece of sculpture, of its kind, which i had seen in normandy; but it was rather in a decaying state. i wished to know whether such an object of art--apparently of no earthly importance, where it was situated--might be obtained for some honourable and adequate compensation. monsieur mouton replied that he desired to part with it--but that it must be replaced by another "full six feet high!" there was no meeting this proposition, and i ceased to say another word upon the subject. upon the whole, the church of the holy trinity is rather a fine and capacious, than a venerable edifice; and although i cannot conscientiously approve of the beautifying and repairing which are going on therein, yet i will do the _planner_ the justice to say, that a more gentlemanly, liberally-minded, and truly amiable clergyman is perhaps no where to be found,--within or without the diocese to which he belongs. attached to the north transept or side door, parallel with the street, is a long pole. "what might this mean?" "sir, this pole was crowned at the top by a garland, and by the white flag of _st. louis_,[ ]--which were hoisted to receive me on my return from my long expatriation"--and the eyes of the narrator were suffused with tears, as he made the answer! it is of no consequence how small the income of an unmarried minister, may be, when he thus lives so entirely in the hearts of his flock. this church bears abundant evidence, within and without, of what is called the restoration of the gothic order during the reign of francis i.: although the most essential and the greater portion is evidently of the latter part of the fourteenth century.[ ] having expressed my admiration of the manufacture of wax candles (for religious purposes) which i had frequently observed in the town, monsieur mouton, upon taking me into the sacristy (similar to our vestry-room) begged i would do him the honour to accept of any which might be lying upon the table. these candles are made of the purest white wax: of a spiral, or twisted, or square, or circular form; of considerable length and width. they are also decorated with fillagree work, and tinsel of various colours. upon that which i chose, there were little rosettes made of wax. the moderate sum for which they are obtained, startles an englishman who thinks of the high price of this article of trade in his own country. you see frequently, against the walls and pillars of the choir, fragments of these larger wax candles, guttering down and begrimed from the uses made of them in time of worship. in this sacristy there were two little boys swinging _wooden_ censers, by way of practice for the more perfect use of them, when charged with frankincense, at the altar. to manage these adroitly--as the traveller is in the constant habit of observing during divine worship--is a matter of no very quick or easy attainment. from the curé we proceed to the comte de la fresnaye; whose pleasantly situated mansion had been pointed out to me, as you may remember, by the former. passing over one of the bridges, leading towards _guibray_, and ascending a gentle eminence to the left, i approached the outer lodge of this large and respectable-looking mansion. the count and family were at dinner: but at _three_ they would rise from table. "meanwhile," said the porter, it might give me pleasure to walk in the garden." it was one of the loveliest days imaginable. such a sky--blue, bright, and cloudless--i had scarcely before seen. the garden was almost suffocated with lilacs and laburnums, glittering in their respective liveries of white, purple, and yellow. i stepped into a berceau--and sitting upon a bench, bethought me of the strange visit i was about to make--as well as of all the pleasing pastoral poetry and painting which i had read in the pages of de lille, or viewed upon the canvas of watteau. the clock of the church of _st. gervais_ struck three; when, starting from my reverie, i knocked at the hall-door, and was announced to the family, (who had just risen from dinner) above stairs. a circle of five gentlemen would have alarmed a very nervous visitor; but the count, addressing me in a semi-british and semi-gallic phraseology, immediately dissipated my fears. in five minutes he was made acquainted with the cause of this apparent intrusion. nothing could exceed his amiable frankness. the very choicest wine was circulated at his table; of which i partook in a more decided manner on the following day--when he was so good as to invite me to dine. when i touched upon his favourite theme of norman antiquities, he almost shouted aloud the name of ingulph,--that "cher ami de guillaume le conquérant!" i was unwilling to trespass long; but i soon found the advantage of making use of the name of "monsieur mouton--l'estimable curé de la sainte trinité." [illustration] in a stroll to guibray, towards sunset the next day, i passed through a considerable portion of the count's property, about acres, chiefly of pasture land. the evening was really enchanting; and through the branches of the coppice wood the sun seemed to be setting in a bed of molten gold. our conversation was animated and incessant. in the old and curious church of guibray, the count shewed us his family pew with the care and particularity of an old country squire. meanwhile mr. lewis was making a hasty copy of one of the very singular ornaments--representing _christ bearing his cross_--which was suspended against the walls of the altar of a side chapel. you have it here. it is frightfully barbarous, and characteristic of the capricious style of art which frequently prevailed about the year : but the wonder is, how such a wretched performance could obtain admission into the sanctuary where it was deposited. it was however the pious gift of the vestry woman--who shewed us the interior--and who had religiously rescued it, during the revolution, from the demolition of a neighbouring abbey. the eastern end of this church is perhaps as old as any ecclesiastical edifice in normandy;[ ] and its exterior (to which we could only approach by wading through rank grass as high as our knees) is one of the most interesting of its kind. during our admiration of all that was curious in this venerable edifice, we were struck by our old friends, the _penitents_,--busy in making confession. in more than one confessional there were two penitents; and towards one of these, thus doubly attended, i saw a very large, athletic, hard-visaged priest hastening, just having slipt on his surplice in the vestry. indeed i had been cursorily introduced to him by the count. it was saturday evening, and the ensuing sunday was to be marked by some grand procession. the village-like town of guibray presents a most singular sight to the eye of a stranger. there are numerous little narrow streets, with every window closed by wooden shutters, and every door fastened. it appears as if the plague had recently raged there, and that the inhabitants had quitted it for ever. not a creature is visible: not a sound is heard: not a mouse seems to be stirring. and yet guibray boasts of the largest fair in france, save one![ ] this, my friend, precisely accounts for the aspect of desolation just described. during the intervals of these _triennial_ fairs, the greater part of the village is uninhabited: venders and purchasers flocking and crowding by hundreds when they take place. in a short, narrow street--where nothing animated was to be seen--the count assured me that sometimes, in the course of one morning, several millions of francs were spent in the purchase of different wares. we left this very strange place with our minds occupied by a variety of reflections: but at any rate highly pleased and gratified by the agreeable family which had performed the part of guides on the occasion. in the evening, a professor of music treated us with some pleasing tunes upon the guitar--which utterly astonished the count--and it was quite night-fall when we returned homewards, towards our quarters at the hotel of the _grand turc_. a memorable incident occurred in our way homewards; which, when made known, will probably agitate the minds and shake the faith of two-thirds of the members of our society of antiquaries. you may remember that i told you, when at caen, that the abbe de la rue had notified to me what were the objects more particularly deserving of attention in my further progress through normandy. among these, he particularly mentioned a figure or head of william the conqueror at falaise. in the _place st. gervais_, this wonderful head was said to exist--and to exist there only. it was at the house of an innkeeper--certainly not moving in the highest circle of his calling. i lost little time in visiting it; and found it situated at the top of a dark narrow staircase, projecting from the wall, to the right, just before you reach the first floor. some sensation had been excited by the enquiries, which i had previously set on foot; and on a second visit, several people were collected to receive us. lights, warm water, towels, soap and brushes, were quickly put in requisition. i commenced operations with a kitchen knife, by carefully scraping away all the layers of hardened white and ochre washes, with which each generation had embedded and almost obliterated every feature. by degrees, the hair became manifest: then followed the operation of soap and water--which brought out the features of the face; and when the eyes fully and distinctly appeared, the exclamation of "_mon dieu_!" by the spectators, was loud and unremitting. the nose had received a serious injury by having its end broken off. anon, stood forth the mouth; and when the "whiskered majesty" of the beard became evident, it was quite impossible to repress the simultaneous ejaculation of joy and astonishment ... "_voilà le vrai portrait de guillaume le conquérant_! the whiskers apparently denote it to be rather _saxon_ than _norman_. the head is nearly eleven inches in length, by seven and a half in width: is cut upon a very coarse, yet hard-grained stone--and rests upon a square, unconnected stone:--embedded within the wall. if it ever had shoulders and body, those shoulders and body were no part of the present appendages of the head. what then, is the abbé de la rue in error? the more liberal inference will be, that the abbé de la rue had never seen it. as to its antiquity, i am prepared to admit it to be very considerable; and, if you please, even before the period of the loves of the father and mother of the character whom it is supposed to represent. in the morning, madame rolle seemed disposed to take ten louis (which i freely offered her) for her precious fragment: but the distinct, collected view of whiskers, mouth, nose, eyes, and hair, instantaneously raised the quicksilver of her expectations to "_quinze_ louis pour le moins!" that was infinitely "trop fort"--and we parted without coming to any terms. perhaps you will laugh at me for the previous offer. the church of st. gervais is called the mother church of the town: and it is right that you should have some notion of it. it stands upon a finely elevated situation. its interior is rather capacious: but it has no very grand effect-arising from simplicity or breadth of architecture. the pillars to the right of the nave, on entering from the western extremity, are doubtless old; perhaps of the beginning of the thirteenth century. the arches are a flattened semicircle; while those on the opposite side are comparatively sharp, and of a considerably later period. the ornaments of the capitals of these older pillars are, some of them, sufficiently capricious and elaborate; while others are of a more exceptionable character on the score of indelicacy. but this does not surprise a man who has been accustomed to examine art, of the middle centuries, whether in sculpture or in painting. the side aisles are comparatively modern. the pillars of the choir have scarcely any capitals beyond a simple rim or fillet; and are surmounted by sharp low arches, like what are to be seen at st. lo and coutances. the roof of the left side aisle is perfectly green from damp: the result, as at coutances, of thereof having been stripped for the sake of the lead to make bullets, &c. during the revolution. i saw this large church completely filled on sunday, at morning service--about eleven: and, in the congregation, i observed several faces and figures, of both sexes, which indicated great intelligence and respectability. indeed there was much of the air of a london congregation about the whole. from the church, we may fairly make any thing but a digression--in discoursing of one of its brightest ornaments, in the person of monsieur langevin:--a simple priest--as he styles himself in an octavo volume, which entitles him to the character of the best living historian of falaise. he is a mere officiating minister in the church of mons. mouton; and his salary, as he led me to infer, could be scarcely twenty louis per annum. surely this man is among the most amiable and excellent of god's creatures! but it is right that you should know the origin and progress of our acquaintance. it was after dinner, on one of the most industriously spent of my days here--and the very second of my arrival,--that the waiter announced the arrival of the abbé langevin, in the passage, with a copy of his history beneath his arm. the door opened, and in walked the stranger--habited in his clerical garb--with a physiognomy so benign and expressive, and with manners so gentle and well-bred,--that i rose instinctively from my seat to give him the most cordial reception. he returned my civility in a way which shewed at once that he was a man of the most interesting simplicity of character. "he was aware (he said) that he had intruded; but as he understood "monsieur was in pursuit of the antiquities of the place, he had presumed to offer for his acceptance a copy of a work upon that subject--of which he was the humble author." this work was a good sized thick crown octavo, filling five hundred closely and well-printed pages; and of which the price was _fifty sous_! the worthy priest, seeing my surprise on his mentioning the price, supposed that i had considered it as rather extravagant. but this error was rectified in an instant. i ordered _three copies_ of his historical labours, and told him my conscience would not allow me to pay him less than _three francs_ per copy. he seemed to be electrified: rose from his seat:--and lifting up one of the most expressive of countenances, with eyes apparently suffused with tears--raised both his hands, and exclaimed.... "que le bon dieu vous bénisse--les anglois sont vraiement généreux!" for several seconds i sat riveted to my seat. such an unfeigned and warm acknowledgment of what i had considered as a mere matter-of-course proposition, perfectly astounded me: the more so, as it was accompanied by a gesture and articulation which could not fail to move any bosom--not absolutely composed of marble. we each rallied, and resumed the conversation. in few but simple words he told me his history. he had contrived to weather out the revolution, at falaise. his former preferment had been wholly taken from him; and he was now a simple assistant in the church of mons. mouton. he had yielded without resistance; as even _remonstrance_ would have been probably followed up by the guillotine. to solace himself in his afflictions, he had recourse to his old favourite studies of _medicine_ and _music_;--and had in fact practised the former. "but come, sir, (says he) come and do me the honour of a call--when it shall suit you." i settled it for the ensuing day. on breaking up and taking leave, the amiable stranger modestly spoke of his history. it had cost him three years' toil; and he seemed to mention, with an air of triumph, the frequent references in it to the _gallia christiana_, and to _chartularies_ and _family records_ never before examined. on the next day i carried my projected visit into execution--towards seven in the evening. the lodgings of m. langevin are on the second floor of a house belonging to a carpenter. the worthy priest received me on the landing-place, in the most cheerful and chatty manner. he has three small rooms on the same floor. in the first, his library is deposited. on my asking him to let me see what _old books_ he possessed, he turned gaily round, and replied--"comment donc, monsieur, vous aimez les vieux livres? a ça, voyons!" whereupon he pulled away certain strips or pieces of wainscot, and shewed me his book-treasures within the recesses. on my recognising a _colinæus_ and _henry stephen_, ere he had read the title of the volumes, he seemed to marvel exceedingly, and to gaze at me as a conjuror. he betrayed more than ordinary satisfaction on shewing his _latin galen_ and _hippocrates_; and the former, to the best of my recollection, contained latin notes in the margin, written by himself. these tomes were followed up by a few upon _alchymy_ and _astrology_; from which, and the consequent conversation, i was led to infer that the amiable possessor entertained due respect for those studies which had ravished our dees and ashmoles of old. in the second room stood an upright piano forte--the _manufacture_, as well as the property, of monsieur langevin. it bore the date of ; and was considered as the first of the kind introduced into normandy. it was impossible not to be struck with the various rational sources of amusement, by means of which this estimable character had contrived to beguile the hours of his misfortunes. there was a calm, collected, serenity of manner about him--a most unfeigned and unqualified resignation to the divine will--which marked him as an object at once of admiration and esteem. there was no boast--no cant--no formal sermonising. you _saw_ what religion had done for him. her effects _spake_ in his discourse and in his life.... over his piano hung a portrait of himself; very indifferently executed--and not strongly resembling the original. "we can do something more faithful than this, sir, if you will allow it"--said i, pointing to mr. lewis: and it was agreed that he should give the latter a sitting on the morrow. the next day m. langevin came punctually to his appointment, for the purpose of having his portrait taken. on telling this original that the pencil drawing of mr. lewis (which by the bye was executed in about an hour and a half) should be _engraved_--inasmuch as he was the modern _historian of falaise_--he seemed absolutely astonished. he moved a few paces gently forwards, and turning round, with hands and eyes elevated, exclaimed, in a tremulous and heart-stricken tone of voice, "ah, mon dieu!" i will not dissemble that i took leave of him with tears, which were with difficulty concealed. "adieu, pour toujours!"--were words which he uttered with all the sincerity, and with yet more pathos, than was even shewn by pierre aimé lair at caen. the landlord and landlady of this hotel are warm in their commendations of him: assuring me that his name is hardly ever pronounced without the mention of his virtues. he has just entered his sixty-second year.[ ] it remains only to give an account of the progress of printing and of literature in this place: although the latter ought to precede the former. as a literary man, our worthy acquaintance the comte de la fresnaye takes the lead: yet he is rather an amateur than a professed critic. he has written upon the antiquities of the town; but his work is justly considered inferior to that of monsieur langevin. he quotes _wace_ frequently, and with apparent satisfaction; and he promises a french version of his beloved _ingulph_. falaise is a quiet, dull place of resort, for those who form their notions of retirement as connected with the occasional bustle and animation of caen and rouen. but the situation is pleasing. the skies are serene: the temperature is mild, and the fruits of the earth are abundant and nutritious. many of the more respectable inhabitants expressed their surprise to me that there were so few english resident in its neighbourhood--so much preferable, on many accounts to that of caen. but our countrymen, you know, are sometimes a little capricious in the objects of their choice. just now, it is the _fashion_ for the english to reside at caen; yet when you consider that the major part of our countrymen reside there for the purpose of educating their children--and that caen, from its numerous seminaries of education, contains masters of every description, whose lessons are sometimes as low as a frank for each--it is not surprising that falaise is deserted for the former place. for myself--and for all those who love a select society, a sweet country, and rather a plentiful sprinkle of antiquarian art,--for such, in short, who would read the fabliaux of the old norman bards in peace, comfort, and silence--there can be no question about the preference to be given to the spot from which i send this my last norman despatch. i have before made mention of the fountains in this place. they are equally numerous and clear. the inn in which we reside has not fewer than three fountains--or rather of _jets d'eau_--constantly playing. those in the _place st. trinité grand rue_, and _place st. gervais_, are the largest; but every gutter trickles with water as if dissolved from the purest crystal. it has been hot weather during the greater part of our stay; and the very sight of these translucent streams seems to refresh one's languid frame. but i proceed chiefly to the productions of the press. they do a good deal of business here in the way of ephemeral publications. letellier, situated in the grande rue, is the chief printer of _chap books_: and if we judge from the general character of these, the _falaisois_ seem to be marvellously addicted to the effusions of the muse. indeed, their ballads, of all kinds, are innumerable. read a few--which are to be found in the very commonest publications. there is something rather original, and of a very pleasingly tender cast, in the first two: le baiser d'adieux. pres de toi l'heuré du mystère ne m'appellera plus demain, vers ta demeure solitaire mes pas me guideront en vain; j'ai respiré ta douce haleine, et des pleurs ont mouillé mes yeux, j'ai tout senti, plaisir et peine, ) j'ai reçu ton baiser d'adieux. ) _bis._ tu pars, et malgré ta promesse rien ne m'assure de ta foi, nul souvenir de ta tendresse ne vient me dire: pense à moi. ton amour qu'envain je réclame ne me laisse, en quittant ces lieux, que phumide et brulante flamme de ton dernier baiser d'adieux. puisse au moins ton indifférence te garder d'un nouvel amour. et le veuvage de l'absence hâter ton fortuné retour! puisse alors l'amant qui t'adore, te revoyant aux mêmes lieux, sur tes lèvres vierges encore retrouver son baiser d'adieux! * * * * * l'image de la vie. nous naissons et dans notre coeur, a peine aux portes de la vie, tout au plaisir, tout au bonheur, et nous invite et nous convie; d'abord, simples amusements savent contenter notre enfance; mais bientòt aux jeux innocens, l'amour nous prend ... sans qu'on y pense. fillette à l'âge de quinze ans, offre l'image de la rose, qui dès l'approche du printemps, entr'ouvre sa feuille mi-close; bientôt l'aiguillon du désir vient ouvrir fleur d'innocence, et sous la bouche du plaisir, elle s'éclôt ... sans qu'elle y pense. vous, qui pendant vos jeunes ans, ne courtisez pas la folie, songez donc que cet heureux temps ne dure pas toute la vie, assez vite il nous faut quitter tendres ardeurs, vives jouissances; et dans uu coeur qui sait aimer, la raison vient ... sans qu'on y pense. mais enfin, sur l'âile du temps, on arrive au but du voyage, et l'on voit la glace des ans, couronner nos fronts à cet âge; s'il fut sensible à la pitié, s'il cultiva la bienfaisance, entre les bras de l'amitié l'homme finit ... sans qu'il y pense you must know that they are here great lovers of royalty, and of course great supporters of the bourbon family. the king's printer is a mons. brÉe l'ainé. he is a very pleasant, well-bred man, and lives in the _place trinité_. i have paid him more than one visit, and always felt additional pleasure at every repetition of it. my first visit was marked with a somewhat ludicrous circumstance. on entering the compositors' room, i observed, pasted upon the walls, in large capital letters, the following well known words: god save the king. both monsieur brée l'ainé--and his workmen were equally gratified by my notice and commendation of this sentiment. "it is the favourite sentiment, sir, of your country,"--remarked the master. to this i readily assented. "it is also, sir, the favourite one of our own," replied m. brée l'ainé--and his men readily attested their concurrence in the same reply. "ah, sir, if you would only favour us by _singing the air_, to which these words belong, you would infinitely oblige us all" ... said a shrewd and intelligent-looking compositor. "with all my heart"--rejoined i--"but i must frankly tell you, that i shall sing it rather with heart than with voice--being neither a vocal nor an instrumental performer." "no matter: give us only a notion of it." they all stood round in a circle, and i got through two stanzas as gravely and as efficiently as i was able. the usual "charmant!" followed my exertions. it was now my turn to ask a favour. "sing to me your favourite national air of robert and arlette." "most willingly, sir," replied the forementioned "shrewd and intelligent-looking compositor." "tenez: un petit moment: je vais chercher mon violon. ca ira mieux." he left the house in search of his violin. the tune of the national air which he sung was both agreeable and lively: and upon the whole it was difficult to say which seemed to be the better pleased with the respective national airs. m. brée shewed me his premises in detail. they had been formerly a portion of an old church; and are situated on the edge of the great fosse which encircles the town. a garden, full of sweet blooming flowers, is behind them; and the view backwards is cheerful and picturesque. there are generally five presses at work; which, for a provincial printing office, shews business to be far from slack. mons. b. sells a great number of almanacks, and prints all the leading publications connected with the town. in fact, his title, as _imprimeur du roi_, supposes him to take the principal lead as a printer. this agreeable man has a brother who is professor of rhetoric in the collège royale at paris. of _bouquinistes_, or dealers in old books, there are scarcely any. i spent three or four fruitless hours in a search after old chronicles and old poetry: and was compelled, almost from pure civility, to purchase of dufours a _petit's virgil_ of , folio--which will be hardly worth the carriage. i tried hard for a fine copy of _fauchet's origines de la poésie françoise_, , to. with the head of the author, but in vain; yet endeavoured to console myself by an old blue morocco copy of _les regrets et tristes lamentations du comte de montgomery_, by _demorenne_, rouen, , vo. as well as a clean, fresh, and almost crackling copy of _amoureuses occupations de la taysonniere_, lyon, , vo.--for two francs each--and both destined for the rich and choice library of our friend.... thus much for falaise: for a spot, which, from the uniform serenity of the weather since i have been here--from the comfort of the inn--from the extreme civility and attention of the townspeople--and from the yet more interesting society of the comte de la fresnaye, the _curés_ mouton and langevin--together with the amenity of the surrounding country, and the interesting and in part magnificent remains of antiquity--can never be erased from my recollection. it is here that the tourist and antiquary may find objects for admiration and materials for recording. i have done both: admired and recorded--happy, if the result of such occupations shall have contributed to the substantial gratification of yourself and of our common friends. and now, farewell; not only to falaise, but to normandy. i shall leave it, from this delightful spot, in the most thorough good humour, and with more than ordinary regret that my stay has necessarily been short. i have taken my place in the diligence, direct for paris. "il n'y a qu'un paris"--said the comte de la fresnaye to me the other day, when i told him i had never been there--to which i replied, "are there then two londons?" thirty-six hours will settle all this. in the mean time, adieu. [ ] on the return of louis the xviii. the town of falaise manifested its loyalty in the most unequivocal manner. couplets _chantés par les elèves du collége de falaise, en arborant le drapeau blanc_. air: _un soldat par un coup funeste_. loin de nous la sombre tristesse, mars a déposé sa fureur; enfin la foudre vengeresse vient de terrasser _l'opresseur,_ l'aigle sanguinaire succombe à l'aspect de ces lys. peuple français, tu vas revoir ton père! vive le roi! vive louis! drapeau, que d'horribles tempêtes avoient éloigné de ces lieux, tu reviens embellir nos fêtes, plus brillant et plus radieux! ta douce présence ramène les jeux et les ris; sois à jamais l'etendard de la france, vive le roi! vive louis! o dieu! vengeur de l'innocence, protège ces lys glorieux! conserve long-temps à la france le roi que tu rends à nos voeux! si la perfidie de nouveau troubloit ton bonheur viens nous guider, ô bannière chérie! nous volerons au champ d'honneur. [ ] the worthy historian of falaise, quoted in a preceding page, is exceedingly anxious to make us believe that there are portions of this church--namely, four stones--in the eastern and western gable ends--which were used in the consecration of it, by mathilda, the wife of our first william. also, that, at the gable end of the south transept, outside, an ancient grotto,--in which the gallic priests of old purified themselves for the mysteries of their religion--is now converted into the sacristy, or vestry, or robing room. but these are surely mere antiquarian dreams. the same author more sagaciously informs us that the exact period of the commencement of the building of the nave, namely in , is yet attested by an existing inscription, in gothic letters, towards the chief door of entrance. the inscription also testifies that in the same year, "there reigned death, war, and famine." the _chancel of the choir_, with the principal doors of entrance, &c. were constructed between the years , and . it may be worth remarking that the stalls of the choir were brought from the abbey of st. john--on the destruction of that monastic establishment in ; and that, according to the _gallia christiana_, vol. xi. p. , these stalls were carved at the desire of thomas ii. de mallebiche, abbot of that establishment in - . in a double niche of the south buttress are the statues of herpin and his wife; rich citizens of falaise, who, by their wealth, greatly contributed to the building of the choir. (their grandson, herpin lachenaye, together with his mistress were killed, side by side, in fighting at one of the gates of falaise to repel the successful troops of henry iv.) the _chapel of the virgin_, behind the choir, was completed about the year . langevin, p. - - . [ ] we have of course nothing to do with the first erection of a place of worship at guibray in the viiith century. the story connected with the earliest erection is this. the faubourg of guibray, distant about paces from falaise, was formerly covered with chestnut and oak trees. a sheep, scratching the earth, as if by natural instinct (i quote the words of m. langevin the historian of falaise) indicated, by its bleatings, that something was beneath. the shepherd approached, and hollowing out the earth with his crook, discovered a statue of the virgin, with a child in its arms. the first church, dedicated to the virgin, under the reign of charles martel, called the victorious, was in consequence erected--on this very spot--in the centre of this widely spreading wood of chestnut and oak. i hasten to the construction of a second church, on the same site, under the auspices of mathilda, the wife of the conqueror: with the statue of a woman with a diadem upon her head--near one of the pillars: upon which statue langevin discourses learnedly in a note. but neither this church nor the statue in question are now in existence. on the contrary, the oldest portions of the church of guibray, now existing--according to the authors of the _gallia christiana_, vol. xi. p. , and an ancient ms. consulted by m. langevin--are of about the date of ; when the church was consecrated by the bishop of coutances. the open space towards the south, now called _la place aux chevaux_, was the old burying ground of the church. there was also a chapel, dedicated to st. gervais, which was pillaged and destroyed by the hugonots in . i should add, that the south-east exterior (behind the chancel) of this very curious old church at guibray, resembles, upon a small scale, what m. cotman has published of the same portion of st. georges de bocherville. _recherches sur falaise_, p. - . monsieur le comte de la fresnaye, in his _notice historique sur falaise_, , vo. will have it, that "the porch of this church, the only unmutilated portion remaining of its ancient structure, demonstrates the epoch of the origin of christianity among the gauls." "at least, such is the decision of m. deveze, draftsman for laborde; the latter of whom now secretary to the count d'artois, instituted a close examination of the whole fabric." p. - . i hope there are not many such conclusions to be found in the magnificent and meritorious productions of laborde. [ ] this fair lasts full fifteen days. the first eight days are devoted to business of a more important nature--which they call the great week: that is to say, the greatest number of merchants attend during the earlier part of it; and contracts of greater extent necessarily take place. the remaining seven days are called the little week--in which they make arrangements to carry their previous bargains into effect, and to return home. men and merchandise, from all quarters, and of all descriptions, are to be seen at this fair. even holland and germany are not wanting in sending their commercial representatives. jewellery and grocery seem to be the chief articles of commerce; but there is a prodigious display of silk, linen, and cotton, &c.: as well as of hides, raw and tanned; porcelaine and earthen ware. the live cattle market must not be forgotten. langevin says that, of horses alone, they sometimes sell full four thousand. thus much for the buyer and seller. but this fair is regularly enlivened by an immense confluence of nobility and gentry from the adjacent country--to partake of the amusements, which, (as with the english,) form the invariable appendages of the scene. langevin mentions the minor fairs of _ste. croix, st. michel_, and _st. gervais_, which help to bring wealth into the pockets of the inhabitants. _recherches historiques sur falaise_; p. , &c. [ ] [since the publication of this tour, the amiable mons. langevin has published "additions" to his historical account of falaise; and in those additions, he has been pleased to notice the account which is here given of his labours and character. it would be bad--at least hardly justifiable--taste, to quote that notice: yet i cannot dissemble the satisfaction to find that there is _more_ than one sympathising heart in normandy, which appreciates this record of its excellence. i subjoin, therefore, with the greatest satisfaction, a fac-simile of the autograph of this amiable and learned man, as it appears written (at my request) in the title-page of a copy of his "researches." [illustration: langevin ptre.] letter xxi. journey to paris. dreux. houdan. versailles. entrance into paris. _paris, rue faubourg poissonière, may_ , . "time and the hour runs through the roughest day." they must be protacted miseries indeed which do not, at some period or other, have something like a termination. i am here, then my good friend--safe and sound at last; comfortably situated in a boarding house, of which the mistress is an agreeable englishwoman and the master an intelligent swiss. i have sauntered, gazed, and wondered--and exchanged a thousand gracious civilities! i have delivered my epistolary credentials: have shaken hands with monsieur van praet; have paced the suite of rooms in which the renowned bibliotheque du roi is deposited: have traversed the _thuileries_ and the _louvre_; repeatedly reconnoitred the _boulevards_; viewed the gilt dome of the _hôtel des invalides_, and the white flag upon the bronze-pillar in the _place vendome_; seen crowds of our countrymen at _meurice's_ and in the hotels about the _rue de la paix;_ partaken of the rival ices of _tortoni_ and the _caffé des mille colonnes_; bought old french poetry at a bouquiniste's: and drank chambertin and champagne at the richly garnished table of our ----. these are what may be called good _foreground objects_ in the composition of a parisian picture. now for the filling up of the canvas with appropriate and harmonizing detail. a second reflection corrects however the precipitancy of such a proposal; for it cannot be, in this my _first_ despatch, that you are to receive any thing like an adequate notion of the topics thus hastily thrown together on the first impulse of parisian inspiration. wait patiently, therefore: and at least admire the methodical precision of my narrative. my last letter left me on the eve of departure from falaise; and it is precisely from that place that i take up the thread of my journal. we were to leave it, as i told you, in the diligence--on the evening of the sunday, immediately following the date of the despatch transmitted. i shall have reason to remember that journey for many a day to come; but, "post varios casus, &c." i am thankful to find myself safely settled in my present comfortable abode. the sabbath, on the evening of which the diligence usually starts for paris, happened to be a festival. before dawn of day i heard incessant juvenile voices beneath the window of my bedroom at the grand turc; what might this mean? between three and four, as the day began to break, i rose, and approaching the window, saw, from thence, a number of little boys and girls busied in making artificial flower-beds and sand-borders, &c. their tongues and their bodily movements were equally unintermitting. it was impossible for a stranger to guess at the meaning of such a proceeding; but, opening the window, i thought there could be no harm in asking a very simple question--which i will confess to you was put in rather an irritable manner on my part ... for i had been annoyed by their labours for more than the last hour. "what are you about, there?" i exclaimed--"ha, is it you sir?" replied a little arch boy--mistaking me for some one else. "yes, (resumed i) tell me what you are about there?" "in truth, we are making _réposoirs_ for the fete-dieu: the host will pass this way by and bye. is it not a pretty thing, sir?" exclaimed a sweetly modulated female voice. all my irritability was softened in a moment; and i was instantly convinced that solomon never delivered a wiser sentiment than when he said--"a soft answer turneth away wrath!" i admitted the prettiness of the thing without comprehending a particle of it: and telling them to speak in a lower key, shut the window, and sought my bed. but sleep had ceased to seek me: and the little urchins, instead of lowering their voices, seemed to break forth in a more general and incessant vociferation. in consequence, i was almost feverish from restlessness--when the fille de chambre announced that "it was eight o'clock, and the morning most beautiful." these _réposoirs_ are of more importance than you are aware of. they consist of little spots, or spaces in the streets, garnished with flowers, and intersected by walks, marked with fine gravel, in the centre of which the host rests, on its passing to and fro from the several parishes. when i rose to dress, i observed the work of art--which had been in progress during the night--perfectly complete. passengers were forbidden to trespass by pieces of string fastened to different parts by way of a fence--or, whoever chose to walk within, considered themselves bound to deposit a sous as the condition of gratifying their curiosity. upon the whole, this réposoir might be about sixteen feet square. towards eleven o'clock the different religious ceremonies began. on one side the noise of the drum, and the march of the national guard, indicated that military mass was about to be performed; on the other, the procession of priests, robed and officiating--the elevation of banners--and the sonorous responses of both laity and clergy--put the whole town into agitation, and made every inmate of every mansion thrust his head out of window, to gaze at the passing spectacle. we were among the latter denomination of lookers on, and recognised, with no small gratification, our clerical friends messieurs mouton, langevin, and the huge father confessor at guibra, followed by a great number of respectable citizens, among whom the comte de la fresnaye and his amiable and intelligent son (recently married) made most respectable figures; they approached the réposoir in question. the priests, with the host, took their station within it; silence followed; one officiating clergyman then knelt down; shut, what seemed to be, the wooden covers of a book,--with, considerable violence--rose--turned round, and the procession being again put in motion--the whole marched away to the church of the holy trinity;--whither i followed it; and where i witnessed what i was unable to comprehend, and what i should not feel much disposed to imitate. but let every country be allowed to reverence and respect its own particular religious ceremonies. we may endure what we cannot commend ... and insult and disrespect are among the last actions which a well regulated mind will shew in its treatment of such matters. i should add, that these réposoirs, a few hours after the performance of the ceremony just described, are indiscriminately broken up: the flowers and the little sand banks falling equally a prey to the winds and the feet of the passenger. opposite to the inn was an hospital for the female sick. it had been formerly an establishment of very considerable extent and celebrity; but whether it was originally connected with the hospital of the _léproserie de saint lasare_, (about which the abbé langevin's history of falaise is rather curious) the _hôtel-dieu_, or the _hôpital général_, i cannot take upon me to pronounce. certain it is, however, that this establishment does great credit to those who have the conduct of it. as foreigners, and particularly as englishmen, we were permitted to see the whole, without reserve. on my return from witnessing the ceremony at the church of the trinity, i visited this hospital: my companion having resumed his graphic operations before the castle. i shall not easily forget the face and figure of the matron. to a countenance of masculine feature, and masculine complexion--including no ordinary growth of beard, of a raven tint--she added a sturdy, squat, muscular figure--which, when put into action, moved in a most decided manner. a large bunch of massive keys was suspended from a girdle at her side; and her dress, which was black, was rendered more characteristic and striking, by the appearance of, what are yet called, _bustles_ above her hips. as she moved, the keys and the floor seemed equally to shake beneath her steps. the elder smirke would have painted this severe duenna-like looking matron with inimitable force and truth. but ... she no sooner opened her mouth, than all traits of severity vanished. her voice was even musical, and her "façon de parler" most gracious. she shewed me the whole establishment with equal good humour and alertness; and i don't know when i ever made such a number of bows (to the several female patients in the wards) within such limited time and space. the whole building has the air of a convent; and there were several architectural relics, perhaps of the end of the fifteenth century, which i only regretted were not of portable dimensions; as, upon making enquiry, little objection seemed to be made to the gratuitous disposal of them. the hour for departure, after sun-set, having arrived, we were summoned to the diligence when, bidding adieu to the very worthy host and hostess of the _grand turc_, (whom i strongly recommend all englishmen to visit) i made up my mind for a thirty-six hour's journey--as i was to reach paris on tuesday morning. the day had been excessively hot for the season of the year; and the night air was refreshing. but after a few snatches of sleep--greatly needed--there appeared manifest symptoms of decay and downfall in the gloomy and comfortless machine in which we took our departure. in other words, towards daylight, and just as we approached _l'aigle_, the left braces (which proved to be thoroughly rotted leather) broke in two: and down slid, rather than tumbled, the falaise diligence! there were two french gentlemen, and an elderly lady, besides ourselves in the coach. while we halted, in order to repair the machine, the frenchmen found consolation in their misfortune by running to a caffé, (it was between four and five in the morning), rousing the master and mistress, and as i thought, peremptorily and impertinently asking for coffee: while they amused themselves with billiards during its preparation. i was in no humour for eating, drinking, or playing: for here was a second sleepless night! having repaired this crazy vehicle, we rumbled on for _verneuil_; where it was exchanged for a diligence of more capacious dimensions. here, about eleven o'clock, we had breakfast; and from henceforth let it not be said that the art of eating and drinking belongs exclusively to our country:--for such manifestations of appetite, and of attack upon substantials as well as fluids, i had scarcely ever before witnessed. i was well contented with coffee, tea, eggs, and bread--as who might not well be?... but my companions, after taking these in flank, cut through the centre of a roast fowl and a dish of stewed veal: making diversions, in the mean while, upon sundry bottles of red and white wine; the fingers, during the meal, being as instrumental as the white metal forks. we set off at a good round trot for _dreux_: and, in the route thither, we ascended a long and steep hill, having _nonancourt_ to the left. here we saw some very pretty country houses, and the whole landscape had an air of english comfort and picturesque beauty about it. here, too, for the first time, i saw a vineyard. at this early season of the year it has a most stiff and unseemly look; presenting to the eye scarcely any thing but the brown sticks, obliquely put into the ground, against which the vine is trained. but the sloping banks, on each side of the ascending road, were covered with plantations of this precious tree; and i was told that, if the _autumn_ should prove as auspicious as appeared the _spring_, there would be a season of equal gaiety and abundance. i wished it with all my heart. indeed i felt particularly interested in the whole aspect of the country about _nonancourt_. the sun was fast descending as we entered the town of _dreux_--where i had resolved upon taking leave both of the diligence and of my companions; and of reaching paris by post. at seven we dined, or rather perhaps made an early supper; when my fellow travellers _sustained_ their reputation for their powers of attack upon fish, flesh, and fowl. indeed the dinner was equally plentiful and well cooked; and the charge moderate in proportion. but there is nothing, either on the score of provision of reasonableness of cost, like the _table d'hôte_ throughout france; and he who cannot accommodate himself to the hour of dining (usually about one) must make up his mind to worse fare and treble charges. after dinner we strolled in the town, and upon the heights near the castle. we visited the principal church, _st. jean_, which is very spacious, and upon the whole is a fine piece of architecture. i speak more particularly of the interior--where i witnessed, however, some of the most horrible devastations, arising from the revolution, which i had yet seen. in one of the side chapels, there _had been_ a magnificent monument; perhaps from sixteen to twenty feet in height--crowded with figures as large as life, from the base to the summit. it appeared as if some trenchant instrument of an irresistible force, had shaved away many of the figures; but more especially the heads and the arms. this was only one, but the most striking, specimen of revolutionary vandalism. there were plenty of similar proofs, on a reduced scale. in the midst of these traces of recent havoc, there was a pleasure mingled with melancholy, in looking up and viewing some exceedingly pretty specimens of old stained glass:--which had escaped the destruction committed in the lower regions, and had preserved all their original freshness. here and there, in the side chapels, the priests were robing themselves to attend confession; while the suppliants, in kneeling attitudes, were expecting them by the side of the confessionals. from the church i bent my steps to the principal bookseller of the place, whom i found to be an intelligent, civil, and extremely good-natured tradesman. but his stock was too modern. "donnez vous la peine de monter"--exclaimed he precipitately; begging me to follow him. his up-stairs collection was scarcely of a more ancient character than that below. there were more copies of _voltaire_ and _rousseau_ than i should have supposed he could sell in six years--but "on the contrary" (said he) "in six months' time, not a single copy will remain unsold!" i marvelled and grieved at such intelligence; because the poison was not extracted from the nourishment contained in these works. to an enquiry about my old typographical friends, _verard, pigouchet_, and _eustace_, the worthy bibliopole replied "qu'il n'avoit jamais entendu parler de ces gens-la!" again i marvelled; and having no temptation to purchase, civilly wished him good evening. meanwhile mr. l. had attained the castle heights, and was lost in a sort of extacy at the surrounding scene. on entering the outer walls, and directing your steps towards the summit, you are enchanted with a beautiful architectural specimen--in the character of a zigzag early norman arch--which had originally belonged to a small church, recently taken down: the arch alone stands insulated ... beyond which, a new, and apparently a very handsome, church is erecting, chiefly under the care and at the expence of the present duke of orleans;--as a mausoleum for his family--and in which, not many days before our arrival, the remains of one of his children had been deposited. i wished greatly for a perfect drawing of this arch ... but there was no time ... and my companion was exercising his pencil, on the summit, by a minute, bird's eye of the sweep of country to be seen from this elevated situation--through the greater part of which, indeed, the diligence from _verneuil_ had recently conducted us. i should add, that not a relic of that castle, which had once kept the town and the adjacent country in awe, is now to be seen: but its outer walls enclose a space hardly less than twenty acres:--the most considerable area which i had yet witnessed. to give a more interesting character to the scenery, the sun, broad and red, was just hiding the lower limb of his disk behind the edge of a purple hill. a quiet, mellow effect reigned throughout the landscape. i gazed on all sides; and (wherefore, i cannot now say) as i sunk upon the grass, overwhelmed with fatigue and the lassitude of two sleepless nights, wished, in my heart, i could have seen the effect of that glorious sun-set from, the heights of dover. now and then, as when at school, one feels a little home-sick; but the melancholy mood which then possessed me was purely a physical effect from a physical cause. the shadows of evening began to succeed to the glow of sun-set--when, starting from my recumbent position, (in which sleep was beginning to surprise me) i hastened down the heights, and by a nearer direction sought the town and our hotel. we retired betimes to rest--but not until, from an opposite coach maker, we had secured a phaeton-like carriage to convey us with post horses, the next day, to paris. excellent beds and undisturbed slumber put me in spirits for the grand entrée into the metropolis of france. breakfasting a little after nine--before ten, a pair of powerful black horses, one of which was surmounted by a sprucely-attired postilion--with the phaeton in the rear--were at the door of the hotel. seeing all our baggage properly secured, we sprung into the conveyance and darted forward at a smart gallop. the animals seemed as if they could fly away with us--and the whip of the postilion made innumerable circular flourishes above their heads. the sky was beautifully clear: and a briskly-stirring, but not unpleasantly penetrating, south-east wind, played in our faces as we seemed scarcely to be sensible of the road. what a contrast to the heat, vexation, and general uncomfortableness of the two preceding days of our journey! we felt it sensibly, and enjoyed it in proportion. our first place of halting, to change horses, was at houdan; which may be about four leagues from dreux; and i verily believe we reached it in an hour. the route thither is through a flat and uninteresting country; except that every feature of landscape (and more especially in our previous journeys through normandy) seems to be thrown to a greater distance, than in england. this may account for the flatness of views, and the diminutiveness of objects. houdan is a village-like town, containing a population of about inhabitants; but much business is done on market days; and of _corn_, in particular, i was told that they often sold several thousand sacks in a day. its contiguity to paris may account for the quantity of business done. in the outskirts of the town,--and flanked, rather than surrounded, by two or three rows of trees, of scarcely three years growth--stands the "stiff and stower" remains of the _castle of houdan_. it is a very interesting relic, and to our eyes appeared of an unusual construction. the corner towers are small and circular; and the intermediate portion of the outer wall is constructed with a swell, or a small curvature outwards. i paced the outside, but have forgotten the measurement. certainly, it is not more than forty feet square. i tried to gain admittance into the interior, but without success, as the person possessing the key was not to be found. i saw enough, however, to convince me that the walls could not be less than twelve feet in thickness. the horses had been some time in readiness, and the fresh postilion seemed to be lost in amazement at the cause of our loitering so long at so insignificant a place. the day warmed as we pushed on for the far-famed "proud versailles." the approach, from houdan, is perhaps not the most favourable; although we got peeps of the palace, which gave us rather elevated notions of its enormous extent. we drove to the _hôtel de bourbon_, an excellent, clean mansion, close to the very façade of the palace, after passing the hôtel de ville; and from whence you have an undisturbed view of the broad, wide, direct road to paris. i bespoke dinner, and prepared to lounge. the palace--of which i purposely declined visiting the interior--reserving versailles for a future and entire day's gratification--is doubtless an immense fabric--of which the façade just mentioned is composed of brick, and assumes any thing but a grand and imposing air: merely because it wants simplicity and uniformity of design. i observed some charming white stone houses, scattered on each side of this widely extended chaussée--or route royale--and, upon the whole, versailles appeared to us to be a magnificent and rather interesting spot. two or three rows of trees, some forty or fifty generations more ancient than those constituting the boulevards at houdan, formed avenues on each side of this noble road; and all appeared life and animation--savouring of the proximity of the metropolis. carriages without number--chiefly upon hire, were going and returning; and the gaits and dresses of individuals were of a more studied and of a gayer aspect. at length, we became a little impatient for our dinner, and for the moment of our departure. we hired one of these carriages; which for nine francs, would convey us to the place of our destination. this appeared to me very reasonable; and after being extravagant enough to drink champagne at dinner, to commemorate our near approach to the metropolis, we set forward between five and six o'clock, resolving to strain our eyes to the utmost, and to be astonished at every thing we saw!--especially as _this_ is considered the most favourable approach to the capital. the _ecole militaire_, to the left, of which marshal ney had once the chief command, struck me as a noble establishment. but it was on approaching _sèvre_ that all the bustle and population, attendant upon the immediate vicinity of a great metropolis, became evident. single-horsed vehicles--in many of which not fewer than nine persons were pretty closely stowed--three upon a bench, and three benches under the roof--fiacres, barouches, and carriages of every description, among which we discovered a great number from our own country--did not fail to occupy our unremitting attention. _sèvre_ is a long, rambling, and chiefly single-street town; but picturesquely situated, on a slope, and ornamented to the left by the windings of the seine. we were downright glad to renew our acquaintance with our old, and long-lost friend, the river seine; although it appeared to be sadly shorn of its majestic breadth since we had parted with it before the walls of montmorenci castle, in our route to havre. the new nine-arch bridge at sèvre is a sort of waterloo bridge in miniature. upon the heights, above it, i learnt that there was a beautiful view of the river in the foreground with paris in the distance. we passed over the old bridge, and saw _st. cloud_ to the left: which of course interested us as the late residence of bonaparte, but which, in truth, has nothing beyond the air of a large respectable country-gentleman's mansion in england. we pushed on, and began to have distinct perceptions of the great city. of all the desirable places of retreat, whether for its elevated situation, or respectable appearance, or commodious neighbourhood, nothing struck me more forcibly than the village of passy, upon a commanding terrace, to the left; some three or four english miles from paris--and having a noble view both of the river and of the city. it is also considered to be remarkably healthy; and carriages of every description, are constantly passing thither to and from paris. the dome of the _pantheon_, and the gilded one of the _hôtel des invalides_, together with the stunted towers of _notre dame_, were among the chief objects to the right: while the accompaniment of the seine, afforded a pleasing foreground to this architectural picture in the distance. but, my friend, i will frankly own to you, that i was disappointed ... upon this first glimpse of the great city. in the first place, the surrounding country is flat; with the exception of _mount calvary,_ to the left, which has nothing to do with the metropolitan view from this situation. in the second place, what are the _pantheon_ and _notre dame_ compared with _st. paul's_ and _westminster abbey_?--to say nothing of the vicinity of london, as is connected with the beautifully undulating ground about camberwell, sydenham, norwood, and. shooter's hill--and, on the other side of the water, hampstead, highgate and harrow: again, wimbledon and richmond!... what lovely vicinities are these compared with that of _mont martre_? and if you take river scenery into the account, what is the _seine_, in the neighbourhood of paris, compared with the _thames_ in that of london? if the almost impenetrable smoke and filth from coal-fires were charmed away--shew me, i beseech you, any view of paris, from this, or from any point of approach, which shall presume to bear the semblance of comparison with that of london, from the descent from _shooter's hill_! the most bewitched frenchified-englishman, in the perfect possession of his eye sight, will not have the temerity to institute such a comparison. but as you near the barriers, your admiration increases. having got rid of all background of country--as you approach the capital--the foregoing objections vanish. here the officers of police affected to search our luggage. they were heartily welcome, and so i told them. this disarmed all suspicion. accordingly we entered paris by one of the noblest and one of the most celebrated of its boulevards--the _champs elysées_. as we gained the _place louis quinze_, with the _thuileries_ in front, with the _hôtel des invalides_ (the gilded dome of which latter reflected the strong rays of a setting sun) to the right--we were much struck with this combination of architectural splendour: indisputably much superior to any similar display on the entrance into our own capital.[ ] turning to the left, the _place vendome_ and the _rue de la paix_, with the extreme height of the houses, and the stone materials of their construction, completed our admiration. but the _boulevards italiens_--after passing the pillars of the proposed church of _ste. madelaine_, and turning to the right--helped to prolong our extreme gratification, till we reached the spot whence i am addressing you. doubtless, at first glance, this is a most splendid and enchanting city. a particular detail must be necessarily reserved, for the next despatch. i shall take all possible pains to make you acquainted with the treasures of past times--in the shape of manuscripts and printed books. the royal library has as much astonished me, as the curators of it have charmed me by their extreme kindness and civility.[ ] [ ] [the above was written in - . now, what would be said by a foreigner, of his first drive from westminster bridge, through regent street to the stupendous pantheon facing the termination of portland place?] [ ] at this point, the labours of mons. licquet, as my translator, cease; and i will let him take leave of his task of translation in his own words. "ici se termine la tache qui m'a été confiée. après avoir réfuté franchement tout ce qui m'a semblé digne de lêtre, je crois devoir déclarer, en finissant, que mes observations n'ont jamais eu _la personne_ pour objet. je reste persuadé, d'ailleurs, que le coeur de m.d. est tout-à-fait innocent des écarts de son esprit. si l'on peut le condamner pour le fait, il faudra toujours l'absoudre pour l'intention...." the _concluding_-sentence need not be copied: it is bad taste to re-echo the notices of one's own good qualities. my norman translator at least takes leave of me with the grace of a gentleman: although his thrusts have been occasionally direct and severely intended. the foil which he has used has not always had the button covered. the candid reader will, however, judge how these thrusts have been parried; and if the "hits" on the part of my adversary, have been sometimes "palpable," those of the original author will not (it is presumed) be deemed feeble or unimpressive. after all, the sum total of "errata" scarcely includes three of _substantial moment_: and wishing mons licquet "a very good day," i desire nothing better than to renew our critical coqueting on the floor of that library of which he is the "bibliothècaire en chef." end of vol. i. london: printed by w. nicol, cleveland-row, st. james's. supplement to vol. i. old poem on the siege of rouen. the city of rouen makes too considerable a figure in the foregoing pages, and its history, as connected with our own country in the earlier part of the fifteenth century, is too interesting, to require any thing in the shape of apology for the matter which the reader is about to peruse. this "matter" is necessarily incidental to the _present_ edition of the "tour;" as it is only recently made public. an "_old english poem_" on our henry the fifth's "_siege of rouen_" is a theme likely to excite the attention of the literary antiquary on _either_ side of the channel. the late erudite, and ever to be lamented rev. j.j. conybeare, successively professor of the saxon language, and of english poetry in the university of oxford, discovered, in the exhaustless treasures of the bodleian library, a portion of the old english poem in question: but it was a portion only. in the st. vol. of the archæologia, mr. conybeare gave an account of this fortunate discovery, and subjoined the poetical fragment. mr. frederick madden, one of the librarians attached to the ms. department in the british museum, was perhaps yet more fortunate in the discovery of the portion which was lost: and in the d. vol. of the _archæologia_, just published, (pp. - ), he has annexed an abstract of the remaining fragment, with copious and learned notes. this fragment had found its way, in a prose attire, into the well-known english ms. chronicle, called the brute:--usually (but most absurdly) attributed to caxton. it is not however to be found in _all_ the copies of this chronicle. on the contrary, mr. madden, after an examination of several copies of this ms. has found the poem only in four of them: namely, in two among the harleian mss. (nos. ; --from which _his_ transcript and collation have been made) in one belonging to mr. coke of holkham, and in a fourth belonging to the _cotton_ collection:--galba e. viii. this latter ms. has a very close correspondence with the _second_ harl. ms. but is often faulty from errors of the scribe, see _gentleman's magazine, may_, . so much for the history of the discovery of this precious old english poem--which is allowed to be a contemporaneous production of the time of the siege--namely, a.d. . a word as to its intrinsic worth--from the testimony of the critic most competent to appreciate it. "it will be admitted, i believe, (says mr. madden) by all who will take the trouble to compare the various contemporary narratives of the siege of rouen, that in point of simplicity, clearness, and minuteness of detail, there is no existing document which can compare with the poem before us. its authenticity is sufficiently established, from the fact of the author's having been an eyewitness of the whole. if we review the names of those historians who lived at the same period, we shall have abundant reason to rejoice at so valuable an accession to our present stock of information on the subject." _archæologia_, vol. xxii. p. . the reader shall be no longer detained from a specimen or two of the poem itself, which should seem fully to justify the eulogy of the critic. "on the day after the return of the twelve delegates sent by the city of rouen to treat with henry, the poet proceeds to inform us, that the king caused two tents to be pitched, one for the english commissioners, and the other for the french. on the english side were appointed the earl of warwick, the earl of salisbury, the lord fitzhugh, and sir walter hungerford, and on the french side, twelve discreet persons were chosen to meet them. then says the writer, 'it was a sight of solempnity, for to behold both party; to see the rich in their array, and on the walls the people that lay, and on our people that were without, how thick that they walked about; and the heraudis seemly to seene, how that they went ay between; the king's heraudis and pursuivants, in coats of arms _amyantis_. the english a beast, the french a flower, of portyngale both castle and tower, and other coats of diversity, as lords bearen in their degree.' "as a striking contrast to this display of pomp and splendour is described the deplorable condition of those unfortunate inhabitants who lay starving in the ditches without the walls of the city, deprived both of food and clothing. the affecting and simple relation of our poet, who was an eye-witness, is written with that display of feeling such a scene must naturally have excited, and affords perhaps one of the most favourable passages in the poem to compare with the studied narratives of elmham or livius. in the first instance we behold misery literally in rags, and hiding herself in silence and obscurity, whilst in the other she is ostentatiously paraded before our eyes: 'there men might see a great pity, a child of two year or three go about, and bid his bread, for father and mother both lay dead, and under them the water stood, and yet they lay crying after food. some _storven_ to the death, and some stopped both eyen and breath, and some crooked in the knees, and as lean as any trees, and women holding in their arm a dead child, and nothing warm, and children sucking on the pap within a dead woman's lap.' on friday the th of january, king henry v. made his public entry into rouen. his personal appearance is thus described: 'he rode upon a brown steed, of black damask was his weed, a _peytrelle_ of gold full bright about his neck hung down right, and a pendant behind him did honge unto the earth, it was so long. and they that never before him did see, they knew by the cheer which was he.' "with the accustomed, but mistaken, piety for which henry was ever distinguished, he first proceeded to the monastery, where he alighted from his charger, and was met by the chaplains of his household, who walked before him, chanting _quis est magnus dominus?_ after the celebration of mass, the king repaired to the castle, where he took up his abode. by this termination of a siege, which, for its duration and the horrors it produced, is perhaps without a parallel in ancient or modern times, the city was again plentifully supplied with provisions, and recovered the shock so tedious and afflicting a contest had occasioned: 'and thus our gracious liege made an end of his siege; and all that have heard this reading, to his bliss christ you bring, that for us died upon a tree, amen say we all, _pur charite!_' the duke of exeter is appointed governor of the city, and ordered by henry to take possession of it the same night. the duke mounts his horse, and rides strait to the port de bevesyne or beauvais, attended by a retinue, to carry the commands of his sovereign into execution. his entré, and the truly miserable condition of the besieged, together with the imposing appearance of henry, shall now be described in the language of the poet. thanne the duke of excestre withoute bode toke his hors and forth he rode, to bevesyne[e] that porte so stronge, that he hadde ley bifore so longe, to that gate sone he kam,[f] and with hym many a worthy[g] manne. there was neying of many a stede, and schynyng of many a gay wede, there was many a getoun[h] gay, with mychille[i] and grete aray. and whanne the gate was openyd there, and thay weren[j] redy into fare, trumpis[k] blewgh her bemys[l] of bras, pipis and clarionys forsothe ther was, and as thay entrid thay gaf a schowte with her[m] voyce that was fulle stowte, 'seint george! seint george!' thay criden[n] on height, and seide, 'welcome oure kynges righte.' the frensshe pepulle of that cite were gederid by thousandes, hem to see. thay criden[n] alle welcome in fere, 'in siche tyme mote ye entre here, plesyng to god that it may be, and to vs pees and vnyte.' and of that pepulle, to telle the trewthe, it was a sighte of fulle grete ruthe. mykelle of that folke therynne thay weren[o] but verrey bonys and skynne. with eyen holowgh and[p] nose scharpe, vnnethe thay myght brethe or carpe, for her colowris was[q] wan as lede, not like to lyue but sone ben dede. disfigurid pateronys[r] and quaynte, and as[s] a dede kyng thay weren paynte. there men myght see an[t] exampleyre, how fode makith the pepulle faire.[u] in euery strete summe lay dede, and hundriddis krying aftir brede. and aftir long many a day, thay deyde as[v] faste as[w] they myght be lad away. into[x] that way god hem wisse, that thay may come to his blisse! amen. now[y] wille y more spelle, and of the duke of exestre to[z] telle. to that castelle firste he rode, and sythen[aa] the cite alle abrode; lengthe and brede he it mette, and rich baneris he[ab] vp sette. vpon the porte seint hillare a baner of the trynyte. and at[ac] the port kaux he sette evene a baner of the quene of heven. and at[ad] port martvile he vppyght of seint george a baner bryght. he sette vpon the castelle to[ae] stonde the armys of fr[a]unce and englond. and on the friday in the mornynge into that cite come oure kynge. and alle the bisshoppis in her aray, and vij. abbottis with crucchis[af] gay; xlij.[ag] crossis ther were of religioune[ah], and seculere, and alle thay went a precessioun, agens that prince withoute the toune, and euery cros as thay stode he blessid hem with milde mode, and holy water with her hande thay gaf the prince of oure lande. and at[ai] the porte kaux so wide he in passid withoute[aj] pride; withoute pipe or bemys blaste, our kyng worthyly he in paste. and as a conquerour in his righte thankyng[ak] euer god almyghte; and alle the pepulle in that citie 'wilcome our[al] lorde,' thay seide, 'so fre! wilcome into[am] thyne owne righte, as it is the[an] wille of[ao] god almyght.' with that thay kryde alle _'nowelle!_' os[ap] heighe as thay myght yelle. he rode vpon a browne stede, of blak damaske was his wede. a peytrelle[aq] of golde fulle bryght aboute his necke hynge[ar] doun right, and a pendaunte behynd him dide[as] honge vnto the erthe, it was so longe, and thay that neuer before hym dide[at] see, thay knew by chere[u] wiche was he. to the mynster dide he fare, and of his horse he lighte there. his chapelle[au] mette hym at[av] the dore there, and wente bifore[aw] hym alle in fere, and songe a response[ax] fulle glorivs, _quis est magnus dominus_. messe he hirde and offrid thoo, and thanne to the castelle dide he goo. that is a place of rialte, and a paleis of grete beaute. there he hym[ay] loggid in the toune, with rialle and grete renoune. and the[az] cite dide faste encrece of brede and wyne, fisshe, and fflesshe.[ba] and thus oure gracious liege made an ende of his seege. and alle that[bb] haue hirde this redynge[bc] to his[bd] blisse criste you brynge, that for vs deide vpon[be] a tre, amen sey[bf] we alle, pur cherite! _there was many a getoun gay_.] the following particulars relative to the _getoun_ appear in ms. harl. . "euery baronet euery estat aboue hym shal have hys baner displeyd in y'e field yf he be chyef capteyn, euery knyght his penoun, euery squier or gentleman hys _getoun_ or standard." "item, y'e meyst lawfully fle fro y'e standard and _getoun_, but not fro y'e baner ne penon.". "nota, a stremer shal stand in a top of a schyp or in y'e fore-castel: a stremer shal be slyt and so shal a standard as welle as a _getoun_: a _getoun_ shal berr y'e length of ij yardes, a standard of iii or yardes, and a stremer of xii. xx. xl. or lx. yardes longe." this account is confirmed by ms. harl. , and lansd. . f. . as quoted by mr. nicholas, in the retrosp. rev. vol. i. n.s. the former of these mss. states: euery standard and _guydhome_ [whence the etymology of the word is obvious] to have in the chief the crosse of st. george, to be slitte at the ende, and to conteyne the creste or supporter, with the posey, worde, and devise of the owner." it adds, that "a guydhome must be two yardes and a halfe, or three yardes longe." this rule may sometimes have been neglected, at least by artists, for in a bill of expences for the earl of warwick, dated july , and printed by dugdale, (warw. p. .) we find the following entry; "item, a _gyton_ for the shippe of viij. yerdis long, poudrid full of raggid staves, for the lymnyng and workmanship, ijs." the grant of a _guydon_ made in to hugh vaughan, is preserved in the college of arms. it contains his crest placed longitudinally. _retrospective review, new series_, vol. i. p. . [e] _bewesyns_. [f] _came_. [g] _worthy_ deest. [h] a species of banner or streamer. see note. [i] _noble_. [j] _were_. [k] trumpeters. [l] trumpets. [m] _that_. [n] cryed. [o] _were_. [p] _with nose_. [q] _were_. [r] _patrons_.--workmens' models or figures. _patrone_, forme to werke by. _prompt. parvul_. ms. harl. . there is probably here an allusion to the waxen or wooden effigies placed on the hearse of distinguished personages. [s] _as dede thyng they were peynte_. [t] _in_. [u] _to fare_. [v] as _deest_. [w] _as cartes led awey_. [x] _vnto_. [y] in ms. harl. , a break is here made, and a large capital letter introduced. [z] _to_ deest. [aa] _sithe_. [ab] _vp he_. [ac] _atte porte kauxoz_. [ad] _atte_ porte. [ae] _that stounde_. [af] crosses. [ag] xliiij. [ah] _religiouns_. [ai] _atte porte hauxoz_. [aj] the remainder, of this, and the two following lines are omitted. [ak] _thanked_. [al] _they seyde our lord so free_. [am] _vnto_. [an] _the_ deest. [ao] _to_. [ap] _as_. [aq] poitrell, breast plate. [ar] _hangyng_. [as] _dide_ deest. [at] _the_ chere. [au] the chaplains of his household. lat. _capella_. [av] _atte_ dore, _there_ deest. [aw] _afore_. [ax] _respon._ [ay] _logged hym._ [az] _his cite fast encrest_. [ba] _beste_. [bb] _that_ deest. [bc] _tydyng_. [bd] _his_ deest. [be] on. [bf] _seyde all for charitee_. bronze gilt antique statue at lillebonne, p. - . this statue, as the above reference will testify, is now in the possession of mr. samuel woodburn, of st. martin's lane. when the note relating to it was written, i could, not place my hand upon a brochure (in my possession) published at rouen in ,[ ] containing an archaeological description of this statue by m. revet, and a scientific account of its component parts, by m. houton la billardière, professor of chemistry at rouen. the former embodied his remarks in two letters addressed to the prefect of the lower seine. a print of the figure in its then extremely mutilated state, is prefixed; but its omission would have been no great drawback to the publication--which, in its details, appears to be ingenious, learned, and satisfactory. the highest praise is given to the statue, as a work of art of the second century.[ ] its _identity_ seems to be yet a subject of disputation:--but m. revet considers it as "the representation of some idolatrous divinity." the opinion of its being a representation of bacchus, or of apollo, or of a constellation, he thinks might be regulated by a discovery of some emblem, or attribute, found in the vicinity of the statue. two other plates--lithographised--relating to explanations of the pieces of the statue, close this interesting performance. [ ] "_description de la, statue fruste, en bronze doré, trouvée a lillebonne &c. suivie de l'analyse du métal, avec le dessein de la statue, et les tracés de quelques particularités relatives à la confection de cette antique." rouen,_ . pp. . [ ] other details induce me to fix the period of its completion towards the end of the second century: and after the unheard of difficulties which the artist had to overcome, one would scarcely be believed if one said that every thing is executed in a high state of perfection." p. . bibliographical index. index of manuscripts, and of printed books, described, quoted, or referred to. vol page _Æneas sylvius de duobus amantibus_, no date, to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _Æsopus, gr_. to. edit. prin.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _lat_. , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _ital_. , _tuppi_, in the same library at paris, ii ---- _ital_. and , to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _hispan_. , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _germ. without date, &c_., in the same library ii ---- ---- in the same library, ii _alain chartier, paraboles de, verard_, , folio--upon vellum--in the royal library at paris, ii _albert durer_; original drawings of, in a book of prayers, in the public library at munich, iii _alcuinus de trinitate, monast. utimpurrha_, , folio--in the public library at augsbourg, iii _aldine classics_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, in the library of st. geneviève, ii ---- ----, in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii ---- ----, in the public library at munich, iii _alexandrus gallus_, vulgo _de villa dei doctrinale v de spira_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _almanac historique--le messager boiteux_--a chap book, extracts from, iii _anti-christ--block book_--in the public library at landshut, iii _ambrosii hexameron_, , folio--in the public library at augsbourg, iii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii _amours, chasse et départ, verard_, , folio--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _anthologia græca_, , to.--upon vellum, in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ---- , _aldus_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _antonii archpi opera theologica_, , _koberger_, folio--in the public library at strasbourg, ii _apocalypse, block book_, in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _apostles creed_, in german, _block book_, with fac simile--in the public library at munich, iii _appianus, lat. ratdolt_, , folio--in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii _apuleius_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, in the library of the monastery of closterneuburg, iii ---- ----, imperfect, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ----, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, , _jenson_, folio--in the last mentioned library, iii _aquinas, t., sec. secundæ, schoeffher_, , folio--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ----, _opus quartiscript. schoeffher_. , folio--upon vellum, in the same library, iii ----, _in evang. matt, et marc_. , _s. and pannartz_, folio--in the same library, iii ---- _de virtut. et vitiis. mentelin_--in the public library at munich, iii _arbre des batailles, verard_, , folio--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _aretinus de bella gothico_, , folio--in the public library at caen, i _aristotelis opera, gr. aldus_, , vols. two copies upon vellum (the first volume in each copy wanting) in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _ethica nichomachea. gr. (aldus)--_ remarkably splendid copy of, in the royal library at paris, ii _ars memorandi_, &c.--_block book_: five copies of, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- -----in the library of göttwic monastery, iii _ars moriendi, germanicé-- to_.-- in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- _lat. block book_--two editions, in the public library at munich, iii _art de bien mourir, verard_, no date, folio--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _art and crafte to know well to dye, caxton_, in the royal library at paris, ii artus le roy; ms. xiith century,--in the royal library at paris, ii another ms. of the same romance, in the same library, ii _artaxani summa_, ( ) folio--in the public library at augsbourg, iii _augustinus sts. de civitate dei_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the library of ste. geneviève at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii ---- ---- _sweynheym and pannartz_, , folio, in the public library at vire, i _augustinus sts. de civitate dei_, , folio, upon vellum, late in the library of chremsminster monastery, iii ---- ---- in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- _schoeffher_, ; folio--in the library of the monastery of chremsminster, iii ---- ---- _jenson_, , folio--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _confessionum libri xiii_. . to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _de singularitate clericorum_, , to. in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii augustini sti. in psalmos, ms. xvth century--formerly in the library of corvinus, king of hungary, and now in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- _yppon. de cons. evang_. , folio--in the public library at augsbourg, iii _aulus gellius_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii aurbach's meditations upon the life of christ, , printed by gunther zeiner. _pub. lib. augsbourg_, iii _ausonius_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _aldus_, , vo. grolier's copy, on large paper, in the royal library at paris, ii _aymon, les quatre filz_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal, at paris, ii b. ballads; _bon jour, bon soir_: i --_toujours_, various, from the _vaudevires of olivier basselin_, - - _vive le roi, vive l'amour_, i _en arborant le drapeau blanc, at falaise_, i _le baiser d'adieu_, i _l'image de la vie_, i _bartholi lectura de spira_, . folio. in the imperial library at vienna, iii _bartsch, i. adam de--catalogue des estampes, par, &c_. . vo. iii _bella (la) mano_, , to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _bellovacensis vinc. spec. hist_. , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _berlinghieri, geografia_, folio--in the imperial library (prince eugene's copy) at vienna, iii _berinus et aygres de lamant, bonfons_, no date, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _bessarionis epistolæ_, ( ) folio--in the royal library at stuttgart, iii biblia latina, ms. ixth century, of charles the bald--in the royal library at paris, with a copper-plate engraving of that monarch's portrait, ii ------ ------ xiith century, in the same library, ii ------ ------ xvth century, of the _emperor wenceslaus_--in the imperial library at vienna, iii biblia hist. paraphrastica, ms. xvth century, ii _biblia polyglotta complut_. , &c. in the public library at coutances, i ------ ------ copy belonging to diane de poictiers, in the royal library at paris, ii ------ ------ , in the public library at landshut, iii ------ ------ copy of demetrius chalcondylas, afterwards that of eckius, in the public library at landshut, iii ------ ------ _walton_; royal copy, in the public library at caen, i ------ ------ with the original dedication, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ------ ------ in the library of the monastery of st. florian, in austria, iii _biblia polyglotta, le jay_: in the library of the lycée at bayeux i ------ _hebraica, edit. soncini_, , in the imperial library at vienna, iii _biblia hebraica edit. houbigant_, , in a private collection near bayeux, i ---- ---- _hahn_, , in the library of the monastery of closterneuburg, iii ---- _græca, aldus_, , folio--francis ist's copy, upon thick paper, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _aldus_, upon thick paper, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- ---- the usual copy, in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _biblia latina_, (_edit. maz. _) folio, vols., two copies of, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- a copy in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- a copy in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- a copy in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _pfister_, ( ) folio, vols. in the royal library at paris, ii ---- two copies, , , in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _fust und schoeffher_, : folio--three copies, (two upon vellum, and a third on paper) in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- ---- vellum copy, in the library of ste. geneviève, ii ---- vellum copy, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- (imperfect) in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _biblia latina mentelin_--in the public library at strasbourg, ii _biblia latino mentelin_, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _eggesteyn_, (ms. date, ) in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- (ms. date, ) in the public library at munich, iii ---- _sweynheym and pannartz_, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- supposed edition of eggesteyn, in the public library at strasbourg, iii ---- , folio, _frisner_, &c.--in the public library at augsbourg, iii ---- ( _edit. gering_) imperfect copy in the chapter library at bayeux, i ---- _hailbrun_, , folio: two copies, of which one is upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _jenson_, , folio, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna--and a second copy upon paper, iii ---- ---- , folio, in the public library at caen, i ---- ---- _froben_, , vo. in the public library at vire, i biblia germanica, ms. of the emperor wenceslaus, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _biblia germanica, mentelin_, folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- two copies, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- two copies in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- in the public library at landshut, iii _biblia germanica, mentelin_, folio, in the library at closterneuburg monastery, iii ---- ---- in the public library at ratisbon, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- _supposed first edition_, in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- _supposed first edition_, folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii _biblia germanica, sorg. augsbourg_, , folio, in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii ---- ---- _peypus_, , folio--upon vellum, in the public library at stuttgart, iii _biblia italica; kalend. augusti_, --folio--in the mazarine library, at paris, ii ---- ---- imperfect copy, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- _kalend. octobris_, , folio--in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _bibl. hist, venet_. , folio--copy purchased of m. fischeim at munich, iii _biblia bohemica_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _polonica_, , folio--in the same library, ii ---- ---- in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- copy purchased by the author at augsbourg, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- ; folio--in the library of ste. geneviève, ii _biblia hungarica_, , folio--incomplete, in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii ---- _sclavonica_, , folio, in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii _bible, la sainte_, , folio; large paper copy in the public library of caen, i biblia-historica, _ms. versibus germanicis_, sec. xiv.--in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- _aurea. lat. i. zeiner_, , folio--in the library of chremsminster monastery, iii ---- _pauperum, block book_: in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _block book_, german,--in the public library at stuttgart iii ---- ---- _latine_, first edition, in the same library, iii ---- ---- _block book_--one german, and two latin editions, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii biography, royal, of france;--xvith century--magnificent ms. in the royal library at paris. ii blazonry of arms, book of--xivth century, with fac-simile portrait of _leopold de sempach_ in the imperial library at vienna, iii _block books_; at paris, ii , at stuttgart, iii , at munich, iii ; at landshut, iii ; at vienna, iii . bocace, des cas des nobles hommes et femmes, ms. xvth century, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- two more mss. of the same work, in the same library, ii _boccace ruines des-nobles hommes_, &c. , _colard mansion_, folio, in the royal library at paris, ii _boccaccio il decamerone_, , _valdarfer_, folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- , _a. de michaelibus_, folio, in the royal library at paris, ii _boccaccio ii decamerone_, in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- , _zarotus_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _deo gracias, sine anno: forsan edit. prin_. in the public library at munich, iii ---- _nimphale_, , to., in the royal library at stuttgart, iii _boetius, f. johannes_, , to. in the library of ste. genevieve. at paris, ii _bonifacii papæ libr. decret_, , folio, upon vellum, in the library of mölk monastery, iii ---- upon vellum, in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii _bonnie vie, ou madenie, chambery_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii book of the gospels of the emperor lotharius, royal library at paris, ii breviaire de belleville, ms. xivth century, in the royal library at paris, ii breviary of john duke of bedford, ms. xvth century--in the royal library at paris--with copper plate fac-simile of a portion of the adoration of the magi, from the same, ii breviare de m. de monmorency, ms. xvith century--in the emperor of austria's private collection at vienna, iii breviarium eccl. liss. ms.; in the public library at caen i brut d'angletere, ms. xivth century--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _budæi comment, in ling. gr_. , folio--francis st. copy, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _burtrio, anthon. de, adam rot_, , folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii c. _cæsar_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii _cæsar_, , folio, in the mazarine library, ii ---- ---- in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library, iii ---- . _jenson_, in the library of göttwic monastery, iii ---- . _s. and pannartz_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _calderi opus concilior. adam rot_.-- . folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii calendarium, ms., xvith century in the public library at munich iii ---- ---- _regiomontani, block book_ in the public library at munich iii _cantica canticorum, edit. prin_. three copies in the public library at augsbourg, iii _castille et artus d'algarbe_, . to., in the library of the arsenal at paris ii _catéchisme à l'usage des grandes filles pour êtres mariés_ i _caterina da bologna_, no date. to. in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _da sienna_, , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _de senis_, , folio, in the royal library at paris, ii _catholicon_, , folio, upon vellum, in the royal library paris, ii ---- ---- , folio, in the imp. lib. at vienna, iii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the public library at munich, iii ---- _g, zeiner_, , upon vellum, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- in the monastic library of chremsminster, iii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _catullus, tibullus, et propertius_, , in the royal library at paris, ii _catullus, tibullus, et propertius_, in the mazarine library, ii ---- ---- in the public library at strasbourg, ii _caxton, books printed by_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _celestina commedia de, anvers_, mo., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _chaucer's book of fame, caxton_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii chess, game of, _metrical german version of_, ms., sec. xv., in the royal library at stuttgart, iii _chevalier delibre_, , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii chevalier au lion, ms., , in the public library at stuttgart, iii _chivalry_; see _tournaments_. _chrétien de mechel_, cat. des tableaux de la galerie imp. et roy. de vienne, , vo., iii ---- _foresii, lat_. , folio, _printed by gotz_, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- _hungariæ_, , to., in the public library at augsbourg, iii _chronicon gottwicense_, , folio, vols., some account of this rare and valuable work, iii ---- ---- referred to, iii _chrysostomi comment., gr_. , folio, copy of diane de poictiers, in the public library at caen, i _cicero, de officiis_ , to., two copies upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , to., upon paper, in the mazarine library at paris, iii ---- ---- , to., upon vellum, in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- , to., upon vellum, in the imp. lib. at vienna, iii ---- ---- (_aldus_), vo., upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _cicero, epistolæ ad familiares_, , cardinal bessarion's copy in the imperial library, at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _s. and pannartz_, folio, in the same library, iii ---- ---- , _s: and pannartz_, folio, in the public library at augsbourg, iii ---- ---- , _i. de spira_, in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- , aldus, vo., upon vellum, in the possession of m. renouard, bookseller, ii _cicero, de oratore, monast. soubiac_., folio, in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ---- _v. de spira_, folio, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- _opera philosophica, ulric han_, folio, in the public library at munich, iii ---- _de natura deorum, v. de spira_. , folio, in the mazarine library, at paris, ii ---- _rhetorica vetus, jenson_, , folio, upon vellum, in the library of ste. genevieve, at paris, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _orationes, s. and pannartz_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _valdarfer_, , folio, upon vellum, (wanting one leaf) in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- , _aldus_, vo, upon vellum, first volume only, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- perfect copy, upon vellum, in the library of st. geneviève, ii ---- _opera omnia_, , folio, vols., in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _giunta_, folio, singular copy in the royal library at paris, ii _cid el cavalero_, , to., in the library of the arsenal, at paris: bound with _seys romances del cid ruy diaz de bevar_, , to. ii citÉ de dieu, ms., in the royal library at paris, ii _cité des dames, (verard)_ folio, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _codex ebnerianus_, referred to iii _compendium morale_, folio, upon vellum, unique copy, late in the possession of the baron derschau, at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii costentin du, ms., in the public library at caen, i coutances, ms., biographical details connected with, in the public library at caen, i _coutumes anciennes_, , mo. at caen, i _cronica del cid. seville_. to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii cronique de france, , _verard_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _de florimont_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- _de cleriadus_, , to.,--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii d. _daigremont et vivian_, , to., in the library of the arsenal, at paris, ii _dante numeister_, , folio, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _petrus adam_, , folio, in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ---- _neapoli, tuppi,_ folio, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- _milan_, , with, the comments of g. tuzago, folio, in the same collection, iii ---- , folio, perfect copy, with twenty copper plates, in the public library at munich, iii ---- , folio, with xx copper-plates, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _decor puellarum, jenson_, , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii _defensio immac. concept. b.v.m_. , _block book_, in the public library at munich, iii _delphin classics_, fine set of, in the library of chremsminster monastery, iii _der veis ritter_, , folio, unique copy, in the public library at landshut, iii _dion cassius_, , gr. folio, edit. prin., diane de poictiers' copy, in the royal library at paris, ii _dio chrysostom. de regno, valdarfer_, to. upon vellum, in the emperor's private collection at vienna, iii dioscorides, grÆce, ms., vith century, in the imperial library at vienna, iii divertissments touchant la guerre, ms., in the public library at caen, i _doolin de mayence, paris, bonfons_, to. in the library of the arsenal, ii _durandi rationale_, , folio, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library, vienna, iii _durandi rationale_, , folio, in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- , _i. zeiner_, folio, in the library of chremsminster monastery, iii e. echecs amoreux. ms. folio--with copper-plate fac-simile in the royal library at paris, ii _echec jeu de, (verard)_ no date--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _ein nuizlich büchlin, augs_., , to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _erasmus expurgatus iuxta cens. acad. lovan_. , folio, in the public library at augsbourg. see _testament. novum,_ . iii evangelia quatuor, lat. ms. vith century, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- viiith century, in the library at chremsminster monastery, iii ---- ---- ixth century--in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- xith century, in the same library, iii ---- ---- xth century, in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- xith century--in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- xivth century, in the imperial library at vienna iii evangelium sti. iohannis, ms. lat. xith century, in the royal library at paris, ii _evangelia cum epistolis: ital_. folio--in the library of göttwic monastery, iii evangelistarium, of charlemagne, ms. folio, in the private library of the king, at paris, ii _euclides_, , folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- four varying copies of, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ratdolt. , in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii _euripides, gr_., , _aldus_--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _eustathius in homerum_, --folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon paper, in the same collection, ii ---- ---- , folio, fine copy, upon paper, in the public library at caen, i _eutropius_, , _laver_, folio--in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _exhortation against the turks_ ( ) in the public library at munich, iii f. _fait de la guerre c. mansion_, folio--in the royal library at paris, ii _fazio dita mundi_, , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _ficheti rhetorica--gering_-- to.--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _fiorio e biancifiore, bologna_, , folio--in the library of the arsenal, at paris, ii _fierbras_, , folio--prince eugene's copy, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _fortalitium fidei_--folio--no date--in the public library, at munich: curious printed advertisement in this copy, iii _frezzi il quadriregio_, , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _fulgosii anteros_-- --folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii funerailes des reines de france, ms. folio--in the emperor's private collection at vienna, iii g. _galenus, gr_. , folio. _aldus_--large paper, in the royal library at paris, ii _galien et jaqueline_, , folio--in the library of the arsenal, at paris, ii _gallia christiana_, , folio, in the chapter library at bayeux, ii _games of chess, caxton_, folio, d. edit.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii genesis--ms. of the _ivth century--fragments of chapters of_, account of--with fac-simile illuminations, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _gerard comte de nevers_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _geyler, navic. fat_. , to.--in the public library at augsbourg, iii _gloria mulierum jenson_, to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _godfrey of boulogne, caxton_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _gospels_, folio--ms. xiiith century--in the emperor's private library at vienna, iii _grammatica rythmica_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii _gratian opus. decret. schoeffher_, , folio, upon vellum, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii _guillaume de palerne_, , to, in the library of the arsenal: another edition, , to., ii _guy de warwick_, no date, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _gyron le courtoys_, no date, _verard_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii h. _hartlieb's chiromancy, block book_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _helayne la belle_, , to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _hecuba et iphigenia in aulide_, gr. et lat. , upon vellum, vo. ii _hector de troye, arnoullet_, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _heures, printed by vostre_, fine copy of, in the public library at caen, i _herodotus, gr_. , _aldus_, folio, large paper copy in the royal library at paris, ii historia b.m. virginis, ms., folio, xvth century, in the public library at paris, ii ---- ---- _block book_, folio, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _historiæ augusta scriptores_, , folio, _p. de lavagna_, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- _aldus_, , vo., upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _history of bohemia_, _by pope pius ii_, , in the public library at augsbourg, iii histoire romaine, ms, xvth century; folio, vols. in the royal library at paris, ii _homeri opera, gr_., , folio, uncut, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- _no date_, _aldus_, vo., upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the library of ste. genevieve, ii ---- ---- , _bodoni_, folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _batrachomyomachia_, _gr._ to., edit. prin. in the imperial library at vienna, iii horÆ b.m. virginis, ms., vo., in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- folio, belonging to ann of britanny, with copper plate engraving of her portrait therefrom, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- belonging to pope paul iii. in the same library, ii ---- ---- ms., xvth century, in the royal private library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- vo., in the emperor's private collection at vienna, iii ---- sti. ludovici, ms., xiiith century, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- ---- _gr._ , mo. _printed by aldus_, in the royal library at paris, ii - ---- ---- purchase of a copy from mr. stöger, at munich, iii horatius, m. s., xiith century in the mölk monastery, iii ---- edit. prin. to., in the public library at augsbourg, iii ---- _venet_. , to., purchased of mr. fischeim, at munich, iii ---- , _aldus_, vo., upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the public library at munich, iii _horloge de sapience, verard_, , folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii hortus deliciarum, ms., xiith century, in the public library at strasbourg, ii hortulus animÆ, ms., xvth century, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , mo., in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii ---- _rosarum, &c_., , vo., in the public library at augsbourg, iii _huet, demonstrat. evang_. , ( ?) folio, unique copy in the public library at caen, i _huon de bourdeaux_, four editions of, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii i. _isocrates, gr., aldus_, , folio, large paper copy in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- printed at milan, , folio, ii _jason, roman de, printed by caxton_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _same edition_, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _jason, printed by caxton_, in the imp. lib. at vienna, iii _iehan de saintré, bonfons_, no date, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- _paris, bonfons_, no date, to., in the same collection, ii jerome, st., vie, mort, et miracles de, ms., xvth century, in the public library of stuttgart, iii _ieronimi epistolæ_, , upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _s. and pannartz_, folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- , _schoeffher_, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ---- _parmæ_, , folio, in the public library at augsbourg, iii _josephus, lat_. , folio, in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii ---- _gallicè_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _jourdain de blave, paris, chretien, no date_, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _jouvencel le_, , _verard_, folio, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _juvenalis_, folio, _v. de spira_, edit. prin. in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- _ulric. han. typ. grand_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- , folio, in the public library at caen, i --- _i. de fivizano_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii l. _lactantii institutiones_, , folio, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the library of ste. geneviève, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _s. and pannartz_, folio, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- _rostoch_, , upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii lancelot du lac, ms., xivth century, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- another ms. of about the same period, in the same library, ii ---- ---- another manuscript in the same library, ii ---- ---- , _verard_, folio, in the imperial library (prince eugene's copy) at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _verard_, folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, iii ---- ---- , _verard,_ folio, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _lascaris gram. græc_. , to., in the royal library at paris, ii leges bavaricÆ, ms., xiiith century, in the public library at landshut, iii _legenda aurea, (seu sanctorum) ital. jenson_, , folio, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _gering_, folio, in the public library at caen, i _les deux amans, verard_, , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii liber generationis ies. xti. ms. viith century: in the royal library at paris, ii _liber modorum significandi_, , _st. albans_,--in the royal library at paris, ii _liber moralisat. bibl_. , ulm, folio--copy purchased of m. fischeim, at munich, iii liber precum, _cum not. et cant_. ms. _pervet_. in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- ms. xvth century, in the public library at munich, iii _liber regum, seu vita davidis--block books_--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _life of christ, block book_--in the public library at munich, iii _littleton's tenures, lettou_, &c. folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii livius, ms. xvth century--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- , folio,--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at munich, iii ---- , _v. de spira_, folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon paper, in the same library, ii ---- ---- in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii ---- , _s. and pann_., folio, in the royal library at paris, ii _lombardi petri sentent. (eggesteyn)_, folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii _lucanus_, , folio--in the public library at munich, iii ---- , folio, cum comment. omniboni--in the public library at stuttgart, iii _luciani opera_, gr. , folio--fine copy, in the possession of m. renouard, at paris, ii ---- ---- , _aldus_, folio--large paper copy, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _opusc. quæd. lat_. -- to.--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _lucretius_, , folio--in the king's private collection at stuttgart, iii ---- _aldus_, , vo.--upon vellum, (supposed to be unique) in the royal library at paris, ii _luctus christianorum, jenson_, to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _ludolphus vita christi (eggesteyn)_, , folio, in the public library at nancy, ii ---- ---- _de terra sancta_, &c. to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii m. _mabrian_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _maguelone, la belle_, , _trepperel_, to.--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _maius, de propriet. prisc. verb_. . folio--_b. de colonia_--in the public library at strasbourg, ii _mammotrectus, schoeffher_, --folio--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the library of closterneuburg, iii ---- ---- _h. de helie_, , folio--in the public library at landshut, iii mandeville, ms. _german_--in the public library at stuttgart, iii _manilius_, , folio,--in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _marco polo, germ_. , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _marsilius ficinus: in dionysium areopagitam_, no date, folio, in the library of ste. geneviève at paris, ii _martialis_, , folio--in the library of a capuchin monastery, near vienna, iii ---- ---- _aldus_, , vo. two copies upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii mayni iasonis epitalamion, ms. to.--in the emperor's private library at vienna, iii _mayster of sentence, caxton_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _meinart, st. life of, block book_: in the public library at munich, iii _melusina, historie von der, germ_. no date, folio, in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _melusine, p. le noir_, to.--in the library of the arsenal ii _memoirs of the transactions of the society of belles lettres &c. at rouen_, vol. i. page , of a _similar_ society at caen, i _messer nobile socio, miserie de li amante di_, , to. in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _meurin fils d'oger, paris, bonfons_, to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _milles et amys, verard_, no date, folio--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _rouen_, to.--in the library of the arsenal at ditto, ii _mirabilia urbis romæ, block book_,--in the public library at munich, iii missale, ms. xivth century, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- xvth century, two in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- of charles the bold, xvth century--in the imperial library at vienna, with fac-simile, iii ---- ---- xvth century,--in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- vo.--belonging to sigismund, king of poland, in the public library at landshut, iii ---- _herbipolense_ ( ), folio, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _venet_. , folio,--upon vellum, in the emperor's private collection at vienna, iii ---- _pro. patav. eccl. ritu_, , folio, in the library of a capuchin monastery, near vienna, iii ---- _mozarabicum_, , folio--with the breviary , in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- ---- in the library of ste. geneviève, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _parisiense_, , folio--upon vellum, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _missal of henry iv_. xvith century, in the royal library at paris, ii _missa defunctorum, viennæ_, , folio, in the library of a capuchin monastery, near vienna, iii _montaigne's essays_, , folio, large paper, in the library at caen, i _monte sancto di dio_, , folio,--in the royal library, at paris, ii _monte sancto di dio_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _moreri des normans; par i.a. guiat_, ms. in the public library at caen, i _morgant le géant_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _mori thomæ opera, edit. lovan_. , folio, in the library of the lycée at bayeux, i _munsteri cosmographia_, , folio, copy of, belonging to d. de poictiers, in the public library at caen, ii _mureti disticha_, lat. and fr. _chap book_, at vire, i n. _nanceidos liber_, , folio; copy of, with ms. notes of bochart, in the public library at caen, i ---- ---- two copies of, one upon large paper, in the public library at nancy, ii ---- ---- one, upon vellum, in the possession of messrs. payne and foss, ii _nef des folz du monde_, verard, no date, folio--upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- printed by the same, upon vellum, in the same library, ii _nef des dames, arnollet, à lyon_, to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _niger p., contra perfidos judæos_, , folio--in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _nonius marcellus_, , folio,--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _nova statuta, machlinia_, in the royal library at paris, ii _novelas, por de maria zayas_, , to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- _amorosas_, , to. in the same library, ii o. officium b.m. virginis, ms., xvth century, in the emperor's private collection at vienna, iii ---- ---- ms., xvith century, in the public library at munich, iii officium b.m. virginis, ms., in the same library, iii _ogier le danois_, , folio, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _ovidii opera omnia, azoguidi_, , wanting two leaves, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _fasti, azoguidi_, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _opera omnia, s. and pannartz_, , in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _epistolæ et fasti_, folio, in the same collection, iii p. _paris et vienne, paris_, no date, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _pentateuch, hebr._ , folio, in the royal library at paris, ii _petrarcha sonetti_, , prince eugene's copy in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _zarotus_, folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _jenson_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _comment. borstii, bologn_., , folio, two copies in the imperial library at vienna, of which one belonged to prince eugene, iii ---- ---- _bolog._, , folio, (_azoguidi_[ ]) with the comment of philelphus, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- _aldus_, , vo., upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- , vo., upon vellum, in the possession of m. renouard, bookseller, ii ---- ---- , mo., in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii ---- _sonetti cum comment. velutelli_, , vo., iii ---- _hist. griseldis, lat_., , folio,--prince eugene's copy in the imperial library at vienna, iii _phalaris epist_., , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _ulric han_, folio, in the same collection, iii philostratus, _lat_., ms., xvth century in the imperial library at vienna, iii _pierre de provence et la belle maguelonne_, , to. in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _pindarus, gr_. , _aldi_, mo., in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii _plautus_, , folio, edit. prin. in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- , _aldus_, to., grolier's copy, apparently _large paper_, in the royal library at paris, ii _plinius senior_, , folio, one copy, upon vellum, and another upon paper, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the library of ste. geneviève, ii ---- ---- upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _jenson_, , folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _jenson_, , folio, upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- upon paper, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii ---- ---- _ital_. , _jenson_, folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon paper, in the same collection, ii ---- ---- upon paper, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _plutarchi vitæ; parallellæ, ital_., folio, litt. r., in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- the same edition in the monastic library at closterneuburg, iii _plutarchi opuscula moralia, gr_, , _aldus_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _poetæ græci principes, gr_., , folio, large paper, de thou's copy in the royal library at paris, ii _pogii facetiæ, monast. euseb_., folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _hist. fiorent._, , folio, upon vellum and paper, in the imperial library at vienna, iii polybius, _gr_. ms., sec. xvi., diane de poictiers's copy, in the royal library at paris, ii _polybius, lat., s. and pannartz_, , folio, in the library of closterneuburg monastery, iii prayer book of charles the bald, ill. ms. to, in the royal library at paris, ii _priscianus_, , _v. de spira_, folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _ulric han_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ----, _aldus_, , vo., grolier's copy, upon large paper, in the royal library at paris, ii ----, _printed by v. de spira_, upon vellum, in the library of ste. geneviève, ii psalterium, ms., ixth century, of charles the bald; in the public library at paris; ii ---- ----, sti. ludovici, xiiith century, in the same library, ii ---- ----, xith century, in the public library at stuttgart iii ---- ----, xiith century, in the same collection, iii ---- ----, xiith century, in the royal private library at stuttgart, iii ---- ----, xiith century, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ----, with most splendid illuminations, of the xvith century, in the same library, iii ---- ----, st. austin, xvth century, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- _latine_, , _fust and schoeffher_, folio, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _psalterium latine_, , folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, , folio, _schoeffher_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, , folio, _schoeffher_, in the same library, -- ---- ----, upon vellum, _printed by schoeffher's son_, , folio, ii ---- ----, without date--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, _lips_. , to.--in the public library at landshut, iii ptolemÆus, _lat_. ms. folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- ms. folio, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ----, , folio, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ----, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, _printed by buckinck_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii q. _quintilianus, i. de lignam_, , folio, in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ----, , _jenson_, folio, in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii r. _ratdolt_, specimens of the types from his press, in the public library at munich, iii _recueil des histoires de troye, printed by caxton_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- _printed by verard_, upon vellum, in the same library, ii _regnars, les, &c. verard_, to. prince eugene's copy in the imperial library at vienna, iii _regulæ, confitend. peccata sua. ital_., , to., in the imperial library at vienna, iii _repertorium statut. ord. carth_. , folio, in the public library at caen, i _richard sans peur, janot, no date_, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- _bonfons, no date_, to., in the same library, ii _robert le diable, janot, no date_, to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _romances, ms_., in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, _printed_, in the same library, ii ---- ----, in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ----, in the public library at munich, iii _ronsard_, , folio, in the public library at caen, i rose, roman de la, ms. xivth century, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- ms. xivth century, in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- _verard_, no date, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _rossei opus elegans, &c., pynson_, , to., the author's copy, afterwards that of sir thomas more, in the public library at landshut, iii s. sacramentarium, seu missa _pap. greg_., ms., vith century, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _sanchez de matrim. sacram_., copy in the chapter library at bayeux, i. , in the library of the lycée at bayeux, i _sannazarii arcadia_, , _aldus_, vo., grolier's copy, on large paper, in the royal library at paris, ii _sannazarius de partu virginis, aldi_, , mo. in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii schakzabel, der, ms. or , in the public library at stuttgart, iii _séguin, histore militaire des bocains_, quoted, i , , , _sur l'histoire de l'industrie du bocage, en général, et de la ville de vire sa capitale en particulière_, , vo., i _servius in virgilium_, see _virgilius_. _sforziada la_, , folio, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _shyppe of fools_, , vo. _printed by w. worde_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii _sibilÆ, &c_., ms., xvth century, in the public library at munich, iii _silius italicus, laver_, , folio, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _s. and pannartz_, , folio, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii _spec. hum, salv_, , folio, _printed by richel_, in the public library at strasbourg, ii _spec. morale p. bellovacensis_, , folio, ii ---- _judiciale durandus_, printed by hussner and rekenhub, , folio, ii _speculum stultorum_, _no date_, to., in the public library at caen, i _statius in usum delphini_, to., two copies, in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii ---- ---- beautiful copy in the library of chremsminster monastery, iii _statutes of richard iii. machlinia_, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii _stephani, h. gloss. græc_. , &c., folio--_cum notis mss: bocharti_, copy of, in the public library at caen, i _successos y prodigos de amor_, , to., in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii _suetonius i. de lignamine_, , folio--in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii _suetonius s. and pannartz_, , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- _jenson_, , to.,--in the same collection, iii ---- _reisinger_, to.,--_without date_, in the private royal collection at stuttgart, iii _suidas, gr_., , folio--lambecius's copy, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- , folio, _aldus_--large paper copy, in the royal library at paris, ii _sypperts de vinevaulx, paris, no date_, to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii t. _tacitus, i. de spira_, folio, edit. prin. in the public library at stuttgart, iii ----, in the imperial library at vienna, iii _tasso, gerusalemme conquistata_, the author's autograph--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _terentius, mentelin_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ----, _ulric han_, folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ----, _reisinger_, folio--in the public library at stuttgart, iii _testamentum novum, hollandicè et russ_., , folio, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, _bohemice, sec_. xv--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, _græcè erasmi_, in the king's private library at stuttgart, iii ---- ----, _r. stephani_, , folio--diane de poictiers's copy--in the royal library at paris, ii _tewrdanckhs_, , folio--upon vellum, in the library of ste. geneviève, at paris, ii ---- ----, two copies of, in the public library at munich, iii _tewrdanckhs_, , folio, upon vellum, two copies of, in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii _theophrastus_, , gr. _aldus_,--diane de poictiers's copy, in the possession of m. renouard at paris, ii _thucydide, gourmont_, folio, _verard_--upon vellum, in the imperial library at vienna--prince eugene's copy, iii tite live, ms. folio--in the royal library at paris, ii _tityrell and pfartzival_, , folio--in the public library at landshut, iii ---- ---- in the library of the monastery of st. florian, iii tournaments, book of, ms. xvth century--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- duplicate and more recent copy of ii _tracts_, printed by pfister, at bamberg, folio, ii _trebisond, paris_, to.--in the library of the arsenal at paris, ii tristan, ms. xivth century, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ----, another ms. in the same library, ii ---- ----, a third ms. in the same library, ii ---- _gall_. sec. xiii., in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ----, another ms. in the same collection, iii _tristran, verard_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii _trithemii annales hirsaugienses_, , folio--in the library of the monastery of chremsminster, iii ---- ----, in the library of a capuchin monastery, near vienna, iii _troys filz de roys_, paris, no date, to.--in the library of the arsenal, ii _tully of old age, caxton_--in the royal library at paris, ii _turrecremata i. de meditationes, ulric han_, , folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the public library at nuremberg, _supplement_, iii ---- ----, , in the imperial library at vienna, iii v. valerius maximus, ms. xvth century--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- _mentelin_, folio--two copies in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- in the royal library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- , _coes & stol_, folio--in the public library at caen, i ---- ---- _aldus_, , vo. grolier's copy, on large paper, in the royal library at paris, ii _valturius de re militari_, , folio--in the imperial library (prince eugene's copy) at vienna, iii _vaudevires, basselin_, , i - _vie des peres_, , folio, at caen, i _virgilius, s. & pannartz_, ( ) folio--in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the public library at strasbourg--incomplete, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- , _v. de spira_, upon vellum, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- upon paper, in the royal library at paris, ii ---- ---- in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- , _s. and pannartz_, folio--in the royal library at paris, iii _virgilius_, , _s. and pannartz_, late in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- ---- , _v. de spira_, folio--in the imperial library at vienna, iii ---- ---- , _adam_, folio--late in the public library at stuttgart, iii ---- _servius in virgilium_. _ulric han_, folio--diane de poictiers's copy, in the mazarine library at paris, ii ---- ---- _valdarfer_, , folio--in the public library at strasbourg, ii ---- ---- , _gering_, to., in the royal library at paris, ii ---- _aldus_, , vo.--upon vellum, in the public library at munich, iii ---- ---- , vo.--in the possession of m. renouard, bookseller, ii ---- _s. and pannartz_, ( ) folio--in the library of ste. geneviève, ii ---- _gallicè_, , folio--in the public library at caen, i vitÆ sanctorum, ms. sec. xii.--in the public library at stuttgart, iii _vitruvius giuntæ_, , vo.--upon vellum, in the library of ste. geneviève at paris, ii vocabularius, bechtermuntze, , to. ii u. _utino, t. de, sermones_, _printed by gering_--in the public library at vire, i w. willibroodi sti. vita. auct. alcuino. ms. xith century, in the private royal library at stuttgart, iii [ ] in the page referred to, i have conjectured it to be printed by ulric han-or reisinger. to these names i add the above. printed by william nicol, at the shakspeare press. [transcriber's note: all footnotes have been gathered at the end of the text.] sir walter scott as a critic of literature by margaret ball, ph.d. new york the columbia university press copyright, by the columbia university press printed from type november, press of the new era printing company lancaster, pa. preface the lack of any adequate discussion of scott's critical work is a sufficient reason for the undertaking of this study, the subject of which was suggested to me more than three years ago by professor trent of columbia university. we still use critical essays and monumental editions prepared by the author of the waverley novels, but the criticism has been so overshadowed by the romances that its importance is scarcely recognized. it is valuable in itself, as well as in the opportunity it offers of considering the relation of the critical to the creative mood, an especially interesting problem when it is presented concretely in the work of a great writer. no complete bibliography of scott's writings has been published, and perhaps none is possible in the case of an author who wrote so much anonymously. the present attempt includes some at least of the books and articles commonly left unnoticed, which are chiefly of a critical or scholarly character. i am glad to record my gratitude to professor william allan neilson, now of harvard university, and to professors a.h. thorndike, w.w. lawrence, g.p. krapp, and j.e. spingarn, of columbia, for suggestions in connection with various parts of the work. from the beginning professor trent has helped me constantly by his advice as well as by the inspiration of his scholarship, and my debt to him is one which can be understood only by the many students who have known his kindness. mount holyoke college, june, . contents chapter i. introduction: an outline of scott's literary career chapter ii. scott's qualifications as critic chapter iii. scott's work as student and editor in the field of literary history . the mediaeval period (a) minstrelsy of the scottish border (b) studies in the romances (c) other studies in mediaeval literature . the drama . the seventeenth century: dryden . the eighteenth century (a) swift (b) the somers tracts (c) the lives of the novelists, and comments on other eighteenth century writers chapter iv. scott's criticism of his contemporaries chapter v. scott as a critic of his own work chapter vi. scott's position as critic appendices i. bibliography of scott, annotated ii. list of books quoted index a dated list of scott's books, aside from the poems and novels, and of the principal works which he edited (periodical criticism not included). - minstrelsy of the scottish border (edited). sir tristrem (edited). original memoirs written during the great civil war; the life of sir h. slingsby, and memoirs of capt. hodgson (edited). memoirs of capt. carleton (edited). the works of john dryden (edited). memoirs of robert carey, earl of monmouth, and fragmenta regalia (edited). queenhoo hall, a romance; and ancient times, a drama (edited). the state papers and letters of sir ralph sadler (edited). - the somers tracts (edited). memoirs of the court of charles ii, by count grammont (edited). secret history of the court of james the first (edited). memoirs of the reign of king charles i, by sir philip warwick (edited). the works of jonathan swift (edited). - the border antiquities of england and scotland. paul's letters. essay on chivalry. essay on the drama. - provincial antiquities and picturesque scenery of scotland. trivial poems and triolets by patrick carey (edited). northern memoirs, calculated for the meridian of scotland; and the contemplative and practical angler (edited). - the novelists' library (edited). chronological notes of scottish affairs from till (edited). military memoirs of the great civil war (edited). essay on romance. letters of malachi malagrowther on the currency. the life of napoleon buonaparte. tales of a grandfather, first series. religious discourses, by a layman. proceedings in the court-martial held upon john, master of sinclair, etc. (edited). memorials of george bannatyne (edited). tales of a grandfather, second series. - the "opus magnum" (novels, tales, and romances, with introductions and notes by the author). tales of a grandfather, third series. letters on demonology and witchcraft. history of scotland. tales of a grandfather, fourth series. trial of duncan terig, etc. (edited). * * * * * the journal of sir walter scott. familiar letters of sir walter scott. chapter i introduction importance of a study of scott's critical and scholarly work--connection between his creative work and his criticism--chronological view of his literary career. scott's critical work has become inconspicuous because of his predominant fame as an imaginative writer; but what it loses on this account it perhaps gains in the special interest attaching to criticism formulated by a great creative artist. one phase of his work is emphasized and explained by the other, and we cannot afford to ignore his criticism if we attempt fairly to comprehend his genius as a poet and novelist. the fact that he is the subject of one of the noblest biographies in our language only increases our obligation to become acquainted with his own presentation of his artistic principles. but though criticism by so great and voluminous a writer is valuable mainly because of the important relation it bears to his other work, and because of the authority it derives from this relation, scott's scholarly and critical writings are individual enough in quality and large enough in extent to demand consideration on their own merits. yet this part of his achievement has received very little attention from biographers and critics. lockhart's book is indeed full of materials, and contains also some suggestive comment on the facts presented; but as the passing of time has made an estimation of scott's power more safe, students have lost interest in his work as a critic, and recent writers have devoted little attention to this aspect of the great man of letters.[ ] the present study is an attempt to show the scope and quality of scott's critical writings, and of such works, not exclusively or mainly critical, as exhibit the range of his scholarship. for it is impossible to treat his criticism without discussing his scholarship; since, lightly as he carried it, this was of consequence in itself and in its influence on all that he did. the materials for analysis are abundant; and by rearrangement and special study they may be made to contribute both to the history of criticism and to our comprehension of the power of a great writer. in considering him from this point of view we are bound to remember the connection between the different parts of his vocation. in him, more than in most men of letters, the critic resembled the creative writer, and though the critical temperament seems to show itself but rarely in his romances, we find that the characteristic absence of precise and conscious art is itself in harmony with his critical creed. the relation between the different parts of scott's literary work is exemplified by the subjects he treated, for as a critic he touched many portions of the field, which in his capacity of poet and novelist he occupied in a different way. he was a historical critic no less than a historical romancer. a larger proportion of his criticism concerns itself with the eighteenth century, perhaps, than of his fiction,[ ] and he often wrote reviews of contemporary literature, but on the whole the literature with which he dealt critically was representative of those periods of time which he chose to portray in novel and poem. this evidently implies great breadth of scope. yet scott's vivid sense of the past had its bounds, as professor masson pointed out.[ ] it was the "gothic" past that he venerated. the field of his studies, chronologically considered, included the period between his own time and the crusades; and geographically, was in general confined to england and scotland, with comparatively rare excursions abroad. when, in his novels, he carried his scottish or english heroes out of britain into foreign countries, he was apt to bestow upon them not only a special endowment of british feeling, but also a portion of that interest in their native literature which marked the taste of their creator. we find that the personages in his books are often distinguished by that love of stirring poetry, particularly of popular and national poetry, which was a dominant trait in scott's whole literary career. with scotland and with popular poetry any discussion of sir walter properly begins. the love of scottish minstrelsy first awakened his literary sense, and the stimulus supplied by ballads and romances never lost its force. we may say that the little volumes of ballad chap-books which he collected and bound up before he was a dozen years old suggested the future editor, as the long poem on the conquest of grenada, which he is said to have written and burned when he was fifteen, foreshadowed the poet and romancer. yet scott's career as an author began rather late. he published a few translations when he was twenty-five years old, but his first notable work, the _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, did not appear until - , when he was over thirty. this book, the outgrowth of his early interest in ballads and his own attempts at versifying, exhibited both his editorial and his creative powers. it led up to the publication of two important volumes which contained material originally intended to form part of the _minstrelsy_, but which outgrew that work. these were the edition of the old metrical romance _sir tristrem_, which showed scott as a scholar, and the _lay of the last minstrel_, the first of scott's own metrical romances. so far his literary achievement was all of one kind, or of two or three kinds closely related. in this first period of his literary life, perhaps even more than later, his editorial impulse, his scholarly activity, was closely connected with the inspiration for original writing. the _lay of the last minstrel_ was the climax of this series of enterprises. with the publication of the _minstrelsy_, scott of course became known as a literary antiquary. he was naturally called upon for help when the _edinburgh review_ was started a few weeks afterwards, especially as jeffrey, who soon became the editor, had long been his friend. the articles that he wrote during and were of a sort that most evidently connected itself with the work he had been doing: reviews, for example, of southey's _amadis de gaul_, and of ellis's _early english poetry_. during - the range of his reviewing became wider and he included some modern books, especially two or three which offered opportunity for good fun-making. about , however, his aversion to the political principles which dominated the _edinburgh review_ became so strong that he refused to continue as a contributor, and only once, years later, did he again write an article for that periodical. in the same year, , scott supplied with editorial apparatus and issued anonymously _original memoirs written during the great civil war_, the first of what proved to be a long list of publications having historical interest, sometimes reprints, sometimes original editions from old manuscripts, to which he contributed a greater or less amount of material in the shape of introductions and notes. these were undertaken in a few cases for money, in others simply because they struck him as interesting and useful labors. it is easy to trace the relation of this to his other work, particularly to the novels. he once wrote to a friend, "the editing a new edition of _somers's tracts_ some years ago made me wonderfully well acquainted with the little traits which marked parties and characters in the seventeenth century, and the embodying them is really an amusing task."[ ] among the works which he edited in this way the number of historical memoirs is noticeable. after the volume that has been mentioned as the first, he prepared another book of _memoirs of the great civil war_; and we find in the list a _secret history of the court of james i._, _memoirs of the reign of king charles i._, count grammont's _memoirs of the court of charles ii._, _a history of queen elizabeth's favourites_, etc. such books as these, besides furnishing material for his novels, led scott to acquire a mass of information that enabled him to perform with great facility and with admirable results whatever editorial work he might choose to undertake. these labors scott always considered as trifles to be dispatched in the odd moments of his time, but the great edition of _dryden's complete works_, which he began to prepare soon after the _minstrelsy_ appeared, was more important. this, next to the _minstrelsy_, was probably the most notable of all scott's editorial enterprises. it was published in eighteen volumes in , the year in which _marmion_ also appeared. when the poet was reproached by one of his friends for not working more steadily at his vocation, he replied, "the public, with many other properties of spoiled children, has all their eagerness after novelty, and were i to dedicate my time entirely to poetry they would soon tire of me. i must therefore, i fear, continue to edit a little."[ ] his interest in scholarly pursuits appears even in his first attempt at writing prose fiction, since joseph strutt's unfinished romance, _queenhoo hall_, for which scott wrote a conclusion, is of consequence only on account of the antiquarian learning which it exhibits. having become seriously alarmed over the political influence of the _edinburgh review_, scott was active in forwarding plans for starting a strong rival periodical in london, and saw the establishment of the _quarterly review_. by that time he had done a considerable amount of work in practically every kind except the novel, and he was recognized as a most efficient assistant and adviser in any such enterprise as the promoters of the _quarterly_ were undertaking. moreover, his own writings were prominent among the books which supplied material for the reviewer. he worked hard for the first volume. but after that year he wrote little for the _quarterly_ until , and again little until after lockhart became editor in . from that time until he was an occasional contributor. was the year of _waverley_. before that the poems had been appearing in rapid succession, and scott had been busy with the _works of swift_, which came out also in . the thirteen volumes of the edition of _somers' tracts_, already mentioned, and several smaller books, bore further witness to his editorial energy. the last of the long poems was published in , about the same time with _guy mannering_, the second novel, and after that the novels continued to appear with that rapidity which constitutes one of the chief facts of scott's literary career. for a few years after this period he did comparatively little in the way of editorial work, but his odd moments were occupied in writing about history, travels, and antiquities.[ ] in scott wrote the _lives of the novelists_, which appeared the next year in ballantyne's _novelists' library_. by this time he had begun, with _ivanhoe_, to strike out from the scottish field in which all his first novels had been placed. the martial pomp prominent in this novel reflects the eager interest with which he was at that time following his son's opening career in the army; just as _marmion_, written by the young quartermaster of the edinburgh light horse, also expresses the military ardor which was so natural to scott, and which reminds us of his remark that in those days a regiment of dragoons was tramping through his head day and night. probably we might trace many a reason for his literary preoccupations at special times besides those that he has himself commented upon. in the case of the critical work, however, the matter was usually determined for him by circumstances of a much less intimate sort, such as the appeal of an editor or the appearance of a book which excited his special interest. when scott was obliged to make as much money as possible he wrote novels and histories rather than criticism. his _life of napoleon buonaparte_, which appeared in nine volumes in , enabled him to make the first large payment on the debts that had fallen upon him in the financial crash of the preceding year, and the _tales of a grandfather_ were among the most successful of his later books. his critical biographies and many of his other essays were brought together for the first time in , and issued under the title of _miscellaneous prose works_. the world of books was making his life weary with its importunate demands in those years when he was writing to pay his debts, and it is pleasant to see that some of his later reviews discussed matters that were not less dear to his heart because they were not literary. the articles on fishing, on ornamental gardening, on planting waste lands, remind us of the observation he once made, that his oaks would outlast his laurels. by this time the "author of waverley" was no longer the "unknown." his business complications compelled him to give his name to the novels, and with the loss of a certain kind of privacy he gained the freedom of which later he made such fortunate use in annotating his own works. from the beginning of until the end of his life in , scott was engaged, in the intervals of other occupations, in writing these introductions and notes for his novels, for an edition which he always called the _opus magnum_. this was a pleasant task, charmingly done. indeed we may call it the last of those great editorial labors by which scott's fame might live unsupported by anything else. first came the _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, then the editions of dryden and swift. next we may count the _lives of the novelists_, even in the fragmentary state in which the failure of the _novelists' library_ left them; and finally the _opus magnum_. when, in addition, we remember the mass of his critical work written for periodicals, and the number of minor volumes he edited, it becomes evident that a study of scott which disregards this part of his work can present only a one-sided view of his achievement. and the qualities of his abundant criticism, especially its large fresh sanity, seem to make it worthy of closer analysis than it usually receives, not only because it helps to reveal scott's genius, but also on account of the historical and ethical importance which always attaches to the ideals, literary and other, of a noble man and a great writer. chapter ii scott's qualifications as critic wide reading scott's first qualification--scott the antiquary--character of his interest in history--his imagination--his knowledge of practical affairs--common-sense in criticism--cheerfulness, good-humor, and optimism--general aspect of scott's critical work. wide and appreciative reading was scott's first qualification for critical work. a memory that retained an incredible amount of what he read was the second. one of the severest censures he ever expressed was in regard to godwin, who, he thought, undertook to do scholarly work without adequate equipment. "we would advise him," scott said in his review of godwin's _life of chaucer_, "in future to read before he writes, and not merely while he is writing." scott himself had accumulated a store of literary materials, and he used them according to the dictates of a temperament which had vivid interests on many sides. we may distinguish three points of view which were habitual to scott, and which determined the direction of his creative work, as well as the tone of his criticism. these were--as all the world knows--the historical, the romantic, the practical. he was, as he often chose to call himself, an antiquary; he felt the appeal of all that was old and curious. but he was much more than that. the typical antiquary has his mind so thoroughly devoted to the past that the present seems remote to him. the sheer intellectual capacity of such a man as scott might be enough to save him from such a limitation, for he could give to the past as much attention as an ordinary man could muster, and still have interest for contemporary affairs; but his capacity was not all that saved scott. he viewed the past always as filled with living men, whose chief occupation was to think and feel rather than to provide towers and armor for the delectation of future antiquaries.[ ] a sympathetic student of his work has said, "there is ... throughout the poetry of this author, even when he leads us to the remotest wildernesses and the most desolate monuments of antiquity, a constant reference to the feelings of man in his social condition."[ ] the past, to the author of _kenilworth_, was only the far end of the present, and he believed that the most useful result of the study of history is a comprehension of the real quality of one's own period and a wisdom in the conduct of present day affairs.[ ] the favorite pursuits of scott's youth indicate that his characteristic taste showed itself early; indeed it is said that he retained his boyish traits more completely than most people do. we can trace much of his love of the past to the family traditions which made the adventurous life of his ancestors vividly real to him. the annals of the scotts were his earliest study, and he developed such an affection for his freebooting grandsires that in his manhood he confessed to an unconquerable liking for the robbers and captains of banditti of his romances, characters who could not be prevented from usurping the place of the heroes. "i was always a willing listener to tales of broil and battle and hubbub of every kind," he wrote in later life, "and now i look back upon it, i think what a godsend i must have been while a boy to the old trojans of , nay , who used to frequent my father's house, and who knew as little as i did for what market i was laying up the raw materials of their oft-told tales."[ ] what attracted him in his boyhood, and what continued to attract him, was the picturesque incident, the color of the past, the mere look of its varied activity. the philosophy of history was gradually revealed to him, however, and his generalizing faculty found congenial employment in tracing out the relation of men to movements, of national impulses to world history. but however much he might exercise his analytical powers, history was never abstract to him, nor did it require an effort for him to conjure up scenes of the past. an acquaintance with the stores of early literature served to give him the spirit of remote times as well as to feed his literary tastes. on this side he had an ample equipment for critical work, conditioned, of course, by the other qualities of his mind, which determined how the equipment should be used. that scott was not a dull digger in heaps of ancient lore was owing to his imaginative power,--the second of the qualities which we have distinguished as dominating his literary temperament. "i can see as many castles in the clouds as any man," he testified.[ ] a recent writer has said that scott had more than any other man that ever lived a sense of the romantic, and adds that his was that true romance which "lies not upon the outside of life, but absolutely in the centre of it."[ ] the situations and the very objects that he described have the power of stirring the romantic spirit in his readers because he was alive to the glamour surrounding anything which has for generations been connected with human thoughts and emotions. the subjectivity which was so prominent an element in the romanticism of shelley, keats, and byron, does not appear in scott's work. nor was his sense of the mystery of things so subtle as that of coleridge. but scott, rather than coleridge, was the interpreter to his age of the romantic spirit, for the ordinary person likes his wonders so tangible that he may know definitely the point at which they impinge upon his consciousness. in scott's work the point of contact is made clear: the author brings his atmosphere not from another world but from the past, and with all its strangeness it has no unearthly quality. in general the romance of his nature is rather taken for granted than insisted on, for there are the poems and the novels to bear witness to that side of his temperament; and the surprising thing is that such an author was a business man, a large landowner, an industrious lawyer.[ ] scott's imaginative sense, which clothed in fine fancies any incident or scene presented, however nakedly, to his view, accounts in part for his notorious tendency to overrate the work of other writers, especially those who wrote stories in any form. this explanation was hinted at by sir walter himself, and formulated by lockhart; it seems a fairly reasonable way of accounting for a trait that at first appears to indicate only a foolish excess of good-nature. this rich and active imagination, which scott brought to bear on everything he read, perhaps explains also his habit of paying little attention to carefully worked out details, and of laying almost exclusive emphasis upon main outlines. when he was writing his _life of napoleon_, he said in his _journal_: "better a superficial book which brings well and strikingly together the known and acknowledged facts, than a dull boring narrative, pausing to see further into a mill-stone at every moment than the nature of the mill-stone admits."[ ] probably his high gift of imagination made him a little impatient with the remoter reaches of the analytic faculties. any sustained exercise of the pure reason was outside his province, reasonable as he was in everyday affairs. he preferred to consider facts, and to theorize only so far as was necessary to establish comfortable relations between the facts,--never to the extent of trying to look into the center of a mill-stone. it was not unusual for him to make very acute observations in the spheres of ethics, economics, and psychology, and to use them in explaining any situation which might seem to require their assistance; but these remarks were brief and incidental, and bore a very definite relation to the concrete ideas they were meant to illustrate. scott was a business man as well as an antiquary and a poet. mr. palgrave thought lockhart went too far in creating the impression that scott could detach his mind from the world of imagination and apply its full force to practical affairs.[ ] yet the oversight of lands and accounts and of all ordinary matters was so congenial to him, and his practical activities were on the whole conducted with so much spirit and capability, that after emphasizing his preoccupation with the poetic aspects of the life of his ancestors, we must turn immediately about and lay stress upon his keen judgment in everyday affairs. to a school-boy poet he once wrote: "i would ... caution you against an enthusiasm which, while it argues an excellent disposition and a feeling heart, requires to be watched and restrained, though not repressed. it is apt, if too much indulged, to engender a fastidious contempt for the ordinary business of the world, and gradually to render us unfit for the exercise of the useful and domestic virtues which depend greatly upon our not exalting our feelings above the temper of well-ordered and well-educated society."[ ] he phrased the same matter differently when he said: "'i'd rather be a kitten and cry, mew!' than write the best poetry in the world on condition of laying aside common-sense in the ordinary transactions and business of the world."[ ] "he thought," said lockhart, "that to spend some fair portion of every day in any matter-of-fact occupation is good for the higher faculties themselves in the upshot."[ ] whether or not we consider this the ideal theory of life for a poet, we find it reasonable to suppose that a critic will be the better critic if he preserve some balance between matter-of-fact occupation and the exercise of his higher faculties. sir walter's maxim applies well to himself at least, and an analysis of his powers as a critic derives some light from it. the thing that is waiting to be said is of course that his criticism is distinguished by common-sense. whether common-sense should really predominate in criticism might perhaps be debated; the quality indicates, indeed, not only the excellence but also the limitations of his method. for example, scott was rather too much given to accepting popular favor as the test of merit in literary work, and though the clamorously eager reception of his own books was never able to raise his self-esteem to a very high pitch, it seems to have been the only thing that induced him to respect his powers in anything like an appreciative way.[ ] his instinct and his judgment agreed in urging him to avoid being a man of "mere theory,"[ ] and he sought always to test opinions by practical standards. more or less connected with his good sense are other qualities which also had their effect upon his critical work,--his cheerfulness, his sweet temper and human sympathy, his modesty, his humor, his independence of spirit, and his enthusiastic delight in literature. that his cheerfulness was a matter of temperament we cannot doubt, but it was also founded on principle. he had remarkable power of self-control.[ ] his opinion that it is a man's duty to live a happy life appears rather quaintly in the sermonizing with which he felt called upon to temper the admiration expressed in his articles on _childe harold_, and it is implicit in many of his biographical studies. his own amiability of course influenced all his work. satire he considered objectionable, "a woman's fault,"[ ] as he once called it; though he did not feel himself "altogether disqualified for it by nature."[ ] "i have refrained, as much as human frailty will permit, from all satirical composition,"[ ] he said. for satire he seems to have substituted that kind of "serious banter, a style hovering between affected gravity and satirical slyness," which has been pointed out as characteristic of him.[ ] washington irving noticed a similar tone in all his familiar conversations about local traditions and superstitions.[ ] he was really optimistic, except on some political questions. in his _lives of the novelists_ he shows that he thought manners and morals had improved in the previous hundred years; and none of his reviews exhibits the feeling so common among men of letters in all ages, that their own times are intellectually degenerate. it is true that he looked back to the days of blair, hume, adam smith, robertson, and ferguson, as the "golden days of edinburgh,"[ ] but those golden days were no farther away than his own boyhood, and he had felt the exhilaration of the stimulating society which he praised. one of his contemporaries spoke of scott's own works as throwing "a literary splendour over his native city";[ ] and george ticknor said of him, "he is indeed the lord of the ascendant now in edinburgh, and well deserves to be, for i look upon him to be quite as remarkable in intercourse and conversation, as he is in any of his writings, even in his novels."[ ] but he could hardly be expected to perceive the luster surrounding his own personality, and this one instance of regret for former days counts little against the abundant evidence that he thought the world was improving. yet of all his contemporaries he was probably the one who looked back at the past with the greatest interest. the impression made by the author of _waverley_ upon the mind of a young enthusiast of his own time is too delightful to pass over without quotation. "he has no eccentric sympathies or antipathies"; wrote j.l. adolphus, "no maudlin philanthropy or impertinent cynicism; no nondescript hobby-horse; and with all his matchless energy and originality of mind, he is content to admire popular books, and enjoy popular pleasures; to cherish those opinions which experience has sanctioned; to reverence those institutions which antiquity has hallowed; and to enjoy, admire, cherish, and reverence all these with the same plainness, simplicity, and sincerity as our ancestors did of old."[ ] by temperament, then, scott was enthusiastic over the past and cheerful in regard to his own day; he was imaginative, practical, genial; and these traits must be taken into account in judging his critical writings. these and other qualities may be deduced from the most superficial study of his creative work. the mere bulk of that work bears witness to two things: first that scott was primarily a creative writer; again, that he was of those who write much rather than minutely. it is obvious that to attack details would be easy. and since he was only secondarily a critic, it is natural that his critical opinions should not have been erected into any system. but while they are essentially desultory, they are the ideas of a man whose information and enthusiasm extended through a wide range of studies; and they are rendered impressive by the abundance, variety, and energy, which mark them as characteristic of scott. chapter iii scott's work as student and editor in the field of literary history the mediaeval period _minstrelsy of the scottish border_ scott's early interest in ballads--casual origin of the _minstrelsy_--importance of the book in scott's career--plan of the book--mediaeval scholarship of scott's time--his theory as to the origin of ballads and their deterioration--his attitude toward the work of previous editors--his method of forming texts--kinds of changes he made--his qualifications for emending old poetry--modern imitations of the ballad included in the _minstrelsy_--remarks on the ballad style--impossibility of a scientific treatment of folk-poetry in scott's time--real importance of the _minstrelsy_. we think of the _border minstrelsy_ as the first work which resulted from the preparation of scott's whole youth, between the days when he insisted on shouting the lines of _hardyknute_ into the ears of the irate clergyman making a parish call, and the time when he and his equally ardent friends gathered their ballads from the lips of old women among the hills. but we have seen that the inspiration for his first attempts at writing poetry came only indirectly from the ballads of his own country. we learn from the introduction to the third part of the _minstrelsy_ that some of the young men of scott's circle in edinburgh were stimulated by what the novelist, henry mackenzie, told them of the beauties of german literature, to form a class for the study of that language. this was when scott was twenty-one, but it was still four years before he found himself writing those translations which mark the sufficiently modest beginning of his literary career. his enthusiasm for german literature was not at first tempered by any critical discrimination, if we may judge from the opinions of one or two of his friends who labored to point out to him the extravagance and false sentiment which he was too ready to admire along with the real genius of some of his models.[ ] apparently their efforts were useful, for in a review written in we find scott, in a remark on bürger, referring to "the taste for outrageous sensibility, which disgraces most german poetry."[ ] his special interest in the germans was an early mood which seems not to have returned. after the process of translation had discovered to him his verse-making faculty, he naturally passed on to the writing of original poems, and circumstances of a half accidental sort determined that the scottish ballads which he had always loved should absorb his attention for the next two or three years. the publication of a book of ballads was first suggested by scott as an opportunity for his friend ballantyne to exhibit his skill as a printer and so increase his business. "i have been for years collecting old border ballads," scott remarked, "and i think i could with little trouble put together such a selection from them as might make a neat little volume to sell for four or five shillings."[ ] from this casual proposition resulted _the minstrelsy of the scottish border_, published in three volumes in - and often revised and reissued during the editor's lifetime. this book and the prefaces to his own novels are likely to be thought of first when scott is spoken of as a critic. the connection between the _minstrelsy_ and the novels has often been pointed out, ever since the day of the contemporary who, on reading the ballads with their introductions, exclaimed that in that book were the elements of a hundred historical romances.[ ] the interest of the earlier work is undoubtedly multiplied by the associations in the light of which we read it--associations connected with the editor's whole experience as an author, from the _lay of the last minstrel_ to _castle dangerous_. important as the _minstrelsy_ is from the point of view of literary criticism, the material of its introductions is chiefly historical. the introduction in the original edition gives an account of life on the border in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with the outlines of many of the events that stimulated ballad-making, and an analysis of the temper of the marchmen among whom this kind of poetry flourished; then by special introductions and notes to the poems an attempt is made to explain both the incidents on which they seem to have been founded, and parallel cases that appear in tradition or record. some enthusiastic comment is included, of the kind that was so natural to scott, on the effect of ballad poetry upon a spirited and warlike people. the writer continues: "but it is not the editor's present intention to enter upon a history of border poetry; a subject of great difficulty, and which the extent of his information does not as yet permit him to engage in." it was, in fact, nearly thirty years later[ ] that scott wrote the _remarks on popular poetry_ which since that date have formed an introduction to the book, as well as the essay, _on imitations of the ancient ballad_, which at present precedes the third part. the more purely literary side of the editor's duty--leaving out of account the modern poems written by scott and others--was exhibited chiefly in the construction of texts, a matter of which i shall speak later, after considering his views of the origin and character of folk-poetry in general. but first we may recall the fact that scott was following a fairly well established vogue in giving scholarly attention to ancient popular poetry. a revival of interest in the study of mediaeval literature had been stimulated in england by the publication of percy's _reliques_ in and warton's _history of english poetry_ in . in there were enough well-known antiquaries to keep scott from being in any sense lonely. among them joseph ritson[ ] was the most learned, but he was crotchety in the extreme; and while his notions as to research were in advance of his time, his controversial style resembled that of the seventeenth century. george ellis,[ ] on the other hand, was distinguished by an eighteenth-century urbanity, and his combination of learning and good taste fitted him to influence a broader public than that of specialists. at the same time he was a delightful and stimulating friend to other scholars. southey was becoming known as an authority on the history and literature of the spanish peninsula. a review in the _quarterly_ a dozen years later mentions these three,--ellis, scott, and southey,--as "good men and true" to serve as guides in the remote realms of literature.[ ] ellis's friend, john hookham frere, had great abilities but was an incurable dillettante. scott particularly admired a middle-english version of _the battle of brunanburgh_ which frere wrote in his school-boy days, and considered him an authoritative critic of mediaeval english poetry. robert surtees[ ] and francis douce[ ] were antiquaries of some importance, and both, like all the others named, were friends of scott. mr. herford calls this period a day of "specimens" and extracts: "mediaeval romance was studied in ellis's _specimens_," he says, "the elizabethan drama in lamb's, literary history at large in d'israeli's gently garrulous compilations of its 'quarrels,' 'amenities,' 'calamities,' and 'curiosities.'"[ ] but the scholarship of the time on the whole is worthy of respect. in the case of ballads and romances notable work had been done before scott entered the field,[ ] and he and his contemporaries were carrying out the promise of the half century before them--continuing the work that percy and warton had begun. among the problems connected with ballad study, that which arises first is naturally the question of origins. scott made no attempt to formulate a theory different in any main element from that which was held by his predecessors. he agreed with percy that ballads were composed and sung by minstrels, and based his discussion on the materials brought forward by percy and ritson for use in their great controversy.[ ] ritson himself never doubted that ballads were composed and sung by individual authors, though he might refuse to call them minstrels. the idea of communal authorship, which jacob grimm was to suggest only half a dozen years after the first edition of the _minstrelsy_, would doubtless have been rejected by scott, even if he had considered it. but we have no evidence that he did so. probably he did not, as he never felt the need of a new theory.[ ] scott's opinion in regard to the transmission of ballads followed naturally from his theory of their origin. his aristocratic instincts perhaps helped to determine his belief that ballads were composed by gifted minstrels, and that they had deteriorated in the process of being handed down by recitation. he called tradition "a sort of perverted alchymy which converts gold into lead." "all that is abstractedly poetical," he said, "all that is above the comprehension of the merest peasant, is apt to escape in frequent repetition; and the _lacunae_ thus created are filled up either by lines from other ditties or from the mother wit of the reciter or singer. the injury, in either case, is obvious and irreparable."[ ] from this point of view scott considered that the ballads were only getting their rights when a skilful hand gave them such a retouching as should enable them to appear in something of what he called their original vigor.[ ] we may learn what qualities he considered necessary for an editor in this field, from the latter part of his _remarks on popular poetry_, in which he discusses previous attempts to collect english and scottish ballads. of percy he speaks in the highest terms, here and elsewhere. we have seen that he felt a strong sympathy with percy's desire to dress up the ballads and make them as attractive to the public as their intrinsic charms render them to their friends. he did not of course realize the extent to which the bishop reworked his materials, as the publication of the folio manuscript has since revealed it, and ritson's captious remarks on the subject were naturally discounted on the score of their ill-temper. but it is not to be doubted that ritson had an appreciable effect on scott's attitude, by stirring him up to some comprehension of the things that might be said in favor even of dull accuracy. ritson's collections are cited in their place, with a tribute to the extreme fidelity of their editor. it is a pity that this accurate scholar could not have had a sufficient amount of literary taste, to say nothing of good manners, to inspire others with a fuller trust in his method. scott expresses impatience with him for seeming to prefer the less effective text in many instances, "as if a poem was not more likely to be deteriorated than improved by passing through the mouths of many reciters."[ ] he admitted, however, that it was not in his own period necessary to rework the ballads as much as bishop percy had done, since the _reliques_ had already created an audience for popular poetry. his purpose evidently was to steer a middle course between such graceful but sophisticated versions as were given in the _reliques_, and the exact transcript of everything to be gathered from tradition, whether interesting or not, that was attempted by ritson. in his later revisions he gave way more than at first to his natural impulse in favor of the added graces which he could supply.[ ] it is easy to see how his own contributions of word and phrase might slip in, since his avowed method was to collate the different texts secured from manuscripts or recitation or both, and so to give what to his mind was the worthiest version. believing that the ballads had been composed by men not unlike himself, he assumed, in the manner well known to classical text-critics, that his familiarity with the conditions of the ancient social order gave him some license for changing here and there a word or a line. in determining which stanzas or lines to choose, when choice was possible, he was guided by his antiquarian knowledge and by the general principle of selecting the most poetic rendering among those at his command. this was his way of showing his respect for the minstrel bards of whom he was fond of considering himself a successor. so far it is perfectly easy to take his point of view. but it is more difficult to reconcile his practice with his professions. we find this declaration in the forefront of the book: "no liberties have been taken either with the recited or written copies of these ballads, farther than that, where they disagreed, which is by no means unusual, the editor, in justice to the author, has uniformly preserved what seemed to him the best or most poetical rendering of the passage.... some arrangement was also occasionally necessary to recover the rhyme, which was often, by the ignorance of the reciters, transposed or thrown into the middle of the line. with these freedoms, which were essentially necessary to remove obvious corruptions and fit the ballads for the press, the editor presents them to the public, under the complete assurance that they carry with them the most indisputable marks of their authenticity."[ ] in the face of this fair announcement we are surprised, to say the least, at the number of lines and stanzas which scholars have discovered to be of scott's own composition.[ ] occasionally his notes give some slight indication of his method of treatment, as for instance this, on _the dowie dens of yarrow_: "the editor found it easy to collect a variety of copies; but very difficult indeed to select from them such a collated edition as might in any degree suit the taste of 'these more light and giddy-paced times.'" notes on some others of the ballads say that "a few conjectural emendations have been found necessary," but no one of these remarks would seem really ingenuous in a modern scholar when we consider how far the "conjectural emendations" extended. moreover, changes were often made without the slightest clue in introduction or note.[ ] the case was complicated for scott by the poetical tastes of his assistants. leyden[ ] was apparently quite capable of taking down a ballad from recitation in such a way as to produce a more finished poem than one would expect a traditional ballad to be. and hogg,[ ] who supplied several ballads from the recitations of his mother and other old people, was probably still less strict. "sure no man," he is quoted as having said, "will think an old song the worse of being somewhat harmonious."[ ] yet it is easy to see that scott's friends might have acted differently if his own practice had favored absolute fidelity to the texts. a remark in scott's review of evans's _old ballads_ seems a pretty definite arraignment of his own procedure. "it may be asked by the severer antiquary of the present day, why an editor, thinking it necessary to introduce such alterations in order to bring forth a new, beautiful, and interesting sense from a meagre or corrupted original, did not in good faith to his readers acquaint them with the liberties he had taken and make them judge whether in so doing he transgressed his limits. we answer that unquestionably such would be the express duty of a modern editor, but such were not the rules of the service when dr. percy first opened the campaign."[ ] one wonders whether the "rules of the service" did not in scott's opinion occasionally permit a little wilful mystification. the case of _kinmont willie_ tempts one to such an explanation. besides the capital instance of his anonymity as regards the novels, scott several times seemed to amuse himself in perplexing the public. there was the case of the _bridal of triermain_, which he tried by means of various careful devices to pass off as the work of a friend. but perhaps the best example appears in connection with _the fortunes of nigel_. he first designed the material of that book for a series of "private letters" purporting to have been written in the reign of james i., but when he had finally complied with the advice of his friends and used it for a novel, he said to lockhart, "you were all quite right: if the letters had passed for genuine, they would have found favour only with a few musty antiquaries."[ ] this suggests comparison with the conduct of his friend robert surtees, who palmed off upon him three whole ballads of his own and got them inserted in the _minstrelsy_ as ancient, with a plausible tale concerning the circumstances of their recovery. surtees, one is interested to observe, never dared tell scott the truth, and scott always accepted the ballads as genuine--a lack of discernment rather compromising in an editor, though one may perhaps excuse him on the ground of his confidence in his brother antiquary.[ ] in one direction scott seems to have been more conscientious than we might be inclined to suppose after seeing the discrepancy between the standard of exactness that his own statements lead us to expect and the results that actually appear. i believe that he intended to preserve the manuscript texts just as he received them, and that he would have wished to have them given to the public when the public was prepared to want them. to support this theory we have first the fact that most of his own emendations have been traced by means of the manuscripts which he used.[ ] it is significant that in speaking of a poet who had altered a manuscript to suit a revised reading he grew indignant over that fault far more than over the mere change in the published version. _the raid of the reidswire_, he said, "first appeared in allan ramsay's _evergreen_, but some liberties have been taken by him in transcribing it; and, what is altogether unpardonable, the manuscript, which is itself rather inaccurate, has been interpolated to favour his readings; of which there remain obvious marks."[ ] scott said also that the time had come for the publication of percy's folio manuscript; though we must believe that he would not have wished to see the manuscript published until the ballads had become familiar to the world in what he considered a beautified form. the changes scott made were usually in style rather than in substance. often he merely substituted an archaic word for a modern one; but often whole lines and longer passages offered temptations which the poet in him could not resist, and he "improved" lavishly. for example, we have his note on _earl richard_--"the best verses are here selected from both copies, and some trivial alterations have been adopted from tradition,"--with the comment by mr. henderson--"the emendations of scott are so many, and the majority relate so entirely to style, that no mere tradition could have supplied them."[ ] his versions are in general characterized by a smoothness and precision of meter which to the student of ballads is very suspicious. but he seems occasionally to have altered or supplied incidents as well as phrases. the historical event which furnished the purpose for the expedition of sir patrick spens seems to have been introduced into the ballad by scott, and mr. henderson thinks that "when the deeds of his ancestors were concerned it was impossible for him to resist the temptation to employ some of his own minstrel art on their behalf."[ ] certainly scott's qualifications for evolving true poetry out of the crude fragments that sometimes served as a basis formed a very unusual combination when they were united with his knowledge of early history and literature. he had such confidence in his own powers in this direction that he at one time intended to write a series of imitations of scottish poets of different periods, from thomas the rhymer down, and thus to exhibit changes in language as well as variations in literary style.[ ] he evidently thought that the ballads as they appeared in the _minstrelsy_ were truer to their originals than were the copies he was able to procure from recitation. lockhart gives him precisely the kind of praise he would have desired, in saying, "from among a hundred corruptions he seized with instinctive tact the primitive diction and imagery."[ ] it is evident that scott's public did not wish him to be more careful than he was in discriminating between new and old matter. one of his moments of strict veracity seems even to have occasioned some annoyance to the writer of the _edinburgh_ article, who apparently preferred to believe in the antiquity of _the flowers of the forest_ rather than to learn that "the most positive evidence" proved its modern origin. the editor's introduction to the poem seems perfectly clear; he names his authority and quotes two verses which are ancient;[ ] but the reviewer says with a perverse irritability: "mr. scott would have done well to tell us how much he deems ancient, and to give us the 'positive evidence' that convinced him _the whole_ was not so."[ ] this review was, however, for the most part favorable. the fact that scott included modern imitations of the ballad in his book is another indication that his attitude was like that of his predecessors.[ ] doubtless these helped the _minstrelsy_ to sell, but a more modern taste would choose to put them in a place by themselves, not in a collection of old ballads. an essay on _imitations of the ancient ballad_ was written, as were the _remarks on popular poetry_, for the edition. it is chiefly interesting for its autobiographical matter, though it also contains criticisms of burns and other writers of ballad poetry--"a species of literary labour which the author has himself pursued with some success."[ ] scott's statement that the ballad style was very popular at the time he began to write, and that he followed the prevailing fashion, was one of many examples of his modesty, taken in connection with the remark in another part of the essay to the effect that this style "had much to recommend it, especially as it presented considerable facilities to those who wished at as little exertion or trouble as possible to attain for themselves a certain degree of literary reputation." to complete the comparison, however, we need an observation found in one of scott's reviews, on the spurious ballad poetry, full of false sentiment, sometimes written in the eighteenth century. "it is the very last refuge of those who can do nothing better in the shape of verse; and a man of genius should disdain to invade the province of these dawdling rhymers."[ ] scott's criticism of ballad style probably suffered from his interest in modern imitations of ballads. perhaps also the real quality of ancient popular poetry was a little obscured for him by his belief that it was written by professional or semi-professional poets. if he wrote _kinmont willie_, he succeeded in catching the right tone better than anyone since him has been able to do, but even in this poem there are turns of phrase that remind one of the _lay of the last minstrel_ rather than of the true folk-song.[ ] after his first attempts at versifying he received from william taylor, of norwich, who had made an earlier translation of bürger's _lenore_, a letter of hearty praise intermingled with very sensible remarks about the tendency in some parts of scott's _chase_ toward too great elaboration.[ ] scott's answer was as follows: "i do not ... think quite so severely of the darwinian style, as to deem it utterly inconsistent with the ballad, which, at least to judge from the examples left us by antiquity, admits in some cases of a considerable degree of decoration. still, however, i do most sincerely agree with you, that this may be very easily overdone, and i am far from asserting that this may not be in some degree my own case; but there is scarcely so nice a line to distinguish, as that which divides true simplicity from flatness and _sternholdianism_ (if i may be allowed to coin the word), and therefore it is not surprising, that in endeavouring to avoid the latter, so young and inexperienced a rhymer as myself should sometimes have deviated also from the former."[ ] this was scott's earliest stage as a man of letters, and he evidently learned more about ballads later. but there appears in much of his criticism on the subject a limitation which may be assigned partly to his time, and partly, no doubt, to the fact that he was a poet and could not forget all the sophistications of his art. the true nature of ballad poetry could hardly be understood until scholars had investigated the structure of primitive society in a way that scott's contemporaries were not at all prepared to do. even scott, with all his intelligent interest in bygone institutions and modes of expression, could hardly have foreseen the anthropological researches which the problem of literary origins has since demanded. we do not find, then, that scott's work on ballads was marked by any special originality in point of view or method. _the minstrelsy of the scottish border_ was a notable book because it did better what other men had tried to do, and especially because of the charm and effectiveness of its historical comment. it was more trustworthy than percy's collection and more graceful than ritson's; it was richer than other books of the kind in what people cared to have when they wanted ballads, and yet was not, for its time, over-sophisticated. scott's conclusions cannot now be accepted without question, but the illustrations with which he sets them forth and the wide reading and sincere love of folk-poetry which evidently lie behind them produce a pleasant effect of ripe and reasonable judgment. the admirable qualities of the book were at once recognized by competent critics, and it will always be studied with enthusiasm by scholars as well as by the uncritical lover of ballads. _studies in the romances_ scott's theory as to the connection between ballads and romances--his early fondness for romances--his acquaintance with romance languages--his work on the _sir tristrem_--value of his edition--special quality of scott's interest in the middle ages--general theories expressed in the body of his work on romances--his type of scholarship. ballads and romances are so closely related that scott's early and lasting interest in the one form naturally grew out of his interest in the other. he held the theory that "the romantic ballads of later times are for the most part abridgments of the ancient metrical romances, narrated in a smoother stanza and more modern language."[ ] it is not surprising, then, that a considerable body of his critical work has to do with the subject of mediaeval romance. throughout his boyhood scott read all the fairy tales, eastern stories, and romances of knight-errantry that fell in his way. when he was about thirteen, he and a young friend used to spend hours reading together such authors as spenser, ariosto, and boiardo.[ ] he remembered the poems so well that weeks or months afterwards he could repeat whole pages that had particularly impressed him. somewhat later the two boys improvised similar stories to recite to each other, scott being the one who proposed the plan and the more successful in carrying it out. with this same friend he studied italian and began to read the italian poets in the original. in his autobiography he says:[ ] "i had previously renewed and extended my knowledge of the french language, from the same principle of romantic research. tressan's romances, the bibliothèque bleue, and bibliothèque de romans, were already familiar to me, and i now acquired similar intimacy with the works of dante, boiardo, pulci, and other eminent italian authors." writing some years later he remarked: "i was once the most enormous devourer of the italian romantic poetry, which indeed is the only poetry of their country which i ever had much patience for; for after all that has been said of petrarch and his school, i am always tempted to exclaim like honest christopher sly, 'marvellous good matter, would it were done.' but with charlemagne and his paladins i could dwell forever."[ ] scott learned languages easily, and he read spanish with about as much facility as italian. don quixote seems often to be the guide with whom he chooses to traverse the fields of romance.[ ] in scott's boyhood one of his teachers noticed that he could follow and enjoy the meaning of what he read in latin better than many of his school-fellows who knew more about the language, and it was the same all through his life--he got what he wanted from foreign literatures with very little trouble. scott constantly refers to the work of percy, warton, tressan,[ ] ritson, and ellis, in the study of ancient romances, but in editing _sir tristrem_ he made one part of the field his own, and became the authority whom he felt obliged to quote in the essay on romance. thomas the rhymer of erceldoune was at first an object of interest to scott because of the ballad of _true thomas_ and the traditions concerning him that floated about the countryside. the "rhymer's glen" was afterwards a cherished possession of scott's own on the abbotsford estate. in the advocates' library at edinburgh, of which scott was in appointed a curator, was an important manuscript that contained among other metrical romances one professing to be a copy of that written by thomas of erceldoune on sir tristrem. from a careful piecing together of evidence furnished by this poem and by robert of brunne, with the assistance of certain legal documents which supplied dates, scott built up about the old poet a theory that he elaborated in his edition of _sir tristrem_, published in , and that continued to interest him vividly as long as he lived. it reappears in many of his critical writings[ ] and also in the novels. in the _bride of lammermoor_ ravenswood goes to his death in compliance with the prophecy of thomas quoted by the superstitious caleb balderstone. and in _castle dangerous_ bertram, who is unconvincing perhaps because he is endowed with the literary and antiquarian tastes of a walter scott himself, is actuated by an irrepressible desire to discover works of the rhymer. scott's edition of _sir tristrem_ gives--besides the text, introduction, and notes--a short conclusion written by himself in imitation of the original poet's style. much of his theory has fallen. he considered this _sir tristrem_ to be the first of the written versions of that story, a supposition that was not long tenable. the poem is now known to be based upon a french original, and many scholars think the name erceldoune was arbitrarily inserted by the english translator; though mr. mcneill, the latest editor, thinks there is a "reasonable probability" in favor of scott's opinion that the author was the historic thomas, who flourished in the thirteenth century. it is important, however, that scott's scholarship in the matter passed muster at that time with such men as ellis, who wrote the review in the _edinburgh_, in which he said, "upon the whole we are much disposed to adopt the general inferences drawn by mr. scott from his authorities, and have great pleasure in bearing testimony to the very uncommon diligence which he has evinced in collecting curious materials, and to the taste and sagacity with which he has employed them.... with regard to the notes, they contain an almost infinite variety of curious information, which had been hitherto unknown or unnoticed."[ ] john hookham frere said, as quoted in a letter by ellis, "i consider _sir tristrem_ as by far the most interesting work that has as yet been published on the subject of our earliest poets."[ ] scott's opinions were in thought to be of sufficient importance, either from their own merits or on account of his later fame, to call forth a dissertation appended to the edition of warton's _history of english poetry_ published in that year. the first edition of the text swarms with errors, according to kölbing,[ ] a recent editor of the romance, and later editions are still very inaccurate.[ ] it could hardly be expected that a man with scott's habits of mind would edit a text accurately. but no one of that period was competent to construct a text that would seem satisfactory now. the study of english philology was not sufficiently developed in that direction, nor did scholars appreciate either the difficulties or the requirements of text-criticism. it is not to be wondered at that scott failed, in this instance as well as afterwards in the case of the text of dryden, to give a version that would stand the minute scrutiny of later scholarship. his sympathies were rather with the scholar who opens the store of old poetry to the public, than with him who uses his erudition simply for the benefit of erudite people. the diction of the middle ages was interesting to him only as it reflected the customs and emotions of its period. he used the romances as authorities on ancient manners. the _chronicles_ of froissart, because they give "a knowledge of mankind,"[ ] were almost as much a hobby with him as thomas the rhymer, and in this case also he endows characters in his novels with his own fondness for the ancient writer.[ ] the fruit of scott's acquaintance with froissart appears prominently in his essay on _chivalry_ and in various introductions to ballads in the _minstrelsy_, as well as in the novels of chivalry. scott at one time proposed to publish an edition of malory, but abandoned the project on learning that southey had the same thing in mind.[ ] the first periodical review scott ever published was on the subject of the _amadis de gaul_, as translated by southey and by rose. the article is long and very carefully constructed, and expresses many ideas on the subject of the mediaeval romance in general that reappear again and again, particularly in the essay on _romance_ written in for the _encyclopædia britannica_. among these general ideas that found frequent expression in his critical writings, one which in the light of his creative work becomes particularly interesting to us is his judgment on the distinctions between metrical and prose romances. he always preferred the poems, though he was so interested in the prose stories that he talked about them with much enthusiasm, and it sometimes seems as if he liked best the kind he happened to be analyzing at the moment. other matters that necessarily presented themselves when he was treating the subject of romance were the problem of the sources of narrative material, especially the perplexed question concerning the development of the arthurian cycle, and the problem, already discussed in connection with ballads, concerning the character of minstrels. the minstrels reappear throughout scott's studies in mediaeval literature, and were perhaps more interesting to him than any other part of the subject. though, as we have seen, he formulated a compromise between the opposing opinions of percy and ritson, no one who reads the description of the last minstrel can doubt what was the picture that he preferred to carry in his mind. his ideas on the subject of the origin and diffusion of narrative material were those of the sensible man trying to look at the matter in a reasonable way. here again he adopted an attitude of compromise, in that he admitted the partial truth of various theories which he considered erroneous only in so far as any one of them was stretched beyond its proper compass. "romance," he said, "was like a compound metal, derived from various mines, and in the different specimens of which one metal or other was alternately predominant."[ ] on the subject of the arthurian cycle, the origin of which has never ceased to be matter for debate, he held essentially the opinions that the highest french authority has adopted that celtic traditions were the foundation, and that the metrical romances preceded those in prose.[ ] the important offices of french poets in giving form to the story he underestimated. when he said, "it is now completely proved, that the earliest and best french romances were composed for the meridian of the english court,"[ ] he fell into the error that has not always been avoided by scholars who have since written on the subject, of feeling certitude about a proposition in which there is no certainty. scott's work on romances, though it does not always rise above commonplaceness, escapes the perfunctory quality of hack writing by virtue of his keen interest in the subject. he continued to like this prosaic kind of literary task even while he was writing novels with the most wonderful facility. we may judge not only by the fact that he continued to write reviews at intervals throughout his life, but by an explicit reference in his _journal_: "i toiled manfully at the review till two o'clock, commencing at seven. i fear it will be uninteresting, but i like the muddling work of antiquities, and besides wish to record my sentiments with regard to the gothic question."[ ] it is evident that scott did not himself find the "muddling work of antiquities" dull, because he realized, emotionally as well as intellectually, the life of past times. this led him to form broader views than the ordinary student constructs out of his knowledge of special facts. an admirable illustration of this characteristic occurs in the essay on romance, at the point where scott is discussing the social position of the minstrels, in the light of what percy and ritson had said on the subject. he goes on: "in fact, neither of these excellent antiquaries has cast a general or philosophic glance on the necessary condition of a set of men, who were by profession the instruments of the pleasure of others during a period of society such as was presented in the middle ages." there follows a detailed and very interesting account of what the writer's own "philosophic glance" leads him to believe. the method is useful but dangerous; in the same essay occurs an amusing example of what philosophy may do when it is given free rein. within two pages appear these conflicting statements: "the metrical romances, though in some instances sent to the press, were not very fit to be published in this form. the dull amplifications, which passed well enough in the course of a half-heard recitation, became intolerable when subjected to the eye." "the metrical romances in some instances indeed ran to great length, but were much exceeded in that particular by the folios which were written on the same or similar topics by their prose successors. probably the latter judiciously reflected that a book which addresses itself only to the eyes may be laid aside when it becomes tiresome to the reader; whereas it may not always have been so easy to stop the minstrel in the full career of his metrical declamation." flaws like this may be picked in the details of scott's method, just as we may sometimes find fault with the lapses in his mediaeval scholarship. we do him no injustice when we say that aside from certain aspects of his work on the ballads and _sir tristrem_, his achievement was that of a popularizer of learning. but if he lacked some of the authority of erudition, he escaped also the induration of pedantry. in writing of remote and dimly known periods, critics are perhaps most apt to show their defects of temper, and scott often commented on the acerbity of spirit which such studies seem to induce. "antiquaries," he said, "are apt to be both positive and polemical upon the very points which are least susceptible of proof, and which are least valuable if the truth could be ascertained; and which therefore we would gladly have seen handled with more diffidence and better temper in proportion to their uncertainty."[ ] of ritson he says many times in one form or another that his "severe accuracy was connected with an unhappy eagerness and irritability of temper." scott rode his own hobbies with an expansive cheerfulness that did not at all hinder them from being essentially serious. _other studies in mediaeval literature_ scott's attitude on the ossianic controversy--his slight acquaintance with other northern literatures--anglo-saxon scholarship of the time--character of his familiarity with middle-english poetry--his opinions in regard to chaucer--general importance of scott's work on mediaeval literature. part of scott's critical work on mediaeval literature falls outside the limits of the two divisions we have been considering--those of ballad and romance. he knew comparatively little about the early poetry of the northern nations, but at some points his knowledge of scottish literature made the transition fairly easy to the literature of other teutonic peoples. but he was especially bound to be interested in the gaelic, for a scotsman of his day could hardly avoid forming an opinion in regard to the ossianic controversy then raging with what scott thought must be its final violence. he did not understand the gaelic language,[ ] but he had a vivid interest in the highlanders. the picturesque quality of their customs made it natural enough for him to use them in his novels, and by the "sheer force of genius," says mr. palgrave, who considers this scott's greatest achievement, "he united the sympathies of two hostile races."[ ] as early as scott had written for the speculative society an essay on the authenticity of ossian's poems, and one of his articles for the _edinburgh review_ in was on the same subject, occasioned by a couple of important documents which supported opposite sides, and which, he said, set the question finally at issue. this article represents scott the critic in a typical attitude. the material was almost altogether furnished in the works which he was surveying.[ ] his task was to distinguish the essential points of the problem, to state them plainly, and to weigh the evidence on each side. in this he shows notable clearness of thought, and also, throughout the rather long treatment of a complicated subject, great lucidity in arrangement and statement. he was led by this study to change the opinion which he had held in common with most of his countrymen, and to adopt the belief that the poems were essentially creations of macpherson, with only the names and some parts of the story adopted from the gaelic.[ ] other references to ossian occur in scott's writings, and it is evident in this case, as in many others, that an investigation of the matter in his early career, whether from original or from secondary sources, gave him material for allusion and comment throughout his life. for, as we have constant occasion to remark in studying scott, with a very definite grasp of concrete fact he combined a vigorous generalizing power, and all the parts of his knowledge were actively related. he seems to have made little preparation for some of his most interesting reviews, but to have utilized in them the store gathered in his mind for other purposes. of the northern teutonic languages scott had slight knowledge, though he was always interested in the northern literatures. in a review of the _poems of william herbert_, of which the part most interesting to the reviewer consisted of translations from the icelandic, scott says: "we do not pretend any great knowledge of norse; but we have so far traced the 'runic rhyme' as to be sensible how much more easy it is to give a just translation of that poetry into english than into latin." in the same review we find him saying, after a slight discussion of the style of scaldic poetry, "the other translations are generally less interesting than those from the icelandic. there is, however, one poem from the danish, which i transcribe as an instance how very clearly the ancient popular ballad of that country corresponds with our own." so we see him drawing from all sources fuel for his favorite fire--the study of ballads. very characteristically also scott suggests that the author should extend his researches to the popular poetry of scandinavia, "which we cannot help thinking is the real source of many of the tales of our minstrels."[ ] it seems probable that scott's acquaintance with northern literatures came partly through his ill-fated amanuensis, henry weber.[ ] his acknowledgement in the introduction to _sir tristrem_ would indicate this, taken together with other references by scott to weber's attainments. scott could hardly be called a student of anglo-saxon, though he was perhaps able to read the language. his remarks on the subject may, however, mean simply that he was familiar with early middle english.[ ] in his essay on romance he referred to sharon turner's account of the story of beowulf, but called the poem caedmon, and made no correction when he added the later footnote in regard to conybeare's fuller and more interesting analysis published in .[ ] the researches of these men indicate the state of anglo-saxon scholarship in england. sharon turner's very inaccurate description of _beowulf_ was published in . danish scholars made the first translations of the poem, but no one could give a really scholarly text or translation until the year after scott died, when the first edition by j.m. kemble appeared. there were students of the language, however, who were doing good work in feeling their way toward a comprehension of its special qualities. one of these was george ellis. in his _specimens_ he published examples of anglo-saxon and middle-english poetry, and his information was helpful in enlarging scott's outlook. scott's own knowledge of anglo-saxon literature did not amount to enough to be of importance by itself, but it served perhaps to fortify the basis of his generalizations about all early poetry. a review of the _life and works of chatterton_ gave scott an opportunity to discuss the characteristics of middle-english poetry, but his general thesis, that the rowley poems exhibit graces and refinements which are in marked contrast to the tenuity of idea and tautology of expression found in genuine works of the period, is supported by an argument which seems to be based on a characterization of the romances rather than on a close acquaintance with other middle-english poetry. we notice a similar quality in what scott says elsewhere concerning frere's translation into chaucerian english of the _battle of brunanburgh_: "this appears to us an exquisite imitation of the antiquated english poetry, not depending on an accumulation of hard words like the language of rowley, which in everything else is refined and harmonious poetry, nor upon an agglomeration of consonants in the orthography, the resource of later and more contemptible forgers, but upon the style itself, upon its alternate strength and weakness, now nervous and concise, now diffuse and eked out by the feeble aid of expletives."[ ] of middle-english poets other than chaucer and the author or translator of _sir tristrem_, laurence minot was the one to whom scott alluded most frequently, doubtless because in ritson's edition of minot that poet had become more accessible than most of his contemporaries. whatever detailed work scott did on the poetry of this period was chiefly in connection with _sir tristrem_, which has naturally been considered in relation with his other studies in romances. scott's familiarity with chaucer appears in his numerous quotations from that poet, but usually the passages are cited to illustrate mediaeval manners rather than for any specifically literary purpose. yet there are chaucer enthusiasts among the characters of _woodstock_ and _peveril of the peak_.[ ] chaucer's fame was well enough established so that scott seems on the whole to have taken his merit for granted, and not to have said much about it except in casual references.[ ] among general readers he must have been comparatively little known, however, notwithstanding the respect paid him by scholars. in we find scott writing to ellis that his scheme for editing a collection of the british poets had fallen through, for, he said, "my plan was greatly too liberal to stand the least chance of being adopted by the trade at large, as i wished them to begin with chaucer. the fact is, i never expected they would agree to it."[ ] scott's review of godwin's _life of chaucer_, one of the best known of his periodical essays, is altogether concerned with the manner in which godwin did his work, and so exhibits scott's ideas on the subject of biography and his methods of reviewing rather than his attitude towards chaucer's poetry. his most definite remarks concerning chaucer are to be found in his comments upon dryden's _fables_, as for example: "the knight's tale, whether we consider chaucer's original poem, or the spirited and animated version of dryden, is one of the best pieces of composition in our language";[ ] "of all chaucer's multifarious powers, none is more wonderful than the humour with which he touched upon natural frailty, and the truth with which he describes the inward feelings of the human heart."[ ] yet he once called _troilus and criseyde_ "a somewhat dull poem."[ ] _the cock and the fox_, on the other hand, he speaks of as "a poem which, in grave ironical narrative, liveliness of illustration, and happiness of humorous description, yields to none that ever was written."[ ] in estimating the importance of scott's studies on any one period we have to think of them as part of a greater whole. the wide range of his investigations would evidently make it impossible to expect a complete treatment of all the subjects he might choose to discuss, and we have found, in fact, that his criticism of mediaeval literature led to systematic results in no other lines than those of the ballad and the romance. but these were large and important matters. moreover, to all that he wrote in connection with the middle ages there attaches a special interest; for with that work he made his real start in literature; and it reflected the peculiarly delightful vein in his own nature which was constant from youth to age, and which gave to his poems and novels some of their most brilliant qualities.[ ] the drama scott's fondness for the drama and his acquaintance with actors--his ideas about plot structure--his own dramatic experiments--his opinion of the theaters of his day--his knowledge of english dramatic literature--familiarity with elizabethan plays shown in his novels--his essay on the drama--ancient drama--french drama--dramatic unities--german drama--elizabethan drama--shakspere--ben jonson--dryden and other restoration dramatists--morality of theater-going--character of scott's interest in the drama. like most of his characteristics, scott's taste for the theater was exhibited in his childhood. we find him reverting, in a review written in ,[ ] to his rapturous emotions on the occasion of seeing his first play; and in the private theatricals which he and his brothers and sister performed in the family dining-room he was always the manager. in he was active in helping to bring out in edinburgh the _family legend_ of his friend joanna baillie.[ ] one of the actors on that occasion was daniel terry,[ ] who became an intimate friend of scott's. for terry scott wrote _the doom of devorgoil_, but the piece was not found suitable for presentation. several of the novels were more successfully dramatized by the same friend, so that we find the "author" humorously complaining in the "introductory epistle" to _the fortunes of nigel_, "i believe my muse would be _terry_fied into treading the stage even if i should write a sermon." among scott's friends were several other actors, particularly mrs. siddons and her brother john kemble, and the comedian charles mathews. in scott's review of _kelly's reminiscences and the life of kemble_ we find recorded many of the discriminations he was fond of making in regard to the talents of particular actors. in his childhood scott felt well qualified to take the part of richard iii., for he considered that his limp "would do well enough to represent the hump."[ ] after a similar fashion we find him commenting on the improbabilities of the tragedy of _douglas_: "but the spectator should, and indeed must, make considerable allowances if he expects to receive pleasure from the drama. he must get his mind, according to tony lumpkin's phrase, into 'a concatenation accordingly,'[ ] since he cannot reasonably expect that scenes of deep and complicated interest shall be placed before him, in close succession, without some force being put upon ordinary probability; and the question is not, how far you have sacrificed your judgment in order to accommodate the fiction, but rather, what is the degree of delight you have received in return."[ ] scott disclaimed any special knowledge of stage-craft. "i know as little about the division of a drama as the spinster about the division of a battle, to use iago's simile,"[ ] he once wrote to a friend. yet as a critic he had of course some general ideas about the making of plays, without having worked out any subtle theories on the subject. in criticising a play by allan cunningham, who had asked for his judgment on it, he remarked first that the plot was ill-combined. "if the mind can be kept upon one unbroken course of interest, the effect even in perusal is more gratifying. i have always considered this as the great secret in dramatic poetry, and conceive it one of the most difficult exercises of the invention possible, to conduct a story through five acts, developing it gradually in every scene, so as to keep up the attention, yet never till the very conclusion permitting the nature of the catastrophe to become visible,--and all the while to accompany this by the necessary delineation of character and beauty of language."[ ] and again he said to the same person, "i hope you will make another dramatic attempt; and in that case i would strongly recommend that you should previously make a model or skeleton of your incidents, dividing them regularly into scenes and acts, so as to insure the dependence of one circumstance upon another, and the simplicity and union of your whole story."[ ] here we find scott giving advice which by his own admission he was not himself able to follow in the composition of fiction. "i never could lay down a plan, or having laid it down i never could adhere to it," he wrote in his journal[ ]. and the "author" in the introductory epistle to _nigel_ remarks, "it may pass for one good reason for not writing a play, that i cannot form a plot." the few experiments that he made he did not seem to regard seriously at any time, though he was rather favorably impressed on rereading the _doom of devorgoil_ after it had lain unused for several years.[ ] of _halidon hill_ he said, "it is designed to illustrate military antiquities and the manners of chivalry. the drama (if it can be called one) is in no particular either designed or calculated for the stage."[ ] he seems to have been "often urged" to write plays, if one may trust captain clutterbuck's authority, and the effectiveness of the many poetical mottoes improvised by the author of waverley for the chapters of his novels, and subscribed "old play,"[ ] was naturally used as an argument.[ ] scott's own judgment in the matter was expressed thus: "nothing so easy when you are full of an author, as to write a few lines in his taste and style; the difficulty is to keep it up. besides, the greatest success would be but a spiritless imitation, or, at best, what the italians call a _centone_ [_sic_] from shakspeare."[ ] when elliston became manager of drury lane in he applied to scott for plays, but without effect.[ ] scott seems never to have felt any concern over the fact that the dramatized versions of his novels were often very poor, but hazlitt wished that he would "not leave it to others to mar what he has sketched so admirably as a ground-work," for he saw no good reason why the author of waverley could not write "a first-rate tragedy as well, as so many first-rate novels."[ ] scott felt that to write for the stage in his day was a thankless and almost degrading occupation. "avowedly i will never write for the stage; if i do, 'call me horse.'" he said in a letter to terry.[ ] again in a letter to southey: "i do not think the character of the audience in london is such that one could have the least pleasure in pleasing them.... on the whole, i would far rather write verses for mine honest friend punch and his audience";[ ] and to a would-be tragedian he said: "in the present day there is only one reason which seems to me adequate for the encountering the plague of trying to please a set of conceited performers and a very motley audience,--i mean the want of money."[ ] this degraded condition of the london stage scott thought to be a consequence of limiting the number of theaters. we can hardly suppose, however, that he was pessimistic in regard to the written drama of his day, when he could say of byron, "there is one who, to judge from the dramatic sketch he has given us in manfred, must be considered as a match for aeschylus, even in his sublimest moods of horror";[ ] or when he could place joanna baillie in the same class with shakspere[ ]. scott probably did much reading in the drama in his early life. we know that by he had "long since" annotated his copy of beaumont and fletcher sufficiently so that he wished to offer it to gifford, who, scott erroneously understood, was about to edit their dramas.[ ] the edition of dryden, published in , shows familiarity with elizabethan as well as restoration dramatists. he seems to have had first-hand knowledge of such men as ford, webster, marston, brome, shirley, chapman, and dekker, whom he mentions as being "little known to the general readers of the present day, even by name."[ ] but was the very year in which appeared lamb's _specimens of english dramatic poets_ and coleridge's first course of lectures on shakspere. the old dramatists were beginning to come to their own, through the sympathetic appreciation of the romantic critics. scott never refers, however, to the work of lamb, coleridge, or hazlitt[ ] in this field and we conclude that his researches in dramatic literature were the recreation of a man who realized that his business lay in another direction. but in preparing the _dryden_, he doubtless read more widely in restoration drama than he would otherwise have done. throughout his life he continued to read plays at intervals, as we know from occasional references in the _journal_; but after the _dryden_ appeared we can point to no time in his career when such reading was his especial occupation. his familiarity with elizabethan drama he showed even more emphatically than by serious critical writings on the subject, in his fragments from mythical "old plays,"[ ] in his frequent references to single plays, and in the substance of some of the novels, particularly _the fortunes of nigel_ and _woodstock_, which make use of settings, situations, and characterizations suggested by the drama.[ ] mr. lang says of _the fortunes of nigel_, "the scenes in alsatia are a distinct gain to literature, a pearl rescued from the unread mass of shadwell."[ ] his serious critical writings on the subject comprise little else than his _essay on the drama_, which appeared in the supplement to the _encyclopædia britannica_, published in , and the discussions given in connection with dryden's plays.[ ] although the essay was written ten years later than the _dryden_, we have no reason to think that scott changed his views or added greatly to his knowledge in the interval, and using these two sources we may discuss his account of the drama in general without regard to the particular date at which his opinions were expressed. his exposition in the _essay on the drama_ rested on the basis furnished by a historical study of the stage. he did not, of course, pretend to have formed his own conclusions on all points, and we find him quoting from various authorities, sometimes naming them and sometimes only indicating, perhaps, that he was "abridging from the best antiquaries." this, however, was chiefly in connection with the ancient drama. as i have already remarked, we do not find him referring to recent studies on the english drama. and though scott had forgotten all his greek we observe that he is bold enough to disagree with "the ingenious schlegel" in regard to the comparative value of the greek new comedy. in his treatment of the ancient drama the main point for note is the success with which he gives a broad and connected view of the subject. his account of the drama in france needs correction in certain respects,[ ] but it seems to indicate some first-hand knowledge and very definite opinions. he quotes molière frequently throughout his writings, and always speaks of him with admiration; but with no other french dramatist does he seem to have been familiar to such a degree. judging french tragic poets too much from the shaksperian point of view, he was not prepared to do them justice.[ ] on the dramatic unities, of which he remarked, "aristotle says so little and his commentators and followers talk so much," scott wrote, here and elsewhere, with decision and vivacity. the unities of time and place he calls "fopperies," though time and place, he admits, are not to be lightly changed.[ ] he connects the whole discussion with the study of theatrical conditions, and never bows down to authority as such. he says, "surely it is of less consequence merely to ascertain what was the practice of the ancients, than to consider how far such practice is founded upon truth, good taste, and general effect"; and again, "aristotle would probably have formulated different rules if he had written in our time." and though he adopted and applied to the drama the horatian dictum that the end of poetry is to instruct and delight, it was not because horace and a long line of critics had said it, but because he thought it was true. doubtless his phrase would have been different if he had not taken what was lying nearest, but his habit was never carefully to avoid the common phrase. his general opinion of french drama was decidedly unfavorable, and he thought it was doubtful whether their plays would ever be any nearer to nature. "that nation," he observes calmly, "is so unfortunate as to have no poetical language." his remarks on german drama are general in character, though we know that in his early days he was much interested in translating contemporary german plays. his version of goethe's _goetz von berlichingen_ was the most important of these translations. a letter of scott's contains the following reference to this play:[ ] "the publication of goetz was a great era ... in german literature, and served completely to free them from the french follies of unities and decencies of the scene, and gave an impulse to their dramas which was unique of its kind. since that, they have been often stark mad but never, i think, stupid. they either divert you by taking the most brilliant leaps through the hoop, or else by tumbling into the custard, as the newspapers averred the champion did at the lord mayor's dinner." when he is on english ground we can best trace scott's individual opinions, yet even here he reflects some of the limitations of the less enlightened scholarship of his time, especially in connection with early elizabethan writers. he passes from _ferrex and porrex_[ ] and _gammer gurton's needle_ directly to shakspere, and quite omits marlowe and the other immediate predecessors. he was not ignorant of their existence, for against a statement of dryden's that shakspere was the first to use blank verse we find in scott's edition the note,--"this is a mistake. marlowe and several other dramatic authors used blank verse before the days of shakespeare";[ ] and one of his youthful notebooks contains this comment on _faustus_: "a very remarkable thing. grand subject--end grand."[ ] in scott intended to write an article for the _quarterly review_ on peele, greene, and webster, and in asking alexander dyce to have webster's works sent to him he said, "marlowe and others i have,--and some acquaintance with the subject, though not much."[ ] webster he considered "one of the best of our ancient dramatists." the proposed article was never written, because of scott's final illness. in spite of his statement that "the english stage might be considered equally without rule and without model when shakspeare arose," scott did not seem inclined to leave the great man altogether unaccounted for, as some critics have preferred to do, for he says, "the effect of the genius of an individual upon the taste of a nation is mighty; but that genius in its turn is formed according to the opinions prevalent at the period when it comes into existence." these opinions, however, scott assigns very vaguely to the influence of "a nameless crowd of obscure writers," and thinks it fortunate that shakspere was unacquainted with classical rules. the critic had evidently made no attempt to define the influence of particular writers upon shakspere. his criticism is at some points purely conventional, as for instance when he calls the poet "that powerful magician, whose art could fascinate us even by means of deformity itself "; but on the whole scott seems to write about shakspere in a very reasonable and discriminating way. he has a good deal to say of ben jonson, in other places as well as in this essay on the drama.[ ] he was evidently well acquainted with that poet, and admired him without liking him. somewhere he calls him "the dry and dogged jonson,"[ ] and again he speaks of his genius in very high terms. the contrast between shakspere and jonson moved him even to epigram:[ ] "in reading shakespeare we often meet passages so congenial to our nature and feelings that, beautiful as they are, we can hardly help wondering they did not occur to ourselves; in studying jonson, we have often to marvel how his conceptions could have occurred to any human being." it was characteristic of scott to note the fact that shakspere wrote rapidly, jonson slowly, for he was fond of getting support for his theory that rapid writing is the better. as early as scott referred to _the changeling_ as "an old play which contains some passages horribly striking,"[ ] and in so doing voiced, as mr. swinburne says, "the first word of modern tribute to the tragic genius of thomas middleton."[ ] scott also praised massinger highly, especially for his strength in characterization, and once called him "the most gentleman-like of all the old english dramatists."[ ] he discussed beaumont and fletcher sympathetically, for he knew them well and frequently quoted from them. he named shirley, ford, webster, and dekker in a group, and spoke of the singular profusion of talents devoted in this period to the writing of plays, an observation which is made more explicitly later in the _journal_, when he has just been reading an old play which, he says, "worthless in the extreme, is, like many of the plays in the beginning of the seventeenth century, written to a good tune. the dramatic poets of that time seem to have possessed as joint-stock a highly poetical and abstract tone of language, so that the worst of them often remind you of the very best."[ ] this circumstance he accounts for by a reference to the audiences, and this in turn he seems to ascribe partly to the great number of theaters then open in london. he dwells so much on the evils of limiting the number of play-houses to two or three, that we may fairly consider it one of his hobbies, and it is possible that he had some slight influence toward increasing that public opposition to the theatrical monopoly which finally, in , resulted in the nullification of the patents. scott's discussion of restoration drama is admirably vigorous and clear. he probably simplified the matter too much at some points, indeed, as for example in over-estimating the influence exerted upon the stage by charles ii. and his french tastes, and in tracing the origin of the french drama to romances. but in general his facts are right and his deductions fair. mr. saintsbury has accused him of depreciating dryden's plays, especially the comedies, out of disgust at their indecency; yet in judging the period as a whole he seems to discriminate sufficiently between indelicacy and dulness. "the talents of otway," he says, "in his scenes of passionate affection rival, at least, and sometimes excel those of shakspeare." again: "the comedies of congreve contain probably more wit than was ever before embodied upon the stage; each word was a jest, and yet so characteristic that the repartee of the servant is distinguished from that of the master; the jest of the cox-comb from that of the humorist or fine gentleman of the piece." lesser writers of the time are also sympathetically characterized,--shadwell, for instance, whom he thought to be commonly underestimated.[ ] the heroic play scott discussed vivaciously in more than one connection, for, as we should expect, his sense of humor found its absurdities tempting.[ ] on the rant in the _conquest of granada_ he remarked, "dryden's apology for these extravagances seems to be that almanzor is in a passion. but although talking nonsense is a common effect of passion, it seems hardly one of those consequences adapted to show forth the character of a hero in theatrical representation."[ ] scott's opinion of the form of these plays appears in the following comment: "we doubt if, with his utmost efforts, [molière] could have been absolutely dull, without the assistance of a pastoral subject and heroic measure."[ ] concerning the indecency of the literature of the period scott wrote emphatically. he was much troubled by the problem of whether to publish dryden's works without any cutting, and came near taking ellis's advice to omit some portions, but he finally adhered to his original determination: "in making an edition of a man of genius's works for libraries and collections ... i must give my author as i find him, and will not tear out the page, even to get rid of the blot, little as i like it."[ ] the question of the morality of theater-going was one scott felt obliged to discuss when he was writing upon the drama. he found its vindication, characteristically, in a universal human trait,--the impulse toward mimicry and impersonation,--and in the good results that may be supposed to attend it. in naming these he lays what seems like undue stress on the teaching of history by the drama, in language that might quite as well be applied to historical novels. his argument on the literary side also is stated in a somewhat too sweeping way:--"had there been no drama, shakespeare would, in all likelihood, have been but the author of _venus and adonis_ and of a few sonnets forgotten among the numerous works of the elizabethan age, and otway had been only the compiler of fantastic odes."[ ] a final plea, in favor of the stage as a democratic agency--though this of course is not scott's phrasing--seems slightly unusual for him, although not essentially out of character. "the entertainment," he says, "which is the subject of general enjoyment, is of a nature which tends to soften, if not to level, the distinction of ranks."[ ] in another mood he admitted the greater likelihood that immoral plays would injure the public character than that moral plays would elevate it.[ ] it is sufficiently apparent to any student of scott's work that he was personally very fond of the drama. many of the literary references and allusions which appear in great abundance throughout his writings are from plays, and show, as we have seen, a wide acquaintance with english dramatic writers, from shakspere to such comparatively little-known playwrights as suckling and cowley. in the _letters of malachi malagrowther on the currency_, for example, scott's unusual range of reading reveals itself even in connection with a subject remote from his ordinary field, and here as elsewhere he shows himself prone to quote from the drama.[ ] but scott was interested in plays for what he found in them of characters and manners, of witty and sententious speech, of situations and incidents, and only secondarily in the technical aspects of the drama. reading his novels we could guess that he would care more for the concrete elements of a play than for the orderly march of events through the various stages of a formally proper construction. in this respect he differs from coleridge; but indeed the two men may be contrasted at almost every point. in summing up this part of scott's criticism we must remember also that it was chiefly incidental. perhaps whatever qualities it exhibits are on this account particularly characteristic: at any rate his opinions on the drama were the reaction of an unusually capable mind upon a department of literature in which his reading was all the more fruitful because it followed the lines of a natural inclination. the seventeenth century _dryden_ scott's preparations for his edition of dryden--wide scope of the work--scott's estimation of dryden--grounds for putting dryden above chaucer and spenser--admirable style of the biography--comments by scott on other seventeenth century writers. the edition of _dryden's complete works_ deserves further notice, especially since only eight of the eighteen volumes are occupied with the plays, and these have less commentary than other parts of the works. in scott wrote to his friend george ellis, "my critical notes will not be very numerous but i hope to illustrate the political poems, as _absalom and achitophel_, the _hind and panther_, etc., with some curious annotations. i have already made a complete search among some hundred pamphlets of that pamphlet-writing age, and with considerable success, as i have found several which throw light on my author."[ ] he added that another edition of dryden was proposed, and ellis wrote in answer, "with regard to your competitors, i feel perfectly at my ease, because i am convinced that though you should generously furnish them with all the materials, they would not know how to use them; _non cuivis hominum contingit_ to write critical notes that anyone will read."[ ] when scott's dryden was reëdited and reissued in - by professor saintsbury, the new editor said: "it certainly deserves the credit of being one of the best-edited books on a great scale in english, save in one particular,--the revision of the text."[ ] the elaborate historical notes are left untouched, as being "in general thoroughly trustworthy,"[ ] though the editor considers them somewhat excessive, especially as sometimes containing illustrative material from perfectly worthless contemporaries. on the other hand, the "explanation of word and phrase is a little defective."[ ] the most notable quality of the _life of dryden_ which composes the first of the eighteen volumes is its breadth of scope. scott's aim may best be given in his own words in the advertisement: "the general critical view of dryden's works being sketched by johnson with unequalled felicity, and the incidents of his life accurately discussed and ascertained by malone, something seemed to remain for him who should consider these literary productions in their succession, as actuated by, and operating upon, the taste of an age where they had so predominant influence; and who might, at the same time, connect the life of dryden with the history of his publications, without losing sight of the fate and character of the individual."[ ] errors of judgment appear in places; sometimes they are due to the imperfect scholarship of the time; sometimes they arise from prejudices of scott's own. in the very first chapter we find him condemning lyly and all writers of "conceited" language--particularly of course the metaphysicals--with a thoroughness that a truly catholic critic ought probably to avoid. scott had a constitutional dislike for a labored style, and at the same time a fondness for the direct and straightforward way of looking at things. so, though he was open to the emotional appeal of a poem like _christabel_, he took no pleasure in the devious processes by which the cold intellect has sometimes tried to give fresh interest to familiar words and ideas. they quite prevented him from seeing the passion in the work of donne, for example, and he considered all metaphysical poets, in so far as they showed the traits of their class, to be without poetical feeling. scott placed dryden after shakspere and milton as third in the list of english writers. i think he would even have been willing to say that dryden was the third as a poet. for greatly as he admired chaucer, scott did not feel chaucer's full power, and indeed it was only beginning to be possible to read chaucer with any appreciation of his metrical excellence. spenser, of whom he once wrote: "no author, perhaps, ever possessed and combined in so brilliant a degree the requisite qualities of a poet,"[ ] was more of a favorite with scott than chaucer. but at another time he spoke of drayton as possessing perhaps equal powers of poetry,[ ] and he seems to have felt that spenser becomes tedious through the continued use of his difficult stanza and even more because of the "languor of a continued allegory."[ ] in comparing his judgments on spenser and dryden we may conclude that the critic found more in the later poet of that solid intellectual basis which he emphasizes in characterizing him. "this power of ratiocination," says scott, "of investigating, discovering, and appreciating that which is really excellent, if accompanied with the necessary command of fanciful illustration and elegant expression, is the most interesting quality which can be possessed by a poet."[ ] again he lays emphasis on dryden's versatility,--greater, he says, than that of shakspere and milton. in _old mortality_ dryden is referred to as "the great high-priest of all the nine." scott would have called this another point of his superiority over spenser, if he had made the comparison. yet he saw dryden's deficiencies. "it was a consequence of his mental acuteness that his dramatic personages often philosophized and reasoned when they ought only to have felt,"[ ] scott remarks and he frequently deplores dryden's failure "in expressing the milder and more tender passions."[ ] of dryden's great gift of style, scott speaks in the highest terms. "with this power," he says, "dryden's poetry was gifted in a degree surpassing in modulated harmony that of all who had preceded him and inferior to none that has since written english verse [_sic_]. he first showed"--and here we see scott's eighteenth-century affinities--"that the english language was capable of uniting smoothness and strength."[ ] such criticism as scott gives on specific parts of dryden's work is clear-cut, fair for the most part, and has the sanity and reasonableness which are the most noticeable qualities of his criticism in general. it would be easier to find illustrations of shrewdness than of subtlety among his notes, but his discriminations are often effective and satisfying. his discussion, for example, of prologues and epilogues considered in relation to the theatrical conditions which determined their character is admirable.[ ] a note on "the cant of supposing that the _iliad_ contained an obvious and intentional moral"[ ] is also full of sense and vigor, but these qualities are so thoroughly diffused through the work that there is no need of particularizing. his praise of _alexander's feast_ may be referred to, however, as showing his characteristic delight in objective poetry.[ ] as a lyric poet, he says, dryden "must be allowed to have no equal."[ ] the peculiarly congenial qualities of the subject may have had something to do with the fact that the style in which the _life of dryden_ is written is noticeably better than that of scott's ordinary work. it is marked with a care and accuracy that were not, unfortunately, habitual to him. perhaps it was an advantage that when he wrote the book he had not yet become altogether familiar with his own facility; certainly the substance and the manner of treatment unite in making this the most important of his critical biographies. various references indicate that scott was acquainted in at least a general way with english writers throughout the whole of dryden's century. he speaks of the poems of phineas fletcher as containing "many passages fully equal to spenser"[ ]; he says that cowley "is now ... undeservedly forgotten"[ ]; he calls _hudibras_ "the most witty poem that ever was written,"[ ] but says, "the perpetual scintillation of butler's wit is too dazzling to be delightful"[ ]; he talks of waller and quotes from him[ ]; he refers to the charming quality of isaac walton's work;[ ] and he adopts samuel pepys as a familiar acquaintance.[ ] these references occur mostly in the _dryden_ or in the novels, and we may conclude that the work for the _dryden_ gathered up and strengthened all scott's acquaintance with the literature of the seventeenth century, from shakspere and milton down to writers of altogether minor importance; and gave him material for many of the allusions that appear in his later work. it is probably true that there are more quotations from dryden in scott's books than from any other one author,[ ] though lines from shakspere occurred more often in his conversation and familiar letters. the eighteenth century _swift_ the preparation of _swift's complete works_--comparison of the _dryden_ and the _swift_--the bibliographical problem presented by swift's works--inaccuracies in the biography--scott's success in portraying a perplexing temperament--judicious quality of his literary criticism. as soon as the _dryden_ was completed scott was offered twice as much money as he had received for that work, for a similar edition of swift.[ ] he readily undertook the task, and in the midst of many other editorial engagements set to work upon it. the preparation of the book extended over the six years during which scott ran the greater part of his poetical career. on its appearance one of his friends expressed the feeling which every student of scott must have had in regard to the large editorial labors that he undertook, in saying, "i am delighted and surprised; for how a person of your turn could wade through, and so accurately analyze what you have done (namely, all the dull things calculated to illustrate your author), seems almost impossible, and a prodigy in the history of the human mind."[ ] the work was first published in . ten years later it was revised and reissued; and scott's _swift_ has, like his _dryden_, been the standard edition of that author ever since. in each case scott had to deal with an important and varied body of literature in the two fields of poetry and prose, though the proportions were different; and in each case he had occasion for illustrative historical annotations of the kind that he wrote with unrivalled facility. he was master of the political intrigues of queen anne's reign no less completely than of the circumstances which gave rise to _absalom and achitophel_, and the fact that his notes are less voluminous in the _swift_ is probably to be accounted for by the comparative absence of quaintness in the literary and social fashions of the eighteenth century. the peculiar conditions under which swift's writings had appeared, and his remarkable indifference to literary fame, gave the editor opportunity to look for material which had not before been included in his works. the diligent search of scott and his various correspondents enabled him to add about thirty poems, between sixty and seventy letters from swift, and about sixteen other small pieces. the most noteworthy item among these additions was the correspondence between swift and miss vanhomrigh, of which only a very small part had previously been made public.[ ] scott's notes seem to indicate that most of the necessary searching through newspapers and obscure pamphlets for forgotten work of swift was performed by "obliging correspondents," and that the editor himself had only to pass judgment on what was brought to his attention. this impression may arise largely from his cordiality in expressing indebtedness to his helpers, but it is certain that his position as a popular poet gave scott the assistance of many people who would not have been enlisted in the work by an ordinary editor. but scott had the difficult task of deciding whether the unauthenticated pieces were to be assigned to swift. the bibliography of swift is still so uncertain that it is impossible to say how many of the small pamphlets in verse and prose added in this edition are really his work.[ ] scott had good reason for his additions in most cases, though sometimes, as he was aware, the dean had merely revised the work of other people. the editor was occasionally over-credulous in attributing pieces to swift, but he was perhaps oftener too generous in giving room to things which he knew had very little claim to be considered swift's work. when he was in doubt he chose to err on the safe side, according to the principles set forth in the following note on the _letter from dr. tripe to nestor ironside_: "the piece contains a satirical description of steele's person, and should the editor be mistaken in conjecturing that swift contributed to compose it, may nevertheless, at this distance of time, merit preservation as a literary curiosity."[ ] the ample space afforded by the nineteen volumes of the book gives room to arbuthnot's _history of john bull_--because it was "usually published in swift's works,"--to the verses addressed to the dean and those written in memory of him, as well as to the prose and verse miscellanies of pope and swift, and the miscellanies and _jeux d'esprit_ of swift and sheridan. swift's correspondence fills the last four and a half volumes. the biography, which occupies the first volume, is admirable in tone, but the facts scott gives are less to be relied upon than the inferences and conclusions he derives from them. he corresponded with persons who were in a position to know about swift from his friends and acquaintances, and probably he trusted too much to these "original sources." we find, as perhaps the most noteworthy instance, that the marriage to stella is stated as an ascertained fact, on authority that is not now considered convincing. later biographers of swift,--sir henry craik, leslie stephen, mr. churton collins,--have borne witness to the human interest of scott's biography, and its preeminence, in spite of inaccuracies, among all the lives of swift that have been written. but mr. churton collins thinks scott did not present a really clear view of swift's mysterious character, and craik says he took only the conventional attitude towards swift's politics, misanthropy, and religion. the charge indicates scott's weakness, and perhaps also much of his strength, as a biographer and critic, for he had no prejudice against the conventional as such, and was never anxious to exhibit special "insight" of any kind. yet i think his portrayal of swift has seemed to most readers a clear presentation of a real and comprehensible character.[ ] scott's remark when he undertook the work, that swift was of his early favorites,[ ] seems surprising when one remembers how his genial nature recoiled from misanthropy and cynicism; but his treatment of the dean was so sympathetic that jeffrey thought him decidedly too lenient, and was moved to express righteous indignation in the pages of the _edinburgh review_.[ ] the rebuke was unnecessary, for scott did not omit to record swift's failings and to express wholesomely vigorous opinions concerning them, though he felt that they ought to be looked upon as evidences of disease rather than of guilt. he felt also, with perhaps some excess of charity but surely not such as could be in the least harmful, that "if the dean's principles were misanthropical, his practice was benevolent. few have written so much with so little view either to fame or to profit, or to aught but benefit to the public."[ ] jeffrey's condemnation of scott's point of view was mingled with just praise. he said of the biography: "it is quite fair and moderate in politics; and perhaps rather too indulgent and tender towards individuals of all descriptions,--more full, at least, of kindness and veneration for genius and social virtue, than of indignation at baseness and profligacy. altogether it is not much like the production of a mere man of letters, or a fastidious speculator in sentiment and morality; but exhibits throughout, and in a very pleasing form, the good sense and large toleration of a man of the world." the very practical motives that inspired most of swift's pamphlets would naturally attract scott. probably it was the remembrance of the _drapier's letters_ that suggested to him a similar form of protest against proposed changes in the scottish currency; certainly the _letters of malachi malagrowther_ had an effect comparable to that of swift's more consummately ingenious appeal. another quality in swift's work that would naturally arouse scott's admiration was the remarkable directness and lucidity of the style. scott appreciated the originality force of swift, even when it was used in the service of satire. sometimes, he says, "the intensity of his satire gives to his poetry a character of emphatic violence which borders upon grandeur."[ ] the editor's discussion of _gulliver's travels_ an acute and illuminating little essay, contains one comment that gives an amusing revelation of his point of view. he says in regard to the fourth part of the story: "it is some consolation to remark that the fiction on which this libel on human nature rests is in every respect gross and improbable, and, far from being entitled to the praise due to the management of the first two parts, is inferior in plan even to the third."[ ] this is a sound verdict, even if it does contain an extra-literary element. scott surpassed most of his contemporaries, except the younger romantic writers, in his ability to eliminate irrelevant considerations in estimating any literary work; and if occasionally his strong moral feeling appears in his criticism, it serves to remind us how much less often this happens than a knowledge of his temperament would lead us to expect. in spite of the qualities in his subject that might naturally bias scott's judgment, his criticism throughout this edition of swift seems on the whole very judicious. it defines the literary importance and brings out plainly the power of a man whose work presents unusual perplexities to the critic. _the somers tracts_ character of the collection and of scott's work on it--occasional carelessness--purpose of the notes--scott's attitude towards these studies. while scott was working on his _dryden_ and before he began the _swift_ he undertook to edit the great collection which had been published fifty years before as _somers' tracts_. his task was to arrange, revise, and annotate pamphlets which represented every reign from elizabeth to george i. he grouped them chronologically by reigns, and separated them further into sections under the headings,--ecclesiastical, historical, civil, military, miscellaneous; he also added eighty-one pamphlets, all written before the time of james ii. the largest number of additions in any one section was historical and had reference to stafford. among the miscellaneous tracts that he incorporated were derrick's _image of ireland_ from a copy in the advocates' library, and gosson's _school of abuse_. scott's statement in the advertisement as to why he did not omit any of the original collection shows his unpedantic attitude toward the kind of studies which he was encouraging by the republication of this series. he says: "when the variety of literary pursuits, and the fluctuation of fashionable study is considered, it may seem rash to pass a hasty sentence of exclusion, even upon the dullest and most despised of the essays which this ample collection offers to the public. there may be among the learned, even now, individuals to whom the rabbinical lore of hugh broughton presents more charms than the verses of homer; and a future day may arise when tracts on chronology will bear as high a value among antiquaries as 'greene's groats' worth of wit,' or 'george peele's jests,' the present respectable objects of research and reverence." in editing this collection scott made little attempt to decide disputed problems of authorship when the explanation did not lie upon the surface. indeed the following note regarding the tract called _a new test of the church of england's loyalty_ shows that he sometimes neglected very obvious sources of information, for the piece is given in one of defoe's own collections of his works: "this defence of whiggish loyalty," says scott, "seems to have been written by the celebrated daniel de foe, a conjecture which is strengthened by the frequent reference to his poem of the true-born englishman."[ ] he was not often so careless, but the rapidity and range of his work during these years undoubtedly gave occasion for more than one lapse of accuracy, while at the same time it perhaps increased the effectiveness of his comment. his notes and introductions vary in length according to the requirements of the case, for he aimed to provide such material as would prevent the necessity of reference to other works. matters that were obscure he explained, and he wrote little comment on those that were generally understood. when he left himself so free a hand he could indulge his personal tastes somewhat also, and we are not surprised to find an especial abundance of notes on an account of the gowrie conspiracy which presented a perplexing problem in scottish history. the connection of _somers' tracts_ with other things that scott did has already been remarked upon.[ ] that he found some sort of stimulation in all his scholarly employments is sufficiently evident to anyone who studies his work as a whole, and this fact might well serve as a motive for such study. yet it is only fair to remember that scott was not a novelist during these years when he was performing his most laborious editorial tasks. we are accustomed to think of the brilliant use he was afterwards to make of the knowledge he was gaining, but the motives which influenced him were those of the man whose interest in literature and history makes scholarly work seem the most natural way of earning money. "these are studies, indeed, proverbially dull," he once wrote, speaking of horace walpole's antiquarian researches, "but it is only when they are pursued by those whose fancies nothing can enliven."[ ] _the lives of the novelists, and comments on other eighteenth century writers_ the _novelists' library_--writers discussed--value of the _lives_--general tone of competence in these essays--scott's catholic taste--points of special interest in the discussion--relations of the novel and the drama--supernatural machinery in novels--mistakes in the criticism of defoe--realism--motive in the novel--aim of the prefaces--scott's familiarity with eighteenth century literature. it has already been said that a large part of scott's critical work concerned itself with the eighteenth century. of his greater editorial labors two may be considered as belonging to that period, for ballantyne's _novelists' library_, though an enterprise which was commercially a failure and which consequently remained incomplete, may from the point of view of scott's contributions fitly be compared with the _dryden_ and the _swift_. such parts as were published appeared in . the bulk of the volumes and the small type in which they were printed were considered to be the cause of their failure, and it was not until the critical biographies were extracted and published separately, by galignani the parisian bookseller, in , that they seem to have attracted notice. scott wrote these _lives of the novelists_ at a time when his hands were full of literary projects, altogether for john ballantyne's benefit. the author afterwards spoke of them as "rather flimsily written,"[ ] but we may surmise that to the fact that they were not the result of special study is due something of their ripeness of reflection and breadth of generalization. "they contain a large assemblage of manly and sagacious remarks on human life and manners,"[ ] wrote the _quarterly_ reviewer. the writers considered were all british, with the exception of lesage. the choice, or at least the arrangement, seems more or less haphazard. richardson, fielding, and smollett naturally began the group, and sterne followed after an interval. johnson and goldsmith were treated briefly, for the prefaces were to be proportioned to the amount of work by each author included in the text. horace walpole, clara reeve, and mrs. radcliffe represented the gothic romance. charles johnstone, robert bage, and richard cumberland were among the inferior writers included. henry mackenzie, who was still living and was a personal friend of scott, completes the list so far as it went before the series was terminated by the publisher's death. when scott's _miscellaneous prose works_ were collected he added the lives of charlotte smith and defoe, but in each of these cases the biographical portion was by another hand, the criticism being his own.[ ] the study of the novel as a _genre_ was naturally undeveloped at that time. dunlop's _history of prose fiction_ had appeared in , evidently a much more ambitious attempt than scott's; but scott could treat the british novelists with comparative freedom from the trammels of any established precedent. of course his position as one who had struck out a wonderful new path in the writing of novels gave to his reflections on other novelists a very special interest. the _lives of the novelists_ are not to be neglected even now, and this is the more to be insisted on because the criticism of novels has been practiced with increasing zeal since scott himself has become a classic and since his successors have made this field of literature more varied and popular, if not greater, than the first masters made it. a recent writer on eighteenth century literature says: "by far the best criticism of the eighteenth century novelists will be found in the prefatory notices contributed by scott to ballantyne's _novelists' library_."[ ] but the same writer adds: "sir walter scott, indeed, considered _fathom_ superior to _jonathan wild_, an opinion which must always remain one of the mysteries of criticism."[ ] this comment indicates that there was no lack of assuredness in scott's treatment, and we do indeed find a very pleasant tone of competence which, though liable to error as in the exaggerated praise bestowed upon smollett, gives much of their effectiveness to the criticisms. the quality appears elsewhere in scott's critical work, but it is perhaps especially noticeable here. for example, we find this dictum: "there is no book in existence, in which so much of the human character, under all its various shades and phases, is described in so few words, as in the _diable boiteux_."[ ] the illustration is perhaps a trifle extreme, for scott is not often really dogmatic. from this point of view as from others we naturally make the comparison with johnson's _lives of the poets_, and we find that without being so sententious, so admirably compact in style, scott is also not so dictatorial. we cannot accuse scott of liking any one kind of novel to the exclusion of others. he ranks _clarissa harlowe_ very high;[ ] he says _tom jones_ is "truth and human nature itself."[ ] _the vicar of wakefield_ he calls "one of the most delicious morsels of fictitious composition on which the human mind was ever employed." "we return to it again and again," he says, "and bless the memory of an author who contrives so well to reconcile us to human nature."[ ] he praises _tristram shandy_, calling uncle toby and his faithful squire, "the most delightful characters in the work, or perhaps in any other."[ ] the quiet fictions of maria edgeworth and jane austen, the exciting tales of mrs. radcliffe, the sentiment of sterne, even the satires of bage,--all pleased him in one way or another. scott's autobiography contains the following comment on his boyish tastes in the matter of novels: "the whole jemmy and jenny jessamy tribe i abhorred, and it required the art of burney, or the feeling of mackenzie, to fix my attention upon a domestic tale. but all that was adventurous and romantic i devoured without much discrimination."[ ] in later life he learned to exercise his judgment in regard to stories of adventure not less than those of the "domestic" sort, and perhaps the liking for quiet tales grew upon him; at any rate his taste seems remarkably catholic. the most interesting portions of the _lives of the novelists_ are those which show us, by the frequent recurrence of the same subjects, what parts of the theory of novel-writing had particularly engaged scott's attention. for example we find him discussing, most fully in the _life of fielding_, the reasons why a successful novelist is likely not to be a successful playwright. the way in which he looks at the matter suggests that he was thinking quite as much of the probability of failure in his own case should he begin to write plays, as of the subject of the memoir; for fielding wrote his plays before his novels, but the argument assumes a man who writes good novels first and bad plays afterwards. one of his statements seems rather curious and hard to explain,--"though a good acting play may be made by selecting a plot and characters from a novel, yet scarce any effort of genius could render a play into a narrative romance." perhaps he expected the "terryfied" versions of _guy mannering_ and _rob roy_ to hold the stage longer than fate has permitted them to do. from another point of view also he was interested in the connection of the novel and the drama. he felt that the direction of the drama in the modern period had been largely determined by the influence of successful novels; and he probably overestimated the effect of the "romances of calprenède and scudéri" on heroic tragedy.[ ] a subject which recurs even oftener than that of the distinction between drama and novel is the question of supernatural machinery in novels. horace walpole is commended for giving us ghosts without furnishing explanations. indeed the _castle of otranto_ is highly praised;[ ] but so also is mrs. radcliffe's work, except on the one point of the attempt to rationalize mysteries. the kind of romance which she "introduced"[ ] is compared with the melodrama, and its particular mode of appeal is analyzed in very interesting fashion. in the _life of clara reeve_ the proper treatment of ghosts is discussed at length, for that author had contended that ghosts should be very mild and of "sober demeanour." scott justifies her practice, but not her theory, on the following grounds: "what are the limits to be placed to the reader's credulity, when those of common-sense and ordinary nature are at once exceeded? the question admits only one answer, namely, that the author himself, being in fact the magician, shall evoke no spirits whom he is not capable of endowing with manners and language corresponding to their supernatural character." scott writes with much enthusiasm about defoe's famous little ghost-story, _the apparition of mrs. veal_, praising defoe's wonderful skill in making the unreal seem credible. in connection with this tale scott developed a very interesting anecdote to explain the fact that drelincourt's _defence against the fear of death_ is recommended by the apparition. "drelincourt's book," he says, "being neglected, lay a dead stock on the hands of the publisher. in this emergency he applied to de foe to assist him (by dint of such means as were then, as well as now, pretty well understood in the literary world) in rescuing the unfortunate book from the literary death to which general neglect seemed about to consign it." scott goes on to assert that the story was simply a consummately clever advertising device. he may have found the germ of his hypothesis in a bookseller's tradition, but he states it as an assured fact, and doubtless believed it firmly because it seemed so beautifully reasonable. his explanation became the basis of later statements on the subject, and now obliges everyone who discusses defoe to supply a contradiction; for the truth is that drelincourt's book was so highly popular as to have gone through several editions before the ghost of mrs. veal mentioned it. moreover, if scott's little tale was fictitious, defoe's, on the other hand, was really a reporter's version of an experience actually related by the person to whom he assigns it, and his skill in achieving verisimilitude was perhaps in this case less wonderful than his critics have generally supposed.[ ] on the subject of realism, scott was not in general very rigid. in his _life of richardson_ he says: "it is unfair to tax an author too severely upon improbabilities, without conceding which his story could have no existence; and we have the less title to do so, because, in the history of real life, that which is actually true bears often very little resemblance to that which is probable."[ ] but this is perhaps only a plea for one kind of realism. he also refers to the question of historical "keening," and concludes that it is possible to have so much accuracy that the public will refuse to be interested, as _lear_ would hardly be popular on the stage if the hero were represented in the bearskin and paint which a briton of his time doubtless wore.[ ] the motive of the novel is a subject which naturally engages the attention of the novelist-critic. romantic fiction, he thinks may have sufficient justification if it acts as an opiate for tired spirits. a significant antithesis between his point of view in this matter and the more common attitude taken by critics in his time is illustrated by two reviews of mrs. shelley's _frankenstein_, to which we may refer, though the book was later than those included in the _novelists' library_. scott wrote in _blackwood's_: "we ... congratulate our readers upon a novel which excites new reflections and untried sources of emotion."[ ] the _quarterly_ reviewer took the opposite and more conservative attitude and expressed himself thus: "our taste and our judgment alike revolt at this kind of writing, and the greater the ability with which it may be executed the worse it is--it inculcates no lesson of conduct, manners, or morality; it cannot mend, and will not even amuse its readers, unless their taste has been deplorably vitiated--it fatigues the feelings without interesting the understanding; it gratuitously harasses the heart, and wantonly adds to the store, already too great, of painful sensations."[ ] in general scott minimizes the effect of any moral that may be expressed in the novel, but occasionally he seems inconsistent, when he is talking of sentiments that are peculiarly distasteful to him.[ ] but his thesis is that "the direct and obvious moral to be deduced from a fictitious narrative is of much less consequence to the public than the mode in which the story is treated in the course of its details."[ ] in the _life of fielding_ he says of novels: "the best which can be hoped is that they may sometimes instruct the youthful mind by real pictures of life, and sometimes awaken their better feelings and sympathies by strains of generous sentiment, and tales of fictitious woe. beyond this point they are a mere elegance, a luxury contrived for the amusement of polished life." he conceived that his prefaces might be useful to warn readers against any ill effects that might otherwise result from the reading of the accompanying texts; and our comments on the _lives of the novelists_ may fitly close with a quotation which shows the writer's attitude toward the novels and his own criticisms upon them. the passage is taken from the _life of bage_. "we did not think it proper to reject the works of so eminent an author from this collection, merely on account of speculative errors.[ ] we have done our best to place a mark on these; and as we are far from being of opinion that the youngest and most thoughtless derive their serious opinions from productions of this nature, we leave them for our reader's amusement, trusting that he will remember that a good jest is no argument; that the novelist, like the master of a puppet-show, has his drama under his absolute authority, and shapes the events to favour his own opinions; and that whether the devil flies away with punch, or punch strangles the devil, forms no real argument as to the comparative power of either one or other, but only indicates the special pleasure of the master of the motion." scott was deeply in sympathy with the literature of the century within which he was born. to the evidence of his _swift_ and of the _lives of the novelists_ it may be added that he contemplated making a complete edition of pope, and that he professed to like _london_ and _the vanity of human wishes_ the best of all poems. james ballantyne said, rather ambiguously, "i think i never saw his countenance more indicative of high admiration than while reciting aloud from those productions."[ ] in one of his letters scott spoke of the "beautiful and feeling verses by dr. johnson to the memory of his humble friend levett, ... which with me, though a tolerably ardent scotchman, atone for a thousand of his prejudices."[ ] not only did he admire the great biography, but he called boswell "such a biographer as no man but [johnson] ever had, or ever deserved to have."[ ] but he once said that many of the _ramblers_ were "little better than a sort of pageant, where trite and obvious maxims are made to swagger in lofty and mystic language, and get some credit only because they are not understood."[ ] among other eighteenth century writers, addison is distinguished by high praise in a few casual references,[ ] but scott once admitted that he did not like addison so much as he felt to be proper.[ ] a collection of prior's poems scott calls "an english classic of the first order."[ ] he speaks of parnell as "an admirable man and elegant poet,"[ ] and mentions "the ponderous, persevering, and laborious dullness of sir richard blackmore."[ ] but these observations are of little importance except as they indicate that scott had read the authors of the eighteenth century and acquiesced in the conventional judgments upon them. it is seldom in his brief and casual comments that scott is particularly interesting as a critic, except when he is speaking of living writers, for he lacked the gift of conciseness. when he has a large canvas he is at his best, and this he has in the principal works described in this chapter:--_the minstrelsy of the scottish border_, the _works of dryden_, the _works of swift_, and the _lives of the novelists_. chapter iv scott's criticism of his contemporaries scott's freedom from literary jealousy--his disapproval of the typical reviewer's attitude--jeffrey, gifford, and lockhart--his own practice in regard to reviewing--his informal critical remarks--opportunity for favorable judgments afforded by the number of important writers in his period. poets--burns--coleridge--relation of _christabel_ to scott's work--scott's dislike for extreme romanticism--wordsworth--southey--scott's review of _kehama_--byron--scott's opinion of byron's character--campbell--moore--allan cunningham--hogg--crabbe--joanna baillie--matthew lewis--scott's judgment on his early taste for poetry--absence of comment on the work of lamb, landor, hunt, hazlitt, and dequincey. novelists--jane austen--maria edgeworth--cooper--personal relations between scott and cooper--scott's verdict on americans in general--washington irving--goethe--fouqué--scott's interest in men of action. to study scott's relations with contemporary writers is a very pleasant task because nothing shows better the greatness of his heart. his admirable freedom from literary jealousy was an innate virtue which he deliberately increased by cultivation, taking care, also, never to subject himself to the conditions which he thought accounted for the faults of pope, who had "neither the business nor the idleness of life to divide his mind from his parnassian pursuits."[ ] "those who have not his genius may be so far compensated by avoiding his foibles," scott said; and some years later he wrote,--"when i first saw that a literary profession was to be my fate, i endeavoured by all efforts of stoicism to divest myself of that irritable degree of sensibility--or, to speak plainly, of vanity--which makes the poetical race miserable and ridiculous."[ ] the record of his life clearly shows that his kindness towards other men of letters was not limited to words. one who received his good offices has written,--"the sternest words i ever heard him utter were concerning a certain poet: 'that man,' he said, 'has had much in his power, but he never befriended rising genius yet.'"[ ] we may safely say that scott enjoyed liking the work of other men. "i am most delighted with praise from those who convince me of their good taste by admiring the genius of my contemporaries,"[ ] he once wrote to southey. it is commonly supposed that scott's amiability led him into absurd excesses of praise for the works of his fellow-craftsmen, and indeed he did say some very surprising things. but when all his references to any one man are brought together, they will be found, with a few exceptions, pretty fairly to characterize the writer. his _obiter dicta_ must be read in the light of one another, and in the light, also, of his known principles. temperamentally modest about his own work, he was also habitually optimistic, and the combination gave him an utterly different quality from that of the typical _edinburgh_ or _quarterly_ critics. his disapproval of their point of view he expressed more than once.[ ] it seemed to him futile and ungentlemanly for the anonymous reviewer to seek primarily for faults, or "to wound any person's feelings ... unless where conceit or false doctrine strongly calls for reprobation."[ ] "where praise can be conscientiously mingled in a larger proportion than blame," he said, "there is always some amusement in throwing together our ideas upon the works of our fellow-labourers." he thought, indeed, that vituperative and satiric criticism was defeating its own end, in the case of the _edinburgh review_ since it was overworked to the point of monotony. such criticism he considered futile as well on this account as because he thought it likely to have an injurious effect on the work of really gifted writers. an admirer of both jeffrey and scott, who once heard a conversation between the two men, has recorded a distinction which is exactly what we should expect.[ ] he says: "jeffrey, for the most part, entertained us, when books were under discussion, with the detection of faults, blunders, absurdities, or plagiarisms: scott took up the matter where he left it, recalled some compensating beauty or excellence for which no credit had been allowed, and by the recitation, perhaps, of one fine stanza, set the poor victim on his legs again." on jeffrey scott's verdict was, "there is something in his mode of reasoning that leads me greatly to doubt whether, notwithstanding the vivacity of his imagination, he really has any _feeling_ of poetical genius, or whether he has worn it all off by perpetually sharpening his wit on the grindstone of criticism."[ ] his comment on gifford's reviews was to the effect that people were more moved to dislike the critic for his savagery than the guilty victim whom he flagellated.[ ] in the early days of _blackwood's magazine_ scott often tried to repress lockhart's "wicked wit,"[ ] and when lockhart became editor of the _quarterly_ his father-in-law did not always approve of his work. "don't like his article on sheridan's life,"[ ] says the _journal_. "there is no breadth in it, no general views, the whole flung away in smart but party criticism. now, no man can take more general and liberal views of literature than j.g.l."[ ] with these opinions, scott was not likely often to undertake the reviewing of books that did not, in one way or another interest him or move his admiration; and he would lay as much stress as possible on their good points. gifford told him that "fun and feeling" were his forte.[ ] in his early days he was probably somewhat influenced by jeffrey's method, and his articles on todd's _spenser_ and godwin's _life of chaucer_ indicate that he could occasionally adopt something of the tone of the _edinburgh review_. years afterwards he refused to write an article that lockhart wanted for the _quarterly_, saying, "i cannot write anything about the author unless i know it can hurt no one alive"[ ] but for the first volume of the _quarterly_ he reviewed sir john carr's _caledonian sketches_ in a way that sharon turner seriously objected to, because it made sir john seem ridiculous.[ ] some of scott's critics would perhaps apply one of the strictures to himself: "although sir john quotes horace, he has yet to learn that a wise man should not admire too easily; for he frequently falls into a state of wonderment at what appears to us neither very new nor very extraordinary."[ ] but if admiration seems to characterize too great a proportion of scott's critical work, it is because he usually preferred to ignore such books as demanded the sarcastic treatment which he reprehended, but which he felt perfectly capable of applying when he wished. speaking of a fulsome biography he once said, "i can no more sympathize with a mere eulogist than i can with a ranting hero upon the stage; and it unfortunately happens that some of our disrespect is apt, rather unjustly, to be transferred to the subject of the panegyric in the one case, and to poor cato in the other."[ ] besides scott's formal reviews, we find cited as evidence of his extreme amiability his letters, his journal, and the remarks he made to friends in moments of enthusiasm. these do indeed contain some sweeping statements, but in almost every case one can see some reason, other than the desire to be obliging, why he made them. he was not double-faced. one of the nearest approaches to it seems to have been in the case of miss seward's poetry, for which he wrote such an introduction as hardly prepares the reader for the remark he made to miss baillie, that most of it was "absolutely execrable." his comment in the edition of the poems--the publication of which miss seward really forced upon him as a dying request--is sedulously kind, and in _waverley_ he quotes from her a couple of lines which he calls "beautiful." but the essay is most carefully guarded, and throughout it the editor implies that the woman was more admirable than the poetry. personally, indeed, he seems to have liked and admired her.[ ] the catalogue of scott's contemporaries is so full of important names that his genius for the enjoyment of other men's work had a wide opportunity to display itself without becoming absurd. an argument early used to prove that scott was the author of _waverley_ was the frequency of quotation in the novels from all living poets except scott himself, and he felt constrained to throw in a reference or two to his own poetry in order to weaken the force of the evidence.[ ] the reader is irresistibly reminded of the following description, given by lockhart in a letter to his wife, of a morning walk taken by wordsworth and scott in company: "the unknown was continually quoting wordsworth's poetry and wordsworth ditto, but the great laker never uttered one syllable by which it might have been intimated to a stranger that your papa had ever written a line either of verse or prose since he was born."[ ] scott's opinions in regard to his fellow craftsmen may best be given largely in his own words--words which cannot fail to be interesting, however little evidence they show of any attempt to make them quotable. in considering scott's estimation of his contemporaries it is chronologically proper to mention burns first. as a boy of fifteen scott met burns, an event which filled him with the suitable amount of awe. he was most favorably impressed with the poet's appearance and with everything in his manner. the boy thought, however, that "burns' acquaintance with english poetry was rather limited, and also, that having twenty times the abilities of allan ramsay and of ferguson, he talked of them with too much humility as his models."[ ] scott's admiration of burns was always expressed in the highest and, if one may say so, the most affectionate terms. he refused to let himself be named "in the same day" with burns.[ ] "long life to thy fame and peace to thy soul, rob burns!" he exclaimed, in his _journal_; "when i want to express a sentiment which i feel strongly, i find the phrase in shakespeare--or thee."[ ] on another day he compared burns with shakspere as excelling all other poets in "the power of exciting the most varied and discordant emotions with such rapid transitions."[ ] again, "the jolly beggars, for humorous description and nice discrimination of character, is inferior to no poem of the same length in the whole range of english poetry."[ ] scott wished that burns might have carried out his plan of dramatic composition, and regretted, from that point of view, the excessive labor at songs which in the nature of things could not all be masterpieces.[ ] of writers who were more precisely contemporaries of scott, the lake poets and byron are the most important. the precedence ought to be given to coleridge because of the suggestion scott caught from a chance recitation of _christabel_ for the meter he made so popular in the _lay_.[ ] fragments from _christabel_ are quoted or alluded to so often in the novels[ ] and throughout scott's work that we should conclude it had made a greater impression upon him than any other single poem written in his own time, if lockhart had not spoken of wordsworth's sonnet on neidpath castle as one which scott was perhaps fondest of quoting.[ ] _christabel_ is not the only one of coleridge's poems which scott used for allusion or reference, but it was the favorite. "he is naturally a grand poet," scott once wrote to a friend. "his verses on love, i think, are among the most beautiful in the english language. let me know if you have seen them, as i have a copy of them as they stood in their original form, which was afterwards altered for the worse."[ ] the _ancient mariner_ also made a decided impression on him, if we judge from the fact that he quoted from it several times.[ ] scott evidently felt that coleridge was a most tantalizing poet, and once intimated that future generations would in regard to him feel something like milton's desire "to call up him who left half told the story of cambuscan bold."[ ] "no man has all the resources of poetry in such profusion, but he cannot manage them so as to bring out anything of his own on a large scale at all worthy of his genius.... his fancy and diction would have long ago placed him above all his contemporaries, had they been under the direction of a sound judgment and a steady will."[ ] such, in effect, was the opinion that scott always expressed concerning coleridge, and it is practically that of posterity. in _the monastery_ coleridge is called "the most imaginative of our modern bards." in another connection, after speaking of the "exquisite powers of poetry he has suffered to remain uncultivated," scott adds, "let us be thankful for what we have received, however. the unfashioned ore, drawn from so rich a mine, is worth all to which art can add its highest decorations, when drawn from less abundant sources."[ ] these remarks are worth quoting, not only because of their wisdom, but also because scott had small personal acquaintance with coleridge and was rather repelled than attracted by what he knew of the character of the author of _christabel_. his praises cannot in this case be called the tribute of friendship, and his own remarkable power of self-control might have made him a stern judge of coleridge's shortcomings. one of his most interesting comments on coleridge is contained in a discussion of byron's _darkness_, a poem which to his mind recalled "the wild, unbridled, and fiery imagination of coleridge."[ ] _darkness_ is characterized as a mass of images and ideas, unarranged, and the critic goes on to warn the author against indulging in this sort of poetry. he says: "the feeling of reverence which we entertain for that which is difficult of comprehension, gives way to weariness whenever we begin to suspect that it cannot be distinctly comprehended by anyone.... the strength of poetical conception and beauty of diction bestowed upon such prolusions [_sic_], is as much thrown away as the colors of a painter, could he take a cloud of mist or a wreath of smoke for his canvas." it is disappointing that we have no comment from scott upon shelley's poetry, but we can imagine what is would have been.[ ] scott's position as the great popularizer of the romantic movement in poetry makes particularly interesting his very evident though not often expressed repugnance to the more extreme development of that movement. wordsworth's peculiar theory of poetry seemed to scott superfluous and unnecessary, though he was never, so far as we can judge, especially irritated by it.[ ] of wordsworth and southey he wrote to miss seward: "were it not for the unfortunate idea of forming a new school of poetry, these men are calculated to give it a new impulse; but i think they sometimes lose their energy in trying to find not a better but a different path from what has been travelled by their predecessors."[ ] scott paid tribute in the introduction to _the antiquary_ to as much of wordsworth's poetical creed as he could acquiesce in when he said, "the lower orders are less restrained by the habit of suppressing their feelings, and ... i agree with my friend wordsworth that they seldom fail to express them in the strongest and most powerful language." in a letter to southey scott calls wordsworth "a great master of the passions,"[ ] and in his _journal_ he said: his imagination "is naturally exquisite, and highly cultivated by constant exercise."[ ] at another time he compared wordsworth and southey as scholars and commented on the "freshness, vivacity, and spring" of wordsworth's mind.[ ] the personal relations between scott and wordsworth were, as wordsworth's tribute in _yarrow revisited_ would indicate, those of affectionate intimacy. and if scott took exception to wordsworth's choice of subjects and manner, wordsworth used the same freedom in disagreeing with scott's poetical ideals. "thank you," he wrote in , "for _marmion_, which i have read with lively pleasure. i think your end has been attained. that it is not in every respect the end which i should wish you to purpose to yourself, you will be well aware, from what you know of my notions of composition, both as to matter and manner."[ ] when, in , chantrey was about to exhibit together his busts of the two poets, scott wrote: "i am happy my effigy is to go with that of wordsworth, for (differing from him in very many points of taste) i do not know a man more to be venerated for uprightness of heart and loftiness of genius. why he will sometimes choose to crawl upon all fours, when god has given him so noble a countenance to lift to heaven, i am as little able to account for as for his quarrelling (as you tell me) with the wrinkles which time and meditation have stamped his brow withal."[ ] these remarks upon wordsworth and coleridge touch merely the fringe of the subject, and indeed we do not find that scott exercised any such sublimated ingenuity in appreciating these men as has often been considered essential. we can see that he admired certain parts of their work intensely, but we look in vain for any real analysis of their quality. but as he never had occasion to write essays upon their poetry, it is perhaps hardly fair to expect anything more than the general remarks that we actually do find, and as far as they go they are satisfactory. like most of his distinguished contemporaries, scott held the work of southey in surprisingly high estimation.[ ] southey, more than anyone else except wordsworth, and more than wordsworth in some ways, was the "real poet" of the period, devoting his whole heart to literature and his whole time to literary pursuits. scott commented on the fact, saying, "southey's ideas are all poetical," and, "in this respect, as well as in many others, he is a most striking and interesting character."[ ] nevertheless scott found it easy to criticise southey's poems adversely, as we may see from his correspondence. writing to miss seward he pointed out flaws in the story and the characterization of _madoc_,[ ] yet after repeated readings he saw enough to convince him that _madoc_ would in the future "assume his real place at the feet of milton."[ ] _thalaba_ was one of the poems he liked to have read aloud on sunday evenings.[ ] a review of _the curse of kehama_, in which he seemed to express the opinion that this surpassed the poet's previous work, illustrates his professed creed as to criticism. he wrote to ellis concerning his article: "what i could i did, which was to throw as much weight as possible upon the beautiful passages, of which there are many, and to slur over the absurdities, of which there are not a few.... this said _kehama_ affords cruel openings for the quizzers, and i suppose will get it roundly in the _edinburgh review_. i could have made a very different hand of it, indeed, had the order of the day been _pour déchirer_."[ ] if scott had to make an effort in writing the review, he made it with abundant energy. some absurdities are indeed mentioned, but various particular passages are characterized in the most enthusiastic way, with such phrases as "horribly sublime," "impressive and affecting," "reminds us of the satan of milton, yet stands the comparison," "all the gloomy power of dante." it may be noted that scott used milton's name rather freely in comparisons, and that for dante his admiration was altogether unimpassioned,[ ] but the review, after all, is on the whole very laudatory.[ ] in it scott awards to southey the palm for a surpassing share of imagination, which he elsewhere gave to coleridge. possibly scott was the less inclined to be severe over the absurdities of _kehama_ because southey agreed with his own theory as to the evil of fastidious corrections.[ ] at any rate he seems to have been quite sincere in saying to southey, in connection with the poet-laureateship which, according to scott's suggestion, was offered to him in , "i am not such an ass as not to know that you are my better in poetry, though i have had, probably but for a time, the tide of popularity in my favour."[ ] much as scott admired southey, wordsworth, and coleridge, he considered byron the great poetical genius of the period. he once spoke of byron as the only poet of transcendent talents that england had had since dryden.[ ] at another time his comment was: "he wrote from impulse, never from effort; and therefore i have always reckoned burns and byron the most genuine poetical geniuses of my time, and half a century before me. we have ... many men of high poetical talent, but none, i think, of that ever-gushing and perennial fountain of natural water."[ ] the likenesses between byron's poetical manner and scott's own must have made it easy for the elder poet to recognize the power of the younger, since scott was innocent of all repining or envy over the fact which he so freely acknowledged in later years, that byron "beat" him out of the field.[ ] from the time of the appearance of the first two cantos of _childe harold_ he acknowledged the author's "extraordinary power,"[ ] and even before that he had tried to soften jeffrey's harsh treatment of _hours of idleness_.[ ] in he was ready to say, "byron hits the mark where i don't even pretend to fledge my arrow."[ ] it was byron, rather than scott, who realized the debt of the new popular favorite to the old; and their personal relations were of the pleasantest, though they were never intimate as scott was with southey and wordsworth. as poets, scott and byron seem to have understood each other thoroughly.[ ] none of the other great poets of the period did justice to scott, nor did he succeed so well in defining the power of any of the others. his first review of _childe harold_ is the most important of all his articles on the poetry of his time; and his remarks written at the death of lord byron, though brief, are not less full of good judgment. originality, spontaneity, and the ability and inclination to write rapidly were traits scott admired most in byron, and in the vigor and beauty of the poems he found the fine flower of all these qualities. "we cannot but repeat our conviction," he says, "that poetry, being, in its higher classes, an art which has for its elements sublimity and unaffected beauty, is more liable than any other to suffer from the labour of polishing.... it must be remembered that we speak of the higher tones of composition; there are others of a subordinate character where extreme art and labour are not bestowed in vain. but we cannot consider over-anxious correction as likely to be employed with advantage upon poems like those of lord byron, which have for their object to rouse the imagination and awaken the passions."[ ] byron's temperament was far from being of a sort that scott could admire, though he was very susceptible to his personal charm: "byron's countenance is a thing to dream of," he once said;[ ] but he felt that popular estimation did byron injustice. his articles on this poet contain some of his most characteristic moral reflections. something of byron's gloominess scott attributes to the sensitive poetic organization which he felt that byron had in an extreme degree; but more to the perverted habit of looking within rather than around upon the realities of life, in which providence intended men to find their happiness. the philosophy is not novel or brilliant; it is only very sincere and very just; and it supplies to scott's criticism of byron that element of moral reflection which we feel was necessary to the occasion.[ ] but though scott never failed to express disapproval of byron's attitude toward life, he kept his criticism on this point essentially distinct from his judgment on the poetry. in a way it was impossible to separate the two subjects, and the public demanded some discussion of the man when his poetry was reviewed. but scott's verdict on the importance of the poems as such was unaffected by his disapproval of the author's point of view. he praised _don juan_ no less heartily than _childe harold_. his criticism of _don juan_ is, however, to be gathered only from short and incidental remarks, as he never reviewed the poem. a satire written by r.p. gillies is commemorated thus in scott's _journal_: "this poem goes to the tune of _don juan_, but it is the champagne after it has stood two days with the cork drawn."[ ] he called byron "as various in composition as shakspeare himself"; and added, "this will be admitted by all who are acquainted with his _don juan_.... neither _childe harold_, nor any of the most beautiful of byron's earlier tales, contain more exquisite morsels of poetry than are to be found scattered through the cantos of _don juan_."[ ] the defence of _cain_ which scott wrote in accepting the dedication of that poem to himself is well known.[ ] he calls it a "very grand and tremendous drama," and continues, "byron has certainly matched milton on his own ground. some part of the language is bold, and may shock one class of readers, whose tone will be adopted by others out of affectation or envy. but then they must condemn the _paradise lost_, if they have a mind to be consistent." scott's comments on byron are closely paralleled by those of goethe, who considered that byron had the greatest talent of any man of his century.[ ] the opinions of continental critics in general were similar. among english critics matthew arnold aroused many protests when he ranked byron as one of the two greatest english poets of the nineteenth century, but his views seem perfectly rational now; and though he remarked upon the extravagance of scott's phrases his own verdict was not very unlike that we have been considering. scott's enthusiasm about the literature of his own time seems natural enough when we consider that the list of his notable contemporaries is far from exhausted after burns, the lake poets, and byron have been named. campbell was a poet of whose powers he thought very highly, but who, he believed had given only a sample of the great things he might do if he would cease to "fear the shadow of his own reputation." before he wrote about byron scott had given in his review of _gertrude of wyoming_ an exposition of his opinion as to the dangers of extreme care in revision. "the truth is," he says, "that an author cannot work upon a beautiful poem beyond a certain point without doing it real and irreparable injury in more respects than one."[ ] he felt that campbell had worked, in many cases, beyond the "certain point." for the "impetuous lyric sally," like the _mariners of england_ and the _battle of the baltic_, scott rightly thought that campbell excelled all his contemporaries. moore was another lyrist whose poetry scott greatly admired. in moore's case, as in southey's, the contemporary estimate was higher than can now be maintained, but moore is to-day underrated. from what scott says about him we conclude that the man's personality and his way of singing added much to the exquisiteness of his songs. "he seems almost to think in music," scott said, "the notes and words are so happily suited to each other";[ ] and, "it would be a delightful addition to life if t.m. had a cottage within two miles of one."[ ] allan cunningham was a young protege of scott whose songs, "its hame and it's hame," and "a wet sheet and a flowing sea," seemed to him "among the best going."[ ] another poet who received scott's good offices was hogg, whose relations with the greater man are described so vividly and at some points so amusingly by lockhart. scott called him a "wonderful creature for his opportunities."[ ] for the poet crabbe, scott, like byron and wordsworth,[ ] had a steady and high admiration. in the sunday evening readings that lockhart describes as being so pleasant a feature of the life of the family in edinburgh, crabbe was perhaps the chief standing resource after shakspere.[ ] his work was particularly recommended to the young people of the family,[ ] and when the venerable poet visited the scotts in , he was received as a man whom they always looked upon as nobly gifted. scott once wrote of him: "i think if he had cultivated the sublime and the pathetic instead of the satirical cast of poetry, he must have stood very high (as indeed he does at any rate) on the list of british poets. his _sir eustace grey_ and _the hall of justice_ indicate prodigious talent."[ ] scott did not like crabbe's choice of subjects,[ ] but he appreciated the "force and vigour" of a poet whom students of our own day are once more beginning to admire, after a period during which he was practically ignored. scott's very high estimation of joanna baillie has already been mentioned.[ ] in this case as in many others he was proud and happy in the personal friendship of the writer whose works he admired. he once wrote to miss edgeworth: "i have always felt the value of having access to persons of talent and genius to be the best part of a literary man's prerogative."[ ] almost the earliest of the writers for whose friendship scott felt grateful was matthew lewis, famed as the author of _the monk_. lewis was also something of a poet, and was really helpful to scott in giving him advice on literary subjects. though scott perceived that lewis's talents "would not stand much creaming"[ ] he continued to regard him as one who had had high imagination and a "finer ear for rhythm than byron's." scott felt that his own taste in respect to poetry became more rigorous as he grew older. in in a letter to miss baillie he commented on mrs. hemans as "somewhat too poetical for my taste--too many flowers, i mean, and too little fruit--but that may be the cynical criticism of an elderly gentleman; for it is certain that when i was young i read verses of every kind with infinitely more indulgence, because with more pleasure than i can now do--the more shame for me now to refuse the complaisance which i have had so often to solicit."[ ] similarly he speaks in the preface to _kenilworth_ of having once been delighted with the poems of mickle and langhorne: "there is a period in youth when the mere power of numbers has a more strong effect on ear and imagination than in after-life." with these comments we may put lockhart's sagacious remark: "his propensity to think too well of other men's works sprung, of course, mainly from his modesty and good nature; but the brilliancy of his imagination greatly sustained the delusion. it unconsciously gave precision to the trembling outline, and life and warmth to the vapid colours before him."[ ] this and his kindness would account for the latter half of the observation made by his publisher: "i like well scott's ain bairns--but heaven preserve me from those of his fathering."[ ] i have found no reference to landor, a poet whom southey and wordsworth read with eagerness, but mr. forster makes this statement in his _biography of landor_: "among landor's papers i found a list, prepared by himself, of resemblances to passages of his own writing to be found in scott's _tales of the crusaders_. there were several from _gebir_.... the poem had made a great impression on scott, who read it at southey's suggestion."[ ] forster also notes the fact that southey, in a letter to scott written in , spoke very highly of landor's _count julian_.[ ] i am similarly unable to cite any comment by scott on the writings of lamb. was it because scott's genius clung to scotland and lamb's to london, that the two seemed so little to notice each other? it does seem odd that scott never refers to the delightful _specimens of english dramatic poets_. at one time lamb wrote to sir walter asking a contribution toward a fund that was being raised to help william godwin out of pecuniary troubles, and scott replied, through the artist haydon, with a cheque for ten pounds and a pleasant message to mr. lamb, "whom i should be happy to see in scotland, though i have not forgotten his metropolitan preference of houses to rocks, and citizens to wild rustics and highland men."[ ] hazlitt and hunt were two other writers whose literary work scott ignored.[ ] this, as well as his neglect of lamb's and dequincey's essays, may be due largely to the fact that he seldom read newspapers and magazines, and these writers were journalists and contributors to periodicals. voracious reader as scott was, he had to economize time somewhere, and the hours saved from papers could be given to books. we do find one or two references to these men as political writers. scott hoped lockhart would learn, as editor of the _quarterly_, to despise petty adversaries, for "to take notice of such men as hazlitt and hunt in the _quarterly_ would be to introduce them into a world which is scarce conscious of their existence."[ ] among novelists, those of scott's contemporaries to whom he gave the highest praise were women. this is, however to be expected, and it is natural to find jane austen receiving the highest praise of all; since scott was emphatically not of the tribe of critics who are able to appreciate only one kind of novel or poem. her novels seemed to grow upon him and he read them often. it was in connection with her "exquisite touch" that he was moved to reflect, in the words so often quoted from his _journal_, "the big bow-wow strain i can do myself like any now going."[ ] among the expressions of admiration which occur in his review of _emma_,[ ] scott records a characteristic bit of protest in regard to the tendency of miss austen and other novelists to make prudence the guiding motive of all their favorite young women characters, especially in matters of the heart. he did not like this pushing out of cupid to make way for so moderate a virtue as prudence; he thought that it is often good for young people to fall in love without regard to worldly considerations. scott rated miss edgeworth nearly as high as miss austen, and hers is the added honor of having inspired the author of _waverley_ with a desire to emulate her power.[ ] with these two novelists he associated miss ferrier, as well as the somewhat earlier writer, fanny burney.[ ] aside from these women and henry mackenzie, perhaps the highest praise that scott bestowed on any contemporary novelist was given to cooper. here, as in the case of byron, scott seemed to ignore the other writer's indebtedness to himself. he speaks, in the general preface to the waverley novels, of "that striking field in which mr. cooper has achieved so many triumphs"; and at another time calls him "the justly celebrated american novelist." in his _journal_ he comments on _the red rover_[ ] and _the prairie_;[ ] _the pilot_ he recommends warmly in a letter to miss edgeworth.[ ] the personal relations between "the scotch and american lions," as scott called himself and cooper, when they met in parisian society in ,[ ] had some interesting consequences. cooper suggested to scott that he try to secure for himself part of the profits arising from the publication of his works in america, by entering them as the property of some citizen.[ ] they finally concluded to substitute for this plan one suggested by scott, which involved the writing by the author of waverley, of a letter addressed to cooper, to be transmitted by him to some american publisher who would undertake the publication of an authorized edition of which half the profits should go to the author. future works were to be sent over to this publisher in advance of their appearance in england. the letter was really an appeal to the justice of the american people, and contained an allusion to the publication of irving's works in england according to a plan very similar to that proposed by scott. but the scheme failed here in america, and apparently the letter was not made public until cooper, irritated by the appearance in lockhart's _life of scott_ of sir walter's comments on his personal manner,[ ] explained the affair (except the reason for dropping the plan), and published the correspondence in the _knickerbocker magazine_ for april, .[ ] later in the same year cooper wrote a severe review of the biography of scott, attacking his character in a way that seems absurdly exaggerated.[ ] yet charles sumner seems to have thought that cooper made his points, and mr. lounsbury is inclined to agree with him.[ ] one of the milder strictures in cooper's review was as follows "as he was ambitious of, so was he careful to preserve, his personal popularity, of which we have a striking proof in the studied kindnesses that for years were laid before this country in deeds and words, as compared with his real acts and sentiments toward america and americans which are now revealed in his letters." a passage which doubtless roused cooper's ire may be quoted. of the americans scott said, in a letter to miss edgeworth, "they are a people possessed of very considerable energy, quickened and brought into eager action by an honourable love of their country and pride in their institutions; but they are as yet rude in their ideas of social intercourse, and totally ignorant, speaking generally, of all the art of good breeding, which consists chiefly in a postponement of one's own petty wishes or comforts to those of others. by rude questions and observations, an absolute disrespect to other people's feelings, and a ready indulgence of their own, they make one feverish in their company, though perhaps you may be ashamed to confess the reason. but this will wear off and is already wearing away. men, when they have once got benches, will soon fall into the use of cushions. they are advancing in the lists of our literature, and they will not be long deficient in the _petite morale_, especially as they have, like ourselves, the rage for travelling."[ ] scott liked george ticknor,[ ] and he called washington irving "one of the best and pleasantest acquaintances i have made this many a day."[ ] in later life he congratulated himself on having from the first foreseen irving's success.[ ] when we remember also that scott quotes from poor richard,[ ] refers to cotton mather's _magnalia_,[ ] and speaks of "the american brown" as one whose novels might be reprinted in england,[ ] we ought probably to conclude that his acquaintance with our literature was as comprehensive as could have been expected. among continental writers belonging to his period, goethe was very properly the one for whom scott had the strongest admiration. but we find comparatively few references to his reading the great german after the early period of translation. throughout lockhart's _life of scott_ it is evident that the biographer had a more thorough acquaintance with goethe than had scott, and it seems probable that the younger man influenced the elder in his judgment on _faust_ and on goethe's character. in the introduction to _quentin durward_ we find an interesting comment on goethe's success in creating a really wicked mephistopheles, who escapes the noble dignity that milton and byron gave to their pictures of satan. goethe and scott exchanged letters once in ,[ ] and it was a personal grief to sir walter that the german poet's death prevented a visit scott proposed to make him in . in _anne of geierstein_ goethe is called "an author born to arouse the slumbering fame of his country";[ ] and in the _journal_ scott characterizes him as "the ariosto at once and almost the voltaire of germany."[ ] the suggestion for the character of fenella in _peveril of the peak_ was taken from goethe, as we learn by scott's acknowledgment in the introduction. another german from whom scott borrowed a suggestion--this time for the unlucky "white lady of avenel"--was the baron de la motte fouqué. scott was evidently interested in his work, though he thought fouqué sometimes used such a profusion of historical and antiquarian lore that readers would find it difficult to follow the narrative.[ ] sir walter asked his son to tell the baroness de la motte fouqué that he had been much interested in her writings and those of the baron, and added, "it will be civil, for folks like to know that they are known and respected beyond the limits of their own country."[ ] in the literary circles of paris scott more than once experienced the pleasure of finding himself "known and respected" by foreigners,[ ] and he had intimate relations with men of letters in london. on one of his visits there he saw byron almost every morning for some time, at the house of murray the publisher. in edinburgh society scott was naturally a prominent figure, being noted for his fund of anecdote and his superior gifts in presiding at dinners. but however much his kindly personal feeling is reflected in his comments on the literary work of his friends, he was too well-balanced to assume anything of the patronizing tone that such success as his might have made natural to another sort of man. his fellow-poets thought him a delightful person whom they liked so much that they could almost forgive the preposterous success of his facile and unimportant poetry. his full-blooded enjoyment of life and literature tempered without obscuring his critical instinct, and though he was "willing to be pleased by those who were desirous to give pleasure",[ ] he noted the weak points of men to whose power he gladly paid tribute. wordsworth, coleridge, southey, and byron, whom he classed as the great english poets of his time, may, with the exception of southey, be given the places he assigned to them. in regard to byron, scott expressed a critical estimate that the public is only now getting ready to accept after a long period of depreciating byron's genius. the men whose work scott judged fairly and sympathetically represent widely different types. with some of them he was connected by the new impulse that they were imparting to english poetry, but he was so close to the transition period that he could look backward to his predecessors with no sense of strangeness. he was never inclined to quarrel with the "erroneous system" of a poem which he really liked. his comments on byron's _darkness_ suggest that if he had read more than he did of shelley and others among his younger contemporaries he might have found much to reprehend, but he held that "we must not limit poetical merit to the class of composition which exactly suits one's own particular taste."[ ] among novelists even less than among poets can we trace a "school" to which he paid special allegiance. he read and enjoyed all sorts of good stories, growing in this respect more catholic in his tastes, though perhaps more severe in his standards, as he grew older. in speaking of scott's relations with his contemporaries, we must especially remember his ardent interest in those realities of life which he considered greater than the greatest books. in one of his reviews he laid stress on the merit of writing on contemporary events,[ ] and he seemed to think there was too little of such celebration. there are many evidences of his great admiration for those of his contemporaries who were men of action, but it is sufficient to remember that the only man in whose presence scott felt abashed was the duke of wellington, for he counted that famous commander the greatest man of his time. chapter v scott as a critic of his own work lack of dogmatism about his own work--harmony between his talents and his tastes--his conviction of the value of spontaneity and abundance--merits of a rapid meter--greater care necessary in verse writing a reason why he turned to prose--his attitude in regard to revision--modesty about his own work--his opinion of the popular judgment--importance of novelty--rivalry with byron--scott's attempts to keep ahead of his imitators--devices to secure novelty--his resolution to write history--historical motives of his novels--his comments on the use of historical material--his verdict in regard to his descriptive abilities and methods--lack of emphasis on the ethical aspect of his work--his judgment on the position of the novel in literature. "scott is invariably his own best critic," says mr. andrew lang.[ ] of this scott was not himself in the least convinced, and when we recall how, to please his printer, james ballantyne, he tacked on a last scene to _rokeby_, resuscitated the dead athelstane in _ivanhoe_, and eliminated the main motive of _st. ronan's well_, we wish he had been more uniformly inclined to trust his own critical judgment. he never scheduled the qualities of his own genius. a man who could sincerely say what he did about literary immortality would not be apt to develop any dogma in regard to his artistic achievement. "let me please my own generation," he said, "and let those that come after us judge of their taste and my performances as they please; the anticipation of their neglect or censure will affect me very little."[ ] his opinions about his own work are to be deduced largely from casual remarks scattered through his letters and journals. his introductions to his novels, in the _opus magnum_, are valuable sources, however, and the "epistle" preceding _the fortunes of nigel_ is a mine of material, though, unlike the later introductions, it was written "according to the trick," when he was still preserving his anonymity. we have an article which he wrote for the _quarterly_ on two of his own books, the review of _tales of my landlord_.[ ] his criticism of the work of other people is also very helpful in this connection, since from it we may learn what qualities he wished to find in poetry and in the novel, as well as in history, biography, and criticism, the fields in which he did much, though less famous work. the student of his criticism is struck at once by the fact that the qualities which scott particularly admired in literature were those for which he was himself preëminent. yet he cannot be accused, as poe may be, of constructing a theory that those types of art were greatest which he found himself most skilful in exemplifying. scott's nature was of that most efficient kind that enables a man to do such things as he likes to see done. we cannot argue that he was incapable of attending to minute niceties and on this account chose to emphasize the large qualities of literature. for notwithstanding that lack of delicacy which characterized his physical senses and which we might therefore conclude would affect his literary discernment, we have among his small poems some that show his power, occasionally at least, to satisfy the most fastidious critic of detail. evidently he could write in more than one style, and though the style he used most is undoubtedly that which was most natural to him, it was also that which he thought, on other grounds than the character of his own talents, best worth while. yet he had so little vanity in regard to his own work that he could hardly understand his success, though it depended on those very qualities which, in other authors, excited his utmost admiration. one of his fundamental opinions about literary work was that to write much and with abundant spontaneity is better than to polish minutely. over and over again we find this idea expressed, most noticeably in connection with the poet campbell, whom scott could scarcely forgive for making so little use of his poetical gifts. he applauded the much-criticised fertility of byron, whose genius was in that respect akin to his own. "i never knew name or fame burn brighter by over-chary keeping of it,"[ ] scott said. the greatest writers he observed, have been the most voluminous. his position was one that could be fortified by inductive reasoning, contrasting in this respect with theories which seem plausible only until they are tested by actual facts, as, for example, poe's idea that long poems lose effectiveness by their length. but perhaps scott did not sufficiently take into account the circular nature of his argument; for since the world has refused to consider the men very great who "never spoke out," the truth is not so much that a great man ought to write copiously as that if a man does not write copiously he will not be counted great. scott seemed to think it was mere wilfulness that prevented a man of such gifts as campbell's from writing abundantly. the corresponding disadvantages of rapid composition were of course evident to him. from the first appearance of the _lay_ to the end of his career he lamented his inability to plan a story in an orderly manner and follow out the scheme; he admitted also that "the misfortune of writing fast is that one cannot at the same time write concisely."[ ] of _marmion_ he told southey, "i had not time to write the poem shorter."[ ] his grief on these points seems qualified, however, by a conviction that he could not write with deliberation and method and still produce the effect of vivacious spontaneity. he thought fielding was almost the only novelist who had thoroughly succeeded in combining these various admirable qualities,[ ] and he said in this connection, "to demand equal correctness and felicity in those who may follow in the track of that illustrious novelist, would be to fetter too much the power of giving pleasure, by surrounding it with penal rules; since of this sort of light literature it may be especially said--_tout genre est permis, hors le genre ennuyeux_."[ ] "to confess to you the truth," says the "author" in the introductory epistle to _nigel_, "the works and passages in which i have succeeded, have uniformly been written with the greatest rapidity; and when i have seen some of these placed in opposition with others, and commended as more highly finished, i could appeal to pen and standish, that the parts in which i have come feebly off were by much the more laboured." he attempted to write _rokeby_ with great care, but threw the first version into the fire because he concluded that he had "corrected the spirit out of it, as a lively pupil is sometimes flogged into a dunce by a severe schoolmaster."[ ] he was better satisfied with the result when he resumed his pen in his "old cossack manner."[ ] similarly he writes of john home's tragedy, _douglas_, that the finest scene was, "we learn with pleasure but without surprise," unchanged from the first draft;[ ] and elsewhere he speaks of the greater chance for popularity of the "bold, decisive, but light-touched strain of poetry or narrative in literary composition," over the "more highly-wrought performance."[ ] a good exposition of scott's real opinion in regard to his own style is to be found in his review of _tales of my landlord_. some parts of the article were probably inserted by his friend william erskine, but the section i quote bears unmistakable evidence that it was written by the author himself, for it expresses that combined reprobation and approval of his style which is amusingly characteristic of him. he says: "our author has told us that it was his object to present a series of scenes and characters connected with scotland in its past and present state, and we must own that his stories are so slightly constructed as to remind us of the showman's thread with which he draws up his pictures and presents them successively to the eye of the spectator.... against this slovenly indifference we have already remonstrated, and we again enter our protest.... we are the more earnest in this matter, because it seems that the author errs chiefly from carelessness. there may be something of system in it, however, for we have remarked, that with an attention which amounts even to affectation, he has avoided the common language of narrative and thrown his story, as much as possible, into a dramatic shape. in many cases this has added greatly to the effect, by keeping both the actors and action continually before the reader and placing him, in some measure, in the situation of an audience at a theater, who are compelled to gather the meaning of the scene from what the dramatis personae say to each other, and not from any explanation addressed immediately to themselves. but though the author gain this advantage, and thereby compel the reader to think of the personages of the novel and not of the writer, yet the practice, especially pushed to the extent we have noticed, is a principal cause of the flimsiness and incoherent texture of which his greatest admirers are compelled to complain."[ ] lockhart points out that the fruit of scott's study of dryden may have been to fortify his opinion as to what the greatness of literature really consists in, and applies to scott himself some of the phrases used in the characterization of the earlier poet. "'rapidity of conception, a readiness of expressing every idea, without losing anything by the way'; 'perpetual animation and elasticity of thought'; and language 'never laboured, never loitering, never (in dryden's own phrase) cursedly confined,'" are set over against "pointed and nicely turned lines, sedulous study, and long and repeated correction and revision," and are pronounced the superior virtues.[ ] the concluding paragraph of scott's review of a poem on the battle of talavera exemplifies his use of this doctrine. "we have shunned, in the present instance," he says, "the unpleasant task of pointing out and dwelling upon individual inaccuracies. there are several hasty expressions, flat lines, and deficient rhymes, which prove to us little more than that the composition was a hurried one. these, in a poem of a different description, we should have thought it our duty to point out to the notice of the author. but after all it is the spirit of a poet that we consider as demanding our chief attention; and upon its ardour or rapidity must finally hinge our applause or condemnation."[ ] scott's opinions about meters reflect the same taste. he persuaded himself, when he was writing _the lady of the lake_, that the eight-syllable line is "more congenial to the english language--more favourable to narrative poetry at least--than that which has been commonly termed heroic verse,"[ ] and he proceeded to show that the first half-dozen lines of pope's _iliad_ were each "bolstered out" with a superfluous adjective. "the case is different in descriptive poetry," he added, "because there epithets, if they are happily selected, are rather to be sought after than avoided.... but if in narrative you are frequently compelled to tag your substantives with adjectives, it must frequently happen that you are forced upon those that are merely commonplaces." he mentions other beauties of his favorite verse,--the opportunities for variation by double rhyme and by occasionally dropping a syllable, and the correspondence between the length of line and our natural intervals between punctuation,--but gives as his final excuse for using it his "better knack at this 'false gallop' of verse." the argument is ingenious enough, but his analysis of heroic verse has only a limited application, and his last reason probably was, as he was candid enough to admit, the most weighty. george ellis replied to his defence thus: "i don't think, after all the eloquence with which you plead for your favourite metre, that you really like it from any other motive than that _sainte paresse_--that delightful indolence--which induces one to delight in those things which we can do with the least fatigue."[ ] this seems hardly a fair return for the poet's appeal to ellis in one of the epistles of _marmion_:[ ] "come listen! bold in thy applause, the bard shall scorn pedantic laws." another introduction in the same poem is given up to a justification of the author's "unconfined" style, on the score of his love for the wild songs of his own country and the freedom of his early training.[ ] scott practically never rewrote his prose, and the result gave hazlitt opportunity to say:[ ] "we should think the writer could not possibly read the manuscript after he has once written it, or overlook the press."[ ] his habit of carrying two trains of thought on together was also responsible for slips in diction and syntax. an amanuensis working for him noticed this peculiarity, and scott said in his _journal_: "there must be two currents of ideas going on in my mind at the same time.... i always laugh when i hear people say, do one thing at once. i have done a dozen things at once all my life."[ ] but the making of poetry required more attention. "verse i write twice, and sometimes three times over,"[ ] he said, and one is moved to wonder whether the distaste for writing poetry, that he professed about , arose largely from a growing aversion to what he probably considered extreme care in composition.[ ] a series of three comments on his own poetry may be given to illustrate his widely varying moods in regard to it. they are all taken from letters written not far from the time when _marmion_ was published. "as for poetry, it is very little labour to me; indeed 'twere pity of my life should i spend much time on the light and loose sort of poetry which alone i can pretend to write."[ ] "i believe no man now alive writes more rapidly than i do (no great recommendation), but i never think of making verses till i have a sufficient stock of poetical ideas to supply them."[ ] "if i ever write another poem, i am determined to make every single couplet of it as perfect as my uttermost care and attention can possibly effect."[ ] in spite of this momentary resolution to take more pains with his next poem, he was unable to do so when the time came; or if, as in the case of _rokeby_ he did make the attempt, the results seemed to him unsatisfactory. yet verse required much more careful finishing than prose, even when it was written by scott, and this fact has been too little emphasized in discussions of his transition from verse to prose romances. scott's temperamental aversion to revising what he had once written was evidently sanctioned by his literary creed. near the end of his life he recalled how he had submitted one of his earliest poems to the criticism of several acquaintances, with the consequence that after he had adopted their suggestions, hardly a line remained unaltered, and yet the changes failed to satisfy the critics.[ ] he said: "this unexpected result, after about a fortnight's anxiety, led me to adopt a rule from which i have seldom departed during more than thirty years of literary life. when a friend whose judgment i respect has decided and upon good advisement told me that a manuscript was worth nothing, or at least possessed no redeeming qualities sufficient to atone for its defects, i have generally cast it aside; but i am little in the custom of paying attention to minute criticisms or of offering such to any friend who may do me the honour to consult me. i am convinced that, in general, in removing even errors of a trivial or venial kind, the character of originality is lost, which, upon the whole, may be that which is most valuable in the production." this position appears doubly significant when we remember that it was assumed by a man who had only the slightest possible amount of paternal jealousy in regard to his writings.[ ] scott did not always adhere to this resolution, for he did accept criticism and make alterations, more in compliance with the wishes of james ballantyne, his friend and printer, than to meet the desires of anyone else. he considered that ballantyne represented the ordinary popular taste, and he was ready to make some sacrifice of his own judgment in order to satisfy his public. he sent the conclusion of _rokeby_ to ballantyne with this note: "dear james,--i send you this out of deference to opinions so strongly expressed, but still retaining my own, that it spoils one effect without producing another." when one of his books was adversely criticised by the public he received the judgment with open mind, and often analyzed it with much acuteness. the introduction to _the monastery_ is a good example of frank, though not servile, submission to the decree of public opinion. that he was deeply impressed with his blunder in managing the white lady of avenel may be surmised from the fact that in several later discussions of the effect of supernatural apparitions in novels, he emphasized the necessity of keeping them sufficiently infrequent to preserve an atmosphere of mystery. of _the monastery_ he said: "i agree with the public in thinking the work not very interesting; but it was written with as much care as the others--that is, with no care at all."[ ] but sometimes he felt inclined to rebel against a popular verdict, as when norna, in _the pirate_, was said to be a mere copy of meg merrilies.[ ] in his later days he grew more and more unsure of himself, as he felt compelled to work at his topmost speed. his _journal_ for has the following record in regard to a review he was writing: "i began to warm in my gear, and am about to awake the whole controversy of goth and celt. i wish i may not make some careless blunders."[ ] the criticisms of "j.b." became more frequent and more irritating to him as he felt a growing inability to achieve precision in details.[ ] when lockhart pointed out some lapses in his style, he wrote in his _journal_, "well! i will try to remember all this, but after all i write grammar as i speak, to make my meaning known, and a solecism in point of composition, like a scotch word in speaking, is indifferent to me."[ ] until he felt his powers failing, he was for the most part at once good-natured and independent in his manner of receiving criticism. whether or not he agreed with the opinion expressed, he usually thought that what he had once written might best stand, though he might be influenced in later work by the advice that had been given.[ ] "i am sensible that if there be anything good about my poetry or prose either," scott wrote, in a passage that has often been quoted, "it is a hurried frankness of composition which pleases soldiers, sailors and young people of bold and active disposition."[ ] i have tried to show that this quality was one which he not only enjoyed, in his own work and in that of other writers, but that as a critic he very seriously approved of it. yet in spite of his belief that the greatest literature is not the result of slow and painful labor, it was probably the ease with which he wrote which led him to undervalue his own work. however we may account for it, he found difficulty in regarding himself as a great author.[ ] when this modesty of his came into conflict with the other opinion that he had always been inclined to hold--that the popularity of books is a test of their merit--the result is amusing. he was impelled at times to utter contemptuous words about the foolishness of the public, and of course he could not help being moved also in the other direction--to believe there was more in his writings than he had realized. in one mood he said, "i thank god i can write ill enough for the present taste";[ ] and "i have very little respect for that dear _publicum_ whom i am doomed to amuse, like goody trash in _bartholomew fair_, with rattles and gingerbread; and i should deal very uncandidly with those who may read my confessions were i to say i knew a public worth caring for, or capable of distinguishing the nicer beauties of composition. they weigh good and evil qualities by the pound. get a good name and you may write trash. get a bad one and you may write like homer, without pleasing a single reader."[ ] looking back from the end of his career to the time when _the lady of the lake_ was in the height of its success, he wrote: "it must not be supposed that i was either so ungrateful or so superabundantly candid as to despise or scorn the value of those whose voice had elevated me so much higher than my own opinion told me i deserved. i felt, on the contrary, the more grateful to the public as receiving that from partiality which i could not have claimed from merit; and i endeavoured to deserve the partiality by continuing such exertions as i was capable of for their amusement."[ ] the perfect respectability of these remarks tempts the reader to set over against them this earlier observation by the same writer in the guise of chrystal croftangry, "one thing i have learned in life--never to speak sense when nonsense will answer the purpose as well."[ ] whatever scott might think of the worth of public admiration, he frankly attempted to write what would be popular. he had none of the feeling which has characterized many very interesting men of letters, that the desire for self-expression is the one motive of the author; his personal literary impulse, on the contrary, was always guided by the thought of the audience whom he was addressing. "no one shall find me rowing against the stream," says the "author" in the introductory epistle to _nigel_. "i care not who knows it--i write for general amusement; and though i will never aim at popularity by what i think unworthy means, i will not, on the other hand, be pertinacious in the defence of my own errors against the voice of the public." of his last "apoplectic books," he wrote, "i am ashamed, for the first time in my life, of the two novels, but since the pensive public have taken them, there is no more to be said but to eat my pudding and to hold my tongue."[ ] early in his career he seems to have felt that he could make a good deal of money by writing, if he should wish.[ ] towards the end he said, "i know that no literary speculation ever succeeded with me but where my own works were concerned; and that, on the other hand, these have rarely failed."[ ] the popularity of his own books was so great that they required a special category. he seemed to be incapable of ascribing their success to extraordinary excellence, and he settled down to the opinion that it was simply their novelty that the public cared for. the enthusiastic welcome given him by the irish when he visited dublin caused him to say in one of his letters, "were it not from the chilling recollection that novelty is easily substituted for merit, i should think, like the booby in steele's play,[ ] that i had been kept back, and that there was something more about me than i had ever been led to suspect."[ ] he assumed that he had studied popular taste enough to have some knowledge of its shiftings, so that he might "set every sail towards the breeze."[ ] "i may be mistaken," he once wrote, "but i do think the tale of elspat m'tavish in my bettermost manner, but j.b. roars for chivalry. he does not quite understand that everything may be overdone in this world, or sufficiently estimate the necessity of novelty. the highlanders have been off the field now for some time."[ ] his comment on _ivanhoe_ was still more emphatic. "novelty is what this giddy-paced time demands imperiously, and i certainly studies as much as i could to get out of the old beaten track, leaving those who like to keep the road, which i have rutted pretty well."[ ] believing from the beginning of his career that novelty was the chief merit of his work, he was prepared to live up to his principles. so it was that when he was "beaten" by byron in metrical romances, he dropped with hardly a regret, so far as we can judge, the kind of writing in which he had attained such remarkable popularity, and turned to another kind. "since one line has failed, we must just stick to something else," he remarked, calmly.[ ] this was when the small sales of _the lord of the isles_ as compared with the earlier poems warned scott and his publisher in a very tangible way that the field had been captured by byron. at this time _waverley_ was in the market and _guy mannering_ was in process of composition. though it was to his poetry that he chose to give his name, scott had little reason to feel forlorn, as the sale of the novels from the very beginning was a pretty effective consolation for any possible hurt to his vanity. he could have owned them as his at any moment, had he chosen to do so. he did not read criticisms of his books, but was satisfied, as one of his friends observed, "to accept the intense avidity with which his novels are read, the enormous and continued sale of his works, as a sufficient commendation of them."[ ] in the case of byron, as always when the public approved the works of one of his brother authors, he considered the popular judgment right. scott did not altogether stop writing poetry, however, as is sometimes supposed. _the field of waterloo_ and _harold the dauntless_ were both written after this time; and the mottoes and lyrics in the novels compose a delightful body of verse. the fact seems to be that he lost zest for writing long poems, partly because of the favor with which byron's poems were received, and his own consequent feeling of inferiority in poetic composition; partly because of his discovery of the greater ease with which he could write prose, and the greater scope it gave him. the more ambitious attempts among the poems which he wrote after are comparative failures. but the poetry in his nature prevented him from entirely giving over the composition of verse, and he found real delight in the occasional writing of short pieces that required no continued effort. they were usually made to be used in the novels, for after the publication of _guy mannering_ novel-writing became specifically scott's occupation.[ ] the price of his success in any direction was that he was unable to keep his field to himself. having set a fashion, he was more than once annoyed by the crowd who wrote in his style and made him feel the necessity of striking out a new line.[ ] it was comparatively easy for the vigorous man who wrote _waverley_, but in the end, when through his losses he was more than ever obliged to hit the popular taste, to feel that he must find a new style seemed a hard fate. yet he meant to be beforehand in the race. this is the record in his _journal_: "hard pressed as i am by these imitators, who must put the thing out of fashion at last, i consider, like a fox at his last shifts, whether there be a way to dodge them--some new device to throw them off, and have a mile or two of free ground while i have legs and wind left to use it. there is one way to give novelty: to depend for success on the interest of a well-contrived story. but woe's me! that requires thought, consideration--the writing out a regular plan or plot--above all, the adhering to one--which i never can do, for the ideas rise as i write, and bear such a disproportioned extent to that which each occupied at the first concoction, that (cocksnowns!) i shall never be able to take the trouble; and yet to make the world stare, and gain a new march ahead of them all! well, something we still will do."[ ] by an easy extension of his principle, he came to believe that novelty would always succeed for a time. the opinion is expressed often in his reviews, and in his journal and letters is applied to his own work. so it was that when any one of his books seemed partially to fail with the public, his immediate impulse was to look for something new to be done.[ ] one of his schemes was a work on popular superstitions, projected when _quentin durward_ seemed to be falling flat; but the success of the novel made the immediate execution of the plan unnecessary.[ ] it was largely his desire to secure variety that encouraged him to undertake historical writing. he had also a theory about how history should be written, and so he felt that the novelty would consist in something more than the fact that the author of waverley had taken a new line. he wished, as thackeray did later when he proposed to write a history of the age of queen anne, to use in an avowedly serious book the material with which he had stored his imagination; and he believed he could present it with a vivacity that was not characteristic of professional historians. the success of the first series of _tales of a grandfather_ served to confirm the opinion he had expressed about them,--"i care not who knows it, i think well of them. nay, i will hash history with anybody, be he who he will."[ ] scott had a very just sense of the value of his great stores of information. he did say that he would give one half his knowledge if so he might put the other half upon a well-built foundation,[ ] but as years went on he learned to use with ease the accumulations of knowledge which in his youth had proved often unwieldy; and more than once he congratulated himself that he beat his imitators by possessing historical and antiquarian lore which they could only acquire by "reading up."[ ] though he testified that in the beginning of his first novel he described his own education, he could hardly apply to himself what is there said of waverley, that, "while he was thus permitted to read only for the gratification of his amusement, he foresaw not that he was losing forever the opportunity of acquiring habits of firm and assiduous application, of gaining the art of controlling, directing, and concentrating the powers of his mind for earnest investigation."[ ] it was otherwise with scott himself. the result of the wide and desultory reading of his youth, acting upon a remarkably strong memory, was to put him into the position, as he says, of "an ignorant gamester, who kept a good hand until he knew how to play it."[ ] so it was that he said of those who followed his lead in writing historical novels, "they may do their fooling with better grace; but i, like sir andrew aguecheek, do it more natural."[ ] his knowledge of history and antiquities was that part of his intellectual equipment in which he seemed to take most pride. he had the highest opinion of the value of historical study for ripening men's judgment of current affairs,[ ] and indeed there were few relations of life in which an acquaintance with history did not seem to him indispensable. but he felt that historical writing had not been adapted "to the demands of the increased circles among which literature does already find its way."[ ] accordingly he resolved to use in the service of history that "knack ... for selecting the striking and interesting points out of dull details," which he felt was his endowment.[ ] the original introduction to the _tales of the crusaders_ has the following burlesque announcement of his intention, in the words of the eidolon chairman: "i intend to write the most wonderful book which the world ever read--a book in which every incident shall be incredible, yet strictly true--a work recalling recollections with which the ears of this generation once tingled, and which shall be read by our children with an admiration approaching to incredulity. such shall be the _life of napoleon_, by the _author of waverley_." he wished to controvert "the vulgar opinion that the flattest and dullest mode of detailing events must uniformly be that which approaches nearest to the truth."[ ] there is no doubt that his histories are readable, yet we feel that southey was right in his comment on the _life of napoleon_,--"it was not possible that sir walter could keep up as a historian the character which he had obtained as a novelist; and in the first announcement of this 'life' he had, not very wisely, promised something as stimulating as his novels. alas! he forgot that there could be no stimulus of curiosity in it."[ ] a recent critic has said, "scott lost half his power of vitalizing the past when he sat down formally to record it--when he turned from his marvellous recreation of james i. to give a laboured but very ordinary portrait of napoleon."[ ] his partial failure in this instance may have been due to an unfortunate choice of subject. only a few years before he wrote the book scott had been thinking of napoleon as a "tyrannical monster,"[ ] a "singular emanation of the evil principle,"[ ] "the arch-enemy of mankind,"[ ]--phrases which, in spite of their vividness, hardly seem to promise a life-like portrayal of the man.[ ] in one notable respect, scott's conception of how history should be written was very modern: he would depict the life of the people, not simply the actions of kings and statesmen. his historical novels, said carlyle, "taught all men this truth, which looks like a truism, and yet was as good as unknown to writers of history and others, till so taught: that the bygone ages of the world were actually filled by living men, not by protocols, state-papers, controversies, and abstractions of men."[ ] one who has the academic notion that a novel, to be great, must be written with no ulterior purpose, is almost startled to observe how definitely scott considered it the function of his novels to portray ancient manners. speaking of old romances as a source which we may use for studying about our ancestors, he said: "from the romance, we learn what they were; from the history, what they did: and were we to be deprived of one of these two kinds of information, it might well be made a question, which is most useful or interesting."[ ] he wished to make his own romances serve much the same purpose as those written in the midst of the customs which they unconsciously reflected. of _waverley_ he said, "it may really boast to be a tolerably faithful portrait of scottish manners."[ ] he interrupts the story of _the pirate_ to describe the charm of the leaden heart, and offers this excuse: "as this simple and original remedy is peculiar to the isles of thule, it were unpardonable not to preserve it at length, in a narrative connected with scottish antiquities."[ ] his comment on _ivanhoe_ was as follows: "i am convinced that however i myself may fail in the ensuing attempt, yet, with more labour in collecting, or more skill in using, the materials within his reach, illustrated as they have been by the labours of dr. henry, of the late mr. strutt, and above all, of mr. sharon turner, an abler hand would have been successful."[ ] scott's early reading was only the basis for the research that he undertook afterwards.[ ] much of this later study was accomplished when he was engaged upon such books as _somers' tracts_, _dryden's_ and _swift's works_, and the other historical publications that make the bibliography of scott so surprising to the ordinary reader; but some of his investigations were undertaken specifically for the novels. the _literary correspondence_ of his publisher, archibald constable, contains many evidences of scott's efforts, assisted often by constable, to get antiquarian and topographical details correct in the novels. in constable suggested that sir walter write a story of the time of james i. of england, and was told, "if you can suggest anything about the period i will be happy to hear from you; you are always happy in your hints."[ ] some years earlier the author and the publisher had a correspondence concerning a series of letters on the history of scotland which the former was planning to write, and which he wished to publish anonymously for the following reason: "i have not the least doubt that i will make a popular book, for i trust it will be both interesting and useful; but i never intended to engage in any proper historical labour, for which i have neither time, talent, nor inclination.... in truth it would take ten years of any man's life to write such a history of scotland as he should put his name to."[ ] he called his _napoleon_ "the most severe and laborious undertaking which choice or accident ever placed on my shoulders."[ ] more than once scott expresses the opinion that though novels may be useful to arouse curiosity about history, and to impart some knowledge to people who will not do any serious thinking, they may, on the other hand, work harm by satisfying with their superficial information those who would otherwise read history.[ ] it seems as if he designed the _life of napoleon_ and the _history of scotland_ for a new reading class that the novels had been creating, and as if he wished to make the step of transition not too long. we can almost fancy them as a series of graded books arranged to lead the people of great britain up to a sufficient height of historical information. the _tales of a grandfather_ were intended for the beginners who had never been infected by the common heresy concerning the dulness of history, and who were blessed with sufficiently active imagination to make the sugar-coating of fiction superfluous.[ ] but great as was the interest that scott took in the historical aspect of his work, his artistic sense guided his use of materials, and he was well aware of the danger of over-working the mine. the principles on which he chose periods and events to represent are illustrated in many of the introductions. of _the fortunes of nigel_ he said: "the reign of james i., in which george heriot flourished, gave unbounded scope to invention in the fable, while at the same time it afforded greater variety and discrimination of character than could, with historical consistency, have been introduced if the scene had been laid a century earlier."[ ] his first published attempt at fiction-writing was a conclusion to the novel, _queenhoo-hall_,[ ] of which his opinion was that it would never be popular because antiquarian knowledge was displayed in it too liberally. "the author," he says, "forgot ... that extensive neutral ground, the large proportion, that is, of manners and sentiments which are common to us and to our ancestors, having been handed down unaltered from them to us, or which, arising out of the principles of our common nature, must have existed in either state of society."[ ] scott's practice in regard to the language of his historical novels was based on much the same theory. he intended to admit "no word or turn of phraseology betraying an origin directly modern,"[ ] but to avoid obsolete words for the most part; and he never attempted to follow with fidelity the style of the exact age of which he was writing. the translation of froissart by lord berners seemed to him a sufficiently good model to serve for the whole mediaeval period.[ ] in his review of _tales of my landlord_ he says of the proem to his book: "it is written in the quaint style of that prefixed by gay to his _pastorals_, being, as johnson terms it, 'such imitation as he could obtain of obsolete language, and by consequence, in a style that was never written or spoken in any age or place.'" his _journal_ contains observations on several historical novels which were of little consequence, as, for example, on one by a mr. bell,--"he goes not the way to write it; he is too general, and not sufficiently minute";[ ] and on _the spae-wife_, by galt,--"he has made his story difficult to understand, by adopting a region of history little known."[ ] on the other hand he remarked, when someone had suggested a number of historical subjects to him,--"people will not consider that a thing may already be so well told in history, that romance ought not in prudence to meddle with it";[ ] and at another time he spoke of "the usual habit of antiquarians," to "neglect what is useful for things that are merely curious."[ ] aside from the familiar knowledge of ancient manners which he thought enabled him to give his tales the necessary touch of novelty, and from the "hurried frankness," or spontaneity of style which endowed them with vitality, scott believed that his talents included a special knack at description. he felt, however, that a sense of the picturesque in action was a different thing from a similar perception in regard to scenery, and that though the first was natural to him, he was obliged to use effort to develop the second.[ ] some study of drawing in his youth helped him to comprehend the demands of perspective, and he endeavored to carry out the principle of describing a scene in the way in which it would naturally strike the spectator, neither overloading with confused detail nor over-emphasizing what should be subordinate.[ ] that his plan was consciously adopted may be seen from his discussion of byron's skill in description and from his comments on the descriptive passages of the mediaeval romances.[ ] at the same time he understood the advantages of the realistic method. on one occasion he stated as his creed, "that in nature herself no two scenes were exactly alike, and that whoever copied truly what was before his eyes would possess the same variety in his descriptions, and exhibit apparently an imagination as boundless as the range of nature in the scenes he recorded; whereas, whoever trusted to imagination would soon find his own mind circumscribed and contracted to a few favourite images, and the repetition of these would sooner or later produce that very monotony and barrenness which had always haunted descriptive poetry in the hands of any but the patient worshippers of truth."[ ] wordsworth disapproved of scott's method in description. he is quoted as having said: "nature does not permit an inventory to be made of her charms! he should have left his pencil and note-book at home [and] fixed his eye as he walked with a reverent attention on all that surrounded him."[ ] somewhat like a rejoinder sounds another remark of scott's, in phrases that wordsworth would have detested. scott said cheerfully, "as to the actual study of nature, if you mean the landscape gardening of poetry ... i can get on quite as well from recollection, while sitting in the parliament house, as if wandering through wood and wold."[ ] at another time he said, "if a man will paint from nature, he will be likely to amuse those who are daily looking at it."[ ] though scott prided himself somewhat on his descriptive powers he realized that he could not do his best work on minute canvases. we have already seen how he contrasted himself with jane austen. "the exquisite touch," he said, "which renders ordinary commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the description and the sentiment, is denied to me."[ ] of scott's opinion in regard to the ethical effect of novels, i have already spoken.[ ] the fact that he refused to use the conventional plea of a desire to improve public morals, and that he understood how little a reader is really influenced by the exalted sentiments of heroes of fiction, gave carlyle a fit of righteous indignation;[ ] but it is futile to say that scott "had no message to deliver to the world." he might have retorted, in the words which he once used about homer,--"doubtless an admirable moral may be often extracted from his poem; because it contains an accurate picture of human nature, which can never be truly presented without conveying a lesson of instruction. but it may shrewdly be suspected that the moral was as little intended by the author as it would have been the object of an historian, whose work is equally pregnant with morality, though a detail of facts be only intended."[ ] it was a comfort to scott at the end of his life to reflect that the tendency of all he had written was morally good,[ ] and we can well believe that he was pleased by the enthusiastic tribute of his young critic, j.l. adolphus, who said of his books: "there is not an unhandsome action or degrading sentiment recorded of any person who is recommended to the full esteem of the reader."[ ] that scott considered poetical power very important for a writer of novels, he made evident in his _lives of the novelists_. mr. herford has said, but surely without good reason, that scott wholly lacked the sense of mystery, and that in this respect mrs. radcliffe was more modern than he.[ ] yet it was scott who censured mrs. radcliffe for explaining her mysteries. he had a vein of superstition in his nature, too, about which he might have said, using the words given to a character in one of his stories,--"it soothes my imagination, without influencing my reason or conduct."[ ] a liking for the wonderful and terrible, which he felt from his earliest childhood, was one manifestation of a poetical temperament which is so apparent that there is no need of reciting the evidence. the poetical qualities in the waverley novels gave adolphus one of his favorite arguments in the attempt to prove that scott was the author. yet scott seemed to feel that his position as a writer of popular fiction, however much the novel is capable of being the vehicle of imagination and poetical power, was not a really high one. james ballantyne persuaded him to omit from one of his introductions a passage that seemed to belittle the occupation of his life,[ ] but in the introduction to _the abbot_ he wrote: "though it were worse than affectation to deny that my vanity was satisfied at my success in the department in which chance had in some measure enlisted me, i was nevertheless far from thinking that the novelist or romance-writer stands high in the ranks of literature." the ideal which he set for himself is indicated in the following passage of his article on _tales of my landlord_: "if ... the features of an age gone by can be recalled in a spirit of delineation at once faithful and striking ... the composition is in every point of view dignified and improved; and the author, leaving the light and frivolous associates with whom a careless observer would be disposed to ally him, takes his seat on the bench of the historians of his time and country." he once expressed the opinion that the historical romance approaches, in some measure, when it is nobly executed, to the epic in poetry.[ ] when a medal of scott, engraved from the bust by chantrey, was struck off, he suggested the motto which was used: "bardorum citharas patrio qui reddidit istro," and said, "because i am far more vain of having been able to fix some share of public attention upon the ancient poetry and manners of my country, than of any original efforts which i have been able to make in literature."[ ] the following commendation, which he wrote for a book of portraits accompanied by essays, might be made to apply to his novels: "it is impossible for me to conceive a work which ought to be more interesting to the present age than that which exhibits before our eyes our 'fathers as they lived'"[ ] he felt strongly the value and importance of past manners, faiths and ideals for the present, and from this point of view took satisfaction in the social and ethical teaching of his novels. on the whole, scott's opinions about his own work fitted well with his general literary principles, except that his modesty inclined him to discount his own performance while he overestimated that of others. with this qualification we may remember that he always spoke sensibly about his work, without affectation, and with abundant geniality. we are reminded of the comment on molière quoted by scott from a french writer,--"he had the good fortune to escape the most dangerous fault of an author writing upon his own compositions, and to exhibit wit, where some people would only have shown vanity and self-conceit."[ ] chapter vi scott's position as critic comparison of scott with jeffrey and with the romantic critics--his criticism largely appreciative--romantic in special cases and augustan in attitude--comparison with coleridge--scott's respect for the verdict of the public--his opinion that elucidation is the function of criticism--use of historical illustration--hesitation about analysing poetry--political criticism--verdict of his contemporaries on his criticism--influence as a critic--literary prophecies--character of his critical work as a whole--his attitude towards it--lack of system--broad fields he covered--his greatness a reason for the importance of his criticism. important as scott's poetry was in the english romantic revival, as a critic he can hardly be counted among the romanticists. his attitude, nevertheless, differed radically from that of the school represented by jeffrey and gifford. we have already seen that he disliked their manner of reviewing, and that he was conscious of complete disagreement with jeffrey in regard to poetic ideals. of jeffrey mr. gates has said: "[he] rarely _appreciates_ a piece of literature.... he is always for or against his author; he is always making points."[ ] that scott was influenced in his early critical work by the tone of the _edinburgh review_ is undeniable, but temperamentally he was inclined to give any writer a fair chance to stir his emotions; and he did not adopt the magisterial mood that dictated the famous remark, "this will never do." scott's style lacked the adroitness and pungency which helped jeffrey successfully to take the attitude of the censor, and which made his satire triumphant among his contemporaries. scott declined, moreover, to cultivate skill in a method which he considered unfair. compared with jeffrey's his criticism wanted incisiveness, but it wears better. the period was transitional, and jeffrey did not go so far as scott in breaking away from the dictation of his predecessors. but his attitude was on the whole more modern than the reader would infer from the following sentence in one of his earliest reviews: "poetry has this much at least in common with religion, that its standards were fixed long ago by certain inspired writers, whose authority it is no longer lawful to call in question."[ ] he considered himself rather an interpreter of public opinion than a judge defining ancient legislation, but he used the opinion of himself and like-minded men as an unimpeachable test of what the greater public ought to believe in regard to literature. we may remember that the enthusiasm over the elizabethan dramatists which seems a special property of lamb and hazlitt, and which scott shared, was characteristic also of jeffrey himself. it was jeffrey's dogmatism and his repugnance to certain fundamental ideas which were to become dominant in the poetry of the nineteenth century that lead us to consider him one of the last representatives of the eighteenth century critical tradition. scott praised the augustan writers as warmly as jeffrey did, but he was more hospitable to the newer literary impulse. "perhaps the most damaging accusation that can be made against jeffrey as a critic," says mr. gates, "is inability to read and interpret the age in which he lived."[ ] scott's criticism was largely appreciative, but appreciative on a somewhat different plane from that of the contemporary critics whom we are accustomed to place in a more modern school: hazlitt, hunt, lamb, and coleridge. his judgments were less delicate and subtle than the judgments of these men were apt to be, and more "reasonable" in the eighteenth-century sense; they were marked, however, by a regard for the imagination that would have seemed most unreasonable to many men of the eighteenth century. scott had not a fixed theory of literature which could dominate his mind when he approached any work. he was open-minded, and in spite of his extreme fondness for the poetry of dr. johnson he was apt to be on the romantic side in any specific critical utterance. we have seen also that he resembled the romanticists in his power to disengage his verdicts on literature from ethical considerations. on the other hand he seems always to have deferred to the standard authorities of the classical criticism of his time when his own knowledge was not sufficient to guide him. in discussing roscommon's essay on translated verse he wrote: "it must be remembered that the rules of criticism, now so well known as to be even trite and hackneyed, were then almost new to the literary world."[ ] perhaps the main reason why one would not class scott's critical work with that of the romanticists is that he had no desire to proclaim a new era in creative literature or in criticism. like the romanticists he was ready to substitute "for the absolute method of judging by reference to an external standard of 'taste,' a method at once imaginative and historical";[ ] yet he talked less about imagination than about good sense. the comparison with boileau suggests itself, for scott admired that critic in the conventional fashion, calling him "a supereminent authority,"[ ] and boileau also had said much about "reason and good sense." but scott had an appreciation of the _furor poeticus_ that made "good sense" quite a different thing to him from what it was to boileau. he did not say, moreover, that the poet should be supremely characterized by good sense, but that the critic, recognizing the facts about human emotion, should make use of that quality. the subjective process by which experience is transmuted into literature engaged scott's attention very little: in this respect also he stands apart from the newer school of critics. the metaphysical description of imagination or fancy interested him less than the piece of literature in which these qualities were exhibited. his own mental activities were more easily set in motion than analysed, and the introspective or philosophical attitude of mind was unnatural to him. because of his adoption of the historical method of studying literature, and the similarity of many of his judgments to those which were in general characteristic of the romantic school, we may say that scott's criticism looks forward; but it shows the influence of the earlier period in its acceptance of traditional judgments based on external standards which disregarded the nature of the creative process. from coleridge scott is separated in the most definite way. coleridge began at the foundation, building up a set of principles such as the new impulse in literature seemed to demand. scott preferred the concrete, and was stimulated by the particular book to express opinions that would never have come to his mind as the result of pursuing a train of unembodied ideas. coleridge's judgments, moreover, would be unaffected by public estimation, for he sought to found them on the spiritual and philosophic consciousness that exists apart from the crowd.[ ] scott, on the other hand, was ready to use popular judgment as an important test of his opinions. coleridge himself pointed out another interesting contrast. he wrote: "dear sir walter scott and myself were exact, but harmonious opposites in this;--that every old ruin, hill, river, or tree, called up in his mind a host of historical or biographical associations, ... whereas, for myself, notwithstanding dr. johnson, i believe i should walk over the plain of marathon without taking more interest in it than in any other plain of similar features."[ ] we might perhaps say that coleridge's affection was given to ideas, scott's, to objects; hence coleridge was a critic of literary principles and theories, scott a critic of individual books and writers. it follows that scott was on the whole an impressionistic critic. a study of his personality is essential to a consideration of his critical work, for he was not so much a systematic student of literature, guided by fixed principles, as a man of a certain temperament who read particular things and made particular remarks about them as he felt inclined. the inconsistencies and contradictions which would naturally result from such a procedure are occasionally noticeable, but they are fewer than would occur in the work of a less well-balanced man than himself. his ideas about criticism were influenced by his feeling that the judgment of the public would after all take its own course, and that it was in the long run the best criterion. he used his opinion that an author, even in his own lifetime, commonly receives fair treatment from the public, as an argument against establishing in england any literary body having the power of pensioning literary men.[ ] on this subject he said, "there is ... really no occasion for encouraging by a society the competition of authors. the land is before them, and if they really have merit they seldom fail to conquer their share of public applause and private profit.... i cannot, in my knowledge of letters, recollect more than two men whose merit is undeniable while, i am afraid, their circumstances are narrow. i mean coleridge and maturin." scott's whole attitude toward criticism shows that he felt its supreme function to be elucidation. it should also, he believed, warn the world against books that were foolish, or pernicious, intellectually or morally; but unless there were good reason for issuing such warnings the bad books should be ignored and the good treated sympathetically, not without such discrimination as should distinguish between the better and the worse in them, but with emphasis on the better. his literary creed, though not formulated into a system, was conscious and fairly definite; but it consisted of general principles which never resolved themselves into intricate subtleties requiring great space for their development. scott could not think in that way, and he felt convinced that such thinking was useless and worse than useless. a magazine-writer of his own period who said of him,--"the author of _waverley_, we apprehend, has neither the patience nor the disposition requisite for writing philosophically upon any subject,"[ ] was mistaken, for much of scott's criticism, without making any pretensions, is really philosophical. but any fine-drawn analysis seemed to him to serve the vanity of the critic rather than the need of the public; and he despised that arrogance in the critic which leads him to assume to direct literary taste. historical illustration was that kind of editorial work which he found most congenial, and which harmonized best with his critical principles; for when he could bring definite facts to the service of elucidation he felt that he was doing something worth while. among all the introductions and annotations that we have from his hand, including those of the _dryden_ and the _swift_, this kind of explanation greatly predominates over the more strictly literary comment; in his reviews, also, it is evident that he seized every opportunity for turning from literary to historical discussion. he was in the habit of "embroidering the subject, whatever it might be, with lively anecdotic illustration,"[ ] as one of his biographers says. we are not to conclude that in writing on specifically literary subjects he felt ill at ease. he felt, on the contrary, that the objection lay in the too great ease with which the critic might become dictatorial. he was fond enough of details when they were concrete and vital. the facts of literary history were in this category to him, as distinguished from the notions of literary theory; and we find that his critical principles are apt to appear incidentally among remarks on what seemed to him the more tangible and important facts of literary and social history. the books he chose to review were chiefly those which gave him a chance to use his historical information and imagination. his ideas were concrete, as those of a great novelist must inevitably be. indeed the dividing line between creative work and criticism seems often to be obliterated in scott's literary discussions, since he was inclined to amplify and illustrate instead of dissecting the book under consideration. as a critic he was distinguished by the qualities which appear in his novels, and which may be described in hazlitt's words, as "the most amazing retentiveness of memory, and vividness of conception of what would happen, be seen, and felt by everybody in given circumstances."[ ] scott felt that there was especial danger of futile theorizing in the criticism of poetry. in writing about _alexander's feast_ he discussed for a moment the possibility of detecting points at which the author had paused in his work, but almost immediately he stopped himself with the characteristic remark--"there may be something fanciful ... in this reasoning, which i therefore abandon to the reader's mercy; only begging him to observe, that we have no mode of estimating the exertions of a quality so capricious as a poetic imagination."[ ] early in his career he gave this rather over-amiable explanation of the fact that he had never undertaken to review poetry: "i am sensible there is a greater difference of tastes in that department than in any other, and that there is much excellent poetry which i am not nowadays able to read without falling asleep, and which would nevertheless have given me great pleasure at an earlier period of my life. now i think there is something hard in blaming the poor cook for the fault of our own palate or deficiency of appetite."[ ] we have seen that he did review poetry afterwards, but that he was inclined to do it with the least possible emphasis on the specifically aesthetic elements. on the subject of novel-writing he developed a somewhat fuller critical theory, but here also his discussions concerned themselves rather with the kind of ideas set forth than with the manner of presentation. it does indeed seem as if scott's feelings were more easily aroused to the point of formulating "laws" in the field of political criticism than in that which appears to us his more legitimate sphere. he has his fling, to be sure, at madame de staël, because she "lived and died in the belief that revolutions were to be effected, and countries governed, by a proper succession of clever pamphlets."[ ] but in proposing the establishment of the _quarterly review_ he made no secret of the fact that his motives were political. the literary aspect of the periodical was thought of as a subordinate, though a necessary and not unimportant phase of the undertaking. the _letters of malachi malagrowther_ contain some very definite maxims on the subject of political economy, and just as decided are the remarks made in the last of _paul's letters_, as well as in the _life of napoleon_ and elsewhere, as to how louis xviii. ought to set about the task of calming his distracted kingdom of france. but however emphatic scott may be in the comments on government which appear throughout his writings, he was as strongly averse in this matter as in literary affairs to any separation of philosophy from fact: his maxims are always derived from experience. the following statement of opinion is typical: "in legislating for an ancient people, the question is not, what is the best possible system of law, but what is the best they can bear. their habitudes and prejudices must always be respected; and, whenever it is practicable, those prejudices, instead of being destroyed, ought to be taken as the basis of the new regulations."[ ] it was scott's political creed that roused the ire of such men as hazlitt and hunt, though they may also have been exasperated at the unprecedented success of poetry which seemed so facile and so superficial to them as scott's. leigh hunt calls him "a poet of a purely conventional order," "a bitter and not very large-minded politician," "a critic more agreeable than subtle."[ ] but scott's politics may be looked at in another way. "in his patriotism," says mr. courthope, "his passionate love of the past, and his reverence for established authority, literary or political, scott is the best representative among english men of letters of conservatism in its most generous form."[ ] though it seems to have been a common opinion among the literary men of his own time that scott's criticism was superficial, his knowledge of mediaeval literature was, as we have seen, recognized and respected. favorable comments by his contemporaries on other parts of his critical work are not difficult to find. for example, gifford wrote to murray in regard to the article on _lady suffolk's correspondence_: "scott's paper is a clever, sensible thing--the work of a man who knows what he is about."[ ] isaac d'israeli made the following observation on another of scott's papers: "the article on pepys, after so many have been written, is the only one which, in the most charming manner possible, shows the real value of these works, which i can assure you many good scholars have no idea of."[ ] a more recent verdict may be set beside those just quoted, and it is in perfect agreement with them. "his critical faculty," says professor saintsbury, "if not extraordinarily subtle, was always as sound and shrewd as it was good-natured."[ ] scott's influence as a critic was not very great, but his creative work exerted a strong influence on criticism as well as on the whole intellectual life of his age. his own novels demanded of the critic that kind of appreciation of the large qualities and negligence of the small which he had insisted on considering the function of criticism; and they became a fact in literature which determined to some degree the attitude taken toward ephemeral ideas. newman notes the popularity of scott's novels as one of the influences which prepared the ground for the tractarian movement, for scott enriched the visions of men by his pictures of the past, gave them noble ideas, and created a desire for a greater richness of spiritual life.[ ] much of his criticism also was inspired by the wish to construct an adequate picture of the past; so far it worked in the same direction with the novels. its most important offices aside from this were perhaps to present large and kindly views of literature and literary characters, especially through biographical essays; and to ameliorate somewhat the prevailing asperity of periodical criticism. a man of scott's temperament was little likely to set himself up for a prophet, and probably no literary prophecies of his were in the least influential. though he sometimes boasted that he understood the varying currents of popular taste, his experience in the publishing business taught him the fallibility of his impressions when the work of writers other than himself was concerned. he once wrote,--"the friends who know me best, and to whose judgment i am myself in the constant habit of trusting, reckon me a very capricious and uncertain judge of poetry; and i have had repeated occasion to observe that i have often failed in anticipating the reception of poetry from the public."[ ] but it is beyond the strength of flesh and blood to resist saying things about the future sometimes, and scott occasionally yielded to the temptation, helped, no doubt, by his amiability. southey's _madoc_, however, has not yet assumed that place at the feet of milton which, as we have seen, he ventured to predict for it. yet, if we may trust the memory of one of his friends, scott foresaw the literary success of two of his greatest contemporaries. r.p. gillies said in his _recollections_: "i remember well how correct scott's impressions were of such beginners in the literary world as had not then acquired any fixed character. of lord byron he had from the first a favourable impression.... of wordsworth he always spoke favourably, insisting that he was a true poet, but predicting that it would be long ere his works obtained the praise which they merited from the public."[ ] scott explicitly prided himself on two of his prophecies: that washington irving would make a name for himself, and that sir arthur wellesley would become known as an extraordinary man. though scott's critical work is comparatively little known, and though it presents no solidly organized front by which the public may be impressed, the opinions of so notable a writer have always had a certain weight. mr. churton collins thinks scott's judgment on dunbar has led modern editors to indulge in very exaggerated statements concerning the merit of that poet.[ ] a heavier charge has been laid at scott's door on the score of his edition of the _memoirs of captain carleton_. he concluded on very insufficient evidence, says colonel parnell, that these memoirs were genuinely historical, published them as such, and by the weight of his opinion falsified "the whole stream of nineteenth-century history bearing on the reign of queen anne."[ ] stanhope, macaulay, and other historians were ready to accept scott's judgment without further investigation, it seems; and if the accusation be true we may conclude that his influence as a critic has reached farther than might at first sight appear. yet we may be content to follow his lead in general, except in those bits of enthusiasm over his friends which bear witness to a generously optimistic nature rather than to a rigid critical attitude such as we should hardly demand in any case from a man of letters commenting on his contemporaries and friends. george ticknor was greatly impressed by the "right-mindedness" of the young sophia scott,[ ] and we may fairly adopt the word to describe the father whom she so much resembled. there was in him, as carlyle said, "such a sunny current of true humour and humanity, a free joyful sympathy with so many things; what of fire he had all lying so beautifully latent, as radical latent heat, as fruitful internal warmth of life;--a most robust, healthy man!"[ ] writers upon scott have made much, perhaps too much, of his feeling that his position as a landed gentleman was more enviable than his prominence as a writer. the point would be of greater consequence if it performed so important a function in explaining his work as has commonly been assigned to it. we are told that he wrote much and hastily because he wanted money to establish and support an estate; but the truth is that if he wrote at all he had to write in this way. he justly believed that he could do his best work so. yet it was a natural result of his facility that he should look upon the literature he produced as of comparatively little moment. some of his remarks about his critical work, however, show that he really regarded creative writing as the business of his life, and that in contrast with it he considered his criticism a relief from more arduous labor. after the publication of _marmion_ he wrote: "i have done with poetry for some time--it is a scourging crop, and ought not to be hastily repeated. editing, therefore, may be considered as a green crop of turnips or peas, extremely useful for those whose circumstances do not admit of giving their farm a summer fallow."[ ] after years of novel-writing he said of writing a review, "no one that has not laboured as i have done on imaginary topics can judge of the comfort afforded by walking on all-fours, and being grave and dull."[ ] from what scott said about dryden as a critic we may conclude that the unsystematic character of his own scholarly work may have been a matter of principle as well as inclination. "dryden," he wrote, "forebore, from prudence, indolence, or a regard for the freedom of parnassus, to erect himself into a legislator."[ ] the words remind us of comments made upon scott's own work, as for example by professor masson, who spoke of "the shrewdness and sagacity of some of his critical prefaces to his novels, where he discusses principles of literature without seeming to call them such."[ ] scott was quick to notice "cant and slang"[ ] in the professional language of men in all arts; and he valued most highly the remarks of those whose intelligence had not been overlaid by a conventional pedantry. knowing that criticism was not the main business of his life, we are inclined to be surprised at the broad fields which he seemed to have no hesitation in entering upon. his remarkable memory doubtless had something to do with this, but he lived in a period when generalization was more possible and more permissible than it is in this era of special monographs. the large tendencies and characteristics that he traced in his essay on romance, for instance, are undoubtedly to be qualified at numberless points, but writing when he did, scott was comparatively untroubled by these limitations. moreover, he had the gift of seeing things broadly, so that in essentials his survey remains true. but the amount of his work is almost as astonishing as its scope and variety. he could accomplish so much only by disregarding details of form; and that he did so we know from our study of his principles of composition, confirmed by the evidence of the passages from him that have here been quoted. it is clear, also, that he was not limited by that "horror of the obvious," which, as mr. saintsbury says, "bad taste at all times has taken for a virtue."[ ] beyond this we have to fall back for explanation on the unusual qualities of his mind. an observing friend said of him that, "with a degree of patience and quietude which are seldom combined with much energy, he could get through an incredible extent of literary labour."[ ] every quality which made scott a great man contributes to the interest and importance of his criticism. such a body of criticism, formulated by a large creative genius, would be of special consequence if it served merely as the basis for a study of his other work, a commentary on the principles which underlay his whole literary achievement. but it would be strange if a man of scott's intellectual personality could write criticism which was not important in itself, and we can only account for the general neglect of this part of his work by considering how large a place his poems and novels give him in the history of our literature. if he deserves a still larger place, we may remember with satisfaction that as a man he was great enough to support honorably any distinction won by his mind. appendix i. bibliography the bibliography of scott's writings is given in three parts, as follows: . books which scott wrote or edited, or to which he was an important contributor. the list is chronological. . contributions to periodicals. . books which contain letters written by scott. these titles are arranged approximately in the order of their importance from the point of view of a study of scott. . _books which scott wrote or edited, or to which he was an important contributor_. (in the following list the first editions of the poems and novels are noted without bibliographical details. in the case of other works the main facts in regard to publication are given; and an attempt is made to indicate the nature of the books named, unless they have been discussed in the text.) the chase and william and helen. (translated from bürger.) goetz of berlichingen. (translated from goethe.) apology for tales of terror. twelve copies were privately printed, to exhibit the work of the ballantyne press at kelso. the title was occasioned by the delay in the publication of matthew lewis's tales of terror, and the little book contains poems which scott had contributed to that work. (the contents are named in the catalogue of the centenary exhibition.) the eve of st. john, a border ballad. - minstrelsy of the scottish border; consisting of historical and romantic ballads, collected in the southern counties of scotland; with a few of modern date founded upon local tradition. vols. vols. i and , kelso, ; vol. , edinburgh, . second edition, . the book was republished frequently before , when it was included in the collected edition of scott's poems. it has also been reprinted independently since then several times. the latest and most complete edition is that published in , edited by t.f. henderson. other books in which part of scott's ballad material was used in such a way as to give his name a place on the title-page are named below: kinmont willie: a border ballad, with an historical introduction, by sir walter scott. (carlisle tracts no. ) carlisle, . a ballad book by c.k. sharpe. mdcccxxiii. reprinted with notes and ballads from the unpublished manuscripts of c.k. sharpe and sir walter scott ... edited by ... d. laing. edinburgh, . sir tristrem: a metrical romance of the thirteenth century, by thomas of ercildoune, called the rhymer. edited from the auchinleck manuscript by walter scott. edinburgh. only copies of sir tristrem were printed in the form in which scott had intended to publish it, without the expurgation which his friends insisted upon. (_letters to r. polwhele_, etc., p. ; _lockhart_, i. ). the following book contains a part of the same material: a penni worth of witte, florice and blancheflour, and other pieces of ancient english poetry, selected from the auchinleck manuscript. (with an account of the auchinleck manuscript by sir walter scott) edinburgh, . printed for the abbotsford club. the lay of the last minstrel. original memoirs written during the great civil war; being the life of sir h. slingsby, and memoirs of capt. hodgson. with notes, etc. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] ballads and lyrical pieces. [poems which had already appeared in various collections.] marmion. memoirs of captain carleton, ... including anecdotes of the war in spain under the earl of peterborough, ... written by himself. edinburgh. ( vo, but copies were printed on large paper.) [edited by scott anonymously.] scott was probably mistaken in considering this to be a genuine autobiography. (see col. parnell's argument in _the english historical review_, vi: .) it has been attributed to defoe, and col. parnell attributes it to swift, but the question of its authorship is still unsolved. the book was first published in , but scott used the edition of , which he was so inaccurate as to take for the original edition; and as at that date defoe had long been dead and swift had lost his mind, the possibility of attributing it to either of them naturally would not occur to him. scott wrote scarcely any notes, but his short introduction contains some interesting general reflections which are quoted by lockhart. the works of john dryden, now first collected; illustrated with notes, historical, critical and explanatory, and a life of the author, by walter scott, esq. vols. london. second edition, vols., edinburgh, . another edition, revised and corrected by george saintsbury, edinburgh, - . the life of john dryden ( to, only copies printed). memoirs of john dryden, paris, . memoirs of robert carey, earl of monmouth, written by himself, and fragmenta regalia, being a history of queen elizabeth's favourites, by sir robert naunton. with explanatory annotations. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] scott contributed no introductions, but his notes are copious, especially with regard to the history of the border. this is one of the books of which scott is reported to have said to his publisher, mr. constable, "did i not do hodgson, carey, carleton, etc., to serve you; and did i ever ask or receive any remuneration?" (_ballantyne's refutation_, etc., p. .) queenhoo-hall, a romance; and ancient times, a drama. by the late joseph strutt, author of rural sports and pastimes of the people of england. [edited by scott, who wrote a conclusion for queenhoo-hall. this conclusion is given in an appendix to the introduction of waverley.] edinburgh. the state papers and letters of sir ralph sadler ... edited by arthur clifford ... to which is added a memoir of the life of sir ralph sadler, with historical notes, by walter scott, esq. vols. edinburgh. (also the same work in vols., with same date.) the biography is included in all the editions of scott's prose works. the life of edward lord herbert of cherbury, written by himself. with a prefatory memoir. edinburgh; printed by james ballantyne & co. for john ballantyne & co. and john murray. (a reprint of walpole's edition, with the prefatory memoir added.) it is a question whether scott edited this book, but it has been ascribed to him, and is given under his name without hesitation in the british museum catalogue. the prefatory memoir is short and largely made up of quotations, but it sounds as if scott might have written it. the book is one to which he often refers. mr. sidney lee, in his edition of the autobiography, says merely, "walpole's edition was reprinted in , , and in ." reprinted in the universal library: biography, vol. i, london, . - a collection of scarce and valuable tracts on the most interesting and entertaining subjects: but chiefly such as relate to the history and constitution of these kingdoms. selected from an infinite number in print and manuscript, in the royal, cotton, sion, and other public, as well as private, libraries; particularly that of the late lord somers. the second edition, revised, augmented, and arranged by walter scott, esq. vols. london. there are some additions. scott says in the advertisement: "the memoirs of the wars in the low countries by the gallant williams, and the very singular account of ireland by derrick, are the most curious of those now published for the first time.... the introductory remarks and notes have been added by the present editor, at the expense of some time and labour. it is needless to observe, that both have been expended upon a humble and unambitious, though not, it is hoped, an useless task. the object of the introductions was to present such a short and summary view of the circumstances under which the historical and controversial tracts were respectively written, as to prevent the necessity of referring to other works. such therefore, as refer to events of universal notoriety are but slightly and generally mentioned; such as concern less remarkable points of history are more fully explained. the notes are in general illustrative of obscure passages, or brief notices of authorities, whether corroborative or contradictory of the text." the following book contains a part of the same material: the image of irelande with a discoverie of woodkarne. by john derricke, . with notes by sir walter scott. edited by john small. edinburgh, . (see _somers' tracts_, vol. i.) english minstrelsy. being a selection of fugitive poetry from the best english authors, with some original pieces hitherto unpublished. vols. edinburgh. the centenary catalogue says that scott and his friend william erskine edited this book together. in the advertisement the publishers (john ballantyne & co.) say: "to one eminent individual, whose name they do not venture to particularize, they are indebted for most valuable assistance in selection, arrangement, and contribution; and to that individual they take this opportunity to present the humble tribute of their thanks, for a series of kindnesses, of which that now acknowledged is among the least." there is no critical apparatus. the book contains original poems by scott, southey, rogers, joanna baillie, and others not so well known. the lady of the lake. memoirs of the duke of sully. translated from the french [by charlotte lennox] ... a new edition ... corrected, with additional notes, some letters of henry the great, and a brief historical introduction embellished with portraits. vols. london. another edition, vols. london , has these words on the title-page: "a new edition, revised and corrected; with additional notes, and an historical introduction, attributed to sir walter scott." i have found no external evidence that scott was the editor. the introduction sounds as if scott wrote it, but that so much work could have been done by him without occasioning any record seems unlikely. there is a historical introduction of pp., and copious notes. the book is one with which scott was familiar. see memoirs of robert carey, pp. and . the poetical works of anna seward, with extracts from her literary correspondence. edited by walter scott, esq. vols. edinburgh. the biographical preface is given in the miscellaneous prose works. the notes are by miss seward. ancient british drama, in three volumes. london. (printed for william miller, by james ballantyne & co., edinburgh.) i find no evidence that scott was the editor of this book, but it is sometimes ascribed to him in library catalogues. it contains merely a two-page introduction and brief notes, and a collection of plays. (see above, p. , note.) the modern british drama, in five volumes. london. (printed for william miller, by james ballantyne & co., edinburgh.) vols. i and ii, tragedies, with introduction in vol. i. vols. iii and iv, comedies, with introduction in vol. iii. vol. v, operas and farces, with introduction. these volumes apparently belong to the same collection as the ancient british drama, noted above, and the external evidence for scott's authorship is the same. but the introductions are fuller, and they sound very much like scott. (see above, p. , note.) the vision of don roderick. memoirs of the court of charles ii, by count grammont. with numerous additions and illustrations. london. [edited by scott.] reprinted in , , . this last edition, in the bohn library, has about pp. of historical notes. secret history of the court of james the first. with notes and introductory remarks. vols. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] the book contains . osborne's traditional memoirs; . sir anthony welldon's court and character of king james; . aulicus coquinariae; . sir edward peyton's divine catastrophe of the house of stuarts. rokeby. memoirs of the reign of king charles i., by sir philip warwick. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] the bridal of triermain. illustrations of northern antiquities from the earlier teutonic and scandinavian romances, by robert jamieson ... with an abstract of the eyrbyggja-saga; being the early annals of that district of iceland lying around the promontory called sudefells, by walter scott. edinburgh. see also northern antiquities by p.h. mallet, london, ; and the edition in bohn's library, . lockhart says: "any one who examines the share of the work which goes under weber's name will see that scott had a considerable hand in that also. the rhymed versions from the _nibelungen lied_ came, i can have no doubt, from his pen." (_lockhart_, ii, .) the works of jonathan swift, containing additional letters, tracts, and poems, not hitherto published; with notes and a life of the author, by walter scott. vols. edinburgh. second edition, revised, edinburgh, . memoirs of jonathan swift, paris, . the letting of humour's blood in the head vaine, etc. by samuel rowlands. edinburgh. [edited by scott. his name is not given, but the advertisement is dated at abbotsford.] this is an exact reproduction of the edition, except for the addition of a few pages containing the advertisement and the notes. another edition was printed in . waverley. - the border antiquities of england and scotland; comprising specimens of architecture and sculpture, and other vestiges of former ages, accompanied by descriptions. together with illustrations of remarkable incidents in border history and tradition, and original poetry. by walter scott, esq. vols. to. london. another edition, in vols. folio, london, . lockhart says the introduction to this work was written in , but this is a mistake, for it is in the first volume, which was published in . the lord of the isles. guy mannering. the field of waterloo. the secret commonwealth of elves, fauns, and fairies, by robert kirk. the attribution of this to scott rests on a letter by george ticknor, in allibone's dictionary (vol. ii, p. ) in which he says: "kirk's secret commonwealth, a curious tract, of about a hundred quarto pages, on fairy superstitions and second sight, originally published in , and of which, in , mr. scott had caused a hundred copies to be privately printed by the ballantynes, with additions, a circumstance, i think, not noted by lockhart." mr. lang thinks the book was never printed until . (see his edition, london, ). this edition of copies was made, he says, from a manuscript copy preserved in the advocates' library, for longman & co. he quotes one of scott's references to the book, but does not intimate that scott was the editor. memorie of the somervilles; being a history of the baronial house of somerville, by james, eleventh lord somerville. vols. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] the additions by the editor consist of a short preface and abundant notes. paul's letters to his kinsfolk. edinburgh. these letters were anonymous, but scott was always recognized as the author of them. they are contained in the miscellaneous prose works. the antiquary. tales of my landlord. first series: the black dwarf. old mortality. harold the dauntless. rob roy. tales of my landlord. second series: the heart of midlothian. burt's letters from the north of scotland ... the fifth edition, with a large appendix, containing various important historical documents, hitherto unpublished; with an introduction and notes, by the editor, r. jamieson ... and the history of donald the hammerer, from an authentic account of the family of invernahyle (by scott: see a note accompanying the text). vols. london. scott's contribution is short. see also appendix iv, which is taken "from a manuscript in the possession of the gartmore family, communicated by walter scott esq." scott's name had become so valuable that the publishers tried to put it on the title-page of this book, to his great indignation. (see _constable_, iii, iii, - .) - the encyclopædia britannica: supplement. [for this work scott wrote the following essays:] chivalry, published in ; the drama, published in ; romance, published in . (these are given in the miscellaneous prose works.) tales of my landlord. third series: the bride of lammermoor. a legend of montrose. the visionary, by somnambulus. (a political satire in three letters, republished from the edinburgh weekly journal.) edinburgh. description of the regalia of scotland. edinburgh. this has been reprinted many times. it was included also in provincial antiquities. ivanhoe. - the provincial antiquities and picturesque scenery of scotland, with descriptive illustrations by sir walter scott, bart. [first published in ten parts between and .] vols. london, . to. the monastery. the abbot. memorials of the haliburtons. edinburgh. [edited by scott anonymously.] copies were printed in , and more in . reprinted, london, , for the royal historical society, in genealogical memoirs of the family of sir walter scott, bart., of abbotsford, by the rev. charles rogers, ll.d. trivial poems and triolets. written in obedience to mrs. tomkin's commands. by patrick carey. london. [edited by scott. his name is not given, but the introduction is dated at abbotsford.] a thin to, with a short introduction and a few notes. a part of the material had been used in the edinburgh annual register for . northern memoirs, calculated for the meridian of scotland. to which is added the contemplative and practical angler. writ in the year . by richard franck. a new edition, with preface and notes. edinburgh. [edited by scott.] kenilworth. the pirate. - the novelists' library. edited, with prefatory memoirs, by sir walter scott. vols. london. also lives of the novelists, vols., paris, . a recent edition is that published, with an introduction by austin dobson, by the oxford university press (no. in the world's classics). when these lives were issued among the miscellaneous prose works some of the biographical prefaces were put with them, and also biographical notices, reprinted from the edinburgh weekly journal, of charles duke of buccleuch and queensberry, john lord somerville, king george iii, lord byron, and the duke of york. i give below the names of certain books in which scott's biographies were utilized, but the list is probably far from complete: an account of the death and funeral procession of frederick duke of york, etc. to which is subjoined sir walter scott's character of his royal highness. by john sykes. newcastle, . the life and opinions of tristram shandy, gentleman. by laurence sterne, a.m., with a life of the author, by sir walter scott. paris, . (baudry's foreign library.) beauties of sterne, with some account of his writings by sir walter scott. amsterdam, . select works of smollett. memoir by sir w. scott. philadelphia, . the novels and miscellaneous works of daniel de foe. with a biographical memoir of the author, literary prefaces to the various pieces, illustrative notes, etc., including all contained in the edition attributed to the late sir walter scott, with considerable additions. vols., london, . the novels and miscellaneous works of daniel de foe. with prefaces and notes, including those attributed to sir walter scott. vols., london, - . (bonn's british classics.) the rambler, by samuel johnson ll.d., with a sketch of the author's life by sir walter scott. vols., london, ? chronological notes of scottish affairs, from till ; being chiefly taken from the diary of lord fountainhall. edinburgh. [edited by scott.] see historical notices of scotish affairs, selected from the manuscripts of sir john lauder of fountainhall, bart. vols. edinburgh, , printed for the bannatyne club. here scott's edition is referred to, and his introduction is reprinted. the book was re-edited because scott did not use the original manuscript, but an interpolated transcript, and he had no means for accurately determining the original text. halidon hill, a dramatic sketch. macduff's cross (in joanna baillie's poetical miscellanies). military memoirs of the great civil war. being the military memoirs of john gwynne; and an account of the earl of glencairn's expedition, as general of his majesty's forces, in the highlands of scotland, in the years and , by a person who was eye and ear witness to every transaction.... edinburgh. [edited by scott. his name is not given, but the introduction is dated at abbotsford.] there are some notes, and a short historical introduction. sketch of the life and character of the late lord kinneder. [edited by scott. a postscript says: "this notice was chiefly drawn up by the late mr. hay donaldson."] edinburgh. only a few copies were printed, for private distribution. the fortunes of nigel. peveril of the peak. quentin durward. st. ronan's well. lays of the lindsays, being poems by the ladies of the house of balcarras. edinburgh. [edited by scott, and designed as a contribution to the bannatyne club, but suppressed after being printed.] redgauntlet. auld robin gray; a ballad. by the rt. honourable lady anne barnard, born lady anne lindsay, of balcarras. [edited by scott for the bannatyne club.] tales of the crusaders: the betrothed. the talisman. letters of malachi malagrowther on the currency. (to the editor of the edinburgh weekly journal.) parts. edinburgh. woodstock. ? shakspeare [edited by scott and lockhart?], volumes ii, iii, and iv, without title page and date. printed by james ballantyne & co. scott and lockhart began in or to prepare an edition of shakspere. in jan., , constable wrote to a london bookseller: "it gives me great pleasure to tell you that the first sheet of sir walter scott's shakspeare is now in type ... this i expect will be a first-rate property." (_constable's correspondence_, ii, .) at the time of constable's bankruptcy in there was a disagreement in regard to the ownership of the property. scott wrote to lockhart, may , , "what do you about shakspeare? constable's creditors seem desirous to carry it on. certainly their bankruptcy breaks the contract. for me _c'est égal_: i have nothing to do with the emoluments, and i can with very little difficulty discharge my part of the matter, which is the prolegomena, and life and times." (lang's _lockhart_, i, .) in the question of carrying on the work was still undecided, and it was also mentioned in a letter in . (lang's _lockhart_ ii, and ). the project was ultimately abandoned, and the fate of that part of the work which was actually in print is unknown. in the barton collection in the boston public library is preserved what is perhaps a unique copy of three volumes of the set of ten that scott and lockhart undertook to prepare. but as the books are bound up without title-pages, and as the commentary contains nothing that would determine its authorship, the attribution is probable rather than certain. these volumes include twelve of the comedies. on the fly-leaf of one of them is a note written by mr. rodd, a london bookseller. he says: "i purchased these three volumes from a sale at edinburgh. they were entered in the catalogue as 'shakespeare's works, edited by sir walter scott and lockhart, vols. ii, in, iv, all published, _unique_'." it was not positively known that such a work had been planned until the publication of constable's _correspondence_ in . at that time justin winsor wrote a letter to the _boston advertiser_ (march , ) in which he said: "the account of the barton collection, which was printed fifteen years ago, contained the earliest public mention, i believe, of the supposition that scott ever engaged in such a work, which this life of constable now renders certain. these later corroborative statements give a peculiar interest to the volumes which are now in this library and which are perhaps the only ones of the edition now in existence." the introductions to the plays are each only a page or two long, and are mainly, like the notes, compilations. the book corresponds fairly well with the description given in _constable_. (see vol. iii, pp. , , - , , , , , , , . see also lang's _lockhart_, i, - , - , and lang's introduction to _peveril of the peak_.) the life of napoleon buonaparte, emperor of the french. with a preliminary view of the french revolution. by the author of waverley. vols. edinburgh. chronicles of the canongate. first series: the highland widow. the two drovers. the surgeon's daughter memoirs of the marchioness de la rochejaquelin. translated from the french. edinburgh. (constable's miscellany, vol. v. introduction and notes by scott.) the miscellaneous prose works of sir walter scott. vols. edinburgh, , and boston, . vols. paris, - . vols. london, - . (containing many of the reviews contributed by scott to periodicals.) same, first vols. (omitting the letters on demonology and witchcraft.) edinburgh, - , , and . vols. paris, - . vols. paris, ? vols. edinburgh, - , , and . - the bannatyne miscellany; containing original papers and tracts relating to the history and literature of scotland. (edited by sir walter scott, d. laing, and t. thomson.) vols. tales of a grandfather. first series. vols. edinburgh. religious discourses. by a layman. london. two sermons written by sir walter for george huntly gordon, then a probationer. afterwards published by gordon, with the author's permission, to raise money. chronicles of the canongate. second series: the fair maid of perth. proceedings in the court-martial held upon john, master of sinclair, captain-lieutenant in preston's regiment, for the murder of ensign schaw of the same regiment, and captain schaw, of the royals, october, ; with correspondence respecting that transaction. edinburgh. edited by sir walter scott and presented by him to the roxburghe club. some of the same material seems to have been used in the book named below: memoirs of the insurrection in , by john, master of sinclair. with notes by sir walter scott. edinburgh, , printed for the abbotsford club. papers relative to the regalia of scotland. edinburgh. edited by sir walter scott and presented to the members of the bannatyne club by william bell, esq. memorials of george bannatyne, - . edited by sir walter scott for the bannatyne club. edinburgh. scott wrote the memoir of george bannatyne which occupies the first pages of the book. this memoir is also to be found in the publications of the hunterian club, part , published in . anne of geierstein. tales of a grandfather. second series. - novels, tales, and romances, with introductions and notes by the author. (the "opus magnum.") the same material is used in the following books: introductions and notes and illustrations to the novels, tales, and romances of the author of waverley. vols., edinburgh, . autobiography of sir walter scott. philadelphia, . anderson, in his bibliography of scott, gives this as a supposititious work, but with the exception of the title it is genuine, for it is simply the piecing together of scott's introductions to his novels. tales of a grandfather. third series. the doom of devorgoil, and auchindrane or the ayrshire tragedy. letters on demonology and witchcraft, addressed to j.g. lockhart, esq. london. (the family library.) other editions: new york, ; london, and , (illustrated by cruikshank); london , with an introduction by henry morley. included in the vol. edition of the miscellaneous prose works, but not in the vol. edition. poems, with prefaces by the author. vols. introductory remarks on popular poetry (prefixed to minstrelsy, vol. i) and essay on imitations of the ancient ballad (prefixed to minstrelsy, vol. iii). these essays were printed in and attached to the edition of the poems then on sale. they were first regularly included in the edition of . the history of scotland. (lardner's cabinet cyclopedia.) vols. london. [not in the miscellaneous prose works.] tales of a grandfather. fourth series. history of france. the life of samuel johnson, ll.d., including a journal of his tour to the hebrides, by james boswell, esq. new edition with numerous anecdotes and notes by the right hon. john wilson croker, m.p.... vols. london. [scott wrote and signed the notes for the tour to the hebrides.] trial of duncan terig, alias clerk, and alexander bane macdonald, for the murder of arthur davis, sergeant in general guise's regiment of foot. june, a.d. . edinburgh. "to the members of the bannatyne club, this copy of a trial, involving a curious point of evidence, is presented, by walter scott." there is an introduction of pages, giving the story of the crime, and bringing together instances from literature and history of the evidence of ghosts being cited in trials. that is the "curious point of evidence" referred to. the proceedings of the court are then reprinted without annotation. tales of my landlord. fourth series: count robert of paris. castle dangerous. two bannatyne garlands from abbotsford. this little book was prepared for members of the bannatyne club by the secretary, d. laing. it contains two ballads--of which one is ancient and one a modern imitation written by robert surtees--annotated by scott. reliquiae trottosienses, or catalogue of the gabions of the late jonathan oldbuck. (partially published in _harper's magazine_ for april, : vol. lxxviii, pp. - . this fragment describing the main apartments at abbotsford is the only part of the reliquiae trottosienses that has been printed. there is a short introduction by mary monica maxwell scott.) the same material was included in the following book: abbotsford, the personal relics and antiquarian treasures of sir walter scott, described by the hon. mary monica maxwell scott. london, . the journal of sir walter scott, from the original manuscript at abbotsford. (edited by david douglas.) vols. edinburgh. second edition, . large extracts from this journal had previously been published in lockhart's life of scott. . _contributions to periodicals_. (a) reviews (most of these essays are reprinted in the and volume editions of scott's miscellaneous prose works. articles not included in that collection are marked by a note indicating the evidence on which they are attributed to scott.) amadis de gaul, translated by southey and by rose. (_edinburgh review_, october. vol. iii.) sibbald's chronicle of scottish poetry. (_edinburgh_, october. vol. iii. not in m.p.w. see lockhart, vol. i, p. .) godwin's life of chaucer. (_edinburgh_, january. vol. iii.) ellis's specimens of the early english poets. (_edinburgh_, april. vol. iv.) the life and works of chatterton. (_edinburgh_, april. vol. iv.) johnes's translation of froissart. (_edinburgh_, january. vol. v.) colonel thornton's sporting tour. (_edinburgh_, january. vol. v.) fleetwood, a novel by william godwin. (_edinburgh_, april. vol. vi.) the new practice of cookery. (_edinburgh_, july. vol. vi.) the ossianic poems. (_edinburgh_, july. vol. vi. not in m.p.w. see lockhart, vol. i, p. .) todd's edition of spenser. (_edinburgh_, october. vol. vii.) ellis's specimens of english romance, and ritson's ancient english metrical romances. (_edinburgh_, january. vol. vii.) the miseries of human life. [by rev. james beresford.] (_edinburgh_, october. vol. ix.) miscellaneous poetry by the hon. william herbert. (_edinburgh_, october. vol. ix.) reliques of burns, collected by r.h. cromek. (_quarterly review_, february. vol. i.) southey's translation of the cid. (_quarterly_, february. vol. i.) sir john carr's caledonian sketches. (_quarterly_, february. vol. i.) campbell's gertrude of wyoming and other poems. (_quarterly_, may. vol. i.) john de lancaster, a novel by richard cumberland. (_quarterly_, may. vol. i.) the battles of talavera, a poem [by john wilson croker]. (_quarterly_, november. vol. ii.) the fatal revenge or the family of montorio, a romance [by c.r. maturin]. (_quarterly_, may. vol. iii.) collections of ballads and songs by r.h. evans and john aiken. (_quarterly_, may. vol. iii.) southey's curse of kehama. (_quarterly_, february. vol. v.) emma and other novels by jane austen. (_quarterly_, october. vol. xiv. not in m.p.w. see lockhart, vol. iv, p. .) the culloden papers. (_quarterly_, january. vol. xiv.) childe harold, canto iii, and other poems by lord byron. (_quarterly_, october. vol. xvi.) tales of my landlord. [probably written with the help of william erskine. see lockhart, vol. iii, p. . see also the introduction to waverley, written in .] (_quarterly_, january. vol. xvi.) douglas on military bridges. (_quarterly_, may. vol. xviii. not in m.p.w. see lockhart, vol. iii, p. .) kirkton's history of the church of scotland, edited by c.k. sharpe. (_quarterly_, may. vol. xviii.) letters from horace walpole to george montague. (_quarterly_, april. vol. xix. not in m.p.w. see memoir of john murray, vol. ii, p. .) childe harold, canto iv. (_quarterly_, april. vol. xix.) women or pour et contre, a tale [by c.r. maturin]. (_edinburgh_, june. vol. xxx.) frankenstein, a novel [by mrs. shelley]. (_blackwood_, march. vol. ii.) remarks on general gourgaud's narrative. (_blackwood_, november. vol. iv. not in m.p.w. see lockhart, vol. iii, p. .) the correspondence of lady suffolk. (_quarterly_, january. vol. xxx.) pepys' diary. (_quarterly_, march. vol. xxxiii.) boaden's life of kemble, and kelly's reminiscences. (_quarterly_, june. vol. xxxiv.) the omen [by john galt]. (_blackwood_, july. vol. xx.) mackenzie's life and works of john home. (_quarterly_, june. vol. xxxvi.) the forester's guide, by robert monteath. on planting waste lands. (_quarterly_, october. vol. xxxvi.) on the supernatural in fictitious composition, and particularly on the works of hoffman. (_foreign quarterly review_, july. vol. i.) see also contes fantastiques de e.t.a. hoffmann, traduits de l'allemand par m. loève-veimars, et précédés d'une notice historique sur hoffmann par walter scott. paris, . vols. the planter's guide, by sir henry steuart. on landscape gardening. (_quarterly_, march. vol. xxxvii.) sir humphrey davy's salmonia or days of fly-fishing. (_quarterly_, october. vol. xxxviii.) molière. (_foreign quarterly review_, february. vol. ii.) hajji baba in england; and the kuzzilbash, a tale of khorasan. (_quarterly_, january. vol. xxxix.) ritson's annals of the caledonians, picts, and scots, etc. (_quarterly_, july. vol. xli.) tytler's history of scotland. (_quarterly_, november. vol. xli.) revolutions of naples in and . (_foreign quarterly review_, august. vol. iv. not in m.p.w. see journal, vol. i, p. , and vol. ii, p. .) southey's life of john bunyan. (_quarterly_, october. vol. xliii.) pitcairn's ancient criminal trials. (_quarterly_, february. vol. xliv.) (b) contributions to the edinburgh annual register (the dates given are those on the volumes. in most cases the book was issued about a year and a half after the nominal date. most of scott's contributions are unsigned. those which were afterwards included in the collected edition of his poems are in this list marked "poems"; in other cases (unless the article is signed) a note is made of the reason for attributing it to scott). vol. i, part . the bard's incantation. poems. to a lady, with flowers from a roman wall. poems. the violet. poems. hunting song. poems. the resolve. poems. view of the changes proposed and adopted in the administration of justice in scotland. (see _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .) living poets of great britain. (from internal evidence i think this article may have been written by scott, and am sure that he dictated many of the opinions it expresses, if he is not responsible for the whole.) vol. ii, part . the vision of don roderick. (reprinted from the first edition.) poems. epitaph designed for a monument to be erected in lichfield cathedral to the rev. thomas seward. poems. cursory remarks upon the french order of battle, particularly in the campaigns of buonaparte. (see _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .) periodical criticism. (from internal evidence i am sure that this was written by scott. the style is decidedly more interesting than that of the article on the poets, in the volume for the preceding year.) the inferno of altisidora. (this immediately follows the article on periodical criticism, and is a burlesque sketch on the same subject. it serves to introduce the following imitations, respectively, of crabbe, moore, and scott himself.) the poacher. "oh say not, my love, with that mortified air." the vision of triermain. vol. iii, part . account of the poems of patrick carey, a poet of the seventeenth century. (afterwards prefixed to the volume of carey's poems published in . see _lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. - .) vol. iv, part . biographical memoir of john leyden, m.d. (in the miscellaneous prose works.) vol. v, part . extracts from a journal kept during a coasting voyage through the scottish islands. (published in complete form in _lockhart_, vol. ii.) vol. vi. the dance of death. poems. romance of dunois, from the french. poems. song for the anniversary meeting of the pitt club of scotland. poems. song on the lifting of the banner of the house of buccleuch, at a great football match on carterhaugh. poems. vol. vii. historical review of the year. (see _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .) vol. viii. historical review of the year. (see _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .) the search after happiness, or the quest of sultaun solimaun. (reprinted from the _sale-room_. see _lockhart_, vol. iii, pp. - .) vol. ix. the noble moringer. translated from the german. poems. (see also the introduction to _the betrothed_.) vol. x. farewell address, spoken by mr. kemble to the edinburgh theatre, on the th march, . (reprinted from the _sale-room_. ) poems. vol. xvii. to mons. alexandre. (c) contributions to other periodicals scott contributed frequently to _the edinburgh weekly journal_, edited and published by james ballantyne. some of the articles are reprinted in the miscellaneous prose works. lockhart reprints in the life scott's account of the coronation of george iv., and his reply to general gourgaud. scott also contributed to _the sale-room_, a weekly paper edited and published by john ballantyne from january to july , ( numbers). (see _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .) to _the keepsake_, an annual, scott contributed in the tapestried chamber, my aunt margaret's mirror, and the laird's jock, and in the house of aspen. in _blackwood's edinburgh magazine_, vol. i, appeared three articles entitled "notices concerning the scottish gypsies," for which scott furnished a large part of the material. (numbers for april, may, and september, .) lockhart says that scott dictated to thomas pringle "a collection of anecdotes concerning scottish gypsies, which attracted a good deal of notice." the first article refers to "mr. walter scott, a gentleman to whose distinguished assistance and advice we have been on the present occasion very peculiarly indebted, and who has not only furnished us with many interesting particulars himself, but has also obligingly directed us to other sources of curious information." scott quotes from the first of the three articles in his review of _tales of my landlord_, and he afterwards used the same anecdotes in the introduction to _guy mannering_. . _books which contain letters written by scott_. (as there is no complete collection of scott's letters it has been thought wise to name the various sources, so far as the letters have appeared at all in print, from which such a collection might be made. the list includes only those books or articles in which letters were published for the first time; yet it is probably far from exhaustive. notes are given in regard to the number or kind of the letters from scott to be found in some of the less-known books.) memoirs of sir walter scott, by j.g. lockhart. edinburgh, vols. - . vols. . abridged edition . the edition referred to throughout this study is that published by macmillan and company in volumes, . familiar letters of sir walter scott [edited by d. douglas]. vols. edinburgh, . letters and recollections of sir walter scott, by mrs. hughes (of uffington), edited by horace g. hutchinson. london, . (first published in _the century_, xliv: and ; july and august, .) the life and letters of john gibson lockhart, by andrew lang, from abbotsford and milton lockhart mss. and other original sources. vols. london, . these volumes contain many letters from scott to lockhart. memoir and correspondence of the late john murray, with an account of the origin and progress of the house, - , by samuel smiles. vols. london, . this book contains many letters from scott to murray, who published some of scott's works and was the proprietor of the _quarterly review_. archibald constable and his literary correspondents. a memorial by his son thomas constable. vols. edinburgh, . the third volume is wholly taken up with an account of scott's relations with constable, his publisher, and many letters are given. see also vol. ii, pages and . [the ballantyne and lockhart pamphlets.] i. refutation of the misstatements and calumnies contained in mr. lockhart's life of sir walter scott, bart., respecting the messrs. ballantyne, by the trustees and son of the late mr. james ballantyne. ( .) ii. the ballantyne humbug handled by the author of the life of sir walter scott. ( .) iii. reply to mr. lockhart's pamphlet, entitled "the ballantyne-humbug handled," etc. ( .) the two last pamphlets contain numerous letters of scott's. for a history of scott's publishing operations these pamphlets should be studied in connection with the memoirs of lockhart, murray, and constable. annals of a publishing house; william blackwood and his sons, their magazine and friends. by mrs. oliphant. rd edition, vols. edinburgh, . about half a dozen letters not elsewhere published are given in this book. letters from and to charles kirkpatrick sharpe, esq., edited by alexander allardyce, with a memoir by rev. w.k.r. bedford. vols. edinburgh, . lockhart wrote to sharpe in : "he had preserved so many letters of yours.... that i must suppose the correspondence was considered by himself as one not of the common sort." (vol. ii, p. .) both men were authors and antiquaries, and their letters as given in this book illustrate their favorite studies. lady louisa stuart. selections from her manuscripts, edited by hon. james home. london, . (one section of the book is entitled "unpublished letters of sir walter scott and lady louisa stuart.") abbotsford notanda, by robert carruthers. subjoined to the life of sir walter scott by robert chambers, edited by w. chambers. london, . letters from scott to hogg and laidlaw are included. memorials of coleorton, being letters from coleridge, wordsworth and his sister, southey, and sir walter scott, to sir george and lady beaumont of coleorton, leicestershire, to . edited, with introduction and notes, by william knight. vols. boston, . the second volume contains three letters by scott. the letters of sir walter scott and charles kirkpatrick sharpe to robert chambers, - . with original memoranda of sir walter scott, etc. [edited by c.e.s. chambers.] edinburgh, . reminiscences of sir walter scott, by john gibson. edinburgh, . besides nine letters from scott this book gives in full a memorial written by him in regard to the claim of constable's trustee on _woodstock_ and _napoleon_. traditions and recollections, domestic, clerical, and literary; in which are included letters of charles ii, cromwell, fairfax, edgecumbe, macaulay, wolcot, opie, whitaker, gibbon, buller, courtenay, moore, downman, drewe, seward, darwin, cowper, hayley, hardinge, sir walter scott, and other distinguished characters. by the rev. r. polwhele. vols. london, . vol. ii. contains five letters from scott. letters of sir walter scott, addressed to the rev. r. polwhele; d. gilbert, esq.; francis douce, esq.; etc. london, . twenty-eight letters from scott are given, of which at least one had previously been published. a memoir of the life and writings of the late william taylor of norwich, ... containing his correspondence of many years with the late robert southey, esq., and original letters from sir walter scott, and other eminent literary men. compiled and edited by j.w. robberds, f.g.s., of norwich. vols. london, . vol. i. contains two letters from scott, of which the second has decided critical interest. see pp. - . vol. ii. has one letter from scott. see p. . memoirs of sir william knighton, bart. g.c.h. ... including his correspondence with many distinguished personages. by lady knighton. philadelphia, . fourteen letters from scott are given. letters between james ellis, esq., and walter scott, esq. newcastle-upon-tyne, . the letters from scott are two in number. haydon's correspondence and table-talk, with a memoir by his son, frederick wordsworth haydon. vols., london, . the first volume contains a few letters by scott. the life and letters of washington irving, by his nephew, pierre m. irving. vols., new york, . vol. i, p. , contains a letter to brevoort; pp. - , - and - contain three letters to irving. memorials of james hogg, by m.g. garden. london, . four letters by scott are included. memoirs of a literary veteran, including sketches and anecdotes of the most distinguished literary characters from to , by r.p. gillies. vols. london, . vol. ii, pp. - , contains three letters from scott; vol. iii, pp. - , contains one. sir walter scott. the story of his life, by r. shelton mackenzie. boston, . see p. for a letter not published elsewhere. byron's letters and journals. rowland e. prothero, ed. vols., london, - . see vol. vi, p. for a letter of scott's not published elsewhere. catalogue of the exhibition held at edinburgh in july and august, , on occasion of the commemoration of the centenary of the birth of sir walter scott. edinburgh, . this catalogue contains notices of the autograph letters which were exhibited, and prints a few of the letters. a critical dictionary of english literature and british and american authors.... by s. austin allibone. vols. philadelphia, . two letters from scott to ticknor are given in the article on scott. fragments of voyages and travel, by basil hall. third series. chapter i. contains a letter written by scott in the original manuscript of _the antiquary_, explaining why the author particularly liked that novel. letters, hitherto unpublished, written by members of sir walter scott's family to their old governess. edited, with an introduction and notes, by the warden of wadham college, oxford. london, . see pp. - for a letter from scott, and pp. - for a note of instructions in regard to his daughter sophia's history lessons. correspondence between j. fenimore cooper and sir walter scott. _the knickerbocker magazine_, xi: ; april, . the letter from scott to cooper quoted above, p. , is here given. fiction, fair and foul. by john ruskin. _nineteenth century_, viii: ; august, . a footnote on pp. - contains fragments of five letters from scott to the builder of abbotsford. wordsworth's poetical works. edited by william knight. ii vols. edinburgh, . see the index. vol. xi, p. has a letter from scott which i think had not previously been published. vol. x, p. , gives one which lockhart quotes "very imperfectly," according to prof. knight. portraits of illustrious personages of great britain ... with biographical and historical memoirs of their lives and actions, by edmund lodge. london, . vol. i contains, in the appendix to the preface, a letter from scott to the publisher, dated th march . (see _lockhart_, v, .) the life and letters of maria edgeworth, edited by augustus j.c. hare. vols. boston, . this contains a few letters of scott's, but only one which is not published elsewhere. a short account of successful exertions in behalf of the fatherless and widows after the war in ; containing letters from mr. wilberforce, sir walter scott, marshal blücher, etc. by rudolf ackermann. oxford, . there is only one letter by scott. the courser's manual, etc., by t. goodlake. . this book contains one letter by scott, dated th october, , about an old scottish poem entitled "the last words of bonny heck." (see _lockhart_, v. , for what is doubtless the same letter.) the chimney-sweeper's friend and climbing-boy's album. arranged by james montgomery. london, . the preface contains part of a letter from scott, in which he describes the construction of the chimneys at abbotsford. (see _lockhart_, iv. - .) appendix ii. . _bibliographies of scott_ allibone, s.a. dictionary of british and american authors and literature. vols. phil., . anderson, j.p. bibliography of scott, in the life of scott by c.d. yonge (great writers series). london, . lockhart's life of scott; the centenary catalogue (see above, p. ); the british museum catalogue; the dictionary of national biography. . _a partial list of the books used in the preparation of this study_, aside from those given in the bibliography of scott's works. (see particularly the list of books which contain letters written by scott: appendix i. .) adolphus, j.l. letters to richard heber, esq., containing critical remarks on the series of novels beginning with "waverley," and an attempt to ascertain their author. second edition. london, . aitken, g.a., ed. romances and narratives by daniel defoe. vols. london, . arnold, matthew. byron. in essays in criticism. second series. london, . carlyle, thomas. sir walter scott. in critical and miscellaneous essays. vols. london, . chambers, e.k. the mediaeval stage. vols. oxford, . chesterton, g.k. varied types. new york, . child, francis j. english and scottish popular ballads. vols. boston, - . english and scottish popular ballads, edited from the collection of francis james child by helen child sargent and george lyman kittredge. boston, . clemens, s.l. (mark twain). life on the mississippi. boston, . cockburn, henry. memorials of his time. edinburgh, . coleridge, s.t. specimens of the table talk of samuel taylor coleridge. vols. london, . letters of samuel taylor coleridge, edited by e.h. coleridge. vols. boston, . collins, j. churton. ephemera critica. london, . courthope, w.j. a history of english poetry. vols. new york, - . the liberal movement in english literature. london, . cunningham, allan. life of scott. boston, . dowden, edward. life of percy bysshe shelley. vols. london, . fitzgerald, percy. new history of the english stage, from the restoration to the liberty of the theatres, in connection with the patent houses. vols. london, . forster, john. walter savage landor, a biography. vols. london, . freeman, e.a. the history of the norman conquest of england. vols. new york, . gates, l.e. three studies in literature. new york, . gillies, r.p. recollections of sir walter scott. (republished in book form from _fraser's magazine_, sept., nov., dec. , and jan., .) hazlitt, william. collected works, edited by a.r. waller and arnold glover. vols. london, - . (spirit of the age, vol. iv; plain speaker, vol. vii; dramatic essays, vol. viii.) herford, c.h. the age of wordsworth. (handbooks of english literature.) london, . hogg, james, ed. jacobite relics of scotland, being the songs, airs, and legends of the adherents of the house of stuart. vols. edinburgh, - . domestic manners and private life of sir walter scott. glasgow, . hudson, w.h. sir walter scott, london, . hunt, j.h. leigh. autobiography; with reminiscences of friends and contemporaries. vols. new york, . feast of the poets. london, . lord byron and some of his contemporaries. second edition. vols. london, . hutton, r.h. sir walter scott. (english men of letters.) new york, . irving, washington. abbotsford and newstead abbey. (first volume of the "crayon miscellany.") london, . lang, andrew. sir walter scott (literary lives). new york, . border edition of the waverley novels, vols. london, - . laing, malcolm, ed. poems of ossian, containing the poetical works of james macpherson in prose and verse. vols. edinburgh, . legaré, h.s. writings.... edited by his sister. charleston, s.c., . lounsbury, t.r. james fenimore cooper. (american men of letters.) boston, . maigron, louis. le roman historique à l'Ã�poque romantique: essai sur l'influence de walter scott. paris, . masson, david. british novelists and their styles. cambridge, eng., . matthews, brander. the historical novel, etc. new york, . meteyard, eliza. a group of englishmen ( - ), being records of the younger wedgwoods and their friends. london, . millar, j.h. the mid-eighteenth century. (periods of european literature.) new york, . moore, thomas. letters and journals of lord byron, with notices of his life. vols. london, . myers, f.w.h. wordsworth. (english men of letters.) new york, . newman, j.h. apologia pro vita sua. london, . nichol, john. byron. (english men of letters.) new york, . palgrave, f.t. biographical and critical memoir of sir walter scott. (in poetical works of scott. london, , macmillan and company.) paris, gaston. la littérature française au moyen age. paris, . percy, w. reliques of ancient english poetry, consisting of old heroic ballads, songs, and other pieces of our earlier poets (chiefly of the lyric kind) together with some few of later date. vols. london, . pierce, e.l. memoirs and letters of charles sumner. vols. boston, . ruskin, john. modern painters. new edition, vols. london, . saintsbury, george. life of scott. (famous scots series.) new york. [ .] a history of criticism and literary taste in europe.... vols. new york, - . scott, temple, ed. the prose works of jonathan swift, d.d. (bohn's standard library.) london, - . southey, robert. selections from the letters of robert southey, edited by john wood warter. vols. london, . stephen, leslie. english literature and society in the eighteenth century. (ford lectures, .) london, . swift. (english men of letters.) new york, . taine, h.a. histoire de la littérature anglaise. vols. paris, - . ticknor, george. life, letters, and journals of george ticknor. sixth edition. vols. boston, . white, a.d. autobiography. vols. new york, . wylie, l.j. studies in the evolution of english criticism. boston, . . _periodicals and articles referred to, aside from the articles written by scott._ _the bibliographer_: notes for a bibliography of swift, by stanley lane-poole. vol. vi, pp. - . _the edinburgh review_: review of the minstrelsy of the scottish border, vol. i, pp. - ; review of sir tristrem, vol. iv, pp. - ; review of scott's edition of swift, vol. xxvii, pp. - ; border ballads, vol. cciii, pp. - . _the english historical review_: dean swift and the memoirs of captain carleton, by col. the hon. arthur parnell, r.e. vol. vi, pp. - . _fraser's magazine_: review of letters on demonology and witchcraft, vol. ii, pp. - . _the knickerbocker magazine_: review by j. fenimore cooper of lockhart's life of scott, vol. xii, pp. ff. _macmillan's magazine_: the historical novel: scott and dumas, by prof. saintsbury, vol. lxx, pp. - . _the nineteenth century_: defoe's "apparition of mrs. veal," by g.a. aitken, vol. xxxvii, pp. ff. _the quarterly review_: review of dunlop's history of fiction, vol. xiii, pp. - ; review of frankenstein, vol. xviii, pp. - ; review of the lives of the novelists, vol. xxxiv, pp. - . index. _abbot, the_, , , _abbotsford and newstead abbey_, , _abbotsford, described by the hon. mary monica maxwell scott_, _abbotsford notanda_, _absalom and achitophel_, , - , _account of the death of frederick, duke of york, an_, addison, joseph, adolphus, j.l., see _letters to heber_ aeschylus, _age of wordsworth, the_, , , , , , _aiken's collection of songs_, scott's review of, , aitken, g.a., , , _alastor_, _alexander's feast_, , allibone, s.a., , , , _amadis de gaul_, scott's review of, , , , , _ancient british drama_, , - _ancient criminal trials_, scott's review of, , , _ancient english metrical romances_, scott's review of, , _ancient mariner, the_, - _ancient times_, anderson, j.p., see _bibliography of scott_ _annals of a publishing house_, _annals of the caledonians_, etc., scott's review of, _anne of geierstein_, , , , , _antiquary, the_, , , , , , _apologia_, newman's, , _apology for tales of terror_, _apparition of mrs. veal, the_, - , arbuthnot, john, ariosto, , aristotle, , arnold, matthew, - , _auchindrane, or the ayrshire tragedy_, _auchinleck manuscript, the_, , _auld robin gray_, austen, jane, , , _autobiography of scott_, bage, robert, , , baillie, joanna, , , , , , , , _ballad book, the_, , _ballads and lyrical pieces_, _ballantyne and lockhart pamphlets, the_, , _bannatyne, memoir of_, , _bannatyne miscellany, the_, barnard, lady anne, _bartholomew fair_, _battle of brunanburgh, the_, , _battles of talavera_, scott's review of, , - , beaumont and fletcher, , , , , _beggar's bush, the_, _beggar's opera, the_, _beowulf_, berners, john, lord, _betrothed, the_, , _bibliographer, the_, , _bibliography of scott_, anderson's, _bibliothèque bleue_, _bibliothèque de romans_, _black dwarf, the_, , , , blackmore, sir richard, _blackwood's edinburgh magazine_, , , , , , blair, hugh, _boaden's life of kemble_, scott's review of, , , , boiardo, boileau, _border antiquities_, boswell, james, , _brennoralt_, _bridal of triermain, the_, , _bride of lammermoor, the_, , , _british novelists and their styles_, , , brome, richard, broughton, hugh, brown, charles brockden, buchan, peter, bunyan, scott's review of southey's life of, , bürger, gottfried, , , burney, fanny, burns, robert, , , , , _burt's letters from the north of scotland_, butler, samuel, byron, george gordon, lord, , , , - , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _cadyow castle_, _cain_, _caledonian sketches_, scott's review of, , calprenède, , campbell, thomas, , , , carey, patrick, _carey, robert, memoirs of_, , _carleton, captain, memoirs of_, , , , carlyle, thomas, , , , carr, sir john, , cartwright, william, _castle dangerous_, , , _castle of otranto, the_, _catalogue of the centenary exhibition_, , , , chambers, e.k., , chambers, robert, , , _changeling, the_, chapman, george, _chase, the_, , chatterton, scott's review of the life and works of, , chaucer, , - , , chesterton, g.k., , _childe harold_, , , , , , , child, francis j., , , , _chimney-sweeper's friend_, _chivalry_, essay on, , , _christabel_, , - , christie, w.d., _chronicles of the canongate_, , , , , , _chronological notes of scottish affairs_, _chrononhotonthologos_, _cid, the_, scott's review of, , _clarissa harlowe_, clemens, samuel l., , clifford, arthur, _cock and the fox, the_, cockburn, henry, , coleridge, samuel taylor, , , , - , - , , , , , , , collins, churton, , - , colvin, sidney, congreve, william, , _conquest of granada, the_, _constable, archibald, literary correspondence of_, , , , , , , , , , , , , conybeare, john j., cooper, j. fenimore, , - , , _correspondence of lady suffolk_, scott's review of, , _count julian_, _count robert of paris_, _courser's manual, the_, courthope, w.j., , , cowley, abraham, , cowper, william, crabbe, george, , craik, sir henry, _critic, the_, croker, j.w., , _cromek's reliques of burns_, scott's review of, , , _culloden papers_, scott's review of, , cumberland, richard, , cunningham, allan, - , - , , _curse of kehama, the_, scott's review of, , , dante, , _darkness_, - davy, sir humphrey, see _salmonia_ _dean swift and the memoirs of captain carleton_, , , , defoe, daniel, , , - , - , , dekker, thomas, , _demonology and witchcraft, letters on_, , , , , dequincey, thomas, derrick, john, , _description of the regalia of scotland_, _diable boiteux, le_, _dictionary of british and american authors_, , , , d'israeli, isaac, , _domestic manners and private life of sir walter scott_, , _don juan_, donne, john, _don quixote_, _doom of devorgoil, the_, - , , douce, francis, _douglas_, , , douglas, david, , _douglas on military bridges_, scott's review of, dowden, prof. edward, , _drama_, essay on, , - , , _drapier's letters, the_, drayton, michael, drelincourt's _defence_, etc., - dryden, john, , - , , , _dryden's works_, edited by scott, , , , , - , , , - , - , , , , , , , , , , dunbar, william, , - dunlop, j.c., , dyce, alexander, eberty, felix, edgeworth, maria, , , , , , , _edinburgh annual register, the_, , , , , , , , - _edinburgh review_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _edinburgh weekly journal, the_, , , , elliott, hon. fitzwilliam, ellis, george, , , , , , , , , , , ellis, james, letters of scott to, _emma_, scott's review of, , _encyclopædia britannica_, , , , _english and scottish popular ballads_, , , , _english historical review, the_, , , , _english literature and society in the eighteenth century_, , _english minstrelsy_, _ephemera critica_, - , _evans's old ballads_, scott's review of, , _eve of st. john, the_, , _evergreen, the_, _eyrbyggja saga, the_, , _fables_, dryden's, - , _fair maid of perth, the_, _fair maid of the inn, the_, _family legend, the_, _familiar letters of sir walter scott_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _fatal revenge, the_, scott's review of, _faust_, _faustus_, _ferdinand, count fathom_, fergusson, robert, _ferrex and porrex_, ferrier, susan, fielding, henry, , , - , - , _field of waterloo, the_, , fitzgerald, percy, , _fleetwood_, scott's review of, fletcher, john, , , , , fletcher, phineas, ford, john, , _foreign quarterly review_, , , , , , _forester's guide, the_, scott's review of, forster, john, , , - , _fortunes of nigel, the_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , fouqué, baron de la motte, _fragmenta regalia_, , _fragments of voyages and travel_, france, anatole, franck, richard, _frankenstein_, , , , _fraser's magazine_, , , , , , , , freeman, edward, , , frere, john hookham, , froissart, , , galt, john, , _gammer gurton's needle_, gates, prof. l.e., , , gay, john, _gebir_, _gertrude of wyoming_, scott's review of, , , gibson, john, gifford, william, , , , , , gilfillan, george, gillies, r.p., , , , , , , , , _glenfinlas_, godwin, william, , , _godwin's life of chaucer_, scott's review of, , , , , goethe, , , - , , _goetz von berlichingen_, , goldsmith, oliver, , gosson, stephen, _gourgaud's narrative, remarks on_, grammont, count, , _gray brother, the_, greene, robert, , grimm, jacob, _groat's-worth of wit_, _group of englishmen, a_, , _gulliver's travels_, _guy mannering_, , , , , , , , , , _gwynne, john, military memoirs of_, _hajji baba in england_, scott's review of, _halidon hill_, , _hall of justice, the_, _harold the dauntless_, , _harper's magazine_, hawkesworth, john, haydon, b.r., , hazlitt, william, , , , , , , , , _heart of midlothian, the_, , , _heber, richard, letters to_, , - , , , , , , , , , , hemans, mrs. felicia, henderson's edition of _the minstrelsy of the scottish border_, , , - , , , , henry, robert, herbert, lord, of cherbury, herbert, william, scott's review of the poems of, , , , herford, c.h., see _age of wordsworth_ _highland widow, the_, , _hind and the panther, the_, _history of criticism_, saintsbury's, , _history of english poetry_, courthope's, , _history of english poetry_, warton's, , , , _history of john bull_, _history of prose fiction_, dunlop's, , _history of queen elizabeth's favourites_, , _history of scotland_, scott's, , _history of scotland_, tytler's, scott's review of, , , _history of the church of scotland_, defoe's, _history of the church of scotland_, sharpe's kirkton's, scott's review of, _history of the norman conquest of england_, , , _history of the years and _, , _hodgson, captain, memoirs of_, , hoffman, scott's review of the works of, , , , hogg, james, , , , , , home, scott's review of the life of, , , , , homer, , , , horace, , _hours of idleness_, _house of aspen, the_, _hudibras_, hudson, w.h., , hughes, mrs., , hume, david, hunt, leigh, , , , , hutton, r.h., , hutchinson, h.g., , _iliad, the_, , _illustrations of northern antiquities_, _image of ireland, the_, , _imitations of the ancient ballad_, essay on, , , , , , , _indian emperor, the_, _introductions, etc., to the novels, tales, and romances, of the author of waverley_, irving, washington, , , , - , , , , _ivanhoe_, , , , , , , , , _jacobite relics_, , jamieson, robert, , , jeffrey, francis, , , , , , - _jests of george peele_, _jonathan wild_, _john de lancaster_, scott's review of, _johnes's froissart_, scott's review of, , johnson, samuel, , , , , , , - , , , , , johnstone, charles, _jolly beggars, the_, jonson, ben, , , , _journal of a tour to the hebrides_, _journal, scott's_, , , , , , , , , , , (see the footnotes for the many references not here indexed) _judicial reform_, essay on, , keats, john, , _keepsake, the_, _kelly's reminiscences_, scott's review of, , , , kemble, scott's review of the life of, , , , kemble, j.m., _kenilworth_, , , , _kinmont willie_, , , , kirk, robert, , _kirkton's history, etc._, scott's review of, _knickerbocker's history of new york_, _knickerbocker magazine, the_, , , knight, prof. william, see _memorials of coleorton_, and _wordsworth_ _knight's tale, the_, _knighton, sir william, memoirs of_, , kölbing, e., , _kuzzilbash, the_, scott's review of, _lady of the lake, the_, , , , , , _lady suffolk's correspondence_, scott's review of, , _laird's jock, the_, laing, malcolm, , lamb, charles, , , , , _landor_, forster's _life of_, , , - , _landscape gardening_, see _planter's guide_ lane-poole, stanley, , lang, andrew, _border edition of the waverley novels_, , , , , _life of lockhart_, , , , , , _life of scott_, , , , , _secret commonwealth of elves, fauns, and fairies_, langhorne, john, _lay of the last minstrel, the_, , , , , , _lays of the lindsays_, lee, sidney, lee, william, legaré, h.s., , _legend of montrose, a_, , lennox, charlotte, _lenore_, , le sage, , _letter from dr. tripe to nestor ironside_, _letters of malachi malagrowther on the currency_, , , , , _letters of sir walter scott_, - , see also _familiar letters_, hutchinson, polwhele, and stuart, lady louisa _letters on demonology and witchcraft_, , , , _letters to richard heber, etc._, , - , , , , , , , , , , _letting of humour's blood in the head vaine, the_, _levett, robert, verses on the death of_, lewis, matthew, , - , leyden, john, , , _liberal movement in english literature, the_, , _life of napoleon buonaparte, the_, , , , , - , , , , _life on the mississippi_, , _life of sir walter scott, the_, see cunningham, gilfillan, hudson, hutton, lang, lockhart, mackenzie, and saintsbury _littérature française au moyen age, la_, , _little french lawyer, the_, _lives of the novelists_, , , , - , , , , _lives of the poets_, _living poets of great britain_, article on, , _livre de mon ami, le_, , lockhart, john gibson, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _lockhart's life of scott_, , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , (see the footnotes for the many references not here indexed) lodge, edmund, , _london_, _lord byron and some of his contemporaries_, - , _lord of the isles, the_, , lounsbury, prof. t.r., , , _love_, lyly, john, macaulay, t.b., _macduff's cross_, mackenzie, colin, mackenzie, henry, , , , , see also home, john mackenzie, r. shelton, , , , , _macmillan's magazine_, , , mcneill, g.p., macpherson, james, , , _madoc_, _magnalia_, maigron, louis, , _malachi malagrowther, letters of_, , , , , malone, edmund, , malory, _manfred_, , mark twain, , marlowe, christopher, _marmion_, , , , , , , , , , , marston, john, _masque of owls, the_, massinger, philip, masson, david, , , mather, cotton, matthews, prof. brander, , maturin, c.r., , , _mediaeval stage, the_, , _memoirs of a literary veteran_, , _memoirs of captain carleton_, , , - , _memoirs of captain hodgson_, , _memoirs of robert carey_, , _memoirs of the court of charles ii._, , _memoirs of the insurrection in _, _memoirs of the duke of sully_, _memoirs of the marchioness de la rochejaquelin_, _memoirs of the reign of king charles i._, , _memorials of coleorton_, _memorials of george bannatyne_, , _memorials of his time_, cockburn's, , _memorials of james hogg_, _memorials of the haliburtons_, _memorie of the somervilles_, _merry devil of edmonton, the_, meteyard, eliza, , _mezeray's history of france_, mickle, w.j., middleton, thomas, , _mid-eighteenth century, the_, , millar, j.h., , _military bridges_, scott's review of, _military memoirs of the great civil war_, , milton, , , , , , , , , minot, laurence, _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, , , , - , , , , , - , , _mirror for magistrates, the_, _miscellaneous prose works_, scott's, , , , , , , , , , , , , , _miseries of human life_, scott's review of, _modern british drama, the_, , _modern painters_, , , molière, , , , , _monastery, the_, , , , _monk, the_, moore, thomas, , , , _murray, john, memoir and correspondence of_, , , , , , , , , _my aunt margaret's mirror_, , myers, f.w.h., , _mysterious mother, the_, _napoleon_, scott's _life of_, , , , , - , , , , nash, thomas, naunton, sir robert, _neidpath castle_, wordsworth's sonnet on, _new history of the english stage_, , newman, j.h., , _new practice of cookery, the_, scott's review of, _new test of the church of england's loyalty, a_, nichol, john, , nichols, john, _nineteenth century, the_, , , _norman conquest of england, the_, , , _northern antiquities_, , _northern memoirs_, _notices concerning the scottish gypsies_, _novelists' library, the_, , , - , _ode on scottish music_, _oedipe_, _old mortality_, , , , , , , oliphant, mrs., _omen, the_, scott's review of, _opus magnum, the_, , , _original memoirs written during the great civil war_, , ossian, - , , otway, thomas, , , _paradise lost_, _palamon and arcite_, palgrave, francis, , , _papers relative to the regalia of scotland_, paris, gaston, , parnell, col., the hon. arthur, , , , parnell, thomas, _paul's letters to his kinsfolk_, , , , , peele, george, _penni worth of wit, a_, pepys, samuel, , , percy, thomas, , , , , , , , , , , , _periodical criticism_, article on, petrarch, _peveril of the peak_, , , pierce, e.l., _pilot, the_, _pioneers, the_, _pinner of wakefield, the_, _pirate, the_, , , - , _pitcairn's ancient criminal trials_, scott's review of, , , _planter's guide, the_, scott's review of, _planting waste lands_, scott's review of, _plays on the passions_, poe, edgar allan, , _poems, with prefaces by the author_, polwhele, r., letters of scott to, , , _poor richard's almanac_, pope, alexander, , , , , , _popular poetry, remarks on_, , , , , _portraits of illustrious personages_, , _prairie, the_, prior, matthew, _proceedings in the court-martial, etc._, _provincial antiquities_, , , , pulci, _quarterly review_, , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _queenhoo hall_, , , _quentin durward_, , , , , radcliffe, mrs. anne, , , , _rambler, the_, , ramsay, allan, , _recollections of sir walter scott_, r.p. gillies', , , , , _redgauntlet_, , , _red rover, the_, reeve, clara, , , _religio laici_, _religious discourses by a layman_, _reliquiae trottosienses_, _reliques of burns_, scott's review of, , , _remarks on gen. gourgaud's narrative_, _remarks on popular poetry_, , , , , _remarks on the death of lord byron_, , _reminiscences of sir walter scott_, john gibson's, _revolutions of naples_, article on, richardson, samuel, , - , , ritson, joseph, , , , , , , , , , , , robert of brunne, robertson, william, robinson, crabbe, _rob roy_, , , rogers, samuel, _rokeby_, , , , , _romance_, essay on, , , - , , , , _roman historique à l'Ã�poque romantique, le_, , roscommon, earl of, rose, w.s., , , rowlands, samuel, rowley, , ruskin, john, , , , sackville, thomas, - _sadler, sir ralph, state papers and letters of_, _saint ronan's well_, , , , , , saintsbury, prof. george, , , , , , , , , , , _sale-room, the_, , _salmonia_, scott's review of, schlegel, _school of abuse, the_, scott, temple, , scudéri, , _secret commonwealth, the_, , _secret history of one year, the_, _secret history of the court of james i._, , , severn, joseph, seward, anne, , , , , shadwell, thomas, , shakspere, , , , , - , , , , , , , , , - sharpe, c.k., , , , , , , , , , , , shelley, mrs. mary, , shelley, p.b., , , , , sheridan, thomas, shirley, james, , _short account of successful exertions, etc._, _sibbald's chronicle_, scott's review of, , _sir eustace grey_, _sir john oldcastle_, _sir tristrem_, , - , , , , , , _sketch book, the_, _sketch of lord kinneder_, _slingsby, sir h., life of_, smith, adam, smith, charlotte, smollett, tobias, , , _somers tracts, the_, , , , , - , , somerville, lord, southerne, thomas, southey, robert, , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _spae-wife, the_, _specimens of early english romances_, scott's review of, , _specimens of english dramatic poets_, , , _specimens of the early english poets_, scott's review of, , , spenser, , , staël, mme. de, stanhope, philip, earl, steele, sir richard, , stephen, sir leslie, , , , sterne, laurence, , , , _story of rimini, the_, strutt, joseph, , , _stuart, lady louisa, letters of_, , , , , _studies in the evolution of english criticism_, , suckling, sir john, , _sumner, charles, memoirs and letters of_, , _supernatural in fictitious composition, the_, _surgeon's daughter, the_, surtees, robert, , , , swift, deane, swift, jonathan, - , , - , _swift's works_, edited by scott, , , - , , , , , , taine, h.a., , _tales of a grandfather_, , , , , , _tales of my landlord_, , , - , , , , , , , _tales of the crusaders_, , , _talisman, the_, _tapestried chamber, the_, , taylor, william, , _tender husband, the_, terry, daniel, , thackeray, w.m., , _thalaba_, , thomas the rhymer, , , - , thorkelin, _thornton's sporting tour_, scott's review of, _three studies in literature_, , , ticknor, george, , , , , , tieck, tierry, _todd's spenser_, scott's review of, , , _tom jones_, _traditions and recollections, etc._, tressan, , _trial of duncan terig, the_, , _tristram shandy_, , _trivial poems and triolets_, _troilus and criseyde_, _true-born englishman, the_, _trustworthiness of border ballads, the_, , turner, sharon, , _two bannatyne garlands_, _two drovers, the_, _tytler's history of scotland_, scott's review of, , , _varied types_, , _vanity of human wishes, the_, _venis and adonis_, _vicar of wakefield, the_, _virgin queen, the_, _visionary, the_, _vision of don roderick, the_, , voltaire, , waldron, francis, _wallenstein_, , waller, edmund, walpole, horace, , , , , , walpole, robert, walton, isaac, - _war song of the royal edinburgh light dragoons_, warton, joseph, warton, thomas, , , , warter, j.w., , warwick, sir philip, _waverley_, , , , , , , , , , , , weber, henry, , , webster, john, , , white, hon. andrew, d., , _william and helen_, wilson, john, , _women_, scott's review of, _women pleased_, _woodstock_, , , , , wordsworth, william, , , - , , , , , , , , , , wylie, l.j., , _yarrow revisited_, [footnote : mr. hutton's _life of scott_, in the english men of letters series, contains no chapter nor any extended passage on scott's critical and scholarly work, though there is a chapter on "scott's morality and religion," and one on "scott as a politician." this, like the other short biographies of scott, is professedly a compilation, so far as its facts are concerned, from lockhart's book. the lives of scott by gilfillan and by mackenzie, published about the time of the scott centenary in , are longer than hutton's, but contain no more extended references to the critical writings. mackenzie's book out of nearly five hundred pages gives only one to a discussion of the edition of dryden, and half a page to an account of the establishment of the _quarterly review_. gilfillan characterizes the critical work in almost as short a space, but with a good deal of judgment. the german biography of scott contemporary with these, by dr. felix eberty, is concerned with the man rather than his works. of later lives of scott, prof. saintsbury's gives, in proportion to its length, more space than any other to scott's critical work, but the book has only a hundred and fifty-five pages in all. another recent biographer, mr. w.h. hudson, says of scott's editorial and critical work, "these exertions, though they call for passing record, occupy a minor place in his story"; and he gives them only "passing record." mr. andrew lang's still more recent and briefer _sir walter scott_ devotes only a few lines here and there to comment on scott as a critic, and contains hardly even a reference to the little-known volumes that he edited.] [footnote : ten of scott's twenty-seven novels (counting the first series of _chronicles of the canongate_ as one) have scenes laid in the eighteenth century. they are as follows, arranged approximately in the order of their periods: _the bride of lammermoor_, _the pirate_, _the black dwarf_, _rob roy_, _the heart of midlothian_, _waverley_, _guy mannering_, _redgauntlet_, _chronicles of the canongate (first series)_, _the antiquary_. the long poems all found their setting in earlier periods.] [footnote : _british novelists and their styles_, pp. - .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see particularly _paul's letters; provincial antiquities_; and the histories of the years and , each a respectable volume, written for the _edinburgh annual register_.] [footnote : ruskin's remark that "the excellence of scott's work is precisely in proportion to the degree in which it is sketched from present nature," should not necessarily lead on to the condemnation which follows: "he does not see how anything is to be got out of the past but confusion, old iron on drawing-room chairs, and serious inconvenience to dr. heavysterne." (_modern painters_, part iv, ch. , § .)] [footnote : _letters to richard heber_, etc. (by j.l. adolphus), pp. - .] [footnote : mr. herford distinguishes two lines of romantic sentiment--"the one pursuing the image of the past as a refuge from reality, the other as a portion of it: the mediaevalism of tieck and the mediaevalism of scott." _the age of wordsworth_, introduction, p. xxiv, note.] [footnote : _letters of lady louisa stuart_, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. . the edition of lockhart's _life of scott_ to which reference is made throughout this study is that in five volumes, published by macmillan & co. in the "library of english classics."] [footnote : chesterton, _varied types_, pp. - .] [footnote : the fact that scott was a clerk of the court of sessions is remembered less frequently than the fact that he had business complications. but this employment of his, which could be undertaken only by a lawyer, occupied a large proportion of his time during twenty-four years. he once wrote, "i cannot work well after i have had four or five hours of the court, for though the business is trifling, yet it requires constant attention, which is at length exhausting." (_constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .) again he wrote, "i saw it reported that joseph hume said i composed novels at the clerk's table; but joseph hume said what neither was nor could be correct, as any one who either knew what belonged to composing novels, or acting as clerk to a court of justice, would easily have discovered." (_memoirs of sir william knighton_, p. .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : see the memoir prefixed to the globe edition of scott's poems.] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : cooper measured his own success by the same test. at the conclusion of the letter to the publisher with which _the pioneers_ originally opened he said he should look to his publisher for "the only true account of the reception of his book." (lounsbury's _life of cooper_, pp. - .)] [footnote : _napoleon_, vol. i, ch. .] [footnote : "he fixed his attention on his employments without the slightest consideration for his own feelings of whatever kind, either in regard to state of health or domestic sorrows." (_memoirs of a literary veteran_, by r.p. gillies, vol. iii, p. .)] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. , p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _letters to heber_, p. .] [footnote : irving's _abbotsford_.] [footnote : _life, letters, and journals of george ticknor_, vol. i, p. . see also scott's review of the _life of home_; and _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _cockburn's memorials_, p. .] [footnote : _ticknor_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _letters to heber_, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : review of _poems of william herbert_, _edinburgh review_, october, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : in .] [footnote : ritson's principal works were as follows: _select collection of english songs_ ( ); _pieces of ancient popular poetry from authentic manuscripts and old printed copies_ ( ); _ancient songs from the time of henry iii. to the revolution_ ( ); _scottish songs with the genuine music_ ( ); _poems by laurence minot_ ( ); _robin hood poems_ ( ); _ancient english metrical romances_ ( ).] [footnote : ellis published his _specimens of the early english poets_ in , and it was reissued with the addition of the introduction in and . he edited also way's translations of the fabliaux ( ), and _specimens of early english romances in metre_ ( ).] [footnote : review of dunlop's _history of fiction_, july, .] [footnote : the _magnum opus_ of robert surtees was his _history of durham_, published - .] [footnote : douce published _illustrations of shakespeare_ in . later he edited _arnold's chronicle; judicium, a pageant_; and a metrical _life of st. robert_. the two latter, which appeared in and , were done for the roxburghe club. in he also wrote some notes for warton's _history of english poetry_.] [footnote : _age of wordsworth_, p. .] [footnote : a number of volumes containing old ballads together with modern imitations had been published both before and after the appearance of percy's _reliques_, but ritson's collections were the first, except percy's, to treat the material in a scholarly way.] [footnote : the discussion centered upon the social and literary position of minstrels. the first edition of the _reliques of ancient english poetry_, published in , contained an essay on the history of minstrelsy, and one on the origin of the metrical romances, which, taken together, says mr. courthope, "may be said to furnish the first generalized theory of the nature of mediaeval poetry." (_history of english poetry_, vol. i, p. .) percy considered the minstrels as the authors of the compositions which they sang to the harp, and as holding a dignified social position similar to that of the anglo-saxon scôp or the old norse scald. this theory was vigorously attacked by joseph ritson in the preface of his _select collection of english songs_ in , and again in his _ancient english metrical romances_ in , and in his essay on the ancient english minstrels in ancient songs and ballads ( ). ritson contended that minstrels were musical performers of a low class, or even acrobats, and that they were not literary composers. scott used his knowledge of ballads and romances and the customs depicted in them to reinforce his own decision that the truth lay somewhere between the two extremes. he pointed out that the word may have covered a wide variety of professional entertainers. a modern comment (by e.k. chambers, in _the mediaeval stage_, vol. i, p. ) seems like an echo of scott: "this general antithesis between the higher and lower minstrelsy may now, perhaps, be regarded as established. it was the neglect of it, surely, that led to that curious and barren logomachy between percy and ritson, in which neither of the disputants can be said to have had hold of more than a bare half of the truth."] [footnote : scott's theory as to the authorship of ballads is even now held by mr. courthope. at the end of his chapter on minstrelsy, in _the history of english poetry_, he thus sums up the matter: "all the evidence cited in this chapter shows that, so far from the ballad being a spontaneous product of popular imagination, it was a type of poem adapted by the professors of the declining art of minstrelsy, from the romances once in favour with the educated classes. everything in the ballad--matter, form, composition--is the work of the minstrel; all that the people do is to remember and repeat what the minstrel has put together." this statement represents a position which is actively assailed by the adherents of the communal origin theory. another critical idea which originated in germany, and in which scott had no interest, though he knew something about it, was the wolffian hypothesis in regard to the homeric poems. he once heard coleridge expound the subject, but failed to join in the discussion. (_journal_, vol. ii, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .) he said the theory could never be held by any _poet_. see a note by lockhart on the essay on _popular poetry_. henderson's edition of _minstrelsy_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : review of cromek's _reliques of burns_. _quarterly review_, february, .] [footnote : "no one but burns ever succeeded in patching up old scottish songs with any good effect," scott wrote in his _journal_ (vol. ii, p. ). and in his review of cromek's _reliques of burns_ he said on the same subject of scottish songs: "few, whether serious or humorous, past through his hands without receiving some of those magic touches which, without greatly altering the song, restored its original spirit, or gave it more than it had ever possessed." (_quarterly_, february, .)] [footnote : _remarks on popular poetry_, henderson's edition of _minstrelsy_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : henderson's edition of _minstrelsy_, vol. i, p. xix.] [footnote : henderson's edition of _minstrelsy_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : the matter may be traced in child's collection of ballads, or more easily in the latest edition of the _minstrelsy_, edited by t.f. henderson and published in four volumes in . mr. henderson's views of ballad origins are quite in accord with scott's own, but he notes the points at which scott failed to follow any originals. there seems to be some reason to believe, however, though mr. henderson does not say so, that scott wrote _kinmont willie_ without any originals at all, except the very similar situations in three or four other ballads. see the introduction by professor kittredge to the abridged edition of child's ballads, edited by himself and helen child sargent. it is unnecessary to give here any detailed account of scott's procedure, as the matter has been thoroughly worked out by students of ballads. a few examples may be given as illustrations, however. in _the dowie dens of yarrow_ (henderson's edition, vol. iii, p. ) lines out of the are noted by mr. henderson as either changed or added by scott. scott writes (beginning of fifth stanza), "as he gaed up the tennies bank" for "as he gaed up yon high, high hill," and we find from a note of lockhart's that _the tennies_ is the name of a farm belonging to the duke of buccleuch. in the sixth stanza scott changes the lines, "o ir ye come to drink the wine as we hae done before, o?" to "o come ye here to part your land, the bonnie forest thorough?" in the seventeenth stanza he changes, "a better rose will never spring than him i've lost on yarrow?" to "a fairer rose did never bloom than now lies cropp'd on yarrow." in _jellon grame_ (vol. iii, p. ), mr. henderson notes changes in different lines, and points out whole stanzas, out of the , that are interpolated. in the _gay goss-hawk_ (vol. iii, p. ) stanzas out of are noted as probably wholly or mainly by scott, and stanzas were changed by him. sometimes his alterations occurred in every line of a stanza. it is probable that scott changed _jamie telfer_ enough to make the scotts take the place of prominence that had been held by the elliotts in the original form of the story. see _the trustworthiness of border ballads as exemplified by 'jamie telfer i' the fair dodhead' and other ballads_; by lieut.-col. the hon. fitzwilliam elliott. reviewed in _edinburgh review_, no. , p. (october, ).] [footnote : see the examples given in the preceding note. most of the changes there spoken of were made without annotation.] [footnote : this extraordinary young man was poet and scholar on his own account by , though he was four years younger than scott. his erudition in many fields was remarkable, and he was as enthusiastic as scott himself about scotch poetry, and was the chief assistant in gathering ballads for the _minstrelsy_. he also collected the material for the essay on fairies in the second volume, which was especially praised by the reviewer in the _edinburgh review_ (january, ). leyden's chief fame was derived from his wonderfully varied activities in india, from to his early death in . any reader of lockhart's _life of scott_ or of scott's delightful little memoir, published first in the _edinburgh annual register_ for , and included in the _miscellaneous prose works_, must feel that the uncouth young genius is a familiar acquaintance.] [footnote : the ettrick shepherd, who, after reading the first two volumes of the _minstrelsy_, sought an acquaintance with scott, and offered assistance which was gladly made use of in the preparation of the third volume. scott in his turn provided much of the material for hogg's _jacobite relics_, published in . the following note on one of the songs in that work adds to the reader's doubts concerning the accuracy of scott's texts: "i have not altered a word from the manuscript, which is in the handwriting of an amanuensis of mr. scott's, the most incorrect transcriber, perhaps, that ever tried the business." (_jacobite relics_, vol. i, p. . note on song lxiii.)] [footnote : henderson's edition of the _minstrelsy_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _quarterly_, may, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : still more striking evidence that scott lacked an infallible sense of the difference between genuine and spurious ballad material is afforded by his comments on peter buchan's collection, which is now considered particularly untrustworthy. he thought that with two or three exceptions the pieces in the book were genuine, and said: "i scarce know anything so easily discovered as the piecing and patching of an old ballad; the darns in a silk stocking are not more manifest." (_correspondence of c.k. sharpe_, vol. ii, p. .)] [footnote : scott's manuscript collections of ballads dropped partially out of sight after his death, and it was only about that their magnitude and importance became known. professor child and later editors have found them of very great service. (on child's use of the abbotsford materials, see the advertisement to part viii of his collection, contained in volume iv.) in appeared a reprint of the _ballad book_ of c.k. sharpe, "with notes and ballads from the unpublished manuscripts of c.k. sharpe and sir walter scott," but the contributions from scott's papers did not amount to much. scott's materials were at the service of his friend for use in the original edition of the _ballad book_, published in . see _sharpe's correspondence_, vol. ii, pp. , and , for letters from scott on this subject.] [footnote : note on _the raid of the reidswire_, in the _minstrelsy_.] [footnote : henderson's edition of the _minstrelsy_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : henderson's edition of the _minstrelsy_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : first edition of the _minstrelsy_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : _edinburgh review_, january, .] [footnote : the _minstrelsy_ is arranged in three parts: i., historical ballads; ii., romantic ballads; iii., imitations of the ballad. the first part is preceded by the introductory remarks on popular poetry, and by the historical introduction. the second part is preceded by the essay on the fairies of popular superstition; and the third by the essay on imitations of the ancient ballad. the poems by scott given in this third part are as follows: _thomas the rhymer_ (parts and ), _glenfinlas_, _the eve of st. john_, _cadyow castle_, _the gray brother_, _war song of the royal edinburgh light dragoons_. besides these there are three poems by john leyden (and he has also an _ode on scottish music_ preceding the romantic ballads), two by c.k. sharpe, three by john marriott, who was tutor to the children of the duke of buccleuch, and one each by matthew lewis, anna seward, dr. jamieson, colin mackenzie, j.b.s. morritt, and an unnamed author. in the other parts of the book there are a few imitations, notably the three by surtees--_lord ewine_, the _death of featherstonhaugh_, and _barthram's dirge_, which scott supposed were old; and one or two like the _flowers of the forest_, which he noted as largely modern, or which he had found, after arranging his material, to be wholly modern. nearly forty old ballads were published in the _minstrelsy_ for the first time.] [footnote : _remarks on popular poetry_, conclusion.] [footnote : review of the poems of william herbert. _edinburgh review_, october, .] [footnote : stanzas - , and , are noted by child as particularly suspicious. "basnet," which occurs in stanza , is not a very common word in ballads. it is used in _the lay_, canto i., stanza , and in _marmion_, canto vi, st. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _memoir of william taylor_, vol. i, pp. - , and see _sharpe's correspondence_, vol. i, pp. - , for a letter to sharpe on a similar point.] [footnote : _minstrelsy_, introduction to _lord thomas and fair annie_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. . see also _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : sometime before (probably a good while before, but the date cannot be fixed), scott began a translation of _don quixote_, and afterwards gave the work over to lockhart, who completed it. see _constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : louis-elizabeth de la vergne, comte de tressan, was born in and died in . in early life he was sent to rome on diplomatic business, and it is said that in the vatican library he acquired his taste for the literature of chivalry. his chief works were _amadis de gaules_ ( ); _roland furieux_ (translated from the italian, ); _corps d'extraits romans de chevalerie_ ( ). his translations were partly adaptations, and were far from being rendered with precision.] [footnote : see particularly his article on ellis's and ritson's _metrical romances_ (_edinburgh review_, january, ), the essay on _romance_, and _remarks on popular poetry_ in the _minstrelsy_.] [footnote : _edinburgh review_, july, . ellis and scott had had much correspondence on _sir tristrem_, and it was ellis's queries that first led scott into the detailed investigation which resulted in the separate publication of the work. he had intended to print it in the _minstrelsy_ (_lockhart_, vol. i. p. ). the letters are given in _lockhart_, vol. i.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _die nordische und die englische version der tristan-sage_--ii. _sir tristrem_. heilbronn, . mr. george p. mcneill's edition of _sir tristrem_ was printed for the scottish text society, edinburgh, .] [footnote : kölbing thinks scott probably hired a transcriber who knew nothing of middle english--a usual method of procedure in the beginning of the nineteenth century. in later editions more errors were introduced by the carelessness of printers, until, after , when the book was included in the complete editions of scott's poems, the text was collated with the manuscript. but it was still far from correct. kölbing enumerates about a hundred and thirty mistakes (see his introduction, p. xvii). of these i took twenty-one at random, and found that eight of them did not occur in the edition--in other words, the person who collated the text nearly thirty years after scott or his hired transcriber had done it was far from infallible. a few illustrations may be given of mistakes that occur in both the and the editions: l. , _send_ is given for _sent_; l. , _telle_ for _tel_; l. , _how_ for _hou_; l. , _mak_ for _make_; l. , _leuedi_ for _leuedy_; l. , _wende sche weren_ for _whende sche were_; l. . _have_ for _han_; l. , _as_ for _als_.] [footnote : review of johnes's translation of froissart, _edinburgh review_, january, .] [footnote : waverley, and claverhouse in _old mortality_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, pp. and . _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _essay on romance_.] [footnote : see gaston paris, _la littérature française au moyen age_, ère partie, ch. iv.] [footnote : review of _metrical romances_, _edinburgh review_, january, .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : _essay on romance_.] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : memoir in the globe edition of scott's poems.] [footnote : scott adopted the conclusions of malcolm laing, who edited macpherson's poems and adduced parallel passages from "a mass of poetry, enough to serve any six gentle readers for their lifetime," as the reviewer says. the most of these parallels were found in "homer, virgil, and their two translators; milton, thomson, young, gray, mason, home, and the english bible." although he was convinced by the argument, scott saw that the editor was in some cases misled by his own ingenuity.] [footnote : later, however (in the essay on imitations of the ancient ballad, ), he said: "in their spirit and diction they nearly resemble fragments of poetry extant in gaelic." by this time he was probably reverting to the earlier opinion which had made the more vivid impression.] [footnote : for the _northern antiquities_, edited by robert jamieson and published in , scott wrote an abstract of the _eyrbyggja saga_, using, as one would conclude from his introductory words, the latin version made by thorkelin, who published the saga in . the purpose of the publication required the historical and antiquarian rather than the literary point of view, and accordingly we find scott's notes occupied with historical comment.] [footnote : in weber came to edinburgh in a deplorable condition of poverty, and was employed and assisted in literary work by scott during the following nine years. in he was seized with insanity, and challenged scott, across the study table, to an immediate duel with pistols. scott supported weber during the remaining five years of his life in an insane hospital. he was much liked by the scott family. scott rated his learning very highly, and gave him valuable assistance in various literary projects. weber's chief publications were: _metrical romances of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and sixteenth centuries_, with introduction, notes and glossary ( ); _dramatic works of john ford_, with introduction and explanatory notes ( ); _works of beaumont and fletcher_, with introduction and explanatory notes ( ): to this scott's notes were the most valuable contribution; _illustrations of northern antiquities_ ( ), with jamieson and scott.] [footnote : see his essay on _imitations of the ancient ballad_.] [footnote : _illustrations of anglo-saxon poetry, translated by the vicar of batheaston_. conybeare had died two years before the publication of the book.] [footnote : review of ellis's _specimens_, _edinburgh review_, april, .] [footnote : bletson and richard ganlesse.] [footnote : but see the dictum quoted by scott in a somewhat over-emphatic way from ellis's _specimens of the early english poets_, to the effect that chaucer's "peculiar ornaments of style, consisting in an affectation of splendour, and especially of latinity," were perhaps his special contribution to the improvement of english poetry. (_edinburgh review_, april, .) scott said of dunbar, "this darling of the scottish muses has been justly raised to a level with chaucer by every judge of poetry to whom his obsolete language has not rendered him unintelligible." (_memoir of bannatyne_, p. .) after naming the various qualities in which dunbar was chaucer's rival, he pronounces the scottish poet inferior in the use of pathos. the relative position here assigned to the two poets seems to be rather an exaltation of dunbar than a degradation of chaucer.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xi, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xi, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. vi, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. xi, p. .] [footnote : the discussion of popular superstitions given in the introduction to the _minstrelsy_ and in the essay on fairies, which is prefixed to the ballad of _young tamlane_, suggests comparison with the _letters on demonology and witchcraft_ which scott wrote in the year before he died. he collected a remarkable library in regard to superstition, and thought at various times of making a book on the subject, but the project was pushed aside for other matters until . the _letters_ which he wrote then are full of pleasant anecdote and judicious comment, and though they lack the vigor of his earlier work they have remained fairly popular. an edition of kirk's _secret commonwealth of elves and fairies_, published in , has been attributed to scott. (see below, the bibliography of books edited by scott.) reviews of his which have not been mentioned in this chapter, but which naturally connect themselves with the subjects here discussed, are the following: _the culloden papers_--an account of the highland clans, largely narrative (_quarterly_, january, ); ritson's _annals of the caledonians, picts and scots_--an article of more than forty pages, discussing the early history of scotland and the historians who have written upon it (_quarterly_, july, ); tytler's _history of scotland_--an article similar to that on ritson's book (_quarterly_, november, ); pitcairn's _ancient criminal trials_--a long article, which begins with an extended digression on booksellers and collectors and on the roxburghe and bannatyne clubs (_quarterly_, february, ); sibbald's _chronicle of scottish poetry_--merely a series of notes on special points (_edinburgh review_, october, ); southey's _chronicle of the cid_ (_quarterly_, february, ). for the _encyclopædia britannica_ scott wrote an essay on chivalry, as well as the one on romance to which reference has been made.] [footnote : review of _kelly's reminiscences and the life of kemble_, _quarterly review_, june, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : terry had been educated as an architect, and his knowledge and taste were of assistance to scott in connection with the building and furnishing of abbotsford. after he played chiefly in london. in his version of _guy mannering_, the first of his adaptations from scott, was presented. before this he had taken the part of roderick dhu in two dramatic versions of _the lady of the lake_. in he was the first david deans in his adaptation of _the heart of midlothian_. six years later he became manager of the adelphi theater, in association with f.h. yates. at this time scott became terry's security for £ , a sum which he was afterward obliged to pay with the addition of £ for which the credit of james ballantyne was pledged. when financial embarrassment caused terry to retire from the management his mental and physical powers gave way, and he died of paralysis in . terry admired scott so much that he learned to imitate his facial expression, his speech and his handwriting.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : the phrase, which was a favorite one of scott's, is spoken not by tony lumpkin, but by one of his tavern companions. scott's use of it is an indication of the way in which he was familiar with the drama. very likely he never reread the play after his youth, but his strong memory doubtless retained a pretty definite impression of it.] [footnote : _review of the life and works of john home_, _quarterly_, june, .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. . it may be noted that this criticism does not show much dramatic insight.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, pp. - .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : advertisement to _halidon hill_. when the publisher cadell closed a bargain with scott in five minutes for _halidon hill_, giving him £ , he wrote as follows to his partner: "my views were these: here is a commencement of a series of dramatic writings--let us begin by buying them out." (_constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .)] [footnote : "that well-written, but very didactic 'old play'," as adolphus calls it. (_letters to heber_, p. .)] [footnote : introductory epistle to _nigel_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : fitzgerald's _new history of the english stage_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _dramatic essays_, hazlitt's _works_, vol. viii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii. p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iii. p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iii. p. .] [footnote : _essay on the drama_.] [footnote : in he wrote to a friend: "we have miss baillie here at present, who is certainly the best dramatic writer whom britain has produced since the days of shakspeare and massinger." (_fam. let._, vol. i. p. .) but wilson also put joanna baillie next to shakspere, and quite seriously. the article in the _dictionary of national biography_, on joanna baillie says that when the first volume of _plays on the passions_ was published anonymously in , walter scott was at first suspected of being the author. but as scott had done nothing to give him a literary reputation in , the assertion is incredible. it seems to be based on the following very inexact statement in _chambers's biographical dictionary of eminent scotsmen._ (vol. v, art. _joanna baillie_.) "rich though the period was in poetry, this work made a great impression, and a new edition of it was soon required. the writer was sought for among the most gifted personages of the day, and the illustrious scott, with others then equally appreciated, was suspected as the author."] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _life of dryden_, ch. i. in _guy mannering_ and _the antiquary_, the first two novels in which scott habitually used mottoes to head his chapters, most of the selections are from plays. eighteen plays of shakspere are represented by twenty-nine quotations. other mottoes are from _the merry devil of edmonton_, from jonson, from fletcher (_the little french lawyer_, _women pleased_, _the fair maid of the inn_, _the beggar's bush_), from brome, dekker, middleton and rowley, cartwright, otway, southerne, _the beggar's opera_, walpole's _mysterious mother_, _the critic_, _chrononhotonthologos_, joanna baillie. for the latter part of _the antiquary_ many of the mottoes were composed by scott himself. _kenilworth_ presents a similar list, with some variations: jonson's _masque of owls_ was used, more than one play by beaumont and fletcher, waldron's _virgin queen_, _wallenstein_, and _douglas_. in _st. ronan's well_ there is a larger proportion of non-dramatic mottoes, as in most of the later novels, but we find represented nine of shakspere's plays and one of beaumont and fletcher's. _the legend of montrose_ (chapter xiv) has a motto from suckling's _brennoralt_. in _anne of geierstein_ ten of shakspere's plays were drawn upon, and _manfred_ was twice used. scott made his chapters much longer in these later novels, and used fewer mottoes, but the evidence of the selections would seem to indicate that he had lost something of his early familiarity with dramatic literature.] [footnote : hazlitt's _characters of shakespeare's plays_ appeared in ; his _lectures on the dramatic literature of the age of queen elizabeth_ in .] [footnote : scott first began to fabricate occasional mottoes for his chapters during the composition of _the antiquary_ in .] [footnote : saintsbury in _macmillan's magazine_, lxx: . scott's style in many sages is strongly colored by the influence of shakspere.] [footnote : introduction by lang to _the fortunes of nigel_.] [footnote : it is possible that among the various jobs of editing undertaken by scott with a view to keeping the ballantyne types busy, were certain collections of dramas. _ancient british drama_, in three volumes, and _modern british drama_, in five volumes, published in and , are sometimes attributed to scott in library catalogues, but on what authority it seems impossible to discover. there is almost no commentary in the _ancient british drama_, but the _modern british drama_ contains three brief introductions which i believe were written by scott. they show a striking likeness to some parts of the _essay on the drama_ written several years later, and it is not probable that scott took his criticism ready-made from another author. in the preface to the _ancient british drama_ we find this statement: "the present publication is intended to form, with _the british drama_ and _shakspeare_, a complete and uniform collection in ten volumes of the best english plays." the shakspeare here referred to is doubtless that of which constable the publisher afterwards spoke in his correspondence with scott as "ballantyne's shakespeare," and scott had no hand in the editorship. (_constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .) it is true, however, as r.s. mackenzie says in his _life of scott_, that scott "had not only meditated, but partly executed an edition of shakespeare." the work was suggested by constable in , was begun in or , and three volumes of the proposed ten were printed by the time of constable's financial crash in the beginning of . the project was sometime afterwards abandoned, and the printed sheets, which apparently were not bound up, disappeared from view. the first volume was to be a life of shakspere by scott, and this was probably not begun at all. of the commentary in the other volumes, scott was to have the oversight but lockhart was to do most of the work. it was not designed that the critical apparatus should to any great degree represent original ideas furnished by lockhart or scott, but the book was to be "a sensible shakespeare, in which the useful and readable notes should be condensed and separated from the trash." (see the discussion of the matter in letters between scott and his publisher given in the third volume of _constables correspondence_. see also lang's _life of lockhart_, vol. i, p. , and vol. ii, p. , and mackenzie's _life of scott_, pp. - .) the boston public library contains three volumes which are thought to be a unique copy of so much of the scott-lockhart shakspere as was printed. (see below, the bibliography of books edited by scott.) scott's notes on beaumont and fletcher, which he had wished in to offer to gifford, were actually used by weber in his _beaumont and fletcher_, published about , an edition which was characterized by scott as "too carelessly done to be reputable." (_lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .)] [footnote : he seems to have connected heroic plays too closely with "the romances of calprenède and scudéri." see his introduction to _the indian emperor_, dryden, vol. ii, pp. - ; also vol. i, p. , and vol. vi, p. . on his opinion in regard to the relation between novels and plays see below, pp. - .] [footnote : see his comment on corneille's _oedipe_, _dryden_, vol. vi, p. and mr. saintsbury's note.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : hutchinson's _letters of scott_, p. .] [footnote : that scott admired sackville greatly is evident from more than one comment. of _ferrex and porrex_ he says, "in sackville's part of the play, which comprehends the two last acts, there is some poetry worthy of the author of the sublime induction to the mirror of magistrates." (_dryden_, vol. ii, p. .) elsewhere scott calls sackville "a beautiful poet." (_fragmenta regalia_, p. . _secret history of the court of james i._, vol. i, p. , note.)] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. . see also vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : see, for example, _hawthornden_, in _provincial antiquities_.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xv, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : note on _sir tristrem_, fytte ii., stanza .] [footnote : see middleton's plays in the mermaid edition: introduction, vol. i, pp. viii-ix.] [footnote : ticknor, in allibone's _dictionary_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : see scott's article on molière, _foreign quarterly review_, february, .] [footnote : _essay on drama_; _dryden_, vol. i, p. ff., vol. ii, pp. - , vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : article on molière, _foreign quarterly review_, february, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : review of _kelly's reminiscences and the life of kemble_, _quarterly review_, june, .] [footnote : _ibid._] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. vi, p. .] [footnote : _in provincial antiquities_ (borthwick castle). scott cites parallels from _sir john oldcastle, the pinner of wakefield_, and one of nash's pamphlets, for a curious incident in scottish history.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. . this search among seventeenth century pamphlets may have suggested to scott the need of a new edition of _somers' tracts_. apparently he arranged with the publishers in to undertake this task, but the first volume did not appear till . (_lockhart_, vol. ii, p. , and see below, pp. - , for an account of scott's edition of the _tracts_.) some of his materials for the _dryden_ were taken from this collection, but more from the luttrell collection, to which he refers in the advertisement.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. . scott's _dryden_ appeared in , and with some slight changes in ; as reëdited by mr. saintsbury it was published in - . it was the first complete and uniform edition of dryden's works, and it remains the only one. the dramatic works had appeared in folio in . they were edited by congreve in , and scott used congreve's text. the non-dramatic poems were also published in in folio. they appeared in more convenient forms in , , and , but of these editions only the last was reasonably complete. in the critical and miscellaneous prose works were edited by malone, who added a life of dryden which has furnished a large part of the material used by biographers since his time. this biography was badly written, but with johnson's brilliant essay it was the only life of dryden before scott's that was worth considering. an edition of dryden's poems, with notes by joseph warton and others, appeared in , but seems to have been prepared before scott's edition was published. the text of this is very incorrect. since then the non-dramatic poems have been published several times. mr. christie said in his preface to the globe edition: "sir walter scott's is the last important edition of dryden, as it is indeed still the only general collection of his works; and it is to be regretted that that distinguished man did not give as much pains to the purification of dryden's text as he did to his excellent biography and to the notes which enrich the edition."] [footnote : editor's preface.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. ix, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ix, p. .] [footnote : in this connection scott's review of todd's edition of spenser is interesting. he takes exception to the lack of an appearance of continuity in the biography, caused by the long quotations included in the body of the narrative; and censures the editor for not having used the history of italian poetry in elucidating spenser's work. (_edinburgh review_, october, .)] [footnote : review of todd's _spenser_.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. ; and _dryden_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, p. . mr. saintsbury thinks that scott's prefatory introductions to the plays are often "both meagre and depreciatory"; also that scott's judgment on dryden's letters is rather harsh, for him, and that after he had begun to write novels he would not have been so impatient of remarks on "turkeys, marrow-puddings, and bacon."] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. x, p. ff.] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. xiv, pp. and .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : in order to give a more specific view of scott's methods, two or three of the introductions to well-known poems may be briefly analysed. the introduction to _absalom and achitophel_ occupies / pages, of which about / are given to quotation from a tract which scott thought furnished the argument to dryden, and which was unnoticed by any former commentator. scott's remarks follow this outline: position of the poem in literature, and history of its composition; origin of the particular allegory as applied to modern politics; a parallel use of the allegory (with a quotation from _somers' tracts_ in illustrations); aptness of the allegory; merits of the satire--treatment of monmouth and other main characters; changes in the second edition to mitigate the satire; characterization of the poem as having few flights of imagination but much correctness of taste as well as fire and spirit; other objections by johnson refuted; success of the poem; history of the first publication and of the replies and congratulatory poems; editions, and latin versions. the notes on this poem are historical and very full, but the introduction contains as much literary as historical comment. _religio laici_ is prefaced by pages of introduction, in which are discussed the motive of the writing, the argument, the title, the purpose of the poem, and its reputation. dryden's style in didactic poetry is compared with cowper's, to the disadvantage of the later poet. the introduction to _the hind and the panther_ is pages long, and discusses the history of the period as well as the argument of the poem, its style, the subject of fables in general, and the effects the poem produced. the notes on this poem are copious. as he discussed the _fables_ in the _life of dryden_, scott gave them no general introduction, and for each poem he wrote only a slight preface, telling something of the source and pointing out special beauties. his notes vary greatly in abundance. those on _palamon and arcite_, _e.g._, are brief, explaining terms of chivalry and heraldry, but not giving literary or linguistic comment.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xiii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. xii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. x, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. . see also _st. ronan's well_, vol. i, p. , and various mottoes in the novels. the edition of the novels used for reference is that published in edinburgh ( ) in volumes.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. x, p. .] [footnote : for example see _anne of geierstein_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _letters to heber_, p. .] [footnote : the price offered for the _swift_ was £ . this must have been a rather rash speculation on the publisher's part, as there had been several editions of swift's works published. the first appeared in twelve volumes in , edited by hawkesworth. deane swift, hawkesworth, and others, added thirteen more volumes in the course of the next twenty-five years, and when the whole was completed it was reissued in three different sizes. in an edition in seventeen volumes was published, edited by thomas sheridan. in the edition by nichols was published, and it reappeared in and in . hawkesworth and thomas sheridan supplied biographies which leslie stephen characterized by saying that hawkesworth's gave no new material and that sheridan's was "pompous and dull." (preface to leslie stephen's _life of swift_.)] [footnote : _correspondence of c.k. sharpe_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : this correspondence consisted of letters from swift, and "vanessa."] [footnote : a comparison of the index with the bibliography in the _dictionary of national biography_ and with mr. stanley lane-poole's _notes for a bibliography of swift_ (_bibliographer_, vi: - ) shows that scott was usually right in his judgment on the main articles. but since mr. lane-poole ends his list thus: "and numerous short poems, trifles, characters and short pieces," it is evident that one cannot carry the investigation far without undertaking to make a complete bibliography of swift. mr. temple scott says, in the advertisement of his edition of swift's prose works, begun in , that since sir walter's edition of "there has been no serious attempt to grapple with the difficulties which then prevented and which still beset the attainment of a trustworthy and substantially complete text."] [footnote : _swift_, vol. iv, p. . two more of scott's comments may be given, further to illustrate his method. "this piece [william crowe's address to her majesty, _swift_, vol. xii, p. ] and those which follow, were first extracted by the learned dr. barrett, of trinity college, dublin, from the lanesborough and other manuscripts. i have retained them from internal evidence, as i have discarded some articles upon the same score." "the following poems [poems given as "ascribed to swift," vol. x, p. ] are extracted from the manuscript of lord lanesborough, called the whimsical medley. they are here inserted in deference to the opinion of a most obliging correspondent, who thinks they are juvenile attempts of swift. i own i cannot discover much internal evidence in support of the supposition."] [footnote : colonel parnell, writing in the _english historical review_ on "dean swift and the memoirs of captain carleton," has spoken of the biography as "this most partial, verbose, and inaccurate account of the dean's life and writings." he says also that in editing _carleton's memoirs_ scott adopted, without investigation and in the face of evidence, johnson's opinion that the memoirs were genuine; that scott was mistaken about the date of the first edition and misquoted the title page; and that his "glowing account" of lord peterborough, in the introduction, was amplified (without acknowledgment) from a panegyric by dr. birch in "houbraken's heads." (_english historical review_, january, ; vi: . for a further reference to the article see below, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : september, .] [footnote : _swift_ vol. xvii, p. , note.] [footnote : _life of swift_, conclusion.] [footnote : _swift_, vol. xi, p. .] [footnote : vol. ix, p. . the tract had already been correctly assigned. a similar note on another tract indicates more careful research on the part of the editor. the paper is _a secret history of one year_, which had commonly been attributed to robert walpole. scott says: "this tract in not to found in mr. coxe's list of sir robert walpole's publications, nor in that given by his son, the earl of oxford, in the royal and noble authors.... it does not seem at all probable that walpole should at this crisis have thought it proper to advocate these principles." (vol. xiii, p. .) the piece is now attributed to defoe.] [footnote : see above, p. .] [footnote : _horace walpole_, in _lives of the novelists_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _quarterly_, september, .] [footnote : see his explanation, in the articles themselves.] [footnote : _the mid-eighteenth century_, by j.h. millar, p. , note.] [footnote : _ibid._, p. . scott compares fielding and smollett at some length in the _life of smollett_.] [footnote : _life of le sage_.] [footnote : _life of richardson_.] [footnote : _life of fielding_.] [footnote : _life of goldsmith_. as we might expect, scott speaks rather too favorably of goldsmith's hack work in history and science.] [footnote : _life of sterne_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see above, p. , note.] [footnote : see also the introductory epistle to _ivanhoe_; and the review of _walpole's letters_. "in attaining his contemporary triumph," says mr. brander matthews, "scott owed more to horace walpole than to maria edgeworth." _the historical novel_, p. .] [footnote : scott uses the word.] [footnote : mr. g.a. aitken has given convincing evidence that the story was not invented by defoe. mr. aitken also shows the falsity of scott's statement that drelincourt's book was in need of advertising, as william lee, in his _life of defoe_, had previously done. (see _the nineteenth century_, xxxvii: . january, ; and also aitken's edition of defoe's _romances and narratives_, vol. xv, introduction.) a passage from defoe's _history of the church of scotland_ is quoted in the review of _tales of my landlord_, by scott, who says that it probably suggested one of the scenes in _old mortality_. scott there speaks of defoe's "liveliness of imagination," and says he "excelled all others in dramatizing a story, and presenting it as if in actual speech and action before the reader." (_quarterly review_, january, .)] [footnote : see also _the fortunes of nigel_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : _life of clara reeve_.] [footnote : blackwood, march, .] [footnote : _quarterly_, may, .] [footnote : see a reference to voltaire and other french authors; _napoleon_, vol. i, ch. .] [footnote : _life of richardson_.] [footnote : we gather from scott's article that he considered the following to be the chief "speculative errors" of bage: he was an infidel; he misrepresented different classes of society, thinking the high tyrannical and the low virtuous and generous; his system of ethics was founded on philosophy instead of religion; he was inclined to minimize the importance of purity in women; he considered tax-gatherers extortioners, and soldiers, licensed murderers.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : familiar letters, vol. i, p. . in his _george the third_, thackeray said: "do you remember the verses--the sacred verses--which johnson wrote on the death of his humble friend levett?" (biographical edition of thackeray, vol. vii, p. .)] [footnote : _life of johnson_.] [footnote : introduction to _chronicles of the canongate_.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xi, p. , note; review of the _life and works of john home_, _quarterly_, june, .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _swift_, vol. xvi, p. , note. on one of the last sad days before sir walter left scotland for his italian journey he quoted in full prior's poem on mezeray's history of france. (_lockhart_, vol. v, pp. - .)] [footnote : _swift_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. xiii, p. .] [footnote : _correspondence of c.k. sharpe_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : allan cunningham's _life of scott_, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see the satirical paragraph in his review of _gertrude of wyoming_, on the habits of reviewers in general. "we are perfectly aware," he says, "that, according to the modern canons of criticism, the reviewer is expected to show his immense superiority to the author reviewed, and at the same time to relieve the tediousness of narration, by turning the epic, dramatic, moral story before him into quaint and lively burlesque." (_quarterly_, may, .) in his review of the _life and works of john home_ he speaks of "the hackneyed rules of criticism, which, having crushed a hundred poets, will never, it may be prophesied, create, or assist in creating, a single one." (_quarterly_, june, .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. . for a further comparison of scott and jeffrey as critics see below, pp. - .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. ] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. ] [footnote : in general scott admired lockhart. "i have known the most able men of my time," he once wrote, "and i never met any one who had such ready command of his own mind, and possessed in a greater degree the power of making his talents available upon the shortest notice, and upon any subject." (_life of murray_, vol. ii, p. .) but in lockhart's earlier days scott said, "i am sometimes angry with him for an exuberant love of fun in his light writings, which he has caught, i think, from wilson, a man of greater genius than himself perhaps, but who disputes with low adversaries, which i think a terrible error, and indulges in a sort of humour which exceeds the bounds of playing at ladies and gentlemen, a game to which i have been partial all my life." (_letters of lady louisa stuart_, p. .)] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : lang's _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _life of murray_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _quarterly_, february, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : scott wrote a poetical epitaph for the burial place of miss seward and her father. see _edinburgh annual register_, vol. ii, pt. . in the introduction to _the tapestried chamber_, scott said, "it was told to me many years ago by the late miss anna seward, who, among other accomplishments that rendered her an amusing inmate in a country house, had that of recounting narratives of this sort with very considerable effect; much greater, indeed, than anyone would be apt to guess from the style of her written performances." it must be remembered that miss seward was one of the first persons of any literary note, outside of edinburgh, to show an interest in scott's work, and he committed himself to admiration of her poetry when he was still in a rather uncritical stage. in regard to his later feeling about her see _recollections_, by r.p. gillies, _fraser's_, xiii: , january, .] [footnote : j.l. adolphus, in an interesting passage in his _letters to heber on the authorship of waverley_, noted many of the references to contemporary poets. see pp. - . see also hazlitt's _spirit of the age_, art. _sir walter scott_] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. . see also a similar anecdote in forster's _life of landor_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : review of _cromek's reliques of burns_, _quarterly_, february, .] [footnote : _ibid._] [footnote : _ibid._] [footnote : crabbe robinson, in his diary (quoted by knight in his edition of wordsworth, vol. x, p. ), says that coleridge and his friends "consider scott as having stolen the verse" of _christabel_. on this point see also a letter by coleridge, given in meteyard's _group of englishmen_, pp. - . in coleridge wrote to southey: "i did not over-hugely admire the 'lay of the last minstrel,' but saw no likeness whatever to the 'christabel,' much less any improper resemblance." (_letters of coleridge_, ed. by e.h. coleridge, vol. ii, p. .) yet mr. lang seems to think that in this matter scott "showed something of the deficient sense of _meum_ and _tuum_ which marked his freebooting ancestors." (_sir walter scott_, p. .) apparently scott never dreamed that the matter could be looked at in this way. in lockhart's _scott_ (vol. ii, pp. - ) we find described an occasion on which the two men once met in london, when they were asked, with other poets who were present, to recite from their unpublished writings. coleridge complied with the request, but scott said he had nothing of his own and would repeat some stanzas he had seen in a newspaper. the poem was criticised adversely in spite of scott's protests, till coleridge lost patience and exclaimed, "let mr. scott alone; i wrote the poem." coleridge's lines: "the knight's bones are dust and his good sword rust, his soul is with the saints, i trust," are probably much better known as they appear in _ivanhoe_, incorrectly quoted, than in their proper form. scott also added a note on coleridge in this connection. (_ivanhoe_, chapter viii.)] [footnote : but apparently not in any earlier than _the black dwarf_, which was written in , the year in which the poem was published. it was about that scott heard _christabel_ recited. see _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see _letters to heber_, p. ; _on imitations of the ancient ballad_; _lockhart_, vol. iii, pp. and ; _quentin durward_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : note in _the abbot_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : note in _st. ronan's well_. see also the comment on _wallenstein_ in _paul's letters_, letter xv.] [footnote : review of _childe harold_, _canto iii_, _quarterly_, october, .] [footnote : in scott wrote a review of _frankenstein_ in which it appears that he thought shelley was the author. shelley had sent the book with a note in which he said that it was the work of a friend and he had merely seen it through the press; and scott took this for the conventional evasion so often resorted to by authors. (see mr. lang's note in his introduction to the waverley novels, p. lxxxvi.) scott praises the substance and style of the book, and advises the author to cultivate his poetical powers, in words which make it evident that he did not know shelley as a poet, though _alastor_ had appeared in . scott also praises _frankenstein_ in his article on hoffmann. in reading scott's novels i have noted two reminiscences of the line, "one word is too often profaned." they are to be found in _old mortality_, vol. ii, p. , and in _redgauntlet_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : i quote from the letter as given in knight's _wordsworth_, vol. ii, p. . prof. knight says that lockhart quotes the letter less exactly (vol. i, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : even byron admired southey. he once wrote, "his prose is perfect. of his poetry there are various opinions: there is, perhaps, too much of it for the present generation; posterity will probably select. he has _passages_ equal to anything." (byron's _letters and journals_, ed. prothero, vol. ii, p. .) shelley also had a high opinion of southey's work. (dowden's _life of shelley_, vol. i, p. , and pp. - .) landor liked _madoc_ and _thalaba_ so much that, when he found southey hesitating to write more poems of a similar kind because they did not pay, he offered to bear the expense of the publication. southey refused the assistance, but was stimulated by the kindness and considered landor's encouragement responsible for his later work in poetry. (forster's _life of landor_, vol. i, pp. - .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. ; see also _edinburgh annual register_ for , part , p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : in his youth scott read dante with other italian authors, but he did not become well acquainted with him, and later even expressed dislike for his work. (see _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .) in he wrote to w.s. rose, "i will subscribe for dante with all pleasure, on condition you do not insist on my reading him." (_fam. let._, vol. ii, p. .)] [footnote : it may be interesting to have southey's comment on the same article. (see _southey's letters_, vol. ii, p. .) he says, "bedford has seen the review which scott has written of it, and which, from his account, though a very friendly one, is, like that of the 'cid,' very superficial. he sees nothing but the naked story; the moral feeling which pervades it has escaped him. i do not know whether bedford will be able to get a paragraph interpolated touching upon this, and showing that there is some difference between a work of high imagination and a story of mere amusement." either bedford was mistaken in saying that scott had ignored the moral aspect of the poem, or else he succeeded in getting a passage interpolated, for the review is sufficiently definite on that point.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : introduction to _marmion_; _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : byron did not altogether approve of scott's poetry, but he felt its effectiveness. in his "reply to blackwood's edinburgh magazine," byron wrote: "what have we got instead [of following pope]? a deluge of flimsy and unintelligible romances, imitated from scott and myself, who have both made the best of our bad materials and erroneous system."] [footnote : review of _childe harold_, _canto iii_, _quarterly_, october, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : it should be remembered also that scott's first review of _childe harold_ appeared at a time when all england was condemning byron for his treatment of lady byron, and that the article was thought by many to be altogether too lenient. byron wrote to murray expressing his pleasure in the review before he knew who was responsible for it, and some years later he wrote to scott as follows: "to have been recorded by you in such a manner would have been a proud memorial at any time, but at such a time ... was something still higher to my self-esteem.... had it been a common criticism, however eloquent or panegyrical, i should have felt pleased, undoubtedly, and grateful, but not to the extent which the extraordinary good-heartedness of the whole proceeding must induce in any mind capable of such sensations." (_byron's letters and journals_, vol. vi, p. .) see _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. , for quotations from byron showing his admiration for scott. an interesting contrast between the characters of the two poets is drawn by h.s. legaré. (see his _collected writings_, vol. ii, p. .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ] [footnote : _remarks on the death of lord byron_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. ] [footnote : see nichol's _byron_ (english men of letters), p. ; and arnold's essay on byron.] [footnote : _quarterly review_, may, .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : byron said, "crabbe's the man, but he has got a coarse and impracticable subject." (moore's _life and letters of byron_, vol. iv, pp. - .) leslie stephen remarks that crabbe "was admired by byron in his rather wayward mood of pope-worship, as the last representative of the legitimate school." (_english literature and society in the th century_, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : the reader will at once recall the ingenuous remark of sophia scott when she was asked, shortly after its appearance, how she liked _the lady of the lake_. she said, "oh, i have not read it; papa says there's nothing so bad for young people as reading bad poetry." (_lockhart_, vol. ii, p. . see also the _life of irving_, vol. i, p. .)] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _correspondence of c.k. sharpe_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see _marmion_, introduction to canto iii, and other passages noted by adolphus in the _letters to heber_, p. . see also _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. , and the passage in _lockhart_ (vol. ii, p. ), in which james ballantyne reports scott as saying to him, "if you wish to speak of a real poet, joanna baillie is now the highest genius of our country."] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. ; also vol. i, p. ; and _constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _forster_, vol. i, p. , note.] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _haydon's correspondence_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : hunt says scott was interested in reading _the story of rimini_. see hunt's _autobiography_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. . scott wrote as follows to lockhart after the appearance of _lord byron and some of his contemporaries_: "hunt has behaved like a hyena to byron, whom he has dug up to girn and howl over him in the same breath." mr. lang makes this comment: "leigh hunt ... had gone out of his way to insult sir walter and to make the most baseless insinuations against him. scott probably never mentioned leigh hunt's name publicly in his life, and he refers to the insults neither in his correspondence nor in his _journal_." (lang's _life of lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. and .) hunt evidently thought that scott was partly responsible for the articles in _blackwood_ on the cockney school. he says, "unfortunately some of the knaves were not destitute of talent: the younger were tools of older ones who kept out of sight." (hunt's _lord byron_, etc., vol. i, p. .) in his _autobiography_, hunt says, "sir walter scott confessed to mr. severn at rome that the truth respecting keats had prevailed." (vol. ii, p. .) mr. lang points out that though colvin said of scott (in his _life of keats_) "that he was in some measure privy to the cockney school outrages seems certain," he afterwards recanted the statement. (in his edition of _keats's letters_, p. , note. see lang's _lockhart_, vol. i, pp. - .) scott invited lamb to abbotsford when lamb was looked upon as a leader of the cockney school. (lang's _scott_, p. .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. , and vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _quarterly_, october, .] [footnote : postscript to _waverley_, and general introduction.] [footnote : for references to the group of women novelists who were so successful in depicting manners, see the _life of charlotte smith_; the postscript to _waverley_; the introduction to _st. ronan's well_; _journal_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. iii.] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : the reference as given by lockhart is as follows: "this man, who has shown so much genius, has a good deal of the manners, or want of manners, peculiar to his countrymen." (_lockhart_, vol. v, p. .) cooper observes in regard to this point: "the manners of most europeans strike us as exaggerated, while we appear cold to them. sir walter scott was certainly so obliging as to say many flattering things to me, which i, as certainly, did not repay in kind. as johnson said of his interview with george the third, it was not for me to bandy compliments with my sovereign. at that time the diary was a sealed book to the world, and i did not know the importance he attached to such civilities." it is a pity that the transcriber of the passage in the _journal_ changed "manner," which was the word scott wrote, to the more objectionable "manners." (_journal_, vol. i, p. .)] [footnote : scott's letter was substantially as follows: "i have considered in all its bearings the matter which your kindness has suggested. upon many former occasions i have been urged by my friends in america to turn to some advantage the sale of my writings in your country, and render that of pecuniary avail as an individual which i feel as the highest compliment as an author. i declined all these proposals, because the sale of this country produced me as much profit as i desired, and more--far more--than i deserved. but my late heavy losses have made my situation somewhat different, and have rendered it a point of necessity and even duty to neglect no means of making the sale of my works effectual to the extrication of my affairs, which can be honorably and honestly resorted to. if therefore mr. carey, or any other publishing gentleman of credit and character, should think it worth while to accept such an offer, i am willing to convey to him the exclusive right of publishing the _life of napoleon_, and my future works in america, making it always a condition, which indeed will be dictated by the publisher's own interest, that this monopoly shall not be used for the purpose of raising the price of the work to my american readers, but only for that of supplying the public at the usual terms.... "at any rate, if what i propose should not be found of force to prevent piracy, i cannot but think from the generosity and justice of american feeling, that a considerable preference would be given in the market to the editions emanating directly from the publisher selected by the author, and in the sale of which the author had some interest. "if the scheme shall altogether fail, it at least infers no loss, and therefore is, i think, worth the experiment. it is a fair and open appeal to the liberality, perhaps in some sort to the justice, of a great people; and i think i ought not in the circumstances to decline venturing upon it. i have done so manfully and openly, though not perhaps without some painful feelings, which however are more than compensated by the interest you have taken in this unimportant matter, of which i will not soon lose the recollection." (_knickerbocker magazine_, vol. xi, p. ff., april, .)] [footnote : _knickerbocker_, vol. xii, p. ff., october, .] [footnote : in a letter written in january, , sumner said, speaking of cooper's article, "i think a proper castigation is applied to the vulgar minds of scott and lockhart." (see _memoir and letters of charles sumner_, by edward l. pierce, vol. ii, p. ; and lounsbury's _cooper_, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, pp. - .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iii, p. , note; _fam. let._, vol. i, p. . "walter scott was the first transatlantic author to bear witness to the merit of knickerbocker," wrote p.m. irving in his _life of washington irving_. henry brevoort presented scott with a copy of the second edition in , and received this reply: "i beg you to accept my best thanks for the uncommon degree of entertainment which i have received from the most excellently jocose history of new york. i am sensible that as a stranger to american parties and politics i must lose much of the concealed satire of the piece, but i must own that looking at the simple and obvious meaning only, i have never read anything so closely resembling the style of dean swift, as the annals of diedrich knickerbocker.... i think too there are passages which indicate that the author possesses powers of a different kind, and has some touches which remind me much of sterne." (_life of irving_, vol. i, p. .) when, in , irving needed money, he wrote to scott for advice about publishing the _sketch book_ in england. "scott was the only literary man," he says, "to whom i felt that i could talk about myself and my petty concerns with the confidence and freedom that i would to an old friend--nor was i deceived. from the first moment that i mentioned my work to him in a letter, he took a decided and effective interest in it, and has been to me an invaluable friend." (vol. i, p. .) at this time scott asked irving to accept the editorship of a political newspaper in edinburgh, an offer which irving of course refused. (_fam. let._, vol. ii, p. ; _life of irving_, vol. i, pp. - , and vol. iii, pp. - .) scott called the _sketch book_ "positively beautiful." he was by some people supposed to be the author. in this connection it was said of him that his "very numerous disguises," and his "well-known fondness for literary masquerading, seem to have gained him the advantage of being suspected as the author of every distinguished work that is published." (letter by lady lyttleton, in _life of irving_, vol. ii, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. ; _life of irving_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _letters on demonology and witchcraft_, letter ii.] [footnote : _constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, pp. - .] [footnote : vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. . see also _journal_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : review of hoffmann's novels, _foreign quarterly review_, july, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : m. maigron says, speaking of the vogue of scott in france: "on peut affirmer mème que, de à , aucun nom français ne fut en france aussi connu et aussi glorieux." (_le roman historique à l'�poque romantique_, p. . see also pp. - .)] [footnote : the phrase is quoted from scott's article on the _life and works of john home_, in which it is applied to home's critical work. the same idea occurs frequently in scott's books, as indicating one of the finest graces of life. it was one which sir walter was foremost in practicing in all his social relations.] [footnote : he was talking about pope. see the _recollections_, by r.p. gillies, _fraser's_, xii: (sept., ).] [footnote : review of _the battles of talavera_, _quarterly_, november, .] [footnote : editor's introduction to _montrose_, border edition of the waverley novels.] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _quarterly_, january, . scott evidently wrote this article chiefly for the purpose of defending the historical accuracy of _old mortality_. he also wished to show that _the black dwarf_ was founded on fact; and he devoted some space, as will appear in the passage quoted below (pp. - ), to a discussion of the artistic aspects of these and the earlier waverly novels.] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : introductory epistle to _nigel_; _fam. let._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : introduction to the _monastery_.] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _rokeby_, canto vi, stanza ; _waverley_, vol. ii, pp. - ; _journal_, vol. , p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, pp. - .] [footnote : review of the _life and works of john home_, _quarterly_, june, .] [footnote : review of southery's _life of bunyan_, _quarterly_, october, .] [footnote : _quarterly_, january, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : _quarterly_, november, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : epistle prefixed to canto v.] [footnote : epistle prefixed to canto iii.] [footnote : hazlitt's _spirit of the age_, art. _sir walter scott_; see _letters to heber_, p. ff.] [footnote : it is hard to say just how much he accomplished by the proof-reading, which, to judge by his journal, he habitually performed. he wrote to kirkpatrick sharpe in , after seeing a new number of the _quarterly_: "i am a little disconcerted with the appearance of one or two of my own articles, which i have had no opportunity to revise in proof." (_sharpe's correspondence_, vol. i, p. .) lockhart gives an interesting sample of a sheet of scott's poetry tentatively revised by ballantyne and reworked by the author. (_lockhart_, vol. iii, pp. - .) it is certain that ballantyne made many suggestions, some of which scott accepted and some of which he summarily rejected. in hogg's _domestic manners of scott_ we find the following account of what the printer said when hogg reported that sir walter was to correct some proofs for him: "he correct them for you! lord help you and him both! i assure you if he had nobody to correct after him, there would be a bonny song through the country. he is the most careless and incorrect writer that ever was born, for a voluminous and popular writer, and as for sending a proof sheet to him, we may as well keep it in the office. he never heeds it.... he will never look at either your proofs or his own, unless it be for a few minutes amusement" (pp. - ). when he wrote to miss baillie that he had read the proofs of a play of hers which was being published in edinburgh, he added, "but this will not ensure their being altogether correct, for in despite of great practice, ballantyne insists i have a bad eye." (_familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. ; also and ; _lockhart_, vol. v, pp. and .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, pp. and .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : essay on _imitations of the ancient ballad_.] [footnote : a friend of scott's once wrote to him, "you are the only author i ever yet knew to whom one might speak plain about the faults found with his works." (_familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .) he took great pains, contrary to his usual custom, in revising and correcting the _malachi malagrowther_ papers, but these were argumentative and in an altogether different class from his poems and novels; and besides he felt a special responsibility in writing upon a public matter "far more important than anything referring to [his] fame or fortune alone." (_lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .)] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : introduction to the _pirate_.] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : this was, of course, an effect of overwork and disease. irving quotes scott as saying: "it is all nonsense to tell a man that his mind is not affected, when his body is in this state." (_irving's life_, vol. ii, p. .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : see _lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, pp. - ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : see _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. i, p. ; vol. iv, pp. and ; vol. v, pp. , , .] [footnote : _correspondence of c.k. sharpe_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. . in the _edinburgh annual register_ for (published ) is an article on the _living poets of great britain_, which if not written by scott was evidently influenced by him. speaking of southey, campbell and scott, the writer says: "were we set to classify their respective admirers we should be apt to say that those who feel poetry most enthusiastically prefer southey; those who try it by the most severe rules admire campbell; while the general mass of readers prefer to either the border poet. in this arrangement we should do mr. scott no injustice, because we assign to him in the number of suffrages what we deny him in their value." he once wrote to miss baillie, "no one can both eat his cake and have his cake, and i have enjoyed too extensive popularity in this generation to be entitled to draw long-dated bills upon the applause of the next." (_familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .) but in the introductory epistle to _nigel_ he said, "it has often happened that those who have been best received in their own time have also continued to be acceptable to posterity. i do not think so ill of the present generation as to suppose that its present favour necessarily infers future condemnation."] [footnote : introduction to the _lady of the lake_; _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : introduction to _chronicles of the canongate_.] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : see speech of humphry gubbin, in _the tender husband_, act i, sc. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p ; see also _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. and .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : when constable was proposing to publish the poetry of the novels separately, scott wrote to him that it was beyond his own power to distinguish what was original from what was borrowed, and suggested the following advertisement for the book: "we believe by far the greater part of the poetry interspersed through these novels to be original compositions by the author. at the same time the reader will find passages which are quoted from other authors, and may probably debit more of these than our more limited reading has enabled us to ascertain. indeed, it is our opinion that some of the following poetry is neither entirely original nor altogether borrowed, but consists in some instances of passages from other authors, which the author has not hesitated to alter considerably, either to supply defects of his own memory, or to adapt the quotation more explicitly and aptly to the matter in hand." (_constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, pp. - .)] [footnote : "i have taught nearly a hundred gentlemen to fence very nearly, if not altogether, as well as myself," he said. (_journal_, vol. i, p. . see also pp. - .)] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, pp. - ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, pp. and ; vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. , and _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, pp. - .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _waverley_, vol. i, pp. - . see also mackenzie's _life of scott_, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, pp. - ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. . see also his review of godwin's _life of chaucer_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : review of tytler's _history of scotland_, _quarterly_, november, .] [footnote : _southey's letters_, vol. iv, p. .] [footnote : herford's _age of wordsworth_, pp. - .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _paul's letters_, letter xvi.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : on goethe's favorable opinion of the _napoleon_, see a letter given in the appendix to scott's _journal_ (vol. ii, pp. - and note).] [footnote : carlyle's _essay on scott_. see also taine's _history of english literature_, introduction, i.] [footnote : review of _metrical romances_, _edinburgh review_, january, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _the pirate_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : introductory epistle to _ivanhoe_. freeman, in his _norman conquest_, vigorously attacks _ivanhoe_ for its unwarranted picture of the relations between saxons and normans in the thirteenth century. (vol. v, pp. - .)] [footnote : mr. lang points out that he made many written notes of his reading, as we should hardly expect a man of his unrivalled memory to do. (_life of scott_, p. .)] [footnote : _constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _constable's correspondence_, vol. iii, pp. - .] [footnote : _letters of lady louisa stuart_, p. .] [footnote : mr. lang's theory that scott was responsible for a decline in serious reading cannot be either proved or refuted completely, but more than one man has given personal testimony concerning the stimulating effect of the waverley novels. thierry's _norman conquest_ was directly inspired by _ivanhoe_, and with _ivanhoe_ is condemned by freeman for its mistaken views. mr. andrew d. white says in his _autobiography_ that _quentin durward_ and _anne of geierstein_ led him to see the first that he had ever clearly discerned of the great principles that "lie hidden beneath the surface of events"--"the secret of the centralization of power in europe, and of the triumph of monarchy over feudalism." (vol. i, pp. - .)] [footnote : scott had theories as to what children's books ought to be. they should stir the imagination, he said, instead of simply imparting knowledge as certain scientific books attempted to do. (_lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .) but he seriously objected to any attempt to write down to the understanding of children. of the _tales of a grandfather_ he said: "i will make, if possible, a book that a child shall understand, yet a man will feel some temptation to peruse, should he chance to take it up." (_lockhart_, vol. v, p. . see also _ib._, vol. i, p. .) anatole france has expressed ideas about children's books which are practically the same as those of scott. (see _le livre de mon ami_, me partie: "a madame d * * *.")] [footnote : introduction to _the fortunes of nigel_.] [footnote : see the introduction to _waverley_.] [footnote : introductory epistle to _ivanhoe_.] [footnote : _ibid._ in _old mortality_, claverhouse was made to use the phrase "sentimental speeches," but when lady louisa stuart pointed out to scott that the word "sentimental" was modern, he struck it out of the second edition.] [footnote : introductory epistle to _ivanhoe_. for other references to the use of a moderately antique diction see the essays on walpole and clara reeve in _lives of the novelists_, and the review of southey's _amadis de gaul_, _edinburgh review_, october, .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : introduction to _chronicles of the canongate_. see also _letters to heber_, pp. - , and ; and ruskin's analysis of scott's descriptions: _modern painters_, part iv, ch. , § ff.] [footnote : see particularly his reviews of _childe harold_, _canto iii_, _quarterly_, october, ; and of southey's translation of the _amadis de gaul_, _edinburgh review_, october, .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, pp. - .] [footnote : quoted in _wordsworth_ (english men of letters) by f.w.h. myers, p. .] [footnote : _recollections of scott_, by r.p. gillies. _fraser's_, xii: .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. iii, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. i, p. , and vol. ii, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. iv, p. , and vol. v, p. .] [footnote : in the discussion of _lives of the novelists_.] [footnote : see his _essay on scott_.] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xiv, p. .] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. v, p. , and introductory epistle to _nigel_.] [footnote : _letters to heber_, p. .] [footnote : _op. cit._, p. .] [footnote : _my aunt margaret's mirror_.] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : review of hoffmann's novels, _foreign quarterly review_, july, .] [footnote : _letters to r. polwhele_, etc., p. .] [footnote : lodge's _illustrious personages_, preface.] [footnote : article on molière, _foreign quarterly review_, february, .] [footnote : _three studies in literature_, p. .] [footnote : _edinburgh review_, no. , october, : review of _thalaba_.] [footnote : _three studies in literature_, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. xi, p. .] [footnote : herford, _op. cit._, pp. - .] [footnote : _essay on the drama_.] [footnote : wylie, _studies in criticism_, pp. - .] [footnote : _table talk_, august , . _works_, vol. vi, p. .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : article on scott's _demonology and witchcraft_, _fraser's_, december, .] [footnote : mackenzie's _life of scott_, p. .] [footnote : _the plain speaker_, hazlitt's _works_, vol. vii, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. i, p. . see above, pp. - .] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _life of bage_, in _novelists' library_.] [footnote : _essay on judicial reform_, _edinburgh annual register_, vol. i, pt. , p. . everyone knows that scott was a decided tory, and it is commonly supposed that he was an extremely prejudiced partisan. but he closes a political passage in _woodstock_ with these words: "we hasten to quit political reflections, the rather that ours, we believe, will please neither whig nor tory." (end of chapter .) from the definitions of whig and tory given in the _tales of a grandfather_, no one could guess his politics. (chapter .)] [footnote : leigh hunt's _autobiography_, vol. i, p. . see also pp. - , and the notes on his _feast of the poets_.] [footnote : courthope's _liberal movement_, p. .] [footnote : _life of murray_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _ibid._, vol. ii, p. ] [footnote : _macmillan's magazine_, lxx: .] [footnote : newman's _apologia_, pp. - . mark twain thinks the influence of the novels was pernicious. he says: "a curious exemplification of the power of a single book for good or harm is shown in the effects wrought by don quixote and those wrought by ivanhoe. the first swept the world's admiration for the mediaeval chivalry-silliness out of existence; and the other restored it.... sir walter had so large a hand in making southern character, as it existed before the war, that he is in great measure responsible for the war." (_life on the mississippi_, ch. xlvi.)] [footnote : _familiar letters_, vol. i, pp. - . see also his remarks upon booksellers in his review of pitcairn's _ancient criminal trials_, _quarterly_, february, .] [footnote : _fraser's_, xiii: .] [footnote : essay on dunbar in _ephemera critica_.] [footnote : _english historical review_, vi: .] [footnote : _life, letters and journals of george ticknor_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : carlyle's _essay on scott_.] [footnote : _lockhart_, vol. ii, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _dryden_, vol. i, conclusion.] [footnote : _british novelists and their styles_, p. .] [footnote : _journal_, vol. ii, p. ; _lockhart_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _history of criticism_, vol. i, p. .] [footnote : _recollections of scott_ by r.p. gillies, _fraser's_, xii: .] [transcriber's note: the name zitkala-sa is written with two dots on the s] a mother's list of books for children non minima pars eruditionis est bonos nosse libros _inscription over the doorway of bishop cosin's library, durham, england_ a mother's list of books for children compiled by gertrude weld arnold chicago a.c. mcclurg & co. copyright a.c. mcclurg & co. entered at stationer's hall, london, england all rights reserved published october , the university press, cambridge, u.s.a. to my little cousins ruth and esther _preface_ (p. ix) this little book, a revision of one privately printed a few years ago, has been prepared for home use, and for this reason the classification has been made according to the age, and not the school grade, of the child. but as children differ so greatly in capacity, it should be understood that in this respect the arrangement is only approximate. the endeavor has been made to choose those fairy tales which are most free from horrible happenings, and to omit all writings which tolerate unkindness to animals. humorous books are designated by a star and the few sad ones by a circle. the prices given are the same as those in the publishers' catalogues; booksellers' prices are often less. my thanks are extended to those publishers who have time and again courteously provided the facilities for the examination of their publications. miss annie carroll moore, of the new york public library, was kind enough to read for me the notes and comments. i wish most gratefully to acknowledge the generous assistance given me by miss hewins, of (p. x) the hartford public library, miss hunt, of the brooklyn public library, and miss jordan, of the boston public library, who examined the list, and suggested some changes and a few additions. their approbation is elsewhere expressed. gertrude weld arnold. nutley, new jersey. _a mother's list_ (p. xi) it is said, in that earliest collection of english proverbs which was made by john heywood, more than three hundred years ago, that "children must learn to creep before they can go." this little book for which i am asked to write a brief preface is, so far as i can find out, the first consistent effort yet made towards teaching children to read on john heywood's principle. it is safe to say that it is destined to carry light and joy into multitudes of households. it is based upon methods such as i vaguely sighed after, nearly fifty years ago, when i was writing in the _north american review_ for january, , a paper entitled children's books of the year. the essay was written by request of professor charles eliot norton, then the editor of that periodical, and i can now see how immensely i should have been relieved by a book just like this mother's list, a device such as nobody in that day had the wisdom and faithful industry to put together. in glancing over the books discussed in that early paper of mine, it is curious to see how the very titles of some of the most prominent have now disappeared from sight. where are the little prudy books (p. xii) which once headed the list? where are the stories of oliver optic? where is jacob abbott's john gay; or work for boys? even paul and virginia have vanished, taking with them the philosophic rasselas and even the pretty story of undine. nothing of that list of thirty titles is now well remembered except cooper's leatherstocking and jane andrews's seven little sisters who live on the round ball that floats in the air, a book which has been translated into the languages of remote nations of the globe, i myself having seen the chinese and japanese versions. thus irregular is the award of time and we must accept it. meanwhile this new book is organized on a better plan than any dreamed of at that former period, the books being arranged not merely by classes alone, but according to the age of the proposed readers and stretching in regular order from two years old until fourteen. the whole number of books being very large, there is no overdue limitation, and this forms the simple but magical method of reaching every variety of childish mind. thus excellent have been the changes: yet it is curious to (p. xiii) observe on closer study that the two classes of books which represent the two extremes among the childish readers--mother hubbard and shakespeare--may still be said to be the opposite poles between which the whole world of juvenile literature hangs suspended. a child needs to be supplied with a proper diet of fancy as well as of fact; and of fact as well as fancy. he is usually so constituted that if he were to find a fairy every morning in his bread and milk at breakfast, it would not very much surprise him; while yet his appetite for the substantial food remains the same. alice's adventures in wonderland seem nowhere very strange to him, while chaucer and spenser need only to be simply told, while dana's two years before the mast and hughes's tom brown's school days at rugby hold their own as well as jack and the bean-stalk. grown up people have their prejudices, but children have few or none. a pound of feathers and a pound of lead will usually be found to weigh the same in their scales. nay, we, their grandparents, know by experience that there may be early cadences in their ears which may last all their lives. for instance, caroline (p. xiv) fry's listener would now scarcely find a reader in any group of children, yet there is one passage in the book--one which forms the close of some beggar's story about "never more beholding margaret somebody and her sunburnt child"--which would probably bring tears to the present writer's eyes today, although he has not seen the book since he was ten years of age. it may be that every mature reader will miss from the list some book or books of that precious childish literature which once throve and flourished behind school desks. they were books founded partly on famous history, as that of baron trenck and his escapes from prison, rinaldo rinaldini, and the three spaniards. i am told that children do not now find them in a pedlar's pack as we once found them, accompanied by buns and peddled like them at recess time. even if we should find them both in such a place, they might have no such flavor for us now. it is something if the flowers of american gossip are retained in similar stories, even if their atmosphere is retreating from all the hills. it is enough to know that we have for all our children the works of louisa alcott and susan coolidge; that they (p. xv) have aldrich's story of a bad boy and mrs. dodge's hans brinker and miss hale's peterkin papers and the william henry letters by mrs. diaz. we need not complain so long as our children can look inexhaustively across the ocean for andrew lang's latest fairy-book and grimm's household stories as introduced to a new immortality by john ruskin. thomas wentworth higginson. cambridge, mass., _january , _. _appreciations_ (p. xvii) i think your selections very carefully made and well adapted to children who have books at home and mothers who read them.... with many congratulations on the excellence of your book, both in form and substance, believe me yours sincerely, caroline m. hewins. _hartford public library._ you do not owe me any thanks for my little assistance, for you have given me quite as much as i have given you. it is more stimulating than you can believe to discuss the subject with one whose point of view is not that of the librarian. you must not call yourself an amateur, however, for you are an expert on children's books. i have gained a great many ideas from you, and have enjoyed comparing notes with you immensely. sincerely yours, clara w. hunt. _brooklyn public library._ i am sending back your book with my notes and suggestions. it is (p. xviii) an uncommonly good list, however, and there is little that i have wished to add or to take away.... your list is so good that i know you must have spent a great deal of time and very definite thought over it. you have certainly covered the ground thoroughly.... i have enjoyed seeing your list and shall be greatly interested in seeing it in final form. sincerely yours, alice m. jordan. _boston public library._ _contents_ (p. xix) preface ......................................... ix a mother's list by thomas wentworth higginson ... xi appreciations ................................. xvii two years of age ................................ three years of age .............................. four years of age ............................... five years of age ............................... six years of age ................................ seven years of age .............................. eight years of age .............................. nine years of age ............................... ten years of age ................................ eleven years of age ............................ twelve years of age ............................ thirteen years of age .......................... fourteen years of age .......................... author and title index ......................... key to publishers .............................. a mother's list of books for children (p. ) _two years of age_ _o babees yonge, my book only is made for youre lernynge._ the babees book. _circa ._ picture-books the baby's first book will naturally be a picture-book, for pictures appeal to him early, and with great force.... if we understood children better, we should realize this vitality which pictures have for them, and should be more careful to give them the best. w.t. field. the children's farm. dutton. . these colored pictures of the different farm animals, mounted on boards, will please the littlest ones. crane, walter (illustrator). mother hubbard. lane. . as children are favorably influenced by good pictures, it is a pity to give them any but the best, among which walter crane's certainly stand. attention is drawn to the designs of the cover-pages of the (p. ) books of this series, which are quite as attractive as the text illustrations. the drawings for mother hubbard are among mr. crane's most successful efforts. tiny folk will be entranced with the pictures of this marvellous white doggie. "this wonderful dog was dame hubbard's delight, he could sing, he could dance, he could read, he could write." crane, walter (illustrator). this little pig. lane. . let us travel to piggy-land for a few moments, with the baby, and it will probably be the first of many trips, with these gay pictures to guide us. _three years of age_ (p. ) _a dreary place would be this earth, were there no little people in it; . . . . . . . . . . life's song, indeed, would lose its charm, were there no babies to begin it._ whittier. picture-books what an unprejudiced and wholly spontaneous acclaim awaits the artist who gives his best to the little ones! they do not place his work in portfolios or locked glass cases; they thumb it to death, surely the happiest of all fates for any printed book. gleeson white. bannerman, helen. *the story of little black sambo. stokes. . written and illustrated by an englishwoman in india for her two small daughters, little black sambo, with its absurd story, and funny crude pictures in color, will delight young children of all lands. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). the farmer's boy. warne. . these delicately colored prints, with their atmosphere of english country life, well accord with the old cumulative verses which they accompany. mr. caldecott has charmingly illustrated this and the (p. ) following picture-books. some of the illustrations in each book are in color and some in black and white. the caldecott toy-books, they fix for all time the favorite heroes of nursery rhyme. the caldecott toy-books-- we never shall find a gracefuller pencil, a merrier mind! l. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). a frog he would a-wooing go. warne. . the drawings portray mr. frog, mr. rat, and the tragic ending to the festivities at mousey's hall. caldecott was a fine literary artist, who was able to express himself with rare facility in pictures in place of words, so that his comments upon a simple text reveal endless subtleties of thought.... you have but to turn to any of his toy-books to see that at times each word, almost each syllable, inspired its own picture.... he studied his subject as no one else ever studied it.... then he portrayed it simply and with inimitable vigor, with a fine economy of line and colour; when colour is added, it is mainly as a gay convention, and not closely imitative of nature. gleeson white. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). (p. ) hey diddle diddle, and baby bunting. warne. . the pictures to hey diddle diddle are instinct with joyousness. baby bunting's father was a jovial huntsman of the old english type. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). the house that jack built. warne. . children will be greatly amused by the funny rat. "that ate the malt, that lay in the house that jack built." caldecott, randolph (illustrator). the milkmaid. warne. . we are glad when the young squire, whose interest in the destination of the pretty maid the old song recounts, meets his proper deserts through the clever pencil of mr. caldecott. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). the queen of hearts. warne. . these pictures suggest in color and design those found on playing cards, and they are very good indeed. caldecott, randolph (illustrator). (p. ) ride a-cock horse to banbury cross, and a farmer went trotting upon his grey mare. warne. . wouldn't we all like to ride these sturdy nags through the lovely english country, even if we weren't to have the extra attraction of seeing a fine lady on a white horse? children will love to read of the stout farmer and his pretty daughter, who went trotting to market, "bumpety, bumpety, bump!" caldecott, randolph (illustrator). sing a song for sixpence. warne. . the little boy and girl king and queen are fascinating to real little boys and girls, and it is pleasant to be sure from the pictures that they liked the same things that children like to-day. crane, walter (illustrator). the baby's opera. warne. . a book of old rhymes with new dresses by walter crane. the music by the earliest masters.--_title-page._ this collection of english rhymes contains the mulberry bush, king arthur, jack and jill, and many others equally familiar, with the accompanying music for each. crane, walter (illustrator). (p. ) the fairy ship. lane. . one of mr. crane's best. the duck captain and mouse sailors are utterly captivating. "there were fifty little sailors skipping o'er the decks; they were fifty little white mice, with rings around their necks." _four years of age_ (p. ) _he that neer learns his a b c, for ever will a blockhead be; but he that learns these letters fair, shall have a coach to take the air._ the royal battledore. _newbery. circa_ . picture-books summer fading, winter comes-- frosty mornings, tingling thumbs, window robins, winter rooks, and the picture story-books. . . . . . . . . all the pretty things put by, wait upon the children's eye, sheep and shepherds, trees and crooks, in the picture story-books. stevenson. crane, walter (illustrator). the baby's own alphabet. lane. . the a b c, accompanied by old english rhymes. there are three or four illustrations to a page. francis, j.g. *a book of cheerful cats and other animated animals. century. . funny verses and even funnier animal pictures. a delightful book for old and young, because of the ability shown in the illustrations. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors (p. ) the mother sits and sings her baby to sleep; here is one of the very best opportunities for the right literature at the right time. mrs. h.l. elmendorf. lang, andrew (editor). the nursery rhyme book. illustrated by l. leslie brooke. warne. . an exceptional collection of the ancient rhymes, songs, charms, and lullabies, accompanied by interesting pictures. "in mr. halliwell's collection, from which this volume is abridged, no manuscript authority goes further back than the reign of henry viii, though king arthur and robin hood are mentioned.... thus our old nursery rhymes are smooth stones from the book of time, worn round by constant friction of tongues long silent." stevenson, r.l. a child's garden of verses. illustrated by jessie willcox smith. scribner. . it is generally admitted that no one has comprehended and written from the child's point of view as did stevenson. this volume should be among the first to be put into the hands of our little ones. (p. ) besides the black and white text illustrations there are twelve full-page pictures in color, all by jessie willcox smith. stevenson, r.l. a child's garden of verses. illustrated by charles robinson. scribner. . there are some who will prefer this small edition, beautifully illustrated in black and white. welsh, charles (editor). a book of nursery rhymes. heath. . mr. welsh has arranged this excellent collection of mother goose in accordance with the child's development, placing the rhymes in four divisions: mother play, mother stories, child play, and child stories. stories to master john the english maid a hornbook gives, of gingerbread; and that the child may learn the better, as he can name, he eats each letter. proceeding thus with vast delight, he spells and gnaws from left to right. prior. _ ._ potter, beatrix. the tale of peter rabbit. illustrated by the author. warne. . the diverting history of four little rabbits: flopsy, mopsy, cotton-tail, and naughty peter who _would_ go into mr. mcgregor's (p. ) garden, where he had many exciting adventures. the tiny volumes of this series, with their fascinating colored illustrations, are very delightful. smith, gertrude. the arabella and araminta stories. illustrated by ethel reed. small. . simple every-day happenings in the lives of little twin sisters, related with much of the repetition so pleasing to very young children. there are plenty of pictures. smith, gertrude. the roggie and reggie stories. illustrated by m.h. squire and e. mars. harper. . this companion to the arabella and araminta stories tells in the same pleasant reiterative style of the doings of the little girls' little twin brothers. the illustrations are in color. _five years of age_ (p. ) _how am i to sing your praise, happy chimney-corner days, sitting safe in nursery nooks, reading picture story-books?_ stevenson. geography, travel, and description when the ice lets go the river, when the wild-geese come again, when the sugar-maple swells, when the maple swells its buds, then the little blue birds come, then my little blue bird came. _indian lullaby from_ the childhood of ji-shib the ojibwa. deming, t.o. indian child-life. illustrated by e.w. deming. stokes. . pleasant sketches of the children of different tribes, with many full-page color plates after paintings in water-color, and black and white illustrations. the big oblong pictures, with their primitive indian coloring, are unusually attractive. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales (p. ) jack, commonly called the giant-killer, and thomas thumb landed in england from the very same keels and war-ships which conveyed hengist and horsa, and ebba the saxon. scott. brooke, l.l. (illustrator). the golden goose book. warne. . mr. brooke has appropriately illustrated these old favorites: the golden goose, the story of the three bears, the story of the three little pigs, and tom thumb. of the four, the most popular is the tale of the adventures of little tom, the favorite dwarf of the court of king arthur. "long time he lived in jollity, beloved of the court, and none like tom was so esteemed amongst the better sort." la fontaine, jean de. select fables from la fontaine. illustrated by l.m. boutet de monvel. s.p.c.k. stechert. . this edition is chosen because of monsieur boutet de monvel's charming small illustrations in color. there are from two to eight pictures on each page, accompanying the text, which is in verse. (p. ) as color appeals to the child before he has much notion of form, his first picture-book should be colored, and as his ideas of form develop slowly, his first pictures should be in outline, and unencumbered with detail. the french illustrator, boutet de monvel, has given us the ideal pictures for young children. w.t. field. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors blind homer and the chief singer of israel and skalds and bards and minnesingers are all gone, tradition is almost a byword, but mothers still live, and children need not wait until they have conquered the crabbed types before they begin to love literature. mrs. h.l. elmendorf. adelborg, ottilia. *clean peter and the children of grubbylea. longmans. . this large oblong book contains simple verses accompanying delightful full-page pictures in delicate colors somewhat after the french manner. it tells how clean peter brought tidiness to a little town. "the children out in grubbylea are all as clean as clean can be. and peter's living there to-day, the children begged him so to stay." burgess, gelett. (p. ) *goops and how to be them. a manual of manners for polite infants. illustrated by the author. stokes. . if there ever was anyone who could cover little pills with a thick coating of sugar, it was mr. burgess when he wrote these clever verses and drew these ninety original and always funny pictures. children delight in the goops. it is almost worth while being one to have this volume of warning thrust into our hands. "i never knew a goop to help his mother, i never knew a goop to help his dad, and they never do a thing for one another; they are actually, absolutely bad! "if you ask a goop to go and post a letter, or to run upon an errand, _how_ they act! but somehow i imagine you are better, and you _try_ to go, and _cry_ to go, in fact!" burgess, gelett. *more goops and how not to be them. a manual of manners for impolite infants. illustrated by the author. stokes. . a delightful companion volume of dreadful examples. with ninety-seven illustrations. "you who are the oldest, you who are the tallest, don't you think you ought to help the youngest and the smallest? "you who are the strongest, (p. ) you who are the quickest, don't you think you ought to help the weakest and the sickest? "never mind the trouble, help them all you can; be a little woman! be a little man!" headland, i.t. (translator). chinese mother goose rhymes. revell. . mr. headland, who is a professor in the imperial university at peking, tells us: "there is no language in the world, we venture to believe, which contains children's songs expressive of more keen and tender affection.... this fact, more than any other, has stimulated us in the preparation of these rhymes.... the illustrations have all been prepared by the translator specially for this work." the oriental atmosphere of the book and the many chinese pictures lead our children of the western world most delightfully into this old land. "he climbed up the candlestick, the little mousey brown, to steal and eat tallow, and he couldn't get down. he called for his grandma, but his grandma was in town, so he doubled up into a wheel and rolled himself down." lear, edward. (p. ) *nonsense books. little. . the nonsense classic, which should be among the first books secured for a child's library. this edition contains all the nonsense books, with all the original illustrations. "'how pleasant to know mr. lear,' who has written such volumes of stuff! some think him ill-tempered and queer, but a few think him pleasant enough." norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume i. rhymes, jingles, and fables. heath. . "mother goose is the best primer. no matter if the rhymes be nonsense verses; many a poet might learn the lesson of good versification from them, and the child in repeating them is acquiring the accent of emphasis and of rhythmical form."--_preface._ sage, betty (pseudonym of mrs. e. (s.) goodwin). rhymes of real children. illustrated by jessie willcox smith. duffield. . these verses are written from the child's point of view, and are delightful alike to young and old. miss smith never did better work than in these beautiful sympathetic pictures and fascinating borders. the book is a large square one. "if you could see our mother play (p. ) on the floor, you'd never think she was as old as twenty-four. on sunday, when she goes to church, it might be, but tuesdays she is just the age of joe and me." upton, bertha. *the adventures of two dutch dolls and a golliwogg. illustrated by florence k. upton. longmans. . children will like the funny, brightly colored pictures in this large oblong book, and will be fascinated by the golliwogg. the verses are not equal to the illustrations. stories president thwing says: "children rarely have but one object in reading, and that is to amuse themselves"; and surely in this playtime of life this aim should be the chief one. a.h. wikel. craik, g.m. (mrs. g.m. (c.) may). so-fat and mew-mew. heath. . an account of two little animal friends, a cat and dog, which will please small children who are outgrowing mother goose. hopkins, w.j. the sandman: his farm stories. page. . very simple and delightful narratives of the life of a little boy (p. ) on a farm seventy-five years ago. the atmosphere of the sketches is redolent of wholesome country life. they were used as bedtime stories at home for several years before publication. potter, beatrix. the tale of benjamin bunny. illustrated by the author. warne. . the story of little benjamin bunny's visit to his cousin peter rabbit. a companion volume to the tale of peter rabbit. these colored pictures of the small bunnies seem to the compiler the cunningest of this charming series. potter, beatrix. the tale of squirrel nutkin. illustrated by the author. warne. . telling how bad little nutkin was rude and saucy to old brown the owl, and what came of it. very exciting, but not harrowing, even for tiny listeners. the pictures are in color. _six years of age_ (p. ) _"babies do not want," said he, "to hear about babies; they like to be told of giants and castles, and of somewhat which can stretch and stimulate their little minds_". dr. johnson. _recorded by mrs. piozzi._ amusements and handicraft happy hearts and happy faces, happy play in grassy places-- that was how, in ancient ages, children grew to kings and sages. stevenson. walker, m.c. lady hollyhock and her friends. baker. . suggestions for making charming dollies from fruits, vegetables, and flowers. the illustrations, many in color, are attractive and explanatory, but the text must be read to the children, as it is somewhat advanced for them. geography, travel, and description little indian, sioux or crow, little frosty eskimo, little turk or japanee, o! don't you wish that you were me? . . . . . . . you have curious things to eat, (p. ) i am fed on proper meat; you must dwell beyond the foam, but i am safe and live at home. stevenson. andrews, jane. the seven little sisters who live on the round ball that floats in the air. ginn. . these simple stories, written for the girls and boys of a generation ago, have taken their place among the charming and vivid descriptions of child-life in different lands. the round ball is the earth, and the sisters are the tribes that dwell thereon. the little book was conceived in a happy hour; its pictures are so real and so graphic, so warm and so human, that the most literal and the most imaginative of children must find in them, not only something to charm, but also to mould pleasant associations for maturer years. thomas wentworth higginson. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales and as with the toys, so with the toy-books. they exist everywhere: there is no calculating the distance through which the stories come to us, the number of languages through which they have been filtered, or the centuries during which they have been told. many of them have been narrated, almost in their present shape, for thousands of years since, to little copper-coloured sanscrit children, listening to their mother under the palm-trees by the banks of the yellow jumna--their (p. ) brahmin mother, who softly narrated them through the ring in her nose. the very same tale has been heard by the northmen vikings as they lay on their shields on deck; and by arabs couched under the stars on the syrian plains when the flocks were gathered in and the mares were picketed by the tents. thackeray. crane, walter (illustrator). aladdin. lane. . these richly colored eastern pictures will give even little children a suggestion of the splendor of the orient. let us hope that they will never be too ready to answer the call of "new lamps for old ones." walter crane is the serious apostle of art for the nursery, who strove to beautify its ideal, to decorate its legends with a real knowledge of architecture and costume, and to mount the fairy stories with a certain archæological splendor.... as a maker of children's books, no one ever attempted the task he fulfilled so gayly, and no one since has beaten him on his own ground. gleeson white. crane, walter (illustrator). ali baba and the forty thieves. lane. . it seems hardly right to omit this edition of so celebrated a tale pictured by so celebrated an artist, yet mr. crane's work breathes mystery and oriental cunning from every page, and should be given to our youngsters only after examination, as a highly-strung child might be frightened by it. the picture of the resourceful morgiana filling the oil-jars, while a dreadful robber with saucer-like eyes peers (p. ) from one of them, is awful indeed. crane, walter (illustrator). beauty and the beast. lane. . charming illustrations accompany this prose version of the ancient favorite which will long endure because of the great truth underlying the grotesque tale. crane, walter (illustrator). cinderella. lane. . may every little girl find the fairy prince of her imagination! crane, walter (illustrator). the frog prince. lane. . the story of the frog who was transformed into the handsome prince is as immortal as childhood. may we all remember the king's command to his daughter: "he who helped you in the time of your trouble must not now be despised." crane, walter (illustrator). jack and the bean-stalk. lane. . ogre-like indeed is the giant, and we breathe a sigh of relief when verses as well as pictures make it quite certain that jack has escaped for the third time with his golden treasure. the beans of king (p. ) alfred's day seem to have closely resembled the wild oats of our own. crane, walter (illustrator). the sleeping beauty. lane. . "so sweet a face, so fair--was never beauty such as this; he stands--he stoops to gaze--he kneels-- he wakes her with a kiss. he leads her forth; the magic sleep of all the court is o'er-- they wake, they move, they talk, they laugh, just as they did of yore a hundred years ago." poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors children seem to possess an inherent conviction that when the hole is big enough for the cat, no smaller one at the side is needed for the kitten. they don't really care for "glimpses" of this, or "gleanings" of that, or "footsteps" to the other--but would rather stretch and pull, and get on tiptoe to reach the sweeter fruit above them, than confine themselves to the crabs which grow to their level. miss rigby. _ ._ cowper, william. *the diverting history of john gilpin. illustrated by randolph caldecott. warne. . a spirited delineation of the never-to-be-forgotten ride. cox, palmer. (p. ) *the brownies: their book. illustrated by the author. century. . every child should know mr. cox's prankish, helpful brownies. the verses are accompanied by many delightful pictures. hazard, bertha (editor). three years with the poets. houghton. . while these selections are intended for memorization by children, and are arranged by months for the school year, the collection is so good as to fill a useful place in the home library. at the end of the book are a few pages of wisely chosen little selections of poetry and prose, truly called helps for the day's work. ostertag, blanche (editor and illustrator). old songs for young america. music arranged by clarence forsyth. doubleday. . the familiar songs, set to the music of the old tunes, and charmingly illustrated,--the costumes those of olden days. some of the pictures are in color and some in black and white. the monkey's wedding, bobby shafto, and old dan tucker, are included in the contents. our children's songs. harper. . this carefully chosen collection--in which american poets are well represented--although made over thirty years ago, still holds its (p. ) own as a standard. one of the divisions is devoted to hymns. taylor, jane and ann. little ann, and other poems. illustrated by kate greenaway. warne. . it is a good thing for children to learn from these quaint verses, with their charming illustrations, the sort of reading which pleased the small folks of long ago. the taylors seldom struck so happy a vein as in the poem called the field daisy, which begins: "i'm a pretty little thing, always coming with the spring; in the meadows green i'm found, peeping just above the ground, and my stalk is covered flat with a white and yellow hat." i prefer the little girls and boys ... that come as you call them, fair or dark, in green ribbons or blue. i like making cowslip fields grow and apple-trees bloom at a moment's notice. that is what it is, you see, to have gone through life with an enchanted land ever beside you.--kate greenaway to ruskin. religion and ethics little jesus, wast thou shy once, and just so small as i? and what did it feel like to be out of heaven, and just like me? didst thou sometimes think of _there_, and ask where all the angels were? (p. ) i should think that i would cry for my house all made of sky; i would look about the air, and wonder where the angels were; and at waking 'twould distress me-- not an angel there to dress me! hadst thou ever any toys, like us little girls and boys? and didst thou play in heaven with all the angels, that were not too tall, with stars for marbles? did the things play _can you see me?_ through their wings? francis thompson. the bible for young people. century. . this careful chronological arrangement of bible history, from the king james version, is very satisfactory. the book is a large one, with full-page illustrations from the old masters. stories it is enough fame for any author to be loved by children, generation after generation, long after he himself has left the scene. w.a. jones. _ ._ abbott, jacob. a boy on a farm. edited by clifton johnson. from rollo at work and rollo at play. introduction by dr. lyman abbott. american book. . few books axe remembered with greater affection by persons (p. ) who were children in the middle of the last century than those written by jacob abbott.... the educational effect of jacob abbott's stories, both mental and moral, was very great.... the insistence, however, with which these virtues were proclaimed and emphasized, constitutes a weakness in the books as we view them now.--_preface._ here we have the very saturnalia of common-sense.... these works are invaluable to fathers; by keeping always one volume in advance of his oldest son, a man can stand before the household, an encyclopædia of every practical art. thomas wentworth higginson. crane, walter (illustrator). goody two shoes. lane. . the text of this famous tale, attributed to oliver goldsmith, is perhaps somewhat beyond the easy comprehension of children of six years, but they will enjoy the interesting pictures of margery and her animal friends. scudder, h.e. (editor). the children's book. houghton. . if a child could have but one story-book, a better choice could scarcely be made than this storehouse of fables, wonder tales, myths, songs, and ballads. selections from andersen, the arabian nights, gulliver, and munchausen, are included. there are many illustrations. trimmer, s. (k). (p. ) the history of the robins. edited by e.e. hale. heath. . small people like to hear about this father and mother robin and their four babies. mrs. sarah trimmer ... was a woman of more than the average education and accomplishment of her day, and enjoyed the friendship of dr. samuel johnson, sir joshua reynolds, and nearly all of the more celebrated english authors and painters of that time. she wrote a great many books.... they are now nearly all of them dead and forgotten; but one of them at least has lived, and has been the delight of thousands of children for over three-quarters of a century.--_introduction._ wiggin, k.d. (s.), and n.a. smith. the story hour. houghton. . these fourteen little stories include some about children and some about animals. they are just the sort of narratives that small folks love, and are designed for retelling in the kindergarten and home. there are, in addition, three adaptations of well-known tales: moufflou, benjy in beastland, and the porcelain stove, and a poem by mrs. wiggin. _seven years of age_ (p. ) _to go sailing far away to the pleasant land of play; to the fairy land afar where the little people are._ stevenson. amusements and handicraft so many, and so many, and such glee. keats. white, mary. the child's rainy day book. doubleday. . this fully illustrated little volume gives clear directions for making simple toys and games, weaving baskets, working with beads, clay, et cetera. there is a good chapter on gifts and how to make them. geography, travel, and description where shall we adventure, to-day that we're afloat, wary of the weather and steering by a star? shall it be to africa, a-steering of the boat, to providence, or babylon, or off to malabar? stevenson. andrews, jane. each and all. ginn. . a companion volume to the seven little sisters, telling more of (p. ) these happy children and their common bond of loving friendship. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales this is fairy gold, boy, and 't will prove so. shakspere. browne, frances. granny's wonderful chair and its tales of fairy times. dutton. . a series of delightful wonder stories, through which runs a vein of true wisdom. miss browne was blind from infancy, and her writings stand as the accomplishment of a brave and unselfish woman. holbrook, florence. the book of nature myths. illustrated by e. boyd smith. houghton. . the subject-matter is of permanent value, culled from the folk-lore of the primitive races.--_preface._ we are told the story of the earth and the sky, why the bear has a short tail, why the cat always falls upon her feet, and many other mythical reasons for natural wonders. kipling, rudyard. (p. ) just so stories. illustrated by the author. doubleday. . "i keep six honest serving-men; (they taught me all i knew) their names are what and where and when and how and where and who. i send them over land and sea, i send them east and west; but after they have worked for me, _i_ give them all a rest. . . . . . . . . . but different folk have different views; i know a person small-- she keeps ten million serving-men, who get no rest at all! she sends 'em abroad on her own affairs, from the second she opens her eyes-- one million hows, two million wheres, and seven million whys!" to this small person, best beloved, these twelve remarkable tales were related. we learn how the elephant got his trunk, how the first letter came to be written, and so forth. there are two editions of the book at the same price. most children will prefer the one in large octavo. murray, hilda. flower legends for children. illustrated by j.s. eland. longmans. . mothers may find the text somewhat advanced for children of seven years, but the full-page colored pictures are sure to be enjoyed. the volume is a large oblong one. norton, c.e. (editor). (p. ) heart of oak books. volume ii. fables and nursery tales. heath. . the next step is easy, to the short stories which have been told since the world was young; old fables in which the teachings of long experience are embodied, legends, fairy tales, which form the traditional common stock of the fancies and sentiment of the race.--_preface._ scudder, h.e. (editor). the book of legends. houghton. . famous tales, such as king cophetua, the wandering jew, st. christopher, and the seven sleepers of ephesus, retold for the children. wilson, g.l. myths of the red children. ginn. . the stories are true examples of indian folk-lore and are very old.... care has been taken to make the drawings archæologically correct for each tribe.--_foreword._ these traditions of various tribes were gathered from the best sources, and are here related in simple language. there is a supplement giving directions for making different articles: a tent, indian dress, a bow and arrow, a stone axe, et cetera. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors (p. ) most joyful let the poet be; it is through him that all men see. channing. blaisdell, e.w. *the animals at the fair. russell. . mr. blaisdell's attractive and amusing illustrations may well serve as a substitute for the ordinary comic pictures of the newspapers. whittier, j.g. (editor). child-life. houghton. . although thirty-seven years have passed since child-life was compiled, it stands now, as then, far ahead of most collections of poetry for american children. our own poets are well represented. religion and ethics loving jesus, meek and mild, look upon a little child! make me gentle as thou art, come and live within my heart. take my childish hand in thine, (p. ) guide these little feet of mine. so shall all my happy days sing their pleasant song of praise. charles wesley. beale, h.s. (b.). stories from the old testament for children. duffield. . these bible tales are simply told, and follow closely the lines of the old testament, a considerable portion of the narratives being in the language of scripture. moulton, r.g. (editor). children's series of the modern reader's bible. bible stories. new testament. macmillan. . the stories are in the language of scripture, altered only by omissions.... the revised version is used, with the frequent substitution of the marginal renderings.... in the introductions and notes i have carefully avoided any wording which might insinuate doctrinal instruction.--_preface._ moulton, r.g. (editor). children's series of the modern reader's bible. bible stories. old testament. macmillan. . the stories which make the text are in the language of scripture, altered only by omissions.... the volume is arranged according to the natural divisions of bible history.... each period is represented by its most important stories; the purpose of the introduction and notes to each section is to weave all (p. ) together by indicating briefly the bearing of each story on the general history.--_preface._ science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals o velvet bee, you're a dusty fellow; you've powdered your legs with gold! o brave marshmary buds, rich and yellow, give me your money to hold! o columbine, open your folded wrapper, where two twin turtle-doves dwell! o cuckoo-pint, toll me the purple clapper that hangs in your clear green bell! and show me your nest, with the young ones in it-- i will not steal it away; i am old! you may trust me, linnet, linnet-- i am seven times one to-day. jean ingelow. andrews, jane. the stories mother nature told her children. ginn. . miss andrews's books were the pioneers of the great crowd of present-day nature-books for young children, and they still compare favorably in dignity and true interest with their successors. amber, coal, the work of water, and seeds, are among the objects in regard to which mother nature told her stories. prentice and power. stories (p. ) we take it for granted that books for children belong to the easy play rather than to the hard work of life, and that they are an utter failure if they do not win their way by their own charms. samuel osgood. hopkins, w.j. the sandman: his ship stories. page. . simple descriptions of the building of the good ship _industry_ and her voyages to the far-away countries in the days long gone. s�gur, s. (r.) de. the story of a donkey. heath. . a translation from the comtesse de ségur's memoirs of a donkey. neddy's account of his own life--and he was a good and faithful beastie who had many adventures--has been a favorite with children for years. ward, m.a. (a.) (mrs. humphry ward). milly and olly. doubleday. . this charming story, written many years ago and now revised, tells of childish holidays spent in the windemere region. aunt emma--a really, truly old lady, who owns a fascinating parrot--proves a sort of modern fairy-godmother to the little brother and sister. the atmosphere is not too pronouncedly english to interfere in the least with our children's enjoyment. white, e.o. (p. ) a little girl of long ago. houghton. . the experiences of a little new england girl of eighty years ago, telling of her return voyage from scotland, and of her happy life in boston and springfield. white, e.o. when molly was six. houghton. . a pleasant sunny story of the simple happenings in the every-day life of a small girl. _eight years of age_ (p. ) _and i wrote my happy songs, every child may joy to hear._ blake. amusements and handicraft by sports like these are all their cares beguil'd, the sports of children satisfy the child. goldsmith. the games book for boys and girls. dutton. . indoor and outdoor games, tricks and puzzles, the making of various articles, and the care of home pets, are some of the subjects treated in this volume of old and new pastimes. biography, history, and government the use of history is to give value to the present hour and its duty. emerson. boutet de monvel, l.m. joan of arc. illustrated by the author. century. . in these truly remarkable pictures, instinct with spirit, dignity, and pathos, the peasant girl of domrémy, martyr and patron saint, lives (p. ) for children. the book is a large oblong one with full-page illustrations in color. while the text is somewhat advanced for children of eight years, the pictures really tell, the story. eggleston, edward. stories of great americans for little americans. american book. . a collection of many noted tales with which all of our children should be familiar. it includes franklin's whistle, putnam and the wolf, and daniel boone and his grapevine swing. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales even john locke ( - ), in his thoughts on education ( ), recommends, besides the psalter and the new testament, �sop and reynard the fox, as good food for infant minds. this was an excellent basis to start upon. montrose j. moses. adventures of reynard the fox. edited by w.t. stead. review. . there is no entirely satisfactory edition, for children, of this classic. the language of one edited by jacobs seems to the compiler of this list somewhat unsuited to small people, and e.l. smythe in her version substitutes an entirely different ending for that of the (p. ) original. this very inexpensive little book has more than a hundred interesting small pictures, and children will love to read of bad reynard, who is told about in diverting fashion. �sop. the fables of �sop. edited by joseph jacobs. illustrated by richard heighway. macmillan. . it is difficult to say what are and what are not the fables of �sop.... in the struggle for existence among all these a certain number stand out as being the most effective and the most familiar. i have attempted to bring most of these into the following pages.--_preface._ children cannot read an easier, nor men a wiser book. thomas fuller. brown, a.f. the book of saints and friendly beasts. houghton. . these sweet tales of the saints of long ago and their little brothers the beasts have a gentle influence. the stories include that of saint bridget and the king's wolf, saint fronto's camels, saint rigobert's dinner, and saint francis of assisi. brown, a.f. in the days of giants. illustrated by e. boyd smith. houghton. . the old norse myths acceptably told. carroll, lewis (pseudonym of c.l. dodgson). (p. ) alice's adventures in wonderland. illustrated by john tenniel. macmillan. . first told in to the little liddell girls. it was written out for alice liddell, was published, and the first copy given to her in . the illustrations are those which appeared in the original issue. many artists have tried their hand in making pictures for "alice," but none have succeeded in displacing those of john tenniel. extract from the diary of c.l. dodgson: july , .--i made an expedition _up_ the river to godstow with the three liddells; we had tea on the bank there, and did not reach christ church till half-past eight.... on which occasion i told them the fairy tale of alice's adventures underground, which i undertook to write out for alice. "alice! a childish story take, and with a gentle hand lay it where childhood's dreams are twined in memory's mystic band, like pilgrim's withered wreath of flowers plucked in a far-off land." carroll, lewis (pseudonym of c.l. dodgson). alice in wonderland. illustrated by arthur rackham. doubleday. . those wishing to depart from john tenniel's illustrations will find (p. ) these pictures of arthur rackham very interesting. we are given delightful black and white work, though most of the full-page pictures are in color. enchanting alice! black-and-white has made your deeds perennial; and naught save "chaos and old night" can part you now from tenniel; but still you are a type, and based in truth, like lear and hamlet; and types may be re-draped to taste in cloth of gold or camlet. austin dobson. carroll, lewis (pseudonym of c.l. dodgson). through the looking-glass. illustrated by john tenniel. macmillan. . the sequel to alice's adventures in wonderland. the illustrations are the same as those that appeared in the original edition. "to the looking-glass world it was alice that said, 'i've a sceptre in hand, i've a crown on my head. let the looking-glass creatures, whatever they be, come and dine with the red queen, the white queen, and me!'" collodi, c. (pseudonym of carlo lorenzini). pinocchio, the adventures of a marionette. illustrated by charles copeland. ginn. . of all the fairy stories of italian literature this is the (p. ) best known and the best loved.... the florentines call it a literary jewel, and as such it should be known to all young readers.--_preface._ though children can but dimly comprehend this charming allegory, they will recognize its truth. pinocchio, the wayward and mischievous marionette, through his kindly actions grows to be a real little boy, with an unselfish loving heart. there are many attractive drawings. cruikshank, george (illustrator). the cruikshank fairy book. putnam. . puss in boots, jack and the bean-stalk, hop-o'-my-thumb, and cinderella, are the four famous fairy tales pictured by this famous illustrator. judd, m.c. wigwam stories. ginn. . the book is divided into three parts: sketches of various tribes of north american indians; traditions and myths; and stories recently told of hiawatha and other heroes. it is interesting and informing. there are three sketches by angel de cora, and many illustrations from photographs. la fontaine, jean de. la fontaine's fables. translated by edward shirley. illustrated by c.m. park and rene bull. nelson. . an acceptable selection in verse. there are illustrations in color (p. ) as well as in black and white. "these fables are much more than they appear-- the simplest animals are teachers here. the bare dull moral weariness soon brings; the story serves to give it life and wings." lang, andrew (editor). the blue fairy book. longmans. . this first volume of andrew lang's colored fairy books contains the better known tales from the folk-lore of many nations, and is, like the others of this series, attractively illustrated. and when the cuckoo clamours six we put away our games and bricks and hasten to the shelf where hang the books of mr. andrew lang. . . . . . . . . . and when we read the red, the blue, the green--small matter what's the hue since joy is there in black and white-- remember him who cared to write, for little ones, tales old and sweet, and ask the fairies (when you meet) to always keep unharmed and well from ogre's maw and witch's spell, from genie's clutch and dragon's fang, the kind magician, andrew lang! st. john lucas. mulock, d.m. (mrs. d.m. (m.) craik). (p. ) the adventures of a brownie. harper. . "only i think, if i could be a little child again, i should exceedingly like a brownie to play with me. should not you?" we should all say yes, after reading this charming modern fairy story. musset, paul de. mr. wind and madam rain. illustrated by charles bennett. putnam. . a famous breton folk-tale which is made additionally attractive by the unusual quality of the illustrations. i will not say that i have added nothing to the unconnected recitals of the breton peasants, ... but i have added only what was necessary to link together the different events, and to supply passages that were entirely wanting.--_preface._ paine, a.b. the hollow tree and deep woods book. illustrated by j.m. condé. harper. . mr. paine writes in his delightful vein of mr. coon, mr. possum, and mr. crow. the book is always funny, and mr. condé's pictures are in their way as good as the text. williston, t.p. japanese fairy tales. illustrated by sanchi ogawa. rand. . these eight wonder stories incidentally illustrate the every-day (p. ) life of the people. the japanese pictures are reproduced in color. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors. so, in this matter of literature for the young, the influence of the home teaching is enormous; all the school can do pales before it. let the mother add to the poet's rhyme the music of her soft and beloved voice; let great fiction be read to the breathless group of curly heads about the fire; and the wonders of science be enrolled, the thrilling scenes and splendid personalities of history displayed. children thus inspired may be trusted to become sensitive to literature long before they know what the word means, or have reasoned at all upon their mental experiences. richard burton. lucas, e.v. (editor). a book of verses for children. holt. . mr. lucas has shown his unvarying good taste in compiling this charming volume. most of the poems are british, and among them are many delightful old songs and rhymes, verses of bygone days, ballads, and carols. wiggin, k.d. (s.), and n.a. smith (editors). the posy ring. doubleday. . this admirable collection of poems, chosen from the standpoint of (p. ) childish enjoyment, forms a lane of lovely verse leading into the great highway of literature. the poems are classified under different headings such as the flower folk, other little children, playtime, story time, and bedtime. religion and ethics honest myrth in measure, is a pleasaunt thyng, to wryte and to rede well, be gyftes of learnyng; remember this well, all you that be young, exercise vertue, and rule well your toung. dives pragmaticus. _ ._ bunyan, john. the pilgrim's progress. illustrated by the brothers rhead. century. . children will enjoy the fine illustrations in this soberly bound volume, whose brown coat is much the color of the one good pilgrim wore on the long journey where he led the way for so many earnest souls. the psalms of david. with an introductory study by n.d. hillis. illustrated by louis rhead. revell. . no david can fall so low but that christ's mercy and god's love can lift him from the depths of selfishness and sin back to the throne of manhood and the sceptre of influence.--_introductory study._ even young children can grow to love the simpler and more peaceful (p. ) psalms. the fine full-page pictures in this large well-printed volume add to its beauty and interest. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals all things bright and beautiful, all creatures great and small, all things wise and wonderful, the lord god made them all. each little flower that opens, each little bird that sings, he made their glowing colors, he made their tiny wings. . . . . . . . he gave us eyes to see them, and lips that we might tell, how great is god almighty, who hath made all things well. keble. aiken, john, and a.l. (a.) barbauld. eyes and no eyes, and other stories. heath. "dr. oliver wendell holmes, in over the teacups, says of the story eyes and no eyes: i have never seen anything of the kind half so good. i advise you, if you are a child anywhere under forty-five, and do not yet wear glasses, to send at once for evenings at home, and read that story. for myself, i am always grateful to the writer of it for calling my attention to common things." eyes and no eyes, and travellers' wonders, from aiken and barbauld's evenings at home, the three giants, by mrs. marcet, and a curious (p. ) instrument, by jane taylor, are the tales given. they all encourage a child's powers of observation. parsons, f.t. (s.) (formerly mrs. w.s. dana). plants and their children. american book. . while these elementary talks have been arranged to accompany the school year, they give so much information about fruits and seeds, young plants, roots and stems, flowers, et cetera, told in mrs. dana's clear, informing way, that we shall all want our children to know the book, and to learn the great lesson of how to see, which is taught them. the many illustrations are helpful. weed, c.m. stories of insect life. volume i. ginn. . the insects described are the more interesting common forms of spring and early summer. the plain little volume contains twenty short, fully illustrated chapters. stories the fiction which children first hear should be adapted in the most perfect manner to the promotion of virtue. plato. aanrud, hans. lisbeth longfrock. ginn. . a vivid description of norwegian farm and saeter life. little (p. ) lisbeth loses her mother and goes to live with the good kjersti, the mistress of hoel farm, helping to take care of the cattle. hans aanrud's short stories are considered by his own countrymen as belonging to the most original and artistically finished life pictures that have been produced by the younger literati of norway.--_preface._ carov�, f.w. the story without an end. with a preface by thomas wentworth higginson. heath. . there is a very delightful old story which used to be given to children, though i have not seen it for a long time in the hands of any children. it was called the story without an end. walter besant. written by an eminent german philosopher, and translated by mrs. sarah austin for her own daughter, this beautiful tale, with its exquisite language, leads a child into the land of truth and beauty. peary, j. (d.). the snow baby. stokes. . an account of lieutenant peary's little daughter, who was born amid the ice and snow of the polar regions. the book is well illustrated from photographs. snedden, g. (s.). docas, the indian boy of santa clara. heath. . three phases of indian life in california, given in the form of a (p. ) story. the ways and customs of the red man are described as they existed during the early days of this boy, before the coming of the whites. later docas had his home at the mission in the days of father junipero serra, and last of all, an old old man, dwelt, with his children and grandchildren, on a ranch. _nine years of age_ (p. ) _now i like a really good saga, about gods and giants, and the fire kingdoms, and the snow kingdoms, and the aesir making men and women out of two sticks, and all that._ kingsley. amusements and handicraft it is a poor sport that is not worth the candle. herbert. canfield, dorothy, and others. what shall we do now? stokes. . this book of suggestions for children's games and employments will be a help to the busy mother when her own supply of indoor and outdoor amusements is exhausted. there are directions for five hundred plays and pastimes, including gardening, candy-making, and writing, guessing, and acting, games. biography, history, and government what we should expect and demand is, that our children should be brought up to regard american principles as matters of course; and their books should take these principles for granted, and illustrate them with all possible interest and power. samuel osgood. andrews, jane. (p. ) ten boys who lived on the road from long ago to now. ginn. . this account of the boyhood of ten lads illustrates different periods and civilizations from aryan days to the present time. drake, s.a. on plymouth rock. lothrop. . the narrative of the first two years of the pilgrims at plymouth, based largely on governor bradford's history. maps and illustrations add to the book's interest. i have given as much of bradford's own story as possible in the following pages, interwoven with the relations of mount and winslow, to which bradford himself makes frequent reference.--_preface._ gilman, arthur. the discovery and exploration of america. lothrop. . the history of our country naturally divides itself into three portions. first, there is the period of discovery and exploration.... it is with this romantic time that the present volume deals.... the latest authorities have been made tributary to this volume, and the author has spared no pains to have it correct in every statement of facts, and in the difficult matter of dates.--_preface._ guerber, h.a. the story of the greeks. american book. . an elementary account of hellas from legendary times to its (p. ) becoming a roman province. many well-known mythical and historic tales are included. there are maps and illustrations. guerber, h.a. the story of the romans. american book. . this companion to the story of the greeks gives, in like manner, a simple relation of roman history from mythical days to the fall of the empire. it contains maps and illustrations. horne, o.b., and k.l. scobey. stories of great artists. american book. . children will find this small book interesting. it tells of the lives of some of the noted painters of different lands and periods; among them raphael, rembrandt, reynolds, and millet. the illustrations are from famous paintings. horne, o.b., and k.l. scobey. stories of great musicians. american book. . a companion to stories of great artists, which briefly recounts the careers of famous musicians; among them bach, mozart, beethoven, schumann, and wagner. many of the illustrations are from paintings. smith, e.b. the story of pocahontas and captain john smith. illustrated by the author. houghton. . the brief pathetic life of powhatan's daughter is well portrayed. (p. ) this large oblong volume contains full-page pictures in color. stone, g.l., and m.g. fickett. every-day life in the colonies. heath. . these short sketches of colonial life picture the first new england christmas and a puritan sabbath. they also tell of the use of the hornbook and the sun-dial, describe the making of soap and candles, and so forth. wright, h.c. children's stories in american history. scribner. . although we learn about our country from prehistoric days to the time of washington, most of the book is devoted to the early exploration and settlement of north and south america. the second chapter contains an account of the mound-builders. geography, travel, and description i cannot cease from praising these japanese. they are truly the delight of my heart. st. francis xavier. ayrton, m.c. child-life in japan. heath. . mrs. ayrton took a keen interest in the japanese people and never wearied of studying them and their beautiful country.... (p. ) after her return to england, in , she wrote this book. william elliot griffis. our young people will enjoy hearing of the amusements and festivals of these far-away boys and girls. the volume contains, in addition, child stories, and an article entitled the games and sports of japanese children, by w.e. griffis. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales where the bee sucks, there suck i: in a cowslip's bell i lie; there i couch when owls do cry. on the bat's back i do fly after summer merrily. merrily, merrily shall i live now, under the blossom that hangs on the bough. shakspere. andersen, h.c. stories. houghton. . the tales in this excellent little edition are well chosen. a prime advantage in an early acquaintance with andersen springs from the stimulus which his quaint fancy gives to the budding imagination of childhood. it may be said without exaggeration that andersen truly represents creative childhood in literature. h.e. scudder. asbj�rnsen, p.c. fairy tales from the far north. translated by h.l. braekstad. nutt. . "the author, a distinguished norwegian student of folk-lore (p. ) and zoölogy, made long journeys on foot for scientific purposes, in the course of which he collected, among others, these popular stories and legends. mr. braekstad in his translation endeavors to retain the atmosphere of the original." francillon, r.e. gods and heroes. ginn. . it will be seen that the mythology adopted throughout is strictly of the old-fashioned kind which goes to ovid as its leading authority, and ignores the difference between the gods of greece and the gods of rome.--_preface._ this small volume is included because it gives quite fully the labors of hercules. frere, mary. old deccan days. mcdonough. . hindoo fairy legends of southern india, recorded by miss frere in - , as they were related to her by her indian _ayah_ during a tour through the southern mahratta country, in the bombay presidency, of which sir bartle frere, her father, was then governor. grimm, j.l. and w.k. fairy tales of the brothers grimm. translated by mrs. edgar lucas. illustrated by arthur rackham. lippincott. . barring a few horrible incidents, this is an excellent selection of these famous stories. mr. rackham's illustrations help to place the edition above many others. grimm, j.l. and w.k. (p. ) german household tales. houghton. . with very few exceptions, an unusually wise choice of the tales. grimm was the name of two german brothers.... their studies they carried on together, though jacob was the more learned, and made great contributions to the science of language, while wilhelm was more artistic in his tastes and was a capital story-teller.... they lived in the province of hesse-cassel, ... and it was from the peasants in this province that they derived a great many tales. the best friend they had was the wife of a cowherd, a woman of about fifty, who had a genius for story-telling. h.e. scudder. hawthorne, nathaniel. a wonder book. illustrated by walter crane. houghton. . no epoch of time can claim a copyright in these immortal fables. they seem never to have been made; and certainly, so long as man exists, they can never perish.--_preface._ hawthorne wrote comparatively little for children. let us be thankful that he did retell with such charm these greek myths. the full-page pictures in color are worthy of the stories, which comprise the gorgon's head, the golden touch, the paradise of children, the three golden apples, the miraculous pitcher, and the chimæra. holbrook, florence. northland heroes. houghton. . for centuries the songs of homer ... have delighted the (p. ) children, young and old, of many lands. but part of our own heritage, and nearer to us in race and time, are these stories of the danish beowulf and the swedish fridthjof.--_preface._ these simple versions of saga and epic recount for our children the bravery and endurance of a ruder age. houghton, l. (s.). the russian grandmother's wonder tales. illustrated by w.t. benda. scribner. . slavonic folk-stories told by a russian peasant to her little grandson, with the village life of southern russia as a background. based on dr. frederich kraus's german collection of tales and legends of south slavonia. new york state library. children will love to dwell for a time in russia with the boy who was always saying "tell me a story, little grandmamma." the character of the grandmother is drawn in a measure from that of dr. kraus's peasant mother, who was, though illiterate, intelligent and learned in the wonder-lore of her people. jacobs, joseph (editor). celtic fairy tales. illustrated by j.d. batten. putnam. . i have endeavored to include in this volume the best and most typical stories told by the chief masters of the celtic folk-tale, campbell, kennedy, hyde, and curtin, and to these i have added the best tales scattered elsewhere.... in making (p. ) my selection, and in all doubtful points of treatment, i have had resource to the wide knowledge of my friend mr. alfred nutt in all branches of celtic folk-lore.... with him by my side i could venture into regions where the non-celt wanders at his own risk.--_preface._ the charm and humor of celtic tradition is conveyed to the reader. jacobs, joseph (editor). indian fairy tales. illustrated by j.d. batten. putnam. . from all these sources--from the jatakas, from the bidpai, and from the more recent collections--i have selected those stories which throw most light on the origin of fable and folk-tales, and at the same time are most likely to attract english children.--_preface._ keary, annie and eliza. the heroes of asgard. macmillan. . this is a rather unattractive little volume, but the myths are so well told that we feel while reading them that real events of heroic days are being recounted. kingsley, charles. the heroes. illustrated by m.h. squire and e. mars. russell. . in these greek tales kingsley is at his best for children. he writes without digression, the language is clear and dignified, and we feel the spirit of the bygone age of which the story tells. many of the illustrations are in color. kingsley, charles. (p. ) the water-babies. a fairy tale for a land-baby. illustrated by linley sambourne. macmillan. . this original and charming story is in some parts rather over the heads of children, and a few of the incidents seem gruesome to the compiler. for this reason it is better to read the book to the child, so that these portions may be omitted. lagerl�f, s.o.l. the wonderful adventures of nils. doubleday. . selma lagerlöf, the foremost writer of swedish fiction, in response to a commission to prepare a reader for the public schools, devoted three years to nature study, and to seeking out hitherto unpublished folk-lore and legends of the different provinces. the result, of which we have as yet only the first volume, is this remarkable book. bad cruel nils is transformed into an elf, and on the back of a goosey-gander, thumbietot, as he is now called, visits distant regions, and learns kindness to his animal brothers. lang, andrew (editor). the red fairy book. longmans. . in this volume, second in order of publication, less familiar fairy stories are given, including the twelve dancing princesses, kari woodengown, and mother holle. mulock, d.m. (mrs. d.m. (m.) craik). (p. ) °the little lame prince. heath. . the story of prince dolor of nomansland who floated out of hopeless tower on the wonderful traveling cloak of imagination. an allegorical tale teaching patience and true kingship. prentice and power. this beautiful wonder story, because of its pathos, should perhaps be withheld from a very sensitive child. norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume iii. fairy tales, ballads, and poems. heath. . these naturally serve as the gate of entrance into the wide open fields of literature, especially into those of poetry. poetry is one of the most efficient means of education of the moral sentiment, as well as of the intelligence. it is the source of the best culture.--_preface._ paine, a.b. *the arkansaw bear. illustrated by frank verbeck. altemus. . the altogether charmingly impossible story of the travels of a little boy and a bear who played the violin. "and they travelled on forever and they'll never, never sever, bosephus and the fiddle and the old black bear." pyle, howard. (p. ) the wonder clock. illustrated by the author. harper. . any undertaking of mr. pyle's is a guarantee of distinction in material, style, and production, and these four and twenty fairy tales, one for each hour of the day, are no exception. the illustrations are among the author's best, and miss katharine pyle supplies charming little verses for the different hours. valentine, l. (j.) (editor). the old, old fairy tales. warne. . the tales contained in this volume have been the delight of many generations of children, and can, in fact, claim a very distant origin, though they were retold in their present form as late as the age of louis xiv. they are generally supposed to have come from the east, for they are to be found in varied forms in all the countries of europe that sent forth crusaders.... as children always like stories to be retold in the same words as far as possible, these tales have not been rewritten (except in two cases); the original translations in their quaint simplicity have been collected, and merely corrected so far as to meet the modern ideas of the kind of tale to be given to children; the old ones being occasionally a little coarse.--_preface._ madame d'aulnoy, charles perrault, and la princess de beaumont, are represented in this collection, taken, with few exceptions, from french sources. zitkala-sa. (p. ) old indian legends. illustrated by angel de cora. ginn. . under an open sky, nestling close to the earth, the old dakota story-tellers have told me these legends.--_preface._ poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors the great man is he who does not lose his child's heart. mencius. longfellow, h.w. the song of hiawatha. illustrated by frederic remington. houghton. . "ye who love a nation's legends, love the ballads of a people that like voices from afar off call to us to pause and listen, . . . . . . . . "listen to this indian legend, to this song of hiawatha!" lucas, e.v. (editor). another book of verses for children. macmillan. . admirable selections, chosen partly with view to reading aloud, a large proportion not being found in other children's (p. ) anthologies. they range from shakspere, blake, tennyson, to modern nonsense rhymes. attractively illustrated. new york state library. religion and ethics what can i give him, poor as i am? if i were a shepherd i would bring a lamb, if i were a wise man i would do my part-- yet what i can i give him, give my heart. c.g. rossetti. hodges, george. when the king came. houghton. . the life of christ told with simplicity and breadth, making real to children the events of the gospel story. tested by ten years' home use before publication. the biblical text is not adhered to strictly. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals i love to rise in a summer morn, when the birds sing on every tree; the distant huntsman winds his horn, and the skylark sings with me: o what sweet company! blake. champlin, j.d. (p. ) the young folks' cyclopædia of common things. holt. . in the present work the writer has attempted to furnish in simple language, aided by pictorial illustrations when thought necessary, a knowledge of things in nature, science, and the arts, which are apt to awaken a child's curiosity.--_preface._ young people thoroughly enjoy this excellent book. miller, o.t. (pseudonym of mrs. h. (m.) miller). the first book of birds. houghton. . intended to interest children in birds by an account of their habits of eating, sleeping, nesting, etc., with illustrative anecdotes, many from original observation. audubon society. though mrs. miller is herself an expert, she tells us that she has been careful to have the latest and the best authorities for the statements made, and presents a list of them. the author, while never a sentimentalist, constantly teaches kindness to the birds. there are both colored and plain plates. morley, m.w. the bee people. illustrated by the author. mcclurg. . miss apis mellifica, with her wonderful eyes, her queer tongue, her useful furry legs, and her marvellous ways, is described for us in (p. ) delightfully simple fashion by miss morley, who has also made many instructive and interesting small illustrations. the last chapter is on bombus, the bumblebee. the bee has a mighty soul in a little body. _virgil._ murtfeldt, m.e., and c.m. weed. stories of insect life. volume ii. ginn. . "this book, like its predecessor, aims to give to young pupils an accurate and readable account of the life histories of some common insects. it is designed for use during the autumn months." there are many illustrations. saunders, m.m. beautiful joe. american baptist. . primarily intended to inculcate kindness to dogs, and other animals. it is pleasant to know that the tale has secured an immense popularity. sewell, anna. black beauty. edited by e.r. shaw. newson. . the horse gives his own account of his life with good and bad masters; the purpose of the book being to instil care and consideration for animals. many copies have been distributed among draymen and cabmen. children find the story very interesting. stories (p. ) consult the taste of your child in selecting or guiding his reading.... let the boys and girls choose for themselves within certain limits, only trying to guide them to the best books upon the subject of their interest, whatever that may be. mrs. g.r. field. burnett, f.e. (h.). little lord fauntleroy. scribner. . mrs. burnett's well-known story of the little american boy who in the course of events becomes heir to an english earldom is included in this list because of the beautiful and kindly spirit shown by the child to those about him. drummond, henry. *the monkey that would not kill. illustrated by louis wain. dodd. . professor drummond wrote these two tales--his first attempt at fiction--while acting as temporary editor of a children's magazine. the first, that of tricky, was so liked by children all over the world that the second, gum, was written soon after. mr. wain's pictures are very good. jewett, s.o. play days. houghton. . this little book for little girls has all the quiet charm of miss jewett's books for older people. the author has a great gift for making the fine and beautiful things which lie at the heart (p. ) of every-day life stand forth in their true colors, and making simple pleasures seem very pleasant. prentice and power. lucas, e.v. (editor). old-fashioned tales. illustrated by f.d. bedford. stokes. . selections from the writings of maria edgeworth, mary lamb, peter parley, and others. "the children come, the children go; to-day grows quickly yesterday; and we, who quiz quaint fashions so, we soon shall seem as quaint as they." the children of those days--our great-great-grandfathers--expected didacticism. it was part of the game.... in the present collection there is, i think, no example either of condescension or showing-off--the two principal faults of books for children. all the authors seem to me to be simple and single-minded: they wished above all to be interesting.--_introduction._ mcintyre, m.a. the cave boy of the age of stone. appleton. . written in accordance with modern views of science, and calculated to give children a good idea of prehistoric man and his ways. what is more, the story is sufficiently interesting to attract them.--_the athenæum._ otis, james (pseudonym of j.o. kaler). toby tyler, or ten weeks with a circus. harper. . little freckled toby runs away and joins a circus, where he makes a (p. ) friend of mr. stubbs, an old monkey. before long, however, he is glad to be welcomed home again by old uncle daniel. the tawdry life of the ring is well drawn. ouida (pseudonym of louise de la ramé). bimbi. lippincott. . louise de la ramé wrote these stories in a way that charms alike grown people and children. little august and his beloved hirschvogel the great nürnberg stove, florentine lolo and his faithful moufflou, raphael the child of old urbino, and others, are vividly pictured. _ten years of age_ (p. ) _there comes a voice that awakes my soul. it is the voice of years that are gone, they roll before me with their deeds._ ossian. amusements and handicraft where's the cook? is supper ready, the house trimmed, rushes strewed, cobwebs swept? shakspere. benton, c.f. a little cook-book for a little girl. estes. . "but margaret said, 'i don't want to wait till i'm big; i want to cook now; and i don't want to do cooking-school cooking, but little girl cooking, all by myself.'" so they gave her this simple cook-book on her birthday, and she learned to make all the different dishes before another birthday came. benton, c.f. saturday mornings. estes. . margaret loved housekeeping, and the big people taught her on saturday mornings how to take care of the house and its contents, how to launder, to market, et cetera. the directions, given in story form, are very clear and simple, and girls greatly enjoy the book. in fact, work becomes as joyful as play. hall, a.n. (p. ) the boy craftsman. lothrop. . the boy craftsman has been undertaken with a view of helping boys with their problems of earning money, as well as furnishing recreative and entertaining work, and to this end the first portion has been devoted to suggestions for the carrying on of a number of small business enterprises, and the second and third parts to outdoor and indoor pastimes for all seasons of the year.--_preface._ the handling and care of tools, simple carpentry, printing, photography, the making of an outdoor gymnasium and a miniature theatre, are among the topics included. there are many illustrations. biography, history, and government "here may we sit and converse hold with those whose names in ages old were in the book of fame enrolled." brooks, e.s. the true story of christopher columbus. lothrop. . columbus ... left a record of persistence in spite of discouragement and of triumph over all obstacles, that has been the inspiration and guide for americans ever since his day.--_preface._ the life of the great admiral is described in a simple and interesting manner. many pictures are given. brooks, e.s. (p. ) the true story of george washington. lothrop. . one of the best of modern americans, james russell lowell, who was born on the same day of the month as washington, february twenty-second, wrote, shortly before his death, to a school-girl whose class proposed noticing his own birthday: "whatever else you do on the twenty-second of february, recollect, first of all, that on that day a really great man was born, and do not fail to warm your hearts with the memory of his service, and to brace your minds with the contemplation of his character. the rest of us must wait uncovered till he be served." this is a good text for those boys and girls who may be led to read this true story of george washington.--_preface._ the book is fully illustrated. catherwood, m. (h.). the heroes of the middle west. ginn. . the french discovery and settlement of this country to the time of pontiac, and the coming of the english. a vivid, carefully drawn picture of those adventurous days. marquette, joliet, la salle, and tonty, are sketched for us. champlin, j.d. the young folks' cyclopædia of persons and places. holt. . a companion to the young folks' cyclopædia of common things, which tells, in the same simple way, of well-known persons and places. it is, as is the former, most satisfactory. there are many illustrations. gilman, arthur. (p. ) the colonization of america. lothrop. . this volume, like the discovery and exploration of america, of which it is a continuation, is a study of the best authorities. it is intended to present to young readers the salient points in the story of the colonization of the united states.--_preface._ hill, mabel. lessons for junior citizens. introduction by a.b. hart. ginn. . by this series of talks about the make-up and workings of different civic departments and institutions miss hill arouses the attention and holds the interest of our children. the police, fire, and street departments, are described, and among other subjects, juvenile courts, the school system, and the village improvement association, are pleasantly discussed. mcmurry, c.a. pioneers of the rocky mountains and the west. macmillan. . a good account of the exploring expeditions of coronado, lewis and clark, fremont, powell, parkman, and others. the book contains maps and illustrations. marshall, h.e. an island story. illustrated by a.s. forrest. stokes. . the child is to put this volume, not at the lesson-book end of the shelf, but with robinson crusoe and the like. so the preface suggests, and rightly. it is eminently readable, a success, (p. ) we should say, in what looks much easier than it is, telling a story in simple words.--_the spectator._ a history of the mother country, from earliest legendary times delightfully related. the thirty full-page illustrations in color add to its attraction. marshall, h.e. stories of william tell and his friends. dutton. . the swiss national hero is told of in a series of thrilling narratives, teaching children what brave men will dare and do for freedom. there are eight pictures in color. geography, travel, and description so geographers, in afric maps, with savage pictures fill their gaps, and o'er unhabitable downs place elephants for want of towns. swift. du chaillu, p.b. the country of the dwarfs. harper. . the author relates in his informal way, among many other experiences, his encounters with the little people of herodotus; their tiny houses, curious customs, and uncommon shyness. this trip to africa was begun in . du chaillu, p.b. (p. ) wild life under the equator. harper. . the hunting of hippopotami and gorillas is most interestingly narrated by the great explorer who also tells about the method employed in catching elephants, about snake-charming, and so forth. finnemore, john. switzerland. illustrated by j.h. lewis and a.d. mccormick. macmillan. . these small books--the peeps at many lands series--"are intended to give children a glimpse at the scenes, people, and characteristics, of foreign countries.... a strong feature is made of the work and play of children in the land described." the illustrations, though as a rule somewhat highly colored, are very attractive. there are many titles in the series, but only the most important are included in this list. besides descriptions of beautiful lakes and great mountains, this volume includes tales of the struggle for swiss freedom, accounts of mountain-climbing, sports, and chamois-hunting. there are twelve colored plates, among which are a number of fine snow scenes. schwatka, frederick. the children of the cold. educational. . frederick schwatka says: to describe these arctic babies is the main object of this book--to tell the boys and girls what kind of toys (p. ) and pleasures and picnics and all sorts of fun may be had where you would hardly think any could be had at all; also, some of the discomforts of living in this most uncomfortable country. taylor, bayard. boys of other countries. putnam. . experiences in the lives of five boys, whose respective homes were sweden, egypt, iceland, germany, and russia. the purpose of the author, of course, was to give a glimpse of the habits and customs of these countries. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales it would be hard to estimate the amount of gentleness and mercy that has made its way among us through these slight channels. forbearance, courtesy, consideration for the poor and aged, kind treatment of animals, the love of nature, abhorrence of tyranny and brute force--many such good things have been nourished in the child's heart by this powerful aid. it has greatly helped to keep us ever young, by preserving through our worldly ways one slender track, not overgrown with weeds, where we may walk with children, sharing their delights. dickens. andersen, h.c. fairy tales from hans christian andersen. translated by mrs. edgar lucas. illustrated by thomas, charles, and william robinson. dutton. . most truly rendered in the edition by mrs. e. lucas, (p. ) illustrated by the robinsons. mrs. h.l. elmendorf. mrs. lucas is well fitted for her office of translator, although there are a number of tales in this selection which, in the opinion of the compiler of this list, might well have been omitted because of their horrible character. the pictures are so remarkable that in them the stories live again. baldwin, james. a story of the golden age. illustrated by howard pyle. scribner. . mr. baldwin's object, as he tells us, has been to pave the way to the enjoyable reading of homer. he has depicted for us the boyhood and youth of odysseus, taking the various legends relating to the causes of the trojan war, and weaving them into one continuous narrative, ending where homer begins. chapin, a.a. the story of the rhinegold. harper. . a little volume intended for the use of children who may be taken to hear the operas of richard wagner. it gives briefly, in an interesting manner, the great myth upon which wagner based his famous production, the ring of the nibelungs, following the lines of the operas. the musical motifs accompany the text. chapin, a.a. (p. ) wonder tales from wagner. harper. . this companion to the story of the rhinegold relates the legends of the flying dutchman, tannhäuser, lohengrin, tristan and isolde, and the mastersingers of nuremberg. the musical motifs accompany the text. dixon, e. (editor). fairy tales from the arabian nights. illustrated by j.d. batten. putnam. . in europe they were not known till , when a learned frenchman, antoine galland, who had travelled widely in the east, put them skillfully, if not too accurately, into the language of his own people.... within a comparatively few years, an ancient manuscript in the louvre at paris has been found to remove from galland the long-standing reproach that he introduced into his arabian nights stories which really did not belong to the collection, but were taken from other eastern sources.... it will not be easy to change the form of the names which, through galland's agency, have become classic words.--_introduction to stories from the arabian nights._ the text of the present selection from the arabian nights is that of galland, , slightly abridged and edited. the edition is designed virginibus puerisque. e. dixon. mr. dixon presents these famous oriental stories most acceptably, and mr. batten's remarkable illustrations are all that can be desired. his genii are genii indeed, and his fairy princesses creatures of grace and beauty. harris, j.c. (p. ) *uncle remus; his songs and his sayings. illustrated by a.b. frost. appleton. . i have endeavored to give to the whole a genuine flavor of the old plantation. each legend has its variants, but in every instance i have retained that particular version which seemed to me to be the most characteristic, and have given it without embellishment and without exaggeration.--_introduction._ all children should have the opportunity to know and to love uncle remus, as they cannot fail to do if they are familiar with his narratives. the negro dialect often makes it desirable to have these read aloud. hawthorne, nathaniel. tanglewood tales. houghton. . in this second wonder book hawthorne again tells us in simple language of great heroes of greek mythical days. the minotaur, the pygmies, the dragon's teeth, circe's palace, the pomegranate seeds, and the golden fleece, comprise the contents of the volume. hodgson, geraldine. rama and the monkeys. illustrated by w.h. robinson. macmillan. . in fine and picturesque language, retained from the indian original, geraldine hodgson has given us this adaptation from the ramayana. we learn, with delight, to know the monkey hosts: "hanuman, that strong, forgiving, wise, brave, and humble ape," and "sugriva, that best (p. ) of monkeys." kipling, rudyard. the jungle book. century. . telling of mowgli, the child of the jungle, and his brethren, the wild creatures of the forest; together with other marvellous animal stories. "oh, hear the call!--good hunting all that keep the jungle law!" lang, andrew (editor). the green fairy book. longmans. . this, the third of the colored fairy books, contains, as do the others, tales from many sources, among them the half-chick, the magic swan, and king kojata. pyle, howard. the story of king arthur and his knights. illustrated by the author. scribner. . mr. pyle has related these great legends right worthily. the illustrations are full of interest, and while the text is suited to a narrative of this early period, it is well within childish comprehension. blow trumpet, for the world is white with may; blow trumpet, the long night hath roll'd away! blow thro' the living world--"let the king reign." "shall rome or heathen rule in arthur's realm? flash brand and lance, fall battleaxe upon helm, fall battleaxe, and flash brand! let the king reign." tennyson. ruskin, john. (p. ) the king of the golden river. heath. . an exquisite legend, beautiful in spirit and language. there have been written in our english language a few tales bearing a rich moral lesson that are an unfailing source of delight, alike to childhood and to youth, and that are at the same time not without interest to the adult. the king of the golden river is one of these.... its lessons are not obtruded; the reader is really not explicitly conscious of them at all.--_introduction._ stockton, f.r. fanciful tales. scribner. . mr. stockton had a wise, humorous style of his own. in this small volume, which contains some of his best writing for children, will be found old pipes and the dryad, the bee-man of orn, and the clocks of rondaine. stories from the arabian nights. houghton. . from centuries and peoples almost as different from those we know as the north and the south poles are far apart, through the overthrows of dynasties and the movements of whole races of men, by the work of arabian scholars when printing was unknown, and by the labors of europeans almost in our own day, these stories have survived to transport us into a world of splendor and magic.--_introduction._ a carefully edited selection of thirteen of these famous tales, with which, of course, every child should be familiar. thackeray, w.m. (p. ) the rose and the ring. edited by e.e. hale. illustrated by the author. heath. . but in the meanwhile, and for a brief holiday, let us laugh and be as pleasant as we can. and you elder folks--a little joking and dancing and fooling will do even you no harm. the author wishes you a merry christmas, and welcomes you to the fireside pantomime. m.a. titmarsh. this fairy extravaganza--thackeray's only production for children--was written for a little sick girl. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors. children are lucky to be children nowadays, for the idea is pretty well disseminated that the very choicest from all the garnered riches of the great world of literature should be given them, that they may early be possessed of thoughts and feelings that are true and large, sweet and beautiful. richard burton. gayley, c.m., and m.c. flaherty (editors). poetry of the people. ginn. . poems illustrative of the history and national spirit of england, scotland, ireland, and america.--_title-page._ the compilers have given us a volume of verse chosen from that (p. ) which is "most simple, most hearty, most truly characteristic of the people, their tradition, history, and spirit; ... poetry sometimes by, and sometimes not, but always for, the people; poems that were household words with our fathers and mothers, and lay close to the heart because _of_ the heart." haweis, m.e. (mrs. h.r. haweis). chaucer for children. illustrated by the author. scribner. . mrs. haweis begins with an account of chaucer's life and the london of his day. portions of a number of the tales follow, the original and the modern text being given in parallel columns, with prose abridgments connecting the selections. there are eight full-page colored pictures and a number of small woodcuts. though possibly only an exceptional child will enjoy the book, it helps to bring the youthful reader closer to the time of chaucer than any other version for children. rasp�, r.e. *tales from the travels of baron munchausen. edited by e.e. hale. heath. . "some travellers are apt to advance more than is strictly true; if any of the company entertain a doubt of my veracity, i shall only say to such, i pity their want of faith." raspé was scholar enough to mix up with the real munchausen's (p. ) amusing burlesques, exaggerations and fancies which are centuries older, and which can be cited now from the crabbed language of the middle ages.--_note._ swift, jonathan. gulliver's travels. educational. . his voyage to lilliput, his stay with the little people, and his adventures later among the giants of brobdingnag, are classic. written as a political satire, the narrative has served a gentler purpose than its original one. the littleness of the lilliputians and the greatness of the giants appeal strongly to children. and lo! the book from all its end beguiled, a harmless wonder to some happy child. bulwer-lytton. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals in that forest to and fro i can wander, i can go; see the spider and the fly, and the ants go marching by carrying parcels with their feet down the green and grassy street. stevenson. duncan, frances. mary's garden and how it grew. century. . the old gardener teaches mary how to prepare and tend her garden (p. ) through the year. much practical information is given in a charming way with a thread of story. herrick, s.m. (b.). the earth in past ages. american book. . a clear account of the geological story, interestingly told. many of the illustrations are taken from lyell, and winchell. miller, o.t. (pseudonym of mrs. h. (m.) miller). the second book of birds. houghton. . illustrated with colored and plain plates.... systematically arranged; non-technical descriptions. this takes the learner a step farther than the first book, and introduces him to classification, giving examples of the best known species, east, west, and south, of thirty families of land-birds, with account of habits, and illustrative anecdotes. an appendix contains a simple non-technical characterization of the several families, in language a child can understand. audubon society. patterson, a.j. the spinner family. illustrated by bruce horsfall. mcclurg. . children, while they do not like spiders, are invariably curious about them. this description of various species, with its good illustrations, will turn childish curiosity into genuine interest. wood, theodore. (p. ) a natural history for young people. dutton. . in moderate compass this book gives us much information about the living creatures of the world. mr. wood is an authority. there are twelve colored and over three hundred black-and-white illustrations. wright, m.o. gray lady and the birds. macmillan. . although as a rule story-telling and science are best kept separate, their combination in this pleasant tale, written in the interest of bird-protection, can have only our hearty commendation. it arouses the interest of children not only by its style, but because there is such a fund of information about our birds. the volume contains twelve colored plates and thirty-six full-page illustrations in half-tone. stories oh for a booke and a shadie nooke, eyther in-a-doore or out, with the greene leaves whisp'ring overhede, or the streete cryes all about. where i maie reade all at my ease, both of the newe and olde, for a jollie goode booke, whereon to looke, is better to me than golde. _old english song._ alcott, l.m. (p. ) under the lilacs. illustrated by alice barber stephens. little. . the story tells how little ben and good sancho, his wonderful trained poodle, ran away from the circus, and found refuge and happiness with bab and betty in the old home under the lilacs. baylor, f.c. (mrs. f.c. (b.) belger). juan and juanita. houghton. . this account of the capture of juan and juanita by comanches is founded on fact. a number of years ago two mexican children were discovered by indians on the other side of the rio grande, and carried away to the llanos estacados. after four years of captivity they made their escape, walking back three hundred miles through a wild country, and finally reaching their mother. the tale gives an interesting picture of hacienda life. boyesen, h.h. the modern vikings. scribner. . the author originally related these narratives of life and sport in the norseland to his own children. "for my vikings love song and saga, like their conquering fathers of old; and these are some of the stories to the three little tyrants i told." crichton, f.e. (p. ) peep-in-the-world. longmans. . an altogether charming description of a little girl's happy year spent with her german uncle in the old family castle. peep-in-the-world's friendship with knut the dwarf, who lives in the forest surrounded by the animals he loves and cares for, and the founding of an order of knights by the children, are sweet and natural incidents. diaz, a. (m.). *the william henry letters. lothrop. . written by william henry during the two years he was away at school. one of the best books for boys, and they love it. it has high standards, abounds in homely common-sense, and is very funny. edgeworth, maria tales from maria edgeworth. illustrated by hugh thomson. stokes. . austin dobson, in his introduction, gives us a sketch of maria edgeworth's upbringing and of the conditions which helped to produce the famous parent's assistant, from which twelve of the sixteen stories are here reprinted, accompanied by mr. thomson's delightful pictures. "fairies were not much in her line," says mrs. richmond ritchie, thackeray's daughter, "but philanthropic manufacturers, (p. ) liberal noblemen, and benevolent ladies in travelling carriages, do as well and appear in the nick of time to distribute rewards or to point a moral."--_introduction._ hale, l.p. *the peterkin papers. houghton. . "mr. peterkin, agamemnon, and solomon john, took the postal card to the post-office early one morning.... it must have been read along its way: for by each mail came piles of postals and letters from town after town, in answer to the question, and all in the same tone: 'yes, yes; publish the adventures of the peterkin family.'" the trials and troubles of the peterkins and the helpful suggestions of the resourceful lady from philadelphia will long be a source of amusement to folks both old and young. jenks, a.e. the childhood of ji-shib, the ojibwa. illustrated by the author. the american thresherman. . the story is written with no other thought than to have constantly in mind what the ojibwa child believes about the events of his every-day life as given in the story. and the following incidents are taken directly from the common life of the tribe. a.e. jenks. and now comes dr. jenks with a story of a red child, in which he displays deep insight into indian character, and describes the red child as that interesting person might have described himself in his own wigwam and to his own grandchildren in the evening of his life. may many white children read the story and learn therein of our passing race. w.j. mcgee. this mysterious tale of ji-shib the chippewa, and a-mi-kons the (p. ) little beaver, his totem, follows indian life from birth to early manhood. dr. jenks has prepared many small accompanying sketches. lamb, charles and mary. mrs. leicester's school. illustrated by winifred green. macmillan. . narratives of the early days of some little school-girls of long ago, related by themselves. charmingly illustrated in color; the costumes those of the period. my sister's part in the leicester school (about two-thirds) was purely her own; as it was (to the same quantity) in the shakespeare tales which bear my name. i wrote only the witch aunt, the first going to church, and the final story about a little indian girl in a ship. lamb. smith, m.p. (w.). jolly good times. little. . childhood days on a farm near old deerfield, fifty or sixty years ago. the story has a fresh, wholesome atmosphere, and children of to-day love the simple happenings. smith, m.p. (w.). jolly good times at school. little. . a continuation of the farm life of the children we learned to know (p. ) in jolly good times, telling of school-days and winter fun. spyri, johanna. heidi. de wolfe. . this delightful book is generally accepted as giving the best picture of child-life in the swiss alps. stoddard, w.o. two arrows. harper. . the exploit by which a young nez percé won his name, and his further prowess, are related. the adventures of a mining party and the pursuit of rebellious apaches by a company of united states cavalry are just what boys will enjoy reading about. wyss, j.d. the swiss family robinson. illustrated by h. kley. dutton. . the experiences of this shipwrecked family are thus happily characterized by the _spectator_: they _did_ sail in the tubs, and train zebras and ostriches for riding, and grow apples and pines in the same garden; and why shouldn't they? yonge, c.m. the little duke. macmillan. . an account of the boyhood days of richard the fearless, duke of normandy, vassal of louis iv, one of the last of the degenerate line of charlemagne. _eleven years of age_ (p. ) _clothes for the back, books for the head: read, and remember them when they are read._ thackeray. amusements and handicraft he talks of wood: it is some carpenter. shakspere. wheeler, c.g. woodworking for beginners. putnam. . this very comprehensive volume gives information about tools, different kinds of woods, and the fitting up of workshops; with full directions for the building of simple houses, boats, toboggans, and numerous small articles. there are many working diagrams. biography, history, and government i sing of heroes and of kings, in mighty numbers mighty things. cowley. brooks, e.s. the century book for young americans. century. . issued under the auspices of the national society of the sons of the american revolution, this volume gives an account of the visit of (p. ) a party of young people to washington, where they learned much of interest regarding our government and the workings of its different departments. there are many illustrations. "for mr. dunlop had said to his brother: 'take them, first, to the centre of things, tom. go to washington. let them see why our government was made, how it was made, and how it is run.'" much regret has been felt from the fact that there has been no book published heretofore in which the principles contended for in the american revolution, and a description of the institutions of the government, have been set forth in a sufficiently interesting form to make the study attractive to children.... this work has now been produced, and it is presented in a form which commends itself highly to the society, and has received its cordial approval. horace porter. brooks, e.s. the century book of famous americans. century. . this companion to the century book for young americans, issued under the auspices of the national society of the daughters of the american revolution, gives a description of the pilgrimage of the same young people to historic homes. it is fully illustrated. brooks, e.s. the true story of benjamin franklin. lothrop. . as one who had a hand in shaping the destinies and securing the independence of his native land, by word and pen, by brain (p. ) and hand, it is most fitting that the story of his life should be retold for young americans.--_preface._ the volume contains many pictures. being ignorant is not so much a shame as being unwilling to learn.--_poor richard's almanac._ brooks, e.s. the true story of lafayette. lothrop. . the whole life of lafayette was a long struggle for constitutional liberty, the freedom he had seen america secure and which he so ardently desired for france.--_preface._ mr. brooks's account emphasizes the great frenchman's disinterested services to our country at a time of dire need. many illustrations add to the book's value. chenoweth, c. (v.d.). stories of the saints. houghton. . "and as those of us who are men and women look with reverent and smiling interest upon the outgrown garments, and books, and toys, of our childhood, even so i think must christendom ever look upon these outgrown beliefs of an earlier day. there is not one of the stories we can yet afford to lose. for we find, as we arrange the allegory and romance, and the real, historic bits, in a way to suit our wiser time, that the lessons they hold are as true for us as they were for the childlike people who cherished them a thousand years ago." the lives and legends of saint george, saint denis, saint nicholas, saint elizabeth, and others less well known in the great brotherhood of all lands, are told with dignity and simplicity. the (p. ) illustrations are taken from old pictures. coffin, c.c. the boys of ' . harper. . in this volume an attempt has been made to give a concise, plain, and authentic narrative of the principal battles of the revolution as witnessed by those who took part in them.--_preface._ a companion to old times in the colonies, with maps and many pictures. coffin, c.c. old times in the colonies. harper. . mr. coffin's writings are full of reliable historical information, interestingly told. this, the first of a series, takes us from the discovery of san salvador to the surrender of montreal to general amherst, in . there are maps and many illustrations. creighton, l.h. (v.g.). a first history of france. longmans. . there is no reason why history should not be made delightful, though it so often fails in this respect. this little book of mrs. mandell creighton's, with its good maps, and illustrations, many of them from old prints, is truly interesting to children. gilman, arthur. the making of the american nation. lothrop. . the term making of the american nation, as used in the title (p. ) of the present volume, is intended to mean the process by which the loosely connected american communities outgrew their colonial condition of social and political life, and developed into a nation.--_preface._ hart, a.b., and b.e. hazard (editors). colonial children. macmillan. . this is the first of four readers which portray the life and conditions of our country at different periods by means of extracts from contemporary sources, freely edited. many illustrations are given. the stories are the same in substance as when they were first told, two and three centuries ago; but their garb has been changed without adding a detail or altering a statement of fact.--_introduction._ hawthorne, nathaniel. grandfather's chair, and biographical stories. houghton. . in writing this ponderous tome, the author's desire has been to describe the eminent characters and remarkable events of our annals in such a form and style that the young may make acquaintance with them of their own accord. for this purpose, while ostensibly relating the adventures of a chair, he has endeavored to keep a distinct and unbroken thread of authentic history.... the author, it is true, has sometimes assumed the license of filling up the outline of history with details for which he has none but imaginative authority, but which, he hopes, do not violate nor give a false coloring to the truth.--_preface._ grandfather's chair records, in narrative form, new england (p. ) chronicles from to the war for independence. biographical stories are tales of west, newton, johnson, cromwell, franklin, and queen christina, told to a little boy with defective sight. the book has a biographical sketch, notes, and illustrations. hemstreet, charles. the story of manhattan. scribner. . here the history of new york city is told as a story, in few words. the effort has been to make it accurate and interesting. the illustrations are largely from old prints and wood engravings. few dates are used. instead, a table of events has been added which can readily be referred to. the index to chapters also gives the years in which the story of each chapter occurs.--_preface._ hill, c.t. fighting a fire. century. . an interesting account of the methods used in extinguishing fires and the thrilling experiences of the firemen in the city of new york, which will enthrall boys. mcmaster, j.b. a primary history of the united states. american book. . this book has been written in the belief that a primary history of the united states should be short, as interesting as possible, and well illustrated.... the illustrations are historically authentic.--_preface._ price, l.l. (p. ) wandering heroes. silver. . the deeds of great men belonging to different nomadic peoples are recounted. we are told about abraham, moses, prince siddartha, clovis, attila, godwin, and knut. tappan, e.m. in the days of alfred the great. lothrop. . as stated in the preface, this narrative of the life of the famous king is the result of a thoughtful study of his character and an earnest effort to be as accurate as the scantiness of material and the thousand years' interval would permit. i have sought to live my life worthily. alfred the great. tappan, e.m. in the days of queen elizabeth. lothrop. . of all the sovereigns that have worn the crown of england, queen elizabeth is the most puzzling, the most fascinating, the most blindly praised, and the most unjustly blamed.... at a distance of three hundred years it is not easy to balance these claims to censure and to admiration, but at least no one should forget that the little white hand of which she was so vain guided the ship of state with most consummate skill in its perilous passage through the troubled waters of the latter half of the sixteenth century.--_preface._ the book is illustrated from well-known paintings. tappan, e.m. (p. ) in the days of william the conqueror. lothrop. . the story of william the conqueror is the story of the man who for more than a quarter of a century was the most prominent personage of western europe.... whatever in the character of the conqueror the twentieth century may find worthy of blame or of praise, no student of his life will deny that his faults were those of his time, that his virtues were his own.--_preface._ geography, travel, and description our country is the world; our countrymen are all mankind. garrison. finnemore, john. england. macmillan. . london town is described, there are two chapters on father thames, and we are led through old wessex, warwickshire, the broads and fen-country, and the beautiful lakeland. twelve plates in color are given. finnemore, john. the holy land. illustrated by john fulleylove. macmillan. . this account of peasant homes and the life of the people throughout the year makes many allusions in the gospel story easily understood. there are chapters on jerusalem and bethlehem, and one entitled (p. ) from nazareth to galilee. the volume contains twelve colored plates. hope, a.r. the world. macmillan. . although from its nature and size this book can give only a glimpse of each country, yet it does seem to convey, in moderate compass, a general view of the world, and quite a vivid impression of the different lands is absorbed from the colored pictures, which children always enjoy. the plates are thirty-seven in number. jungman, beatrix. holland. illustrated by nico jungman. macmillan. . a pleasant account of the manners and customs, the costumes and feast-days, of water land. the twelve colored plates add to the book's attraction. peltier, florence (mrs. f. (p.) pope). a japanese garland. lothrop. . charming accounts of the legends, stories, and customs, of the flowery kingdom, related by a little japanese boy to his child friends in america. strange lands near home. ginn. . this small volume contains a series of brief articles, by different persons, on mexico and south america. some of the subjects touched (p. ) on are a venezuelan railway, the land of the llama, and the argentine capital. toward the rising sun. ginn. . this companion volume to strange lands near home tells us of life in china, japan, korea, borneo, and other eastern countries. there is an interesting chapter on housekeeping in east india, by sara jeannette duncan. hygiene that man has a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of. huxley. jewett, f.g. good health. ginn. . a clear statement of facts concerning the body and the attention that should be given to it. there are chapters on fresh air, eyesight, the ear, the care of the nails, hair, and teeth, and valuable information about tobacco and alcohol, and their effects on animals as well as people. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales so it is; yet let us sing honour to the old bowstring! honour to the bugle-horn! honour to the woods unshorn! honour to the lincoln green! (p. ) honour to the archer keen! honour to tight little john, and the horse he rode upon! honour to bold robin hood, sleeping in the underwood: honour to maid marian, and to all the sherwood clan! though their days have hurried by let us two a burden try. keats. baldwin, james. the story of roland. scribner. . this romance tells of the great charlemagne, and of his warriors, roland and oliver and ogier the dane, all companions in arms. as james baldwin states, roland is unknown to history, yet he is the typical knight, the greatest hero of the middle ages. the story is culled from the song-writers and poets of five centuries and of as many languages. baldwin, james. the story of siegfried. illustrated by howard pyle. scribner. . from the many versions, elder and younger edda, volsunga saga, and nibelungen lied, including modern sources, mr. baldwin has reshaped this ancient tale. though he sometimes draws material from his own imagination, the essential parts of the myth remain unaltered. church, a.j. (p. ) the �neid for boys and girls. macmillan. . the famous wanderings are retold from virgil in simple language. twelve illustrations in color accompany the text. church, a.j. the iliad for boys and girls. macmillan. . in a straightforward manner mr. church relates the incidents of the great siege. the volume contains twelve colored illustrations. harris, j.c. *nights with uncle remus. houghton. . this second book of folk-lore is supplementary to uncle remus; his songs and his sayings, and gives a large number of additional myths and legends of the south. hutchinson, w.m.l. the golden porch. longmans. . in adding one more to the innumerable collections of stories from the greek, i have hoped to break fresh ground by reproducing the myths of pindar's odes, as far as possible in a free translation, and with such additions only as were needed to form a framework. some of these legends are already wholly or partly familiar, but several will be new, i think, to english readers.--_preface._ these old tales are rendered in exquisite language. they include, among others, the stories of tantalus, the heavenly twins, jason, (p. ) and the pansy baby. the poet was bidden to prepare the ode, from which this last story is taken, in honor of a friend's victory in the olympic games. the illustrations are in terra-cotta and black. kipling, rudyard. the second jungle book. century. . telling more of mowgli, the child of the jungle, and his brethren the wild creatures of the forest; together with other marvellous animal stories. "now these are the laws of the jungle, and many and mighty are they; but the head and the hoof of the law and the haunch and the hump is--obey!" marvin, f.s., r.j.c. mayor, and f.m. stawell (editors). the adventures of odysseus. illustrated by charles robinson. dutton. . it has been our aim in this book to reproduce the substance of homer's odyssey in simple modern english. we have not hesitated to omit and compress where we thought fit, but we have done our best to make a faithful translation within our limits, and to keep what we could of the homeric spirit.--_preface._ pyle, howard. the merry adventures of robin hood. illustrated by the author. scribner. . henry ii and queen eleanor, the lord bishop of hereford, the (p. ) sheriff of nottingham, and richard of the lion's heart, come forth from the land of mingled fact and fancy, with robin hood and his merry train, and live for us. while the text of this luxurious volume is dignified and somewhat archaic, children delight in reading it, nevertheless. there are many full-page illustrations. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors but if he is a real classic, if his work belongs to the class of the very best (for this is the true and right meaning of the word classic, classical), then the great thing for us is to feel and enjoy his work as deeply as ever we can, and to appreciate the wide difference between it and all work which has not the same high character. matthew arnold. cervantes, miguel de. *don quixote of the mancha. edited by e.a. parry. illustrated by walter crane. lane. . let it be understood that all i have attempted to do is to tell a well-known story in print, as one who loves it would seek to tell it in words to those around his own fireside; in the hope that some may gather from this story that there is a vast storehouse of humour and wisdom awaiting them in the book itself.--_preface._ holmes, o.w. (p. ) *the one hoss shay, and companion poems. illustrated by howard pyle. houghton. . how the old horse won the bet, and the broomstick train, are the other poems. "you see, of course, if you're not a dunce, how it went to pieces all at once-- all at once, and nothing first-- just as bubbles do when they burst." macleod, mary. stories from the faerie queene. illustrated by a.g. walker. stokes. . do we not most of us belong to the group "who at present know nothing or next to nothing of what is certainly one of the masterpieces of english literature"? the tale of spenser's great poem is simply related in acceptable prose. norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume iv. fairy stories and classic tales. heath. . the imagination is the supreme intellectual faculty, and yet it is of all the one which receives least attention in our common systems of education.--_preface._ religion and ethics (p. ) the bible itself did not begin in the dry letter, but was a rich and various life with nature and among men before it was made into a book. samuel osgood. thomas, e.l. the early story of israel. longmans. . this small volume presents a general view of the early history of the jews, in accordance with the results of the best biblical and historical criticism. in addition to the maps and illustrations, there are six full-page plates from famous paintings. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals when i survey the bright celestial sphere, so rich with jewels hung, that night doth like an ethiop bride appear; my soul her wings doth spread, and heavenward flies, the almighty's mysteries to read in the large volumes of the skies. habington. ball, r.s. starland. ginn. . the royal institution of great britain each year provides at christmas-time a course of lectures for children. in and sir r.s. ball gave talks on astronomy, and on them the present volume (p. ) is founded. blanchan, neltje (pseudonym of mrs. n.b. (deg.) doubleday.) bird neighbors. with an introduction by john burroughs. doubleday. . illustrated with full-page color plates. non-technical. birds grouped according to size and color; no specific color key. rather full biographies. there are chapters giving the characteristics of the families, the habitats, and the seasons of occurrence. audubon society. mr. burroughs states that this book, which describes one hundred and fifty of our more common birds, is reliable, and is written in a vivacious strain by a real bird-lover, and should prove helpful and stimulating to any one who seeks by the aid of its pages to become better acquainted with our songsters. there are forty-eight plates in color. blanchan, neltje (pseudonym of mrs. n.b. (deg.) doubleday). nature's garden. doubleday. . mrs. doubleday has classified over five hundred flowers according to color, months of blooming, their preferred localities or habitats, and finally according to their proper families--by the classification adopted by the international botanical congress. special attention has been given to the flowers' insect visitors. this large volume (p. ) contains thirty-two pages of color plates, and forty-eight in black and white. children learn so much from association with a book of this sort that it has been placed, because of the pictures, under a younger heading than the text alone would warrant. mr. dugmore's very beautiful photographs in color from the living flowers, and the no less exquisite portraits from life in black and white by mr. troth, cannot but prove the most attractive, as they are the most useful, feature of this book.--_preface._ burroughs, john. squirrels and other fur-bearers. houghton. . this wise old nature-lover tells us in his delightful way of the fox, mink, skunk, weasel, porcupine, muskrat, and other wild creatures. there are fifteen colored illustrations reduced from audubon's large pictures. cragin, b.s. our insect friends and foes. putnam. . a boy of eleven once asked me, in the midst of a schoolroom talk on the uses of participles, where a grasshopper's ears were.... i did not wonder that he found grasshoppers more interesting than participles--i do myself--and so, i am sure, do the young people for whom, most of all, this book has been written.--_preface._ butterflies, moths, and insects, are described, and full directions for collecting, preserving, and studying them, given in this (p. ) satisfactory volume, which contains many illustrations. a list of popular and scientific names is included. eckstorm, f.h. the woodpeckers. houghton. . illustrated with colored plates and figures in the text; non-technical; color key. this is an introduction to the study of woodpeckers. not arranged as a manual, but giving information as to structure and habits of the family, with several studies of individual species. audubon society. lang, andrew (editor). the red book of animal stories. longmans. . creatures mythical and real, extinct monsters and animals of to-day, dwell at peace within this book of many tales. adventures of famous men, experiences of animal trainers, and stories of a quieter nature, are included. morley, m.w. wasps and their ways. illustrated by the author. dodd. . to learn so easily and pleasantly about the wasp from an authority may keep boys from destroying their nests and wantonly annoying them. and still, they say, in foreign lands, do men this language hold, there's nothing like your attic wasp, so testy and so bold. aristophanes. proctor, r.a. (p. ) half-hours with the stars. putnam. . a plain and easy guide to the knowledge of the constellations, showing, in twelve maps, the position for the united states of the principal star groups night after night throughout the year, with introduction and a separate explanation of each map.--_title-page._ stories the books that charmed us in youth recall the delight ever afterwards; we are hardly persuaded there are any like them, any deserving equally our affections. fortunate if the best fall in our way during this susceptible and forming period of our lives. a. bronson alcott. alden, w.l. the moral pirates. harper. . four boys cruise in a large rowboat up the hudson river and on some of the adirondack lakes, camping out, and having many funny and exciting experiences. black, william. the four macnicols, and an adventure in thule. harper. . this volume is given because of the first of these two stories, which is not published separately. it tells of the fishing experiences of four scotch brothers, and shows how much plucky lads can accomplish. in an adventure in thule two boys discover a young frenchwoman (p. ) stranded on an island, and succeed in rescuing her. church, a.j. three greek children. putnam. . an abundance of information about greek life and customs is woven interestingly into the fabric of this tale. the battles of marathon and salamis are fought anew for the children by old men who were participants therein, and the isthmian games are also described. coolidge, susan (pseudonym of s.c. woolsey). what katy did. little. . to five six of us once, my darlings, played together beneath green boughs, which faded long ago, made merry in the golden summer weather, pelted each other with new-fallen snow. . . . . . . . . . . . so, darlings, take this little childish story, in which some gleams of the old sunshine play, and, as with careless hands you turn the pages, look back and smile, as here i smile to-day. this account of the lively doings of the six little carrs is full of action and interest. in the midst of her happy life poor katy has to stop and learn, through the invalidism which comes as the result of an accident, the great lessons of patience, cheerfulness, and living for others. happily, in the end, after her battle has been won, full health returns to her. defoe, daniel. (p. ) robinson crusoe. illustrated by the brothers rhead. harper. . every child comprehends everything in robinson crusoe save one sole point--what conceivable reason he could have had for feeling discontented. thomas wentworth higginson. the illustrations are the result of a special trip to the island of tobago, the scene of the great narrative, and are from sketches made on the island. dodge, m. (m.). hans brinker. scribner. . first published in , and since translated into many languages, this book still stands as _the_ picture of life in holland to give to boys and girls. eggleston, edward. the hoosier school-boy. scribner. . school life in town and village of the middle west, in . first published in , the story has retained popularity. jackson, h.m. (f.) h. nelly's silver mine. little. . rob and nelly leave their new england home and journey with their parents to colorado. there they have many interesting experiences in the silver mining country, which are told in mrs. jackson's (p. ) charming natural style. jewett, s.o. betty leicester. houghton. . fifteen-year-old betty spends a happy and satisfactory summer at tideshead with her two aged aunts, bringing brightness and pleasure into their quiet lives. johnson, rossiter. *phaeton rogers. scribner. . phaeton was so inventive that he was always in hot water. boys love to read of his pranks and pleasures. lucas, e.v. anne's terrible good nature, and other stories for children. macmillan. . the atmosphere of these eleven tales is decidedly english, but they are so unusually good that our children will read them with enjoyment notwithstanding the unfamiliar setting. the thousand threepenny bits, the anti-burglars, and the uncommonly funny one called the monkey's revenge, are among the number. marryat, frederick. masterman ready. illustrated by fred pegram. macmillan. . as children we parents learned to love old masterman, the faithful (p. ) and resourceful friend of the good seagraves. even now our eyes grow a little misty as we think of his brave death. marryat began a continuation of the swiss family robinson for his children, at their request, but its geographical anachronisms were too much for him, and he decided to write this story instead. no one will find fault with the change of plan. morrison, s.e. chilhowee boys. crowell. . this account of pioneer days is essentially true, having been gathered from family records which tell how, in , "parson craig," with his wife, six children, and a number of friends, made the four-hundred-mile journey from north carolina into tennessee. page, t.n. two little confederates. scribner. . while this description of the life of two boys on a southern plantation during the civil war is dramatic and full of pathos, it is hardly necessary to say that mr. page, with his unerring touch, has not overdrawn a single detail of those days, happily long gone. phelps, e.s. (mrs. e.s. (p.) ward). gypsy breynton. dodd. . every girl will love impulsive, careless gypsy with her many (p. ) faults and the many more winning qualities of her warm-hearted nature. wherever there is mischief, there is gypsy. yet, wherever there is fun, and health, and hope, and happiness--and i think, wherever there is truthfulness and generosity--there is gypsy, too.--_preface._ phelps, e.s. (mrs. e.s. (p.) ward). gypsy's cousin joy. dodd. . gypsy didn't want joy to come and live with them at all, neither did she care for her at first, but through forbearance, gentleness, and joy's great sorrow, they grew to love each other warmly. seawell, m.e. °little jarvis. appleton. . the hero, midshipman on the constellation, in the fight between that ship and the french frigate vengeance, gave his life with notable bravery in the service of his country. smith, m.p. (w.). jolly good times at hackmatack. little. . a faithful description of farm life among the hills of western massachusetts seventy-five years ago. before these times become wholly traditional, it seems good to picture them, as vividly as may be, for the benefit of the young folks who will grow up under influences differing so widely from those that shaped the youth of their ancestors.... they, and (p. ) such as they, made the old new england the new england of glorious history and memories.--_preface._ smith, n.a. three little marys. houghton. . little girls of our own country will enjoy reading these three sketches which tell of faithful gypsy mairi of scotland, english molly of sussex, and irish maureen. each one of the three is natural, lovable, and worth knowing. stowe, h.b. little pussy willow. houghton. . this old-fashioned story of the country mouse and the city mouse possesses charm, and abounds in homely common-sense. mothers, fortunately, no longer bring up their daughters in the foolish way in which emily proudie was reared. the second story is included only because there is no other edition of pussy willow. zollinger, gulielma (pseudonym of william z. glad win). *the widow o'callaghan's boys. illustrated by florence scovel shinn. mcclurg. . an account of seven lads, who, after their father's death, help their brave little mother to keep the family together. simply told; full of sterling common-sense and unselfish precept. the colored illustrations are delightful. the staunch widow and her seven sons are an admirable (p. ) object-lesson in faithfulness to the claims of small things. quite inimitable is mrs. o'callaghan's irish way of putting things, which furnishes the salt to the solid nutriment of the story.--_the nation._ _twelve years of age_ (p. ) _the true university of these days is a collection of books._ carlyle. amusements and handicraft when youth and pleasure meet to chase the glowing hours with flying feet. byron. bond, a.r. the scientific american boy. munn. . in the course of this camping story directions are given for making tents and other appurtenances of camp-life, bridges, windmills, ice-boats, sledges, et cetera. there are many illustrations. taylor, c.m., jr. why my photographs are bad. jacobs. . most of this very practical volume is devoted to the mistakes so familiar to those of us who have attempted photography. the short chapters are accompanied by pictures illustrating the failures described. examples of twelve successful photographs and information with each about the plate and time of exposure will give encouragement to the beginner. white, mary. (p. ) how to make baskets. doubleday. . a fully illustrated little book which contains clear directions for weaving many sorts of baskets, mats, bags, and other small articles. the use of dyes is taught, and information given about raffia, rattan, and other necessary materials. there is a chapter on caning chairs, and one by neltje blanchan on what the basket means to the indian. biography, history, and government there is no past so long as books shall live! bulwer-lytton. arnold, e.j. stories of ancient peoples. american book. . an exceedingly interesting scholarly account of the ancient orientals--egyptians, hittites, medes and persians, chinese, and others. descriptions of their methods of writing and translations from manuscripts and tablets are given. barnes, james. the hero of erie. appleton. . the brilliant career of oliver hazard perry is simply presented. there is a detailed description of the battle of lake erie, accompanied (p. ) by diagrams, and illustrations from contemporary engravings. clement, c.e. (mrs. c.e. (c.) waters). stories of art and artists. houghton. . mrs. waters speaks with authority, and this fully illustrated volume, prepared with her own little daughter in mind, will be enjoyed by art-loving children. many anecdotes are related. the first part is devoted to ancient art, including sculpture. coffin, c.c. building the nation. harper. . the story of our country from the revolution to the beginning of the civil war. like the others of this series, it has maps and many illustrations. custer, e. (b.). boots and saddles. harper. . mrs. custer gives us a picture, drawn from her own experiences, of garrison and camp life on the frontier. the book ends with brief mention of the battle of the little big horn, of sunday, june twenty-fifth, , in which general custer lost his life. dickens, charles. a child's history of england. houghton. . its adaptation to the needs of children lies in its lively (p. ) narrative form, and the picturesqueness of many of the scenes which it presents.--_introduction._ this volume, written with dickens' own eight children in mind, now more than fifty years ago, holds the interest of the boys and girls of to-day as keenly as when it first appeared. the many excellent illustrations add to its attraction and value. dole, c.f. the young citizen. heath. . permeated by the spirit of a broad and noble patriotism, and written in the interests of national peace, law, and good government, in regard to which it gives, very simply, much information. there are also chapters on voting, the proper use of the people's money, the ideal city and town, policemen and their duties, et cetera; all quite within the comprehension of a child. the book contains many illustrations. foa, eug�nie. the boy life of napoleon. edited by e.s. brooks. lothrop. . children will enjoy reading of the childhood days of napoleon and his brothers and sisters, and of the school-boy life of this remarkable lad who grew up from poverty to become the most wonderful man of his time. napoleon's experiences as a "king's scholar" in paris, and as lieutenant of an artillery regiment, are also described. madame (p. ) foa's work is historically accurate, and her style very interesting. hart, a.b., and mabel hill (editors). camps and firesides of the revolution. macmillan. . the second volume of source readers is, like the first, wholly made up of pieces written at the time of the events and incidents here described. the language is modernized wherever necessary.--_preface._ lang, jeanie. the story of general gordon. dutton. . the character, as well as the deeds, of this remarkable man, whose life stands for faith, courage, and charity, is interestingly drawn. there are eight pictures in color. scudder, h.e. boston town. houghton. . events in the early annals of this old city recounted in pleasant familiar fashion by a grandfather who visits the famous spots with the boys. many illustrations help to make real the happenings described. see, saw, sacradown! which is the way to boston town? one foot up, the other foot down, that is the way to boston town. old rhyme. seawell, m.e. (p. ) paul jones. appleton. . although this story is professedly and confessedly a romance, history has been consulted at every point. log-books, journals, and biographies, have been searched, especially the logs, journals, and letters, of paul jones himself. much relating to him has been left out, but nothing of consequence has been put in that is not historically true. the language ascribed to him is, whenever possible, that used by him at the time, or afterward, in his letters and journals.--_introduction._ for captain paul jones ever loved close fighting. franklin. seawell, m.e. twelve naval captains. scribner. . brief accounts of the lives of some famous american commanders, many of them of the period from to . preble, decatur, somers, and lawrence, are among the number. the book contains portraits. shepard, william (editor). our young folks' josephus. lippincott. . "flavius josephus was born at jerusalem a.d. .... his history of the jewish war, which was finished a.d. , was undertaken at the command of vespasian, and is a noble and pathetic narrative of events that had been witnessed by himself. his other important work, the antiquities of the jews, was finished about a.d. , and was an attempt to familiarize the roman people with the early history of the jews as it is recorded in the scripture." the following pages are ... a simplification of the story of (p. ) the jews as related by josephus.... josephus wrote his histories for the romans, and we need not therefore wonder ... at his modifying and toning down the historical statements of the mosaic records to recommend them to the prejudices of his readers.--_preface._ stockton, f.r. buccaneers and pirates of our coasts. macmillan. . "when i was a boy i strongly desired to be a pirate.... in fact, i had a great desire to become what might be called a marine robin hood." all boys will sympathize with this point of view, and will enjoy reading of morgan, blackbeard, kidd, and many less famous or infamous men who sailed our coasts. fine arts painting is silent poetry, and poetry is painting with the gift of speech. simonides. steedman, amy. knights of art. jacobs. . best book on art for children ( ). contains sketches of eighteen italian painters from giotto to paul veronese, based on vasari, and attractively written. sixteen color and eight black and white reproductions. new york state library. this volume seems to the compiler of this list one of the few books on art which children will read with real enjoyment. it is not (p. ) included with a view to having it take the place of a history of art, but to give a part of the information which old vasari has handed down to us with such charm. the language is delightful, and we carry away some of the atmosphere of that sunny italian period. it is a pity that we are not given illustrations photographed from the originals, instead of more or less modified drawings. geography, travel, and description up! up! let us a voyage take; why sit we here at ease? find us a vessel tight and snug, bound for the northern seas. william howitt. brooks, noah. the story of marco polo. century. . the manner of the return of the polos long after they had been given up for dead, the subsequent adventures of marco polo, the incredulity with which his book of travels was received, the gradual and slow confirmation of the truth of his reports as later explorations penetrated the mysterious orient, and the fact that he may be justly regarded as the founder of the geography of asia, have all combined to give to his narrative a certain fascination, with which no other story of travel has been invested.--_preface._ as far as possible, mr. brooks has allowed the traveler to speak for himself. bull, j.b. (p. ) fridtjof nansen. heath. . this highly interesting account of the great explorer, his crossing of greenland, and his polar expedition, will enthrall young people as farthest north did their elders. carpenter, f.g. south america. american book. . in this good geographical reader the children are taken "upon a personally conducted tour through the most characteristic parts of the south american continent.... the book has the merit of being written from original sources of information. it comprises the observations of the author gathered in a trip of more than twenty-five thousand miles along the routes herein described. most of the descriptions were written on the ground, and a very large number of the photographs were made by the author especially for this book." du chaillu, p.b. the land of the long night. scribner. . du chaillu visited the northern lands in winter, traveling overland to nordkyn, living among the lapps, and later going in a fishing-boat off the coast of finmarken for cod. finnemore, john. france. illustrated by nico jungman and others. macmillan. . three chapters are devoted to the loire country, and we are told (p. ) of normandy and brittany, as well as other parts of france, including paris. there is a sketch of boy and girl life which will make our young people glad of their freer environment. the twelve colored pictures add to the book's interest. horton, edith. the frozen north. heath. . this account of arctic exploration consists of a series of sketches of different polar expeditions, from the days of sir john franklin to the ziegler-baldwin and other undertakings of . here children may read consecutively of kane, nordenskjöld, greely, nansen, and others, and acquire a general view of polar discovery. kelly, r.t. egypt. illustrated by the author. macmillan. . an interesting picture of this most interesting country. the nile is fully described, and there are chapters on the people, the desert, and the monuments. the volume contains twelve plates in color. nordhoff, charles. sailor life on a man-of-war. dodd. . to give a sailor's impressions of a sailor's life ... has been the aim. neither exaggerating its hardships--they do not need it--nor highly coloring its delights, whatever those may be, the very plainest truth has been thought sufficient for the purpose in view.--_original preface._ many changes and improvements have come about since , when (p. ) this volume was written, but it is republished without alteration of the text, so as to give a picture of sailor days before the introduction of steam. plummer, m.w. roy and ray in mexico. holt. . two wide-awake children, with their parents, visit modern cities and ancient ruins, learn much of customs and history, meet president diaz, and compare things mexican and american. map, sixteen half-tone plates, and mexican songs with music. useful as a travel guide, and helpful to teachers and school children. new york state library. starr, frederick. strange peoples. heath. . a series of brief accounts of some of the many peoples of the world, accompanied by authentic illustrations. the author is professor of anthropology in the university of chicago. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales lo! i must tell a tale of chivalry; for large white plumes are dancing in mine eye. keats. higginson, t.w. tales of the enchanted islands of the atlantic. illustrated by albert herter. macmillan. . hawthorne, in his wonder book, has described the beautiful (p. ) greek myths and traditions, but no one has yet made similar use of the wondrous tales that gathered for more than a thousand years about the islands of the atlantic deep.... the order of the tales in the present work follows roughly the order of development, giving first the legends which kept near the european shore, and then those which, like st. brandan's or antillia, were assigned to the open sea or, like norumbega or the isle of demons, to the very coast of america.... every tale in this book bears reference to some actual legend, followed more or less closely.--_preface._ lamb, charles. the adventures of ulysses. illustrated by m.h. squire and e. mars. russell. . intended to be an introduction to the reading of telemachus; it is done out of the odyssey, not from the greek. i would not mislead you; nor yet from pope's odyssey, but from an older translation of one chapman. lamb. this children's classic, with its pure and forceful english, is presented in an attractive manner. the full-page illustrations are in black and buff. lanier, sidney (editor). knightly legends of wales, or the boy's mabinogion. scribner. . the mabinogion, or welsh legends of king arthur, belong to a much earlier period than malory. in this edition the original text is scrupulously preserved, except for necessary excision, and occasional condensation which is always placed in brackets. wilson, c.d. (p. ) the story of the cid. lothrop. . "thus lived and died the great cid campeador of spain, most wonderful of heroes, who was never defeated, and who became the ancestor of kings." this edition is founded upon the translation of southey. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors in the best books, great men talk to us, with us, and give us their most precious thoughts. books are the voices of the distant and the dead.... they give to all who will faithfully use them the society and the presence of the best and greatest of our race. channing. darton, f.j.h. tales of the canterbury pilgrims. stokes. . mr. darton has so delightfully made real the times of richard ii, and has so well adapted the tales told by the immortal pilgrims, that we owe him a debt of thanks. i say we, for certainly we older people will enjoy them as much as our children. in retelling the tales in prose the editor has introduced material from lydgate and others. dr. furnivall contributes an illuminating introduction, and hugh thomson's illustrations are, as usual, very satisfactory. he (chaucer) carried his sunshine with him as he rode and (p. ) walked about, observing with quick eye the varied life around him, and then reproducing it for us in words which enable us to recreate it, and to see the sun of his genius over the land we love. f.j. furnivall. lamb, charles and mary. tales from shakspeare. illustrated by n.m. price. scribner. . the following tales are meant to be submitted to the young reader as an introduction to the study of shakspeare, for which purpose his words are used whenever it seemed possible to bring them in; ... words introduced into our language since his time have been as far as possible avoided.... what these tales shall have been to the _young_ readers, that and much more it is the writers' wish that the true plays of shakspeare may prove to them in older years--enrichers of the fancy, strengtheners of virtue, a withdrawing from all selfish and mercenary thoughts, a lesson of all sweet and honourable thoughts and actions, to teach courtesy, benignity, generosity, humanity: for of examples, teaching these virtues, his pages are full.--_preface._ i have done othello and macbeth, and mean to do all the tragedies. i think it will be popular among the little people, besides money. lamb. this edition of an english classic contains engraved portraits of charles and mary lamb, after those in the national portrait gallery, and twenty full-page illustrations in color. macaulay, t.b. lays of ancient rome. illustrated by j.r. weguelin. longmans. . this attractive edition of macaulay's famous poems contains, in (p. ) addition, ivry and the armada. norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume v. masterpieces of literature. heath. . to make good reading more attractive than bad, to give right direction to the choice, the growing intelligence of the child should be nourished with selected portions of the best literature, the virtue of which has been approved by long consent.--_preface._ wiggin, k.d. (s.) and n.a. smith (editors). golden numbers. doubleday. . mrs. wiggin tells us that she and her sister have searched the pages of the great english-speaking poets to find verses that children will love. the quest has been successful, for the collection gives us full measure of that which is among the best in english poetry. the selections are arranged under headings, such as the world beautiful, for home and country, and in merry mood. one division is devoted to christmas songs and carols. religion and ethics oh books!... ye are the golden vessels of the temple, the arms of the soldiers of the church, with which to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked. richard de bury. gillie, r.c. (p. ) the story of stories. macmillan. . an exceptionally good book, describing as a connected narrative the events of christ's life. the language is simple and dignified, and the words of the gospel, whenever used, are given without variation. fully illustrated from photographs of famous paintings. strong, sydney. talks to boys and girls. revell. . under three divisions, kite talks, random talks, and the life i ought to live, mr. strong gives us practical, interesting, and helpful suggestions for leading broad spiritual lives of love and usefulness. many anecdotes enliven the text. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals if we do not plant knowledge when young, it will give us no shade when we are old. chesterfield. baker, r.s. the boy's book of inventions. doubleday. . these accounts of the wonders of modern science tell of liquid air, wireless telegraphy, x-ray photography, and other marvels. there are many illustrations. bamford, m.e. (p. ) up and down the brooks. houghton. . a careful observer and nature-lover gives us a familiar account of the wonderful lives of the little brook creatures. the insects mentioned in these pages are those of alameda county, california, but members of the same families will be found in or beside almost any brook, east or west. chapman, f.m. bird-life. illustrated by e.e. thompson-seton. appleton. . illustrated with seventy-five full-page plates in color and figures in the text. non-technical, with a color key to about one hundred and fifty of the more common species. this book is in two parts. the first chapters define the bird, its place in nature, and its relation to man, and outline the leading facts in its life-history. the second part gives a field key based on color, and biographies of some of the common birds. audubon society. clodd, edward. the childhood of the world. kegan paul. . this book ... is an attempt, in the absence of any kindred elementary work, to narrate, in as simple language as the subject will permit, the story of man's progress from the unknown time of his early appearance upon the earth to the period from which writers of history ordinarily begin. ... the first part of this book describes the progress of man in material things, while (p. ) the second part seeks to explain his mode of advance from lower to higher stages of religious belief.--_preface._ and step by step, since time began, i see the steady gain of man. whittier. the subject of this volume seems a little appalling for children, but it is treated in so remarkable a manner and with such simplicity that the book should be in the hands of all young people. it is not surprising to learn that it has been translated into many languages. eckstorm, f. (h.). the bird book. heath. . illustrated with full-page woodcuts and figures in the text. written in popular style; chapters on water-birds in their homes; structure and comparison; problems of bird-life; some common land-birds. much original matter about little-known water-birds. audubon society. geikie, archibald. physical geography. american book. . children of inquiring minds will find in this tiny volume expert answers to their questions about the earth and its wonders. holland, w.j. the butterfly book. doubleday. . dr. holland, director of the carnegie museum, pittsburgh, has given us an authoritative account of the butterfly-life of north america (p. ) north of mexico, and at the same time has kept this book entirely within the comprehension of the unscientific nature-lover. directions are given for the capture, preparation, and preservation, of specimens. there are forty-eight pages of color plates, reproducing more than a thousand north american butterflies, and several hundred black and white text illustrations. ingersoll, ernest. the book of the ocean. century. . waves, tides, and currents, early exploration, war-ships and naval battles, merchantmen, yachts and yachting, marine industries, and the animal life of the ocean, are all discussed in this good-sized, fully illustrated volume. meadowcroft, w.h. the abc of electricity. excelsior publishing. a simple treatise on electricity and its uses in connection with the telephone, telegraph, electric light, et cetera. morley, m.w. a song of life. illustrated by the author and robert forsyth. mcclurg. . how few thoughtful parents have not been perplexed by the question of when and how best to tell their children the great truths of the beginning and development of life in the world of nature. miss (p. ) morley is well qualified to treat this most difficult subject, which she does delicately and reverently, from a scientific standpoint. as there is so great a difference of opinion as to the advisability of giving books of this nature to adolescent boys and girls, it is strongly recommended that this one be carefully read beforehand by the parent. st. john, t.m. how two boys made their own electrical apparatus. st. john. . directions for making simple electrical appliances, such as batteries and electric bells. stone, witmer, and w.e. cram. american animals. doubleday. . a readable book, beautifully illustrated, ... and in many of its life-histories much fuller, fresher, and more interestingly written than any other work on animals that i know. dallas lore sharp. in preparing the present volume the aim has been to produce a work sufficiently free from technicalities to appeal to the general reader and at the same time to include such scientific information relative to our north american mammals as would be desired by one beginning their study.--_preface._ the illustrations which accompany these descriptions of the mammals of north america north of mexico comprise six plates in color from paintings by a.b. dugmore, and ninety-four half-tones from (p. ) remarkable photographs from life by messrs. dugmore, carlin, beebe, and other expert nature-photographers. some of the photographs were taken in the new york and washington zoölogical parks, and some in the open. stories the best romance becomes dangerous if by its excitement it renders the ordinary course of life uninteresting, and increases the morbid thirst for scenes in which we shall never be called on to act. ruskin. alcott, l.m. little women. illustrated by alice barber stephens. little. . meg, jo, beth, and amy, are as great favorites with the girls of this generation as they were with their mothers. the book gives a picture drawn from the youthful days of miss alcott and her sisters, and its sweet natural home atmosphere and high standards make it one that should be read by every little woman of to-day. aldrich, t.b. *the story of a bad boy. illustrated by a.b. frost. houghton. . "this is the story of a bad boy. well, not such a very bad, but a pretty bad boy; and i ought to know, for i am, or rather i was, that boy myself." this much loved volume should be put in the hands of every (p. ) american lad. mr. frost's illustrations are delightfully sympathetic. bennett, john. master skylark. century. . a sweet fresh tale of the days when will shakspere trod the boards. little nicholas attwood joins a company of actors, and the head player, dubbing him master skylark because of his wonderful voice, takes him with them to london against his will. good master shakspere, however, helps him in time of need, and little nick gets safely home again to his mother in stratford town. brooks, noah. the boy emigrants. scribner. . an account of an overland trip to california in . the scenery of the book is all taken from nature; many of the characters were real people; and almost all the incidents which here befall the boy emigrants came under my own observation, or under that of people whom i knew on the trail or in california. noah brooks. canavan, m.j. ben comee. macmillan. . this eighteenth-century colonial narrative gives a vivid description of roger's rangers. the rangers were for the most part new (p. ) hampshire frontiersmen. coolidge, susan (pseudonym of s.c. woolsey). what katy did at school. little. . the sequel to what katy did tells of the boarding-school days of katy and clover carr. while the story is interesting and amusing, it is at the same time an advantage to any girl to make the acquaintance of these two delightful sisters, with their simple honorable standards. cooper, j.f. the deerslayer. houghton. . "the incidents of this tale occurred between the years and .... broad belts of the virgin wilderness ... affording forest covers to the noiseless moccasin of the native warrior, as he trod the secret and bloody war-path." cooper's style is, according to present-day standards, somewhat pompous and stilted, but all boys should read this account of the new york settlers' warfare against the iroquois and know deerslayer, the picturesque frontiersman. and natty won't go to oblivion quicker than adams the parson or primrose the vicar. lowell. cooper, j.f. the last of the mohicans. houghton. . story of the french and indian war. it tells of the siege (p. ) of fort william henry, the capture of two young girls by the indians, and the adventures of an english officer while trying to rescue them. hawk-eye the scout and uncas, the last of the mohicans, are two of the other characters. carnegie library of pittsburgh. eggleston, g.c. the last of the flatboats. lothrop. . the adventures of five boys on a trip down the mississippi at the time of a great flood. the tone of the book is manly. forbes, c.b. elizabeth's charm-string. little. . elizabeth's aunt brings home from europe various tiny symbols relating to different famous places, buildings, and paintings. the legends connected with them are told to a group of eager girls. french, h.w. °the lance of kanana. lothrop. . this arab tale of a bedouin boy of many years ago is so instinct with splendid patriotism that it is difficult to characterize it as sad, though in the end kanana gives up his life for allah and arabia. a graphic picture of oriental life, full of exciting experiences. hughes, thomas. (p. ) tom brown's school days at rugby. illustrated by e.j. sullivan. macmillan. . the one great story of school-boy life, telling of days at rugby under the famous dr. arnold, and revealing the spiritual influence of a great master. inman, henry. the ranche on the oxhide. macmillan. . tale of pioneer days in kansas when wolves and panthers, buffaloes and indians, were familiar sights to the ranchman. buffalo bill and general custer appear in the story. carnegie library of pittsburgh. colonel inman served under generals custer, gibbs, sully, and other famous indian fighters, of whose staffs he was a member. over forty years on the extreme frontier gave him a rare opportunity to study the indian character.--_national cyclopædia of american biography._ janvier, t.a. the aztec treasure house. harper. . the scene of these stirring adventures is laid in mexico of the present day, and the heroes, a little band of plucky men, penetrate to the heart of an unknown aztec city. the well-written narrative is so full of exciting happenings that it is a favorable substitute for the ordinary sensational volume in which many boys find delight. kipling, rudyard. (p. ) captains courageous. century. . an indulged lad, the son of rich parents, falls overboard from a transatlantic steamer and is rescued by the crew of a fishing-smack off the banks of newfoundland. the boy has to stay with the men and make himself useful until the fishing season is over. the hardy life of the sea makes a man of him by the time he is restored to his parents. "now aprile is over and melted the snow, and outer noo bedford we shortly must tow; yes, out o' noo bedford we shortly must clear, we're the whalers that never see wheat in the ear." martineau, harriet. feats on the fiord. macmillan. . a vivid picture of norwegian life of the eighteenth century. full of action and interest, and conveying much information as to northern ways and customs in such a manner that it becomes a part of the story. martineau, harriet. the peasant and the prince. houghton. . whatever we may think of the literary quality of miss martineau's work, the practical achievements of her life were remarkable.... the peasant and the prince is a good example of her method. it is a sketch of the condition of french society just before the outbreak of the revolution. only the first part can be called fiction, and that only in a superficial sense.... so deep a (p. ) sympathy, so passionate an earnestness, informs much of her work, that it is still worth reading for its own sake as well as for the sake of the distinguished woman who produced it. h.w. boynton. the book is extremely interesting. matthews, brander. tom paulding. century. . the description of a successful, yet unsuccessful, search for buried treasure in the streets of new york will satisfy in a harmless way the desire which all normal boys have for books of this character. munroe, kirk. the flamingo feather. harper. . the exciting experiences of a french lad during the settlement of florida by france in the sixteenth century. many incidents hinge on the faithful friendship existing between a young indian and the hero. pyle, howard. men of iron. harper. . a historical story of the time of henry iv, giving an account of the training and knighting of myles falworth, and of his struggle as champion for his old blind father in the ordeal by battle; of prince hal, and the wild hard days that bred fighting men. shaw, f.l. (p. ) castle blair. little. . this charming picture of child-life on an irish estate was highly commended by ruskin in these words: there is a quite lovely little book just come out about children, castle blair!... the book is good, and lovely, and true, having the best description of a noble child in it (winnie) that i ever read; and nearly the best description of the next best thing--a noble dog. smith, m.p. (w.). more good times at hackmatack. little. . a further account of farm life in western massachusetts begun in jolly good times at hackmatack. sit with me by the homestead hearth, and stretch the hands of memory forth to warm them at the wood-fire's blaze! whittier. to fear god, do your duty, tell the truth, and be industrious--this was the new england ideal; and until we can replace it by a better, we can hardly afford to belittle it.--_preface._ stein, evaleen. gabriel and the hour book. page. . this simply-told story presents in a charming way a sketch of french life in the reign of louis xii. it tells of how little gabriel helped brother stephen to illuminate a wonderful book of hours for the king to give as a wedding gift to anne of brittany, and of the (p. ) happiness that came to the faithful workers therefrom. stockton, f.r. the story of viteau. scribner. . a tale of two french lads, the sons of the countess of viteau, who lived in the rude days of louis ix. many of the duties and pleasures of mediæval life are incidentally described. thompson, a.r. gold-seeking on the dalton trail. little. . these adventures of two new england boys in alaska and the northwest territory are based on real happenings. the scenery of the region is described, and useful information given about the klondike, and its flora and fauna. true, j.p. the iron star. little. . the iron star was a meteor, whose story is that of the ages from the days of the cavemen to the time of miles standish. twain, mark (pseudonym of s.l. clemens). the prince and the pauper. harper. . this never-was-but-might-have-been story is truly one "for young people of all ages." it tells of the exchange of station which occurred between young edward prince of wales and tom canty the (p. ) beggar's son. tom grows to like the stately life, but the noble young prince learns many a bitter truth about his realm. we are glad for both boys when the latter, now king edward vi, comes to his own again. the author follows closely the life and customs of the day. in spite of the main incident and its consequences being historically factitious, the tale presents a vivid picture of the young king and his people, and the london of that time. _thirteen years of age_ (p. ) _where go the children? travelling! travelling! where go the children, travelling ahead? some go to conquer things; some go to try them; some go to dream them; and some go to bed._ riley. amusements and handicraft to a young heart everything is fun. dickens. hasluck, p.n. (editor). knotting and splicing ropes and cordage. cassell. . a comprehensive little book on a subject about which all boys are anxious to know something. there are many illustrations. wells, carolyn. rainy day diversions. moffat. . uncle robert explains arithmetical puzzles, and card and other tricks. there are suggestions for celebrating the different holidays, and two children's plays are given. biography, history, and government (p. ) where'er a single slave doth pine, where'er one man may help another-- thank god for such a birthright, brother-- that spot of earth is thine and mine! there is the true man's birthplace grand, his is a world-wide fatherland! lowell. bolton, s.e. (k). lives of girls who became famous. crowell. . the achievements of nineteen women of note are briefly recounted. among the number are harriet beecher stowe, maria mitchell, madame de stael, elizabeth barrett browning, and florence nightingale. an encouraging book for ambitious girls. church, a.j. stories of the east from herodotus. dodd. . the father of history tells us of croesus, his war with and defeat by the persians; of cyrus and his triumphs; of certain kings of egypt and the manners of the people; of cambyses and the persian conquest; of the false smerdis; and of darius, lord of all asia. drake, f.s. indian history for young folks. harper. . this standard work gives a general account of the north american (p. ) indian, and of our various wars with the different tribes to recent times. there are maps and many illustrations. griffis, w.e. young people's history of holland. houghton. . every american should know the history of the netherlands, the fatherland of millions of americans and the storehouse of precedents in federal government from which those who made our nation borrowed most freely. nowhere in europe, except in england, can one find the origin of so much that is deepest and best in our national life--including the highest jewel of civilization, religious liberty--as in holland, as john adams and benjamin franklin long ago confessed.--_preface._ the satisfactory illustrations to this excellent book are taken from old prints. hart, a.b., and a.b. chapman (editors). how our grandfathers lived. macmillan. . this volume relates chiefly to the first half of the nineteenth century. our grandfathers and even our fathers passed lives full of interest and of unusual incidents: the school, the field, the forest, the hunt, the stagecoach, and the steamboat, are already remote from our present generation.... special pains have been taken to illustrate the remarkable life of the western frontier, now fast becoming a tradition.--_preface._ girls will enjoy the informal letters, describing the customs and costumes at the english court, as well as those of our own land. higginson, t.w. (p. ) young folks' history of the united states. longmans. . there are many histories of our country to choose from, but none is more satisfactory for young people than this, with its choice language and interesting style. it contains maps and numerous illustrations. it will be noticed that less space than usual is given, in these pages, to the events of war, and more to the affairs of peace. this course has been deliberately pursued.... times of peace, the proverb says, have few historians; but this may be more the fault of the historians than of the times.--_preface._ kieffer, h.m. the recollections of a drummer-boy. houghton. . the author was drummer-boy during the civil war in the th regiment of pennsylvania volunteers, and he tells his own experiences in camp and on the battlefield from the time of his enlistment to the "muster-out." carnegie library of pittsburgh. lanier, sidney (editor). the boy's froissart. scribner. . these tales, which retain to a considerable extent the archaic style of the original, will interest only the exceptional boy or girl. parton, james. captains of industry. houghton. two volumes. . the careers of successful business men who had aims beyond mere (p. ) money-getting. among those told of are elihu burritt, henry bessemer, sir william phips, and ezra cornell. scott, walter. tales of a grandfather. edited by edwin ginn. ginn. . this well-known book gives the history of scotland from the earliest period to the close of the reign of james v. the present work has been slightly abridged by the omission of detailed descriptions of some of the more barbarous cruelties of those times and other unimportant matter. the story unimpaired has been given in scott's own language.--_preface._ scudder, h.e. george washington. houghton. . a reliable conservative biography. it is not only a historical portrait, but a picture of eighteenth-century colonial life in virginia. the ship of state, by those at the helm. ginn. . twelve articles describing the life and duties of the servants of the nation. among the subjects included are the presidency, by roosevelt; the life of a senator, by lodge; how jack lives, by long; good manners and diplomacy, by day; the american post office, by wilson. tappan, e.m. (p. ) in the days of queen victoria. lothrop. . the celebrated reign of the good queen is faithfully portrayed. queen, as true to womanhood as queenhood, glorying in the glories of her people, sorrowing with the sorrows of the lowest! . . . . . . . . . . henry's fifty years are all in shadow, gray with distance edward's fifty summers, ev'n her grandsire's fifty half forgotten. tennyson. white, j.s. (editor). the boys' and girls' plutarch. putnam. . plutarch wrote a hundred books and was never dull. most of these have been lost, but the portions which remain have found, with the exception of holy writ, more readers through eighteen centuries than the works of any other writer of ancient times.--_introduction._ if any substitute for a full translation is desired, this abridgment will serve. it is illustrated. wright, h.c. children's stories of the great scientists. scribner. . miss wright's language is picturesque and interesting. these sixteen chapters on the famous scientists from galileo to darwin and huxley will fascinate intelligent children. zimmern, alice. greek history for young readers. longmans. . a simple, scholarly history; the english excellent. there are maps (p. ) and many uncommonly good illustrations. fine arts where gripinge grefes the hart would wounde, and dolefulle dumps the mynde oppresse, there musicke with her silver-sound with spede is wont to send redresse. attributed to richard edwards. champlin, j.d. the young folks' cyclopædia of literature and art. holt. . in this an attempt has been made to give a brief account of the acknowledged masterpieces in literature and in art, the latter term being understood to include architecture, sculpture, painting, and music.--_preface._ short descriptions of great books, popular fairy tales, notable characters and objects in fiction, celebrated buildings, statues, pictures, and operas, are included in this fully illustrated volume. geography, travel, and description when all the world is young, lad, and all the trees are green; and every goose a swan, lad, and every lass a queen: then hey for boot and horse, lad, and round the world away; young blood must have its course, lad, and every dog his day. kingsley. dana, r.h. (p. ) two years before the mast. houghton. . it does not often happen that a young man of twenty-five writes a book which becomes a classic in the language.... yet this is the history of dana's two years before the mast.--_biographical sketch._ the author, a boy of nineteen, left harvard college in and shipped as a sailor, hoping by this open-air life to cure a serious weakness of the eyes. he sailed around cape horn, coasted along the california shore, and returned home by the same route. eastman, c.a. indian boyhood. illustrated by e.l. blumenschein. doubleday. . dr. eastman is himself a sioux, and this account is the record of his own youth among this wild people when their warriors went on the warpath against the "big knives," and his highest ambition was to join them. finnemore, john. india. illustrated by mortimer menpes. macmillan. . we journey to the court of a native prince, travel through the bazaars, and visit village, jungle, and even the great himalayas themselves. the book is particularly interesting, because india is less well known to young people than many other lands. of the twelve colored pictures, two are specially good,--a tailor at work, and a (p. ) sikh warrior. finnemore, john. japan. illustrated by ella du cane. macmillan. . the volume is devoted rather to the habits, manners, and customs, of this wonderful people than to a description of the country itself. boy and girl life, games, feast-days, the occupations of a japanese day, the police, and the soldier, are told about in an entertaining manner. there are eight plates in color. jenks, tudor. the boy's book of explorations. doubleday. . a satisfactory introduction to exploration in general, and a comprehensive account of the travel and discovery of recent times in africa, asia, and australia. the journeys of livingstone, stanley, and many other well-known african explorers, are related; rockhill's adventures in tibet; the experiences of hedin and landor; and the opening up of australia. the beauty of livingstone's character is dwelt upon. maps and many illustrations add to the book's value. lang, john. the story of captain cook. dutton. . a brief life of england's great explorer, giving details of his three famous voyages and his tragic end. there are eight pictures in color. lee, yan phou. (p. ) when i was a boy in china. lothrop. . this informing sketch of chinese boyhood is by a native who left home at the age of twelve years to be educated in the united states. parkman, francis. the oregon trail. illustrated by frederic remington. little. . valuable not only as literature, but in that it gives the personal experiences of an intelligent observer in crossing the plains, long before the building of a trans-continental railway. parkman made this trip in . the wild west is tamed, and its savage charms have withered. if this book can help to keep their memory alive, it will have done its part. it has found a powerful helper in the pencil of mr. remington, whose pictures are as full of truth as of spirit, for they are the work of one who knew the prairies and the mountains before irresistible commonplace had subdued them.--_preface to the illustrated edition._ plummer, m.w. roy and ray in canada. holt. . "this companion volume to roy and ray in mexico embodies much that is interesting concerning canadian history, manners, and customs.... the book will be useful as a travel guide, but it is primarily intended to cover a hitherto neglected field for children." illustrated from photographs, with map, and words and music of canadian national songs. our old friends roy and ray enjoyed their trip through eastern (p. ) canada, and so will the boys and girls who join them on their travels. starr, frederick. american indians. heath. . mr. starr, an acknowledged authority, tells us of many different indian tribes; their language, customs, picture-writing, dances, and ceremonies. the author has himself had acquaintance with some thirty tribes. the book is very fully and satisfactorily illustrated. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales those that hobgoblin call you and sweet puck, you do their work, and they shall have good luck. shakspere. kipling, rudyard. puck of pook's hill. illustrated by arthur rackham. doubleday. . to dan and una, sitting, on midsummer's eve, in the old fairy ring, appears puck. by his magic power on this and succeeding visits incidents based on events in old england's history are told to the children by those who shared in them. a series of remarkable stories, alternating with even more remarkable poems. the average child will better enjoy hearing them read aloud, as they presuppose a fuller (p. ) knowledge of english history than most american children are likely to possess. mr. rackham's pictures in color are fine work. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from great authors olympian bards who sung divine ideas below, which always find us young and always keep us so. emerson. lang, andrew. the blue poetry book. longmans. . the editor trusts that this book may be a guide into romance and fairy-land to many children.... by way of lending no aid to what is called education, very few notes have been added. the child does not want everything to be explained; in the unexplained is great pleasure. nothing, perhaps, crushes the love of poetry more surely and swiftly than the use of poems as schoolbooks.--_introduction._ this excellent collection, for the most part british verse, contains a large proportion of scotch songs and ballads. the productions of contemporary poets are not included. lanier, sidney. the boy's percy. scribner. . old ballads of war, adventure, and love, from bishop thomas (p. ) percy's reliques of ancient english poetry.--_title-page._ but, passing far beyond the plans of these small antiquarian pleasures, percy's book immediately enriched our whole ordinary existence by making common property of those golden figures which the undying ballad-maker had enameled into the solid tissue of english life.... each ballad is given here exactly as it stands in the original except that the spelling has been modernized and such parts cut away as cleanliness required.--_introduction._ norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume vi. masterpieces of literature. heath. . the worth of the masterpieces of any art increases with use and familiarity of association. they grow fresher by custom; and the love of them deepens in proportion to the time we have known them, and to the memories with which they have become invested.--_preface._ repplier, agnes (editor). a book of famous verse. houghton. . in selecting these few poems i have had no other motive than to give pleasure to the children who may read them; and i have tried to study their tastes, and feelings, and desires.--_introduction._ though issued in , miss repplier's excellent collection still holds its own among the very best, because of the high quality and interest of the poems chosen. the little book is of a most convenient size to carry about with one. religion and ethics (p. ) who is the happy warrior? who is he that every man in arms should wish to be? --it is the generous spirit, who, when brought among the tasks of real life, hath wrought upon the plan that pleased his boyish thought: whose high endeavors are an inward light that makes the path before him always bright. wordsworth. carruth, w.h. letters to american boys. american unitarian association. . uncle william (who in real life is vice chancellor of the university of kansas) has a series of clear-headed talks with the boys on reading, sports, manners, various professions, and politics. he is never patronizing, and always has the boy's point of view in mind. gillie, r.c. the kinsfolk and friends of jesus. macmillan. . this sequel to the story of stories, is told in simple language. the illustrations, part of them in color, are from famous paintings. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals (p. ) science is, like virtue, its own exceeding great reward. kingsley. baker, r.s. boy's second book of inventions. doubleday. . this second volume is like unto the first in giving accounts of recent marvellous discoveries and inventions, such as radium, flying machines, and the seismograph, used in the measurement of earthquakes. it is fully illustrated. blanchan, neltje (pseudonym of mrs. n.b. (deg.) doubleday). birds that hunt and are hunted. doubleday. . illustrated with full-page color plates. non-technical. birds grouped according to size and color; no specific color key. rather full biographies. there are chapters giving the characteristics of the families, the habitats, and the seasons of occurrence. audubon society. one hundred and seventy birds of prey, game birds, and water-fowls, are described. the color plates are forty-eight in number. dickerson, m.c. the frog book. doubleday. . "the original manuscript for this book concerned toads and (p. ) frogs of northeastern north america only.... brief accounts of the species of other parts of north america were added later." there are sixteen pages of color plates and nearly three hundred half-tones from photographs from life by the author. the wonderful transformation of the tadpole is fully described. good, arthur. magical experiments. mckay. . some of the wonders here described are intended merely for amusement, others are of a scientific character and designed to act as an introduction to the study of physics. no apparatus is needed beyond the simple articles, such as knives, forks, and plates, which every household possesses. the book is instructive and entertaining alike to experimenter and observer. heilprin, angelo. the animal life of our sea-shore. lippincott. . an authoritative manual, prepared with special reference to the new jersey coast and the southern shore of long island. it is fully illustrated. howard, l.o. the insect book. doubleday. . dr. howard, chief of the division of entomology, united states department of agriculture, and the foremost authority in this (p. ) country, gives us full life-histories of the bees, wasps, ants, grasshoppers, flies, and other north american insects--exclusive of the butterflies, moths, and beetles. a separate section is devoted to the subject of collecting and preserving the different specimens. there are sixteen pages of color plates, thirty-two pages of half-tones, and about three hundred black and white text illustrations. moffett, cleveland. careers of danger and daring. century. . vivid accounts of the courage and achievements of steeple-climbers, deep-sea divers, balloonists, ocean and river pilots, bridge-builders, firemen, acrobats, wild-beast trainers, locomotive engineers, and the men who handle dynamite. carnegie library of pittsburgh. morley, m.w. grasshopper land. mcclurg. . not only the grasshoppers but other family members of the orthoptera are here described, including mantes, walking-sticks, katydids, and crickets. there is a long and interesting account of locusts and their migrations. the text illustrations are many and satisfactory. the poetry of earth is never dead: when all the birds are faint with the hot sun, and hide in cooling trees, a voice will run from hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead. that is the grasshopper's--he takes the lead (p. ) in summer luxury--he has never done with his delights, for when tired out with fun, he rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed. keats. parsons, f.t. (s.) (formerly mrs. w.s. dana). how to know the wild flowers. scribner. . every flower-lover who has spent weary hours puzzling over a botanical key in the efforts to name unknown plants will welcome this satisfactory book, which stands ready to lead him to the desired knowledge by a royal road. the book is well fitted to the need of many who have no botanical knowledge and yet are interested in wild flowers.--_the nation._ the primary characteristic of this guide to the names, haunts, and habits, of our common wild flowers is that, in moderate compass, it groups and describes them under their different colors. this arrangement was suggested by a passage in one of john burroughs's talks about flowers. there are indices to the latin and english names and to technical terms. the forty-eight full-page colored and one hundred and ten black and white illustrations are of value. st. john, t.m. real electric toy-making for boys. st. john. . sufficient directions for making and using many simple electric toys. shaler, n.s. (p. ) a first book in geology. heath. . it is difficult to see how this subject could be made more interesting to beginners. the fully illustrated volume is of a handy size to be carried on geological tramps. stories the first time i read an excellent book, it is to me just as if i had gained a new friend. when i read over a book i have perused before, it resembles the meeting with an old one. goldsmith. alcott, l.m. little men. illustrated by r.b. birch. little. . this sequel to little women tells of the home school which jo and her husband loved and worked for, and from which they sent out into the world, as men, the boys who had sorely needed their loving care. barbour, r.h. for the honor of the school. appleton. . a satisfactory account of modern boarding-school life. its standards are good and its tone healthy and sound. there are descriptions of a cross-country race, a foot-ball game, a base-ball match, and interscholastic track athletics. lads, however, enjoy the writings of this author to such an extent that many, doubtless, read them to (p. ) the exclusion of more worthy books. barbour, r.h. four in camp. appleton. . the compiler of this list believes that young people as well as old occasionally wish for light literature. this story of vacation days spent in a summer camp for boys in the new hampshire woods is pleasantly diverting. its standards make for self-control, courage, honesty, and good-fellowship. church, a.j. a young macedonian in the army of alexander the great. putnam. . young folks of today will like to read of the lad who took part in the great struggle between macedonia and persia. alexander's visit to jerusalem, recorded by josephus, is related, and mention is made of demosthenes and diogenes. cooper, j.f. the pilot. houghton. . from the boy's point of view, any legitimate need for concealment gives an added charm to a narrative, and this account of the secret expedition of john paul jones to the english coast is no exception. cooper, j.f. (p. ) the spy. houghton. . story of the revolution and the "neutral grounds" around white plains. the hero, the spy, is a cool, shrewd, fearless man, who is employed by general washington in service which involves great personal hazard. carnegie library of pittsburgh. cotes, s.j. (d.). the story of sonny sahib. appleton. . the experiences of a little english boy saved, when a baby, by his ayah, at the time of the cawnpore massacre, and brought up at the court of the maharajah of lalpore. learning that the english are about to attack the city, sonny seeks his countrymen, refusing however to give any information in regard to the maharajah's defenses. in the camp he finds his father, colonel starr. dix, b.m. merrylips. macmillan. . the adventures of a little cavalier maiden during the civil wars that led to the establishment of cromwell. merrylips, who had always wished to be a lad, is obliged to wander in the disguise of boy's clothing, and through her experiences learns to prefer to be herself, mistress sybil venner. in all her vicissitudes she proves herself a steadfast servant of the king. while the book pictures the rude times of war, the charm of womanliness is emphasized throughout. dix, b.m. (p. ) soldier rigdale. macmillan. . an account of mayflower days and the founding of the plymouth colony. miles rigdale and little dolly lose both mother and father. dolly is brought up by mistress brewster, while miles finally goes to live with captain standish. this faithful relation of the privations our ancestors endured ends with the arrival of the ship fortune with reinforcements for the colony. ewing, j.h. jackanapes. daddy darwin's dovecot. the story of a short life. with a sketch of her life by her sister, h.k.f. gatty. little. . °jackanapes. we love the golden-haired army baby who lived to fight and die with glory for old england. the atmosphere of the tale is most charming. daddy darwin's dovecot. in the beautiful english country dwell old daddy darwin and jack march, the little workhouse boy. a delightful anecdote is told about the pigeons, of whom jack says, "i love them tumblers as if they was my own." °the story of a short life. the inspiring story of the life of a boy--a short life filled with glorious bravery. this english army sketch is so sad that it should be read by the parent before deciding to give it to a child. french, allen. (p. ) heroes of iceland. little. . iceland in the tenth century is pictured for us in this adaptation from sir george webbe dasent's translation of the story of burnt njal--the njal's saga. it was this century that saw the change of faith of a brave heathen people. but at the same time, during their long winters, the icelanders wrote the tales of their own early times, which are still too little known. this book contains the greatest of them, a saga or story which is to be compared, in interest and beauty, with the great epics of the earlier races.--_preface._ french, allen. pelham and his friend tim. little. . the affectionate fellowship of two boys, the son of the owner of a mill and the son of one of the workmen. a mill strike is the principal incident of this wholesome story. goss, w.l. jed. crowell. . the incidents of the book are real ones, drawn in part from the writer's personal experiences and observations, as a soldier of the union, during that war. he is also indebted, to many comrades for reminiscences of battle and prison life.--_preface._ the simple bravery of this boy-soldier will stimulate the latent courage and patriotism of the boys of our day. they will like the scene where dick and jed join the army as drummer-boys, taking (p. ) with them mink, jed's "awful nice dog," who could do all sorts of cunning tricks. greene, homer. the blind brother. crowell. . a narrative of the experiences of two little boys in the pennsylvania coal mines. the sketch, which treats of an unusual subject and is full of stirring interest, took the first prize, offered by _the youth's companion._ hale, e.e. °the man without a country. little. . the story of philip nolan was written in the darkest period of the civil war, to show what love of country is.--_introduction._ nolan cursed his native land and wished that he might never hear of her again, and for fifty years his wish was fulfilled. hamp, s.f. dale and fraser, sheepmen. wilde. . an account of colorado sheep-raising which will interest boys greatly, especially as there is a tale of hidden gold interwoven with that of western life. harris, j.c. on the plantation. illustrated by e.w. kemble. appleton. . this description of a georgia boy's adventures during the civil (p. ) war gives an unexaggerated picture of plantation life. nash, h.a. polly's secret. little. . polly was a staunch little maine girl of the long-ago days. she held an important trust sacred for many years, proving herself of sterling worth. pyle, howard. the story of jack ballister's fortunes. century. . this exciting narrative of colonial days tells of the notorious pirate blackbeard and also of the kidnapping and transporting from england to the southern colonies which was so common during the first half of the eighteenth century. a thread of romance runs through the story. stevenson, r.l. treasure island. illustrated by wal paget. scribner. . stevenson's fascinating tale of adventure is already a classic. nothing of the sort, perhaps, since robinson crusoe, has so appealed to both old boys and young ones. thanet, octave (pseudonym of alice french). we all. appleton. . a good picture of boy and girl life on an arkansas plantation. an absurd ku-klux incident and an exciting experience with counterfeiters add to the volume's interest. thompson, a.r. (p. ) shipwrecked in greenland. little. . with photographic illustrations of great interest. there is just enough story to hold together the very entertaining chapters of adventure--"based in part upon the experiences of that unfortunate expedition which, on board the steamer miranda, came to grief off the coast of greenland in the summer of ." manners and customs, flora and fauna, eskimos and cameras, icebergs and polar bears, make this a capital book for boys and boys' sisters.--_the nation._ twain, mark (pseudonym of s.l. clemens). the adventures of tom sawyer. harper. . most of the adventures recorded in this book really occurred; one or two were experiences of my own, the rest those of boys who were schoolmates of mine. huck finn is drawn from life; tom sawyer also, but not from an individual--he is a combination of the characteristics of three boys whom i knew, and therefore belongs to the composite order of architecture. the odd superstitions touched upon were all prevalent among children and slaves in the west at the period of this story.--_preface._ boys love it, and broad-minded parents will put the volume in their children's hands before they borrow it. vaile, c.m. the orcutt girls. wilde. . two sisters--ambitious in the best sense--by means of exertion manage, by boarding themselves, to attend merton academy for one term. a (p. ) good picture of this phase of new england life of long ago. the tale is said to have a foundation of fact. wiggin, k.d. (s.). polly oliver's problem. houghton. . polly bravely takes care of her invalid mother, and later when left alone helps to support herself by her beautiful gift for story-telling. the book has a bright and helpful influence. wiggin, k.d. (s.). rebecca of sunnybrook farm. houghton. . rebecca is a quaint and lovable girl whose nature, full of enthusiasm, originality, and imagination, charms all who encounter her. mrs. wiggin's delightful sense of humor pervades the sketch. wilkins, m.e. (mrs. m.e. (w.) freeman). in colonial times. lothrop. . little five-year-old ann is made the bound girl of samuel wales, of braintree. after some hard experiences ann tries to run away, but in time she learns to love the really kind-hearted people to whose care she has fallen, and in the end becomes the adopted daughter of mrs. polly wales. the squire's sixpence is a simple school story of long-ago days. _fourteen years of age_ (p. ) _"god gives thee youth but once. keep thou the childlike heart that will his kingdom be; the soul pure-eyed that, wisdom-led, e'en now his blessed face shall see."_ amusements and handicraft let them freely feast, sing and dance, have their puppet-plays, hobby-horses, tabors, crowds, bagpipes, etc., play at ball, and barley-breaks, and what sports and recreations they like best. burton's _anatomy of melancholy_. adams, j.h. harper's indoor book for boys. harper. . this volume contains directions for work much of which is beyond the capacity of a boy of fourteen, but it is well for him to have something to which he can look forward. instructions are given in wood-carving, metal-work, clay-modelling, bookbinding, and other occupations. the making of simple household articles and the use of paints are taught. there are many working diagrams. adams, j.h., and others. harper's outdoor book for boys. harper. . an excellent handybook which provides the necessary information for making many worthwhile articles in which boys delight, such as (p. ) windmills, water-wheels, aeroplanes, boats, rafts, toboggans, and snow-shoes; illustrated with working diagrams. there are also directions for camping out. the compiler of this list hopes that the article on trapping small animals may be passed over, as the little creatures so often suffer in boyish attempts to catch them. black, alexander. photography indoors and out. houghton. . this book is addressed particularly to those amateurs who, while they acquire their chief pleasure from the pictures as pictures, have sufficient respect for the study and a strong enough purpose toward good work to seek real knowledge of the elements of photography.--_preface._ mr. black gives a brief history of the development of the art, and much thorough information for those ambitious to learn. the text is perhaps somewhat advanced for young people of fourteen. biography, history, and government land of our birth, we pledge to thee our love and toil in the years to be, when we are grown and take our place, as men and women with our race. father in heaven who lovest all, oh help thy children when they call; that they may build from age to age, an undefiled heritage! . . . . . . . teach us the strength that cannot seek, (p. ) by deed or thought, to hurt the weak; that, under thee, we may possess man's strength to comfort man's distress. teach us delight in simple things, and mirth that has no bitter springs; forgiveness free of evil done, and love to all men 'neath the sun! land of our birth, our faith our pride, for whose dear sake our fathers died; o motherland, we pledge to thee, head, heart, and hand through the years to be! kipling. baring-gould, sabine, and arthur gilman. the story of germany. putnam. . the present volume traces the life of this powerful nation from the time when imperial rome was baffled by her valiant hermann down to the hour when france fell before her, and the idea of empire ... became, under william the first, a power making for peace and strength.... the story of such a people as the germans could not fail to possess intense interest for anyone; but for us of another branch of the teutonic family, it has the additional charm that it is the history of our blood-relations. arthur gilman. while not intended primarily for children, this book will be both enjoyed and appreciated by many boys and girls of fourteen. the illustrations are taken, to a great extent, from old sources. bolton, s.e. (k.). famous american authors. crowell. . the careers of eighteen well-known men of letters are described. (p. ) among the number are emerson, prescott, hawthorne, higginson, gilder, and clemens. champlin, j.d. young folks' history of the war for the union. holt. . it is, in short, a well-written and entertaining history of the war of the rebellion, very fair and impartial in tone.--_the nation._ a mature boy or girl of fourteen will find this reliable work useful. the larger part of the illustrations are taken from contemporary drawings, and there are many maps. chapin, a.a. masters of music; their lives and works. dodd . twenty famous musicians are very interestingly characterized; among them palestrina, mozart, rossini, mendelssohn-bartholdy, and wagner. famous adventures and prison escapes of the civil war. century. . the war diary of a union woman in the south, edited by g.w. cable, relates experiences of the siege of vicksburg. among other accounts there is a description of mosby's guerillas, and the tunnel escape from libby prison is told by one of the union officers who got away and was retaken. franklin, benjamin. (p. ) autobiography. houghton. . notwithstanding its brevity, this autobiography has doubtless been a greater incentive to ambitious boys than any other. it is perhaps worth noting that a prominent japanese merchant of boston, when a boy in his native land, after reading the book, determined to seek his fortune in franklin's country, and testifies to it as one of the chief factors in his successful career. this useful edition contains a sketch of the great man's life from the point where his own writing ends, drawn chiefly from his letters. there are notes and a chronological historical table. hart, a.b., and elizabeth stevens (editors). the romance of the civil war. macmillan. . this fourth volume of source readers attempts to put before teachers and children the actualities of the civil war period. it contains something of the spirit of north and south at the beginning of the war, and much about the life of the soldier and the citizen while it was going on, with some of the battle smoke and dust.... in this book the fathers are speaking to their children.--_preface._ larcom, lucy. a new england girlhood. houghton. . an account of miss larcom's youth up to the age of twenty-nine, which includes her experiences as a lowell mill-hand. it is not only a record of the efforts of an aspiring young woman, but a picture of (p. ) one phase of new england life. lossing, b.j. the story of the united states navy, for boys. harper. . this little work was prepared at the suggestion of captain s.b. luce, u.s.n., the commander of the training-ship minnesota. desirous of having it correct in every particular, i submitted the manuscript to the navy department. it was returned to me with a letter from commodore earl english, u.s.n., chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting, to whom it was referred, in which he wrote: i am much pleased with your beautiful and instructive story of the navy, and i congratulate you on having performed a labor which will contribute so much to the pleasure and instruction of the youth of our country. such a bright-spirited work will refresh the memory of the noble deeds of our departed naval heroes in the minds of the people.--_preface._ the illustrations are satisfactory. myers, p.v.n. general history. ginn. . one of the best world histories for young people. in the present issue the book contains several fresh chapters, an entirely new series of colored maps, many new illustrations, and carefully selected lists of books for further reading at the end of each chapter, together with suggested topics for special study. the new text brings the narration of events down to the peace of portsmouth and the elections to the first russian parliament, and aims to include all the latest important results of discovery and scholarly research in the different historical fields and periods.--_preface._ nicolay, helen. (p. ) the boys' life of abraham lincoln. century. . this biography, condensed from nicolay and hay's short life of lincoln, in part rewritten, is the best of the many prepared for young readers. van bergen, robert. the story of russia. american book. . the compiler knows of no altogether satisfactory history of this country for young people. the present volume, prepared for school use, is very informing and will serve. it ends with the humiliation of a great people, and the treaty of peace made at portsmouth in . there are maps and illustrations. washington, george. rules of conduct, diary of adventure, letters, and farewell addresses. houghton. . comprises the best of what washington has left to us in written form. drama then to the well-trod stage anon, if _jonsons_ learned sock be on, or sweetest shakespear fancies childe, warble his native wood-notes wilde. milton shakespeare, william. julius cæsar. edited by w.j. rolfe. american book. . the tragedie of julius cæsar was first published in the (p. ) folio of .... the date at which the drama was written has been variously fixed by the critics.... halliwell has shown that it was written "in or before the year ." ... the only source from which shakespeare appears to have derived his materials was sir thomas north's version of plutarch's lives.... shakespeare has in this play and elsewhere shown the same penetration into political character and the springs of public events as into those of every-day life.--_introduction._ the merit i see in mr. rolfe's school editions of shakspere's plays over those most widely used in england is that mr. rolfe edits the plays as works of a poet, and not only as productions in tudor english. f.j. furnivall. shakespeare, william. macbeth. edited by w.j. rolfe. american book. . macbeth was first printed in the folio of .... it was written between and .... dr. simon forman ... saw the play performed "at the globe, , the th of april, saturday." it may then have been a new play, but it is more probable, as nearly all the critics agree, that it was written in or . the accession of james made scottish subjects popular in england, and the tale of macbeth and banquo would be one of the first to be brought forward, as banquo was held to be an ancestor of the new king. shakespeare drew the materials for the plot of macbeth from holinshed's chronicles of englande, scotlande, and ireland.... the story of the drama is almost wholly apocryphal. the more authentic history is thus summarized by sir walter scott: ... as a king, the tyrant so much exclaimed against was, in reality, a firm, just, and equitable prince.--_introduction._ no one can examine these volumes and fail to be impressed (p. ) with the conscientious accuracy and scholarly completeness with which they are edited. h.h. furness. shakespeare, william. the merchant of venice. edited by w.j. rolfe. american book. . the plot of the merchant of venice is composed of two distinct stories: that of the bond, and that of the caskets. both these fables are found in the gesta romanorum, a latin compilation of allegorical tales, which had been translated into english as early as the time of henry vi.... the merchant of venice is one of shakespeare's most perfect works: popular to an extraordinary degree.... shylock the jew is one of the inimitable masterpieces of characterization which are to be found only in shakespeare.--_introduction._ shakespeare. william. a midsummer-night's dream. doubleday. . the midsummer-night's dream is the first play which exhibits the imagination of shakespeare in all its fervid and creative power; for though ... it may be pronounced the offspring of youth and inexperience, it will ever in point of fancy be considered as equal to any subsequent drama of the poet. drake. to the king's theatre, where we saw midsummer's night's dream, which i had never seen before, nor shall ever again, for it is the most insipid ridiculous play that ever i saw in my life. pepys' _diary_. some people feel sure that it is a mistake to interfere with the play of a child's imagination by giving him illustrated editions of (p. ) great works. this opinion would be shaken by seeing these wonderful pictures, by means of which we are indeed wafted to dreamland. there are forty plates in color, and other illustrations. fine arts then marble, soften'd into life, grew warm. pope. hurll, e.m. greek sculpture. houghton. . the riverside art series contains twelve small volumes on ancient and modern art, of which four only are included in this limited list. the very satisfactory illustrations are taken from photographs, and the major part of each book is devoted to interpretations of the pictures. this volume contains sixteen examples of greek marbles, with an introduction, which includes other information, on some characteristics of greek sculpture. greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only by catching something of the spirit which produced it. one must shake off the centuries and regard life with the childlike simplicity of the young world: one must give imagination free rein.--_introduction._ hurll, e.m. michelangelo. houghton. . we are given fifteen pictures by this great man, and his portrait. (p. ) there is an introduction on michelangelo's character as an artist, an outline table of the principal events in his life, and a list of some of his famous italian contemporaries, with other information. this is the rugged face of him who won a place above all kings and lords; whose various skill and power left italy a dower no numbers can compute, no tongue translate in words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . so stood this angelo four hundred years ago; so grandly still he stands, mid lesser worlds of art, colossal and apart, like memnon breathing songs across the desert sands. christopher p. cranch. hurll, e.m. raphael. houghton. . this volume contains a collection of fifteen pictures and a portrait of himself by the master, an introduction on raphael's character as an artist, an outline table of the principal events in his life, and a list of some of his famous contemporaries, as well as other information. all confessed the influence of his sweet and gracious nature, which was so replete with excellence and so perfect in all the charities, that not only was he honored by men, but even by the very animals, who would constantly follow his steps, and always loved him. vasari. hurll, e.m. (p. ) tuscan sculpture. houghton. . this book comprises sixteen examples of fifteenth-century work, with an introduction, also containing other information, on some characteristics of tuscan sculpture of this period. the italian sculptors of the earlier half of the fifteenth century are more than mere forerunners of the great masters of its close, and often reach perfection within the narrow limits which they chose to impose on their work. their sculpture shares with the paintings of botticelli and the churches of brunelleschi that profound expressiveness, that intimate impress of an indwelling soul, which is the peculiar fascination of the art of italy in that century. walter pater. geography, travel, and description as the spanish proverb says: "he who would bring home the wealth of the indies must carry the wealth of the indies with him." so it is in travelling: a man must carry knowledge with him if he would bring home knowledge. dr. johnson. brassey, a. (a.). a voyage in the sunbeam. longmans. . this abridgment of the original book tells in pleasant narrative style of the sunbeam's voyage around the world, which lasted from july first, , to may twenty-sixth, . finnemore, john. (p. ) italy. illustrated by alberto pisa and others. macmillan. . we travel over the alps, and through the country to naples and sicily. the wonderful cities of this historic land are described, and a brief account given of its many poor but happy people. there are twelve illustrations in color. higginson, t.w. (editor). young folks' book of american explorers. longmans. . it has always seemed to me that the narratives of the early discoverers and explorers of the american coast were as interesting as robinson crusoe, and were, indeed, very much like it. this has led me to make a series of extracts from these narratives, selecting what appeared to me the most interesting parts, and altering only the spelling.... one great thing which i have wished my readers to learn is the charm of an original narrative.... the explorers of various nations are represented in this book. there are northmen, italians, englishmen, frenchmen, spaniards, and dutchmen.--_preface._ these original accounts cover the field of american exploration from the discovery of the country by the northmen in to the settlement of the massachusetts bay colony in . king, c.f. roundabout rambles in northern europe. lothrop. . this very fully illustrated volume gives a conversational account of a trip through great britain, ireland, norway, sweden, denmark, and (p. ) russia. it is an excellent book for children to use while travelling. mr. king has also prepared several about our own country. lummis, c.f. some strange corners of our country. century. . mr. lummis describes the wonders of the southwest,--the grand canon, the petrified forest of arizona, and the desert. he tells of the moquis in their seven seldom visited pueblo cities, of the navajos and other indian tribes, with their strange customs, dances, and magic. hygiene life is not mere living, but the enjoyment of health. martial. wood-allen, m. (s.). the man wonderful, or the marvels of our bodily dwelling. educational. . the author in this volume has united metaphor with scientific facts.... she has laid under contribution the latest scientific authorities, and believes that this book will be found abreast of the science of to-day, holding ever to truth as it now presents itself, and never sacrificing facts to the allegory.--_preface._ dr. wood-allen uses the simile of a house in explaining in a clear and interesting manner much about our body and its functions. part second is devoted to the articles we make use of: those which are (p. ) beneficial, and especially those which are more or less harmful; as tea, coffee, tobacco, and alcohol. mythology, folk-lore, legends, and fairy tales "i, phoebus, sang those songs that gained so much renown, i, phoebus, sang them; homer only wrote them down." bulfinch, thomas. the age of fable. edited by e.e. hale. lothrop. . this book is an enlarged and revised edition of a book published, with the same title, by the late thomas bulfinch, of boston, in the year .... what mr. bulfinch wanted to do, and succeeded in doing, was to connect the old stories with modern literature. his book, therefore, not only interests young people in the classical authors, but it turns their attention to many of the best authors of their own language and of our time.--_preface._ in the revision the list of poets cited has been increased from forty to sixty-three, and the portion treating of northern, oriental, and egyptian mythologies, rewritten. the illustrations are from classical sources. poetry, collections of poetry and prose, and stories adapted from (p. ) great authors and, as imagination bodies forth the forms of things unknown, the poet's pen turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing a local habitation and a name. shakspere. norton, c.e. (editor). heart of oak books. volume vii. masterpieces of literature. heath. . the youth who shall become acquainted with the contents of these volumes will share in the common stock of the intellectual life of the race to which he belongs; and will have the door opened to him of all the vast and noble resources of that life.--_preface._ scott, walter. the lady of the lake. edited by w.j. rolfe. houghton. . the ancient manners, the habits and customs of the aboriginal race by whom the highlands of scotland were inhabited, had always appeared to me peculiarly adapted to poetry. the change in their manners, too, had taken place almost within my own time, or at least i had learned many particulars concerning the ancient state of the highlands from the old men of the last generation. i had always thought the old scottish gael highly adapted for poetical composition.... i had also read a great deal, seen much, and heard more, of that romantic country where i was in the habit of spending some time every autumn; and the scenery of loch (p. ) katrine was connected with the recollection of many a dear friend and merry expedition of former days. this poem, the action of which lay among scenes so beautiful and so deeply imprinted on my recollections, was a labor of love, and it was no less so to recall the manners and incidents introduced. the frequent custom of james iv, and particularly of james v, to walk through their kingdom in disguise, afforded me the hint of an incident which never fails to be interesting if managed with the slightest address or dexterity.--_introduction to the edition of ._ the lady of the lake was first published in . this edition has many notes by mr. rolfe. scott, walter. the lay of the last minstrel. edited by w.j. rolfe. houghton. . the poem, now offered to the public, is intended to illustrate the customs and manners which anciently prevailed on the borders of england and scotland.... the date of the tale itself is about the middle of the sixteenth century, when most of the personages actually flourished. the time occupied by the action is three nights and three days.--_original preface._ the lay of the last minstrel was first published in . this edition has many notes by mr. rolfe. scott, walter. marmion. edited by w.j. rolfe. houghton. . the present story turns upon the private adventures of a fictitious character, but is called a tale of flodden field, because the hero's fate is connected with that memorable (p. ) defeat and the causes which led to it.... the poem opens about the commencement of august, and concludes with the defeat of flodden, th september, .--_original preface._ marmion was first published in . this edition has many notes by mr. rolfe. scudder, h.e. (editor). american poems. houghton. . longfellow, whittier, bryant, holmes, lowell, and emerson, are represented in this collection by poems with which every american boy and girl should be familiar. the volume, which has biographical sketches and notes by mr. scudder, was prepared in the interests of young people, to encourage in them a taste for the best literature. evangeline, snow-bound, sella, grandmother's story, the vision of sir launfal, and the adirondacks, are included in the contents. religion and ethics hearing thy master, or likewise the preacher, wriggle not thyself, as seeming unable to contain thyself within thy skin.--_youth's behaviour. ._ hale, e.e. how to do it. little. . brimful of well-balanced advice on making life helpful and pleasant to those around us and to ourselves by the avoidance of common errors and the encouraging of agreeable virtues. the familiar friendly (p. ) style renders this book, which could so easily be made dull, really delightful to young people. how to talk, how to go into society, how to travel, life in vacation, and habits of reading, are some of the chapter headings. science, out-of-door books, and stories of animals to know that which before us lies in daily life is the prime of wisdom. milton. adams, j.h. harper's electricity book for boys. harper. . a large part of this volume is somewhat beyond the grasp of the average boy of fourteen, and parents should look it over carefully before letting their children carry out the instructions, though we are told that "there need be no concern whatever as to possible danger if the book is read with reasonable intelligence. mr. adams has taken pains to place danger-signals wherever special precautions are advisable, and, as a father of boys who are constantly working with electricity in his laboratory, he may be relied upon as a safe and sure counsellor and guide." directions are given for making, among other things, push-buttons, switches, annunciators, dynamos, simple telephones, and line and wireless telegraphs. there is a chapter on electroplating. at the (p. ) end of the volume is an article explaining electric light, heat, power, and traction, by j.b. baker, technical editor, united states geological survey; also a dictionary of electrical terms. many working diagrams are included. bailey, f.m. handbook of birds of the western united states. illustrated by louis agassiz fuertes. houghton. . systematically arranged. descriptions technical but simplified, and illustrated with cuts in the text, which explain the technical terms and make it available for students. it has no color key, but field keys, fully illustrated in the text. biographies popularly treated. intended for students of the life and habits of the birds of our western states. the only book of its character for that region. audubon society. there are thirty-three full-page plates by mr. fuertes, and over six hundred small illustrations. for the use of beginners a brief field color key to genera of some of the common passerine birds is given in an appendix. burroughs, john. wake-robin. houghton. . this is mainly a book about the birds, or more properly an invitation to the study of ornithology.... i have reaped my harvest more in the woods than in the study; what i offer, in fact, is a careful and conscientious record of actual observations and experiences, and is true as it stands (p. ) written, every word of it.... a more specific title for the volume would have suited me better, but not being able to satisfy myself in this direction, i cast about for a word thoroughly in the atmosphere and spirit of the book, which i hope i have found in "wake-robin"--the common name of the white trillium, which blooms in all our woods, and which marks the arrival of all the birds.--_preface._ the titles of some of the different articles are: in the hemlocks, the adirondacks, spring at the capital, and the bluebird. chapman, e.m. handbook of birds of eastern north america. appleton. . illustrated with full-page plates from photographs, and many cuts in the text. systematically arranged; non-technical descriptions; both field and color keys. a very complete book for general use, treating all the birds of the section named, with some account of habits, etc. it has introductory chapters on ornithology, methods of study, list of dates of spring and fall migration, and a color chart to help in identification. audubon society. ditmars, r.l. the reptile book. doubleday. . mr. ditmars, curator of reptiles in the new york zoölogical park, gives us a comprehensive treatise on the structure and habits of the turtles, tortoises, crocodilians, lizards, and snakes, of the united states and northern mexico. there are eight pages of plates in color and one hundred and twenty-eight in black and white, from (p. ) photographs from life, taken (with six exceptions) by the author. in the present work the writer has sought to compile a popular review of a great fauna--the reptiles of north america. he has excluded technical phraseology and tried to produce two results: . a popular book, that may be comprehended by the beginner and, . a book valuable in its details to the technical worker.--_preface._ gibson, w.h. sharp eyes. harper. . this rambler's calendar of fifty-two weeks among insects, birds, and flowers, is made attractive to young children by the unusual quality of the many illustrations. greene, homer. coal and the coal mines. houghton. . it has been the aim of the author to give reliable information free from minute details and technicalities. that information has been, for the most part, gathered through personal experience in the mines.--_preface._ the composition and formation of coal, its discovery and introduction, are dealt with, and a description of the mine and its dangers, and the life of the workers therein, is given in this thoroughly satisfactory little volume. harrington, m.w. about the weather. appleton. . treated from a broad scientific standpoint, much interesting (p. ) information is conveyed about the laws which, discovered comparatively recently, have proved of vital importance and utility to mankind. the humidity and pressure of the air, the velocity of the wind, rain and snow, sleet and hail-storms, tornadoes and cyclones, are among the many topics discussed. holland, w.j. the moth book. doubleday. . an intelligent boy or girl of fourteen, with a real interest in the subject, will enjoy this fine work on the moths of north america north of mexico, though it is written more from the standpoint of the student than are most of the series to which it belongs. there are fifteen hundred figures in the forty-eight colored plates, and three hundred black and white text figures, illustrating a majority of the larger species. jordan, d.s., and b.w. evermann. american food and game fishes. doubleday. . these two distinguished scientists have given in this treatise on ichthyology a popular account of the species found in america north of the equator, with keys for ready identification, life-histories, and methods of capture. there are ten lithographed plates in color, and sixty-four in black and white from photographs from life taken by (p. ) mr. dugmore, these being the first really successful photographs of live fish ever secured. keeler, h.l. our native trees, and how to identify them. scribner. . a guide to the identification of the trees of the united states, with three hundred and forty illustrations, more than half of them from photographs. the book is the work of one who is a tree-lover as well as a botanist, and besides being scientifically accurate the book has a distinct literary flavor. invaluable as an aid to firsthand acquaintance with the trees.--_prentice and power._ the volume is not too large to be easily carried while walking. lucas, f.a. animals of the past. illustrated by c.r. knight and others. doubleday. . the object of this book is to tell some of the interesting facts concerning a few of the better known or more remarkable of these extinct inhabitants of the ancient world.--_introduction._ "mr. knight ... is the one modern artist who can picture prehistoric animals with artistic charm of presentation as well as with full scientific accuracy." while mr. lucas did not, in this instance, write for children, they greatly enjoy his descriptions, and are captivated by mr. knight's pictures of the strange creatures. there is a very interesting chapter on the ancestry of the horse. "said the little eohippus (p. ) i am going to be a horse and on my middle finger-nails to run my earthly course." newcomb, simon. astronomy for everybody. doubleday. . when a work, by an authority as eminent as professor newcomb, is interesting to young people, and is to a sufficient degree within their comprehension, it should certainly be put into their hands, even if, as in the present case, it was not specially prepared for them. parsons, f.t. (s.) (formerly mrs. w.s. dana). how to know the ferns. scribner. . this companion to how to know the wild flowers gives in convenient form a great deal of pleasantly told information as to the names, haunts, and habits, of our common ferns. they are arranged in six groups, the classification being based on the frond differences. in almost all cases the nomenclature of gray's manual has been followed, and in parentheses, that used in the illustrated flora of britton and brown is given. indices to the latin and english names and to technical terms are included. the many illustrations are helpful. rogers, j.e. the shell book. doubleday. . every person interested in shells has felt the need of a (p. ) manual of the shell-bearing animals of sea and land, comparable to the comprehensive manuals provided for those who wish to study birds or insects or trees.... the plan and nomenclature of this book follow the accepted standard, the manual of conchology, by tryon and pilsbry.--_preface._ miss rogers has made an extensive study of conchology on the east and west coasts of north america. the result is this popular guide to a knowledge of the families of living mollusks, which is also an aid to the identification of shells native and foreign. there is a chapter on the maintenance of aquariums and snaileries. eight of the plates are in color, and ninety-six in black and white for the most part from photographs by a.r. dugmore. rogers, j.e. the tree book. doubleday. . most of this volume is devoted to teaching us in an interesting manner how to know the trees of north america. there are, in addition, articles on forestry, the uses of wood, and the life of the trees. sixteen of the plates are in color and one hundred and sixty in black and white from photographs by mr. dugmore. st. john, t.m. wireless telegraphy. st. john. . theoretical and practical information, together with complete directions for performing numerous experiments on wireless telegraphy with simple home-made apparatus.--_title-page._ sharp, d.l. (p. ) a watcher in the woods. illustrated by bruce horsfall. century. . these talks about our small animal neighbors are full of descriptive interest, and the accompanying black and white illustrations are beautiful. mr. burroughs says: of all the nature books of recent years, i look upon mr. sharp's as the best. voogt, gosewinus de. our domestic animals. translated by katharine p. wormeley. ginn. . while this large volume gives much information in regard to the habits, intelligence, and usefulness, of those animals which have helped man's civilization forward, the text is not nearly as interesting as it might have been made. the many illustrations, however, are very satisfactory. stories dreams, books, are each a world; and books, we know, are a substantial world, both pure and good: round these, with tendrils strong as flesh and blood, our pastime and our happiness will grow. wordsworth. bullen, f.t. the cruise of the cachalot. appleton. . i've never read anything that equals it in its deep-sea (p. ) wonder and mystery; nor do i think that any book before has so completely covered the whole business of whale-fishing, and at the same time given such real and new sea pictures. rudyard kipling. in the following pages an attempt has been made--it is believed for the first time--to give an account of the cruise of a south sea whaler from the seaman's standpoint.--_preface._ a strong nor'wester's blowing, bill! hark! don't ye hear it roar now? lord help 'em, how i pities them unhappy folks on shore now! william pitt. charles, e. (r.). chronicles of the schönberg-cotta family. burt. . this diary of reformation days is fictitious, but it serves to bring most vividly before us luther and the men of his time. garland, hamlin. the long trail. harper. . develops from a conventional and unpromising opening into a vivid realistic story of an ambitious youth's perilous journey to the klondike. author writes from personal experience of the overland route, and principal characters reveal qualities of unselfishness, perseverance, and pluck. new york state library. gaskell, e.c. (s.). cranford. illustrated by hugh thomson. macmillan. . mrs. gaskell's masterpiece, which lord houghton described as (p. ) "the finest piece of humoristic description that has been added to british literature since charles lamb." calm and composure breathe from every page of this picture of life in a small english town during the first half of the nineteenth century. have we not all in imagination visited miss jenkyns and miss matty, played preference at miss betty barker's, and helped the honorable mrs. jamieson into her sedan chair? many girls of fourteen are quite able to appreciate the book's charm. irving, washington. the alhambra. illustrated by joseph pennell. macmillan. . it will be strange indeed if these fascinating and romantic tales fail to stir the imagination of any young person who reads them and to arouse in him the laudable ambition of some day seeing for himself the three palaces, the mosque, the chapel, and the halls, of the marvellous alhambra. the work was the amusement of his leisure moments, filling the interval between the completion of one serious, and now all but unknown, history and the beginning of the next.... and thus his name has become so closely associated with the place that, just as diedrich knickerbocker will be remembered while new york stands, so washington irving cannot be forgotten so long as the red palace looks down upon the vega and the tradition of the moor lingers in granada. e.r. pennell. irving, washington. (p. ) bracebridge hall. illustrated by randolph caldecott. macmillan. . "the reader, if he has perused the volume of the sketch book, will probably recollect something of the bracebridge family, with which i once passed a christmas. i am now on another visit at the hall, having been invited to a wedding which is shortly to take place.... the family mansion is an old manor-house, standing in a retired and beautiful part of yorkshire. its inhabitants have been always regarded through the surrounding country as 'the great ones of the earth,' and the little village near the hall looks up to the squire with almost feudal homage.... while sojourning in this stronghold of old fashions, it is my intention to make occasional sketches of the scenes and characters before me." the success of old christmas has suggested the republication of its sequel bracebridge hall, illustrated by the same able pencil, but condensed so as to bring it within reasonable size and price.--_preface._ irving, washington. old christmas. illustrated by randolph caldecott. macmillan. . no one could be better fitted to depict the old customs of an english christmas than mr. caldecott, and his pictures are a perfect accompaniment to this portion of washington irving's sketch book. a man might then behold at christmas, in each hall good fires to curb the cold, and meat for great and small. the neighbors were friendly bidden, (p. ) and all had welcome true, the poor from the gates were not chidden, when this old cap was new. _old song._ irving, washington. rip van winkle, and the legend of sleepy hollow. illustrated by g.h. boughton. macmillan. . irving's two most popular sketches, in which young people delight. the spirits of this region must have met washington irving more than half way, and the rest was like play to him. how real and living are all the people of his fancy! of all the author's work--serious and humorous ... rip van winkle took the most immediate and lasting grip of his public. g.h. boughton. irving, washington. rip van winkle. illustrated by arthur rackham. doubleday. . five dollars seems to most of us a large sum to pay for a child's book, but after seeing mr. rackham's remarkable work i think we shall all agree that there can be no better way of spending our book-money than in purchasing this fine edition of the famous tale, with its fifty full-page pictures in color. king, charles. cadet days. harper. . boys, especially those with military tendencies, will enjoy (p. ) captain king's description of life at west point. kingsley, charles. westward ho! illustrated by c.e. brock. macmillan. . a glorious tale of the voyages and adventures of sir amyas leigh, a devon knight of elizabethan days. oh, where be these gay spaniards, which make so great a boast o? oh, they shall eat the grey-goose feather, and we shall eat the roast o! _cornish song._ scott, walter. ivanhoe. macmillan. . scott's masterpiece contains, within the compass of a single volume, sufficient material for five or six books of romance. incident follows upon incident, and holds the reader, young or old, with entranced attention. the period is that of king richard i. scott, walter. kenilworth. macmillan. . the tragic elizabethan story of leicester and amy robsart. it is not beyond the comprehension of most young people of fourteen. scott, walter. (p. ) the talisman. macmillan. . the scene of the talisman is in palestine with richard coeur de lion and his allies of the third crusade. from the contest on the desert between the saracen cavalier and the knight of the sleeping leopard to the final battle of the standard it is full of interest. carnegie library of pittsburgh. stevenson, r.l. kidnapped. scribner. . being memoirs of the adventures of david balfour in the year : how he was kidnapped and cast away; his sufferings in a desert isle; his journey in the wild highlands; his acquaintance with alan breck stewart and other notorious highland jacobites; with all that he suffered at the hands of his uncle, ebenezer balfour of shaws, falsely so-called.--_title-page._ vaile, c.m. sue orcutt. wilde. . in this sequel to the orcutt girls sue continues her education, doing a little literary work meanwhile. instead of writing, however, as she had planned, her happy marriage opens the way for home occupations. the thread of pleasant romance will, of course, add to the book's attraction for girl readers. wallace, dillon. ungava bob. revell. . the thrilling adventures of a young trapper in the labrador and ungava regions. incidentally much information is given in an interesting (p. ) way. mr. wallace is well qualified from personal experience to write of this northern country. wiggin, k.d. (s.). °the birds' christmas carol. houghton. . it is only partially true to call this story a sad one, for it is filled from cover to cover with the christ-like spirit of love and helpfulness. it tells of little carol bird, a patient crippled child, who brought sunshine to all those about her, and who touches every heart. the account of the christmas dinner which carol herself gave for the nine little ruggles children is very amusing. after the happy day, while christmas hymns were sounding, the dear little girl slipped away to her "ain countree." yonge, c.m. the dove in the eagle's nest. macmillan. . life in the rude days of the emperor maximilian i, with scenes in burgh and castle. under a woman's influence, schloss adlerstein is changed from a robber stronghold to an abode of peace. _author and title index_ (p. ) _how index-learning turns no student pale, yet holds the eel of science by the tail._ pope. a b c of electricity, the. meadowcroft............................................. aanrud. lisbeth longfrock........................................ abbott. a boy on a farm.......................................... about the weather. harrington.............................................. adams. harper's electricity book for boys...................... harper's indoor book for boys........................... adams and others. harper's outdoor book for boys.......................... adelborg. clean peter and the children of grubbylea................ adventure in thule, an. black, william. _see_ the four macnicols. adventures of a brownie, the. mulock................................................... adventures of odysseus, the. marvin, mayor, and stawell.............................. adventures of reynard the fox, the................................. adventures of tom sawyer, the. twain................................................... adventures of two dutch dolls and a golliwogg, the. upton.................................................... adventures of ulysses, the. lamb.................................................... �neid for boys and girls, the. church.................................................. �sop. the fables of �sop....................................... age of fable, the. bulfinch................................................ aiken and barbauld. eyes and no eyes, and other stories...................... aladdin. crane.................................................... alcott. little men.............................................. little women............................................ under the lilacs........................................ alden. the moral pirates....................................... aldrich. the story of a bad boy.................................. alhambra, the. irving.................................................. ali baba and the forty thieves. crane.................................................... alice in wonderland. carroll.................................................. alice's adventures in wonderland. carroll.................................................. allen, m. (s.) wood-. _see_ wood-allen. american animals. stone, witmer, and cram................................. american food and game fishes. jordan and evermann..................................... american indians. starr................................................... american poems. scudder................................................. andersen. fairy tales from hans christian andersen................. stories.................................................. andrews. each and all............................................. the seven little sisters who live on the round ball that floats in the air................................. the stories mother nature told her children.............. ten boys who lived on the road from long ago to now ..... animal life of our sea-shore, the. heilprin................................................ animals at the fair, the. blaisdell................................................ animals of the past. lucas, f.a.............................................. anne's terrible good nature, and other stories for children. lucas, e.v.............................................. another book of verses for children. lucas, e.v............................................... arabella and araminta stories, the. smith, gertrude.......................................... arkansaw bear, the. paine.................................................... arnold. stories of ancient peoples.............................. asbjörnsen. fairy tales from the far north........................... astronomy for everybody. newcomb................................................. autobiography. franklin................................................ ayrton. child-life in japan...................................... aztec treasure house, the. janvier................................................. baby bunting. caldecott. _see_ his hey diddle diddle. baby's opera, the. crane.................................................... baby's own alphabet, the. crane.................................................... bailey. handbook of birds of the western united states.......... baker. the boy's book of inventions............................ boy's second book of inventions......................... baldwin. the story of roland..................................... the story of siegfried.................................. a story of the golden age................................ ball. starland................................................ bamford. up and down the brooks.................................. bannerman. the story of little black sambo.......................... barbauld. _see_ aiken and barbauld. barbour. for the honor of the school............................. four in camp............................................ baring-gould and gilman. the story of germany.................................... barnes. the hero of erie........................................ baylor. juan and juanita........................................ beale. stories from the old testament for children.............. beautiful joe. saunders................................................. beauty and the beast. crane.................................................... bee people, the. morley................................................... belger. _see_ baylor. ben comee. canavan................................................. bennett. master skylark.......................................... benton. a little cook-book for a little girl..................... saturday mornings........................................ betty leicester. jewett, s.o............................................. bible for young people, the........................................ bimbi. ouida.................................................... biographical stories. hawthorne. _see_ his grandfather's chair. bird book, the. eckstorm................................................ bird-life. chapman, f.m............................................ bird neighbors. blanchan................................................ birds' christmas carol, the. wiggin.................................................. birds that hunt and are hunted. blanchan................................................ black, alexander. photography indoors and out............................. black beauty. sewell................................................... black, william. the four macnicols, and an adventure in thule........... blaisdell. the animals at the fair.................................. blanchan. bird neighbors.......................................... birds that hunt and are hunted.......................... nature's garden......................................... blind brother, the. greene.................................................. blue fairy book, the. lang, andrew............................................. blue poetry book, the. lang, andrew............................................ bolton. famous american authors................................. lives of girls who became famous........................ bond. the scientific american boy............................. book of cheerful cats and other animated animals, a. francis.................................................. book of famous verse, a. repplier................................................ book of legends, the. scudder.................................................. book of nature myths, the. holbrook................................................. book of nursery rhymes, a. welsh.................................................... book of saints and friendly beasts, the. brown.................................................... book of the ocean, the. ingersoll............................................... book of verses for children, a. lucas, e.v............................................... boots and saddles. custer.................................................. boston town. scudder................................................. boutet de monvel. joan of arc.............................................. boy craftsman, the. hall..................................................... boy emigrants, the. brooks, noah............................................ boy life of napoleon, the. foa..................................................... boy on a farm, a. abbott................................................... boyesen. the modern vikings...................................... boys' and girls' plutarch, the. white, j.s.............................................. boy's book of explorations, the. jenks, tudor............................................ boy's book of inventions, the. baker................................................... boy's froissart, the. lanier.................................................. boys' life of abraham lincoln, the. nicolay................................................. boys of other countries. taylor, bayard........................................... boys of ' , the. coffin.................................................. boy's percy, the. lanier.................................................. boy's second book of inventions. baker................................................... bracebridge hall. irving.................................................. brassey. a voyage in the sunbeam................................. brooke. the golden goose book.................................... brooks, e.s. the century book for young americans.................... the century book of famous americans.................... the true story of benjamin franklin..................... the true story of christopher columbus................... the true story of george washington...................... the true story of lafayette............................. brooks, noah. the boy emigrants....................................... the story of marco polo................................. brown. the book of saints and friendly beasts................... in the days of giants.................................... browne. granny's wonderful chair and its tales of fairy times.... brownies: their book, the. cox...................................................... buccaneers and pirates of our coasts. stockton................................................ building the nation. coffin.................................................. bulfinch. the age of fable........................................ bull. fridtjof nansen......................................... bullen. the cruise of the cachalot.............................. bunyan. the pilgrim's progress................................... burgess. goops and how to be them................................. more goops and how not to be them........................ burnett. little lord fauntleroy................................... burroughs. squirrels and other fur-bearers......................... wake-robin.............................................. butterfly book, the. holland................................................. cadet days. king, charles........................................... caldecott. the farmer's boy......................................... a frog he would a-wooing go.............................. hey diddle diddle, and baby bunting...................... the house that jack built................................ the milkmaid............................................. the queen of hearts...................................... ride a-cock horse to banbury cross, and a farmer went trotting upon his grey mare.............. sing a song for sixpence................................. camps and firesides of the revolution. hart and hill, mabel.................................... canavan. ben comee............................................... canfield, and others. what shall we do now?.................................... captains courageous. kipling................................................. captains of industry. parton.................................................. careers of danger and daring. moffett................................................. carové. the story without an end................................. carpenter. south america........................................... carroll. alice in wonderland...................................... alice's adventures in wonderland......................... through the looking-glass................................ carruth. letters to american boys................................ castle blair. shaw.................................................... catherwood. the heroes of the middle west............................ cave boy of the age of stone, the. mcintyre................................................. celtic fairy tales. jacobs................................................... century book for young americans, the. brooks, e.s............................................. century book of famous americans, the. brooks, e.s............................................. cervantes. don quixote of the mancha............................... champlin. the young folks' cyclopædia of common things............. the young folks' cyclopædia of literature and art....... the young folks' cyclopædia of persons and places........ young folks' history of the war for the union........... chapin. masters of music; their lives and works................. the story of the rhinegold............................... wonder tales from wagner................................ chapman, a.b. _see_ hart and chapman. chapman, f.m. bird-life............................................... handbook of birds of eastern north america.............. charles. chronicles of the schönberg-cotta family................ chaucer for children. haweis.................................................. chenoweth. stories of the saints................................... child-life. whittier................................................. child-life in japan. ayrton................................................... childhood of ji-shib, the ojibwa, the. jenks, a.e.............................................. childhood of the world, the. clodd................................................... children of the cold, the. schwatka................................................. children's book, the. scudder.................................................. children's farm, the............................................... children's series of the modern reader's bible. moulton. bible stories. new testament............................. bible stories. old testament............................. children's stories in american history. wright, h.c.............................................. children's stories of the great scientists. wright, h.c............................................. child's garden of verses, a. stevenson. illustrated by charles robinson............... child's garden of verses, a. stevenson. illustrated by j.w. smith..................... child's history of england, a. dickens................................................. child's rainy day book, the. white, mary.............................................. chilhowee boys. morrison................................................ chinese mother goose rhymes. headland................................................. chronicles of the schönberg-cotta family. charles................................................. church. the �neid for boys and girls............................ the iliad for boys and girls............................ stories of the east from herodotus...................... three greek children.................................... a young macedonian in the army of alexander the great... cinderella. crane.................................................... clean peter and the children of grubbylea. adelborg................................................. clemens. _see_ twain. clement. stories of art and artists.............................. clodd. the childhood of the world.............................. coal and the coal mines. greene.................................................. coffin. the boys of ' ......................................... building the nation..................................... old times in the colonies............................... collodi. pinocchio, the adventures of a marionette................ colonial children. hart and hazard, b.e.................................... colonization of america, the. gilman................................................... coolidge. what katy did........................................... what katy did at school................................. cooper. the deerslayer.......................................... the last of the mohicans................................ the pilot............................................... the spy................................................. cotes. the story of sonny sahib................................ country of the dwarfs, the. du chaillu............................................... cowper. the diverting history of john gilpin..................... cox. the brownies: their book................................. cragin. our insect friends and foes............................. craik, mrs. d.m. (m.) _see_ mulock. craik, g.m. so-fat and mew-mew....................................... cram. _see_ stone, witmer, and cram. crane. aladdin.................................................. ali baba and the forty thieves........................... the baby's opera......................................... the baby's own alphabet.................................. beauty and the beast..................................... cinderella............................................... the fairy ship........................................... the frog prince.......................................... goody two shoes.......................................... jack and the bean-stalk.................................. mother hubbard........................................... the sleeping beauty...................................... this little pig.......................................... cranford. gaskell................................................. creighton. a first history of france............................... crichton. peep-in-the-world....................................... cruikshank. the cruikshank fairy book................................ cruikshank fairy book, the. cruikshank............................................... cruise of the cachalot, the. bullen.................................................. custer. boots and saddles....................................... daddy darwin's dovecot. ewing. _see_ her jackanapes. dale and fraser, sheepmen. hamp. dana, r.h. two years before the mast............................... dana, mrs. w.s. _see_ parsons. darton. tales of the canterbury pilgrims........................ deerslayer, the. cooper.................................................. defoe. robinson crusoe......................................... deming. indian child-life........................................ diaz. the william henry letters............................... dickens. a child's history of england............................ dickerson. the frog book........................................... discovery and exploration of america, the. gilman................................................... ditmars. the reptile book........................................ diverting history of john gilpin, the. cowper................................................... dix. merrylips............................................... soldier rigdale......................................... dixon. fairy tales from the arabian nights..................... docas, the indian boy of santa clara. snedden.................................................. dodge. hans brinker............................................ dodgson. _see_ carroll. dole. the young citizen....................................... don quixote of the mancha. cervantes............................................... doubleday. _see_ blanchan. dove in the eagle's nest, the. yonge................................................... drake. indian history for young folks.......................... on plymouth rock......................................... drummond. the monkey that would not kill........................... du chaillu. the country of the dwarfs................................ the land of the long night.............................. wild life under the equator.............................. duncan. mary's garden and how it grew........................... each and all. andrews.................................................. early story of israel, the. thomas.................................................. earth in past ages, the. herrick................................................. eastman. indian boyhood.......................................... eckstorm. the bird book........................................... eckstorm. the woodpeckers......................................... edgeworth. tales from maria edgeworth.............................. eggleston, edward. the hoosier school-boy.................................. stories of great americans for little americans.......... eggleston, g.c. the last of the flatboats............................... egypt. kelly................................................... elizabeth's charm-string. forbes.................................................. england. finnemore............................................... evermann. _see_ jordan and evermann. every-day life in the colonies. stone, g.l., and pickett................................. ewing. jackanapes. daddy darwin's dovecot. the story of a short life............................. eyes and no eyes, and other stories. aiken and barbauld....................................... fables of �sop, the. �sop..................................................... fairy ship, the. crane.................................................... fairy tales from hans christian andersen. andersen................................................. fairy tales from the arabian nights. dixon................................................... fairy tales from the far north. asbjörnsen............................................... fairy tales of the brothers grimm. grimm.................................................... famous adventures and prison escapes of the civil war............. famous american authors. bolton.................................................. fanciful tales. stockton................................................ farmer went trotting upon his grey mare, a. caldecott. _see_ his ride a-cock horse to banbury cross. farmer's boy, the. caldecott................................................ feats on the fiord. martineau............................................... fickett. _see_ stone, g.l., and fickett. fighting a fire. hill, c.t............................................... finnemore. england................................................. france.................................................. the holy land........................................... india................................................... italy................................................... japan................................................... switzerland.............................................. first book in geology, a. shaler.................................................. first book of birds, the. miller................................................... first history of france, a. creighton............................................... flaherty. _see_ gayley and flaherty. flamingo feather, the. munroe.................................................. flower legends for children. murray................................................... foa. the boy life of napoleon................................ for the honor of the school. barbour................................................. forbes. elizabeth's charm-string................................ four in camp. barbour................................................. four macnicols, the, and an adventure in thule. black, william.......................................... france. finnemore............................................... francillon. gods and heroes.......................................... francis. a book of cheerful cats and other animated animals....... franklin. autobiography........................................... freeman. _see_ wilkins. french, alice. _see_ thanet. french, allen. heroes of iceland....................................... pelham and his friend tim............................... french, h.w. the lance of kanana..................................... frere. old deccan days.......................................... fridtjof nansen. bull.................................................... frog book, the. dickerson............................................... frog he would a-wooing go, a. caldecott................................................ frog prince, the. crane.................................................... frozen north, the. horton.................................................. gabriel and the hour book. stein. games book for boys and girls, the................................. garland. the long trail.......................................... gaskell. cranford................................................ gayley and flaherty. poetry of the people.................................... geikie. physical geography...................................... general history. myers................................................... george washington. scudder................................................. german household tales. grimm.................................................... gibson. sharp eyes.............................................. gillie. the kinsfolk and friends of jesus....................... the story of stories.................................... gilman. the colonization of america.............................. the discovery and exploration of america................. the making of the american nation....................... gilman. _see also_ baring-gould and gilman. gladwin. _see_ zollinger. gods and heroes. francillon............................................... gold-seeking on the dalton trail. thompson................................................ golden goose book, the. brooke................................................... golden numbers. wiggin and smith........................................ golden porch, the. hutchinson.............................................. good. magical experiments..................................... good health. jewett, f.g............................................. goodwin. _see_ sage. goody two shoes. crane.................................................... goops and how to be them. burgess.................................................. goss. jed..................................................... gould, s. baring-. _see_ baring-gould. grandfather's chair, and biographical stories. hawthorne............................................... granny's wonderful chair and its tales of fairy times. browne................................................... grasshopper land. morley.................................................. gray lady and the birds. wright, m.o............................................. greek history for young readers. zimmern................................................. greek sculpture. hurll................................................... green fairy book, the. lang, andrew............................................ greene. the blind brother....................................... coal and the coal mines................................. griffis. young people's history of holland....................... grimm. fairy tales of the brothers grimm........................ german household tales................................... guerber. the story of the greeks.................................. the story of the romans.................................. gulliver's travels. swift................................................... gypsy breynton. phelps.................................................. gypsy's cousin joy. phelps.................................................. hale, e.e. how to do it............................................ the man without a country............................... hale, l.p. the peterkin papers..................................... half-hours with the stars. proctor................................................. hall. the boy craftsman........................................ hamp. dale and fraser, sheepmen............................... handbook of birds of eastern north america. chapman, f.m............................................ handbook of birds of the western united states. bailey.................................................. hans brinker. dodge................................................... harper's electricity book for boys. adams................................................... harper's indoor book for boys. adams................................................... harper's outdoor book for boys. adams, and others....................................... harrington. about the weather....................................... harris. nights with uncle remus................................. on the plantation....................................... uncle remus; his songs and his sayings.................. hart and chapman, a.b. how our grandfathers lived.............................. hart and hazard, b.e. colonial children....................................... hart and hill, mabel. camps and firesides of the revolution................... hart and stevens. the romance of the civil war............................ hasluck. knotting and splicing ropes and cordage................. haweis. chaucer for children.................................... hawthorne. grandfather's chair and biographical stories............ tanglewood tales........................................ a wonder book............................................ hazard, b.e. _see_ hart and hazard. hazard, bertha. three years with the poets............................... headland. chinese mother goose rhymes.............................. heart of oak books. volumes i-vii. norton. volume i. rhymes, jingles, and fables.................... volume ii. fables and nursery tales...................... volume iii. fairy tales, ballads, and poems.............. volume iv. fairy stories and classic tales.............. volume v. masterpieces of literature.................... volume vi. masterpieces of literature................... volume vii. masterpieces of literature.................. heidi. spyri................................................... heilprin. the animal life of our sea-shore........................ hemstreet. the story of manhattan.................................. hero of erie, the. barnes.................................................. heroes. the. kingsley................................................. heroes of asgard, the. keary.................................................... heroes of iceland. french, allen........................................... heroes of the middle west, the. catherwood............................................... herrick. the earth in past ages.................................. hey diddle diddle, and baby bunting. caldecott................................................ higginson. tales of the enchanted islands of the atlantic.......... young folks' book of american explorers................. young folks' history of the united states............... hill, c.t. fighting a fire......................................... hill, mabel. lessons for junior citizens.............................. _see also_ hart and hill. history of the robins, the. trimmer.................................................. hodges. when the king came....................................... hodgson. rama and the monkeys.................................... holbrook. the book of nature myths................................. northland heroes......................................... holland. the butterfly book...................................... the moth book........................................... holland. jungman................................................. hollow tree and deep woods book, the. paine.................................................... holmes. the one hoss shay, and companion poems.................. holy land, the. finnemore............................................... hoosier school-boy, the. eggleston, edward....................................... hope. the world............................................... hopkins. the sandman: his farm stories............................ the sandman: his ship stories............................ horne and scobey. stories of great artists................................. stories of great musicians............................... horton. the frozen north........................................ houghton. the russian grandmother's wonder tales................... house that jack built, the. caldecott................................................ how our grandfathers lived. hart and chapman, a.b................................... how to do it. hale, e.e............................................... how to know the ferns. parsons................................................. how to know the wild flowers. parsons................................................. how to make baskets. white, mary............................................. how two boys made their own electrical apparatus. st. john................................................ howard. the insect book......................................... hughes. tom brown's school days at rugby........................ hurll. greek sculpture......................................... michelangelo............................................ raphael................................................. tuscan sculpture........................................ hutchinson. the golden porch........................................ iliad for boys and girls, the. church.................................................. in colonial times. wilkins................................................. in the days of alfred the great. tappan.................................................. in the days of giants. brown.................................................... in the days of queen elizabeth. tappan.................................................. in the days of queen victoria. tappan.................................................. in the days of william the conqueror. tappan.................................................. india. finnemore............................................... indian boyhood. eastman................................................. indian child-life. deming................................................... indian fairy tales. jacobs................................................... indian history for young folks. drake................................................... ingersoll. the book of the ocean................................... inman. the ranche on the oxhide................................ insect book, the. howard.................................................. iron star, the. true.................................................... irving. the alhambra............................................ bracebridge hall........................................ old christmas........................................... rip van winkle.......................................... rip van winkle, and the legend of sleepy hollow......... island story, an. marshall................................................. italy. finnemore............................................... ivanhoe. scott................................................... jack and the bean-stalk. crane.................................................... jackanapes. daddy darwin's dovecot. the story of a short life. ewing................................................... jackson. nelly's silver mine..................................... jacobs. celtic fairy tales....................................... indian fairy tales....................................... janvier. the aztec treasure house................................ japan. finnemore............................................... japanese fairy tales. williston................................................ japanese garland, a. peltier................................................. jed. goss.................................................... jenks, a.e. the childhood of ji-shib', the ojibwa................... jenks, tudor. the boy's book of explorations.......................... jewett, p.g. good health............................................. jewett, s.o. betty leicester......................................... play days................................................ joan of arc. boutet de monvel......................................... johnson. phaeton rogers.......................................... jolly good times. smith, m.p. (w.)........................................ jolly good times at hackmatack. smith, m.p. (w.)........................................ jolly good times at school. smith, m.p. (w.)........................................ jordan and evermann. american food and game fishes........................... juan and juanita. baylor.................................................. judd. wigwam stories........................................... julius cæsar. shakespeare............................................. jungle book, the. kipling................................................. jungman. holland................................................. just so stories. kipling.................................................. kaler. _see_ otis. keary. the heroes of asgard..................................... keeler. our native trees, and how to identify them.............. kelly. egypt................................................... kenilworth. scott................................................... kidnapped. stevenson............................................... kieffer. the recollections of a drummer-boy...................... king, c.f. roundabout rambles in northern europe................... king, charles. cadet days.............................................. king of the golden river, the. ruskin.................................................. kingsley. the heroes............................................... the water-babies......................................... westward ho!............................................ kinsfolk and friends of jesus, the. gillie.................................................. kipling. captains courageous..................................... the jungle book......................................... just so stories.......................................... puck of pook's hill..................................... the second jungle book.................................. knightly legends of wales, or the boy's mabinogion. lanier.................................................. knights of art. steedman................................................ knotting and splicing ropes and cordage. hasluck................................................. lady hollyhock and her friends. walker................................................... lady of the lake, the. scott................................................... la fontaine. la fontaine's fables..................................... select fables from la fontaine........................... la fontaine's fables. la fontaine.............................................. lagerlöf. the wonderful adventures of nils......................... lamb. the adventures of ulysses............................... mrs. leicester's school................................. tales from shakespeare.................................. lance of kanana, the. french, h.w............................................. land of the long night, the. du chaillu.............................................. lang, andrew. the blue fairy book...................................... the blue poetry book.................................... the green fairy book.................................... the nursery rhyme book................................... the red book of animal stories.......................... the red fairy book....................................... lang, jeanie. the story of general gordon............................. lang, john. the story of captain cook............................... lanier. the boy's froissart..................................... the boy's percy......................................... knightly legends of wales, or the boy's mabinogion...... larcom. a new england girlhood.................................. last of the flatboats, the. eggleston, g.c.......................................... last of the mohicans, the. cooper.................................................. lay of the last minstrel, the. scott................................................... lays of ancient rome. macaulay................................................ lear. nonsense books........................................... lee. when i was a boy in china............................... legend of sleepy hollow, the. irving. _see_ his rip van winkle. lessons for junior citizens. hill, mabel.............................................. letters to american boys. carruth................................................. lisbeth longfrock. aanrud................................................... little ann, and other poems. taylor, jane and ann..................................... little cook-book for a little girl, a. benton................................................... little duke, the. yonge................................................... little girl of long ago, a. white, e.o............................................... little jarvis. seawell................................................. little lame prince, the. mulock................................................... little lord fauntleroy. burnett.................................................. little men. alcott.................................................. little pussy willow. stowe................................................... little women. alcott.................................................. lives of girls who became famous. bolton.................................................. long trail, the. garland................................................. longfellow. the song of hiawatha..................................... lorenzini. _see_ collodi. lossing. the story of the united states navy, for boys........... lucas, e.v. a book of verses for children............................ anne's terrible good nature, and other stories for children.............................................. another book of verses for children...................... old-fashioned tales...................................... lucas, f.a. animals of the past..................................... lummis. some strange corners of our country..................... macaulay. lays of ancient rome.................................... macbeth. shakespeare............................................. mcintyre. the cave boy of the age of stone......................... macleod. stories from the faerie queene.......................... mcmaster. a primary history of the united states.................. mcmurry. pioneers of the rocky mountains and the west............. magical experiments. good.................................................... making of the american nation, the. gilman.................................................. man without a country, the. hale, e.e............................................... man wonderful, or the marvels of our bodily dwelling, the. wood-allen.............................................. marmion. scott................................................... marryat. masterman ready......................................... marshall. an island story.......................................... stories of william tell and his friends.................. martineau. feats on the fiord...................................... the peasant and the prince.............................. marvin, mayor, and stawell. the adventures of odysseus.............................. mary's garden and how it grew. duncan.................................................. master skylark. bennett................................................. masterman ready. marryat................................................. masters of music; their lives and works. chapin.................................................. matthews. tom paulding............................................ may. _see_ craik, g.m. mayor. _see_ marvin, mayor, and stawell. meadowcroft. the a b c of electricity................................ men of iron. pyle.................................................... merchant of venice, the. shakespeare............................................. merry adventures of robin hood, the. pyle.................................................... merrylips. dix..................................................... michelangelo. hurll................................................... midsummer-night's dream, a. shakespeare............................................. milkmaid, the. caldecott................................................ miller. the first book of birds.................................. the second book of birds................................ milly and oily. ward, m.a. (a.).......................................... mr. wind and madam rain. musset................................................... mrs. leicester's school. lamb.................................................... modern vikings, the. boyesen................................................. moffett. careers of danger and daring............................ monkey that would not kill, the. drummond................................................. moral pirates, the. alden................................................... more good times at hackmatack. smith, m.p. (w.)........................................ more goops and how not to be them. burgess.................................................. morley. the bee people........................................... grasshopper land........................................ a song of life.......................................... wasps and their ways.................................... morrison. chilhowee boys.......................................... moth book, the. holland................................................. mother hubbard. crane.................................................... moulton. children's series of the modern reader's bible. bible stories. new testament............................. bible stories. old testament............................. mulock. the adventures of a brownie.............................. the little lame prince................................... munroe. the flamingo feather.................................... murray. flower legends for children.............................. murtfeldt and weed. stories of insect life. volume ii........................ for volume i. _see_ weed. musset. mr. wind and madam rain.................................. myers. general history......................................... myths of the red children. wilson, g.l.............................................. nash. polly's secret.......................................... natural history for young people, a. wood.................................................... nature's garden. blanchan................................................ nelly's silver mine. jackson................................................. new england girlhood, a. larcom.................................................. newcomb. astronomy for everybody................................. nicolay. the boys' life of abraham lincoln....................... nights with uncle remus. harris.................................................. nonsense books. lear..................................................... nordhoff. sailor life on a man-of-war............................. northland heroes. holbrook................................................ norton. heart of oak books. volumes i-vii. volume i. rhymes, jingles, and fables.................... volume ii. fables and nursery tales...................... volume iii. fairy tales, ballads, and poems.............. volume iv. fairy stories and classic tales.............. volume v. masterpieces of literature.................... volume vi. masterpieces of literature................... volume vii. masterpieces of literature.................. nursery rhyme book, the. lang, andrew............................................. old christmas. irving.................................................. old deccan days. frere.................................................... old-fashioned tales. lucas, e.v............................................... old indian legends. zitkala-sa............................................... old, old fairy tales, the. valentine................................................ old songs for young america. ostertag................................................. old times in the colonies. coffin.................................................. on plymouth rock. drake.................................................... on the plantation. harris.................................................. one hoss shay, the, and companion poems. holmes.................................................. orcutt girls, the. vaile................................................... oregon trail, the. parkman................................................. ostertag. old songs for young america.............................. otis. toby tyler; or ten weeks with a circus................... ouida. bimbi.................................................... our children's songs............................................... our domestic animals. voogt................................................... our insect friends and foes. cragin.................................................. our native trees, and how to identify them. keeler.................................................. our young folks' josephus. shepard................................................. page. two little confederates................................. paine. the arkansaw bear........................................ the hollow tree and deep woods book...................... parkman. the oregon trail........................................ parsons. how to know the ferns................................... how to know the wild flowers............................ plants and their children................................ parton. captains of industry.................................... patterson. the spinner family...................................... paul jones. seawell................................................. peary. the snow baby............................................ peasant and the prince, the. martineau............................................... peep-in-the-world. crichton................................................ pelham and his friend tim. french, allen........................................... peltier. a japanese garland...................................... peterkin papers, the. hale, l.p............................................... phaeton rogers. johnson................................................. phelps. gypsy breynton.......................................... gypsy's cousin joy...................................... photography indoors and out. black, alexander........................................ physical geography. geikie.................................................. pilgrim's progress, the. bunyan................................................... pilot, the. cooper.................................................. pinocchio, the adventures of a marionette. collodi.................................................. pioneers of the rocky mountains and the west. mcmurry.................................................. plants and their children. parsons.................................................. play days. jewett, s.o.............................................. plummer. roy and ray in canada................................... roy and ray in mexico................................... poetry of the people. gayley and flaherty..................................... polly oliver's problem. wiggin.................................................. polly's secret. nash.................................................... pope. _see_ peltier. posy ring, the. wiggin and smith......................................... potter. the tale of benjamin bunny............................... the tale of peter rabbit................................. the tale of squirrel nutkin.............................. price. wandering heroes........................................ primary history of the united states, a. mcmaster................................................ prince and the pauper, the. twain................................................... proctor. half-hours with the stars............................... psalms of david, the............................................... puck of pook's hill. kipling................................................. pyle. men of iron............................................. the merry adventures of robin hood...................... the story of jack ballister's fortunes.................. the story of king arthur and his knights................ the wonder clock......................................... queen of hearts, the. caldecott................................................ rainy day diversions. wells................................................... rama and the monkeys. hodgson................................................. ramé. _see_ ouida. ranche on the oxhide, the. inman................................................... raphael. hurll................................................... raspé. tales from the travels of baron munchausen.............. real electric toy-making for boys. st. john................................................ rebecca of sunnybrook farm. wiggin.................................................. recollections of a drummer-boy, the. kieffer................................................. red book of animal stories, the. lang, andrew............................................ red fairy book, the. lang, andrew............................................. repplier. a book of famous verse.................................. reptile book, the. ditmars................................................. rhymes of real children. sage..................................................... ride a-cock horse to banbury cross, and a farmer went trotting upon his grey mare. caldecott................................................ rip van winkle. irving.................................................. rip van winkle, and the legend of sleepy hollow. irving.................................................. robinson crusoe. defoe................................................... rogers. the shell book.......................................... the tree book........................................... roggie and reggie stories, the. smith, gertrude.......................................... romance of the civil war, the. hart and stevens........................................ rose and the ring, the. thackeray............................................... roundabout rambles in northern europe. king, c.f............................................... roy and ray in canada. plummer................................................. roy and ray in mexico. plummer................................................. rules of conduct, diary of adventure, letters, and farewell addresses. washington.............................................. ruskin. the king of the golden river............................ russian grandmother's wonder tales, the. houghton................................................. sage. rhymes of real children.................................. sailor life on a man-of-war. nordhoff................................................ st. john. how two boys made their own electrical apparatus........ real electric toy-making for boys....................... wireless telegraphy..................................... sandman: his farm stories, the. hopkins.................................................. sandman: his ship stories, the. hopkins.................................................. saturday mornings. benton................................................... saunders. beautiful joe............................................ schwatka. the children of the cold................................. scientific american boy, the. bond.................................................... scobey. _see_ horne and scobey. scott. ivanhoe................................................. kenilworth.............................................. the lady of the lake.................................... the lay of the last minstrel............................ marmion................................................. tales of a grandfather.................................. the talisman............................................ scudder. american poems.......................................... the book of legends...................................... boston town............................................. the children's book...................................... george washington....................................... seawell. little jarvis........................................... paul jones.............................................. twelve naval captains................................... second book of birds, the. miller.................................................. second jungle book, the. kipling................................................. ségur. the story of a donkey.................................... select fables from la fontaine. la fontaine.............................................. seven little sisters who live on the round ball that floats in the air, the. andrews.................................................. sewell. black beauty............................................. shakespeare. julius cæsar............................................ macbeth................................................. the merchant of venice.................................. a midsummer-night's dream............................... shaler. a first book in geology................................. sharp. a watcher in the woods.................................. sharp eyes. gibson.................................................. shaw. castle blair............................................ shell book, the. rogers.................................................. shepard. our young folks' josephus............................... ship of state, by those at the helm, the.......................... shipwrecked in greenland. thompson................................................ sing a song for sixpence. caldecott................................................ sleeping beauty, the. crane.................................................... smith, e.b. the story of pocahontas and captain john smith........... smith, gertrude. the arabella and araminta stories........................ the roggie and reggie stories............................ smith, m.p. (w.) jolly good times........................................ jolly good times at hackmatack.......................... jolly good times at school.............................. more good times at hackmatack........................... smith, n.a. three little marys...................................... _see also_ wiggin and smith. snedden. docas, the indian boy of santa clara..................... snow baby, the. peary.................................................... so-fat and mew-mew. craik, g.m............................................... soldier rigdale. dix..................................................... some strange corners of our country. lummis.................................................. song of hiawatha, the. longfellow............................................... song of life, a. morley.................................................. south america. carpenter............................................... spinner family, the. patterson............................................... spy, the. cooper.................................................. spyri. heidi................................................... squirrels and other fur-bearers. burroughs............................................... starland. ball.................................................... starr. american indians........................................ strange peoples......................................... stawell. _see_ marvin, mayor, and stawell. steedman. knights of art.......................................... stein. gabriel and the hour book............................... stevens. _see_ hart and stevens. stevenson. a child's garden of verses. illustrated by charles robinson........................ a child's garden of verses. illustrated by j.w. smith.............................. kidnapped............................................... stevenson. treasure island......................................... stockton. buccaneers and pirates of our coasts.................... fanciful tales.......................................... the story of viteau..................................... stoddard. two arrows.............................................. stone, g.l., and fickett. every-day life in the colonies........................... stone, witmer, and cram. american animals........................................ stories. andersen................................................. stories from the arabian nights................................... stories from the faerie queene. macleod................................................. stories from the old testament for children. beale.................................................... stories mother nature told her children, the. andrews.................................................. stories of ancient peoples. arnold.................................................. stories of art and artists. clement................................................. stories of great americans for little americans. eggleston, edward........................................ stories of great artists. horne and scobey......................................... stories of great musicians. horne and scobey......................................... stories of insect life. volume i. weed........................................... stories of insect life. volume ii. murtfeldt and weed............................ stories of the east from herodotus. church.................................................. stories of the saints. chenoweth............................................... stories of william tell and his friends. marshall................................................. story hour, the. wiggin and smith......................................... story of a bad boy, the. aldrich................................................. story of a donkey, the. ségur.................................................... story of a short life, the. ewing. _see_ her jackanapes. story of captain cook, the. lang, john.............................................. story of general gordon, the. lang, jeanie............................................ story of germany, the. baring-gould and gilman................................. story of jack ballister's fortunes, the. pyle.................................................... story of king arthur and his knights, the. pyle.................................................... story of little black sambo. the. bannerman................................................ story of manhattan, the. hemstreet............................................... story of marco polo, the. brooks, noah............................................ story of pocahontas and captain john smith, the. smith, e.b............................................... story of roland, the. baldwin................................................. story of russia, the. van bergen.............................................. story of siegfried, the. baldwin................................................. story of sonny sahib, the. cotes................................................... story of stories, the. gillie.................................................. story of the cid, the. wilson, c.d............................................. story of the golden age, a. baldwin.................................................. story of the greeks, the. guerber.................................................. story of the rhinegold, the. chapin................................................... story of the romans, the. guerber.................................................. story of the united states navy, for boys, the. lossing................................................. story of viteau, the. stockton................................................ story without an end, the. carové................................................... stowe. little pussy willow..................................... strange lands near home........................................... strange peoples. starr................................................... strong. talks to boys and girls................................. sue orcutt. vaile................................................... swift. gulliver's travels...................................... swiss family robinson, the. wyss.................................................... switzerland. finnemore................................................ tale of benjamin bunny, the. potter................................................... tale of peter rabbit, the. potter................................................... tale of squirrel nutkin, the. potter................................................... tales from maria edgeworth. edgeworth............................................... tales from shakespeare. lamb.................................................... tales from the travels of baron munchausen. raspé................................................... tales of a grandfather. scott................................................... tales of the canterbury pilgrims. darton.................................................. tales of the enchanted islands of the atlantic. higginson............................................... talisman, the. scott................................................... talks to boys and girls. strong.................................................. tanglewood tales. hawthorne............................................... tappan. in the days of alfred the great......................... in the days of queen elizabeth.......................... in the days of queen victoria........................... in the days of william the conqueror.................... taylor, bayard. boys of other countries.................................. taylor, c.m., jr. why my photographs are bad.............................. taylor, jane and ann. little ann, and other poems.............................. ten boys who lived on the road from long ago to now. andrews.................................................. thackeray. the rose and the ring................................... thanet. we all.................................................. this little pig. crane.................................................... thomas. the early story of israel............................... thompson. gold-seeking on the dalton trail........................ shipwrecked in greenland................................ three greek children. church.................................................. three little marys. smith, n.a.............................................. three years with the poets. hazard, bertha........................................... through the looking-glass. carroll.................................................. toby tyler; or ten weeks with a circus. otis..................................................... tom brown's school days at rugby. hughes.................................................. tom paulding. matthews................................................ toward the rising sun............................................. treasure island. stevenson............................................... tree book, the. rogers.................................................. trimmer. the history of the robins................................ true. the iron star........................................... true story of benjamin franklin, the. brooks, e.s............................................. true story of christopher columbus, the. brooks, e.s.............................................. true story of george washington, the. brooks, e.s.............................................. true story of lafayette, the. brooks, e.s............................................. tuscan sculpture. hurll................................................... twain. the adventures of tom sawyer............................ the prince and the pauper............................... twelve naval captains. seawell................................................. two arrows. stoddard................................................ two little confederates. page.................................................... two years before the mast. dana, r.h............................................... uncle remus; his songs and his sayings. harris.................................................. under the lilacs. alcott.................................................. ungava bob. wallace................................................. up and down the brooks. bamford................................................. upton. the adventures of two dutch dolls and a golliwogg........ vaile. the orcutt girls........................................ sue orcutt.............................................. valentine. the old, old fairy tales................................. van bergen. the story of russia..................................... voogt. our domestic animals.................................... voyage in the sunbeam, a. brassey................................................. wake-robin. burroughs............................................... walker. lady hollyhock and her friends........................... wallace. ungava bob.............................................. wandering heroes. price................................................... ward, mrs. e.s. (p.) _see_ phelps. ward, mrs. humphry. _see_ ward, m.a. (a.) ward, m.a. (a.). milly and olly........................................... washington. rules of conduct, diary of adventure, letters, and farewell addresses............................................. wasps and their ways. morley.................................................. watcher in the woods, a. sharp................................................... water-babies, the. kingsley................................................. waters. _see_ clement. we all. thanet.................................................. weed. stories of insect life. volume i......................... for volume ii _see_ murtfeldt and weed. wells. rainy day diversions.................................... welsh. a book of nursery rhymes................................. westward ho! kingsley................................................ what katy did. coolidge................................................ what katy did at school. coolidge................................................ what shall we do now? canfield, and others..................................... wheeler. woodworking for beginners............................... when i was a boy in china. lee..................................................... when molly was six. white, e.o............................................... when the king came. hodges................................................... white, e.o. a little girl of long ago................................ when molly was six....................................... white, j.s. the boys' and girls' plutarch........................... how to make baskets..................................... white, mary. the child's rainy day book............................... whittier. child-life............................................... why my photographs are bad. taylor, c.m., jr........................................ widow o'callaghan's boys, the. zollinger............................................... wiggin. the birds' christmas carol.............................. polly oliver's problem.................................. rebecca of sunnybrook farm.............................. wiggin and smith. golden numbers.......................................... the posy ring............................................ the story hour........................................... wigwam stories. judd..................................................... wild life under the equator. du chaillu............................................... wilkins. in colonial times....................................... william henry letters, the. diaz.................................................... williston. japanese fairy tales..................................... wilson, c.d. the story of the cid.................................... wilson, g.l. myths of the red children................................ wireless telegraphy. st. john................................................ wonder book, a. hawthorne................................................ wonder clock, the. pyle..................................................... wonder tales from wagner. chapin.................................................. wonderful adventures of nils, the. lagerlöf................................................. wood. a natural history for young people...................... wood-allen. the man wonderful, or the marvels of our bodily dwelling.............................................. woodpeckers, the. eckstorm........................................... woodworking for beginners. wheeler................................................. woolsey. _see_ coolidge. world, the. hope.................................................... wright, h.c. children's stories in american history................... children's stories of the great scientists.............. wright, m.o. gray lady and the birds................................. wyss. the swiss family robinson............................... yonge. the dove in the eagle's nest............................ the little duke......................................... young citizen, the. dole.................................................... young folks' book of american explorers. higginson............................................... young folks' cyclopædia of common things, the. champlin................................................. young folks' cyclopædia of literature and art, the. champlin................................................ young folks' cyclopædia of persons and places, the. champlin................................................. young folks' history of the united states. higginson............................................... young folks' history of the war for the union. champlin................................................ young macedonian in the army of alexander the great, a. church.................................................. young people's history of holland. griffis................................................. zimmern. greek history for young readers......................... zitkala-sa. old indian legends....................................... zollinger. the widow o'callaghan's boys............................ _key to publishers_ key word altemus--henry altemus co., philadelphia. american baptist--american baptist publication society, philadelphia. american book--american book co., new york. american thresherman--american thresherman, madison, wisconsin. american unitarian association--american unitarian association, boston. appleton--d. appleton & co., new york. baker--the baker & taylor co., new york. burt--a.l. burt co., new york. cassell--cassell & co., new york. century--the century co., new york. crowell--thomas y. crowell & co., new york. de wolfe--de wolfe, fiske & co., boston. dodd--dodd, mead & co., new york. doubleday--doubleday, page & co., new york. duffield--duffield & co., new york. dutton--e.p. dutton & co., new york. educational--educational publishing co., boston. estes--dana estes & co., boston. excelsior publishing--excelsior publishing house, new york. ginn--ginn & co., boston. harper--harper & bros., new york. heath--d.c. heath & co., boston. holt--henry holt & co., new york. houghton--houghton, mifflin co., boston. jacobs--george w. jacobs & co., philadelphia. kegan paul--kegan paul, trench, trübner & co., london. lane--john lane co., new york. lippincott--j.b. lippincott co., philadelphia. little--little, brown & co., boston. longmans--longmans, green & co., new york. lothrop--lothrop, lee & shepard co., boston. macmillan--the macmillan co., new york. mcclurg--a.c. mcclurg & co., chicago. mcdonough--joseph mcdonough, albany, n.y. mckay--david mckay, philadelphia. moffat--moffat, yard & co., new york. munn--munn & co., new york. nelson--thomas nelson & sons, new york. newson--newson & co., new york. nutt--david nutt, london. page--l.c. page & co., boston. putnam--g.p. putnam's sons, new york. rand--rand, mcnally & co., chicago. revell--fleming h. revell co., new york. review--review of reviews office, london. russell--r.h. russell, new york. s.p.c.k.--society for promoting christian knowledge, london. scribner--charles scribner's sons, new york. silver--silver, burdett & co., new york. small--small, maynard & co., boston. st. john--thomas matthew st. john, new york. stechert--g.e. stechert & co., new york. stokes--frederick a. stokes co., new york. warne--frederick warne & co., new york. wilde--w.a. wilde co., boston. _may this volume continue in motion, and its pages each day be unfurl'd, till an ant has drunk up the ocean, or a tortoise has crawl'd round the world._ from the pragmatic sanction. paris, . the destiny of the soul. a critical history of the doctrine of a future life, by william rounseville alger. tenth edition, with six new chapters, and a complete bibliography of the subject. [note: bibliography not included here] comprising books relating to the nature, origin, and destiny of the soul. the titles classified and arranged chronologically, with notes, and indexes of the authors and subjects. by ezra abbot, professor of new testament criticism and interpretation in the divinity school of harvard university. boston: roberts brothers. entered according to act of congress, in the year , by william rounseville alger, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states for the district of massachusetts. copyright , w.r. alger electrotyped by johnson & co., philada. university press: john wilson & son, cambridge. preface to the tenth edition. this work has passed through nine editions, and has been out of print now for nearly a year. during the twenty years which have elapsed since it was written, the question of immortality, the faith and opinions of men and the drift of criticism and doubt concerning it, have been a subject of dominant interest to me, and have occupied a large space in my reading and reflection. accordingly, now that my publisher, moved by the constant demand for the volume, urges the preparation of a new edition introducing such additional materials as my continued researches have gathered or constructed, i gladly comply with his request. the present work is not only historic but it is also polemic; polemic, however, not in the spirit or interest of any party or conventicle, but in the spirit and interest of science and humanity. orthodoxy insists on doctrines whose irrationality in their current forms is such that they can never be a basis for the union of all men. therefore, to discredit these, in preparation for more reasonable and auspicious views, is a service to the whole human race. this is my justification for the controversial quality which may frequently strike the reader. looking back over his pages, after nearly a quarter of a century more of investigation and experience, the author is grateful that he finds nothing to retract or expunge. he has but to add such thoughts and illustrations as have occurred to him in the course of his subsequent studies. he hopes that the supplementary chapters now published will be found more suggestive and mature than the preceding ones, while the same in aim and tone. for he still believes, as he did in his earlier time, that there is much of error and superstition, bigotry and cruelty, to be purged out of the prevailing theological creed and sentiment of christendom. and he still hopes, as he did then, to contribute something of good influence in this direction. the large circulation of the work, the many letters of thanks for it received by the author from laymen and clergymen of different denominations, the numerous avowed and unavowed quotations from it in recent publications, all show that it has not been produced in vain, but has borne fruit in missionary service for reason, liberty, and charity. this ventilating and illumining function of fearless and reverential critical thought will need to be fulfilled much longer in many quarters. the doctrine of a future life has been made so frightful by the preponderance in it of the elements of material torture and sectarian narrowness, that a natural revulsion of generous sentiment joins with the impulse of materialistic science to produce a growing disbelief in any life at all beyond the grave. nothing else will do so much to renew and extend faith in god and immortality as a noble and beautiful doctrine of god and immortality, freed from disfiguring terror, selfishness, and favoritism. the most popular preacher in england has recently asked his fellow believers, "can we go to our beds and sleep while china, india, japan, and other nations are being damned?" the proprietor of a great foundry in germany, while he talked one day with a workman who was feeding a furnace, accidentally stepped back, and fell headlong into a vat of molten iron. the thought of what happened then horrifies the imagination. yet it was all over in two or three seconds. multiply the individual instance by unnumbered millions, stretch the agony to temporal infinity, and we confront the orthodox idea of hell! protesting human nature hurls off such a belief with indignant disdain, except in those instances where the very form and vibration of its nervous pulp have been perverted by the hardening animus of a dogmatic drill transmitted through generations. to trace the origin of such notions, expose their baselessness, obliterate their sway, and replace them with conceptions of a more rational and benignant order, is a task which still needs to be done, and to be done in many forms, over and over, again and again. though each repetition tell but slightly, it tells. every sound argument is instantly crowned with universal victory in the sight of god, and therefore must at last be so in the sight of mankind. however slowly the logic of events limps after the logic of thoughts, it always follows. let the mind of one man perceive the true meaning of the doctrine of the general resurrection and judgment and eternal life, as a natural evolution of history from within, and it will spread to the minds of all men; and the misinterpretation of that doctrine so long prevalent, as a preternatural irruption of power from without, will be set aside forever. for there is a providential plan of god, not injected by arbitrary miracle, but inhering in the order of the world, centred in the propulsive heart of humanity, which beats throb by throb along the web of events, removing obstacles and clearing the way for the revelation of the completed pattern. when it is done no trumpets may be blown, no rocks rent, no graves opened. but all immortal spirits will be at their goals, and the universe will be full of music. new york, february , . preface. who follows truth carries his star in his brain. even so bold a thought is no inappropriate motto for an intellectual workman, if his heart be filled with loyalty to god, the author of truth and the maker of stars. in this double spirit of independence and submission it has been my desire to perform the arduous task now finished and offered to the charitable judgment of the reader. one may be courageous to handle both the traditions and the novelties of men, and yet be modest before the solemn mysteries of fate and nature. he may place no veil before his eyes and no finger on his lips in presence of popular dogmas, and yet shrink from the conceit of esteeming his mind a mirror of the universe. ideas, like coins, bear the stamp of the age and brain they were struck in. many a phantom which ought to have vanished at the first cock crowing of reason still holds its seat on the oppressed heart of faith before the terror stricken eyes of the multitude. every thoughtful scholar who loves his fellow men must feel it an obligation to do what he can to remove painful superstitions, and to spread the peace of a cheerful faith and the wholesome light of truth. the theories in theological systems being but philosophy, why should they not be freely subjected to philosophical criticism? i have endeavored, without virulence, arrogance, or irreverence towards any thing sacred, to investigate the various doctrines pertaining to the great subject treated in these pages. many persons, of course, will find statements from which they dissent, sentiments disagreeable to them. but, where thought and discussion are so free and the press so accessible as with us, no one but a bigot will esteem this a ground of complaint. may all such passages be charitably perused, fairly weighed, and, if unsound, honorably refuted! if the work be not animated with a mean or false spirit, but be catholic and kindly, if it be not superficial and pretentious, but be marked by patience and thoroughness, is it too much to hope that no critic will assail it with wholesale condemnation simply because in some parts of it there are opinions which he dislikes? one dispassionate argument is more valuable than a shower of missile names. the most vehement revulsion from a doctrine is not inconsistent, in a christian mind, with the sweetest kindness of feeling towards the persons who hold that doctrine. earnest theological debate may be carried on without the slightest touch of ungenerous personality. who but must feel the pathos and admire the charity of these eloquent words of henry giles? "every deep and reflective nature looking intently 'before and after,' looking above, around, beneath, and finding silence and mystery to all his questionings of the infinite, cannot but conceive of existence as a boundless problem, perhaps an inevitable darkness between the limitations of man and the incomprehensibility of god. a nature that so reflects, that carries into this sublime and boundless obscurity 'the large discourse of reason,' will not narrow its concern in the solution of the problem to its own petty safety, but will brood over it with an anxiety which throbs for the whole of humanity. such a nature must needs be serious; but never will it be arrogant: it will regard all men with an embracing pity. strange it should ever be otherwise in respect to inquiries which belong to infinite relations, that mean enmities, bitter hatreds, should come into play in these fathomless searchings of the soul! bring what solution we may to this problem of measureless alternatives, whether by reason, scripture, or the church, faith will never stand for fact, nor the firmest confidence for actual consciousness. the man of great and thoughtful nature, therefore, who grapples in real earnest with this problem, however satisfied he may be with his own solution of it, however implicit may be his trust, however assured his convictions, will yet often bow down before the awful veil that shrouds the endless future, put his finger on his lips, and weep in silence." the present work is in a sense, an epitome of the thought of mankind on the destiny of man. i have striven to add value to it by comprehensiveness of plan, not confining myself, as most of my predecessors have confined themselves, to one province or a few narrow provinces of the subject, but including the entire subject in one volume; by carefulness of arrangement, not piling the material together or presenting it in a chaos of facts and dreams, but grouping it all in its proper relations; by clearness of explanation, not leaving the curious problems presented wholly in the dark with a mere statement of them, but as far as possible tracing the phenomena to their origin and unveiling their purport; by poetic life of treatment, not handling the different topics dryly and coldly, but infusing warmth and color into them; by copiousness of information, not leaving the reader to hunt up every thing for himself, but referring him to the best sources for the facts, reasonings, and hints which he may wish; and by persevering patience of toil, not hastily skimming here and there and hurrying the task off, but searching and researching in every available direction, examining and re examining each mooted point, by the devotion of twelve years of anxious labor. how far my efforts in these particulars have been successful is submitted to the public. to avoid the appearance of pedantry in the multiplication of foot notes, i have inserted many authorities incidentally in the text itself, and have omitted all except such as i thought would be desired by the reader. every scholar knows how easy it is to increase the number of references almost indefinitely, and also how deceptive such an ostensible evidence of wide reading may be. when the printing of this volume was nearly completed, and i had in some instances made more references than may now seem needful, the thought occurred to me that a full list of the books published up to the present time on the subject of a future life, arranged according to their definite topics and in chronological order, would greatly enrich the work and could not fail often to be of vast service. accordingly, upon solicitation, a valued friend mr. ezra abbot, jr., a gentleman remarkable for his varied and accurate scholarship undertook that laborious task for me; and he has accomplished it in the most admirable manner. no reader, however learned, but may find much important information in the bibliographical appendix which i am thus enabled to add to this volume. every student who henceforth wishes to investigate any branch of the historical or philosophical doctrine of the immortality of the soul, or of a future life in general, may thank mr. abbot for an invaluable aid. as i now close this long labor and send forth the result, the oppressive sense of responsibility which fills me is relieved by the consciousness that i have herein written nothing as a bigoted partisan, nothing in a petty spirit of opinionativeness, but have intended every thought for the furtherance of truth, the honor of god, the good of man. the majestic theme of our immortality allures yet baffles us. no fleshly implement of logic or cunning tact of brain can reach to the solution. that secret lies in a tissueless realm whereof no nerve can report beforehand. we must wait a little. soon we shall grope and guess no more, but grasp and know. meanwhile, shall we not be magnanimous to forgive and help, diligent to study and achieve, trustful and content to abide the invisible issue? in some happier age, when the human race shall have forgotten, in philanthropic ministries and spiritual worship, the bigotries and dissensions of sentiment and thought, they may recover, in its all embracing unity, that garment of truth which god made originally "seamless as the firmament," now for so long a time torn in shreds by hating schismatics. oh, when shall we learn that a loving pity, a filial faith, a patient modesty, best become us and fit our state? the pedantic sciolist, prating of his clear explanations of the mysteries of life, is as far from feeling the truth of the case as an ape, seated on the starry summit of the dome of night, chattering with glee over the awful prospect of infinitude. what ordinary tongue shall dare to vociferate egotistic dogmatisms where an inspired apostle whispers, with reverential reserve, "we see through a glass darkly"? there are three things, said an old monkish chronicler, which often make me sad. first, that i know i must die; second, that i know not when; third, that i am ignorant where i shall then be. "est primum durum quod scio me moriturum: secundum, timeo quia hoc nescio quando: hine tertium, flebo quod nescio ubi manebo." man is the lonely and sublime columbus of the creation, who, wandering on this cloudy strand of time, sees drifted waifs and strange portents borne far from an unknown somewhere, causing him to believe in another world. comes not death as a means to bear him thither? accordingly as hope rests in heaven, fear shudders at hell, or doubt faces the dark transition, the future life is a sweet reliance, a terrible certainty, or a pathetic perhaps. but living in the present in the humble and loving discharge of its duties, our souls harmonized with its conditions though aspiring beyond them, why should we ever despair or be troubled overmuch? have we not eternity in our thought, infinitude in our view, and god for our guide? contents part first. historical and critical introductory views. chapter i. theories of the soul's origin chapter ii. history of death chapter iii. grounds of the belief in a future life chapter iv. theories of the soul's destination part second. ethnic thoughts concerning a future life. chapter i. barbarian notions of a future life chapter ii. druidic doctrine of a future life chapter iii. scandinavian doctrine of a future life chapter iv. etruscan doctrine of a future life chapter v. egyptian doctrine of a future life chapter vi. bramanic and buddhist doctrine of a future life chapter vii. persian doctrine of a future life chapter viii. hebrew doctrine of a future life chapter ix. rabbinical doctrine of a future life chapter x. greek and doctrine of a future life chapter xi. mohammedan doctrine of a future life chapter xii. explanatory survey of the field and its myths part third. new testament teachings concerning a future life. chapter i. peter's doctrine of a future life chapter ii. doctrine of a future life in the epistle to the hebrews chapter iii. doctrine of a future life in the apocalypse chapter iv. paul's doctrine of a future life chapter v. john's doctrine of a future life chapter vi. christ's teachings concerning the future life chapter vii. resurrection of christ chapter viii. essential christian doctrine of death and life part fourth. christian thoughts concerning a future life. chapter i. patristic doctrine of a future life chapter ii. mediaval doctrine of a future life chapter iii. modern doctrine of a future life part fifth. historical and critical dissertations concerning a future life. chapter i. doctrine of a future life in the ancient mysteries chapter ii. metempsychois; or, transmigration of souls chapter iii. resurrection of the flesh chapter iv. doctrine of future punishment; or, critical history of the idea of a hell chapter v. the five theoretic modes of salvation chapter vi. recognition of friends in a future life chapter vii. local fate of man in the astronomic universe chapter viii. critical history of disbelief in a future life chapter ix. morality of the doctrine of a future life part sixth. supplementary chapters. chapter i. the end of the world chapter ii. the day of judgment chapter iii. the mythological hell and the true one; or, the law of perdition chapter iv. the gates of heaven; or, the law of salvation in all worlds chapter v. resume of the subject: how the question of immortality now stands chapter vi. the transient and the permanent in the destiny of the soul part first. historical and critical introductory views. chapter i. theories of the soul's origin. pausing, in a thoughtful hour, on that mount of observation whence the whole prospect of life is visible, what a solemn vision greets us! we see the vast procession of existence flitting across the landscape, from the shrouded ocean of birth, over the illuminated continent of experience, to the shrouded ocean of death. who can linger there and listen, unmoved, to the sublime lament of things that die? although the great exhibition below endures, yet it is made up of changes, and the spectators shift as often. each rank of the host, as it advances from the mists of its commencing career, wears a smile caught from the morning light of hope, but, as it draws near to the fatal bourne, takes on a mournful cast from the shadows of the unknown realm. the places we occupy were not vacant before we came, and will not be deserted when we go, but are forever filling and emptying afresh. "still to every draught of vital breath renew'd throughout the bounds of earth and ocean, the melancholy gates of death respond with sympathetic motion." we appear, there is a short flutter of joys and pains, a bright glimmer of smiles and tears, and we are gone. but whence did we come? and whither do we go? can human thought divine the answer? it adds no little solemnity and pathos to these reflections to remember that every considerate person in the unnumbered successions that have preceded us, has, in his turn, confronted the same facts, engaged in the same inquiry, and been swept from his attempts at a theoretic solution of the problem into the real solution itself, while the constant refrain in the song of existence sounded behind him, "one generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the earth abideth forever." the evanescent phenomena, the tragic plot and scenery of human birth, action, and death, conceived on the scale of reality, clothed in "the sober coloring taken from an eye that hath kept watch o'er man's mortality," and viewed in a susceptible spirit, are, indeed, overwhelmingly impressive. they invoke the intellect to its most piercing thoughts. they swell the heart to its utmost capacity of emotion. they bring us upon the bended knees of wonder and prayer. "between two worlds life hovers, like a star' twixt night and morn upon the horizon's verge. how little do we know that which we are! how less what we may be! the eternal surge of time and tide rolls on, and bears afar our bubbles: as the old burst, new emerge, lash'd from the foam of ages: while the graves of empires heave but like some passing waves." widely regarding the history of human life from the beginning, what a visionary spectacle it is! how miraculously permanent in the whole! how sorrowfully ephemeral in the parts! what pathetic sentiments it awakens! amidst what awful mysteries it hangs! the subject of the derivation of the soul has been copiously discussed by hundreds of philosophers, physicians, and poets, from vyasa to des cartes, from galen to ennemoser, from orpheus to henry more, from aristotle to frohschammer. german literature during the last hundred years has teemed with works treating of this question from various points of view. the present chapter will present a sketch of these various speculations concerning the commencement and fortunes of man ere his appearance on the stage of this world. the first theory to account for the origin of souls is that of emanation. this is the analogical theory, constructed from the results of sensible observation. there is, it says, one infinite being, and all finite spirits are portions of his substance, existing a while as separate individuals, and then reassimilated into the general soul. this form of faith, asserting the efflux of all subordinate existence out of one supreme being, seems sometimes to rest on an intuitive idea. it is spontaneously suggested whenever man confronts the phenomena of creation with reflective observation, and ponders the eternal round of birth and death. accordingly, we find traces of this belief all over the world; from the ancient hindu metaphysics whose fundamental postulate is that the necessary life of god is one constant process of radiation and resorption, "letting out and drawing in," to that modern english poetry which apostrophizes the glad and winsome child as "a silver stream breaking with laughter from the lake divine whence all things flow." the conception that souls are emanations from god is the most obvious way of accounting for the prominent facts that salute our inquiries. it plausibly answers some natural questions, and boldly eludes others. for instance, to the early student demanding the cause of the mysterious distinctions between mind and body, it says, the one belongs to the system of passive matter, the other comes from the living fashioner of the universe. again: this theory relieves us from the burden that perplexes the finite mind when it seeks to understand how the course of nature, the succession of lives, can be absolutely eternal without involving an alternating or circular movement. the doctrine of emanation has, moreover, been supported by the supposed analytic similarity of the soul to god. its freedom, consciousness, intelligence, love, correspond with what we regard as the attributes and essence of deity. the inference, however unsound, is immediate, that souls are consubstantial with god, dissevered fragments of him, sent into bodies. but, in actual effect, the chief recommendation of this view has probably been the variety of analogies and images under which it admits of presentation. the annual developments of vegetable life from the bosom of the earth, drops taken from a fountain and retaining its properties in their removal, the separation of the air into distinct breaths, the soil into individual atoms, the utterance of a tone gradually dying away in reverberated echoes, the radiation of beams from a central light, the exhalation of particles of moisture from the ocean, the evolution of numbers out of an original unity, these are among the illustrations by which an exhaustless ingenuity has supported the notion of the emanation of souls from god. that "something cannot come out of nothing" is an axiom resting on the ground of our rational instincts. and seeing all things within our comprehension held in the chain of causes and effects, one thing always evolving from another, we leap to the conclusion that it is precisely the same with things beyond our comprehension, and that god is the aboriginal reservoir of being from which all the rills of finite existence are emitted. against this doctrine the current objections are these two. first, the analogies adduced are not applicable. the things of spirit and those of matter have two distinct sets of predicates and categories. it is, for example, wholly illogical to argue that because the circuit of the waters is from the sea, through the clouds, over the land, back to the sea again, therefore the derivation and course of souls from god, through life, back to god, must be similar. there are mysteries in connection with the soul that baffle the most lynx eyed investigation, and on which no known facts of the physical world can throw light. secondly, the scheme of emanation depends on a vulgar error, belonging to the infancy of philosophic thought, and inconsistent with some necessary truths. it implies that god is separable into parts, and therefore both corporeal and finite. divisible substance is incompatible with the first predicates of deity, namely, immateriality and infinity. before the conception of the illimitable, spiritual unity of god, the doctrine of the emanation of souls from him fades away, as the mere figment of a dreaming mind brooding over the suggestions of phenomena and apparent correspondences. the second explanation of the origin of souls is that which says they come from a previous existence. this is the theory of imagination, framed in the free and seductive realm of poetic thought. it is evident that this idea does not propose any solution of the absolute origination of the soul, but only offers to account for its appearance on earth. the pre existence of souls has been most widely affirmed. nearly the whole world of oriental thinkers have always taught it. many of the greek philosophers held it. no small proportion of the early church fathers believed it. and it is not without able advocates among the scholars and thinkers keil, opuscula; be pre existentia animarum. beausobre, hist. du manicheisme, lib. vii. cap. iv. of our own age. there are two principal forms of this doctrine; one asserting an ascent of souls from a previous existence below the rank of man, the other a descent of souls from a higher sphere. generation is the true jacob's ladder, on which souls are ever ascending or descending. the former statement is virtually that of the modern theory of development, which argues that the souls known to us, obtaining their first organic being out of the ground life of nature, have climbed up through a graduated series of births, from the merest elementary existence, to the plane of human nature. a gifted author, dr. hedge, has said concerning pre existence in these two methods of conceiving it, writing in a half humorous, half serious, vein, "it is to be considered as expressing rather an exceptional than a universal fact. if here and there some pure liver, or noble doer, or prophet voice, suggests the idea of a revenant who, moved with pity for human kind, and charged with celestial ministries, has condescended to 'soil his pure ambrosial weeds with the rank vapors of this sin worn mould,' or if, on the other hand, the 'superfluity of naughtiness' displayed by some abnormal felon seems to warrant the supposition of a visit from the pit, the greater portion of mankind, we submit, are much too green for any plausible assumption of a foregone training in good or evil. this planet is not their missionary station, nor their botany bay, but their native soil. or, if we suppose they pre existed at all, we must rather believe they pre existed as brutes, and have travelled into humanity by the fish fowl quadruped road with a good deal of the habitudes and dust of that tramp still sticking to them." the theory of development, deriving human souls by an ascension from the lower stages of rudimentary being, considered as a fanciful hypothesis or speculative toy, is interesting, and not destitute of plausible aspects. but, when investigated as a severe thesis, it is found devoid of proof. it is enough here to say that the most authoritative voices in science reject it, declaring that, though there is a development of progress in the plan of nature, from the more general to the more specific, yet there is no advance from one type or race to another, no hint that the same individual ever crosses the guarded boundaries of genus from one rank and kingdom to another. whatever progress there may be in the upward process of natural creation or the stages of life, yet to suppose that the life powers of insects and brutes survive the dissolution of their bodies, and, in successive crossings of the death gulf, ascend to humanity, is a bare assumption. it befits the delirious lips of beddoes, who says, "had i been born a four legg'd child, methinks i might have found the steps from dog to man and crept into his nature. are there not those that fall down out of humanity into the story where the four legg'd dwell?" the doctrine that souls have descended from an anterior life on high may be exhibited in three forms, each animated by a different motive. the first is the view of some of the manichean teachers, that spirits were embodied by a hostile violence and cunning, the force and fraud of the apostatized devil. adam and eve were angels sent to observe the doings of lucifer, the rebel king of matter. he seized these heavenly spies and encased them in fleshly prisons. and then, in order to preserve a permanent union of these celestial natures with matter, he contrived that their race should be propagated by the sexes. whenever by the procreative act the germ body is prepared, a fiend hies from bale, or an angel stoops from bliss, or a demon darts from his hovering in the air, to inhabit and rule his growing clay house for a term of earthly life. the spasm of impregnation thrills in fatal summons to hell or heaven, and resistlessly drags a spirit into the appointed receptacle. shakspeare, whose genius seems to have touched every shape of thought with adorning phrase, makes juliet, distracted with the momentary fancy that romeo is a murderous villain, cry, "o nature! what hadst thou to do in hell when thou didst bower the spirit of a fiend in mortal paradise of such sweet flesh?" the second method of explaining the descent of souls into this life is by the supposition that the stable bliss, the uncontrasted peace and sameness, of the heavenly experience, at last wearies the people of paradise, until they seek relief in a fall. the perfect sweetness of heaven cloys, the utter routine and safety tire, the salient spirits, till they long for the edge and hazard of earthly exposure, and wander down to dwell in fleshly bodies and breast the tempest of sin, strife, and sorrow, so as to give a fresh charm once more to the repose and exempted joys of the celestial realm. in this way, by a series of recurring lives below and above, novelty and change with larger experience and more vivid contentment are secured, the tedium and satiety of fixed happiness and protection are modified by the relishing opposition of varied trials of hardship and pain, the insufferable monotony of immortality broken up and interpolated by epochs of surprise and tingling dangers of probation. "mortals, behold! the very angels quit their mansions unsusceptible of change, amid your dangerous bowers to sit and through your sharp vicissitudes to range!" thus round and round we run through an eternity of lives and deaths. surfeited with the unqualified pleasures of heaven, we "straggle down to this terrene nativity:" when, amid the sour exposures and cruel storms of the world, we have renewed our appetite for the divine ambrosia of peace and sweetness, we forsake the body and ascend to heaven; this constant recurrence illustrating the great truths, that alternation is the law of destiny, and that variety is the spice of life. but the most common derivation of the present from a previous life is that which explains the descent as a punishment for sin. in that earlier and loftier state, souls abused their freedom, and were doomed to expiate their offences by a banished, imprisoned, and burdensome life on the earth. "the soul," plutarch writes, "has removed, not from athens to sardis, or from corinth to lemnos, but from heaven to earth; and here, ill at ease, and troubled in this new and strange place, she hangs her head like a decaying plant." hundreds of passages to the same purport might easily be cited from as many ancient writers. sometimes this fall of souls from their original estate was represented as a simultaneous event: a part of the heavenly army, under an apostate leader, having rebelled, were defeated, and sentenced to a chained bodily life. our whole race were transported at once from their native shores in the sky to the convict land of this world. sometimes the descent was attributed to the fresh fault of each individual, and was thought to be constantly happening. a soul tainted with impure desire, drawn downwards by corrupt material gravitation, hovering over the fumes of matter, inhaling the effluvia of vice, grew infected with carnal longings and contagions, became fouled and clogged with gross vapors and steams, and finally fell into a body and pursued the life fitted to it below. a clear human child is a shining seraph from heaven sunk thus low. men are degraded cherubim. "our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: the soul that rises with us, our life's star, hath had elsewhere its setting, and cometh from afar." the theory of the pre existence of the soul merely removes the mystery one stage further back, and there leaves the problem of our origin as hopelessly obscure as before. it is sufficiently refuted by the open fact that it is absolutely destitute of scientific basis. the explanation of its wide prevalence as a belief is furnished by two considerations. first, there were old authoritative sages and poets who loved to speculate and dream, and who published their speculations and dreams to reign over the subject fancies of credulous mankind. secondly, the conception was intrinsically harmonious, and bore a charm to fascinate the imagination and the heart. the fragmentary visions, broken snatches, mystic strains, incongruous thoughts, fading gleams, with which imperfectrecollection comes laden from our childish years and our nightly dreams, are referred by self pleasing fancy to some earlier and nobler existence. we solve the mysteries of experience by calling them the veiled vestiges of a bright life departed, pathetic waifs drifted to these intellectual shores over the surge of feeling from the wrecked orb of an anterior existence. it gratifies our pride to think the soul "a star travelled stranger," a disguised prince, who has passingly alighted on this globe in his eternal wanderings. the gorgeous glimpses of truth and beauty here vouchsafed to genius, the wondrous strains of feeling that haunt the soul in tender hours, are feeble reminiscences of the prerogatives we enjoyed in those eons when we trod the planets that sail around the upper world of the gods. that ennui or plaintive sadness which in all life's deep and lonesome hours seems native to our hearts, what is it but the nostalgia of the soul remembering and pining after its distant home? vague and forlorn airs come floating into our consciousness, as from an infinitely remote clime, freighted with a luxury of depressing melancholy. "ah! not the nectarous poppy lovers use, not daily labor's dull lethean spring, oblivion in lost angels can infuse of the soil'd glory and the trailing wing." how attractive all this must be to the thoughts of men, how fascinating to their retrospective and aspiring reveries, it should be needless to repeat. how baseless it is as a philosophical theory demanding sober belief, it should be equally superfluous to illustrate further. the third answer to the question concerning the origin of the soul is that it is directly created by the voluntary power of god. this is the theory of faith, instinctively shrinking from the difficulty of the problem on its scientific ground, and evading it by a wholesale reference to deity. some writers have held that all souls were created by the divine fiat at the beginning of the world, and laid up in a secret repository, whence they are drawn as occasion calls. the talmudists say, "all souls were made during the six days of creation; and therefore generation is not by traduction, but by infusion of a soul into body." others maintain that this production of souls was not confined to any past period, but is continued still, a new soul being freshly created for every birth. whenever certain conditions meet, "then god smites his hands together, and strikes out a soul as a spark, into the organized glory of things, from the deeps of the dark." this is the view asserted by vincentius victor in opposition to the dogmatism of tertullian on the one hand and to the doubts of augustine on the other. it is called the theory of insufflation, because it affirms that god immediately breathes a soul into each new being: even as in the case of adam, of whom we read that "god breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and he became a living soul." the doctrine drawn from this mosaic text, that the soul is a divine substance, a breath of god, miraculously breathed by him into every creature at the commencement of its existence, often reappears, and plays a prominent part in the history of psychological opinions. it corresponds with the beautiful greek myth of prometheus, who is fabled to have made a human image from the dust of the ground, and then, by fire stolen from heaven, to have animated it with a living soul. so man, as to his body, is made of earthly clay; but the promethean spark that forms his soul is the fresh breath of god. there is no objection to the real ground and essence of this theory, only to its form and accompaniments. it is purely anthropomorphitic; it conceives god as working, after the manner of a man, intermittently, arbitrarily. it insulates the origination of souls from the fixed course of nature, severs it from all connection with that common process of organic life which weaves its inscrutable web through the universe, that system of laws which expresses the unchanging will of god, and which constitutes the order by whose solemn logic alone he acts. the objection to this view is, in a word, that it limits the creative action of god to human souls. we suppose that he creates our bodies as well; that he is the immediate author of all life in the same sense in which he is the immediate author of our souls. the opponents of the creation theory, who strenuously fought it in the seventeenth century, were accustomed to urge against it the fanciful objection that "it puts god to an invenust augustine, de anima et ejus origine, lib. iv. employment scarce consistent with his verecundious holiness; for, if it be true, whenever the lascivious consent to uncleanness and are pleased to join in unlawful mixture, god is forced to stand a spectator of their vile impurities, stooping from his throne to attend their bestial practices, and raining down showers of souls to animate the emissions of their concupiscence" a fourth reply to the inquiry before us is furnished in tertullian's famous doctrine of traduction, the essential import of which is that all human souls have been transmitted, or brought over, from the soul of adam. this is the theological theory: for it arose from an exigency in the dogmatic system generally held by the patristic church. the universal depravity of human nature, the inherited corruption of the whole race, was a fundamental point of belief. but how reconcile this proposition with the conception, entertained by many, that each new born soul is a fresh creation from the "substance," "spirit," or "breath" of god? augustine writes to jerome, asking him to solve this question. tertullian, whose fervid mind was thoroughly imbued with materialistic notions, unhesitatingly cut this gordian knot by asserting that our first parent bore within him the undeveloped germ of all mankind, so that sinfulness and souls were propagated together. thus the perplexing query, "how souls are held in the chain of original sin," was answered. as neander says, illustrating tertullian's view, "the soul of the first man was the fountain head of all human souls: all the varieties of individual human nature are but modifications of that one spiritual substance." in the light of such a thought, we can see how nature might, when solitary adam lived, fulfil lear's wild conjuration, and "all the germens spill at once that make ingrateful man." in the seventh chapter of the koran it is written, "the lord drew forth their posterity from the loins of the sons of adam." the commentators say that god passed his hand down adam's back, and extracted all the generations which should come into the world until the resurrection. assembled in the presence of the angels, and endued with understanding, they confessed their dependence on god, and were then caused to return into the loins of their great ancestor. this is one of the most curious doctrines within the whole range of philosophical history. it implies the strict corporeality of the soul; and yet how infinitely fine must be its attenuation when it has been diffused into countless thousands of millions! der urkeim theilt sich ins unendliche. "what! will the line stretch out to the crack of doom?" the whole thought is absurd. it was not reached by an induction of facts, a study of phenomena, or any fair process of reasoning, but was arbitrarily created to rescue a dogma from otherwise inevitable rejection. it was the desperate clutch of a heady theologian reeling in a vortex of hostile argument, and ready to seize any fancy, however artificial, to save edward warren, no pre existence, p. . epistola clxvi. de anima, cap. x. et xix. himself from falling under the ruins of his system. henry woolner published in london, in , a book called "extraction of soul: a sober and judicious inquiry to prove that souls are propagated; because, if they are created, original sin is impossible." the theological dogma of traduction has been presented in two forms. first, it is declared that all souls are developed out of the one substance of adam's soul; a view that logically implies an ultimate attenuating diffusion, ridiculously absurd. secondly, it is held that "the eating of the forbidden fruit corrupted all the vital fluids of eve; and this corruption carried vicious and chaotic consequences into her ova, in which lay the souls of all her posterity, with infinitely little bodies, already existing." this form is as incredible as the other; for it equally implies a limitless distribution of souls from a limited deposit. as whewell says, "this successive inclusion of germs (einschachtelungs theorie) implies that each soul contains an infinite number of germs." it necessarily excludes the formation of new spiritual substance: else original transmitted sin is excluded. the doctrine finds no parallelism anywhere else in nature. who, no matter how wedded to the theology of original sin and transmitted death, would venture to stretch the same thesis over the animal races, and affirm that the dynamic principles, or animating souls, of all serpents, eagles, and lions, were once compressed in the first patriarchal serpent, eagle, or lion? that the whole formative power of all the simultaneous members of our race was concentrated in the first cell germ of our original progenitor, is a scientific impossibility and incredibleness. the fatal sophistry in the traducian account of the transmission of souls may be illustrated in the following manner. the germs of all the apple trees now in existence did not lie in the first apple seed. all the apple trees now existing were not derived by literal development out of the actual contents of the first apple seed. no: but the truth is this. there was a power in the first apple seed to secure certain conditions; that is, to organize a certain status in which the plastic vegetative life of nature would posit new and similar powers and materials. so not all souls were latent in adam's, but only an organizing power to secure the conditions on which the divine will that first began, would, in accordance with his creative plan, forever continue, his spirit creation. the distinction of this statement from that of traduction is the difference between evolution from one original germ or stock and actual production of new beings. its distinction from the third theory the theory of immediate creation is the difference between an intermittent interposition of arbitrary acts and the continuous working of a plan according to laws scientifically traceable. there is another solution to the question of the soul's origin, which has been propounded by some philosophers and may be called the speculative theory. its statement is that the germs of souls were created simultaneously with the formation of the material universe, and were copiously sown abroad through all nature, waiting there to be successively taken up and furnished with the conditions of development. these latent seeds of souls, swarming in all places, are drawn in with the first breath or imbibed with the earliest nourishment of the hennings, geschichte von den seelen der menschen, s. . philosophy of the inductive sciences, vol. i. b. ix. ch. iv. sect. . ploucquet, de origin atque generatione anima humana ex principiis monadologicis stabilita. new born child into the already constructed body which before has only a vegetative life. the germans call this representation panspermismus, or the dissemination theory. leibnitz, in his celebrated monadology, carries the same view a great deal further. he conceives the whole created universe, visible and invisible, to consist of monads, which are not particles of matter, but metaphysical points of power. these monads are all souls. they are produced by what he calls fulgurations of god. the distinction between fulguration and emanation is this: in the latter case the procession is historically defined and complete; in the former case it is momentaneous. the monads are radiated from the divine will, forth through the creation, by the constant flashes of his volition. all nature is composed of them, and nothing is depopulated and dead. their naked being is force, and their indestructible predicates are perception, desire, tendency to develop. while they lie dormant, their potential capacities all inwrapped, they constitute what we entitle matter. when, by the rising stir of their inherent longing, they leave their passive state and reach a condition of obscure consciousness, they become animals. finally, they so far unwind their bonds and evolve their facultative potencies as to attain the rank of rational minds in the grade of humanity. generation is merely the method by which the aspiring monad lays the organic basis for the grouped building of its body. man is a living union of monads, one regent monad presiding over the whole organization. that king monad which has attained to full apperception, the free exercise of perfect consciousness, is the immortal human soul. any labored attempt to refute this ingenious doctrine is needless, since the doctrine itself is but the developed structure of a speculative conception with no valid basis of observed fact. it is a sheer hypothesis, spun out of the self fed bowels of a priori assumption and metaphysic fancy. it solves the problems only by changes of their form, leaving the mysteries as numerous and deep as before. it is a beautiful and sublime piece of latent poetry, the evolution and architecture of which well display the wonderful genius of leibnitz. it is a more subtle and powerful process of thought than aristotle's organon, a more pure and daring work of imagination than milton's paradise lost. but it spurns the tests of experimental science, and is entitled to rank only among the splendid curiosities of philosophy; a brilliant and plausible theorem, not a sober and solid induction. one more method of treating the inquiry before us will complete the list. it is what we may properly call the scientific theory, though in truth it is hardly a theory at all, but rather a careful statement of the observed facts, and a modest confession of inability to explain the cause of them. those occupying this position, when asked what is the origin of souls, do not pretend to unveil the final secret, but simply say, everywhere in the world of life, from bottom to top, there is an organic growth in accordance with conditions. this is what is styled the theory of epigenesis, and is adopted by the chief physiologists of the present day. swammerdam, malebranche, even cuvier, had defended the doctrine of successive inclusion; but wolf, blumenbach, and von baer established in its place the doctrine of epigenesis. leibnitz, monadologie. ennemoser, historisch psychologische untersuchungen tiber den ursprung der menschlichen seelen, zweite auflage. scrupulously confining themselves to the mass of collected facts and the course of scrutinized phenomena, they say there is a natural production of new living beings in conformity to certain laws, and give an exposition of the fixed conditions and sequences of this production. here they humbly stop, acknowledging that the causal root of power, which produces all these consequences, is an inexplicable mystery. their attitude is well represented by swedenborg when he says, in reference to this very subject, "any one may form guesses; but let no son of earth pretend to penetrate the mysteries of creation." let us notice now the facts submitted to us. first, at the base of the various departments of nature, we see a mass of apparently lifeless matter. out of this crude substratum of the outward world we observe a vast variety of organized forms produced by a variously named but unknown power. they spring in regular methods, in determinate shapes, exist on successive stages of rank, with more or less striking demarcations of endowment, and finally fall back again, as to their physical constituents, into the inorganic stuff from which they grew. this mysterious organizing power, pushing its animate and builded receptacles up to the level of vegetation, creates the world of plants. "every clod feels a stir of might, an instinct within it that reaches and towers, and, grasping blindly above it for light, climbs to a soul in grass and flowers." on the level of sensation, where the obscure rudiments of will, understanding, and sentiment commence, this life giving power creates the world of animals. and so, on the still higher level of reason and its concomitants, it creates the world of men. in a word, the great general fact is that an unknown power call it what we may, nature, vital force, or god creates, on the various planes of its exercise, different families of organized beings. secondly, a more special fact is, that when we have overleaped the mystery of a commencement, every being yields seed according to its kind, wherefrom, when properly conditioned, its species is perpetuated. how much, now, does this second fact imply? it is by adding to the observed phenomena an indefensible hypothesis that the error of traduction is obtained. we observe that human beings are begotten by a deposit of germs through the generative process. to affirm that these germs are transmitted down the generations from the original progenitor of each race, in whom they all existed at first, is an unwarranted assertion and involves absurdities. it is refuted both by geoffrey st. hilaire's famous experiments on eggs, and by the crossing of species. in opposition to this theological figment, observation and science require the belief that each being is endowed independently with a germ forming power. organic life requires three things: a fruitful germ; a quickening impulse; a nourishing medium. science plainly shows us that this primal nucleus is given, in the human species, by the union of the contents of a sperm cell with those of a germ cell; that this dynamic start is imparted from the life force of the parents; and that this feeding environment is tract on the origin and propagation of the soul, chap. i. flourens, amount of life on the globe, part ii. ch. iii. sect. ii. furnished by the circle of co ordinated relations. that the formative power of the new organism comes from, or at least is wholly conditioned by, the parent organism, should be believed, because it is the obvious conclusion, against which there is nothing to militate. that the soul of the child comes in some way from the soul of the parent, or is stamped by it, is also implied by the normal resemblance of children to parents, not more in bodily form than in spiritual idiosyncrasies. this fact alone furnishes the proper qualification to the acute and significant lines of the platonizing poet: "wherefore who thinks from souls new souls to bring, the same let presse the sunne beames in his fist and squeeze out drops of light, or strongly wring the rainbow till it die his hands, well prest." "that which is born of the flesh is flesh: that which is born of the spirit is spirit." as the body of the child is the derivative of a germ elaborated in the body of the parent, so the soul of the child is the derivative of a developing impulse of power imparted from the soul of the parent. and as the body is sustained by absorbing nutrition from matter, so the soul is sustained by assimilating the spiritual substances of the invisible kingdom. the most ethereal elements must combine to nourish that consummate plant whose blossom is man's mind. this representation is not materialism; for spirit belongs to a different sphere and is the subject of different predicates from matter, though equally under a constitution of laws. nor does this view pretend to explain what is inherently transcendent: it leaves the creation of the soul within as wide a depth and margin of mystery as ever. neither is this mode of exposing the problem atheistic. it refers the forms of life, all growths, all souls, to the indefinable power that works everywhere, creates each thing, vivifies, governs, and contains the universe. and, however that power be named, is it not god? and thus we still reverently hold that it is god's own hands "that reach through nature, moulding men." the ancient heroes of greece and india were fond of tracing their genealogy up directly to their deities, and were proud to deem that in guarding them the gods stooped to watch over a race of kings, a puissant and immortal stock, "whose glories stream'd from the same clond girt founts whence their own dawn'd upon the infant world." after all the researches that have been made, we yet find the secret of the beginning of the soul shrouded among the fathomless mysteries of the almighty creator, and must ascribe our birth to the will of god as piously as it was done in the eldest mythical epochs of the world. notwithstanding the careless frivolity of skepticism and the garish light of science abroad in this modern time, there are still stricken and yearning depths of wonder and sorrow enough, profound and awful shadows of night and fear enough, to make us recognise, in the golden joys that visit us rarely, in the illimitable visions that emancipate us often, in the unearthly thoughts and dreams that ravish our minds, enigmatical intimations of our kinship with god, prophecies of a super earthly destiny whose splendors already break through the clouds of ignorance, the folds of flesh, and the curtains of time in which our spirits here sit pavilioned. augustine pointedly observes, "it is no evil that the origin of the soul remains obscure, if only its redemption be made certain." non est periculum si origo animoe lateat, dum redemptio clareat. no matter how humanity originates, if its object be to produce fruit, and that fruit be immortal souls. when our organism has perfected its intended product, willingly will we let the decaying body return into the ground, if so be we are assured that the ripened spirit is borne into the heavenly garner. let us, in close, reduce the problem of the soul's origin to its last terms. the amount of force in the universe is uniform. action and reaction being equal, no new creation of force is possible: only its directions, deposits, and receptacles may be altered. no combination of physical processes can produce a previously non existent subject: it can only initiate the modification, development, assimilation, of realities already in being. something cannot come out of nothing. the quickening formation of a man, therefore, implies the existence, first, of a material germ, the basis of the body; secondly, of a power to impart to that germ a dynamic impulse, in other words, to deposit in it a spirit atom, or monad of life force. now, the fresh body is originally a detached product of the parent body, as an apple is the detached product of a tree. so the fresh soul is a transmitted force imparted by the parent soul, either directly from itself, or else conditioned by it and drawn from the ground life of nature, the creative power of god. if filial soul be begotten by procession and severance of conscious force from parental soul, the spiritual resemblance of offspring and progenitors is clearly explained. this phenomenon is also equally well explained if the parent soul, so called, be a die striking the creative substance of the universe into individual form. the latter supposition seems, upon the whole, the more plausible and scientific. generation is a reflex condition moving the life basis of the world to produce a soul, as a physical impression moves the soul to produce a perception. but, however deep the mystery of the soul's origin, whatever our conclusion in regard to it, let us not forget that the inmost essence and verity of the soul is conscious power; and that all power defies annihilation. it is an old declaration that what begins in time must end in time; and with the metaphysical shears of that notion more than once the burning faith in eternal life has been snuffed out. yet how obvious is its sophistry! a being beginning in time need not cease in time, if the power which originated it intends and provides for its perpetuity. and that such is the creative intention for man appears from the fact that the grand forms of belief in all ages issuing from his mental organization have borne the stamp of an expected immortality. our ideas may disappear, but they are always recoverable. if the souls of men are ideas of god, must they not be as enduring as his mind? epist. clvi. faraday, conservation of force, phil. mag., april, . dr. frohschammer, ursprang der menechlichen seelen, sect. . the naturalist who so immerses his thoughts in the physical phases of nature as to lose hold on indestructible centres of personality, should beware lest he lose the motive which propels man to begin here, by virtue and culture, to climb that ladder of life whose endless sides are affections, but whose discrete rounds are thoughts. chapter ii. history of death. death is not an entity, but an event; not a force, but a state. life is the positive experience, death the negation. yet in nearly every literature death has been personified, while no kindred prosopopoeia of life is anywhere to be found. with the greeks, thanatos was a god; with the romans, mors was a goddess: but no statue was ever moulded, no altar ever raised, to zoe or vita. at first thought, we should anticipate the reverse of this; but, in truth, the fact is quite naturally as it is. life is a continuous process; and any one who makes the effort will find how difficult it is to conceive of it as an individual being, with distinctive attributes, functions, and will. it is an inward possession which we familiarly experience, and in the quiet routine of custom we feel no shock of surprise at it, no impulse to give it imaginative shape and ornament. on the contrary, death is an impending occurrence, something which we anticipate and shudder at, something advancing toward us in time to strike or seize us. its externality to our living experience, its threatening approach, the mystery and alarm enwrapping it, are provocative conditions for fanciful treatment, making personifications inevitable. with the old aryan race of india, death is yama, the soul of the first man, departed to be the king of the subterranean realm of the subsequent dead, and returning to call after him each of his descendants in turn. to the good he is mild and lovely, but to the impious he is clad in terror and acts with severity. the purely fanciful character of this thought is obvious; for, according to it, death was before death, since yama himself died. yama does not really represent death, but its arbiter and messenger. he is the ruler over the dead, who himself carries the summons to each mortal to become his subject. in the hebrew conception, death was a majestic angel, named sammael, standing in the court of heaven, and flying thence over the earth, armed with a sword, to obey the behests of god. the talmudists developed and dressed up the thought with many details, half sublime, half fantastic. he strides through the world at a step. from the soles of his feet to his shoulders he is full of eyes. every person in the moment of dying sees him; and at the sight the soul retreats, running through all the limbs, as if asking permission to depart from them. from his naked sword fall three drops: one pales the countenance, one destroys the vitality, one causes the body to decay. some rabbins say he bears a cup from which the dying one drinks, or that he lets fall from the point of his sword a single acrid drop upon the sufferer's tongue: this is what is called "tasting the bitterness of death." here again, we see, it is not strictly death that is personified. the embodiment is not of the mortal act, but of the decree determining that act. the jewish angel of death is not a picture of death in itself, but of god's decree coming to the fated individual who is to die. the greeks sometimes depicted death and sleep as twin boys, one black, one white, borne slumbering in the arms of their mother, night. in this instance the phenomenon of dissolving unconsciousness which falls on mortals, abstractly generalized in the mind, is then concretely symbolized. it is a bold and happy stroke of artistic genius; but it in no way expresses or suggests the scientific facts of actual death. there is also a classic representation of death as a winged boy with a pensive brow and an inverted torch, a butterfly at his feet. this beautiful image, with its affecting accompaniments, conveys to the beholder not the verity, nor an interpretation, of death, but the sentiments of the survivors in view of their bereavement. the sad brow denotes the grief of the mourner, the winged insect the disembodied psyche, the reversed torch the descent of the soul to the under world; but the reality of death itself is nowhere hinted. the romans give descriptions of death as a female figure in dark robes, with black wings, with ravenous teeth, hovering everywhere, darting here and there, eager for prey. such a view is a personification of the mysteriousness, suddenness, inevitableness, and fearfulness, connected with the subject of death in men's minds, rather than of death itself. these thoughts are grouped into an imaginary being, whose sum of attributes are then ignorantly both associated with the idea of the unknown cause and confounded with the visible effect. it is, in a word, mere poetry, inspired by fear and unguided by philosophy. death has been shown in the guise of a fowler spreading his net, setting his snares for men. but this image concerns itself with the accidents of the subject, the unexpectedness of the fatal blow, the treacherous springing of the trap, leaving the root of the matter untouched. the circumstances of the mortal hour are infinitely varied, the heart of the experience is unchangeably the same: there are a thousand modes of dying, but there is only one death. ever so complete an exhibition of the occasions and accompaniments of an event is no explanation of what the inmost reality of the event is. the norse conception of death as a vast, cloudy presence, darkly sweeping on its victims, and bearing them away wrapped in its sable folds, is evidently a free product of imagination brooding not so much on the distinct phenomena of an individual case as on the melancholy mystery of the disappearance of men from the familiar places that knew them once but miss them now. in a somewhat kindred manner, the startling magnificence of the sketch in the apocalypse, of death on the pale horse, is a product of pure imagination meditating on the wholesale slaughter which was to deluge the earth when god's avenging judgments fell upon the enemies of the christians. but to consider this murderous warrior on his white charger as literally death, would be as erroneous as to imagine the bare armed executioner and the guillotine to be themselves the death which they inflict. no more appalling picture of death has been drawn than that by milton, whose dire image has this stroke of truth in it, that its adumbrate formlessness typifies the disorganizing force which reduces all cunningly built bodies of life to the elemental wastes of being. the incestuous and mistreated progeny of sin is thus delineated: "the shape, if shape it might be call'd that shape had none distinguishable in member, joint, or limb, or substance might be call'd that shadow seem'd, for each seem'd either, black it stood as night, fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell, and shook a dreadful dart: what seem'd his head the likeness of a kingly crown had on." but the most common personification of death is as a skeleton brandishing a dart; and then he is called the grisly king of terrors; and people tremble at the thought of him, as children do at the name of a bugbear in the dark. what sophistry this is! it is as if we should identify the trophy with the conqueror, the vestiges left in the track of a traveller with the traveller himself. death literally makes a skeleton of man; so man metaphorically makes a skeleton of death! all these representations of death, however beautiful, or pathetic, or horrible, are based on superficial appearances, misleading analogies, arbitrary fancies, perturbed sensibilities, not on a firm hold of realities, insight of truth, and philosophical analysis. they are all to be brushed aside as phantoms of nightmare or artificial creations of fiction. poetry has mostly rested, hitherto, on no veritable foundation of science, but on a visionary foundation of emotion. it has wrought upon flitting, sensible phenomena rather than upon abiding substrata of facts. for example, a tender greek bard personified the life of a tree as a hamadryad, the moving trunk and limbs her undulating form and beckoning arms, the drooping boughs her hair, the rustling foliage her voice. a modern poet, endowed with the same strength of sympathy, but acquainted with vegetable chemistry, might personify sap as a pale, liquid maiden, ascending through the roots and veins to meet air, a blue boy robed in golden warmth, descending through the leaves, with a whisper, to her embrace. so the personifications of death in literature, thus far, give us no penetrative glance into what it really is, help us to no acute definition of it, but poetically fasten on some feature, or accident, or emotion, associated with it. there are in popular usage various metaphors to express what is meant by death. the principal ones are, extinction of the vital spark, departing, expiring, cutting the thread of life, giving up the ghost, falling asleep. these figurative modes of speech spring from extremely imperfect correspondences. indeed, the unlikenesses are more important and more numerous than the likenesses. they are simply artifices to indicate what is so deeply obscure and intangible. they do not lay the secret bare, nor furnish us any aid in reaching to the true essence of the question. moreover, several of them, when sharply examined, involve a fatal error. for example, upon the admitted supposition that in every case of dying the soul departs from the body, still, this separation of the soul from the body is not what constitutes death. death is the state of the body when the soul has left it. an act is distinct from its effects. we must, therefore, turn from the literary inquiry to the metaphysical and scientific method, to gain any satisfactory idea and definition of death. a german writer of extraordinary acumen and audacity has said, "only before death, but not in death, is death death. death is so unreal a being that he only is when he is not, and is not when he is." this paradoxical and puzzling as it may appear is susceptible of quite lucid interpretation and defence. for death is, in its naked significance, the state of not being. of course, then, it has no existence save in the conceptions of the living. we compare a dead feuerbach, gedanken uber tod and unsterblichkeit, sect. . person with what he was when living, and instinctively personify the difference as death. death, strictly analyzed, is only this abstract conceit or metaphysical nonentity. death, therefore, being but a conception in the mind of a living person, when that person dies death ceases to be at all. and thus the realization of death is the death of death. he annihilates himself, dying with the dart he drives. having in this manner disposed of the personality or entity of death, it remains as an effect, an event, a state. accordingly, the question next arises, what is death when considered in this its true aspect? a positive must be understood before its related negative can be intelligible. bichat defined life as the sum of functions by which death is resisted. it is an identical proposition in verbal disguise, with the fault that it makes negation affirmation, passiveness action. death is not a dynamic agency warring against life, but simply an occurrence. life is the operation of an organizing force producing an organic form according to an ideal type, and persistently preserving that form amidst the incessant molecular activity and change of its constituent substance. that operation of the organic force which thus constitutes life is a continuous process of waste, casting off the old exhausted matter, and of replacement by assimilation of new material. the close of this process of organific metamorphosis and desquamation is death, whose finality is utter decomposition, restoring all the bodily elements to the original inorganic conditions from which they were taken. the organic force with which life begins constrains chemical affinity to work in special modes for the formation of special products: when it is spent or disappears, chemical affinity is at liberty to work in its general modes; and that is death. "life is the co ordination of actions; the imperfection of the co ordination is disease, its arrest is death." in other words, "life is the continuous adjustment of relations in an organism with relations in its environment." disturb that adjustment, and you have malady; destroy it, and you have death. life is the performance of functions by an organism; death is the abandonment of an organism to the forces of the universe. no function can be performed without a waste of the tissue through which it is performed: that waste is repaired by the assimilation of fresh nutriment. in the balancing of these two actions life consists. the loss of their equipoise soon terminates them both; and that is death. upon the whole, then, scientifically speaking, to cause death is to stop "that continuous differentiation and integration of tissues and of states of consciousness" constituting life. death, therefore, is no monster, no force, but the act of completion, the state of cessation; and all the bugbears named death are but poor phantoms of the frightened and childish mind. life consisting in the constant differentiation of the tissues by the action of oxygen, and their integration from the blastema furnished by the blood, why is not the harmony of these processes preserved forever? why should the relation between the integration and disintegration going on in the human organism ever fall out of correspondence with the relation between the oxygen and food supplied from its environment? that is to say, whence originated the sentence of death upon man? why do we not live immortally as we are? the current reply is, we die because our first parent sinned. death is a penalty inflicted upon the spencer, principles of psychology, pp. - . human race because adam disobeyed his maker's command. we must consider this theory a little. the narrative in genesis, of the creation of man and of the events in the garden of eden, cannot be traced further back than to the time of solomon, three thousand years after the alleged occurrences it describes. this portion of the book of genesis, as has long been shown, is a distinct document, marked by many peculiarities, which was inserted in its present place by the compiler of the elder hebrew scriptures somewhere between seven and ten centuries before christ. ewald has fully demonstrated that the book of genesis consists of many separate fragmentary documents of different ages, arranged together by a comparatively late hand. among the later of these pieces is the account of the primeval pair in paradise. grotefend argues, with much force and variety of evidence, that this story was derived from a far more ancient legend book, only fragments of which remained when the final collection was made of this portion of the old testament. many scholars have thought the account was not of hebrew origin, but was borrowed from the literary traditions of some earlier oriental nation. rosenmuller, von bohlen, and others, say it bears unmistakable relationship to the zendavesta which tells how ahriman, the old serpent, beguiled the first pair into sin and misery. these correspondences, and also that between the tree of life and the zoroastrian plant hom, which gives life and will produce the resurrection, are certainly striking. buttmann sees in god's declaration to adam, "behold, i have given you for food every herb bearing seed, and every tree in which is fruit bearing seed," traces of a prohibition of animal food. this was not the vestige of a hebrew usage, but the vegetarian tradition of some sect eschewing meat, a tradition drawn from south asia, whence the fathers of the hebrew race came. gesenius says, "many things in this narrative were drawn from older asiatic tradition." knobel also affirms that numerous matters in this relation were derived from traditions of east asian nations. still, it is not necessary to suppose that the writer of the account in genesis borrowed any thing from abroad. the hebrew may as well have originated such ideas as anybody else. the egyptians, the phoenicians, the chaldeans, the persians, the etruscans, have kindred narratives held as most ancient and sacred. the chinese, the sandwich islanders, the north american indians, also have their legends of the origin and altered fortunes of the human race. the resemblances between many of these stories are better accounted for by the intrinsic similarities of the subject, of the mind, of nature, and of mental action, than by the supposition of derivation from one another. regarding the hebrew narrative as an indigenous growth, then, how shall we explain its origin, purport, and authority? of course we cannot receive it as a miraculous revelation conveying infallible truth. the bible, it is now acknowledged, was not given in the providence tuch, kommentar uber genesis, s. xcviii. zur altesten sagenpoesie des orients. zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen gesellschaft, band viii. ss. - . mythologus, (schopfung and sundenfall, ) band i. s. . article "adam," in encyclopadia by ersch and gruber. die genesis erklart, s. . palfrey's academical lectures, vol. ii. pp. - . of god to teach astronomy, geology, chronology, and the operation of organic forces, but to help educate men in morality and piety. it is a religious, not a scientific, work. some unknown hebrew poet, in the early dawn of remembered time, knowing little metaphysics and less science, musing upon the fortunes of man, his wickedness, sorrow, death, and impressed with an instinctive conviction that things could not always have been so, casting about for some solution of the dim, pathetic problem, at last struck out the beautiful and sublime poem recorded in genesis, which has now for many a century, by jews, christians, mohammedans, been credited as authentic history. with his own hands god moulds from earth an image in his own likeness, breathes life into it, and new made man moves, lord of the scene, and lifts his face, illuminated with soul, in submissive love to his creator. endowed with free will, after a while he violated his maker's command: the divine displeasure was awakened, punishment ensued, and so rushed in the terrible host of ills under which we suffer. the problem must early arise: the solution is, to a certain stage of thought, at once the most obvious and the most satisfactory conceivable. it is the truth. only it is cast in imaginative, not scientific, form, arrayed in emblematic, not literal, garb. the greeks had a lofty poem by some early unknown author, setting forth how prometheus formed man of clay and animated him with fire from heaven, and how from pandora's box the horrid crew of human vexations were let into the world. the two narratives, though most unequal in depth and dignity, belong in the same literary and philosophical category. neither was intended as a plain record of veritable history, each word a naked fact, but as a symbol of its author's thoughts, each phrase the metaphorical dress of a speculative idea. eichhorn maintains, with no slight plausibility, that the whole account of the garden of eden was derived from a series of allegorical pictures which the author had seen, and which he translated from the language of painting into the language of words. at all events, we must take the account as symbolic, a succession of figurative expressions. many of the best minds have always so considered it, from josephus to origen, from ambrose to kant. what, then, are the real thoughts which the author of this hebrew poem on the primal condition of man meant to convey beneath his legendary forms of imagery? these four are the essential ones. first, that god created man; secondly, that he created him in a state of freedom and happiness surrounded by blessings; third, that the favored subject violated his sovereign's order; fourth, that in consequence of this offence he was degraded from his blessed condition, beneath a load of retributive ills. the composition shows the characteristics of a philosopheme or a myth, a scheme of conceptions deliberately wrought out to answer an inquiry, a story devised to account for an existing fact or custom. the picture of god performing his creative work in six days and resting on the seventh, may have been drawn after the septenary division of time and the religious separation of the sabbath, to explain and justify that observance. the creation of eve out of the side of adam was either meant by the author as an allegoric illustration that the love of husband and wife is the most powerful of social bonds, or as a pure myth seeking to explain the incomparable cleaving together of husband and wife by the entirely poetic supposition that the first woman was taken out of the first man, bone of his bone, flesh of his flesh. all early literatures teem with exemplifications of this process, a spontaneous secretion by the imagination to account for some presented phenomenon. or perhaps this part of the relation "and he called her woman [manness], because she was taken out of man" may be an instance of those etymological myths with which ancient literature abounds. woman is named isha because she was taken out of man, whose name is ish. the barbarous treatment the record under consideration has received, the utter baselessness of it in the light of truth as foundation for literal belief, find perhaps no fitter exposure than in the fact that for many centuries it was the prevalent faith of christendom that every woman has one rib more than man, a permanent memorial of the divine theft from his side. unquestionably, there are many good persons now who, if richard owen should tell them that man has the same number of ribs as woman, would think of the second chapter of genesis and doubt his word! there is no reason for supposing the serpent in this recital to be intended as a representative of satan. the earliest trace of such an interpretation is in the wisdom of solomon, an anonymous and apocryphal book composed probably a thousand years later. what is said of the snake is the most plainly mythical of all the portions. what caused the snake to crawl on his belly in the dust, while other creatures walk on feet or fly with wings? why, the sly, winding creature, more subtle, more detestable, than any beast of the field, deceived the first woman; and this is his punishment! such was probably the mental process in the writer. to seek a profound and true theological dogma in such a statement is as absurd as to seek it in the classic myth that the lapwing with his sharp beak chases the swallow because he is the descendant of the enraged tereus who pursued poor progne with a drawn sword. or, to cite a more apposite case, as well might we seek a reliable historical narrative in the following greek myth. zeus once gave man a remedy against old age. he put it on the back of an ass and followed on foot. it being a hot day, the ass grew thirsty, and would drink at a fount which a snake guarded. the cunning snake knew what precious burden the ass bore, and would not, except at the price of it, let him drink. he obtained the prize; but with it, as a punishment for his trick, he incessantly suffers the ass's thirst. thus the snake, casting his skin, annually renews his youth, while man is borne down by old age. in all these cases the mental action is of the same kind in motive, method, and result. the author of the poem contained in the third chapter of genesis does not say that man was made immortal. the implication plainly is that he was created mortal, taken from the dust and naturally to return again to the dust. but by the power of god a tree was provided whose fruit would immortalize its partakers. the penalty of adam's sin was directly, not physical death, but being forced in the sweat of his brow to wring his subsistence from the sterile ground cursed for his sake; it was indirectly literal death, in that he was prevented from eating the fruit of the tree of life. "god sent him out of the garden, lest he eat and live forever." he was therefore, according to the narrative, made originally subject to death; but an immortalizing antidote was prepared for him, which he forfeited by his transgression. that the writer made use of the trees of life and knowledge as embellishing allegories is most alian, no nat. animal., lib. vi. cap. . probable. but, if not, he was not the only devout poet who, in the early times, with sacred reverence believed the wonders the inspiring muse gave him as from god. it is not clear from the biblical record that adam was imagined the first man. on the contrary, the statement that cain was afraid that those who met him would kill him, also that he went to the land of nod and took a wife and builded a city, implies that there was another and older race. father peyrere wrote a book, called "praadamita," more than two hundred years ago, pointing out this fact and arguing that there really were men before adam. if science should thoroughly establish the truth of this view, religion need not suffer; but the common theology, inextricably built upon and intertangled with the dogma of "original sin," would be hopelessly ruined. but the leaders in the scientific world will not on that account shut their eyes nor refuse to reason. christians should follow their example of truth seeking, with a deeper faith in god, fearless of results, but resolved upon reaching reality. it is a very singular and important fact that, from the appearance in genesis of the account of the creation and sin and punishment of the first pair, not the faintest explicit allusion to it is subsequently found anywhere in literature until about the time of christ. had it been all along credited in its literal sense, as a divine revelation, could this be so? philo judaus gives it a thoroughly figurative meaning. he says, "adam was created mortal in body, immortal in mind. paradise is the soul, piety the tree of life, discriminative wisdom the tree of knowledge; the serpent is pleasure, the flaming sword turning every way is the sun revolving round the world." jesus himself never once alludes to adam or to any part of the story of eden. in the whole new testament there are but two important references to the tradition, both of which are by paul. he says, in effect, "as through the sin of adam all are condemned unto death, so by the righteousness of christ all shall be justified unto life." it is not a guarded doctrinal statement, but an unstudied, rhetorical illustration of the affiliation of the sinful and unhappy generations of the past with their offending progenitor, adam, of the believing and blessed family of the chosen with their redeeming head, christ. he does not use the word death in the epistle to the romans prevailingly in the narrow sense of physical dissolution, but in a broad, spiritual sense, as appears, for example, in these instances: "to be carnally minded is death;" "the law of the spirit of life in christ hath made me free from the law of sin and death." for the spiritually minded were not exempt from bodily death. paul himself died the bodily death. his idea of the relations of adam and christ to humanity is more clearly expressed in the other passage already alluded to. it is in the epistle to the corinthians, and appears to be this. the first man, adam, was of the earth, earthy, the head and representative of a corruptible race whose flesh and blood were never meant to inherit the kingdom of god. the second man, christ the lord, soon to return from heaven, was a quickening spirit, head and representative of a risen spiritual race for whom is prepared the eternal inheritance of the saints in light. as by the first man came death, whose germ is transmitted with the flesh, so by the second man comes the resurrection of the dead, whose type is seen in his glorified ascension from hades to heaven. "as in adam all die, even so in de mundi opificio, liv lvi. de cherub. viii. christ shall all be made alive." upon all the line of adam sin has entailed, what otherwise would not have been known, moral death and a disembodied descent to the under world. but the gospel of christ, and his resurrection as the first fruits of them that slept, proclaim to all those that are his, at his speedy coming, a kindred deliverance from the lower gloom, an investiture with spiritual bodies, and an admission into the kingdom of god. according to paul, then, physical death is not the retributive consequence of adam's sin, but is the will of the creator in the law of nature, the sowing of terrestrial bodies for the gathering of celestial bodies, the putting off of the image of the earthy for the putting on of the image of the heavenly. the specialty of the marring and punitive interference of sin in the economy is, in addition to the penalties in moral experience, the interpolation, between the fleshly "unclothing" and the spiritual "clothing upon," of the long, disembodied, subterranean residence, from the descent of abel into its palpable solitude to the ascent of christ out of its multitudinous world. from adam, in the flesh, humanity sinks into the grave realm; from christ, in the spirit, it shall rise into heaven. had man remained innocent, death, considered as change of body and transition to heaven, would still have been his portion; but all the suffering and evil now actually associated with death would not have been. leaving the scriptures, the first man appears in literature, in the history of human thought on the beginning of our race, in three forms. there is the mythical adam, the embodiment of poetical musings, fanciful conceits, and speculative dreams; there is the theological adam, the central postulate of a group of dogmas, the support of a fabric of controversial thought, the lay figure to fill out and wear the hypothetical dresses of a doctrinal system; and there is the scientific adam, the first specimen of the genus man, the supposititious personage who, as the earliest product, on this grade, of the creative organic force or divine energy, commenced the series of human generations. the first is a hypostatized legend, the second a metaphysical personification, the third a philosophical hypothesis. the first is an attractive heap of imaginations, the next a dialectic mass of dogmatisms, the last a modest set of theories. philo says god made adam not from any chance earth, but from a carefully selected portion of the finest and most sifted clay, and that, as being directly created by god, he was superior to all others generated by men, the generations of whom deteriorate in each remove from him, as the attraction of a magnet weakens from the iron ring it touches along a chain of connected rings. the rabbins say adam was so large that when he lay down he reached across the earth, and when standing his head touched the firmament: after his fall he waded through the ocean, orion like. even a french academician, nicolas fleurion, held that adam was one hundred and twenty three feet and nine inches in height. all creatures except the angel eblis, as the koran teaches, made obeisance to him. eblis, full of envy and pride, refused, and was thrust into hell by god, where he began to plot the ruin of the new race. one effect of the forbidden fruit he ate was to cause rotten teeth in his descendants. he remained in paradise but one day. after he had eaten from the prohibited tree, eve gave of the fruit to the other creatures in eden, and they all ate of it, and so became mortal, with the sole exception of the phoenix, who refused to taste it, and consequently remained immortal. the talmud teaches that adam would never have died had he not sinned. the majority of the christian fathers and doctors, from tertullian and augustine to luther and calvin, have maintained the same opinion. it has been the orthodox that is, the prevailing doctrine of the church, affirmed by the synod at carthage in the year four hundred and eighteen, and by the council of trent in the year fifteen hundred and forty five. all the evils which afflict the world, both moral and material, are direct results of adam's sin. he contained all the souls of men in himself; and they all sinned in him, their federal head and legal representative. when the fatal fruit was plucked, "earth felt the wound, and nature from her seat, sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe that all was lost." earthquakes, tempests, pestilences, poverty, war, the endless brood of distress, ensued. for then were "turn'd askance the poles of earth twice ten degrees and more from the sun's axle, and with labor push'd oblique the centric globe." adam's transcendent faculties and gifts were darkened and diminished in his depraved posterity, and all base propensities let loose to torment, confuse, and degrade them. we can scarcely form a conception of the genius, the beauty, the blessedness, of the first man, say the theologians in chorus. augustine declares, "the most gifted of our time must be considered, when compared with adam in genius, as tortoises to birds in speed." adam, writes dante, "was made from clay, accomplished with every gift that life can teem with." thomas aquinas teaches that "he was immortal by grace though not by nature, had universal knowledge, fellowshipped with angels, and saw god." south, in his famous sermon on "man the image of god," after an elaborate panegyric of the wondrous majesty, wisdom, peacefulness, and bliss of man before the fall, exclaims, "aristotle was but the rubbish of an adam, and athens the rudiments of paradise!" jean paul has amusingly burlesqued these conceits. "adam, in his state of innocence, possessed a knowledge of all the arts and sciences, universal and scholastic history, the several penal and other codes of law, and all the old dead languages, as well as the living. he was, as it were, a living pegasus and pindus, a movable lodge of sublime light, a royal literary society, a pocket seat of the muses, and a short golden age of louis the fourteenth!" adam has been called the man without a navel, because, not being born of woman, there could be no umbilical cord to cut. the thought goes deep. in addition to the mythico theological pictures of the mechanical creation and superlative condition of the first man, two forms of statement have been advanced by thoughtful students of nature. one is the theory of chronological progressive development; the other is the theory of the strauss gives a multitude of apposite quotations in his christliche glaubenslehre, band i. s. , sect. , ff. simultaneous creation of organic families of different species or typical forms. the advocate of the former goes back along the interminable vistas of geologic time, tracing his ancestral line through the sinking forms of animal life, until, with the aid of a microscope, he sees a closed vesicle of structureless membrane; and this he recognises as the scientific adam. this theory has been brought into fresh discussion by mr. darwin in his rich and striking work on the origin of species the other view contrasts widely with this, and is not essentially different from the account in genesis. it shows god himself creating by regular methods, in natural materials, not by a vicegerent law, not with the anthropomorphitic hands of an external potter. every organized fabric, however complex, originates in a single physiological cell. every individual organism from the simple plant known as red snow to the oak, from the zoophyte to man is developed from such a cell. this is unquestionable scientific knowledge. the phenomenal process of organic advancement is through growth of the cell by selective appropriation of material, self multiplication of the cell, chemical transformations of the pabulum of the cell, endowment of the muscular and nervous tissues produced by those transformations with vital and psychical properties. but the essence of the problem lies in the question, why does one of these simple cells become a cabbage, another a rat, another a whale, another a man? within the limits of known observation during historic time, every organism yields seed or bears progeny after its own kind. between all neighboring species there are impassable, discrete chasms. the direct reason, therefore, why one cell stops in completion at any given vegetable stage, another at a certain animal stage, is that its producing parent was that vegetable or that animal. now, going back to the first individual of each kind, which had no determining parent like itself, the theory of the gradually ameliorating development of one species out of the next below it is one mode of solving the problem. another mode more satisfactory at least to theologians and their allies is to conclude that god, the divine force, by whom the life of the universe is given, made the world after an ideal plan, including a systematic arrangement of all the possible modifications. this plan was in his thought, in the unity of all its parts, from the beginning; and the animate creation is the execution of its diagrams in organic life. instead of the lineal extraction of the complicated scheme out of one cell, there has been, from epoch to epoch, the simultaneous production of all included in one of its sections. the creator, at his chosen times, calling into existence a multitude of cells, gave each one the amount and type of organic force which would carry it to the destined grade and form. in this manner may have originated, at the same time, the first sparrow, the first horse, the first man, in short, a whole circle of congeners. "the grassy clods now calved; now half appear'd the tawny lion, pawing to get free his hinder parts, then springs as broke from bonds, and rampant shakes his brinded mane." the most forcible defence of this hypothesis is that made by herbert spencer. see, in his volume of essays, no. of the haythorne papers. also see oken, entstehung des ersten menechen, isis, , ss. - . each creature, therefore, would be distinct from others from the first. "man, though rising from not man, came forth sharply defined." the races thus originated in their initiative representatives by the creative power of god, thenceforth possess in themselves the power, each one, in the generative act, to put its typical dynamic stamp upon the primordial cells of its immediate descendants. adam, then, was a wild man, cast in favoring conditions of climate, endowed with the same faculties as now, only not in so high a degree. for, by his peculiar power of forming habits, accumulating experience, transmitting acquirements and tendencies, he has slowly risen to his present state with all its wealth of wisdom, arts, and comforts. by either of these theories, that of darwin, or that of agassiz, man, the head of the great organic family of the earth, and it matters not at all whether there were only one adam and eve, or whether each separate race had its own adams and eves, not merely a solitary pair, but simultaneous hundreds, man, physically considered, is indistinguishably included in the creative plan under the same laws and forces, and visibly subject to the same destination, as the lower animals. he starts with a cell as they do, grows to maturity by assimilative organization and endowing transformation of foreign nutriment as they do, his life is a continuous process of waste and repair of tissues as theirs is, and there is, from the scientific point of view, no conceivable reason why he should not be subject to physical death as they are. they have always been subject to death, which, therefore, is an aboriginal constituent of the creative plan. it has been estimated, upon data furnished by scientific observation, that since the appearance of organic life on earth, millions of years ago, animals enough have died to cover all the lands of the globe with their bones to the height of three miles. consequently, the historic commencement of death is not to be found in the sin of man. we shall discover it as a necessity in the first organic cell that was ever formed. the spherule of force which is the primitive basis of a cell spends itself in the discharge of its work. in other words, "the amount of vital action which can be performed by each living cell has a definite limit." when that limit is reached, the exhausted cell is dead. to state the fact differently: no function can be performed without "the disintegration of a certain amount of tissue, whose components are then removed as effete by the excretory processes." this final expenditure on the part of a cell of its modification of force is the act of molecular death, the germinal essence of all decay. that this organic law should rule in every living structure is a necessity inherent in the actual conditions of the creation. and wherever we look in the realm of physical man, even "from the red outline of beginning adam" to the amorphous adipocere of the last corpse when fate's black curtain falls on our race, we shall discern death. for death is the other side of life. life and death are the two hands with which the organic power works. the threescore simple elements known to chemists die, that is, surrender their peculiar powers and properties, and enter into new combinations to produce and support higher forms of life. otherwise these inorganic elemental wastes would be all that the material universe could show. the diversity of origin of the human races, by louis agassiz, christian examiner, july, . the simple plant consists of single cells, which, in its development, give up their independent life for the production of a more exalted vegetable form. the formation of a perfectly organized plant is made possible only through the continuous dying and replacement of its cells. similarly, in the development of an animal, the constituent cells die for the good of the whole creature; and the more perfect the animal the greater the subordination of the parts. the cells of the human body are incessantly dying, being borne off and replaced. the epidermis or scarf skin is made of millions of insensible scales, consisting of former cells which have died in order with their dead bodies to build this guardian wall around the tender inner parts. thus, death, operating within the individual, seen in the light of natural science, is a necessity, is purely a form of self surrendering beneficence, is, indeed, but a hidden and indirect process and completion of life. and is not the death of the total organism just as needful, just as benignant, as the death of the component atoms? is it not the same law, still expressing the same meaning? the chemicalelements wherein individuality is wanting, as wagner says, die that vegetable bodies may live. individual vegetable bodies die that new individuals of the species may live, and that they may supply the conditions for animals to live. the individual beast dies that other individuals of his species may live, and also for the good of man. the plant lives by the elements and by other plants: the animal lives by the elements, by the plants, and by other animals: man lives and reigns by the service of the elements, of the plants, and of the animals. the individual man dies if we may trust the law of analogy for the good of his species, and that he may furnish the conditions for the development of a higher life elsewhere. it is quite obvious that, if individuals did not die, new individuals could not live, because there would not be room. it is also equally evident that, if individuals did not die, they could never have any other life than the present. the foregoing considerations, fathomed and appreciated, transform the institution of death from caprice and punishment into necessity and benignity. in the timid sentimentalist's view, death is horrible. nature unrolls the chart of organic existence, a convulsed and lurid list of murderers, from the spider in the window to the tiger in the jungle, from the shark at the bottom of the sea to the eagle against the floor of the sky. as the perfumed fop, in an interval of reflection, gazes at the spectacle through his dainty eyeglass, the prospect swims in blood and glares with the ghastly phosphorus of corruption, and he shudders with sickness. in the philosophical naturalist's view, the dying panorama is wholly different. carnivorous violence prevents more pain than it inflicts; the wedded laws of life and death wear the solemn beauty and wield the merciful functions of god; all is balanced and ameliorating; above the slaughterous struggle safely soar the dove and the rainbow; out of the charnel blooms the rose to which the nightingale sings love; nor is there poison which helps not health, nor destruction which supplies not creation with nutriment for greater good and joy. by painting such pictures as that of a woman with "sin" written on her forehead in great glaring letters, giving to death a globe entwined by a serpent, or that of death as a hermann wagner, der tod, beleuchtet vom standpunkte der naturwissenschaften. skeleton, waving a black banner over the world and sounding through a trumpet, "woe, woe to the inhabitants of the earth!" by interpreting the great event as punishment instead of fulfilment, extermination instead of transition, men have elaborated, in the faith of their imaginations, a melodramatic death which nature never made. truly, to the capable observer, death bears the double aspect of necessity and benignity: necessity, because it is an ultimate fact, as the material world is made, that, since organic action implies expenditure of force, the modicum of force given to any physical organization must finally be spent; benignity, because a bodily immortality on earth would both prevent all the happiness of perpetually rising millions and be an unspeakable curse upon its possessors. the benevolence of death appears from this fact, that it boundlessly multiplies the numbers who can enjoy the prerogatives of life. it calls up ever fresh generations, with wondering eyes and eager appetites, to the perennial banquet of existence. had adam not sinned and been expelled from paradise, some of the christian fathers thought, the fixed number of saints foreseen by god would have been reached and then no more would have been born. such would have been the necessity, there being no death. but, by the removal of one company as they grow tired and sated, room is made for a new company to approach and enjoy the ever renewing spectacle and feast of the world. thus all the delightful boons life has, instead of being cooped within a little stale circle, are ceaselessly diffused and increased. vivacious claimants advance, see what is to be seen, partake of what is furnished, are satisfied, and retire; and their places are immediately taken by hungry successors. thus the torch of life is passed briskly, with picturesque and stimulating effect, along the manifold race of running ages, instead of smouldering stagnantly forever in the moveless grasp of one. the amount of enjoyment, the quantity of conscious experience, gained from any given exhibition by a million persons to each of whom it is successively shown for one hour, is, beyond all question, immensely greater and keener than one person could have from it in a million hours. the generations of men seem like fire flies glittering down the dark lane of history; but each swarm had its happy turn, fulfilled its hour, and rightfully gave way to its followers. the disinterested beneficence of the creator ordains that the same plants, insects, men, shall not unsurrenderingly monopolize and stop the bliss of breath. death is the echo of the voice of love reverberated from the limit of life. the cumulative fund of human experience, the sensitive affiliating line of history, like a cerebral cord of personal identity traversing the centuries, renders a continual succession of generations equivalent to the endless existence of one generation; but with this mighty difference, that it preserves all the edge and spice of novelty. for consider what would be the result if death were abolished and men endowed with an earthly immortality. at first they might rejoice, and think their last, dreadest enemy destroyed. but what a mistake! in the first place, since none are to be removed from the earth, of course none must come into it. the space and material are all wanted by those now in possession. all are soon mature men and women, not another infant ever to hang upon a mother's breast or be lifted in a father's arms. augustine, op. imp. iii. . all the prattling music, fond cares, yearning love, and gushing joys and hopes associated with the rearing of children, gone! what a stupendous fragment is stricken from the fabric of those enriching satisfactions which give life its truest value and its purest charm! ages roll on. they see the same everlasting faces, confront the same returning phenomena, engage in the same worn out exercises, or lounge idly in the unchangeable conditions which bear no stimulant which they have not exhausted. thousands of years pass. they have drunk every attainable spring of knowledge dry. not a prize stirs a pulse. all pleasures, permutated till ingenuity is baffled, disgust them. no terror startles them. no possible experiment remains untried; nor is there any unsounded fortune left. no dim marvels and boundless hopes beckon them with resistless lures into the future. they have no future. one everlasting now is their all. at last the incessant repetition of identical phenomena, the unmitigated sameness of things, the eternal monotony of affairs, become unutterably burdensome and horrible. full of loathing and immeasurable fatigue, a weariness like the weight of a universe oppresses them; and what would they not give for a change! any thing to break the nightmare spell of ennui, to fling off the dateless flesh, to die, to pass into some unguessed realm, to lie down and sleep forever: it would be the infinite boon! take away from man all that is dependent on, or interlinked with, the appointment of death, and it would make such fundamental alterations of his constitution and relations that he would no longer be man. it would leave us an almost wholly different race. if it is a divine boon that men should be, then death is a good to us; for it enables us to be men. without it there would neither be husband and wife, nor parent and child, nor family hearth and altar; nor, indeed, would hardly any thing be as it is now. the existent phenomena of nature and the soul would comprise all. and when the jaded individual, having mastered and exhausted this finite sum, looked in vain for any thing new or further, the world would be a hateful dungeon to him, and life an awful doom; and how gladly he would give all that lies beneath the sun's golden round and top of sovereignty to migrate into some untried region and state of being, or even to renounce existence altogether and lie down forever in the attractive slumber of the grave! without death, mankind would undergo the fate of sisyphus, no future, and in the present the oppression of an intolerable task with an aching vacuum of motive. the certainty and the mystery of death create the stimulus and the romance of life. give the human race an earthly immortality, and you exclude them from every thing greater and diviner than the earth affords. who could consent to that? take away death, and a brazen wall girds in our narrow life, against which, if we remained men, we should dash and chafe in the climax of our miserable longing, as the caged lion or eagle beats against his bars. the gift of an earthly immortality conferred on a single person a boon which thoughtless myriads would clasp with frantic triumph would prove, perhaps, a still more fearful curse than if distributed over the whole species. retaining his human affections, how excruciating and remediless his grief must be, to be so cut off from all equal community of experience and destiny with mankind, to see all whom he loves, generation after generation, fading away, leaving him alone, to form new ties again to be dissolved, to watch his beloved ones growing old and infirm, while he stands without a change! his love would be left, in agony of melancholy grandeur, "a solitary angel hovering over a universe of tombs" on the tremulous wings of memory and grief, those wings incapacitated, by his madly coveted prerogative of deathlessness, ever to move from above the sad rows of funereal urns. zanoni, in bulwer's magnificent conception, says to viola, "the flower gives perfume to the rock on whose breast it grows. a little while, and the flower is dead; but the rock still endures, the snow at its breast, the sunshine on its summit." a deathless individual in a world of the dying, joined with them by ever bereaved affections, would be the wretchedest creature conceivable. as no man ever yet prayed for any thing he would pray to be released, to embrace dear objects in his arms and float away with them to heaven, or even to lie down with them in the kind embrace of mother earth. and if he had no affections, but lived a stoic existence, exempt from every sympathy, in impassive solitude, he could not be happy, he would not be man: he must be an intellectual marble of thought or a monumental mystery of woe. death, therefore, is benignity. when men wish there were no such appointed event, they are deceived, and know not what they wish. literature furnishes a strange and profound, though wholly unintentional, confirmation of this view. every form in which literary genius has set forth the conception of an earthly immortality represents it as an evil. this is true even down to swift's painful account of the struldbrugs in the island of laputa. the legend of the wandering jew, one of the most marvellous products of the human mind in imaginative literature, is terrific with its blazoned revelation of the contents of an endless life on earth. this story has been embodied, with great variety of form and motive, in more than a hundred works. every one is, without the writer's intention, a disguised sermon of gigantic force on the benignity of death. as in classic fable poor tithon became immortal in the dawning arms of eos only to lead a shrivelled, joyless, repulsive existence; and the fair young witch of cuma had ample cause to regret that ever apollo granted her request for as many years as she held grains of dust in her hand; and as all tales of successful alchemists or rosicrucians concur in depicting the result to be utter disappointment and revulsion from the accursed prize; we may take it as evidence of a spontaneous conviction in the depths of human nature a conviction sure to be brought out whenever the attempt is made to describe in life an opposite thought that death is benign for man as he is constituted and related on earth. the voice of human nature speaks truth through the lips of cicero, saying, at the close of his essay on old age, "quodsi non sumus immortales futuri, tamen exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est." in a conversation at the house of sappho, a discussion once arose upon the question whether death was a blessing or an evil. some maintained, the former alternative; but sappho victoriously closed the debate by saying, if it were a blessing to die, the immortal gods would experience it. the gods live forever: therefore, death is an evil. the reasoning was plausible and brilliant. yet its sophistry is complete. to men, conditioned as they are in this world, death may be the greatest blessing; while to the gods, conditioned so differently, it may have no similar application. bibliographical notice of the legend of the wandering jew, by paul lacroix; trans. into english by g.w. thornbury. grasse, der ewige jude. fragment x. quoted in mare's hist. lit. greece, book iii. chap. v. sect. . because an earthly eternity in the flesh would be a frightful calamity, is no reason why a heavenly eternity in the spirit would be other than a blissful inheritance. thus the remonstrance which may be fallaciously based on some of the foregoing considerations namely, that they would equally make it appear that the immortality of man in any condition would be undesirable is met. a conclusion drawn from the facts of the present scene of things, of course, will not apply to a scene inconceivably different. those whose only bodies are their minds may be fetterless, happy, leading a wondrous life, beyond our deepest dream and farthest fancy, and eternally free from trouble or satiety. death is to us, while we live, what we think it to be. if we confront it with analytic and defiant eye, it is that nothing which ever ceases in beginning to be. if, letting the superstitious senses tyrannize over us and cow our better part of man, we crouch before the imagination of it, it assumes the shape of the skeleton monarch who takes the world for his empire, the electric fluid for his chariot, and time for his sceptre. in the contemplation of death, hitherto, fancy inspired by fear has been by far too much the prominent faculty and impulse. the literature of the subject is usually ghastly, appalling, and absurd, with point of view varying from that of the credulous hindu, personifying death as a monster with a million mouths devouring all creatures and licking them in his flaming lips as a fire devours the moths or as the sea swallows the torrents, to that of the atheistic german dreamer, who converts nature into an immeasurable corpse worked by galvanic forces, and that of the bold french philosopher, carnot, whose speculations have led to the theory that the sun will finally expend all its heat, and constellated life cease, as the solar system hangs, like a dead orrery, ashy and spectral, the ghost of what it was. so the extravagant author of festus says, "god tore the glory from the sun's broad brow and flung the flaming scalp away." the subject should be viewed by the unclouded intellect, guided by serene faith, in the light of scientific knowledge. then death is revealed, first, as an organic necessity in the primordial life cell; secondly, as the cessation of a given form of life in its completion; thirdly, as a benignant law, an expression of the creator's love; fourthly, as the inaugurating condition of another form of life. what we are to refer to sin is all the seeming lawlessness and untimeliness of death. had not men sinned, all would reach a good age and pass away without suffering. death is benignant necessity; the irregularity and pain associated with it are an inherited punishment. finally, it is a condition of improvement in life. death is the incessant touch with which the artist, nature, is bringing her works to perfection. physical death is experienced by man in common with the brute. upon grounds of physiology there is no greater evidence for man's spiritual survival through that overshadowed crisis than there is for the brute's. and on grounds of sentiment man ought not to shrink from sharing his open future with these mute comrades. des cartes and malebranche taught that animals are mere machines, without souls, worked by god's arbitrary power. swedenborg held that "the souls of brutes are extinguished with their bodies." thomson's trans. of bhagavad gita, p. . outlines of the infinite, chap. ii. sect. iv. . leibnitz, by his doctrine of eternal monads, sustains the immortality of all creatures. coleridge defended the same idea. agassiz, with much power and beauty, advocates the thought that animals as well as men have a future life. the old traditions affirm that at least four beasts have been translated to heaven; namely, the ass that spoke to balaam, the white foal that christ rode into jerusalem, the steed borak that bore mohammed on his famous night journey, and the dog that wakened the seven sleepers. to recognise, as goethe did, brothers in the green wood and in the teeming air, to sympathize with all lower forms of life, and hope for them an open range of limitless possibilities in the hospitable home of god, is surely more becoming to a philosopher, a poet, or a christian, than that careless scorn which commonly excludes them from regard and contemptuously leaves them to annihilation. this subject has been genially treated by richard dean in his "essay on the future life of brutes." but on moral and psychological grounds the distinction is vast between the dying man and the dying brute. bretschneider, in a beautiful sermon on this point, specifies four particulars. man foresees and provides for his death: the brute does not. man dies with unrecompensed merit and guilt: the brute does not. man dies with faculties and powers fitted for a more perfect state of existence: the brute does not. man dies with the expectation of another life: the brute does not. three contrasts may be added to these. first, man desires to die amidst his fellows: the brute creeps away by himself, to die in solitude. secondly, man inters his dead with burial rites, rears a memorial over them, cherishes recollections of them which often change his subsequent character: but who ever heard of a deer watching over an expiring comrade, a deer funeral winding along the green glades of the forest? the barrows of norway, the mounds of yucatan, the mummy pits of memphis, the rural cemeteries of our own day, speak the human thoughts of sympathetic reverence and posthumous survival, typical of something superior to dust. thirdly, man often makes death an active instead of a passive experience, his will as it is his fate, a victory instead of a defeat. as mirabeau sank towards his end, he ordered them to pour perfumes and roses on him, and to bring music; and so, with the air of a haughty conqueror, amidst the volcanic smoke and thunder of reeling france, his giant spirit went forth. the patriot is proud to lay his body a sacrifice on the altar of his country's weal. the philanthropist rejoices to spend himself without pay in a noble cause, to offer up his life in the service of his fellow men. thousands of generous students have given their lives to science and clasped death amidst their trophied achievements. who can count the confessors who have thought it bliss and glory to be martyrs for truth and god? creatures capable of such deeds must inherit eternity. their transcendent souls step from their rejected mansions through the blue gateway of the air to the lucid palace of the stars. any meaner allotment would be discordant and unbecoming their rank. contemplations like these exorcise the spectre host of the brain and quell the horrid brood of fear. the noble purpose of self sacrifice enables us to smile upon the grave, "as some sweet clarion's breath stirs the soldier's scorn of danger." contributions to the natural history of the united states, vol. i. pp. - . umbreit, fiber das sterben ais einen akt menschlich personlicher selbststandigkeit. studien und kritiken, . death parts with its false frightfulness, puts on its true beauty, and becomes at once the evening star of memory and the morning star of hope, the hesper of the sinking flesh, the phosphor of the rising soul. let the night come, then: it shall be welcome. and, as we gird our loins to enter the ancient mystery, we will exclaim, with vanishing voice, to those we leave behind, "though i stoop into a dark tremendous sea of cloud, it is but for a time i press god's lamp close to my breast: its splendor, soon or late, will pierce the gloom: i shall emerge somewhere." chapter iii. grounds of the belief in a future life. it is the purpose of the following chapter to describe the originating supports of the common belief in a future life; not to probe the depth and test the value of the various grounds out of which the doctrine grows, but only to give a descriptive sketch of what they are, and a view of the process of growth. the objections urged by unbelievers belong to an open discussion of the question of immortality, not to an illustrative statement of the suggesting grounds on which the popular belief rests. when, after sufficient investigation, we ask ourselves from what causes the almost universal expectation of another life springs, and by what influences it is nourished, we shall not find adequate answer in less than four words: feeling, imagination, faith, and reflection. the doctrine of a future life for man has been created by the combined force of instinctive desire, analogical observation, prescriptive authority, and philosophical speculation. these are the four pillars on which the soul builds the temple of its hopes; or the four glasses through which it looks to see its eternal heritage. first, it is obvious that man is endowed at once with foreknowledge of death and with a powerful love of life. it is not a love of being here; for he often loathes the scene around him. it is a love of self possessed existence; a love of his own soul in its central consciousness and bounded royalty. this is an inseparable element of his very entity. crowned with free will, walking on the crest of the world, enfeoffed with individual faculties, served by vassal nature with tributes of various joy, he cannot bear the thought of losing himself, of sliding into the general abyss of matter. his interior consciousness is permeated with a self preserving instinct, and shudders at every glimpse of danger or hint of death. the soul, pervaded with a guardian instinct of life, and seeing death's steady approach to destroy the body, necessitates the conception of an escape into another state of existence. fancy and reason, thus set at work, speedily construct a thousand theories filled with details. desire first fathers thought, and then thought woos belief. secondly, man, holding his conscious being precious beyond all things, and shrinking with pervasive anxieties from the moment of destined dissolution, looks around through the realms of nature, with thoughtful eye, in search of parallel phenomena further developed, significant sequels in other creatures' fates, whose evolution and fulfilment may haply throw light on his own. with eager vision and heart prompted imagination he scrutinizes whatever appears related to his object. seeing the snake cast its old slough and glide forth renewed, he conceives, so in death man but sheds his fleshly exuvia, while the spirit emerges, regenerate. he beholds the beetle break from its filthy sepulchre and commence its summer work; and straightway he hangs a golden scarsbaus in his temples as an emblem of a future life. after vegetation's wintry deaths, hailing the returning spring that brings resurrection and life to the graves of the sod, he dreams of some far off spring of humanity, yet to come, when the frosts of man's untoward doom shall relent, and all the costly seeds sown through ages in the great earth tomb shall shoot up in celestial shapes. on the moaning sea shore, weeping some dear friend, he perceives, now ascending in the dawn, the planet which he lately saw declining in the dusk; and he is cheered by the thought that "as sinks the day star in the ocean bed, and yet anon repairs his drooping head, and tricks his beams, and with new spangled ore flames in the forehead of the morning sky, so lycidas, sunk low, shall mount on high." some traveller or poet tells him fabulous tales of a bird which, grown aged, fills its nest with spices, and, spontaneously burning, soars from the aromatic fire, rejuvenescent for a thousand years; and he cannot but take the phoenix for a miraculous type of his own soul springing, free and eternal, from the ashes of his corpse. having watched the silkworm, as it wove its cocoon and lay down in its oblong grave apparently dead, until at length it struggles forth, glittering with rainbow colors, a winged moth, endowed with new faculties and living a new life in a new sphere, he conceives that so the human soul may, in the fulness of time, disentangle itself from the imprisoning meshes of this world of larva, a thing of spirit beauty, to sail through heavenly airs; and henceforth he engraves a butterfly on the tombstone in vivid prophecy of immortality. thus a moralizing observation of natural similitudes teaches man to hope for an existence beyond death. thirdly, the prevailing belief in a future life is spread and upheld by the influence of authority. the doctrine of the soul's survival and transference to another world, where its experience depends on conditions observed or violated here, conditions somewhat within the control of a select class of men here, such a doctrine is the very hiding place of the power of priest craft, a vast engine of interest and sway which the shrewd insight of priesthoods has often devised and the cunning policy of states subsidized. in most cases of this kind the asserted doctrine is placed on the basis of a divine revelation, and must be implicitly received. god proclaims it through his anointed ministers: therefore, to doubt it or logically criticize it is a crime. history bears witness to such a procedure wherever an organized priesthood has flourished, from primeval pagan india to modern papal rome. it is traceable from the dark osirian shrines of egypt and the initiating temple at eleusis to the funeral fires of gaul and the druidic conclave in the oak groves of mona; from the reeking altars of mexico in the time of montezuma to the masses for souls in purgatory said this day in half the churches of christendom. much of the popular faith in immortality which has prevailed in all ages has been owing to the authority of its promulgators, a deep and honest trust on the part of the people in the authoritative dicta of their religious teachers. in all the leading nations of the earth, the doctrine of a future life is a tradition handed down from immemorial antiquity, embalmed in sacred books which are regarded as infallible revelations from god. of course the thoughtless never think of questioning it; the reverent piously embrace it; all are educated to receive it. in addition to the proclamation of a future life by the sacred books and by the priestly hierarchies, it has also been affirmed by countless individual saints, philosophers, and prophets. most persons readily accept it on trust from them as a demonstrated theory or an inspired knowledge of theirs. it is natural for modest unspeculative minds, busied with worldly cares, to say, these learned sages, these theosophic seers, so much more gifted, educated, and intimate with the divine counsels and plan than we are, with so much deeper experience and purer insight than we have, must know the truth: we cannot in any other way do so well as to follow their guidance and confide in their assertions. accordingly, multitudes receive the belief in a life to come on the authority of the world's intellectual and religious leaders. fourthly, the belief in a future life results from philosophical meditation, and is sustained by rational proofs. for the completion of the present outline, it now remains to give a brief exposition of these arguments. for the sake of convenience and clearness, we must arrange these reasonings in five classes; namely, the physiological, the analogical, the psychological, the theological, and the moral. there is a group of considerations drawn from the phenomena of our bodily organization, life and death, which compose the physiological argument for the separate existence of the soul. in the first place, it is contended that the human organization, so wondrously vitalized, developed, and ruled, could not have grown up out of mere matter, but implies a pre existent mental entity, a spiritual force or idea, which constituted the primeval impulse, grouped around itself the organic conditions of our existence, and constrained the material elements to the subsequent processes and results, according to a prearranged plan. this dynamic agent, this ontological cause, may naturally survive when the fleshly organization which it has built around itself dissolves. its independence before the body began involves its independence after the body is ended. stahl has especially illustrated in physiology this idea of an independent soul monad. secondly, as some potential being must have preceded our birth, to assimilate and construct the physical system, so the great phenomena attending our conscious life necessitate, both to our instinctive apprehension and in our philosophical conviction, the distinctive division of man into body and soul, tabernacle and tenant. the illustrious boerhaave wrote a valuable dissertation on the distinction of the mind from the body, which is to be found among his works. every man knows that he dwells in the flesh but is not flesh. he is a free, personal mind, occupying and using a material body, but not identified with it. ideas and passions of purely immaterial origin pervade every nerve with terrific intensity, and shake his encasing corporeity like an earthquake. a thought, a sentiment, a fancy, may prostrate him as effectually as a blow on his brain from a hammer. he wills to move a palsied limb: the soul is unaffected by the paralysis, but the muscles refuse to obey his volition: the distinction between the person willing and the instrument to be wielded is unavoidable. thirdly, the fact of death itself irresistibly suggests the duality of flesh and spirit. it is the removal of the energizing mind that leaves the frame so empty and meaningless. think of the undreaming sleep of a corpse which dissolution is winding in its chemical embrace. a moment ago that hand was uplifted to clasp yours, intelligent accents were vocal on those wohlfarth, triumph des glaubens an unsterblichkeit und wiedersehen uber jeden zweifel. oporinus, historia critica doctrina de immortalitate mortalium. muller, elements of physiology, book vi. sect. i. ch. . lips, the light of love beamed in that eye. one shuddering sigh, and how cold, vacant, forceless, dead, lies the heap of clay! it is impossible to prevent the conviction that an invisible power has been liberated; that the flight of an animating principle has produced this awful change. why may not that untraceable something which has gone still exist? its vanishing from our sensible cognizance is no proof of its perishing. not a shadow of genuine evidence has ever been afforded that the real life powers of any creature are destroyed. in the absence of that proof, a multitude of considerations urge us to infer the contrary. surely there is room enough for the contrary to be true; for, as jacobi profoundly observes, "life is not a form of body; but body is one form of life." therefore the soul which now exists in this form, not appearing to be destroyed on its departure hence, must be supposed to live hereafter in some other form. a second series of observations and reflections, gathered from partial similarities elsewhere in the world, are combined to make the analogical argument for a future life. for many centuries, in the literature of many nations, a standard illustration of the thought that the soul survives the decay of its earthy investiture has been drawn from the metamorphosis of the caterpillar into the butterfly. this world is the scene of our grub state. the body is but a chrysalis of soul. when the preliminary experience and stages are finished and the transformation is complete, the spirit emerges from its cast off cocoon and broken cell into the more ethereal air and sunnier light of a higher world's eternal day. the emblematic correspondence is striking, and the inference is obvious and beautiful. nor is the change, the gain in endowments and privileges, greater in the supposed case of man than it is from the slow and loathsome worm on the leaf to the swift and glittering insect in the air. secondly, in the material world, so far as we can judge, nothing is ever absolutely destroyed. there is no such thing as annihilation. things are changed, transformations abound; but essences do not cease to be. take a given quantity of any kind of matter; divide and subdivide it in ten thousand ways, by mechanical violence, by chemical solvents. still it exists, as the same quantity of matter, with unchanged qualities as to its essence, and will exist when nature has manipulated it in all her laboratories for a billion ages. now, as a solitary exception to this, are minds absolutely destroyed? are will, conscience, thought, and love annihilated? personal intelligence, affection, identity, are inseparable components of the idea of a soul. and what method is there of crushing or evaporating these out of being? what force is there to compel them into nothing? death is not a substantive cause working effects. it is itself merely an effect. it is simply a change in the mode of existence. that this change puts an end to existence is an assertion against analogy, and wholly unsupported. thirdly, following the analogy of science and the visible order of being, we are led to the conception of an ascending series of existences rising in regular gradation from coarse to fine, from brutal to mental, from earthly composite to simply spiritual, and thus pointing up the rounds of life's ladder, through all nature, to the angelic ranks of heaven. then, feeling his kinship and common vocation with supernal beings, man is assured of a loftier condition of sir humphry davy, proteus or immortality. bakewell, natural evidence of a future state. butler, analogy, part i. ch. . of existence reserved for him. there are no such immense, vacantly yawning chasms, as that would be, between our fleshly estate and the godhead. nature takes no such enormous jumps. her scaling advance is by staid and normal steps. "there's lifeless matter. add the power of shaping, and you've the crystal: add again the organs wherewith to subdue sustenance to the form and manner of one's self, and you've the plant: add power of motion, senses, and so forth, and you've all kinds of beasts: suppose a pig. to pig add reason, foresight, and such stuff, then you have man. what shall, we add to man to bring him higher?" freedom from the load of clay, emancipation of the spirit into the full range and masterdom of a spirit's powers! fourthly, many strong similarities between our entrance into this world and our departure out of it would make us believe that death is but another and higher birth. any one acquainted with the state of an unborn infant deriving its sole nutriment, its very existence, from its vascular connection with its mother could hardly imagine that its separation from its mother would introduce it to a new and independent life. he would rather conclude that it would perish, like a twig wrenched from its parent limb. so it may be in the separation of the soul from the body. further, as our latent or dimly groping senses were useless while we were developing in embryo, and then implied this life, so we now have, in rudimentary condition, certain powers of reason, imagination, and heart, which prophesy heaven and eternity; and mysterious intimations ever and anon reach us from a diviner sphere, "like hints and echoes of the world to spirits folded in the womb." the persian poet, buzurgi, says on this theme, "what is the soul? the seminal principle from the loins of destiny. this world is the womb: the body, its enveloping membrane: the bitterness of dissolution, dame fortune's pangs of childbirth. what is death? to be born again, an angel of eternity." fifthly, many cultivated thinkers have firmly believed that the soul is not so young as is usually thought, but is an old stager on this globe, having lived through many a previous existence, here or elsewhere. they sustain this conclusion by various considerations, either drawn from premises presupposing the necessary eternity of spirits, or resting on dusky reminiscences, "shadowy recollections," of visions and events vanished long ago. now, if the idea of foregone conscious lives, personal careers oft repeated with unlost being, be admitted, as it frequently has been by such men as plato and wordsworth, all the bretschneider, predigten uber tod, unsterblichkeit, und anferstehung. james parker, account of the divine goodness concerning the pre existence of souls. connected analogies of the case carry us to the belief that immortality awaits us. we shall live through the next transition, as we have lived through the past ones. sixthly, rejecting the hypothesis of an anterior life, and entertaining the supposition that there is no creating and overruling god, but that all things have arisen by spontaneous development or by chance, still, we are not consistently obliged to expect annihilation as the fate of the soul. fairly reasoning from the analogy of the past, across the facts of the present, to the impending contingencies of the future, we may say that the next stage in the unfolding processes of nature is not the destruction of our consciousness, but issues in a purer life, elevates us to a spiritual rank. it is just to argue that if mindless law or boundless fortuity made this world and brought us here, it may as well make, or have made, another world, and bear us there. law or chance excluding god from the question may as easily make us immortal as mortal. reasoning by analogy, we may affirm that, as life has been given us, so it will be given us again and forever. seventhly, faith in immortality is fed by another analogy, not based on reflection, but instinctively felt. every change of material in our organism, every change of consciousness, is a kind of death. we partially die as often as we leave behind forgotten experiences and lost states of being. we die successively to infancy, childhood, youth, manhood. the past is the dead: but our course is still on, forever on. having survived so many deaths, we expect to survive all others and to be ourselves eternally. there is a third cluster of reasonings, deduced from the distinctive nature of spirit, constituting the psychological argument for the existence of the soul independent of the body. in the outset, obviously, if the soul be an immaterial entity, its natural immortality follows; because death and decay can only be supposed to take effect in dissoluble combinations. several ingenious reasons have been advanced in proof of the soul's immateriality, reasons cogent enough to have convinced a large class of philosophers. it is sufficient here to notice the following one. all motion implies a dynamic mover. matter is dormant. power is a reality entirely distinct from matter in its nature. but man is essentially an active power, a free will. consequently there is in him an immaterial principle, since all power is immaterial. that principle is immortal, because subsisting in a sphere of being whose categories exclude the possibility of dissolution. secondly, should we admit the human soul to be material, yet if it be an ultimate monad, an indivisible atom of mind, it is immortal still, defying all the forces of destruction. and that it actually is an uncompounded unit may be thus proved. consciousness is simple, not collective. hence the power of consciousness, the central soul, is an absolute integer. for a living perceptive whole cannot be made of dead imperceptive parts. if the soul were composite, each component part would be an individual, a distinguishable consciousness. such not being the fact, the conclusion results that the soul is one, a simple substance. astrue, dissertation sur l'immaterialite et l'immortalite de l'ame. broughton, defence of the doctrine of the human soul as an immaterial and naturally immortal principle. marstaller, von der unsterblichkeit der menschlichen seele. andrew baxter, inquiry into the nature of the soul. herbart, lehrbuch zur psychologie, sect. . of course it is not liable to death, but is naturally eternal. thirdly, the indestructibleness of the soul is a direct inference from its ontological characteristics. reason, contemplating the elements of the soul, cannot but embrace the conviction of its perpetuity and its essential independence of the fleshly organization. our life in its innermost substantive essence is best defined as a conscious force. our present existence is the organic correlation of that personal force with the physical materials of the body, and with other forces. the cessation of that correlation at death by no means involves, so far as we can see, the destruction or the disindividualization of the primal personal force. it is a fact of striking significance, often noticed by psychologists, that we are unable to conceive ourselves as dead. the negation of itself is impossible to consciousness. the reason we have such a dread of death is that we conceive ourselves as still alive, only in the grave, or wandering through horrors and shut out from wonted pleasures. it belongs to material growths to ripen, loosen, decay; but what is there in sensation, reflection, memory, volition, to crumble in pieces and rot away? why should the power of hope, and joy, and faith, change into inanity and oblivion? what crucible shall burn up the ultimate of force? what material processes shall ever disintegrate the simplicity of spirit? earth and plant, muscle, nerve, and brain, belong to one sphere, and are subject to the temporal fates that rule there; but reason, imagination, love, will, belong to another, and, immortally fortressed there, laugh to scorn the fretful sieges of decay. fourthly, the surviving superiority of the soul, inferred from its contrast of qualities to those of its earthy environment, is further shown by another fact, the mind's dream power, and the ideal realm it freely soars or walks at large in when it pleases. this view has often been enlarged upon, especially by bonnet and sir henry wotton. the unhappy achilles, exhausted with weeping for his friend, lay, heavily moaning, on the shore of the far sounding sea, in a clear spot where the waves washed in upon the beach, when sleep took possession of him. the ghost of miserable patroclus calve to him and said, "sleepest thou and art forgetful of me, o achilles?" and the son of peleus cried, "come nearer: let us embrace each other, though but for a little while." then he stretched out his friendly hands, but caught him not; for the spirit, shrieking, vanished beneath the earth like smoke. astounded, achilles started up, clasped his hands, and said, dolefully, "alas! there is then indeed in the subterranean abodes a spirit and image, but there is no body in it." the realm of dreams is a world of mystic realities, intangible, yet existent, and all prophetic, through which the soul nightly floats while the gross body slumbers. it is everlasting, because there is nothing in it for corruption to take hold of. the appearances and sounds of that soft inner sphere, veiled so remote from sense, are reflections and echoes from the spirit world. or are they a direct vision and audience of it? the soul really is native resident in a world of truth, goodness, and beauty, fellow citizen with divine ideas and affections. through the senses it has knowledge and communion with the hard outer world of matter. when the senses fall away, it is left, imperishable denizen of its own appropriate world of idealities. schubert, die symbolik des traumes. iliad, lib. xxiii. ll. . another assemblage of views, based on the character of god, form the theological argument for the future existence of man. starting with the idea of a god of infinite perfections, the immortality of his children is an immediate deduction from the eternity of his purposes. for whatever purpose god originally gave man being, for the disinterested distribution of happiness, for the increase of his own glory, or whatever else, will he not for that same purpose continue him in being forever? in the absence of any reason to the contrary, we must so conclude. in view of the unlimited perfections of god, the fact of conscious responsible creatures being created is sufficient warrant of their perpetuity. otherwise god would be fickle. or, as one has said, he would be a mere drapery painter, nothing within the dress. secondly, leaving out of sight this illustration of an eternal purpose in eternal fulfilment, and confining our attention to the analogy of the divine works and the dignity of the divine worker, we shall be freshly led to the same conclusion. has god moulded the dead clay of the material universe into gleaming globes and ordered them to fly through the halls of space forever, and has he created, out of his own omnipotence, mental personalities reflecting his own attributes, and doomed them to go out in endless night after basking, poor ephemera, in the sunshine of a momentary life? it is not to be imagined that god ever works in vain. yet if a single consciousness be extinguished in everlasting nonentity, so far as the production of that consciousness is concerned he has wrought for nothing. his action was in vain, because all is now, to that being, exactly the same as if it had never been. god does nothing in sport or unmeaningly: least of all would he create filial spirits, dignified with the solemn endowments of humanity, without a high and serious end. to make men, gifted with such a transcendent largess of powers, wholly mortal, to rot forever in the grave after life's swift day, were work far more unworthy of god than the task was to michael angelo set him in mockery by pietro, the tyrant who succeeded lorenzo the magnificent in the dukedom of florence, that he should scoop up the snow in the via larga, and with his highest art mould a statue from it, to dissolve ere night in the glow of the italian sun. thirdly, it is an attribute of infinite wisdom to proportion powers to results, to adapt instruments to ends with exact fitness. but if we are utterly to die with the ceasing breath, then there is an amazing want of symmetry between our endowments and our opportunity; our attainments are most superfluously superior to our destiny. can it be that an earth house of six feet is to imprison forever the intellect of a la place, whose telescopic eye, piercing the unfenced fields of immensity, systematized more worlds than there are grains of dust in this globe? the heart of a borromeo, whose seraphic love expanded to the limits of sympathetic being? the soul of a wycliffe, whose undaunted will, in faithful consecration to duty, faced the fires of martyrdom and never blenched? the genius of a shakspeare, whose imagination exhausted worlds and then invented new? there is vast incongruity between our faculties and the scope given them here. on all it sees below the soul reads "inadequate," and rises aebli, unsterblichkeit der menschlichen seele, sechster brief. ulrici, unsterblichkeit der menschlichen seele aus dem wesen gottes erwiesen. dissatisfied from every feast, craving, with divine hunger and thirst, the ambrosia and nectar of a fetterless and immortal world. were we fated to perish at the goal of threescore, god would have harmonized our powers with our lot. he would never have set such magnificent conceptions over against such poor possibilities, nor have kindled so insatiable an ambition for so trivial a prize of dust to dust. fourthly, one of the weightiest supports of the belief in a future life is that yielded by the benevolence of god. annihilation is totally irreconcilable with this. that he whose love for his creatures is infinite will absolutely destroy them after their little span of life, when they have just tasted the sweets of existence and begun to know the noble delights of spiritual progress, and while illimitable heights of glory and blessedness are beckoning them, is incredible. we are unable to believe that while his children turn to him with yearning faith and gratitude, with fervent prayer and expectation, he will spurn them into unmitigated night, blotting out those capacities of happiness which he gave them with a virtual promise of endless increase. will the affectionate god permit humanity, ensconced in the field of being, like a nest of ground sparrows, to be trodden in by the hoof of annihilation? love watches to preserve life. it were moloch, not the universal father, that could crush into death these multitudes of loving souls supplicating him for life, dash into silent fragments these miraculous personal harps of a thousand strings, each capable of vibrating a celestial melody of praise and bliss. fifthly, the apparent claims of justice afford presumptive proof, hard to be resisted, of a future state wherein there are compensations for the unmerited ills, a complement for the fragmentary experiences, and rectification for the wrongs, of the present life. god is just; but he works without impulse or caprice, by laws whose progressive evolution requires time to show their perfect results. through the brief space of this existence, where the encountering of millions of free intelligences within the fixed conditions of nature causes a seeming medley of good and evil, of discord and harmony, wickedness often triumphs, villany often outreaches and tramples ingenuous nobility and helpless innocence. some saintly spirits, victims of disease and penury, drag out their years in agony, neglect, and tears. some bold minions of selfishness, with seared consciences and nerves of iron, pluck the coveted fruits of pleasure, wear the diadems of society, and sweep through the world in pomp. the virtuous suffer undeservedly from the guilty. the idle thrive on the industrious. all these things sometimes happen. in spite of the compensating tendencies which ride on all spiritual laws, in spite of the mysterious nemesis which is throned in every bosom and saturates the moral atmosphere with influence, the world is full of wrongs, sufferings, and unfinished justice. there must be another world, where the remunerating processes interiorly begun here shall be openly consummated. can it be that christ and herod, paul and nero, timour and fenelon, drop through the blind trap of death into precisely the same condition of unwaking sleep? not if there be a god! m. jules simon, la religion naturelle, liv. iii.: l'immortalite. dr. chalmers, bridgewater treatise, chap. . there is a final assemblage of thoughts pertaining to the likelihood of another life, which, arranged together, may be styled the moral argument in behalf of that belief. these considerations are drawn from the seeming fitness of things, claims of parts beseeching completion, vaticinations of experience. they form a cumulative array of probabilities whose guiding forefingers all indicate one truth, whose consonant voices swell into a powerful strain of promise. first, consider the shrinking from annihilation naturally felt in every breast. if man be not destined for perennial life, why is this dread of non existence woven into the soul's inmost fibres? attractions are co ordinate with destinies, and every normal desire foretells its own fulfilment. man fades unwillingly from his natal haunts, still longing for a life of eternal remembrance and love, and confiding in it. all over the world grows this pathetic race of forget me nots. shall not heaven pluck and wear them on her bosom? secondly, an emphatic presumption in favor of a second life arises from the premature mortality prevalent to such a fearful extent in the human family. nearly one half of our race perish before reaching the age of ten years. in that period they cannot have fulfilled the total purposes of their creation. it is but a part we see, and not the whole. the destinies here seen segmentary will appear full circle beyond the grave. the argument is hardly met by asserting that this untimely mortality is the punishment for non observance of law; for, denying any further life, would a scheme of existence have been admitted establishing so awful a proportion of violations and penalties? if there be no balancing sphere beyond, then all should pass through the experience of a ripe and rounded life. but there is the most perplexing inequality. at one fell swoop, infant, sage, hero, reveller, martyr, are snatched into the invisible state. there is, as a noble thinker has said, an apparent "caprice in the dispensation of death strongly indicative of a hidden sequel." immortality unravels the otherwise inscrutable mystery. thirdly, the function of conscience furnishes another attestation to the continued existence of man. this vicegerent of god in the breast, arrayed in splendors and terrors, which shakes and illumines the whole circumference of our being with its thunders and lightnings, gives the good man, amidst oppressions and woes, a serene confidence in a future justifying reward, and transfixes the bad man, through all his retinue of guards and panoplied defences, with icy pangs of fear and with a horrid looking for judgment to come. the sublime grandeur of moral freedom, the imperilling dignities of probation, the tremendous responsibilities and hazards of man's felt power and position, are all inconsistent with the supposition that he is merely to cross this petty stage of earth and then wholly expire. such momentous endowments and exposures imply a corresponding arena and career. after the trial comes the sentence; and that would be as if a palace were built, a prince born, trained, crowned, solely that he might occupy the throne five minutes! the consecrating, royalizing idea of duty cannot be less than the core of eternal life. conscience is the sensitive corridor along which the mutual whispers of a divine communion pass and repass. a moral law and a free will crombie, natural theology, essay iv.: the arguments for immortality. bretschneider, die religiose glaubenslehre, sect. - . are the root by which we grow out of god, and the stem by which we are grafted into him. fourthly, all probable surmisings in favor of a future life, or any other moral doctrine, are based on that primal postulate which, by virtue of our rational and ethical constitution, we are authorized and bound to accept as a commencing axiom, namely, that the scheme of creation is as a whole the best possible one, impelled and controlled by wisdom and benignity. whatever, then, is an inherent part of the plan of nature cannot be erroneous nor malignant, a mistake nor a curse. essentially and in the finality, every fundamental portion and element of it must be good and perfect. so far as science and philosophy have penetrated, they confirm by facts this a priori principle, telling us that there is no pure and uncompensated evil in the universe. now, death is a regular ingredient in the mingled world, an ordered step in the plan of life. if death be absolute, is it not an evil? what can the everlasting deprivation of all good be called but an immense evil to its subject? such a doom would be without possible solace, standing alone in steep contradiction to the whole parallel moral universe. then might man utter the most moving and melancholy paradox ever expressed in human speech: "what good came to my mind i did deplore, because it perish must, and not live evermore." fifthly, the soul, if not outwardly arrested by some hostile agent, seems capable of endless progress without ever exhausting either its own capacity or the perfections of infinitude. there are before it unlimited truth, beauty, power, nobleness, to be contemplated, mastered, acquired. with indefatigable alacrity, insatiable faculty and desire, it responds to the infinite call. the obvious inference is that its destiny is unending advancement. annihilation would be a sequel absurdly incongruous with the facts. true, the body decays, and all manifested energy fails; but that is the fault of the mechanism, not of the spirit. were we to live many thousands of years, as martineau suggests, no one supposes new souls, but only new organizations, would be needed. and what period can we imagine to terminate the unimpeded spirit's abilities to learn, to enjoy, to expand? kant's famous demonstration of man's eternal life on the grounds of practical reason is similar. the related ideas of absolute virtue and a moral being necessarily imply the infinite progress of the latter towards the former. that progress is impossible except on condition of the continued existence of the same being. therefore the soul is immortal. sixthly, our whole life here is a steady series of growing preparations for a continued and ascending life hereafter. all the spiritual powers we develop are so much athletic training, all the ideal treasures we accumulate are so many preliminary attainments, for a future life. they have this appearance and superscription. man alone foreknows his own death and expects a succeeding existence; and that foresight is given to prepare him. there are wondrous impulses in us, constitutional convictions prescient of futurity, like those prevising instincts in birds leading them to take preparatory flights before their actual migration. addison, spectator, nos. and . jacob, beweis fur die unsterblichkeit der seele aus dem begriffe der pflicht. eternity is the stuff of which our love, flying forward, builds its nest in the eaves of the universe. if we saw wings growing out upon a young creature, we should be forced to conclude that he was intended some time to fly. it is so with man. by exploring thoughts, disciplinary sacrifices, supernal prayers, holy toils of disinterestedness, he fledges his soul's pinions, lays up treasures in heaven, and at last migrates to the attracting clime. "here sits he, shaping wings to fly: his heart forebodes a mystery; he names the name eternity." seventhly, in the degree these preparations are made in obedience to obscure instincts and the developing laws of experience, they are accompanied by significant premonitions, lucid signals of the future state looked to, assuring witnesses of its reality. the more one lives for immortality, the more immortal things he assimilates into his spiritual substance, the more confirming tokens of a deathless inheritance his faith finds. he becomes conscious of his own eternity. when hallowed imagination weighs anchor and spreads sail to coast the dim shores of the other world, it hears cheerful voices of welcome from the headlands and discerns beacons burning in the port. when in earnest communion with our inmost selves, solemn meditations of god, mysterious influences shed from unseen spheres, fall on our souls, and many a "strange thought, transcending our wonted themes, into glory peeps." a vague, constraining sense of invisible beings, by whom we are engirt, fills us. we blindly feel that our rank and destination are with them. lift but one thin veil, we think, and the occult universe of spirit would break to vision with cloudy crowds of angels. thousand "hints chance dropped from nature's sphere," pregnant with friendly tidings, reassure us. "strange," said a gifted metaphysician once, "that the barrel organ, man, should terminate every tune with the strain of immortality!" not strange, but divinely natural. it is the tentative prelude to the thrilling music of our eternal bliss written in the score of destiny. when at night we gaze far out into immensity, along the shining vistas of god's abode, and are almost crushed by the overwhelming prospects that sweep upon our vision, do not some pre monitions of our own unfathomed greatness also stir within us? yes: "the sense of existence, the ideas of right and duty, awful intuitions of god and immortality, these, the grand facts and substance of the spirit, are independent and indestructible. the bases of the moral law, they shall stand in every tittle, although the stars should pass away. for their relations and root are in that which upholds the stars, even with worlds unseen from the finite, whose majestic and everlasting arrangements shall burst upon us as the heavens do through the night when the light of this garish life gives place to the solemn splendors of eternity." eighthly, the belief in a life beyond death has virtually prevailed everywhere and always. and the argument from universal consent, as it is termed, has ever been esteemed one of the foremost testimonies, if not indeed the most convincing testimony, to the truth of the doctrine. unless the belief can be shown to be artificial or sinful, it must seem conclusive. its innocence is self evident, and its naturalness is evidenced by its universality. theodore parker, sermon of immortal life. the rudest and the most polished, the simplest and the most learned, unite in the expectation, and cling to it through every thing. it is like the ruling presentiment implanted in those insects that are to undergo metamorphosis. this believing instinct, so deeply seated in our consciousness, natural, innocent, universal, whence came it, and why was it given? there is but one fair answer. god and nature deceive not. ninthly, the conscious, practical faith of civilized nations, to day, in a future life, unquestionably, in a majority of individuals, rests directly on the basis of authority, trust in a foreign announcement. there are two forms of this authority. the authority of revelation is most prominent and extensive. god has revealed the truth from heaven. it has been exemplified by a miraculous resurrection. it is written in an infallible book, and sealed with authenticating credentials of super natural purport. it is therefore to be accepted with implicit trust. secondly, with some, the authority of great minds, renowned for scientific knowledge and speculative acumen, goes far. thousands of such men, ranking among the highest names of history, have positively affirmed the immortality of the soul as a reliable truth. for instance, goethe says, on occasion of the death of wieland, "the destruction of such high powers is something which can never, and under no circumstances, even come into question." such a dogmatic expression of conviction resting on bare philosophical grounds, from a mind so equipped, so acute, and so free, has great weight, and must influence a modest student who hesitates in confessed incompetence. the argument is justly powerful when but humanly considered, and when divinely derived, of course, it absolutely forecloses all doubts. tenthly, there is another life, because a belief in it is necessary to order this world, necessary as a comfort and an inspiration to man now. a good old author writes, "the very nerves and sinews of religion is hope of immortality." the conviction that there is a retributive life hereafter is the moral cement of the social fabric. take away this truth, and one great motive of patriots, martyrs, thinkers, saints, is gone. take it away, and to all low minded men selfishness becomes the law, earthly enjoyment the only good, suffering and death the only evil. life then is to be supremely coveted and never put in risk for any stake. self indulgence is to be secured at any hazard, little matter by what means. abandon all hope of a life to come, and "from that instant there is nothing serious in mortality." in order that the world should be governable, ethical, happy, virtuous, magnanimous, is it possible that it should be necessary for the world to believe in an untruth? "so, thou hast immortality in mind? hast grounds that will not let thee doubt it? the strongest ground herein i find: that we could never do without it!" finally, the climax of these argumentations is capped by that grand closing consideration which we may entitle the force of congruity, the convincing results of a confluence of harmonious reasons. the hypothesis of immortality accords with the cardinal facts of observation, meets all points of the case, and satisfactorily answers every requirement. lewis, influence of authority in matters of opinion. it is the solution of the problem, as the fact of neptune explained the perturbations of the adjacent planets. nothing ever gravitates towards nothing; and it must be an unseen orb that so draws our yearning souls. if it be not so, then what terrible contradictions stagger us, and what a chilling doom awaits us! oh, what mocking irony then runs through the loftiest promises and hopes of the world! just as the wise and good have learned to live, they disappear amidst the unfeeling waves of oblivion, like snow flakes in the ocean. "the super earthly desires of man are then created in him only, like swallowed diamonds, to cut slowly through his material shell" and destroy him. the denial of a future life introduces discord, grief, and despair in every direction, and, by making each step of advanced culture the ascent to a wider survey of tantalizing glory and experienced sorrow, as well as the preparation for a greater fall and a sadder loss, turns faithful affection and heroic thought into "blind furies slinging flame." unless immortality be true, man appears a dark riddle, not made for that of which he is made capable and desirous: every thing is begun, nothing ended; the facts of the present scene are unintelligible; the plainest analogies are violated; the delicately rising scale of existence is broken off abrupt; our best reasonings concerning the character and designs of god, also concerning the implications of our own being and experience, are futile; and the soul's proud faculties tell glorious lies as thick as stars. such, at least, is the usual way of thinking. however formidable a front may be presented by the spectral array of doubts and difficulties, seeming impediments to faith in immortality, the faithful servant of god, equipped with philosophical culture and a saintly life, will fearlessly advance upon them, scatter them right and left, and win victorious access to the prize. so the mariner sometimes, off sicilian shores, sees a wondrous island ahead, apparently stopping his way with its cypress and cedar groves, glittering towers, vine wreathed balconies, and marble stairs sloping to the water's edge. he sails straight forward, and, severing the pillared porticos and green gardens of fata morgana, glides far on over a glassy sea smiling in the undeceptive sun. chapter iv. theories of the soul's destination. before examining, in their multifarious detail, the special thoughts and fancies respecting a future life prevalent in different nations and times, it may be well to take a sort of bird's eye view of those general theories of the destination of the soul under which all the individual varieties of opinion may be classified. vast and incongruous as is the heterogeneous mass of notions brought forth by the history of this province of the world's belief, the whole may be systematized, discriminated, and reduced to a few comprehensive heads. such an architectural grouping or outlining of the chief schemes of thought on this subject will yield several advantages. showing how the different views arose from natural speculations on the correlated phenomena of the outward world and facts of human experience, it affords an indispensable help towards a philosophical analysis and explanation of the popular faith as to the destiny of man after death, in all the immense diversity of its contents. an orderly arrangement and exposition of these cardinal theories also form an epitome holding a bewildering multitude of particulars in its lucid and separating grasp, changing the fruits of learned investigation from a cumbersome burden on the memory to a small number of connected formularies in the reason. these theories serve as a row of mirrors hung in a line of historic perspective, reflecting every relevant shape and hue of meditation and faith humanity has known, from the ideal visions of the athenian sage to the instinctive superstitions of the fejee savage. when we have adequately defined these theories, of which there are seven, traced their origin, comprehended their significance and bearings, and dissected their supporting pretensions, then the whole field of our theme lies in light before us; and, however grotesque or mysterious, simple or subtle, may be the modes of thinking and feeling in relation to the life beyond death revealed in our subsequent researches, we shall know at once where to refer them and how to explain them. the precise object, therefore, of the present chapter is to set forth the comprehensive theories devised to solve the problem, what becomes of man when he dies? but a little while man flourishes here in the bosom of visible nature. soon he disappears from our scrutiny, missed in all the places that knew him. whither has he gone? what fate has befallen him? it is an awful question. in comparison with its concentrated interest, all other affairs are childish and momentary. whenever that solemn question is asked, earth, time, and the heart, natural transformations, stars, fancy, and the brooding intellect, are full of vague oracles. let us see what intelligible answers can be constructed from their responses. the first theory which we shall consider propounds itself in one terrible word, annihilation. logically this is the earliest, historically the latest, view. the healthy consciousness, the eager fancy, the controlling sentiment, the crude thought, all the uncurbed instinctive conclusions of primitive human nature, point forcibly to a continued existence for the soul, in some way, when the body shall have perished. and so history shows us in all the savage nations a vivid belief in a future life. but to the philosophical observer, who has by dint of speculation freed himself from the constraining tendencies of desire, faith, imagination, and authority, the thought that man totally ceases with the destruction of his visible organism must occur as the first and simplest settlement of the question. the totality of manifested life has absolutely disappeared: why not conclude that the totality of real life has actually lost its existence and is no more? that is the natural inference, unless by some means the contrary can be proved. accordingly, among all civilized people, every age has had its skeptics, metaphysical disputants who have mournfully or scoffingly denied the separate survival of the soul. this is a necessity in the inevitable sequences of observation and theory; because, when the skeptic, suppressing or escaping his biassed wishes, the trammels of traditional opinion, and the spontaneous convictions prophetic of his own uninterrupted being, first looks over the wide scene of human life and death, and reflectingly asks, what is the sequel of this strange, eventful history? obviously the conclusion suggested by the immediate phenomena is that of entire dissolution and blank oblivion. this result is avoided by calling in the aid of deeper philosophical considerations and of inspiring moral truths. but some will not call in that aid; and the whole superficial appearance of the case regarding that alone, as they then will is fatal to our imperial hopes. the primordial clay claims its own from the disanimated frame; and the vanished life, like the flame of an outburnt taper, has ceased to be. men are like bubbles or foam flakes on the world's streaming surface: glittering in a momentary ray, they break and are gone, and only the dark flood remains still flowing forward. they are like tones of music, commencing and ending with the unpurposed breath that makes them. nature is a vast congeries of mechanical substances pervaded by mindless forces of vitality. consciousness is a production which results from the fermentation and elaboration of unconscious materials; and after a time it deceases, its conditions crumbling into their inorganic grounds again. from the abyss of silence and dust intelligent creatures break forth, shine, and sink back, like meteor flashes in a cloud. the generations of sentient being, like the annual growths of vegetation, by spontaneity of dynamic development, spring from dead matter, flourish through their destined cycle, and relapse into dead matter. the bosom of nature is, therefore, at once the wondrous womb and the magnificent mausoleum of man. fate, like an iron skeleton seated at the summit of the world on a throne of fresh growing grass and mouldering skulls, presides over all, and annihilation is the universal doom of individual life. such is the atheistic naturalist's creed. however indefensible or shocking it is, it repeatedly appears in the annals of speculation; and any synopsis of the possible conclusions in which the inquiry into man's destiny may rest that should omit this, would be grossly imperfect. this scheme of disbelief is met by insuperable objections. it excludes some essential elements of the case, confines itself to a wholly empirical view; and consequently the relentless solution it announces applies only to a mutilated problem. to assert the cessation of the soul because its physical manifestations through the body have ceased, is certainly to affirm without just warrant. it would appear impossible for volition and intelligence to lalande, dictionnaire des athees anciens et modernes. originate save from a free parent mind. numerous cogent evidences of design seem to prove the existence of a god by whose will all things are ordered according to a plan. many powerful impressions and arguments, instinctive, critical, or moral, combine to teach that in the wreck of matter the spirit emerges, deathless, from the closing waves of decay. the confirmation of that truth becomes irresistible when we see how reason and conscience, with delighted avidity, seize upon its adaptedness alike to the brightest features and the darkest defects of the present life, whose imperfect symmetries and segments are harmoniously filled out by the adjusting complement of a future state. the next representation of the fate of the soul disposes of it by re absorption into the essence from which it emanated. there is an eternal fountain of unmade life, from which all individual, transient lives flow, and into which they return. this conception arose in the outset from a superficial analogy which must have obtruded itself upon primitive notice and speculation; for man is led to his first metaphysical inquiries by a feeling contemplation of outward phenomena. now, in the material world, when individual forms perish, each sensible component relapses into its original element and becomes an undistinguishable portion of it. our exhaled breath goes into the general air and is united with it: the dust of our decaying frames becomes part of the ground and vegetation. so, it is strongly suggested, the lives of things, the souls of men, when they disappear from us, are remerged in the native spirit whence they came. the essential longing of every part for union with its whole is revealed and vocal throughout all nature. water is sullen in stillness, murmurs in motion, and never ceases its gloom or its complaining until it sleeps in the sea. like spray on the rock, the stranding generations strike the sepulchre and are dissipated into universal vapor. as lightnings slink back into the charged bosom of the thunder cloud, as eager waves, spent, subside in the deep, as furious gusts die away in the great atmosphere, so the gleaming ranks of genius, the struggling masses of toil, the pompous hosts of war, fade and dissolve away into the peaceful bosom of the all engulfing soul. this simplest, earliest philosophy of mankind has had most extensive and permanent prevalence. for immemorial centuries it has possessed the mind of the countless millions of india. baur thinks the egyptian identification of each deceased person with osiris and the burial of him under that name, were meant to denote the reception of the individual human life into the universal nature life. the doctrine has been implicitly held wherever pantheism has found a votary, from anaximander, to whom finite creatures were "disintegrations or decompositions from the infinite," to alexander pope, affirming that "all are but parts of one stupendous whole, whose body nature is, and god the soul." the first reasoners, who gave such an ineradicable direction and tinge to the thinking of after ages, were furthermore driven to the supposition of a final absorption, from the drossbach, die harmonie der ergebnisse der naturforschung mit den forderungen des menschlichen gemuthes. blount, anima mundi; or, the opinions of the ancients concerning man's soul after this life. impossibility, in that initiatory stage of thought, of grasping any other theory which would apparently meet the case so well or be more satisfactory. they, of course, had not yet arrived at the idea that god is a personal spirit whose nature is revealed in the constitutive characteristics of the human soul, and who carries on his works from eternity to eternity without monotonous repetition or wearisome stagnancy, but with perpetual variety in never ceasingmotion. whatever commences must also terminate, they said, forgetting that number begins with one but has no end. they did not conceive of the universe of being as an eternal line, making immortality desirable for its endless novelty, but imaged it to themselves as a circle, making an everlasting individual consciousness dreadful for its intolerable sameness, an immense round of existence, phenomena, and experience, going forth and returning into itself, over and over, forever and ever. to escape so repulsive a contemplation, they made death break the fencing integument of consciousness and empty all weary personalities into the absolute abyss of being. again: the extreme difficulty of apprehending the truth of a creator literally infinite, and of a limitless creation, would lead to the same result in another way. without doubt, it seemed to the naive thinkers of antiquity, that if hosts of new beings were continually coming into life and increasing the number of the inhabitants of the future state, the fountain from which they proceeded would some time be exhausted, or the universe grow plethoric with population. there would be no more substance below or no more room above. the easiest method of surmounting this problem would be by the hypothesis that all spirits come out of a great world spirit, and, having run their mortal careers, are absorbed into it again. many especially the deepest oriental dreamers have also been brought to solace themselves with this conclusion by a course of reasoning based on the exposures, and assumed inevitable sufferings, of all finite being. they argue that every existence below the absolute god, because it is set around with limitations, is necessarily obnoxious to all sorts of miseries. its pleasures are only "honey drops scarce tasted in a sea of gall." this conviction, with its accompanying sentiment, runs through the sacred books of the east, is the root and heart of their theology, the dogma that makes the cruelest penances pleasant if a renewed existence may thus be avoided. the sentiment is not alien to human longing and surmise, as witnesses the night thought of the english poet who, world sated, and sadly yearning, cries through the starry gloom to god, "when shall my soul her incarnation quit, and, readopted to thy blest embrace, obtain her apotheosis in thee?" having stated and traced the doctrine of absorption, it remains to investigate the justice of its grounds. the doctrine starts from a premise partly true and ends in a conclusion partly false. we emanate from the creative power of god, and are sustained by the in flowing presence of his life, but are not discerptions from his own being, any more than beams of light are distinct substances shot out and shorn off from the sun to be afterwards drawn back and assimilated into the parent orb. we are destined to a harmonious life in his unifying love, but not to be fused and lost as insentient parts of his total consciousness. we are products of god's will, not component atoms of his soul. souls are to be in god as stars are in the firmament, not as lumps of salt are in a solvent. this view is confirmed by various arguments. in the first place, it is supported by the philosophical distinction between emanation and creation. the conception of creation gives us a personal god who wills to certain ends; that of emanation reduces the supreme being to a ghastly array of laws, revolving abysses, galvanic forces, nebular star dust, dead ideas, and vital fluids. according to the latter supposition, finite existences flow from the infinite as consequences from a principle, or streams from a fountain; according to the former, they proceed as effects from a cause, or thoughts from a mind. that is pantheistic, fatal, and involves absorption by a logical necessity; this is creative, free, and does not presuppose any circling return. material things are thoughts which god transiently contemplates and dismisses; spiritual creatures are thoughts which he permanently expresses in concrete immortality. the soul is a thought; the body is the word in which it is clothed. secondly, the analogy which first leads to belief in absorption is falsely interpreted. taken on its own ground, rightly appreciated, it legitimates a different conclusion. a grain of sand thrown into the bosom of sahara does not lose its individual existence. distinct drops are not annihilated as to their simple atoms of water, though sunk in the midst of the sea. the final particles or monads of air or granite are not dissolvingly blended into continuity of unindividualized atmosphere or rock when united with their elemental masses, but are thrust unapproachably apart by molecular repulsion. now, a mind, being, as we conceive, no composite, but an ultimate unity, cannot be crushed or melted from its integral persistence of personality. though plunged into the centre of a surrounding wilderness or ocean of minds, it must still retain itself unlost in the multitude. therefore, if we admit the existence of an inclusive mundane soul, it by no means follows that lesser souls received into it are deprived of their individuality. it is "one not otherwise than as the sea is one, by a similarity and contiguity of parts, being composed of an innumerable host of distinct spirits, as that is of aqueous particles; and as the rivers continually discharge into the sea, so the vehicular people, upon the disruption of their vehicles, discharge and incorporate into that ocean of spirits making the mundane soul." thirdly, every consideration furnished by the doctrine of final causes as applied to existing creatures makes us ask, what use is there in calling forth souls merely that they may be taken back again? to justify their creation, the fulfilment of some educative aim, and then the lasting fruition of it, appear necessary. why else should a soul be drawn from out the unformed vastness, and have its being struck into bounds, and be forced to pass through such appalling ordeals of good and evil, pleasure and agony? an individual of any kind is as important as its race; for it contains in possibility all that its type does. and the purposes of things, so far as we can discern them, the nature of our spiritual constitution, the meaning of our circumstances and probation, the resulting tendencies of our experience, all seem to prophesy, not the destruction, but the perfection and perpetuation, of individual being. tucker, light of nature, part ii. chap. xxii. fourthly, the same inference is yielded by applying a similar consideration to the creator. allowing him consciousness and intentions, as we must, what object could he have either in exerting his creative power or in sending out portions of himself in new individuals, save the production of so many immortal personalities of will, knowledge, and love, to advance towards the perfection of holiness, wisdom, and blessedness, filling his mansions with his children? by thus multiplying his own image he adds to the number of happy creatures who are to be bound together in bands of glory, mutually receiving and returning his affection, and swells the tide of conscious bliss which fills and rolls forever through his eternal universe. nor, finally, is it necessary to expect personal oblivion in god in order to escape from evil and win exuberant happiness. those ends are as well secured by the fruition of god's love in us as by the drowning of our consciousness in his plenitude of delight. precisely herein consists the fundamental distinction of the christian from the brahmanic doctrine of human destiny. the christian hopes to dwell in blissful union with god's will, not to be annihilatingly sunk in his essence. to borrow an illustration from scotus erigena, as the air when thoroughly illumined by sunshine still keeps its aerial nature and does not become sunshine, or as iron all red in the flame still keeps its metallic substance and does not turn to fire itself, so a soul fully possessed and moved by god does not in consequence lose its own sentient and intelligent being. it is still a bounded entity, though recipient of boundless divinity. thus evil ceases, each personality is preserved and intensely glorified, and, at the same time, god is all in all. the totality of perfected, enraptured, immortalized humanity in heaven may be described in this manner, adopting the masterly expression of coleridge: "and as one body seems the aggregate of atoms numberless, each organized, so, by a strange and dim similitude, infinite myriads of self conscious minds in one containing spirit live, who fills with absolute ubiquity of thought all his involved monads, that yet seem each to pursue its own self centring end." a third mode of answering the question of human destiny is by the conception of a general resurrection. souls, as fast as they leave the body, are gathered in some intermediate state, a starless grave world, a ghostly limbo. when the present cycle of things is completed, when the clock of time runs down and its lifeless weight falls in the socket, and "death's empty helmet yawns grimly over the funeral hatchment of the world," the gates of this long barred receptacle of the deceased will be struck open, and its pale prisoners, in accumulated hosts, issue forth, and enter on the immortal inheritance reserved for them. in the sable land of hades all departed generations are bivouacking in one vast army. on the resurrection morning, striking their shadowy tents, they will scale the walls of the abyss, and, reinvested with their bodies, either plant their banners on the summits of the earth in permanent encampment, or storm the battlements of the sky and colonize heaven with flesh and blood. philosophy and doctrines of erigena, universalist quarterly review, vol. vii. p. . all advocates of the doctrine of psychopannychism, or the sleep of souls from death till the last day, in addition to the general body of orthodox christians, have been supporters of this conclusion. three explanations are possible of the origination of this belief. first, a man musing over the affecting panorama of the seasons as it rolls through the year, budding life alternating with deadly desolation, spring still bringing back the freshness of leaves, flowers, and carolling birds, as if raising them from an annual interment in winter's cold grave, and then thinking of the destiny of his own race, how many generations have ripened and decayed, how many human crops have been harvested from the cradle and planted in the tomb, might naturally especially if he had any thing of the poet's associating and creative mind say to himself, are we altogether perishable dust, or are we seed sown for higher fields, seed lying dormant now, but at last to sprout into swift immortality when god shall make a new sunshine and dew omnipotently penetrate the dry mould where we tarry? no matter how partial the analogy, how forced the process, how false the result, such imagery would sooner or later occur; and, having occurred, it is no more strange that it should get literal acceptance than it is that many other popular figments should have secured the firm establishment they have. secondly, a mourner just bereaved of one in whom his whole love was garnered, distracted with grief, his faculties unbalanced, his soul a chaos, is of sorrow and fantasy all compact; and he solaces himself with the ideal embodiment of his dreams, half seeing what he thinks, half believing what he wishes. his desires pass through unconscious volition into supposed facts. before the miraculous power of his grief wielded imagination the world is fluent, and fate runs in the moulds he conceives. the adored form on which corruption now banquets, he sees again, animated, beaming, clasped in his arms. he cries, it cannot be that those holy days are forever ended, that i shall never more realize the blissful dream in which we trod the sunny world together! oh, it must be that some time god will give me back again that beloved one! the sepulchre closed so fast shall be unsealed, the dead be restored, and all be as it was before! the conception thus once born out of the delirium of busy thought, anguished love, and regnant imagination, may in various ways win a fixed footing in faith. thirdly, the notion which we are now contemplating is one link in a chain of thought which, in the course of time and the range of speculation, the theorizing mind could not fail to forge. the concatenation of reflections is this. death is the separation of soul and body. that separation is repulsive, an evil. therefore it was not intended by the infinite goodness, but was introduced by a foe, and is a foreign, marring element. finally god will vanquish his antagonist, and banish from the creation all his thwarting interferences with the primitive perfection of harmony and happiness. accordingly, the souls which satan has caused to be separated from their bodies are reserved apart until the fulness of time, when there shall be a universal resurrection and restoration. so far as reason is competent to pronounce on this view considered as a sequel to the disembodying doom of man, it is an arbitrary piece of fancy. philosophy ignores it. science gives no hint of it. baumgarten, beantwortung des sendschreibens heyns vom schlafe der abgeschiedenen seelen. chalmers. astronomical discourses, iv. it sprang from unwarranted metaphors, perverted, exaggerated, based on analogies not parallel. so far as it assumes to rest on revelation it will be examined in another place. fourthly, after the notion of a great, epochal resurrection, as a reply to the inquiry, what is to become of the soul? a dogma is next encountered which we shall style that of a local and irrevocable conveyance. the disembodied spirit is conveyed to some fixed region, a penal or a blissful abode, where it is to tarry unalterably. this idea of the banishment or admission of souls, according to their deserts, or according to an elective grace, into an anchored location called hell or heaven, a retributive or rewarding residence for eternity, we shall pass by with few words, because it recurs for fuller examination in other chapters. in the first place, the whole picture is a gross simile drawn from occurrences of this outward world and unjustifiably applied to the fortunes of the mind in the invisible sphere of the future. the figment of a judicial transportation of the soul from one place or planet to another, as if by a charon's boat, is a clattering and repulsive conceit, inadmissible by one who apprehends the noiseless continuity of god's self executing laws. it is a jarring mechanical clash thrust amidst the smooth evolution of spiritual destinies. it compares with the facts as the supposition that the planets are swung around the sun by material chains compares with the law of gravitation. moral compensation is no better secured by imprisonment or freedom in separate localities than it is, in a common environment, by the fatal working of their interior forces of character, and their relations with all things else. moreover, these antagonist kingdoms, tartarean and elysian, defined as the everlasting habitations of departed souls, have been successively driven, as dissipated visions, from their assumed latitudes and longitudes, one after another, by progressive discovery, until now the intelligent mind knows of no assignable spot for them. since we are not acquainted with any fixed locations to which the soul is to be carried, to abide there forever in appointed joy or woe, and since there is no scientific necessity nor moral use for the supposition of such places and of the transferrence of the departed to them, we cannot hesitate to reject the associated belief as a deluding mistake. the truth, as we conceive it, is not that different souls are borne by constabulary apparitions to two immured dwellings, manacled and hurried into tophet or saluted and ushered into paradise, but that all souls spontaneously pass into one immense empire, drawn therein by their appropriate attractions, to assimilate a strictly discriminative experience. but, as to this, let each thinker form his own conclusion. the fifth view of the destination of the soul may be called the theory of recurrence. when man dies, his surviving spirit is immediately born again in a new body. thus the souls, assigned in a limited number to each world, continually return, each one still forgetful of his previous lives. this seems to be the specific creed of the druses, who affirm that all souls were created at once, and that the number is unchanged, while they are born over and over. a druse boy, dreadfully alarmed by the discharge of a gun, on being asked by a christian the cause of his fear, replied, "i was born murdered;" that is, the soul of a man who had been shot lange, das land der herrlichkelt. schmidius, diss. de multiplici animarum reditu in corpora. passed into his body at the moment of his birth. the young mountaineer would seem, from the sudden violence with which he was snatched out of his old house, to have dragged a trail of connecting consciousness over into his new one. as a general rule, in distinction from such an exception, memory is like one of those passes which the conductors of railroad trains give their passengers, "good for this trip only." the notion of an endless succession of lives on the familiar stage of this dear old world, commencing each with clean wiped tablets, possesses for some minds a fathomless allurement; but others wish for no return pass on their ticket to futurity, preferring an adventurous abandonment "to fresh fields and pastures new," in unknown immensity, to a renewed excursion through landscapes already traversed and experiences drained before. fourier's doctrine of immortality belongs here. according to his idea, the great soul of this globe is a composite being, comprising about ten billions of individual souls. their connection with this planet will be for nearly eighty thousand years. then the whole sum of them will swarm to some higher planet, fourier himself, perhaps, being the old gray gander that will head the flock, pilot king of their flight. each man is to enjoy about four hundred births on earth, poetic justice leading him successively through all the grades and phases of fortune, from cripplehood and beggary to paragonship and the throne. the invisible residence of spirits and the visible are both on this globe, the former in the great soul, the latter in bodies. in the other life the soul becomes a sharer in the woes of the great soul, which is as unhappy as seven eighths of the incarnated souls; for its fate is a compound of the fates of the human souls taken collectively. coming into this outward scene at birth, we lose anew all memory of past existence, but wake up again in the great soul with a perfect recollection of all our previous lives both in the invisible and in the visible world. these alternating passages between the two states will continue until the final swooping of total humanity from this exhausted planet in search of a better abode. the idea of the recurrence of souls is the simplest means of meeting a difficulty stated thus by the ingenious abraham tucker in his "light of nature pursued." "the numbers of souls daily pouring in from hence upon the next world seem to require a proportionable drain from it somewhere or other; for else the country might be overstocked." the objection urged against such a belief from the fact that we do not remember having lived before is rebutted by the assertion that "some draught of lethe doth await, as old mythologies relate, the slipping through from state to state." the theory associated with this lethean draught is confirmed by its responsive correspondence with many unutterable experiences, vividly felt or darkly recognised, in our deepest bosom. it seems as if occasionally the poppied drug or other oblivious antidote churchill, mount lebanon, vol. ii. ch. . fourier, passions of the human soul, (morell's translation,) introduction, vol. i. pp. - ; also pp. - . administered by nature had been so much diluted that reason, only half baffled, struggles to decipher the dim runes and vestiges of a foregone state; "and ever something is or seems that touches us with mystic gleams, like glimpses of forgotten dreams." in those excursive reveries, fed by hope and winged with dream, which scour the glens and scale the peaks of the land of thought, this nook of hypothesis must some time be discovered. and, brought to light, it has much to interest and to please; but it is too destitute of tangible proof to be successfully maintained against assault. there is another faith as to the fate of souls, best stated, perhaps, in the phrase perpetual migration. the soul, by successive deaths and births, traverses the universe, an everlasting traveller through the rounds of being and the worlds of space, a transient sojourner briefly inhabiting each. all reality is finding its way up towards the attracting, retreating godhead. minerals tend to vegetables, these to animals, these to men. blind but yearning matter aspires to spirit, intelligent spirits to divinity. in every grain of dust sleep an army of future generations. as every thing below man gropes upward towards his conscious estate, "the trees being imperfect men, that seem to bemoan their imprisonment, rooted in the ground," so man himself shall climb the illimitable ascent of creation, every step a star. the animal organism is a higher kind of vegetable, whose development begins with those substances with the production of which the life of an ordinary vegetable ends. the fact, too, that embryonic man passes through ascending stages undistinguishable from those of lower creatures, is full of meaning. does it not betoken a preserved epitome of the long history of slowly rising existence? what unplummeted abysses of time and distance intervene from the primary rock to the victoria regia! and again from the first crawling spine to the fetterless mind of a schelling! but, snail pace by snail pace, those immeasurable separations have been bridged over; and so every thing that now lies at the dark basis of dust shall finally reach the transplendent apex of intellect. the objection of theological prejudice to this developing succession of ascents that it is degrading is an unhealthy mistake. whether we have risen or fallen to our present rank, the actual rank itself is not altered. and in one respect it is better for man to be an advanced oyster than a degraded god; for in the former case the path is upwards, in the latter it is downwards. "we wake," observes a profound thinker, "and find ourselves on a stair: there are other stairs below us, which we seem to have ascended; there are stairs above us, many a one, which go upward and out of sight." such was plainly the trust of the author of the following exhortation: "be worthy of death; and so learn to live that every incarnation of thy soul in other realms, and worlds, and firmaments shall be more pure and high." bertram, prufung der meinung von der praexistenz der menechlichen seele. nurnberger, still leben, oder uber die unsterblichkeit der seele. liebig, animal chemistry, ch. ix. bulwer likewise has said, "eternity may be but an endless series of those emigrations which men call deaths, abandonments of home after home, ever to fairer scenes and loftier heights. age after age, the spirit that glorious nomad may shift its tent, fated not to rest in the dull elysium of the heathen, but carrying with it evermore its twin elements, activity and desire." but there is something unsatisfactory, even sad and dreary, in this prospect of incessant migration. must not the pilgrim pine and tire for a goal of rest? exhausted with wanderings, sated with experiments, will he not pray for the exempted lot of a contented fruition in repose? one must weary at last of being even so sublime a vagabond as he whose nightly hostelries are stars. and, besides, how will sundered friends and lovers, between whom, on the road, races and worlds interpose, ever over take each other, and be conjoined to journey hand in hand again or build a bower together by the way? a poet of finest mould, in happiest mood, once saw a leaf drop from a tree which overhung a mirroring stream. the reflection of the leaf in the watery sky hollow far below seemed to rise from beneath as swiftly as the object fell from above; and the two, encountering at the surface, became one. then he sang, touching with his strain the very marrow of deepest human desire, "how speeds, from in the river's thought, the spirit of the leaf that falls, its heaven in that calm bosom wrought, as mine among yon crimson walls! from the dry bough it spins, to greet its shadow on the placid river: so might i my companions meet, nor roam the countless worlds forever!" moreover, some elements of this theory are too grotesque, are the too rash inferences from a too crude induction, to win sober credit to any extent. it is easy to devise and carry out in consistent descriptive details the hypothesis that the soul has risen, through ten thousand transitions, from the condition of red earth or a tadpole to its present rank, and that, "as it once crawl'd upon the sod, it yet shall grow to be a god;" but what scientific evidence is there to confirm and establish the supposition as a truth? why, if it be so, to borrow the humorous satire of good old henry more, "then it will follow that cold stopping curd and harden'd moldy cheese, when they have rid due circuits through the heart, at last shall speed of life and sense, look thorough our thin eyes and view the close wherein the cow did feed whence they were milk'd: grosse pie crust will grow wise, and pickled cucumbers sans doubt philosophize!" the form of this general outline stalks totteringly on stilts of fancy, and sprawls headlong with a logical crash at the first critical probe. the final theory of the destination of souls, now left to be set forth, may be designated by the word transition. it affirms that at death they pass from the separate material worlds, which are their initiating nurseries, into the common spiritual world, which is everywhere present. thus the visible peoples the invisible, each person in his turn consciously rising from this world's rudimentary darkness to that world's universal light. dwelling here, free souls, housed in frames of dissoluble clay, "we hold a middle rank 'twixt heaven and earth, on the last verge of mortal being stand, lose to the realm where angels have their birth, just on the boundaries of the spirit land." why has god "broken up the solid material of the universe into innumerable little globes, and swung each of them in the centre of an impassable solitude of space," unless it be to train up in the various spheres separate households for final union as a single diversified family in the boundless spiritual world? the surmise is not unreasonable, but recommends itself strongly, that, "if yonder stars be fill'd with forms of breathing clay like ours, perchance the space which spreads between is for a spirit's powers." the soul encased in flesh is thereby confined to one home, its natal nest; but, liberated at death, it wanders at will, unobstructed, through every world and cerulean deep; and wheresoever it is, there, in proportion to its own capacity and fitness, is heaven and is god. all those world spots so thickly scattered through the yggdrasill of universal space are but the brief sheltering places where embryo intelligences clip their shells, and whence, as soon as fledged through the discipline of earthly teaching and essays, the broodlet souls take wing into the mighty airs of immensity, and thus enter on their eternal emancipation. this conjecture is, of all which have been offered yet, perhaps the completest, least perplexed, best recommended by its harmony with our knowledge and our hope. and so one might wish to rest in it with humble trust. the final destiny of an immortal soul, after its transition into the other world, must be either unending progress towards infinite perfection, or the reaching of its perihelion at last and then revolving in uninterrupted fruition. in the former case, pursuing an infinite aim, with each degree of its attainment the flying goal still recedes. in the latter case, it will in due season touch its bound and there be satisfied, "when weak time shall be pour'd out into eternity, and circular joys dance in an endless round." taylor, physical theory of another life, ch. xii. taylor, saturday evening, pp. - . taylor, physical theory of another life, ch. xvii. this result seems the more probable of the two; for the assertion of countless decillions of personalities all progressing beyond every conceivable limit, on, still on, forever, is incredible. if endless linear progress were the destiny of each being, the whole universe would at last become a line! and though it is true that the idea of an ever novel chase attracts and refreshes the imagination, while the idea of a monotonous revolution repels and wearies it, this is simply because we judge after our poor earthly experience and its flagging analogies. it will not be so if that revolution is the vivid realization of all our being's possibilities. annihilation, absorption, resurrection, conveyance, recurrence, migration, transition, these seven answers to the question of our fate, and of its relation to the course of nature, are thinkable in words. we may choose from among them, but can construct no real eighth. first, there is a constant succession of growth and decay. second, there is a perpetual flow and ebb of personal emanation and impersonal resumption. third, there is a continual return of the same persistent entities. fourth, all matter may be sublimated to spirit, and souls alone remain to occupy boundless space. fifth, the power of death may cease, all the astronomic orbs be populated and enjoyed, each by one generation of everlasting inhabitants, the present order continuing in each earth until enough have lived to fill it, then all of them, physically restored, dwelling on it, with no more births or deaths. sixth, if matter be not transmutable to soul, when that peculiar reality from which souls are developed is exhausted, and the last generation of incarnated beings have risen from the flesh, the material creation may, in addition to the inter stellar region, be eternally appropriated by the spirit races to their own free range and use, through adaptations of faculty unknown to us now; else it may vanish as a phantasmal spectacle. or, finally, souls may be absolutely created out of nothing by the omnipotence of god, and the universe may be infinite: then the process may proceed forever. but men's beliefs are formed rather by the modes of thought they have learned to adopt than by any proofs they have tested; not by argumentation about a subject, but by the way of looking at it. the moralist regards all creation as the work of a personal god, a theatre of moral ends, a just providence watching over the parts, and the conscious immortality of the actors an inevitable accompaniment. the physicist contemplates the universe as constituted of atoms of attraction and repulsion, which subsist in perfect mobility through space, but are concreted in the molecular masses of the planets. the suns are vast engines for the distribution of heat or motion, the equivalent of all kinds of force. this, in its diffusion, causes innumerable circulations and combinations of the original atoms. organic growth, life, is the fruition of a force derived from the sun. decay, death, is the rendering up of that force in its equivalents. thus, the universe is a composite unity of force, a solidarity of ultimate unities which are indestructible, though in constant circulation of new groupings and journeys. to the religious faith of the moralist, man is an eternal person, reaping what he has sowed. to the speculative intellect of the physicist, man is an atomic force, to be liberated into the ethereal medium until again harnessed in some organism. in both cases he is immortal: but in that, as a free citizen of the ideal world; in this, as a flying particle of the dynamic immensity. part second. ethnic thoughts concerning a future life. chapter i. barbarian notions of a future life. proceeding now to give an account of the fancies and opinions in regard to a future life which have been prevalent, in different ages, in various nations of the earth, it will be best to begin by presenting, in a rapid series, some sketches of the conceits of those uncivilized tribes who did not so far as our knowledge reaches possess a doctrine sufficiently distinctive and full, or important enough in its historical relations, to warrant a detailed treatment in separate chapters. we will glance first at the negroes. according to all accounts, while there are, among the numerous tribes, diversities and degrees of superstition, there is yet, throughout the native pagan population of africa, a marked general agreement of belief in the survival of the soul, in spectres, divination, and witchcraft; and there is a general similarity of funeral usages. early travellers tell us that the bushmen conceived the soul to be immortal, and as impalpable as a shadow, and that they were much afraid of the return of deceased spirits to haunt them. they were accustomed to pray to their departed countrymen not to molest them, but to stay away in quiet. they also employed exorcisers to lay these ill omened ghosts. meiners relates of some inhabitants of the guinea coast that their fear of ghosts and their childish credulity reached such a pitch that they threw their dead into the ocean, in the expectation of thus drowning soul and body together. superstitions as gross and lawless still have full sway. wilson, whose travels and residence there for twenty years have enabled him to furnish the most reliable information, says, in his recent work, "a native african would as soon doubt his present as his future state of being." every dream, every stray suggestion of the mind, is interpreted, with unquestioning credence, as a visit from the dead, a whisper from a departed soul. if a man wakes up with pains in his bones or muscles, it is because his spirit has wandered abroad in the night and been flogged by some other spirit. on certain occasions the whole community start up at midnight, with clubs, torches, and hideous yells, to drive the evil spirits out of the village. they seem to believe that the souls of dead men take rank with good or bad spirits, as they have themselves been good or bad in this life. they bury with the deceased clothing, ornaments, utensils, western africa, ch. xii. and statedly convey food to the grave for the use of the revisiting spirit. with the body of king weir of the cavalla towns, who was buried in december of , in presence of several missionaries, was interred a quantity of rice, palm oil, beef, and rum: it was supposed the ghost of the sable monarch would come back and consume these articles. the african tribes, where their notions have not been modified by christian or by mohammedan teachings, appear to have no definite idea of a heaven or of a hell; but future reward or punishment is considered under the general conception of an association, in the disembodied state, with the benignant or with the demoniacal powers. the new zealanders imagine that the souls of the dead go to a place beneath the earth, called reinga. the path to this region is a precipice close to the sea shore at the north cape. it is said that the natives who live in the neighborhood can at night hear sounds caused by the passing of spirits thither through the air. after a great battle they are thus warned of the event long before the news can arrive by natural means. it is a common superstition with them that the left eye of every chief, after his death, becomes a star. the pleiades are seven new zealand chiefs, brothers, who were slain together in battle and are now fixed in the sky, one eye of each, in the shape of a star, being the only part of them that is visible. it has been observed that the mythological doctrine of the glittering host of heaven being an assemblage of the departed heroes of earth never received a more ingenious version. certainly it is a magnificent piece of insular egotism. it is noticeable here that, in the norse mythology, thor, having slain thiasse, the giant genius of winter, throws his eyes up to heaven, and they become stars. shungie, a celebrated new zealand king, said he had on one occasion eaten the left eye of a great chief whom he had killed in battle, for the purpose of thus increasing the glory of his own eye when it should be transferred to the firmament. sometimes, apparently, it was thought that there was a separate immortality for each of the eyes of the dead, the left ascending to heaven as a star, the right, in the form of a spirit, taking flight for reinga. the custom, common in africa and in new zealand, of slaying the slaves or the wives of an important person at his death and burying them with him, prevails also among the inhabitants of the feejee islands. a chief's wives are sometimes strangled on these occasions, sometimes buried alive. one cried to her brother, "i wish to die, that i may accompany my husband to the land where he has gone. love me, and make haste to strangle me, that i may overtake him." departing souls go to the tribunal of ndengei, who either receives them into bliss, or sends them back, as ghosts, to haunt the scenes of their former existence, or distributes them as food to devils, or imprisons them for a period and then dooms them to annihilation. the feejees are also very much afraid of samiulo, ruler of a subterranean world, who sits at the brink of a huge fiery cavern, into which he hurls the souls he dislikes. in the road to ndengei stands an enormous giant, armed with an axe, who tries to maim and murder the passing souls. a powerful chief, whose gun was interred with him, loaded it, and, when shortland, traditions of the new zealanders, ch. vii. library of ent. knowl.: the new zealanders, pp. - . wilkes, narrative of the u. s. exploring expedition, vol. iii. ch. . he came near the giant, shot at him, and ran by while the monster was dodging the bullet. the people of the sandwich islands held a confused medley of notions as to another life. in different persons among them were found, in regard to this subject, superstitious terror, blank indifference, positive unbelief. the current fancy was that the souls of the chiefs were led, by a god whose name denotes the "eyeball of the sun," to a life in the heavens, while plebeian souls went down to akea, a lugubrious underground abode. some thought spirits were destroyed in this realm of darkness; others, that they were eaten by a stronger race of spirits there; others still, that they survived there, subsisting upon lizards and butterflies. what a piteous life they must have led here whose imaginations could only soar to a future so unattractive as this! the kamtschadales send all the dead alike to a subterranean elysium, where they shall find again their wives, clothes, tools, huts, and where they shall fish and hunt. all is there as here, except that there are no fire spouting mountains, no bogs, streams, inundations, and impassable snows; and neither hunting nor fishing is ever pursued in vain there. this lower paradise is but a beautified kamtschatka, freed from discommoding hardships and cleansed of tormenting cossacks and russians. they have no hell for the rectification of the present wrong relations of virtue and misery, vice and happiness. the only distinction they appear to make is that all who in kamtschatka are poor, and have few small and weak dogs, shall there be rich and be furnished with strong and fat dogs. the power of imagination is very remarkable in this raw people, bringing the future life so near, and awakening such an impatient longing for it and for their former companions that they often, the sooner to secure a habitation there, anticipate the natural time of their death by suicide. the esquimaux betray the influence of their clime and habits, in the formation of their ideas of the life to come, as plainly as the kamtschadales do. the employments and enjoyments of their future state are rude and earthy. they say the soul descends through successive places of habitation, the first of which is full of pains and horrors. the good, that is, the courageous and skilful, those who have endured severe hardships and mastered many seals, passing through this first residence, find that the other mansions regularly improve. they finally reach an abode of perfect satisfaction, far beneath the storms of the sea, where the sun is never obscured by night, and where reindeer wander in great droves beside waters that never congeal, and wherein the whale, the walrus, and the best sea fowls always abound. hell is deep, but heaven deeper still. hell, they think, is among the roots, rocks, monsters, and cold of the frozen or vexed and suffering waters; but "beneath tempestuous seas and fields of ice their creed has placed a lowlier paradise." the greenlanders, too, located their elysium beneath the abysses of the ocean, where the good spirit torngarsuk held his reign in a happy and eternal summer. the wizards, who pretended to visit this region at will, described the disembodied souls as pallid, and, if one jarves, hist. of the sandwich islands, p. . christoph meiners, vermischte philosophische schriften, - . prichard, physical hist. of mankind, vol. i. ch. . sought to seize them, unsubstantial. some of these people, however, fixed the site of paradise in the sky, and regarded the aurora borealis as the playing of happy souls. so coleridge pictures the laplander "marking the streamy banners of the north, and thinking he those spirits soon should join who there, in floating robes of rosy light, dance sportively." but others believed this state of restlessness in the clouds was the fate only of the worthless, who were there pinched with hunger and plied with torments. all agreed in looking for another state of existence, where, under diverse circumstances, happiness and misery should be awarded, in some degree at least, according to desert. the peruvians taught that the reprobate were sentenced to a hell situated in the centre of the earth, where they must endure centuries of toil and anguish. their paradise was away in the blue dome of heaven. there the spirits of the worthy would lead a life of tranquil luxury. at the death of a peruvian noble his wives and servants frequently were slain, to go with him and wait on him in that happy region. many authors, including prescott, yielding too easy credence to the very questionable assertions of the spanish chroniclers, have attributed to the peruvians a belief in the resurrection of the body. various travellers and writers have also predicated this belief of savage nations in central africa, of certain south sea islanders, and of several native tribes in north america. in all these cases the supposition is probably erroneous, as we think for the following reasons. in the first place, the idea of a resurrection of the body is either a late conception of the associative imagination, or else a doctrine connected with a speculative theory of recurring epochs in the destiny of the world; and it is in both instances too subtle and elaborate for an uncultivated people. secondly, in none of the cases referred to has any reliable evidence been given of the actual existence of the belief in question. it has merely been inferred, by persons to whose minds the doctrine was previously familiar, from phenomena by no means necessarily implying it. for example, a recent author ascribes to the feejees the belief that there will be a resurrection of the body just as it was at the time of death. the only datum on which he founds this astounding assertion is that they often seem to prefer to die in the full vigor of manhood rather than in decrepit old age! thirdly, we know that the observation and statements of the spanish monks and historians, in regard to the religion of the pagans of south america, were of the most imperfect and reckless character. they perpetrated gross frauds, such as planting in the face of high precipices white stones in the shape of the cross, and then pointing to them in proof of their assertion that, before the christians came, the devil had here parodied the rites and doctrines of the gospel. they said the mexican goddess, wife of the sun, was eve, or egede, greenland, ch. . dr. karl andree, gronland. prescott, conquest of peru, vol. i. ch. . erskine, islands of the western pacific, p. . schoolcraft, history, &c. of the indian tribes, part v. p. . the virgin mary, and quetzalcoatl was st. thomas! such affirmers are to be cautiously followed. finally, it is a quite significant fact that while some point to the pains which the peruvians took in embalming their dead as a proof that they looked for a resurrection of the body, acosta expressly says that they did not believe in the resurrection, and that this unbelief was the cause of their embalming. garcilaso de la vega, in his "royal commentaries of the peruvian incas," says that when he asked some peruvians why they took so great care to preserve in the cemeteries of the dead the nails and hair which had been cut off, they replied that in the day of resurrection the dead would come forth with whatever of their bodies was left, and there would be too great a press of business in that day for them to afford time to go hunting round after their hair and nails. the fancy of a christian is too plain here. if the answer were really made by the natives, they were playing a joke on their credulous questioner, or seeking to please him with distorted echoes of his own faith. the conceits as to a future life entertained by the mexicans varied considerably from those of their neighbors of peru. souls neither good nor bad, or whose virtues and vices balanced each other, were to enter a medium state of idleness and empty content. the wicked, or those dying in any of certain enumerated modes of death, went to mictlan, a dismal hell within the earth. the souls of those struck by lightning, or drowned, or dying by any of a given list of diseases, also the souls of children, were transferred to a remote elysium, tlalocan. there was a place in the chief temple where, it was supposed, once a year the spirits of all the children who had been sacrificed to tlaloc invisibly came and assisted in the ceremonies. the ultimate heaven was reserved for warriors who bravely fell in battle, for women who died in labor, for those offered up in the temples of the gods, and for a few others. these passed immediately to the house of the sun, their chief god, whom they accompanied for a term of years, with songs, dances, and revelry, in his circuit around the sky. then, animating the forms of birds of gay plumage, they lived as beautiful songsters among the flowers, now on earth, now in heaven, at their pleasure. it was the mexican custom to dress the dead man in the garb appropriated to the guardian deity of his craft or condition in life. they gave him a jug of water. they placed with him slips of paper to serve as passports through guarded gates and perilous defiles in the other world. they made a fire of his clothes and utensils, to warm the shivering soul while traversing a region of cold winds beyond the grave. the following sentence occurs in a poem composed by one of the old aztec monarchs: "illustrious nobles, loyal subjects, let us aspire to that heaven where all is eternal and corruption cannot come. the horrors of the tomb are but the cradle of the sun, and the shadows of death are brilliant lights for the stars." squier, serpent symbol in america, p. . acosta, natural and moral history of the indies, book v. ch. . book ii. ch. . clavigero, history of mexico, book vi. sect. . prescott, conquest of mexico, vol. i. ch. . ibid. sect. . amidst the mass of whimsical conceptions entering into the faith of the widely spread tribes of north america, we find a ruling agreement in the cardinal features of their thought concerning a future state of existence. in common with nearly all barbarous nations, they felt great fear of apparitions. the sioux were in the habit of addressing the deceased at his burial, and imploring him to stay in his own place and not come to distress them. their funeral customs, too, from one extremity of the continent to the other, were very much alike. those who have reported their opinions to us, from the earliest jesuit missionaries to the latest investigators of their mental characteristics, concur in ascribing to them a deep trust in a life to come, a cheerful view of its conditions, and a remarkable freedom from the dread of dying. charlevoix says, "the best established opinion among the natives is the immortality of the soul." on the basis of an account written by william penn, pope composed the famous passage in his "essay on man:" lo! the poor indian, whose untutor'd mind sees god in clouds and hears him in the wind. his soul proud science never taught to stray far as the solar walk or milky way: yet simple nature to his faith hath given, behind the cloud topp'd hill, an humbler heaven, some safer world in depth of woods embraced, or happier island in the watery waste. to be, contents his natural desire: he asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire, but thinks, admitted to that equal sky, his faithful dog shall bear him company." their rude instinctive belief in the soul's survival, and surmises as to its destiny, are implied in their funeral rites, which, as already stated, were, with some exceptions, strikingly similar even in the remotest tribes. in the bark coffin, with a dead indian the onondagas buried a kettle of provisions, a pair of moccasins, a piece of deer skin and sinews of the deer to sew patches on the moccasins, which it was supposed the deceased would wear out on his journey. they also furnished him with a bow and arrows, a tomahawk and knife, to procure game with to live on while pursuing his way to the land of spirits, the blissful regions of ha wah ne u. several indian nations, instead of burying the food, suspended it above the grave, and renewed it from time to time. some writers have explained this custom by the hypothesis of an indian belief in two souls, one of which departed to the realm of the dead, while the other tarried by the mound until the body was decayed, or until it had itself found a chance to be born in a new body. the supposition seems forced and extremely doubtful. the truth probably lies in a simpler explanation, which will be offered further on. baumgarten, geschichte der volker von america, xiii. haupts.: vom tod, vergribniss, und trauer. clarke, onondaga, vol. l. p. . muller, geschichte der amerikanischen urreligionen, sect. . the winnebagoes located paradise above, and called the milky way the "road of the dead." it was so white with the crowds of journeying ghosts! but almost all, like the ojibways, imagined their elysium to lie far in the west. the soul, freed from the body, follows a wide beaten path westward, and enters a country abounding with all that an indian covets. on the borders of this blessed land, in a long glade, he finds his relatives, for many generations back, gathered to welcome him. the chippewas, and several other important tribes, always kindled fires on the fresh graves of their dead, and kept them burning four successive nights, to light the wandering souls on their way. an indian myth represents the ghosts coming back from ponemah, the land of the hereafter, and singing this song to the miraculous hiawatha: "do not lay such heavy burdens on the graves of those you bury, not such weight of furs and wampum, not such weight of pots and kettles; for the spirits faint beneath them. only give them food to carry, only give them fire to light them. four days is the spirit's journey to the land of ghosts and shadows, four its lonely night encampments. therefore, when the dead are buried, let a fire, as night approaches, four times on the grave be kindled, that the soul upon its journey may not grope about in darkness." the subject of a future state seems to have been by far the most prominent one in the indian imagination. they relate many traditions of persons who have entered it, and returned, and given descriptions of it. a young brave, having lost his betrothed, determined to follow her to the land of souls. far south, beyond the region of ice and snows, he came to a lodge standing before the entrance to wide blue plains. leaving his body there, he embarked in a white stone canoe to cross a lake. he saw the souls of wicked indians sinking in the lake; but the good gained an elysian shore, where all was warmth, beauty, ease, and eternal youth, and where the air was food. the master of breath sent him back, but promised that he might at death return and stay. the wyandots tell of a dwarf, tcha ka bech, who climbed a tree which grew higher as often as he blew on it. at last he reached heaven, and discovered it to be an excellent place. he descended the tree, building wigwams at intervals in the branches. he then returned with his sister and nephew, resting each night in one of the wigwams. schoolcraft, history, &c. of the indian tribes, part iv. p. . ibid. part ii. p. . ibid. part v. p. ; part iv. p. . longfellow, song of hiawatha, xix.: the ghosts. schoolcraft, indian in his wigwam. p . he set his traps up there to catch animals. rising in the night to go and examine his traps, he saw one all on fire, and, upon approaching it, found that he had caught the sun! where the indian is found believing in a devil and a hell, it is the result of his intercourse with europeans. these elements of horror were foreign to his original religion. there are in some quarters faint traces of a single purgatorial or retributive conception. it is a representation of paradise as an island, the ordeal consisting in the passage of the dark river or lake which surrounds it. the worthy cross with entire facility, the unworthy only after tedious struggles. some say the latter are drowned; others, that they sink up to their chins in the water, where they pass eternity in vain desires to attain the alluring land on which they gaze. even this notion may be a modification consequent upon european influence. at all events, it is subordinate in force and only occasional in occurrence. for the most part, in the indian faith mercy swallows up the other attributes of the great spirit. the indian dies without fear, looking for no punishments, only for rewards. he regards the master of breath not as a holy judge, but as a kind father. he welcomes death as opening the door to a sweet land. ever charmingly on his closing eyes dawns the prospect of the aboriginal elysium, a gorgeous region of soft shades, gliding streams, verdant groves waving in gentle airs, warbling birds, herds of stately deer and buffalo browsing on level plains. it is the earth in noiseless and solemn metamorphosis. we shall conclude this chapter by endeavoring to explain the purport and origin of the principal ceremonies and notions which have now been set forth pertaining to the disembodied state. the first source of these particulars is to be sought, not in any clear mental perceptions, or conscious dogmatic belief, but in the natural workings of affection, memory, and sentiment. among almost every people, from the chinese to the araucanians, from the ethiopians to the dacotahs, rites of honor have been paid to the dead, various offerings have been placed at their graves. the vedas enjoin the offering of a cake to the ghosts of ancestors back to the third generation. the greeks were wont to pour wine, oil, milk, and blood into canals made in the graves of their dead. the early christians adopted these "feasts of the dead" as augustine and tertullian call them from the heathen, and celebrated them over the graves of their martyrs and of their other deceased friends. such customs as these among savages like the shillooks or the choctaws are usually supposed to imply the belief that the souls of the deceased remain about the places of sepulture and physically partake of the nourishment thus furnished. the interpretation is farther fetched than need be, and is unlikely; or, at all events, if it be true in some cases, it is not the whole truth. in the first place, these people see that the food and drink remain untouched, the weapons and utensils are left unused in the grave. secondly, there are often certain features in the barbaric ritual obviously metaphorical, incapable of literal acceptance. for instance, the winnebagoes light a small fire on the grave of a deceased warrior to light him on his journey to the land of souls, loskiel, hist. mission of united brethren to n. a. indians, part i. ch. . schoolcraft, indian in his wigwam, p. . history, &c. of indian tribes, part iv. p. . schoolcraft, history of indian tribes, part ii. p. . ibid. pp. , . although they say that journey extends to a distance of four days and nights and is wholly invisible. they light and tend that watch fire as a memorial of their departed companion and a rude expression of their own emotions; as an unconscious emblem of their own struggling faith, not as a beacon to the straying ghost. again, the indian mother, losing a nursing infant, spurts some of her milk into the fire, that the little spirit may not want for nutriment on its solitary path. plato approvingly quotes hesiod's statement that the souls of noble men become guardian demons coursing the air, messengers and agents of the gods in the world. therefore, he adds, "we should reverence their tombs and establish solemn rites and offerings there;" though by his very statement these places were not the dwellings or haunts of the freely circuiting spirits. not by an intellectual doctrine, but by an instinctive association, when not resisted and corrected, we connect the souls of the dead in our thoughts with the burial places of their forms. the new zealand priests pretend by their spells to bring wandering souls within the enclosed graveyards. these sepulchral folds are full of ghosts. a sentiment native to the human breast draws pilgrims to the tombs of shakspeare and washington, and, if not restrained and guided by cultivated thought, would lead them to make offerings there. until the death of louis xv., the kings of france lay in state and were served as in life for forty days after they died. it would be ridiculous to attempt to wring any doctrinal significance from these customs. the same sentiment which, in one form, among the alfoer inhabitants of the arru islands, when a man dies, leads his relatives to assemble and destroy whatever he has left, which, in another form, causes the papist to offer burning candles, wreaths, and crosses, and to recite prayers, before the shrines of the dead saints, which, in still another form, moved albert durer to place all the pretty playthings of his child in the coffin and bury them with it, this same sentiment, in its undefined spontaneous workings, impelled the peruvian to embalm his dead, the blackfoot to inter his brave's hunting equipments with him, and the cherokee squaw to hang fresh food above the totem on her husband's grave post. what should we think if we could foresee that, a thousand years hence, when the present doctrines and customs of france and america are forgotten, some antiquary, seeking the reason why the mourners in pere la chaise and mount auburn laid clusters of flowers on the graves of their lamented ones, should deliberately conclude that it was believed the souls remained in the bodies in the tomb and enjoyed the perfume of the flowers? an american traveller, writing from vienna on all saints' day, in , describes the avenues of the great cemetery filled with people hanging festoons of flowers on the tombstones, and placing burning candles of wax on the graves, and kneeling in devotion; it being their childish belief, he says, that their prayers on this day have efficacy to release their deceased relatives from purgatory, and that the dim taper flickering on the sod lights the unbound soul to its heavenly home. of course these rites are not literal expressions of literal beliefs, but are andree, north america, p. . republic, book v. ch. . r. taylor, new zealand, ch. . meiners, kritische geschichte der religionen, buch iii. absch. . symbols of ideas, emblems of sentiments, figurative and inadequate shadows of a theological doctrine, although, as is well known, there is, among the most ignorant persons, scarcely any deliberately apprehended distinction between image and entity, material representation and spiritual verity. if a member of the oneida tribe died when they were away from home, they buried him with great solemnity, setting a mark over the grave; and whenever they passed that way afterwards they visited the spot, singing a mournful song and casting stones upon it, thus giving symbolic expression to their feelings. it would be absurd to suppose this song an incantation to secure the repose of the buried brave, and the stones thrown to prevent his rising; yet it would not be more incredible or more remote from the facts than many a commonly current interpretation of barbarian usages. an amusing instance of error well enforcing the need of extreme caution in drawing inferences is afforded by the example of those explorers who, finding an extensive cemetery where the aborigines had buried all their children apart from the adults, concluded they had discovered the remains of an ancient race of pigmies! the influence of unspeculative affection, memory, and sentiment goes far towards accounting for the funeral ritual of the barbarians. but it is not sufficient. we must call in further aid; and that aid we find in the arbitrary conceits, the poetic associations, and the creative force of unregulated fancy and imagination. the poetic faculty which, supplied with materials by observation and speculation, constructed the complex mythologies of egypt and greece, and which, turning on its own resources, composed the arabian tales of the genii and the modern literature of pure fiction, is particularly active, fertile, and tyrannical, though in a less continuous and systematic form, in the barbarian mind. acting by wild fits and starts, there is no end to the extravagant conjectures and visions it bodies forth. destitute of philosophical definitions, totally unacquainted with critical distinctions or analytic reflection, absurd notions, sober convictions, dim dreams, and sharp perceptions run confusedly together in the minds of savages. there is to them no clear and permanent demarcation between rational thoughts and crazy fancies. now, no phenomenon can strike more deeply or work more powerfully in human nature, stirring up the exploring activities of intellect and imagination, than the event of death, with its bereaving stroke and prophetic appeal. accordingly, we should expect to find among uncultivated nations, as we actually do, a vast medley of fragmentary thoughts and pictures plausible, strange, lovely, or terrible relating to the place and fate of the disembodied soul. these conceptions would naturally take their shaping and coloring, in some degree, from thescenery, circumstances, and experience amidst which they were conceived and born. sometimes these figments were consciously entertained as wilful inventions, distinctly contemplated as poetry. sometimes they were superstitiously credited in all their grossness with full assent of soul. sometimes all coexisted in vague bewilderment. these lines of separation unquestionably existed: the difficulty is to know where, in given instances, to draw them. a few examples will serve at once to illustrate the smithsonian contributions, vol. ii. squier's aboriginal monuments, appendix, pp. - . operation of the principle now laid down, and to present still further specimens of the barbarian notions of a future life. some indian tribes made offerings to the spirits of their departed heroes by casting the boughs of various trees around the ash, saying that the branches of this tree were eloquent with the ghosts of their warrior sires, who came at evening in the chariot of cloud to fire the young to deeds of war. there is an indian legend of a witch who wore a mantle composed of the scalps of murdered women. taking this off, she shook it, and all the scalps uttered shrieks of laughter. another describes a magician scudding across a lake in a boat whose ribs were live rattlesnakes. an exercise of mind virtually identical with that which gave these strokes made the philippine islanders say that the souls of those who die struck by lightning go up the beams of the rainbow to a happy place, and animated ali to declare that the pious, on coming out of their sepulchres, shall find awaiting them white winged camels with saddles of gold. the ajetas suspended the bow and arrows of a deceased papuan above his grave, and conceived him as emerging from beneath every night to go a hunting. the fisherman on the coast of lapland was interred in a boat, and a flint and combustibles were given him to light him along the dark cavernous passage he was to traverse. the dyaks of borneo believe that every one whose head they can get possession of here will in the future state be their servant: consequently, they make a business of "head hunting," accumulating the ghastly visages of their victims in their huts. the caribs have a sort of sensual paradise for the "brave and virtuous," where, it is promised, they shall enjoy the sublimated experience of all their earthly satisfactions; but the "degenerate and cowardly" are threatened with eternal banishment beyond the mountains, where they shall be tasked and driven as slaves by their enemies. the hispaniolians locate their elysium in a pleasant valley abounding with guava, delicious fruits, cool shades, and murmuring rivulets, where they expect to live again with their departed ancestors and friends. the patagonians say the stars are their translated countrymen, and the milky way is a field where the departed patagonians hunt ostriches. clouds are the feathers of the ostriches they kill. the play is here seen of the same mythological imagination which, in italy, pictured a writhing giant beneath mount vesuvius, and, in greenland, looked on the pleiades as a group of dogs surrounding a white bear, and on the belt of orion as a company of greenlanders placed there because they could not find the way to their own country. black bird, the redoubtable chief of the o ma haws, when dying, said to his people, "bury me on yonder lofty bluff on the banks of the missouri, where i can see the men and boats passing by on the river." accordingly, as soon as he ceased browne, trees of america, p. . schoolcraft, hist. &c part i. pp. - . earl, the papuans, p. . earl, the eastern seas, ch. . edwards, hist. of the west indies, book i. ch. . ibid. ch. . falkner, patagonia, ch. . catlin, north american indians, vol. ii. p. . to breathe, they set him there, on his favorite steed, and heaped the earth around him. this does not imply any believed doctrine, in our sense of the term, but is plainly a spontaneous transference for the moment, by the poetic imagination, of the sentiments of the living man to the buried body. the unhappy africans who were snatched from their homes, enslaved and cruelly tasked in the far west india islands, pined under their fate with deadly homesickness. the intense longing moulded their plastic belief, just as the sensation from some hot bricks at the feet of a sleeping man shaped his dreams into a journey up the side of atna. they fancied that if they died they should immediately live again in their fatherland. they committed suicide in great numbers. at last, when other means had failed to check this epidemic of self destruction, a cunning overseer brought them ropes and every facility for hanging, and told them to hang themselves as fast as they pleased, for their master had bought a great plantation in africa, and as soon as they got there they would be set to work on it. their helpless credulity took the impression; and no more suicides occurred. the mutual formative influences exerted upon a people's notions concerning the future state, by the imagination of their poets and the peculiarities of their clime, are perhaps nowhere more conspicuously exhibited than in the case of the caledonians who at an early period dwelt in north britain. they had picturesque traditions locating the habitation of ghosts in the air above their fog draped mountains. they promised rewards for nothing but valor, and threatened punishments for nothing but cowardice; and even of these they speak obscurely. nothing is said of an under world. they supposed the ghosts at death floated upward naturally, true children of the mist, and dwelt forever in the air, where they spent an inane existence, indulging in sorrowful memories of the past, and, in unreal imitation of their mortal occupations, chasing boars of fog amid hills of cloud and valleys of shadow. the authority for these views is ossian, "whose genuine strains," dr. good observes, "assume a higher importance as historical records than they can claim when considered as fragments of exquisite poetry." "a dark red stream comes down from the hill. crugal sat upon the beam; he that lately fell by the hand of swaran striving in the battle of heroes. his face is like the beam of the setting moon; his robes are of the clouds of the hill; his eyes are like two decaying flames; dark is the wound on his breast. the stars dim twinkled through his form, and his voice was like the sound of a distant stream. dim and in tears he stood, and stretched his pale hand over the hero. faintly he raised his feeble voice, like the gale of the reedy lego. 'my ghost, o'connal, is on my native hills, but my corse is on the sands of ullin. thou shalt never talk with crugal nor find his lone steps on the heath. i am light as the blast of cromla, and i move like the shadow of mist. connal, son of colgar, i see the dark cloud of death. it hovers over the plains of lena. the sons of green erin shall fall. remove from the field of ghosts.' like the darkened moon, he retired in the midst of the whistling blast." we recognise here several leading traits in all the early unspeculative faiths, the vapory form, the echoless motion, the marks of former wounds, the feeble voice, the memory meiners, geschichte der religionen, buch xiv. sect. . of the past, the mournful aspect, and the prophetic words. but the rhetorical imagery, the scenery, the location of the spirit world in the lower clouds, are stamped by emphatic climatic peculiarities, whose origination, easily traceable, throws light on the growth of the whole mass of such notions everywhere. two general sources have now been described of the barbarian conceptions in relation to a future state. first, the natural operation of an earnest recollection of the dead; sympathy, regret, and reverence for them leading the thoughts and the heart to grope after them, to brood over the possibilities of their fate, and to express themselves in rites and emblems. secondly, the mythological or arbitrary creations of the imagination when it is set strongly at work, as it must be by the solemn phenomena associated with death. but beyond these two comprehensive statements there is, directly related to the matter, and worthy of separate illustration, a curious action of the mind, which has been very extensively experienced and fertile of results. it is a peculiar example of the unconscious impartation of objective existence to mental ideas. with the death of the body the man does not cease to live in the remembrance, imagination, and heart of his surviving friends. by an unphilosophical confusion, this internal image is credited as an external existence. the dead pass from their customary haunts in our society to the imperishable domain of ideas. this visionary world of memory and fantasy is projected outward, located, furnished, and constitutes the future state apprehended by the barbarian mind. feuerbach says in his subtle and able thoughts on death and immortality, "the realm of memory is the land of souls." ossian, amid the midnight mountains, thinking of departed warriors and listening to the tempest, fills the gale with the impersonations, of his thoughts, and exclaims, "i hear the steps of the dead in the dark eddying blast." the barbarian brain seems to have been generally impregnated with the feeling that every thing else has a ghost as well as man. the gauls lent money in this world upon bills payable in the next. they threw letters upon the funeral pile to be read by the soul of the deceased. as the ghost was thought to retain the scars of injuries inflicted upon the body, so, it appears, these letters were thought, when destroyed, to leave impressions of what had been written on them. the custom of burning or burying things with the dead probably arose, in some cases at least, from the supposition that every object has its mancs. the obolus for charon, the cake of honey for cerberus, the shadows of these articles would be borne and used by the shadow of the dead man. leonidas saying, "bury me on my shield: i will enter even hades as a lacedamonian," must either have used the word hades by metonymy for the grave, or have imagined that a shadowy fac simile of what was interred in the grave went into the grim kingdom of pluto. it was a custom with some indian tribes, on the new made grave of a chief, to slay his chosen horse; and when he fell they supposed "that then, upon the dead man's plain, the rider grasp'd his steed again." pomponius mela, de orbis situ, iii. . translation of greek anthology, in bohn's library, p. . the hunter chases the deer, each alike a shade. a feejee once, in presence of a missionary, took a weapon from the grave of a buried companion, saying, "the ghost of the club has gone with him." the iroquois tell of a woman who was chased by a ghost. she heard his faint war whoop, his spectre voice, and only escaped with her life because his war club was but a shadow wielded by an arm of air. the slavonians sacrificed a warrior's horse at his tomb. nothing seemed to the northman so noble as to enter valhalla on horseback, with a numerous retinue, in his richest apparel and finest armor. it was firmly believed, mallet says, that odin himself had declared that whatsoever was burned or buried with the dead accompanied them to his palace. before the mohammedan era, on the death of an arab, the finest camel he had owned was tied to a stake beside his grave, and left to expire of hunger over the body of his master, in order that, in the region into which death had introduced him, he should be supplied with his usual bearer. the chinese who surpass all other people in the offerings and worship paid at the sepulchres of their ancestors make little paper houses, fill them with images of furniture, utensils, domestics, and all the appurtenances of the family economy, and then burn them, thus passing them into the invisible state for the use of the deceased whom they mourn and honor. it is a touching thought with the greenlanders, when a child dies, to bury a dog with him as a guide to the land of souls; for, they say, the dog is able to find his way anywhere. the shadow of the faithful servant guides the shadow of the helpless child to heaven. in fancy, not without a moved heart, one sees this spiritual bernard dog bearing the ghost child on his back, over the spectral gothard of death, safe into the sheltering hospice of the greenland paradise. it is strange to notice the meeting of extremes in the rude antithetical correspondence between plato's doctrine of archetypal ideas, the immaterial patterns of earthly things, and the belief of savages in the ghosts of clubs, arrows, sandals, and provisions. the disembodied soul of the philosopher, an eternal idea, turns from the empty illusions of matter to nourish itself with the substance of real truth. the spectre of the mohawk devours the spectre of the haunch of roast venison hung over his grave. and why should not the two shades be conceived, if either? "pig, bullock, goose, must have their goblins too, else ours would have to go without their dinners: if that starvation doctrine were but true, how hard the fate of gormandizing sinners!" the conception of ghosts has been still further introduced also into the realm of mathematics in an amusing manner. bishop berkeley, bantered on his idealism by halley, retorted that he too was an idealist; for his ultimate ratios terms only appearing with the wilkinson, dalmatia and montenegro, vol. i. ch. . northern antiquities, ch. . lamartine, history of turkey, book i. ch. . kidd, china, sect. . crantz, history of greenland, book iii. ch. , sect. . disappearance of the forms in whose relationship they consist were but the ghosts of departed quantities! it may be added here that, according to the teachings of physiological psychology, all memories or recollected ideas are literally the ghosts of departed sensations. we have thus seen that the conjuring force of fear, with its dread apparitions, the surmising, half articulate struggles of affection, the dreams of memory, the lights and groups of poetry, the crude germs of metaphysical speculation, the deposits of the inter action of human experience and phenomenal nature, now in isolated fragments, again, huddled indiscriminately together conspire to compose the barbarian notions of a future life. chapter ii. druidic doctrine of a future life. that strange body of men, commonly known as the druids, who constituted what may, with some correctness, be called the celtic priesthood, were the recognised religious teachers throughout gaul, armorica, a small part of germany on the southern border, all great britain, and some neighboring islands. the notions in regard to a future life put forth by them are stated only in a very imperfect manner by the greek and roman authors in whose surviving works we find allusions to the druids or accounts of the celts. several modern writers especially borlase, in his antiquities of cornwall have collected all these references from diodorus, strabo, procopius, tacitus, casar, mela, valerius maximus, and marcellinus. it is therefore needless to cite the passages here, the more so as, even with the aid of all the analytic and constructive comments which can be fairly made upon them, they afford us only a few general views, leaving all the details in profound obscurity. the substance of what we learn from these sources is this. first, that the druids possessed a body of science and speculation comprising the doctrine of immortality, which they taught with clearness and authority. secondly, that they inculcated the belief in a future life in inseparable connection with the great dogma of metempsychosis. thirdly, that the people held such cheerful and attractive views of the future state, and held them with such earnestness, that they wept around the newborn infant and smiled around the corpse; that they encountered death without fear or reluctance. this reversal of natural sentiments shows the tampering of a priesthood who had motives. a somewhat more minute conception of the druidic view of the future life is furnished us by an old mythologic tale of celtic origin. omitting the story, as irrelevant to our purpose, we derive from it the following ideas. the soul, on being divested of its earthly envelop, is borne aloft. the clouds are composed of the souls of lately deceased men. they fly over the heads of armies, inspiring courage or striking terror. not yet freed from terrestrial affections, they mingle in the passions and affairs of men. vainly they strive to soar above the atmosphere; an impassable wall of sapphire resists their wings. in the moon, millions of souls traverse tremendous plains of ice, losing all perception but that of simple existence, forgetting the adventures they have passed through and are about to recommence. during eclipses, on long tubes of darkness they return to the earth, and, revived by a beam of light from the all quickening sun, enter newly formed bodies, and begin again the career of life. the disk of the sun consists of an assemblage of pure souls swimming in an ocean of bliss. souls sullied with earthly impurities are to be purged by repeated births and probations till the last stain is removed, and they are all finally fitted to ascend to a succession of spheres still higher than the sun, whence they can never sink again to reside in the circle of the lower globes and grosser atmosphere. book ii. ch. . davies, celtic researches, appendix, pp. - . these representations are neither gothic nor roman, but celtic. but a far more adequate exposition of the druidic doctrine of the soul's destinies has been presented to us through the translation of some of the preserved treasures of the old bardic lore of wales. the welsh bards for hundreds of years were the sole surviving representatives of the druids. their poems numerous manuscripts of which, with apparent authentication of their genuineness, have been published and explained contain quite full accounts of the tenets of druidism, which was nowhere else so thoroughly systematized and established as in ancient britain. the curious reader will find this whole subject copiously treated, and all the materials furnished, in the "myvyrian archaology of wales," a work in two huge volumes, published at london at the beginning of the present century. after the introduction and triumph of christianity in britain, for several centuries the two systems of thought and ritual mutually influenced each other, corrupting and corrupted. a striking example in point is this. the notion of a punitive and remedial transmigration belonged to druidism. now, taliesin, a famous welsh bard of the sixth century, locates this purifying metempsychosis in the hell of christianity, whence the soul gradually rises again to felicity, the way for it having been opened by christ! cautiously eliminating the christian admixtures, the following outline, which we epitomize from the pioneer of modern scholars to the welsh bardic literature, affords a pretty clear knowledge of that portion of the druidic theology relating to the future life. there are, says one of the bardic triads, three circles of existence. first, the circle of infinity, where of living or dead there is nothing but god, and which none but god can traverse. secondly, the circle of metempsychosis, where all things that live are derived from death. this circle has been traversed by man. thirdly, the circle of felicity, where all things spring from life. this circle man shall hereafter traverse. all animated beings originate in the lowest point of existence, and, by regular gradations through an ascending series of transmigrations, rise to the highest state of perfection possible for finite creatures. fate reigns in all the states below that of humanity, and they are all necessarily evil. in the states above humanity, on the contrary, unmixed good so prevails that all are necessarily good. but in the middle state of humanity, good and evil are so balanced that liberty results; and free will and consequent responsibility are born. beings who in their ascent have arrived at the state of man, if, by purity, humility, love, and righteousness, they keep the laws of the creator, will, after death, rise into more glorious spheres, and will continue to rise still higher, until they reach the final destination of complete and endless happiness. but if, while in the state of humanity, one perverts his reason and will, and attaches himself to evil, he will, on dying, fall into such a state of animal existence as corresponds with the baseness of his soul. this baseness may be so great as to precipitate him to the lowest point of being; but he shall climb thence through a series of births best fitted to free him from his evil propensities. restored to the probationary state, he may fall again; but, though this should occur again and again sketch of british bardism, prefixed to owen's translation of the heroic elegies of llywarch hen. herbert, essay on the neo druidic heresy in britannia. poems, lyric and pastoral, by edward williams, vol. ii. notes, pp. - . for a million of ages, the path to happiness still remains open, and he shall at last infallibly arrive at his preordained felicity, and fall nevermore. in the states superior to humanity, the soul recovers and retains the entire recollection of its former lives. we will quote a few illustrative triads. there are three necessary purposes of metempsychosis: to collect the materials and properties of every nature; to collect the knowledge of every thing; to collect power towards removing whatever is pernicious. the knowledge of three things will subdue and destroy evil: knowledge of its cause, its nature, and its operation. three things continually dwindle away: the dark, the false, the dead. three things continually increase: light, truth, life. these will prevail, and finally absorb every thing else. the soul is an inconceivably minute particle of the most refined matter, endowed with indestructible life, at the dissolution of one body passing, according to its merits, into a higher or lower stage of existence, where it expands itself into that form which its acquired propensities necessarily give it, or into that animal in which such propensities naturally reside. the ultimate states of happiness are ceaselessly undergoing the most delightful renovations, without which, indeed, no finite being could endure the tedium of eternity. these are not, like the death of the lower states, accompanied by a suspension of memory and of conscious identity. all the innumerable modes of existence, after being cleansed from every evil, will forever remain as beautiful varieties in the creation, and will be equally esteemed, equally happy, equally fathered by the creator. the successive occupation of these modes of existence by the celestial inhabitants of the circle of felicity will be one of the ways of varying what would otherwise be the intolerable monotony of eternity. the creation is yet in its infancy. the progressive operation of the providence of god will bring every being up from the great deep to the point of liberty, and will at last secure three things for them: namely, what is most beneficial, what is most desired, and what is most beautiful. there are three stabilities of existence: what cannot be otherwise, what should not be otherwise, what cannot be imagined better; and in these all shall end, in the circle of felicity. such is a hasty synopsis of what here concerns us in the theology of the druids. in its ground germs it was, it seems to us, unquestionably imported into celtic thought and cymrian song from that prolific and immemorial hindu mind which bore brahmanism and buddhism as its fruit. its ethical tone, intellectual elevation, and glorious climax are not unworthy that free hierarchy of minstrel priests whose teachings were proclaimed, as their assemblies were held, "in the face of the sun and in the eye of the light," and whose thrilling motto was, "the truth against the world." the latest publication on the subject of old welsh literature is "taliesin; or, the bards and druids of britain." the author, d. w. nash, is obviously familiar with his theme, and he throws much light on many points of it. his ridicule of the arbitrary tenets and absurdities which davies, pughe, and others have taught in all good faith as druidic lore and practice is richly deserved. but, despite the learning and acumen displayed in his able and valuable volume, we must think mr. nash goes wholly against the record in denying the doctrine of metempsychosis to the druidic system, and goes clearly beyond the record in charging edward williams and others with forgery and fraud in their representations of ancient bardic doctrines. in support of such grave charges direct evidence is needed; only suspicious circumstances are adduced. the non existence of public documents is perfectly reconcilable with the existence of reliable oral accounts preserved by the initiated few, one of whom williams, with seeming sincerity, claimed to be. taliesin, ch. iv. chapter iii. scandinavian doctrine of a future life. many considerations combine to make it seem likely that at an early period a migration took place from southern asia to northern europe, which constituted the commencement of what afterwards grew to be the great gothic family. the correspondence of many of the leading doctrines and symbols of the scandinavian mythology with well known persian and buddhist notions notions of a purely fanciful and arbitrary character is too peculiar, apparently, to admit of any other explanation. but the germs of thought and imagination transplanted thus from the warm and gorgeous climes of the east to the snowy mountains of norway and the howling ridges of iceland, obtained a fresh development, with numerous modifications and strange additions, from the new life, climate, scenery, and customs to which they were there exposed. the temptation to predatory habits and strife, the necessity for an intense though fitful activity arising from their geographical situation, the fierce spirit nourished in them by their actual life, the tremendous phenomena of the arctic world around them, all these influences break out to our view in the poetry, and are reflected by their results in the religion, of the northmen. from the flame world, muspelheim, in the south, in which surtur, the dread fire king, sits enthroned, flowed down streams of heat. from the mist world, niflheim, in the north, in whose central caldron, hvergelmir, dwells the gloomy dragon nidhogg, rose floods of cold vapor. the fire and mist meeting in the yawning abyss, ginungagap, after various stages of transition, formed the earth. there were then three principal races of beings: men, whose dwelling was midgard; jotuns, who occupied utgard; and the asir, whose home was asgard. the jotuns, or demons, seem to have been originally personifications of darkness, cold, and storm, the disturbing forces of nature, whatever is hostile to fruitful life and peace. they were frost giants ranged in the outer wastes around the habitable fields of men. the asir, or gods, on the other hand, appear to have been personifications of light, and law, and benignant power, the orderly energies of the universe. between the jotuns and the asir there is an implacable contest. the rainbow, bifrost, is a bridge leading from earth up to the skyey dwelling place of the asir; and their sentinel, heimdall, whose senses are so acute that he can hear the grass spring in the meadows and the wool grow on the backs of the sheep, keeps incessant watch upon it. their chief deity, the father zeus of the northern pantheon, was odin, the god of war, who wakened the spirit of battle by flinging his spear over the heads of the people, its inaudible hiss from heaven being as the song of ate let loose on earth. next in rank was thor, the personification of the exploding tempest. the crashing echoes of the thunder are his chariot wheels rattling through the cloudy halls of thrudheim. whenever the lightning strikes a cliff or an iceberg, then thor has flung his hammer, mjolnir, at joton's head. vans kennedy, ancient and hindu mythology, pp. , - . thorpe, northern mythology, vol. ii. balder was the god of innocence and gentleness, fairest, kindest, purest of beings. light emanated from him, and all things loved him. after christianity was established in the north, jesus was called the white christ, or the new balder. the appearance of balder amidst the frenzied and bloody divinities of the norse creed is beautiful as the dew cool moon hanging calmly over the lurid storm of vesuvius. he was entitled the "band in the wreath of the gods," because with his fate that of all the rest was bound up. his death, ominously foretold from eldest antiquity, would be the signal for the ruin of the universe. asa loki was the momus satan or devil buffoon of the scandinavian mythology, the half amusing, half horrible embodiment of wit, treachery, and evil; now residing with the gods in heaven, now accompanying thor on his frequent adventures, now visiting and plotting with his own kith and kin in frosty jotunheim, beyond the earth environing sea, or in livid helheim deep beneath the domain of breathing humanity. with a jotun woman, angerbode, or messenger of evil, loki begets three fell children. the first is fenris, a savage wolf, so large that nothing but space can hold him. the second is jormungandur, who, with his tail in his mouth, fills the circuit of the ocean. he is described by sir walter scott as "that great sea snake, tremendous curl'd, whose monstrous circle girds the world." the third is hela, the grim goddess of death, whose ferocious aspect is half of a pale blue and half of a ghastly white, and whose empire, stretching below the earth through niflheim, is full of freezing vapors and discomfortable sights. her residence is the spacious under world; her court yard, faintness; her threshold, precipice; her door, abyss; her hall, pain; her table, hunger; her knife, starvation; her man servant, delay; her handmaid, slowness; her bed, sickness; her pillow, anguish; and her canopy, curse. still lower than her house is an abode yet more fearful and loathsome. in nastrond, or strand of corpses, stands a hall, the conception of which is prodigiously awful and enormously disgusting. it is plaited of serpents' backs, wattled together like wicker work, whose heads turn inwards, vomiting poison. in the lake of venom thus deposited within these immense wriggling walls of snakes the worst of the damned wade and swim. high up in the sky is odin's hall, the magnificent valhalla, or temple of the slain. the columns supporting its ceiling are spears. it is roofed with shields, and the ornaments on its benches are coats of mail. the valkyrs are odin's battle maids, choosers of heroes for his banquet rooms. with helmets on their heads, in bloody harness, mounted on shadowy steeds, surrounded by meteoric lightnings, and wielding flaming swords, they hover over the conflict and point the way to valhalla to the warriors who fall. the valiant souls thus received to odin's presence are called einheriar, or the elect. the valkyrs, as white clad virgins with flowing ringlets, wait on them in the capacity of cup bearers. each morning, at the crowing oehlenschlager, gods of the north. this celebrated and brilliant poem, with the copious notes in frye's translation, affords the english reader a full conception of the norse pantheon and its salient adventures. of a huge gold combed cock, the well armed einheriar rush through valhalla's five hundred and forty doors into a great court yard, and pass the day in merciless fighting. however pierced and hewn in pieces in these fearful encounters, at evening every wound is healed, and they return into the hall whole, and are seated, according to their exploits, at a luxurious feast. the perennial boar sehrimnir, deliciously cooked by andrimnir, though devoured every night, is whole again every morning and ready to be served anew. the two highest joys these terrible berserkers and vikings knew on earth composed their experience in heaven: namely, a battle by day and a feast by night. it is a vulgar error, long prevalent, that the valhalla heroes drink out of the skulls of their enemies. this notion, though often refuted, still lingers in the popular mind. it arose from the false translation of a phrase in the death song of ragnar lodbrok, the famous sea king, "soon shall we drink from the curved trees of the head," which, as a figure for the usual drinking horns, was erroneously rendered by olaus wormius, "soon shall we drink from the hollow cups of skulls." it is not the heads of men, but the horns of beasts, from which the einheriar quaff heidrun's mead. no women being ever mentioned as gaining admission to valhalla or joining in the joys of the einheriar, some writers have affirmed that, according to the scandinavian faith, women had no immortal souls, or, at all events, were excluded from heaven. the charge is as baseless in this instance as when brought against mohammedanism. valhalla was the exclusive abode of the most daring champions; but valhalla was not the whole of heaven. vingolf, the hall of friends, stood beside the hall of the slain, and was the assembling place of the goddesses. there, in the palace of freya, the souls of noble women were received after death. the elder edda says that thor guided roska, a swift footed peasant girl who had attended him as a servant on various excursions, to freya's bower, where she was welcomed, and where she remained forever. the virgin goddess gefjone, the northern diana, also had a residence in heaven, and all who died maidens repaired thither. the presence of virgin throngs with gefjone, and the society of noble matrons in vingolf, shed a tender gleam across the carnage and carousal of valhalla. more is said of the latter the former is scarcely visible to us now because the only record we have of the norse faith is that contained in the fragmentary strains of ferocious skalds, who sang chiefly to warriors, and the staple matter of whose songs was feats of martial prowess or entertaining mythological stories. furthermore, there is above the heaven of the asir a yet higher heaven, the abode of the far removed and inscrutable being, the rarely named omnipotent one, the true all father, who is at last to come forth above the ruins of the universe to judge and sentence all creatures and to rebuild a better world. in this highest region towers the imperishable gold roofed hall, gimle, brighter than the sun. there is no hint anywhere in the skaldic strains that good women are repulsed from this dwelling. according to the rude morality of the people and the time, the contrasted conditions of admission to the upper paradise or condemnation to the infernal realm were the admired pigott, manual of scandinavian mythology, p. . keyser, religion of the northmen, trans. by pennock, p. . pigott, p. . virtues of strength, open handed frankness, reckless audacity, or the hated vices of feebleness, cowardice, deceit, humility. those who have won fame by puissant feats and who die in battle are snatched by the valkyrs from the sod to valhalla. to die in arms is to be chosen of odin, "in whose hall of gold the steel clad ghosts their wonted orgies hold. some taunting jest begets the war of words: in clamorous fray they grasp their gleamy swords, and, as upon the earth, with fierce delight by turns renew the banquet and the fight." all, on the contrary, who, after lives of ignoble labor or despicable ease, die of sickness, sink from their beds to the dismal house of hela. in this gigantic vaulted cavern the air smells like a newly stirred grave; damp fogs rise, hollow sighs are heard, the only light comes from funeral tapers held by skeletons; the hideous queen, whom thor eulogizes as the scourger of cowards, sits on a throne of skulls, and sways a sceptre, made of a dead man's bone bleached in the moonlight, over a countless multitude of shivering ghosts. but the norse moralists plunge to a yet darker doom those guilty of perjury, murder, or adultery. in nastrond's grisly hail, which is shaped of serpents' spines, and through whose loop holes drops of poison drip, where no sunlight ever reaches, they welter in a venom sea and are gnawed by the dragon nidhogg. in a word, what to the crude moral sense of the martial goth seemed piety, virtue, led to heaven; what seemed blasphemy, baseness, led to hell. the long war between good and evil, light and darkness, order and discord, the asir and the jotuns, was at last to reach a fatal crisis and end in one universal battle, called ragnarokur, or the "twilight of the gods," whose result would be the total destruction of the present creation. portentous inklings of this dread encounter were abroad among all beings. a shuddering anticipation of it sat in a lowering frown of shadow on the brows of the deities. in preparation for ragnarokur, both parties anxiously secured all the allies they could. odin therefore joyously welcomes every valiant warrior to valhalla, as a recruit for his hosts on that day when fenris shall break loose. when hakon jarl fell, the valkyrs shouted, "now does the force of the gods grow stronger when they have brought hakon to their home." a skald makes odin say, on the death of king eirilc blood axe, as an excuse for permitting such a hero to be slain, "our lot is uncertain: the gray wolf gazes on the host of the gods;" that is, we shall need help at ragnarokur. but as all the brave and magnanimous champions received to valhalla were enlisted on the side of the asir, so all the miserable cowards, invalids, and wretches doomed to hela's house would fight for the jotuns. from day to day the opposed armies, above and below, increase in numbers. some grow impatient, some tremble. when balder dies, and the ship nagelfra is completed, the hour of infinite suspense will strike. nagelfra is a vessel for the conveyance of the hosts of frost giants to the battle. it is to be built of dead men's nails: therefore no one should die with unpaired nails, for if he does he pigott, pp. , . the voluspa, strophes , . furnishes materials for the construction of that ship which men and gods wish to have finished as late as possible. at length loki treacherously compasses the murder of balder. the frightful foreboding which at once flies through all hearts finds voice in the dark "raven song" of odin. having chanted this obscure wail in heaven, he mounts his horse and rides down the bridge to helheim. with resistless incantations he raises from the grave, where she has been interred for ages, wrapt in snows, wet with the rains and the dews, an aged vala or prophetess, and forces her to answer his questions. with appalling replies he returns home, galloping up the sky. and now the crack of doom is at hand. heimdall hurries up and down the bridge bifrost, blowing his horn till its rousing blasts echo through the universe. the wolf skoll, from whose pursuit the frightened sun has fled round the heavens since the first dawn, overtakes and devours his bright prey. nagelfra, with the jotun hosts on board, sails swiftly from utgard. loki advances at the head of the troops of hela. fenris snaps his chain and rushes forth with jaws so extended that the upper touches the firmament, while the under rests on the earth; and he would open them wider if there were room. jormungandur writhes his entire length around midgard, and, lifting his head, blows venom over air and sea. suddenly, in the south, heaven cleaves asunder, and through the breach the sons of muspel, the flame genii, ride out on horseback with surtur at their head, his sword outflashing the sun. now odin leads forward the asir and the einheriar, and on the predestined plain of vigrid the strife commences. heimdall and loki mutually slay each other. thor kills jormungandur; but as the monster expires he belches a flood of venom, under which the matchless thunder god staggers and falls dead. fenris swallows odin, but is instantly rent in twain by vidar, the strong silent one, odin's dumb son, who well avenges his father on the wolf by splitting the jaws that devoured him. then surtur slings fire abroad, and the reek rises around all things. iggdrasill, the great ash tree of existence, totters, but stands. all below perishes. finally, the unnamable mighty one appears, to judge the good and the bad. the former hie from fading valhalla to eternal gimle, where all joy is to be theirs forever; the latter are stormed down from hela to nastrond, there, "under curdling mists, in a snaky marsh whose waves freeze black and thaw in blood, to be scared forever, for punishment, with terrors ever new." all strife vanishes in endless peace. by the power of all father, a new earth, green and fair, shoots up from the sea, to be inhabited by a new race of men free from sorrow. the foul, spotted dragon nidhogg flies over the plains, bearing corpses and death itself away upon his wings, and sinks out of sight. it has generally been asserted, in consonance with the foregoing view, that the scandinavians believed that the good and the bad, respectively in gimle and nastrond, would experience everlasting rewards and punishments. but blackwell, the recent editor of percy's translation of mallet's northern antiquities as published in bohn's antiquarian library, argues with great force against the correctness of the assertion. the point is grimm, deutsche mythologie, s. , note. keyser, religion of the northmen, part i. ch. vi. pp. - . dubious; but it is of no great importance, since we know that the spirit and large outlines of their faith have been reliably set forth. that faith, rising from the impetuous blood and rude mind of the martial race of the north, gathering wonderful embellishments from the glowing imagination of the skalds, reacting, doubly nourished the fierce valor and fervid fancy from which it sprang. it drove the dragon prows of the vikings marauding over the seas. it rolled the goths' conquering squadrons across the nations, from the shores of finland and skager rack to the foot of the pyrenees and the gates of rome. the very ferocity with which it blazed consumed itself, and the conquest of the flickering faith by christianity was easy. during the dominion of this religion, the earnest sincerity with which its disciples received it appears alike from the fearful enterprises it prompted them to, the iron hardihood and immeasurable contempt of death it inspired in them, and the superstitious observances which, with pains and expenses, they scrupulously kept. they buried, with the dead, gold, useful implements, ornaments, that they might descend, furnished and shining, to the halls of hela. with a chieftain they buried a pompous horse and splendid armor, that he might ride like a warrior into valhalla. the true scandinavian, by age or sickness deprived of dying in battle, ran himself through, or flung himself from a precipice, in this manner to make amends for not expiring in armed strife, if haply thus he might snatch a late seat among the einheriar. with the same motive the dying sea king had himself laid on his ship, alone, and launched away, with out stretched sails, with a slow fire in the hold, which, when he was fairly out at sea, should flame up and, as carlyle says, "worthily bury the old hero at once in the sky and in the ocean." surely then, if ever, "the kingdom of heaven suffered violence, and the violent took it by force." chapter iv. etruscan doctrine of a future life. although the living form and written annals of etruria perished thousands of years ago, and although but slight references to her affairs have come down to us in the documents of contemporary nations, yet, through a comparatively recent acquisition of facts, we have quite a distinct and satisfactory knowledge of her condition and experience when her power was palmiest. we follow the ancient etruscans from the cradle to the tomb, perceiving their various national costumes, peculiar physiognomies, names and relationships, houses, furniture, ranks, avocations, games, dying scenes, burial processions, and funeral festivals. and, further than this, we follow their souls into the world to come, behold them in the hands of good or evil spirits, brought to judgment and then awarded their deserts of bliss or woe. this knowledge has been derived from their sepulchres, which still resist the corroding hand of time when nearly every thing else etruscan has mingled with the ground. they hewed their tombs in the living rock of cliffs and hills, or reared them of massive masonry. they painted or carved the walls with descriptive and symbolic scenes, and crowded their interiors with sarcophagi, cinerary urns, vases, goblets, mirrors, and a thousand other articles covered with paintings and sculptures rich in information of their authors. from a study of these things, lately disinterred in immense quantities, has been constructed, for the most part, our present acquaintance with this ancient people. strange that, when the whole scene of life has passed away, a sepulchral world should survive and open itself to reveal the past and instruct the future! we seem to see, rising from her tombs, and moving solemnly among the mounds where all she knew or cared for has for so many ages been inurned, the ghost of a mighty people. with dejected air she leans on a ruined temple and muses; and her shadowy tears fall silently over what was and is not. the etruscans were accustomed to bury their deceased outside their walls; and sometimes the city of the living was thus surrounded by a far reaching city of the dead. at this day the decaying fronts of the houses of the departed, for miles upon miles along the road, admonish the living traveller. these stone hewn sepulchres crowd nearly every hill and glen. whole acres of them are also found upon the plains, covered by several feet of earth, where every spring the plough passes over them, and every autumn the harvest waves; but the dust beneath reposes well, and knows nothing of this. "time buries graves. how strange! a buried grave! death cannot from more death its own dead empire save." the houses of the dead were built in imitation of the houses of the living, only on a smaller scale; and the interior arrangements were so closely copied that it is said the resemblance held in all but the light of day and the sound and motion of life. the images mrs. gray, sepulchres of etruria. painted or etched on the urns and sarcophagi that fill the sepulchres were portraits of the deceased, accurate likenesses, varying with age, sex, features, and expression. these personal portraits were taken and laid up here, doubtless, to preserve their remembrance when the original had crumbled to ashes. what a touching voice is this from antiquity, telling us that our poor, fond human nature was ever the same! the heart longed to be kept still in remembrance when the mortal frame was gone. but how vain the wish beyond the vanishing circle of hearts that returned its love! for, as we wander through those sepulchres now, thousands of faces thus preserved look down upon us with a mute plea, when every vestige of their names and characters is forever lost, and their very dust scattered long ago. along the sides of the burial chamber were ranged massive stone shelves, or sometimes benches, or tables, upon which the dead were laid in a reclining posture, to sleep their long sleep. it often happens that on these rocky biers lie the helmet, breastplate, greaves, signet ring, and weapons, or, if it be a female, the necklace, ear rings, bracelet, and other ornaments, each in its relative place, when the body they once encased or adorned has not left a single fragment behind. an antiquary once, digging for discoveries, chanced to break through the ceiling of a tomb. he looked in; and there, to quote his own words, "i beheld a warrior stretched on a couch of rock, and in a few minutes i saw him vanish under my eyes; for, as the air entered the cemetery, the armor, thoroughly oxydized, crumbled away into most minute particles, and in a short time scarcely a trace of what i had seen was left on the couch. it is impossible to express the effect this sight produced upon me." an important element in the religion of etruria was the doctrine of genii, a system of household deities who watched over the fortunes of individuals and families, and who are continually shown on the engravings in the sepulchres as guiding, or actively interested in, all the incidents that happen to those under their care. it was supposed that every person had two genii allotted to him, one inciting him to good deeds, the other to bad, and both accompanying him after death to the judgment to give in their testimony and turn the scales of his fate. this belief, sincerely held, would obviously wield a powerful influence over their feelings in the conduct of life. the doctrine concerning the gods that prevailed in this ancient nation is learned partly from the classic authors, partly from sepulchral monumental remains. it was somewhat allied to that of egypt, but much more to that of rome, who indeed derived a considerable portion of her mythology from this source. as in other pagan countries, a multitude of deities were worshipped here, each having his peculiar office, form of representation, and cycle of traditions. it would be useless to specify all. the goddess of fate was pictured with wings, showing her swiftness, and with a hammer and nail, to typify that her decrees were unalterably fixed. the name of the supreme god was tinia. he was the central power of the world of divinities, and was always represented, like jupiter tonans, with a thunderbolt in his hand. there were twelve great "consenting gods," composing the council of tinia, and called "the senators of heaven." they were pitiless beings, dwelling in the inmost recesses muller, die etrusker, buch iii. kap. iv. sects. - . of heaven, whose names it was not lawful to pronounce. yet they were not deemed eternal, but were supposed to rise and fall together. there was another class, called "the shrouded gods," still more awful, potent, and mysterious, ruling all things, and much like the inscrutable necessity that filled the dark background of the old greek religion. last, but most feared and most prominent in the etruscan mind, were the rulers of the lower regions, mantus and mania, the king and queen of the under world. mantus was figured as an old man, wearing a crown, with wings at his shoulders, and a torch reversed in his hand. mania was a fearful personage, frequently propitiated with human sacrifices. macrobius says boys were offered up at her annual festival for a long time, till the heads of onions and poppies were substituted. intimately connected with these divinities was charun, their chief minister, the conductor of souls into the realm of the future, whose dread image, hideous as the imagination could conceive, is constantly introduced in the sepulchral pictures, and who with his attendant demons well illustrates the terrible character of the superstition which first created, then deified, and then trembled before him. who can become acquainted with such horrors as these without drawing a freer breath, and feeling a deeper gratitude to god, as he remembers how, for many centuries now, the religion of love has been redeeming man from subterranean darkness, hatred, and fright, to the happiness and peace of good will and trust in the sweet, sunlit air of day! that a belief in a future existence formed a prominent and controlling feature in the creed of the etruscans is abundantly shown by the contents of their tombs. they would never have produced and preserved paintings, tracings, types, of such a character and in such quantities, had not the doctrines they shadow forth possessed a ruling hold upon their hopes and fears. the symbolic representations connected with this subject may be arranged in several classes. first, there is an innumerable variety of death bed scenes, many of them of the most touching and pathetic character, such as witnesses say can scarcely be looked upon without tears, others of the most appalling nature, showing perfect abandonment to fright, screams, sobbing, and despair. the last hour is described under all circumstances, coming to all sorts of persons, prince, priest, peasant, man, mother, and child. patriarchs are dying surrounded by groups in every posture of grief; friends are waving a mournful farewell to their weeping lovers; wives are torn from the embrace of their husbands; some seem resigned and willingly going, others reluctant and driven in terror. the next series of engravings contain descriptions and emblems of the departure of the soul from this world, and of its passage into the next. there are various symbols of this mysterious transition: one is a snake with a boy riding upon its back, its amphibious nature plainly typifying the twofold existence allotted to man. the soul is also often shown muffled in a veil and travelling garb, seated upon a horse, and followed by a slave carrying a large sack of provisions, an emblem of the long and dreary journey about to be taken. horses are depicted harnessed to cars in which disembodied spirits are seated, a token of the swift ride saturnal. lib. i. cap. . dennis, cities and cemeteries of etruria, ch. xii. of the dead to their doom. sometimes the soul is gently invited, or led, by a good spirit, sometimes beaten, or dragged away, by the squalid and savage charun, the horrible death king, or one of his ministers; sometimes a good and an evil spirit are seen contending for the soul; sometimes the soul is seen, on its knees, beseeching the aid of its good genius and grasping at his departing wing, as, with averted face, he is retiring; and sometimes the good and the evil spirits are leading it away together, to abide the sentence of the tribunal of mantus. whole companies of souls are also set forth marching in procession, under the guidance of a winged genius, to their subterranean abode. finally, there is a class of representations depicting the ultimate fate of souls after judgment has been passed. some are shown seated at banquet, in full enjoyment, according to their ideas of bliss. some are shown undergoing punishment, beaten with hammers, stabbed and torn by black demons. there are no proofs that the etruscans believed in the translation of any soul to the abode of the gods above the sky, no signs of any path rising to the supernal heaven; but they clearly expected just discriminations to be made in the under world. into that realm many gates are shown leading, some of them peaceful, inviting, surrounded by apparent emblems of deliverance, rest, and blessedness; others yawning, terrific, engirt by the heads of gnashing beasts and furies threatening their victim. "shown is the progress of the guilty soul from earth's worn threshold to the throne of doom; here the black genius to the dismal goal drags the wan spectre from the unsheltering tomb, while from the side it never more may warn the better angel, sorrowing, flees forlorn. there (closed the eighth) seven yawning gates reveal the sevenfold anguish that awaits the lost. closed the eighth gate, for there the happy dwell. no glimpse of joy beyond makes horror less." in these lines, from bulwer's learned and ornate epic of king arthur, the dire severity of the etruscan doctrine of a future life is well indicated, with the local imagery of some parts of it, and the impenetrable obscurity which enwraps the great sequel. chapter v. egyptian doctrine of a future life. in attempting to understand the conceptions of the ancient inhabitants of egypt on the subject of a future life, we are first met by the inquiry why they took such great pains to preserve the bodies of their dead. it has been supposed that no common motive could have animated them to such lavish expenditure of money, time, and labor as the process of embalming required. it has been taken for granted that only some recondite theological consideration could explain this phenomenon. accordingly, it is now the popular belief that the egyptians were so scrupulous in embalming their dead and storing them in repositories of eternal stone, because they believed that the departed souls would at some future time come back and revivify their former bodies, if these were kept from decay. this hypothesis seems to us as false as it is gratuitous. in the first place, there is no evidence of it whatever, neither written testimony nor circumstantial hint. herodotus tells us, "the egyptians say the soul, on the dissolution of the body, always enters into some other animal then born, and, having passed in rotation through the various terrestrial, aquatic, and arial beings, again enters the body of a man then born." there is no assertion that, at the end of the three thousand years occupied by this circuit, the soul will re enter its former body. the plain inference, on the contrary, is that it will be born in a new body, as at each preceding step in the series of its transmigrations. secondly, the mutilation of the body in embalming forbids the belief in its restoration to life. the brain was extracted, and the skull stuffed with cotton. the entrails were taken out, and sometimes, according to porphyry and plutarch, thrown into the nile; sometimes, as modern examinations have revealed, bound up in four packages and either replaced in the cavity of the stomach or laid in four vases beside the mummy. it is absurd to attribute, without clear cause, to an enlightened people the belief that these stacks of brainless, eviscerated mummies, dried and shrunken in ovens, coated with pitch, bound up in a hundredfold bandages, would ever revive, and, inhabited by the same souls that fled them thirty centuries before, again walk the streets of thebes! besides, a third consideration demands notice. by the theory of metempsychosis universally acknowledged to have been held by the egyptians it is taught that souls at death, either immediately, or after a temporary sojourn in hell or heaven has struck the balance of their merits, are born in fresh bodies; never that they return into their old ones. but the point is set beyond controversy by the discovery of inscriptions, accompanying pictures of scenes illustrating the felicity of blessed souls in heaven, to this effect: "their bodies shall repose in their tombs forever; they live in the celestial regions eternally, enjoying the presence of the supreme god." a writer on this subject says, "a people who believed in the transmigration herod. lib. ii. cap. . de abstinentia, lib. iv. cap. . banquet of the seven wise men. champollion, descr. de l'egypte, antiq. tom ii. p. . stuart's trans. of greppo's essay, p. . of souls would naturally take extraordinary pains to preserve the body from putrefaction, in the hope of the soul again joining the body it had quitted." the remark is intrinsically untrue, because the doctrine of transmigration coexists in reconciled belief with the observed law of birth, infancy, and growth, not with the miracle of transition into reviving corpses. the notion is likewise historically refuted by the fact that the believers of that doctrine in the thronged east have never preserved the body, but at once buried or burned it. the whole egyptian theology is much more closely allied to the hindu, which excluded, than to the persian, which emphasized, the resurrection of the body. another theory which has been devised to explain the purpose of egyptian embalming, is that "it was to unite the soul permanently to its body, and keep the vital principle from perishing or transmigrating; the body and soul ran together through the journey of the dead and its dread ordeal." this arbitrary guess is incredible. the preservation of the body does not appear in any way not even to the rawest fancy to detain or unite the soul with it; for the thought is unavoidable that it is precisely the absence of the soul which constitutes death. again: such an explanation of the motive for embalming cannot be correct, because in the hieroglyphic representations of the passage to the judgment the separate soul is often depicted as hovering over the body, or as kneeling before the judges, or as pursuing its adventures through the various realms of the creation. "when the body is represented," champollion says, "it is as an aid to the spectator, and not as teaching a bodily resurrection. sharpe's opinion that the picture of a bird poised over the mouth of a mummy, with the emblems of breath and life in its claws, implies the doctrine of a general physical resurrection, is an inferential leap of the most startling character. what proof is there that the symbol denotes this? hundreds of paintings in the tombs show souls undergoing their respective allotments in the other world while their bodily mummies are quiet in the sepulchres of the present. in his treatise on "isis and osiris," plutarch writes, "the egyptians believe that while the bodies of eminent men are buried in the earth their souls are stars shining in heaven." it is equally nonsensical in itself and unwarranted by evidence to imagine that, in the egyptian faith, embalming either retained the soul in the body or preserved the body for a future return of the soul. who can believe that it was for either of those purposes that they embalmed the multitudes of animals whose mummies the explorer is still turning up? they preserved cats, hawks, bugs, crocodiles, monkeys, bulls, with as great pains as they did men. when the canary islands were first visited, it was found that their inhabitants had a custom of carefully embalming the dead. the same was the case among the peruvians, whose vast cemeteries remain to this day crowded with mummies. but the expectation of a return of the souls into these preserved bodies is not to be ascribed to those peoples. herodotus informs us that "the ethiopians, having dried the bodies of their dead, coat them with white plaster, which they paint with colors to the likeness of the deceased and encase in a transparent substance. the dead, thus kept from being offensive, and yet plainly visible, are retained a bonomi and arundel on egyptian antiq., p. . pl. xxxiii. in lepsius' todtenb. der. agypter. pettigrew, hist of egyptian mummies, ch. xii. whole year in the houses of their nearest relatives. afterwards they are carried out and placed upright in the tombs around the city." it has been argued, because the egyptians expended so much in preparing lasting tombs and in adorning their walls with varied embellishments, that they must have thought the soul remained in the body, a conscious occupant of the dwelling place provided for it. as well might it be argued that, because the ancient savage tribes on the coast of south america, who obtained their support by fishing, buried fish hooks and bait with their dead, they supposed the dead bodies occupied themselves in their graves by fishing! the adornment of the tomb, so lavish and varied with the egyptians, was a gratification of the spontaneous workings of fancy and affection, and needs no far fetched explanation. every nation has its funeral customs and its rites of sepulture, many of which would be as difficult of explanation as those of egypt. the scandinavian sea king was sometimes buried, in his ship, in a grave dug on some headland overlooking the ocean. the scythians buried their dead in rolls of gold, sometimes weighing forty or fifty solid pounds. diodorus the sicilian says, "the egyptians, laying the embalmed bodies of their ancestors in noble monuments, see the true visages and expressions of those who died ages before them. so they take almost as great pleasure in viewing their bodily proportions and the lineaments of their faces as if they were still living among them." that instinct which leads us to obtain portraits of those we love, and makes us unwilling to part even with their lifeless bodies, was the cause of embalming. the bodies thus prepared, we know from the testimony of ancient authors, were kept in the houses of their children or kindred, until a new generation, "who knew not joseph," removed them. then nothing could be more natural than that the priesthood should take advantage of the custom, so associated with sacred sentiments, and throw theological sanctions over it, shroud it in mystery, and secure a monopoly of the power and profit arising from it. it is not improbable, too, as has been suggested, that hygienic considerations, expressing themselves in political laws and priestly precepts, may at first have had an influence in establishing the habit of embalming, to prevent the pestilences apt to arise in such a climate from the decay of animal substances. there is great diversity of opinion among egyptologists on this point. one thinks that embalming was supposed to keep the soul in the body until after the funeral judgment and interment, but that, when the corpse was laid in its final receptacle, the soul proceeded to accompany the sun in its daily and nocturnal circuit, or to transmigrate through various animals and deities. another imagines that the process of embalming was believed to secure the repose of the soul in the other world, exempt from transmigrations, so long as the body was kept from decay. perhaps the different notions on this subject attributed by modern authors to the egyptians may all have prevailed among them at different times or among distinct sects. but it seems most likely, as we have said, that embalming first arose from physical and sentimental considerations naturally operating, rather than from any lib. iii. cap. . kenrick, ancient egypt, vol. i. ch. xxi. sect. iii. lib. i. cap. . library of entertaining knowledge, vol. ii. ch. iii. theological doctrine carefully devised; although, after the priesthood appropriated the business, it is altogether probable that they interwove it with an artificial and elaborate system of sacerdotal dogmas, in which was the hiding of the national power. the second question that arises is, what was the significance of the funeral ceremonies celebrated by the egyptians over their dead? when the body had been embalmed, it was presented before a tribunal of forty two judges sitting in state on the eastern borders of the lake acherusia. they made strict inquiry into the conduct and character of the deceased. any one might make complaint against him, or testify in his behalf. if it was found that he had been wicked, had died in debt, or was otherwise unworthy, he was deprived of honorable burial and ignominiously thrown into a ditch. this was called tartar, from the wailings the sentence produced among his relatives. but if he was found to have led an upright life, and to have been a good man, the honors of a regular interment were decreed him. the cemetery a large plain environed with trees and lined with canals lay on the western side of the lake, and was named elisout, or rest. it was reached by a boat, the funeral barge, in which no one could cross without an order from the judges and the payment of a small fee. in these and other particulars some of the scenes supposed to be awaiting the soul in the other world were dramatically shadowed forth. each rite was a symbol of a reality existing, in solemn correspondence, in the invisible state. what the priests did over the body on earth the judicial deities did over the soul in amenthe. it seems plain that the greeks derived many of their notions concerning the fate and state of the dead from egypt. hades corresponds with amenthe; pluto, with the subterranean osiris; mercury psychopompos, with anubis, "the usher of souls;" aacus, minos, and rhadamanthos, with the three assistant gods who help in weighing the soul and present the result to osiris; tartarus, to the ditch tartar; charon's ghost boat over the styx, to the barge conveying the mummy to the tomb; cerberus, to oms; acheron, to acherusia; the elysian fields, to elisout. kenrick thinks the greeks may have developed these views for themselves, without indebtedness to egypt. but the notions were in existence among the egyptians at least twelve hundred years before they can be traced among the greeks. and they are too arbitrary and systematic to have been independently constructed by two nations. besides, herodotus positively affirms that they were derived from egypt. several other ancient authors also state this; and nearly every modern writer on the subject agrees in it. the triumphs of modern investigation into the antiquities of egypt, unlocking the hieroglyphics and lifting the curtain from the secrets of ages, have unveiled to us a far more full and satisfactory view of the egyptian doctrine of the future life than can be constructed from the narrow glimpses afforded by the accounts of the old greek authorities. three sources of knowledge have been laid open to us. first, the papyrus rolls, one of which was placed in the bosom of every mummy. this roll, covered with hieroglyphics, is called the funeral ritual, or book of the dead. it served as a passport through the burial rites. it contained the names of the deceased and his parents, a series of prayers he was to recite spineto on egyptian antiq, lectures iv., v. wilkinson, manners and customs of the ancient egyptians, d series, vol. i. ch. . before the various divinities he would meet on his journey, and representations of some of the adventures awaiting him in the unseen state. secondly, the ornamental cases in which the mummies are enclosed are painted all over with scenes setting forth the realities and events to which the soul of the dead occupant has passed in the other life. thirdly, the various fates of souls are sculptured and painted on the walls in the tombs, in characters which have been deciphered during the present century: "those mystic, stony volumes on the walls long writ, whose sense is late reveal'd to searching modern wit." combining the information thus obtained, we learn that, according to the egyptian representation, the soul is led by the god thoth into amenthe, the infernal world, the entrance to which lies in the extreme west, on the farther side of the sea, where the sun goes down under the earth. it was in accordance with this supposition that herod caused to be engraved, on a magnificent monument erected to his deceased wife, the line, "zeus, this blooming woman sent beyond the ocean." at the entrance sits a wide throated monster, over whose head is the inscription, "this is the devourer of many who go into amenthe, the lacerator of the heart of him who comes with sins to the house of justice." the soul next kneels before the forty two assessors of osiris, with deprecating asseverations and intercessions. it then comes to the final trial in the terrible hall of the two truths, the approving and the condemning; or, as it is differently named, the hall of the double justice, the rewarding and the punishing. here the three divinities horns, anubis, and thoth proceed to weigh the soul in the balance. in one scale an image of thmei, the goddess of truth, is placed; in the other, a heart shaped vase, symbolizing the heart of the deceased with all the actions of his earthly life. then happy is he "who, weighed 'gainst truth, down dips the awful scale." thoth notes the result on a tablet, and the deceased advances with it to the foot of the throne on which sits osiris, lord of the dead, king of amenthe. he pronounces the decisive sentence, and his assistants see that it is at once executed. the condemned soul is either scourged back to the earth straightway, to live again in the form of a vile animal, as some of the emblems appear to denote; or plunged into the tortures of a horrid hell of fire and devils below, as numerous engravings set forth; or driven into the atmosphere, to be vexed and tossed by tempests, violently whirled in blasts and clouds, till its sins are expiated, and another probation granted through a renewed existence in human form. we have two accounts of the egyptian divisions of the universe. according to the first view, they conceived the creation to consist of three grand departments. first came the earth, or zone of trial, where men live on probation. next was the atmosphere, or zone of temporal das todtenbuch der agypter, edited with an introduction by dr. lepsius. ch. ix. of pettigrew's history of egyptian mummies. champollion's letter, dated thebes, may , . an abstract of this letter may be found in stuart's trans. of greppo's essay on champollion's hieroglyphic system, appendix, note n. basnage, hist. of the jews, lib. ii. ch. , sect. . punishment, where souls are afflicted for their sins. the ruler of this girdle of storms was pooh, the overseer of souls in penance. such a notion is found in some of the later greek philosophers, and in the writings of the alexandrian jews, who undoubtedly drew it from the priestly science of egypt. every one will recollect how paul speaks of "the prince of the power off the air." and shakspeare makes the timid claudio shrink from the verge of death with horror, lest his soul should, through ages, "be imprison'd in the viewless winds, and blown with restless violence round about the pendent world." after their purgation in this region, all the souls live again on earth by transmigration. the third realm was in the serene blue sky among the stars, the zone of blessedness, where the accepted dwell in immortal peace and joy. eusebius says, "the egyptians represented the universe by two circles, one within the other, and a serpent with the head of a hawk twining his folds around them," thus forming three spheres, earth, firmament, divinity. but the representation most frequent and imposing is that which pictures the creation simply as having the earth in the centre, and the sun with his attendants as circulating around it in the brightness of the superior, and the darkness of the infernal, firmament. souls at death pass down through the west into amenthe, and are tried. if condemned, they are either sent back to the earth, or confined in the nether space for punishment. if justified, they join the blissful company of the sun god, and rise with him through the east to journey along his celestial course. the upper hemisphere is divided into twelve equal parts, corresponding with the twelve hours of the day. at the gate of each of these golden segments a sentinel god is stationed, to whom the newly arriving soul must give its credentials to secure a passage. in like manner, the lower hemisphere is cut into the same number of gloomy sections, corresponding with the twelve hours of the night. daily the chief divinity, in robes of light, traverses the beaming zones of the blessed, where they hunt and fish, or plough and sow, reap and gather, in the fields of the sun on the banks of the heavenly nile. nightly, arrayed in deep black from head to foot, he traverses the dismal zones of the damned, where they undergo appropriate retributions. thus the future destiny of man was sublimely associated with the march of the sun through the upper and lower hemispheres. astronomy was a part of the egyptian's theology. he regarded the stars not figuratively, but literally, as spirits and pure genii; the great planets as deities. the calendar was a religious chart, each month, week, day, hour, being the special charge and stand point of a god. there was much poetic beauty and ethical power in these doctrines and symbols. the necessity of virtue, the dread ordeals of the grave, the certainty of retribution, the mystic circuits of transmigration, a glorious immortality, the paths of planets and gods and souls through creation, all were impressively enounced, dramatically shown. liber metempsychosis veterum agyptiorum, edited and translated into latin from the funeral papyri by h. brugsch. l'univers, egypte ancienne, par champollion figeac, pp. . agyptische glaubenslehre von dr. ed. roth, ss. , . "the egyptain soul sail'd o'er the skyey sea in ark of crystal, mann'd by beamy gods, to drag the deeps of space and net the stars, where, in their nebulous shoals, they shore the void and through old night's typhonian blindness shine. then, solarized, he press'd towards the sun, and, in the heavenly hades, hall of god, had final welcome of the firmament." this solemn linking of the fate of man with the astronomic universe, this grand blending of the deepest of moral doctrines with the most august of physical sciences, plainly betrays the brain and hand of that hereditary hierarchy whose wisdom was the wonder of the ancient world. osburn thinks the localization of amenthe in the west may have arisen in the following way. some superstitious egyptians, travelling westwards, at twilight, on the great marshes haunted by the strange gray white ibis, saw troops of these silent, solemn, ghostlike birds, motionless or slow stalking, and conceived them to be souls waiting for the funeral rites to be paid, that they might sink with the setting sun to their destined abode. that such a system of belief was too complex and elaborate to have been a popular development is evident. but that it was really held by the people there is no room to doubt. parts of it were publicly enacted on festival days by multitudes numbering more than a hundred thousand. parts of it were dimly shadowed out in the secret recesses of temples, surrounded by the most astonishing accompaniments that unrivalled learning, skill, wealth, and power could contrive. its authority commanded the allegiance, its charm fascinated the imagination, of the people. its force built the pyramids, and enshrined whole generations of egypt's embalmed population in richly adorned sepulchres of everlasting rock. its substance of esoteric knowledge and faith, in its form of exoteric imposture and exhibition, gave it vitality and endurance long. in the vortex of change and decay it sank at last. and now it is only after its secrets have been buried for thirty centuries that the exploring genius of modern times has brought its hidden hieroglyphics to light, and taught us what were the doctrines originally contained in the altar lore of those priestly schools which once dotted the plains of the delta and studded the banks of eldest nile, where now, disfigured and gigantic, the solemn "old syhinxes lift their countenances bland athwart the river sea and sea of sand." monumental history of egypt, vol. i. ch. . chapter vi. brahmanic and buddhist doctrine of a future life. in the hindu views of the fate of the human soul, metaphysical subtlety and imaginative vastness, intellect and fancy, slavish tradition and audacious speculation, besotted ritualism and heaven storming spirituality, are mingled together on a scale of grandeur and intensity wholly without a parallel elsewhere in the literature or faith of the world. brahmanism, with its hundred million adherents holding sway over india, and buddhism, with its four hundred million disciples scattered over a dozen nations, from java to japan, and from the ceylonese to the samoyedes, practically considered, in reference to their actually received dogmas and aims pertaining to a future life, agree sufficiently to warrant us in giving them a general examination together. the chief difference between them will be explained in the sequel. the most ancient hindu doctrine of the future fate of man, as given in the vedas, was simple, rude, and very unlike the forms in which it has since prevailed. professor wilson says, in the introduction to his translation of the rig veda, that the references to this subject in the primeval sanscrit scriptures are sparse and incomplete. but no one has so thoroughly elucidated this obscure question as roth of tubingen, in his masterly paper on the morality of the vedas, of which there is a translation, by professor whitney, in the journal of the american oriental society. the results of his researches may be stated in few words. when a man dies, the earth is invoked to wrap his body up, as a mother wraps her child in her garment, and to lie lightly on him. he himself is addressed thus: "go forth, go forth on the ancient paths which our fathers in old times have trodden: the two rulers in bliss, yama and varuna, shalt thou behold." varuna judges all. he thrusts the wicked down into darkness; and not a hint or clew further of their doom is furnished. they were supposed either to be annihilated, as professor roth thinks the vedas imply, or else to live as demons, in sin, blackness, and woe. the good go up to heaven and are glorified with a shining spiritual body like that of the gods. yama, the first man, originator of the human race on earth, is the beginner and head of renewed humanity in another world, and is termed the assembler of men. it is a poetic and grand conception that the first one who died, leading the way, should be the patriarch and monarch of all who follow. the old vedic hymns imply that the departed good are in a state of exalted felicity, but scarcely picture forth any particulars. the following passage, versified with strict fidelity to the original, is as full and explicit as any: where glory never fading is, where is the world of heavenly light, the world of immortality, the everlasting, set me there! where yama reigns, vivasvat's son, in the inmost sphere of heaven bright. where those abounding waters flow, oh, make me but immortal there! where there is freedom unrestrain'd, where the triple vault of heaven's in sight, where worlds of brightest glory are, oh, make me but immortal there! where pleasures and enjoyments are, where bliss and raptures ne'er take flight, where all desires are satisfied, oh, make me but immortal there! vol iii. pp. - . but this form of doctrine long ago passed from the hindu remembrance, lost in the multiplying developments and specifications of a mystical philosophy, and a teeming superstition nourished by an unbounded imagination. both brahmans and buddhists conceive of the creation on the most enormous scale. mount meru rises from the centre of the earth to the height of about two millions of miles. on its summit is the city of brahma, covering a space of fourteen thousand leagues, and surrounded by the stately cities of the regents of the spheres. between meru and the wall of stone forming the extreme circumference of the earth are seven concentric circles of rocks. between these rocky bracelets are continents and seas. in some of the seas wallow single fishes thousands of miles in every dimension. the celestial spaces are occupied by a large number of heavens, called "dewa lokas," increasing in the glory and bliss of their prerogatives. the worlds below the earth are hells, called "naraka." the description of twenty eight of these, given in the vishnu purana, makes the reader "sup full of horrors." the buddhist "books of ceylon" tell of twenty six heavens placed in regular order above one another in the sky, crowded with all imaginable delights. they also depict, in the abyss underneath the earth, eight great hells, each containing sixteen smaller ones, the whole one hundred and thirty six composing one gigantic hell. the eight chief hells are situated over one another, each partially enclosing and overlapping that next beneath; and the sufferings inflicted on their unfortunate occupants are of the most terrific character. but these poor hints at the local apparatus of reward and punishment afford no conception whatever of the extent of their mythological scheme of the universe. they call each complete solar system a sakwala, and say that, if a wall were erected around the space occupied by a million millions of sakwalas, reaching to the highest heaven, and the entire space were filled with mustard seeds, a god might take these seeds, and, looking towards any one of the cardinal points, throw a single seed towards each sakwala until all the seeds were gone, and still there would be more sakwalas, in the same direction, to which no seed had been thrown, without considering those in the other three quarters of the heavens. in comparison with this eastern vision of the infinitude of worlds, the wildest western dreamer over the vistas opened by the telescope may hide his diminished head! their other conceptions are of the same crushing magnitude, thus, when the demons, on a certain occasion, assailed the gods, siva using the himalaya range for his bow, vasuke for the string, vishnu for his arrow, the earth for his chariot with the sun and moon for its wheels and the vedas for its horses, the starry canopy for his banner with the tree of paradise for its staff, brahma for his charioteer, and the mysterious monosyllable om for his whip reduced them all to ashes. the five hundred million brahmanic and buddhist believers hold that all the gods, men, demons, and various grades of animal life occupying this immeasurable array of worlds compose one cosmic family. the totality of animated beings, from a detestable gnat to wilson's trans. pp. - . upham's trans. vol. iii. pp. , , . vans kennedy, ancient and hindu mythology, p. . thundering indra, from the meanest worm to the supreme buddha, constitute one fraternal race, by the unavoidable effects of the law of retribution constantly interchanging their residences in a succession of rising and sinking existences, ranging through all the earths, heavens, and hells of the universe, bound by the terrible links of merit and demerit in the phantasmagoric dungeon of births and deaths. the vishnu purana declares, "the universe, this whole egg of brahma, is everywhere swarming with living creatures, all of whom are captives in the chains of acts." the one prime postulate of these oriental faiths the ground principle, never to be questioned any more than the central and stationary position of the earth in the ptolemaic system is that all beings below the infinite one are confined in the circle of existence, the whirl of births and deaths, by the consequences of their virtues and vices. when a man dies, if he has an excess of good desert, he is born, as a superior being, in one of the heavens. according to the nature and degree of his merit, his heavenly existence is prolonged, or perhaps repeated many times in succession; or, if his next birth occurs on earth, it is under happy circumstances, as a sage or a king. but when he expires, should there, on the other hand, be an overbalance of ill desert, he is born as a demon in one of the hells, or may in repeated lives run the circuit of the hells; or, if he at once returns to the earth, it is as a beggar, a leprous outcast, a wretched cripple, or in the guise of a rat, a snake, or a louse. "the illustrious souls of great and virtuous men in godlike beings shall revive again; but base and vicious spirits wind their way in scorpions, vultures, sharks, and beasts of prey. the fair, the gay, the witty, and the brave, the fool, the coward, courtier, tyrant, slave, each one in a congenial form, shall find a proper dwelling for his wandering mind." a specific evil is never cancelled by being counterbalanced by a greater good. the fruit of that evil must be experienced, and also of that greater good, by appropriate births in the hells and heavens, or in the higher and lower grades of earthly existence. the two courses of action must be run through independently. this is what is meant by the phrases, so often met with in oriental works, "eating the fruits of former acts," "bound in the chains of deeds." merit or demerit can be balanced or neutralized only by the full fruition of its own natural and necessary consequences. the law of merit and of demerit is fate. it works irresistibly, through all changes and recurrences, from the beginning to the end. the cessation of virtue or of vice does not put an end to its effects until its full force is exhausted; as an arrow continues in flight until all its imparted power is spent. a man faultlessly and scrupulously good through his present life may be guilty of some foul crime committed a hundred lives before and not yet expiated. accordingly, he may now suffer for it, or his next birth may take place in a hell. on the contrary, he may be credited with some great merit acquired thousands of p. . journal of the american oriental society, vol. iv. p. . generations ago, whose fruit he has not eaten, and which may bring him good fortune in spite of present sins, or on the rolling and many colored wheel of metempsychosis may secure for him next a celestial birthplace. in short periods, it will be seen, there is moral confusion, but, in the long run, exact compensation. the exuberant prodigiousness of the hindu imagination is strikingly manifest in its descriptions of the rewards of virtue in the heavens and of the punishments of sin in the hells. visions pass before us of beautiful groves full of fragrance and music, abounding in delicious fruits, and birds of gorgeous plumage, crystal streams embedded with pearls, unruffled lakes where the lotus blooms, palaces of gems, crowds of friends and lovers, endless revelations of truth, boundless graspings of power, all that can stir and enchant intellect, will, fancy, and heart. in some of the heavens the residents have no bodily form, but enjoy purely spiritual pleasures. in others they are self resplendent, and traverse the ether. they are many miles in height, one being described whose crown was four miles high and who wore on his person sixty wagon loads of jewels. the ordinary lifetime of the inhabitants of the dewa loka named wasawartti equals nine billions two hundred and sixteen millions of our years. they breathe only once in sixteen hours. the reverse of this picture is still more vigorously drawn, highly colored, and diversified in contents. the walls of the hindu hell are over a hundred miles thick; and so dazzling is their brightness that it bursts the eyes which look at them anywhere within a distance of four hundred leagues. the poor creatures here, wrapped in shrouds of fire, writhe and yell in frenzy of pain. the very revelry and ecstasy of terror and anguish fill the whole region. the skins of some wretches are taken off from head to foot, and then scalding vinegar is poured over them. a glutton is punished thus: experiencing an insatiable hunger in a body as large as three mountains, he is tantalized with a mouth no larger than the eye of a needle. the infernal tormentors, throwing their victims down, take a flexible flame in each hand, and with these lash them alternately right and left. one demon, rahu, is seventy six thousand eight hundred miles tall: the palm of his hand measures fifty thousand acres; and when he is enraged he rushes up the sky and swallows the sun or the moon, thus causing an eclipse! in the asiatic journal for is an article on "the chinese judges of the dead," which describes a series of twenty four paintings of hell found in a buddhist temple. devils in human shapes are depicted pulling out the tongues of slanderers with redhot wires, pouring molten lead down the throats of liars, with burning prongs tossing souls upon mountains planted with hooks of iron reeking with the blood of those who have gone before, screwing the damned between planks, pounding them in husking mortars, grinding them in rice mills, while other fiends, in the shape of dogs, lap up their oozing gore. but the hardest sensibility must by this time cry, hold! with the turmoil and pain of entanglement in the vortex of births, and all the repulsive exposures of finite life, the hindus contrast the idea of an infinite rest and bliss, an endless hardy, manual of buddhism, p. . coleman, mythology of the hindus, p. . exemption from evil and struggle, an immense receptivity of reposing power and quietistic contemplation. in consequence of their endlessly varied, constantly recurring, intensely earnest speculations and musings over this contrast of finite restlessness and pain with infinite peace and blessedness, a contrast which constitutes the preaching of their priests, saturates their sacred books, fills their thoughts, and broods over all their life, the orientals are pervaded with a profound horror of individual existence, and with a profound desire for absorption into the infinite being. a few quotations from their own authors will illustrate this: "a sentient being in the repetition of birth and death is like a worm in the midst of a nest of ants, like a lizard in the hollow of a bamboo that is burning at both ends." "emancipation from all existence is the fulness of felicity." "the being who is still subject to birth may now sport in the beautiful gardens of heaven, now be cut to pieces in hell; now be maha brahma, now a degraded outcast; now sip nectar, now drink blood; now repose on a couch with gods, now be dragged through a thicket of thorns; now reside in a mansion of gold, now be exposed on a mountain of lava; now sit on the throne of the gods, now be impaled amidst hungry dogs; now be a king glittering with countless gems, now a mendicant taking a skull from door to door to beg alms; now eat ambrosia as the monarch of a dewa loka, now writhe and die as a bat in the shrivelling flame." "the supreme soul and the human soul do not differ, and pleasure or pain ascribable to the latter arises from its imprisonment in the body. the water of the ganges is the same whether it run in the river's bed or be shut up in a decanter; but a drop of wine added to the water in the decanter imparts its flavor to the whole, whereas it would be lost in the river. the supreme soul, therefore, is beyond accident; but the human soul is afflicted by sense and passion. happiness is only obtained in reunion with the supreme soul, when the dispersed individualities combine again with it, as the drops of water with the parent stream. hence the slave should remember that he is separated from god by the body alone, and exclaim, perpetually, 'blessed be the moment when i shall lift the veil from off that face! the veil of the face of my beloved is the dust of my body.'" "a pious man was once born on earth, who, in his various transmigrations, had met eight hundred and twenty five thousand buddhas. he remembered his former states, but could not enumerate how many times he had been a king, a beggar, a beast, an occupant of hell. he uttered these words: 'a hundred thousand years of the highest happiness on earth are not equal to the happiness of one day in the dewa lokas; and a hundred thousand years of the deepest misery on earth are not equal to the misery of one day in hell; but the misery of hell is reckoned by millions of centuries. oh, how shall i escape, and obtain eternal bliss?'" eastern monachism, p. . vishnu purana, p. . hardy, manual of buddhism, p. . asiatic researches, vol. xvii. p. . journal of the american oriental society, vol. iv. p. . the literary products of the eastern mind wonderfully abound with painful descriptions of the compromises, uncleannesses, and afflictions inseparably connected with existence. volumes would be required to furnish an adequate representation of the vivid and inexhaustible amplification with which they set forth the direful disgusts and loathsome terrors associated with the series of ideas expressed by the words conception, birth, life, death, hell, and regeneration. the fifth chapter in the sixth book of the vishnu purana affords a good specimen of these details; but, to appreciate them fully, one must peruse dispersed passages in a hundred miscellaneous works: "as long as man lives, he is immersed in afflictions, like the seed of the cotton amidst the down. . . . where could man, scorched by the fires of the sun of this world, look for felicity, were it not for the shade afforded by the tree of emancipation? . . . travelling the path of the world for many thousands of births, man attains only the weariness of bewilderment, and is smothered by the dust of imagination. when that dust is washed away by the bland water of real knowledge, then the weariness is removed. then the internal man is at peace, and obtains supreme felicity." the result of these views is the awakening of an unquenchable desire to "break from the fetters of existence," to be "delivered from the whirlpool of transmigration." both brahmanism and buddhism are in essence nothing else than methods of securing release from the chain of incarnated lives, and attaining to identification with the infinite. there is a text in the apocalypse which may be strikingly applied to this exemption from further metempsychosis: "him that overcometh i will make a pillar in the temple of my god, and he shall go no more out forever." the testimony of all who have investigated the subject agrees with the following assertion by professor wilson: "the common end of every system studied by the hindus is the ascertainment of the means by which perpetual exemption from the necessity of repeated births may be won." in comparison with this aim, every thing else is utterly insignificant. prahlada, on being offered by vishnu any boon he might ask, exclaimed, "wealth, virtue, love, are as nothing; for even liberation is in his reach whose faith is firm in thee." and vishnu replied, "thou shalt, therefore, obtain freedom from existence." all true orientals, however favored or persecuted by earthly fortune, still cry night and day upwards into the infinite, with outstretched arms and yearning voice, "o lord, our separate lives destroy! merge in thy gold our souls' alloy: pain is our own, and thou art joy!" according to the system of brahmanism, the creation is regularly called into being and again destroyed at the beginning and end of certain stupendous epochs called kalpas. four thousand three hundred and twenty million years make a day of brahma. at the end of this day the lower worlds are consumed by fire; and brahma sleeps on the abyss for a night as long vishnu parana, p. . sankhya karika, preface, p. . vishnu purana, p. . as his day. during this night the saints, who in high jana loka have survived the dissolution of the lower portions of the universe, contemplate the slumbering deity until he wakes and restores the mutilated creation. three hundred and sixty of these days and nights compose a year of brahma; a hundred such years measure his whole life. then a complete destruction of all things takes place, every thing merging into the absolute one, until he shall rouse himself renewedly to manifest his energies. although created beings who have not obtained emancipation are destroyed in their individual forms at the periods of the general dissolution, yet, being affected by the good or evil acts of former existence, they are never exempted from their consequences, and when brahma creates the world anew they are the progeny of his will, in the fourfold condition of gods, men, animals, and inanimate things. and buddhism embodies virtually the same doctrine, declaring "the whole universe of sakwalas to be subject alternately to destruction and renovation, in a series of revolutions to which neither beginning nor end can be discovered." what is the brahmanic method of salvation, or secret of emancipation? rightly apprehended in the depth and purity of the real doctrine, it is this. there is in reality but one soul: every thing else is error, illusion, misery. whoever acquires the knowledge of this truth by personal perception is thereby liberated. he has won the absolute perfection of the unlimited godhead, and shall never be born again. "whosoever views the supreme soul as manifold, dies death after death." god is formless, but seems to assume form; as moonlight, impinging upon various objects, appears crooked or straight. bharata says to the king of sauriva, "the great end of all is not union of self with the supreme soul, because one substance cannot become another. the true wisdom, the genuine aim of all, is to know that soul is one, uniform, perfect, exempt from birth, omnipresent, undecaying, made of true knowledge, dissociated with unrealities." "it is ignorance alone which enables maya to impress the mind with a sense of individuality; for as soon as that is dispelled it is known that severalty exists not, and that there is nothing but one undivided whole." the brahmanic scriptures say, "the eternal deity consists of true knowledge." "brahma that is supreme is produced of reflection." the logic runs thus. there is only one soul, the absolute god. all beside is empty deception. that one soul consists of true knowledge. whoever attains to true knowledge, therefore, is absolute god, forever freed from the sphere of semblances. the foregoing exposition is philosophical and scriptural brahmanism. but there are numerous schismatic sects which hold opinions diverging from it in regard to the nature and destiny of the human soul. they may be considered in two classes. first, there are some who defend the idea of the personal immortality of the soul. the siva gnana potham "establishes the doctrine of the soul's eternal existence as an individual being." the saiva school vishnu purana, p. . hardy, manual of buddhism, p. , note. vishnu parana, pp. , . colebrooke, essays, vol. i. p. . vishnu purana, p. . vans kennedy, ancient and hindu mythology, p. . vishnu purana, pp. , . journal of the american oriental society, vol. ii. p. . teach that when, at the close of every great period, all other developed existences are rendered back to their primordial state, souls are excepted. these, once developed and delivered from the thraldom of their merit and demerit, will ever remain intimately united with deity and clothed in the resplendent wisdom. secondly, there are others and probably at the present time they include a large majority of the brahmans who believe in the real being both of the supreme soul and of separate finite souls, conceiving the latter to be individualized parts of the former and their true destiny to consist in securing absorption into it. the relation of the soul to god, they maintain, is not that of ruled and ruler, but that of part and whole. "as gold is one substance still, however diversified as bracelets, tiaras, ear rings, or other things, so vishnu is one and the same, although modified in the forms of gods, animals, and men. as the drops of water raised from the earth by the wind sink into the earth again when the wind subsides, so the variety of gods, men, and animals, which have been detached by the agitation of the qualities, are reunited, when the disturbance ceases, with the eternal." "the whole obtains its destruction in god, like bubbles in water." the madhava sect believe that there is a personal all soul distinct from the human soul. their proofs are detailed in one of the maha upanishads. these two groups of sects, however, agree perfectly with the ancient orthodox brahmans in accepting the fundamental dogma of a judicial metempsychosis, wherein each one is fastened by his acts and compelled to experience the uttermost consequences of his merit or demerit. they all coincide in one common aspiration as regards the highest end, namely, emancipation from the necessity of repeated births. the difference between the three is, that the one class of dissenters expect the fruition of that deliverance to be a finite personal immortality in heaven; the other interpret it as an unwalled absorption in the over soul, like a breath in the air; while the more orthodox believers regard it as the entire identity of the soul with the infinite one. against the opinion that there is only one soul for all bodies, as one string supports all the gems of a necklace, some hindu philosophers argue that the plurality of souls is proved by the consideration that, if there were but one soul, then when any one was born, or died, or was lame, or deaf, or occupied, or idle, all would at once be born, die, be lame, deaf, occupied, or idle. but professor wilson says, "this doctrine of the multitudinous existence or individual incorporation of soul clearly contradicts the vedas. they affirm one only existent soul to be distributed in all beings. it is beheld collectively or dispersedly, like the reflection of the moon in still or troubled water. soul, eternal, omnipresent, undisturbed, pure, one, is multiplied by the power of delusion, not of its own nature." all the brahmanic sects unite in thinking that liberation from the net of births is to be obtained and the goal of their wishes to be reached by one means only; and that is knowledge, real wisdom, an adequate sight of the truth. without this knowledge there is no possible emancipation; but there are three ways of seeking the needed knowledge. ibid. vol. iv. p. . vishnu purana, p. . weber, akademische vorlesungen uber indische literaturgeschichte, s. . sankbya karika, p. . some strive, by direct intellectual abstraction and effort, by metaphysical speculation, to grasp the true principles of being. others try, by voluntary penance, self abnegation, and pain, to accumulate such a degree of merit, or to bring the soul into such a state of preparedness, as will compel the truth to reveal itself. and still others devote themselves to the worship of some chosen deity, by ritual acts and fervid contemplation, to obtain by his favor the needed wisdom. a few quotations may serve to illustrate the brahmanic attempts at winning this one thing needful, the knowledge which yields exemption from all incarnate lives. the sankhya philosophy is a regular system of metaphysics, to be studied as one would study algebra. it presents to its disciples an exhaustive statement of the forms of being in twenty five categories, and declares, "he who knows the twenty five principles, whatever order of life he may have entered, and whether he wear braided hair, a top knot only, or be shaven, he is liberated." "this discriminative wisdom releases forever from worldly bondage." "the virtuous is born again in heaven, the wicked is born again in hell; the fool wanders in error, the wise man is set free." "by ignorance is bondage, by knowledge is deliverance." "when nature finds that soul has discovered that it is to her the distress of migration is owing, she is put to shame by the detection, and will suffer herself to be seen no more." "through knowledge the sage is absorbed into supreme spirit." "the supreme spirit attracts to itself him who meditates upon it, as the loadstone attracts the iron." "he who seeks to obtain a knowledge of the soul is gifted with it, the soul rendering itself conspicuous to him." "man, having known that nature which is without a beginning or an end, is delivered from the grasp of death." "souls are absorbed in the supreme soul as the reflection of the sun in water returns to him on the removal of the water." the thought underlying the last statement is that there is only one soul, every individual consciousness being but an illusory semblance, and that the knowledge of this fact constitutes the all coveted emancipation. as one diffusive breath passing through the perforations of a flute is distinguished as the several notes of the scale, so the supreme spirit is single, though, in consequence of acts, it seems manifold. as every placid lakelet holds an unreal image of the one real moon sailing above, so each human soul is but a deceptive reflection of the one veritable soul, or god. it may be worth while to observe that plotinus, as is well known, taught the doctrine of the absolute identity of each soul with the entire and indistinguishable entity of god: "though god extends beyond creation's rim, yet every being holds the whole of him." it belongs to an unextended substance, an immateriality, to be everywhere by totality, not by portions. if god be omnipresent, he cannot be so dividedly, a part of him here and a part ibid. pp. , . ibid. pp. , , . vishnu purana, p. . ibid. p. . rammohun roy, translations from the veda, d ed., london, , pp. , , . of him there; but the whole of him must be in every particle of matter, in every point of space, in all infinitude. the brahmanic religion is a philosophy; and it keeps an incomparably strong hold on the minds of its devotees. its most vital and comprehensive principle is expressed in the following sentence: "the soul itself is not susceptible of pain, or decay, or death; the site of these things is nature; but nature is unconscious; the consciousness that pain exists is restricted to the soul, although the soul is not the actual seat of pain." this is the reason why every hindu yearns so deeply to be freed from the meshes of nature, why he so anxiously follows the light of faith and penance, or the clew of speculation, through all mazes of mystery. it is that he may at last gaze on the central truth, and through that sight seize the fruition of the supreme and eternal good of man in the unity of his selfhood with the infinite, and so be born no more and experience no more trouble. it is very striking to contrast with this profound and gorgeous dream of the east, whatever form it assumes, the more practical and definite thought of the west, as expressed in these lines of tennyson's "in memoriam:" "that each, who seems a separate whole, should move his rounds, and, fusing all the skirts of self again, should fall remerging in the general soul, is faith as vague as all unsweet: eternal form shall still divide the eternal soul from all beside, and i shall know him when we meet." but is it not still more significant to notice that, in the lines which immediately succeed, the love inspired and deep musing genius of the english thinker can find ultimate repose only by recurring to the very faith of the hindu theosophist? "and we shall sit at endless feast, enjoying each the other's good: what vaster dream can hit the mood of love on earth! he seeks at least upon the last and sharpest height, before the spirits fade away, some landing place, to clasp and say, farewell! we lose ourselves in light!" we turn now to the buddhist doctrine of a future life as distinguished from the brahmanic. the "four sublime truths" of buddhism, as they are called, are these: first, that there is sorrow; secondly, that every living person necessarily feels it; thirdly, that it is desirable to be freed from it; fourthly, that the only deliverance from it is by that pure knowledge which destroys all cleaving to existence. a buddha is a being who, in consequence of having reached the buddhaship, which implies the possession of infinite goodness, infinite power, and infinite wisdom, is able to teach men that true knowledge which secures emancipation. the buddhaship that is, the possession of supreme godhead is open to every one, though few ever acquire it. most wonderful and tremendous is the process of its attainment. upon a time, some being, perhaps then incarnate as a mosquito alighting on a muddy leaf in some swamp, pauses for a while to muse. looking up through infinite stellar systems, with hungry love and boundless ambition, to the throne and sceptre of absolute immensity, he vows within himself, "i will become a buddha." the total influences of his past, the forces of destiny, conspiring with his purpose, omnipotence is in that resolution. nothing shall ever turn him aside from it. he might soon acquire for himself deliverance from the dreadful vortex of births; but, determined to achieve the power of delivering others from their miseries as sentient beings, he voluntarily throws himself into the stream of successive existences, and with divine patience and fortitude undergoes every thing. from that moment, no matter in what form he is successively born, whether as a disgusting bug, a white elephant, a monarch, or a god, he is a bodhisat, that is, a candidate pressing towards the buddhaship. he at once begins practising the ten primary virtues, called paramitas, necessary for the securing of his aim. the period required for the full exercise of one of these virtues is a bhumi. its duration is thus illustrated. were a bodhisat once in a thousand births to shed a single drop of blood, he would in the space of a bhumi shed more blood than there is water in a thousand oceans. on account of his merit he might always be born amidst the pleasures of the heavens; but since he could there make no progress towards his goal, he prefers being born in the world of men. during his gradual advance, there is no good he does not perform, no hardship he does not undertake, no evil he does not willingly suffer; and all for the benefit of others, to obtain the means of emancipating those whom he sees fastened by ignorance in the afflictive circle of acts. wherever born, acting, or suffering, his eye is still turned towards that empty throne, at the apex of the universe, from which the last buddha has vaulted into nirwana. the buddhists have many scriptures, especially one, called the "book of the five hundred and fifty births," detailing the marvellous adventures of the bodhisat during his numerous transmigrations, wherein he exhibits for each species of being to which he belongs a model character and life. at length the momentous day dawns when the unweariable bodhisat enters on his well earned buddhaship. from that time, during the rest of his life, he goes about preaching discourses, teaching every prepared creature he meets the method of securing eternal deliverance. leaving behind in these discourses a body of wisdom sufficient to guide to salvation all who will give attentive ear and heart, the buddha then his sublime work of disinterested love being completed receives the fruition of his toil, the super essential prize of the universe, the infinite good. in a word, he dies, and enters nirwana. there is no more evil of any sort for him at all forever. the final fading echo of sorrow has ceased in the silence of perfect blessedness; the last undulation of the wave of change has rolled upon the shore of immutability. the only historic buddha is sakya muni, or gotama, who was born at kapila about six centuries before christ. his teachings contain many principles in common with those of the brahmans. but he revolted against their insufferable conceit and cruelty. he protested against their claim that no one could obtain emancipation until after being born as a brahman and passing through the various rites and degrees of their order. in the face of the most powerful and arrogant priesthood in the world, he preached the perfect equality of all mankind, and the consequent abolition of castes. whoever acquires a total detachment of affection from all existence is thereby released from birth and misery; and the means of acquiring that detachment are freely offered to all in his doctrine. thus did gotama preach. he took the monopoly of religion out of the hands of a caste, and proclaimed emancipation to every creature that breathes. he established his system in the valley of the ganges near the middle of the sixth century before christ. it soon overran the whole country, and held sway until about eight hundred years after christ, when an awful persecution and slaughter on the part of the uprising brahmans drove it out of the land with sword and fire. "the colossal figure which for fourteen centuries had bestridden the indian continent vanished suddenly, like a rainbow at sunset." gotama's philosophy, in its ontological profundity, is of a subtlety and vastness that would rack the brain of a fichte or a schelling; but, popularly stated, so far as our present purpose demands, it is this. existence is the one all inclusive evil; cessation of existence, or nirwana, is the infinite good. the cause of existence is ignorance, which leads one to cleave to existing objects; and this cleaving leads to reproduction. if one would escape from the chain of existence, he must destroy the cause of his confinement in it, that is, evil desire, or the cleaving to existing objects. the method of salvation in gotama's system is to vanquish and annihilate all desire for existing things. how is this to be done? by acquiring an intense perception of the miseries of existence, on the one hand, and an intense perception, on the other hand, of the contrasted desirableness of the state of emancipation, or nirwana. accordingly, the discourses of gotama, and the sacred books of the buddhists, are filled with vivid accounts of every thing disgusting and horrible connected with existence, and with vivid descriptions, consciously faltering with inadequacy, of every thing supremely fascinating in connection with nirwana. "the three reflections on the impermanency, suffering, and unreality of the body are three gates leading to the city of nirwana." the constant claim is, that whosoever by adequate moral discipline and philosophical contemplation attains to a certain degree of wisdom, a certain degree of intellectual insight, instead of any longer cleaving to existence, will shudder at the thought of it, and, instead of shrinking from death, will be ravished with unfathomable ecstasy by the prospect of nirwana. then, when he dies, he is free from all liability to a return. when gotama, early in life, had accidentally seen in succession a wretchedly decrepit old man, a loathsomely diseased man, and a decomposing dead man, then the three worlds of passion, matter, and spirit seemed to him like a house on fire, and he longed to be extricated from the dizzy whirl of existence, and to reach the still haven of nirwana. finding ere long that he had now, as the reward of his incalculable endurances through untold aons past, become buddha, he said to himself, "you have borne the misery of the whole round of transmigrations, and have arrived at infinite wisdom, which is the highway to nirwana, the major cunningham, bbilsa topes, or buddhist monuments of central india, p. . city of peace. on that road you are the guide of all beings. begin your work and pursue it with fidelity." from that time until the day of his death he preached "the three laws of mortality, misery, and mutability." every morning he looked through the world to see who should be caught that day in the net of truth, and took his measures accordingly to preach in the hearing of men the truths by which alone they could climb into nirwana. when he was expiring, invisible gods, with huge and splendid bodies, came and stood, as thick as they could be packed, for a hundred and twenty miles around the banyan tree under which he awaited nirwana, to gaze on him who had broken the circle of transmigration. the system of gotama distinguishes seven grades of being: six subject to repeated death and birth; one the condition of the rahats and the buddhaship exempt therefrom. "who wins this has reached the shore of the stormy ocean of vicissitudes, and is in safety forever." baur says, "the aim of buddhism is that all may obtain unity with the original empty space, so as to unpeople the worlds." this end it seeks by purification from all modes of cleaving to existing objects, and by contemplative discrimination, but never by the fanatical and austere methods of brahmanism. edward upham, in his history of buddhism, declares this earth to be the only ford to nirwana. others also make the same representation: "for all that live and breathe have once been men, and in succession will be such again." but the buddhist authors do not always adhere to this statement. we sometimes read of men's entering the paths to nirwana in some of the heavens, likewise of their entering the final fruition through a decease in a dewa loka. still, it is the common view that emancipation from all existence can be secured only by a human being on earth. the last birth must be in that form. the emblem of buddha, engraved on most of his monuments, is a wheel, denoting that he has finished and escaped from the circle of existences. henceforth he is named tathagata, he who has gone. let us notice a little more minutely what the buddhists say of nirwana; for herein to them hides all the power of their philosophy and lies the absorbing charm of their religion. "the state that is peaceful, free from body, from passion, and from fear, where birth or death is not, that is nirwana." "nirwana puts an end to coming and going, and there is no other happiness." "it is a calm wherein no wind blows." "there is no difference in nirwana." "it is the annihilation of all the principles of existence." "nirwana is the completion and opposite shore of existence, free from decay, tranquil, knowing no restraint, and of great blessedness." "nirwana is unmixed satisfaction, entirely free from sorrow." "the wind cannot be squeezed in the hand, nor can its color be told. yet the wind is. even so nirwana is, but its properties cannot be told." "nirwana, like space, is causeless, does not live nor die, and has no locality. it is the abode of those liberated from existence." "nirwana is not, except to the being who attains it." life of gotama in journal of the american oriental society, vol. iii. symbolik and mythologie, th. ii. abth. , s. . for these quotations, and others similar, see hardy's valuable work, "eastern monachism," chap. xxii., on "nirwana, its paths and fruition." some scholars maintain that the buddhist nirwana is nothing but the atheistic annihilation. the subject is confessedly a most difficult one. but it seems to us that the opinion just stated is the very antithesis of the true interpretation of nirwana. in the first place, it should be remembered that there are various sects of buddhists. now, the word nirwana may be used in different senses by different schools. a few persons a small party, represented perhaps by able writers may believe in annihilation in our sense of the term, just as has happened in christendom, while the common doctrine of the people is the opposite of that. in the second place, with the oriental horror of individuated existence, and a highly poetical style of writing, nothing could be more natural, in depicting their ideas of the most desirable state of being, than that they should carry their metaphors expressive of repose, freedom from action and emotion, to a pitch conveying to our cold and literal thought the conceptions of blank unconsciousness and absolute nothingness. colebrooke says, "nirwana is not annihilation, but unceasing apathy. the notion of it as a happy state seems derived from the experience of ecstasies; or else the pleasant, refreshed feeling with which one wakes from profound repose is referred to the period of actual sleep." a buddhist author speculates thus: "that the soul feels not during profound trance, is not for want of sensibility, but for want of sensible objects." wilson, hodgson, and vans kennedy three able thinkers, as well as scholars, in this field agree that nirwana is not annihilation as we understand that word. mr. hodgson believes that the buddhists expect to be "conscious in nirwana of the eternal bliss of rest, as they are in this world of the ceaseless pain of activity." forbes also argues against the nihilistic explanation of the buddhist doctrine of futurity, and says he is compelled to conclude that nirwana denotes imperishable being in a blissful quietude. many additional authorities in favor of this view might be adduced, enough to balance, at least, the names on the other side. koeppen, in his very fresh, vigorous, and lucid work, just published, entitled "the religion of buddha, and its origin," says, "nirwana is the blessed nothing. buddhism is the gospel of annihilation." but he forgets that the motto on the title page of his volume is the following sentence quoted from sakya muni himself: "to those who know the concatenation of causes and effects, there is neither being nor nothing." to them nirwana is. considering it, then, as an open question, unsettled by any authoritative assertion, we will weigh the probabilities of the case. no definition of nirwana is more frequent than the one given by the kalpa sutra, namely, "cessation from action and freedom from desire." but this, like many of the other representations, such, for instance, as the exclusion of succession, very plainly is not a denial of all being, but only of our present modes of experience. the dying gotama is said to have "passed through the several states, one after another, until he arrived at the state where there is no pain. he then continued to enter the other higher states, and from the highest entered nirwana." can literal annihilation, the naked emptiness of nonentity, be better than burnouf, introduction a l'histoire du buddhisme indien, appendice no. i., du mot nirvana. colebrooke, essays, vol. i. p. . eleven years in ceylon, vol. ii. chap. ix. tanslation by dr. stevenson, p. . the highest state of being? it can be so only when we view nothing on the positive side as identical with all, make annihilating deprivation equivalent to universal bestowment, regard negation as affirmation, and, in the last synthesis of contradictions, see the abysmal vacuum as a plenum of fruition. as oken says, "the ideal zero is absolute unity; not a singularity, as the number one, but an indivisibility, a numberlessness, a homogeneity, a translucency, a pure identity. it is neither great nor small, quiescent nor moved; but it is, and it is not, all this." furthermore, if some of the buddhist representations would lead us to believe that nirwana is utter nothingness, others apparently imply the opposite. "the discourses of buddha are a charm to cure the poison of evil desire; a succession of fruit bearing trees placed here and there to enable the traveller to cross the desert of existence; a power by which every sorrow may be appeased; a door of entrance to the eternal city of nirwana." "the mind of the rahat" (one who has obtained assurance of emancipation and is only waiting for it to arrive) "knows no disturbance, because it is filled with the pleasure of nirwana." "the sight of nirwana bestows perfect happiness." "the rahat is emancipated from existence in nirwana, as the lotus is separated from the mud out of which it springs." "fire may be produced by rubbing together two sticks, though previously it had no locality: it is the same with nirawna." "nirwana is free from danger, peaceful, refreshing, happy. when a man who has been broiled before a huge fire is released, and goes quickly into some open space, he feels the most agreeable sensation. all the evils of existence are that fire, and nirwana is that open space." these passages indicate the cessation in nirwana of all sufferings, perhaps of all present modes of existence, but not the total end of being. it may be said that these are but figurative expressions. the reply is, so are the contrasted statements metaphors, and it is probable that the expressions which denote the survival of pure being in nirwana are closer approximations to the intent of their authors than those which hint at an unconscious vacancy. if nirwana in its original meaning was an utter and infinite blank, then, "out of that very nothing," as max muller says, "human nature made a new paradise." there is a scheme of doctrine held by some buddhist philosophers which may be thus stated. there are five constituent elements of sentient existence. they are called khandas, and are as follows: the organized body, sensation, perception, discrimination, and consciousness. death is the dissolution and entire destruction of these khandas, and apart from them there is no synthetical unit, soul, or personality. yet in a certain sense death is not the absolute annihilation of a human existence, because it leaves a potentiality inherent in that existence. there is no identical ego to survive and be born again; but karma that is, the sum of a man's action, his entire merit and demerit produces at his death a new being, and so on in continued series until nirwana is attained. thus the succession of being is kept up with transmitted responsibility, as a flame is transferred from one wick to another. it is evident enough, as is justly claimed by hardy and others, that the limitation of existence to the five khandas, excluding the idea of any independent individuality, makes death elements of physiophilosophy, tulk's trans. p. . annihilation, and renders the very conception of a future life for those now living an absurdity. but we are convinced that this view is the speculative peculiarity of a sect, and by no means the common belief of the buddhist populace or the teaching of gotama himself. this appears at the outset from the fact that gotama is represented as having lived through millions of existences, in different states and worlds, with preserved identity and memory. the history of his concatenated advance towards the buddhaship is the supporting basis and the saturating spirit of documentary buddhism. and the same idea pervades the whole range of narratives relating to the repeated births and deaths of the innumerable buddhist heroes and saints who, after so many residences on earth, in the hells, in the dewalokas, have at last reached emancipation. they recollect their adventures; they recount copious portions of their experience stretching through many lives. again: the arguments cited from buddha seem aimed to prove, not that there is absolutely no self in man, but that the five khandas are not the self, that the real self is something distinct from all that is exposed to misery and change, something deep, wondrous, divine, infinite. for instance, the report of a debate on this subject between buddha and sachaka closes with these words: "thus was sachaka forced to confess that the five khandas are impermanent, connected with sorrow, unreal, not the self. these terms appear to imply the reality of a self, only that it is not to be confounded with the apprehensible elements of existence. besides, the attainment of nirwana is held up as a prize to be laboriously sought by personal effort. to secure it is a positive triumph quite distinct from the fated dissolution of the khandas in death. now, if there be in man no personal entity, what is it that with so much joy attains nirwana? the genuine buddhist notion, as seems most probable, is that the conscious essence of the rahat, when the exterior elements of existence fall from around him, passes by a transcendent climax and discrete leap beyond the outermost limits of appreciable being, and becomes that infinite which knows no changes and is susceptible of no definitions. in the ka gyur collection of tibetan sacred books, comprising a hundred volumes, and now belonging to the cabinet of manuscripts in the royal library of paris, there are two volumes exclusively occupied by a treatise on nirwana. it is a significant fact that the title of these volumes is "nirwana, or deliverance from pain." if nirwana be simply annihilation, why is it not so stated? why should recourse be had to a phrase partially descriptive of one feature, instead of comprehensively announcing or implying the whole case? still further: it deserves notice that, according to the unanimous affirmation of buddhist authors, if any buddhist were offered the alternative of an existence as king of a dewa loka, keeping his personality for a hundred million years in the uninterrupted enjoyment of perfect happiness, or of translation into nirwana, he would spurn the former as defilement, and would with unutterable avidity choose the latter. we must therefore suppose that by nirwana he understands, not naked destruction, but some mysterious good, too vast for logical comprehension, too obscure to occidental thought to find expression in occidental language. hardy, manual, p. . at the moment when gotama entered upon the buddhaship, like a vessel overflowing with honey, his mind overflowed with the nectar of oral instruction, and he uttered these stanzas: "through many different births i have run, vainly seeking the architect of the desire resembling house. painful are repeated births. o house builder! i have seen thee. again a house thou canst not build for me. i have broken thy rafters and ridge pole; i have arrived at the extinction of evil desire; my mind is gone to nirwana." hardy, who stoutly maintains that the genuine doctrine of buddha's philosophy is that there is no transmigrating individuality in man, but that the karma creates a new person on the dissolution of the former one, confesses the difficulties of this dogma to be so great that "it is almost universally repudiated." m. obry published at paris, in , a small volume entirely devoted to this subject, under the title of "the indian nirwana, or the enfranchisement of the soul after death." his conclusion, after a careful and candid discussion, is, that nirwana had different meanings to the minds of the ancient aryan priests, the orthodox brahmans, the sankhya brahmans, and the buddhists, but had not to any of them, excepting possibly a few atheists, the sense of strict annihilation. he thinks that burnouf and barthelemy saint hilaire themselves would have accepted this view if they had paid particular attention to the definite inquiry, instead of merely touching upon it in the course of their more comprehensive studies. what spinoza declares in the following sentence "god is one, simple, infinite; his modes of being are diverse, complex, finite" strongly resembles what the buddhists say of nirwana and the contrasted vicissitudes of existence, and may perhaps throw light on their meaning. the supposition of immaterial, unlimited, absolutely unalterable being the scholastic ens sine qualitate answers to the descriptions of it much more satisfactorily than the idea of unqualified nothingness does. "nirwana is real; all else is phenomenal." the sankhyas, who do not hold to the nonentity nor to the annihilation of the soul, but to its eternal identification with the infinite one, use nevertheless nearly the same phrases in describing it that the buddhists do. for example, they say, "the soul is neither a production nor productive, neither matter nor form" the vishnu purana says, "the mundane egg, containing the whole creation, was surrounded by seven envelops, water, air, fire, ether, egotism, intelligence, and finally the indiscrete principle" is not this indiscrete principle of the brahmans the same as the nirwana of the buddhists? the latter explicitly claim that "man is capable of enlarging his faculties to infinity." sankhya karika, pp. - . vishnu purana, p. . nagasena says to the king of sagal, "neither does nirwana exist previously to its reception, nor is that which was not, brought into existence: still, to the being who attains it, there is nirwana." according to this statement, taken in connection with the hundreds similar to it, nirwana seems to be a simple mental perception, most difficult of acquirement, and, when acquired, assimilating the whole conscious being perfectly to itself. the asangkrata sutra, as translated by mr. hardy, says, "from the joyful exclamations of those who have seen nirwana, its character may be known by those who have not made the same attainment." the superficial thinker, carelessly scanning the recorded sayings of gotama and his expositors in relation to nirwana, is aware only of a confused mass of metaphysical hieroglyphs and poetical metaphors; but the buddhist sages avow that whoso, by concentrated study and training of his faculties, pursues the inquiry with adequate perseverance, will at last elicit and behold the real meaning of nirwana, the achieved insight and revelation forming the widest horizon of rapturous truth ever contemplated by the human mind. the memorable remark of sir william hamilton, that "capacity of thought is not to be constituted into the measure of existence," should show the error of those who so unjustifiably affirm that, since nirwana is said to be neither corporeal nor incorporeal, nor at all describable, it is therefore absolutely nothing. a like remark is also to be addressed to those who draw the same unwarrantable conclusion of the nothingness of nirwana from the fact that it has no locality, or from the fact that it is sometimes said to exclude consciousness. plato, in the timaus, stigmatizes as a vulgar error the notion that what is not in any place is a nonentity. many a weighty philosopher has followed him in this opinion. the denial of place is by no means necessarily the denial of being. so, too, with consciousness. it is conceivable that there is a being superior to all the modes of consciousness now known to us. we are, indeed, unable to define this, yet it may be. the profoundest analysis shows that consciousness consists of co ordinated changes. "consciousness is a succession of changes combined and arranged in special ways." now, in contrast to the occidental thinker, who covets alternation because in his cold climate action is the means of enjoyment, the hindu, in the languid east, where repose is the condition of enjoyment, conceives the highest blessedness to consist in exemption from every disturbance, in an unruffled unity excluding all changes. therefore, while in some of its forms his dream of nirwana admits not consciousness, still, it is not inconsistent with a homogeneous state of being, which he, in his metaphysical and theosophie soarings, apprehends as the grandest and most ecstatic of all. the etymological force of the word nirwana is extinction, as when the sun has set, a fire has burned out, or a lamp is extinguished. the fair laws of interpretation do not compel us, in cases like this, to receive the severest literal significance of a word as conveying the meaning which a popular doctrine holds in the minds of its believers. there is almost always looseness, vagueness, metaphor, accommodation. but take the term before us in its strictest sense, and mark the result. when a fire is extinguished, it is obvious that, while the flame has disappeared, the substance of the flame, whatever it was, has not ceased to be, has not been herbert spencer, principles of psychology, ch. xxv. actually annihilated. it has only ceased to be in a certain visible form in which it existed before; but it still survives under altered conditions. now, to compare the putting out of a lamp to the death of a man, extinction is not actual destruction, but a transition of the flame into another state of being. that other state, in the case of the soul, is nirwana. there is a final consideration, possibly of some worth in dealing with this obscure theme. we will approach it through a preliminary query and quotation. that nothing can extend beyond its limits is an identical proposition. how vast, then, must be the soul of man in form or in power! "if souls be substances corporeal, be they as big just as the body is? or shoot they out to the height ethereal? doth it not seem the impression of a seal can be no larger than the wax? the soul with that vast latitude must move which measures the objects that it doth descry. so must it be upstretch'd unto the sky and rub against the stars." cousin asserts that man is conscious of infinity, that "the unconditional, the absolute, the infinite, is immediately known in consciousness by difference, plurality, and relation." now, does not the consciousness of infinity imply the infinity of consciousness? if not, we are compelled into the contradiction that a certain entity or force reaches outside of its outermost boundary. the buddhist ideal is not self annihilation, but self universalization. it is not the absorption of a drop into the sea, but the dilatation of a drop to the sea. each drop swells to the whole ocean, each soul becomes the boundless one, each rahat is identified with the total nirwana. the rivers of emancipated men neither disembogue into the ocean of spirit nor evaporate into the abyss of nonentity, but are blended with infinitude as an ontological integer. nirwana is unexposed and illimitable space. buddhism is perfect disinterestedness, absolute self surrender. it is the gospel of everlasting emancipation for all. it cannot be that a deliberate suicide of soul is the ideal holding the deepest desire of four hundred millions of people. nirwana is not negation, but a pure positive without alternation or foil. some light may be thrown on the subject by contemplating the successive states through which the dying gotama passed. max muller describes them, after the buddhist documents, thus: "he enters into the first stage of meditation when he feels freedom from sin, acquires a knowledge of the nature of all things, and has no desire except that of nirvana. but he still feels pleasure; he even uses his reasoning and discriminating powers. the use of these powers ceases in the second stage of meditation, when nothing remains but a desire after nirvana, and a general feeling of satisfaction arising from his intellectual perfection. that satisfaction, also, is extinguished in the third stage. indifference succeeds; yet there is still self consciousness, and a certain amount of physical pleasure. in the fourth stage these last remnants are destroyed; memory fades away, all pleasure and pain are gone, and the doors of nirvana now open before him. we must soar still higher, and, though we may feel giddy and disgusted, we must sit out the tragedy till the curtain falls. after the four stages of meditation are passed, the buddha (and every being is to become a buddha) enters first into the infinity of space, then into the infinity of intelligence, and thence he passes into the third region, the realm of nothing. but even here there is no rest. there is still something left, the idea of the nothing in which he rejoices. that also must be destroyed; and it is destroyed in the fourth and last region, where there is not even the idea of a nothing left, and where there is complete rest, undisturbed by nothing, or what is not nothing." analyze away all particulars until you reach an uncolored boundlessness of pure immateriality, free from every predicament; and that is nirwana. this is one possible way of conceiving the fate of the soul; and the speculative mind must conceive it in every possible way. however closely the result resembles the vulgar notion of annihilation, the difference in method of approach and the difference to the contemplator's feeling are immense. the buddhist apprehends nirwana as infinitude in absolute and eternal equilibrium: the atheist finds nirwana in a coffin. that is thought of with rapture, this, with horror. it should be noticed, before we close this chapter, that some of the hindus give a spiritual interpretation to all the gross physical details of their so highly colored and extravagant mythology. one of their sacred books says, "pleasure and pain are states of the mind. heaven is that which delights the mind, hell is that which gives it pain. hence vice is called hell, and virtue is called heaven." another author says, "the fire of the angry mind produces the fire of hell, and consumes its possessor. a wicked person causes his evil deeds to impinge upon himself, and that is hell." the various sects of mystics, allied in faith and feeling to the sufis, which are quite numerous in the east, agree in a deep metaphorical explanation of the vulgar notions pertaining to deity, judgment, heaven, and hell. in conclusion, the most remarkable fact in this whole field of inquiry is the contrast of the eastern horror of individuality and longing for absorption with the western clinging to personality and abhorrence of dissolution. the true orientalist, whether brahman, buddhist, or sufi, is in love with death. through this gate he expects to quit his frail and pitiable consciousness, losing himself, with all evil, to be born anew and find himself, with all good, in god. all sense, passion, care, and grief shall cease with deliverance from the spectral semblances of this false life. all pure contemplation, perfect repose, unsullied and unrippled joy shall begin with entrance upon the true life beyond. thus thinking, he feels that death is the avenue to infinite expansion, freedom, peace, bliss; and he longs for it with an intensity not dreamed of by more frigid natures. he often compares himself, in this world aspiring towards another, to an enamored moth drawn towards the fire, and he exclaims, with a sigh and a thrill, not disgust, but wonder and awe, fathomless intellectual emotion, at so unparalleled a phenomenon of our miraculous human nature. buddhism and buddhist pilgrims, p. . burnouf, le bhagavata purana, tome i. livre iii. ch. : acquisition de la delivrance, ch. . marche de l'ame individuelle. "highest nature wills the capture; 'light to light!' the instinct cries; and in agonizing rapture falls the moth, and bravely dies. think not what thou art, believer; think but what thou mayst become for the world is thy deceiver, and the light thy only home." the western mind approaches the subject of death negatively, stripping off the attributes of finite being; the eastern mind, positively, putting on the attributes of infinite being. negative acts, denying function, are antipathetic, and lower the sense of life; positive acts, affirming function, are sympathetic, and raise the sense of life. therefore the end to which those look, annihilation, is dreaded; that to which these look, nirwana, is desired. to become nothing, is measureless horror; to become all, is boundless ecstasy. milnes, palm leaves. chapter vii. persian doctrine of a future life. the name of zoroaster is connected, either as author or as reviser, with that remarkable system of rites and doctrines which constituted the religion of the ancient iranians, and which yet finds adherents in the ghebers of persia and the parsees of india. pliny, following the affirmation of aristotle, asserts that he flourished six thousand years before plato. moyle, gibbon, volney, rhode, concur in throwing him back into this vast antiquity. foucher, holty, heeren, tychsen, guizot, assign his birth to the beginning of the seventh century before christ. hyde, prideaux, du perron, kleuker, herder, klaproth, and others, bring him down to about a hundred and fifty years later. meanwhile, several weighty names press the scale in favor of the hypothesis of two or three zoroasters, living at separate epochs. so the learned men differ, and the genuine date in question cannot, at present at least, be decided. it is comparatively certain that, if he was the author of the work attributed to him, he must have flourished as early as the sixth century before christ. the probabilities seem, upon the whole, that he lived four or five centuries earlier than that, even, "in the pre historic time," as spiegel says. however, the settlement of the era of zoroaster is not a necessary condition of discovering the era when the religion commonly traced to him was in full prevalence as the established faith of the persian empire. the latter may be conclusively fixed without clearing up the former. and it is known, without disputation, that that religion whether it was primarily persian, median, assyrian, or chaldean was flourishing at babylon in the maturity of its power in the time of the hebrew prophets ezekiel, jeremiah, and daniel, twenty five hundred years ago. the celebrated work on the religion of the ancient medes and persians by dr. hyde, published in , must be followed with much caution and be taken with many qualifications. the author was biassed by unsound theories of the relation of the hebrew theology to the persian, and was, of course, ignorant of the most authoritative ancient documents afterwards brought to light. his work, therefore, though learned and valuable, considering the time when it was written, is vitiated by numerous mistakes and defects. in , anquetil du perron, returning to france from protracted journeying and abode in the east, brought home, among the fruits of his researches, manuscripts purporting to be parts of the old persian bible composed or collected by zoroaster. it was written in a language hitherto unknown to european scholars, one of the primitive dialects of persia. this work, of which he soon published a french version at paris was entitled by him the "zend avesta." it confirmed all that was previously known of the zoroastrian religion, and, by its allusions, statements, and implications, threw great additional light upon the subject. a furious controversy, stimulated by personal rivalries and national jealousy, immediately arose. du perron was denounced as an impostor or an ignoramus, and his publication stigmatized as a wretched forgery of his own, or a gross imposition palmed upon him by some lying pundit. sir william jones and john richardson, both distinguished english orientalists, and meiners in germany, were the chief impugners of the document in hand. richardson obstinately went beyond his data, and did not live long enough to retract; but sir william, upon an increase of information, changed his views, and regretted his first inconsiderate zeal and somewhat mistaken championship. the ablest defender of du perron was kleuker, who translated the whole work from french into german, adding many corrections, new arguments, and researches of great ability. his work was printed at riga, in seven quarto volumes, from to . the progress and results of the whole discussion are well enough indicated in the various papers which the subject drew forth in the volumes of the "asiatic researches" and the numbers of the "asiatic journal." the conclusion was that, while du perron had indeed betrayed partial ignorance and crudity, and had committed some glaring errors, there was not the least ground for doubt that his asserted discovery was in every essential what it claimed to be. it is a sort of litany; a collection of prayers and of sacred dialogues held between ormuzd and zoroaster, from which the persian system of theology may be inferred and constructed with some approach to completeness. the assailants of the genuineness of the "zend avesta" were effectually silenced when, some thirty years later, professor rask, a well known danish linguist, during his inquiries in the east, found other copies of it, and gave to the world such information and proofs as could not be suspected. he, discovering the close affinities of the zend with sanscrit, led the way to the most brilliant triumph yet achieved by comparative philology. portions of the work in the original character were published in , under the supervision of burnouf at paris and of olshausen at hamburg. the question of the genuineness of the dialect exhibited in these specimens, once so freely mooted, has been discussed, and definitively settled in the affirmative, by several eminent scholars, among whom may be mentioned bopp, whose "comparative grammar of the sanscrit, zend, greek, latin, lithuanian, gothic, and german languages" is an astonishing monument of erudition and toil. it is the conviction of major rawlinson that the zoroastrian books of the parsees were imported to bombay from persia in their present state in the seventh century of our era, but that they were written at least twelve centuries earlier. but the two scholars whose opinions upon any subject within this department of learning are now the most authoritative are professor spiegel of erlangen, and professor westergaard of copenhagen. their investigations, still in progress, made with all the aids furnished by their predecessors, and also with the advantage of newly discovered materials and processes, are of course to be relied on in preference to the earlier, and in some respects necessarily cruder, researches. it appears that the proper zoroastrian scriptures namely, the yasna, the vispered, the vendidad, the yashts, the nyaish, the afrigans, the gahs, the sirozah, and a few other fragments were composed in an ancient iranian dialect, which may as professor w. d. whitney suggests in his very lucid and able article in vol. v. of the journal of the american oriental society most fitly be called the avestan dialect. (no other book in this dialect, we believe, is known to be in existence now.) it is difficult to say when these wilson, parsi religion unfolded, p. . documents were written; but in view of all the relevant information now possessed, including that drawn from the deciphered cuneiform inscriptions, the most probable date is about a thousand years before christ. professor r. roth of tubingen whose authority herein as an original investigator is perhaps hardly second to any other man's says the books of the zoroastrian faith were written a considerable time before the rise of the achamenian dynasty. he is convinced that the whole substantial contents of the zend avesta are many centuries older than the christian era. professor muller of oxford also holds the same opinion. and even those who set the date of the literary record a few centuries later, as spiegel does, freely admit the great antiquity of the doctrines and usages then first committed to manuscript. in the fourth century before christ, alexander of macedon overran the persian empire. with the new rule new influences prevailed, and the old national faith and ritual fell into decay and neglect. early in the third century of the christian era, ardeshir overthrew the parthian dominion in persia and established the sassanian dynasty. one of his first acts was, stimulated doubtless by the surviving magi and the old piety of the people, to reinaugurate the ancient religion. a fresh zeal of loyalty broke out, and all the prestige and vigor of the long suppressed worship were restored. the zoroastrian scriptures were now sought for, whether in manuscript or in the memories of the priests. it would seem that only remnants were found. the collection, such as it was, was in the avestan dialect, which had grown partially obsolete and unintelligible. the authorities accordingly had a translation of it made in the speech of the time, pehlevi. this translation most of which has reached us written in with the original, sentence after sentence forms the real zend language, often confounded by the literary public with avestan. the translation of the avestan books, probably made under these circumstances as early as a. d. , is called the huzvaresch. in regard to some of these particulars there are questions still under investigation, but upon which it is not worth our while to pause here. for example, spiegel thinks the zend identical with the pehlevi of the fourth century; westergaard believes it entirely distinct from pehlevi, and in truth only a disguised mode of writing parsee, the oldest form of the modern persian language. the source from which the fullest and clearest knowledge of the zoroastrian faith, as it is now held by the parsees, is drawn, is the desatir and the bundehesh. the former work is the unique vestige of an extinct dialect called the mahabadian, accompanied by a persian translation and commentary. it is impossible to ascertain the century when the mahabadian text was written; but the translation into persian was, most probably, made in the seventh century of the christian era. spiegel, in , says there can be no doubt of the spuriousness of the desatir; but he gives no reasons for the statement, and we do not know that it is based on any other arguments than those which, advanced by de sacy, were refuted by von hammer. the bundehesh is in the pehlevi or zend language, and was written, it is ueber die heiligen schriften der arier. jahrbucher fur deutsche theologie, , band ii. ss. , . essay on the veda and the zend avesta, p. . see also bunsen's christianity and mankind, vol. iii. p. . baron von hammer, in heidelberger jabrbucher der literatur, . id. in journal asiatique, juillet, . dabistan, preliminary discourse, pp. xix. lxv. thought, about the seventh century, but was derived, it is claimed, from a more ancient work. the book entitled "revelations of ardai viraf" exists in pehlevi probably of the fourth century, according to troyer, and is believed to have been originally written in the avestan tongue, though this is extremely doubtful. it gives a detailed narrative of the scenery of heaven and hell, as seen by ardai viraf during a visit of a week which his soul leaving his body for that length of time paid to those regions. many later and enlarged versions of this have appeared. one of them, dating from the sixteenth century, was translated into english by t. a. pope and published in . sanscrit translations of several of the before named writings are also in existence. and several other comparatively recent works, scarcely needing mention here, although considered as somewhat authoritative by the modern followers of zoroaster, are to be found in guzeratee, the present dialect of the indian parsees. a full exposition of the zoroastrian religion, with satisfactory proofs of its antiquity and documentary genuineness, is presented in the preliminary discourse and notes to the dabistan. this curious and entertaining work, a fund of strange and valuable lore, is an historico critical view of the principal religions of the world, especially of the oriental sects, schools, and manners. it was composed in persian, apparently by mohsan fani, about the year . an english translation, with elaborate explanatory matter, by david shea and anthony troyer, was published at london and at paris in . in these records there are obscurities, incongruities, and chasms, as might naturally be anticipated, admitting them to be strictly what they would pass for. these faults may be accounted for in several ways. first, in a rude stage of philosophical culture, incompleteness of theory, inconsistent conceptions in different parts of a system, are not unusual, but are rather to be expected, and are slow to become troublesome to its adherents. secondly, distinct contemporary thinkers or sects may give expression to their various views in literary productions of the same date and possessing a balanced authority. or, thirdly, the heterogeneous conceptions in some particulars met with in these scriptures may be a result of the fact that the collection contains writings of distinct ages, when the same problems had been differently approached and had given birth to opposing or divergent speculations. the later works of course cannot have the authority of the earlier in deciding questions of ancient belief: they are to be taken rather as commentaries, interpreting and carrying out in detail many points that lie only in obscure hints and allusions in the primary documents. but it is a significant fact that, in the generic germs of doctrine and custom, in the essential outlines of substance, in rhetorical imagery, in practical morals, the statements of all these books are alike: they only vary in subordinate matters and in degrees of fulness. the charge has repeatedly been urged that the materials of the more recent of the parsee scriptures the desatir and the bundehesh were drawn from christian and mohammedan sources. no evidence of value for sustaining such assertions has been adduced. under the circumstances, scarcely any motive for such an imposition appears. in view of the whole case, dabistan, vol. i. p. , note. ibid. p. , note. reviewed in asiatic journal, , pp. - . the reverse supposition is rather to be credited. in the first place, we have ample evidence for the existence of the general zoroastrian system long anterior to the rise of christianity. the testimony of the classic authors to say nothing of the known antiquity of the language in which the system is preserved is demonstrative on this point. secondly, the striking agreement in regard to fundamental doctrines, pervading spirit, and ritual forms between the accounts in the classics and those in the avestan books, and of both these with the later writings and traditional practice of the parsees, furnishes powerful presumption that the religion was a connected development, possessing the same essential features from the time of its national establishment. thirdly, we have unquestionable proofs that, during the period from the babylonish captivity to the advent of christ, the jews borrowed and adapted a great deal from the persian theology, but no proof that the persians took any thing from the jewish theology. this is abundantly confessed by such scholars as gesenius, rosenmuller, stuart, lucke, de wette, neander; and it will hardly be challenged by any one who has investigated the subject. but the jewish theology being thus impregnated with germs from the persian faith, and being in a sense the historic mother of christian theology, it is far more reasonable, in seeking the origin of dogmas common to parsees and christians, to trace them through the pharisees to zoroaster, than to imagine them suddenly foisted upon the former by forgery on the part of the latter at a late period. fourthly, it is notorious that mohammed, in forming his religion, made wholesale draughts upon previously existing faiths, that their adherents might more readily accept his teachings, finding them largely in unison with their own. it is altogether more likely, aside from historic evidence which we possess, that he drew from the tenets and imagery of the ghebers, than that they, when subdued by his armies and persecuted by his rule from their native land, introduced new doctrines from the koran into the ancestral creed which they so revered that neither exile nor death could make them abjure it. for, driven by those fierce proselytes, the victorious arabs, to the mountains of kirman and to the indian coast, they clung with unconquerable tenacity to their religion, still scrupulously practising its rites, proudly mindful of the time when every village, from the shore of the caspian sea to the outlet of the persian gulf, had its splendid fire temple, "and iran like a sunflower turn'd where'er the eye of mithra burn'd." we therefore see no reason for believing that important christian or mohammedan ideas have been interpolated into the old zoroastrian religion. the influence has been in the other direction. relying then, though with caution, on what dr. edward roth says, that "the certainty of our possessing a correct knowledge of the leading ancient doctrines of the persians is now beyond all question," we will try to exhibit so much of the system as is necessary for appreciating its doctrine of a future life. in the deep background of the magian theology looms, in mysterious obscurity, the belief in an infinite first principle, zeruana akerana. according to most of the scholars who have investigated it, the meaning of this term is "time without bounds," or absolute duration. but bohlen says it signifies the "untreated whole;" and schlegel thinksit denotes the "indivisible one." the conception seems to have been to the people mostly an unapplied abstraction, too vast and remote to become prominent in their speculation or influential in their faith. spiegel, indeed, thinks the conception was derived from babylon, and added to the system at a later period than the other doctrines. the beginning of vital theology, the source of actual ethics to the zoroastrians, was in the idea of the two antagonist powers, ormuzd and ahriman, the first emanations of zeruana, who divide between them in unresting strife the empire of the universe. the former is the principle of good, the perfection of intelligence, beneficence, and light, the source of all reflected excellence. the latter is the principle of evil, the contriver of misery and death, the king of darkness, the instigator of all wrong. with sublime beauty the ancient persian said, "light is the body of ormuzd; darkness is the body of ahriman." there has been much dispute whether the persian theology grew out of the idea of an essential and eternal dualism, or was based on the conception of a partial and temporary battle; in other words, whether ahriman was originally and necessarily evil, or fell from a divine estate. in the fragmentary documents which have reached us, the whole subject lies in confusion. it is scarcely possible to unravel the tangled mesh. sometimes it seems to be taught that ahriman was at first good, an angel of light who, through envy of his great compeer, sank from his primal purity, darkened into hatred, and became the rancorous enemy of truth and love. at other times he appears to be considered as the pure primordial essence of evil. the various views may have prevailed in different ages or in different schools. upon the whole, however, we hold the opinion that the real zoroastrian idea of ahriman was moral and free, not physical and fatal. the whole basis of the universe was good; evil was an after perversion, a foreign interpolation, a battling mixture. first, the perfect zeruana was once all in all: ahriman, as well as ormuzd, proceeded from him; and the inference that he was pure would seem to belong to the idea of his origin. secondly, so far as the account of satan given in the book of job perhaps the earliest appearance of the persian notion in jewish literature warrants any inference or supposition at all, it would lead to the image of one who was originally a prince in heaven, and who must have fallen thence to become the builder and potentate of hell. thirdly, that matter is not an essential core of evil, the utter antagonist of spirit, and that ahriman is not evil by an intrinsic necessity, will appear from the two conceptions lying at the base and crown of the persian system: that the creation, as it first came from the hands of ormuzd, was perfectly good; and that finally the purified material world shall exist again unstained by a breath of evil, ahriman himself becoming like ormuzd. he is not, then, aboriginal and indestructible evil in substance. the conflict between ormuzd and him is the temporary ethical struggle of light and darkness, not the internecine ontological war of spirit and matter. roth says, "ahriman was originally good: his fall was a determination of his will, not an inherent necessity of his nature." whatever other conceptions may be found, whatever inconsistencies or contradictions to this may appear, still, we believe the genuine zoroastrian view was such as we have now stated. the opposite doctrine arose from the more abstruse lucubrations of a more modern time, and is manichaan, not zoroastrian. zoroastrische glaubenslehre, ss. , . ormuzd created a resplendent and happy world. ahriman instantly made deformity, impurity, and gloom, in opposition to it. all beauty, virtue, harmony, truth, blessedness, were the work of the former. all ugliness, vice, discord, falsehood, wretchedness, belonged to the latter. they grappled and mixed in a million hostile shapes. this universal battle is the ground of ethics, the clarion call to marshal out the hostile hosts of good and ill; and all other war is but a result and a symbol of it. the strife thus indicated between a deity and a devil, both subordinate to the unmoved eternal, was the persian solution of the problem of evil, their answer to the staggering question, why pleasure and pain, benevolence and malignity, are so conflictingly mingled in the works of nature and in the soul of man. in the long struggle that ensued, ormuzd created multitudes of co operant angels to assail his foe, stocking the clean empire of light with celestial allies of his holy banner, who hang from heaven in great numbers, ready at the prayer of the righteous man to hie to his aid and work him a thousandfold good. ahriman, likewise, created an equal number of assistant demons, peopling the filthy domain of darkness with counterbalancing swarms of infernal followers of his pirate flag, who lurk at the summit of hell, watching to snatch every opportunity to ply their vocation of sin and ruin. there are such hosts of these invisible antagonists sown abroad, and incessantly active, that every star is crowded and all space teems with them. each man has a good and a bad angel, a ferver and a dev, who are endeavoring in every manner to acquire control over his conduct and possession of his soul. the persians curiously personified the source of organic life in the world under the emblem of a primeval bull. in this symbolic beast were packed the seeds and germs of all the creatures afterwards to people the earth. ahriman, to ruin the creation of which this animal was the life medium, sought to kill him. he set upon him two of his devs, who are called "adepts of death." they stung him in the breast, and plagued him until he died of rage. but, as he was dying, from his right shoulder sprang the androgynal kaiomorts, who was the stock root of humanity. his body was made from fire, air, water, and earth, to which ormuzd added an immortal soul, and bathed him with an elixir which rendered him fair and glittering as a youth of fifteen, and would have preserved him so perennially had it not been for the assaults of the evil one. ahriman, the enemy of all life, determined to slay him, and at last accomplished his object; but, as kaiomorts fell, from his seed, through the power of ormuzd, originated meschia and meschiane, male and female, the first human pair, from whom all our race have descended. they would never have died, but ahriman, in the guise of a serpent, seduced them, and they sinned and fell. this account is partly drawn from that later treatise, the bundehesh, whose mythological cosmogony reminds us of the scandinavian ymer. but we conceive it to be strictly reliable as a representation of the zoroastrian faith in its essential doctrines; for the earlier documents, the yasna, the yeshts, and the vendidad, contain the same things in obscure and undeveloped expressions. they, too, make repeated mention of the mysterious bull, and of kaiomorts. they invariably represent death as resulting kleuker, zend avesta, band i. anhang , s. . ibid. band i. s. . yasna, th iia. from the hostility of ahriman. the earliest avestan account of the earthly condition of men describes them as living in a garden which yima or jemschid had enclosed at the command of ormuzd. during the golden age of his reign they were free from heat and cold, sickness and death. "in the garden which yima made they led a most beautiful life, and they bore none of the marks which ahriman has since made upon men." but ahriman's envy and hatred knew no rest until he and his devs had, by their wiles, broken into this paradise, betrayed yima and his people into falsehood, and so, by introducing corruption into their hearts, put an end to their glorious earthly immortality. this view is set forth in the opening fargards of the vendidad; and it has been clearly illustrated in an elaborate contribution upon the "old iranian mythology" by professor westergaard. death, like all other evils, was an after effect, thrust into the purely good creation of ormuzd by the cunning malice of ahriman. the vendidad, at its commencement, recounts the various products of ormuzd's beneficent power, and adds, after each particular, "thereupon ahriman, who is full of death, made an opposition to the same." according to the zoroastrian modes of thought, what would have been the fate of man had ahriman not existed or not interfered? plainly, mankind would have lived on forever in innocence and joy. they would have been blessed with all placid delights, exempt from hate, sickness, pain, and every other ill; and, when the earth was full of them, ormuzd would have taken his sinless subjects to his own realm of light on high. but when they forsook the true service of ormuzd, falling into deceit and defilement, they became subjects of ahriman; and he would inflict on them, as the creatures of his hated rival, all the calamities in his power, dissolve the masterly workmanship of their bodies in death, and then take their souls as prisoners into his own dark abode. "had meschia continued to bring meet praises, it would have happened that when the time of man, created pure, had come, his soul, created pure and immortal, would immediately have gone to the seat of bliss." "heaven was destined for man upon condition that he was humble of heart, obedient to the law, and pure in thought, word, and deed." but "by believing the lies of ahriman they became sinners, and their souls must remain in his nether kingdom until the resurrection of their bodies." ahriman's triumph thus culminates in the death of man and that banishment of the disembodied soul into hell which takes the place of its originally intended reception into heaven. the law of ormuzd, revealed through zoroaster, furnishes to all who faithfully observe it in purity of thought, speech, and action, "when body and soul have separated, attainment of paradise in the next world," while the neglecters of it "will pass into the dwelling of the devs," "after death will have no part in paradise, but will occupy the place of darkness die sage von dschemschid. von professor r. roth. in zeitschrift der deutschen morgeulandischen gesellschaft, band iv. ss. - . weber, indische studien, band iii. . . yesht lxxxvii. kleuker, band ii. sect. . bundehesh, ch. xv. avesta die heiligen schriften der parsen. von dr. f. spiegel, band i. s, . ibid. s. . destined for the wicked." the third day after death, the soul advances upon "the way created by ormuzd for good and bad," to be examined as to its conduct. the pure soul passes up from this evanescent world, over the bridge chinevad, to the world of ormuzd, and joins the angels. the sinful soul is bound and led over the way made for the godless, and finds its place at the bottom of gloomy hell. an avestan fragment and the viraf nameh give the same account, only with more picturesque fulness. on the soaring bridge the soul meets rashne rast, the angel of justice, who tries those that present themselves before him. if the merits prevail, a figure of dazzling substance, radiating glory and fragrance, advances and accosts the justified soul, saying, "i am thy good angel: i was pure at the first, but thy good deeds have made me purer;" and the happy one is straightway led to paradise. but when the vices outweigh the virtues, a dark and frightful image, featured with ugliness and exhaling a noisome smell, meets the condemned soul, and cries, "i am thy evil spirit: bad myself, thy crimes have made me worse." then the culprit staggers on his uncertain foothold, is hurled from the dizzy causeway, and precipitated into the gulf which yawns horribly below. a sufficient reason for believing these last details no late and foreign interpolation, is that the vendidad itself contains all that is essential in them, garotman, the heaven of ormuzd, open to the pure, dutsakh, the abode of devs, ready for the wicked, chinevad, the bridge of ordeal, upon which all must enter. some authors have claimed that the ancient disciples of zoroaster believed in a purifying, intermediate state for the dead. passages stating such a doctrine are found in the yeshts, sades, and in later parsee works. but whether the translations we now possess of these passages are accurate, and whether the passages themselves are authoritative to establish the ancient prevalence of such a belief, we have not yet the means for deciding. there was a yearly solemnity, called the "festival for the dead," still observed by the parsees, held at the season when it was thought that that portion of the sinful departed who had ended their penance were raised from dutsakh to earth, from earth to garotman. du perron says that this took place only during the last five days of the year, when the souls of all the deceased sinners who were undergoing punishment had permission to leave their confinement and visit their relatives; after which, those not yet purified were to return, but those for whom a sufficient atonement had been made were to proceed to paradise. for proof that this doctrine was held, reference is made to the following passage, with others: "during these five days ormuzd empties hell. the imprisoned souls shall be freed from ahriman's plagues when they pay penance and are ashamed of their sins; and they shall receive a heavenly nature; the meritorious deeds of themselves and of their families cause this liberation: all the rest must return to dutsakh." rhode thinks this was a part of the old persian faith, and the source of ibid. s. . ibid. ss. - . vendidad, fargard xix. kleuker, band i. ss. xxxi. xxxv. spiegel, vendidad, ss. , , , . kleuker, band ii. s. . the roman catholic doctrine of purgatory. but, whether so or not, it is certain that the zoroastrians regarded the whole residence of the departed souls in hell as temporary. the duration of the present order of the world was fixed at twelve thousand years, divided into four equal epochs. in the first three thousand years, ormuzd creates and reigns triumphantly over his empire. through the next cycle, ahriman is constructing and carrying on his hostile works. the third epoch is occupied with a drawn battle between the upper and lower kings and their adherents. during the fourth period, ahriman is to be victorious, and a state of things inconceivably dreadful is to prevail. the brightness of all clear things will be shrouded, the happiness of all joyful creatures be destroyed, innocence disappear, religion be scoffed from the world, and crime, horror, and war be rampant. famine will spread, pests and plagues stalk over the earth, and showers of black rain fall. but at last ormuzd will rise in his might and put an end to these awful scenes. he will send on earth a savior. sosiosch, to deliver mankind, to wind up the final period of time, and to bring the arch enemy to judgment. at the sound of the voice of sosiosch the dead will come forth. good, bad, indifferent, all alike will rise, each in his order. kaiomorts, the original single ancestor of men, will be the firstling. next, meschia and meschiane, the primal parent pair, will appear. and then the whole multitudinous family of mankind will throng up. the genii of the elements will render up the sacred materials intrusted to them, and rebuild the decomposed bodies. each soul will recognise, and hasten to reoccupy, its old tenement of flesh, now renewed, improved, immortalized. former acquaintances will then know each other. "behold, my father! my mother! my brother! my wife! they shall exclaim." in this exposition we have following the guidance of du perron, foucher, kleuker, j. g. muller, and other early scholars in this field attributed the doctrine of a general and bodily resurrection of the dead to the ancient zoroastrians. the subsequent researches of burnouf, roth, and others, have shown that several, at least, of the passages which anquetil supposed to teach such a doctrine were erroneously translated by him, and do not really contain it. and recently the ground has been often assumed that the doctrine of the resurrection does not belong to the avesta, but is a more modern dogma, derived by the parsees from the jews or the christians, and only forced upon the old text by misinterpretation through the pehlevi version and the parsee commentary. a question of so grave importance demands careful examination. in the absence of that reliable translation of the entire original documents, and that thorough elaboration of all the extant materials, which we are awaiting from the hands of professor spiegel, whose second volume has long been due, and professor westergaard, whose second and third volumes are eagerly looked for, we must make the best use of the resources actually available, and then leave the point in such plausible light as existing testimony and fair reasoning can throw upon it. in the first place, it should be observed that, admitting the doctrine to be nowhere mentioned in the avesta, still, it does not follow that the belief was not prevalent when the rhode, heilige sage des zendvolks, s. . bundehesh, ch. xxxi. avesta was written. we know that the christians of the first two centuries believed a great many things of which there is no statement in the new testament. spiegel holds that the doctrine in debate is not in the avesta, the text of which in its present form he thinks was written after the time of alexander. but he confesses that the resurrection theory was in existence long before that time. now, if the avesta, committed to writing three hundred years before christ, at a time when the doctrine of the resurrection is known to have been believed, contains no reference to it, the same relation of facts may just as well have existed if we date the record seven centuries earlier. we possess only a small and broken portion of the original zoroastrian scriptures; as roth says, "songs, invocations, prayers, snatches of traditions, parts of a code, the shattered fragments of a once stately building." if we could recover the complete documents in their earliest condition, it might appear that the now lost parts contained the doctrine of the general resurrection fully formed. we have many explicit references to many ancient zoroastrian books no longer in existence. for example, the parsees have a very early account that the avesta at first consisted of twenty one nosks. of these but one has been preserved complete, and small parts of three or four others. the rest are utterly wanting. the fifth nosk, whereof not any portion remains to us, was called the do az ah hamast. it contained thirty two chapters, treating, among other things, "of the upper and nether world, of the resurrection, of the bridge chinevad, and of the fate after death." if this evidence be true, and we know of no reason for not crediting it, it is perfectly decisive. but, at all events, the absence from the extant parts of the zend avesta of the doctrine under examination would be no proof that that doctrine was not received when those documents were penned. secondly, we have the unequivocal assertion of theopompus, in the fourth century before christ, that the magi taught the doctrine of a general resurrection. "at the appointed epoch ahriman shall be subdued," and "men shall live again and shall be immortal." and diogenes adds, "eudemus of rhodes affirms the same things." aristotle calls ormuzd zeus, and ahriman haides, the greek names respectively of the lord of the starry olympians above, and the monarch of the stygian ghosts beneath. another form also in which the early greek authors betray their acquaintance with the persian conception of a conflict between ormuzd and ahriman is in the idea expressed by xenophon in his cyropadia, in the dialogue between araspes and cyrus of two souls in man, one a brilliant efflux of good, the other a dusky emanation of evil, each bearing the likeness of its parent. since we know from theopompus that certain conceptions, illustrated in the bundehesh and not contained in the fragmentary avestan books which have reached us, were actually received zoroastrian studien uber das zend avesta, in zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen gesellschaft, , band ix. s. . spiegel, avesta, band i. s. . dabistan, vol. i. pp. - . diogenes laertius, lives of the philosophers, introduction, sect. vi. plutarch, concerning isis and osiris. lib. vi. cap. i. sect. . tenets four centuries before christ, we are strongly supported in giving credence to the doctrinal statements of that book as affording, in spite of its lateness, a correct epitome of the old persian theology. thirdly, we are still further warranted in admitting the antiquity of the zoroastrian system as including the resurrection theory, when we consider the internal harmony and organic connection of parts in it; how the doctrines all fit together, and imply each other, and could scarcely have existed apart. men were the creatures of ormuzd. they should have lived immortally under his favor and in his realm. but ahriman, by treachery, obtained possession of a large portion of them. now, when, at the end of the fourth period into which the world course was divided by the magian theory, as theopompus testifies, ormuzd overcomes this arch adversary, will he not rescue his own unfortunate creatures from the realm of darkness in which they have been imprisoned? when a king storms an enemy's castle, he delivers from the dungeons his own soldiers who were taken captives in a former defeat. the expectation of a great prophet, sosiosch, to come and vanquish ahriman and his swarms, unquestionably appears in the avesta itself. with this notion, in inseparable union, the parsee tradition, running continuously back, as is claimed, to a very remote time, joins the doctrine of a general resurrection; a doctrine literally stated in the vendidad, and in many other places in the avesta, where it has not yet been shown to be an interpolation, but only supposed so by very questionable constructive inferences. the consent of intrinsic adjustment and of historic evidence would, therefore, lead to the conclusion that this was an old zoroastrian dogma. in disproof of this conclusion we believe there is no direct positive evidence whatever, and no inferential argument cogent enough to produce conviction. there are sufficient reasons for the belief that the doctrine of a resurrection was quite early adopted from the persians by the jews, not borrowed at a much later time from the jews by the parsees. the conception of ahriman, the evil serpent, bearing death, (die schlange angramainyus der voll tod ist,) is interwrought from the first throughout the zoroastrian scheme. in the hebrew records, on the contrary, such an idea appears but incidentally, briefly, rarely, and only in the later books. the account of the introduction of sin and death by the serpent in the garden of eden dates from a time subsequent to the commencement of the captivity. von bohlen, in his introduction to the book of genesis, says the narrative was drawn from the zend avesta. rosenmuller, in his commentary on the passage, says the narrator had in view the zoroastrian notions of the serpent ahriman and his deeds. dr. martin haug an acute and learned writer, whose opinion is entitled to great weight, as he is the freshest scholar acquainted with this whole field in the light of all that others have done thinks it certain that zoroaster lived in a remote antiquity, from fifteen hundred to two thousand years before christ. he says that judaism after the exile and, through judaism, christianity afterwards received an important influence from zoroastrianism, spiegel, avesta, band i. ss. , . fargard xviii, spiegel's uebersetzung, s. . kleuker, band ii. ss. , , . an influence which, in regard to the doctrine of angels, satan, and the resurrection of the dead, cannot be mistaken. the hebrew theology had no demonology, no satan, until after the residence at babylon. this is admitted. well, is not the resurrection a pendant to the doctrine of satan? without the idea of a satan there would be no idea of a retributive banishment of souls into hell, and of course no occasion for a vindicating restoration of them thence to their former or a superior state. on this point the theory of rawlinson is very important. he argues, with various proofs, that the dualistic doctrine was a heresy which broke out very early among the primitive aryans, who then were the single ancestry of the subsequent iranians and indians. this heresy was forcibly suppressed. its adherents, driven out of india, went to persia, and, after severe conflicts and final admixture with the magians, there established their faith. the sole passage in the old testament teaching the resurrection is in the so called book of daniel, a book full of chaldean and persian allusions, written less than two centuries before christ, long after we know it was a received zoroastrian tenet, and long after the hebrews had been exposed to the whole tide and atmosphere of the triumphant persian power. the unchangeable tenacity of the medes and persians is a proverb. how often the hebrew people lapsed into idolatry, accepting pagan gods, doctrines, and ritual, is notorious. and, in particular, how completely subject they were to persian influence appears clearly in large parts of the biblical history, especially in the books of esther and ezekiel. the origin of the term beelzebub, too, in the new testament, is plain. to say that the persians derived the doctrine of the resurrection from the jews seems to us as arbitrary as it would be to affirm that they also borrowed from them the custom, mentioned by ezekiel, of weeping for tammuz in the gates of the temple. in view of the whole case as it stands, until further researches either strengthen it or put a different aspect upon it, we feel forced to think that the doctrine of a general resurrection was a component element in the ancient avestan religion. a further question of considerable interest arises as to the nature of this resurrection, whether it was conceived as physical or as spiritual. we have no data to furnish a determinate answer. plutarch quotes from theopompus the opinion of the magi, that when, at the subdual of ahriman, men are restored to life, "they will need no nourishment and cast no shadow." it would appear, then, that they must be spirits. the inference is not reliable; for the idea may be that all causes of decay will be removed, so that no food will be necessary to supply the wasting processes which no longer exist; and that the entire creation will be so full of light that a shadow will be impossible. it might be thought that the familiar persian conception of angels, both good and evil, fervers and devs, and the reception of departed souls into their company, with ormuzd in garotman, or with ahriman in dutsakh, would exclude the belief in a future bodily resurrection. but christians and mohammedans at this day believe in immaterial angels and devils, and in the immediate entrance of disembodied souls upon reward or die lehre zoroasters nach den alten liedern des zendavesta. zeitschrift der morgenlandischen gesellschaft, band ix. ss. , - . rawlinson's herodotus, vol. i. pp. - . punishment in their society, and still believe in their final return to the earth, and in a restoration to them of their former tabernacles of flesh. discordant, incoherent, as the two beliefs may be, if their coexistence is a fact with cultivated and reasonable people now, much more was it possible with an undisciplined and credulous populace three thousand years in the past. again, it has been argued that the indignity with which the ancient persians treated the dead body, refusing to bury it or to burn it, lest the earth or the fire should be polluted, is incompatible with the supposition that they expected a resurrection of the flesh. in the first place, it is difficult to reason safely to any dogmatic conclusions from the funeral customs of a people. these usages are so much a matter of capricious priestly ritual, ancestral tradition, unreasoning instinct, blind or morbid superstition, that any consistent doctrinal construction is not fairly to be put upon them. secondly, the zoroastrians did not express scorn or loathing for the corpse by their manner of disposing of it. the greatest pains were taken to keep it from disgusting decay, by placing it in "the driest, purest, openest place," upon a summit where fresh winds blew, and where certain beasts and birds, accounted most sacred, might eat the corruptible portion: then the clean bones were carefully buried. the dead body had yielded to the hostile working of ahriman, and become his possession. the priests bore it out on a bed or a carpet, and exposed it to the light of the sun. the demon was thus exorcised; and the body became further purified in being eaten by the sacred animals, and no putrescence was left to contaminate earth, water, or fire. furthermore, it is to be noticed that the modern parsees dispose of their dead in exactly the same manner depicted in the earliest accounts; yet they zealously hold to a literal resurrection of the body. if the giving of the flesh to the dog and the vulture in their case exists with this belief, it may have done so with their ancestors before nebuchadnezzar swept the jews to babylon. finally, it is quite reasonable to conclude that the old persian doctrine of a resurrection did include the physical body, when we recollect that in the zoroastrian scheme of thought there is no hostility to matter or to earthly life, but all is regarded as pure and good except so far as the serpent ahriman has introduced evil. the expulsion of this evil with his ultimate overthrow, the restoration of all as it was at first, in purity, gladness, and eternal life, would be the obvious and consistent carrying out of the system. hatred of earthly life, contempt for the flesh, the notion of an essential and irreconcilable warfare of soul against body, are brahmanic and manichaan, not zoroastrian. still, the ground plan and style of thought may not have been consistently adhered to. the expectation that the very same body would be restored was known to the jews a century or two before christ. one of the martyrs whose history is told in the second book of maccabees, in the agonies of death plucked out his own bowels, and called on the lord to restore them to him again at the resurrection. considering the notion of a resurrection of the body as a sensuous burden on the idea of a resurrection of the soul, it may have been a later development originating with the jews. but it seems to us decidedly more probable that the magi held it as a part of their creed before they came in contact with the children of israel. such an opinion may be modestly held until further information is spiegel, avesta, ss. , , , , . afforded or some new and fatal objection brought. after this resurrection a thorough separation will be made of the good from the bad. "father shall be divided from child, sister from brother, friend from friend. the innocent one shall weep over the guilty one, the guilty one shall weep for himself. of two sisters one shall be pure, one corrupt: they shall be treated according to their deeds." those who have not, in the intermediate state, fully expiated their sins, will, in sight of the whole creation, be remanded to the pit of punishment. but the author of evil shall not exult over them forever. their prison house will soon be thrown open. the pangs of three terrible days and nights, equal to the agonies of nine thousand years, will purify all, even the worst of the demons. the anguished cry of the damned, as they writhe in the lurid caldron of torture, rising to heaven, will find pity in the soul of ormuzd, and he will release them from their sufferings. a blazing star, the comet gurtzscher, will fall upon the earth. in the heat of its conflagration, great and small mountains will melt and flow together as liquid metal. through this glowing flood all human kind must pass. to the righteous it will prove as a pleasant bath, of the temperature of milk; but on the wicked the flame will inflict terrific pain. ahriman will run up and down chinevad in the perplexities of anguish and despair. the earth wide stream of fire, flowing on, will cleanse every spot and every thing. even the loathsome realm of darkness and torment shall be burnished and made a part of the all inclusive paradise. ahriman himself, reclaimed to virtue, replenished with primal light, abjuring the memories of his envious ways, and furling thenceforth the sable standard of his rebellion, shall become a ministering spirit of the most high, and, together with ormuzd, chant the praises of time without bounds. all darkness, falsehood, suffering, shall flee utterly away, and the whole universe be filled by the illumination of good spirits blessed with fruitions of eternal delight. in regard to the fate of man, such are the parables zartushi address'd to iran's faith, in the ancient zend avest. windischmann has now ( ) fully proved this, in his zoroastrische studien. spiegel frankly avows it: avesta, band iii., einleitung, s. lxxv. rhode, heilige sage des zendvolks, s. . chapter viii. hebrew doctrine of a future life. on the one extreme, a large majority of christian scholars have asserted that the doctrine of a retributive immortality is clearly taught throughout the old testament. able writers, like bishop warburton, have maintained, on the other extreme, that it says nothing whatever about a future life, but rather implies the total and eternal end of men in death. but the most judicious, trustworthy critics hold an intermediate position, and affirm that the hebrew scriptures show a general belief in the separate existence of the spirit, not indeed as experiencing rewards and punishments, but as surviving in the common silence and gloom of the under world, a desolate empire of darkness yawning beneath all graves and peopled with dream like ghosts. a number of important passages have been cited from different parts of the old testament by the advocates of the view first mentioned above. it will be well for us to notice these and their misuse before proceeding farther. the translation of enoch has been regarded as a revelation of the immortality of man. it is singular that dr. priestley should suggest, as the probable fact, so sheer and baseless a hypothesis as he does in his notes upon the book of genesis. he says, "enoch was probably a prophet authorized to announce the reality of another life after this; and he might be removed into it without dying, as an evidence of the truth of his doctrine." the gross materialism of this supposition, and the failure of god's design which it implies, are a sufficient refutation of it. and, besides the utter unlikelihood of the thought, it is entirely destitute of support in the premises. one of the most curious of the many strange things to be found in warburton's argument for the divine legation of moses an argument marked, as is well known, by profound erudition, and, in many respects, by consummate ability is the use he makes of this account to prove that moses believed the doctrine of immortality, but purposely obscured the fact from which it might be drawn by the people, in order that it might not interfere with his doctrine of the temporal special providence of jehovah over the jewish nation. such a course is inconsistent with sound morality, much more with the character of an inspired prophet of god. the only history we have of enoch is in the fifth chapter of the book of genesis. the substance of it is as follows: "and enoch walked with god during his appointed years; and then he was not, for god took him." the author of the epistle to the hebrews, following the example of those rabbins who, several centuries before his time, began to give mystical interpretations of the scriptures, infers from this statement that enoch was borne into heaven without tasting death. but it is not certainly known who the author of that epistle was; and, whoever he was, his opinion, of course, can have no authority upon a subject of criticism like boettcher, de inferis rebusque post mortem futuris ex hebraorum et gracoram opinionibus. this. replying to the supposititious argument furnished by this passage, we say, take the account as it reads, and it neither asserts nor implies the idea commonly held concerning it. it says nothing about translation or immortality; nor can any thing of the kind be legitimately deduced from it. its plain meaning is no more nor less than this: enoch lived three hundred and sixty five years, fearing god and keeping his commandments, and then he died. many of the rabbins, fond as they are of finding in the pentateuch the doctrine of future blessedness for the good, interpret this narrative as only signifying an immature death; for enoch, it will be recollected, reached but about half the average age of the others whose names are mentioned in the chapter. had this occurrence been intended as the revelation of a truth, it would have been fully and clearly stated; otherwise it could not answer any purpose. as le clerc observes, "if the writer believed so important a fact as that enoch was immortal, it is wonderful that he relates it as secretly and obscurely as if he wished to hide it." but, finally, even admitting that the account is to be regarded as teaching literally that god took enoch, it by no means proves a revelation of the doctrine of general immortality. it does not show that anybody else would ever be translated or would in any way enter upon a future state of existence. it is not put forth as a revelation; it says nothing whatever concerning a revelation. it seems to mean either that enoch suddenly died, or that he disappeared, nobody knew whither. but, if it really means that god took him into heaven, it is more natural to think that that was done as a special favor than as a sign of what awaited others. no general cause is stated, no consequence deduced, no principle laid down, no reflection added. how, then, can it be said that the doctrine of a future life for man is revealed by it or implicated in it? the removal of elijah in a chariot of fire, of which we read in the second chapter of the second book of kings, is usually supposed to have served as a miraculous proof of the fact that the faithful servants of jehovah were to be rewarded with a life in the heavens. the author of this book is not known, and can hardly be guessed at with any degree of plausibility. it was unquestionably written, or rather compiled, a long time probably several hundred years after the prophets whose wonderful adventures it recounts had passed away. the internal evidence is sufficient, both in quality and quantity, to demonstrate that the book is for the most part a collection of traditions. this characteristic applies with particular force to the ascension of elijah. but grant the literal truth of the account: it will not prove the point in support of which it is advanced, because it does not purport to have been done as a revelation of the doctrine in question, nor did it in any way answer the purpose of such a revelation. so far from this, in fact, it does not seem even to have suggested the bare idea of another state of existence in a single instance. for when elisha returned without elijah, and told the sons of the prophets at jericho that his master had gone up in a chariot of fire, which event they knew beforehand was going to happen, they, instead of asking the particulars or exulting over the revelation of a life in heaven, calmly said to him, "behold, there be with thy servants fifty sons of strength: let them go, we pray thee, and seek for elijah, lest peradventure a whirlwind, the blast of the lord, hath caught him up and cast him upon one of the mountains or into one of the valleys. and he said, ye shall not send. but when they urged him till he was ashamed, he said, send." this is all that is told us. had it occurred as is stated, it would not so easily have passed from notice, but mighty inferences, never to be forgotten, would have been drawn from it at once. the story as it stands reminds one of the closing scene in the career of romulus, speaking of whom the historians say, "in the thirty seventh year of his reign, while he was reviewing an army, a tempest arose, in the midst of which he was suddenly snatched from the eyes of men. hence some thought he was killed by the senators, others, that he was borne aloft to the gods." if the ascension of elijah to heaven in a chariot of fire did really take place, and if the books held by the jews as inspired and sacred contained a history of it at the time of our savior, it is certainly singular that neither he nor any of the apostles allude to it in connection with the subject of a future life. the miracles performed by elijah and by elisha in restoring the dead children to life related in the seventeenth chapter of the first book of kings and in the fourth chapter of the second book are often cited in proof of the position that the doctrine of immortality is revealed in the old testament. the narration of these events is found in a record of unknown authorship. the mode in which the miracles were effected, if they were miracles, the prophet measuring himself upon the child, his eyes upon his eyes, his mouth upon his mouth, his hands upon his hands, and in one case the child sneezing seven times, looks dubious. the two accounts so closely resemble each other as to cast still greater suspicion upon both. in addition to these considerations, and even fully granting the reality of the miracles, they do not touch the real controversy, namely, whether the hebrew scriptures contain the revealed doctrine of a conscious immortality or of a future retribution. the prophet said, "o lord my god, let this child's soul, i pray thee, come into his inward parts again." "and the lord heard the voice of elijah, and the soul of the child came into him again, and he revived." now, the most this can show is that the child's soul was then existing in a separate state. it does not prove that the soul was immortal, nor that it was experiencing retribution, nor even that it was conscious. and we do not deny that the ancient jews believed that the spirits of the dead retained a nerveless, shadowy being in the solemn vaults of the under world. the hebrew word rendered soul in the text is susceptible of three meanings: first, the shade, which, upon the dissolution of the body, is gathered to its fathers in the great subterranean congregation; second, the breath of a person, used as synonymous with his life; third, a part of the vital breath of god, which the hebrews regarded as the source of the life of all creatures, and the withdrawing of which they supposed was the cause of death. it is clear that neither of these meanings can prove any thing in regard to the real point at issue, that is, concerning a future life of rewards and punishments. one of the strongest arguments brought to support the proposition which we are combating at least, so considered by nearly all the rabbins, and by not a few modern critics is the account of the vivification of the dead recorded in the thirty seventh chapter of the book of ezekiel. the prophet "was carried in the spirit of jehovah" that is, mentally, in a prophetic ecstasy into a valley full of dry bones. "the bones came together, the flesh livy, i. ; dion. hal. ii. . grew on them, the breath came into them, and they lived and stood on their feet, an exceeding great army." it should first be observed that this account is not given as an actual occurrence, but, after the manner of ezekiel, as a prophetic vision meant to symbolize something. now, of what was it intended as the symbol? a doctrine, or a coming event? a general truth to enlighten and guide uncertain men, or an approaching deliverance to console and encourage the desponding jews? it is fair to let the prophet be his own interpreter, without aid from the glosses of prejudiced theorizers. it must be borne in mind that at this time the prophet and his countrymen were bearing the grievous burden of bondage in a foreign nation. "and jehovah said to me, son of man, these bones denote the whole house of israel. behold, they say, our bones are dried, and our hope is lost, and we are cut off." this plainly denotes their present suffering in the babylonish captivity, and their despair of being delivered from it. "therefore prophesy, and say to them, thus saith the lord jehovah, behold, i will open your graves and cause you to come up out of your graves, o my people, and bring you into the land of israel." that is, i will rescue you from your slavery and restore you to freedom in your own land. the dry bones and their subsequent vivification, therefore, clearly symbolize the misery of the israelites and their speedy restoration to happiness. death is frequently used in a figurative sense to denote misery, and life to signify happiness. but those who maintain that the doctrine of the resurrection is taught as a revealed truth in the hebrew scriptures are not willing to let this passage pass so easily. mr. barnes says, "the illustration proves that the doctrine was one with which the people were familiar." jerome states the argument more fully, thus: "a similitude drawn from the resurrection, to foreshadow the restoration of the people of israel, would never have been employed unless the resurrection itself were believed to be a fact of future occurrence; for no one thinks of confirming what is uncertain by what has no existence." it is not difficult to reply to these objections with convincing force. first, the vision was not used as proof or confirmation, but as symbol and prophecy. secondly, the use of any thing as an illustration does by no means imply that it is commonly believed as a fact. for instance, we are told in the ninth chapter of the book of judges that jotham related an allegory to the people as an illustration of their conduct in choosing a king, saying, "the trees once on a time went forth to anoint a king over them; and they said to the olive tree, come thou and reign over us;" and so on. does it follow that at that time it was a common belief that the trees actually went forth occasionally to choose them a king? thirdly, if a given thing is generally believed as a fact, a person who uses it expressly as a symbol, of course does not thereby give his sanction to it as a fact. and if a belief in the resurrection of the dead was generally entertained at the time of the prophet, its origin is not implied, and it does not follow that it was a doctrine of revelation, or even a true doctrine. finally, there is one consideration which shows conclusively that this vision was never intended to typify the resurrection; namely, that it has nothing corresponding to the most essential part of that doctrine. when the bones have come together and are covered with flesh, god does not call up the departed spirits of these bodies from sheol, does not bring back the vanished lives to animate their former tabernacles, now miraculously renewed. no: he but breathes on them with his vivifying breath, and straightway they live and move. this is not a resurrection, but a new creation. the common idea of a bodily restoration implies and, that any just retribution be compatible with it, it necessarily implies the vivification of the dead frame, not by the introduction of new life, but by the reinstalment of the very same life or spirit, the identical consciousness that before animated it. such is not represented as being the case in ezekiel's vision of the valley of dry bones. that vision had no reference to the future state. in this connection, the revelation made by the angel in his prophecy, recorded in the twelfth chapter of the book of daniel, concerning the things which should happen in the messianic times, must not be passed without notice. it reads as follows: "and many of the sleepers of the dust of the ground shall awake, those to life everlasting, and these to shame, to contempt everlasting. and they that are wise shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever." no one can deny that a judgment, in which reward and punishment shall be distributed according to merit, is here clearly foretold. the meaning of the text, taken with the connection, is, that when the messiah appears and establishes his kingdom the righteous shall enjoy a bodily resurrection upon the earth to honor and happiness, but the wicked shall be left below in darkness and death. this seems to imply, fairly enough, that until the advent of the messiah none of the dead existed consciously in a state of retribution. the doctrine of the passage, as is well known, was held by some of the jews at the beginning of the christian era, and, less distinctly, for about two centuries previous. before that time no traces of it can be found in their history. now, had a doctrine of such intense interest and of such vast importance as this been a matter of revelation, it seems hardly possible that it should have been confined to one brief and solitary text, that it should have flashed up for a single moment so brilliantly, and then vanished for three or four centuries in utter darkness. furthermore, nearly one half of the book of daniel is written in the chaldee tongue, and the other half in the hebrew, indicating that it had two authors, who wrote their respective portions at different periods. its critical and minute details of events are history rather than prophecy. the greater part of the book was undoubtedly written as late as about a hundred and sixty years before christ, long after the awful simplicity and solitude of the original hebrew theology had been marred and corrupted by an intermixture of the doctrines of those heathen nations with whom the jews had been often brought in contact. such being the facts in the case, the text is evidently without force to prove a divine revelation of the doctrine it teaches. in the twenty second chapter of the gospel by matthew, jesus says to the sadducees, "but as touching the resurrection of the dead, have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by god, saying, i am the god of abraham, and the god of isaac, and the god of jacob? god is not the god of the dead, but of the living." the passage to which reference is made is written in the third chapter of the book of exodus. in order to ascertain the force of the savior's argument, the extent of meaning it had in his mind, and the amount of knowledge attributed by it to moses, it will be necessary to determine first the definite purpose he had wood, the last things, p. . in view in his reply to the sadducees, and how he proposed to accomplish it. we shall find that the use he made of the text does not imply that moses had the slightest idea of any sort of future life for man, much less of an immortal life of blessedness for the good and of suffering for the bad. we should suppose, beforehand, that such would be the case, since upon examining the declaration cited, with its context, we find it to be simply a statement made by jehovah explaining who he was, that he was the ancient national guardian of the jews, the lord god of abraham, isaac, and jacob. this does not seem to contain the most distant allusion to the immortality of man, or to have suggested any such thought to the mind of moses. it should be distinctly understood from the outset that jesus did not quote this passage from the pentateuch as proving any thing of itself, or as enabling him to prove any thing by it directly, but as being of acknowledged authority to the sadducees themselves, to form the basis of a process of reasoning. the purpose he had in view, plainly, was to convince the sadducees either of the possibility or of the actuality of the resurrection of the dead: its possibility, if we assume that by resurrection he meant the jewish doctrine of a material restoration, the reunion of soul and body; its actuality, if we suppose he meant the conscious immortality of the soul separate from the body. if the resurrection was physical, christ demonstrates to the sadducees its possibility, by refuting the false notion upon which they based their denial of it. they said, the resurrection of the body is impossible, because the principle of life, the consciousness, has utterly perished, and the body cannot live alone. he replied, it is possible, because the soul has an existence separate from the body, and, consequently, may be reunited to it. you admit that jehovah said, after they were dead, i am the god of abraham, isaac, and jacob: but he is the god of the living, and not of the dead, for all live unto him. you must confess this. the soul, then, survives the body, and a resurrection is possible. it will be seen that this implies nothing concerning the nature or duration of the separate existence, but merely the fact of it. but, if christ meant by the resurrection of the dead as we think he did the introduction of the disembodied and conscious soul into a state of eternal blessedness, the sadducees denied its reality by maintaining that no such thing as a soul existed after bodily dissolution. he then proved to them its reality in the following manner. you believe for moses, to whose authority you implicitly bow, relates it that god said, "i am the god of abraham, isaac, and jacob," and this, long after they died. but evidently he cannot be said to be the god of that which does not exist: therefore their souls must have been still alive. and if jehovah was emphatically their god, their friend, of course he will show them his loving kindness. they are, then, in a conscious state of blessedness. the savior does not imply that god said so much in substance, nor that moses intended to teach, or even knew, any thing like it, but that, by adding to the passage cited a premise of his own, which his hearers granted to be true, he could deduce so much from it by a train of new and unanswerable reasoning. his opponents were compelled to admit the legitimacy of his argument, and, impressed by its surpassing beauty and force, were silenced, if not convinced. the credit of this cogent proof of human immortality, namely, that god's love for man is a pledge and warrant of his eternal blessedness a proof whose originality and significance set it far beyond all parallel is due to the dim gropings of no hebrew prophet, but to the inspired insight of the great founder of christianity. the various passages yet unnoticed which purport to have been uttered by jehovah or at his command, and which are urged to show that the reality of a retributive life after death is a revealed doctrine of the old testament, will be found, upon critical examination, either to owe their entire relevant force to mistranslation, or to be fairly refuted by the reasonings already advanced. professor stuart admits that he finds only one consideration to show that moses had any idea of a future retribution; and that is, that the egyptians expressly believed it; and he is not able to comprehend how moses, who dwelt so long among them, should be ignorant of it. the reasoning is obviously inconsequential. it is not certain that the egyptians held this doctrine in the time of moses: it may have prevailed among them before or after, and not during, that period. if they believed it at that time, it may have been an esoteric doctrine, with which he did not become acquainted. if they believed it, and he knew it, he might have classed it with other heathen doctrines, and supposed it false. and, even if he himself believed it, he might possibly not have inculcated it upon the israelites; and the question is, what he did actually teach, not what he knew. the opinions of the jews at the time of the savior have no bearing upon the point in hand, because they were acquired at a later period than that of the writing of the records we are now considering. they were formed, and gradually grew in consistency and favor, either by the natural progress of thought among the jews themselves, or, more probably, by a blending of the intimations of the hebrew scriptures with gentile speculations, the doctrines of the egyptians, hindus, and persians. we leave this portion of the subject, then, with the following proposition. in the canonic books of the old dispensation there is not a single genuine text, claiming to come from god, which teaches explicitly any doctrine whatever of a life beyond the grave. that doctrine as it existed among the jews was no part of their pure religion, but was a part of their philosophy. it did not, as they held it, imply any thing like our present idea of the immortality of the soul reaping in the spiritual world what it has sowed in the physical. it simply declared the existence of human ghosts amidst unbroken gloom and stillness in the cavernous depths of the earth, without reward, without punishment, without employment, scarcely with consciousness, as will immediately appear. we proceed to the second general division of the subject. what does the old testament, apart from the revelation claimed to be contained in it, and regarding only those portions of it which are confessedly a collection of the poetry, history, and philosophy of the hebrews, intimate concerning a future state of existence? examining these writings with an unbiased mind, we discover that in different portions of them there are large variations and opposition of opinion. in some books we trace an undoubting belief in certain rude notions of the future condition of souls; in other books we encounter unqualified denials of every such thought. "man lieth down and riseth not," sighs the despairing job. "the dead cannot praise god, neither any that go down into darkness," wails the repining psalmist. "all go to one place," exegetical essays, (andover, ,) p. . and "the dead know not any thing," asserts the disbelieving preacher. these inconsistencies we shall not stop to point out and comment upon. they are immaterial to our present purpose, which is to bring together, in their general agreement, the sum and substance of the hebrew ideas on this subject. the separate existence of the soul is necessarily implied by the distinction the hebrews made between the grave, or sepulchre, and the under world, or abode of shades. the hebrew words bor and keber mean simply the narrow place in which the dead body is buried; while sheol represents an immense cavern in the interior of the earth where the ghosts of the deceased are assembled. when the patriarch was told that his son joseph was slain by wild beasts, he cried aloud, in bitter sorrow, "i will go down to sheol unto my son, mourning." he did not expect to meet joseph in the grave; for he supposed his body torn in pieces and scattered in the wilderness, not laid in the family tomb. the dead are said to be "gathered to their people," or to "sleep with their fathers," and this whether they are interred in the same place or in a remote region. it is written, "abraham gave up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people," notwithstanding his body was laid in a cave in the field of machpelah, close by hebron, while his people were buried in chaldea and mesopotamia. "isaac gave up the ghost and died, and was gathered unto his people;" and then we read, as if it were done afterwards, "his sons, jacob and esau, buried him." these instances might be multiplied. they prove that "to be gathered unto one's fathers" means to descend into sheol and join there the hosts of the departed. a belief in the separate existence of the soul is also involved in the belief in necromancy, or divination, the prevalence of which is shown by the stern laws against those who engaged in its unhallowed rites, and by the history of the witch of endor. she, it is said, by magical spells evoked the shade of old samuel from below. it must have been the spirit of the prophet that was supposed to rise; for his body was buried at ramah, more than sixty miles from endor. the faith of the hebrews in the separate existence of the soul is shown, furthermore, by the fact that the language they employed expresses, in every instance, the distinction of body and spirit. they had particular words appropriated to each. "as thy soul liveth," is a hebrew oath. "with my spirit within me will i seek thee early." "i, daniel, was grieved in my spirit in the midst of my body:" the figure here represents the soul in the body as a sword in a sheath. "our bones are scattered at the mouth of the under world, as when one cutteth and cleaveth wood upon the earth;" that is, the soul, expelled from its case of clay by the murderer's weapon, flees into sheol and leaves its exuvioe at the entrance. "thy voice shall be as that of a spirit out of the ground:" the word "lhere used signifies the shade evoked by a necromancer from the region of death, which was imagined to speak in a feeble whisper. the term rephaim is used to denote the manes of the departed. the etymology of the word, as well as its use, makes it mean the weak, the relaxed. "i am counted as them that go down into the under world; i am as a man that hath no strength." this faint, powerless condition accords with the idea that they were destitute of flesh, blood, and animal life, mere umbroe. these ghosts are described as being nearly as destitute of sensation as they are of strength. they are called "the inhabitants of the land of stillness." they exist in an inactive, partially torpid state, with a dreamy consciousness of past and present, neither suffering nor enjoying, and seldom moving. herder says of the hebrews, "the sad and mournful images of their ghostly realm disturbed them, and were too much for their self possession." respecting these images, he adds, "their voluntary force and energy were destroyed. they were feeble as a shade, without distinction of members, as a nerveless breath. they wandered and flitted in the dark nether world." this "wandering and flitting," however, is rather the spirit of herder's poetry than of that of the hebrews; for the whole tenor and drift of the representations in the old testament show that the state of disembodied souls is deep quietude. freed from bondage, pain, toil, and care, they repose in silence. the ghost summoned from beneath by the witch of endor said, "why hast thou disquieted me to bring me up?" it was, indeed, in a dismal abode that they took their long quiet; but then it was in a place "where the wicked ceased from troubling and the weary were at rest." those passages which attribute active employments to the dwellers in the under world are specimens of poetic license, as the context always shows. when job says, "before jehovah the shades beneath tremble," he likewise declares, "the pillars of heaven tremble and are confounded at his rebuke." when isaiah breaks forth in that stirring lyric to the king of babylon, "the under world is in commotion on account of thee, to meet thee at thy coming; it stirreth up before thee the shades, all the mighty of the earth; it arouseth from their thrones all the kings of the nations; they all accost thee, and say, art thou too become weak as we?" he also exclaims, in the same connection, "even the cypress trees exult over thee, and the cedars of lebanon, saying, since thou art fallen, no man cometh up to cut us down." the activity thus vividly described is evidently a mere figure of speech: so is it in the other instances which picture the rephaim as employed and in motion. "why," complainingly sighed the afflicted patriarch, "why died i not at my birth? for now should i lie down and be quiet; i should slumber; i should then be at rest." and the wise man says, in his preaching, "there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom, in sheol." what has already been said is sufficient to establish the fact that the hebrews had an idea that the souls of men left their bodies at death and existed as dim shadows, in a state of undisturbed repose, in the bowels of the earth. sheol is directly derived from a hebrew word, signifying, first, to dig or excavate. it means, therefore, a cavity, or empty subterranean place. its derivation is usually connected, however, with the secondary meaning of the hebrew word referred to, namely, to ask, to desire, from the notion of demanding, since rapacious orcus lays claim unsparingly to all; or, as others have fancifully construed it, the object of universal inquiry, the unknown mansion concerning which all are anxiously inquisitive. the place is conceived on an immense scale, shrouded in accompaniments of gloomy grandeur and peculiar awe: an enormous cavern in the earth, filled with night; a stupendous hollow kingdom, to which are poetically attributed valleys and gates, and in which are congregated the slumberous and shadowy hosts of the rephaim, never able to go out of it again forever. its awful stillness is unbroken by noise. its thick darkness is uncheered by light. it stretches far down under the ground. it is wonderfully deep. in language that reminds one of milton's description of hell, where was "no light, but rather darkness visible," job describes it as "the land of darkness, like the blackness of death shade, where is no order, and where the light is as darkness." the following passages, selected almost at random, will show the ideas entertained of the place, and confirm and illustrate the foregoing statements. "but he considers not that in the valleys of sheol are her guests." "now shall i go down into the gates of sheol." "the ground slave asunder, and the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up, and their houses, and all their men, and all their goods: they and all that appertained to them went down alive into sheol, and the earth closed upon them." its depth is contrasted with the height of the sky. "though they dig into sheol, thence shall mine hand take them; though they climb up to heaven, thence will i bring them down." it is the destination of all; for, though the hebrews believed in a world of glory above the solid ceiling of the dome of day, where jehovah and the angels dwelt, there was no promise, hope, or hint that any man could ever go there. the dirge like burden of their poetry was literally these words: "what man is he that liveth and shall not see death? shall he deliver his spirit from the hand of sheol?" the old hebrew graves were crypts, wide, deep holes, like the habitations of the troglodytes. in these subterranean caves they laid the dead down; and so the grave became the mother of sheol, a rendezvous of the fathers, a realm of the dead, full of eternal ghost life. this under world is dreary and altogether undesirable, save as an escape from extreme anguish. but it is not a place of retribution. jahn says, "that, in the belief of the ancient hebrews, there were different situations in sheol for the good and the bad, cannot be proved." the sudden termination of the present life is the judgment the old testament threatens upon sinners; its happy prolongation is the reward it promises to the righteous. texts that prove this might be quoted in numbers from almost every page. "the wicked shall be turned into sheol, and all the nations that forget god," not to be punished there, but as a punishment. it is true, the good and the bad alike pass into that gloomy land; but the former go down tranquilly in a good old age and full of days, as a shock of corn fully ripe cometh in its season, while the latter are suddenly hurried there by an untimely and miserable fate. the man that loves the lord shall have length of days; the unjust, though for a moment he flourishes, yet the wind bloweth, and where is he? we shall perhaps gain a more clear and adequate knowledge of the ideas the hebrews had of the soul and of its fate, by marking the different meanings of the words they used to biblical archeology, sect. . denote it. neshamah, primarily meaning breath or airy effluence, next expresses the spirit of god as imparting life and force, wisdom and love; also the spirit of man as its emanation, creation, or sustained object. the citation of a few texts in which the word occurs will set this in a full light. "the lord god formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the spirit of existence, and man became a conscious being." "it is the divine spirit of man, even the inspiration of the almighty, that giveth him understanding." "the spirit of god made me, and his breath gave me life." ruah signifies, originally, a breathing or blowing. two other meanings are directly connected with this. first, the vital spirit, the principle of life as manifested in the breath of the mouth and nostrils. "and they went in unto noah into the ark, two and two of all flesh in whose nostrils was the breath of life." second, the wind, the motions of the air, which the hebrews supposed caused by the breath of god. "by the blast of thine anger the waters were gathered on an heap." "the channels of waters were seen, and the foundations of the world were discovered, o lord, at the blast of the breath of thy nostrils." so they regarded the thunder as his voice. "the voice of jehovah cutteth out the fiery lightnings," and "shaketh the wilderness of kadesh." this word is also frequently placed for the rational spirit of man, the seat of intellect and feeling. it is likewise sometimes representative of the character and disposition of men, whether good or bad. hosea speaks of "a spirit of vile lust." in the second book of chronicles we read, "there came out a spirit, and stood before jehovah, and said, i will entice king ahab to his destruction. i will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets." belshazzar says to daniel, "i know that the spirit of the holy gods is in thee." finally, it is applied to jehovah, signifying the divine spirit, or power, by which all animate creatures live, the universe is filled with motion, all extraordinary gifts of skill, genius, strength, or virtue are bestowed, and men incited to forsake evil and walk in the paths of truth and piety. "thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created, and thou renewest the face of the earth; thou takest away their breath, they die and return to their dust." "jehovah will be a spirit of justice in them that sit to administer judgment." it seems to be implied that the life of man, having emanated from the spirit, is to be again absorbed in it, when it is said, "then shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit shall return unto god who gave it." nephesh is but partially a synonym for the word whose significations we have just considered. the different senses it bears are strangely interchanged and confounded in king james's version. its first meaning is breath, the breathing of a living being. next it means the vital spirit, the indwelling life of the body. "if any mischief follow, thou shalt take life for life." the most adequate rendering of it would be, in a great majority of instances, by the term life. "in jeopardy of his life [not soul] hath adonijah spoken this." it sometimes represents the intelligent soul or mind, the subject of knowledge and desire. "my soul knoweth right well.". also the heart, is often used more frequently perhaps than any other term as meaning the vital principle, and the seat of consciousness, intellect, will, and affection. jehovah said to solomon, in answer to his prayer, "lo, i have given thee a wise and an understanding heart." the later jews speculated much, with many cabalistic refinements, on these different words. they said many persons were supplied with a nephesh without a ruah, much more without a neshamah. they declared that the nephesh (psyche) was the soul of the body, the ruah (pneuma) the soul of the nephesh, and the neshamah (nous) the soul of the ruah. some of the rabbins assert that the destination of the nephesh, when the body dies, is sheol; of the ruah, the air; and of the neshamah, heaven. the hebrews used all those words in speaking of brutes, to denote their sensitive existence, that they did in reference to men. they held that life was in every instance an emission, or breath, from the spirit of god. but they do not intimate of brutes, as they do of men, that they have surviving shades. the author of the book of ecclesiastes, however, bluntly declares that "all have one breath, and all go to one place, so that a man hath no pre eminence above a beast." as far as the words used to express existence, soul, or mind, legitimate any inference, it would seem to be, either that the essential life is poured out at death as so much air, or else that it is received again by god, in both cases implying naturally, though not of philosophic necessity, the close of conscious, individual existence. but the examination we have made of their real opinions shows that, however obviously this conclusion might flow from their pneumatology, it was not the expectation they cherished. they believed there was a dismal empire in the earth where the rephaim, or ghosts of the dead, reposed forever in a state of semi sleep. "it is a land of shadows: yea, the land itself is but a shadow, and the race that dwell therein are voices, forms of forms. and echoes of themselves." that the hebrews, during the time covered by their sacred records, had no conception of a retributive life beyond the present, knew nothing of a blessed immortality, is shown by two conclusive arguments, in addition to the positive demonstration afforded by the views which, as we have seen, they did actually hold in regard to the future lot of man. first, they were puzzled, they were troubled and distressed, by the moral phenomena of the present life, the misfortunes of the righteous, the prosperity of the wicked. read the book of ecclesiastes, the book of job, some of the psalms. had they been acquainted with future reward and punishment, they could easily have solved these problems to their satisfaction. secondly, they regarded life as the one blessing, death as the one evil. something of sadness, we may suppose, was in the wise man's tones when he said, "a living dog is better than a dead lion." obey jehovah's laws, that thy days may be long in the land he giveth thee; the wicked shall not live out half his days: such is the burden of the old testament. it was reserved for a later age to see life and immortality brought to light, and for the disciples of a clearer faith to feel that death is gain. there are many passages in the hebrew scriptures generally supposed and really appearing, upon a slight examination, not afterwards to teach doctrines different from those here stated. we will give two examples in a condensed form. "thou wilt not leave tractatus de anima a r. moscheh korduero. in kabbala denudata. tom. i. pars ii. my soul in sheol: . . . at thy right hand are pleasures for evermore." this text, properly translated and explained, means, thou wilt not leave me to misfortune and untimely death: . . . in thy royal favor is prosperity and length of days. "i know that my redeemer liveth:. . . in my flesh i shall see god." the genuine meaning of this triumphant exclamation of faith is, i know that god is the vindicator of the upright, and that he will yet justify me before i die. a particular examination of the remaining passages of this character with which erroneous conceptions are generally connected would show, first, that in nearly every case these passages are not accurately translated; secondly, that they may be satisfactorily interpreted as referring merely to this life, and cannot by a sound exegesis be explained otherwise; thirdly, that the meaning usually ascribed to them is inconsistent with the whole general tenor, and with numberless positive and explicit statements, of the books in which they are found; fourthly, that if there are, as there dubiously seem to be in some of the psalms, texts implying the ascent of souls after death to a heavenly life, for example, "thou shalt guide me with thy countenance, and afterward receive me to glory," they were the product of a late period, and reflect a faith not native to the hebrews, but first known to them after their intercourse with the persians. christians reject the allegorizing of the jews, and yet traditionally accept, on their authority, doctrines which can be deduced from their scriptures in no other way than by the absurd hypothesis of a double or mystic sense. for example, scores of christian authors have taught the dogma of a general resurrection of the dead, deducing it from such passages as god's sentence upon adam: "from the dust wast thou taken, and unto the dust shalt thou return;" as joel's patriotic picture of the jews victorious in battle, and of the vanquished heathen gathered in the valley of jehoshaphat to witness their installation as rulers of the earth; and as the declaration of the god of battles: "i am he that kills and that makes alive, that wounds and that heals." and they maintain that the doctrine of immortality is inculcated in such texts as these: when moses asks to see god, and the reply is, "no man can see me and live;" when bathsheba bows and says, "let my lord king david live forever;" and when the sacred poet praises god, saying, "thou hast delivered my soul from death, mine eyes from tears, and my feet from falling." such interpretations of scripture are lamentable in the extreme; their context shows them to be absurd. the meaning is forced into the words, not derived from them. such as we have now seen were the ancient hebrew ideas of the future state. to those who received them the life to come was cheerless, offering no attraction save that of peace to the weary sufferer. on the other hand, it had no terror save the natural revulsion of the human heart from everlasting darkness, silence, and dreams. in view of deliverance from so dreary a fate, by translation through jesus christ to the splendors of the world above the firmament, there are many exultations in the epistles of paul, and in other portions of the new testament. the hebrew views of the soul and its destiny, as discerned through the intimations of their scriptures are very nearly what, from a fair consideration of the case, we should suppose they would be, agreeing in the main with the natural speculations of other early nations upon the same subject. these opinions underwent but little alteration until a century or a century and a half before the dawn of the christian era. this is shown by the phraseology of the septuagint version of the pentateuch, and by the allusions in the so called apocryphal books. in these, so far as there are any relevant statements or implications, they are of the same character as those which we have explained from the more ancient writings. this is true, with the notable exceptions of the wisdom of solomon and the second maccabees, neither of which documents can be dated earlier than a hundred and twenty years before christ. the former contains the doctrine of transmigration. the author says, "being wise, i came into a body undefiled." but, with the exception of this and one other passage, there is little or nothing in the book which is definite on the subject of a future life. it is difficult to tell what the author's real faith was: his words seem rather rhetorical than dogmatic. he says, "to be allied unto wisdom is immortality;" but other expressions would appear to show that by immortality he means merely a deathless posthumous fame, "leaving an eternal memorial of himself to all who shall come after him." again he declares, "the spirit when it is gone forth returneth not; neither the soul received up cometh again." and here we find, too, the famous text, "god created man to be immortal, and made him to be an image of his own eternity. nevertheless, through envy of the devil came death into the world, and they that hold of his side do find it." upon the whole, it is pretty clear that the writer believed in a future life; but the details are too partially and obscurely shadowed to be drawn forth. we may, however, hazard a conjecture on the passage last quoted, especially with the help of the light cast upon it from its evident persian origin. what is it, expressed by the term "death," which is found by the adherents of the devil distinctively? "death" cannot here be a metaphor for an inward state of sin and woe, because it is contrasted with the plainly literal phrases, "created to be immortal," "an image of god's eternity." it cannot signify simply physical dissolution, because this is found as well by god's servants as by the devil's. its genuine meaning is, most probably, a descent into the black kingdom of sadness and silence under the earth, while the souls of the good were "received up." the second book of maccabees with emphasis repeatedly asserts future retribution and a bodily resurrection. in the seventh chapter a full account is given of seven brothers and their mother who suffered martyrdom, firmly sustained by faith in a glorious reward for their heroic fidelity, to be reaped at the resurrection. one of them says to the tyrant by whose order he was tortured, "as for thee, thou shalt have no resurrection to life." nicanor, bleeding from many horrible wounds, "plucked out his bowels and cast them upon the throng, and, calling upon the lord of life and spirit to restore him those again, [at the day of resurrection,] he thus died." other passages in this book to the same effect it is needless to quote. the details lying latent in those we have quoted will soon be illuminated and filled out when we come to treat of the opinions of the pharisees. cap. viii. . cap. ii. , . cap. xiv. . see a very able discussion of the relation between the ideas concerning immortality, resurrection, judgment, and retribution, contained in the old testament apocrypha, and those in the new testament, by frisch, inserted in eichhorn's allgemeine bibliothek der biblischen literatur, band iv. stuck iv. there lived in alexandria a very learned jew named philo, the author of voluminous writings, a zealous israelite, but deeply imbued both with the doctrines and the spirit of plato. he was born about twenty years before christ, and survived him about thirty years. the weight of his character, the force of his talents, the fascinating adaptation of his peculiar philosophical speculations and of his bold and subtle allegorical expositions of scripture to the mind of his age and of the succeeding centuries, together with the eminent literary position and renown early secured for him by a concurrence of causes, have combined to make him exert according to the expressed convictions of the best judges, such as lucke and norton a greater influence on the history of christian opinions than any single man, with the exception of the apostle paul, since the days of christ. it is important, and will be interesting, to see some explanation of his views on the subject of a future life. a synopsis of them must suffice. philo was a platonic alexandrian jew, not a zoroastrian palestinian pharisee. it was a current saying among the christian fathers, "vel plato philonizat, vel philo platonizat." he has little to say of the messiah, nothing to say of the messianic eschatology. we speak of him in this connection because he was a jew, flourishing at the commencement of the christian epoch, and contributing much, by his cabalistic interpretations, to lead christians to imagine that the old testament contained the doctrine of a spiritual immortality connected with a system of rewards and punishments. three principal points include the substance of philo's faith on the subject in hand. he rejected the notion of a resurrection of the body and held to the natural immortality of the soul. he entertained the most profound and spiritual conceptions of the intrinsically deadly nature and wretched fruits of all sin, and of the self contained welfare and self rewarding results of every element of virtue, in themselves, independent of time and place and regardless of external bestowments of woe or joy. he also believed at the same time in contrasted localities above and below, appointed as the residences of the disembodied souls of good and of wicked men. we will quote miscellaneously various passages from him in proof and illustration of these statements: "man's bodily form is made from the ground, the soul from no created thing, but from the father of all; so that, although man was mortal as to his body, he was immortal as to his mind." "complete virtue is the tree of immortal life." "vices and crimes, rushing in through the gate of sensual pleasure, changed a happy and immortal life for a wretched and mortal one." referring to the allegory of the garden of eden, he says, "the death threatened for eating the fruit was not natural, the separation of soul and body, but penal, the sinking of the soul in the body." "death is twofold, one of man, one of the soul. the death of man is the separation of the soul from the body; the death of the soul is the corruption of virtue mangey's edition of philo's works, vol. i. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . and the assumption of vice." "to me, death with the pious is preferable to life with the impious. for those so dying, deathless life delivers; but those so living, eternal death seizes." he writes of three kinds of life, "one of which neither ascends nor cares to ascend, groping in the secret recesses of hades and rejoicing in the most lifeless life." commenting on the promise of the lord to abram, that he should be buried in a good old age, philo observes that "a polished, purified soul does not die, but emigrates: it is of an inextinguishable and deathless race, and goes to heaven, escaping the dissolution and corruption which death seems to introduce." "a vile life is the true hades, despicable and obnoxious to every sort of execration." "different regions are set apart for different things, heaven for the good, the confines of the earth for the bad." he thinks the ladder seen by jacob in his dream "is a figure of the air, which, reaching from earth to heaven, is the house of unembodied souls, the image of a populous city having for citizens immortal souls, some of whom descend into mortal bodies, but soon return aloft, calling the body a sepulchre from which they hasten, and, on light wings seeking the lofty ether, pass eternity in sublime contemplations." "the wise inherit the olympic and heavenly region to dwell in, always studying to go above; the bad, the innermost parts of hades, always laboring to die." he literally accredits the account, in the sixteenth chapter of numbers, of the swallowing of korah and his company, saying, "the earth opened and took them alive into hades." "ignorant men regard death as the end of punishments, whereas in the divine judgment it is scarcely the beginning of them." he describes the meritorious man as "fleeing to god and receiving the most intimate honor of a firm place in heaven; but the reprobate man is dragged below, down to the very lowest place, to tartarus itself and profound darkness." "he who is not firmly held by evil may by repentance return to virtue, as to the native land from which he has wandered. but he who suffers from incurable vice must endure its dire penalties, banished into the place of the impious until the whole of eternity." such, then, was the substance of philo's opinions on the theme before us, as indeed many more passages, which we have omitted as superfluous, might be cited from him to show. man was made originally a mortal body and an immortal soul. he should have been happy and pure while in the body, and on leaving it have soared up to the realm of light and bliss on high, to join the angels. "abraham, leaving his mortal part, was added to the people of god, ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. , . ibid. p. . ibid. vol. ii. p. . ibid. p. . mangey's edition of philo's works, vol. ii. p. . ibid. vol. i. p. . enjoying immortality and made similar to the angels. for the angels are the army of god, bodiless and happy souls." but, through the power of evil, all who yield to sin and vice lose that estate of bright and blessed immortality, and become discordant, wretched, despicable, and, after the dissolution of the body, are thrust down to gloom and manifold just retribution in hades. he believed in the pre existence, and in a limited transmigration, of souls. here he leaves the subject, saying nothing of a resurrection or final restoration, and not speculating as to any other of the details. we pass on to speak of the jewish sects at the time of christ. there were three of these, cardinally differing from each other in their theories of the future fate of man. first, there were the skeptical, materialistic sadducees, wealthy, proud, few. they openly denied the existence of any disembodied souls, avowing that men utterly perished in the grave. "the cloud faileth and passeth away: so he that goeth down to the grave doth not return." we read in the acts of the apostles, "the sadducees say there is no resurrection, neither angel nor spirit." at the same time they accepted the pentateuch, only rejecting or explaining away those portions of it which relate to the separate existence of souls and to their subterranean abode. they strove to confound their opponents, the advocates of a future life, by such perplexing questions as the one they addressed to jesus, asking, in the case of a woman who had had seven successive husbands, which one of them should be her husband in the resurrection. all that we can gather concerning the sadducees from the new testament is amply confirmed by josephus, who explicitly declares, "their doctrine is that souls die with the bodies." the second sect was the ascetical and philosophical essenes, of whom the various information given by philo in his celebrated paper on the therapeuta agrees with the account in josephus and with the scattered gleams in other sources. the doctrine of the essenes on the subject of our present inquiry was much like that of philo himself; and in some particulars it remarkably resembles that of many christians. they rejected the notion of the resurrection of the body, and maintained the inherent immortality of the soul. they said that "the souls of men, coming out of the most subtle and pure air, are bound up in their bodies as in so many prisons; but, being freed at death, they do rejoice, and are borne aloft where a state of happy life forever is decreed for the virtuous; but the vicious are assigned to eternal punishment in a dark, cold place." such sentiments appear to have inspired the heroic eleazar, whose speech to his followers is reported by josephus, when they were besieged at masada, urging them to rush on the foe, "for death is better than life, is the only true life, leading the soul to infinite freedom and joy above." ibid. p. . see, in the analekten of keil and tzschirner, band i stuck ii., an article by dr. schreiter, entitled philo's ideen uber unsterblichkeit, auferstehung, und vergeltung. lightfoot in matt. xxii. . josephus, de bell. lib. ii. cap. . ibid. lib. vii. cap. . but by far the most numerous and powerful of the jewish sects at that time, and ever since, were the eclectic, traditional, formalist pharisees: eclectic, inasmuch as their faith was formed by a partial combination of various systems; traditional, since they allowed a more imperative sway to the authority of the fathers, and to oral legends and precepts, than to the plain letter of scripture; formalist, for they neglected the weightier spiritual matters of the law in a scrupulous tithing of mint, cumin, and anise seed, a pretentious wearing of broad phylacteries, an uttering of long prayers in the streets, and the various other hypocritical priestly paraphernalia of a severe mechanical ritual. from josephus we learn that the pharisees believed that the souls of the faithful that is, of all who punctiliously observed the law of moses and the traditions of the elders would live again by transmigration into new bodies; but that the souls of all others, on leaving their bodies, were doomed to a place of confinement beneath, where they must abide forever. these are his words: "the pharisees believe that souls have an immortal strength in them, and that in the under world they will experience rewards or punishments according as they have lived well or ill in this life. the righteous shall have power to live again, but sinners shall be detained in an everlasting prison." again, he writes, "the pharisees say that all souls are incorruptible, but that only the souls of good men are removed into other bodies." the fragment entitled "concerning hades," formerly attributed to josephus, is now acknowledged on all sides to be a gross forgery. the greek culture and philosophical tincture with which he was imbued led him to reject the doctrine of a bodily resurrection; and this is probably the reason why he makes no allusion to that doctrine in his account of the pharisees. that such a doctrine was held among them is plain from passages in the new testament, passages which also shed light upon the statement actually made by josephus. jesus says to martha, "thy brother shall rise again." she replies, "i know that he shall rise in the resurrection, at the last day." some of the pharisees, furthermore, did not confine the privilege or penalty of transmigration, and of the resurrection, to the righteous. they once asked jesus, "who did sin, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?" plainly, he could not have been born blind for his own sins unless he had known a previous life. paul, too, says of them, in his speech at casarea, "they themselves also allow that there shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the just and of the unjust." this, however, is very probably an exception to their prevailing belief. their religious intolerance, theocratic pride, hereditary national vanity, and sectarian formalism, often led them to despise and overlook the gentile world, haughtily restricting the boon of a renewed life to the legal children of abraham. but the grand source now open to us of knowledge concerning the prevailing opinions of the jews on our present subject at and subsequent to the time of christ is the talmud. this is a collection of the traditions of the oral law, (mischna,) with the copious precepts and comments (gemara) of the most learned and authoritative rabbins. it is a wonderful monument of myths and fancies, profound speculations and ridiculous puerilities, antique antiq. lib. xviii. cap. . de bell. lib. ii. cap. . legends and cabalistic subtleties, crowned and loaded with the national peculiarities. the jews reverence it extravagantly, saying, "the bible is salt, the mischna pepper, the gemara balmy spice." rabbi solomon ben joseph sings, in our poet's version, "the kabbala and talmud hoar than all the prophets prize i more; for water is all bible lore, but mischna is pure wine." the rambling character and barbarous dialect of this work have joined with various other causes to withhold from it far too much of the attention of christian critics. saving by old lightfoot and pocock, scarcely a contribution has ever been offered us in english from this important field. the germans have done far better; and numerous huge volumes, the costly fruits of their toils, are standing on neglected shelves. the eschatological views derived from this source are authentically jewish, however closely they may resemble some portion of the popular christian conceptions upon the same subject. the correspondences between some jewish and some christian theological dogmas betoken the influx of an adulterated judaism into a nascent christianity, not the reflex of a pure christianity upon a receptive judaism. it is important to show this; and it appears from several considerations. in the first place, it is demonstrable, it is unquestioned, that at least the germs and outlines of the dogmas referred to were in actual existence among the pharisees before the conflict between christianity and judaism arose.secondly, in the rabbinical writings these dogmas are most fundamental, vital, and pervading, in relation to the whole system; but in the christian they seem subordinate and incidental, have every appearance of being ingrafts, not outgrowths. thirdly, in the apostolic age judaism was a consolidated, petrified system, defended from outward influence on all sides by an invulnerable bigotry, a haughty exclusiveness; while christianity was in a young and vigorous, an assimilating and formative, state. fourthly, the overweening sectarian vanity and scorn of the jews, despising, hating, and fearing the christians, would not permit them to adopt peculiarities of belief from the latter; but the christians were undeniably jews in almost every thing except in asserting the messiahship of jesus: they claimed to be the genuine jews, children of the law and realizers of the promise. the jewish dogmas, therefore, descended to them as a natural lineal inheritance. finally, in the acts of the apostles, the letters of paul, and the progress of the ebionites, (which sect included nearly all the christians of the first century,) we can trace step by step the actual workings, in reliable history, of the process that we affirm, namely, the assimilation of jewish elements into the popular christianity. chapter ix. rabbinical doctrine of a future life. the starting point in the talmud on this subject is with the effects of sin upon the human race. man was made radiant, pure, immortal, in the image of god. by sin he was obscured, defiled, burdened with mortal decay and judgment. in this representation that misery and death were an after doom brought into the world by sin, the rabbinical authorities strikingly agree. the testimony is irresistible. we need not quote confirmations of this statement, as every scholar in this department will accept it at once. but as to what is meant precisely by the term "death," as used in such a connection, there is no little obscurity and diversity of opinion. in all probability, some of the pharisaical fathers perhaps the majority of them conceived that, if adam had not sinned, he and his posterity would have been physically immortal, and would either have lived forever on the earth, or have been successively transferred to the home of jehovah over the firmament. they call the devil, who is the chief accuser in the heavenly court of justice, the angel of death, by the name of "sammael." rabbi reuben says, "when sammael saw adam sin, he immediately sought to slay him, and went to the heavenly council and clamored for justice against him, pleading thus: 'god made this decree, "in the day thou eatest of the tree thou shalt surely die." therefore give him to me, for he is mine, and i will kill him; to this end was i created; and give me power over all his descendants.' when the celestial sanhedrim perceived that his petition was just, they decreed that it should be granted." a great many expressions of kindred tenor might easily be adduced, leaving it hardly possible to doubt as indeed we are not aware that any one does doubt that many of the jews literally held that sin was the sole cause of bodily dissolution. but, on the other hand, there were as certainly others who did not entertain that idea, but understood and explained the terms in which it was sometimes conveyed in a different, a partially figurative, sense. rabbi samuel ben david writes, "although the first adam had not sinned, yet death would have been; for death was created on the first day." the reference here is, as rabbi berechias explains, to the account in genesis where we read that "darkness was upon the face of the deep," "by which is to be understood the angel of death, who has darkened the face of man." the talmudists generally believed also in the pre existence of souls in heaven, and in a spiritual body investing and fitting the soul for heaven, as the present carnal body invests and fits it for the earth. schoettgen has collected numerous illustrations in point, of which the following may serve as specimens. "when the first adam had not sinned, he was every way an angel of the lord, perfect and spotless, and it was decreed that he should live forever like one of the celestial ministers." "the soul cannot ascend into paradise except it be first invested with a schoettgen, dissertatio de hierosolyma coelesti, cap. iii. sect. . schoettgen, hora biblica et talmudica, in rom. v. , et in johan. iii. . ibid. in cor. v. . clothing adapted to that world, as the present is for this world." these notions do not harmonize with the thought that man was originally destined for a physical eternity on this globe. all this difficulty disappears, we think, and the true metaphorical force often intended in the word "death" comes to view, through the following conception, occupying the minds of a portion of the jewish rabbins, as we are led to believe by the clews furnished in the close connection between the pharisaic and the zoroastrian eschatology, by similar hints in various parts of the new testament, and by some quite explicit declarations in the talmud itself, which we shall soon cite in a different connection. god at first intended that man should live for a time in pure blessedness on the earth, and then without pain should undergo a glorious change making him a perfect peer of the angels, and be translated to their lofty abode in his own presence; but, when he sinned, god gave him over to manifold suffering, and on the destruction of his body adjudged his naked soul to descend to a doleful imprisonment below the grave. the immortality meant for man was a timely ascent to heaven in a paradisal clothing, without dying. the doom brought on him by sin was the alteration of that desirable change of bodies and ascension to the supernal splendors, for a permanent disembodiment and a dreaded descent to the subterranean glooms. it is a talmudical as much as it is a pauline idea, that the triumphant power of the messiah would restore what the unfortunate fall of adam forfeited. now, if we can show as we think we can, and as we shall try to do in a later part of this article that the later jews expected the messianic resurrection to be the prelude to an ascent into heaven, and not the beginning of a gross earthly immortality, it will powerfully confirm the theory which we have just indicated. "when," says one of the old rabbins, "the dead in israelitish earth are restored alive," their bodies will be "as the body of the first adam before he sinned, and they shall all fly into the air like birds." at all events, whether the general rabbinical belief was in the primitive destination of man to a heavenly or to an earthly immortality, whether the "death" decreed upon him in consequence of sin was the dissolution of the body or the wretchedness of the soul, they all agree that the banishment of souls into the realm of blackness under the grave was a part of the penalty of sin. some of them maintained, as we think, that, had there been no sin, souls would have passed to heaven in glorified bodies; others of them maintained, as we think, that, had there been no sin, they would have lived eternally upon earth in their present bodies; but all of them agreed, it is undisputed, that in consequence of sin souls were condemned to the under world. no man would have seen the dismal realm of the sepulchre had there not been sin. the earliest hebrew conception was that all souls went down to a common abode, to spend eternity in dark slumber or nerveless groping. this view was first modified soon after the persian captivity, by the expectation that there would be discrimination at the resurrection which the jews had learned to look for, when the just should rise but the wicked should be left. the next alteration of their notions on this subject was the subdivision of the underworld into paradise and gehenna, a conception known among them probably as early as a century before christ, and very prominent with them in the apostolic age. "when rabbi schoettgen, in cor. xv. . jochanan was dying, his disciples asked him, 'light of israel, main pillar of the right, thou strong hammer, why dost thou weep?' he answered, 'two paths open before me, the one leading to bliss, the other to torments; and i know not which of them will be my doom.'" "paradise is separated from hell by a distance no greater than the width of a thread." so, in christ's parable of dives and lazarus, abraham's bosom and hell are two divisions. "there are three doors into gehenna: one in the wilderness, where korah and his company were swallowed; one in the sea, where jonah descended when he 'cried out of the belly of hell;' one in jerusalem, for the lord says, 'my furnace is in jerusalem.'" "the under world is divided into palaces, each of which is so large that it would take a man three hundred years to roam over it. there are distinct apartments where the hell punishments are inflicted. one place is so dark that its name is 'night of horrors." "in paradise there are certain mansions for the pious from the gentile peoples, and for those mundane kings who have done kindness to the israelites." "the fire of gehenna was kindled on the evening of the first sabbath, and shall never be extinguished." the egyptians, persians, hindus, and greeks, with all of whom the jews held relations of intercourse, had, in their popular representations of the under world of the dead, regions of peace and honor for the good, and regions of fire for the bad. the idea may have been adopted from them by the jews, or it may have been at last developed among themselves, first by the imaginative poetical, afterwards by the literally believing, transference below of historical and local imagery and associations, such as those connected with the ingulfing of sodom and gomorrah in fire and sulphur, and with the loathed fires in the valley of hinnom. many of the rabbins believed in the transmigration or revolution of souls, an immemorial doctrine of the fast, and developed it into the most ludicrous and marvellous details. but, with the exception of those who adopted this indian doctrine, the rabbins supposed all departed souls to be in the under world, some in the division of paradise, others in that of hell. here they fancied these souls to be longingly awaiting the advent of the messiah. "messiah and the patriarchs weep together in paradise over the delay of the time of the kingdom." in this quotation the messiah is represented as being in the under world, for the jews expected that he would be a man, very likely some one who had already lived. for a delegation was once sent to ask jesus, "art thou elias? art thou the messiah? art thou that prophet?" light is thus thrown upon the rabbinical saying that "it was doubted whether the messiah would come from the living, or the dead." borrowing some persian modes of thinking, and adding them to their own inordinate national pride, the rabbins soon began talmud, tract. berachoth. eisenmenger, entdecktes judenthum, th. ii. cap. v. s. . lightfoot, in matt. v. . schroder, satzungen and gebrauche des talmudisch rabbinischen judenthums, s. . schoettgen, in johan. xiv. . nov. test. ex talmude, etc. illustratum a j. g. menschen, p. . basnage, hist. of jews, lib. iv. cap. . also, traditions of the rabbins, in blackwood for april, . eisenmenger, th. ii. s. . lightfoot, in matt. ii. . to fancy that the observance or non observance of the pharisaic ritual, and kindred particulars, must exert a great effect in determining the destination of souls and their condition in the under world. observe the following quotations from the talmud. "abraham sits at the gate of hell to see that no israelite enters." "circumcision is so agreeable to god, that he swore to abraham that no one who was circumcised should descend into hell." "what does abraham to those circumcised who have sinned too much? he takes the foreskins from gentile boys who died without circumcision, and places them on those jews who were circumcised but have become godless, and then kicks them into hell." hell here denotes that division in the under world where the condemned are punished. the younger buxtorf, in a preface to his father's "synagoga judaica," gives numerous specimens of jewish representations of "the efficacy of circumcision being so great that no one who has undergone it shall go down into hell." children can help their deceased parents out of hell by their good deeds, prayers, and offerings. "beyond all doubt," says gfrorer, "the ancient jewish synagogue inculcated the doctrine of supererogatory good works, the merit of which went to benefit the departed souls." here all souls were, in the under world, either in that part of it called paradise, or in that named gehenna, according to certain conditions. but in whichever place they were, and under whatever circumstances, they were all tarrying in expectation of the advent of the messiah. how deeply rooted, how eagerly cherished, the jewish belief in the approaching appearance of the messiah was, and what a splendid group of ideas and imaginations they clustered around his reign, are well known facts. he was to be a descendant of royal david, an inspired prophet, priest, and king, was to subdue the whole earth beneath his jewish sceptre and establish from jerusalem a theocratic empire of unexampled glory, holiness, and delight. in so much the consent was general and earnest; though in regard to many further details there would seem to have been an incongruous diversity of opinions. they supposed the coming of the messiah would be preceded by ten frightful woes, also by the appearance of the prophet elias as a forerunner. there are a few passages in the rabbinical writings which, unless they were forged and interpolated by christians at a late period, show that there were in the jewish mind anticipations of the personal descent of the messiah into the under world. "after this the messiah, the son of david, came to the gates of the underworld. but when the bound, who are in gehenna, saw the light of the messiah, they began rejoicing to receive him, saying, 'he shall lead us up from this darkness.'" "the captives shall schroder, s. . eisenmenger, th. ii. kap. vi. s. . ibid. s. . geschichte des urchristenthums, zweit. abth. s. . maimonides also asserts the doctrine of supererogatory works: see p. of h. h. bernard's selections from the yad hachazakah of maimonides. surenhusius, mischna, pars tertia, p. . lightfoot, in matt. xvii. . for a general view of the jewish eschatology, see gfrorer, geschichte des urchristenthums, kap. x.; eisenmenger, entdecktes judenthum, th. ii. kap. xv. xvii. ascend from the under world, schechinah at their head." gfrorer derives the origin of the doctrine that christ rescued souls out of the under world, from a jewish notion, preserved in the talmud, that the just patriarchs sometimes did it. bertholdt adduces talmudical declarations to show that through the messiah "god would hereafter liberate the israelites from the under world, on account of the merit of circumcision" schoettgen quotes this statement from the sohar: "messia shall die, and shall remain in the state of death a time, and shall rise." the so called fourth book of ezra says, in the seventh chapter, "my son, the christ, shall die: then follow the resurrection and the judgment." although it is clear, from various other sources, as well as from the account in john xii. , that there was a prevalent expectation among the jews that "the messiah would abide forever," it also seems quite certain that there were at the same time at least obscure presentiments, based on prophecies and traditions, that he must die, that an important part of his mission was connected with his death. this appears from such passages as we have cited above, found in early rabbinical writers, who would certainly be very unlikely to borrow and adapt a new idea of such a character from the christians; and from the manner in which jesus assumes his death to be a part of the messianic fate and interprets the scriptures as necessarily pointing to that effect. he charges his disciples with being "fools and blind" in not so understanding the doctrine; thus seeming to imply that it was plainly known to some. but this question the origin of the idea of a suffering, atoning, dying messiah is confessedly a very nice and obscure one. the evidence, the silence, the inferences, the presumptions and doubts on the subject are such, that some of the most thorough and impartial students say they are unable to decide either way. however the foregoing question be decided, it is admitted by all that the jews earnestly looked for a resurrection of the dead as an accompaniment of the messiah's coming. whether christ was to go down into the under world, or to sit enthroned on mount zion, in either case the dead should come up and live again on earth at the blast of his summoning trumpet. rabbi jeremiah commanded, "when you bury me, put shoes on my feet, and give me a staff in my hand, and lay me on one side, that when the messiah comes i may be ready." most of the rabbins made this resurrection partial. "whoever denies the resurrection of the dead shall have no part in it, for the very reason that he denies it." "rabbi abbu says, "a day of rain is greater than the resurrection of the dead; because the rain is for all, while the resurrection is only for the just." "sodom and gomorrah shall not rise in the resurrection of the dead." rabbi chebbo says, "the patriarchs so vehemently desired to be buried in schoettgen, de messia, lib. vi. cap. v. sect. . eisenmenger, th. ii. ss. , . geschichte urchrist. kap. viii. s. . christologia judaorum jesu apostolorumque atate, sect. , (de descensu messia ad inferos.) de messia, lib. vi. cap. v. sect. . lightfoot, in matt. xxvii. . witsius, dissertatio de seculo, etc. sect. . nov. test. illustratum, etc. a meuschen, p. . schoettgen, in johan. vi. . the land of israel, because those who are dead in that land shall be the first to revive and shall devour his years, [the years of the messiah.] but for those just who are interred beyond the holy land, it is to be understood that god will make a passage in the earth, through which they will be rolled until they reach the land of israel." rabbi jochanan says, "moses died out of the holy land, in order to show that in the same way that god will raise up moses, so he will raise all those who observe his law." the national bigotry of the jews reaches a pitch of extravagance in some of their views that is amusing. for instance, they declare that "one israelitish soul is dearer and more important to god than all the souls of a whole nation of the gentiles!" again, they say, "when god judges the israelites, he will stand, and make the judgment brief and mild; when he judges the gentiles, he will sit, and make it long and severe!" they affirm that the resurrection will be effected by means of a dew; and they quote to that effect this verse from canticles: "i sleep, but my heart waketh; my head is filled with dew, and my locks with drops of the night." some assert that "the resurrection will be immediately caused by god, who never gives to any one the three keys of birth, rain, and the resurrection of the dead." others say that the power to raise and judge the dead will be delegated to the messiah, and even go so far as to assert that the trumpet whose formidable blasts will then shake the universe is to be one of the horns of that ram which abraham offered up instead of his son isaac! some confine the resurrection to faithful jews, some extend it to the whole jewish nation, some think all the righteous of the earth will have part in it, and some stretch its pale around all mankind alike. they seem to agree that the reprobate would either be left in the wretched regions of sheol when the just arose, or else be thrust back after the judgment, to remain there forever. it was believed that the righteous after their resurrection would never die again, but ascend to heaven. the jews after a time, when the increase of geographical knowledge had annihilated from the earth their old eden whence the sinful adam was expelled, changed its location into the sky. thither, as the later fables ran, elijah was borne in his chariot of fire by the horses thereof. rabbi pinchas says, "carefulness leads us to innocence, innocence to purity, purity to sanctity, sanctity to humility, humility to fear of sins, fear of sins to piety, piety to the holy spirit, the holy spirit to the resurrection of the dead, the resurrection of the dead to the prophet elias." the writings of the early christian fathers contain many allusions to this blessed habitation of saints above the clouds. it is illustrated in the following quaint rabbinical narrative. rabbi jehosha ben levi once besought the angel of death to take him up, ere he died, to catch a glimpse of paradise. standing on the wall, he suddenly snatched the angel's sword and sprang over, swearing by almighty god that he would not come out. death was not allowed to enter paradise, and the son of levi did not restore his sword until he had promised to be more gentle towards the dying. the righteous were never to return to the dust, but "at the end schoettgen, de messia, lib. vi. cap. vi. sect. . see an able dissertation on jewish notions of the resurrection of the dead, prefixed to humphrey's translation of athenagoras on the resurrection. surenhusius, mischna, pars tertia, p. . schroder, s. . of the thousand years," the duration of the messiah's earthly reign, "when the lord is lifted up, god shall fit wings to the just, like the wings of eagles." in a word, the messiah and his redeemed ones would ascend into heaven to the right hand of god. so paul, who said, "i am a pharisee, the son of a pharisee," declares that when the dead have risen "we shall be caught up in the clouds to be forever with the lord." we forbear to notice a thousand curious details of speculation and fancy in which individual rabbins indulged; for instance, their common notion concerning the bone luz, the single bone which, withstanding dissolution, shall form the nucleus of the resurrection body. it was a prevalent belief with them that the resurrection would take place in the valley of jehoshaphat, in proof of which they quote this text from joel: "let the heathen be wakened and come up to the valley of jehoshaphat; for there will i sit to judge the nations around." to this day, wherever scattered abroad, faithful jews cling to the expectation of the messiah's coming, and associate with his day the resurrection of the dead. the statement in the song of solomon, "the king is held in the galleries," means, says a rabbinical book, "that the messiah is detained in paradise, fettered by a woman's hair!" every day, throughout the world, every consistent israelite repeats the words of moses maimonides, the peerless rabbi, of whom it is a proverb that "from moses to moses there arose not a moses:" "i believe with a perfect faith that the messiah will come, and though he delays, nevertheless, i will always expect him till he come." then shall glory cover the living, and the risen, children of israel, and confusion fall on their gentile foes. in almost every inch of the beautiful valley of jehoshaphat a jew has been buried. all over the slopes of the hill sides around lie the thick clustering sepulchral slabs, showing how eagerly the chosen people seek to sleep in the very spot where the first rising of the dead shall be. entranced and mute, "in old jehoshaphat's valley, they of israel think the assembled world will stand upon that awful day, when the ark's light, aloft unfurl'd, among the opening clouds shall shine, divinity's own radiant shrine." any one familiar with the persian theology will at once notice a striking resemblance between many of its dogmas and those, first, of pharisaism, secondly, of the popular christianity. some examination of this subject properly belongs here. there is, then, as is well known, a circle or group of ideas, particularly pertaining to eschatology, which appear in the later jewish writings, and remarkably correspond to those held by the parsees, the followers of zoroaster. the same notions also reappear in the early christianity as popularly understood. we will specify some of these correspondences. the doctrine of angels, received by the jews, their names, offices, rank, and destiny, was borrowed and formed schoettgen, de messia, lib. vi. cap. vi. sect. ; cap. vii. ss. , . john allen, modern judaism, ch. vi. and xv. see abriss der religion zoroasters nach den zendbuchern, von abbe foucher, in kleuker's zend avesta, band i. zweit anhang, ss. - . by them during and just after the babylonish captivity, and is much like that which they found among their enslavers. the guardian angels appointed over nations, spoken of by daniel, are persian. the angels called in the apocalypse "the seven spirits of god sent forth into all the earth," in zechariah "the seven eyes of god which run to and fro through all the earth," are the amschaspands of the persian faith. the wars of the angels are described as minutely by the old persians as by milton. the zend avesta pictures ahriman pregnant with death, (die alte hollenschlange, todschwangere ahriman,) as milton describes the womb of sin bearing that fatal monster. the gahs, or second order of angels, the persians supposed, were employed in preparing clothing and laying it up in heaven to clothe the righteous after the resurrection, a fancy frequent among the rabbins and repeatedly alluded to in the new testament. with both the persians and the jews, all our race both sexes sprang from one original man. with both, the first pair were seduced and ruined by means of fruit which the devil gave to them. with both, there was a belief in demoniacal possessions, devils or bad spirits entering human bodies. with both, there was the expectation of a great deliverer, the persian sosiosch, the jewish messiah, whose coming would be preceded by fearful woes, who would triumph over all evil, raise the dead, judge the world, separate the righteous and the wicked, purge the earth with fire, and install a reign of glorious blessedness. "the conception of an under world," says dr. roth, "was known centuries before zoroaster; but probably he was the first to add to the old belief the idea that the under world was a place of purification, wherein souls were purged from all traces of sin." of this belief in a subterranean purgatory there are numerous unmistakable evidences and examples in the rabbinical writings. these notions and others the pharisees early adopted, and wrought into the texture of what they called the "oral law," that body of verbally transmitted legends, precepts, and dogmas, afterwards written out and collected in the mischna, to which christ repeatedly alluded with such severity, saying, "ye by your traditions make the commandments of god of none effect." to some doctrines of kindred character and origin with these paul refers when he warns his readers against "the worshipping of angels," "endless genealogies," "philosophy falsely so called," and various besetting heresies of the time. but others were so woven and assimilated into the substance of the popular judaism of the age, as inculcated by the rabbins, that paul himself held them, the lingering vestiges of his earnest pharisaic education and organized experience. they naturally found their way into the apostolic church, principally composed of ebionites, christians who had been jews; and from it they were never separated, but have come to us in seeming orthodox garb, and are generally schroder, p. . yacna, ha . kleuker, zweit. auf. s. . die heiligen schriften der parsen, von dr. f. spiegel, kap. ii. ss. - . studien and kritiken, , band i., "ist die lehre von der anferstehung des leibes nicht ein alt persische lehre?" f. nork, mythen der alten perser als quellen christlicher glaubenslehren und ritualien. die zoroastrischen glaubenslehre, von dr. eduard roth. s. . see, in tom. i. kabbala denudata, synopsis dogmatum libri sohar pp. , , . retained now. still, they were errors. they are incredible to the thinking minds of to day. it is best to get rid of them by the truth, that they are pagan growths introduced into christianity, but to be discriminated from it. by removing these antiquated and incredible excrescences from the real religion of christ, we shall save the essential faith from the suspicion which their association with it, their fancied identity with it, invites and provokes. the correspondences between the persian and the pharisaic faith, in regard to doctrines, are of too arbitrary and peculiar a character to allow us for a moment to suppose them to have been an independent product spontaneously developed in the two nations; though even in that case the doctrines in question have no sanction of authority, not being mosaic nor prophetic, but only rabbinical. one must have received from the other. which was the bestower and which the recipient is quite plain. there is not a whit of evidence to show, but, on the contrary, ample presumption to disprove, that a certain cycle of notions were known among the jews previous to a period of most intimate and constant intercourse between them and the persians. but before that period those notions were an integral part of the persian theology. even prideaux admits that the first zoroaster lived and magianism flourished at least a thousand years before christ. and the dogmas we refer to are fundamental features of the religion. these dogmas of the persians, not derived from the old testament nor known among the jews before the captivity, soon after that time began to show themselves in their literature, and before the opening of the new testament were prominent elements of the pharisaic belief. the inference is unavoidable that the confluence of persian thought and feeling with hebrew thought and feeling, joined with the materials and flowing in the channels of the subsequent experience of the jews, formed a mingled deposit about the age of christ, which deposit was pharisaism. again: the doctrines common to zoroastrianism and pharisaism in the former seem to be prime sources, in the latter to be late products. in the former, they compose an organic, complete, inseparable system; in the latter, they are disconnected, mixed piecemeal, and, to a considerable extent, historically traceable to an origin beyond the native, national mind. it is a significant fact that the abnormal symbolic beasts described by several of the jewish prophets, and in the apocalypse, were borrowed from persian art. sculptures representing these have been brought to light by the recent researches at persepolis. finally, all early ecclesiastical history incontestably shows that persian dogmas exerted on the christianity of the first centuries an enormous influence, a pervasive and perverting power unspent yet, and which it is one of the highest tasks of honest and laborious christian students in the present day to explain, define, and separate. what was that manichaanism which nearly filled christendom for a hundred years, what was it, in great part, but an influx of tradition, speculation, imagination, and sentiment, from persia? the gnostic christians even had a scripture called "zoroaster's apocalypse." "the wise men from the east," who knelt before the infant christ, "and opened their treasures, and gave him gifts, gold, frankincense, and myrrh," were persian magi. we may imaginatively regard that sacred scene as an emblematical figure of the far different tributes which lucke, einleitung in die offenbarung des johannes, kap. , sect. . kleuker, zend avesta, band ii. anhang i. s. . a little later came from their country to his religion, the unfortunate contributions that permeated and corrupted so much of the form in which it thenceforth appeared and spread. in the pure gospel's pristine day, ere it had hardened into theological dogmas or become encumbered with speculations and comments, from the lips of god's anointed son repeatedly fell the earnest warning, "beware of the leaven of the pharisees." there is far more need to have this warning intelligently heeded now, coming with redoubled emphasis from the master's own mouth, "beware of the leaven of the pharisees." for, as the gospel is now generally set forth and received, that leaven has leavened well nigh the whole lump of it. chapter x. greek and roman doctrine of a future life. the disembodied soul, as conceived by the greeks, and after them by the romans, is material, but of so thin a contexture that it cannot be felt with the hands. it is exhaled with the dying breath, or issues through a warrior's wounds. the sword passes through its uninjured form as through the air. it is to the body what a dream is to waking action. retaining the shape, lineaments, and motion the man had in life, it is immediately recognised upon appearing. it quits the body with much reluctance, leaving that warm and vigorous investiture for a chill and forceless existence. it glides along without noise and very swiftly, like a shadow. it is unable to enter the lower kingdom and be at peace until its deserted body has been buried with sacred rites: meanwhile, naked and sad, it flits restlessly about the gates, uttering doleful moans. the early greek authors describe the creation as a stupendous hollow globe cut in the centre by the plane of the earth. the upper hemisphere is lighted by beneficent luminaries; the lower hemisphere is filled with unvarying blackness. the top of the higher sphere is heaven, the bright dwelling of the olympian gods; its bottom is the surface of the earth, the home of living men. the top of the lower sphere is hades, the abode of the ghosts of the dead; its bottom is tartarus, the prison of the titans, rebellious giants vanquished by zeus. earth lies half way from the cope of heaven to the floor of tartarus. this distance is so great that, according to hesiod, it would take an anvil nine days to fall from the centre to the nadir. some of the ancients seem to have surmised the sphericity of the earth, and to have thought that hades was simply its dark side, the dead being our antipodes. in the odyssey, ulysses reaches hades by sailing across the ocean stream and passing the eternal night land of the cimmerians, whereupon he comes to the edge of acheron, the moat of pluto's sombre house. virgil also says, "one pole of the earth to us always points aloft; but the other is seen by black styx and the infernal ghosts, where either dead night forever reigns or else aurora returns thither from us and brings them back the day." but the prevalent notion evidently was that hades was an immense hollow region not far under the surface of the ground, and that it was to be reached by descent through some cavern, like that at avernus. this subterranean place is the destination of all alike, rapacious orcus sparing no one, good or bad. it is wrapped in obscurity, as the etymology of its name implies, a place where one cannot see. "no sun e'er gilds the gloomy horrors there; no cheerful gales refresh the stagnant air." the dead are disconsolate in this dismal realm, and the living shrink from entering it, except as a refuge from intolerable afflictions. the shade of the princeliest hero dwelling there the georg. lib. i. ii. - . swift footed achilles says, "i would wish, being on earth, to serve for hire another man of poor estate, rather than rule over all the dead." souls carry there their physical peculiarities, the fresh and ghastly likenesses of the wounds which have despatched them thither, so that they are known at sight. companies of fellow countrymen, knots of friends, are together there, preserving their remembrance ofearthly fortunes and beloved relatives left behind, and eagerly questioning each newly arriving soul for tidings from above. when the soul of achilles is told of the glorious deeds of neoptolemus, "he goes away taking mighty steps through the meadow of asphodel in joyfulness, because he had heard that his son was very illustrious." sophocles makes the dying antigone say, "departing, i strongly cherish the hope that i shall be fondly welcomed by my father, and by my mother, and by my brother." it is important to notice that, according to the early and popular view, this hades, the "dark dwelling of the joyless images of deceased mortals," is the destination of universal humanity. in opposition to its dolorous gloom and repulsive inanity are vividly pictured the glad light of day, the glory and happiness of life. "not worth so much to me as my life," says the incomparable son of peleus, "are all the treasures which populous troy possessed, nor all which the stony threshold of phoebus apollo contains in rocky pytho. oxen, and fat sheep, and trophies, and horses with golden manes, may be acquired by effort; but the breath of man to return again is not to be obtained by plunder nor by purchase, when once it has passed the barrier of his teeth." it is not probable that all the ornamental details associated by the poets with the fate and state of the dead as they are set forth, for instance, by virgil in the sixth book of the aneid were ever credited as literal truth. but there is no reason to doubt that the essential features of this mythological scenery were accepted in the vulgar belief. for instance, that the popular mind honestly held that, in some vague sense or other, the ghost, on leaving the body, flitted down to the dull banks of acheron and offered a shadowy obolus to charon, the slovenly old ferryman, for a passage in his boat, seems attested not only by a thousand averments to that effect in the current literature of the time, but also by the invariable custom of placing an obolus in the dead man's mouth for that purpose when he was buried. the greeks did not view the banishment of souls in hades as a punishment for sin, or the result of any broken law in the plan of things. it was to them merely the fulfilment of the inevitable fate of creatures who must die, in the order of nature, like successive growths of flowers, and whose souls were too feeble to rank with gods and climb into olympus. that man should cease from his substantial life on the bright earth and subside into sunless hades, a vapid form, with nerveless limbs and faint voice, a ghostly vision bemoaning his existence with idle lamentation, or busying himself with the misty mockeries of his former pursuits, was melancholy enough; but it was his natural destiny, and not an avenging judgment. but that powerful instinct in man which desires to see villany punished and goodness rewarded could not fail, among so cultivated a people as the greeks, to develop a doctrine of future compensation for the contrasted deserts of souls. the earliest trace of the idea of odyssey, lib. xi. ii. , . antigone, ii. - . retribution which we find carried forward into the invisible world is the punishment of the titans, those monsters who tried by piling up mountains to storm the heavenly abodes, and to wrest the thunderer's bolts from his hand. this germ is slowly expanded; and next we read of a few specified criminals, who had been excessively impious, personally offending zeus, condemned by his direct indignation to a severe expiation in tartarus. the insulted deity wreaks his vengeance on the tired sisyphus, the mocked tantalus, the gnawed tityus, and others. afterwards we meet the statement that condign retribution is always inflicted for the two flagrant sins of perjury and blasphemy. finally, we discern a general prevalence of the belief that punishment is decreed, not by vindictive caprice, but on the grounds of universal morality, all souls being obliged in hades to pass before rhadamanthus, minos, or aacus, three upright judges, to be dealt with, according to their merits, with impartial accuracy. the distribution of poetic justice in hades at last became, in many authors, so melodramatic as to furnish a fair subject for burlesque. some ludicrous examples of this may be seen in lucian's dialogues of the dead. a fine instance of it is also furnished in the emperor julian's symposium. the gods prepare for the roman emperors a banquet, in the air, below the moon. the good emperors are admitted to the table with honors; but the bad ones are hurled headlong down into tartarus, amidst the derisive shouts of the spectators. as the notion that the wrath of the gods would pursue their enemies in the future state gave rise to a belief in the punishments of tartarus, so the notion that the distinguishing kindness of the gods would follow their favorites gave rise to the myth of elysium. the elysian fields were earliest portrayed lying on the western margin of the earth, stretching from the verge of oceanus, where the sun set at eve. they were fringed with perpetual green, perfumed with the fragrance of flowers, and eternally fanned by refreshing breezes. they were represented merely as the select abode of a small number of living men, who were either the mortal relatives or the special favorites of the gods, and who were transported thither without tasting death, there to pass an immortality which was described, with great inconsistency, sometimes as purely happy, sometimes as joyless and wearisome. to all except a few chosen ones this region was utterly inaccessible. homer says, "but for you, o menelaus, it is not decreed by the gods to die; but the immortals will send you to the elysian plain, because you are the son in law of zeus." had the inheritance of this clime been proclaimed as the reward of heroic merit, had it been really believed attainable by virtue, it would have been held up as a prize to be striven for. the whole account, as it was at first, bears the impress of imaginative fiction as legibly upon its front as the story of the dragon watched garden of hesperus's daughters, whose trees bore golden apples, or the story of the enchanted isle in the arabian tales. the early location of elysium, and the conditions of admission to it, were gradually changed; and at length it reappeared, in the under world, as the abode of the just. on one side of the primitive hades tartarus had now been drawn up to admit the condemned into its penal tortures, and on the other side elysium was lowered down to reward the justified by receiving them into its peaceful and perennial happiness; while, between the two, erebus odyssey, lib. iv. ii. - . remained as an intermediate state of negation and gloom for unsentenced shades. the highly colored descriptions of this subterranean heaven, frequently found thenceforth, it is to be supposed were rarely accepted as solid verities. they were scarcely ever used, to our knowledge, as motives in life, incitement in difficulties, consolation in sorrow. they were mostly set forth in poems, works even professedly fictitious. they were often denied and ridiculed in speeches and writings received with public applause. still, they unquestionably exerted some influence on the common modes of thought and feeling, had a shadowy seat in the popular imagination and heart, helped men to conceive of a blessed life hereafter and to long for it, and took away something of the artificial horror with which, under the power of rooted superstition, their departing ghosts hailed the dusky limits of futurity: "umbra non tacitas erebi sedes, ditisque profundi pallida regna petunt." first, then, from a study of the greek mythology we find all the dead a dull populace of ghosts fluttering through the neutral melancholy of hades without discrimination. and finally we discern in the world of the dead a sad middle region, with a paradise on the right and a hell on the left, the whole presided over by three incorruptible judges, who appoint the new corners their places in accordance with their deserts. the question now arises, what did the greeks think in relation to the ascent of human souls into heaven among the gods? did they except none from the remediless doom of hades? was there no path for the wisest and best souls to climb starry olympus? to dispose of this inquiry fairly, four distinct considerations must be examined. first, ulysses sees in the infernal regions the image of herakles shooting the shadows of the stymphalian birds, while his soul is said to be rejoicing with fair legged hebe at the banquets of the immortal gods in the skies. to explain this, we must remember that herakles was the son of alcmene, a mortal woman, and of zeus, the king of the gods. accordingly, in the flames on mount oeta, the surviving ghost which he derived from his mother descends to hades, but the purified soul inherited from his father has the proper nature and rank of a deity, and is received into the olympian synod. of course no blessed life in heaven for the generality of men is here implied. herakles, being a son and favorite of zeus, has a corresponding destiny exceptional from that of other men. secondly, another double representation, somewhat similar, but having an entirely different interpretation, occurs in the case of orion, the handsome hyrian hunter whom artemis loved. at one time he is described, like the spectre of the north american indian, chasing over the stygian plain the disembodied animals he had in his lifetime killed on the mountains: "swift through the gloom a giant hunter flies: a ponderous brazen mace, with direful sway, aloft he whirls to crush the savage prey; ovid, met. lib. ix. ii. - . grim beasts in trains, that by his truncheon fell, now, phantom forms, shoot o'er the lawn of hell." in the common belief this, without doubt, was received as actual fact. but at another time orion is deified and shown as one of the grandest constellations of the sky, "a belted giant, who, with arm uplift, threatening the throne of zeus, forever stands, sublimely impious." this, obviously, is merely a poetic symbol, a beautiful artifice employed by the poets to perpetuate a legend by associating it with the imperishable hieroglyphs of the galaxy. it is not credible that men imagined that group of stars only outlined in such shape by the help of arbitrary fancy to be literally the translated hunter himself. the meaning simply was that he was immortalized through the eternal linking of his name and form with a stellar cluster which would always shine upon men. "the reverence and gratitude of a weak world for the heroes and benefactors they could not comprehend, named them divinities, whom they did star together to an idolatrous immortality which nationalized the heavens" with the shining shapes of the great and brave. these types of poetry, symbols lent to infant science, were never meant to indicate a literal translation and metamorphosis of human souls, but were honors paid to the memories of illustrious men, emblems and pledged securities of their unfading fame. with what glorious characters, with what forms of deathless beauty, defiant of decay, the sky was written over! go out this evening beneath the old rolling dome, when the starry scroll is outspread, and you may still read the reveries of the marvelling minds of the antique world, as fresh in their magic loveliness as when the bards and seers of olympus and the agean first stamped them in heaven. there "the great snake binds in his bright coil half the mighty host." there is arion with his harp and the charmed dolphin. the fair andromeda, still chained to her eternal rock, looks mournfully towards the delivering hero whose conquering hand bears aloft the petrific visage of medusa. far off in the north the gigantic bootes is seen driving towards the centaur and the scorpion. and yonder, smiling benignantly upon the crews of many a home bound ship, are revealed the twin brothers, joined in the embrace of an undying friendship. thirdly, it is asserted by several latin authors, in general terms, that the ghost goes to hades but the soul ascends to heaven; and it has been inferred most erroneously that this statement contains the doctrine of an abode for men after death on high with the gods. ovid expresses the real thought in full, thus: "terra tegit carnem; tumulum circumvolat umbra; orcus habet manes; spiritus astra petit." "the earth conceals the flesh; the shade flits round the tomb; the under world receives the image; the spirit seeks the stars." those conversant with the opinions then prevalent will scarcely doubt that these words were meant to express the return of the composite man to the primordial elements of which he was made. the particulars of the dissolving individual are absorbed in the general elements of the universe. earth goes back to earth, ghost to the realm of ghosts, breath to the air, fiery essence of soul to the lofty ether in whose pure radiance the stars burn. euripides expressly says that when man dies each part goes whence it came, "the body to the ground, the spirit to the ether." therefore the often misunderstood phrase of the roman writers, "the soul seeks the stars," merely denotes the impersonal mingling after death of the divine portion of man's being with the parent divinity, who was supposed indeed to pervade all things, but more especially to reside beyond the empyrean. fourthly: what shall be said of the apotheosis of their celebrated heroes and emperors by the greeks and romans, whereby these were elevated to the dignity of deities, and seats were assigned them in heaven? what was the meaning of this ceremony? it does not signify that a celestial immortality awaits all good men; because it appears as a thing attainable by very few, is only allotted by vote of the senate. neither was it supposed actually to confer on its recipients equality of attributes with the great gods, making them peers of zeus and apollo. the homage received as gods by alexander and others during their lives, the deification of julius casar during the most learned and skeptical age of rome, with other obvious considerations, render such a supposition inadmissible. in view of all the direct evidence and collateral probabilities, we conclude that the genuine import of an ancient apotheosis was this: that the soul of the deceased person so honored was admitted, in deference to his transcendent merits, or as a special favor on the part of the gods, into heaven, into the divine society. he was really a human soul still, but was called a god because, instead of descending, like the multitude of human souls, to hades, he was taken into the abode and company of the gods above the sky. this interpretation derives support from the remarkable declaration of aristotle, that "of two friends one must be unwilling that the other should attain apotheosis, because in such case they must be forever separated." one would be in olympus, the other in hades. the belief that any, even a favored few, could ever obtain this blessing, was of quite limited development, and probably sprang from the esoteric recesses of the mysteries. to call a human soul a god is not so bold a speech as it may seem. plotinus says. "whoever has wisdom and true virtue in soul itself differs but little from superior beings, in this alone being inferior to them, that he is in body. such an one, dying, may therefore properly say, with empedocles, 'farewell! a god immortal now am i.'" the expiring vespasian exclaimed, "i shall soon be a god." mure says that the doctrine of apotheosis belonged to the graco pelasgic race through all their history. seneca severely satirizes the ceremony, and the popular belief which upheld it, in an elaborate lampoon called apocolocyntosis, or the reception of claudius among the pumpkins. the broad travesty of the suppliants, l. . nicomachean ethics, lib. viii. cap. . suetonius, cap. xxiii. hist. greek literature, vol. i. ch. , sect. . deification exhibited in pumpkinification obviously measures the distance from the honest credulity of one class and period to the keen infidelity of another. one of the most important passages in greek literature, in whatever aspect viewed, is composed of the writings of the great theban lyrist. let us see what representation is there made of the fate of man in the unseen world. the ethical perception, profound feeling, and searching mind of pindar could not allow him to remain satisfied with the undiscriminating views of the future state prevalent in his time. upon such a man the problem of death must weigh as a conscious burden, and his reflections would naturally lead him to improved conclusions. accordingly, we find him representing the blessed isles not as the haven of a few favorites of the gods, but as the reward of virtue; and the punishments of the wicked, too, are not dependent on fickle inclinations, but are decreed by immutable right. he does not describe the common multitude of the dead, leading a dark sad existence, like phantoms in a dream: his references to death and hades seem cheerful in comparison with those of many other ancient greek authors. dionysius the rhetorician, speaking of his threnes, dirges sung at funerals, says, "simonides lamented the dead pathetically, pindar magnificently." his conceptions of the life to come were inseparably connected with certain definite locations. he believed hades to be the destination of all our mortal race, but conceived it subdivided into a tartarus for the impious and an elysium for the righteous. he thought that the starry firmament was the solid floor of a world of splendor, bliss, and immortality, inhabited by the gods, but fatally inaccessible to man. when he thinks of this place, it is with a sigh, a sigh that man's aspirations towards it are vain and his attempts to reach it irreverent. this latter thought he enforces by an earnest allusion to the myth of bellerophon, who, daring to soar to the cerulean seat of the gods on the winged steed pegasus, was punished for his arrogance by being hurled down headlong. these assertions are to be sustained by citations of his own words. the references made are to donaldson's edition. in the second pythian ode pindar repeats, and would appear to endorse, the old monitory legend of ixion, who for his outrageous crimes was bound to an ever revolving wheel in hades and made to utter warnings against such offences as his own. in the first pythian we read, "hundred headed typhon, enemy of the gods, lies in dreadful tartarus." among the preserved fragments of pindar the one numbered two hundred and twenty three reads thus: "the bottom of tartarus shall press thee down with solid necessities." the following is from the first isthmian ode: "he who, laying up private wealth, laughs at the poor, does not consider that he shall close up his life for hades without honor." the latter part of the tenth nemean ode recounts, with every appearance of devout belief, the history of castor and pollux, the god begotten twins, who, reversing conditions with each other on successive days and nights, spent their interchangeable immortality each alternately in heaven and in hades. the astronomical interpretation of this account may be correct; but its applicability to the wondering faith of the earlier poets is extremely doubtful. l. . li. , . l. . the seventh isthmian contains this remarkable sentence: "unequal is the fate of man: he can think of great things, but is too ephemeral a creature to reach the brazen floored seat of the gods." a similar sentiment is expressed in the sixth nemean: "men are a mere nothing; while to the gods the brazen heaven remains a firm abode forever." the one hundred and second fragment is supposed to be a part of the dirge composed by pindar on the death of the grandfather of pericles. it runs in this way: "whoso by good fortune has seen the things in the hollow under the earth knows indeed the end of life: he also knows the beginning vouchsafed by zeus." it refers to initiation in the eleusinian mysteries, and means that the initiate understands the life which follows death. it is well known that a clear doctrine of future retribution was inculcated in the mysteries long before it found general publication. the ninety fifth fragment is all that remains to us of a dirge which appears, from the allusion in the first line, to have been sung at a funeral service performed at midnight, or at least after sunset. "while it is night here with us, to those below shines the might of the sun; and the red rosied meadows of their suburbs are filled with the frankincense tree, and with golden fruits. some delight themselves there with steeds and exercises, others with games, others with lyres; and among them all fair blossoming fortune blooms, and a fragrance is distilled through the lovely region, and they constantly mingle all kinds of offerings with the far shining fire on the altars of the gods." this evidently is a picture of the happy scenes in the fields that stretch around the city of the blessed in the under world, and is introduced as a comfort to the mourners over the dead body. the ensuing passage the most important one on our subject is from the second olympic ode. "an honorable, virtuous man may rest assured as to his future fate. the souls of the lawless, departing from this life, suffer punishment. one beneath the earth, pronouncing sentence by a hateful necessity imposed upon him, declares the doom for offences committed in this realm of zeus. but the good lead a life without a tear, among those honored by the gods for having always delighted in virtue: the others endure a life too dreadful to look upon. whoever has had resolution thrice in both worlds to stand firm, and to keep his soul pure from evil, has found the path of zeus to the tower of kronos, where the airs of the ocean breathe around the isle of the blessed, and where some from resplendent trees, others from the water glitter golden flowers, with garlandsofwhich they wreathe their wrists and brows in the righteous assemblies of rhadamanthus, whom father kronos has as his willing assistant." the "path of zeus," in the above quotation, means the path which zeus takes when he goes to visit his father kronos, whom he originally dethroned and banished, but with whom he is now reconciled, and who has become the ruler of the departed spirits of the just, in a peaceful and joyous region. the following passage constitutes the ninety eighth fragment. "to those who descend from a fruitless and ill starred life persephone [the queen of the dead] will grant a compensation for their former misfortune, after eight years [the judicial period of atonement and lustration for great crimes] granting them their lives again. then, illustrious kings, strong, ll. - . ll. - . ll. - . swift, wise, they shall become the mightiest leaders; and afterwards they shall be invoked by men as sacred heroes." in this piece, as in the preceding one where reference is made to the thrice living man, is contained the doctrine, early brought from the east, that souls may repeatedly return from the dead and in new bodies lead new lives. one other fragment, the ninety sixth, added to the foregoing, will make up all the important genuine passages in pindar relating to the future life. "by a beneficent allotment, all travel to an end freeing from toil. the body indeed is subject to the power of death; but the eternal image is left alive, and this alone is allied to the gods. when we are asleep, it shows in many dreams the approaching judgment concerning happiness and misery." when our physical limbs are stretched in insensible repose, the inward spirit, rallying its sleepless and prophetic powers, foretells the balancing awards of another world. we must not wholly confound with the mythological schemes of the vulgar creed the belief of the nobler philosophers, many of whom, as is well known, cherished an exalted faith in the survival of the conscious soul and in a just retribution. "strike!" one of them said, with the dauntless courage of an immortal, to a tyrant who had threatened to have him brayed in a mortar: "strike! you may crush the shell of anaxarchus: you cannot touch his life." than all the maze of fabulous fancies and physical rites in which the dreams of the poets and the guesses of the people were entangled, how much more "just was the prescience of the eternal goalthat gleamed, 'mid cyprian shades, on zeno's soul, or shone to plato in the lonely cave, god in all space, and life in every grave!" an account of the greek views on the subject of a future life which should omit the doctrine of plato would be defective indeed. the influence of this sublime autocrat in the realms of intellect has transcended calculation. however coldly his thoughts may have been regarded by his contemporary countrymen, they soon obtained cosmopolitan audience, and surviving the ravages of time and ignorance, overleaping the bars of rival schools and sects, appreciated and diffused by the loftiest spirits of succeeding ages, closely blended with their own speculations by many christian theologians have held an almost unparalleled dominion over the minds of millions of men for more than fifty generations. in the various dialogues of plato, written at different periods of his life, there are numerous variations and inconsistencies of doctrine. there are also many mythical passages obviously intended as symbolic statements, poetic drapery, by no means to be handled or looked at as the severe outlines of dialectic truth. furthermore, in these works there are a vast number of opinions and expressions introduced by the interlocutors, who often belong to antagonistic schools of philosophy, and for which, of course, plato is not to be held responsible. making allowance for these facts, and resolutely grappling with the many other difficulties of the task, we shall now attempt to exhibit what we consider were the real teachings of plato in relation to the fate of the soul. this exposition, sketchy as it is, and open to question as it may be in some particulars, is the carefully weighed result of earnest, patient, and repeated study of all the relevant passages. in the first place, it is plain that plato had a firm religious and philosophical faith in the immortality of the soul, which was continually attracting his thoughts, making it a favorite theme with him and exerting no faint influence on his life. this faith rested both on ancient traditions, to which he frequently refers with invariable reverence, and on metaphysical reasonings, which he over and over presents in forms of conscientious elaboration. there are two tests of his sincerity of faith: first, that he always treats the subject with profound seriousness; secondly, that he always uses it as a practical motive. "i do not think," said socrates, "that any one who should now hear us, even though he were a comic poet, would say that i am talking idly." again, referring to homer's description of the judgments in hades, he says, "i, therefore, callicles, am persuaded by these accounts, and consider how i may exhibit my soul before the judge in the most healthy condition." "to a base man no man nor god is a friend on earth while living, nor under it when dead," say the souls of their ancestors to the living; "but live honorably, and when your destined fate brings you below you shall come to us as friends to friends." "we are plants, not of earth, but of heaven." we start, then, with the affirmation that plato honestly and cordially believed in a future life. secondly, his ethical and spiritual beliefs, like those of nearly all the ancients, were closely interwoven with physical theories and local relations. the world to him consisted of two parts, the celestial region of ideas, and the mundane region of material phenomena, corresponding pretty well, as lewes suggests, to our modern conception of heaven and earth. near the close of the phado, socrates says that the earth is not of the kind and magnitude usually supposed. "we dwell in a decayed and corroded, muddy and filthy region in the sediment and hollows of the earth, and imagine that we inhabit its upper parts; just as if one dwelling in the bottom of the sea should think that he dwelt on the sea, and, beholding the sun through the water, should imagine that the sea was the heavens. so, if we could fly up to the summit of the air as fishes emerging from the sea to behold what is on the earth here and emerge hence, we should know that the true earth is there. the people there dwell with the gods, and see things as they really are; and what the sea is to us the air is to them, and what the air is to us the ether is to them." again, in the tenth book of the republic, eleventh chapter, the soul is metaphorically said in the sea of this corporeal life to get stones and shell fish attached to it, and, fed on earth, to be rendered to a great extent earthy, stony, and savage, like the marine glaucus, some parts of whose body were broken off and others worn away by the waves, while such quantities of shells, sea weed, and stones had grown to him that he more resembled a beast than a man. in keeping with the whole tenor of the platonic teaching, this is a fine illustration of the fallen state of man in his vile environment of flesh here below. the soul, in its earthly sojourn, embodied here, is as much mutilated and degraded from its equipped and pure condition in its lofty natal home, the archetypal world of truth above the base babel of material existence, as glaucus was on phado, . gorgias, . menexenus, . timaus, . descending from his human life on the sunny shore to his encrusted shape and blind prowling in the monstrous deep. at another time plato contrasts the situation of the soul on earth with its situation in heaven by the famous comparison of the dark cave. he supposes men, unable to look upwards, dwelling in a cavern which has an opening towards the light extending lengthwise through the top of the cavern. a great many images, carrying various objects and talking aloud, pass and repass along the edge of the opening. their shadows fall on the side of the cave below, in front of the dwellers there; also the echoes of their talk sound back from the wall. now, the men, never having been or looked out of the cave, would suppose these shadows to be the real beings, these echoes the real voices. as respects this figure, says plato, we must compare ourselves with such persons. the visible region around us is the cave, the sun is the light, and the soul's ascent into the region of mind is the ascent out of the cave and the contemplation of things above. still again, plato describes the ethereal paths and motions of the gods, who, in their chariots, which are the planets and stars, ride through the universe, accompanied by all pure souls, "the family of true science, contemplating things as they really are." "reaching the summit, they proceed outside, and, standing on the back of heaven, its revolution carries them round, and they behold that supercelestial region which no poet here can ever sing of as it deserves." in this archetypal world all souls of men have dwelt, though "few have memory enough left," "after their fall hither," "to call to mind former things from the present." "now, of justice and temperance, and whatever else souls deem precious, there are here but faint resemblances, dull images; but beauty was then splendid to look on when we, in company with the gods, beheld that blissful spectacle, and were initiated into that most blessed of all mysteries, which we celebrated when we were unaffected by the evils that awaited us in time to come, and when we beheld, in the pure light, perfect and calm visions, being ourselves pure and as yet unmasked with this shell of a body to which we are now fettered." to suppose all this employed by plato as mere fancy and metaphor is to commit an egregious error. in studying an ancient author, we must forsake the modern stand point of analysis, and envelop ourselves in the ancient atmosphere of thought, where poetry and science were as indistinguishably blended in the personal beliefs as oxygen and nitrogen are in the common air. we have not a doubt that plato means to teach, literally, that the soul was always immortal, and that in its anterior states of existence, in the realm of ideas on high, it was in the midst of those essential realities whose shifting shadows alone it can behold in its lapsed condition and bodily imprisonment here. that he closely intertwisted ethical with physical theories, spiritual destinies with insphering localities, the fortunes of men with the revolutions of the earth and stars, is a fact which one can hardly read the timaus and fail to see; a fact which continually reappears. it is strikingly shown in his idea of the consummation of all things at regular epochs determined by the recurrence of a grand republic, lib. vii. cap. . phadrus, - , , . revolution of the universe, a period vulgarly known under the name of the "platonic year." the second point, therefore, in the present explanation of plato's doctrine of another life, is the conception that there is in the empyrean a glorious world of incorruptible truth, beauty, and goodness, the place of the gods, the native haunt of souls; and that human souls, having yielded to base attractions and sunk into bodies, are but banished sojourners in this phenomenal world of evanescent shadows and illusions, where they are "stung with resistless longings for the skies, and only solaced by the vague and broken reminiscences of their former state." thirdly, plato taught that after death an unerring judgment and compensation await all souls. every soul bears in itself the plain evidence of its quality and deeds, its vices and virtues; and in the unseen state it will meet inevitable awards on its merits. "to go to hades with a soul full of crimes is the worst of all evils." "when a man dies, he possesses in the other world a destiny suited to the life which he has led in this." in the second book of the republic he says, "we shall in hades suffer the punishment of our misdeeds here;" and he argues at much length the absolute impossibility of in any way escaping this. the fact of a full reward for all wisdom and justice, a full retribution for all folly and vice, is asserted unequivocally in scores of passages, most of them expressly connecting the former with the notion of an ascent to the bright region of truth and intellect, the latter with a descent to the black penal realm of hades. let the citation of a single further example suffice. "some souls, being sentenced, go to places of punishment beneath the earth; others are borne upward to some region in heaven." he proves the genuineness of his faith in this doctrine by continually urging it, in the most earnest, unaffected manner, as an animating motive in the formation of character and the conduct of life, saying, "he who neglects his soul will pass lamely through existence, and again pass into hades, aimless and unserviceable." the fourth and last step in this exposition is to show the particular form in which plato held his doctrine of future retribution, the way in which he supposed the consequences of present good and evil would appear hereafter. he received the oriental theory of transmigration. souls are born over and over. the banishment of the wicked to tartarus is provisional, a preparation for their return to incarnate life. the residence of the good in heaven is contingent, and will be lost the moment they yield to carelessness or material solicitations. the circumstances under which they are reborn, the happiness or misery of their renewed existence, depend on their character and conduct in their previous career; and thus a poetic justice is secured. at the close of the timaus, plato describes the whole animal kingdom as consisting of degraded human souls, from "the tribe of birds, which were light minded souls, to the tribe of oysters, which have received the most remote habitations as a punishment of their extreme ignorance." "after this manner, then, both formerly and statesman, , . gorgias, . republic, lib. vi. cap. i. phadrus, . timaus, . now, animals transmigrate, experiencing their changes through the loss or acquisition of intellect and folly." the general doctrine of metempsychosis is stated and implied very frequently in many of the platonic dialogues. some recent writers have tried to explain these representations as figures of speech, not intended to portray the literal facts, but merely to hint their moral equivalents. such persons seem to us to hold plato's pages in the full glare of the nineteenth century and read them in the philosophic spirit of bacon and comte, instead of holding them in the old shades of the academy and pondering them in the marvelling spirit of pythagoras and empedocles. we are led by the following considerations to think that plato really meant to accredit the transmigration of souls literally. first, he often makes use of the current poetic imagery of hades, and of ancient traditions, avowedly in a loose metaphorical way, as moral helps, calling them "fables." but the metempsychosis he sets forth, without any such qualification or guard, with so much earnestness and frequency, as a promise and a warning, that we are forced, in the absence of any indication to the contrary, to suppose that he meant the statements as sober fact and not as mythical drapery. as with a parable, of course we need not interpret all the ornamental details literally; but we must accept the central idea. and in the present case the fundamental thought is that of repeated births of the soul, each birth trailing retributive effects from the foregone. for example, the last four chapters of the tenth book of the republic contain the account of erus, a pamphylian, who, after lying dead on the battle field ten days, revived, and told what he had seen in the other state. plato in the outset explicitly names this recital an "apologue." it recounts a multitude of moral and physical particulars. these details may fairly enough be considered in some degreeas mythical drapery, or as the usual traditional painting; but the essential conception running through the account, for the sake of which it is told, we are not at liberty to explain away as empty metaphor. now, that essential conception is precisely this: that souls after death are adjudged to hades or to heaven as a recompense for their sin or virtue, and that, after an appropriate sojourn in those places, they are born again, the former ascending, squalid and scarred, from beneath the earth, the latter descending, pure, from the sky. in perfect consonance with this conclusion is the moral drawn by plato from the whole narrative. he simply says, "if the company will be persuaded by me, considering the soul to be immortal and able to bear all evil and good, we shall always persevere in the road which leads upwards." secondly, the conception of the metempsychosis is thoroughly coherent with plato's whole philosophy. if he was in earnest about any doctrine, it was the doctrine that all knowledge is reminiscence. the following declarations are his. "soul is older than body." "souls are continually born over again from hades into this life." "to search and learn is simply to revive the images of what the soul saw in its pre existent state of being in the world of realities." why should we hesitate to attribute a sincere belief in the metempsychosis to the acknowledged author of the doctrine that the soul lived in another world before appearing here, and that its knowledge is but reminiscence? if born from the other world menexenus, . once, we may be many times; and then all that is wanted to complete the dogma of transmigration is the idea of a presiding justice. had not plato that idea? thirdly, the doctrine of a judicial metempsychosis was most profoundly rooted in the popular faith, as a strict verity, throughout the great east, ages before the time of plato, and was familiarly known throughout greece in his time. it had been imported thither by musaus and orpheus at an early period, was afterwards widely recommended and established by the pythagoreans, and was unquestionably held by many of plato's contemporaries. he refers once to those "who strongly believe that murderers who have gone to hades will be obliged to come back and end their next lives by suffering the same fate which they had before inflicted on others." it is also a remarkable fact that he states the conditions of transmigration, and the means of securing exemption from it, in the same way that the hindus have from immemorial time: "the soul which has beheld the essence of truth remains free from harm until the next revolution; and if it can preserve the vision of the truth it shall always remain free from harm," that is, be exempt from birth; but "when it fails to behold the field of truth it falls to the earth and is implanted in a body." this statement and several others in the context corresponds precisely with hindu theology, which proclaims that the soul, upon attaining real wisdom, that is, upon penetrating beneath illusions and gazing on reality, is freed from the painful necessity of repeated births. now, since the hindus and the pythagoreans held the doctrine as a severe truth, and plato states it in the identical forms which they employed, and never implies that he is merely poetizing, we naturally conclude that he, too, veritably inculcates it as fact. finally, we are the more confirmed in this supposition when we find that his lineal disciples and most competent expounders, such as proclus, and nearly all his later commentators, such as ritter, have so understood him. the great chorus of his interpreters, from plotinus to leroux, with scarcely a dissentient voice, approve the opinion pronounced by the learned german historian of philosophy, that "the conception of the metempsychosis is so closely interwoven both with his physical system and with his ethical as to justify the conviction that plato looked upon it as legitimate and valid, and not as a merely figurative exposition of the soul's life after death." to sum up the whole in one sentence: plato taught with grave earnestness the immortality of the soul, subject to a discriminating retribution, which opened for its temporary residences three local regions, heaven, earth, and hades, and which sometimes led it through different grades of embodied being. "o thou youth who thinkest that thou art neglected by the gods, the person who has become more wicked departs to the more wicked souls; but he who has become better departs to the better souls, both in life and in all deaths." whether aristotle taught or denied the immortality of the soul has been the subject of innumerable debates from his own time until now. it is certainly a most ominous fact that his great name has been cited as authority for rejecting the doctrine of a future life by so many the laws, b. ix. ch. . phadrus, - . the laws, lib. x. cap. . of his keenest followers; for this has been true of weighty representatives of every generation of his disciples. antagonistic advocates have collected from his works a large number of varying statements, endeavoring to distinguish between the literal and the figurative, the esoteric and the popular. it is not worth our while here, either for their intrinsic interest or for their historic importance, to quote the passages and examine the arguments. all that is required for our purpose may be expressed in the language of ritter, who has carefully investigated the whole subject: "no passage in his extant works is decisive; but, from the general context of his doctrine, it is clear that he had no conception of the immortality of any individual rational entity." it would take a whole volume instead of a chapter to set forth the multifarious contrasting tenets of individual greek philosophers, from the age of pherecydes to that of iamblichus, in relation to a future life. not a few held, with empedocles, that human life is a penal state, the doom of such immortal souls as for guilt have been disgraced and expelled from heaven. "man is a fallen god condemned to wander on the earth, sky aspiring but sense clouded." purged by a sufficient penance, he returns to his former godlike existence. "when, leaving this body, thou comest to the free ether, thou shalt be no longer a mortal, but an undying god." notions of this sort fairly represent no small proportion of the speculations upon the fate of the soul which often reappear throughout the course of greek literature. another class of philosophers are represented by such names as marcus antoninus, who, comparing death to disembarkation at the close of a voyage, says, "if you land upon another life, it will not be empty of gods: if you land in nonentity, you will have done with pleasures, pains, and drudgery." and again he writes, "if souls survive, how has ethereal space made room for them all from eternity? how has the earth found room for all the bodies buried in it? the solution of the latter problem will solve the former. the corpse turns to dust and makes space for another: so the spirit, let loose into the air, after a while dissolves, and is either renewed into another soul or absorbed into the universe. thus room is made for succession." these passages, it will be observed, leave the survival of the soul at all entirely hypothetical, and, even supposing it to survive, allow it but a temporary duration. such was the common view of the great sect of the stoics. they all agreed that there was no real immortality for the soul; but they differed greatly as to the time of its dissolution. in the words of cicero, "diu mansuros aiunt animos; semper, negant:" they say souls endure for a long time, but not forever. cleanthes taught that the intensity of existence after death would depend on the strength or weakness of the particular soul. chrysippus held that only the souls of the wise and good would survive at all. panatius said the soul always died with the body, because it was born with it, which he proved by the resemblances of children's souls to those of their parents. seneca has a great many contradictory passages on this subject hist. anc. phil. p. iii. b. ix. ch. . meditations, lib. iii. cap. . ibid. lib. iv. cap. . plutarch, plac. phil. iv. . tusc. quast. lib. i. cap. . in his works; but his preponderant authority, upon the whole, is that the soul and the body perish together. at one time he says, "the day thou fearest as the last is the birthday of eternity." "as an infant in the womb is preparing to dwell in this world, so ought we to consider our present life as a preparation for the life to come." at another time he says, with stunning bluntness, "there is nothing after death, and death itself is nothing." post mortem nihil est, ipsaque mors nihil. besides the mystics, like plotinus, who affirmed the strict eternity of the soul, and the stoics, like poseidonius, who believed that the soul, having had a beginning, must have an end, although it might endure for a long period after leaving the body, there were among the greeks and romans two other classes of believers in a future life, namely, the ignorant body of the people, who credited, more or less fully, the common fables concerning hades; and an educated body of select minds, who, while casting off the popular superstitions, yet clung tenaciously to the great fact of immortality in some form or other, without attempting to define the precise mode of it. there was among the illiterate populace, both greek and roman, even from the age of eumolpus to that of augustus, a good deal of firm faith in a future life, according to the gross scheme and particulars preserved to us still in the classic mythology. a thousand current allusions and statements in the general literature of those times prove the actual existence of a common and literal belief in hades with all its accompaniments. this was far from being, in the average apprehension, a mere myth. plato says, "many, of their own accord, have wished to descend into hades, induced by the hope of there seeing and being with those they have loved." he also says, "when a man is about to die, the stories of future punishment which he had formerly ridiculed trouble him with fears of their truth." and that frightful accounts of hell really swayed and terrified the people, even so late as the time of the roman republic, appears from the earnest and elaborate arguments employed by various writers to refute them. the same thing is shown by the religious ritual enacted at funerals and festivals, the forms of public and private worship observed till after the conversion of constantine. the cake of rice and honey borne in the dead hand for cerberus, the periodical offerings to the ghosts of the departed, as at the festivals called feralia and parentalia, the pictures of the scenery of the under world, hung in the temples, of which there was a famous one by polygnotus, all imply a literal crediting of the vulgar doctrine. altars were set up on the spots where tiberius and caius gracchus were murdered, and services were there performed in honor of their manes. festus, an old roman lexicographer who lived in the second or third century, tells us there was in the comitium a stone covered pit which was supposed to be the christoph meiners, vermischte philosophische schriften. commentarius quo stoicorum sententia; de animorum post mortem statu satis illustrantur. epist. . troades, . . phado, . republic, lib. i. cap. . ovid, fasti, lib. ii. ii. - . pausanias, lib. x. cap. . mouth of orcus, and was opened three days in the year for souls to rise out into the upper world. apuleius describes, in his treatise on "the god of socrates," the roman conceptions of the departed spirits of men. they called all disembodied human souls "lemures." those of good men were "lares," those of bad men "larva." and when it was uncertain whether the specified soul was a lar or a larva, it was named "manes." the lares were mild household gods to their posterity. the larva were wandering, frightful shapes, harmless to the pious, but destructive to the reprobate. the belief in necromancy is well known to have prevailed extensively among the greeks and romans. aristophanes represents the coward, pisander, going to a necromancer and asking to "see his own soul, which had long departed, leaving him a man with breath alone." in latin literature no popular terror is more frequently alluded to or exemplified than the dread of seeing ghosts. every one will recall the story of the phantom that appeared in the tent of brutus before the battle of philippi. it pervades the "haunted house" of plautus. callimachus wrote the following couplet as an epitaph on the celebrated misanthrope: "timon, hat'st thou the world or hades worse? speak clear! hades, o fool, because there are more of us here!" pythagoras is said once to have explained an earthquake as being caused by a synod of ghosts assembled under ground! it is one of the best of the numerous jokes attributed to the great samian; a good nut for the spirit rappers to crack. there is an epigram by diogenes laertius, on one lycon, who died of the gout: "he who before could not so much as walk alone, the whole long road to hades travell'd in one night!" philostratus declares that the shade of apollonius appeared to a skeptical disciple of his and said, "the soul is immortal." it is unquestionable that the superstitious fables about the under world and ghosts had a powerful hold, for a very long period, upon the greek and roman imagination, and were widely accepted as facts. at the same time, there were many persons of more advanced culture to whom such coarse and fanciful representations had become incredible, but who still held loyally to the simple idea of the survival of the soul. they cherished a strong expectation of another life, although they rejected the revolting form and drapery in which the doctrine was usually set forth. xenophon puts the following speech into the mouth of the expiring cyrus: "i was never able, my children, to persuade myself that the soul, as long as it was in a mortal body, lived, but when it was removed from this, that it died; neither could i believe that the soul ceased to think when separated from the unthinking and senseless body; but it seemed to me most probable that when pure and free from any union with the body, then it became most de significatione verborum, verbum "manalis." lessing, wie die alten den tod gebildet. ayes, i. . epigram iv. vita apollonii, lib. viii. cap. . wise." every one has read of the young man whose faith and curiosity were so excited by plato's writings that he committed suicide to test the fact of futurity. callimachus tells the story neatly: "cleombrotus, the ambracian, having said, 'farewell, o sun!' leap'd from a lofty wall into the world of ghosts. no deadly ill had chanced to him at all; but he had read in plato's book upon the soul." the falling of cato on his sword at utica, after carefully perusing the phado, is equally familiar. in the case of cicero, too, notwithstanding his fluctuations of feeling and the obvious contradictions of sentiment in some of his letters and his more deliberate essays, it is, upon the whole, plain enough that, while he always regarded the vulgar notions as puerile falsehoods, the hope of a glorious life to come was powerful in him. this may be stated as the result of a patient investigation and balancing of all that he says on the subject, and of the circumstances under which he says it. to cite and criticize the passages here would occupy too much space to too little profit. at the siege of jerusalem, titus made a speech to his soldiers, in the course of it saying to them, "those souls which are severed from their fleshly bodies by the sword in battle, are received by the pure ether and joined to that company which are placed among the stars." the beautiful story of cupid and psyche, that loveliest of all the myths concerning the immortality of the soul, was a creation by no means foreign to the prevalent ideas and feelings of the time when it was written. the "dissertations" of maximus tyrius abound with sentences like the following. "this very thing which the multitude call death is the birth of a new life, and the beginning of immortality." "when pherecydes lay sick, conscious of spiritual energy, he cared not for bodily disease, his soul standing erect and looking for release from its cumbersome vestment. so a man in chains, seeing the walls of his prison crumbling, waits for deliverance, that from the darkness in which he has been buried he may soar to the ethereal regions and be filled with glorious light." the conception of man as a member of the cosmic family of gods and genii was known to all the classic philosophers, and was cherished by the larger portion of them. pindar affirms one origin for gods and men. plato makes wise souls accompany the gods in their excursions about the sky. cicero argues that heaven, and not hades, is the destination of the soul at death, because the soul, being lighter than the earthly elements surrounding it here, would rise aloft through the natural force of gravitation. plutarch says, "demons are the spies and scouts of the gods, wandering and circuiting around on their commands." disembodied souls cyropadia, lib. viii. cap. . epigram xxiv. josephus, de bell. lib. vi. cap. . diss. xxv. diss. xli. tusc. quest. lib i. cap. . and demons were the same. the prevalence of such ideas as these produced in the greek and roman imagination a profound sense of invisible beings, a sense which was further intensified by the popular personifications of all natural forces, as in fountains and trees, full of lapsing naiads and rustling dryads. an illustrative fact is furnished by an effect of the tradition that thetis, snatching the body of achilles from the funeral pile, conveyed him to leuke, an island in the black sea. the mariners sailing by often fancied they saw his mighty shade flitting along the shore in the dusk of evening. but a passage in hesiod yields a more adequate illustration: "when the mortal remains of those who flourished during the golden age were hidden beneath the earth, their souls became beneficent demons, still hovering over the world they once inhabited, and still watching, clothed in thin air and gliding rapidly through every region of the earth, as guardians over the affairs of men." but there were always some who denied the common doctrine of a future life and scoffed at its physical features. through the absurd extravagances of poets and augurs, and through the growth of critical thought, this unbelief went on increasing from the days of anaxagoras, when it was death to call the sun a ball of fire, to the days of catiline, when julius casar could be chosen pontifex maximus, almost before the senate had ceased to reverberate his voice openly asserting that death was the utter end of man. plutarch dilates upon the wide skepticism of the greeks as to the infernal world, at the close of his essay on the maxim, "live concealed." the portentous growth of irreverent unbelief, the immense change of feeling from awe to ribaldry, is made obvious by a glance from the known gravity of hesiod's "descent of theseus and pirithous into hades," to lucian's "kataplous," which represents the cobbler mycillus leaping from the banks of the styx, swimming after charon's boat, climbing into it upon the shoulders of the tyrant megapenthes and tormenting him the whole way. pliny, in his natural history, affirms that death is an everlasting sleep. the whole great sect of the epicureans united in supporting that belief by the combined force of ridicule and argument. their views are the most fully and ably defended by the consummate lucretius, in his masterly poem on the "nature of things." horace, juvenal, persius, concur in scouting at the tales which once, when recited on the stage, had made vast audiences perceptibly tremble. and cicero asks, "what old woman is so insane as to fear these things?" there were two classes of persons who sought differently to free mankind from the terrors which had invested the whole prospect of death and another world. the first were the materialists, who endeavored to prove that death was to man the absolute end of every thing. secondly, there were the later platonists, who maintained that this world is the only hades, that heaven is our home, that all death is ascent to better life. "to remain on high with the gods is life; to descend into this world is death, a descent into orcus," they said. the following couplet, of an unknown date, is translated from the greek anthology: "diogenes, whose tub stood by the road, now, being dead, has the stars for his abode." muller, greek literature, ch. vi. works and days, lib. i. ii. - . lib. ii. cap. . lib. i. epist. . sat. ii. sat. ii. tusc. quest. lib. i. cap. . ibid. cap. . macrobius writes, in his commentary on the "dream of scipio," "here, on earth, is the cavern of dis, the infernal region. the river of oblivion is the wandering of the mind forgetting the majesty of its former life and thinking a residence in the body the only life. phlegethon is the fires of wrath and desire. acheron is retributive sadness. cocytus is wailing tears. styx is the whirlpool of hatreds. the vulture eternally tearing the liver is the torment of an evil conscience." to the ancient greek in general, death was a sad doom. when he lost a friend, he sighed a melancholy farewell after him to the faded shore of ghosts. summoned himself, he departed with a lingering look at the sun, and a tearful adieu to the bright day and the green earth. to the roman, death was a grim reality. to meet it himself he girded up his loins with artificial firmness. but at its ravages among his friends he wailed in anguished abandonment. to his dying vision there was indeed a future; but shapes of distrust and shadow stood upon its disconsolate borders; and, when the prospect had no horror, he still shrank from its poppied gloom. lib. i. cap. , . chapter xi. mohammedan doctrine of a future life. islam has been a mighty power in the earth since the middle of the seventh century. a more energetic and trenchant faith than it was for eight hundred years has not appeared among men. finally expelled from its startling encampments in spain and the archipelago, it still rules with tenacious hold over turkey, a part of tartary, palestine, persia, arabia, and large portions of africa. at this moment, as to adherence and influence, it is subordinate only to the two foremost religious systems in the world, buddhism and christianity. the dogmatic structure of islam as a theology and its practical power as an experimental religion offer a problem of the gravest interest. but we must hasten on to give an exposition of merely those elements in it which are connected with its doctrine of a future life. it is a matter of entire notoriety that there is but the least amount of originality in the tenets of the mohammedan faith. the blending together of those tenets was distinctive, the unifying soul breathed into them was a new creation, and the great aim to which the whole was subordinated was peculiar; but the component doctrines themselves, with slight exception, existed before as avowed principles in the various systems of belief and practice that prevailed around. mohammed adopted many of the notions and customs of the pagan arabs, the central dogma of the jews as to the unity of god, most of the traditions of the hebrew scriptures, innumerable fanciful conceits of the rabbins, whole doctrines of the magians with their details, some views of the gnostics, and extensive portions of a corrupted christianity, grouping them together with many modifications of his own, and such additions as his genius afforded and his exigencies required. the motley strangely results in a compact and systematic working faith. the islamites are divided into two great sects, the sunnees and the sheeahs. the arabs, tartars, and turks are sunnees, are dominant in numbers and authority, are strict literalists, and are commonly considered the orthodox believers. the persians are sheeahs, are inferior in point of numbers, are somewhat freer in certain interpretations, placing a mass of tradition, like the jewish mischna, on a level with the koran, and are usually regarded as heretical. to apply our own ecclesiastical phraseology to them, the latter are the moslem protestants, the former the moslem catholics. yet in relation to almost every thing which should seem at all fundamental or vital they agree in their teachings. their differences in general are upon trivial opinions, or especially upon ritual particulars. for instance, the sheeahs send all the sunnees to hell because in their ablutions they wash from the elbow to the finger tips; the sunnees return the compliment to their rival sectarists because they wash from the finger tips to the elbow. within these two grand denominations of sheeah and rabbi abraham geiger, prize essay upon the question, proposed by the university of bonn, "was hat mohammed aus dem judenthum aufgenommen?" merrick, translation of the sheeah traditions of mohammed in the hyat ul kuloob, note x. sunnee are found a multitude of petty sects, separated from each other on various questions of speculative faith and ceremonial practice. some take the koran alone, and that in its plain literal sense, as their authority. others read the koran in the explanatory light of a vast collection of parables, proverbs, legends, purporting to be from mohammed. there is no less than a score of mystic allegorizing sects who reduce almost every thing in the koran to symbol, or spiritual signification, and some of whom as the sufis are the most rapt and imaginative of all the enthusiastic devotees in the world. a cardinal point in the mohammedan faith is the asserted existence of angels, celestial and infernal. eblis is satan. he was an angel of lofty rank; but when god created adam and bade all the angels worship him, eblis refused, saying, "i was created of fire, he of clay: i am more excellent and will not bow to him." upon this god condemned eblis and expelled him from paradise. he then became the unappeasable foe and seducing destroyer of men. he is the father of those swarms of jins, or evil spirits, who crowd all hearts and space with temptations and pave the ten thousand paths to hell with lures for men. the next consideration preliminary to a clear exhibition of our special subject, is the doctrine of predestination, the unflinching fatalism which pervades and crowns this religion. the breath of this appalling faith is saturated with fatality, and its very name of islam means "submission." in heaven the prophet saw a prodigious wax tablet, called the "preserved table," on which were written the decrees of all events between the morning of creation and the day of judgment. the burning core of mohammed's preaching was the proclamation of the one true god whose volition bears the irresistible destiny of the universe; and inseparably associated with this was an intense hatred of idolatry, fanned by the wings of god's wrath and producing a fanatic sense of a divine commission to avenge him on his insulters and vindicate for him his rightful worship from every nation. there is an apparent conflict between the mohammedan representations of god's absolute predestination of all things, and the abundant exhortations to all men to accept the true faith and bring forth good works, and thus make sure of an acceptable account in the day of judgment. the former make god's irreversible will all in all. the latter seem to place alternative conditions before men, and to imply in them a power of choice. but this is a contradiction inseparable from the discussion of god's infinite sovereignty and man's individual freedom. the inconsistency is as gross in augustine and calvinism as it is in the arabian lawgiver and the creed of the sunnees. the koran, instead of solving the difficulty, boldly cuts it, and does that in exactly the same way as the thorough calvinist. god has respectively elected and reprobated all the destined inhabitants of heaven and hell, unalterably, independently of their choice or action. at the same time, reception of the true faith, and a life conformed to it, are virtually necessary for salvation, because it is decreed that all the elect shall profess and obey the true faith. their obedient reception of it proves them to be elected. on the other hand, it is foreordained that none of the reprobate shall become disciples and followers of the prophet. their rejection of churchill, mount lebanon, vol. i. ch. xv. sale's translation of the koran, ch. vii. him, their wicked misbelief, is the evidence of their original reprobation. as the koran itself expresses it, salvation is for "all who are willing to be warned; but they shall not be warned unless god please:" "all who shall be willing to walk uprightly; but they shall not be willing unless god willeth." but such fine drawn distinctions are easily lost from sight or spurned in the eager affray of affairs and the imminent straits of the soul. while in dogma and theory the profession of an orthodox belief, together with scrupulous prayer, fasting, alms, and the pilgrimage to mecca, or the absence of these things, simply denotes the foregone determinations of god in regard to the given individuals, in practice and feeling the contrasted beliefs and courses of conduct are held to obtain heaven and hell. and we find, accordingly, that mohammed spoke as if god's primeval ordination had fixed all things forever, whenever he wished to awaken in his followers reckless valor and implicit submission. "whole armies cannot slay him who is fated to die in his bed." on the contrary, when he sought to win converts, to move his hearers by threatenings and persuasions, he spoke as if every thing pertaining to human weal and woe, present and future, rested on conditions within the choice of men. say, "'there is but one god, and mohammed is his prophet,' and heaven shall be your portion; but cling to your delusive errors, and you shall be companions of the infernal fire." practically speaking, the essence of propagandist islam was a sentiment like this. all men who do not follow mohammed are accursed misbelievers. we are god's chosen avengers, the commissioned instruments for reducing his foes to submission. engaged in that work, the hilts of all our scimitars are in his hand. he snatches his servant martyr from the battle field to heaven. thus the weapons of the unbelievers send their slain to paradise, while the weapons of the believers send their slain to hell. up, then, with the crescent banner, and, dripping with idolatrous gore, let it gleam over mountain and plain till our sickles have reaped the earth! "the sword is the key of heaven and the key of hell. a drop of blood shed in the cause of allah, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer. whoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven. in the day of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as vermilion and odoriferous as musk." an infuriated zeal against idolaters and unbelievers inflamed the moslem heart, a fierce martial enthusiasm filled the moslem soul, and tangible visions of paradise and hell floated, illuminate, throughthemoslem imagination. and so from the persian gulf to the caucasus, from sierra leone to the pyrenees, the polity of mohammed overran the nations, with the koran in its left hand, the exterminating blade in its right, one thunder shout still breaking from its awful lips: "profess islam, and live, with the clear prospect of eternal bliss beyond life; reject it, and die, with the full certainty of eternal anguish beyond death." when the crusading christians and the saracenic hosts met in battle, the conflict was the very frenzy of fanaticism. "there the question of salvation or damnation lay on the ground between the marshalled armies, to be fought for and carried by the stronger." christ and allah encountered, and the endless fate of their opposed koran, ch. lxxiv. ibid. ch. lxxxi. gibbon, decline and fall of rome, ch. . followers hung on the swift turning issue. "never have the appalling ideas of the invisible world so much and so distinctly mingled with the fury of mortal strife as in this instance. to the eyes of turk and arab the smoke of the infernal pit appeared to break up from the ground in the rear of the infidel lines. as the squadrons of the faithful moved on to the charge, that pit yawned to receive the miscreant host; and in chasing the foe the prophet's champions believed they were driving their antagonists down the very slopes of perdition. when at length steel clashed upon steel and the yell of death shook the air, the strife was not so much between arm and arm as between spirit and spirit, and each deadly thrust was felt to pierce the life at once of the body and of the soul." that terrible superstition prevails almost universally among the mussulmans, designated the "beating in the sepulchre," or the examination and torture of the body in the grave. as soon as a corpse is interred, two black and livid angels, called the examiners, whose names are munkeer and nakeer, appear, and order the dead person to sit up and answer certain questions as to his faith. if he give satisfactory replies, they suffer him to rest in peace, refreshed by airs from paradise; but if he prove to have been an unbeliever or heretic, they beat him on the temples with iron maces till he roars aloud with pain and terror. they then press the earth on the body, which remains gnawed and stung by dragons and scorpions until the last day. some sects give a figurative explanation of these circumstances. the utter denial of the whole representation is a schismatic peculiarity of the sect of motozallites. but all true believers, both sunnee and sheeah, devoutly accept it literally. the commentators declare that it is implied in the following verse of the koran itself: "how, therefore, will it be with them when they die and the angels shall strike their faces and their backs?" the intermediate state of souls from the time of death until the resurrection has been the subject of extensive speculation and argument with the islamites. the souls of the prophets, it is thought, are admitted directly to heaven. the souls of martyrs, according to a tradition received from mohammed, rest in heaven in the crops of green birds who eat of the fruits and drink of the rivers there. as to the location of the souls of the common crowd of the faithful, the conclusions are various. some maintain that they and the souls of the impious alike sleep in the dust until the end, when israfil's blasts will stir them into life to be judged. but the general and orthodox impression is that they tarry in one of the heavens, enjoying a preparatory blessedness. the souls of the wicked, it is commonly held, after being refused a place in the tomb and also being repulsed from heaven, are carried down to the lower abyss, and thrown into a dungeon under a green rock, or into the jaw of eblis, there to be treated with foretastes of their final doom until summoned to the judgment. a very prominent doctrine in the moslem creed is that of the resurrection of the body. this is a central feature in the orthodox faith. it is expounded in all the emphatic details of its gross literality by their authoritative doctors, and is dwelt upon with unwearied reiteration by the koran. true, some minor heretical sects give it a spiritual interpretation; but the great taylor, hist. of fanaticism, sect. vii. ch. xlvii. sale, preliminary discourse, sect. iv. body of believers accept it unhesitatingly in its most physical shape. the intrinsic unnaturalness and improbability of the dogma were evidently felt by mohammed and his expositors; and all the more they strove to bolster it up and enforce its reception by vehement affirmations and elaborate illustrations. in the second chapter of the koran it is related that, in order to remove the skepticism of abraham as to the resurrection, god wrought the miracle of restoring four birds which had been cut in pieces and scattered. in chapter seventh, god says, "we bring rain upon a withered country and cause the fruits to spring forth. thus will we bring the dead from their graves." the prophet frequently rebukes those who reject this belief. "what aileth them, that they believe not the resurrection?" "is not he who created man able to quicken the dead?" "the scoffers say, 'shall we be raised to life, and our forefathers too, after we have become dust and bones? this is nothing but sorcery.'" first, israfil will blow the blast of consternation. after an interval, he will blow the blast of examination, at which all creatures will die and the material universe will melt in horror. thirdly, he will blow the blast of resurrection. upon that instant, the assembled souls of mankind will issue from his trumpet, like a swarm of bees, and fill the atmosphere, seeking to be reunited to their former bodies, which will then be restored, even to their very hairs. the day of judgment immediately follows. this is the dreadful day for which all other days were made; and it will come with blackness and consternation to unbelievers and evil doers, but with peace and delight to the faithful. the total race of man will be gathered in one place. mohammed will first advance in front, to the right hand, as intercessor for the professors of islam. the preceding prophets will appear with their followers. gabriel will hold suspended a balance so stupendous that one scale will cover paradise, the other hell. "hath the news of the overwhelming day of judgment reached thee?" "whoever hath wrought either good or evil of the weight of an ant shall in that day behold the same." an infallible scrutiny shall search and weigh every man's deeds, and exact justice shall be done, and no foreign help can avail any one. "one soul shall not be able to obtain any thing in behalf of another soul." "every man of them on that day shall have business enough of his own to employ his thoughts." in all the mohammedan representations of this great trial and of the principles which determine its decisions, no reference is made to the doctrine of predestination, but all turns on strict equity. reckoning a reception or rejection of the true faith as a crowning merit or demerit, the only question is, do his good works outweigh, by so much as a hair, his evil works? if so, he goes to the right; if not, he must take the left. the solitary trace of fatalism or rather favoritism is this: that no idolater, once in hell, can ever possibly be released, while no islamite, however wicked, can be damned eternally. the punishment of unbelievers is everlasting, that of believers limited. the opposite of this opinion is a great heresy with the generality of the moslems. some say the judgment will require but the twinkling of an eye; others that it will occupy fifty thousand years, during which time the sun will be drawn from its sheath and burn insufferably, and the wicked will stand looking up, their feet shod with shoes of fire, and their skulls boiling like pots. at last, ch. lxxxiv. ch. lxxv. ch. xxxvii., lvi. koran, ch. lxxxviii. ibid. ch. xcix. ibid. ch. lxxxii. ibid. ch. lxxx. when sentence has been passed on them, all souls are forced to try the passage of al sirat, a bridge thinner than a hair, sharper than a razor, and hotter than flame, spanning in one frail arch the immeasurable distance, directly over hell, from earth to paradise. some affect a metaphorical solution of this air severing causeway, and take it merely as a symbol of the true sirat, or bridge of this world, namely, the true faith and obedience; but every orthodox mussulman firmly holds it as a physical fact to be surmounted in the last day. mohammed leading the way, the faithful and righteous will traverse it with ease and as quickly as a flash of lightning. the thin edge broadens beneath their steps, the surrounding support of convoying angels' wings hides the fire lake below from their sight, and they are swiftly enveloped in paradise. but as the infidel with his evil deeds essays to cross, thorns entangle his steps, the lurid glare beneath blinds him, and he soon topples over and whirls into the blazing abyss. in dr. frothingham's fine translation from ruckert, "when the wicked o'er it goes, stands the bridge all sparkling; and his mind bewilder'd grows, and his eye swims darkling. wakening, giddying, then comes in, with a deadly fright, memory of all his sin, rushing on his sight. but when forward steps the just, he is safe e'en here: round him gathers holy trust, and drives back his fear. each good deed's a mist, that wide, golden borders gets; and for him the bridge, each side, shines with parapets." between hell and paradise is an impassable wall, al araf, separating the tormented from the happy, and covered with those souls whose good works exactly counterpoise their evil works, and who are, consequently, fitted for neither place. the prophet and his expounders have much to say of this narrow intermediate abode. its lukewarm denizens are contemptuously spoken of. it is said that araf seems hell to the blessed but paradise to the damned; for does not every thing depend on the point of view? the mohammedan descriptions of the doom of the wicked, the torments of hell, are constantly repeated and are copious and vivid. reference to chapter and verse would be superfluous, since almost every page of the koran abounds in such tints and tones as the following. "the unbelievers shall be companions of hell fire forever." "those who disbelieve we will surely cast to be broiled in hell fire: so often as their skins shall be well burned we will give them other skins in exchange, that they may taste the sharper torment." "i will fill hell entirely full of genii and men." "they shall be dragged on their faces into hell, and it shall be said unto them, 'taste ye that torment of hell fire which ye rejected as a falsehood.'" "the unbelievers shall be driven into hell by troops." "they shall be taken by the forelocks and the feet and flung into hell, where they shall drink scalding water." "their only entertainment shall be boiling water, and they shall be fuel for hell." "the smoke of hell shall cast forth sparks as big as towers, resembling yellow camels in color." "they who believe not shall w. c. taylor, mohammedanism and its sects. koran, ch. viii. sale, preliminary discourse, p. . have garments of fire fitted on them, and they shall be beaten with maces of red hot iron." "the true believers, lying on couches, shall look down upon the infidels in hell and laugh them to scorn." there is a tradition that a door shall be shown the damned opening into paradise, but when they approach it, it shall be suddenly shut, and the believers within will laugh. pitiless and horrible as these expressions from the koran are, they are merciful compared with the pictures in the later traditions, of women suspended by their hair, their brains boiling, suspended by their tongues, molten copper poured down their throats, bound hands and feet and devoured piecemeal by scorpions, hung up by their heels in flaming furnaces and their flesh cut off on all sides with scissors of fire. their popular teachings divide hell into seven stories, sunk one under another. the first and mildest is for the wicked among the true believers. the second is assigned to the jews. the third is the special apartment of the christians. they fourth is allotted to the sabians, the fifth to the magians, and the sixth to the most abandoned idolaters; but the seventh the deepest and worst belongs to the hypocrites of all religions. the first hell shall finally be emptied and destroyed, on the release of the wretched believers there; but all the other hells will retain their victims eternally. if the visions of hell which filled the fancies of the faithful were material and glowing, equally so were their conceptions of paradise. on this world of the blessed were lavished all the charms so fascinating to the oriental luxuriousness of sensual languor, and which the poetic oriental imagination knew so well how to depict. as soon as the righteous have passed sirat, they obtain the first taste of their approaching felicity by a refreshing draught from "mohammed's pond." this is a square lake, a month's journey in circuit, its water whiter than milk or silver and more fragrant than to be comparable to any thing known by mortals. as many cups are set around it as there are stars in the firmament; and whoever drinks from it will never thirst more. then comes paradise, an ecstatic dream of pleasure, filled with sparkling streams, honeyed fountains, shady groves, precious stones, all flowers and fruits, blooming youths, circulating goblets, black eyed houris, incense, brilliant birds, delightsome music, unbroken peace. a sheeah tradition makes the prophet promise to ali twelve palaces in paradise, built of gold and silver bricks laid in a cement of musk and amber. the pebbles around them are diamonds and rubies, the earth saffron, its hillocks camphor. rivers of honey, wine, milk, and water flow through the court of each palace, their banks adorned with various resplendent trees, interspersed with bowers consisting each of one hollow transparent pearl. in each of these bowers is an emerald throne, with a houri upon it arrayed in seventy green robes and seventy yellow robes of so fine a texture, and she herself so transparent, that the marrow of her ankle, notwithstanding robes, flesh, and bone, is as distinctly visible as a flame in a glass vessel. each houri has seventy locks of hair, every one under the care of a maid, who perfumes it with a censer which god has made to smoke with incense without the presence of fire; and no mortal has ever breathed such fragrance as is there exhaled. hyat ul kuloob, ch. x. p. . koran, ch. lv. ch. lvi. hyat ul kuloob, ch. xvi. p. . such a doctrine of the future life as that here set forth, it is plain, was strikingly adapted to win and work fervidly on the minds of the imaginative, voluptuous, indolent, passionate races of the orient. it possesses a nucleus of just and natural moral conviction and sentiment, around which is grouped a composite of a score of superstitions afloat before the rise of islam, set off with the arbitrary drapery of a poetic fancy, colored by the peculiar idiosyncrasies of mohammed, emphasized to suit his special ends, and all inflamed with a vindictive and propagandist animus. any word further in explanation of the origin, or in refutation of the soundness, of this system of belief once so imminently aggressive and still so widely established would seem to be superfluous. chapter xii. explanatory survey of the field and its myths. surveying the thought of mankind upon the subject of a future life, as thus far examined, one can hardly fail to be struck by the multitudinous variety of opinions and pictures it presents. whence and how arose this heterogeneous mass of notions? in consequence of the endowments with which god has created man, the doctrine of a future life arises as a normal fact in the development of his experience. but the forms and accompaniments of the doctrine, the immense diversity of dress and colors it appears in, are subject to all the laws and accidents that mould and clothe the products within any other department of thought and literature. we must refer the ethnic conceptions of a future state to the same sources to which other portions of poetry and philosophy are referred, namely, to the action of sentiment, fancy, and reason, first; then to the further action, reaction, and interaction of the pictures, dogmas, and reasonings of authoritative poets, priests, and philosophers on one side, and of the feeling, faith, and thought of credulous multitudes and docile pupils on the other. in the light of these great centres of intellectual activity, parents of intellectual products, there is nothing pertaining to the subject before us, however curious, which may not be intelligibly explained, seen naturally to spring out of certain conditions of man's mind and experience as related with the life of society and the phenomena of the world. so far as the views of the future life set forth in the religions of the ancient nations constitute systematically developed and arranged schemes of doctrine and symbol, the origin of them therefore needs no further explanation than is furnished by a contemplation of the regulated exercise of the speculative and imaginative faculties. but so far as those representations contain unique, grotesque, isolated particulars, their production is accounted for by this general law: in the early stages of human culture, when the natural sensibilities are intensely preponderant in power, and the critical judgment is in abeyance, whatever strongly moves the soul causes a poetical secretion on the part of the imagination. thus the rainbow is personified; a waterfall is supposed to be haunted by spiritual beings; a volcano with fiery crater is seen as a cyclops with one flaming eye in the centre of his forehead. this law holds not only in relation to impressive objects or appearances in nature, but also in relation to occurrences, traditions, usages. in this way innumerable myths arise, explanatory or amplifying thoughts secreted by the stimulated imagination and then narrated as events. sometimes these tales are given and received in good faith for truth, as grote abundantly proves in his volume on legendary greece; sometimes they are clearly the gleeful play of the fancy, as when it is said that the hated infant herakles having been put to hera's breast as she lay asleep in heaven, she, upon waking, thrust him away, and the lacteal fluid, streaming athwart the firmament, originated the milky way! to apply this law to our special subject: chambers's papers for the people, vol. i.: the myth, p. . what would be likely to work more powerfully on the minds of a crude, sensitive people, in an early stage of the world, with no elaborate discipline of religious thought, than the facts and phenomena of death? plainly, around this centre there must be deposited a vast quantity of ideas and fantasies. the task is to discriminate them, trace their individual origin, and classify them. one of the most interesting and difficult questions connected with the subject before us is this: what, in any given time and place, were the limits of the popular belief? how much of the current representations in relation to another life were held as strict verity? what portions were regarded as fable or symbolism? it is obvious enough that among the civilized nations of antiquity the distinctions of literal statement, allegory, historic report, embellished legend, satire, poetic creation, philosophical hypothesis, religious myth, were more or less generally known. for example, when aschylus makes one of his characters say, "yonder comes a herald: so dust, clay's thirsty sister, tells me," the personification, unquestionably, was as purposed and conscious as it is when a poet in the nineteenth century says, "thirst dived from the brazen glare of the sky and clutched me by the throat." so, too, when homer describes the bag of aolus, the winds, in possession of the sailors on board ulysses' ship, the half humorous allegory cannot be mistaken for religious faith. it is equally obvious that these distinctions were not always carefully observed, but were often confounded. therefore, in respect to the faith of primitive times, it is impossible to draw any broad, fixed lines and say conclusively that all on this side was consciously considered as fanciful play or emblem, all on that side as earnest fact. each particular in each case must be examined by itself and be decided on its own merits by the light and weight of the moral probabilities. for example, if there was any historic basis for the myth of herakles dragging cerberus out of hades, it was that this hero forcibly entered the mysteries and dragged out to light the enactor of the part of the three headed dog. the aged north man, committing martial suicide rather than die in his peaceful bed, undoubtedly accepted the ensanguined picture of valhalla as a truth. virgil, dismissing aneas from the tartarean realm through "the ivory gate by which false dreams and fictitious visions are wont to issue," plainly wrought as a poet on imaginative materials. it should be recollected that most of the early peoples had no rigid formularies of faith like the christian creeds. the writings preserved to us are often rather fragments of individual speculations and hopes than rehearsals of public dogmas. plato is far from revealing the contemporaneous belief of greece in the sense in which thomas aquinas reveals the contemporaneous belief of christendom. in egypt, persia, rome, among every cultured people, there were different classes of minds, the philosophers, the priests, the poets, the warriors, the common multitude, whose modes of thinking were in contrast, whose methods of interpreting their ancestral traditions and the phenomena of human destiny were widely apart, whose respective beliefs had far different boundaries. the openly skeptical euripides and lucian are to be borne in mind as well as the apparently credulous hesiod and homer. of course the fables of asop were not literally credited. neither, as a general thing, were the metamorphoses of ovid. with the ancients, while there was a general national cast of faith, there were likewise varieties of individual and sectarian belief and unbelief, skepticism and credulity, solemn reason and recreative fancy. the people of lystra, as we read in the acts of the apostles, actually thought barnabas and paul were zeus and hermes, and brought oxen and garlands to offer them the sacrifices appropriate to those deities. peisistratus obtained rule over athens by dressing a stately woman, by the name of phye, as athene, and passing off her commands as those of the tutelary goddess. herodotus ridicules the people for unsuspiciously accepting her. the incredibleness of a doctrine is no obstacle to a popular belief in it. whosoever thinks of the earnest reception of the dogma of transubstantiation the conversion of a wheaten wafer into the infinite god by nearly three quarters of christendom at this moment, must permit the paradox to pass unchallenged. doubtless the closing eye of many an expiring greek reflected the pitiless old oarsman plying his frost cold boat across the stygian ferry, and his failing ear caught the rush of the phlegethonian surge. it is equally certain that, at the same time, many another laughed at these things as childish fictions, fitted only to scare "the baby of a girl." stricken memory, yearning emotion, kindled fancy, a sensitive and timorous observation of natural phenomena, rustling leaves, wavering shadows, apparent effects of unknown causes, each is a superstitious mother of beliefs. the sonora indians say that departed souls dwell among the caves and rocks of the cliffs, and that the echoes often heard there are their voices. ruskin suggests that the cause of the greeks surrounding the lower world residence of persephone with poplar groves was that "the frailness, fragility, and inconstancy of the leafage of the poplar tree resembled the fancied ghost people." we can very easily imagine how, in the breeze at the entrance to some subterranean descent, "a ghostly rank of poplars, like a halted train of shades, trembled." the operations of fierce passions, hate, fright, and rage, in a brain boiling with blood and fire, make pictures which the savage afterwards holds in remembrance as facts. he does not by reflection consciously distinguish the internal acts and sights of the mind from objective verities. barbarians as travellers and psychologists have repeatedly observed usually pay great attention to the vagaries of madmen, the doings and utterances of the insane. these persons are regarded as possessed by higher beings. their words are oracles: the horrible shapes, the grotesque scenes, which their disordered and inflamed faculties conjure up, are eagerly caught at, and such accounts of them as they are able to make out are treasured up as revelations. this fact is of no slight importance as an element in the hinting basis of the beliefs of uncultivated tribes. many a vision of delirium, many a raving medley of insanity, has been accepted as truth. another phenomenon, closely allied to the former, has wrought in a similar manner and still more widely. it has been a common superstition with barbarous nations in every part of the world, from timbuctoo to siberia, to suppose that dreams are real lib. i. cap. . de boismont, rational history of hallucinations, ch. : of hallucinations considered in a psychological, historical, and religious point of view. adventures which the soul passes through, flying abroad while the body lies, a dormant shell, wrapped in slumber. the power of this influence in nourishing a copious credulity may easily be imagined. the origin of many notions touching a future state, found in literature, is to be traced to those rambling thoughts and poetic reveries with which even the most philosophical minds, in certain moods, indulge themselves. for example, sir isaac newton "doubts whether there be not superior intelligencies who, subject to the supreme, oversee and control the revolutions of the heavenly bodies." and goethe, filled with sorrow by the death of wieland, musing on the fate of his departed friend, solemnly surmised that he had become the soul of a world in some far realm of space. the same mental exercises which supply the barbarian superstitions reappear in disciplined minds, on a higher plane and in more refined forms. culture and science do not deliver us from all illusion and secure us sober views conformed to fact. still, what we think amid the solid realities of waking life, fancy in her sleep disjointedly reverberates from hollow fields of dream. the metaphysician or theologian, instead of resting contented with mere snatches and glimpses, sets himself deliberately to reason out a complete theory. in these elaborate efforts many an opinion and metaphor, plausible or absurd, sweet or direful, is born and takes its place. there is in the human mind a natural passion for congruity and completeness, a passion extremely fertile in complementary products. for example, the early jewish notion of literally sitting down at table with abraham and isaac and jacob, in the resurrection, was gradually developed by accretion of assisting particulars into all the details of a consummate banquet, at which leviathan was to be the fish, behemoth the roast, and so on. in the construction of doctrines or of discourses, one thought suggests, one premise or conclusion necessitates, another. this genetic application is sometimes plainly to be seen even in parts of incoherent schemes. for instance, the conception that man has returned into this life from anterior experiences of it is met by the opposing fact that he does not remember any preceding career. the explanatory idea is at once hit upon of a fountain of oblivion a river lethe from which the disembodied soul drinks ere it reappears. once establish in the popular imagination the conception of the olympian synod of gods, and a thousand dramatic tales of action and adventure, appropriate to the characters of the divine personages, will inevitably follow. the interest, cunning, and authority of priesthoods are another source of prevailing opinions concerning a life to come. many nations, early and late, have been quite under the spiritual direction of priests, and have believed almost every thing they said. numerous motives conspire to make the priest concoct fictions and exert his power to gain credence for them. he must have an alluringly colored elysium to reward his obedient disciples. when his teachings are rejected and his authority mocked, his class isolation and incensed pride find a natural satisfaction in threatening the reprobate aliens that a rain of fire will one day wash them down the smoking gulfs of sulphur. the maronites, a sect of catholic christians in syria, purchase of their priests a few yards of land in heaven, to secure a residence there when corrodi, gesch. des chiliasmns, th. i. abschn. : gastmahl des leviathan. they die. the siamese buddhists accumulate silver and bury it in secret, to supply the needs of the soul during its wandering in the separate state. "this foolish opinion robs the state of immense sums. the lords and rich men erect pyramids over these treasures, and for their greater security place them in charge of the talapoins!" when, for some reason or other, either as a matter of neatness and convenience, or as a preventive of mutual clawing, or for some to us unimaginable end, the authoritative skald wished to induce the northmen to keep their nails close cut, he devised the awful myth of the ship nagelfra, and made his raw minded people swallow it as truth. the same process was followed unquestionably in a thousand other cases, in different particulars of thought and aim, in different parts of the world. in a bird's eye survey of the broad field we have traversed, one cannot help noticing the marked influence of the present scenery and habits, history and associations, of a people in deciding the character of their anticipations of the future. the esquimaux paradise is surrounded by great pots full of boiled walrus meat. the turk's heaven is a gorgeously idealized pleasure garden or celestial harem. as the apparition of a man wanders into the next state, a shadow of his present state floats over into the future with him. the hereafter is the image flung by the now. heaven and hell are the upward and downward echoes of the earth. like the spectre of the brocken on the hartz mountains, our ideas of another life are a reflection of our present experience thrown in colossal on the cloud curtains of futurity. charles lamb, pushing this elucidating observation much further, says, "the shapings of our heavens are the modifications of our constitutions." a tribe of savages has been described who hoped to go after death to their forefathers in an under ground elysium whose glory consisted in eternal drunkenness, that being their highest conception of bliss and glory. what can be more piteous than the contemplation of those barbarians whose existence here is so wretched that even their imagination and faith have lost all rebound, and who conceive of the land of souls only as poorer and harder than this, expecting to be tasked and beaten there by stronger spirits, and to have nothing to eat? the relation of master and servant, the tyranny of class, is reflected over into the other life in those aristocratic notions which break out frequently in the history of our subject. the pharisees some of them, at least excluded the rabble from the resurrection. the peruvians confined their heaven to the nobility. the new zealanders said the souls of the atuas, the nobles, were immortal, but the cookees perished entirely. meiners declares that the russians, even so late as the times of peter the great, believed that only the czar and the boyars could reach heaven. it was almost a universal custom among savage nations when a chieftain died to slay his wives and servants, that their ghosts might accompany his to paradise, to wait on him there as here. even among the greeks, as bulwer has well remarked, "the hades of the ancients was not for the many; and the dwellers of elysium are chiefly confined to the oligarchy of earth." the coarse and selfish assumption on the part of man of superiority over woman, based on his brawniness and tyranny, has sometimes appeared in the form of an assertion that churchill, mt. lebanon, vol. iii. ch. . pallegoix, description du royaume de siam, ch. xx. p. . women have no souls, or at least cannot attain to the highest heaven possible for man. the former statement has been vulgarly attributed to the moslem creed, but with utter falsity. a pious and aged female disciple once asked mohammed concerning her future condition in heaven. the prophet replied, "there will not be any old women in heaven." she wept and bewailed her fate, but was comforted upon the gracious assurance from the prophet's lips, "they will all be young again when there." the buddhists relate that gotama once directed queen prajapati, his foster mother, to prove by a miracle the error of those who supposed it impossible for a woman to attain nirwana. she immediately made as many repetitions of her own form as filled the skies of all the sakwalas, and, after performing various wonders, died and rose into nirwana, leading after her five hundred virtuous princesses. how spontaneously the idiosyncrasies of men in the present are flung across the abysm into the future state is exhibited amusingly, and with a rough pathos, in an old tradition of a dialogue between saint patrick and ossian. the bard contrasts the apostle's pitiful psalms with his own magnificent songs, and says that the virtuous fingal is enjoying the rewards of his valor in the aerial existence. the saint rejoins, no matter for fingal's worth; being a pagan, assuredly he roasts in hell. in hot wrath the honest caledonian poet cries, "if the children of morni and the tribes of the clan ovi were alive, we would force brave fingal out of hell, or the same habitation should be our own." many of the most affecting facts and problems in human experience and destiny have found expression, hypothetic solution, in striking myths preserved in the popular traditions of nations. the mutual resemblances in these legends in some cases, though among far separated peoples, are very significant and impressive. they denote that, moved by similar motives and exercised on the same soliciting themes, human desire and thought naturally find vent in similar theories, stories, and emblems. the imagination of man, as gfrorer says, runs in ruts which not itself but nature has beaten. the instinctive shrinking from death felt by man would, sooner or later, quite naturally suggest the idea that death was not an original feature in the divine plan of the world, but a retributive additional discord. benignant nature meant her children should live on in happy contentment here forever; but sin and satan came in, and death was the vengeance that followed their doings. the persians fully developed this speculation. the hebrews either also originated it, or borrowed it from the persians; and afterwards the christians adopted it. traces of the same conception appear among the remotest and rudest nations. the caribbeans have a myth to the effect that the whole race of men were doomed to be mortal because carus, the first man, offended the great god tiri. the cherokees ascribe to the great spirit the intention of making men immortal on earth; but, they say, the sun when he passed over told them there was not room enough, and that people had better die! they also say that the creator attempted to make the first man and woman out of two stones, but failed, and afterwards fashioned them of clay; and therefore it is that they are perishable. the hardy, manual of buddhism, p. . logan, scottish gael, ch. xiv. squier, serpent symbol, p. , note c. indians of the oronoco declare that the great spirit dwelt for a while, at first, among men. as he was leaving them, he turned around in his canoe and said, "ye shall never die, but shall shed your skins." an old woman would not believe what he said; he therefore recalled his promise and vowed that they should die. the thought of more than one death that the composite man is simplified by a series of separating deaths has repeatedly found place. the new testament speaks of "the second death;" but that is a metaphorical phrase, descriptive, as there employed, of condemnation and suffering. it is a thought of plato that the deity put intellect in soul, and soul in a material envelope. following this hint, plutarch says, in his essay on the face in the moon, that the earth furnishes the body, the moon the soul, the sun the mind. the first death we die, he continues, makes us two from three; the second makes us one from two. the feejees tell how one of their warriors, seeing the spectre of a recently deceased enemy of his, threw his war club at it and killed it. they believed the spirit itself was thus destroyed. there is something pathetic in this accumulation of dissolution upon dissolution, this pursuit of death after death. we seem to hear, in this thin succession of the ghosts of ghosts, the fainter growing echoes of the body fade away. many narratives reveal the fond hovering of the human mind over the problem of avoiding death altogether. the hebrew scriptures have made us familiar with the translation of enoch and the ascension of elijah without tasting death. the hindus tell of divadassa, who, as a reward for his exceeding virtue and piety, was permitted to ascend to heaven alive. they also say that the good trisanku, having pleased a god, was elevated in his living body to heaven. the buddhists of ceylon preserve a legend of the elevation of one of the royal descendants of maha sammata to the superior heavens without undergoing death. there are buddhist traditions, furthermore, of four other persons who were taken up to indra's heaven in their bodies without tasting death, namely, the musician gattila, and the kings sadhina, nirni, and mandhatu. a beautiful myth of the translation of cyrus is found in firdousi's shah nameh: "ky khosru bow'd himself before his god: in the bright water he wash'd his head and his limbs; and he spake to himself the zend avesta's prayers; and he turn'd to the friends of his life and exclaim'd, 'fare ye well, fare ye well for evermore! when to morrow's sun lifts its blazing banner, and the sea is gold, and the land is purple, this world and i shall be parted forever. ye will never see me again, save in memory's dreams.'when the sun uplifted his head from the mountain, the king had vanish'd from the eyes of his nobles. they roam'd around in vain attempts to find him; vans kennedy, ancient and hindu mythology, p. . vishnu purana, p. . upham, sacred books of ceylon, vol. i. introduction, p. . hardy, manual of buddhism, p. , note. and every one, as he came back to the place, bade a long farewell to the king of the world. never hath any one seen such a marvel no, though he live long in the world that a man should go alive into the presence of god." there is a greek story that empedocles, "after a sacred festival, was drawn up to heaven in a splendor of celestial effulgence." philostratus relates a tradition of the cretans, affirming that, apollonius having entered a temple to worship, a sound was heard as of a chorus of virgins singing, "come from the earth; come into heaven; come." and he was taken up, never having been seen afterwards. here may be cited also the exquisite fable of endymion. zeus promised to grant what he should request. he begged for immortality, eternal sleep, and never fading youth. accordingly, in all his surpassing beauty he slumbers on the summit of latmus, where every night the enamored moon stoops to kiss his spotless forehead. one of the most remarkable fragments in the traditions of the american aborigines is that concerning the final departure of tarenyawagon, a mythic chief of supernatural knowledge and power, who instructed and united the iroquois. he sprang across vast chasms between the cliffs, and shot over the lakes with incredible speed, in a spotless white canoe. at last the master of breath summoned him. suddenly the sky was filled with melody. while all eyes were turned up, tarenyawagon was seen, seated in his snow white canoe, in mid air, rising with every burst of the heavenly music, till he vanished beyond the summer clouds, and all was still. another mythological method of avoidingdeath is by bathing in some immortal fountain. the greeks tell of glaucus, who by chance discovered and plunged in a spring of this charmed virtue, but was so chagrined at being unable to point it out to others that he flung himself into the ocean. he could not die, and so became a marine deity, and was annually seen off the headlands sporting with whales. the search for the "fountain of youth" by the spaniards who landed in florida is well known. how with a vain eagerness did ponce de leon, the battered old warrior, seek after the magic wave beneath which he should sink to emerge free from scars and stains, as fresh and fair as when first he donned the knightly harness! khizer, the wandering jew of the east, accompanied iskander zulkarnain (the oriental name for alexander the great) in his celebrated expedition to find the fountain of life. zulkarnain, coming to a place where there were three hundred and sixty fountains, despatched three hundred and sixty men, ordering each man to select one of the fountains in which to wash a dry salted fish wherewith he was furnished. the instant khizer's fish touched the water of the fountain which he had chosen, it sprang away, alive. khizer leaped in after it and drank. therefore he cannot die till the last trump sounds. meanwhile, clad in a green garb, he roams through the world, a personified spring of the year. lewes, biographical history of philosophy, vol. i. p. , ( st eng. edit.) schoolcraft, notes on the iroquois, ch. ix. adventures of hatim tai, p. . the same influences which have caused death to be interpreted as a punitive after piece in the creation, and which have invented cases wherein it was set aside, have also fabricated tales of returns from its shrouded realm. the thracian lover's harp, "drawing iron tears down pluto's cheek," won his mistress half way to the upper light, and would have wholly redeemed her had he not in impatience looked back. the grim king of hades, yielding to passionate entreaties, relented so far as to let the hapless protesilaus return to his mourning laodameia for three hours. at the swift end of this poor period he died again; and this time she died with him. erus, who was killed in battle, and timarchus, whose soul was rapt from him in the cave of trophonius, both returned, as we read in plato and plutarch, to relate with circumstantial detail what they saw in the other world. alcestis, who so nobly died to save her husband's life, was brought back from the region of the dead, by the interposition of herakles, to spend happy years with her grateful admetus. the cunning sisyphus, who was so notorious for his treachery, by a shrewd plot obtained leave, after his death, to visit the earth again. safely up in the light, he vowed he would stay; but old hermes psychopompus forcibly dragged him down. when columbus landed at san salvador, the natives thought he had descended from the sun, and by signs inquired if he had not. the hawaiians took captain cook for the god lono, who was once their king but was afterwards deified, and who had prophesied, as he was dying, that he should in after times return. te wharewara, a new zealand youth, relates a long account of the return of his aunt from the other world, with a minute description of her adventures and observations there. schoolcraft gives a picturesque narrative of a journey made by a wyandot brave to and from the land of souls. there is a group of strangely pleasing myths, closely allied to the two preceding classes, showing how the popular heart and imagination glorify their heroes, and, fondly believing them too godlike to die, fancy them only removed to some secret place, where they still live, and whence in the time of need they will come again to rescue or to bless their people. greece dreamed that her swift footed achilles was yet alive in the white island. denmark long saw king holger lingering on the old warrior cairns of his country. portugal trusted that her beauteous prince sebastian had escaped from the fatal field to the east, and would one day return to claim his usurped realm. so, too, of roderick the goth, who fell in disastrous battle with the arabs, the visiogothic traditions and faith of the people long insisted that he would reappear. the swiss herdsmen believe the founders of their confederacy still sleep in a cavern on the shores of lucerne. when switzerland is in peril, the three tells, slumbering there in their antique garb, will wake to save her. sweetly and often, the ancient british lays allude to the puissant arthur borne away to the mystic vales of avalon, and yet to be hailed in his native kingdom, excalibur once more gleaming in his hand. the strains of the troubadours swell and ring as they tell of charlemagne sleeping beneath shortland, traditions of the new zealanders, p. . history, &c. of indian tribes, part ii. p. . there is a fanatic sect of sebastianists in brazil now. see "brazil and the brazilians," by kidier and fletcher, pp. - . the untersberg, biding his appointed time to rise, resume his unrivalled sceptre, and glorify the frank race. and what grand and weird ballads picture great barbarossa seated in the vaults of kyffhauser, his beard grown through the stone table in front of him, tarrying till he may come forth, with his minstrels and knights around him, in the crisis hour of germany's fortunes! the indians of pecos, in new mexico, still anxiously expect the return of montezuma; while in san domingo, on the rio grande, a sentinel every morning ascends to the top of the highest house, at sunrise, and looks out eastward for the coming of the great chief. the peasants of brittany maintain as a recent traveller testifies that napoleon is still alive in concealment somewhere, and will one day be heard of or seen in pomp and victory. one other dead man there has been who was expected to return. the hated nero, the popular horror of whom shows itself in the shuddering belief expressed in the apocalypse and in the sibylline oracles that he was still alive and would reappear. alian, in his various history, recounts the following singular circumstances concerning the meropes who inhabited the valley of anostan. it would seem to prove that no possible conceit of speculation pertaining to our subject has been unthought of. a river of grief and a river of pleasure, he says, lapsed through the valley, their banks covered with trees. if one ate of the fruit growing on the trees beside the former stream, he burst into a flood of tears and wept till he died. but if he partook of that hanging on the shore of the latter, his bliss was so great that he forgot all desires; and, strangest of all, he returned over the track of life to youth and infancy, and then gently expired. he turned "into his yesterdays, and wander'd back to distant childhood, and went out to god by the gate of birth, not death." mohammed, during his night journey, saw, in the lower heaven, adam, the father of mankind, a majestic old man, with all his posterity who were destined for paradise on one side, and all who were destined for hell on the other. when he looked on the right he smiled and rejoiced, but as often as he looked on the left he mourned and wept. how finely this reveals the stupendous pathos there is in the theological conception of a federal head of humanity! the idea of a great terminal crisis is met with so often in reviewing the history of human efforts to grasp and solve the problem of the world's destiny, that we must consider it a normal concomitant of such theorizings. the mind reels and loses itself in trying to conceive of the everlasting continuance of the present order, or of any one fixed course of things, but finds relief in the notion of a revolution, an end, and a fresh start. the mexican cataclysm or universal crash, the close of the hindu calpa, the persian resurrection, the stoic conflagration, the scandinavian ragnarokur, the christian day of judgment, all embody this one thought. the drama of humanity is played out, the curtain falls, and when it rises again abbe domenech's seven years' residence in the great deserts of north america; vol. i. ch. viii. stuart, commentary on the apocalypse: excursus upon ch. xiii. v. . lib. iii. cap. . all is commenced afresh. the clock of creation runs down and has to be wound up anew. the brahmans are now expecting the tenth avatar of vishnu. the parsees look for sosiosch to come, to consummate the triumph of good, and to raise the dead upon a renewed earth. the buddhists await the birth of maitri buddha, who is tarrying in the dewa loka tusita until the time of his advent upon earth. the jews are praying for the appearance of the messiah. and many christians affirm that the second advent of jesus draws nigh. one more fact, even in a hasty survey of some of the most peculiar opinions current in bygone times as to a future life, can scarcely fail to attract notice. it is the so constant linking of the soul's fate with the skyey spaces and the stars, in fond explorings and astrologic dreams. nowhere are the kingly greatness and the immortal aspiring of man more finely shown. the loadstone of his destiny and the prophetic gravitation of his thoughts are upward, into the eternal bosom of heaven's infinite hospitality. "ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven! if in your bright leaves we would read the fate of men and empires, 'tis to be forgiven, that, in our aspirations to be great, our destinies o'erleap their mortal state and claim a kindred with you; for ye are a beauty and a mystery, and create in us such love and reverence from afar that fortune, fame, power, life, have named themselves a star." what an immeasurable contrast between the dying cherokee, who would leap into heaven with a war whoop on his tongue and a string of scalps in his hand, and the dying christian, who sublimely murmurs, "father, into thy hands i commit my spirit!" what a sweep of thought, from the poor woman whose pious notion of heaven was that it was a place where she could sit all day in a clean white apron and sing psalms, to the far seeing and sympathetic natural philosopher whose loving faith embraces all ranks of creatures and who conceives of paradise as a spiritual concert of the combined worlds with all their inhabitants in presence of their creator! yet from the explanatory considerations which have been set forth we can understand the derivation of the multifarious swarm of notions afloat in the world, as the fifteen hundred varieties of apple now known have all been derived from the solitary white crab. differences of fancy and opinion among men are as natural as fancies and opinions are. the mind of a people grows from the earth of its deposited history, but breathes in the air of its living literature. by his philosophic learning and poetic sympathy the cosmopolitan scholar wins the last victory of mind over matter, frees himself from local conditions and temporal tinges, and, under the light of universal truth, traces, through the causal influences of soil and clime and history, and the colored threads of great individualities, the formation of peculiar national creeds. through sense the barbarian mind feeds on the raw pabulum furnished by the immediate phenomena of the world and of its own life. through culture the civilized mind feeds on the elaborated substance of literature, schouw, earth, plants, and man, ch. xxx. science, and art. plants eat inorganic, animals eat organized, material. the ignorant man lives on sensations obtained directly from nature; the educated man lives also on sensations obtained from the symbols of other people's sensations. the illiterate savage hunts for his mental living in the wild forest of consciousness; the erudite philosopher lives also on the psychical stores of foregone men. note. to the ten instances, stated on pages , , of remarkable men who after their death were popularly imagined to be still alive, and destined to appear again, an eleventh may be added. the indians of pecos, in new mexico, anxiously expect the return of montezuma. in san domingo, on the rio grande, a sentinel every morning ascends to the roof of the highest house at sunrise and looks out eastward for the coming of the great chief. see the abbe domenech's "seven years' residence in the great deserts of north america," vol. ii. ch. viii. part third. new testament teachings concerning afuture life. chapter i. peter's doctrine of a future life. in entering upon an investigation of the thoughts of the new testament writers concerning the fate of man after his bodily dissolution, we may commence by glancing at the various allusions contained in the record to opinions on this subject prevalent at the time of the savior or immediately afterwards, but which formed no part of his religion, or were mixed with mistakes. there are several incidents recorded in the gospels which show that a belief in the transmigration of the soul was received among the jews. as jesus was passing near siloam with his disciples, he saw a man who had been blind from his birth; and the disciples said to him, "master, who did sin, this man or his parents, that he was born blind?" the drift of this question is, did the parents of this man commit some great crime, for which they were punished by having their child born blind, or did he come into the world under this calamity in expiation of the iniquities of a previous life? jesus denies the doctrine involved in this interrogation, at least, as far as his reply touches it at all; for he rarely enters into any discussion or refutation of incidental errors. he says, neither hath this man sinned nor his parents as the cause of his blindness; but the regular workings of the laws of god are made manifest in him: moreover, it is a providential occasion offered me that i should show the divinity of my mission by giving him sight. when herod heard of the miracles and the fame of jesus, he said, this is john the baptist, whom i beheaded: he is risen from the dead; and therefore mighty works are wrought by him. this brief statement plainly shows that the belief in the reappearance of a departed spirit, in bodily form, to run another career, was extant in judea at that period. the evangelists relate another circumstance to the same effect. jesus asked his disciples who the people thought he was. and they replied, some think that thou art john the baptist, some elias, and some jeremiah or some other of the old prophets, a forerunner of the messiah. then jesus asked, but who think ye that i am? and simon peter said, thou art the promised messiah himself. there was a prophetic tradition among the jews, drawn from the words of malachi, that before the messiah was revealed elias would appear and proclaim his coming. therefore, when the disciples of christ recognised him as the great anointed, they were troubled about this prophecy, and said to their master, why do the scribes say that elias must first come? he replies to them, in substance, it is even so: the prophet's words shall not fail: they are already fulfilled. but you must interpret the prophecy aright. it does not mean that the ancient prophet himself, in physical form, shall come upon earth, but that one with his office, in his spirit and power, shall go before me. if ye are able to understand the true import of the promise, it has been realized. john the baptist is the elias which was to come. the new testament, therefore, has allusions to the doctrine of transmigration, but gives it no warrant. the jewish expectations in regard to the messiah, the nature of his kingdom, and the events which they supposed would attend his coming or transpire during his reign, were the source and foundation of the phraseology of a great many passages in the christian scriptures and of the sense of not a few. the national ideas and hopes of the jews at that time were singularly intense and extensive. their influence over the immediate disciples of jesus and the authors of the new testament is often very evident in the interpretations they put upon his teachings, and in their own words. still, their intellectual and spiritual obtuseness to the true drift of their master's thoughts was not so great, their mistakes are neither so numerous nor so gross, as it is frequently supposed they were. this is proved by the fact that when they use the language of the messianic expectations of the jews in their writings they often do it, not in the material, but in a spiritual sense. when they first came under the instruction of jesus, they were fully imbued with the common notions of their nation and age. by his influence their ideas were slowly and with great difficulty spiritualized and made to approach his own in some degree. but it is unquestionably true that they never not even after his death arrived at a clear appreciation of the full sublimity, the pure spirituality, the ultimate significance, of his mission and his words. still, they did cast off and rise above the grossly carnal expectations of their countrymen. partially instructed in the spiritual nature of christ's kingdom, and partially biassed by their jewish prepossessions, they interpreted a part of his language figuratively, according to his real meaning, and a part of it literally, according to their own notions. the result of this was several doctrines neither taught by christ nor held by the jews, but formed by conjoining and elaborating a portion of the conceptions of both. these doctrines are to be found in the new testament; but it should be distinctly understood that the religion of christ is not responsible for them, is to be separated from them. the fundamental and pervading aim of that epistle of peter the genuineness of which is unquestioned and the same is true in a great degree of his speeches recorded in the acts of the apostles is to exhort the christians to whom it is written to purify themselves by faith, love, and good works; to stand firmly amidst all their tribulations, supported by the expectations and prepared to meet the conditions of a glorious life in heaven at the close of this life. eschatology, the doctrine of the last things, with its practical inferences, all inseparably interwoven with the mission of christ, forms the basis and scope of the whole document. peter believed that when christ had been put to death his spirit, surviving, descended into the separate state of departed souls. having cited from the sixteenth psalm the declaration, "thou wilt not leave my soul in the under world," he says it was a prophecy concerning christ, which was fulfilled in his resurrection. "the soul of this jesus was not left in the under world, but god hath raised him up, whereof we all are witnesses." when it is written that his soul was not left in the subterranean abode of disembodied spirits, of course the inference cannot be avoided that it was supposed to have been there for a time. in the next place, we are warranted by several considerations in asserting that peter believed that down there, in the gloomy realm of shades, were gathered and detained the souls of all the dead generations. we attribute this view to peter from the combined force of the following reasons: because such was, notoriously, the belief of his ancestral and contemporary countrymen; because he speaks of the resurrection of jesus as if it were a wonderful prophecy or unparalleled miracle, a signal and most significant exception to the universal law; because he says expressly of david that "he is not yet ascended into the heavens," and if david was still retained below, undoubtedly all were; because the same doctrine is plainly inculcated by other of the new testament writers; and, finally, because peter himself, in another part of this epistle, declares, in unequivocal terms, that the soul of christ went and preached to the souls confined in the under world, for such is the perspicuous meaning of the famous text, "being put to death in the body, but kept alive in the soul, in which also he went and preached [went as a herald] to the spirits in prison." the meaning we have attributed to this celebrated passage is the simple and consistent explanation of the words and the context, and is what must have been conveyed to those familiar with the received opinions of that time. accordingly, we find that, with the exception of augustine, it was so understood and interpreted by the whole body of the fathers. it is likewise so held now by an immense majority of the most authoritative modern commentators. rosenmuller says, in his commentary on this text, "that by the spirits in prison is meant souls of men separated from their bodies and detained as in custody in the under world, which the greeks call hades, the hebrews sheol, can hardly be doubted," (vix dubitari posse videtur.) such has ever been and still is the common conclusion of nearly all the best critical theologians, as volumes of citations might easily be made to show. the reasons which led augustine to give a different exposition of the text before us are such as should make, in this case, even his great name have little or no weight. he firmly held, as revealed and unquestionable truth, the whole doctrine which we maintain is implied in the present passage; but he was so perplexed by certain difficult queries as to locality and method and circumstance, addressed to him with reference to this text, that he, waveringly, and at last, gave it an allegorical interpretation. his exegesis is not only arbitrary and opposed to the catholic doctrine of the church; it is also so far fetched and forced as to be destitute of see, for example, clem. alex. stromata, lib. vi.; cyprian, test. adv. judaos, lib. ii. cap. , lactantius, divin. instit. lib. vii. cap. . epist. xcix. ibid. plausibility. he says the spirits in prison may be the souls of men confined in their bodies here in this life, to preach to whom christ came from heaven. but the careful reader will observe that peter speaks as if the spirits were collected and kept in one common custody, refers to the spirits of a generation long ago departed to the dead, and represents the preaching as taking place in the interval between christ's death and his resurrection. a glance from the eighteenth to the twenty second verse inclusive shows indisputably that the order of events narrated by the apostle is this: first, christ was put to death in the flesh, suffering for sins, the just for the unjust; secondly, he was quickened in the spirit; thirdly, he went and preached to the spirits in prison; fourthly, he rose from the dead; fifthly, he ascended into heaven. how is it possible for any one to doubt that the text under consideration teaches his subterranean mission during the period of his bodily burial? in the exposition of the apostles' creed put forth by the church of england under edward vi., this text in peter was referred to as an authoritative proof of the article on christ's descent into the under world; and when, some years later, thatreference was stricken out, notoriously it was not because the episcopal rulers were convinced of a mistake, but because they had become afraid of the associated romish doctrine of purgatory. if peter believed as he undoubtedly did that christ after his crucifixion descended to the place of departed spirits, what did he suppose was the object of that descent? calvin's theory was that he went into hell in order that he might there suffer vicariously the accumulated agonies due to the lost, thus placating the just wrath of the father and purchasing the release of the elect. a sufficient refutation of that dogma, as to its philosophical basis, is found in its immorality, its forensic technicality. as a mode of explaining the scriptures, it is refuted by the fact that it is nowhere plainly stated in the new testament, but is arbitrarily constructed by forced and indirect inferences from various obscure texts, which texts can be perfectly explained without involving it at all. for what purpose, then, was it thought that jesus went to the imprisoned souls of the under world? the most natural supposition the conception most in harmony with the character and details of the rest of the scheme and with the prevailing thought of the time would be that he went there to rescue the captives from their sepulchral bondage, to conquer death and the devil in their own domain, open the doors, break the chains, proclaim good tidings of coming redemption to the spirits in prison, and, rising thence, to ascend to heaven, preparing the way for them to follow with him at his expected return. this, indeed, is the doctrine of the judaizing apostles, the unbroken catholic doctrine of the church. paul writes to the colossians, and to the ephesians, that, when christ "had spoiled the principalities and powers" of the world of the dead, "he ascended up on high, leading a multitude of captives." peter himself declares, a little farther on in his epistle, "that the glad tidings were preached to the dead, that, though they had been persecuted and condemned in the flesh by the will of men, they might be blessed in the spirit by the will of god." christ fulfilled the law of see rosenmuller's explanation in hoc loco. death, descending to the place of separate spirits, that he might declare deliverance to the quick and the dead by coming triumphantly back and going into heaven, an evident token of the removal of the penalty of sin which hitherto had fatally doomed all men to the under world. let us see if this will not enable us to explain peter's language satisfactorily. death, with the lower residence succeeding it, let it be remembered, was, according to the jewish and apostolic belief, the fruit of sin, the judgment pronounced on sin. but christ, peter says, was sinless. "he was a lamb without blemish and without spot." "he did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth." therefore he was not exposed to death and the under world on his own account. consequently, when it is written that "he bore our sins in his own body on the tree," that "he suffered for sins, the just for the unjust," in order to give the words their clear, full meaning it is not necessary to attribute to them the sense of a vicarious sacrifice offered to quench the anger of god or to furnish compensation for a broken commandment; but this sense, namely, that although in his sinlessness he was exempt from death, yet he "suffered for us," he voluntarily died, thus undergoing for our sakes that which was to others the penalty of their sin. the object of his dying was not to conciliate the alienated father or to adjust the unbalanced law: it was to descend into the realm of the dead, heralding god's pardon to the captives, and to return and rise into heaven, opening and showing to his disciples the way thither. for, owing to his moral sinlessness, or to his delegated omnipotence, if he were once in the abode of the dead, he must return: nothing could keep him there. epiphanius describes the devil complaining, after christ had burst through his nets and dungeons, "miserable me! what shall i do? i did not know god was concealed in that body. the son of mary has deceived me. i imagined he was a mere man." in an apocryphal writing of very early date, which shows some of the opinions abroad at that time, one of the chief devils, after christ had appeared in hell, cleaving its grisly prisons from top to bottom and releasing the captives, is represented upbraiding satan in these terms: "o prince of all evil, author of death, why didst thou crucify and bring down to our regions a person righteous and sinless? thereby thou hast lost all the sinners of the world." again, in an ancient treatise on the apostles' creed, we read as follows: "in the bait of christ's flesh was secretly inserted the hook of his divinity. this the devil knew not, but, supposing he must stay when he was see king's history of the apostles' creed, d ed., pp. - . "the purpose of christ's descent was to undergo the laws of death, pass through the whole experience of man, conquer the devil, break the fetters of the captives, and fix a time for their resurrection." to the same effect, old hilary, bishop of poictiers, in his commentary on psalm cxxxviii., says, "it is a law of human necessity that, the body being buried, the soul should descend ad interos." ambrose, de fide, etc., lib. iv. cap. , declares that "no one ascended to heaven until christ, by the pledge of his resurrection, solved the chains of the under world and translated the souls of the pious." also cyril, bishop of jerusalem, in his fourth catechetical lecture, sect. , affirms "that christ descended into the under world to deliver those who, from adam downwards, had been imprisoned there." in assumptionem christi. evan. nicodemi, cap. xviii. devoured, greedily swallowed the corpse, and the bolts of the nether world were wrenched asunder, and the ensnared dragon himself dragged from the abyss." peter himself explicitly declares, "it was not possible that he should be held by death." theodoret says, "whoever denies the resurrection of christ rejects his death." if he died, he must needs rise again. and his resurrection would demonstrate the forgiveness of sins, the opening of heaven to men, showing that the bond which had bound in despair the captives in the regions of death for so many voiceless ages was at last broken. accordingly, "god, having loosed the chains of the under world, raised him up and set him at his own right hand." and now the question, narrowed down to the smallest compass, is this: what is the precise, real signification of the sacrificial and other connected terms employed by peter, those phrases which now, by the intense associations of a long time, convey so strong a calvinistic sense to most readers? peter says, "ye know that ye were redeemed with the precious blood of christ." if there were not so much indeterminateness of thought, so much unthinking reception of traditional, confused impressions of scripture texts, it would be superfluous to observe that by the word blood here, and in all parallel passages, is meant simply and literally death: the mere blood, the mere shedding of the blood, of christ, of course, could have no virtue, no moral efficacy, of any sort. when the infuriated jews cried, "his blood be on us, and on our children!" they meant, let the responsibility of his death rest on us. when the english historian says, "sidney gave his blood for the cause of civil liberty," the meaning is, he died for it. so, no one will deny, whenever the new testament speaks in any way of redemption by the blood of the crucified son of man, the unquestionable meaning is, redemption by his death. what, then, does the phrase "redemption by the death of christ" mean? let it be noted here let it be particularly noticed that the new testament nowhere in explicit terms explains the meaning of this and the kindred phrases: it simply uses the phrases without interpreting them. they are rhetorical figures of speech, necessarily, upon whatever theological system we regard them. no sinner is literally washed from his transgressions and guilt in the blood of the slaughtered lamb. these expressions, then, are poetic images, meant to convey a truth in the language of association and feeling, the traditionary language of imagination. the determination of their precise significance is wholly a matter of fallible human construction and inference, and not a matter of inspired statement or divine revelation. this is so, beyond a question, because, we repeat, they are figures of speech, having no direct explanation in the records where they occur. the calvinistic view of the atonement was a theory devised to explain this scriptural language. it was devised without sufficient consideration of the peculiar notions and spirit, the peculiar grade of culture, and the time, from which that language sprang. we freely admit the inadequacy of the unitarian ruffinus, expos. in symb. apost. comm. in tim. ii. . by a mistake and a false reading, the common version has "the pains of death," instead of "the chains of the under world." the sense requires the latter. besides, numerous manuscripts read [non ascii characters]. see, furthermore, rosenmuller's thorough criticism in loc. likewise see robinson's new testament greek lexicon, in [nac]. doctrine of the atonement to explain the figures of speech in which the apostles declare their doctrine. but, since the calvinistic scheme was devised by human thought to explain the new testament language, any scheme which explains that language as well has equal scripture claims to credence; any which better explains it, with sharper, broader meaning and fewer difficulties, has superior claims to be received. we are now prepared to state what we believe was the meaning originally associated with, and meant to be conveyed by, the phrases equivalent to "redemption by the death of christ." in consequence of sin, the souls of all mankind, after leaving the body, were shut up in the oblivious gloom of the under world. christ alone, by virtue of his perfect holiness, was not subject to any part of this fate. but, in fulfilment of the father's gracious designs, he willingly submitted, upon leaving the body, to go among the dead, that he might declare the good tidings to them, and burst the bars of darkness, and return to life, and rise into heaven as a pledge of the future translation of the faithful to that celestial world, instead of their banishment into the dismal bondage below, as hitherto. the death of christ, then, was the redemption of sinners, in that his death implied his ascent, "because it was not possible that he should be holden of death;" and his ascension visibly demonstrated the truth that god had forgiven men their sins and would receive their souls to his own abode on high. three very strong confirmations of the correctness of this interpretation are afforded in the declarations of peter. first, he never even hints, in the faintest manner, that the death of christ was to have any effect on god, any power to change his feeling or his government. it was not to make a purchasing expiation for sins and thus to reconcile god to us; but it was, by a revelation of the father's freely pardoning love, to give us penitence, purification, confidence, and a regenerating piety, and so to reconcile us to god. he says in one place, in emphatic words, that the express purpose of christ's death was simply "that he might lead us to god." in the same strain, in another place, he defines the object of christ's death to be "that we, being delivered from sins, should live unto righteousness." it is plain that in literal reality he refers our marvellous salvation to the voluntary goodness of god, and not to any vicarious ransom paid in the sacrifice of christ, when he says, "the god of all grace hath called us unto his eternal glory by jesus christ." the death of christ was not, then, to appease the fierce justice of god by rectifying the claims of his inexorable law, but it was to call out and establish in men all moral virtues by the power of faith in the sure gift of eternal life sealed to them through the ascension of the savior. for, secondly, the practical inferences drawn by peter from the death of christ, and the exhortations founded upon it, are inconsistent with the prevailing theory of the atonement. upon that view the apostle would have said, "christ has paid the debt and secured a seat in heaven for you, elected ones: therefore believe in the sufficiency of his offerings, and exult." but not so. he calls on us in this wise: "forasmuch as christ hath suffered for us, arm yourselves with the same mind." "christ suffered for you, leaving an example that ye should follow his steps." the whole burden of his practical argument based on the mission of christ is, the obligation of a religious spirit and of pure morals. he does not speak, as many modern sectarists have spoken, of the "filthy rags of righteousness;" but he says, "live no longer in sins," "have a meek and quiet spirit, which is in the sight of god of great price," "be ye holy in all manner of conversation," "purify your souls by obedience to the truth," "be ye a holy priesthood to offer up spiritual sacrifices," "have a good conscience," "avoid evil and do good," "above all, have fervent love, for love will cover a multitude of sins." no candid person can peruse the epistle and not see that the great moral deduced in it from the mission of christ is this: since heaven is offered you, strive by personal virtue to be prepared for it at the judgment which shall soon come. the disciple is not told to trust in the merits of jesus; but he is urged to "abstain from evil," and "sanctify the lord god in his heart," and "love the brethren," and "obey the laws," and "do well," "girding up the loins of his mind in sobriety and hope." this is not calvinism. the third fortification of this exposition is furnished by the following fact. according to our view, the death of christ is emphasized, not on account of any importance in itself, but as the necessary condition preliminary to his resurrection, the humiliating prelude to his glorious ascent into heaven. the really essential, significant thing is not his suffering, vicarious death, but his triumphing, typical ascension. now, the plain, repeated statements of peter strikingly coincide with this representation. he says, "god raised christ up from the dead, and gave him glory, [that is, received him into heaven,] that your faith and hope might be in god." again he writes, "blessed be god, who according to his abundant mercy hath begotten us again unto a lively hope by the resurrection of jesus christ from the dead unto an incorruptible inheritance in heaven." still again, he declares that "the figure of baptism, signifying thereby the answer of a good conscience toward god, saves us by the resurrection of jesus christ, who is gone into heaven." according to the commonly received doctrine, instead of these last words the apostle ought to have said, "saves us by the death of him who suffered in expiation of our sins." he does not say so. finally, in the intrepid speech that peter made before the jewish council, referring to their wicked crucifixion of jesus, he says, "him hath god raised up to his own right hand, to be a leader and a savior, to give repentance to israel and forgiveness of sins." how plainly remission of sins is here predicated, not through christ's ignominious suffering, but through his heavenly exaltation! that exaltation showed in dramatic proof that by god's grace the dominion of the lower world was about to be broken and an access to the celestial world to be vouchsafed. if christ bought off our merited punishment and earned our acceptance, then salvation can no more be "reckoned of grace, but of debt." but the whole new testament doctrine is, "that sinners are justified freely through the redemption that is in christ jesus." "the redemption that is in christ"! take these words literally, and they yield no intelligible meaning. the sense intended to be conveyed or suggested by them depends on interpretation; and here disagreement arises. the calvinist says they mean the redemption undertaken, achieved, by christ. we say they mean the redemption proclaimed, brought to light, by christ. the latter explanation is as close to the language as the former. neither is unequivocally established by the statement itself. we ought therefore to adopt the one which is at once most rational and plausible in itself, and most in harmony with the peculiar opinions and culture of the person by whom, and of the time when, the document was written. all these considerations, historical, philosophical, and moral, undeniably favor our interpretation, leaving nothing to support the other save the popular theological belief of modern protestant christendom, a belief which is the gradual product of a few great, mistaken teachers like augustine and calvin. we do not find the slightest difficulty in explaining sharply and broadly, with all its niceties of phraseology, each one of the texts urged in behalf of the prevalent doctrine of the atonement, without involving the essential features of that doctrine. three demonstrable assertions of fact afford us all the requisite materials. first, it was a prevalent belief with the jews, that, since death was the penalty of sin, the suffering of death was in itself expiatory of the sins of the dying man. lightfoot says, "it is a common and most known doctrine of the talmudists, that repentance and ritual sacrifice expiate some sins, death the rest. death wipes off all unexpiated sins." tholuck says, "it was a jewish opinion that the death of the just atoned for the people." he quotes from the talmud an explicit assertion to that effect, and refers to several learned authorities for further citations and confirmations. secondly, the apostles conceived christ to be sinless, and consequently not on his own account exposed to death and subject to hades. if, then, death was an atonement for sins, and he was sinless, his voluntary death was expiatory for the sins of the world; not in an arbitrary and unheard of way, according to the calvinistic scheme, but in the common way, according to a pharisaic notion. and thirdly, it was partly a jewish expectation concerning the messiah that he would, and partly an apostolic conviction concerning christ that he did, break the bolts of the old hadean prison and open the way for human ascent to heaven. as jerome says, "before christ abraham was in hell, after christ the crucified thief was in paradise;" for "until the advent of christ all alike went down into the under world, heaven being shut until christ threw aside the flaming sword that turned every way." these three thoughts that death is the expiatory penalty of sin, that christ was himself sinless, that he died as god's envoy to release the prisoners of gloom and be their pioneer to bliss leave nothing to be desired in explaining the sacrificial terms and kindred phrases employed by the apostles in reference to his mission. without question, peter, like his companions, looked for the speedy return of christ from heaven to judge all, and to save the worthy. indications of this belief are numerously afforded in his words. "the end of all things is at hand: be ye therefore sober and watch unto prayer." "you shall give account to him that is ready to judge the quick and the dead." here the common idea of that time namely, that the resurrection of the captives of the witsius, dissertatio de seculo hoc et futuro, sect. . lightfoot on matt. xii. . comm. on john i. . "god shall liberate the israelites from the under world." bertholdt's christologia judaorum, sect. xxxiv., (de descensu messia ad inferos,) note . "the captives shall ascend from the under world, shechinah at their head." schoettgen de messia, lib. vi. cap. , sect. . see his letter to heliodorus, epiat. xxxv., benedict. ed. comm. in eccles. cap. iii. , et cap. ix. under world would occur at the return of christ is undoubtedly implied. "salvation is now ready to be revealed in the last time." "that your faith may be found unto praise and honor and glory at the appearing of jesus christ." "be sober, and hope to the end for the grace that is to be brought unto you at the revelation of jesus christ." "be ye examples to the flock, and when the chief shepherd shall appear ye shall receive an unfading crown of glory." "god shall send jesus christ, . . . whom the heavens must receive until the times of the restitution of all things." it is evident that the author of these passages expected the second coming of the lord jesus to consummate the affairs of his kingdom. if the apostle had formed definite conclusions as to the final fate of unbelieving, wicked, reprobate men, he has not stated them. he undeniably implies certain general facts upon the subject, but leaves all the details in obscurity. he adjures his readers with exceeding earnestness he over and over again adjures them to forsake every manner of sinful life, to strive for every kind of righteous conversation, that by faith and goodness they may receive the salvation of their souls. he must have supposed an opposite fate in some sort to impend over those who did otherwise, rejecting christ, "revelling in lasciviousness and idolatry." everywhere he makes the distinction between the faithful and the wicked prominent, and presents the idea that christ shall come to judge them both, and shall reward the former with gladness, crowns, and glory; while it is just as clearly implied as if he had said it that the latter shall be condemned and punished. when a judge sits in trial on the good and the bad, and accepts those, plainly the inference is that he rejects these, unless the contrary be stated. what their doom is in its nature, what in its duration, is neither declared, nor inferrible from what is declared. all that the writer says on this point is substantially repeated or contained in the fourth chapter of his epistle, from verses to . a slight explanatory paraphrase of it will make the position clear so far as it can be made clear. "christian believers, in the fiery trials which are to try you, stand firm, even rejoicing that you are fellow sufferers with christ, a pledge that when his glory is revealed you shall partake of it with him. see to it that you are free from crime, free from sins for which you ought to suffer; then, if persecuted and slain for your christian profession and virtues, falter not. the terrible time preceding the second advent of your master is at hand. the sufferings of that time will begin with the christian household; but how much more dreadful will be the sufferings of the close of that time among the disobedient that spurn the gospel of god! if the righteous shall with great difficulty be snatched from the perils and woes encompassing that time, surely it will happen very much worse with ungodly sinners. therefore let all who suffer in obedience to god commit the keeping of their souls to him in well doing." the souls of men were confined in the under world for sin. christ came to turn men from sin and despair to holiness and a reconciling faith in god. he went to the dead to declare to them the good tidings of pardon and approaching deliverance through the free grace of god. he rose into heaven to demonstrate and visibly exhibit the redemption of men from the under world doom of sinners. he was soon to return to the earth to complete the unfinished work of his commissioned kingdom. his accepted ones should then be taken to glory and reward. the rejected ones should their fate is left in gloom, without a definite clew. chapter ii. doctrine of a future life in the epistle to the hebrews. the epistle to the hebrews was written by some person who was originally a jew, afterwards a zealous christian. he was unquestionably a man of remarkable talent and eloquence and of lofty religious views and feelings. he lived in the time of the immediate followers of jesus, and apparently was acquainted with them. the individual authorship it is now impossible to determine with certainty. many of the most learned, unprejudiced, and able critics have ascribed it to apollos, an alexandrian jew, a compeer of paul and a fellow citizen of philo. this opinion is more probable than any other. indeed, so numerous are the resemblances of thoughts and words in the writings of philo to those in this epistle, that even the wild conjecture has been hazarded that philo himself at last became a christian and wrote to his hebrew countrymen the essay which has since commonly passed for paul's. no one can examine the hundreds of illustrations of the epistle gathered from philo by carpzov, in his learned but ill reasoned work, without being greatly impressed. the supposition which has repeatedly been accepted and urged, that this composition was first written in hebrew, and afterwards translated into greek by another person, is absurd, in view of the masterly skill and eloquence, critical niceties, and felicities in the use of language, displayed in it. we could easily fill a paragraph with the names of those eminent in the church such as tertullian, hippolytus, erasmus, luther, le clerc, and neander who have concluded that, whoever the author of the epistle to the hebrews was, he was not paul. the list of those names would reach from the egyptian origen, whose candor and erudition were without parallel in his age, to the german bleek, whose masterly and exhaustive work is a monument of united talent and toil, leaving little to be desired. it is not within our present aim to argue this point: we will therefore simply refer the reader to the thorough and unanswerable discussion and settlement of it by norton. the general object of the composition is, by showing the superiority of the christian system to the hebrew, to arm the converts from judaism to whom it is addressed against the temptations to desert the fulfilling faith of christ and to return to the emblematic faith of their fathers. this aim gives a pervading cast and color to the entire treatment to the reasoning and especially to the chosen imagery of the epistle. omitting, for the most part, whatever is not essentially interwoven with the subject of death, the resurrection, and future existence, and with the mission of christ in relation to those subjects, we advance to the consideration of the views which the epistle presents or implies concerning those points. it is to be premised that we are forced to construct from fragments and hints the theological fabric that stood in the mind of the writer. the suggestion also is quite obvious that, since the letter is addressed solely to the hebrews and describes christianity as the completion of christian examiner, vols. for . judaism, an acquaintance with the characteristic hebrew opinions and hopes at that time may be indispensable for a full comprehension of its contents. the view of the intrinsic nature and rank of christ on which the epistle rests seems very plainly to be that great logos doctrine which floated in the philosophy of the apostolic age and is so fully developed in the gospel of john: "the logos of god, alive, energetic, irresistibly piercing, to whose eyes all things are bare and open;" "first begotten of god;" "faithful to him that made him;" inferior to god, superior to all beside; "by whom god made the worlds;" whose seat is at the right hand of god, the angels looking up to him, and "the world to come put in subjection to him." the author, thus assuming the immensely super human rank and the pre existence of christ, teaches that, by the good will of god, he descended to the world in the form of a man, to save them that were without faith and in fear, them that were lost through sin. god "bringeth in the first begotten into the world." "when he cometh into the world he saith, sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not, but a body hast thou prepared for me." "jesus was made a little while inferior to the angels." "forasmuch, then, as the children are partakers of flesh and blood, he also himself likewise partook of the same;" that is, in order to pass through an experience like that of those whom he wished to deliver, he assumed their nature. "he taketh not hold of angels, but he taketh hold of the seed of abraham:" in other words, he aimed not to assist angels, but men. these passages, taken in connection with the whole scope and drift of the document in which they are found, declare that jesus was a spirit in heaven, but came to the earth, taking upon him a mortal frame of flesh and blood. why he did this is the question that naturally arises next. we do not see how it is possible for any person to read the epistle through intelligently, in the light of an adequate knowledge of contemporary hebrew opinions, and not perceive that the author's answer to that inquiry is, that christ assumed the guise and fate of humanity in order to die; and died in order to rise from the dead; and rose from the dead in order to ascend to heaven; and ascended to heaven in order to reveal the grace of god opening the way for the celestial exaltation and blessedness of the souls of faithful men. we will commence the proof and illustration of these statements by bringing together some of the principal passages in the epistle which involve the objects of the mission of christ, and then stating the thought that chiefly underlies and explains them. "we see jesus who was made a little while inferior to the angels, in order that by the kindness of god he might taste death for every man through the suffering of death crowned with glory and honor." with the best critics, we have altered the arrangement of the clauses in the foregoing verse, to make the sense clearer. the exact meaning is, that the exaltation of christ to heaven after his death authenticated his mission, showed that his death had a divine meaning for men; that is, showed that they also should rise to heaven. "when he had by himself made a purification of our sins, he sat down at the right hand of the majesty on high." "for this cause he is the mediator of the new covenant, that, his death having occurred, (for the redemption of the transgressions under the first covenant,) they which are called might enter upon possession of the promised eternal inheritance." the force of this last passage, with its context, turns on the double sense of the greek word for covenant, which likewise means a will. several statements in the epistle show the author's belief that the subjects of the old dispensation had the promise of immortal life in heaven, but had never realized the thing itself. now, he maintains the purpose of the new dispensation to be the actual revelation and bestowment of the reality which anciently was only promised and typically foreshadowed; and in the passage before us he figures christ the author of the christian covenant as the maker of a will by which believers are appointed heirs of a heavenly immortality. he then following the analogy of testamentary legacies and legatees describes those heirs as "entering on possession of that eternal inheritance" "by the death of the testator." he was led to employ precisely this language by two obvious reasons: first, for the sake of that paronomasia of which he was evidently fond; secondly, by the fact that it really was the death of christ, with the succeeding resurrection and ascension, which demonstrated both the reality of the thing promised in the will and the authority of the testator to bestow it. all the expressions thus far cited, and kindred ones scattered through the work, convey a clear and consistent meaning, with sharp outlines and coherent details, if we suppose their author entertained the following general theory; and otherwise they cannot be satisfactorily explained. a dreadful fear of death, introduced by sin, was tyrannizing over men. in consequence of conscious alienation from god through transgressions, they shuddered at death. the writer does not say what there was in death that made it so feared; but we know that the prevailing hebrew conception was, that death led the naked soul into the silent, dark, and dreary region of the under world, a doleful fate, from which they shrank with sadness at the best, guilt converting that natural melancholy into dread foreboding. in the absence of any evidence or presumption whatever to the contrary, we are authorized, nay, rather forced, to conclude that such a conception is implied in the passages we are considering. now, the mission of jesus was to deliver men from that fear and bondage, by assuring them that god would forgive sin and annul its consequence. instead of banishing their disembodied spirits into the sepulchral sheol, he would take them to himself into the glory above the firmament. this aim christ accomplished by literally exemplifying the truths it implies; that is, by personally assuming the lot of man, dying, rising from among the spirits of the dead, and ascending beyond the veil into heaven. by his death and victorious ascent "he purged our sins," "redeemed transgressions," "overthrew him that has the power of death," in the sense that he thereby, as the writer thought, swept away the supposed train of evils caused by sin, namely, all the concomitants of a banishment after death into the cheerless subterranean empire. it will be well now to notice more fully, in the author's scheme, the idea that christ did locally ascend into the heavens, "into the presence of god," "where he ever liveth," and xi. , , et al. see chap. x. , where to receive the promise most plainly means to obtain the thing promised, as it does several times in the epistle. so paul, in his speech at antioch, (acts xiii. , ,) says, "we declare unto you glad tidings, how that the promise which was made unto the fathers, god hath fulfilled the same unto us their children, in that he hath raised up jesus again" that by this ascent he for the first time opened the way for others to ascend to him where he is, avoiding the doom of hades. "we have a great high priest, who has passed through the heavens, jesus, the son of god." "christ is not entered into the most holy place, made with hands, the figure of the true, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of god for us." indeed, that jesus, in a material and local sense, rose to heaven, is a conception fundamental to the epistle and prominent on all its face. it is much more necessary for us to show that the author believed that the men who had previously died had not risen thither, but that it was the savior's mission to open the way for their ascension. it is extremely significant, in the outset, that jesus is called "the first leader and the bringer to the end of our faith;" for the words in this clause which the common version renders "author" and "finisher" mean, from their literal force and the latent figure they contain, "a guide who runs through the course to the goal so as to win and receive the prize, bringing us after him to the same consummation." still more striking is the passage we shall next adduce. having enumerated a long list of the choicest worthies of the old testament, the writer adds, "these all, having obtained testimony through faith, did not realize the promise, god having provided a better thing for us, that they without us should not be perfected," should not be brought to the end, the end of human destiny, that is, exaltation to heaven. undoubtedly the author here means to say that the faithful servants of god under the mosaic dispensation were reserved in the under world until the ascension of the messiah. augustine so explains the text in hand, declaring that christ was the first that ever rose from the under world. the same exposition is given by origen, and indeed by nearly every one of the fathers who has undertaken to give a critical interpretation of the passage. this doctrine itself was held by catholic christendom for a thousand years; is now held by the roman, greek, and english churches; but is, for the most part, rejected or forgotten by the dissenting sects, from two causes. it has so generally sunk out of sight among us, first, from ignorance, ignorance of the ancient learning and opinions on which it rested and of which it was the necessary completion; secondly, from rationalistic speculations, which, leading men to discredit the truth of the doctrine, led them arbitrarily to deny its existence in the scripture, making them perversely force the texts that state it and wilfully blink the texts that hint it. whether this be a proper and sound method of proceeding in critical investigations any one may judge. to us it seems equally unmanly and immoral. we know of but one justifiable course, and that is, with patience, with earnestness, and with all possible aids, to labor to discern the real and full meaning of the words according to the understanding and intention of the author. we do so elsewhere, regardless of consequences. no other method, in the case of the scriptures, is exempt from guilt. the meaning (namely, to bring to the end) which we have above attributed to the word [nac](translated in the common version to make perfect) is the first meaning and the robinson's lexicon, first edition, under [nac]; also see philo, cited there. ch. x. . epist. clxiv. sect. ix., ed. benedictina. de principiis, lib. ii. cap. . etymological force of the word. that we do not refine upon it over nicely in the present instance, the following examples from various parts of the epistle unimpeachably witness. "for it was proper that god, in bringing many sons unto glory, should make him who was the first leader of their salvation perfect [reach the end] through sufferings;" that is, should raise him to heaven after he had passed through death, that he, having himself arrived at the glorious heavenly goal of human destiny, might bring others to it. "christ, being made perfect," (brought through all the intermediate steps to the end,) "became the cause of eternal salvation to all them that obey him; called of god an high priest." the context, and the after assertion of the writer that the priesthood of jesus is exercised in heaven, show that the word "perfected," as employed here, signifies exalted to the right hand of god. "perfection" (bringing unto the end) "was not by the levitical priesthood." "the law perfected nothing, but it was the additional introduction of a better hope by which we draw near unto god." "the law maketh men high priests which have infirmity, which are not suffered to continue, by reason of death; but the word of the oath after the law maketh the son perfect for evermore," bringeth him to the end, namely, an everlasting priesthood in the heavens. that christian believers are not under the first covenant, whereby, through sin, men commencing with the blood of abel, the first death were doomed to the lower world, but are under the second covenant, whereby, through the gracious purpose of god, taking effect in the blood of christ, the first resurrection, they are already by faith, in imagination, translated to heaven, this is plainly what the author teaches in the following words: "ye are not come to the palpable mount that burneth with fire, and to blackness and tempest, where so terrible was the sight that moses exceedingly trembled, but ye are come to mount zion, to the heavenly jerusalem, and to an innumerable company of angels, and to god, and to the spirits of the perfected just, and to jesus, the mediator of the new covenant, and to the lustral blood which speaks better things than that of abel." the connection here demonstrates that the souls of the righteous are called "perfected," as having arrived at the goal of their destiny in heaven. again, the author, when speaking of the sure and steadfast hope of eternal life, distinguishes jesus as a [non-ascii characters], one who runs before as a scout or leader: "the forerunner, who for us has entered within the veil," that is, has passed beyond the firmament into the presence of god. the jews called the outward or lowermost heaven the veil. but the most conclusive consideration upon the opinion we are arguing for and it must be entirely convincing is to be drawn from the first half of the ninth chapter. to appreciate it, it is requisite to remember that the rabbins with whose notions our author was familiar and some of which he adopts in his reasoning were accustomed to compare the jewish temple and city with the temple and city of jehovah above the sky, considering the former as miniature types of the latter. this mode of thought was originally learned by philosophical rabbins from the platonic doctrine of ideas, without doubt, and was entertained figuratively, spiritually; but in the unreflecting, popular mind the hebraic views to which it gave rise were soon grossly materialized and located. they also derived the same conception from god's command to moses when he was about to build the tabernacle: schoettgen, hora hebraica et talmudica in cor. xii. . "see thou make all things according to the pattern showed to thee in the mount." they refined upon these words with many conceits. they compared the three divisions of the temple to the three heavens: the outer court of the gentiles corresponded with the first heaven, the court of the israelites with the second heaven, and the holy of holies represented the third heaven or the very abode of god. josephus writes, "the temple has three compartments: the first two for men, the third for god, because heaven is inaccessible to men." now, our author says, referring to this triple symbolic arrangement of the temple, "the priests went always into the first tabernacle, accomplishing the service, but into the second went the high priest alone, once every year, not without blood; this, which was a figure for the time then present, signifying that the way into the holiest of all was not yet laid open; but christ being come, an high priest of the future good things, by his own blood he entered in once into the holy place, having obtained eternal deliverance." the points of the comparison here instituted are these: on the great annual day of atonement, after the death of the victim, the hebrew high priest went into the adytum of the earthly temple, but none could follow; jesus, the christian high priest, went after his own death into the adytum of the heavenly temple, and enabled the faithful to enter there after him. imagery like the fore going, which implies a sanctum sanctorum above, the glorious prototype of that below, is frequent in the talmud. to remove all uncertainty from the exposition thus presented, if any doubt linger, it is only necessary to cite one more passage from the epistle. "we have, therefore, brethren, by the blood of jesus, leading into the holiest, a free road, a new and blessed road, which he hath inaugurated for us through the veil, that is to say, through his flesh." as there was no entrance for the priest into the holiest of the temple save by the removal of the veil, so christ could not enter heaven except by the removal of his body. the blood of jesus here, as in most cases in the new testament, means the death of jesus, involving his ascension. chrysostom, commenting on these verses, says, in explanation of the word [non-ascii characters], "christ laid out the road and was the first to go over it. the first way was of death, leading [ad inferos] to the under world; the other is of life," leading to heaven. the interpretation we have given of these passages reconciles and blends that part of the known contemporary opinions which applies to them, and explains and justifies the natural force of the imagery and words employed. its accuracy seems to us unquestionable by any candid person who is competently acquainted with the subject. the substance of it is, that jesus came from god to the earth as a man, laid down his life that he might rise from the dead into heaven again, into the real sanctum sanctorum of the universe, thereby proving that faithful believers also shall rise thither, being thus delivered, after the pattern of his evident deliverance, from the imprisonment of the realm of death below. we now proceed to quote and unfold five distinct passages, not yet brought forward, from the epistle, each of which proves that we are not mistaken in attributing to the writer antiq. lib. iii. cap. , sect. ; ibid. cap. , sect. . philo declares, "the whole universe is one temple of god, in which the holiest of all is heaven." de monarchia, p. , ed. mangey. schoettgen, dissertatio de hierosolyma coelesti, cap. , sect. . of it the above stated general theory. in the first verse which we shall adduce it is certain that the word "death" includes the entrance of the soul into the subterranean kingdom of ghosts. it is written of christ that, "in the days of his flesh, when he had earnestly prayed to him that was able to do it, to save him from death, he was heard," and was advanced to be a high priest in the heavens, "was made higher than the heavens." now, obviously, god did not rescue christ from dying, but he raised him, [non-ascii characters], from the world of the dead. so chrysostom declares, referring to this very text, "not to be retained in the region of the dead, but to be delivered from it, is virtually not to die." moreover, the phrase above translated "to save him from death" may be translated, with equal propriety, "to bring him back safe from death." the greek verb [non-ascii characters], to save, is often so used to denote the safe restoration of a warrior from an incursion into an enemy's domain. the same use made here by our author of the term "death" we have also found made by philo judaus. "the wise," philo says, "inherit the olympic and heavenly region to dwell in, always studying to go above; the bad inherit the innermost parts of the under world, always laboring to die." the antithesis between going above and dying, and the mention of the under world in connection with the latter, prove that to die here means, or at least includes, going below after death. the septuagint version of the old testament twice translates sheol by the word "death." the hebrew word for death, maveth, is repeatedly used for the abode of the dead. and the nail of the interpretation we are urging is clenched by this sentence from origen: "the under world, in which souls are detained by death, is called death." bretschneider cites nearly a dozen passages from the new testament where, in his judgment, death is used to denote hades. again: we read that christ took human nature upon him "in order that by means of [his own] death he might render him that has the power of death that is, the devil idle, and deliver those who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage." it is apparent at once that the mere death of christ, so far from ending the sway of death, would be giving the grim monster a new victory, incomparably the most important he had ever achieved. therefore, the only way to make adequate sense of the passage is to join with the savior's death what followed it, namely, his resurrection and ascension. it was the hebrew belief that sin, introduced by the fraud of the devil, was the cause of death, and the doomer of the disembodied spirits of men to the lower caverns of darkness and rest. they personified death as king, tyrannizing over mankind; and, unless in severe affliction, they dreaded the hour when they must lie down under his sceptre and sink into his voiceless kingdom of shadows. christ broke the power of satan, closed his busy reign, rescued the captive souls, and relieved the timorous hearts of the faithful, by rising triumphantly from homil. epist. ad heb. in hoc loc. quod a deo mitt. somn., p. , ed. mangey. sam. xxii. ; prov. xxiii. . ps. ix. . prov. vii, . comm. in epist. ad rom., lib. vi. cap. , sect. .: "inferni locus in quo anima detinebantur a morte mors appellatur." the long bound dominion of the grave, and ascending in a new path of light, pioneering the saints to immortal glory. in another part of the epistle, the writer, having previously explained that as the high priest after the death of the expiatory goat entered the typical holy place in the temple, so christ after his own death entered the true holy place in the heavens, goes on to guard against the analogy being forced any further to deny the necessity of christ's service being repeated, as the priest's was annually repeated, saying, "for then he must have died many times since the foundation of the world; but, on the contrary, [it suffices that] once, at the close of the ages, through the sacrifice of himself he hath appeared [in heaven] for the abrogation of sin." the rendering and explanation we give of this language are those adopted by the most distinguished commentators, and must be justified by any one who examines the proper punctuation of the clauses and studies the context. the simple idea is, that, by the sacrifice of his body through death, christ rose and showed himself in the presence of god. the author adds that this was done "unto the annulling of sin." it is with reference to these last words principally that we have cited the passage. what do they mean? in what sense can the passing of christ's soul into heaven after death be said to have done away with sin? in the first place, the open manifestation of christ's disenthralled and risen soul in the supernal presence of god did not in any sense abrogate sin itself, literally considered, because all kinds of sin that ever were upon the earth among men before have been ever since, and are now. in the second place, that miraculous event did not annul and remove human guilt, the consciousness of sin and responsibility for it, because, in fact, men feel the sting and load of guilt now as badly as ever; and the very epistle before us, as well as the whole new testament, addresses christians as being exposed to constant and varied danger of incurring guilt and woe. but, in the third place, the ascension of jesus did show very plainly to the apostles and first christians that what they supposed to be the great outward penalty of sin was annulled; that it was no longer a necessity for the spirit to descend to the lower world after death; that fatal doom, entailed on the generations of humanity by sin, was now abrogated for all who were worthy. such, we have not a doubt, is the true meaning of the declaration under review. this exposition is powerfully confirmed by the two succeeding verses, which we will next pass to examine. "as it is appointed for men to die once, but after this the judgment, so christ, having been offered once to bear the sins of many, shall appear a second time, without sin, for salvation unto those expecting him." man dies once, and then passes into that state of separate existence in the under world which is the legal judgment for sin. christ, taking upon himself, with the nature of man, the burden of man's lot and doom, died once, and then rose from the dead by the gracious power of the father, bearing away the outward penalty of sin. he will come again into the world, uninvolved, the next time, with any of the accompaniments or consequences of sin, to save them that look for him, and victoriously lead them into heaven with him. in this instance, as all through the writings of the apostles, griesbach in loc.; and rosenmuller. sin, death, and the under world are three segments of a circle, each necessarily implying the others. the same remark is to be made of the contrasted terms righteousness, grace, immortal life above the sky; the former being traced from the sinful and fallen adam, the latter from the righteous and risen christ. the author says, "if the blood of bulls and goats sanctifies unto the purification of the flesh, how much more shall the blood of christ, who having an eternal spirit offered himself faultless to god, cleanse your consciousness!" the argument, fully expressed, is, if the blood of perishable brutes cleanses the body, the blood of the immortal christ cleanses the soul. the implied inference is, that as the former fitted the outward man for the ritual privileges of the temple, so the latter fitted the inward man for the spiritual privileges of heaven. this appears clearly from what follows in the next chapter, where the writer says, in effect, that "it is not possible for the blood of bulls and of goats to take away sins, however often it is offered, but that christ, when he had offered one sacrifice for sins, forever sat down at the right hand of god." the reason given for the efficacy of christ's offering is that he sat down at the right hand of god. when the chosen animals were sacrificed for sins, they utterly perished, and there was an end. but when christ was offered, his soul survived and rose into heaven, an evident sign that the penalty of sin, whereby men were doomed to the under world after death, was abolished. this perfectly explains the language; and nothing else, it seems to us, can perfectly explain it. that christ would speedily reappear from heaven in triumph, to judge his foes and save his disciples, was a fundamental article in the primitive church scheme of the last things. there are unmistakable evidences of such a belief in our author. "for yet a little while, and the coming one will come, and will not delay." "provoke one another unto love and good works, . . . so much the more as ye see the day drawing near." there is another reference to this approaching advent, which, though obscure, affords important testimony. jesus, when he had ascended, "sat down at the right hand of god, henceforward waiting till his enemies be made his footstool." that is to say, he is tarrying in heaven for the appointed time to arrive when he shall come into the world again to consummate the full and final purposes of his mission. we may leave this division of the subject established beyond all question, by citing a text which explicitly states the idea in so many words: "unto them that look for him he shall appear the second time." that expectation of the speedy second coming of the messiah which haunted the early christians, therefore, unquestionably occupied the mind of the composer of the epistle to the hebrews. if the writer of this epistolary essay had a firm and detailed opinion as to the exact fate to be allotted to wicked and persistent unbelievers, his allusions to that opinion are too few and vague for us to determine precisely what it was. we will briefly quote the substance of what he says upon the subject, and add a word in regard to the inferences it does, or it does not, warrant. "if under the mosaic dispensation every transgression received a just recompense, how shall we escape if we neglect so great a salvation, first proclaimed by the neander, planting and training of the church, ryland's trans. p. . [non-ascii characters] is often used in the sense of with, or possessing. see wahl's new testament lexicon. lord?" "as the israelites that were led out of egypt by moses, on account of their unbelief and provocations, were not permitted to enter the promised land, but perished in the wilderness, so let us fear, lest, a promise being left us of entering into his rest, any of you should seem to come short of it." christ "became the cause of eternal salvation to all them that obey him." "he hath brought unto the end forever them that are sanctified." it will be observed that these last specifications are partial, and that nothing is said of the fate of those not included under them. "it is impossible for those who were once enlightened, . . . if they shall fall away, to renew them again unto repentance. . . . but, beloved, we are persuaded better things of you, even things that accompany salvation." "we are not of them who draw back unto the destruction, but of them who believe unto the preservation, of the soul." "if we sin wilfully after we have received the knowledge of the truth, there is no longer left a sacrifice for sins, but a certain fearful looking for of judgment, and of fiery indignation to devour the adversaries." "it is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living god." "if they escaped not who refused him that spoke on earth, [moses,] much more we shall not escape if we turn away from him that speaks from heaven," (christ.) in view of the foregoing passages, which represent the entire teaching of the epistle in relation to the ultimate destination of sinners, we must assert as follows. first, the author gives no hint of the doctrine of literal torments in a local hell. secondly, he is still further from favoring nay, he unequivocally denies the doctrine of unconditional, universal salvation. thirdly, he either expected that the reprobate would be absolutely destroyed at the second coming of christ, which does not seem to be declared; or that they would be exiled forever from the kingdom of glory into the sad and slumberous under world, which is not clearly implied; or that they would be punished according to their evil, and then, restored to divine favor, be exalted into heaven with the original elect, which is not written in the record; or, lastly, that they would be disposed of in some way unknown to him, which he does not avow. he makes no allusion to such a terrific conception as is expressed by our modern use of the word hell: he emphatically predicates conditionality of salvation, he threatens sinners in general terms with severe judgment. further than this he has neglected to state his faith. if it reached any further, he has preferred to leave the statement of it in vague and impressive gloom. let us stop a moment and epitomize the steps we have taken. jesus, the son of god, was a spirit in heaven. he came upon the earth in the guise of humanity to undergo its whole experience and to be its redeemer. he died, passed through the vanquished kingdom of the grave, and rose into heaven again, to exemplify to men that through the grace of god a way was opened to escape the under world, the great external penalty of sin, and reach a better country, even a heavenly. from his seat at god's right hand, he should ere long descend to complete god's designs in his mission, judge his enemies and lead his accepted followers to heaven. the all important thought running through the length and breadth of the treatise is the ascension of christ from the midst of the dead [non-ascii characters]into the celestial presence, as the pledge of our ascent. "among the things of which we are speaking, this is the capital consideration, [non-ascii characters] the most essential point, "that we have such a high priest, who hath sat down at the right hand of the throne of the majesty in the heavens." neander says, though apparently without perceiving the extent of its ulterior significance, "the conception of the resurrection in relation to the whole christian system lies at the basis of this epistle." a brief sketch and exposition of the scope of the epistle in general will cast light and confirmation upon the interpretation we have given of its doctrine of a future life in particular. the one comprehensive design of the writer, it is perfectly clear, is to prove to the christian converts from the hebrews the superiority of christianity to judaism, and thus to arm them against apostasy from the new covenant to the ancient one. he begins by showing that christ, the bringer of the gospel, is greater than the angels, by whom the law was given, and consequently that his word is to be reverenced still more than theirs. next he argues that jesus, the christian mediator, as the son of god, is crowned with more authority and is worthy of more glory than moses, the jewish mediator, as the servant of god; and that as moses led his people towards the rest of canaan, so christ leads his people towards the far better rest of heaven. he then advances to demonstrate the superiority of christ to the levitical priesthood. this he establishes by pointing out the facts that the levitical priest had a transient honor, being after the law of a carnal commandment, his offerings referring to the flesh, while christ has an unchangeable priesthood, being after the power of an endless life, his offering referring to the soul; that the levitical priest once a year went into the symbolic holy place in the temple, unable to admit others, but jesus rose into the real holy place itself above, opening a way for all faithful disciples to follow; and that the hebrew temple and ceremonies were but the small type and shadow of the grand archetypal temple in heaven, where christ is the immortal high priest, fulfilling in the presence of god the completed reality of what judaism merely miniatured, an emblematic pattern that could make nothing perfect. "by him therefore let us continually offer to god the sacrifice of praise." the author intersperses, and closes with, exhortations to steadfast faith, pure morals, and fervent piety. there is one point in this epistle which deserves, in its essential connection with the doctrine of the future life, a separate treatment. it is the subject of the atonement. the correspondence between the sacrifices in the hebrew ritual and the sufferings and death of christ would, from the nature of the case, irresistibly suggest the sacrificial terms and metaphors which our author uses in a large part of his argument. moreover, his precise aim in writing compelled him to make these resemblances as prominent, as significant, and as effective as possible. griesbach says well, in his learned and able essay, "when it was impossible for the jews, lately brought to the christian faith, to tear away the attractive associations of their ancestral religion, which were twined among the very roots of their minds, and they were consequently in danger of falling away from christ, the most ingenious author of this epistle met the case by a masterly expedient. he instituted a careful comparison, showing the superiority of christianity to judaism even in regard to the very point where the latter seemed so much more glorious, namely, in priesthoods, temples, heb. i. , ii. ; acts vii. ; gal. iii. heb. ii. . altars, victims, lustrations, and kindred things." that these comparisons are sometimes used by the writer analogically, figuratively, imaginatively, for the sake of practical illustration and impression, not literally as logical expressions and proofs of a dogmatic theory of atonement, is made sufficiently plain by the following quotations. "the bodies of those beasts whose blood is brought into the holy place by the high priest for sin are burned without the camp. wherefore jesus also, that he might sanctify the people through his own blood, suffered without the gate. let us go forth therefore unto him without the camp, bearing his reproach." every one will at once perceive that these sentences are not critical statements of theological truths, but are imaginative expressions of practical lessons, spiritual exhortations. again, we read, "it was necessary that the patterns of the heavenly things should be purified with sacrificed animals, but the heavenly things themselves with better sacrifices than these." certainly it is only by an exercise of the imagination, for spiritual impression, not for philosophical argument, that heaven can be said to be defiled by the sins of men on earth so as to need cleansing by the lustral blood of christ. the writer also appeals to his readers in these terms: "to do good and to communicate forget not; for with such sacrifices god is well pleased." the purely practical aim and rhetorical method with which the sacrificial language is employed here are evident enough. we believe it is used in the same way wherever it occurs in the epistle. the considerations which have convinced us, and which we think ought to convince every unprejudiced mind, that the calvinistic scheme of a substitutional expiation for sin, a placation of divine wrath by the offering of divine blood, was not in the mind of the author, and does not inform his expressions when they are rightly understood, may be briefly presented. first, the notion that the suffering of christ in itself ransomed lost souls, bought the withheld grace and pardon of god for us, is confessedly foreign and repulsive to the instinctive moral sense and to natural reason, but is supposed to rest on the authority of revelation. secondly, that doctrine is nowhere specifically stated in the epistle, but is assumed, or inferred, to explain language which to a superficial look seems to imply it, perhaps even seems to be inexplicable without it; but in reality such a view is inconsistent with that language when it is accurately studied. for example, notice the following passage: "when christ cometh into the world," he is represented as saying, "i come to do thy will, o god." "by the which will," the writer continues, "we are sanctified through the offering of the body of jesus." that is, the death of christ, involving his resurrection and ascension into heaven, fulfils and exemplifies the gracious purpose of god, not purchases for us an otherwise impossible benignity. the above cited explicit declaration is irreconcilable opuscula: de imaginibus judaicis in epist. ad hebraos. that these texts were not originally understood as implying any vicarious efficacy in christ's painful death, but as attributing a typical power to his triumphant resurrection, his glorious return from the world of the dead into heaven, appears very plainly in the following instance, theodoret, one of the earliest explanatory writers on the new testament, says, while expressly speaking of christ's death, the sufferings through which he was perfected, "his resurrection certified a resurrection for us all." comm. in epist. ad heb. cap. , v. . with the thought that christ came into the world to die that he might appease the flaming justice and anger of god, and by vicarious agony buy the remission of human sins: it conveys the idea, on the contrary, that god sent christ to prove and illustrate to men the free fulness of his forgiving love. thirdly, the idea, which we think was the idea of the author of the epistle to the hebrews, that christ, by his death, resurrection, and ascent, demonstrated to the faith of men god's merciful removal of the supposed outward penalty of sin, namely, the banishment of souls after death to the under world, and led the way, as their forerunner, into heaven, this idea, which is not shocking to the moral sense nor plainly absurd to the moral reason, as the augustinian dogma is, not only yields a more sharply defined, consistent, and satisfactory explanation of all the related language of the epistle, but is also which cannot be said of the other doctrine in harmony with the contemporary opinions of the hebrews, and would be the natural and almost inevitable development from them and complement of them in the mind of a pharisee, who, convinced of the death and ascension of the sinless jesus, the appointed messiah, had become a christian. in support of the last assertion, which is the only one that needs further proof, we submit the following considerations. in the first place, every one familiar with the eschatology of the hebrews knows that at the time of christ the belief prevailed that the sin of adam was the cause of death among men. in the second place, it is equally well known that they believed the destination of souls upon leaving the body to be the under world. therefore does it not follow by all the necessities of logic? they believed that sin was the cause of the descent of disembodied spirits to the dreary lower realm. in the third place, it is notorious and undoubted that the jews of that age expected that, when the messiah should appear, the dead of their nation, or at least a portion of them, would be raised from the under world and be reclothed with bodies, and would reign with him for a period on earth and then ascend to heaven. now, what could be more natural than that a person holding this creed, who should be brought to believe that jesus was the true messiah and after his death had risen from among the dead into heaven, should immediately conclude that this was a pledge or illustration of the abrogation of the gloomy penalty of sin, the deliverance of souls from the subterranean prison, and their admission to the presence of god beyond the sky? we deem this an impregnable position. every relevant text that we consider in its light additionally fortifies it by the striking manner in which such a conception fits, fills, and explains the words. to justify these interpretations, and to sustain particular features of the doctrine which they express, almost any amount of evidence may be summoned from the writings both of the most authoritative and of the simplest fathers of the church, beginning with justin martyr, philosopher of neapolis, at the close of the apostolic age, and ending with john hobart, bishop of new york, in the early part of the nineteenth century. we refrain from adducing the throng of such authorities here, because they will be more appropriately brought forward in future chapters. dial. cum tryph. cap. v. et cap. lxxx. state of the departed. the intelligent reader will observe that the essential point of difference distinguishing our exposition of the fundamental doctrine of the composition in review, on the one hand, from the calvinistic interpretation of it, and, on the other hand, from the unitarian explanation of it, is this. calvinism says that christ, by his death, his vicarious pains, appeased the wrath of god, satisfied the claims of justice, and purchased the salvation of souls from an agonizing and endless hell. unitarianism says that christ, by his teachings, spirit, life, and miracles, revealed the character of the father, set an example for man, gave certainty to great truths, and exerted moral influences to regenerate men, redeem them from sin, and fit them for the blessed kingdom of immortality. we understand the writer of the epistle to the hebrews really to say in subtraction from what the calvinist, in addition to what the unitarian, says that christ, by his resurrection from the tyrannous realm of death, and ascent into the unbarred heaven, demonstrated the fact that god, in his sovereign grace, in his free and wondrous love, would forgive mankind their sins, remove the ancient penalty of transgression, no more dooming their disembodied spirits to the noiseless and everlasting gloom of the under world, but admitting them to his own presence, above the firmamental floor, where the beams of his chambers are laid, and where he reigneth forever, covered with light as with a garment. chapter iii. doctrine of a future life in the apocalypse. before attempting to exhibit the doctrine of a future life contained in the apocalypse, we propose to give a brief account of what is contained, relating to this subject, in the epistle of james, the epistle of jude, and the (so called) second epistle of peter. the references made by james to the group of points included under the general theme of the future life are so few and indirect, or vague, that it is impossible to construct any thing like a complete doctrine from them, save by somewhat arbitrary and uncertain suppositions. his purpose in writing, evidently, was practical exhortation, not dogmatic instruction. his epistle contains no expository outline of a system; but it has allusions and hints which plainly imply some partial views belonging to a system, while the other parts of it are left obscure. he says that "evil desire brings forth sin, and sin, when it is finished, brings forth death." but whether he intended this text as a moral metaphor to convey a spiritual meaning, or as a literal statement of a physical fact, or as a comprehensive enunciation including both these ideas, there is nothing in the context positively to determine. he offers not the faintest clew to his conception of the purpose of the death and resurrection of christ. he uses the word for the jewish hell but once, and then, undeniably, in a figurative sense, saying that a "curbless and defiling tongue is set on fire of gehenna." he appears to adopt the common notion of his contemporary countrymen in regard to demoniacal existences, when he declares that "the devils believe there is one god, and tremble," and when he exclaims, "resist the devil, and he will flee from you." he insists on the necessity of a faith that evinces itself in good works and in all the virtues, as the means of acceptance with god. he compares life to a vanishing vapor, denounces terribly the wicked and dissolute rich men who wanton in crimes and oppress the poor. then he calls on the suffering brethren to be patient under their afflictions "until the coming of the lord;" to abstain from oaths, be fervent in prayer, and establish their hearts, "for the coming of the lord draweth nigh." "grudge not one against another, brethren, lest ye be condemned: behold, the judge standeth before the door." here the return of christ, to finish his work, sit in judgment, accept some, and reject others, is clearly implied. and if james held this element of the general scheme of eschatology held by the other apostles as shown in their epistles, it is altogether probable that he also embraced the rest of that scheme. there are no means of definitely ascertaining whether he did or did not; though, according to a very learned and acute theologian, another fundamental part of that general system of doctrine is to be found in the last verse of the epistle, where james says that "he who converts a sinner from the error of his ways shall save a soul from death and hide a multitude of sins." bretschneider thinks that saving a soul from death here means rescuing it from a descent into the under world, the word death being often used in the new testament as by the rabbins to denote the subterranean abode of the dead. this bretschneider, religiose glaubenslehre, sect. . interpretation may seem forced to an unlearned reader, who examines the text for personal profit, but will not seem at all improbable to one who, to learn its historic meaning, reads the text in the lighted foreground of a mind over whose background lies a fitly arranged knowledge of all the materials requisite for an adequate criticism. for such a man was bretschneider himself. the eschatological implications and references in the epistle of jude are of pretty much the same character and extent as those which we have just considered. a thorough study and analysis of this brief document will show that it may be fairly divided into three heads and be regarded as having three objects. first, the writer exhorts his readers "to contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to the saints," "to remember the words of christ's apostles," "to keep themselves in the love of god, looking for eternal life." he desires to stir them up to diligence in efforts to preserve their doctrinal purity and their personal virtue. secondly, he warns them of the fearful danger of depravity, pride, and lasciviousness. this warning he enforces by several examples of the terrible judgments of god on the rebellious and wicked in other times. among these instances is the case of the cities of the plain, eternally destroyed by a storm of fire for their uncleanness; also the example of the fallen angels, "who kept not their first estate, but left their proper habitation, and are reserved in everlasting chains and darkness unto the judgment of the great day." the writer here adopts the doctrine of fallen angels, and the connected views, as then commonly received among the jews. this doctrine is not of christian origin, but was drawn from persian and other oriental sources, as is abundantly shown, with details, in almost every history of jewish opinions, in almost every biblical commentary. in this connection jude cites a legend from an apocryphal book, called the "ascension of moses," of which origen gives an account. the substance of the tradition is, that, at the decease of moses, michael and satan contended whether the body should be given over to death or be taken up to heaven. the appositeness of this allusion is, that, while in this strife the archangel dared not rail against satan, yet the wicked men whom jude is denouncing do not hesitate to blaspheme the angels and to speak evil of the things which they know not. "woe unto such ungodly men: gluttonous spots, dewless clouds, fruitless trees plucked up and twice dead, they are ordained to condemnation." thirdly, the epistle announces the second coming of christ, in the last time, to establish his tribunal. the prophecy of enoch an apocryphal book, recovered during the present century is quoted as saying, "behold, the lord cometh, with ten thousand of his saints, to execute judgment upon all, and to convict the ungodly of their ungodly deeds." jude, then, anticipated the return of the lord, at "the judgment of the great day," to judge the world; considered the under world, or abode of the dead, not as a region of fire, but a place of imprisoning gloom, wherein "to defiled and blaspheming dreamers is reserved the blackness of darkness forever;" e. g. stuart's dissertation on the angelology of the scriptures, published in vol. i. of the bibliotheca sacra. de principiis, lib. iii. cap . see, also, in michaelis's introduction to the new testament, sect. of the chapter on jude. book of enoch, translated by dr. r. laurence, cap. ii. thought it imminently necessary for men to be diligent in striving to secure their salvation, because "all sensual mockers, not having the spirit, but walking after their own ungodly lusts," would be lost. he probably expected that, when all free contingencies were past and christ had pronounced sentence, the condemned would be doomed eternally into the black abyss, and the accepted would rise into the immortal glory of heaven. he closes his letter with these significant words, which plainly imply much of what we have just been setting forth: "everlasting honor and power, through jesus christ our lord, be unto god, who is able to keep you from falling and to present you faultless before the face of his glory with exceeding joy." the first chapter of the so called second epistle of peter is not occupied with theological propositions, but with historical, ethical, and practical statements and exhortations. these are, indeed, of such a character, and so expressed, that they clearly presuppose certain opinions in the mind of the writer. first, he evidently believed that a merciful and holy message had been sent from god to men by jesus christ, whereby are given unto us exceeding great and precious promises." the substance of these promises was "a call to escape the corruption of the world, and enter into glory and be partakers of the divine nature." by partaking of the divine nature, we understand the writer to mean entering the divine abode and condition, ascending into the safe and eternal joy of the celestial prerogatives. that the author here denotes heaven by the term glory, as the other new testament writers frequently do, appears distinctly from the seventeenth and eighteenth verses of the chapter, where, referring to the incident at the baptism of jesus, he declares, "there came a voice from the excellent glory, saying, 'this is my beloved son;' and this voice, which came from heaven, we heard." secondly, our author regarded this glorious promise as contingent on the fulfilment of certain conditions. it was to be realized by means of "faith, courage, knowledge, temperance, patience, godliness, kindness, and love." "he that hath these things shall never fall," "but an entrance shall be ministered unto him abundantly into the everlasting kingdom of our lord and savior, jesus christ." the writer furnishes us no clew to his idea of the particular part performed by christ in our salvation. he says not a word concerning the sufferings or death of the savior; and the extremely scanty and indefinite allusions made to the relation in which christ was supposed to stand between god and men, and the redemption and reconciliation of men with god, do not enable us to draw any dogmatic conclusions. he speaks of "false teachers, who shall bring in damnable heresies, even denying the lord that bought them." but whether by this last phrase he means to imply a ransom of imprisoned souls from the under world by christ's descent thither and victory over its powers, or a purchased exemption of sinners from their merited doom by the vicarious sufferings of christ's death, or a practical regenerative redemption of disciples from their sins by the moral influences of his mission, his teachings, example, and character, there is nothing in the epistle clearly to decide; though, forming our judgment by the aid of other sources of information, we should conclude in favor of the first of these three conceptions as most probably expressing the writer's thought. griesbuch's reading of the th verse of jude. the second chapter of the epistle is almost an exact parallel with the epistle of jude: in many verses it is the same, word for word. it threatens "unclean, self willed, unjust, and blaspheming men," that they shall "be reserved unto the day of judgment, to be punished." it warns such persons by citing the example of the rebellious "angels, who were thrust down into tartarus, and fastened in chains of darkness until the judgment." it speaks of "cursed children, to whom is reserved the mist of darkness forever." herein, plainly enough, is betrayed the common notion of the jews of that time, the conception of a dismal under world, containing the evil angels of the persian theology, and where the wicked were to be remanded after judgment and eternally imprisoned. the third and last chapter is taken up with the doctrine of the second coming of christ. "be mindful of the words of the prophets and apostles, knowing this first, that in the last days there shall be scoffers, who will say, 'where is the promise of his coming? for since the fathers fell asleep all things continue as from the beginning.'" the writer meets this skeptical assertion with denial, and points to the deluge, "whereby the world that then was, being overflowed with water, perished." his argument is, the world was thus destroyed once, therefore it may be destroyed again. he then goes on to assert positively relying for authority on old traditions and current dogmas that "the heavens and the earth which are now are kept by the word of god in store to be destroyed by fire in the day of judgment, when the perdition of ungodly men shall be sealed." "the delay of the lord to fulfil his promise is not from procrastination, but from his long suffering who is not willing that any should perish." he waits "that all may come to repentance." but his patience will end, and "the day of god come as a thief in the night, when the heavens, being on fire, shall pass away with a crash, and the elements melt with fervent heat." there are two ways in which these declarations may be explained, though in either case the events they refer to are to occur in connection with the physical reappearance of christ. first, they may be taken in a highly figurative sense, as meaning the moral overthrow of evil and the establishment of righteousness in the world. similar expressions were often used thus by the ancient hebrew prophets, who describe the triumphs of israel and the destruction of their enemies, the edomites or the assyrians, by the interposition of jehovah's arm, in such phrases as these. "the mountains melt, the valleys cleave asunder like wax before a fire, like waters poured over a precipice." "the heavens shall be rolled up like a scroll, all their hosts shall melt away and fall down; for jehovah holdeth a great slaughter in the land of edom: her streams shall be turned into pitch, and her dust into brimstone, and her whole land shall become burning pitch." the suppression of satan's power and the setting up of the messiah's kingdom might, according to the prophetic idiom, be expressed in awful images of fire and woe, the destruction of the old, and the creation of a new, heaven and earth. but, secondly, this phraseology, as used by the writer of the epistle before us, may have a literal significance, may have been intended to predict strictly that the world shall be burned and purged by fire at the second coming of the lord. that such a catastrophe would take place in the last day, or occurred periodically, was notoriously the doctrine of the persians and of the stoics. for our own part, we are convinced that the latter is the real meaning of the writer. this seems to be shown alike by the connection of his argument, by the prosaic literality of detail with which he speaks, and by the earnest exhortations he immediately bases on the declaration he has made. he reasons that, since the world was destroyed once by water, it may be again by fire. the deluge he certainly regarded as literal: was not, then, in his conception, the fire, too, literal? he says, with calm, prosaic precision, "the earth and the works that are therein shall be burned up. seeing, then, that all these things shall be dissolved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holiness, looking for a new heaven and a new earth, and striving that ye may be found by him in peace, without spot, and blameless!" we do not suppose this writer expected the annihilation of the physical creation, but only that the fire would destroy all unransomed creatures from its surface, and thoroughly purify its frame, and make it clean and fit for a new race of sinless and immortal men. "tears shall not break from their full source, nor anguish stray from her tartarean den, the golden years maintain a course not undiversified, though smooth and even, we not be mock'd with glimpse and shadow then, bright seraphs mix familiarly with men, and earth and sky compose a universal heaven." we have now arrived at the threshold of the last book in the new testament, that book which, in the words of lucke, "lies like a sphinx at the lofty outgate of the bible." there are three modes of interpreting the apocalypse, each of which has had numerous and distinguished advocates. first, it may be regarded as a congeries of inspired prophecies, a scenic unfolding, with infallible foresight, of the chief events of christian history from the first century till now, and onwards. this view the combined effect of the facts in the case and of all the just considerations appropriate to the subject compels us to reject. there is no evidence to support it; the application of it is crowded with egregious follies and absurdities. we thus simply state the result of our best investigation and judgment, for there is no space here to discuss it in detail. secondly, the book may be taken as a symbolic exhibition of the transitional crises, exposures, struggles, and triumphs of the individual soul, a description of personal experience, a picture of the inner life of the christian in a hostile world. the contents of it can be made to answer to such a characterization only by the determined exercise of an unrestrained fancy, or by the theory of a double sense, as the swedenborgians expound it. this method of interpreting the revelation is adopted, not by scholarly thinkers, who, by the light of learning and common sense, seek to discern what the writer meant to express, but by those persons who go to the obscure document, with traditional superstition and lawless imaginations, to see what lessons they can find there for their experimental guidance and edification. we suppose that every intelligent and informed student who has cicero de nat. deorum, lib. ii. cap. . also ovid, minucius felix, seneca, and other authorities, as quoted by rosenmuller on peter iii. . examined the subject with candid independence holds it as an exegetical axiom that the apocalypse is neither a pure prophecy, blazing full illumination from patmos along the track of the coming centuries, nor an exhaustive vision of the experience of the faithful christian disciple. we are thus brought to the third and, as we think, the correct mode of considering this remarkable work. it is an outburst from the commingled and seething mass of opinions, persecutions, hopes, general experience, and expectation of the time when it was written. this is the view which would naturally arise in the mind of an impartial student from the nature of the case, and from contemplating the fervid faith, suffering, lowering elements, and thick coming events of the apostolic age. it also strikingly corresponds with numerous express statements and with the whole obvious spirit and plan of the work; for its descriptions and appeals have the vivid colors, the thrilling tones, the significantly detailed allusions to experiences and opinions and anticipations notoriously existing at the time, which belong to present or immediately impending scenes. this way of considering the apocalypse likewise enables one who is acquainted with the early jewish christian doctrines, legends, and hopes, to explain clearly a large number of passages in it whose obscurity has puzzled many a commentator. we should be glad to give various illustrations of this, if our limits did not confine us strictly to the one class of texts belonging to the doctrine of a future life. furthermore, nearly all the most gifted critics, such as ewald, bleek, lucke, de wette, those whose words on such matters as these are weightiest, now agree in concluding that the revelation of john was a product springing out of the intense jewish christian belief and experience of the age, and referring, in its dramatic scenery and predictions, to occurrences supposed to be then transpiring or very close at hand. finally, this view in regard to the apocalypse is strongly confirmed by a comparison of that production with the several other works similar to it in character and nearly contemporaneous in origin. these apocryphal productions were written or compiled according to the pretty general agreement of the great scholars who have criticized them somewhere between the beginning of the first century before, and the middle of the second century after, christ. we merely propose here, in the briefest manner, to indicate the doctrine of a future life contained in them, as an introduction to an exposition of that contained in the new testament apocalypse. in the testament of the twelve patriarchs it is written that "the under world shall be spoiled through the death of the most exalted." again, we read, "the lord shall make battle against the devil, and conquer him, and rescue from him the captive souls of the righteous. the just shall rejoice in jerusalem, where the lord shall reign himself, and every one that believes in him shall reign in truth in the heavens." farther on the writer says of the lord, after giving an account of his crucifixion, "he shall rise up from the under world and ascend into heaven." these extracts seem to imply the common doctrine of that time, that christ descended into the under world, freed the captive saints, and rose into heaven, and would soon return to establish his throne in jerusalem, to reign there for a time with his accepted followers. see this book in fabricii codex pseudepigraphus veteris testamenti, test. lev. sect. iv. ibid. test. dan. sect. v. ibid. test. benj. sect. ix. the fourth book of ezra contains scattered declarations and hints of the same nature. it describes a vision of the messiah, on mount zion, distributing crowns to those confessors of his name who had died in their fidelity. the world is said to be full of sorrows and oppressions; and as the souls of the just ask when the harvest shall come, for the good to be rewarded and the wicked to be punished, they are told that the day of liberation is not far distant, though terrible trials and scourges must yet precede it. "my son jesus shall be revealed." "my son the christ shall die; and then a new age shall come, the earth shall give up the dead, sinners shall be plunged into the bottomless abyss, and paradise shall appear in all its glory." the "son of god will come and consume his enemies with fire; but the elect will be protected and made happy." the ascension of isaiah is principally occupied with an account of the rapture of the soul of that prophet through the seven heavens, and of what he there saw and learned. it describes the descent of christ, the beloved son of god, through all the heavens, to the earth; his death; his resurrection after three days; his victory over satan and his angels, who dwell in the welkin or higher region of the air; and his return to the right hand of god. it predicts great apostasy and sin among the disciples of the apostles, and much dissension respecting the nearness of the second advent of christ. it emphatically declares that "christ shall come with his angels, and shall drag satan and his powers into gehenna. then all the saints shall descend from heaven in their heavenly clothing, and dwell in this world; while the saints who had not died shall be similarly clothed, and after a time leave their bodies here, that they may assume their station in heaven. the general resurrection and judgment will follow, when the ungodly will be devoured by fire." the author as gesenius, with almost all the rest of the critics, says was unquestionably a jewish christian, and his principal design was to set forth the speedy second coming of christ, and the glorious triumph of the saints that would follow with the condign punishment of the wicked. the first book of the sibylline oracles contains a statement that in the golden age the souls of all men passed peacefully into the under world, to tarry there until the judgment; a prediction of a future messiah; and an account of his death, resurrection, and ascension. the second book begins with a description of the horrors that will precede the last time, threats against the persecuting tyrants, and promises to the faithful, especially to the martyrs, and closes with an account of the general judgment, when elijah shall come from heaven, consuming flames break out, all souls be summoned to the tribunal of god at whose right hand christ will sit, the bodies of the dead be raised, the righteous be purified, and the wicked be plunged into final ruin. the fundamental thought and aim of the apocryphal book of enoch are the second coming of christ to judge the world, the encouragement of the christians, and the warning see the abstract of it given in section vi. of stuart's commentary on the apocalypse. cap. ii. cap. iv. cap. v., vii. cap. xiii., xvi. ascensio isaia vatis, a ricardo laurence, cap. ix., x., xi. ibid. cap. ii., iii. ibid. cap. iv. - . of their oppressors by declarations of approaching deliverance to those and vengeance to these. this is transparent at frequent intervals through the whole book. "ye righteous, wait with patient hope: your cries have cried for judgment, and it shall come, and the gates of heaven shall be opened to you." "woe to you, powerful oppressors, false witnesses! for you shall suddenly perish." "the voices of slain saints accusing their murderers, the oppressors of their brethren, reach to heaven with interceding cries for swift justice." when that justice comes, "the horse shall wade up to his breast, and the chariot shall sink to its axle, in the blood of sinners." the author teaches that the souls of men at death go into the under world, "a place deep and dark, where all souls shall be collected;" "where they shall remain in darkness till the day of judgment," the spirits of the righteous being in peace and joy, separated from the tormented spirits of the wicked, who have spurned the messiah and persecuted his disciples. a day of judgment is at hand. "behold, he cometh, with ten thousand of his saints, to execute judgment." then the righteous shall rise from the under world, be approved, become as angels, and ascend to heaven. but the wicked shall not rise: they remain imprisoned below forever. the angels descend to earth to dwell with men, and the saints ascend to heaven to dwell with angels. "from beginning to end, like the apocalypse, the book is filled," says professor stuart, (and the most careless reader must remark it,) "with threats for the wicked persecutors and consolations for the suffering pious." a great number of remarkable correspondences between passages in this book and passages in the apocalypse solicit a notice which our present single object will not allow us to give them here. an under world divided into two parts, a happy for the good, a wretched for the bad; temporary woes prevailing on the earth; the speedy advent of christ for a vindication of his power and his servants; the resurrection of the dead; the final translation of the accepted into heaven, and the hopeless dooming of the rejected into the abyss, these are the features in the book before us which we are now to remember. there is one other extant apocryphal book whose contents are strictly appropriate to the subject we have in hand, namely, the apocalypse of john. it claims to be the work of the apostle john himself. it represents john as going to mount tabor after the ascension of christ, and there praying that it may be revealed to him when the second coming of christ will occur, and what will be the consequences of it. in answer to his request, a long and minute disclosure is made. the substance of it is, that, after famines and woes, antichrist will appear and reign three years. then enoch and elijah will come to expose him; but they will die, and all men with them. the earth will be purified with fire, the dead will rise, christ book of enoch, translated into english by dr. r. laurence. see particularly the following places: i. ; lii. ; liv. ; lxi. ; lxii. , ; xciv.; xcv.; civ. ibid. cap. ix. ; xxii. ; xlvii. - . ibid. cap. xcviii. . ibid. cap. x. , , ; xxii. , ; cii. ; ciii. . ibid. cap. xxii. , ; xlv. ; xlvi. ; . - . cap. xxxviii. xl. see the abstract of it given in lucke's einleit. in die offenbar. joh., cap. , sect. . will descend in pomp, with myriads of angels, and the judgment will follow. the spirits of antichrist will be hurled into a gulf of outer darkness, so deep that a heavy stone would not plunge to the bottom in three years. unbelievers, sinners, hypocrites, will be cast into the under world; while true christians are placed at the right hand of christ, all radiant with glory. the good and accepted will then dwell in an earthly paradise, with angels, and be free from all evils. in addition to these still extant apocalypses, we have references in the works of the fathers to a great many others long since perished; especially the apocalypses of adam, abraham, moses, elijah, hystaspes, paul, peter, thomas, cerinthus, and stephen. so far as we have any clew, by preserved quotations or otherwise, to the contents of these lost productions, they seem to have been much occupied with the topics of the avenging and redeeming advent of the messiah, the final judgment of mankind, the supernal and subterranean localities, the resurrection of the dead, the inauguration of an earthly paradise, the condemnation of the reprobate to the abyss beneath, the translation of the elect to the angelic realm on high. these works, all taken together, were plainly the offspring of the mingled mass of glowing faiths, sufferings, fears, and hopes, of the age they belonged to. an acquaintance with them will help us to appreciate and explain many things in our somewhat kindred new testament apocalypse, by placing us partially in the circumstances and mental attitude of the writer and of those for whom it was written. the persian jewish and jewish christian notions and characteristics of the book of revelation are marked and prevailing, as every prepared reader must perceive. the threefold division of the universe into the upper world of the angels, the middle world of men, and the under world of the dead; the keys of the bottomless pit; the abode of satan, the accuser, in heaven; his revolt; the war in the sky between his seduced host and the angelic army under michael, and the thrusting down of the former; the banquet of birds on the flesh of kings, mighty men, and horses; the battle of gog and magog; the tarrying of souls under the altar of god; the temple in heaven containing the ark of the covenant, and the scene of a various ritual service; the twelve gates of the celestial city bearing the names of the twelve tribes of the children of israel, and the twelve foundations of the walls having the names of the twelve apostles of the lamb; the bodily resurrection and general judgment, and the details of its sequel, all these doctrines and specimens of imagery, with a hundred others, carry us at once into the zend avesta, the talmud, and the ebionitish documents of the earliest christians, who mixed their interpretations of the mission and teaching of christ with the poetic visions of zoroaster and the cabalistic dogmatics of the pharisees. it is astonishing that any intelligent person can peruse the apocalypse and still suppose that it is occupied with prophecies of remote events, events to transpire successively in distant ages and various lands. immediateness, imminency, hazardous urgency, swiftness, alarms, are written all over the book. a suspense, frightfully thrilling, fills it, as if the world were holding its breath in view of the universal crash that was coming with electric velocity. see, e. g., corrodi, kritische geschichte des chiliasmus, band ii. th. ; gfrorer, geschichte urchristenthums, abth. ii. kap. ; schottgen in apoc. xii. ; ibid. in cor. v. . four words compose the key to the apocalypse: rescue, reward, overthrow, vengeance. the followers of christ are now persecuted and slain by the tyrannical rulers of the earth. let them be of good cheer: they shall speedily be delivered. their tyrants shall be trampled down in "blood flowing up to the horse bridles," and they shall reign in glory. "here is the faith and the patience of the saints," trusting that, if "true unto death, they shall have a crown of life," and "shall not be hurt of the second death," but shall soon rejoice over the triumphant establishment of the messiah's kingdom and the condign punishment of his enemies who are now "making themselves drunk with the blood of the martyrs of jesus." the beast, described in the thirteenth chapter, is unquestionably nero; and this fact shows the expected immediateness of the events pictured in connection with the rise and destruction of that monstrous despot. the truth of this representation is sealed by the very first verses of the book, indicating the nature of its contents and the period to which they refer: "the revelation of jesus christ, which god gave unto him, to show unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass: blessed are they who hear the words of this prophecy and keep them; for the time is at hand." this rescue and reward of the faithful, this overthrow and punishment of the wicked, were to be effected by the agency of a unique and sublime personage, who was expected very soon to appear, with an army of angels from heaven, for this purpose. the conception of the nature, rank, and offices of jesus christ which existed in the mind of the writer of the apocalypse is in some respects but obscurely hinted in the words he employs; yet the relationship of those words to other and fuller sources of information in the contemporaneous notions of his countrymen is such as to give us great help in arriving at his ideas. he represents christ as distinct from and subordinate to god. he makes christ say, "to him that overcometh i will give power over the nations, even as i received of my father." he characterizes him as "the beginning of the creation of god," and describes him as "mounted on a white horse, leading the heavenly armies to war, and his name is called the logos of god." these terms evidently correspond to the phrases in the introduction to the gospel of john, and in the book of the wisdom of solomon, where are unfolded some portions of that great doctrine, so prevalent among the early fathers, which was borrowed and adapted by them from the persian honover, the hebrew wisdom, and the platonic logos. "in the beginning was the logos, and the logos was with god, and all things were made by him;... and the logos was made flesh and dwelt among us." "god of our fathers, and lord of mercy, who hast made all things by thy logos." "thine almighty logos leaped down from heaven from his royal throne, a fierce warrior, into the midst of a land of destruction." "plainly enough, the apocalyptic view of christ is based on that profound logos doctrine so copiously see the excursus by stuart in his commentary on the apoc. xiii. , which conclusively shows that the beast could be no other than nero. lucke, einleitung in das evang. joh. evang. joh. i. , , . wisdom of solomon, ix. , . ibid. xviii. . developed in the writings of philo judaus and so distinctly endorsed in numerous passages of the new testament. first, there is the absolute god. next, there is the logos, the first begotten son and representative image of god, the instrumental cause of the creation, the head of all created beings. this logos, born into our world as a man, is christ. around him are clustered all the features and actions that compose the doctrine of the last things. the vast work of redemption and judgment laid upon him has in part been already executed, and in part remains yet to be done. we are first to inquire, then, into the significance of what the writer of the apocalypse supposes has already been effected by christ in his official relations between god and men, so far as regards the general subject of a life beyond the grave. a few brief and vague but comprehensive expressions include all that he has written which furnishes us a guide to his thoughts on this particular. he describes jesus, when advanced to his native supereminent dignity in heaven, as the "logos, clothed in a vesture dipped in blood," and also as "the lamb that was slain," to whom the celestial throng sing a new song, saying, "thou hast redeemed us unto god by thy blood." christ, he says, "loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood." he represents the risen savior as declaring, "i am he that liveth, and was dead, and, behold, i am alive for evermore, and have the keys of the under world and of death." "jesus christ," again he writes, "is the faithful witness, the first begotten from the dead." what, now, is the real meaning of these pregnant phrases? what is the complete doctrine to which fragmentary references are here made? we are confident that it is this. mankind, in consequence of sin, were alienated from god, and banished, after death, to hades, the subterranean empire of shadows. christ, leaving his exalted state in heaven, was born into the world as a messenger, or "faithful witness," of surprising grace to them from god, and died that he might fulfil his mission as the agent of their redemption, by descending into the great prison realm of the dead, and, exerting his irresistible power, return thence to light and life, and ascend into heaven as the forerunner and pledge of the deliverance and ascension of others. moses stuart, commenting on the clause "first begotten from the dead," says, "christ was in fact the first who enjoyed the privilege of a resurrection to eternal glory and he was constituted the leader of all who should afterwards be thus raised from the dead." all who had died, with the sole exception of christ, were yet in the under world. he, since his triumphant subdual of its power and return to heaven, possessed authority over it, and would ere long summon its hosts to resurrection, as he declares: "i was dead, and, behold, i am alive for ever more, and have the keys of the under world." the figure is that of a conqueror, who, returning from a captured and subdued city, bears the key of it with him, a trophy of his triumph and a pledge of its submission. the text "thou hast redeemed us unto god by thy blood" is not received in an absolutely literal sense by any theological sect whatever. the severest calvinist does not suppose that the physical blood shed on the cross is meant; but he explains it as denoting the atoning efficacy of the vicarious sufferings of christ. but this interpretation is as forced and constructive an exposition as the one we have given, and is not stuart, comm. in apoc. i. . warranted by the theological opinions of the apostolic age, which do, on the contrary, support and necessitate the other. the direct statement is, that men were redeemed unto god by the blood of christ. all agree that in the word "blood" is wrapped up a figurative meaning. the calvinistic dogma makes it denote the satisfaction of the law of retributive justice by a substitutional anguish. we maintain that a true historical exegesis, with far less violence to the use of language, and consistently with known contemporaneous ideas, makes it denote the death of christ, and the events which were supposed to have followed his death, namely, his appearance among the dead, and his ascent to heaven, preparatory to their ascent, when they should no longer be exiled in hades, but should dwell with god. out of an abundance of illustrative authorities we will cite a few. augustine describes "the ancient saints" as being "in the under world, in places most remote from the tortures of the impious, waiting for christ's blood and descent to deliver them." epiphanius says, "christ was the first that rose from the under world to heaven from the time of the creation." lactantius affirms, "christ's descent into the under world and ascent into heaven were necessary to give man the hope of a heavenly immortality." hilary of poictiers says, "christ went down into hades for two reasons: first, to fulfil the law imposed on mankind that every soul on leaving the body shall descend into the under world, and, secondly, to preach the christian religion to the dead." chrysostom writes, "when the son of god cometh, the earth shall burst open, and all the men that ever were born, from adam's birth up to that day, shall rise up out of the earth." irenaus testifies, "i have heard from a certain presbyter, who heard it from those who had seen the apostles and received their instructions, that christ descended into the under world, and preached the gospel and his own advent to the souls there, and remitted the sins of those who believed on him." eusebius records that, "after the ascension of jesus, thomas sent thaddeus, one of the seventy, to abgarus, king of edessa. this disciple told the king how that jesus, having been crucified, descended into the under world, and burst the bars which had never before been broken, and rose again, and also raised with himself the dead that had slept for ages; and how he descended alone, but ascended with a great multitude to his father; and how he was about to come again to judge the living and the dead." finally, we cite the following undeniable statement from daille's famous work on the "right use of the fathers:" "that heaven shall not be opened till the second coming of christ and the day of judgment, that during this time the souls of all men, with a few exceptions, are shut up in the under world, was held by justin martyr, irenaus, tertullian, augustine, origen, lactantius, victorinus, ambrose, chrysostom, theodoret, oecumenius, aretas, prudentius, theophylact, bernard, de civitate dei, lib. xx. cap. . in resurrectionem christi. divin. instit. lib. iv. cap. , . hilary in ps. cxviii. et cxix. homil. in rom. viii. . adv. hares. lib. iv. sect. . ecc. hist. lib. i. cap. . and many others, as is confessed by all. this doctrine is literally held by the whole greek church at the present day. nor did any of the latins expressly deny any part of it until the council of florence, in the year of our lord ." in view of these quotations, and of volumes of similar ones which might be adduced, we submit to the candid reader that the meaning most probably in the mind of the writer of the apocalypse when he wrote the words "redemption by the blood of christ" was this, the rescue certified to men by the commissioned power and devoted self sacrifice of christ in dying, going down to the mighty congregation of the dead, proclaiming good tidings, breaking the hopeless bondage of death and hades, and ascending as the pioneer of a new way to god. if before his death all men were supposed to go down to helpless confinement in the under world on account of sin, but after his resurrection the promise of an ascension to heaven was made to them through his gospel and exemplification, then well might the grateful believers, fixing their hearts on his willing martyrdom in their behalf, exclaim, "he loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood, and hath made us kings and priests unto god." it is certainly far more natural, far more reasonable, to suppose that the scriptural phrase "the blood of christ" means "the death of christ," with its historical consequences, than to imagine that it signifies a complicated and mysterious scheme of sacerdotal or ethical expiation, especially when that scheme is unrelated to contemporaneous opinion, irreconcilable withmorality,and confessedly nowhere plainly stated in scripture, but a matter of late and laborious construction and inference. we have not spoken of the strictly moral and subjective mission and work of christ, as conceived by the author of the apocalypse, his influences to cleanse the springs of character, purify and inspire the heart, rectify and elevate the motives, regenerate and sanctify the soul and the life, because all this is plain and unquestioned. but he also believed in something additional to this, an objective function: and what that was we think is correctly explained above. we are next to inquire more immediately into the closing parts of the doctrine of the last things. christ has appeared, declared the tidings of grace, died, visited the dead, risen victoriously, and gone back to heaven, where he now tarries. but there remain many things for him, as the eschatological king, yet to do. what are they? and what details are connected with them? first of all, he is soon to return from heaven, visiting the earth a second time. the first chapter of the book begins by declaring that it is "a revelation of things which must shortly come to pass," and "blessed is he that readeth; for the time is at hand." the last chapter is full of such repetitions as these: "things which must shortly be done;" "behold, i come quickly;" "the time is at hand;" "he that is unjust, let him be unjust still, and he that is holy, let him be holy still;" "surely i come quickly;" "even so, come, lord jesus." herder says, in his acute and eloquent work on the apocalypse, "there is but one voice in it, through all its epistles, seals, trumpets, signs, and plagues, namely, the lord is coming!" the souls of the martyrs, impatiently waiting, under the altar, the completion of the great drama, cry, "how long, o lord, dost thou delay to avenge our blood?" and they are told that "they shall lib. ii. cap. , pp. , of the english translation. rest only for a little season." tertullian writes, without a trace of doubt, "is not christ quickly to come from heaven with a quaking of the whole universe, with a shuddering of the world, amidst the wailings of all men save the christians?" the apocalyptic seer makes christ say, "behold, i come as a thief in the night: blessed is he that watcheth." accordingly, "a sentinel gazed wherever a christian prayed, and, though all the watchmen died without the sight," the expectation lingered for centuries. the christians of the new testament time to borrow the words of one of the most competent of living scholars "carried forward to the account of christ in years to come the visions which his stay, as they supposed, was too short to realize, and assigned to him a quick return to finish what was yet unfulfilled. the suffering, the scorn, the rejection of men, the crown of thorns, were over and gone; the diadem, the clarion, the flash of glory, the troop of angels, were ready to burst upon the world, and might be looked for at midnight or at noon." secondly, when christ returned, he was to avenge the sufferings and reward the fidelity of his followers, tread the heathen tyrants in the wine press of his wrath, and crown the persecuted saints with a participation in his glory. when "the time of his wrath is come, he shall give reward to the prophets, and to the saints, and to them that fear his name, and shall destroy them that destroy the earth." "the kings, captains, mighty men, rich men, bondmen, and freemen, shall cry to the mountains and rocks, fall on us, and hide us from the wrath of the lamb." "to him that overcometh, and doeth my works, i will give power over the gentiles;" "i will give him the morning star;" "i will grant him to sit with me on my throne." independently, moreover, of these distinct texts, the whole book is pervaded with the thought that, at the speedy second advent of the messiah, all his enemies shall be fearfully punished, his servants eminently compensated and glorified. thirdly, the writer of the apocalypse expected in accordance with that jewish anticipation of an earthly messianic kingdom which was adopted with some modifications by the earliest christians that jesus, on his return, having subdued his foes, would reign for a season, in great glory, on the earth, surrounded by the saints. "a door was opened in heaven," and the seer looked in, and saw a vision of the redeemed around the throne, and heard them "singing a new song unto the lamb that was slain," in the course of which, particularizing the favors obtained for them by him, they say, "we shall reign upon the earth." again, the writer says that "the worshippers of the beast and of his image shall be tormented with fire and brimstone in the presence of the holy angels, and in the presence of the lamb." now, the lake of sulphurous fire into which the reprobate were to be thrust was located, not in the sky, but under the surface of the earth. the foregoing statement, therefore, implies that christ and his angels would be tarrying on the earth when the final woe of the condemned was inflicted. but we need not rely on indirect arguments. the writer explicitly declares martineau, sermon, "the god of revelation his own interpreter." it seems to have been a jewish expectation that when the messiah should appear he would thrust his enemies into hades. in a passage of the talmud satan is represented as seeing the messiah under the throne of glory: he falls on his face at the sight, exclaiming, "this is the messiah, who will precipitate me and all the gentiles into the under world." bertholdt, christologia, sect. . that, in his vision of what was to take place, the christian martyrs, "those who were slain for the witness of jesus, lived and reigned with christ a thousand years, while the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished. this is the first resurrection. then satan was loosed out of his prison, and gathered the hosts of gog and magog to battle, and went up on the breadth of the earth and compassed the camp of the saints about, and fire came down out of heaven and devoured them." it seems impossible to avoid seeing in this passage a plain statement of the millennial reign of christ on the earth with his risen martyrs. fourthly, at the termination of the period just referred to, the author of the apocalypse thought all the dead would be raised and the tribunal of the general judgment held. as lactantius says, "all souls are detained in custody in the under world until the last day; then the just shall rise and reign; afterwards there will be another resurrection of the wicked." "the time of the dead is come, that they should be judged." "and i saw the dead, small and great, stand before god; and the books were opened, and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works. and the sea gave up the dead which were in it, and death and the under world delivered up the dead which were in them, and they were judged, every man according to his works." "blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection: on such the second death hath no power, but they shall be priests of god and of christ, and reign with him a thousand years." this text, with its dark and tacit reference by contrast to those who have no lot in the millennial kingdom, brings us to the next step in our exposition. for, fifthly, after the general resurrection and judgment at the close of the thousand years, the sentence of a hopeless doom to hell is to be executed on the condemned. "whosoever was not found written in the book of life was cast into the lake of fire." "the fearful, and unbelieving, and the abominable, and murderers, and whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters, and all liars, shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone; which is the second death." the "second death" is a term used by onkelos in his targum, and sometimes in the talmud, and by the rabbins generally. it denotes, as employed by them, the return of the wicked into hell after their summons thence for judgment. in the apocalypse, its relative meaning is this. the martyrs, who were slain for their allegiance to the gospel, died once, and descended into the under world, the common realm of death. at the coming of christ they were to rise and join him, and to die no more. this was the first resurrection. at the close of the millennium, all the rest of the dead were to rise and be judged, and the rejected portion of them were to be thrust back again below. this was a second death for them, a fate from which the righteous were exempt. there was a difference, greatly for the worse in the latter, between their condition in the two deaths. in the former they descended to the dark under world, the silent and temporary abode of the universal dead; but in the latter they went down "into the lake of fire and brimstone, where the devil and the beast and the false prophet are, and shall be tormented day and night for divin. instit. lib. vii. cap. , , . on deut. xxxiii. . gfrorer, geschichte des urchristenthums, kap. . s. . ever and ever." for "death and hades, having delivered up the dead which were in them, were cast into the lake of fire. this is the second death." it is plain that here the common locality of departed souls is personified as two demons, death and hades, and the real thought meant to be conveyed is, that this region is to be sunk beneath a "tartarean drench," which shall henceforth roll in burning billows over its victims there, "the smoke of their torment ascending up for ever and ever." this awful imagery of a lake of flaming sulphur, in which the damned were plunged, was of comparatively late origin or adoption among the jews, from whom the christians received it. the native hebrew conception of the state of the dead was that of the voiceless gloom and dismal slumber of sheol, whither all alike went. the notion of fiery tortures inflicted there on the wicked was either conceived by the pharisees from the loathed horrors of the filth fire kept in the vale of hinnom, outside of jerusalem, (which is the opinion of most commentators,) or was imagined from the sea of burning brimstone that showered from heaven and submerged sodom and gomorrah in a vast fire pool, (which is maintained by bretschneider and others,) or was derived from the egyptians, or the persians, or the hindus, or the greeks, all of whom had lakes and rivers of fire in their theological hells, long before history reveals the existence of such a belief among the jews, (which is the conclusion of many learned authors and critics.) we have now reached the last feature in the scheme of eschatology shadowed forth in the apocalypse, the most obscure and difficult point of all, namely, the locality and the principal elements of the final felicity of the saved. the difficulty of clearly settling this question is twofold, arising, first, from the swift and partial glimpses which are all that the writer yields us on the subject, and, secondly, from the impossibility of deciding with precision how much of his language is to be regarded as figurative and how much as literal, where the poetic presentation of symbol ends and where the direct statement of fact begins. a large part of the book is certainly written in prophetic figures and images, spiritual visions, never meant to be accepted in a prosaic sense with severe detail. and yet, at the same time, all these imaginative emblems were, unquestionably, intended to foreshadow, in various kinds and degrees, doctrinal conceptions, hopes, fears, threats, promises, historical realities, past, present, or future. but to separate sharply the dress and the substance, the superimposed symbols and the underlying realities, is always an arduous, often an impossible, achievement. the writer of the apocalypse plainly believed that the souls of all, except the martyrs, at death descended to the under world, and would remain there till after the second coming of christ. but whether he thought that the martyrs were excepted, and would at death immediately rise into heaven and there await the fulfilment of time, is a disputed point. for our own part, we think it extremely doubtful, and should rather decide in the negative. in the first place, his expressions on this subject seem essentially figurative. he describes the prayers of the saints as being poured out from golden vials and burned as incense on a golden altar in heaven before the throne of god. "under that altar," he says, "i saw the souls of them that were slain for the word of god." if the souls of the martyrs, in his belief, were really admitted into heaven, would he have conceived of them as huddled under the altar and not walking at liberty? does not the whole idea appear rather like a rhetorical image than like a sober theological doctrine? true, the scene is pictured in heaven; but then it is a picture, and not a conclusion. with de wette, we regard it, not as a dogmatic, but as a poetical and prophetic, representation. and in regard to the seer's vision of the innumerable company of the redeemed in heaven, surrounding the throne and celebrating the praises of god and the lamb, surely it is obvious enough that this, like the other affiliated visions, is a vision, by inspired insight, in the present tense, of what is yet to occur in the successive unfolding of the rapid scenes in the great drama of christ's redemptive work, a prophetic vision of the future, not of what already is. we know that in tertullian's time the idea was entertained by some that christian martyrs, as a special allotment, should pass at once from their sufferings to heaven, without going, as all others must, into the under world; but the evidence preponderates with us, upon the whole, that no such doctrine is really implied in the apocalypse. in the fourteenth chapter, the author describes the hundred and forty four thousand who were redeemed from among men, as standing with the lamb on mount zion and hearing a voice from heaven singing a new song, which no man, save the hundred and forty four thousand, could learn. the probabilities are certainly strongest that this great company of the selected "first fruits unto god and the lamb," now standing on the earth, had not yet been in heaven; for they only learn the heavenly song which is sung before the throne by hearing it chanted down from heaven in a voice like multitudinous thunders. finally, the most convincing proof that the writer did not suppose that the martyrs entered heaven before the second advent of christ a proof which, taken by itself, would seem to leave no doubt on the subject is this. in the famous scene detailed in the twentieth chapter usually called by commentators the martyr scene it is said that "the souls of them that were beheaded for the word of god, and which had not worshipped the beast, lived and reigned with christ a thousand years. this is the first resurrection." now, is it not certain that if the writer supposed these souls had never been in the under world, but in heaven, he could not have designated their preliminary descent from above as "the first resurrection," the first rising up? that phrase implies, we think, that all the dead were below: the faithful and chosen ones were to rise first to reign a while with jesus, and after that the rest should rise to be judged. after that judgment, which was expected to be on earth in presence of the descended lamb and his angels, the lost were to be plunged, as we have already seen, into the subterranean pit of torture, the unquenchable lake of fire. but what was to become of the righteous and redeemed? whether, by the apocalyptic representation, they were to remain forever on earth, or to ascend into heaven, is a question which has been zealously debated for over sixteen hundred years, and in some theological circles is still warmly discussed. were the angels who came down to the earth with christ to the judgment never to return to their native seats? were they permanently to transfer their deathless citizenship from the sky to judea? were the constitution of human nature and the essence of human society to be abrogated, and the members of the human family to cease enlarging, lest they should overflow the borders of the world? was god himself literally to desert his ancient abode, and, with the celestial city and all its angelic hierarchy, float from the desolated firmament to mount zion, there to set up the central eternity of his throne. we cannot believe that such is the meaning, which the seer of the apocalypse wished to convey by his symbolic visions and pictures, any more than we can believe that he means literally to say that he saw "a woman in heaven clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars," or that there were actually "armies in heaven, seated on white horses and clothed in fine linen, white and clean, which is the righteousness of saints." our conviction is that he expected the savior would ascend with his angels and the redeemed into heaven, the glorious habitation of god above the sky. he speaks in one place of the "temple of god in heaven, into which no man could enter until the seven plagues were fulfilled," and in another place says that the "great multitude of the redeemed are before the throne of god in heaven, and serve him day and night in his temple;" and in still another place he describes two prophets, messengers of god, who had been slain, as coming to life, "and hearing a great voice from heaven saying to them, 'come up hither;' and they ascended up to heaven in a cloud, and their enemies beheld them." de wette writes, "it is certain that an abstract conception of heavenly blessedness with god duskily hovers over the new testament eschatology." we think this is true of the book of revelation. it was a persian jewish idea that the original destination of man, had he not sinned, was heaven. the apostles thought it was a part of the mission of christ to restore that lost privilege. we think the writer of the apocalypse shared in that belief. his allusions to a new heaven and a new earth, and to the descent of a new jerusalem from heaven, and other related particulars, are symbols neither novel nor violent to jewish minds, but both familiar and expressive, to denote a purifying glorification of the world, the installation of a divine kingdom, and the brilliant reign of universal righteousness and happiness among men, as if under the very eyes of the messiah and the very sceptre of god. the christians shall reign in jerusalem, which shall be adorned with indescribable splendors and shall be the centre of a world wide dominion, the saved nations of the earth surrounding it and "walking in the light of it, their kings bringing their glory and honor into it." "god shall wipe away all tears from their eyes, and there shall be no more death." that is, upon the whole, as we understand the scattered hints relevant to the subject to imply, when christ returns to the father with his chosen, he will leave a regenerated earth, with jerusalem for its golden and peerless capital, peopled, and to be peopled, with rejoicing and immortal men, who will keep the commandments, be exempt from ancient evils, hold intimate communion with god and the lamb, and, from generation to generation, pass up to heaven through that swift and painless change, alluded to by paul, whereby it was intended at the first that sinless man, his corruptible and mortal putting on incorruption and immortality, should be fitted for the companionship of angels in the pure radiance of the celestial world, and should be translated thither without tasting the bitterness of death, which was supposed to be the subterranean banishment of the disembodied ghost. chapter iv. paul's doctrine of a future life. the principal difficulty in arriving at the system of thought and faith in the mind of paul arises from the fragmentary character of his extant writings. they are not complete treatises drawn out in independent statements,butspecial letters full of latent implications. they were written to meet particular emergencies, to give advice, to convey or ask information and sympathy, to argue or decide concerning various matters to a considerable extent of a personal or local and temporal nature. obviously their author never suspected they would be the permanent and immensely influential documents they have since become. they were not composed as orderly developments or full presentations of a creed, but rather as supplements to more adequate oral instruction previously imparted. he says to the thessalonians, "brethren, stand fast and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by word or by our epistle." several of his letters also perhaps many have been lost. he exhorts the colossians to "read likewise the epistle from laodicea." in his present first epistle to the corinthians he intimates that he had previously corresponded with them, in the words, "i wrote to you in a letter." there are good reasons, too, for supposing that he transmitted other epistles of which we have now no account. owing, therefore, to the facts that his principal instructions were given by word of mouth, and that his surviving writings set forth no systematic array of doctrines, we have no choice left, if we desire to know what his opinions concerning the future life were, when deduced and arranged, but to exercise our learning and our faculties upon the imperfect discussions and the significant hints and clews in his extant epistles. bringing these together, in the light of contemporary pharisaic and christian conceptions and opinions, we may construct a system from them which will represent his theory; somewhat as the naturalist from a few fragmentary bones describes the entire skeleton to which they belonged. as we proceed to follow this process, we must particularly remember the leading notions in the doctrinal belief of the jews at that period, and the fact that paul himself was "brought up at the feet of gamaliel," "after the most straitest order of the sect, a pharisee." when on trial at jerusalem, he cried, "men and brethren, i am a pharisee, the son of a pharisee: of the hope of the resurrection of the dead i am called in question." we can hardly suppose that he would entirely throw off the influence and form of the pharisaic dogmas and grasp christianity in its pure spirituality. it is most reasonable to expect what we shall find actually the fact that he would mix the doctrinal and emotional results of his pharisaic training with the teachings of christ, thus forming a composite system considerably modified from any then existing. indeed, a great many obscure texts in paul may be made perspicuous by citations from the old talmudists. considering the value and the importance of this means of illustrating the new testament, it is neglected by modern commentators in a very remarkable manner. in common with his countrymen and the gentiles, paul undoubtedly believed in a world of light and bliss situated over the sky, where the deity, surrounded by his angels, reigns in immortal splendor. according to the greeks, zeus and the other gods, with a few select heroes, there lived an imperishable life. according to the hebrews, there was "the house of jehovah," "the habitation of eternity," "the world of holy angels." the old testament contains many sublime allusions to this place. jacob in his dream saw a ladder set up that reached unto heaven, and the angels were ascending and descending upon it. fixing his eyes upon the summit, the patriarch exclaimed, not referring, as is commonly supposed, to the ground on which he lay, but to the opening in the sky through which the angels were passing and repassing, "surely this is the house of god and this the gate of heaven." jehovah is described as "riding over the heaven of heavens;" as "treading upon the arch of the sky." the firmament is spoken of as the solid floor of his abode, where "he layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters," the "waters above," which the book of genesis says were "divided from the waters beneath." though this divine world on high was in the early ages almost universally regarded as a local reality, it was not conceived by jews or gentiles to be the destined abode of human souls. it was thought to be exclusively occupied by jehovah and his angels, or by the gods and their messengers. only here and there were scattered a few dim traditions, or poetic myths, of a prophet, a hero, a god descended man, who, as a special favor, had been taken up to the supernal mansions. the common destination of the disembodied spirits of men was the dark,stupendous realms of the under world. as augustine observes, "christ died after many; he rose before any: by dying he suffered what many had suffered before; by rising he did what no one had ever done before." these ideas of the celestial and the infernal localities and of the fate of man were of course entertained by paul when he became a christian. a few texts by way of evidence of this fact will here suffice. "that at the name of jesus every knee should bow, of those in heaven, and those on earth, and those under the earth." "he that descended first into the lower parts of the earth is the same also that ascended up far above all heavens." the untenableness of that explanation which makes the descent into the lower parts of the earth refer to christ's descent to earth from his pre existent state in heaven must be evident, as it seems to us, to every mind. irenaus, discussing this very text from ephesians, exposes the absurdity and stigmatizes the heresy of those who say that the infernal world is this earth, ("qui dicunt inferos quidem esse hunc mundum.") "i knew a man caught up to the third heaven, . . . caught up into paradise." the threefold heaven of the jews, here alluded to, was, first, the region of the air, supposed to be inhabited by evil spirits. paul repeatedly expresses this idea, as when he speaks of "the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that worketh in the children of disobedience," and when he says, "for we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness, against wicked spirits in heavenly places." the second heaven comprised the region of the planetary bodies. the third lay beyond the firmament, and was the actual residence of god and the angelic hosts. these quotations, sustained as they are by the well known previous opinions of the jews, as well as by numerous unequivocal texts in the writings of the other apostles and by many additional ones in those enarratio in psalmum xc. adv. hares. lib. v. cap. . of paul, are conclusive evidence that he believed in the received heaven above the blue ether and stellar dome, and in the received hadean abyss beneath the earth. in the absence of all evidence to the contrary, every presumption justifies the supposition that he also believed as we know all his orthodox contemporaries did that that under world was the abode of all men after death, and that that over world was solely the dwelling place of god and the angels. nay, we are not left to conjecture; for he expressly declares of god that he "dwelleth in the light which no man can approach unto." this conclusion will be abundantly established in the course of the following exposition. with these preliminaries, we are prepared to see what was paul's doctrine of death and of salvation. there are two prevalent theories on this subject, both of which we deem partly scriptural, neither of them wholly so. on the one extreme, the consistent disciple of augustine the historic calvinist attributes to the apostle the belief that the sin of adam was the sole cause of literal death, that but for adam's fall men would have lived on the earth forever or else have been translated bodily to heaven without any previous process of death. that such really was not the view held by paul we are convinced. indeed, there is one prominent feature in his faith which by itself proves that the disengagement of the soul from the material frame did not seem to him an abnormal event caused by the contingency of sin. we refer to his doctrine of two bodies, the "outward man" and the "inward man," the "earthly house" and the "heavenly house," the "natural body" and the "spiritual body." neander says this is "an express assertion" of paul's belief that man was not literally made mortal by sin, but was naturally destined to emerge from the flesh into a higher form of life. paul thought that, in the original plan of god, man was intended to drop his gross, corruptible body and put on an incorruptible one, like the "glorious body" of the risen christ. he distinctly declares, "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god." therefore, we cannot interpret the word "death" to mean merely the separation of the soul from its present tabernacle, when he says, "by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men." on the other extreme, the fully developed pelagian the common unitarian holds that the word "death" is always used in the arguments of paul in a spiritual or figurative sense, merely meaning moral alienation from god in guilt, misery, and despair. undoubtedly it is used thus in many instances, as when it is written, "i was alive without the law once; but, when the commandment came, sin rose to life, and i died." but in still more numerous cases it means something more than the consciousness of sin and the resulting wretchedness in the breast, and implies something external, mechanical, visible, as it were. for example, "since by man came death, by man came also the resurrection of the dead." any one who reads the context of this sentence may see that the terms "death" and "resurrection" antithetically balance each other, and refer not to an inward experience, but to an outward event, not to a moral change, but to the physical descent and resurrection. it is certain that here the words are not employed in a moral sense. the phraseology paul uses in stating the connection of the sin of adam with death, the connection of the resurrection of christ with immortal life, is too peculiar, emphatic, and extensive not to be loaded with planting and training, ryland's trans. p. . a more general and vivid significance than the simple unhappiness of a sense of guilt, the simple peace and joy of a reconciled conscience. the advocates, then, of both theories the calvinist asserting that paul supposed sin to be the only reason why we do not live eternally in the world with our present organization, and the rationalist asserting that the apostle never employs the word "death" except with a purely interior signification are alike beset by insuperable difficulties, perplexed by passages which defy their fair analysis and force them either to use a violent interpretation or to confess their ignorance. we must therefore seek out some third view, which, rejecting the errors, shall combine the truths and supply the defects of the two former. we have now to present such a view, a theory of the pauline doctrine of the last things which obviously explains and fills out all the related language of the epistles. we suppose he unfolded it fully in his preaching, while in his supplementary and personal letters he only alludes to such disconnected parts of it as then rose upon his thoughts. a systematic development of it as a whole, with copious allusions and labored defences, was not needed then, as it might seem to us to have been. for the fundamental notions on which it rested were the common belief of the nation and age. geology and astronomy had not disturbed the credit of a definitely located hades and heaven, nor had free metaphysics sharpened the common mind to skeptical queries. the view itself, as we conceive it occupied the mind of paul, is this. death was a part of the creative plan for us from the first, simply loosing the spirit from its corruptible body, clothing it with an ethereal vehicle, and immediately translating it to heaven. sin marred this plan, alienated us from the divine favor, introduced all misery, physical and moral, and doomed the soul, upon the fall of its earthly house, to descend into the slumberous gloom of the under world. thus death was changed from a pleasant organic fulfilment and deliverance, spiritual investiture and heavenly ascent, to a painful punishment condemning the naked ghost to a residence below the grave. as ewald says, through adam's sin "death acquired its significance as pain and punishment." herein is the explanation of the word "death" as used by paul in reference to the consequence of adam's offence. christ came to reveal the free grace and gift of god in redeeming us from our doom and restoring our heavenly destiny. this he exemplified, in accordance with the father's will, by dying, descending into the dreary world of the dead, vanquishing the forces there, rising thence, and ascending to the right hand of the throne of heaven as our forerunner. on the very verge of the theory just stated as paul's, neander hovers in his exposition of the apostle's views, but fails to grasp its theological scope and consequences. krabbe declares that "death did not arise from the native perishableness of the body, but from sin." this statement neander controverts, maintaining that "sin introduced no essential change in the physical organization of man, but merely in the manner in which his earthly existence terminates. had it not been for sin, death would have been only the form of a higher development of life." exactly so. with innocence, the soul at death sendschreiben des apostels paulus, s. . die lehre von oer sunde und vom tode, cap. xi, s. . neander's planting and training, book vi. ch. . would have ascended pleasantly, in a new body, to heaven; but sin compelled it to descend painfully, without any body, to hades. we will cite a few of the principal texts from which this general outline has been inferred and constructed. the substance of the fifth chapter of the epistle to the romans may be thus stated. as by the offence of one, sin entered into the world, and the judgment of the law came upon all men in a sentence of condemnation unto death, so by the righteousness of one, the free gift of god came upon all men in a sentence of justification unto life; that as sin, by adam's offence, hath reigned unto death, so grace, by christ's righteousness, might reign unto eternal life. now, we maintain that the words "death" and "life" cannot in the present instance be entirely explained, in a spiritual sense, as signifying disturbance and woe in the breast, or peace and bliss there, because the whole connected discourse is not upon the internal contingent experience of individuals, but upon the common necessity of the race, an objective sentence passed upon humanity, followed by a public gift of reversal and annulment. so, too, we deny that the words can be justly taken, in their strictly literal sense, as meaning cessation or continuance of physical existence on the earth, because, in the first place, that would be inconsistent with the doctrine of a spiritual body within the fleshly one and of a glorious inheritance reserved in heaven, a doctrine by which paul plainly shows that he recognised a natural organic provision, irrespective of sin, for a change in the form and locality of human existence. secondly, we submit that death and life here cannot mean departure from the body or continuance in it, because that is a matter with which christ's mission did in no way interfere, but left exactly as it was before; whereas, in the thing really meant by paul, christ is represented as standing, at least partially, in the same relation between life and men that adam stands in between death and men. the reply to the question, what is that relation? will at once define the genuine signification of the terms "death" and "life" in the instance under review. and thus it is to be answered. the death brought on mankind by adam was not only internal wretchedness, but also the condemnation of the disembodied soul to the under world; the life they were assured of by christ was not only internal blessedness, but also the deliverance of the soul from its subterranean prison and its reception into heaven in a "body celestial," according to its original destiny had sin not befallen. this interpretation is explicitly put forth by theodoret in his comments on this same passage, (rom. v. - .) he says, "there must be a correspondence between the disease and the remedy. adam's sin subjected him to the power of death and the tyranny of the devil. in the same manner that adam was compelled to descend into the under world, we all are associates in his fate. thus, when christ rose, the whole humankind partook in his vivification." origen also and who, after the apostles themselves, knew their thoughts and their use of language better than he? emphatically declares in exposition of the expression of paul, "the wages of sin is death" that "the impatib., dialogue iii. pp. , , ed. sirmondi. under world in which souls are detained is called death." "as in adam all die, even so in christ shall all be made alive." these words cannot be explained, "as in adam the necessity of physical death came on all, so in christ that necessity shall be removed," because christ's mission did not touch physical death, which was still reigning as ever, before paul's eyes. neither can the passage signify, "as through adam wretchedness is the portion of every heart of man, so through christ blessedness shall be given to every heart," because, while the language itself does not hint that thought, the context demonstrates that the real reference is not to an inward experience, but to an outward event, not to the personal regeneration of the soul, but to a general resurrection of the dead. the time referred to is the second coming of christ; and the force of the text must be this: as by our bodily likeness to the first man and genetic connection with him through sin we all die like him, that is, leave the body and go into the under world, and remain there, so by our spiritual likeness to the second man and redeeming connection with him through the free grace of god we shall all rise thence like him, revived and restored. adam was the head of a condemned race, doomed to hades by the visible occurrence of death in lineal descent from him; christ is the head of a pardoned race, destined for heaven in consonance with the plain token of his resurrection and ascension. again, the apostle writes, "in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump, the dead shall be raised incorruptible, and we (who are then living) shall be changed; for this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal immortality. then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, 'death is swallowed up in victory?" o death, where is thy sting? o hades, where is thy victory?'" the writer evidently exults in the thought that, at the second coming of christ, death shall lose its retributive character and the under world be baffled of its expected prisoners, because the living shall instantly experience the change of bodies fitting them to ascend to heaven with the returning and triumphant lord. paul also announces that "jesus christ hath abolished death and hath brought life and immortality to light." the word "death" here cannot mean physical dissolution, because christ did not abolish that. it cannot denote personal sin and unhappiness, because that would not correspond with and sustain the obvious meaning of the contrasted member of the sentence. its adequate and consistent sense is this. god intended that man should pass from a preliminary existence on earth to an eternal life in heaven; but sin thwarted this glorious design and altered our fate to a banishment into the cheerless under world. but now, by the teachings and resurrection of christ, we are assured that god of his infinite goodness has determined freely to forgive us and restore our original destination. our descent and abode below are abolished and our heavenly immortality made clear. "we earnestly desire to be clothed upon with our house which is from heaven, if so be that, being clothed, we shall not be found naked. not that we desire to be unclothed, but clothed upon, that mortality may be swallowed up of life." comm. in epist. ad rom. lib. vi. cap. , sect. . also see jerome, comm. in ecc. iii. . professor mau, in his able treatise "von dem tode dem solde der sunden, and der aufhebung desselben durch die auferstehung christi," cogently argues, against krabbe, that death as the punishment of sin is not bodily dissolution, but wretchedness and condemnation to the under world, (amandatio orcum.) in pelt's theologische mitarbeiten, , heft ii. ss. - . in these remarkable words the apostle expresses several particulars of what we have already presented as his general doctrine. he states his conviction that, when his "earthly house of this tabernacle" dissolves, there is a "divinely constructed, heavenly, and eternal house" prepared for him. he expresses his desire at the coming of the lord not to be dead, but still living, and then to be divested of his earthly body and invested with the heavenly body, that thus, being fitted for translation to the incorruptible kingdom of god, he might not be found a naked shadow or ghost in the under world. ruckert says, in his commentary, and the best critics agree with him, "paul herein desires to become immortal without passing the gates of death." language similar to the foregoing in its peculiar phrases is found in the jewish cabbala. the zohar describes the ascent of the soul to heaven clothed with splendor, and afterwards illustrates its meaning in these terms: "as there is given to the soul a garment with which she is clothed in order to establish her in this world, so there is given her a garment of heavenly splendor in order to establish her in that world." so in the "ascension of isaiah the prophet" an apocryphal book written by some jewish christian as early, without doubt, as the close of the second century the following passages occur. speaking of what was revealed to him in heaven, the prophet says, "there i saw all the saints, from adam, without the clothing of the flesh: i viewed them in their heavenly clothing like the angels who stood there in great splendor." again he says, "all the saints from heaven in their heavenly clothing shall descend with the lord and dwell in this world, while the saints who have not died shall be clothed like those who come from heaven. then the general resurrection will take place and they will ascend together to heaven." schoettgen, commenting on this text, ( cor. v. , ) likewise quotes a large number of examples of like phraseology from rabbinical writers. the statements thus far made and proofs offered will be amply illustrated and confirmed as we go on to consider the chief component parts of the pauline scheme of the last things. for, having presented the general outline, it will be useful, in treating so complex and difficult a theme, to analyze it by details. we are met upon the threshold of our inquiry by the essential question, what, according to paul, was the mission of christ? what did he accomplish? a clear reply to this question comprises three distinct propositions. first, the apostle plainly represents the resurrection, and not the crucifixion, as the efficacious feature in christ's work of redemption. when we recollect the almost universal prevalence of the opposite notion among existing sects, it is astonishing how clear it is that paul generally dwells upon the dying of christ solely as the necessary preliminary to his rising. "if christ be not risen, then is our preaching vain, and your faith also is vain: ye are yet in your sins." these words are irreconcilable with that doctrine which connects our "justification" with the atoning death, and not with the typical resurrection, of christ. "that christ died for our sins, and that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day." to place a vicarious stress upon the first clause of this text is as arbitrary as it would be to place it upon the second; but naturally emphasize the third clause, laurence, ascensio isaia vatis, appendix, p. . laurence, ascensio isaia atis, cap. , v. , ; cap. . and all is clear. the inferences and exhortations drawn from the mission of christ are not usually connected in any essential manner with his painful death, but directly with his glorious resurrection out from among the dead unto the heavenly blessedness. "if we have been planted together in the likeness of his death, we shall be also in the likeness of his resurrection." sinking into the water, when "buried by baptism into the death of christ," was, to those initiated into the christian religion, a symbol of the descent of christ among the dead; rising out of the water was a symbol of the ascent of christ into heaven. "if ye then be risen with christ, seek those things which are above, where christ sitteth on the right hand of god." when paul cries, exultingly, "thanks be to god, who through christ giveth us the victory over the sting of death and the strength of sin," jerome says, "we cannot and dare not interpret this victory otherwise than by the resurrection of the lord." commenting on the text "to this end christ both died and lived again, that he might reign both over the dead and the living," theodoret says that christ, going through all these events, "promised a resurrection to us all." paul makes no appeal to us to believe in the death of christ, to believe in the atoning sacrifice of christ, but he unequivocally affirms, "if thou shalt believe in thine heart that god hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved." paul conceived that christ died in order to rise again and convince men that the father would freely deliver them from the bondage of death in the under world. all this took place on account of sin, was only made requisite by sin, one of whose consequences was the subterranean confinement of the soul, which otherwise, upon deserting its clayey tent, would immediately have been clothed with a spiritual body and have ascended to heaven. that is to say, christ "was delivered because of our offences and was raised again because of our justification." in romans viii. the preposition occurs twice in exactly the same construction as in the text just quoted. in the latter case the authors of the common version have rendered it "because of." they should have done so in the other instance, in accordance with the natural force and established usage of the word in this connection. the meaning is, our offences had been committed, therefore christ was delivered into hades; our pardon had been decreed, therefore christ was raised into heaven. such as we have now stated is the real material which has been distorted and exaggerated into the prevalent doctrine of the vicarious atonement, with all its dread concomitants. the believers of that doctrine suppose themselves obliged to accept it by the language of the epistles. but the view above maintained as that of paul solves every difficulty and gives an intelligent and consistent meaning to all the phrases usually thought to legitimate the calvinistic scheme of redemption. while we deny the correctness of the calvinistic interpretation of those passages in which occur such expressions as "christ gave himself for us," "died for our sins," we also affirm the inadequacy comm. in osee, lib. iii. cap. . die lehre von christi hollenfahrt nach der heil. schrift, der altesten kirche, den christlichen symbolen, und nach ihrer unendlichen wichtigkeit und vielumfassenden bedeutung dargestellt, von joh. ludwig konig. the author presents in this work an irresistible array of citations and authorities. in an appendix he gives a list of a hundred authors on the theme of christ's descent into hell. of the explanations of them proposed by unitarians, and assert that their genuine force is this. christ died and rose that we might be freed through faith from the great entailed consequence of sin, the bondage of the under world; beholding, through his ascension, our heavenly destination restored. "god made him, who knew no sin, to be sin on our account, that we might become the righteousness of god in him," might through faith in him be assured of salvation. in other words, christ, who was not exposed to the evils brought on men by sin, did not think his divine estate a thing eagerly to be retained, but descended to the estate of man, underwent the penalties of sin as if he were himself a sinner, and then rose to the right hand of god, by this token to assure men of god's gracious determination to forgive them and reinstate them in their forfeited primal privileges. "if we be reconciled by his death, much more shall we be saved by his life." that is, if christ's coming from heaven as an ambassador from god to die convinces us of god's pardoning good will towards us, much more does his rising again into heaven, where he now lives, deliver us from the fear of the under world condemnation and assure us of the heavenly salvation. except in the light and with the aid of the theory we have been urging, a large number of texts like the foregoing cannot, as we think, be interpreted without constructive violence, and even with that violence cannot convey their full point and power. secondly, in paul's doctrine of the redeeming work of christ we recognise something distinct from any subjective effect in animating and purifying the hearts and lives of men. "christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law." "in christ we have redemption through his blood, even the forgiveness of sins." nothing but the most desperate exegesis can make these and many similar texts signify simply the purging of individual breasts from their offences and guilt. seeking the genuine meaning of paul, we are forced to agree with the overwhelming majority of the critics and believers of all christendom, from the very times of the apostles till now, and declare that these passages refer to an outward deliverance of men by christ, the removal by him of a common doom resting on the race in consequence of sin. what paul supposed that doom was, and how he thought it was removed, let us try to see. it is necessary to premise that in paul's writings the phrase "the righteousness of god" is often used by metonymy to mean god's mode of accounting sinners righteous, and is equivalent to "the christian method of salvation." "by the deeds of the law no flesh shall be justified; but the righteousness of god without the law is manifested, freely justifying them through the redemption that is in christ." how evidently in this verse "the righteousness of god" denotes god's method of justifying the guilty by a free pardon proclaimed through christ! the apostle employs the word "faith" in a kindred technical manner, sometimes meaning by it "promise," sometimes the whole evangelic apparatus used to establish faith or prove the realization of the promise. "what if some did not believe? shall their unbelief make the faith of god without effect?" evidently by "faith" is intended "promise" or "purpose." "is the law against the promises of god? god forbid! but before faith came we were kept under the law, shut up unto the faith which should afterwards be revealed." here "faith" plainly means the object of faith, the manifested fulfilment of the promises: it means the gospel. again, "whereof he hath offered faith to all, in that he hath raised him from the dead." "hath offered faith" here signifies, unquestionably, as the common version well expresses it, "hath given assurance," or hath exemplified the proof. "wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto christ, that we might be justified by faith. but after that faith is come, we are no longer under a schoolmaster." in this instance "faith" certainly means christianity, in contradistinction to judaism, and "justification by faith" is equivalent to "salvation by the grace of god, shown through the mission of christ." it is not so much internal and individual in its reference as it is public and general. we believe that no man, sacredly resolved to admit the truth, can study with a purposed reference to this point all the passages in paul's epistles where the word "faith" occurs, without being convinced that for the most part it is used in an objective sense, in contradistinction to the law, as synonymous with the gospel, the new dispensation of grace. therefore "justification by faith" does not usually mean salvation through personal belief, either in the merits of the redeemer or in any thing else, but it means salvation by the plan revealed in the gospel, the free remission of sins by the forbearance of god. in those instances where "faith" is used in a subjective sense for personal belief, it is never described as the effectual cause of salvation, but as the condition of personal assurance of salvation. grace has outwardly come to all; but only the believers inwardly know it. this pauline use of terms in technical senses lies broadly on the face of the epistles to the romans and the galatians. new testament lexicons and commentaries, by the best scholars of every denomination, acknowledge it and illustrate it. mark now these texts. "and by him all that believe are justified from all things from which ye could not be justified by the law of moses." "to declare his righteousness, that he might be just and the justifier of him that believeth in jesus." "what things were gain to me [under judaism] i counted loss in comparison with christ, that i may be found in him, not having mine own righteousness, which is of the law, but the righteousness which is of god through faith in christ." "by the deeds of the law no man can be justified," "but ye are saved through faith." we submit that these passages, and many others in the epistles, find a perfect explanation in the following outline of faith, commenced in the mind of paul while he was a pharisee, completed when he was a christian. the righteousness of the law, the method of salvation by keeping the law, is impossible. the sin of the first man broke that whole plan and doomed all souls helplessly to the under world. if a man now should keep every tittle of the law without reservation, it would not release him from the bondage below and secure for him an ascent to heaven. but what the law could not do is done for us in christ. sin having destroyed the righteousness of the law, that is, the fatal penalty of hades having rendered salvation by the law impossible, the righteousness of god, that is, a new method of salvation, has been brought to light. god has sent his son to die, descend into the under world, rise again, and return to heaven, to proclaim to men the glorious tidings of justification by faith, that is, a dispensation of grace freely annulling the great consequence of sin and inviting them to heaven in the redeemer's footsteps. paul unequivocally declares that christ broke up the bondage of the under world by his irresistible entrance and exit, in the following text: "when he had descended first into the lower parts of the earth, he ascended up on high, leading a multitude of captives." what can be plainer than that? the same thought is also contained in another passage, a passage which was the source of those tremendous pictures so frequent in the cathedrals of the middle age, christus spoliat infernum: "god hath forgiven you all trespasses, blotting out the handwriting of ordinances that was against us, and took it away, nailing it to christ's cross; and, having spoiled principalities and powers, he made a show of them, openly triumphing over them in christ." the entire theory which underlies the exposition we have just set forth is stated in so many words in the passage we next cite. for the word "righteousness" in order to make the meaning more perspicuous we simply substitute "method of salvation," which is unquestionably its signification here. "they [the jews] being ignorant of god's method of salvation, and going about to establish their own method, have not submitted themselves unto god's. for christ is the end of the law for a way of salvation to every one that believeth. for moses describeth the method of salvation which is of the law, that the man who doeth these things shall be blessed in them. but the method of salvation which is of faith ["faith" here means the gospel, christianity] speaketh on this wise: say not in thy heart, 'who shall ascend into heaven?' that is, to bring christ down; or, 'who shall descend into the under world?' that is, to bring up christ again from among the dead." this has been done already, once for all. "and if thou shalt believe in thine heart that god hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved." the apostle avows that his "heart's desire and his prayer unto god for israel is, that they may be saved;" and he asserts that they cannot be saved by the law of moses, but only by the gospel of christ; that is, "faith;" that is, "the dispensation of grace." paul's conception of the foremost feature in christ's mission is precisely this. he came to deliver men from the stern law of judaism, which could not wipe away their transgressions nor save them from hades, and to establish them in the free grace of christianity, which justifies them from all past sin and seals them for heaven. what could be a more explicit declaration of this than the following? "when the fulness of the time was come, god sent forth his son to redeem them that were under the law." herein is the explanation of that perilous combat which paul waged so many years, and in which he proved victorious, the great battle between the gentile christians and the judaizing christians; a subject of altogether singular importance, without a minute acquaintance with which a large part of the new testament cannot be understood. "christ gave himself for our sins, that he might deliver us from this present evil world, according to the will of god." now, the hebrew terms corresponding with the english terms "present world" and "future world" were used by the jews to denote the mosaic and the messianic dispensations. we believe with schoettgen and other good authorities that such is the sense of the phrase "present world" in the instance before us. not only is that interpretation sustained by the usus loquendi, it is also the only defensible meaning; for the effect of the establishment of the gospel was not to deliver men from the present world, though it did deliver them from the hopeless bondage of judaism, wherein salvation was by christians considered impossible. and that is precisely the argument of the epistle to the galatians, in which the text occurs. in a succeeding chapter, while speaking expressly of the external forms of the jewish law, paul says, "by the cross of christ the world is crucified unto me, and i unto the world;" and he instantly adds, by way of explanation, "for in christ jesus neither circumcision availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision." undeniably, "world" here means "judaism;" as rosenmuller phrases it, judaica vanitas. in another epistle, while expostulating with his readers on the folly of subjecting themselves to observances "in meat and drink, and new moons and sabbaths," after "the handwriting of ordinances that was against them had been blotted out, taken away, nailed to the cross," paul remonstrates with them in these words: "wherefore, if ye be dead with christ from the rudiments of the world, why, as though living in the world, are ye subject to ordinances?" we should suppose that no intelligent person could question that this means, "now that by the gospel of christ ye are emancipated from the technical requisitions of judaism, why are ye subject to its ordinances, as if ye were still living under its rule?" as many of the best commentators agree in saying, "tanquam viventes adhuc in judaismo." from these collective passages, and from others like them, we draw the conclusion, in paul's own words, that, "when we were children, we were in bondage under the rudiments of the world," "the weak and beggarly elements" of judaism; but, now that "the fulness of the time has come, and god has sent forth his son to redeem us," we are called "to receive the adoption of sons" and "become heirs of god," inheritors of a heavenly destiny. we think that the intelligent and candid reader, who is familiar with paul's epistles, will recognise the following features in his belief and teaching. first, all mankind alike were under sin and condemnation. "jews and gentiles all are under sin." "all the world is subject to the sentence of god." and we maintain that that condemning sentence consisted, partly at least, in the banishment of their disembodied souls to hades. secondly, "a promise was given to abraham," before the introduction of the mosaic dispensation, "that in his seed [that is, in christ] all the nations of the earth should be blessed." when paul speaks, as he does in numerous instances, of "the hope of eternal life which god, who cannot lie, promised before the world began," "the promise given before the foundation of the world," "the promise made of god unto the fathers, that god would raise the dead," the date referred to is not when the decree was formed in the eternal counsels of god, previous to the origin of the earth, but when the covenant was made with abraham, before the establishment of the jewish dispensation. the thing promised plainly was, according to paul's idea, a redemption from hades and an ascension to heaven; for this is fully implied in his "expectation of the resurrection of the dead" from the intermediate state, and their being "clothed in celestial bodies." this promise made unto abraham by god, to be fulfilled by christ, "the law, which was four hundred and thirty years afterwards, could not disannul." that is, as any one may see by the context, the law could not secure the inheritance of the thing promised, but was only a temporary arrangement on account of transgressions, "until the seed should come to whom the promise was made." in other words, there was "no mode of salvation by the law;" "the law could not give life;" for if it could it would have "superseded the promise," made it without effect, whereas the inviolable promise of god was, that in the one seed of abraham that is, in christ alone should salvation be preached to all that believed. "for if they which are of the law be heirs, faith is made useless, and the promise is made useless." in the mean time, until christ be come, all are shut up under sin. thirdly, the special "advantage of the jews was, that unto them this promise of god was committed," as the chosen covenant people. the gentiles, groaning under the universal sentence of sin, were ignorant of the sure promise of a common salvation yet to be brought. while the jews indulged in glowing and exclusive expectations of the messiah who was gloriously to redeem them, the gentiles were "aliens from the commonwealth of israel, strangers from the covenants of promise, having no hope and without god in the world." fourthly, in the fulness of time long after "the scripture, foreseeing that god would justify the heathen, had preached the gospel beforehand unto abraham, saying, in thy seed shall all nations be blessed" "christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us, that the blessing promised to abraham might come upon the gentiles." it was the precise mission of christ to realize and exemplify and publish to the whole world the fulfilment of that promise. the promise itself was, that men should be released from the under world through the imputation of righteousness by grace that is, through free forgiveness and rise to heaven as accredited sons and heirs of god. this aim and purpose of christ's coming were effected in his resurrection. but how did the gentiles enter into belief and participation of the glad tidings? thus, according to paul: the death, descent, resurrection, and ascent of jesus, and his residence in heaven in a spiritual form, divested him of his nationality. he was "then to be known no more after the flesh." he was no longer an earthly jew, addressing jews, but a heavenly spirit and son of god, a glorified likeness of the spirits of all who were adopted as sons of god, appealing to them all as joint heirs with himself of heaven. he has risen into universality, and is accessible to the soul of every one that believeth. "in him there is neither greek nor jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, scythian, bond nor free." the experience resulting in a heart raised into fellowship with him in heaven is the inward seal assuring us that our faith is not vain. "ye gentiles, who formerly were afar off, are now made nigh by the blood of christ; for he hath broken down the middle wall of partition between jews and gentiles, having abolished in his flesh the enmity, namely, the law of commandments in ordinances, in order to make in himself of twain one new man. for through him we both have access by one spirit unto the father. now, therefore, ye are no more strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints and of the household of god." circumcision was of the flesh; and the vain hope of salvation by it was confined to the jews. grace was of the spirit; and the revealed assurance of salvation by it was given to the gentiles too, when christ died to the nationalizing flesh, rose in the universalizing spirit, and from heaven impartially exhibited himself, through the preaching of the gospel, to the appropriating faith of all. the foregoing positions might be further substantiated by applying the general theory they contain to the explication of scores of individual texts which it fits and unfolds, and which, we think, cannot upon any other view be interpreted without forced constructions unwarranted by a thorough acquaintance with the mind of paul and with the mind of his age. but we must be content with one or two such applications as specimens. the word "mystery" often occurs in the letters of paul. its current meaning in his time was "something concealed," something into which one must be initiated in order to understand it. martineau, liverpool controversy: inconsistency of the scheme of vicarious redemption. the eleusinian mysteries, for instance, were not necessarily any thing intrinsically dark and hard to be comprehended, but things hidden from public gaze and only to be known by initiation into them. paul uses the term in a similar way to denote the peculiar scheme of grace, which "had been kept secret from the beginning of the world," "hidden from ages and generations, but now made manifest." no one denies that paul means by "this mystery" the very heart and essence of the gospel, precisely that which distinguishes it from the law and makes it a universal method of salvation, a wondrous system of grace. so much is irresistibly evident from the way and the connection in which he uses the term. he writes thus in explanation of the great mystery as it was dramatically revealed through christ: "who was manifested in the flesh, [i. e. seen in the body during his life on earth,] justified in the spirit, [i. e. freed after death from the necessity of imprisonment in hades,] seen of angels, [i. e. in their fellowship after his resurrection,] preached unto the gentiles, [i. e. after the gift of tongues on pentecost day,] believed on in the world, [i. e. his gospel widely accepted through the labors of his disciples,] received up into glory, [i. e. taken into heaven to the presence of god.]" "the revelation of the mystery" means, then, the visible enactment and exhibition, through the resurrection of christ, of god's free forgiveness of men, redeeming them from the hadean gloom to the heavenly glory. the word "glory" in the new testament confessedly often signifies the illumination of heaven, the defined abode of god and his angels. robinson collects, in his lexicon, numerous examples wherein he says it means "that state which is the portion of those who dwell with god in heaven." now, paul repeatedly speaks of the calling of believers to glory as one of the chief blessings and new prerogatives of the gospel. "being justified by faith, we rejoice in hope of the glory of god." "walk worthy of god, who hath called you unto his glory." "we speak wisdom to the initiates, the hidden wisdom of god in a mystery, which before the world [the jewish dispensation] god ordained for our glory." "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god: behold, i show you a mystery: we shall all be changed in a moment, and put on immortality." in the first chapter of the letter to the colossians, paul speaks of "the hope which is laid up for you in heaven, whereof ye have heard in the gospel;" also of "the inheritance of the saints in light:" then he says, "god would now make known among the gentiles the mystery, which is, christ among you, the hope of glory." in the light of what has gone before, how significant and how clear is this declaration! "all have sinned, and failed to attain unto the glory of god; but now, through the faith of jesus christ, [through the dispensation brought to light by christ,] the righteousness of god [god's method of salvation] is unto all that believe." that is, by the law all were shut up in hades, but by grace they are now ransomed and to be received to heaven. the same thought or scheme is contained in that remarkable passage in the epistle to the galatians where paul says the free isaac and the bond woman hagar were an allegory, teaching that there were two covenants, one by abraham, the other by moses. the mosaic covenant of the law "answers to the jerusalem which is on earth, and is in bondage with her children," and belongs only to the jews. the abrahamic covenant of promise answers to "the jerusalem which is above, and is free, and is the mother of us all." in the former, we were "begotten unto bondage." in the latter, "christ hath made us free." we will notice but one more text in passing: it is, of all the proof texts of the doctrine of a substitutional expiation, the one which has ever been regarded as the very achilles. and yet it can be made to support that doctrine only by the aid of arbitrary assumptions and mistranslations, while by its very terms it perfectly coincides with nay, expressly declares the theory which we have been advocating as the genuine interpretation of paul. the usual commentators, in their treatment of this passage, have exhibited a long continued series of perversions and sophisms, affording a strong example of unconscious prejudice. the correct greek reading of the text is justly rendered thus: "whom god set forth, a mercy seat through the faith in his blood, to exhibit his righteousness through the remission of former sins by the forbearance of god." for rendering [non-ascii characters] "mercy seat," the usus loquendi and the internal harmony of meaning are in our favor, and also the weight of many orthodox authorities, such as theodoret, origen, theophylact, oecumenius, erasmus, luther, and from pelagius to bushnell. still, we are willing to admit the rendering of it by "sin offering." that makes no important difference in the result. christ was a sin offering, in the conception of paul, in this sense: that when he was not himself subject to death, which was the penalty of sin, he yet died in order to show god's purpose of removing that penalty of sin through his resurrection. for rendering [non-ascii characters] "through," no defence is needed: the only wonder is, how it ever could have been here translated "for." now, let two or three facts be noticed. first, the new testament phrase "the faith of christ," "the faith of jesus," is very unfairly and unwarrantably made to mean an internal affection towards christ, a belief of men in him. its genuine meaning is the same as "the gospel of christ," or the religion of christ, the system of grace which he brought. who can doubt that such is the meaning of the word in these instances? "contend for the faith once delivered to the saints;" "greet them that love us in the faith;" "have not the faith of our lord jesus christ with respect of persons." so, in the text now under our notice, "the faith which is in his blood" means the dispensation of pardon and justification, the system of faith, which was confirmed and exemplified to us in his death and resurrection. secondly, "the righteousness of god," which is here said to be "pointed out" by christ's death, denotes simply, in professor stuart's words, "god's pardoning mercy," or "acquittal," or "gratuitous justification," "in which sense," he says truly, "it is almost always used in paul's epistles." it signifies neither more nor less than god's method of salvation by freely forgiving sins and treating the sinner as if he were righteous, the method of salvation now carried into effect and revealed in the gospel brought by christ, and dramatically enacted in his passion and ascension. furthermore, we ask attention to the fact that the ordinary interpreter, hard pressed by his unscriptural creed, interpolates a disjunctive conjunction in the opposing teeth of paul's plain statement. paul says, as the common version has it, god is "just, and [i. e. even] the justifier." the creed bound commentators read it, robinson has gathered a great number of instances in his lexicon, under the word "faith," wherein it can only mean, as he says, "the system of christian doctrines, the gospel." stuart's romans i. , iii. , , &c. "just and yet the justifier." we will now present the true meaning of the whole passage, in our view of it, according to paul's own use of language. to establish a conviction of the correctness of the exposition, we only ask the ingenuous reader carefully to study the clauses of the greek text and recollect the foregoing data. "god has set christ forth, to be to us a sure sign that we have been forgiven and redeemed through the faith that was proved by his triumphant return from death, the dispensation of grace inaugurated by him. herein god has exhibited his method of saving sinners, which is by the free remission of their sins through his kindness. thus god is proved to be disposed to save, and to be saving, by the system of grace shown through jesus, him that believeth." in consequence of sin, men were under sentence of condemnation to the under world. in the fulness of time god fulfilled his ancient promise to abraham. he freely justified men, that is, forgave them, redeemed them from their doom, and would soon open the sky for their abode with him. this scheme of redemption was carried out by christ. that is to say, god proclaimed it to men, and asked their belief in it, by "setting forth christ" to die, descend among the dead, rise thence, and ascend into heaven, as an exemplifying certification of the truth of the glad tidings. thirdly, paul teaches that one aim of christ's mission was to purify, animate, and exalt the moral characters of men, and rectify their conduct, to produce a subjective sanctification in them, and so prepare them for judgment and fit them for heaven. the establishment of this proposition will conclude the present part of our subject. he writes, "our saviour, jesus christ, gave himself for us, that he might redeem us from all iniquity and purify unto himself a peculiar people zealous of good works." "let every one that nameth the name of christ depart from iniquity." in various ways he often represents the fact that believers have been saved by grace through christ as the very reason, the intensified motive, why they should scrupulously keep every tittle of the moral law and abstain even from the appearance of evil, walking worthy of their high vocation. "the grace of god that bringeth salvation to all men hath appeared, teaching us that, denying all ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly in this present world." bad men, "that obey not the gospel of christ," such characters as "thieves, extortioners, drunkards, adulterers, shall not inherit the kingdom of god." he proclaims, in unmistakable terms, "god will render to every man according to his deeds, wrath and tribulation to the evil doer, honor and peace to the well doer, whether jew or gentile." the conclusion to be drawn from these and other like declarations is unavoidable. it is that "every one, jew and gentile, shall stand before the judgment seat of christ and receive according to the deeds done in the body; for there is no respect of persons." and one part of christ's mission was to exert a hallowing moral influence on men, to make them righteous, that they might pass the bar with acquittal. but the reader who recollects the class of texts adduced a little while since will remember that an opposite conclusion was as unequivocally drawn from them. then paul said, "by faith ye are justified, without the deeds of the law." now he says, "for not the hearers of the law are just before god, but the doers of the law shall be justified in the day when god shall judge the secrets of men by jesus christ." is there a contradiction, then, in paul? only in appearance. let us distinguish and explain. in the two quotations above, the apostle is referring to two different things. first, he would say, by the faith of christ, the free grace of god declared in the gospel of christ, ye are justified, gratuitously delivered from that necessity of imprisonment in hades which is the penalty of sin doomed upon the whole race from adam, and from which no amount of personal virtue could avail to save men. secondly, when he exclaims, "know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of god?" his thought is of a spiritual qualification of character, indispensable for positive admission among the blest in heaven. that is to say, the impartial penalty of primeval sin consigned all men to hades. they could not by their own efforts escape thence and win heaven. that fated inability god has removed, and through christ revealed its removal; but, that one should actually obtain the offered and possible prize of heaven, personal purity, faith, obedience, holiness, are necessary. in paul's conception of the scheme of christian salvation, then, there were two distinct parts: one, what god had done for all; the other, what each man was to do for himself. and the two great classes of seemingly hostile texts filling his epistles, which have puzzled so many readers, become clear and harmonious when we perceive and remember that by "righteousness" and its kindred terms he sometimes means the external and fulfilled method of redeeming men from the transmitted necessity of bondage in the under world, and sometimes means the internal and contingent qualifications for actually realizing that redemption. in the former instance he refers to the objective mode of salvation and the revelation of it in christ. in the latter, he refers to the subjective fitness for that salvation and the certitude of it in the believer. so, too, the words "death" and "life," in paul's writings, are generally charged, by a constructio proegnans, with a double sense, one spiritual, individual, contingent, the other mechanical, common, absolute. death, in its full pauline force, includes inward guilt, condemnation, and misery, and outward descent into the under world. life, in its full pauline force, includes inward rectitude, peace, and joy, and outward ascent into the upper world. holiness is necessary, "for without it no one can see the lord;" yet by itself it can secure only inward life: it is ineffectual to win heaven. grace by itself merely exempts from the fatality of the condemnation to hades: it offers eternal life in heaven only upon condition of "patient continuance in well doing" by "faith, obedience to the truth, and sanctification of the spirit." but god's free grace and man's diligent fidelity, combined, give the full fruition of blessedness in the heart and of glory and immortality in the sky. such, as we have set forth in the foregoing three divisions, was paul's view of the mission of christ and of the method of salvation. it has been for centuries perverted and mutilated. the toil now is by unprejudiced inspection to bring it forward in its genuine completeness, as it stood in paul's own mind and in the minds of his contemporaries. the essential view, epitomized in a single sentence, is this. the independent grace of god has interfered, first, to save man from hades, and secondly, to enable him, by the co operation of his own virtue, to get to heaven. here are two separate means conjoined to effect the end, salvation. now, compare, in the light of this statement, the three great theological theories of christendom. the unitarian, overlooking the objective justification, or offered redemption from the death realm to the sky home, which whether it be a truth or an error is surely in the epistles, makes the subjective sanctification all in all. the calvinist, in his theory, comparatively scorns the subjective sanctification, which paul insists on as a necessity for entering the kingdom of god, and, having perverted the objective justification from its real historic meaning, exaggerates it into the all in all. the roman catholic holds that christ simply removed the load of original sin and its entailed doom, and left each person to stand or fall by his own merits, in the helping communion of the church. he also maintains that a part of christ's office was to exert an influence for the moral improvement and consecration of human character. his error, as an interpreter of paul's thought, is, that he, like the calvinist, attributes to christ's death a vicarious efficacy by suffering the pangs of mankind's guilt to buy their ransom from the inexorable justice of god; whereas the apostle really represents christ's redeeming mission as consisting simply in a dramatic exemplification of the father's spontaneous love and purpose to pardon past offences, unbolt the gates of hades, and receive the worthy to heaven. moreover, while paul describes the heavenly salvation as an undeserved gift from the grace of god, the catholic often seems to make it a prize to be earned, under the christian dispensation, by good works which may fairly challenge that reward. however, we have little doubt that this apparent opposition is rather in the practical mode of exhortation than in any interior difference of dogma; for paul himself makes personal salvation hinge on personal conditions, the province of grace being seen in the new extension to man of the opportunity and invitation to secure his own acceptance. and so the roman catholic exposition of paul's doctrine is much more nearly correct than any other interpretation now prevalent. we should expect, a priori, that it would be, since that church, containing two thirds of christendom, is the most intimately connected, by its scholars, members, and traditions, with the apostolic age. a prominent feature in the belief of paul, and one deserving distinct notice as necessarily involving a considerable part of the theory which we have attributed to him, is the supposition that christ was the first person, clothed with humanity and experiencing death, admitted into heaven. of all the hosts who had lived and died, every soul had gone down into the dusky under world. there they all were held in durance, waiting for the great deliverer. in the splendors of the realm over the sky, god and his angels dwelt alone. that we do not err in ascribing this belief to paul we might summon the whole body of the fathers to testify in almost unbroken phalanx, from polycarp to st. bernard. the roman, greek, and english churches still maintain the same dogma. but the apostle's own plain words will be sufficient for our purpose. "that christ should suffer, and that he should be the first that should rise from among the dead." "now is christ risen from among the dead and become the first fruits of them that slept." "he is the beginning, the first born from among the dead, that among all he might have the pre eminence." "god raised christ from among the dead, and set him at his own right hand in the heavenly places, far above every principality, and power, and might, and dominion." the last words refer to different orders of spirits, supposed griesbach argues at length, and shows unanswerably, that this passage cannot bear a moral interpretation, but necessarily has a physical and local sense. griesbachii opuscula academica, ed. gabler, vol. ii. pp. - . by the jews to people the aerial region below the heaven of god. "god hath" (already in our anticipating faith) "raised us up together with christ and made us sit in heavenly places with him." these testimonies are enough to show that paul believed jesus to have been raised up to the abode of god, the first man ever exalted thither, and that this was done as a pledge and illustration of the same exaltation awaiting those who believe. "if we be dead with christ, we believe we shall also live with him." and the apostle teaches that we are not only connected with christ's resurrection by the outward order and sequence of events, but also by an inward gift of the spirit. he says that to every obedient believer is given an experimental "knowledge of the power of the resurrection of christ," which is the seal of god within him, the pledge of his own celestial destination. "after that ye believed, ye were sealed with that holy spirit of promise which is the earnest of our inheritance until the redemption of the purchased possession." the office of this gift of the spirit is to awaken in the believing christian a vivid realization of the things in store for him, and a perfect conviction that he shall yet possess them in the unclouded presence of god, beyond the canopy of azure and the stars. "eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor the heart of man conceived, the things which god hath prepared for them that love him. but he hath revealed them unto us; for we have received his spirit, that we might know them." "the spirit beareth witness with our spirit that we are children and heirs of god, even joint heirs with christ, that we may be glorified [i. e. advanced into heaven] with him." we will leave this topic with a brief paraphrase of the celebrated passage in the eighth chapter of the epistle to the romans. "not only do the generality of mankind groan in pain in this decaying state, under the bondage of perishable elements, travailing for emancipation from the flesh into the liberty of the heavenly glory appointed for the sons and heirs of god, but even we, who have the first fruits of the spirit, [i. e. the assurance springing from the resurrection of christ,] we too wait, painfully longing for the adoption, that is, our redemption from the body." by longing for the adoption, or filiation, is meant impatient desire to be received into heaven as children to the enjoyment of the privileges of their father's house. "god predetermined that those called should be conformed to the image of his son, [i. e. should pass through the same course with christ and reach the heavenly goal,] that he might be the first born among many brethren." to the securing of this end, "whom he called, them he also justified, [i. e. ransomed from hades; ] and whom he justified, them he also glorified," (i. e. advanced to the glory of heaven.) it is evident that paul looked for the speedy second coming of the lord in the clouds of heaven, with angels and power and glory. he expected that at that time all enemies would be overthrown and punished, the dead would be raised, the living would be changed, and all that were christ's would be translated to heaven. "the lord jesus shall be revealed from that "justify" often means, in paul's usage, to absolve from hades, we have concluded from a direct study of his doctrines and language. we find that bretschneider gives it the same definition in his lexicon of the new testament. see [non ascii characters] "every one shall rise in his own division" of the great army of the dead, "christ, the first fruits; afterwards, they that are christ's, at his coming." heaven, with his mighty angels, in flaming fire, taking vengeance on them that know not god and obey not the gospel of christ." "we shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, at the last trump." "we who are alive and remain until the coming of the lord shall not anticipate those that are asleep. for the lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of god; and the dead in christ shall rise first. then we who are alive and remain shall be caught up with them in the clouds, to meet the lord in the air; and so we shall always be with the lord. brethren, you need not that i should specify the time to you; for yourselves are perfectly aware that the day of the lord so cometh as a thief in the night." "the time is short." "i pray god your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved blameless unto the coming of our lord jesus christ." "at his appearing he shall judge the living and the dead." "the lord is at hand." the author of these sentences undeniably looked for the great advent soon. than paul, indeed, no one more earnestly believed (or did more to strengthen in others that belief) in that speedy return of christ, the anticipation of which thrilled all early christendom with hope and dread, and kept the disciples day and night on the stretch and start of expectation to hear the awful blast of the judgment trump and to see the glorious vision of the son of god descending amidst a convoy of angels. what sublime emotions must have rushed through the apostle's soul when he thought that he, as a survivor of death's reign on earth, might behold the resurrection without himself entering the grave! upon a time when he should be perchance at home, or at damascus, or, it might be, at jerusalem, the sun would become as blood, the moon as sackcloth of hair, the last trump would swell the sky, and, "lo! the nations of the dead, which do outnumber all earth's races, rise, and high in sumless myriads overhead sweep past him in a cloud, as 'twere the skirts of the eternal passing by." the resurrection which paul thought would attend the second coming of christ was the rising of the summoned spirits of the deceased from their rest in the under world. most certainly it was not the restoration of their decomposed bodies from their graves, although that incredible surmise has been generally entertained. he says, while answering the question, how are the dead raised up, and with what body do they come? "that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body which shall be, but naked grain: god giveth it a body as it hath pleased him." the comparison is, that so the naked soul is sown in the under world, and god, when he raiseth it, giveth it a fitting body. he does not hesitate to call the man "a fool" who expects the restoration of the same body that was buried. his whole argument is explicitly against that idea. "there are bodies celestial, as well as bodies terrestrial: the first man was rabbi akiba says, in the talmud, "god shall take and blow a trumpet a thousand godlike yards in length, whose echo shall sound from end to end of the world. at the first blast the earth shall tremble. at the second, the dust shall part. at the third, the bones shall come together. at the fourth, the members shall grow warm. at the fifth, they shall be crowned with the head. at the sixth, the soul shall re enter the body. and at the seventh, they shall stand erect." corrodi, geschichte des chiliasmus, band i. s. . of the earth, earthy; the second man was the lord from heaven; and as we have borne the image of the earthy, we shall also bear the image of the heavenly; for flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god." in view of these declarations, it is astonishing that any one can suppose that paul believed in the resurrection of these present bodies and in their transference into heaven. "in this tabernacle we groan, being burdened," and, "who shall deliver me from this body of death?" he cries. if ever there was a man whose goading experience, keen intellectual energies, and moral sensibilities, made him weary of this slow, gross body, and passionately to long for a more corresponding, swift, and pure investiture, it was paul. and in his theory of "the glorious body of christ, according to which our vile body shall be changed," he relieved his impatience and fed his desire. what his conception of that body was, definitely, we cannot tell; but doubtless it was the idea of a vehicle adapted to his mounting and ardent soul, and in many particulars very unlike this present groaning load of clay. the epistles of paul contain no clear implication of the notion of a millennium, a thousand years' reign of christ with his saints on the earth after his second advent. on the contrary, in many places, particularly in the fourth chapter of the first epistle to the thessalonians, (supposing that letter to be his,) he says that the lord and they that are his will directly pass into heaven after the consummation of his descent from heaven and their resurrection from the dead. but the declaration "he must reign till he hath put all enemies under his feet," taken with its context, is thought, by bertholdt, billroth, de wette, and others, to imply that christ would establish a millennial kingdom on earth, and reign in it engaged in vanquishing all hostile forces. against this exegesis we have to say, first, that, so far as that goes, the vast preponderance of critical authorities is opposed to it. secondly, if this conquest were to be secured on earth, there is nothing to show that it need occupy much time: one hour might answer for it as well as a thousand years. there is nothing here to show that paul means just what the rabbins taught. thirdly, even if paul supposed a considerable period must elapse before "all enemies" would be subdued, during which period christ must reign, it does not follow that he believed that reign would be on earth: it might be in heaven. the "enemies" referred to are, in part at least, the wicked spirits occupying the regions of the upper air; for he specifies these "principalities, authorities, and powers." and the author of the epistle to the hebrews represents god as saying to jesus, "sit thou on my right hand, until i make thine enemies thy footstool." fourthly, it seems certain that, if in the apostle's thought a thousand years were interpolated between christ's second coming and the delivering of his mediatorial sceptre to god, he would have said so, at least somewhere in his writings. he would naturally have dwelt upon it a little, as the chiliasts did so much. instead of that, he repeatedly contradicts it. upon the whole, then, with ruckert, we cannot the apocryphal "ascension of isaiah," already spoken of, gives a detailed description of the upper air as occupied by satan and his angels, among whom fighting and evil deeds rage; but christ in his ascent conquers and spoils them all, and shows himself a victor ever brightening as he rises successively through the whole seven heavens to the feet of god. ascensio vatis isaia, cap. vi x. see any reason for not supposing that, according to paul, "the end" was immediately to succeed "the coming," as [non-ascii characters] would properly indicate. the doctrine of a long earthly reign of christ is not deduced from this passage, by candid interpretation, because it must be there, but foisted into it, by rabbinical information, because it may be there. paul distinctly teaches that the believers who died before the second coming of the savior would remain in the under world until that event, when they and the transformed living should ascend "together with the lord." all the relevant expressions in his epistles, save two, are obviously in harmony with this conception of a temporary subterranean sojourn, waiting for the appearance of jesus from heaven to usher in the resurrection. but in the fifth chapter of the second epistle to the corinthians he writes, "abiding in the body we are absent from the lord." it is usually inferred, from these words and those which follow them, that the apostle expected whenever he died to be instantly with christ. certainly they do mean pretty nearly that; but they mean it in connection with the second advent and the accompanying circumstances and events; for paul believed that many of the disciples possibly himself would live until christ's coming. all through these two chapters (the fourth and fifth) it is obvious, from the marked use of the terms "we" and "you," and from other considerations, that "we" here refers solely to the writer, the individual paul. it is the plural of accommodation used by common custom and consent. in the form of a slight paraphrase we may unfold the genuine meaning of the passage in hand. "in this body i am afflicted: not that i would merely be released from it, for then i should be a naked spirit. but i earnestly desire, unclothing myself of this earthly body, at the same time to clothe myself with my heavenly body, that i may lose all my mortal part and its woes in the full experience of heaven's eternal life. god has determined that this result shall come to me sooner or later, and has given me a pledge of it in the witnessing spirit. but it cannot happen so long as i tarry in the flesh, the lord delaying his appearance. having the infallible earnest of the spirit, i do not dread the change, but desire to hasten it. confident of acceptance in that day at the judgment seat of christ, before which we must all then stand, i long for the crisis when, divested of this body and invested with the immortal form wrought for me by god, i shall be with the lord. still, knowing the terror which shall environ the lord at his coming to judgment, i plead with men to be prepared." whoever carefully examines the whole connected passage, from iv. to v. , will see, we think, that the above paraphrase truly exposes its meaning. the other text alluded to as an apparent exception to the doctrine of a residence in the lower land of ghosts intervening between death and the ascension, occurs in the epistle to the philippians: "i am in a strait betwixt two, having a desire to depart and to be with christ, which is far better; but that i should abide in the flesh is more needful for you." there are three possible ways of regarding this passage. first, we may suppose that paul, seeing the advent of the lord postponed longer and longer, changed his idea of the intermediate state of deceased christians, and thought they would spend that period of waiting in heaven, not in hades. neander advocates this view. but there is little to sustain it, and it is loaded with fatal difficulties. a change of faith so important and so bright in its view as this must have seemed under the circumstances would have been clearly and fully stated. attention would have been earnestly invited to so great a favor and comfort; exultation and gratitude would have been expressed over so unheard of a boon. moreover, what had occurred to effect the alleged new belief? the unexpected delay of christ's coming might make the apostle wish that his departed friends were tarrying above the sky instead of beneath the sepulchre; but it could furnish no ground to warrant a sudden faith in that wish as a fulfilled fact. besides, the truth is that paul never ceased, even to the last, to expect the speedy arrival of the lord and to regard the interval as a comparative trifle. in this very epistle he says, "the lord is at hand: be careful for nothing." secondly, we may imagine that he expected himself, as a divinely chosen and specially favored servant, to go to christ in heaven as soon as he died, if that should happen before the lord's appearance, while the great multitude of believers would abide in the under world until the general resurrection. the death he was in peril of and is referring to was that of martyrdom for the gospel at the hands of nero. and many of the fathers maintained that in the case of every worthy christian martyr there was an exception to the general doom, and that he was permitted to enter heaven at once. still, to argue such a thought in the text before us requires an hypothesis far fetched and unsupported by a single clear declaration of the apostle himself. thirdly, we may assume and it seems to us by far the least encumbered and the most plausible theory that attempts to meet the case that paul believed there would be vouchsafed to the faithful christian during his transient abode in the under world a more intimate and blessed spiritual fellowship with his master than he could experience while in the flesh. "for i am persuaded that neither death [separation from the body] nor depth [the under world] shall be able to separate us from god's love, which he has manifested through christ." he may refer, therefore, by his hopes of being straightway with christ on leaving the body, to a spiritual communion with him in the disembodied state below, and not to his physical presence in the supernal realm, the latter not being attainable previous to the resurrection. indeed, a little farther on in this same epistle, he plainly shows that he did not anticipate being received to heaven until after the second coming of christ. he says, "we look for the savior from heaven, who shall change our vile body and fashion it like unto his own glorious body." this change is the preliminary preparation to ascent to heaven, which change he repeatedly represents as indispensable. what paul believed would be the course and fate of things on earth after the final consummation of christ's mission is a matter of inference from his brief and partial hints. the most probable and consistent view which can be constructed from those hints is this. he thought all mankind would become reconciled and obedient to god, and that death, losing its punitive character, would become what it was originally intended to be, the mere change of the earthly for a heavenly body preparatory to a direct ascension. "then shall the son himself be subject unto him that put all things under him, that god may be all in all." then placid virtues and innocent joys should fill the world, and human life be what it was in eden ere guilt forbade angelic visitants and converse with heaven. "so when" without a neander thinks paul's idea was that "the perfected kingdom of god would then blend itself harmoniously throughout his unbounded dominions." we believe his apprehension is correct. this globe would become a part of the general paradise, an ante room or a l ower story to the temple of the universe. previous descent into hades, as the context proves "this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying which is written, 'death shall be swallowed up in victory. o death, thou last enemy, where is thy sting? o hades, thou gloomy prison, where is thy victory?'" the exposition just offered is confirmed by its striking adaptedness to the whole pauline scheme. it is also the interpretation given by the earliest fathers, and by the church in general until now. this idea of men being changed and rising into heaven without at all entering the disembodied state below was evidently in the mind of milton when he wrote the following lines: "and from these corporeal nutriments, perhaps. your bodies may at last turn all to spirit, and, wing'd, ascend ethereal, may, at choice, here, or in heavenly paradise, dwell." it now remains to see what paul thought was to be the final portion of the hardened and persevering sinner. one class of passages in his writings, if taken by themselves, would lead us to believe that on that point he had no fixed convictions in regard to particulars, but, thinking these beyond the present reach of reason, contented himself with the general assurance that all such persons would meet their just deserts, and there left the subject in obscurity. "god will render to every man to the jew first, and also to the greek according to his deeds." "whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." "so then every one of us shall give an account of himself to god." "at the judgment seat of christ every one shall receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or whether it be bad." from these and a few kindred texts we might infer that the author, aware that he "knew but in part," simply held the belief without attempting to pry into special methods, details, and results that at the time of the judgment all should have exact justice. he may, however, have unfolded in his preaching minutia of faith not explained in his letters. a second class of passages in the epistles of paul would naturally cause the common reader to conclude that he imagined that the unregenerate those unfit for the presence of god were to be annihilated when christ, after his second coming, should return to heaven with his saints. "those who know not god and obey not the gospel of christ shall be punished with everlasting destruction from the presence and glory of the lord when he shall come." "the end of the enemies of the cross of christ is destruction." "the vessels of wrath fitted for destruction." "as many as have sinned without law shall perish without law." but it is to be observed that the word here rendered "destruction" need not signify annihilation. it often, even in paul's epistles, plainly means severe punishment, dreadful misery, moral ruin, and retribution. for example, "foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and perdition," "piercing them through with many sorrows." it may or may not have that sense in the instances above cited. their meaning is intrinsically uncertain: we must bring other passages and distinct considerations to aid our interpretation. from a third selection of texts in paul's epistles it is not strange that some persons have deduced the doctrine of unconditional, universal salvation. "as in adam all die, even so in christ shall all be made alive." but the genuine explanation of this sentence, we are constrained to believe, is as follows: "as, following after the example of adam, all souls descend below, so, following after christ, all shall be raised up," that is, at the judgment, after which event some may be taken to heaven, others banished again into hades. "we trust in the living god, who is the savior of all men, especially of them that believe." this means that all men have been saved now from the unconditional sentence to hades brought on them by the first sin, but not all know the glad tidings: those who receive them into believing hearts are already exulting over their deliverance and their hopes of heaven. all are objectively saved from the unavoidable and universal necessity of hadean imprisonment; the obedient believers are also subjectively saved from the contingent and personal risk of incurring that doom. "god hath shut them all up together in unbelief, that he might have mercy upon all." "all" here means both jews and gentiles; and the reference is to the universal annulment of the universal fatality, and the impartial offer of heaven to every one who sanctifies the truth in his heart. in some cases the word "all" is used with rhetorical looseness, not with logical rigidness, and denotes merely all christians. ruckert shows this well in his commentary on the fifteenth chapter of first corinthians. in other instances the universality, which is indeed plainly there, applies to the removal from the race of the inherited doom; while a conditionality is unquestionably implied as to the actual salvation of each person. we say paul does constantly represent personal salvation as depending on conditions, as beset by perils and to be earnestly striven for. "lest that by any means i myself should be a castaway." "deliver such an one to satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the lord jesus." "wherefore we labor, that, whether present or absent, we may be accepted of the lord." "to them that are saved we are a savor of life unto life; to them that perish, a savor of death unto death." "charge them that are rich that they be humble and do good, laying up in store a good foundation, that they may lay hold on eternal life." it is clear, from these and many similar passages of paul, that he did not believe in the unconditional salvation, the positive mechanical salvation, of all individuals, but held personal salvation to be a contingent problem, to be worked out, through the permitting grace of god, by christian faith, works, and character. how plainly this is contained, too, in his doctrine of "a resurrection of the just and the unjust," and of a day of judgment, from whose august tribunal christ is to pronounce sentence according to each man's deeds! at the same time, the undeniable fact deserves particular remembrance that he says, and apparently knows, nothing whatever of a hell, in the present acceptation of that term, a prison house of fiery tortures. he assigns the realm of satan and the evil spirits to the air, the vexed region between earth and heaven, according to the demonology of his age and country. finally, there is a fourth class of passages, from which we might infer that the apostle's faith merely excluded the reprobate from participating in the ascent with christ, just as some of the pharisees excluded the gentiles from their resurrection, and there left the subject in darkness. a detailed and most curious account of this region, which he calls tartarus, is given by angustine. de gen. ad. lit. lib. iii. cap. , , ed. benedictina. "they that are christ's," "the dead in christ, shall rise." "no sensualist, extortioner, idolater, hath any inheritance in the kingdom of christ and of god." "there is laid up a crown of righteousness, which the lord shall give in that day to all them that love his appearing." in all these, and in many other cases, there is a marked omission of any reference to the ultimate positive disposal of the wicked. still, against the supposition of his holding the doctrine that all except good christians would be left below eternally, we have his repeated explicit avowals. "i have hope towards god that there shall be a resurrection both of the just and the unjust." "we must all appear before the judgment seat of christ." these last statements, however, prove only that paul thought the bad as well as the good would be raised up and judged: they are not inconsistent with the belief that the condemned would afterwards either be annihilated, or remanded everlastingly to the under world. this very belief, we think, is contained in that remarkable passage where paul writes to the philippians that he strives "if by any means he may attain unto the resurrection." now, the common resurrection of the dead for judgment needed not to be striven for: it would occur to all unconditionally. but there is another resurrection, or another part remaining to complete the resurrection, namely, after the judgment, a rising of the accepted to heaven. all shall rise from hades upon the earth to judgment. this paul calls simply the resurrection, [non ascii characters] after the judgment, the accepted shall rise to heaven. this paul calls, with distinctive emphasis, [non ascii characters] the pre eminent or complete resurrection, the prefix being used as an intensive. this is what the apostle considers uncertain and labors to secure, "stretching forward and pressing towards the goal for the prize of that call upwards," [non ascii characters] (that invitation to heaven,) "which god has extended through christ." those who are condemned at the judgment can have no part in this completion of the resurrection, cannot enter the heavenly kingdom, but must be "punished with everlasting destruction from the presence and glory of the lord," that is, as we suppose is signified, be thrust into the under world for evermore. as unessential to our object, we have omitted an exposition of the pauline doctrine of the natural rank and proper or delegated offices of christ in the universe; also an examination of the validity of the doubts and arguments brought against the genuineness of the lesser epistles ascribed to paul. in close, we will sum up in brief array the leading conceptions in his view of the last things. first, there is a world of immortal light and bliss over the sky, the exclusive abode of god and the angels from of old; and there is a dreary world of darkness and repose under the earth, the abode of all departed human spirits. secondly, death was originally meant to lead souls into heaven, clothed in new and divine bodies, immediately on the fall of the present tabernacle; but sin broke that plan and doomed souls to pass disembodied into hades. thirdly, the mosaic dispensation of law could not deliver men from that sentence; but god had promised abraham that through one of his posterity they should be delivered. to fulfil that promise christ came. he illustrated god's unpurchased love and forgiveness and determination to restore the original plan, as if men had never sinned. christ effected this aim, in conjunction with his teachings, by dying, descending into hades, as if the doom of a sinful man were upon him also, subduing the powers of that prison house, rising again, and ascending into heaven, the first one ever admitted there from among the dead, thus exemplifying the fulfilled "expectation of the creature that was groaning and travailing in pain" to be born into the freedom of the heavenly glory of the sons of god. fourthly, "justification by faith," therefore, means the redemption from hades by acceptance of the dispensation of free grace which is proclaimed in the gospel. fifthly, every sanctified believer receives a pledge or earnest of the spirit sealing him as god's and assuring him of acceptance with christ and of advance to heaven. sixthly, christ is speedily to come a second time, come in glory and power irresistible, to consummate his mission, raise the dead, judge the world, establish a new order of things, and return into heaven with his chosen ones. seventhly, the stubbornly wicked portion of mankind will be returned eternally into the under world. eighthly, after the judgment the subterranean realm of death will be shut up, no more souls going into it, but all men at their dissolution being instantly invested with spiritual bodies and ascending to the glories of the lord. finally, jesus having put down all enemies and restored the primeval paradise will yield up his mediatorial throne, and god the father be all in all. the preparatory rudiments of this system of the last things existed in the belief of the age, and it was itself composed by the union of a theoretic interpretation of the life of christ and of the connected phenomena succeeding his death, with the elements of pharasaic judaism, all mingled in the crucible of the soul of paul and fused by the fires of his experience. it illustrates a great number of puzzling passages in the new testament, without the necessity of recourse to the unnatural, incredible, unwarranted dogmas associated with them by the unique, isolated peculiarities of calvinism. the interpretation given above, moreover, has this strong confirmation of its accuracy, namely, that it is arrived at from the stand point of the thought and life of the apostle paul in the first century, not from the stand point of the theology and experience of the educated christian of the nineteenth century. chapter v. john's doctrine of a future life. we are now to see if we can determine and explain what were the views of the apostle john upon the subject of death and life, condemnation and salvation, the resurrection and immortality. to understand his opinions on these points, it is obviously necessary to examine his general system of theological thought. john is regarded as the writer of the proem to the fourth gospel, also of three brief epistles. there are such widely spread doubts of his being the author of the apocalypse that it has seemed better to examine that production separately, leaving each one free to attribute its doctrine of the last things to whatever person known or unknown he believes wrote the book. it is true that the authorship of the fourth gospel itself is powerfully disputed; but an investigation of that question would lead us too far and detain us too long from our real aim, which is not to discuss the genuineness or the authority of the new testament documents, but to show their meaning in what they actually contain and imply concerning a future life. it is necessary to premise that we think it certain that john wrote with some reference to the sprouting philosophy of his time, the platonic and oriental speculations so early engrafted upon the stock of christian doctrine. for the peculiar theories which were matured and systematized in the second and third centuries by the gnostic sects were floating about, in crude and fragmentary forms, at the close of the first century, when the apostle wrote. they immediately awakened dissension and alarm, cries of heresy and orthodoxy, in the church. some modern writers deny the presence in the new testament of any allusion to such views; but the weight of evidence on the other side internal, from similarity of phrase, and external, from the testimony of early fathers is, when accumulated and appreciated, overwhelming. among these gnostic notions the most distinctive and prominent was the belief that the world was created and the jewish dispensation given, not by the true and infinite god, but by a subordinate and imperfect deity, the absolute god remaining separate from all created things, unknown and afar, in the sufficiency of his aboriginal pleroma or fulness. the gnostics also maintained that creative power, reason, life, truth, love, and other kindred realities, were individual beings, who had emanated from god, and who by their own efficiency constructed, illuminated, and carried on the various provinces of creation and races of existence. many other opinions, fanciful, absurd, or recondite, which they held, it is not necessary here to state. the evangelist, without alluding perhaps to any particular teachers or systems of these doctrines, but only to their general scope, traverses by his declarations partially the same ground of thought which they cover, stating dogmatically the positive facts as he apprehended them. he agrees with some of the gnostic doctrines and differs from others, not setting himself to follow or to oppose them indiscriminately, but to do either as the truth seemed to him to require. there are two methods of seeking the meaning of the introduction to the fourth gospel where the johannean doctrine of the logos is condensed. we may study it grammatically, or historically; morally, or metaphysically; from the point of view of experimental religious faith, or from that of contemporary speculative philosophy. he who omits either of these ways of regarding the subject must arrive at an interpretation essentially defective. both modes of investigation are indispensable for acquiring a full comprehension of the expressions employed and the thoughts intended. but to be fitted to understand the theme in its historical aspect which, in this case, for purposes of criticism, is by far the more important one must be intelligently acquainted with the hebrew personification of the wisdom, also of the word, of god; with the platonic conception of archetypal ideas; with the alexandrian jewish doctrine of the divine logos; and with the relevant gnostic and christian speculation and phraseology of the first two centuries. especially must the student be familiar with philo, who was an eminent platonic jewish philosopher and a celebrated writer, flourishing previous to the composition of the fourth gospel, in which, indeed, there is scarcely a single superhuman predicate of christ which may not be paralleled with striking closeness from his extant works. in all these fields are found, in imperfect proportions and fragments, the materials which are developed in john's belief of the logos become flesh. to present all these materials here would be somewhat out of place and would require too much room. we shall, therefore, simply state, as briefly and clearly as possible, the final conclusions to which a thorough study has led us, drawing such illustrations as we do advance almost entirely from philo. the reader who wishes to see in smallest compass and most lucid order the facts requisite for the formation of a judgment is referred to lucke's "dissertation on the logos," to norton's "statement of reasons," and to neander's exposition of the johannean theology in his "planting and training of the church." nearly every thing important, both external and internal, is collected in these three sources taken together, and set forth with great candor, power, and skill. differing in their conclusions, they supply pretty adequate means for the independent student to conclude for himself. in the first place, what view of the father himself, the absolute deity, do these writings present? john conceives of god no one can well collate the relevant texts in his works without perceiving this as the one perfect and eternal spirit, in himself invisible to mortal eyes, the personal love, life, truth, light, "in whom is no darkness at all." this corresponds entirely with the purest and highest idea the human mind can form of the one untreated infinite god. the apostle, then, going back to the period anterior to the material creation, and soaring to the contemplation of the sole god, does not conceive of him as being utterly alone, but as having a son with him, an "only begotten son," a beloved companion "before the foundation of the world." "in the beginning was the logos, and the logos was with god, and the logos was god. he was in the beginning with god. all things were made through him, and without him was nothing made that was made." the true explanation of these words, according to their undeniable historical and their unforced grammatical. there is an english translation of it, by professor g. r. noyes, in the numbers of the christian examiner for march and may, , meaning, is as follows. before the material creation, when god was yet the sole being, his first production, the logos, was a son, at once the image of himself and the idea of the yet uncreated world. by him this personal idea, son, or logos all things were afterward created; or, more exactly, through him, by means of him, all things became, that is, were brought, from their being in a state of conception in the mind of god, into actual existence in space and time. thus philo says, "god is the most generic; second is the logos of god." "the logos is the first begotten son." "the logos of god is above the whole world, and is the most ancient and generic of all that had a beginning." "nothing intervenes between the logos and god on whom he rests." "this sensible world is the junior son of god; the senior is the idea," or logos. "the shadow and seeming portrait of god is his logos, by which, as by an assumed instrument, he made the world. as god is the original of the image here called shadow, so this image becomes the original of other things." "the intelligible world, or world of archetypal ideas, is the logos of the world creating god; as an intelligible or ideal city is the thought of the architect reflecting to build a sensible city." "of the world, god is the cause by which, the four elements the material from which, the logos the instrument through which, the goodness of the creator the end for which, it was made." these citations from philo clearly show, in various stages of development, that doctrine of the logos which began first arguing to the divine being from human analogies with separating the conception of a plan in the mind of god from its execution in fact; proceeded with personifying that plan, or sum of ideas, as a mediating agent between motive and action, between impulse and fulfilment; and ended with hypostatizing the arranging power of the divine thought as a separate being, his intellectual image or son, his first and perfect production. they unequivocally express these thoughts: that god is the only being who was from eternity; that the logos was the first begotten, antemundane being, that he was the likeness, image, immediate manifestation, of the father; that he was the medium of creation, the instrumental means in the outward formation of the world. history shows us this doctrine unfolded by minute steps, which it would be tedious to follow, from the book of proverbs to philo judaus and john, from plato to justin martyr and athanasius. but the rapid sketch just presented may be sufficient now. when it is written, "and the logos was god," the meaning is not strictly literal. to guard against its being so considered, the author tautologically repeats what he had said immediately before, "the same was in the beginning with god." upon the supposition that the logos is strictly identical with god, the verses make utter nonsense. "in the beginning was god, and god was with god, and god was god. god was in the beginning with god." but suppose the logos to mean an ante mundane but subordinate being, who was a perfect image or likeness of god, and the sense is both clear and satisfactory, and no violence is done either to historical data or to grammatical demands. "and the logos was god," that is, was the mirror or facsimile of god. so, employing the same idiom, we are accustomed to say mangey's edition of philo, vol. i. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . ibid. p. . of an accurate representation of a person, it is the very man himself! or, without the use of this idiom, we may explain the expression "the logos was god" thus: he stands in the place of god to the lower creation: practically considered, he is as god to us. as philo writes, "to the wise and perfect the most high is god; but to us, imperfect beings, the logos god's interpreter is god." the inward significance of the logos doctrine, in all its degrees and phases, circumstantially and essentially, from first to last, is the revelation of god. god himself, in himself, is conceived as absolutely withdrawn beyond the apprehension of men, in boundless immensity and inaccessible secrecy. his own nature is hidden, as a thought is hidden in the mind; but he has the power of revealing it, as a thought is revealed by speaking it in a word. that uttered word is the logos, and is afterwards conceived as a person, and as creative, then as building and glorifying the world. all of god that is sent forth from passive concealment into active manifestation is the logos. "the term logos comprehends," norton says, "all the attributes of god manifested in the creation and government of the universe." the logos is the hypostasis of "the unfolded portion," "the revealing power," "the self showing faculty," "the manifesting action," of god. the essential idea, then, concerning the logos is that he is the means through which the hidden god comes to the cognizance of his creatures. in harmony with this prevailing philosophy one who believed the logos to have been incarnated in christ would suppose the purpose of his incarnation to be the fuller revelation of god to men. and martineau says, "the view of revelation which is implicated in the folds of the logos doctrine that everywhere pervades the fourth gospel, is that it is the appearance to beings who have something of a divine spirit within them, of a yet diviner without them, leading them to the divinest of all, who embraces them both." this is a fine statement of the practical religious aspect of john's conception of the nature and office of the savior. since he regarded god as personal love, life, truth, and light, and christ, the embodied logos, as his only begotten son, an exact image of him in manifestation, it follows that john regarded christ, next in rank below god, as personal love, life, truth, and light; and the belief that he was the necessary medium of communicating these divine blessings to men would naturally result. accordingly, we find that john repeats, as falling from the lips of christ, all the declarations required by and supporting such an hypothesis. "i am the way, the truth, and the life." "no man cometh unto the father but by me." but philo, too, had written before in precisely the same strain. witness the correspondences between the following quotations respectively from john and philo. "i am the bread which came down from heaven to give life to the world." whoso eateth my body and drinketh my blood hath eternal life." "behold, i rain bread upon you from heaven: the heavenly food of the soul is the word of god, and the divine logos, from whom all eternal instructions and wisdoms flow." "the bread the lord gave us to eat was his word." "except ye eat my flesh and drink my blood, ye have no life mangey's edition of philo, vol. ii. p. . john vi. . . ibid. . quoted by g. scheffer in his treatise "de usu philonis in interpretatione novi testamenti," p. . lbid. p. . in you." "he alone can become the heir of incorporeal and divine things whose whole soul is filled with the salubrious word." "every one that seeth the son and believeth on him shall have everlasting life." "he strains every nerve towards the highest divine logos, who is the fountain of wisdom, in order that, drawing from that spring, he may escape death and win everlasting life." "i am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any man eat of this bread he shall live forever." "lifting up his eyes to the ether, man receives manna, the divine logos, heavenly and immortal nourishment for the right desiring soul." "god is the perennial fountain of life; god is the fountain of the most ancient logos." "as the living father hath sent me, and i live by the father, so he that eateth me, even he shall live by me." does it not seem perfectly plain that john's doctrine of the christ is at bottom identical with philo's doctrine of the logos? the difference of development in the two doctrines, so far as there is a difference, is that the latter view is philosophical, abstract; the former, practical, historical. philo describes the logos ideally, filling the supersensible sphere, mediating between the world and god; john presents him really, incarnated as a man, effecting the redemption of our race. the same dignity, the same offices, are predicated of him by both. john declares, "in him [the divine logos] was life, and the life was the light of men." philo asserts, "nothing is more luminous and irradiating than the divine logos, by the participation of whom other things expel darkness and gloom, earnestly desiring to partake of living light." john speaks of christ as "the only begotten son, who is in the bosom of the father." philo says, "the logos is the first begotten son of god," "between whom and god nothing intervenes." john writes, "the son of man will give you the food of everlasting life; for him hath god the father sealed." philo writes, "the stamp of the seal of god is the immortal logos." we have this from john: "he was manifested to take away our sins; and in him is no sin." and this from philo: "the divine logos is free from all sins, voluntary and involuntary." the johannean christ is the philonean logos born into the world as a man. "and the logos was made flesh, and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth." the substance of what has thus far been established may now be concisely stated. the essential thought, whether the subject be metaphysically or practically considered, is this. god is the eternal, infinite personality of love and truth, life and light. the logos is his first born son, his exact image, the reproduction of his being, the next lower personality of love and truth, life and light, the instrument for creating and ruling the world, the revelation of god, the medium of communication between god and his works. christ is that logos come upon the earth as a man to save the perishing, proving his pre existence and superhuman nature by his miraculous knowledge and works. that the belief expressed in the last sentence is correctly attributed to john will john vi. . philo, vol. i. p. . john vi. . philo, vol. i. p. . john vi. . philo, vol. i. p. . ibid. pp. , . john vi. . john i. . philo, vol. i. p. . john i. . philo, vol. i. pp. , . john vi. . philo, vol. ii. p. . john iii. . philo, vol. i. p. . be repeatedly substantiated before the close of this chapter: in regard to the statements in the preceding sentences no further proof is thought necessary. with the aid of a little repetition, we will now attempt to make a step of progress. the tokens of energy, order, splendor, beneficence, in the universe, are not, according to john, as we have seen, the effects of angelic personages, emanating gods, gnostic aons, but are the workings of the self revealing power of the one true and eternal god, this power being conceived by john, according to the philosophy of his age, as a proper person, god's instrument in creation. reason, life, light, love, grace, righteousness, kindred terms so thickly scattered over his pages, are not to him, as they were to the gnostics, separate beings, but are the very working of the logos, consubstantial manifestations of god's nature and attributes. but mankind, fallen into folly and vice, perversity and sin, lying in darkness, were ignorant that these divine qualities were in reality mediate exhibitions of god, immediate exhibitions of the logos. "the light was shining in darkness, and the darkness comprehended it not." then, to reveal to men the truth, to regenerate them and conjoin them through himself with the father in the experience of eternal life, the hypostatized logos left his transcendent glory in heaven and came into the world in the person of jesus. "no man hath seen god at any time: the only begotten son who is in the bosom of the father, he hath revealed him." "i came down from heaven to do the will of him that sent me." this will is that all who see and believe on the son shall have everlasting life. "god so loved the world that he gave his only begotten son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life." "the bread of god is he who cometh down from heaven and giveth life to the world." the doctrine of the pre existence of souls, and of their being born into the world in the flesh, was rife in judea when this gospel was written, and is repeatedly alluded to in it. that john applies this doctrine to christ in the following and in other instances is obvious. "before abraham was, i am." "i came forth from the father and am come into the world." "father, glorify thou me with the glory which i had with thee before the world was." "what and if ye shall see the son of man ascend up where he was before?" as for ourselves, we do not see how it is possible for any unprejudiced person, after studying the fourth gospel faithfully with the requisite helps, to doubt that the writer of it believed that jesus pre existed as the divine logos, and that he became incarnate to reveal the father and to bring men into the experience of true eternal life. john declares this, in his first epistle, in so many words, saying, "the living logos, the eternal life which was with the father from the beginning, was manifested unto us;" and, "god sent his only begotten son into the world that we might live through him." whether the doctrine thus set forth was really entertained and taught by jesus himself, or whether it is the interpretation put on his language by one whose mind was full of the notions of the age, are distinct questions. with the settlement of these questions we are not now concerned: such a discussion would be more appropriate when examining the genuine meaning of the words of christ. all that is necessary here is the suggestion that when we show the theological system of john it does not necessarily follow that that is the true john i. ; ix. . teaching of christ. having adopted the logos doctrine, it might tinge and turn his thoughts and words when reporting from memory, after the lapse of many years, the discourses of his master. he might unconsciously, under such an influence, represent literally what was figuratively intended, and reflect from his own mind lights and shades, associations and meanings, over all or much of what he wrote. there are philosophical and literary peculiarities which have forced many of the best critics to make this distinction between the intended meaning of christ's declarations as he uttered them, and their received meaning as this evangelist reported them. norton says, "whether st. john did or did not adopt the platonic conception of the logos is a question not important to be settled in order to determine our own judgment concerning its truth." lucke has written to the same effect, but more fully: "we are allowed to distinguish the sense in which john understood the words of christ, from the original sense in which christ used them." it is to be observed that in all that has been brought forward, thus far, there is not the faintest hint of the now current notion of the trinity. the idea put forth by john is not at all allied with the idea that the infinite god himself assumed a human shape to walk the earth and undergo mortal sufferings. it is simply said that that manifested and revealing portion of the divine attributes which constituted the hypostatized logos was incarnated and displayed in a perfect, sinless sample of man, thus exhibiting to the world a finite image of god. we will illustrate this doctrine with reference to the inferences to be drawn from it in regard to human nature. john repeatedly says, in effect, "god is truth," "god is light," "god is love," "god is life." he likewise says of the savior, "in him was life, and the life was the light of men," and reports him as saying of himself, "i am the truth," "i am the life," "i am the light of the world." the fundamental meaning of these declarations so numerous, striking, and varied in the writings of john is, that all those qualities which the consciousness of humanity has recognised as divine are consubstantial with the being of god; that all the reflections of them in nature and man belong to the logos, the eldest son, the first production, of god; and that in jesus their personality, the very logos himself, was consciously embodied, to be brought nearer to men, to be exemplified and recommended to them. reason, power, truth, light, love, blessedness, are not individual aons, members of a hierarchy of deities, but are the revealing elements of the one true god. the personality of the abstract and absolute fulness of all these substantial qualities is god. the personality of the discerpted portion of them shown in the universe is the logos. now, that latter personality christ was. consequently, while he was a man, he was not merely a man, but was also a supernatural messenger from heaven, sent into the world to impersonate the image of god under the condition of humanity, free from every sinful defect and spot. thus, being the manifesting representative of the father, he could say, "he that hath seen me hath [virtually] seen the father." not that they were identical in person, but that they were similar in nature and character, spirit and design: both were eternal holiness, love, truth, and life. "i and my father are one thing," (in essence, not in personality.) nothing can be more statement of reasons, st ed. p. . christian examiner, may, , p. . unequivocally pronounced than the subordination of the son to the father that the father sent him, that he could do nothing without the father, that his father was greater than he, that his testimony was confirmed by the father's in a hundred places by john, both as author writing his own words and as interpreter reporting christ's. there is not a text in the record that implies christ's identity with god, but only his identity with the logos. the identity of the logos with god is elementary, not personal. from this view it follows that every man who possesses, knows, and exhibits the elements of the divine life, the characteristics of god, is in that degree a son of god, christ being pre eminently the son on account of his pre eminent likeness, his supernatural divinity, as the incarnate logos. that the apostle held and taught this conclusion appears, first, from the fact, otherwise inexplicable, that he records the same sublime statements concerning all good christians, with no other qualification than that of degree, that he does concerning christ himself. was jesus the son of god? "to as many as received him he gave power to become the sons of god." there is in philo a passage corresponding remarkably with this one from john: "those who have knowledge of the truth are properly called sons of god: he who is still unfit to be named a son of god should endeavor to fashion himself to the first born logos of god." was jesus "from above," while wicked men were "from beneath"? "they are not of the world, even as i am not of the world." was jesus sent among men with a special commission? "as thou hast sent me into the world, even so have i also sent them into the world." was jesus the subject of a peculiar glory, bestowed upon him by the father? "the glory which thou gavest me i have given them, that they may be one, even as we are one." had jesus an inspiration and a knowledge not vouchsafed to the princes of this world? "ye have an unction from the holy one, and ye know all things." did jesus perform miraculous works? "he that believeth on me, the works that i do shall he do also." in the light of the general principle laid down, that god is the actual fulness of truth and love and light and blessedness; that christ, the logos, is the manifested impersonation of them; and that all men who receive him partake of their divine substance and enjoy their prerogative, the texts just cited, and numerous other similar ones, are transparent. it is difficult to see how on any other hypothesis they can be made to express an intelligible and consistent meaning. secondly, we are brought to the same conclusion by the synonymous use and frequent interchange of different terms in the johannean writings. not only it is said, "whoever is born of god cannot sin," but it is also written, "every one that doeth righteousness is born of god;" and again, "whosoever believeth that jesus is the christ is born of god." in other words, having a good character and leading a just life, heartily receiving and obeying the revelation made by christ, are identical phrases. "he that hath the son hath life." "whosoever transgresseth and abideth not in the doctrine of christ hath not god." "this is the victory that overcometh the world, even our faith" in the doctrine of christ. "he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in god and god in him." "he that keepeth the commandments dwelleth in god and god in him." "he that confesseth that jesus is the son of god, god philo, vol. i. p. . dwelleth in him and he in god." "he that doeth good is of god." "god hath given to us eternal life, and this life is in his son." "the son of god is come, and hath given us an understanding that we may know the true god and eternal life." from these citations, and from other passages which will readily occur, we gather the following pregnant results. to "do the truth," "walk in the truth," "walk in the light," "keep the commandments," "do righteousness," "abide in the doctrine of christ," "do the will of god," "do good," "dwell in love," "abide in christ," "abide in god," "abide in life," all are expressions meaning precisely the same thing. they all signify essentially the conscious possession of goodness; in other words, the practical adoption of the life and teachings of jesus; or, in still other terms, the personal assimilation of the spiritual realities of the logos, which are love, life, truth, light. jesus having been sent into the world to exemplify the characteristics and claims of the father, and to regenerate men from unbelief and sin to faith and righteousness, those who were walking in darkness, believers of lies and doers of unrighteousness, those who were abiding in alienation and death, might by receiving and following him be restored to the favor of god and pass from darkness and death into life and light. "this is eternal life, that they should know thee, the only true god, and jesus christ whom thou hast sent." the next chief point in the doctrine of john is his belief in an evil being, the personality of wickedness, and the relation between him and bad men. there have been, from the early centuries, keen disputes on the question whether this apostle uses the terms devil and evil one with literal belief or with figurative accommodation. we have not a doubt that the former is the true view. the popular denial of the existence of evil spirits, with an arch demon over them, is the birth of a philosophy much later than the apostolic age. the use of the term "devil" merely as the poetic or ethical personification of the seductive influences of the world is the fruit of theological speculation neither originated nor adopted by the jewish prophets or by the christian apostles. whoso will remember the prevailing faith of the jews at that time, and the general state of speculative opinion, and will recollect the education of john, and notice the particular manner in which he alludes to the subject throughout his epistles and in his reports of the discourses of jesus, we think will be convinced that the johannean system includes a belief in the actual existence of satan according to the current pharisaic dogma of that age. it is not to be disguised, either, that the investigations of the ablest critics have led an overwhelming majority of them to this interpretation. "i write unto you, young men, because ye have overcome the evil one." "he that is begotten of god guardeth himself, and the evil one toucheth him not." "he that committeth sin is of the devil, for the devil sinneth from the beginning." "whosoever is born of god cannot sin. in this the children of god are manifest, and the children of the devil." "ye are of your father the devil, and his lusts ye will do." there can be no doubt that these, and other passages of a kindred and complementary nature, yield the following view. good men are allied to god, because their characteristics are the same as his, truth, light, love, life, righteousness. "as he is, so are we in this world." bad men are allied to the devil, because their characteristics are the same as his, falsehood, darkness, hatred, death, sin. "cain, who slew his brother, was of the evil one." the facts, then, of the great moral problem of the world, according to john, were these. god is the infinite father, whose nature and attributes comprehend all holy, beautiful, desirable realities, and who would draw mankind to his blessed embrace forever. the goodness, illumination, and joy of holy souls reflect his holiness and display his reign. the devil is the great spirit of wickedness, whose attributes comprehend all evil, dark, fearful realities, and who entices mankind to sin. the wickedness, gloom, and misery of corrupt souls reveal his likeness and his kingdom. the former manifests himself in the glories of the world and in the divine qualities of the soul. the latter manifests himself in the whole history of temptation and sin and in the vicious tendencies of the heart. good men, those possessing pre eminently the moral qualities of god, are his children, are born of him, that is, are inspired and led by him. bad men, those possessing in a ruling degree the qualities of the devil, are his children, are born of him, that is, are animated and governed by his spirit. whether the evangelist gave to his own mind any philosophical account of the origin and destiny of the devil or not is a question concerning which his writings are not explicit enough for us to determine. in the beginning he represents god as making, by means of the logos, all things that were made, and his light as shining in darkness that comprehended it not. now, he may have conceived of matter as uncreated, eternally existing in formless night, the ground of the devil's being, and may have limited the work of creation to breaking up the sightless chaos, defining it into orderly shapes, filling it with light and motion, and peopling it with children of heaven. such was the persian faith, familiar at that time to the jews. neander, with others, objects to this view that it would destroy john's monotheism and make him a dualist, a believer in two self existents, aboriginal and everlasting antagonists. it only needs to be observed, in reply, that john was not a philosopher of such thorough dialectic training as to render it impossible for inconsistencies to coexist in his thoughts. in fact, any one who will examine the beliefs of even such men as origen and augustine will perceive that such an objection is not valid. some writers of ability and eminence have tried to maintain that the johannean conception of satan was of some exalted archangel who apostatized from the law of god and fell from heaven into the abyss of night, sin, and woe. they could have been led to such an hypothesis only by preconceived notions and prejudices, because there is not in john's writings even the obscurest intimation of such a doctrine. on the contrary, it is written that the devil is a liar and the father of lies from the beginning, the same phrase used to denote the primitive companionship of god and his logos anterior to the creation. the devil is spoken of by john, with prominent consistency, as bearing the same relation to darkness, falsehood, sin, and death that god bears to light, truth, righteousness, and life, that is, as being their original personality and source. whether the belief itself be true or not, be reconcilable with pure christianity or not, in our opinion john undoubtedly held the belief of the personality of the source of wickedness, and supposed that the great body of mankind had been seduced by him from the free service of heaven, and had become infatuated in his bondage. just here in the scheme of christianity arises the necessity, appears the profound significance in the apostolic belief, of that disinterested interference of god through his revelation in christ which aimed to break the reigning power of sin and redeem lost men from the tyranny of satan. "for this purpose the son of god was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil." that is to say, the revelation of the nature and will of god in the works of the creation and in the human soul was not enough, even when aided by the law of moses, to preserve men in the truth and the life. they had been seduced by the evil one into sin, alienated from the divine favor, and plunged in darkness and death. a fuller, more powerful manifestation of the character, claims, attractions of the father was necessary to recall the benighted wanderers from their lost state and restore them to those right relations and to that conscious communion with god in which alone true life consists. then, and for that purpose, jesus christ was commissioned to appear, a pre existent being of most exalted rank, migrating from the super stellar sphere into this world, to embody and mirror forth through the flesh those characteristics which are the natural attributes of god the father and the essential conditions of heaven the home. in him the glorious features of the divinity were miniatured on a finite scale and perfectly exhibited, "thus revealing," (as neander says, in his exposition of john's doctrine,) "for the first time, in a comprehensible manner, what a being that god is whose holy personality man was created to represent." so philo says, "the logos is the image of god, and man is the image of the logos." therefore, according to this view, man is the image of the image of god. the dimmed, imperfect reflection of the father, originally shining in nature and the soul, would enable all who had not suppressed it and lost the knowledge of it, to recognise at once and adore the illuminated image of him manifested and moving before them in the person of the son; the faint gleams of divine qualities yet left within their souls would spontaneously blend with the full splendors irradiating the form of the inspired and immaculate christ. thus they would enter into a new and intensified communion with god, and experience an unparalleled depth of peace and joy, an inspired assurance of eternal life. but those who, by worldliness and wickedness, had obscured and destroyed all their natural knowledge of god and their affinities to him, being without the inward preparation and susceptibility for the divine which the savior embodied and manifested, would not be able to receive it, and thus would pass an infallible sentence upon themselves. "when the comforter is come, he will convict the world of sin, because they believe not on me." "he that believeth on the son hath eternal life; but he that believeth not is condemned already, in that he loveth darkness rather than light." "hereby know we the spirit of truth and the spirit of error: he that knoweth god heareth us; he that is not of god heareth not us." "who is a liar but he that denieth that jesus is the christ?" the idea is, that such a denial must be caused by inward depravity, could only spring from an evil character. in the ground thought just presented we may find the explanation of the seemingly obscure and confused use of terms in the following instances, and learn to understand more fully john's idea of the effect of spiritual contact with christ. "he that doeth righteousness is born of god." "he that believeth jesus to be the christ is born of god." "he that denieth the son, the same hath not the father." "he that hath the son hath life." these passages all become perspicuous and concordant in view of john's conception of the inward unity of philo, vol. i. p. . truth, or the universal oneness of the divine life, in god, in christ, in all souls that partake of it. a character in harmony with the character of god will, by virtue of its inherent light and affinity, recognise the kindred attributes or characteristics of god, wherever manifested. he who perceives and embraces the divinity in the character of christ proves thereby that he was prepared to receive it by kindred qualities residing in himself, proves that he was distinctively of god. he who fails to perceive the peculiar glory of christ proves thereby that he was alienated and blinded by sin and darkness, distinctively of the evil one. varying the expression to illustrate the thought, if the light and warmth of a living love of god were in a soul, it would necessarily, when brought into contact with the concentrated radiance of divinity incarnated and beaming in christ, effect a more fervent, conscious, and abiding union with the father than could be known before he was thus revealed. but if iniquities, sinful lusts, possessing the soul, had made it hard and cold, even the blaze of spotless virtues and miraculous endowments in the manifesting messiah would be the radiation of light upon darkness insensible to it. therefore, the presentation of the divine contents of the soul or character of jesus to different persons was an unerring test of their previous moral state: the good would apprehend him with a thrill of unison, the bad would not. to have the son, to have the father, to have the truth, to have eternal life, all are the same thing: hence, where one is predicated or denied all are predicated or denied. continuing our investigation, we shall find the distinction drawn of a sensual or perishing life and a spiritual or eternal life. the term world (kosmos) is used by john apparently in two different senses. first, it seems to signify all mankind, divided sometimes into the unbelievers and the christians. "christ is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world." "god sent not his son to condemn the world, but that the world through him might be saved." it is undeniable that "world" here means not the earth, but the men on the earth. secondly, "world" in the dialect of john means all the evil, all the vitiating power, of the material creation. "now shall the prince of this world be cast out." it is not meant that this is the devil's world, because john declares in the beginning that god made it; but he means that all diabolic influence comes from the darkness of matter fighting against the light of divinity, and by a figure he says "world," meaning the evils in the world, meaning all the follies, vanities, sins, seductive influences, of the dark and earthy, the temporal and sensual. in this case the love of the world means almost precisely what is expressed by the modern word worldliness. "love not the world, neither the things that are in the world. if any man love the world, the love of the father is not in him." in a vein strikingly similar, philo writes, "it is impossible for the love of the world and the love of god to coexist, as it is impossible for light and darkness to coexist." "for all that is in the world," says john, "the lust of the flesh, and the greed of the eyes, and the pomp of living, is not of the father, but is of the world. and the world passes away, with the lust thereof: but he that does the will of god abides forever." he who is taken up and absorbed in the gauds and pleasures of time and sense has no deep spring of religious experience: philo, vol. ii. p. . his enjoyments are of the decaying body; his heart and his thoughts are set on things which soon fly away. but the earnest believer in god pierces through all these superficial and transitory objects and pursuits, and fastens his affections to imperishable verities: he feels, far down in his soul, the living well of faith and fruition, the cool fresh fountain of spiritual hope and joy, whose stream of life flows unto eternity. the vain sensualist and hollow worldling has no true life in him: his love reaches not beyond the grave. the loyal servant of duty and devout worshipper of god has a spirit of conscious superiority to death and oblivion: though the sky fall, and the mountains melt, and the seas fade, he knows he shall survive, because immaterial truth and love are deathless. the whole thought contained in the texts we are considering is embodied with singular force and beauty in the following passage from one of the sacred books of the hindus: "who would have immortal life must beware of outward things, and seek inward truth, purity, and faith; for the treacherous and evanescent world flies from its votaries, like the mirage, or devil car, which moves so swiftly that one cannot ascend it." the mere negation of real life or blessedness is predicated of the careless worldling; positive death or miserable condemned unrest is predicated of the bad hearted sinner. both these classes of men, upon accepting christ, that is, upon owning the divine characteristics incarnate in him, enter upon a purified, exalted, and new experience. "he that hates his brother is a murderer and abides in death." "we know that we have passed from death unto life, because we love the brethren." this new experience is distinctively, emphatically, life; it is spiritual peace, joy, trust, communion with god, and therefore immortal. it brings with it its own sufficient evidence, leaving its possessor free from misgiving doubts, conscious of his eternity. "he that believeth on the son of god hath the witness in himself." "hereby know we that we dwell in him and he in us, because he hath given us of his spirit." "that ye may know that ye have eternal life." the objects of christ's mission, so far as they refer to the twofold purpose of revealing the father by an impersonation of his image, and giving new moral life to men by awakening within them a conscious fellowship with divine truth and goodness, have already been unfolded. but this does not include the whole: all this might have been accomplished by his appearance, authoritative teachings, miracles, and return to heaven, without dying. why, then, did he die? what was the meaning or aim of his death and resurrection? the apostle conceives that he came not only to reveal god and to regenerate men, but also to be a "propitiation" for men's sins, to redeem them from the penalty of their sins; and it was for this end that he must suffer the doom of physical death. "ye know that he was manifested to take away our sins." it is the more difficult to tell exactly what thoughts this language was intended by john to convey, because his writings are so brief and miscellaneous, so unsystematic and incomplete. he does not explain his own terms, but writes as if addressing those who had previously received such oral instruction as would make the obscurities clear, the hints complete, and the fragments whole. we will first quote from john all the important texts bearing on the point before us, and then endeavor to discern and explain their sense. "if we walk in the light as god is in the light, the blood of jesus christ, his son, cleanseth us from all sin." "he is the propitiation for our sins." "your sins are forgiven through his name." "the whole world is subject to the evil one." these texts, few and vague as they are, comprise every thing directly said by john upon the atonement and redemption: other relevant passages merely repeat the same substance. certainly these statements do not of themselves teach any thing like the augustinian doctrine of expiatory sufferings to placate the father's indignation at sin and sinners, or to remove, by paying the awful debt of justice, the insuperable bars to forgiveness. nothing of that sort is anywhere intimated in the johannean documents, even in the faintest manner. so far from saying that there was unwillingness or inability in the father to take the initiative for our ransom and pardon, he expressly avows, "herein is love, not that we loved god, but that he loved us and sent his son to be the propitiation for our sins." instead of exclaiming, with the majority of modern theologians, "believe in the atoning death, the substitutional sufferings, of christ, and your sins shall then all be washed away, and you shall be saved," he explicitly says, "if we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins." and again: "whosoever believeth in him" not in his death, but in him "shall have eternal life." the allusions in john to the doctrine of redemption and reconciliation do not mean, it is plain enough, the buying off of the victims of eternal condemnation by the vicarious pains of jesus. what, then, do they mean? they are too few, short, and obscure for us to decide this question conclusively by their own light alone. we must get assistance from abroad. the reader will remember that it was the jewish belief, and the retained belief of the converts to christianity, at that time, that men's souls, in consequence of sin, were doomed upon leaving the body to descend into the under world. this was the objective penalty of sin, inherited from adam. now, christ in his superangelic state in heaven was not involved in sin or in its doom of death and subterranean banishment. yet at the will of the father he became a man, went through our earthly experiences, died like a sinner, and after death descended into the prison of disembodied souls below, then rose again and ascended into heaven to the father, to show men that their sins were forgiven, the penalty taken away, and the path opened for them too to rise to eternal life in the celestial mansions with christ "and be with him where he is." christ's death, then, cleanses men from sin, he is a propitiation for their sins, in two ways. first, by his resurrection from the power of death and his ascent to heaven he showed men that god had removed the great penalty of sin: by his death and ascension he was the medium of giving them this knowledge. secondly, the joy, gratitude, love to god, awakened in them by such glorious tidings, would purify their natures, exalt their souls into spiritual freedom and virtue, into a blessed and divine life. according to this view, christ was a vicarious sacrifice, not in the sense that he suffered instead of the guilty, to purchase their redemption from the iron justice of god, but in the sense that, when he was personally free from any need to suffer, he died for the sake of others, to reveal to them the mighty boon of god's free grace, assuring them of the wondrous gift of a heavenly immortality. this representation perfectly fills and explains the language, without violence or arbitrary suppositions, does it in harmony with all the exegetical considerations, historical and grammatical; which no other view that we know of can do. there are several independent facts which lend strong confirmation to the correctness of the exposition now given. we know that we have not directly proved the justice of that exposition, only constructively, inferentially, established it; not shown it to be true, only made it appear plausible. but that plausibility becomes an extreme probability nay, shall we not say certainty? when we weigh the following testimonies for it. first, this precise doctrine is unquestionably contained in other parts of the new testament. we have in preceding chapters demonstrated its existence in paul's epistles, in peter's, in the epistle to the hebrews, and in the apocalypse. therefore, since john's phraseology is better explained by it than by any other hypothesis, it is altogether likely that his real meaning was the same. secondly, the terms "light" and "darkness," so frequent in this evangelist, were not originated by him, but adopted. they were regarded by the persian theology, by plato, by philo, by the gnostics, as having a physical basis as well as a spiritual significance. in their conceptions, physical light, as well as spiritual holiness, was an efflux or manifestation from the supernal god; physical darkness, as well as spiritual depravity, was an emanation or effect from the infernal satan, or principle of evil. is it not so in the usage of john? he uses the terms, it is true, prevailingly in a moral sense: still, there is much in his statements that looks as if he supposed they had a physical ground. if so, then how natural is this connection of thought! all good comes from the dazzling world of god beyond the sky; all evil comes from the nether world of his adversary, the prince of darkness. that john believed in a local heaven on high, the residence of god, is made certain by scores of texts too plain to be evaded. would he not, then, in all probability, believe in a local hell? believing, as he certainly did, in a devil, the author and lord of darkness, falsehood, and death, would he not conceive a kingdom for him? in the development of ideas reached at that time, it is evident that the conception of god implied an upper world, his resplendent abode, and that the conception of satan equally implied an under world, his gloomy realm. to the latter human souls were doomed by sin. from the former christ came, and returned to it again, to show that the father would forgive our sins and take us there. thirdly, john expected that christ, after death, would return to the father in heaven. this appears from clear and reiterated statements in his reports of the savior's words. but after the resurrection he tells us that jesus had not yet ascended to the father, but was just on the point of going. "touch me not, for i am not yet ascended to my father; but go to my brethren, and say unto them, i ascend unto my father." where, then, did he suppose the soul of his crucified master had been during the interval between his death and his resurrection? dormant in the body, dead with the body, laid in the tomb? that is opposed to the doctrine of uninterrupted life which pervades his writings. besides, such a belief was held only by the sadducees, whom the new testament stigmatizes. to assume that such was john's conception of the fact is an arbitrary supposition, without the least warrant from any source whatever. if he imagined the soul of jesus during that time to have been neither in heaven nor in the sepulchre, is it not pretty sure that he supposed it was in the under world, the common receptacle of souls, where, according to the belief of that age, every man went after death? fourthly, it is to be observed, in favor of this general interpretation, that the doctrine it unfolds is in harmony with the contemporary opinions, a natural development from them, a development which would be forced upon the mind of a jewish christian accepting the resurrection of christ as a fact. it was the jewish opinion that god dwelt with his holy angels in a world of everlasting light above the firmament. it was the jewish opinion that the departed souls of men, on account of sin, were confined beneath the earth in satan's and death's dark and slumberous cavern of shadows. it was the jewish opinion that the messiah would raise the righteous dead and reign with them on earth. now, the first christians clung to the jewish creed and expectations, with such modifications merely as the variation of the actual jesus and his deeds from the theoretical messiah and his anticipated achievements compelled. then, when christ having been received as the bringer of glad tidings from the father died, and after three days rose from the dead and ascended to god, promising his brethren that where he was they should come, must they not have regarded it all as a dramatic exemplification of the fact that the region of death was no longer a hopeless dungeon, since one mighty enough to solve its chains and burst its gates had returned from it? must they not have considered him as a pledge that their sins were forgiven, their doom reversed, and heaven attainable? john, in common with all the first christians, evidently expected that the second advent of the lord would soon take place, to consummate the objects he had left unfinished, to raise the dead and judge them, justifying the worthy and condemning the unworthy. there was a well known jewish tradition that the appearance of antichrist would immediately precede the triumphant coming of the messiah. john says, "even now are there many antichrists: thereby we know that it is the last hour." "abide in him, that, when he shall appear, we may not be ashamed before him at his coming." "that we may have boldness in the day of judgment." the evangelist's outlook for the return of the savior is also shown at the end of his gospel. "jesus said not unto him, 'he shall not die;' but, 'if i will that he tarry till i come, what is that to thee?'" that the doctrine of a universal resurrection which the jews probably derived, through their communication with the persians, from the zoroastrian system, and, with various modifications, adopted is embodied in the following passage, who can doubt? "the hour is coming when all that are in the graves shall hear the voice of the son of man and shall come forth." that a general resurrection would literally occur under the auspices of jesus was surely the meaning of the writer of those words. whether that thought was intended to be conveyed by christ in the exact terms he really used or not is a separate question, with which we are not now concerned, our object being simply to set forth john's views. some commentators, seizing the letter and neglecting the spirit, have inferred from various texts that john expected that the resurrection would be limited to faithful christians, just as the more rigid of the pharisees confined it to the righteous jews. "except ye eat the flesh of the son of man and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. whoso eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life; and i will raise him up at the last day." see the able and impartial discussion of john's belief on this subject contained in lucke's commentary on the first epistle of john, i. - . to force this figure into a literal meaning is a mistake; for in the preceding chapter it is expressly said that "they that have done good shall come forth unto the resurrection of life; they that have done evil unto the resurrection of condemnation." both shall rise to be judged; but as we conceive the most probable sense of the phrases the good shall be received to heaven, the bad shall be remanded to the under world. "has no life in him" of course cannot mean is absolutely dead, annihilated, but means has not faith and virtue, the elements of blessedness, the qualifications for heaven. the particular figurative use of words in these texts may be illustrated by parallel idioms from philo, who says, "of the living some are dead; on the contrary, the dead live. for those lost from the life of virtue are dead, though they reach the extreme of old age; while the good, though they are disjoined from the body, live immortally." again he writes, "deathless life delivers the dying pious; but the dying impious everlasting death seizes." and a great many passages plainly show that one element of philo's meaning, in such phrases as these, is, that he believed that, upon their leaving the body, the souls of the good would ascend to heaven, while the souls of the bad would descend to hades. these discriminated events he supposed would follow death at once. his thorough platonism had weaned him from the persian pharisaic doctrine of a common intermediate state detaining the dead below until the triumphant advent of a redeemer should usher in the great resurrection and final judgment. john declares salvation to be conditional. "the blood of christ" that is, his death and what followed "cleanses us from all sin, if we walk in the light as he is in the light;" not otherwise. "he that believeth not the son shall not see eternal life, but the wrath of god abideth on him." "if any man see his brother commit a sin which is not unto death, he shall pray, and shall receive life for them that sin not unto death. there is a sin unto death: i do not say that he shall pray for it." "beloved, now are we the sons of god, and it doth not yet appear what we shall be; but we know that when he [christ] shall appear we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. every man that hath this hope in him purifieth himself, even as he is pure." the heads of the doctrine which seems to underlie these statements are as follow. christ shall come again. all the dead shall rise for judicial ordeal. those counted worthy shall be accepted, be transfigured into the resemblance of the glorious redeemer and enter into eternal blessedness in heaven. the rest shall be doomed to the dark kingdom of death in the under world, to remain there for aught that is hinted to the contrary forever. from these premises two practical inferences are drawn in exhortations. first, we should earnestly strive to fit ourselves for acceptance by moral purity, brotherly love, and pious faith. secondly, we should seek pardon for our sins by confession and prayer, and take heed lest by aggravated sin we deprave our souls beyond recovery. there are those who sin unto death, for whom it is hopeless to pray. light, truth, and the divine life of heaven can never receive them; darkness, falsehood, and the deep realm of death irrevocably swallow them. and now we may sum up in a few words the essential results of this whole inquiry into the principles of john's theology, especially as composing and shown in his doctrine of a vol. i. p. . ibid. p. . see vol. i. pp. , , , , , ; vol. ii. pp. , . future life. first, god is personal love, truth, light, holiness, blessedness. these realities, as concentrated in their incomprehensible absoluteness, are the elements of his infinite being. secondly, these spiritual substances, as diffused through the worlds of the universe and experienced in the souls of moral creatures, are the medium of god's revelation of himself, the direct presence and working of his logos. thirdly, the persons who prevailingly partake of these qualities are god's loyal subjects and approved children, in peaceful communion with the father, through the son, possessing eternal life. fourthly, satan is personal hatred, falsehood, darkness, sin, misery. these realities, in their abstract nature and source, are his being; in their special manifestations they are his efflux and power. fifthly, the persons who partake rulingly of these qualities are the devil's enslaved subjects and lineal children: in sinful bondage to him, in depraved communion with him, they dwell in a state of hostile banishment and unhappiness, which is moral death. sixthly, christ was the logos who, descending from his anterior glory in heaven, and appearing in mortal flesh, embodied all the divine qualities in an unflawed model of humanity, gathered up and exhibited all the spiritual characteristics of the father in a stainless and perfect soul supernaturally filled and illumined, thus to bear into the world a more intelligible and effective revelation of god the father than nature or common humanity yielded, to shine with regenerating radiance upon the deadly darkness of those who were groping in lying sins, "that they might have life and that they might have it more abundantly." seventhly, the fickle and perishing experience of unbelieving and wicked men, the vagrant life of sensuality and worldliness, the shallow life in vain and transitory things, gives place in the soul of a christian to a profoundly earnest, unchanging experience of truth and love, a steady and everlasting life in divine and everlasting things. eighthly, the experimental reception of the revealed grace and verity by faith and discipleship in jesus is accompanied by internal convincing proofs and seals of their genuineness, validity, and immortality. they awaken a new consciousness, a new life, inherently divine and self warranting. ninthly, christ, by his incarnation, death, resurrection, and ascension, was a propitiation for our sins, a mercy seat pledging forgiveness; that is, he was the medium of showing us that mercy of god which annulled the penalty of sin, the descent of souls to the gloomy under world, and opened the celestial domains for the ransomed children of earth to join the sinless angels of heaven. tenthly, christ was speedily to make a second advent. in that last day the dead should come forth for judgment, the good be exalted to unfading glory with the father and the son, and the bad be left in the lower region of noiseless shadows and dreams. these ten points of view, we believe, command all the principal features of the theological landscape which occupied the mental vision of the writer of the gospel and epistles bearing the superscription, john. chapter vi. christ's teachings concerning the future life. in approaching the teachings of the savior himself concerning the future fate of man, we should throw off the weight of creeds and prejudices, and, by the aid of all the appliances in our power, endeavor to reach beneath the imagery and unessential particulars of his instructions to learn their bare significance in truth. this is made difficult by the singular perversions his religion has undergone; by the loss of a complete knowledge of the peculiarities of the messianic age in the lapse of the ages since; by the almost universal change in our associations, modes of feeling and thought, and styles of speech; and by the gradual accretion and hardening of false doctrines and sectarian biases and wilfulness. as we examine the words of christ to find their real meaning, there are four prominent considerations to be especially weighed and borne in mind. first, we must not forget the poetic eastern style common to the jewish prophets; their symbolic enunciations in bold figures of speech: "i am the door;" "i am the bread of life;" "i am the vine;" "my sheep hear my voice;" "if these should hold their peace, the stones would immediately cry out." this daring emblematic language was natural to the oriental nations; and the bible is full of it. is the overthrow of a country foretold? it is not said, "babylon shall be destroyed," but "the sun shall be darkened at his going forth, the moon shall be as blood, the stars shall fall from heaven, and the earth shall stagger to and fro as a drunken man." if we would truly understand christ's declarations, we must not overlook the characteristics of figurative language. for "he spake to the multitude in parables, and without a parable spake he not unto them;" and a parable, of course, is not to be taken literally, but holds a latent sense and purpose which are to be sought out. the greatest injustice is done to the teachings of christ when his words are studied as those of a dry scholastic, a metaphysical moralist, not as those of a profound poet, a master in the spiritual realm. secondly, we must remember that we have but fragmentary reports of a small part of the teachings of christ. he was engaged in the active prosecution of his mission probably about three years, at the shortest over one year; while all the different words of his recorded in the new testament would not occupy more than five hours. only a little fraction of what he said has been transmitted to us; and though this part may contain the essence of the whole, yet it must naturally in some instances be obscure and difficult of apprehension. we must therefore compare different passages with each other, carefully probe them all, and explain, so far as possible, those whose meaning is recondite by those whose meaning is obvious. some persons may be surprised to think that we have but a small portion of the sayings of jesus. the fact, however, is unquestionable. and perhaps there is no more reason that we should have a full report of his words than there is that we should have a complete account of his doings; and the evangelist declares, "there are also many other things which jesus did, the which, if they should every one be written, i suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books." thirdly, when examining the instructions of jesus, we should recollect that he adopted, and applied to himself and to his kingdom, the common jewish phraseology concerning the messiah and the events that were expected to attend his advent and reign. but he did not take up these phrases in the perverted sense held in the corrupt opinions and earthly hopes of the jews: he used them spiritually, in the sense which accorded with the true messianic dispensation as it was arranged in the forecasting providence of god. no investigation of the new testament should be unaccompanied by an observance of the fundamental rule of interpretation, namely, that the strident of a book, especially of an ancient, obscure, and fragmentary book, should imbue himself as thoroughly as he can with the knowledge and spirit of the opinions, events, influences, circumstances, of the time when the document was written, and of the persons who wrote it. the inquirer must be equipped for his task by a mastery of the rabbinism of gamaliel, at whose feet paul was brought up; for the jewish mind of that age was filled, and its religious language directed, by this rabbinism. guided by this principle, furnished with the necessary information, in the helpful light of the best results of modern critical scholarship, we shall be able to explain many dark texts, and to satisfy ourselves, at least in a degree, as to the genuine substance of christ's declarations touching the future destinies of men. finally, he who studies the new testament with patient thoroughness and with honest sharpness will arrive at a distinction most important to be made and to be kept in view, namely, a distinction between the real meaning of christ's words in his own mind and the actual meaning understood in them by his auditors and reporters. here we approach a most delicate and vital point, hitherto too little noticed, but destined yet to become prominent and fruitful. a large number of religious phrases were in common use among the jews at the time of jesus. he adopted them, but infused into them a deeper, a correct meaning, as copernicus did into the old astronomic formulas. but the bystanders who listened to his discourses, hearing the familiar terms, seized the familiar meaning, and erroneously attributed it to him. it is certain that the savior was often misunderstood and often not understood at all. when he declared himself the messiah, the people would have made him a king by force! even the apostles frequently grossly failed to appreciate his spirit and aims, wrenched unwarrantable inferences from his words, and quarrelled for the precedency in his coming kingdom and for seats at his right hand. in numerous cases it is glaringly plain that his ideas were far from their conceptions of them. we have no doubt the same was true in many other instances where it is not so clear. he repeatedly reproves them for folly and slowness because they did not perceive the sense of his instructions. perhaps there was a slight impatience in his tones when he said, "how is it that ye do not understand that i spake it not to you concerning bread, that ye should beware of the leaven of the pharisees and of the sadducees?" jesus uttered in established phrases new and profoundly spiritual thoughts. the apostles educated in, and full of, as they evidently were, the dogmas, prejudices, and see this distinction affirmed by de wette, in the preface to his commentatio de morte jesus christi expiatoria. see also thurn, jesus und seine apostel in widerspruch in ansehung der lehre von der ewigcn verdamnniss. in scherer's schriftforsch. sect. i. nr. . hopes of their age and land would naturally, to some extent, misapprehend his meaning. then, after a tumultuous interval, writing out his instructions from memory, how perfectly natural that their own convictions and sentiments would have a powerful influence in modifying and shaping the animus and the verbal expressions in their reports! under the circumstances, that we should now possess the very equivalents of his words with strict literalness, and conveying his very intentions perfectly translated from the aramaan into the greek tongue, would imply the most sustained and amazing of all miracles. there is nothing whatever that indicates any such miraculous intervention. there is nothing to discredit the fair presumption that the writers were left to their own abilities, under the inspiration of an earnest consecrating love and truthfulness. and we must, with due limitations, distinguish between the original words and conscious meaning of the sublime master, illustrated by the emphasis and discrimination of his looks, tones, and gestures, and the apprehended meaning recorded long afterwards, shaped and colored by passing through the minds and pens of the sometimes dissentient and always imperfect disciples. he once declared to them, "i have many things to say unto you, but ye are not able to bear them." admitting his infallibility, as we may, yet asserting their fallibility, as we must, and accompanied, too, as his words now are by many very obscuring circumstances, it is extremely difficult to lay the hand on discriminated texts and say, "[non ascii characters]" the messianic doctrine prevalent among the jews in the time of jesus appears to have been built up little by little, by religious faith, national pride, and priestly desire, out of literal interpretations of figurative prophecy, and cabalistic interpretations of plain language, and rabbinical traditions and speculations, additionally corrupted in some particulars by intercourse with the persians. under all this was a central spiritual germ of a divine promise and plan. a messiah was really to come. it was in answering the questions, what kind of a king he was to be, and over what sort of a kingdom he was to reign, that the errors crept in. the messianic conceptions which have come down to us through the prophets, the targums, incidental allusions in the new testament, the talmud, and the few other traditions and records yet in existence, are very diverse and sometimes contradictory. they agreed in ardently looking for an earthly sovereign in the messiah, one who would rise up in the line of david and by the power of jehovah deliver his people, punish their enemies, subdue the world to his sceptre, and reign with divine auspices of beneficence and splendor. they also expected that then a portion of the dead would rise from the under world and assume their bodies again, to participate in the triumphs and blessings of his earthly kingdom. his personal reign in judea was what they usually meant by the phrases "the kingdom of heaven," "the kingdom of god." the apostles cherished these ideas, and expressed them in the terms common to their countrymen. but we cannot doubt that jesus employed this and kindred language in a purer and deeper sense, which we must take pains to distinguish from the early and lingering errors associated with it. upon the threshold of our subject we meet with predictions of a second coming of christ from heaven, with power and glory, to sit on his throne and judge the world. the portentous imagery in which these prophecies are clothed is taken from the old prophets; and to them we must turn to learn its usage and force. the hebrews called any signal manifestation of power especially any dreadful calamity a coming of the lord. it was a coming of jehovah when his vengeance strewed the ground with the corpses of sennacherib's host; when its storm swept jerusalem as with fire, and bore israel into bondage; when its sword came down upon idumea and was bathed in blood upon edom. "the day of the lord" is another term of precisely similar import. it occurs in the old testament about fifteen times. in every instance it means some mighty manifestation of god's power in calamity. these occasions are pictured forth with the most astounding figures of speech. isaiah describes the approaching destruction of babylon in these terms: "the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall give no light; the sun shall be darkened, the moon shall not shine, the heavens shall shake, and the earth shall remove out of her place and be as a frightened sheep that no man taketh up." the jews expected that the coming of the messiah would be preceded by many fearful woes, in the midst of which he would appear with peerless pomp and might. the day of his coming they named emphatically the day of the lord. jesus actually appeared, not, as they expected, a warrior travelling in the greatness of his strength, with dyed garments from bozrah, staining his raiment with blood as he trampled in the wine vat of vengeance, but the true messiah, god's foreordained and anointed son, despised and rejected of men, bringing good tidings, publishing peace. it must have been impossible for the jews to receive such a messiah without explanations. those few who became converts apprehended his messianic language, at least to some extent, in the sense which previously occupied their minds. he knew that often he was not understood; and he frequently said to his followers, "who hath ears to hear, let him hear." his disciples once asked him, "what shall be the sign of thy coming, and of the end of the world?" he replied, substantially, "there shall be wars, famines, and unheard of trials; and immediately after the sun shall be darkened, the moon shall not give her light, the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken. then shall they see the son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with great power. and he shall sit upon the throne of his glory, and all nations shall be gathered before him, and he shall separate them one from another." that this language was understood by the evangelists and the early christians, in accordance with their pharisaic notions, as teaching literally a physical reappearance of christ on the earth, a resurrection, and a general judgment, we fully believe. those ideas were prevalent at the time, are expressed in scores of places in the new testament, and are the direct strong assertion of the words themselves. but that such was the meaning of christ himself we much more than doubt. in the first place, in his own language in regard to his second coming there is not the least hint of a resurrection of the dead: the scene is confined to the living, and to the earth. secondly, the figures which he employs in this connection are the same as those used by the jewish prophets to denote great and signal events on the earth, and may be so taken here without violence to the idiom. thirdly, he expressly fixed the date of the events he referred to within that generation; and if, therefore, he spoke literally, he was grossly in error, and his prophecies failed of fulfilment, a conclusion which we cannot adopt. to suppose that he partook in the false, mechanical dogmas of the carnal jews would be equally irreconcilable with the common idea of his divine inspiration, and with the profound penetration and spirituality of his own mind. he certainly used much of the phraseology of his contemporary countrymen, metaphorically, to convey his own purer thoughts. we have no doubt he did so in regard to the descriptions of his second coming. let us state in a form of paraphrase what his real instructions on this point seem to us to have been: "you cannot believe that i am the messiah, because i do not deliver you from your oppressors and trample on the gentiles. your minds are clouded with errors. the father hath sent me to found the kingdom of peace and righteousness, and hath given me all power to reward and punish. by my word shall the nations of the earth be honored and blessed, or be overwhelmed with fire; and every man must stand before my judgment seat. the end of the world is at the doors. the mosaic dispensation is about to be closed in the fearful tribulations of the day of the lord, and my dispensation to be set up. when you see jerusalem encompassed with armies, know that the day is at hand, and flee to the mountains; for not one stone shall be left upon another. then the power of god will be shown on my behalf, and the sign of the son of man be seen in heaven. my truths shall prevail, and shall be owned as the criteria of divine judgment. according to them, all the righteous shall be distinguished as my subjects, and all the iniquitous shall be separated from my kingdom. some of those standing here shall not taste death till all these things be fulfilled. then it will be seen that i am the messiah, and that through the eternal principles of truth which i have proclaimed i shall sit upon a throne of glory, not literally, in person, as you thought, blessing the jews and cursing the gentiles, but spiritually, in the truth, dispensing joy to good men and woe to bad men, according to their deserts." such we believe to be the meaning of christ's own predictions of his second coming. he figuratively identifies himself with his religion according to that idiom by which it is written, "moses hath in every city them that read him, being read in the synagogues every sabbath day." his figure of himself as the universal judge is a bold personification; for he elsewhere says, "he that believeth in me believeth not in me, but in him that sent me." and again, "he that rejecteth me, i judge him not: the word that i have spoken, that shall judge him." his coming in the clouds of heaven with great power and glory was when, at the destruction of jerusalem, the old age closed and the new began, the obstacles to his religion were removed and his throne established on the earth. the apostles undoubtedly understood the doctrine differently; but that such was his own thought we conclude, because he did sometimes undeniably use figurative language in that way, and because the other meaning is an error, not in harmony either with his character, his mind, or his mission. this interpretation is so important that it may need to be illustrated and confirmed by further instances: "when the son of man sits on the throne of his glory, and all nations are gathered before him, his angels shall sever the wicked from among the just, and shall cast them into a furnace of fire: there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth." a few such picturesque phrases have led to the general belief in a great world judgment at the end of the norton, statement of reasons, appendix. appointed time, after which the condemned are to be thrown into the tortures of an unquenchable world of flame. how arbitrary and violent a conclusion this is, how unwarranted and gross a perversion of the language of christ it is, we may easily see. the fact that the old prophets often described fearful misfortunes and woes in images of clouds and flame and falling stars, and other portentous symbols, and that this style was therefore familiar to the jews, would make it very natural for jesus, in foretelling such an event as the coming destruction of jerusalem, in conflagration and massacre, with the irretrievable subversion of the old dispensation, to picture it forth in a similar way. fire was to the jews a common emblem of calamity and devastation; and judgments incomparably less momentous than those gathered about the fall of jerusalem and the dispersion of the self boasted favorites of jehovah were often described by the prophets in appalling images of darkened planets, shaking heavens, clouds, fire, and blackness. joel, speaking of a "day of the lord," when there should be famine and drought, and a horrid army of destroying insects, "before whom a fire devoureth, and behind them a flame burneth," draws the scene in these terrific colors: "the earth shall quake before them; the sun and moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining; and the lord shall utter his voice before his terrible army of locusts, caterpillars, and destroying worms:" ezekiel represents god as saying, "the house of israel is to me become dross: therefore i will gather you into the midst of jerusalem: as they gather silver, brass, iron, tin, and lead into the midst of the furnace to blow the fire upon it, so will i gather you, and blow upon you in the fire of my wrath, and ye shall be melted in the midst thereof." we read in isaiah, "the assyrian shall flee, and his princes shall be afraid, saith the lord, whose fire is in zion and his furnace in jerusalem." malachi also says, "the day cometh that shall burn as a furnace, and all that do wickedly shall be stubble, and shall be burned up root and branch. they shall be trodden as ashes beneath the feet of the righteous." the meaning of these passages, and of many other similar ones, is, in every instance, some severe temporal calamity, some dire example of jehovah's retributions among the nations of the earth. their authors never dreamed of teaching that there is a place of fire beyond the grave in which the wicked dead shall be tormented, or that the natural creation is finally to be devoured by flame. it is perfectly certain that not a single text in the old testament was meant to teach any such doctrine as that. the judgments shadowed forth in kindred metaphors by christ are to be understood in the light of this fact. their meaning is, that all unjust, cruel, false, impure men shall endure severe punishments. this general thought is fearfully distinct; but every thing beyond all details are left in utter obscurity. in the august scene of the king in judgment, when the sentence has been pronounced on those at the left hand, "depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire prepared for the devil and his angels," it is written, "and they shall go away into everlasting punishment." it is obvious to remark that the imagery of a fiery prison built for satan and the fallen angels, and into which the bad shall be finally doomed, is poetical language, or language of accommodation to the current notions of the time. these startling oriental figures are used to wrap and convey the assertion that the wicked shall be severely punished according to their deserts. no literal reference seems to be made either to the particular time, to the special place, or to the distinctive character, of the punishment; but the mere fact is stated in a manner to fill the conscience with awe and to stamp the practical lesson vividly on the memory. but admitting the clauses apparently descriptive of the nature of this retribution to be metaphorical, yet what shall we think of its duration? is it absolutely unending? there is nothing in the record to enable a candid inquirer to answer that question decisively. so far as the letter of scripture is concerned, there are no data to give an indubitable solution to the problem. it is true the word "everlasting" is repeated; but, when impartially weighed, it seems a sudden rhetorical expression, of indefinite force, used to heighten the impressiveness of a sublime dramatic representation, rather than a cautious philosophical term employed to convey an abstract conception. there is no reason whatever for supposing that christ's mind was particularly directed to the metaphysical idea of endlessness, or to the much more metaphysical idea of timelessness. the presumptive evidence is that he spoke popularly. had he been charged to reveal a doctrine so tremendous, so awful, so unutterably momentous in its practical relations, as that of the endless close of all probation at death, is it conceivable that he would merely have couched it in a few figurative expressions and left it as a matter of obscure inference and uncertainty? no: in that case, he would have iterated and reiterated it, defined, guarded, illustrated it, and have left no possibility of honest mistake or doubt of it. the greek word [non-ascii characters], and the same is true of the corresponding hebrew word, translated "everlasting" in the english bible, has not in its popular usage the rigid force of eternal duration, but varies, is now applied to objects as evanescent as man's earthly life, now to objects as lasting as eternity. its power in any given case is to be sought from the context and the reason of the thing. isaiah, having threatened the unrighteous nations that they "should conceive chaff and bring forth stubble, that their own breath should be fire to devour them, and that they should be burnt like lime, like thorns cut up in the fire," makes the terror smitten sinners and hypocrites cry, "who among us can dwell in devouring fire? who among us can dwell in everlasting burnings?" yet his reference is solely to an outward, temporal judgment in this world. the greek adjective rendered "everlasting" is etymologically, and by universal usage, a term of duration, but indefinite, its extent of meaning depending on the subjects of which it is predicated. therefore, when christ connects this word with the punishment of the wicked, it is impossible to say with any certainty, judging from the language itself, whether he implies that those who die in their sins are hopelessly lost, perfectly irredeemable forever, or not, though the probabilities are very strongly in the latter direction. "everlasting punishment" may mean, in philosophical strictness, a punishment absolutely eternal, or may be a popular expression denoting, with general indefiniteness, a very long duration. since in all greek literature, sacred and profane, [non-ascii characters] is applied to things that end, ten times as often as it is to things immortal, no fair critic can assert positively that when it is connected with future punishment it has the stringent meaning of metaphysical endlessness. on the other hand, no one has any critical see christian examiner for march, , pp. - . right to say positively that in such cases it has not that meaning. the master has not explained his words on this point, but has left them veiled. we can settle the question itself concerning the limitedness or the unlimitedness of future punishment only on other grounds than those of textual criticism, even on grounds of enlightened reason postulating the cardinal principles of christianity and of ethics. will not the unimpeded spirit of christ lead all free minds and loving hearts to one conclusion? but that conclusion is to be held modestly as a trusted inference, not dogmatically as a received revelation. another point in the savior's teachings which it is of the utmost importance to understand is the sense in which he used the jewish phrases "resurrection of the dead" and "resurrection at the last day." the pharisees looked for a restoration of the righteous from their graves to a bodily life. this event they supposed would take place at the appearance of the messiah; and the time of his coming they called "the last day." so the apostle john says, "already are there many antichrists; whereby we know that it is the last time." now, jesus claimed to be the messiah, clothed in his functions, though he interpreted those functions as carrying an interior and moral, not an outward and physical, force. "this is the will of him that sent me, that every one which seeth the son and believeth on him should have everlasting life; and i will raise him up at the last day." again, when martha told jesus that "she knew her brother lazarus would rise again in the resurrection at the last day," he replied, "i am the resurrection and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live; and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die." this utterance is surely metaphorical; for belief in jesus does not prevent physical dissolution. the thoughts contained in the various passages belonging to this subject, when drawn out, compared, and stated in general terms, seem to us to be as follows: "you suppose that in the last day your messiah will restore the dead to live again upon the earth. i am the messiah, and the last days have therefore arrived. i am commissioned by the father to bestow eternal life upon all who believe on me; but not in the manner you have anticipated. the true resurrection is not calling the body from the tomb, but opening the fountains of eternal life in the soul. i am come to open the spiritual world to your faith. he that believeth in me and keepeth my commandments has passed from death unto life, become conscious that though seemingly he passes into the grave, yet really he shall live with god forever. the true resurrection is, to come into the experience of the truth that 'god is not the god of the dead, but of the living; for all live unto him.' over the soul that is filled with such an experience, death has no power. verily, i say unto, you, the hour is coming, and now is, when the dead, the ignorant and guilty, buried in trespasses and sins, shall hear these truths declared, and they that believe shall lay hold of the life thus offered and be blessed. the father hath given me authority to execute judgment, that is, to lay down the principles by which men shall be judged according to their deserts. all mankind shall be judged in the spiritual state by the spirit and precepts of my religion as veritably as if in their graves the generations of the dead heard my voice and came forth, the good to blessedness, the evil to misery. the judgment which is, as it were, committed unto me, is not really committed unto me, but unto the truth which i declare; for of mine own self i can do nothing." we believe this paraphrase expresses the essential meaning of christ's own declarations concerning a resurrection and an associated judgment. coming to bring from the father authenticated tidings of immortality, and to reveal the laws of the divine judgment, he declared that those who believed and kept his words were delivered from the terror of death, and, knowing that an endless life of blessedness was awaiting them, immediately entered upon its experience. he did not teach the doctrine of a bodily restoration, but said, "in the resurrection," that is, in the spiritual state succeeding death, "they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of heaven." he did not teach the doctrine of a temporary sleep in the grave, but said to the penitent thief on the cross, "this day shalt thou be with me in paradise:" instantly upon leaving the body their souls would be together in the state of the blessed. it is often said that the words of jesus in relation to the dead hearing his voice and coming forth must be taken literally; for the metaphor is of too extreme violence. but it is in keeping with his usage. he says, "let the dead bury their dead." it is far less bold than "this is my body; this is my blood." it is not nearly so strong as paul's adjuration, "awake, thou that sleepest, and rise from the dead, and christ shall give thee light." it is not more daringly imaginative than the assertion that "the heroes sleeping in marathon's gory bed stirred in their graves when leonidas fought at thermopyla; or than christ's own words, "if thou hadst faith like a grain of mustard seed, thou couldst say to this mountain, be thou cast into yonder sea, and it should obey you." so one might say, "where'er the gospel comes, it spreads diviner light; it calls dead sinners from their tombs and gives the blind their sight." and in the latter days, when it has done its work, and the glorious measure of human redemption is full, liberty, intelligence, and love shall stand hand in hand on the mountain summits and raise up the long generations of the dead to behold the completed fruits of their toils. in this figurative moral sense jesus probably spoke when he said, "thou shalt be recompensed at the resurrection of the just." he referred simply to the rewards of the virtuous in the state beyond the grave. the phraseology in which he clothed the thought he accommodatingly adopted from the current speech of the pharisees. they unquestionably meant by it the group of notions contained in their dogma of the destined physical restoration of the dead from their sepulchres at the advent of the messiah. and it seems perfectly plain to us, on an impartial study of the record, that the evangelist, in reporting his words, took the pharisaic dogma, and not merely the christian truth, with them. but that jesus himself modified and spiritualized the meaning of the phrase when he employed it, even as he did the other contemporaneous language descriptive of the messianic offices and times, we conclude for two reasons. first, he certainly did often use language in that spiritual way, dressing in bold metaphors moral thoughts of inspired insight and truth. secondly, the moral doctrine is the only one that is true, or that is in keeping with his penetrative thought. the notion of a physical resurrection is an error borrowed most likely from the persians by the pharisees, and not belonging to the essential elements of christianity. the notion being prevalent at the time in judea, and being usually expressed in certain appropriated phrases, when christ used those phrases in a true spiritual sense the apostles would naturally apprehend from them the carnal meaning which already filled their minds in common with the minds of their countrymen. the word hades, translated in the english new testament by the word "hell," a word of nearly the same etymological force, but now conveying a quite different meaning, occurs in the discourses of jesus only three several times. the other instances of its use are repetitions or parallels. first, "and thou, capernaum, which art exalted to heaven, shalt be brought down to the under world;" that is, the great and proud city shall become powerless, a heap of ruins. second, "upon this rock i will found my church, and the gates of the under world shall not prevail against it;" that is, the powers of darkness, the opposition of the wicked, the strength of evil, shall not destroy my religion; in spite of them it shall assert its organization and overcome all obstacles. the remaining example of the savior's use of this word is in the parable of dives and lazarus. the rich man is described, after death, as suffering in the under world. seeing the beggar afar off in abraham's bosom, he cries, "father abraham, pity me, and send lazarus, that he may dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue; for i am tormented in this flame." well known fancies and opinions are here wrought up in scenic form to convey certain moral impressions. it will be noticed that the implied division of the under world into two parts, with a gulf between them, corresponds to the common gentile notion of an elysian region of delightful meadows for the good and a tartarean region of blackness and fire for the bad, both included in one subterranean kingdom, but divided by an interval. the dramatic details of the account lazarus being borne into bliss by angels, dives asking to have a messenger sent from bale to warn his surviving brothers rest on opinions afloat among the jews of that age, derived from the persian theology. zoroaster prays, "when i shall die, let aban and bahman carry me to the bosom of joy." and it was a common belief among the persians that souls were at seasons permitted to leave purgatory and visit their relatives on earth. it is evident that the narrative before us is not a history to be literally construed, but a parable to be carefully analyzed. the imagery and the particulars are to be laid aside, and the central thoughts to be drawn forth. take the words literally, that the rich man's immaterial soul, writhing in flames, wished the tip of a finger dipped in water to cool his tongue, and they are ridiculous. take them figuratively, as a type of unknown spiritual anguish, and they are awful. besides, had christ intended to teach the doctrine of a local burning hell, he surely would have enunciated it in plain words, with solemn iteration and explanatory amplifications, instead of merely insinuating it incidentally, in metaphorical see copious illustrations by rosenmuller, in luc. cap. xvi. , . "hic locus est partes ubi se via findit in ambas: dextera, qua ditis magni sub moenia tendit; hac iter elysium nobis: at lava malorum exercet poenas, et ad impia tartara mittit." rhode, heilige sage des zendvolks, s. . ibid. s. . terms, in a professed parable. the sense of the parable is, that the formal distinctions of this world will have no influence in the allotments of the future state, but will often be reversed there; that a righteous providence, knowing every thing here, rules hereafter, and will dispense compensating justice to all; that men should not wait for a herald to rise from the dead to warn them, but should heed the instructions they already have, and so live in the life that now is, as to avoid a miserable condemnation, and secure a blessed acceptance, in the life that is to come. by inculcating these truths in a striking manner, through the aid of a parable based on the familiar poetical conceptions of the future world and its scenery, christ no more endorses those conceptions than by using the messianic phrases of the jews he approves the false carnal views which they joined with that language. to interpret the parable literally, then, and suppose it meant to teach the actual existence of a located hell of fire for sinners after death, is to disregard the proprieties of criticism. "gehenna," or the equivalent phrase, "gehenna of fire," unfortunately translated into our tongue by the word "hell," is to be found in the teachings of christ in only five independent instances, each of which, after tracing the original jewish usage of the term, we will briefly examine. gehenna, or the vale of hinnom, is derived from two hebrew words, the first meaning a vale, the second being the name of its owner. the place thus called was the eastern part of the beautiful valley that forms the southern boundary of jerusalem. here moloch, the horrid idol god worshipped by the ammonites, and by the israelites during their idolatrous lapses, was set up. this monstrous idol had the head of an ox and the body of a man. it was hollow; and, being filled with fire, children were laid in its arms and devoured alive by the heat. this explains the terrific denunciations uttered by the prophets against those who made their children pass through the fire to moloch. the spot was sometimes entitled tophet, a place of abhorrence; its name being derived, as some think, from a word meaning to vomit with loathing, or, as others suppose, from a word signifying drum, because drums were beaten to drown the shrieks of the burning children. after these horrible rites were abolished by josiah, the place became an utter abomination. all filth, the offal of the city, the carcasses of beasts, the bodies of executed criminals, were cast indiscriminately into gehenna. fires were kept constantly burning to prevent the infection of the atmosphere from the putrifying mass. worms were to be seen preying on the relics. the primary meaning, then, of gehenna, is a valley outside of jerusalem, a place of corruption and fire, only to be thought of with execration and shuddering. now, it was not only in keeping with oriental rhetoric, but also natural in itself, that figures of speech should be taken from these obvious and dreadful facts to symbolize any dire evil. for example, how naturally might a jew, speaking of some foul wretch, and standing, perhaps, within sight of the place, exclaim, "he deserves to be hurled into the fires of gehenna!" so the term would gradually become an accepted emblem of abominable punishment. such was the fact; and this gives a perspicuous meaning to the word without supposing it to imply a fiery prison house of anguish in the future world. isaiah threatens the king of assyria with ruin in these terms: "tophet is ordained of old, and prepared for the king: it is made deep and large; the pile thereof is fire and much wood; the breath of jehovah, like a stream of brimstone, doth kindle it." the prophet thus portrays, with the dread imagery of gehenna, approaching disaster and overthrow. a thorough study of the old testament shows that the jews, during the period which it covers, did not believe in future rewards and punishments, but expected that all souls without discrimination would pass their shadowy dream lives in the silence of sheol. between the termination of the old testament history and the commencement of the new, various forms of the doctrine of future retribution had been introduced or developed among the jews. but during this period few, if any, decisive instances can be found in which the image of penal fire is connected with the future state. on the contrary, "darkness," "gloom," "blackness," "profound and perpetual night," are the terms employed to characterize the abode and fate of the wicked. josephus says that, in the faith of the pharisees, "the worst criminals were banished to the darkest part of the under world." philo represents the depraved and condemned as "groping in the lowest and darkest part of the creation. the word gehenna is rarely found in the literature of this time, and when it is it commonly seems to be used either simply to denote the detestable vale of hinnom, or else plainly as a general symbol of calamity and horror, as in the elder prophets. but in some of the targums, or chaldee paraphrases of the hebrew scriptures, especially in the targum of jonathan ben uzziel, we meet repeated applications of the word gehenna to signify a punishment by fire in the future state. this is a fact about which there can be no question. and to the documents showing such a usage of the word, the best scholars are pretty well agreed in assigning a date as early as the days of christ. the evidence afforded by these targums, together with the marked application of the term by jesus himself, and the similar general use of it immediately after both by christians and jews, render it not improbable that gehenna was known to the contemporaries of the savior as the metaphorical name of hell, a region of fire, in the under world, where the reprobate were supposed to be punished after death. but admitting that, before christ began to teach, the jews had modified their early conception of the under world as the silent and sombre abode of all the dead in common, and had divided it into two parts, one where the wicked suffer, called gehenna, one where the righteous rest, called paradise, still, that modification having been borrowed, as is historically evident, from the gentiles, or, if developed among themselves, at all events unconnected with revelation, of course christianity is not involved with the truth or falsity of it, is not responsible for it. it does not necessarily follow that jesus gave precisely the same meaning to the word gehenna that his contemporaries or successors did. he may have used it in a modified emblematic sense, as he did many other current terms. in studying his language, we should especially free our minds both from the tyranny of pre christian notions and dogmas and from the associations and influences of modern creeds, and seek to interpret it in the light of his own instructions and in the spirit of his own mind. we will now examine the cases in which christ uses the term gehenna, and ask what it means. first: "whosoever shall say to his brother, thou vile wretch! shall be in danger of the fiery gehenna." interpret this literally, and it teaches that whosoever calls his brother a gesenius, hebrew thesaurus, ge hinnom. wicked apostate is in danger of being thrown into the filthy flames in the vale of hinnom. but no one supposes that such was its meaning. jesus would say, as we understand him, "i am not come to destroy, but to fulfil, the law; to show how at the culmination of the old dispensation a higher and stricter one opens. i say unto you, that, unless your righteousness exceeds that of the pharisees, you cannot enter the kingdom of heaven. the conditions of acceptance under the new order are far more profound and difficult than under the old. that said, whosoever commits murder shall be exposed to legal punishment from the public tribunal. this says, an invisible inward punishment, as much to be dreaded as the judgments of the sanhedrim, shall be inflicted upon those who harbor the secret passions that lead to crime; whosoever, out of an angry heart, insults his brother, shall be exposed to spiritual retributions typified by the horrors of yon flaming valley. they of old time took cognizance of outward crimes by outward penalties. i take cognizance of inward sins by inward returns more sure and more fearful." second: "if thy right eye be a source of temptation to thee, pluck it out and fling it away; for it is better for thee that one of thy members perish than that thy whole body should be cast into gehenna." give these words a literal interpretation, and they mean, "if your eyes or your hands are the occasions of crime, if they tempt you to commit offences which will expose you to public execution, to the ignominy and torture heaped upon felons put to a shameful death and then flung among the burning filth of gehenna, pluck them out, cut them off betimes, and save yourself from such a frightful end; for it is better to live even thus maimed than, having a whole body, to be put to a violent death." no one can suppose that jesus meant to convey such an idea as that when he uttered these words. we must, then, attribute a deeper, an exclusively moral, significance to the passage. it means, "if you have some bosom sin, to deny and root out which is like tearing out an eye or cutting off a hand, pause not, but overcome and destroy it immediately, at whatever cost of effort and suffering; for it is better to endure the pain of fighting and smothering a bad passion than to submit to it and allow it to rule until it acquires complete control over you, pervades your whole nature with its miserable unrest, and brings you at last into a state of woe of which gehenna and its dreadful associations are a fit emblem." a verse spoken, according to mark, in immediate connection with the present passage, confirms the figurative sense we have attributed to it: "whosoever shall cause one of these little ones that believe in me to fall, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged around his neck and he were plunged into the midst of the sea;" that is, in literal terms, a man had better meet a great calamity, even the loss of life, than commit a foul crime and thus bring the woe of guilt upon his soul. the phrase, "their worm dieth not, and their fire is not quenched," is a part of the imagery naturally suggested by the scene in the valley of hinnom, and was used to give greater vividness and force to the moral impression of the discourse. by an interpretation resulting either from prejudice or ignorance, it is generally held to teach the doctrine of literal fire torments enduring forever. it is a direct quotation from a passage in isaiah which signifies that, in a glorious age to come, jehovah will cause his worshippers to go forth from new moon to new moon and look upon the carcasses of the wicked, and see them devoured by fire which shall not be quenched and gnawed by worms which shall not die, until the last relics of them are destroyed. third: "fear not them that kill the body but are not able to kill the soul; but rather fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in gehenna." a similar use of figurative language, in a still bolder manner, is found in isaiah. intending to say nothing more than that assyria should be overthrown and crushed, the prophet bursts out, "under the glory of the king of assyria jehovah shall kindle a burning like the burning of a fire; and it shall burn and devour his thorns and his briers in one day, and shall consume the glory of his forest and of his fruitful field, both soul and body." reading the whole passage in matthew with a single eye, its meaning will be apparent. we may paraphrase it thus. jesus says to his disciples, "you are now going forth to preach the gospel. my religion and its destinies are intrusted to your hands. as you go from place to place, be on your guard; for they will persecute you, and scourge you, and deliver you up to death. but fear them not. it is enough for the disciple that he be as his master; and if they have done so unto me, how much more shall they unto you! do not, through fear of hostile men, who can only kill your bodies and are not able in any wise to injure your souls, shrink from danger and prove recreant to the momentous duties imposed upon you; but be inspired to proclaim the principles of the heavenly kingdom with earnestness and courage, in the face of all perils, by fearing god, him who is able to plunge both your souls and your bodies in abomination and agony, him who, if you prove unfaithful and become slothful servants or wicked traitors, will leave your bodies to a violent death and after that your souls to bitter shame and anguish. fear not the temporal, physical power of your enemies, to be turned from your work by it; but rather fear the eternal, spiritual power of your god, to be made faithful by it." fourth: "woe unto you, scribes and pharisees, hypocrites! for ye compass sea and land to make one proselyte; and, when he is made, ye make him twofold more a child of gehenna than yourselves." that is, "ye make him twice as bad as yourselves in hypocrisy, bigotry, extortion, impurity, and malice, a subject of double guilt and of double retribution." finally, jesus exclaims to the children of those who killed the prophets, "serpents, brood of vipers! how can ye escape the condemnation of gehenna?" that is to say, "venomous creatures, bad men! you deserve the fate of the worst criminals; you are worthy of the polluted fires of gehenna; your vices will surely be followed by condign punishment: how can such depravity escape the severest retributions?" these five are all the distinct instances in which jesus uses the word gehenna. it is plain that he always uses the word metaphorically. we therefore conclude that christianity, correctly understood, never implies that eternal fire awaits sinners in the future world, but that moral retributions, according to their deeds, are the portion of all men here and hereafter. there is no more reason to suppose that essential christianity contains the doctrine of a fiery infernal world than there is to suppose that it really means to declare that god is a glowing mass of flame, when it says, "our god is a consuming fire." we must remember the metaphorical character of much scriptural language. wickedness is a fire, in that it preys upon men and draws down the displeasure of the almighty, and consumes them. as isaiah writes, "wickedness burneth as the fire, the anger of jehovah darkens the land, and the people shall be the food of the fire." and james declares to proud extortioners, "the rust of your cankered gold and silver shall eat your flesh as it were fire." when jesus says, "it shall be more tolerable for sodom and gomorrah in the day of judgment than for that city" which will not listen to the preaching of my kingdom, but drives my disciples away, he uses a familiar figure to signify that sodom and gomorrah would at such a call have repented in sackcloth and ashes. the guilt of chorazin and bethsaida was, therefore, more hardened than theirs, and should receive a severer punishment; or, making allowance for the natural exaggeration of this kind of language, he means, that city whose iniquities and scornful unbelief lead it to reject my kingdom when it is proffered shall be brought to judgment and be overwhelmed with avenging calamities. two parallel illustrations of this image are given us by the old prophets. isaiah says, "babylon shall be as when god overthrew sodom and gomorrah." and jeremiah complains, "the punishment of jerusalem is greater than the punishment of sodom." it is certainly remarkable that such passages should ever have been thought to teach the doctrine of a final, universal judgment day breaking on the world in fire. the subject of our lord's teachings in regard to the punishment of the wicked is included in two classes of texts, and may be summed up in a few words. one class of texts relate to the visible establishment of christianity as the true religion, the divine law, at the destruction of the jewish power, and to the frightful woes which should then fall upon the murderers of christ, the bitter enemies of his cause. all these things were to come upon that generation, were to happen before some of them then standing there tasted death. the other class of texts and they are by far the more numerous signify that the kingdom of truth is now revealed and set up; that all men are bound to accept and obey it with reverence and love, and thus become its blessed subjects, the happy and immortal children of god; that those who spurn its offers, break its laws, and violate its pure spirit shall be punished, inevitably and fearfully, by moral retributions proportioned to the degrees of their guilt. christ does not teach that the good are immortal and that the bad shall be annihilated, but that all alike, both the just and the unjust, enter the spiritual world. he does not teach that the bad shall be eternally miserable, cut off from all possibility of amendment, but simply that they shall be justly judged. he makes no definitive reference to duration, but leaves us at liberty, peering into the gloom as best we can, to suppose, if we think it most reasonable, that the conditions of our spiritual nature are the same in the future as now, and therefore that the wicked may go on in evil hereafter, or, if they will, all turn to righteousness, and the universe finally become as one sea of holiness and as one flood of praise. another portion of christ's doctrine of the future life hinges on the phrase "the kingdom of heaven." much is implied in this term and its accompaniments, and may be drawn out by answering the questions, what is heaven? who are citizens of, and who are aliens from, the kingdom of god? let us first examine the subordinate meanings and shades of meaning with which the savior sometimes uses these phrases. "ye shall see heaven open and the angels of god ascending and descending upon the son of man." no confirmation of the literal sense of this that is afforded by any incident found in the gospels. there is every reason for supposing that he meant by it, "there shall be open manifestations of supernatural power and favor bestowed upon me by god, evident signs of direct communications between us." his divine works and instructions justified the statement. the word "heaven" as here used, then, does not mean any particular place, but means the approving presence of god. the instincts and natural language of man prompt us to consider objects of reverence as above us. we kneel below them. the splendor, mystery, infinity, of the starry regions help on the delusion. but surely no one possessing clear spiritual perceptions will think the literal facts in the case must correspond to this, that god must dwell in a place overhead called heaven. he is an omnipresence. "blessed are ye when men shall revile you and persecute you for my sake: rejoice, for great is your reward in heaven." this passage probably means, "in the midst of tribulation be exceeding glad; because you shall be abundantly rewarded in a future state for all your present sufferings in my cause." in that case, heaven signifies the spiritual world, and does not involve reference to any precisely located spot. or it may mean, "be not disheartened by insults and persecutions met in the cause of god; for you shall be greatly blessed in your inward life: the approval of conscience, the immortal love and pity of god, shall be yours: the more you are hated and abused by men unjustly, the closer and sweeter shall be your communion with god." in that case, heaven signifies fellowship with the father, and is independent of any particular time or place. "our father, who art in heaven." jesus was not the author of this sentence. it was a part of the rabbinical synagogue service, and was based upon the hebrew conception of god as having his abode in an especial sense over the firmament. the savior uses it as the language of accommodation, as is evident from his conversation with the woman of samaria; for he told her that no exclusive spot was an acceptable place of worship, since "god is a spirit; and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." no one who comprehends the meaning of the words can suppose that the infinite spirit occupies a confined local habitation, and that men must literally journey there to be with him after death. wherever they may be now, they are away from him or with him, according to their characters. after death they are more banished from him or more immediately with him, instantly, wherever they are, according to the spirit they are of. "lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth, but in heaven." in other words, be not absorbed in efforts to accumulate hoards of gold and silver, and to get houses and lands, which will soon pass away; but rather labor to acquire heavenly treasures, wisdom, love, purity, and faith, which will never pass from your possession nor cease from your enjoyment. "i go to prepare a place for you. and if i go and prepare a place for you, i will come again and receive you unto myself, that where i am there ye may be also." to understand this text, we must carefully study the whole four chapters of the connection in which it stands. they abound in bold symbols. an instance of this is seen where jesus, having washed his disciples' feet, says to them, "ye are clean, but not all. for he knew who should betray him. therefore said he, ye are not all clean." the actual meaning of the passage before us may be illustrated by a short paraphrase of it with the context: "let not your hearts be troubled by the thought that i must die and be removed from you; for there are other states of being besides this earthly life. when they crucify me, as i have said to you before, i shall not perish, but shall pass into a higher state of existence with my father. whither i go ye know, and the way ye know: my father is the end, and the truths that i have declared point out the way. if ye loved me, ye would rejoice because i say that i go to the father. and if i go to him, if, when they have put me to death, i pass into an unseen state of blessedness and glory (as i prophesy unto you that i shall,) i will reveal myself unto you again, and tell you. i go before you as a pioneer, and will surely come back and confirm, with irresistible evidence, the reality of what i have already told you. therefore, trouble not your hearts, but be of good cheer." "there is joy in the presence of the angels of god over one sinner that repenteth." the sentiment of this divine declaration simply implies that all good beings sympathize with every triumph of goodness; that the living chain of mutual interest runs through the spiritual universe, making one family of those on earth and those in the invisible state. "touch me not; for i am not yet ascended to my father." "cling not to me, detain me not, for i have not yet left the world forever, to be in the spiritual state with my father; and ere i do this i must seek my disciples, to convince them of my resurrection and to give them my parting commission and blessing." he used the common language, for it was the only language which she whom he addressed would understand; and although, literally interpreted, it conveyed the idea of a local heaven on high, yet at the same time it conveyed, and in the only way intelligible to her, all the truth that was important, namely, that when he disappeared he would still be living, and be, furthermore, with god. when christ finally went from his disciples, he seemed to them to rise and vanish towards the clouds. this would confirm their previous material conceptions, and the old forms of speech would be handed down, strengthened by these phenomena, misunderstood in themselves and exaggerated in their importance. we generally speak now of god's "throne," of "heaven," as situated far away in the blue ether; we point upward to the world of bliss, and say, there the celestial hosannas roll; there the happy ones, the unforgotten ones of our love, wait to welcome us. these forms of speech are entirely natural; they are harmless; they aid in giving definiteness to our thoughts and feelings, and it is well to continue their use; it would be difficult to express our thoughts without them. however, we must understand that they are not strictly and exclusively true. god is everywhere; and wherever he is there is heaven to the spirits that are like him and, consequently, see him and enjoy his ineffable blessedness. jesus sometimes uses the phrase "kingdom of heaven" as synonymous with the divine will, the spiritual principles or laws which he was inspired to proclaim. many of his parables were spoken to illustrate the diffusive power and the incomparable value of the truth he taught, as when he said, "the kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard seed, which becomes a great tree;" it is "like unto leaven, which a woman put in two measures of meal until the whole was leavened;" it is "like a treasure hid in a field," or "like a goodly pearl of great price, which, a man finding, he goes and sells all that he has and buys it." in these examples "the kingdom of heaven" is plainly a personification of the revealed will of god, the true law of salvation and eternal life. in answer to the question why he spoke so many things to the people in parables, jesus said to his disciples, "because it is given unto you to know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven; but unto them it is not given;" that is, you are prepared to understand the hitherto concealed truths of god's government, if set forth plainly; but they are not prepared. here as also in the parables of the vineyard let out to husbandmen, and of the man who sowed good seed in his field, and in a few other cases "the kingdom of heaven" means god's government, his mode of dealing with men, his method of establishing his truths in the hearts of men. "the kingdom of heaven" sometimes signifies personal purity and peace, freedom from sensual solicitations. "there be eunuchs which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. he that is able to receive it, let him receive it." christ frequently uses the term "kingdom of heaven" in a somewhat restricted, traditional sense, based in form but not in spirit upon the jewish expectations of the messiah's kingdom. "be ye sure of this, that the kingdom of god is come nigh unto you;" "i must preach the kingdom of god to other cities also;" "repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." christ was charged to bear to men a new revelation from god of his government and laws, that he might reign over them as a monarch over conscious and loyal subjects. "many shall come from the east and the west, and shall sit down with abraham and isaac and jacob in the kingdom of heaven; but the children of the kingdom shall be cast out into outer darkness." the sense of these texts is as follows. "god is now offering unto you, through me, a spiritual dispensation, a new kingdom; but, unless you faithfully heed it and fulfil its conditions, you shall be rejected from it and lose the divine favor. although, by your position as the chosen people, and in the line of revelation, you are its natural heirs, yet, unless you rule your spirits and lives by its commands, you shall see the despised gentiles enjoying all the privileges your faith allows to the revered patriarchs of your nation, while yourselves are shut out from them and overwhelmed with shame and anguish. your pride of descent, haughtiness of spirit, and reliance upon dead rites unfit you for the true kingdom of god, the inward reign of humility and righteousness; and the very publicans and harlots, repenting and humbling themselves, shall go into it before you." to be welcomed under this messianic dispensation, to become a citizen of this spiritual kingdom of god, the savior declares that there are certain indispensable conditions. a man must repent and forsake his sins. this was the burden of john's preaching, that the candidate for the kingdom of heaven must first be baptized with water unto repentance, as a sign that he abjures and is cleansed from all his old errors and iniquities. then he must be baptized with the holy spirit and with fire, that is, must learn the positive principles of the coming kingdom, and apply them to his own character, to purge away every corrupt thing. he must be born again, born of water and of the spirit: in other words, he must be brought out from his impurity and wickedness into a new and divine life of holiness, awakened to a conscious experience of purity, truth, and love, the great prime elements in the reign of god. he must be guileless and lowly. "whosoever will not receive the kingdom of god as a little child shall in no wise enter therein." the kingdom of heaven, the better dispensation which christ came to establish, is the humility of contrite hearts, the innocence of little children, the purity of undefiled consciences, the fruit of good works, the truth of universal laws, the love of god, and the conscious experience of an indestructible, blessed being. those who enter into these qualities in faith, in feeling, and in action are full citizens of that eternal kingdom; all others are aliens from it. heaven, then, according to christ's use of the word, is not distinctively a world situated somewhere in immensity, but a purely spiritual experience, having nothing to do with any special time or place. it is a state of the soul, or a state of society, under the rule of truth, governed by god's will, either in this life or in a future. he said to the young ruler who had walked faithfully in the law, and whose good traits drew forth his love, "thou art not far from the kingdom of god." it is evident that this does not mean a bounded place of abode, but a true state of character, a virtuous mode of life "my kingdom is not of this world." "every one that is of the truth heareth my voice." that is, "my kingdom is the realm of truth, the dominion of god's will, and all true men are my subjects." evidently this is not a material but a moral reign and therefore unlimited by seasons or places. wherever purity, truth, love, obedience, prevail, there is god, and that is heaven. it is not necessary to depart into some distant sphere to meet the infinite holy one and dwell with him. he is on the very dust we tread, he is the very centre of our souls and breath of our lives, if we are only in a state that is fitted to recognise and enjoy him. "he that hath sent me is with me: the father hath not left me alone, for i always do those things which please him." it is a fair inference from such statements as this that to do with conscious adoration and love those things that please god is to be with him, without regard to time or place; and that is heaven. "i speak that which i have seen with my father," god, "and ye do that which ye have seen with your father, the devil." no one will suppose that jesus meant to tell the wicked men whom he was addressing that they committed their iniquities in consequence of lessons learned in a previous state of existence with an arch fiend, the parent of all evil. his meaning, then, was, i bring forth in words and deeds the things which i have learned in my secret soul from inspired communion with infinite goodness and perfection; you bring forth the things which you have learned from communion with the source of sin and woe, that is, foul propensities, cruel passions, and evil thoughts. "i come forth from the father and am come into the world; again i leave the world and go unto the father." "i go unto him that sent me." since it is declared that god is an omnipresent spirit, and that those who obey and love him see him and are with him everywhere, these striking words must bear one of the two following interpretations. first, they may imply in general that man is created and sent into this state of being by the father, and that after the termination of the present life the soul is admitted to a closer union with the parent spirit. this gives a natural meaning to the language which represents dying as going to the father. not that it is necessary to travel to reach god, but that the spiritual verity is most adequately expressed under such a metaphor. but, secondly, and more probably, the phraseology under consideration may be meant as an assertion of the divine origin and authority of the special mission of christ. "neither came i of myself, but he sent me;" "the words that i speak unto you i speak not of myself;" "as the father hath taught me, i speak these things." these passages do not necessarily teach the pre existence of christ and his descent from heaven in the flesh. that is a carnal interpretation which does great violence to the genuine nature of the claims put forth by our savior. they may merely declare the supernatural commission of the son of god, his direct inspiration and authority. he did not voluntarily assume his great work, but was divinely ordered on that service. compare the following text: "the baptism of john, whence was it, from heaven, or of men?" that is to say, was it of human or of divine origin and authority? so when it is said that the son of man descended from heaven, or was sent by the father, the meaning in christ's mind probably was that he was raised up, did his works, spoke his words, by the inspiration and with the sanction of god. the accuracy of this interpretation is seen by the following citation from the savior's own words, when he is speaking in his prayer at the last supper of sending his disciples out to preach the gospel: "as thou hast sent me into the world, even so have i also sent them into the world." the reference, evidently, is to a divine choice and sealing, not to a descent upon the earth from another sphere. that the author of the fourth gospel believed that christ descended from heaven literally we have not the shadow of a doubt. he repeatedly speaks of him as the great super angelic logos, the first born son and perfect image of god, the instrumental cause of the creation. his mind was filled with the same views, the same lofty logos theory that is so abundantly set forth in the writings of philo judaus. he reports and describes the savior in conformity with such a theological postulate. possessed with the foregone conclusion that jesus was the divine logos, descended from the celestial abode, and born into the world as a man, in endeavoring to write out from memory, years after they were uttered, the savior's words, it is probable that he unconsciously misapprehended and tinged them according to his theory. the delphic apothegm, "know thyself," was said to have descended from heaven: "e coelo descendit [non ascii characters]." by a familiar jewish idiom, "to ascend into heaven" meant to learn the will of god. and whatever bore the direct sancion of god was said to descend from heaven. when in these figurative terms jesus asserted his divine commission, it seems that some understood him literally, and concluded perhaps in consequence of his miracles, joined with their own speculations that he was the logos incarnated. that such a conclusion was an unwarranted inference from metaphorical language and from a foregone pagan dogma appears from his own explanatory and justifying words spoken to the jews. for when they accused him of making himself god, he replies, "if in your law they are called gods to whom the word of god came, charge ye him whom the father hath sanctified and sent into the world with blasphemy, because he says he is the son of god?" christ's language in the fourth gospel schoettgen, in john iii. . may be fairly explained without implying his actual pre existence or superhuman nature. but it does not seem to us that john's possibly can be. his miracles, according to the common idea of them, did not prove him to be the coequal fac simile, but merely proved him to be the delegated envoy, of god. we may sum up the consideration of this point in a few words. christ did not essentially mean by the term "heaven" the world of light and glory located by the hebrews, and by some other nations, just above the visible firmament. his meaning, when he spoke of the kingdom of god or heaven, was always, in some form, either the reign of justice, purity, and love, or the invisible world of spirits. if that world, heaven, be in fact, and were in his conception, a sphere located in space, he never alluded to its position, but left it perfectly in the dark, keeping his instructions scrupulously free from any such commitment. he said, "i go to him that sent me;" "i will come again and receive you unto myself, that where i am there ye may be also." the references to locality are vague and mysterious. the nature of his words, and their scantiness, are as if he had said, we shall live hereafter; we shall be with the father; we shall be together. all the rest is mystery, even to me: it is not important to be known, and the father hath concealed it. such, almost, are his very words. "a little while, and ye shall not see me; again, a little while, and ye shall see me, because i go to the father." "father, i will that they also whom thou hast given me be with me where i am." whether heaven be technically a material abode or a spiritual state it is of little importance to us to know; and the teachings of jesus seem to have nothing to do with it. the important things for us to know are that there is a heaven, and how we may prepare for it; and on these points the revelation is explicit. to suppose the savior ignorant of some things is not inconsistent with his endowments; for he himself avowed his ignorance, saying, "of that day knoweth no man; no, not even the angels which are in heaven, neither the son, but the father." and it adds an awful solemnity, an indescribably exciting interest, to his departure from the world, to conceive him hovering on the verge of the same mystery which has enveloped every passing mortal, hovering there with chastened wonder and curiosity, inspired with an absolute trust that in that fathomless obscurity the father would be with him, and would unveil new realms of life, and would enable him to come back and assure his disciples. he certainly did not reveal the details of the future state: whether he was acquainted with them himself or not we cannot tell. we next advance to the most important portion of the words of christ regarding the life and destiny of the soul, those parts of his doctrine which are most of a personal, experimental character, sounding the fountains of consciousness, piercing to the dividing asunder of our being. it is often said that jesus everywhere takes for granted the fact of immortality, that it underlies and permeates all he does and says. we should know at once that such a being must be immortal; such a life could never be lived by an ephemeral creature; of all possible proofs of immortality he is himself the sublimest. this is true, but not the whole truth. the resistless assurance, the divine inspiration, the sublime repose, with which he enunciates the various thoughts connected with the theme of endless existence, are indeed marvellous. but he not only authoritatively assumes the truth of a future life: he speaks directly of it in many ways, often returns to it, continually hovers about it, reasons for it, exhorts upon it, makes most of his instructions hinge upon it, shows that it is a favorite subject of his communion. we may put the justice of these statements in a clear light by bringing together and explaining some of his scattered utterances. his express language teaches that man in this world is a twofold being, leading a twofold life, physical and spiritual, the one temporal, the other eternal, the one apt unduly to absorb his affections, the other really deserving his profoundest care. this separation of the body and the soul, and survival of the latter, is brought to light in various striking forms and with various piercing applications. in view of the dangers that beset his disciples on their mission, he exhorted and warned them thus: "fear not them which have power to kill the body and afterwards have no more that they can do; but rather fear him who can kill both soul and body;" "whosoever will save his life shall lose it; and whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it;" that is, whosoever, for the sake of saving the life of his body, shrinks from the duties of this dangerous time, shall lose the highest welfare of the soul; but whosoever loveth his lower life in the body less than he loves the virtues of a consecrated spirit shall win the true blessedness of his soul. both of these passages show that the soul has a life and interest separate from the material tabernacle. with what pathos and convincing power was the same faith expressed in his ejaculation from the cross, "father, into thy hands i commend my spirit!" an expression of trust which, under such circumstances of desertion, horror, and agony, could only have been prompted by that inspiration of god which he always claimed to have. christ once reasoned with the sadducees "as touching the dead, that they rise;" in other words, that the souls of men upon the decease of the body pass into another and an unending state of existence: "neither can they die any more; for they are equal with the angels, and are children of god, being children of the resurrection." his argument was, that "god is the god of the living, not of the dead;" that is, the spiritual nature of man involves such a relationship with god as pledges his attributes to its perpetuity. the thought which supports this reasoning penetrates far into the soul and grasps the moral relations between man and god. it is most interesting viewed as the unqualified affirmation by jesus of the doctrine of a future life which shall be deathless. but the savior usually stood in a more imposing attitude and spoke in a more commanding tone than are indicated in the foregoing sentences. the prevailing stand point from which he spoke was that of an oracle giving responses from the inner shrine of the divinity. the words and sentiments he uttered were not his, but the father's; and he uttered them in the clear tones of knowledge and authority, not in the whispering accents of speculation or surmise. how these entrancing tidings came to him he knew not: they were no creations of his; they rose spontaneously within him, bearing the miraculous sign and seal of god, a recommendation he could no more question or resist than he could deny his own existence. he was set apart as a messenger to men. the tide of inspiration welled up till it filled every nerve and crevice of his being with conscious life and with an overmastering recognition of its living relations with the omnipresent and everlasting life. straightway he knew that the father was in him and he in the father, and that he was commissioned to reveal the mind of the father to the world. he knew, by the direct knowledge of inspiration and consciousness, that he should live forever. before his keen, full, spiritual vitality the thought of death fled away, the thought of annihilation could not come. so far removed was his soul from the perception of interior sleep and decay, so broad and powerful was his consciousness of indestructible life, that he saw quite through the crumbling husks of time and sense to the crystal sea of spirit and thought. so absorbing was his sense of eternal life in himself that he even constructed an argument from his personal feeling to prove the immortality of others, saying to his disciples, "because i live, ye shall live also;" "ye believe in god, believe also in me." ye believe what god declares, for he cannot be mistaken; believe what i declare for his inspiration makes me infallible when i say there are many spheres of life for us when this is ended. it was from the fulness of this experience that jesus addressed his hearers. he spoke not so much as one who had faith that immortal life would hereafter be revealed and certified, but rather as one already in the insight and possession of it, as one whose foot already trod the eternal floor and whose vision pierced the immense horizon. "verily, verily, i say unto you, he that heareth my word and believeth on him that sent me hath everlasting life, and shall not come into condemnation, but is passed from death unto life." being himself brought to this immovable assurance of immortal life by the special inspiration of god, it was his aim to bring others to the same blessed knowledge. his efforts to effect this form a most constant feature in his teachings. his own definition of his mission was, "i am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly." we see by the persistent drift of his words that he strove to lead others to the same spiritual point he stood at, that they might see the same prospect he saw, feel the same certitude he felt, enjoy the same communion with god and sense of immortality he enjoyed. "as the father raiseth up the dead and quickeneth them, even so the son quickeneth whom he will;" "for as the father hath life in himself, so hath he given the son to have life in himself;" "father, glorify thy son, that thy son also may glorify thee; as thou hast given him power over all flesh, that he might give eternal life to as many as thou hast given him: and this is life eternal, that they might know thee, the only true god, and jesus christ whom thou hast sent." in other words, the mission of christ was to awaken in men the experience of immortal life; and that would be produced by imparting to them reproducing in them the experience of his own soul. let us notice what steps he took to secure this end. he begins by demanding the unreserved credence of men to what he says, claiming to say it with express authority from god, and giving miraculous credentials. "whatsoever i speak, therefore, as the father said to me, so i speak." this claim to inspired knowledge he advances so emphatically that it cannot be overlooked. he then announces, as an unquestionable truth, the supreme claim of man's spiritual interests upon his attention and labor, alike from their inherent superiority and their enduring subsistence. "for what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?" "thou fool, this night thy soul shall be required of thee: then whose shall be those things thou hast gathered?" "labor not for the meat which perisheth, but for that meat which endureth unto everlasting life." the inspiration which dictated these instructions evidently based them upon the profoundest spiritual philosophy, upon the truth that man lives at once in a sphere of material objects which is comparatively unimportant because he will soon leave it, and in a sphere of moral realities which is all important because he will live in it forever. "man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of god." the body, existing in the sphere of material relations, is supported by material bread; but the soul, existing in the sphere of spiritual relations, is supported by truth, the nourishing breath of god's love. we are in the eternal world, then, at present. its laws and influences penetrate and rule us; its ethereal tides lave and bear us on; our experience and destiny in it are decided every moment by our characters. if we are pure in heart, have vital faith and force, we shall see god and have new revelations made to us. such are among the fundamental principles of christianity. there is another class of texts, based upon a highly figurative style of speech, striking oriental idioms, the explanation of which will cast further light upon the branch of the subject immediately before us. "as the living father hath sent me, and i live by the father, so he that eateth me, even he shall live by me;" that is, as the blessed father hath inspired me with the knowledge of him, and i am blessed with the consciousness of his immortal love, so he that believes and assimilates these truths as i proclaim them, he shall experience the same blessedness through my instruction. the words. "i am the bread of life" are explained by the words "i am the truth." the declaration "whoso eateth my flesh hath eternal life" is illustrated by the declaration "whosoever heareth my word and believeth on him that sent me hath everlasting life." there is no difficulty in understanding what jesus meant when he said, "i have meat to eat ye know not of: my meat is to do the will of him that sent me." why should we not with the same ease, upon the same principles, interpret his kindred expression, "this is the bread which cometh down from heaven, that a man may eat thereof and not die"? the idea to be conveyed by all this phraseology is, that whosoever understands, accepts, assimilates, and brings out in earnest experience, the truths christ taught, would realize the life of christ, feel the same assurance of divine favor and eternal blessedness. "he that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood dwelleth in me and i in him;" that is, we have the same character, are fed by the same nutriment, rest in the same experience. fortunately, we are not left to guess at the accuracy of this exegesis: it is demonstrated from the lips of the master himself. when he knew that the disciples murmured at what he had said about eating his flesh, and called it a hard saying, he said to them, "it is the spirit that quickeneth; the flesh profiteth nothing: the words that i speak unto you, they are spirit and they are life. but there are some of you that believe not." any man who heartily believed what christ said that he was divinely authorized to declare, and did declare, the pervading goodness of the father and the immortal blessedness of the souls of his children, by the very terms was delivered from the bondage of fear and commenced the consciousness of eternal life. of course, we are not to suppose that faith in christ obtains immortality itself for the believer: it only rectifies and lights up the conditions of it, and awakens the consciousness of it. "i am the resurrection and the life: whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die." we suppose this means, he shall know that he is never to perish: it cannot refer to physical dissolution, for the believer dies equally with the unbeliever; it cannot refer to immortal existence in itself, for the unbeliever is as immortal as the believer: it must refer to the blessed nature of that immortality and to the personal assurance of it, because these christ does impart to the disciple, while the unregenerate unbeliever in his doctrine, of course, has them not. coming from god to reveal his infinite love, exemplifying the divine elements of an immortal nature in his whole career, coming back from the grave to show its sceptre broken and to point the way to heaven, well may christ proclaim, "whosoever believes in me" knows he "shall never perish." among the savior's parables is an impressive one, which we cannot help thinking perhaps fancifully was intended to illustrate the dealings of providence in ordering the earthly destiny of humanity. "so is the kingdom of god, as if a man should cast seed into the ground and the seed should grow up; but when the fruit is ripe he putteth in the sickle, because the harvest is come." men are seed sown in this world to ripen and be harvested in another. the figure, taken on the scale of the human race and the whole earth, is sublime. whether such an image were originally suggested by the parable or not, the conception is consistent with christian doctrine. the pious sterling prays, "give thou the life which we require, that, rooted fast in thee, from thee to thee we may aspire, and earth thy garden be." the symbol shockingly perverted from its original beautiful meaning by the mistaken belief that we sleep in our graves until a distant resurrection day is often applied to burial grounds. let its appropriate significance be restored. life is the field, death the reaper, another sphere of being the immediate garner. an enlightened christian, instead of entitling a graveyard the garden of the dead, and looking for its long buried forms to spring from its cold embrace, will hear the angel saying again, "they are not here: they are risen." the line which written on klopstock's tomb is a melancholy error, engraved on his cradle would have been an inspiring truth: "seed sown by god to ripen for the harvest." several fragmentary speeches, which we have not yet noticed, of the most tremendous and even exhaustive import, are reported as having fallen from the lips of christ at different times. these sentences, rapid and incomplete as they are in the form in which they have reached us, do yet give us glimpses of the most momentous character into the profoundest thoughts of his mind. they are sufficient to enable us to generalize their fundamental principles, and construct the outlines, if we may so speak, of his theology, his inspired conception of god, the universe, and man, and the resulting duties and destiny of man. we will briefly bring together and interpret these passages, and deduce the system which they seem to presuppose and rest upon. jesus told the woman of samaria that god was to be worshipped acceptably neither in that mountain nor at jerusalem exclusively, but anywhere, if it were worthily done. "god is a spirit; and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." this passage, with others, teaches the spirituality and omnipresence of god. christ conceived of god as an infinite spirit. again, comforting his friends in view of his approaching departure, he said, "in my father's house are many mansions: if it were not so i would have told you. i go to prepare a place for you." here he plainly figures the universe as a house containing many apartments, all pervaded and ruled by the father's presence. he was about taking leave of this earth to proceed to another part of the creation, and he promised to come back to his followers and assure them there was another abode prepared for them. christ conceived of the universe, with its innumerable divisions, as the house of god. furthermore, he regarded truth or the essential laws and right tendencies of things and the will of god as identical. he said he came into the world to do the will of him that sent him; that is, as he at another time expressed it, he came into the world to bear witness unto the truth. thus he prayed, "father, sanctify them through the truth: thy word is truth." christ conceived of pure truth as the will of god. finally, he taught that all who obey the truth, or do the will of god, thereby constitute one family of brethren, one family of the accepted children of god, in all worlds forever. "he that doeth the truth cometh to the light, that his deeds may be made manifest that they are wrought in god;" "whosoever shall do the will of god, the same is my brother, and my sister, and mother;" "ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin. and the servant abideth not in the house forever; but the son abideth forever. if the son, therefore, make you free, ye shall be free indeed." that is to say, truth gives a good man the freedom of the universe, makes him know himself an heir, immortally and everywhere at home; sin gives the wicked man over to bondage, makes him feel afraid of being an outcast, loads him with hardships as a servant. whoever will believe the revelations of christ, and assimilate his experience, shall lose the wretched burdens of unbelief and fear and be no longer a servant, but be made free indeed, being adopted as a son. the whole conception, then, is this: the universe is one vast house, comprising many subordinate mansions. all the moral beings that dwell in it compose one immortal family. god is the universal father. his will the truth is the law of the household. whoever obeys it is a worthy son and has the father's approbation; whoever disobeys it is alienated and degraded into the condition of a servant. we may roam from room to room, but can never get lost outside the walls beyond the reach of the paternal arms. death is variety of scenery and progress of life: "we bow our heads at going out, we think, and enter straight another golden chamber of the king's, larger than this we leave, and lovelier." who can comprehend the idea, in its overwhelming magnificence and in its touching beauty, its sweeping amplitude embracing all mysteries, its delicate fitness meeting all wants, without being impressed and stirred by it, even to the regeneration of his soul? if there is any thing calculated to make man feel and live like a child of god, it would surely seem to be this conception. its unrivalled simplicity and verisimilitude compel the assent of the mind to its reality. it is the most adequate and sublime view of things that ever entered the reason of man. it is worthy the inspiration of god, worthy the preaching of the son of god. all the artificial and arbitrary schemes of fanciful theologians are as ridiculous and impertinent before it as the offensive flaring of torches in the face of one who sees the steady and solemn splendors of the sun. to live in the harmony of the truth of things, in the conscious love of god and enjoyment of immortality, blessed children, everywhere at home in the hospitable mansions of the everlasting father, this is the experience to which christ calls his followers; and any eschatology inconsistent with such a conception is not his. there are two general methods of interpretation respectively applied to the words of christ, the literal, or mechanical, and the spiritual, or vital. the former leads to a belief in his second visible advent with an army of angels from heaven, a bodily resurrection of the dead, a universal judgment, the burning up of the world, eternal tortures of the wicked in an abyss of infernal fire, a heaven located on the arch of the hebrew firmament. the latter gives us a group of the profoundest moral truths clustered about the illuminating and emphasizing mission of christ, sealed with divine sanctions, truths of universal obligation and of all redeeming power. the former method is still adopted by the great body of christendom, who are landed by it in a system of doctrines well nigh identical with those of the pharisees, against which christ so emphatically warned his followers, a system of traditional dogmas not having the slightest support in philosophy, nor the least contact with the realities of experience, nor the faintest color of inherent or historical probability. in this age they are absolutely incredible to unhampered and studious minds. on the other hand, the latter method is pursued by the growing body of rational christians, and it guides them to a consistent array of indestructible moral truths, simple, fundamental, and exhaustive, an array of spiritual principles commanding universal and implicit homage, robed in their own brightness, accredited by their own fitness, armed with the loveliness and terror of their own rewarding and avenging divinity, flashing in mutual lights and sounding in consonant echoes alike from the law of nature and from the soul of man, as the son of god, with miraculous voice, speaks between. chapter vii. resurrection of christ. of all the single events that ever were supposed to have occurred in the world, perhaps the most august in its moral associations and the most stupendous in its lineal effects, both on the outward fortunes and on the inward experience of mankind, is the resurrection of jesus christ from the dead. if, therefore, there is one theme in all the range of thought worthy of candid consideration, it is this. there are two ways of examining it. we may, as unquestioning christians, inquire how the new testament writers represent it, what premises they assume, what statements they make, and what inferences they draw. thus, without perversion, without mixture of our own notions, we should construct the scripture doctrine of the resurrection of the savior. again as critical scholars and philosophical thinkers, we may study that doctrine in all its parts, scrutinize it in all its bearings, trace, as far as possible, the steps and processes of its formation, discriminate as well as we can, by all fair tests, whether it be entirely correct, or wholly erroneous, or partly true and partly false. both of these methods of investigation are necessary to a full understanding of the subject. both are obligatory upon the earnest inquirer. whoso would bravely face his beliefs and intelligently comprehend them, with their grounds and their issues, with a devout desire for the pure truth, whatsoever it may be, putting his trust in the god who made him, will never shrink from either of these courses of examination. whoso does shrink from these inquiries is either a moral coward, afraid of the results of an honest search after that truth of things which expresses the will of the creator, or a spiritual sluggard, frightened by a call to mental effort and torpidly clinging to ease of mind. and whoso, accepting the personal challenge of criticism, carries on the investigation with prejudice and passion, holding errors because he thinks them safe and useful, and rejecting realities because he fancies them dangerous and evil, is an intellectual traitor, disloyal to the sacred laws by which god hedges the holy fields and rules the responsible subjects of the realm of truth. we shall combine the two modes of inquiry, first singly asking what the scriptures declare, then critically seeking what the facts will warrant, it being unimportant to us whether these lines exactly coincide or diverge somewhat, the truth itself being all. we now pass to an examination of christ's resurrection from five points of view: first, as a fact; second, as a fulfilment of prophecy; third, as a pledge; fourth, as a symbol; and fifth, as a theory. the writers of the new testament speak of the resurrection of christ, in the first place, as a fact. "jesus whom ye slew and hanged on a tree, him hath god raised up." it could not have been viewed by them in the light of a theory or a legend, nor, indeed, as any thing else than a marvellous but literal fact. this appears from their minute accounts of the scenes at the sepulchre and of the disappearance of his body. their declarations of this are most unequivocal, emphatic, iterated, "the lord is risen indeed." all that was most important in their faith they based upon it, all that was most precious to them in this life they staked upon it. "else why stand we in jeopardy every hour?" they held it before their inner vision as a guiding star through the night of their sufferings and dangers, and freely poured out their blood upon the cruel shrines of martyrdom in testimony that it was a fact. that they believed he literally rose from the grave in visible form also appears, and still more forcibly, from their descriptions of his frequent manifestations to them. these show that in their faith he assumed at his resurrection the same body in which he had lived before, which was crucified and buried. all attempts, whether by swedenborgians or others, to explain this scripture language as signifying that he rose in an immaterial body, are futile. he appeared to their senses and was recognised by his identical bodily form. he partook of physical food with them. "they gave him a piece of broiled fish and of an honey comb; and he ate before them." the marks in his hands and side were felt by the incredulous thomas, and convinced him. he said to them, "handle me, and see; for a spirit hath not flesh and bones as ye see me have." to a candid mind there can hardly be a question that the gospel records describe the resurrection of christ as a literal fact, that his soul reanimated the deceased body, and that in it he showed himself to his disciples. yet that there are a few texts implying the immateriality of his resurrection body that there are two accounts of it in the gospels we cannot deny. we advance to see what is the historical evidence for the fact of the resurrection of christ. this argument, of course, turns chiefly on one point, namely, the competency of the witnesses, and the validity of their testimony. we will present the usually exhibited scheme of proof as strongly as we can. in the first place, those who testified to the resurrection were numerous enough, so far as mere numbers go, to establish the fact beyond question. paul declares there were above five hundred who from their personal knowledge could affirm of the lord's resurrection. but particularly there were the eleven apostles, the two marys, cleopas, and the disciples from whom joseph and matthias the candidates for judas iscariot's apostleship were selected, consisting probably of most of the seventy. if the evidence of any number of men ought to convince us of the alleged event, then, under the existing circumstances, that of twelve ought. important matters of history are often unhesitatingly received on the authority of a single historian. if the occurrences at the time were sufficient to demonstrate to a reasonable mind the reality of the resurrection, then the unanimous testimony of twelve men to those occurrences should convince us. the oaths of a thousand would be no stronger. these men possessed sufficient abilities to be trusted, good powers of judgment, and varied experience. the selection of them by him who "knew what was in man," the boldness and efficiency of their lives, the fruits of their labors everywhere, amply prove their the opposite view is ably argued by bush in his valuable treatise on the resurrection. sherlock, trial of the witnesses. ditton, demonstration of the resurrection of christ. for a sternly faithful estimate of the cogency of this argument, it must be remembered that all the data, every fact and postulate in each step of the reasoning, rest on the historical authority of the four gospels, documents whose authorship and date are lost in obscurity. even of "orthodox" theologians few, with any claims to scholarship, now hold that these gospels, as they stand, were written by the persons whose names they bear. they wander and waver in a thick fog. see milman's "history of christianity," vol. i. ch. ii. appendix ii. general intelligence and energy. and they had, too, the most abundant opportunities of knowledge in regard to the facts to which they bore witness. they were present in the places, at the times, when and where the events occurred. every motive would conspire to make them scrutinize the subject and the attendant circumstances. and it seems they did examine; for at first some doubted, but afterwards believed. they had been close companions of jesus for more than a year at the least. they had studied his every feature, look, gesture. they must have been able to recognise him, or to detect an impostor, if the absurd idea of an attempted imposition can be entertained. they saw him many times, near at hand, in the broad light. not only did they see him, but they handled his wounded limbs and listened to his wondrous voice. if these means of knowing the truth were not enough to make their evidence valid, then no opportunities could be sufficient. whoso allows its full force to the argument thus far will admit that the testimony of the witnesses to the resurrection is conclusive, unless he suspects that by some cause they were either incapacitated to weigh evidence fairly, or were led wilfully to stifle the truth and publish a falsehood. very few persons have ever been inclined to make this charge, that the apostles were either wild enthusiasts of fancy, or crafty calculators of fraud; and no one has ever been able to support the position even with moderate plausibility. granting, in the first place, hypothetically, that the disciples were ever so great enthusiasts in their general character and conduct, still, they could not have been at all so in relation to the resurrection, because, before it occurred, they had no belief, expectations, nor thoughts about it. by their own frank confessions, they did not understand christ's predictions, nor the ancient supposed prophecies of that event. and without a strong faith, a burning hopeful desire, or something of the kind, for it to spring from, and rest on, and be nourished by, evidently no enthusiasm could exist. accordingly, we find that previous to the third day after christ's death they said nothing, thought nothing, about a resurrection; but from that time, as by an inspiration from heaven, they were roused to both words and deeds. the sudden astonishing change here alluded to is to be accounted for only by supposing that in the mean time they had been brought to a belief that the resurrection had occurred. but, secondly, it is to be noticed that these witnesses were not enthusiasts on other subjects. no one could be the subject of such an overweening enthusiasm as the hypothesis supposes, without betraying it in his conduct, without being overmastered and led by it as an insane man is by his mania. the very opposite of all this was actually the case with the apostles. the gospels are unpretending, dispassionate narratives, without rhapsody, adulation, or vanity. their whole conduct disproves the charge of fanaticism. their appeals were addressed more to reason than to feeling; their deeds were more courageous than rash. they avoided tumult, insult, and danger whenever they could honorably do so; but, when duty called, their noble intrepidity shrank not. they were firm as the trunks of oaks to meet the agony and horror of a violent death when it came; yet they rather shunned than sought to wear the glorious crown from beneath whose crimson circlet drops of bloody sweat must drip from a martyr's brows. the number of the witnesses for the resurrection, the abilities they possessed, their opportunities for knowing the facts, prove the impossibility of their being duped, unless we suppose them to have been blind fanatics. this we have just shown they were not. would it not, moreover, be most marvellous if they were such heated fanatics, all of them, so many men? but there is one further foothold for the disbeliever in the historic resurrection of christ. he may say, "i confess the witnesses were capable of knowing, and undoubtedly did know, the truth; but, for some reason, they suppressed it, and proclaimed a deception." as to this charge, we not only deny the actuality, but even the possibility, of its truth. the narratives of the evangelists contain the strongest evidences of their honesty. the many little unaccountable circumstances they recount, which are so many difficulties in the way of critical belief, the real and the apparent inconsistencies, none of these would have been permitted by fraudulent authors. they are the most natural things in the world, supposing their writers unsuspiciously honest. they also frankly confess their own and each others' errors, ignorance, prejudices, and faults. would they have done this save from simple hearted truthfulness? would a designing knave voluntarily reveal to a suspicious scrutiny actions and traits naturally subversive of confidence in him? the conduct of the disciples under the circumstances, through all the scenes of their after lives, proves their undivided and earnest honesty. the cause they had espoused was, if we deny its truth, to the last degree repulsive in itself and in its concomitants, and they were surrounded with allurements to desert it. yet how unyielding, wonderful, was their disinterested devotedness to it, without exception! not one, overcome by terror or bowed by strong anguish, shrank from his self imposed task and cried out, "i confess!" no; but when they, and their first followers who knew what they knew, were laid upon racks and torn, when they were mangled and devoured alive by wild beasts, when they were manacled fast amidst the flames till their souls rode forth into heaven in chariots of fire, amidst all this, not one of them ever acknowledged fraud or renounced his belief in the resurrection of jesus. were they not honest? others have died in support of theories and opinions with which their convictions and passions had become interwoven: they died rather than deny facts which were within the cognizance of their senses. could any man, however firm and dauntless, under the circumstances, go through the trials they bore, without a feeling of truth and of god to support him? these remarks are particularly forcible in connection with the career of paul. endowed with brilliant talents, learned, living at the time and place, he must have been able to form a reliable opinion. and yet, while all the motives that commonly actuate men loudmouthed consistency, fame, wealth, pride, pleasure, the rooted force of inveterate prejudices all were beckoning to him from the temples and palaces of the pharisaic establishment, he spurned the glowing visions of his ambition and dashed to earth the bright dreams of his youth. he ranged himself among the christians, the feeble, despised, persecuted christians; and, after having suffered every thing humanity could bear, having preached the resurrection everywhere with unflinching power, he was at last crucified, or beheaded, by nero; and there, expiring among the seven hills of rome, he gave the resistless testimony of his death to the resurrection of jesus, gasping, as it were, with his last breath, "it is true." granting the honesty of these men, we could not have any greater proof of it than we have now. but dishonesty in this matter was not merely untrue; it was also impossible. if fraud is admitted, a conspiracy must have been formed among the witnesses. but that a conspiracy of such a character should have been entered into by such men is in itself incredible, in the outset. and then, if it had been entered into, it must infallibly have broken through, been found out, or been betrayed, in the course of the disasters, perils, terrible trials, to which it and its fabricators were afterwards exposed. prove that a body of from twelve to five hundred men could form a plan to palm off a gross falsehood upon the world, and could then adhere to it unfalteringly through the severest disappointments, dangers, sufferings, differences of opinion, dissension of feeling and action, without retiring from the undertaking, letting out the secret, or betraying each other in a single instance in the course of years, prove this, and you prove that men may do and dare, deny and suffer, not only without motives, but in direct opposition to their duty, interest, desire, prejudice, and passion. the disciples could not have pretended the resurrection from sensitiveness to the probable charge that they had been miserably deceived; for they did not understand their master to predict any such event, nor had they the slightest expectation of it. they could not have pretended it for the sake of establishing and giving authority to the good precepts and doctrines jesus taught; because such a course would have been in the plainest antagonism to all those principles themselves, and because, too, they must have known both the utter wickedness and the desperate hazards and forlornness of such an attempt to give a fictitious sanction to moral truths. in such an enterprise there was before them not the faintest probability of even the slightest success. every selfish motive would tend to deter them; for poverty, hatred, disgrace, stripes, imprisonment, contempt, and death stared in their faces from the first step that way. dishonesty, deliberate fraud, then, in this matter, was not merely untrue, but was impossible. the conclusion from the whole view is, therefore, the conviction that the evidence of the witnesses for the resurrection of jesus is worthy of credence. there are three considerations, further, worthy of notice in estimating the strength of the historic argument for the resurrection. first, the conduct of the savior himself in relation to the subject. the charge of unbalanced enthusiasm is inconsistent with the whole character and life of jesus; but suppose on this point he was an enthusiast, and really believed that three days after his death he would rise again. in that case, would not his mind have dwelt upon the wonderful anticipated phenomenon? would not his whole soul have been wrapped up in it, and his speech have been almost incessantly about it? yet he spoke of it only three or four times, and then with obscurity. again: suppose he was an impostor. an impostor would hardly have risked his reputation voluntarily on what he knew could never take place. had he done so, his only reliance must have been upon the credulous enthusiasm of his followers. he would then have made it the chief topic, would have striven strenuously to make it a living and intense hope, an immovable, all controlling faith, concentrating on it their desires and expectations, heart and soul. but he really did not do this at all. he did not even make them understand what his vaticinations of the resurrection meant. and when they saw his untenanted body hanging on the cross, they slunk away in confusion and despair. admit, again, that christ was enthusiast, or impostor, or both: these qualities exist not in the grave. here was their end. they could neither raise him from the dead nor move him from the tomb. no considerations in any way connected with christ himself, therefore, can account for the occurrences that succeeded his death. secondly, if the resurrection did not take place, what became of the savior's body? we have already given reasons why the disciples could not have falsely pretended the resurrection. it is also impossible that they obtained, or surreptitiously disposed of, the dead and interred body; because it was in a tomb of rock securely sealed against them, and watched by a guard which they could neither bribe nor overpower; because they were too much disheartened and alarmed to try to get it; because they could not possibly want it, since they expected a temporal messiah, and had no hope of a resurrection like that which they soon began proclaiming to the world. and as for the story told by the watch, or rather by the chief priests and pharisees, it has not consistency enough to hold together. its foolish unlikelihood has always been transparent. it is unreasonable to suppose that fresh guards would slumber at a post where the penalty of slumbering was death. and, if one or two did sleep, it is absurd to think all would do so. besides, if they slept, how knew they what transpired in the mean time? could they have dreamed it? dreams are not taken in legal depositions; and, furthermore, it would be an astounding, gratuitous miracle if they all dreamed the same thing at the same time. finally, a powerful collateral argument in proof of the resurrection of christ is furnished by the conduct of the jews. it might seem that if the guards told the chief priests, scribes, and pharisees, of the miracles which occurred at the sepulchre, they must immediately have believed and proclaimed their belief in the messiahship and resurrection of the crucified savior. but they had previously remained invulnerable to as cogent proof as this would afford. they had acknowledged the miracles wrought by him when he was alive, but attributed them even his works of beneficence to demoniacal power. they said, "he casteth out devils by the power of beelzebub, the prince of devils." so they acted in the present case, and, notwithstanding the peerless miracle related by the sentinels, still persisted in their alienation from the christian faith. their intensely cherished preconceptions respecting the messiah, their persecution and crucifixion of jesus, the glaring inconsistency of his teachings and experience with most that they expected, these things compelled their incredulity to every proof of the messiahship of the contemned and murdered nazarene. for, if they admitted the facts on which such proof was based, they would misinterpret them and deny the inferences justly drawn from them. this was plainly the case. it may be affirmed that the jews believed the resurrection, because they took no fair measures to disprove it, but threatened those who declared it. since they had every inducement to demonstrate its falsity, and might, it seems, have done so had it been false, and yet never made the feeblest effort to unmask the alleged fraud, we must suspect that they were themselves secretly convinced of its truth, but dared not let it be known, for fear it would prevail, become mighty in the earth, and push them from their seats. in the rage and blindness of their prejudices, they cried, "his blood be on us and on our children!" and from that generation to our own, their history has afforded a living proof of the historic truth of the gospel, and of the stability of its chief corner stone, the resurrection of christ. the triumphal progress of christianity from conquering to conquering, together with the baffled plans and complete subjection of the jews, show that their providential preparatory mission has been fulfilled. if god is in history, guiding the moral drift of human affairs, then the dazzling success of the proclamation of the risen redeemer is the divine seal upon the truth of his mission and the reality of his apotheosis. planting himself on this ground, surrounding himself with these evidences, the reverential christian will at least for a long time to come cling firmly to the accepted fact of the resurrection of christ, regardless of whatever misgivings and perplexities may trouble the mind of the iconoclastic and critical truth seeker. the christian scriptures, assuming the resurrection of christ as a fact, describe it as a fulfilment of prophecy. luke reports from the risen savior the words, "o fools, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken! ought not christ to have suffered these things, and to enter into his glory?" "thus it is written, and thus it behooved christ to suffer, and to rise from the dead the third day." peter declares that the patriarch david before "spake of the resurrection of christ." and paul also affirms, "that the promise which was made unto the fathers, god hath fulfilled the same unto us their children, in that he hath raised up jesus again." one can scarcely hesitate in deciding the meaning of these words as they were used by the apostles. the unanimous opinion and interpretation of the christians of the first centuries, and of all the church fathers, leave no shadow of a doubt that it was believed that the resurrection of jesus was repeatedly foretold in the old testament, expected by the prophets, and fulfilled in the event as a seal of the inspired prophecy. furthermore, jesus himself repeatedly prophesied his own resurrection from the dead, though his disciples did not understand his meaning until the event put a clear comment on the words. he charged those who saw his transfiguration on the mount, "tell it to no man until the son of man be risen again from the dead." the chief priests told pilate that they remembered that jesus said, while he was yet alive, "after three days i will rise again." standing in the temple at jerusalem, jesus said once, "destroy this temple, and in three days i will raise it up." "when, therefore, he was risen from the dead, his disciples remembered that he had said this unto them;" and then they understood that "he had spoken of the temple of his body." it is perfectly plain that the new testament represents the resurrection of christ as the fulfilment of prophecies, those prophecies having been so expounded by him. there are few problems presented to the candid christian scholar of to day more perplexing than the one involved in the subject of these prophecies. paul declares to king agrippa, "i say none other things than those which the prophets and moses did say should come: that christ should suffer, and that he should be the first that should rise from the dead and should show light unto the gentiles." it is vain to attempt to disguise the fact that the ingenuous student cannot find these prophecies in the old testament as we now have it. he will search it through in vain, unless his eyes create what they see. let any man endeavor to discover a passage in the hebrew scriptures which, taken with its context, can fairly bear such a sense. there is not a shadow of valid evidence of any kind to support the merely traditional notions on this subject. the only way of discerning predictions of a death, descent, and ascent, of the messiah, in the law and the prophets, is by the application of cabalistic methods of interpretation, theories of occult types, double senses, methods which now are not tolerable to intelligent men. that rabbinical interpretation which made the story of ishmael and isaac, the two children borne to abraham by hagar and sarah, an allegory referring to the two covenants of judaism and christianity, could easily extract any desired meaning from any given text. bearing in mind the prevalence of this kind of exegesis among the jews, and remembering also that they possessed in the times of jesus a vast body of oral law, to which they attributed as great authority as to the written, there are two possible ways of honestly meeting the difficulty before us. first: in god's counsels it was determined that a messiah should afterwards arise among the jews. the revealed hope of this stirred the prophets and the popular heart. it became variously and vaguely hinted in their writings, still more variously and copiously unfolded in their traditions. the conception of him gradually took form; and they began to look for a warrior prophet, a national deliverer, a theocratic king. jesus, being the true messiah, though a very different personage from the one meant by the writers and understood by the people, yet being the messiah foreordained by god, applied these messianic passages to himself, and explained them according to his experience and fate. this will satisfactorily clear up the application of some texts. and others may be truly explained as poetical illustrations, rhetorical accommodations, as when he applies to judas, at the last supper, the words of the psalm, "he that eateth with me lifteth up his heel against me;" and when he refers to jonah's tarry in the whale's belly as a symbol of his own destined stay beneath the grave for a similar length of time. or, secondly, we may conclude that the prophecies under consideration, referred to in the new testament, were not derived from any sacred documents now in our possession, but either from perished writings, or from oral sources, which we know were abundant then. justin martyr says there was formerly a passage in jeremiah to this effect: "the lord remembered the dead who were sleeping in the earth, and went down to them to preach salvation to them." there were floating in the jewish mind, at the time of christ, at least some fragmentary traditions, vague expectations, that the messiah was to die, descend to sheol, rescue some of the captives, and triumphantly ascend. it is true, this statement is denied by some; but the weight of critical authorities seems to us to preponderate in its favor, and the intrinsic historical probabilities leave hardly a doubt of it in our own minds. now, three alternatives are offered us. either jesus interpreted moses, the psalms, and the prophets, on the rabbinical ground of a double sense, with mystic applications; or he accepted the prophecies referred to, from oral traditions held by his countrymen; or the apostles misunderstood, and in consequence partially misreported, him. all we can positively say is that these precise predictions are plainly not in the jewish scriptures, undoubtedly were in the oral law, and were certainly received by the apostles as authoritative. continuing our inquiry into the apostolic view of the resurrection of christ, we shall perceive that it is most prominently set forth as the certificate of our redemption from the dial. cum tryph. sect. lxxii. discussed, with full list of references, in strauss's life of jesus, part iii. cap. i. sect. . kingdom of death to the same glorious destiny which awaited him upon his ascension into heaven. the apostles regarded his resurrection as a supernatural seal set on his mission, warranting his claims as an inspired deliverer and teacher. thereby, they thought, god openly sanctioned and confirmed his promises. thereby, they considered, was shown to men god's blessed grace, freely forgiving their sins, and securing to them, by this pledge, a deliverance from the doom of sin as he had risen from it, and an acceptance to a heavenly immortality as he had ascended to it. the resurrection of christ, then, and not his death, was to them the point of vital interest, the hinge on which all hung. does not the record plainly show this to an impartial reader? wherever the apostles preach, whenever they write, they appeal not to the death of a veiled deity, but to the resurrection of an appointed messenger; not to a vicarious atonement or purchase effected by the mortal sufferings of jesus, but to the confirmation of the good tidings he brought, afforded by the father's raising him from the dead. "whereof he hath given assurance unto all, in that he hath raised him from the dead," paul proclaimed on mars hill. in the discourses of the apostles recorded in the book of acts, we find that, when they preached the new religion to new audiences, the great doctrine in all cases set forth as fundamental and absorbing is the resurrection; not an atoning death, but a justifying resurrection. "he died for our sins, and rose for our justification." some of the athenians thought paul "a setter forth of two strange gods, jesus and resurrection." and when they desire to characterize christ, the distinguishing culminating phrase which they invariably select shows on what their minds rested as of chief import: they describe him as the one "whom god hath raised from the dead." "if we believe that jesus died and rose again, even so them also which sleep in jesus will god bring with him." "that ye may know what is the exceeding greatness of god's power toward us who believe, according to the working of his mighty power which he wrought in christ when he raised him from the dead and set him at his own right hand in heaven." it is plain here that the dying of christ is regarded merely as preliminary to his rising, and that his resurrection and entrance into heaven are received as an assurance that faithful disciples, too, shall obtain admission into the heavenly kingdom. the calvinistic doctrine is that the unutterable vicarious agonies of the death of christ placated the wrath of god, satisfied his justice, and ransomed the souls of the elect from the tortures of hell, and that his resurrection was simply his victorious return from a penal conflict with the powers of satan. the unitarian doctrine is that the violent death of christ was an expression of self sacrificing love, to exert a moral power on the hearts of men, and that his resurrection was a miraculous proof of the authority and truth of his teachings, a demonstration of human immortality. we maintain that neither of these views fully contains the true representation of the new testament. the artificial horrors of the former cannot be forced into nor wrung out of the written words; while the natural simplicity and meagerness of the latter cannot be made to fill up the written words with adequate significance. there is a medium doctrine, based on the conceptions prevalent at the time the christian system was constructed and written; a doctrine which equally avoids the credulous excess of the calvinistic interpretation and the skeptical poverty of the unitarian; a doctrine which fully explains all the relevant language of the new testament without violence; a doctrine which, for our own part, we feel sure accurately represents the ideas meant to be conveyed by the scripture authors. we will state it, and then quote, for its illustration and for their own explanation, the principal texts relating to the resurrection of jesus. on account of sin, which had alienated man from god and unfitted him for heaven, he was condemned after death to descend as a disembodied soul into the dark kingdom of the grave, the under world. in that cheerless realm of helpless shades and stillness all departed human spirits were prisoners, and must be, until the advent of the messiah, when they, or a part of them, should rise. this was the jewish belief. now, the apostles were jews, who had the ideas of their countrymen, to which, upon becoming christians, they added the new conceptions formed in their minds by the teachings, character, deeds, death, resurrection, of christ, mixed with their own meditations and experience. accepting, with these previous notions, the resurrection of christ as a fact and a fulfilment of prophecy, they immediately supposed that his triumphant exit from the prison of the dead and return to heaven were the prefiguration of the similar deliverance of others and their entrance into heaven. they considered him as "the first born from the dead," "the first fruits of the dead." they emphatically characterize his return to life as a "resurrection out from among the dead," "[non-ascii characters], plainly implying that the rest of the dead still remained below. they received his experience in this respect as the revealing type of that which was awaiting his followers. so far as relates to the separate existence of the soul, the restoration of the widow's son by elijah, or the resurrection of lazarus, logically implies all that is implied in the mere resurrection of christ. but certain notions of localities, of a redemptive ascent, and an opening of heaven for the redeemed spirits of men to ascend thither, were associated exclusively with the last. when, through the will of god, christ rose, "then first humanity triumphant passed the crystal ports of light, and seized eternal youth!" their view was not that christ effected all this by means of his own; but that the free grace of god decreed it, and that christ came to carry the plan into execution. "god, for his great love to us, even when we were dead in sins, has quickened us together with christ." this was effected as in dramatic show: christ died, which was suffering the fate of a sinner; he went in spirit to the subterranean abode of spirits, which was bearing the penalty of sin; he rose again, which was showing the penalty of sin removed by divine forgiveness; he ascended into heaven, which was revealing the way for our ascent thrown open. such is the general scope of thought in close and vital connection with which the doctrine of the resurrection of christ stands. we shall spare enlarging on those parts of it which have been sufficiently proved and illustrated in preceding chapters, and confine our attention as much as may be to those portions which have direct relations with the resurrection of christ. it is our object, then, to show what we think will plainly appear in the light of the above general statement that, to the new testament writers, the resurrection, and not the death, of christ is the fact of central moment, is the assuring seal of our forgiveness, reconciliation, and heavenly adoption. wood, the last things, pp. - . they saw two antithetical starting points in the history of mankind: a career of ruin, beginning with condemned adam in the garden of eden at the foot of the forbidden tree, dragging a fleshly race down into sheol; a career of remedy, beginning with victorious christ in the garden of joseph at the mouth of the rent sepulchre, guiding a spiritual race up into heaven. the savior himself is reported as saying, "i lay down my life that i may take it again:" the dying was not for the sake of substitutional suffering, but for the sake of a resurrection. "except a corn of wheat die, it abideth alone; but, if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit." "a woman when she is in travail hath sorrow; but as soon as she is delivered of the child she remembereth no more the anguish, for joy that a man is born into the world." the context here shows the savior's meaning to be that the woe of his death would soon be lost in the weal of his resurrection. the death was merely the necessary antecedent to the significant resurrection. "blessed be the god and father of our lord jesus christ, who, according to his abundant mercy, hath begotten us again unto a living hope by the resurrection of jesus christ from the dead unto an inheritance, incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for you who are kept by the power of god through faith unto salvation ready to be revealed." "him hath god raised on high by his right hand, to give repentance to israel and forgiveness of sins." how clear it is here that not the vicarious death of christ buys off sinners, but his resurrection shows sins to be freely forgiven, the penalty remitted! "remember that jesus christ was raised from the dead, according to my gospel: therefore i endure all things for the elect's sake, that they may obtain the salvation which is in christ jesus with eternal glory." "be it known unto you, therefore, men, brethren, that through him whom god raised again is preached unto you the forgiveness of sins." the passage in the epistle to the hebrews, ninth chapter, from the twenty third verse to the twenty seventh, most emphatically connects the annulling of sin through the sacrifice of christ with his ascended appearance in heaven. "jesus who was delivered for our offences and was raised again for our justification:" that is, jesus died because he had entered the condition of sinful humanity, the penalty of which was death; he was raised to show that god had forgiven us our sins and would receive us to heaven instead of banishing us to the under world. "if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the lord jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that god hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved." belief in the resurrection of christ is here undeniably made the great condition of salvation. no text can be found in which belief in the death, or blood, or atoning merits, of christ is made that condition. and yet nine tenths of christendom by their creeds are to day proclaiming, "believe in the vicarious sufferings of christ, and thou shalt be saved; believe not in them, and thou shalt be damned!" "god hath both raised up the lord and will also raise up us." "if christ be not raised, your faith is vain: ye are yet in your sins." this text cannot be explained upon the common calvinistic or unitarian theories. whether christ was risen or not made no difference in their justification before god if his death had atoned for them, made no difference in their moral condition, which was as it was; but if christ had not risen, then they were mistaken in supposing that heaven had been opened for them: they were yet held in the necessity of descending to the under world, the penalty of their sins. the careful reader will observe that, in many places in the scriptures where a burden and stress of importance seem laid upon the death of christ, there immediately follows a reference to his resurrection, showing that the dying is only referred to as the preparatory step to the rising, the resurrection being the essential thing. "the apostle paul scarcely speaks of the death of the savior except in connection with his resurrection," bleek says, in his commentary on the epistle to the hebrews. "it is christ that died, yea, rather, that is risen again and is now at the right hand of god." "if we believe that jesus died and rose again." "to this end christ both died, and rose and lived again." "he died for them and rose again." we confidently avow, therefore, that the christian scriptures concentrate the most essential significance and value of the mission of jesus in his resurrection, describing it as the divine seal of his claims, the visible proof and pledge of our redemption, by god's freely forgiving grace, from the fatal bondage of death's sepulchral domain to the blessed splendors of heaven's immortal life. there remain a class of passages to be particularly noticed, in which an extraordinary emphasis seems to be laid on christ's sufferings, christ's blood, christ's death, three phrases that mean virtually the same thing and are used interchangeably. the peculiar prominence given to the idea of the sacrifice of christ in the instances now referred to is such as might lead one to suppose that some mysterious efficacy was meant to be attributed to it. but we think an accurate examination of the subject will show that these texts are really in full harmony with the view we have been maintaining. admitting that the resurrection of christ was the sole circumstance of ultimate meaning and importance, still, his violent and painful death would naturally be spoken of as often and strongly as it is, for two reasons. first, the chief ground of wonder and claim for gratitude to him was that he should have left his pre existent state of undisturbed bliss and glory, and submitted to such humiliation and anguish for others, for sinners. secondly, it was the prerequisite to his resurrection, the same, in effect, with it, since the former must lead to the latter; for, as the foremost apostle said, "it was not possible that he should be holden in death." the apostolical writers do not speak of salvation by the blood of christ any more plainly than they do of salvation by the name of christ, salvation by grace, and salvation by faith. if at one time they identify him with the sacrificial "lamb," at another time they as distinctively identify him with the "high priest offering himself," and again with "the great shepherd of the sheep," and again with "the mediator of the new covenant," and again with "the second adam." these are all figures of speech, and, taken superficially, they determine nothing as to doctrine. the propriety and the genuine character and force of the metaphor are in each case to be carefully sought with the lights of learning and under the guidance of a docile candor. the thoughts that, in consequence of transmitted sin, all departed souls of men were confined in the under world that christ, to carry out and revealingly exemplify the free grace of the father, came into the world, died a cruel death, descended to the prison world of the dead, declared there the glad tidings, rose thence and ascended into heaven, the forerunner of the ransomed hosts to follow, these thoughts enable us to explain, in a natural, forcible, and satisfactory manner, the peculiar phraseology of the new testament in regard to the death of christ, without having recourse to the arbitrary conceptions and mystical horror usually associated with it now. for instance, consider the passage in the second chapter of the epistle to the ephesians, from the eleventh verse to the nineteenth. the writer here says that "the gentiles, who formerly were far off, strangers from the covenants of promise, are now made nigh by the blood of christ." this language he clearly explains as meaning that through the death and resurrection of christ "the middle wall of partition between jews and gentiles was broken down" and a universal religion inaugurated, free from all invidious distinctions and carnal ordinances. in his bodily death and spiritual ascension the jewish ritual law was abolished and the world wide moral law alone installed. from his spirit, rising into heaven, all national peculiarities fell away, and through him jews and gentiles both had access, by communion with his ascended and cosmopolitan soul, unto the father. a careful study of all the passages in the new testament which speak of christ as delivering men from the wrath of god will lead, it seems to us, almost every unprejudiced person to agree with one of the ablest german critics, who says that "the technical phrase 'wrath of god' here means, historically, banishment of souls into the under world, and that the fact of christ's triumph and ascent was a precious pledge showing to the christians that they too should ascend to eternal life in heaven." the doctrine of the descent of christ among the dead and of his redemptive mission there has of late wellnigh faded from notice; but if any one wishes to see the evidence of its universal reception and unparalleled importance in the christian church for fifteen hundred years, presented in overwhelming quantity and irresistible array, let him read the learned work devoted to this subject recently published in germany. he can hardly peruse this work and follow up its references without seeing that, almost without an exception, from the days of peter and paul to those of martin luther, it has been held that "the death and resurrection of christ are the two poles between which," as guder says, "his descent into the under world lies." the phrase "blood of christ" is often used in scripture in a pregnant sense, including the force of meaning that would be expressed by his death, descent, resurrection, and ascension, with all their concomitants. as a specimen of innumerable passages of like import which might be cited, we will quote a single expression from epiphanius, showing that the orthodox teachers in the fourth century attributed redeeming efficacy to christ's resurrection rather than to his death." as the pelican restores its dead offspring by dropping its own blood upon their wounds, so our lord jesus christ dropped his blood upon adam, eve, and all the dead, and gave them life by his burial and resurrection." it was a part of the mosaic ritual, laid down in the sixteenth chapter of leviticus, that on the great annual day of expiation there should be two goats chosen by lot, one for the lord and one for azazel. the former the high priest was to slay, and with his blood sprinkle bretschneider, religiose glaubenslehre, sect. : christus der erloser vom tode. guder, die lehre von der erscheinung jesu christi unter den todten: in ihrem zusammenhange mit der lehre von den letzten dingen. physiol., cap. : de pelecano. the mercy seat. the latter, when the high priest's hands had been laid on his head and all the iniquities of the children of israel confessed over him, was to be sent into the wilderness and loosed. the former goat is called "a sin offering for the people." the latter is called "a scape goat to make an atonement with the lord." the blood of the sin offering could not have been supposed to be a substitute purchasing the pardon of men's offences, because there is no hint of any such idea in the record, and because it was offered to reconcile "houses," "tabernacles," "altars," as well as to reconcile men. it had simply a ceremonial significance. such rites were common in many of the early religions. they were not the efficient cause of pardon, but were the formal condition of reconciliation. and then, in regard to the scapegoat, it was not sacrificed as an expiation for sinners; it merely symbolically carried off the sins already freely forgiven. all these forms and phrases were inwrought with the whole national life and religious language of the jews. now, when jesus appeared, a messenger from god, to redeem men from their sins and to promise them pardon and heaven, and when he died a martyr's death in the fulfilment of his mission, how perfectly natural that this sacrificial imagery these figures of blood, propitiation, sprinkling the mercy seat should be applied to him, and to his work and fate! the burden of sins forgiven by god's grace in the old covenant the scape goat emblematically bore away, and the people went free. so if the words must be supposed to have an objective and not merely a moral sense when the baptist cried, "behold the lamb of god, that beareth off the sin of the world," his meaning was that jesus was to bear off the penalty of sin that is, the hadean doom which god's free grace had annulled and open heaven to the ranks of reconciled souls. there is not the least shadow of proof that the sacrifices in the mosaic ritual were divinely ordained as types pre figuring the great sacrifice of christ. there is no such pretence in the record, no such tradition among the people, not the slightest foundation whatever of any sort to warrant that arbitrary presumption. all such applications of them are rhetorical; and their historical force and moral meaning are clearly explicable on the views which we have presented in the foregoing pages, but are most violently strained and twisted by the calvinistic theory to meet the severe exigencies of a theoretical dogma. if any one, granting that the central efficacy of the mission of christ, dogmatically and objectively considered, lay in his descent into hades and in his resurrection, maintains that still certain passages in the new testament do ascribe an expiatory effect directly to his death as such, we reply that this interpretation is quite likely to be correct. and we can easily trace the conception to its origin beyond the pale of revelation. it was an idea prevalent among the jews in the time of the apostles, and before, that death was an atonement for all sins, and that the death of the righteous atoned for the sins of others. now, the apostles might adopt this view and apply it pre eminently to the case of christ. this is the very explanation given by origen. de wette quotes the following sentence, and many others of the same purport, gfrorer, gesehichte des urchristenthums, abth. ii. pp. . mosheim, commentaries on christianity in the first three centuries, eng. trans., vol. ii. pp. - . from the talmud: "the death of the just is the redemption of sinners." the blood of any righteous man was a little atonement; that of christ was a vast one. the former all protestants call a heathen error. so they should the latter, because it sprung from the same source and is the same in principle. if, then, there are any scriptural texts which imply that the mere death of christ had a vicarious, expiatory efficacy, they are, so far forth, the reflection of heathen and jewish errors yet lingering in the minds of the writers, and not the inspired revelation of an isolated, arbitrary after expedient contrived in the secret counsels of god and wonderfully interpolated into the providential history of the world. but, if there are any such passages, they are few and unimportant. the great mass of the scriptural language on this subject is fairly and fully explained by the historical theory whose outlines we have sketched. the root of the matter is the resurrection of christ out from among the dead and his ascent into heaven. it has not been our purpose in this chapter, or in the preceding chapters, to present the history of the christian doctrine of the atonement, either in its intrinsic significance or in its relations to subjective religious experience. we have only sought to explain it, according to the original understanding of it, in its objective relations to the fate of men in the future life. the importance of the subject, its difficulty, and the profound prejudices connected with it, are so great as not only to excuse, but even to require, much explanatory repetition to make the truth clear and to recommend it, in many lights, with various methods, and by accumulated authorities. those who wish to see the whole subject of the atonement treated with consummate fulness and ability, leaving nothing to be desired from the historical point of view, have only to read the masterly work of baur. in leaving this part of our subject here, we would submit the following considerations to the candid judgment of the reader. admitting the truth of the common doctrine of the atonement, why did christ die? it does not appear how there could be any particular efficacy in mere death. the expiation of sin which he had undertaken required only a certain amount of suffering. it did not as far as we can see on the theory of satisfaction by an equivalent substituted suffering require death. it seems as if local and physical ideas must have been associated with the thought of his death. and we find the author of the epistle to the hebrews thus replying to the question, why did christ die? "that through death he might destroy him that hath the power of death, that is, the devil, and deliver those who through fear of death were all their lifetime subject to bondage." now, plainly, this end was accomplished by his resurrection bursting asunder the bonds of hades and showing that it was no longer the hopeless prison of the dead. the justice of this explanation appears from the logical necessity of the series of ideas, the internal coherence and harmony of thought. it has been ably shown that substantially this view is the accurate interpretation of the new testament doctrine by comm. de morte christi expiatoria, cap. iii.: qua judaorum recentiorum christologia de passione ac morte messia docet. die christliche lehre von der versohnung in ihrer geschichtlichen entwicklung von der alteaten zeit bis auf die neueste. steinbart, schott, bretschneider, klaiber, and others. the gradual deviations from this early view can be historically traced, step by step, through the refining speculations of theologians. first, in ecclesiastical history, after the new testament times, it is thought the devil has a right over all souls in consequence of sin. christ is a ransom offered to the devil to offset his claim. sometimes this is represented as a fair bargain, sometimes as a deception practised on the devil, sometimes as a battle waged with him. next, it is conceived that the devil has no right over human souls, that it is god who has doomed them to the infernal prison and holds them there for their sin. accordingly, the sacrifice of christ for their ransom is offered not to the tyrannical devil but to the offended god. finally, in the progress of culture, the satisfaction theory appears; and now the suffering of christ is neither to buy souls from the devil nor to appease god and soften his anger into forgiveness; but it is to meet the inexorable exigencies of the abstract law of infinite justice and deliver sinners by bearing for them the penalty of sin. the whole course of thought, once commenced, is natural, inevitable; but the starting point is from an error, and the pausing places are at false goals. the view which we have asserted to be the scriptural view prevailed as the orthodox doctrine of the church throughout the first three centuries, as bahr has proved in his valuable treatise on the subject. he shows that during that period christ's death was regarded as a revelation of god's love, a victory over the devil, (through his resurrection,) a means of obtaining salvation for men, but not as a punitive sacrifice, not as a vindication of god's justice, not as a vicarious satisfaction of the law. if the leading theologians of christendom, such as anselm, calvin, and grotius, have so thoroughly repudiated the original christian and patristic doctrine of the atonement, and built another doctrine upon their own uninspired speculations, why should our modern sects defer so slavishly to them, and, instead of freely investigating the subject for themselves from the first sources of scripture and spiritual philosophy, timidly cling to the results reached by these biassed, morbid, and over sharp thinkers? in proportion as scholarly, unfettered minds engage in such a criticism, we believe the exposition given in the foregoing pages will be recognised as scriptural. without involving this whole theory, how can any one explain the unquestionable fact that during the first four centuries the entire orthodox church believed that christ at his resurrection from the under world delivered adam from his imprisonment there? all acknowledge that the phrase "redemption by the blood of christ" is a metaphor. the only question is, what meaning was it intended to convey? we maintain its meaning to be that system der reinen philosophie, oder gluckseligkeitslehre des christenthums, u.s.f. epitome theologia christiana dogmatica. die lehren von adam's fall, der erbsunde, und dem opfer christi. studien der evang. geietlichkeit wurtemburgs, viii. , . doederlein, morus, knapp, schwarze, and reinhard affirm that the death of christ was not the price of our pardon, but the confirming declaration of free pardon from god. hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. , note . die lehre der kirche vom tode jesu in den ersten drei jahrhunderteu. die lehre der kirche vom tode jesu in den ersten drei jahrhunderten, ss. - . augustine, epist. ad evodium . op. imp. vi. , . epist. . dante makes adam say he had been years in limbo when christ, at his descent, rescued him. paradise, canto xxvi. through all the events and forces associated with the death of christ, including his descent to hades and his resurrection, men are delivered from the doom of the under world. the common theology explains it as teaching that there was an expiatory efficacy in the unmerited sufferings of christ. the system known as unitarianism says it denotes merely the exertion of a saving spiritual power on the hearts of men. the first interpretation charges the figure of speech with a dramatic revelation of the love of god freely rescuing men from their inherited fate. the second seems to make it a tank of gore, where divine vengeance legally laps to appease its otherwise insatiable appetite. the third fills it with a regenerative moral influence to be distributed upon the characters of believers. the two former also include the last; but it excludes them. now, as it seems to us, the first is the form of mistake in which the early church, including the apostles, embodied the true significance of the mission of christ. owing to the circle of ideas in which they lived, this was the only possible form in which the disciples of jesus could receive the new doctrine of a blessed immortality brought to light by christianity. the second is the form of false theory in which a few scholastic brains elaborated the cruel results of their diseased metaphysical speculations. the third is the dry, meager, inadequate statement of the most essential truth in the case. there is one more point of view in which the new testament holds up the resurrection of christ. it is regarded as a summons to a moral and spiritual resurrection within the breast of the believer. as the great forerunner had ascended to a spiritual and immortal life in the heavens, so his followers should be inspired with such a realizing sense of heavenly things, with such divine faith and fellowship, as would lift them above the world, with all its evanescent cares, and fix their hearts with god. this high communion with christ, and intense assurance of a destined speedy inheritance with him, should render the disciple insensible to the clamorous distractions of earth, invulnerable to the open and secret assaults of sin, as if in the body he were already dead, and only alive in the spirit to the obligations of holiness, the attractions of piety, and the promises of heaven. "when we were dead in trespasses and sins, god loved us, and hath quickened us together with christ, and hath raised us up together and made us sit together in heavenly places." "if ye, then, be risen with christ, set your affection on things above, not on earthly things; for ye are dead, and your life is hid with christ in god." this moral symbolic application of the resurrection is most beautiful and effective. christ has risen, immaculate and immortal, into the pure and holy heaven: then live virtuously and piously, that you may be found worthy to be received unto him. "he that hath this hope purifieth himself, even as he is pure." paul enforces this thought through the striking figure that, since "we are freed from the law through the death of christ, we should be married to his risen spirit and bring forth fruit unto god." and again, when he speaks in these words, "christ in you the hope of glory," we suppose he refers to the spiritual image of the risen redeemer formed in the disciples' imagination and heart, the prefiguring and witnessing pledge of their ascension also to heaven. the same practical use is made of the doctrine through the rite and sign of baptism. "ye are buried with christ in bretschneider forcibly illustrates this in his handbuch der dogmatik der evang. luther. kirche, sects. - , band ii. baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him through faith in the working of god, who hath raised him from the dead." "wherefore, if ye be dead with christ, why are ye subject to worldly ordinances? and if ye be risen with him, seek those things which are above." when the disciple sunk beneath the baptizing waters, he was typically dead and buried, as jesus was in the tomb; when he rose from the waters into the air again, he figuratively represented christ rising from the dead into heaven. henceforth, therefore, he was to consider himself as dead to all worldly sins and lusts, alive to all heavenly virtues and aspirations. "therefore," the apostle says, "we are buried with christ by baptism unto death, that like as christ was raised up from the dead, even so we should walk in newness of life." "in that christ died, he died unto sin once; but in that he liveth, he liveth unto god. likewise reckon ye also yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto god." "therefore, if any man be in christ, he is a new creature: old things are passed away; behold, all things are become new." this was strictly true to the immediate disciples of jesus. when he died, their hearts died within them; they shrank away in hopeless confusion and gloom. when he returned to life and ascended to heaven, in feeling and imagination they went with him. every moral power and motive started into new life and energy. "the day when from the dead our lord arose, then everywhere, out of their darkness and despair, triumphant over fears and foes, the souls of his disciples rose." an unheard of assurance of the father's love and of their eternal inheritance flooded their being with its regenerating, uplifting power. to their absorbing anticipations the mighty consummation of all was at hand. in reflective imagination it was already past, and they, dead to the world, only lived to god. the material world and the lust thereof had sunk beneath them and vanished. they were moving in the universe of imperishable realities unseen by the fleshly eye. to their faith already was unrolled over them that new firmament in whose spanless welkin no cloudy tempests ever gather and break, and the serene lights never fade nor go down. this experience of a spiritual exaltation above the sins and degrading turmoils of passion, above the perishing baubles of the earth, into the religious principles which are independent and assured, peace, and bliss, and eternity, is attainable by all who with the earnestness of their souls assimilate the moral truths of christianity, pressing in pious trust after the steps of the risen master. and this, after all, is the vital essence of the doctrine of the resurrection as it makes practical appeal to us. this will stand, though gnawing time and hostile criticism should assail and shake all the rest. it is something not to be mechanically wrought upon us from without, but to be done within by our own voluntary effort and prayer, by god's help. to rise from sloth, unbelief, sin, from moral death, to earnestness, faith, beneficence, to eternal life in the breast, is a real and most sublime resurrection, the indispensable preparation for that other and final one which shall raise us from the sepulchre to the sky. when, on easter morning, christian disciples throughout the world hear the joyous cry, "christ is risen," and their own hearts instinctively respond, with an unquenchable persuasion that he is now alive somewhere in the heights of the universe, "christ is risen indeed," they should endeavor in spirit to rise too, rise from the deadly bondage and corruption of vice and indifference. while the earth remains, and men survive, and the evils which alienate them from god and his blessedness retain any sway over them, so oft as that hallowed day comes round, this is the kindling message of divine authority ever fresh, and of transcendent import never old, that it bears through all the borders of christendom to every responsible soul: "awake from your sleep, arise from your death, lift up your eyes to heaven, and the risen redeemer will give you the light of immortal life!" have this awakening and deathless experience in the soul, and you will be troubled by no doubts about an everlasting life succeeding the close of the world. but so long as this spiritual resurrection in the breast is unknown, you can have no knowledge of eternal life, no experimental faith in a future entrance from the grave into heaven, no, not though millions of resurrections had crowded the interstellar space with ascending shapes. rise, then, from your moral graves, and already, by faith and imagination, sit in heavenly places with christ jesus. before leaving this subject, it belongs to us to look at it as a theory; that is, to consider with critical scrutiny the conclusions which are supposed to flow from its central fact. we must regard it from three distinct points of view, seeking its meaning in sound logic, its force in past history, its value in present experience. first, then, we are to inquire what really is the logical significance of the resurrection of christ. the looseness and confusion of thought prevailing in relation to this point are amazing. it seems as if mankind were contented with investigations careless, reasonings incoherent, and inferences arbitrary, in proportion to the momentousness of the matter in hand. in regard to little details of sensible fact and daily business their observation is sharp, their analysis careful, their reflection patient; but when they approach the great problems of morality, god, immortality, they shrink from commensurate efforts to master those mighty questions with stern honesty, and remain satisfied with fanciful methods and vague results. the resurrection of christ is generally regarded as a direct demonstration of the immortality of man, an argument of irrefragable validity. but this is an astonishing mistake. the argument was not so constructed by paul. he did not seek directly to prove the immortality of the soul, but the resurrection of the dead. he took for granted the pharisaic doctrine that all souls on leaving their bodies descended to sheol, where they darkly survived, waiting to be summoned forth at the arrival of the messianic epoch. assuming the further premise that christ after death went down among these imprisoned souls, and then rose thence again, paul infers, by a logical process strictly valid and irresistible to one holding those premises, that the general doctrine of a resurrection from the dead is true, and that by this visible pledge we may expect it soon, since the messiah, who is to usher in its execution, has already come and finished the preliminary stages of his work. the apostle's own words plainly show this to be his meaning. "if there be no resurrection of the dead, then is christ not risen. but now is christ risen from the dead, become the first fruits of them that slept. for since by man came death, by man came also the resurrection of the dead. every man shall be made alive in his own order: christ the first fruits; then they that are christ's, at his coming; then the last remnant, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to god." the notions of a universal imprisonment of souls in the intermediate state, and of a universal raising of them thence at an appointed time, having faded from a deep and vivid belief into a cold traditional dogma, ridiculed by many, cared for at all by few, realizingly held by almost none, paul's argument has been perverted and misinterpreted, until it is now commonly supposed to mean this: christ has risen from the dead: therefore the soul of man is immortal. whereas the argument really existed in his mind in the reverse form, thus: the souls of men are immortal and are hereafter to be raised up: therefore christ has risen as an example and illustration thereof. it is singular to notice that he has himself clearly stated the argument in this form three times within the space of four consecutive verses, as follows: "if there be no resurrection of the dead, then is christ not risen:" "god raised christ not up, if so be that the dead rise not." "for if the dead rise not, then is christ not raised." the fact of the resurrection of christ, taken in connection with the related notions previously held in the mind of paul, formed the complement of an irresistible argument to prove the impending resurrection of the dead, but if it be now perceived that those other notions were pharisaic errors, the argument, as he employed it, falls to the ground. taken by itself and analyzed by a severe logic, the resurrection of christ proves nothing conclusively in regard to our immortality. if it did of itself prove any thing, the direct logical inference from it would be that henceforth all men, three days after death, would rise bodily from the dead, appear for a season on earth as before, and then ascend visibly into the sky. if at the present time a man who had been put to death and entombed three days should openly come forth alive, considered as an isolated fact, what would it prove? it would merely prove that a wonderful event had occurred. it would show that either by some mysterious means he had escaped death, or else that by some apparently preternatural agency he had been restored to life from the dead. taken by itself, it could not prove whether the occurrence was caused by a demoniacal or by a divine power, or by some occult force of nature developed by a peculiar combination of conditions. the strange event would stand clear to our senses; but all beyond that would be but an hypothesis of our own, and liable to mistake. consequently, we say, the resurrection, taken by itself, proves no doctrine. but we may so suppose the case that such an event would, from its relation to something else, acquire logical meaning. for instance, if christ had taught that he had supernatural knowledge of truth, a divine commission to reveal a future life, and said that, after he should have been dead and buried three days, god would restore him to life to authenticate his words, and if, then, so stupendous a miracle occurred in accordance with his prediction, it would prove that his claims and doctrine were true, because god is no accomplice in deception. such was the case with jesus as narrated; and thus his resurrection appears, not as having doctrinal significance and demonstrative validity in itself, but as a miraculous authentication of his mission. that is to say, the christian's faith in immortality rests not directly on the resurrection of christ, but on his teachings, which were confirmed and sealed by his resurrection. it is true that, even in this modified form, some persons of dialectical minds will deny all validity to the argument. what necessary connection is there, they will ask, between the exhibition of mechanico chemical wonders, physical feats, however abnormal and inexplicable, and the possession of infallibility of intellectual insight and moral utterance? if a man should say, god is falsehood and hatred, and in evidence of his declaration should make a whole cemetery disembogue its dead alive, or cause the sun suddenly to sink from its station at noon and return again, would his wonderful performance prove his horrible doctrine? why, or how, then, would a similar feat prove the opposite doctrine? plainly, there is not, on rigid logical principles, any connecting tie or evidencing coherence between a physical miracle and a moral doctrine. we admit the correctness of this, on philosophical grounds. but the validity of a miracle as proof of a doctrine rests on the spontaneous assumption that no man can work a miracle unless god specially delegate him the power: thereby god becomes the voucher of his envoy. and when a person claiming to be a messenger from god appears, saying, "the father hath commanded me to declare that in the many mansions of his house there is a blessed life for men after the close of this life," and when he promises that, in confirmation of his claim, god will restore him to life after he shall have been three days dead, and when he returns accordingly triumphant from the sepulchre, the argument will be unquestioningly received as valid by the instinctive common sense of all who are convinced of the facts. we next pass from the meaning of the resurrection in logic to its force and working in history. when jesus hung on the cross, and the scornful shouts of the multitude murmured in his ears, the disciples had fled away, disappointed, terror stricken, despairing. his star seemed set in a hopeless night of shame and defeat. the new religion appeared a failure. but in three days affairs had taken a new aspect. he that was crucified had risen, and the scattered disciples rallied from every quarter, and, animated by faith and zeal, went forth to convert the world. as an organic centre of thought and belief, as a fervid and enduring incitement to action, in the apostolic times and all through the early centuries, the received fact of the resurrection of christ wielded an incomparable influence and produced incalculable results. christianity indeed rose upon it, and, to a great extent, flourished through it. the principal effect which the gospel has had in bringing life and immortality to light throughout a large part of the world is to be referred to the proclaimed resurrection of christ. for without the latter the former would not have been. its historical value has therefore been immense. more than nine tenths of the dormant common faith of christendom in a future life now outwardly reposes on it from tradition and custom. the great majority of christians grow up, by education and habit, without any sharp conscientious investigation of their own, to an undisturbed belief in immortality, a belief passively resting on the demonstration of the doctrine supposed to have been furnished by the resurrection of christ in judea two thousand years ago. the historical power of that fact has therefore been inexpressibly important; and its vast and happy consequences as food and basis of faith still remain. but this historic force is no longer what it once was as a living and present cause. it now operates mostly through traditional reception as an established doctrine to be taken j. blanco white, letter on miracles, in appendix to martineau's rationale of religious inquiry. for granted, without fresh individual inquiry. education and custom use it as an unexamined but trusted foundation to build on by common assumptions. and so the historic impetus is not yet spent. but it certainly has diminished; and it will diminish more. when faced with dauntless eyes and approached by skeptical methods, it of course cannot have the silencing, all sufficient authority, now that it is buried in the dim remoteness of nineteen centuries and surrounded by obscuring accompaniments, that it had when its light blazed close at hand. the historical force of the alleged resurrection of christ must evidently, other things being equal, lessen to an unprejudiced inquirer in some proportion to the lengthening distance of the event from him in time, and the growing difficulties of ignorance, perplexity, doubt, manifold uncertainty, deficiency, infidel suggestions, and naturalistic possibilities, intervening between it and him. the shock of faith given by the miracle is dissipated in coming through such an abyss of time. the farther off and the longer ago it was, the more chances for error and the more circumstances of obscurity there are, and so much the worth and force of the historical belief in it will naturally become fainter, till they will finally fade away. an honest student may bow humbly before the august front of christian history and join with the millions around in acknowledging the fact of the resurrection of christ. but we maintain that the essential fact in this historic act is not the visible resuscitation of the dead body, but the celestial reception of the deathless spirit. so paul evidently thought; for he had never seen christ in the flesh, yet he places himself, as a witness to the resurrection of christ, in the same rank with those who had seen him on his reappearance in the body: "last of all he was seen of me also." paul had only seen him in vision as a glorified spirit of heaven. we know that our belief in the fleshly resurrection of jesus rests on education and habit, on cherished associations of reverence and attachment, rather than on sifted testimony and convincing proof. it is plain, too, that if a person takes the attitude, not of piety and receptive trust, but of skeptical antagonism, it is impossible, as the facts within our reach are to day, to convince him of the asserted reality in question. an unprejudiced mind competently taught and trained for the inquiry, but whose attitude towards the declared fact is that of distrust, a mind which will admit nothing but what is conclusively proved, cannot be driven from its position by all the extant material of evidence. education, associations, hopes, affections, leaning that way, he may be convinced; but leaning the other way, or poised in indifference on a severe logical ground, he will honestly remain in his unbelief despite of all the arguments that can be presented. in the first place, he will say, "the only history we have of the resurrection is in the new testament; and the testimony of witnesses in their own cause is always suspicious; and it is wholly impossible now really to prove who wrote those documents, or precisely when and how they originated: besides that, the obvious discrepancies in the accounts, and the utterly uncritical credulity and unscientific modes of investigation which satisfied the writers, destroy their value as witnesses in any severe court of reason." and in reply, although we may claim that there is sufficient evidence to satisfy an humble christian, previously inclined to such a faith, that the new testament documents were written by the persons whose names they bear, and that their accounts are true, yet we cannot pretend that there is sufficient evidence effectually to convince a critical inquirer that there is no possibility of ungenuineness and unauthenticity. in the second place, such a person will say, "many fabulous miracles have been eagerly credited by contemporaries of their professed authors, and handed down to the credulity of after times; many actual events, honestly, interpreted as miracles, without fraud in any party concerned, have been so accepted and testified to. roman catholic christendom claims to this day the performance of miracles within the church; while all protestant christendom scouts them as ridiculous tales: and this may be one of them. how can we demonstrate that it does not fall within the same class on the laws of evidence?" and although our own moral beliefs and sympathies may force upon us the most profound conviction to the contrary, it is plainly out of our power to disprove the possibility of this hypothesis being true. in the third place, he will say, "of all who testify to the resurrection, there is nothing in the record admitting its entire reliableness as an ingenuous statement of the facts as apprehended by the authors to show that any one of them knew that jesus was actually dead, or that any one of them made any real search into that point. he may have revived from a long insensibility, wandered forth in his grave clothes, mingled afterwards with his disciples, and at last have died from his wounds and exhaustion, in solitude, as he was used to spend seasons in lonely prayer by night. then, with perfectly good faith, his disciples, involving no collusion or deceit anywhere, may have put a miraculous interpretation upon it all, such additional particulars as his visible ascension into the sky being a later mythical accretion." this view may well seem offensive, even shocking, to the pious believer; but it is plainly possible. it is intrinsically more easily conceivable than the accredited miracle. it is impossible positively to refute it: the available data do not exist. upon the whole, then, we conclude that the time is coming when the basis of faith in immortality, in order to stand the tests of independent scrutiny, must be historically as well as logically shifted from a blind dependence on the miraculous resurrection of christ to a wise reliance on insight into the supernatural capacity and destiny of man, on the deductions of moral reason and the prophecies of religious trust. finally, we pause a moment, in closing this discussion, to weigh the practical value of the resurrection of christ as acknowledged in the experience of the present time. how does that event, admitted as a fact, rest in the average personal experience of christians now? we shall provoke no intelligent contradiction when we say that it certainly does not often rest on laborious research and rigorous testing of evidence. we surely risk nothing in saying that with the multitude of believers it rests on a docile reception of tradition, an unquestioning conformity to the established doctrine. and that reception and conformity in the present instance depend, we shall find by going a step further back, upon a deep a priori faith in god and immortality. when paul reasons that, if the dead are not to rise, christ is not risen, but that the dead are to rise, and therefore christ is risen, his argument reposes on a spontaneous practical method of moral assumption, not on a judicial process of logical proof. so is it with christians now. the intense moral conviction that god is good, and that there is another life, and that it would be supremely worthy of god to send a messenger to teach that doctrine and to rise from the dead in proof of it, it is this earnest previous faith that gives plausibility, vitality, and power to the preserved tradition of the actual event. if we trace the case home to the last resort, as it really lies in the experience developed in us by christianity, we shall find that a deep faith in god is the basis of our belief, first in general immortality, and secondly in the special resurrection of christ as related thereto. but, by a confusion, or a want, of thought, the former is mistakenly supposed to rest directly and solely on the latter. the doctrinal inferences built up around the resurrection of christ fall within the province of faith, resting on moral grounds, not within that of knowledge, resting on logical grounds. for example: what direct proof is there that christ, when he vanished from the disciples, went to the presence of god in heaven, to die no more? it was only seen that he disappeared: all beyond that except as it rests on belief in the previous words of christ himself is an inference of faith, a faith kindled in the soul by god and not created by the miracle of the resurrection. that imagination, tradition, feeling, and faith, have much more to do with the inferences commonly drawn from the resurrection of christ than any strict investigation of its logical contents has, appears clearly enough from the universal neglect to draw any inferences from, or to attribute any didactic importance to, the other resurrections recorded in the new testament. we refer especially to the resurrection narrated in the twenty seventh chapter of matthew, "the most stupendous miracle ever wrought upon earth," it has been termed; and yet hardly any one ever deigns to notice it. thus the evangelist writes: "and the graves were opened, and many bodies of the saints which slept arose and came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many." nothing is inferred from this alleged event but the power of god. yet logically what separates it from the resurrection of christ? in greece there was the accredited account of the resurrection of er, in persia that of viraf, in judea that of lazarus, in other nations those of other persons. none of these ever produced great results. yet the resurrection of one individual from the dead logically contains all that that of any other individual can. why, then, has that of christ alone made such a change in the faith of the world? because, through a combination of causes, it has appealed to the imagination and heart of the world and stirred their believing activity, because the thought was here connected with a person, a history, a moral force, and a providential interposition, fit for the grandest deductions and equal to the mightiest effects. it is not accurate philosophical criticism that has done this, but humble love and faith. in the experience of earnest christians, a personal belief in the resurrection of christ, vividly conceived in the imagination and taken home to the heart, is chiefly effective in its spiritual, not in its argumentative, results. it stirs up the powers and awakens the yearnings of the soul, opens heaven to the gaze, locates there, as it were visibly, a glorious ideal, and thus helps one to enter upon an inward realization of the immortal world. the one essential thing is not that jesus appeared alive in the flesh after his physical death, the revealer of superhuman power and possessor of infallibility, but that he divinely lives now, the forerunner and type of our immortality. chapter viii. essential christian doctrine of death and life. let us first notice the uncommon amount of meaning which christ and the apostolic writers usually put into the words "death," "life," and other kindred terms. these words are scarcely ever used in their merely literal sense, but are charged with a vivid fulness of significance not to be fathomed without especial attention. "if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments." obviously this means more than simple life; because those who neglect the laws of virtue may live. it signifies, distinctively, true life, the experience of inward peace and of divine favor. "whosoever hateth his brother hath not eternal life abiding in him, but abideth in death;" that is to say, a soul rankling with bad passions is "in the gall of bitterness and the bond of iniquity," but, when converted from hatred to love, it passes from wretchedness to blessedness. "let the dead bury their dead." no one reading this passage with its context can fail to perceive that it means, substantially, "let those who are absorbed in the affairs of this world, and indifferent to the revelation i have brought from heaven, attend to the interment of the dead; but delay not thou, who art kindled with a lively interest in the truth, to proclaim the kingdom of god." when the returning prodigal had been joyfully received, the father said, in reply to the murmurs of the elder son, "thy brother was dead and is alive again;" he was lost in sin and misery, he is found in penitence and happiness. paul writes to the romans, "without the law sin was dead, and i was alive; but when the law was made known, sin came to life, and i died." in other words, when a man is ignorant of the moral law, immoral conduct does not prevent him from feeling innocent and being at peace; but when a knowledge of the law shows the wickedness of that conduct, he becomes conscious of guilt, and is unhappy. for instance, to state the thought a little differently, to a child knowing nothing of the law, the law, or its purposed violation, sin, does not exist, is dead: he therefore enjoys peace of conscience; but when he becomes aware of the law and its authority, if he then break it, sin is generated and immediately stings, and spiritual happiness dies. these passages are sufficient to show that christianity uses the words "death" and "life" in a spiritual sense, penetrating to the hidden realities of the soul. to speak thus of the guilty, unbelieving man as dead, and only of the virtuous, believing man as truly alive, may seem at first a startling use of figurative language. it will not appear so when we notice its appropriateness to the case, or remember the imaginative nature of oriental speech and recollect how often we employ the same terms in the same way at the present time. we will give a few examples of a similar use of language outside of the scriptures. that which threatens or produces death is sometimes, by a figure, identified with death. orpheus, in the argonautika, speaks of "a terrible serpent whose yawning jaw is full of death." so paul says he was "in deaths oft." ovid says, "the priests poured out a dog's hot life on the altar of hecate at the crossing of two roads." the pythagoreans, when one of their number became impious and abandoned, were accustomed to consider him dead, and to erect a tomb to him, on which his name and his age at the time of his moral decease were engraved. the roman law regarded an excommunicated citizen as civilis mortuus, legally dead. fenelon writes, "god has kindled a flame at the bottom of every heart, which should always burn as a lamp for him who hath lighted it; and all other life is as death." chaucer says, in one of his canterbury tales, referring to a man enslaved by dissolute habits, "but certes, he that haunteth swiche delices is ded while that he liveth in tho' vices." and in a recent poem the following lines occur: "from his great eyes the light has fled: when faith departs, when honor dies, the man is dead." to be subjected to the lower impulses of our nature by degraded habits of vice and criminality is wretchedness and death. the true life of man consists, the great teacher declared, "not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth, but rather in his being rich toward god," in conscious purity of heart, energy of faith, and union with the holy spirit. "he that lives in sensual pleasure is dead while he lives," paul asserts; but he that lives in spiritual righteousness has already risen from the dead. to sum up the whole in a single sentence, the service and the fruits of sin form an experience which christianity calls death, because it is a state of insensibility to the elements and results of true life, in the adequate sense of that term, meaning the serene activity and religious joy of the soul. the second particular in the essential doctrine of christianity concerning the states of human experience which it entitles death and life is their inherent, enduring nature, their independence on the objects and changes of this world. the gospel teaches that the elements of our being and experience are transferred from the life that now is into the life that is to come, or, rather, that we exist continuously forever, uninterrupted by the event of physical dissolution. "whosoever drinketh of the water that i shall give him," jesus declares, "shall never thirst; but the water that i shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life." john affirms, "the world passeth away, and the lust thereof; but he that doeth the will of god abideth forever." paul writes to the christians at rome, "in that christ died, he died unto sin once; but in that he liveth, he liveth unto god. likewise reckon ye also yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto god." numerous additional texts of kindred import might be cited. they announce the immortality of man, the unending continuance of the christian consciousness, unless forfeited by voluntary defection. they show that sin and woe are not arbitrarily bounded by the limits of time and sense in the grave, and that nothing can ever exhaust or destroy the satisfaction of true life, faith in the love of god: it abides, blessed and eternal, in the uninterrupted blessedness and eternity of its object. the revelation and offer of all this to the acceptance of men, its conditions, claims, and alternative sanctions, were first divinely made known and planted in the heart of the world, as the scriptures assert, by jesus christ, who promulgated them by his preaching, illustrated them by his example, proved them by his works, attested them by his blood, and crowned them by his resurrection. and now there is opened for all of us, through him, that is to say, through belief and obedience of what he taught and exemplified, an access unto the father, an assurance of his forgiveness of us and of our reconciliation with him. we thus enter upon the experience of that true life which is "joy and peace in believing," and which remains indestructible through all the vanishing vagrancy of sin, misery, and the world. "this is eternal life, that they might know thee, the only true god, and jesus christ whom thou hast sent:" that is, imperishable life is to be obtained by union with god in faith and love, through a hearty acceptance of the instructions of christ. the two points thus far considered are, first, that the sinful, unbelieving, wretched man abides in virtual death, while the righteous, happy believer in the gospel has the experience of genuine life; and, secondly, that these essential elements of human character and experience survive all events of time and place in everlasting continuance. the next consideration prominent in the christian doctrine of death and life is the distinction continually made between the body and the soul. man is regarded under a twofold aspect, as flesh and spirit, the one a temporal accompaniment and dependent medium, the other an immortal being in itself. the distinction is a fundamental one, and runs through nearly all philosophy and religion in their reference to man. in the christian scriptures it is not sharply drawn, with logical precision, nor always accurately maintained, but is loosely defined, with waving outlines, is often employed carelessly, and sometimes, if strictly taken, inconsistently. let us first note a few examples of the distinction itself in the instructions of the savior and of the different new testament writers. "that which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that which is born of the spirit is spirit." "fear not them which kill the body but are not able to kill the soul." "though our outward man perish, yet the inward man is renewed." "he that soweth to his flesh shall reap corruption; he that soweth to the spirit shall reap life everlasting." "being put to death in the flesh, but quickened in the spirit." "knowing that i must shortly put off this tabernacle." "the body without the spirit is dead." it would be useless to accumulate examples. it is plain that these authors distinguish the body and the soul as two things conjoined for a season, the latter of which will continue to live when the other has mixed with the dust. the facts and phenomena of our being from which this distinction springs are so numerous and so influential, so profound and so obvious, that it is impossible they should escape the knowledge of any thinking person. indeed, the distinction has found a recognition everywhere among men, from the ignorant savage, whose instincts and imagination shadow forth a dim world in which the impalpable images of the departed dwell, to the philosopher of piercing intellect and universal culture, "whose lore detects beneath our crumbling clay a soul, exiled, and journeying back to day." "labor not for the meat which perisheth," jesus exhorts his followers, "but labor for the meat which endureth unto everlasting life." the body and the luxury that pampers it shall perish, but the spirit and the love that feeds it shall abide forever. we now pass to examine some metaphorical terms often erroneously interpreted as conveying merely their literal force. every one familiar with the language of the new testament must remember how repeatedly the body and the soul, or the flesh and the spirit, are set in direct opposition to each other, sin being referred to the former, righteousness to the latter. "i know that in my flesh there is no good thing; but with my mind i delight in the law of god." "the flesh lusteth against the spirit, and the spirit lusteth against the flesh, and these are contrary the one to the other." all this language and it is extensively used in the epistles is quite generally understood in a fixed, literal sense; whereas it was employed by its authors in a fluctuating, figurative sense, as the critical student can hardly help perceiving. we will state the real substance of christian teaching and phraseology on this point in two general formulas, and then proceed to illustrate them. first, both the body and the soul may be corrupt, lawless, empty of divine belief, full of restlessness and suffering, in a state of moral death; or both may be pure, obedient, acceptable in the sight of god, full of faith, peace, and joy, in a state of genuine life. secondly, whatever tends in any way to the former result to make man guilty, feeble, and wretched, to deaden his spiritual sensibilities, to keep him from union with god and from immortal reliances is variously personified as "the flesh," "sin," "death," "mammon," "the world," "the law of the members," "the law of sin and death;" whatever, on the contrary, tends in any way to the latter result to purify man, to intensify his moral powers, to exalt and quicken his consciousness in the assurance of the favor of god and of eternal being is personified as "the spirit," "life," "righteousness," "the law of god," "the law of the inward man," "christ," "the law of the spirit of life in christ." under the first class of terms are included all the temptations and agencies by which man is led to sin, and the results of misery they effect; under the second class are included all the aspirations and influences by which he is led to righteousness, and the results of happiness they insure. for example, it is written, in the epistle to the galatians, that "the manifest works of the flesh are excessive sensuality, idolatry, hatred, emulations, quarrels, heresies, murders, and such like." certainly some of these evils are more closely connected with the mind than with the body. the term "flesh" is obviously used in a sense coextensive with the tendencies and means by which we are exposed to guilt and degradation. these personifications, it will therefore be seen, are employed with general rhetorical looseness, not with definite logical exactness. it is self evident that the mind is the actual agent and author of all sins and virtues, and that the body in itself is unconscious, irresponsible, incapable of guilt. "every sin that man doeth is without the body." in illustration of this point chrysostom says, "if a tyrant or robber were to seize some royal mansion, it would not be the fault of the house." and how greatly they err who think that any of the new testament writers mean to represent the flesh as necessarily sinful and the spirit as always pure, the following cases to the contrary from paul, whose speech seems most to lean that way, will abundantly show. "glorify god in your body and in your spirit, which are his." "know ye not that your body is the temple of the holy ghost?" "yield not your members as instruments of unrighteousness unto sin, but as instruments of righteousness unto god." "that the life of jesus might be made manifest in our mortal flesh." "present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto god." it is clear that the author of these sentences did not regard the body, or literal flesh, as necessarily unholy, but as capable of being used by the man himself in fulfilling the will of god. texts that appear to contradict this must be held as figures, or as impassioned rhetorical exclamations. we also read of "the lusts of the mind," the "fleshly mind," "filthiness of the spirit," "seducing spirits," "corrupt minds," "mind and conscience defiled," "reprobate mind," showing plainly that the spirit was sometimes regarded as guilty and morally dead. the apostle writes, "i pray that your whole spirit and soul and body may be preserved blameless." the scriptural declarations now cited teach explicitly that both the body and the soul may be subjected to the perfect law of god, or that both may abide in rebellion and wickedness, the latter state being called, metaphorically, "walking after the flesh," the former "walking after the spirit," that being sin and death, this being righteousness and life. an explanation of the origin of these metaphors will cast further light upon the subject. the use of a portion of them arose from the fact that many of the most easily besetting and pernicious vices, conditions and allurements of sin, defilements and clogs of the spirit, come through the body, which, while it is itself evidently fated to perish, does by its earthly solicitations entice, contaminate, and debase the soul that by itself is invited to better things and seems destined to immortality. not that these evils originate in the body, of course, all the doings of a man spring from the spirit of man which is in him, but that the body is the occasion and the aggravating medium of their manifestation. this thought is not contradicted, it is only omitted, in the words of peter: "i beseech you, as strangers and pilgrims, abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul." for such language would be spontaneously suggested by the fact that to be in bondage to the baser nature is hostile alike to spiritual dignity and peace, and to physical health and strength. the principles of the moral nature are at war with the passions of the animal nature; the goading vices of the mind are at war with the organic harmonies of the body; and on the issues of these conflicts hang all the interests of life and death, in every sense the words can be made to bear. another reason for the use of these figures of speech, undoubtedly, was the philosophy of the ineradicable hostility of matter and spirit, the doctrine, so prevalent in the east from the earliest times, that matter is wholly corrupt and evil, the essential root and source of all vileness. an old, unknown greek poet embodies the very soul of this faith in a few verses which we find in the anthology. literally rendered, they run thus: "the body is the torment, hell, fate, load, tyrant, dreadful pest, and punishing trial, of the soul which, when it quits the body, flies, as from the bonds of death, to immortal god." it was this idea that produced the wild asceticism prevalent in the christian church during the middle age and previously, the fearful macerations, scourgings, crucifixions of the flesh. it should be understood that, though some of the phraseology of the scriptures is tinged by the influence of this doctrine, the doctrine itself is foreign to christianity. christ came eating and drinking, not abjuring nature, but adopting its teachings, viewing it as a divine work through which the providence of god is displayed and his glory gleams. he was no more of a pharisee than nature is. as corn grows on the sabbath, so it may be plucked and eaten on the sabbath. the apostles never recommend self inflicted torments. the ascetic expressions found in their letters grew directly out of the perils besetting them and their expectation of the speedy end of the world. christianity, rightly understood, renders even the body of a good man sacred and precious, through the indwelling of the infinite. "we have this treasure in earthen vessels," and the poor, dying tenement of flesh is hallowed as "a vase of earth, a trembling clod, constrain'd to hold the breath of god." the chief secret, however, of the origin of the peculiar phrases under consideration consisted in their striking fitness to the nature and facts of the case, their adaptedness to express these facts in a bold and vivid manner. the revelation of the transcendent claims of holiness, of the pardoning love of god, of the splendid boon of immortality, made by christ and enforced by the miraculous sanctions and the kindling motives presented in his example, thrilled the souls of the first converts, shamed them of their degrading sins, opened before their imaginations a vision that paled the glories of the world, and regenerated them, stirring up the depths of their religious sensibilities, and flooding their whole being with a warmth, an energy, a spirituality, that made their previous experience seem a gross carnal slumber, a virtual death. "and you hath he quickened, who were dead in trespasses and sins." they were animated and raised to a new, pure, glad life, through the feeling of the hopes and the practice of the virtues of the gospel of christ. unto those who "were formerly in the flesh, the servants of sin, bringing forth fruit unto death," but now obeying the new form of doctrine delivered unto them, with renewed hearts and changed conduct, it is written, "if christ be in you, the body is dead because of sin; but the spirit is life because of righteousness;" that is, if christian truth reign in you, the body may still be tormented, or powerless, owing to your previous bad habits; but the soul will be redeemed from its abandonment to error and vice, and be assured of pardon and immortal life by the witnessing spirit of god. the apostle likewise says unto them, "if the spirit of god dwell in you, it shall also quicken your mortal bodies." this remarkable expression was meant to convey a thought which the observation of common facts approves and explains. if the love of the pure principles of the gospel was established in them, their bodies, debilitated and deadened by former abandonment to their lusts, should be freed and reanimated by its influence. the body to a great extent reflects the permanent mind and life of a man. it is an aphorism of solomon that "a sound heart is the life of the flesh." and plotinus declares, "temperance and justice are the saviors of the body so far as they are received by it." deficiency of thought and knowledge, laziness of spirit, animality of habits, betray themselves plainly enough in the state and expression of the physical frame: they render it coarse, dim, and insensible; the person verges towards the condition of a clod; spiritual things are clouded, the beacon fire of his destiny wanes, the possibilities of christian faith lessen, "the external and the insensate creep in on his organized clay," he feels the chain of the brute earth more and more, and finally gives himself up to utter death. on the other hand, the assimilation of divine truth and goodness by a man, the cherishing love of all high duties and aspirations, exert a purifying, energizing power both on the flesh and the mind, animate and strengthen them, like a heavenly flame burn away the defiling entanglements and spiritual fogs that fill and hang around the wicked and sensual, increasingly pervade his consciousness with an inspired force and freedom, illuminate his face, touch the magnetic springs of health and healthful sympathy, make him completely alive, and bring him into living connection with the omnipresent life, so that he perceives the full testimony that he shall never die. for, when brought into such a state by the experience of live spirits in live frames, "we feel through all this fleshly dresse bright shootes of everlastingnesse." spiritual sloth and sensual indulgence stupefy, blunt, and confuse together in lifeless meshes, the vital tenant and the mortal tenement; they grow incorporate, alike unclean, powerless, guilty, and wretched. then "man lives a life half dead, a living death, himself his sepulchre, a moving grave." active virtue, profound love, and the earnest pursuit, in the daily duties of life, of "those lofty musings which within us sow the seeds of higher kind and brighter being." cleanse, vivify, and distinguish the body and the soul, so that, when this tabernacle of clay crumbles from around it, the unimprisoned spirit soars into the universe at once, and, looking back upon the shadowy king bearing his pale prey to the tomb, exclaims, "o death, where is thy sting? o grave, where is thy victory?" the facts, then, of sin, guilt, weakness, misery, unbelief, decay, insensibility, and death, joined with the opposite corresponding class of facts, and considered in their mutual spiritual and physical relations and results, originally suggested, and now interpret and justify, that peculiar phraseology of the new testament which we have been investigating. it has no recondite meaning drawn from arbitrary dogmas, but a plain meaning drawn from natural truths. it remains next to see what is the christian doctrine concerning literal, physical death, concerning the actual origin and significance of that solemn event. this point must be treated the more at length on account of the erroneous notions prevailing upon the subject. for that man's first disobedience was the procuring cause of organic, as well as of moral, death, is a doctrine quite generally believed. it is a fundamental article in the creeds of all the principal denominations of christendom, and is traditionally held, from the neglect of investigation, by nearly all christians. by this theory the words of james who writes, "sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death" are interpreted with strict literalness. it is conceived that, had not evil entered the first man's heart and caused him to fall from his native innocence, he would have roamed among the flowers of eden to this day. but he violated the commandment of his maker, and sentence of death was passed upon him and his posterity. we are now to prove that this imaginative theory is far from the truth. . the language in which the original account of adam's sin and its punishment is stated shows conclusively that the penalty of transgression was not literal death, but spiritual, that is, degradation, suffering. god's warning in relation to the forbidden tree was, "in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." of course, jehovah's solemn declaration was fulfilled as he had said. but in the day that man partook of the prohibited fruit he did not die a physical death. he lived, driven from the delights of paradise, (according to the account,) upwards of eight hundred years, earning his bread by the sweat of his brow. consequently, the death with which he had been threatened must have been a moral death, loss of innocence and joy, experience of guilt and woe. . the common usage of the words connected with this subject in the new testament still more clearly substantiates the view here taken of it. there is a class of words, linked together by similarity of meaning and closeness of mutual relation, often used by the christian writers loosely, figuratively, and sometimes interchangeably, as has been shown already in another connection. we mean the words "sin," "flesh," "misery," "death." the same remark may be made of another class of words of precisely opposite signification, "righteousness," "faith," "life," "blessedness," "eternal life." these different words frequently stand to represent the same idea. "as the law hath reigned through sin unto death, so shall grace reign through righteousness unto life." in other terms, as the recognition of the retributive law of god through rebellion and guilt filled the consciences of men with wretchedness, so the acceptance of the pardoning love of god through faith and conformity will fill them with blessedness. sin includes conscious distrust, disobedience, and alienation; righteousness includes conscious faith, obedience, and reconciliation. sin and death, it will be seen, are related just as righteousness and life are. the fact that they are sometimes represented in the relation of identity "the minding of the flesh is death, but the minding of the spirit is life" and sometimes in the relation of cause and effect "the fruit of sin is death, the fruit of righteousness is life" proves that the words are used metaphorically, and really mean conscious guilt and misery, conscious virtue and blessedness. no other view is consistent. we are urged to be "dead unto sin, but alive unto god;" that is, to be in a state of moral perfection which turns a deaf and invincible front to all the influences of evil, but is open and joyfully sensitive to every thing good and holy. paul also wrote, in his letter to the philippians, that he had "not yet attained unto the resurrection," but was striving to attain unto it; that is, he had not yet reached, but was striving to reach, that lofty state of holiness and peace invulnerable to sin, which no change can injure, with which the event of bodily dissolution cannot interfere, because its elements faith, truth, justice, and love are the immutable principles of everlasting life. . in confirmation of this conclusion, an argument amounting to certainty is afforded by the way in which the disobedience of adam and its consequences, and the obedience of christ and its consequences, are spoken of together; by the way in which a sort of antithetical parallel is drawn between the result of adam's fall and the result of christ's mission. "as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin, and so death passed upon all men, so much more shall all receive the gift of god by one man, jesus christ, and reign unto eternal life." this means, as the writer himself afterwards explains, that "as by one man's disobedience many were made sinners" and suffered the consequences of sin, figuratively expressed by the word "death," "so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous" and enjoy the consequences of righteousness, figuratively expressed by the word "life." give the principal terms in this passage their literal force, and no meaning which is not absolutely incompatible with the plainest truths can be drawn from it. surely literal death had come equally and fully upon all men everywhere; literal life could do no more. but render the idea in this way, the blessedness offered to men in the revelation of grace made by jesus outweighs the wretchedness brought upon them through the sin introduced by adam, and the sense is satisfactory. that which adam is represented as having lost, that, the apostle affirms, christ restored; that which adam is said to have incurred, that christ is said to have removed. but christ did not restore to man a physical immortality on the earth: therefore that is not what adam forfeited; but he lost peace of conscience and trust in the divine favor. furthermore, christ did not free his followers from natural decay and death: therefore that is not what adam's transgression brought upon his children; but it entailed upon them proclivities to evil, spiritual unrest, and woe. the basis of the comparison is evidently this: adam's fall showed that the consequences of sin, through the stern operation of the law, were strife, despair, and misery, all of which is implied in the new testament usage of the word "death;" christ's mission showed that the consequences of righteousness, through the free grace of god, were faith, peace, and indestructible happiness, all of which is implied in the new testament usage of the word "life." in the mind of paul there was undoubtedly an additional thought, connecting the descent of the soul to the under world with the death of the sinful adam, and its ascent to heaven with the resurrection of the immaculate christ; but this does not touch the argument just advanced, because it does not refer to the cause of physical dissolution, but to what followed that event. . it will not be out of place here to demonstrate that sin actually was not the origin of natural decay, by the revelations of science, which prove that death was a monarch on the earth for ages before moral transgression was known. as the geologist wanders, and studies the records of nature, where earthquake, deluge, and volcano have exposed the structure of the globe and its organic remains in strata piled on strata, upon these, as upon so many pages of the earth's autobiography, he reads the history of a hundred races of animals which lived and died, leaving their bones layer above layer, in regular succession, centuries before the existence of man. it is evident, then, that, independent of human guilt, and from the very first, chemical laws were in force, and death was a part of god's plan in the material creation. as the previous animals perished without sin, so without sin the animal part of man too would have died. it was made perishable from the outset. the important point just here in the theology of paul was, as previously implied, that death was intended to lead the soul directly to heaven in a new "spiritual body" or "heavenly house;" but sin marred the plan, and doomed the soul to go into the under world, a naked manes, when "unclothed" of "the natural body" or "earthly house." the mission of christ was to restore the original plan; and it would be consummated at his second coming. . there is a gross absurdity involved in the supposition that an earthly immortality was the intended destiny of man. that supposition necessarily implies that the whole groundwork of god's first design was a failure, that his great purpose was thwarted and changed into one wholly different. and it is absurd to think such a result possible in the providence of the almighty. besides, had there been no sin, could not man have been drowned if he fell into the water without knowing how to swim? if a building tumbled upon him, would he not have been crushed? nor is this theory free from another still more palpable absurdity; for, had there been no interference of death to remove one generation and make room for another, the world could not support the multitudes with which it would now swarm. moreover, the time would arrive when the earth could not only not afford sustenance to its so numerous inhabitants, but could not even contain them. so that if this were the original arrangement, unless certain other parts which were indisputable portions of it were cancelled, the surplus myriads would have to be removed to some other world. that is just what death accomplishes. consequently, death was a part of god's primal plan, and not a contingence accidentally caused by sin. . if death be the result of sin, then, of course, it is a punishment inflicted upon man for his wickedness. in fact, this is an identical proposition. but death cannot be intended as a punishment, because, viewed in that light, it is unjust. it comes equally upon old and young, good and bad, joyous and wretched. it does not permit the best man to live longest; it does not come with the greatest terror and agony to the most guilty. all these things depend on a thousand contingencies strung upon an iron law, which inheres to the physical world of necessity, and has not its basis and action in the spiritual sphere of freedom, character, and experience. the innocent babe and the hardened criminal are struck at the same instant and die the same death. solomon knew this when he said, "as dieth the fool, so the wise man dieth." death regarded as a retribution for sin is unjust, because it is destitute of moral discrimination. it therefore is not a consequence of transgression, but an era, incident, and step in human existence, an established part of the visible order of things from the beginning. when the new testament speaks of death as a punishment, it always uses the word in a symbolic sense, meaning spiritual deadness and misery, which is a perfect retribution, because it discriminates with unerring exactness. this has been conclusively proved by klaiber, who shows that the peculiar language of paul in regard to the trichotomist division of man into spirit, soul, and body necessarily involves the perception of physical death as a natural fact. . finally, natural death cannot be the penalty of unrighteousness, because it is not a curse and a woe, but a blessing and a privilege. epictetus wrote, "it would be a curse upon ears of corn not to be reaped; and we ought to know that it would be a curse upon man not to die." it cannot be the effect of man's sin, because it is the improvement of man's condition. who can believe it would be better for man to remain on earth forever, under any die neutestamentliche lehre von der sunde and erlosung, ss. . dissert. ii. , . circumstances, than it is for him to go to heaven to such an experience as the faithful follower of christ supposes is there awaiting him? it is not to be thought by us that death is a frowning enemy thrusting us into the gloom of eternal night or into the flaming waves of irremediable torment, but rather a smiling friend ushering us into the endless life of the spiritual world and into the unveiled presence of god. according to the arrangement and desire of god, for us to die is gain: every personal exception to this if there be any exception is caused through the marring interference of personal wickedness with the creator's intention and with natural order. who has not sometimes felt the bondage of the body and the trials of earth, and peered with awful thrills of curiosity into the mysteries of the unseen world, until he has longed for the hour of the soul's liberation, that it might plume itself for an immortal flight? who has not experienced moments of serene faith, in which he could hardly help exclaiming, "i would not live alway; i ask not to stay: oh, who would live alway away from his god?" a favorite of apollo prayed for the best gift heaven could bestow upon man. the god said, "at the end of seven days it shall be granted: in the mean time, live happy." at the appointed hour he fell into a sweet slumber, from which he never awoke. he who regards death as upon the whole an evil does not take the christian's view of it, not even the enlightened pagan's view, but the frightened sensualist's view, the superstitious atheist's view. and if death be upon the whole normally a blessing, then assuredly it cannot be a punishment brought upon man by sin. the common hypothesis of our mortality namely, that sin, hereditarily lodged in the centre of man's life, spreads its dynamic virus thence until it appears as death in the periphery, expending its final energy within the material sphere in the dissolution of the physical frame is totally opposed to the spirit of philosophy and to the most lucid results of science. science announces death universally as the initial point of new life. the new testament does not teach that natural death, organic separation, is the fruit of sin, that, if man had not sinned, he would have lived forever on the earth. but it teaches that moral death, misery, is the consequence of sin. the pains and afflictions which sometimes come upon the good without fault of theirs do yet spring from human faults somewhere, with those exceptions alone that result from the necessary contingencies of finite creatures, exposures outside the sphere of human accountability. with this qualification, it would be easy to show in detail that the sufferings of the private individual and of mankind at large are, directly or indirectly, the products of guilt, violated law. all the woes, for instance, of poverty are the results of selfishness, pride, ignorance, and vice. and it is the same with every other class of miseries. "the world in titanic immortality writhes beneath the burning mountain of its sins." herod. i. ; cic. tusc. quast. i. . klencke, das buch vom tode. entwurf einer lehre vom sterben in der natur und vom tode des mensehen insbesondere. fur denkende freunde der wissenschaft. had there been no sin, men's lives would have glided on like the placid rivers that flow through the woodlands. they would have lived without strife or sorrow, grown old without sadness or satiety, and died without a pang or a sigh. but, alas! sin so abounds in the world that "there is not a just man that lives and sins not;" and it is a truth whose omnipresent jurisdiction can neither be avoided nor resisted that every kind of sin, every offence against divine order, shall somewhere, at some time, be judged as it deserves. he who denies this only betrays the ignorance which conceals from him a pervading law of inevitable application, only reveals the degradation and insensibility which do not allow him to be conscious of his own experience. a harmonious, happy existence depends on the practice of pure morals and communion with the love of god. this great idea that the conscientious culture of the spiritual nature is the sole method of divine life is equally a fundamental principle of the gospel and a conclusion of observation and reason: upon the devout observance of it hinge the possibilities of true blessedness. the pursuit of an opposite course necessitates the opposite experience, makes its votary a restless, wretched slave, wishing for freedom but unable to obtain it. the thought just stated, we maintain, strikes the key note of the christian scriptures; and the voices of truth and nature accord with it. that christianity declares sin to be the cause of spiritual death, in all the deep and wide meaning of the term, has been fully shown; that this is also a fact in the great order of things has been partially illustrated, but in justice to the subject should be urged, in a more precise and adequate form. in the first place, there is a positive punishment flowing evidently from sin, consisting both in outward inflictions of suffering and disgrace through human laws and social customs, and in the private endurance of bodily and mental pains and of strange misgivings that load the soul with fear and anguish. subjection to the animal nature in the obedience of unrighteousness sensibly tends to bring upon its victim a woeful mass of positive ills, public and personal, to put him under the vile tyranny of devouring lusts, to induce deathlike enervation and disease in his whole being, to pervade his consciousness with the wretched gnawings of remorse and shame, and with the timorous, tormenting sense of guilt, discord, alienation, and condemnation. in the second place, there is a negative punishment for impurity and wrong doing, less gross and visible than the former, but equally real and much more to be dreaded. sin snatches from a man the prerogatives of eternal life, by brutalizing and deadening his nature, sinking the spirit with its delicate delights in the body and its coarse satisfactions, making him insensible to his highest good and glory, lowering him in the scale of being away from god, shutting the gates of heaven against him, and leaving him to wallow in the mire. the wages of sin is misery, and its gift is a degradation which prevents any elevation to true happiness. these positive and negative retributions, however delayed or disguised, will come where they are deserved, and will not fail. do a wrong deed from a bad motive, and, though you fled on the pinions of the inconceivable lightning from one end of infinite space to the other, the fated penalty would chase you through eternity but that you should pay its debt; or, rather, the penalty is grappling with you from within on the instant, is a part of you. thirdly, if, by the searing of his conscience and absorption in the world, a sinner escapes for a season the penal consequences threatened in the law, and does not know how miserable he is, and thinks he is happy, yet let him remember that the remedial, restorative process through which he must pass, either in this life or in the next, involves a concentrated experience of expiatory pangs, as is shown both by the reason of the thing and by all relevant analogies. when the bad man awakes as some time or other he will awake to the infinite perfections and unalterable love of the father whose holy commands he has trampled and whose kind invitations he has spurned, he will suffer agonies of remorseful sorrow but faintly shadowed in the bitterness of peter's tears when his forgiving master looked on him. such is the common deadness of our consciences that the vices of our corrupt characters are far from appearing to us as the terrific things they really are. angels, looking under the fleshly garment we wear, and seeing a falsehood or a sin assimilated as a portion of our being, turn away with such feeling as we should experience at beholding a leprous sore beneath the lifted ermine of a king. a well taught christian will not fail to contemplate physical death as a stupendous, awakening crisis, one of whose chief effects will be the opening to personal consciousness, in the most vivid manner, of all the realities of character, with their relations towards things above and things below himself. this thought leads us to a fourth and final consideration, more important than the previous. the tremendous fact that all the inwrought elements and workings of our being are self retributive, their own exceeding great and sufficient good or evil, independent of external circumstances and sequences, is rarely appreciated. men overlook it in their superficial search after associations, accompaniments, and effects. when all tangible punishments and rewards are wanting, all outward penalties and prizes fail, if we go a little deeper into the mysterious facts of experience we shall find that still goodness is rewarded and evil is punished, because "the mind is its own place, and can itself," if virtuous, "make a heaven of hell, if wicked, "a hell of heaven." it is a truth, springing from the very nature of god and his irreversible relations towards his creatures, that his united justice and love shall follow both holiness and iniquity now and ever, pouring his beneficence upon them to be converted by them into their food and bliss or into their bane and misery. there is, then, no essential need of adventitious accompaniments or results to justify and pay the good, or to condemn and torture the bad, here or hereafter. to be wise, and pure, and strong, and noble, is glory and blessedness enough in itself. to be ignorant, and corrupt, and mean, and feeble, is degradation and horror enough in itself. the one abides in true life, the other in moral death; and that is sufficient. even now, in this world, therefore, the swift and diversified retributions of men's characters and lives are in them and upon them, in various ways, and to a much greater extent than they are accustomed to think. history preaches this with all her revealing voices. philosophy lays it bare, and points every finger at the flaming bond that binds innocence to peace, guilt to remorse. it is the substance of the gospel, emphatically pronounced. and the clear experience of every sensitive soul confirms its truth, echoing through the silent corridors of the conscience the declarations which fell in ancient judea from the lips of jesus and the pen of paul: "the pure in heart shall see god;" "the wages of sin is death." we will briefly sum up the principal positions of the ground we have now traversed. to be enslaved by the senses in the violation of the divine laws, neglecting the mind and abusing the members, is to be dead to the goodness of god, the joys of virtue, and the hopes of heaven, and alive to guilt, anguish, and despair. to obey the will of god in love, keeping the body under, and cherishing a pure soul, is to be dead to the evil of the world, the goading of passions, and the fears of punishment, and alive to innocence, happiness, and faith. according to the natural plan of things from the dawn of creation, the flesh was intended to fall into the ground, but the spirit to rise into heaven. suffering is the retributive result and accumulated merit of iniquity; while enjoyment is the gift of god and the fruit of conformity to his law. to receive the instructions of christ and obey them with the whole heart, walking after his example, is to be quickened from that deadly misery into this living blessedness. the inner life of truth and goodness thus revealed and proposed to men, its personal experience being once obtained, is an immortal possession, a conscious fount springing up unto eternity through the beneficent decree of the father, to play forever in the light of his smile and the shadow of his arm. such are the great component elements of the christian doctrine of life and death, both present and eternal. the purely interior character of the genuine teachings of christianity on this subject is strikingly evident in the foregoing epitome. the essential thing is simply that the hate life of error and sin is inherent alienation from god, in slavery, wretchedness, death; while the love life of truth and virtue is inherent communion with god, in conscious freedom and blessedness. here pure christianity leaves the subject, declaring this with authority, but not pretending to clear up the mysteries or set forth the details of the subject. whatever in the new testament goes beyond this and meddles with minute external circumstances we regard as a corrupt addition or mixture drawn from various gentile and pharisaic sources and erroneously joined with the authentic words of christ. what we maintain in regard to the apostles and the early christians in general is not so much that they failed to grasp the deep spiritual principles of the master's teaching, not that they were essentially in error, but that, while they held the substance of the savior's true thoughts, they also held additional notions which were errors retained from their pharisaic education and only partially modified by their succeeding christian culture, a set of traditional and mechanical conceptions. these errors, we repeat, concern not the heart and essence of ideas, but their form and clothing. for instance, christ teaches that there is a heaven for the faithful; the apostles suppose that it is a located region over the firmament. the dying stephen said, "behold, i see the heavens opened, and the son of man standing at the right hand of god." again: christ teaches that there is a banishment for the wicked; the apostles suppose that it is into a located region under the earth. in accordance with the theological dogmas of their time and countrymen, with such modification as the peculiar character, teachings, and life of jesus enforced, they believed that sin sent through the black gates of sheol those who would otherwise have gone through the glorious doors of heaven; that christ would return from heaven soon, raise the dead from the under world, judge them, rebanish the reprobate, establish his perfect kingdom on earth, and reascend to heaven with his elect. that these distinctive notions came into the new testament through the mistakes and imperfect knowledge of the apostles, how can any candid and competent scholar doubt? in the first place, the process whereby these conceptions were transmitted and assimilated from zoroastrian persia to pharisaic judea is historically traceable. secondly, the brevity and vagueness of the apostolic references to eschatology, and their perfect harmony with known pharisaic beliefs, prove their mutual consonance and the derivation of the later from the earlier. if the supposed christian views had been unheard of before, their promulgators would have taken pains to define them carefully and give detailed expositions of them. thirdly, it was natural almost inevitable that the apostles would retain at least some of their original peculiarities of belief, and mix them with their new ideas, unless they were prevented by an infallible inspiration. of the presence of any such infallibility there is not a shadow of evidence; but, on the contrary, there is a demonstration of its absence. for they differed among themselves, carried on violent controversies on important points. paul says of peter, "i withstood him to the face." the gentile and judaic dissensions shook the very foundations of the apostolic church. paul and barnabas "had a sharp controversy, insomuch that they parted asunder." almost every commentator and scholar worthy of notice has been compelled to admit the error of the apostles in expecting the visible return of christ in their own day. and, if they erred in that, they might in other matters. the progress of positive science and the improvement of philosophical thought have rendered the mechanical dogmas popularly associated with christianity incredible to enlightened minds. for this reason, as for many others, it is the duty of the christian teacher to show that those dogmas are not an integral part of the gospel, but only an adventitious element imported into it from an earlier and unauthoritative system. take away these incongruous and outgrown errors, and the pure religion of christ will be seen, and will be seen to be the everlasting truth of god. in attempting to estimate the actual influence of christianity, wherever it has spread, in establishing among men a faith in immortality, we must specify six separate considerations. first, the immediate reception of the resurrection and ascension of christ as a miraculous and typical fact, putting an infallible seal on his teachings, and demonstrating, even to the senses of men, the reality of a heavenly life, was an extremely potent influence in giving form and vigor to faith, more potent for ages than every thing else combined. the image of the victorious christ taken up to heaven and glorified there forever, this image, pictured in every believer's mind, stimulated the imagination and kept an ideal vision of heaven in constant remembrance as an apprehended reality. "there is jesus," they said, pointing up to heaven; "and there one day we shall be with him." secondly, the obloquy and desertion experienced by the early christians threw them back upon a double strength of spiritual faith, and opened to them an intensified communion with god. as worldly goods and pleasures were sacrificed, the more powerful became their eschatologie, oder die lebre von den letzten dingen. mit besonderer rucksicht anf die gangbare irriehre vom hades. basel, . de wette interprets the doctrine of christ's descent into hades as a myth derived from the idea that he was the savior not only of his living followers but also of the heathen and the dead. bibl. dogmatik, s. . perception of moral truths and their grasp of invisible treasures. the more fiercely they were assailed, the dearer became the cause for which they suffered, and the more profoundly the moral springs of faith were stirred in their souls. the natural revulsion of their souls was from destitution, contempt, peril, and pain on earth to a more vivid and magnified trust in a great reward laid up for them in heaven. thirdly, the unflinching zeal kindled in the early confessors of christianity, the sublime heroism shown by them amidst the awful tortures inflicted on them by the persecuting jews and romans, reacted on their brethren to give profounder firmness and new intensity to their faith in a glorious life beyond the grave. the christians thrown into the amphitheatre to the lions calmly kneeled in prayer, and to the superstitious bystanders a bright nimbus seemed to play around their brows and heaven to be opened above. as they perished at the stake, amidst brutal jeers and shrivelling flames, serenely maintaining their profession, and calling on christ, over the lurid vista of smoke and fire broke on their rapt vision the blessed splendors of paradise; and their joy seemed, to the enthusiastic believers around, no less than a divine inspiration, confirming their faith, and preaching, through the unquestionable truthfulness of martyrdom, the certainty of immortal life. the survivors celebrated the anniversaries of the martyrs' deaths as their birthdays into the endless life. fourthly, another means by which christianity operated to deepen and spread a belief in the future life was, indirectly, through its influence in calling out and cultivating the affections of the heart. the essence of the gospel in theory, as taught by all its teachers, in fact, as incarnated by christ, and in practice, as working in history is love. from the first it condemned and tended to destroy all the coldness and hatred of human hearts; and it strove to elicit and foster every kindly sentiment and generous impulse, to draw its disciples together by those yearning ties of sympathy and devotion which instinctively demand and divinely prophesy an eternal union in a better world. the more mightily two human hearts love each other, the stronger will be their spontaneous longing for immortality. the unrivalled revelation of the disinterested love of god made by christianity, and its effect in refining and increasing the love of men, have contributed in a most important degree to sanction and diffuse the faith in a blessed life reserved for men hereafter. one remarkable specification may be noticed. the only pagan description of children in the future life is that given by some of the classic poets, who picture the infant shades lingering in groups around the dismal gates of the under world, weeping and wailing because they could never find admittance. "continuo audita voces, vagitus et ingens, infantumque animaflentes in limine primo." go the long round of the pagan heavens, you will find no trace of a child. children were withered blossoms blown to oblivion. the soft breezes that fanned the blessed isles and played through the perennial summer of elysium blew upon no infant brows. the grave held all the children very fast. by the memorable words, "of such is the kingdom of heaven," christ unbarred the portals of the future world and revealed therein hosts of angelic children. ever since then children have been seen in heaven. the poet has sung that the angel child is first on the wing to welcome the parent home. painters have shown us, in their visions of the blessed realms, crowds of cherubs, have shown us "how at the almighty father's hand, nearest the throne of living light, the choirs of infant seraphs stand, and dazzling shine where all are bright." fifthly, the triumphant establishment of christianity in the world has thrown the prestige of public opinion, the imposing authority of general affirmation and acceptance, around its component doctrines chief among which is the doctrine of immortality and secured in their behalf the resistless influences of current custom and education. from the time the gospel was acknowledged by a nation as the true religion, each generation grew up by habitual tutelage to an implicit belief in the future life. it became a dogma not to be questioned. and the reception of it was made more reasonable and easy by the great superiority of its moral features over those of the relative superstitions embodied in the ethnic religions which christianity displaced. finally, christianity has exerted no small influence both in expressing and imparting faith in immortality by means of the art to which it has given birth. the christian ritual and symbolism, which culminated in the middle age, from the very first had their vitality and significance in the truth of another life. every phase and article of them implied, and with mute or vocal articulation proclaimed, the superiority and survival of mind and heart, the truth of the gospel history, the reality of the opened heaven. who, in the excited atmosphere, amidst the dangers, living traditions, and dramatic enactments of that time, could behold the sacraments of the church, listen to a mighty chant, kneel beside a holy tomb, or gaze on a painting of a gospel scene, without feeling that the story of christ's ascent to god was true, being assured that elsewhere than on earth there was a life for the believer, and in rapt imagination seeing visions of the supernatural kingdom unveiled? the inmost thought or sentiment of mediaval art to adapt a remarkable passage from heine was the depression of the body and the elevation of the soul. statues of martyrs, pictures of crucifixions, dying saints, pale, faint sufferers, drooping heads, long, thin arms, meager bones, poor, awkwardly hung dresses, emaciated features celestially illuminated by faith and love, expressed the christian self denial and unearthliness. architecture enforced the same lesson as sculpture and painting. entering a cathedral, we at once feel the soul exalted, the flesh degraded. the inside of the dome is itself a hollow cross, and we walk there within the very witness work of martyrdom. the gorgeous windows fling their red and green lights upon us like drops of blood and decay. funereal music wails and fades away along the dim arches. under our feet are gravestones and corruption. with the colossal columns the soul climbs aloft, loosing itself from the body, which sinks to the floor as a weary weed. and when we look on one of these vast gothic structures from without, so airy, graceful, tender, transparent, it seems cut out of one piece, or may be taken for an ethereal lace work of marble. die romantische schule, buch i. then only do we feel the power of the inspiration which could so subdue even stone that it shines spectrally possessed, and make the most insensate of materials voice forth the grand teaching of christianity, the triumph of the spirit over the flesh. in these six ways, therefore, by placing a tangible image of it in the imagination through the resurrection of christ, by the powerful stirring of the springs of moral faith through the persecutions that attended its confession, by the apparent inspiration of the martyrs who died in its strength, by calling out the latent force of the heart's affections that crave it, by the moulding power of establishment, custom, and education, by the spiritualizing, vision conjuring effect of its worship and art, has christianity done a work of incalculable extent in strengthening the world's belief in a life to come. a remarkable evidence of the impression christianity carried before it is furnished by an incident in the history of the missionary paulinus. he had preached before edwin, king of northumbria. an old earl stood up and said, "the life of man seems, when compared with what is hidden, like the sparrow, who, as you sit in your hall, with your thanes and attendants, warmed by the blazing fire, flies through. as he flies through from door to door, he enjoys a brief escape from the chilling storms of rain and snow without. again he goes forth into the winter and vanishes. so seems the short life of man. if this new doctrine brings us something more certain, in my mind it is worthy of adoption." the most glorious triumph of christianity in regard to the doctrine of a future life was in imparting a character of impartialness and universality to the proud, oligarchic faith which had previously excluded from it the great multitude of men. the lofty conceptions of the fate of the soul cherished by the illustrious philosophers of greece and rome were not shared by the commonalty until the gospel its right hand touching the throne of god, its left clasping humanity announced in one breath the resurrection of jesus and the brotherhood of man. "their highest lore was for the few conceived, by schools discuss'd, but not by crowds believed. the angel ladder clomb the heavenly steep, but at its foot the priesthoods lay, asleep. they did not preach to nations, 'lo, your god!' no thousands follow'd where their footsteps trod: not to the fishermen they said, 'arise!' not to the lowly offer'd they the skies. wisdom was theirs: alas! what men most need is no sect's wisdom, but the people's creed. then, not for schools, but for the human kind, the uncultured reason, the unletter'd mind, the poor, the oppress'd, the laborer, and the slave, god said, 'be light!' and light was on the grave! no more alone to sage and hero given, for all wide oped the impartial gates of heaven." compare bengal's essay, quid doctrina de animarum immortalitate religioni christiana debeat. venerable bede, book ii. ch. xiv. bulwer, new timon, part iv. part fourth christian thoughts concerning a future life. chapter i. patristic doctrine of a future life. with reference to the present subject, we shall consider the period of the church fathers as including the nine centuries succeeding the close of the apostolic age. it extends from clement, barnabas, and hermas to oecumenius and gerbert. the principal components of the doctrine of the future life held during this period, though showing some diversities and changes, are in their prevailing features of one consistent type, constituting the belief which would in any of those centuries have been generally recognised by the church as orthodox. for reasons previously given, we believe that jesus himself taught a purely moral doctrine concerning the future life, a doctrine free from arbitrary, mechanical, or sacerdotal peculiarities. with experimental knowledge, with inspired insight, with fullest authority, he set forth conclusions agreeing with the wisest philosophy and confirmatory of our noblest hopes, namely, that a conscious immortality awaits the soul in the many mansions of the father's house, which it enters on leaving the body, and where its experience will depend upon ethical and spiritual conditions. to this simple and sublime doctrine announced by jesus, so rational and satisfactory, we believe for reasons already explained that the apostles joined various additional and modifying notions, judaic and gentile, such as the local descent of christ into the prison world of the dead, his mission there, his visible second coming, a bodily resurrection, a universal scenic judgment, and other kindred views. the sum of results thus reached the fathers developed in greater detail, distinguishing and emphasizing them, and also still further corrupting them with some additional conceptions and fancies, greek and oriental, speculative and imaginative. the peculiar theological work of the apostles in regard to this subject was the organizing of the persian jewish doctrine of the pharisees, with a christian complement and modifications, around the person of christ, and fixing so near in the immediate future the period when it was to be consummated that it might be looked for at any time. the peculiar theological work of the fathers in regard to the doctrine thus formed by the apostles was twofold. first, being disappointed of the expected speedy second coming of christ, they developed the intermediate state of the dead more fully, and made it more prominent. secondly, in the course of the long and vehement controversies which sprang up, they were led to complete and systematize their theology, to define their terms, to explain and defend their doctrines, comparing them together and attempting to harmonize them with history, reason, and ethics, as well as with scripture and tradition. in this way the patristic mind became familiar with many processes of thought, with many special details, and with some general principles, quite foreign to the apostolic mind. meanwhile, defining and systematizing went on, loose notions hardened into rigid dogmas, free thought was hampered by authority, the scheme generally received assumed the title of orthodox, anathematizing all who dared to dissent, and the fundamental outlines of the patristic eschatology were firmly established. in seeking to understand and to give an exposition of this scheme of faith, we have, besides various collateral aids, three chief guidances. first, we possess the symbols or confessions of faith put forth by several of the leading theologians of those times, or by general councils, and openly adopted as authority in many of the churches, the creed falsely called the apostles', extant as early as the close of the third century, the creed of arius, that of cyril, the nicene creed, the creed falsely named the athanasian, and others. secondly, we have the valuable assistance afforded by the treatises of irenaus, tertullian, epiphanius, augustine, and others still later, on the heresies that had arisen in the church, treatises which make it easy to infer, by contrast and construction, what was considered orthodox from the statement of what was acknowledged heretical. and, thirdly, abundant resources are afforded us in the extant theological dissertations, and historical documents of the principal ecclesiastical authors of the time in review, a cycle of well known names, sweeping from theophilus of antioch to photius of byzantium, from cyprian of carthage to maurus of mentz. we think that any candid person, mastering these sources of information in the illustrating and discriminating light of a sufficient knowledge of the previous and the succeeding related opinions, will recognise in the following abstract a fair representation of the doctrine of a future life as it was held by the orthodox fathers of the christian church in the period extending from the first to the tenth century. before proceeding to set forth the common patristic scheme, a few preliminary remarks are necessary in relation to some of the peculiar, prominent features of origen's theology, and in relation to the rival systems of augustine and pelagius. origen was a man of vast learning, passionately fond of philosophy; and he modifyingly mingled a great many oriental and platonic notions with his theology. he imagined that innumerable worlds like this had existed and perished before it, and that innumerable others will do so after it in endless succession. he held that all souls whether devils, men, angels, or of whatever rank were of the same nature; that all who exist in material bodies are imprisoned in them as a punishment for sins committed in a previous state; the fig leaves in which adam and eve were dressed after their sin were the fleshly bodies they were compelled to assume on being expelled from the paradise of their previous existence; that in proportion to their sins they are confined in subtile or gross bodies of adjusted grades until by penance and wisdom they slowly win their bretschneider, was lehren die altesten kirchenvater uber die entstehung der sude und des todes, adam's vergehen und die versohnung durch christum. oppositionsschrift, band viii. hft. , ss. - . de principiis, lib. lit. cap. . deliverance, this gradual descent and ascent of souls being figuratively represented by jacob's ladder; that all punishments and rewards are exactly fitted to the degree of sin or merit, without possibility of failure; that all suffering even that in the lowest hell is benevolent and remedial, so that even the worst spirits, including satan himself, shall after a time be restored to heaven; that this alternation of fall and restoration shall be continued so often as the cloy and satiety of heavenly bliss, or the preponderant power of temptation, pervert free will into sin. he declared that it was impossible to explain the phenomena and experience of human life, or to justify the ways of god, except by admitting that souls sinned in a pre existent state. he was ignorant of the modern doctrine of vicarious atonement, considered as placation or satisfaction, and regarded christ's suffering not as a substitute for ours, but as having merely the same efficacy in kind as the death of any innocent person, only more eminent in degree. he represents the mission of christ to be to show men that god can forgive and recall them from sin, banishment, and hell, and to furnish them, in various ways, helps and incitements to win salvation. the foregoing assertions, and other kindred points, are well established by mosheim, in his exposition of the characteristic views of origen. the famous controversy between augustine and pelagius shook christendom for a century and a half, and has rolled its echoing results even to the theological shores of to day. augustine was more calvinistic in his doctrines than the fathers before him, and even than most of those after him. in a few particulars perhaps a majority of the fathers really agreed more nearly with pelagius than with him. but his system prevailed, and was publicly adopted for all christendom by the third general council at ephesus in the year . yet some of its principles, in their full force, were actually not accepted. for instance, his dogma of unconditional election that some were absolutely predestinated to eternal salvation, others to eternal damnation has never been taught by the roman catholic church. when gottschalk urged it in the ninth century, it was condemned as a heresy; and among the protestants in the sixteenth century calvin was obliged to fight for it against odds. augustine's belief must therefore be taken as a representation of the general patristic belief only with caution and with qualifications. the distinctive views of augustine as contrasted with those of pelagius were as follow. augustine held that, by adam's fault, a burden of sin was entailed on all souls, dooming them, without exception, to an eternal banishment in the infernal world. pelagius denied the doctrine of "original sin," and made each one responsible only for his own personal sins. augustine taught that baptism was necessary to free its subject from the power which the devil had over the soul on account of original sin, and that all would infallibly be doomed to hell who were not baptized, except, first, the ancient saints, who foreknew the evangelic doctrines and believed, and, secondly, the martyrs, whose blood was their baptism. pelagius claimed that christian baptism was only necessary to secure an ibid. lib. ii. cap. , . commentaries on the affairs of the christians in the first three centuries: third century sects. - . hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. . wiggers, augustinism and pelagianism, trans. from the german by r. emerson, ch. xix.; also pp. , , , . entrance into heaven: infants and good men, if unbaptized; would enjoy a happy immortality in paradise, but they never could enter the kingdom of heaven. augustine affirmed that adam's sin destroyed the freedom of the will in the whole human race. pelagius asserted the freedom of the individual will. augustine declared that a few were arbitrarily elected to salvation from eternity, and that christ died only for them. pelagius taught that salvation or reprobation depended on personal deserts, and that the divine election was merely through prescience of merits. augustine said that saving grace was supernatural, irresistible, unattainable by human effort. pelagius said it might be won or resisted by conformity to certain conditions in each person's power. augustine believed that bodily death was inflicted as a punishment for sin; pelagius, that it was the result of a natural law. the extensive, various learning, massive, penetrating mind, and remorseless logical consistency, of augustine, enabled him to gather up the loose, floating theological elements and notions of the time, and generalize them into a complete system, in striking harmony, indeed, with the general character and drift of patristic thought, but carried out more fully in its details and applied more unflinchingly in its principles than had been done before, and therefore in some of its dogmas outstripping the current convictions of his contemporaries. his dogma of election was too revolting and immoral ever to win universal assent; and few could have the heart to unite with him in stigmatizing the whole human race in their natural state as "one damned batch and mass of perdition!" (conspersio damnata, massa perditionis.) with these hints, we are ready to advance to the general patristic scheme of eschatology. the exceptional variations and heresies will be referred to afterwards. first, in regard to the natural state of men under the law, from the time of adam's sin to the time of christ's suffering, their moral condition and destination, no one can deny that the fathers commonly supposed that the dissolution of the body and the descent of the soul to the under world were a penalty brought on all men through the sin of the first man. wherever the lengthening line of human generations wandered, the trail of the serpent, stamp of depravity, was on them, sealing them as death's and marking them for the hadean prison. this was the indiscriminate and the inevitable doom. there is no need of citing proofs of this statement, as it is well known that the writings of the fathers are thronged both with indirect implications and with explicit avowals of it. secondly, they thought that christ came from heaven to redeem men from their lost state and subterranean bondage and to guide them to heaven. augustine, and perhaps some others, maintained that he came merely to effectuate the salvation of a foreordained few; but undoubtedly the common belief was that he came to redeem all who would conform to certain conditions which he proposed and made feasible. the important question here is, what did the fathers suppose the essence of christ's redemptive work to be? and how, in their estimation, did he achieve that work? was it the renewal and sanctification of human character by the melting power of a proclamation of mercy and love from god, by the regenerating influences and motives of the truths and appeals spoken by his lips, illustrated in gen. lib. ix. cap. , : "parents would have yielded to children not by death, but by translation, and would have become as the angels." in his life, and brought to a focus in his martyr death? certainly this was too plainly and prominently a part of the mission of christ ever to be wholly overlooked. and yet one acquainted with the writings of the fathers can hardly mistake so widely as to think that they esteemed this the principal element in christ's redemptive work. was the essence of that work, then, the making of a vicarious atonement, according to the calvinistic interpretation of that phrase, the offering of a substitutional anguish sufficient to satisfy the claims of inexorable justice, so that the guilty might be pardoned? no. the modern doctrine of the atonement the satisfaction theory, as it is called was unknown to the fathers. it was developed, step by step, after many centuries. it did not receive its acknowledged form until it came from the mind of the great archbishop of canterbury, anselm, as late as the twelfth century. no scholar will question this confessed fact. what, then, were the essence and method of christ's redemptive mission according to the fathers? in brief, they were these. he was, as they believed, a superangelic being, the only begotten son of god, possessing a nature, powers, and credentials transcending those delegated to any other being below god himself. he became flesh, to seek and to save the lost. this saving work was done not by his mortal sufferings alone, but by the totality of labors extending through the whole period of his incarnation. the subjective or moral part of his redemptive mission was to regenerate the characters of men and fit them for heaven by his teachings and example; the objective or physical part was to deliver their souls from the fatal confinement of the under world and secure for them the gracious freedom of the sky, by descending himself as the suppressing conqueror of death and then ascending as the beckoning pioneer of his followers. the fathers did not select the one point or act of christ's death as the pivot of human redemption; but they regarded that redemption as wrought out by the whole of his humiliation, instruction, example, suffering, and triumph, as the resultant of all the combined acts of his incarnate drama. run over the relevant writings of justin martyr, clement of alexandria, lactantius, cyril, ambrose, augustine himself, jerome, chrysostom, and the rest of the prominent authors of the first ten centuries, and you cannot fail to be struck with the fact that they invariably speak of redemption, not in connection with christ's death alone, but emphatically in connection with the group of ideas, his incarnation, death, descent, resurrection, and ascension! for the most part, they received it by tradition as a fact, without much philosophizing, that, in consequence of the sin of adam, all men were doomed to die, that is, to leave their bodies and descend into the shadowy realm of death. they also accepted it as a fact, without much attempt at theoretical explanation, that when christ, the sinless and resistless son of god, died and went thither, before his immaculate divinity the walls fell, the devils fled, the prisoners' chains snapped, and the power of satan was broken. they received it as a fact that through the mediation of christ the original boon forfeited by adam was to be restored, and that men, instead of undergoing death and banishment to hades, should be translated to heaven. so far as they had a theory about the cause, it turned on two simple points: first, the free grace and love of god; second, the self sacrifice and sufficient power of hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. . christ. in the progressive course of dogmatic controversy, metaphysical speculation, and desire for system, explanations have been devised in a hundred different forms, from that of aquinas to that of calvin; from that of anselm to that of grotius; from that of socinus to that of bushnell. tertullian describes the profound abyss beneath the grave, in the bowels of the earth, where, he says, all the dead are detained unto the day of judgment, and where christ in his descent made the patriarchs and prophets his companions. augustine says that nearly the whole church agreed in believing that christ delivered adam from the under world when he rose thence himself. one must be very ignorant on the subject to doubt that the fathers attributed unrivalled importance to the literal descent of christ into the abode of the departed. thirdly, after the advent of christ, what were the conditions proposed for the actual attainment of personal salvation? it was the orthodox belief that christ led up into paradise with him the ancient saints who were awaiting his appearance in the under world: but with this exception it was not supposed that he saved any outright: he only put it in their power to save themselves, removing the previously insuperable obstacles. in the faith of those who accepted the dogma of predestination, of course, the presupposed condition of actual personal salvation was that the given individual should become one of the elect number. but it seems to have been usually believed that baptism was indispensable to give final efficacy to the decree of election in each individual case. augustine says, "all are born under the power of the devil, held in chains by him as a jailer: baptism alone, through the force of christ's redemptive work, breaks these chains and secures heaven." in regard to this necessity of baptism pelagius agreed with his great adversary, saving an unessential modification, as we have seen before. the same may be said of cyprian, tertullian, and many other leading fathers. again, the so called athanasian creed, which shows the prevalent opinion of the church in the fifth and sixth centuries, asserts that whoso believes not in the trinity and kindred dogmas as therein laid down "without doubt shall perish everlastingly." in other words, assent of mind to the established creed of the church is a vital condition of salvation. finally, in the writings of nearly all of the fathers we find frequent declarations of the necessity of moral virtue, righteous conduct, and piety, as a condition of admission into the kingdom of heaven. for example, augustine says, "such as have been baptized, partaken of the sacraments, and remained always in the catholic faith, but have led wicked lives, can have no hope of escaping eternal damnation." these points were not sharply defined, authoritatively established, and consistently adhered to; and yet there was a pretty general agreement among the body of the fathers that for actual salvation there were three practical necessary conditions, baptism, a sound faith, a good life. de anima, sects. et . epist. clxiv. huidekoper, belief of the first three centuries concerning christ's mission to the under world. augustine, de civ. del. lib. xx. cap. xv. wiedenfeld, de exorcismi origine, mutatione, deque hujus actus peragendi ratione neander, church history, vol. i. p. torrey's trans. de civ. dei., lib. xxi. cap. xxv. fourthly, the fathers believed that none of the righteous dead could be admitted into heaven itself, the abode of god and his angels, until after the second coming of christ and the holding of the general judgment; neither were any of the reprobate dead, according to their view, to be thrust into hell itself until after those events; but meanwhile all were detained in an intermediate state, the justified in a peaceful region of the under world enjoying some foretaste of their future blessedness, the condemned in a dismal region of the same under world suffering some foretaste of their future torment. after the numerous evidences given in previous chapters of the prevalence of this view among the fathers, it would be superfluous to cite further authorities here. we will only reply to an objection which may be urged. it may be said, the fathers believed that enoch and elijah were translated to heaven, also that the patriarchs, whom christ rescued on his descent to hades, were admitted thither, and, furthermore, that the martyrs by special privilege were granted entrance there. the point is an important one. the reply turns on the broad distinction made by the fathers between heaven and paradise. some of the fathers regarded paradise as one division of the under world; some located it in a remote and blessed region of the earth; others thought it was high in the air, but below the dwelling place of god. now, it was to "paradise," not to heaven, that the dying thief, penitent on the cross, was promised admission. it was of "paradise," not of heaven, that tertullian said "the blood of the martyrs is the perfect key." so, too, when jerome, chrysostom, and others speak of a few favored ones delivered from the common fate before the day of judgment, it is "paradise," and not heaven, that is represented as being thrown open to them. irenaus says, "those who were translated were translated to the paradise whence disobedient adam was driven into the world." a notable attempt has been repeatedly made for example, by the famous dr. coward, by dodwell, and by some other more obscure writers to prove that the fathers of the greek church, in opposition to the latin fathers, denied the consciousness of the soul during the interval from death to the resurrection, and maintained that the soul died with the body and would be restored with it at the last day. but this is an error arising from the misinterpretation of the figurative terms in which the greek fathers express themselves. tatian, justin, theophilus, and irenaus do not differ from the others in reality, but only in words. the opinion that the soul is literally mortal is erroneously attributed to those greek fathers, who in truth no more held it than tertullian did. "the death" they mean is, to borrow their own language, "deprived of the rays of divine light, to bear a deathly immortality," (in immortalitate mortem tolerantes,) an eternal existence in the ghostly under world. the con they feel, as novatian says, (de trinitate, ,) a prajudicium futuri judicii. see also ernesti, excurs. de veter. patrum opinione de statu medio animor. a corpore sejunctorum. in his lect. acad. in ep. ad hebr. e. g., see ambrose, de paradiso. adv. hares., lib. v. cap. v. see this point ably argued in an academic dissertation published at konigsberg, , bearing the title "antiquissimorum ecclesia grsecte patrum de immortalitate anima sententia recensentur." they held that the inner man was originally a spirit [non-ascii characters omitted] and a soul [non-ascii characters omitted] blended and immortal, that is, indestructibly united and blessed. but by sin the soul loses the spirit and becomes subject to death. that is, to ignorance of its divine origin, alienation from god, darkness, and an abode in hades. by the influences flowing from the mission of christ, man is elevated again to conscious communion with god, and the spirit is restored to the soul. "si restituitur, manet [non-ascii characters omitted] fit autem [non-ascii characters omitted]; si non restituitur, manet [non-ascii characters omitted], fit autem [non-ascii characters omitted], quod haud differt a morte." cordant doctrine of the fathers as to the intermediate state of the dead was that, with the exception of a few admitted to paradise, they were in the under world waiting the fulness of time, when the world should be judged and their final destination be assigned to them. as tertullian says, "constituimus omnem animam apud inferos seguestrari in diem domini." finally, the fathers expected that christ would return from heaven, hold a general day of judgment, and consummate all things. the earliest disciples seem to have looked anxiously, almost from hour to hour, for that awful crisis. but, as years rolled on and the last apostle died, and it came not, the date was fixed more remotely; and, as other years passed away, and still no clear signs of its arrival appeared, the date grew more and more indefinite. some still looked for the solemn dawn speedily to break; others assigned it to the year ; others left the time utterly vague; but none gave up the doctrine. all agreed that sooner or later a time would come when the deep sky would open, and christ, clothed in terrors and surrounded by pomp of angels, would alight on the globe, when: "the angel of the trumpet shall split the charnel earth with his blast so clear and brave, and quicken the charnel birth at the roots of the grave, till the dead all stand erect." augustine, representing the catholic faith, says, "the coming of elias, the conversion of the jews, antichrist's persecution, the setting up of christ's tribunal, the raising of the dead, the severing of the good and the bad, the burning of the world, and its renovation, this is the destined order of events." the saved were to be transported bodily to the eternal bliss of heaven; the damned, in like manner, were to be banished forever to a fiery hell in the centre of the earth, there to endure uncomprehended agonies, both physical and spiritual, without any respite, without any end. there were important, and for a considerable period quite extensive, exceptions, to the belief in this last dogma: nevertheless, such was undeniably the prevailing view, the orthodox doctrine, of the patristic church. the strict literality with which these doctrines were held is strikingly shown in jerome's artless question: "if the dead be not raised with flesh and bones, how can the damned, after the judgment, gnash their teeth in hell?" during the period now under consideration there were great fluctuations, growths, changes, of opinion on three subjects in regard to which the public creeds did not prevent all freedom of thought by laying down definite propositions. we refer to baptism, the millennium, and purgatory. christian baptism was first simply a rite of initiation into the christian religion. then it became more distinctly a symbol of faith in christ and in his gospel, and an emblem of a new birth. next it was imagined to be literally efficacious to de civ. del, lib. xx. cap. , sect. . personal salvation, solving the chains of the devil, washing off original sin, and opening the door of heaven. to trace the doctrine through its historical variations and its logical windings would require a large volume, and is not requisite for our present purpose. almost all the early fathers believingly looked for a millennium, a reign of christ on earth with his saints for a thousand years. daille has shown that this belief was generally held, though with great diversities of conception as to the form and features of the doctrine. it was a jewish notion which crept among the christians of the first century and has been transmitted even to the present day. some supposed the millennium would precede the destruction of the world, others that it would follow that terrible event, after a general renovation. none but the faithful would have part in it; and at its close they would pass up to heaven. irenaus quotes a tradition, delivered by papias, that "in the millennium each vine will bear ten thousand branches, each branch ten thousand twigs, each twig ten thousand clusters, each cluster ten thousand grapes, each grape yielding a hogshead of wine; and if any one plucks a grape its neighbors will cry, take me: i am better!" this, of course, was a metaphor to show what the plenty and the joy of those times would be. according to the heretics cerinthus and marcion, the millennium was to consist in an abundance of all sorts of sensual riches and delights. many of the orthodox fathers held the same view, but less grossly; while others made its splendors and its pleasures mental and moral. origen attacked the whole doctrine with vehemence and cogency. his admirers continued the warfare after him, and the belief in this celestial cocaigne suffered much damage and sank into comparative neglect. the subject rose into importance again at the approaching close of the first chiliad of christianity, but soon died away as the excitement of that ominous epoch passed with equal disappointment to the hopes and the fears of the believers. a galvanized controversy has been carried on about it again in the present century, chiefly excited by the modern sect of second adventists. large volumes have recently appeared, principally aiming to decide whether the millennium is to precede or to follow the second coming of christ! the doctrine itself is a jewish christian figment supported only by a shadowy basis of fancy. the truth contained in it, though mutilated and disguised, is that when the religion of christ is truly enthroned over the earth, when his real teachings and life are followed, the kingdom of god will indeed cover the world, and not for a thousand years only, but unimaginable glory and happiness shall fill the dwellings of the successive generations of men forever. the doctrine of a purgatory a place intermediate between paradise and hell, where souls not too sinful were temporarily punished, and where their condition and stay were in the power of the church on earth, a doctrine which in the middle age became practically neander, planting and training, eng. trans. p. . de usu patrum, lib. ii. cap. . munscher, entwickelung der lehre vom tausendjahrigen reiche in den drei ersten jahrhunderten. in henke's magaz. b. vi. ss. . see e. g. the end, by dr. cumming. the second advent, by d. brown. bush, on the millennium. bishop russell, discourses on the millennium. carroll, geschichte des chiliasmus. the foremost instrument of ecclesiastical influence and income was through the age of the fathers gradually assuming shape and firmness. it seems to have been first openly avowed as a church dogma and effectively organized as a working power by pope gregory the great, in the latter part of the sixth century. no more needs to be said here, as the subject more properly belongs to the next chapter. it but remains in close to notice those opinions relating to the future life which were generally condemned as heresies by the fathers. one of the earliest of these was the destruction of the intermediate state and the denial of the general judgment by the assertion, which paul charges so early as in his day upon hymeneus and philetus, "that the resurrection has passed already;" that is, that the soul, when it leaves the body, passes immediately to its final destination. this opinion reappeared faintly at intervals, but obtained very little prevalence in the early ages of the church. hierax, an author who lived at leontopolis in egypt early in the fourth century, denied the resurrection of the body, and excluded from the kingdom of heaven all who were married and all who died before becoming moral agents. another heretical notion which attracted some attention was the opposite extreme from the foregoing, namely, that the soul totally dies with the body, and will be restored to life with it in the general resurrection at the end of the world; an opinion held by an arabian sect of christians, who were vanquished in debate upon it by origen, and renounced it. still another doctrine known among the fathers was the belief that christ, when he descended into the under world, saved and led away in triumph all who were there, jews, pagans, good, bad, all, indiscriminately. this is number seventy nine in augustine's list of the heresies. and there is now extant among the writings of pope boniface vi, of the ninth century, a letter furiously assailing a man who had recently maintained this "damnable doctrine." the numerous gnostic sects represented by valentinus, cerinthus, marcion, basilides, and other less prominent names, held a system of speculation copious, complex, and of intensely oriental character. that portion of it directly connected with our subject may be stated in few words. they taught that all souls pre existed in a world of pure light, but, sinning through the instigation and craft of demons, they fell, were mixed with darkness and matter, and bound in bodies. through sensual lusts and ignorance, they were doomed to suffer after death in hell for various periods, and then to be born again. jehovah was the enemy of the true god, and was the builder of this world and of hell, wherein he contrives to keep his victims imprisoned by deceiving them to worship him and to live in errors and indulgences. christ came, they said, to reveal the true god, unmask the infernal character and wiles of jehovah, rescue those whom he had cruelly shut up in hell, and teach men the real way of salvation. accordingly, marcion declared that when christ descended into the under world he released and took into his own kingdom cain, and the sodomites, and all the flugge, geschichte der lehre vom zustande des menschen nach dem tode in der christlichen kirche, absch. v. ss. - . eusebius, hist. eccl. lib. vi. cap. . gentiles who had refused to obey the demon worshipped by the jews, but left there, unsaved, abel, enoch, noah, abraham, and the other patriarchs, together with all the prophets. the gnostics agreed in attributing evil to matter, and made the means of redemption to consist in fastings and scourgings of the flesh, with denial of all its cravings, and in lofty spiritual contemplations. of course, with one accord they vehemently assailed the dogma of the resurrection of the flesh. their views, too, were inconsistent with the strict eternity of future hell punishments. the fundamental basis of their system was the same as that of nearly all the oriental philosophies and religions, requiring an ascetic war against the world of sense. the notion that the body is evil, and the cause of evil, was rife even among the orthodox fathers; but they stopped guardedly far short of the extreme to which the gnostics carried it, and indignantly rejected all the strange imaginations which those heretics had devised to explain the subject of evil in a systematic manner. augustine said, "if we say all sin comes from the flesh, we make the fleshless devil sinless!" hermogenes, some of whose views at least were tinged with gnosticism, believed the abyss of hell was formed by the confluence of matter, and that the devil and all his demons would at last be utterly resolved into matter. the theological system of the manichaan sect was in some of its cardinal principles almost identical with those of the gnostics, but it was still more imaginative and elaborate. it started with the persian doctrine of two antagonist deities, one dwelling with good spirits in a world of light and love, the other with demons in a realm of darkness and horror. upon a time the latter, sallying forth, discovered, far away in the vastness of space, the world of light. they immediately assailed it. they were conquered after a terrible struggle and driven back; but they bore with them captive a multitude of the celestial souls, whom they instantly mixed with darkness and gross matter. the good god built this world of mingled light and darkness to afford these imprisoned souls an opportunity to purge themselves and be restored to him. in arranging the material substances to form the earth, a mass of evil fire, with no particle of good in it, was found. it had been left in their flight by the vanquished princes of darkness. this was cast out of the world and shut up somewhere in the dark air, and is the manichaan hell, presided over by the king of the demons. if a soul, while in the body, mortify the flesh, observe a severe ascetic moral discipline, fix its thoughts, affections, and prayers on god and its native home, it will on leaving the body return to the celestial light. but if it neglect these duties and become more deeply entangled in the toils of depraved matter, it is cast into the awful fire of hell, where the cleansing flames of torture partially purify it; and then it is born again and put on a new trial. if after ten successive births twice in each of five different forms the soul be still unreclaimed, then it is permanently remanded to the furnace of hell. at last, when all the celestial souls seized by the princes of darkness have returned to god, save those just mentioned, this world will be burned. then the children irenaus, adv. herres., lib. i. cap. . account of the gnostic sects, in moshelm's comm., ii. century, sect. . lardner, hist. of heretics, ch. xviii. sect. . baur, das manichaische religionssystem. of god will lead a life of everlasting blessedness with him in their native land of light; the prince of evil, with his fiends, will exist wretchedly in their original realm of darkness. then all those souls whose salvation is hopeless shall be drawn out of hell and be placed as a cordon of watchmen and a phalanx of soldiers entirely around the world of darkness, to guard its frontiers forever and to see that its miserable inhabitants never again come forth to invade the kingdom of light. the christian after christ's own pattern, trusting that when the soul left the body it would find a home in some other realm of god's universe where its experience would be according to its deserts, capacity, and fittedness, sought to do the father's will in the present, and for the future committed himself in faith and love to the father's disposal. the apostolic christian, conceiving that christ would soon return to raise the dead and reward his own, eagerly looked for the arrival of that day, and strove that he might be among the saints who, delivered or exempt from the hadean imprisonment, should reign with the triumphant messiah on earth and accompany him back to heaven. the patristic christian, looking forward to the divided under world where all the dead must spend the interval from their decease to the general resurrection, shuddered at the thought of gehenna, and wrestled and prayed that his tarrying might be in paradise until christ should summon his chosen ones, justified from the great tribunal, to the father's presence. the manichaan christian, believing the soul to be imprisoned in matter by demons who fought against god in a previous life, struggled, by fasting, thought, prayer, and penance, to rescue the spirit from its fleshly entanglements, from all worldly snares and illusions, that it might be freed from the necessity of any further abode in a material body, and, on the dissolution of its present tabernacle, might soar to its native light in the blissful pleroma of eternal being. mosheim, comm., iii. century, sects. - . chapter ii. mediaval doctrine of a future life. the period of time covered by the present chapter reaches from the close of the tenth century to the middle of the sixteenth, from the first full establishment of the roman catholic theology and the last general expectation of the immediate end of the world to the commencing decline of mediaval faith and the successful inauguration of the protestant reformation. the principal mental characteristic of that age, especially in regard to the subject of the future life, was fear. "never," says michelet, "can we know in what terrors the middle age lived." there was all abroad a living fear of men, fear of the state, fear of the church, fear of god, fear of the devil, fear of hell, fear of death. preaching consisted very much in the invitation, "submit to the guidance of the church while you live," enforced by the threat, "or you shall go to hell when you die." christianity was practically reduced to some cruel metaphysical dogmas, a mechanical device for rescuing the devil's captives from him, and a system of ritual magic in the hands of a priesthood who wielded an authority of supernatural terrors over a credulous and shuddering laity. it is true that the genuine spirit and contents of christianity were never wholly suppressed. the love of god, the blessed mediation of the benignant jesus, the lowly delights of the beatitudes, the redeeming assurance of pardon, the consoling, triumphant expectation of heaven, were never utterly banished even from the believers of the dark age. undoubtedly many a guilty but repentant soul found forgiveness and rest, many a meek and spotless breast was filled with pious rapture, many a dying disciple was comforted and inspired, by the good tidings proclaimed from priestly lips even then. no doubt the sacred awe and guarded peace surrounding their precincts, the divine lessons inculcated within their walls, the pathetic prayers breathed before their altars, the traditions of saintly men and women who had drawn angelic visitants down to their cells and had risen long ago to be angels themselves, the strains of unearthly melody bearing the hearts of the kneeling crowd into eternity, no doubt these often made cathedral and convent seem "islands of sanctity amidst the wild, roaring, godless sea of the world." still, the chief general feeling of the time in relation to the future life was unquestionably fear springing from belief, the wedlock of superstitious faith and horror. during the six centuries now under review the roman catholic church and theology were the only christianity publicly recognised. the heretics were few and powerless, and the papal system had full sway. since the early part of the period specified, the working theology of the roman church has undergone but few, and, as pertaining to our subject, unimportant, changes or developments. previous to that time her doctrinal scheme was inchoate, gradually assimilating foreign elements and developing itself step by step. the principal changes now concerning us to notice in the passage from patristic eschatology as deducible, for instance, from the works of chrysostom, or as seen in the "apostles' creed" to mediaval eschatology as displayed in the "summa" of thomas aquinas or in the catechism of trent are these. the supposititious details of the under world have been definitely arranged in greater subdivision; heaven has been opened for the regular admission of certain souls; the loose notions about purgatory have been completed and consolidated; and the whole combined scheme has been organized as a working instrument of ecclesiastical power and profit. these changes seem to have been wrought out, first, by continual assimilations of christianity to paganism, both in doctrine and ceremony, to win over the heathen; and, secondly, by modifications and growths to meet the exigencies of doctrinal consistency and practical efficiency, exigencies repeatedly arising from philosophical discussion and political opposition. the degree in which papal christianity was conformed to the prejudices and customs of the heathen believers, whose allegiance was sought, is astonishing. it extended to hundreds of particulars, from the most fundamental principles of theological speculation to the most trivial details of ritual service. we shall mention only a few instances of this kind immediately belonging to the subject we are treating. in the first place, the hierophant in the pagan mysteries, and the initiatory rites, were the prototypes of the roman catholic bishop and the ceremonies under his direction. christian baptism was made to be the same as the pagan initiation: both were supposed to cleanse from sin and to secure for their subject a better fate in the future life: they were both, therefore, sometimes delayed until just before death. the custom of initiating children into the mysteries was also common, as infant baptism became. when the public treasury was low, the magistrates sometimes raised a fund by recourse to the initiating fees of the mysteries, as the christian popes afterwards collected money from the sale of pardons. in the second place, the roman catholic canonization was the same as the pagan apotheosis. among the gentiles, the mass of mankind were supposed to descend to hades at death; but a few favored ones were raised to the sky, deified, and a sort of worship paid to them. so the roman church taught that nearly all souls passed to the subterranean abodes, but that martyrs and saints were admitted to heaven and might lawfully be prayed to. thirdly, the heathen under world was subdivided into several regions, wherein different persons were disposed according to their deserts. the worst criminals were in the everlasting penal fire of tartarus; the best heroes and sages were in the calm meadows of elysium; the hapless children were detained in the dusky borders outside the grim realm of torture; and there was a purgatorial place where those not too guilty were cleansed from their stains. in like manner, the romanist theologians divided the under world into four parts: hell for the final abode of the stubbornly wicked; one limbo for the painless, contented tarrying of the good patriarchs who died before the advent of christ had made salvation possible, and another limbo for the sad and pallid resting place of those children who died unbaptized; purgatory, in which expiation is offered in agony for sins committed on earth and unatoned for. middleton, letter from rome, showing an exact conformity between popery and paganism. lobeck, aglaophamus, lib. i. sect. . mosheim's comm., ch. i. sect. . warburton, div. leg., book ii. sect. . terence, phormio, act i scene . council of trent, sess. vi. can. xxx. sess. xxv.: decree on invocation of saints. see milman, hist. latin christianity, book xiv. ch. ii. before proceeding further, we must trace the prevalence and progress of the doctrine of purgatory a little as it was known before its embodiment in mediaval mythology, and then as it was embodied there. the fundamental doctrine of the hindu hell was that a certain amount of suffering undergone there would expiate a certain amount of guilt incurred here. when the disembodied soul had endured a sufficient quantity of retributive and purifying pain, it was loosed, and sent on earth in a new body. it was likewise a hindu belief that the souls of deceased parents might be assisted out of this purgatorial woe by the prayers and offerings of their surviving children. the same doctrine was held by the persians. they believed souls could be released from purgatory by the prayers, sacrifices, and good deeds of righteous surviving descendants and friends. "zoroaster said he could, by prayer, send any one he chose to heaven or to hell." such representations are found obscurely in the vendidad and more fully in the bundehesh. the persian doctrine that the living had power to affect the condition of the dead is further indicated in the fact that, from a belief that married persons were peculiarly happy in the future state, they often hired persons to be espoused to such of their relatives as had died in celibacy. the doctrine of purgatory was known and accepted among the jews too. in the second book of maccabees we read the following account: "judas sent two thousand pieces of silver to jerusalem to defray the expense of a sin offering to be offered for the sins of those who were slain, doing therein very well and honestly, in that he was mindful of the resurrection. for if he had not hoped that they who were slain should rise again, it had been superfluous and vain to pray for the dead. whereupon he made an atonement for the dead, that they might be delivered from sin." the rabbins taught that children by sin offerings could help their parents out of their misery in the infernal world. they taught, furthermore, that all souls except holy ones, like those of rabbi akiba and his disciples, must lave themselves in the fire river of gehenna; that therein they shall be like salamanders; that the just shall soon be cleansed in the fire river, but the wicked shall be lastingly burned. again, we find this doctrine prevailing among the romans. in the great forum was a stone called "lapis manalis," described by festus, which was supposed to cover the entrance to hell. this was solemnly lifted three times a year, in order to let those souls flow up whose sins had been purged away by their tortures or had been remitted in consideration of the offerings and services paid for them by the living. virgil describes how souls are purified by the action of wind, water, and fire. the feast day of purgatory observed by papal rome corresponds to the lemuria celebrated by pagan rome, and rests on the same doctrinal basis. in the catholic countries of europe at the present time, on all saints' day, festoons of sweet smelling flowers are hung on the tomb stones, and the people kneeling there repeat the prayer prescribed for releasing the souls of their relatives and friends from the plagues of purgatory. there is a notable coincidence between the buddhist see references to "sraddha" in index to vishnu purana. atkinson's trans. of the shah nameh, p. . richardson, dissertation on the language, literature, and manners of the eastern nations, p. . cap. xii. - . eisenmenger, entdecktes judenthum, th. ii. kap. vi. s. . kabbala denudata, tom ii. pars. i. pp. , , . aneid, lib. vi. . . and the romanist usages. throughout the chinese empire, during the seventh moon of every year, prayers are offered up accompanied by illuminations and other rites for the release of souls in purgatory. at these times the buddhist priests hang up large pictures, showing forth the frightful scenes in the other world, to induce the people to pay them money for prayers in behalf of their suffering relatives and friends in purgatory. traces of belief in a purgatory early appear among the christians. many of the gravest fathers of the first five centuries naturally conceived and taught, as is indeed intrinsically reasonable, that after death some souls will be punished for their sins until they are cleansed, and then will be released from pain. the manichaans imagined that all souls, before returning to their native heaven, must be borne first to the moon, where with good waters they would be washed pure from outward filth, and then to the sun, where they would be purged by good fires from every inward stain. after these lunar and solar lustrations, they were fit for the eternal world of light. but the conception of purgatory as it was held by the early christians, whether orthodox fathers or heretical sects, was merely the just and necessary result of applying to the subject of future punishment the two ethical ideas that punishment should partake of degrees proportioned to guilt, and that it should be restorative. jeremy taylor conclusively argues that the prayers for the dead used by the early christians do not imply any belief in the papal purgatory. the severity and duration of the sufferings of the dead were not supposed to be in the power of the living, either their relatives or the clergy, but to depend on the moral and physical facts of the case according to justice and necessity, qualified only by the mercy of god. pope gregory the great, in the sixth century, either borrowing some of the more objectionable features of the purgatory doctrine previously held by the heathen, or else devising the same things himself from a perception of the striking adaptedness of such notions to secure an enviable power to the church, constructed, established, and gave working efficiency to the dogmatic scheme of purgatory ever since firmly defended by the papal adherents as an integral part of the roman catholic system. the doctrine as matured and promulgated by gregory, giving to the representatives of the church an almost unlimited power over purgatory, rapidly grew into favor with the clergy and sank with general conviction into the hopes and fears of the laity. venerable bede, in the eighth century, gives a long account of the fully developed doctrine concerning purgatory, hell, paradise, and heaven. it is narrated in the form of a vision seen by drithelm, who, in a trance, visits the regions which, on his return, he describes. the whole thing is gross, literal, horrible, closely resembling several well known descriptions given under similar circumstances and preserved in ancient heathen writers. the church, seeing how admirably this instrument was calculated to promote her interest and deepen her power, left hardly any means untried to enlarge its sweep and intensify its operation. accordingly, from the ninth to the sixteenth century, no doctrine was so central, prominent, and effective in the common teaching and asiatic journal, , p. , note. mosheim, comm., iii. century, sect. , note . dissuasive from popery, part ii. book ii. sect. . edgar, variations of popery, ch. xvi. hist. ecc., lib. v. cap. xii. see also lib. iii. cap. xix. practice of the church, no fear was so widely spread and vividly felt in the bosom of christendom, as the doctrine and the fear of purgatory. the romanist theory of man's condition in the future life is this, in brief. by the sin of adam, heaven was closed against him and all his posterity, and the devil acquired a right to shut up their disembodied souls in the under world. in consequence of the "original sin" transmitted from adam, every human being, besides suffering the other woes flowing from sin, was helplessly doomed to the under world after death. in addition to this penalty, each one must also answer for his own personal sins. christ died to "deliver mankind from sin," "discharge the punishment due them," and "rescue them from the tyranny of the devil." he "descended into the under world," "subdued the devil," "despoiled the depths," "rescued the fathers and just souls," and "opened heaven." "until he rose, heaven was shut against every child of adam, as it still is to those who die indebted." "the price paid by the son of god far exceeded our debts." the surplus balance of merits, together with the merits accruing from the supererogatory good works of the saints and from the divine sacrifice continually offered anew by the sacrament of the mass, constituted a reserved treasure upon which the church was authorized to draw in behalf of any one she chose to favor. the localities of the future life were these: limbus patrum, or abraham's bosom, a place of peace and waiting, where the good went who died before christ; limbus infantum, a mild, palliated hell, where the children go who, since christ, have died unbaptized; purgatory, where all sinners suffer until they are purified, or are redeemed by the church, or until the last day; hell, or gehenna, whither the hopelessly wicked have always been condemned; and heaven, whither the spotlessly good have been admitted since the ascension of jesus. at the day of judgment the few human souls who have reached paradise, together with the multitudes that crowd the regions of gehenna, purgatory, and limbo, will reassume their bodies: the intermediate states will then be destroyed, and when their final sentence is pronounced all will depart forever, the acquitted into heaven, the condemned into hell. in the mean time, the poor victims of purgatory, by the prayers of the living for them, by the transfer of good works to their account, above all, by the celebration of masses in their behalf, may be relieved, rescued, translated to paradise. the words breathed by the spirit of the murdered king of denmark in the ears of the horror stricken hamlet paint the popular belief of that age in regard to the grisly realm where guilty souls were plied with horrors whereof, but that they were forbidden: "to tell the secrets of their prison house, they could a tale unfold whose lightest word would harrow up thy soul, freeze thy young blood, make thy two eyes, like stars, start from their spheres, thy knotted and combined locks to part, and each particular hair to stand on end like quills upon the fretful porcupine." catechism of the council of trent. thomas aquinas, summa theologia, pars suppl. quast. . a few specimens of the stories embodying the ideas and superstitions current in the middle age may better illustrate the characteristic belief of the time than much abstract description. an unquestioning faith in the personality, visibility, and extensive agency of the devil was almost universal. ascetics, saints, bishops, peasants, philosophers, kings, gregory the great, martin luther, all testified that they had often seen him. the mediaval conception of the devil was sometimes comical, sometimes awful. grimm says, "he was jewish, heathenish, christian, idolatrous, elfish, titanic, spectral, all at once." he was "a soul snatching wolf," a "hell hound," a "whirlwind hammer;" now an infernal "parody of god" with "a mother who mimics the virgin mary," and now the "impersonated soul of evil." the well known story of faust and the devil, which in so many forms spread through christendom, is so deeply significant of the faith and life of the age in which it arose that a volume would be required to unfold all its import. there was an old tradition that the students of necromancy or the black art, on reaching a certain pitch of proficiency, were obliged to run through a subterranean hall, where the devil literally caught the hindmost unless he sped so swiftly that the arch enemy could only seize his shadow, and in that case, a veritable peter schlemihl, he never cast a shadow afterwards! a man stood by his furnace one day casting eyes for buttons. the devil came up and asked what he was doing. "casting eyes," replied the man. "can you cast a pair for me?" quoth the devil. "that i can," says the man: "will you have them large or small?" "oh, very large," answered the devil. he then ties the fiend on a bench and pours the molten lead into his eyes. up jumps the devil, with the bench on his back, flees howling, and has never been seen since! there was also in wide circulation a wild legend to the effect that a man made a compact with the devil on the condition that he should secure a new victim for hell once in a century. as long as he did this he should enjoy life, riches, power, and a limited ubiquity; but failing a fresh victim at the end of each hundred years his own soul should be the forfeit. he lived four or five centuries, and then, in spite of his most desperate efforts, was disappointed of his expected victim on the last night of the century; and when the clock struck twelve the devil burst into his castle on a black steed and bore him off in a storm of lightning amidst the crash of thunders and the shrieks of fiends. st. britius once during mass saw the devil in church taking account of the sins the congregation were committing. he covered the parchment all over, and, afraid of forgetting some of the offences, seized the scroll in his teeth and claws to stretch it out. it snapped, and his head was smartly bumped against the wall. st. britius laughed aloud. the officiating priest rebuked him, but, on being told what had happened, improved the accident for the edification of his hearers. on the bursting of a certain glacier on the alps, it is said the devil was seen swimming down the rhone, a drawn sword in one hand, a golden ball in the other: opposite the town of martigny, he cried, "rise," and instantly the obedient river swelled above its banks and destroyed the town. ignes fatui, hovering about marshes and misty places, were thought to be the spirits of unbaptized children endeavoring to guide travellers to the nearest water. a kindred fancy deutsche mythologie, cap. xxxiii.: teufel. quarterly review, jan. : pop. myth. of the middle ages. also heard a spectral pack, called "yell hounds," afterwards corrupted to "hell hounds," composed of the souls of unbaptized children, which could not rest, but roamed and howled through the woods all night. a touching popular myth said, the robin's breast is so red because it flies into hell with drops of water in its bill to relieve the children there, and gets scorched. in , silo, a philosopher, implored a dying pupil of his to come back and reveal his state in the other world. a few days after his death the scholar appeared in a cowl of flames covered with logical propositions. he told silo that he was from purgatory, that the cowl weighed on him worse than a tower, and said he was doomed to wear it for the pride he took in sophisms. as he thus spoke he let fall a drop of sweat on his master's hand, piercing it through. the next day silo said to his scholars, "i leave croaking to frogs, cawing to crows, and vain things to the vain, and hie me to the logic which fears not death." "linquo coax ranis, cras corvis, vanaque vanis, ad logicen pergo qua mortis non timet ergo." in the long, quaint poem, "vision of william concerning piers ploughman," written probably by robert langland about the year , there are many things illustrative of our subject. "i, trojanus, a true knight, after death was condemned to hell for dying unbaptized. but, on account of my mercy and truth in administering the laws, the pope wished me to be saved; and god mercifully heard him and saved me without the help of masses." "ever since the fall of adam, age has shaken the tree of human life, and the devil has gathered the fruit into hell." the author gives a most spirited account of christ's descent into the under world after his death, his battle with the devils there, his triumph over them, his rescue of adam, and other particulars. in this poem, as in nearly all the extant productions of that period, there are copious evidences of the extent and power of the popular faith in the devil and in purgatory, and in their close connection with the present life, a faith nourishingly embodied in thousands of singular tales. thomas wright has collected many of these in his antiquarian works. he relates an amusing incident that once befell a minstrel who had been borne into hell by a devil. the devils went forth in a troop to ensnare souls on earth. lucifer left the minstrel in charge of the infernal regions, promising, if he let no souls escape, to treat him on the return with a fat monk roasted, or a usurer dressed with hot sauce. but while the fiends were away st. peter came, in disguise, and allured the minstrel to play at dice, and to stake the souls which were in torture under his care. peter won, and carried them off in triumph. the devils, coming back and finding the fires all out and hell empty, kicked the hapless minstrel out, and lucifer swore a big oath that no minstrel should ever darken the door of hell again! the mediaval belief in a future life was practically concentrated, for the most part, around the ideas of satan, purgatory, the last judgment, hell. the faith in christ, god, allies, antiquities of worcestershire, d ed. p. . michelet, hist. de france, livre iv. chap. ix. vision of dowell, part iii. vision of dobet, part ii. ibid., part iv. heaven, was much rarer and less influential. neander says, "the inmost distinction of mediaval experience was an awful sense of another life and an invisible world." a most piteous illustration of the conjoined faith and fear of that age is furnished by an old dialogue between the "soul and the body" recently edited by halliwell, an expression of humble trust and crouching horror irresistibly pathetic in its simplicity. a flood of revealing light is given as to the energy with which the doctrine of purgatory impressed itself on the popular mind, by the two facts, first, that the council of auxerre, in , prohibited the administration of the eucharist to the dead; and, secondly, that in the eleventh and twelfth centuries "crosses of absolution" that is, crosses cut out of sheet lead, with the formula of absolution engraved on them were quite commonly buried with the dead. the eager sincerity of the mediaval belief in another life is attested, too, by the correspondence of the representations of the dead in their legends to the appearance, disposition, and pursuits they had in life. no oblivious draught, no pure spiritualization, had freed the departed souls from earthly bonds and associations. light pretexts drew them back to their wonted haunts. a buried treasure allowed them no rest till they had led some one to raise it. an unfinished task, an uncancelled obligation, forced them again to the upper world. in ruined castles the ghosts of knights, in their accustomed habiliments, held tournaments and carousals. the priest read mass; the hunter pursued his game; the spectre robber fell on the benighted traveller. it is hard for us now to reproduce, even in imagination, the fervid and frightful earnestness of the popular faith of the middle age in the ramifying agency of the devil and in the horrors of purgatory. we will try to do it, in some degree, by a series of illustrations aiming to show at once how prevalent such a belief and fear were, and how they became so prevalent. first, we may specify the teaching of the church whose authority in spiritual concerns bore almost unquestioned sway over the minds of more than eighteen generations. by the logical subtleties of her scholastic theologians, by the persuasive eloquence of her popular preachers, by the frantic ravings of her fanatic devotees, by the parading proclamation of her innumerable pretended miracles, by the imposing ceremonies of her dramatic ritual, almost visibly opening heaven and hell to the over awed congregation, by her wonder working use of the relics of martyrs and saints to exorcise demons from the possessed and to heal the sick, and by her anathemas against all who were supposed to be hostile to her formulas, she infused the ideas of her doctrinal system into the intellect, heart, and fancy of the common people, and nourished the collateral horrors, until every wave of her wand convulsed the world. in a pastoral letter addressed to the carlovingian prince louis, the grandson of charlemagne, a letter probably composed by the famous hincmar, bearing date , and signed by the bishops of rheims and rouen, a gallic synod authoritatively declared that charles martel was damned; "that on the opening of his tomb the spectators were affrighted by a smell of fire and the aspect of a horrid dragon, and that a saint of the times was indulged with a pleasant vision of the soul and body of this great hero burning to all eternity in the abyss of hell." early english miscellanies, no. . london antiquaries' archaologis, vol. xxxv. art. . thorpe, northern mythology, vol. i., appendix. a tremendous impulse, vivifying and emphasizing the eschatological notions of the time, an impulse whose effects did not cease when it died, was imparted by that frightful epidemic expectation of the impending end of the world which wellnigh universally prevailed in christendom about the year . many of the charters given at that time commence with the words, "as the world is now drawing to a close." this expectation drew additional strength from the unutterable sufferings famine, oppression, pestilence, war, superstition then weighing on the people. "the idea of the end of the world," we quote from michelet, "sad as that world was, was at once the hope and the terror of the middle age. look at those antique statues of the tenth and eleventh centuries, mute, meager, their pinched and stiffened lineaments grinning with a look of living suffering allied to the repulsiveness of death. see how they implore, with clasped hands, that desired yet dreaded moment when the resurrection shall redeem them from their unspeakable sorrows and raise them from nothingness into existence and from the grave to god." furthermore, this superstitious character of the mediaval belief in the future life acquired breadth and intensity from the profound general ignorance and trembling credulousness of that whole period on all subjects. it was an age of marvels, romances, fears, when every landscape of life "wore a strange hue, as if seen through the sombre medium of a stained casement." while congregations knelt in awe beneath the lifted host, and the image of the dying savior stretched on the rood glimmered through clouds of incense, perhaps an army of flagellants would march by the cathedral, shouting, "the end of the world is at hand!" filling the streets with the echoes of their torture as they lashed their naked backs with knotted cords wet with blood; and no soul but must shudder with the infection of horror as the dreadful notes of the "dies iioe" went sounding through the air. the narratives of the desert fathers, the miracles wrought in convent cells, the visions of pillar saints, the thrilling accompaniments of the crusades, and other kindred influences, made the world a perpetual mirage. the belching of a volcano was the vomit of uneasy hell. the devil stood before every tempted man, ghosts walked in every nightly dell. ghastly armies were seen contending where the aurora borealis hung out its bloody banners. the huns under attila, ravaging southern europe, were thought to be literal demons who had made an irruption from the pit. the metaphysician was in peril of the stake as a heretic, the natural philosopher as a magician. a belief in witchcraft and a trust in ordeals were universal, even from pope eugenius, who introduced the trial by cold water, and king james, who wrote volumes on magic, to the humblest monk who shuddered when passing the church crypt, and the simplest peasant who quaked in his homeward path at seeing a will o' the wisp. "denounced by the preacher and consigned to the flames by the judge, the wizard received secret service money from the cabinet to induce him to destroy the hostile armament as it sailed before the wind." as a vivid writer has well said, "a gloomy mist of credulity enwrapped the cathedral and the hall of justice, the cottage and the throne. in the dank shadows of the universal ignorance a thousand superstitions, like foul animals of night, were propagated and nourished." hallam, middle ages, ch. ix. the beliefs and excitements of the mediaval period partook of a sort of epidemic character, diffusing and working like a contagion. there were numberless throngs of pilgrims to famous shrines, immense crowds about the localities of popular legends, relics, or special grace. in the magnetic sphere of such a fervid and credulous multitude, filled with the kindling interaction of enthusiasm, of course prodigies would abound, fables would flourish, and faith would be doubly generated and fortified. in commemoration of a miraculous act of virtue performed by st. francis, the pope offered to all who should enter the church at assisi between the eve of the st and the eve of the d of august each year that being the anniversary of the saint's achievement a free pardon for all the sins committed by them since their baptism. more than sixty thousand pilgrims sometimes flocked thither on that day. every year some were crushed to death in the suffocating pressure at the entrance of the church. nearly two thousand friars walked in procession; and for a series of years the pilgrimage to portiuncula might have vied with that to the temple of juggernaut. nothing tends more to strengthen any given belief than to see it everywhere carried into practice and to act in accordance with it. thus was it with the mediaval doctrine of the future life. its applications and results were constantly and universally thrust into notice by the sale of indulgences and the launching of excommunications. early in the ninth century, charlemagne complained that the bishops and abbots forced property from foolish people by promises and threats: "suadendo de coelestis regni beatitudine, comminando de oeterno supplicio inferni." the rival mendicant orders, the franciscans and the dominicans, acquired great riches and power by the traffic in indulgences. they even had the impudence to affirm that the members of their orders were privileged above all other men in the next world. milton alludes to those who credited these monstrous assumptions: "and they who, to be sure of paradise, dying, put on the weeds of dominic, or in franciscan think to pass disguised." the council of basle censured the claim of the franciscan monks that their founder annually descended to purgatory and led thence to heaven the souls of all those who had belonged to his order. the carmelites also asserted that the virgin mary appeared to simon stockius, the general of their order, and gave him a solemn promise that the souls of such as left the world with the carmelite scapulary upon their shoulders should be infallibly preserved from eternal damnation. mosheim says that pope benedict xiv. was an open defender of this ridiculous fiction. if any one would appreciate the full mediaval doctrine of the future life, whether with respect to the hair drawn scholastic metaphysics by which it was defended, or with respect to the concrete forms in which the popular apprehension held it, let him read the divina commedia of dante; for it is all there. whoso with adequate insight and sympathy peruses hecker, epidemics of the middle ages. quarterly review, july, : article on monachism. perry, history of the franks, p. . eccl. hist., xiii. century, part ii. ch. , sect. . the pages of the immortal florentine at whom the people pointed as he walked the streets, and said, "there goes the man who has been in hell" will not fail to perceive with what a profound sincerity the popular breast shuddered responsive to ecclesiastical threats and purgatorial woes. the tremendous moral power of this solitary work lies in the fact that it is a series of terrific and fascinating tableaux, embodying the idea of inflexible poetic justice impartially administered upon king and varlet, pope and beggar, oppressor and victim, projected amidst the unalterable necessities of eternity, and moving athwart the lurid abyss and the azure cope with an intense distinctness that sears the gazer's eyeballs. the divina commedia, with a wonderful truth, also reflects the feeling of the age when it was written in this respect, that there is a grappling force of attraction, a compelling realism, about its "purgatory" and "hell" which are to be sought in vain in the delineations of its "paradise." the mediaval belief in a future life had for its central thought the day of judgment, for its foremost emotion terror. the roots of this faith were unquestionably fertilized, and the development of this fear quickened, to a very great extent, by deliberate and systematic delusions. one of the most celebrated of these organized frauds was the gigantic one perpetrated under the auspices of the dominican monks at berne in , the chief actors in which were unmasked and executed. bishop burnet has given an extremely interesting account of this affair in his volume of travels. suffice it to say, the monks appeared at midnight in the cells of various persons, now impersonating devils, in horrid attire, breathing flames and brimstone, now claiming to be the souls of certain sufferers escaped from purgatory, and again pretending to be celebrated saints, with the virgin mary at their head. by the aid of mechanical and chemical arrangements, they wrought miracles, and played on the terror and credulity of the spectators in a frightful manner. there is every reason to suppose that such deceptions miracles in which secret speaking tubes, asbestos, and phosphorus were indispensable were most frequent in those ages, and were as effective as the actors were unscrupulous and the dupes unsuspicious. here is revealed one of the foremost of the causes which made the belief of the dark age in the numerous appearances of ghosts and devils so common and so intense that it gave currency to the notion that the swarming spirits of purgatory were disembogued from dusk till dawn. so the danish monarch, revisiting the pale glimpses of the moon, says to hamlet, "i am thy father's spirit, doom'd for a certain time to walk the night, and for the day confined to fast in fires, till the foul crimes done in my days of nature are burnt and purged away." if any one would see in how many forms the faith in hell and in the devil appeared, let him look over the pages of the "dictionnaire infernal," by j. collin de plancy. maclaine's trans, of mosheim's eccl. hist., vol. ii. p. , note. manufactures of the ancients, pub. by harper and brothers, , part iv. ch. . when the shadows began to fall thick behind the sunken sun, these poor creatures were thought to spring from their beds of torture, to wander amidst the scenes of their sins or to haunt the living; but at the earliest scent of morn, the first note of the cock, they must hie to their fire again. midnight was the high noon of ghostly and demoniac revelry on the earth. as the hour fell with brazen clang from the tower, the belated traveller, afraid of the rustle of his own dress, the echo of his own footfall, the wavering of his own shadow, afraid of his own thoughts, would breathe the suppressed invocation, "angels and ministers of grace defend us!" as the idea crept curdling over his brain and through his veins, "it is the very witching time of night, when churchyards yawn and hell itself breathes out contagion to this world." working in alliance with the foregoing forces of superstition was the powerful influence of the various forms of insanity which remarkably abounded in the middle age. the insane person, it was believed, was possessed by a demon. his ravings, his narratives, were eagerly credited; and they were usually full of infernal visions, diabolical interviews, encounters with apparitions, and every thing that would naturally arise in a deranged and preternaturally sensitive mind from the chief conceptions then current concerning the invisible world. the principal works of art exposed to the people were such as served to impress upon their imaginations the church doctrine of the future life in all its fearfulness, with its vigorous dramatic points. in the cathedral at antwerp there is a representation of hell carved in wood, whose marvellous elaborateness astonishes, and whose painful expressiveness oppresses, every beholder. with what excruciating emotions the pious crowds must have contemplated the harrowingly vivid paintings of the inferno, by orcagna, still to be seen in the campo santo of pisa! in the cathedral at canterbury there was a window on which was painted a detailed picture of christ vanquishing the devils in their own domain; but we believe it has been removed. however, the visitor still sees on the fine east window of york cathedral the final doom of the wicked, hell being painted as an enormous mouth; also in the west front of lincoln cathedral an ancient bas relief representing hell as a monstrous mouth vomiting flame and serpents, with two human beings walking into it. the minster at freyburg has a grotesque bas relief over its main portal, representing the judgment. st. nicholas stands in the centre, and the savior is seated above him. on the left, an angel weighs mankind in a huge pair of scales, and a couple of malicious imps try to make the human scale kick the beam. underneath, st. peter is ushering the good into paradise. on the right is shown a devil, with a pig's head, dragging after him a throng of the wicked. he also has a basket on his back filled with figures whom he is in the act of flinging into a reeking caldron stirred by several imps. hell is typified, on one side, by the jaws of a monster crammed to the teeth with reprobates, and satan is seen sitting on his throne above them. a recent traveller writes from de boismont, rational hist. of hallucivatious, ch. xiv. naples, "the favorite device on the church walls here is a vermilion picture of a male and a female soul, respectively up to the waist [the waist of a soul!] in fire, with an angel over each watering them from a water pot. this is meant to get money from the compassionate to pay for the saying of masses in behalf of souls in purgatory." ruskin has described some of the church paintings of the last judgment by the old masters as possessing a power even now sufficient to stir every sensibility to its depths. such works, gazed on day after day, while multitudes were kneeling beneath in the shadowy aisles, and clouds of incense were floating above, and the organ was pealing and the choir chanting in full accord, must produce lasting effects on the imagination, and thus contribute in return to the faith and fear which inspired them. villani as also sismondi gives a description of a horrible representation of hell shown at florence in by the inhabitants of san priano, on the river arno. the glare of flames, the shrieks of men disguised as devils, scenes of infernal torture, filled the night. unfortunately, the scaffolding broke beneath the crowd, and many spectators were burned or drowned, and that which began as an entertaining spectacle ended as a direful reality. the whole affair is a forcible illustration of the literality with which the popular mind and faith apprehended the notion of the infernal world. another means by which the views we have been considering were both expressed and recommended to the senses and belief of the people was those miracle plays that formed one of the most peculiar features of the middle age. these plays, founded on, and meant to illustrate, scripture narratives and theological doctrines, were at first enacted by the priests in the churches, afterwards by the various trading companies or guilds of mechanics. in , pope gregory "forbade the clergy to take any part in the plays in churches or in the mummings at festivals." a similar prohibition was published by the council of treves, in . the bishop of worms, in , issued a proclamation against the abuses which had crept into the festivities of easter, and gives a long and curious description of them. there were two popular festivals, of which michelet gives a full and amusing description, one called the "fete of the tipsy priests," when they elected a bishop of unreason, offered him incense of burned leather, sang obscene songs in the choir, and turned the altar into a dice table; the other called the "fete of the cuckolds," when the laymen crowned each other with leaves, the priests wore their surplices wrong side out and threw bran in each others' eyes, and the bell ringers pelted each other with biscuits. there is a religious play by calderon, entitled "the divine orpheus," in which the entire church scheme of man's fall the devil's empire, christ's descent there, and the victorious sequel is embodied in a most effective manner. in the priestly theology and in the popular heart of those times there was no other single particular one tenth part so prominent and vivid as that of christ's entrance after his death into hell to rescue the old saints and break down satan's power. early mysteries and latin poems of the xii. and xiii. centuries, edited by thomas wright. see the eloquent sermon on this subject preached by luis de granada in the sixteenth century. ticknor's hist. spanish lit., vol. iii. pp. - . peter lombard says, "what did the redeemer do to the despot who had us in his bonds? he offered him the cross as a mouse trap, and put his blood on it as bait." about that scene there was an incomparable fascination for every believer. christ laid aside his godhead and died. the devil thought he had secured a new victim, and humanity swooned in grief and despair. but, lo! the crucified, descending to the inexorable dungeons, puts on all his divinity, and suddenly "the captive world awakt, and founde the pris'ner loose, the jailer bounde!" a large proportion of the miracle plays, or mysteries, turned on this event. in the "mystery of the resurrection of christ" occurs the following couplet: "this day the angelic king has risen, leading the pious from their prison." the title of one of the principal plays in the towneley mysteries is "extractio animarum ab inferno." it describes christ descending to the gates of hell to claim his own. adam sees afar the gleam of his coming, and with his companions begins to sing for joy. the infernal porter shouts to the other demons, in alarm, "since first that hell was made and i was put therein, such sorrow never ere i had, nor heard i such a din. my heart begins to start; my wit it waxes thin; i am afraid we can't rejoice, these souls must from us go. ho, beelzebub! bind these boys: such noise was never heard in hell." satan vows he will dash beelzebub's brains out for frightening him so. meanwhile, christ draws near, and says, "lift up your gates, ye princes, and be ye lifted up, ye everlasting doors, and the king of glory shall come in." the portals fly asunder. satan shouts up to his friends, "dyng the dastard down;" but beelzebub replies, "that is easily said." jesus and the devil soon meet, face to face. a long colloquy ensues, in the course of which the latter tells the former that he knew his father well by sight! at last jesus frees adam, eve, the prophets, and others, and ascends, leaving the devil in the lowest pit, resolving that hell shall soon be fuller than before; for he will walk east and he will walk west, and he will seduce thousands from their allegiance. another play, similar to the foregoing, but much more extensively known and acted, was called the "harrowing of hell." christ and satan appear on the stage and argue in the most approved scholastic style for the right of possession in the human race. satan says, "whoever purchases any thing, it belongs to him and to his children. adam, hungry, came to me; sententia, lib. iii. distinctio . hone, ancient mysteries. "resurrexit hodie rex angelorum ducitur de tenebris turba piorum." i made him do me homage: for an apple, which i gave him, he and all his race belong to me." but christ instantly puts a different aspect on the argument, by replying, "satan! it was mine, the apple thou gavest him. the apple and the apple tree both were made by me. as he was purchased with my goods, with reason will i have him." in a religious mystery exhibited at lisbon as late as the close of the eighteenth century, the following scene occurs. cain kicks his brother abel badly and kills him. a figure like a chinese mandarin, seated in a chair, condemns cain and is drawn up into the clouds. the mouth of hell then appears, like the jaws of a great dragon: amid smoke and lightning it casts up three devils, one of them having a wooden leg. these take a dance around cain, and are very jocose, one of them inviting him to hell to take a cup of brimstone coffee, and another asking him to make up a party at whist. cain snarls, and they tumble him and themselves headlong into the squib vomiting mouth. various books of accounts kept by the trading companies who celebrated these mysteries of the expenses incurred have been published, and are exceedingly amusing. "item: payd for kepyng of fyer at hellmothe, four pence." "for a new hoke to hang judas, six pence." "item: payd for mendyng and payntyng hellmouthe, two pence." "girdle for god, nine pence." "axe for pilatte's son, one shilling." "a staff for the demon, one penny." "god's coat of white leather, three shillings." the stage usually consisted of three platforms. on the highest sat god, surrounded by his angels. on the next were the saints in paradise, the intermediate state of the good after death. on the third were mere men yet living in the world. on one side of the lowest stage, in the rear, was a fearful cave or yawning mouth filled with smoke and flames, and denoting hell. from this ever and anon would issue the howls and shrieks of the damned. amidst hideous yellings, devils would rush forth and caper about and snatch hapless souls into this pit to their doom. the actors, in their mock rage, sometimes leaped from the pageant into the midst of the laughing, screaming, trembling crowd. the dramatis personoe included many queer characters, such as a "worm of conscience," "deadman," (representing a soul delivered from hell at the descent of christ,) numerous "damned souls," dressed in flame colored garments, "theft," "lying," "gluttony." but the devil himself was the favorite character; and often, when his personified vices jumped on him and pinched and cudgelled him till he roared, the mirth of the honest audience knew no bounds. for there were in the middle age two sides to the popular idea of the devil and of all appertaining to him. he was a soul harrowing bugbear or a rib shaking jest according to the hour and one's halliwell's edition of the harrowing of hell, p. . sharp, essay on the dramatic mysteries, p. . humor. rabelais's pantagruel is filled with irresistible burlesques of the doctrine of purgatory. the ludicrous side of this subject may be seen by reading tarlton's "jests" and his "newes out of purgatorie." glimpses of it are also to be caught through many of the humorous passages in shakspeare. dromio says of an excessively fat and greasy kitchen wench, "if she lives till doomsday she'll burn a week longer than the whole world!" and falstaff, cracking a kindred joke on bardolph's carbuncled nose, avows his opinion that it will serve as a flaming beacon to light lost souls the way to purgatory! again, seeing a flea on the same flaming proboscis, the doughty knight affirmed it was "a black soul burning in hell fire." in this element of mediaval life, this feature of mediaval literature, a terrible belief lay under the gay raillery. here is betrayed, on a wide scale, that natural reaction of the faculties from excessive oppression to sportive wit, from deep repugnance to superficial jesting, which has often been pointed out by philosophical observers as a striking fact in the psychological history of man. one more active and mighty cause of the dreadful faith and fear with which the middle age contemplated the future life was the innumerable and frightful woes, crimes, tyrannies, instruments of torture, engines of persecution, insane superstitions, which then existed, making its actual life a hell. the wretchedness and cruelty of the present world were enough to generate frightful beliefs and cast appalling shadows over the future. if the earth was full of devils and phantoms, surely hell must swarm worse with them. the inquisition sat shrouded and enthroned in supernatural obscurity of cunning and awfulness of power, and thrust its invisible daggers everywhere. the facts men knew here around them gave credibility to the imagery in which the hereafter was depicted. the flaming stakes of an auto da fe around which the victims of ecclesiastical hatred writhed were but faint emblems of what awaited their souls in the realm of demons whereto the tender mercies of the church consigned them. indeed, the fate of myriads of heretics and traitors could not fail to project the lurid vision of hell with all its paraphernalia into the imaginations of the people of the dark age. the glowing lava of purgatory heated the soil they trod, and a smell of its sulphur surcharged the air. a stupendous revelation of terror, bearing whole volumes of direful meaning, is given in the single fact that it was a common belief of that period that the holy inquisitors would sit with christ in the judgment at the last day. if king or noble took offence at some uneasy retainer or bold serf, he ordered him to be secretly buried in the cell of some secluded fortress, and he was never heard of more. so, if pope or priest hated or feared some stubborn thinker, he straightway, "would banish him to wear a burning chain in the great dungeons of the unforgiven, beneath the space deep castle walls of heaven." it was an age of cruelty, never to be restored, when the world was boiling in tempest and men rode on the crests of fear. recently edited by halliwell and published by the shakspeare society. hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. . researches made within the last century among the remains of famous mediaval edifices, both ecclesiastic and state, have brought to light the dismal records of forgotten horrors. in many a royal palace, priestly building, and baronial castle, there were secret chambers full of infernal machinery contrived for inflicting tortures, and under them concealed trap doors opening into rayless dungeons with no outlet and whose floors were covered with the mouldering bones of unfortunate wretches who had mysteriously disappeared long ago and tracelessly perished there. sometimes these trap doors were directly above profound pits of water, in which the victim would drown as he dropped from the mangling hooks, racks, and pincers of the torture chamber. there were horrible rumors current in the middle age of a machine called the "virgin," used for putting men to death; but little was known about it, and it was generally supposed to be a fable, until, some years ago one of the identical machines was discovered in an old austrian castle. it was a tall wooden woman, with a painted face, which the victim was ordered to kiss. as he approached to offer the salute, he trod on a spring, causing the machine to fly open, stretch out a pair of iron arms, and draw him to its breast covered with a hundred sharp spikes, which pierced him to death. ignorance and alarm, in a suffering and benighted age, surrounded by sounds of superstition and sights of cruelty, must needs breed and foster a horrid faith in regard to the invisible world. accordingly, the common doctrine of the future life prevailing in christendom from the ninth century till the sixteenth was as we have portrayed it. of course there are exceptions to be admitted and qualifications to be made; but, upon the whole, the picture is faithful. fortunately, intellect and soul could not slumber forever, nor the mediaval nightmares always keep their torturing seat on the bosom of humanity. noble men arose to vindicate the rights of reason and the divinity of conscience. the world was circumnavigated, and its revolution around the sun was demonstrated. a thousand truths were discovered, a thousand inventions introduced. papacy tottered, its prestige waned, its infallibility sunk. the light of knowledge shone, the simplicity of nature was seen, and the benignity of god was surmised. thought, throwing off many restrictions and accumulating much material, began to grow free, and began to grow wise. and so, before the calm, steady gaze of enlightened and cheerful reason, the live and crawling smoke of hell, which had so long enwreathed the mind of the time with its pendent and breathing horrors, gradually broke up and dissolved, "like a great superstitious snake, uncurled from the pale temples of the awakening world." the kiss of the virgin, in the archaologia published by the antiquaries of london, vol. xxviii. chapter iii. modern doctrine of a future life. the folly and paganism of some of the church dogmas, the rapacious haughtiness of its spirit, the tyranny of its rule, and the immoral character of many of its practices, had often awakened the indignant protests and the determined opposition of men of enlightened minds, vigorous consciences, and generous hearts, both in its bosom and out of it. many such men, vainly struggling to purify the church from its iniquitous errors or to relieve mankind from its outrageous burdens, had been silenced and crushed by its relentless might. arnold, wickliffe, wessel, savonarola, and a host of others, are to be gratefully remembered forever as the heroic though unsuccessful forerunners of the mighty monk of wittenberg. the corruption of the mediaval church grew worse, and became so great as to stir a very extensive disgust and revulsion. wholesale pardons for all their sins were granted indiscriminately to those who accepted the terms of the papal officials; while every independent thinker, however evangelical his faith and exemplary his character, was hopelessly doomed to hell. especially were these pardons given to pilgrims and to the crusaders. bernard of clairvaux, exhorting the people to undertake a new crusade, tells them that "god condescends to invite into his service murderers, robbers, adulterers, perjurers, and those sunk in other crimes; and whosoever falls in this cause shall secure pardon for the sins which he has never confessed with contrite heart." at the opening of "piers the ploughman's crede" a person is introduced saying, "i saw a company of pilgrims on their way to rome, who came home with leave to lie all the rest of their lives!" nash, in his "lenten stuff," speaks of a proclamation which caused "three hundred thousand people to roam to rome for purgatorie pills." ecclesiasticism devoured ethics. allegiance to morality was lowered into devotion to a ritual. the sale of indulgences at length became too impudent and blasphemous to be any longer endured, when john tetzel, a dominican monk, travelled over europe, and, setting up his auction block in the churches, offered for sale those famous indulgences of leo x. which promised, to every one rich enough to pay the requisite price, remission of all sins, however enormous, and whether past, present, or future! this brazen but authorized charlatan boasted that "he had saved more souls from hell by the sale of indulgences than st. peter had converted to christianity by his preaching." he also said that "even if any one had ravished the mother of god he could sell him a pardon for it!" the soul of martin luther took fire. the consequence to which a hundred combining causes contributed was the protestant reformation. this great movement produced, in relation to our subject, three important results. it noticeably modified the practice and the popular preaching of the roman catholic church. ullmann, reformatoren vor der reformation. epist. ccclxiii. ad orientalis francia clerum et populum. d'aubigne, hist. reformation, book iii. the dogmas of the romanist theology remained as they were before. but a marked change took place in the public conduct of the papal functionaries. morality was made more prominent, and mere ritualism less obtrusive. comparatively speaking, an emphasis was taken from ecclesiastic confession and indulgence, and laid upon ethical obedience and piety. the council of trent, held at this time, says, in its decree concerning indulgences, "in granting indulgences, the church desires that moderation be observed, lest, by excessive facility, ecclesiastical discipline be enervated." imposture became more cautious, threats less frequent and less terrible; the teeth of persecution were somewhat blunted; miracles grew rarer; the insufferable glare of purgatory and hell faded, and the open traffic in forgiveness of sins, or the compounding for deficiencies, diminished. but among the more ignorant papal multitudes the mediaval superstition holds its place still in all its virulence and grossness. "heaven and hell are as much a part of the italian's geography as the adriatic and the apennines; the queen of heaven looks on the streets as clear as the morning star; and the souls in purgatory are more readily present to conception than the political prisoners immured in the dungeons of venice." a second consequence of the reformation is seen in the numerous dissenting sects to which its issues gave rise. the chief peculiarities of the protestant doctrines of the future life are embodied in the four leading denominations commonly known as lutheran, calvinistic, unitarian, and universalist. each of these includes a number of subordinate parties bearing distinctive names, (such as arminian, presbyterian, methodist, baptist, restorationist, and many others;) but these minor differences are too trivial to deserve distinctive characterization here. the lutheran formula is that, through the sacrifice of christ, salvation is offered to all who will accept it by a sincere faith. some will comply with these terms and secure heaven; others will not, and so will be lost forever. luther's views were not firmly defined and consistent throughout his career; they were often obscure, and they fluctuated much. it is true he always insisted that there was no salvation without faith, and that all who had faith should be saved. but, while he generally seems to believe in the current doctrine of eternal damnation, he sometimes appears to encourage the hope that all will finally be saved. in a remarkable letter to hansen von rechenberg, dated , he says, in effect, "whoso hath faith in christ shall be saved. god forbid that i should limit the time for acquiring this faith to the present life! in the depths of the divine mercy, there may be opportunity to win it in the future state." the calvinistic formula is that heaven is attainable only for those whom the arbitrary predestination of god has elected; all others are irretrievably damned. calvin was the first christian theologian who succeeded in giving the fearful doctrine of unconditional election and reprobation a lodgment in the popular breast. the roman catholic church had earnestly repudiated it. gotteschalk was condemned and died in prison for advocating it, in the ninth century. but calvin's character enabled him to believe it, and his talents and position gave great weight to his advocacy of it, and it has since been widely received. catholicism, lutheranism, calvinism, all agreed in the general proposition that by sin physical death came into the world, heaven was shut against man, and all men utterly lost. they differed only in some unessential details concerning the condition of that lost state. they also agreed in the general proposition that christ came, by his incarnation, death, descent to hell, resurrection, and ascension, to redeem men from their lost state. they only differed in regard to the precise grounds and extent of that redemption. the catholic said, christ's atonement wiped off the whole score of original sin, and thus enabled man to win heaven by moral fidelity and the help of the church. the lutheran said, christ's atonement made all the sins of those who have faith, pardonable; and all may have faith. the calvinist said, god foresaw that man would fall and incur damnation, and he decreed that a few should be snatched as brands from the burning, while the mass should be left to eternal torture; and christ's atonement purchased the predestined salvation of the chosen few. furthermore, lutherans and calvinists, in all their varieties, agree with the romanist in asserting that christ shall come again, the dead be raised bodily, a universal judgment be held, and that then the condemned shall sink into the everlasting fire of hell, and the accepted rise into the endless bliss of heaven. the socinian doctrine relative to the future fate of man differed from the foregoing in the following particulars. first, it limited the redeeming mission of christ to the enlightening influences of the truths which he proclaimed with divine authority, the moral power of his perfect example, and the touching motives exhibited in his death. secondly, it asserted a natural ability in every man to live a life conformed to right reason and sound morality, and promised heaven to all who did this in obedience to the instructions and after the pattern of christ. thirdly, it declared that the wicked, after suffering excruciating agonies, would be annihilated. respecting the second coming of christ, a physical resurrection of the dead, and a day of judgment, the socinians believed with the other sects. their doctrine scarcely corresponds with that of the present unitarians in any thing. the dissent of the unitarian from the popular theology is much more fundamental, detailed, and consistent than that of the socinian was, and approaches much closer to the rationalism of the present day. the universalist formula every soul created by god shall sooner or later be saved from sin and woe and inherit everlasting happiness has been publicly defended in every age of the christian church. it was first publicly condemned as a heresy at the very close of the fourth century. it ranks among its defenders the names of clement of alexandria, origen, gregory of nazianzus, gregory of nyssa, and several other prominent fathers. universalism has been held in four forms, on four grounds. first, it has been supposed that christ died for all, and that, by the infinite efficacy of his redeeming merits, all sins shall be cancelled and every soul be saved. this was the scheme of those early universalist christians whom epiphanius condemns as heretics; also of a few in more modern times. secondly, it has been thought that each person would be punished in the future state according to the deeds done in the body, each sin be expiated by a proportionate amount of suffering, the retribution of some souls being severe and long, that of others light and brief; but, every penalty being at flugge gives a full exposition of these points with references to the authorities. lehre vom zustande, u. s. f., abth. ii. ss. - . dietelmaier, commenti fanatici [non-ascii characters omitted] hist. antiquar. length exhausted, the last victim would be restored. this was the notion of origen, the basis of the doctrine of purgatory, and the view of most of the restorationists. thirdly, it has been imagined that, by the good pleasure and fixed laws of god, all men are destined to an impartial, absolute, and instant salvation beyond the grave: all sins are justly punished, all moral distinctions equitably compensated, in this life; in the future an equal glory awaits all men, by the gracious and eternal election of god, as revealed to us in the benignant mission of christ. this is the peculiar conception distinguishing some members of the denomination now known as universalists. finally, it has been believed that the freedom and probation granted here extend into the life to come; that the aim of all future punishment will be remedial, beneficent, not revengeful; that stronger motives will be applied for producing repentance, and grander attractions to holiness be felt; and that thus, at some time or other, even the most sunken and hardened souls will be regenerated and raised up to heaven in the image of god. almost all universalists, most unitarians, and large number of individual christians outwardly affiliated with other denominations, now accept and cherish this theory. one important variation from the doctrine of the dominant sects, in connection with the present subject, is worthy of special notice. we refer to the celebrated controversy waged in england, in the first part of the eighteenth century, in regard to the intermediate state of the dead. the famous dr. coward and a few supporters labored, with much zeal, skill, and show of learning, to prove the natural mortality of the soul. they asserted this to be both a philosophical truth proved by scientific facts and a christian doctrine declared in scripture and taught by the fathers. they argued that the soul is not an independent entity, but is merely the life of the body. proceeding thus far on the principles of a materialistic science, they professed to complete their theory from scripture, without doing violence to any doctrine of the acknowledged religion. the finished scheme was this. man was naturally mortal; but, by the pleasure and will of god, he would have been immortally preserved alive had he not sinned. death is the consequence of sin, and man utterly perishes in the grave. but god will restore the dead, through christ, at the day of the general resurrection which he has foretold in the gospel. some of the writers in this copious controversy maintained that previous to the advent of christ death was eternal annihilation to all except a few who enjoyed an inspired anticipatory faith in him, but that all who died after his coming would be restored in the resurrection, the faithful to be advanced to heaven, the wicked to be the victims of unending torture. clarke and baxter both wrote with extreme ability in support of the natural immortality and separate existence of the soul. on the other hand, the learned henry dodwell cited, from the lore of three thousand years, a plausible body of authorities to show that the soul is in itself but a mortal breath. he also contended, by a singular perversion of figurative phrases from the new testament and from some of the fathers, that, coward, search after souls. hallet, no resurrection, no future state. coward, defence of the search after souls. dodwell, epistolary discourse. peckard, observations. fleming, survey of the search after souls. law, state of separate spirits. layton, treatise of departed souls. in counteraction of man's natural mortality, all who undergo baptism at the hands of the ordained ministers of the church of england the only true priesthood in apostolic succession thereby receive an immortalizing spirit brought into the world by christ and committed to his successors. this immortalizing spirit conveyed by baptism would secure their resurrection at the last day. those destitute of this spirit would never awake from the oblivious sleep of death, unless as he maintained will actually be the case with a large part of the dead they are arbitrarily immortalized by the pleasure of god, in order to suffer eternal misery in hell! absurd and shocking as this fancy was, it obtained quite a number of converts, and made no slight impression at the time. one of the writers in this controversy asserted that luther himself had been a believer in the death or sleep of the soul until the day of judgment. certain it is that such a belief had at one period a considerable prevalence. its advocates were called psychopannychians. calvin wrote a vehement assault on them. the opinion has sunk into general disrepute and neglect, and it would be hard to find many avowed disciples of it. the nearly universal sentiment of christendom would now exclaim, in the quaint words of henry more, "what! has old adam snorted all this time under some senselesse clod, with sleep ydead?" john asgill printed, in the year , a tract called "an argument to prove that by the new covenant man may be translated into eternal life without tasting death." he argues that the law of death was a consequence of adam's sin and was annulled by christ's sacrifice. since that time men have died only because of an obstinate habit of dying formed for many generations. for his part, he has the independence and resolution to withstand the universal pusillanimity and to refuse to die. he has discovered "an engine in divinity to convey man from earth to heaven." he will "play a trump on death and show himself a match for the devil!" while treating of the various protestant views of the future life, it would be a glaring defect to overlook the remarkable doctrine on that subject published by emanuel swedenborg and now held by the intelligent, growing body of believers called after his name. it would be impossible to exhibit this system adequately in its scientific bases and its complicated details without occupying more space than can be afforded here. nor is this necessary, now that his own works have been translated and are easily accessible everywhere. his "heaven and hell," "heavenly arcana," "doctrine of influx," and "true christian blackburne, view of the controversy concerning an intermediate state: appendix. it is probable that the great reformer's opinion on this point was not always the same. for he says, distinctly, "the first man who died, when he awakes at the last day, will think he has been asleep but an hour" beste, dr. m. luther's glaubenslehre, cap. iv.: die lehre von den letzen dingen. yet. j. s. muller seems conclusively to prove the truth of the proposition which forms the title of his book, "dass luther die lehre vom seelenschlafe nie geglaubt habe." the controversy concerning the natural immortality of the soul has within a few years raged afresh. the principal combatants were dobney, storrs, white, morris, and hinton. see athanasia, by j. h. hinton, london, . religion," contain manifold statements and abundant illustrations of every thing important bearing on his views of the theme before us. we shall merely attempt to present a brief synopsis of the essential principles, accompanied by two or three suggestions of criticism. swedenborg conceives man to be an organized receptacle of truth and love from god. he is an imperishable spiritual body placed for a season of probation in a perishable material body. every moment receiving the essence of his being afresh from god, and returning it through the fruition of its uses devoutly rendered in conscious obedience and joyous worship, he is at once a subject of personal, and a medium of the divine, happiness. the will is the power of man's life, and the understanding is its form. when the will is disinterested love and the understanding is celestial truth, then man fulfils the end of his being, and his home is heaven; he is a spirit frame into which the goodness of god perpetually flows, is humbly acknowledged, gratefully enjoyed, and piously returned. but when his will is hatred or selfishness and his understanding is falsehood or evil, then his powers are abused, his destiny inverted, and his fate hell. while in the body in this world he is placed in freedom, on probation, between these two alternatives. the swedenborgian universe is divided into four orders of abodes. in the highest or celestial world are the heavens of the angels. in the lowest or infernal world are the hells of the demons. in the intermediate or spiritual world are the earths inhabited by men, and surrounded by the transition state through which souls, escaping from their bodies, after a while soar to heaven or sink to hell, according to their fitness and attraction. in this life man is free, because he is an energy in equilibrium between the influences of heaven and hell. the middle state surrounding man is full of spirits, some good and some bad. every man is accompanied by swarms of both sorts of spirits, striving to make him like themselves. now, there are two kinds of influx into man. mediate influx is when the spirits in the middle state flow into man's thoughts and affections. the good spirits are in communication with heaven, and they carry what is good and true; the evil spirits are in communication with hell, and they carry what is evil and false. between these opposed and reacting agencies man is in an equilibrium whose essence is freedom. deciding for himself, if he turns with embracing welcome to the good spirits, he is thereby placed and lives in conjunction with heaven; but if he turns, on the contrary, with predominant love to the bad spirits, he is placed in conjunction with hell and draws his life thence. from heaven, therefore, through the good spirits, all the elements of saving goodness flow sweetly down and are appropriated by the freedom of the good man; while from hell, through the bad spirits, all the elements of damning evil flow foully up and are appropriated by the freedom of the bad man. the other kind of influx is called immediate. this is when the lord himself, the pure substance of truth and good, flows into every organ and faculty of man. this influx is perpetual, but is received as truth and good only by the true and good. it is rejected, suffocated, or perverted by those who are in love with falsities and evils. so the light of the sun produces colors varying with the substances it falls on, and water takes forms corresponding to the vessels it is poured into. the whole invisible world heaven, hell, and the middle state is peopled solely from the different families of the human race occupying the numerous material globes of the universe. the good, on leaving the fleshly body, are angels, the bad, demons. there is no angel nor demon who was created such at first. satan is not a personality, but is a figurative term standing for the whole complex of hell. in the invisible world, time and space in one sense cease to be; in another sense they remain unchanged. they virtually cease because all our present measures of them are annihilated; they virtually remain because exact correspondences to them are left. to spirits, time is no longer measured by the revolution of planets, but by the succession of inward states; space is measured not by way marks and the traversing of distances, but by inward similitudes and dissimilitudes. those who are unlike are sundered by gulfs of difference. those who are alike are together in their interiors. thought and love, forgetfulness and hate, are not hampered by temporal and spatial boundaries. spiritual forces and beings spurn material impediments, and are united or separate, reciprocally visible or invisible, mutually conscious or unconscious, according to their own laws of kindred or alien adaptedness. the soul the true man is its own organized and deathless body, and when it leaves its earthly house of flesh it knows the only resurrection, and the cast off frame returns to the dust forever. swedenborg repeatedly affirms with emphasis that no one is born for hell, but that all are born for heaven, and that when any one comes into hell it is from his own free fault. he asserts that every infant, wheresoever born, whether within the church or out of it, whether of pious parents or of impious, when he dies is received by the lord, and educated in heaven, and becomes an angel. a central principle of which he never loses sight is that "a life of charity, which consists in acting sincerely and justly in every function, in every engagement, and in every work, from a heavenly motive, according to the divine laws, is possible to every one, and infallibly leads to heaven." it does not matter whether the person leading such a life be a christian or a gentile. the only essential is that his ruling motive be divine and his life be in truth and good. the swedenborgian doctrine concerning christ and his mission is that he was the infinite god incarnate, not incarnate for the purpose of expiating human sin and purchasing a ransom for the lost by vicarious sufferings, but for the sake of suppressing the rampant power of the hells, weakening the influx of the infernal spirits, setting an example to men, and revealing many important truths. the advantage of the christian over the pagan is that the former is enlightened by the celestial knowledge contained in the bible, and animated by the affecting motives presented in the drama of the divine incarnation. there is no probation after this life. just as one is on leaving the earth he goes into the spiritual world. there his philo the jew says, (vol. i. p. , ed. mangey,) "god is the father of the world: the world is the father of time, begetting it by its own motion: time, therefore, holds the place of grandchild to god." but the world is only one measure of time; another, and a more important one, is the inward succession of the spirit's states of consciousness. between philo and swedenborg, it may be remarked here, there are many remarkable correspondences both of thought and language. for example, philo says, (vol. i. p. ,) "man is a small kosmos, the kosmos is a grand man." ruling affection determines his destiny, and that affection can never be extirpated or changed to all eternity. after death, evil life cannot in any manner or degree be altered to good life, nor infernal love be transmuted to angelic love, inasmuch as every spirit from head to foot is in quality such as his love is, and thence such as his life is, so that to transmute this life into the opposite is altogether to destroy the spirit. it were easier, says swedenborg, to change a night bird into a dove, an owl into a bird of paradise, than to change a subject of hell into a subject of heaven after the line of death has been crossed. but why the crossing of that line should make such an infinite difference he does not explain; nor does he prove it as a fact. the moral reason and charitable heart of swedenborg vehemently revolted from the calvinistic doctrines of predestination and vicarious atonement, and the group of thoughts that cluster around them. he always protests against these dogmas, refutes them with varied power and consistency; and the leading principles of his own system are creditable to human nature, and attribute no unworthiness to the character of god. a debt of eternal gratitude is due to swedenborg that his influence, certainly destined to be powerful and lasting, is so clearly calculated to advance the interests at once of philosophic intelligence, social affection, and true piety. the superiorities of his view of the future life over those which it seeks to supplant are weighty and numerous. the following may be reckoned among the most prominent. first, without predicating of god any aggravated severity or casting the faintest shadow on his benevolence, it gives us the most appalling realization of the horribleness of sin and of its consequences. god is commonly represented in effect, at least as flaming with anger against sinners, and forcibly flinging them into the unappeasable fury of tophet, where his infinite vengeance may forever satiate itself on them. but, swedenborg says, god is incapable of hatred or wrath: he casts no one into hell; but the wicked go where they belong by their own election, from the inherent fitness and preference of their ruling love. the evil man desires to be in hell because there he finds his food, employment, and home; in heaven he would suffer unutterable agonies from every circumstance. the wicked go into hell by the necessary and benignant love of god, not by his indignation; and their retributions are in their own characters, not in their prison house. this does not flout and trample all magnanimity, nor shock the heart of piety; and yet, showing us men compelled to prefer wallowing in the filth and iniquities of hell, clinging to the very evils whose pangs transfix them, it gives us the direst of all the impressions of sin, and beneath the lowest deep of the popular hell opens to our shuddering conceptions a deep of loathsomeness immeasurably lower still. secondly, the swedenborgian doctrine of the conditions of salvation or reprobation, when compared with the popular doctrine, is marked by striking depth of insight, justice, and liberality. every man is free. every man has power to receive the influx of truth and good from the lord and convert it to its blessed and saving uses, piety towards god, good will towards the neighbor, and all kinds of right works. who does this, no matter in what land or age he lives, becomes an heir of heaven. who perverts those divine gifts to selfishness and unrighteous deeds becomes a subject of hell. no mere opinion, no mere profession, no mere ritual services, no mere external obedience, not all these things together, can save a man, nor their absence condemn him; but the controlling motive of his life, the central and ruling love which constitutes the substance of his being, this decides every man's doom. the view is simple, reasonable, just, necessary. and so is the doctrine of degrees accompanying it; namely, that there are in heaven different grades and qualities of exaltation and delight, and in hell of degradation and woe, for different men according to their capacities and deserts. a profoundly ethical character pervades the scheme, and the great stamp of law is over it all. thirdly, a manifest advantage of swedenborg's doctrine over the popular doctrine is the intimate connection it establishes between the present and the future, the visible and the invisible, god and man. heaven and hell are not distant localities, entrance into which is to be won or avoided by moral artifices or sacramental subterfuges, but they are states of being depending on personal goodness or evil. god is not throned at the heart or on the apex of the universe, where at some remote epoch we hope to go and see him, but he is the life feeding our lives freshly every instant. the spiritual world, with all its hosts, sustains and arches, fills and envelops us. death is the dropping of the outer body, the lifting of an opaque veil, and we are among the spirits, unchanged, as we were before. judgment is not a tribunal dawning on the close of the world's weary centuries, but the momentary assimilation of a celestial or an infernal love leading to states and acts, rewards and retributions, corresponding. before this view the dead universe becomes a live transparency overwritten with the will, tremulous with the breath, and irradiate with the illumination of god. we cannot but regret that the swedenborgian view of the future life should be burdened and darkened with the terrible error of the dogma of eternal damnation, spreading over the state of all the subjects of the hells the pall of immitigable hopelessness, denying that they can ever make the slightest ameliorating progress. we have never been able to see force enough in any of the arguments or assertions advanced in support of this tremendous horror to warrant the least hesitation in rejecting it. for ourselves, we must regard it as incredible, and think that god cannot permit it. instruction, reformation, progress, are the final aims of punishment. aspiration is the concomitant of consciousness, and the authentic voice of god. surely, sooner or later, in the boonful eternities of being, every creature capable of intelligence, allied to the moral law, drawing life from the infinite, must begin to travel the ascending path of virtue and blessedness, and never retrograde again. neither can we admit in general the claim made by swedenborg and by his disciples that the way in which he arrived at his system of theology elevates it to the rank of a divine revelation. it is asserted that god opened his interior vision, so that he saw what had hitherto been concealed from the eyes of men in the flesh, namely, the inhabitants, laws, contents, and experiences of the spiritual world, and thus that his statements are not speculations or arguments, but records of unerring knowledge, his descriptions not fanciful pictures of the imagination, but literal transcripts of the truth he saw. this, in view of the great range of known experience, is not intrinsically probable, and we have seen no proof of it. judging from what we know of psychological and religious history, it is far more likely that a man should confound his intangible reveries with solid fact than that he should be inspired by god to reveal a world of mysterious truths. furthermore, while we are impressed with the reasonableness, probability, and consistency of most of the general principles of swedenborg's exposition of the future life, we cannot but shrink from many of the details and forms in which he carries them out. notwithstanding the earnest avowals of able disciples of his school that all his details are strictly necessitated by his premises, and that all his premises are laws of truth, we are compelled to regard a great many of his assertions as purely arbitrary and a great many of his descriptions as purely fanciful. but, denying that his scheme of eschatology is a scientific representation of the reality, and looking at it as a poetic structure reared by co working knowledge and imagination on the ground of reason, nature, and morality, whose foundation walls, columns, and grand outlines are truth, while many of its details, ornaments, and images are fancy, it must be acknowledged to be one of the most wonderful examples of creative power extant in the literature of the world. no one who has mastered it with appreciative mind will question this. there are, expressed and latent, in the totality of swedenborg's accounts of hell and heaven, more variety of imagery, power of moral truth and appeal, exhibition of dramatic justice, transcendent delights of holiness and love, curdling terrors of evil and woe, strength of philosophical grasp, and sublimity of emblematic conception, than are to be found in dante's earth renowned poem. we say this of the substance of his ideas, not of the shape and clothing in which they are represented. swedenborg was no poet in language and form, only in conception. take this picture. in the topmost height of the celestial world the lord appears as a sun, and all the infinite multitudes of angels, swarming up through the innumerable heavens, wherever they are, continually turn their faces towards him in love and joy. but at the bottom of the infernal world is a vast ball of blackness, towards which all the hosts of demons, crowding down through the successive hells, forever turn their eager faces away from god. or consider this. every thing consists of a great number of perfect leasts like itself: every heart is an aggregation of little hearts, every lung an aggregation of little lungs, every eye an aggregation of little eyes. following out the principle, every society in the spiritual world is a group of spirits arranged in the form of a man, every heaven is a gigantic man composed of an immense number of individuals, and all the heavens together constitute one grand man, a countless number of the most intelligent angels forming the head, a stupendous organization of the most affectionate making the heart, the most humble going to the feet, the most useful attracted to the hands, and so on through every part. with exceptions, then, we regard swedenborg's doctrine of the future life as a free poetic presentment, not as a severe scientific statement, of views true in moral principle, not of facts real in literal detail. his imagination and sentiment are mathematical and ethical instead of asthetic and passionate. milk seems to run in his veins instead of blood, but he is of truthfulness and charity all compact. we think it most probable that the secret of his supposed inspiration was the abnormal frequent or chronic turning of his mind into what is called the ecstatic or clairvoyant state. this condition being spontaneously induced, while he yet, in some unexplained manner, retained conscious possession and control of his usual faculties, he treated his subjective conceptions as objective realities, believed his interior contemplations were accurate visions of facts, and took the strange procession of systematic reveries through his teeming brain for a scenic revelation of the exhaustive mysteries of heaven and hell. "each wondrous guess beheld the truth it sought, and inspiration flash'd from what was thought." this hypothesis, taken in conjunction with the comprehensiveness of his mind, the vastness of his learning, the integral correctness of his conscience, and his disciplined habits of thought, will go far towards explaining the unparalleled phenomenon of his theological works; and, though it leaves many things unaccounted for, it seems to us more credible than any other which has yet been suggested. the last of the three prominent phenomena which as before said followed the protestant reformation was rationalism, an attempt to try all religious questions at the tribunal of reason and by the tests of conscience. the great movement led by luther was but one element in a numerous train of influences and events all yielding their different contributions to that resolute rationalistic tendency which afterwards broke out so powerfully in england, france, and germany, and, spreading thence into every country in christendom, has been, in secret and in public, with slow, sure steps, irresistibly advancing ever since. in the history of scholasticism there were three distinct epochs. the first period was characterized by the servile submission and conformity of philosophy to the theology dictated by the church. the second period was marked by the formal alliance and attempted reconciliation of philosophy and theology. the third period saw an ever increasing jealousy and separation between the philosophers and the theologians. many an adventurous thinker pushed his speculations beyond the limits of the established theology, and deliberately dissented from the orthodox standards in his conclusions. perhaps abelard, who openly strove to put all the church dogmas in forms acceptable to philosophy, and who did not hesitate to reject in many instances what seemed to him unreasonable, deserves to be called the father of rationalism. the works of des cartes, leibnitz, wolf, kant's "religion within the bounds of pure reason," together with the influence and the writings of many other eminent philosophers, gradually gave momentum to the impulse and popularity to the habits of free thought and criticism even in the realm of theology. the dogmatic scheme of the dominant church was firmly seized, many errors shaken out to the light and exposed, and many long received opinions questioned and flung into doubt. the authenticity of many of the popular doctrines regarding the future life could not fail to be denied as soon as it was attempted as was extensively done about the middle of the eighteenth century to demonstrate them by mathematical methods, with all the array of axioms, theorems, lemmas, doubts, and solutions. flugge has historically illustrated the employment of this method at considerable length. cousin, hist. mod. phil., lect. ix. staudlin, geschichte des rationalismus. saintes, histoire critique du rationalisme en allemagne, eng. trans. by dr. beard. geschichte des glaubens an unsterblichkeit, u. s. f., th. iii. abth. ii. ss. - . the essence of rationalism is the affirmation that neither the fathers, nor the church, nor the scriptures, nor all of them together, can rightfully establish any proposition opposed to the logic of sound philosophy, the principles of reason, and the evident truth of nature. around this thesis the battle has been fought and the victory won; and it will stand with spreading favor as long as there are unenslaved and cultivated minds in the world. this position is, in logical necessity, and as a general thing in fact, that of the large though loosely cohering body of believers known as "liberal christians;" and it is tacitly held by still larger and ever growing numbers nominally connected with sects that officially eschew it with horror. the result of the studies and discussions associated with this principle, so far as it relates to the subject before us, has been the rejection of the following popular doctrines: the plenary inspiration of the scriptures as an ultimate authority in matters of belief; unconditional predestination; the satisfaction theory of the vicarious atonement; the visible second coming of christ, in person, to burn up the world and to hold a general judgment; the intermediate state of souls; the resurrection of the body; a local hell of material fire in the bowels of the earth; the eternal damnation of the wicked. these old dogmas, scarcely changed, still remain in the stereotyped creeds of all the prominent denominations; but they slumber there to an astonishing extent unrealized, unnoticed, unthought of, by the great multitude of common believers, while every consciously rational investigator vehemently repudiates them. to every candid mind that has really studied their nature and proofs their absurdity is now transparent on all the grounds alike of history, metaphysics, morals, and science. the changes of the popular christian belief in regard to three salient points have been especially striking. first, respecting the immediate fate of the dead, an intermediate state. the predominant jewish doctrine was that all souls went indiscriminately into a sombre under world, where they awaited a resurrection. the earliest christian view prevalent was the same, with the exception that it divided that place of departed spirits into two parts, a painful for the bad, a pleasant for the good. the next opinion that prevailed the roman catholic was the same as the foregoing, with two exceptions: it established a purgatory in addition to the previous paradise and hell, and it opened heaven itself for the immediate entrance of a few spotless souls. pope john xxii., as gieseler shows, was accused of heresy by the theological doctors of paris because he declared that no soul could enter heaven and enjoy the beatific vision until after the resurrection. pope benedict xii. drew up a list of one hundred and seventeen heretical opinions held by the armenian christians. one of these notions was that the souls of all deceased adults wander in the air until the day of judgment, neither hell, paradise, nor heaven being open to them until after that day. thomas aquinas says, "each soul at death immediately flies to its appointed place, whether in hell or in heaven, being without the body until the resurrection, with it afterwards." then came the they are defended in all their literal grossness in the two following works, both recent publications. the world to come; by the rev. james cochrane. der tod, das todtenreich, und der zustand der abgeschiedenen seelen; von p. a. maywahlen. summa iii. in suppl. . . dogma of the orthodox protestants, slightly varying in the different sects, but generally agreeing that at death all redeemed souls pass instantly to heaven and all unredeemed souls to hell. the principal variation from this among believers within the protestant fellowship has been the notion that the souls of all men die or sleep with the body until the day of judgment, a notion which peeps out here and there in superstitious spots along the pages of ecclesiastical history, and which has found now and then an advocate during the last century and a half. the council of elvin, in spain, forbade the lighting of tapers in churchyards, lest it should disturb the souls of the deceased buried there. at this day, in prayers and addresses at funerals, no phrases are more common than those alluding to death as a sleep, and implying that the departed one is to slumber peacefully in his grave until the resurrection. and yet, at the same time, by the same persons contrary ideas are frequently expressed. the truth is, the subject, owing to the contradictions between their creed and their reason, is left by most persons in hopeless confusion and uncertainty. they have no determinately reconciled and conscious views of their own. rationalism sweeps away all the foregoing incongruous medley at once, denying that we know any thing about the precise localities of heaven and hell, or the destined order of events in the hidden future of separate souls; affirming that all we should dare to say is simply that the souls whether of good or of bad men, on leaving the body, go at once into a spiritual state of being, where they will live immortally, as god decrees, never returning to be reinvested with the vanished charnel houses of clay they once inhabited. secondly, the thought that christ after his death descended into the under world to ransom mankind, or a part of mankind, from the doom there, is in the foundation of the apostolic theology. it was a central element in the belief of the fathers, and of the church for fourteen hundred years. none of the prominent protestant reformers thought of denying it. calvin lays great stress on it. apinus and others, at hamburg, maintained that christ's descent was a part of his humiliation, and that in it he suffered unutterable pains for us. on the other hand, melancthon and the wittenbergers held that the descent was a part of christ's triumph, since by it he won a glorious victory over the powers of hell. but gradually the importance and the redeeming effects attached to christ's descent into hell were transferred to his death on the cross. slowly the primitive dogma dwindled away, and finally sunk out of sight, through an ever encroaching disbelief in the physical conditions on which it rested and in the pictorial environments by which it was recommended. and now it is scarcely ever heard of, save when brought out from old scholastic tomes by some theological delver. baumgarten crusius has learnedly illustrated the important place long held by this notion, and well shown its gradual retreat into the unnoticed background. confession of faith of the church of scotland, ch. xxxii. calvin, institutes, lib. iii. cap. xxv.; and his psychopannychia. quenstedt also affirms it. likewise the confession of faith of the westminster divines, art. xxxii., says, "souls neither die nor sleep, but go immediately to heaven or hell." institutes, lib. ii. cap. , sects. , . ledderhose, life of melancthon, eng. trans. by krotel, ch. xxx. compendium der christliche dogmengeschichte, thl. ii. sects. - . the other particular doctrine which we said had undergone remarkable change is in regard to the number of the saved. a blessed improvement has come over the popular christian feeling and teaching in respect to this momentous subject. the jews excluded from salvation all but their own strict ritualists. the apostles, it is true, excluded none but the stubbornly wicked. but the majority of the fathers virtually allowed the possibility of salvation to few indeed. chrysostom doubted if out of the hundred thousand souls constituting the christian population of antioch in his day one hundred would be saved! and when we read, with shuddering soul, the calculations of cornelius a lapide, or the celebrated sermon of massillon on the "small number of the saved," we are compelled to confess that they fairly represent the almost universal sentiment and conviction of christendom for more than seventeen hundred years. a quarto volume published in london in , by du moulin, called "moral reflections upon the number of the elect," affirmed that not one in a million, from adam down to our times, shall be saved. a flaming execration blasted the whole heathen world, and a metaphysical quibble doomed ninety nine of every hundred in christian lands. collect the whole relevant theological literature of the christian ages, from the birth of tertullian to the death of jonathan edwards, strike the average pitch of its doctrinal temper, and you will get this result: that in the field of human souls satan is the harvester, god the gleaner; hell receives the whole vintage in its wine press of damnation, heaven obtains only a few straggling clusters plucked for salvation. the crowded wains roll staggering into the iron doorways of satan's fire and brimstone barns; the redeemed vestiges of the world crop of men are easily borne to heaven in the arms of a few weeping angels. how different is the prevailing tone of preaching and belief now! what a cheerful ascent of views from the mournful passage of the dead over the river of oblivion fancied by the greeks, or the excruciating passage of the river of fire painted by the catholics, to the happy passage of the river of balm, healing every weary bruise and sorrow, promised by the universalists! it is true, the old harsh exclusiveness is still organically imbedded in the established creeds, all of which deny the possibility of salvation beyond the little circle who vitally appropriate the vicarious atonement of christ; but then this is, for the most part, a dead letter in the creeds. in the hearts and in the candid confessions of all but one in a thousand it is discredited and sincerely repelled as an abomination to human nature, a reflection against god, an outrage upon the substance of ethics. remorseless bigots may gloat and exult over the thought that those who reject their dogmas shall be thrust into the roaring fire gorges of hell; but a better spirit is the spirit of the age we live in; and, doubtless, a vast majority of the men we daily meet really believe that all who try to the best of their ability, according to their light and circumstances, to do what is right, in the love of god and man, shall be saved. in that moving scene of the great dramatist where the burial of the innocent and hapless ophelia is represented, and lacrtes vainly seeks to win from the church official in acta apostolorum, homil. xxiv. gotze, ueber die neue meinung von der seligkeit der angeblich guten und redlichen seelen unter juden, heiden, und turken durch christum, ohne dass sie an ihn glauben. the full funeral rites of religion over her grave, the priest may stand for the false and cruel ritual spirit, the brother for the just and native sentiment of the human heart. says the priest, "we should profane the service of the dead to sing a requiem and such rest to her as to peace parted souls." and laertes replies, "lay her in the earth; and from her fair and unpolluted flesh shall violets spring. i tell thee, churlish priest, a ministering angel shall my sister be when thou liest howling." indeed, who that has a heart in his bosom would not be ashamed not to sympathize with the gentle hearted burns when he expresses even to the devil himself the quaint and kindly wish, "oh wad ye tak' a thought and mend!" the creeds and the priests, in congenial alliance with many evil things, may strive to counteract this progressive self emancipation from cruel falsehoods and superstitions, but in vain. the terms of salvation are seen lying in the righteous will of a gracious god, not in the heartless caprice of a priesthood nor in the iron gripe of a set of dogmas. the old priestly monopoly over the way to heaven has been taken off in the knowledge of the enlightened present, and, for all who have unfettered feet to walk with, the passage to god is now across a free bridge. the ancient exactors may still sit in their toll house creeds and confessionals; but their authority is gone, and the virtuous traveller, stepping from the ground of time upon the planks that lead over into eternity, smiles as he passes scot free by their former taxing terrors. the reign of sacramentalists and dogmatists rapidly declines. reason, common sentiment, the liberal air, the best and strongest tendencies of the people, are against them to day, and will be more against them in every coming day. every successive explosion of the second adventist fanaticism will leave less of that element behind. its rage in america, under the auspices of miller, in the nineteenth century, was tame and feeble when compared with the terror awakened in europe in the fifteenth century by stofler's prediction of an approaching comet. every new discovery of the harmonies of science, and of the perfections of nature, and of the developments of the linear logic of god consistently unfolding in implicated sequences of peaceful order unperturbed by shocks of failure and epochs of remedy, will increase and popularize an intelligent faith in the original ordination and the intended permanence of the present constitution of things. finally men will cease to be looking up to see the blue dome cleave open for the descent of angelic squadrons headed by the majestic son of god, the angry breath of his mouth consuming the world, cease to bayle, historical dictionary, art. stofler, note b. expect salvation by any other method than that of earnest and devout truthfulness, love, good works, and pious submissiveness to god, cease to fancy that their souls, after waiting through the long sleep or separation of death, will return and take on their old bodies again. recognizing the divine plan for training souls in this lower and transient state for a higher and immortal state, they will endeavor, in natural piety and mutual love, while they live, to exhaust the genuine uses of the world that now is, and thus prepare themselves to enter with happiest auspices, when they die, the world prepared for them beyond these mortal shores. these cheerful prophecies must be verified in the natural course of things. the rapid spread of the doctrine of a future life taught by the "spirit rappers" is a remarkable revelation of the great extent to which the minds of the common people have at last become free from the long domination of the ecclesiastical dogmas on that subject. the leading representatives of the "spiritualists" affirm, with much unanimity, the most comforting conclusions as to the condition of the departed. they exclude all wrath and favoritism from the disposition of the deity. they have little in fact, they often have nothing whatever to say of hell. they emphatically repudiate the ordinarily taught terms of salvation, and deny the doctrine of hopeless reprobation. all death is beautiful and progressive. "every form and thing is constantly growing lovelier and every sphere purer." the abode of each soul in the future state is determined, not by decrees or dogmas or forms of any kind, but by qualities of character, degrees of love, purity, and wisdom. there are seven ascending spheres, each more abounding than the one below it in beauties, glories, and happiness. "the first sphere is the natural; the second, the spiritual; the third, the celestial; the fourth, the supernatural; the fifth, the superspiritual; the sixth, the supercelestial; the seventh, the infinite vortex of love and wisdom." whatever be thought of the pretensions of this doctrine to be a divine revelation, whatever be thought of its various psychological, cosmological, and theological characteristics, its ethics are those of natural reason. it is wholly irreconcilable with the popular ecclesiastical system of doctrines. its epidemic diffusion until now burdened as it is with such nauseating accompaniments of crudity and absurdity, it reckons its adherents by millions is a tremendous evidence of the looseness with which the old, cruel dogmas sit on the minds of the masses of the people, and of their eager readiness to welcome more humane views. in science the erroneous doctrines of the middle age are now generally discarded. the mention of them but provokes a smile or awakens surprise. yet, as compared with the historic annals of our race, it is but recently that the true order of the solar system has been unveiled, the weight of the air discovered, the circulation of the blood made known, the phenomena of insanity intelligently studied, the results of physiological chemistry brought to light, the symmetric domain and sway of calculable law pushed far out in every direction of nature and experience. it used to be supposed that digestion was effected by means of a mechanical power equal to many tons. borelli asserted that the muscular force of the heart was one hundred and eighty thousand pounds. these absurd estimates only disappeared when the andrew jackson davis, nature's divine revelations, sects. . properties of the gastric juice were discerned. the method in which we distinguish the forms and distances of objects was not understood until berkeley published his "new theory of vision." few persons are aware of the opposition of bigotry, stolidity, and authority against which the brilliant advances of scientific discovery and mechanical invention and social improvement have been forced to contend, and in despite of which they have slowly won their way. excommunications, dungeons, fires, sneers, polite persecution, bitter neglect, tell the story, from the time the athenians banned anaxagoras for calling the sun a mass of fire, to the day an english mob burned the warehouses of arkwright because he had invented the spinning jenny. but, despite all the hostile energies of establishment, prejudice, and scorn, the earnest votaries of philosophical truth have studied and toiled with ever accumulating victories, until now a hundred sciences are ripe with emancipating fruits and perfect freedom to be taught. railroads gird the lands with ribs of trade, telegraphs thread the airs with electric tidings of events, and steamships crease the seas with channels of foam and fire. there is no longer danger of any one being put to death, or even being excluded from the "best society," for saying that the earth moves. an eclipse cannot be regarded as the frown of god when it is regularly foretold with certainty. the measurement of the atmosphere exterminated the wiseacre proverb, "nature abhors a vacuum," by the burlesque addition, "but only for the first thirty two feet." the madman cannot be looked on as divinely inspired, his words to be caught as oracles, or as possessed by a devil, to be chained and scourged, since pinel's great work has brought insanity within the range of organic disease. when franklin's kite drew electricity from the cloud to his knuckle, the superstitious theory of thunder died a natural death. the vast progress effected in all departments of physical science during the last four centuries has not been made in any kindred degree in the prevailing theology. most of the harsh, unreasonable tenets of the elaborately morbid and distorted mediaval theologyare still retained in the creeds of the great majority of christendom. the causes of this difference are plain. the establishment of newly discovered truths in material science being less intimately connected with the prerogatives of the ruling classes, less clearly hostile to the permanence of their power, they have not offered so pertinacious an opposition to progress in this province: they have yielded a much larger freedom to physicists than to moralists, to discoverers of mathematical, chemical, and mechanical law than to reformers of political and religious thought. livy tells us that, in the five hundred and seventy third year of rome, some concealed books of numa were found, which, on examination by the priests, being thought injurious to the established religion, were ordered to be burned. the charge was not that they were ungenuine, nor that their contents were false; but they were dangerous. in the second century, an imperial decree forbade the reading of the sibylline oracles, because they contained prophecies of christ and doctrines of christianity. by an act of the english parliament, in the middle of the seventeenth century, every copy of the racovian catechism (an exposition of the socinian doctrine) that could be obtained was burned in the streets. lib. xl. cap. xxix. the index expurgatorius for catholic countries is still freshly filled every year. and in protestant countries a more subtle and a more effectual influence prevents, on the part of the majority, the candid perusal of all theological discussions which are not pitched in the orthodox key. certain dogmas are the absorbed thought of the sects which defend them: no fresh and independent thinking is to be expected on those subjects, no matter how purely fictitious these secretions of the brain of the denomination or of some ancient leader may be, no matter how glaringly out of keeping with the intelligence and liberty which reign in other realms of faith and feeling. there is nowhere else in the world a tyranny so pervasive and despotic as that which rules in the department of theological opinion. the prevalent slothful and slavish surrender of the grand privileges and duties of individual thought, independent personal conviction and action in religious matters, is at once astonishing, pernicious, and disgraceful. the effect of entrenched tradition, priestly directors, a bigoted, overawing, and persecuting sectarianism, is nowhere else a hundredth part so powerful or so extensive. in addition to the bitter determination by interested persons to suppress reforming investigations of the doctrines which hold their private prejudices in supremacy, and to the tremendous social prestige of old establishment, another cause has been active to keep theology stationary while science has been making such rapid conquests. science deals with tangible quantities, theology with abstract qualities. the cultivation of the former yields visible practical results of material comfort; the cultivation of the latter yields only inward spiritual results of mental welfare. accordingly, science has a thousand resolute votaries where theology has one unshackled disciple. at this moment, a countless multitude, furnished with complex apparatus, are ransacking every nook of nature, and plucking trophies, and the world with honoring attention reads their reports. but how few with competent preparation and equipment, with fearless consecration to truth, unhampered, with fresh free vigor, are scrutinizing the problems of theology, enthusiastically bent upon refuting errors and proving verities! and what reception do the conclusions of those few meet at the hands of the public? surely not prompt recognition, frank criticism, and grateful acknowledgment or courteous refutation. no; but studied exclusion from notice, or sophistical evasions and insulting vituperation. what a striking and painful contrast is afforded by the generous encouragement given to the students of science by the annual bestowment of rewards by the scientific societies such as the cuvier prize, the royal medal, the rumford medal and the jealous contempt and assaults visited by the sectarian authorities upon those earnest students of theology who venture to propose any innovating improvement! suppose there were annually awarded an aquinas prize, a fenelon medal, a calvin medal, a luther medal, a channing medal, not to the one who should present the most ingenious defence of any peculiar tenet of one of those masters, but to him who should offer the most valuable fresh contribution to theological truth! what should we think if the french institute offered a gold medal every year to the astronomer who presented the ablest essay in support of the ptolemaic system, or if the royal society voted a diploma for the best method of casting nativities? such is the course pursued in regard to dogmatic theology. the consequence has been that while elsewhere the ultimate standard by which to try a doctrine is, what do the most competent judges say? what does unprejudiced reason dictate? what does the great harmony of truth require? in theology it is, what do the committed priests say? how does it comport with the old traditions? we read in the hak ul yakeen that the envoy of herk, emperor of rum, once said to the prophet, "you summon people to a paradise whose extent includes heaven and earth: where, then, is hell?" mohammed replied, "when day comes, where is night?" that is to say, according to the traditionary glosses, as day and night are opposite, so paradise is at the zenith and hell at the nadir. yes; but if paradise be above the heavens, and hell below the seventh earth, then how can sirat be extended over hell for people to pass to paradise? "we reply," say the authors of the hak ul yakeen, "that speculation on this subject is not necessary, nor to be regarded. implicit faith in what the prophets have revealed must be had; and explanatory surmises, which are the occasion of satanic doubts, must not be indulged." certainly this exclusion of reason cannot always be suffered. it is fast giving way already. and it is inevitable that, when reason secures its right and bears its rightful fruits in moral subjects as it now does in physical subjects, the mediaval theology must be rejected as mediaval science has been. it is the common doctrine of the church that christ now sits in heaven in a human body of flesh and blood. calvin separated the divine nature of christ from this human body; but luther made the two natures inseparable and attributed ubiquity to the body in which they reside, thus asserting the omnipresence of a material human body, a bulk of a hundred and fifty pounds' weight more or less. he furiously assailed zwingle's objection to this monstrous nonsense, as "a devil's mask and grandchild of that old witch, mistress reason." the roman church teaches, and her adherents devoutly believe, that the house of the virgin mary was conveyed on the wings of angels from nazareth to the eastern slope of the apennines above the adriatic gulf. the english church, consistently interpreted, teaches that there is no salvation without baptism by priests in the line of apostolic succession. these are but ordinary specimens of teachings still humbly received by the mass of christians. the common distrust with which the natural operations of reason are regarded in the church, the extreme reluctance to accept the conclusions of mere reason, seem to us discreditable to the theological leaders who represent the current creeds of the approved sects. many an influential theologian could learn invaluable lessons from the great guides in the realm of science. the folly which acute learned wise men will be guilty of the moment they turn to theological subjects, where they do not allow reason to act, is both ludicrous and melancholy. the victim of lycanthropy used to be burned alive; he is now placed under the careful treatment of skilful and humane physicians. but the heretic or infidel is still thought to be inspired by the devil, a fit subject for discipline here and hell hereafter. the light shed abroad by the rising spirit of rational investigation must gradually dispel the delusions which lurk in the vales of theology, as it already has dispelled those that formerly haunted the hills of science. the spectres which have so long terrified a childish world will successively vanish merrick, hyat ul kuloob, note . hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. , note . christian remembrancer, april, . a full and able history of the "holy house of loretto." from the path of man as advancing reason, in the name of the god of truth, utters its imperial "avaunt!" henry more wrote a book on the "immortality of the soul," printed in london in , just two hundred years ago. it is full of beauty, acumen, and power. he was one of the first men of the time. yet he seriously elaborates an argument like this: "the scum and spots that lie on the sun are as great an argument that there is no divinity in him as the dung of owls and sparrows that is found on the faces and shoulders of idols in temples are clear evidences that they are no true deities." he also in good faith tells a story like this: "that a woman with child, seeing a butcher divide a swine's head with a cleaver, brought forth her child with its face cloven in the upper jaw, the palate, and upper lip to the very nose." the progress marked by the contrast of the scientific spirit of the present time with the ravenous credulity of even two centuries back must continue and spread into every province. some may vilify it; but in vain. some may sophisticate against it; but in vain. some may invoke authority and social persecution to stop it; but in vain. some may appeal to the prejudices and fears of the timid; but in vain. some may close their own eyes, and hold their hands before their neighbors' eyes, and attempt to shut out the light; but in vain. it will go on. it is the interest of the world that it should go on. it is the manly and the religious course to help this progress with prudence and reverence. truth is the will of god, the way he has made things to be and to act, the way he wishes free beings to exist and to act. he has ordained the gradual discovery of truth. and despite the struggles of selfish tyranny, and the complacence of luxurious ease, and the terror of ignorant cowardice, truth will be more and more brought to universal acceptance. some men have fancied their bodies composed of butter or of glass; but when compelled to move out into the sunlight or the crowd they did not melt nor break. esquirol had a patient who did not dare to bend her thumb, lest the world should come to an end. when forced to bend it, she was surprised that the crack of doom did not follow. the mechanico theatrical character of the popular theology is enough to reveal its origin and its fundamental falsity. the difference between its lurid and phantasmal details and the calm eternal verities in the divinely constituted order of nature is as great as the difference between those stars which one sees in consequence of a blow on the forehead and those he sees by turning his gaze to the nightly sky. to every competent thinker, the bare appreciation of such a passage as that which closes chateaubriand's chapter on the last judgment, with the huge bathos of its incongruous mixture of sublime and absurd, is its sufficient refutation: "the globe trembles on its axis; the moon is covered with a bloody veil; the threatening stars hang half detached from the vault of heaven, and the agony of the world commences. now resounds the trump of the angel. the sepulchres burst: the human race issues all at once, and fills the valley of jehoshaphat! the son of man appears in the clouds; the powers of hell ascend from the infernal depths; the goats are separated from the sheep; the wicked are plunged into the gulf; the just ascend to heaven; god returns to his repose, preface, p. . ibid. p. . bucknill and tuke, psychological medicine, ch. ix. and the reign of eternity begins." nothing saves this whole scheme of doctrine from instant rejection except neglect of thought, or incompetence of thought, on the part of those who contemplate it. the peculiar dogmas of the exclusive sects are the products of mental and social disease, psychological growths in pathological moulds. the naked shapes of beautiful women floating around st. anthony in full display of their maddening charms are interpreted by the romanist church as a visible work of the devil. an intelligent physician accounts for them by the laws of physiology, the morbid action of morbid nerves. there is no doubt whatever as to which of these explanations is correct. the absolute prevalence of that explanation is merely a question of time. meanwhile, it is the part of every wise and devout man, without bigotry, without hatred for any, with strict fidelity to his own convictions, with entire tolerance and kindness for all who differ from him, sacredly to seek after verity himself and earnestly to endeavor to impart it to others. to such men forms of opinion, instead of being prisons, fetters, and barriers, will be but as tents of a night while they march through life, the burning and cloudy column of inquiry their guide, the eternal temple of truth their goal. the actual relation, the becoming attitude, the appropriate feeling, of man towards the future state, the concealed segment of his destiny, are impressively shown in the dying scene of one of the wisest and most gifted of men, one of the fittest representatives of the modern mind. in a good old age, on a pleasant spring day, with a vast expanse of experience behind him, with an immensity of hope before him, he lay calmly expiring. "more light!" he cried, with departing breath; and death, solemn warder of eternity, led him, blinded, before the immemorial veil of awe and secrets. it uprolled as the flesh bandage fell from his spirit, and he walked at large, triumphant or appalled, amidst the unimagined revelations of god. and now, recalling the varied studies we have passed through, and seeking for the conclusion or root of the matter, what shall we say? this much we will say. first, the fearless christian, fully acquainted with the results of a criticism unsparing as the requisitions of truth and candor, can scarcely, with intelligent honesty, do more than place his hand on the beating of his heart, and fix his eye on the riven tomb of jesus, and exclaim, "feeling here the inspired promise of immortality, and seeing there the sign of god's authentic seal, i gratefully believe that christ has risen, and that my soul is deathless!" secondly, the trusting philosopher, fairly weighing the history of the world's belief in a future life, and the evidences on which it rests, can scarcely, with justifying warrant, do less than lay his hand on his body, and turn his gaze aloft, and exclaim, "though death shatters this shell, the soul may survive, and i confidently hope to live forever." meanwhile, the believer and the speculator, combining to form a christian philosophy wherein doubt and faith, thought and freedom, reason and sentiment, nature and revelation, all embrace, even as the truth of things and the experience of life demand, may both adopt for their own the expression wrought for himself by a pure and fervent poet in these freighted lines of pathetic beauty: genius of christianity, part ii. book vi. ch. vii. "i gather up the scattered rays of wisdom in the early days, faint gleams and broken, like the light of meteors in a northern night, betraying to the darkling earth the unseen sun which gave them birth; i listen to the sibyl's chant, the voice of priest and hierophant; i know what indian kreeshna saith, and what of life and what of death the demon taught to socrates, and what, beneath his garden trees slow pacing, with a dream like tread, the solemn thoughted plato said; nor lack i tokens, great or small, of god's clear light in each and all, while holding with more dear regard than scroll of heathen seer and bard the starry pages, promise lit, with christ's evangel overwrit, thy miracle of life and death, o holy one of nazareth!" whittier, questions of life. part fifth. historical and critical dissertations concerning a future life. chapter i. doctrine of a future life in the ancient mysteries. the power of the old religions was for centuries concentrated in the mysteries. these were recondite institutions, sometimes wielded by the state, sometimes by a priesthood, sometimes by a ramifying private society. none could be admitted into them save with the permission of the hierarchs, by rites of initiation, and under solemn seals of secrecy. these mysterious institutions, charged with strange attractions, shrouded in awful wonder, were numerous, and, agreeing in some of their fundamental features, were spread nearly all over the world. the writings of the ancients abound with references to them, mostly eulogistic. the mighty part played by these veiled bodies in the life of the periods when they flourished, the pregnant hints and alluring obscurities amid which they stand in relation to the learning of modern times, have repeatedly obtained wide attention, elicited opposite opinions, provoked fierce debates, and led different inquirers to various conclusions as to their true origin, character, scope, meaning, and results. one of the principal points in discussion by scholars concerning the mysteries has been whether they inculcated an esoteric doctrine of philosophy, opposed to the popular religion. some writers have maintained that in their symbols and rites was contained a pure system of monotheistic ethics and religion. our own opinion is that in some of these institutions, at one period, higher theological views and scientific speculations were unfolded, but in others never. still, it is extremely difficult to prove any thing on this part of the general subject: there is much that is plausible to be said on both sides of the question. another query to be noticed in passing is in regard to the degree of exclusiveness and concealment really attached to the form of initiation. lobeck, in his celebrated work, "aglaophamus," borne away by a theory, assumes the extravagant position that the eleusinian mysteries were almost freely open to all. his error seems to lie in not distinguishing sufficiently between the lesser and the greater mysteries, and in not separating the noisy shows of the public festal days from the initiatory and explanatory rites of personal admission within the mystic pale. the notorious lib. i. sects. , . facts that strict inquiry was made into the character and fitness of the applicant before his admission, and that many were openly rejected, that instant death was inflicted on all who intruded unprepared within the sacred circuits, and that death was the penalty of divulging what happened during the celebrations, all are inconsistent with the notion of lobeck, and prove that the mysteries were hedged about with dread. aschylus narrowly escaped being torn in pieces upon the stage by the people on suspicion that in his play he had given a hint of something in the mysteries. he delivered himself by appealing to the areopagus, and proving that he had never been initiated. andocides also, a greek orator who lived about four hundred years before christ, was somewhat similarly accused, and only escaped by a strenuous defence of himself in an oration, still extant, entitled "concerning the mysteries." a third preliminary matter is as to the moral character of the services performed by these companies. some held that their characteristics were divinely pure, intellectual, exalting; others that in abandoned pleasures they were fouler than the stygian pit. the church fathers, clement, irenaus, tertullian, and the rest, influenced by a mixture of prejudice, hatred, and horror, against every thing connected with paganism, declared, in round terms, that the mysteries were unmitigated sinks of iniquity and shame, lust, murder, and all promiscuous deviltry. without pausing to except or qualify, or to be thoroughly informed and just, they included the ancient stern generations and their own degraded contemporaries, the vile rites of the corinthian aphrodite and the solemn service of demeter, the furious revels of the bacchanalians and the harmonious mental worship of apollo, all in one indiscriminate charge of insane beastliness and idolatry. their view of the mysteries has been most circulated among the moderns by leland's learned but bigoted work on the "use and necessity of a divine revelation." he would have us regard each one as a vortex of atheistic sensuality and crime. there should be discrimination. the facts are undoubtedly these, as we might abundantly demonstrate were it in the province of the present essay. the original mysteries, the authoritative institutions co ordinated with the state or administered by the poets and philosophers, were pure: their purpose was to purify the lives and characters of their disciples. their means were a complicated apparatus of sensible and symbolic revelations and instructions admirably calculated to impress the most salutary moral and religious lessons. in the first place, is it credible that the state would fling its auspices over societies whose function was to organize lawlessness and debauchery, to make a business of vice and filth? among the laws of solon is a regulation decreeing that the senate shall convene in the eleusinian temple, the day after the festival, to inquire whether every thing had been done with reverence and propriety. secondly, if such was the character of these secrets, why was inquisition always made into the moral habits of the candidate, that he might be refused admittance if they were bad? this inquiry was severe, and the decision unrelenting. alcibiades was rejected, as we learn from plutarch's life of him, on account of his dissoluteness and insubordination in the city. nero dared not attend the eleusinian mysteries, "because to the murder of his mother he had joined the slaughter of his paternal aunt." all accepted candidates were scrupulously purified in thought and body, and clad in white robes, for nine days previous to their reception. thirdly, it is intrinsically absurd to suppose that an institution of gross immorality and cruelty could have flourished in the most polite and refined greek nation, as the eleusinian mysteries did for over eighteen hundred years, ranking among its members a vast majority of both sexes, of all classes, of all ages, and constantly celebrating its rites before immense audiences of them all. finally, a host of men like plato, sophocles, cimon, lycurgus, cicero, were members of these bodies, partook in their transactions, and have left on record eulogies of them and of their influence. the concurrent testimony of antiquity is that in the great mysteries the desires were chastened, the heart purified, the mind calmed, the soul inspired, all the virtues of morality and hopes of religion taught and enforced with sublime solemnities. there is no just ground for suspecting this to be false. but there remains something more and different to be said also. while the authorized mysteries were what we have asserted, there did afterwards arise spurious mysteries, in names, forms, and pretensions partially resembling the genuine ones, under the control of the most unprincipled persons, and in which unquestionably the excesses of unbelief, drunkenness, and prostitution held riot. these depraved societies were foreign grafts from the sensual pantheism ever nourished in the voluptuous climes of the remote east. they established themselves late in greece, but were developed at rome in such unbridled enormities as compelled the senate to suppress them. livy gives a detailed and vivid account of the whole affair in his history. but the gladiators, scoundrels, rakes, bawds, who swarmed in these stews of rotting rome, are hardly to be confounded with the noble men and matrons of the earlier time who openly joined in the pure mysteries with the approving example of the holiest bards, the gravest statesmen, and the profoundest sages, men like pindar, pericles, and pythagoras. ample facilities are afforded in the numerous works to which we shall refer for unmasking the different organizations that travelled over the earth in the guise of the mysteries, and of seeing what deceptive arts were practised in some, what superhuman terrors paraded in others, what horrible cruelties perpetrated in others, what leading objects sought in each. the mysteries have many bearings on several distinct subjects; but in those aspects we have not space here to examine them. we purpose to consider them solely in their relation to the doctrine of a future life. we are convinced that the very heart of their secret, the essence of their meaning in their origin and their end, was no other than the doctrine of an immortality succeeding a death. gessner published a book at gottingen, so long ago as the year , maintaining this very assertion. his work, which is quite scarce now, bears the title "dogma de perenni animoruin natura per sacra pracipue eleusinia propagata." the consenting testimony of more than forty of the most authoritative ancient writers comes down to us in their surviving works to the effect that those who were admitted into the mysteries were thereby purified, led to holy lives, joined in communion with the gods, and suetonius, vita neronis, cap. xxxiv. lib. xxxix. cap. viii xvi. assured of a better fate than otherwise could be expected in the future state. two or three specimens from these witnesses will suffice. aristophanes, in the second act of the frogs, describes an elysium of the initiates after death, where he says they bound "in sportive dances on rose enamelled meadows; for the light is cheerful only to those who have been initiated." pausanias describes the uninitiated as being compelled in hades to carry water in buckets bored full of holes. isocrates says, in his panegyric, "demeter, the goddess of the eleusinian mysteries, fortifies those who have been initiated against the fear of death, and teaches them to have sweet hopes concerning eternity." the old orphic verses cited by thomas taylor in his treatise on the mysteries run thus: "the soul that uninitiated dies plunged in the blackest mire in hades lies." the same statement is likewise found in plato, who, in another place, also explicitly declares that a doctrine of future retribution was taught in the mysteries and believed by the serious. cicero says, "initiation makes us both live more honorably and die with better hopes." in seasons of imminent danger as in a shipwreck it was customary for a man to ask his companion, hast thou been initiated? the implication is that initiation removed fear of death by promising a happy life to follow. a fragment preserved from a very ancient author is plain on this subject. "the soul is affected in death just as it is in the initiation into the great mysteries: thing answers to thing. at first it passes through darkness, horrors, and toils. then are disclosed a wondrous light, pure places, flowery meads, replete with mystic sounds, dances, and sacred doctrines, and holy visions. then, perfectly enlightened, they are free: crowned, they walk about worshipping the gods and conversing with good men." the principal part of the hymn to ceres, attributed to homer, is occupied with a narrative of her labors to endow the young demophoon, mortal child of metaneira, with immortality. now, ceres was the goddess of the mysteries; and the last part of this very hymn recounts how persephone was snatched from the light of life into hades and restored again. thus we see that the implications of the indirect evidence, the leanings and guidings of all the incidental clews now left us to the real aim and purport of the mysteries, combine to assure us that their chief teaching was a doctrine of a future life in which there should be rewards and punishments. all this we shall more fully establish, both by direct proofs and by collateral supports. it is a well known fact, intimately connected with the different religions of greece and asia minor, that during the time of harvest in the autumn, and again at the season of sowing in the spring, the shepherds, the vintagers, and the people in general, were accustomed to observe certain sacred festivals, the autumnal sad, the vernal joyous. these undoubtedly grew out of the deep sympathy between man and nature over the decay and disappearance, the revival and return, of vegetation. when the hot season had withered the verdure of the scene iii. lib. x. cap. xxxi. phadon, sect. xxxviii. leg., lib. ix. cap. x. de leg., lib. ii. cap. xiv. st. john, hellenes, ch. xi. sentences of stobaus, sermo cxix. fields, plaintive songs were sung, their wild melancholy notes and snatches borne abroad by the breeze and their echoes dying at last in the distance. in every instance, these mournful strains were the annual lamentation of the people over the death of some mythical boy of extraordinary beauty and promise, who, in the flower of youth, was suddenly drowned, or torn in pieces by wild beasts, "some hyacinthine boy, for whom morn well might break and april bloom." among the argives it was linus. with the arcadians it was scephrus. in phrygia it was lityerses. on the shore of the black sea it was bormus. in the country of the bithynians it was hylas. at pelusium it was maneros. and in syria it was adonis. the untimely death of these beautiful boys, carried off in their morning of life, was yearly bewailed, their names re echoing over the plains, the fountains, and among the hills. it is obvious that these cannot have been real persons whose death excited a sympathy so general, so recurrent. "the real object of lamentation," says muller, "was the tender beauty of spring destroyed by the raging heat, and other similar phenomena, which the imagination of those early times invested with a personal form." all this was woven into the mysteries, whose great legend and drama were that every autumn persephone was carried down to the dark realm of the king of shadows, but that she was to return each spring to her mother's arms. thus were described the withdrawal and reappearance of vegetable life in the alternations of the seasons. but these changes of nature typified the changes in the human lot; else persephone would have been merely a symbol of the buried grain and would not have become the queen of the dead. her return to the world of light, by natural analogy, denoted a new birth to men. accordingly, "all the testimony of antiquity concurs in saying that these mysteries inspired the most animating hopes with regard to the condition of the soul after death." that the fate of man should by imagination and sentiment have been so connected with the phenomena of nature in myths and symbols embodied in pathetic religious ceremonies was a spontaneous product. for how "her fresh benignant look nature changes at that lorn season when, with tresses drooping o'er her sable stole, she yearly mourns the mortal doom of man, her noblest work! so israel's virgins erst with annual moan upon the mountains wept their fairest gone!" and soon again the birds begin to warble, the leaves and blossoms put forth, and all is new life once more. in every age the gentle heart and meditative mind have been impressed by the mournful correspondence and the animating prophecy. history of the literature of ancient greece, ch. iii. sects. . for the connection of the eleusinian goddesses with agriculture, the seasons, the under world, death, resurrection, etc., see "demeter and persephone," von dr. ludwig preller, kap. i. sects. . muller, hist. gr. lit., ch. xvi. sect. . but not only was the changing recurrence of dreary winter and gladsome summer joined by affecting analogies with the human doom of death and hope of another life. the phenomena of the skies, the impressive succession of day and night, also were early seized upon and made to blend their shadows and lights, by means of imaginative suggestions, into an image of the decease and resurrection of man. among the mystical hymns of orpheus, so called, there is a hymn to adonis, in which that personage is identified with the sun alternately sinking to tartarus and soaring to heaven. it was customary with the ancients to speak of the setting of a constellation as its death, its reascension in the horizon being its return to life. the black abysm under the earth was the realm of the dead. the bright expanse above the earth was the realm of the living. while the daily sun rises royally through the latter, all things rejoice in the warmth and splendor of his smile. when he sinks nightly, shorn of his ambrosial beams, into the former, sky and earth wrap themselves in mourning for their departed monarch, the dead god of light muffled in his bier and borne along the darkening heavens to his burial. how naturally the phenomena of human fate would be symbolically interwoven with all this! especially alike are the exuberant joy and activity of full life and of day, the melancholy stillness and sad repose of midnight and of death. the sun insists on gladness; but at night, when he is gone, poor nature loves to weep." through her yearly and her diurnal round alike, therefore, does mother nature sympathize with man, and picture forth his fate, in type of autumnal decay, and wintry darkness, and night buried seed, in sign of vernal bud, and summer light, and day bursting fruit. these facts and phenomena of nature and man, together with explanatory theories to which they gave rise, were, by the peculiar imaginative processes so powerfully operative among the earliest nations, personified in mythic beings and set forth as literal history. their doctrine was inculcated as truth once historically exemplified by some traditional personage. it was dramatically impersonated and enacted in the process of initiation into the mysteries. a striking instance of this kind of theatrical representation is afforded by the celebration, every eight years, of the mythus of apollo's fight with the pythian dragon, his flight and expiatory service to admetus, the subterranean king of the dead. in mimic order, a boy slew a monster at delphi, ran along the road to tempe, represented on the way the bondage of the god in hades, and returned, purified, bringing a branch of laurel from the sacred valley. the doctrine of a future life connected with the legend of some hero who had died, descended into the under world, and again risen to life, this doctrine, dramatically represented in the personal experience of the initiate, was the heart of every one of the secret religious societies of antiquity. "here rests the secret, here the keys, of the old death bolted mysteries." leitch's eng. trans. of k. o. muller's introduction to a scientific system of mythology, appendix, pp. - . muller, introduction to mythology, pp. and . also his dorian, lib. ii. cap. vii. sect. . perhaps this great system of esoteric rites and instructions grew up naturally, little by little. perhaps it was constructed at once, either as poetry, by a company of poets, or as a theology, by a society of priests, or as a fair method of moral and religious teaching, by a company of philosophers. or perhaps it was gradually formed by a mixture of all these means and motives. many have regarded it as the bedimmed relic of a brilliant primeval revelation. this question of the origination, the first causes and purposes, of the mysteries is now sunk in hopeless obscurity, even were it of any importance to be known. one thing we know, namely, that at an early age these societies formed organizations of formidable extent and power, and were vitally connected with the prevailing religions of the principal nations of the earth. in egypt the legend of initiation was this. typhon, a wicked, destroying personage, once formed a conspiracy against his brother, the good king osiris. having prepared a costly chest, inlaid with gold, he offered to give it to any one whose body would fit it. osiris unsuspiciously lay down in it. typhon instantly fastened the cover and threw the fatal chest into the river. this was called the loss or burial of osiris, and was annually celebrated with all sorts of melancholy rites. but the winds and waves drove the funereal vessel ashore, where isis, the inconsolable wife of osiris, wandering in search of her husband's remains, at last found it, and restored the corpse to life. this part of the drama was called the discovery or resurrection of osiris, and was also enacted yearly, but with every manifestation of excessive joy. "in the losing of osiris, and then in the finding him again," augustine writes, "first their lamentation, then their extravagant delight, are a mere play and fiction; yet the fond people, though they neither lose nor find any thing, weep and rejoice truly." plutarch speaks of the death, regeneration, and resurrection of osiris represented in the great religious festivals of egypt. he explains the rites in commemoration of typhon's murder of osiris as symbols referring to four things, the subsidence of the nile into his channel, the cessation of the delicious etesian winds before the hot blasts of the south, the encroachment of the lengthening night on the shortening day, the disappearance of the bloom of summer before the barrenness of winter. but the real interest and power of the whole subject probably lay in the direct relation of all these phenomena, traditions, and ceremonies to the doctrine of death and a future life for man. in the mithraic mysteries of persia, the legend, ritual, and doctrine were virtually the same as the foregoing. they are credulously said to have been established by zoroaster himself, who fitted up a vast grotto in the mountains of bokhara, where thousands thronged to be initiated by him. this mithraic cave was an emblem of the universe, its roof painted with the constellations of the zodiac, its depths full of the black and fiery terrors of grisly hell, its summit illuminated with the blue and starry splendors of heaven, its passages lined with dangers and instructions, now quaking with infernal shrieks, now breathing celestial music. in the persian mysteries, the initiate, in dramatic show, died, was laid in a coffin, and wilkinson, egyptian antiquities, series i. vol. i. ch. . de civitate dei, lib. vi. cap. . de is. et osir. porphyry, de antro nympharum. tertullian, prescript. ad her., cap. xl., where he refers the mimic death and resurrection in the mithraic mysteries to the teaching of satan. afterwards rose unto a new life, all of which was a type of the natural fate of man. the descent of the soul from heaven and its return thither were denoted by a torch borne alternately reversed and upright, and by the descriptions of the passage of spirits, in the round of the metempsychosis, through the planetary gates of the zodiac. the sun and moon and the morning and evening star were depicted in brilliant gold or blackly muffled, according to their journeying in the upper or in the lower hemisphere. the hero of the syrian mysteries was adonis or thammuz, the beautiful favorite of aphrodite, untimely slain by a wild boar. his death was sadly, his resurrection joyously, celebrated every year at byblus with great pomp and universal interest. the festival lasted two days. on the first, all things were clad in mourning, sorrow was depicted in every face, and wails and weeping resounded. coffins were exposed at every door and borne in numerous processions. frail stalks of young corn and flowers were thrown into the river to perish, as types of the premature death of blooming adonis, cut off like a plant in the bud of his age. the second day the whole aspect of things was changed, and the greatest exultation prevailed, because it was said adonis had returned from the dead. venus, having found him dead, deposited his body on a bed of lettuce and mourned bitterly over him. from his blood sprang the adonium, from her tears the anemone. the jews were captivated by the religious rites connected with this touching myth, and even enacted them in the gates of their holy temple. ezekiel says, "behold, at the gate of the lord's house which was towards the north [the direction of night and winter] there sat women weeping for tammuz." it was said that aphrodite prevailed on persephone to let adonis dwell one half the year with her on earth, and only the rest among the shades, a plain reference to vegetable life in summer and winter. lucian, in his little treatise on the syrian goddess, says that "the river adonis, rising out of mount libanus, at certain seasons flows red in its channel: some say it is miraculously stained by the blood of the fresh wounded youth; others say that the spring rains, washing in a red ore from the soil of the country, discolor the stream." dupuis remarks that this redness was probably an artifice of the priests. milton's beautiful allusion to this fable is familiar to most persons. next came he "whose annual wound in lebanon allured the syrian damsels to lament his fate in amorous ditties all a summer's day, while smooth adonis from his native rock ran purple to the sea with thammuz' blood." julius firmicus, de errore prof. relig. mithraica, memoire academique sur le culte solaire de mithra, par joseph de hammer, pp: - , - . tertullian, prescript. ad her., cap. xl. porphyry, de abstinentia, lib. iv. sect. . hyde. hist. vet. pers. relig., p. . hist. du culte d'adonis, mem. acad. des inscript., vol. iv. p. . theocritus, idyl xv. bion, epitaph adon., l. . see references in anthon's class. dict., art. adonis. dupuis, orig. de cultes, vol. iv. p. , ed. . there is no end to the discussions concerning the secret purport of this fascinating story. but, after all is said, it seems to us that there are in it essentially two significations, one relating to the phenomena of the sun and the earth, the other to the mutual changes of nature and the fate of humanity. aphrodite bewailing adonis is surviving nature mourning for departed man. in india the story was told of mahadeva searching for his lost consort sita, and, after discovering her lifeless form, bearing it around the world with dismal lamentations. sometimes it was the death of camadeva, the hindu cupid, that was mourned with solemn dirges. he, like osiris, was slain, enclosed in a chest, and committed to the waves. he was afterwards recovered and resuscitated. each initiate passed through the emblematic ceremonies corresponding to the points of this pretended history. the phrygians associated the same great doctrine with the persons of atys and cybele. atys was a lovely shepherd youth passionately loved by the mother of the gods. he suddenly died; and she, in frantic grief, wandered over the earth in search of him, teaching the people where she went the arts of agriculture. he was at length restored to her. annually the whole drama was performed by the assembled nation with sobs of woe succeeded by ecstasies of joy. similar to this, in the essential features, was the eleusinian myth. aidoneus snatched the maiden kore down to his gloomy empire. her mother, demeter, set off in search of her, scattering the blessings of agriculture, and finally discovered her, and obtained the promise of her society for half of every year. these adventures were dramatized and explained in the mysteries which she, according to tradition, instituted at eleusis. the form of the legend was somewhat differently incorporated with the bacchic mysteries. it was elaborately wrought up by the orphic poets. the distinctive name they gave to bacchus or dionysus was zagreus. he was the son of zeus, and was chosen by him to sit on the throne of heaven. zeus gave him apollo and the curetes as guards; but the brutal titans, instigated by jealous hera, disguised themselves and fell on the unfortunate youth while his attention was fixed on a splendid mirror, and, after a fearful conflict, overcame him and tore him into seven pieces. pallas, however, saved his palpitating heart, and zeus swallowed it. zagreus was then begotten again. he was destined to restore the golden age. his devotees looked to him for the liberation of their souls through the purifying rites of his mysteries. the initiation shadowed out an esoteric doctrine of death and a future life, in the mock murder and new birth of the aspirant, who impersonated zagreus. the northmen constructed the same drama of death around the young balder, their god of gentleness and beauty. this legend, as dr. oliver has shown, constituted the secret of the gothic mysteries. obscure and dread prophecies having crept among the gods that the death of the beloved balder was at hand, portending universal ruin, a consultation was held to devise means for averting the calamity. at the suggestion of balder's mother, freya, the scandinavian venus, an oath that they would not be instrumental in causing his death was asiatic researches, vol. iii. p. . see article atys in smith's class. dict. with references. lucretius, de rerum natura, lib. ii. . - . muller, hist. greek lit., ch. xvi. lobeck, aglaophamus, lib. iii. cap. , sect. . history of initiation, lect. x. exacted from all things in nature except the mistletoe, which, on account of its frailty and insignificance, was scornfully neglected. asa loke, the evil principle of the norse faith, taking advantage of this fatal exception, had a spear made of mistletoe, and with it armed hodur, a strong but blind god. freya, rejoicing in fancied security, to convince balder of his charmed exemption from wounds, persuaded him to be the mark for the weapons of the gods. but, alas! when hodur tilted at him, the devoted victim was transpierced and fell lifeless to the ground. darkness settled over the world, and bitter was the grief of men and gods over the innocent and lovely balder. a deputation imploring his release was sent to the queen of the dead. hela so far relented as to promise his liberation to the upper world on condition that every thing on earth wept for him. straightway there was a universal mourning. men, beasts, trees, metals, stones, wept. but an old withered giantess asa loke in disguise shed no tears; and so hela kept her beauteous and lamented prey. but he is to rise again to eternal life and joy when the twilight of the gods has passed. this entire fable has been explained by the commentators, in all its details, as a poetic embodiment of the natural phenomena of the seasons. but it is not improbable that, in addition, it bore a profound doctrinal reference to the fate of man which was interpreted to the initiates. a great deal has been written concerning the ceremonies and meaning of the celebrated celtic mysteries established so long at samothrace, and under the administration of the druids throughout ancient gaul and britain. the aspirant was led through a series of scenic representations, "without the aid of words," mystically shadowing forth in symbolic forms the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. he assumed successively the shapes of a rabbit, a hen, a grain of wheat, a horse, a tree, and so on through a wide range of metamorphoses enacted by the aid of secret dramatic machinery. he died, was buried, was born anew, rising from his dark confinement to life again. the hierophant enclosed him in a little boat and set him adrift, pointing him to a distant rock, which he calls "the harbor of life." across the black and stormy waters he strives to gain the beaconing refuge. in these scenes and rites a recondite doctrine of the physical and moral relations and destiny of man was shrouded, to be unveiled by degrees to their docile disciples by the druidic mystagogues. it may appear strange that there should be in connection with so many of the old religions of the earth these arcana only to be approached by secret initiation at the hands of hierophants. but it will seem natural when we remember that those religions were in the exclusive keeping of priesthoods, which, organized with wondrous cunning and perpetuated through ages, absorbed the science, art, and philosophy of the world, and, concealing their wisdom in the mystic signs of an esoteric language, wielded the mighty enginery of superstition over the people at will. the scenes and instructions through which the priests led the unenlightened candidate were the hiding of their power. thus, wherever was a priesthood we should expect to find mysteries and initiations. historic fact justifies the pigott, manual of scandinavian mythology, pp. - . davies, mythology and rites of the british druids, pp. - ; - ; , , . the accuracy of many of davies's translations has been called in question. his statements, even on the matters affirmed above, must be received with some reservation of faith. supposition; learning unveils the obscure places of antiquity, and shows us the templed or cavernous rites of the religious world, from hindostan to gaul, from egypt to norway, from athens to mexico. and this brings us to the mysteries of vitzliputzli, established in south america. dr. oliver, in the twelfth lecture of his history of initiation, gathering his materials from various sources, gives a terrific account of the dramatic ritual here employed. the walls, floor, images, were smeared and caked with human blood. fresh slaughters of victims were perpetrated at frequent intervals. the candidate descended to the grim caverns excavated under the foundations of the temple. this course was denominated "the path of the dead." phantoms flitted before him, shrieks appalled him, pitfalls and sacrificial knives threatened him. at last, after many frightful adventures, the aspirant arrived at a narrow stone fissure terminating the range of caverns, through which he was thrust, and was received in the open air, as a person born again, and welcomed with frantic shouts by the multitudes who had been waiting for him without during the process of his initiation. even among the savage tribes of north america striking traces have been found of an initiation into a secret society by a mystic death and resurrection. captain jonathan carver, who spent the winter of with the naudowessie indians, was an eye witness of the admission of a young brave into a body which they entitled wakou kitchewah, or friendly society of the spirit. "this singular initiation," he says, "took place within a railed enclosure in the centre of the camp at the time of the new moon." first came the chiefs, clad in trailing furs. then came the members of the society, dressed and painted in the gayest manner. when all were seated, one of the principal chiefs arose, and, leading the young man forward, informed the meeting of his desire to be admitted into their circle. no objection being offered, the various preliminary arrangements were made; after which the director began to speak to the kneeling candidate, telling him that he was about to receive a communication of the spirit. this spirit would instantly strike him dead; but he was told not to be terrified, because he should immediately be restored to life again, and this experience was a necessary introduction to the advantages of the community he was on the point of entering. then violent agitation distorted the face and convulsed the frame of the old chief. he threw something looking like a small bean at the young man. it entered his mouth, and he fell lifeless as suddenly as if he had been shot. several assistants received him, rubbed his limbs, beat his back, stripped him of his garments and put a new dress on him, and finally presented him to the society in full consciousness as a member. all the mysteries were funereal. this is the most striking single phenomenon connected with them. they invariably began in darkness with groans and tears, but as invariably ended in festive triumph with shouts and smiles. in them all were a symbolic death, a mournful entombment, and a glad resurrection. we know this from the abundant direct testimony of unimpeachable ancient writers, and also from their indirect descriptions of the ceremonies and allusions to them. for example, apuleius says, "the delivery of the mysteries is celebrated as a thing resembling a voluntary death: the initiate, being, after a manner, born travels in the interior of north america, ch. vii. again, is restored to a new life." indeed, all who describe the course of initiation agree in declaring that the aspirant was buried for a time within some narrow space, a typical coffin or grave. this testimony is confirmed by the evidence of the ruins of the chief temples and sacred places of the pagan world. these abound with spacious caverns, labyrinthine passages, and curious recesses; and in connection with them is always found some excavation evidently fitted to enclose a human form. such hollow beds, covered with flat stones easily removed, are still to be seen amidst the druidic remains of britain and gaul, as well as in nearly every spot where tradition has located the celebration of the mysteries, in greece, india, persia, egypt. it becomes a most interesting question whence these symbols and rites had their origin, and what they were really meant to shadow forth. bryant, davies, faber, oliver, and several other well known mythologists, have labored, with no slight learning and ingenuity, to show that all these ceremonies sprang from traditions of the deluge and of noah's adventures at that time. the mystic death, burial, and resurrection of the initiate, they say, are a representation of the entrance of the patriarch into the ark, his dark and lonesome sojourn in it, and his final departure out of it. the melancholy wailings with which the mysteries invariably began, typified the mourning of the patriarchal family over their confinement within the gloomy and sepulchral ark; the triumphant rejoicings with which the initiations always ended, referred to the glad exit of the patriarchal family from their floating prison into the blooming world. the advocates of this theory have laboriously collected all the materials that favor it, and skilfully striven by their means to elucidate the whole subject of ancient paganism, especially of the mysteries. but, after reading all that they have written, and considering it in the light of impartial researches, one is constrained to say that they have by no means made out their case. it is somewhat doubtful if there be any ground whatever for believing that traditions concerning noah's deluge and the ark, and his doings in connection with them, in any way entered into the public doctrines and forms, or into the secret initiations, of the heathen religions. at all events, there can be no doubt that the arkite theorists have exaggerated the importance and extent of these views beyond all tolerable bounds, and even to absurdity. but our business with them now is only so far as they relate to the mysteries. our own conviction is that the real meaning of the rites in the mysteries was based upon the affecting phenomena of human life and death and the hope of another life. we hold the arkite theory to be arbitrary in general, unsupported by proofs, and inconsistent in detail, unable to meet the points presented. in the first place, a fundamental part of the ancient belief was that below the surface of the earth was a vast, sombre under world, the destination of the ghosts of men, the greek hades, the roman orcus, the gothic hell. a part of the service of initiation was a symbolic descent into this realm. apuleius, describing his initiation, says, "i approached to the confines golden ass, eng. trans., by thomas taylor, p. . copious instances are given in oliver's history of initiation, in faber's origin of pagan idolatry, and in maurice's indian antiquities. of death and trod on the threshold of proserpine." orpheus, to whom the introduction of the mysteries into greece from the east was ascribed, wrote a poem, now lost, called the "descent into hades." such a descent was attributed to hercules, theseus, rhampsinitus, and many others. it is painted in detail by homer in the adventure of his hero ulysses, also by virgil much more minutely through the journey of aneas. warburton labors with great learning and plausibility, and, as it seems to us, with irresistible cogency, to show that these descents are no more nor less than exoteric accounts of what was dramatically enacted in the esoteric recesses of the mysteries. any person must be invincibly prejudiced who can doubt that the greek hades meant a capacious subterranean world of shades. now, to assert, as bryant and his disciples do, that "hades means the interior of noah's ark," or "the abyss of waters on which the ark floated, as a coffin bearing the relics of dead nature," is a purely arbitrary step taken from undue attachment to a mere theory. hades means the under world of the dead, and not the interior of noah's ark. indeed, in the second place, faber admits that in the mysteries "the ark itself was supposed to be in hades, the vast central abyss of the earth." but such was not the location of noah's vessel and voyage. they were on the face of the flood, above the tops of the mountains. it is beyond comparison the most reasonable supposition in itself, and the one best supported by historic facts, that the representations of a mystic burial and voyage in a ship or boat shown in the ancient religions were symbolic rites drawn from imagination and theory as applied to the impressive phenomena of nature and the lot of man. the egyptians and some other early nations, we know, figured the starry worlds in the sky as ships sailing over a celestial sea. the earth itself was sometimes emblematized in the same way. then, too, there was the sepulchral barge in which the egyptian corpses were borne over the acherusian lake to be entombed. also the "dark blue punt" in which charon ferried souls across the river of death. in these surely there was no reference to noah's ark. it seems altogether likely that what bryant and his coadjutors have constructed into the arkite system of interpretation was really but an emblematic showing forth of a natural doctrine of human life and death and future fate. a wavering boat floating on the deep might, with striking fitness, typify the frail condition of humanity in life, as when hercules is depicted sailing over the ocean in a golden cup; and that boat, safely riding the flood, might also represent the cheerful faith of the initiate in a future life, bearing him fearlessly through all dangers and through death to the welcoming society of elysium, as when danae and her babe, tossed over the tempestuous sea in a fragile chest, were securely wafted to the sheltering shore of seriphus. no emblem of our human state and lot, with their mysteries, perils, threats, and promises, could be either more natural or more impressive than that of a vessel launched on the deep. the dying socrates said "that he should trust his soul on the hope of a future life as upon a raft, and launch away into the unknown." thus the imagination broods over and explores the shows and secrets, presageful warnings and alluring golden ass, taylor's trans., p. . herodotus, lib. il. cap. cxxii. divine legation of moses, book ii. sect. iv. faber, mysteries of the cabiri, ch. v.: on the connection of the fabulous hades with the mysteries. invitations, storms and calms, island homes and unknown havens, of the dim seas of nature and of man, of time and of eternity. thirdly, the defenders of the arkite theory are driven into gross inconsistencies with themselves by the falsity of their views. the dilaceration of zagreus into fragments, the mangling of osiris and scattering of his limbs abroad, they say, refer to the throwing open of the ark and the going forth of the inmates to populate the earth. they usually make osiris, zagreus, adonis, and the other heroes of the legends enacted in the mysteries, representatives of the diluvian patriarch himself; but here, with no reason whatever save the exigencies of their theory, they make these mythic personages representatives of the ark, a view which is utterly unfounded and glaringly wanting in analogy. when zagreus is torn in pieces, his heart is preserved alive by zeus and born again into the world within a human form. after the body of osiris had been strewn piecemeal, the fragments were fondly gathered by isis, and he was restored to life. there is no plausible correspondence between these cases and the sending out from the ark of the patriarchal family to repeople the world. their real purpose would seem plainly to be to symbolize the thought that, however the body of man crumbles in pieces, there is life for him still, he does not hopelessly die. they likewise say that the egg which was consecrated in the mysteries, at the beginning of the rites, was intended as an emblem of the ark resting on the abyss of waters, and that its latent hatching was meant to suggest the opening of the ark to let the imprisoned patriarch forth. this hypothesis has no proof, and is needless. it is much more plausible to suppose that the egg was meant as a symbol of a new life about to burst upon the candidate, a symbol of his resurrection from the mystic tomb wherein he was buried during one stage of initiation; for we know that the initiation was often regarded as the commencement of a fresh life, as a new birth. apuleius says, "i celebrated the most joyful day of my initiation as my natal day." faber argues, from the very close similarity of all the differently named mysteries, that they were all arkite, all derived from one mass of traditions reaching from noah and embodying his history. the asserted fact of general resemblance among the instituted mysteries is unquestionable; but the inference above drawn from it is unwarrantable, even if no better explanation could be offered. but there is another explanation ready, more natural in conception, more consistent in detail, and better sustained by evidence. the various mysteries celebrated in the ancient nations were so much alike not because they were all founded on one world wide tradition about the noachian deluge, but because they all grew out of the great common facts of human destiny in connection with natural phenomena. the mysteries were funereal and festive, began in sorrow and ended in joy, not because they represented first noah's sad entrance into the ark and then his glad exit from it, but because they began with showing the initiate that he must die, and ended with showing him that he should live again in a happier state. even the most prejudiced advocates of the arkite theory procopius, in his history of the gothic war, mentions a curious popular british superstition concerning the ferriage of souls among the neighboring islands at midnight. see grimm's deutsche mythologie, kap. xxvi. zweite ausgabe. mysteries of the cabiri, ch. : comparison of the various mysteries. are forced to admit, on the explicit testimony of the ancients, that the initiates passed from the darkness and horrors of tartarus to the bliss and splendors of elysium by a dramatic resurrection from burial in the black caverns of probation to admission within the illuminated hall or dome of perfection. that the idea of death and of another life runs through all the mysteries as their cardinal tenet is well shown in connection with the rites of the celebrated cave of trophonius at lebadea in boeotia. whoso sought this oracle must descend head foremost over an inclined plane, bearing a honey cake in his hand. aristophanes speaks of this descent with a shudder of fear. the adventurer was suddenly bereft of his senses, and after a while returned to the upper air. what he could then remember composed the divine revelation which had been communicated to him in his unnatural state below. plutarch has given a full account of this experience from one timarchus, who had himself passed through it. the substance of it is this. when timarchus reached the bottom of the cave, his soul passed from his body, visited the under world of the departed, saw the sphere of generation where souls were reborn into the upper world, received some explanation of all these things: then, returning into the body, he was taken up out of the cave. here is no allusion to any traditions of the deluge or the ark; but the great purpose is evidently a doctrine of the destiny of man after death. before the eyes and upon the heart of all mankind in every age has passed in common vision the revolution of the seasons, with its beautiful and sombre changes, phenomena having a power of suggestion irresistible to stir some of the most profound sentiments of the human breast. the day rolls overhead full of light and life and activity; then the night settles upon the scene with silent gloom and repose. so man runs his busy round of toil and pleasure through the day of existence; then, fading, following the sinking sun, he goes down in death's night to the pallid populations of shade. again: the fruitful bloom of summer is succeeded by the bleak nakedness of winter. so the streams of enterprise and joy that flowed full and free along their banks in maturity, overhung by blossoming trees, are shrivelled and frozen in the channels of age, and above their sepulchral beds the leafless branches creak in answer to the shrieks of the funereal blast. the flush of childish gayety, the bloom of youthful promise, when a new comer is growing up sporting about the hearth of home, are like the approach of the maiden and starry spring, "who comes sublime, as when, from pluto free, came, through the flash of zeus, persephone." and then draw hastily on the long, lamenting autumnal days, when "above man's grave the sad winds wail and rain drops fall, and nature sheds her leaves in yearly funeral." faber, mysteries of the cabiri, ch. , pp. - . dion chrysostom describes this scene: oration xii. the clouds, . . essay on the demon of socrates. see also pansanias, lib. ix. cap. xxxix. the flowers are gone, the birds are gone, the gentle breezes are gone; and man too must go, go mingle with the pale people of dreams. but not wholly and forever shall he die. the sun soars into new day from the embrace of night; summer restored hastens on the heels of retreating winter; vegetation but retires and surely returns, and the familiar song of the birds shall sweeten the renewing woods afresh for a million springs. apollo weeping over the beauteous and darling boy, his slain and drooped hyacinthus, is the sun shorn of his fierce beams and mourning over the annual wintry desolation: it is also nature bewailing the remediless loss of man, her favorite companion. it was these general analogies and suggestions, striking the imagination, affecting the heart, enlisting the reason, wrought out, personified, and dramatized by poets, taken up with a mass of other associated matter by priestly societies and organized in a scheme of legendary doctrine and an imposing ritual, that constituted the basis and the central meaning of the old mysteries; and not a vapid tradition about noah and his ark. the aim of these institutions as they were wielded was threefold; and in each particular they exerted tremendous power. the first object was to stretch over the wicked the restraining influence of a doctrine of future punishment, to fill them with a fearful looking for judgment in the invisible world. and a considerable proportion of this kind of fear among the ancients is to be traced to the secret influence of the mysteries, the revelations and terrors there applied. the second desire was to encourage the good and obedient with inspiring hopes of a happy fate and glorious rewards beyond the grave. plutarch writes to his wife, (near the close of his letter of consolation to her,) "some say the soul will be entirely insensible after death; but you are too well acquainted with the doctrines delivered in the mysteries of bacchus, and with the symbols of our fraternity, to harbor such an error." the third purpose was, by the wonders and splendors, the secret awe, the mysterious authority and venerable sanctions, thrown around the society and its ceremonies, to establish its doctrines in the reverential acceptance of the people, and thus to increase the power of the priesthood and the state. to compass these ends, the hidden science, the public force, the vague superstition, the treasured wealth, and all the varied resources available by the ancient world, were marshalled and brought to bear in the mysteries. by chemical and mechanical secrets then in their exclusive possession, the mystagogues worked miracles before the astonished novices. they had the powers of electricity, gunpowder, hydrostatic pressure, at their command. their rites were carried out on the most magnificent scale. the temple at eleusis could hold thirty thousand persons. imagine what effect might be produced, under such imposing and prepared circumstances, on an ignorant multitude, by a set of men holding all the scientific secrets and mechanical inventions till then discovered, illumination flashing after darkness successively before their smitten eyes, the floors seeming to heave and the walls to crack, thunders bellowing through the mighty dome; now yawning revealed beneath them the ghostly chimera of tartarus, with all the shrieking and horrid scenery gathered there; now anthon's class. dict., art. "elicius." salverte, des sciences occultes, ou essai sur la magie. see also editor's introduction to thomson's eng. trans. of salverte's work. the mild beauties of elysium dawning on their ravished vision, amid strains of celestial music, through fading clouds of glory, while nymphs, heroes, and gods walked apparent. clement of alexandria tells us that one feature of the initiation was a display of the grisly secrets of hades. apuleius, in his account of his own initiation, says, "at midnight i saw the sun shining with a resplendent light; and i manifestly drew near to the lower and to the upper gods and adored them in immediate presence." lobeck says that, on the lifting of the veil exposing the adytum to the gaze of the initiates, apparitions of the gods appeared to them. christie, in his little work on the greek mysteries, says that the doctrines of the eleusinian shows were explained by means of transparent scenes, many of which were faithfully copied upon the painted greek vases; and these vase accordingly, were deposited in tombs to evidence the faith of the deceased in a future life. the foregoing conceptions may be illustrated by the dramatic representations, scenic shadows behind transparent curtains, in java, alluded to by sir stamford raffles. it is remarkable how far the mysteries spread over the earth, and what popularity they attained. they penetrated into almost every nation under the sun. they admitted, in some degree, nearly the whole people. herodotus informs us that there were collected in egypt, at one celebration, seven hundred thousand men and women, besides children. the greatest warriors and kings philip, alexander, sulla, antony esteemed it an honor to be welcomed within the mystic pale. "men," says cicero, "came from the most distant shores to be initiated at eleusis." sophocles declares, as quoted by warburton, "true life is to be found only among the initiates: all other places are full of evil." at the rise of the christian religion, all the life and power left in the national religion of greece and rome were in the mysteries. accordingly, here was the most formidable foe of the new faith. standing in its old entrenchments, with all its popular prestige around it, it fought with desperate determination for every inch it was successively forced to yield. the brilliant effort of julian to roll back the tide of christianity and restore the pagan religion to more than its pristine splendor an effort beneath which the scales of the world's fortunes poised, tremulous, for a while was chiefly an endeavor to revive and enlarge the mysteries. such was the attachment of the people to these old rites even in the middle of the fourth century of the christian era, that a murderous riot broke out at alexandria, in which bishop george and others were slain, on occasion of the profanation by christians of a secret adytum in which the mysteries of mithra were celebrated. and when, a little later, the emperor valentinian had determined to suppress all nocturnal rites, he was induced to withdraw his resolution by pretextatus, proconsul in greece, "a man endowed with every virtue, who represented to him that the stromata, lib. iii., cited by a writer on the mysteries in blackwood, feb. , pp. - . taylor's trans. of golden ass, p. . in a note to p. of this work, the translator describes (with a citation of his authorities) "the breathing resemblances of the gods used in the mysteries, statues fabricated by the telesta, so as to be illuminated and to appear animated." aglaophamus, lib. i. sect. . discourse to the lit. and sci. soc. of java, , pub. in valpy's pamphleteer, no. . lib. ii. cap. ix. socrates, ecc. inst., lib. iii. cap. . greeks would consider life insupportable if they were forbidden to celebrate those most sacred mysteries which bind together the human race." upon the whole, we cannot fail to see that the mysteries must have exerted a most extensive and profound influence alike in fostering the good hopes of human nature touching a life to come, and in giving credit and diffusion to the popular fables of the poets concerning the details of the future state. much of that belief which seems to us so absurd we can easily suppose they sincerely embraced, when we recollect what they thought they had seen under supernatural auspices in their initiations. in the greek and roman faith there was gradually developed in connection chiefly with the mysteries, as we believe an aristocratic doctrine which allotted to a select class of souls an abode in the sky as their distinguished destination after death, while the common multitude were still sentenced to the shadow region below the grave. as virgil writes, "the descent to avernus is easy. the gate of dark dis is open day and night. but to rise into the upper world is most arduous. only the few heroes whom favoring jove loves or shining virtue exalts thither can effect it." numerous scattered, significant traces of a belief in this change of the destination of some souls from the pit of hades to the hall of heaven are to be found in the classic authors. virgil, celebrating the death of some person under the fictitious name of daphnis, exclaims, "robed in white, he admires the strange court of heaven, and sees the clouds and the stars beneath his feet. he is a god now." porphyry ascribes to pythagoras the declaration that the souls of departed men are gathered in the zodiac. plato earnestly describes a region of brightness and unfading realities above this lower world, among the stars, where the gods live, and whither, he says, the virtuous and wise may ascend, while the corrupt and ignorant must sink into the tartarean realm. a similar conception of the attainableness of heaven seems to be suggested in the old popular myths, first, of hercules coming back in triumph from his visit to pluto's seat, and, on dying, rising to the assembly of immortals and taking his equal place among them; secondly, of dionysus going into the under world, rescuing his mother, the hapless semele, and soaring with her to heaven, where she henceforth resides, a peeress of the eldest goddesses. cicero expresses the same thought when he affirms that "a life of justice and piety is the path to heaven, where patriots, exemplary souls, released from their bodies, enjoy endless happiness amidst the brilliant orbs of the galaxy." the same author also speaks of certain philosophers who flourished before his time, "whose opinions encouraged the belief that souls departing from bodies would arrive at heaven as their proper dwelling place." he afterwards stigmatizes the notion that the life succeeding death is subterranean as an error, and in his own name addresses his auditor thus: "i see you gazing upward and wishing to migrate into heaven." it was the common belief of the romans for ages that romulus was taken up into heaven, where he would remain forever, claiming divine honors. the emperor julian says, in his letter on the essay on mysteries, by m. ouvaroff, eng. trans. by j. d. price, p. . aneid, lib. vi. . - . ecl. v. . , , . de antro nympharum. phado sects. - . soma. scipionis. tusc. quast., lib. i. cap. xi. ibid. cap. xvi. ibid. cap. xxxiv. ennius, e. g., sings, "romulus in coelo cum diis agit avum" duties of a priest, "god will raise from darkness and tartarus the souls of all of us who worship him sincerely: to the pious, instead of tartarus he promises olympus." "it is lawful," writes plato, "only for the true lover of wisdom to pass into the rank of gods." the privilege here confined to philosophers we believe was promised to the initiates in the mysteries, as the special prerogative secured to them by their initiation. "to pass into the rank of the gods" is a phrase which, as here employed, means to ascend into heaven and have a seat with the immortals, instead of being banished, with the souls of common mortals, to the under world. in early times the greek worship was most earnestly directed to that set of deities who resided at the gloomy centre of the earth, and who were called the chthonian gods. the hope of immortality first sprung up and was nourished in connection with this worship. but in the progress of time and culture the supernal circle of divinities who kept state on bright olympus acquired a greater share of attention, and at last received a degree of worship far surpassing that paid to their swarthy compeers below. the adoration of these bright beings, with a growing trust in their benignity, the fables of the poets telling how they had sometimes elevated human favorites to their presence, for instance, receiving a ganymede to the joys of their sublime society, the encouraging thoughts of the more religious and cheerful of the philosophers, these facts, together with a natural shrinking from the dismal gloom of the life of shades around the styx, and a native longing for admission to the serene pleasures of the unfading life led by the radiant lords of heaven, in conjunction, perhaps, with still other causes, effected an improvement of the old faith, altering and brightening it, little by little, until the hope came in many quarters to be entertained that the faithful soul would after death rise into the assemblage and splendor of the celestial gods. the emperor julian, at the close of his seventh oration, represents the gods of olympus addressing him in this strain: "remember that your soul is immortal, and that if you follow us you will be a god and with us will behold our father." several learned writers have strenuously labored to prove that the ground secret of the mysteries, the grand thing revealed in them, was the doctrine of apotheosis, shaking the established theology by unmasking the historic fact that all the gods were merely deified men. we believe the real significance of the various collective testimony, hints, and inferences by which these writers have been brought to such a conclusion is this; the genuine point of the mysteries lay not in teaching that the gods were once men, but in the idea that men may become gods. to teach that zeus, the universal father, causing the creation to tremble at the motion of his brow, was formerly an obscure king of crete, whose tomb was yet visible in that island, would have been utterly absurd. but to assert that the soul of man, the free, intelligent image of the gods, on leaving the body, would ascend to live eternally in the kingdom of its divine prototypes, would have been a brilliant step of progress in harmony both with reason and the heart. such was probably the fact. observe the following citation from plutarch: "there is no occasion against nature to send the bodies of good men to heaven; but we are to conclude that virtuous souls, by nature and the divine justice, rise from men to heroes, from heroes to genii; and if, as in the mysteries, they are phado, sect. lxxi. muller, mist. greek lit., cap. ii. sect. ; cap. xvi. sect. . purified, shaking off the remains of mortality and the power of the passions, they then attain the highest happiness, and ascend from genii to gods, not by the vote of the people, but by the just and established order of nature." the reference in the last clause is to the decrees of the senate whereby apotheosis was conferred on various persons, placing them among the gods. this ceremony has often been made to appear unnecessarily ridiculous, through a perversion of its actual meaning. when the ancients applied the term "god" to a human soul departed from the body, it was not used as the moderns prevailingly employ that word. it expressed a great deal less with them than with us. it merely meant to affirm similarity of essence, qualities, and residence, but by no means equal dignity and power of attributes between the one and the others. it meant that the soul had gone to the heavenly habitation of the gods and was thenceforth a participant in the heavenly life. heraclitus was accustomed to say, "men are mortal gods; gods are immortal men." macrobius says, "the soul is not only immortal, but a god." and cicero declares, "the soul of man is a divine thing, as euripides dares to say, a god." milton uses language precisely parallel, speaking of those who are "unmindful of the crown true virtue gives her servants, after their mortal change, among the enthroned gods on sainted seats." theophilus, bishop of antioch in the second century, says that "to become a god means to ascend into heaven." the roman catholic ceremony of beatification and canonization of saints, offering them incense and prayers thereafter, means exactly what was meant by the ancient apotheosis, namely, that while the multitudes of the dead abide below, in the intermediate state, these favored souls have been advanced into heaven. the papal functionaries borrowed this rite, with most of its details, from their immediate pagan predecessors, who themselves probably adopted it from the east, whence the mysteries came. it is well known that the brahmans and buddhists believed, centuries before the christian era, in the contrasted fate of good men after death to enjoy the successive heavens above the clouds, and of bad men to suffer the successive hells beneath the earth. a knowledge of this attractive oriental doctrine may have united with the advance of their own speculations to win the partial acceptance obtained among the greeks and romans for the faith which broke the universal doom to hades and opened heaven to their hopeful aspirations. in a tragedy of euripides the following passage occurs, addressed to the bereaved admetus: "let not the tomb of thy wife be looked on as the mound of the ordinary dead. some wayfarer, as he treads the sloping road, shall say, 'this woman once died for her husband; but now she is a saint in heaven.'" when the meaning of the cheerful promises given to the initiates of a more favored fate in the future life than awaited others namely, as we think, that their spirits on leaving the body should scale olympus instead of plunging to tartarus had been concealed within the lives, romulus, sect. xxviii. see a valuable discussion of the ancient use of the terms theos and deus in note d vol. iii. of norton's genuineness of the gospels. somn. scip., lib. ii. cap. . tusc. quest., lib. i. cap. . we omit several other authorities, as the reader would probably deem any further evidence superfluous. alcestis, ll. - , ed. glasg. mysteries for a long time, it at length broke into public view in the national apotheosis of ancient heroes, kings, and renowned worthies, the instances of which became so numerous that cicero cries, "is not nearly all heaven peopled with the human race?" over the heads of the devout heathen, as they gazed up through the clear night air, twinkled the beams of innumerable stars, each chosen to designate the cerulean seat where some soul was rejoicing with the gods in heaven over the glorious issue of the toils and sufferings in which he once painfully trod this earthly scene. herodian, a greek historian of some of the roman emperors, has left a detailed account of the rite of apotheosis. an image of the person to be deified was made in wax, looking all sick and pale, laid in state on a lofty bed of ivory covered with cloth of gold, surrounded on one side by choirs of noble lords, on the other side by their ladies stripped of their jewels and clad in mourning, visited often for several days by a physician, who still reports his patient worse, and finally announces his decease. then the senators and haughtiest patricians bear the couch through the via sacra to the forum. bands of noble boys and of proud women ranged opposite each other chant hymns and lauds over the dead in solemn melody. the bier is next borne to the campus martius, where it is placed upon a high wooden altar, a large, thin structure with a tower like a lighthouse. heaps of fragrant gums, herbs, fruits, and spices are poured out and piled upon it. then the roman knights, mounted on horseback, prance before it in beautiful bravery, wheeling to and fro in the dizzy measures of the pyrrhic dance. also, in a stately manner, purple clothed charioteers, wearing masks which picture forth the features of the most famous worthies of other days to the reverential recognition of the silent hosts assembled, ride around the form of their descendant. suddenly a torch is set to the pile, and it is wrapped in flames. from the turret, amidst the aromatic fumes, an eagle is let loose. phoenix like symbol of the departed soul, he soars into the sky, and the seven hilled city throbs with pride, reverberating the shouts of her people. thus into the residence of the gods "sic itur ad astra" was borne the divinely favored mortal; "and thus we see how man's prophetic creeds made gods of men when godlike were their deeds." for it was only in times of degradation and by a violent perversion that the honor was allowed to the unworthy; and even in such cases it was usually nullified as soon as the people recovered their senses and their freedom. there is extant among the works of seneca a little treatise called apocolocuntosis, that is, pumpkinification, or the metamorphosis into a gourd, a sharp satire levelled against the apotheosis of the emperor claudius. the deification of mortals among the ancients has long been laughed at. when the great macedonian monarch applied for a decree for his apotheosis while he was yet alive, the lacedemonian senate, with bitter sarcasm, voted, "if alexander desires to be a god, let him be a god." the doctrine is often referred to among us in terms of mockery. but this is principally because it is not understood. it simply signifies the ascent of the soul after death into the olympian halls instead of descending into the acheronian gulfs. and whether we tusc. quast., lib. i. cap. . lib. iv. consider the symbolic justice and beauty of the conception as a poetic image applied to the deathless heroes of humanity ensphered above us forever in historic fame and natural worship, or regard its comparative probability as the literal location of the residence of departed spirits, it must recommend itself to us as a decided improvement on the ideas previously prevalent, and as a sort of anticipation, in part, of that bright faith in a heavenly home for faithfuls souls, afterwards established in the world by him of whom it was written, "no man hath ascended up to heaven but he that came down from heaven, even the son of man, who is now in heaven." indeed, so forcible and close is the correspondence between the course of the aspirant in his initiation dramatically dying, descending into hades, rising again to life, and ascending into heaven with the apostolic presentation of the redemptive career of christ, our great forerunner, that some writers nork, for instance have suggested that the latter was but the exoteric publication to all the world of what in the former was esoterically taught to the initiates alone. there was a striking naturalness, a profound propriety, in the obscurities of secrecy and awe with which the ancient mysteries shrouded from a rash curiosity their instructions concerning the future life and only unfolded them by careful degrees to the prepared candidate. it is so with the reality itself in the nature of things. it is the great mystery of mysteries, darkly hinted in types, faintly gleaming in analogies, softly whispered in hopes, passionately asked in desires, patiently confirmed in arguments, suddenly blazed and thundered in revelation. man from the very beginning of his race on earth has been thickly encompassed by mysteries, hung around by the muffling curtains of ignorance and superstition. through one after another of these he has forced his way and gazed on their successive secrets laid bare. once the ocean was an alluring and terrible mystery, weltering before him with its endless wash of waves, into which the weary sun, in the west, plunged at evening, and out of which, in the east, it bounded refreshed in the morning. but the daring prows of his ships, guided by pioneering thought and skill, passed its islands and touched its ultimate shores. once the polar circle was a frightful and frozen mystery, enthroned on mountains of eternal ice and wearing upon its snowy brow the flaming crown of the aurora borealis. but his hardy navigators, inspired by enterprise and philanthropy, armed with science, and supplied by art, have driven the awful phantom back, league by league, until but a small expanse of its wonders remains untracked by his steps. once the crowded sky was a boundless mystery, a maze of motions, a field where ghastly comets played their antics and shook down terrors on the nations. but the theories of his reason, based on the gigantic grasp of his calculus and aided by the instruments of his invention, have solved perplexity after perplexity, blended discords into harmony, and shown to his delighted vision the calm perfection of the stellar system. so, too, in the moral world he has lifted the shrouds from many a dark problem, and extended the empire of light and love far out over the ancient realm of darkness and terror. but the secret of death, the mystery of the future, remains yet, as of old, unfathomed and inscrutable to his inquiries. still, as of old, he kneels before that unlifted veil and beseeches the oracles for a response to faith. the ancient mysteries in their principal ceremony but copied the ordination and followed the overawing spirit of nature herself. the religious reserve and awe about the entrance into the adytum of their traditions were like those about the entrance into the invisible scenes beyond the veils of time and mortality. their initiation was but a miniature symbol of the great initiation through which, and that upon impartial terms, every mortal, from king solomon to the idiot pauper, must sooner or later pass to immortality. when a fit applicant, after the preliminary probation, kneels with fainting sense and pallid brow before the veil of the unutterable unknown, and the last pulsations of his heart tap at the door of eternity, and he reverentially asks admission to partake in the secrets shrouded from profane vision, the infinite hierophant directs the call to be answered by death, the speechless and solemn steward of the celestial mysteries. he comes, pushes the curtain aside, leads the awe struck initiate in, takes the blinding bandage of the body from his soul; and straightway the trembling neophyte receives light in the midst of that innumerable fraternity of immortals over whom the supreme author of the universe presides. chapter ii. metempsychosis; or, transmigration of souls. no other doctrine has exerted so extensive, controlling, and permanent an influence upon mankind as that of the metempsychosis, the notion that when the soul leaves the body it is born anew in another body, its rank, character, circumstances, and experience in each successive existence depending on its qualities, deeds, and attainments in its preceding lives. such a theory, well matured, bore unresisted sway through the great eastern world, long before moses slept in his little ark of bulrushes on the shore of the egyptian river; alexander the great gazed with amazement on the self immolation by fire to which it inspired the gymnosophists; casar found its tenets propagated among the gauls beyond the rubicon; and at this hour it reigns despotic, as the learned and travelled professor of sanscrit at oxford tells us, "without any sign of decrepitude or decay, over the burman, chinese, tartar, tibetan, and indian nations, including at least six hundred and fifty millions of mankind." there is abundant evidence to prove that this scheme of thought prevailed at a very early period among the egyptians, all classes and sects of the hindus, the persian disciples of the magi, and the druids, and, in a later age, among the greeks and romans as represented by musaus, pythagoras, plato, plotinus, macrobius, ovid, and many others. it was generally adopted by the jews from the time of the babylonian captivity. traces of it have been discovered among the ancient scythians, the african tribes, some of the pacific islanders, and various aboriginal nations both of north and of south america. charlevoix says some tribes of canadian indians believed in a transmigration of souls; but, with a curious mixture of fancy and reflection, they limited it to the souls of little children, who, being balked of this life in its beginning, they thought would try it again. their bodies, accordingly, were buried at the sides of roads, that their spirits might pass into pregnant women travelling by. a belief in the metempsychosis limited in the same way to the souls of children also prevailed among the mexicans. the maricopas, by the gila, believe when they die they shall transmigrate into birds, beasts, and reptiles, and shall return to the banks of the colorado, whence they were driven by the yumas. they will live there in caves and woods, as wolves, rats, and snakes; so will their enemies the yumas; and they will fight together. on the western border of the united states, only three or four years ago, two indians having been sentenced to be hung for murder, the chiefs of their tribe came in and begged that they might be shot or burned instead, as they looked upon hanging with the utmost horror, believing that the spirit of a person who is thus strangled to death goes into the next world in a foul manner, and that it assumes a beastly form. the sandwich islanders sometimes threw their dead into the sea to be devoured by sharks, supposing their souls would animate these monsters and cause them wilson, two lectures on the religious opinions of the hindus, p. . kingsborough, antiquities of mexico, vol. viii. p. . bartlett, personal narrative of explorations in texas, new mexico, &c., ch. xxx. to spare the living whom accident should throw within their reach. similar superstitions, but more elaborately developed, are rife among many tribes of african negroes. it was inculcated in the early christian centuries by the gnostics and the manichaans; also by origen and several other influential fathers. in the middle ages the sect of the cathari, the bogomiles, the famous scholastics scotus erigena and bonaventura, as well as numerous less distinguished authors, advocated it. and in modern times it has been earnestly received by lessing and fourier, and is not without its open defenders to day, as we can attest from our own knowledge, even in the prosaic and enlightened circles of european and american society. there have been two methods of explaining the origin of the dogma of transmigration. first, it has been regarded as a retribution, the sequel to sin in a pre existent state: "all that flesh doth cover, souls of source sublime, are but slaves sold over to the master time to work out their ransom for the ancient crime." with the ancient egyptians the doctrine was developed in connection with the conception of a revolt and battle among the gods in some dim and disastrous epoch of the past eternity, when the defeated deities were thrust out of heaven and shut up in fleshly prison bodies. so man is a fallen spirit, heaven his fatherland, this life a penance, sometimes necessarily repeated in order to be effectual. the pre existence of the soul, whether taught by pythagoras, sung by empedocles, dreamed by fludd, or contended for by beecher, is the principal foundation of the belief in the metempsychosis. but, secondly, the transmigration of souls has been considered as the means of their progressive ascent. the soul begins its conscious course at the bottom of the scale of being, and, gradually rising through birth after birth, climbs along a discriminated series of improvements in endless aspiration. here the scientific adaptation and moral intent are thought to lead only upwards, insect travelling to man, man soaring to god; but by sin the natural order and working of means are inverted, and the series of births lead downward, until expiation and merit restore the primal adjustment and direction. the idea of a metempsychosis, or soul wandering, as the germans call it, has been broached in various forms widely differing in the extent of their application. among the jews the writings of philo, the talmud, and other documents, are full of it. they seem, for the most part, to have confined the mortal residence of souls to human bodies. they say that god created all souls on the first day, the only day in which he made aught out of nothing; and they imply, in their doctrine of the revolution of souls, that these are born over and over, and will continue wandering thus until the messiah comes and the resurrection occurs. the jarves, hist. sandwich islands, p. . wilson, western africa, p. . dr. roth, agyptische glaubenslehre. rabbins distinguish two kinds of metempsychosis; namely, "gilgul," which is a series of single transmigrations, each lasting till death; and "ibbur," which is where one soul occupies several bodies, changing its residence at pleasure, or where several souls occupy one body. the latter kind is illustrated by examples of demoniacal possession in the new testament. the demons were supposed to be the souls of deceased wicked men. sometimes they are represented as solitary and flitting from one victim to another; sometimes they swarm together in the same person, as seven were at once cast out of mary magdalene. more frequently, however, the range of the soul's travels in its repeated births has been so extended as to include all animal bodies, beasts, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects. in this extent the doctrine was held by the pythagoreans and platonists, and in fact by a majority of its believers. shakspeare's wit is not without historical warrant when he makes the clown say to malvolio, "thou shalt fear to kill a woodcock, lest thou dispossess the soul of thy grandam." many the manichaans, for instance taught that human souls transmigrated not only through the lowest animal bodies but even through all forms of vegetable life. souls inhabit ears of corn, figs, shrubs. "whoso plucks the fruit or the leaves from trees, or pulls up plants or herbs, is guilty of homicide," say they; "for in each case he expels a soul from its body." and some have even gone so far as to believe that the soul, by a course of ignorance, cruelty, and uncleanness pursued through many lives, will at length arrive at an inanimate body, and be doomed to exist for unutterable ages as a stone or as a particle of dust. the adherents of this hypothesis regard the whole world as a deposition of materialized souls. at every step they tread on hosts of degraded souls, destined yet, though now by sin sunk thus low, to find their way back as redeemed and blessed spirits to the bosom of the godhead. upon the whole, the metempsychosis may be understood, as to its inmost meaning and its final issue, to be either a development, a revolution, or a retribution, a divine system of development eternally leading creatures in a graduated ascension from the base towards the apex of the creation, a perpetual cycle in the order of nature fixedly recurring by the necessities of a physical fate unalterable, unavoidable, eternal, a scheme of punishment and reward exactly fitted to the exigencies of every case, presided over by a moral nemesis, and issuing at last in the emancipation of every purified soul into infinite bliss, when, by the upward gravitation of spirit, they shall all have been strained through the successively finer growing filters of the worlds, from the coarse grained foundation of matter to the lower shore of the divine essence. in seeking to account for the extent and the tenacious grasp of this antique and stupendous belief, in looking about for the various suggestions or confirmations of such a dogma, we would call attention to several considerations, each claiming some degree of importance. first, among the earliest notions of a reflecting man is that of the separate existence of the soul after the dissolution of the body. he instinctively distinguishes the basnage, hist. jews, lib. iv. cap. xxx.: schroder, judenthum, buch ii. kap. iii. eisenmenger, entdecktes judenthum. th. ii. kap. i. augustine, de morlb. manicha., lib. ii. cap. xvii.: de hares.. cap. xlvi.: contra faustum, lib. xvi. cap. xxviii. thinking substance he is from the material vestment he wears. conscious of an unchanged personal identity beneath the changes and decays everywhere visible around him, he naturally imagines that "as billows on the undulating main, that swelling fall and falling swell again, so on the tide of time inconstant roll the dying body and the deathless soul." to one thus meditating, and desiring, as he surely would, to perceive or devise some explanation of the soul's posthumous fortunes, the idea could hardly fail to occur that the destiny of the soul might be to undergo a renewed birth, or a series of births in new bodies. such a conception, appearing in a rude state of culture, before the lines between science, religion, and poetry had been sharply drawn, recommending itself alike by its simplicity and by its adaptedness to gratify curiosity and speculation in the formation of a thousand quaint and engaging hypotheses, would seem plausible, would be highly attractive, would very easily secure acceptance as a true doctrine. secondly, the strange resemblances and sympathies between men and animals would often powerfully suggest to a contemplative observer the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. looking over those volumes of singular caricatures wherein certain artists have made all the most distinctive physiognomies of men and beasts mutually to approximate and mingle, one cannot avoid the fancy that the bodies of brutes are the masks of degraded men. notice an ox reclining in the shade of a tree, patiently ruminating as if sadly conscious of many things and helplessly bound in some obscure penance, a mute world of dreamy experiences, a sombre mystery: how easy to imagine him an enchanted and transformed man! see how certain animals are allied in their prominent traits to humanity, the stricken deer, weeping big, piteous tears, the fawning affection and noble fidelity of the dog, the architectural skill of the beaver, the wise aspect of the owl, the sweet plaint of the nightingale, the shrieks of some fierce beasts, and the howls of others startlingly like the cries of children and the moans of pain, the sparkling orbs and tortuous stealthiness of the snake; and the hints at metempsychosis are obvious. standing face to face with a tiger, an anaconda, a wild cat, a monkey, a gazelle, a parrot, a dove, we alternately shudder with horror and yearn with sympathy, now expecting to see the latent devils throw off their disguise and start forth in their own demoniac figures, now waiting for the metamorphosing charm to be reversed, and for the enchanted children of humanity to stand erect, restored to their former shapes. pervading all the grades and forms of distinct animal life there seems to be a rudimentary unity. the fundamental elements and primordial germs of consciousness, intellect, will, passion, appear the same, and the different classes of being seem capable of passing into one another by improvement or deterioration. spontaneously, then, might a primitive observer, unhampered by prejudices, think that the soul of man on leaving its present body would find or construct another according to its chief intrinsic qualities and scholz, beweis, dass es eine seelenwanderung bei den thieren giebt. forces, whether those were a leonine magnanimity of courage, a vulpine subtlety of cunning, or a pavonine strut of vanity. the spirit, freed from its fallen cell, "fills with fresh energy another form, and towers an elephant, or glides a worm, swims as an eagle in the eye of noon, or wails, a screech owl, to the deaf, cold moon, or haunts the brakes where serpents hiss and glare, or hums, a glittering insect, in the air." the hypothesis is equally forced on our thoughts by regarding the human attributes of some brutes and the brutal attributes of some men. thus gratiano, enraged at the obstinate malignity of shylock, cries to the hyena hearted jew, "thou almost mak'st me waver in my faith, to hold opinion, with pythagoras, that souls of animals infuse themselves into the trunks of men: thy currish spirit govern'd a wolf, who, hang'd for human slaughter, even from the gallows did his fell soul fleet, and, whilst thou lay'st in thine unhallow'd dam, infused itself in thee; for thy desires are wolfish, bloody, starved, and ravenous." thirdly, there is a figurative metempsychosis, which may sometimes the history of mythology abounds in examples of the same sort of thing have been turned from an abstract metaphor into a concrete belief, or from a fanciful supposition have hardened into a received fact. there is a poetic animation of objects whereby the imaginative person puts himself into other persons, into trees, clouds, whirlwinds, or what not, and works them for the time in ideal realization. the same result is put in speech sometimes as humorous play: for example, a celebrated english author says, "nature meant me for a salamander, and that is the reason i have always been discontented as a man: i shall be a salamander in the next world!" such imagery stated to a mind of a literal order solidifies into a meaning of prosaic fact. it is a common mode of speech to say of an enthusiastic disciple that the spirit of his master possesses him. a receptive student enters into the soul of plato, or is full of goethe. we say that apelles lived again in titian. augustine reappeared in calvin, and pelagius in arminius, to fight over the old battle of election and freedom. luther rose in ronge. take these figures literally, construct what they imply into a dogma, and the product is the transmigration of souls. the result thus arrived at finds effective support in the striking physical resemblance, spiritual likeness, and similarity of mission frequently seen between persons in one age and those in a former age. columbus was the modern jason sailing after the golden fleece of a new world. glancing along the portrait gallery of some ancient family, one is sometimes startled to observe a face, extinct for several generations, suddenly confronting him again with all its features in some distant descendant. a peculiarity of conformation, a remarkable trait of character, suppressed for a century, all at once starts into vivid prominence in a remote branch of the lineage, and men say, pointing back to the ancestor, "he has revived once more." seeing elisha do the same things that his departed master had done before him, the people exclaimed, "the spirit of elijah is upon him." beholding in john the baptist one going before him in the spirit of that expected prophet, jesus said, "if ye are able to receive it, this is he." some of the later rabbins assert many entertaining things concerning the repeated births of the most distinguished personages in their national history. abel was born again in seth; cain, in that egyptian whom moses slew; abiram, in ahithophel; and adam, having already reappeared once in david, will live again in the messiah. the performance by an eminent man of some great labor which had been done in an earlier age in like manner by a kindred spirit evokes in the imagination an apparition of the return of the dead to repeat his old work. fourthly, there are certain familiar psychological experiences which serve to suggest and to support the theory of transmigration, and which are themselves in return explained by such a surmise. thinking upon some unwonted subject, often a dim impression arises in the mind, fastens upon us, and we cannot help feeling, that somewhere, long ago, we have had these reflections before. learning a fact, meeting a face, for the first time, we are puzzled with an obscure assurance that it is not the first time. travelling in foreign lands, we are ever and anon haunted by a sense of familiarity with the views, urging us to conclude that surely we have more than once trodden those fields and gazed on those scenes; and from hoary mountain, trickling rill, and vesper bell, meanwhile, mystic tones of strange memorial music seem to sigh, in remembered accents, through the soul's plaintive echoing halls, "'twas auld lang syne, my dear, 'twas auld lang syne." plato's doctrine of reminiscence here finds its basis. we have lived before, perchance many times, and through the clouds of sense and imagination now and then float the veiled visions of things that were. efforts of thought reveal the half effaced inscriptions and pictures on the tablets of memory. snatches of dialogues once held are recalled, faint recollections of old friendships return, and fragments of landscapes beheld and deeds performed long ago pass in weird procession before the mind's half opened eye. we know a professional gentleman of unimpeachable veracity, of distinguished talents and attainments, who is a firm believer in his own existence on the earth previously to his present life. he testifies that on innumerable occasions he has experienced remembrances of events and recognitions of places, accompanied by a flash of irresistible conviction that he had known them in a former state. nearly every one has felt instances of this, more or less numerous and vivid. the doctrine at which such things hint that "not in entire forgetfulness, and not in utter nakedness," but trailing vague traces and enigmas from a bygone history, "do we come" yields the secret of many a mood and dream, the spell of inexplicable hours, the key and clew to baffling labyrinths of mystery. the belief in the doctrine of the metempsychosis, among a fanciful people and in an unscientific age, need be no wonder to any cultivated man acquainted with the marvels of experience and aware that every one may say, "full oft my feelings make me start, like footprints on some desert shore, as if the chambers of my heart had heard their shadowy step before." fifthly, the theory of the transmigration of souls is marvellously adapted to explain the seeming chaos of moral inequality, injustice, and manifold evil presented in the world of human life. no other conceivable view so admirably accounts for the heterogeneousness of our present existence, refutes the charge of a groundless favoritism urged against providence, and completely justifies the ways of god to man. the loss of remembrance between the states is no valid objection to the theory; because such a loss is the necessary condition of a fresh and fair probation. besides, there is a parallel fact of deep significance in our unquestionable experience; "for is not our first year forgot? the haunts of memory echo not." once admit the theory to be true, and all difficulties in regard to moral justice vanish. if a man be born blind, deaf, a cripple, a slave, an idiot, it is because in a previous life he abused his privileges and heaped on his soul a load of guilt which he is now expiating. if a sudden calamity overwhelm a good man with unmerited ruin and anguish, it is the penalty of some crime committed in a state of responsible being beyond the confines of his present memory. does a surprising piece of good fortune accrue to any one, splendid riches, a commanding position, a peerless friendship? it is the reward of virtuous deeds done in an earlier life. every flower blighted or diseased, every shrub gnarled, awry, and blasted, every brute ugly and maimed, every man deformed, wretched, or despised, is reaping in these hard conditions of being, as contrasted with the fate of the favored and perfect specimens of the kind, the fruit of sin in a foregone existence. when the hindu looks on a man beautiful, learned, noble, fortunate, and happy, he exclaims, "how wise and good must this man have been in his former lives!" in his philosophy, or religion, the proof of the necessary consequences of virtue and vice is deduced from the metempsychosis, every particular of the outward man being a result of some corresponding quality of his soul, and every event of his experience depending as effect on his previous merit as cause. thus the principal physical and moral phenomena of life are strikingly explained; and, as we gaze around the world, its material conditions and spiritual elements combine in one vast scheme of unrivalled order, and the total experience of humanity forms a magnificent picture of perfect poetic justice. we may easily account for the rise and spread of a theory whose sole difficulty is a lack of positive proof, but whose applications are so consistent and fascinating alike to imagination and to conscience. hierocles said, and distinguished philosophers both before and since have said, "without the doctrine of metempsychosis it is not possible to justify the ways of providence." colebrooke, essays, vol. i. p. . finally, this doctrine, having been suggested by the various foregoing considerations, and having been developed into a practical system of conceptions and motives by certain leading thinkers, was adopted by the principal philosophers and priesthoods of antiquity, and taught to the common people with authority. the popular beliefs of four thousand years ago depended for their prevalence, not so much on cogent arguments or intrinsic probability, as upon the sanctions thrown around them by renowned teachers, priests, and mystagogues. now, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls was inculcated by the ancient teachers, not as a mere hypothesis resting on loose surmises, but as an unquestionable fact supported by the experimental knowledge of many individuals and by infallible revelation from god. the sacred books of the hindus abound in detailed histories of transmigrations. kapila is said to have written out the vedas from his remembrance of them in a former state of being. the vishnu purana gives some very entertaining examples of the retention of memory through several successive lives. pythagoras pretended to recollect his adventures in previous lives; and on one occasion, as we read in ovid, going into the temple of juno, he recognised the shield he had worn as euphorbus at the siege of troy. diogenes laertius also relates of him, that one day meeting a man who was cruelly beating a dog, the samian sage instantly detected in the piteous howls of the poor beast the cries of a dear friend of his long since deceased, and earnestly and successfully interceded for his rescue. in the life of apollonius of tyana by philostratus, numerous extraordinary instances are told of his recognitions of persons he had known in preceding lives. such examples as these exactly met the weakest point in the metempsychosis theory, and must have had vast influence in fostering the common faith. plotinus said, "body is the true river of lethe; for souls plunged in it forget all." pierre leroux, an enthusiastic living defender of the idea of repeated births, attempts to reply to the objection drawn from the absence of memory; but his reply is an appeal rather to authority and fancy than to reason, and leaves the doubts unsolved. his supposition is that in each spirit life we remember all the bygone lives, both spiritual and earthly, but in each earth life we forget all that has gone before; just as, here, every night we lose in sleep all memory of the past, but recover it each day again as we awake. throughout the east this general doctrine is no mere superstition of the masses of ignorant people: it is the main principle of all hindu metaphysics, the foundation of all their philosophy, and inwrought with the intellectual texture of their inspired books. it is upheld by the venerable authority of ages, by an intense general conviction of it, and by multitudes of subtle conceits and apparent arguments. it was also impressed upon the initiates in the old mysteries, by being there dramatically shadowed forth through masks, and quaint symbolic ceremonies enacted at the time of initiation. this, then, is what we must say of the ancient and widely spread doctrine of transmigration. as a suggestion or theory naturally arising from empirical observation and confirmed by a variety of phenomena, it is plausible, attractive, and, in some stages of professor wilson's translation, p. . de l'humanite, livre v. chap. xlii. porphyry, de abstinentis, lib. iv. sect. . davies, rites of the druids. knowledge, not only easy to be believed, but hard to be resisted. as an ethical scheme clearing up on principles of poetic justice the most perplexed and awful problems in the world, it throws streams of light through the abysses of evil, gives dramatic solution to many a puzzle, and, abstractly considered, charms the understanding and the conscience. as a philosophical dogma answering to some strange, vague passages in human nature and experience, it echoes with dreamy sweetness through the deep mystic chambers of our being. as the undisputed creed which has inspired and spell bound hundreds of millions of our race for perhaps over a hundred and fifty generations, it commands deference and deserves study. but, viewing it as a thesis in the light of to day, challenging intelligent scrutiny and sober belief, we scarcely need to say that, based on shadows and on arbitrary interpretations of superficial appearances, built of reveries and occult experiences, fortified by unreliable inferences, destitute of any substantial evidence, it is unable to face the severity of science. a real investigation of its validity by the modern methods dissipates it as the sun scatters fog. first, the mutual correspondences between men and animals are explained by the fact that they are all living beings are the products of the same god and the same nature, and built according to one plan. they thus partake, in different degrees and on different planes, of many of the same elements and characteristics. lucretius, with his usual mixture of acuteness and sophistry, objects to the doctrine that, if it were true, when the soul of a lion passed into the body of a stag, or the soul of a man into the body of a horse, we should see a stag with the courage of a lion, a horse with the intelligence of a man. but of course the manifestations of soul depend on the organs of manifestation. secondly, the singular psychological experiences referred to are explicable so far as we can expect with our present limited data and powers to solve the dense mysteries of the soul by various considerations not involving the doctrine in question. herder has shown this with no little acumen in three "dialogues on the metempsychosis," beautifully translated by the rev. dr. hedge in his "prose writers of germany." the sense of pre existence the confused idea that these occurrences have thus happened to us before which is so often and strongly felt, is explicable partly by the supposition of some sudden and obscure mixture of associations, some discordant stroke on the keys of recollection, jumbling together echoes of bygone scenes, snatches of unremembered dreams, and other hints and colors in a weird and uncommanded manner. the phenomenon is accounted for still more decisively by dr. wigand's theory of the "duality of the mind." the mental organs are double, one on each side of the brain. they usually act with perfect simultaneity. when one gets a slight start of the other, as the thought reaches the slow side a bewildered sense of a previous apprehension of it arises in the soul. and then, the fact that the supposition of a great system of adjusting transmigrations justifies the ways of providence is no proof that the supposition is a true one. the difficulty is, that there is no evidence of the objective truth of the assumption, however well the theory applies; and the justice and goodness of god may as well be defended on the ground of a single life here and a discriminating retribution hereafter, as on the ground of an unlimited series of earthly births. the doctrine evidently possesses two points of moral truth and power, and, if not tenable as strict science, is yet instructive as symbolic poetry. first, it embodies, in concrete shapes the most vivid and unmistakable, the fact that beastly and demoniac qualities of character lead men down towards the brutes and fiends. rage makes man a tiger; low cunning, a fox; coarseness and ferocity, a bear; selfish envy and malice, a devil. on the contrary, the attainment of better degrees of intellectual and ethical qualities elevates man towards the angelic and the divine. there are three kinds of lives, corresponding to the three kinds of metempsychosis, ascending, circular, descending: the aspiring life of progress in wisdom and goodness; the monotonous life of routine in mechanical habits and indifference; the deteriorating life of abandonment in ignorance and vice. timaus the locrian, and some other ancient pythagoreans, gave the whole doctrine a purely symbolic meaning. secondly, the theory of transmigrating souls typifies the truth that, however it may fare with persons now, however ill their fortunes may seem to accord with their deserts here, justice reigns irresistibly in the universe, and sooner or later every soul shall be strictly compensated for every tittle of its merits in good or evil. there is no escaping the chain of acts and consequences. this entire scheme of thought has always allured the mystics to adopt it. in every age, from indian vyasa to teutonic boehme, we find them contending for it. boehme held that all material existence was composed by king satan out of the physical substance of his fallen followers. the conception of the metempsychosis is strikingly fitted for the purposes of humor, satire, and ethical hortation; and literature abounds with such applications of it. in plutarch's account of what thespesius saw when his soul was ravished away into hell for a time, we are told that he saw the soul of nero dreadfully tortured, transfixed with iron nails. the workmen forged it into the form of a viper; when a voice was heard out of an exceeding light ordering it to be transfigured into a milder being; and they made it one of those creatures that sing and croak in the sides of ponds and marshes. when rosalind finds the verses with which her enamored orlando had hung the trees, she exclaimed, "i was never so berhymed since pythagoras' time, that i was an irish rat, which i can hardly remember." one of the earliest popular introductions of this oriental figment to the english public was by addison, whose will honeycomb tells an amusing story of his friend, jack freelove, how that, finding his mistress's pet monkey alone one day, he wrote an autobiography of his monkeyship's surprising adventures in the course of his many transmigrations. leaving this precious document in the monkey's hands, his mistress found it on her return, and was vastly bewildered by its pathetic and laughable contents. the fifth number of the "adventurer" gives a very entertaining account of the "transmigrations of a flea." there is also a poem on this subject by dr. donne, full of strength and wit. it traces a soul through ten or twelve births, giving the salient points of its history in each. first, the soul animates the apple our hapless mother eve ate, bringing "death into the world and all our woe." then it appeared sera numinis vindicta: near the close. spectator, no. . successively as a mandrake, a cock, a herring, a whale, "who spouted rivers up as if he meant o join our seas with seas above the firmament." next, as a mouse, it crept up an elephant's sinewy proboscis to the soul's bedchamber, the brain, and, gnawing the life cords there, died, crushed in the ruins of the gigantic beast. afterwards it became a wolf, a dog, an ape, and finally a woman, where the quaint tale closes. fielding is the author of a racy literary performance called "a journey from this world to the next." the emperor julian is depicted in it, recounting in elysium the adventures he had passed through, living successively in the character of a slave, a jew, a general, an heir, a carpenter, a beau, a monk, a fiddler, a wise man, a king, a fool, a beggar, a prince, a statesman, a soldier, a tailor, an alderman, a poet, a knight, a dancing master, and a bishop. whoever would see how vividly, with what an honest and vigorous verisimilitude, the doctrine can be embodied, should read "the modern pythagorean," by dr. macnish. but perhaps the most humorous passage of this sort is the following description from a remarkable writer of the present day: "in the mean while all the shore rang with the trump of bull frogs, the sturdy spirits of ancient wine bibbers and wassailers, still unrepentant, trying to sing a catch in their stygian lake; who would fain keep up the hilarious rules of their old festal tables, though their voices have waxed hoarse and solemnly grave, mocking at mirth, and the wine has lost its flavor. the most aldermanic, with his chin upon a heart leaf, which serves for a napkin to his drooling chaps, under this northern shore quaffs a deep draught of the once scorned water, and passes round the cup with the ejaculation tr r r oonk, tr r r oonk! and straightway comes over the water from some distant cove the same password repeated, where the next in seniority and girth has gulped down to his mark; and when this observance has made the circuit of the shores, then ejaculates the master of ceremonies, with satisfaction, tr r r conk! and each in his turn, down to the flabbiest paunched, repeats the same, that there be no mistake; and then the bowl goes round again and again, until the sun disperses the morning mist, and only the patriarch is not under the pond, but vainly bellowing troonk from time to time, and pausing for a reply." the doctrine of the metempsychosis, which was the priest's threat against sin, was the poet's interpretation of life. the former gave by it a terrible emphasis to the moral law; the latter imparted by it an unequalled tenderness of interest to the contemplation of the world. to the believer in it in its fullest development, the mountains piled towering to the sky and the plains stretching into trackless distance were the conscious dust of souls; the ocean, heaving in tempest or sleeping in moonlight, was a sea of spirits, every drop once a man. each animated form that caught his attention might be the dwelling of some ancestor, or of some once cherished companion of his own. hence the hindu's so sensitive kindness towards animals: thoreau, walden, or life in the woods, p. . "crush not the feeble, inoffensive worm: thy sister's spirit wears that humble form. why should thy cruel arrow smite yon bird? in him thy brother's plaintive song is beard. let not thine anger on thy dog descend: that faithful animal was once thy friend." there is a strange grandeur, an affecting mystery, in the view of the creation from the stand point of the metempsychosis. it is an awful dream palace all aswarm with falling and climbing creatures clothed in ever shifting disguises. the races and changes of being constitute a boundless masquerade of souls, whose bodies are vizards and whose fortunes poetic retribution. the motive furnished by the doctrine to self denial and toil has a peerless sublimity. in our western world, the hope of acquiring large possessions, or of attaining an exalted office, often stimulates men to heroic efforts of labor and endurance. what, then, should we not expect from the application to the imaginative minds of the eastern world of a motive which, transcending all set limits, offers unheard of prizes, to be plucked in life after life, and at the end unveils, for the occupancy of the patient aspirant, the throne of immensity? no wonder that, under the propulsion of a motive so exhaustless, a motive not remote nor abstract, but concrete, and organized in indissoluble connection with the visible chain of eternal causes and effects, no wonder we see such tremendous exhibitions of superstition, voluntary sufferings, superhuman deeds. here is the secret fountain of that irresistible force which enables the devotee to measure journeys of a thousand miles by prostrations of his body, to hold up his arm until it withers and remains immovably erect as a stick, or to swing himself by red hot hooks through his flesh. the poorest wretch of a soul that has wandered down to the lowest grade of animate existence can turn his resolute and longing gaze up the resplendent ranks of being, and, conscious of the god head's germ within, feel that, though now unspeakably sunken, he shall one day spurn every vile integument and vault into seats of heavenly dominion. crawling as an almost invisible bug in a heap of carrion, he can still think within himself, holding fast to the law of righteousness and love, "this is the infinite ladder of redemption, over whose rounds of purity, penance, charity, and contemplation i may ascend, through births innumerable, till i reach a height of wisdom, power, and bliss that will cast into utter contempt the combined glory of countless millions of worlds, ay, till i sit enthroned above the topmost summit of the universe as omnipotent buddha." those who wish to pursue the subject further will find the following references useful: hardy, "manual of buddhism," ch. v. upham, "history of buddhism," ch. iii. beausobre, "histoire du manicheisme," livre vi. ch. iv. helmont, "de revolution animarum." richter, "das christenthum und die kitesten religionen des orients," sects. - . sinner, "essai sur les dogmes de la metempsychose et du purgatoire." conz, "schicksale der seelenwanderungshypothese unter verschiedenen volkern und in verschiedenen zeiten." dubois, "people of india," part iii. ch. vii. werner, "commentatio psychologica contra metempsychosin." chapter iii. resurrection of the flesh. a doctrine widely prevalent asserts that, at the termination of this probationary epoch, christ will appear with an army of angels in the clouds of heaven, descend, and set up his tribunal on the earth. the light of his advancing countenance will be the long waited aurora of the grave. all the souls of men will be summoned from their tarrying places, whether in heaven, or hell, or purgatory, or the sepulchre; the fleshly tabernacles they formerly inhabited will be re created, a strong necromancy making the rooty and grave floored earth give up its dust of ruined humanity, and moulding it to the identical shapes it formerly composed; each soul will enter its familiar old house in company with which its sins were once committed; the books will be opened and judgment will be passed; then the accepted will be removed to heaven, and the rejected to hell, both to remain clothed with those same material bodies forever, the former in celestial bliss, the latter in infernal torture. in the present dissertation we propose to exhibit the sources, trace the developments, explain the variations, and discuss the merits, of this doctrine. the first appearance of this notion of a bodily restoration which occurs in the history of opinions is among the ancient hindus. with them it appears as a part of a vast conception, embracing the whole universe in an endless series of total growths, decays, and exact restorations. in the beginning the supreme being is one and alone. he thinks to himself, "i will become many." straightway the multiform creation germinates forth, and all beings live. then for an inconceivable period a length of time commensurate with the existence of brahma, the demiurgus the successive generations flourish and sink. at the end of this period all forms of matter, all creatures, sages, and gods, fall back into the universal source whence they arose. again the supreme being is one and alone. after an interval the same causes produce the same effects, and all things recur exactly as they were before. we find this theory sung by some of the oriental poets: "every external form of things, and every object which disappear'd, remains stored up in the storehouse of fate: when the system of the heavens returns to its former order, god, the all just, will bring them forth from the veil of mystery." the same general conception, in a modified form, was held by the stoics of later greece, who doubtless borrowed it from the east, and who carried it out in greater detail. "god is an artistic fire, out of which the cosmopoeia issues." this fire proceeds in a certain fixed course, in obedience to a fixed law, passing through certain intermediate gradations and established periods, until it ultimately returns into itself and closes with a universal conflagration. it is to this catastrophe that reference is made in the following passage of epictetus: "some say that when zeus is left alone at the time of the conflagration, he is solitary, and bewails himself wilson, lectures on the hindus, pp. - . the dabistan, vol. iii. p. . that he has no company." the stoics supposed each succeeding formation to be perfectly like the preceding. every particular that happens now has happened exactly so a thousand times before, and will happen a thousand times again. this view they connected with astronomical calculations, making the burning and re creating of the world coincide with the same position of the stars as that at which it previously occurred. this they called the restoration of all things. the idea of these enormous revolving identical epochs day of brahm, cycle of the stoics, or great year of plato is a physical fatalism, effecting a universal resurrection of the past, by reproducing it over and over forever. humboldt seems more than inclined to adopt the same thought. "in submitting," he says, "physical phenomena and historical events to the exercise of the reflective faculty, and in ascending to their causes by reasoning, we become more and more penetrated by that ancient belief, that the forces inherent in matter, and those regulating the moral world, exert their action under the presence of a primordial necessity and according to movements periodically renewed." the wise man of old said, "the thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done, and there is no new thing under the sun." the conception of the destinies of the universe as a circle returning forever into itself is an artifice on which the thinking mind early seizes, to evade the problem that is too mighty for its feeble powers. it concludes that the final aim of nature is but the infinite perfecting of her material in infinite transformations ever repeating the same old series. we cannot comprehend and master satisfactorily the eternal duration of one visible order, the incessant rolling on of races and stars: "and doth creation's tide forever flow, nor ebb with like destruction? world on world are they forever heaping up, and still the mighty measure never, never full?" and so, when the contemplation of the staggering infinity threatens to crush the brain, we turn away and find relief in the view of a periodical revolution, wherein all comes to an end from time to time and takes a fresh start. it would be wiser for us simply to resign the problem as too great. for the conception to which we have recourse is evidently a mere conceit of imagination, without scientific basis or philosophical confirmation. the doctrine of a bodily resurrection, resting on a wholly different ground, again emerges upon our attention in the zoroastrian faith of persia. the good ormuzd created men to be pure and happy and to pass to a heavenly immortality. the evil ahriman insinuated his corruptions among them, broke their primal destiny, and brought death upon them, dooming their material frames to loathsome dissolution, their unclothed spirits to a painful abode in hell. meanwhile, the war between the light god and the gloom fiend rages fluctuatingly. but at last the good one shall prevail, and the bad one sink in discomfiture, and all evil deeds be neutralized, and the benignant arrangements decreed at first be restored. then all epictetus, lib. iii. cap. . sonntag, de palingenesia stoicorum. ritter's hist. of an. phil., lib. xi. cap. . souls shall be redeemed from hell and their bodies be rebuilt from their scattered atoms and clothed upon them again. this resurrection is not the consequence of any fixed laws or fate, nor is it an arbitrary miracle. it is simply the restoration by ormuzd of the original intention which ahriman had temporarily marred and defeated. this is the great bodily resurrection, as it is still understood and looked for by the parsees. the whole system of views out of which it springs, and with which it is interwrought, is a fanciful mythology, based on gratuitous assumptions, or at most on a crude glance at mere appearances. the hypothesis that the creation is the scene of a drawn battle between two hostile beings, a deity and a devil, can face neither the scrutiny of science, nor the test of morals, nor the logic of reason; and it has long since been driven from the arena of earnest thought. on this theory it follows that death is a violent curse and discord, maliciously forced in afterwards to deform and spoil the beauty and melody of a perfect original creation. now, as bretschneider well says, "the belief that death is an evil, a punishment for sin, can arise only in a dualistic system." it is unreasonable to suppose that the infinite god would deliberately lay a plan and allow it to be thwarted and ruined by a demon. and it is unscientific to imagine that death is an accident, or an after result foisted into the system of the world. death that is, a succession of generations is surely an essential part of the very constitution of nature, plainly stamped on all those "medals of the creation" which bear the features of their respective ages and which are laid up in the archives of geological epochs. successive growth and decay is a central part of god's original plan, as appears from the very structure of living bodies and the whole order of the globe. death, therefore, which furthermore actually reigned on earth unknown ages before the existence of man, could not have been a fortuitous after clap of human sin. and so the foregoing theory of a general resurrection as the restoration of god's broken plan to its completeness falls to the ground. the jews, in the course of their frequent and long continued intercourse with the persians, did not fail to be much impressed with the vivid melodramatic outlines of the zoroastrian doctrine of the resurrection. they finally adopted it themselves, and joined it, with such modifications as it naturally underwent from the union, with the great dogmas of their own faith. a few faint references to it are found in the old testament. some explicit declarations and boasts of it are in the apocrypha. in the targums, the talmud, and the associated sources, abundant statements of it in copious forms are preserved. the jews rested their doctrine of the resurrection on the same general ground as the persians did, from whom they borrowed it. man was meant to be immortal, either on earth or in heaven; but satan seduced him to sin, and thus wrested from him his privilege of immortality, made him die and descend into a dark nether realm which was to be filled with the disembodied souls of his descendants. the resurrection was to annul all this and restore men to their original footing. we need not labor any disproof of the truth or authority of this doctrine as the pharisees held it, because, admitting that they had the record of a revelation from god, this doctrine was not a part of it. it is only to be found in their canonic scriptures by way of vague and hasty allusion, and is historically traceable to its derivation from the pagan oracles of persia. frazer, history of persia, chap. iv. baur, symbolik und mythologice thl. ii. absch. ii. cap. ss. - . of course it is possible that the doctrine of the resurrection, as the hebrews held it, was developed by themselves, from imaginative contemplations on the phenomena of burials and graves; spectres seen in dreams; conceptions of the dead as shadowy shapes in the under world; ideas of god as the deliverer of living men from the open gates of the under world when they experienced narrow escapes from destruction; vast and fanatical national hopes. before advancing another step, it is necessary only to premise that some of the jews appear to have expected that the souls on rising from the under world would be clothed with new, spiritualized, incorruptible bodies, others plainly expected that the identical bodies they formerly wore would be literally restored. now, when christianity, after the death of its founder, arose and spread, it was in the guise of a new and progressive jewish sect. its apostles and its converts for the first hundred years were christian jews. christianity ran its career through the apostolic age virtually as a more liberal jewish sect. most natural was it, then, that infant christianity should retain all the salient dogmas of judaism, except those of exclusive nationality and bigoted formalism in the throwing off of which the mission of christianity partly consisted. among these jewish dogmas retained by early christianity was that of the bodily resurrection. in the new testament itself there are seeming references to this doctrine. we shall soon recur to these. the phrase "resurrection of the body" does not occur in the scriptures. neither is it found in any public creed whatever among christians until the fourth century. but these admissions by no means prove that the doctrine was not believed from the earliest days of christianity. the fact is, it was the same with this doctrine as with the doctrine of the descent of christ into hades: it was not for a long time called in question at all. it was not defined, discriminated, lifted up on the symbols of the church, because that was not called for. as soon as the doctrine came into dispute, it was vehemently and all but unanimously affirmed, and found an emphatic place in every creed. whenever the doctrine of a bodily resurrection has been denied, that denial has been instantly stigmatized as heresy and schism, even from the days of "hymeneus and philetas, who concerning the truth erred, saying that the resurrection was past already." the uniform orthodox doctrine of the christian church has always been that in the last day the identical fleshly bodies formerly inhabited by men shall be raised from the earth, sea, and air, and given to them again to be everlastingly assumed. the scattered exceptions to the believers in this doctrine have been few, and have ever been styled heretics by their contemporaries. any one who will glance over the writings of the fathers with reference to this subject will find the foregoing statements amply confirmed. justin martyr wrote a treatise on the resurrection, a fragment of which is still extant. athenagoras has left us an extremely elaborate and able discussion of the whole doctrine, in a separate work. tertullian is author of a famous book on the subject, entitled "concerning the resurrection of the flesh," in which he says, "the teeth are providentially made eternal to serve as the seeds of the dr. sykes, inquiry when the article of the resurrection of the body or flesh was first introduced into the public creeds. mosheim, de resurrectione mortuorum. resurrection." chrysostom has written fully upon it in two of his eloquent homilies. all these, in company indeed with the common body of their contemporaries, unequivocally teach a carnal resurrection with the grossest details. augustine says, "every man's body, howsoever dispersed here, shall be restored perfect in the resurrection. every body shall be complete in quantity and quality. as many hairs as have been shaved off, or nails cut, shall not return in such enormous quantities to deform their original places; but neither shall they perish: they shall return into the body into that substance from which they grew." as if that would not cause any deformity! some of the later origenists held that the resurrection bodies would be in the shape of a ball, the mere heads of cherubs! in the seventh century mohammed flourished. his doctrinal system, it is well known, was drawn indiscriminately from many sources, and mixed with additions and colors of his own. finding the dogma of a general bodily resurrection already prevailing among the parsees, the jews, and the christians, and perceiving, too, how well adapted for purposes of vivid representation and practical effect it was, or perhaps believing it himself, the arabian prophet ingrafted this article into the creed of his followers. it has ever been with them, and is still, a foremost and controlling article of faith, an article for the most part held in its literal sense, although there is a powerful sect which spiritualizes the whole conception, turning all its details into allegories and images. but this view is not the original nor the orthodox view. the subject of the resurrection was a prominent theme in the theology of the middle age. only here and there a dissenting voice was raised against the doctrine in its strict physical form. the great body of the scholastics stood stanchly by it. in defence and support of the church thesis they brought all the quirks and quiddities of their subtle dialectics. as we take down their ponderous tomes from their neglected shelves, and turn over the dusty, faded old leaves, we find chapter after chapter in many a formidable folio occupied with grave discussions, carried on in acute logical terminology, of questions like these: "will the resurrection be natural or miraculous?" "will each one's hairs and nails all be restored to him in the resurrection?" "when bodies are raised, will each soul spontaneously know its own and enter it? or will the power of god distribute them as they belong?" "will the deformities and scars of our present bodies be retained in the resurrection?" "will all rise of the same age?" "will all have one size and one sex?" and so on with hundreds of kindred questions. for instance, thomas aquinas contended "that no other substance would rise from the grave except that which belonged to the individual in the moment of death." what dire prospects this proposition must conjure up before many minds! if one chance to grow prodigiously obese before death, he must lug that enormous corporeity wearily about forever; but if he happen to die when wasted, he must then flit through eternity as thin as a lath. de civ. dei, lib. xxii. cap. , . see the strange speculations of opitz in his work "de statura et atate resurgentium. redepenning, origenes, b. ii. s. . summa theologia, thoma aquinatis, tertia pars, supplementum, quastiones - . hagenbuch, dogmengeschichte, sect. . those who have had the misfortune to be amputated of legs or arms must appear on the resurrection stage without those very convenient appendages. there will still be need of hospitals for the battered veterans of chelsea and greenwich, mutilated heroes, pensioned relics of deck and field. then in the resurrection the renowned "mynheer von clam, richest merchant in rotterdam," will again have occasion for the services of the "patent cork leg manufacturer," though it is hardly to be presumed he will accept another unrestrainable one like that which led him so fearful a race through the poet's verses. the manichaans denied a bodily resurrection. in this all the sects theologically allied to them, who have appeared in ecclesiastical history, for instance, the cathari, have agreed. there have also been a few individual christian teachers in every century who have assailed the doctrine. but, as already declared, it has uniformly been the firm doctrine of the church and of all who acknowledged her authority. the old dogma still remains in the creeds of the recognised churches, papal, greek, and protestant. it has been terribly shattered by the attacks of reason and of progressive science. it lingers in the minds of most people only as a dead letter. but all the earnest conservative theologians yet cling to it in its unmitigated grossness, with unrelaxing severity. we hear it in practical discourses from the pulpit, and read it in doctrinal treatises, as offensively proclaimed now as ever. indeed, it is an essential part of the compact system of the ruling theology, and cannot be taken out without loosening the whole dogmatic fabric into fragments. thus writes to day a distinguished american divine, dr. spring: "whether buried in the earth, or floating in the sea, or consumed by the flames, or enriching the battle field, or evaporate in the atmosphere, all, from adam to the latest born, shall wend their way to the great arena of the judgment. every perished bone and every secret particle of dust shall obey the summons and come forth. if one could then look upon the earth, he would see it as one mighty excavated globe, and wonder how such countless generations could have found a dwelling beneath its surface." this is the way the recognised authorities in theology still talk. to venture any other opinion is a heresy all over christendom at this hour. we will next bring forward and criticize the arguments for and against the doctrine before us. it is contended that the doctrine is demonstrated in the example of christ's own resurrection. "the resurrection of the flesh was formerly regarded as incredible," says augustine; "but now we see the whole world believing that christ's earthly body was borne into heaven." it is the faith of the church that "christ rose into heaven with his body of flesh and blood, and wears it there now, and will forever." "had he been there in body before, it would have been no such wonder that he should have returned with it; but that the flesh of our flesh and bone of our bone should be seated at the right hand of god is worthy of the greatest admiration." that is to say, christ was from eternity god, the infinite spirit, in the glory of christ, vol. ii. p. . de civ. dei, lib. xxii. cap. . pearson on the creed, th ed., pp. - . heaven; he came to earth and lived in a human body; on returning to heaven, instead of resuming his proper form, he bears with him, and will eternally retain, the body of flesh he had worn on earth! paul says, "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god." the church, hastily following the senses, led by a carnal, illogical philosophy, has deeply misinterpreted and violently abused the significance of christ's ascension. the drama of his resurrection, with all its connected parts, was not meant throughout as a strict representation of our destiny. it was a seal upon his commission and teachings, not an exemplification of what should happen to others. it was outwardly a miracle, not a type, an exceptional instance of super natural power, not a significant exhibition of the regular course of things. the same logic which says, "christ rose and ascended with his fleshly body: therefore we shall," must also say, "christ rose visibly on the third day: therefore we shall." christ's resurrection was a miracle; and therefore we cannot reason from it to ourselves. the common conception of a miracle is that it is the suspension, not the manifestation, of ordinary laws. we have just as much logical right to say that the physical appearance in christ's resurrection was merely an accommodation to the senses of the witnesses, and that on his ascension the body was annihilated, and only his soul entered heaven, as we have to surmise that the theory embodied in the common belief is true. the record is according to mere sensible appearances. the reality is beyond our knowledge. the record gives no explanation. it is wiser in this dilemma to follow the light of reason than to follow the blind spirit of tradition. the point in our reasoning is this. if christ, on rising from the world of the dead, assumed again his former body, he assumed it by a miracle, and for some special purpose of revealing himself to his disciples and of finishing his earthly work; and it does not follow either that he bore that body into heaven, or that any others will ever, even temporarily, reassume their cast off forms. the christian scriptures do not in a single passage teach the popular doctrine of the resurrection of the body. every text in the new testament finds its full and satisfactory explanation without implying that dogma at all. in the first place, it is undeniably implied throughout the new testament that the soul does not perish with the body. it also appears, in the next place, from numerous explicit passages, that the new testament authors, in common with their countrymen, supposed the souls of the departed to be gathered and tarrying in what the church calls the intermediate state, the obscure under world. in this subterranean realm they were imagined to be awaiting the advent of the messiah to release them. now, we submit that every requirement of the doctrine of the resurrection as it is stated or hinted in the new testament is fully met by the simple ascension of this congregation of souls from the vaults of sheol to the light of the upper earth, there to be judged, and then some to be sent up to heaven, some sent back to their prison. for, let it be carefully observed, there is not one text in the new testament, as before stated, which speaks of the resurrection of the "body" or of the "flesh." the expression is simply the resurrection of "the dead," or of "them that slept." if by "the dead" was meant "the bodies," why are we not told so? locke, in the third letter of his controversy with the bishop of worcester on this subject, very pointedly shows the absurdity of a literal interpretation of the words "all that are in their graves shall hear my voice and shall come forth." nothing can come out of the grave except what is in it. and there are no souls in the grave: they are in the separate state. and there are no bodies in millions of graves: they long ago, even to the last grain of dust, entered into the circulations of the material system. "coming forth from their graves unto the resurrection" either denotes the rising of souls from the under world, or else its meaning is something incredible. at all events, nothing is said about any resurrection of the body: that is a matter of arbitrary inference. the angels are not thought to have material bodies; and christ declares, "in the resurrection ye shall neither marry nor be given in marriage, but shall be as the angels of heaven." it seems clear to us that the author of the epistle to the hebrews also looked for no restoration of the fleshly body; for he not only studiously omits even the faintest allusion to any such notion, but positively describes "the spirits of just men made perfect in the heavenly jerusalem, with an innumerable company of angels, and with the general assembly and church of the first born." the jews and early christians who believed in a bodily resurrection did not suppose the departed could enter heaven until after that great consummation. the most cogent proof that the new testament does not teach the resurrection of the same body that is buried in the grave is furnished by the celebrated passage in paul's epistle to the corinthians. the apostle's premises, reasoning, and conclusion are as follows: "christ is risen from the dead, become the first fruits of them that slept." that is to say, all who have died, except christ, are still tarrying in the great receptacle of souls under the earth. as the first fruits go before the harvest, so the solitary risen christ is the forerunner to the general resurrection to follow. "but some one will say, how are the dead raised up? and with what body do they come?" mark the apostle's reply, and it will appear inexplicable how any one can consider him as arguing for the resurrection of the identical body that was laid in the grave, particle for particle. "thou fool! that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body that shall be, but naked grain, and god giveth it a body as it hath pleased him." "there are celestial bodies, and terrestrial bodies;" "there is a natural body, and there is a spiritual body;" "the first man is of the earth, earthy; the second man is the lord from heaven;" "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god;" "we shall all be changed," and "bear the image of the heavenly, as we have borne the image of the earthy." the analogy which has been so strangely perverted by most commentators is used by paul thus. the germ which was to spring up to a new life, clothed with a new body, was not any part of the fleshly body buried in the grave, but was the soul itself, once contained in the old body, but released from its hull in the grave and preserved in the under world until christ shall call it forth to be invested with a "glorious," "powerful," "spiritual," "incorruptible" body. when a grain of wheat is sown, that is not the body that shall be; but the mysterious principle of life, latent in the germ of the seed, springs up and puts on its body fashioned appropriately for it. so, according to paul's conception, when a man is buried, the material corpse is not the resurrection body that shall be; but the living soul which occupied it is the germ that shall put on a new body of immortality when the spring tide of christ's coming draws the buried treasures of hades up to the light of heaven. a species of proof which has been much used by the advocates of the dogma of a bodily resurrection is the argument from analogy. the intimate connection of human feeling and fancy with the changing phenomena of nature's seasons would naturally suggest to a pensive mind the idea, why, since she has her annual resurrection, may not humanity some time have one? and what first arose as a poetic conceit or stray thought, and was expressed in glowing metaphors, might by an easy process pass abroad and harden into a prosaic proposition or dogmatic formula. "o soul of the spring time, now let us behold the stone from the mouth of the sepulchre roll'd, and nature rise up from her death's damp mould; let our faith, which in darkness and coldness has lain, revive with the warmth and the brightness again, and in blooming of flower and budding of tree the symbols and types of our destiny see." standing by the graves of our loved and lost ones, our inmost souls yearn over the very dust in which their hallowed forms repose. we feel that they must come back, we must be restored to each other as we were before. listening to the returned birds whose warble fills the woods once more, gazing around on the verdant and flowery forms of renewed life that clothe the landscape over again, we eagerly snatch at every apparent emblem or prophetic analogy that answers to our fond imagination and desiring dream. sentiment and fancy, especially when stimulated by love and grief, and roving in the realms of reverie, free from the cold guidance and sharp check of literal fact and severe logic, are poor analysts, and then we easily confuse things distinct and wander to conclusions philosophy will not warrant. before building a dogmatic doctrine on analogies, we must study those analogies with careful discrimination, must see what they really are, and to what they really lead. there is often an immense difference between the first appearance to a hasty observer and the final reality to a profound student. let us, then, scrutinize a little more closely those seeming analogies which, to borrow a happy expression from flugge, have made "resurrection a younger sister of immortality." nature, the old, eternal snake, comes out afresh every year in a new shining skin. what then? of course this emblem is no proof of any doctrine concerning the fate of man. but, waiving that, what would the legitimate correspondence to it be for man? why, that humanity should exhibit the fresh specimens of her living handiwork in every new generation. and that is done. nature does not reproduce before us each spring the very flowers that perished the previous winter: she makes new ones like them. it is not a resurrection of the old: it is a growth of the new. the passage of the worm from its slug to its chrysalis state is surely no symbol of a bodily resurrection, but rather of a bodily emancipation, not resuming a deserted dead body, but assuming a new live one. does the butterfly ever come back to put on the exuvia that have perished in the ground? the law of all life is progress, not return, ascent through future developments, not descent through the stages already traversed. "the herb is born anew out of a seed, not raised out of a bony skeleton. what tree is man the seed of? of a soul." sir thomas browne, after others, argues for the restoration of man's body from the grave, from the fancied analogy of the palingenesis or resurrection of vegetables which the magicians of the antique east and the mystic chemists of the middle age boasted of effecting. he having asserted in his "religion of a physician" that "experience can from the ashes of a plant revive the plant, and from its cinders recall it into its stalk and leaves again," dr. henry power wrote beseeching "an experimental eviction of so high and noble a piece of chemistry, the reindividuality of an incinerated plant." we are not informed that sir thomas ever granted him the sight. of this beautiful error, this exquisite superstition, which undoubtedly arose from the crystallizations of certain salts in arborescent forms which suddenly surprised the early alchemists in some of their experiments, we have the following account in disraeli's "curiosities of literature:" "the semina of resurrection are concealed in extinct bodies, as in the blood of man. the ashes of roses will again revive into roses, though smaller and paler than if they had been planted unsubstantial and unodoriferous, they are not roses which grew on rose trees, but their delicate apparitions; and, like apparitions, they are seen but for a moment. this magical phoenix lies thus concealed in its cold ashes till the presence of a certain chemical heat produces its resurrection." any refutation of this now would be considered childish. upon the whole, then, while recurrent spring, bringing in the great easter of the year, typifies to us indeed abundantly the development of new life, the growth of new bodies out of the old and decayed, but nowhere hints at the gathering up and wearing again of the dusty sloughs and rotted foliage of the past, let men cease to talk of there being any natural analogies to the ecclesiastical dogma of the resurrection of the flesh. the teaching of nature finds a truer utterance in the words of aschylus: "there is no resurrection for him who is once dead." the next argument is that based on considerations of reason and of ethics. the supporters of the doctrine of the resurrection of the body have often disingenuously evaded the burden of proof thrown upon them by retreating beneath loud assertions of god's power. from the earliest dawn of the hypothesis to the present time, every perplexity arising from it, every objection brought against it, every absurdity shown to be involved in it, has been met and confidently rebutted with declarations of god's abundant power to effect a physical resurrection, or to do any thing else he pleases, however impossible it may appear to us. now, it is true the power of god is competent to innumerable things utterly beyond our skill, knowledge, or conception. nevertheless, there is a province within which our reason can judge of probabilities, and can, if not absolutely grasp infallible truth, at least reach satisfactory convictions. god is able to restore the vast coal deposits of the earth, and the ashes of all the fuel ever burned, to their original condition when they covered the world with eumenides, . , oxford edition. dense forests of ferns; but we have no reason to believe he will do it. the truth or falsity of the popular theory of the resurrection is not a question of god's power; it is simply a question of god's will. a jewish rabbin relates the following conversation, as exultingly as if the quibbling evasion on which it turns positively settled the question itself, which in fact it does not approach. a sadducee says, "the resurrection of the dead is a fable: the dry, scattered dust cannot live again." a by standing pharisee makes this reply: "there were in a city two artists: one made vases of water, the other made them of clay: which was the more wondrous artist?" the sadducee answered, "the former." the pharisee rejoins, "cannot god, then, who formed man of water, (gutta seminis humida,) much more re form him of clay?" such a method of reasoning is an irrelevant impertinence. god can call nebuchadnezzar from his long rest, and seat him on his old throne again to morrow. what an absurdity to infer that therefore he will do it! god can give us wings upon our bodies, and enable us to fly on an exploring trip among the planets. will he do it? the question, we repeat, is not whether god has the power to raise our dead bodies, but whether he has the will. to that question since, as we have already seen, he has sent us no miraculous revelation replying to it we can only find an answer by tracing the indications of his intentions contained in reason, morals, and nature. one of the foremost arguments urged by the fathers for the resurrection was its supposed necessity for a just and complete judgment. the body was involved and instrumental in all the sins of the man: it must therefore bear part in his punishment. the rabbins tell this allegory: "in the day of judgment the body will say, the soul alone is to blame: since it left me, i have lain like a stone in the grave. the soul will retort, the body alone is sinful: since released from it, i fly through the air like a bird. the judge will interpose with this myth: a king once had a beautiful garden full of early fruits. a lame man and a blind man were in it. said the lame man to the blind man, let me mount upon your shoulders and pluck the fruit, and we will divide it. the king accused them of theft; but they severally replied, the lame man, how could i reach it? the blind man, how could i see it? the king ordered the lame man to be placed upon the back of the blind man, and in this position had them both scourged. so god in the day of judgment will replace the soul in the body, and hurl them both into hell together." there is a queer tradition among the mohammedans implying, singularly enough, the same general thought. the prophet's uncle, hamzah, having been slain by hind, daughter of atabah, the cursed woman cut out his liver and gnawed it with fiendish joy; but, lest any of it should become incorporated with her system and go to hell, the most high made it as hard as a stone; and when she threw it on the ground, an angel restored it to its original nature and place in the body of the martyred hero, that lion of god. the roman catholic church endorses the representation that the body must be raised to be punished. in the catechism of the council of trent, which is an authoritative exposition of romanist theology, we read that the "identical body" shall be restored, though "without deformities or superfluities;" restored that "as it was a partner in the man's deeds, so it may be a partner in his punishments." the same catechism also gives in this connection the reason why a general judgment is necessary after each individual has been judged at his death, namely, this: that they may be punished for the evil which has resulted in the world since they died from the evil they did in the world while they lived! is it not astonishing how these theologians find out so much? a living presbyterian divine of note says, "the bodies of the damned in the resurrection shall be fit dwellings for their vile minds. with all those fearful and horrid expressions which every base and malignant passion wakes up in the human countenance stamped upon it for eternity and burned in by the flaming fury of their own terrific wickedness, they will be condemned to look upon their own deformity and to feel their fitting doom." it is therefore urged that the body must be raised to suffer the just penalty of the sins man committed while occupying it. is it not an absurdity to affirm that nerves and blood, flesh and bones, are responsible, guilty, must be punished? tucker, in his "light of nature pursued," says, "the vulgar notion of a resurrection in the same form and substance we carry about at present, because the body being partaker in the deed ought to share in the reward, as well requires a resurrection of the sword a man murders with, or the bank note he gives to charitable uses." we suppose an intelligent personality, a free will, indispensable to responsibleness and alone amenable to retributions. besides, if the body must be raised to undergo chastisement for the offences done in it and by means of it, this insurmountable difficulty by the same logic confronts us. the material of our bodies is in a constant change, the particles becoming totally transferred every few years. now, when a man is punished after the general judgment for a certain crime, he must be in the very body he occupied when that crime was perpetrated. since he was a sinner all his days, his resurrection body must comprise all the matter that ever formed a part of his corporeity, and each sinner may hereafter be as huge as the writhing titan, tityus, whose body, it was fabled, covered nine acres. god is able to preserve the integral soul in being, and to punish it according to justice, without clothing it in flesh. this fact by itself utterly vacates and makes gratuitous the hypothesis of a physical resurrection from punitive considerations, an hypothesis which is also refuted by the truth contained in locke's remark to stillingfleet, "that the soul hath no greater congruity with the particles of matter which were once united to it, but are so no longer, than it hath with any other particles of matter." when the soul leaves the body, it would seem to have done with that stage of its existence, and to enter upon another and higher one, leaving the dust to mix with dust forever. the body wants not the soul again; for it is a senseless clod and wants nothing. the soul wants not its old body again: it prefers to have the freedom of the universe, a spirit. philip the solitary wrote, in the twelfth century, a book called "dioptra," presenting the controversy between the soul and the body very quaintly and at length. the same thing was done by henry nicholson in a "conference between the soul and body concerning the present and future state." william crashaw, an old english poet, translated from the latin a poem entitled "the complaint: a dialogue between the body and the soul of a damned man." but any one who will peruse with intelligent heed the works that have been written on this whole subject must be amazed to see how exclusively the doctrine which we are opposing has rested on pure grounds of tradition and fancy, alike destitute of authority and reason. some authors have indeed attempted to support the doctrine with arguments: for also see dialogue inter corpus et animam, p. of latin poems attributed to walter mapes. instance, there are two german works, one by bertram, one by pflug, entitled "the resurrection of the dead on grounds of reason," in which recourse is had to every possible expedient to make out a case, not even neglecting the factitious assistance of leibnitz's scheme of "pre established harmony." but it may be deliberately affirmed that not one of their arguments is worthy of respect. apparently, they do not seek to reach truth, but to bolster up a foregone conclusion held merely from motives of tradition. the jews had a favorite tradition, developed by their rabbins in many passages, that there was one small, almond shaped bone, (supposed now to have been the bone called by anatomists the os coccygis,) which was indestructible, and would form the nucleus around which the rest of the body would gather at the time of the resurrection. this bone, named luz, was miraculously preserved from demolition or decay. pound it furiously on anvils with heavy hammers of steel, burn it for ages in the fiercest furnaces, soak it for centuries in the strongest solvents, all in vain: its magic structure still remained. so the talmud tells. "even as there is a round dry grain in a plant's skeleton, which, being buried, can raise the herb's green body up again; so is there such in man, a seed shaped bone, aldabaron, call'd by the hebrews luz, which, being laid into the ground, will bear, after three thousand years, the grass of flesh, the bloody, soul possessed weed called man." the jews did not, as these singular lines represent, suppose this bone was a germ which after long burial would fructify by a natural process and bear a perfect body: they regarded it only as a nucleus around which the messiah would by a miracle compel the decomposed flesh to return as in its pristine life. all that the jews say of luz the mohammedans repeat of the bone al ajib. this conceit of superstition has been developed by a christian author of considerable reputation into a theory of a natural resurrection. the work of mr. samuel drew on the "identity and general resurrection of the human body" has been quite a standard work on the subject of which it treats. mr. drew believes there is a germ in the body which slowly ripens and prepares the resurrection body in the grave. as a seed must be buried for a season in order to spring up in perfect life, so must the human body be buried till the day of judgment. during this period it is not idle, but is busily getting ready for its consummation. he says, "there are four distinct stages through which those parts constituting the identity of the body must necessarily pass in order to their attainment of complete perfection beyond the grave. the first of these stages is that of its elementary principles; the second is that of an embryo in the womb; the third is that of its union with an immaterial spirit, and with the fluctuating portions of flesh and blood in our present state; and the fourth stage is that of its residence in the grave. all these stages are undoubtedly necessary to the full perfection of the body: they are alembics through which its parts must necessarily move to attain that vigor which shall continue forever." to state this figment is enough. it would be folly to attempt any refutation of a fancy so obviously a pure contrivance to fortify a preconceived opinion, a fancy, too, so preposterous, so utterly without countenance, either from experience, observation, science, reason, or scripture. the egg of man's divinity is not laid in the nest of the grave. another motive for believing the resurrection of the body has been created by the exigencies of a materialistic philosophy. there was in the early church an arabian sect of heretics who were reclaimed from their errors by the powerful reasonings and eloquence of origen. their heresy consisted in maintaining that the soul dies with the body being indeed only its vital breath and will be restored with it at the last day. in the course of the christian centuries there have arisen occasionally a few defenders of this opinion. priestley, as is well known, was an earnest supporter of it. let us scan the ground on which he held this belief. in the first place, he firmly believed that the fact of an eternal life to come had been supernaturally revealed to men by god through christ. secondly, as a philosopher he was intensely a materialist, holding with unwavering conviction to the conclusion that life, mind, or soul, was a concomitant or result of our physical organism, and wholly incapable of being without it. death to him was the total destruction of man for the time. there was therefore plainly no alternative for him but either to abandon one of his fundamental convictions as a christian and a philosopher, or else to accept the doctrine of a future resurrection of the body into an immortal life. he chose the latter, and zealously taught always that death is an annihilation lasting till the day of judgment, when all are to be summoned from their graves. to this whole course of thought there are several replies to be made. in the first place, we submit that the philosophy of materialism is false: standing in the province of science and reason, it may be affirmed that the soul is not dependent for its existence on the body, but will survive it. we will not argue this point, but merely state it. secondly, it is certain that the doctrine which makes soul perish with body finds no countenance in the new testament. it is inconsistent with the belief in angelic spirits, in demoniac possessions, in christ's descent as a spirit to preach to the spirits of departed men imprisoned in the under world, and with other conceptions underlying the gospels and the epistles. but, thirdly, admitting it to be true, then, we affirm, the legitimate deduction from all the arrayed facts of science and all the presumptive evidence of appearances is not that a future resurrection will restore the dead man to life, but that all is over with him, he has hopelessly perished forever. when the breath ceases, if nothing survives, if the total man is blotted out, then we challenge the production of a shadow of proof that he will ever live again. the seeming injustice and blank awfulness of the fate may make one turn for relief to the hypothesis of a future arbitrary miraculous resurrection; but that is an artificial expedient, without a shadow of justification. once admit that the body is all, its dissolution a total death, and you are gone forever. one intuition of the spirit, seizing the conscious supports of eternal ideas, casts contempt on "the doubtful prospects of our painted dust," drew on resurrection, ch. vi. sect. vii. pp. - . eusebius, eccl. hist. lib. vi. cap. xxxvii. and outvalues all the gross hopes of materialism. between nonentity and being yawns the untraversable gulf of infinity. no: the body of flesh falls, turns to dust and air; the soul, emancipated, rejoices, and soars heavenwards, and is its own incorruptible frame, mocking at death, a celestial house, whose maker and builder is god. finally, there remain to be weighed the bearings of the argument from chemical and physiological science on the resurrection. here is the chief stumbling block in the way of the popular doctrine. the scientific absurdities connected with that doctrine have been marshalled against it by celsus, the platonist philosopher, by avicenna, the arabian physician, and by hundreds more, and have never been answered, and cannot be answered. as long as man lives, his bodily substance is incessantly changing; the processes of secretion and absorption are rapidly going forward. every few years he is, as to material, a totally new man. dying at the age of seventy, he has had at least ten different bodies. he is one identical soul, but has lived in ten separate houses. with which shall he be raised? with the first? or the fifth? or the last? or with all? but, further, the body after death decays, enters into combination with water, air, earth, gas, vegetables, animals, other human bodies. in this way the same matter comes to have belonged to a thousand persons. in the resurrection, whose shall it be? we reply, nearly in the language of christ to the sadducees, "ye do err, not knowing the scriptures, nor the will of god: in the resurrection they have not bodies of earthly flesh, but are spirits, as the angels of god." the argument against the common theory of a material resurrection, on account of numerous claimants for the same substance, has of late derived a greatly increased force from the brilliant discoveries in chemistry. it is now found that only a small number of substances ever enter into the composition of animal bodies. the food of man consists of nitrogenized and non nitrogenized substances. the latter are the elements of respiration; the former alone compose the plastic elements of nutrition, and they are few in number and comparatively limited in extent. "all life depends on a relatively small quantity of matter. over and over again, as the modeller fashions his clay, are plant and animal formed out of the same material." the particles that composed adam's frame may before the end of the world have run the circuit of ten thousand bodies of his descendants: "'twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands." to proclaim the resurrection of the flesh as is usually done, seems a flat contradiction of clear knowledge. a late writer on this subject, dr. hitchcock, evades the insuperable difficulty by saying, "it is not necessary that the resurrection body should contain a single particle of the body laid in the grave, if it only contain particles of the same kind, united in the same proportion, and the compound be made to assume the same form and structure as the natural body." then two men who look exactly alike may in the resurrection exchange bodies without any harm! here the theory of punishment clashes. does not the esteemed author see that this would not be a resurrection of the old bodies, but a creation of new ones liebig, animal chemistry, sect. xix. the circulation of matter, blackwood's magazine, may, . the resurrection of spring, p. . just like them? and is not this a desertion of the orthodox doctrine of the church? if he varies so far from the established formularies out of a regard for philosophy, he may as well be consistent and give up the physical doctrine wholly, because it rests solely on the tradition which he leaves and is every whit irreconcilable with philosophy. this device is as wilful an attempt to escape the scientific difficulty as that employed by candlish to avoid the scriptural difficulty put in the way of the doctrine by the apostolic words "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of god." the eminent scottish divine affirms that "flesh and bones" that is, these present bodies made incorruptible can inherit the kingdom of god; although "flesh and blood" that is, these present bodies subject to decay cannot. it is surely hard to believe that the new testament writers had such a distinction in their minds. it is but a forlorn resource conjured up to meet a desperate exigency. at the appearing of christ in glory, "when the day of fire shall have dawn'd, and sent its deadly breath into the firmament," as it is supposed, the great earth cemetery will burst open and its innumerable millions swarm forth before him. unto the tremendous act of habeas corpus, then proclaimed, every grave will yield its prisoner. ever since the ascension of jesus his mistaken followers have been anxiously expecting that awful advent of his person and his power in the clouds; but in vain. "all things remain as they were: where is the promise of his appearing?" as the lookers out hitherto have been disappointed, so they ever will be. say not, lo here! or, lo there! for, behold, he is within you. the reason why this carnal error, jewish conceit, retains a hold, is that men accept it without any honest scrutiny of its foundations or any earnest thought of their own about it. they passively receive the tradition. they do not realize the immensity of the thing, nor the ludicrousness of its details. to their imaginations the awful blast of the trumpet calling the world to judgment, seems no more, as feuerbach says, than a tone from the tin horn of a postillion, who, at the post station of the future, orders fresh horses for the curriculum vita! president hitchcock tells us that, "when the last trumpet sounds, the whole surface of the earth will become instinct with life, from the charnels of battle fields alone more than a thousand millions of human beings starting forth and crowding upwards to the judgment seat." on the resurrection morning, at the first tip of light over acres of opening monument and heaving turf, "each member jogs the other, and whispers, live you, brother?" and how will it be with us then? will daniel lambert, the mammoth of men, appear weighing half a ton? will the siamese twins then be again joined by the living ligament of their congenital band? shall "infants be not raised in the smallness of body in which they died, but increase by the wondrous and most swift work of god"? candlish, life in a risen savior: discourse xv. augustine, de civ. dei, lib. xxii. cap. xiv. young sings, "now charnels rattle; scatter'd limbs, and all the various bones, obsequious to the call, self moved, advance; the neck perhaps to meet the distant head; the distant head the feet. dreadful to view! see, through the dusky sky fragments of bodies in confusion fly, to distant regions journeying, there to claim deserted members and complete the frame." the glaring melodramatic character, the startling mechanico theatrical effects, of this whole doctrine, are in perfect keeping with the raw imagination of the childhood of the human mind, but in profound opposition to the working philosophy of nature and the sublime simplicity of god. many persons have never distinctly defined their views upon the subject before us. in the minds even of many preachers and writers, several different and irreconcilable theories would seem to exist together in confused mixture. now they speak as if the soul were sleeping with the body in the grave; again they appear to imply that it is detained in an intermediate state; and a moment afterwards they say it has already entered upon its final reward or doom. jocelyn relates, in his life of st. patrick, that "as the saint one day was passing the graves of two men recently buried, observing that one of the graves had a cross over it, he stopped his chariot and asked the dead man below of what religion he had been. the reply was, 'a pagan.' 'then why was this cross put over you?' inquired st. patrick. the dead man answered, 'he who is buried near me is a christian; and one of your faith, coming hither, placed the cross at my head.' the saint stepped out of his chariot, rectified the mistake, and went his way." calvin, in the famous treatise designated "psychopannychia," which he levelled against those who taught the sleep of souls until the day of judgment, maintained that the souls of the elect go immediately to heaven, the souls of the reprobate to hell. here they tarry in bliss and bale until the resurrection; then, coming to the earth, they assume their bodies and return to their respective places. but if the souls live so long in heaven and hell without their flesh, why need they ever resume it? the cumbrous machinery of the scheme seems superfluous and unmeaning. as a still further specimen of the arbitrary thinking the unscientific and unphilosophical thinking carried into this department of thought by most who have cultivated it, reference may be made to bishop burnet's work "de statu mortuorum et resurgentium," which teaches that at the first resurrection the bodies of the risen will be the same as the present, but at the second resurrection, after the millennium, from the rudiments of the present body a new spiritual body will be developed. the true idea of man's future destiny appears to be that no resurrection of the flesh is needed, because the real man never dies, but lives continuously forever. there are two reasonable ways of conceiving what the vehicle of his life is when he leaves his present frame. it may be that within his material system lurks an exquisite spiritual organization, invisibly pervading it and constituting its vital power. this ethereal structure is disengaged at last from its gross envelope, and, unfettered, soars to the divine realms of ether and light. this theory of an "inner body" is elaborately wrought out and sustained in bonnet's "palingenesie philosophique." or it may be that there is in each one a primal germ, a deathless monad, which is the organic identity of man, root of his inmost stable being, triumphant, unchanging ruler of his flowing, perishable organism. this spirit germ, born into the present life, assimilates and holds the present body around it, out of the materials of this world; born into the future life, it will assimilate and hold around it a different body, out of the materials of the future world. thus there are bodies terrestrial and bodies celestial: the glory of the terrestrial is one, fitted to this scene of things; the glory of the celestial is another, fitted to the scene of things hereafter to dawn. each spirit will be clothed from the material furnished by the world in which it resides. not forever shall we bear about this slow load of weary clay, this corruptible mass, heir to a thousand ills. our body shall rather be such "if lightning were the gross corporeal frame of some angelic essence, whose bright thoughts as far surpass'd in keen rapidity the lagging action of his limbs as doth man's mind his clay; with like excess of speed to animated thought of lightning flies that spirit body o'er life's deeps divine, far past the golden isles of memory." what man knows constitutes his present world. all beyond that constitutes another world. he can imagine two modes in which his desire for a life after death may be gratified, a removal into the unknown world, or a return into the known world. with the latter supposition the restoration of the flesh is involved. upon the whole, our conclusion is, that in the original plan of the world it was fixed that man should not live here forever, but that the essence of his life should escape from the flesh and depart to some other sphere of being, there either to fashion itself a new form, or to remain disembodied. if those who hold the common doctrine of a carnal resurrection should carry it out with philosophical consistency, by extending the scheme it involves to all existing planetary races as well as to their own, should they cause that process of imagination which produced this doctrine to go on to its legitimate completion, they would see in the final consummation the sundered earths approach each other, and firmaments conglobe, till at last the whole universe concentred in one orb. on the surface of that world all the risen races of being would be distributed, the inhabitants of a present solar system making a nation, the sum of gigantic nationalities constituting one prodigious, death exempted empire, its solitary sovereign god. but this is pure poetry, and not science nor philosophy. lange on the resurrection of the body, studien und kritiken, . chapter iv. doctrine of future punishment; or, critical history of the idea of a hell. a hell of fire and brimstone has been, perhaps still is, the most terrible of the superstitions of the world. we propose to give a historic sketch of the popular representations on this subject, trace them to their origin, and discuss the merits of the question itself. to follow the doctrine through all its variations, illustrating the practical and controversial writings upon it, would require a large volume; but, by a judicious arrangement, all that is necessary to a fair understanding of the subject, or really interesting, may be presented within the compass of an essay. any one who should read the literature of this subject would be astonished at the almost universal prevalence of the doctrine and at the immense diversity of appalling descriptions of it, and would ask, whence arises all this? how have these horrors obtained such a seated hold in the world? in the first place, it is to be replied, as soon as reason is in fair possession of the idea of a continued individual existence beyond the grave, the moral sense, discriminating the deeds, tempers, and characters of men, would teach that there must be different allotments and experiences for them after death. it is not right, say reason and conscience, for the coward, the idler, fool, knave, sot, murderer, to enter into the same realm and have the same bliss with heroes, sages, and saints; neither are they able to do it. the spontaneous thought and sentiment of humanity would declare, if the soul survives the body, passing into the invisible world, its fortunes there must depend somewhat upon its fitness and deserts, its contained treasures and acquired habits. reason, judging the facts of observation according to the principles of ethics and the working of experienced spiritual laws, at once decides that there is a difference hereafter between the fate of the good heart and the bad one, the great soul and the mean one: in a word, there is, in some sense or other, a heaven and a hell. again: the same belief would be necessitated by the conception, so deeply entertained by the primitive people of the earth, of overruling and inspecting gods. they supposed these gods to be in a great degree like themselves, partial, fickle, jealous, revengeful. such beings, of course, would caress their favorites and torture their offenders. the calamities and blessings of this life were regarded as tokens, revengeful or loving, of the ruling deities, now pleased, now enraged. and when their votaries or victims had passed into the eternal state, how natural to suppose them still favored or cursed by the passionate wills of these irresponsible gods! plainly enough, they who believe in gods that launch thunderbolts and upheave the sea in their rage and take vengeance for an insult by sending forth a pestilence, must also believe in a hell where ixion may be affixed to the wheel and tantalus be tortured with maddening mockeries. these two conceptions of discriminating justice and of vengeful gods both lead to the theoretic construction of a hell, and to the growth of doctrines and parables about it, though in a different sort, the former illustrating a pervasive law which distributes men according to their deserts, the latter speaking of beings with human passions, who inflict outward arbitrary penalties according to their pleasure. thirdly, when the general idea of a hell has once obtained lodgment, it is rapidly nourished, developed, and ornamented, carried out into particulars by poets, rhetoricians, and popular teachers, whose fancies are stimulated and whose figurative views and pictures act and react both upon the sources and the products of faith. representations based only on moral facts, emblems addressing the imagination, after a while are received in a literal sense, become physically located and clothed with the power of horror. a hindu poet says, "the ungrateful shall remain in hell as long as the sun hangs in heaven." an old jewish rabbi says that after the general judgment "god shall lead all the blessed through hell and all the damned through paradise, and show to each one the place that was prepared for him in each region, so that they shall not be able to say, 'we are not to be blamed or praised; for our doom was unalterably fixed beforehand.' such utterances are originally moral symbols, not dogmatic assertions; and yet in a rude age they very easily pass into the popular mind as declaring facts literally to be believed. a talmudic writer says, "there are in hell seven abodes, in each abode seven thousand caverns, in each cavern seven thousand clefts, in each cleft seven thousand scorpions; each scorpion has seven limbs, and on each limb are seven thousand barrels of gall. there are also in hell seven rivers of rankest poison, so deadly that if one touches it he bursts." hesiod, homer, virgil, have given minute descriptions of hell and its agonies, descriptions which have unquestionably had a tremendous influence in cherishing and fashioning the world's faith in that awful empire. the poems of dante, milton, and pollok revel in the most vivid and terrific pictures of the infernal kingdom and its imagined horrors; and the popular doctrine of future punishment in christendom is far more closely conformed to their revelations than to the declarations of the new testament. the english poet's "paradise lost" has undoubtedly exerted an influence on the popular faith comparable with that of the genevan theologian's "institutes of the christian religion." there is a horrid fiction, widely believed once by the jewish rabbins and by the mohammedans, that two gigantic fiends called the searchers, as soon as a deceased person is buried, make him sit up in the grave, examine the moral condition of his soul, and, if he is very guilty, beat in his temples with heavy iron maces. it is obvious to observe that such conceptions are purely arbitrary, the work of fancy, not based on any intrinsic fitness or probability; but they are received because unthinking ignorance and hungry superstition will greedily believe any thing they hear. joseph trapp, an english clergyman, in a long poem thus sets forth the scene of damnation: "doom'd to live death and never to expire, in floods and whirlwinds of tempestuous fire the damn'd shall groan, fire of all kinds and forms, in rain and hail, in hurricanes and storms, liquid and solid, livid, red, and pale, a flaming mountain here, and there a flaming vale; the liquid fire makes seas, the solid, shores; arch'd o'er with flames, the horrid concave roars. in bubbling eddies rolls the fiery tide, and sulphurous surges on each other ride. the hollow winding vaults, and dens, and caves, bellow like furnaces with flaming waves. pillars of flame in spiral volumes rise, like fiery snakes, and lick the infernal skies. sulphur, the eternal fuel, unconsumed, vomits redounding smoke, thick, unillumed." but all other paintings of the fear and anguish of hell are vapid and pale before the preternatural frightfulness of those given at unmerciful length and in sickening specialty in some of the hindu and persian sacred books. here worlds of nauseating disgusts, of loathsome agonies, of intolerable terrors, pass before us. some are hung up by their tongues, or by their eyes, and slowly devoured by fiery vermin; some scourged with whips of serpents whose poisonous fangs lacerate their flesh at every blow; some forced to swallow bowls of gore, hair, and corruption, freshly filled as fast as drained; some packed immovably in red hot iron chests and laid in raging furnaces for unutterable millions of ages. one who is familiar with the imagery of the buddhist hells will think the pencils of dante and pollok, of jeremy taylor and jonathan edwards, were dipped in water. there is just as much ground for believing the accounts of the former to be true as there is for crediting those of the latter: the two are fundamentally the same, and the pagan had earlier possession of the field. furthermore, in the early ages, and among people where castes were prominent, when the learning, culture, and power were confined to one class at the expense of others, it is unquestionable that copious and fearful descriptions of the future state were spread abroad by those who were interested in establishing such a dogma. the haughtiness and selfishness of the hierarchic spirit, the exclusiveness, cruelty, and cunning tyranny of many of the ancient priesthoods, are well known. despising, hating, and fearing the people, whom they held in abject spiritual bondage, they sought to devise, diffuse, and organize such opinions as would concentrate power in their own hands and rivet their authority. accordingly, in the lower immensity they painted and shadowed forth the lurid and dusky image of hell, gathering around it all that was most abominated and awful. then they set up certain fanciful conditions, without the strict observance of which no one could avoid damnation. the animus of a priesthood in the structure of this doctrine is shown by the glaring fact that in the old religions the woes of hell were denounced not so much upon bad men who committed crimes out of a wicked heart, as upon careless men who neglected priestly guidance and violated the ritual. the omission of a prayer or an ablution, the neglect of baptism or confession, a slight thrown upon a priest, a mental conception differing from the decree of the "church," would condemn a man far more surely and deeply into the egyptian, hindu, persian, pharisaic, papal, or calvinistic hell than any amount of moral culpability according to the standard of natural ethics. see pope's translation of the viraf nameh. also the dabistan, vol. i. pp. - , of the translation by shea and troyer; and coleman's mythology of the hindus, chapter on the hells. the popular hells have ever been built on hierarchic selfishness, dogmatic pride, and personal cruelty, and have been walled around with arbitrary and traditional rituals. through the breaches made in these rituals by neglect, souls have been plunged in. the parsee priest describes a woman in hell "beaten with stone clubs by two demons twelve miles in size, and compelled to continue eating a basin of putridity, because once some of her hair, as she combed it, fell into the sacred fire." the brahmanic priest tells of a man who, for "neglecting to meditate on the mystic monosyllable om before praying, was thrown down in hell on an iron floor and cleaved with an axe, then stirred in a caldron of molten lead till covered all over with the sweated foam of torture like a grain of rice in an oven, and then fastened, with head downwards and feet upwards, to a chariot of fire and urged onwards with a red hot goad." the papal priest declares that the schismatic, though the kindest and justest man, at death drops hopelessly into hell, while the devotee, though scandalously corrupt in heart and life, who confesses and receives extreme unction, treads the primrose path to paradise. the episcopalian priest dooms the dissenter to everlasting woe in spite of every virtue, because he has not known sacramental baptism in the apostolic line. the arminian priest turns the rationalist over to the penal fires of eternity, because he is in mental error as to the explanation of the trinity and the atonement. in every age it has been the priestly spirit, acting on ritual considerations, that has deepened the foundations, enlarged the borders, and apportioned the victims, of hell. the perversions and excesses of the doctrine have grown out of cruel ambition and cunning on one side, and been received by docile ignorance and superstition on the other, and been mutually fed by traditions and fables between. the excessive vanity and theocratic pride of the jews led them to exclude all the gentiles, whom they stigmatized as "uncircumcised dogs," from the jewish salvation. the same spirit, aggravated if possible, passed lineally into christendom, causing the orthodox church to exclude all the heathen, all heretics, and the unbaptized, from the christian salvation. a fifth explanation of the wholesale severity and multiplied details of horror, which came to be incorporated with the doctrine of hell, is to be found in the gloomy theories of certain philosophers whose relentless speculations were tinged and moulded by their own recluse misanthropy and the prevailing superstitions of their time. out of the old asceticism of the east the false spiritualism which regarded matter as the source of evil and this life as a penance arose the dogma of metempsychosis. the consequence of this theory, rigidly carried out, created a descending congeries of hells, reaching from centre to nadir, in correspondence to an ascending congeries of heavens, reaching from centre to zenith. out of the myth of the fall sprang the dogma of total depravity, dooming our whole race to hell forever, except those saved by the subsequent artifice of the atonement. theories conjured up and elaborated by fanciful and bloodless metaphysicians, in an age when the milk of public human kindness was thinned, soured, poisoned, by narrow and tyrannical prejudices, might easily legitimate and establish any conclusions, however unreasonable and monstrous. the history of philosophy is the broad demonstration of this. the church philosophers, (with exceptions, of course,) receiving the traditions of the common faith, partaking in the superstitions of their age, banished from the bosoms of men by their monastic position, and inflamed with hierarchic pride, with but a faint connection or intercourse between conscience and intellect or between heart and fancy, strove to spin out theories which would explain and justify the orthodox dogmas. working with metaphysical tools of abstract reason, not with the practical faculties of life, dealing with the fanciful materials of priestly tradition, not with the solid facts of ethical observation, they would naturally be troubled with but few qualms and make but few reservations, however overwhelming the results of horror at which they might arrive. habituated for years to hair drawn analyses and superstitious broodings upon the subject, overshadowed by the supernatural hierarchy in which they lived, surrounded by a thick night of ignorance, persecution, and slaughter, it was no wonder they could believe the system they preached, although in reality it was only a traditional abstraction metaphysically wrought up and vivified by themselves. being thus wrought out and animated by them, who were the sole depositaries of learning and the undisputed lords of thought, the mass of the people, lying abjectly in the fetters of authority, could not help accepting it. ample illustrations of these assertions will occur to all who are familiar with the theological schemes and the dialectic subtleties of the early church fathers and of the later church scholastics. finally, by the combined power, first, of natural conscience affirming a future distinction between the good and the bad; secondly, of imperfect conceptions of god as a passionate avenger; thirdly, of the licentious fancies of poets drawing awful imaginative pictures of future woe; fourthly, of the cruel spirit and the ambitious plans of selfish priesthoods; and fifthly, of the harsh and relentless theories of conforming metaphysicians, the doctrine of hell, as a located place of manifold terrific physical tortures drawing in vast majorities of the human race, became established in the ruling creeds and enthroned as an orthodox dogma. in some heathen nations the descriptions of the poets, in others the accounts of the priestly books, were held to be inspired revelations. to call them in question was blasphemous. in christendom the scriptural representations of the subject, which were general moral adaptations, incidentally made, of representations already existing, obtained a literal interpretation, had the stamp of infallibility put on them and immense perverted additions joined to them. thus everywhere the dogma became associated with the established authority. to deny it was heresy. heretics were excommunicated, loaded with pains and penalties, and, for many centuries, often put to death with excruciating tortures. from that moment the doctrine was taken out of the province of natural reason, out of the realm of ethical truth. the absurdities, wrongs, and barbarities deducible from it were a part and parcel of it, and not to be considered as any objection to it. no free thought and honest criticism were allowed. because taught by authority, it must be submissively taken for granted. henceforth we are not to wonder at the revolting inhumanity of spirit and horribleness of gloating hatred shown in connection with the doctrine; for it was not the independent thought and proper moral spirit of individuals, but the petrified dogma and irresponsible corporate spirit of that towering hierarchy, the church. the church set forth certain conditional offers of salvation. when those offers were spurned or neglected, the church felt personally insulted and aggrieved. her servants hurled on the hated heretics and heathen the denunciations of bigotry and the threats of rage. rugged old tertullian, in whose torrid veins the fire of his african deserts seems infused, revels with infernal glee over the contemplation of the sure damnation of the heathen. "at that greatest of all spectacles, the last and eternal judgment," he says, "how shall i admire, how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when i behold so many proud monarchs groaning in the lowest abyss of darkness; so many magistrates liquefying in fiercer flames than they ever kindled against the christians; so many sage philosophers blushing in red hot fires with their deluded pupils; so many tragedians more tuneful in the expression of their own sufferings; so many dancers tripping more nimbly from anguish than ever before from applause." hundreds of the most accredited christian writers have shown the same fiendish spirit. drexel the jesuit, preaching of dives, exclaims, "instead of a lofty bed of down on which he was wont to repose himself, he now lies frying in the flames; his sparkling wine and delicious dainties are taken from him; he is burnt up with thirst, and has nothing for his food but smoke and sulphur." jeremy taylor says, in that discourse on the "pains of hell" where he has lavished all the stores of his matchless learning and all the wealth of his gorgeous imagination in multiplying and adorning the paraphernalia of torture with infinite accompaniments of unendurable pangs and insufferable abominations, "we are amazed at the inhumanity of phalaris, who roasted men in his brazen bull: this was joy in respect of that fire of hell which penetrates the very entrails without consuming them;" "husbands shall see their wives, parents shall see their children, tormented before their eyes;" "the bodies of the damned shall be crowded together in hell like grapes in a wine press, which press one another till they burst;" "every distinct sense and organ shall be assailed with its own appropriate and most exquisite sufferings." christopher love belying his name says of the damned, "their cursings are their hymns, howlings their tunes, and blasphemies their ditties." calvin writes, "forever harassed with a dreadful tempest, they shall feel themselves torn asunder by an angry god, and transfixed and penetrated by mortal stings, terrified by the thunderbolts of god, and broken by the weight of his hand, so that to sink into any gulfs would be more tolerable than to stand for a moment in these terrors." a living divine, dr. gardiner spring, declares, "when the omnipotent and angry god, who has access to all the avenues of distress in the corporeal frame and all the inlets to agony in the intellectual constitution, undertakes to punish, he will convince the universe that he does not gird himself for the work of retribution in vain;" "it will be a glorious deed when he who hung on calvary shall cast those who have trodden his blood under their feet, into the furnace of fire, where there shall be weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth." thousands of passages like these, and even worse, might easily be collected from christian authors, dating their utterance from the days of st. irenaus, bishop of lyons, who flamed against the heretics, to the days of nehemiah adams, congregational preacher of boston, who says, "it is to be feared the forty two children that mocked elisha are now in hell." there is an unmerciful animus in them, a vindictiveness of thought and feeling, far oh, how far! removed from the meek and loving de spectaculis, cap. xxx., gibbon's trans. contemplations of the state of man, ch. . friends of christ, p. . soul of jesus, who wept over jerusalem, and loved the "unevangelical" young lawyer who was "not far from the kingdom of heaven," and yearned towards the penitent peter, and from the tenderness of his immaculate purity said to the adulteress, "neither do i condemn thee: go, and sin no more." there are some sectarians in whom the arbitrary narrowness, fierceness, and rigidity of their received creeds have so demoralized and hardened conscience and sensibility in their native healthy directions, and artificially inflamed them in diseased channels, that we verily believe, if the decision of the eternal destiny of the human race were placed in their hands, they would with scarcely a twinge of pain perhaps some of them even with a horrid satisfaction and triumph doom all except their own dogmatic coterie to hell. they are bound to do so. they profess to know infallibly that god will do so: if, therefore, the case being in their arbitration, they would decide differently, they thereby impeach the action of god, confess his decrees irreconcilable with reason and justice, and set up their own goodness as superior to his. burnet has preserved the plea of bloody mary, which was in these words: "as the souls of heretics are hereafter to be eternally burning in hell, there can be nothing more proper than for me to imitate the divine vengeance by burning them on earth." thanks be to the infinite father that our fate is in his hands, and not in the hands of men who are bigots, "those pseudo privy councillors of god, who write down judgments with a pen hard nibb'd: ushers of beelzebub's black rod, commending sinners, not to ice thick ribb'd, but endless flames to scorch them up like flax, yet sure of heaven themselves, as if they'd cribb'd the impression of st. peter's keys in wax!" it may be thought that this doctrine and its awful concomitants, though once promulgated, are now nearly obsolete. it is true that, in thinking minds and generous hearts, they are getting to be repudiated. but by no means is it so in the recognised formularies of the established churches and in the teachings of the popular clergy. all through the gentile world, wherever there is a prevailing religion, the threats and horrors of a fearful doctrine of hell are still brandished over the trembling or careless multitudes. in christendom, the authoritative announcement of the roman and greek churches, and the public creeds confessed by every communicant of all the denominations, save two or three which are comparatively insignificant in numbers, show that the doctrine is yet held without mitigation. the bishop of toronto, only a year or two ago, published the authoritative declaration that "every child of humanity, except the virgin mary, is from the first moment of conception a child of wrath, hated by the blessed trinity, belonging to satan, and doomed to hell!" indeed, the doctrine, in its whole naked and frightful extent, is necessarily, in strict logic, an integral part of the great system of the popular christianity, that is, christianity as falsely interpreted, paganized, and scholasticized. for if by the sin of adam the entire race were totally depraved and condemned to a hopeless hell, and only those can be saved who personally appropriate by a realizing faith the benefits of the subsequent artifice carried out in the atoning blood of the incarnate god, certainly the extremist advocate of the doctrine concerning hell has not exceeded the truth, and cannot exceed it. all the necessities of logic rebuke the tame hearted theologians, and great augustine's, great calvin's, ghost walks unapproached among them, crying out that they are slow and inefficient in describing the enormous sweep of the inherited penalty! many persons who have not taken pains to examine the subject suppose that the horrifying descriptions given by christian authors of the state and sufferings of the lost were not intended to be literally received, but were meant as figures of speech, highly wrought metaphors calculated to alarm and impress with physical emblems corresponding only to moral and spiritual realities. the progress of thought and refinement has made it natural that recourse should often be had to such an explanation; but unquestionably it is a mistake. the annals of theology, both dogmatic and homiletic, from the time of the earliest fathers till now, abound in detailed accounts of the future punishment of the wicked, whereof the context, the train of thought, and all the intrinsic characteristics of style and coherence, do not leave a shadow of doubt that they were written as faithful, though inadequate, accounts of facts. the church, the immense bulk of christendom, has in theory always regarded hell and its dire concomitants as material facts, and not as merely spiritual experiences. tertullian says, "the damned burn eternally without consuming, as the volcanoes, which are vents from the stored subterranean fire of hell, burn forever without wasting." cyprian declares that "the wretched bodies of the condemned shall simmer and blaze in those living fires." augustine argues at great length and with ingenious varieties of reasoning to show how the material bodies of the damned may withstand annihilation in everlasting fire. similar assertions, which cannot be figuratively explained, are made by irenaus, jerome, athanasius, thomas aquinas, bonaventura, gerson, bernard, and indeed by almost all the christian writers. origen, who was a platonist, and a heretic on many points, was severely condemned for saying that the fire of hell was inward and of the conscience, rather than outward and of the body. for the strict materiality of the fire of hell we might adduce volumes of authorities from nearly every province of the church. dr. barrow asserts that "our bodies will be afflicted continually by a sulphurous flame, piercing the inmost sinews." john whitaker thinks "the bodies of the damned will be all salted with fire, so tempered and prepared as to burn the more fiercely and yet never consume." jeremy taylor teaches that "this temporal fire is but a painted fire in respect of that penetrating and real fire in hell." jonathan edwards soberly and believingly writes thus: "the world will probably be converted into a great lake or liquid globe of fire, a vast ocean of fire, in which the wicked shall be overwhelmed, which will always be in tempest, in which they shall be tost to and fro, having no rest day or night, vast waves or billows of fire continually rolling over their heads, of which they shall forever be full of a quick sense within and without: their heads, their eyes, their tongues, their hands, their feet, their loins, and their vitals shall forever be full of a glowing, melting fire, fierce enough to melt the very rocks and elements; and also they shall eternally be full of the most quick and lively sense apol. cap. - . de civ. dei, lib. xxi. cap. . to feel the torments; not for one minute, nor for one day, nor for one age, nor for two ages, nor for a hundred ages, nor for ten thousands of millions of ages one after another, but for ever and ever, without any end at all, and never, never be delivered." calvin says, "iterum quaro, unde factum est, ut tot gentes una cum liberis eorum infantibus aterna morti involveret lapsus ada absque remedio, nisi quia deo ita visum est? decretum horribile fateor." outraged humanity before the contemplation cries, "o god, horror hath overwhelmed me, for thou art represented as an omnipotent fiend." it is not the father of christ, but his antagonist, whose face glares down over such a scene as that! the above diabolical passage at the recital of which from the pulpit, edwards's biographers tell us, "whole congregations shuddered and simultaneously rose to their feet, smiting their breasts, weeping and groaning" is not the arbitrary exaggeration of an individual, but a fair representation of the actual tenets and vividly held faith of the puritans. it is also, in all its uncompromising literality, a direct and inevitable part of the system of doctrine which, with insignificant exceptions, professedly prevails throughout christendom at this hour. we know most persons will hesitate at this statement; but let them look at the logic of the case in the light of its history, and they must admit the correctness of the assertion. weigh the following propositions, the accuracy of which no one, we suppose, will question, and it will appear at once that there is no possibility of avoiding the conclusion. first, it is the established doctrine of christendom that no one can be saved without a supernatural regeneration, or sincere faith in the vicarious atonement, or valid reception of sacramental grace at the hands of a priest, conditions which it is not possible that one in a hundred thousand of the whole human race has fulfilled. secondly, it is the established doctrine of christendom that there will be a general day of judgment, when all men will be raised in the same bodies which they originally occupied on earth, when christ and his angels will visibly descend from heaven, separate the elect from the reprobate, summon the sheep to the blissful pastures on the right hand, but "proclaim the flocks of goats to folds of flame." the world is to be burnt up, and the damned, restored to their bodies, are to be driven into the everlasting fire prepared for them. the resurrection of the body, still held in all christendom, taken in connection with the rest of the associated scheme, necessitates the belief in the materiality of the torments of hell. that eminent living divine, dr. gardiner spring, says, "the souls of all who have died in their sins are in hell; and there their bodies too will be after the resurrection." mr. spurgeon also, in his graphic and fearful sermon on the "resurrection of the dead," uses the following language: "when thou diest, thy soul will be tormented alone; that will be a hell for it: but at the day of judgment thy body will join thy soul, and then thou wilt have twin hells, thy soul sweating drops of blood, and thy body suffused with agony. in fire exactly like that which we have on earth thy body will lie, edwards's works, vol. viii. p. . instit., lib. iii. cap. xxiii. sect. . the glory of christ, vol. ii. p. . asbestos like, forever unconsumed, all thy veins roads for the feet of pain to travel on, every nerve a string on which the devil shall forever play his diabolical tune of hell's unutterable lament!" and, if this doctrine be true, no ingenuity, however fertile in expedients and however fiendish in cruelty, can possibly devise emblems and paint pictures half terrific enough to present in imagination and equal in moral impression what the reality will be to the sufferers. it is easy to speak or hear the word "hell;" but to analyze its significance and realize it in a sensitive fancy is difficult; and whenever it is done the fruit is madness, as the bedlams of the world are shrieking in testimony at this instant. the revivalist preachers, so far from exaggerating the frightful contents latent in the prevalent dogma concerning hell, have never been able and no man is able to do any thing like justice to its legitimate deductions. edwards is right in declaring, "after we have said our utmost and thought our utmost, all that we have said and thought is but a faint shadow of the reality." think of yourselves, seized, just as you are now, and flung into the roaring, glowing furnace of eternity; think of such torture for an instant, multiply it by infinity, and then say if any words can convey the proper force of impression. it is true these intolerable details are merely latent and unappreciated by the multitude of believers; and when one, roused to fanaticism by earnest contemplation of his creed, dares to proclaim its logical consequences and to exhort men accordingly, they shrink, and charge him with excess. but they should beware ere they repudiate the literal horrors of the historic orthodox doctrine for any figurative and moral views accommodated to the advanced reason and refinement of the times, beware how such an abandonment of a part of their system affects the rest. give up the material fire, and you lose the bodily resurrection. renounce the bodily resurrection, and away goes the visible coming of christ to a general judgment. abandon the general judgment, and the climacteric completion of the church scheme of redemption is wanting. mar the wholeness of the redemption plan, and farewell to the incarnation and vicarious atonement. neglect the vicarious atonement, and down crumbles the hollow and broken shell of the popular theology helplessly into its grave. the old literal doctrine of a material hell, however awful its idea, as it has been set forth in flaming views and threats by all the accredited representatives of the church, must be uncompromisingly clung to, else the whole popular system of theology will be mutilated, shattered, and lost from sight. the theological leaders understand this perfectly well, and for the most part they act accordingly. we have now under our hand numerous extracts, from writings published within the last five years by highly influential dignitaries in the different denominations, which for frightfulness of outline and coloring, and for unshrinking assertions of literality, will compare with those already quoted. especially read the following description of this kind from john henry newman: "oh, terrible moment for the soul, when it suddenly finds itself at the judgment seat of christ, when the judge speaks and consigns it to the jailers till it shall pay the endless debt which lies against it! 'impossible! i a lost soul? i separated from hope and from peace forever? it is not i of whom the judge so spake! there is a mistake somewhere; christ, savior, hold thy hand: one minute to explain it! my name is demas: i am but demas, not judas, or nicholas, or alexander, or philetus, or diotrephes. what! eternal pain for me? impossible! it shall not be!' and the poor soul struggles and wrestles in the grasp of the mighty demon which has hold of it, and whose every touch is torment. 'oh, atrocious!' it shrieks, in agony, and in anger too, as if the very keenness of the infliction were a proof of its injustice. 'a second! and a third! i can bear no more! stop, horrible fiend! give over: i am a man, and not such as thou! i am not food for thee, or sport for thee! i have been taught religion; i have had a conscience; i have a cultivated mind; i am well versed in science and art; i am a philosopher, or a poet, or a shrewd observer of men, or a hero, or a statesman, or an orator, or a man of wit and humor. nay, i have received the grace of the redeemer; i have attended the sacraments for years; i have been a catholic from a child; i died in communion with the church: nothing, nothing which i have ever been, which i have ever seen, bears any resemblance to thee, and to the flame and stench which exhale from thee: so i defy thee, and abjure thee, o enemy of man!' "alas! poor soul! and, whilst it thus fights with that destiny which it has brought upon itself and those companions whom it has chosen, the man's name perhaps is solemnly chanted forth, and his memory decently cherished, among his friends on earth. men talk of him from time to time; they appeal to his authority; they quote his words; perhaps they even raise a monument to his name, or write his history. 'so comprehensive a mind! such a power of throwing light on a perplexed subject and bringing conflicting ideas or facts into harmony!' 'such a speech it was that he made on such and such an occasion: i happened to be present, and never shall forget it;' or, 'a great personage, whom some of us knew;' or, 'it was a rule with a very worthy and excellent friend of mine, now no more;' or, 'never was his equal in society, so just in his remarks, so lively, so versatile, so unobtrusive;' or, 'so great a benefactor to his country and to his kind;' or, 'his philosophy so profound.' 'oh, vanity! vanity of vanities! all is vanity! what profiteth it? what profiteth it? his soul is in hell, o ye children of men! while thus ye speak, his soul is in the beginning of those torments in which his body will soon have part, and which will never die!" some theologians do not hesitate, even now, to say that "in hell the bodies of the damned shall be nealed, as we speak of glass, so as to endure the fire without being annihilated thereby." "made of the nature of salamanders," they shall be "immortal kept to feel immortal fire." well may we take up the words of the psalmist and cry out of the bottomless depths of disgust and anguish, "i am overwhelmed with horror!" holding this abhorrent mass of representations, so grossly carnal and fearful, up in the free light of to day, it cannot stand the test of honest and resolute inquiry. it exists only by timid, unthinking sufferance. it is kept alive, among the superstitious vestiges of the outworn and out grown past, only by the power of tradition, authority, and custom. in refutation of it we shall not present here a prolonged detail of learned researches and logical processes; for that would be useless to those who are enslaved to the foregone conclusions of a creed and possessed by invulnerable prejudices, while those who are thoughtful and candid can make sermon on "neglect of divine calls and warnings." such investigations themselves. we shall merely state, in a few clear and brief propositions, the results in which we suppose all free and enlightened minds who have adequately studied the subject now agree, leaving the reader to weigh these propositions for himself, with such further examination as inclination and opportunity may cause him to bestow upon the matter. we reject the common belief of christians in a hell which is a local prison of fire where the wicked are to be tortured by material instruments, on the following grounds, appealing to god for the reverential sincerity of our convictions, and appealing to reason for their truth. first, the supposition that hell is an enormous region in the hollow of the earth is a remnant of ancient ignorance, a fancy of poets who magnified the grave into hades, a thought of geographers who supposed the earth to be flat and surrounded by a brazen expanse bright above and black beneath. secondly, the soul, on leaving the body, is a spiritual substance, if it be any substance at all, eluding our senses and all the instruments of science. therefore, in the nature of things, it cannot be chained in a dungeon, nor be cognizant of suffering from material fire or other physical infliction, but its woes must be moral and inward; and the figment that its former fleshly body is to be restored to it is utterly incredible, being an absurdity in science, and not affirmed, as we believe, in scripture. thirdly, the imagery of a subterranean hell of fire, brimstone, and undying worms, as used in the scriptures of the new testament, is the same as that drawn from heathen sources with modifications and employed by the pharisees before the time of christ and his disciples; and we must therefore, since neither persians nor pharisees were inspired, either suppose that this imagery was adopted by the apostles figuratively to convey moral truths, or else that they were left, in common with their countrymen, at least partially under the dominion of the errors of their time. thus in every alternative we deny that the interior of the earth is, or ever will be, an abode of souls, full of fire, a hell in which the damned are to be confined and physically tormented. the elements of the popular doctrine of future punishment which we thus reject are the falsities contributed by superstition and the priestly spirit. the truths remaining in the doctrine, furnished by conscience, reason, and scripture, we will next exhibit, in order not to dismiss this head, on the nature of future punishment, with negations. what is the real character of the retributions in the future state? we do not think they are necessarily connected with any peculiar locality or essentially dependent on any external circumstances. as milton says, when speaking of the best theologians, "to banish forever into a local hell, whether in the air, or in the centre, or in that uttermost and bottomless gulf of chaos deeper from holy bliss than the world's diameter multiplied, they thought not a punishment so proper and proportionate for god to inflict as to punish sin with sin." god does not arbitrarily stretch forth his arm, like an enraged and vindictive man, and take direct vengeance on offenders; but by his immutable laws, permeating all beings and governing all worlds, evil is, and brings, its own punishment. the intrinsic substances and forces of character and their organized correlations with the realities of eternity, the ruling principles, habits, and love of the soul, as they stand affected towards the world to which they go, these are the conditions on which experience depends, herein is the hiding of retribution. "each one," as origen says, "kindles the flame of his own appropriate fire." superior spirits must look on a corrupted human soul with a sorrow similar, though infinitely profounder, to that with which the lapidary contemplates a splendid pearl with a dark flaw in its centre. the koran says, "men sleep while they live, and when they die they wake." the sudden infliction of pain in the future state comes from the sudden unveiling of secrets, quickening of the moral consciousness, and exposure of the naked soul's fitnesses to the spiritual correspondences of its deserts. it is said, "death does away disguise: souls see each other clear, at one glance, as two drops of rain in air might look into each other had they life." the quality of the soul's character decides the elements of the soul's life; and, as this becomes known on crossing the death drawn line of futurity, conscious retribution then arises in the guilty. this is a retribution which is reasonable, moral, unavoidable, before which we may well pause and tremble. the great moral of it is that we should not so much dread being thrust into an eternal hell as we should fear carrying a hell with us when we go into eternity. it is not so bad to be in hell as to be forced truly to say, "which way i fly is hell; myself am hell." if these general ideas are correct, it follows even as all common sense and reflection affirm that every real preparation for death and for what is to succeed must be an ingrained characteristic, and cannot consist in a mere opinion, mood, or act. here we strike at one of the shallowest errors, one of the most extensive and rooted superstitions, of the world. throughout the immense kingdoms of the east, where the brahmanic and buddhist religions hold sway over six hundred millions of men, the notion of yadasanna that is, the merit instantaneously obtained when at the point of death fully prevails. they suppose that in that moment, regardless of their former lives and of their present characters, by bringing the mind and the heart into certain momentary states of thought and feeling, and meditating on certain objects or repeating certain sacred words, they can suddenly obtain exemption from punishment in their next life. the notion likewise obtains almost universally among christians, incredible as it may seem. with the romanists, who are three fourths of the christian world, it is a most prominent doctrine, everywhere vehemently proclaimed and acted on: that is the meaning of the sacrament of extreme unction, whereby, on submission to the church and confession to a priest, the venal sins of the dying man are forgiven, purgatory avoided or lessened, and heaven made sure. the ghost of the king of denmark complains most of the unwarned suddenness of his murder, not of the murder itself, but of its suddenness, which left him no opportunity to save his soul: "sleeping, was i by a brother's hand cut off even in the blossoms of my sin, hardy, manual of buddhism, p. . unhousel'd, disappointed, unanel'd; no reckoning made, but sent to my account with all my imperfections on my head." hamlet, urged by supernatural solicitings to vengeance, finds his murderous uncle on his knees at prayer. stealing behind him with drawn sword, he is about to strike the fatal blow, when the thought occurs to him that the guilty man, if killed when at his devotions, would surely go to heaven; and so he refrains until a different opportunity. for to send to heaven the villain who had slain his father, "that would be hire and salary, not revenge. he took my father grossly full of bread, with all his crimes broad blown, as flush as may; and how his audit stands who knows save heaven? but, in our circumstance and course of thought, 'tie heavy with him. and am i then revenged to take him in the purging of his soul, when he is fit and season'd for his passage? no; but when he is drunk, asleep, enraged, or in the incestuous pleasures of his bed, at gaming, swearing, or about some act that has no relish of salvation in't: then trip him, that his heels may kick at heaven, and that his soul may be as damn'd and black as hell, whereto it goes." this, though poetry, is a fair representation of the mediaval faith held by all christendom in sober prose. the same train of thought latently underlies the feelings of most protestants too, though it is true any one would now shrink from expressing it with such frankness and horrible gusto. but what else means the minute morbid anatomy of death beds, the prurient curiosity to know how the dying one bore himself in the solemn passage? how commonly, if one dies without physical anguish, and with the artificial exultations of a fanatic, rejoiceful auguries are drawn! if he dies in physical suffering, and with apparent regret, a gloomy verdict is rendered! it is superstition, absurdity, and injustice, all. not the accidental physical conditions, not the transient emotions, with which one passes from the earth, can decide his fate, but the real good or evil of his soul, the genuine fitness or unfitness of his soul, his soul's inherent merits of bliss or bale. there is no time nor power in the instant of death, by any magical legerdemain, to turn away the impending retributions of wickedness and guilt. what is right, within the conditions of infinite wisdom and goodness, will be done in spite of all traditional juggles and spasmodic spiritual attitudinizations. what can it avail that a most vile and hardened wretch, when dying, convulsed with fright and possessed with superstition, compels, or strives to compel, a certain sentiment into his soul, conjures, or tries to conjure, his mind into the relation of belief towards a certain ancient and abstract dogma? "yet i've seen men who meant not ill, compelling doctrine out of death, with hell and heaven acutely poised upon the turning of a breath." cruelly racking the soul with useless probes of theological questions and statements, they stand by the dying to catch the words of his last breath, and, in perfect consistence with their faith, they pronounce sentence accordingly. if, as the pallid lips faintly close, they hear the magic words, "i put my trust in the atoning blood of christ," up goes the soul to heaven. if they hear the less stereotyped words, "i have tried to do as well as i could: i hope god will be merciful towards me and receive me," down goes the soul to hell. strange and cruel superstition, that imagines god to act towards men only according to the evanescent temper and technical phrase with which they leave the world! the most popular english preacher of the present day, the rev. mr. spurgeon, after referring to the fable that those before whom perseus held the head of medusa were turned into stone in the very act and posture of the moment when they saw it, says, "death is such a power. what i am when death is held before me, that i must be forever. when my spirit goes, if god finds me hymning his praise, i shall hymn it in heaven: doth he find me breathing out oaths, i shall follow up those oaths in hell. as i die, so shall i live eternally!" no: the true preparation for death and the invisible realm of souls is not the eager adoption of an opinion, the hurried assumption of a mood, or the frightened performance of an outward act: it is the patient culture of the mind with truth, the pious purification of the heart with disinterested love, the consecrated training of the life in holiness, the growth of the soul in habits of righteousness, faith, and charity, the organization of divine principles into character. every real preparation of the soul for death must be a characteristic rightly related to the immortal realities to which death is the introduction of the soul. an evil soul is not thrust into a physical and fiery hell, fenced in and roofed over from the universal common; but it is revealed to itself, and consciously enters on retributive relations. in the spiritual world, whither all go at death, we suppose that like perceives like, and thus are they saved or damned, having, by the natural attraction and elective seeing of their virtues or vices, the beatific vision of god, or the horrid vision of iniquity and terror. it cannot be supposed that god is a bounded shape so vast as to fill the entire circuits of the creation. spirit transcends the categories of body, and it is absurd to apply the language of finite things to the illimitable one, except symbolically. when we die, we do not sink or soar to the realm of spirits, but are in it, at once, everywhere; and the resulting experience will depend on the prevailing elements of our moral being. if we are bad, our badness is our banishment from god; if we are good, our goodness is our union with god. in every world the true nature and law of retribution lie in the recoil of conduct on character, and the assimilated results ensuing. take a soul that is saturated with the rottenness of depravity into the core of heaven, and it is in the heart of hell still. take a soul that is compacted of divine sermons, d series. sermon xiv., thoughts on the last battle. realities to the very bottom of hell, and heaven is with it there. we are treading on eternity, and infinitude is all around us. now, as well as hereafter, to us, the universe is action, the soul is reaction, experience is the resultant. death but unveils the facts. pass that great crisis, in the passage becoming conscious of universal realities and of individual relations to them, and the father will say to the discordant soul, "alienated one, incapable of my embrace, change and come to me;" to the harmonious soul, "son, thou art ever with me, and all that i have is thine." having thus considered the question as to the nature of future punishments, it now remains to discuss the question concerning their duration. the fact of a just and varied punishment for souls we firmly believe in. the particulars of it in the future, or the degrees of its continuance, we think, are concealed from the present knowledge of man. these details we do not profess to be able to settle much about. we have but three general convictions on the subject. first, that these punishments will be experienced in accordance with those righteous and inmost laws which indestructibly express the mind of god and rule the universe, and will not be vindictively inflicted through arbitrary external penalties. secondly, that they will be accurately tempered to the just deserts and qualifications of the individual sufferers. and thirdly, that they will be alleviated, remedial, and limited, not unmitigated, hopeless, and endless. upon the first of these thoughts perhaps enough has already been said, and the second and third may be discussed together. our business, therefore, in the remainder of this dissertation, is to disprove, if truth in the hands of reason and conscience will enable us to disprove, the popular dogma which asserts that the state of the condemned departed is a state of complete damnation absolutely eternal. against that form of representing future punishment which makes it unlimited by conceiving the destiny of the soul to be an eternal progress, in which their initiative steps of good or evil in this life place different souls under advantages or disadvantages never relatively to be lost, we have nothing to object. it is reasonable, in unison with natural law, and not frightful. but we are to deal, if we fairly can, a refutation against the doctrine of an intense endless misery for the wicked, as that doctrine is prevailingly taught and received. the advocates of eternal damnation primarily plant themselves upon the christian scriptures, and say that there the voice of an infallible inspiration from heaven asserts it. first of all, let us examine this ground, and see if they do not stand there only upon erroneous premises sustained by prejudices. in the beginning, then, we submit to candid minds that, if the literal eternity of future torment be proclaimed in the new testament, it is not a part of the revelation contained in that volume; it is not a truth revealed by inspiration; and that we maintain for this reason. the same representations of the everlasting duration of future punishment in hell, the same expressions for an unlimited duration, which occur in the new testament, were previously employed by the hindus, greeks, and pharisees, who were not inspired, but must have drawn the doctrine from fallible sources. now, to say the least, it is as reasonable to suppose that these expressions, when found in the new testament, were lessing, ueber leibnitz von den ewigen strafen. employed by the saviour and the evangelists in conformity with the prevailing thought and customary phraseology of their time, as to conclude that they were derived from an unerring inspiration. the former is a natural and reasonable inference; the latter is a gratuitous hypothesis for which we have never heard of any evidence. if its advocates will honestly attempt really to prove it, we are convinced they will be forced to renounce it. the only way they continue to hold it is by taking it for granted. if, therefore, the strict eternity of future woe be declared in the new testament, we regard it not as a part of the inspired utterance of jesus, but as an error which crept in among others from the surrounding notions of a benighted pagan age. but, in the next place, we do not admit by any means that the literal eternity of future damnation is taught in the scriptures. on the contrary, we deny such an assertion, for several reasons. first, we argue from the usage of language before the new testament was written. the egyptians, hindus, greeks, often make most emphatic use of phrases declaring the eternal sufferings of the wicked in hell; but they must have meant by "eternal" only a very long time, because a fundamental portion of the great system of thought on which their religions rested was the idea of recurring epochs, sundered by immense periods statedly arriving, when all things were restored, the hells and heavens vanished away, and god was all in all. if the representations of the eternal punishment of the wicked, made before the new testament was written, were not significant, with metaphysical severity, of an eternity of duration, but only, with popular looseness, of an extremely long period, the same may be true of the similar expressions found in that record. secondly, we argue from the usage of language in and after the new testament age. the critics have collected, as any one desirous may easily find, and as every theological scholar well knows, scores of instances from the writings of authors contemporary with christ and his apostles, and succeeding them, where the greek word for "eternal" is used popularly, not strictly, in a rhetorical, not in a philosophical, sense, not denoting a duration literally endless, but one very prolonged. in all greek literature the word is undoubtedly used in a careless and qualified sense at least a hundred times where it is used once with its close etymological force. and the same is true of the corresponding hebrew term. the writer of the "testaments of the twelve patriarchs," at the close of every chapter, describing the respective patriarch's death, says, "he slept the eternal sleep," though by "eternal" he can only mean a duration reaching to the time of the resurrection, as plainly appears from the context. iamblichus speaks of "an eternal eternity of eternities." origen, and gregory of nyssa, and others, the fact of whose belief in final universal salvation no one pretends to deny, do not hesitate with earnestness and frequency to affirm the "eternal" punishment of the wicked in hell. now, if the contemporaries of the evangelists, and their successors, often used the word "eternal" popularly, in a figurative, limited sense, then it may be so employed when it occurs in the new testament in connection with the future pains of the bad. thirdly, we argue from the phraseology and other peculiarities of the representation of the future woe of the condemned, given in the new testament itself, that its authors de mysteriis egyptiorum, cap. viii. sect. . did not consciously intend to proclaim the rigid endlessness of that woe. "these shall go away into everlasting punishment." since the word "everlasting" was often used simply to denote a long period, what right has any one to declare that here it must mean an absolutely unending duration? how does any one know that the mind of jesus dialectically grasped the metaphysical notion of eternity and deliberately intended to express it? certainly the intrinsic probabilities are all the other way. such a conclusion is hardly compatible with the highly tropical style of speech employed throughout the discourse. besides, had he wished to convey the overwhelming idea that the doom of the guilty would be strictly irremediable, their anguish literally infinite, would he not have taken pains to say so in definite, guarded, explained, unmistakable terms? he might easily, by a precise prosaic utterance, by explanatory circumlocutions, have placed that thought beyond possibility of mistake. fourthly, we have an intense conviction not only that the leaving of such a doctrine by the savior in impenetrable obscurity and uncertainty is irreconcilable with the supposition of his deliberately holding it in his belief, but also that a belief in the doctrine itself is utterly irreconcilable with the very essentials of his teachings and spirit, his inmost convictions and life. he taught the infinite and unchangeable goodness of god: confront the doctrine of endless misery with the parable of the prodigal son. he taught the doctrine of unconquerable forgiveness, without apparent qualification: bring together the doctrine of never relenting punishment and his petition on the cross, "father, forgive them." he taught that at the great judgment heaven or hell would be allotted to men according to their lives; and the notion of endless torment does not rest on the demerit of sinful deeds, which is the standard of judgment that he holds up, but on conceptions concerning a totally depraved nature, a god inflamed with wrath, a vicarious atonement rejected, or some other ethnic tradition or ritual consideration equally foreign to his mind and hostile to his heart. fifthly, if we reason on the popular belief that the letter of scripture teaches only unerring truth, we have the strongest argument of all against the eternal hopelessness of future punishment. the doctrine of christ's descent to hell underlies the new testament. we are told that after his death "he went and preached to the spirits in prison." and again we read that "the gospel was preached also to them that are dead." this new testament idea was unquestionably a vital and important feature in the apostolic and in the early christian belief. it necessarily implies that there is probation, and that there may be salvation, after death. it is fatal to the horrid dogma which commands all who enter hell to abandon every gleam of hope, utterly and forever. the symbolic force of the doctrine of christ's descent and preaching in hell is this, as guder says in his "appearance of christ among the dead," that the deepest and most horrible depth of damnation is not too deep and horrible for the pitying love which wishes to save the lost: even into the veriest depth of hell reaches down the love of god, and his beatific call sounds to the most distant distances. there is no outermost darkness to which his heavenly and all conquering light cannot shine. the book which teaches that christ went even into hell itself, to seek and to save that which was lost, corrodi, ueber die ewigkeit der hollenetrafen. in den beitragen zur beforderung des vernunft. denk. n. s. w. heft vii. ss. - . does not teach that from the instant of death the fate of the wicked is irredeemably fixed. upon the whole, then, we reach the clear conclusion that the christian scriptures do not really declare the hopeless eternity of future punishment. they speak popularly, not scientifically, speak in metaphors which cannot be analyzed and reduced to metaphysical precision. the subject is left with fearful warnings in an impressive obscurity. there we must either leave it, in awe and faith, undecided; or, if not content to do that, we must examine and decide it on other grounds than those of traditional authority, and with other instruments than those of textual interpretation. let us next sift and weigh the arguments from reason by which the dogma of the eternity of future misery is respectively defended and assailed. the advocates of it have sought to support it by four positions, which are such entire assumptions that only a word will be requisite to expose each of them to logical rejection. first, it is said that sin is infinite and deserves an infinite penalty because it is an outrage against an infinite being. a more absurd perversion of logic than this, a more glaring violation of common sense, was never perpetrated. it directly reverses the facts and subverts the legitimate inference. is the sin measured by the dignity of the lawgiver, or by the responsibility of the law breaker? does justice heed the wrath of the offended, or the guilt of the offender? as well say that the eye of man is infinite because it looks out into infinite space, as affirm that his sin is infinite because committed against an infinite god. that man is finite, and all his acts finite, and consequently not in justice to be punished infinitely, is a plain statement of fact which compels assent. all else is empty quibbling, scholastic jugglery. the ridiculousness of the argument is amusingly apparent as presented thus in an old miracle play, wherein justice is made to tell mercy "that man, havinge offended god who is endlesse, his endlesse punchement therefore may nevyr seese." the second device brought forward to sustain the doctrine in question is more ingenious, but equally arbitrary. it is based on the foreknowledge of god. he foresaw that the wicked, if allowed to live on earth immortally in freedom, would go on forever in a course of constant sin. they were therefore constructively guilty of all the sin which they would have committed; but he saved the world the ravages of their actual crimes by hurling them into hell beneath the endless penalty of their latent infinite guilt. in reply to those who argue thus, it is obvious to ask, whence did they learn all this? there is no such scheme drawn up or hinted in scripture; and surely it is not within the possible discoveries of reason. plainly, it is not a known premise legitimating a result, not a sound argument proving a conclusion: it is merely a conceit, devised to explain and fortify a theory already embraced from other considerations. it is an imaginative hypothesis without confirmation. bretschneider, in his systematische entwickelung aller in der dogmatik vorkommenden begriffe, gives the literature of this subject in a list of thirty six distinct works. sect. , ewig keit der hollenstrafen. thomas aquinas, summa, pars iii. suppl. qu. , art. . thirdly, it has been said that future punishment will be endless because sin will be so. the evil soul, growing ever more evil, getting its habits of vice and passions of iniquity more deeply infixed, and surrounded in the infernal realm with all the incentives to wickedness, will become confirmed in depravity beyond all power of cure, and, sinning forever, be necessarily damned and tortured forever. the same objection holds to this argument as to the former. its premises are daring assumptions beyond the province of our knowledge. they are assumptions, too, contrary to analogy, probability, the highest laws of humanity, and the goodness of god. without freedom of will there cannot be sin; and those who retain moral freedom may reform, cease to do evil and learn to do good. there are invitations and opportunities to change from evil to good here: why not hereafter? the will is free now: what shall suddenly paralyze or annihilate that freedom when the soul leaves the body? why may not such amazing revelations be made, such regenerating motives be brought to bear, in the spiritual world, as will soften the hardest, convince the stubbornest, and, sooner or later, transform and redeem the worst? it is true the law of sinful habit is dark and fearful; but it is frequently neutralized. the argument as the support of a positive dogma is void because itself only hypothetical. some have tried to prove eternal condemnation by an assumed necessity of moral gravitation. there is a great deal of loose and hasty talk afloat about the law of affinities distributing souls hereafter in fitted companies. similar characters will spontaneously come together. the same qualities and grades of sympathy will coalesce, the unlike will fly apart. and so all future existence will be arranged in circles of dead equality on stagnant levels of everlasting hopelessness of change. the law of spiritual attraction is no such force as that, produces no such results. it is broken up by contrasts, changes, multiplicity of other interacting forces. we are not only drawn by affinity to those like ourselves, but often still more powerfully, with rebuking and redeeming effect, to those above us that we may become like them, to those beneath us that we may pity and help them. the law of affinity is not in moral beings a simple force necessitating an endless uniformity of state, but a complex of forces, sometimes mingling the unlike by stimulants of wedded similarity and contrast to bless and advance all, now punishing, now rewarding, but ever finally intended to redeem. reasoning by sound analogy, the heavens and hells of the future state are not monotonous circles each filled with mutually reflecting personalities, but one fenceless spiritual world of distinctive, ever varying degrees, sympathetic and contrasted life, circulating freshness, variety of attractions and repulsions, divine advancement. finally, it is maintained by many that endless misery is the fate of the reprobate because such is the sovereign pleasure of god. this is no argument, but a desperate assertion. it virtually confesses that the doctrine cannot be defended by reason, but is to be thrown into the province of wilful faith. a host of gloomy theologians have taken this ground as the forlorn hope of their belief. the damned are eternally lost because that is the arbitrary decree of god. those who thus abandon reason for dogmatic authority and trample on logic with mere reiterated assertion can only be met with the flat denial, such is not the arbitrary pleasure of god. then, as far as argument is concerned, the controversy ends where it began. these four hypotheses include all the attempted justifications of the doctrine of eternal misery that we have ever seen offered from the stand point of independent thought. we submit that, considered as proofs, they are utterly sophistical. there are three great arguments in refutation of the endlessness of future punishment, as that doctrine is commonly held. the first argument is ethical, drawn from the laws of right; the second is theological, drawn from the attributes of god; the third is experimental, drawn from the principles of human nature. we shall subdivide these and consider them successively. in the first place, we maintain that the popular doctrine of eternal punishment is unjust, because it overlooks the differences in the sins of men, launching on all whom it embraces one infinite penalty of undiscriminating damnation. the consistent advocates of the doctrine, the boldest creeds, unflinchingly avow this, and defend it by the plea that every sin, however trivial, is equally an offence against the law of the infinite god with the most terrible crime, and equally merits an infinite punishment. thus, by a metaphysical quibble, the very basis of morals is overturned, and the child guilty of an equivocation through fear is put on a level with the pirate guilty of robbery and murder through cold blooded avarice and hate. in a hell where all are plunged in physical fire for eternity there are no degrees of retribution, though the degrees of evil and demerit are as numerous and various as the individuals. the scriptures say, "every man shall receive according to the deeds done in the body:" some "shall be beaten with many stripes," others "with few stripes." the first principle of justice exact discrimination of judgment according to deeds and character is monstrously violated and all differences blotted out by the common dogma of hell. a better thought is shown in the old persian legend which tells that god once permitted zoroaster to accompany him on a visit to hell. the prophet saw many in grievous torments. among the rest, he saw one who was deprived of his right foot. asking the meaning of this, god replied, "yonder sufferer was a king who in his whole life did but one kind action. passing once near a dromedary which, tied up in a state of starvation, was vainly striving to reach some provender placed just beyond its utmost effort, the king with his right foot compassionately kicked the fodder within the poor beast's reach. that foot i placed in heaven: the rest of him is here." again: there is the grossest injustice in the first assumption or fundamental ground on which the theory we are opposing rests. that theory does not teach that men are actually damned eternally on account of their own personal sins, but on account of original sin: the eternal tortures of hell are the transmitted penalty hurled on all the descendants of adam, save those who in some way avoid it, in consequence of his primal transgression. language cannot characterize with too much severity, as it seems to us, the injustice, the immorality, involved in this scheme. the belief in a sin, called "original," entailed by one act of one person upon a whole immortal race of countless millions, dooming vast majorities of them helplessly to a hopeless torture prison, can rest only on a sleep of reason and a delirium of wilson's ed. of mill's hist. of british india, vol. i. p. , note. conscience. such a "sin" is no sin at all; and any penalty inflicted on it would not be the necessary severity of a holy god, but a species of gratuitous vengeance. for sin, by the very essence of ethics, is the free, intelligent, wilful violation of a law known to be right; and every punishment, in order to be just, must be the suffering deserved by the intentional fault, the personal evil, of the culprit himself. the doctrine before us reverses all this, and sends untold myriads to hell forever for no other sin than that of simply having been born children of humanity. born totally depraved, hateful to god, helpless through an irresistible proclivity to sin and an ineradicable aversion to evangelical truth, and asked to save themselves, asked by a mockery like that of fettering men hand and foot, clothing them in leaden straitjackets, and then flinging them overboard, telling them not to drown! what justice, what justice, is here in this? thirdly, the profound injustice of this doctrine is seen in its making the alternative of so unutterably awful a doom hinge upon such trivial particulars and upon merely fortuitous circumstances. one is born of pious, orthodox parents, another of heretics or infidels: with no difference of merit due to them, one goes to heaven, the other goes to hell. one happens to form a friendship with an evangelical believer, another is influenced by a rationalist companion: the same fearful diversity of fate ensues. one is converted by a single sermon: if he had been ill that day, or had been detained from church by any other cause, his fated bed would have been made in hell, heaven closed against him forever. one says, "i believe in the trinity of god, in the deity of christ;" and, dying, he goes to heaven. another says, "i believe in the unity of god and in the humanity of christ:" he, dying, goes to hell. of two children snatched away by disease when twenty four hours old, one has been baptized, the other not: the angels of heaven welcome that, the demons of hell clutch this. the doctrine of infant damnation, intolerably painful as it is, has been proclaimed thousands of times by authoritative teachers and by large parties in the church, and is a logical sequence from the popular theology. it is not a great many years since people heard, it is said, the celebrated statement that "hell is paved with the skulls of infants not a span long!" think of the everlasting bliss or misery of a helpless infant depending on the petty accident of whether it was baptized or not! there are hypothetical cases like the following: if one man had died a year earlier, when he was a saint, he would not have fallen from grace, and renounced his faith, and rolled in crimes, and sunk to hell. if another had lived a year later, he would have been smitten with conviction, and would have repented, and made his peace, and gone to heaven. to the everlasting loss of each, an eternity of bliss against an eternity of woe hung fatally poised on the time appointed for him to die. oh how the bigoted pride, the exclusive dogmatism of self styled saints, self flatterers equally satisfied of their own election and of the rejection of almost everybody else, ought to sink and fade when they reflect on the slight chances, mere chances of time and place, by which the infinite contingency has been, or is to be, decided! they should heed the impregnable good sense and logic conveyed in the humane hearted poet's satirical humor when he advises such persons to "consider well, before, like hurlothrumbo, they aim their clubs at any creed on earth, that by the simple accident of birth they might have been high priests to mumbo jumbo." it is evidently but the rankest mockery of justice to suspend an infinite woe upon an accident out of the power of the party concerned. still further: there is a tremendous injustice even in that form of the doctrine of endless punishment, the most favorable of all, which says that no one is absolutely foreordained to hell, but that all are free, and that life is a fixed season of probation wherein the means of salvation are offered to all, and if they neglect or spurn them the fault is their own, and eternal pain their merited portion. the perfectly apparent inconsistency of this theory with known facts is fatal to it, since out of every generation there are millions on millions of infants, idiots, maniacs, heathen, within whose hearing or power the means of salvation by a personal appropriation of the atoning merit of christ's blood were never brought; so that life to them is no scene of christian probation. but, waiving that, the probation is not a fair one to anybody. if the indescribable horror of an eternal damnation be the consequence that follows a certain course while we are on trial in this life, then a knowledge of that fact in all its bearings ought to be given us, clear, explicit, beyond any possibility of mistake or doubt. otherwise the probation is not fair. to place men in the world, as millions are constantly placed, beset by allurements of every sort within and without, led astray by false teachings and evil examples, exposed in ignorance, bewildered with uncertainties of conflicting doubts and surmises, either never hearing of the way of salvation at all, or hearing of it only in terms that seem absurd in themselves and unaccompanied by sufficient, if by any, proof, and then, if under these fearful hazards they waver from strict purity of heart, rectitude of conduct, or orthodoxy of belief, to condemn them to a world of everlasting agony, would be the very climax of cruelty, with no touch of mercy or color of right. beneath such a rule the universe should be shrouded in the blackness of despair, and god be thought of with a convulsive shudder. such a "probation" would be only like that on which the inquisitors put their victims who were studiously kept ignorant in their dungeons, waiting for the rack and the flame to be made ready. few persons will deny that, as the facts now are, a good, intelligent, candid man may doubt the reality of an endless punishment awaiting men in hell. but if the doctrine be true, and he is on probation under it, is it fair that he should be left honestly in ignorance or doubt about it? no: if it be true, it ought to be burned into his brain and crushed into his soul with such terrific vividness and abiding constancy of impression as would deter him ever from the wrong path, keep him in the right. a distinguished writer has represented a condemned delinquent, suffering on, and still interminably on, in hell, thus complaining of the unfairness of his probation: "oh, had it been possible for me to conceive even the most diminutive part of the weight and horror of this doom, i should have shrunk from every temptation to sin, with the most violent recoil." john foster, letter on the eternity of future punishments. if an endless hell is to be the lot of the sinner, he ought to have an infallible certainty of it, with all possible helps and incentives to avoid it. such is not the case; and therefore, since god is just and generous, the doctrine is not true. finally, the injustice of the dogma of everlasting punishment is most emphatically shown by the fact that there is no sort of correspondence or possible proportion between the offence and the penalty, between the moment of sinning life and the eternity of suffering death. if a child were told to hold its breath thirty seconds, and, failing to do it, should be confined in a dark solitary dungeon for seventy years amidst loathsome horrors and speechless afflictions, and be frightfully scourged six times a day for that entire period, there would be just proportion nay, an inexpressibly merciful proportion between the offence and the punishment, in comparison with that which, being an absolutely infinite disproportion, does not really admit of any comparison, the sentence to an eternal abode in hell as a penalty for the worst kind and the greatest amount of crime a man could possibly crowd into a life of a thousand years. think, then, of passing such a sentence on one who has struggled hard against temptation, and yielded but rarely, and suffered much, and striven to do as well as he could, and borne up courageously, with generous resolves and affections, and died commending his soul to god in hope. "fearfully fleet is this life," says one, "and yet in it eternal life is lost or won: profoundly wretched is this life, yet in it eternal bliss is lost or won." weigh the words adequately, and say how improbable is the thought, and how terribly unjust. perhaps there have already lived upon this earth, and died, and passed into the invisible world, two hundred thousand millions of men, the everlasting doom of every one of whom, it is imagined, was fixed unalterably during the momentary period of his mortal transit from cradle to grave. in respect of eternity, six thousand years and this duration must be reduced to threescore years and ten, since that is all that each generation enjoyed is the same as one hour. suppose, now, that all these two hundred thousand millions of men were called into being at once; that they were placed on probation for one hour; that the result of their choice and action in that hour was to decide their irrevocable fate, actually forever, to ecstatic bliss or to ecstatic woe; that during that hour they were left, as far as clear and stable conviction goes, in utter ignorance and uncertainty as to the great realities of their condition, courted by opposing theories and modes of action; and that, when the clock of time knelled the close of that awful, that most evanescent hour, the roaring gulf of torture yawned, and its jaws of flame and blackness closed over ninety nine hundredths of them for eternity! that is a fair picture of the popular doctrine of temporal probation and eternal punishment, when examined in the light of the facts of human life. of course, no man at this day, who is in his senses and thinks honestly upon the subject, can credit such a doctrine, unless indeed he believes that a lawless fiend sits on the throne of the universe and guides the helm of destiny. and lives there a man of unperverted soul who would not decidedly prefer to have no god rather than to have such a one? ay, "rather than so, come fate into the list and champion us to the utterance." let us be atheists, and bow to mortal chance, believe there is no pilot at all at the rudder of creation's vessel, no channel before the prow, but the roaring breakers of despair to right and left, and the granite bluff of annihilation full in front! in the next place, then, we argue against the doctrine of eternal damnation that it is incompatible with any worthy idea of the character of god. god is love; and love cannot consent to the useless torture of millions of helpless souls for eternity. the gross contradiction of the common doctrine of hell to the spirit of love is so obvious that its advocates, unable to deny or conceal it, have often positively proclaimed it, avowing that, in respect to the wicked, god is changed into a consuming fire full of hatred and vengeance. but that is unmitigated blasphemy. god is unchangeable, his very nature being disinterested, immutable goodness. the sufferings of the wicked are of their own preparation. if a pestilential exhalation is drawn from some decaying substance, it is not the fault of any alteration in the sunlight. but a christian writer assures us that when "the damned are packed like brick in a kiln, so bound that they cannot move a limb nor even an eyelid, god shall blow the fires of hell through them for ever and ever." and another writer says, "all in god is turned into fury: in hell he draws out into the field all his forces, all his attributes, whereof wrath is the leader and general." such representations may be left without a comment. every enlightened mind will instantly reject with horror the doctrine which necessitates a conception of god like that here pictured forth. god is a being of infinite forgiveness and magnanimity. to the wandering sinner, even while a great way off, his arms are open, and his inviting voice, penetrating the farthest abysses, says, "return." his sun shines and his rain falls on the fields of the unjust and unthankful. what is it, the instant mortals pass the line of death, that shall transform this divinity of yearning pity and beneficence into a devil of relentless hate and cruelty? it cannot be. we shall find him dealing towards us in eternity as he does here. an eminent theologian says, "if mortal men kill the body temporally in their anger, it is like the immortal god to damn the soul eternally in his." "god holds sinners in his hands over the mouth of hell as so many spiders; and he is dreadfully provoked, and he not only hates them, but holds them in utmost contempt, and he will trample them beneath his feet with inexpressible fierceness, he will crush their blood out, and will make it fly so that it will sprinkle his garments and stain all his raiment." oh, ravings and blasphemies of theological bigotry, blinded with old creeds, inflamed with sectarian hate, soaked in the gall of bitterness, encompassed by absurd delusions, you know not what you say! a daring writer of modern times observes that god can never say from the last tribunal, in any other than a limited and metaphorical sense, "depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire," because that would not be doing as he would be done by. saving the appearance of irreverence, we maintain his assertion to be just, based on impregnable morality. a recent religious poet describes jesus, on descending into hell after his crucifixion, for these and several other quotations we are indebted to the rev. t. j. sawyer's work, entitled "endless punishment: its origin and grounds examined." edwards's works, vol. vii. p. . meeting judas, and when he saw his pangs and heard his stifled sobs, "pitying, messiah gazed, and had forgiven, but justice her eternal bar opposed." the instinctive sentiment is worthy of jesus, but the deliberate thought is worthy of calvin. why is it so calmly assumed that god cannot pardon, and that therefore sinners must be given over to endless pains? by what proofs is so tremendous a conclusion supported? is it not a gratuitous fiction of theologians? the exemplification of god's character and conduct given in the spirit, teachings, and deeds of christ is full of a free mercy, an eager charity that rushes forward to forgive and embrace the sinful and wretched wanderers. he is a very different being whom the evangelist represents saying of jesus, "this is my beloved son, in whom i am well pleased," from him whom professor park describes "drawing his sword on calvary and smiting down his son!" why may not pardon from unpurchased grace be vouchsafed as well after death as before? what moral conditions alter the case then? ah! it is only the metaphysical theories of the theologians that have altered the case in their fancies and made it necessary for them to limit probation. the attributes of god are laws, his modes of action are the essentialities of his being, the same in all the worlds of boundless extension and all the ages of endless duration. how far some of the theologians have perverted the simplicity of the gospel, or rather how utterly they have strayed from it, may be seen when we remember that christ said concerning little children, "of such is the kingdom of heaven," and then compare with this declaration such a statement as this: "reprobate infants are vipers of vengeance which jehovah will hold over hell in the tongs of his wrath, till they writhe up and cast their venom in his face." we deliberately assert that no depraved, insane, pagan imagination ever conceived of a fiend malignant and horrible enough to be worthily compared with this christian conception of god. edwards repeatedly says, in his two sermons on the "punishment of the wicked" and "sinners in the hands of an angry god," "you cannot stand an instant before an infuriated tiger even: what, then, will you do when god rushes against you in all his wrath?" is this christ's father? the god we worship is "the father of lights, with whom there is neither variableness nor shadow of turning, from whom cometh down every good and every perfect gift." it is the being referred to by the savior when he said, in exultant trust and love, "i am not alone; for the father is with me." it is the infinite one to whom the psalmist says, "though i make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there." if god is in hell, there must be mercy and hope there, some gleams of alleviation and promise there, surely; even as the lutheran creed says that "early on easter morning, before his resurrection, christ showed himself to the damned in hell." if god is in hell, certainly it must be to soothe, to save. "oh, no," says the popular theologian. let us quote his words. "why is god here? to keep the tortures of the damned freshly plied, and to see that no one ever escapes!" can the climax of horror and lord, christ in hades. blasphemy any further go? how much more reasonable, more moral and christ like, to say, with one of the best authors of our time, "what hell may be i know not: this i know: i cannot lose the presence of the lord: one arm humility takes hold upon his dear humanity; the other love clasps his divinity: so, where i go he goes; and better fire wall'd hell with him than golden gated paradise without." the irreconcilableness of the common doctrine of endless misery with any worthy idea of god is made clear by a process of reasoning whose premises are as undeniable as its logic is irrefragable and its conclusion consolatory. god is infinite justice and goodness. his purpose in the creation, therefore, must be the diffusion and triumph of holiness and blessedness. god is infinite wisdom and power. his design, therefore, must be fulfilled. nothing can avail to thwart the ultimate realization of all his intentions. the rule of his omnipotent love pervades infinitude and eternity as a shining leash of law whereby he holds every child of his creation in ultimate connection with his throne, and will sooner or later bring even the worst soul to a returning curve from the career of its wildest orbit. in the realm and under the reign of a paternal and omnipotent god every being must be salvable. remorse itself is a recoil which may fling the penitent into the lap of forgiving love. any different thought appears narrow, cruel, heathen. the blackest fiend that glooms the midnight air of hell, bleached through the merciful purgation of sorrow and loyalty, may become a white angel and be drawn into heaven. lavater writes of himself, and the same is true of many a good man, "i embraced in my heart all that is called man, past, present, and future times and nations, the dead, the damned, even satan. i presented them all to god with the warmest wishes that he would have mercy upon all." this is the true spirit of a good man. and is man better than his maker? we will answer that question, and leave this head of the discussion, by presenting an oriental apologue. god once sat on his inconceivable throne, and far around him, rank after rank, angels and archangels, seraphim and cherubim, resting on their silver wings and lifting their dazzling brows, rose and swelled, with the splendors of an illimitable sea of immortal beings, gleaming and fluctuating to the remotest borders of the universe. the anthem of their praise shook the pillars of the creation, and filled the vault of heaven with a pulsing flood of harmony. when, as they closed their hymn, stole up, faint heard, as from some most distant region of all space, in dim accents humbly rising, a responsive "amen." god asked gabriel, "whence comes that amen?" the hierarchic peer replied, "it rises from the damned in hell." god took, from where it hung above his seat, the key that unlocks the forty thousand doors of hell, and, giving it to gabriel, bade him go release them. on wings of light sped the enraptured messenger, rescued the millions of the lost, and, just as they were, covered all over with the traces of their sin, filth, and woe, brought them straight up into the midst of heaven. instantly they were transformed, clothed in robes of glory, and placed next to the throne; and henceforth, for evermore, the dearest strain to god's ear, of all the celestial music, was that borne by the choir his grace had ransomed from hell. and, because there is no envy or other selfishness in heaven, this promotion sent but new thrills of delight and gratitude through the heights and depths of angelic life. we come now to the last class of reasons for disbelieving the dogma of eternal damnation, namely, those furnished by the principles of human nature and the truths of human experience. the doctrine, as we think can be clearly shown, is literally incredible to the human mind and literally intolerable to the human heart. in the first place, it is, viewed in the abstract, absolutely incredible because it is inconceivable: no man can possibly grasp and appreciate the idea. the nearest approximation to it ever made perhaps is in de quincey's gorgeous elaboration of the famous hindu myth of an enormous rock finally worn away by the brushing of a gauze veil; and that is really no approximation at all, since an incommensurable chasm always separates the finite and the infinite. john foster says, "it is infinitely beyond the highest archangel's faculty to apprehend a thousandth part of the horror of the doom to eternal damnation." the buddhists, who believe that the severest sentence passed on the worst sinner will be brought to an end and his redemption be attained, use the following illustration of the staggering periods that will first elapse. a small yoke is thrown into the ocean and borne about in every direction by the various winds. once in a hundred thousand years a blind tortoise rises to the surface of the water. will the time ever come when that tortoise shall so rise up that its neck shall enter the hole of the yoke? it may, but the time required cannot be told; and it is equally difficult for the unwise man, who has entered one of the great hells, to obtain deliverance. there is a remarkable specimen of the attempt to set forth the idea of endless misery, by suso, a mystic preacher who flourished several centuries ago. it runs thus. "o eternity, what art thou? oh, end without end! o father, and mother, and all whom we love! may god be merciful unto you for evermore! for we shall see you no more to love you; we must be separated forever! o separation, everlasting separation, how painful art thou! oh, the wringing of hands! oh, sighing, weeping, and sobbing, unceasing howling and lamenting, and yet never to be pardoned! give us a millstone, says the damned, as large as the whole earth, and so wide in circumference as to touch the sky all around, and let a little bird come in a hundred thousand years, and pick off a small particle of the stone, not larger than the tenth part of a grain of millet, and after another hundred thousand years let him come again, so that in ten hundred thousand years he would pick off as much as a grain of millet, we wretched sinners would desire nothing but that thus the stone might have an end, and thus our pains also; yet even that cannot be." but, after all the struggles of reason and all the illustrations of laboring imagination, the meaning of the phrase "eternal suffering in hell" remains remote, dim, unrealized, an abstraction in words. if we could adequately apprehend it, if its full significance should burst upon us, as sometimes in fearful dreams the spaceless, timeless, phantasmal, reeling sense of hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. . the infinite seems to be threatening to break into the brain, an annihilating shudder would seize and destroy the soul. we say, therefore, that the doctrine of the eternity of future punishment is not believed as an intellectually conceived truth, because that is a metaphysical impossibility. but more: we affirm, in spite of the general belief in it publicly professed, that it is actually held by hardly any one as a practical vivid belief even within the limits wherein, as an intellectual conception, it is possible. when intellect and imagination do not fail, heart and conscience do, with sickened faintness and convulsive protest. in his direful poem on the last day, young makes one of the condemned vainly beg of god to grant "this one, this slender, almost no, request: when i have wept a thousand lives away, when torment is grown weary of its prey, when i have raved of anguish'd years in fire ten thousand thousands, let me then expire." such a thought, when confronted with any generous holy sentiment or with any worthy conception of the divine character, is practically incredible. the men all around us in whose church creed such a doctrine is written down do not truly believe it. "they delude themselves," as martineau well says, "with the mere fancy and image of a belief. the death of a friend who departs from life in heresy affects them in the same way as the loss of another whose creed was unimpeachable: while the theoretic difference is infinite, the practical is virtually nothing." who that had a child, parent, wife, brother, or other precious friend, condemned to be roasted to death by a slow fire, would not be frantic with agony? but there are in the world literally millions on millions, some of whose nearest and dearest ones have died under circumstances which, by their professed creeds, can leave no doubt that they must roast in the fires of hell in an anguish unutterably fiercer, and for eternity, and yet they go about as smilingly, engage in the battle for money, in the race for fame, in all the vain shows and frivolous pleasures of life, as eagerly and as gayly as others. how often do we see the literal truth of this exemplified! it is clear they do not believe in the dogma to whose technical terms they formally subscribe. a small proportion of its professors do undeniably believe the doctrine so far as it can be sanely believed; and accordingly the world is to them robed in a sable shroud, and life is an awful mockery, under a flashing surface of sports concealing a bottomless pit of horror. every observing person has probably known some few in his life who, in a degree, really believed the common notions concerning hell, and out of whom, consequently, all geniality, all bounding impulses, all magnanimous generosities, were crushed, and their countenances wore the perpetual livery of mourning, despair, and misanthropy. we will quote the confessions of two persons who may stand as representatives of the class of sincere believers in the doctrine. the first is a celebrated french preacher of a century and a half ago, the other a very eminent american divine of the present day. saurin says, in his great sermon on hell, "i sink under the weight of this subject, and i find in the thought a mortal poison which diffuseth itself into every period of my life, rendering society tiresome, nourishment insipid, pleasure disgustful, and life itself a cruel bitter." albert barnes writes, "in the distress and anguish of my own spirit, i confess i see not one ray to disclose to me the reason why man should suffer to all eternity. i have never seen a particle of light thrown on these subjects that has given a moment's ease to my tortured mind. it is all dark dark dark to my soul; and i cannot disguise it." such a state of mind is the legitimate result of an endeavor sincerely to grasp and hold the popularly professed belief. so often as that endeavor reaches a certain degree of success, and the idea of an eternal hell is reduced from its vagueness to an embraced conception, the over fraught heart gives way, the brain, stretched on too high a tension, reels, madness sets in, and one more case is added to that list of maniacs from religious causes which, according to the yearly reports of insane asylums, forms so large a class. imagine what a vast and sudden change would come over the spirit and conduct of society if nineteen twentieths of christendom believed that at the end of a week a horrible influx of demons, from some insurgent region, would rush into our world and put a great majority of our race to death in excruciating tortures! but the doctrine of future punishment professed by nineteen twentieths of christendom is, if true, an evil incomparably worse than that, though every element of its dreadfulness were multiplied by millions beyond the power of numeration; and yet all goes on as quietly, the most of these fancied believers live as chirpingly, as if heaven were sure for everybody! of course in their hearts they do not believe the terrific formula which drops so glibly from their tongues. again: it is a fatal objection to the doctrine in question that if it be true it must destroy the happiness of the saved and fill all heaven with sympathetic woe. jesus teaches that "there is joy in heaven over every sinner that repenteth." by a moral necessity, then, there is sorrow in heaven over the wretched, lost soul. that sorrow, indeed, may be alleviated, if not wholly quenched, by the knowledge that every retributive pang is remedial, and that god's glorious design will one day be fully crowned in the redemption of the last prodigal. but what shall solace or end it if they know that hell's borders are to be enlarged and to rage with avenging misery forever? the good cannot be happy in heaven if they are to see the ascending smoke and hear the resounding shrieks of a hell full of their brethren, the children of a common humanity, among whom are many of their own nearest relatives and dearest friends. true, a long list of christian writers may be cited as maintaining that this is to be a principal element in the felicity of the redeemed, gloating over the tortures of the damned, singing the song of praise with redoubled emphasis as they see their parents, their children, their former bosom companions, writhing and howling in the fell extremities of torture. thomas aquinas says, "that the saints may enjoy their beatitude and the grace of god more richly, a perfect sight of the punishment of the damned is granted to them." especially did the puritans seem to revel in this idea, that "the joys of the blessed were to be deepened and sharpened by constant contrast with the sufferings of the damned." one of them thus expresses the delectable thought: "the sight of hell torments will exalt the happiness of the saints forever, as a sense of the opposite misery always increases the relish of any pleasure." summa, pars iii., suppl. qu. , art. i. but perhaps hopkins caps the climax of the diabolical pyramid of these representations, saying of the wicked, "the smoke of their torment shall ascend up in the sight of the blessed for ever and ever, and serve, as a most clear glass always before their eyes, to give them a bright and most affecting view. this display of the divine character will be most entertaining to all who love god, will give them the highest and most ineffable pleasure. should the fire of this eternal punishment cease, it would in a great measure obscure the light of heaven and put an end to a great part of the happiness and glory of the blessed." that is to say, in plain terms, the saints, on entering their final state of bliss in heaven, are converted into a set of unmitigated fiends, out sataning satan, finding their chief delight in forever comparing their own enjoyments with the pangs of the damned, extracting morsels of surpassing relish from every convulsion or shriek of anguish they see or hear. it is all an exquisite piece of gratuitous horror arbitrarily devised to meet a logical exigency of the theory its contrivers held. when charged that the knowledge of the infinite woe of their friends in hell must greatly affect the saints, the stern old theologians, unwilling to recede an inch from their dogmas, had the amazing hardihood to declare that, so far from it, on the contrary their wills would so blend with god's that the contemplation of this suffering would be a source of ecstasy to them. it is doubly a blank assumption of the most daring character, first assuming, by an unparalleled blasphemy, that god himself will take delight in the pangs of his creatures, and secondly assuming, by a violation of the laws of human nature and of every principle of morals, that the elect will do so too. in this world a man actuated by such a spirit would be styled a devil. on entering heaven, what magic shall work such a demoniacal change in him? there is not a word, direct or indirect, in the scriptures to warrant the dreadful notion; nor is there any reasonable explanation or moral justification of it given by any of its advocates, or indeed conceivable. the monstrous hypothesis cannot be true. under the omnipotent, benignant government of a paternal god, each change of character in his chosen children, as they advance, must be for the better, not for the worse. we once heard a father say, running his fingers the while among the golden curls of his child's hair, "if i were in heaven, and saw my little daughter in hell, should not i be rushing down there after her?" there spoke the voice of human nature; and that love cannot be turned to hatred in heaven, but must grow purer and intenser there. the doctrine which makes the saints pleased with contemplating the woes of the damned, and even draw much of their happiness from the contrast, is the deification of the absolute selfishness of a demon. human nature, even when left to its uncultured instincts, is bound to far other and nobler things. radbod, one of the old scandinavian kings, after long resistance, finally consented to be baptized. after he had put one foot into the water, he asked the priest if he should meet his forefathers in heaven. learning that they, being unbaptized pagans, were victims of endless misery, he drew his foot back, and refused the rite, choosing to be with his brave ancestors in hell rather than to be in heaven with the christian priests. and, speaking from the stand point of the highest refinement of feeling and virtue, who that has a heart in his park, memoir of hopkins, pp. , . bosom would not say, "heaven can be no heaven to me, if i am to look down on the quenchless agonies of all i have loved here!" is it not strictly true that the thought that even one should have endless woe "would cast a shadow on the throne of god and darken heaven"? if a monarch, possessing unlimited power over all the earth, had condemned one man to be stretched on a rack and be freshly plied with incessant tortures for a period of fifty years, and if everybody on earth could hear his terrible shrieks by day and night, though they were themselves all, with this sole exception, blessed with perfect happiness, would not the whole human race, from spitzbergen to japan, from rio janeiro to liberia, rise in a body and go to implore the king's clemency for the solitary victim? so, if hell had but one tenant doomed to eternal anguish, a petition reaching from sirius to alcyone, signed by the universe of moral beings, borne by a convoy of angels representing every star in space, would be laid and unrolled at the foot of god's throne, and he would read thereon this prayer: "forgive him, and release him, we beseech thee, o god." and can it be that every soul in the universe is better than the maker and father of the universe? the popular doctrine of eternal torment threatening nearly all our race is refuted likewise by the impossibility of any general observance of the obligations morally and logically consequent from it. in the first place, as the world is constituted, and as life goes on, the great majority of men are upon the whole happy, evidently were meant to be happy. but every believer of the doctrine in debate is bound to be unutterably wretched. if he has any gleam of generous sentiment or touch of philanthropy in his bosom, if he is not a frozen petrifaction of selfishness or an incarnate devil, how can he look on his family, friends, neighbors, fellow citizens, fellow beings, in the light of his faith seeing them quivering over the dizzy verge of a blind probation and momentarily dropping into the lake of fire and brimstone that burns forever, how can he do this without being ceaselessly stung with wretchedness and crushed with horror by the perception? for a man who appreciatingly believes that hell is directly under our meadows, streets, and homes, and that nine tenths of the dead are in it, and that nine tenths of the living soon will be, for such a man to be happy and jocose is as horrible as it would be for a man, occupying the second story of a house, to light it up brilliantly with gas, and make merry with his friends, eating tidbits, sipping wine, and tripping it on the light fantastic toe to the strains of gay music, while, immediately under him, men, women, and children, including his own parents and his own children, were stretched on racks, torn with pincers, lacerated with surgical instruments, cauterized, lashed with whips of fire, their half suppressed shrieks and groans audibly rising through the floor! secondly, if the doctrine be true, then all unnecessary worldly enterprises, labors, and studies should at once cease. one moment on earth, and then, accordingly as we spend that moment, an eternity in heaven or in hell: in heaven, if we succeed in placating god by a sound belief and ritual proprieties; in hell, if we are led astray by philosophy, nature, and the attractions of life! on these suppositions, what time have we for any thing but reciting our creed, meditating on the atonement, and seeking to secure an interest for ourselves with god by flouting at our carnal reason, praying in church, and groaning, "lord, lord, have mercy on us miserable sinners"? what folly, what mockery, to be searching into the motions of the stars, and the occult forces of matter, and the other beautiful mysteries of science! there will be no astronomy in hell, save vain speculations as to the distance between the nadir of the damned and the zenith of the saved; no chemistry in hell, save the experiments of infinite wrath in distilling new torture poisons in the alembics of memory and depositing fresh despair sediments in the crucibles of hope. if calvin's doctrine be true, let no book be printed, save the "westminster catechism;" no calculation be ciphered, save how to "solve the problem of damnation;" no picture be painted, save "pictures of hell;" no school be supported, save "schools of theology;" no business be pursued, save "the business of salvation." what have men who are in imminent peril, who are in truth almost infallibly sure, of being eternally damned the next instant, what have they to do with science, literature, art, social ambition, or commerce? away with them all! lures of the devil to snare souls are they! the world reflecting from every corner the lurid glare of hell, who can do any thing else but shudder and pray? "who could spare any attention for the vicissitudes of cotton and the price of shares, for the merits of the last opera and the bets upon the next election, if the actors in these things were really swinging in his eye over such a verge as he affects to see?" thirdly, those who believe the popular theory on this subject are bound to live in cheap huts, on bread and water, that they may devote to the sending of missionaries among the heathen every cent of money they can get beyond that required for the bare necessities of life. if our neighbor were perishing of hunger at our door, it would be our duty to share with him even to the last crust we had. how much more, then, seeing millions of our poor helpless brethren sinking ignorantly into the eternal fires of hell, are we bound to spare no possible effort until the conditions of salvation are brought within the reach of every one! an american missionary to china said, in a public address after his return, "fifty thousand a day go down to the fire that is not quenched. six hundred millions more are going the same road. should you not think at least once a day of the fifty thousand who that day sink to the doom of the lost?" the american board of commissioners of foreign missions say, "to send the gospel to the heathen is a work of great exigency. within the last thirty years a whole generation of five hundred millions have gone down to eternal death." again: the same board say, in their tract entitled "the grand motive to missionary effort," "the heathen are involved in the ruins of the apostasy, and are expressly doomed to perdition. six hundred millions of deathless souls on the brink of hell! what a spectacle!" how a man who thinks the heathen are thus sinking to hell by wholesale through ignorance of the gospel can live in a costly house, crowded with luxuries and splendors, spending every week more money on his miserable body than he gives in his whole life to save the priceless souls for which he says christ died, is a problem admitting but two solutions. either his professed faith is an unreality to him, or else he is as selfish as a demon and as hard hearted as the nether millstone. if he really believed the doctrine, and had a human heart, he must feel it to be his duty to deny himself every indulgence and give his whole fortune and earnings to the missionary fund. and when he had given all else, he ought to give himself, and go to pagan lands, proclaiming the means of grace until his last breath. if he does not that, he is inexcusable. should he attempt to clear himself of this obligation by adopting the theory of predestination, which asserts that all men were unconditionally elected from eternity, some to heaven, others to hell, so that no effort can change their fate, logical consistency reduces him to an alternative more intolerable in the eyes of conscience and common sense than the other was. for by this theory the gates of freedom and duty are hoisted, and the dark flood of antinomian consequences rushes in. all things are fated. let men yield to every impulse and wish. the result is fixed. we have nothing to do. good or evil, virtue or crime, alter nothing. fourthly, if the common doctrine of eternal damnation be true, then surely no more children should be brought into the world: it is a duty to let the race die out and cease. he who begets a child, forcing him to run the fearful risk of human existence, with every probability of being doomed to hell at the close of earth, commits a crime before whose endless consequences of horror the guilt of fifty thousand deliberate murders would be as nothing. for, be it remembered, an eternity in hell is an infinite evil; and therefore the crime of thrusting such a fate on a single child, with the unasked gift of being, is a crime admitting of no just comparison. rather than populate an everlasting hell with human vipers and worms, a hell whose fires, alive and wriggling with ghastly shapes of iniquity and anguish, shall swell with a vast accession of fresh recruits from every generation, rather than this, let the sacred lights on the marriage altar go out, no more bounding forms of childhood be seen in cottage or hall, the race grow old, thin out, and utterly perish, all happy villages be overgrown, all regal cities crumble down, and this world roll among the silent stars henceforth a globe of blasted deserts and rank wildernesses, resonant only with the shrieks of the wind, the yells of wild beasts, and the thunder's crash. fifthly, there is one more conclusion of moral duty deducible from the prevalent theory of infinite torment. it is this. god ought not to have permitted adam to have any children. let us not seem presumptuous and irreverent in speaking thus. we are merely reasoning on the popular theory of the theologians, not on any supposition of our own or on any truth; and by showing the absurdity and blasphemy of the moral consequences and duties flowing from that theory, the absurdity, blasphemy, and incredibility of the theory itself appear. we are not responsible for the irreverence, but they are responsible for it who charge god with the iniquity which we repel from his name. if the sin of adam must entail total depravity and an infinite penalty of suffering on all his posterity, who were then certainly innocent because not in existence, then, we ask, why did not god cause the race to stop with adam, and so save all the needless and cruel woe that would otherwise surely be visited on the lengthening line of generations? or, to go still further back, why did he not, foreseeing adam's fall, refrain from creating even him? there was no necessity laid on god of creating adam. no positive evil would have been done by omitting to create him. an infinite evil, multiplied by the total number of the lost, was done by creating him. why, then, was he not left in peaceful nonentity? on the augustinian theory we see no way of escaping this awful dilemma. who can answer the question which rises to heaven from the abyss of the damned? "father of mercies, why from silent earth didst thou awake and curse me into birth, push into being a reverse of thee, and animate a clod with misery?" satan is a sort of sublime guy fawkes, lurking in the infernal cellar, preparing the train of that stupendous gunpowder plot by which he hopes, on the day of judgment, to blow up the world parliament of unbelievers with a general petard of damnation. will the king connive at this nefarious prowler and permit him to carry out his design? the doctrine of eternal damnation, as it has prevailed in the christian church, appears to the natural man so unreasonable, immoral, and harrowingly frightful, when earnestly contemplated, that there have always been some who have shrunk from its representations and sought to escape its conclusions. many of its strongest advocates in every age have avowed it to be a fearful mystery, resting on the inscrutable sovereignty of god, and beyond the power of man's faculties to explain and justify. the dogma has been eluded in two ways. some have believed in the annihilation of the wicked after they should have undergone just punishment proportioned to their sins. this supposition has had a considerable number of advocates. it was maintained, among others, by arnobius, at the close of the third century, by the socini, by dr. hammond, and by some of the new england divines. all that need be said in opposition to it is that it is an arbitrary device to avoid the intolerable horror of the doctrine of endless misery, unsupported by proof, extremely unsatisfactory in many of its bearings, and really not needed to achieve the consummation desired. others have more wisely maintained that all will finally be saved: however severely and long they may justly suffer, they will at last all be mercifully redeemed by god and admitted to the common heaven. defenders of the doctrine of ultimate universal salvation have appeared from the beginning of christian history. during the last century and a half their numbers have rapidly increased. a dignified and influential class of theologians, represented by such names as tillotson. bahrdt, and less, say that the threats of eternal punishment, in the scriptures, are exaggerations to deter men from sin, and that god will not really execute them, but will mercifully abate and limit them. another class of theologians, much more free, consistent, and numerous, base their reception of the doctrine of final restoration on figurative explanations of the scriptural language seemingly opposed to it, and on arguments drawn from the character of god, from reason, and from morals. this view of the subject is spreading fast. all independent, genial, and cultivated thought naturally leads to it. the central principles of the gospel necessitate it. the spirit of the age cries for it. before it the old antagonistic dogma must fall and perish from respect. dr. spring says, in reference to the hopeless condemnation of the wicked to hell, "it puts in requisition all our confidence this theory bas been resuscitated and advocated within a few years by quite a number of writers, among whom may be specified the rev. c. f. hudson, author of "debt and grace," a learned, earnest, and able work, pervaded by an admirable spirit. ballou, ancient history of universalism. whittemore, modern history of universalism. knapp, christian theology, woods's translation, sect. . in god to justify this procedure of his government." a few devout and powerful minds have sought to avoid the gross horrors and unreasonableness of the usual view of this subject, by changing the mechanical and arithmetical values of the terms for spiritual and religious values. they give the word "eternity" a qualitative instead of a quantitative meaning. the everlasting woe of the damned consists not in mechanical inflictions of torture and numerical increments of duration, but in spiritual discord, alienation from god, a wretched state of being, with which times and spaces have nothing to do. how much better were it for the advocates of the popular theory, instead of forcing their moral nature to bear up against the awful perplexities and misgivings as to the justice and goodness of god necessarily raised in them whenever they really face the dark problems of their system of faith, resolutely to ask whether there are any such problems in the actual government of god, or anywhere else, except in their own "bodies of divinity"! it is an extremely unfortunate and discreditable evasion of responsibility when any man, especially when a teacher, takes for granted the received formularies handed down to him, and, instead of honestly analyzing their genuine significance and probing their foundations to see if they be good and true, spends his genius in contriving excuses and supports for them. it is the very worst policy at this day to strive to fasten the dogma of eternal misery to the new testament. if both must be taken or rejected together, an alternative which we emphatically deny, what sincere and earnest thinker now, whose will is unterrifiedly consecrated to truth, can be expected to hesitate long? the doctrine is sustained in repute at present principally for two reasons. first, because it has been transmitted to us from the church of the past as the established and authoritative doctrine. it is yet technically current and popular because it has been so: that is, it retains its place simply by right of possession. the question ought to be sincerely and universally raised whether it is true or false. then it will swiftly lose its prestige and disappear. secondly, it is upheld and patronized by many as a useful instrument for frightening the people and through their fears deterring them from sin. we have ourselves heard clergymen of high reputation say that it would never do to admit, before the people, that there is any chance whatever of penitence and salvation beyond the grave, because they would be sure to abuse the hope as a sort of permission to indulge and continue in sin. thus to ignore the only solemn and worthy standard of judging an abstract doctrine, namely, is it a truth or a falsehood? and put it solely on grounds of working expediency, is disgraceful, contemptible, criminal. watts exposes with well merited rebuke a gross instance of pious frail in burnet, who advised preachers to teach the eternity of future punishment whether they believed it or not. it is by such a course that error and superstition reign, that truckling conformity, intellectual disloyalty, moral indifference, vice, and infidelity, abound. it is practical atheism, debauchery of conscience, and genuine spiritual glory of christ, vol. ii. p. . lange, positive dogmatik, sect. : die aeonen der verdammten. maurice, theological essays: future punishment. see beecher's conflict of ages, b. ii. ch. , . world to come, disc. xiii. death. besides, the course we are characterizing is actually as inexpedient in practice as it is wrong in theory. experience and observation show it to be as pernicious in its result as it is immoral in its origin. is a threat efficacious over men in proportion to its intrinsic terror, or in proportion as it is personally felt and feared by them? do the menacing penalties of a sin deter a man from it in proportion to their awfulness, or in proportion to his belief in their reality and unavoidableness? eternal misery would be a threat of infinite frightfulness, if it were realized and believed. but it is incredible. some reject it with indignation and an impetuous recoil that sends them much too far towards antinomianism. others let it float in the spectral background of imagination, the faint reflection of a disagreeable and fading dream. to all it is an unreality. an earnest belief in a sure retribution exactly limited to desert must be far more effective. if an individual had a profound conviction that for every sin he committed he must suffer a million centuries of inexpressible anguish, realizing that thought, would he commit a sin? if he cannot appreciate that enormous penalty, much less can he the infinite one, which is far more likely to shade off and blur out into a vague and remote nothing. truth is an expression of god's will, which we are bound exclusively to accept and employ regardless of consequences. when we do that, god, the author of truth, is himself solely responsible for the consequences. but when, thinking we can devise something that will work better, we use some theory of our own, we are responsible for the consequences. let every one beware how he ventures to assume that dread responsibility. it is surely folly as well as sin. for nothing can work so well as truth, the simple, calm, living truth, which is a chime in the infinite harmony of morals and things. it is only the morbid melodramatic tastes and incompetencies of an unfinished culture that make men think otherwise. the magnificent poetry of the day of judgment an audience of five hundred thousand millions gathered in one throng as the judge rises to pronounce the last oration over a dissolving universe takes possession of the fancy, and people conceive it so vividly, and are so moved by it, that they think they see it to be true. grant for a moment the truth of the conception of hell as a physical world of fiery torture full of the damned. suppose the scene of probation over, hell filled with its prisoners shut up, banished and buried in the blackest deeps of space. can it be left there forever? can it be that the roar of its furnace shall rage on, and the wail of the execrable anguish ascend, eternally? endeavor to realize in some faint degree what these questions mean, and then answer. if anybody can find it in his heart or in his head to say yes, and can gloat over the idea, and wish to have it continually brandished in terrorem over the heads of the people, one feels impelled to declare that he of all men the most needs to be converted to the christian spirit. an unmitigated hell of depravity, pain, and horror, would be satan's victory and god's defeat; for the very wish of a satanic being must be for the everlasting prevalence of sin and wretchedness. as above the weltering hosts of the lost, each dreadful second, the iron clock of hell ticked the thunder word "eternity," how would the devil on his sulphurous dais shout in triumph! but if such a world of fire, crowded with the writhing damned, ever existed at all, could it exist forever? could the saved be happy and passive in heaven when the muffled shrieks of their brethren, faint from the distance, fell on their ears? in tones of love and pity that would melt the very mountains, they would plead with god to pardon and free the lost. many a mourning lover would realize the fable of the thracian poet who wandered into hades searching for his eurydice; many a heroic son would emulate the legend of the grecian god who burst through the iron walls of tartarus and rescued his mother, the unfortunate semele, and led her in triumph up to heaven. could the angels be contented when they contemplated the far off lurid orb and knew the agonies that fed its conscious conflagration? their gentle bosoms would be racked with commiserating pangs, they would fly down and hover around that anguished world, to moisten its parched tongues with the dropping of their sympathetic tears and to cool its burning brows with the fanning of their wings. could christ be satisfied? he who once was rich but for our sakes became poor? he whose loving soul breathed itself forth in the tender words, "come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and i will give you rest"? he who poured his blood on judea's awful summit, be satisfied? not until he had tried the efficacy of ten thousand fresh crucifixions, on as many new calvaries, would he rest. could god suffer it? god! with the full rivers of superfluous bliss rolling around thy throne, couldst thou look down and hear thy creatures calling thee father, and see them plunging in a sea of fire eternally eternally eternally and never speak the pardoning word? it would not be like thee, it would be like thine adversary to do that. not so wouldst thou do. but if satan had millions of prodigals, snatched from the fold of thy family, shut up and tortured in hell, paternal yearnings after them would fill thy heart. love's smiles would light the dread abyss where they groan. pity's tears would fall over it, shattered by the radiance into rainbows. and through that illumination thou wouldst descend, marching beneath the arch of its triumphal glories to the rescue of thy children! therefore we rest in hope, knowing that "thou wilt not leave our souls in hell." chapter v. the five theoretic modes of salvation. the conceptions and fore feelings of immortality which men have entertained have generally been accompanied by a sense of uncertainty in regard to the nature of that inheritance, by a perception of contingent conditions, yielding a twofold fate of bliss and woe, poised on the perilous hinge of circumstance or freedom. almost as often and profoundly, indeed, as man has thought that he should live hereafter, that idea has been followed by the belief that if, on the one hand, salvation gleamed for him in the possible sky, on the other hand perdition yawned for him in the probable abyss. heaven and hell are the light side and shade side of the doctrine of a future life. few questions are more interesting, as none can be more important, than that inquiry which is about the salvation of the soul. the inherent reach of this inquiry, and the extent of its philosophical and literary history, are great. but, by arranging under certain heads the various principal schemes of salvation which christian teachers have from time to time presented for popular acceptance, and passing them before the mind in order and in mutual lights, we can very much narrow the space required to exhibit and discuss them. when the word "salvation" occurs in the following investigation, it means unless something different be shown by the context the removal of the soul's doom to misery beyond the grave, and the securing of its future blessedness. heaven and hell are terms employed with wide latitude and fluctuating boundaries of literal and figurative meaning; but their essential force is simply a future life of wretchedness, a future life of joy; and salvation, in its prevailing theological sense, is the avoidance of that and the gaining of this. we shall not attempt to present the different theories of redemption in their historical order of development, or to give an exhaustive account of their diversified prevalence, but shall arrange them with reference to the most perspicuous exhibition of their logical contents and practical bearings. the first scheme of christian salvation to be noticed is the one by which it is represented that the interference and suffering of christ, in itself, unconditionally saved all souls and emptied hell forever. this theory arose in the minds of those who received it as the natural and consistent completion of the view they held concerning the nature and consequences of the fall of adam, the cause and extent of the lost state of man. adam, as the federal head of humanity, represented and acted for his whole race: the responsibility of his decision rested, the consequences of his conduct would legitimately descend, it was thought, upon all mankind. if he had kept himself obedient through that easy yet tremendous probation in eden, he and all his children would have lived on earth eternally in perfect bliss. but, violating the commandment of god, the burden of sin, with its terrible penalty, fell on him and his posterity. every human being was henceforth to be alien from the love of goodness and from the favor of god, hopelessly condemned to death and the pains of hell. the sin of adam, it was believed, thoroughly corrupted the nature of man, and incapacitated him from all successful efforts to save his soul from its awful doom. the infinite majesty of god's will, the law of the universe, had been insulted by disobedience. the only just retribution was the suffering of an endless death. the adamantine sanctities of god's government made forgiveness impossible. thus all men were lost, to be the prey of blackness, and fire, and the undying worm, through the remediless ages of eternity. just then god had pity on the souls he had made, and himself came to the rescue. in the person of christ, he came into the world as a man, and freely took upon himself the infinite debt of man's sins, by his death on the cross expiated all offences, satisfied the claims of offended justice, vindicated the inexpressible sacredness of the law, and, at the same time, opened a way by which a full and free reconciliation was extended to all. when the blood of jesus flowed over the cross, it purchased the ransom of every sinner. as jerome says, "it quenched the flaming sword at the entrance of paradise." the weary multitude of captives rose from their bed, shook off the fetters and stains of the pit, and made the cope of heaven snowy with their white winged ascent. the prison house of the devil and his angels should be used no more to confine the guilty souls of men. their guilt was all washed away in the blood of the lamb. their spirits, without exception, should follow to the right hand of the father, in the way marked out by the ascending redeemer. this is the first form of universalism, the form in which it was held by several of the fathers in the earlier ages of the church, and by the pioneers of that doctrine in modern times. cyril of jerusalem says, "christ went into the under world alone, but came out with many." cyril of alexandria says that when christ ascended from the under world he "emptied it, and left the devil there utterly alone." the opinion that the whole population of hades was released, is found in the lists of ancient heresies. it was advanced by clement, an irish priest, antagonist of boniface the famous archbishop of mentz, in the middle of the eighth century. he was deposed by the council of soissons, and afterwards anathematized by pope zachary. gregory the great also refers in one of his letters with extreme severity to two ecclesiastics, contemporaries of his own, who held the same belief. indeed, this conclusion is a necessary result of a consistent development of the creed of the orthodox church, so called. by the sin of one, even adam, through the working of absolute justice, hell became the portion of all, irrespective of any fault or virtue of theirs; so, by the voluntary sacrifice, the infinite atonement, of one, even christ, through the unspeakable mercy of god, salvation was effected for all, irrespective of any virtue or fault of theirs. one member of the scheme is the exact counterpoise of the other; one doctrine cries out for and necessitates the other. those who accept the commonly received dogmas of original sin, total depravity, and universal condemnation entailed upon all men in lineal descent from adam, and the dogmas of the trinity, the incarnation, and the vicarious atonement, are bound, by all the constructions of logic, to accept the scheme of salvation just set forth, namely, that the death of christ secured the deliverance of all unconditionally. we do not believe that doctrine, only because we do not believe the other associated doctrines out of which it springs and of whose system it is the complement. doederlein, de redemptione a potestate diaboli. in opuse. theolog. catechesis xis. . de festis paschalibus, homilia vii. augustine, de haresibus, lxxix. the reasons why we do not believe that our race fell into helpless depravity and ruin in the sin of the first man are, in essence, briefly these: first, we have never been able to perceive any proof whatever of the truth of that dogma; and certainly the onus probandi rests on the side of such an assumption. it arose partially from a misinterpretation of the language of the bible; and so far as it has a basis in scripture, we are compelled by force of evidence to regard it as a jewish adoption of a pagan error without authority. secondly, this doctrinal system seems to us equally irreconcilable with history and with ethics: it seems to trample on the surest convictions of reason and conscience, and spurn the clearest principles of nature and religion, to blacken and load the heart and doom of man with a mountain of gratuitous horror, and shroud the face and throne of god in a pall of wilful barbarity. how can men be guilty of a sin committed thousands of years before they were born, and deserve to be sent to hopeless hell for it? what justice is there in putting on one sinless head the demerits of a world of reprobates, and then letting the criminal go free because the innocent has suffered? a third objection to this whole view an objection which, if sustained, will utterly annihilate it is this: it is quite possible that, momentous as is the part he has played in theology, the biblical adam is not at all a historical personage, but only a significant figment of poetry. the common belief of the most authoritative men of science, that the human race has existed on this earth for a vastly longer period than the hebrew statement affirms, may yet be completely established. it may also yet be acknowledged that each distinct race of men had its own adam. then the dogmatic theology, based on the fall of our entire race into perdition in its primary representative, will, of course, crumble. the second doctrine of christian salvation is a modification and limitation of the previous one. this theory, like the former, presupposes that a burden of original sin and natural depravity transmitted from the first man had doomed, and, unless prevented in some supernatural manner, would forever press, all souls down to the realms of ruin and woe; also that an infinite graciousness in the bosom of the godhead led christ to offer himself as an expiation for the sins, an atoning substitute for the condemnation, of men. but, according to the present view, this interference of christ did not by itself save the lost: it only removed the otherwise insuperable bar to forgiveness, and presented to a chosen portion of mankind the means of experiencing a condition upon the realization of which, in each individual case, the certainty of salvation depends. that condition is a mysterious conversion, stirring the depths of the soul through an inspired faith in personal election by the unchanging decree of god. the difference, then, in a word, between the two methods of salvation thus far explained, is this: while both assume that mankind are doomed to death and hell in consequence of the sin of adam, the one asserts that the interference of christ of itself saved all souls, the other asserts that that interference cannot save any soul except those whom god, of his sovereign pleasure, had from eternity arbitrarily elected. this scheme grew directly out of the dogma of fatalism, which sinks human freedom in divine predestination. god having solely of his burdach, carus, oken, bayrhoffer, agassiz. see bunsen, christianity and mankind, vol. iv. p. ; mott and gliddon, types of mankind, p. . confession of faith of westminster divines, ch. iii. sect. . own will foreordained that a certain number of mankind should be saved, christ died in order to pay the penalty of their sins and render it possible for them to be forgiven and taken into heaven without violating the awful bond of justice. the benefits of the atonement, therefore, are limited to the elect. nor is this to be regarded as an act of severity; on the contrary, it is an act of unspeakable benevolence. for by the sin of adam the whole race of men, without exception, were hateful to god, and justly sentenced to eternal damnation. when, consequently, he devised a plan of redemption by which he could himself bear the guilt, and suffer the agony, and pay the debt of a few, and thus ransom them from their doom, the reprobates who were left had no right to complain, but the chosen were a monument of disinterested love, because all alike deserved the endless tortures of hell. according to this conception, all men being by their ancestral act and inherited nature irretrievably lost, god's arbitrary pleasure was the cause, christ's voluntary death was the means, by which a certain number were to be saved. what individuals should compose this portion of the race, was determined from eternity beyond all contingencies. the effect of faith and conversion, and of the new birth, is not to save the soul, but simply to convince the soul that it is saved. that is to say, a regenerating belief and love is not the efficient cause, it is merely the revealed assurance, of salvation, proving to the soul that feels it, by the testimony of the holy spirit, that it is of the chosen number. the preaching of the gospel is to be extended everywhere, not for the purpose of saving those who would otherwise be lost, but because its presentation will awaken in the elect, and in them alone, that responsive experience which will reveal their election to them, and make them sure of it, already foretasting it; though it is thought that no one can be saved who is ignorant of the gospel: it is mysteriously ordered that the terms of the covenant shall be preached to all the elect. there are correlated complexities, miracles, absurdities, in wrought with the whole theory, inseparable from it. the violence it does to nature, to thought, to love, to morals, its arbitrariness, its mechanical form, the wrenching exegesis by which alone it can be forced from the bible, its glaring partiality and eternal cruelty, are its sufficient refutation and condemnation. if the death of christ has such wondrous saving efficacy, and nothing else has, what keeps him from dying again to convince the unbelieving and to save the lost? what man is there who, if he knew that, after thirty years of suffering terminated by a fearful death, he should rise again into boundless bliss and glory while rapt infinitude rung with the paans of an applauding universe, and that by means of his humiliation he could redeem countless millions from eternal torture, would not with a joyous spring undertake the task? and is a common man better than christ? the third general plan of christian salvation which we are to consider differs from the foregoing one in several essential particulars. it affirms the free will of man in opposition to a fatal predestination. it declares that the atonement is sufficient to redeem not only a portion of our race, but all who will put themselves in right spiritual relations with it. in a word, while it admits that some will actually be lost forever, it asserts that no one is doomed schweizer, die lehre des apostels paulus vom erlosenden tode christi. theologische studien und kritiken, jahrg. , heft . to be lost, but that the offer of pardon is made to every soul, and that every one has power to accept or reject it. the sacrifice of the incarnate deity vindicated the majesty of the law, appeased the wrath of god, and purchased his saving favor towards all who, by a sound and earnest faith, seize the proffered justification, throw off all reliance on their own works, and present themselves before the throne of mercy clothed in the righteousness and sprinkled with the blood of christ. here the appropriation of the merits of christ, through an orthodox and vivifying faith, is the real cause as well as the experimental assurance of salvation. this is free to all. as the brazen serpent was hoisted in the wilderness, and the scorpion bitten israelites invited to look on it and be healed, so the crucified god is lifted up, and all men, everywhere, are urged to kneel before him, accept his atonement, and thus enable his righteousness to be imputed to them, and their souls to be saved. the vital condition of salvation is an appropriating faith in the vicarious atonement. without this no one can be saved. thus with one word and a single breath whole nations and races are whiffed into hell. all that the good hearted luther could venture to say of cicero, whom he deeply admired and loved, was the kind ejaculation, "i hope god will be merciful to him!" to those who appreciate it with hostility, and look on all things in its light, the thought that there can be no salvation except by belief in the expiatory death of christ, hopelessly dooming all the heathen, and all infant children, unless baptized in a proxy faith, builds an altar of blood among the stars and makes the universe reek with horror. other crimes, though stained through with midnight dyes and heaped up to the brim of outrageous guilt, may be freely forgiven to him who comes heartily to credit the vicarious death of the savior; but he who does not trust in that, though virtuous as man can be, must depart into the unappeasable fires. "why this unintelligible crime of not seeing the atonement happens to be the only sin for which there is no atonement, it is impossible to say." though this view of the method, extent, and conditions of redemption is less revolting and incredible than the other, still, it does not seem to us that any person whose mental and moral nature is unprejudiced, healthy, and enlightened, and who will patiently study the subject, can possibly accept either of them. the leading assumed doctrines common to them, out of which they severally spring, and on which they both rest, are not only unsupported by adequate proofs, but really have no evidence at all, and are absurd in themselves, confounding the broadest distinctions in morals, and subverting the best established principles of natural religion. the fourth scheme of christian salvation is that which predicates the power of insuring souls from hell solely of the church. this is the sacramental theory. it is assumed that, in the state of nature subsequent to the transgression and fall of adam, all men are alienated from god, and by the universal original sin universally exposed to damnation, indeed, the helpless victims of eternal misery. in the fulness of time, christ appeared, and offered himself to suffer in their stead to secure their deliverance. his death cancelled the whole sum of bretschneider, entwickelung der dogmatik, sect. , nos. . so affirmed by the council of carthage, canon ii. the violence done to moral reason by these views is powerfully exposed in bushnell's discourse on the atonement: god in christ, pp. - . original sin, and only that, thus taking away the absolute impossibility of salvation, and leaving every man in the world free to stand or fall, incur hell or win heaven, by his personal merits. from that time any person who lived a perfectly holy life which no man could find practically possible thereby secured eternal blessedness; but the moment he fell into a single sin, however trivial, he sealed his condemnation: christ's sacrifice, as was just said, merely removed the transmitted burden of original sin from all mankind, but made no provision for their personal sins, so that practically, all men being voluntary as well as hereditary sinners, their condition was as bad as before: they were surely lost. to meet this state of the case, the church, whose priests, it is claimed, are the representatives of christ, and whose head is the vicegerent of god on earth, was empowered by the celebration of the mass to re enact, as often as it pleased, the tragedy of the crucifixion. in this service christ is supposed literally to be put to death afresh, and the merit of his substitutional sufferings is supposed to be placed to the account of the church. as sir henry wotton says, "one rosy drop from jesus' heart was worlds of seas to quench god's ire." in one of the decretals of clement vi., called "extravagants," it is asserted that "one drop of christ's blood [una guttula sanguinis] being sufficient to redeem the whole human race, the remaining quantity which was shed in the garden and on the cross was left as a legacy to the church, to be a treasure whence indulgences were to be drawn and administered by the roman pontiffs." furthermore, saints and martyrs, by their constant self denial, voluntary sufferings, penances, and prayers, like christ, do more good works than are necessary for their own salvation; and the balance of merit the works of supererogation is likewise accredited to the church. in this way a great reserved fund of merits is placed at the disposal of the priests. at their pleasure they can draw upon this vicarious treasure and substitute it in place of the deserved penalties of the guilty, and thus absolve them and effect the salvation of their souls. all this dread machinery is in the sole power of the church. outside of her pale, heretics, heathen, all alike, are unalterably doomed to hell. but whoso will acknowledge her authority, confess his sins, receive the sacrament of baptism, partake of the eucharist, obey the priests, shall be infallibly saved. the church declares that those who neglect to submit to her power and observe her rites are lost, by excommunicating such every year just before easter, thereby typifying that they shall have no part in the resurrection and ascension. the scheme of salvation just exhibited we reject as alike unwarranted by the scriptures, absurd to reason, absurd to conscience, fraught with evil practices, and traceable in history through the gradual and corrupt growths of the dogmatic policy of an interested body. there is not one text in the bible which affords real argument, credit, or countenance to the haughty pretensions of a church to retain or absolve guilt, to have the exclusive control of the tangible keys of heaven and hell. it is incredible to a free and intelligent mind that the opposing fates forever of hundreds of millions of men should turn on a mere accident of time thomas aquinas, summa, suppl. pars iii. qu. , art. . and place, or at best on the moral contingence of their acknowledging or denying the doubtful authority of a tyrannical hierarchy, a mere matter of form and profession, independent of their lives and characters, and of no spiritual worth at all. one is here reminded of a passage in plutarch's essay "how a young man ought to hear poems." the lines in sophocles which declare that the initiates in the mysteries shall be happy in the future life, but that all others shall be wretched, having been read to diogenes, he exclaimed, "what! shall the condition of pantacion, the notorious robber, be better after death than that of epaminondas, merely because he was initiated in the mysteries?" it is also a shocking violence to common sense, and to all proper appreciation of spiritual realities, to imagine the gross mechanical transference of blame and merit mutually between the bad and the good, as if moral qualities were not personal, but might be shifted about at will by pecuniary considerations, as the accounts in the debt and credit columns of a ledger. the theoretic falsities of such a scheme are as numerous and evident as its practical abuses have been enormous and notorious. how ridiculous this ritual fetch to snatch souls from perdition appears as stated by julian against augustine! "god and the devil, then, have entered into a covenant, that what is born the devil shall have, and what is baptized god shall have!" we hesitate not to stake the argument on one question. if there be no salvation save by believing and accepting the sacraments with the authority of the romanist or the episcopalian church, then less than one in a hundred thousand of the world's population thus far can be saved. death steadily showers into hell, age after age, an overwhelming proportion of the souls of all mankind, a rain storm of agonized drops of immortality to feed and freshen the quenchless fires of damnation. who can believe it, knowing what it is that he believes? we advance next to a system of christian salvation as remarkable for its simplicity, boldness, and instinctive benevolence as those we have previously examined are for complexity, unnaturalness, and severity. the theory referred to promises the natural and inevitable salvation of every created soul. it bases itself on two positions, the denial that men are ever lost, except partially and temporarily, and the exhibition of the irresistible power, perfect wisdom, and infinite goodness of god. the advocates of this doctrine point first to observation and experience, and declare that no person is totally reprobate, that every one is salvable; those most corrupt and abandoned to wickedness, unbelief, and hardness, have yet a spark that may be kindled, a fount that may be made to gush, unto the illumination and purification of the whole being. a stray word, an unknown influence, a breath of the spirit, is continually effecting such changes, such salvations. true, there are many fettered by vices, torn by sins, ploughed by the caustic shares of remorse, lost to peaceful freedom, lost to spiritual joys, lost to the sweet, calm raptures of religious belief and love, and, in that sense, plunged in damnation. but this, they say, is the only hell there is. at the longest, it can endure but for the night of this life: deliverance and blessedness come with the morning dawn of a better world. exact retributions are awarded to all iniquity here; so julian, lib. vi. ix. that at the termination of the present state there is nothing to prevent the flowing of an equal bliss impartially over all. the substantive faculties and forces of the soul are always good and right: only their action is perverted to evil. this perversion will cease with the accidents of the present state; and thus death is the door to salvation. god's desires and intentions for his creatures, again they argue, must be purely gracious and blessed; for nature, the bible, and the soul blend their ultimate teachings in one affirmation that he is love. being omnipotent and of perfect wisdom, nothing can withstand his decrees or thwart his plans. his purpose, of course, must be fulfilled. there is every thing to prove, and nothing, rightly understood, to disprove, that that purpose is the eternal blessedness of all his intelligent offspring after death. therefore, they think they are justified in concluding, the laws of nature, god's regular habits and course of government, the normal arrangement and process of things, will of themselves work out the inevitable salvation of all mankind. after the uproar and darkness, the peril and fear, of a tempestuous night, the all embracing smile of daylight gradually spreads over the world, and the turmoil silently subsides, and the scene sleeps. so after the sins and miseries, the condemnation and hell, of this state of existence, shall succeed the redemption, the holiness and happy peace, of heaven, into which all pass by the order of nature, the original and undisturbed arrangement of the creative father. this view is advanced by some on grounds both of revelation and reason. it is the doctrine of those beghards who taught that "there is neither hell nor purgatory; that no one is damned, neither jew nor saracen, because on the death of the body the soul returns to god." but the proper doctrine of the universalist denomination is founded directly on scripture, and seems now to be simply the absolute certainty of final salvation for all. balfour held that christ, in obedience to the will of god, secures eternal life for all men in the most literal manner, by causing the resurrection of the dead from their otherwise endless sleep in the grave, a doctrine nearly or quite fossil now. it will be noticed that by this view salvation is an unlimited necessity, not a contingency, a boon thrown to all, and which no one has power to reject: "the road to heaven is broader than the world, and deeper than the kingdoms of the dead; and up its ample paths the nations tread with all their banners furl'd." this theory contains elements, it seems to us, both of truth and falsehood. it casts off gross mistakes, announces some fundamental realities, overlooks, perverts, exaggerates, some essential facts in the case. there is so much in it that is grateful and beautiful that we cannot wonder at its reception where the tender instincts of the heart are stronger than the stern decisions of the conscience, where the kindly sentiments usurp the province of the critical reason and sit in judgment upon evidence for the construction of a dogmatic creed. we universalist quarterly review, vol. x. art. xvi.: character and its predicates. hagenbach, dogmengeschichte, sect. , note . see ballou, examination of the doctrine of future punishment, pp. - . williamson, exposition of universalism, sermon xl: nature of salvation. cobb, compend. of divinity, ch. ix. sect. . cannot accept it as a whole, cannot admit its great unqualified conclusion, not only because there is no direct evidence for it, but because there are many potent presumptions against it. it is not built upon the facts of our consciousness and present experience, but is resolutely constructed in defiance of them by an arbitrary process of assumption and inference; for since god's perfections are as absolute now as they ever can be, and he now permits sin and misery, there is no impossibility that they will be permitted for a season hereafter. if they are necessary now, they may be necessary hereafter. an experience of salvation by all, regardless of what they do or what they leave undone, would also defeat what we have always considered the chief final cause of man, namely, the self determined resistance of evil and choice of good, the free formation of virtuous character. the plan of a necessary and indiscriminate redemption likewise breaks the evident continuity of life, ignores the lineal causative power of experience, whereby each moment partially produces and moulds the next, destroys the probationary nature of our lot, and palsies the strength of moral motive. it is furthermore the height of injustice, awarding to all men the same condition, remorselessly swallowing up their infinite differences, making sin and virtue, sloth and toil, exactly alike in the end. whose earnestly embraces the theory, and meditates much upon it, and reasons closely, will be likely to become an antinomian. it overlooks the loud, omnipresent hints which tell us that the present state is incomplete and dependent, the part of a great whole, the visible segment of a circle whose complement overarches the invisible world to come, where future correspondences and fulnesses will satisfy and complete present claims and deficiencies. we reject this scheme, as to its distinctive feature, for all those reasons which lead us to accept that final view to which we now turn. the theory of christian redemption which seems to us correct, represents the good and evil forces of personal character, harmonious or discordant with the mind of god, as the conditions of salvation or of reprobation. swedenborg, who teaches that man in the future state is the son of his own deeds in the present state, says he once saw melancthon in hell, writing, "faith alone saves," the words fading out as fast as written, because expressive of a falsehood! it is not belief, but love, that dominates the soul, not a mental act, but a spiritual substance. according as the realities of the soul are what they should be, just and pure, or what they should not be, perverted and corrupt, and according as the realities of the soul are in right relations with truth, beauty, goodness, or in vitiated relations with them, so, and to that extent, is the soul saved or lost. this is not a matter of arbitrary determination on one hand; and of helpless submission on the other: it is a matter of divine permission on one hand, and of free, though sometimes unintelligent and mistaken, choice on the other. the only perdition is to be out of tune with the right constitution and exercise of things and rules. that, of itself, makes a man the victim of guilt and wretchedness. the only salvation is the restoration of the balance and normal efficiency of the faculties, the restoration of their harmony with the moral law, the recommencement of their action in unison with the will of god. when a soul, through its exposure and freedom, becomes and experiences what god did not intend and is not pleased with, what his creative and executive arrangements are not purposely ordered for, it is, for the time, and so far forth, lost. it is saved, when knowledge of truth illuminates the mind, love of goodness warms the heart, energy, purity, and aspiration fill and animate the whole being. then, having realized in its experience the purposes of christ's mission, the original aims of its existence, it rejoices in the favor of god. in the harmonious fruition of its internal efficiencies and external relations, all things work together for good unto it, and it basks in the beams of the sun of immortality. perdition and hell are the condemnation and misery instantaneously deposited in experience whenever and wherever a perverted and corrupt soul touches its relations with the universe. the meeting of its consciousness with the alienated mournful faces of things, with the hostile retributive forces of things, produces unrest and suffering with the same natural necessity that the meeting of certain chemical substances deposits poison and bitterness. perdition being the degradation and wretchedness of the soul through ingrained falsehood, vice, impurity, and hardness, salvation is the casting out of these evils, and the replacing them with truth, righteousness, a holy and sensitive life. to ransom from hell and translate to heaven is not, then, so much to deliver from a local dungeon of gnawing fires and worms, and bear to a local paradise of luxuries, as it is to heal diseases and restore health. hell is a wrong, diseased condition of the soul, its indwelling wretchedness and retribution, wherever it may be, as when the light of day tortures a sick eye. heaven is a right, healthy condition of the soul, its indwelling integrity and concord, in whatever realms it may reside, as when the sunshine bathes the healthy orb of vision with delight. salvation is nothing more nor less than the harmonious blessedness of the soul by the fruition of all its right powers and relations. remove a man who is writhing in the agonies of some physical disease, from his desolate hut on the bleak mountain side to a gorgeous palace in a delicious tropical clime. he is just as badly off as before. he is still, so to speak, in hell, wherever he may be in location. cure his sickness, and then he is, so to speak, saved, in heaven. it is so with the soul. the conditions of salvation and reprobation are not arbitrary, mechanical, fickle, but are the interior and unalterable laws of the soul and of the universe. "every devil," sir thomas browne says, "holds enough of torture in his own ubi, and needs not the torture of circumference to afflict him." if there are, as there may be, two entirely separate regions in space, whose respective boundaries enclose hell and heaven, banishment into the one, or admission into the other, evidently is not what constitutes the essence of perdition or of salvation, is not the all important consideration; but the characteristic condition of the soul, which produces its experience and decides its destination, that is the essential thing. the mild fanning of a zephyr in a summer evening is intolerable to a person in the convulsions of the ague, but most welcome and delightful to others. so to a wicked soul all objects, operations, and influences of the moral creation become hostile and retributive, making a hell of the whole universe. purify the soul, restore it to a correct condition, and every thing is transfigured: the universal hell becomes universal heaven. we may gather up in a few propositions the leading principles of this theory of salvation. first, perdition is not an experience to which souls are helplessly born, not a sentence inflicted on them by an arbitrary decree, but is a result wrought out by free agency, in conformity to the unalterable laws of the spiritual world. secondly, heaven and hell are not essentially particular localities into which spirits are thrust, nor states of consciousness produced by outward circumstances, but are an outward reflection from, and a reciprocal action upon, internal character. thirdly, condemnation, or justification, is not absolute and complete, equalizing all on each side of a given line, but is a thing of degrees, not exactly the same in any two individuals, or in the same person at all times. fourthly, we have no reason to suppose that probation closes with the closing of the present life; but every relevant consideration leads us to conclude that the same great constitution of laws pervades all worlds and reigns throughout eternity, so that the fate of souls is not unchangeably fixed at death. no analogy indicates that after death all will be thoroughly different from what it is before death. rather do all analogies argue that the hell and heaven of the future will be the aggravation, or mitigation, or continuation, of the perdition and salvation of the present. it is altogether a sentence of exact right according to character, a matter of personal achievement depending upon freedom, an experience of inward elements and states, a thing of degrees, and a subject of continued probation. the condition of the heathen nations in reference to salvation is satisfactory only in the light of the foregoing theory. if a person is what god wishes, as shown by his revealed will in the model of christ, pure, loving, devout, wise, and earnest, he is saved, whether he ever heard of christ or not. are plato and aristides, cato and antoninus, to be damned, while pope alexander vi. and king philip ii are saved, because those glorious characters merely lived at the then height of attainable excellence, but these fanatic scoundrels made a technical profession of christianity? the "athanasian" creed asserts that whoever doth not fully believe its dogmas "shall without doubt perish everlastingly." and the eighteenth article in the creed of the church of england declares "them accursed who presume to say that any man can be saved by diligently framing his life according to the law or sect which he professeth, and the light of nature." another particular in which the present view of salvation is satisfactory, in opposition to the other theories, is in leaving the personal nature of sin clear, the realm of personal responsibility unconfused. why should a system of thought be set up and adhered to in religion that would be instantly and universally scouted at if applied to any other subject? "no one dreams that the sin of an unexercised intellect, of gross ignorance, can be pardoned only through faith in the sacrifice of some incarnation of the perfect reason. no one expects to be told that the violation of the bodily laws can be forgiven by the infinite creator only on the ground that some perfect physician honors them by obedience and death. it is by opening the mind to god's published truth, and by conformity to the discovered philosophical arnauld, emes, goeze, and others, have written volumes to prove the indiscriminate damnation of the heathen. on the contrary, muller, in his "diss. de paganorum poet mortem conditione," and marmontel, in his "belisaire," take a more favorable view of the fate of the ethnic world. the best work on the subject a work of great geniality and ability is eberhard's "neue apologie des socrates." also see knapp's christian theology, sect. lxxxviii. martineau, studies of christianity, pp. - : mediatorial religion. ibid. pp. - : sin what it is, what it is not. order, or the reception of the adopted remedy, that the mind and the frame experience new life. and our souls are redeemed, not by any expiation on account of which penalties are lifted, but by reception of spiritual truth and consecration of will, which push away penalties by wholesome life." the awful inviolability of justice is shown by the eternal course of god's laws bringing the exactly deserved penalty upon every soul that sinneth. whoever breaks a divine decree puts all sacred things in antagonism to him, and the precise punishment of his offences not the worth of worlds nor the blood of angels can avert. the boundless mercy of god, his atoning love, is shown by the absence of all vindictiveness from his judgments, their restorative aim and tendency. whenever the sinner repents, reforms, puts himself in a right attitude, god is waiting to pardon and bless him, the sun shines and the happy heart is glad as at first, the cloudy screen of sin and fear and retributive alienation being removed. this view, when appreciated, affords as impressive a sanction to law, and as affecting an exhibition of love, as are theoretically ascribed to the doctrine of vicarious expiation. the infinite sanctity of justice and the fathomless love of god are certainly much more plainly and satisfactorily shown by the righteous nature and beneficent operation of the law, than by its terrible severity and arbitrary subversion. according to the present view, the relation of christ to human redemption is as simple and rational as it is divinely appointed and perfectly fulfilled. accredited with miraculous seals, presenting the most pathetic and inspiring motives, he reveals the truths and exemplifies the virtues which, when adopted, regenerate the springs of faith and character, rectify the lines of conduct, and change men from sinful and wretched to saintly and blessed. he stirs the stagnant soul, that man may replunge into his native self, and rise redeemed. for the more distinct comprehension and remembrance of the schemes of christian salvation we have been considering, it may be well to recapitulate them. the first theory is this: when, by the fall of adam, all men were utterly lost and doomed to hell forever, the vicarious sufferings of christ cancelled sin, and unconditionally purchased and saved all. this was the original development of universalism. it sprang consistently from augustinian grounds. it was taught by a party in the church of the first centuries, was afterwards repeatedly condemned as a heresy by popes and by councils, and was revived by kelly, murray, and others. we are not aware that it now has any avowed disciples. the second conception is, in substance, that god, foreseeing from eternity the fall of adam and the consequent damnation of his posterity, arbitrarily elected a portion of them to salvation, leaving the rest to their fate; and the vicarious sufferings of christ were the only possible means of carrying that decree into effect. this is the augustinian and calvinistic theology, and has had a very extensive prevalence among christians. many church creeds still embody the doctrine; but in its original, uncompromising form it is rapidly fading from belief. even now few persons can be found to profess it without essential modifications, so t. s. king, endless punishment unchristian and unreasonable, p. . qualifying it as to destroy its identity. the third plan of delivering souls from the doom supposed to rest on them attributes to the vicarious sufferings of christ a conditional efficacy, depending upon personal faith. every one who will heartily believe in the substitutional death of christ, and trust in his atoning merits, shall thereby be saved. this was the system of pelagius, arminius, luther. it prevails now in the so called evangelical churches more generally than any other system. the fourth received method of salvation, assuming the same premises which the three foregoing schemes assume, namely, that through the fall all men are eternally sentenced to hell, declares that, by christ's vicarious sufferings, power is given to the church, a priestly hierarchy, to save such as confess her authority and observe her rites. all others must continue lost. this theory early began to be constructed and broached by the fathers. it is held by the roman catholic church, and by all the consistent portion of the episcopalian. a part of the baptist denomination also through their popular preachers, if not in their recognised symbols assert the indispensableness of ritual baptism to salvation. the fifth view of the problem is that no soul is lost or doomed except so far as it is personally, voluntarily depraved and sinful. and even to that extent, and in that sense, it can be called lost only in the present life. after death every soul is freed from evil, and ushered at once into heaven. this is the distinctive doctrine of the ultra universalists. it is disappearing from among its recent advocates. as a body they have already exchanged its arbitrary conceptions of "death and glory" for the more rational conclusions of the "restorationists." the sixth and final scheme of christian salvation teaches that, by the immutable laws which the creator has established in and over his works and creatures, a free soul may choose good or evil, truth or falsehood, love or hate, beneficence or iniquity. just so far and just so long as it partakes of the former it is saved; as it partakes of the latter it is lost, that is, alienates the favor of god, forfeits so much of the benefits of creation and of the blessings of being. the conditions and means of repentance, reformation, regeneration, are always within its power, the future state being but the unencumbered, more favorable experience of the spiritual elements of the present, under the same divine constitution and laws. this is the common belief of unitarians and universalists, the latter alone teaching it as a sure doctrine of revelation. salvation by purchase, by the redeeming blood of christ; salvation by election, by the independent decree of god, sealed by the blood of christ; salvation by faith, by an appropriating faith in the blood of christ; salvation by the church, by the sacraments made efficacious to that end by the blood of christ; salvation by nature, by the irresistible working of the natural order of things, declared by the teachings of christ; salvation by a resurrection from the dead, miraculously effected by the delegated power of christ; salvation by character, by conformity of character to the spiritual laws of the universe, to the nature and will of god, revealed, urged, exemplified, by the whole mission of christ; these are the different theories adams, mercy to babes. (a plea for the baptism of infants, that they may not be damned.) adin ballou, universalism and restorationism moral contraries, . proposed for the acceptance of christians. outside of christendom we discern, received and operative in various forms, all the theoretic modes of salvation acknowledged within it, and some others in addition. the creed and practice of the mohammedans afford a more unflinching embodiment of the conception of salvation by election than is furnished anywhere else. islam denotes fate. all is predestinated and follows on in inevitable sequence. no modifying influence is possible. can a breath move mount kaf? the chosen of allah shall believe; the rejected of allah shall deny. every believer's bower is blooming for him in paradise; every unbeliever's bed is burning for him in hell. and nothing whatever can avail to change the persons or the total number elected for each. there is one theory of salvation scarcely heard of in the west, but extensively held in the east. the brahmanic as well as the buddhist thinker relies on obtaining salvation by knowledge. life in a continual succession of different bodies is his perdition. his salvation is to be freed from the vortex of births and deaths, the fret and storm of finite existence. neither goodness nor piety can ever release him. knowledge alone can do it: an unsullied intellectual vision and a free intellectual grasp of truth and love alone can rescue him from the turbid sea of forms and struggles. "as a lump of salt is of uniform taste within and without, so the soul is nothing but intelligence." if the soul be an entire mass of intelligence, a current of ideas, its real salvation depends on its becoming pure and eternal truth without mixture of falsehood or of emotional disturbance. he "must free himself from virtues as well as from sins; for the confinement of fetters is the same whether the chain be of gold or of iron." accordingly, the hindu, to secure emancipation, planes down the mountainous thoughts and passions of his soul to a desert level of indifferent insight. and when, in direct personal knowledge, free from joy and sorrow, free from good and ill, he gazes into the limitless abyss of divine truth, then he is sure of the bosom of brahm, the door of nirwana. then the wheel of the brahmanic ixion ceases revolving, and the buddhist ahasuerus flings away his staff; for salvation is attained. the conception of salvation by ritual works based on faith either faith in deity or in some redemptive agency is exhibited all over the world. hani, a hindu devotee, dwelt in a thicket, and repeated the name of krishna a hundred thousand times each day, and thus saved his soul. the saintly muni shukadev said, as is written in the most popular religious authority of india, "who even ignorantly sing the praises of krishna undoubtedly obtain final beatitude; just as, if one ignorant of the properties of nectar should drink it, he would still become immortal. whoever worships hari, with whatever disposition of mind, obtains beatitude." "the repetition of the names of vishnu purifies from all sins, even when invoked by an evil minded person, as fire burns even him who approaches it unwillingly." nothing is more common in the sacred writings of the hindus than the promise that "whoever reads or hears this narrative with a devout mind shall receive final beatitude." millions on millions of these docile and abject devotees undoubtingly expect salvation by such merely ritual colebrooke, essays, vol. i. p. . ibid. p. . asiatic researches, vol. xvi. p. . eastwick, prem sagar, p. . vishnu parans, p. , note . observances. one cries "lord!" "lord!" another thumbs a book, as if it were an omnipotent amulet. another meditates on some mystic theme, as if musing were a resistless spell of silent exorcism and invocation. another pierces himself with red hot irons, as if voluntary pain endured now could accumulate merit for him and buy off future inflictions. it is surprising to what an extent men's efforts for salvation seem underlaid by conceptions of propitiation, the placation of a hatred, the awakening of a love, in the objects of their worship. in all these cases salvation is sought indirectly through works, though not particularly good works. the savage makes an offering, mutters a prayer, or fiercely wounds his body, before the hideous idol of his choice. the fakir, swung upon sharp hooks, revolves slowly round a fire. the monk wears a hair shirt, and flagellates himself until blood trickles across the floor of his cell. the portuguese sailor in a storm takes a leaden saint from his bosom and kneels before it for safety. the offending bushman crawls in the dust and shudders as he seeks to avert the fury of the fetich which he has carved and set in a tree. the wounded brigand in the apennines, with unnumbered robberies and murders on his soul, finds perfect ease to his conscience as his glazing eye falls on a carefully treasured picture of the virgin, and he expires in a triumph of faith, saying, "sweet mother of god, intercede for me." the calvinistic convert, about to be executed for his fearful crimes, kneels at the foot of the gallows, and exclaims, as in a recent well known instance, "i hold the blood of christ between my soul and the flaming face of god, and die happy, assured that i am going to heaven." it is all a terrible delusion, arising from perverted sentiment and degraded thought. of the five theoretical modes of salvation taught in the world, election, faith, works, knowledge, harmony, one alone is real and divine, although it contains principles taken from all the rest and blended with its own. there is no salvation by foregone election; for that would dethrone the moral laws and deify caprice. there is no salvation by dogmatic faith; because faith is not a matter of will, but of evidence, not within man's own power, and a thousand varieties of faith are necessitated among men. there is no salvation by determinate works; for works are measurable quantities, whose rewards and punishments are meted and finally spent, but salvation is qualitative and infinite. there is no salvation by intellectual knowledge; for knowledge is sight, not being, an accident, not an essence, an attribute of one faculty, not a right state and ruling force in all. the true salvation is by harmony; for harmony of all the forces of the soul with themselves and with all related forces beyond, harmony of the individual will with the divine will, harmony of personal action with the universal activity, what other negation of perdition is possible? what other definition and affirmation of salvation conceivable? by the creator's fiat, man is first elected to be. by the guiding stimulus of faith, he is next animated to spiritual exertion. by the performance of good works, he then brings his moral nature into beautiful form and attitude. by knowledge of truth, he furthermore sees how to direct, govern, and attune himself. and finally, by the accomplishment of all this in the organized harmony of a wise and holy soul, there results that state of being whose passive conditions constitute salvation, and whose active experience is eternal life. chapter vi. recognition of friends in a future life. of all the sorrows incident to human life, none is so penetrating to gentle hearts as that which fills them with aching regrets, and, for a time, writes hollowness and vanity on their dearest treasures, when death robs them of those they love. and so, of all the questions that haunt the soul, wringing its faculties for a solution, beseeching the oracles of the universe for a response, none can have a more intense interest than gathers about the irrepressible inquiry, "shall we ever meet again, and know, the friends we have lost? somewhere in the ample creation and in the boundless ages, join, with the old familiar love, our long parted, fondly cherished, never forgotten dead?" the grief of bereavement and the desire of reunion are experienced in an endless diversity of degrees by different persons, according as they are careless, hard, and sense bound, or thoughtful, sympathizing, and imaginative; undisciplined by the mysteries and afflictions of our mortal destiny, or profoundly tried by the disappointments and prophecies of time and fate; and as they are shadowed by the gloom of despair, or cheered by the radiance of belief. but to all who feel, even the least, the uncertain but deep monitions of the silent pall, the sad procession, and the burial mound, the impressive problem must occur, with frequency and power, does the grave sunder us and the objects of our affection forever? or, across that dark gulf, shall we be united again in purer bonds? outside of the atheistic dissolution and the pantheistic absorption, it is supposable that, surviving the blow of death, our spirits may return to god and run their endless course in divine solitude. on the other hand, it is supposable that, possessed with all the memories of this probationary state, blessed by the companionship of our earthly friends, we may aspire together along the interminable gradations of the world to come. if the former supposition be true, and the farewell of the dying is the announcement of an irrevocable separation, then the tears we shed over the shrouded clay, once so prized, should be distillations from lethe's flood, to make us forget all. but if the latter be true, then our deadly seeming losses are as the partings of travellers at night to meet in the morning; and, as friend after friend retires, we should sigh to each departing spirit a kind adieu till we meet again, and let pleasing memories of them linger to mingle in the sacred day dreams of remaining life. evidently it is of much importance to a man which of these views he shall take; for each exerts a distinctive influence in regard to his peace of mind, his moral strength, and his religious character. on one who believes that hereafter, beyond all the partings in this land of tombs, he shall never meet the dear companions who now bless his lot, the death of friends must fall, if he be a person of strong sensibilities, as a staggering blow, awakening an agony of sorrow, taking from the sky and the earth a glory nothing can ever replace, and leaving in his heart a wretched void nothing can ever fill. henceforth he will be deprived mostly for all felt connection between them is hopelessly sundered of the good influences they exerted on him when present: he must try, by all expedients, to forget them; think no more of their virtues, their welcome voices and kindly deeds; wipe from the tablets of his soul all fond records of their united happy days; look not to the future, let the past be as though it had never been, and absorb his thoughts and feelings in the turmoil of the present. this is his only course; and even then, if true to the holiest instincts of his soul, he will find the fatal separation has lessened his being and impoverished his life, "for this losing is true dying; this is lordly man's down lying, this his slow but sure reclining, star by star his world resigning." but to him who earnestly expects soon to be restored under fairer auspices and in a deathless world to those from whom he parted as he laid their crumbling bodies in the earth, the death of friends will come as a message from the great father, a message solemn yet kind, laden indeed with natural sadness yet brightened by sure promise and followed by heavenly compensations. if his tears flow, they flow not in scalding bitterness from the marah fountain of despair, but in chastened joy from the smitten rock of faith. so far from endeavoring to forget the departed, he will cling to their memories with redoubled tenderness, as a sacred trust and a redeeming power. they will be more precious to him than ever, stronger to purify and animate. their saintly examples will attract him as never before, and their celestial voices plead from on high to win him to virtue and to heaven. the constant thought of seeing them once more, and wafting in their arms through the enchanted spaces of paradise, will wield a sanctifying force over his spirit. they will make the invisible sphere a peopled reality to him, and draw him to god by the diffused bonds of a spiritual acquaintance and an eternal love. since the result in which a man rests on this subject, believing or disbelieving that he shall recognise his beloved ones the other side of the grave, exerts a deep influence on him, in one case disheartening, in the other uplifting, it is incumbent on us to investigate the subject, try to get at the truth, clear it up, and appreciate it as well as we can. it is a theme to interest us all. who has not endeared relatives, choice friends, freshly or long ago removed from this earth into the unknown clime? in a little while, as the ravaging reaper sweeps on his way, who will not have still more there, or be there himself? whether old acquaintance shall be all forgot or be well remembered there, is an inquiry which must profoundly interest all who have hearts to love their companions, and minds to perceive the creeping shadows of mystery drawing over us as we approach the sure destiny of age and the dim confines of the world. it is a theme, far removed from noisy strifes and vain shows, penetrating that mysterious essence of affection and thought which we are. the thing of first importance is not the conclusion we reach, but the spirit in which we seek and hold it. the christian says to his friend, "our souls will be united in yonder heaven." danton, with a horrible travesty, said to his comrades on the scaffold, "our heads will meet in that sack." before engaging directly in the discussion, it will be interesting to notice, for an instant, the verdict which history, in the spontaneous suppositions and rude speculations of ancient peoples, pronounces on this subject. among their various opinions about the state after death, it is a prominent circumstance that they generally agree in conceiving it as a social state in which personal likenesses and memories are retained, fellow countrymen are grouped together, and friends united. this is minutely true of those nations with the details of whose faith we are acquainted, and is implied in the general belief of all others, except those who expected the individual spirit to be absorbed in the soul of the universe. homer shows ulysses and virgil in like manner shows aneas upon his entrance into the other world mutually recognising his old comrades and recognised by them. the two heroes whose inseparable friendship on earth was proverbial are still together in elysium: "then, side by side, along the dreary coast advanced achilles' and patroclus' ghost, a friendly pair." in this representation that there was a full recognition of acquaintances, all the accounts of the other world given in greek and roman literature harmonize. the same is true of the accounts contained in the literature of the ancient hebrews. in the book of genesis, when jacob hears of the death of his favorite child, he exclaims, "i shall go down to my son joseph in the under world, mourning." when the witch of endor raised the ghost of samuel, saul knew him by the description she gave of him as he rose. the monarch shades in the under world are pictured by isaiah as recognising the shade of the king of babylon and rising from their sombre thrones to greet him with mockery. ezekiel shows us each people of the heathen nations in the under world in a company by themselves. when david's child died, the king sorrowfully exclaimed, "he will not return to me; but i shall go to him." all these passages are based on the conception of a gloomy subterranean abode where the ghosts of the dead are reunited after their separation at death on earth. an old commentator on the koran says a mohammedan priest was once asked how the blessed in paradise could be happy when missing some near relative or dear friend whom they were thus forced to suppose in hell. he replied, god will either cause believers to forget such persons or else to rest in expectation of their coming. the anecdote shows affectingly that the same yearning heart and curiosity are possessed by moslem and christian. a still more impressive case in point is furnished by a picture in a buddhist temple in china. the painting represents the story of the priest lo puh, who, on passing into paradise at death, saw his mother, yin te, in hell. he instantly descended into the infernal court, tsin kwang wang, where she was suffering, and, by his valor, virtues, and intercessions, rescued her. the picture vividly portraying the whole story may be seen and studied at the present time by christian missionaries who enter that temple of the benevolent buddha. from the faith of many other nations illustrations might be brought of the same fact, that the great common instinct which has led men to believe in a future life has at the same time caused them to believe that in that life there would be a union and recognition of friends. let this far reaching historical fact be taken at its just value, alexius, tod and wiedersehen. eine gedankenfolge der besten schriftsteller aller zeiten und volker. asiatic journal, , p. . while we proceed to the labor in hand. the fact referred to is of some value, because, being an expression of the heart of man as god made it, it is an indication of his will, a prophecy. there are three ways of trying the problem of future recognition. the cool, skeptical class of persons will examine the present related facts of the case; argue from what they now know; test the question by induction and inference. let us see to what results they will thus be led. in the first place, we learn upon reflection that we now distinguish each other by the outward form, physical proportion, and combination of looks, tones of voice, and other the like particulars. every one has his individuality in these respects, by which he is separable from others. it may be hastily inferred, then, that if we are to know our friends hereafter it will be through the retention or the recovery of their sensible peculiarities. accordingly, many believe the soul to be a perfect reflection or immaterial fac simile of the body, the exact correspondence in shadowy outline of its gross tabernacle, and consequently at once recognizable in the disembodied state. the literature of christendom we may almost say of the world teems with exemplifications of this idea. others, arguing from the same acknowledged premises, conclude that future recognition will be secured by the resurrection of the material body as it was in all its perfection, in renovated and unfading prime. but, leaving out of view the inherent absurdity of the doctrine of a physical resurrection, there is a fatal difficulty in the way of both these supposititious modes of mutual knowledge in another world. it is this. the outward form, features, and expression sometimes alter so thoroughly that it is impossible for us to recognise our once most intimate companions. cases are not rare of this kind. let one pass in absence from childhood to maturity, and who that had not seen him in the mean time could tell that it was he? the trouble arising thence is finely illustrated by shakspeare in the motherly solicitude of constance, who, on learning that her young son has been imprisoned by his uncle, king john, and will probably be kept until he pines to death, cries in anguish to her confessor, "father cardinal, i have heard you say that we shall see and know our friends in heaven: if that be true, i shall see my boy again; for, since the birth of cain, the first male child, to him that did but yesterday suspire, there was not such a gracious creature born. but now will canker sorrow eat my bud and chase the native beauty from his cheek, and he will look as hollow as a ghost, as dim and meagre as an ague's fit; and so he'll die; and, rising so again, when i shall meet him in the court of heaven i shall not know him: therefore never, never must i behold my pretty arthur more." owing to the changes of all sorts which take place in the body, future recognition cannot safely depend upon that or upon any resemblance of the spirit to it. besides, not the faintest proof can be adduced of any such perceptible correspondence subsisting between them. turning again to the facts of experience, we find that it is not alone, nor indeed chiefly, by their visible forms and features that we know our chosen ones. we also, and far more truly, know them by the traits of their characters, the elements of their lives, the effluence of their spirits, the magic atmosphere which surrounds them, the electric thrill and communication which vivify and conjoin our souls. and even in the exterior, that which most reveals and distinguishes each is not the shape, but the expression, the lights and shades, reflected out from the immortal spirit shrined within. we know each other really by the mysterious motions of our souls. and all these things endure and act uninterrupted though the fleshly frame alter a thousand times or dissolve in its native dust. the knowledge of a friend, then, being independent of the body, spirits may be recognised in the future state by the associations mutually surrounding them, the feelings connecting them. amidst all the innumerable thronging multitudes, through all the immeasurable intervening heights and depths, of the immaterial world, remembered and desired companions may be selected and united by inward laws that act with the ease and precision of chemical affinities. we may therefore recognise each other by the feelings which now connect us, and which shall spontaneously kindle and interchange when we meet in heaven, as the signs of our former communion. it needs but little thought to perceive that by this view future recognition is conditional, being made to depend on the permanence of our sympathies: there must be the same mutual relations, affinities, fitness to awaken the same emotions upon approaching each other's sphere, or we shall neither know nor be known. but in fact our sympathies and aversions change as much as our outward appearance does. the vices and virtues, loves and hatreds, of our hearts alter, the peculiar characteristics of our souls undergo as great a transformation, sometimes, as thorough a revolution, as the body does in the interval between childhood and manhood. these changes going on in our associates frequently change our feelings towards them, heightening or diminishing our affection, creating a new interest, destroying an old one, now making enemies lovers, and now thoroughly alienating very friends. such fundamental alterations of character may occur in us, or in our friend, before we meet in the unseen state, that we shall no more recognise each other's spirits than we should know each other on earth after a separation in which our bodily appearances and voices had been entirely changed. these considerations would induce us to think that recognition hereafter is not sure, but turns on the condition that we preserve a remembrance, desire, and adaptedness for one another. if now the critical inquirer shall say there is no evidence, and it is incredible, that the body will be restored to a future life, or that the soul has any resemblance to the body by which it may be identified, furthermore, if he shall maintain that the doctrine of the revelation and recognition of the souls of friends in another life by an instinctive feeling, a mysterious attraction and response, is fanciful, an overdrawn conclusion of the imagination, not warranted by a stern induction of the average realities of the subject, and if he shall then ask, how are we to distinguish our former acquaintances among the hosts of heaven? there is one more fact of experience which meets the case and answers his demand. when long absence and great exposures have wiped off all the marks by which old companions knew each other, it has frequently happened that they have met and conversed with indifference, each being ignorant of whom the other was; and so it has continued until, by some indirect means, some accidental allusion, or the agency of a third person, they have been suddenly revealed. then, with throbbing hearts, in tears and rapture, they have rushed into each other's arms, with an instantaneous recurrence of their early friendship in all its original warmth, fulness, and flooding associations. many such instances are related in books of romance with strict truth to the actual occurrences of life. several instances of it are authenticated in the early history of america, when children, torn from their homes by the indians, were recovered by their parents after twenty or thirty years had elapsed and they were identified by circumstantial evidence. let any parent ask his heart, any true friend ask his heart, if, discovering by some foreign means the object of his love, he would not embrace him with just as ardent a gratitude and devotion as though there were no outward change and they had known one another at sight. so, in the life beyond the grave, if we are not able to recognise our earthly companions directly, either by spiritual sight or by intuitive feeling, we may obtain knowledge of each other indirectly by comparison of common recollections, or by the mediation of angels, or by some other divine arrangement especially prepared for that purpose. and therefore, whether in heaven we look or feel as we do here or not, whether there be any provision in our present constitution for future recognition or not, is of no consequence. in a thousand ways the defect can be remedied, if such be the will of god. and that such is his will every relevant fact and consideration would seem to prove. it is a consistent and seemingly requisite continuation and completion of that great scheme of which this life is a part. it is an apparently essential element and fulfilment of the wonderful apparatus of retribution, reward, and discipline, intended to educate us as members of god's eternal family. because from the little which we now understand we cannot infer with plainness and certainty the precise means and method by which we can discriminate our friends in heaven need be no obstacle to believing the fact itself; for there are millions of undoubted truths whose conditions and ways of operation we can nowise fathom. upon the whole, then, we conclude that we cannot by our mere understandings decide with certainty the question concerning future recognition; but we are justified in trusting to the accuracy of that doctrine, since it rests safely with the free pleasure of god, who is both infinitely able and disposed to do what is best, and we cannot help believing that it is best for us to be with and love hereafter those whom we are with and love here. there is a way of dealing with the general subject before us wholly different from the course thus far pursued. ceasing to act the philosopher, laying aside all arguments and theories, all dry speculations, we may come as simple believers to the christian scriptures and investigate their teachings to accept whatever they pronounce as the word of god's truth. let us see to what results we shall thus be led. searching the new testament to learn its doctrine munch, werden wir uns wiedersehen nach dem tode. this work, based on the kantian philosophy, denies future recognition. there is an able reply to it by vogel, ueber die hoffnung des wiedersehens. in regard to reunion in a future state, we are very soon struck with surprise at the mysterious reserve, so characteristic of its pages, on this entire theme. instead of a full and minute revelation blazing along the track of the gospel pens, a few fragmentary intimations, incidental hints, scattered here and there, are the substance of all that it expressly says. but though little is directly declared, yet much is plainly implied: especially the one great inference with which we are now concerned may be unequivocally and repeatedly drawn. in the parable of the rich man and the beggar the savior pictures forth the recognition of their souls in the disembodied state. dives also is described as recollecting with intense interest, with the most anxious sympathy, his endangered brethren on earth. although this occurs in a parable, yet it is likely that so prominent and vital a feature of it would be moulded, as to its essential significance, in accordance with what the author intended should be received as truth. jesus also speaks of many who should come from the east and the west and sit down with abraham and isaac and jacob in the kingdom of heaven; from which it would appear that the patriarchs are together in fellowship and that the righteous of after times were to be received with them in mutual acquaintance. on the mount of transfiguration the witnessing disciples saw moses and elias together with jesus, and recognised them, probably from their resemblance to traditional descriptions of them. jesus always represented the future state as a society. he said to his followers, "i go to prepare a place for you, that where i am there ye may be also;" and he prayed to his father that his disciples might be with him where he was going. at another time he declared of little children, "their angels always behold the face of my father in heaven:" he also taught that "there is joy in heaven over every sinner that repenteth;" passages that presuppose such a community of faculties, sympathies, in heaven and earth, in angels and men, as certainly implies the doctrine of continued knowledge and fellowship. when heaven was opened before the dying stephen, he saw and instantly knew his divine master, the lord jesus, and called to him to welcome his ascending spirit. paul writes to the thessalonians that he would not have them sorrow concerning the dead as those who have no hope, assuring them that when christ reappears they shall all be united again. in the apocalypse, john saw, in a vision, the souls of the martyrs, who had died for the faith of the gospel, together, under the altar. from community of suffering and a common abode together in heaven we may safely infer their recognition of each other. the gospels declare that christ after his death remembered his disciples and came back to them to assure them that they should rejoin him on high; and the apostles assert that we are to be with christ and to be like him in the future state. it follows from the admission of these declarations that we shall remember our friends and be united with them in conscious knowledge. few, and brief, and vague as the utterances of the scriptures are in relation to this theme, they necessarily involve all the results of an avowed doctrine. they undeniably involve the supposition that in the other life we shall be conscious personalities as here, retaining our memories and constituting a society. from these implications the fact of the future recognition of friends irresistibly results, unless there be some special interference to prevent it; and such an interposition there is no hint of and can be no reason for fearing. such is really all that we can learn from the scriptures on the subject of our inquiry. its indirectness and brevity would convince us that god did not intend to betray to us in clear light the secrets of the shrouded future, that for some reason it is best that his teaching should be so reserved, and leave us to the haunting wonder, the anxious surmise, the appalling mystery, the alluring possibilities, that now meet our gaze on the unmoving veil of death. god intends we shall trust in him without knowledge, and by faith, not by sight, pursue his guidance into the silent and unknown land. therefore, after analyzing the relevant facts of present experience and inferring what we can from them, and after studying the scriptures and finding what they say, there is yet another method of considering the problem of recognition in the future state. that is without caring for critical discussion, without deferring to extraneous authority, we may follow the gravitating force of instinct, imagination, and moral reason. we are made to love and depend on each other. the longer, the more profoundly, we know and admire the good, the more our being becomes intertwined with theirs, so much the more intensely we desire to be with them always, and so much the more awful is the agony of separation. this, what is it but great nature's testimony, god's silent avowal, that we are to meet in eternity? can the fearful anguish of bereavement be gratuitous? can the yearning prophecies of the smitten heart be all false? belief in reunion hereafter is spontaneously adopted by humanity. we therefore esteem it divinely ordered or true. without that soothing and sustaining trust, the unrelieved, intolerable wretchedness in many cases would burst through the fortress of the mind, hurl reason from its throne, and tear the royal affections and their attendants in the trampled dust of madness. many a rarely gifted soul, unknown in his nameless privacy of life, has been so conjoined with a worthy peer, through precious bonds of unutterable sympathy, that, rather than be left behind, "the divided half of such a friendship as had mastered time," he has prayed that they, dying at once, might, involved together, hover across the dolorous strait to the other shore, and "arrive at last the blessed goal where he that died in holy land might reach them out the shining hand and take them as a single soul." denied that inmost wish, the rest of his widowed life below has been one melancholy strain of "in memoriam." many a faithful and noble mourner, whose garnered love and hope have been blighted for this world, would tell you that, without meeting his lost ones there, heaven itself would be no heaven to him. in such a state of soul we must expect to know again in an unfading clime the cherished dead. that belief is of divine inspiration, an arrangement to heal the deadly wounds of sorrow. it is madness not to think it a verity. who believes, as he shall float through the ambrosial airs of heaven, he could touch, in passing, the radiant robes of his chosen friends without a thrill of recognition, the prelude to a blissful and immortal communion? is there not truth in the poet's picture of the meeting of child and parent in heaven? harbaugh, the heavenly recognition. gisborne, recollections of friends in the world to come. muston, perpetuation of christian friendship. "it was not, mother, that i knew thy face: the luminous eclipse that is on it now, though it was fair on earth, would have made it strange even to one who knew as well as he loved thee; but my heart cried out in me, mother!" think of the unfathomable yearnings, the infinite ecstasies of desire and faith from age to age swelling in the very heart of the world, all set on the one hope of future union, and who then can believe that god will coldly blast them all? they are innocent, they are holy, they are meritorious, they are unspeakably dear. we would not destroy them; and god will not. man's life is the true fable of that beautiful youth, narcissus, who had a twin sister of remarkable loveliness, strongly resembling himself, and to whom he was most tenderly attached. she dies young. he frequents fountains to gaze upon his own image reflected in the waters, it seeming to him the likeness of her he has lost. he is in pity transformed into a flower on the border of a stream, where, bending on his fragile stem, he seeks his image in the waters murmuring by, until he fades and dies. has not god, the all loving author who composed the sweet poem of man and nature, written at the close a reconciling elysium wherein these pure lovers, the fond narcissus and his echo mate, shall wander in perennial bliss, their embracing forms mirrored in unruffled fountains? looking now for the conclusion of the whole matter, we find that it lies in three different aspects, both of inquiring thought and of practical morality, according to the lights and modes in which three different classes of minds approach it. to the consistent metaphysician, reasoning rigidly on grounds of science and philosophy, every thing pertaining to the methods and circumstances of the future life is an affair of entire uncertainty and hypothesis. if in the future state the soul retains its individuality as an identical force, form, life, and memory, and if associates in the present state are brought together, it is probable that old friends will recognise each other. but if they are oblivious of the past, if they are incommunicably separated in space or state, if one progresses so much farther that the other can never overtake him, if the personal soul blends its individual consciousness with the unitary consciousness of the over soul, if it commences a new career from a fresh psychical germ, then, by the terms, there will be no mutual recognition. in that case his comfort and his duty are to know that the anguish and longing he now feels will cease then; to trust in the benignity of the infinite wisdom, who knows best what to appoint for his creatures; and to submit with harmonizing resignation to the unalterable decree, offering his private wish a voluntary sacrifice on the altar of natural piety. that he shall know his friends hereafter is not impossible, not improbable; neither is it certain. he may desire it, expect it, but not with speculative pride dogmatically affirm it, nor with insisting egotism presumptuously demand it. gravell, das wiedersehen nach dem tode. wie es nur sein konne. to the uncritical christian the recognising reunion of friends in heaven is an unshaken assurance. there is nothing to disturb his implicit reception of the plain teaching of scripture. the legitimate exhortations of his faith are these. mourn not too bitterly nor too long over your absent dead; for you shall meet them in an immortal clime. as the last hour comes for your dearest ones or for yourself, be of good cheer; for an imperishable joy is yours. you: "cannot lose the hope that many a year hath shone on a gleaming way, when the walls of life are closing round and the sky grows sombre gray." put not away the intruding thoughts of the departed, but let them often recur. the dead are constant. you know not how much they may think of you, how near they may be to you. will you pass to meet them not having thought of them for years, having perhaps forgotten them? let your mind have its nightly firmament of religious communion, beneath which white and sable memories shall walk, and the sphered spirits of your risen friends, like stars, shed down their holy rays to soothe your feverish cares and hush every murmuring doubt to rest. from the dumb heavings of your loving and trustful heart, sometimes exclaim, parents who nurtured and watched over me with unwearied affection, i would remember you oft, and love you well, and so live that one day i may meet you at the right hand of god. early friends, so close and dear once, who in the light of young romance trod with me life's morning hills, neither your familiar faces nor your sweet communion are forgotten by me: i fondly think of you, and aspire towards you, and pray for a purer soul, that i may mount to your celestial circle at last; "for many a tear these eyes must weep, and many a sin must be forgiven, ere these pale lids shall sink to sleep, ere you and i shall meet in heaven." blessed jesus, elder brother of our race, who sittest now by thy father's throne, or pacest along the crystal coast as a leader, chief among ten thousand, whose condescending brow the bloody thorns no longer press, but the dazzling crown of thy divinity encircles, oh, remember us, poor erring pilgrims after thine earthly steps; pity us, help us, and after death bring us to thy home. to the sympathetic poet, the man of sentiment and meditation, who views the question from the position of the heart, in the glory and vistas of the imagination, but with all the known facts and relations of the subject lying bare under his sight, the uniting restoration, in another sphere, of earth's broken ties and parted friends, is an unappeasable craving of the soul, in harmony with the moral law, powerfully prophesied to his experience from all quarters, and seemingly confirmed to his hopes by every promise of god and nature. grafe, biblische beitrage zu der frage, werden wir uns wiedersehen nach dem tode. engel, wir werden uns wiedersehen. halst, beleuchtung der hauptgrunde fur den glauben an erinnerung und wiedersehen nach dem tode. streicher, neue beitrage zur kritik des glaubens an ruckerinnerung nach dem tode. received as a truth, it is a well of inexhaustible comfort, making experience a green oasis where it overflows. the denial of it as a proven falsehood is a withering blast of dust blowing on the friendly caravan of sojourners in the desert of life. if existence is the enjoyment of a largess of social love, and death is to have a solitary hand snatch it all away forever, how dismal is the prospect to the poor heart that loves and clings, loses and despairs, and can only falter hopelessly on! it cannot be so. love is the true prophet. heaven will restore the treasures earth has lost. the mourner by the grave! eve convulsed over the form of abel! jesus weeping where lazarus lay! america embracing the urn of washington! the genius of humanity at the tomb of the past! it is the most pathetic spectacle of the world. as in the old myth the pelican, hovering over her dead broodlets, pierced her own breast in agony and fluttered there until by the fanning of her wings above them and the dropping of her warm blood on them they were brought to life again, so the great mother of men seems in history to brood over the ashes of departed ages, dropping the tears of her grief and faith into the future to restore her deceased children to life and draw them together within her embrace. and that sublime rachel will not easily be comforted except when her thoughts, migrating whither her offspring have gone, seem to find them happy in some happy heaven. the poet, lover of his race, who cannot trust his happier instinct, but perforce believes that beyond the sepulchral line of mortality he shall know no more of his friends, may find, as helps to a willing acquiescence in what is fated, either one of two possible contemplations. he may sadly lay upon his heart the stifling solace, there will be no baffled wants nor unhappiness, but all will be over when hic jacet is sculptured on the headstone of my grave. or, with measureless rebound of faith, he may crowd the capacity of his soul with the mysterious presentiment, in the unchangeable fulness of an infinite bliss, all specialties will be merged and forgotten, and i shall be one of those to whom "the wearisome disease" of remembered sorrow and anticipated joy "is an alien thing." wieland's euthanasia expresses disbelief in the preservation of personality and consciousness after death. the same ground had been taken in the work published anonymously at halle in , plato and leibnitz jenseits des styx. see, on the other side of the question, wohlfahrt, tempel der unsterblichkeit, oder neue anthologie der wichtigsten ausspruche, besonders neuerer weisen uber wiedersehen u. s. w. chapter vii. local fate of man in the astronomic universe. according to the imagining of some speculative geologists, perhaps this earth first floated in the abyss as a volume of vapor, wreathing its enormous folds of mist in fantastic shapes as it was borne along on the idle breath of law. ages swept by, until this stupendous fog ball was condensed into an ocean of fire, whose billows heaved their lurid bosoms and reared their ashy crests without a check, while their burning spray illuminated its track around the sable vault. during periods which stagger computation, this molten world was gradually cooled down; constant rivers wrung from the densely swathing vapor poured over the heated mass and at last submerged its crust in an immense sea. then, for unknown centuries, fire, water, and wind waged a titanic war, that imagination shudders to think of, jets of flame licking the stars, massive battlements and columns of fire piled to terrific heights, now the basin of the sea suddenly turned into a glowing caldron and the atmosphere saturated with steam, again explosions hurling mountains far into space and tearing the earth open in ghastly rents to its very heart. at length the fire was partially subdued, the peaceful deep glassed the sky in its bosom or rippled to the whispers of the breeze, and from amidst the fertile slime and mould of its sheltered floor began to sprout the first traces of organic life, the germs of a rude species of marine vegetation. thousands of years rolled on. the world ocean subsided, the peaks of mountains, the breasts of islands, mighty continents, emerged, and slowly, after many tedious processes of preparation, a gigantic growth of grass, every blade as large as our vastest oak, shot from the soil, and the incalculable epoch of ferns commenced, whose tremendous harvest clothed the whole land with a deep carpet of living verdure. while unnumbered growths of this vegetation were successively maturing, falling, and hardening into the dark layers of inexhaustible coal beds, the world, one waving wilderness of solemn ferns, swept in its orbit, voiceless and silent, without a single bird or insect of any kind in all its magnificent green solitudes, the air everywhere being heavily surcharged with gases of the deadliest poison. again innumerable ages passed, and the era of mere botanic growths reaching its limit, the lowest forms of animal life moved in the waters, the earliest creatures being certain marine reptiles, worms, and bugs of the sea. then followed various untimed periods, during which animal life rose by degrees from mollusk and jellyfish, by plesiosaurus and pterodactyl, horrible monsters, hundreds of feet in length, whose tramp crashed through the woods, or whose flight loaded the groaning air, to the dolphin and the whale in the sea, the horse and the lion on the land, and the eagle, the nightingale, and the bird of paradise in the air. finally, when millions of aons had worn away, the creative process culminated in humanity, the crown and perfection of all; for god said, "let us make man in our own image;" and straightway adam, with upright form, kingly eye, and reason throned upon his brow, stood on the summit of the world and gave names to all the races of creatures beneath. at this stage two important questions arise. the first is, whether man is the final type of being intended in the divine plan for this world, or whether he too is destined in his turn to be superseded by a higher race, endowed with form, faculties, and attributes transcending our conceptions, even as our own transcended the ideas of the previous orders of existence. undoubtedly, had the ichthyosaurus, ploughing through the deep and making it boil like a pot, or one of those mammoth creatures of the antediluvian age who browsed half a dozen trees for breakfast, crunched a couple of oxen for luncheon and a whole flock of sheep for his dinner, been consulted on a similar problem, he would have replied, without hesitation, "i exhaust the uses of the world. what animal can there be superior to me? beyond a question, my race shall possess the earth forever!" the mastodon could not know any uses of nature except those he was fitted to experience, nor imagine a being with the form and prerogatives of man. therefore he would not believe that the mastodon race would ever be displaced by the human. we labor under the same disqualification for judgment. there may be in the system of nature around us adaptations, gifts, glories, as much higher than any we enjoy as our noblest powers and privileges are in advance of those of the tiger or the lark. it is a remarkable fact that the mature states of the antediluvian races correspond with the foetal states of the present races, and that the foetal states of embryonic man are counterparts of the mature states of the lower races now contemporaneous with him. this great discovery of modern science, though perhaps destitute of logical value, suggests to the imagination the thought that man may be but the foetal state of a higher being, a regent temporarily presiding here until the birth and inauguration of the true king of the world, and destined himself to be born from the womb of this world into the free light and air of the spirit kingdom! the resources of god are inexhaustible; and in the evolution of his prearranged ages it may be that there will arise upon the earth a race of beings of unforetold majesty, who shall disinter the remnant bones and ponder the wrecked monuments of forgotten man as we do those of the disgusting reptiles of the saurian epoch. but this is a mere conceit of possibility; and, so far as the data for forming an opinion are in our hands, it is altogether incredible. so far as appears, the adaptation between man and the earth is exhaustive. he is able to subdue all her forces, reign over all her provinces, enjoy all her delights, and gather into his consciousness all her prophecies. and our practical conviction is absolute that the race of men is the climax of being destined for this earth, and that they will occupy its hospitable bosom forever with their toils and their homes, their sports and their graves. the other question is this: was the subjection of the human race to physical death a part of the creator's original plan, or the retributive result of a subsequent dislocation of that plan by sin? a part of the great harmony of nature, or a discord marring the happy destiny harris, the pre adamite earth. agassiz says no higher creature than man is to be expected on earth, because the capacities of the earthly plan of organic creation are completed and exhausted with him. introduction to study of natural history, p. . of man? approaching this problem on grounds of science and reason alone, there can be no hesitation as to the reply. there are but two considerations really bearing upon the point and throwing light upon it; and they both force us to the same conclusion. first, it is a fact admitting no denial that death was the predetermined natural fate of the successive generations of the races that preceded man. now, what conceivable reason is there for supposing that man, constructed from the same elements, living under the same organic laws, was exempt from the same doom? there is not in the whole realm of science a single hint to that effect. secondly, the reproductive element an essential feature in the human constitution, leading our kind to multiply and replenish the earth is a demonstration that the office of death entered into god's original plan of the world. for otherwise the earth at this moment could not hold a tithe of the inhabitants that would be demanding room. when god had permitted this world to roll in space for awful ages, a lifeless globe of gas, fire, water, earth, and then let it be occupied for incommensurable epochs more by snails, vermin, and iguanodons, would he wind up the whole scene and destroy it when the race of man, crowning glory of all, had only flourished for a petty two thousand years? it is not credible. and yet it must have been so unless it was decreed that the successive generations should pass away and thus leave space for, the new comers. we conclude, then, that it is the will of god and was in the beginning that the human race shall possess the earth through all the unknown periods of the future, the parents continually passing off the stage in death as the children rise upon it to maturity. we cannot discern any authority in those old traditions which foretell the impending destruction of the world. on what grounds are we to believe them? the great system of things is a stable harmony. there is no wear or tear in the perfect machinery of the creation, rolling noiseless in its blue bearings of ether. it seems, comparatively speaking, to have just begun. its oscillations are self adjusted, and science prophesies for humanity an illimitable career on this earthly theatre. the swift melting of the elements and restoration of chaos is a mere heathen whim or a poetic figment. it is the bards who sing, "the earth shall shortly die. her grave is dug. i see the worlds, night clad, all gathering in long and dark procession. and the stars, which stand as thick as glittering dewdrops on the fields of heaven, shall pass in blazing mist." such pictures are delusion winning the imagination, not truth commanding the reason. in spite of all the cassandra screams of the priesthood, vaticinating universal ruin, the young old earth, fresh every spring, shall remain under god's preserving providence, and humanity's inexhaustible generations renewedly reign over its kingdoms, forever. plotinus said, "if god repents having made the world, why does he defer its destruction? if he does not yet repent, he never will, as being now accustomed to it, and becoming through time more friendly to it." lucan says, "our bones and the stars shall be mingled on one funeral pyre." communis mundo superest rogus, ossibus astra misturus. but to receive such a good piece of poetry as veritable prevision is surely a puerile error which a mature mind in the nineteenth century should be ashamed to commit. the most recently broached theory of the end of the world is that developed from some remarkable speculations as to the composition and distribution of force. the view is briefly this. all force is derived from heat. all heat is derived from the sun. the mechanical value of a cubic mile of sunlight at the surface of the earth is one horse power for a third of a minute; at the sun it is fifteen thousand horse power for a minute. now, it is calculated that enough heat is radiated from the sun to require for its production the annual consumption of the whole surface of the sun to the depth of from ten to twenty miles. of course, ultimately the fuel will be all expended; then the forces of the system will expire, and the creation will die. this brilliant and sublime theorem assumes, first, that the heat of the sun arises from consumption of matter, which may not be true; secondly, that it is not a self replenishing process, as it certainly may be. some have even surmised that the zodiacal light is an illuminated tornado of stones showering into the sun to feed its tremendous conflagration. the whole scheme is a fine toy, but a very faint terror. even if it be true, then we are to perish at last from lack of fire, and not, as commonly feared, from its abundance! the belief of mankind that a soul or ghost survives the body has been so nearly universal as to appear like the spontaneous result of an instinct. we propose to trace the history of opinions concerning the physical destination of this disembodied spirit, its connection with localities, to give the historical topography of the future life. the earliest conception of the abode of the dead was probably that of the hebrew sheol or the greek hades, namely, the idea born from the silence, depth, and gloom of the grave of a stupendous subterranean cavern full of the drowsy race of shades, the indiscriminate habitation of all who leave the land of the living. gradually the thought arose and won acceptance that the favorites of deity, peerless heroes and sages, might be exempt from this dismal fate, and migrate at death to some delightful clime beyond some far shore, there, amidst unalloyed pleasures, to spend immortal days. this region was naturally located on the surface of the earth, where the cheerful sun could shine and the fresh breezes blow, yet in some untrodden distance, where the gauntlet of fact had not smitten the sceptre of fable. the paltry portion of this earth familiar to the ancients was surrounded by an unexplored region, which their fancy, stimulated by the legends of the poets, peopled with mythological kingdoms, the rainbow bowers and cloudy synods of olympus, from whose glittering peak the thunderer threw his bolts over the south; the golden garden of the ennead ii. lib. ix.: contra gnosticos, cap. . helmholtz, edinburgh phil. msg., series iv. vol. xi.: interaction of natural forces. thomson, ibid. dec. : mechanical energies of the solar system. hesperides, whose dragons lay on guard in the remote west; the divine cities of meru, whose encircling towers pierced the eastern sky; the banquet halls of ethiopia, gleaming through the fiery desert; the fragrant islands of immortality, musical and luring in the central ocean; the happy land of the hyperboreans, beyond the snowy summits of northern caucasus: "how pleasant were the wild beliefs that dwelt in legends old! alas! to our posterity will no such tales be told. we know too much: scroll after scroll weighs down our weary shelves: our only point of ignorance is centred in ourselves." there was a belief among the persians that kaf, a mountain two thousand miles high, formed a rim to the flat world and prevented travellers from ever falling off. the fact that the earth is a globe inhabited on all sides is a comparatively recent piece of knowledge. so late as in the eighth century pope zachary accused virgilius, an irish mathematician and monk, of heresy for believing in the existence of antipodes. st. boniface wrote to the pope against virgilius; and zachary ordered a council to be held to expel him from the church, for "professing, against god and his own soul, so perverse and wicked a doctrine." to the ancients all beyond the region they had traversed was an unknown land, clothed in darkness, crowded with mystery and allurement. across the weltering wastes of brine, in a halcyon sea, the hindu placed the white isle, the dwelling of translated and immortalized men. under the attraction of a mystic curiosity, well might the old, wearied ulysses say, "come, my friends, 'tis not too late to seek a newer world. push off, and, sitting well in order, smite the sounding furrows; for my purpose holds to sail beyond the sunset, and the baths of all the western stars, until i die. it may be that the gulfs will wash us down: it may be we shall touch the happy isles, and see the great achilles, whom we knew." decius brutus and his army, as florus relates, reaching the coast of portugal, where, for the first time, they saw the sun setting in the blood tinged ocean, turned back their standards with horror as they beheld "the huge corpse of ruddy gold let down into the deep." the phoenician traders brought intelligence to greece of a people, the cimmerians, who dwelt on the borders of hades in the umbered realms of perpetual night. to the dying roman, on the farthest verge of the known horizon hovered a vision of elysian fields. and the american adventures of hatim tai, p. , note. whewell, hist. inductive sciences, vol. i. book iv. ch. i. sect. . wilford, essays on the sacred isles, in asiatic researches, vols. viii. xi. indian, sinking in battle or the chase, caught glimpses of happier hunting grounds, whose woods trooped with game, and where the arrows of the braves never missed, and there was no winter. there was a pretty myth received among some of the ancient britons, locating their paradise in a spot surrounded by tempests, far in the western ocean, and named flath innis, or noble island. the following legend is illustrative. an old man sat thoughtful on a rock beside the sea. a cloud, under whose squally skirts the waters foamed, rushed down; and from its dark womb issued a boat, with white sails bent to the wind, and hung round with moving oars. destitute of mariners, itself seemed to live and move. a voice said, "arise, behold the boat of heroes: embark, and see the green isle of those who have passed away!" seven days and seven nights he voyaged, when a thousand tongues called out, "the isle! the isle!" the black billows opened before him, and the calm land of the departed rushed in light on his eyes. we are reminded by this of what procopius says concerning the conveyal of the soul of the barbarian to his paradise. at midnight there is a knocking at the door, and indistinct voices call him to come. mysteriously impelled, he goes to the sea coast, and there finds a frail, empty wherry awaiting him. he embarks, and a spirit crew row him to his destination. "he finds with ghosts his boat deep freighted, sinking to the edge of the dark flood, and voices hears, yet sees no substance; but, arrived where once again his skiff floats free, hears friends to friends give lamentable welcome. the unseen shore faint resounds, and all the mystic air breathes forth the names of parent, brother, wife." during that period of poetic credulity while the face of the earth remained to a great extent concealed from knowledge, wherever the hebrew scriptures were known went the cherished traditions of the garden of eden from which our first parents were driven for their sin. speculation naturally strove to settle the locality of this lost paradise. sometimes it was situated in the mysterious bosom of india; sometimes in the flowery vales of georgia, where roses and spices perfumed the gales; sometimes in the guarded recesses of mesopotamia. now it was the grand oasis in the arabian desert, flashing on the wilted pilgrim, over the blasted and blazing wastes, with the verdure of palms, the play of waters, the smell and flavor of perennial fruits. again it was at the equator, where the torrid zone stretched around it as a fiery sword waving every way so that no mortal could enter. in the "imago mundi," a latin treatise on cosmography written early in the twelfth century, we read, "paradise is the extreme eastern part of asia, and is made inaccessible by a wall of fire surrounding it and rising unto heaven." at a later time the canaries were thought to be the ancient elysium, and were accordingly named the fortunate isles. indeed, among the motives that animated macpherson, introduction to the history of great britain and ireland, pp. - . procopius, gothica, lib. iv. columbus on his adventurous voyage no inferior place must be assigned to the hope of finding the primeval seat of paradise. the curious traveller, exploring these visionary spots one by one, found them lying in the light of common day no nearer heaven than his own natal home; and at last all faith in them died out when the whole surface of the globe had been surveyed, no nook left wherein romance and superstition might any longer play at hide and seek. continuing our search after the local abode of the departed, we now leave the surface of the earth and descend beneath it. the first haunted region we reach is the realm of the fairies, which, as every one acquainted with the magic lore of old germany or england knows, was situated just under the external ground, and was clothed with every charm poets could imagine or the heart dream. there was supposed to be an entrance to this enchanted domain at the peak cavern in derbyshire, and at several other places. sir walter scott has collected some of the best legends illustrative of this belief in his "history of demonology." sir gawaine, a famous knight of the round table, was once admitted to dine, above ground, in the edge of the forest, with the king of the fairies: "the banquet o'er, the royal fay, intent to do all honor to king arthur's knight, smote with his rod the bank on which they leant, and fairy land flash'd glorious on the sight; flash'd, through a silvery, soft, translucent mist, the opal shafts and domes of amethyst; flash'd founts in shells of pearl, which crystal walls and phosphor lights of myriad hues redouble. there, in the blissful subterranean halls, when morning wakes the world of human trouble glide the gay race; each sound our discord knows, faint heard above, but lulls them to repose." to this empire of moonlit swards and elfin dances, of jewelled banks, lapsing streams, and enchanting visions, it was thought a few favored mortals might now and then find their way. but this was never an earnest general faith. it was a poetic superstition that hovered over fanciful brains, a legendary dream that pleased credulous hearts; and, with the other romance of the early world, it has vanished quite away. the popular belief of jews, greeks, etruscans, romans, germans, and afterwards of christians, was that there was an immense world of the dead deep beneath the earth, subdivided into several subordinate regions. the greenlanders believed in a separated heaven and hell, both located far below the polar ocean. according to the old classic descriptions of the under world, what a scene of colossal gloom it is! its atmosphere murmurs with a breath of plaintive sighs. its population, impalpable ghosts timidly flitting at every motion, irving, life of columbus: appendix on the situation of the terrestrial paradise. by far the most valuable book ever published on this subject is that of schulthess, das paradies, das irdische und uberirdische historische, mythische und mystische, nebst einer kritischen revision der allgemelnen biblischen geographie. crowd the sombre landscapes in numbers surpassing imagination. there cocytus creeps to the seat of doom, his waves emitting doleful wails. styx, nine times enfolding the whole abode, drags his black and sluggish length around. charon, the slovenly old ferryman, plies his noiseless boat to and fro laden with shadowy passengers. far away in the centre grim pluto sits on his ebony throne and surveys the sad subjects of his dreadful domain. by his side sits his stolen and shrinking bride, proserpine, her glimmering brows encircled with a wreath of poppies. above the subterranean monarch's head a sable rainbow spans the infernal firmament; and when, with lifted hand, he announces his decrees, the applause given by the twilight populace of hades is a rustle of sighs, a vapor of tears, and a shudder of submission. the belief in this dolorous kingdom was early modified by the reception of two other adjacent realms, one of reward, one of torture; even as goethe says, in allusion to the current christian doctrine, "hell was originally but one apartment: limbo and purgatory were afterwards added as wings." passing through hades, and turning in one direction, the spirit traveller would arrive at elysium or abraham's bosom: "to paradise the gloomy passage winds through regions drear and dismal, and through pain, emerging soon in beatific blaze of light." there the blessed ones found respite and peaceful joys in flowery fields, pure breezes, social fellowship, and the similitudes of their earthly pursuits. in this placid clime, lighted by its own constellations, favored souls roamed or reposed in a sort of ineffectual happiness. according to the pagans, here were such heroes as achilles, such sages as socrates, to remain forever, or until the end of the world. and here, according to the christians, the departed patriarchs and saints were tarrying expectant of christ's arrival to ransom them. dante thus describes that great event: "then he, who well my covert meaning knew, answer'd, herein i had not long been bound, when an all puissant one i saw march through, with victory's radiant sign triumphal crown'd. he led from us our father adam's shade, abel and noah, whom god loved the most, lawgiving moses, him who best obey'd, abraam the patriarch, royal david's ghost; israel, his father, and his sons, and her whom israel served for, faithfully and long, rachel, with more, to bliss did he transfer: no souls were saved before this chosen throng." at the opposite extremity of hades was supposed to be an opening that led down into tartarus, "a place made underneath all things, so low and horrible that hell is its heaven." here the old earth giants, the looming titans, lay, bound, transfixed with thunderbolts, their parsons's trans. dell' inferno, canto iv. ii. - . mountainous shapes half buried in rocks, encrusting lava, and ashes. rivers of fire seam the darkness, whose borders are braided with sentinel furies. on every hand the worst criminals, perjurers, blasphemers, ingrates, groan beneath the pitiless punishments inflicted on them without escape. any realization of the terrific scenery of this whole realm would curdle the blood. there were fabled entrances to the dread under world at acherusia, in bithynia, at avernus, in campania, where ulysses evoked the dead and traversed the grisly abodes, through the sibyl's cave at cuma, at hermione, in argolis, where the people thought the passage below so near and easy that they neglected to give the dying an obolus to pay ferriage to charon, at tanarus, the southern most point of peloponnesus, where herakles went down and dragged the three headed dog up into day, at the cave of trophonius, in lebadea, and at several other places. similar conceptions have been embodied in the ecclesiastical doctrine which has generally prevailed in christendom. locating the scene in the hollow of the earth, thus has it been described by milton, "a dungeon horrible on all sides round as one great furnace flamed; yet from those flames no light, but rather darkness visible, served only to discover sights of woe, regions of anguish, doleful shades, where peace nor hope can come, but torture without end still urges, and a fiery deluge fed with ever burning sulphur unconsumed;" wherein, confined by adamantine walls, the fallen angels and all the damned welter overwhelmed with floods and whirlwinds of tempestuous fire. shapes once celestially fair and proud, but now scarred from battle and darkened by sin into faded forms of haggard splendor, support their uneasy steps over the burning marl. everywhere shrieks and moans resound, and the dusky vault of pandemonium is lighted by a blue glare cast pale and dreadful from the tossings of the flaming lake. this was hell, where the wicked must shrink and howl forever. etna, vesuvius, stromboli, hecla, were believed to be vent holes from this bottomless and living pit of fire. the famous traveller, sir john maundeville, asserted that he found a descent into hell "in a perilous vale" in the dominions of prester john. many a cavern in england still bears the name of "hell hole." in a dialogue between a clerk and a master, preserved in an old saxon catechism, the following question and reply occur: "why is the sun so red when she sets?" "because she looks down upon hell." antonius rusca, a learned professor at milan, in the year , published a huge quarto in five books, giving a detailed topographical account of the interior of the earth, hell, purgatory, and limbo. there is a lake in the south of ireland in which is an island containing a cavern said to open down into hell. this cave descriptions of the sufferings of hell, according to the popular notions at different periods, are given in the work published at weimar in , das rad der ewigen hollenqual. in den curiositaten der physisch literarisch artistisch historischen vor und mitwelt, band vi. st. . de inferno et statn damonum ante mundi exitium. is called st. patrick's purgatory, and the pretence obtained quite general credit for upwards of five centuries. crowds of pilgrims visited the place. some who had the hardihood to venture in were severely pinched, beaten, and burned, by the priests within, disguised as devils, and were almost frightened out of their wits by the diabolical scenes they saw where "forth from the depths of flame that singed the gloom despairing wails and piercing shrieks were heard." several popes openly preached in behalf of this gross imposition; and the church virtually authorized it by receiving the large revenues accruing from it, until at last outraged common sense demanded its repudiation and suppression. few persons now, as they walk the streets and fields, are much disturbed by the thought that, not far below, the vivid lake of fire and brimstone, greedily roaring for new food, heaves its tortured surges convulsed and featured with souls. few persons now shudder at a volcanic eruption as a premonishing message freshly belched from hell. in fact, the old belief in a local physical hell within the earth has almost gone from the public mind of to day. it arose from pagan myths and figures of speech based on ignorant observation and arbitrary fancy, and with the growth of science and the enlightenment of reason it has very extensively fallen and faded away. no honest and intelligent inquirer into the matter can find the slightest valid support for such a notion. it is now a mere tradition, upheld by groundless authority. and yet the dim shadow of that great idea of a subterranean hell which once burned so fierce and lurid in the brain of christendom still vaguely haunts the modern world. the dogma still lies in the prevalent creeds, and is occasionally dragged out and brandished by fanatic preachers. the transmitted literature and influences of the past are so full of it that it cannot immediately cease. accordingly, while the common understanding no longer grasps it as a definite verity, it lingers in the popular fancy as a half credible image. the painful attempts made now and then by some antiquated or fanatical clergyman to compel attention to it and belief in it as a tangible fact of science, as well as an unquestionable revelation of scripture, scarcely win a passing notice, but provoke a significant smile. father passaglia, an eminent jesuit theologian, in published in italy a work on the literality of hell fire and the eternity of the punishments of the damned. he says, "in this world fire burns by chemical operations; but in hell it burns by the breath of the lord!" the learned and venerable faber, a voluminous author and distinguished english divine, published in the year a large octavo entitled "the many mansions in the house of the father," discussing with elaborate detail the question as to the locality of the scenes awaiting souls after death. his grand conclusion the unreasonableness of which will be apparent without comment is as follows: "the saints having first risen with christ into the highest regions of the air, out of reach of the dreadful heat, the tremendous flood of fire hitherto detained inside the earth will be let loose, and an awful conflagration rage till the whole material globe is dissipated into sublimated particles. then the world will be formed anew, in three parts. first, there will be wright, st. patrick's purgatory: an essay on the legends of paradise, hell, and purgatory, current during the middle ages. patuzzi, de sede inferni in terris quarenda. a solid central sphere of fire the flaming nucleus of gehenna two thousand miles in diameter. secondly, there shall roll around this central ball on all sides an ignited ocean of liquid fire two thousand miles in depth, the peculiar residence of the wicked, the sulphurous lake spoken of in the apocalypse. thirdly, around this infernal sea a vast spherical arch will hang, a thousand miles thick, a massive and unbroken shell, through which there are no spiracles, and whose external surface, beautiful beyond conception, becomes the heaven of the redeemed, where christ himself, perfect man as well as perfect god, fixes his residence and establishes the local sovereignty of the universal archangel." a comfortable thought it must be for the saints, as they roam the flowery fields, basking in immortal bliss, to remember that under the crust they tread, a soundless sea of fire is forever plunging on its circular course, all its crimson waves packed with the agonized faces of the damned as thick as drops! the whole scheme is without real foundation. science laughs at such a theory. its scriptural supports are either ethnic figments or rhetorical tropes. reason, recollecting the immateriality of the soul, dissipates the ghastly dream beyond the possibility of restoration to belief. following the historic locations of the abode of departed souls, we next ascend from the interior of the earth, and above the surface of the earth, into the air and the lofty realms of ether. the ancient caledonians fixed the site of their spirit world in the clouds. their bards have presented this conception in manifold forms and with the most picturesque details. in tempests the ghosts of their famous warriors ride on the thunderbolts, looking on the earth with eyes of fire, and hurling lances of lightning. they float over the summits of the hills or along the valleys in wreaths of mist, on vapory steeds, waving their shadowy arms in the moonlight, the stars dimly glimmering through their visionary shapes. the laplanders also placed their heaven in the upper air, where the northern lights play. they regarded the auroral streamers as the sport of departed spirits in the happy region to which they had risen. such ideas, clad in the familiar imagery furnished by their own climes, would naturally be suggested to the ignorant fancy, and easily commended to the credulous thoughts, of the celts and finns. explanation and refutation are alike unnecessary. plutarch describes a theory held by some of the ancients locating hell in the air, elysium in the moon. after death all souls are compelled to spend a period in the region between the earth and the moon, the wicked in severe tortures and for a longer time, the good in a mild discipline soon purging away all their stains and fitting them for the lunar paradise. after tarrying a season there, they were either born again upon the earth, or transported to the divine realm of the sun. macrobius, too, says, "the platonists reckon as the infernal part iv. chap. ix. p. . dr. cumming (the end, lect. x.) teaches the doctrine of the literal resurrection of the flesh, and the subsequent residence of the redeemed on this globe as their eternal heaven under the immediate rule of christ. quite a full detail of the historic and present belief in this scheme may be found in the recent work of its earnest advocate, d. t. taylor, the voice of the church on the coming of the redeemer, or a history of the doctrine of the reign of christ on earth. in his essay on the face in the orb of the moon. region the whole space between the earth and the moon." he also adds, "the tropical signs cancer and capricorn are called the gates of the sun, because there he meets the solstice and can go no farther. cancer is the gate of men, because by it is the descent to the lower regions; capricorn is the gate of gods, because by it is a return for souls to the rank of gods in the seat of their proper immortality." the manicheans taught that souls were borne to the moon on leaving their bodies, and there washed from their sins in water, then taken to the sun and further cleansed in fire. they described the moon and sun as two splendid ships prepared for transferring souls to their native country, the world of perfect light in the heights of the creation. the ancient hebrews thought the sky a solid firmament overarching the earth, and supporting a sea of inexhaustible waters, beyond which god and his angels dwelt in monopolized splendor. eliphaz the temanite says, "is not god in the height of heaven? and behold the stars, how high they are; but he walketh upon the arch of heaven!" and job says, "he covereth the face of his throne, and spreadeth his clouds under it. he hath drawn a circular bound upon the waters to the confines of light and darkness." from the dazzling realm above this supernal ocean all men were supposed, until after the resurrection of christ, to be excluded. but from that time the belief gradually spread in christendom that a way was open for faithful souls to ascend thither. ephraim the syrian, and ambrose, located paradise in the outermost east on the highest summit of the earth, stretching into the serene heights of the sky. the ancients often conceived the universe to form one solid whole, whose different provinces were accessible from each other to gods and angels by means of bridges and golden staircases. hence the innumerable paradisal legends associated with the mythic mountains of antiquity, such as elborz, olympus, meru, and kaf. among the strange legends of the middle age, gervase of tilbury preserves the following one, illustrative of this belief in a sea over the sky: "one sunday the people of an english village were coming out of church, a dark, gloomy day, when they saw the anchor of a ship hooked to one of the tombstones, the cable, tightly stretched, hanging down the air. presently they saw a sailor sliding down the rope to unfix the anchor. when he had just loosened it the villagers seized hold of him; and, while in their hands, he quickly died, as though he had been drowned!" there is also a famous legend called "st. brandon's voyage." the worthy saint set sail from the coast of ireland, and held on his way till he arrived at the moon, which he found to be the location of hell. here he saw judas iscariot in execrable tortures, regularly respited, however, every week from saturday eve till sunday eve! the thought so entirely in accordance with the first impression made by the phenomenon of the night sky on the ignorant senses and imagination that the stars are set in a firm revolving dome, has widely prevailed; and the thought that heaven lies beyond that solid arch, in the unknown space is a popular notion lingering still. the scriptural image declaring that the convulsions of the last day will shake the stars from their sockets in the in somnium scipionis, lib. i. cap. xi. ibid. cap. xii. augustine, de natura boni, cap. xliv. de paradiso eden, sermo i. heavenly floor, "as a fig tree casteth her untimely figs when she is shaken of a mighty wind," although so obviously a figure of speech, has been very generally credited as the description of a literal fact yet to occur. and how many thousands of pious christians have felt, with the sainted doddridge, "ye stars are but the shining dust of my divine abode, the pavement of those heavenly courts where i shall see my god!" the universal diffusion in civilized nations of the knowledge that the visible sky is no substantial expanse, but only an illimitable void of space hung with successive worlds, has by no means banished the belief, originally based on the opposite error, in a physical heaven definitely located far overhead, the destination of all ransomed souls. this is undoubtedly the most common idea at the present time. an english clergyman once wrote a book, afterwards translated into german, to teach that the sun is hell, and that the black spots often noticed on the disk of that orb are gatherings of damned souls. isaac taylor, on the contrary, contends with no little force and ingenuity that the sun may be the heaven of our planetary system, a globe of immortal blessedness and glory. the celebrated dr. whiston was convinced that the great comet which appeared in his day was hell. he imagined it remarkably fitted for that purpose by its fiery vapor, and its alternate plunges, now into the frozen extremity of space, now into the scorching breath of the sun. tupper fastens the stigma of being the infernal prison house on the moon, in this style: "i know thee well, o moon, thou cavern'd realm, sad satellite, thou giant ash of death, blot on god's firmament, pale home of crime, scarr'd prison house of sin, where damned souls feed upon punishment: oh, thought sublime, that amid night's black deeds, when evil prowls through the broad world, thou, watching sinners well, glarest o'er all, the wakeful eye of hell!" bailey's conception is the darker birth of a deeper feeling: "there is a blind world, yet unlit by god, rolling around the extremest edge of light, where all things are disaster and decay: that black and outcast orb is satan's home that dusky world man's science counteth not upon the brightest sky. he never knows how near it comes to him; but, swathed in clouds, as though in plumed and palled state, it steals, hearse like and thief like, round the universe, forever rolling, and returning not, swinden, on the nature and location of hell. physical theory of another life, chap. xvi. robbing all worlds of many an angel soul, with its light hidden in its breast, which burns with all concentrate and superfluent woe." in the average faith of individuals to day, heaven and hell exist as separate places located somewhere in the universe; but the notions as to the precise regions in which they lie are most vague and ineffectual when compared with what they formerly were. the scandinavian kosmos contained nine worlds, arranged in the following order: gimle, a golden region at the top of the universe, the eternal residence of allfather and his chosen ones; next below that, muspel, the realm of the genii of fire; asgard, the abode of the gods in the starry firmament; vindheim, the home of the air spirits; manheim, the earth, or middle realm; jotunheim, the world of the giants, outside the sea surrounding the earth; elfheim, the world of the black demons and dwarfs, just under the earth's surface; helheim, the domain of the goddess of death, deep within the earth's bosom; and finally, niflheim, the lowest kingdom of horror and pain, at the very bottom of the creation. the buddhist kosmos, in the simplest form, as some of them conceived it, was composed of a series of concentric spheres each separated from the next by a space, and successively overarching and under arching each other with circular layers of brightness above and blackness beneath; each starry hollow overhead being a heaven inhabited by gods and blessed souls, each lurid hollow underfoot being a hell filled with demons and wicked souls in penance. the arabian kosmos, beginning with the earth, ascended to a world of water above the firmament, next to a world of air, then to a world of fire, followed in rising order by an emerald heaven with angels in the form of birds, a heaven of precious stones with angels as eagles, a hyacinth heaven with angels as vultures, a silver heaven with angels as horses, a golden and a pearl heaven each peopled with angel girls, a crystal heaven with angel men, then two heavens full of angels, and finally a great sea without bound, each sphere being presided over by a chief ruler, the names of all of whom were familiar to the learned arabs. the syrian kosmos corresponded closely to the foregoing. it soared up the mounting steps of earth, water, air, fire, and innumerable choruses successively of angels, archangels, principalities, powers, virtues, dominations, thrones, cherubim and seraphim, unto the expanse whence lucifer fell; afterwards to a boundless ocean; and lastly to a magnificent crown of light filling the uppermost space of all. it is hard for us to imagine the aspects of the universe to the ancients and the impressions it produced in them, all seemed so different then, in the dimness of crude observation, from the present appearance in the light of astronomic science. anaximander held that the earth was of cylindrical form, suspended in the middle of the universe and surrounded by envelopes of water, air, and fire, as by the coats of an onion, but that the exterior stratum was broken up and collected into masses, and thus originated the sun, moon, and stars, which are carried around by the three spheres in which they are fixed. many of the oriental nations believed the planets to be animated beings, conscious divinities, freely marching around their high realms, keeping watch and ward over the creation, smiling their favorites on to happy fortune, dupuis, l'origine de tous les cultes, planche no. . arist. de coel. ii. . fixing their baleful eyes and shedding disastrous eclipse on "falling nations and on kingly lines about to sink forever." this belief was cherished among the later greek philosophers and roman priests, and was vividly held by such men as philo, origen, and even kepler. it is here that we are to look for the birth of astrology, that solemn lore, linking the petty fates of men with the starry conjunctions, which once sank so deeply into the mind of the world, but is now wellnigh forgotten: "no more of that, ye planetary lights! your aspects, dignities, ascendancies, your partite quartiles, and your plastic trines, and all your heavenly houses and effects, shall meet no more devout expounders here. the joy of jupiter, the exaltation of the dragon's head, the sun's triplicity and glorious day house on high, the moon's dim detriment, and all the starry inclusions of all signs, shall rise, and rule, and pass, and no one know that there are spirit rulers of all worlds, which fraternize with earth, and, though unknown, hold in the shining voices of the stars communion on high and everywhere." the belief that the stars were living beings, combining with the fancy of an unscientific time, gave rise to the stellar apotheosis of heroes and legendary names, and was the source of those numerous asterisms, out lined groups of stars, which still bedeck the skies and form the landmarks of celestial topography. it was these and kindred influences that wrought together "to make the firmament bristle with shapes of intermittent motion, aspect vague, and mystic bearings, which o'ercreep the earth, keeping slow time with horrors in the blood;" the gorgon's petrific head, the bear's frightful form, berenice's streaming hair, the curdling length of ophiuchus, and the hydra's horrid shape. the poetic eye of old religion saw gods in the planets walking their serene blue paths, "osiris, bel, odin, mithras, brahm, zeus, who gave their names to stars which still roam round the skies all worshipless, even from climes where their own altars once topp'd every hill." by selected constellations the choicest legends of the antique world are preserved in silent enactment. on the heavenly sea the argonautss keep nightly sail towards the golden fleece. there herakles gripes the hydra's heads and sways his irresistible club; arion with his harp rides the docile dolphin; the centaur's right hand clutches the wolf; the hare flees from the raging eye and inaudible bark of the dog; and space crawls with the horrors of the scorpion. in consequence of the earth's revolution in its orbit, the sun appears at different seasons to rise in connection with different groups of stars. it seems as if the sun made an annual journey around the ecliptic. this circuit was divided into twelve parts corresponding to the months, and each marked by a distinct constellation. there was a singular agreement in regard to these solar houses, residences of the gods, or signs of the zodiac, among the leading nations of the earth, the persians, chaldeans, hebrews, syrians, hindus, chinese, arabians, japanese, siamese, goths, javanese, mexicans, peruvians, and scandinavians. among the various explanations of the origin of these artificial signs, we will notice only the one attributed by volney to the egyptians. the constellations in which the sun successively appeared from month to month were named thus: at the time of the overflow of the nile, the stars of inundation, (aquarius;) at the time of ploughing, stars of the ox, (taurus;) when lions, driven forth by thirst, appeared on the banks of the nile, stars of the lion, (leo;) at the time of reaping, stars of the sheaf, (virgo;) stars of the lamb and two kids, (aries,) when these animals were born; stars of the crab, (cancer,) when the sun, touching the tropic, returned backwards; stars of the wild goat, (capricorn,) when the sun reached the highest point in his yearly track; stars of the balance, (libra,) when days and nights were in equilibrium; stars of the scorpion, (scorpio,) when periodical simooms burned like the venom of a scorpion; and so on of the rest. the progress of astronomical science from the wild time when men thought the stars were mere spangles stuck in a solid expanse not far off, to the vigorous age when ptolemy's mathematics spanned the scope of the sky; from the first reverent observations of the chaldean shepherds watching the constellations as gods, to the magnificent reasonings of copernicus dashing down the innumerable crystalline spheres, "cycle on epicycle, orb on orb," with which crude theorizers had crowded the stellar spaces; from the uncurbed poetry of hyginus writing the floor of heaven over with romantic myths in planetary words, to the more wondrous truth of le verrier measuring the steps from nimble mercury flitting moth like in the beard of the sun to dull neptune sagging in his cold course twenty six hundred million miles away; from the half inch orb of hipparchus's naked eye, to the six feet speculum of rosse's awful tube; from the primeval belief in one world studded around with skyey torch lights, to the modern conviction of octillions of inhabited worlds all governed by one law constitutes the most astonishing chapter in the history of the human mind. every step of this incredible progress has had its effect in modifying the conceptions of man's position and importance in nature and of the connection of his future fate with localities. of old, the entire creation was thought to lie pretty much within the comprehension of man's unaided senses, and man himself was supposed to be the chief if not the sole object of divine providence. the deities often came down in incarnations and mingled with their favorites and rescued the earth from evils. every thing was anthropomorphized. man's relative magnitude and power were believed to be such that he fancied during an eclipse that, by screams, the crashing of gongs, and magic rites, he could scare away the monsters pigott, scandinavian mythology, chap. i. p. . volney, ruins, chap. xxii. sect. . maurice, hist. hindostan, vol. i. pp. - . who were swallowing the sun or the moon. meteors shooting through the evening air the arabs believed were fallen angels trying to get back into heaven but hurled from the crystal battlements by the flaming lances of the guardian watchers. then the gazer saw "the top of heaven full of fiery shapes, of burning cressets." now the student contemplates an abyss swarming with orbs each out weighing millions of our earth. then they read their nativities in the planets and felt how great must be the state overwatched by such resplendent servitors. now "they seek communion with the stars that they may know how petty is this ball on which they come and go." then the hugest view of the extent of the universal sphere was that an iron mass would require nine days and nights to plunge from its olympian height to its tartarean depth. now we are told by the masters of science that there are stars so distant that it would take their light, travelling at a rate of nearly twelve million miles a minute, thirty million years to reach us. the telescope has multiplied the size of the creation by hundreds of millions, and the grandest conception of the stellar universe possible to the most capacious human mind probably bears no larger proportion to the fact than an orrery does to the solar system. our earth is a hundred million miles from the sun, whose diameter is so monstrous that a hundred such orbs strung in a straight line would occupy the whole distance. the sun, with all his attendant planets and moons, is sweeping around his own centre supposed by some to be alcyone at the rate of four hundred thousand miles a day; and it will take him eighteen million years to complete one revolution. our firmamental cluster contains, it has been calculated, in round numbers about twenty million stars. there are many thousands of such nebula visible, some of them capable of packing away in their awful bosoms hundreds of thousands of our galaxies. measure off the abysmal space into seven hundred thousand stages each a hundred million miles wide, and you reach the nearest fixed stars, for instance, the constellation of the lyre. multiply that inconceivable distance by hundreds of thousands, and still you will discern enormous sand banks of stars obscurely glittering on the farthest verge of telescopic vision. and even all this is but a little corner of the whole. coleridge once said, "to some infinitely superior being, the whole universe may be as one plain, the distance between planet and planet being only as the pores in a grain of sand, and the spaces between system and system no greater than the intervals between one grain and the grain adjacent." one of the vastest thoughts yet conceived by any mortal mind is that of turning the universe from a mechanical to a chemical problem, as illustrated by prof. lovering. assuming the acknowledged truths in physics, that the ultimate particles of matter never actually touch each other, and that water in evaporating expands into eighteen hundred times its previous volume, he demonstrates that the porosity of our solar system is no greater than that of steam. "the porosity of granite or gold may be equal to that of steam, cambridge miscellany, . the greater density being a stronger energy in the central forces." and the conclusion is scientifically reached that "the vast interval between the sun and herschel is an enormous pore, while the invisible distance that separates the most closely nestled atoms is a planetary space, a stupendous gulf when compared with the little spheres between which it flows." thus we may think of the entire universe as a living organism, like a ripening orange, its component atoms worlds, the sidereal movements its vital circulation. surely, when a man looks up from his familiar fields and household roof to such incommensurable objects as scientific imagination reveals in the sparkling sword handle of perseus and the hazy girdle of andromeda, overpowering humility will fill his breast, an unutterable solemnity will "fall on him as from the very presence chamber of the highest." and will he not, when he contemplates the dust like shoals of stars, the shining films of firmaments, that retreat and hover through all the boundless heights, the nubecula nebula, looking like a bunch of ribbons disposed in a true love's knot, that most awful nebula whirled into the shape and bearing the name of the dumb bell, the crab nebula, hanging over the infinitely remote space, a sprawling terror, every point holding millions of worlds, thinking of these all transcendent wonders, and then remembering his own inexpressible littleness, how that the visible existence of his whole race does not occupy a single tick of the great sidereal clock, will he not sink under helpless misgivings, will he not utterly despair of immortal notice and support from the king of all this? in a word, how does the solemn greatness of man, the supposed eternal destiny of man, stand affected by the modern knowledge of the vastness of creation? regarding the immensities receding over him in unfathomable abysses bursting with dust heaps of suns, must not man be dwarfed into unmitigated contempt, his life and character rendered absolutely insignificant, the utmost span of his fortunes seeming but as the hum and glitter of an ephemeron in a moment's sunshine? doubtless many a one has at times felt the stupendous truths of astronomy thus palsying him with a crushing sense of his own nothingness and burying him in fatalistic despair. standing at night, alone, beneath the august dome studded from of old with its ever blazing lights, he gazes up and sees the innumerable armies of heaven marshalled forth above him in the order and silence of their primeval pomp. peacefully and forever they shine there. in nebula separated from nebula by trillions of leagues, plane beyond plane, they stretch and glitter to the feet of god. falling on his knees, he clasps his hands in speechless adoration, but feels, with an intolerable ache of the heart, that in this infinitude such an one as he can be of no consequence whatever. he waits passively for the resistless round of fate to bear him away, ah, whither? "conscious that he dwells but as an atom of dust on the outskirts of a galaxy of inconceivable glory" moving through eternity in the arms of law, he becomes, in his own estimation, an insensible dot lost in the uncontainable wilderness of firmamental systems. but this conclusion of despair is a mistake as sophistical as it is injurious, as baseless in reality as it is natural in seeming. its antidote and corrective are found in a more penetrative thought and juster understanding of the subject, which will preserve the greatness and the immortal destiny of man unharmed despite the frowning vastitudes of creation. this will appear from fairly weighing the following considerations. in the first place, the immensity of the material universe is an element entirely foreign to the problem of human fate. when seeking to solve the question of human destiny, we are to study the facts and prophecies of human nature, and to conclude accordingly. it is a perversion of reason to bring from far an induction of nebular magnitudes to crush with their brute weight the plain indications of the spirit of humanity. what though the number of telescopic worlds were raised to the ten thousandth power, and each orb were as large as all of them combined would now be? what difference would that make in the facts of human nature and destiny? it is from the experience going on in man's breast, and not from the firmaments rolling above his head, that his importance and his final cause are to be inferred. the human mind, heart, and conscience, thought, love, faith, and piety, remain the same in their intrinsic rank and capacities whether the universe be as small as it appeared to the eyes of abraham or as large as it seems in the cosmical theory of humboldt. thus the spiritual position of man really remains precisely what it was before the telescope smote the veils of distance and bared the outer courts of being. secondly, if we do bring in the irrelevant realms of science to the examination of our princely pretensions, it is but fair to look in both directions. and then what we lose above we gain below. the revelations of the microscope balance those of the telescope. the animalcula magnify man as much as the nebulsa belittle him. we cannot help believing that he who frames and provides for those infinitesimal animals quadrillions of whom might inhabit a drop of water or a leaf and have ample room and verge enough, and whose vital and muscular organization is as complicated and perfect as that of an elephant, will much more take care of man, no matter how numerous the constellations are. let us see how far scientific vision can look beneath ourselves as the question is answered by a few well known facts. in each drop of human blood there are three million vitalized corpuscular disks. considering all the drops made up in this way, man is a kosmos, his veins galaxies through whose circuits these red clustering planets perform their revolutions. how small the exhaling atoms of a grain of musk must be, since it will perfume every breath of air blowing through a hall for a quarter of a century, and then not be perceptibly diminished. an ounce of gold may be reduced into four hundred and thirty two billion parts, each microscopically visible. there is a deposit of slate in bohemia covering forty square miles to the depth of eight feet, each cubic inch of which ehrenberg found by microscopic measurement to contain forty one thousand million infusorial animals. sir david brewster says, "a cubic inch of the bilin polieschiefer slate contains above one billion seven hundred and fifty thousand millions of distinct individuals of galionella ferruginea." it is a fact that the size of one of these insects as compared with the bulk of a man is virtually as small as that of a man compared with the whole scheme of modern astronomy. thus, if the problem of our immortal consequence is prejudicially vitiated by contemplating the immense extremity of vision, it is rectified by gazing on the opposite extremity. if man justly scrutinized, without comparisons, is fitted for and worthy of eternity, lardner, hand book of natural philosophy, book i. chap. v. more worlds than one, ch. viii. note . no foreign facts, however magnificent or minute, should alter our judgment from the premises. thirdly, is it not evident that man's greatness keeps even pace along the scale of magnitude with the widening creation, since it is his mind that sees and comprehends how wondrous the dimensions of the universe are? the number of stars and the limits of space are not more astounding than it is that he should be capable of knowing such things, enumerating and staking them off. when man has measured the distance and weighed the bulk of sirius, it is more appropriate to kneel in amazement before the inscrutable mystery of his genius, the irrepressible soaring of his soul, than to sink in despair under the swinging of those lumps of dirt in their unapproachable spheres because they are so gigantic! the appearance of the creation to man is not vaster than his perception of it. they are exactly correlated by the very terms of the statement. as the astronomic world expands, the astronomer's mind dilates and must be as large as it in order to contain it in thought. what we lose in relative importance from the enlargement of the boundaries of the universe we gain from the new revelation of our capacities that is made through these transcendent achievements of our science. that we are favorites of the creator and destined for immortal glories is therefore logically and morally just as credible after looking through herschel's forty feet reflector and reading la place's mecanique celeste as it would be were this planet, suspended in a hollow dome, the entirety of material being. furthermore, we can reason only from the data we have; and, doing that, we should conclude, from the intrinsic and incomparable superiority of spirit to matter, that man and his kindred scattered in families over all the orbs of space were the especial objects of the infinite author's care. they are fitted by their filial attributes to commune with him in praise and love. they know the prodigious and marvellous works of mechanical nature; mechanical nature knows nothing. man can return his maker's blessing in voluntary obedience and thanks; matter is inanimate clay for the potter's moulding. turning from the gleaming wildernesses of star land to the intellect and heart, appreciating the infinite problems and hopes with which they deal and aspire, we feel the truth expressed by wordsworth in his tremendous lines: "i must, aloft ascending, breathe in worlds to which the heaven of heavens is but a veil. not chaos, darkest pit of erebus, nor aught of blinder vacancy, scoop'd out by help of dreams, can breed such fear and awe as fall upon us often when we look into our minds, into the mind of man." is not one noble thought of truth, one holy emotion of love, one divine impulse of devotion, better than a whole planet of mud, a whole solar system of gas and dust? who would not rather be the soul that gauges the deeps, groups the laws, foretells the movements, of the universe, writing down in a brief mathematical formula a complete horoscope of the heavens as they will appear on any given night thousands of years hence, than to be all that array of swooping systems? to think the world is to be superior to the world. that which appreciates is akin to that which makes; and so we are the creator's children, and these crowding nebula, packed with orbs as thick as the ocean beach with sands, are the many mansions of the house fitted up for his abode and ours. an only prince would be of more consideration than a palace, although its foundation pressed the shoulders of serpentarius, its turret touched the brow of orion, and its wings reached from the great bear to the phoenix. so a mind is of more importance than the material creation, and the moral condition of a man is of greater moment than the aspect of stellar firmaments. another illustration of the truth we are considering is to be drawn from the idealist theory, to which so many of the ablest thinkers of the world have given their devoted adhesion, that matter is merely phenomenal, no substantial entity, but a transient show preserved in appearance for some ulterior cause, and finally, at the withdrawal or suspension of god's volition, to return into annihilating invisibility as swiftly as a flash of lightning. the solid seeming firmaments are but an exertion of divine force projected into vision to serve for a season as a theatre for the training of spirits. when that process is complete, in the twinkling of an eye the phantasmal exhibition of matter will disappear, leaving only the ideal realm of indestructible things, souls with their inward treasures remaining in their native sphere of the infinite, while the outward universe "doth vanish like a ghost before the sun." the same practical result may also be reached by a different path, may be attained by the road of physics as well as by that of transcendental metaphysics. for newton has given in his principia a geometrical demonstration of the infinite compressibility of matter. all the worlds, therefore, that cluster in yon swelling vault can be condensed into a single globe of the size of a walnut; and then, on that petty lump of apparent substance, the enfranchised soul might trample in an exultation of magnanimous scorn upon the whole universe of earths, and soar through its own unlimited dominion, monarch of immortality, the snatched glory of shrunken firmaments flashing from its deathless wings. finally, a proper comprehension of the idea of god will neutralize the skepticism and despondency sometimes stealthily nourished or crushingly impressed by contemplations of the immensity of nature. if one, from regarding the cold and relentless mechanism of the surrounding system, tremble for fear of there being no kind overruler, let him gaze on the warm beauty that flushes the countenance of day, the mystic meditativeness that hangs on the pensive and starry brow of night, let him follow the commanding instincts of his own heart, and he will find himself clinging in irresistible faith and filial love to the thought of an infinite father. if still the atheistic sentiment obtrudes upon him and oppresses him, let him observe how every spot of immensity whereon the eye of science has fallen is crowded with unnumbered amazing examples of design, love, beneficence, and he will perceive that the irrefragable lines of argument drawn through the boundless spaces of creation light up the stupendous contour of god and show the expression of his features to be love. it seems as though any man acquainted with the truths and magnitudes of astronomy, who, after seeing the star strewn abysses, would look in his mirror and ask if the image reflected there is that of the greatest being in the universe, would need nothing further to convince him that a god, the creator, preserver, sovereign, lives. and then, if, mistakenly judging from his own limitations, he thinks that the particular care of all the accumulated galaxies of worlds, every world perhaps teeming with countless millions of conscious creatures, would transcend the possibilities even of god, a moment's reflection will dissolve that sophistry in the truth that god is infinite, and that to his infinite attributes globule and globe are alike, the oversight of the whole and of each part a matter of instantaneous and equal ease. still further: if this abstract truth be insufficient to support faith and bestow peace, what will he say to the visible fact that all the races of beings, and all the clusters of worlds, from the motes in a sunbeam to the orbs of the remotest firmament, are now taken care of by divine providence? god now keeps them all in being and order, unconfused by their multiplicity, unoppressed by their magnitude, and not for an instant forgetting or neglecting either the mightiest or the least. morbidly suspicious, perversely incredulous, must be the mind that denies, since it is so now in this state, that it may be so as well in the other state and forever! grasping the conception of one god, who creates, rules, and loves all, man may unpresumptuously feel himself to be a child of the infinite and a safe heir of immortality. looking within and without, and soaring in fancy amidst the blue and starry altitudes interspersed with blazing suns and nebulous oceans, he may cry, from a sober estimate of all the experimental and phenomenal facts within his reach, "even here i feel, among these mighty things, that as i am i am akin to god; that i am part of the use universal, and can grasp some portion of that reason in the which the whole is ruled and founded; that i have a spirit nobler in its cause and end, lovelier in order, greater in its powers, than all these bright and swift immensities." perhaps the force of these arguments may be better condensed and expressed by help of an individual illustration. while the pen is forming these words, the announcement of the death of dr. kane saddens the world. alas that the gallant heart no longer beats, the story of whose noble generosity and indomitable prowess has just thrilled the dull nations of men of meaner mould! who even though standing before a telescope under the full architecture of the heavens can believe that that maiden soul of heroism and devotion is now but an extinguished spark, that the love, honor, intelligence, self sacrificing consecration which enswathed him as with a saintly halo have all gone out? turning from that pale form, stretched on the couch of death in fatal cuba, through the receding gulfs of space where incomputable systems of worlds are wheeling on their eternal courses, and then looking back again from the noiseless glitter and awful bulk of the creation, do you despair of the immortal consequence of the poor sufferer whose fleshly moorings to existence are successively loosening at every gasp? ah, remember that matter and the soul are not alone! far above that clay bound, struggling soul, and far above those measureless, firmamental masses, is god, the maker of them both, and the lover of his child. glancing in his omniscience down upon that human death couch, around which affectionate prayers are floating from every part of the earth, and from whose pallid occupant confiding sighs are rising to his ear, he sees the unutterable mysteries of yearning thought, emotion, and power, which are the hidden being of man, and which so ally the filial spirit to the parent divinity. as beneath his gaze the faithful soul of elisha kane slowly extricating itself from its overwrought tabernacle, and also extricating itself from the holy network of heart strings which sixty millions of men speaking one speech have flung around him, if haply so they might retain him to earth to take their love and waiting honors rises into the invisible, seeking to return, bearing its virgin purity with it, to the bosom of god, will he overlook it, or carelessly spurn it into night, because the banks of stars are piled up so thick and high that they absorb his regards? my soul, come not thou into the counsels of them that think so! it should not be believed though astronomy were a thousand times astronomy. but it shall rather be thought that, ere now, the brave american has discovered the mariner whom he sought, though sailing on far other seas, where there is no destroying winter and no need of rescue. in association with the measureless spaces and countless worlds brought to light by astronomic science naturally arises the question whether the other worlds are, like our earth, peopled with responsible intelligences. in ancient times the stars were not generally thought to be worlds, but to be persons, genii or gods. at the dawn of creation "the morning stars sang together;" that is, "the sons of god shouted for joy." the stars were the living army of "jehovah of hosts." at the time when the theological dogmas now prevalent were first conceived, the greatness and glory of the universe were supposed to centre on this globe. the fortunes of man wellnigh absorbed, it was imagined, the interest of angels and of god. the whole creation was esteemed a temporary theatre for the enactment of the sublime drama of the fall and redemption of man. the entire heavens with all their host were thought to revolve in satellite dependence around this stationary and regal planet. for god to hold long, anxious, repeated councils to devise means to save us, was not deemed out of keeping with the relative dignity of the earth and the human race. but at length the progress of discovery put a different aspect on the physical conditions of the problem. the philosopher began to survey man's habitation and history, and to estimate man's comparative rank and destiny, not from the stand point of a solitary planet dating back only a few thousand years, but in the light of millions of centuries of duration and from a position among millions of crowded firmaments whence our sun appears as a dim and motionless star. this new vision of science required a new construction of theology. the petty and monstrous notions of the ignorant superstition of the early age needed rectification. in the minds of the wise and devout few this was effected; but with the great majority the two sets of ideas existed side by side in unreconciled confusion and contradiction, as they even continue to do unto this day. when it came to be believed that the universe teemed with suns, moons, and planets, composed of material substances, subject to day and night, and various other laws and changes, like our own abode, it was natural to infer that these innumerable worlds were also inhabited by rational creatures akin to ourselves and capable of worshipping god. numerous considerations, possessing more or less weight, were brought forward to confirm such a conclusion. the most striking presentation ever made of the argument, perhaps, is that in oersted's essay on the "universe as a single intellectual realm." it became the popular faith, and is undoubtedly more so now than ever before. towards the end of the seventeenth century a work was published in explicit support of this faith by fontenelle. it was entitled "conversations on the plurality of worlds," and had marked success, running through many editions. a few years later, huygens wrote a book, called "cosmotheoros," in maintenance of the same thesis. the more this doctrine obtained root and life in the convictions of men, the more strongly its irreconcilableness with the ordinary theology must have made itself felt by fearless and competent thinkers. could a quadrillion firmaments loaded with stars, each inhabited by its own race of free intelligences, all be burned up and destroyed in the day of judgment provoked on this petty grain of dust by the sin of adam? were the stars mere sparks and spangles stuck in heaven for us to see by, it would be no shock to our reason to suppose that they might be extinguished with our extinction; but, grasping the truths of astronomy as they now lie in the brain of a master in science, we can no longer think of god expelling our race from the joys of being and then quenching the splendors of his hall "as an innkeeper blows out the lights when the dance is at an end." god rules and over rules all, and serenely works out his irresistible ends, incapable of wrath or defeat. would it be more incongruous for him to be angry with an ant hill and come down to trample it, than to be so with the earth and appear in vindictive fire to annihilate it? from time to time, in the interests of the antiquated ideas, doubts have been raised as to the validity of the doctrine of stellar worlds stocked with intellectual families. hegel, either imbued with that gnostic contempt and hatred for matter which described the earth as "a dirt ball for the extrication of light spirits," or from an obscure impulse of pantheistic thought, sullies the stars with every demeaning phrase, even stigmatizing them as "pimples of light." michelet, a disciple of hegel, followed his example, and, in a work published in , strove vigorously to aggrandize the earth and man at the expense of the accepted teachings of astronomy. with argument and ridicule, wit and reason, he endeavored to make it out that the stars are no better than gleaming patches of vapor. we are the exclusive autocrats of all immensity. whewell has followed up this species of thought with quite remarkable adroitness, force, and brilliance. whether his motive in this undertaking is purely scientific and artistic, or whether he is impelled by a fancied religious animus, having been bitten by some theological fear which has given him the astrophobia, does not clearly appear. as specimens of the large number of treatises which have been published asserting the destruction of the whole creation in the day of judgment, the following may be consulted. osiander, de consummatione saculi dissertationum pentus. lund, de excidio universi totali et substantiali. frisch, die welt im feuer, oder das wahre vergehen und ende der welt durch den letzen sundenbrand. for a century past the opinion has been gaining favor that the great catastrophe will be confined to our earth, and that even this is not to be annihilated, but to be transformed, purged, and beautified by the crisis. see, e. g., brumhey, ueber die endliche umwandlung der erde durch feuer. kurtz, bibel and astronomie. simonton's eng. trans., ch. vi. sect. : incarnation of god. vorlesungen uber die ewige personlichkeit des geistes. of a plurality of worlds: an essay. brewster has replied to whewell's disturbing essay in a volume which more commands our sympathies and carries our reason, but is less sustained in force and less close in logic. powell has still more recently published a very valuable treatise on the subject; and with this work the discussion rests thus far, leaving, as we believe, the popular faith in an astronomic universe of inhabited worlds unshaken, however fatal the legitimate implications of that faith may be to other doctrines simultaneously held. it is curious to observe the shifting positions taken up by skepticism in science, now, with powerful recoil from the narrow bigotries of theology, eagerly embracing the sublimest dreams of astronomic speculation, and now inclining to the faith that the remoter stars are but brilliant globules trickling from the poles of some terrible battery in the godless heights of space. but if there be any thing sure in science at all, it is that the material creation is inconceivably vast, including innumerable systems, and all governed by invariable laws. but let us return from this episode. the foregoing sixfold argument, preserving us from the remorseless grasp of annihilation, leaves to us unchanged the problem of the relations which shall be sustained by the disembodied soul to time and space, the question as to the locality of the spirit world, the scene of our future life. sheol, hades, tartarus, valhalla with its mead brimmed horns, blessed isles, elysium, supernal olympus, firmamental heaven, paradisal eden, definite sites of celestial worlds for departed souls, the chaldee's golden orbs, the sanscrit meru, the indian hunting ground, the moslem's love bowers, and wine rivers, and gem palaces thronged with dark eyed houris, these notions, and all similar ones, of material residences for spirits, located and bounded, we must dismiss as dreams and cheats of the childish world's unripe fancy. there is no evidence for any thing of that coarse, crude sort. the fictitious theological heaven is a deposit of imagination on the azure ground of infinity, like a bird's nest on himalaya. what, then, shall we say? why, in the first place, that, while there are reasons enough and room enough for an undisheartened faith in the grand fact of human immortality, it is beyond our present powers to establish any detailed conclusions in regard to its locality or its scenery. but surely, in the second place, we should say that it becomes us, when reflecting on the scenes to be opened to us at death, to rise to a more ideal and sublime view than any of those tangible figments which were the products of untrained sensual imagination and gross materialistic theory. when the fleshly prison walls of the mind fall, its first inheritance is a stupendous freedom. the narrow limits that caged it here are gone, and it lives in an ethereal sphere with no impeding bounds. leaving its natal threshold of earth and the lazar house of time, its home is immensity, and its lease is eternity. even in our present state, to a true more worlds than one the creed of the philosopher and the hope of the christian. essay on the unity or plurality of worlds. see, furthermore, in westminster review, july, , recent astronomy and the nebular hypothesis. volger, erde and ewigkeit. (natural history of the earth as a periodical process of development in opposition to the unnatural geology of revolutions and catastrophes.) treise, dag endlose der grossen und der kleinen materiellen welt. thinker there is no ascent or descent or terminating wall in space, but equal motion illimitably in all directions; and no absolute standard of duration, only a relative and variable one from the insect of an hour, to man, to an archangel, to that incomprehensible being whose shortest moments are too vast to be noted by the awful nebula of the hour glass, although its rushing sands are systems of worlds. the soul emerges from earthly bondage emancipated into eternity, while "the ages sweep around him with their wings, like anger'd eagles cheated of their prey." we have now sufficient premonitions and examples of this wondrous enlargement to base a rational belief on. what hems us in when we think, feel, and imagine? and what is the heaven that shall dawn for us beyond the veil of death's domain but the realm of thought, the sphere of the spirit's unhampered powers? there are often vouchsafed to us here hours of outsoaring emotion and conception which make the enclosures in which the astronomer loiters seem narrow. "his skies are shoal, and imagination, like a thirsty traveller, pants to be through their desert. the roving mind impatiently bursts the fetters of astronomical orbits, like cobwebs in a corner of its universe, and launches itself to where distance fails to follow, and law, such as science has discovered, grows weak and weary." there are moods of spiritual expansion and infinite longing that illustrate the train of thought so well expressed in the following lines: "even as the dupe in tales arabian dipp'd but his brow beneath the beaker's brim, and in that instant all the life of man from youth to age roll'd its slow years on him, and, while the foot stood motionless, the soul swept with deliberate wing from pole to pole; so when the man the grave's still portal passes, closed on the substances or cheats of earth, the immaterial, for the things earth glasses, shapes a new vision from the matter's dearth: before the soul that sees not with our eyes the undefined immeasurable lies." then we realize that the spiritual world does not form some now unseen and distant region of the visible creation, but that the astronomic universe is a speck lying in the invisible bosom of the spiritual world. "space is an attribute of god in which all matter is laid, and other attributes he may have which are the home of mind and soul." we suppose the difference between the present embodied and the future disembodied state to be so vast that the conditions of the latter cannot be intelligibly illustrated by the analogies of the former. it is not to be expected that the human soul will ever be absolutely independent of time and space, literally transcending them, but only relatively so as compared with its earthly predicament. bulwer, king arthur, book xi. for, as an able thinker and writer a philosopher of the swedenborgian school, too has said, "the conception of a mind absolutely sundered from all connection with space is a mere pretence which words necessarily repudiate." the soul on the hypothesis that there is a soul is now in the body. evidently, on leaving the body, it must either be nowhere, and that is annihilation, which the vehement totality of our thought denies; or everywhere, and that implies infinity, the loss of finite being in boundless deity, a conclusion which we know of nothing to warrant; or somewhere, and that predicates a surviving individuality related to surrounding externals, which is the prophesied and satisfactory result in which we rest in faith, humbly confessing our ignorance as to all the minutia. it does not necessarily follow from this view, however, that the soul is limited to a fixed region in space. it may have the freedom of the universe. more wonders, and sublimer than mortal fancies have ever suspected, are waiting to be revealed when we die: "for this life is but being's first faint ray, and heaven on heaven make up god's dazzling day." we are here living unconsciously engirt by another universe than the senses can apprehend, thinly veiled, but real, and waiting for us with hospitable invitation. "what are those dream like and inscrutable thoughts which start up in moments of stillness, apparently as from the deeps, like the movement of the leaves during a silent night, in prognostic of the breeze that has yet scarce come, if not the rustlings of schemes and orders of existence near though unseen?" perchance the range of the abode and destiny of the soul after death is all immensity. the interstellar spaces, which we usually fancy are barren deserts where nonentity reigns, may really be the immortal kingdom colonized by the spirits who since the beginning of the creation have sailed from the mortal shores of all planets. they may be the crowded aisles of the universal temple trod by bright throngs of worshipping angels. the soul's home, the heaven of god, may be suffused throughout the material universe, ignoring the existence of physical globes and galaxies. so light and electricity pervade some solid bodies, as if for them there were no solidity. so, doubtless, there are millions of realities around us utterly eluding our finest senses. "a fact," emerson says, "is the last issue of spirit," and not its entire extent. "the visible creation is the terminus of the invisible world," and not the totality of the universe. there are gradations of matter and being, from the rock to the flower, from the vegetable to man. is it most probable that the scale breaks abruptly there, or that other ranks of spiritual existence successively rise peopling the seeming abysses unto the very confines of god? "can every leaf a teeming world contain, can every globule gird a countless race, yet one death slumber in its dreamless reign clasp all the illumed magnificence of space? life crowd a grain, from air's vast realms effaced? the leaf a world, the firmament a waste?" an honest historical criticism forces us, however reluctantly, to loose our hold from the various supposed localities of the soul's destination, which have pleased the fancies and won the assent of mankind in earlier times. but it cannot touch the simple and cardinal fact of an immortal life for man. it merely forces us to acknowledge that while the fact stands clear and authoritative to instinct, reason, and faith, yet the how, and the where, and all such problems, are wrapped in unfathomable mystery. we are to obey and hope, not dissect and dogmatize. however the fantastic dreams of the imagination and the subtle speculations of the intellect may shift from time to time, and be routed and vanish, the deep yearning of the heart remains the same, the divine polarity of the reason changes not, and men will never cease fondly to believe that although they cannot tell where heaven is, yet surely there is a heaven reserved for them somewhere within the sheltering embrace of god's infinite providence. we may not say of that kingdom, lo, here! or lo, there! but it is wherever god's approving presence extends: and is that not wherever the pure in heart are found? let every elysian clime the breezes blow over, every magic isle the waves murmur round, every subterranean retreat fancy has devised, every cerulean region the moon visits, every planet that hangs afar on the neck of night, be disenchanted of their imaginary charms, and brought, by the advance of discovery, within the relentless light of familiarity, for the common gaze of fleshly eyes and tread of vulgar feet, still the prophetic mind would not be robbed of its belief in immortality; still the unquenchable instincts of the heart would retain, uninjured, the great expectation of another world, although no traveller returns from its voiceless bourne to tell in what local direction it lies, no voyager comes back from its mystic port to describe its latitude and longitude on the chartless infinite of space. turn we now from the lateral distribution of notions as to a future life, to their lineal development. we have seen that the development of belief as to the locality of our future destination has been a chase of places, over the earth, under the earth, through the sky, as fast as the unknown was brought within the known, until it has stopped at the verge of the unknowable. there we stand, confessing our inability to fix the scene. the doctrine of the conditions and contents of the future life has followed the same course as that of its locality. in the first stage of belief the future life consists of the gross conditions and materials of the known present reflected, under the impulse of the senses, into the unknown future. this style of faith prevailed for a vast period, and is not yet obsolete. when the king of dahomey has done a great feat, he kills a man to carry the tidings to the ghost of his royal father. when he dies himself, a host are killed, that he may enter deadland with a becoming cortege. his wives also are slain, or commit suicide, that they may rejoin him. the second stage of belief is reached when, under the ethical impulse, only certain refined elements of the present, discriminated portions of the products of reason, imagination and sentiment, are reflected into the future, and accepted as the facts of the life there. critical processes, applied to thought and faith, cause the rejection of much that was received. that alone which answers to our wants, and has coherence, continues to be held chalmers, sermon, heaven a character and not a locality. as truth. an example is afforded by augustine in his essay, de libero arbitrio. he argues that the wicked are kept in being on the out skirts of the material universe; partly wretched, partly happy; too bad for heaven, too good for annihilation; incapable of attaining the summit of their beatified destiny. not the crude reflection of the present state, but a criticized and purged portion of the results of speculation on it, is thrown forward, and composes the doctrine of the future life. this is the condition of faith in which civilized mankind, for the most part, now are. the third stage of development is that wherein the thinker perceives that it is illegitimate to reflect into the future any of the realities or relations of the present, and then to regard them as the truths of the experience which awaits him after death. his experience here is the resultant of his faculties as related to the universe. destroy his organization, and what follows? one will say, "nonentity." another, more wise and modest, will say, "something necessarily unknown as yet." we have no better right to project into the ideal space of futurity the ingredients of our thoughts than we have to project there the objects of our senses. bunsen, whose thought and scholarship included pretty much all the knowledge of mankind, represents this stage of faith. he stands on the religious side of the movement of science, believing in immortality without defining it. comte stands on the positivist side, blankly denying all objective immortality. these two represent the results in which, advancing from its opposite sides, the logical development of the doctrine of a future life ends. with comte, atheistic dogmatism crushing every eternal hope; with bunsen, christian faith pointing the child to an eternal home in the father. for all but fetichistic minds the only choice lies between these two. the organic evolution of the doctrine of a life to come is, therefore, a process of faith beginning with the crude transference of the elements of the present into the future, continuing with refined modifications of that transference, ending with an entire cessation of it as inapplicable and incompetent. having examined all the historic, experimental, and scientific data within our reach, we pause on the edge of the part which we know, and wait, with serene trust, though with bowed head and silent lip, before the unknowable whole. chapter viii. critical history of disbelief in a future life. if the first men were conscious spirits who, at the command of god, dropped from the skies into organic forms of matter, or who were created here on an exalted plane of insight and communion far above any thing now experienced by us, then the destination of man to a life after death may originally have been a fact of direct knowledge, universally seen and grasped without any obscuring peradventure. from that state it gradually declined into dubious dimness as successive generations grew sinful, sensual, hardened, immersed and bound in affairs of passion and earth. it became remoter, assumed a questionable aspect, gave rise to discussions and doubts, and here and there to positive disbelief and open denial. thus, beginning as a clear reality within the vision of all, it sank into a matter of uncertain debate among individuals. but if the first men were called up into being from the earth, by the creative energy of god, as the distinct climax of the other species, then the early generations of our race, during the long ages of their wild and slowly ameliorating state, were totally ignorant of any conscious sequel to the fate seemingly closed in death. they were too animal and rude yet to conceive a spiritual existence outside of the flesh and the earth. among the accumulating trophies of their progressive intellectual conquests hung up by mankind in the historic hall of experience, this marvellous achievement is one of the sublimest. what a day was that for all humanity forever after, when for the first time, on some climbing brain, dawned from the great sun of the spirit world the idea of a personal immortality! it was announced. it dawned separately wherever there were prepared persons. it spread from soul to soul, and became the common faith of the world. still, among every people there were pertinacious individuals, who swore not by the judge and went not with the multitude, persons of less credulous hearts and more skeptical faculties, who demurred at the great doctrine, challenged it in many particulars, gainsaid it on various grounds, disbelieved it from different motives, and fought it with numerous weapons. whichever of the foregoing suppositions be adopted, that the doctrine of a future life subsided from universal acceptance into party contention, or that it arose at length from personal perception and authority into common credit, the fact remains equally prominent and interesting that throughout the traceable history of human opinion there is a line of dissenters who have thought death the finality of man, and the next world an illusion. the history of this special department of thought opens a wide and fertile subject. to gain a comprehensive survey of its boundaries and a compact epitome of its contents, it will be well to consider it in these two lights and divisions, all the time trying to see, step by step, what justice, and what injustice, is done: first, the dominant motive forces animating the disbelievers; secondly, the methods and materials they have employed. at first thought it would appear difficult to tell what impulses could move persons to undertake, as many constantly have undertaken, a crusade against a faith so dear to man, so ennobling to his nature. peruse the pages of philosophical history with careful reflection, and the mystery is scattered, and various groups of disbelievers stand revealed, with earnest voices and gestures assailing the doctrine of a future life. one company, having their representatives in every age, reject it as a protest in behalf of the right of private judgment against the tyranny of authority. the doctrine has been inculcated by priesthoods, embodied in sacred books, and wrought into the organic social life of states; and acceptance of it has been commanded as a duty, and expected as a decent and respectable thing. to deny it has required courage, implied independent opinions, and conferred singularity. to cast off the yoke of tradition, undermine the basis of power supporting a galling religious tyranny, and be marked as a rebellious freethinker in a generation of slavish conformists, this motive could scarcely fail to exhibit results. some of the radical revolutionists of the present time say that the doctrine of the divine right of kings and the infallible authority of the priesthood is the living core of the power of tyranny in the world. they therefore deny god and futurity in order to overthrow their oppressors, who reign over them and prey upon them in the name of god and the pretended interests of a future life. the true way to secure the real desideratum corruptly indicated in this movement is not by denying the reality of a future life, but by removing the adjustment of its conditions and the administration of its rewards and penalties out of the hands of every clique of priests and rulers. a righteously and benignly ordered immortality, based in truth and adjudicated by the sole sovereignty of god, is no engine of oppression, though a doctrine of heaven and hell irresponsibly managed by an orphic association, the guardians of a delphic tripod, the owners of a secret confessional, or the interpreters of an exclusive creed, may be. in a matter of such grave importance, that searching and decisive discrimination, so rare when the passions get enlisted, is especially needed. because a doctrine is abused by selfish tyrants is no reason for supposing the doctrine itself either false or injurious. no little injury has been done to the common faith in a future life, great disbelief has been provoked unwittingly, by writers who have sought to magnify the importance of revealed religion at the expense of natural religion. many such persons have labored to show that all the scientific, philosophical, and moral arguments for immortality are worthless, the teachings and resurrection of christ, the revealed word of god, alone possessing any validity to establish that great truth. an accomplished author says, in a recent work, "the immortality of the soul cannot be proved without the aid of revelation." bishop courtenay published, a few years since, a most deliberate and unrelenting attack upon the arguments for the deathlessness of the soul, seeking with persevering remorselessness to demolish every one of them, and to prove that man totally perishes, but will be restored to life at the second coming of christ. there can scarcely be a question that such statements usually awaken and confirm a deep skepticism as to a future life, instead of enhancing a grateful estimate of the gospel. j. a. luther, recensetur numerus eorum, qui immortalitatem inficiati sunt. schmidt, geschichte der deutschen literatur im neunzehnten jahrhundert, band iii. kap. iv.: der philosophische radicalismus. bowen, metaphysical and ethical science, part ii. ch. ix. the future states: their evidences and nature considered on principles physical, moral, and scriptural, with the design of showing the value of the gospel revelation. if man is once annihilated, it is hardly credible that he will be identically restored. such a stupendous and arbitrary miracle clashes with the continuity of the universe, and staggers rather than steadies faith. we should beg such volunteers however sincere and good their intentions to withhold the impoverishing gift of their service. and when kindred reasonings are advanced by such men as the unbelieving hume, we feel tempted to say, in the language of a distinguished divine speaking on this very point, "ah, gentlemen, we understand you: you belong to the sappers and miners in the army of the aliens!" another party of disbelievers have repudiated the whole conception of a future state as a protest against the nonsense and cruelty associated with it in the prevailing superstitions and dogmatisms of their time. from the beginning of history in most nations, the details of another existence and its conditions have been furnished to the eager credulity of the people by the lawless fancies of poets, the fine spinning brains of metaphysicians, and the cold blooded calculations or hot headed zeal of sectarian leaders. of course a mass of absurdities would grow up around the central germ and a multitude of horrors sprout forth. while the common throng would unquestioningly receive all these ridiculous and revolting particulars, they could not but provoke doubt, satire, flat rejection, from the bolder and keener wits. so we find it was in greece. the fables about the under world the ferriage over the styx, poor tantalus so torturingly mocked, the daughters of danaus drawing water in sieves all were accredited by the general crowd on one extreme. on the other extreme the whole scheme, root and branch, was flung away with scorn. the following epitaph on an unbeliever is attributed to callimachus. "o charidas, what are the things below? vast darkness. and what the returns to earth? a falsehood. and pluto? a fable. we have perished: this is my true speech to you; but, if you want the flattering style, the pellaan's great ox is in the shades." meanwhile, a few judicious mediators, neither swallowing the whole gross draught at a gulp, nor throwing the whole away with utter disgust, drank through the strainer of a discriminative interpretation. because caprice, hatred, and favoritism are embalmed in some perverse doctrine of future punishment is no defensible reason for denying a righteous retribution. because heaven has been located on a hill top, and its sublime denizens made to eat ambrosia and sometimes to fall out among themselves, is no adequate reason for rejecting the idea of a heavenly life. puerilities of fancy and monstrosities of passion arbitrarily connected with principles claiming to be eternal truths should be carefully separated, and not the whole be despised and trodden on together. from lack of this analysis and discrimination, in the presence of abnormal excrescences and offensive secretions dislike and disbelief have often flourished where, if judicial thought and conscience had cut off the imposed deformities plutarch, de superstition. the reality of the popular credulity and terror in later rome clearly appears from the fact that marcus aurelius had a law passed condemning to banishment "those who do any thing through which men's excitable minds are alarmed by a superstitious fear of the deity." nero, after murdering his mother, haunted by her ghost and tortured by the furies, attempted by magical rites to bring up her shade from below, and soften her vindictive wrath suetonius, vita neronis, cap. xxxiv. epigram. xiv. and dispelled the discoloring vengeance, faith and love would have been confirmed in contemplating the pure and harmonious form of doctrine left exposed in the beauty of benignant truth. the aim ostensibly proposed by lucretius, in his elaborate and masterly exposition of the epicurean philosophy, is to free men from their absurd belief in childish legends and their painful fears of death and hell. as far as merely this purpose is concerned, he might have accomplished it as effectually, perhaps, and more directly, by exposing the adventitious errors without assailing the great doctrine around which they had been gathered. bion the borysthenite is reported by diogenes laertius to have said, with a sharp humor, that the souls below would be more punished by carrying water in whole buckets than in such as had been bored! a soul may pass into the unseen state though there be no plutonian wherry, suffer woe though there be no river pyriphlegethon, enjoy bliss though there be no cup of nectar borne by hebe. but to fly to rash extremes and build positive conclusions on mere ignorance has always been natural to man, not only as a believer, but also as an iconoclastic denier. a third set of disbelievers in a future life consists of those who advocate the "emancipation of the flesh" and assert the sufficiency of this life when fully enjoyed. they attack the dogma of immortality as the essential germ of asceticism, and abjure it as a protest against that superstitious distrust and gloom which put a ban on the pleasures of the world. these are the earthlings who would fain displace the stern law of self denial with the bland permission of self indulgence, rehabilitate the senses, feed every appetite full, and, when satiated of the banquet of existence, fall asleep under the table of the earth. the countenance of duty, severe daughter of god, looks commands upon them to turn from dallying ease and luxury, to sacrifice the meaner inclinations, to gird themselves for an arduous race through difficulties, to labor and aspire evermore towards the highest and the best. they prefer to install in her stead aphrodite crowned with paphian roses, her eyes aglow with the light of misleading stars, her charms bewitching them with fatal enchantments and melting them in softest joys. the pale face of death, with mournful eyes, lurks at the bottom of every winecup and looks out from behind every garland; therefore brim the purple beaker higher and hide the unwelcome intruder under more flowers. we are a cunning mixture of sense and dust, and life is a fair but swift opportunity. make haste to get the utmost pleasure out of it ere it has gone, scorning every pretended bond by which sour ascetics would restrain you and turn your days into penitential scourges. this gospel of the senses had a swarm of apostles in the last century in france, when the chief gates of the cemetery in paris bore the inscription, "death is an eternal sleep." it has had more in germany in this century; and voices of enervating music are not wanting in our own literature to swell its siren chorus. perhaps the greatest prophet it has had was heine, whose pages reek with a fragrance of pleasure through which sighs, like a fading wail from the solitary string of a deserted harp struck by a lonesome breeze, the perpetual refrain of death! death! death! his motto seems to be, "quick! let me pierer, universal lexikon, dritte auflage, deutsche literatur, sect. . schmidt, geschichte der deutschen literatur im neuntzehnten jahrhundert, band iii: kap. i.: das junge deutschland. enjoy what there is; for i must die. oh, the gusty relish of life! oh, the speechless mystery, the infinite reality, of death!" he says himself, comparing the degradation of his later experience with the soaring enthusiasm of his youth, "it is as if a star had fallen from heaven upon a hillock of muck, and swine were gnawing at it!" these men think that the doctrine of a future life, like a great magnet, has drawn the needle of human activity out of its true direction; that the dominant tendency of the present age is, and of right ought to be, towards the attainment of material well being, in a total forgetfulness to lay up treasures in heaven. the end is enjoyment; the obstacle, asceticism; the means to secure the end, the destruction of faith in immortality, so that man, having nothing left but this world, will set himself to improve and enjoy it. the monkish severity of a morbid and erroneous theology, darkening the present and prescribing pain in it to brighten the future and increase its pleasures, legitimates an earnest reaction. but that reaction should be wise, measured by truth. it should rectify, not demolish, the prevailing faith. for the desired end is most likely to be reached by perceiving, not that all terminates in the grave, but that the greatest enjoyment flows from a self controlling devotedness to noble ends, that the claims of another life are in perfect unison with the interests of this life, that the lawful fruition of every function of human nature, each lower faculty being subordinated to each higher one, and the highest always reigning, at once yields the most immediate pleasure and makes the completest preparation for the hereafter. in the absence of the all irradiating sun of immortality, these disbelievers, exulting over the pale taper of sensual pleasure, remind us of a parcel of apes gathered around a cold glow worm and rejoicing that they have found a fire in the damp, chilly night. besides the freethinkers, who will not yield to authority, but insist upon standing apart from the crowd, and the satirists, who level their shafts undiscriminatingly against what they perceive associated with absurdity, and the worldlings, who prefer the pleasures of time to the imaginarily contrasted goods of eternity, there is a fourth class of men who oppose the doctrine of a personal immortality as a protest against the burdensome miseries of individuality. the gipseys exclaimed to borrow, "what! is it not enough to have borne the wretchedness of this life, that we must also endure another?" a feeling of the necessary limitations and suffering exposures of a finite form of being has for untold ages harassed the great nations of the east with painful unrest and wondrous longing. pantheistic absorption to lose all imprisoning bounds, and blend in that ecstatic flood of deity which, forever full, never ebbs on any coast has been equally the metaphysical speculation, the imaginative dream, and the passionate desire, of the hindu mind. it is the basis and motive of the most extensive disbelief of individual immortality the world has known. "the violence of fruition in these foul puddles of flesh and blood presently glutteth with satiety," and the mortal circuits of earth and time are a round of griefs and pangs from which they would escape into the impersonal godhead. sheerly against this lofty strain of poetic souls is that grovelling life of ignorance which, dominated by selfish instincts, crawling on brutish grounds, the zincali, part ii. ch. i. cannot awaken the creative force of spiritual wants slumbering within, nor lift its head high enough out of the dust to see the stars of a deathless destiny; and a fifth group of disbelievers deny immortality because their degraded experience does not prophesy it. many a man might say, with autolycus, "for the life to come, i sleep out the thought of it." a mind holy and loving, communing with god and an ideal world, "lighted up as a spar grot" with pure feelings and divine truths, is mirrored full of incorporeal shapes of angels, and aware of their immaterial disentanglement and eternity. a brain surcharged with fires of hatred, drowsed with filthy drugs, and drenched with drunkenness, will teem, on the contrary, with vermin writhing in the meshes of decaying matter. cleaving to evanescent things, men feel that they are passing away like leaves on waves; filled with convictions rooted and breathing in eternity, they feel that they shall abide in serene survival, like stars above tempests. turn from every obscene sight, curb every base propensity, obey every heavenly vision by assimilation of immortal things, sacred self denials and toils, disinterested sympathies and hopes, accumulate divine treasures and kindle the mounting flame of a divine life, and at the same time consciousness will crave and faith behold an illimitable destiny. experiences worthy of being eternal generate faith in their own eternity. but the ignorant and selfish sensualist, whose total experience is of the earth earthy, who has no realization of pure truth, goodness, beauty, is incapable of sincere faith in immortal life. the dormancy of his higher powers excludes the necessary conditions of such a faith. his ignoble bodily life does not furnish the conscious basis and prophecy of a glorious spiritual life, but shudderingly proclaims the cessation of all his experience with the destruction of his senses. the termination of all the functions he knows, what else can it be but his virtual annihilation? when to the privative degradations of an uncultivated and earthy experience, naturally accompanied by a passive unbelief in immortality, are added the positive coarseness and guilt of a thick insensibility and a wicked life, aggressive disbelief is quite likely to arise, the essay of an uneasy conscience to slay what it feels would be a foe, and strangle the worm that never dies. the denial springing from such sources is refuted when it is explained. its motive should never by any man be yielded to, much less be willingly nourished. it should be resisted by a devout culture courting the smiles of god, by rising into the loftier airs of meditation and duty, by imaginative sentiment and practical philanthropy, until the eternal instinct, long smothered under sluggish loads of sense and sin, reached by a soliciting warmth from heaven, stirs with demonstrating vitality. the last and largest assemblage of dissenters from the prevailing opinion on this subject comprises those who utter their disbelief in a future existence out of simple loyalty to seeming truth, as a protest against what they think a false doctrine, and against the sophistical and defective arguments by which it has been propped. it may be granted that the five previously named classes are equally sincere in their convictions, honest assailants of error and adherents of truth; but they are actuated by animating motives of a various moral character. in the present case, the ruling motive is purely a determination, as buchner says, to stand by the facts and to establish the correct doctrine. the directest and clearest way of giving a descriptive account of the active philosophical history of this class of disbelievers will be to follow on the lines of their tracks with statements and criticisms of their procedures. disbelief in the doctrine of a future life for man has planted itself upon bold affirmation, and fortified itself with arguments which may most conveniently be considered under five distinct heads. first is the sensational argument from appearance. in death the visible functions cease, the organism dissolves, the mind disappears; there is apparently a total scattering and end of the individual. that these phenomena should suggest the thought of annihilation is inevitable; to suppose that they prove the fact is absurd. it is an arrant begging of the question; for the very problem is, does not an invisible spiritual entity survive the visible material disintegration? among the unsound and superstitious attempts to prove the fact of a future life is that founded on narratives of ghosts, appearances and visions of the dead. dr. tafel published at tubingen in a volume aiming to demonstrate the immortality and personal identity of the soul by citation of ninety cases of supernatural appearances, extending from the history of the ghost whose address to curtius rufus is recorded by tacitus, to the wonderful story told by renatus luderitz in . such efforts are worse than vain. their data are so explicable in many cases, and so inconclusive in all, that they quite naturally provoke deeper disbelief and produce telling retorts. while here and there a credulous person is convinced of a future life by the asserted appearance of a spirit, the well informed psychologist refers the argument to the laws of insanity and illusions, and the skeptic adds as a finality his belief that there is no future life, because no ghost has ever come back to reveal and certify it. the argument on both sides is equally futile, and removed from the true requisitions of the problem. to the philosophical thinker a mere appearance is scarcely a presumption in favor of a conclusion in accordance with it. science and experience are full of examples exposing the nullity or the falsity of appearances. the sun seems to move around the earth; but truth contradicts it. we seem to discern distances and the forms of bodies by direct sight; but the truth is we see nothing but shades and colors: all beyond is inference based on acquired experience. the first darkness would seem to the trembling contemplator absolutely to blot out the universe; but in truth it only prevented him from seeing it. the first thorough unconscious sleep would seem to be the hopeless destruction of the soul in its perfect oblivion. death is forever for the first time, shrouded in the misleading obscurities of an unknown novelty. appearances are often deceitful, yielding obvious clews only to mistakes and falsehoods. they are always superficial, furnishing no reliable evidence of the reality. "who could have thought such darkness lay conceal'd within thy beams, o sun! or who could find, whilst fly and leaf and insect stood reveal'd, that to such countless orbs thou mad'st us blind? why then do we shun death with anxious strife? if light can thus deceive, wherefore not life?" spazier, antiphadon, oder prufung einiger hauptbeweise fur die einfachheit und unsterblichkeit der menschlichen seele. when the body dies, the mind is no longer manifested through it. that is all we immediately know by perception. the inference that the mind has therefore ceased to be at all, is a mere supposition. it may still live and act, independently of the body. an outside phenomenon can prove nothing here. we must by some psychological probe pierce to the core of the being and discern, as there concealed, the central interpretation of truth, or else, in want of this, turn from these surface shadows and seek the solution in some other province. millions of appearances being opposed to the truth or inadequate to hint it, we must never implicitly trust their suggestions. what microscope can reveal the organic life in a kernel of corn, and show that through the decay of that kernel a stalk will spring up and bear a thousand kernels more? but if a new mental life emerges from the dying form of man, it lies in a spiritual realm whereinto we have no instruments to gaze. every existent thing has its metes and limits. in fact, the only final weapon and fort of a thing is its environing limitation. it goes into nothing if that be taken down, the atheist says; into infinity, the mystic says. the mistake and difficulty lie in discerning what the last wall around the essence is. "the universe is the body of our body." the boundary of our life is boundless life. schlegel has somewhere asked the question, "is life in us, or are we in life?" because man appears to be wholly extinguished in death, we have no right whatever in reason to conclude that he really is so. the star which seemed to set in the western grave of aged and benighted time, we, soon coming round east to the true spirit sky, may discern bright in the morning forehead of eternity. there can be no safe reasoning from the outmost husk and phenomenon of a thing to its inmost essence and result. and, in spite of any possible amount of appearance, man himself may pass distinct and whole into another sphere of being when his flesh falls to dust. that science should search in vain with her finest glasses to discern a royal occupant reigning in the purple chambered palace of the heart, or to trace any such mysterious tenant departing in sudden horror from the crushed and bleeding house of life, belongs to the necessary conditions of the subject; for spirit can only be spiritually discerned. as well might you seek to smell a color, or taste a sound, tie a knot of water, or braid a cord of wind. next comes the abstract argument from speculative philosophy. under this head are to be included all those theories which deny the soul to be a spiritual entity, but reduce it to an atomic arrangement, or a dependent attribute, or a process of action. heracleitus held that the soul was fire: of course, when the fuel was exhausted the fire would go out. thales taught that it was water: this might all evaporate away. anaximenes affirmed that it was air, of which all things were formed by rarefaction and condensation: on such a supposition it could have no permanent personal identity. critias said it was blood: this might degenerate and lose its nature, or be poured out on the ground. leucippus maintained that it was a peculiar concourse of atoms: as these came together, so they might fly apart and there be an end of what they formed. the followers of aristotle asserted that it was a fifth unknown substance, with properties of its own, unlike those of fire, air, water, and earth. this might be mortal or immortal: there was nothing decisive in the conception or the defining terms to prove which it was. accordingly, the peripatetic school has always been divided on the question of the immortality of the soul, from the time of its founder's immediate disciples to this day. it cannot be clearly shown what the mighty stagyrite's own opinion really was. speculative conceptions as to the nature of the soul like the foregoing, when advanced as arguments to establish its proper mortality, are destitute of force, because they are gratuitous assumptions. they are not generalizations based on careful induction of facts; they are only arbitrary hypotheses. furthermore, they are inconsistent both with the facts and phenomena of experience. mind cannot fairly be brought into the category of the material elements; for it has properties and performs functions emphatically distinguishing it from every thing else, placing it in a rank by itself, with exclusive predicates of its own. can fire think? can water will? can air feel? can blood see? can a mathematical number tell the difference between good and evil? can earth be jealous of a rival and loyal to a duty? can a ganglion solve a problem in euclid or understand the theodicee of leibnitz? it is absurd to confound things so distinct. mind is mind, and matter is matter; and though we are now consciously acquainted with them only in their correlation, yet there is as much reason for supposing that the former survives the close of that correlation as for supposing that the latter does. true, we perceive the material remaining and do not perceive the spirit. yes; but the differentiation of the two is exactly this, that one is appreciable by the senses, while the other transcends and baffles them. it is absolutely inconceivable in imagination, wholly incredible to reason, intrinsically nonsensical every way, that a shifting concourse of atoms, a plastic arrangement of particles, a regular succession of galvanic shocks, a continuous series of nervous currents, or any thing of the sort, should constitute the reality of a human soul, the process of a human life, the accumulated treasures of a human experience, all preserved at command and traversed by the moral lines of personal identity. the things lie in different spheres and are full of incommunicable contrasts. however numerously and intimately correlated the physical and psychical constituents of man are, yet, so far as we can know any thing about them, they are steeply opposed to each other both in essence and function. otherwise consciousness is mendacious and language is unmeaning. a recent able author speaks of "that congeries of organs whose union forms the brain and whose action constitutes the mind." the mind, then, is an action! can an action love and hate, choose and resolve, rejoice and grieve, remember, repent, and pray? is not an agent necessary for an action? all such speculative conceptions as to the nature of soul as make it purely phenomenal are to be offset, if they can be, by the view which exhibits the personal ego or conscious selfhood of the soul, not as an empty spot in which a swarm of relations centre as their goal point, but as an indestructible monad, the innermost and substantial essence and cause of the organization, the self apprehending and unchangeable axis of all thinking and acting. some of the most free, acute, learned, wise, and powerful thinkers of the world have been champions of this doctrine; especially among the moderns may be named leibnitz, herbart, goethe, and hartenstein. jacobi most earnestly maintained it both against mendelssohn and against fichte. bucknill and tuke, psychological medicine, p. . that the mind is a substantial entity, and therefore may be conceived as immortal, that it is not a mere functional operation accompanying the organic life, a phantom procession of conscious states filing off on the stage of the cerebrum "in a dead march of mere effects," that it is not, as old aristoxenus dreamed, merely a harmony resulting from the form and nature of the body in the same way that a tune springs from the consenting motions of a musical instrument, seems to be shown by facts of which we have direct knowledge in consciousness. we think that the mind is an independent force, dealing with intellectual products, weighing opposing motives, estimating moral qualities, resisting some tendencies, strengthening others, forming resolves, deciding upon its own course of action and carrying out its chosen designs accordingly. if the soul were a mere process, it could not pause in mid career, select from the mass of possible considerations those adapted to suppress a base passion or to kindle a generous sentiment, deliberately balance rival solicitations, and, when fully satisfied, proceed. yet all this it is constantly doing. so, if the soul were but a harmony, it would give no sounds contrary to the affections of the lyre it comes from. but actually it resists the parts of the instrument from which they say it subsists, exercising dominion over them, punishing some, persuading others, and ruling the desires, angers, and fears, as if itself of a different nature. until an organ is seen to blow its own bellows, mend its shattered keys, move its pedals, and play, with no foreign aid, "i know that my redeemer liveth," or a violin tunes up its discordant strings and wields its bow in a spontaneous performance of the carnival, showing us every cremona as its own paganini, we may, despite the conceits of speculative disbelief, hold that the mind is a dynamic personal entity. that thought is the very "latch string of a new world's wicket." thirdly, we have the fanciful argument from analogy. the keen champions of disbelief, with their athletic agility of dialectics, have made terrible havoc among the troops of poetic arguments from resemblance, drawn up to sustain the doctrine of immortality. they have exposed the feebleness of the argument for our immortality from the wonderful workmanship and costliness of human nature, on the ground that what requires the most pains and displays the most skill and genius in its production is the most lovingly preserved. for god organizes the mind of a man just as easily as he constructs the geometry of a diamond. his omnipotent attributes are no more enlisted in the creation of the intelligence of an elephant or the gratitude of a soul than they are in the fabrication of the wing of a gnat or the fragrance of a flower. infinite wisdom and power are equally implied in each and in all. they have shown the gross defectiveness of the comparison of the butterfly and psyche. the butterfly, lying in the caterpillar neatly folded up like a flower in the bud, in due time comes forth. it is a material development, open to the senses, a common demonstration tosensible experience. the disengagement of a spirit from a fleshly encasement, on the other hand, is a pure hypothesis wholly removed from sensible apprehension. there is no parallel in the cases. so the ridiculousness has been made evident of plato's famous analogical argument that by a general law of nature all things are produced contraries from contraries; warmth dies into the plato, phado, . life of cold, and lives out of the death of cold; night is born from the death of day, and day is born from the death of night; and thus everywhere death springs from life, and life from death. the whole comparison, considered as evidence of human immortality, is baseless and full of astonishing sophistry. when one hemisphere of the earth is turned away from the sun, it is night there; when it is turned towards the sun, it is day again. to this state of facts this revolving succession there is obviously no parallelism whatever in the two phenomenal phases of man, life and death, whereof one finishes its course and then the other seems fixed forever. in like manner, when jeremy taylor, after the example of many others, especially of old licetus, argues soberly, as he does in a letter to evelyn, for the immortality of the soul from the analogy of lamps burning in tombs for centuries with no waste of matter, there is no apposite and valid similarity, even if the instances were not a childish fable. an equally baseless argument for the existence of an independent spiritual body within the material body, to be extricated from the flesh at death and to survive in the same form and dimensions, we recollect having seen in a work by a swedenborgian author. he reasons that when a person who has suffered amputation feels the lost limb as vividly as ever before, the phenomenon is palpable proof of a spirit limb remaining while the fleshly one is gone! of course, the simple physiological explanation is that the mind instinctively refers the sensations brought in by the severed nerves to the points where, by inveterate custom, it has hitherto learned to trace their origination. the report being the same, it is naturally attributed to the same source. but those skeptics who have mercilessly exposed these fallacious arguments from analogy have themselves reasoned in the same way as fallaciously and as often. when individual life leaves the physical man, say they, cosmical life immediately enters the corpse and restores it to the general stock of nature; so when personal consciousness deserts the psychical man, the universal spirit resumes the dissolving soul. when certain conditions meet, a human soul is formed, a gyrating current of thought, or a vortex of force: soon some accident or a spent impulse breaks the eddy, and the individual subsides like a whirl in the air or a water spout in the sea. when the spirit fuel of life is exhausted, man goes out as an extinguished candle. he ceases like a tone from a broken harp string. all these analogies are vitiated by radical unlikeness between the things compared. as arguments they are perfectly worthless, being spoiled by essential differences in the cases. wherein there is a similarity it falls short of the vital point. there is no justice in the conception of man as a momentary gyre of individual consciousness drawn from the universal sea by a sun burst of the spirit. he is a self ruling intelligence, using a dependent organism for his own ends, comprehending his own destiny, successively developing its conditions and acquiring the materials for occupying and improving them, with a prevision of eternity. a flower may just as well perish as live, a musical sound cease as continue, a lamp be put out as burn on: they know not the difference. not so with the soul of man. we here overpass a discrete degree and enter upon a subject crawford, on the phadon of plato. heber's life and works of jeremy taylor, vol. i. p. . dee guays, true system of religious philosophy, letter v. within another circle of categories. let the rash reasoner who madly tries conclusions on a matter of such infinite pith and moment, with data so inapt and poor, pause in sacred horror before, having first "put out the light, he then puts out the light!" there are peculiarities in the soul removing it out of the range of physical combinations and making a distinct destiny fairly predicable of it. when we reflect on the nature of a self contained will, intelligent of immaterial verities and perhaps transcendent of space and time, how burlesque is the terror of the ancient corpuscular theorists lest the feebly cohering soul, on leaving the body, especially if death happened during a storm, would be blown in pieces all abroad! socrates, in the phado, has a hearty laugh over this; but lucretius seriously urges it. the answer to the skeptical reasoning from analogy is double. first, the lines of partial correspondence which visibly terminate within our tangible reach can teach nothing as to the termination of other lines which lead out of sight and disappear in a spiritual region. an organized material form for instance, a tree is fatally limited: else it would finally fill and exhaust the earth. but no such limiting necessity can be predicated of mind. secondly, as far as there is genuine analogy, its implications are much stronger in favor of immortality than against it. matter, whose essence is materiality, survives all apprehensible changes; spirit, whose essence is spirituality, should do the same. another attack on the doctrine of a future life is masked in the negative argument from ignorance. we do not know how we shall live again; we are unable to construct the conditions and explain the details of a spiritual state of existence; and therefore, it is said, we should of right conclude that there is no such thing. the proposition is not usually stated so blankly; but it really amounts to that. the epicureans say, as a tree cannot exist in the sky, nor clouds in the ocean, nor fishes in the meadow, nor water in stone, thus the mind cannot exist apart from the nerves and the blood. this style of reasoning is a bold begging of the question. our present experience is vacant of any specific knowledge of the conditions, methods, and contents of a life it has not yet experienced: therefore there is no such life. innumerable millions of facts beyond our present knowledge unquestionably exist. it is not in any way difficult to conceive that innumerable millions of experiences and problems now defying and eluding our utmost powers may hereafter fall within our comprehension and be easily solved. will you accept the horizon of your mind as the limit of the universe? in the present, experience must be confined within its own boundaries by the necessity of the case. if an embryo were endowed with a developed reasoning consciousness, it could not construct any intelligible theory of the world and life into which it was destined soon to emerge. but it would surely be bad logic to infer, because the embryo could not, from want of materials within its experience, ascertain the how, the when, the where, and the what, of the life awaiting it, that there was no other life reserved for it. an acorn buried and sprouting in the dark mould, if endowed with intelligent consciousness, could not know any definite particulars of its maturer life yet to be in the upper light and air, with cattle in its shade and lib. iii. ll. - . singing birds in its branches. ignorance is not a ground of argument, only of modest suspense. we can only reason from what we know. and the wondrous mysteries or natural miracles with which science abounds, myriads of truths transcending all fictions, melt and remove from the path of faith every supposed difficulty. any quantity of facts have been scientifically established as real which are intrinsically far more strange and baffling to belief than the assertion of our immortality is. indeed, "there is no more mystery in the mind living forever in the future than in its having been kept out of life through a past eternity. the authentic wonder is the fact of the transition having been made from the one to the other; and it is far more incredible that, from not having been, we are, than that, from actual being, we shall continue to be." the unbounded possibilities of life suggested by science and open to imagination furnish sufficient reply to the objection that we cannot conceive the precise causes and modes of a future state. had one little partitular been different in the structure of the eye, or in the radiation and media of light, we should never have seen the stars! we should have supposed this globe the whole of creation. so some slightest integument or hindering condition may now be hiding from us the sublime reality and arrangements of immortality which in death's disenveloping hour are to burst into our vision as the stellar hemisphere through the night. shut up now to one form of being and one method of experience, how can we expect an exhaustive knowledge of other and future forms and methods of being and experience? it is a contradiction to ask it. but the soul is warranted in having faith, like a buried mustard seed which shall yet mount into its future life. a sevenfold denser mystery and a seven times narrower ignorance would bring no real argument against the survival of the soul. for in an omnipotent infinitude of possibilities one line of ignorance cannot exhaust the avenues and capacities of being. escaping the flesh, we may soar into heaven "upon ethereal wings, whose way lies through an element so fraught with living mind that, as they play, their every movement is a thought." ignorance of the scientific method avails nothing against moral proofs of the fact. the physiologist studying the coats of the stomach, the anatomist dissecting the convolutions of the brain, could never tell that man is capable of sentiment, faith, and logic. no stethoscope can discern the sound of an expectation, and no scalpel can lay bare a dream; yet there are expectations and dreams. no metaphysical glass can detect, no prognosis foresee, the death of the soul with the dissolution of its organs: on empirical grounds, the assertion of it is therefore unwarranted. but though no amount of obscurity enveloping the subject, no extent of ignorance disabling us now to grasp the secret, is a legitimate basis of disbelief, yet actually, there can be no doubt, in multitudes of instances, the effectual cause of disbelief in immortality is the impossibility of vividly conceiving its conditions and scenery; "for," as one of the subtlest of thinkers has remarked, "however far faith may go beyond experience, it martineau, sermon on immortality, in endeavors after the christian life. must always be chained down by it at a distance." but if there are good grounds for anticipating another life, then man should confide in it, no matter how incompetent he is to construct its theatre and foresee its career. a hundred years ago, one might have scouted the statement that the most fearful surgical operations would be performed without inflicting pain, because it was impossible to see how it could be done. or if a person had been informed that two men, one in europe and one in america, should converse in lightning athwart the bed of the atlantic, he might have rejected it as an absurdity, because he could not conceive the mode. if destined to a future life, all we could reasonably expect to know of it now would be through hinting germs and mystic presentiments of it. and there we do experience to the fullest extent: their ceaseless prophecies are everywhere with us, "blank misgivings of a creature moving about in worlds not realized." the last weapon of disbelief in a future life is the scientific argument from materialism. lucretius says, "there is nothing in the universe but bodies and the properties of bodies." this is a characteristic example of the method of the materialists: to assume, as an unquestionable postulate, the very point in debate, and that, too, in defiance of the intelligent instincts of consciousness which compel every unsophisticated person to acknowledge the simultaneous existence of mind and matter as two correlated yet distinct realities. the better statement would be, there is nothing in the universe but forces and the relations of forces. for, while we know ourselves in immediate self consciousness, as personal intelligences perceiving, willing, and acting, all we know of an outward world is the effects produced on us by its forces. certainly the powers of the universe can never be lost from the universe. therefore if our souls are, as consciousness declares, causes, and not mere phenomena, they are immortal. to ignore either factor in the problem of life, the material substratum or the dynamic agent, is mere narrowness and blindness. but the unbelieving naturalist argues that the total man is a product of organization, and therefore that with the dissolution of the living combination of organs all is over. matter is the marriage bed and grave of soul. priestley says, "the principle of thought no more belongs to substance distinct from body than the principle of sound belongs to substance distinct from bell." there is no relevancy in the comparison, because the things are wholly unlike. thought is not, as hartley's theory avowed it was, a vibration of a cerebral nerve, as sound is a vibration of a sonorous body; for how could these vibrations be accumulated in memory as our mental experiences are? when a material vibration ends, it has gone forever; but thoughts are stored up and preserved. a hypothetical simile, like that just cited from priestley, is not a cogent argument. it is false science thus to limit the modes of being to what lies within our present empirical knowledge. is it not pure presumptuousness to affirm that the creative power of almighty god is shut up so that intelligent creatures can only exist in forms of flesh? when a recent materialist makes the assertion, "the thinking man is the sum of his senses," it is manifest that he goes beyond the data, assuming what should be proved, and confounding the instruments and material with the workman. it is as if one should say, "a working cotton manufactory is the sum of its machines," excluding the persons by whose guiding oversight all is done. plainly, it may be granted that all which man knows is brought in through the door of the senses, without allowing the same of all that man is. we have no warrant for pronouncing the identical coextensiveness of what man learns to know and what he is created to be. the very proposition, man knows something, presupposes three things, a subject, an act, and an object. whether the three exist and perish together or not is matter for discussion, and not fairly to be settled by forcibly lumping the heterogeneous three into homogeneous unity. in the present state of science it must be confessed that all kinds of physical force whether mechanical, chemical, vital, or nervous are drawn more or less directly from the sun, the material reservoir of power for our solar system. this must be admitted, although some recent materialists have pushed the doctrine so far that they may be called the parsees of the west. whenever the proper conditions for an animate being are furnished, a force derived from the sun lifts matter from its stable equilibrium to the level of organic existence. in due season, from its wavering life struggle there, it decays back to the deep rest of insensate earth. this is a truth throughout the organic realm, from the bulb of a sea weed to the brain of a casar. so much cannot be denied. every organism constantly receives from the universe food and force, and as constantly restores in other forms the material and dynamical equivalents of what it receives, and finally itself goes to the sources whence it came. but the affirmation of this for all within the physical realm is not the admission of it for what subsists in an immeasurably higher rank and totally different realm. entering the psychical sphere, where we deal with a new, distinct order of realities, not impenetrability, weight, extension, but thought, affection, will, why may not this province contain eternities, even though the other holds only mortalities? it is a question to be examined on its own grounds, not to be put aside with a foregone conclusion. in nature the cause endures under all evanescent changes, and survives all phenomenal beginnings and endings: so in spirit the causal personality, if there be one, may outlast all the shifting currents of the outward phenomena in endless persistence. of course, the manifestation of the mind through the senses must cease when the senses no longer remain. the essence of the controversy, then, is exactly this: is the mind an entity? or is it a collection of functions? if the soul be a substantial force, it is immortal. if it be a phenomenal resultant, it ceases at death. a reductio ad absurdum immediately occurs. if the psychical totality of man consists of states of feeling, modes of volition, and powers of thought, not necessitating any spiritual entity in which they inhere, then, by parity of reasoning, the physical totality of man consists of states of nutrition, modes of absorption, and powers of change, implying no body in which these processes are effectuated! qualities cannot exist without a subject: and just as physical attributes involve a body, spiritual attributes involve a mind. and, if a mental entity be admitted, its death or cessation with that of its outer dress or case is not a fair inference, but needs appropriate evidence. the soul of a man has been defined as the sum of his ideas, an idea being a state of the consciousness. but the essence of mind must be the common ground and element of all moleschott, licht and leben. different states of consciousness. what is that common ground and element but the presence of a percipient volitional force, whether manifested or unmanifested, still there? that is the germinal core of our mental being, integrating and holding in continuous identity all the phenomenal fluctuations of consciousness. it is clear that any other representation seems inconsistent with the most central and vivid facts of our knowledge. in illustration of this, let us see how every materialistic exposition omits utterly, or fails to account for, the most essential element, the solitary and crowning peculiarity, of the case. for example, it is said that thought or consciousness is a phenomenal process of changes sustained in the brain by a correlation of forces, just as the rainbow appears, but has no ontological subsistence of its own: the continuous spectrum hangs steady on the ceaselessly renewed substratum of the moving mist rack and the falling rain. but the comparison is absolutely inapplicable, because the deepest ground principle of the mind is wanting in the rainbow, namely, conscious and continuous identity holding in each present moment all the changes of the past moments. if the rainbow were gifted with consciousness, it could not preserve its personal identity, but merely its phenomenal identity, for any two successive moments, since its whole being would consist of an untied succession of states. traversing the body from its extreme tissues to the gray vesicular substance composing the spinal cord and covering the surface and convolutions of the brain, are two sets of white, fibrous nerves. one set, the afferents, bring in sensation, all kinds of tidings, from the out world of matter. the other set, the efferents, carry out volition, all kinds of decrees, from the in world of mind. without an afferent nerve no influence of the world can reach the mind; and without an efferent nerve no conclusion of the mind can reach the world. as we are now constituted, this machinery is necessary for the intercommunication of the mind and the material universe. but if there be something in the case besides live machinery and crossing telegrams, if there be a monarch mind inaccessible to the vulgar crowd of things and only conversing with them through the internuncial nerves, that spirit entity may itself be capable of existing forever in an ideal universe and of communing there face to face with its own kingly lineage and brood. and we maintain that the account of the phenomena is grossly defective, and that the phenomena themselves are palpably inexplicable, except upon the supposition of such an entity, which uses the organism but is not the organism itself nor a function of it. "ideas," one materialist teaches, "are transformed sensations." yes; but that does not supersede a transforming mind. there must be a force to produce the transformations. "the phenomena of mind," says another, "consist in a succession of states of consciousness." yes; but what is it that presides over, takes up, and preserves this succession? the phenomena of the mind are not the mind itself. "the actions of the mind are the functions of the cerebrum," adds a third. yes; but the inquiry is, what is the mind itself? not, what are its acts? the admission of the gray nerve cells of the brain, as the material substratum through which sensations are received and volitions returned, does not exclude the necessity of a dynamical cause for the metamorphosing phenomenon. that cause must be free and intelligent, because the products of its action, as well as its accompanying consciousness, are marked by freedom and intelligence. for example, when a cylindrical and fibrous porter deposits his sensitive burden in the vesicular and cineritious substance, something examines it, tests its import, reflects on what shall be done, forms an intelligent resolution, and commands another porter to bear the dynamic load forth. the reflective and determining something that does this is the mind. thus, by the fact of an indissoluble dynamic will, is the broad lineal experience of man grasped and kept from dissipating into crumbled psychical states, as when the dead kings of ancient india were burned their corpses were wrapped in asbestos shrouds to hold the ashes together. the flame of a burnt out candle twinkling in the socket is not numerically the same with that which appeared when it was first lighted; nor is a river at any two periods numerically the same. different particles constantly feed an ever renewed flame or stream, just like the former but never the same. a totally new element appears when we contemplate mind. here, although the whole molecular substance of the visible organism is in perpetual flux, the same conscious personality persists through all, growing ever richer in an accumulating possession of past experiences still held in living command. the arethusa of identity threads the blending states of consciousness, and, passing the ocean bed of death, may emerge in some morning fount of immortality. a photographic image impressed on suitable paper and then obliterated is restored by exposure to the fumes of mercury. but if an indefinite number of impressions were superimposed on the same paper, could the fumes of mercury restore any one called for at random? yet man's memory is a plate with a hundred millions of impressions all cleanly preserved, and he can at will select and evoke the one he wants. no conceivable relationship of materialistic forces can account for the facts of this miraculous daguerreotype plate of experience, and the power of the mind to call out into solitary conspicuousness a desired picture which has forty nine million nine hundred and ninety nine thousand nine hundred and ninety nine latent pictures lying above it, and fifty millions below it. it has been said that "the impressions on the brain, whether perceptions or intellections, are fixed and retained through the exactness of assimilation. as the mind took cognizance of the change made by the first impression of an object acting on the brain through the sense organs, so afterwards it recognises the likeness of that change in the parts inserted by the nutritive process. this passage implies that the mind is an agent, not a phenomenon; and it describes some of the machinery with which the mind works, not the essence of the mind itself. its doctrine does not destroy nor explain the presiding and elective power which interprets these assimilated and preserved changes, choosing out such of them as it pleases, that unavoided and incomprehensible power, the hiding place of volition and eternity, whose startling call has often been known, in some dread crisis, to effect an instantaneous restoration of the entire bygone life, making all past events troop through the memory, a swiftly awful cavalcade marching along the fibrous pavement of the brain, while each terrified thought rushes to its ashy window to behold. we here leave the material realm behind and enter a spiritual province where other predicates and laws hold, and where, "delivered over to a night of pure light, in which no unpurged sight is sharp enough to penetrate the mysterious essence that sprouteth into different persons," we kneel in most pious awe, and cry, with sir paget. surgical pathology, lecture ii. thomas browne, "there is surely a piece of divinity in us, something that was before the elements and owes no homage unto the sun!" the fatal and invariable mistake of materialism is that it confounds means and steps with causes, processes with sources, organs with ends, predicates with subject. alexander bain denies that there is any cerebral closet or receptacle of sensation and imagery where impressions are stored to be reproduced at pleasure. he says, the revival of a past impression, instead of being an evocation of it from an inner chamber, is a setting on anew of the current which originally produced it, now to produce it again. but this theory does not alter the fact that all past impressions are remembered and can be revived at will by an internal efficiency. the miracle, and the necessity of an unchanging conscious entity to explain it, are implied just as they were on the old theory. "the organs of sense," sir isaac newton writes, "are not for enabling the soul to perceive the species of things in its sensorium, but for conveying them there." now, as we cannot suppose that god has a brain or needs any material organs, but rather that all infinitude is his sensorium, so spirits may perceive spiritual realities without any mediating organism. our physical experience in the present is no limit to the spiritual possibilities of the future. the materialistic argument against immortality fails, because it excludes essential facts. as anterior to our experience in the present state there was a power to organize experiences and to become what we are, so none of the superficial reasonings of a mere earth science can show that there is not now a power to organize experiences in a future state and to become what our faith anticipates we shall be. and this suggests to speculative curiosity the query, shall we commence our future life, a psychical cell, as we commenced our present life, a physical cell? it will be well, perhaps, to reply next to some of the aggressive sophistries of disbelief. the following lines by dr. beddoes are striking, but, considered as a symbol of life, seem almost wilfully defective: "the body is but an engine which draws a mighty stream of spiritual power out of the world's own soul, and makes it play a while in visible motion." man is that miraculous engine which includes not only all the needful machinery, but also fuel, fire, steam, and speed, and then, in climacteric addition to these, an engineer! does the engineer die when the fire goes out and the locomotive stops? when the engine madly plunges off the embankment or bridge of life, does the engineer perish in the ruin, or nimbly leap off and immortally escape? the theory of despair has no greater plausibility than that of faith. feuerbach teaches that the memento mori of reason meets us everywhere in the spiritual god's acre of literature. a book is a grave, which buries not the dead remains, but the quick frauenstadt, per materialismus, seine wahrheit und sein irrthum, s. . the senses and the intellect, p. . brodie, psychological inquiries, p. , d edition. man, not his corpse, but his soul. and so we live on the psychical deposits of our ancestry. our souls consist of that material which once constituted other souls, as our bodies consist of the material which once constituted other bodies. a thought, it is to be replied, is never excreted from the mind and left behind. only its existence is indicated by symbols, while itself is added to the eternal stock of the deathless mind. a thought is a spiritual product in the mind from an affection of the cerebral substance. a sentence is a symbol of a thought adapted to create in the contemplator just such a cerebral affection as that from which it sprang, and to deposit in his mind just such a spiritual product as that which it now denotes. thus are we stimulated and instructed by the transmitted symbols of our ancestors' experiences, but not literally nourished by assimilation of their very psychical substance, as this remorseless prophet of death's ghastly idealism would have us believe. still, in whatever aspect we regard it, one cannot but shudder before that terrible cineritious substance whose dynamic inhabitants are generated in the meeting of matter's messages with mind's forces, and sent forth in emblems to shake the souls of millions, revolutionize empires, and refashion the world. strauss employs an ingenious argument against the belief in a future life, an argument as harmless in reality as it is novel and formidable in appearance. "whether the nerve spirit be considered as a dependent product, or as the producing principle of the organism, it ends at death: for, in the former case, it can no longer be produced when the organism perishes; in the latter case, that it ceases to sustain the organism is a proof that it has itself decayed." in this specious bit of special pleading, unwarranted postulates are assumed and much confusion of thought is displayed. it is covertly taken for granted that every thing seen in a given phenomenon is either product or producer; but something may be an accompanying part, involved in the conditions of the phenomenon, yet not in any way essentially dependent on it, and in fact surviving it. what does strauss mean by "the nerve spirit"? is there no mind behind it and above it, making use of it as a servant? our present life is the result of an actual and regulated harmony of forces. surely that harmony may end without implying the decay of any of its initial components, without implying the destruction of the central constituent of its intelligence. it is illegitimate logic, passing from pure ignorance to positive affirmation; a saltation of sophistry from a negative premise of blindness to all behind the organic life, to a dogmatic conclusion of denial that there is any thing behind the organic life. a subtle and vigorous disbeliever has said, "the belief in immortality is not a correct expression of human nature, but rests solely on a misunderstanding of it. the real opinion of human nature is expressed in the universal sorrow and wailing over death." it is obvious to answer that both these expressions are true utterances of human nature. it grieves over the sadness of parting, the appalling change and decay, the close locked mystery of the unseen state. it rejoices in the solace and cheer of a sublime hope springing out of the manifold powerful promises within and without. instead of contemning the idea of a heavenly futurity as an idle dream image of human longing, it were both devouter and more reasonable, from charakteristiken und kritiken, s. . that very causal basis of it, to revere it and confide in it as divinely pledged. all the thwarted powers and preparations and affections, too grand, too fine, too sacred, to meet their fit fulfilment here, are a claim for some holier and vaster sphere, a prophecy of a more exalted and serene existence, elsewhere. the unsatisfied and longing soul has created the doctrine of a future life, has it? very good. if the soul has builded a house in heaven, flown up and made a nest in the breezy boughs of immortality, that house must have tenants, that nest must be occupied. the divinely implanted instincts do not provide and build for naught. certain considerations based on the resemblances of men and beasts, their asserted community of origin and fundamental unity of nature, have had great influence in leading to the denial of the immortality of the human soul. it is taken for granted that animals are totally mortal; and then, from the apparent correspondences of phenomena and fate between them and us, the inference is drawn that the cases are parallel throughout, and that our destiny, too, is annihilation. the course of thought on this subject has been extremely curious, illustrating, on the one hand, that "where our egotism begins, there the laws of logic break," and, on the other hand, that often when fancy gets scent of a theory the voice and lash of reason are futile to restrain it until the theory is run into the ground. des cartes, and after him malebranche and a few other writers, gave no slight currency to the notion that brutes are mere machines, moved by prearranged influences and utterly destitute of intelligence, will, or consciousness. this scheme gave rise to many controversies, but has now passed into complete neglect. of late years the tendency has been to assimilate instead of separating man and beast. touching the outer sphere, we have oken's homologies of the cranial vertebra. in regard to the inner sphere, we have a score of treatises, like vogt's pictures from brute life, affirming that there is no qualitative, but merely a quantitative, distinction between the human soul and the brute soul. over this point the conflict is still thick and hot. but, however much of truth there may be in the doctrine of the ground identity of the soul of a man and the soul of a dog, the conclusion that man therefore perishes is a pure piece of sophistry. such a monstrous assassination of the souls of the human race with the jaw bone of an ass may be legitimately avoided in either of two ways. it is as fair to argue the immortality of animals from their likeness to us, as our annihilation from our likeness to them. the psychological realm has been as much deepened in them by the researches of modern science as the physiological domain has been widened in us. as agassiz says, we must not lose sight of the mental individuality of animals in an exclusive attention to the bodily side of their nature. a multitude of able thinkers have held the faith that animals have immaterial and deathless souls. rightly considered, there is nothing in such a darmanson, la bete transformee en machine. ditton, appendix to discourse on resurrection of christ, showing that brutes are not mere machines, but have immortal souls. orphal, sind die thiere blos sinnliche geschopfe? thomasius, de anima brutorum, quo asseritur, eam non esse materialem, contra cartesianam opinionem. winkler, philosophische untersuchungen von dem seyn and wesen der seelen der thiere, von einzelnen liebhabern der weltweisheit. buchner, kraft und stoff, kap. : die thierseele. essay on classification, p. . doctrine which a keen reasoner may not credit and a person of the most refined feelings find pleasure in embracing. in their serene catholicity and divine sympathy, science and religion exclude pride and contempt. but admitting that there is no surviving psychical entity in the brute, that is in no way a clear postulate for proving that the same fact holds of man. the lower endowments and provinces of man's nature and experience may correspond ever so closely with the being and life of brutes whose existence absolutely ceases at death, and yet he may be immortal. the higher range of his spiritual faculties may elevate him into a realm of universal and eternal principles, extricating his soul from the meshes of decay. he may come into contact with a sphere of truths, grasp and rise into a region of realities, conferring the prerogative of deathlessness, not to be reached by natures gifted in a much lower degree, although of the same kind. such a distinction is made between men themselves by spinoza. his doctrine of immortality depicts the stupendous boon as contingent, to be acquired by observance of conditions. if the ideas of the soul represent perishable objects, it is itself mortal; if imperishable, it is immortal. now, brutes, it is probable, never rise to the apprehension of pure and eternal truths; but men do. it was a mean prejudice, founded on selfish ignorance and pride, which first assumed the total destruction of brutes in death, and afterwards, by the grovelling range of considerations in which it fastened and the reaction it naturally provoked, involved man and all his imperial hopes in the same fate. a firm logical discrimination disentangles the human mind from this beastly snarl. the difference in data warrants a difference in result. the argument for the immortality of brutes and that for the immortality of men are, in some respects, parallel lines, but they are not coextensive. beginning together, the latter far outreaches the former. man, like the animals, eats, drinks, sleeps, builds; unlike them, he adorns an ideal world of the eternal future, lays up treasures in its heavenly kingdom, and waits to migrate into it. there are two distinct methods of escaping the fatal inference of disbelief usually drawn by materialists. first, by the denial of their philosophical postulates, by the predication of immaterial substance, affirming the soul to be a spaceless point, its life an indivisible moment. the reasonings in behalf of this conception have been manifold, and cogent enough to convince a multitude of accomplished and vigorous thinkers. in herbart's system the soul is an immaterial monad, or real, capable of the permanent formation of states in its interior. its life consists of a quenchless series of self preservations. these reals, with their relations and aggregations, constitute at once the varying phenomena and the causal substrata of the universe. mamertius claudianus, a philosophical priest of southern gaul in the fifth century, wrote a treatise "on the nature of the soul." he says, "when the soul wills, it is all will; when it recollects or feels, it is all recollection or feeling. now, will, recollection, and feeling, are not bodies. therefore the soul is incorporeal." this makes the conscious man an jouffroy, introduction to ethics: channing's trans., vol. ii. pp. - . schaller, leib und seele, kap. : der psychische unterschied des menschen vom thiere. crombie, natural theology, vol. ii.: essay on the immortality of the soul. brougham, discourse of nat. theol., sect. . imperishable substantial activity. an old english writer, with quaint eloquence, declares, "there is a proportion between an atom and the universe, because both are quantitative. all this excesse vanisheth into nothing as soon as the lowest substance shineth out of that orbe where they reside that scorn divisibility." from this brief statement of the position of the immaterialists, without arguing it, we pass to note, in the second place, that nearly all the postulates ordinarily claimed by the materialist may be granted without by any means proving the justice of their disbelief of a future life. admit that there can be no sensation without a nerve, no thought without a brain, no phenomenal manifestation without an organ. such an admission legitimates the conclusion, on empirical grounds, that our present mode of life must cease with the dissolution of our organism. it does not even empirically prove that we may not survive in some other mode of being, passing perhaps to an inconceivably higher stage and more blessed kind of life. after the entire disintegration of our material organs, we may, by some now unknown means, possess in a refined form the equivalents of what those organs gave us. there may be, interfused throughout the gross mortal body, an immortal body of exquisitely delicate structure invisibly extricating itself from the carious ruins at death. plattner develops and defends this hypothesis with plausible skill and power. the hindus conceived the soul to be concealed within several successive sheaths, the innermost of which accompanied it through all its transmigrations. "the subtile person extends to a small distance over the skull, like the flame of a lamp above its wick." the later pythagoreans and platonists seem to have believed that the same numerical ethereal body with which the soul was at first created adhered to it inseparably during all its descents into grosser bodies, a lucid and wingy vehicle, which, purged by diet and catharms, ascends again, bearing the soul to its native seat. the doctrine of swedenborg asserts man to be interiorly an organized form pervading the physical body, an eternal receptacle of life from god. in his terminology, "constant influx of life" supersedes the popular idea of a self contained spiritual existence. but this influx is conditioned by its receiving organ, the undecaying inner body. however boldly it may be assailed and rejected as a baseless theory, no materialistic logic can disprove the existence of an ethereal form contained in, animating, and surviving, the visible organism. it is a possibility; although, even if it be a fact, science, by the very conditions of the case, can never unveil or demonstrate it. when subjected to a certain mode of thought developed recently by faraday, drossbach, and others, materialism itself brightens and dissolves into a species of idealism, the universe becomes a glittering congeries of indestructible points of power, and the immortality of the soul is established as a mathematical certainty. all bodies, all entities, are but forms of this has been ably shown by spiers in his treatise, ueber das korperliche bedingtsein der seelenthatigkeiten. spes immortalitatis animorum per rationes physiologicas confirmata. dabistan, vol. ii. p. . colebrooke, essays, vol. i. p. . cudworth, int. sys., vol. ii. pp. - , am. ed. on the intercourse between the soul and the body, sect. . lott, herbarti de animi immortalitate doctrina. force. gravity, cohesion, bitterness, thought, love, recollection, are manifestations of force peculiarly conditioned. our perceptions are a series of states of consciousness. an attribute or property of a thing is an exercise of force or mode of activity producing a certain state of consciousness in us. the sum of its attributes or properties constitutes the totality of the thing, and is not adventitiously laid upon the thing: you can separate the parts of a thing; but you cannot take away its forces from any part, because they are its essence. matter is not a limitation or neutralization, but a state and expression, of force. force itself is not multiplex, but one, all qualities and directions of it lying potentially in each entity, the kinds and amounts which shall be actually manifested depending in each case on the conditions environing it. all matter, all being, therefore, consists of ultimate atoms or monads, each one of which is an inseparable solidarity of activities. the universe is an eternal society of eternal force individuals, all of which are capable of constant changes in groupings, aggregations, developments, relations, but absolutely incapable of annihilation. every atom possesses potential reason, and comes to self apprehension whenever the appropriate conditions meet. all differences originate from conditions and exist not in essentialities. according to this theory, the eternity of the soul is sure, but that eternity must be an endless series of mutual transitions between consciousness and unconsciousness, life and death. since all cannot be men at once, they must take their turns. carus says, a soul enclosing in itself an independent consciousness is inconceivable. when the organism by which consciousness is conditioned and revealed is destroyed in death, consciousness disappears as certainly as the gleaming height of a dome falls in when its foundation is removed. and drossbach adds, death is the shade side of life. without shade, light would not be perceptible, nor life without death; for only contrast leads to knowledge. the consciousness of life is realized by interchange with the unconsciousness of death. mortality is the inevitable attribute of a self conscious being. the immortality of such a being can be nothing else than an everlasting mortality. in this restless alternation between the opposite states of life and death, being holds continuous endurance, but consciousness is successively extinguished and revived, while memory is each time hopelessly lost. widenmann holds that the periods of death are momentary, the soul being at once born again, retaining no vestiges of its past. drossbach, on the contrary, believes that memory is an indefeasible quality of the soul atom, the reason why we do not remember previous lives being that the present is our first experiment. when all atoms destined to become men have once run the human career, the earliest ones will begin to reappear with full memory of their preceding course. it matters not how long it requires for one circuit of the whole series of souls; for the infinite future is before us, and, as we are unconscious in death, the lapse of ages is nothing. we lie down to sleep, and instantly rise up to a new life. hickok, rational cosmology, ch. ii. sect. : matter is force. drossbach, die personliche unsterblichkeit als folge der atomistischen verfaasung der natur, abschn. iv. kap. ii. sect. , . gedanken uber die unsterblichkeit als wiederholung des erdenlebens. "death gives to life all its relish, as hunger is the true sauce of food. death first makes us precious and dear to ourselves. since it lies in the nature of change that no condition is endless, but morning ever follows night, death cannot be endless. be unconcerned; thy being shall as little be lost as the grain of dust at thy foot! because in death thou dost not know that thou art, therefore fearest thou that thou shalt be no more? o pusillanimous! the great events of nature are too vast for thy weak heart. a whole eternity thou hast not been conscious that thou art, and yet thou hast become conscious of it. every night thou losest thy consciousness, yet art thou conscious again, and shalt be. the loss of consciousness is not necessarily the loss of self. the knowledge of my being is not my being itself, but a peculiar force thereof, which, entering into reciprocal action with other forces, is subject to change. it is its essence to act, and thus to change, yet without surrendering its essence. goethe's words may be applied to the soul: 'it is; therefore eternally it is.' not in cold motionlessness consists eternal life, but in eternal movement, in eternal alteration, in incessant change. these are warranties that no state endures forever, not even the unconscious, death." in this unfolding of the theory there are many arbitrary and fanciful conceptions which may easily be dispensed with. the interspersion of the bright life of the human monads with blank epochs of oblivious darkness, and the confinement of their destiny to an endless repetition of their life course on this globe, are not necessary. in the will of god the free range of the boundless universe may lie open to them and an incessant career in forever novel circumstances await them. it is also conceivable that human souls, leading still recurrent lives on earth with total forgetfulness, may at last acquire sufficient power, in some happy concurrence or sublime exigency, to summon back and retain all their foregone states. but, leaving aside all such incidental speculations, the chief interest of the dynamic atomistic or monad theory, as affording a solid basis for immortality, is in relation to the arrogance of a shallow and conceited materialism. says the materialist, "show me a spirit, and i will believe in your heaven." replies the idealist, "show me your matter, however small a piece, and i will yield to your argument." spirit is no phenomenon to be shown, and matter is an inference from thought: thus the counter statements of physical science and ideal philosophy fairly offset each other, and throw their respective advocates back upon the natural ground of unsophisticated faith and observation. standing there unperverted, man has an invincible reliance on the veracity of his faculties and the normal reports of nature. through immediate apprehension of his own conscious will and the posited experience of his senses, he has knowledge both of causal forms of being, or free productive force, and of resultant processes and phenomena. and surely sound logic teaches that the latter may alter or disappear without implying the annihilation of the former. if all material substance, so called, were destroyed, not only would space remain as an infinite indivisible unity, but the equivalents drossbach, die individuelle unsterblichkeit vom monadistisch metaphysischen standpunkte betrachtet. of what had been destroyed must remain in some form or other. who shall say that these equivalents would not be intelligent points of power, capable of organizing aggregate bodies and of reconstituting the universe in the will of god, or of forming from period to period, in endless succession, new kinds of universes, each abounding in hitherto unimagined modes of life and degrees of bliss? to our present faculties, with only our present opportunities and data, the final problem of being is insoluble. we resolve the properties of matter into methods of activity, manifestations of force. but there, covered with alluring awe, a wall of impenetrable mystery confronts us with its baffling "thus far, and no farther, shall thine explicating gaze read the secrets of destiny." we cannot tell what force is. we can conceive neither its genesis nor its extinction. over that obscure environment, into the immense empire of possibilities, we must bravely fling the treasures of our love and the colors of our hope, and with a divine impulse in the moment of death leap after, trusting not to sink as nothing into the abyss of nowhere, but, landing safe in some elysium better than we know, to find ourselves still in god. in dealing with moral problems in the realm of the higher reason, intuitions, mysterious hints, prophetic feelings, instinctive apprehensions of fitness and harmony, may be of more convincing validity than all the formal arguments logic can build. "sentiment," ancillon says, as quoted by lewes, "goes further than knowledge: beyond demonstrative proofs there is natural evidence; beyond analysis, inspiration; beyond words, ideas; beyond ideas, emotions; and the sense of the infinite is a primitive fact of the soul." in transcendental mathematics, problems otherwise unapproachable are solved by operating with emblems of the relations of purely imaginary quantities to the facts of the problems. the process is sound and the result valid, notwithstanding the hypothetical and imaginary character of the aids in reaching it. when for mastering the dim momentous problems of our destiny the given quantities and relations of science are inadequate, the helpful supposititious conditions furnished by faith may equally lead over their airy ways to conclusions of eternal truth. the disbelievers of a future life have in their investigations applied methods not justly applicable to the subject, and demanded a species of proof impossible for the subject to yield: as if one should use his ear to listen to the symmetries of beauty, and his eye to gaze upon the undulations of music. it is therefore that the terribly logical onslaughts of feuerbach are harmless upon most persons. the glittering scimetar of this saracenic metaphysician flashes swift and sharp, but he fights the air with weapons of air. no blood flows from the severed emptiness of space; no clash of the blows is heard any more than bell strokes would be heard in an exhausted receiver. one may justifiably accept propositions which strict science cannot establish and believe in the existence of a thing which science cannot reveal, as jacobi has abundantly shown and as wagner has with less ability tried to illustrate. the utmost possible achievement of a negative criticism is to show the invalidity of the physiological, abel, disquisitio omnium tam pro immortalitate quam pro mortalitate argumentandi generum. von den goutlichen dingen and ibrer offenbarung. wissen und glauben mit besonderer beziehung zur zukunft der seelen: fortsetzung der betrachtungen uber menschenschopfung und seelensubstanz. analogical, and metaphysical arguments to furnish positive proof of a future life for us. but this negation fully admitted is no evidence of our total mortality. science is impotent to give any proof reaching to such a conclusion. however badly the archery of the sharp eyed and strong armed critics of disbelief has riddled the outer works of ordinary argument, it has not slain the garrison. scientific criticism therefore leaves us at this point: there may be an immortal soul in us. then the question whether there actually is an immortal soul in us, rests entirely on moral facts and considerations. allowing their native force to these moral facts and considerations, the healthy ethical thinker, recognising in himself an innermost self conscious ego which knows itself persistent and identical amidst the multiplex vicissitude of transient conditions, lies down to die expecting immediately to continue his being's journey elsewhere, in some other guise. leaving out of view these moral facts and considerations, the materialistic naturalist thinker, recognising his consciousness as only a phantom procession of states across the cerebral stage hung in ashy livery and afloat on blood, lies down to expire expecting immediately to be turned into nobody forever. misinterpreting and undervaluing these moral facts and considerations, the anchorless speculative thinker, recognising his organism as an eye through which the world spirit beholds itself, or a momentary pulse in which the all feels itself, his consciousness as a part of the infinite thought, lies down on his death couch expecting immediately to be turned into everybody, eternity, instead of greeting him with an individual kiss, wrapping him in a monistic embrace. the broad drift of human conviction leads to the first conclusion, a persistent personality. the greatest philosophers, from plato to pascal, deny the second view, a blotting extinction of the soul, declaring it false in science and incredible in presentation. the third theory a pantheistic absorption the irresistible common sense of mankind repudiates as a morbid dream. man naturally believes himself immortal but not infinite. monism is a doctrine utterly foreign to undiseased thinking. although it be a fichte, a schelling, or a hegel, who says that the soul is a circumscribed yet omnipotent ego, which first radiates the universe, and afterwards beholds it in the mirror of itself, and at length breaks into dead universality, the conception is, to the average apprehension of humanity, as overweening a piece of wild fancy as ever rose in a madman's reveries. the ordinary contemplator of the phenomena of the world and the sequel of human life from the materialistic point of view feels disgust and terror at the prospect. the scene seems to him degrading and the fate fearful. the loathing and dismay vulgarly experienced thus, it is true, arise from an exaggerated misapprehension of the basis and meaning of the facts: rightly appreciated, all is rulingly alive, aspirant, beautiful, and benignant. the ceaseless transformations filling the heights and depths of the creation are pervaded with joy and a full discussion of the pantheistic doctrine of immortality will be found in the following works. richmann, gemsinfassl. darstellung und wurdigung aller gehaltreichen beweisarten fur gott und fur unsterblichkeit der seele. unius, unsterblichkeit. blanche, philosophische unsterblichkeitlehre. weisse, die philosophische geheimlehre von der unsterblichkeit des menschlichen individuums. goschel, von den beweisen fur die unsterblichkeit der menschlichen seele im lichte der speculativen philosophie. morell, historical and critical view of the speculative philosophy of europe in the th century, part ii. ch. v. sect. : the german school of the th century. buchanan, modern atheism. clothed with a noble poetry. there is no real death: what seems so is but a "return or falling home of the fundamental phenomenon to the phenomenal foundation, a dissolution through which nature seeks her ground and strives to renew herself in her principles." still, in spite of this more profound and genial interpretation of the shifting metamorphoses of nature, the fear of there being no conscious future life for man produces, when first entertained, a horrid constriction around the heart, felt like the ice cold coils of a serpent. the thought of tumbling hopelessly into "the blind cave of eternal night" naturally oppresses the heart of man with sadness and with alarm. to escape the unhappiness thus inflicted, recourse has been had to expedients. four artificial substitutes for immortality have been devised. fondly fixing attention upon these, men have tried to find comfort and to absorb their thoughts from the dreaded spectre and the long oblivion. the first is the sentimental phantasm of posthumous fame. the latin bard, ancient ennius, sings, "nemo me lacrymis decoret, nec funera fletu faxit. cur? volito vivu' per ora virum." shakspeare likewise often expresses the same thought: "when all the breathers of this world are dead, you still shall live (such virtue hath my pen) where breath most breathes, even in the mouths of men." and again in similar strain: "my love looks fresh, and death to me subscribes, since, spite of him, i'll live in this poor rhyme, while he insults o'er dull and speechless tribes." napoleon is reported to have said, "my soul will pass into history and the deathless memories of mankind; and thus in glory shall i be immortal." this characteristically french notion forms the essence of comte's "positivist" doctrine of a future life. those deemed worthy after their death to be incorporated, by vote of the people, in the supreme being, the grand etre, a fictitious product of a poetic personification, through the perpetual fame and influence thus secured have an immortal life in the thoughts and feelings of a grateful posterity. comte says, "positivism greatly improves immortality and places it on a firmer foundation, by changing it from objective to subjective." great and eternal humanity is god. the dead who are meritorious are alone remembered, and, thus incorporated into the divinity, they have a "subjective immortality in the brains of the living." it is a poor shadow of the sublime truth which the soul craves. leopardi, in his bruto minore, expresses this "poor hope of being in the future's breath:" cicero, tusc. quast., lib. i. cap. xv. catechism of positive religion, conversation iii. "dell' atra morte ultima raggio conscia future eta." that proud and gifted natures should have seriously stooped to such a toy, to solace themselves with it, is a fact strange and pathetic. with reverential tenderness of sympathy must we yearn towards those whose loving natures, baffled of any solid resource, turn appealingly, ere they fade away, to clasp this substanceless image of an image. another scheme is what may be called the "lampada tradunt" theory of a future life. generations succeed each other, and the course is always full. eternal life takes up new subjects as fast as its exhausted receptacles perish. men are the mortal cells of immortal humanity. the individual must comfort himself with the sympathetic reflection that his extinction destroys nothing, since all the elements of his being will be manipulated into the forms of his successors. life is a constant renovation, and its sum is forever full and equal on the globe. the only genuine resurrection unto eternal life is an unending re creation of organisms from the same materials to repeat the same physiological and psychological processes. there is a gleam of cheer and of nobleness in this representation; but, upon the whole, it is perhaps as ineffectual as the former. it is a vapid consolation, in view of our own annihilation, to think that others will then live and also be annihilated in their turn. it is pleasant to believe that the earth will forever be peopled with throngs of men; but though such a belief might help to reconcile us to our fate, it could not alter the intrinsic sadness of that fate. a third substitute for the common view of immortality is a scientific perception of the fact that the peculiar force which each man is, the sum of his character and life, is a cause indestructibly mixed with the course of subsequent history, an objective personal immortality, though not a conscious one. what he was, remains and acts forever in the world. the fourth substitute is an identification of self with the integral scheme of things. i am an inseparable portion of the totality of being, to move eternally in its eternal motion. "if death seem hanging o'er thy separate soul, discern thyself a part of life's great whole." lose the thought of thy particular evanescence in the thought of the universal permanence. the inverted torch denotes death to a mere inhabitant of the earth: to a citizen of the universe, downward and upward are the same. perhaps one who rejects the ordinary doctrine of a future life can be solaced and edified by these substitutes in proportion to his fineness, greatness, and nobleness. but to most persons no substitute can atone for the withdrawn truth of immortality itself. in regard to the eternal preservation of personal consciousness, it were bigoted blindness to deny that there is room for doubts and fears. while the monad soul so to call it lies here beneath the weak glimmer of suns so far off that they are forceless to develop it to a lucretius, de nat. rerum, lib. ii. . . schultz schultzenstein, die bildung des menschlichen geistes durch kultur der verjungung seines lebens, ss. - : die unsterblichkeitsbegriffe. victorious assurance, we cannot but sometimes feel misgivings and be depressed by skeptical surmises. accordingly, while belief has generally prevailed, disbelief has in every age had its representatives. the ancients had their dicaarchus, protagoras, panatius, lucan, epicurus, casar, horace, and a long list besides. the moderns have had their gassendi, diderot, condillac, hobbes, hume, paine, leopardi, shelley, and now have their feuerbach, vogt, moleschott, and scores of others needless to be named. and although in any argument from authority the company of the great believers would incomparably outshine and a thousand times outweigh the array of deniers, this does not alter the obvious fact that there are certain phenomena which are natural provocatives of doubt and whose troubling influence scarcely any one can always escape. homer, in giving expression to hector's confidence of victory over the greeks, makes him wish that he were but as sure of entering the state of the immortal gods. when some one asked dr. johnson, "have we not proof enough of the immortality of the soul?" he replied, "i want more." davenant of whom southey says, "i know no other author who has so often expressed his doubts respecting a future state and how burdensome he felt them" writes, "but ask not bodies doom'd to die, to what abode they go: since knowledge is but sorrow's spy, it is not safe to know." charles lamb writes, "if men would honestly confess their misgivings, (which few men will,) there are times when the strongest christian of us has reeled under questionings of such staggering obscurity." many a man, seeing nature hang her veil of shifting glories above the silent tombs of vanished generations, voiceless now forever, entertaining innumerable contradictory queries amidst feelings of decay and sights of corruption, before the darkness of unknown futurity might piteously exclaim, without deserving blame, "i run the gauntlet of a file of doubts, each one of which down hurls me to the ground." who that has reached maturity of reflection cannot appreciate and sympathize somewhat with these lines of byron, when he stands before a lifeless form of humanity? "i gazed, as oft i have gazed the same, to try if i could wrench aught out of death which should confirm, or shake, or make, a faith; but it was all a mystery. here we are, and there we go: but where? five bits of lead, or three, or two, or one, send very far! and is this blood, then, form'd but to be shed? can every element our elements mar? can air, earth, water, fire, live and we dead? we, whose minds comprehend all things? no more." iliad, lib, viii. il. - . doubt is not sin, but rather a misfortune; for it is to adopt a suggestion from schaller a cleft in the soul through which thought steals away what the heart desires. the guilt or innocence of doubting depends on the spirit in which it is done. there are two attitudes of mind and moods of feeling before propositions and evidence. one is, "i will not believe unless i see the prints of the nails and lay my finger in the marks of the wounds." the other is, "lord, i believe: help thou mine unbelief." in abstract logic or rigid science the former may be appropriate and right. the latter alone can be justifiable in moral and religious things. if a man sorrowfully and humbly doubts, because he cannot help it, he shall not be condemned. when he is proud of his doubts, complacently swells with fancied superiority, plays the fanfaron with his pretentious arguments, and sets up as a propagandist of disbelief, being all the while in reality "most ignorant of what he is most assured, his glassy essence," his conduct is offensive to every good man, and his spirit must receive the condemnation of god. a missionary of atheism and death, horridly eager to destroy those lofty thoughts which so much help to make us men, is a shocking spectacle. yet a few such there are, who seem delighted as by their dismal theory they bury mankind in an iron tomb of materialism and inscribe on the irrevocable door the solitary words, fate and silence. the more attentively one dwells on the perishable physical side of life, the more prone he will be to believe in an absolute death; the more prevailingly he ponders the incorruptible psychical side, the more prepared he will be to credit immortality. the chemist who confines his studies exclusively within his own province, when he reflects on the probable sequence of life, will speculatively see himself vanish in his blowpipes and retorts. whoso devotedly dabbles in organisms, nerves, and bloods may easily become skeptical of spirit; for it everywhere balks his analysis and eludes his search. the objects he deals with are things. they belong to change and dissolution. mind and its proper home belong to a different category of being. because no heaven appears at the end of the telescope, and no soul is seen on the edge of the dissecting knife, and no mind is found at the bottom of the crucible, to infer that therefore there is neither heaven, nor soul, nor mind, is as monstrous a non sequitur as it would be to infer the non existence of gravity because it cannot be distilled in any alembic nor discerned with any glass. the man who goes into the dark crimson dripping halls of physiology seeking proofs of immortality, and, failing to find them, abandons his faith in it, is like that hapless traveller who, groping in the catacombs under rome, was buried by the caving in of the sepulchral roof, and thus lost his life, while all the time, above, the great vault of heaven was stretching, blue and breezy, filled with sunshine and sentient joy! when we contemplate men in a mass, like a swarm of bees or a hive of ants, we find ourselves doubting their immortality. they melt away, in swiftly confused heaps and generations, into the bosom of nature. on the other hand, when we think of individuals, an almost unavoidable thought of personal identity makes us spontaneously conclude them immortal. it rather requires the effort then to think them otherwise. but obviously the real problem is never of the multitudinous throng, but always of the solitary person. in reference to this question it is sophistry to fix our thoughts on a chinese city as crowded with nameless and indistinguishable human inhabitants as a decayed cheese is with vermin. fairness requires that our imaginations and reasonings upon the subject fasten upon an individual, set apart and uplifted, like a king, in the incommunicable distinctness and grandeur of selfhood and responsibility. from looking about this grave paved star, from painful and degrading contemplations of dead bodies, "the snuff and loathed part of nature which burns itself out," let a man turn away, and send his interior kingly glance aloft into ideal realms, let him summon up the glorious sentiments of freedom, duty, admiration, the noble experiences of self sacrifice, love, and joy, and his soul will extricate itself from the filthy net of material decay, and feel the divine exemption of its own clean prerogatives, dazzling types of eternity, and fragments of blessedness that "promise, on our maker's truth, long morrow to this mortal youth." martyrdom is demonstration of immortality; for self preservation is the innermost, indestructible instinct of every conscious being. when the soul, in a sacred cause, enthusiastically rushes upon death, or in calm composure awaits death, it is irresistibly convinced that it cannot be hurt, but will be blessed, by the crisis. it knows that in an inexpressibly profound sense whosoever would ignobly save his life loses it, but whosoever would nobly lose his life saves it. martyrdom demonstrates immortality. "life embark'd out at sea, 'mid the wave tumbling roar, the poor ship of my body went down to the floor; but i broke, at the bottom of death, through a door, and, from sinking, began forever to soar." the most lamentable and pertinacious doubts of immortality sometimes arise from the survey of instances of gross wickedness, sluggishness, and imbecility forced on our attention. but, as these undeniably are palpable violations of the creative intention, it is not just to reason from them. in fairness the argument demands that we select the noblest, healthiest specimens of completed humanity to reason from. should we not take a case in which god's will is so far plainly fulfilled, in order to trace that will farther and even to its finality? and regarding on his death bed a newton, a fenelon, a washington, is it difficult to conceive him surviving the climax and catastrophe of his somatic cell basis and soaring to a more august range of existence? remembering that such as these have lived and died, ay, and even the godlike nazarene, can we believe that man is merely a white interrogation point lifted on the black margin of matter to ask the answerless secret of the universe and be erased? such a conclusion charges god with the transcendent crime of infanticide perpetrated in the most deliberate manner and on the most gigantic scale. who can bear, by thus quenching the hope of another life, to add death to death, and overcast, to every thoughtful eye, the whole sunny field of life with the melancholy shadow of a bier? there is a noble strength and confidence, cheering to the reader, in these words of one of the wisest and boldest of thinkers: "i should be the very last man to be willing to dispense with the faith in a future life: nay, i would say, with lorenzo de'medici, that all those are dead, even for the present life, who do not hope for another. i have the firm conviction that our soul is an existence of indestructible nature, whose working is from eternity to eternity. it is like the sun, that seems indeed to set, but really never sets, shining on in unchangeable splendor." such a view of our destiny incomparably inspires and ennobles us. man, discovering under all the poor, wretched accidents of earth and sense and hard fortune the immortality of his soul, feels as that king's son who, lost in infancy, and growing up under the care of a forest hind, supposed himself to belong to the rude class among whom he lived; but one day, learning his true parentage, he knew beneath his mean disguise that he was a prince, and immediately claimed his kingdom. these facts of experience show clearly how much it behooves us to cultivate by every honest method this cardinal tenet of religion, how much wiser faith is in listening to the lucid echoes of the sky than despair in listening to the muffled reverberations of the grave. all noble and sweet beliefs grow with the growing nobleness and tenderness of characters sensitive to those fine revealings which pachydermatous souls can never know. in the upper hall of reason, before the high shrine of faith, burn the base doubts begotten in the cellars of sense; and they may serve as tapers to light your tentative way to conviction. if the floating al sirat between physiology and psychology, earth and heaven, is too slippery and perilous for your footing, where heavy limbed science cannot tread, nerve the wings of faith for a free flight. or, if every effort to fasten a definite theory on some solid support on the other side of the gulf fails, venture forth on the naked line of limitless desire, as the spider escapes from an unwelcome position by flinging out an exceedingly long and fine thread and going forth upon it sustained by the air. whoever preserves the full intensity of the affections is little likely to lose his trust in god and a future life, even when exposed to lowering and chilling influences from material science and speculative philosophy: the glowing of the heart, as jean paul says, relights the extinguished torch in the night of the intellect, as a beast stunned by an electric shock in the head is restored by an electric shock in the breast. daniel webster says, in an expression of his faith in christianity written shortly before his death, "philosophical argument, especially that drawn from the vastness of the universe in comparison with the apparent insignificance of this globe, has sometimes shaken my reason for the faith which is in me; but my heart has always assured and reassured me." contemplating the stable permanence of nature as it swallows our fleet generations, we may feel that we vanish like sparks in the night; but when we think of the persistent identity of the soul, and of its immeasurable superiority to the brute mass of matter, the aspect of the case changes and the moral inference is reversed. does not the simple truth of love conquer and trample the world's aggregated lie? the man who, with assiduous toil and earnest faith, develops his forces, and disciplines his faculties, and cherishes his aspirations, and accumulates virtue and wisdom, is thus preparing the auspicious stores and conditions of another existence. as he slowly journeys over the mountains of life, aware that there can be eckermann's conversations with goethe. greenough, an artist's creed. memorial of daniel webster from the city of boston, p. . no returning, he gathers and carries with him materials to build a ship when he reaches the strand of death. upon the mist veiled ocean launching then, he will sail where? whither god orders. must not that be to the right port? we remember an old brahmanic poem brought from the east by ruckert and sweetly resung in the speech of the west full of encouragement to those who shall die. a man wrapped in slumber calmly reclines on the deck of a ship stranded and parting in the breakers. the plank on which he sleeps is borne by a huge wave upon a bank of roses, and he awakes amidst a jubilee of music and a chorus of friendly voices bidding him welcome. so, perhaps, when the body is shattered on the death ledge, the soul will be tossed into the fragrant lap of eternal life on the self identified and dynamic plank of personality. brahmanische erzahlungen, s. . chapter ix. morality of the doctrine of a future life. in discussing the ethics of the doctrine of a future life a subject here amazingly neglected, there more amazingly maltreated, and nowhere, within our knowledge, truly analyzed and exhibited it is important that the theme be precisely defined and the debate kept strictly to the lines. let it be distinctly understood, therefore, that the question to be handled is not, "whether there ought to be a future life or not," nor, "whether there is a future life or not." the question is, "what difference should it make to us whether we admit or deny the fact of a future life?" if we believe that we are to pass through death into an immortal existence, what inferences pertaining to the present are right, fully to be drawn from the supposition? if, on the other hand, we think there is nothing for us after the present, what are the logical consequences of that faith in regard to our aims and rules of conduct in this world? suppose a man who has always imagined that death is utter annihilation should in some way suddenly acquire knowledge that an endless existence immediately succeeds the termination of this: what would be the legitimate instructions of his new information? before we can fairly answer this inquiry, we need to know what relations connect the two states of existence. a knowledge of the law and method and means of man's destiny is more important for his guidance than the mere ascertainment of its duration. with reference to the query before us, four hypotheses are conceivable. if, in the first place, there be no connection whatever except that of temporal sequence between the present life and the future, then, so far as duty is concerned, the expectation of a world to come yields not the slightest practical application for the experience that now is. it can only be a source of comfort or of terror; and that will be accordingly as it is conceived under the aspect of benignity or of vengeance. if, secondly, the character of the future life depend on conditions to be fulfilled here, but those conditions be not within our control, then, again, no inferences of immediate duty can be drawn from the apprehended hereafter. being quasi actors in a scene prearranged and with a plot predetermined, we can no more be capable of any obligation or choice, in regard to the end, than puppets which some unseen harlequin moves by the terrible wires of primitive decree or transmitted depravity towards the genial or the tragic crisis. if the soul's fate there is to be heaven or hell according to the part enacted here, it must have free will and a fair opportunity to work the unmarred problem safely out. otherwise the future life is reduced, as far as it affects us here, to a mere source of complacency or of horror as it respectively touches the elect and the reprobate. thirdly, it may be conceived that the future life is a state of everlasting reward and punishment unchangeably decided by the way in which the probationary period allotted on the only direct treatise on the subject known to us is tilemann's kritik der unsterblichkeitslehre in ansehung des sittengesetzes, published in . and this we have not seen. earth is passed through. here are men, for a brief time, free to act thus or otherwise. do thus, and the endless bliss of heaven is won. do otherwise, and the endless agony of hell is incurred. the plain rule of action yielded by this doctrine is, sacrifice all other things to the one thing needful. the present life is in itself a worthless instant. the future life is an inexhaustible eternity. and yet this infinite wealth of glory or woe depends on how you act during that poor moment. therefore you have nothing to do while on earth but to seek the salvation of your soul. to waste a single pulse beat on any thing else is the very madness of folly. to find out how to escape hell and secure heaven, and then to improve the means, this should absolutely absorb every energy and every thought and every desire of every moment. this world is a bridge of straw over the roaring gulf of eternal fire. is there leisure for sport and business, or room for science and literature, or mood for pleasures and amenities? no: to get ourselves and our friends into the magic car of salvation, which will waft us up from the ravenous crests of the brimstone lake packed with visages of anguish, to bind around our souls the floating cord of redemption, which will draw us up to heaven, this should intensely engage every faculty. nothing else can be admitted save by oversight of the awful facts. for is it not one flexible instant of opportunity, and then an adamantine immortality of doom? that doctrine of a future life which makes eternal unalterable happiness or misery depend on the fleeting probation allowed here yields but one practical moral; and that it pronounces with imminent urgency and perfect distinctness. the only true duty, the only real use, of this life is to secure the forensic salvation of the soul by improvement of the appointed means. suspended by such a hair of frailty, for one breathless moment, on such a razor edged contingence, an entrancing sea of blessedness above, a horrible abyss of torture beneath, such should be the all concentrating anxiety to secure safety that there would be neither time nor taste for any thing else. every object should seem an altar drenched with sacrificial blood, every sound a knell laden with dolorous omen, every look a propitiatory confession, every breath a pleading prayer. from so single and preternatural a tension of the believer's faculties nothing could allow an instant's cessation except a temporary forgetting or blinking of the awful scene and the immeasurable hazard. such would be a logical application to life of the genuine morals of the doctrine under consideration. but the doctrine itself is to be rejected as false on many grounds. it is deduced from scripture by a technical and unsound interpretation. it is unjust and cruel, irreconcilable with the righteousness or the goodness of god. it is unreasonable, opposed to the analogies of nature and to the experience of man. it is wholly impossible to carry it out consistently in the practice of life. if it were thoroughly credited and acted upon, all the business of the world would cease, and the human race would soon die out. there remains one other view of the relationship of a future life with the present. and it seems to be the true view. the same creator presiding, the same laws prevailing, over infinitude and eternity that now rule over time and earth, our immortality cannot reasonably be imagined either a moment of free action and an eternity of fixed consequences, or a series of separate fragments patched into a parti colored experience with blanks of death between the patterns of life. it must be conceived as one endless existence in linear connection of cause and effect developing in progressive phases under varying conditions of motive and scenery. with what we are at death we live on into the next life. in every epoch and world of our destiny our happiness depends on the possession of a harmoniously working soul harmoniously related with its environment. each stage and state of our eternal existence has its peculiarities of duty and privilege. in this one our proper work is to improve the opportunities, discharge the tasks, enjoy the blessings, belonging here. we are to do the same in the next one when we arrive in that. all the wealth of wisdom, virtue, strength, and harmony we acquire in our present life is the vantage ground and capital wherewith we start in the succeeding life. therefore the true preparation for the future is to fit ourselves to enter it under the most favorable auspices, by accumulating in our souls all the spiritual treasures afforded by the present. in other words, the truest aim we can set before ourselves during our existence on earth is to make it yield the greatest possible results of the noblest experience. the life hereafter is the elevated and complementary continuation of the life here; and certainly the directest way to ameliorate the continuation is to improve the commencement. but, it may be said, according to this representation, the fact of a future life makes no difference in regard to our duty now; for if the grave swallows all, still, it is our duty and our interest to make the best and the most of our life in the world while it lasts. true; and really that very consideration is a strong proof of the correctness of the view in question. it corresponds with the other arrangements of god. he makes every thing its own end, complete in itself, at the same time that it subserves some further end and enters into some higher unity. he is no mere teleologist, hobbling towards his conclusions on a pair of decayed logic crutches, but an infinite artist, whose means and ends are consentaneous in the timeless and spaceless spontaneity and perfection of his play. if the tomb is our total goal, our genuine aim in this existence is to win during its course an experience the largest in quantity and the best in quality. on the other hand, if another life follows this, our wisdom is just the same; because that experience alone, with the favor of god, can constitute our fitness and stock to enter on the future. and yet between the two cases there is this immense difference, not indeed in duty, but in endowment, that in the latter instance we work out our allotted destiny here, in a broader illumination, with grander incentives, and with vaster consolations. a future life, then, really imposes no new duty upon the present, alters no fundamental ingredient in the present, takes away none of the charms and claims of the present, but merely sheds an additional radiance upon the shaded lights already shining here, infuses an additional motive into the stimulants already animating our purposes, distills an additional balm into the comforts which already assuage our sorrows amidst an evanescent scene. the belief that we are to live hereafter in a compensating world explains to us many a sad mystery, strengthens us for many an oppressive burden, consoles us in many a sharp grief. else we should oftener go mad in the baffling whirl of problems, oftener obey the baser voice, oftener yield to despair. these three are the moral uses, in the present life, of the "seht, an der morschen syllogismenkrucke hinkt gott in seine welt."lenau's satire auf einen professor philosophia. doctrine of a future life. outside of these three considerations the doctrine has no ethical meaning for human observance here. it will be seen, according to the foregoing representation, that the expectation of a future life, instead of being harmful to the interests and attractions of the present, simply casts a cheering and magnifying light upon them. it does not depreciate the realities or nullify the obligations now upon us, but emphasizes them, flinging their lights and shades forward through a mightier vista. consequently there is no reason for assailing the idea of another life in behalf of the interests of this. such an opposition between the two states is entirely sophistical, resulting from a profound misinterpretation of the truemoral relations connecting them. the belief in immortality has been mistakenly attacked, not merely as hostile to our welfare on earth, but likewise as immoral in itself, springing from essential selfishness, and in turn nourishing selfishness and fatally tainting every thing with that central vice. to desire to live everlastingly as an identical individual, it has been said, is the ecstasy and culmination of avaricious conceitedness. man, the vain egotist, dives out of sight in god to fish up the pearl of his darling self. he makes his poor individuality the measure of all things, his selfish desire the law of endless being. such a rampant proclamation of self will and enthronement of pure egotism, flying in the face of the solemn and all submerging order of the universe, is the very essence and climax of immorality and irreligiousness. to this assault on the morality of the belief in a future life, whether made in the devout tones of magnanimous sincerity, as by the sublime schleiermacher, or with the dishonest trickiness of a vulgar declaimer for the rehabilitation of the senses, as by some who might be named, several fair replies may be made. in the first place, the objection begs the question, by assuming that the doctrine is a falsehood, and that its disciples wilfully set up their private wishes against the public truth. such tremendous postulates cannot be granted. it is seizing the victory before the battle, grasping the conclusion without establishing the premises. for, if there be a future life provided by the creator, it cannot be sinful or selfish in us to trust in it, to accept it with humble gratitude, and to prepare our souls for it. that, instead of being rebellious arrogance or overweening selfishness, would simply be conforming our thoughts and plans, our desires and labors, to the divine arrangements. that would be both morality and piety. when one clings by will to a doctrine known to be a falsehood, obstinately suppressing reason to affirm it as a truth, and, in obedience to his personal whims, trying to force all things into conformity with it, he does act as a selfish egotist in full violation of the moral law and the spirit of religion. but a future life we believe to be a fact; and therefore we are, in every respect, justified in gladly expecting it and consecratedly living with reference to it. furthermore, admitting it to be an open question, neither proved nor disproved, but poised in equal uncertainty, still, it is not immoral nor undevout deeply to desire and fondly to hope a personal immortality. "the aim of religion," it has been said, "is the annihilation of one's own individuality, the living in the all, the becoming one with the universe." but in such a definition altogether too much is assumed. the aim of religion is only the annihilation of the self will of the individual as opposed to the will of the whole, not the losing of one's self in the unconscious wastes of the universe, but the harmonizing of one's self with the supreme law of the universe. an humble, loving, and joyous conformity to the truth constitutes morality and religion. this is not necessarily inconsistent with a personal immortality. besides, the charge may be retorted. to be identified with the universe is a prouder thought than to be subordinated to it as an infinitesimal individual. it is a far haughtier conceit to fancy one's self an integral part of god's substance than to believe one's self a worshipping pensioner of god's will. the conception, too, is less native to the mind, has been more curiously sought out, and is incomparably more pampering to speculative luxury. if accusations of selfishness and wilfulness are to be hurled upon any modes of preferred faith as to our destiny, this self styled disinterested surrender of our personality to the pantheistic soul is as obnoxious to them as the common belief. if a desire for personal immortality be a normal experience in the development of our nature, it cannot be indictable as an offence, but must be recognised as an indication of god's design. whether the desire is a cold and degraded piece of egotism deserving rebuke and contempt, or a lofty and sympathetic affection worthy of reverence and approval, depends on no intrinsic ingredient of the desire itself, but on the character in which it has its being. one person will be a heartless tyrant, another a loving saint, in his hope of a future life. shall our love of the dead, our prayers to meet them again, our unfathomed yearnings to know that they still live and are happy, be stigmatized as mean and evil? regard for others as much as for ourselves prompts the eternal sigh. nor will divinity ever condemn the feeling himself has awakened. it is said that xerxes, gazing once upon his gorgeous army of a million men spread out below hire, sheathed in golden armor, white plumes nodding, purple standards waving, martial horns blowing, wept as he thought that in thirty years the entire host composing that magnificent spectacle would be dead. to have gazed thoughtfully upon such a sight with unmoved sensibilities would imply a much more selfish and hard hearted egotist. so when a lonely philanthropist from some meditative eminence looks down on the human race, if, as the contemplation of their pathetic fading and decay wounds his saddened heart, he heals and cheers it with the faith of a glorious immortality for them all, who shall call him selfish and sinful? to rest contented with the speedy night and the infinite oblivion, wiping off all the unsolved sums from the slate of existence with annihilation's remorseless sponge, that would be the selfishness and the cruelty. when that sweet asp, death, fastens on our vein of earthly life, we all feel, like the dying queen of egypt, that we have "immortal longings" in us. since the soul thus holds by a pertinacious instinct to the eternity of her own existence, it is more rational to conclude that this is a pledge of her indestructible personality, god's impregnable defence reared around the citadel of her being, than to consider it the artificial rampart flung up by an insurgent egotism. in like manner, it is a misrepresentation of the facts to assert the culpable selfishness of the faith in a future life as a demanded reward for fidelity and merit here. no one demands immortality as pay for acquired desert. it is modestly looked for as a free boon from the god who freely gave the present and who has by a thousand symbolic prophecies promised it. richter says, with great insight, "we desire immortality not as the reward of virtue, but as its continuance. virtue can no more be rewarded than joy can: it is its own reward." kant says, "immortality has been left so uncertain in order that pure freedom of choice, and no selfish views, shall prompt our aspirations." "but," jean paul keenly replies, "as we have now discovered this intention, its object is defeated. besides, if the belief in immortality makes virtue selfish, the experience of it in the next world would make it more so." the anticipation of heaven can hardly make man a selfish calculator of profit; because heaven is no reward for crafty reckoning, but the home of pure and holy souls. virtue which resists temptation and perseveres in rectitude because it has a sharp eye to an ulterior result is not virtue. no credible doctrine of a future life offers a prize except to those who are just and devout and strenuous in sacred service from free loyalty to the right and the good, spontaneously obeying and loving the higher and better call because it divinely commands their obedience and love. the law of duty is the superior claim of truth and goodness. virtue, yielding itself filially to this, finds in heaven not remuneration, but a sublimer theatre and an immortal career. egotistic greed, all mere prudential considerations as determining conditions or forces in the award, are excluded as unclean and inadmissible by the very terms; and the doctrine stands justified on every ground as pure and wholesome before the holiest tribunal of ethics. surely it is right that goodness should be blessed; but when it continues good only for the sake of being blessed it ceases to be goodness. it is not the belief in immortality, but only the belief in a corrupt doctrine of immortality which can poison the springs of disinterested virtue. the morality of the doctrine of a future life having thus been defended from the attacks of those who have sought to destroy it in the fancied interests either of the enjoyments of the earth or of the purity of virtue and religion, it now remains to free it from the still more fatal supports which false or superficial religionists have sought to give it by wrenching out of it meanings it never held, by various perverse abuses of it, by monstrous exaggerations of its moral importance to the present. we have seen that the supposition of another life, correctly interpreted, lays no new duty upon man, takes away from him no old duty or privilege, but simply gives to the previously existing facts of the case the intensifying glory and strength of fresh light, motive, and consolation. but many public teachers, not content to treat the subject with this sobriety of reason, instead of presenting the careful conclusions of a conscientious analysis, have sought to strengthen their argument to the feelings by help of prodigious assumptions, assumptions hastily adopted, highly colored, and authoritatively urged. upon the hypothesis that annihilation is the fate of man, they are not satisfied merely to take away from the present all the additional light, incentive, and comfort imparted by the faith in a future existence, but they arbitrarily remove all the alleviations and glories intrinsically belonging to the scene, and paint it in the most horrible hues, and set it in a frame of midnight. thus, instead of calmly seeking to elicit and recommend truth, they strive, by terrifying the fancy and shocking the prejudices, to make people accept their dogma because frightened at the seeming consequences of rejecting it. it is necessary to expose the fearful fallacies which have been employed in this way, and which are yet extensively used for the same purpose. even a christian writer usually so judicious as andrews norton has said, "without the belief in personal immortality there can be no religion; for what can any truths of religion concern the feelings and the conduct of beings whose existence is limited to a few years in this world?" such a statement from such a quarter is astonishing. surely the sentiments natural to a person or incumbent upon him do not depend on the duration of his being, but on the character, endowments, and relations of his being. the hypothetical fact that man perishes with his body does not destroy god, does not destroy man's dependence on god for all his privileges, does not annihilate the overwhelming magnificence of the universe, does not alter the native sovereignty of holiness, does not quench our living reason, imagination, or sensibility, while they last. the soul's gratitude, wonder, love, and worship are just as right and instinctive as before. if our experience on earth, before the phenomena of the visible creation and in conscious communion with the emblemed attributes of god, does not cause us to kneel in humility and to adore in awe, then it may be doubted if heaven or hell will ever persuade us to any sincerity in such acts. the simple prolongation of our being does not add to its qualitative contents, cannot increase the kinds of our capacity or the number of our duties. chalmers utters an injurious error in saying, as he does, "if there be no future life, the moral constitution of man is stripped of its significancy, and the author of that constitution is stripped of his wisdom and authority and honor." the creative sovereign of fifty million firmaments of worlds "stripped of his wisdom and authority and honor" because a few insects on a little speck are not eternal! can egotistic folly any further go? the affirmation or denial of immortality neither adds to nor diminishes the numerical relations and ingredients of our nature and experience. if religion is fitted for us on the former supposition, it is also on the latter. to any dependent intelligence blessed with our human susceptibilities, reverential love and submission are as obligatory, natural, and becoming on the brink of annihilation as on the verge of immortality. rebellious egotism makes all the difference. truth is truth, whatever it be. religion is the meek submission of self will to god's will. that is a duty not to be escaped, no matter what the future reserves or excludes for us. another sophism almost universally accepted needs to be shown. man, it is said, has no interest in a future life if not conscious in it of the past. if, on exchange of worlds, man loses his memory, he virtually ceases to exist, and might just as well be annihilated. a future life with perfect oblivion of the present is no life at all for us. is not this style of thought the most provincial egotism, the utter absence of all generous thought and sympathy unselfishly grasping the absolute boons of being? it is a shallow error, too, even on the grounds of selfishness itself. in any point of view the difference is diametric and immense between a happy being in an eternal present, unconscious of the past, and no being at all. suppose a man thirty years of age were offered his choice to die this moment, or to live fifty years longer of unalloyed success and happiness, only with a complete forgetfulness of all that has happened up to this moment. he would not hesitate to grasp the gift, however much he regretted the condition. tracts concerning christianity, p. . bridgewater treatise, part ii. ch. , sect. . it has often been argued that with the denial of a retributive life beyond the grave all restraints are taken off from the passions, free course given to every impulse. chateaubriand says, bluntly, "there can be no morality if there be no future state." with displeasing coarseness, and with most reprehensible recklessness of reasoning, luther says, in contradiction to the essential nobleness of his loving, heroic nature, "if you believe in no future life, i would not give a mushroom for your god. do, then, as you like. for if no god, so no devil, no hell: as with a fallen tree, all is over when you die. then plunge into lechery, rascality, robbery, and murder." what bible of moloch had he been studying to form, for the time, so horrid a theory of the happiest life, and to put so degrading an estimate upon human nature? is man's will a starved wolf only held back by the triple chain of fear of death, satan, and hell, from tearing forth with ravenous bounds to flesh the fangs of his desires in bleeding virtue and innocence? does the greatest satisfaction man is capable of here, the highest blessedness he can attain to, consist in drunkenness, gluttony, dishonesty, violence, and impiety? if he had the appetite of a tiger or a vulture, then, thus to wallow in the offal of vice, dive into the carrion of sensuality, abandon himself to revelling in carnivorous crime, might be his instinct and his happiness. but by virtue of his humanity man loves his fellows, enjoys the scenery of nature, takes delight in thought and art, dilates with grand presentiments of glory and eternity, mysteriously yearns after the hidden god. to a reasonable man and no other is to be reasoned with on matters of truth and interest the assumption of this brief season as all, will be a double motive not to hasten and embitter its brevity by folly, excess, and sin. if you are to be dead to morrow, for that very reason, in god's name, do not, by gormandizing and guzzling, anticipate death to day! the true restraint from wrong and degradation is not a crouching conscience of superstition and selfishness, fancying a chasm of fire, but a high toned conscience of reason and honor, perceiving that they are wrong and degradation, and spontaneously loathing them. still worse, many esteemed authors have not hesitated to assert that unless there be a future life there is not only no check on passion within, but no moral law without; every man is free to do what he pleases, without blame or fault. sir kenelm digby says, in his "treatise on man's soule," that "to predicate mortality in the soule taketh away all morality, and changeth men into beastes, by removing the ground of all difference in those thinges which are to governe our actions." this style of teaching is a very mischievous absurdity. admit, for a moment, that jocko in the woods of brazil, and schiller in the brilliant circles of weimar, will at last meet the same fate in the dusty grasp of death; yet, while they live, one is an ape, the other is a man. and the differences of capacity and of duty are numberless and immense. the statement is enough: argument would be ridiculous. the words of an audacious french preacher are yet more shocking than those of the english nobleman. it is hard to believe they could be uttered in good faith. says massillon, in his famous declamation on immortality, "if we wholly perish with the body, the maxims of charity, patience, justice, honor, gratitude, and friendship, are but empty words. our own passions shall decide our duty. genie du christianisme, partie ii. livre vi. chap. . ch. ix. sect. . if retribution terminate with the grave, morality is a mere chimera, a bugbear of human invention." what debauched unbeliever ever inculcated a viler or a more fatal doctrine? its utter barelessness, as a single illustration may show, is obvious at a glance. as the sciences of algebra and geometry, the relations of numbers and bodies, are true for the material world although they may be lost sight of when time and space are transcended in some higher state, so the science of ethics, the relations of nobler and baser, of right and wrong, the manifold grades and qualities of actions and motives, are true for human nature and experience in this life even if men perish in the grave. however soon certain facts are to end, while they endure they are as they are. in a moment of carelessness, by some strange slip of the mind, showing, perhaps, how tenaciously rooted are the common prejudice and falsehood on this subject, even so bold and fresh a thinker as theodore parker has contradicted his own philosophy by declaring, "if to morrow i perish utterly, then my fathers will be to me only as the ground out of which my bread corn is grown. i shall care nothing for the generations of mankind. i shall know no higher law than passion. morality will vanish." ah, man reveres his fathers and loves to act nobly, not because he is to live forever, but because he is a man. and, though all the summer hopes of escaping the grave were taken from human life, choicest and tenderest virtues might still flourish, as it is said the german crossbill pairs and broods in the dead of winter. the martyr's sacrifice and the voluptuary's indulgence are very different things to day, if they do both cease to morrow. no speed of advancing destruction can equalize agamemnon and thersites, mansfield and jeffries, or hustle together justice and fraud, cowardice and valor, purity and corruption, so that they will interchange qualities. there is an eternal and immutable morality, as whiteness is white, and blackness is black, and triangularity is triangular. and no severance of temporal ties or compression of spatial limits can ever cut the condign bonds of duty and annihilate the essential distinctions of good and evil, magnanimity and meanness, faithfulness and treachery. reducing our destiny from endless to definite cannot alter the inherent rightfulness and superiority of the claims of virtue. the most it can do is to lessen the strength of the motive, to give the great motor nerve of our moral life a perceptible stroke of palsy. in reference to the question, can ephemera have a moral law? richter reasons as follows: "suppose a statue besouled for two days. if on the first day you should shatter it, and thus rob it of one day's life, would you be guilty of murder? one can injure only an immortal." the sophistry appears when we rectify the conclusion thus: one can inflict an immortal injury only on an immortal being. in fact, it would appear to be a greater wrong and injury, for the time, to destroy one day's life of a man whose entire existence was confined to two days, than it would be to take away the same period from the bodily existence of one who immediately thereupon passes into a more exalted and eternal life. to the sufferer, the former would seem an immitigable calamity, the latter a benign furtherance; while, in the agent, the overt act is the same. this general moral problem has been more accurately answered by isaac taylor, whose lucid statement is as follows: "the creatures of a summer's day might be imagined, when oeuvres completes, tome xiii.: immortalite de l'ame. sermons of theism, sermon vii. werke, band xxxiii. s. . they stand upon the threshold of their term of existence, to make inquiry concerning the attributes of the creator and the rules of his government; for these are to be the law of their season of life and the measure of their enjoyments. the sons of immortality would put the same questions with an intensity the greater from the greater stake." practically, the acknowledged authority of the moral law in human society cannot be destroyed. its influence may be unlimitedly weakened, its basis variously altered, but as a confessed sovereign principle it cannot be expelled. the denial of the freedom of the will theoretically explodes it; but social custom, law, and opinion will enforce it still. make man a mere dissoluble mixture of carbon and magnetism, yet so long as he can distinguish right and wrong, good and evil, love and hate, and, unsophisticated by dialectics, can follow either of opposite courses of action, the moral law exists and exerts its sway. it has been asked, "if the incendiary be, like the fire he kindles, a result of material combinations, shall he not be treated in the same way?" we should reply thus: no matter what man springs from or consists of, if he has moral ideas, performs moral actions, and is susceptible of moral motives, then he is morally responsible: for all practical and disciplinary purposes he is wholly removed from the categories of physical science. another pernicious misrepresentation of the fair consequences of the denial of a life hereafter is shown in the frequent declaration that then there would be no motive to any thing good and great. the incentives which animate men to strenuous services, perilous virtues, disinterested enterprises, spiritual culture, would cease to operate. the essential life of all moral motives would be killed. this view is to be met by a broad and indignant denial based on an appeal to human consciousness and to the reason of the thing. every man knows by experience that there are a multitude of powerful motives, entirely disconnected with future reward or punishment, causing him to resist evil and to do good even with self sacrificing toil and danger. when the fireman risks his life to save a child from the flames of a tumbling house, is the hope of heaven his motive? when the soldier spurns an offered bribe and will not betray his comrades nor desert his post, is the fear of hell all that animates him? a million such decisive specifications might be made. the renowned sentence of cicero, "nemo unquam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem," is effective eloquence; but it is a baseless libel against humanity and the truth. in every moment of supreme nobleness and sacrifice personality vanishes. thousands of patriots, philosophers, saints, have been glad to die for the freedom of native land, the cause of truth, the welfare of fellow men, without a taint of selfish reward touching their wills. are there not souls "to whom dishonor's shadow is a substance more terrible than death here and hereafter"? he must be the basest of men who would decline to do any sublime act of virtue because he did not expect to enjoy the consequences of it eternally. is there no motive for the some discussion of this general subject is to be found in schaller, leib nod seele. kap. : die consequentzen des materialismus. and in schopenhauer, die beiden grundprobleme der ethik. tuscul. quast. lib. i. cap. . preservation of health because it cannot be an everlasting possession? since we cannot eat sweet and wholesome food forever, shall we therefore at once saturate our stomachs with nauseating poisons? if all experienced good and evil wholly terminate for us when we die, still, every intrinsic reason which, on the supposition of immortality, makes wisdom better than folly, industry better than sloth, righteousness better than iniquity, benevolence and purity better than hatred and corruption, also makes them equally preferable while they last. even if the philosopher and the idiot, the religious philanthropist and the brutal pirate, did die alike, who would not rather live like the sage and the saint than like the fool and the felon? shall heaven be held before man simply as a piece of meat before a hungry dog to make him jump well? it is a shocking perversion of the grandest doctrine of faith. let the theory of annihilation assume its direst phase, still, our perception of principles, our consciousness of sentiments, our sense of moral loyalty, are not dissolved, but will hold us firmly to every noble duty until we ourselves flow into the dissolving abyss. but some one may say, "if i have fought with beasts at ephesus, what advantageth it me if the dead rise not?" it advantageth you every thing until you are dead, although there be nothing afterwards. as long as you live, is it not glory and reward enough to have conquered the beasts at ephesus? this is sufficient reply to the unbelieving flouters at the moral law. and, as an unanswerable refutation of the feeble whine of sentimentality that without immortal endurance nothing is worth our affection, let great shakspeare advance, with his matchless depth of bold insight reversing the conclusion, and pronouncing, in tones of cordial solidity, "this, thou perceivest, will make thy love more strong, to love that well which thou must leave ere long." what though decay's shapeless hand extinguish us? its foreflung and enervating shadow shall neither transform us into devils nor degrade us into beasts. that shadow indeed only falls in the valleys of ignoble fear and selfishness, leaving all the clear road lines of moral truth and practical virtue and heroic consecration still high and bright on the table land of a worthy life; and every honorable soul, calmly confronting its fate, will cry, despite the worst, "the pathway of my duty lies in sunlight; and i would tread it with as firm a step, though it should terminate in cold oblivion, as if elysian pleasures at its close gleam'd palpable to sight as things of earth." if a captain knew that his ship would never reach her port, would he therefore neglect his functions, be slovenly and careless, permit insubordination and drunkenness among the crew, let the broad pennon draggle in filthy rents, the cordage become tangled and stiff, the planks be covered with dirt, and the guns be grimed with rust? no: all generous hearts would condemn that. he would keep every inch of the deck scoured, every piece of metal polished like a mirror, the sails set full and clean, and, with shining muzzles out, ropes hauled taut in their blocks, and every man at his post, he would sweep towards the reef, and go down into the sea firing a farewell salute of honor to the sun, his flag flying above him as he sunk. the dogmatic assertors of a future life, in a partisan spirit set upon making out the most impressive case in its behalf, have been guilty of painting frightful caricatures of the true nature and significance of the opposite conclusion. instead of saying, "if such a thing be fated, why, then, it must be right, god's will be done," they frantically rebel against any such admission, and declare that it would make god a liar and a fiend, man a "magnetic mockery," and life a hellish taunt. this, however unconscious it may be to its authors, is blasphemous egotism. one of the tenderest, devoutest, richest, writers of the century has unflinchingly affirmed that if man who trusted that love was the final law of creation, although nature, her claws and teeth red with raven, shrieked against his creed be left to be blown about the desert dust or sealed within the iron hills, "no more! a monster, then, a dream, a discord; dragons of the prime, that tare each other in their slime, were mellow music match'd with him!" epictetus says, "when death overtakes me, it is enough if i can stretch out my hands to god, and say, 'the opportunities which thou hast given me of comprehending and following thy government, i have not neglected. i thank thee that thou hast brought me into being. i am satisfied with the time i have enjoyed the things thou hast given me. receive them again, and assign them to whatever place thou wilt.'" surely the pious heathen here speaks more worthily than the presumptuous christian! how much fitter would it be, granting that death is the end all, to revise our interpretation, look at the subject from the stand point of universal order, not from this opinionative narrowness, and see if it be not susceptible of a benignant meaning, worthy of grateful acceptance by the humble mind of piety and the dispassionate spirit of science! yea, let god and his providence stand justified, though man prove to have been egregiously mistaken. "though he smite me, yet will i praise him; though he slay me, yet will i trust in him." to return into the state we were in before we were created is not to suffer any evil: it is to be absolutely free from all evil. it is but the more perfect playing of that part, of which every sound sleep is a rehearsal. the thought of it is mournful to the enjoying soul, but not terrific; and even the mournfulness ceases in the realization. he uttered a piece of cruel madness who said, "hell is more bearable than nothingness." is it worse to have nothing than it is to have infinite torture? milton asks, "for who would lose, though full of pain, this intellectual being?" every creature that exists, if full of pain, would snatch at the boon of ceasing to be. to be blessed is a good; to be wretched is an evil; not to be is neither a good nor an evil, but simply dissert., lib. iv. cap. x. sect. . nothing. if such be our necessary fate, let us accept it with a harmonized mind, not entertaining fear nor yielding to sadness. why should we shudder or grieve? every time we slumber, we try on the dress which, when we die, we shall wear easily forever. not satisfied to let the result rest in this somewhat sad but peaceful aspect, it is quite customary to give it a turn and hue of ghastly horribleness, by casting over it the dyspeptic dreams, injecting it with the lurid lights and shades, of a morbid and wilful fancy. the most loathsome and inexcusable instance in point is the "vision of annihilation" depicted by the vermicular, infested imagination of the great teutonic phantasist while yet writhing under the sanguinary fumes of some horrid attack of nightmare. stepping across the earth, which is but a broad executioner's block for pale, stooping humanity, he enters the larva world of blotted out men. the rotten chain of beings reaches down into this slaughter field of souls. here the dead are pictured as eternally horripilating at death! "as annihilation, the white shapelessness of revolting terror, passes by each unsouled mask of a man, a tear gushes from the crumbled eye, as a corpse bleeds when its murderer approaches." pah! out upon this execrable retching of a nauseated fancy! what good is there in the baseless conceit and gratuitous disgust of saying, "the next world is in the grave, betwixt the teeth of the worm"? in the case supposed, the truth is merely that there is no next world anywhere; not that all the horrors of hell are scooped together into the grave, and there multiplied by others direr yet and unknown before. man's blended duty and interest, in such a case, are to try to see the interior beauty and essential kindness of his fate, to adorn it and embrace it, fomenting his resignation with the sweet lotions of faith and peace, not exasperating his wounds with the angry pungents of suspicion, alarm, and complaint. at the worst, amidst all our personal disappointments, losses, and decay, "the view of the great universal whole of nature," as humboldt says, "is reassuring and consolatory." if the boon of a future immortality be not ours, therefore to scorn the gift of the present life, is to act not like a wise man, who with grateful piety makes the best of what is given, but like a spoiled child, who, if he cannot have both his orange and his gingerbread, pettishly flings his gingerbread in the mud. the future life, outside of the realm of faith, to an earnest and independent inquirer, and considered as a scientific question, lies in a painted mist of uncertainty. there is room for hope, and there is room for doubt. the wavering evidences in some moods preponderate on that side, in other moods on this side. meanwhile it is clear that, while he lives here, the best thing he can do is to cherish a devout spirit, cultivate a noble character, lead a pure and useful life in the service of wisdom, humanity, and god, and finally, when the appointed time arrives, meet the issue with reverential and affectionate conformity, without dictating terms. let the vanishing man say, like ruckert's dying flower, "thanks to day for all the favors i have received from sun and stream and earth and sky, for all the gifts from men and god which have made my little life an ornament and a bliss. heaven, stretch out thine azure tent while my faded one is sinking here. joyous spring tide, roll on through ages yet to come, in which fresh generations shall rise and be glad. farewell all! content to have had my turn, i now fall asleep, without a murmur or a sigh." surely the mournful nobility of such a strain of sentiment is preferable by much to the selfish terror of that unquestioning belief which in the middle age depicted the chase of the soul by satan, on the columns and doors of the churches, under the symbol of a deer pursued by a hunter and hounds; and which has in later times produced in thousands the feeling thus terribly expressed by bunyan, "i blessed the condition of the dog and toad because they had no soul to perish under the everlasting weight of hell!" sight of truth, with devout and loving submission to it, is an achievement whose nobleness outweighs its sorrow, even if the gazer foresee his own destruction. it is not our intention in these words to cast doubt on the immortality of the soul, or to depreciate the value of a belief in it. we desire to vindicate morality and religion from the unwitting attacks made on them by many self styled christian writers in their exaggeration of the practical importance of such a faith. the qualitative contents of human nature have nothing to do with its quantitative contents: our duties rest not on the length, but on the faculties and relations, of our existence. make the life of a dog endless, he has only the capacity of a dog; make the life of a man finite, still, within its limits, he has the psychological functions of humanity. faith in immortality may enlarge and intensify the motives to prudent and noble conduct; it does not create new ones. the denial of immortality may pale and contract those motives; it does not take them away. knowing the burden and sorrow of earth, brooding in dim solicitude over the far times and men yet to be, we cannot recklessly utter a word calculated to lessen the hopes of man, pathetic creature, who weeps into the world and faints out of it. it is our faith not knowledge that the spirit is without terminus or rest. the faithful truth hunter, in dying, finds not a covert, but a better trail. yet the saintliness of the intellect is to be purged from prejudice and self will. with god we are not to prescribe conditions. the thought that all high virtue and piety must die with the abandonment of belief in immortality is as pernicious and dangerous as it is shallow, vulgar, and unchristian. the view is obviously gaining prevalence among scientific and philosophical thinkers, that life is the specialization of the universal in the individual, death the restoration of the individual to the whole. this doubt as to a personal future life will unquestionably increase. let traditional teachers beware how they venture to shift the moral law from its immutable basis in the will of god to a precarious poise on the selfish hope and fear of man. the sole safety, the ultimate desideratum, is perception of law with disinterested conformity. the influence of the doctrine of reward and punishment in a future state, as a working motive for the observance of the moral law, is enormously overestimated. the influence, as such a motive, of the public opinion of mankind, with the legal and social sanctions, is enormously underestimated. and the authority of a personal perception of right is also most unbecomingly depreciated. universal order is the expression of the purposes of god, not as arbitrarily chosen by his will and capriciously revealed in a book, but as necessitated by his nature and embodied in his works. the true basis of morality is universal order. the true end of morality is life, the sum of moral laws being identical with the sum of the conditions in accordance with which the fruition of the functions of life can be secured with nearest approach to perfectness, perpetuity, and universality. the true sanctions of morality are the manifold forms in which consciousness of life is heightened by harmony with universal order or lowered by discord with it. the true law of moral sacrifice or resistance to temptation is misrepresented by the common doctrine of heaven and hell, which makes it consist in the renunciation of a present good for the clutching of a future good, the voluntary suffering of a small present evil to avoid the involuntary suffering of an immense future evil. the true law of moral sacrifice is deeper, purer, more comprehensive, than that. it expresses our duty, in accordance with the requirements of universal order, to subordinate the gratification of any part of our being to that of the whole of our being, to forego the good of any portion of our life in deference to that of all our life, to renounce any happiness of the individual which conflicts with the welfare of the race, to hold the spiritual atom in absolute abeyance to the spiritual universe, to sink self in god. if a man believe in no future life, is he thereby absolved from the moral law? the kind and number of his duties remain as before: only the apparent grandeur of their scale and motives is diminished. the two halves of morality are the co ordination of separate interests in universal order, and the loyalty of the parts to the wholes. the desire to remove the obligations and sanctions of the moral law from their intrinsic supports, and posit them on the fictitious pedestals of a forensic heaven and hell, reveals incompetency of thought and vulgarity of sentiment in him who does it, and is a procedure not less perilous than unwarranted. if the creation be conceived as a machine, it is a machine self regulating in all its parts by the immanent presence of its maker. when we die, may the spirit of truth, the comforter of christ, be our confessor; the last inhaled breath our cup of absolution; the tears of some dear friend our extreme unction; no complaint for past trials, but a grateful acknowledgment for all blessings, our parting word. and then, resigning ourselves to the universal father, assured that whatever ought to be, and is best to be, will be, either absolute oblivion shall be welcome, or we will go forward to new destinies, whether with preserved identity or with transformed consciousness and powers being indifferent to us, since the will of god is done. in the mean time, until that critical pass and all decisive hour, as milnes says: "we all must patient stand, like statues on appointed pedestals: yet we may choose since choice is given to shun servile contentment or ignoble fear in the expression of our attitude; and with far straining eyes, and hands upcast, and feet half raised, declare our painful state, yearning for wings to reach the fields of truth, mourning for wisdom, panting to be free." part sixth supplementary. [fifteen years later] chapter i. the end of the world. we read in the new testament that the heavens and the earth are reserved unto fire against the day of judgment, when they shall be burned up, and all be made new. it is said that the elements shall melt with ferment heat, the stars fall, and the sky pass away like a scroll that is rolled together. on these and similar passages is based the belief of christendom in the destined destruction of the world by fire and in the scenic judgment of the dead and the living gathered before the visible tribunal of christ. this belief was once general and intense. it is still common, though more vague and feeble than formerly. in whatever degree it is held, it is a doctrine of terror. we hope by tracing its origin, and showing how mistaken it is, to help dispel its sway, free men from the further oppression of its fearfulness, and put in its place the just and wholesome authority of the truth. the true doctrine of the divine government of the world, the correct explanation of the course and sequel of history, must be more honorable to god, more useful to men, of better working and omen in the life of society, than any error can be. let us then, as far as we are able, displace by the truth the errors prevalent around us in regard to the end of the world and the day of judgment. it will help us in our proposed investigation, if we first notice that the ecclesiastical doctrine as to an impending destruction of the world is not solitary, but has prototypes and parallels in the faiths of other nations and ages. almost every people, every tribe, has its cosmogony or theory of the creation, in which there are accounts, more or less rude or refined, general or minute, of the supposed beginning and of the imagined end of nature. all early literatures from the philosophic treatises of the hindus to the oral traditions of the polynesians are found to contain either sublime dreams or obscure prophecies or awful pictures of the final doom and destruction of earth and man. the hebrew symbols and the christian beliefs in relation to this subject therefore stand not alone, but in connection with a multitude of others, each one plainly reflecting the degree of knowledge and stage of development attained by the minds which originated it. before proceeding to examine the familiar doctrine so enveloped in our prejudices, a brief examination of some kindred doctrines, less familiar to us and quite detached from our prejudices, will be of service. the sacred books of the hindus describe certain enormous periods of time in which the universe successively begins and ends, springs into being and sinks into nothing. these periods are called kalpas, and each one covers a duration of thousands of millions of years. each kalpa of creation is called a day of brahma; each kalpa of destruction, a night of brahma. the belief is that brahma, waking from the slumber of his self absorbed solitude, feels his loneliness, and his thoughts and emotions go forth in creative forms, composing the immense scheme of worlds and creatures. these play their parts, and run their courses, until the vast day of brahma is completed; when he closes his eyes, and falls to rest, while the whole system of finite things returns to the silence and darkness of its aboriginal unity, and remains there in invisible annihilation through the stupendous night that precedes the reawaking of the slumbering godhead and the appearance of the creation once more. a little reflection makes the origin of this imagery and belief clear. each night, as the darkness comes down, and the outer world disappears, man falls asleep, and, so far as he is consciously concerned, every thing is destroyed. in his unconsciousness, everything ceases to be. the light dawns again, he awakes, and his reopened senses create anew the busy frame and phenomena of nature. transfer this experience from man to god; consider it not as abstract and apparent, but as concrete and real, and you have the hindu doctrine of the kalpa. when we sleep, to us all things are destroyed; and when we awake, to us they reappear. when god sleeps, all things in themselves really end; and when he wakes, they begin anew to be. the visible and experimental phenomena of day and night, sleeping and waking, are universalized, and attributed to god, it is a poetic process of thought, natural enough to a rich minded, simple people, but wholly illegitimate as a logical ground of belief, but being stated in books supposed to be infallibly inspired, and in the absence of critical tests for the discrimination of sound from unsound thought, it was implicitly accepted by multitudes. closely allied to the foregoing doctrine, yet in several particulars strikingly different from it, and evidently quite independent in its origin, was the great year of the stoics, or the alternative blotting out and restoration of all things. this school of philosophers conceived of god as a pure artistic force or seed of universal energy, which exhibits its history in the evolution of the kosmos, and, on its completion, blossoms into fire, and vanishes. the universal periodical conflagration destroys all evil, and leaves the indestructible god alone in his pure essence again. the artistic germ or seed force then begins, under its laws of intrinsic necessity, to go once more through the same process to the same end. the rise of this imagery and belief is not so obvious as in the last instance, but it is equally discoverable and intelligible. every animal, every flower, every plant, begins from its proper specific germ or force, goes through a fixed series of growths and changes, and relapses into its prime elements, and another and another follow after it in the same order. the seasons come and go, and come again and go again, every planet repeats its revolutions over and over. wherever we look, this repetition of identical processes greets our vision. now, by imaginative association universalize this repetition of the course of phenomena as seen in the parts, and take it up and apply it to the whole creation, and you have the doctrine in hand. it is a poetic process of thought not scientific or philosophic, and without claim to belief; yet, in the absence of scientific data and standards, it might easily win acceptance on authority. the scandinavians, also, have transmitted to us, in their sacred books, descriptions of their belief in the approaching end of the world, descriptions rude, wild, terrible, not without elements of appalling grandeur. they foretell a day called ragnarok, or the twilight of the gods, when all the powers of good and evil shall join in battle, and the whole present system of things perish in a scene of unutterable strife and dismay. the eddas were composed in an ignorant but deeply poetic and fertile age, when all the mythological elements of mind were in full action. their authors looking within, on their own passions, and without, on the natural scenery around them, conscious of order and disorder, love and hate, virtue and crime, beholding phenomena of beauty and horror, sun and stars, night and tempest, winter and summer, icebergs and volcanoes, placid moonlight and blinding mist, assisting friends and battling foes, personified everything as a demon or a divinity. asgard, above the blue firmament, was the bright home of the gods, the asir. helheim, beneath the rocky earth and the frozen ocean, was the dark and foul abode of the bad spirits, the jotuns. everywhere in nature, fog and fire, fertility and barrenness, were in conflict; everywhere in society, law and crime were contending. in the moon followed by a drifting cloud, they saw a goddess chased by a wolf. the strife goes on waxing, and must sooner or later reach a climax. each side enlists its allies, until all are ranged in opposition, from jormungandur, the serpent of the deep, to heindall, the warder of the rainbow, gods and brave men there, demons, traitors, and cowards here. then sounds the horn of battle, and the last day dawns in fire and splendor from the sky, in fog and venom from the abyss. flame devours the earth. for the most part, the combatants mutually slay each other. only gimli, the high, safe heaven of all father, remains as a refuge for the survivors and the beginning of a new and fairer world. the natural history of this mythological mess is clear enough. it arises from the poetic embodiment and personification of phenomena, the grouping together of all evil and of all good, then imaginatively universalizing the conflict, and carrying it out in idea to its inevitable ultimatum. the process of thought was obviously natural in its ground, but fictitious in its result. yet in a period when no sharp distinction was drawn between fancy and fact, song and science, but an indiscriminate faith was often yielded to both, even such a picturesque medley as this might be held as religious truth. the zarathustrian or persian scheme of a general judgment of men and of the world in some respects resembles the systems already set forth, in other respects more closely approaches that christian doctrine partially borrowed from it, and which is hereafter to be noticed. ahura mazda, the god of light and truth, creates the world full of all sorts of blessings. his adversary, angra mainyus, the author of darkness and falsehood, seeks to counteract and destroy the works of ahura mazda by means of all sorts of correspondent evils and woes. when ahura mazda creates the race of men happy and immortal, angra mainyus, the old serpent, full of corruption and destruction, steals in, seduces them from their allegiance, and brings misery and death on them, and then leads their souls to his dark abode. the whole creation is supposed to be crowded with good spirits, the angels of ahura mazda, seeking to carry out his beneficent designs; and also with evil spirits, the ministers of angra mainyus, plotting to make men wicked, and to pervert and poison every blessing with an answering curse. light is the symbol of god, darkness the symbol of his antagonist. under these hostile banners are ranged all living creatures, all created objects. for long periods this dreadful contention rages, involving everything below in its fluctuations. but at last ahura mazda subdues angra mainyus, overturns all the mischief he has done, by means of a great deliverer whom he has sent among men to instruct and redeem them raises the dead, purifies the world with fire, and, after properly punishing the guilty, restores all nature to its original paradisal condition, free from pain and death. in the primitive state of mankind, when the germs of this religion were conceived, when men dwelt in ignorance, exposure, and fear, they naturally shuddered at darkness as a supernatural enemy, and worshipped light as a supernatural friend. that became the emblem or personification of the devil, this the emblem or personification of god. they grouped all evils with that, all goods with this. imaginatively associating all light and darkness, all blessing and bale, respectively with ahura mazda and angra mainyus, they universalized the fragmentary embodiments and oppositions of these into one great battle; and under the impulse of worshipping faith and hope, carried it to its crisis in the final victory of the good. plainly, it is mere poetry injected a little with a later speculative element, and dealing in mythological fashion chiefly with the phenomena of nature as related to the experience of man. no one now can accept it literally. this survey of the various heathen myths of the end of the world has prepared us, in some degree, to consider the corresponding view held by the jews, and more completely developed by the christian successors to the jewish heritage of thought and feeling. the hebrews believed themselves to be exclusively the chosen people of god, who directly ruled over them himself by a theocratic government represented in their patriarchs, law givers, prophets, and kings. jehovah was the only true god; they were his only pure and accepted worshippers, sharply distinguished from the whole idolatrous world. the heathen nations, uncircumcised adorers of vain idols or of demons, were by consequence enemies both of the true god and of his servants. this contrast and hostility they even carried over into the unseen world, and imagined that each nation had its own guardian angel in the court of jehovah in heaven, who contended there for its interests; their own national guardian, the angel michael, being more powerful and nearer to the throne than any other one. in the calamities that fell on them, they recognized the vengeance of jehovah for the violation of his commands. in their victories, their deliverances, their great blessings, especially in their rescue from egypt, and in the many miracles which they believed to have accompanied that great passage, they saw the signal superiority of their god over every other god, and the proofs of his particular providence over them in distinct preference to all other peoples. he had, as they piously believed, made a special covenant with abraham, and set apart his posterity as a sacred family, exclusively intrusted with the divine law, and commissioned to subdue and govern all the other families of the earth. when this proud and intensely cherished faith was baffled of fulfillment, they never dreamed of abandoning it. they only supposed its triumphant execution postponed, as a penalty for their sins, and looked forward with redoubled ardor to a better time when their hopes should break into fruition, their exile be ended, their captivity appear as a dream, jerusalem be the central gem of the world, and the anointed ruler wield his sceptre over all mankind. but misfortunes and woes were heaped on them. their city was sacked, their temple desecrated, their people dragged into foreign slavery, forbidden to celebrate the rites of their religion, slaughtered by wholesale. many times, during the two centuries before and the first century after christ, did they suffer these terrible sorrows. their hatred and scorn of their heathen persecutors; their faith in their own incomparable destiny; their expectation of the speedy appearance of an anointed deliverer, raised up by jehovah to avenge them and vindicate their trust, all became the more fervent and profound the longer the delay. under these circumstances grew up the jewish doctrine of the messiah, as it is seen in that apocalyptic literature represented by the book of daniel, the sibylline oracles, the book of enoch, the assumption of moses, the fourth book of esdras, and similar documents. the jews were remarkably free from that habit of mind which led almost all the other nations to personify the most startling phenomena of nature as living beings, which created fetiches of stocks and stones and animals; saw a god in every wind, season, star, and cloud. the semitic mind and literature were more sober, rational, and monotheistic. the place occupied in the thoughts of other peoples by the phenomena of nature was held in the thoughts of the jews by political phenomena, by ritual, legal, and military relations. and the poetic action of fancy, the mythological creativeness and superstitious feeling which other people exercised on the objects and changes of nature, the jews exercised on the phenomena of their own national history. the burning central point of their polity and belief and imagination was the conviction of their own national consecration as the exclusive people of god, meant to conquer, teach, and rule all the infidel nations; that jehovah was literally their invisible king, represented in their chief ruler; that every great triumph or disaster was a signal day of the lord, a special coming of jehovah to reward or punish his people. during their repeated bondages under the persians, syrians, greeks, parthians, romans, their feeling of the antagonism between themselves and the other people increased. from the time of the babylonish captivity the persian doctrine of good and evil spirits had infiltrated into their belief; and they adopted the notion of angra mainyus, and developed it (with certain modifications) into their conception of satan. then, in their faith, the war of jews and gentiles spread into the invisible world, and took up on its opposite sides the good and the fallen angels. and, finally, the idea of their messiah became the centre of a battle and a judgment in which all the generations of the dead as well as of the living were to have a part; and which should culminate in the overthrow of evil, the subjection of the heathen, the assignment of the righteous to a paradisal reign, and of the wicked to a doom typified by the submersion of sodom and gomorrah in fiery brimstone. how plainly this doctrine was the result of the same poetic process of thought with the other schemes already depicted! only they were developed on the basis of natural phenomena; this, on the basis of political phenomena. it is simply the imaginative universalization of the struggle between jew and gentile, and the carrying of it to its crisis and sequel. and when inexplicable delays and the accumulation of obstacles made the realization of the expected result amidst the conditions of the present world seem ever more and more hopeless, the growing and assimilative action of faith and fancy expanded the scene, and transferred it to a transmundane state, involving the destruction of the heavens and earth and their replacement with a new creation. is there any more real reason for believing this doctrine than there is for believing the other kindred schemes? not a whit. it is a mistake of the same poetic nature, and resting on the same grounds with them. two thousand years have passed, and it has not been fulfilled; and there is ever less and less sign of its fulfillment. it never will be fulfilled, except in a spiritual sense. the jews will finally lose their pride of race and covenant, abandon their special messianic creed, and blend themselves and their opinions in the mass of redeemed and progressive humanity, and no more dream of a physical resurrection of the dead amidst the dissolving elements of nature. and now we must notice that besides all these poetic pictures of the end of the world, there are prophecies of a similar result which wear an apparently scientific garb. many men of science firmly believe that our world is destined to be destroyed, that a close for the earthly fortunes of mankind can be plainly foreseen. no little alarm was felt a century or more ago, when it was discovered that there was a progressive diminution going on in the orbit of the moon, which must cause it at length to impinge upon the earth. but la grange exhibited the fallaciousness of the prophecy, by showing that the decrease was periodical and succeeded by a corresponding increase. intense and widely spread terror has repeatedly been felt less a comet should come within our planetary orbit, and shatter or melt our globe by its contact. but the discovery of the nebulous nature of comets, of their great numbers and regular movements, has quite dissipated that fear from the popular mind in our day. there are, however, other forms of scientific speculation which put the prophesied destruction of the world on a more plausible and formidable basis. it is supposed by many scientists that all force is derived from the consumption of heat; and that the fuel must at last be used up, and therefore no life or energy be left for sustaining the present system of the creation. this theory is met by the counter statement that the heat of the sun and other similar centres may possibly not depend on any material consumption; or, if it does, there may be a self replenishing supply, loss and repair forming an endless circle. it is foretold by some chemists, that the progressive interior cooling and contraction of our orb will cause ever greater interstices or vacant spaces among the solid substances below the outer crust; and that into these pores, first all liquids, then all gases and the whole atmosphere, will be absorbed: so that the world will be left desolate, utterly uninhabitable by life. again: it is said that all force or energy tends at every transformation to pass (at least partially) into heat; and therefore that, finally, all force will be frittered down into the one form of heat, all matter vanishing from its separate shapes into the state of a homogeneous, nebulous fire. the portentous sight, repeatedly descried by astronomers, of a nameless world, away in remotest space, which has suddenly kindled, blazed, smouldered, darkened, and vanished forever from its place, is perhaps a solemn symbol of the fate of our own planet; hinting at a time when the earth, too, shall make itself a funeral pyre, and, awed in distant orbs, some race unknown shall miss one star whose smile had lit their own. this same final crisis is also prophesied on the basis of a slight retardation to which the planets are subjected in their passage through the ethereal medium. no matter how slight the resistance thus interposed, its consequence, it is thought, must accumulate and ultimately compel all material bodies to approach each other; and, as their successive collisions convert them into heat and vapor, nothing will be left at last but one uniform nebula. the process of evolution will then begin anew, and so the stupendous history of the universe repeat itself eternally. this is the sublimest of all the generalizations of science. it may be true, and it may not be true. at any rate, it differs immensely in the moral impression it makes from that made by the current theological doctrine of the same catastrophe. we can contemplate the scientific prophecy of the end of the world with a peace of mind which the traditional prophecy does not permit. in the first place, the ecclesiastical doctrine makes the destruction of the world a result of wrath and vengeance. the angry god looms above us with flaming features and avenging weapons to tread down his enemies. we shrink in fright from the wrath and power of the personal judge, the inexorable foe of the wicked. but the scientific doctrine makes the end a result of passionless laws, a steady evolution of effects from causes, wholly free from everything vindictive. secondly. the ecclesiastical doctrine makes the dreadful conclusion a sudden event, an inconceivable shock of horror, falling in an instant, overwhelming all its victims with the swiftness of lightning in the unutterable agony of their ruin. but the scientific doctrine makes the climax a matter of slow and gradual approach. whether the worlds are to be frozen up by increasing cold, or to evaporate in culminating heat, or to be converted into gas as they meet in their career, the changes of the chemical conditions will be so steady and moderate beforehand as to cause all living creatures to have diminished in numbers by insensible degrees, and to have utterly ceased long before the final shock arrives. thirdly. the ecclesiastical doctrine makes the sequel imminent, near, ready to fall at a moment's warning. at any hour the signal may strike. thus it is to the earnest believer a constant, urgent alarm, close at hand. but the scientific doctrine depicts the close as almost unimaginably remote. all the data in the hands of our scientists lead their calculations as to the nearest probable end to land them in an epoch so far off as to be stated only in thousands of millions of years. thus the picture is so distant as to be virtually enfeebled into nothing. we cannot, even by the most vivid imagination, bring it home closely enough to make it real and effective on our plans. and, finally, the theological dogma of the destruction of the world professes to be an infallible certainty. the believer holds that he absolutely knows it by a revelation of supernatural authority. but with the scientist such a belief is held as merely a probability. a billion of centuries hence the world may perhaps come to an end; and, on the other hand, the phenomena which lead to such a belief may yet be explained as implying no such result. and these two issues, so far as our social or ideal experience is concerned, are virtually the same. a brilliant french writer has suggested that even if the natural course of evolution does of itself necessitate the final destruction of the world, yet our race, judging from the magnificent achievements of science and art already reached, may, within ten thousand centuries, which will be long before the foreseen end approaches, obtain such a knowledge and control of the forces of nature as to make collective humanity master of this planet, able to shape and guide its destinies, ward off every fatal crisis, and perfect and immortalize the system as now sustained. it is an audacious fancy. but like many other incredible conceptions which have forerun their own still more incredible fulfillment, the very thought electrifies us with hope and courage. and thus the conclusion in which we rest at the close of our investigation is the belief that the world is to last, and our race to flourish on it virtually forever. this conclusion is equally a relief from the frightful burdens of superstition, and a consolation for our own personal evanescence. the stable harmony of natural beauty and beneficence, amidst which we individually play our brief part and vanish, shall stand fast, blooming with fresh growths, and shining with fadeless light, and the successive generations of our dear fellow men shall grow ever wiser and happier, beyond the reach of our farthest vision into the future. and if we recognize in the great catastrophic myths and previsions of the poets and scientists the fundamental truth that the things which are seen are temporal, while the things alone which are unseen are eternal, the end being a regular and remote sequel in the creative plan of god, free from anger, retributive disappointment, or cruelty will not alarm us. for if souls are substantial entities, and not mere phenomenal processes, they will survive the universal crisis, and either at the lucid goals of their perfected destiny rejoice forever in a reflected individual fruition of the attributes of god, or else start refreshed on a new career with that redistribution of the cosmic matter and motion which in its gigantic and eternal rhythm of development and dissolution the ancient hindu mind figured as the respiration of brahm and which ambitious science now generalizes as the law of evolution. chapter ii. the day of judgment. judaism so largely supplied the circumstantial and doctrinal germs out of which dogmatic christianity grew, that we cannot thoroughly understand the christian belief in a final day of judgment, unless we first notice the historic and literary derivation of that belief from judaism, and then trace its development in the new conditions through which it passed. the personal character, teachings, life, and death of jesus christ, together with his subsequent resurrection and career in the consciousness of ecclesiastical christendom, constituted the crystalizing centre which, dipped in the inherited solution of ideal and social materials furnished by the church, has gathered around it the accretion of faith and dogma composing the theoretic christianity of the present day. to follow this process with reference to the particular tenet before us, analyze it, discriminate the appropriate in it from the inappropriate, the true from the false, maybe difficult; but it is necessary for a satisfactory conclusion. to this task let us therefore now address ourselves, putting away all bias and prejudice, invoking in equal degree candor, fearlessness and charity. the jews believed themselves to be a people chosen out of all the world as the exclusive favorites of god. by the covenant of abraham, and the code of moses, jehovah had entered, as they thought, into a special contract with them to be their peculiar god, guardian, and ruler. in contrast with the depraved habits and idolatrous rites of the heathen nations, the israelites were strictly to keep the moral law, and, at the same time, to pay a pure worship to jehovah through the scrupulous observance of their ceremonial law. the bond of race and family descent from abraham, the practice of circumcision, and the ceremonies of the mosaic ritual, sealed them as accepted members of this divine covenant. so long as they were true to the duties involved in this relation, jehovah would watch over them, defend them from their enemies, set them proudly above the alien gentiles, and crown them with every spiritual and temporal blessing. the noblest representatives of the people believed this with unparalleled thoroughness and intensity. they looked down on the uncircumcised nations as wicked idolaters, destined to be their servants until they should be adopted into the same covenant by becoming proselytes to their faith. jehovah was literally their direct, though invisible, king, law giver, and judge, palpably rewarding their fidelity by overt temporal blessings, punishing their dereliction by awful temporal calamities and sufferings. every signal instance of his providential intervention in their affairs they called a day of the lord, a coming of jehovah, a judgment from heaven. thus the prophet joel foretells the vengeance which god would take on tyre and sidon and philistia, because they had assailed and scattered his people. "behold the day of jehovah cometh, the great and terrible day. and i will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood and fire and pillars of smoke. the sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood. then whosoever calleth on the name of jehovah shall be delivered: for upon mount zion and in jerusalem shall be deliverance. i will contend with the gentiles for my people, and will bring back the captives. the multitudes, the multitudes in the valley of judgment: for the day of jehovah is near in the valley of judgment." in a similar strain isaiah prophesies against edom: "draw near, o ye nations, and hear! for the wrath of jehovah is kindled against the nations, and he hath given up their armies to slaughter. the stench of their carcasses shall ascend, and the mountains shall melt with their blood. and all the hosts of heaven shall melt away; and all their host shall fall down, as the blighted fruit from the fig tree. for my sword shall rush drunk from heaven: behold, upon edom shall it descend. for it is a day of vengeance from jehovah. her streams shall be turned into pitch, and her dust into brimstone, and her whole land shall become burning pitch. it shall lie waste forever, and none shall pass through it. the pelican and the hedgehog shall possess it; the heron and the raven shall dwell in it." tremendous and appalling as this imagery is, it is obvious that the whole meaning of it is earthly and temporal, a local judgment of jehovah in vindication of his people against the heathen. and kindred judgments are threatened against his own people when they lapse into wickedness and idolatry. "thus saith the lord, behold, i will wipe jerusalem as a man wipeth a dish, wiping it and turning it upside down." "jehovah appeareth as a hostile witness, the lord from his holy place. behold, jehovah cometh forth from his dwelling place, and advanceth on the high places of the earth. the mountains melt under him, and the valleys cleave asunder like wax before the fire. for the sin of the house of israel is all this." thus the earliest meaning of the phrase, day of the lord, or day of judgment, according to biblical usage, was the occurrence of any severe calamity, either to the jews, as a punishment for their apostasy; or to the gentiles, as a punishment for their wickedness, or for their violent encroachment on the rights of the chosen people. these visitations of military disaster or political subjection, though purely local and temporal, are depicted in the most terrific images, such as flaming brimstone, falling stars, heaven and earth dissolving in darkness, blood, and fire. ezekiel, alluding to the barbarous invasion headed by prince gog, represents jehovah as declaring, "i will contend against him, and will rain fire and brimstone upon him and his hosts. thus will i show myself in my greatness and glory before the eyes of many nations, and they shall know that i am jehovah." the highly figurative character of this imagery must be apparent to every candid critic. for example, in the following passage from zechariah, no one will suppose for a moment that it is meant that jehovah will appear visibly in person and reign in jerusalem, but only that his promise shall be fulfilled, and his law shall prevail there in the triumphant establishment of his chosen people: "behold the day of jehovah cometh, when i will gather all nations to battle against jerusalem; and the city shall be taken. then shall jehovah go forth, and fight against those nations. and his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of olives. and jehovah shall be king over all the earth. and it shall be that whoso of all the families of the earth will not go up to jerusalem to worship the king, jehovah of hosts, upon them shall be no rain." when the prophets burst out in the lyric metaphors, "jehovah will roar from zion, and utter his voice from jerusalem;" "egypt shall be a waste and edom a wilderness for their violence to the sons of judah; but jerusalem shall be inhabited forever, and jehovah shall dwell upon zion," the meaning is simply that "jehovah will be a refuge to his people, a stronghold to the sons of israel, and all people shall know that jehovah is god." it would imply the grossest ignorance in any critic if he imagined that the jews ever believed that jehovah was visibly to come down and reign over them in person. they did however, believe that an awful token or the presence of jehovah dwelt in the holy of holies of their temple. they also believed that every anointed ruler who governed them in justice and piety represented the authority of jehovah. and as, in the long times of their natural captivity and oppression, their hopes sought refuge from the depressing present in bright visions of a glorious future, when some inspired deliverer should justify their faith by carrying the national power and happiness to the highest pitch, they naturally believed that the spirit and signet of the lord would, in a special manner, rest on that messianic hero. by the assimilative action of faith and imagination, this idea of a divinely accredited messiah developed, and grew ever richer and more complete. it began simply with the expectation of a holy leader and ruler who should subdue the heathen and establish the favored people of jehovah in peerless purity, power, and happiness in the land of judea. little by little the rewards of the righteous and the punishments of the wicked were extended beyond those living on the earth, and took in the dead. the prophet ezekiel depicted the promised restoration of the jews from their captivity at babylon to jerusalem under the poetic image of a revivification of a heap of dead bones. this metaphor slowly assumed the form of a literal dogma, which grew from its beginning as an exceptional belief in the resurrection of a chosen few, stated in the book of daniel and the second book of maccabees, to the belief in the universal resurrection of the dead, avowed by paul as the common pharisaic belief. the belief, too, in regard to the scene of the messianic triumph, the penalties to be inflicted on the enemies of jehovah, and the kind and number of those enemies, underwent the same process of development and growth. the world was conceived as a sort of three story house connected with passage ways; heaven above the firmament, the earth between, and a penal region below. the imagery of fire and brimstone associated in the hebrew mind with sodom and gomorrah, and the fearful imagery of idolatory, filth, and flames in the detested valley of hinnom where the refuse of jerusalem was carried to be burned, had been transferred by the popular imagination to the subterranean place of departed souls. the story in the book of genesis about the sons of god forming an alliance with the daughters of men, and begetting a wicked brood of giants, had been wrought into the belief in a race of fallen angels, foes of god and men, whose dwelling place was the upper air. above these wicked spirits in high places, but below the heaven of jehovah, was the paradise whither enoch and elijah were supposed to have been translated, and whence they would come again in the last days. the jewish apocryphal book of enoch which was written probably about a century and a half before the birth of christ, and is explicitly quoted in the epistle of jude contains a minute account of the final judgment, including in its scope this whole scenery and all these agents, and closely anticipating both the doctrinal and verbal details of the same subject as recorded in the new testament itself. there is not, with one exception, a single essential feature of the now current christian belief, in regard to the day of judgment at the end of the world, which is not distinctly brought out in the same form in the book of enoch, written certainly more than a hundred years before a line of the gospels was composed. the exception referred to relates to the person of the messiah. in the book of enoch he is indeed called the son of man, but is wrapt in mysterious obscurity, undefined and unnamed: in the christian documents and faith he is, of course, identified with jesus of nazareth, and, at a later period, identified also with god. the growth of the messianic personality in distinctness, prominence, importance, and completeness of associated grouping, is not only historically traceable, but was also perfectly natural. at first the prophecy of the triumphant re establishment of the jews was conceived as the result of the favoring power of jehovah, not in a personal manifestation, but providentially displayed. thus joel represents jehovah as saying, in his promise to vindicate jerusalem, "let the heathen be wakened, and come up to the valley of jehoshaphat; for there will i sit to judge all the heathen round about." it cannot be denied that this was purely metaphorical. but in all imagery of a kingdom, of war, of judgment, the idea of the king, the leader, the judge, would naturally be the strongest point of imaginative action, the center of crystalizing association around which congruous particulars would be drawn until the picture was complete. so it actually happened. perhaps the most striking example of this is seen in the growth of the notion of the great adversary who precedes and fights against the messiah. the book of daniel, written just after antiochus epiphanes had oppressed the jews with such frightful cruelties and profaned their temple with such abominable desecrations, impersonated in him the whole head and front of the impious hostility which the promised deliverer would have to subdue in vindicating the rights and hopes of the chosen people. "the figure of antiochus epiphanes," martineau has happily said, "placed in immediate antecedence and antithesis to that of the messiah, as the predicted crisis moved forward, was carried with it, and spread its portentous shadow over the expected close." the writer of the book of daniel looked for the immediate arising of some inspired hero and servant of jehovah to overthrow this wicked despot, this persecuting monster, and avenge the oppressed jews on their gentile tyrants. when subsequent events postponed this expected sequel, the opposed parties in it, the antichrist and the christ, were thrown forward together in ever dilating proportions of gloom and brightness: the fierce countenanced king in daniel becomes the man of sin in paul and the beast drunk with the blood of saints in the apocalypse. and in the rabbinical books of the jews the belief in antichrist, under the name of armillus, is developed into a mass of mythological details, afterwards adopted quite in the gross by the mohammedans. terrible signs will precede the appearance of the messiah, such as a dew of blood, the darkening of the sun, the destruction of the holy city, with the slaughter and dispersion of the israelites, and the suffering of awful woes. the messiah shall gather his people and rebuild and occupy jerusalem. armillus shall collect an army and besiege that city. but god shall say to messiah, "sit thou on my right hand," and to the israelites, "stand still, and see what god will work for you to day." then god will pour down sulphur and fire from heaven, and consume armillus and his hosts. then the trumpet will sound, the tombs be opened, the ten tribes be led to paradise to celebrate the marriage supper of the messiah, the aliens be consigned to gehenna, and the earth be renovated. as the doctrine of the functions of the messiah, in this finished form, is not stated in the old testament, but was familiar in the christian church, it is commonly supposed to be exclusively a later christian development from the jewish germ. it did, however, exist in the jewish mind, before the birth of christ, in the mature form already set forth. it is found clearly laid down and drawn out in jewish apocryphal books dated earlier than the christian era. it is likewise explicitly and minutely detailed in the talmud, where its subsequent adoption from the christians must have been impossible to the bigoted scorn and hate of the jews for the christians; while the historic affiliation of christianity on judaism made the christians avowedly adopt all the vital doctrines of the older creed. the gradual growth of the christian doctrine of the connection of the messiah with the final judgment, out of the previous jewish and rabbinical notions, by the hardening of metaphors into dogmas and the universalizing of local peculiarities, is confessedly an obscure process, in many of its particulars extremely difficult to trace. but that it did thus grow up, no impartial scholar, who has mastered what is now known on the subject, can doubt. a world of new knowledge and light has been thrown on this whole field during the last thirty five years by gfrorer, baur, ewald, hoffmann, hilgenfeld, dilmann, ceriani, volkmar, and other students of kindred power and spirit. researches and discussions in this department are still pushed with the greatest zeal; and it is confidently believed that in a few years the views adopted in the present writing will be established beyond all cavil from any fair minded critic. then all the steps will have been clearly defined in the development of that doctrine of the great day of the lord, which, beginning with a poetic picture of a jewish overthrow of the gentiles, through the inspiring power of jehovah, before the walls of jerusalem, ended with a literal belief in the setting up, by the messiah, of a tribunal in the valley of jehoshaphat, the assemblage there of all the living and the dead for judgment, the installation of the immortalized righteous in paradise, and the submerging of the wicked under the vale of hinnom in a rainstorm of blazing brimstone. and now what must we think in regard to the truth or falsehood of the outward, forensic, military, and ritual part of the doctrine of historic and literary development we have imperfectly followed. is it not perfectly clear, that the growth of the doctrine in question has been but a natural action of the imagination on the materials furnished it; adding congruous particulars, one after another, until the view was complete, and therefore could extend no further? and is it not equally obvious, that it can lay no sort of claim to logical validity? the superstitious and arbitrary character of its intrinsic constituents, its irreconcilableness with science and philosophy, disprove, to all who dare honestly face the facts, every plea set up for it as an inspired revelation of truth. it is a mixture of poetry and speculation, credible enough in an early and uncritical age, but a hopeless stumbling block to the educated reason of the present day. every one who brings a free intelligence to the subject will find it impossible not to recognize the same fanciful process of thought, the same poetic ingredients, here as in the schemes of those heathen religions whose principal portrayals we all regard as mythology. to argue that because earthly rulers, in their anger and power, send retributive armies against their rebellious subjects, to bring them to judgment, destroy their homes and cities, and lay waste their lands with fire and sword, therefore god, the supreme king, will do so by the whole world, is not to reason logically, but to poetize creatively. there can be no warrant for transferring the political and military relations between men and earthly sovereigns to the moral and spiritual relations between the human race and god, since the two sets of relations are wholly different. the relation of creator and creature is immensely higher and wider than that of king and subject. he whose laws are everywhere incessantly self executing needs not to select and group and reserve his friends or foes for any climateric catastrophe. the common notion of a final judgment day the fanciful association of all the good together, on one side, to be saved; of all the bad together, on the other side, to be damned, applies to the divine government an imperfection belonging only to human governments. surely every one must see, the moment the thought is stated, that this imaginative universalizing of the indignation of god, and carrying it to a climax, in the destruction of the world, is a mythological procedure utterly inapplicable to a being who can know no anger, no caprice, no change, a being whose will is universal truth, whose throne is immensity, whose robe is omnipresence. original christianity, internally regarded in its divine truth, was the pure moral law exemplified in the personal traits of jesus christ, and universalized by his ascent out of the flesh into that kingdom of heaven which knows not nationalities or ceremonies. but original christianity, externally and historically regarded, in the belief of its first disciples, was simply judaism, with the addition of the faith that the messiah had actually come in the person of jesus christ. the first disciples vividly cherished the prevalent pharisaic doctrine that the messiah would glorify his people, vanquish the heathen, raise and judge the dead, change the face of the earth, and inaugurate a holy reign of israel in joy and splendor. this the messiah was to do. but they believed jesus to be the messiah. yet, before doing these things, he had been put to death. therefore, they argued, he must come again, to finish his uncompleted mission. such was the derivation of the apostolic and ecclesiastical doctrine of the speedy second advent of christ to judge the dead and the living, and to wind up the present scheme of things. the belief was inevitable under the circumstances. to have believed otherwise, they must have reconstructed the current idea of the messiah, and have seen in him no political monarch with an outward realm, but purely a king of truth. for this they were not ready; though it seems as if, after the experience of eighteen hundred years, we ought by this time to be prepared to see that such was really the intention of providence. it is a question of primary interest, whether jesus himself, in assuming the messiahship, regarded it personally as an exclusively spiritual office, or as a literally including these royal and judicial functions in a visible form. jesus foretold, in the same imaginary used by the previous prophets, and familiar to the minds of his contemporaries, the speedy approach of frightful calamities, wars, rumor of wars, famine and slaughter, jerusalem compassed with armies and destroyed. then, he adds, the son of man shall come in the clouds of heaven, with all his holy angels, and take possession of the scene, apportioning the destinies of the righteous and the wicked. the question is, whether this pictured reappearance, in such transcendent pomp and power, was meant by him as a literal prophecy, to be physically fulfilled in his own person; or as a moral horoscope of the destined fortunes of his religion, a figurative representation of the establishment and reign of his spiritual truth. the latter view seems to us to be the correct one. in the first place, this is what has actually taken place. in the growing recognition of his spirit and power, in the spread of his teachings and name, in the revolutionizing advancement of his kingdom among men, jesus has come again and again. jerusalem was destroyed by the romans, as he foretold, amidst unspeakable tribulations, and the disciples of the new faith installed in domination over the world. he said the time was then at hand, even at the doors, that some of those standing by should not taste death until all these things came to pass. if his prophecy bore a moral sense, the sequel justified it; if it bore a physical sense, the sequel refuted and falsified it. for that generation passed away, fifty generations since have passed away, and yet there has been no literal second advent of jesus in person to judge the dead and the living, and to destroy the world. the event proves that we must either give the words of jesus a metaphorical interpretation or hold that he was in error. but, secondly, such an error would be incompatible with soundness of mind. for any man, even for him called by an apostle "the man christ jesus," to believe that after his death he should reappear, swooping down from heaven, convoyed by squadrons of angels, to collect all men from their graves, and replace the old creation with a new one, would imply a profound disturbance of reason, a monomaniacal fanaticism if not an actual insanity. it is such a pure piece of theatrics that no one deeply in unison with that spirit of truth which expresses the mind of god through the order of nature and providence could possibly believe it. such a nature was preeminently that of jesus. all his most characteristic utterances, such as: "blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see god;" "who loves much shall be forgiven much;" reveal unsurpassed saneness and truth of perception. it is by much the most probable supposition, that jesus employed in the deepest and purest moral sense alone those messianic images and catastrophic prophecies which were indeed originally used as moral metaphors, but had been afterwards degraded into material dogmas. still further, the literal belief commonly attributed to jesus, in his own physical reappearance and reign, is not only incompatible with his supreme soundness of mind, it is also irreconcilable with his other explicit teachings. "my kingdom is not of this world." "every one that is of the truth heareth my voice." he warns his disciples against the many false christs who will appear, and says that "the kingdom of heaven cometh not with observation." "say not, lo here! or lo there! for the kingdom of heaven is within you." "i am the truth, the way, and the life." "he that rejecteth me, i judge him not; the word that i have spoken, that shall judge him." "whoever doeth the will of my father in heaven, the same is my brother." in view of these and kindred utterances of the profoundest insight, irreconcilable with any gross mythological beliefs, we must hold to the purely spiritual character of the doctrine of jesus concerning his personal offices, and think that all the speeches, if any such there be, which cannot be fairly explained in accordance with this view, have been refracted in their transmission through incompetent reporters, or even perhaps fictitiously ascribed to him from the faith of a later age. there is a grateful satisfaction in thus discharging, as we feel we are fairly entitled to do, from the authority of jesus a burden too great even for his peerless name any longer to support. for, say what its advocates may, this gigantic melo drama of the second advent, this world wide mixture and display of martial and forensic elements before an audience of all mankind and amidst a convulsed and closing universe, is inherently incredible by any mind not grossly ignorant and undisciplined or drilled to the most slavish servility of traditional thought. every one really educated in science and philosophy, and familiar with the physiological conditions and literary history of mythology in the other nations of the world, will plainly perceive the intrinsic fancifulness and falsity of the belief, at the same time that he easily accounts for its rise and prevalence. the same picture of the siege of jerusalem by a league of idolatrous armies, and of the mighty coming of the messiah, found in the new testament, is drawn in the third book of the sibylline oracles, which was composed by a jew two hundred years before one word of matthew or luke was written. jesus took up this current and fitting imagery wherein to express the conflict of his religion with the world, and to predict its ultimate triumph. he identifies himself with the truths he has brought, with the regenerating energies he has inaugurated to combat and overcome the wickedness and despotism of the nations of men. every advent of his universal principles to a wider conflict or a higher seat of authority, is a true coming of the son of man. the vices and crimes of men, the selfishness and tyranny of governments, accumulate impediments in the way of the free working of the will of god in human society. therefore from period to period convulsive crises occur, shocks of progressive truth and liberty against the obstacles gathered in their way. thus, not only the destruction of jerusalem, but the destruction of rome, the french revolution, and all the terrible social crises in the advancing affairs of the world, write on the earth and the sky, in huge characters of blood, smoke and fire, the true meaning of the repeated coming of christ. this is the only kind of judicial second advent he will ever make, and this will occur over and over in calamitous but helpful revolutions, until all removable evils are done away, all the laws of men made just and all the hearts of men pure. then the spirit once manifested by jesus in his lonely mission will be a universal presence on earth, and the genuine millennium prevail without end. it is necessary now, as preliminary to a clear exposition of the true christian doctrine of judgment, to explain the cause and process of the dark perversion which the teachings of christ himself have so unfortunately undergone in the church. for this purpose we must again, for a moment, refer to the original connection of christianity with judaism. judaism was composed of two parts: one an accidental form; the other, essential truth. the first was the ceremonial peculiarities of the jewish race and history; the second was the absolute and eternal principles of morality and religion. these two parts the ritual law and moral law were closely joined in all the best representatives of the nation at all the best periods of its history. yet there was a constant tendency to separate these. one party exalted the ritual element, another party the spiritual element; the priestly class and the vulgar populace the former; the prophets the men of poetic, fiery heart and genius the latter. such men as isaiah, jeremiah, ezekiel, always insisted on personal and national righteousness, purity, and devotion, as the one essential thing. but the natural tendency of the common multitude, and of every professional class, to an external routine of mechanised forms, manifested itself more and more in a party which made an overt covenant and ritualistic conformity the all important thing. this party reached its head in the sect of the pharisees, who, at the time of jesus, possessed the offices, and represented the dominant spirit and authority of the jewish nation. the character of this sect of bigoted formalists, as indignantly described and denounced by jesus, is too well known to need illustration. they subordinated and trivialized the weightier matters of justice, mercy, humility, and peace, but enthroned and glorified the regime of mint, anise, and cummin. what was the jewish idea of salvation, or citizenship in the kingdom of god? what was the condition of acceptance in the pharisaic church? it was heirship in the jewish race, either by descent or adoption, with ceremonial blamelessness in belief and act. do you belong to the chosen family of abraham, and are you undefiled in relation to all the requirements of our code? then you are one of the elect. are you a gentile, an idolatrous member of the uncircumcision, or a scorner of the levitic and rabbinical customs? then you are unfit to enter beyond the outer precincts of the temple; you are a hopeless alien from the kingdom of heaven. thus the jewish test of acceptance with god was national, external, formal, a local and temporal peculiarity. when jesus arose and began to teach, his transcendent genius, working under the unparalleled inspiration of god, an unprecedented sensibility to divine truth in its utmost purity and freedom, expanded beyond all these shallow material accidents and bonds; and he propounded a perfectly moral and spiritual test of acceptance before god; namely, the possession of an intrinsically good character. he made nothing of the distinction between jew and gentile, declaring, "my father is able of these stones to raise up children unto abraham." he affirmed the condition of admittance into the kingdom of god to be simply the doing of the will of god. when he saw the young lawyer who had kept the two commandments, loving god with all his soul, and his neighbor as himself, his heart yearned towards him in benediction. and, finally, in his sublime picture of the last judgment, he, in the most explicit and unmistakable manner, makes the one essential condition of rejection to be inhumanity of life, cruel selfishness of character; the one essential condition of acceptance, the spirit of love, the practical doing of good. he utters not a solitary syllable about immaculateness of ceremonial propriety or soundness of dogmatic belief. he only says, inasmuch as ye have or have not visited the sick and the imprisoned, fed the hungry, and clothed the naked, ye shall be justified or condemned at the divine tribunal. this test of personal goodness or wickedness, benevolent or malignant conduct, proclaimed by jesus, is the true standard, free from everything local and temporary, fitted for application to all nations and all ages. but no sooner had christianity obtained a foothold on earth, multiplied its converts, and gained some outward sway, than its judaizing disciples and promulgators, fastening on that which was easiest to comprehend and practise, that which was most impressive to the imagination, that which seemed most sharply to distinguish them from the unbelieving and unconforming world around, thrust far into the background this universal and eternal test of judgment set up by jesus himself, and in place of it installed an exclusive test fashioned after a more developed and aggravated pattern of the very narrowest and worst elements in the phariasaism which he expressly came to supersede. the pharisaic condition of salvation was inheritance, by blood or adoption, in the jewish race and abrahamic covenant, together with exactitude of ceremonial observance. everybody else was an unclean alien, an uncircumcised dog, an uncovenanted leper. in place of this test, the orthodox ecclesiastical party made their test dogmatic belief in the supernatural messiahship of jesus christ, formal profession of allegiance to the official person of jesus christ. it is summed up in the formula, "whoso believeth that jesus is the christ, is of god; whoso denieth this, is of the devil." exactly here is where paul, the noble apostle to the gentiles, broke with the judaizing apostles, and taught a doctrine more fully developed in its historic sequence, but substantially in perfect unison with the free teachings and spirit of jesus himself. with paul the test of christian salvation was the possession of the mind of christ. "if any man have not the spirit of christ, he is none of his;" "but as many as are led by the spirit of god are sons of god." "neither circumcision availeth anything, nor uncircumcision; but a new creature," begotten in the image of christ, availeth everything before god. "god rewardeth every man, the jew and the gentile, according to his works." with paul, descent from abraham was nothing, observance of the legal code was nothing: a just and pure character, full of self sacrificing love, evoked by faith in christ, was the all in all. jesus christ was the head of a new race, the second adam; and all disciples, who, through moral faith in him, were regenerated into his likeness and unto newness of living, were thereby adopted as sons of god and joint heirs with him. the pauline formula of salvation, freely open to all the world, was, spiritual assimilation and reproduction of christ in the disciple. but the judaizing party bore a heavy preponderance in the early church, and has succeeded unto this day in imposing on ecclesiastical christendom its own test: namely, a sound dogmatic, belief in the supreme personal rank and office of christ, as the only means of admission to the kingdom of heaven. the one peculiarity which most sharply and broadly contrasted the early christians with the rest of the world was unquestionably their belief in the miraculous mission of jesus, a belief growing deeper, higher, intenser, until it actually identified him with the omnipotent god. there was an inevitable tendency, it was a perfectly natural and necessary process, for them to make this point of contrast the central condition on which depended the possession of all the special privileges supposed to be promised to its disciples by the new religion. the result is well expressed by polycarp in these words: "whosoever confesses not that christ is come in the flesh, is an antichrist; and whosoever acknowledges not the martyrdom of the cross, is of the devil; and whosoever says that there is no resurrection nor judgment, is the first born of satan." this extract strikes the key note of the orthodox church all through christendom from the second century to the present hour. in place of the true condition of salvation announced by jesus, personal and practical goodness, it inaugurates the false ecclesiastic standard, soundness of dogmatic belief in relation to jesus himself! those who hold this are the elect, and shall stand in heaven with white robes and palms and a new song, while all the rest of the world apostate and detested enemies of god and his saints shall be trampled down in merciless slaughter, and flung into the pit whence the smoking signal of their torment shall ascend for ever and ever. it is a transformation of the bigoted scorn and hate of the covenanted jew for his gentile foes into the intensified horror of the orthodox believer for the reprobate infidel. and it finally culminated in the following frightful picture which still lowers and blazes in the imagination of ecclesiastical christendom as a veritable revelation of what is to take place at the end of the world: while the stars are falling, the firmament dissolving, the dead swarming from their graves, and the nations assembling, christ will come in the clouds of heaven with a host of angels and sit in judgment on collected mankind. all who submissively believed in his divinity, and have the seal of his blood on their foreheads, he will approve and accept; all others he will condemn and reject. no matter for the natural goodness and integrity of the unbeliever: his unbelief dooms him. no matter for the natural depravity and iniquity of the believer: his faith in the atoning sacrifice saves him. the judge will say to the orthodox, on his right, "you may have been impure and cruel, lied, cheated, hated your neighbor, rolled in vice and crime, but you have believed in me, in my divinity: therefore, come, ye blessed, inherit my kingdom." to the heretical, on his left, he will say, "you may have been pure and kind, sought the truth, self sacrificingly served your fellow men, fulfilled every moral duty in your power, but you have not believed in me, in my deity, and my blood: therefore, depart, ye cursed, into everlasting fire." such is a fit verdict to be pronounced by the avenging warrior depicted in the apocalypse, from whose mouth issues a two edged sword, to cut his enemies asunder; who sits on a white charger, in a vesture dipped in blood, with a bow and a crown, and goes forth conquering and to conquer; whose eyes are flames of fire; who treads his rejecters in the wine press of his wrath until their blood reaches to the horse bridles. it was the natural reflection of an age filled with the most murderous hatreds and persecutions, based on political and dogmatic distinctions. but how contradictory it is to the teachings of jesus himself! how utterly irreconcilable it is with the image and spirit of that meek and lowly son of man who said that he "came not to destroy men's lives but to save them;" who declared, "of mine own self i can do nothing;" who modestly deprecated all personal homage, asking, "why callest thou me good?" who sat with the publican, and forgave the harlot, and denounced bigotry in many an immortal breathing of charity; and who, even in his final agony, pardoned and prayed for his murderers! what reason is there for supposing that he who was so infinitely gentle, unselfish, forgiving, when on earth, will undergo such a fiendish metamorphosis in his exaltation and return? it is the most monstrous, the most atrocious travesty of the truth that ever was perpetrated by the superstitious ignorance and audacity of the human mind. it is a direct transference into the godhead of the most egotistical and hateful feelings of a bad man. no good man who had been ever so grossly misconceived, vilified, and wronged, if he saw his enemies prostrate in submissive terror at his feet, perfectly powerless before his authority, could bear to trample on them and wreak vengeance on them. he would say, "unhappy ones, fear not; you have misunderstood me; i will not injure you; if there be any favor which i can bestow on you, freely take it." and is it not an incredible blasphemy to deny to the deified christ a magnanimity equal to that which any good man would exhibit? it is with pain and regret that the writer has penned the foregoing sentences, which, he supposes, some persons will read with the feeling that they are inexcusable misrepresentations, others, with a shocked and resentful horror, relieving itself in the cry, infidelity! blasphemy! the reply of the writer is simply that, while reluctant to wound the sensibility of any, he feels bound in conscience to make this exposition, because he believes it to be a true statement; and loyalty to truth is the first duty of every man. truth is the will of god, obedience to which alone is sound morality, reverential love of which alone is pure piety. frightful as is the picture drawn above of christ in the judgment, it is impossible to deny, without utter stultification, that every lineament of it is logically implied in the formula. "there is no salvation for the man who unbelievingly rejects, no damnation for the man who believingly accepts, the official christ and his blood." and what teacher will have the presumption to deny that just this has been, and still is, the central dogma in the faith of ecclesiastical christendom? the legitimate result of this view, unflinchingly carried out, and applied to the precise point we now have in hand, is seen in that horrible portrayal of the last judgment wherewith michael angelo has covered the ceiling of the sistine chapel, in rome. the great anatomical artist consistently depicts christ as an almighty athlete, towering with vindictive wrath, flinging thunderbolts on the writhing and helpless wilderness of his victims. the popular conception of christ in the judgment has been borrowed from the type of a king, who, hurling off the incognito in which he has been outraged, breaks out in his proper insignia, to sentence and trample his scorners. the true conception is to be fashioned after the type given in his own example during his life. so far as christ is the representative of god, there must be no vanity or egotism in him. every such quality ascribed to the godhead is anthropomorphizing sophistry. however much more god may be, he is the general mind of the universe. he includes, while he transcends, all other beings. now, the general mind must represent the interests of all, the disinterested good of the whole, and not any particular and selfish exactions, or resentful caprices, fashioned on the pattern shown among human egotists by a kingly despot. the church, in developing christianity out of judaism through the person and life of jesus, has given prominence and emphasis to the wrong elements, seeking to universalize and perpetuate, in a transformed guise, the local spirit and historic errors of that pharisaic sect against which he had himself launched all his invective. that temper of bigotry and ceremonial technicality which hates all outside of its own pale as reprobate, and which ultimated itself in the virtual pharisaic formula, "keep the hands and platter washed, and it is no matter how full of uncleanness you are within," at a later period embodied itself through the leaders of ecclesiastical orthodoxy in the central dogma, "nothing but faith in christ can avail man anything before god." instead of this the true doctrine is, nothing but obedience, surrender, and trust, personal penitence and aspiration, can avail man anything before god. the christians, as the jews did before them, have made a wrong selection of the doctrine to be, on the one hand, particularized and left behind; on the other hand, carried forward and universalized. this immense error demands correction. let us notice a few specimens in exemplication of it. jehovah is not the only true god in distinction from odious idols; but brahma, ahura mazda, osiris, zeus, jupiter, and the rest, are names given by different nations to the infinite spirit whom each nation worships according to its own light. the jews and the christians are not the only chosen people of god; but all nations are his people, chosen in the degree of their harmony with his will. the providence of god is not an exceptional interference from without, exclusively for the jews and christians; but it is for all, a steady order of laws within, as much to be seen in the shining of the sun, or the regular harvest, as in any shocks of political calamity and glory. not the messiah alone reveals god; but, in his degree, every ruler, prophet, priest, every man who stands for wisdom, justice, purity, and devotion, represents him. it is not doctrinal belief in the messiah, but vital adoption of his spirit and character, of the principles of real goodness, that constitutes the salvation of the disciple. we are to look not for the resurrection of the flesh from the grave, but for the resurrection of the soul from all forms of sin, ignorance, and misery. it is the universal prevalence of truth and virtue, knowledge, love, and peace, in the hearts of men, not the physical reign of the returning messiah, which will make a millennium on earth. the kingdom of god which judaism localized exclusively in palestine, and the early church exclusively in heaven or on the millennial earth, should be recognized in every place, whether above the sky or on the globe, where duty is done, and pure affection, trust, and joy experienced; for god is not excluded from all other spaces by any enthronization in one. we ought not to cling, as to permanent fixtures of revealed truth, to the rigid outlines of that scheme of faith which was struck out when the three story house of the hebrew cosmogony showed the limits of what men knew, before exact science was born, or criticism conceived, or the telescope invented, or america and australia and the germanic races heard of; but we should hold our speculative theological beliefs freely and provisionally, ready to reconstruct and read just them, from time to time, in accordance with the demands of the growing body of human knowledge. reflecting, in the light of these general ideas of truth, on the whole subject of the current doctrine of the end of the world and the day of judgment, we shall see that that doctrine presents no valid claim for our belief, but is a mythological growth out of the historic and literary conditions amidst which christianity arose on the basis of judaism. the doctrine was formed by the unconscious transmutation of metaphors into dogmas. poetic figures came, by dint of familiarizing repetition, by dint of imaginative collection and contemplation, to be taken as expressive of literal truths. to any reader of the apocalypse, with competent historical and critical information for entering into the book from the point of view occupied by its author, it is just as evident that its imagery was meant to describe the immediate conflict of hebrew christianity with pagan rome, and not the literal blotting out of the universe, as it is unquestionable that the book of daniel depicts, not the impending destruction of the world, but the relations of the chosen nation with the hostile empires of persia, media, babylon, and macedonia, from which they had suffered so much, and which they then hoped speedily to put beneath their feet. the slain lamb, standing amidst the throne of god, with seven eyes and seven horns; death, on a pale horse, with hell following him; the woman, clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet; the great red dragon, whose tail casts to the earth the third part of the stars of heaven; the worm wood star, that falls as a blazing lamp, and turns a third of the waters of the earth into bitterness; the seven thunders, seven seals, seven vials, seven spirits before the throne, seven candlesticks, seven angels, seven trumpets, seven epistles to the seven churches, seven horns, seven headed beast, all these things must, perforce, be taken as free poetic imagery; it would require a lunatic or an utterly unthinking verbalist to interpret them literally. why, then, shall we select from the mass of metaphors a few of the most violent, and insist on rendering these as veritable statements of fact? if the rest is symbolism, so are the pictures of the avenging armies of angels, the reeking gulf of sulphur, and the golden streets of the city. the entire scheme of thought, as it still stands in the mind of the orthodox believer, is to be rejected as spurious, because it rests on a process of imaginative accumulation and transference which is absolutely illegitimate; namely, the association and universalizing of political and military images, which are then hardened from emblems into facts, and cast over upon the mutual relations of god and mankind. we ought to break open the metaphors, extract their significance, and throw the shells aside. but ignorant bibliolatary and ecclesiasticism insist on worshipping the shells, with no insight of their contents. there is one all important fact which should convince of their error those who hold the current view of a general judgment at the end of the world as having been revealed from god through christ. we refer to the fact that the system of ideas in which a final resurrection and judgment of the dead are logical parts, existed in the zoroastrian theology five or six centuries before the birth of christ. it was adopted thence by the jews, and afterwards adopted from the jews by the christians. if, therefore, this doctrine be a revelation from god, it was revealed by him to the persians in a dark and credulous antiquity. in that case it is zoroaster and not christ to whom we are indebted for the central dogmas of our religion! no, these things are imagery, not essence, the human element of imaginative error with which the divine element of truth has been overlaid, and from whose darkening and corrupt company this is to be extricated. there are, in the new testament, in addition to the relevant metaphors which we have already examined, several others of great impressiveness and importance. we must now explain these, separate the truths and errors popularly associated with them, and leave the subject with an exposition of the real method of the divine government and the true idea of the day of judgment, in contrast with the prevalent ecclesiastical perversions of them. the part played in theological speculation and popular religious belief by imagery borrowed from the scenery and methods of judicial tribunals, the procedures and enforcement of penal law, has not been less prominent and profound than the influence exerted by natural, political, and military metaphors. the power, the pomp, the elaborate spectacle, the mysterious formalities, the frightful penalties, the intense personal hopes and fears, associated with the trial of culprits in courts or before the head of a nation, must always have sunk so deeply into the minds of men as to be vividly present in imagination to be affixed as typical stamps on their theories concerning the judgments of god and the future world. this process is perhaps nowhere more distinctly shown than in the belief of the ancient egyptians. before the sarcophagus containing the mummy was ferried over the holy lake to be deposited in the tomb, the friends and relatives of the departed, and his enemies and accusers, if he had any, together with forty two assessors, each of whom had the oversight of a particular sin, assembled on the shore and sat in judgment. the deceased was put on his trial before them: and, if justified, awarded an honorable burial; if condemned, disgraced by the withholding of the funeral rites. now the papyrus rolls found with the mummies give a description of the judgment of the dead, a picture of the fate of the disembodied soul in the egyptian hades, minutely agreeing in many particulars with the foregoing ceremony. ma, the goddess of justice, leads the soul into the judgment hall, before the throne of osiris, where stands a great balance with a symbol of truth in one scale, the symbol of a human heart in the other. the accuser is heard, and the deceased defends himself before forty two divine judges who preside over the forty two sins from which he must be cleared. the gods horus and anubis attend to the balance, and thoth writes down the verdict and the sentence. the soul then passes on through adventures of penance or bliss, the details of which are obviously copied, with fanciful changes and additions, from the connected scenery and experience known on the earth. taking it for all in all, there perhaps never was any other scene in human society so impressive as the periodical sitting in judgment of the great oriental kings. it was the custom of those half deified rulers the king of egypt, the sultan of persia, the emperor of india, the great father of china to set up, each in the gate of his palace, a tribunal for the public and irreversible administration of justice. seated on his throne, blazing in purple, gold, and gems, the members of the royal family nearest to his person; his chief officers and chosen favorites coming next in order; his body guards and various classes of servants, in distinctive costumes, ranged in their several posts; vast masses of troops, marshalled far and near. the whole assemblage must have composed a sight of august splendor and dread. then appeared the accusers and the accused, criminals from their dungeons, captives taken in war, representatives of tributary nations, all who had complaints to offer, charges to repel, or offences to expiate. the monarch listened, weighed, decided, sentenced; and his executioners carried out his commands. some were pardoned, some rewarded, some sent to the quarries, some to prison, some to death. when the tribunal was struck, and the king retired, and the scene ended, there was relief with one, joy with another, blood here, darkness there, weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth in many a place. dramatic scenes of judgment, public judicial procedures, in some degree corresponding with the foregoing picture, are necessary in human governments. the prison, the culprit, the witnesses, the judge, the verdict, the penalty, are inevitable facts of the social order. offences needing to be punished by overt penalties, wrongs demanding to be rectified by outward decrees, criminals gathered in cells, appeals from lower courts to higher ones, may go on accumulating until a grand audit or universal clearing up of arrears becomes indispensable. is it not obvious how natural it would be for a mind profoundly impressed with these facts, and vividly stamped with this imagery, to think of the relation between mankind and god in a similar way, conceiving of the creator as the infinite king and judge, who will appoint a final day to set everything right, issue a general act of jail delivery, summon the living and the dead before him, and adjudicate their doom according to his sovereign pleasure? the tremendous language ascribed to jesus, in the twenty fifth chapter of matthew, was evidently based on the historic picture of an eastern king in judgment. "when the son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory: and before him shall be gathered all nations: and he shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and he shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left." if jesus himself used these words, we suppose he meant figuratively to indicate by them the triumphant installation, as a ruling and judging power in human society, of the pure eternal principles of morality, the true universal principles of religion, which he had taught and exemplified. but unfortunately the image proved so overpoweringly impressive to the imagination of subsequent times, that its metaphorical import was lost in its physical setting. this momentous error has arisen from the inevitable tendency of the human mind to conceive of god after the type of an earthly king, as an enthroned local presence; from the rooted incapacity of popular thought to grasp the idea that god is an equal and undivided everywhereness. in his great speech on mar's hill, the apostle paul told the athenians that "god had appointed a day in the which he would judge the world in righteousness by that man whom he hath ordained." is not this notion of the judgment being delegated to jesus plainly adopted from the political image of a deputy? the king himself rarely sits on a judicial tribunal: he is generally represented there by an inferior officer. but this arrangement is totally inapplicable to god, who can never abdicate his prerogatives, since they are not legal, but dynamic. the essential nature of god is infinity. certainly, there can be no substitution of this. it cannot be put off, nor put on, nor multiplied. there is one infinite alone. the greeks located, in the future state, three judges of the dead, minos, who presided at the trial of souls arriving from europe; rhadamanthus, who examined those coming from asia; and aacus, who judged those from africa. they had no fourth and fifth inspectors for the souls from america and australia, because those divisions of the earth were, as yet, unknown! how suggestive is this mixture of knowledge and ignorance! the heaven of the esquimaux is a place where they will have a plenty of fine boats and harpoons, and find a summer climate, and a calm ocean abounding with fat seals and walruses. the greenlander's hell is a place of torment from cold; the arab's, a place of torment from heat. every people and every man unless they have learned by comparative criticism to correct the tendency conceive their destiny in the unknown future in forms and lights copied, more or less closely, from their familiar experiences here. is there not just as much reason for holding to the literal accuracy and validity of the result in one case as in another? the popular picture, in the imagination of christendom, of gabriel playing a trumpet solo at the end of the world, and a huge squad of angelic police darting about the four quarters of heaven, gathering the past and present inhabitants of the earth, while the judge and his officers take their places in the universal assize, instead of being received as sound theology, should be held as moral symbol. taken in any other way, it sinks into gross mythology. can any one fail to see that this picture of the last judgment is the result of an illogical process; namely, the poetic association and universalizing of our fragmentary judicial experiences, and the bodily transfer of them over upon our relations with god? the procedure is clearly a fallacious one, because the relations of men with god in the sphere of eternal truths are wholly different from their relations with each other in the sphere of political society. they are, in no sense, formal or forensic, but substantial and moral; not of the nature of a league or compact, but interior and organic; not acting by fits and starts, or gathering through interruptions and delays to convulsive catastrophes, but going on in unbreakable continuity. god is a spirit; and we too, in essence, are spirits. the rewards and punishments imparted from god to us, then, are spiritual, results of the regular action of the laws of our being as related to all other being. consequently, no figures borrowed from those judicial and police arrangements inevitable in the broken and hitching affairs of earthly rulers, can be directly applicable, the circumstances are so completely different. the true illustration of the divine government must be adopted from physiology and psychology, where the perfect working of the creator is exemplified, not from the forum and the court, where the imperfect artifices of men are exhibited. god forever sits in judgment on all souls, in the reactions of their own acts. the divine retribution for every deed is the kick of the gun, not an extra explosion arbitrarily thrown in. the thief, the liar, the misanthrope, the drunkard, the poet, the philosopher, the hero, the saint, all have their just and intrinsic returns for what they are and for what they do, in the fitness of their own characters and their harmonies or discords with the will of god, with the public order of creation. thus is the daily experience of one man made a lake of peace threaded with thrilling rivulets of bliss; that of another, a stream of devouring fire and poison, or a heaving and smoking bed of uncleanness and torment. the virtues represent the conditions of universal good; the vices represent private opposition to those conditions. accordingly, the good man is in attracting and cooperative connection with all good; the bad man, in antagonistic and repulsive connection with it. in these facts a perfect retribution resides. if any one does not see it, does not feel its working, it is because he is too insensible to be conscious of the secrets of his own being, too dull to read the lessons of his own experience. and this self ignorant degradation, so far from refuting, is itself the profoundest exemplification of the truth of that wonderful word of jesus: "verily, i say unto you, they have their reward." those who consider themselves saints indulge in an unspeakable vulgarity, when they feel, "well, the sinners have their turn in this world; we shall have ours in the next." the law of retribution in the spiritual sphere is identical with the first law of motion in the material sphere; action and reaction are equal, and in opposite directions. this law being instantaneous and incessant in its operation, there can be no occasion for a final epoch to redress its accumulated disbalancements. it has no disbalancements, save in our erroneous or defective vision. the true conception of the relation of the all judging creator to his creatures is that of the infinite being who supplies all finite receptacles in accordance with their special forms of organization and character, and who causes exact retributions of good and evil intrinsically to inhere in their indulged modes of thought and feeling and will, their own virtues and vices, fruitions and battlements. this internal, continuous, dynamic view worthily represents the perfection of the divine government. the incomparably inferior view the external, intermittent, constabulary theory rests, as it seems to us, merely on the traditions of ignorance and fancy. it has, in every instance, originated from the unwarrantable interpretation of a trope as a truth. for example, the picture of the last judgment, supposed to be drawn by jesus, in the parable of the tares, must be considered, not as a rigid prophecy of the end of the earth, and the transmundane destination of souls, but as a free emblem of the approaching close of the jewish dispensation, and the terrible calamities which would then come on the proud, obstinate and rebellious people. the reaping angels are the roman and jewish armies, and other kindred agencies and collisions in the destined evolution of the fortunes of christianity and mankind in the future. taken literally, the symbols are incongruous with fact, and absolutely incredible in doctrine. for they are based on the image of a royal land owner, who draws his support from the income of his fields and subjects, and who rewards the faithful bringer of fruits, and punishes the slothful defaulter; who welcomes and stores sheaves, because they are wealth: rejects and burns tares, because they are an injury and a nuisance. but nothing can be riches or a nuisance to the infinite god, who neither lives on revenue nor judges by jerks. men are not literally wheat, the property of the good sower, christ; nor tares, the property of the bad sower, the devil: they are souls, responsibly belonging to themselves, under god. and the pay of the human agriculturists, in the moral fields of the divine king, consists in the daily crops of experience they raise, not in being advanced to a seat at the right hand of their lord, or in being flagellated and flung into a flaming furnace. jesus himself, undoubtedly, used this physical imagery as the vehicle of spiritual truths; it is lamentable that perfunctory minds have so generally overlooked the substance in the dress. he is represented, in matthew, as having said to his apostles: "when the son of man shall sit on the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of israel." now, that he used this figure to convey an impersonal moral meaning, and that his profound thought underwent a materializing degradation in the minds of his hearers and reporters, appears clearly from the incident related immediately afterward. the wife of zebedee asked that her two sons might sit, the one on his right hand, and the other on the left, in his kingdom. and jesus said, "ye shall drink indeed of my cup, and be baptized with the baptism that i am baptized with: but to sit on my right hand, and on my left, is not mine to give." the imagery meant that the missionary assistants, in forwarding and spreading the kingdom of truth and love he came to establish, would be represented in common with himself in the power it would acquire and sway over the world. when his hearers interpreted the imagery in a physical sense, as indicating that he was hereafter to be a visible king, and that his favorites might expect to share in his authority, honor, and glory, he solemnly repudiated it. there is yet another and a wholly different style of imagery employed by jesus to convey his instructions as to the judgment which is to separate the justified from the condemned. the consideration of this species of imagery would afford an independent proof, of a cogent character, that they strangely misapprehend the mind of jesus who interpret the moral meaning of his parable in an outward and dramatic sense. the metaphors to which we now refer are of a domestic and convivial nature, based on some of the most impressive social customs of the oriental nations. it was the habit of kings, governors, and other rich and powerful men, to give, on certain occasions, great banquets, to which the guests were invited by special favor. these feasts were celebrated with the utmost pomp and splendor, by night, in brilliantly illuminated apartments. the contrast of the blazing lights, the richly costumed guests, the music and talk, the honor and luxury within, set against the darkness, the silence, the envious poverty and misery without, must have deeply struck all who saw it, and would naturally secure rhetorical reflections in speech and literature. the jews illustrated their idea of the kingdom of god by the symbol of a table at which abraham and isaac and jacob were banqueting, and would be joined by all their faithful countrymen. in his parable of the supper, describing how a king, on occasion of the marriage of his son, made a feast and sent out generous invitations to it, jesus works up this imagery still more elaborately. what did he really mean to teach by it? is it not clearly apparent from the whole context that he intended it as an illustration of the fact that the jews, to whom he first announced his gospel, and offered all its privileges, having rejected it, its blessings would be freely thrown open to the gentiles, and that they would crowd in to occupy the place of joy and honor, which the chosen people of jehovah had refused to accept? it is by a pure effect of fancy and doctrinal bias that the parable has been perverted into a description of the last judgment. the reference plainly indicates admission to or exclusion from the privileges of the new dispensation, a matter of personal experience in the heart of the disciple and in the society of the church on this earth. the wedding garment, without which no one can come to the royal table, is a holy, humble, and loving character. in consequence of his destitution of this, judas, although seated at the table, with the most honored guests, in the very presence of his lord, was proved to have no right there, and was thrust into the outer darkness. his bad spirit, his inability to appreciate and enjoy the pure truths of the kingdom, constituted his expulsion. that such was the idea in the mind of jesus, something to be experienced personally and spiritually in the present, and not something to be shown collectively and materially at the end of the world, appears from the great number of different forms in which he reiterates his doctrine. had he meant to teach literally that he was to come in person at the last day, and sit in judgment on all men, would he not have had a distinct conception of the method, and have always drawn one and the same consistent picture of it? but if he meant to teach that all who were fitted by their spirit, character and conduct to assimilate the living substance of his kingdom were thereby made members of it, while all others were, by their own intrinsic unfitness, excluded, then it was perfectly natural that his fertile mind would on a hundred different occasions convey this one truth in a hundred different figures of speech. that in which the images all differ is unessential: that in which they all agree must be the essential thought. now the parables differ in the forms of judgment they picture. therefore these forms are metaphoric dress. the parables agree in assigning a different fate to the righteous and the wicked. therefore this difference is the vital truth. and jesus nowhere makes righteousness consist in anything national, dogmatic, or ceremonial, but everywhere is something moral. the doctrine of an unfailing tribunal in the soul, the belief that we are all judged momentarily at the continuous bar of the truth reflected in our own conscience, is too deep, delicate, and elusive a view for the ignorance and hardness of some ages, and of some persons in every age. they cannot understand that the mind of man is itself a living table of the law and judgment seat of the creator, by its positive and negative polarities, in sympathetic connection with the standards of good and evil, pronouncing the verdicts and executing the sentences deserved. they need to project the scheme of retribution into the startling shape of a trial in a formal court, and then to universalize it into an overwhelming world assize. the semi dramatic figment, no doubt, was an inevitable stage of thought, and has wrought powerfully for good in certain periods of history. but the pure truth must be as much better for all who can appreciate it, as it is more real and more pervasive. since god, the indefeasible creator, is a resistless power of justice and love in omnipresent relations with his creatures, the genuine day of judgment to each being must be the entire career of that being. in a lower degree, every day is a day of judgment; because all acts, in the spirit from which they spring and the end at which they aim, carry their own immediate retributions. if we could survey the whole, at once, from the divine point of view, and comprehend the relation of the parts to the whole, undoubtedly we should perceive that the deserts and the receipts of each ephemeral existence are balanced between the rise and set of its sun. but death may, with most solemn emphasis, be regarded as the final day of judgment to each man, in this sense; that then the sum of his earthly life and deeds is sealed up and closed from all further alteration by him, passing into history as a collective cause or total unit of influence. as long as the creation rolls in space, and conscious beings live and die, that bequeathal will tell its good or evil tale of him. what sensitive spirit will not tremble at the thought of a judgment so unavoidable and so tremendous as this! the votaries of superstition are mistaken in supposing that the removal of their false beliefs will destroy or weaken the sanctions of duty among men. the removal of imaginary sanctions will but cause the true ones to appear more clearly and to work more effectively. the judgment of god then, we conclude, is no vengeful wreaking of arbitrary royal volitions; but it is the return of the laws of being on all deeds, actual or ideal. this is, in itself, perpetual and infallible: but it sometimes forces itself on our recognition in sudden shocks or crises caused by the gathering obstacles and opposition made to it by our ignorance, vice, and crime. every other doctrine of the divine judgment is either an error or a figurative statement of this one. in the latter case, the physical cover should be dissolved and thrown away, the moral nucleus laid bare and appropriated. but the popular mind of christendom has unfortunately pursued the contrary course, first exaggerating and consolidating the metaphors, then putting their forms literally in the place of their meaning. the awful panorama of the last things, as painted in the apocalypse, the sun becoming as sackcloth of hair, and the moon as blood; the blighted stars dropping; the unveiling of the great white throne, from before the face of whose occupant the frightened heaven and earth flee away; the standing up of the dead, both small and great, the opening of the books, and the judging of the dead out of the things written therein, this scenic array has, by its terrible vividness and power of fanciful plausibility, sunk so deeply into the imagination, and taken such a tenacious hold on the feelings of the christian world, secured for itself so constant a contemplation and encrusted itself with such a mass of associations, that it has actually come to be regarded as a veritable revelation of the reality, and to act as such. and yet, surely, surely, no one who will stop to think on the subject, with conscious clearness, can believe that books are provided in heaven with the names of men in them and recording angels appointed to keep their accounts by double or by single entry, and that god will literally sit upon a vast white dais raised on the earth, and go through an overt judicial ceremony. on what principle is a part of the undivided apocalyptic portrayal rendered as emblem, the rest accepted as absolute verity? if the blood red warrior on his white horse followed by the shining cavalry of heaven, the horrible vials of wrath, the chimerical angels and beasts, the sky and globe converted into terror struck fugitives, the bridal city descending from god with its incredible walls and its impossible gates and its magic tree of life yielding twelve kinds of fruit, are imagery; then the lake of burning sulphur, and the resurrection trumpet, and the indictment of the dead before the dazzling throne, are imagery too. the reader smiles at the idea that the good esquimau will sit in leaven amidst boiling pots of walrus meat, while in hell the fish lines of the bad esquimau will break, and his canoe be crushed by falling ice. but what better reason can the civilized man give for the reflecting over upon the judgments of the future his present experience in the imagery of criminal courts? the same process of thought is exemplified in both cases. can any one literally credit the following verses: "there are two angels that attend, unseen each one of us, and in great books record our good and evil deeds. he who writes down the good ones after every action closes his volume and ascends to god. the other keeps his dreadful day book open till sunset, that we may repent, which doing, the record of the action fades away, and leaves a line of white across the page." no more should we literally credit the kindred phraseology in the new testament. it is free metaphor. the sultan may keep in his treasury a book with the names of all his favorites enrolled in it. is it not a peurility to suppose that god has such documents? when the gospels and the epistles of the new testament were written, the reappearance of christ for the last judgment was almost universally supposed by the church to be just at hand. at any instant of day or night the signal blast might be blown, the troops of the sky pour down the swarms of the dead surge up, and the sheep and the goats for ever be parted to the right and left. each day when they saw "the sun write its irrevocable verdict in the flame of the west," the believers felt that the supreme dies iroe was so much nearer to its dawn. but as generation after generation died, without the sight, and the tokens of its approach seemed no clearer, the belief itself subsided from its early prominence into the background. but as it retreated, and became more obscure and vague in its date and other details, it grew ever more sombre, appalling, and stupendous in its general certainty and preternatural accompaniments. when the tenth century drew nigh its close, a literal acceptance of the scriptural text that "the dragon, that old serpent, which is the devil and satan, after being bound in the bottomless pit for a thousand years," should "be loosed a little season," filled christendom with the most intense agitation and alarm. from all the literature and history of that period the reverberations of the frightful effects of the general expectation of the impending judgment and destruction of the world have rolled down to the present time. the portentous season passed, all things continuing as they were, and the immense incubus rose and dissolvingly vanished. and the mediaval church, like the apostolic church before, instead of logically saying: our expectation of the physical return of christ was a delusion, fancifully concluded: we were wrong as to the date; and still continued to expect him. the longer the crisis was delayed, and the more it was brooded over, the more awful the suppositious picture became. the mohammedans held that the end would be announced by three blasts: the blast of consternation, so terrible that mothers will neglect the babes on their breasts, and the solid world will melt; the blast of disembodiment, which will annihilate everything but heaven and hell and their inhabitants; and the blast of resurrection, which will call up brutes, men, genii, and angels, in such numbers that their trial will occupy the space of thousands of years. but in the later imagination of christendom the vision assumed a shape even more fearful than this. the protestant reformation, when one party identified the pope, the other, luther, with antichrist, gave a new impulse to the common expectation of the avenging advent of the lord. the horrible cruelties inflicted on each other by the hostile divisions of the church aggravated the fears and animosities reflected in the sequel at the last day. probably nothing was ever seen in this world more execrable or more dreadful than those great ceremonies celebrated in spain and portugal, in the seventeenth century, at the execution of heretics condemned to death by the inquisition. the slow, dismal tolling of bells; the masked and muffled familiars; the dominicans carrying their horrid flag, followed by the penitents behind a huge cross; the condemned ones, barefoot, clad in painted caps and the repulsive sanbenito; next the effigies of accused offenders who had escaped by flight; then, the bones of dead culprits in black coffins painted with flames and other hellish symbols; and, finally, the train closing with a host of priests and monks. the procession tediously winds to the great square in front of the cathedral, where the accused stand before a crucifix with extinguished torches in their hands. the king, with all his court and the whole population of the city, exalt the solemnity by their presence. the flames are kindled, and the poor victims perish in long drawn agonies. now can anything conceivable give one a more vivid idea of the terrors embodied in the day of judgment than the fact that it came to be thought of under the terrific image of an auto da fe magnified to the scale of the human race and the earth, christ, the grand inquisitor, seated as judge; his familiars standing by ready with their implements of torture to fulfil his bidding; his fellow monks enthroned around him; his sign, the crucifix, towering from hell to heaven in sight of the universe; the whole heretical world, dressed in the sanbenito, helpless before him, awaiting their doom? who will not shudder at the inexorable horrors of such a scheme of doctrine, and devoutly thank god that he knows it to be a fiction as baseless as it is cruel? since the cooling down of the great anabaptist fanaticism, the millennarian fever has raged less and less extensively. but if the literature it has produced, in ignorant and declamatory books, sermons, and tracts, were heaped together, they would make a pile as big as one of the pyramids. the preaching of miller, about a quarter of a century ago, with his definite assignment of the time for the appointed consummation, caused quite a violent panic in the united states. several prophets of a similar order in germany have also stirred transient commotions. in england, the celebrated london preacher, dr. cumming, whose works entitled "the end," and "the great tribulation," have been circulated in tens of thousands of copies, is now the most prominent representative of this catastrophic belief. he has, however, made himself so ridiculous by his repeated postponements of the crisis, that he has become more an object of laughter than of admiration. mathematical calculations, based on mystic numbers transmitted in apocalyptic poetry, are at a heavy discount. and yet there is a considerable sect, called the second adventists, composed of the most illiterate believers, and swelled by clergymen wrought up to the fanatic pitch by an exclusive dogmatic drill, who lead an eleemosynary life on mouldy scraps of scripture, and anxiously wait for the sound of the archangelic trump. every earthquake, pestilence, revolution, violent thunderstorm, comet, meteoric shower, or extraordinary gleaming of the aurora borealis, startles them as a possible avant courier of the crack of doom. some of them are said to keep their white robes in their closets all ready for ascension. what a dismal thing it must be to live in such a lurid and lugubrious dream; their best hope for the world the hope that its end is at hand, "impatient of the stars that keep their course and make no pathway for the coming judge!" but this excited and uneasy anticipation is now a rare exception. in the minds of most intelligent christians, even of those who still cling to the old orthodox dogmas, the day of judgment has been put forward as far as the day of creation has been put backward. less and less do religious believers shudder before the theatric trials depicted in heathen and christian mythology; more and more do they reverently recognize the intrinsic jurisdiction in the structure of the soul, and in the organism of society. the time is not far remote, let us trust, when the ancient spirit of national separation, political antipathy, and sectarian hatred, whose subjects identify themselves with the party of god, all others with the party of the devil, and cry, "how long, o lord, dost thou not judge and avenge us on our enemies," will give way to that better spirit of philanthropy and true piety, which sees brethren in all men, and prays to the common father for the equal salvation and blessedness of all. then the faith of the self righteous, who plume themselves on their sound creed, and so relentlessly consign the heretics to perdition, gloating over the idea of the time "when the kings of the earth, and the chief captains, and the rich men, and the mighty men, and every bondman, and every freeman, shall hide themselves in dens and caves, saying to the mountains and the rocks, fall on us, and hide us from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, and from the wrath of the lamb; for the great day of his wrath is come, and who shall be able to stand?" then the temper of this faith will be seen to be as wicked as its doctrine is erroneous. it will be recognized as a remnant of the barbaric past in steep contradiction with the whole mind of the modest and loving jesus, who, when the disciples wished to call down fire from heaven to consume his opponents, rebuked them in words still condemning all their imitators, "ye know not what spirit ye are of." many a bigoted and complacent dogmatist, wrapt in that same ignorance to day, fails to read his own heart, and obstinately shuts his eyes to the truth, foolishly fancying himself better and safer, on account of his blind conservatism, than he who fearlessly seeks the guidance of science. yet are not the principles of science as much glimpses of the mind of god as any sentences in the bible are? the whole ecclesiastical scheme of eschatology is a delusion. no such gigantic melodrama, no such grotesque and horrible extravaganza, will ever get itself enacted between heaven and earth. forever, as freshly as on the first morning, the creator pours his will through his works in irresistible vibrations of goodness and justice; and forever may all his creatures come to him unimpeded, and trust in him without limit. away, then, monstrous horrors, bred in the night of the past! dreadful incubi! too cruelly and too long ye have sat on the breast of man. the cockcrow of reason has been heard, and it is time ye were gone. fade, terrible dream, painted by superstition on the cope of the sky, picture of contending fiends and angels, fiery rain, a frowning god, and shuddering millions of victims! away forever, and leave the blue space free for the benignant mysteries of the unknown eternity to lure us blessedly forward to our fate. come, believers in the merciful god of truth, lend your aid to the glorious work of spiritual emancipation. in this benign battle for the deliverance of the world from error and fear, every free mind should be a champion, every loving heart a volunteer. free leaders of the free, forward! out of the darkness into the light. lift your banner in the front of the field of opinions where all may see it, and then follow it as far as truth itself shall lead. on! progress is the eternal rule. man was made to outgrow the old and struggle into the new, as every morning the sun mounts afresh out of the dead day, and drives the night before him. ignorance and despotism have crushed us long. but now, now we fling our fetters off, and, marching from good to better, hope to escape from every falsehood, and to conquer every wrong, under the inspiration of the omnipresent judge who executes his decrees in the very working itself of that universal order whose progressive unfolding will be fulfilled at last, not in any magic resurrection and assize, but in the simple lifting of the veil of ignorance from all souls brought into full community, and the illumination before their opened faculties of the whole contents of history. for we believe that all history is by its own enactment indestructibly registered in the theatre of space, and that every consciousness is educating to read it and adore the perfect justification of the ways of god. the eternal immensity of the universe is the true aula regis in which god holds perpetual session, overlooking no suppliant, omitting no case. chapter iii. the mythological hell and the true one, or the law of perdition. the doctrine that there is a material place of torment destined to be the eternal abode of the wicked after death is based on the language of the bible, supported by the aggregate teachings of the church, and commonly asserted, though with a stricken and failing faith, throughout christendom at this moment. when any one tries to show the unreasonableness of the belief in this local prison house of the damned, arrayed with the innumerable horrors of physical anguish, he is at once met with the declaration that god himself has declared the fact, and consequently that we are bound to accept it without question, as a truth of revelation. for the reasons which we will immediately proceed to give, this representation must be rejected as a mistake. the popular doctrine of hell is not a divine revelation, but is a mythological growth. it is a fanciful mass of grotesque and frightful errors enveloping a truth which needs to be separated from them and exhibited in its purity. in the first place, the substance of the doctrine affirmed, the notion of a bottomless pit, or penal territory of fire and torment in which god will confine all the unredeemed portions of the human race after their bodily dissolution, is something wholly apart from morality and religion, something belonging to the two departments of descriptive geography and police history. the existence or nonexistence of a place of material torment reserved for the wicked, is a question not of theology, but of topography. in earlier times it was avowedly included in geography; and numerous caves, lakes, volcanos, as at lebadeia, derbyshire, avernus, nafita, etna, and elsewhere were believed to be literally entrances to hell. so famous and eminent a man as saint gregory the great, when the great sicilian volcano was seen to be increasingly agitated, taught that it was owing to the press of lost souls, rendering it necessary to enlarge the approach to their prison. with the increase of knowledge, the localization of hell was subsequently by many authors, made a part of cosmography, and shifted about among the comets, the moon and the sun, although most people still think that it is the interior of the earth. but, the best theologians of all denominations, the most authoritative thinkers of all schools, now hold that the supernatural revelations of god are limited to the sphere of the spirit, and do not include the data of geology, astronomy, chemistry and mathematics. god is not a local king, ruling his subjects by means of political machinery and external interferences; he is the omnipresent creator, spiritually sustaining and governing his creatures from within by means of the laws which determine their experience, the action and reaction between their faculties and their surrounding conditions. accordingly, the sphere of direct revelations from the spirit of god to the spirit of man is limited to the implications in the divine logic of the soul and its life, that is, to moral and religious truths. the facts of history and cosmology are left for the processes of natural discovery. whether there be or be not a localized hell of material tortures lies not within the domain of revelation, but is a problem of physical science. and science demonstrates, from the weight of the globe, that it is solid; and not, according to the current belief, a hollow shell containing a sea of flame packed with the floating hosts of the lost. furthermore, the only mode in which the truth of such a doctrine could be made known is wholly aside from the method of supernatural revelation. god does not utter his thoughts to his chosen messengers in words or other outward signs as a man does. men communicate information to one another by voice, gesture, drawing, writing or other mechanical devices. it is the natural mistake of a crude age to suppose that god does the same, breathing verbal formularies into the of minds of his selected servants. but this is not the case. revelation is not to receive an announcement; it is to perceive a truth. since god is infinite, we cannot stand out against him and talk with him. souls in finer and fuller harmony with the works and laws of god, thus fulfilling the human conditions of inspiration, are met by the divine conditions, and obtain new insight of the ways and designs of god. they experience purer and richer ideas and emotions than others, and may afterwards impart them to others, thus transmitting the revelation to them. for this new enlightenment, sanctification, or rise of life, is what alone constitutes a true revelation. now if there be a local and physical hell, it is not a moral truth which the inspired soul can see, but a scientific fact which can be perceived only by the senses or deduced by the logical intellect. if a man could travel to every nook of the creation he might discover whether there were such a hell or not. but you cannot discover a spiritual truth by any amount of outward travel. when a soul is so delivered from egotism, or the jar of self will against universal law, and brought into such high harmony with the spirit of the whole, as to perceive this divine law of life, "he who dwelleth in love dwelleth in god, and god in him," then he is inspired to see a religious truth. he has obtained a divine revelation. but we cannot conceive of any degree of exaltation into unison with god which would enable a man to see the fact that the centre of the earth or the surface of the sun or any other spot, is a place of fire set apart as the penal abode of the damned, and that it is crowded with burning sulphur and unimaginable forms of wickedness and agony. such a doctrine is out of the province, and its conveyance irreconcilable with the method of revelation, which consists not in an exterior communication of scientific facts to messengers selected to receive them, but in an interior unveiling of religious truths to souls prepared to see them. in the next place, we maintain, that the doctrine of a local hell, a guarded and smoking dungeon of the damned, ought not to be regarded as a truth contained in a revelation from god, because it is plainly proved by historic evidence to be a part of the mythology of the world, a natural product of the poetic imagination of ignorant and superstitious men. in all ages and lands men have recognized the difference between the good and the bad, merit and crime; have seen that innocence and virtue represented the permanent conditions of human welfare, that guilt and vice represented the insurrection of private or lower and transient desire against public or higher and more lasting good; and have felt that the former deserved to be praised and rewarded, the latter to be blamed and punished. in all ages and all nations society has teemed with devices for the distribution of these returns, prizes to the meritorious, penalties to the derelict. there is scarcely any evil discoverable in nature or inventable in art which has not been used as a means for the punishment of criminals. enemies captured in battle, or seized by the minions of despots, violators of the laws of the community, arraigned before judicial tribunals, have been in every country subjected to every species of penalty, such as slavery, imprisonment, banishment, fine, stripes, dismemberment. they have been starved, frozen, burned, hung, drowned, strangled by serpents, devoured by wild beasts. the rebellious and hated offenders of the king, while he banquets in his illuminated palace with his faithful servants and favorites around him, are exiled into outer darkness, fettered in dungeons, plied with every conceivable indignity and misery, bastinadoed, bowstrung, or torn in pieces with lingering torture. here we have the germ of hell. to get the fully developed popular doctrine of hell it is only necessary to concentrate and aggravate the known evils of this world, the horrible sufferings inflicted on criminals and enemies here, and transfer the vindictive and pitiable mass of wretchedness over into the future state as a representation of the doom god has there prepared for his foes. earthly rulers and their practice, the most impressive scenes and acts experienced among men, have always hitherto furnished the types of thought applied to illustrate the unknown details of the hereafter. the judge orders the culprit to be disgraced, scourged, put in the stocks, or cropped and transported. the sultan hurls those he hates into the dungeon, upon the gibbet or into the flame, with every accompaniment of mockery and pain. so, an imaginative instinct concludes, god will deal with all who offend him. they will be excluded from his presence, imprisoned and tormented forever. this whole process of comparison and inference, natural as it is, is one prolonged fallacy exemplifying the very essence of all mythological construction in contrast both with inspired perception and logical reasoning. the revealing arrival of a truth in consciousness is when an intuitive thrill announces the action of our faculties in correspondence with some relation in the reality of things. mythology is the deceptive substitute for this, employed when we arbitrarily project forms of our present experience into the unknown futurity, and then hold the resultant fancies as a rigid belief, or regard them as actual knowledge. this is exactly what has happened in the case of the doctrine of an eternal physical hell beyond the grave. the natural and punitive horrors of the present state have been collected, intensified, dilated, and thrown into the future as a world of unmitigated sin and wrath and anguish, a consolidated image of the vengeance of god on his insurgent subjects. now the true desideratum, the only result on which reason can rest, whenever tests are applied to our beliefs, is this: that what is known be scientifically set forth in distinct definitions; that what is unknown be treated provisionally, with theoretic approaches; and that what is absolutely unknowable be fixedly recognized as such. this regulative principle of thought is grossly violated in every particular by the popular belief in a material hell. wherever we look at the prevalent doctrines of hell among different peoples, from the rudest to the most refined, we see them reflecting into the penal arrangements of the other world the leading features of their earthly experience of natural, domestic, judicial, and political evils. the hells of the inhabitants of the frigid zones are icy and rocky; those of the inhabitants of the torrid zones are fiery and sandy. are not the poetic process and its sophistry clear? nastrond, the hell of the northmen, is a vast, hideous and grisly dwelling, its walls built of adders whose heads, turned inward, continually spew poison which forms a lake of venom wherein all thieves, cowards, traitors, perjurers and murderers, eternally swim. is this revelation, science, logic, or is it mythology? the egyptian priests taught, and the people seemed to have implicitly trusted the tale, that there was a long series of hells awaiting the disembodied souls of all who had not scrupulously observed the ritual prescribed for them, and secured the pass words and magical formulas necessary for the safe completion of the post mortal journey. the specifications and pictures of the terrors and distresses provided in the various hells are vivid in the extreme, including ingenious paraphrases of every sort of penalty and pang known in egypt. the same thing may be affirmed with quadruple emphasis of the hindu doctrine of future punishment. in the hindu hells, truly, the possibilities of horror are exhausted. to enumerate their sufferings in anything like their own detail would require a large volume. the vishnu parana names twenty eight distinct hells, assigning each one to a particular class of sinners; and it adds that there are hundreds of others, in which the various classes of offenders undergo the penalties of their misdeeds. there are separate hells for thieves, for liars, for those who kill a cow, for those who drink wine, for those who insult a priest, and so on. some of the victims are chained to posts of red hot steel and lashed with flexible flames: others are forced to devour the most horrible filth. some are mangled and eaten by ravenous birds, others are squeezed into chests of fire and locked up for millions of years. these examples may serve as a small specimen of the infernal ingenuity displayed in the descriptions of the hindu hells, which are all of one substantial pattern, however varied in the embroidery. the parsees hold that when a bad man dies his soul remains by the body three days and nights, seeing all the sins it has ever committed, and anxiously crying, "whither shall i go? who will save me?" on the fourth day devils come and thrust the bad soul into fetters and lead it to the bridge that reaches from earth to heaven. the warder of the bridge weighs the deeds of the wicked soul in his balance, and condemns it. the devils then fling the soul down and beat it cruelly. it shrieks and groans, struggles, and calls for help; but all in vain. it is forced on toward hell, when it is suddenly met by a hideous and hateful maiden. it demands, "who art thou, o, maiden, uglier and more detestable than i ever saw in the world?" she replies, "i am no maiden; i am thine own wicked deeds, o, thou hateful unbeliever furnished with bad thoughts and words." after further disagreeable adventures, the soul is plunged into the abode of the devil, where the darkness and foul odor are so thick that they can be grasped. fed with horrid viands, such as snakes, scorpions, poison, there the wicked soul must remain until the day of resurrection. now, no enlightened christian scholar or thinker will hesitate with one stroke to brush away all the details of these pagan descriptions of hell, as so much mythological rubbish, leaving nothing of them but the bare truth that there is a retribution for the guilty soul in the future as in the present. but, in the ecclesiastical doctrine of hell, prevalent in christendom, we see the full equivalents of the baseless fancies and superstitions incorporated in these other doctrines. if the mythological hells of the heathen nations are not a revelation from god, neither is that of the christians; for they are fundamentally alike, all illustrating the same fallacy of the imaginative association of things known, and the transference of them to things unknown. not a single argument can the christian urge in behalf of his local hell which the scandinavian, the egyptian, the hindu or the persian, would not urge in behalf of his. we can actually trace the historic development of the orthodox belief in a material hell from its simple beginning to its subsequent monstrousness of detail. the hebrew sheol or underworld, the common abode of the dead, is depicted in the old testament as a vast, slumberous, shadowy, subterranean realm, gloomy and silent. it grew out of the grave in this manner. the dead man was buried in the ground. the imagination of the survivors followed him there and brooded on the idea of him there. the image of him survived in their minds, as a free presence existing and moving wherever their conscious thought located him. the grave expanded for him, and one grave opened into another adjoining one, and shade was added to shade in the cavernous space thus provided; just as the sepulchres were associated in the burial place, and as the family of the dead were associated in the recollection of the remaining members. thus sheol was an imaginative dilatation of the grave. but it was dark and still; an obscure region of painless rest and peace. how came the notions of punishment, fire, brimstone, and kindred imagery, to be connected with it? we might safely say in general that these ideas were joined with the supposed world of the dead, by the hebrews, in the same way that a similar result has been reached by almost every other civilized nation, that is, by a reflection into the future state of the retributive terrors experienced here. since the sharpest torture known to us in this world is that inflicted by fire, it is perfectly natural that men, in imagining the punishments to be inflicted on his victims in the next world by one who has at his command all possible modes of pain, should think of the application of fire there. but happily, we are not left to this possible conjecture. few influences sank more deeply into the hebrew mind then the legend how the earth opened her mouth and swallowed into sheol, korah and dathan and abiram, the rebels against the authority of moses, at the same time that fire fell from jehovah and consumed two hundred and fifty of their confederates. in this story, rebellion against a prophet of god, fire and submersion in sheol, are fused into one thought as a type of the future punishment of the wicked. but another narrative has been of far greater importance in this direction, namely, the destruction of sodom and gomorrah. the cities of the plain were situated on a sulphur freighted and volcanic soil. they were inhabited by a people specially abandoned to vices, and specially odious to the chosen people of god. when a terrible eruption took place, overwhelming those cities with all their people, and swallowing them under a flood of bituminous flame, ashes and gas, it was natural that the hebrews in after time should say that jehovah had rained fire and brimstone from heaven on his enemies, and then that the history should take form in their proud and pious imaginations as a fixed type of the doom of the wicked. so it did. at a later period the scenes and events in gehenna, or the valley of hinnom in the outskirts of jerusalem, confirmed this tendency and completed the jewish picture of hell. in this detested vale the worship of moloch was once celebrated by roasting children alive in the brazen arms of the god, in whose hollow form a fierce fire was kept up, and around whose shrine gongs were beaten and hymns howled to drown the shrieks of the victims. here all the refuse and offal of the city was carried and consumed, in a conflagration whose fire was never quenched, and amidst an uncleanness whose worms never died. this imagery, too, was cast over into the future state as a representation of the fate awaiting the wicked. still further, it was the custom of some oriental kings to have criminals of an especially revolting character, or the objects of their own particular hatred, flung into a furnace of fire, and there burned alive before the eyes of their judges. the example of this given in the book of daniel, where nebuchadnezzar had the furnace heated seven times hotter than was wont, and ordered shadrach, meshach and abednego cast into it, furnished both the jews and the christians with another type of the punishment of hell. so striking an image could hardly fail to take effect, and to be often reproduced. it occurs repeatedly in the new testament. the old dragon, the devil, as the apocalypse says, is to be chained and cast into a furnace of fire. in the writings of the church fathers, and in the visions of the monks of the middle age, this image constantly occupies a conspicuous place. and thus, finally, the common notion of hell became an underground world of burning brimstone, an enormous furnace or lake of fire, full of fiends and shrieking souls. tundale, an irish monk of the twelfth century, describes the devil in the midst of hell, fastened to a blazing gridiron by red hot chains, the screams echo from the rafters, but with his hands he seizes lost souls, crushes them like grapes between his teeth, and with his breath draws them down the fiery caverns of his throat. some of the damned the chronicler describes as suspended by their tongues, some sawn asunder, some alternately plunged into caldrons of fire and baths of ice, some gnawed by serpents, some beaten on an anvil and welded into one mass, some boiled and strained through a cloth. the defenders of the orthodox doctrine of hell will admit that this terrible picture is mere mythology; but they will say it is the product of a benighted age, and long since outgrown. yet it is no more mythological than the declarations in the apocalypse which are still literally accredited by multitudes of the believing. and what shall be said of the following extract from a little book called "the sight of hell," recently published with high ecclesiastical endorsement, for circulation among the children of great britain and america? the writer, the rev. j. furniss, describes the different dungeons of hell, and the passage which we quote is but a fair specimen of the entire series of tracts which he has collected in a volume, and which is having a large sale at this very time. "in the middle of the fourth dungeon there is a boy. his eyes are burning like two burning coals. two long flames come out of his ears. he opens his mouth, and blazing fire rolls out. but listen! there is a sound like a kettle boiling. the blood is boiling in the scalded veins of that boy. the brain is boiling and bubbling in his head. the marrow is boiling in his bones. there is a little child in a red hot oven. hear how it screams to come out. see how it turns and twists itself about in the fire. it beats its head against the roof of the oven. it stamps its little feet on the floor. very likely god saw that this child would get worse and worse, and never repent, and thus would have to be punished much more in hell. so god in his mercy called it out of the world in its early childhood." of these diabolical horrors, drawn out through hundreds of pages, the orthodox protestant may say, "oh, this is only a piece of popish superstition. we all repudiate it as a most repulsive and absurd fancy." well, what then will he say if representations, though perhaps not quite so grossly graphic in circumstance, yet absolutely identical in principle, are set before him from the fresh utterances of hundreds of the most distinguished baptist, methodist, presbyterian, episcopalian preachers and theologians? it would be easy to present whole volumes of apposite citations. but two or three will be enough. john henry newman in that one of his parochial sermons, entitled, "on the individuality of the soul," gives us accounts of hell which for unshrinking detail of materiality will compare with the most frightful passages of oriental mythology. george bull, lord bishop of saint davids, in his volume of sermons declares that all who die with any sin unrepented of, "are immediately consigned to a place and state of irreversible misery a place of horrid darkness where there shines not the least glimmering of light or comfort." mr. spurgeon asserts, "there is a real fire in hell a fire exactly like that which we have on earth, except that it will torture without consuming. when thou diest thy soul will be tormented alone in hell: but at the day of judgment thy body shall join thy soul, and then thou wilt have twin hells, body and soul together, each brimfull of pain; thy soul sweating in its inmost pores drops of blood, and thy body, from head to foot, suffused with agony; not only conscience, judgment, memory, all tormented, but thy head tormented with racking pain, thine eyes starting from their sockets with sights of blood and woe; thine ears tormented with horrid noises; thy heart beating high with fever; thy pulse rattling at an enormous rate in agony; thy limbs cracking in the fire, and yet unburned; thyself put in a vessel of hot oil, pained, yet undestroyed. ah! fine lady, who takest care of thy goodly fashioned face, that fair face shall be scarred with the claws of fiends. ah! proud gentleman, dress thyself in goodly apparel for the pit; come to hell with powdered hair. it ill becomes you to waste time in pampering your bodies when you are only feeding them to be devoured in the flame. if god be true, and the bible be true, what i have said is the truth, and you will find it one day to be so." is not this paragraph a disgusting combination of ignorance and arrogance? it is to be swept aside and forgotten along with the immense mass of similar trash, loathsome mixture of superstition and conceit, with which christendom has for these many centuries been so cruelly deceived and surfeited. tearing off and throwing away from the vulgar doctrine of hell all the incrustation of material errors and poetic symbolism, the pure truth remains that god will forever see that justice is done, virtue rewarded, vice punished. then the question arises, in what way is this done? not by the material apparatus of a local hell. for the doctrine of such a penal abode is not only a natural product of the mythological action of the human mind in its development through the circumstances of history, but when regarded in that light it is clearly a false representation. it is a figment incredible to any vigorous, educated and free mind at the present day. such reception as it now has it retains by force of an unthinking submission to tradition and authority. in the primitive ages, when the soul was imagined to be a fac simile of the body, only of a more refined substance, capable of becoming visible as a ghost, of receiving wounds, of uttering faint shrieks when hurt, of partaking of physical food and pleasure, it was perfectly natural to believe it susceptible of material imprisonment and material torments. such was the common belief when the doctrine of a physical hell was wrought out. the doctrine yet lingers by sheer force of prescription and unthinkingness, when the basis on which it originally rested has been dissipated. we know great as our ignorance is, we know that the soul is a pure immateriality. its manifestations depend on certain physical organs and accompaniments, but are not identical with them. thought, feeling, will, action, force, desire, these are spirit, and not matter. a pure consciousness cannot be shut up in a dungeon under lock and bolt. a wish cannot be lashed with a whip. a volition cannot be fastened in chains of iron. you may crush or blast the visible organism in connection with which the soul now acts; but no hammer can injure an idea, no flame scorch a sentiment. what the spiritual personality becomes, how it exists, what it is susceptible of, when disembodied, no man knows. it is idle for any man, or any set of men to pretend to know. unquestionably it is not capable of material confinement and penalties. the gross popular doctrine of hell as the fiery prison house of the devil and his angels, and the condemned majority of mankind, therefore, fades into thin air and vanishes before the truth of the absolute spirituality of mind. in those early times, when military, political, judicial and convivial phenomena furnished the most imposing and instructive phenomena, before exact science and critical philosophy had given us their fitter moulds and tests of thought, it was unavoidable that men should think of god and satan as two hostile monarchs, each having his own empire and striving to secure his own subjects, and looking on the subjects of his adversary as foes to be thwarted at all points. but when, with the progress of thought evil is discerned to be a negation, the devil vanishes as a verbal phantom, and the bounds of his local realm are blotted out and blent in the single dominion of the infinite god who regards none as enemies, but is the steady friend and ruler of all creatures, everywhere aiming, not to inflict vengeance on the wicked, but to harmonize the discordant, bringing good out of bad and better out of good in perpetual evolution. sound theology will see that god is the pervading creator who governs all from within by the continuous action and reaction between every life and its environing conditions. but mythology puts in place of this the incompetent conception of god as a political king, governing by external edicts and agents, by overt decrees and constables. this deludes us with the local and material hell of superstition, which has no existence in reality. disordered function is the open turnpike and metropolis of the real hell of experience. the great king's highway, leading to heaven from every point in the universe is the golden mean of virtue; but on the right and left of this broad road two tributary rivers, namely, defect and excess, empty into hell. the only true hell is the vindicating and remedial return of resisted law on a being out of tune with some just condition of his nature and destiny. the fearful cruelty and tyranny of the mythological hell, supported by the constant drilling of the people on the part of the priesthood whose vested interests and prejudices are bound up in the doctrine, have held the human race long enough in their bondage of pain and terror. in a buddhist scripture we read, "the people in hell who are immersed in the lohakumbha, a copper caldron a thousand miles in depth, boiling and bubbling like rice grains in a cooking pot, once in sixty thousand years descend to the bottom and return to the top. as they reach the surface they utter one syllable of prayer, and sink again on their terrific journey. those who, during their life on earth, reverence the three jewels, buddha, the law and the priesthood, will escape lohakumbha!" the same essential doctrine resting on the same inveterate basis, selfish love of power and sensation, still prevails, though diminishingly, among us. when at last in the light of reason and a pure faith it vanishes away what a long breath of relief christendom and humanity will draw! if we thus dismiss as a vulgar error the belief in a hell which is a bounded region of physical torture somewhere in outward space, it becomes us to acquire in place of this rejected figment some more just and adequate idea. for a doctrine which has played such a tremendous part in the religious history of the world must be based on a truth, however travestied and overlaid that truth may be. this frightful envelop of superstitious fictions cannot be without some important reality within. in distinction, then, from the monstrous mass of mistakes denoted by it, what is the truth carried in the awful word, hell? denying hell to be distinctively any particular locality in time and space, we affirm it to be an experience resulting wherever the spiritual conditions of it are furnished. accordingly, we are not to exclude it from the present state and confine it to the future, as those seem to do who say that men go to hell after death. being a personal experience and not a material place, many are in it now and here as much as they ever will be anywhere. neither are we to exclude it from the future and confine it to the present state, as those do who say that all the hell there is terminates with the emergence of the soul from the body. this might be so, if all sins discords and retributions were bodily. but, plainly, they are not. a mental chaos or inversion of order is as possible as a physical one. hell is anywhere or nowhere, at any time or at no time, accordingly as the soul carries or does not carry its conditions. we are not to say of the sinner that he goes to hell when he dies, but that hell comes to him when he feels the returns of his evil deeds. it is a state within rather than a place without. the true meaning of hell is, a state of painful opposition to the will of god, misadjustment of personal constitution with universal order or the rightful conditions of being. this is not, as the vulgar doctrine would make it, an experience of unvarying sameness into which all its subjects are indiscriminately flung. it is a thing of endless varieties and degrees, varying with the individual fitnessess. hell is pain in the senses, slavery in the will, contradiction or confusion in the intellect, remorse or vain aspiration in the conscience, disproportion or ugliness in the imagination, doubt, fear, and hate in the heart. there is a hell of remorse, forever retreading the path of ruined yesterdays. there is a hell of loss, whose occupant stands gazing on the melancholy might have been transmuted now into a relentless nevermore. every sinner has a hell as original and idiosyncratic as his soul and its contents. as the ingredients of evil experience are not mixed alike in any, hell cannot be one monotonous fixture for all, but must be a process altering with the different elements and degrees afforded, and softening or ending its wretchedness in proportion as the heavenly elements and degrees of freedom, pleasure, clearness, self approval, beauty, faith and love, furnish the conditions of blessedness. hell being the consciousness of a soul in which private will is antagonistic to some relation of universal law, its keenness and extent, in every instance, must be measured by the variations of this antagonism. but how does such an antagonism arise? what are the results or penalties of it? how can it be remedied? no amount of reflection will enable any man to penetrate to the bottom of all the mysteries connected with these questions. but though we cannot tell why the principles of our destiny should be as we find them, we can see what the facts of the case actually are as revealed in the history of human experience. and this is what chiefly concerns us. let us, then, try to penetrate a little more thoroughly into the nature of hell. the rude definition of heaven and hell, regardless of any special place or time, is respectively the experience of good, and the experience of evil. but what are good and evil? good is the conscious realization of universal order, the absolute fruition of being, the fulfillment of individual function, in accordance with the conditions for the most perfect and prolonged fulfillment of the universal totality of functions. supposing that there were only one instance and form of conscious life, with no possibility of conflicting claims within or without, then good would be to that life simply the fulfillment of the functions of its nature. but the moment a being is set in relation with other beings like itself, and also made aware of various gradations of importance among its own interior faculties, then the definition of good is no longer the simple fulfillment of function, or the mere gratification of desire; but it becomes the fulfillment of function in such a manner as to secure the greatest total quality and quantity of fulfilled function. now evil is the opposite or negation of this. it is whatever lessens the fruition of life, prevents the fulfillment of function, contracts or mars the realization of universal order in the consciousness of a living being. thus evil is not merely the keeping of an individual desire from its own proper good. but every gratification of desire which involves the winning of a less important good at the expense of a more important one is evil; or, on the other hand, the evil of sacrificing or denying a gratification in itself legitimate, becomes good when it is the means for securing a more authoritative gratification. let us try to make these abstract statements intelligible by illustration. the appropriation of nutriment is a good, the indispensable method for sustaining life. it is right that we should eat and drink; and the pleasure which accompanies the proper performance of the function is the reflex approval of the creator. the refusal fitly to take and relish our food brings debility, disease, pain, and premature death. whether this refusal results from absorption in other employment or from some superstitious belief, it is a violation of the will of our maker, and the consequent suffering and dissolution are the retributive hell or reflex signals, painfully pointing out our duty. on the other hand, if the pleasure of gratifying appetite becomes a motive for its own sake and leads to excessive indulgence, the superior good of permanent health and vigor is sacrificed to the far inferior transient good of a tickled palate. thus, the dyspeptic over loading his stomach is plunged into the horrid hell of nightmare: the gourmand, pampering himself with a diet of spiced meats and burgundy, shrieks from the twinging hell of gout. there is no divine malice in this. it is simply the rectifying rebound of the distorted arrangements of nature. the law of virtue prescribes in every respect that course of action which, on the whole, permanently and universally, will secure the greatest amount and the best quality of life and experience. vice is whatever inverts or interferes with this, as when a man exalts a physical impulse above a moral faculty, or incurs years of shame and misery in the future for the sake of some passing gratification in the present. god commands man to rule his passions by reason, not slavishly obey them; to exercise a wisely proportioned self denial to day for the winning of a safer and nobler morrow. the degree in which they do this measures the civilization, wisdom, moral valor, and dignity of men. the failure to do this is the condition on which every infernal penalty or reaction of hellish experience hinges. a man may feed an abnormal craving for opium, until all his once royal powers of body and mind are sacrificed, imbecility and madness set in, and his nervous system becomes a darting box of torments. how much better, according to the aphorism of jesus, to have cut off this single desire, than for the whole man to be thus cast into hell. hell is the retributive reflex or return of disarranged order experienced when in the hieriarchy of man higher grades of faculty and motive are subordinated to lower ones. the miser who gives himself up to a base greed for money, separated from its uses, is thereby degraded into a mechanized, self fed and self consuming passion, having no pleasure, except that of accumulating, hoarding and gloating over the idle emblem of a good never realized. his time and life, his very brain and heart, are coined into an obscene dream of money. he knows nothing of the grandest ranges of the universe, nothing of the sweetest delights of humanity. contracted, stooping, poorly clad, ill fed, self neglected, despised by everybody, dwelling alone in a bleak and squalid chamber, despite his potential riches, his whole life is a conglomerate of impure fears welded by one sordid lust fear of robbery, fear of poverty, fear of men, fear of god, fear of death, all fused together by a lust for money. is he not in a competent hell? who would wish anything worse for him? his vice is the elevation of the love of money above a thousand nobler claims. his unclean and odious experience is the avenging hell which warns the spectators, and would redeem its occupant, if he would open his soul to its lessons. so, when a burglar breaks into a bank and bears off the treasures deposited there, scattering dismay and ruin amidst a hundred families, the essence of his crime is that he makes the narrow principle of his selfish desire paramount over the broad principle of the public welfare, setting the petty good of his individual enrichment above the weighty good represented by that respect for the right of property which is a condition essential to the life of the community. the principle on which he acts, if carried out, would cause the dissolution of society. the evil which he seeks to avoid, his lack of the means of life, is incomparably smaller than the evil he perpetrates, the means for the death of society. the resulting sense of hostility between himself and the community, alienation from his fellow men and from god, fear of detection, actual condemnation by his own conscience, and ideal condemnation by all the world, constitute a hell felt in proportion to the delicacy of his sensibility. the spiritual disturbance and pain thus suffered are the effort of providence to readjust the inverted relation of his low self interest to the higher interest of the general public, and remove the threatened ruinous consequences of his sin by remedying the order it has disbalanced and broken. these illustrations have prepared the way for a statement of the true idea of hell in its final formula. the will of god is expressed in that gradation of goods or scale of ranks which indicates the fixed conditions of universal welfare and the accordant forces of the motives which should impel our pursuit of them. to seek these goods in their proper order of importance and authority, every level of function beneath kept subservient to every one above, is the law of salvation, or the pathway of heaven through the universe. to substitute our will for the will of god, the intensity of private desires in place of the dignity of public motives, putting the lower and smaller over the higher and greater, is the law of perdition, or the pathway of hell through the universe. the lowest function of man is a simple momentary gratification of sense, as, for example, an act of nutrition. the highest function of which his nature is capable is the surrender of himself to the universal order, the sympathetic identification of himself with the eternal law and weal of the whole. between those vast extremes there are hundreds of intermediate functions, rising in worth and authority from the direct gratifications of appetite to the ideal appropriations of transcendental good, from the titillation given by a pinch of snuff to the thrill imparted by an imaginative contemplation of the redeemed state of humanity a million years ahead. but, throughout the entire range, all the sin and guilt from which hell is produced consist in obeying a lower motive in preference to a higher one, making some narrow or selfish good paramount over a wider or disinterested one. a man, educated as a physician, practiced his profession on scientific principles, and nearly starved on an income of seven hundred dollars a year. he then set up as a quack, compounded a worthless nostrum, and, by dint of impudence, advertising, and other charlatanry, made eighteen thousand dollars a year, and justified his conduct on the ground of his success. by falsehood and cheating he preyed on the credulity of the public. if all men were like him, society could not exist. the meanness of his soul, shutting him out from the most exquisite and exalted prerogatives of human nature, is the revenge which the universe takes on such a man the hell in which god envelops him. a manufacturer turns out certain products by means of a chemical process which adds seven per cent. to his profit, but shortens the average life of his workmen five years. all mankind would indignantly denounce him with an instinctive recognition of his wickedness in thus erecting the profane standard of pecuniary gain above the sacredness of the lives of his brothers. but when of two men in deadly peril from an approaching explosion only one can escape, and the stronger, instead of monopolizing the chance, as he might, stands back and lays down his life in saving the weaker, it is a deed of heroic virtue, applauded by all men, supported by the whole moral creation which derives new beauty and sweetness from it. it radiates a peaceful bliss of self approval through the breast before it is mangled and cold, and fills the soul with a serene joy as it flies to god. the essential merit of such an action is the subjection of that selfishness which is the principle of all sin, and whose recoil is the spring trap of hell, to that disinterestedness which is the germ of redemption and the perfume of heaven. it is not an unfrequent occurrence for a mixture of heaven and hell to be experienced. here is an able and upright merchant who is about to fail, in consequence of disasters which he could neither foresee nor prevent, and for which he is in no sense responsible. he shrinks from bankruptcy with inexpressible shame and distress. he is mortified, cut to the quick, robbed of sleep, can hardly look his creditors in the face. now, he reflects, "this is not my fault. i have been honest, prudent, economical, unwearied in effort, i have done my duty to the best of my ability. god approves me, and all good men would if they knew the exact facts." if that assurance does not shed an element of heaven into his hell, spread a soothing veil of light and oil over his stormy trouble, then it is because his pride is greater than his self respect, his vanity more keen than his conscience is strong, his regard for appearances more influential than his knowledge of the truth. and in that case the misery he suffers is the penalty of his excessive self sensitiveness. the elements of hell are pain, slavery, imprisonment, rebellion, forced exertion, forced inaction, shame, fear, self condemnation, social condemnation, universal condemnation, aimlessness, and despair. he who seeks good only in the just order of its successive standards, gratifying no lower function, except in subservience to the higher ones, escapes these experiences, feels that he fulfills his destiny, and is an approved freeman of god. the service of truth and good alone makes free; all service of evil is slavery and wretchedness. for freedom is spontaneous obedience to that which has a right to command. the thirsty man who quaffs a glass of cold water does an act of liberty; but he who constantly intoxicates himself in satiation of a morbid and despotic appetite, knows that he is a slave, and feels condemned, and chafes in the hell of his bondage. the dissipated sluggards and thieves who feed the vices and prey on the interests of the community, writhe under the rebuke of the higher laws they break in enthroning their selfish propensities above the cardinal standards of the public good; and in the stale monotony of their indulgences, they know nothing of the glorious zest shed by the best prizes of existence into the breasts of the virtuous and aspiring, whom every day finds farther advanced on their way to perfection. envy is the very blast that blows the forge of hell. it sets its victim in painful antagonism with all good not his own, actually turning it into evil; while a generous sympathy appropriates as its own all the foreign good it contemplates. the sight of his successful rival keeps an envious man in a chronic hell, but adds a heavenly enjoyment to the experience of a generous friend. ignorance, pride, falsehood, and hate are the four master keys to the gates of hell keys which sinners are ever unwittingly using to let themselves in, and then to lock the bolts behind. a character whose spontaneous motions are upward and outward, from the central and lowermost instincts of self toward the highest and outer most apprehensions of good, exemplifies the law of salvation, which guides the conscious soul in an ascending and expanding spiral through the successively greater spheres of truth and life. the character whose spontaneous tendencies are the reverse of this, moving inward and downward, exemplifies the law of perdition, which guides the soul in a descending and contracting spiral, constantly enslaving it to lower and viler attractions of self in preference to letting it freely serve the superior ranks forever issuing their redemptive behests and invitations above. when the members of a family erect their separate wills as independent laws, instead of harmoniously blending around a common authority of truth and love, when they live in incessant collisions and stormy insubordination, a poisonous fret of irritable vanity gnawing their heart strings, a fiery sleet of hate and scorn hurtling through the domestic atmosphere, the whole household are in perdition. their home is a concentrated hell. to be without love, without soothing attentions and encouragements, without fresh aims, and a relishing alternation of work and rest, without progress and hope, to be deprived of the legitimate gratifications of the functions of our being, and compelled to suffer their opposites what closer definition of hell can there be than this? and this, while avoided or neutralized by virtue, is, in its various degrees, obviously the inevitable result and penalty of sin. the great mistake in the popular view or mythological doctrine of hell has arisen from conceiving of god under the image of a political ruler, acting from without, by wilful methods, and inflicting arbitrary judgments on his rebellious subjects. he should be conceived as the dynamic creator, acting from within, through the intrinsic order and laws of things, for the instruction and guidance of his creatures. his condemnation is the inevitable culmination of a discordant state of being, rather than the verdict of a vindictive judge or the sentence of a forensic monarch. every retribution is an impinge of the creature in the creation, and, so far from expressing destructive wrath, is an act of the self rectifying mechanism of the universe to readjust the part with the whole. with what pernicious folly, what cruel superstition, men have attributed their own miserable passions to their imperturbable maker, breaking his infinite perfection into all sorts of frightful shapes, as seen through the blur and effervescence of their own imperfections! so the sun seems to go down with his garments rolled in blood, and to set angrily in a stormy ocean of fire: but really the great lamp of the universe shines serenely from the unalterable fixture of his central seat, and all this spectral tempest of blaze and glare is but a refraction of his beams through our vexed atmosphere. god being infinitely perfect, does not change his dispositions and modes of action like a fickle man. his intentions and deeds are the same here and everywhere, now and always. if we wish to learn in what manner god will prepare a hell and punish the impenitent wicked after death, we must not, as men did in the barbaric and mythological ages, make an induction from the treatment of criminals by capricious and revengeful rulers in this world; we must see how god himself now treats his disobedient children for their demerits here, assured that his eternal temper and method are identical with his temporal temper and method. well, then, how does god treat offenders now? incapable of anger or caprice, he retains his own steady procedures and absolute serenity unaltered, but leaves the culprits to endure the effects of their perverted bearing towards him and towards the order he has established. if a man lies or defiles himself, or blasphemes, or murders, god does not dash him from a cliff or cast him into a furnace of fire. there would be no connection of cause and effect in that; and to suppose it, is a gross superstition. he leaves the offender to the reactions of his own acts, the discordant vileness of his own degradation, the devouring return of his own passions, to punish him for his sin, and to purge him of his wrong. the true retribution of every wicked deed is contained in the recalcitration of its own motive. what fitter penalty can the soul suffer than that of being embraced in the hellish atmosphere of its own bad spirit, to teach it to reform itself and cultivate a better spirit? what, then, is the meaning of the fear, suffering and horror, which so often accompany or follow sin? they do not, as has been commonly supposed, express the indignation and revengefulness of god. no, at their very darkest, they must suggest the shadow of his aggrieved will, not the lurid frown of his rage. a part of the discord which sin is and introduces, they denote the remedial struggles of nature and grace to restore the perverted being to its normal condition. if you put your finger in the fire the burning pain is the reaction of your act, and that pain is not vengeance, but preservative education. when some frightful disease seizes on a man, the inflammation and convulsions which succeed are the violent spring of the constitution on the enemy, its desperate attempt to shake off the fell grasp, and bring the organism to health and peace again. these efforts either succeed, or in the exhausting shocks the body is destroyed. it is the same with the soul. sin is the displacement of the hierarchy of authorities in the soul, the misbalancing of its energies, the disturbance of its health and peace. and all the varieties of retribution are the recoil of the injured faculties, the struggles of the insulted authorities, to vindicate and reestablish themselves. now, these efforts, if the soul is indestructible, must always, at last, be successful. health in the body is the harmonious adjustment of its energies with its conditions; and a sufficient modicum must be obtained or death ensues. virtue in the soul is the harmony of its powers with the laws of god; the measure of this is the measure of spiritual life; and granting the soul to be immortal, the tendency towards a complete measure of virtue must ultimately become irresistible, and every hell at last terminate in paradise. the persistent forces or laws of the divine environment steadily tend to draw the unstable forces or passions of all creatures into harmony with them, and that harmony is redemption. perdition is consequently never, as the ecclesiastical doctrine makes it always, a state of fixed hopelessness. though we make our bed in the nethermost hell, god is there. and wherever god is, penitence and grace, reformation and pardon, have a right of eminent domain between him and the souls of his children. according to the common doctrine of hell as a physical locality, and the predestination of all men to it through the sin of adam, birth is a universal gateway of perdition, the whole world one open course to damnation for all except the few elected to be saved through the blood of christ. the orthodox scheme depicts the lineage of adam as a dark river of perdition, choked with the souls of the damned, steadily pouring into hell ever since our human generations began. but in addition to the refutation of this terrible belief by its monstrous moral iniquity, science is now doubly refuting it by the proof of the existence of the human race on the earth for unnumbered centuries before the biblical date of adam. so this fictitious gate of a fictitious hell is shut and abolished. with it vanishes the horrible picture of this world as floored with omnipresent trap doors to the bottomless pit, and closed fatally around by a dead wall of doom, through which, by one bloody orifice alone, the believers in the vicarious atonement could crawl up into heaven. in place of this, we see the whole universe as one open house of god, traversed in all directions by the free entries of laws of intrinsic justice and love. and so of the remaining theoretic gates of hell, unbelief, ritual neglect, and the other technicalities on which priests and deluded zealots have always hinged the perdition of such as heed not their authority; none of them shall much longer prevail. with the wiping out of the mythological hell all these fanciful entrances to it likewise disappear. but instead of these visionary ones we should point out and warn men from the substantial gates of the true hell. whatever is a cause of insubordinate and discordant fruition in body or soul, individual or community, is a real gate of hell. all the moral and social evils, intemperance, war, ambition, avarice, the extremes of poverty and wealth, ignorance, bad example, despotism, disease, every form of vice or crime, all the influences that destroy or mar human virtue, excellence, and harmony, are so many open gates of hell, drawing their victims in. in holding back those who are approaching these fatal gates, in trying to contract them, to shut them up here is a vital work to be done, infinitely more promising than the brandishing of the terrors of that material hell in which sensible men can no longer believe. for the only true hell is the remedial vibration of truth in an uncoordinated soul, even when not remedial for the individual still remedial for the race. it is not our outward abode, but our inmost spirit, that makes our experience infernal or heavenly: for, in the last result, it is the occupying spirit that moulds the environment, not the habitation that determines the tenant. this is the substance of the whole matter. an accomplished chemist, who was a good man in truth, but a heretic by the standard of orthodoxy, died. being an unbeliever, of course, he went to hell. seeing a group of children in torment there, he pitied them very deeply, and straightway began to devise measures, by means of his skill in chemical science, to shield them from the flame. instantly the whole scene changed. the beauty of heaven lay around him, and all its blandness breathed through him. forgetting his own sufferings in sympathy for those of others, he had obeyed the law of virtue, subjecting a selfish desire to a disinterested one; and the omnipotent god enveloped him with the heaven of his own spirit. another man, who was hard and cruel in character, but perfectly sound in the orthodox faith and observances, died. it is true he was an avaricious and hard saint, but then he believed in the atoning blood; and so, of course, he went to heaven. no sooner did he find himself safely seated in bliss than he tried to peep over the golden wall into the pit of perdition, in order to heighten the relish of his favored lot by the contrast of the agonies of the lost. instantly the celestial scenery about him was changed into infernal, and, by the radiation and return of his own bad spirit, he found himself plunged into hell and writhing under its retributive experience. his character exemplified the law of perdition, enthroning selfishness over disinterestedness, subverting the order of virtue; and the insulted will of god made his imagined heaven a real hell. hell is revealed in the experience of the world as a diminishing quantity through the successive periods since war, cannibalism and slavery were universal. will not the progressive process terminate in the utter extinction of it, paradise everywhere steadily encroaching on purgatory until at last the whole universe of matter and spirit composes an unbroken heaven? according to the nebular hypothesis, the entire creation was once a measureless chaos confusion, conflict, collisions, explosions, making a universal hell of matter. but the discords and perturbations grew ever less and less, regularity and order more and more, as suns and planets and moons took form and wheeled in their gleaming circles, till now the mazy web of worlds is weaving throughout space the perfect harmony of the creative design. the evolution of incarnate spiritual destinies began later, and is more complex than the material, each mind being as complicated as the whole galaxy. may we not trust that at last it shall be as complete as the evolution of the astronomic motions already is, and a divine empire of holy and happy men be the goal of history? this hope carries the cross through hell, and leaves nothing unredeemed. chapter iv. the gates of heaven; or, the law of salvation in all worlds. heaven, in the crude fancy of mankind, has generally been conceived as a definite, exclusive, material abode; either some elysian clime on the surface of the earth; or some happy isle beyond the setting sun; or this whole globe, renovated by fire and peopled with a risen and ransomed race; or else some halcyon spot in the sky, curtained with inaccessible splendor and crowded with eternal blessings. it was natural that men should think thus of heaven as a place whence all the evils which they knew were excluded and where all the goods which they knew were carried to the highest pitch, god himself visibly enthroned there in entrancing glory amidst throngs of worshippers. this was unavoidable, because, in an early age, before knowledge and reflection had trained men to the critical examination and correction of their instinctive conclusions, all the data which they possessed would naturally lead them to imagine the unknown god in the glorified form and circumstances of the most enviable being their experience had yet revealed to them; and to paint the unknown future state of perfected souls under the purest aspects of the most desirable boons they had known in the present state. it being a necessity of their uncritical minds to personify god by a definite picture of imagination, and to portray heaven to themselves as an external place, they could not do otherwise than work out the results by means of the most intense experiences and the most impressive imagery familiar to them. the highest idea they had of man, purified and expanded to the utmost, would be their idea of god; and the grandest and happiest conditions of existence within their observation, enhanced by the removal of every limiting ill, would form their notion of heaven. both would be outward, definite, local, and, as it were, tangible. royal courts with their pomp of power and luxury; priestly temples, with their exclusive sanctity, their awe inspiring secrets, their processions and anthems, would inevitably furnish the prevailing casts and colors to the dogmas and the scenery of early religion. for what were the most vivid of all the experiences men had among their fellows on earth? why, the exhibitions of the sultan with his gorgeous ceremonial state, and of the high priest with the dread sacrifice and homage he paid amidst clouds of incense and rolling waves of song; the admission of the favored, in glittering robes, to share the privileges; the exclusion of the profane and vulgar in squalid misery and outer darkness. consequently, except by a miracle, these sights could not fail largely to constitute the scenic elements for the popular belief concerning god and heaven. what should men reflect over into the unknown to portray their ideals there, if not the most coveted ingredients and the most impressive forms of the known? the great thing, then, inevitably, would be supposed to be to gain the personal favor of the supreme sovereign by some artifice, some flattery, some fortunate compliance with his arbitrary caprice, and to get into the charmed enclosure of his abode by some special grace some authoritative passport or magic art. but as soon as science and philosophy, and a spiritual experience rectifying its own errors by reflective criticism, have created a more competent theology it discredits all these raw schemes. it teaches that god, being the eternal omnipresent power and mystery which foreran, underlies, pervades and includes all things, cannot justly be figured as a man, locally here or there, and not elsewhere. he can be justly thought of only as the almighty creator of the universe, intelligible in the order of his works and ways, but inscrutable in his essence, absent nowhere, present everywhere in general, and specially revealed anywhere whenever a fit experience in the soul awakens a special consciousness of him. this conception of god the only one any longer defensible as the infinite spirit, incapable, except in his various incarnations, of particular local enthronement and uncovering to the outward gaze of worshippers, necessitates a correspondent alteration in the vulgar idea of heaven as an exclusive spot in space. in every form of being, in any portion of the universe, the central idea of a state of salvation, is the fulfillment of the will of the creator in the faculties of the creature, the fruition of the ends of the whole in the consciousness of the part, the congruity of the forces of the soul with the requirements of its situation. if this definition be accepted, it is clear that no mere place of residence, however excellent, can be heaven. that is but one factor of heaven, and worthless without a corresponding factor of a spiritual kind. essentially, heaven is a divine experience, not a divine location; yet constructively it is both of these. ever so serene and pure a space, perfectly free from every perturbation of ill, and surrounded with all the outer provisions of power and order, would be no heaven, until a prepared soul entered it, furnishing the spiritual conditions for the forces to run into fruition, for the melody of blissful being to play. the material elements of the universe, so far as we know, are unconscious dynamics. however perfectly marshalled, they can by themselves compose no heaven. so the conscious soul, as far as we know, is incapable of an independent and unrelated existence in itself. all its experience, when ultimately analyzed, is the resultant of the mutual relations between its own energies and capacities and the forms and forces of things outside of itself. when there is a right arrangement of right realities in the residence, and a right development of faculties and affections within the resident, and such an adjustment of the spiritual states with the surrounding conditions, that, as these act and react upon each other, the laws of the universe break into conscious harmony, or the will of god is realized in a life of blessedness; that harmony, that blessedness, is what we mean by heaven; and the conditions of its realization constitute the law of salvation. such being the true idea of heaven, obviously, it cannot be limited to any particular locality. it may be here, elsewhere, anywhere, everywhere, before death, in death, after death; whenever and wherever the proper conditions meet inward state and outward circumstances so adjusted as to produce an experience which fulfills the will of god and realizes the end of the creation. hereafter this may be, as we know it now on earth, a spiritual fruition in material conditions, or it may be something altered in accordance with the varying exigences of worlds whose details are as yet inconceivable by us, altogether hidden behind the veil of futurity and our ignorance. but its one fundamental condition, its eternal essence under all circumstances which can possibly happen, must always be the same. whatever changes await the soul, embodied in a new form in the state after death, or remaining in pure disembodiment; whatever be the relation of the immaterial entity of mind to the circumference and contents of its new home, it can be in paradise, it can command peace and bliss, or any equivalent of these terms, only by the fulfillment of the will of god in its being. heaven is, therefore, the reconciliation and unison of the soul with its divinely appointed lot, the identification of the ideal and the real. the will of god is expressed in the soul in the submissive services and virtues of a pure and pious character it is expressed in the outward creation by the unbreakable persistency of his laws through all the aberrations and discords of accompaning evil or limitation. nowhere can it ever be an impossibility to conjoin these and thus to make a heaven. the one thing which everywhere is variable and evanescent, is evil, or the imperfect adjustment of the creature with the works and designs of the creator. the one thing which forever stays, and steadily invites the intelligent soul to its embrace, is good, that is, the opportunity to realize the divinely intended correspondence of the relations in the part with the relations in the whole, a serene movement of life through the unison of the soul with its true fate. now, the one predicate which is essential in all things, without whose presence nothing can be, is the will of god. even could that will be violated or withstood, still it would be there, upholding, forgiving, wooing salvation, or a life of conscious harmony, is capable of realization, of course, wherever the means are offered for the performance and enjoyment of the will of god; and the infinity of his attributes necessarily makes that condition an omnipresent possibility in the realm of free spirits. therefore, heaven is not outwardly limited to one place, or to one period, but may be achieved at any time, and anywhere. this throws light on the fallacy of the current, narrow doctrine of a limited probation. the oriental belief that the action of the present is the fate of the future unquestionably covers a profound truth. yet, if there is always a future there must likewise always be a present, and the right action in this may forever redeem that. probation is limited by no decree, only by the duration of free being. although the essential element in the idea of heaven is forever the same, it may be regarded in three different aspects, or on three different scales as an individual experience, as a social state, as a far off universal event. heaven, as a private experience, is the harmonized intercourse of the soul with the divineness in its surrounding conditions. heaven, as a public society, is the blessed communion of blessed souls, a complete adjustment of the lives of kindred natures. heaven, as a final consummation, is the publication of the vindicated will of god in the total harmony of the universe, all individual wills so many separate notes blent in the collective consonance of the whole. but, for all practical purposes, we may overlook this triple distinction and think of heaven simply as the correspondence of the life of the soul with those outward conditions which represent the will of god. and towards this conclusion everything, in its profoundest and most persistent tendency, is bearing. in spite of interruptions and seeming exceptions, it is towards this that the entire confluence of forces and beings gravitates and slowly advances. the universal law of evolution, in which a scientific philosophy has generalized its most comprehensive induction, is but a history and prophecy of the progress towards a moving equilibrium of the totality of worlds and intelligences, which can eventuate only in a universal heaven, or unimpeded completion of the creative design. do we not see all creatures tending towards the perfection of their respective types, every improvement selectively taken up and carried on, every deteriorating deviation eliminated, all errors and failures doomed to perish or change into new conditions for more hopeful attempts? this confirms the faith first based on the deeper argument. for, since the will of god is the one persistent reality, the one all evolving and all inclusive power of which evil is only the distorted and shadowy negation, that opposition to the will of god which constitutes sin and misery, that discord with him which generates hell, must prove an ever smaller accompaniment of his plan, a transitory phenomenon ceasing in even degree with the spreading conquests of his almighty purpose, as race on race of creatures, and system on system of worlds, sweep into the victorious harmony, until the boundless realm of being shall be boundless heaven. heaven, then, in essence, is not merely a favored locality, not merely a resigned soul, but the result of a combination of these in a just relation. it is not a playing power in the material environment nor an inherent attribute of the spiritual instrument; but it is the music which flows from the instrument when it is attuned to react in coordination with the acting environment. salvation, consequently, is not simply a divine place of abode, not simply a divine state of soul; but it is these two conjoined. it is the experimental deposit between the two poles of rightly ordered conditions in the realm and rightly directed energies in the inhabitant. heaven, then, in the best and briefest definition we can give, is the will of god in fulfillment, or the law of the whole in uncrossed action. hell is the experience produced by the rebound of violated law. or, if we hold that, strictly speaking, a divine law is incapable of violation; as every seeming resistance to gravitation is in fact a deeper obedience to gravitation, then we may say, in more accurate phrase, hell is the collision and friction of the limitations of different laws. it is the discord of the part with the whole. it is the antagonism of the soul with god. but the perpetual preservation of a perfectly balanced antagonism with god is inconceivable. it must vary, totter, grow either worse or better. if it grows worse, it will finally destroy itself, the aberrant individuality or malign insurgence vanishing in the totality of force, as the filth of our sewers vanishes purely in the purity of the ocean. if it grows better, its improvement will finally transform the opposition into reconciliation, the evil disappearing in good. therefore, every being must at length be saved from misery, if not by redemptive atonement then by absolvent annihilation, and one absolute heaven finally absorb the dwindling hells. the question of chief importance to us in relation to heaven is, how can we gain admission into it. the limitations of language necessitate the use of imagery for the expression of religious ideas: and there is no objection to it if it be recognized as imagery, and be interpreted accordingly. considering, then, that beatific experience of which heaven consists, under the metaphor of a city, what are its ways of entrance? how can we pass to its citizenship? the obstacles to our entrance exist not in the city itself. its gates are never closed. the supreme conditions of redemption are spiritual, and not local or material. if there be within no fatal impediments to the free course of the will of god, all outer obstacles easily give way and cease. if we are ever to know heaven, it is within ourselves that we must find it out. whatever abolishes that internal rebellion of the soul which makes its experience a purgatory, whatever replaces this confusion with an accord of the faculties, is a road to heaven. whatever removes vices and inserts virtues in their stead, attuning us to the eternal laws of things, leads us through some gate into paradise. and nothing else can no ceremonial artifice, no external transference, no sacramental exorcism, no priestly dodge. the same mistake generally committed in regard to the nature of heaven, making it a mere local residence, has been as generally committed in regard to the conditions of admission. they have been made arbitrary, whereas they are intrinsic. they are inwrought with the substantial laws of being. the idea of god being first fashioned after the image of a sultan throned in his palace amidst his courtiers, ruling an empire by his whims, it was but natural that heaven, and the terms of entrance there, should be in a similar manner conceived under the forms of court ceremonial with its capricious favoritisms. thus it has been supposed that by the atoning sacrifice of an incarnate person of the godhead satisfaction has been made for the sins of the world, which was hopelessly ruined by its original federal representative, and that thus a pardon was offered to those alone who mentally accept the formula of the correspondent belief. according to this view, the only open gateway of heaven is faith in the vicarious atonement, a baptismal passage through the blood of christ. science explodes this narrow and repulsive doctrine by demonstrating its irreconcilableness alike with physical fact and with moral law, first tracing the affiliated lines of our race back to many separate adams in the shadows of an indeterminable antiquity, and then showing that the divine method of salvation is through substantial rejection of evil and appropriation of good in personal character, and not through royal proclamation and forensic conformity. the plan of god for the salvation of men, as its culmination is seen in christ, is the exhibition of the true type of being, the true style of motive and action, for their assimilation and reproduction: but calvinism, when fundamentally analyzed, reduces it to a monarchical manifesto and spectacular drama working its effects through verbal terms, acts of mental assent and gesticular deeds. every sound teaching of philosophy refutes this exclusive and arbitrary creed. in fact, its fictitious and mythological nature is obvious the moment we see that the will of god is represented in those laws of nature which are the direct articulations and embodiments of his eternal mind, and not in those political regulations or priestly and judicial formalities which express the perverted desires and artificial devices of men. the wearing of a certain dress, the bending of the knee, the muttering of a phrase, may flatter an earthly sovereign and gain a seat at his banquets. but it is childish folly to fancy any such thing of god. it is absurd to suppose that he has two schemes of government, one for the present state, another for the future; one for the elect, another for the reprobate; one for those who gaze on the spectacle of the crucifixion and make a certain sign, another for those who do not. his laws, identified with the unchangeable nature and course of the creation, sweep in one unbroken order throughout immensity and eternity, awarding perfect justice, and perfect mercy to all alike, making the experience of all souls a hell or a heaven to them accordingly as they strive against or harmonize with the divine system of existence in which they have their being. the mere acceptance of a technical dogma, the mere performance of a ritual action, cannot adjust a discordant character with the conditions of blessedness so as to reinstate an exile of heaven. to imagine that god will, in consideration of some technical device, place in heaven a man whose character fits him for hell, or, in default of that conventionality, place in hell a man whose character fits him for heaven, is to represent him as acting on an eccentric whim. and surely every one who has a worthy idea of god must find it much easier to believe that men have mixed mythological dreams with their religion, than to believe that the infinite god is capable of despotic freaks or melo dramatic caprices. the poor, odious figment that baptism with the blood of christ is the sole entrance to heaven, is rebuked by the sweet and awful imperturbableness with which the laws of being act, distributing the ingredients of hell or heaven to every one accordingly as his vices disobey or his virtues obey the will of god. in a universe of law where god with all his attributes is omnipresent no trick can ever be the pathway into paradise. the true method of salvation is by the production of a good character through divine grace and the discipline of life. thus, the real law of salvation through christ consists not in the technical belief that he shed his blood for our redemption, but in the personal derival from him of that spirit which will make us willing to shed our own blood for the good of others. there was, not long ago, called to her eternal home, a young woman, who, by the sweet gentleness, the heroic generosity and the unspotted fidelity of her whole life, deserves an exalted place on the roll of feminine chivalry and saintliness. not a brighter name, or one associated with a more fearless and accomplished spirit, is recorded on the list of those christian women who volunteered to serve as nurses in the great american war of nationality. no soldier was braver, few were more under fire, than she; still plying her holy work with unfaltering love and fortitude, both in the horrid miasma of camps and before the charge of cavalry and the blaze of cannon. many a time, the livelong night, under the solemn stars, equipped with assuaging stores, she threaded her way alone through the debris of carnage, seeking out the wounded among the dead, lifting her voice in song as a signal for any lingering survivor who might be near. many a time she broke on the vision of mutilated and dying men, with the light of love in her eyes, a hymn of cheer on her lips, and unwearied ministrations in her hands, transfigured with courage and devotion, gleaming on their sight through the sulphurous flame of battle or the darkening mists of disease like an angel from heaven. receiving the seeds of fatal illness from her exposures, she returned home to delight with her noble qualities all who knew her, to make a husband happy, and then to die a contented martyr. meekly folding her hands, and saying: "thanks, father, for what thou hast enabled me to do, and still more for the new home to which thou art calling me now" she was gone. the cruel creed of superstition says: "since she was a universalist, having no part, by faith, in the mystic sacrifice of christ, she is doomed to hell." but every attribute of god, every promise written by his own finger in the sacred instincts of our nature, as well as the cardinal teachings of the new testament, assure us that as the victorious purity and devotedness of her soul bore her away from the tabernacle of flesh, the welcoming savior said: "come, thou blessed of my father, inherit the kingdom prepared from the foundation of the world." and heaven swung wide its gate for her; and excited fancy conceives that, as she passed in, there was a gratulatory flutter of wings and waving of palms through the angelic ranks. in distinction from that hypothetical gate of blood, set up by a crude theology in one narrow place alone, what, then, are the real gates of heaven, which stand open throughout the realms of responsible being? all the causes which bring the will of man into consent with the will of god. truth is the harmony of mind with the divine order; beauty, the harmony of taste with the divine symmetries; good, the harmony of volition with the divine ends. everything that secures these for us is an avenue into the peaceful city of bliss. to be in heaven is to be a transparent medium through which the qualities of objects, the reflections of phenomena, the vibrations of aboriginal power, pass in blessed freedom, without deflection or jar, and on which the mysterious attraction of the infinite exerts its supreme spell. to be there in a superlative degree is to have a mind which is an infinitesimal mirror of the all, and a heart responsive to that mind, every perception of truth in the realm of the intellect generating a correspondent emotion of good in the realm of affection. not any forensic act of faith in atoning blood, but ingrained piety a modest renunciation before the reality of things is the grand gateway of souls to the blessedness and repose of god. anselm, the great sainted archbishop of canterbury, said: "i would rather be in hell without a fault than in heaven with one." can any defective technicality damn such a man? no; such a spirit carries and radiates heaven is itself heaven. that spirit is god himself in his creature, and can no more be imprisoned in hell than god can be. on the other hand, any professing orthodoxist who, according to a horrible doctrine of the calvinists in former days, should hope in heaven to obtain a sharper relish for his own joy by looking down on the tortures of the damned, and contrasting his blissful safety with the hopeless agony of their perdition, would find himself in hell. the infernal scenery, even there, would burst on his gaze, its atmosphere of pain reek around him, and the detestable turmoil of its experience rage in his breast. the selfishness of his character, in steep contradiction to the public disinterestedness belonging to the divine will, must invert every proper experience of heaven. could any conventional arrangement, or accident of locality, save such a man, while his character remained unchanged? no; such a spirit carries and radiates hell, is itself hell. a mohammedan author says of the seventy three sects into which his coreligionists are divided, that seventy two are wrong ways, terminating in eternal damnation; the remaining one alone, in which are the party of salvation, leads through the true faith into the city of allah. the same unwise bigotry, the same unripeness of judgment, has been generally shown by christians. it is time they were ashamed of it, and allowed their souls to mature and expand into a more liberal creed in fuller keeping with the hospitable amplitude of the righteousness and goodness of god. everything that tends to bring the will of man into loving submission to the infinite father, to mould the structure of character into correspondence with those established conditions of rightful being represented by the moral and religious virtues, is an open highway of salvation. and all the great cardinal ordinations of life do legitimately tend to this result. therefore all these are gates of heaven. some pass in through one of them, others through another; and by means of them all, it is decreed in the sovereign councils of the divinity, as we believe, that, sooner or later, every intelligence shall reach the goal. first is the gate of innocence. little children, spotless youths and maidens who have known no malice or guile, the saintly few among mature men and women who by the untempted elevation and serenity of their temper have kept their integrity unmarred and their robes unsullied, enter by this nearest and easiest gate. borne aloft by their own native gravitation, we see the white procession of the innocent ones winding far up the cerulean height and defiling in long melodious line into heaven. the second gate is prosperity. through this enter those to whom good fortune has served as the guiding smile of god, not pampering them with arrogance, nor hardening them with careless egotism, but shaping them to thankful meekness and generosity. exempt from lacerating trials, every want benignly supplied, girt with friends, they have grown up in goodness and gratitude, obeying the will of god by the natural discharge of their duties, diffusing benedictions and benefits around them. to such beautiful spirits, saved from wrong and woe by the redemptive shelter of their lot, happiness is a better purgatory than wretchedness. the crystal stream of joy percolating throughout the soul cleanses it more perfectly than any flames of pain can. and so the virtuous children of a favored fortune, who have improved their privileges with pious fidelity, move on into heaven. then the third gate is victory. this is more arduous of approach, and yet a throng of heroic souls, the very chivalry of heaven, press through it, wounded and bleeding from the struggle, but triumphant. these are they who have endured hardship with uncomplaining fortitude and fought their way through all enemies, seductions and tribulations. these are they who, armed with the native sacrament of righteousness, inspired with a loyal love, would never stoop their crests to wrong nor make a league with iniquity the conquering champions who tread down every vile temptation, ever hearing their leader say, "in the world ye shall have trouble and sorrow; but be of good cheer, i have overcome the world." penitence is another gate of heaven. by the instructions of providence, by the natural progress of experience, the evolution of wisdom, a sinner may become aware of the ingratitude of his disobedience, ashamed of the odiousness of his guilt; be smitten with a regenerating love of truth, beauty, goodness, god; and, without waiting for the lash of an external judgment to drive him the way he should go, by voluntary preference may grieve over his folly and sin, and turn to his duty and his savior. then the blessed gate of a spontaneous repentance stands open before him; and through this hospitable entrance multitudes find admission to the divine home. death often gives an otherwise unattainable deliverance, and so yields the poor victim of unhappy outer conditions a passage to heaven. it is a thought no less false than it is frightful, which represents death as the vindictive turnkey of the creation, at whose approach probation ends, and the shuddering convict is thrust into hell, the hopeless bolt dropping into its ward behind him. it is rather the divine messenger of deliverance for those who are borne down here under a fate too hard for them. oh, what myriads of afflicted ones orphan children crushed by brutal treatment; poor seamstresses starving in garrets; men and women ground and grimed almost out of the semblance of humanity, in the drudgery and darkness of coal mines; hapless suicides, who have rashly fled from this step dame world, and whose alabaster forms, purpled with bruises, are laid on the dismal beds of brass in the morgue, where a ghastly light strains through the grates, and the crowd of gazers sweeps endlessly on; unsuccessful men of genius, unappreciated, neglected, cruelly wronged, their extreme sensitiveness making their lives a long martyrdom to these what a blessed angel is death, freeing them, setting them in a new state, starting them on a fresh career, amidst fairer circumstances, in front of better opportunities! to be saved, and in paradise, what is it but to be a pure instrument to echo the music of divine things? when the corruptible parts of the instrument are hopelessly discordant, or the circumstances of its place here are jangled with evils which it cannot overcome, then the disentanglement of the spiritual harp, and the translation of it to some finer sphere; where its free chords may ring their proper music clearly out, are a blessed redemption, making death itself a triumphant gate of heaven. retribution is the remotest and most difficult of all the heavenly gates; and yet it is one, and one that is indispensable for many a neglectful, halting, and obstinate child of man. it is an extreme error to think punishment a gate of hell. it is rather a result of being already inside, and it legitimately serves as an outlet thence. whatever may be the case with imperfect human rulers, in the government of god no punishment is ever inflicted for the sake of vengeance, a gratuitous evil. it is blasphemy to deem god vindictive. he always punishes for the sake of good, to awaken attention, produce insight and sorrow, and cause a reattunement of character and conduct with the laws of right, seen at last to be supremely authoritative and benignant, indissolubly bound up with the truest good of each and with the sole good of all. on every gate of hell may be written. wherever retribution is actual, salvation is possible, equivalent to the great maxim of jurisprudence: ubi jus ibi remedium! so, even the dark door of retribution, when men will advance by no other way, leads them to thoughtfulness, regret, and a redemptive readjustment of their passions and acts. thus it becomes the ultimate gate of heaven. and, alas! what a dismal crowd of sufferers, refusing all shorter and happier ways, wait to be drawn through this torturing passage of remedial mercy! may the number entering by the other gates ever increase, and those entering this dwindle! and yet, may it forever stand open for the unhappy culprits who must be lost unless saved here! besides all these gates, and commanding them all, there is one everywhere accessible, and never shut on any soul which has the grace to try it the omnipresent gate of resignation. remove the conditions of resistance, or friction, by a total surrender of self will and an absolute acceptance of the divine will, and, it matters not where you are, the essence of perdition is destroyed in your soul. the utter abandonment of pride, a pious submission to the laws of things, a glad and grateful acquiescence in whatever the supreme authority decrees this is the unrestricted way into heaven which waits before the steps of all who will only exhibit the requisite spirit, and enter. yes, let any being but banish from himself every vestige of personal dictation before god and unexactingly identify his desires with universal good; and, even though he stand on the bottom of hell, heaven will be directly before him through the open gate of resignation. for the organic attitude of a pure and loving submission tunes the discordant creature to that eternal breath of god which blows everywhere through the universe of souls, sighing until they conspire with it to make the music of redemption. chapter v. resume how the question of immortality now stands. in the leading nations of christendom, the belief in the immortality of the soul has for some time past obviously been weakening. the number of those who assail the belief increases, and their utterances become more frank and dogmatic. a multitude of instances, clear to every careful observer, prove this. especially at the present moment do examples of painful doubt, profound misgiving, bold and exultant denial, mocking flippancy and ridicule, abound on all sides, in private conversation, in public discussion, and in every form of literary activity. the hearty thoroughness and fervor with which the faith of the church was once held have gone from whole classes. subtle skepticism or blank negation is a common characteristic. whether this tendency towards unbelief be sound or fallacious, temporary or permanent, it is at least actual. and it is important that we examine the causes of it, and test their logical validity while tracing their historic spread. why, then, we ask, is the faith in a future life for man suffering such a marked decay in the present generation of christendom? in the first place, the faith pales and dwindles, from the general neglect of that strenuous and constant cultivation of it formerly secured by the stern doctrinal drill and by the rigid supervision of daily thought and habit in the interests of religion. never before were men so absorbed as now in material toil and care during the serious portion of their existence; never before so beset as now during the leisure portion by innumerable forms of amusement and dissipation. the habit of lonely meditation and prayer grows rarer. the exactions of the struggle of ambition grow fiercer, the burdens of necessity press more heavily; the vices and temptations of society thicken: and they withdraw the attention of men from ideal and sacred aims. more and more men seem to live for labor and pleasure, for time and sense; less and less for truth and good, for god and eternity. absorbed in the materialistic game, or frittered and jaded in frivolous diversions, all eternal aims go by default. in what precious age was maddening rivalry so universal, giggling laughter so pestilent an epidemic, triviality at such a premium and sublimity at such a discount? but the things to which men really devote themselves dilate to fill the whole field of their vision. they soon come to disbelieve that for which they take no thought and make no sacrifice or investment. the average men of our time, as well those of the educated classes as those of the laboring classes, do not live for immortality. therefore their faith in it diminishes. our fathers, to a degree not common now, walked in mental companionship with god, practiced solitary devotion, shaped their daily feelings and deeds with reference to the effect on their future life. thus that hidden life became real to them. now the interests and provocations of the present world, concentrated and intensified as never before the strife of aspirants, the giddy enterprises of speculation and commerce and engineering, the chaos of caucuses and newspapers and telegraphs monopolize our faculties and exhaust our energies, leaving us but faint inclination to attend to the solemn themes of the soul and the mystic lures of infinity. to those crazed with greed, battling with rivals or sunk in debauchery, god naturally becomes a verbal phantom and immortality a foolish dream. there is nothing in mechanism and mammon worship, nothing in selfish sloth and laughter, nothing in cruel oppression and drudgery, to inspire belief in the deathless spirituality of man. among a people prevailingly given over to these earthlinesses, faith in the transcendent verities of religion perforce dies out. in the long run the supreme devotion of the soul irresistibly moulds its faith. christendom does not live in conscious sacrifices and aspirations for god and eternal life, but it lives chiefly for selfish power and knowledge, money, praise and luxury. therefore in christendom faith in immortality is decaying. but we believe this decay to be temporary, the necessary transition to a richer and more harmonic insight. the passing eclipse of faith in a future life is destined by concentrating attention on the present to develop its resources, realize the divine possibilities of this world, unveil all the elements of hell and heaven really existing here, and fully attune mankind to the conditions of virtue and blessedness now. when this shall have been done the tangential and fractional character of our experience will be so obvious, the inadequacy of the earthly state for the wants of our transcendent and prophetic faculties will be so urgent, and the supplementing adaptations of the entire unseen but clearly divined future to the craving parts in the present will be so manifest, that a complete revelation of immortality will break upon the prepared mind of the race. then history will take a new departure in breathing communion with the whole creation. but infidelity to duty and privilege does not destroy the truth of duty and privilege. it only blinds the faithless eyes so that they cannot see the truth. if the immortality of the soul be a truth, the materialistic absorption of our life would blind us to it and make us deny it. exclusive attention to the present would hide the future from us, although its dazzling prizes, scattered on the dark back ground of eternity, were burning there in everlasting invitation and hospitality. thus, while the eager worldliness of our age practically vacates the faith in a future life, it does not logically disprove it; but leaves it for the ultimate test of the genuine evidence. the second reason for the apparent rapid crumbling away of the belief in immortality in christendom is the recent wide diffusion of a critical knowledge of the comparative history of the opinions of all nations on the subject of a future life, revealing the mythological character common to them, and tracking them back to their origin in primitive superstitions no longer is their literal purport credible to any educated intelligence. in many works by theological writers, and by scientific writers, of free habits of thought, like strauss and spencer, collections have been made of the fancies and theories of mankind respecting the survival of the spirit and the conditions of its experience after the death of the body. these beliefs, it has been agreed, even among the most enlightened peoples, rest at last on the same basis with the crudest notions of the barbarians of the prehistoric period, namely, the spontaneous workings of raw instinct and imagination. tracing the views of christians as to the nature of the soul, and the life to come in heaven or hell, back to the rude conceptions of the naked savages who fashioned their idea of the ghost from the shadow or the reflection of the man, which was a picture or representative of him, yet without matter, and from the phenomena of dreams, in which they supposed the spirit of the man left him and went through the adventures of the dream and returned ere he awoke it has been asserted that every form of later faith, however refined and improved in details, yet really resting on such puerile fancies, such incompetent and absurd beginnings, is thereby discredited and must be rejected. now, it is true that when we find among christian believers, connected with the doctrine of a future life, an incongruous medley of physical imagery and gross imaginative pictures, conceptions of just the same character as the grotesque dreamings of the earliest savages and the elaborate mythology of subsequent priesthoods, we are required to treat the whole suppositious mass as mere poetry or superstition, and to dismiss it from our faith. but we are by no means justified in doing so with the essential fact itself of a future life. the essential fact, the assertion of immortality, may be true, even if the mythological dress be all fictitious. it does not follow that man has no surviving soul because the local heaven or hell, described by savage or priest as its residence, is unreal. it surely is no correct inference that the soul perishes with the body, because the barbarian mind generalized its idea of the soul from the phenomena of shadows, reflections, echoes and dreams. the critical scholar, who judges the case fairly, will correct the fallacies of the confused reasoning instinct, and relegate the mythology to its proper province, but reserve his judgment on the question itself of spiritual survival to be settled on the only appropriate evidence. although the habit thus formed by the critical scholar, and by those who follow his authority, of sweeping away as wholly untenable so many varieties of speculation, and so many groups of images connected with the belief in a future life, has unquestionably contributed powerfully to foster complete disbelief in the doctrine itself, yet it is equally unquestionable that this process of negation is illogical. many a true doctrine has been cradled in superstitions and absurdities. a faith supported by many classes of independent arguments is not overthrown by the disproof of one of those classes. it is as wrongful a procedure to deny the immortality of the soul because barbaric instinct grounded it on erroneous notions and enveloped it with falsehoods, as it would be to reject the established laws of gravitation and light and sound, for the reason that the various provisional theories, preceding the correct ones, were ridiculous mistakes. the problem to be solved is, does the man who is now a soul in a body remain a soul when the body dissolves? the inadequacy or folly of a hundred provisional answers does not affect the final answer. instead of denying immortality because the childish mind of the early world feigned impossible things about it, we should change the question by appeal to a more competent court, and inquire what pythagoras, augustine, dante, leibnitz, fichte, schelling, swedenborg, goethe, thought about it. it is a question for the consensus of the most gifted and impartial minds, the very areopagus of humanity, to decide. furthermore, on a deeper inquiry, it seems clear that the real belief in immortality did not originate from the contemplation of the phenomena of dreams and shadows and echoes, but arose rather from the inexpugnable self assertion of consciousness, its inability to feel itself non existent. this persistency of consciousness, following it in all its imaginative flights of thought beyond the death of the body, was the cause of the mythological creativeness of the barbaric mind. and thus the elaboration of the imagery of ghosts and a ghostly realm was not the precursor, but the result of a belief in another life. the belief sprang directly out of the feeling of a continuous being unconquerably connected with human self consciousness, and is independent of the imagery in which it has been clothed, may clothe itself in endless forms of imagery, and survive their removal on the discovery of their incompetence. besides, the savage himself was, after all, not so far out of the way. his mythology was not a mere fiction concreted into fact by superstition. he was on that track of analogy which, when cleared, will be, perhaps, the luminous highway to universal truth. the savage was obscurely conscious that the objects which appeared around him as solid material realities had their immaterial correspondences within his spirit. the tree, the stone, the flower, the star, the beast, the man, had within him correspondent mental images or ideas just as real as they, but without sensible qualities, and incapable of hurt. with creative wonder he recognized a symbol or analogy of this inner world in the shadow and the reflection. the shadow or the reflection is a representation of its original, but without material substance. see, it lies there, wavering, on the rock, or in the water. no arrow can pierce it, no club bruise it, no pestle pulverize it, no chemistry disintegrate it. it is an emblem of the immaterial and indestructible spirit, revealed in the outer world of matter, where everything changes and passes away except the noumena under the phenomena. no wonder it stirred the brooding fancy of the ignorant, but prophetic primitive man, and made it teem with poesy and personification. freely, then, let us brush aside the mythological extravagance and irrational errors in the entire cosmopolitan doctrine of a future life, but beware of rejecting the fact itself of immortality until we have better grounds than have yet been afforded by the accumulating insight of literary history. as the world moves on, and the human mind develops with it, the crude must give way to the mature, and the false be replaced, not with vacancy, but with the true. the problem of the nature and destiny of the soul will not be solved by tearing away the fictitious drapery thrown around it, but by piercing to the roots of the reality within the drapery. and now we come to the third reason for the increasing doubt and decreasing faith in regard to a future life: that reason is that the form of the belief in it prevalent in christendom has become incredible, and the rejection of the form has loosened the hold on the substance. the philosophic mind, which has attained to the idea of the infinite god, without body, or parts, or passions, omnipresent in his total perfection, can reason to the belief in a kindred immortality for its own finite being. but since our experience is here limited to the life now known, we are utterly without data or ability to image forth such a conception of immortality in any form of picture or mental scenery. there seem to be only three ways in which we can give imaginative representation of a future life. the first is the method of the universal barbarian mind, which paints the life to come as a shadowy reflex or copy of the present world and life, an unsubstantial, graspless, yet actual and conscious realm of ghosts, carrying on a pale and noiseless mimicry of their former adventures in the body. holding fast to that clew of analogy which is the nucleus of philosophy in this view, but rejecting the rest as fantastic figment, we arrive at the next way in which those who are unwilling to leave their thoughts of the future life in empty rational abstraction, portray it in vivid concrete. this they do by means of the doctrine of a general bodily resurrection of the dead. it is a striking fact that four of the great historic and literary religions have taught the doctrine of immortality under the form of a physical resurrection, namely: zoroastrianism, judaism, christianity, and mohammedanism. it has been attributed, also, to the ancient religion of egypt, but erroneously. its belief there is a mere inference from facts which do not really imply it. the egyptians plainly believed in a series of individual reincarnations, not in any general resurrection. but it is a sufficiently interesting and impressive fact that over one third of the human race have embodied their expectation of a future eternal life in this concrete and astonishing form. it has not rested on a basis of reason, but on one of asserted revelation and authority. it originated in the fact that the only life of which we now have any experience is a life in the body, and, therefore, this is the life which we instinctively love and prefer; also in the fact that this is the only mode of life which we are able to represent to ourselves in any satisfactory, apprehensible image. it then bolstered itself up by arbitrary theological theorizings, and proclaimed itself with sanctions of a pretended supernatural authority. slowly the minds of its disciples were drilled to a familiarity with it, and to a habit of implicitly believing it, which grew strong enough to make them hold to it in spite of its difficulty as a sheer and violent miracle having no connection whatever with the natural order of things. authority and passive habit long maintained the belief in unbroken sway. they still so support it in the mohammedan world, where there is almost no science, but little skeptical thought, and a common uniformity of abject submission to the word of the koran. but in christendom it fares differently. here, the knowledge of modern science and habits of free inquiry are almost universally diffused. the consequence is, since the chief christian belief in immortality has been identified with the notion of a general physical resurrection of the dead at the last day, and since all philosophical and scientific thinking refutes that notion by setting its arbitrariness and monstrous abnormality in high and steep relief against the consensus of demonstrated knowledge and moral probability, that the popular belief of christendom in immortality itself is depolarized and swiftly dropping into decay with a large class of persons. but this spread of doubt and denial, while a natural process, is yet an illogical and unnecessary one. the competent thinker will extricate the question of the immortality of the soul from its accidental entanglement with the doctrine of the resurrection, and, rejecting the latter as incredible, still affirm the former on its own independent grounds. to prove and illustrate these statements we must here give a little additional study, fresh and independent study, to the subject. the doctrine of the resurrection of the flesh is bound up with the whole fabric of the catholic and orthodox dogmatic theology of christendom, and cannot be removed without logically shaking that system of belief into pieces. and yet the doctrine, as has been shown in a previous chapter, is unscriptural and of a purely pagan origin, the new testament foretelling a resurrection of spirits from the underworld, not of bodies from the grave. it has no real analogies in the world, but is a figment of fancy, unsupported by reason on any authentic physical or moral grounds. it is, furthermore, a doctrine whose realization is impossible, because it is a self destroying absurdity. all that we need for demonstrating its absolute incredibility, is simply to ultimate its implications, carry it out in thought to the necessary results which its ignorant originators never foresaw. the doctrine of a physical resurrection presupposes that our race was originally intended to be immortal on earth, and that death was a penalty for sin. fill out the theory. adam and eve, made male and female, were commanded to multiply and replenish the earth. their descendants, doubling every twenty five years, would, after sixty or seventy generations had accumulated, have covered the whole earth so thickly that they would be packed in one immovable mass, the whole planet carpeted with their forms and paved with their upturned faces. not an inch of room on the globe for any harvest to grow or any creature to move; the world, crowded and imbedded at every point with one continuous multitude of immortal human beings, would have then rolled around the zodiac, presenting this chronic and motionless picture, to all eternity! if it be maintained that had it not been for sin and its penalty, the successive generations would neither have died nor have remained forever on the earth, but would have been translated bodily to some other world, the absurdity just exposed is escaped only to introduce another one equally glaring. for in time, the entire solid contents of the globe would thus be removed, and the disappearance of our planet unhinge the solar system and produce a general cataclysm. the solid contents of the earth have been estimated at about thirty nine trillions of cubic feet. seventy five doublings of the primal pair would reach to over seventy trillions of human beings, each containing more than a solid cubic foot. it is perfectly clear, therefore, in any view, that the only way in which the human race, with their reproductive constitution, could permanently inhabit the world is by the present system of successive births and deaths; a system, furthermore, which science shows to have been in working existence among the preceding races of creatures for innumerable ages before the mythical sin of adam and eve, with its mythical consequences. the fabulous scheme of an intended bodily immortality on the earth is a discordant and disagreeable one in every respect, asthetic, rational, and moral. it jars incongruously with the great order of nature and providence, which everywhere interpolates a night between two days, a sleep between two wakings, to keep the edge of consciousness fresh and the possibilities of pleasure alive. imprisoned in this carcass of flesh with its ignoble necessities for endless ages, the contemplation of the fearful burden of monotony would be insufferable to any one who had thought the case out in all its details with vivid realization. and yet, so unthinking are most persons in regard to the conventional beliefs prevalent in society, parsees, jews, christians and mohammedans, professedly base their entire faith in immortality on this dogma with the resurrection involved in it. when carried out in its particulars by the imagination, the doctrine is self evidently untenable, contradictory to the essential facts of human nature under the given conditions of the material creation. it had its theologic birth in the speculations of the dualistic religion of persia, whence it was first borrowed by the jews, then secondarily adopted into christianity, and thence finally impacted into the mongrel creed of mohammed and his followers. it is philosophically irreconcilable with a pure monotheism; for, if god be infinite, no enemy could subvert his original scheme and force him to an arbitrary miracle to restore it. it is a creaking and dissonant artifice, every way repugnant to all whose reason and sentiment have learned to love the smooth and continuous evolution of the order of the cosmos and the connected destinies of conscious beings. it is absolutely refuted by the double reductio ad absurdum shown above to be contained in it. yet, while the grounds on which the common belief in a destined general resurrection of the dead rests have really lost their validity to the mind of the nineteenth century, the millions of islam and christendom retain the article unchanged in their creeds, and to question it is a heresy. no wonder skepticism flourishes and genuine faith decays. this clinging to an outgrown scheme is not only from the strong drift of a passive mental conformity, as the train of cars keeps on for some time after the dynamic locomotive has been taken off. another reason is that the tenet is so centrally imbedded in the dogmatic ecclesiasticism that it cannot be extricated without involving all the associated dogmas. therefore, one portion of this knowing generation repeat the formula and blink the difficulties, while another portion go over to open disbelief of any future life. the doctrine of the literal resurrection of the body from the grave is incredible to the educated and free intelligence of the age. in continuing to affirm it ecclesiastical christendom brands itself with frivolity, not earnest enough to carry its thought in loyalty to truth as far as possible, or with hypocrisy, consciously dishonest to its doubts. it is a precious boon to be rid of such an unnatural and ominous belief as that in the final disemboguing of the dead by sea and land, the tumbling of the rocks, the falling of the stars, and the everlasting torture of the condemned in a prison of fire. far better than any such doctrine is a calm confronting of the mystery of the future in its confessed secrecy as it is, and a peaceful resignation to the will of god in conscious ignorance and trust. and yet the believer in this scheme of colossal and ghastly necromancy, when confronted with the unanswerable arguments against it, is sometimes found clinging to it with willful tenacity, and bitterly complaining of those who refute it, that they would rob him of his faith and give him nothing in exchange. suppose a man to believe that in the year nineteen hundred the earth will be exploded, and that all men, except himself and the little clique of his friends, will be strung for eternity on a red hot iron wire in empty space. suppose that this horrid notion is clearly proved to him to be an error. then, because he is not taught exactly what will happen in the year nineteen hundred, he, the unhappy man, assails his enlightener for having robbed him of his faith and given him nothing in exchange! is not the truth of ignorance better than the falsity of superstition? modest faith in front of the shrouded unknown can well stand comparison with the arrogant and incompetent exultation of fanaticism. in regard to that belated relic of the belief in magic, the doctrine of the literal resurrection of the dead in their fleshy bodies, let us gratefully wipe it all out and draw a long breath of relief. let us rejoice to know that the will of god will be done in the fulfilling order of the universe, although we may now be ignorant of precisely what that will is. believing the will of god to be good, whether revealed or concealed, we can afford to wait in peace, trying in the meantime to carry our individual character and our social state and experience here steadily toward perfection. surely, that is the best way to prepare ourselves for whatever lies beyond. and yet we are not wholly shut up to mere blind faith. there is always some ground of moral truth in every widely extended dogmatic belief. in casting off the dogma we should carefully extract its moral purport and try to give it a more authentic setting. it will not be hard to do this with reference to the doctrine now under consideration. obscure and complicated and baffling as the problem of our future destiny is, we can already trace many a line of light, many a prophetic signal and hint suggestive of what is ordained to happen to the individual and the race. unquestionably, the genuine moral reason why the belief in the fleshly resurrection has been so general and tenacious is the two fold consideration: first; that we desire our future life to be an incarnate life because our experience makes that form of being realizable and precious to our imagination, while a disembodied ghostliness is, perforce, repulsively vacant and abstract; and, secondly because our affection and our imagination and our conscience profoundly crave the complete fulfillment of the scheme of the historic career of collective humanity in this world in some such manner, that here, on this dear old earth, the experience of our whole race may be brought to a clear epical unity, and may close with an illuminating justification of providence in the sight of all men, who shall then read the interpretation of their entire past, and see together eye to eye. now we believe that the essence of this natural desire and this sublime hope is a divine prophecy which shall be fulfilled. we believe that in the very falsity of the doctrine of a carnal resurrection and judgment there lurks a truth yet to break out in overwhelming refulgence and perfectly satisfy every soul of man. but it will be brought about by the gradual culmination of the means and processes which god is now visibly carrying forward, and not by any sudden convulsion of miracle. the faculties of human consciousness in the individual and the race are in process of development. also the transmissible sum of knowledge, on which those faculties employ themselves, is in process of rapid increase. the faculties of knowledge possessed by an accomplished master of literature and science now, contrasted with those of a cannibal savage of the pre glacial epoch, reveal an advance which hardly needs to be repeated in order to give us a comprehension of the whole experience of our kind on earth, quite ample to explain the facts of the case and solve the problem of our destiny. the grasp of our intelligence and the richness of our sensibility increase along the ages. the generalizations of our philosophy grow wider, the gropings of our sympathetic faith become vaster, the retrospection and the prevision of our science keener and longer and more inclusive, every generation. it is very significant that the further away we get from the prehistoric times the more we learn about them. archaology is one of the latest and most swiftly enlarging branches of knowledge. let the processes thus indicated go on, as they have gone on and are with accelerated pace going on, and the date is not beyond prophecy when all earthly and human secrets will be solved, and their mysteries be revealed, and the autobiographic book and volume of the world be opened, and the universal tribunal be set in the light of every life, and the irreversible judgment be declared, by the simple revelation of the truth of history in the web of its relations. for as every atom of matter is conjoined by all the laws of nature with all other atoms of matter, and the history of all their adventures is registered by their own indestructible vibrations in the elemental spaces of the universe where they run their career, so every identity of spirit is conjoined by all the laws of spirit with all other spirits, and all their deeds and sufferings are ineffaceably self registered in their reactions upon the authors, in the pictures they shed upon space, and the influences they set rolling through the eternity of successive souls and lives. all, then, that is needed for a perfectly vindicating judgment is the awakening of consciousness to the full view of the facts. and the tendencies are powerfully moving in that direction. what was the illumination of swedenborg but the taking possession by his consciousness of the unconscious lower nervous system, with all its impacted ancestral experiences and wondrous relations with the visible and invisible worlds? and this may be repeated, by and by, and be perfected, and become common. what may result is as yet almost inconceivable. let us trace a little, in this regard, the connections of the individual and the face, and follow out some of their implications. suppose that in turn every child born begets or bears two children. then in the thirtieth generation the transmitted qualities of spirit, nerve and blood, of the single original pair of parents will be represented in upwards of one thousand millions of descendants. it is clear from this law, allowing for all deviations from its numerical progression on account of inter marriages and of failures of offspring, how powerfully and swiftly the ever multiplying streams of consanguinity are spreading in every direction, affiliating and fraternizing the whole human race literally into one family, the innumerable rills of separate descent intermingling as they flow on, and finally diffusing over the earth in that oceanic unity of humanity, which, when full, will beat with the tidal pulse of a single sympathy. it is believed by many that no experience of any living creature is ever lost, but is by its own spontaneous and exact reflex vibrations either registered in the conscious memory or deposited in the unconscious organism in latent perfection of vestige and tendency. memory is a faithful treasurer of all the stores of events. suppose now that each parent bequeaths in the dynamic germ of his progeny the possibility of reviving into consciousness, when the proper conditions shall be furnished, the accumulated sum of all that has happened throughout the entire line of his ancestry. and again, imagine that all the souls composing the human race each of which is a substantial and indestructible entity, living incarnated over and over, and not a mere phenomenal process that vanishes into nothing with the dissolution of the body are so limited in number that they may be embodied on the earth in one generation, whose members shall be so conjoined in knowledge and fellowship that the life of the whole is concentrated in every one, and the life of every one mirrored in the whole. now, finally, let it be conceived that this latest generation, including all who have ever inhabited the world, at last attain a development which enables them to grasp in distinct consciousness the collective sum of the organic heritage of the race, each one reading with perfect clearness in every particular the complete history of humanity from the beginning to the end, understanding all its causes, courses and consequences, and beholding with unspeakable delight the justification of the ways of god, the whole universe opening into free intercommunication, as if time and space were either no more or else their measures were of boundless subjective elasticity, every creature found in peace and rapture at the goal of his destiny. that, indeed, would be a realization of the day of judgment and the resurrection of the dead, but without a shock or a jar in the course of things which science reveals. the process of development now going on, if carried far enough, will naturally result in this or in something equivalent to it; while the notion of the vomiting forth of the accumulated dead from land and sea, at the blast of a trumpet, is a wild piece of imagery, borrowed from startling political phenomena, and applied with absurd incongruity to the chronic providence of god. the former view contains all the moral significance of the latter, but without its violation of probability. nor is it all necessary that the climax shall be brought about of a simultaneous universal judgment, or of the appearance of our whole race on the earth at one time. the giving of the vision to souls subjectively, one after another, in the order of their attainment of the conditions, would meet every requirement of the case. to each one in turn, wherever he was, as the result broke on him in the ecstatic glory of all it means, the essence of the so long cherished faith of christendom would be justified, and the providential theater and scenery of human experience would appear under its illumination as a dazzling vision of poetic justice perfect at every point. marvelous and almost incredible as this scheme of thought may seem, it is not more mysterious in itself, or more staggering in its demand on our faith, than many things successively were which are now established beyond a doubt such as the telegraphic conversation of men through the ocean and around the globe; the seven hundred and thirty three thousand millions of ethereal vibrations in a second, which cause the report of the violet ray in consciousness; the transcendent disclosures of the spectrum analysis; the conception of gravitation as a force which holds all matter in unbroken union, and acts throughout the stellar universe with timeless simultaneity. it is in entire keeping with everything else in the workings of god, as demonstrated by science, on every hand, both in nature and history. the atomic theory and the nebular hypothesis, the chemical crucible and the mathematical calculus, the microscope and the telescope discover to our senses and our reason, wherever we look, facts as mysterious to the understanding, and as baffling to the imagination as any of the foregoing implications; showing us, in every department of nature and experience, the bewildering miracles of the infinitely little and the infinitely great exactly balanced and perpetually passing into one another. there is a third way, in addition to the ghost world of the primitive faith of barbarians, and the resurrection climax of the christian and parsee and hebrew and moslem creeds, in which the imagination of man, moved by his instinct and reason, has concreted the idea of a future life; namely, by the doctrine of transmigration. a striking feature and no slight recommendation of the foregoing view of the true meaning of the dogma of the resurrection is that it reconciles these two chief forms of the belief in immortal life. for resurrection and transmigration agree in the central point of a restoration of the disembodied soul to a new bodily existence, only the former represents this as a single collective miracle wrought by an arbitrary stroke of god at the close of the earthly drama, the latter depicts it as constantly taking place in the regular fulfillment of the divine plan in the creation. this difference is certainly, to a scientific and philosophical thinker, who reasons on the data of nature and experience and not on the dicta of theologians, strongly in favor of the oriental theory. we have no experience whatever of any general resurrection, but all experience is full of the constant appearances of souls in freshly created bodies throughout the scale of sentient being. if our final future life is to be a bodily one there surely is a world of presumptive evidence, therefore, in behalf of transmigration as opposed to resurrection. besides the various distinctive arguments of its own, every reason for the resurrection holds with at least equal force for transmigration. the argument from analogy is especially strong. it is natural to argue from the universal spectacle of incarnated life that this is the eternal scheme everywhere, the variety of souls finding in the variety of worlds an everlasting series of adventures, in appropriate organisms; there being, as paul said, one kind of flesh of birds, another kind of flesh of beasts, another of men, another of angels, and so on. our present lack of recollection of past lives is no disproof of their actuality. every night we lose all knowledge of the past, but every day we reawaken to a memory of the whole series of days and nights. so in one life we may forget or dream, and in another recover the whole thread of experience from the beginning. in every event, it must be confessed that of all the thoughtful and refined forms of the belief in a future life none has had so extensive and prolonged a prevalence as this. it has the vote of the majority, having for ages on ages been held by half of the human race with an intensity of conviction almost without a parallel. indeed the most striking fact, at first sight, about the doctrine of the repeated existences of the soul incarnated in different organisms, its form and experience in each successive embodiment being determined by its merits and demerits in the preceding ones, is the constant reappearance of the faith in it in all parts of the world, and its permanent hold on certain great nations. the ancient civilization of egypt, whose contrasted splendors and horrors awaken astonishment more and more with each step in the progressive decipherment of its mysterious record, seems largely to have grown out of this faith. the swarming millions of india also, through the chief periods of their history, have lain under its spell, suffered their lives, wrought their great works of government, architecture, philosophy, and poetry, and in its belief meditated, aspired, and exhaled their souls. ruder forms of it are reported among innumerable barbaric tribes. it played an important part in the speculations of the early fathers of the christian church, and has often cropped out in the works of later theologians. men of the profoundest metaphysical genius, like scotus erigena and leibnitz, have affirmed it, and sought to give it a logical or scientific basis. and even amidst the predominance of skeptical and materialistic influences in europe and america, at the present time, we constantly meet individuals with independent minds who earnestly believe the alluring dogma. for, to a large and varied class of minds, the doctrine holds a transcendent attraction as well as a manifold plausibility. another striking fact connected with this doctrine is that it seems to be a native and ineradicable growth of the oriental world; but appears in the western world only in scattered instances, and rather as an exotic form of thought. in the growing freedom and liberality of thought, which no less than its doubt and denial, now characterize christendom, it seems as if the full time had come for a greater mental and asthetic hospitality on the part of christians towards hindus. the advocates of the resurrection should not confine their attention to the repellent or the ludicrous aspects of metempsychosis, but do justice to its claim and its charm. the pantheistic tendency which possessed and overwhelmed the brahminic mind, shaping and tinging its views opened the whole range of sentient existences to an indiscriminate sympathy, and made the idea of transmigration natural, and more pleasing than repugnant. furthermore, the brahminic thinkers and sages were a distinct class of men whose whole lives were absorbed in introspective reveries and metaphysical broodings calculated to stimulate the imagination and arouse to the keenest consciousness all the latent marvels and possibilities of human experience, thus furnishing the most favorable conditions for exactly such a belief as that of transmigration, an endless series of ever varying adventures for the imperishable soul. and the vast swarms of the common people in the east are the passive followers of this high caste of thinkers, abjectly accepting what they teach. accordingly, the mysterious doctrine of the metempsychosis has held the entire mind, sentiment and civilization of the east, through every period of its history, as with an irreversible spell. the persistent practice of various modes of profound and rhythmical breathing by which the brahmins perfect their respiration, and the keen and sustained concentration of their attention on their inner states, tend at the same time to heighten the richness and intensity of the cerebral nerves, to unify the connections of the lower nerve centres with them, and to fuse the unconscious physiological processes with the conscious psychological processes. then the persevering disuse and suppression of the action of their outer senses cause the objects of the material world around them to seem more vague and dreamy than the impressions of the ideal world within. and so the earth with all its affairs seems an illusion, while their own unsought trains of thought, feeling and imagery the rich mental panorama of pictures and events, are taken for a series of substantial revelations of the universe of being. an irresistible belief in preexistence, immortality and transmigration, results. on the contrary, in the western world, the characteristic tendencies are all different. pantheistic theories are rarely held, and the dreams and emotions which those theories are fitted to feed are foreign and repulsive. an impassible barrier is imagined separating humanity from every other form of being. speculative reason, imagination and affection, are chiefly employed in scientific studies and social pursuits, or personal schemes, external rather than internal. this absorption in material things and evanescent affairs engenders in the spirit an arid atmosphere of doubt and denial, in which no efflorescence of poetic and mystic faiths can flourish. thus, while the outward utilities abound, hard negations spread abroad; and living, personal apprehension of god, of an all pervasive providence, and of the immortality of the soul in any form, dies out either in open infidelity or in a mere verbal acceptance of the established creed of society. consequently, to the average mind of the modern western world, the doctrine of transmigration remains a mere fancy, although, as we shall immediately see, it has a strange poetic charm, a deep metaphysical basis, and a high ethical and religious quality. the first ground on which the belief rests is the various strong resemblances, both physical and psychical, connecting human beings with the whole family of lower creatures. they have all the senses in common with us, together with the rudiments of intelligence and will. they all seem created after one plan, as if their varieties were the gradulations of a single original type. we recognize kindred forms of experience and modes of expression in ourselves and in them. now the man seems a travesty of the hog, the parrot, the ape, the hawk, or the shark; now they seem travesties of him. as we gaze at the ruminating ox, couched on the summer grass, notice the slow rhythm of his jaw, and the wondering dreaminess of his eyes, it is not difficult to fancy him some ancient brahmin transmigrated to this, and patiently awaiting his release. nor is it incongruous with our reason or moral feeling to suppose that the cruel monsters of humanity may in a succeeding birth find the fit penalty for their degradation and crime, in the horrid life of a crocodile or a boa constrictor. the conception of a series of connected lives also furnishes a plausible explanation for many mysteries in our present experience. reference is made to all that class of phenomena covered by the platonic doctrine of reminiscence. faces previously unseen, and localities unvisited, awaken in us a vivid feeling of a long familiarity with them. thoughts and emotions, not hitherto entertained, come to us as if we had welcomed and dismissed them a thousand times in periods long gone by. many an experience, apparently novel and untried, makes us start as at the shadowy reminder of something often known before. the supposition of forgotten lives preceding the present, portions of whose consciousness reverberate and gleam through the veils of thought and sense, seems to throw satisfactory light on this strange department of experience. much more weighty and penetrative, however, than the foregoing considerations is the philosophical argument in behalf of transmigration, drawn from the nature of the soul. consciousness being in its very essence the feeling of itself, the conscious soul can never feel itself annihilated, even in thought it only loses the knowledge of its being when it lapses into unconsciousness, as in sleep or trance. the soul may indeed think of its own annihilation but cannot realize the thought in feeling, since the fainter emotional reflex upon the idea of its destruction is instantly contradicted and over borne by the more massive and vivid sense of its persistent being in immediate consciousness. this incessant self assertion of consciousness at once suggests the idea of its being independent of the changing and vanishing body in which it is temporarily shrined. then the conception naturally follows that the soul, as it has once appeared in human form, so it may reappear indefinitely in any of the higher or lower forms of being which compose the hierarchy of the universe. the eternity of the soul, past and future, once accepted by the mind, leads directly to the construction of the whole scheme of metempsychosis an everlasting succession of births and deaths, disembodiments and reembodiments, with their laws of personality and fortunes of time and space weaving the boundless web of destiny and playing the endless drama of providence. but the strongest support of the theory of transmigration is the happy moral solution it seems to give to the problem of the dark and distressing inequality and injustice which otherwise appear so predominant in the experience of the world. to the superficial observer of human life the whole scene of struggle, sin and sorrow, nobleness and joy, triumph and defeat, is a tangled maze of inconsistencies, a painful combination of violent discords. but if we believe that every soul, from that of the lowest insect to that of the greatest archangel, forms an affiliated member of the infinite family of god, and is eternal in its conscious essence, perishable only as to its evanescent disguises of unconscious incarnation; that every act of every creature is followed by its legitimate reactions; that these actions and reactions constitute a law of retribution absolutely perfect; that these souls, with all their doings and sufferings are interconnected with one another, and with the whole, all whose relationships copenetrate and cooperate with mutual influences whose reports are infallible and with lines of sequence that never break, then the bewildering maze becomes a vindicated plan, the horrible discord a divine harmony. what an explication it gives of those mysteries of evil, pain, sorrow and retribution, which often wrap the innocent and the wicked in one sad fate, if we but see that no individual stands alone, but trails along with him the unfinished sequels of all ancestral experience, and, furthermore, is so bound up with his simultaneous race that each is responsible for all and all for each, and that no one can be wholly saved or safe until all are redeemed and perfected! then every suffering we endure for faults not our own, the consequence of the deeds of others, assumes a holy light and a sublime dignity, associating us with that great sacrament of atoning pain whereof the crucified christ is not the exclusive instance but the representative head. the above translation of the ecclesiastical doctrine of the resurrection into a form scientifically credible, and reconciled with the immemorial tenet of transmigration, may seem to some a very fanciful speculation, a mere intellectual toy. perhaps it is so. it is not propounded with the slightest dogmatic animus. it is advanced solely as an illustration of what may possibly be true, as suggested by the general evidence of the phenomena of history and the facts of experience. the thoughts embodied in it are so wonderful, the method of it is so rational, the region of contemplation into which it lifts the mind is so grand, the prospects it opens are of such universal reach and import, that the study of it brings us into full sympathy with the sublime scope of the idea of immortality and of a cosmopolitan vindication of providence uncovered to every eye. it takes us out of the littleness of petty themes and selfish affairs, and makes it easier for us to believe in the vastest hopes mankind have ever known. it causes the most magnificent conceptions of human destiny to seem simply proportional to the native magnitude and beauty of the powers of the mind which can conceive such things. after traversing the grounds here set forth we feel that if the view based on them be not the truth, it must be because god has in reserve for us a sequel greater and lovelier, not meaner than our brightest dream hitherto. the worthiest theory of the fate of man which the spirit of man can construct must either be a revelatory divination of the truth, or an inadequate attempt to grasp the design of the creator in its true glory. it is impious and absurd to hold that man can think out a scheme superior to the one god has decreed. and it seems equally unreasonable to suppose that the scheme of god for the future stages of our career is one which has no hints in our present experience. certainly it appears more likely that the sequel will be discovered by the logical completion of the inwrought order which has been slowly unfolding from the first. and what do history and prophecy show more plainly than the tendency to a convergence of all humanity in every man? spreading consanguinity in descent and growth of sympathetic knowledge both point to this. perfect this in each man, and illuminate his whole organism and its relations with adequate intelligence, and we have a true resurrection, not indeed of decayed bodies from the grave, but of historic states of consciousness from their latent embedment in the nervous system, and their undulatory record in the dynamic medium of the creation. our senses now convert certain sets of undulations of the ethereal medium into perceptions of light, heat, sound, and so interpret their contents and extract their tidings. it is not impossible that in a coming stage of development we may obtain additional senses; our spirits may command the means of translating into correspondent states of consciousness all the other modes of vibration of the ethereal medium, and grasp the keys of unlimited knowledge deciphering every secret wherever they go. the whole universe may be a palimpsest preserving the inscriptions of all deeds, and every soul may be a reagent gifted with the power to recover and read its own. as each generation is the inheritor of the preceding ones, all of which from the first prolong their existence into the last in unbroken continuity of historic conduct and responsibility, justice may at the ripened period be naturally summed up without any miracle. we all are projections of our ancestors. they properly in us suffer and enjoy in accordance with what has flowed from their lives. the whole of this, lighted up with consciousness at last, may be the real meaning of the burden of the spirit given to the apostle paul, but misinterpreted by him into the mechanico scenic scheme of the judaized christian church. for when the mighty influx struck the brain of the persecuting zealot, revolutionizing his life, it came into connection with all the inflamed theories and convictions so deeply drilled therein by his pharisaic education. these convictions, partly of a mere local and transient character, associated with legends of adam and abraham and the under world and christ and the sky, mixed with the true and universal import of the higher inspiration now given him, caused his misconstrual of its message, and stamped the purely human and providential meaning of the doctrine of the resurrection with the rabbinical die of a politico mythological dogma. if this were so, it is not the only instance in which the preexistent discolorations in the mind of an inspired prophet have refracted the truth of his burden into distorted error and bequeathed the task of a future rectification when more light shall have come. in the next place, we come to the fourth reason for the growing doubts and disbelief of our day in immortality. it is the remarkable diffusion of the habits of thought engendered by the study of materialistic science. the authority of physical science has been rapidly encroaching on and displacing the authority of the church theology and sectarian creeds. belief in invariable laws has undermined belief in miracle and supernatural revelation. those who had been taught that the resurrection of christ was the only adequate proof of the immortality of the soul, learning to deny the former, have naturally proceeded to question the latter. for in such matters the real implications of logic are little noticed. the religious skepticism nourished by physical science is in all respects really as irrational and baseless as it is actual. for example, the resurrection of christ, admitting it to be a fact, did not create the immortality it was considered to illustrate. if he rose, it was because men are immortal, and men are not immortal because he rose. if he did not rise, men are immortal all the same, provided human immortality be a truth; if it be not a truth, the resurrection of christ would be an isolated abnormal event without any logical validity on the question. the truth or falsity of human immortality, therefore, is a question of the creative plan of god and the essential nature of man, to be decided on the intrinsic evidences, and cannot logically be affected one way or the other by any individual historic occurrence limited to a certain time and place. yet it is a practical necessity that any great popular faith, if it rests on authority, will be shocked and weakened by everything which shocks and weakens that authority, no matter how adventitious it is. if one cannot believe in the preternatural resurrection of christ, that surely is no valid reason for denying the natural immortality of the soul, but only a good reason for seeking to learn if there be not adequate grounds for this faith quite independent of scripture text and priestly assertion. precisely the same reasoning holds in relation to the doubts about spiritual realities bred in the minds of those whose studies are conversant exclusively with material realities. the professors of physical science, thoroughly familiarized with things which combine and dissolve, often come to fancy that everything is phenomenal and evanescent, that there is no immaterial substance, that spirit is not entity but process, that thought and feeling and will are mere transient functions of transient matter. thus all faith in the individuality of mind is pulverized at the fountain head. there can be no question but that such is the common influence of a constant contemplation of the physical aspects alone of physical things. mentality, consciousness, is regarded as the prismatic bow in the cloud, a spectral show that appears and vanishes, with no permanent substance. at the present time, in christendom, the one conquering power in literature, the one fascinating absorption of thought in society, is that connected with the cultivation of physical science. its prestige is overwhelming. its prevalent methods and results give a materialistic turn of interpretation to the popular mind upon all subjects. the direct consequence, among that class of minds who put physical science above theology, is the spreading disavowal of all belief in the immortality of the soul. the fallacy is obvious, and the remedy is simple, if there be at hand but enough of modest candor and patience fairly to weigh the facts of the case in the scales of a sound logic. in the first place, by the very structure of our being, by the very necessity of our experience, the universe is divided into two irreconcilable classes of realities, namely, spiritual subjects and material objects. sensations, perceptions, emotions, thoughts, volitions, all qualities of mind, all states of consciousness, are absolutely immaterial. they are more real to us, that is to say, they more inexpugnably assert and maintain themselves, than material things do: and it is only hopeless vulgarity and incompetence of thinking which can ever confuse or merge them with material things. matter is that which proves itself to spirit by the effects it produces on spirit. spirit is that which is its own evidence. the center of consciousness in us is its own proof of its own being, and all that occurs within it is its own proof, and is unsusceptible of any other or foreign demonstration. hope, fear, love, imagination, reason, are absolutely unthinkable as forms of material substance, however exquisitely refined and exalted. there is no conceivable community of being between a sentiment and an atom, a gas and an aspiration, an idea of truth in the soul and any mass of matter in space. each of these facts, conscious thought and material extension, has its own incommunicable and incomparable sphere of being and laws of action, which can be confused only by ignorance and sophistry. so clear has this become to all profound reflection, that the ablest supporters of the theory of evolution, with all their preponderant bias in favor of physical science, declare, in the words of herbert spencer, that if compelled to choose between thinking of spirit in the terms of matter and thinking of matter in the terms of spirit, they should take the latter alternative and give an idealistic interpretation to nature rather than a materialistic interpretation to the soul. it is logically clear, then, despite the fallacious influences of habit to the contrary, that no progress of the physical sciences, no conceivable amount of induction and generalization as to the composition or decomposition of material bodies, can throw any new light or darkness on the nature and destiny of the immaterial soul. the incessant flux of phenomena constructing and destroying apparent things, though studied till the observing eye sees nothing but mirage anywhere, has nothing to do with the steady persistence of spiritual identity. to force it to discredit our claim to a divine descent and an endless inheritance is a glaring sophism. the question must be snatched back from the assumption of the retort and crucible, the observational and numerical methods of the physical realm, and relegated to the legitimate tests of the moral and metaphysical realm. again, there is furnished in the results of the study of physical science itself, as pursued by its most gifted masters, a glorious overthrow and neutralization of the moral and religious doubts called out in its shallower votaries by their absorption in its more superficial phases. the scientific men of the most profound intellectual power and the most brilliant original genius, the supreme heads of chemistry, dynamics and mathematics, have applied to the phenomena of the material creation modes of observation and instruments of reasoning before whose compelling efficacy the whole frowning vastitude of the outer universe melts into ideal points of force and forms of law. everything in time and space is reduced to molecular vibrations, regulated by the mental conceptions of number, weight and measure. the reasonings of such men as oersted and faraday on electricity and magnetism; of sir william thomson and clerk maxwell on thermodynamics; the theories of the greatest mathematicians, grasping all things in heaven and earth with their irresistible calculus, literally using infinites as toys, creating imaginary quantities, and, going through certain operations with them, actually discovering new truths in the solid domain of reality yield conceptions of order, beauty and sublimity, and emotions of wonder, awe and delight, nowhere else surpassed. they exalt the spectacle of nature into a vision of poetic intelligence, and show the theorizing mind of man to be akin to the creating mind of god. thus, if skepticism as to the deathless royalty of soul is bred in the physicist who constantly stoops with the scalpel and the microscope, it is offset in him who, with as steady a judgment, soars to the contemplation of the ethereal medium with its lines of force traversing immensity and vibrating timelessly along their whole length, loaded, for those who can interpret them, with tidings of all that happens. instead of spirit being materialized, matter is spiritualized and nature transfigured into the ideal home of ideal entities. dumas, years ago, asserted that hydrogen gas is but an etherealized metal. just now, it is said, pictet has succeeded, under a pressure of six hundred and fifty atmospheres, in actually crystallizing oxygen and hydrogen. one has only to read such papers as those of stallo on the fundamental concepts of science to learn that if matter or mind is ever to be lost, it will not be mind. but there remains a more direct and more important way of correcting the dismal or defiant doubts of immortality caused by the inferior phases of materialistic study; and that is, by bringing up to a correspondent fullness and intensity the counter activity of the ideal powers. let justice be done to the subject as well as to the object. over against the watching of clouds and waves, the sorting of herbs, the weighing of metals, the measuring of quantities, bring up the exercise of the mind on the treasures of qualitative substance in its own proper sphere of reason and love and faith. admire the beautiful, love the good, obey the true, worship the right, aspire to the highest, subordinate or sacrifice everything base or wrong in a generous service of duty, and thus nourish a consciousness of those ontological relations by which the soul is rooted in the godhead, and stimulate that intuitive efflorescence of faith which grows out of progressive fulfillment and which prophecies perpetuity of fulfillment. to say the least, the subject is as real as the object, the contemplating faculty as valid as the phenomenon it confronts. the teachings of the soul rightly construed are as authentic as the teachings of nature. and, some day in the future, a complete system of truth developed from the central principle of the one by the subjective method will be found to correspond perfectly with the complete system of truth developed by the objective method from the central principle of the other. as the objective scientific principle is the persistence of force, the subjective scientific principle is the potential infinity of individual spirit, each one the equivalent of the all. what else than this can be the ultimate meaning of the primal, universal, indestructible antithesis or dual classification of being, the ego and the non ego, self and not self, the former including each individual in his own apprehension, the latter including all besides? there is a philosophical authority which, for those incompetent to judge for themselves, should properly take the place vacated by the ecclesiastical authority, which, in our day, is plainly on the wane. multitudes no longer believe in the immortality of their souls on the ground of the resurrection of christ, or the assertion of scripture or creed. shall they, then, deny it altogether because the materialistic band clamor that it is a delusion, and they themselves see no sufficient evidence for it? there is a more appropriate alternative. many theories in natural philosophy have been exploded by the proof of their absurdity, and the correct explanations are accepted on trust by the multitudes incompetent to master their logical and mathematical grounds. very few understand the proofs of the chief laws of nature, but the vast majority of men implicitly trust the assertions of those who do know them. in like manner there is a legitimate sphere for authority in moral and religious beliefs; only it should be the authority of the competent and disinterested. now, it is a fact that the very greatest philosophers who have ever lived, the preeminently imperial thinkers, such as plato, aristotle, aquinas, anselm, hegel, and the resplendent group of their peers, have asserted as a necessary principle the real being and eternal substantiality of the soul. besides all the combinations of matter that dissolve, all the phenomena that pass, they affirm the existence of enduring entities, individual spirits, thinkers conscious of their thoughts. in central calm, far within the struggle and vex of the rolling elements, throned in its own serene realm of law, lives the free, conscious soul, and will live eternally, actualizing its potentialities. nothing can disintegrate it, because it is not an aggregate but a unity, not a quantitative mass of matter, but a spaceless monad of power. it is a closed circuit of thinking activity, impenetrable to everything else. spirits are the only solids, matter being endlessly penetrable and transmutable. we are all obliged to think of ourselves as entities, and not as mere phenomenal series of states. there must be a substratum for the affections of consciousness. all changes are changes of something. it is true there is a mystery involved here which no words can make clear; yet the more deeply one thinks and feels the more intense will be his assurance that there is something in him which thinks and feels, or rather that he himself is a something which thinks and feels. the best conception we can get of the soul is that it is a subject which is its own object and a mirror for the inner reflection of all other objects. god is not an object, because he is the actualized infinite subject. his thoughts are concrete creations, the objective realities of the universe phenomenal and substantial. we are actually finite subjects, but with a potential infinity, patterned in free correspondence with him. our thoughts are subjective reflections of his, modified by the contents of our facultative constitution and the peculiarities of our historic experience. what constitutes my soul is the potentiality of all states of consciousness, actual and latent, past, present and future. it reveals itself to me, so to speak, in my actual thoughts and feelings. so far as these are true and good, they correspond with and represent the will of god, and must share the fortunes of the divine reality with which they are implicitly joined. then my soul cannot be annihilated unless the will of god is so far annihilated. but god is infinite being, and there is nothing outside of or counter to infinite being to destroy it. all evil is but defect or negation. i am only in so far as i am positive reality. nothing of me, therefore, can ever perish, except my imperfections; and the thought of the perishing of imperfections is a thought of joy. welcome, then, be the approach of death which shall cleanse and dislimit me into unimprisonable divineness of being, the crystalline sphere of pure intelligence and immortality! the only real proof of immortality in the sight of the intellect, is the perception of the necessity of self determining entities as the causes and grounds of the facts of experience. a series of states implies something of which they are states. there seems to be no possible explanation or understanding of the phenomena which confront our experience without the conception of ultimate individualities, indestructible subject objects, centers of spiritual activity, monistic selfhoods, conscious egos, each of which distinguishes itself from every other, and contrasts itself with the all. now it is claimed that every thinker who reaches the maturest stage of thought attains to this insight. it is the imperial mark of a certain stage of knowledge. here the supreme thinkers, sceptered with final perception of the truth of their own eternity, sit at ease, enthroned in the serene and lucid realm of law, beyond the reach of the dark tempest of cavils and doubts. and there is a larger company who on easier terms have attained the same result. for, without this wearisome metaphysical hewing of conclusions from the quarries of ontology, the good and pure, who, in their loving obedience and aspiration, keep the harmonic quickness and innocence of their intuitions uninjured, also have an unshaken assurance that they live in god and shall share his life forevermore. the mystics of every period seem in feeling to have an immediate grasp of all that the greatest philosophers have painfully conquered by speculation. these two classes may claim to possess direct certitude of eternal life. all others must either attain to the stage of development and mount of vision of these, or receive the faith on their authority, or else be subject to doubt and unbelief. to accept the doctrine of the immortality of the soul on the authority of the wisest philosophers and the purest saints, is a legitimate procedure perfectly in keeping with what the human race does in all other provinces of thought where it is incapable of proving what its teachers have demonstrated, but can easily appreciate and make practical application of the truths they have affirmed. the great laws of science in all its domains are scientifically mastered by very few, but their empirical rules are implicitly followed by the common multitude. one form or receptacle of authority after another may be superseded; but authority itself always remains. and the true course for those to pursue who have come to repudiate the authority of scripture, or church creed, or the resurrection of christ, as a proof of the future life of man, is not at once to abandon all belief in a future state, but to accept the guidance of the most competent independent thinkers in place of that of the most arbitrary dogmatists. for unto all who do not arrogate to themselves a transcendent competency to judge, the general consensus of the thought and feeling of the world, clarified and interpreted by the fittest few, will always be a grateful ground of reliance and trust. and the verdict thus revealed is unequivocally in favor of the doctrine of immortality. there can be no changes independently of something which is changed. amidst all the changeable in us which passes and is forgotten, there is something which stays and is inexpugnable. it is our identity. that which appears in consciousness first, which recurs oftenest, and which persists longest, is the most valid object of belief. and what is that but the very consciousness, or the subject as its own object? surely, the one invariable accompaniment of all the shifting states of consciousness is the bare essential consciousness itself: this is, so to speak, the unitary vessel containing all their varieties. this unquestionably exists now. the burden of proof, then, as bishop butler long ago showed, is on those who affirm its destruction in the article of death. consciousness is purely immaterial, as every one who has passed beyond the most ignorant and childish stages of thought must see. merely because it is, in our present experience, associated in time and space with a material organism, therefore to declare that it is a dependent production of matter, or a transient concomitant of the transient body, is a gratuitous assertion with not one scintilla of evidence. even, for the moment, admitting it to be true that no argument of irresistible cogency has yet been advanced to prove the immortality of the soul, it is certain that no proof has ever been given of its mortality. the very utmost that can be claimed by any skeptic who fairly understands the whole case, is that the different arguments, for and against, offset one another, and leave the question in a neutral balance of suspense, just where it was before the debate began. many persons hold that the counter reasonings do thus balance and annul one another. for them the problem remains to be decided on other grounds than those of the logical disputation which has proved inadequate to its settlement. these other grounds are considerations of congruity, probability, the prophetic preparations and demands of present experience. what sort of a figure would the segments which we now see, compose, if they were completed? what in the hidden future portions of our destiny would be harmonic and complementary as related with the parts here experienced? when the other modes of inquiry are abandoned this mode remains. its teachings are rich and impressive in proportion to the greatness of the faculties and the wealth of knowledge and love brought to its consideration. and thus we come face to face with the fifth and last cause of the failing faith in immortality confessed to characterize the present day. that cause is the common inability to realize in the thoughts of the mind, and to hold in the faith of the feelings, a conception so vast, so mysterious, so remote from the usual routine of the selfish trifles and petty notions which monopolize the powers and fritter down the faculties of the average people of the nineteenth century. the battle of sensualism, the scramble over material interests, the wearing absorption in the small and evanescent struggles of social rivalry, the irritated attention given to the ever thickening claims of external things, the pulverizing discussions of all sorts of opinions by hostile schools, are fatal to that concentrated calmness of mood, that unity of passion, that serene amplitude of intellectual and imaginative scope, that docile religious receptiveness of soul, requisite for the fit contemplation of a doctrine so solemn and sublime as that of immortality. the grade of thought and scale of emotion ordinarily characteristic of ordinary men are utterly out of keeping with the inexpressible grandeur of themes like that of the divine kinship and eternity of the soul. the reason and fancy, before they can be competent to appreciate such truths, must be trained in the study and worshipful meditation of subjects of commensurate mystery and sublimity. it is no wonder that when minds and hearts familiar only with houses and clothes and food, the trivial gossip and vanity of the hour, are summoned to grasp the idea of spiritual survival and an everlasting destiny of conscious adventures, they are overwhelmed and helplessly fail to represent to themselves the possibility of any such truth. this cause of doubt is very prevalent and effective; for ever more and more in our age conscious attention is turned away from states within and fixed upon things without. the natural consequence is that the objective world is arrogating the first place in consciousness, and the subjective world is sinking into the secondary rank. whatever exalts the object at the expense of the subject tends to materialism, unbelief in the separate being of the spirit. on the other hand whatever gives the panoramic passage of subjective states in the soul greater apparent vividness and tenacity than belong to outer phenomena, tends to produce faith in the independence and immortality of the spirit. hence it is quite to be expected that until our modern concentration on objective toil and study and amusement reaches its destined climax and begins the return career to subjective reason and feeling, the skepticism of the age will increase. meanwhile the remedy for the evil is, first, to perceive it, and then, to cultivate the kinds of experience calculated to neutralize it. for the logical invalidity and fallaciousness of the doubts concerning immortality, arising from the immense disparity of such a belief with the mental habits of ignorant earthlings and social parasites, appear from the fact that there are others with whose experience and thought the doctrine has no such disparity, but for whose spiritual range and haunt it is as natural to believe it as to breathe. and, in explaining the destiny of man, it is legitimate to take the most finished and furnished specimens, not the abortive ones. there are grounds of knowledge, domains of imagination, heights of nobility, familiar to the most exalted characters, perfectly cognate and harmonious with the conception of eternal life, and making the faith in it fully as credible as the transcendent truths of science and philosophy which have been actually demonstrated. those who are familiar only with the little affairs of sense, in narrow bounds of time and space, may well gasp in despair and denial when the bewildering contents of the doctrine of immortality are held before them; but for all who have mastered what science reveals of the objective world of nature, and what literature records of the subjective world of soul, both these spheres furnish ample illustrative examples and data to make the faith in every way congruous with what else they know, and as easy as it is pleasing to receive. assuredly the belief resulting in this latter class from their positive perception and correspondent desire and persuasion, are, on every ground of reason or moral fitness, more than a counterbalance for the unbelief resulting in the former class from their negative experience and incompetency. if we sought to estimate the possibility and destined fulfillment of human nature when all its conditions shall have been perfected, should we choose for the basis of our judgment the incapacity of the lower specimens of man? or the capacity of the higher? after considering the chief achievements of human genius, the mysterious powers of the human soul now, the doctrine of immortality does not seem too great and wonderful for belief; but, on the contrary, it appears the coherent complement of the facts of the present. nothing can be more marvelous or imply greater glory for the destiny of the individual being than the fact that each consciousness is to itself the antithetical equivalent or balance of the totality of being beside; since the whole universe, all other beings, god himself, are known to the individual consciousness only as revealed in itself through its personal faculties. the slightest change in the subject is reported by a correspondent change in objects. heighten the internal activities of the soul to a certain pitch, and the convictions they engender will be so intense, and the experience so absorbing, as irresistibly to sweep away all opposing doubts and fill every craving with the triumphant flood of life. what overwhelming revelations of the providence of god and eternal life, crowding the cosmos at every point with the workings of poetic justice, may thus be made to prepared spirits, only those who receive them know. paul said he was caught up into the third heaven and heard unspeakable words. it is to be believed that such visions, while often illusory, are sometimes genuine. a test to discriminate the spurious and the authentic will one day be secured. meanwhile it is either a faithless faintheartedness or a vulgar arrogance to omit from the data of our expected fate those thoughts, which, though beyond the reaches of our souls, nevertheless irresistibly allure our attention and enchain our affection; ideas belonging to our nature, though transcending our experience, and, while surpassing our faculties, still attracting us to our destiny. what are presentiments but divine wings of the spirit fluttering toward our unseen goal? again, the great metaphysicians, who have elaborated the idealistic philosophy in so many forms, exhibit the mind of man to us as superior to the cosmic spectacle it contemplates projected in immensity. they portray the material creation as a phantasmal show of mind, a phenomenal process and aspect of spirit, indissoluble centers of consciousness alone having solid verity and stay, while matter and force and times and places whirl and pass, combine and dissolve. likewise the mathematicians, with their mighty calculus, translate all quantities and qualities, all objects and operations, into numerical symbols, and with these intellectual toys play the same miraculous tricks that the creator himself plays with the originals. they symbolize purely imaginary quantities, bring them into relations and pass them through certain operations, and thereby discover truths which are found to have permanent objective validity. it demonstrates, as said before, that the filial mind which thus wanders in thought through the house of the father, and, everywhere making itself familiarly at home, disports among his treasures, is of the same type with the parental mind. and now, still farther, that the cultivators of physical science are pushing their discoveries and their theories to ultimates, we begin to see the adamantine structure of material nature melting into a system of ideal equivalents, vaporizing into an undulatory ether, vanishing before our microscopes in immaterial bases of thought, reason, law and will. the gases have just been first liquified and then actually solidified, confirming the speculative announcement long before made that oxygen and hydrogen are metals volatilized. many valuable and strange discoveries have been reached in physical science by following prophetic declarations made a priori on grounds of pure reason. the same proofs of intellectual design and purpose are discerned in the order of atomic combination, in the beauty of crystals and dewdrops and snowflakes, in the perfect geometrical symmetry of minerals and flowers, and in the same spiral adjustment of the leaves on a tree and of the orbits of the planets in the sky, as in the artistic works of man. intellect and will are as much shown in the production of a palm tree as they are in the production of a poem and so, before the gaze of the accomplished and devout scientist, matter is translated into terms of mind, rather than the reverse, and the whole cosmos is transmuted into a divine laboratory of ideal powers, a divine gallery of ideal pictures, a divine theater for the eternal adventures of conscious spirits. in mental conception man deals with mathematical infinites as easily as with the pettiest objects, dilates a point to the universe and shrinks the universe to a point, condenses eternity into a moment or stretches a moment to eternity. it has been shown that if correspondent diminution or enlargement in the faculties of sense and intelligence and in all the forces concerned were made, the whole stellar system and its contents might be dwarfed into the bulk of a grain of sand, or so magnified that each grain would fill the space now occupied by the whole, and no one would perceive any change whatever in the scale. in reply to the statement that nothing can act where it is not, it has been proved that every atom is virtually omnipresent. it takes the entire universe to constitute an atom, since the forces centered in each atom are connected with the whole by the insunderable continuity of all the laws of being. the science of molecular physics as expounded by its latest masters is not less astounding than the wildest soarings of transcendental metaphysics. for instance, it is proved that if there be ultimate atoms their size must be so small that it would require at least five hundred millions of them to an inch in length. in a cubic inch of hydrogen gas, then, for example, there are , , , , , , , , one hundred and twenty five septillions of atoms, moving with the inconceivable velocity that is implied by their making thousands of millions of changes of direction every second. the view of the dynamic s tructure of the universe opened in this direction is as appalling as that unveiled in the opposite direction by the largest extension of the nebular hypothesis. he who can gaze here with steady reason need not be staggered by the sublimest doctrine of religion. amazed at the spectacle of creative power and wisdom, equally amazed at the discovering faculty of man, we feel it to be incredible that he should have been made capable of such thoughts only to be annihilated after a brief tantalization. confronting the immeasurable wilderness of divine glory, strewn all through with prizes before which his soul burns with the unconsumable fire of a god like ambition, man lifts his eye to worship and reaches out his hand to receive. is he merely taunted with the starry sky, and mocked with an infinite illusion of progress, suddenly barred with endless night and oblivion? behold him emerging out of nothingness, mastering his self conscious identity, climbing over the rounds of symbolic experience and language through the heights of knowledge and love. strange, helpless, sublime prince of the universe, beggar of god, when he has attained the summit of illimitable perception, holding immortal joys in full prospect, shall he be dashed back into nonentity? is it not fitter that he be welcomed by triumphant initiation into the family of the deathless father? think of the advancement man has made since the time when he was a cannibal cave dweller, shivering out of the glacial epoch, and contending with wild beasts for a foothold on the earth, till now that he enjoys the idealism of berkeley, wields the quaternions of hamilton, uses the lightnings for his red sandaled messengers, holds his spectroscope to a star and tells what elements compose it, or to an outskirting nebula and declares it a mass of incandescent hydrogen. from such a background of accomplished fact he seems really to have a right to peer forth into the unbounded future and promise himself an unbounded destiny. the repetition of such a progress, nay much less, it may not unreasonably be imagined would raise the curtains from unsuspected secrets, bring the family of intelligences scattered over all worlds into conscious communication, and accomplish the deliverance of the whole creation travailing and groaning together unto this day for the redemption of the creature. what a splendid, almost incredible task man has already achieved in disentangling the apparent astronomic motions and converting them into the real ones. how immensely sublimer and more complex is the position of man on this planet than it seemed to the primitive savage, who knew only what his crude senses taught him, although, all the while, the moon was circling about him twenty five hundred miles an hour, and he was whirling with the revolving earth a thousand miles an hour, and spinning around the sun over thirty thousand miles an hour, and swooping with the whole solar system through the blue void with a still swifter gyre in a yet vaster cycle! this is demonstrated physical fact. its harmonic correlate in the spiritual sphere would be nothing less than a lease of eternal existence for the soul which sees endless invitations ahead, and exults at the prospect of an eternal pursuit of them, its reason and affection affiliated with those of the whole divine household of immortals. two or three generations ago it would have been more inconceivable that men a hundred miles apart could audibly converse together, as they now do by means of the telephone, than it is at this day to believe that communication may at some future time be opened between the inhabitants of the earth and the inhabitants of sirius through the vibrations of the ethereal medium. futhermore, the idea of the infinite god, in possession of which man finds himself, is a warrant for his immortality. there cannot be more in an effect than was in its cause, though there may be less. we perceive intelligence, orderly purpose, as well as power, in nature. we find in ourselves all the explicit attributes and treasures of consciousness. reasoning back by indubitable steps we come to an uncaused, unlimited, infinite being, the underived and eternal source of all that is. this idea in our minds of a being of absolute perfection, whose boundless consciousness as being necessarily indivisible must be totally present at every point of infinitude, is the charter of our own divine nature and heirship. for we can become, even here, friends and companions of this omnipresent one, of whose essence and attributes everything below is but a defective transcript or dimmed revelation. this idea of himself is the gift of god to us. to suppose that we are capable of originating it implies a greater miracle than the one it seeks to account for, and really puts ourselves in the place of god. can we imagine that we are the creators of god? if the absolute noumenal power beyond all phenomena be unknowable, it cannot contain less, but must contain more than all the attributes of the material and spiritual creation which has proceeded thence. the noblest and best spirits of all lands and ages have walked in full fellowship with this being, seeking supremely to serve and love him in the subjection of self will and in the doing of good. many a nameless saint, in a pure consecration, has heroically thought and suffered and aspired, worn out life in slow toils or offered it up in sharp sacrifice, for the good of fellow creatures, as a tribute to god, and exhaled the last breath in a prayer of love and trust. such faithful servants and comrades must be dear to the infinite spirit, and it is natural to believe that he will keep them with him forever. when christ, in self sacrificing love, submitted to death on the cross, saying, "father, into thy hands i commit my spirit," he who can believe that the magnanimous sufferer was disappointed, blotted out and extinguished, thus reveals the grade of his own insight, but does not refute the greater hope of nobler seers. it seems as if the idea of god, with loving faith and obedience to its requirements, planted in a soul which had not inherited immortality would straightway begin to develop it there. the atmosphere of eternity alone befits a nature which feels itself living in the companionship of god. everything subject to decay cowers into oblivion from before the idea of that august, incorruptible presence. the fear of death is but the recoil of the immortal from mortality. when man voluntarily faces death without fear, even courting martyrdom with a radiant joy, it is because there is in him, deeper than consciousness, a mystic knowledge that he is essentially eternal and cannot perish. he who freely sacrifices anything thereby proves himself superior to that which he sacrifices. man freely sacrifices his life. therefore he is immortal. the ancient semitic philosopher and poet who wrote the book of job, brooding on the strange problem of life and death, murmured, "man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?" with each successive generation, for many ages, countless millions have dissolved and vanished into the vast, dumb mystery. now, the spectator, remembering all this, stands beneath the dome of midnight, imploringly breathes the mystic sigh, "man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?" the only responses is the same dread silence still maintained as of old. and, in a moment more, he who breathed the wondering inquiry is himself gone. whither? into the vacant dark of nothingness? into the transparent sphere of perfect intelligence? the sublimity of the demand seems to ally the finite questioner with the infinite creator; and, with a presentiment of marvelous joy, we look beyond the ignorant veil at the close of earth, and hold that eternity itself will not exhaust the possibilities of the soul, whose career shall be kept from stagnation by constant interspersals of death and birth, refreshing disembodiments from worn out forms and reincarnations in new. if this life on the earth, where man feels himself a stranger, be his all, how superfluously he is equipped with foresights and longings that outrun every conceivable limit! why is he gifted with powers of reason and demands of love so far beyond his conditions? if there be no future for him, why is he tortured with the inspiring idea of the eternal pursuit of the still flying goal of perfection? is it possible that the hero and the martyr and the saint, whose experience is laden with painful sacrifices for humanity, are mistaken? and that the slattern and the voluptuary and the sluggard, whose course is one of base self indulgence, are correct? is it credible that, with no justifying explanation hereafter, it should be ordained that the more gifted and disinterested a man is the more he shall uselessly suffer, from his sympathetic carriage of the greater share in the sin and sorrow of all his race? no, far back in the past there has been some dark mystery which yet flings its dense shadows over our history here; and in the obscurity we cannot read its solution. but there is a solution. and when in some blessed age to come mankind shall outgrow their discords and be reconciled, so that their divinest living member can become the focalizing center of their collective inspiration, through him the truth will be revealed. the most inspired individual can only in a degree anticipate his age. at a certain distance he is tethered by his connections with the race. they must be near the goal before he can deliver the final message. inspiration and revelation are as real as the sensuous method of outer knowledge. spirit or consciousness, as that which is its own evidence, has a more than mathematic validity. when men purely love one another, and, with supreme loyalty, seek truth, ignorance and delusion will melt away before the encroaching illumination from god, and the dominion of death will be abolished. that the human mind shall be the victim of death is incongruous with its rank. the atheistic scientist who imagines that the energy of the stellar creation is gradually dissipating, so that the whole scheme must at last perish; and who sees the soul, then, like a belated butterfly, fall frozen on the boundary of a dead universe, refutes his own dismal creed by the grandeur of the power shown in thinking it. the might of love, the faculty of thought, the instinct of curiosity, are insatiable; and that which remains wooing them to grasp it, is infinite. and, after all is said, it seems certain that we are either discerpted emanations and avatars of god suffering transient incarnations for a purpose, and then to be resumed, immortal in his immortality; or else we are separate and inherent entities, immortal in ourselves. the former faith ought to satisfy the proudest ambition. the latter faith yields every motive for contentment and aspiring obedience. man, forever feeding on the unknown, is the mysterious guest of god in the universe. we cannot believe that, the hospitality of the infinite housekeeper becoming exhausted, he will ever blow out the lights and quench the guests. chapter vi. the transient and the permanent in the destiny of man. a companion of solomon once said to him, "give me, o king of wisdom, a maxim equally applicable on all occasions, that i may fortify myself with it against the caprices of fortune." solomon reflected a moment, then gave him, in these words, the maxim he sought: "this, too, shall pass away." the courtier at first felt disappointed, but, meditating awhile, perceived the pertinent and profound meaning hidden in the transparent simplicity of the words. are you afflicted? be not despondent or rash, this, too, shall pass away. are you blessed? be not elated or careless, this too shall pass away. are you in danger? in temptation? in glory? still, for your proper guidance, in relation to each one, remember; this too shall pass away. and so on, under every diversity of situation in which man can be placed. whatever restraint, whatever encouragement, whatever consolation he needs, it is all contained in the profound thought, this too shall pass away. this maxim for all times needs to be supplemented by a corresponding maxim for all persons. there is a truth constantly suited for the variety of immortal souls, as the foregoing one is for the variety of temporal changes. let us see what that truth is and set it in a fitting aphorism. the desires of the human soul are boundless. nothing can satisfy its wishes by fulfilling them and circumscribing there a fixed limit. it would devour the whole creation, and hungrily cry for more. whatever extension of power or fruition it can conceive, it wants for its own, and frets if deprived of it. now, if the spirit of the creator is in the creature, this illimitable passion of acquisition cannot be a mere mockery. it must be a hint of the will of god and of the destiny of his child in whom he has implanted it. it is prophetic of something awaiting fulfillment. but what is the prophecy, and how is it to be fulfilled? the answer to this question will give us that maxim of eternal humanity which accords with the maxim of transient fortune. and thus it reads: over all the things for which men struggle with each other, there is one thing, out of the sphere of struggle, which indivisibly belongs to every man, and that one thing is the whole universe! be not baffled by the appearance of transcendental mysticism in this maxim, as the ancient inquirer was by the appearance of commonplace in his, but seek its significance. a son is an heir of his father. all men are sons of god, though only a few, and that in varying degree, are distinctly conscious as yet of their sonship. but, despite their ignorance, all are tending, more or less swiftly, toward the goal of their nature and inheritance. there are exclusive prizes which men can monopolize: and they fight with one another for these, because the more some have the less others can obtain. there are also inclusive prizes, or modes of holding and enjoying property which do not interfere with universal participation, with universal, undivided ownership. in these no one need have any the less because every one has all. this is the region of reason, imagination, affection, the empire of the soul. the more one knows of mathematical truth, poetic beauty or moral good, the easier it is, not the harder, for others to know and enjoy as much or more. in this divine domain no monopoly or conflict is possible, because the outward moving fence of each consciousness, retreating and vanishing before its conquests of experience, is a vacuum with respect to that of every other. they overlap and penetrate one another as if they were mutually nonexistent. for example, the pleasure any one takes in a picture, or in a play, does not lessen the pleasure which remains for the other spectators; but, on the contrary, adds to it if they have sympathy. now, the all inclusive prize of desire, the very secret of the godhead namely, the power of taking a full pure joy in every form of being, in every substance and phenomenon of the creation is forever wooing every soul; and every soul, in proportion to its advancement, is forever embracing it just as freely as if no other soul existed, yet has the zest of its enjoyments endlessly varied and heightened by mutual contemplations and reflections of those of all the rest. such is the superiority of the disinterested spirit over the selfish flesh, of the inner world over the outer world, of good over evil. mental ownership is sympathetic and universal, physical appropriation antagonistic and individual. we hate and oppose our fellows that with hand and foot we may monopolize some wretched grains of good, while god is inviting every one of us with our mind and heart to accept as fast as we can his whole undivided infinitude of good. the universe is the house of the father; the true spirit of the family is disinterested, and consequently every child is heir of the whole even as the apostle paul said, joint heir with christ. register, then, deeply in memory, side by side with the historic maxim for all times, this too shall pass away! the religious maxim for all souls. over those things for which men struggle with each other, there is one thing, out of the sphere of struggle, which belongs indivisibly to every man, and that one thing is the whole universe! then, should you ever feel vexed or disheartened by the irritations and failures you meet in your journey through the evanescent masquerade of this world, pause and say to yourself, is it worthy of me, while the entire realm of existence asks me to appropriate it in ever expansive possession, to be angry or sad because some infinitesimal speck of it does not grant me as much of itself as i crave? the more things we love the richer we are. the fewer things we care for the freer we are. o blessed wealth and wretched freedom, how shall we perfect and reconcile them? this is the secret: if we love the divine and eternal in everything, and care not for the limiting and perishable evil connected with it, then we shall at once be both rich and free. the former practice educates our powers; the latter emancipates them. the true use of renunciation is as a means for larger fulfillment. detach from lower and lesser objects in order to attach to higher and greater ones. be always ready to renounce the meaner at the invitation of the nobler. the soul, like a grand frigate, may be loosely tied by a thousand separate strings, but should be held firm by one cable. our relations to fellow creatures are those threads; our supreme relation to god, that cable. those are the gossamer of time; this the adamant of eternity. the lame man cries, o, that i could walk! he who can walk says, o, that i could fly! if he could soar, he would sigh, o, that i were omnipresent, and therefore had no need to move! the end of one wish is but the beginning of another; and the craving of every human soul, let loose in sincere expression, is absolutely illimitable. it always comes, in the last analysis, to this; every one really longs to be god. therefore, unless the rational creation is mendacious, to be deified, is, in some mystical but true sense, the final destiny of all souls. every one, in its consciousness fully developed and harmonized, shall become a focus of universal being, a finite reflex of god, the infinite god himself remaining eternally the same unescapable and incomprehensible mystery as ever. there are, therefore, two supreme maxims for souls conditioned in time and space but destined for eternity and infinity a maxim of comfort for those who suffer, and a maxim of impulse for those who aspire. the one, to be used in view of every fear, every evil or limit. this, too, shall pass away! the other, to be used in view of every insatiable desire, over all those things for which men struggle with each other, there is one thing, out of the sphere of struggle, which indivisibly belongs to every man, and that one thing is the whole universe! nothing but the absolute good is everlasting: and that must belong to all who, being essential personalities, are superior to death. blessed, blessed, then, are they who hunger and thirst after god; for, by a real transubstantiation assimilating him, they shall as divinely live forevermore. they shall cease to say any more of anything, this, too, shall pass away! because the infinite god shall have said to each of them, son, thou art ever with me, and all that i have is thine! if the view above marked out, a view in many respects so sublime and satisfactory, a view which goes so far to explain the mysteries, reconcile the contradictions, and transfigure the evils of our transient life and lot below be not true, it must either be because some other higher and better view is the truth in which case we certainly ought to be contented or else the creative and providential plan of god is inferior to the thought of one of his creatures. it is not possible for me to suppose that a speculative theory of my brain can transcend in harmony and beneficence the design of the infinite god. could it do so, then, in reality, i should be a higher being than he. i should veritably have dethroned him and vaulted into his place. is not that a pitch of impiety and absurdity too great even for the pride of man, insurgent atom of criticising assumption, set, baffled at every point, amidst the awful immensity of existence? here, then, is rest. either our highest view is the truth, or the truth is higher and better than that. for to think that his thought is superior to the purpose of god, thus making himself the real god, is too much for the extremist human egotist within the limits of sanity. therefore, until a better theory is propounded, we hold that the destiny of the soul is to become, through the progressive actualization of its potential consciousness, a free thinking center of the universe, an infinitesimal mirror of god. the adventures of the different souls, full of inexhaustible curiosity and relish in the mutually revealing contacts of their degrees of development and originalities of personal character and treasure, constitute the endless drama of spiritual existence within the phenomenal theater of the material creation. and still the infinite one serenely smiles on the troubled play of the eternal many; because the psychological kaleidoscope of their experience is a continuous improvisation of justice, weaving the fate of each with the fates of all, and transfusing the monotonous unity of the same with the zestful variety of the other. works issued by the hakluyt society [illustration: _facsimile (reduced) of the_ coat of arms of king philip ii., _from the sarmiento ms., , göttingen university library. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth._] history of the incas by pedro sarmiento de gamboa translated and edited with notes and an introduction by sir clements markham, k.c.b. president of the hakluyt society. cambridge: printed for the hakluyt society. mdccccvii. cambridge: printed by john clay, m.a. at the university press. council of the hakluyt society. sir clements markham, k.c.b., f.r.s., _president_. the right hon. the earl of liverpool, _vice-president_. the right hon. the lord amherst of hackney, _vice-president_. the right hon. the lord belhaven and stenton. thomas b. bowring. colonel george earl church. sir william martin conway, m.a., f.s.a. the rev. canon john neale dalton, c.m.g., c.v.o. george william forrest, c.i.e. william foster, b.a. the right hon. sir george taubmin goldie, k.c.m.g., d.c.l., ll.d., f.r.s., _pres. r.g.s._ albert gray, k.c. edward heawood, m.a. colonel sir thomas hungerford holdich, k.c.m.g., k.c.s.i., c.b., r.e. john scott keltie, ll.d. admiral sir albert hastings markham, k.c.b. admiral of the fleet sir frederick william richards, g.c.b. admiral of the fleet sir edward honart seymour, g.c.b., o.m. lieut.-col. sir richard carnac temple, bart., c.l.e. roland venables vernon, b.a. basil harrington soulsby, b.a., f.s.a., _honorary secretary_. table of contents. introduction dedicatory letter to king philip ii i. division of the history ii. the ancient division of the land iii. description of the ancient atlantic island iv. first inhabitants of the world and principally of the atlantic island v. inhabitants of the atlantic island vi. the fable of the origin of these barbarous indians of peru, according to their blind opinions vii. fable of the second age, and creation of the barbarous indians according to their account viii. the ancient _behetrias_ of these kingdoms of peru and their provinces ix. the first settlers in the valley of cuzco x. how the incas began to tyrannize over the lands and inheritances xi. the fable of the origin of the incas of cuzco xii. the road which these companies of the incas took to the valley of cuzco, and of the fables which are mixed with their history xiv. entry of the incas into the valley of cuzco, and the fables they relate concerning it xiv. the difference between manco ccapac and the alcabisas, respecting the arable land xv. commences the life of sinchi rocca, the second inca xvi. the life of lloqui yupanqui, the third inca xvii. the life of mayta ccapac, the fourth inca xviii. the life of ccapac yupanqui, the fifth inca xix. the life of inca rocca, the sixth inca xx. the life of titu cusi hualpa, vulgarly called yahuar-huaccac xxi. what happened after the ayarmarcas had stolen titu cusi hualpa xxii. how it became known that yahuar-huaccac was alive xxiii. yahuar-huaccac inca yupanqui commences his reign alone, after the death of his father xxiv. life of viracocha, the eighth inca xxv. the provinces and towns conquered by the eighth inca viracocha xxvi. life of inca yupanqui or pachacuti, the ninth inca xxvii. coming of the chancas against cuzco xxviii. the second victory of pachacuti inca yupanqui over the chancas xxix. the inca yupanqui assumes the sovereignty and takes the fringe, without the consent of his father xxx. pachacuti inca yupanqui rebuilds the city of cuzco xxxi. pachacuti inca yupanqui rebuilds the house of the sun and establishes new idols in it xxxii. pachacuti inca yupanqui depopulates two leagues of country near cuzco xxxiii. pachacuti inca yupanqui kills his elder brother named inca urco xxxiv. the nations which pachacuti inca subjugated and the towns he took; and first of tocay ccapac, sinchi of the ayamarcas, and the destruction of the cuyos xxxv. the other nations conquered by inca yupanqui, either in person or through his brother inca rocca xxxvi. pachacuti inca yupanqui endows the house of the sun with great wealth xxxvii. pachacuti inca yupanqui conquers the province of colla-suyu xxxviii. pachacuti inca yupanqui sends an army to conquer the province of chinchay-suyu xxxix. pachacuti inca yupanqui plants _mitimaes_ in all the lands he had conquered xl. the collas, sons of chuchi ccapac, rebel against inca yupanqui to obtain their freedom xli. amaru tupac inca and apu paucar usnu continue the conquest of the collao and again subdue the collas xlii. pachacuti inca yupanqui nominates his son tupac inca yupanqui as his successor xliii. how pachacuti armed his son tupac inca xliv. pachacuti inca yupanqui sends his son tupac inca yupanqui to conquer chinchay-suyu xlv. how pachacuti inca yupanqui visited the provinces conquered for him by his captains xlvi. tupac inca yupanqui sets out, a second time, by order of his father, to conquer what remained unsubdued in chinchay-suyu xlvii. death of pachacuti inca yupanqui xlviii. the life of tupac inca yupanqui, the tenth inca xlix. tupac inca yupanqui conquers the province of the antis l. tupac inca yupanqui goes to subdue and pacify the collas li. tupac inca makes the _yanaconas_ lii. tupac inca yupanqui orders a second visitation of the land, and does other things liii. tupac inca makes the fortress of cuzco liv. death of tupac inca yupanqui lv. the life of huayna ccapac, eleventh inca lvi. they give the fringe of inca to huayna ccapac, the eleventh inca lvii. the first acts of huayna ccapac after he became inca lviii. huayna ccapac conquers chachapoyas lix. huayna ccapac makes a visitation of the whole empire from quito to chile lx. huayna ccapac makes war on the quitos, pastos, carangues, cayambis, huancavilcas lxi. the chirihuanas come to make war in peru against those conquered by the incas lxii. what huayna ccapac did after the-said wars lxiii. the life of huascar, the last inca, and of atahualpa lxiv. huascar inca marches in person to fight chalco chima and quiz-quiz, the captains of atahualpa lxv. the battle between the armies of huascar and atahualpa. huascar made prisoner lxvi. what chalco chima and quiz-quiz did concerning huascar and those of his side in words lxvii. the cruelties that atahualpa ordered to be perpetrated on the prisoners and conquered of huascar's party lxviii. news of the spaniards comes to atahualpa lxix. the spaniards come to caxamarca and seize atahualpa, who orders huascar to be killed. atahualpa also dies lxx. it is noteworthy how these incas were tyrants against themselves, besides being so against the natives of the land lxxi. summary computation of the period that the incas of peru lasted certificate of the proofs and verification of this history * * * * * account of the province of vilcapampa and a narrative of the execution of the inca tupac amaru, by captain baltasar de ocampo list of illustrations. . map of central peru. . by graham mackay, r.g.s six facsimiles (reduced) from the sarmiento ms., (göttingen university library): . _a_. arms of philip ii of spain. coloured . _b_. last page of sarmiento's introductory letter to philip ii, with his autograph . _c_. arms of philip ii. fol. . _d_. title of the sarmiento ms. fol. . _e_. arms of don francisco de toledo, viceroy of peru, -- . fol. . _f_. signatures of the attesting witnesses, . fol. . portrait of the viceroy, don francisco de toledo, at lima. from a sketch by sir clements markham in . group of incas, in ceremonial dresses, from figures in the pictures in the church of santa ana, cuzco, a.d. . from a sketch by sir clements markham in . portraits of the incas. facsimile of the title-page of the fifth decade of antonio de herrera's _historia general de los hechos de los castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del mar oceano_, madrid, . fol. from the rev. c.m. cracherode's copy in the british museum . capture of atahualpa, and siege of cuzco. from the title-page of the sixth decade of antonio de herrera . map of vilca-pampa. . by graham mackay, r.g.s plates -- have been reproduced from the negatives, kindly lent for the purpose by professor dr richard pietschmann, director of the göttingen university library. [illustration: . series ii. vol. xxii. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth. portraits of the incas. from the rev. c.m. cracherode's copy in the british museum.] introduction. the publication of the text of the sarmiento manuscript in the library of göttingen university, has enabled the council to present the members of the hakluyt society with the most authentic narrative of events connected with the history of the incas of peru. the history of this manuscript, and of the documents which accompanied it, is very interesting. the viceroy, don francisco de toledo, who governed peru from to , caused them to be prepared for the information of philip ii. four cloths were sent to the king from cuzco, and a history of the incas written by captain pedro sarmiento de gamboa. on three cloths were figures of the incas with their wives, on medallions, with their _ayllus_ and a genealogical tree. historical events in each reign were depicted on the borders. the fable of tampu-tocco was shown on the first cloth, and also the fables touching the creations of viracocha, which formed the foundation for the whole history. on the fourth cloth there was a map of peru, the compass lines for the positions of towns being drawn by sarmiento. the viceroy also caused reports to be made to him, to prove that the incas were usurpers. there were thirteen reports from cuzco, guamanga, xauxa, yucay, and other places, forming a folio of leaves, preserved in the _archivo de indias_[ ]. at cuzco all the inca descendants were called upon to give evidence respecting the history of peru under their ancestors. they all swore that they would give truthful testimony. the compilation of the history was then entrusted to captain pedro sarmiento de gamboa, the cosmographer of peru. when it was completed the book was read to the inca witnesses, chapter by chapter, in their own language. they discussed each chapter, and suggested some corrections and alterations which were adopted. it was then submitted to the viceroy, who caused the documents to be attested by the principal spaniards settled at cuzco, who had been present at the conquest, or had taken a leading part in the subsequent administration. these were dr loarte, the licentiate polo de ondegardo[ ], alonso de mena[ ], mancio serra de leguisano[ ], pero alonso carrasco, and juan de pancorvo[ ], in whose house the viceroy resided while he was at cuzco. mancio serra de leguisano married beatriz Ñusta, an inca princess, daughter of huayna ccapac. the viceroy then made some final interpolations to vilify the incas, which would not have been approved by some of those who had attested, certainly not by polo de ondegardo or leguisano. [note : printed in the same volume with montesinos, and edited by jimenes de la espada, _informaciones acerca del señorio y gobierno de los ingas hechas por mandado de don francisco de toledo,_ -- .] [note : the accomplished lawyer, author, and statesman.] [note : one of the first conquerors. his house at cuzco was in the square of our lady, near that of garcilasso de la vega.] [note : a generous defender of the cause of the indians.] [note : one of the first conquerors. he occupied a house near the square, with his friend and comrade alonso de marchena.] sarmiento mentions in his history of the incas that it was intended to be the second part of his work. there were to be three parts. the first, on the geography of peru, was not sent because it was not finished. the third part was to have been a narrative of the conquest. the four cloths, and the other documents, were taken to spain, for presentation to the king, by a servant of the viceroy named geronimo pacheco, with a covering letter dated at yucay on march st, . of all these precious documents the most important was the history of the incas by sarmiento, and it has fortunately been preserved. the king's copy found its way into the famous library of abraham gronovius, which was sold in , and thence into the library of the university of göttingen, where it remained, unprinted and unedited, for years. but in august, , the learned librarian, dr richard pietschmann published the text at berlin, very carefully edited and annotated with a valuable introduction. the council of the hakluyt society is thus enabled to present an english translation to its members very soon after the first publication of the text. it is a complement of the other writings of the great navigator, which were translated and edited for the hakluyt society in . the manuscript consists of eight leaves of introduction and of text. the dedicatory letter to the king is signed by sarmiento on march th, . the binding was of red silk, under which there is another binding of green leather. the first page is occupied by a coloured shield of the royal arms, with a signature _el capitã sarmi de gãboa_. on the second page is the title, surrounded by an ornamental border. the manuscript is in a very clear hand, and at the end are the arms of toledo (_chequy azure and argent_) with the date cuzco, feb., . there is also the signature of the secretary, alvaro ruiz de navamuel[ ]. [note : alvaro ruiz and his brother captain francisco ruiz were the sons of francisco santiago rodriguez de los rios by inez de navamuel. both used their mother's name of navamuel as their surname; and both were born at aquilar del campo. alonso ruiz de navamuel was secretary to the governments of five successive viceroys. he wrote a _relacion de las cosas mas notables que hiza en el peru, siendo virev don francisco de toledo, dec. _. he died in the year . the descendants of his son juan de los rios formed the _mayorazgos_ of rios and cavallero. by his wife angela ortiz de arbildo y berriz, a biscayan, he had a daughter inez married to her cousin geronimo aliaga, a son of the secretary's brother captain francisco ruiz de navamuel, the _encomendero_ of caracoto in the collao, by juana, daughter of captain geronimo de aliaga. his marriage, at which the viceroy toledo was present, took place on november rd, . from the marriage of the younger geronimo de aliaga with inez navamuel, descend the aliagas, counts of luringancho in peru.] the history of the incas by sarmiento is, without any doubt, the most authentic and reliable that has yet appeared. for it was compiled from the carefully attested evidence of the incas themselves, taken under official sanction. each sovereign inca formed an _ayllu_ or "gens" of his descendants, who preserved the memory of his deeds in _quipus_, songs, and traditions handed down and learnt by heart. there were many descendants of each of these _ayllus_ living near cuzco in , and the leading members were examined on oath; so that sarmiento had opportunities of obtaining accurate information which no other writer possessed. for the correct versions of the early traditions, and for historical facts and the chronological order of events, sarmiento is the best authority. but no one can supersede the honest and impartial old soldier, pedro de cieza de leon, as regards the charm of his style and the confidence to be placed in his opinions; nor the inca garcilasso de la vega as regards his reminiscences and his fascinating love for his people. molina and yamqui pachacuti give much fuller details respecting the ceremonial festivals and religious beliefs. polo de ondegardo and santillana supply much fuller and more reliable information respecting the laws and administration of the incas. it is in the historical narrative and the correct order of events that sarmiento, owing to his exceptional means of collecting accurate information, excels all other writers. there is one serious blemish. sarmiento's book was written, not only or mainly to supply interesting information, but with an object. bishop las casas had made europe ring with the cruelties of the spaniards in the indies, and with the injustice and iniquity of their conquests. don francisco de toledo used this narrative for the purpose of making a feeble reply to the good bishop. under his instructions sarmiento stated the viceroy's argument, which was that the king of spain was the rightful sovereign of peru because the incas had usurped their power by conquest and had been guilty of acts of cruelty. hence the constant repetition of such phrases as "cruel tyranny" and "usurping tyrant"; and the numerous interpolations of the viceroy himself are so obvious that i have put them in italics within brackets. he goes back as far as the first inca to make out the usurpation, and he is always harping on illegitimacy. if we go back as far as sancho iv the title of philip ii to spain was voided by the grossest usurpation, while we need only go back to henry ii to see how philip's title was vitiated by illegitimacy. as for cruelty, it would be a strange plea from the sovereign by whose orders the netherlands were devastated, the moors of granada almost annihilated, and under whose rule the inquisition was in full swing. it is the old story of preaching without practice, as dr newman once observed in quoting what james i said to george heriot: "o geordie, jingling geordie, it was grand to hear baby charles laying down the guilt of dissimulation, and steenie lecturing on the turpitude of incontinence." it is right to say that philip never seems to have endorsed the argument of his viceroy, while his father prohibited the circulation of a book by dr sepulveda which contained a similar argument; nor was the work of sarmiento published. barring this blemish, the history of the incas, written by order of the viceroy toledo, is a most valuable addition to the authorities who have given us authentic accounts of andean civilization; for we may have every confidence in the care and accuracy of sarmiento as regards his collection and statement of historical facts, provided that we always keep in mind the bias, and the orders he was under, to seek support for the viceroy's untenable argument. i have given all i have been able to find respecting the life of sarmiento in the introduction to my edition of the voyages of that celebrated navigator. but the administration of the viceroy don francisco de toledo, from to , forms a landmark in the history of peru, and seems to call for some notice in this place. he found the country in an unsettled state, with the administrative system entirely out of gear. though no longer young he entered upon the gigantic task of establishing an orderly government, and resolved to visit personally every part of the vast territory under his rule. this stupendous undertaking occupied him for five years. he was accompanied by ecclesiastics, by men well versed in the language of the incas and in their administrative policy, and by his secretary and aide-de-camp. these were the bishop of popayan, augustin de la coruña, the augustine friars juan vivero and francisco del corral, the jesuit and well-known author, joseph de acosta, the inquisitor pedro ordoñez flores, his brother, the viceroy's chaplain and confessor, the learned lawyer juan matienzo, whose work is frequently quoted by solorzano[ ], the licentiate polo de ondegardo, who had been some years in the country and had acquired an intimate knowledge of the laws of the incas, the secretary alvaro ruiz de navamuel, and as aide-de-camp his young nephew, geronimo de figueroa, son of his brother juan, the ambassador at rome[ ]. [note : in his _politica indiana_. there are two manuscripts of juan matienzo de peralta at the british museum, _govierno del peru_ and _relacion del libro intitulado govierno del peru_, apparently one work in two parts. _add. mss_. , in gayangos catalogue, vol. ii. p. .] [note : some sons took the father's surname, others that of the mother. the viceroy had the name of his father, francisco alvarez de toledo, the third count of oropesa, while his brother juan had the surname of figueroa, being that of his mother.] toledo was endowed with indefatigable zeal for the public service, great energy, and extraordinary powers of application. he took the opinions of others, weighed them carefully, and considered long before he adopted any course. but he was narrow-minded and obstinate, and when he had once determined on a measure nothing could alter him. his ability is undoubted, and his appointment, at this particular juncture, is a proof of philip's sagacity. the viceroy's intercourse with polo de ondegardo informed him respecting the administrative system of the incas, so admirably adapted to the genius of the people, and he had the wisdom to see that there was much to learn from it. his policy was to collect the people, who, to a great extent, were scattered over the country and hiding from the spaniards, in villages placed near the centres of their cultivated or pasture lands. he fixed the numbers in each village at to , with a priest and alcalde. he also ordered the boundaries of all the parishes to be settled. spanish corregidors were to take the places of the _tucuyricoc_ or governors of inca times, and each village had an elected alcalde approved by the corregidor. under him there were to be two overseers, a _pichca pachaca_ over , and a _pachaca_ as assistant. another important measure was the settlement of the tribute. the name "tribute" was unfortunate. the system was that of the incas, and the same which prevailed throughout the east. the government was the landlord, and the so-called "tribute" was rent. the incas took two-thirds for the state and for religion, and set apart one-third for the cultivators. toledo did much the same, assessing, according to the nature of the soil, the crops, and other local circumstances. for the formation of villages and the assessment of the tribute he promulgated a whole code of ordinances, many of them intended to prevent local oppression in various forms. the viceroy next took up the questions of the position of _yana-cunas_ or domestic servants, and of forced service. both these institutions existed in incarial times. all that was needed were moderate laws for the protection of servants and conscripts, and the enforcement of such laws. toledo allowed a seventh of the adult male population in each village to be made liable for service in mines or factories, fixed the distance they could be taken from their homes, and made rules for their proper treatment. it is true that the _mita_, as it was called, was afterwards an instrument of cruel oppression, that rules were disregarded, and that it depopulated the country. but this was not the fault of toledo. the viceroy gave much attention to the mining industry, promoted the introduction of the use of mercury in the extraction of silver, and founded the town of huancavelica near the quick-silver mine. his personality pervaded every department of the state, and his _tasas_ or ordinances fill a large volume. he was a prolific legislator and a great statesman. his worst mistake was the policy he adopted with regard to the family of the incas. he desired to establish the position of the king of spain without a rival. he, therefore, sought to malign the preceding dynasty, persecuted the descendants of the incas, and committed one act of cruel injustice. when atahualpa put his half-brother huascar, the last reigning inca, to death, there remained three surviving sons of their father the great inca huayna ccapac, named manco, paullu, and titu atauchi, and several daughters. after his occupation of cuzco, pizarro acknowledged manco inca as the legitimate successor of his brother huascar, and he was publicly crowned, receiving all the insignia on march th, . he escaped from the spaniards and besieged them in cuzco at the head of a large army. forced to raise the siege he established his head-quarters at ollantay-tampu, where he repulsed an attack led by hernando pizarro. he was, however, defeated by orgoñiez, the lieutenant of almagro, and took refuge in the mountainous province of vilcapampa on the left bank of the vilcamayu. from thence he made constant attacks on the spaniards, maintaining his independence in this small remnant of his dominions. some of the partisans of almagro took refuge with him, and he was accidentally killed by one of them in , after a not inglorious reign of ten years. he left two legitimate sons, named sayri tupac and tupac amaru, by his wife and niece the princess ataria cusi huarcay, daughter of his ill-fated brother huascar. this marriage was legalized by a bull of pope paul iii in the time of the viceroy marquis of cañete, -- . he had also an illegitimate son named cusi titu yupanqui, and a daughter named maria tupac usca, married to don pedro ortiz de orue, one of the first conquerors[ ]. [note : diego ortiz de orue was born in the village of getafe, near madrid. he went out to peru in , and at once began to study the quichua language. he was _encomendero_ of maras, a village overlooking the valley of yucay. by the inca princess he had a daughter named catalina married to don luis justiniani of seville, descended from the genoese family. their son luis was the grandfather of dr justo pastor justiniani who married manuela cataño, descended from tupac inca yupanqui. their son don pablo justiniani was cura of laris until his death in , and was a great depository of inca lore. he had a very early copy of the inca drama of ollanta.] sayri tupac succeeded as fourteenth inca of peru. on the arrival of the marquis of cañete as viceroy in , he caused overtures to be made to sayri tupac through his aunts, who were living at cuzco with their spanish husbands, juan sierra de leguisano and diego hernandez. it was finally arranged that the inca should receive _castellanos_ of rent and the valley of yucay. on october th, , sayri tupac left vilcapampa with followers, reaching andahuaylas on november th. he entered lima on january th, , was cordially greeted by the viceroy and received investiture, assuming the names of manco ccapac pachacuti yupanqui. he went to live in the lovely vale of yucay. he had been baptized with the name of diego, but he did not long survive, dying at yucay in . his daughter clara beatriz married don martin garcia loyola. their daughter lorenza was created marchioness of oropesa and yucay, with remainder to descendants of her great uncle tupac amaru. she was the wife of juan henriquez de borja, grandson of the duke of gandia. on the death of sayri tupac, his illegitimate brother, cusi titu yupanqui assumed sovereignty, owing to the youth of the legitimate brother tupac amaru, both remaining in vilcapampa. paullu tupac yupanqui, the next brother of manco inca, was baptized with the name of cristóval. he accompanied almagro in his expedition to chile, and was with young almagro at the battle of chupas. eventually he was allowed to fix his residence on the colcampata of cuzco, at the foot of the fortress, and by the side of the church of san cristóval. from the terrace of the colcampata there is a glorious view with the snowy peak of vilcañota in the far distance. paullu died in may, , and was succeeded on the colcampata by his son carlos inca. he had two other sons named felipe and bartolomé. from the latter was descended the late archdeacon of cuzco, dr justo salmaraura inca. titu atauchi, the youngest son of huayna ccapac, had a son alonso. the princesses, daughters of huayna ccapac and sisters of manco and paullu, were beatriz Ñusta, married first to martin de mustincia, and secondly to diego hernandez of talavera; leonor Ñusta, the wife of juan de balsa, who was killed at the battle of chupas on the side of young almagro, secondly of francisco de villacastin: francisca Ñusta, niece of huayna ccapac, married to juan de collantes, and was great-grandmother of bishop piedrahita, the historian of nueva granada: another beatriz Ñusta married mancio sierra de leguisano, the generous defender of the natives; and inez Ñusta married first francisco pizarro and had a daughter francisca, who has descendants, and secondly to francisco ampuero. angelina, daughter of atahualpa, was married to juan de betanzos, the author and quichua scholar. the brother of huayna ccapac, named hualpa tupac yupanqui, had a daughter, isabel Ñusta yupanqui, the wife of garcilasso de la vega, and mother of the inca garcilasso de la vega[ ], the historian, author of the _comentarios reales_. [note : the inca garcilasso was a third cousin of the regicide viceroy toledo. their great grandfathers were brothers.] this then was the position of the inca family when the viceroy, francisco de toledo, came to cuzco in . cusi titu yupanqui and tupac amaru, sons of the inca manco were in the mountains of vilcapampa, the former maintaining his independence. carlos inca, son of paullu, was baptized, and living on the colcampata at cuzco with his wife maria de esquivel. seven inca princesses had married spaniards, most of them living at cuzco with their husbands and children. the events, connected with the inca family, which followed on the arrival of the viceroy toledo at cuzco, will be found fully described in this volume. it need only be stated here that the inexorable tyrant, having got the innocent young prince tupac amaru into his power, resolved to put him to death. the native population was overwhelmed with grief. the spaniards were horrified. they entreated that the lad might be sent to spain to be judged by the king. the heads of religious orders and other ecclesiastics went down on their knees. nothing could move the obstinate narrow-minded viceroy. the deed was done. when too late toledo seems to have had some misgivings. the judicial murder took place in december, . the history of the incas was finished in march, . yet there is no mention of the death of tupac amaru. for all that appears he might have been still in vilcapampa. nevertheless the tidings reached philip ii, and the viceroy's conduct was not approved. there was astonishing audacity on the part of toledo, in basing arguments on the alleged cruelty and tyranny of the incas, when the man was actually red-handed with the blood of an innocent youth, and engaged in the tyrannical persecution of his relations and the hideous torture of his followers. his arguments made no impression on the mind of philip ii. the king even showed some favour to the children of tupac amaru by putting them in the succession to the marquisate of oropesa. in the inca pedigrees toledo is called "el execrable regicidio." when he presented himself on his return from peru the king angrily exclaimed: "go away to your house; for i sent you to serve kings; and you went to kill kings[ ]." [note : "idos a vuestra casa, que yo os envie a servir reyes; y vos fuiste a matar reyes."] all his faithful services as a legislator and a statesman could not atone for this cruel judicial murder in the eyes of his sovereign. he went back to his house a disgraced and broken-hearted man, and died soon afterwards. the history of the incas by sarmiento is followed, in this volume, by a narrative of the execution of tupac amaru and of the events leading to it, by an eye-witness, the captain baltasar de ocampo. it has been translated from a manuscript in the british museum. the narrative of ocampo, written many years after the event, is addressed to the viceroy marquis of montes claros. its main object was to give an account of the province of vilcapampa, and to obtain some favours for the spanish settlers there. vilcapampa is a region of very special historical and geographical interest, and it is one of which very little is known. it is a mountainous tract of country, containing the lofty range of vilcacunca and several fertile valleys, between the rivers apurimac and vilcamayu, to the north of cuzco. the mountains rise abruptly from the valley of the vilcamayu below ollantay-tampu, where the bridge of chuqui-chaca opened upon paths leading up into a land of enchantment. no more lovely mountain scenery can be found on this earth. when manco inca escaped from the spaniards he took refuge in vilcapampa, and established his court and government there. the sun temple, the convent of virgins, and the other institutions of the incas at cuzco, were transferred to this mountain fastness. even handsome edifices were erected. here the incas continued to maintain their independence for years. ocampo opens his story with a very interesting account of the baptism of melchior carlos, son of carlos inca, who had become a christian, and lived in the palace on the colcampata at cuzco. he then describes the events which culminated in the capture, of the inca tupac amaru, and gives a pathetic and touching account of the judicial murder of that ill-fated young prince. ocampo was an actor in these events and an eye-witness. the rest of his narrative consists of reminiscences of occurrences in vilcapampa after it was occupied by the spaniards. he owned property there, and was a settler holding official posts. he tells of the wealth and munificence of a neighbour. he gives the history of an expedition into the forests to the northward, which will form material for the history of these expeditions when it is written. he tells the story of an insurrection among the negro labourers, and complains of the spiritual destitution of his adopted land. he finally returns to cuzco and gives an account of a very magnificent pageant and tilting match. but this story should have preceded the mournful narrative of the fate of tupac amaru; for the event took place at the time of the baptism of melchior carlos, and before the viceroy toledo became a regicide. ocampo's story is that of an honest old soldier, inclined to be garrulous, but an eye-witness of some most interesting events in the history of peru. i think it is an appropriate sequel to the history by sarmiento, because it supplies material for judging whether the usurpation and tyranny were on the side of the incas or of their accuser. [illustration: _facsimile (reduced) of_ page ii of the sarmiento ms. . _from the original, göttingen university library. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth._] the second part of the general history called "indica" which was composed by the captain pedro sarmiento de gamboa by order of the most excellent lord don francisco de toledo viceroy governor and captain-general of the kingdoms of peru and mayor-domo of the royal household of castille [illustration: _facsimile (reduced) of_ page i of the sarmiento ms. . _from the original, göttingen university library_. _reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth_.] to his sacred cÆsarian majesty the king, don felipe, our lord. among the excellencies, o sovereign and catholic philip, that are the glorious decorations of princes, placing them on the highest pinnacle of estimation, are, according to the father of latin eloquence, generosity, kindness, and liberality. and as the roman consuls held this to be the principal praise of their glory, they had this title curiously sculptured in marble on the quirinal and in the forum of trajan---"most powerful gift in a prince is liberality[ ]." for this kings who desired much to be held dear by their own people and to be feared by strangers, were incited to acquire the name of liberal. hence that royal sentence became immortal "it is right for kings to give." as this was a quality much valued among the greeks, the wise ulysses, conversing with antinous[ ], king of the phæacians, said---"you are something like a king, for you know how to give, better than others." hence it is certain that liberality is a good and necessary quality of kings. [note : "primum signum nobilitatis est liberalitas."] [note : alcinous.] i do not pretend on this ground, most liberal monarch, to insinuate to your majesty the most open frankness, for it would be very culpable on my part to venture to suggest a thing which, to your majesty, is so natural that you would be unable to live without it. nor will it happen to so high minded and liberal a lord and king, what befell the emperor titus who, remembering once, during supper time, that he had allowed one day to pass without doing some good, gave utterance to this laudable animadversion of himself. "o friends! i have lost a day[ ]." for not only does your majesty not miss a day, but not even an hour, without obliging all kinds of people with benefits and most gracious liberality. the whole people, with one voice, says to your majesty what virgil sang to octavianus augustus: "nocte pluit tota, redeunt spectacula mane, divisum imperium cum jove cæsar habet." [note : "amici! diem perdidi." suetonius.] but what i desire to say is that for a king who complies so well with the obligation of liberality, and who gives so much, it is necessary that he should possess much; for nothing is so suitable for a prince as possessions and riches for his gifts and liberalities, as tully says, as well as to acquire glory. for it is certain, as we read in sallust that "in a vast empire there is great glory[ ]"; and in how much it is greater, in so much it treats of great things. hence the glory of a king consists in his possessing many vassals, and the abatement of his glory is caused by the diminution of the number of his subjects. [note : proem of catiline.] of this glory, most christian king, god almighty gives you so large a share in this life that all the enemies of the holy catholic church of christ our lord tremble at your exalted name; whence you most justly deserve to be named the strength of the church. as the treasure which god granted that your ancestors should spend, with such holy magnanimity, on worthy and holy deeds, in the extirpation of heretics, in driving the accursed saracens out of spain, in building churches, hospitals and monasteries, and in an infinite number of other works of charity and justice, with the zeal of zealous fathers of their country, not only entitled them to the most holy title of catholics, but the most merciful and almighty god, whom they served with all their hearts, saw fit to commence repayment with temporal goods, in the present age. it is certain that "he who grants celestial rewards does not take away temporal blessings[ ]," so that they earned more than the mercies they received. this was the grant to them of the evangelical office, choosing them from among all the kings of this world as the evangelizers of his divine word in the most remote and unknown lands of those blind and barbarous gentiles. we now call those lands the indies of castille, because through the ministry of that kingdom they will be put in the way of salvation, god himself being the true pilot. he made clear and easy the dark and fearful atlantic sea which had been an awful portent to the most ancient argives, athenians, egyptians, and phoenicians, and what is more to the proud hercules, who, having come to cadiz from the east, and seen the wide atlantic sea, he thought this was the end of the world and that there was no more land. so he set up his columns with this inscription "ultra gades nil" or "beyond cadiz there is nothing." but as human knowledge is ignorance in the sight of god, and the force of the world but weakness in his presence, it was very easy, with the power of the almighty and of your grandparents, to break and scatter the mists and difficulties of the enchanted ocean. laughing with good reason at alcides and his inscription, they discovered the indies which were very populous in souls to whom the road to heaven could be shown. the indies are also most abundant in all kinds of inestimable treasures, with which the heavy expenses were repaid to them, and yet remained the richest princes in the world, and thus continued to exercise their holy and christian liberality until death. by reason of this most famous navigation, and new and marvellous discovery, they amended the inscription on the columns of hercules, substituting "plus ultra" for "ultra gades nil"; the meaning was, and with much truth, that further on there are many lands. so this inscription, "plus ultra," remained on the blazon of the arms and insignia of the indies of castille. [note : from the poem of coelius sedulius, a christian poet who flourished about a.d. . the passage is--"hostis herodes impie christum venire quod timeo? non eripit mortalia qui regna dat coelestia." (note by dr peitschmann.)] as there are few who are not afflicted by the accursed hunger for gold, and as good successes are food for an enemy, the devil moved the bosoms of some powerful princes with the desire to take part in this great business. alexander vi, the vicar of jesus christ, considering that this might give rise to impediments in preaching the holy evangel to the barbarous idolaters, besides other evils which might be caused, desired of his own proper motion, without any petition from the catholic kings, by authority of almighty god, to give, and he gave and conceded for ever, the islands and main lands which were then discovered and which might hereafter be discovered within the limits and demarcation of ° of longitude, which is half the world, with all the dominions, rights, jurisdictions and belongings, prohibiting the navigation and trading in those lands from whatever cause, to the other princes, kings, and emperors from the year , to prevent many inconveniences. but as the devil saw that this door was shut, which he had begun to open to introduce by it dissensions and disturbances, he tried to make war by means of the very soldiers who resisted him, who were the same preachers. they began to make a difficulty about the right and title which the kings of castille had over these lands. as your invincible father was very jealous in matters touching his conscience, he ordered this point to be examined, as closely as possible, by very learned doctors who, according to the report which was given out, were indirect and doubtful in their conclusions. they gave it as their opinion that these incas, who ruled in these kingdoms of peru, were and are the true and natural lords of that land. this gave a handle to foreigners, as well catholics as heretics and other infidels, for throwing doubt on the right which the kings of spain claim and have claimed to the indies. owing to this the emperor don carlos of glorious memory was on the point of abandoning them, which was what the enemy of the faith of christ wanted, that he might regain the possession of the souls which he had kept in blindness for so many ages. all this arose owing to want of curiosity on the part of the governors in those lands, at that time, who did not use the diligence necessary for ascertaining the truth, and also owing to certain reports of the bishop of chiapa who was moved to passion against certain conquerors in his bishoprick with whom he had persistent disputes, as i knew when i passed through chiapa and guatemala[ ]. though his zeal appears holy and estimable, he said things on the right to this country gained by the conquerors of it, which differ from the evidence and judicial proofs which have been seen and taken down by us, and from what we who have travelled over the indies enquiring about these things, leisurely and without war, know to be the facts[ ]. [note : see the introduction to my _voyages of sarmiento_ p. x.] [note : sarmiento here refers to the efforts of las casas to protect the natives from the tyranny and cruelties of the spanish settlers. he appears to have been in guatemala when las casas arrived to take up his appointment as bishop of chiapas, and encountered hostility and obstruction from certain "conquistadores de su obispado," as sarmiento calls them. on his return to spain, the good las casas found that a certain dr sepulveda had written a treatise maintaining the right of spain to subdue the natives by war. las casas put forward his _historia apologetica_ in reply. a junta of theologians was convoked at valladolid in , before which sepulveda attacked and las casas defended the cause of the natives. mr. helps (_spanish conquest in america_, vol. iv. book xx. ch. ) has given a lucid account of the controversy. sarmiento is quite wrong in saying that las casas was ignorant of the history of peru. the portion of his _historia apologetica_ relating to peru, entitled _de las antiguas gentes del peru_, has been edited and published by don marcos jimenez de la espada in the "coleccion de libros españoles raros ó curiosos" ( ). it shows that las casas knew the works of xeres, astete, cieza de leon, molina, and probably others; and that he had a remarkably accurate knowledge of peruvian history.] this chaos and confusion of ignorance on the subject being so spread over the world and rooted in the opinions of the best informed literary men in christendom, god put it into the heart of your majesty to send don francisco de toledo, mayor-domo of your royal household, as viceroy of these kingdoms[ ]. when he arrived, he found many things to do, and many things to amend. without resting after the dangers and long voyages in two seas which he had suffered, he put the needful order into all the things undertook new and greater labours, such as no former viceroys or governors had undertaken or even thought of. his determination was to travel over this most rugged country himself, to make a general visitation of it, during which, though it is not finished, it is certain that he has remedied many and very great faults and abuses in the teaching and ministry of the christian doctrine, giving holy and wise advice to its ministers that they should perform their offices as becomes the service of god, and the discharge of your royal conscience, reducing the people to congregations of villages formed on suitable and healthy sites which had formerly been on crags and rocks where they were neither taught nor received spiritual instruction. in such places they lived and died like wild savages, worshipping idols as in the time of their inca tyrants and of their blind heathenism. orders were given to stop their public drinking bouts, their concubinage and worship of their idols and devils, emancipating and freeing them from the tyrannies, of their _curacas_, and finally giving them a rational life, which was before that of brutes in their manner of loading them as such. [note : don francisco de toledo was viceroy of peru, from nov. th, , to sept. th, , and in some respects a remarkable man. he was a younger son of the third count of oropesa who had a common ancestor with the dukes of alva. his mother was maria de figueroa daughter of the count of feria. through her he was directly descended from the first duke of alva. he was a first cousin of that duke of feria who made a love match with jane dormer, the friend and playmate of our edward vi. moreover don francisco was a third cousin of charles v. their great grandmothers were sisters, daughters of fadrique henriquez, the admiral of castille. this viceroy was advanced in years. he held the appointment of a mayor-domo at the court of philip ii, and another brother juan was ambassador at rome. the viceroy toledo came to peru with the inquisition, which proved as great a nuisance to him as it was a paralyzing source of terror to his people. he was a man of extraordinary energy and resolution, and was devoted heart and soul to the public service. sarmiento does not speak too highly of his devotion to duty in undertaking a personal visit to every part of his government. he was a most prolific legislator, founding his rules, to some extent, on the laws of the incas. he was shrewd but narrow minded and heartless; and his judicial murder of the young inca, tupac amaru, has cast an indelible stain on his memory. such a man could have no chance in an attack on the sound arguments of las casas. there is a picture which depicts the outward appearance of the viceroy toledo. a tall man with round stooping shoulders, in a suit of black velvet with the green cross of alcantara embroidered on his cloak. a gloomy sallow face, with aquiline nose, high forehead and piercing black eyes too close together. the face is shaded by a high beaver hat, while one hand holds a sword, and the other rests on a table.] [illustration: _facsimile (reduced) of the_ coat of arms of don francisco de toledo, viceroy of peru, -- . _from the sarmiento ms. , göttingen university library. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth._] the work done by your viceroy is such that the indians are regenerated, and they call him loudly their protector and guardian, and your majesty who sent him, they call their father. so widely has the news spread of the benefits he has conferred and is still conferring, that the wild warlike indians in many contiguous provinces, holding themselves to be secure under his word and safe conduct, have come to see and communicate with him, and have promised obedience spontaneously to your majesty. this has happened in the andes of xauxa, near pilcocanti, and among the mañaries and chunchos to the east of cuzco. these were sent back to their homes, grateful and attached to your royal service, with the presents he gave them and the memory of their reception. [illustration: don francisco de toledo, viceroy of peru, a.d. - . after the portrait at lima, from a sketch by sir clements markham, .] among christians, it is not right to take anything without a good title, yet that which your majesty has to these parts, though more holy and more honourable than that which any other kings in the world have for any of their possessions, has suffered detriment, as i said before, in the consciences of many learned men and others, for want of correct information. the viceroy proposes to do your majesty a most signal service in this matter, besides the performance of all the other duties of which he has charge. this is to give a secure and quiet harbour to your royal conscience against the tempests raised even by your own natural subjects, theologians and other literary men, who have expressed serious opinions on the subject, based on incorrect information. accordingly, in his general visitation, which he is making personally throughout the kingdom, he has verified from the root and established by a host of witnesses examined with the greatest diligence and care, taken from among the principal old men of the greatest ability and authority in the kingdom, and even those who pretend to have an interest in it from being relations and descendants of the incas, the terrible, inveterate and horrible tyranny of the incas, being the tyrants who ruled in these kingdoms of peru, and the _curacas_ who governed the districts. this will undeceive all those in the world who think that the incas were legitimate sovereigns, and that the _curacas_ were natural lords of the land. in order that your majesty may, with the least trouble and the most pleasure, be informed, and the rest, who are of a contrary opinion, be undeceived, i was ordered by the viceroy don francisco de toledo, whom i follow and serve in this general visitation, to take this business in hand, and write a history of the deeds of the twelve incas of this land, and of the origin of the people, continuing the narrative to the end. this i have done with all the research and diligence that was required, as your majesty will see in the course of the perusal and by the ratification of witnesses. it will certify to the truth of the worst and most inhuman tyranny of these incas and of their _curacas_ who are not and never were original lords of the soil, but were placed there by tupac inca yupanqui, [_the greatest, the most atrocious and harmful tyrant of them all_]. the _curacas_ were and still are great tyrants appointed by other great and violent tyrants, as will clearly and certainly appear in the history; so that the tyranny is proved, as well as that the incas were strangers in cuzco, and that they had seized the valley of cuzco, and all the rest of their territory from quito to chile by force of arms, making themselves incas without the consent or election of the natives. besides this, there are their tyrannical laws and customs. [_it will be understood that your majesty has a specially true and holy title to these kingdoms of peru, because your majesty and your most sacred ancestors stopped the sacrifices of innocent men, the eating of human flesh, the accursed sin, the promiscuous concubinage with sisters and mothers, the abominable use of beasts, and their wicked and accursed customs[ ].]_ for from each one god demands an account of his neighbour, and this duty specially appertains to princes, and above all to your majesty. only for this may war be made and prosecuted by the right to put a stop to the deeds of tyrants. even if they had been true and natural lords of the soil, it would be lawful to remove them and introduce a new government, because man may rightly be punished for these sins against nature, though the native community has not been opposed to such practices nor desires to be avenged, as innocent, by the spaniards. for in this case they have no right to deliver themselves and their children over to death, and they should be forced to observe natural laws, as we are taught by the archbishop of florence, innocent, supported by fray, francisco de victoria in his work on the title to the indies. so that by this title alone, without counting many others, your majesty has the most sufficient and legitimate right to the indies, better than any other prince in the world has to any lordship whatever. for, whether more or less concealed or made known, in all the lands that have been discovered in the two seas of your majesty, north and south, this general breaking of the law of nature has been found. [note : for a contradiction of these slanders by an impartial witness see cieza de leon, ii. p. .] by this same title your majesty may also, without scruple, order the conquest of those islands of the archipelago of "nombre de jesus," vulgarly but incorrectly called the solomon isles, of which i gave notice and personally discovered in the year ; although it was for the general alvaro de mendaña; and many others which are in the same south sea[ ]. i offer myself to your majesty to discover and settle these islands, which will make known and facilitate all the commercial navigation, with the favour of god, by shorter routes. i offer much, well do i see it, but i trust in almighty god with whose favour, i believe i can do what i say in your royal service. the talent which god has given me leads me to aspire to the accomplishment of these achievements, and does not demand of me a strict account, and i believe that i shall comply with what will be required, for never did i so wish to achieve anything. your majesty sees and does not lose what other kings desire and hold by good fortune. this makes me speak so freely of my desire to die in your service in which i have laboured since my childhood, and under what circumstances others may say. [note : see my introduction to the _voyages of sarmiento_, pp. xiii--xvii.] believing that, in writing this present history, i have not done a less but a greater service than all the rest, i obeyed your viceroy who made me undertake it. your majesty will read it many times because, besides that the reading of it is pleasant, your majesty will take a great interest in the matters of conscience and of administration of which it treats. i call this the second part, because it is to be preceded by the geographical description of all these lands, which will form the first part. this will result in great clearness for the comprehension of the establishment of governments, bishopricks, new settlements, and of discoveries, and will obviate the inconveniences formerly caused by the want of such knowledge. although the first part ought to precede this one in time, it is not sent to your majesty because it is not finished, a great part of it being derived from information collected during the general visitation. suffice that it will be best in quality, though not in time. after this second part will be sent a third part on the times of the evangel. all this i have to finish by order of the viceroy don francisco de toledo. may your majesty receive my work with the greatest and most favourable attention, as treating of things that will be of service to god and to your majesty and of great profit to my nation; and may our lord preserve the sacred catholic and royal person of your majesty, for the repair and increase of the catholic church of jesus christ. from cuzco. _the th of march_, . your catholic royal majesty from the least vassal of your majesty the captain pedro sarmiento de gamboa. [illustration: _facsimile_ (_reduced_) _of the last page of_ sarmiento's introductory letter to king philip ii, . _from the original ms., göttingen university library. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth._] i. division of the history. this general history of which i took charge by order of don francisco de toledo, viceroy of these kingdoms of peru, will be divided into three parts. the first will be the natural history of these lands, being a particular description of them. it will contain accounts of the marvellous works of nature, and other things of great profit and interest. i am now finishing it, that it may be sent to your majesty after this, though it ought to have come before it. the second and third parts treat of the people of these kingdoms and of their deeds in the following order. in the second part, which is the present one, the most ancient and first peoplers of this land will be discussed in general, and then, descending to particulars, i shall describe [_the terrible and inveterate tyranny of_] the ccapac incas of these kingdoms, down to the end and death of huascar, the last of the incas. the third and last part will treat of the times of the spaniards, and of their notable deeds in the discovery and settlement of this kingdom and others adjoining it, with the captains, governors, and viceroys who have ruled here, down to the present year . ii. the ancient division of the land. when historians wish to write, in an orderly way, of the world or some part of it, they generally first describe the situation containing it, which is the land, before they deal with what it contains, which is the population, to avoid the former in the historical part. if this is so in ancient and well known works, it is still more desirable that in treating of new and strange lands, like these, of such vast extent, a task which i have undertaken, the same order should be preserved. this will not only supply interesting information but also, which is more to be desired, it will be useful for navigation and new discoveries, by which god our lord may be served, the territories of the crown of spain extended, and spaniards enriched and respected. as i have not yet finished the particular description of this land, which will contain everything relating to geography and the works of nature minutely dealt with, in this volume i shall only offer a general summary, following the most ancient authors, to recall the remains of those lands which are now held to be new and previously unknown, and of their inhabitants. the land, which we read of as having existed in the first and second age of the world, was divided into five parts. the three continents, of which geographers usually write, asia, africa, and europe, are divided by the river tanais, the river nile, and the mediterranean sea, which pomponius calls "our" sea. asia is divided from europe by the river tanais[ ], now called silin, and from africa by the nile, though ptolemy divides it by the red sea and isthmus of the desert of arabia deserta. africa is divided from europe by "our" sea, commencing at the strait of gibraltar and ending with the lake of meotis. the other two parts are thus divided. one was called, and still ought to be called, catigara[ ] in the indian sea, a very extensive land now distinct from asia. ptolemy describes it as being, in his time and in the time of alexander the great, joined on to asia in the direction of malacca. i shall treat of this in its place, for it contains many and very precious secrets, and an infinity of souls, to whom the king our lord may announce the holy catholic faith that they may be saved, for this is the object of his majesty in these new lands of barbarous idolatry. the fifth part is or was called the atlantic island, as famous as extensive, and which exceeded all the others, each one by itself, and even some joined together. the inhabitants of it and their description will be treated of, because this is the land, or at least part of it, of these western indies of castille. [note : the don.] [note : marinus of tyre, quoted by ptolemy, gave an enormous extension to eastern asia, and placed the region he called catigara far to the s.e. of it. catigara was described by marinus of tyre as an emporium and important place of trade. it is not mentioned in the periplus of the erythræan sea.] iii. description of the ancient atlantic island. the cosmographers do not write of this ancient atlantic island because there was no memory, when they wrote, of its very rich commercial prosperity in the second, and perhaps in the first age. but from what the divine plato tells us and from the vestiges we see which agree with what we read, we can not only say where it was and where parts of it were, as seen in our time, but we can describe it almost exactly, its grandeur and position. this is the truth, and the same plato affirms it as true, in the timæus, where he gives its truthful and marvellous history. we will speak first of its situation, and then of its inhabitants. it is desirable that the reader should give his attention because, although it is very ancient history, it is so new to the ordinary teaching of cosmography that it may cause such surprise as to raise doubts of the story, whence may arise a want of appreciation. from the words which plato refers to solon, the wisest of the seven of greece, and which solon had heard with attention from the most learned egyptian priest in the city called delta, we learn that this atlantic island was larger than asia and africa together, and that the eastern end of this immense island was near the strait which we now call of gibraltar. in front of the mouth of the said strait, the island had a port with a narrow entrance; and plato says that the island was truly continental. from it there was a passage by the sea, which surrounded it, to many other neighbouring islands, and to the main land of europe and africa. in this island there were kings of great and admirable power who ruled over that and many adjacent islands as well as the greater part of europe and africa, up to the confines of egypt, of which i shall treat presently. the extent of the island was from the south, where were the highest mountains, to the north. the mountains exceeded in extent any that now exist, as well in their forests, as in height, and in beauty. these are the words of plato in describing the situation of this most richly endowed and delightful atlantic island. it now remains for me to do my duty, which is to explain what has been said more clearly and from it to deduce the situation of the island. from what plato says that this island had a port near the mouth of the strait of the pillars of hercules, that it was larger than asia and africa together, and that it extended to the south, i gather three things clearly towards the understanding of all that invites attention. the first is that the atlantic island began less than two leagues from the mouth of the strait, if more it was only a little more. the coast of the island then turned north close to that of spain, and was joined to the island of cadiz or gadiz, or caliz, as it is now called. i affirm this for two reasons, one by authority and the other by conjectural demonstration. the authority is that plato in his critias, telling how neptune distributed the sovereignty of the island among his ten sons, said that the second son was called in the mother tongue "gadirum," which in greek we call "eumelo." to this son he gave the extreme parts of the island near the columns of hercules, and from his name the place was called gadiricum which is caliz. by demonstration we see, and i have seen with my own eyes, more than a league out at sea and in the neighbourhood of the island of caliz, under the water, the remains of very large edifices of a cement which is almost imperishable[ ], an evident sign that this island was once much larger, which corroborates the narrative of critias in plato. the second point is that the atlantic island was larger than asia and africa. from this i deduce its size, which is incredible or at least immense. it would give the island leagues of longitude, that is from east to west. for asia has leagues in a straight line from malacca which is on its eastern front, to the boundary of egypt; and africa has leagues from egypt to the end of the atlantic mountains or "montes claros" facing the canary islands; which together make leagues of longitude. if the island was larger it would be more in circuit. round the coast it would have leagues, for asia is and africa leagues in circuit, a little more or less, which together makes leagues, and it is even said that it was more. [note : dr peitschmann quotes from juan bautista suarez de salazar, _grandezas y antigüedades de la isla y ciudad de cadiz_ (cadiz, )---"that which all those who traverse the sea affirm was that to the south, the water being clear, there is seen beneath it at a distance of a league, ruins of edifices which are good evidence that the ocean has gained upon the land in this part." he refers also to a more recent history of cadiz and its province by adolfo de castro ( ), and to the five first books of the _general chronicle of spain_ of florian de ocampo, (lib. ii. cap. ii).] having considered the measurement of its great size we come to the third point, which is the true position over which this great island extended. plato says that the position of the island extended to the south; opposite to the north. from this we should understand that, the front conterminous with spain from the strait of gibraltar to cadiz thence extended westward, making a curve along the coast of barbary or africa, but very close to it, between west and south, which is what sailors call south-west. for if it was opposite to north, which is between east and north, called north-east, it must necessarily have its direction in the said south-west, west-south-west, or south-south-west. it would include and incorporate the canary islands which, according to this calculation, would be part of it, and from thence the land trended south-west. as regards the south, it would extend rather more to the south and south-south-west, finally following the route by which we go when we sail from spain to the indies, forming a continent or main land with these western indies of castille, joining on to them by the parts stretching south-west, and west-south-west, a little more or less from the canaries. thus there was sea on one side and on the other of this land, that is on the north and south, and the indies united with it, and they were all one. the proof of this is that if the atlantic island had leagues of longitude, and the distance of cadiz to the mouth of the river marañon or orellana and trinidad, on the coast of brazil, is, not more than , , or leagues, being the part where this land joined to america, it clearly appears that, to complete the complement of leagues, we have to include in the computation all the rest of the land from the mouth of the marañon and brazil to the south sea, which is what they now call america. following this course it would come to coquimbo. counting what is still wanting, this would be much less than leagues. measuring the circumference, the island was more than leagues round, because that is about the circumference of asia and africa by their coasts. if this land is joined to the other, which in fact it was in conformity with the description, it would have a much greater circuit, for even now these parts of the western indies, measured by compass, and latitude, have more than leagues. from all this it may be inferred that the indies of castille formed a continent with the atlantic island, and consequently that the same atlantic island, which extended from cadiz over the sea we traverse to the indies, and which all cosmographers call the atlantic ocean because the atlantic island was in it, over which we now navigate, was land in ancient times. finally we shall relate the sequel, first giving an account of the sphere at that time and of the inhabitants. iv. first inhabitants of the world and principally of the atlantic island. having described the four parts of the world, for of catigara, which is the fifth, we shall not speak except in its place which the ancients assigned to it, it will be right to come to the races which peopled them. all of which i have to treat has to be personal and heathen history. the chief value and perfection of history consists in its accuracy, thoroughly sifting each event, verifying the times and periods of what happened so that no doubt may remain of what passed. it is in this way that i desire to write the truth in so far as my ability enables me to do so respecting a thing so ancient as the first peopling of these new lands. i wish, for the better illustration of the present history, to precede it with the foundations that cannot be denied, counting the time in conformity with the chronology of the hebrews in the days before our saviour jesus christ, and the times after his most holy nativity according to the counting used by our mother the holy church, not making account of the calculations of chaldean or egyptian interpreters. thus, passing over the first age from adam to the deluge, which covers years, we will begin from the second age, which is that of the patriarch noah, second universal father of mortals. the divine scriptures show us that eight persons were saved from the flood, in the ark. noah and his wife terra or vesta, named from the first fire lighted by crystal for the first sacrifice as berosus would have; and his three sons to wit, cam and his wife cataflua, sem and his wife prusia or persia, japhet and his wife fun a, as we read in the register of the chronicles. the names of some of these people remain, and to this day we can see clearly whence they were derived, as the hebrews from heber, the assyrians from amur, but most of them have been so changed that human intelligence is insufficient to investigate by this way. besides the three sons, noah had others after the flood. the descendants of these men having multiplied and become very numerous, noah divided the world among his first sons that they might people it, and then embarked on the euxine sea as we gather from xenophon. the giant noah then navigated along the mediterranean sea, as filon says and annius repeats, dividing the whole land among his sons. he gave it in charge to sem to people asia from the nile to the eastern indies, with some of the sons he got after the flood. to cam he gave africa from the rinocoruras to the straits of gibraltar with some more of the sons. europe was chosen for japhet to people with the rest of the sons begotten after the flood, who were all the sons of tuscan, whence descend the tadescos, alemanes, and the nations adjacent to them. in this voyage noah founded some towns and colonies on the shores of the mediterranean sea, and remained in them for ten years, until years after the universal deluge. he ordered his daughter araxa to remain in armenia where the ark rested, with her husband and children, to people that country. then he, with the rest of his companions, went to mesopotamia and settled. there nembrot was raised up for king, of the descendants of cam. this nembrot, says berosus, built babylon years after the flood. the sons of sem elected for their king, jektan, son of heber. those of japhet chose fenec for their king, called assenes by moses. there were , men under him only years after the deluge. each king, with his companions, set out to people the part of the world chosen for them by the patriarch noah. it is to be noted that, although noah divided the parts of the world among his three sons and their descendants, many of them did not keep to the boundaries. for some of one lineage settled on the lands of another brother. nembrot, being of the line of cam, remained in the parts of sem, and many others were mixed together in the same way. thus the three parts of the world were peopled by these and their descendants, of whom i do not propose to treat in detail, for our plan is to proceed in our narrative until we come to the inhabitants of the atlantic island, the subject of this history. this was so near spain that, according to the common fame, caliz used to be so close to the main land in the direction of the port of santa maria, that a plank would serve as a bridge to pass from the island to spain. so that no one can doubt that the inhabitants of spain, jubal and his descendants, peopled that land, as well as the inhabitants of africa which was also near. hence it was called the atlantic island from having been peopled by atlas, the giant and very wise astrologer who first settled mauritania now called barbary, as godefridus and all the chronicles teach us. this atlas was the son of japhet by the nymph asia, and grandson of noah. for this there is no authority except the above, corroborated by the divine plato as i began by explaining, and it will be necessary to seek his help to give the reader such evidence as merits belief respecting the inhabitants of this atlantic island. v. inhabitants of the atlantic island. we have indicated the situation of the atlantic island and those who, in conformity with the general peopling of the world, were probably its first inhabitants, namely the early spaniards and the first mauritanian vassals of the king atlas. this wonderful history was almost forgotten in ancient times, plato alone having preserved it, as has already been related in its place, and which should again be consulted for what remains. plato, in critias, says that to neptune's share came the atlantic island, and that he had ten sons. he divided the whole island amongst them, which before and in his time was called the empire of the floating islands, as volaterranius tells us. it was divided by neptune into ten regions or kingdoms. the chief one, called venus, he gave to his eldest son named atlantis, and appointed him sovereign of the whole island; which consequently took the name of atlantica, and the sea atlantic, a name which it retains to this day. the second son, named gadirun, received the part which lies nearest to spain and which is now caliz. to the third son neptune gave a share. his name was amferes, the fourth's eutoctenes, the seventh's alusipo, the eighth's mestores, the ninth's azaen, the tenth's diaprepem. these and their descendants reigned for many ages, holding the lordships, by the sea, of many other islands, which could not have been other than hayti, which we call santo domingo, cuba and others, also peopled by emigrants from the atlantic island. they also held sway over africa as far as egypt, and over europe to tirrenia and italy. the lineage of atlas extended in a grand succession of generations, and his kingdom was ruled in succession by the firstborns. they possessed such a copious supply of riches that none of the natives had seen it all, and that no new comers could realise it. this land abounded in all that is necessary for sustaining human life, pasture, timber, drugs, metals, wild beasts and birds, domestic animals including a great number of elephants, most fragrant perfumes, liquors, flowers, fruits, wine, and all the vegetables used for food, many dates, and other things for presents. that island produced all things in great profusion. in ancient times it was sacred, beautiful, admirable and fertile, as well as of vast extent. in it were extensive kingdoms, sumptuous temples, palaces calling forth great admiration, as is seen from the relation of plato respecting the metropolis of the island which exceeded babylon, troy, or rome, with all their rich buildings, curious and well-constructed forts, and even the seven wonders of the world concerning which the ancients sing so much. in the chief city of this empire there was a port to which so many ships and merchants resorted from all parts, that owing to the vast concourse a great and continual noise caused the residents to be thunderstruck. the number of these atlantics ready for war was so great that in the capital city alone they had an ordinary garrison of , soldiers, always distributed among farms, each farm measuring furlongs. the rest inhabited the woods and other places, and were innumerable. they took to war , two-horse chariots each containing eight armed men, with six slingers and stone throwers on either side. for the sea they had , boats with four men in each, making , men for the sea-service alone. this was quite necessary owing to the great number of subject nations which had to be governed and kept in obedience. the rest which plato relates on this subject will be discussed in the sequel, for i now proceed to our principal point, which is to establish the conclusion that as these people carried their banners and trophies into europe and africa which are not contiguous, they must have overrun the indies of castille and peopled them, being part of the same main land. they used much policy in their rule. but at the end of many ages, by divine permission, and perhaps owing to their sins, it happened that a great and continuous earthquake, with an unceasing deluge, perpetual by day and night, opened the earth and swallowed up those warlike and ambitious atlantic men. the atlantic island remained absorbed beneath that great sea, which from that cause continued to be unnavigable owing to the mud of the absorbed island in solution, a wonderful thing. this special flood may be added to the five floods recorded by the ancients. these are the general one of moses, the second in egypt of which xenophon makes mention, the third flood in achaia of greece in the time of ogyges atticus, described by isidore as happening in the days of jacob, the fourth in thessaly in the time of deucalion and pyrrha, in the days of moses according to isidore, in as given by juan annius. the fifth flood is mentioned by xenophon as happening in egypt in the time of proteus. the sixth was this which destroyed so great a part of the atlantic island and sufficed so to separate the part that was left unsubmerged, that all mortals in asia, africa and europe believed that all were drowned. thus was lost the intercourse and commerce of the people of these parts with those of europe and africa, in such sort that all memory of them would have been lost, if it had not been for the egyptians, preservers of the most ancient deeds of men and of nature. the destruction of the atlantic island, over at least leagues of longitude, was in the time when aod[ ] governed the people of israel, years before christ and years after the creation, according to the hebrews. i deduce this calculation from what plato relates of the conversation between solon and the egyptian priest. for, according to all the chronicles, solon lived in the time of tarquinius priscus the king of rome, josiah being king of israel at jerusalem, before christ years. from this period until the time when the atlantics had put a blockade over the athenians lunar years had passed which, referred to solar years, make . all added together make the total given above. very soon afterwards the deluge must have come, as it is said to have been in the time of aod[ ] or years after the general deluge of noah. this being so it is to be noted that the isle of caliz, the canaries, the salvages, and trinidad must have been parts of the absorbed land. [note : ehud.] it may be assumed that these very numerous nations of atlantis were sufficient to people those other lands of the western indies of castille. other nations also came to them, and peopled some provinces after the above destruction. strabo and solinus say that ulysses, after the fall of troy, navigated westward to lusitania, founded lisbon, and, after it had been built, desired to try his fortune on the atlantic ocean by the way we now go to the indies. he disappeared, and it was never afterwards known what had become of him. this is stated by pero anton beuter, a noble valencian historian and, as he mentions, this was the opinion of dante aligheri, the illustrious florentine poet. assuming this to be correct we may follow ulysses from island to island until he came to yucatan and campeachy, part of the territory of new spain. for those of that land have the grecian bearing and dress of the nation of ulysses, they have many grecian words, and use grecian letters. of this i have myself seen many signs and proofs. their name for god is "teos" which is greek, and even throughout new spain they use the word "teos" for god. i have also to say that in passing that way, i found that they anciently preserved an anchor of a ship, venerating it as an idol, and had a certain genesis in greek, which should not be dismissed as absurd at first sight. indeed there are a sufficient number of indications to support my conjecture concerning ulysses. from thence all those provinces of mexico, tabasco, xalisco, and to the north the capotecas, chiapas, guatemalas, honduras, lasandones, nicaraguas, tlaguzgalpas, as far as nicoya, costa rica, and veragua. moreover esdras recounts that those nations which went from persia by the river euphrates came to a land never before inhabited by the human race. going down this river there was no way but by the indian sea to reach a land where there was no habitation. this could only have been catigara, placed in ° s. by ptolemy, and according to the navigators sent by alexander the great, days of navigation from asia. this is the land which the describers of maps call the unknown land of the south, whence it is possible to go on settling people as far as the strait of magellan to the west of catigara, and the javas, new guinea, and the islands of the archipelago of nombre de jesus which i, our lord permitting, discovered in the south sea in the year , the unconquered felipe ii reigning as king of spain and its dependencies by the demarcation of ° of longitude. it may thus be deduced that new spain and its provinces were peopled by the greeks, those of catigara by the jews, and those of the rich and most powerful kingdoms of peru and adjacent provinces by the atlantics who were descended from the primeval mesopotamians and chaldæans, peoplers of the world. these, and other points with them, which cannot be discussed with brevity, are true historical reasons, of a quality worthy of belief, such as men of reason and letters may adopt respecting the peopling of these lands. when we come to consider attentively what these barbarians of peru relate of their origin and of the tyrannical rule of the incas ccapacs, and the fables and extravagances they recount, the truth may be distinguished from what is false, and how in some of their fables they allude to true facts which are admitted and held by us as such. therefore the reader should peruse with attention and read the most strange and racy history of barbarians that has, until now, been read of any political nation in the world. vi. the fable of the origin of these barbarous indians of peru, according to their blind opinions. as these barbarous nations of indians were always without letters, they had not the means of preserving the monuments and memorials of their times, and those of their predecessors with accuracy and method. as the devil, who is always striving to injure the human race, found these unfortunates to be easy of belief and timid in obedience, he introduced many illusions, lies and frauds, giving them to understand that he had created them from the first, and afterwards, owing to their sins and evil deeds, he had destroyed them with a flood, again creating them and giving them food and the way to preserve it. by chance they formerly had some notice, passed down to them from mouth to mouth, which had reached them from their ancestors, respecting the truth of what happened in former times. mixing this with the stories told them by the devil, and with other things which they changed, invented, or added, which may happen in all nations, they made up a pleasing salad, and in some things worthy of the attention of the curious who are accustomed to consider and discuss human ideas. one thing must be noted among many others. it is that the stories which are here treated as fables, which they are, are held by the natives to be as true as we hold the articles of our faith, and as such they affirm and confirm them with unanimity, and swear by them. there are a few, however, who by the mercy of god are opening their eyes and beginning to see what is true and what is false respecting those things. but we have to write down what they say and not what we think about it in this part. we shall hear what they hold respecting their first age, [_and afterwards we shall come to the inveterate and cruel tyranny of the inca tyrants who oppressed these kingdoms of peru for so long. all this is done by order of the most excellent don francisco de toledo, viceroy of these kingdoms_]. i have collected the information with much diligence so that this history can rest on attested proofs from the general testimony of the whole kingdom, old and young, incas and tributary indians. the natives of this land affirm that in the beginning, and before this world was created, there was a being called viracocha. he created a dark world without sun, moon or stars. owing to this creation he was named viracocha pachayachachi, which means "creator of all things[ ]." [note : uiracocha (viracocha) was the creator. garcilasso de la vega pointed out the mistake of supposing that the word signified "foam of the sea" (ii. p. ). he believed it to be a name, the derivation of which he did not attempt to explain. blas valera (i. p. ) said the meaning was the "will and power of god"; not that this is the signification of the word, but by reason of the godlike qualities attributed to him who was known by it. cieza de leon says that tici-uiracocha was god, creator of heaven and earth: acosta that to tici-uiracocha they assigned the chief power and command over all things; montesinos that illa-tici-uiracocha was the name of the creator of the world; molina that tecsi-uiracocha was the creator and incomprehensible god; the anonymous jesuit that uiracocha meant the great god of "pirua"; betanzos that the creator was con-tici-uiracocha. according to montesinos and the anonymous jesuit _uira_ or _vira_ is a corruption of _pirua_ meaning a depository. the first meaning of _cocha_ is a lake, but here it is held to signify profundity, abyss, space. the "dweller in space." _ticci_ or _tici_ is base or foundation, hence the founder. _illa_ means light. the anonymous jesuit gives the meaning "eternal light" to _illa-ticci_. the word _con_, given by betanzos and garcia, has no known meaning. pachacamac and pachayachachi are attributes of the deity. _pacha_ means time or place, also the universe. _camac_ is the ruler, _yachachi_ the teacher. "the ruler and teacher of the universe." the meaning and significance of the word _uiracocha_ has been very fully discussed by señor don leonardo villar of cuzco in a paper entitled _lexicologia keshua uiracocha_ (lima, ).] and when he had created the world he formed a race of giants of disproportioned greatness painted and sculptured, to see whether it would be well to make real men of that size. he then created men in his likeness as they are now; and they lived in darkness. viracocha ordered these people that they should live without quarrelling, and that they should know and serve him. he gave them a certain precept which they were to observe on pain of being confounded if they should break it. they kept this precept for some time, but it is not mentioned what it was. but as there arose among them the vices of pride and covetousness, they transgressed the precept of viracocha pachayachachi and falling, through this sin, under his indignation, he confounded and cursed them. then some were turned into stones, others into other things, some were swallowed up by the earth, others by the sea, and over all there came a general flood which they call _uñu pachacuti_, which means "water that overturns the land." they say that it rained days and nights, that it drowned all created things, and that there alone remained some vestiges of those who were turned into stones, as a memorial of the event, and as an example to posterity, in the edifices of pucara, which are leagues from cuzco. some of the nations, besides the cuzcos, also say that a few were saved from this flood to leave descendants for a future age. each nation has its special fable which is told by its people, of how their first ancestors were saved from the waters of the deluge. that the ideas they had in their blindness may be understood, i will insert only one, told by the nation of the cañaris, a land of quito and tumibamba, leagues from cuzco and more. they say that in the time of the deluge called _uñu pachacuti_ there was a mountain named guasano in the province of quito and near a town called tumipampa. the natives still point it out. up this mountain went two of the cañaris named ataorupagui and cusicayo. as the waters increased the mountain kept rising and keeping above them in such a way that it was never covered by the waters of the flood. in this way the two cañaris escaped. these two, who were brothers, when the waters abated after the flood, began to sow. one day when they had been at work, on returning to their hut, they found in it some small loaves of bread, and a jar of chicha, which is the beverage used in this country in place of wine, made of boiled maize. they did not know who had brought it, but they gave thanks to the creator, eating and drinking of that provision. next day the same thing happened. as they marvelled at this mystery, they were anxious to find out who brought the meals. so one day they hid themselves, to spy out the bringers of their food. while they were watching they saw two cañari women preparing the victuals and putting them in the accustomed place. when about to depart the men tried to seize them, but they evaded their would-be captors and escaped. the cañaris, seeing the mistake they had made in molesting those who had done them so much good, became sad and prayed to viracocha for pardon for their sins, entreating him to let the women come back and give them the accustomed meals. the creator granted their petition. the women came back and said to the cañaris--"the creator has thought it well that we should return to you, lest you should die of hunger." they brought them food. then there was friendship between the women and the cañari brothers, and one of the cañari brothers had connexion with one of the women. then, as the elder brother was drowned in a lake which was near, the survivor married one of the women, and had the other as a concubine. by them he had ten sons who formed two lineages of five each, and increasing in numbers they called one hanansaya which is the same as to say the upper party, and the other hurinsaya, or the lower party. from these all the cañaris that now exist are descended[ ]. [note : the same story of the origin of the cañaris is told by molina, p. . but the mountain is called huaca-yuan; and instead of women the beings who brought the food were macaws. molina tells another story received from the people of ancas-mayu. both seem to have been obtained by asking leading questions about a deluge.] in the same way the other nations have fables of how some of their people were saved from whom they trace their origin and descent. but the incas and most of those of cuzco, those among them who are believed to know most, do not say that anyone escaped from the flood, but that viracocha began to create men afresh, as will be related further on. one thing is believed among all the nations of these parts, for they all speak generally and as well known of the general flood which they call _uñu pachacuti_. from this we may clearly understand that if, in these parts they have a tradition of the great flood, this great mass of the floating islands which they afterwards called the atlanticas, and now the indies of castille or america must have begun to receive a population immediately after the flood, although, by their account, the details are different from those which the true scriptures teach us. this must have been done by divine providence, through the first people coming over the land of the atlantic island, which was joined to this, as has been already said. for as the natives, though barbarous, give reasons for their very ancient settlement, by recording the flood, there is no necessity for setting aside the scriptures by quoting authorities to establish this origin. we now come to those who relate the events of the second age after the flood, which is the subject of the next chapter. vii. fable of the second age, and creation of the barbarous indians according to their account. it is related that everything was destroyed in the flood called _uñu pachacuti_[ ]. it must now be known that viracocha pachayachachi, when he destroyed that land as has been already recounted, preserved three men, one of them named taguapaca, that they might serve and help him in the creation of new people who had to be made in the second age after the deluge, which was done in this manner. the flood being passed and the land dry, viracocha determined to people it a second time, and, to make it more perfect, he decided upon creating luminaries to give it light. with this object he went, with his servants, to a great lake in the collao, in which there is an island called titicaca, the meaning being "the rock of lead," of which we shall treat in the first part. viracocha went to this island, and presently ordered that the sun, moon, and stars should come forth, and be set in the heavens to give light to the world, and it was so. they say that the moon was created brighter than the sun, which made the sun jealous at the time when they rose into the sky. so the sun threw over the moon's face a handful of ashes, which gave it the shaded colour it now presents. this frontier lake of chucuito, in the territory of the collao, is leagues to the south of cuzco. viracocha gave various orders to his servants, but taguapaca disobeyed the commands of viracocha. so viracocha was enraged against taguapaca, and ordered the other two servants to take him, tie him hands and feet, and launch him in a _balsa_ on the lake. this was done. taguapaca was blaspheming against viracocha for the way he was treated, and threatening that he would return and take vengeance, when he was carried by the water down the drain of the same lake, and was not seen again for a long time. this done, viracocha made a sacred idol in that place, as a place for worship and as a sign of what he had there created[ ]. [note : _uñu pachacuti_ would mean the world (_pacha_) overturned (_cuti_) by water (_uñu_). probably a word coined by the priests, after putting leading questions about a universal deluge.] [note : this servant of uiracocha is also mentioned by cieza de leon and yamqui pachacuti. cieza appears to consider that tuapaca was merely the name of uiracocha in the collao. yamqui pachacuti gives the names tarapaca and tonapa and connects them with uiracocha. but he also uses the word pachacca, a servant. these names are clearly the same as the tahuapaca of sarmiento. _tahua_ means four, but sarmiento gives three as the number of these servants of uiracocha. the meaning of _paca_ is anything secret or mysterious, from _pacani_ to hide. the names represent an ancient myth of some kind, but it is not possible, at this distance of time, to ascertain more than the names. tonapa looks like a slip of the pen, and is probably tarapa for tarapaca. don samuel a. lapone quevedo published a mythological essay entitled _el culto de tonapa_ with reference to the notice in the work of yamqui pachacuti; but he is given to speculations about phallic and solar worship, and to the arbitrary alteration of letters to fit into his theories.] leaving the island, he passed by the lake to the main land, taking with him the two servants who survived. he went to a place now called tiahuanacu in the province of colla-suyu, and in this place he sculptured and designed on a great piece of stone, all the nations that he intended to create. this done, he ordered his two servants to charge their memories with the names of all tribes that he had depicted, and of the valleys and provinces where they were to come forth, which were those of the whole land. he ordered that each one should go by a different road, naming the tribes, and ordering them all to go forth and people the country. his servants, obeying the command of viracocha, set out on their journey and work. one went by the mountain range or chain which they call the heights over the plains on the south sea. the other went by the heights which overlook the wonderful mountain ranges which we call the andes, situated to the east of the said sea. by these roads they went, saying with a loud voice "oh you tribes and nations, hear and obey the order of ticci viracocha pachayachachi, which commands you to go forth, and multiply and settle the land." viracocha himself did the same along the road between those taken by his two servants, naming all the tribes and places by which he passed. at the sound of his voice every place obeyed, and people came forth, some from lakes, others from fountains, valleys, caves, trees, rocks and hills, spreading over the land and multiplying to form the nations which are to-day in peru. others affirm that this creation of viracocha was made from the titicaca site where, having originally formed some shapes of large strong men[ ] which seemed to him out of proportion, he made them again of his stature which was, as they say, the average height of men, and being made he gave them life. thence they set out to people the land. as they spoke one language previous to starting, they built those edifices, the ruins of which may still be seen, before they set out. this was for the residence of viracocha, their maker. after departing they varied their languages, noting the cries of wild beasts, insomuch that, coming across each other afterwards, those could not understand who had before been relations and neighbours. [note : jayaneo. this was the name given to giants in the books of chivalry. see _don quijote_, i. cap. , p. .] whether it was in one way or the other, all agree that viracocha was the creator of these people. they have the tradition that he was a man of medium height, white and dressed in a white robe like an alb secured round the waist, and that he carried a staff and a book in his hands. besides this they tell of a strange event; how that viracocha, after he had created all people, went on his road and came to a place where many men of his creation had congregated. this place is now called cacha. when viracocha arrived there, the inhabitants were estranged owing to his dress and bearing. they murmured at it and proposed to kill him from a hill that was near. they took their weapons there, and gathered together with evil intentions against viracocha. he, falling on his knees on some plain ground, with his hands clasped, fire from above came down upon those on the hill, and covered all the place, burning up the earth and stones like straw. those bad men were terrified at the fearful fire. they came down from the hill, and sought pardon from viracocha for their sin. viracocha was moved by compassion. he went to the flames and put them out with his staff. but the hill remained quite parched up, the stones being rendered so light by the burning that a very large stone which could not have been carried on a cart, could be raised easily by one man. this may be seen at this day, and it is a wonderful sight to behold this hill, which is a quarter of a league in extent, all burnt up. it is in the collao[ ]. [note : not in the collaos but in the valley of the vilcamayu. afterwards a very remarkable temple was built there, described by squier.] after this viracocha continued his journey and arrived at a place called urcos, leagues to the south of cuzco. remaining there some days he was well served by the natives of that neighbourhood. at the time of his departure, he made them a celebrated _huaca_ or statue, for them to offer gifts to and worship; to which statue the incas, in after times, offered many rich gifts of gold and other metals, and above all a golden bench. when the spaniards entered cuzco they found it, and appropriated it to themselves. it was worth $ , . the marquis don francisco pizarro took it himself, as the share of the general. returning to the subject of the fable, viracocha continued his journey, working his miracles and instructing his created beings. in this way he reached the territory on the equinoctial line, where are now puerto viejo and manta. here he was joined by his servants. intending to leave the land of peru, he made a speech to those he had created, apprising them of the things that would happen. he told them that people would come, who would say that they were viracocha their creator, and that they were not to believe them; but that in the time to come he would send his messengers who would protect and teach them. having said this he went to sea with his two servants, and went travelling over the water as if it was land, without sinking. for they appeared like foam over the water and the people, therefore, gave them the name of viracocha which is the same as to say the grease or foam of the sea[ ]. at the end of some years after viracocha departed, they say that taguapaca, who viracocha ordered to be thrown into the lake of titicaca in the collao, as has already been related, came back and began, with others, to preach that he was viracocha. although at first the people were doubtful, they finally saw that it was false, and ridiculed them[ ]. [note : a mistake. see garcilasso de la vega, ii. p. .] [note : this story is told in a somewhat different form by yamqui pachacuti, p. .] this absurd fable of their creation is held by these barbarians and they affirm and believe it as if they had really seen it to happen and come to pass[ ]. [note : the tradition of the exercise of his creative powers by viracocha at lake titicaca, is derived from the more ancient people who were the builders of tiahuanacu. besides sarmiento, the authors who give this titicaca myth are garcilasso de la vega, cieza de leon, molina, betanzos, yamqui pachacuti, polo de ondegardo, and the anonymous jesuit. acosta, montesinos, balboa and santillana are silent respecting it.] viii. the ancient _behetrias_[ ] of these kingdoms of peru and their provinces. it is important to note that these barbarians could tell nothing more respecting what happened from the second creation by viracocha down to the time of the incas. but it may be assumed that, although the land was peopled and full of inhabitants before the incas, it had no regular government, nor did it have natural lords elected by common consent to govern and rule, and who were respected by the people, so that they were obeyed and received tribute. on the contrary all the people were scattered and disorganized, living in complete liberty, and each man being sole lord of his house and estate. in each tribe there were two divisions. one was called hanansaya, which means the upper division, and the other hurinsaya, which is the lower division, a custom which continues to this day. these divisions do not mean anything more than a way to count each other, for their satisfaction, though afterwards it served a more useful purpose, as will be seen in its place. [note : _behetria_. a condition of perfect equality without any distinction of rank. freedom from the subjection of any lord.] as there were dissensions among them, a certain kind of militia was organized for defence, in the following way. when it became known to the people of one district that some from other parts were coming to make war, they chose one who was a native, or he might be a stranger, who was known to be a valiant warrior. often such a man offered himself to aid and to fight for them against their enemies. such a man was followed and his orders were obeyed during the war. when the war was over he became a private man as he had been before, like the rest of the people, nor did they pay him tribute either before or afterwards, nor any manner of tax whatever. to such a man they gave and still give the name of _sinchi_ which means valiant. they call such men "sinchi-cuna" which means "valiant now" as who should say--"now during the time the war lasts you shall be our valiant man, and afterwards no ": or another meaning would be simply "valiant men," for "cuna" is an adverb of time, and also denotes the plural[ ]. in whichever meaning, it is very applicable to these temporary captains in the days of _behetrias_ and general liberty. so that from the general flood of which they have a tradition to the time when the incas began to reign, which was years, all the natives of these kingdoms lived on their properties without acknowledging either a natural or an elected lord. they succeeded in preserving, as it is said, a simple state of liberty, living in huts or caves or humble little houses. this name of "sinchi" for those who held sway only during war, lasted throughout the land until the time of tupac inca yupanqui, the tenth inca, who instituted "curacas" and other officials in the order which will be fully described in the life of that inca. even at the present time they continue this use and custom in the provinces of chile and in other parts of the forests of peru to the east of quito and chachapoyas, where they only obey a chief during war time, not any special one, but he who is known to be most valiant, enterprising and daring in the wars. the reader should note that all the land was private property with reference to any dominion of chiefs, yet they had natural chiefs with special rights in each province, as for instance among the natives of the valley of cuzco and in other parts, as we shall relate of each part in its place. [note : cinchicona. _sinchi_ means strong. _cuna_ is the plural particle. _sinchi_ was the name for a chief or leader. i have not met with _cuna_ as an adverb of time and meaning "now." no such meaning is given in the _grammar_ of domingo de santo tomas, which was published in , twelve years before sarmiento wrote.] ix. the first settlers in the valley of cuzco. i have explained how the people of these lands preserved their inheritances and lived on them in ancient times, and that their proper and natural countries were known. there were many of these which i shall notice in their places, treating specially at present of the original settlers of the valley where stands the present city of cuzco. for from there we have to trace the origin of the tyranny of the incas, who always had their chief seat in the valley of cuzco. before all things it must be understood that the valley of cuzco is in ° ' from the equator on the side of the south pole[ ]. in this valley, owing to its being fertile for cultivation, there were three tribes settled from most ancient times, the first called sauaseras, the second antasayas, the third huallas. they settled near each other, although their lands for sowing were distinct, which is the property they valued most in those days and even now. these natives of the valley lived there in peace for many years, cultivating their farms. [note : ° '. he is miles out in his latitude.] some time before the arrival of the incas, three sinchis, strangers to this valley, the first named alcabisa[ ], the second copalimayta, and the third culunchima, collected certain companies and came to the valley of cuzco, where, by consent of the natives, they settled and became brothers and companions of the original inhabitants. so they lived for a long time. there was concord between these six tribes, three native and three immigrant. they relate that the immigrants came out to where the incas then resided, as we shall relate presently, and called them relations. this is an important point with reference to what happened afterwards. [note : the alcabisas, as original inhabitants of the cuzco valley, are mentioned by cieza de leon (ii. p. ) who calls them alcaviquiza. betanzos has alcaviya, and balboa allcay-villcas. cieza describes the victory over them by mayta ccapac. yamqui pachacuti gives allcayviesas, cullinchinas, and cayancachis as the names of the tribes who originally inhabited the cuzco valley. cayancachi is a southern suburb of cuzco outside the huatanay river.] before entering upon the history of the incas i wish to make known or, speaking more accurately, to answer a difficulty which may occur to those who have not been in these parts. some may say that this history cannot be accepted as authentic being taken from the narratives of these barbarians, because, having no letters, they could not preserve such details as they give from so remote an antiquity. the answer is that, to supply the want of letters, these barbarians had a curious invention which was very good and accurate. this was that from one to the other, from fathers to sons, they handed down past events, repeating the story of them many times, just as lessons are repeated from a professor's chair, making the hearers say these historical lessons over and over again until they were fixed in the memory. thus each one of the descendants continued to communicate the annals in the order described with a view to preserve their histories and deeds, their ancient traditions, the numbers of their tribes, towns, provinces, their days, months and years, their battles, deaths, destructions, fortresses and "sinchis." finally they recorded, and they still record, the most notable things which consist in their numbers (or statistics), on certain cords called _quipu_, which is the same as to say reasoner or accountant. on these cords they make certain knots by which, and by differences of colour, they distinguish and record each thing as by letters. it is a thing to be admired to see what details may be recorded on these cords, for which there are masters like our writing masters[ ]. [note : the system of recording by _quipus_ is described by garcilasso de la vega, i. pp. and , also ii. p. and more fully at ii. pp. -- . cieza de leon mentions the _quipu_ system in his first part (see i. p. and note) and in the second part (ii. pp. -- , , , , ). at p. the method of preserving the memory of former events is described very much as in the text. see also molina, pp. , . molina also describes the boards on which historical events were painted, p. . they were, he says, kept in a temple near cuzco, called poquen-cancha. see also cieza de leon (second part), p. .] besides this they had, and still have, special historians in these nations, an hereditary office descending from father to son. the collection of these annals is due to the great diligence of pachacuti inca yupanqui, the ninth inca, who sent out a general summons to all the old historians in all the provinces he had subjugated, and even to many others throughout those kingdoms. he had them in cuzco for a long time, examining them concerning their antiquities, origin, and the most notable events in their history. these were painted on great boards, and deposited in the temple of the sun, in a great hall. there such boards, adorned with gold, were kept as in our libraries, and learned persons were appointed, who were well versed in the art of understanding and declaring their contents. no one was allowed to enter where these boards were kept, except the inca and the historians, without a special order of the inca. in this way they took care to have all their past history investigated, and to have records respecting all kinds of people, so that at this day the indians generally know and agree respecting details and important events, though, in some things, they hold different opinions on special points. by examining the oldest and most prudent among them, in all ranks of life, who had most credit, i collected and compiled the present history, referring the sayings and declarations of one party to their antagonists of another party, for they are divided into parties, and seeking from each one a memorial of its lineage and of that of the opposing party. these memorials, which are all in my possession, were compared and corrected, and ultimately verified in public, in presence of representatives of all the parties and lineages, under oaths in presence of a judge, and with expert and very faithful interpreters also on oath, and i thus finished what is now written. such great diligence has been observed, because a thing which is the foundation of the true completion of such a great work as the establishment of the tyranny of the cruel incas of this land will make all the nations of the world understand the judicial and more than legitimate right that the king of castille has to these indies and to other lands adjacent, especially to these kingdoms of peru. as all the histories of past events have been verified by proof, which in this case has been done so carefully and faithfully by order and owing to the industry of the most excellent viceroy don francisco de toledo, no one can doubt that everything in this volume is most sufficiently established and verified without any room being left for reply or contradiction. i have been desirous of making this digression because, in writing the history, i have heard that many entertain the doubts i have above referred to, and it seemed well to satisfy them once for all. x. how the incas began to tyrannize over the lands and inheritances. having explained that, in ancient times, all this land was owned by the people, it is necessary to state how the incas began their tyranny. although the tribes all lived in simple liberty without recognising any lord, there were always some ambitious men among them, aspiring for mastery. they committed violence among their countrymen and among strangers to subject them and bring them to obedience under their command, so that they might serve them and pay tribute. thus bands of men belonging to one region went to others to make war and to rob and kill, usurping the lands of others. as these movements took place in many parts by many tribes, each one trying to subjugate his neighbour, it happened that leagues from the valley of cuzco, at a place called paccari-tampu, there were four men with their four sisters, of fierce courage and evil intentions, although with lofty aims. these, being more able than the others, understood the pusillanimity of the natives of those districts and the ease with which they could be made to believe anything that was propounded with authority or with any force. so they conceived among themselves the idea of being able to subjugate many lands by force and deception. thus all the eight brethren, four men and four women, consulted together how they could tyrannize over other tribes beyond the place where they lived, and they proposed to do this by violence. considering that most of the natives were ignorant and could easily be made to believe what was said to them, particularly if they were addressed with some roughness, rigour and authority, against which they could make neither reply nor resistance, because they are timid by nature, they sent abroad certain fables respecting their origin, that they might be respected and feared. they said that they were the sons of viracocha pachayachachi, the creator, and that they had come forth out of certain windows to rule the rest of the people. as they were fierce, they made the people believe and fear them, and hold them to be more than men, even worshipping them as gods. thus they introduced the religion that suited them. the order of the fable they told of their origin was as follows. xi. the fable of the origin of the incas of cuzco. all the native indians of this land relate and affirm that the incas ccapac originated in this way. six leagues s.s.w. of cuzco by the road which the incas made, there is a place called paccari-tampu, which means "the house of production[ ]" at which there is a hill called tampu-tocco, meaning "the house of windows." it is certain that in this hill there are three windows, one called "maras-tocco," the other "sutic-tocco," while that which is in the middle, between these two, was known as "ccapac-tocco," which means "the rich window," because they say that it was ornamented with gold and other treasures. from the window called "maras-tocco" came forth, without parentage, a tribe of indians called maras. there are still some of them in cuzco. from the "sutic-tocco" came indians called tampus, who settled round the same hill, and there are also men of this lineage still in cuzco. from the chief window of "ccapac-tocco," came four men and four women, called brethren. these knew no father nor mother, beyond the story they told that they were created and came out of the said window by order of ticci viracocha, and they declared that viracocha created them to be lords. for this reason they took the name of inca, which is the same as lord. they took "ccapac" as an additional name because they came out of the window "ccapac-tocco," which means "rich," although afterwards they used this term to denote the chief lord over many. [note : correctly "the tavern of the dawn."] the names of the eight brethren were as follows: the eldest of the men, and the one with the most authority was named manco ccapac, the second ayar auca, the third ayar cachi, the fourth ayar uchu. of the women the eldest was called mama occlo, the second mama huaco, the third mama ipacura, or, as others say, mama cura, the fourth mama raua. the eight brethren, called incas, said--"we are born strong and wise, and with the people who will here join us, we shall be powerful. we will go forth from this place to seek fertile lands and when we find them we will subjugate the people and take the lands, making war on all those who do not receive us as their lords," this, as they relate, was said by mama huaco, one of the women, who was fierce and cruel. manco ccapac, her brother, was also cruel and atrocious. this being agreed upon between the eight, they began to move the people who lived near the hill, putting it to them that their reward would be to become rich and to receive the lands and estates of those who were conquered and subjugated. for these objects they moved ten tribes or _ayllus_, which means among these barbarians "lineages" or "parties"; the names of which are as follows: i. chauin cuzco ayllu of the lineage of ayar cachi, of which there are still some in cuzco, the chiefs being martin chucumbi, and don diego huaman paocar. ii. arayraca ayllu cuzco-callan. at present there are of this ayllu juan pizarro yupanqui, don francisco quispi, alonso tarma yupanqui of the lineage of ayar uchu. iii. tarpuntay ayllu. of this there are now some in cuzco. iv. huacaytaqui ayllu. some still living in cuzco. v. saÑoc ayllu. some still in cuzco. the above five lineages are hanan-cuzco, which means the party of upper cuzco. vi. sutic-tocco ayllu is the lineage which came out of one of the windows called "sutic-tocco," as has been before explained. of these there are still some in cuzco, the chiefs being don francisco avca micho avri sutic, and don alonso hualpa. vii. maras ayllu. these are of the men who came forth from the window "maras-tocco." there are some of these now in cuzco, the chiefs being don alonso llama oca, and don gonzalo ampura llama oca. viii. cuycusa ayllu. of these there are still some in cuzco, the chief being cristoval acllari. ix. masca ayllu. of this there is in cuzco--juan quispi. x. oro ayllu. of this lineage is don pedro yucay. i say that all these _ayllus_ have preserved their records in such a way that the memory of them has not been lost. there are more of them than are given above, for i only insert the chiefs who are the protectors and heads of the lineages, under whose guidance they are preserved. each chief has the duty and obligation to protect the rest, and to know the history of his ancestors. although i say that these live in cuzco, the truth is that they are in a suburb of the city which the indians call cayocache and which is known to us as belem, from the church of that parish which is that of our lady of belem. returning to our subject, all these followers above mentioned marched with manco ccapac and the other brethren to seek for land [_and to tyrannize over those who did no harm to them, nor gave them any excuse for war, and without any right or title beyond what has been stated_]. to be prepared for war they chose for their leaders manco ccapac and mama huaco, and with this arrangement the companies of the hill of tampu-tocco set out, to put their design into execution. xii. the road which these companies of the incas took to the valley of cuzco, and of the fables which are mixed with their history. the incas and the rest of the companies or _ayllus_ set out from their homes at tampu-tocco, taking with them their property and arms, in sufficient numbers to form a good squadron, having for their chiefs the said manco ccapac and mama huaco. manco ccapac took with him a bird like a falcon, called _indi_[ ], which they all worshipped and feared as a sacred, or, as some say, an enchanted thing, for they thought that this bird made manco ccapac their lord and obliged the people to follow him. it was thus that manco ccapac gave them to understand, and it was carried in _vahidos_[ ], always kept in a covered hamper of straw, like a box, with much care. he left it as an heirloom to his son, and the incas had it down to the time of inca yupanqui. in his hand he carried with him a staff of gold, to test the lands which they would come to. [note : this bird called _indi_, the familiar spirit of manco ccapac, is not mentioned by any other author. there is more about it in the life of mayta ccapac, the great-grandson of manco ccapac. the word seems to be the same as _ynti_ the sun-god.] [note : _vahido_ means giddiness, vertigo.] marching together they came to a place called huana-cancha, four leagues from the valley of cuzco, where they remained for some time, sowing and seeking for fertile land. here manco ccapac had connexion with his sister mama occlo, and she became pregnant by him. as this place did not appear able to sustain them, being barren, they advanced to another place called tampu-quiro, where mama occlo begot a son named sinchi rocca. having celebrated the natal feasts of the infant, they set out in search of fertile land, and came to another place called pallata, which is almost contiguous to tampu-quiro, and there they remained for some years. not content with this land, they came to another called hays-quisro, a quarter of a league further on. here they consulted together over what ought to be done respecting their journey, and over the best way of getting rid of ayar cachi, one of the four brothers. ayar cachi was fierce and strong, and very dexterous with the sling. he committed great cruelties and was oppressive both among the natives of the places they passed, and among his own people. the other brothers were afraid that the conduct of ayar cachi would cause their companies to disband and desert, and that they would be left alone. as manco ccapac was prudent, he concurred with the opinion of the others that they should secure their object by deceit. they called ayar cachi and said to him, "brother! know that in ccapac-tocco we have forgotten the golden vases called _tupac-cusi_[ ], and certain seeds, and the _napa_[ ], which is our principal ensign of sovereignty." the _napa_ is a sheep of the country, the colour white, with a red body cloth, on the top ear-rings of gold, and on the breast a plate with red badges such as was worn by rich incas when they went abroad; carried in front of all on a pole with a cross of plumes of feathers. this was called _suntur-paucar_[ ]. they said that it would be for the good of all, if he would go back and fetch them. when ayar cachi refused to return, his sister mama huaco, raising her foot, rebuked him with furious words, saying, "how is it that there should be such cowardice in so strong a youth as you are? get ready for the journey, and do not fail to go to tampu-tocco, and do what you are ordered." ayar cachi was shamed by these words. he obeyed and started to carry out his orders. they gave him, as a companion, one of those who had come with them, named tampu-chacay, to whom they gave secret orders to kill ayar cachi at tampu-tocco, and not to return with him. with these orders they both arrived at tampu-tocco. they had scarcely arrived when ayar cachi entered through the window ccapac-tocco, to get the things for which he had been sent. he was no sooner inside than tampu-chacay, with great celerity, put a rock against the opening of the window and sat upon it, that ayar cachi might remain inside and die there. when ayar cachi turned to the opening and found it closed he understood the treason of which the traitor tampu-chacay had been guilty, and determined to get out if it was possible, to take vengeance. to force an opening he used such force and shouted so loud that he made the mountain tremble. with a loud voice he spoke these words to tampu-chacay, "thou traitor! thou who hast done me so much harm, thinkest thou to convey the news of my mortal imprisonment? that shall never happen. for thy treason thou shalt remain outside, turned into a stone." so it was done, and to this day they show the stone on one side of the window ccapac-tocco. turn we now to the seven brethren who had remained at hays-quisro. the death of ayar cachi being known, they were very sorry for what they had done, for, as he was valiant, they regretted much to be without him when the time came to make war on any one. so they mourned for him. this ayar cachi was so dexterous with a sling and so strong that with each shot he pulled down a mountain and filled up a ravine. they say that the ravines, which we now see on their line of march, were made by ayar cachi in hurling stones. [note : _tupac-cusi_, meaning golden vases, does not occur elsewhere. it may be a mis-print for _tupac-ccuri, tupac_ meaning anything royal and ccuri gold.] [note : _napa_ was the name of a sacred figure of a llama, one of the insignia of royalty. see molina, pp. , , . the verb _napani_ is to salute, _napay_, salutation. _raymi-napa_ was the flock dedicated for sacrifice.] [note : _suntur-paucar_ was the head-dress of the inca. see balboa, p. . literally the "brilliant circle." see also molina, pp. , , , , , and yamqui pachacuti, pp. , , .] the seven incas and their companions left this place, and came to another called quirirmanta at the foot of a hill which was afterwards called huanacauri. in this place they consulted together how they should divide the duties of the enterprise amongst themselves, so that there should be distinctions between them. they agreed that as manco ccapac had had a child by his sister, they should be married and have children to continue the lineage, and that he should be the leader. ayar uchu was to remain as a _huaca_ for the sake of religion. ayar auca, from the position they should select, was to take possession of the land set apart for him to people. leaving this place they came to a hill at a distance of two leagues, a little more or less, from cuzco. ascending the hill they saw a rainbow, which the natives call _huanacauri_. holding it to be a fortunate sign, manco ccapac said: "take this for a sign that the world will not be destroyed by water. we shall arrive and from hence we shall select where we shall found our city." then, first casting lots, they saw that the signs were good for doing so, and for exploring the land from that point and becoming lords of it. before they got to the height where the rainbow was, they saw a _huaca_ which was a place of worship in human shape, near the rainbow. they determined among themselves to seize it and take it away from there. ayar uchu offered himself to go to it, for they said that he was very like it. when ayar uchu came to the statue or _huaca_, with great courage he sat upon it, asking it what it did there. at these words the _huaca_ turned its head to see who spoke, but, owing to the weight upon it, it could not see. presently, when ayar uchu wanted to get off he was not able, for he found that the soles of his feet were fastened to the shoulders of the _huaca_. the six brethren, seeing that he was a prisoner, came to succour him. but ayar uchu, finding himself thus transformed, and that his brethren could not release him, said to them--"o brothers, an evil work you have wrought for me. it was for your sakes that i came where i must remain for ever, apart from your company. go! go! happy brethren, i announce to you that you will be great lords. i, therefore, pray that in recognition of the desire i have always had to please you, you will honour and venerate me in all your festivals and ceremonies, and that i shall be the first to whom you make offerings. for i remain here for your sakes. when you celebrate the _huarachico_ (which is the arming of the sons as knights) you shall adore me as their father, for i shall remain here for ever." manco ccapac answered that he would do so, for that it was his will and that it should be so ordered. ayar uchu promised for the youths that he would bestow on them the gifts of valour, nobility, and knighthood, and with these last words he remained, turned into stone. they constituted him the _huaca_ of the incas, giving it the name of ayar uchu huanacauri.[ ] and so it always was, until the arrival of the spaniards, the most venerated _huaca_, and the one that received the most offerings of any in the kingdom. here the incas went to arm the young knights until about twenty years ago, when the christians abolished this ceremony. it was religiously done, because there were many abuses and idolatrous practices, offensive and contrary to the ordinances of god our lord. [note : huanacauri was a very sacred _huaca_ of the peruvians. cieza de leon tells much the same story as sarmiento, ii. pp. , , , , , , , . garcilasso de la vega mentions huanacauri four times, i. pp. , , and ii. pp. , , as a place held in great veneration. it is frequently mentioned by molina. the word is given by yamqui pachacuti as huayna-captiy. _huayna_ means a youth, _captiy_ is the subjunctive of the verb _cani_, i am. the word appears to have reference to the arming of youths, and the ordeals they went through, which took place annually at this place.] xiii. entry of the incas into the valley of cuzco, and the fables they relate concerning it. the six brethren were sad at the loss of ayar uchu, and at the loss of ayar cachi; and, owing to the death of ayar cachi, those of the lineage of the incas, from that time to this day, always fear to go to tampu-tocco, lest they should have to remain there like ayar cachi. they went down to the foot of the hill, whence they began their entry into the valley of cuzco, arriving at a place called matahua, where they stopped and built huts, intending to remain there some time. here they armed as knight the son of manco ccapac and of mama occlo, named sinchi rocca, and they bored his ears, a ceremony which is called _huarachico_, being the insignia of his knighthood and nobility, like the custom known among ourselves. on this occasion they indulged in great rejoicings, drinking for many days, and at intervals mourning for the loss of their brother ayar uchu. it was here that they invented the mourning sound for the dead, like the cooing of a dove. then they performed the dance called _ccapac raymi_, a ceremony of the royal or great lords. it is danced, in long purple robes, at the ceremonies they call _quicochico_[ ], which is when girls come to maturity, and the _huarachico_[ ], when they bore the ears of the incas, and the _rutuchico_[ ] when the inca's hair is cut the first time, and the _ayuscay_[ ], which is when a child is born, and they drink continuously for four or five days. [note : quicu-chicuy was the ceremony when girls attained puberty. the customs, on this occasion, are described by molina, p. . see also yamqui pachacuti, p. , and the anonymous jesuit, p. .] [note : huarachicu was the great festival when the youths went through their ordeals, and were admitted to manhood and to bear arms. garcilasso de la vega gives the word as "huaracu"; and fully describes the ordeals and the ceremonies, ii. pp. -- . see also molina, pp. and -- , and yamqui pachacuti, p. .] [note : rutuchicu is the ceremony when a child reaches the age of one year, from _rutuni_, to cut or shear. it receives the name which it retains until the huarachicu if a boy, and until the quicu-chicuy if a girl. they then receive the names they retain until death. at the rutuchicu the child was shorn. molina, p. .] [note : molina says that ayuscay was the ceremony when the woman conceives. molina, p. .] after this they were in matahua for two years, waiting to pass on to the upper valley to seek good and fertile land. mama huaco, who was very strong and dexterous, took two wands of gold and hurled them towards the north. one fell, at two shots of an arquebus, into a ploughed field called colcapampa and did not drive in well, the soil being loose and not terraced. by this they knew that the soil was not fertile. the other went further, to near cuzco, and fixed well in the territory called huanay-pata, where they knew the land to be fertile. others say that this proof was made by manco ccapac with the staff of gold which he carried himself, and that thus they knew of the fertility of the land, when the staff sunk in the land called huanay-pata, two shots of an arquebus from cuzco. they knew the crust of the soil to be rich and close, so that it could only be broken by using much force. let it be by one way or the other, for all agree that they went trying the land with a pole or staff until they arrived at this huanay-pata, when they were satisfied. they were sure of its fertility, because after sowing perpetually, it always yielded abundantly, giving more the more it was sown. they determined to usurp that land by force, in spite of the natural owners, and to do with it as they chose. so they returned to matahua. from that place manco ccapac saw a heap of stones near the site of the present monastery of santo domingo at cuzco. pointing it out to his brother ayar auca, he said, "brother! you remember how it was arranged between us, that you should go to take possession of the land where we are to settle. well! look at that stone." pointing out the stone he continued, "go thither flying," for they say that ayar auca had developed some wings, "and seating yourself there, take possession of land seen from that heap of stones. we will presently come to settle and reside." when ayar auca heard the words of his brother, he opened his wings and flew to that place which manco ccapac had pointed out. seating himself there, he was presently turned into stone, and was made the stone of possession. in the ancient language of this valley the heap was called _cozco_, whence that site has had the name of cuzco to this day[ ]. from this circumstance the incas had a proverb which said, "ayar auca cuzco huanca," or, "ayar auca a heap of marble." others say that manco ccapac gave the name of cuzco because he wept in that place where he buried his brother ayar cachi. owing to his sorrow and to the fertility he gave that name which in the ancient language of that time signified sad as well as fertile. the first version must be the correct one because ayar cachi was not buried at cuzco, having died at ccapac-tocco as has been narrated before. and this is generally affirmed by incas and natives. [note : _cuzco_ means a clod, or hard unirrigated land. _cuzquini_ is to break clods of earth, or to level. montesinos derives the name of the city from the verb "to level," or from the heaps of clods, of earth called _cuzco_. cusquic-raymi is the month of june.] five brethren only remaining, namely manco ccapac, and the four sisters, and manco ccapac being the only surviving brother out of four, they presently resolved to advance to where ayar auca had taken possession. manco ccapac first gave to his son sinchi rocca a wife named mama cuca, of the lineage of sañu, daughter of a sinchi named sitic-huaman, by whom he afterwards had a son named sapaca. he also instituted the sacrifice called _capa cocha_[ ], which is the immolation of two male and two female infants before the idol huanacauri, at the time when the incas were armed as knights. these things being arranged, he ordered the companies to follow him to the place where ayar auca was. [note : ccapac-cocha. the weight of evidence is, on the whole, in favour of this sacrifice of two infants having taken place at the huarachicu, cieza de leon, in remarking that the spaniards falsely imputed crimes to the indians to justify their ill-treatment, says that the practice of human sacrifice was exaggerated, ii. pp. , . see also molina, pp- , . yamqui pachacuti, p. .] arriving on the land of huanay-pata, which is near where now stands the _arco de la plata_ leading to the charcas road, he found settled there a nation of indians named huallas, already mentioned. manco ccapac and mama occlo began to settle and to take possession of the land and water, against the will of the huallas. on this business they did many violent and unjust things. as the huallas attempted to defend their lives and properties, many cruelties were committed by manco ccapac and mama occlo. they relate that mama occlo was so fierce that, having killed one of the hualla indians, she cut him up, took out the inside, carried the heart and lungs in her mouth, and with an _ayuinto_, which is a stone fastened to a rope, in her hand, she attacked the huallas with diabolical resolution. when the huallas beheld this horrible and inhuman spectacle, they feared that the same thing would be done to them, being simple and timid, and they fled and abandoned their rights. mama occlo reflecting on her cruelty, and fearing that for it they would be branded as tyrants, resolved not to spare any huallas, believing that the affair would thus be forgotten. so they killed all they could lay their hands upon, dragging infants from their mothers' wombs, that no memory might be left of these miserable huallas. having done this manco ccapac advanced, and came within a mile of cuzco to the s.e., where a sinchi named copalimayta came out to oppose him. we have mentioned this chief before and that, although he was a late comer, he settled with the consent of the natives of the valley, and had been incorporated in the nation of sauaseray panaca, natives of the site of santo domingo at cuzco. having seen the strangers invading their lands and tyrannizing over them, and knowing the cruelties inflicted on the huallas, they had chosen copalimayta as their sinchi. he came forth to resist the invasion, saying that the strangers should not enter his lands or those of the natives. his resistance was such that manco ccapac and his companions were obliged to turn their backs. they returned to huanay-pata, the land they had usurped from the huallas. from the sowing they had made they derived a fine crop of maize, and for this reason they gave the place a name which means something precious[ ]. [note : the origin of the inca dynasty derived from manco ccapac and his brethren issuing from the window at paccari-tampu may be called the paccari-tampu myth. it was universally received and believed. garcilasso de la vega gives the meanings of the names of the brothers. ayar cachi means salt or instruction in rational life, ayar uchu is pepper, meaning the delight experienced from such teaching, and ayar sauca means pleasure, or the joy they afterwards experienced from it. balboa gives an account of the death of ayar cachi, but calls him ayar auca. he also describes the turning into stone at huanacauri. betanzos tells much the same story as sarmiento; as do cieza de leon and montesinos, with some slight differences. yamqui pachacuti gives the names of the brothers, but only relates the huanacauri part of the story. montesinos and garcilasso de la vega call one of the brothers ayar sauca. sarmiento, betanzos and balboa call him ayar auca. all agree in the names of the other brothers.] after some months they returned to the attack on the natives of the valley, to tyrannize over them. they assaulted the settlement of the sauaseras, and were so rapid in their attack that they captured copalimayta, slaughtering many of the sauaseras with great cruelty. copalimayta, finding himself a prisoner and fearing death, fled out of desperation, leaving his estates, and was never seen again after he escaped. mama huaco and manco ccapac usurped his houses, lands and people. in this way manco ccapac, mama huaco, sinchi rocca, and manco sapaca settled on the site between the two rivers, and erected the house of the sun, which they called ynti-cancha. they divided all that position, from santo domingo to the junction of the rivers into four neighbourhoods or quarters which they call _cancha_. they called one quinti-cancha, the second chumpi-cancha, the third sayri-cancha, and the fourth yarampuy-cancha. they divided the sites among themselves, and thus the city was peopled, and, from the heap of stones of ayar auca it was called cuzco[ ]. [note : garcilasso de la vega gives the most detailed description of the city of cuzco and its suburbs, ii. p. , but he does not mention these four divisions. the space from santo domingo to the junction of the rivers only covers a few acres; and was devoted to the gardens of the sun.] xiv. the difference between manco ccapac and the alcabisas, respecting the arable land. it has been said that one of the natural tribes of this valley of cuzco was the alcabisas. at the time when manco ccapac settled at ynti-cancha and seized the goods of the sauaseras and huallas, the alcabisas were settled half an arquebus shot from ynti-canchi, towards the part where santa clara now stands. manco ccapac had a plan to spread out his forces that his tyrannical intentions might not be impeded, so he sent his people, as if loosely and idly, making free with the land. he took the lands without distinction, to support his companies. as he had taken those of the huallas and sauaseras, he wished also to take those of the alcabisas. as these alcabisas had given up some, manco ccapac wished and intended to take all or nearly all. when the alcabisas saw that the new comers even entered their houses, they said: "these are men who are bellicose and unreasonable! they take our lands! let us set up landmarks on the fields they have left to us." this they did, but mama huaco said to manco ccapac, "let us take all the water from the alcabisas, and then they will be obliged to give us the rest of their land." this was done and they took away the water. over this there were disputes; but as the followers of manco ccapac were more and more masterful, they forced the alcabisas to give up their lands which they wanted, and to serve them as their lords, although the alcabisas never voluntarily served manco ccapac nor looked upon him as their lord. on the contrary they always went about saying with loud voices-to those of manco ccapac--"away! away! out of our territory." for this manco ccapac was more hard upon them, and oppressed them tyrannically. besides the alcabisas there were other tribes, as we have mentioned before. these manco ccapac and mama huaco totally destroyed, and more especially one which lived near ynti-cancha, in the nearest land, called humanamean, between ynti-cancha and cayocachi[ ], where there also lived another native sinchi named culunchima. manco ccapac entered the houses and lands of all the natives, especially of the alcabisas, condemned their sinchi to perpetual imprisonment, sending the others to banishment in cayocachi, and forcing them to pay tribute. but they were always trying to free themselves from the tyranny, as the alcabisas did later[ ]. [note : garcilasso de la vega describes cayau-cachi as a small village of about inhabitants in his time. it was about paces west of the nearest house of the city in ; but he had been told that, at the time of his writing in , the houses had been extended so as to include it.] [note : cieza de leon and balboa corroborate the story of sarmiento that the alcabisas (cieza calls them alcaviquizas, balboa has allcay-villcas) were hostile to the incas, cieza, ii. p. , balboa, p. . yamqui pachacuti mentions them as allcayviesas, p. .] having completed the yoke over the natives, their goods and persons, manco ccapac was now very old. feeling the approach of death, and fearing that in leaving the sovereignty to his son, sinchi rocca, he and his successors might not be able to retain it owing to the bad things he had done and to the tyranny he had established, he ordered that the ten lineages or companies that had come with him from tampu-tocco should form themselves into a garrison or guard, to be always on the watch over the persons of his son and of his other descendants to keep them safe. they were to elect the successor when he had been nominated by his father, or succeeded on the death of his father. for he would not trust the natives to nominate or elect, knowing the evil he had done, and the force he had used towards them. manco ccapac being now on the point of death, he left the bird _indi_ enclosed in its cage, the _tupac-yauri_[ ] or sceptre, the _napa_ and the _suntur-paucar_ the insignia of a prince, [_though tyrant_,] to his son sinchi rocca that he might take his place, [_and this without the consent or election of any of the natives_]. [note : _tupac-yauri_ the sceptre of the sovereign. molina, pp. , , . yamqui pachacuti, p. .] thus died manco ccapac, according to the accounts of those of his _ayllu_ or lineage, at the age of years, which were divided in the following manner. when he set out from paccari-tampu or tampu-tocco he was years of age. from that time until he arrived at the valley of cuzco, during which interval he was seeking for fertile lands, there were eight years. for in one place he stayed one, in another two years, in others more or less until he reached cuzco, where he lived all the rest of the time, which was years, as _ccapac_ or supreme and rich sovereign. they say that he was a man of good stature, thin, rustic, cruel though frank, and that in dying he was converted into a stone of a height of a vara and a half. the stone was preserved with much veneration in the ynti-cancha until the year when, the licentiate polo ondegardo being corregidor of cuzco, found it and took it away from where it was adored and venerated by all the incas, in the village of bimbilla near cuzco. from this manco ccapac were originated the ten ayllus mentioned above. from his time began the idols _huauquis_, which was an idol or demon chosen by each inca for his companion and oracle which gave him answers[ ]. that of manco ccapac was the bird _indi_ already mentioned. this manco ccapac ordered, for the preservation of his memory, the following: his eldest son by his legitimate wife, who was his sister, was to succeed to the sovereignty. if there was a second son his duty was to be to help all the other children and relations. they were to recognize him as the head in all their necessities, and he was to take charge of their interests, and for this duty estates were set aside. this party or lineage was called _ayllu_ if there was no second son, or if there was one who was incapable, the duty was to be passed on to the nearest and ablest relation. and that those to come might have a precedent or example, manco ccapac made the first _ayllu_ and called it _chima panaca ayllu_, which means the lineage descending from chima, because the first to whom he left his _ayllu_ or lineage in charge was named _chima_, and _panaca_ means "to descend." it is to be noted that the members of this _ayllu_ always adored the statue of manco ccapac, and not those of the other incas, but the _ayllus_ of the other incas always worshipped that statue and the others also. it is not known what was done with the body, for there was only the statue. they carried it in their wars, thinking that it secured the victories they won. they also took it to huanacauri, when they celebrated the _huarachicos_ of the incas. huayna ccapac took it with him to quito and cayambis, and afterwards it was brought back to cuzco with the dead body of that inca. there are still those of this _ayllu_ in cuzco who preserve the memory of the deeds of manco ccapac. the principal heads of the _ayllu_ are now don diego chaco, and don juan huarhua chima. they are hurin-cuzcos. manco ccapac died in the year of the nativity of christ our lord, loyba the goth reigning in spain, constantine iv being emperor. he lived in the ynti-cancha, house of the sun. [note : sarmiento says that every sovereign inca had a familiar demon or idol which he called _guauqui_, and that the _guauqui_ of manco ccapac was the _indi_ or bird already mentioned. this is corroborated by polo de ondegardo. the word seems to be the same as _huauqui_, a brother.] xv. commences the life of sinchi rocca, the second inca. it has been said that manco ccapac, the first inca, who tyrannized over the natives of the valley of cuzco, only subjugated the huallas, alcabisas, sauaseras, culunchima, copalimayta and the others mentioned above, who were all within the circuit of what is now the city of cuzco. to this manco ccapac succeeded his son sinchi rocca, son also of mama occlo, his mother and aunt[ ]. he succeeded by nomination of his father, under the care of the _ayllus_ who then all lived together, but not by election of the people, they were all either in flight, prisoners, wounded or banished, and were all his mortal enemies owing to the cruelties and robberies exercised upon them by his father manco ccapac. sinchi rocca was not a warlike person, and no feats of arms are recorded of him, nor did he sally forth from cuzco, either himself or by his captains[ ]. he added nothing to what his father had subjugated, only holding by his _ayllus_ those whom his father had crushed. he had for a wife mama cuca of the town of saño by whom he had a son named lloqui yupanqui. lloqui means left-handed, because he was so. he left his _ayllu_ called _raura panaca ayllu_ of the hurin-cuzco side. there are some of this _ayllu_ living, the chiefs being don alonso puscon and don diego quispi. these have the duty of knowing and maintaining the things and memories of sinchi rocca. he lived in ynti-cancha, the house of the sun, and all his years were . he succeeded when , and reigned years. he died in the year of the nativity of our lord jesus christ , wamba being king of spain, leo iv emperor, and donus pope. he left an idol of stone shaped like a fish called _huanachiri amaru_, which during life was his idol or _guauqui_. polo, being corregidor of cuzco, found this idol, with the body of sinchi rocca, in the village of bimbilla, among some bars of copper. the idol had attendants and cultivated lands for its service. [note : all the authorities concur that sinchi rocca was the second sovereign of the inca dynasty, except montesinos, who makes him the first and calls him inca rocca. acosta has inguarroca, and betanzos chincheroca.] [note : cieza de leon and garcilasso de la vega also say that sinchi rocca waged no wars. the latter tells us that, by peaceful means, he extended his dominions over the canchis, as far as chuncara.] xvi. the life of lloqui yupanqui, the third inca. on the death of sinchi rocca the incaship was occupied by lloqui yupanqui, son of sinchi rocca by mama cuca his wife. it is to be noted that, although manco ccapac had ordered that the eldest son should succeed, this inca broke the rule of his grandfather, for he had an elder brother named manco sapaca[ ], as it is said, who did not consent, and the indians do not declare whether he was nominated by his father. from this i think that lloqui yupanqui was not nominated, but manco sapaca as the eldest, for so little regard for the natives or their approval was shown. this being so, it was tyranny against the natives and infidelity to relations with connivance of the _ayllus_ legionaries; and with the inca's favour they could do what they liked, by supporting him. so lloqui yupanqui lived in ynti-cancha like his father[ ]. he never left cuzco on a warlike expedition nor performed any memorable deed, but merely lived like his father, having communication with some provinces and chiefs. these were huaman samo, chief of huaro, pachaculla viracocha, the ayamarcas of tampu-cunca, and the quilliscachis[ ]. [note : manco sapaca, the eldest son of sinchi rocca, is also mentioned by balboa, pp. , , .] [note : all the authorities concur in making lloqui yupanqui the third inca, except acosta, who has iaguarhuaque. herrera spells it lloki yupanqui, fernandez has lloccuco panque, merely corrupt spellings. cieza de leon also represents this reign to have been peaceful, but garcilasso de la vega makes lloqui yupanqui conquer the collao.] [note : huaro or guaro is a village south of cuzco in the valley of the vilcamayu (balboa, p. ). huaman samo was the chief of huaro. balboa mentions pachachalla viracocha as a chief of great prudence and ability who submitted to lloqui yupanqui, pp. , . the ayamarcas formed a powerful tribe about miles south of cuzco. the quilliscachis formed one of the original tribes in the valley of cuzco (yamqui pachacuti, p. ). tampu-cunca only occurs here.] one day lloqui yupanqui being very sad and afflicted, the sun appeared to him in the form of a person and consoled him by saying---"do not be sorrowful, lloqui yupanqui, for from you shall descend great lords," also, that he might hold it for certain that he would have male issue. for lloqui yupanqui was then very old, and neither had a son nor expected to have one. this having been made known, and what the sun had announced to lloqui yupanqui having been published to the people, his relations determined to seek a wife for him. his brother manco sapaca, understanding the fraternal disposition, sought for a woman who was suitable for it. he found her in a town called oma, two leagues from cuzco, asked for her from her guardians, and, with their consent, brought her to cuzco. she was then married to lloqui yupanqui. her name was mama cava, and by her the inca had a son named mayta ccapac. this lloqui did nothing worthy of remembrance. he carried with him an idol, which was his _guauqui_ called _apu mayta_. his _ayllu_ is _avayni panaca ayllu_, because the first who had the charge of this _ayllu_ was named avayni. this inca lived and died in ynti-cancha. he was years of age, having succeeded at the age of , so that he was sovereign or "ccapac" for years. he died in , alfonso el casto being king of spain and leo iv supreme pontiff. some of this _ayllu_ still live at cuzco. the chiefs are putisuc titu avcaylli, titu rimachi, don felipe titu cunti mayta, don agustin cunti mayta, juan bautista quispi cunti mayta. they are hurin-cuzcos. the licentiate polo found the body of this inca with the rest. xvii. the life of mayta ccapac, the fourth inca[ ]. [note : all authorities agree that mayta ccapac was the fourth inca, except acosta and betanzos. acosta has viracocha. betanzos places mayta ccapac after ccapac yupanqui, whom other authorities make his son. his reign was peaceful except that he encountered and finally vanquished the alcabisas. but garcilasso de la vega makes him the conqueror of the region south of lake titicaca, as well as provinces to the westward, including the settlement of arequipa. all this is doubtless a mistake on the part of garcilasso.] mayta ccapac, the fourth inca, son of lloqui yupanqui and his wife mama cava, is to those indians what hercules is to us, as regards his birth and acts, for they relate strange things of him. at the very first the indians of his lineage, and all the others in general, say that his father, when he was begotten, was so old and weak that every one believed he was useless, so that they thought the conception was a miracle. the second wonder was that his mother bore him three months after conception, and that he was born strong and with teeth. all affirm this, and that he grew at such a rate that in one year he had as much strength and was as big as a boy of eight years or more. at two years he fought with very big boys, knocked them about and hurt them seriously. this all looks as if it might be counted with the other fables, but i write what the natives believe respecting their ancestors, and they hold this to be so true that they would kill anyone who asserted the contrary. they say of this mayta that when he was of very tender years, he was playing with some boys of the alcabisas and culunchimas, natives of cuzco, when he hurt many of them and killed some. and one day, drinking or taking water from a fountain, he broke the leg of the son of a sinchi of the alcabisas, and hunted the rest until they shut themselves up in their houses, where the alcabisas lived without injuring the incas. but now the alcabisas, unable to endure longer the naughtiness of mayta ccapac, which he practised under the protection of lloqui yupanqui, and the _ayllus_ who watched over him, determined to regain their liberty and to venture their lives for it. so they selected ten resolute indians to go to the house of the sun where lloqui yupanqui and his son mayta ccapac lived, and enter it with the intention of killing them. at the time mayta ccapac was in the court yard of the house, playing at ball with some other boys. when he saw enemies entering the house with arms, he threw one of the balls he was playing with, and killed one. he did the same to another, and, attacking the rest, they all fled. though the rest escaped, they had received many wounds, and in this state they went back to their sinchis of calunchima and alcabasa. the chiefs, considering the harm mayta ccapac had done to the natives when a child, feared that when he was grown up he would destroy them all, and for this reason they resolved to die for their liberty. all the inhabitants of the valley of cuzco, that had been spared by manco ccapac, united to make war on the incas. this very seriously alarmed lloqui yupanqui. he thought he was lost, and reprehended his son mayta ccapac, saying, "son! why hast thou been so harmful to the natives of this valley, so that in my old age i shall die at the hands of our enemies?" as the _ayllus_, who were in garrison with the incas, rejoiced more in rapine and disturbances than in quiet, they took the part of mayta ccapac and told the old inca to hold his peace, leaving the matter to his son, so lloqui yupanqui took no further steps in reprehending mayta ccapac. the alcabisas and culunchimas assembled their forces and mayta ccapac marshalled his _ayllus_. there was a battle between the two armies and although it was doubtful for some time, both sides fighting desperately for victory, the alcabisas and calunchimas were finally defeated by the troops of mayta ccapac. but not for this did the alcabisas give up the attempt to free themselves and avenge their wrongs. again they challenged mayta ccapac to battle, which he accepted. as they advanced they say that such a hail storm fell over the alcabisas that they were defeated a third time, and entirely broken up. mayta ccapac imprisoned their sinchi for the remainder of his life. mayta ccapac married mama tacucaray, native of the town of tacucaray, and by her he had a legitimate son named ccapac yupanqui, besides four others named tarco huaman, apu cunti mayta, queco avcaylli, and rocca yupanqui. this mayta ccapac was warlike, and the inca who first distinguished himself in arms after the time of mama huaco and manco ccapac. they relate of him that he dared to open the hamper containing the bird _indi_. this bird, brought by manco ccapac from tampu-tocco, had been inherited by his successors, the predecessors of mayta ccapac, who had always kept it shut up in a hamper or box of straw, such was the fear they had of it. but mayta ccapac was bolder than any of them. desirous of seeing what his predecessors had guarded so carefully, he opened the hamper, saw the bird _indi_ and had some conversation with it. they say that it gave him oracles, and that after the interview with the bird he was wiser, and knew better what he should do, and what would happen. with all this he did not go forth from the valley of cuzco, although chiefs from some distant nations came to visit him. he lived in ynti-cancha, the house of the sun. he left a lineage called _usca mayta panaca ayllu_, and some members of it are still living in cuzco. the heads are named don juan tambo usca mayta, and don baltasar quiso mayta. they are hurin-cuzcos. mayta ccapac died at the age of years, in the year of the nativity of our lord jesus christ. the licentiate polo found his body and idol _guauqui_ with the rest. xviii. the life of ccapac yupanqui, the fifth inca[ ]. [note : all authorities are agreed that ccapac yupanqui was the fifth inca, except betanzos, who puts him in his father's place. garcilasso attributes extensive conquests to him, both to south and west.] at the time of his death, mayta ccapac named ccapac yupanqui as his successor, his son by his wife mama tacucaray. this ccapac yupanqui, as soon as he succeeded to the incaship, made his brothers swear allegiance to him, and that they desired that he should be ccapac. they complied from fear, for he was proud and cruel. at first he lived very quietly in the ynti-cancha. it is to be noted that although ccapac yupanqui succeeded his father, he was not the eldest son. cunti mayta, who was older, had an ugly face. his father had, therefore, disinherited him and named ccapac yupanqui as successor to the sovereignty, and cunti mayta as high priest. for this reason ccapac yupanqui was not the legitimate heir, although he tyrannically forced his brothers to swear allegiance to him. this inca, it is said, was the first to make conquests beyond the valley of cuzco. he forcibly subjugated the people of cuyumarca and ancasmarca, four leagues from cuzco. a wealthy sinchi of ayamarca, from fear, presented his daughter, named ccuri-hilpay to the inca. others say that she was a native of cuzco. the inca received her as his wife, and had a son by her named inca rocca, besides five other sons by various women. these sons were named apu calla, humpi, apu saca, apu chima-chaui, and uchun-cuna-ascalla-rando[ ]. apu saca had a son named apu mayta, a very valiant and famous captain, who greatly distinguished himself in the time of inca rocca and viracocha inca, in company with vicaquirau, another esteemed captain. besides these ccapac yupanqui had another son named apu urco huaranca[ ]. this ccapac yupanqui lived years, and was ccapac for years. he succeeded at the age of , and died in the year of the nativity of our redeemer jesus christ. his _ayllu_ or lineage was and is called _apu mayta panaca ayllu_. several of this lineage are now living, the principal heads being four in number, namely, don cristobal cusi-hualpa, don antonio piçuy, don francisco cocasaca, and don alonso rupaca. they are hurin-cuzcos. the licentiate polo found the idol or _guaoqui_ of this inca with the body. they were hidden with the rest, to conceal the idolatrous ceremonies of heathen times. [note : _calla_ means a distaff. _humpi_ means perspiration. _saca_ is a game bird, also a comet. chima-chaui is a proper name with no meaning. the name of the fifth son is rather unmanageable. uchun-cuna-ascalla-rando. _uchun-cuna_ would mean the peruvian pepper with the plural particle. _ascalla_ would be a small potato. _rando_ is a corrupt form of _runtu_, an egg. this little inca seems to have done the marketing.] [note : _urco_, the male gender. _huaranca_, a thousand.] xix. the life of inca rocca, the sixth inca[ ]. when ccapac yupanqui died, inca rocca, his son by his wife ccuri-hilpay, succeeded by nomination of his father and the guardian _ayllus_. this inca rocca showed force and valour at the beginning of his incaship, for he conquered the territories of muyna[ ] and pinahua with great violence and cruelty. they are rather more than four leagues to the south-south-east of cuzco. he killed their sinchis muyna pancu, and huaman-tupac, though some say that huaman-tupac fled and was never more seen. he did this by the help of apu mayta his nephew, and grandson of ccapac yupanqui. he also conquered caytomarca, four leagues from cuzco. he discovered the waters of hurin-chacan and those of hanan-chacan, which is as much as to say the upper and lower waters of cuzco, and led them in conduits; so that to this day they irrigate fields; and his sons and descendants have benefited by them to this day. [note : all authorities are agreed respecting inca rocca as the sixth inca. garcilasso makes him extend the inca dominion beyond the apurimac, and into the country of the chancos.] [note : muyna is a district with a lake, miles s.s.w. of cuzco. pinahua is mentioned by garcilasso as a chief to the westward, i. p. .] inca rocca gave himself up to pleasures and banquets, preferring to live in idleness. he loved his children to that extent, that for them he forgot duties to his people and even to his own person. he married a great lady of the town of pata-huayllacan, daughter of the sinchi of that territory, named soma inca. her name was mama micay. from this marriage came the wars between tocay ccapac and the cuzcos as we shall presently relate. by this wife inca rocca had a son named titu cusi hualpa[ ], and by another name yahuar-huaccac, and besides this eldest legitimate son he had four other famous sons named inca paucar, huaman taysi inca, and vicaquirau inca[ ]. the latter was a great warrior, companion in arms with apu mayta. these two captains won great victories and subdued many provinces for viracocha inca and inca yupanqui. they were the founders of the great power to which the incas afterwards attained. [note : _titu_ means august or magnanimous. _cusi_ joyful. _hualpa_ a game bird. _paucar_ means beautiful or bright coloured. _huaman_ a falcon. _vica_ may be _nilca_ sacred. _quirau_ a cradle.] as the events which happened in the reign of inca rocca touching the ayamarcas will be narrated in the life of his son, we will not say more of this inca, except that, while his ancestors had always lived in the lower part of cuzco, and were therefore called hurin-cuzcos, he ordered that those who sprang from him should form another party, and be called hanan-cuzcos, which means the cuzcos of the upper part. so that from this inca began the party of upper or hanan-cuzcos, for presently he and his successors left their residence at the house of the sun, and established themselves away from it, building palaces where they lived, in the upper part of the town. it is to be noted that each inca had a special palace in which he lived, the son not wishing to reside in the palace where his father had lived. it was left in the same state as it was in when the father died, with servants, relations, _ayllus_ or heirs that they might maintain it, and keep the edifices in repair. the incas and their _ayllus_ were, and still are hanan-cuzco; although afterwards, in the time of pachacuti, these _ayllus_ were reformed by him. some say that then were established the two parties which have been so celebrated in these parts. inca rocca named his son vicaquirao as the head of his lineage, and it is still called after him the _vicaquirao panaca ayllu_. there are now some of this lineage living in cuzco, the principal heads who protect and maintain it being the following: don francisco huaman rimachi hachacoma, and don antonio huaman mayta. they are hanan-cuzcos. inca rocca lived years, and died in the year of the nativity of our lord. the licentiate polo found his body in the town called rarapa, kept there with much care and veneration according to their rites. xx. the life of titu cusi hualpa, vulgarly called yahuar-huaccac. titu cusi hualpa inca, eldest son of inca rocca and his wife mama micay, had a strange adventure in his childhood[ ]. these natives therefore relate his life from his childhood, and in the course of it they tell some things of his father, and of some who were strangers in cuzco, as follows. it has been related how the inca rocca married mama micay by the rites of their religion. but it must be understood that those of huayllacan had already promised to give mama micay, who was their countrywoman and very beautiful, in marriage to tocay ccapac, sinchi of the ayamarcas their neighbours. when the ayamarcas[ ] saw that the huayllacans had broken their word, they were furious and declared war, considering them as enemies. war was carried on, the huayllacans defending themselves and also attacking the ayamarcas, both sides committing cruelties, inflicting deaths and losses, and causing great injury to each other. while this war was being waged, mama micay gave birth to her son titu cusi hualpa. the war continued for some years after his birth, when both sides saw that they were destroying each other, and agreed to come to terms, to avoid further injury. the ayamarcas, who were the most powerful, requested those of huayllacan to deliver the child titu cusi hualpa into their hands, to do what they liked with him. on this condition they would desist from further hostilities, but if it was not complied with, they announced that they would continue a mortal war to the end. the huayllacans, fearing this, and knowing their inability for further resistance, accepted the condition, although they were uncles and relations of the child. in order to comply it was necessary for them to deceive the inca. there was, in the town of paulo, a brother of inca rocca and uncle of titu cusi hualpa named inca paucar. he went or sent messengers to ask inca rocca to think well of sending his nephew titu cusi hualpa to his town of paulo in order that, while still a child, he might learn to know and care for his relations on his mother's side, while they wanted to make him the heir of their estates. believing in these words the inca rocca consented that his son should be taken to paulo, or the town of micocancha. as soon as they had the child in their town the huayllacans made great feasts in honour of titu cusi hualpa, who was then eight years old, a little more or less. his father had sent some incas to guard him. when the festivities were over, the huayllacans sent to give notice to the ayamarcas that, while they were occupied in ploughing certain lands which they call _chacaras_, they might come down on the town and carry off the child, doing with him what they chose, in accordance with the agreement. the ayamarcas, being informed, came at the time and to the place notified and, finding the child titu cusi hualpa alone, they carried it off. [note : the very interesting story of the kidnapping of the heir of inca rocca, is well told by sarmiento.] [note : the ayarmarcas seem to have occupied the country about miles s.s.w. of cuzco, near muyna. the word ayar is the same as that in the names of the brethren of manco ccapac. but others omit the r, and make it ayamarca, cieza de leon, pp. , , garcilasso, i. p. , yamqui pachacuti, p. . the month of october was called ayamarca-raymi. molina says that it was because the ayamarca tribe celebrated the feast of huarachicu in that month.] others say that this treason was carried out in another way. while the uncle was giving the child many presents, his cousins, the sons of inca paucar, became jealous and treated with tocay ccapac to deliver the child into his hands. owing to this notice tocay ccapac came. inca paucar had gone out to deliver to his nephew a certain estate and a flock of llamas. tocay ccapac, the enemy of inca rocca was told by those who had charge of the boy. he who carried him fled, and the boy was seized and carried off by tocay ccapac. be it the one way or the other, the result was that the ayamarcas took titu cusi hualpa from the custody of inca paucar in the town of paulo, while inca paucar and the huayllacans sent the news to inca rocca by one party, and with another took up arms against the ayamarcas. xxi. what happened after the ayamarcas had stolen titu cusi hualpa. when the ayamarcas and their sinchi tocay ccapac stole the son of inca rocca, they marched off with him. the huayllacans of paulopampa, under their sinchi paucar inca, marched in pursuit, coming up to them at a place called amaro, on the territory of the ayamarcas. there was an encounter between them, one side to recover the child, and the other to keep their capture. but paucar was only making a demonstration so as to have an excuse ready. consequently the ayamarcas were victorious, while the huayllacans broke and fled. it is said that in this encounter, and when the child was stolen, all the _orejones_ who had come as a guard from cuzco, were slain. the ayamarcas then took the child to the chief place of their province called ahuayro-cancha. many say that tocay ccapac was not personally in this raid but that he sent his ayamarcas, who, when they arrived at ahuayro-cancha, presented the child titu cusi hualpa to him, saying, "look here, tocay ccapac, at the prisoner we have brought you." the sinchi received his prize with great satisfaction, asking in a loud voice if this was the child of mama micay, who ought to have been his wife. titu cusi hualpa, though but a child, replied boldly that he was the son of mama micay and of the inca rocca. tocay was indignant when he had heard those words, and ordered those who brought the child as a prisoner to take him out and kill him. the boy, when he heard such a sentence passed upon him, was so filled with sadness and fright, that he began to weep from fear of death. he began to shed tears of blood and with indignation beyond his years, in the form of a malediction he said to tocay and the ayamarcas, "i tell you that as sure as you murder me there will come such a curse on you and your descendants that you will all come to an end, without any memory being left of your nation." the ayamarcas and tocay attentively considered this curse of the child together with the tears of blood. they thought there was some great mystery that so young a child should utter such weighty words, and that the fear of death should make such an impression on him that he should shed tears of blood. they were in suspense divining what it portended, whether that the child would become a great man. they revoked the sentence of death, calling the child _yahuar-huaccac_, which means "weeper of blood," in allusion to what had taken place. but although they did not wish to kill him then and with their own hands, they ordered that he should lead such a life as that he would die of hunger. before this they all said to the child that he should turn his face to cuzco and weep over it, because those curses he had pronounced, would fall on the inhabitants of cuzco, and so it happened. this done they delivered him to the most valiant indians, and ordered them to take him to certain farms where flocks were kept, giving him to eat by rule, and so sparingly that he would be consumed with hunger before he died. he was there for a year without leaving the place, so that they did not know at cuzco, or anywhere else, whether he was dead or alive. during this time inca rocca, being without certain knowledge of his son, did not wish to make war on the ayamarcas because, if he was alive, they might kill him. so he did no more than prepare his men of war and keep ready, while he enquired for his son in all the ways that were possible. xxii. how it became known that yahuar-huaccac was alive. as the child yahuar-huaccac was a year among the shepherds without leaving their huts, which served as a prison, no one knew where he was, because he could not come forth, being well watched by the shepherds and other guards. but it so happened that there was a woman in the place called chimpu orma, native of the town of anta, three leagues from cuzco. she was a concubine of the sinchi tocay ccapac, and for this reason she had leave to walk about and go into all parts as she pleased. she was the daughter of the sinchi of anta, and having given an account of the treatment of the child to her father, brothers, and relations, she persuaded them to help in his liberation. they came on a certain day and, with the pass given them by chimpu orma, the father and relations arranged the escape of yahuar-huaccac. they stationed themselves behind a hill. yahuar-huaccac was to run in a race with some other boys, to see which could get to the top of the hill first. when the prince reached the top, the men of anta, who were hidden there, took him in their arms and ran swiftly with him to anta. when the other boys saw this they quickly gave notice to the valiant guards, who ran after the men of anta. they overtook them at the lake of huaypon, where there was a fierce battle. finally the ayamarcas got the worst of it, for they were nearly all killed or wounded. the men of anta continued their journey to their town, where they gave many presents to yahuar-huaccac and much service, having freed him from the mortal imprisonment in which tocay ccapac held him. in this town of anta the boy remained a year, being served with much love, but so secretly that his father inca rocca did not know that he had escaped, during all that time. at the end of a year those of anta agreed to send messengers to inca rocca to let him know of the safety of his son and heir, because they desired to know and serve him. the messengers went to inca rocca and, having delivered their message, received the reply that the inca only knew that the ayamarcas had stolen his son. they were asked about it again and again, and at last inca rocca came down from his throne and closely examined the messengers, that they might tell him more, for not without cause had he asked them so often. the messengers, being so persistently questioned by inca rocca, related what had passed, and that his son was free in anta, served and regaled by the chief who had liberated him. inca rocca rejoiced, promised favours, and dismissed the messengers with thanks. inca rocca then celebrated the event with feasts and rejoicings. but not feeling quite certain of the truth of what he had been told, he sent a poor man seeking charity to make enquiries at anta, whether it was all true. the poor man went, ascertained that the child was certainly liberated, and returned with the news to inca rocca; which gave rise to further rejoicings in cuzco. presently the inca sent many principal people of cuzco with presents of gold, silver, and cloth to the antas, asking them to receive them and to send back his son. the antas replied that they did not want his presents which they returned, that they cared more that yahuar-huaccac should remain with them, that they might serve him and his father also, for they felt much love for the boy. yet if inca rocca wanted his son, he should be returned on condition that, from that time forwards, the antas should be called relations of the _orejones_. when inca rocca was made acquainted with the condition, he went to anta and conceded what they asked for, to the sinchi and his people. for this reason the antas were called relations of the cuzcos from that time. inca rocca brought his son yahuar-huaccac to cuzco and nominated him successor to the incaship, the _ayllus_ and _orejones_ receiving him as such. at the end of two years inca rocca died, and yahuar-huaccac, whose former name was titu cusi hualpa, remained sole inca. before inca rocca died he made friends with tocay ccapac, through the mediation of mama chicya, daughter of tocay ccapac, who married yahuar-huaccac, and inca rocca gave his daughter ccuri-occllo in marriage to tocay ccapac. xxiii. yahuar-huaccac inca yupanqui commences his reign alone, after the death of his father[ ]. when yahuar-huaccac found himself in possession of the sole sovereignty, he remembered the treason with which he had been betrayed by the huayllacans who sold him and delivered him up to his enemies the ayamarcas; and he proposed to inflict an exemplary punishment on them. when the huayllacans knew this, they humbled themselves before yahuar-huaccac, entreating him to forgive the evil deeds they had committed against him. yahuar-huaccac, taking into consideration that they were relations, forgave them. then he sent a force, under the command of his brother vicaquirau, against mohina and pinahua, four leagues from cuzco, who subdued these places. he committed great cruelties, for no other reason than that they did not come to obey his will. this would be about years after the time when he rested in cuzco. some years afterwards the town of mollaca, near cuzco, was conquered and subjugated by force of arms. [note : _yahuar_ means blood. _huaccani_ to weep. yahuar-huaccac succeeded to inca rocca according to garcilasso de la vega, montesinos, betanzos, balboa, yamqui pachacuti and sarmiento. cieza de leon and herrera have inca yupanqui. garcilasso makes this inca banish his son viracocha, who returns in consequence of a dream, and defeats the chancas. this all seems to be a mistake. it was viracocha who fled, and his son inca yupanqui, surnamed pachacuti, who defeated the chancas and dethroned his father.] yahuar-huaccac had, by his wife mama chicya, three legitimate sons. the eldest was paucar ayllu. the second, pahuac hualpa mayta[ ], was chosen to succeed his father, though he was not the eldest. the third was named viracocha, who was afterwards inca through the death of his brother. besides these he had three other illegitimate sons named vicchu tupac because he subdued the town of vicchu, marca-yutu, and rocca inca. as the huayllacans wanted marca-yutu to succeed yahuar-huaccac, because he was their relation, they determined to kill pahuac hualpa mayta, who was nominated to succeed. with this object they asked his father to let him go to paulo. forgetting their former treason, he sent the child to its grandfather soma inca with forty _orejones_ of the _ayllus_ of cuzco as his guard. when he came to their town they killed him, for which the inca, his father, inflicted a great punishment on the huayllacans, killing some and banishing others until very few were left. [note : or pahuac mayta inca (garcilasso de la vega, i. p. ) so named from his swiftness. _pahuani_, to run.] the inca then went to the conquest of pillauya, three leagues from cuzco in the valley of pisac, and to choyca, an adjacent place, and to yuco. after that he oppressed by force and with cruelties, the towns of chillincay, taocamarca, and the caviñas, making them pay tribute. the inca conquered ten places himself or through his son and captains. some attribute all the conquests to his son viracocha. this inca was a man of gentle disposition and very handsome face. he lived years. he succeeded his father at the age of , and was sovereign for years. he left an _ayllu_ named _aucaylli panaca_, and some are still living at cuzco. the principal chiefs who maintain it are don juan concha yupanqui, don martin titu yupanqui, and don gonzalo paucar aucaylli. they are hanan-cuzcos. the body of this inca has not been discovered[ ]. it is believed that those of the town of paulo have it, with the inca's _guauqui_. [note : in the margin of the ms., "the witnesses said that they believed that the licentiate polo found it." navamuel.] xxiv. life of viracocha the eighth inca[ ]. [note : all authorities agree respecting viracocha as the eighth inca.] as the huayllacans murdered pahuac hualpa mayta who should have succeeded his father yahuar-huaccac, the second son viracocha inca was nominated for the succession, whose name when a child was hatun tupac inca, younger legitimate son of yahuar-huaccac and mama chicya. he was married to mama runtucaya, a native of anta. once when this hatun tupac inca was in urcos, a town which is a little more than five leagues s.s.e. of cuzco, where there was a sumptuous _huaca_ in honour of ticci viracocha, the deity appeared to him in the night. next morning he assembled his _orejones_, among them his tutor hualpa rimachi, and told them how viracocha had appeared to him that night, and had announced great good fortune to him and his descendants. in congratulating him hualpa rimachi saluted him, "o viracocha inca." the rest followed his example and celebrated this name, and the inca retained it all the rest of his life. others say that he took this name, because, when he was armed as a knight and had his ears bored, he took ticci viracocha as the godfather of his knighthood. be it as it may, all that is certain is that when a child, before he succeeded his father, he was named hatun tupac inca, and afterwards, for the rest of his life, viracocha inca. after he saw the apparition in urcos, the inca came to cuzco, and conceived the plan of conquering and tyrannizing over all the country that surrounds cuzco. for it is to be understood that, although his father and grandfather had conquered and robbed in these directions, as their only object was rapine and bloodshed, they did not place garrisons in the places they subdued, so that when the inca, who had conquered these people, died, they rose in arms and regained their liberty. this is the reason that we repeat several times that a place was conquered, for it was by different incas. for instance mohina and pinahua, although first overrun by inca rocca, were also invaded by yahuar-huaccac, and then by viracocha and his son inca yupanqui. each town fought so hard for its liberty, both under their sinchis and without them, that one succeeded in subjugating one and another defeated another. this was especially the case in the time of the incas. even in cuzco itself those of one suburb, called carmenca, made war on another suburb called cayocachi. so it is to be understood that, in the time of the seven incas preceding viracocha, although owing to the power they possessed in the _ayllus_, they terrorized those of cuzco and the immediate neighbourhood, the subjection only lasted while the lance was over the vanquished, and that the moment they had a chance they took up arms for their liberty. they did this at great risk to themselves, and sustained much loss of life, even those in cuzco itself, until the time of viracocha inca. this inca had resolved to subjugate all the tribes he possibly could by force and cruelty. he selected as his captains two valiant _orejones_ the one named apu mayta and the other vicaquirau, of the lineage of inca rocca. with these captains, who were cruel and impious, he began to subjugate, before all things, the inhabitants of cuzco who were not incas _orejones_, practising on them great cruelties and putting many to death. at this time many towns and provinces were up in arms. those in the neighbourhood of cuzco had risen to defend themselves from the _orejones_ incas of cuzco who had made war to tyrannize over them. others were in arms with the same motives as the incas, which was to subdue them if their forces would suffice. thus it was that though many sinchis were elected, their proceedings were confused and without concert, so that each force was small, and they were all weak and without help from each other. this being known to viracocha, it encouraged him to commence his policy of conquest beyond cuzco. before coming to treat of the nations which viracocha inca conquered, we will tell of the sons he had. by mama runtucaya, his legitimate wife, he had four sons, the first and eldest inca rocca, the second tupac yupanqui, the third inca yupanqui, and the fourth ccapac yupanqui. by another beautiful indian named ccuri-chulpa, of the ayavilla nation in the valley of cuzco he also had two sons, the one named inca urco, the other inca socso. the descendants of inca urco, however, say that he was legitimate, but all the rest say that he was a bastard[ ]. [note : urco is made by cieza de leon to succeed, and to have been dethroned by inca yupanqui owing to his flight from the chancas. yamqui pachacuti records the death of urco. herrera, fernandez, yamqui pachacuti also make urco succeed viracocha.] xxv. the provinces and towns conquered by the eighth inca viracocha. viracocha, having named apu mayta and vicaquirau as his captains, and mustered his forces, gave orders that they should advance to make conquests beyond the valley of cuzco. they went to pacaycacha, in the valley of pisac, three leagues and a half from cuzco. and because the besieged did not submit at once they assaulted the town, killing the inhabitants and their sinchi named acamaqui. next the inca marched against the towns of mohina, pinahua, casacancha, and runtucancha, five short leagues from cuzco. they had made themselves free, although yahuar-huaccac had sacked their towns. the captains of viracocha attacked and killed most of the natives, and their sinchis named muyna pancu and huaman tupac. the people of mohina and pinahua suffered from this war and subsequent cruelties because they said that they were free, and would not serve nor be vassals to the incas. at this time the eldest son, inca rocca, was grown up and showed signs of being a courageous man. viracocha, therefore, made him captain-general with apu mayta and vicaquirau as his colleagues. they also took with them inca yupanqui, who also gave hopes owing to the valour he had shown in the flower of his youth. with these captains the conquests were continued. huaypar-marca was taken, the ayamarcas were subdued, and tocay ccapac and chihuay ccapac, who had their seats near cuzco, were slain. the incas next subjugated mollaca and ruined the town of cayto, four leagues from cuzco, killing its sinchi named ccapac chani they assaulted the towns of socma and chiraques, killing their sinchis named puma lloqui and illacumbi, who were very warlike chiefs in that time, who had most valorously resisted the attacks of former incas, that they might not come from cuzco to subdue them. the inca captains also conquered calca and caquia xaquixahuana, three leagues from cuzco, and the towns of collocte and camal. they subdued the people between cuzco and quiquisana with the surrounding country, the papris and other neighbouring places; all within seven or eight leagues round cuzco. [_in these conquests they committed very great cruelties, robberies, put many to death and destroyed towns, burning and desolating along the road without leaving memory of anything_.] as viracocha was now very old, he nominated as his successor his bastard son inca urco, without regard to the order of succession, because he was very fond of his mother. this inca was bold, proud, and despised others, so that he aroused the indignation of the warriors, more especially of the legitimate sons, inca rocca, who was the eldest, and of the valiant captains apu mayta and vicaquirau. these took order to prevent this succession to the incaship, preferring one of the other brothers, the best conditioned, who would treat them well and honourably as they deserved. they secretly set their eyes on the third of the legitimate sons named cusi, afterwards called inca yupanqui, because they believed that he was mild and affable, and, besides these qualities, he showed signs of high spirit and lofty ideas. apu mayta was more in favour of this plan than the others, as he desired to have some one to shield him from the fury of viracocha inca. mayta thought that the inca would kill him because he had seduced a woman named cacchon chicya, who was a wife of viracocha. apu mayta had spoken of his plan and of his devotion to cusi, to his colleague vicaquirau. while they were consulting how it should be managed, the chancas of andahuaylas, thirty leagues from cuzco, marched upon that city, as will be narrated in the life of inca yupanqui. inca viracocha, from fear of them, fled from cuzco, and went to a place called caquia xaquixahuana, where he shut himself up, being afraid of the chancas. here he died after some years, deprived of cuzco of which his son cusi had possession for several years before his father's death. viracocha inca was he who had made the most extensive conquests beyond cuzco and, as we may say, he tyrannized anew even as regards cuzco, as has been said above. viracocha lived years, succeeding at the age of . he was ccapac years. he named the _ayllu_, which he left for the continuance of his lineage, _socso panaca ayllu_, and some are still living at cuzco, the heads being amaru titu, don francisco chalco yupanqui, don francisco anti hualpa. they are hanan-cuzcos. this inca was industrious, and inventor of cloths and embroidered work called in their language _viracocha-tocapu_, and amongst us _brocade_. he was rich [_for he robbed much_] and had vases of gold and silver. he was buried in caquia xaquixahuana and gonzalo pizarro, having heard that there was treasure with the body, discovered it and a large sum of gold. he burnt the body, and the natives collected the ashes and hid them in a vase. this, with the inca's _guauqui_, called _inca amaru_, was found by the licentiate polo, when he was corregidor of cuzco. xxvi. the life of inca yupanqui or pachacuti[ ], the ninth inca. [note : inca yupanqui surnamed pachacuti was the ninth inca. all the authorities agree that he dethroned either his father viracocha, or his half brother urco, after his victory over the chancas, and that he had a long and glorious reign.] it is related, in the life of inca viracocha, that he had four legitimate sons. of these the third named cusi, and as surname inca yupanqui, was raised to the incaship by the famous captains apu mayta and vicaquirau, and by the rest of the legitimate sons, and against the will of his father. in the course of their intrigues to carry this into effect, the times gave them the opportunity which they could not otherwise have found, in the march of the chancas upon cuzco. it happened in this way. thirty leagues to the west of cuzco there is a province called andahuaylas, the names of the natives of it being chancas. in this province there were two sinchis, [_robbers and cruel tyrants_] named uscovilca and ancovilca who, coming on an expedition from near huamanca with some companies of robbers, had settled in the valley of andahuaylas, and had there formed a state. they were brothers. uscovilca being the elder and principal one, instituted a tribe which he called hanan-chancas or upper chancas. ancovilca formed another tribe called hurin-chancas or lower chancas. these chiefs, after death, were embalmed, and because they were feared for their cruelties in life, were kept by their people. the hanan-chancas carried the statue of uscovilca with them, in their raids and wars. although they had other sinchis, they always attributed their success to the statue of uscovilca, which they called ancoallo. the tribes and companies of uscovilca had multiplied prodigiously in the time of viracocha. it seemed to them that they were so powerful that no one could equal them, so they resolved to march from andahuaylas and conquer cuzco. with this object they elected two sinchis, one named asto-huaraca, and the other tomay-huaraca, one of the tribe of hanan-chanca, the other of hurin-chanca. these were to lead them in their enterprise. the chancas and their sinchis were proud and insolent. setting out from andahuaylas they marched on the way to cuzco until they reached a place called ichu-pampa, five leagues west of that city, where they halted for some days, terrifying the neighbourhood and preparing for an advance. the news spread terror among the _orejones_ of cuzco, for they doubted the powers of inca viracocha, who was now very old and weak. thinking that the position of cuzco was insecure, viracocha called a council of his sons and captains apu mayta and vicaquirau. these captains said to him--"inca viracocha! we have understood what you have proposed to us touching this matter, and how you ought to meet the difficulty. after careful consideration it appears to us that as you are old and infirm owing to what you have undergone in former wars, it will not be well that you should attempt so great a business, dangerous and with victory doubtful, such as that which now presents itself before your eyes. the wisest counsel respecting the course you should adopt is that you should leave cuzco, and proceed to the place of chita, and thence to caquia xaquixahuana, which is a strong fort, whence you may treat for an agreement with the chancas." they gave this advice to viracocha to get him out of cuzco and give them a good opportunity to put their designs into execution, which were to raise cusi inca yupanqui to the throne. in whatever manner it was done, it is certain that this advice was taken by the inca viracocha. he determined to leave cuzco and proceed to chita, in accordance with their proposal. but when cusi inca yupanqui found that his father was determined to leave cuzco, they say that he thus addressed him, "how father can it fit into your heart to accept such infamous advice as to leave cuzco, city of the sun and of viracocha, whose name you have taken, whose promise you hold that you shall be a great lord, you and your descendants." though a boy, he said this with the animated daring of a man high in honour. the father answered that he was a boy and that he spoke like one, in talking without consideration, and that such words were of no value. inca yupanqui replied that he would remain where they would be remembered, that he would not leave cuzco nor abandon the house of the sun. they say that all this was planned by the said captains of viracocha, apu mayta and vicaquirau, to throw those off their guard who might conceive suspicion respecting the remaining of inca yupanqui in cuzco. so viracocha left cuzco and went to chita, taking with him his two illegitimate sons inca urco and inca socso. his son inca yupanqui remained at cuzco, resolved to defend the city or die in its defence. seven chiefs remained with him; inca rocca his elder and legitimate brother, apu mayta, vicaquirau, quillis-cacha, urco huaranca, chima chaui pata yupanqui, viracocha inca paucar, and mircoy-mana the tutor of inca yupanqui. xxvii coming of the chancas against cuzco. at the time when inca viracocha left cuzco, asto-huaraca and tomay-huaraca set out for ichu-pampa, first making sacrifices and blowing out the lungs of an animal, which they call _calpa_. this they did not well understand, from what happened afterwards. marching on towards cuzco, they arrived at a place called conchacalla, where they took a prisoner. from him they learnt what was happening at cuzco, and he offered to guide them there secretly. thus he conducted them half way. but then his conscience cried out to him touching the evil he was doing. so he fled to cuzco, and gave the news that the chancas were resolutely advancing. the news of this indian, who was a quillis-cachi of cuzco, made viracocha hasten his flight to chita, whither the chancas sent their messengers summoning him to surrender, and threatening war if he refused. others say that these were not messengers but scouts and that inca viracocha, knowing this, told them that he knew they were spies of the chancas, that he did not want to kill them, but that they might return and tell their people that if they wanted anything he was there. so they departed and at the mouth of a channel of water some of them fell and were killed. at this the chancas were much annoyed. they said that the messengers had been ordered to go to inca viracocha, and that they were killed by his captain quequo mayta. while this was proceeding with the messengers of the chancas, the chanca army was coming nearer to cuzco. inca yupanqui made great praying to viracocha and to the sun to protect the city. one day he was at susurpuquio in great affliction, thinking over the best plan for opposing his enemies, when there appeared a person in the air like the sun, consoling him and animating him for the battle. this being held up to him a mirror in which the provinces he would subdue were shown, and told him that he would be greater than any of his ancestors: he was to have no doubt, but to return to the city, because he would conquer the chancas who were marching on cuzco. with these words the vision animated inca yupanqui. he took the mirror, which he carried with him ever afterwards, in peace or war, and returned to the city, where he began to encourage those he had left there, and some who came from afar[ ]. the latter came to look on, not daring to declare for either party, fearing the rage of the conqueror if they should join the conquered side. inca yupanqui, though only a lad of or years, provided for everything as one who was about to fight for his life. [note : susurpuquio seems to have been a fountain or spring on the road to xaquixahuana. molina relates the story of the vision somewhat differently, p. . mrs. zelia nuttall thinks that the description of the vision bears such a very strong resemblance to a bas relief found in guatemala that they must have a common origin.] while the inca yupanqui was thus engaged the chancas had been marching, and reached a place very near cuzco called cusi-pampa, there being nothing between it and cuzco but a low hill. here the quillis-cachi was encountered again. he said that he had been to spy, and that he rejoiced to meet them. this deceiver went from one side to the other, always keeping friends with both, to secure the favour of the side which eventually conquered. the chancas resumed the march, expecting that there would be no defence. but the quillis-cachi, mourning over the destruction of his country, disappeared from among the chancas and went to cuzco to give the alarm. "to arms! to arms!" he shouted, "inca yupanqui. the chancas are upon you." at these words the inca, who was not off his guard, mustered and got his troops in order, but he found very few willing to go forth with him to oppose the enemy, almost all took to the hills to watch the event. with those who were willing to follow, though few in number, chiefly the men of the seven sinchis, brothers and captains, named above, he formed a small force and came forth to receive the enemy who advanced in fury and without order. the opposing forces advanced towards each other, the chancas attacking the city in four directions. the inca yupanqui sent all the succour he could to the assailed points, while he and his friends advanced towards the statue and standard of uscovilca, with asto-huaraca and tomay-huaraca defending them. here there was a bloody and desperate battle, one side striving to enter the city, and the other opposing its advance. those who entered by a suburb called chocos-chacona were valiantly repulsed by the inhabitants. they say that a woman named chañan-ccuri-coca here fought like a man, and so valiantly opposed the chancas that they were obliged to retire. this was the cause that all the chancas who saw it were dismayed. the inca yupanqui meanwhile was so quick and dexterous with his weapon, that those who carried the statue of uscovilca became alarmed, and their fear was increased when they saw great numbers of men coming down from the hills. they say that these were sent by viracocha, the creator, as succour for the inca. the chancas began to give way, leaving the statue of uscovilca, and they say even that of ancovilca. attacking on two sides, inca rocca, apu mayta, and vicaquirau made great havock among the chancas. seeing that their only safety was in flight, they turned their backs, and their quickness in running exceeded their fierceness in advancing. the men of cuzco continued the pursuit, killing and wounding, for more than two leagues, when they desisted. the chancas returned to ichu-pampa, and the _orejones_ to cuzco, having won a great victory and taken a vast amount of plunder which remained in their hands. the cuzcos rejoiced at this victory won with so little expectation or hope. they honoured inca yupanqui with many epithets, especially calling him pachacuti, which means "over-turner of the earth," alluding to the land and farms which they looked upon as lost by the coming of the chancas. for he had made them free and safe again. from that time he was called pachacuti inca yupanqui. as soon as the victory was secure, inca yupanqui did not wish to enjoy the triumph although many tried to persuade him. he wished to give his father the glory of such a great victory. so he collected the most precious spoils, and took them to his father who was in chita, with a principal _orejon_ named quillis-cachi urco huaranca. by him he sent to ask his father to enjoy that triumph and tread on those spoils of the enemy, a custom they have as a sign of victory. when quillis-cachi urco huaranca arrived before viracocha inca, he placed those spoils of the chancas at his feet with great reverence, saying, "inca viracocha! thy son pachacuti inca yupanqui, to whom the sun has given such a great victory, vanquishing the powerful chancas, sends me to salute you, and says that, as a good and humble son he wishes you to triumph over your victory and to tread upon these spoils of your enemies, conquered by your hands." inca viracocha did not wish to tread on them, but said that his son inca urco should do so, as he was to succeed to the incaship. hearing this the messenger rose and gave utterance to furious words, saying that he did not come for cowards to triumph by the deeds of pachacuti. he added that if viracocha did not wish to receive this recognition from so valiant a son, it would be better that pachachuti should enjoy the glory for which he had worked. with this he returned to cuzco, and told pachacuti what had happened with his father. xxviii. the second victory of pachacuti inca yupanqui over the chancas. while pachacuti inca yupanqui was sending the spoil to his father, the chancas were recruiting and assembling more men at ichu-pampa, whence they marched on cuzco the first time. the sinchis tomay-huaraca and asto-huaraca began to boast, declaring that they would return to cuzco and leave nothing undestroyed. this news came to pachacuti inca yupanqui. he received it with courage and, assembling his men, he marched in search of the chancas. when they heard that the incas were coming, they resolved to march out and encounter them, but the advance of pachacuti inca yupanqui was so rapid that he found the chancas still at ichu-pampa. as soon as the two forces came in sight of each other, asto-huaraca, full of arrogance, sent to inca yupanqui to tell him that he could see the power of the chancas and the position they now held. they were not like him coming from the poverty stricken cuzco, and if he did not repent the past and become a tributary and vassal to the chancas; asto-huaraca would dye his lance in an inca's blood. but inca yupanqui was not terrified by the embassy. he answered in this way to the messenger. "go back brother and say to asto-huaraca, your sinchi, that inca yupanqui is a child of the sun and guardian of cuzco, the city of ticci viracocha pachayachachi, by whose order i am here guarding it. for this city is not mine but his; and if your sinchi should wish to own obedience to ticci viracocha, or to me in his name, he will be honourably received. if your sinchi should see things in another light, show him that i am here with our friends, and if he should conquer us he can call himself lord and inca. but let him understand that no more time can be wasted in demands and replies. god (ticci viracocha) will give the victory to whom he pleases." with this reply the chancas felt that they had profited little by their boasting. they ran to their arms because they saw pachacuti closely following the bearer of his reply. the two armies approached each other in ichu-pampa, encountered, and mixed together, the chancas thrusting with long lances, the incas using slings, clubs, axes and arrows, each one defending himself and attacking his adversary. the battle raged for a long time, without advantage on either side. at last pachacuti made a way to where asto-huaraca was fighting, attacked him and delivered a blow with his hatchet which cut off the chanca's head. tomay-huaraca was already killed. the inca caused the heads of these two captains to be set on the points of lances, and raised on high to be seen by their followers. the chancas, on seeing the heads, despaired of victory without leaders. they gave up the contest and sought safety in flight. inca yupanqui and his army followed in pursuit, wounding and killing until there was nothing more to do. this great victory yielded such rich and plentiful spoils, that pachacuti inca yupanqui proposed to go to where his father was, report to him the story of the battle and the victory, and to offer him obedience that he might triumph as if the victory was his own. loaded with spoil and chanca prisoners he went to visit his father. some say that it was at a place called caquia xaquixahuana, four leagues from cuzco, others that it was at marco, three leagues from cuzco. wherever it was, there was a great ceremony, presents being given, called _muchanaco_[ ]. when pachacuti had given his father a full report, he ordered the spoils of the enemy to be placed at his feet, and asked his father to tread on them and triumph over the victory. but viracocha inca, still intent upon having inca urco for his successor, desired that the honour offered to him should be enjoyed by his favourite son. he, therefore, did not wish to accept the honours for himself. yet not wishing to offend the inca yupanqui pachacuti on such a crucial point, he said that he would tread on the spoils and prisoners, and did so. he excused himself from going to triumph at cuzco owing to his great age, which made him prefer to rest at caquia xaquixahuana. [note : _muchani_, i worship. _nacu_ is a particle giving a reciprocal or mutual meaning, "joint worship."] with this reply pachacuti departed for cuzco with a great following of people and riches. the inca urco also came to accompany him, and on the road there was a quarrel in the rear guard between the men of urco and those of pachacuti. others say that it was an ambush laid for his brother by urco and that they fought. the inca pachacuti took no notice of it, and continued his journey to cuzco, where he was received with much applause and in triumph. soon afterwards, as one who thought of assuming authority over the whole land and taking away esteem from his father, as he presently did, he began to distribute the spoils, and confer many favours with gifts and speeches. with the fame of these grand doings, people came to cuzco from all directions and many of those who were at caquia xaquixahuana left it and came to the new inca at cuzco. xxix. the inca yupanqui assumes the sovereignty and takes the fringe, without the consent of his father. when the inca yupanqui found himself so strong and that he had been joined by so many people, he determined not to wait for the nomination of his father, much less for his death, before he rose with the people of cuzco with the further intention of obtaining the assent of those without. with this object he caused a grand sacrifice to be offered to the sun in the inti-cancha or house of the sun, and then went to ask the image of the sun who should be inca. the oracle of the devil, or perhaps some indian who was behind to give the answer, replied that inca yupanqui pachacuti was chosen and should be inca. on this answer being given, all who were present at the sacrifice, prostrated themselves before pachacuti, crying out "ccapac inca intip churin," which means "sovereign lord child of the sun." presently they prepared a very rich fringe of gold and emeralds wherewith to crown him. next day they took pachacuti inca yupanqui to the house of the sun, and when they came to the image of the sun, which was of gold and the size of a man, they found it with the fringe, as if offering it of its own will. first making his sacrifices, according to their custom, he came to the image, and the high priest called out in his language "intip apu," which means "governor of things pertaining to the sun." with much ceremony and great reverence the fringe was taken from the image and placed, with much pomp, on the forehead of pachacuti inca yupanqui. then all called his name and hailed him "intip churin inca pachacuti," or "child of the sun lord, over-turner of the earth." from that time he was called pachacuti besides his first name which was inca yupanqui. then the inca presented many gifts and celebrated the event with feasts. [_he was sovereign inca without the consent of his father or of the people, but by those he had gained over to his side by gifts_.] xxx. pachacuti inca yupanqui rebuilds the city of cuzco. as soon as the festivities were over, the inca laid out the city of cuzco on a better plan; and formed the principal streets as they were when the spaniards came. he divided the land for communal, public, and private edifices, causing them to be built with very excellent masonry. it is such that we who have seen it, and know that they did not possess instruments of iron or steel to work with, are struck with admiration on beholding the equality and precision with which the stones are laid, as well as the closeness of the points of junction. with the rough stones it is even more interesting to examine the work and its composition. as the sight alone satisfies the curious, i will not waste time in a more detailed description. besides this, pachacuti inca yupanqui, considering the small extent of land round cuzco suited for cultivation, supplied by art what was wanting in nature. along the skirts of the hills near villages, and also in other parts, he constructed very long terraces of paces more or less, and to wide, faced with masonry, and filled with earth, much of it brought from a distance. we call these terraces _andenes_, the native name being _sucres_. he ordered that they should be sown, and in this way he made a vast increase in the cultivated land, and in provision for sustaining the companies and garrisons. in order that the precise time of sowing and harvesting might be known, and that nothing might be lost, the inca caused four poles to be set up on a high mountain to the east of cuzco, about two _varas_ apart, on the heads of which there were holes, by which the sun entered, in the manner of a watch or astrolabe. observing where the sun struck the ground through these holes, at the time of sowing and harvest, marks were made on the ground. other poles were set up in the part corresponding to the west of cuzco, for the time of harvesting the maize. having fixed the positions exactly by these poles, they built columns of stone for perpetuity in their places, of the height of the poles and with holes in like places. all round it was ordered that the ground should be paved; and on the stones certain lines were drawn, conforming to the movements of the sun entering through the holes in the columns. thus the whole became an instrument serving for an annual time-piece, by which the times of sowing and harvesting were regulated. persons were appointed to observe these watches, and to notify to the people the times they indicated[ ]. [note : the pillars at cuzco to determine the time of the solstices were called _sucanca_. the two pillars denoting the beginning of winter, whence the year was measured, were called _pucuy sucanca_. those notifying the beginning of spring were _chirao sucanca_. _suca_ means a ridge or furrow and _sucani_ to make ridges: hence _sucanca_, the alternate light and shadow, appearing like furrows. acosta says there was a pillar for each month. garcilasso de la vega tells us that there were eight on the east, and eight on the west side of cuzco (i. p. ) in double rows, four and four, two small between two high ones, feet apart. cieza de leon says that they were in the carmenca suburb (i. p. ). to ascertain the time of the equinoxes there was a stone column in the open space before the temple of the sun in the centre of a large circle. this was the _inti-huatana_. a line was drawn across from east to west and they watched when the shadow of the pillar was on the line from sunrise to sunset and there was no shadow at noon. there is another _inti-huatana_ at pisac, and another at hatun-colla. _inti_, the sun god, _huatani_, to seize, to tie round, _inti-huatana_, a sun circle.] besides this, as he was curious about the things of antiquity, and wished to perpetuate his name, the inca went personally to the hill of tampu-tocco or paccari-tampu, names for the same thing, and entered the cave whence it is held for certain that manco ccapac and his brethren came when they marched to cuzco for the first time, as has already been narrated. after he had made a thorough inspection, he venerated the locality and showed his feeling by festivals and sacrifices. he placed doors of gold on the window ccapac-tocco, and ordered that from that time forward the locality should be venerated by all, making it a prayer place and _huaca_, whither to go to pray for oracles and to sacrifice. having done this the inca returned to cuzco. he ordered the year to be divided into twelve months, almost like our year. i say almost, because there is some difference, though slight, as will be explained in its place. he called a general assembly of the oldest and wisest men of cuzco and other parts, who with much diligence scrutinized and examined the histories and antiquities of the land, principally of the incas and their forefathers. he ordered the events to be painted and preserved in order, as i explained when i spoke of the method adopted in preparing this history. xxxi. pachacuti inca yupanqui rebuilds the house of the sun and establishes new idols in it. having adorned the city of cuzco with edifices, streets, and the other things that have been mentioned, pachacuti inca yupanqui reflected that since the time of manco ccapac, none of his predecessors had done anything for the house of the sun. he, therefore, resolved to enrich it with more oracles and edifices to appal ignorant people and produce astonishment, that they might help in the conquest of the whole land which he intended to subdue, and in fact he commenced and achieved the subjugation of a large portion of it he disinterred the bodies of the seven deceased incas, from manco ccapac to yahuar-huaccac, which were all in the house of the sun, enriching them with masks, head-dresses called _chuco_, medals, bracelets, sceptres called _yauri_ or _champi_[ ], and other ornaments of gold. he then placed them, in the order of their seniority, on a bench with a back, richly adorned with gold, and ordered great festivals to be celebrated with representations of the lives of each inca. these festivals, which are called _purucaya_[ ], were continued for more than four months. great and sumptuous sacrifices were made to each inca, at the conclusion of the representation of his acts and life. this gave them such authority that it made all strangers adore them, and worship them as gods. these strangers, when they beheld such majesty, humbled themselves, and put up their hands to worship or _mucha_ as they say. the corpses were held in great respect and veneration until the spaniards came to this land of peru. [note : _champi_ means a one-handed battle axe (garcilasso de la vega, i. lib. ix. cap. ). novices received it at the festival of huarachicu, with the word _auccacunapac_, for traitors.] [note : according to mossi _puruccayan_ was the general mourning on the death of the inca.] besides these corpses, pachacuti made two images of gold. he called one of them viracocha pachayachachi. it represented the creator, and was placed on the right of the image of the sun. the other was called _chuqui ylla_, representing lightning, placed on the left of the sun. this image was most highly venerated by all. inca yupanqui adopted this idol for his _guauqui_[ ], because he said that it had appeared and spoken in a desert place and had given him a serpent with two heads, to carry about with him always, saying that while he had it with him, nothing sinister could happen in his affairs. to these idols the inca gave the use of lands, flocks, and servants, especially of certain women who lived in the same house of the sun, in the manner of nuns. these all came as virgins but few remained without having had connexion with the inca. at least he was so vicious in this respect, that he had access to all whose looks gave him pleasure, and had many sons. [note : _huauqui_, brother.] besides this house, there were some _huacas_ in the surrounding country. these were that of huanacauri, and others called anahuarqui, yauira, cinga, picol, pachatopan[ ] [_to many they made the accursed sacrifices, which they called_ ccapac cocha, _burying children, aged or , alive as offerings to the devil, with many offerings of vases of gold and silver_]. [note : anahuarqui was the name of the wife of tupac inca yupanqui. yauira may be for yauirca, a fabulous creature described by yamqui pachacuti. cinga and picol do not occur elsewhere. pachatopan is no doubt _pacha tupac_, beautiful land.] the inca, they relate, also caused to be made a great woollen chain of many colours, garnished with gold plates, and two red fringes at the end. it was fathoms in length, more or less. this was used in their public festivals, of which there were four principal ones in the year. the first was called raymi or ccapac raymi, which was when they opened the ears of knights at a ceremony called _huarachico_. the second was called situa resembling our lights of st john[ ]. they all ran at midnight with torches to bathe, saying that they were thus left clean of all diseases. the third was called ynti raymi, being the feast of the sun, known as _aymuray_. in these feasts they took the chain out of the house of the sun and all the principal indians, very richly dressed, came with it, in order, singing, from the house of the sun to the great square which they encircled with the chain. this was called _moroy urco_[ ]. [note : the months and the festivals which took place in each month are given by several authorities. the most correct are those of polo de ondegardo and calancha who agree throughout. calancha gives the months as received by the first council of lima. june-- july. intip raymi (_sun festival_). july-- aug. chahuar huarquiz--ploughing month. aug.-- sept. yapaquiz (situa _or moon festival_)--sowing month. sept.-- oct. ccoya raymi---expiatory feast. molina a month behind. oct.-- nov. uma raymi--month of brewing chicha. nov.-- dec. ayamarca--commemoration of the dead. dec.-- jan. ccapac raymi (huarachicu _festival_). jan.-- feb. camay--month of exercises. feb.-- march. hatun poccoy (great ripening). march-- april. pacha poccoy (mosoc nina _festival_). april-- may. ayrihua (harvest). may-- june. aymuray (harvest home).] [note : the great chain, used at festivals, is called by sarmiento muru-urco. see also molina. _muru_ means a coloured spot, or a thing of variegated colours. molina says that it was the house where the chain was kept that was called muru-urco, as well as the cable. _huasca_ is another name for a cable (see g. de la vega, ii. p, ).] xxxii. pachacuti inca yupanqui depopulates two leagues of country near cuzco. after pachacuti had done what has been described in the city, he turned his attention to the people. seeing that there were not sufficient lands for sowing, so as to sustain them, he went round the city at a distance of four leagues from it, considering the valleys, situation, and villages. he depopulated all that were within two leagues of the city. the lands of depopulated villages were given to the city and its inhabitants, and the deprived people were settled in other parts. the citizens of cuzco were well satisfied with the arrangement, for they were given what cost little, and thus he made friends by presents taken from others, and took as his own the valley of tambo [_which was not his_]. the news of the enlargement of this city went far and wide, and reached the ears of viracocha inca, retired in caquia xaquixahuana[ ]. he was moved to go and see cuzco. the inca yupanqui went for him, and brought him to cuzco with much rejoicing. he went to the house of the sun, worshipped at huanacauri and saw all the improvements that had been made. having seen everything he returned to his place at caquia xaquixahuana, where he resided until his death, never again visiting cuzco, nor seeing his son pachacuti inca yupanqui. [note : this great plain to the north-west of cuzco, called xaquixahuana, and sacsahuana, is now known as surita. most of the early writers call it sacsahuana. sarmiento always places the word caquia before the name. _capuchini_ is to provide, _capuchic_ a purveyor. hence _capuquey_ means "my goods," abbreviated to _caguey_, "my property." the meaning is "my estate of xaquixahuana."] xxxiii. pachacuti inca yupanqui kills his elder brother named inca urco. pachacuti inca yupanqui found himself so powerful with the companies he had got together by liberal presents to all, that he proposed to subjugate by their means all the territories he could reach. for this he mustered all the troops that were in cuzco, and provided them with arms, and all that was necessary for war. affairs being in this state pachacuti heard that his brother urco was in a valley called yucay, four leagues from cuzco, and that he had assembled some people. fearing that the movement was intended against him the inca marched there with his army. his brother inca rocca went with him, who had the reputation of being a great necromancer. arriving at a place called paca in the said valley, the inca went out against his brother urco, and there was a battle between them. inca rocca hurled a stone which hit urco on the throat. the blow was so great that urco fell into the river flowing down the ravine where they were fighting. urco exerted himself and fled, swimming down the river, with his axe in his hand. in this way he reached a rock called chupellusca, a league below tampu, where his brothers overtook him and killed him. from thence the inca pachacuti yupanqui, with his brother inca rocca marched with their troops to caquia xaquixahuana to see his father who refused ever to speak with or see him, owing to the rage he felt at the death of inca urco. but inca rocca went in, where viracocha was and said, "father! it is not reasonable that you should grieve so much at the death of urco, for i killed him in self defence, he having come to kill me. you are not to be so heavy at the death of one, when you have so many sons. think no more of it, for my brother pachacuti yupanqui is to be inca, and i hold that you should favour him and be as a father to him." seeing the resolution of his son inca rocca, viracocha did not dare to reply or to contradict him. he dismissed him by saying that that was what he wished, and that he would be guided by him in everything. with this the inca yupanqui and his brother inca rocca returned to cuzco, and entered the city triumphing over the past victories and over this one. the triumph was after this manner. the warriors marched in order, in their companies, dressed in the best manner possible, with songs and dances, and the captives, their eyes on the ground, dressed in long robes with many tassels. they entered by the streets of the city, which were very well adorned to receive them. they went on, enacting their battles and victories, on account of which they triumphed. on reaching the house of the sun, the spoils and prisoners were thrown on the ground, and the inca walked over them, trampling on them and saying--"i tread on my enemies." the prisoners were silent without raising their eyes. this order was used in all their triumphs. at the end of a short time inca viracocha died of grief at the death of inca urco, deprived and despoiled of all honour and property. they buried his body in caquia xaquixahuana. xxxiv. the nations which pachacuti inca subjugated and the towns he took: and first of tocay ccapac, sinchi of the ayamarcas, and the destruction of the cuyos. near cuzco there is a nation of indians called ayamarcas who had a proud and wealthy sinchi named tocay ccapac. neither he nor his people wished to come and do reverence to the inca. on the contrary, he mustered his forces to attack the inca if his country was invaded. this being known to inca yupanqui, he assembled his _ayllus_ and other troops. he formed them into two parties, afterwards called hanan-cuzcos and hurin-cuzcos, forming them into a corps, that united no one might be able to prevail against them. this done he consulted over what should be undertaken. it was resolved that all should unite for the conquest of all neighbouring nations. those who would not submit were to be utterly destroyed; and first tocay ccapac, chief of the ayamarcas, was to be dealt with, being powerful and not having come to do homage at cuzco. having united his forces, the inca marched against the ayamarcas and their sinchi, and there was a battle at huanancancha. inca yupanqui was victorious, assaulting the villages and killing nearly all the ayamarcas. he took tocay ccapac as a prisoner to cuzco, where he remained in prison until his death. after this inca yupanqui took to wife a native of choco named mama anahuarqui. for greater pleasure and enjoyment, away from business, he went to the town of the cuyos, chief place of the province of cuyo-suyu. being one day at a great entertainment, a potter, servant of the sinchi, without apparent reason, threw a stone or, as some say, one of the jars which they call _ulti_, at the inca's head and wounded him. the delinquent, who was a stranger to the district, was seized and tortured to confess who had ordered him to do it. he stated that all the sinchis of cuyo-suyu, who were cuyo ccapac, ayan-quilalama, and apu cunaraqui, had conspired to kill the inca and rebel. this was false, for it had been extorted from fear of the torture or, as some say, he said it because he belonged to a hostile tribe and wished to do them harm. but the inca, having heard what the potter said, ordered all the sinchis to be killed with great cruelty. after their deaths he slaughtered the people, leaving none alive except some children and old women. thus was that nation destroyed, and its towns are desolate to this day. xxxv. the other nations conquered by inca yupanqui, either in person or through his brother inca rocca. inca yupanqui and his brother inca rocca, who was very cruel, had determined to oppress and subdue all the nations who wished to be independent and would not submit to them. they knew that there were two sinchis in a town called ollantay-tampu, six leagues from cuzco, the one named paucar-ancho and the other tocori tupac, who ruled over the ollantay-tampus, but would not come to do homage, nor did their people wish to do so. the inca marched against them with a large army and gave them battle. inca rocca was severely wounded, but at last the ollantay-tampus were conquered. [_all were killed, the place was destroyed so that no memory was left of it_][ ] and the inca returned to cuzco. [note : this is untrue. the splendid ruins remain to this day. the place was long held against the spaniards by inca manco.] there was another sinchi named illacumpi, chief of two towns four leagues from cuzco, called cugma and huata. inca yupanqui and inca rocca sent to him to do homage, but he replied that he was as good as they were and free, and that if they wanted anything, they must get it with their lances. for this answer the inca made war upon the said sinchi. he united his forces with those of two other sinchis, his companions, named paucar tupac and puma lloqui, and went forth to fight the inca. but they were defeated and killed, with nearly all their people. the inca desolated that town with fire and sword, and with very great cruelty. he then returned to cuzco and triumphed for that victory. the inca received information, after this, that there was a town called huancara, leagues from cuzco, ruled by sinchis named ascascahuana and urcu-cuna. so a message was sent to them, calling upon them to give reverence and obedience to the inca and to pay tribute. they replied that they were not women to come and serve, that they were in their native place, and that if any one came to seek them they would defend themselves. moved to anger by this reply, inca yupanqui and inca rocca made war, killed the sinchis and most of their people and brought the rest prisoners to cuzco, to force them into obedience. next they marched to another town called toguaro, six leagues from huancara, killing the sinchi, named alca-parihuana, and all the people, not sparing any but the children, that they might grow and repeople that land. with similar cruelties in all the towns, the inca reduced to pay tribute the cotabambas, cotaneras, umasayus, and aymaracs, being the principal provinces of cunti-suyu. the inca then attacked the province of the soras, leagues from cuzco. the natives came forth to resist, asking why the invaders sought their lands, telling them to depart or they would be driven out by force. over this question there was a battle, and two towns of the soras were subdued at that time, the one called chalco, the other soras. the sinchi of chalco was named chalco-pusaycu, that of soras huacralla. they were taken prisoners to cuzco, and there was a triumph over them. there was another place called acos, or leagues from cuzco. the two sinchis of it were named ocacique and utu-huasi. these were strongly opposed to the demands of the inca and made a very strenuous resistance. the inca marched against them with a great army. but he met with serious difficulty in this conquest, for the acos defended themselves most bravely and wounded pachacuti on the head with a stone. he would not desist, but it was not until after a long time that they were conquered. he killed nearly all the natives of acos, and those who were pardoned and survived after that cruel slaughter, were banished to the neighbourhood of huamanca, to a place now called acos[ ]. [note : acobamba, the present capital of the province of angaraes.] in all these campaigns which have been described, inca rocca was the companion in arms, and participator in the triumphs of inca yupanqui. it is to be noted that in all the subdued provinces chiefs were placed, superseding or killing the native sinchis. those who were appointed, acted as guards or captains of the conquered places, holding office in the inca's name and during his pleasure. in this way the conquered provinces were oppressed and tyrannized over by the yoke of servitude. a superior was appointed over all the others who were nominated to each town, as general or governor. in their language this officer was called tucuyrico[ ], which means "he who knows and oversees all." [note : _tucuyricuc_, he who sees all. _tucuy_ means all. _ricini_ to see. garcilasso de la vega, i. lib. ii. cap. . balboa, p. . montesinos, p. . santillana, p. .] thus in the first campaign undertaken by pachacuti inca yupanqui, after the defeat of the chancas, he subdued the country as far as the soras, leagues to the west of cuzco. the other nations, and some in cunti-suyu, from fear at seeing the cruelties committed on the conquered, came in to submit, to avoid destruction. [_but they ever submitted against their wills_.] xxxvi. pachacuti inca yupanqui endows the house of the sun with great wealth. after pachacuti inca yupanqui had conquered the lands and nations mentioned above, and had triumphed over them, he came to visit the house of the sun and the mama-cunas or nuns who were there. he assisted one day, to see how the mama-cunas served the dinner of the sun. this was to offer much richly cooked food to the image or idol of the sun, and then to put it into a great fire on an altar. the same order was taken with the liquor. the chief of the mama-cunas saluted the sun with a small vase, and the rest was thrown on the fire. besides this many jars full of that liquor were poured into a trough which had a drain, all being offerings to the sun. this service was performed with vessels of clay. as pachacuti considered that the material of the vases was too poor, he presented very complete sets of vases of gold and silver for all the service that was necessary. to adorn the house more richly he caused a plate of fine gold to be made, two _palmas_ broad and the length of the court-yard. he ordered this to be nailed high up on the wall in the manner of a cornice, passing all round the court-yard. this border or cornice of gold remained there down to the time of the spaniards. xxxvii. pachacuti inca yupanqui conquers the province of colla-suyu. to the south of cuzco there was a province called colla-suyu or collao, consisting of plain country, which was very populous. at the time that pachacuti inca yupanqui was at cuzco after having conquered the provinces already mentioned, the sinchi of collao was named chuchi ccapac or colla ccapac, which is all one. this chuchi ccapac increased so much in power and wealth among those nations of colla-suyu, that he was respected by all the collas, who called him inca ccapac. pachacuti inca yupanqui determined to conquer him from a motive of jealousy, together with all the provinces of the collao. with this object he assembled his army and marched on the route to the collao in order to attack chuchi ccapac who waited for him at hatun-colla, a town of the collao where he resided, leagues from cuzco, without having taken further notice of the coming nor of the forces of inca yupanqui. when he came near to hatun colla, the inca sent a message to chuchi colla, requesting him to serve and obey him or else to prepare for battle, when they would try their fortunes. this message caused much heaviness to chuchi colla, but he replied proudly that he waited for the inca to come and do homage to him like the other nations that had been conquered by him, and that if the inca did not choose to do so, he would prepare his head, with which he intended to drink in his triumph after the victory which he would win if they should come to a battle. after this reply inca yupanqui ordered his army to approach that of chuchi ccapac the next day, which was drawn up ready to fight. soon after they came in sight, the two forces attacked each other, and the battle continued for a long time without either side gaining any advantage. inca yupanqui, who was very dexterous in fighting, was assisting in every part, giving orders, combating, and animating his troops. seeing that the collas resisted so resolutely, and stood so firmly in the battle, he turned his face to his men saying in a loud voice: "o incas of cuzco! conquerors of all the land! are you not ashamed that people so inferior to you, and unequal in weapons, should be equal to you and resist for so long a time?" with this he returned to the fight, and the troops, touched by this rebuke, pressed upon their enemies in such sort that they were broken and defeated. inca yupanqui, being an experienced warrior, knew that the completion of the victory consisted in the capture of chuchi ccapac. although he was fighting, he looked out for his enemy in all directions and, seeing him in the midst of his people, the inca attacked them at the head of his guards, took him prisoner, and delivered him to a soldier with orders to take him to the camp and keep him safe. the inca and his army then completed the victory and engaged in the pursuit, until all the sinchis and captains that could be found were captured. pachacuti went to hatun-colla, the residence and seat of government of chuchi ccapac, where he remained until all the provinces which obeyed chuchi ccapac, were reduced to obedience, and brought many rich presents of gold, silver, cloths, and other precious things. leaving a garrison and a governor in the collao to rule in his name, the inca returned to cuzco, taking chuchi ccapac as a prisoner with the others. he entered cuzco, where a solemn triumph was prepared. chuchi colla and the other colla prisoners were placed before the inca's litter dressed in long robes covered with tassels in derision and that they might be known. having arrived at the house of the sun, the captives and spoils were offered to the image of the sun, and the inca, or the priest for him, trod on all the spoils and captives that pachacuti had taken in the collao, which was great honour to the inca. when the triumph was over, to give it a good finish, the inca caused the head of chuchi ccapac to be cut off, and put in the house called _llasa-huasi_[ ], with those of the other sinchis he had killed. he caused the other sinchis and captains of chuchi ccapac to be given to the wild beasts, kept shut up for the purpose, in a house called _samca-huasi_[ ]. [note : llasa-huasi. _llasa_ means weight, from _llasani_ to weigh. _huasi_ a house.] [note : samgaguacy. this should be _samca-huasi_, a prison for grave offences. serpents and toads were put into the prison with the delinquents. mossi, p. .] in these conquests pachacuti was very cruel to the vanquished, and people were so terrified at the cruelties that they submitted and obeyed from fear of being made food for wild beasts, or burnt, or otherwise cruelly tormented rather than resist in arms. it was thus with the people of cunti-suyu who, seeing the cruelty and power of inca yupanqui, humiliated themselves and promised obedience. it was for the cause and reason stated, and because they were threatened with destruction if they did not come to serve and obey. chuchi ccapac had subjugated a region more than leagues from north to south, over which he was sinchi or, as he called himself, ccapac or colla-ccapac, from within leagues of cuzco as far as the chichas, with all the bounds of arequipa and the sea-coast to atacama, and the forests of the musus. for at this time, seeing the violence and power with which the inca of cuzco came down upon those who opposed him, without pardoning anyone, many sinchis followed his example, and wanted to do the same in other parts, where each one lived, so that all was confusion and tyranny in this kingdom, no one being secure of his own property. we shall relate in their places, as the occasion offers, the stories of the sinchis, tyrants, besides those of the incas who, from the time of inca yupanqui, began to get provinces into their power, and tyrannize over the inhabitants. inca yupanqui, as has already been narrated, had given the house of the sun all things necessary for its services, besides which, after he came from colla-suyu, he presented many things brought from there for the image of the sun, and for the mummies of his ancestors which were kept in the house of the sun. he also gave them servants and lands. he ordered that the _huacas_ of cuzco should be adopted and venerated in all the conquered provinces, ordaining new ceremonies for their worship and abolishing the ancient rites. he charged his eldest legitimate son, named amaru tupac inca, with the duty of abolishing the _huacas_ which were not held to be legitimate, and to see that the others were maintained and received the sacrifices ordered by the inca. huayna yamqui yupanqui, another son of inca yupanqui, was associated with the heir in this duty. xxxviii. pachacuti inca yupanqui sends an army to conquer the province of chinchay-suyu. when pachacuti inca yupanqui returned from the conquest of colla-suyu and the neighbouring provinces, as has been narrated in the preceding chapter, he was well stricken in years, though not tired of wars, nor was his thirst for dominion satisfied. owing to his age he chose to remain at cuzco, as the seat of his government, to establish the lands he had subdued, in the way which he well knew how to establish. in order to lose no time in extending his conquests, he assembled his people, from among whom he chose , provided with arms and all things necessary for a military campaign. he nominated his brother, ccapac yupanqui, to be captain-general, giving him for colleagues another of his brothers named huayna yupanqui, and one of his sons named apu yamqui yupanqui. among the other special captains in this army was one named anco ayllo of the chanca nation, who had remained a prisoner in cuzco from the time that the inca conquered the chanca's at cuzco and at ichu-pampa. he had ever since been sad and brooding, thinking of a way of escape. but he dissimulated so well that the inca treated him as a brother and trusted him. hence the inca nominated him as commander of all the chancas in the army. for to each nation the inca gave a captain from among their own people, because he would understand how to rule them and they would obey him better. this anco ayllo, seeing there was an opportunity for fulfilling his desire, showed satisfaction at receiving this commission from the inca, and promised to do valuable service, as he knew those nations whose conquest was about to be undertaken. when the army was ready to march, the inca gave the captain-general his own arms of gold, and to the other captains he gave arms with which to enter the battles. he made a speech to them, exhorting them to achieve success, showing them the honourable reward they would obtain, and the favours he, as a friend, would show them, if they served in that war. he gave special orders to ccapac yupanqui that he should advance with his conquering army as far as a province called yana-mayu, the boundary of the nation of the hatun-huayllas, and that there he should set up the inca's boundary pillars, and he was on no account to advance further. he was to conquer up to that point and then return to cuzco, leaving sufficient garrisons in the subjugated lands. he was also to establish posts at every half league, which they call _chasquis_, by means of which the inca would be daily informed of what had happened and was being done[ ]. [note : for accounts of the _chasquis_ or inca couriers see garcilasso de la vega, ii. pp. , , , , . balboa, p. . polo de ondegardo, p. .] ccapac yupanqui set out from cuzco with these orders, and desolated all the provinces which did not submit. on arriving at a fortress called urco-collac, near parcos, in the country of huamanca, he met with valorous resistance from the inhabitants. finally he conquered them. in the battle the chancas distinguished themselves so that they gained more honour than the cuzcos _orejones_ and the other nations. this news came to the inca, who was much annoyed that the chancas should have distinguished themselves more, and had gained more honour than the incas. he imagined that it would make them proud, so he proposed to have them killed. he sent a messenger ordering ccapac yupanqui to lay a plan for killing all the chancas in the best way he could devise, and if he did not kill them, the inca would kill him. the runner of the inca reached ccapac yupanqui with this order, but it could not be kept a secret. it became known to a wife of ccapac yupanqui, who was a sister of anco ayllo, the captain of the chancas. this woman told her brother, who always longed for his liberty, and now was urgently minded to save his life. he secretly addressed his chanca soldiers, putting before them the cruel order of the inca, and the acquisition of their liberty if they would follow him. they all agreed to his proposal. when they came to huarac-tambo, in the neighbourhood of the city of huanuco, all the chancas fled with their captain anco ayllo, and besides the chancas other tribes followed this chief. passing by the province of huayllas they pillaged it, and, continuing their route in flight from the incas, they agreed to seek a rugged and mountainous land where the incas, even if they sought them, would not be able to find them. so they entered the forests between chachapoyas and huanuco, and went on to the province of ruparupa. these are the people who are settled on the river pacay and, according to the received report, thence to the eastward by the river called cocama which falls into the great river marañon. they were met with by the captain gomez d'arias, who entered by huanuco, in the time of the marquis of cañete, in the year . though ccapac yupanqui went in chase of the chancas, they were so rapid in their flight that he was unable to overtake them[ ]. [note : garcilasso de la vega also gives an account of the flight of the chancas under anco-ayllu or hanco-hualla, ii. pp. , .] in going after them ccapac yupanqui went as far as caxamarca, beyond the line he was ordered not to pass by the inca. although he had the order in his mind, yet when he saw that province of caxamarca, how populous it was and rich in gold and silver, by reason of the great sinchi, named gusmanco ccapac, who ruled there and was a great tyrant, having robbed many provinces round caxamarca, ccapac yupanqui resolved to conquer it, although he had no commission from his brother for undertaking such an enterprise. on commencing to enter the land of caxamarca, it became known to gusmanco ccapac. that chief summoned his people, and called upon another sinchi, his tributary, named chimu ccapac, chief of the territory where now stands the city of truxillo on the coast of peru. their combined forces marched against ccapac yupanqui, who by a certain ambush, and other stratagems, defeated, routed and captured the two sinchis gusmanco ccapac and chimu ccapac, taking vast treasure of gold, silver and other precious things, such as gems, and coloured shells, which these natives value more than silver or gold. ccapac yupanqui collected all the treasure in the square of caxamarca, where he then was; and when he saw such immense wealth he became proud and vainglorious, saying that he had gained and acquired more than his brother the inca. his arrogance and boasting came to the ears of his sovereign, who, although he felt it deeply and desired an opportunity to kill him, dissimulated for a time and waited until the return to cuzco. inca yupanqui feared that his brother would rebel, and for this reason he appeared to be pleased before the envoys sent by ccapac yupanqui. he sent them back with orders that ccapac yupanqui should return to cuzco with the treasure that had been taken in the war, as well as the principal men of the subdued provinces, and the sons of gusmanco ccapac and chimu ccapac. the great chiefs themselves were to remain, in their territories with a sufficient garrison to keep those lands obedient to the inca. on receiving this order ccapac yupanqui set out for cuzco with all the treasure, and marched to the capital full of pride and arrogance. inca yupanqui, who himself subdued so many lands and gained so much honour, became jealous, as some say afraid, and sought excuses for killing his brother. when he knew that ccapac yupanqui had reached limatambo, eight leagues from cuzco, he ordered his lieutenant-governor named inca capon, to go there and cut off the head of ccapac yupanqui. the reasons given were that he had allowed anco ayllo to escape, and had gone beyond the line prescribed. the governor went and, in obedience to his orders, he killed the inca's two brothers ccapac yupanqui and huayna yupanqui. the inca ordered the rest to enter cuzco, triumphing over their victories. this was done, the inca treading on the spoils, and granting rewards. they say that he regretted that his brother had gained so much honour, and that he wished that he had sent his son who was to be his successor, named tupac inca yupanqui, that he might have enjoyed such honour, and that this jealousy led him to kill his brother. xxxix. pachacuti inca yupanqui plants _mitimaes_ in all the lands he had conquered. as all the conquests made by this inca were attended with such violence and cruelties, with such spoliation and force, and the people who became his subjects by acquisition, or to speak more correctly by rapine, were numerous, they obeyed so long as they felt the force compelling them, and, as soon as they were a little free from that fear, they presently rebelled and resumed their liberty. then the inca was obliged to conquer them again. turning many things in his mind, and seeking for remedies, how he could settle once for all the numerous provinces he had conquered, at last he hit upon a plan which, although adapted to the object he sought to attain, and coloured with some appearance of generosity, was really the worst tyranny he perpetrated. he ordered visitors to go through all the subdued provinces, with orders to measure and survey them, and to bring him models of the natural features in clay. this was done. the models and reports were brought before the inca. he examined them and considered the mountainous fastnesses and the plains. he ordered the visitors to look well to what he would do. he then began to demolish the fastnesses and to have their inhabitants moved to plain country, and those of the plains were moved to mountainous regions, so far from each other, and each so far from their native country, that they could not return to it. next the inca ordered the visitors to go and do with the people what they had seen him do with the models. they went and did so. he gave orders to others to go to the same districts, and, jointly with the _tucuricos_, to take some young men, with their wives, from each district. this was done and they were brought to cuzco from all the provinces, from one , from another , more or less according to the population of each district. these selected people were presented before the inca, who ordered that they should be taken to people various parts. those of chinchay-suyu were sent to anti-suyu, those of cunti-suyu to colla-suyu, so far from their native country that they could not communicate with their relations or countrymen. he ordered that they should be settled in valleys similar to those in their native land, and that they should have seeds from those lands that they might be preserved and not perish, giving them land to sow without stint, and removing the natives. the incas called these colonists _mitimaes_[ ], which means "transported" or "moved," he ordered them to learn the language of the country to which they were removed, but not to forget the general language, which was the quichua, and which he had ordered that all his subjects in all the conquered provinces must learn and know. with it conversation and business could be carried on, for it was the clearest and richest of the dialects. the inca gave the colonists authority and power to enter the houses of the natives at all hours, night or day, to see what they said, did or arranged, with orders to report all to the nearest governor, so that it might be known if anything was plotted against the government of the inca, who, knowing the evil he had done, feared all in general, and knew that no one served him voluntarily, but only by force. besides this the inca put garrisons into all the fortresses of importance, composed of natives of cuzco or the neighbourhood, which garrisons were called _michecrima_[ ]. [note : the system of _mitimaes_ was a very important part of the inca polity. it is frequently referred to by cieza de leon, and described by garcilasso de la vega, ii. p. . see also balboa, pp. , , , . molina, pp. , , . yamqui pachacuti, pp. , , polo de ondegardo, p. .] [note : _michec_ a shepherd, hence a governor. _rimay_ to speak.] xl. the collas, sons of chuchi ccapac, rebel against inca yupanqui to obtain their freedom. after inca yupanqui had celebrated the triumphs and festivities consequent on the conquest of chinchay-suyu, and arranged the system of _mitimaes_, he dismissed the troops. he himself went to yucay, where he built the edifices, the ruins of which may still be seen. these being finished, he went down the valley of yucay to a place which is now called tambo, eight leagues from cuzco, where he erected some magnificent buildings. the sons of chuchi ccapac, the great sinchi of the collao, had to labour as captives at the masonry and other work. their father, as has already been narrated, was conquered in the collao and killed by the inca. these sons of chuchi ccapac, feeling that they were being vilely treated, and remembering that they were the sons of so great a man as their father, also seeing that the inca had disbanded his army, agreed to risk their lives in obtaining their freedom. one night they fled, with all the people who were there, and made such speed that, although the inca sent after them, they could not be overtaken. along the route they took, they kept raising the inhabitants against the inca. much persuasion was not needed, because, as they were obeying by force, they only sought the first opportunity to rise. on this favourable chance, many nations readily rebelled, even those who were very near cuzco, but principally the collao and all its provinces. the inca, seeing this, ordered a great army to be assembled, and sought the favour of auxiliaries from gusmanco ccapac and chimu ccapac. he collected a great number of men, made sacrifices _calpa_[ ], and buried some children alive, which is called _capa cocha_, to induce their idols to favour them in that war. all being ready, the inca nominated two of his sons as captains of the army, valorous men, named the one tupac ayar manco, the other apu paucar usnu. the inca left cuzco with more than , warriors, and marched against the sons of chuchi ccapac, who also had a great power of men and arms, and were anxious to meet the incas and fight for their lives against the men of cuzco. [note : _calpa_ means force, vigour; also an army.] as both were seeking each other, they soon met, and joined in a stubborn and bloody battle, in which there was great slaughter, because one side fought for life and liberty and the other for honour. as those of cuzco were better disciplined and drilled, and more numerous than their adversaries, they had the advantage. but the collas preferred to die fighting rather than to become captives to one so cruel and inhuman as the inca. so they opposed themselves to the arms of the _orejones_, who, with great cruelties, killed as many of the collas as opposed their advance. the sons of the inca did great things in the battle, with their own hands, on that day. the collas were defeated, most of them being killed or taken prisoners. those who fled were followed to a place called lampa. there the wounded were cared for, and the squadrons refreshed. the inca ordered his two sons, tupac ayar manco and apu paucar usnu, to press onward, conquering the country as far as the chichas, where they were to set up their cairns and return. the inca then returned to cuzco, for a triumph over the victory he had gained. the inca arrived at cuzco, triumphed and celebrated the victory with festivities. and because he found that a son had been born to him, he raised him before the sun, offered him, and gave him the name of tupac inca yupanqui. in his name he offered treasures of gold and silver to the sun, and to the other oracles and _huacas_, and also made the sacrifice of _capa cocha_. besides this he made the most solemn and costly festivals that had ever been known, throughout the land. this was done because inca yupanqui wished that this tupac inca should succeed him, although he had other older and legitimate sons by his wife and sister mama anahuarqui. for, although the custom of these tyrants was that the eldest legitimate son should succeed, it was seldom observed, the inca preferring the one he liked best, or whose mother he loved most, or he who was the ablest among the brothers. xli. amaru tupac inca and apu paucar usnu continue the conquest of the collao and again subdue the collas. as soon as the inca returned to cuzco, leaving his two sons tupac amaru and apu paucar usnu[ ] in the callao, those captains set out from lampa, advancing to hatun-colla, where they knew that the collas had rallied their troops to fight the cuzcos once more, and that they had raised one of the sons of chuchi ccapac to be inca. the incas came to the place where the collas were awaiting them in arms. they met and fought valorously, many being killed on both sides. at the end of the battle the collas were defeated and their new inca was taken prisoner. thus for a third time were the collas conquered by the cuzcos. by order of the inca, his sons, generals of the war, left the new inca of the collas at hatun-colla, as a prisoner well guarded and re-captured. the other captains went on, continuing their conquests, as the inca had ordered, to the confines of charcas and the chichas. [note : tupac amaru. _tupac_ means royal, and _amaru_ a serpent. _apu_ a chief, _paucar_ beautiful and _usnu_ a judgment seat.] while his sons prosecuted the war, pachacuti their father, finished the edifices at tambo, and constructed the ponds and pleasure houses of yucay. he erected, on a hill near cuzco, called patallata, some sumptuous houses, and many others in the neighbourhood of the capital. he also made many channels of water both for use and for pleasure; and ordered all the governors of provinces who were under his sway, to build pleasure houses on the most convenient sites, ready for him when he should visit their commands. while inca yupanqui proceeded with these measures, his sons had completed the conquest of the collao. when they arrived in the vicinity of charcas, the natives of paria, tapacari, cochabambas, poconas and charcas retreated to the country of the chichas and chuyes, in order to make a combined resistance to the incas, who arrived where their adversaries were assembled, awaiting the attack. the inca army was in three divisions. a squadron of men went by the mountains, another of , by the side of the sea, and the rest by the direct road. they arrived at the strong position held by the charcas and their allies, and fought with them. the incas were victorious, and took great spoils of silver extracted by those natives from the mines of porco. it is to be noted that nothing was ever known of the _orejones_ who entered by the mountains or what became of them. leaving all these provinces conquered, and subdued, amaru tupac inca and apu paucar usnu returned to cuzco where they triumphed over their victories, pachacuti granting them many favours, and rejoicing with many festivals and sacrifices to idols. xlii. pachacuti inca yupanqui nominates his son tupac inca yupanqui as his successor. pachacuti inca yupanqui was now very old; and he determined to nominate a successor to take his place after his death. he called together the incas his relations, of the _ayllus_ of hanan-cuzco and hurin-cuzco and said, "my friends and relations! i am now, as you see, very old, and i desire to leave you, when my days are over, one who will govern and defend you from your enemies. some propose that i should name amaru tupac inca, but it does not appear to me that he has the qualifications to govern so great a lordship as that which i have acquired. i, therefore, desire to nominate another with whom you will be more content." the relations, in their reply, gave thanks to the inca, and declared that they would derive great benefit from his nomination. he then said that he named his son tupac inca, and ordered him to come forth from the house. he had been there for or years to be brought up, without any one seeing him except very rarely and as a great favour. he was now shown to the people, and the inca presently ordered a fringe of gold to be placed in the hand of the image of the sun, with the head-dress called _pillaca-llaytu_[ ]. after tupac inca had made his obeisance to his father, the inca and the rest rose and went before the image of the sun where they made their sacrifices and offered _capa cocha_ to that deity. then they offered the new inca tupac yupanqui, beseeching the sun to protect and foster him, and to make him so that all should hold and judge him to be a child of the sun and father of his people. this done the oldest and principal _orejones_ took tupac inca to the sun, and the priests took the fringe from the hands of the image, which they call _mascapaycha_, and placed it over the head of tupac inca yupanqui until it rested on his forehead. he was declared inca ccapac and seated in front of the sun on a seat of gold, called _duho_[ ], garnished with emeralds and other precious stones. seated there, they clothed him in the _ccapac hongo_[ ], placed the _suntur paucar_ in his hand, gave him the other insignia of inca, and the priests raised him on their shoulders. when these ceremonies were completed, pachacuti inca yupanqui ordered that his son tupac inca should remain shut up in the house of the sun, performing the fasts which it is the custom to go through before receiving the order of chivalry; which ceremony consisted in opening the ears. the inca ordered that what had been done should not be made public until he gave the command to publish it. [note : _pillaca-llatu_ is a cloth or cloak woven of two colours, black and brown.] [note : this word is corrupt. _tiana_ is the word for a seat.] [note : ccapac uncu. the word _uncu_ means a tunic.] xliii. how pachacuti armed his son tupac inca. pachacuti inca yupanqui found happiness in leaving memory of himself. with this object he did extraordinary things as compared with those of his ancestors, in building edifices, celebrating triumphs, not allowing himself to be seen except as a great favour shown to the people, for as such it was considered, on the day that he appeared. then he ordered that no one should come to behold him without worshipping and bringing something in his hand to offer him. this custom was continued by all his descendants, and was observed inviolably. [_thus, from the time of this pachacuti began an unheard of and inhuman tyranny in addition to the tyrannies of his ancestors._] as he was now old and desirous of perpetuating his name, it appeared to him that he would obtain his desire by giving authority to his son and successor named tupac inca. so the boy was brought up, confined in the house of the sun for more than years, seeing no one but his tutors and masters until he was brought and presented to the sun, to be nominated as has already been explained. to invest him at the _huarachico_ the inca ordered a new way of giving the order of chivalry. for this he built round the city four other houses for prayer to the sun, with much apparatus of gold idols, _huacas_ and service, for his son to perambulate these stations after he had been armed as a knight. affairs being in this state, there came to the inca pachacuti, his son amaru tupac inca, who had been named by his father as his successor some years before, because he was the eldest legitimate son. he said, "father inca! i understand that you have a son in the house of the sun whom you have ordered to be successor after your own days. order that he may be show to me." the inca, looking upon this as boldness on the part of amaru tupac, replied, "it is true, and i desire you and your wife shall be his vassals, and that you shall serve and obey him as your lord and inca." amaru replied that he wished to do so, and that for this reason, he desired to see him and offer sacrifice to him, and that orders should be given to take him where his brother was. the inca gave permission for this, amaru tupac inca taking what was necessary for the ceremony, and being brought to where tupac inca was fasting. when amaru saw him in such majesty of wealth and surroundings, he fell on his face to the earth, adoring, offering sacrifices and obedience. on learning that it was his brother, tupac inca raised him and saluted him in the face. presently inca yupanqui caused the necessary preparations to be made for investing his son with the order of chivalry. when all was ready, the inca, accompanied by all his principal relations and courtiers, went to the house of the sun, where they brought out tupac inca with great solemnity and pomp. for they carried with him all the idols of the sun, vircocha, the other _huacas, moro-urco_. all being placed in order with such pomp as had never been seen before, they all went to the great square of the city, in the centre of which a bonfire was made. all relations and friends then killed many animals, offering them as sacrifices by throwing them into the flames. they worshipped the heir, offering him rich gifts, the first that brought a gift being his father. following the example all the rest adored, seeing that his father had shown him reverence. thus did the _orejones_ incas and all the rest who were present, seeing that for this they had been called and invited, to bring their gifts and offer them to their new inca. [illustration: group of incas, in ceremonial dresses, from the pictures in the church of santa ana, cuzco a.d. . from a sketch by sir clements markham, .] this being done, the festival called _ccapac raymi_ was commenced, being the feast of kings, and consequently the most solemn festival kept by these people. when the ceremonies had been performed, they bored the ears of tupac inca yupanqui, which is their mode of investiture into the order of chivalry and nobility. he was then taken to the stations of the houses of the sun, giving him the weapons and other insignia of war. this being finished his father the inca yupanqui gave him, for his wife, one of his sisters named mama ocllo, who was a very beautiful woman with much ability and wisdom. xliv. pachacuti inca yupanqui sends his son tupac inca yupanqui to conquer chinchay-suyu. the inca yupanqui desired that his son should be employed on some service that would bring him fame, as soon as he had been proclaimed his successor, and armed as a knight. he had information that chinchay-suyu was a region where name and treasure might be acquired, especially from a sinchi named chuqui-sota in chachapoyas. he, therefore, ordered all preparations to be made for the conquest of chinchay-suyu. he gave the prince for his tutors, captains, and captains-general of his army, two of his brothers, the one named auqui yupanqui and the other tilca yupanqui. the army being assembled and the preparations made, they set out from cuzco. tupac went in such pomp and majesty that, where he passed, no one dared to look him in the face, in such veneration was he held. the people left the roads along which he had to pass and, ascending the hills on either side, worshipped and adored. they pulled out their eyebrows and eyelashes, and blowing on them, they made offering to the inca. others offered handfuls of a very precious herb called _coca_. when he arrived at the villages, he put on the dress and head-gear of that district, for all were different in their dress and head-gear as they are now. for inca yupanqui, so as to know each nation he had conquered, ordered that each one should have a special dress and head-gear, which they call _pillu_, _llaytu_ and _chuco_, different one from the other, so as to be easily distinguished and recognized. seating himself, tupac inca made a solemn sacrifice of animals and birds, burning them in a fire which was kindled in his presence; and in this way they worshipped the sun, which they believed to be god. in this manner tupac inca began to repeat the conquests and tyranny of all his ancestors and his father. for, although many nations were conquered by his father, almost all were again with arms in their hands to regain their liberty, and the rest to defend themselves. as tupac inca advanced with such power, force and pride, he not only claimed the subjection of the people, but also usurped the veneration they gave to their gods or devils, for truly he and his father made them worship all with more veneration than the sun. tupac inca finally marched out of cuzco and began to proceed with measures for subduing the people in the near vicinity. in the province of the quichuas[ ] he conquered and occupied the fortresses of tohara, cayara, and curamba, and in the province of angaraes the fortresses of urco-colla and huaylla-pucara, taking its sinchi named chuquis huaman prisoner. in the province of xauxa he took sisiquilla pucara, and in the province of huayllas the fortresses of chuncu-marca and pillahua-marca. in chachapoyas the fortress of piajajalca fell before him, and he took prisoner a very rich chief named chuqui sota. he conquered the province of the paltas, and the valleys of pacasmayu and chimu, which is now truxillo. he destroyed it as chimu ccapac had been subdued before. he also conquered the province of the cañaris, and those who resisted were totally destroyed. the cañaris submitted from fear, and he took their sinchis, named pisar ccapac, cañar ccapac and chica ccapac, and built an impregnable fortress there called quinchi-caxa. [note : the province of the quichuas was in the valley of the pachachaca, above abancay.] tupac inca yupanqui then returned to cuzco with much treasure and many prisoners. he was well received by his father with a most sumptuous triumph, and with the applause of all the _orejones_ of cuzco. they had many feasts and sacrifices, and to please the people they celebrated the festival called inti raymi with feasts and dances, a time of great rejoicing. the inca granted many favours for the sake of his son tupac inca, that he might have the support of his subjects, which was what he desired. for as he was very old and unable to move about, feeling the approach of death, his aim was to leave his son in the possession of the confidence of his army. xlv. how pachacuti inca yupanqui visited the provinces conquered for him by his captains. it has been related how the inca yupanqui placed garrisons of cuzco soldiers, and a governor called _tucuyrico_ in all the provinces he conquered and oppressed. it must be known that owing to his absorbing occupations in conquering other provinces, training warriors, and placing his son in command for the conquest of chinchay-suyu, he had not been able to put his final intentions and will into execution, which was to make those he oppressed submissive subjects and tributaries. seeing that the people were in greater fear at beholding the valour of tupac inca, he determined to have a visitation of the land, and nominated visitors, four for each of the four _suyus_ or divisions of the empire, which are _cunti-suyu_ from cuzco south and west as far as the south sea, _chinchay-suyu_ from cuzco to the north and west, _anti-suyu_ from cuzco to the east, and _colla-suyu_ from cuzco to the south, south-west, and south-east. these visitors each went to the part to which he was appointed, and inspected, before all things, the work of the _tucuyricos_ and the methods of their government. they caused irrigating channels to be constructed for the crops, broke up land where this had been neglected, built _andenes_ or cultivated terraces, and took up pastures for the sun, the inca, and cuzco. above all they imposed very heavy tribute on all the produce, [_so that they all went about to rob and desolate property and persons_]. the visitations occupied two years. when they were completed the visitors returned to cuzco, bringing with them certain cloths descriptive of the provinces they had visited. they reported fully to the inca all that they had found and done. besides these, the inca also despatched other _orejones_ as overseers to make roads and hospices on the routes of the inca, ready for the use of his soldiers. these overseers set out, and made roads, now called "of the inca," over the mountains and along the sea coast. those on the sea coast are all provided, at the sides, with high walls of _adobe_, wherever it was possible to build them, except in the deserts where there are no building materials. these roads go from quito to chile, and into the forests of the andes. although the inca did not complete all, suffice it that he made a great part of the roads, which were finished by his sons and grandsons. xlvi. tupac inca yupanqui sets out, a second time, by order of his father, to conquer what remained unsubdued in chinchay-suyu. pachacuti inca yupanqui knew from the report made by his son when he returned from the conquest of chinchay-suyu, that there were other great and rich nations and provinces beyond the furthest point reached by tupac inca. that no place might be left to conquer, the inca ordered his son to return with a view to the subjugation of the parts of quito. he assembled the troops and gave his son the same two brothers as his colleagues, tilca yupanqui and anqui yupanqui, who had gone with him on the former expedition. [_tupac inflicted unheard of cruelties and deaths on those who defended themselves and did not wish to give him obedience_.] in this way he arrived at tumipampa, within the territory of quito, whose sinchi, named pisar ccapac, was confederated with pilla-huaso, sinchi of the provinces and site of quito. these two chiefs had a great army and were determined to fight tupac inca for their country and lives. tupac sent messengers to them, demanding that they should lay down their arms and give him obedience. they replied that they were in their own native country, that they were free, and did not wish to serve any one nor be tributaries. tupac and his colleagues rejoiced at this answer, because their wish was to find a pretext to encounter them with blows and to rob them, which was the principal object of the war. they say that the inca army numbered more than , experienced soldiers. tupac ordered them to march against the men of quito and the cañaris. they encountered each other, both sides fighting with resolution and skill. the victory was for a long time doubtful because the quitos and cañaris pressed stubbornly against their enemies. when the inca saw this he got out of the litter in which he travelled, animated his people, and made signs for the , men who were kept in reserve for the last necessity. when these fresh troops appeared the quitos and cañaris were defeated and fled, the pursuit being continued with much bloodshed and cruelty, the victors shouting, "ccapac inca yupanqui! cuzco! cuzco!" all the chiefs were killed. they captured pilla-huaso in the vanguard. no quarter was given, in order to strike terror into those who heard of it. thence inca tupac marched to the place where now stands the city of san francisco de quito, where they halted to cure the wounded and give much needed rest to the others. so this great province remained subject, and tupac sent a report of his proceedings to his father. pachacuti rejoiced at the success of his son, and celebrated many festivals and sacrifices on receiving the tidings. after tupac inca had rested at cuzco, re-organized his army, and cured the wounded he went to tumipampa, where his wife and sister bore him a son, to whom he gave the name of titu cusi hualpa, afterwards known as huayna ccapac. after the inca tupac had rejoiced and celebrated the birthday festivals, although the four years were passed that his father had given him to complete the conquests, he heard that there was a great nation towards the south sea, composed of indians called huancavelicas. so he determined to go down to conquer. at the head of the mountains above them he built the fortress of huachalla, and then went down against the huancavelicas. tupac divided his army into three parts, and took one by the most rugged mountains, making war on the huancavelica mountaineers. he penetrated so far into the mountains that for a long time nothing was known of him, whether he was dead or alive. he conquered the huancavelicas although they were very warlike, fighting on land and at sea in _balsas_, from tumbez to huañapi, huamo, manta, turuca and quisin. marching and conquering on the coast of manta, and the island of puna, and tumbez, there arrived at tumbez some merchants who had come by sea from the west, navigating in _balsas_ with sails. they gave information of the land whence they came, which consisted of some islands called avachumbi and ninachumbi, where there were many people and much gold. tupac inca was a man of lofty and ambitious ideas, and was not satisfied with the regions he had already conquered. so he determined to challenge a happy fortune, and see if it would favour him by sea. yet he did not lightly believe the navigating merchants, for such men, being great talkers, ought not to be credited too readily. in order to obtain fuller information, and as it was not a business of which news could easily be got, he called a man, who accompanied him in his conquests, named antarqui who, they all declare, was a great necromancer and could even fly through the air. tupac inca asked him whether what the merchant mariners said was true. antarqui answered, after having thought the matter well out, that what they said was true, and that he would go there first. they say that he accomplished this by his arts, traversed the route, saw the islands, their people and riches, and, returning, gave certain information of all to tupac inca. the inca, having this certainty, determined to go there. he caused an immense number of _balsas_ to be constructed, in which he embarked more than , chosen men; taking with him as captains huaman achachi, cunti yupanqui, quihual tupac (all hanan-cuzcos), yancan mayta, quisu mayta, cachimapaca macus yupanqui, llimpita usca mayta (hurin-cuzcos); his brother tilca yupanqui being general of the whole fleet. apu yupanqui was left in command of the army which remained on land. tupac inca navigated and sailed on until he discovered the islands of avachumbi and ninachumbi, and returned, bringing back with him black people, gold, a chair of brass, and a skin and jaw bone of a horse. these trophies were preserved in the fortress of cuzco until the spaniards came. an inca now living had charge of this skin and jaw bone of a horse. he gave this account, and the rest who were present corroborated it. his name is urco huaranca. i am particular about this because to those who know anything of the indies it will appear a strange thing and difficult to believe. the duration of this expedition undertaken by tupac inca was nine months, others say a year, and, as he was so long absent, every one believed he was dead. but to deceive them and make them think that news of tupac inca had come, apu yupanqui, his general of the land army, made rejoicings. this was afterwards commented upon to his disadvantage, and it was said that he rejoiced because he was pleased that tupac inca yupanqui did not appear. it cost him his life. these are the islands which i discovered in the south sea on the th of november, , and more leagues to the westward, being the great discovery of which i gave notice to the licentiate governor castro. but alvaro de mendaña, general of the fleet, did not wish to occupy them[ ]. [note : this story of the navigation of tupac inca to the islands of ninachumbi and avachumbi or hahua chumpi is told by balboa as well as by sarmiento. they were no doubt two of the galapagos islands. _nina chumpi_ means fire island, and _hahua chumpi_ outer island. see my introduction to the _voyages of sarmiento_, p. xiii; and _las islas de galapagos_ by marco jimenes de la espada.] after tupac inca disembarked from the discovery of the islands, he proceeded to tumipampa, to visit his wife and son and to hurry preparations for the return to cuzco to see his father, who was reported to be ill. on the way back he sent troops along the coast to truxillo, then called chimu, where they found immense wealth of gold and silver worked into wands, and into beams of the house of chimu ccapac, with all which they joined the main army at caxamarca. thence tupac inca took the route to cuzco, where he arrived after an absence of six years since he set out on this campaign. tupac inca yupanqui entered cuzco with the greatest, the richest, and the most solemny triumph with which any inca had ever reached the house of the sun, bringing with him people of many different races, strange animals, innumerable quantities of riches. but behold the evil condition of pachacuti inca yupanqui and his avarice, for though tupac inca was his son whose promotion he had procured, he felt such jealousy that his son should have gained such honour and fame in those conquests, that he publicly showed annoyance that it was not himself who triumphed, and that all was not due to him. so he determined to kill his sons tilca yupanqui and auqui yupanqui who had gone with tupac inca, their crime being that they had disobeyed his orders by delaying longer than the time he had fixed, and that they had taken his son to such a distance that he thought he would never return to cuzco. they say that he killed them, though some say that he only killed tilca yupanqui. at this tupac inca yupanqui felt much aggrieved, that his father should have slain one who had worked so well for him. the death was concealed by many feasts in honour of the victories of tupac inca, which were continued for a year. xlvii. death of pachacuti inca yupanqui. pachacuti inca yupanqui derived much comfort from his grandson, the son of tupac inca. he always had the child with him, and caused him to be brought up and cherished in his residence and dormitory. he would not let him out of his sight. being in the highest prosperity and sovereignty of his life, he fell ill of a grave infirmity, and, feeling that he was at the point of death, he sent for all his sons who were then in the city. in their presence he first divided all his jewels and contents of his wardrobe. next he made them plough furrows in token that they were vassals of their brother, and that they had to eat by the sweat of their hands. he also gave them arms in token that they were to fight for their brother. he then dismissed them. he next sent for the incas _orejones_ of cuzco, his relations, and for tupac inca his son to whom he spoke, with a few words, in this manner:--"son! you now see how many great nations i leave to you, and you know what labour they have cost me. mind that you are the man to keep and augment them. no one must raise his two eyes against you and live, even if he be your own brother. i leave you these our relations that they may be your councillors. care for them and they shall serve you. when i am dead, take care of my body, and put it in my houses at patallacta. have my golden image in the house of the sun, and make my subjects, in all the provinces, offer up solemn sacrifice, after which keep the feast of _purucaya_, that i may go to rest with my father the sun." having finished his speech they say that he began to sing in a low and sad voice with words of his own language. they are in castilian as follows: "i was born as a flower of the field, as a flower i was cherished in my youth, i came to my full age, i grew old, now i am withered and die." having uttered these words, he laid his head upon a pillow and expired, giving his soul to the devil, having lived years. for he succeeded, or rather he took the incaship into his hands when he was , and he was sovereign years. he had four legitimate sons by his wife mama anahuarqui, and he had sons and daughters who were bastards. being numerous they were called _hatun-ayllu_, which means a "great lineage." by another name this lineage is called _inaca panaca ayllu_. those who sustain this lineage at the present time are don diego cayo, don felipa inguil, don juan quispi cusi, don francisco chaco rimachi, and don juan illac. they live in cuzco and are hanan-cuzcos. pachacuti was a man of good stature, robust, fierce, haughty, insatiably bent on tyrannizing over all the world, [_and cruel above measure. all the ordinances he made for the people were directed to tyranny and his own interests_]. his conduct was infamous for he often took some widow as a wife and if she had a daughter that he liked, he also took the daughter for wife or concubine. if there was some gallant and handsome youth in the town who was esteemed for something, he presently made some of his servants make friends with him, get him into the country, and kill him the best way they could. he took all his sisters as concubines, saying they could not have a better husband than their brother. this inca died in the year . he conquered more than leagues, more or less in person accompanied by his legitimate brothers, the captains apu mayta and vicaquirao, the rest by amaru tupac inca his eldest son, ccapac yupanqui his brother, and tupac inca his son and successor, with other captains, his brothers and sons. this inca arranged the parties and lineages of cuzco in the order that they now are. the licentiate polo found the body of pachacuti in tococachi, where now is the parish of san blas of the city of cuzco, well preserved and guarded. he sent it to lima by order of the viceroy of this kingdom, the marquis of cañete. the _guauqui_ or idol of this inca was called _inti illapa_. it was of gold and very large, and was brought to caxamarca in pieces. the licentiate polo found that this _guauqui_ or idol had a house, estate, servants and women. xlviii. the life of tupac inca yupanqui[ ], the tenth inca. [note : all authorities agree that tupac inca yupanqui was the successor of pachacuti except betanzos, santillana and garcilasso de la vega. betanzos has a yamqui yupanqui. garcilasso gives the reign of another inca named inca yupanqui between pachacuti and tupac inca. he was ignorant of the fact that pachacuti and inca yupanqui were the same person. santillana follows garcilasso but calls pachacuti's other self ccapac yupanqui.] when pachacuti inca yupanqui died, two _orejones_ were deputed to watch the body, and to allow no one to enter or go out to spread the news of his death, until orders had been given. the other incas and _orejones_ went with tupac inca to the house of the sun and then ordered the twelve captains of the _ayllus_ of the inca's guard to come. they came with men of the guard, under their command, fully armed, and surrounded the yupanqui with the fringe, and gave him the other insignia of sovereignty, as he had now inherited and succeeded his father. taking him in the midst of themselves, and of the guards, they escorted him to the great square, where he was seated, in majesty, on a superb throne. all the people of the city were then ordered to come and make obeisance to the inca on pain of death. those who had come with the inca, went to their houses to fetch presents to show reverence and do homage to the new inca. he remained with his guards only, until they returned with presents, doing homage and adoring. the rest of the people did the same, and sacrifices were offered. [_it is to be noted that only those of cuzco did this, and if any others were present who did so, they must have been forced or frightened by the armed men and the proclamation_.] this having been done, they approached the inca and said, "o sovereign inca! o father! now take rest." at these words tupac inca showed much sadness and covered his head with his mantle, which they call _llacolla_, a square cloak. he next went, with all his company, to the place where the body of his father was laid, and there he put on mourning. all things were then arranged for the obsequies, and tupac inca yupanqui did everything that his father had ordered at the point of death, touching the treatment of his body and other things. xlix. tupac inca yupanqui conquers the province of the antis. pachacuti inca yupanqui being dead, and tupac inca ruling alone, he caused all the sinchis and principal men of the conquered provinces to be summoned. those came who feared the fury of the inca, and with them the indians of the province of anti-suyu, who are the dwellers in the forests to the eastward of cuzco, who had been conquered in the time of pachacuti his father. tupac inca ordered them all to do homage, adore, and offer sacrifices. the antis were ordered to bring from their country several loads of lances of palm wood for the service of the house of the sun. the antis, who did not serve voluntarily, looked upon this demand as a mark of servitude. they fled from cuzco, returned to their country, and raised the land of the antis in the name of freedom. tupac inca was indignant, and raised a powerful army which he divided into three parts. he led the first in person, entering the anti-suyu by ahua-tona. the second was entrusted to a captain named uturuncu achachi, who entered anti-suyu by a town they call amaru. the third, under a captain named chalco yupanqui, advanced by way of pilcopata. all these routes were near each other, and the three divisions formed a junction three leagues within the forest, at a place called opatari, whence they commenced operations against the settlements of the antis. the inhabitants of this region were antis, called opataris, and were the first to be conquered. chalco yupanqui carried an image of the sun. the forests were very dense and full of evil places; so that they could not force their way through, nor did they know what direction to take in order to reach the settlements of the natives, which were well concealed in the thick vegetation. to find them the explorers climbed up the highest trees, and pointed out the places where they could see smoke rising. so they worked away at road making through the undergrowth until they lost that sign of inhabitants and found another. in this way the inca made a road where it seemed impossible to make one. the sinchi of the greater part of these provinces of the antis was condin savana, of whom they say that he was a great wizard and enchanter, and they had the belief, and even now they affirm that he could turn himself into different shapes. tupac inca and his captains penetrated into this region of the antis, which consists of the most terrible and fearful forests, with many rivers, where they endured immense toil, and the people who came from peru suffered from the change of climate, for peru is cold and dry, while the forests of anti-suyu are warm and humid. the soldiers of tupac inca became sick, and many died. tupac inca himself, with a third of his men who came with him to conquer, were lost in the forests, and wandered for a long time, without knowing whether to go in one direction or another until he fell in with uturuncu achachi who put him on the route. on this occasion tupac inca and his captains conquered four great tribes. the first was that of the indians called opataris. the next was the mano-suyu. the third tribe was called mañaris or yanasimis, which means those of the black mouth: and the province of rio, and the province of the chunchos. they went over much ground in descending the river tono, and penetrated as far as the chiponauas. the inca sent another great captain, named apu ccuri-machi, by the route which they now call of camata. this route was in the direction of the rising of the sun, and he advanced until he came to the river of which reports have but now been received, called paytiti, where he set up the frontier pillars of inca tupac. during the campaign against these nations, tupac inca took prisoners the following sinchis: vinchincayua, cantahuancuru, nutan-huari[ ]. [note : this expedition of tupac inca yupanqui into the montaña of paucartambo, and down the river tono is important. garcilasso de la vega describes it in chapters xiii., xiv., xv. and xvi. of book vii. he says that five rivers unite to form the great amaru-mayu or serpent river, which he was inclined to think was a tributary of the rio de la plata. he describes fierce battles with the chunchos, who were reduced to obedience. after descending the river tono, garcilasso says that the incas eventually reached the country of the musus (moxos) and opened friendly relations with them. many incas settled in the country of the musus. garcilasso then gives some account of spanish expeditions into the montaña, led by diego aleman, gomez de tordoya, and juan alvarez maldonado. the account in the text agrees, in the main, with that of garcilasso de la vega. sarmiento gives the names of four indian tribes who were encountered, besides the chunchos.] during the campaign an indian of the collas, named coaquiri, fled from his company, reached the collao, and spread the report that tupac inca was dead. he said that there was no longer an inca, that they should all rise and that he would be their leader. presently he took the name of pachacuti, the collas rose, and chose him as their captain. this news reached tupac inca in anti-suyu where he was in the career of conquest. he resolved to march against the collas and punish them. he left the forests, leaving uturuncu achachi to complete the conquest, with orders to return into peru when that service was completed, but not to enter cuzco triumphing until the inca should come. l. tupac inca yupanqui goes to subdue and pacify the collas. as the collas were one of those nations which most desired their freedom, they entered upon attempts to obtain it whenever a chance offered, as has already been explained. tupac inca yupanqui resolved to crush them once for all. having returned from the antis, he increased his army and nominated as captains larico, the son of his cousin ccapac yupanqui, his brother chachi, cunti yupanqui, and quihual tupac. with this army he advanced to the collao. the collas had constructed four strong places at llallaua, asillo, arapa, and pucara. the inca captured the chiefs and the leader of all, who was chuca-chucay pachacuti coaquiri, he who, as we have said, fled from anti-suyu. afterwards these were the drummers[ ] of inca tupac. finally, owing to the great diligence of inca tupac, although the war occupied some years, the incas conquered and subdued all [_perpetrating great cruelties on them_]. following up his victories, in pursuit of the vanquished, he got so far from cuzco that he found himself in charcas. so he determined to advance further, subduing every nation of which he received notice. he eventually prosecuted his conquests so far that he entered chile, where he defeated the great sinchi michimalongo, and tangalongo, sinchi of the chilians as far as the river maule. he came to coquimbo in chile and to the banks of the maule, where he set up his frontier columns, or as others say a wall, to show the end of his conquests. from this campaign he returned with great riches in gold, having discovered many mines of gold and silver. he then returned to cuzco. these spoils were joined with those of uturuncu achachi, who had returned from the forests of the antis after a campaign of three years. he was at paucar-tampu, awaiting the return of his brother, who entered cuzco with a very great triumph. they made great feasts to commemorate the conquests, presenting gifts and granting many favours to the soldiers who had served with the inca in these campaigns. as the provinces of the chumpi-vilicas saw the power and greatness of tupac inca yupanqui they came to submit with the rest of cunti-suyu. [note : _i.e._ their skins were made into drums.] besides this the inca went to chachapoyas, and crushed those who had been suspected, visiting many provinces on the road. on his return to cuzco he made certain ordinances, as well for peace as for war time. he increased the _mitimaes_ which his father had instituted, as has been explained in the account of his life, giving more privileges and liberty. besides, he caused a general visitation to be made of all the land from quito to chile, registering the whole population for more than a thousand leagues; and imposed a tribute [_so heavy that no one could be owner of a_ mazorca _of maize, which is their bread for food, nor of a pair of_ usutas, _which are their shoes, nor marry, nor do a single thing without special licence from tupac inca. such was the tyranny and oppression to which he subjected them_]. he placed over the _tucuricos_ a class of officers called _michu_[ ] to collect the taxes and tributes. [note : _michu_ should be _michec_ a shepherd, also a governor. _michisca_ the governed.] tupac inca saw that in the districts and provinces the sinchis claimed to inherit by descent. he resolved to abolish this rule, and to put them all under his feet, both great and small. he, therefore, deposed the existing sinchis, and introduced a class of ruler at his own will, who were selected in the following way. he appointed a ruler who should have charge of , men, and called him _huanu_, which means that number. he appointed another ruler over , and called him _huaranca_, which is . the next had charge of , called _pichca-pachaca_, or . to another called _pachac_ he gave charge of , and to another he gave charge of men, called _chunca curaca_. all these had also the title of _curaca_, which means "principal" or "superior," over the number of men of whom they had charge. these appointments depended solely on the will of the inca, who appointed and dismissed them as he pleased, without considering inheritance, or succession. from that time forward they were called _curacas_, which is the proper name of the chiefs of this land, and not _caciques_, which is the term used by the vulgar among the spaniards. that name of _cacique_ belongs to the islands of santo domingo and cuba. from this place we will drop the name of _sinchi_ and only use that of _curaca_. li. tupac inca makes the yanaconas. among the brothers of the inca there was one named tupac ccapac, a principal man, to whom tupac inca had given many servants to work on his farms, and serve on his estates. it is to be understood that tupac inca made his brother visitor-general of the whole empire that had been conquered up to that time. tupac ccapac, in making the visitation, came to the place where his brother had given him those servants. under colour of this grant, he took those and also many more, saying that all were his _yana-cunas_[ ], which is the name they give to their servants. he persuaded them to rebel against his brother, saying that if they would help him he would show them great favours. he then marched to cuzco, very rich and powerful, where he gave indications of his intentions. [note : garcilasso de la vega says that the meaning of _yanacona_ is "a man who is under the obligation to perform the duties of a servant." balboa, p. , tells the same story of the origin of the _yanaconas_ as in the text. the amnesty was granted on the banks of the river yana-yacu, and here they were called yana-yacu-cuna, corrupted into yana-cona. the spaniards adopted the word for all indians in domestic service, as distinguished from _mitayos_ or forced labourers.] he intended his schemes to be kept secret, but tupac inca was informed of them and came to cuzco. he had been away at the ceremony of arming one of his sons named ayar manco. having convinced himself that his information was correct, he killed tupac ccapac with all his councillors and supporters. finding that many tribes had been left out of the visitation by him, for this attempt, tupac inca went in person from cuzco, to investigate the matter and finish the visitation. while doing this the inca came to a place called yana-yacu, which means "black water" because a stream of a very dark colour flows down that valley, and for that reason they call the river and valley yana-yacu. up to this point he had been inflicting very cruel punishment without pardoning any one who was found guilty either in word or deed. in this valley of yana-yacu his sister and wife, mama ocllo, asked him not to continue such cruelties, which were more butchery and inhumanity than punishment, and not to kill any more but to pardon them, asking for them as her servants. in consequence of this intercession, the inca ceased the slaughter, and said that he would grant a general pardon. as the pardon was proclaimed in yana-yacu, he ordered that all the pardoned should be called yana-yacus. they were known as not being allowed to enter in the number of servants of the house of the sun, nor those of the visitation. so they remained under the curacas. this affair being finished, the visitation made by tupac ccapac was considered to be of no effect. so the inca returned to cuzco with the intention of ordering another visitation to be made afresh. lii. tupac inca yupanqui orders a second visitation of the land, and does other things. as the visitation entrusted to tupac ccapac was not to his liking, the inca revoked it, and nominated another brother named apu achachi to be visitor-general. the inca ordered him not to include the yana-yacus in the visitation, because they were unworthy to enter into the number of the rest, owing to what they had done, apu achachi set out and made his general visitation, reducing many of the indians to live in villages and houses who had previously lived in caves and hills and on the banks of rivers, each one by himself. he sent those in strong fastnesses into plains, that they might have no site for a fortress, on the strength of which they might rebel. he reduced them into provinces, giving them their curacas in the order already described. he did not make the son of the deceased a curaca, but the man who had most ability and aptitude for the service. if the appointment did not please the inca he, without more ado, dismissed him and appointed another, so that no curaca, high or low, felt secure in his appointment. to these curacas were given servants, women and estates, submitting an account of them, for, though they were curacas, they could not take a thing of their own authority, without express leave from the inca. in each province all those of the province made a great sowing of every kind of edible vegetable for the inca, his overseers coming to the harvest. above all there was a _tucurico apu_, who was the governor-lieutenant of the inca in that province. it is true that the first inca who obliged the indians of this land to pay tribute of everything, and in quantity, was inca yupanqui. but tupac inca imposed rules and fixed the tribute they must pay, and divided it according to what each province was to contribute as well for the general tax as those for _huacas_, and houses of the sun. [_in this way the people were so loaded with tributes and taxes, that they had to work perpetually night and day to pay them, and even then they could not comply, and had no time for sufficient labour to suffice for their own maintenance_.] tupac inca divided the estates throughout the whole empire, according to the measure which they call _tupu_. he divided the months of the year, with reference to labour in the fields, as follows. three months in the year were allotted to the indians for the work of their own fields, and the rest must be given up to the work of the sun, of _huacas_, and of the inca. in the three months that were given to themselves, one was for ploughing and sowing, one for reaping, and another in the summer for festivals, and for make and mend clothes days. the rest of their time was demanded for the service of the sun and the incas. this inca ordered that there should be merchants who might profit by their industry in this manner. when any merchant brought gold, silver, precious stones, or other valuable things for sale, they were to be asked where they got them, and in this way they gave information respecting the mines and places whence the valuables had been taken. thus a very great many mines of gold and silver, and of very fine colours, were discovered. this inca had two governors-general in the whole empire, called suyuyoc apu[ ]; one resided at xauxa and the other at tiahuanacu in colla-suyu. [note : _suyu_ a great division of the empire, or a province. _yoc_ a terminal particle denoting possession or office.] tupac inca ordered the seclusion of certain women in the manner of our professed nuns, maidens of years and upwards, who were called _acllas_[ ]. from thence they were taken to be given in marriage to the _tucurico apu_, or by order of the inca who, when any captain returned with victory, distributed the _acllas_ to captains, soldiers and other servants who had pleased him, as gracious gifts which were highly valued. as they took out some, they were replaced by others, for there must always be the number first ordained by the inca. if any man takes one out, or is caught inside with one they are both hanged, tied together. [note : _aclla_ means chosen, selected.] this inca made many ordinances, in his tyrannical mode of government, which will be given in a special volume. liii. tupac inca makes the fortress of cuzco. after tupac inca yupanqui had visited all the empire and had come to cuzco where he was served and adored, being for the time idle, he remembered that his father pachacuti had called the city of cuzco the lion city. he said that the tail was where the two rivers unite which flow through it[ ], that the body was the great square and the houses round it, and that the head was wanting. it would be for some son of his to put it on. the inca discussed this question with the _orejones_, who said that the best head would be to make a fortress on a high plateau to the north of the city. [note : this district of cuzco has always been called _pumap chupan_ or tail of the puma.] this being settled, the inca sent to all the provinces, to order the tucuricos to supply a large number of people for the work of the fortress. having come, the workmen were divided into parties, each one having its duties and officers. thus some brought stones, others worked them, others placed them. the diligence was such that in a few years, the great fortress of cuzco was built, sumptuous, exceedingly strong, of rough stone, a thing most admirable to look upon. the buildings within it were of small worked stone, so beautiful that, if it had not been seen, it would not be believed how strong and beautiful it was. what makes it still more worthy of admiration is that they did not possess tools to work the stone, but could only work with other stones. this fortress was intact until the time of the differences between pizarro and almagro, after which they began to dismantle it, to build with its stones the houses of spaniards in cuzco, which are at the foot of the fortress. great regret is felt by those who see the ruins. when it was finished, the inca made many store houses round cuzco for provisions and clothing, against times of necessity and of war; which was a measure of great importance[ ]. [note : this fortress of cuzco, on the sacsahuaman hill, was well described by cieza de leon and in greater detail by garcilasso de la vega, ii. pp. -- . both ascribe it to inca yupanqui or his son tupac inca, as does sarmiento. the extensive edifices, built of masonry of his period, were no doubt the work of tupac inca who thus got credit for the whole. these later edifices were pulled down by the spaniards, for material for building their houses in the city. but the wonderful cyclopean work that remains is certainly of much more ancient date, and must be assigned, like tiahuanacu, to the far distant age of the monolithic empire.] liv. death of tupac inca yupanqui. having visited and divided the lands, and built the fortress of cuzco, besides edifices and houses without number, tupac inca yupanqui went to chinchero[ ], a town near cuzco, where he had very rich things for his recreation; and there he ordered extensive gardens to be constructed to supply his household. when the work was completed he fell ill of a grave infirmity, and did not wish to be visited by anyone. but as he became worse and felt the approach of death, he sent for the _orejones_ of cuzco, his relations, and when they had assembled in his presence he said: "my relations and friends! i would have you to know that the sun my father desires to take me to himself, and i wish to go and rest with him. i have called you to let you know who it is that i desire to succeed me as lord and sovereign, and who is to rule and govern you." they answered that they grieved much at his illness, that as the sun his father had so willed it so must it be, that his will must be done, and they besought the inca to nominate him who was to be sovereign in his place. tupac inca then replied: "i nominate for my successor my son titu cusi hualpa, son of my sister and wife, mama ocllo." for this they offered many thanks, and afterwards the inca sank down on his pillow and died, having lived years. [note : chinchero is a village near cuzco, on the heights overlooking the lovely valley of yucay, with magnificent mountains in the background. the remains of the inca palace are still standing, not unlike those on the colcampata at cuzco.] tupac inca succeeded his father at the age of years. he had two legitimate sons, bastards, and daughters. some say that at the time of his death, or a short time before, he had nominated one of his illegitimate sons to succeed him named ccapac huari, son of a concubine whose name was chuqui ocllo. he left a lineage or _ayllu_ called _ccapac ayllu_, whose heads, who sustain it and are now living, are don andres tupac yupanqui, don cristobal pisac tupac, don garcia vilcas, don felipe tupac yupanqui, don garcia azache, and don garcia pilco. they are hanan-cuzcos. the deceased inca was frank, merciful in peace, cruel in war and punishments, a friend to the poor, a great man of indefatigable industry and a notable builder. [_he was the greatest tyrant of all the incas_.] he died in the year . chalco chima burnt his body in , when he captured huascar, as will be related in its place. the ashes, with his idol or _guauqui_ called _cusi-churi_, were found in calis-puquiu where the indians had concealed it, and offered to it many sacrifices. lv. the life of huayna ccapac, eleventh inca[ ]. [note : all authorities agree that huayna ccapac was the son and successor of tupac inca.] as soon as tupac inca was dead, the _orejones_, who were with him at the time of his death, proceeded to cuzco for the customary ceremonies. these were to raise the inca his successor before the death of his father had become known to him, and to follow the same order as in the case of the death of pachacuti inca yupanqui. as the wives and sons of tupac inca also went to cuzco, the matter could not be kept secret. a woman who had been a concubine of the late inca, named ccuri ocllo, a kins-woman of ccapac huari, as soon as she arrived at cuzco, spoke to her relations and to ccapac huari in these words. "sirs and relations! know that tupac inca is dead and that, when in health, he had named ccapac huari for his successor, but at the end, being on the point of death, he said that titu cusi hualpa, son of mama ocllo, should succeed him. you ought not to consent to this. rather call together all your relations and friends, and raise ccapac huari, your elder brother, son of chuqui ocllo, to be inca." this seemed well to all the relations of ccapac huari, and they sent to assemble all the other relations on his behalf. while this was proceeding, the _orejones_ of cuzco, knowing nothing of it, were arranging how to give the fringe to titu cusi hualpa. the plot of the party of ccapac huari became known to the late inca's brother, huaman achachi. he assembled some friends, made them arm themselves, and they went to where titu cusi hualpa was retired and concealed. they then proceeded to where the friends of ccapac huari had assembled, and killed many of them, including ccapac huari himself. others say that they did not kill ccapac huari at that time, but only took him. his mother chuqui ocllo was taken and, being a rebel as well as a witch who had killed her lord tupac inca, she was put to death. ccapac huari was banished to chinchero, where he was given a maintenance, but he was never allowed to enter cuzco again until his death. they also killed the woman ccuri ocllo, who had advised the raising of ccapac huari to the incaship. lvi. they give the fringe of inca to huayna ccapac, the eleventh inca. the city of cuzco being pacified, huaman achachi went to quispicancha, three leagues from cuzco, where titu cusi hualpa was concealed, and brought his nephew to cuzco, to the house of the sun. after the sacrifices and accustomed ceremonies, the image of the sun delivered the fringe to titu cusi hualpa. this being done, and the new inca having been invested with all the insignia of ccapac, and placed in a rich litter, they bore him to the _huaca_ huanacauri, where he offered a sacrifice. the _orejones_ returned to cuzco by the route taken by manco ccapac. arrived at the first square, called rimac-pampa, the accession was announced to the people, and they were ordered to come and do homage to the new inca. when they all assembled, and saw how young he was, never having seen him before, they all raised their voices and called him _huayna ccapac_ which means "the boy chief" or "the boy sovereign." for this reason he was called huayna ccapac from that time, and the name titu cusi hualpa was no longer used. they celebrated festivals, armed him as a knight, adored, and presented many gifts---as was customary. lvii. the first acts of huayna ccapac after he became inca. as huayna ccapac was very young when he succeeded, they appointed a tutor and coadjutor for him named hualpaya, a son of ccapac yupanqui, brother of inca yupanqui. this prince made a plot to raise himself to the incaship, but it became known to huaman achachi, then governor of chinchay-suyu. at the time he was in cuzco, and he and his people killed hualpaya and others who were culpable. huaman achachi assumed the government, but always had as a councillor his own brother auqui tupac inca. in course of time huayna ccapac went to the house of the sun, held a visitation, took account of the officials, and provided what was necessary for the service, and for that of the _mama-cunas_. he took the chief custodianship of the sun from him who then held it, and assumed the office himself with the title of "shepherd of the sun." he next visited the other _huacas_ and oracles, and their estates. he also inspected the buildings of the city of cuzco and the houses of the _orejones_. huayna ccapac ordered the body of his father tupac inca to be embalmed. after the sacrifices, the mourning, and other ceremonies, he placed the body in the late inca's residence which was prepared for it, and gave his servants all that was necessary for their maintenance and services. the same huayna ccapac mourned for his father and for his mother who died nearly at the same time. lviii. huayna ccapac conquers chachapoyas. after huayna ccapac had given orders respecting the things mentioned in the last chapter, it was reported to him that there were certain tribes near the territory of the chachapoyas which might be conquered, and that on the way he might subdue the chachapoyas who had rebelled. he gave orders to his _orejones_ and assembled a large army. he set out from cuzco, having first offered sacrifices and observed the _calpa_[ ]. on the route he took, he reformed many things. arriving at the land of the chachapoyas, they, with other neighbouring tribes, put themselves in a posture of defence. they were eventually vanquished and treated with great severity. the inca then returned to cuzco and triumphed at the victory gained over the chachapoyas and other nations. [note : _calpa_ means force, power. _calpay_ work. _calparicu_ "one who gives strength," used for a wizard. the calpa was a ceremony connected with divination.] while he was absent on this campaign, he left as governor of cuzco one of his illegitimate brothers named sinchi rocca, an eminent architect. he built all the edifices at yucay, and the houses of the inca at casana in the city of cuzco. he afterwards built other edifices round cuzco for huayna ccapac, on sites which appeared most convenient. lix. huayna ccapac makes a visitation of the whole empire from quito to chile. huayna ccapac having rested in cuzco for a long time and, wishing to undertake something, considered that it was a long time since he had visited the empire. he determined that there should be a visitation, and named his uncle huaman achachi to conduct it in chinchay-suyu as far as quito, he himself undertaking the region of colla-suyu. each one set out, huayna ccapac, in person, taking the route to the collao, where he examined into the government of his _tucuricos_, placing and dismissing governors and curacas, opening lands and making bridges and irrigating channels. constructing these works he arrived at charcas and went thence to chile, which his father had conquered, where he dismissed the governor, and appointed two native curacas named michimalongo and antalongo, who had been vanquished by his father. having renewed the garrison, he came to coquimbo and copiapo, also visiting atacama and arequipa. he next went to anti-suyu and alayda, by way of collao and charcas. he entered the valley of cochabamba, and there made provinces of _mitimaes_ in all parts, because the natives were few, and there was space for all, the land being fertile. thence he went to pocona to give orders on that frontier against the chirihuanas, and to repair a fortress which had been built by his father. while engaged on these measures, he received news that the provinces of quito, cayambis, carangues, pastos, and huancavilcas had rebelled. he, therefore, hurried his return and came to tiahuanacu, where he prepared for war against the quitos and cayambis, and gave orders how the urus[ ] were to live, granting them localities in which each tribe of them was to fish in the lake. he visited the temple of the sun and the _huaca_ of ticci viracocha on the island of titicaca, and sent orders that all those provinces should send troops to go to that war which he had proclaimed. [note : the urus are a tribe of fishermen, with a peculiar language, living among the reed beds in the s.w. part of lake titicaca.] lx. huayna ccapac makes war on the quitos, pastos, carangues, cayambis, huancavilcas. knowing that the pastos, quitos, carangues, cayambis and huancavilcas had rebelled, killed the _tucuricos_, and strengthened their positions with strong forces, huayna ccapac, with great rapidity, collected a great army from all the districts of the four _suyus_. he nominated michi of the hurin-cuzcos, and auqui tupac of the hanan-cuzcos as captains, and left his uncle huaman achachi as governor of cuzco. others say that he left apu hilaquito and auqui tupac inca in cuzco, with his son who was to succeed named tupac cusi hualpa inti illapa, and with him another of his sons named titu atanchi, who remained to perform the fasts before knighthood. it is to be noted that huayna ccapac was married, in conformity with custom and with the prescribed ceremonies to cusi rimay coya, by whom he had no male child. he, therefore, took his sister araua ocllo to wife, by whom he had a son tupac cusi hualpa, vulgarly called huascar. preparing for the campaign he ordered that atahualpa and ninan cuyoche, his illegitimate sons, now grown men, should go with him. his other sons, also illegitimate, named manco inca and paulu tupac, were to remain with huascar. these arrangements having been made, the inca set out for quito. on the way he came to tumipampa where he had himself been born. here he erected great edifices where he placed, with great solemnity, the caul in which he was born. marching onwards and reaching the boundary of the region where the quitos were in arms, he marshalled his squadrons, and presently resolved to conquer the pastos. for this service he selected two captains of the collao, one named mollo cavana, the other mollo pucara, and two others of cunti-suyu named apu cautar canana and cunti mollo, under whose command he placed many men of their nations, and _orejones_ as guards, under auqui tupac inca, brother of huayna ccapac and acollo tupac of the lineage of viracocha. they marched to the country of the pastos who fell back on their chief place, leaving their old people, women and children, with a few men, that the enemy might think there was no one else. the incas easily conquered these and, thinking that was all, they gave themselves up to idleness and pleasure. one night, when they were engaged in a great rejoicing, eating and drinking freely, without sentries, the pastos attacked them, and there was a great slaughter, especially among the collas. those who escaped, fled until they came to the main army of the incas which was following them. they say that atahualpa and ninan cuyoche brought up assistance, and that, with the confidence thus gained, huayna ccapac ordered the war to be waged most cruelly. so they entered the country of the pastos a second time, burning and destroying the inhabited places and killing all the people great and small, men and women, young and old. that province having been subdued, a governor was appointed to it. huayna ccapac then returned to tumipampa, where he rested some days, before moving his camp for the conquest of the carangues, a very warlike nation. in this campaign he subdued the macas to the confines of the cañaris, those of quisna, of ancamarca, the province of puruvay, the indians of nolitria, and other neighbouring nations. thence he went down to tumbez, a seaport, and then came to the fortresses of carangui and cochisque. in commencing to subdue those of cochisque he met with a stubborn resistance by valiant men, and many were killed on both sides. at length the place was taken, and the men who escaped were received in the fortress of carangui. the incas decided that the country surrounding this fortress should first be subdued. they desolated the country as far as ancas-mayu and otabalo, those who escaped from the fury of the incas taking refuge in the fortress. huayna ccapac attacked it with his whole force, but was repulsed by the garrison with much slaughter, and the _orejones_ were forced to fly, defeated by the cayambis, the inca himself being thrown down. he would have been killed if a thousand of his guard had not come up with their captains cusi tupac yupanqui and huayna achachi, to rescue and raise him. the sight of this animated the _orejones_. all turned to defend their inca, and pressed on with such vigour that the cayambis were driven back into their fortress. the inca army, in one encounter and the other, suffered heavy loss. huayna ccapac, on this account, returned to tumipampa, where he recruited his army, preparing to resume the attack on the cayambis. at this time some _orejones_ deserted the inca, leaving him to go back to cuzco. huayna ccapac satisfied the rest by gifts of clothes, provisions, and other things, and he formed an efficient army. it was reported that the cayambis had sallied from their fortress and had defeated a detachment of the inca army, killing many, and the rest escaping by flight. this caused great sorrow to the inca, who sent his brother auqui toma, with an army composed of all nations, against the cayambis of the fortress. auqui toma went, attacked the fortress, captured four lines of defence and the outer wall, which was composed of five. but at the entrance the cayambis killed auqui toma, captain of the cuzcos, who had fought most valorously. this attack and defence was so obstinate and long continued that an immense number of men fell, and the survivors had nowhere to fight except upon heaps of dead men. the desire of both sides to conquer or die was so strong that they gave up their lances and arrows and took to their fists. at last, when they saw that their captain was killed, the incas began to retreat towards a river, into which they went without any care for saving their lives. the river was in flood and a great number of men were drowned. this was a heavy loss for the cause of huayna ccapac. those who escaped from drowning and from the hands of the enemy, sent the news to the inca from the other side of the river. huayna ccapac received the news of this reverse with heavier grief than ever, for he dearly loved his brother auqui toma, who had been killed with so many men who were the pick of the army. huayna ccapac was a brave man, and was not dismayed. on the contrary it raised his spirit and he resolved to be avenged. he again got ready his forces and marched in person against the fortress of the cayambis. he formed the army in three divisions. he sent michi with a third of the army to pass on one side of the fortress without being seen. this detachment consisted of cuzco _orejones_, and men of chinchay-suyu. they were to advance five marches beyond the fortress and, at a fixed time, return towards it, desolating and destroying. the inca, with the rest of his army marched direct to the attack of the fortress, and began to fight with great fury. this continued some days, during which the inca lost some men. while the battle was proceeding, michi and those of chinchay-suyu turned, desolating and destroying everything in the land of the cayambis. they were so furious that they did not leave anything standing, making the very earth to tremble. when huayna ccapac knew that his detachment was near the fortress, he feigned a flight. the cayambis, not aware of what was happening in their rear, came out of the fortress in pursuit of the inca. when the cayambis were at some distance from their stronghold, the chinchay-suyus, commanded by michi, came in sight. these met with no resistance in the fortress as the cayambis were outside, following huayna ccapac. they easily entered it and set it on fire in several parts, killing or capturing all who were inside. the cayambis were, by this time, fighting with the army of huayna ccapac. when they saw their fortress on fire they lost hope and fled from the battle field towards a lake which was near, thinking that they could save themselves by hiding among the beds of reeds. but huayna ccapac followed them with great rapidity. in order that none might escape he gave instructions that the lake should be surrounded. in that lake, and the swamps on its borders, the troops of huayna ccapac, he fighting most furiously in person, made such havock and slaughter, that the lake was coloured with the blood of the dead cayambis. from that time forward the lake has been called _yahuar-cocha_, which means the "lake of blood," from the quantity that was there shed. it is to be noted that in the middle of this lake there was an islet with two willow trees, up which some cayambis climbed, and among them their two chiefs named pinto and canto, most valiant indians. the troops of huayna ccapac pelted them with stones and captured canto, but pinto escaped with a thousand brave cañaris. the cayambis being conquered, the cuzcos began to select those who would look best in the triumphal entry into cuzco. but they, thinking that they were being selected to be killed, preferred rather to die like men than to be tied up like women. so they turned and began to fight. huayna ccapac saw this and ordered them all to be killed. the inca placed a garrison in the fortress, and sent a captain with a detachment in pursuit of pinto who, in his flight, was doing much mischief. they followed until pinto went into forests, with other fugitives, escaping for a time. after huayna ccapac had rested for some days at tumipampa, he got information where pinto was in the forests, and surrounded them, closing up all entrances and exits. hunger then obliged him, and those who were with him, to surrender. this pinto was very brave and he had such hatred against huayna ccapac that even, after his capture, when the inca had presented him with gifts and treated him kindly, he never could see his face. so he died out of his mind, and huayna ccapac ordered a drum to be made of his skin. the drum was sent to cuzco, and so this war came to an end. it was at cuzco in the _taqui_ or dance in honour of the sun. lxi. the chirihuanas come to make war in peru against those conquered by the incas. while huayna ccapac was occupied with this war of the cayambis, the chirihuanas, who form a nation of the forests, naked and eaters of human flesh, for which they have a public slaughter house, uniting, and, coming forth from their dense forests, entered the territory of charcas, which had been conquered by the incas of peru. they attacked the fortress of cuzco-tuyo, where the inca had a large frontier garrison to defend the country against them. their assault being sudden they entered the fortress, massacred the garrison, and committed great havock, robberies and murders among the surrounding inhabitants. the news reached huayna ccapac at quito, and he received it with much heaviness. he sent a captain, named yasca, to cuzco to collect troops, and with them to march against the chirihuanas. this captain set out for cuzco, taking with him the _huaca_ "cataquilla[ ]" of caxamarca and huamachuco, and "curichaculla" of the chachapoyas; and the _huacas_ "tomayrica and chinchay-cocha," with many people, the attendants of the _huacas_. he arrived at cuzco where he was very well received by the governors, apu hilaquito and auqui tupac inca. having collected his troops he left cuzco for charcas. on the road he enlisted many men of the collao. with these he came up with the chirihuanas and made cruel war upon them. he captured some to send to huayna ccapac at quito, that the inca might see what these strange men were like. the captain yasca rebuilt the fortress and, placing in it the necessary garrison, he returned to cuzco, dismissed his men, and each one returned to his own land. [note : it was the policy of the incas that the idols and _huacas_ of conquered nations should be sent to cuzco and deposited there. catiquilla was an idol of the caxamarca and huamachuco people. arriaga calls it apu-cati-quilla. _apu_ the great or chief, _catic_ follower, _quilla_ the moon. apu-cati-quilla appears to have been a moon god. the other _huacas_ are local deities, all sent to cuzco. catiquilla had been kept as an oracle in the village of tauca in conchucos (calancha, p. ). _cati-quilla_ would mean "following moon." (see also _extirpation de la idolatria del peru_, joseph de arriaga. lima, .)] lxii. what huayna ccapac did after the said wars. as soon as huayna ccapac had despatched the captain against the chirihuanas, he set out from tumipampa to organize the nations he had conquered, including quito, pasto, and huancavilcas. he came to the river called ancas-mayu, between pasto and quito, where he set up his boundary pillars at the limit of the country he had conquered. as a token of grandeur and as a memorial he placed certain golden staves in the pillars. he then followed the course of the river in search of the sea, seeking for people to conquer, for he had information that in that direction the country was well peopled. on this road the army of the inca was in great peril, suffering from scarcity of water, for the troops had to cross extensive tracts of sand. one day, at dawn, the inca army found itself surrounded by an immense crowd of people, not knowing who they were. in fear of the unknown enemy, the troops began to retreat towards the inca. just as they were preparing for flight a boy came to huayna ccapac, and said: "my lord! fear not, those are the people for whom we are in search. let us attack them." this appeared to the inca to be good advice and he ordered an impetuous attack to be made, promising that whatever any man took should be his. the _orejones_ delivered such an assault on those who surrounded them that, in a short time, the circle was broken. the enemy was routed, and the fugitives made for their habitations, which were on the sea coast towards coaques, where the incas captured an immense quantity of rich spoils, emeralds, turquoises, and great store of very fine _mollo_, a substance formed in sea shells, more valued amongst them than gold or silver. here the inca received a message from the sinchi or curaca of the island of puna with a rich present, inviting him to come to his island to receive his service. huayna ccapac did so. thence he went to huancavilca, where he joined the reserves who had been left there. news came to him that a great pestilence was raging at cuzco of which the governors apu hilaquito his uncle, and auqui tupac inca his brother had died, also his sister mama cuca, and many other relations. to establish order among the conquered nations, the inca went to quito, intending to proceed from thence to cuzco to rest. on reaching quito the inca was taken ill with a fever, though others say it was small-pox or measles. he felt the disease to be mortal and sent for the _orejones_ his relations, who asked him to name his successor. his reply was that his son ninan cuyoche was to succeed, if the augury of the _calpa_ gave signs that such succession would be auspicious, if not his son huascar was to succeed. orders were given to proceed with the ceremony of the _calpa_, and cusi tupac yupanqui, named by the inca to be chief steward of the sun, came to perform it. by the first _calpa_ it was found that the succession of ninan cuyoche would not be auspicious. then they opened another lamb and took out the lungs, examining certain veins. the result was that the signs respecting huascar were also inauspicious. returning to the inca, that he might name some one else, they found that he was dead. while the _orejones_ stood in suspense about the succession, cusi tupac yupanqui said: "take care of the body, for i go to tumipampa to give the fringe to ninan cuyoche." but when he arrived at tumipampa he found that ninan cuyoche was also dead of the small-pox pestilence[ ]. [note : ninan cuyoche is said by cobos to have been legitimate, a son of the first wife cusi rimay huaco, who is said by sarmiento and others not to have borne a male heir.] seeing this cusi tupac yupanqui said to araua ocllo--"be not sad, o coya! go quickly to cuzco, and say to your son huascar that his father named him to be inca when his own days were over." he appointed two _orejones_ to accompany her, with orders to say to the incas of cuzco that they were to give the fringe to huascar. cusi tupac added that he would make necessary arrangements and would presently follow them with the body of huayna ccapac, to enter cuzco with it in triumph, the order of which had been ordained by the inca on the point of death, on a staff. huayna ccapac died at quito at the age of years. he left more than sons. he succeeded at the age of , and reigned years. he was valiant though cruel. he left a lineage or _ayllu_ called _tumipampa ayllu_. at present the heads of it, now living, are don diego viracocha inca, don garcia inguil tupac, and gonzalo sayri. to this _ayllu_ are joined the sons of paulu tupac, son of huayna ccapac. they are hanan-cuzcos. huayna ccapac died in the year of the nativity of our lord jesus christ, the invincible emperor charles v of glorious memory being king of spain, father of your majesty, and the pope was paul iii. the body of huayna ccapac was found by the licentiate polo in a house where it was kept concealed, in the city of cuzco. it was guarded by two of his servants named hualpa titu and sumac yupanqui. his idol or _guauqui_ was called _huaraqui inca_. it was a great image of gold, which has not been found up to the present time. lxiii the life of huascar, the last inca, and of atahualpa. huayna ccapac being dead, and the news having reached cuzco, they raised titu cusi hualpa inti illapa, called huascar, to be inca. he was called huascar because he was born in a town called huascar-quihuar, four and a half leagues from cuzco. those who remained at tumipampa embalmed the body of huayna ccapac, and collected the spoils and captives taken in his wars, for a triumphal entry into the capital. it is to be noted that atahualpa, bastard son of huayna ccapac by tocto coca, his cousin, of the lineage of inca yupanqui, had been taken to that war by his father to prove him. he first went against the pastos, and came back a fugitive, for which his father rated him severely. owing to this atahualpa did not appear among the troops, and he spoke to the inca _orejones_ of cuzco in this manner. "my lords! you know that i am a son of huayna ccapac and that my father took me with him, to prove me in the war. owing to the disaster with the pastos, my father insulted me in such a way that i could not appear among the troops, still less at cuzco among my relations who thought that my father would leave me well, but i am left poor and dishonoured. for this reason i have determined to remain here where my father died, and not to live among those who will be pleased to see me poor and out of favour. this being so you need not wait for me." he then embraced them all and took leave of them. they departed with tears and grief, leaving atahualpa at tumipampa[ ]. [note : atahualpa is said by sarmiento and yamqui pachacuti to have been an illegitimate son of huayna ccapac by tocto coca his cousin, of the ayllu of pachacuti. cieza de leon says that he was a son by a woman of quilaco named tupac palla. gomara, who is followed by velasco, says that atahualpa was the son of a princess of quito. as huayna ccapac only set out for the quito campaign twelve years before his death, and atahualpa was then grown up, his mother cannot have been a woman of quito. i, therefore, have no doubt that sarmiento is right.] the _orejones_ brought the body of huayna ccapac to cuzco, entering with great triumph, and his obsequies were performed like those of his ancestors. this being done, huascar presented gold and other presents, as well as wives who had been kept closely confined in the house of the _acllas_ during the time of his father. huascar built edifices where he was born, and in cuzco he erected the houses of amaru-cancha, where is now the monastery of the "name of jesus," and others on the colcampata, where don carlos lives, the son of paulo. after that he summoned cusi tupac yupanqui, and the other principal _orejones_ who had come with the body of his father, and who were of the lineage of inca yupanqui and therefore relations of the mother of atahualpa. he asked them why they had not brought atahualpa with them, saying that doubtless they had left him there, that he might rebel at quito, and that when he did so, they would kill their inca at cuzco. the _orejones_, who had been warned of this suspicion, answered that they knew nothing except that atahualpa remained at quito, as he had stated publicly, that he might not be poor and despised among his relations in cuzco. huascar, not believing what they said, put them to the torture, but he extracted nothing further from them. huascar considered the harm that these _orejones_ had done, and that he never could be good friends with them or be able to trust them, so he caused them to be put to death. this gave rise to great lamentation in cuzco and hatred of huascar among the hanan-cuzcos, to which party the deceased belonged. seeing this huascar publicly said that he divorced and separated himself from relationship with the lineages of the hanan-cuzcos because they were for atahualpa who was a traitor, not having come to cuzco to do homage. then he declared war with atahualpa and assembled troops to send against him. meanwhile atahualpa sent his messengers to huascar with presents, saying that he was his vassal, and as such he desired to know how he could serve the inca. huascar rejected the messages and presents of atahualpa and they even say that he killed the messengers. others say that he cut their noses and their clothing down to their waists, and sent them back insulted. while this was taking place at cuzco the huancavilcas rebelled. atahualpa assembled a great army, nominating as captains--chalco chima, quiz-quiz, incura hualpa, rumi-ñaui, yupanqui, urco-huaranca and uña chullo. they marched against the huancavilcas, conquered them, and inflicted severe punishment. returning to quito, atahualpa sent a report to huascar of what had taken place. at this time atahualpa received news of what huascar had done to his messengers, and of the death of the _orejones_; also that huascar was preparing to make war on him, that he had separated himself from the hanan-cuzcos, and that he had proclaimed him, atahualpa, a traitor, which they call _aucca_. atahualpa, seeing the evil designs entertained by his brother against him, and that he must prepare to defend himself, took counsel with his captains. they were of one accord that he should not take the field until he had assembled more men, and collected as large an army as possible, because negotiations should be commenced when he was ready for battle. at this time an orejon named hancu and another named atoc came to tumipampa to offer sacrifices before the image of huayna ccapac, by order of huascar. they took the wives of huayna ccapac and the insignia of inca without communication with atahualpa. for this atahualpa seized them and, being put to the torture, they confessed what orders huascar had given them, and that an army was being sent against atahualpa. they were ordered to be killed, and drums to be made of their skins. then atahualpa sent scouts along the road to cuzco, to see what forces were being sent against him by his brother. the scouts came in sight of the army of huascar and brought back the news. atahualpa then marched out of quito to meet his enemies. the two armies encountered each other at riopampa where they fought a stubborn and bloody battle, but atahualpa was victorious. the dead were so numerous that he ordered a heap to be made of their bones, as a memorial. even now, at this day, the plain may be seen, covered with the bones of those who were slain in that battle. at this time huascar had sent troops to conquer the nations of pumacocha, to the east of the pacamoros, led by tampu usca mayta and by titu atauchi, the brother of huascar. when the news came of this defeat at riopampa, huascar got together another larger army, and named as captains atoc, huaychac, hanco, and huanca auqui. this huanca auqui had been unfortunate and lost many men in his campaign with the pacamoros. his brother, the inca huascar, to insult him, sent him gifts suited to a woman, ridiculing him. this made huanca auqui determine to do something worthy of a man. he marched to tumipampa, where the army of atahualpa was encamped to rest after the battle. finding it without watchfulness, he attacked and surprised the enemy, committing much slaughter. atahualpa received the news at quito, and was much grieved that his brother huanca auqui should have made this attack, for at other times when he could have hit him, he had let him go, because he was his brother. he now gave orders to quiz-quiz and chalco chima to advance in pursuit of huanca auqui. they overtook him at cusi-pampa, where they fought and huanca auqui was defeated, with great loss on both sides. huanca auqui fled, those of atahualpa following in pursuit as far as caxamarca, where huanca auqui met a large reinforcement sent by huascar in support. huanca auqui ordered them to march against chalco chima and quiz-quiz while he remained at caxamarca. the troops sent by huanca auqui were chachapoyas and many others, the whole numbering , . they met the enemy and fought near caxamarca. but the chachapoyas were defeated and no more than escaped. huanca auqui then fled towards cuzco, followed by the army of atahualpa. in the province of bombon[ ], huanca auqui found a good army composed of all nations, which huascar had sent to await his enemies there, who were coming in pursuit. those of atahualpa arrived and a battle was fought for two days without either party gaining an advantage. but on the third day huanca auqui was vanquished by quiz-quiz and chalco chima. [note : correctly pumpu.] huanca auqui escaped from the rout and came to xauxa, where he found a further reinforcement of many indians, soras, chancas, ayamarcas, and yanyos, sent by his brother. with these he left xauxa and encountered the pursuing enemy at a place called yanamarca. here a battle was fought not less stubbornly than the former one. finally, as fortune was against huanca auqui, he was again defeated by chalco chima, the adventurous captain of the army of atahualpa. the greater part of the forces of huanca auqui was killed. he himself fled, never stopping until he reached paucaray. here he found a good company of _orejones_ of cuzco, under a captain named mayta yupanqui who, on the part of huascar, rebuked huanca auqui, asking how it was possible for him to have lost so many battles and so many men, unless he was secretly in concert with chalco chima. he answered that the accusation was not true, that he could not have done more; and he told mayta yupanqui to go against their enemy, and see what power he brought. he said that atahualpa was determined to advance if they could not hinder his captains. then mayta yupanqui went on to encounter chalco chima, and met him at the bridge of anco-yacu where there were many skirmishes, but finally the _orejones_ were defeated[ ]. [note : this campaign is also fully described by balboa, and in some detail by yamqui pachacuti, pp. -- .] lxiv. huascar inca marches in person to fight chalco chima and quiz-quiz, the captains of atahualpa. as the fortune of huascar and his captains, especially of huanca auqui, was so inferior to that of atahualpa and his adventurous and dexterous captains chalco chima and quiz-quiz, one side meeting with nothing that did not favour them, the other side with nothing that was not against them, such terrible fear took possession of huanca auqui and the other inca captains after the battle of anco-yacu bridge, that they fled without stopping to vilcas, and more leagues from anco-yacu, on the road to cuzco. over the satisfaction that the captains of atahualpa felt at the glory of so many victories that they had won, there came the news sent by atahualpa that he had come in person to caxamarca and huamachuco, that he had been received as inca by all the nations he had passed, and that he had assumed the fringe and the _ccapac-uncu_. he was now called inca of all the land, and it was declared that there was no other inca but him. he ordered his captains to march onwards conquering, until they encountered huascar. they were to give him battle, conquer him like the rest, and if possible take him prisoner. atahualpa was so elated by his victories, and assumed such majesty, that he did not cease to talk of his successes, and no one dared to raise his eyes before him. for those who had business with him he appointed a lieutenant called "inca apu," which means "the inca's lord," who was to take his place by the inca when he was seated. those who had business transacted it with him, entering with a load on their backs, and their eyes on the ground, and thus they spoke of their business with the _apu_. he then reported to atahualpa, who decided what was to be done. atahualpa was very cruel, he killed right and left, destroyed, burnt, and desolated whatever opposed him. from quito to huamachuco he perpetrated the greatest cruelties, robberies, outrages, and tyrannies that had ever been done in that land. when atahualpa arrived at huamachuco, two principal lords of his house came to offer sacrifice to the _huaca_ of huamachuco for the success that had attended their cause. these _orejones_ went, made the sacrifice, and consulted the oracle. they received an answer that atahualpa would have an unfortunate end, because he was such a cruel tyrant and shedder of so much human blood. they delivered this reply of the devil to atahualpa. it enraged him against the oracle, so he called out his guards and went to where the _huaca_ was kept. having surrounded the place, he took a halberd of gold in his hand, and was accompanied by the two officers of his household who had made the sacrifice. when he came to where the idol was, an old man aged a hundred years came out, clothed in a dress reaching down to the ground, very woolly and covered with sea shells. he was the priest of the oracle who had made the reply. when atahualpa knew who he was, he raised the halberd and gave him a blow which cut off his head. atahualpa then entered the house of the idol, and cut off its head also with many blows, though it was made of stone. he then ordered the old man's body, the idol, and its house to be burnt, and the cinders to be scattered in the air. he then levelled the hill, though it was very large, where that oracle, idol or _huaca_ of the devil stood. all this being made known to chalco chima and quiz-quiz, they celebrated festivals and rejoicings, and then resumed their march towards cuzco. huascar received reports of all that had happened, and mourned over the great number of men he had lost. he clearly saw that there only remained the remedy of going forth in person to try his fortune, which had hitherto been so adverse. in preparation he kept some fasts--for these gentiles also have a certain kind of fasting, made many sacrifices to the idols and oracles of cuzco, and sought for replies. all answered that the event would be adverse to him. on hearing this he consulted his diviners and wizards, called by them _umu_, who, to please him, gave him hope of a fortunate ending. he got together a powerful army, and sent out scouts to discover the position of the enemy. the hostile army was reported to be at a place, leagues from cuzco, called curahuasi[ ]. they found there chalco chima and quiz-quiz, and reported that they had left the main road to cuzco, and had taken that of cotabamba, which is on the right, coming from caxamarca or lima to cuzco. this route was taken to avoid the bad road and dangerous pass by the apurimac bridge. huascar divided his army into three divisions. one consisted of the men of cunti-suyu, charcas, colla-suyu, chuys, and chile under the command of a captain named arampa yupanqui. his orders were to advance over cotabamba towards another neighbouring province of the omasayos, to harass the enemy on the side of the river of cotabamba and the apurimac bridge. the survivors of the former battles, under huanca auqui, ahua panti, and pacta mayta, were to attack the enemy on one flank, and to march into cotabamba. huascar in person commanded a third division. thus all the forces of both huascar and atahualpa were in cotabamba. [note : curahuasi is near the bridge over the apurimac.] arampa yupanqui got news that the forces of atahualpa were passing through a small valley or ravine which leads from huanacu-pampa. he marched to oppose them, and fought with a strong squadron of the troops under chalco chima. he advanced resolutely to the encounter, and slew many of the enemy, including one of their captains named tomay rima. this gave huascar great satisfaction and he said laughingly to the _orejones_--"the collas have won this victory. behold the obligation we have to imitate our ancestors." presently the captains-general of his army, who were titu atauchi, tupac atao his brother, nano, urco huaranca and others, marshalled the army to fight those of atahualpa with their whole force. the armies confronted each other and attacked with skill and in good order. the battle lasted from morning nearly until sunset, many being slain on both sides, though the troops of huascar did not suffer so much as those of chalco chima and quiz-quiz. the latter seeing their danger, many of them retreated to a large grassy plateau which was near, in huanacu-pampa. huascar, who saw this, set fire to the grass and burnt a great part of atahualpa's forces. chalco chima and quiz-quiz then retreated to the other side of the river cotabamba. huascar, satisfied with what he had done, did not follow up his advantages, but enjoyed the victory which fortune had placed in his hands. for this he took a higher position. chalco chima and quiz-quiz, who were experienced in such manoeuvres, seeing that they were not followed, decided to rest their troops, and on another day to attack those who believed themselves to be conquerors. they sent spies to the camp of huascar, and found from them that huascar would send a certain division of his troops to take atahualpa's captains, without their being able to escape. lxv. the battle between the armies of huascar and atahualpa huascar made prisoner. when the morning of the next day arrived huascar determined to finish off the army of his brother at one blow. he ordered tupac atao to go down the ravine with a squadron, discover the position of the enemy, and report what he had seen. tupac atao received this order and entered the ravine in great silence, looking from side to side. but the spies of chalco chima saw everything without being seen themselves and gave notice to chalco chima and quiz-quiz. chalco chima then divided his men into two parts and stationed them at the sides of the road where the _orejones_ would pass. when tupac atao came onwards, they attacked him to such purpose that scarcely any one escaped, tupac atao himself was taken, badly wounded, by whom chalco chima was informed that huascar would follow him with only a squadron of men, while the rest of his army remained in huanacu-pampa. chalco chima sent this information to quiz-quiz, who was at a little distance, that they might unite forces. he told him that tupac atao was taken, that huascar was expected with a small force, and that quiz-quiz was wanted that both might take this enemy on the flanks. this was done. they divided their forces, placing them on both sides as in the attack on tupac atao. a short time after they entered the ravine, huascar and his men came upon the dead bodies of the men of tupac atao who, being known to huascar he wished to turn back, understanding that they were all dead and that there must have been some ambush. but it was too late, for he was surrounded by his enemies. then he was attacked by the troops of chalco chima. when he tried to fly from those who fell upon his rear, he fell into the hands of quiz-quiz who was waiting for him lower down. those of chalco chima and those of quiz-quiz fought with great ferocity, sparing none, and killing them all. chalco chima, searching for huascar, saw him in his litter and seized him by the hands, and pulled him out of his litter. thus was taken prisoner the unfortunate huascar inca, twelfth and last tyrant of the inca sovereigns of peru, falling into the power of another greater and more cruel tyrant than himself, his people defeated, killed, and scattered. placing huascar in safe durance with a sufficient guard, chalco chima went on in the inca's litter and detached of his men to advance towards the other troops remaining on the plain of huanacu-pampa. he ordered that all the rest should follow quiz-quiz, and that when he let fall the screen, they should attack. he executed this stratagem because his enemies thought that he was huascar returning victorious, so they waited. he advanced and arrived where the troops of huascar were waiting for their lord, who, when they saw him, still thought that it was huascar bringing his enemies as prisoners. when chalco chima was quite near, he let loose a prisoner who had been wounded, who went to the inca troops. he told them what had happened, that it was chalco chima, and that he could kill them all by this stratagem. when this was known, and that chalco chima would presently order them to be attacked with his whole force, for he had let the screen fall, which was to be the sign, the inca troops gave way and took to flight, which was what chalco chima intended. the troops of atahualpa pursued, wounding and killing with excessive cruelty and ferocity, continuing the slaughter, with unheard of havock, as far as the bridge of cotabamba. as the bridge was narrow and all could not cross it, many jumped into the water from fear of their ferocious pursuers, and were drowned. the troops of atahualpa crossed the river, continuing the pursuit and rejoicing in their victory. during the pursuit they captured titu atauchi, the brother of huascar. chalco chima and quiz-quiz arrived at some houses called quiuipay, about half a league from cuzco, where they placed huascar as a prisoner with a sufficient guard. here they encamped and established their head-quarters. the soldiers of chalco chima went to get a view of cuzco from the hill of yauina overlooking the city, where they heard the mourning and lamentation of the inhabitants, and returned to inform chalco chima and quiz-quiz. those captains sent a messenger to cuzco to tell the inhabitants not to mourn, for that there was nothing to fear, it being well known that this was a war between two brothers for the gratification of their own passions. if any of them had helped huascar they had not committed a crime, for they were bound to serve their inca; and if there was any fault he would remit and pardon it, in the name of the great lord atahualpa. presently he would order them all to come out and do reverence to the statue of atahualpa, called _ticci ccapac_ which means "lord of the world." the people of cuzco consulted together, and resolved to come forth and obey the commands of chalco chima and quiz-quiz. they came according to their _ayllus_ and, on arriving at quiuipay, they seated themselves in that order. presently the troops of atahualpa, fully armed, surrounded all those who had come from cuzco. they took huanca auqui, ahua panti, and paucar usna, who had led the army against them in the battle at tumipampa. then they took apu chalco yupanqui and rupaca, priests of the sun, because these had given the fringe to huascar. these being prisoners quiz-quiz rose and said--"now you know of the battles you have fought with me on the road, and the trouble you have caused me. you always raised huascar to be inca, who was not the heir. you treated evilly the inca atahualpa whom the sun guards, and for these things you deserve death. but using you with humanity, i pardon you in the name of my lord atahualpa, whom may the sun prosper." but that they might not be without any punishment, he ordered them to be given some blows with a great stone on the shoulders, and he killed the most culpable. then he ordered that all should be tied by the knees, with their faces towards caxamarca or huamachuco where atahualpa was, and he made them pull out their eyelashes and eyebrows as an offering to the new inca. all the _orejones_, inhabitants of cuzco, did this from fear, saying in a loud voice, "long live! live for many years atahualpa our inca, may our father the sun increase his life!" araua ocllo, the mother of huascar, and his wife chucuy huypa, were there, and were dishonoured and abused by quiz-quiz. in a loud voice the mother of huascar said to her son, who was a prisoner, "o unfortunate! thy cruelties and evil deeds have brought you to this state. did i not tell you not to be so cruel, and not to kill nor ill-treat the messengers of your brother atahualpa." having said these words she came to him, and gave him a blow in the face. chalco chima and quiz-quiz then sent a messenger to atahualpa, letting him know all that had happened, and that they had made prisoners of huascar and many others, and asking for further orders. lxvi. what chalco chima and quiz-quiz did concerning huascar and those of his side in words. after chalco chima and quiz-quiz had sent off the messengers to atahualpa, they caused the prisoners to be brought before them, and in the presence of all, and of the mother and wife of huascar, they declared, addressing themselves to the mother of huascar, that she was the concubine and not the wife of huayna ccapac, and that, being his concubine, she had borne huascar, also that she was a vile woman and not a coya. the troops of atahualpa raised a shout of derision, and some said to the _orejones_, pointing their fingers at huascar--"look there at your lord! who said that in the battle he would turn fire and water against his enemies?" huascar was then tied hand and foot on a bed of ropes of straws. the _orejones_, from shame, lowered their heads. presently quiz-quiz asked huascar, "who of these made you lord, there being others better and more valiant than you, who might have been chosen?" araua ocllo, speaking to her son, said, "you deserve all this my son as i told you, and all comes from the cruelty with which you treated your own relations." huascar replied, "mother! there is now no remedy, leave us," and he addressed himself to the priest chalco yupanqui, saying--"speak and answer the question asked by quiz-quiz." the priest said to quiz-quiz, "i raised him to be lord and inca by command of his father huayna ccapac, and because he was son of a coya" (which is what we should call infanta). then chalco chima was indignant, and called the priest a deceiver and a liar. huascar answered to quiz-quiz, "leave off these arguments. this is a question between me and my brother, and not between the parties of hanan-cuzco and hurin-cuzco. we will investigate it, and you have no business to meddle between us on this point." enraged at the answer chalco chima ordered huascar to be taken back to prison, and said to the incas, to re-assure them, that they could now go back to the city as they were pardoned. the _orejones_ returned, invoking viracocha in loud voices with these words--"o creator! thou who givest life and favour to the incas where art thou now? why dost thou allow such persecution to come upon us? wherefore didst thou exalt us, if we are to come to such an end?" saying these words they beat their cloaks in token of the curse that had come upon them all. lxvii. the cruelties that atahualpa ordered to be perpetrated on the prisoners and conquered of huascar's party. when atahualpa knew what had happened, from the messengers of chalco chima and quiz-quiz, he ordered one of his relations named cusi yupanqui to go to cuzco, and not to leave a relation or friend of huascar alive. this cusi yupanqui arrived at cuzco, and chalco chima and quiz-quiz delivered the prisoners to him. he made inquiries touching all that atahualpa had ordered. he then caused poles to be fixed on both sides of the road, extending not more than a quarter of a league along the way to xaquixahuana. next he brought out of the prison all the wives of huascar, including those pregnant or lately delivered. he ordered them to be hung to these poles with their children, and he ordered the pregnant to be cut open, and the stillborn to be hung with them. then he caused the sons of huascar to be brought out and hung to the poles. among the sons of huayna ccapac who were prisoners there was one named paullu tupac. when they were going to kill him, he protested saying, it was unreasonable that he should be killed, because he had previously been imprisoned by huascar; and on this ground he was released and escaped death. yet the reason that he was imprisoned by huascar was because he had been found with one of the inca's wives. he was only given very little to eat, the intention being that he should die in prison. the woman with whom he was taken was buried alive. the wars coming on he escaped, and what has been related took place. after this the lords and ladies of cuzco who were found to have been friends of huascar were seized and hanged on the poles. then there was an examination of all the houses of deceased incas, to see which had been on the side of huascar, and against atahualpa. they found that the house of tupac inca yupanqui had sided with huascar. cusi yupanqui committed the punishment of the house to chalco chima and quiz-quiz. they seized the steward of the house, and the mummy of tupac inca, and those of his family and hung them all, and they burnt the body of tupac inca outside the town and reduced it to ashes. and to destroy the house completely, they killed many _mama cunas_ and servants, so that none were left of that house except a few of no account. besides this they ordered all the chachapoyas and cañaris to be killed, and their curaca named ulco colla, who they said had rebelled against the two brothers. all these murders and cruelties were perpetrated in the presence of huascar to torment him. they murdered over sons and daughters of huascar, and what he felt most cruelly was the murder, before his eyes, of one of his sisters named coya miro, who had a son of huascar in her arms, and another in her womb; and another very beautiful sister named chimbo cisa. breaking his heart at the sight of such cruelty and grief which he was powerless to prevent, he cried, with a sigh, "oh pachayachachi viracocha, thou who showed favour to me for so short a time, and honoured me and gave me life, dost thou see that i am treated in this way, and seest thou in thy presence what i, in mine, have seen and see." some of the concubines of huascar escaped from this cruelty and calamity, because they had neither borne a child nor were pregnant, and because they were beautiful. they say that they were kept to be taken to atahualpa. among those who escaped were doña elvira chonay, daughter of cañar ccapac, doña beatriz carnamaruay, daughter of the curaca of chinchay-cocha, doña juana tocto, doña catalina usica, wife, that was, of don paullu tupac, and mother of don carlos, who are living now. in this way the line and lineage of the unfortunate tyrant huascar, the last of the incas, was completely annihilated. lxviii. news of the spaniards comes to atahualpa. atahualpa was at huamachuco celebrating great festivals for his victories, and he wished to proceed to cuzco and assume the fringe in the house of the sun, where all former incas had received it when he was about to set out there came to him two tallanas indians, sent by the curacas of payta and tumbez, to report to him that there had arrived by sea, which they call _cocha_, a people with different clothing, and with beards, and that they brought animals like large sheep. the chief of them was believed to be viracocha, which means the god of these people, and he brought with him many viracochas, which is as much as to say "gods." they said this of the governor don francisco pizarro, who had arrived with men and some horses which they called sheep. as the account in detail is left for the history of the spaniards, which will form the third part to come after this, i will only here speak briefly of what passed between the spaniards and atahualpa. when this became known to atahualpa he rejoiced greatly, believing it to be the viracocha coming, as he had promised when he departed, and as is recounted in the beginning of this history. atahualpa gave thanks that he should have come in his time, and he sent back the messengers with thanks to the curacas for sending the news, and ordering them to keep him informed of what might happen. he resolved not to go to cuzco until he had seen what this arrival was, and what the viracochas intended to do. he sent orders to chalco chima and quiz-quiz to lose no time in bringing huascar to caxamarca, where he would go to await their arrival, for he had received news that certain viracochas had arrived by sea, and he wished to be there to see what they were like. as no further news came, because the spaniards were forming a station at tangarara, atahualpa became careless and believed that they had gone. for, at another time, when he was marching with his father, in the wars of quito, news came to huayna ccapac that the viracocha had arrived on the coast near tumbez, and then they had gone away. this was when don francisco pizarro came on the first discovery, and returned to spain for a concession, as will be explained in its place. lxix. the spaniards come to caxamarca and seize atahualpa, who orders huascar to be killed. atahualpa also dies. as the subject of which this chapter treats belongs to the third part (the history of the spaniards), i shall here only give a summary of what happened to atahualpa. although atahualpa was careless about the spaniards they did not miss a point, and when they heard where atahualpa was, they left tangarara and arrived at caxamarca. when atahualpa knew that the viracochas were near, he left caxamarca and went to some baths at a distance of half a league that he might, from there, take the course which seemed best. as he found that they were not gods as he had been made to think at first, he prepared his warriors to resist the spaniards. finally he was taken prisoner by don francisco pizarro, the friar, vicente valverde, having first made a certain demand, in the square of caxamarca. don francisco pizarro knew of the disputes there had been between atahualpa and huascar, and that huascar was a prisoner in the hands of the captains of atahualpa, and he urged atahualpa to have his brother brought as quickly as possible. huascar was being brought to caxamarca by atahualpa's order, as has already been said. chalco chima obeying this order, set out with huascar and the captains and relations who had escaped the butchery of cusi yupanqui. atahualpa asked don francisco pizarro why he wanted to see his brother. pizarro replied that he had been informed that huascar was the elder and principal lord of that land and for that reason he wished to see him, and he desired that he should come. atahualpa feared that if huascar came alive, the governor don francisco pizarro would be informed of what had taken place, that huascar would be made lord, and that he would lose his state. being sagacious, he agreed to comply with pizarro's demand, but sent off a messenger to the captain who was bringing huascar, with an order to kill him and all the prisoners. the messenger started and found huascar at antamarca, near yana-mayu. he gave his message to the captain of the guard who was bringing huascar as a prisoner. directly the captain heard the order of atahualpa he complied with it. he killed huascar, cut the body up, and threw it into the river yana-mayu. he also killed the rest of the brothers, relations, and captains who were with him as prisoners, in the year . huascar had lived years. he succeeded his father at the age of and reigned for years. his wife was chucuy huypa by whom he had no male child. he left no lineage or _ayllu_, and of those who are now living, one only, named don alonso titu atauchi is a nephew of huascar, son of titu atauchi who was murdered with huascar. he alone sustains the name of the lineage of huascar called the _huascar ayllu_. in this river of yana-mayu atahualpa had fixed his boundary pillars when he first rebelled, saying that from thence to chile should be for his brother huascar, and from the yana-mayu onwards should be his. thus with the death of huascar there was an end to all the incas of peru and all their line and descent which they held to be legitimate, without leaving man or woman who could have a claim on this country, supposing them to have been natural and legitimate lords of it, in conformity with their own customs and tyrannical laws. for this murder of huascar, and for other good and sufficient causes, the governor don francisco pizarro afterwards put atahualpa to death. he was a tyrant against the natives of this country and against his brother huascar. he had lived years. he was not inca of peru, but a tyrant. he was prudent, sagacious, and valiant, as i shall relate in the third part, being events which belong to the deeds of the spaniards. it suffices to close this second part by completing the history of the deeds of the inca tyrants who reigned in this kingdom of peru from manco ccapac the first to huascar the twelfth and last tyrant. lxx. it is noteworthy how these incas were tyrants against themselves, besides being so against the natives of the land. it is a thing worthy to be noted [_for the fact that besides being a thing certain and evident the general tyranny of these cruel and tyrannical incas of peru against the natives of the land, may be easily gathered from history_], and any one who reads and considers with attention the order and mode of their procedure will see, that their violent incaship was established without the will and election of the natives who always rose with arms in their hands on each occasion that offered for rising against their inca tyrants who oppressed them, to get back their liberty. each one of the incas not only followed the tyranny of his father, but also began afresh the same tyranny by force, with deaths, robberies and rapine. hence none of them could pretend, in good faith, to give a beginning to time of prescription, nor did any of them hold in peaceful possession, there being always some one to dispute and take up arms against them and their tyranny. moreover, and this is above all to be noted, to understand the worst aims of these tyrants and their horrid avarice and oppression, they were not satisfied with being evil tyrants to the natives, but also to their own proper sons, brothers and relations, in defiance of their own laws and statutes, they were the worst and most pertinacious tyrants with an unheard-of inhumanity. for it was enacted among themselves and by their customs and laws that the eldest legitimate son should succeed, yet almost always they broke the law, as appears by the incas who are here referred to. [illustration: _reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth._ capture of atahualpa, and siege of cuzco, etc. _from the rev. c.m. cracherode's copy in the british museum._] before all things manco ccapac, the first tyrant, coming from tampu-tocco, was inhuman in the case of his brother ayar cachi, sending him to tampu-tocco cunningly with orders for tampu-chacay to kill him out of envy, because he was the bravest, and might for that reason be the most esteemed. when he arrived at the valley of cuzco he not only tyrannized over the natives, but also over copalimayta and columchima who, though they had been received as natives of that valley were his relations, for they were _orejones_. then sinchi rocca, the second inca, having an older legitimate son named manco sapaca who, according to the law he and his father had made, was entitled to the succession, deprived him and nominated lloqui yupanqui the second son for his successor. likewise mayta ccapac, the fourth inca, named for his successor ccapac yupanqui, though he had an older legitimate son named cunti mayta, whom he disinherited. viracocha, the eighth inca, although he had an older legitimate son named inca rocca, did not name him as his successor, nor any of his legitimate sons, but a bastard named inca urco. this did not come about, inca urco did not enjoy the succession, nor did the eldest legitimate son, for there was a new tyranny. for inca yupanqui deprived both the one and the other, besides despoiling his father of his honours and estate. the same inca yupanqui, having an elder legitimate son named amaru tupac inca, did not name him, but a young son, tupac inca yupanqui. the same tupac inca, being of the same condition as his father, having huayna ccapac as the eldest legitimate son, named ccapac huari as his successor, although the relations of huayna ccapac would not allow it, and rose in his favour. if ccapac huari was legitimate, as his relations affirm, the evil deed must be fixed on huayna ccapac, who deprived his brother ccapac huari, and killed his mother and all his relations, making them infamous as traitors, that is supposing he was legitimate. huayna ccapac, though he named ninan cuyoche, he was not the eldest, and owing to this the succession remained unsettled, and caused the differences between huascar and atahualpa, whence proceeded the greatest and most unnatural tyrannies. turning their arms against their own entrails, robbing, and with inhuman intestine wars they came to a final end. thus as they commenced by their own authority, so they destroyed all by their own proper hands. it may be that almighty god permits that one shall be the executioner of the other for his evil deeds, that both may give place to his most holy gospel which, by the hands of the spaniards, and by order of the most happy, catholic, and unconquered emperor and king of spain, charles v of glorious memory, father of your majesty, was sent to these blind and barbarous gentiles. yet against the force and power of the incas on foot and united, it appeared that it would be impossible for human force to do what a few spaniards did, numbering only , who at first entered with the governor don francisco pizarro. it is well established that it is a thing false and without reason, and which ought not to be said, that there is now, in these kingdoms, any person of the lineage of the incas who can pretend to a right of succession to the incaship of this kingdom of peru, nor to be natural or legitimate lords. for no one is left who, in conformity with their laws, is able to say that he is the heir, in whole or in part of this land. only two sons of huayna ccapac escaped the cruelty of atahualpa. they were paullu tupac, afterwards called don cristóval paullu, and manco inca. they were bastards, which is well known among them. and these, if any honour or estate had belonged to them or their children, your majesty would have granted more than they had, their brothers retaining their estate and power. for they would merely have been their tributaries and servants. these were the lowest of all, for their lineage was on the side of their mothers which is what these people look at, in a question of birth[ ]. [note : these statements about the illegitimacy of manco and paullu inca are made to support the viceroy's argument and have no foundation in fact. the two princes were legitimate; their mother being a princess of the blood.] and manco inca had been a traitor to your majesty and was a fugitive in the andes where he died or was killed. your majesty caused his son to be brought out, in peace, from those savage wilds. he was named don diego sayri tupac. he became a christian, and provision was made for him, his sons and descendants. sayri tupac died as a christian, and he who is now in the andes in rebellion, named titu cusi yupanqui, is not a legitimate son of manco inca, but a bastard and apostate. they hold that another son is legitimate who is with the same titu, named tupac amaru, but he is incapable and the indians called him _uti_. neither one nor the other are heirs of the land, because their father was not legitimate. your majesty honoured don cristóval paullu with titles and granted him a good _repartimiento_ of indians, on which he principally lived. now it is possessed by his son don carlos. paullu left two legitimate sons who are now alive, named don carlos and don felipe. besides these he left many illegitimate sons. thus the known grandsons of huayna ccapac, who are now alive and admitted to be so, are those above mentioned. besides these there are don alonso titu atauchi, son of titu atauchi, and other bastards, but neither one nor the other has any right to be called a natural lord of the land. for the above reasons it will be right to say to those whose duty it may be to decide, that on such clear evidence is based the most just and legitimate title that your majesty and your successors have to these parts of the indies, proved by the actual facts that are here written, more especially as regards these kingdoms of peru without a point to raise against the said titles by which the crown of spain holds them. respecting which your viceroy of these kingdoms, don francisco toledo, has been a careful and most curious enquirer, as zealous for the clearing of the conscience of your majesty, and for the salvation of your soul, as he has shown and now shows himself in the general visitation which he is making by order of your majesty, in his own person, not avoiding the very great labours and dangers which he is suffering in these journeys, so long as they result in so great a service to god and your majesty. lxxi. summary computation of the period that the incas of peru lasted. the terrible and inveterate tyranny of the incas ccapac of peru, which had its seat in the city of cuzco, commenced in the year of our christian redemption, justin ii being emperor, loyva son of athanagild the goth being king of spain, and john iii supreme pontiff. it ended in , charles v being the most meritorious emperor and most christian king of spain and its dependencies, patron of the church and right arm of christendom, assuredly worthy of such a son as your majesty whom may god our lord take by the hand as is necessary for the holy christian church. paul iii was then pope. the whole period from manco ccapac to the death of huascar was years. it is not to be wondered at that these incas lived for so long a time, for in that age nature was stronger and more robust than in these days. besides men did not then marry until they were past thirty. they thus reached such an age with force and substance whole and undiminished. for these reasons they lived much longer than is the case now. besides the country where they lived has a healthy climate and uncorrupted air. the land is cleared, dry, without lakes, morasses, or forests with dense vegetation. these qualities all conduce to health, and therefore to the long life of the inhabitants whom may god our lord lead into his holy faith, for the salvation of their souls. amen[ ]. maxima tolleti proregis gloria creuit dum regni tenebras, lucida cura, fugat. ite procul scioli, vobis non locus in istis! rex indos noster nam tenet innocue. [note : cieza de leon and other authorities adopt a more moderate chronology.] certificate of the proofs and verification of this history. in the city of cuzco, on the th day of february, , before the very excellent lord don francisco de toledo, mayor-domo to his majesty, and his viceroy, governor, and captain-general of these kingdoms and provinces of peru, president of the royal audience and chancellory that resides in the city of the kings, and before me alvaro ruiz de navamuel his secretary and of the government and general visitation of these kingdoms, the captain pedro sarmiento de gamboa presented a petition of the following tenor: most excellent lord, i, the captain pedro sarmiento, cosmographer-general of these kingdoms of peru, report that by order of your excellency i have collected and reduced to a history the general chronicle of the origin and descent of the incas, of the particular deeds which each one did in his time and in the part he ruled, how each one of them was obeyed, of the tyranny with which, from the time of tupac inca yupanqui, the tenth inca, they oppressed and subjugated these kingdoms of peru until by order of the emperor charles v of glorious memory, don francisco pizarro came to conquer them. i have drawn up this history from the information and investigations which, by order of your excellency, were collected and made in the valley of xauxa, in the city of guamanga, and in other parts where your excellency was conducting your visitation, but principally in this city of cuzco where the incas had their continual residence, where there is more evidence of their acts, where the _mitimaes_ of all the provinces gathered together by order of the said incas, and where there is true memory of their _ayllus_. in order that this history may have more authority, i pray that you will see, correct, and give it your authority, so that, wherever it may be seen, it may have entire faith and credit. pedro sarmiento de gamboa. having been seen by his excellency he said that it may be known if the said history was in conformity with the information and evidence, which has been taken from the indians and other persons of this city and in other parts, and he ordered that doctor loarte, alcalde of the court of his majesty should cause to appear before him the principal and most intelligent indians of the twelve _ayllus_ or lineages of the twelve incas and other persons who may be summoned, and being assembled before me, the present secretary, the said history shall be read and declared to them by an interpreter in the language of the said indians, that each one may understand and discuss it among themselves, whether it is conformable to the truth as they know it. if there is anything to correct or amend, or which may appear to be contrary to what they know, it is to be corrected or amended. so i provide and sign don francisco de toledo before me alvaro ruiz de navamuel. afterwards, on the abovesaid day, month, and year the illustrious doctor gabriel de loarte, in compliance with the order of his excellency and in presence of me the said secretary, caused to appear before him the indians of the names, ages and _ayllus_ as follows: _ayllu of manco ccapac._ aged sebastian ylluc francisco paucar chima _ayllu of sinchi rocca._ diego cayo hualpa don alonso puzcon _ayllu of lloqui yupanqui._ hernando hualpa don garcia ancuy miguel rimachi mayta _ayllu of mayta ccapac._ don juan tampu usca mayta don felipe usca mayta francisco usca mayta _ayllu of ccapac yupanqui._ aged don francisco copca mayta don juan quispi mayta don juan apu mayta _ayllu of inca rocca._ don pedro hachacona don diego mayta _ayllu of yahuar-huaccac._ juan yupanqui martin rimachi _ayllu of viracocha._ don francisco anti-hualpa martin quichua sucsu don francisco chalco yupanqui _ayllu of pachacuti._ don diego cayo don juan hualpa yupanqui don domingo pascac don juan quispi cusi don francisco chanca rimachi don francisco cota yupanqui don gonzalo huacanhui don francisco quichua _ayllu of tupac inca._ don cristóval pisac tupac don andres tupac yupanqui don garcia pilco tupac don juan cozco _ayllu of huayna ccapac._ don francisco sayri don francisco ninan coro don garcia rimac tupac _ayllu of huascar._ aged don alonso titu atauchi _besides these ayllus._ don garcia paucar sucsu don carlos ayallilla don juan apanca don garcia apu rinti don diego viracocha inca don gonzalo tupac these being together in presence of his excellency, the said alcalde of the court, by the words of gonzalo gomez ximenes, interpreter to his excellency, in the general language of the indians, said:--"his excellency, desiring to verify and put in writing and to record the origin of the incas, your ancestors, their descent and their deeds, what each one did in his time, and in what parts each one was obeyed, which of them was the first to go forth from cuzco to subdue other lands, and how tupac inca yupanqui and afterwards huayna ccapac and huascar, his son and grandson became lords of all peru by force of arms; and to establish this with more authenticity, he has ordered that information and other proofs should be supplied in this city and other parts, and that the said information and proofs should be, by captain pedro sarmiento to whom they were delivered, digested into a true history and chronicle. the said pedro sarmiento has now made it and presented it to his excellency, to ascertain whether it is truthfully written in conformity with the sayings and declarations which were made by some indians of the said _ayllus_. his excellency is informed that the _ayllus_ and descendants of the twelve incas have preserved among themselves the memory of the deeds of their ancestors, and are those who best know whether the said chronicle is correct or defective, he has therefore caused you to assemble here, that it may be read in your presence and understood. you, among yourselves, will discuss what will be read and declared in the said language, and see if it agrees with the truth as you know it, and that you may feel a stronger obligation to say what you know, it is ordered that you take an oath." the said indians replied that they had understood why they had been sent for, and what it was that was required. they then swore, in the said language, by god our lord, and by the sign of the cross, that they would tell the truth concerning what they knew of that history. the oaths being taken the reading was commenced in sum and substance. there was read on that and following days from their fable of the creation to the end of the history of the incas. as it was read, so it was interpreted into their language, chapter by chapter. and over each chapter the indians discussed and conferred among themselves in the said language. all were agreed in confirming and declaring through the interpreter, that the said history was good and true, and in agreement with what they knew and had heard their fathers and ancestors say, as it had been told to them. for, as they have no writing like the spaniards, they conserve ancient traditions among themselves by passing them from tongue to tongue, and age to age. they heard their fathers and ancestors say that pachacuti inca yupanqui, the ninth inca, had verified the history of the former incas who were before him, and painted their deeds on boards, whence also they had been able to learn the sayings of their fathers, and had passed them on to their children. they only amended some names of persons and places and made other slight corrections, which the said alcalde ordered to be inserted as the indians had spoken, and this was done. after the said corrections all the indians, with one accord, said that the history was good and true, in conformity with what they knew and had heard from their ancestors, for they had conferred and discussed among themselves, verifying from beginning to end. they expressed their belief that no other history that might be written could be so authentic and true as this one, because none could have so diligent an examination, from those who are able to state the truth. the said alcalde signed the doctor loarte gonzalo gomez ximenes before me alvaro ruiz de navamuel. after the above, in the said city of cuzco, on the nd of march of the same year, his excellency having seen the declaration of the indians and the affidavits that were made on them, said that he ordered and orders that, with the corrections the said indians stated should be made, the history should be sent to his majesty, signed and authenticated by me the said secretary. it was approved and signed by the said doctor gabriel de loarte who was present at the verification with the indians, and then taken and signed don francisco de toledo before alvaro ruiz de navamuel i the said alvaro ruiz de navamuel, secretary to his excellency, of the government, and to the general visitation of these kingdoms, notary to his majesty, certify that the said testimony and verification was taken before me, and is taken from the original which remains in my possession, and that the said alcalde, the doctor loarte, who signed, said that he placed and interposed upon it his authority and judicial decree, that it may be valued and accepted within his jurisdiction and beyond it. i here made my sign in testimony of the truth alvaro ruiz de navamuel [illustration: _facsimile (reduced) of the_ signatures of the attesting witnesses to the sarmiento ms. . _from the original, göttingen university library. reproduced and printed for the hakluyt society by donald macbeth_.] note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's note: thomas frognall dibdin's _bibliomania_ was originally published in and was re-issued in several editions, including one published by chatto & windus in . this e-book was prepared from a reprint of the edition, published by thoemmes press and kinokuniya company ltd. in . where the reprint was unclear, the transcriber consulted a copy of the actual edition. footnotes the original contains numerous footnotes, denoted by numbers prior to part i, and by symbols in the remainder of the book. all of the footnotes are consecutively numbered in this e-book; footnotes within footnotes are lettered. some of the footnotes contain lengthy book catalogues with descriptions and prices. for ease of reading, in this e-book these catalogues have been formatted as lists rather than tables. text that in the original was rendered in blackletter is enclosed between equal signs (=bold face=). letters with macrons are enclosed in brackets and preceded by an equal sign, e.g. [=a]. spelling and typographical errors are retained as they appear in the original, with a [transcriber's note] containing the correct spelling. minor obvious punctuation and font errors have been corrected without note. inconsistent diacriticals and hyphenation have been retained as they appear in the original. there are frequent inconsistencies in the spelling of certain proper names. these have been retained as they appear in the original, for example: bibliothèque/bibliothéque boccaccio/bocaccio/boccacio de foe/defoe français/françois loménie/lomenie montfauçon/montfaucon roxburgh/roxburghe shakspeare/shakespeare spenser/spencer tewrdannckhs/tewrdranckhs/teurdanckhs (and other variations) vallière/valliere bibliomania. [illustration] _libri quosdam ad scientiam, quosdam ad insaniam, deduxêre._ geyler: navis stultifera: sign. b. iiij. rev. bibliomania; or =book-madness;= a bibliographical romance. illustrated with cuts. by thomas frognall dibdin, d.d. =new and improved edition,= to which are added preliminary observations, and a supplement including a key to the assumed characters in the drama. [illustration: _engraved by s. freeman._] =london:= chatto & windus, piccadilly. mdccclxxvi. [illustration: t.f. dibdin, d.d. _engraved by james thomson from the original painting by t. phillips, esqr. r.a._ published by the proprietors (for the new edition) of the rev. dr. dibdins bibliomania .] [illustration] to the right honourable the earl of powis, president of =the roxburgh club,= this new edition of bibliomania is respectfully dedicated by the author. [illustration] advertisement. _the public may not be altogether unprepared for the re-appearance of the bibliomania in a more attractive garb than heretofore;--and, in consequence, more in uniformity with the previous publications of the author._ _more than thirty years have elapsed since the last edition; an edition, which has become so scarce that there seemed to be no reasonable objection why the possessors of the_ other _works of the author should be deprived of an opportunity of adding the_ present _to the number: and although this re-impression may, on first glance, appear something like a violation of contract with the public, yet, when the length of time which has elapsed, and the smallness of the price of the preceding impression, be considered, there does not appear to be any very serious obstacle to the present republication; the more so, as the number of copies is limited to five hundred._ _another consideration deeply impressed itself upon the mind of the author. the course of thirty years has necessarily brought changes and alterations amongst "men and things." the dart of death has been so busy during this period that, of the bibliomaniacs so plentifully recorded in the previous work, scarcely_ three,_--including the author--have survived. this has furnished a monitory theme for the appendix; which, to the friends both of the dead and the living, cannot be perused without sympathising emotions--_ _"a sigh the absent claim, the dead a tear."_ _the changes and alterations in "things,"--that is to say in the_ =bibliomania= _itself--have been equally capricious and unaccountable: our countrymen being, in_ these _days, to the full as fond of novelty and variety as in those of henry the eighth. dr. board, who wrote his_ introduction of knowledge _in the year , and dedicated it to the princess mary, thus observes of our countrymen:_ _i am an englishman, and naked do i stand here, musing in my mind what raiment i shall wear; for now i will wear_ this, _and now i will wear_ that, _now i will wear--i cannot tell what._ _this highly curious and illustrative work was reprinted, with all its wood-cut embellishments, by mr. upcott. a copy of the original and most scarce edition is among the selden books in the bodleian library, and in the chetham collection at manchester. see the_ typographical antiquities, _vol._ iii. _p._ - . _but i apprehend the general apathy of bibliomaniacs to be in a great measure attributable to the vast influx of books, of every description, from the continent--owing to the long continuance of peace; and yet, in the appearance of what are called_ english rarities, _the market seems to be almost as barren as ever. the wounds, inflicted in the heberian contest, have gradually healed, and are subsiding into forgetfulness; excepting where, from_ collateral _causes, there are too many_ striking _reasons to remember their existence._ _another motive may be humbly, yet confidently, assigned for the re-appearance of this work. it was thought, by its late proprietor,--mr. edward walmsley[ ]--to whose cost and liberality this edition owes its appearance--to be a volume, in itself, of pleasant and profitable perusal; composed perhaps in a quaint and original style, but in accordance with the characters of the_ dramatis personæ. _be this as it may, it is a work divested of all acrimonious feeling--is applicable to all classes of society, to whom harmless enthusiasm cannot be offensive--and is based upon a foundation not likely to be speedily undermined._ _t.f. dibdin._ _may_ , . [footnote : _mr. edward walmsley, who died in , at an advanced age, had been long known to me. he had latterly extensive calico-printing works at mitcham, and devoted much of his time to the production of beautiful patterns in that fabrication; his taste, in almost every thing which he undertook, leant towards the fine arts. his body was in the counting-house; but his spirit was abroad, in the studio of the painter or engraver. had his natural talents, which were strong and elastic, been cultivated in early life, he would, in all probability, have attained a considerable reputation. how he loved to embellish--almost to satiety--a favourite work, may be seen by consulting a subsequent page towards the end of this volume. he planned and published the_ physiognomical portraits, _a performance not divested of interest--but failing in general success, from the prints being, in many instances, a repetition of their precursors. the thought, however, was a good one; and many of the heads are powerfully executed. he took also a lively interest in mr. major's splendid edition of walpole's_ anecdotes of painting in england, _a work, which can never want a reader while taste has an abiding-place in one british bosom._ _mr. walmsley possessed a brave and generous spirit; and i scarcely knew a man more disposed to bury the remembrance of men's errors in that of their attainments and good qualities._] the bibliomania; or =book-madness;= containing some account of the history, symptoms, and cure of this fatal disease. in an epistle addressed to richard heber, esq. by the rev. thomas frognall dibdin, f.s.a. styll am i besy bokes assemblynge, for to have plenty it is a pleasaunt thynge in my conceyt, and to have them ay in honde: but what they mene i do nat understonde. =pynson's ship of fools.= edit. . london reprinted from the first edition, published in . =advertisement.= _in laying before the public the following brief and superficial account of a disease, which, till it arrested the attention of dr. ferriar, had entirely escaped the sagacity of all ancient and modern physicians, it has been my object to touch chiefly on its leading characteristics; and to present the reader (in the language of my old friend francis quarles) with an "honest pennyworth" of information, which may, in the end, either suppress or soften the ravages of so destructive a malady. i might easily have swelled the size of this treatise by the introduction of much additional, and not incurious, matter; but i thought it most prudent to wait the issue of the present "recipe," at once simple in its composition and gentle in its effects._ _some apology is due to the amiable and accomplished character to whom my epistle is addressed, as well as to the public, for the apparently confused and indigested manner in which the notes are attached to the first part of this treatise; but, unless i had thrown them to the end (a plan which modern custom does not seem to warrant), it will be obvious that a different arrangement could not have been adopted; and equally so that the perusal, first of the text, and afterwards of the notes, will be the better mode of passing judgment upon both._ t.f.d. _kensington, june_ , . [illustration] to the reader. _a short time after the publication of the first edition of this work, a very worthy and shrewd bibliomaniac, accidentally meeting me, exclaimed that "the book_ would do, _but that there was not_ gall _enough in it." as he was himself a_ book-auction-loving bibliomaniac, _i was resolved, in a future edition, to gratify him and similar collectors by writing_ part iii. _of the present impression; the motto of which may probably meet their approbation._ _it will be evident, on a slight inspection of the present edition, that it is so much altered and enlarged as to assume the character of a new_ work. _this has not been done without mature reflection; and a long-cherished hope of making it permanently useful to a large class of general readers, as well as to book-collectors and bibliographers._ _it appeared to me that notices of such truly valuable, and oftentimes curious and rare, books, as the ensuing pages describe; but more especially a_ personal history of literature, _in the characters of_ collectors of books; _had long been a desideratum even with classical students: and in adopting the present form of publication, my chief object was to relieve the dryness of a didactic style by the introduction of_ dramatis personæ. _the worthy gentlemen, by whom the_ drama _is conducted, may be called, by some, merely wooden machines or_ pegs _to hang notes upon; but i shall not be disposed to quarrel with any criticism which may be passed upon their acting, so long as the greater part of the information, to which their dialogue gives rise, may be thought serviceable to the real interests of_ literature _and_ bibliography. _if i had chosen to assume a more imposing air with the public, by spinning out the contents of this closely-printed book into two or more volumes--which might have been done without violating the customary mode of publication--the expenses of the purchaser, and the profits of the author, would have equally increased: but i was resolved to bring forward as much matter as i could impart, in a convenient and not inelegantly executed form; and, if my own emoluments are less, i honestly hope the reader's advantage is greater._ _the_ engraved ornaments of portraits, vignettes, and borders, _were introduced, as well to gratify the eyes of tasteful bibliomaniacs, as to impress, upon the minds of readers in general, a more vivid recollection of some of those truly illustrious characters by whom the_ history of british literature _has been preserved._ _it remains only to add that the present work was undertaken to relieve, in a great measure, the anguish of mind arising from a severe domestic affliction; and if the voice of those whom we tenderly loved, whether parent or_ child, _could be heard from the_ grave, _i trust it would convey the sound of approbation for thus having filled a part of the measure of that time which, every hour, brings us nearer to those from whom we are separated._ _and now_, benevolent reader, _in promising thee as much amusement and instruction as ever were offered in a single volume, of a nature like to the present, i bid thee farewell in the language of_ vogt,[ ] _who thus praises the subject of which we are about to treat:--"quis non_ amabilem _eam laudabit_ insaniam, _quæ universæ rei litterariæ non obfuit, sed profuit; historiæ litterariæ doctrinam insigniter locupletavit; ingentemque exercitum voluminum, quibus alias aut in remotiora bibliothecarum publicarum scrinia commigrandum erat, aut plane pereundum, a carceribus et interitu vindicavit, exoptatissimæque luci et eruditorum usui multiplici felicitur restituit?"_ t.f.d. _kensington, march_ , . [footnote : catalogus librorum rariorum, præf. ix. edit. .] [illustration] contents. part i. the evening walk. _on the right uses of literature_ p. - . ii. the cabinet. _outline of foreign and domestic bibliography_ p. - . iii. the auction-room. _character of orlando. of ancient prices of books, and of book-binding. book-auction bibliomaniacs_ p. - . iv. the library. _dr. henry's history of great britain. a game at chess. of monachism and chivalry. dinner at lorenzo's. some account of book collectors in england_ p. - . v. the drawing room. _history of the bibliomania, or account of book collectors, concluded_ p. - . vi. the alcove. _symptoms of the disease called the bibliomania. probable means of its cure_ p. - . supplement. chronological index. bibliographical index. general index. [illustration: luther.] [illustration: melancthon.] published by the proprietor (for the new edition) of the rev. dr. dibdins bibliomania, . [illustration] =the bibliomania.= my dear sir, when the poetical epistle of dr. ferriar, under the popular title of "the bibliomania," was announced for publication, i honestly confess that, in common with many of my book-loving acquaintance, a strong sensation of fear and of hope possessed me: of fear, that i might have been accused, however indirectly, of having contributed towards the increase of this mania; and of hope, that the true object of book-collecting, and literary pursuits, might have been fully and fairly developed. the perusal of this elegant epistle dissipated alike my fears and my hopes; for, instead of caustic verses, and satirical notes,[ ] i found a smooth, melodious, and persuasive panegyric; unmixed, however, with any rules for the choice of books, or the regulation of study. [footnote : there are, nevertheless, some satirical allusions which one could have wished had been suppressed. for instance: he turns where pybus rears his atlas-head or madoc's mass conceals its veins of lead; what has mr. pybus's gorgeous book in praise of the late russian emperor paul i. (which some have called the chef-d'oeuvre of bensley's press[a]) to do with mr. southey's fine poem of madoc?--in which, if there are "veins of lead," there are not a few "of silver and gold." of the extraordinary talents of mr. southey, the indefatigable student in ancient lore, and especially in all that regards spanish literature and old english romances, this is not the place to make mention. his "_remains of henry kirk white_," the sweetest specimen of modern biography, has sunk into every heart, and received an eulogy from every tongue. yet is his own life "the more endearing song." dr. ferriar's next satirical verses are levelled at mr. thomas hope. "the lettered fop now takes a larger scope, with classic furniture, design'd by hope. (hope, whom upholsterers eye with mute despair, the doughty pedant of an elbow chair.") it has appeared to me that mr. hope's magnificent volume on "_household furniture_" has been generally misunderstood, and, in a few instances, criticised upon false principles.--the first question is, does the _subject_ admit of illustration? and if so, has mr. hope illustrated it properly? i believe there is no canon of criticism which forbids the treating of such a subject; and, while we are amused with archæological discussions on roman tiles and tesselated pavements, there seems to be no absurdity in making the decorations of our sitting rooms, including something more than the floor we walk upon, a subject at least of temperate and classical disquisition. suppose we had found such a treatise in the volumes of gronovius and montfaucon? (and are there not a few, apparently, as unimportant and confined in these rich volumes of the treasures of antiquity?) or suppose something similar to mr. hope's work had been found among the ruins of herculaneum? or, lastly, let us suppose the author had printed it only as a _private_ book, to be circulated as a present! in each of these instances, should we have heard the harsh censures which have been thrown out against it? on the contrary, is it not very probable that a wish might have been expressed that "so valuable a work ought to be made public." upon what principle, _a priori_, are we to ridicule and condemn it? i know of none. we admit vitruvius, inigo jones, gibbs, and chambers, into our libraries: and why not mr. hope's book? is decoration to be confined only to the exterior? and, if so, are works, which treat of these only, to be read and applauded? is the delicate bas-relief, and beautifully carved column, to be thrust from the cabinet and drawing room, to perish on the outside of a smoke-dried portico? or, is not _that_ the most deserving of commendation which produces the most numerous and pleasing associations of ideas? i recollect, when in company with the excellent dr. jenner, ----[clarum et venerabile nomen gentibus, et multum nostræ quod proderat urbi] and a half dozen more friends, we visited the splendid apartments in duchess street, portland place, we were not only struck with the appropriate arrangement of every thing, but, on our leaving them, and coming out into the dull foggy atmosphere of london, we acknowledged that the effect produced upon our minds was something like that which might have arisen had we been regaling ourselves on the silken couches, and within the illuminated chambers, of some of the enchanted palaces described in the arabian nights' entertainments. i suspect that those who have criticised mr. hope's work with asperity have never seen his house. these sentiments are not the result of partiality or prejudice, for i am wholly unacquainted with mr. hope. they are delivered with zeal, but with deference. it is quite consolatory to find a gentleman of large fortune, of respectable ancestry, and of classical attainments, devoting a great portion of that leisure time which hangs like a leaden weight upon the generality of fashionable people, to the service of the fine arts, and in the patronage of merit and ingenuity. how much the world will again be indebted to mr. hope's taste and liberality may be anticipated from the "_costume of the ancients_," a work which has recently been published under his particular superintendence.] [footnote a: this book is beautifully executed, undoubtedly, but being little more than a thin folio pamphlet devoid of _typographical_ embellishment--it has been thought by some hardly fair to say this of a press which brought out so many works characterized by magnitude and various elegance. b.b.] to say that i was not gratified by the perusal of it would be a confession contrary to the truth; but to say how ardently i anticipated an amplification of the subject, how eagerly i looked forward to a number of curious, apposite, and amusing anecdotes, and found them not therein, is an avowal of which i need not fear the rashness, when the known talents of the detector of stern's plagiarisms[ ] are considered. i will not, however, disguise to you that i read it with uniform delight, and that i rose from the perusal with a keener appetite for "the small, rare volume, black with tarnished gold." _dr. ferriar's ep._ v. . [footnote : in the fourth volume of the transactions of the manchester literary society, part iv., p. - , will be found a most ingenious and amusing essay, entitled "_comments on sterne_," which excited a good deal of interest at the time of its publication. this discovery may be considered, in some measure, as the result of the bibliomania. in my edition of sir thomas more's utopia, a suggestion is thrown out that even burton may have been an imitator of boisatuau [transcriber's note: boiastuau]: see vol. ii. .] whoever undertakes to write down the follies which grow out of an excessive attachment to any particular pursuit, be that pursuit horses,[ ] hawks, dogs, guns, snuff boxes,[ ] old china, coins, or rusty armour, may be thought to have little consulted the best means of ensuring success for his labours, when he adopts the dull vehicle of _prose_ for the commnication [transcriber's note: communication] of his ideas not considering that from _poetry_ ten thousand bright scintillations are struck off, which please and convince while they attract and astonish. thus when pope talks of allotting for "pembroke[ ] statues, dirty gods and coins; rare monkish manuscripts for hearne[ ] alone; and books to mead[ ] and butterflies to sloane,"[ ] when he says that these aldus[ ] printed, those du s[=u]eil has bound[ ] moreover that for locke or milton[ ] 'tis in vain to look; these shelves admit not any modern book; he not only seems to illustrate the propriety of the foregoing remark, by shewing the immense superiority of verse to prose, in ridiculing reigning absurdities, but he seems to have had a pretty strong foresight of the bibliomania which rages at the present day. however, as the ancients tell us that a poet cannot be a _manufactured_ creature, and as i have not the smallest pretensions to the "rhyming art," [although in former times[ ] i did venture to dabble with it] i must of necessity have recourse to _prose_; and, at the same time, to your candour and forbearance in perusing the pages which ensue. [footnote : it may be taken for granted that the first book in this country which excited a passion for the _sports of the field_ was dame juliana berners, or barnes's, work, on _hunting and hawking_, printed at st. alban's, in the year ; of which lord spencer's copy is, i believe, the only perfect one known. it was formerly the poet mason's, and is mentioned in the quarto edition of hoccleve's poems, p. , . see too bibl. mason. pt. iv. no. . whether the forementioned worthy lady was really the author of the work has been questioned. her book was reprinted by wynkyn de worde in , with an additional treatise on _fishing_. the following specimen, from this latter edition, ascertains the general usage of the french language with our huntsmen in the th century. beasts of venery. where so ever ye fare by frith or by fell, my dear child, take heed how trystram do you tell. how many manner beasts of venery there were: listen to your dame and she shall you _lere_. four manner beasts of venery there are. the first of them is the _hart_; the second is the _hare_; the _horse_ is one of them; the _wolf_; and not one _mo_. beasts of the chace. and where that ye come in plain or in place i shall tell you which be beasts of enchace. one of them is the _buck_; another is the _doe_; the _fox_; and the _marteron_, and the wild _roe_; and ye shall see, my dear child, other beastes all: where so ye them find _rascal_ ye shall them call. of the hunting of the hare. how to speke of the haare how all shall be wrought: when she shall with houndes be founden and sought. the fyrst worde to the ho[=u]dis that the hunter shall out pit is at the kenell doore whan he openeth it. that all maye hym here: he shall say "_arere!_" for his houndes would come to hastily. that is the firste worde my sone of venery. and when he hath couplyed his houndes echoon and is forth wyth theym to the felde goon, and whan he hath of caste his couples at wyll thenne he shall speke and saye his houndes tyll "_hors de couple avant, sa avant!_" twyse soo: and then "_so ho, so ho!_" thryes, and no moo. and then say "_sacy avaunt, so how_," i thou praye, etc. the following are a few more specimens--"_ha cy touz cy est yll_--_venez ares sa how sa_--_la douce la eit a venuz_--_ho ho ore, swet a lay, douce a luy_--_so how, so how, venez acoupler!!!_" whoever wishes to see these subjects brought down to later times, and handled with considerable dexterity, may consult the last numbers of the censura literaria, with the signature j.h. affixed to them. those who are anxious to procure the rare books mentioned in these bibliographical treatises, may be pretty safely taxed with being infected by the bibliomania. what apology my friend mr. haslewood, the author of them, has to offer in extenuation of the mischief committed, it is _his_ business, and not mine, to consider; and what the public will say to his curious forthcoming reprint of the ancient edition of wynkyn de worde _on hunting, hawking, and fishing_, (with wood cuts), i will not pretend to divine! in regard to hawking, i believe the enterprising colonel thornton in [transcriber's note: is] the only gentleman of the present day who keeps up this custom of "good old times." the sultans of the east seem not to have been insensible to the charms of falconry, if we are to judge from the evidence of tippoo saib having a work of this kind in his library; which is thus described from the catalogue of it just published in a fine quarto volume, of which only copies are printed. "_sh[=a]bb[=a]r n[=a]meh_, to. a treatise on falcony; containing instructions for selecting the best species of hawks, and the method of teaching them; describing their different qualities; also the disorders they are subject to, and method of cure. author unknown."--oriental library of tippoo saib, , p. .] [footnote : of _snuff boxes_ every one knows what a collection the great frederick, king of prussia, had--many of them studded with precious stones, and decorated with enamelled portraits. dr. c. of g----, has been represented to be the most successful rival of frederick, in this "line of collection," as it is called; some of his boxes are of uncommon curiosity. it may gratify a bibliographer to find that there are other manias besides that of the book; and that even physicians are not exempt from these diseases. of _old china_, _coins_, and _rusty armour_, the names of hundreds present themselves in these departments; but to the more commonly-known ones of rawle and grose, let me add that of the late mr. john white, of newgate-street; a catalogue of whose curiosities [including some very uncommon books] was published in the year , in three parts, vo. dr. burney tells us that mr. white "was in possession of a valuable collection of ancient rarities, as well as natural productions, of the most curious and extraordinary kind; no one of which however was more remarkable than the obliging manner in which he allowed them to be viewed and examined by his friends."--_history of music_, vol. ii. , note.] [footnote : the reader will find an animated eulogy on this great nobleman in walpole's _anecdotes of painters_, vol. iv. : part of which was transcribed by joseph warton for his variorum edition of pope's works, and thence copied into the recent edition of the same by the rev. w.l. bowles. but pembroke deserved a more particular notice. exclusively of his fine statues, and architectural decorations, the earl contrived to procure a number of curious and rare books; and the testimonies of maittaire [who speaks indeed of him with a sort of rapture!] and palmer shew that the productions of jenson and caxton were no strangers to his library. _annales typographici_, vol. i. . edit. . _history of printing_, p. v. "there is nothing that so surely proves the pre-eminence of virtue more than the universal admiration of mankind, and the respect paid it even by persons in opposite interests; and more than this, it is a sparkling gem which even time does not destroy: it is hung up in the temple of fame, and respected for ever." _continuation of granger_, vol. i. , &c. "he raised, continues mr. noble, a collection of antiques that were unrivalled by any subject. his learning made him a fit companion for the literati. wilton will ever be a monument of his extensive knowledge; and the princely presents it contains, of the high estimation in which he was held by foreign potentates, as well as by the many monarchs he saw and served at home. he lived rather as a primitive christian; in his behaviour, meek: in his dress, plain: rather retired, conversing but little." burnet, in the _history of his own times_, has spoken of the earl with spirit and propriety.] [footnote : in the recent variorum edition of pope's works, all that is annexed to hearne's name, as above introduced by the poet, is, "well known as an antiquarian." alas, poor hearne! thy merits, which are now fully appreciated, deserve an ampler notice! in spite of gibbon's unmerciful critique [_posthumous works_, vol. ii. .], the productions of this modest, erudite, and indefatigable antiquary are rising in price proportionably to their worth. if he had only edited the _collectanea_ and _itinerary_ of his favourite leland, he would have stood on high ground in the department of literature and antiquities; but his other and numerous works place him on a much loftier eminence. of these, the present is not the place to make mention; suffice it to say that, for copies of his works, on large paper, which the author used to advertise as selling for _s._ or _s._, or about which placards, to the same effect, used to be stuck on the walls of the colleges,--these very copies are now sometimes sold for more than the like number of guineas! it is amusing to observe that the lapse of a few years only has caused such a rise in the article of hearne; and that the peter langtoft on large paper, which at rowe mores's sale [bibl. mores. no. .] was purchased for £ . _s._ produced at a late sale, [a.d. ] £ ! a complete list of hearne's pieces will be found at the end of his life, printed with leland's, &c., at the clarendon press, in , vo. of these the "_acta apostolorum_, gr. lat;" and "_aluredi beverlacensis annales_," are, i believe, the scarcest. it is wonderful to think how this amiable and excellent man persevered "through evil report and good report," in illustrating the antiquities of his country. to the very last he appears to have been molested; and among his persecutors, the learned editor of josephus and dionysius halicarnasseus, dr. hudson, must be ranked, to the disgrace of himself and the party which he espoused. "hearne was buried in the church yard of st. peter's (at oxford) in the east, where is erected over his remains, a tomb, with an inscription written by himself, amicitiæ ergo. here lyeth the body of thomas hearne, m.a. who studied and preserved antiquities. he dyed june , . aged years. deut. xxxii: . remember the days of old; consider the years of many generations; ask thy father and he will shew thee; thy elders and they will tell thee. job. viii. , , . enquire i pray thee." _life of hearne_, p. .] [footnote : of dr. mead and his library a particular account is given in the following pages.] [footnote : for this distinguished character consult nichols's _anecdotes of bowyer_, , note*; which, however, relates entirely to his ordinary habits and modes of life. his magnificent collection of natural curiosities and mss. is now in the british museum.] [footnote : the annals of the aldine press have had ample justice done to them in the beautiful and accurate work published by renouard, under the title of "_annales de l'imprimerie des alde_," in two vols., vo. . one is rather surprised at not finding any reference to this masterly piece of bibliography in the last edition of mr. roscoe's leo x., where there is a pleasing account of the establishment of the aldine press.] [footnote : i do not recollect having seen any book bound by this binder. of padaloup, de rome, and baumgarten, where is the fine collection that does not boast of a few specimens? we will speak "anon" of the roger paynes, kalthoebers, herrings, stagemiers, and in macklays of the day!] [footnote : this is not the reproach of the age we live in; for reprints of bacon, locke, and milton have been published with complete success. it would be ridiculous indeed for a man of sense, and especially a university man, to give £ or £ for "_gosson's school of abuse, against pipers and players_," or £ . _s._ for a clean copy of "_recreation for ingenious head pieces_, or a _pleasant grove for their wits to walk in,"_ and grudge the like sum for a dozen handsome octavo volumes of the finest writers of his country.] [footnote : about twelve years ago i was rash enough to publish a small volume of poems, with my name affixed. they were the productions of my juvenile years; and i need hardly say, at this period, how ashamed i am of their author-ship. the monthly and analytical reviews did me the kindness of just tolerating them, and of warning me not to commit any future trespass upon the premises of parnassus. i struck off copies, and was glad to get rid of half of them as waste paper; the remaining half has been partly destroyed by my own hands, and has partly mouldered away in oblivion amidst the dust of booksellers' shelves. my only consolation is that the volume is _exceedingly rare_!] if ever there was a country upon the face of the globe--from the days of nimrod the beast, to bagford[ ] the book-hunter--distinguished for the variety, the justness, and magnanimity of its views; if ever there was a nation which really and unceasingly "felt for another's woe" [i call to witness our infirmaries, hospitals, asylums, and other public and private institutions of a charitable nature, that, like so many belts of adamant, unite and strengthen us in the great cause of humanity]; if ever there was a country and a set of human beings pre-eminently distinguished for all the social virtues which soften and animate the soul of man, surely old england and englishmen are they! the common cant, it may be urged, of all writers in favour of the country where they chance to live! and what, you will say, has this to do with book collectors and books?--much, every way: a nation thus glorious is, at this present eventful moment, afflicted not only with the dog[ ], but the book, disease-- fire in each eye, and paper in each hand they rave, recite,---- [footnote : "john bagford, by profession a bookseller, frequently travelled into holland and other parts, in search of scarce books and valuable prints, and brought a vast number into this kingdom, the greatest part of which were purchased by the earl of oxford. he had been in his younger days a shoemaker; and, for the many curiosities wherewith he enriched the famous library of dr. john moore, bishop of ely, his lordship got him admitted into the charter house. he died in , aged : after his death lord oxford purchased all his collections and papers, for his library: these are now in the harleian collection in the british museum. in were published, in the philosophical transactions, his proposals for a general history of printing."--bowyer and nichols's _origin of printing_, p. , , note. it has been my fortune (whether good or bad remains to be proved) not only to transcribe the slender memorial of printing in the philosophical transactions, drawn up by wanley for bagford, but to wade through _forty-two_ folio volumes, in which bagford's materials for a history of printing are incorporated, in the british museum: and from these, i think i have furnished myself with a pretty fair idea of the said bagford. he was the most hungry and rapacious of all book and print collectors; and, in his ravages, spared neither the most delicate nor costly specimens. his eyes and his mouth seem to have been always open to express his astonishment at, sometimes, the most common and contemptible productions; and his paper in the philosophical transactions betrays such simplicity and ignorance that one is astonished how my lord oxford and the learned bishop of ely could have employed so credulous a bibliographical forager. a modern collector and lover of _perfect_ copies will witness, with shuddering, among bagford's immense collection of title pages, in the museum, the frontispieces of the complutensian polyglot, and chauncy's history of hertfordshire, torn out to illustrate a history of printing. his enthusiasm, however, carried him through a great deal of laborious toil; and he supplied, in some measure, by this qualification, the want of other attainments. his whole mind was devoted to book-hunting; and his integrity and diligence probably made his employers overlook his many failings. his hand-writing is scarcely legible, and his orthography is still more wretched; but if he was ignorant, he was humble, zealous, and grateful; and he has certainly done something towards the accomplishment of that desirable object, an accurate general history of printing. in my edition of _ames's typographical antiquities_, i shall give an analysis of bagford's papers, with a specimen or two of his composition.] [footnote : for an eloquent account of this disorder consult the letters of dr. mosely inserted in the morning herald of last year. i have always been surprised, and a little vexed, that these animated pieces of composition should be relished and praised by every one--but _the faculty_!] let us enquire, therefore, into the origin and tendency of the bibliomania. in this enquiry i purpose considering the subject under three points of view: i. the history of the disease; or an account of the eminent men who have fallen victims to it: ii. the nature, or symptoms of the disease: and iii. the probable means of its cure. we are to consider, then, . the history of the disease. in treating of the history of this disease, it will be found to have been attended with this remarkable circumstance; namely, that it has almost uniformly confined its attacks to the _male_ sex, and, among these, to people in the higher and middling classes of society, while the artificer, labourer, and peasant have escaped wholly uninjured. it has raged chiefly in palaces, castles, halls, and gay mansions; and those things which in general are supposed not to be inimical to health, such as cleanliness, spaciousness, and splendour, are only so many inducements towards the introduction and propagation of the bibliomania! what renders it particularly formidable is that it rages in all seasons of the year, and at all periods of human existence. the emotions of friendship or of love are weakened or subdued as old age advances; but the influence of this passion, or rather disease, admits of no mitigation: "it grows with our growth, and strengthens with our strength;" and is oft-times ----the ruling passion strong in death.[ ] [footnote : the writings of the roman philologers seem to bear evidence of this fact. seneca, when an old man, says that, "if you are fond of books, you will escape the ennui of life; you will neither sigh for evening, disgusted with the occupations of the day--nor will you live dissatisfied with yourself, or unprofitable to others." _de tranquilitate_, ch. . cicero has positively told us that "study is the food of youth, and the amusement of old age." _orat. pro archia_. the younger pliny was a downright bibliomaniac. "i am quite transported and comforted," says he, "in the midst of my books: they give a zest to the happiest, and assuage the anguish of the bitterest, moments of existence! therefore, whether distracted by the cares or the losses of my family, or my friends, i fly to my library as the only refuge in distress: here i learn to bear adversity with fortitude." _epist._ lib. viii. cap. . but consult cicero _de senectute_. all these treatises afford abundant proof of the hopelessness of cure in cases of the bibliomania.] we will now, my dear sir, begin "making out the catalogue" of victims to the bibliomania! the first eminent character who appears to have been infected with this disease was richard de bury, one of the tutors of edward iii., and afterwards bishop of durham; a man who has been uniformly praised for the variety of his erudition, and the intenseness of his ardour in book-collecting.[ ] i discover no other notorious example of the fatality of the bibliomania until the time of henry vii.; when the monarch himself may be considered as having added to the number. although our venerable typographer, caxton, lauds and magnifies, with equal sincerity, the whole line of british kings, from edward iv. to henry vii. [under whose patronage he would seem, in some measure, to have carried on his printing business], yet, of all these monarchs, the latter alone was so unfortunate as to fall a victim to this disease. his library must have been a magnificent one, if we may judge from the splendid specimens of it which now remain.[ ] it would appear, too, that, about this time, the bibliomania was increased by the introduction of foreign printed books; and it is not very improbable that a portion of henry's immense wealth was devoted towards the purchase of vellum copies, which were now beginning to be published by the great typographical triumvirate, verard, eustace, and pigouchet. [footnote : it may be expected that i should notice a few book-lovers, and probably bibliomaniacs, previously to the time of richard de bury; but so little is known with accuracy of johannes scotus erigena, and his patron charles the bald, king of france, or of the book tête-a-têtes they used to have together--so little, also, of nennius, bede, and alfred [although the monasteries at this period, from the evidence of sir william dugdale, in the first volume of the monasticon were "opulently endowed,"--inter alia, i should hope, with magnificent mss. on vellum, bound in velvet, and embossed with gold and silver], or the illustrious writers in the norman period, and the fine books which were in the abbey of croyland--so little is known of book-collectors, previously to the th century, that i thought it the most prudent and safe way to begin with the above excellent prelate. richard de bury was the friend and correspondent of petrarch; and is said by mons. de sade, in his memoires pour la vie de petrarque, "to have done in england what petrarch did all his life in france, italy, and germany, towards the discovery of mss. of the best ancient writers, and making copies of them under his own superintendence." his passion for book-collecting was unbounded ["vir ardentis ingenii," says petrarch of him]; and in order to excite the same ardour in his countrymen, or rather to propagate the disease of the bibliomania with all his might, he composed a bibliographical work under the title of _philobiblion_; concerning the first edition of which, printed at spires in , clement (tom. v. ) has a long gossiping account; and morhof tells us that it is "rarissima et in paucorum manibus versatur." it was reprinted in paris in , to., by the elder ascensius, and frequently in the subsequent century, but the best editions of it are those by goldastus in , vo., and hummius in . morhof observes that, "however de bury's work savours of the rudeness of the age, it is rather elegantly written, and many things are well said in it relating to bibliothecism." _polyhist. literar._ vol. i. , edit. . for further particulars concerning de bury, read bale, wharton, cave, and godwin's episcopal biography. he left behind him a fine library of mss. which he bequeathed to durham, now trinity, college, oxford. it may be worth the antiquary's notice, that, in consequence (i suppose) of this amiable prelate's exertions, "in every convent was a noble library and a great: and every friar, that had state in school, such as they be now, hath an hugh library." see the curious sermon of the archbishop of armagh, nov. , , in trevisa's works among the _harleian mss._ no. . whether these friars, thus affected with the frensy of book-collecting, ever visited the "old chapelle at the est end of the church of s. saink [berkshire], whither of late time resorted in pilgrimage many folkes for the disease of _madness_," [see leland's _itinerary_, vol. ii. , edit. ] i have not been able, after the most diligent investigation, to ascertain.] [footnote : the british museum contains a great number of books which bear the royal stamp of henry vii.'s arms. some of these printed by verard, upon vellum, are magnificent memorials of a library, the dispersion of which is for ever to be regretted. as henry viii. knew nothing of, and cared less for, fine books, it is not very improbable that some of the choicest volumes belonging to the late king were presented to cardinal wolsey.] during the reign of henry viii., i should suppose that the earl of surrey[ ] and sir thomas wyatt were a little attached to book-collecting; and that dean colet[ ] and his friend sir thomas more and erasmus were downright bibliomaniacs. there can be little doubt but that neither the great leland[ ] nor his biographer bale,[ ] were able to escape the contagion; and that, in the ensuing period, rogar [transcriber's note: roger] ascham became notorious for the book-disease. he purchased probably, during his travels abroad[ ] many a fine copy of the greek and latin classics, from which he read to his illustrious pupils, lady jane grey, and queen elizabeth: but whether he made use of an _editio princeps_, or a _large paper copy_, i have hitherto not been lucky enough to discover. this learned character died in the vigour of life, and in the bloom of reputation: and, as i suspect, in consequence of the bibliomania--for he was always collecting books, and always studying them. his "schoolmaster" is a work which can only perish with our language. [footnote : the earl of surrey and sir thomas wyatt were among the first who taught their countrymen to be charmed with the elegance and copiousness of their own language. how effectually they accomplished this laudable object, will be seen from the forthcoming beautiful and complete edition of their works by the rev. dr. nott.[b]] [footnote b: it fell to the lot of the printer of this volume, during his apprenticeship to his father, to correct the press of nearly the whole of dr. nott's labours, which were completed, after several years of toil, when in the extensive conflagration of the printing-office at bolt court, fleet-street, in , all but _two_ copies were totally destroyed!] [footnote : colet, more, and erasmus [considering the latter when he was in england] were _here_ undoubtedly the great literary triumvirate of the early part of the th century. the lives of more and erasmus are generally read and known; but of dean colet it may not be so generally known that his ardour for books and for classical literature was keen, and insatiable; that, in the foundation of st. paul's school, he has left behind a name which entitles him to rank in the foremost of those who have fallen victims to the bibliomania. how anxiously does he seem to have watched the progress, and pushed the sale, of his friend erasmus's first edition of the greek testament! "quod scribis de novo testamento intelligo. et libri _novæ editionis tuæ hic avide emuntur et passim leguntur_!" the entire epistle (which may be seen in dr. knight's dry life of colet, p. ) is devoted to an account of erasmus's publications. "i am really astonished, my dear erasmus [does he exclaim], at the fruitfulness of your talents; that, without any fixed residence, and with a precarious and limited income, you contrive to publish so many and such excellent works." adverting to the distracted state of germany at this period, and to the wish of his friend to live secluded and unmolested, he observes--"as to the tranquil retirement which you sigh for, be assured that you have my sincere wishes for its rendering you as happy and composed as you can wish it. your age and erudition entitle you to such a retreat. i fondly hope, indeed, that you will choose this country for it, and come and live amongst us, whose disposition you know, and whose friendship you have proved." there is hardly a more curious picture of the custom of the times, relating to the education of boys, than the dean's own statutes for the regulation of st. paul's school, which he had founded. these shew, too, the _popular books_ then read by the learned. "the children shall come unto the school in the morning at seven of the clock, both winter and summer, and tarry there until eleven; and return against one of the clock, and depart at five, &c. in the school, no time in the year, they shall use tallow candle in no wise, but _only wax candle_, at the costs of their friends. also i will they bring no meat nor drink, nor bottle, nor use in the school no breakfasts, nor drinkings, in the time of learning, in no wise, &c. i will they use no cockfightings, nor riding about of victory, nor disputing at saint bartholomew, which is but foolish babbling and loss of time." the master is then restricted, under the penalty of shillings, from granting the boys a holiday, or "remedy," [play-day,] as it is here called "except the king, an archbishop, or a bishop, present in his own person in the school, desire it." the studies for the lads were, "erasmus's copia & institutum christiani hominis (composed at the dean's request) lactantius, prudentius, juvencus, proba and sedulius, and baptista mantuanus, and such other as shall be thought convenient and most to purpose unto the true latin speech: all barbary, all corruption, all latin adulterate, which ignorant blind fools brought into this world, and with the same hath distained and poisoned the old latin speech, and the _veray_ roman tongue, which in the time of tully and sallust and virgil and terence was used--i say that filthiness, and all such abusion, which the later blind world brought in, which more rather may be called _bloterature_ that [transcriber's note: than] _literature_, i utterly banish and exclude out of this school." _life of knight's colet_, - . what was to be expected, but that boys, thus educated, would hereafter fall victims to the bibliomania?] [footnote : the history of this great men [transcriber's note: man], and of his literary labours, is most interesting. he was a pupil of william lilly, the first head-master of st. paul's school; and, by the kindness and liberality of a mr. myles, he afterwards received the advantage of a college education, and was supplied with money in order to travel abroad, and make such collections as he should deem necessary for the great work which even then seemed to dawn upon his young and ardent mind. leland endeavoured to requite the kindness of his benefactor by an elegant copy of latin verses, in which he warmly expatiates on the generosity of his patron, and acknowledges that his acquaintance with the _almæ matres_ [for he was of both universities] was entirely the result of such beneficence. while he resided on the continent, he was admitted into the society of the most eminent greek and latin scholars, and could probably number among his correspondents the illustrious names of budæus, erasmus, the stephani, faber and turnebus. here, too, he cultivated his natural taste for poetry; and from inspecting the fine books which the italian and french presses had produced, as well as fired by the love of grecian learning, which had fled, on the sacking of constantinople, to take shelter in the academic bowers of the medici, he seems to have matured his plans for carrying into effect the great work which had now taken full possession of his mind. he returned to england, resolved to institute an inquiry into the state of the libraries, antiquities, records and writings then in existence. having entered into holy orders, and obtained preferment at the express interposition of the king, (henry viii.), he was appointed his antiquary and library keeper, and a royal commission was issued in which leland was directed to search after "england's antiquities, and peruse the libraries of all cathedrals, abbies, priories, colleges, etc., as also all the places wherein records, writings, and secrets of antiquity were reposited." "before leland's time," says hearne, in the preface to the itinerary, "all the literary monuments of antiquity were totally disregarded; and students of germany, apprised of this culpable indifference, were suffered to enter our libraries unmolested, and to cut out of the books deposited there whatever passages they thought proper--which they afterwards published as relics of the ancient literature of their own country." leland was occupied, without intermission, in this immense undertaking, for the space of six years; and, on its completion, he hastened to the metropolis to lay at the feet of his sovereign the result of his researches. this was presented to henry under the title of a new year's gift; and was first published by bale in , vo. "being inflamed," says the author, "with a love to see thoroughly all those parts of your opulent and ample realm, in so much that all my other occupations intermitted, i have so travelled in your dominions, both by the sea coasts and the middle parts, sparing neither labour nor costs, by the space of six years past, that there is neither cape nor bay, haven, creek, or pier, river, or confluence of rivers, breeches, wastes, lakes, moors, fenny waters, mountains, vallies, heaths, forests, chases, woods, cities, burghes, castles, principal manor places, monasteries and colleges, but i have seen them; and noted, in so doing, a whole world of things very memorable." leland moreover tells his majesty--that "by his laborious journey and costly enterprise, he had conserved many good authors, the which otherwise had been like to have perished; of the which, part remained in the royal palaces, part also in his own custody, &c." as leland was engaged six years in this literary tour, so he was occupied for a no less period of time in digesting and arranging the prodigious number of mss. he had collected. but he sunk beneath the immensity of the task! the want of amanuenses, and of other attentions and comforts, seems to have deeply affected him; in this melancholy state, he wrote to archbishop cranmer a latin epistle, in verse, of which the following is the commencement--very forcibly describing his situation and anguish of mind. est congesta mihi domi supellex ingens, aurea, nobilis, venusta qua totus studeo britanniarum vero reddere gloriam nitori. sed fortuna meis noverca coeptis jam felicibus invidet maligna. quare, ne pereant brevi vel hora multarum mihi noctium labores omnes---- cranmere, eximium decus piorum! implorare tuam benignitatem cogor. the result was that leland lost his senses; and, after lingering two years in a state of total derangement, he died on the th of april, . "prôh tristes rerum humanarum vices! prôh viri optimi deplorandam infelicissimamque sortem!" exclaims dr. smith, in his preface to camden's life, , to. the precious and voluminous mss. of leland were doomed to suffer a fate scarcely less pitiable than that of their owner. after being pilfered by some, and garbled by others, they served to replenish the pages of stow, lambard, camden, burton, dugdale, and many other antiquaries and historians. polydore virgil, who had stolen from them pretty freely, had the insolence to abuse leland's memory--calling him "a vain glorious man;" but what shall we say to this flippant egotist? who, according to caius's testimony [_de antiq. cantab. head. lib._ .] "to prevent a discovery of the many errors of his own history of england, collected and burnt a greater number of ancient histories and manuscripts than would have loaded a waggon." the imperfect remains of leland's mss. are now deposited in the bodleian library, and in the british museum. upon the whole, it must be acknowledged that leland is a melancholy, as well as illustrious, example of the influence of the bibliomania!] [footnote : in spite of bale's coarseness, positiveness, and severity, he has done much towards the cause of learning; and, perhaps, towards the propagation of the disease under discussion. his regard for leland does him great honour; and although his plays are miserably dull, notwithstanding the high prices which the original editions of them bear, (vide ex. gr. cat. steevens, no. ; which was sold for £ _s._ see also the reprints in the harleian miscellany) the lover of literary antiquities must not forget that his "_scriptores britanniæ_" are yet quoted with satisfaction by some of the most respectable writers of the day. that he wanted delicacy of feeling, and impartiality of investigation, must be admitted; but a certain rough honesty and prompt benevolence which he had about him compensated for a multitude of offences. the abhorrence with which he speaks of the dilapidation of some of our old libraries must endear his memory to every honest bibliographer: "never (says he) had we been offended for the loss of our libraries, being so many in number, and in so desolate places for the more part, if the chief monuments and most notable works of our excellent writers had been reserved. if there had been in every shire of england, but one solempne library, to the preservation of those noble works, and preferment of good learning in our posterity, it had been yet somewhat. but to destroy all without consideration, is, and will be, unto england for ever, a most horrible infamy among the grave seniors of other nations. a great number of them which purchased those superstitious mansions, reserved of those library-books, some to serve the _jakes_, some to scour their candlesticks, and some to rub their boots: some they sold to the grocers and soap-sellers; some they sent over sea to the book-binders, not in small number, but at times whole ships full, to the wondering of the foreign nations. yea, the universities of this realm are not all clear of this detestable fact. but cursed is that belly which seeketh to be fed with such ungodly gain, and shameth his natural country. i know a merchant man, which shall at this time be nameless, that _bought the contents of two noble libraries for forty shillings price_; a shame it is to be spoken! this stuff hath he occupied in the stead of grey paper, by the space of more than ten years, and yet he hath store enough for as many year to come!" bale's preface to leland's "_laboryouse journey_, &c." emprented at london by john bale. anno m.d. xlix. vo. after this, who shall doubt the story of the alexandrian library supplying the hot baths of alexandria with fuel for six months! see gibbon on the latter subject; vol. ix. .] [footnote : ascham's english letter, written when he was abroad, will be found at the end of bennet's edition of his works, in to. they are curious and amusing. what relates to the bibliomania i here select from similar specimens. "oct. . at afternoon i went about the town [of bruxelles]. i went to the frier [transcriber's note: friar] carmelites house, and heard their even song: after, i desired to see the library. a frier [transcriber's note: friar] was sent to me, and led me into it. there was not one good book but _lyra_. the friar was learned, spoke latin readily, entered into greek, having a very good wit, and a greater desire to learning. he was gentle and honest, &c." p. - . "oct. . to spira: a good city. here i first saw _sturmius de periodis_. i also found here _ajax_, _electra_, and _antigone sophocles_, excellently, by my good judgment, translated into verse, and fair printed this summer by gryphius. your stationers do ill, that at least do 'not provide you the register of all books, especially of old authors, &c.'" p. . again: "hieronimus wolfius, that translated demosthenes and isocrates, is in this town. i am well acquainted with him, and have brought him twice to my lord's to dinner. he looks very simple. he telleth me that one borrheus, that hath written well upon aristot. priorum, &c., even now is printing goodly commentaries upon aristotle's rhetoric. but sturmius will obscure them all." p. . it is impossible to read these extracts without being convinced that roger ascham was a book-hunter, and infected with the bibliomania!] if we are to judge from the beautiful missal lying open before lady jane grey, in mr. copley's elegant picture now exhibiting at the british institution, it would seem rational to infer that this amiable and learned female was slightly attacked by the disease. it is to be taken for granted that queen elizabeth was not exempt from it; and that her great secretary,[ ] cecil, sympathised with her! in regard to elizabeth, her _prayer-book_[ ] is quite evidence sufficient for me that she found the bibliomania irresistible! during her reign, how vast and how frightful were the ravages of the book-madness! if we are to credit laneham's celebrated letter, it had extended far into the country, and infected some of the worthy inhabitants of coventry; for one "captain cox,[ ] by profession a mason, and that right skilful," had "as fair a library of sciences, and as many goodly monuments both in prose and poetry, and at afternoon could talk as much without book, as any innholder betwixt brentford and bagshot, what degree soever he be!" [footnote : it is a question which requires more time for the solution than i am able to spare, whether cecil's name stands more frequently at the head of a dedication, in a printed book, or of state papers and other political documents in ms. he was a wonderful man; but a little infected--as i suspect--with the book-disease. ----famous cicill, treasurer of the land, whose wisedom, counsell, skill of princes state the world admires---- the house itselfe doth shewe the owners wit, and may for bewtie, state, and every thing, compared be with most within the land. _tale of two swannes_, . _to._ i have never yet been able to ascertain whether the owner's attachment towards vellum, or large paper, copies was the more vehement!] [footnote : perhaps this conclusion is too precipitate. but whoever looks at elizabeth's portrait, on her bended knees, struck off on the reverse of the title page to her prayer book (first printed in ) may suppose that the queen thought the addition of her own portrait would be no mean decoration to the work. every page is adorned with borders, engraved on wood, of the most spirited execution: representing, amongst other subjects, "the dance of death." my copy is the reprint of --in high preservation. i have no doubt that there was a _presentation_ copy printed upon vellum; but in what cabinet does this precious gem now slumber?] [footnote : laneham gives a splendid list of romances and old ballads possessed by this said captain cox; and tells us, moreover, that "he had them all at his fingers ends." among the ballads we find "broom broom on hil; so wo is me begon twlly lo; over a whinny meg; hey ding a ding; bony lass upon green; my bony on gave me a bek; by a bank as i lay; and two more he had fair wrapt up in parchment, and bound with a whip cord." edit. , p. - - . ritson, in his historical essay on _scottish song_, speaks of some of these, with a zest, as if he longed to untie the "whip-cord" packet.] while the country was thus giving proofs of the prevalence of this disorder, the two harringtons (especially the younger)[ ] and the illustrious spenser[ ] were unfortunately seized with it in the metropolis. [footnote : sir john harrington, knt. sir john, and his father john harrington, were very considerable literary characters in the th century; and whoever has been fortunate enough to read through mr. park's new edition of the _nugæ antiquæ_, , vo., will meet with numerous instances in which the son displays considerable bibliographical knowledge--especially in _italian_ literature; harrington and spenser seem to have been the matthias and roscoe of the day. i make no doubt but that the former was as thoroughly acquainted with the _vera edizione_ of the giuntæ edition of boccaccio's decamerone, , to., as either haym, orlandi, or bandini. paterson, with all his skill, was mistaken in this article when he catalogued croft's books. see bibl. crofts. no. : his true edition was knocked down for _s._!!!] [footnote : spenser's general acquaintance with italian literature has received the best illustration in mr. todd's variorum edition of the poet's works; where the reader will find, in the notes, a constant succession of anecdotes of, and references to, the state of anterior and contemporaneous literature, foreign and domestic.] in the seventeenth century, from the death of elizabeth to the commencement of anne's reign, it seems to have made considerable havoc; yet, such was our blindness to it that we scrupled not to engage in overtures for the purchase of isaac vossius's[ ] fine library, enriched with many treasures from the queen of sweden's, which this versatile genius scrupled not to pillage without confession or apology. during this century our great reasoners and philosophers began to be in motion; and, like the fumes of tobacco, which drive the concealed and clotted insects from the interior to the extremity of the leaves, the infectious particles of the bibliomania set a thousand busy brains a-thinking, and produced ten thousand capricious works, which, over-shadowed by the majestic remains of bacon, locke, and boyle, perished for want of air, and warmth, and moisture. [footnote : "the story is extant, and written in very choice _french_." consult chauffepié's _supplement to bayle's dictionary_, vol. iv. p. . note q. vossius's library was magnificent and extensive. the university of leyden offered not less than , florins for it. _idem._ p. .] the reign of queen anne was not exempt from the influence of this disease; for during this period, maittaire[ ] began to lay the foundation of his extensive library, and to publish some bibliographical works which may be thought to have rather increased, than diminished, its force. meanwhile, harley[ ] earl of oxford watched its progress with an anxious eye; and although he might have learnt experience from the fatal examples of r. smith,[ ] and t. baker,[ ] and the more recent ones of thomas rawlinson,[ ] bridges,[ ] and collins,[ ] yet he seemed resolved to brave and to baffle it; but, like his predecessors, he was suddenly crushed within the gripe of the demon, and fell one of the most splendid of his victims. even the unrivalled medical skill of mead[ ] could save neither his friend nor himself. the doctor survived his lordship about twelve years; dying of the complaint called the bibliomania! he left behind an illustrious character; sufficient to flatter and soothe those who may tread in his footsteps, and fall victims to a similar disorder. [footnote : of michael maittaire i have given a brief sketch in my introduction to the _greek and latin classics_, vol. i, . mr. beloe, in the rd vol. of his _anecdotes of literature_, p. ix., has described his merits with justice. the principal value of maittaire's _annales typographici_ consists in a great deal of curious matter detailed in the notes; but the absence of the "lucidus ordo" renders the perusal of these fatiguing and dissatisfactory. the author brought a full and well-informed mind to the task he undertook--but he wanted taste and precision in the arrangement of his materials. the eye wanders over a vast indigested mass; and information, when it is to be acquired with excessive toil, is, comparatively, seldom acquired. panzer has adopted an infinitely better plan, on the model of orlandi; and, if his materials had been _printed_ with the same beauty with which they appear to have been composed, and his annals had descended to as late a period as those of maittaire, his work must have made us, eventually, forget that of his predecessor. the bibliographer is, no doubt, aware that of maittaire's first volume there are two editions. why the author did not reprint, in the second edition ( ), the facsimile of the epigram and epistle of lascar prefixed to the edition of the anthology , and the disquisition concerning the ancient editions of quintilian (both of which were in the first edition of ), is absolutely inexplicable. maittaire was sharply attacked for this absurdity, in the "catalogus auctorum," of the "_annus tertius sæcularis inv. art. topog._" harlem, , vo. p. . "rara certe librum augendi methodus (exclaims the author)! satis patet auctorem hoc eo fecisse consilio, ut et primæ et secundæ libri sive editioni pretium suum constaret, et una æque ac altera lectoribus necessaria esset." the catalogue of maittaire's library [ , parts, vo.], which affords ample proof of the bibliomania of its collector, is exceedingly scarce. a good copy of it, even unpriced, is worth a guinea: it was originally sold for shillings; and was drawn up by maittaire himself.] [footnote : in a periodical publication called "_the director_," to which i contributed under the article of "_bibliographiana_" (and of which the printer of this work, mr. william savage, is now the sole publisher), there was rather a minute analysis of the famous library of harley, earl of oxford: a library which seems not only to have revived, but eclipsed, the splendour of the roman one formed by lucullus. the following is an abridgement of this analysis: volumes. . divinity: _greek, latin, french and italian_--about ---- _english_ . history and antiquities . books of prints, sculpture, and drawings-- _twenty thousand drawings and prints._ _ten thousand portraits._ . philosophy, chemistry, medicine, &c. . geography, chronology, general history . voyages and travels . law . sculpture and architecture . greek and latin classics . books printed upon vellum . english poetry, romances, &c. . french and spanish do. . parliamentary affairs . trade and commerce . miscellaneous subjects . pamphlets--_four hundred thousand_! mr. gough says, these books "filled thirteen handsome chambers, and two long galleries." osborne the bookseller purchased them for £ , : a sum little more than two thirds of the price of the binding, as paid by lord oxford. the bookseller was accused of injustice and parsimony; but the low prices which he afterwards affixed to the articles, and the tardiness of their sale, are sufficient refutations of this charge. osborne opened his shop for the inspection of the books on tuesday the th of february, ; for fear "of the curiosity of the spectators, before the sale, producing disorder in the disposition of the books." the dispersion of the harleian collection is a blot in the literary annals of our country: had there then been such a speaker, and such a spirit in the house of commons, as we now possess, the volumes of harley would have been reposing with the marbles of townley!] [footnote : "bibliotheca smithiana: sive catalogus librorum in quavis facultate insigniorum, quos in usum suum et bibliothecæ ornamentum multo ære sibi comparavit vir clarissimus doctissimusque d. richardus smith, &c., londini, ," to. i recommend the collector of curious and valuable catalogues to lay hold upon the present one (of which a more particular description will be given in another work) whenever it comes in his way. the address "to the reader," in which we are told that "this so much celebrated, so often desired, so long expected, library is now exposed to sale," gives a very interesting account of the owner. inter alia, we are informed that mr. smith "was as constantly known every day to walk his rounds through the shops, as to sit down to his meals, &c.;" and that "while others were forming arms, and new-modelling kingdoms, _his_ great ambition was to become master of a good book." the catalogue itself justifies every thing said in commendation of the collector of the library. the arrangement is good; the books, in almost all departments of literature, foreign and domestic, valuable and curious; and among the english ones i have found some of the rarest caxtons to refer to in my edition of ames. what would mr. bindley, or mr. malone, or mr. douce, give to have the _creaming_ of such a collection of "bundles of stitcht books and pamphlets," as extends from page to of this catalogue! but alas! while the bibliographer exults in, or hopes for, the possession of such treasures, the physiologist discovers therein fresh causes of disease, and the philanthropist mourns over the ravages of the bibliomania!] [footnote : consult masters's "_memoirs of the life and writings of the late rev._ thomas baker," camb. , vo. let any person examine the catalogue of _forty-two_ folio volumes of "ms. collections by mr. baker," (as given at the end of this piece of biography) and reconcile himself, if he can, to the supposition that the said mr. baker did not fall a victim to the _book-disease_! for some cause, i do not now recollect what, baker took his name off the books of st. john's college, cambridge, to which he belonged; but such was his attachment to the place, and more especially to the library, that he spent a great portion of the ensuing twenty years of his life within the precincts of the same: frequently comforted and refreshed, no doubt, by the sight of the magnificent large paper copies of walton and castell, and of cranmer's bible upon vellum!] [footnote : this thomas rawlinson, who is introduced in the tatler under the name _tom folio_, was a very extraordinary character, and most desperately addicted to book-hunting. because his own house was not large enough, he hired _london house_, in aldersgate street, for the reception of his library; and here he used to regale himself with the sight and the scent of innumerable black letter volumes, arranged in "sable garb," and stowed perhaps "three deep," from the bottom to the top of his house. he died in ; and catalogues of his books for sale continued, for nine succeeding years, to meet the public eye. the following is a list of all the parts which i have ever met with; taken from copies in mr. heber's possession. _part_ . _a catalogue of choice and valuable books in most faculties and languages_: being the sixth part of the collection made by thos. rawlinson, esq., &c., to be sold on thursday, the d day of march, ; beginning every evening at of the clock, by charles davis, bookseller. qui non credit, eras credat. ex autog. t.r. . _bibliotheca rawlinsoniana_; sive delectus librorum in omni ferè linguâ et facultate præstantium--to be sold on wednesday th april, [ ] by charles davis, bookseller. numbers. . _the same_: january - . by thomas ballard, bookseller, numbers. . _the same_: march, - . by the same. numbers. . _the same_: october, . by the same. numbers. . _the same_: november, . by the same. numbers. . _the same_: april, . by the same. numbers. . _the same_: november, . by the same. numbers. . _the same_: [of rawlinson's manuscripts] by the same. march - . numbers. . _picturæ rawlinsonianæ._ april, . articles. at the end, it would seem that a catalogue of his prints, and mss. missing in the last sale, were to be published the ensuing winter. n.b. the black-letter books are catalogued in the gothic letter.] [footnote : "bibliothecÆ bridgesianÆ catalogus: or, a catalogue of the entire library of john bridges, late of _lincoln's inn_, esq., &c., which will begin to be sold, by auction, on monday the seventh day of february, - , at his chambers in _lincoln's inn_, no. ." from a priced copy of this sale catalogue, in my possession, once belonging to nourse, the bookseller in the strand, i find that the following was the produce of the sale: the amount of the books £ prints and books of prints ----------- total amount of the sale £ two different catalogues of this valuable collection of books were printed. the one was analysed, or a _catalogue raisonné_; to which was prefixed a print of a grecian portico, &c., with ornaments and statues: the other (expressly for the sale) was an indigested and extremely confused one--to which was prefixed a print, designed and engraved by a. motte, of an oak felled, with a number of men cutting down and carrying away its branches; illustrative of the following greek motto inscribed on a scroll above--[greek: dryos pesousês pas anêr xyleuetai]: "an affecting memento (says mr. nichols, very justly, in his _anecdotes of bowyer_, p. ) to the collectors of great libraries, who cannot, or do not, leave them to some public accessible repository."] [footnote : in the year - , there was sold by auction, at st. paul's coffee-house, in st. paul's church-yard (beginning every evening at five o'clock), the library of the celebrated free-thinker, anthony collins, esq. "containing a collection of several thousand volumes in greek, latin, english, french, and spanish; in divinity, history, antiquity, philosophy, husbandry, and all polite literature: and especially many curious travels and voyages; and many rare and valuable pamphlets." this collection, which is divided into _two parts_ (the first containing articles, the second ), is well worthy of being consulted by the theologian, who is writing upon any controverted point of divinity: there are articles in it of the rarest occurrence. the singular character of its owner and of his works is well known: he was at once the friend and the opponent of locke and clarke, who were both anxious for the conversion of a character of such strong, but misguided, talents. the former, on his death-bed, wrote collins a letter to be delivered to him, after his decease, which was full of affection and good advice.] [footnote : it is almost impossible to dwell on the memory of this great man without emotions of delight--whether we consider him as an eminent physician, a friend to literature, or a collector of books, pictures, and coins. benevolence, magnanimity, and erudition were the striking features of his character: his house was the general receptacle of men of genius and talent, and of every thing beautiful, precious, or rare. his curiosities, whether books, or coins, or pictures, were freely laid open to the public; and the enterprising student, and experienced antiquary, alike found amusement and a courteous reception. he was known to all foreigners of intellectual distinction, and corresponded both with the artisan and the potentate. the great patron of literature, and the leader of his profession (which he practised with a success unknown before), it was hardly possible for unbefriended merit, if properly introduced to him, to depart unrewarded. the clergy, and in general, all men of learning, received his advice _gratuitously_: and his doors were open every morning to the _most indigent_, whom he frequently assisted with money. although his income, from his professional practice, was very considerable, he died by no means a rich man--so large were the sums which he devoted to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts! the sale of dr. mead's _books_ commenced on the th of november, , and again on the th of april, : lasting together days. the sale of the _prints_ and _drawings_ continued nights. the _gems_, _bronzes_, _busts_, and _antiquities_, days. his books produced £ pictures prints and drawings coins and medals antiquities -------------- amount of all the sales £ , it would be difficult to mention, within a moderate compass, all the rare and curious articles which his library contained--but the following are too conspicuous to be passed over. the _spira virgil_ of , _pfintzing's tewrkdrancs_, , _brandt's stultifera navis_, , and the _aldine petrarch_ of , all upon vellum. the large paper _olivet's cicero_ was purchased by dr. askew for £ _s._ and was sold again at his sale for £ _s._ the king of france bought the editio princeps of _pliny senr._ for £ _s._; and mr. willock, a bookseller, bought the magnificently illuminated _pliny by jenson_ of , for £ _s._: of which maittaire has said so many fine things. the _french_ books, and all the works upon the _fine arts_, were of the first rarity, and value, and bound in a sumptuous manner. winstanley's _prospects of audley end_ brought £ . an amusing account of some of the pictures will be found in mr. beloe's "_anecdotes of literature and scarce books_," vol. i. . . but consult also _nichol's anecdotes of bowyer_, p. , &c. of the catalogue of dr. mead's books there were only six copies printed on large paper. see bibl. lort, no. .] the years - were singularly remarkable for the mortality excited by the bibliomania; and the well known names of folkes,[ ] and rawlinson,[ ] might have supplied a modern holbein a hint for the introduction of a new subject in the "_dance of death_." the close of george the second's reign witnessed another instance of the fatality of this disease. henley[ ] "bawled till he was hoarse" against the cruelty of its attack; while his library has informed posterity how severely and how mortally he suffered from it. [footnote : "a catalogue of the entire and valuable library of martin folkes, esq., president of the royal society, and member of the royal academy of sciences at paris, lately deceased; which will be sold by auction by samuel baker, at his house, in york street, covent garden. to begin on monday, february , , and to continue for forty days successively (sundays excepted). catalogues to be had at most of the considerable places in europe, and all the booksellers of great britain and ireland, price sixpence." this collection was an exceedingly fine one; enriched with many books of the choicest description, which mr. folkes had acquired in his travels in italy and germany. the works on natural history, coins, medals, and inscriptions, and on the fine arts in general, formed the most valuable department--those in the greek, latin and english classics, were comparatively of inferior importance. it is a great pity the catalogue was not better digested; or the books classed according to the nature of their contents. the following prices, for some of the more rare and interesting articles, will amuse a bibliographer of the present day. the chronicles of fabian, hall, and grafton, did not altogether bring quite £ : though the copies are described as perfect and fair. there seems to have been a fine set of sir wm. dugdale's works (nos. - ) in vols. which, collectively, produced about guineas. in _spanish literature_, the history of south america, by don juan and ant. di ulloa, madr. fol. in vols., was sold for £ : a fine large paper copy of the description of the monastery of st. lorenzo, and the escorial, madr. , brought £ _s._: de lastanosa's spanish medals, huesca, fol. , £ _s._ in _english_, the first edition of shakespeare, , which is now what a french bibliographer would say "presque introuvable," produced the sum of £ _s._; and fuller's worthies, _s._! _fine arts, antiquities, and voyages._ sandrart's works, in folio volumes (of which a fine perfect copy is now rarely to be met with, and of very great value) were sold for £ _s._ only: desgodetz roman edifices, paris, , £ _s._: galleria giustiniano, vols., fol. £ _s._ le brun's voyages in muscovy, &c., in large paper, £ _s._ de rossi's raccolta de statue, &c. rom. , £ _s._ medailles du regne de louis le grand, de l'imp. roy. . p. fol. , £ _s._ _d._ the works on _natural history_ brought still higher prices; but the whole, from the present depreciation of specie, and increased rarity of the articles, would now bring thrice the sums then given. of the _greek and latin classics_, the pliny of and were sold to dr. askew for £ _s._ and £ _s._ _d._ at the doctor's sale they brought £ and £ : although the first was lately sold (a.d. ) among some duplicates of books belonging to the british museum, at a much lower price: the copy was, in fact, neither large nor beautiful. those in the hunter and cracherode collections are greatly superior, and would each bring more than double the price. from a priced copy of the sale catalogue, in my possession, i find that the amount of the sale, consisting of articles, was £ _s._ the _prints and drawings_ of mr. folkes occupied a sale of days; and his _pictures_, _gems_, _coins_, and _mathematical instruments_, of five days. mr. martin folkes may justly be ranked among the most useful, as well as splendid, literary characters of which this country can boast. he appears to have imbibed, at a very early age, an extreme passion for science and literature; and to have distinguished himself so much at the university of cambridge, under the able tuition of dr. laughton, that, in his rd year, he was admitted a fellow of the royal society. about two years afterwards he was chosen one of the council, and rose, in gradual succession, to the chair of the presidentship, which he filled with a credit and celebrity that has since never been surpassed. on this occasion he was told by dr. jurin, the secretary, who dedicated to him the th vol. of the transactions, that "the greatest man that ever lived (sir isaac newton) singled him out to fill the chair, and to preside in the society, when he himself was so frequently prevented by indisposition: and that it was sufficient to say of him that he was _sir isaac's friend_." within a few years after this, he was elected president of the society of antiquaries. two situations, the filling of which may be considered as the _ne plus ultra_ of literary distinction. mr. folkes travelled abroad, with his family, about two years and a half, visiting the cities of rome, florence, and venice--where he was noticed by almost every person of rank and reputation, and whence he brought away many a valuable article to enrich his own collection. he was born in the year , and died of a second stroke of the palsy, under which he languished for three years, in . dr. birch has drawn a very just and interesting character of this eminent man, which may be found in nichol's _anecdotes of bowyer_, . . mr. edwards, the late ornithologist, has described him in a simple, but appropriate, manner. "he seemed," says he, "to have attained to universal knowledge; for, in the many opportunities i have had of being in his company, almost every part of science has happened to be the subject of discourse, all of which he handled as an adept. he was a man of great politeness in his manners, free from all pedantry and pride, and, in every respect, the real unaffected fine gentleman."] [footnote : "bibliotheca rawlinsoniana, sive catalogus librorum richardi rawlinson, ll.d. qui prostabunt venales sub hasta, apud samuelem baker. in vico dicto _york street, covent garden londini, die lunæ_, martii mdcclvi." this valuable library must have contained about , volumes; for the number of articles amounted to . on examining a priced catalogue of it, which now lies before me, i have not found any higher sum offered for a work than £ _s._ for a collection of fine prints, by aldegrave (no. ). the greek and latin classics, of which there were few _editiones principes_, or on _large paper_, brought the usual sums given at that period. the old english black-lettered books, which were pretty thickly scattered throughout the collection, were sold for exceedingly low prices--if the copies were perfect. witness the following: £ _s._ _d._ the newe testament in english, the ymage of both churches, after the revelation of st. john, by bale, the boke called the pype or tonne of perfection, by richard whytforde, the visions of pierce plowman, the creede of pierce plowman, the bookes of moses, in english, bale's actes of englishe votaryes, the boke of chivalrie, by caxton the boke of st. albans, by w. de worde these are only very few of the rare articles in english literature, of the whole of which (perhaps upwards of in number) i believe, the 'boke of st. albans,' brought the highest sum. hence it will be seen that this was not the age of curious research into the productions of our ancestors. shakspeare had not then appeared in a proper _variorum edition_. theobald, and pope, and warburton, had not investigated the black-letter lore of ancient english writers, for the illustration of their favourite author. this was reserved for farmer, for steevens, for malone, for chalmers, reed and douce: and it is expressly to these latter gentlemen (for johnson and hanmer were very sparing, or very shy, of the black letter), that we are indebted for the present spirit of research into the works of our ancestors. the sale of the books lasted days. there was a second sale of pamphlets, books of prints, &c., in the following year, which lasted days; and this was immediately succeeded by a sale of the doctor's single prints and drawings, which continued days.] [footnote : this gentleman's library, not so remarkable for the black letter as for whimsical publications, was sold by auction, by samuel paterson, [the earliest sale in which i find this well known book-auctioneer engaged] in june, , and the three ensuing evenings. the title of the sale catalogue is as follows: "a catalogue of the original mss. and manuscript collections of the late reverend mr. john henley, a.m., independent minister of the oratory, &c., in which are included sundry collections of the late mons. des maizeaux, the learned editor of bayle, &c., mr. lowndes, author of the report for the amendment of silver coins, &c., dr. patrick blair, physician at boston, and f.r.s. &c., together with original letters and papers of state, addressed to henry d'avenant, esq., her britannic majesty's envoy at francfort, from to inclusive." few libraries have contained more curious and remarkable publications than did this. the following articles, given as notable specimens, remind us somewhat of addison's memoranda for the spectator, which the waiter at the coffee-house picked up and read aloud for the amusement of the company. no. . god's manifestation by a star to the dutch. a mortifying fast diet at court. on the birth day of the first and oldest young gentleman. all corrupt: none good: no not one. no. . general thumbissimo. the spring reversed, or the flanderkin's opera and dutch pickle herrings. the creolean fillip, or royal mishap. a martial telescope, &c., england's passion sunday, and april changelings. no. . speech upon speech. a telescope for tournay. no battle, but worse, and the true meaning of it. an army beaten and interred. no. . signs when the p. will come. was captain sw----n a prisoner on parole, to be catechised? david's opinion of like times. the seeds of the plot may rise, though the leaves fall. a perspective, from the blair of athol, the pretender's popery. murder! fire! where! where! no. . taking carlisle, catching an eel by the tail. address of a bishop, dean and clergy. swearing to the p----r, &c., anathema denounced against those parents, masters, and magistrates, that do not punish the sin at stokesley. a speech, &c. a parallel between the rebels to k. charles i. and those to his successor. _jane cameron_ looked killing at _falkirk_. no. . let stocks be knighted, write, sir banks, &c. the ramhead month. a proof that the writers against popery fear it will be established in this kingdom. a scheme, wisely blabbed to root and branch the highlanders. let st. patrick have fair play, &c. of orator henley i have not been able to collect any biographical details more interesting than those which are to be found in warburton's notes to pope's dunciad.] we are now, my dear sir, descending rapidly to our own times; and, in a manner sufficiently rough, have traced the _history of the bibliomania_ to the commencement of the present illustrious reign: when we discover, among its victims, a general, who had probably faced many a cannon, and stormed many a rampart, uninjured. the name of dormer[ ] will remind you of the small but choice library which affords such a melancholy proof of its owners' fate; while the more splendid examples of smith[ ] and west[ ] serve to shew the increased ravages of a disease, which seemed to threaten the lives of all, into whose ears (like those of "visto,") some demon had "whispered" the sound of "taste." these three striking instances of the fatality of the bibliomania occurred--the first in the year ; and the latter in . the following year witnessed the sale of the fletewode[ ] library; so that nothing but despair and havoc appeared to move in the train of this pestiferous malady. in the year died the famous dr. anthony askew, another illustrious victim to the bibliomania. those who recollect the zeal and scholarship of this great book-collector, and the precious gems with which his library[ ] was stored from the cabinets of de boze and gaignat, as well as of mead and folkes, cannot but sigh with grief of heart on the thought of such a victim! how ardently, and how kindly [as i remember to have heard his friend dr. burges say], would askew unfold his glittering stores--open the magnificent folio, or the shining duodecimo, upon vellum, embossed and fast held together with golden knobs and silver clasps! how carefully would he unroll the curious ms.--decipher the half effaced characters--and then, casting an eye of ecstacy over the shelves upon which similar treasures were lodged, exult in the glittering prospect before him! but death--who, as horace tells us, raps equally at the palaces of kings and cottages of peasants, made no scruple to exercise the knocker of the doctor's door, and sent, as his avant-courier, this deplorable mania! it appeared; and even askew, with all his skill in medicine and books, fell lifeless before it--bewailed, as he was beloved and respected! [footnote : "a catalogue of the genuine and elegant library of the late sir c.c. dormer, collected by lieutenant-general james dormer, which will be sold, &c., by samuel baker, at his house in york street, covent garden; to begin on monday, february the th, , and to continue the nineteen following evenings." at the end of the catalogue we are told that the books were "in general of the best editions, and in the finest condition, many of them in _large paper_, bound in morocco, gilt leaves, &c." this was a very choice collection of books, consisting almost entirely of greek, latin, italian, spanish and french. the number of articles did not exceed , and of volumes, probably not . the catalogue is neatly printed, and copies of it on _large paper_ are exceedingly scarce. among the most curious and valuable articles were those numbered , , , ; from no. , to the end, was a choice collection of italian and spanish books.] [footnote : in the year was published at venice, printed by j.b. pasquali, a catalogue of the books of joseph smith, esq., consul at venice. the catalogue was published under the following latin title: "bibliotheca smitheana, seu catalogus librorum d. josephi smithii, angli, per cognomina authorum dispositus, venetiis, typis jo. baptistæ pasquali, m,dcclv.;" in quarto; with the arms of consul smith. the title page is succeeded by a latin preface of pasquali, and an alphabetical list of pages of the authors mentioned in the catalogue: then follow the books arranged alphabetically, without any regard to size, language, or subject. these occupy pages, marked with the roman numerals; after which are pages, numbered in the same manner, of "addenda et corrigenda." the most valuable part of the volume is "the prefaces and epistles prefixed to those works in the library which were printed in the th century:" these occupy pages. a catalogue, (in three pages) of the names of the illustrious men mentioned in these prefaces, &c., closes the book. it would be superfluous to mention to bibliographers the rare articles contained in this collection, which are so generally known and so justly appreciated. they consist chiefly of early editions of _italian_, _greek_, and _latin classics_; and of many copies of both printed upon vellum. the library, so rich in these articles, was, however, defective in english literature and antiquities. there was scarcely any thing of shakspeare or dugdale. on the death of mr. smith in , his collection was sold in , vo., by baker and leigh; and the books were announced to the public, as being "in the finest preservation, and consisting of the very best and scarcest editions of the latin, italian, and french authors, from the invention of printing; with manuscripts and missals, upon vellum, finely illuminated." a glance upon the prices for which most of these fine books were sold made mr. cuthell exclaim, in my hearing, that "_they were given away_." on these occasions, one cannot help now and then wishing, with father evander, "o mihi præteritos referat si jupiter annos!" on comparing pasquali's, with the sale, catalogue, it will be obvious that a great number of rare and valuable articles was disposed of before the books came to public auction. indeed it is known that his present majesty enriched his magnificent collection with many of the consul's _first editions_, and _vellum copies_, during the life of the latter. the sale continued thirteen days only; and on the last day were sold all the english books in the _black-letter_. some of these are rather curious. of consul smith i am unable to present the lover of virtu with any particulars more acceptable than the following. pasquali (whose latin preface is curious enough--abounding with as many interrogatories as hamlet's soliloquies) has told us that "as the consul himself was distinguished for his politeness, talents, and prudence, so was his house for splendid and elegant decorations. you might there view, says he, the most beautifully painted pictures, and exquisite ornaments, whether gems, vases, or engravings. in short, the whole furniture was so brilliant and classical that you admired at once the magnificence and judgment of the owner." he tells us, a little further, that he had frequently solicited the consul to print a catalogue of his books; which proposition his modesty at first induced him to reject; but, afterwards, his liberality, to comply with. he then observes that, "in the compilation of the catalogue, he has studied brevity as much as it was consistent with perspicuity; and that he was once desirous of stating the _value_ and _price_ of the books, but was dissuaded from it by the advice of the more experienced, and by the singular modesty of the collector." it must be confessed that pasquali has executed his task well, and that the catalogue ranks among the most valuable, as well as rare, books of the kind.] [footnote : "bibliotheca westiana; a catalogue of the curious and truly valuable library of the late james west, esq., president of the royal society, deceased, &c. including the works of caxton, lettou, machlinia, the anonymous st. albans schoolmaste [transcriber's note: schoolmaster], wynkyn de worde, pynson, and the rest of the old english typographers. digested by samuel paterson," , vo. analysis of the catalogue. . _volumes of miscellaneous tracts._ these volumes extend from no. to , from to , from to , and from no. to . . _divinity._ in the whole, articles; probably about volumes; some of them exceedingly scarce and valuable. . _education, languages, criticism, classics, dictionaries, catalogues of libraries, &c._ there were about volumes in these departments. the catalogues of english books, from that of maunsell, in , to the latest before mr. west's time, were very complete. the treatises on education and translations of the ancient classics comprehended a curious and uncommon collection. the greek and latin classics were rather select than rare. . _english poetry, romance, and miscellanies._ this interesting part of the collection comprehended about articles, or probably about volumes: and if the singularly rare and curious books which may be found _under these heads alone_ were now concentrated in one library, the owner of them might safely demand guineas for such a treasure. . _philosophy, mathematics, inventions, agriculture and horticulture, medicine, cookery, surgery, etc._ two hundred and forty articles, or about volumes. . _chemistry, natural history, astrology, sorcery, gigantology._ probably not more than volumes. . _history and antiquities._ this comprehended a great number of curious and valuable productions, relating both to foreign and domestic transactions. . _heraldry and genealogy._ a great number of curious and scarce articles may be found under these heads. . _ancient legends and chronicles._ to the english antiquary, few departments of literature are more interesting that these. mr. west seems to have paid particular attention to them, and to have enriched his library with many articles of this description, of the rarest occurrence. the lovers of caxton, fabian, hardyng, hall, grafton, and holinshed, may be highly gratified by inspecting the various editions of these old chroniclers. i entreat the diligent bibliographer to examine the first eight articles of page of the catalogue. alas, when will all these again come under the hammer at one sale?! . _topography._ even to a veteran, like the late mr. gough, such a collection as may be found from p. to p. of this catalogue, would be considered a first-rate acquisition. i am aware that the gothic wainscot, and stained glass windows, of _enfield study_ enshrined a still more exquisite topographical collection! but we are improved since the days of mr. west; and every body knows to _whom_ these improvements are, in a great measure, to be attributed. when i call to mind the author of '_british topography_' and '_sepulchral monuments_,' i am not insensible to the taste, diligence, and erudition of the "par nobile fratrum," who have gratified us with the '_environs of london_,' '_roman remains_,' and the first two volumes of '_magna britannia_!' the preceding is to be considered as a very general, and therefore superficial, analysis of the catalogue of mr. west's library; copies of it, with the sums for which the books were sold, are now found with difficulty, and bring a considerable price. i never saw or heard of one on large paper!] [footnote : "a catalogue of rare books and tracts in various languages and faculties; including the _ancient conventual library_ of missenden-abbey, in buckinghamshire; together with some choice remains of that of the late eminent serjeant at law, william fletewode, esq., recorder of london, in the reign of queen elizabeth; among which are several specimens of the earliest typography, foreign and english, including caxton, wynkyn de worde, pynson, and others; a fine collection of english poetry, some scarce old law-books, a great number of old english plays, several choice mss. upon vellum, and other subjects of literary curiosity. also several of the best editions of the classics, and modern english and french books. to begin _december_ , , and the following evenings, precisely at half an hour after five." i am in possession of a _priced catalogue_ of this collection, which once belonged to herbert, and which contains all the purchasers' names, as well as the sums given. the purchasers were principally herbert, garrick, dodd, elmsley, t. payne, richardson, chapman, wagstaff, bindley, and gough. the following is a specimen of some curious and interesting articles contained in this celebrated library, and of the prices for which they once sold! no. . _bale's brefe chronycle relating to syr johan oldecastell_, . the life off the th archbishopp off canterbury presentleye sittinge, , &c. life of hen. hills, printer to o. cromwell, _with the relation of what passed between him and the taylor's wife in black friars_, , _&c._ £ _s._ _d._ purchased by mores. nos. to . upwards of thirty _scarce theological tracts_, in latin and english nos. to . a fine collection of early english translations, in black letter, with some good foreign editions of the classics. not exceeding, in the whole nos. , . two copies of the _first edition_ of bacon's essays, ! the reader will just glance at no. , in the catalogue, en passant, to nos. (£ s.) and ( s.); but more particularly to no. . caxton's _boke of tulle of olde age_, &c. . purchased by the late mr. t. payne no. . caxton's _boke which is sayd or called cathon_, &c. . purchased by alchorn. no. . caxton's _doctrinal of sapyence_, purchased by alchorn. no. . caxton's _cordyal_, no. . wynkyn de worde's _ocharde of syon_, &c. . i will, however, only add that there were upwards of articles of _old plays_, mostly in quarto. see page . of _antiquities_, _chronicles_, and _topography_, it would be difficult to pitch upon the rarest volumes. the collection, including very few mss., contained articles, or probably nearly volumes. the catalogue is uncommon.] [footnote : i am now arrived, pursuing my chronological arrangement, at a very important period in the annals of book-sales. the name and collection of dr. askew are so well known in the bibliographical world that the reader need not be detained with laboured commendations on either: in the present place, however, it would be a cruel disappointment not to say a word or two by way of _preface_ or _prologue_. dr. anthony askew had eminently distinguished himself by a refined taste, a sound knowledge, and an indefatigable research relating to every thing connected with grecian and roman literature. it was to be expected, even during his life, as he was possessed of sufficient means to gratify himself with what was rare, curious, and beautiful in literature and the fine arts, that the public would, one day, be benefited by such pursuits: especially as he had expressed a wish that his treasures might be unreservedly submitted to sale, after his decease. in this wish the doctor was not singular. many eminent collectors had indulged it before him: and, to my knowledge, many modern ones still indulge it. accordingly on the death of dr. askew, in , appeared, in the ensuing year, a catalogue of his books for sale, by messrs. baker and leigh, under the following title: "bibliotheca askeviana, sive catalogus librorum rarissimorum antonii askew, m.d., quorum auctio fiet apud s. baker et g. leigh, in vico dicto _york street, covent garden_, londini. _die lunæ_, _februarii_, mdcclxxv, et in undeviginti sequentes dies." a few copies were struck off on large paper. we are told by the compiler of the catalogue that it was thought unnecessary to say much with respect to this library of the late dr. anthony askew, as the collector and collection were so well known in almost all parts of europe. afterwards it is observed that "the books in general are in very fine condition, many of them bound in morocco, and russia leather, with gilt leaves." "to give a particular account," continues the compiler, "of the _many scarce editions_ of books in this catalogue would be almost endless, therefore the _first editions_ of the classics, and some _extremely rare books_ are chiefly noticed. the catalogue, without any doubt, contains the best, rarest, and most valuable collection of greek and latin books that were ever sold in england." this account is not overcharged. the collection, in regard to greek and roman literature, was _unique_ in its day. the late worthy and learned mr. m. cracherode, whose library now forms one of the most splendid acquisitions of the british museum, and whose _bequest_ of it will immortalize his memory, was also among the "emptores literarii" at this renowned sale. he had enriched his collection with many _exemplar askevianum_; and, in his latter days, used to elevate his hands and eyes, and exclaim against the prices _now_ offered for editiones principes! the fact is, dr. askew's sale has been considered a sort of _æra_ in bibliography. since that period, rare and curious books in greek and latin literature have been greedily sought after, and obtained at most extravagant prices. it is very well for a veteran in bibliography, as was mr. cracherode, or as are mr. wodhull and dr. gosset, whose collections were formed in the days of gaignat, askew, duke de la valliere, and lamoignon--it is very well for such gentlemen to declaim against _modern prices_! but what is to be done? books grow scarcer every day, and the love of literature, and of possessing rare and interesting works, increases in an equal ratio. hungry bibliographers meet, at sales, with well furnished purses, and are resolved upon sumptuous fare. thus the hammer _vibrates_, after a bidding of _forty pounds_, where formerly it used regularly to _fall_ at _four_! but we lose sight of dr. askew's _rare editions_, and _large paper copies_. the following, gentle reader, is but an imperfect specimen! no. . chaucer's works, by pynson, no date £ _s._ _d._ no. . cicero of old age, by caxton, no. . gilles' (nicole) annales, &c. de france. paris, fol. . tom. sur velin no. . Æginetæ (pauli) præcepta salubria. paris, quarto, . on vellum no. . Æsopi fabulæ. edit. prin. _circ._ no. . boccacio, la teseide _ferar._ . prima edizione no. . catullus tibullus, et propertius, aldi. vo. . in membrana this copy was purchased by the late mr. m.c. cracherode, and is now, with his library, in the british museum. it is a beautiful book, but cannot be compared with lord spencer's aldine vellum virgil, of the same size. no. . durandi rationale, &c. . in membrana the beginning of the st chapter was wanting. lord spencer has a perfect copy of this rare book on spotless vellum! no. . platonis opera, apud aldum. vol. fol. . _edit. prin._ on vellum purchased by the late dr. w. hunter; and is at this moment, in his museum at _glasgow_. the reader who has not seen them can have no idea of the beauty of these vellum leaves. the ink is of the finest lustre, and the whole typographical arrangement may be considered a master-piece of printing. lord oxford told dr. mead that he gave guineas for this very copy.] after this melancholy event, one would have thought that future _virtuosi_ would have barricadoed their doors, and fumigated their chambers, to keep out such a pest;--but how few are they who profit by experience, even when dearly obtained! the subsequent history of the disease is a striking proof of the truth of this remark; for the madness of book-collecting rather increased--and the work of death still went on. in the year died john ratcliffe[ ] another, and a very singular, instance of the fatality of the bibliomania. if he had contented himself with his former occupation, and frequented the butter and cheese, instead of the book, market--if he could have _fancied himself_ in a brown peruke, and russian apron, instead of an embroidered waistcoat, velvet breeches, and flowing perriwig, he might, perhaps, have enjoyed greater longevity; but, infatuated by the caxtons and wynkyn de wordes of fletewode and of west, he fell into the snare; and the more he struggled to disentangle himself, the more certainly did he become a prey to the disease. [footnote : bibliotheca ratcliffiana; or, "a catalogue of the elegant and truly valuable library of john ratcliffe, esq. late of bermondsey, deceased. the whole collected with great judgment and expense, during the last thirty years of his life: comprehending a large and most choice collection of the rare old english _black-letter_, in fine preservation, and in elegant bindings, printed by caxton, lettou, machlinia, the anonymous st. albans schoolmaster, wynkyn de worde, pynson, berthelet, grafton, day, newberie, marshe, jugge, whytchurch, wyer, rastell, coplande, and the rest of the _old english typographers_: several missals and mss., and two pedigrees on vellum, finely illuminated." the title page then sets forth a specimen of these black-lettered gems; among which our eyes are dazzled with a galaxy of caxtons, wynkyn de wordes, pynsons, &c. &c. the sale took place on march , . if ever there was a _unique_ collection, this was one--the very essence of old divinity, poetry, romances, and chronicles! the articles were only in number, but their intrinsic value amply compensated for their paucity. the following is but an inadequate specimen. no. . horace's arte of poetrie, pistles and satyres, by drant. , _first english edition_ £ _s._ _d._ no. . the sheparde's calender, . whetstone's castle of delight, no. . the pastyme of the people, printed by rastell. curious wood cuts. a copy of this book is not now to be procured. i have known £ offered for it, and rejected with disdain no. . barclay's shyp of folys, printed by pynson, , _first edit._ fine copy no. . the doctrinal of sapyence, printed by caxton, no. . the boke, called cathon, ditto, . _purchased by dr. hunter_, and now in his museum no. . the polytyque boke, named tullius de senectute, in englishe, by caxton, . _purchased for his majesty_ no. . the game of chesse playe. no. . the boke of jason, printed by caxton no. . the polychronicon of ranulph higden, printed by caxton, . _purchased by dr. hunter_ no. . legenda aurea, or the golden legende no. . mr. ratcliffe's ms. catalogues of the _rare old black letter_, and other curious and uncommon books, vols. this would have been the most delicious article to _my_ palate. if the present owner of it were disposed to part with it, i could not find it in my heart to refuse him _compound interest_ for his money. as is the wooden frame-work to the bricklayer in the construction of his arch, so might mr. ratcliffe's ms. catalogues be to me in the compilation of a certain _magnum opus_! the memory of such a man ought to be dear to the "_black-lettered dogs_" of the present day; for he had [mirabile dictu!] _upwards of_ thirty caxtons! if i might hazard a comparison between mr. james west's and mr. john ratcliffe's collections, i should say that the former was more extensive, the latter more curious: mr. west's, like a magnificent _champagne_, executed by the hand of claude or both, and enclosing mountains, and meadows, and streams, presented to the eye of the beholder a scene at once extensive, luxuriant, and fruitful: mr. ratcliffe's, like one of those delicious pieces of scenery, touched by the pencil of rysdael or hobbima, exhibited to the beholder's eye a spot equally interesting, but less varied and extensive. the sweeping foliage and rich pasture of the former could not, perhaps, afford greater gratification than did the thatched cottage, abrupt declivities, and gushing streams of the latter. to change the metaphor--mr. west's was a magnificent repository, mr. ratcliffe's a choice cabinet of gems.] thirty years have been considered by addison (somewhere in his spectator) as a pretty accurate period for the passing away of one generation and the coming on of another. we have brought down our researches to within a similar period of the present times; but, as addison has not made out the proofs of such assertion, and as many of the relatives and friends of those who have fallen victims to the bibliomania, since the days of ratcliffe, may yet be alive; moreover, as it is the part of humanity not to tear open wounds which have been just closed, or awaken painful sensibilities which have been well nigh laid to rest; so, my dear sir, in giving you a further account of this fatal disorder, i deem it the most prudent method _not to expatiate_ upon the subsequent examples of its mortality. we can only mourn over such names as beauclerk, crofts, pearson, lort, mason, farmer, steevens, woodhouse, brand, and reed! and fondly hope that the list may not be increased by those of living characters! we are, in the second place, to describe the symptoms of the disease. the ingenious peignot, in the first volume of his 'dictionnaire bibliologie,' p. , defines the bibliomania[ ] to be "a passion for possessing books; not so much to be instructed by them, as to gratify the eye by looking on them. he who is affected by this mania knows books only by their titles and dates, and is rather seduced by the exterior than interior"! this is, perhaps, too general and vague a definition to be of much benefit in the knowledge, and consequent prevention, of the disease: let us, therefore, describe it more certainly and intelligibly. [footnote : there is a short, but smart and interesting, article on this head in mr. d'israeli's _curiosities of literature_, vol. . . "bruyere has touched on this mania with humour; of such a collector (one who is fond of superb bindings only) says he, as soon as i enter his house, i am ready to faint on the stair-case from a strong smell of morocco leather. in vain he shows me fine editions, gold leaves, etruscan bindings, &c.--naming them one after another, as if he were showing a gallery of pictures!" lucian has composed a biting invective against an ignorant possessor of a vast library. "one who opens his eyes, with an hideous stare, at an old book, and, after turning over the pages, chiefly admires the _date_ of its publication."] symptoms of this disease are instantly known by a passion for i. _large paper copies_: ii. _uncut copies_: iii. _illustrated copies_: iv. _unique copies_: v. _copies printed upon vellum_: vi. _first editions_: vii. _true editions_: viii. _a general desire for the black letter_. we will describe these symptoms more particularly. i. _large paper copies._ these are a certain set or limited number of the work printed in a superior manner, both in regard to ink and press work, on paper of a larger size, and better quality, than the ordinary copies. their price is enhanced in proportion to their beauty and rarity. in the note below[ ] are specified a few works which have been published in this manner, that the sober collector may avoid approaching them. [footnote : . _lord bacon's essays_, , vo., of which it is said only five copies were struck off on royal folio. in lord spencer's and the cracherode, collection i have seen a copy of this exquisitely printed book; the text of which, surrounded by such an amplitude of margin, in the language of ernesti [see his critique on havercamp's sallust] "natut velut cymba in oceano." . _twenty plays of shakespeare_ published by steevens from the old quarto editions, , vo. vols. of this edition there were only twelve copies struck off on large paper. see bibl. steevens, no. . . _dodsley's collection of old plays_, , vo., vols. only six copies printed on large paper. see bibl. woodhouse, no. . . _the grenville homer._ græce, . to. vols. fifty copies with plates were struck off on large paper, in royal quarto. a copy of this kind was purchased at a sale in , for £ s. . _sandford's genealogical history_, etc. , fol. mr. arch of cornhill purchased a copy of this work on large paper, at the late sale of baron smyth's books, for £ . if the largest paper of clarke's cæsar be excepted, this is the highest priced single volume on large paper, that i just now recollect. . _hearne's works_ on large paper. something relating to hearne will be found in the note at page ante. here it will be only necessary to observe that the hernëan rage for large paper is quite of recent growth, but it promises to be giant-like. when the duplicates of a part of mr. woodhull's library, in , were sold, there was a fine set of copies of this kind; but the prices, comparatively with those now offered, were extremely moderate. mr. otridge, the bookseller, told me an amusing story of his going down to liverpool, many years ago, and accidentally purchasing from the library of the late sir thomas hanmer, a _magnificent set of large paper hearnes_ for about guineas. many of these are now in the choice library of his grace the duke of grafton. the copies were catalogued as _small_ paper. was there ever a more provoking blunder?!] this[ ] symptom of the bibliomania is, at the present day, both general and violent, and threatens to extend still more widely. even modern publications are not exempt from its calamitous influence; and when mr. miller, the bookseller, told me with what eagerness the large paper copies of lord valentia's travels were bespoke, and mr. evans shewed me that every similar copy of his new edition of "burnett's history of his own times" was disposed of, i could not help elevating my eyes and hands, in token of commiseration at the prevalence of this symptom of the bibliomania! [footnote : analogous to large paper copies are _tall copies_; that is, copies of the work published on the ordinary size paper and not much cut down by the binder. the want of _margin_ is a serious grievance complained of by book-collectors; and when there is a contest of margin-measuring, with books never professedly published on large paper, the anxiety of each party to have the largest copy is better conceived than described! how carefully, and how adroitly, are the golden and silver rules then exercised!] ii. _uncut copies._ of all the symptoms of the bibliomania, this is probably the most extraordinary. it may be defined as a passion to possess books of which the edges have never been sheared by the binder's tools. and here, my dear sir, i find myself walking upon doubtful ground;--your uncut hearnes rise up in "rough majesty" before me, and almost "push me from my stool." indeed, when i look around in my book-lined tub, i cannot but be conscious that this symptom of the disorder has reached my own threshold; but when it is known that a few of my bibliographical books are left with the edges uncut _merely to please my friends_ (as one must sometimes study their tastes and appetites as well as one's own), i trust that no very serious conclusions will be drawn about the probable fatality of my own case. as to uncut copies, although their inconvenience [an uncut lexicon to wit!] and deformity must be acknowledged, and although a rational man can want for nothing better than a book _once well bound_, yet we find that the extraordinary passion for collecting them not only obtains with full force, but is attended with very serious consequences to those "qui n'ont point des pistoles" (to borrow the language of clement; vol. vi. p. ). i dare say an uncut _first shakspeare_, as well as an uncut _first homer_[ ] would produce a little annuity! [footnote : "un superbe exemplaire de cette édition _princeps_ a été vendu, chez m. de cotte, en , la somme de livres; mais il faut ajouter que cet exemplaire très-precieux est de la plus belle conservation; on dirait qu'il sort dessous presse. de plus, il est peut-être _l'unique dont les marges n'ont pas été rognées ni coupées_!" peignot's _curiosités bibliographiques_, lxv-vi.] iii. _illustrated copies._ a passion for books illustrated or adorned with numerous prints, representing characters or circumstances mentioned in the work, is a very general and violent symptom of the bibliomania, which has been known chiefly within the last half century. the origin, or first appearance, of this symptom has been traced by some to the publication of granger's "biographical history of england;" but whoever will be at the pains of reading the preface of this work will see that granger sheltered himself under the authorities of evelyn, ashmole, and others; and that he alone is not to be considered as responsible for all the mischief which this passion for collecting prints has occasioned. granger, however, was the first who introduced it in the form of a treatise, and surely "in an evil hour" was this treatise published--although its amiable author must be acquitted of "malice prepense." his history of england[ ] seems to have sounded the tocsin for a general rummage after, and slaughter of, old prints: venerable philosophers and veteran heroes, who had long reposed in unmolested dignity within the magnificent folio volumes which recorded their achievements, were instantly dragged from their peaceful abodes to be inlaid by the side of some spruce, modern engraving, within an illustrated granger! nor did the madness stop here. illustration was the order of the day; and shakspeare[ ] and clarendon[ ] became the next objects of its attack. from these it has glanced off in a variety of directions, to adorn the pages of humbler wights; and the passion, or rather this symptom of the bibliomania,[ ] yet rages with undiminished force. if judiciously[ ] treated, it is, of all the symptoms, the least liable to mischief. to possess a series of well executed portraits of illustrious men, at different periods of their lives, from blooming boyhood to phlegmatic old age, is sufficiently amusing[ ]; but to possess _every_ portrait, _bad, indifferent, and unlike_, betrays such a dangerous and alarming symptom as to render the case almost incurable! [footnote : it was first published in two quarto volumes, ; and went through several editions in octavo. the last is, i believe, of the date of ; to which three additional volumes were published by william noble, in ; the whole seven volumes form what is called an excellent library work.] [footnote : about two or three years ago there was an extraordinary set of prints disposed of, for the illustration of shakspeare, collected by a gentleman in cornwall, with considerable taste and judgment. lord spencer's beautiful octavo illustrated shakespeare, bequeathed to him by the late mr. steevens, has been enriched, since it came into the library of its present noble possessor, with many a rare and many a beauteous specimen of the graphic art.] [footnote : i have heard of an illustrated clarendon (which was recently in the metropolis), that has been valued at guineas! "a good round sum!"] [footnote : one of the most striking and splendid instances of the present rage for illustration may be seen in mr. miller's own copy of the historical work of mr. fox, in two volumes, imperial quarto. exclusively of a great variety of portraits, it is enriched with the original drawing of mr. fox's bust from which the print, attached to the publication, is taken; and has also many original notes and letters by its illustrious author. mr. walter scott's edition of dryden has also received, by the same publisher, a similar illustration. it is on large paper, and most splendidly bound in blue morocco, containing upwards of portraits.] [footnote : the fine copy of granger, illustrated by the late mr. bull, is now in the library of the marquis of bute, at lutton. it extends to atlas folio volumes, and is a repository of almost every rare and beautiful print, which the diligence of its late, and the skill, taste, and connoisseurship of its present, noble owner have brought together.] [footnote : in the memoirs of mr. thomas hollis there is a series of the portraits of milton (not executed in the best manner) done in this way; and a like series of pope's portraits accompanies the recent edition of the poet's works by the rev. w.l. bowles.] there is another mode of illustrating copies by which this symptom of the bibliomania may be known: it consists in bringing together, from different works, [by means of the scissors, or otherwise by transcription] every page or paragraph which has any connection with the character or subject under discussion. this is a useful and entertaining mode of illustrating a favourite author; and copies of works of this nature, when executed by skilful[ ] hands, should be preserved in public repositories. i almost ridiculed the idea of an illustrated chatterton, in this way, till i saw mr. haslewood's copy, in twenty-one volumes, which rivetted me to my seat! [footnote : numerous are the instances of the peculiar use and value of copies of this kind, especially to those who are engaged in publication, of a similar nature. oldys's interleaved langbaine is re-echoed in almost every recent work connected with the belles-lettres of our country. oldys himself was unrivalled in this method of illustration; if, besides his langbaine, his copy of 'fuller's worthies' [once mrs. steevens's, now mr. malone's, see bibl. steevens, no. ] be alone considered! this oldys was the oddest mortal that ever scribbled for bread. grose, in his _olio_, gives an amusing account of his having "a number of small parchment bags inscribed with the names of the persons whose lives he intended to write; into which he put every circumstance and anecdote he could collect, and thence drew up his history." see noble's _college of arms_, p. . of illustrated copies in this way, the suidas of kuster, belonging to the famous d'orville, is a memorable instance. this is now in the bodleian library. i should suppose that one narcissus luttrell, in charles the second's reign, had a number of like illustrated copies. his collection of contemporaneous literature must have been immense, as we may conclude from the account of it in mr. walter scott's preface to his recent edition of dryden's works. luckily for this brilliant poet and editor, a part of luttrell's collection had found its way into the libraries of mr. bindley and mr. heber, and thence was doomed to shine, with renewed lustre, by the side of the poetry of dryden.] iv. _unique copies._ a passion for a book which has any peculiarity about it, by either, or both, of the foregoing methods of illustration--or which is remarkable for its size, beauty, and condition--is indicative of a rage for _unique copies_, and is unquestionably a strong prevailing symptom of the bibliomania. let me therefore urge every sober and cautious collector not to be fascinated by the terms "_matchless, and unique_;" which, "in slim italicks" (to copy dr. ferriar's happy expression) are studiously introduced into bookseller's catalogues to lead the unwary astray. such a collector may fancy himself proof against the temptation; and will, in consequence, _call only to look at_ this unique book, or set of books; but, when he views the morocco binding, silk water-tabby lining, blazing gilt edges--when he turns over the white and spotless leaves--gazes on the amplitude of margin--on a rare and lovely print introduced--and is charmed with the soft and coaxing manner in which, by the skill of herring or mackinlay,[ ] "leaf succeeds to leaf"--he can no longer bear up against the temptation--and, confessing himself vanquished, purchases, and retreats--exclaiming with virgil's shepherd-- ut vidi, ut perii--ut me malus abstulit error! [footnote : at page , note--the reader has been led to expect a few remarks upon the luxuriancy of modern book-binding. mr. roscoe, in his lorenzo de medici, vol. ii., p. ., edit. vo., has defended the art with so much skill that nothing further need be said in commendation of it. admitting every degree of merit to our present fashionable binders, and frankly allowing them the superiority over de rome, padaloup, and the old school of binding, i cannot but wish to see revived those beautiful portraits, arabesque borders, and sharp angular ornaments, that are often found on the outsides of books bound in the th century, with calf leather, upon oaken boards. these brilliant decorations almost make us forget the ivory crucifix, guarded with silver doors, which is frequently introduced in the interior of the sides of the binding. few things are more gratifying to a genuine collector than a fine copy of a book in its _original binding_!] v. _copies printed on vellum._ a desire for works printed in this manner is an equally strong and general symptom of the bibliomania; but as these works are rarely to be obtained of modern[ ] date, the collector is obliged to have recourse to specimens, executed three centuries ago, in the printing-offices of aldus, verard, and the juntæ. although the bibliothéque imperiale, at paris, and the library of count macarty, at toulouse, are said to contain the greatest number of books printed upon vellum, yet, those who have been fortunate enough to see copies of this kind in the libraries of his majesty, the duke of marlborough, earl spencer, mr. johnes, and the late mr. cracherode (now in the british museum), need not travel on the continent for the sake of being convinced of their exquisite beauty and splendour. mr. edward's _unique_ copy (he will forgive the epithet) of the first livy, upon vellum, is a library of itself!--and the recent discovery of a vellum copy of wynkyn de worde's reprint of _juliana barnes's book_,[ ] complete in every respect, [to say nothing of his majesty's similar copy of caxton's _doctrinal of sapience_, , in the finest preservation] are, to be sure, sufficient demonstrations of the prevalence of this symptom of the bibliomania in the times of our forefathers; so that it cannot be said, as some have asserted, to have appeared entirely within the last half century. [footnote : the modern books, printed upon vellum, have in general not succeeded; whether from the art of preparing the vellum, or of printing upon it, being lost i will not presume to determine. the reader may be amused with the following prices for which a few works, executed in this manner, were sold in the year : no. £ _s._ _d._ . virgilii opera, , to. . somervile's chase, , to. . poems by goldsmith and parnell, , to. . the gardens, by abbé delille, , to. . castle of otranto, printed by bodoni, , to. . la guirlande julie, , vo. . economy of human life, , vo. see "_catalogue of a most splendid and valuable collection of books, superb missals, &c._," sold by mr. christie, on april , . but the reader should procure the catalogue of mr. paris's books, sold in the year , which, for the number of articles, is unrivalled. the eye is struck, in every page, with the most sumptuous copies on vellum, and large paper.] [footnote : see page , ante, for some account of this curious work.] vi. _first editions._ from the time of ancillon[ ] to askew, there has been a very strong desire expressed for the possession of original or first published editions of works, as they are in general superintended and corrected by the author himself; and, like the first impressions of prints, are considered more valuable. whoever is possessed with a passion for collecting books of this kind may unquestionably be said to exhibit a strong symptom of the bibliomania; but such a case is not quite hopeless, nor is it deserving of severe treatment or censure. all bibliographers have dwelt on the importance of these editions, for the sake of collation with subsequent ones, and detecting, as is frequently the case, the carelessness displayed by future[ ] editors. of such importance is the _first edition of shakspeare_[ ] considered, that a fac-simile reprint of it has been published with success. in regard to the greek and latin classics, the possession of these original editions is of the first consequence to editors who are anxious to republish the legitimate text of an author. wakefield, i believe always regretted that the first edition of lucretius had not been earlier inspected by him. when he began _his_ edition, the editio princeps was not (as i have understood) in the library of earl spencer--the storehouse of almost every thing that is exquisite and rare in ancient classical literature! [footnote : there is a curious and amusing article in bayle [english edition, vol. i., , &c.] about the elder ancillon, who frankly confessed that he "was troubled with the bibliomania, or disease of buying books." mr. d'israeli says "that he always purchased _first editions_, and never waited for second ones,"--but i find it, in the english bayle, note d, "he chose _the best_ editions." the manner in which ancillon's library was pillaged by the ecclesiastics of metz (where it was considered as the most valuable curiosity in the town) is thus told by bayle; "ancillon was obliged to leave metz: a company of ecclesiastics, of all orders, came from every part, to lay hands on this fine and copious library, which had been collected with the utmost care during forty years. they took away a great number of the books together, and gave a little money, as they went out, to a young girl, of twelve or thirteen years of age, who looked after them, that they might have it to say they had _paid for them_. thus ancillon saw that valuable collection dispersed, in which, as he was wont to say, his chief pleasure and even his heart was placed!"--edit. .] [footnote : an instance of this kind may be adduced from the _first edition_ of fabian, printed in ; of which messrs. longman, and co., have now engaged a very able editor to collate the text with that of the subsequent editions. "the antiquary," says the late mr. brand, "is desired to consult the edition of fabian, printed by pynson, in , because there are others, and i remember to have seen one in the bodleian library at oxford, with a continuation to the end of queen mary, , in which the _language is much modernised_." shakespeare, edit. , vol. xviii. p. - .] [footnote : a singular story is "extant" about the purchase of the late duke of roxburgh's fine copy of the first edition of shakespeare. a friend was bidding for him in the sale-room: his grace had retired to a distance, to view the issue of the contest. twenty guineas and more were offered, from various quarters, for the book: a slip of paper was handed to the duke, in which he was requested to inform his friend whether he was "to go on bidding"--his grace took his pencil, and wrote underneath, by way of reply-- ----lay on macduff! and d----d be he who first cries, 'hold, enough!' such a spirit was irresistible, and bore down all opposition. his grace retired triumphant, with the book under his arm.] it must not, however, be forgotten that if first editions are, in some instances, of great importance, they are in many respects superfluous, and an incumbrance to the shelves of a collector; inasmuch as the labours of subsequent editors have corrected their errors, and superseded, by a great fund of additional matter, the necessity of consulting them. thus, not to mention other instances (which present themselves while noticing the present one), all the fine things which colomiés and remannus have said about the rarity of la croix du maine's bibliotheque, published in , are now unnecessary to be attended to, since the ample and excellent edition of this work by de la monnoye and juvigny, in six quarto volumes, , has appeared. nor will any one be tempted to hunt for gesner's bibliotheca of - , whatever may be its rarity, who has attended to morhof's and vogt's recommendation of the last and best edition of . vii. _true editions._ some copies of a work are struck off with deviations from the usually received ones, and, though these deviations have neither sense nor beauty to recommend them, [and indeed are principally _defects_] yet copies of this description are eagerly sought after by collectors of a certain class! this particular pursuit may therefore be called another, or the seventh, symptom of the bibliomania. the note below [ ] will furnish the reader with a few anecdotes relating to it. [footnote : _cæsar. lug. bat._ , mo. _printed by elzevir._ in the bibliotheca revickzkiana we are informed that the _true_ elzevir edition is known by having the plate of a buffalo's head at the beginning of the preface, and body of the work: also by having the page numbered , which _ought_ to have been numbered . a further account is given in my introduction to the classics, vol. i., . _horace_: londini, , vo., vols. published by pine. the _true_ edition is distinguished by having at page , vol ii, the _incorrect_ reading 'post est.'--for 'potest.' _virgil._ lug. bat. , mo. printed by elzevir. the _true_ edition is known by having at plate , before the bucolics, the following latin passage _printed in red ink_. "ego vero frequentes a te litteras accipi"--consult de bure, no. . _idem._ birmingh. , to. printed by baskerville. a particular account of the _true_ edition will be found in the second volume of my 'introduction to the classics' p. --too long to be here inserted. _boccaccio._ il decamerone, venet. , to. consult de bure, no. : bandini, vol. ii., : (who however is extremely laconic upon this edition, but copious upon the anterior one of ) and haym., vol. iii., p. , edit. . bibl. paris. no. . clement. (vol. iv., ,) has abundance of references, as usual, to strengthen his assertion in calling the edition 'fort rare.' the reprint or spurious edition has always struck me as the prettier book of the two.] viii. books printed in the _black letter_. of all symptoms of the bibliomania, this eighth symptom (and the last which i shall notice) is at present the most powerful and prevailing. whether it was not imported into this country from holland, by the subtlety of schelhorn[ ] (a knowing writer upon rare and curious books) may be shrewdly suspected. whatever be its origin, certain it is, my dear sir, that books printed in the black letter are now coveted with an eagerness unknown to our collectors in the last century. if the spirits of west, ratcliffe, farmer and brand, have as yet held any intercourse with each other, in that place 'from whose bourne no traveller returns,' what must be the surprise of the three former, on being told by the latter, of the prices given for some of the books in his library, as mentioned below!?[ ] [footnote : his words are as follow: "ipsa typorum ruditas, ipsa illa atra crassaque literarum facies _belle tangit sensus, &c._" was ever the black letter more eloquently described? see his _amoenitates literariæ_, vol. i., p. .] [footnote : . a boke of fishing with hooke and line, a boke of engines and traps to take polcats, buzzards, rats, mice, and all other kinds of vermine and beasts whatsoever, with cuts, very rare, £ _s._ _d._ . a quip for an upstart courtier; or, a quaint dispute between velvet breeches and cloth breeches, &c. . a checke, or reproof of mr. howlet's untimely screeching in her majesty's ear. _black letter_ as a _striking conclusion_, i subjoin the following. . pappe with an hatchett, _alias_, a fig for my godsonne, or crake me this nutt, or, a countrie cuffe, that is a sound box of the eare for the idiot martin, to hold his peace: seeing the patch will take no warning; written by one that dares call a dog a dog. _rare._ printed by anoke and astile ] a perusal of these articles may probably not impress the reader with any lofty notions of the superiority of the black letter; but this symptom of the bibliomania is, nevertheless, not to be considered as incurable, or wholly unproductive of good. under a proper spirit of modification it has done, and will continue to do, essential service to the cause of english literature. it guided the taste, and strengthened the judgment, of tyrwhitt in his researches after chaucerian lore. it stimulated the studies of farmer and of steevens, and enabled them to twine many a beauteous flower round the brow of their beloved shakespeare. it has since operated, to the same effect, in the labours of mr. douce,[ ] the _porson_ of old english and french literature; and in the editions of milton and spenser, by my amiable and excellent friend mr. todd the public have had a specimen of what the _black letter_ may perform, when temperately and skilfully exercised. [footnote : in the criticisms on mr. douce's _illustrations of shakspeare and ancient manners_, it has not, i think, been generally noticed that this work is distinguished; . for the singular diffidence and urbanity of criticism, as well as depth of learning, which it evinces: . for the happy illustrations, by means of wood cuts: let any one, for instance, read a laboured disquisition on the punishment of "the boots"--and only glance his eye on the plate representing it [vol. i. p. .]: from which will he obtain the clearer notions? . for the taste, elegance, and general correctness with which it is printed. the only omission i regret is that mr. douce did not give us, at the end, a list of the works alphabetically arranged, with their dates which he consulted in the formation of his own. such a bibliotheca shakspeariana might, however, have been only a fresh stimulus to the increase of the black-letter symptom of the _bibliomania_. how bartholomæus and batman have risen in price since the publication of mr. douce's work, let those who have lately smarted for the increase tell!] i could bring to your recollection other instances; but your own copious reading and exact memory will better furnish you with them. let me not however omit remarking that the beautiful pages of the _minstrelsy of the scottish border, and sir trestrem_, exhibit, in the notes [now and then thickly studded with black letter references], a proof that the author of "the lay" and "marmion" has not disdained to enrich his stores of information by such intelligence as black lettered books impart. in short, though this be also a strong and general symptom of the bibliomania, it is certainly not attended with injurious effects when regulated by prudence and discretion. an undistinguishable voracious appetite, to swallow every thing printed in the black letter can only bring on inconquerable disease, if not death, to the patient! having in the two preceding divisions of this letter discoursed somewhat largely upon the history and symptoms of the bibliomania, it now remains, according to the original plan, to say a few words upon the probable means of its cure. and, indeed, i am driven to this view of the subject from every laudable motive; for it would be highly censurable to leave any reflecting mind impressed with melancholy emotions concerning the misery and mortality that have been occasioned by the abuse of those pursuits, to which the most soothing and important considerations ought to be attached. far from me, and my friends, be such a cruel, if not criminal, conduct; let us then, my dear sir, seriously discourse upon the iii. probable means of the cure of the bibliomania. _he_ will surely be numbered among the philanthropists of his day who has, more successfully than myself, traced and described the ravages of this disease, and fortified the sufferer with the means of its cure. but, as this is a disorder of quite a recent date, and as its characteristics, in consequence, cannot be yet fully known or described, great candour must be allowed to that physician who offers a prescription for so obscure and complicated a case. it is in vain that you search the works [ay, even the best editions] of hippocrates and galen for a description of this malady; nor will you find it hinted at in the more philosophical treatises of sydenham and heberden. it had, till the medical skill of dr. ferriar first noticed it to the public, escaped the observations of all our pathologists. with a trembling hand, and fearful apprehension, therefore, i throw out the following suggestions for the cure, or mitigatiou [transcriber's note: mitigation], of this disorder: in _the first place_, the disease of the bibliomania is materially softened, or rendered mild, by directing our studies to _useful and profitable_ works--whether these be printed upon small or large paper, in the gothic, roman, or italic type; to consider purely the _intrinsic_ excellence, and not the exterior splendour, or adventitious value, of any production, will keep us perhaps wholly free from this disease. let the midnight lamp be burnt to illuminate the stores of antiquity--whether they be romances, or chronicles, or legends, and whether they be printed by aldus or by caxton--if a brighter lustre can thence be thrown upon the pages of modern learning! to trace genius to its source, or to see how she has been influenced or modified, by "the lore of past times" is both a pleasing and profitable pursuit. to see how shakspeare has here and there plucked a flower, from some old ballad or popular tale, to enrich his own unperishable garland--to follow spenser and milton in their delightful labyrinths 'midst the splendour of italian literature--are studies which stamp a dignity upon our intellectual characters! but, in such a pursuit let us not overlook the wisdom of modern times, nor fancy that what is only ancient can be excellent. we must remember that bacon, boyle, locke, taylor, chillingworth, robertson, hume, gibbon, and paley, are names which always command attention from the wise, and remind us of the improved state of reason and acquired knowledge during the two last centuries. in the _second place_, the re-printing of scarce and intrinsically valuable works is another means of preventing the propagation of this disorder. amidst all our present sufferings under the bibliomania, it is some consolation to find discerning and spirited booksellers re-publishing the valuable chronicles of froissart, holinshed, and hall,[ ] and the collections known by the names of "the harleïan miscellany," and "lord somer's tracts." these are noble efforts, and richly deserve the public patronage. [footnote : the re-publication of these chronicles is to be followed by those of grafton and fabian. meanwhile, hakluyt's voyages, (projected by mr. evans), and fuller's worthies (by messrs. longman, and co.) will form admirable acquisitions to these treasures of past times.] in the _third place_, the editing of our best ancient authors, whether in prose or poetry,[ ] is another means of effectually counteracting the progress of the bibliomania, as it has been described under its several symptoms. [footnote : the recent _variorum_ editions of shakspeare, of which some yet prefer that of steevens, , vols. vo.--mr. todd's editions of milton and spenser; mr. g. chalmers' edition of sir david lyndsay's works; mr. gifford's edition of massinger; and mr. octavius gilchrist's, of bishop corbett's poems, exemplify the good effects of this _third means of cure_.] in the _fourth place_, the erecting of public institutions[ ] is a very powerful antidote against the prevalence of several symptoms of this disease. [footnote : the royal, london, surrey, and russel institutions have been the means of concentrating, in divers parts of the metropolis, large libraries of _useful_ books; which, it is to be hoped, will eventually suppress the establishment of what are called _circulating libraries_--vehicles, too often, of insufferable nonsense, and irremediable mischief!] in the _fifth place_, the encouragement of the study of bibliography,[ ] in its legitimate sense, and towards its true object, may be numbered among the most efficacious cures for this destructive malady. to place competent librarians over the several departments of a large public library, or to submit a library, on a more confined scale, to one diligent, enthusiastic, well informed, well bred, bibliographer[ ] or librarian, [of which in this metropolis we have so many examples] is doing a vast deal towards directing the channels of literature to flow in their proper courses. [footnote : "unne bonne bibliographie," says marchand, "soit générale soit particulière, soit profane, soit écclésiastique, soit nationale, provinciale, ou locale, soit simplement personnelle, en un mot de quelque autre genre que ce puisse être, n'est pas un ouvrage aussi facile que beaucoup de gens se le pourroient imaginer; mais, elles ne doivent néanmoins nulelment [transcriber's note: nullement] prévenir contre celle-ci. telle qu'elle est, elle ne laisse pas d'être bonne, utile, et digne d'être recherchée par les amateurs, de l'histoire littéraire." _diction. historique_, vol. i. p. . "our nation," says mr. bridgman, "has been too inattentive to bibliographical criticisms and enquiries; for generally the english reader is obliged to resort to foreign writers to satisfy his mind as to the value of authors. it behoves us to consider that there is not a more useful or a more desirable branch of education than a _knowledge of books_; which being correctly ascertained and judiciously exercised, will prove the touch-stone of intrinsic merit, and have the effect of saving many spotless pages from prostitution." _legal bibliography_, p. v. vi.] [footnote : peignot, in his _dictionnaire de bibliologie_, vol. i. , has given a very pompous account of what ought to be the talents and duties of a bibliographer. it would be difficult indeed to find such things united in one person! de bure, in the eighth volume of his _bibliographie instructive_, has prefixed a "discourse upon the science of bibliography and the duties of a bibliographer" which is worth consulting: but i know of nothing which better describes, in few words, such a character, than the following: "in eo sit multijuga materiarum librorumque notitia, ut saltem potiores eligat et inquirat: fida et sedula apud exteras gentes procuratio, ut eos arcessat; summa patientia ut rarè venalis expectet: peculium semper præsens et paratum, ne, si quando occurrunt, emendi occasio intercidat; prudens denique auri argentique contemptus, ut pecuniis sponte careat quæ in bibliothecam formandam et nutriendam sunt insumendæ. si fortè vir literatus eo felicitatis pervenit ut talem thesaurum coaceraverit, nec solus illo invidios fruatur, sed usum cum eruditis qui vigilias suas utilitati publicæ devoverunt, liberaliter communicet; &c."--_bibliotheca hulsiana_, vol. i. præfat. p. , .] thus briefly and guardedly have i thrown out a few suggestions, which may enable us to avoid, or mitigate the severity of, the disease called the bibliomania. happy indeed shall i deem myself, if, in the description of its symptoms, and in the recommendation of the means of cure, i may have snatched any one from a premature grave, or lightened the load of years that are yet to cone [transcriber's note: come]! you, my dear sir, who, in your observations upon society, as well as in your knowledge of ancient times, must have met with numerous instances of the miseries which "flesh is heir to," may be disposed perhaps to confess that, of all species of afflictions, _the present one_ under consideration has the least moral turpitude attached to it. true, it may be so: for, in the examples which have been adduced, there will be found neither suicides, nor gamesters, nor profligates. no woman's heart has been broken from midnight debaucheries: no marriage vow has been violated: no child has been compelled to pine in poverty or neglect: no patrimony has been wasted, and no ancestor's fame tarnished! if men have erred under the influence of this disease, their aberrations have been marked with an excess arising from intellectual fevour, and not from a desire of baser gratifications. if, therefore, in the wide survey which a philosopher may take of the "miseries of human life"[ ] the prevalence of this disorder may appear to be less mischievous than that of others, and, if some of the most amiable and learned of mortals seemed to have been both unwilling, as well as unable, to avoid its contagion, you will probably feel the less alarmed if symptoms of it should appear within the sequestered abode of hodnet![ ] recollecting that even in remoter situations its influence has been felt--and that neither the pure atmosphere of hafod nor of sledmere[ ] has completely subdued its power--you will be disposed to exclaim with violence, at the intrusion of bibliomaniacs-- what walls can guard me, or what shades can hide? they pierce my thickets, through my grot they glide! by land, by water, they renew the charge, they stop the chariot, and they board the barge.[ ] [footnote : in the ingenious and witty work so entitled, i do not recollect whether the disappointment arising from a _cropt_ or a _dirty_ copy has been classed among "_the miseries of human life_."] [footnote : _hodnet hall_, shropshire. the country residence of mr. heber.] [footnote : _hafod_, south wales, the seat of thos. johnes, esq., m.p., the translator of the chronicles of froissart and monstrelet, and of the travels of de broquiere and joinville. the conflagration of part of his mansion and library, two years ago, which excited such a general sympathy, would have damped any ardour of collection but that of mr. johnes--his library has arisen, phoenix-like, from the flames! _sledmere_, in yorkshire, the seat of sir mark masterman sykes, bart., m.p. the library of this amiable and tasteful baronet reflects distinguished credit upon him. it is at once copious and choice.] [footnote : pope's "_prologue to the satires_," v. - .] upon the whole, therefore, attending closely to the symptoms of this disorder as they have been described, and practising such means of cure as have been recommended, we may rationally hope that its virulence may abate, and the number of its victims annually diminish. but if the more discerning part of the community anticipate a different result, and the preceding observations appear to have presented but a narrow and partial view of the mischiefs of the bibliomania, my only consolation is that to advance _something_ upon the subject is better than to preserve a sullen and invincible silence. let it be the task of more experienced bibliographers to correct and amplify the foregoing outline! believe me, my dear sir, very sincerely yours, &c. thomas frognall dibbin [transcriber's note: dibdin]. _kensington, may_ , . postscript. on re-considering what has been written, it has struck me that a synopsis of this disease, after the manner of burton, as prefixed to his _anatomy of melancholy_, may be useful to some future pathologist. the reader is, accordingly, presented with the following one: synopsis. page. { i. history of; or an account of eminent book { collectors who have fallen victims to it t { h { ii. symptoms of; { . large paper copies e { being a passion for { . uncut copies { { . illustrated copies b { { . unique copies i { { . vellum copies b { { . first editions l { { . true editions i { { . black letter editions o { m { iii. cure of { . reading useful works a { { . reprints of scarce and n { { valuable works _ib._ i { { . editing our best ancient a { { writers . { { . erecting of public { { institutions _ib._ { { . encouragement of { { bibliography _ib._ part i. =the evening walk.= on the right uses of literature. rede well thyselfe that other folke can'st rede. chaucer's _good counsail_. [illustration] [illustration] =the evening walk.= on the right uses of literature. it was on a fine autumnal evening, when the sun was setting serenely behind a thick copse upon a distant hill, and his warm tints were lighting up a magnificent and widely-extended landscape, that, sauntering 'midst the fields, i was meditating upon the various methods of honourably filling up the measure of our existence; when i discovered, towards my left, a messenger running at full speed towards me. the abruptness of his appearance, and the velocity of his step, somewhat disconcerted me; but on his near approach my apprehensions were dissipated. i knew him to be the servant of my old college friend, whom i chuse here to denominate lysander. he came to inform me, in his blunt and honest manner, that his master had just arrived with philemon, our common friend; and that, as they were too fatigued with their journey to come out to me, they begged i would quickly enter the house, and, as usual, make them welcome. this intelligence afforded me the liveliest satisfaction. in fifteen minutes, after a hearty shaking of hands, i was seated with them in the parlour; all of us admiring the unusual splendour of the evening sky, and, in consequence, partaking of the common topics of conversation with a greater flow of spirits. "you are come, my friends," said i (in the course of conversation), "to make some stay with me--indeed, i cannot suffer you to depart without keeping you at least a week; in order, amongst other things, to view the beauty of our neighbour lorenzo's grounds, the general splendour of his house, and the magnificence of his library." "in regard to grounds and furniture," replied lysander, "there is very little in the most beautiful and costly which can long excite my attention--but the library--" "here," exclaimed philemon, "here you have him in the toils." "i will frankly confess," rejoined lysander, "that i am an arrant bibliomaniac--that i love books dearly--that the very sight, touch, and, more, the perusal--" "hold, my friend," again exclaimed philemon, "you have renounced your profession--you talk of _reading_ books--do bibliomaniacs ever _read_ books?" "nay," quoth lysander, "you shall not banter thus with impunity. we will, if it please you," said he, turning round to me, "make our abode with you for a few days--and, after seeing the library of your neighbour, i will throw down the gauntlet to philemon, challenging him to answer certain questions which you may put to us, respecting the number, rarity, beauty, or utility of those works which relate to the literature and antiquities of our own country. we shall then see who is able to return the readiest answer." "forgive," rejoined philemon, "my bantering strain. i revoke my speech. you know that, with yourself, i heartily love books; more from their contents than their appearance." lysander returned a gracious smile; and the hectic of irritability on his cheek was dissipated in an instant. the approach of evening made us think of settling our plans. my friends begged their horses might be turned into the field; and that, while they stayed with me, the most simple fare and the plainest accommodation might be their lot. they knew how little able i was to treat them as they were wont to be treated; and, therefore, taking "the will for the deed," they resolved to be as happy as an humble roof could make them. while the cloth was laying for supper (for i should add that we dine at three and sup at nine), we took a stroll in my small garden, which has a mound at the bottom, shaded with lilacs and laburnums, that overlooks a pretty range of meadows, terminated by the village church. the moon had now gained a considerable ascendancy in the sky; and the silvery paleness and profound quiet of the surrounding landscape, which, but an hour ago, had been enlivened by the sun's last rays, seemed to affect the minds of us all very sensibly. lysander, in particular, began to express the sentiments which such a scene excited in him.--"yonder," says he, pointing to the church-yard, "is the bourne which terminates our earthly labours; and i marvel much how mortals can spend their time in cavilling at each other--in murdering, with their pens as well as their swords, all that is excellent and admirable in human nature--instead of curbing their passions, elevating their hopes, and tranquillizing their fears. every evening, for at least one-third of the year, heaven has fixed in the sky yonder visible monitor to man. calmness and splendour are her attendants: no dark passions, no carking cares, neither spleen nor jealousy, seem to dwell in that bright orb, where, as has been fondly imagined, "the wretched may have rest."--"and here," replied philemon, "we do nothing but fret and fume if our fancied merits are not instantly rewarded, or if another wear a sprig of laurel more verdant than ourselves; i could mention, within my own recollection, a hundred instances of this degrading prostitution of talent--aye, a thousand."--"gently reprimand your fellow creatures," resumed lysander, "lest you commit an error as great as any of those which you condemn in others. the most difficult of human tasks seems to be the exercise of forbearance and temperance. by exasperating, you only rekindle, and not extinguish, the evil sparks in our dispositions. a man will bear being told he is in the wrong; but you must tell him so gently and mildly. animosity, petulance, and persecution, are the plagues which destroy our better parts."--"and envy," replied philemon, "has surely enough to do."--"yes," said lysander, "we might enumerate, as you were about to do, many instances--and (what you were not about to do) pity while we enumerate! i think," continued he, addressing himself particularly to me, "you informed me that the husband of poor lavinia lies buried in yonder church-yard; and perhaps the very tomb which now glistens by the moonbeam is the one which consecrates his memory! that man was passionately addicted to literature;--he had a strong mind; a wonderful grasp of intellect; but his love of paradox and hypothesis quite ruined his faculties. nicas happened to discover some glaring errors in his last treatise, and the poor man grew sick at heart in consequence. nothing short of _infallibility_ and _invincibility_ satisfied him; and, like the spaniard in the 'diable boiteux,' who went mad because five of his countrymen had been beaten by fifty portugese, this unhappy creature lost all patience and forbearance, because, in an hundred systems which he had built with the cards of fancy, ninety-nine happened to tumble to the ground. "this is the dangerous consequence, not so much of vanity and self-love as of downright literary quixotism. a man may be cured of vanity as the french nobleman was--'ecoutez messieurs! monseigneur le duc va dire la meillure chose du monde!'[ ] but for this raving, ungovernable passion of soaring beyond all human comprehension, i fear there is no cure but in such a place as the one which is now before us. compared with this, how different was menander's case! careless himself about examining and quoting authorities with punctilious accuracy, and trusting too frequently to the _ipse-dixits_ of good friends:--with a quick discernment--a sparkling fancy--great store of classical knowledge, and a never ceasing play of colloquial wit, he moved right onwards in his manly course--the delight of the gay, and the admiration of the learned! he wrote much and variously: but in an evil hour the demon malice caught him abroad--watched his deviations--noted down his failings--and, discovering his vulnerable part, he did not fail, like another paris, to profit by the discovery. menander became the victim of over-refined sensibility: he need not have feared the demon, as no good man need fear satan. his pen ceased to convey his sentiments; he sickened at heart; and after his body had been covered by the green grass turf, the gentle elves of fairy-land took care to weave a chaplet to hang upon his tomb, which was never to know decay! sycorax was this demon; and a cunning and clever demon was he!" [footnote : this is the substance of the story related in darwin's _zoonomia_: vol. iv. p. .] "i am at a loss," said philemon, "to comprehend exactly what you mean?"--"i will cease speaking metaphorically," replied lysander; "but sycorax was a man of ability in his way. he taught literary men, in some measure, the value of careful research and faithful quotation; in other words, he taught them to speak the truth as they found her; and, doubtless, for this he merits not the name of a demon, unless you allow me the priviledge of a grecian.[ ] that sycorax loved truth must be admitted; but that he loved no one so much as himself to speak the truth must also be admitted. nor had he, after all, any grand notions of the goddess. she was, in his sight, rather of diminutive than gigantic growth; rather of a tame than a towering mien; dressed out in little trinkets, and formally arrayed in the faded point-lace and elevated toupee of the ancient english school, and not in the flowing and graceful robes of grecian simplicity. but his malice and ill-nature were frightful; and withal his love of scurrility and abuse quite intolerable. he mistook, in too many instances, the manner for the matter; the shadow for the substance. he passed his criticisms, and dealt out his invectives, with so little ceremony, and so much venom, that he seemed born with a scalping knife in his hand to commit murder as long as he lived! to him, censure was sweeter than praise; and the more elevated the rank, and respectable the character of his antagonist, the more dexterously he aimed his blows, and the more frequently he renewed his attacks. in consequence, scarcely one beautiful period, one passionate sentiment of the higher order, one elevated thought, or philosophical deduction, marked his numerous writings. 'no garden-flower grew wild' in the narrow field of his imagination; and, although the words decency and chastity were continually dropping from his lips, i suspect that the reverse of these qualities was always settled round his heart.[ ] thus you see, my dear philemon," concluded lysander, "that the love of paradox, of carelessness, and of malice, are equally destructive of that true substantial fame which, as connected with literature, a wise and an honest man would wish to establish. but come; the dews of evening begin to fall chilly; let us seek the house of our friend." [footnote : without turning over the ponderous tones of stephen, constantine, and scaliger, consult the sensible remarks upon the word '[greek: daimôn]' in _parkhurst's greek and english lexicon to the new testament_, vo. edit. . in the greek language, it is equally applied to an accomplished and unprincipled character. homer alone will furnish a hundred instances of this.] [footnote : mark certain expressions, gentle reader, which occur in the notes to the life of _robin hood_, prefixed to the ballads which go under his name: . vols. vo.--also a dissertation on romance and minstrelsy in the first vol. of _ancient metrical romances_, , vols. vo. a very common degree of shrewdness and of acquaintance with english literature will shew that, in menander and sycorax, are described honest tom warton and snarling 'mister' joseph ritson.] as lysander concluded his discourse, we turned, abruptly, but thoughtfully, towards my cottage; and, making the last circuit of the gravel walk, philemon stopped to listen to the song of a passing rustic, who seemed to be uttering all the joy which sometimes strongly seizes a simple heart. "i would rather," exclaimed he, "be this poor fellow, chanting his 'native wood-notes wild,' if his heart know not guilt--than the shrewdest critic in the universe, who could neither feel, nor write, good-naturedly!" we smiled at this ejaculation; and quickly reached the house. the fatigue of travelling had sharpened the appetites of my friends; and at a moment when, as the inimitable cowper expresses it, our drawing-rooms begin to blaze with lights, by clear reflection multiplied from many a mirror, in which he of gath, goliath, might have seen his giant bulk whole, without stooping, towering crest and all, _our_ pleasures too _began_; _task_, b. iv. but they were something more rational than those of merely eating and drinking. "i seldom partake of this meal," observed philemon, "without thinking of the _omnium-gatherum_ bowl, so exquisitely described by old isaac walton. we want here, it is true, the 'sweet shady arbour--the contexture of woodbines, sweet-briar, jessamine, and myrtle,'[ ] and the time of the evening prevents our enjoying it without; but, in lieu of all this, we have the sight of books, of busts, and of pictures. i see there the ponderous folio chronicles, the genuine quarto romances, and, a little above, a glittering row of thin, closely-squeezed, curiously-gilt, volumes of original plays. as we have finished our supper, let us--" "my friends," observed i, "not a finger upon a book to-night--to-morrow you may ransack at your pleasure. i wish to pursue the conversation commenced by lysander, as we were strolling in the garden." "agreed," replied philemon,--"the quietness of the hour--the prospect, however limited, before us--(for i shall not fail to fix my eyes upon a froissart printed by verard, or a portrait painted by holbein, while you talk)--every thing conspires to render this discourse congenial." "as you have reminded me of that pretty description of a repast in walton," resumed lysander, "i will preface the sequel to my conversation by drinking a glass to your healths--and so, masters, 'here is a full glass to you' of the liquor before us." lysander then continued, "it were to be wished that the republic or region of literature could be described in as favourable a manner as camden has described the air, earth, and sky, of our own country;[ ] but i fear milton's terrific description of the infernal frozen continent, beat with perpetual forms of whirlwind and dire hail, _par. lost_, b. ii. v. . is rather applicable to it. having endeavoured to shew, my dear friends, that the passionate love of hypothesis--(or a determination to make every man think and believe as we do) incorrigible carelessness--and equally incorrigible ill-nature--are each inimical to the true interests of literature, let us see what other evil qualities there are which principally frustrate the legitimate view of learning. [footnote : _complete angler_, p. . bagster's edit. . in a similar style of description are "the faire grove and swete walkes, letticed and gardened on both sides," of mr. warde's letter--describing the nunnery of little gidding in huntingdonshire. see hearne's edit. of _peter langtoft's chronicle_, vol. . p. cx.] [footnote : "the ayre is most temperate and wholesome, sited in the middest of the temperate zone, subject to no stormes and tempests, as the more southerne and northerne are; but stored with infinite delicate fowle. for water, it is walled and guarded with ye ocean most commodious for trafficke to all parts of the world, and watered with pleasant fishful and navigable rivers, which yeeld safe havens and roads, and furnished with shipping and sailers, that it may rightly be termed the lady of the sea. that i may say nothing of healthful bathes, and of meares stored both with fish and fowl. the earth fertile of all kinde of graine, manured with good husbandry, rich in minerall of coals, tinne, lead, copper, not without gold and silver, abundant in pasture, replenished with cattel, both tame and wilde (for it hath more parks than all europe besides), plentifully wooded, provided with all complete provisions of war, beautified with many populous cities, faire boroughs, good towns, and well-built villages, strong munitions, magnificent palaces of the prince, stately houses of the nobilitie, frequent hospitals, beautiful churches, faire colledges, as well in the other places as in the two vniversities." _remains_, p. . edit. . how far camden was indebted to the following curious description of our country, written in the time of edward vj, (of which i shall modernize the orthography,) the reader will judge for himself. the running title of the work is "_the debate between the_ [french and english] _heralds_," vo., printed in the bl. lett. (in the possession of mr. heber.) "we have all manner of grains, and fruits, and more plenty than you; for, thanked be god, england is a fruitful and plenteous region, so that we have some fruits whereof you have few; as _wardeines_, quinces, peaches, medlers, chesnuts, and other delicious fruits; serving for all seasons of the year; and so plenty of pears and apples that, in the west parts of england and sussex, they make perry and cider, and in such abundance that they convey part over the sea, where, by the monsieurs of france, it is coveted for their beverage and drinks."--_sign. l._ iiij. rev. "we have in cornwall and devonshire (god be honoured) the richest mines of silver and tin that may be, also in ireland mines of silver, in derbyshire mines of lead, alabaster, marble, black and white. in sussex, yorkshire, and durham, mines of iron, coal, slate, and freestone; and in every shire of england, generally quarries of hard stone, chalk, and flint: these be commodities honorable and not feigned, being of such estimation that france, nor other realms, may well forbear; and as for saltpetre, there is sufficient made in england to furnish our turn for the wars. also we have hot fountains or bathes, which you nor no other realms christened have."--_sign. l._ v. rev. if ancient gildas speak the truth, great britain was no contemptible place twelve hundred years ago--the period when he lived and wrote his lachrymable history. "the iland of britaine placed in the ballance of the divine poising hand (as they call it) which weigheth the whole world, almost the uttermost bound of his earth towards the south and west; extending itself from the south-west, out towards the north pole, eight hundred miles in length; and containing two hundred in breadth, besides the fare outstretched forelands of sundry promonteries, embraced by the embowed bosomes of the ocean sea; with whose most spacious, and on every side (saving only the southern streights, by which we sale to gallehelgicke) impassable enclosure (as i may call it) she is strongly defended; enriched with the mouths of two noble floods, thames and severne, as it were two armes (by which out-landish commodities have in times past been transported into the same) besides other rivers of lesser account, strengthened with eight and twenty cities, and some other castles, not meanly fenced with fortresses of walls, embattled towers, gates, and buildings (whose roofes being raised aloft with a threatening hugenesse, were mightily in their aspiring toppes compaced) adorned with her large spreading fields, pleasant seated hils, even framed for good husbandry, which over-mastereth the ground, and mountains most convenient for the changeable pastures of cattell; whose flowers of sundry collours, troden by the feete of men, imprint no unseemly picture on the same, as a spouse of choice, decked with divers jewels; watered with cleere fountains, and sundry brokes, beating on the snow-white sands, together with silver streames sliding forth with soft sounding noise, and leaving a pledge of sweet savours on their bordering bankes, and lakes gushing out abundantly in cold running rivers."--_epistle of gildas_, transl. , mo. p. , after the prologue. whoever looks into that amusing and prettily-printed little book, "_barclaii satyricon_," , mo., will find a description of germany, similar, in part, to the preceding.--"olim sylvis et incolis fera, nunc oppidis passim insignis; nemoribus quoque quibus immensis tegebatur, ad usum decusque castigatis." p. .] "in the example of gonzalo, with whom philemon is perfectly well acquainted, a remarkable exemplification of the passion of _vanity_ occurs. i recollect, one evening, he came rushing into a party where i sat, screaming with the extatic joy of a maniac--'[greek: eurêka, eurêka]'; and, throwing down a scroll, rushed as precipitately out of the room. the scroll was of vellum; the title to the contents of it was penned in golden letters, and softly-painted bunches of roses graced each corner. it contained a sonnet to love, and another to friendship; but a principal mistake which struck us, on the very threshold of our critical examination, was that he had incorrectly entitled these sonnets. friendship should have been called love, and love, friendship. we had no sooner made the discovery than gonzalo returned, expecting to find us in like ecstacies with himself!--we gravely told him that we stumbled at the very threshold. it was quite sufficient--he seized his sonnets with avidity--and, crumpling the roll (after essaying to tear it) thrust it into his pocket, and retreated. one of the gentlemen in company made the following remarks, on his leaving us: 'in the conduct of gonzalo appears a strange mixture of intellectual strength and intellectual debility; of wit and dulness; of wisdom and folly; and all this arises chiefly from his mistaking the means for the end--the instrument of achieving for the object achieved. the fondest wish of his heart is literary fame: for this he would sacrifice every thing. he is handsome, generous, an affectionate son, a merry companion, and is, withal, a very excellent belles-lettres scholar. tell him that the ladies admire him, that his mother doats on him, and that his friends esteem him--and--keeping back the wished-for eulogy of literary excellence--you tell him of nothing which he cares for. in truth he might attain some portion of intellectual reputation, if he would throw aside his ridiculous habits. he _must_, as soon as the evening shades prevail, burn wax tapers--he must always have an argand lamp lighted up before him, to throw a picturesque effect upon a dark wood painted by hobbima--his pens must be made from the crow's wing--his wax must be green--his paper must be thick and hot-pressed; and he must have a portfolio of the choicest bits of ancient vellum that can be procured--his body must recline upon a chintz sofa--his foot must be perched upon an ottoman--in short he _must_ have every thing for which no man of common sense would express the least concern. can you be surprised, therefore, that he should commence his sonnet to friendship thus: oh, sweetest softest thing that's friendship hight! or that he should conceive the following address to women, by one william goddard, worthy of being ranked among the most beautiful poetical efforts of the th century: stars of this earthly heaven, you whose essence compos'd was of man's purest quintessence, to you, to virtuous you, i dedicate this snaggy sprig[ ]----" [footnote : from "_a satyrical dialogue, &c., betweene alexander the great and that truelye woman-hater diogynes_. imprinted in the low countryes for all such gentlewomen as are not altogether idle nor yet well occupyed," to. no date. a strange composition! full of nervous lines and pungent satire--but not free from the grossest licentiousness.] "enough," exclaimed philemon--while lysander paused a little, after uttering the foregoing in a rapid and glowing manner--"enough for this effeminate vanity in man! what other ills have you to enumerate, which assail the region of literature?"--"i will tell you," replied lysander, "another, and a most lamentable evil, which perverts the very end for which talents were given us--and it is in mistaking and misapplying these talents. i speak with reference to the individual himself, and not to the public. you may remember how grievously alfonso bore the lot which public criticism, with one voice, adjudged to him! this man had good natural parts, and would have abridged a history, made an index, or analyzed a philosophical work, with great credit to himself and advantage to the public. but he set his heart upon eclipsing doctors johnson and jamieson. he happened to know a few etymons more correctly, and to have some little acquaintance with black letter literature, and hence thought to give more weight to lexicographical inquiries than had hitherto distinguished them. but how miserably he was deceived in all his undertakings of this kind past events have sufficiently shewn. no, my good philemon, to be of use to the republic of literature, let us know our situations; and let us not fail to remember that, in the best appointed army, the serjeant may be of equal utility with the captain. "i will notice only one other, and a very great, failing observable in literary men--and this is severity and self-consequence. you will find that these severe characters generally set up the trade of _critics_; without attending to the just maxim of pope, that ten censure wrong, for one that writes amiss. "with them, the least deviation from precise correctness, the most venial trippings, the smallest inattention paid to doubtful rules and equivocal positions of criticism, inflames their anger, and calls forth their invectives. regardless of the sage maxims of cicero, quintilian, and horace, they not only disdain the sober rules which their ancient brethren have wisely laid down, and hold in contempt the voice of the public,[ ] but, forgetting the subject which they have undertaken to criticise, they push the author out of his seat, quietly sit in it themselves, and fancy they entertain you by the gravity of their deportment, and their rash usurpation of the royal monosyllable 'nos.'[ ] this solemn pronoun, or rather 'plural style,'[ ] my dear philemon, is oftentimes usurped by a half-starved little _i_, who sits immured in the dusty recess of a garret, and who has never known the society nor the language of a gentleman; or it is assumed by a young graduate, just settled in his chambers, and flushed with the triumph of his degree of 'b.a.', whose 'fond conceyte' [to borrow master francis thynne's[ ] terse style,] is, to wrangle for an asses shadowe, or to seke a knott in a rushe!' [footnote : "interdum vulgus rectum videt:" says horace.--_epist. lib._ ii. _ad. augustum_, v. .] [footnote : vide rymeri _foedera_--passim.] [footnote : a very recent, and very respectable, authority has furnished me with this expression.] [footnote : see mr. todd's _illustrations of gower and chaucer_, p. .] "for my part," continued lysander, speaking with the most unaffected seriousness--"for my part, nothing delights me more than modesty and diffidence, united with 'strong good sense, lively imagination, and exquisite sensibility,'[ ] whether in an author or a critic. when i call to mind that our greatest sages have concluded their labours with doubt, and an avowal of their ignorance; when i see how carefully and reverently they have pushed forward their most successful inquiries; when i see the great newton pausing and perplexed in the vast world of planets, comets, and constellations, which were, in a measure, of his own creation--i learn to soften the asperity of my critical anathemas, and to allow to an author that portion of fallibility of which i am conscious myself. [footnote : it is said, very sensibly, by la bruyere, i will allow that good writers are scarce enough; but then i ask where are the people that know how to read and judge? a union of these qualities, which are seldom found in the same person, seems to be indispensably necessary to form an able critic; he ought to possess strong good sense, lively imagination, and exquisite sensibility. and of these three qualities, the last is the most important; since, after all that can be said on the utility or necessity of rules and precepts, it must be confessed that the merit of all works of genius must be determined by taste and sentiment. "why do you so much admire the helen of zeuxis?" said one to nicostratus. "you would not wonder why i so much admired it (replied the painter) if you had my eyes."--warton: note to pope's essay on criticism. _pope's works_, vol. i. , edit. .] "i see then," rejoined philemon, "that you are an enemy to _reviews_."[ ] "far from it," replied lysander, "i think them of essential service to literature. they hold a lash over ignorance and vanity; and, at any rate, they take care to bestow a hearty castigation upon vicious and sensual publications. thus far they do good: but, in many respects, they do ill--by substituting their own opinions for those of an author; by judging exclusively according to their own previously formed decisions in matters of religion and politics; and by shutting out from your view the plan, and real tendency, of the book which they have undertaken to review, and therefore ought to analyze. it is, to be sure, amusing to read the clamours which have been raised against some of the most valuable, and now generally received, works! when an author recollects the pert conclusion of dr. kenrick's review of dr. johnson's tour to the hebrides,[ ] he need not fear the flippancy of a reviewer's wit, as decisive of the fate of his publication! [footnote : the earliest publications, i believe, in this country, in the character of reviews were there [transcriber's note: the] _weekly memorials for the ingenious_, &c. lond. , to.--and _the universal historical bibliotheque_: or an account of most of the considerable books printed in all languages, in the month of january . london, , to. five years afterwards came forth _the young student's library_, by the athenian society, , folio, "a kind of common theatre where every person may act, or take such part as pleases him best, and what he does not like he may pass over, assuring himself that, every one's judgment not being like his, another may chuse what he mislikes, and so every one may be pleased in their turns." pref. a six weeks' frost is said to have materially delayed the publication. after these, in the subsequent century, appeared the _old and new memoirs of literature_; then, the _works of the learned_; upon which was built, eclipsing every one that had preceeded it, and not excelled by any subsequent similar critical journal, _the monthly review_.] [footnote : after all, said the reviewing doctor, we are of opinion, with the author himself, that this publication contains 'the sentiments of one who has seen but little:' meaning, thereby, that the book was hardly worth perusal! what has become of the said dr. kenrick now? we will not ask the same question about the said dr. johnson; whose works are upon the shelf of every reading man of sense and virtue.] "it is certainly," pursued lysander, "a very prolific age of knowledge. there never was, at any one period of the world, so much general understanding abroad. the common receptacles of the lower orders of people present, in some degree, intellectual scenes. i mean, that collision of logic, and corruscation of wit, which arise from the perusal of a newspaper; a production, by-the-bye, upon which cowper has conferred immortality.[ ] you may remember, when we were driven by a sharp tempest of hail into the small public-house which stands at the corner of the heath--what a _logomachy_--what a _war of words_ did we hear! and all about sending troops to the north or south of spain, and the justice or injustice of the newly-raised prices of admission to covent garden theatre!![ ] the stage-coach, if you recollect, passed by quickly after our having drunk a tumbler of warm brandy and water to preserve ourselves from catching cold; and into it glad enough we were to tumble! we had no sooner begun to be tolerably comfortable and composed than a grave old gentleman commenced a most furious philippic against the prevailing studies, politics, and religion of the day--and, in truth, this man evinced a wonderfully retentive memory, and a fair share of powers of argument; bringing everything, however, to the standard of his _own times_. it was in vain we strove to edge in the great _whig and tory reviews_ of the northern and southern hemispheres! the obdurate champion of other times would not listen a moment, or stir one inch, in favour of these latter publications. when he quitted us, we found that he was a ---- of considerable consequence in the neighbourhood, and had acquired his fortune from the superior sagacity and integrity he had displayed in consequence of having been educated at the free-school in the village of ----, one of the few public schools in this kingdom which has not frustrated the legitimate views of its pious founder, by converting that into a foppish and expensive establishment which was at once designed as an asylum for the poor and an academy to teach wisdom and good morals." [footnote : see the opening the fourth book of "_the task_;" a picture perfectly original and unrivalled in its manner.] [footnote : it is not less true, than surprising, that the ridiculous squabbles, which disgraced both this theatre and the metropolis, have been deemed deserving of a regular series of publications in the shape of numbers-- , , , &c. as if the subject had not been sufficiently well handled in the lively sallies and brilliant touches of satire which had before appeared upon it in the _monthly mirror_!] philemon was about to reply, with his usual warmth and quickness, to the latter part of these remarks--as bearing too severely upon the eminent public seminaries within seventy miles of the metropolis--but lysander, guessing his intentions from his manner and attitude, cut the dialogue short by observing that we did not meet to discuss subjects of a personal and irritable nature, and which had already exercised the wits of two redoubted champions of the church--but that our object, and the object of all rational and manly discussion, was to state opinions with frankness, without intending to wound the feelings, or call forth the animadversions, of well-meaning and respectable characters. "i know," continued he, "that you, philemon, have been bred in one of these establishments, under a man as venerable for his years as he is eminent for his talents and worth; who employs the leisure of dignified retirement in giving to the world the result of his careful and profound researches; who, drinking largely at the fountain head of classical learning, and hence feeling the renovated vigour of youth (without having recourse to the black art of a cornelius agrippa[ ]), circumnavigates 'the erythrean sea'--then, ascending the vessel of nearchus, he coasts 'from indus to the euphrates'--and explores with an ardent eye what is curious and what is precious, and treasures in his sagacious mind what is most likely to gratify and improve his fellow-countrymen. a rare and eminent instance this of the judicious application of acquired knowledge!--and how much more likely is it to produce good, and to secure solid fame, than to fritter away one's strength, and undermine one's health, in perpetual pugilistic contests with snarling critics, dull commentators, and foul-mouthed philologists." [footnote : let him who wishes to be regaled in a dull dreary night--when the snow is heavily falling, and the wind whistles hollowly--open those leaves of bayle's _historical and biographical dictionary_ which relate to this extraordinary character; and see there how adroitly agrippa is defended against the accusation of "having two devils attending him in the shape of two little dogs--one of them being called monsieur, and the other mademoiselle"--"whereas paulus jovius, thevet, &c., speak only of _one_ dog, and never mention his name." vol. i. , ; edit. , vols. folio. the bibliographer, who wishes to be master of the most curious and rare editions of his works, may go from bayle to clement, and from clement to vogt. he must beware of the castrated lyons' editions "per beringos fratres"--against one of which bayle declaims, and produces a specimen (quite to his own liking) of the passage suppressed:--another, of a similar kind, is adduced by vogt (edit. , pp. , ); who tells us, however, that an edition of , vo., without mention of place or printer--and especially a cologne edition of , by hierat, in mo.--exhibits the like castrations; p. . this has escaped clement, learned as he is upon the lyons' editions, vol. i. , , . bauer (_bibl. libr. rarior._) is here hardly worth consulting; and the compilers of the celebrated _nouveau dict. historique_ (caen edit. , vol. i. p. . art. agrippa) deserve censure for the recommendation of these lyons' editions only. agrippa's "vanity of sciences" was first published at antwerp in to. ; a book, upon the rarity of which bibliographers delight to expatiate. his "occult philosophy"--according to bayle, in (at least, the elector of cologne had seen several printed leaves of it in this year), but according to vogt and bauer, in .--there is no question about the edition of ; of which vogt tells us, "an englishman, residing at frankfort, anxiously sought for a copy of it, offering fifty crowns (imperiales) and more, without success." all the editions in agrippa's life-time (before ) are considered uncastrated, and the best. it should not be forgotten that brucker, in his _hist. crit. phil._, has given a masterly account of agrippa, and an analysis of his works.] philemon heartily assented to the truth of these remarks; and, more than once, interrupted lysander in his panegyrical peroration by his cheerings:[ ] for he had, in his youth (as was before observed), been instructed by the distinguished character upon whom the eulogy had been pronounced. [footnote : this word is almost peculiar to our own country, and means a vehement degree of applause. it is generally used previous to, and during, a contest of any kind--whether by men in red coats, or blue coats, or black coats--upon land, upon water, or within doors. even the walls of st. stephen's chapel frequently echo to the "_loud cheerings_" of some kind or other. see every newspaper on every important debate.] the effort occasioned by the warmth in discussing such interesting subjects nearly exhausted lysander--when it was judged prudent to retire to rest. each had his chamber assigned to him; and while the chequered moon-beam played upon the curtains and the wall, through the half-opened shutter, the minds of lysander and philemon felt a correspondent tranquillity; and sweet were their slumbers till the morning shone full upon them. [illustration] part ii. =the cabinet.= outline of foreign and domestic bibliography. condemn the daies of elders great or small, and then blurre out the course of present tyme: cast one age down, and so doe orethrow all, and burne the bookes of printed prose or ryme: who shall beleeve he rules, or she doth reign, in tyme to come, if writers loose their paine the pen records tyme past and present both: skill brings foorth bookes, and bookes is nurse to troth. churchyard's _worthiness of wales_ p. , edit. . [illustration] [illustration] =the cabinet.= outline of foreign and domestic bibliography. tout autour oiseaulx voletoient et si tres-doulcement chantoient, qu'il n'est cueur qui n'ent fust ioyeulx. et en chantant en l'air montoient et puis l'un l'autre surmontoient a l'estriuee a qui mieulx mieulx. le temps n'estoit mie mieulx. de bleu estoient vestuz les cieux, et le beau soleil cler luisoit. violettes croissoient par lieux et tout faisoit ses deuoirs tieux comme nature le duisoit. oeuvres de chartier, paris, , to. p. . such is the lively description of a spring morning, in the opening of alain chartier's "_livre des quatre dames_;" and, excepting the violets, such description conveyed a pretty accurate idea of the scenery which presented itself, from the cabinet window, to the eyes of lysander and philemon. phil. how delightful, my dear friend, are the objects which we have before our eyes, within and without doors! the freshness of the morning air, of which we have just been partaking in yonder field, was hardly more reviving to my senses than is the sight of this exquisite cabinet of bibliographical works, adorned with small busts and whole-length figures from the antique! you see these precious books are bound chiefly in morocco, or russia leather: and the greater part of them appear to be printed upon _large paper_. lysand. our friend makes these books a sort of hobby-horse, and perhaps indulges his vanity in them to excess. they are undoubtedly useful in their way. phil. you are averse then to the study of bibliography? lysand. by no means. i have already told you of my passion for books, and cannot, therefore, dislike bibliography. i think, with lambinet, that the greater part of bibliographical works are sufficiently dry and soporific:[ ] but i am not insensible to the utility, and even entertainment, which may result from a proper cultivation of it--although both de bure and peignot appear to me to have gone greatly beyond the mark, in lauding this study as "one of the most attractive and vast pursuits in which the human mind can be engaged."[ ] [footnote : _recherches, &c., sur l'origine de l'imprimerie_: introd. p. x. lambinet adds very justly, "l'art consiste à les rendre supportables par des objets variés de littérature, de critique, d'anecdotes," &c.] [footnote : see the "discours sur la science bibliographique," &c., in the eighth volume of de bure's _bibl. instruct._ and peignot's _dictionnaire raisonné de biblilolgie_, [transcriber's note: bibliologie] vol. i. p. . the passage, in the former authority, beginning "sans cesse"--p. xvj.--would almost warm the benumbed heart of a thorough-bred mathematician, and induce him to exchange his euclid for de bure!!] phil. but to know what books are valuable and what are worthless; their intrinsic and extrinsic merits; their rarity, beauty, and particularities of various kinds; and the estimation in which they are consequently held by knowing men--these things add a zest to the gratification we feel in even looking upon and handling certain volumes. lysand. it is true, my good philemon; because knowledge upon any subject, however trivial, is more gratifying than total ignorance; and even if we could cut and string cherry-stones, like cowper's rustic boy, it would be better than brushing them aside, without knowing that they could be converted to such a purpose. hence i am always pleased with le long's reply to the caustic question of father malebranche, when the latter asked him, "how he could be so foolish as to take such pains about settling the date of a book, or making himself master of trivial points of philosophy!"--"truth is so delightful," replied le long, "even in the most trivial matters, that we must neglect nothing to discover her." this reply, to a man who was writing, or had written, an essay upon truth was admirable. mons. a.g. camus, a good scholar, and an elegant bibliographer, [of whom you will see some account in "_les siecles litteraires de la france_,"] has, i think, placed the study of bibliography in a just point of view; and to his observations, in the first volume of the "_memoires de l'institut national_," i must refer you.[ ] [footnote : lysander had probably the following passage more particularly in recollection; which, it must be confessed, bears sufficiently hard upon fanciful and ostentatious collectors of books. "[il y a] deux sortes de connoissance des livres: l'une qui se renferme presque uniquement dans les dehors et la forme du livre, pour apprécier, d'après sa date, d'après la caractère de l'impression, d'après certaines notes, quelquefois seulement d'après une erreur typographique, les qualités qui le font ranger dans la classe des livres rares où curieux, et qui fixent sa valeur pecuniaire: l'autre genre de connoissance consiste à savoir quels sont les livres les plus propres à instruire, ceux où les sujets sont le plus clairement présentés et le plus profondement discutés; les ouvrages à l'aide desquels il est possible de saisir l'origine de la science, de la suivre dans ses développemens, d'atteindre le point actuel de la perfection. sans doute il seroit avantageux que ces deux genres de connoisances fussent toujours réunis: l'expérience montre qu'ils le sont rairement; l'expérience montre encore que le premier des deux genres a été plus cultivé que le second. nous possédons, sur l'indication des livres curieux et rares, sur les antiquités et les bijoux litteraires, si l'on me permet d'employer cette expression, des instructions meilleures que nous n'en avons sur les livres propres à instruire foncièrement des sciences. en recherchant la cause de cette difference, on la trouvera peut-être dans la passion que des hommes riches et vains ont montrée pour posséder des livres sans être en état de les lire. il a fallu créer pour eux une sorte de bibliotheque composée d'objets qui, sous la forme exterieure de livres, ne fussent réellement que des raretés, des objets de curiosité, qu'on ne lit pas, mais que tantôt on regarde avec complaisance, tantôt en montre avec ostentation; et comme après cela c'est presque toujours le goût des personnes en état de récompenser qui dirige le but des travailleurs, on ne doit pas être surpris qu'on se soit plus occupé d'indiquer aux hommes riches dont je parle, des raretés à acquérir, ou de vanter celles qu'ils avoient rassemblées, que de faciliter, par des indications utiles, les travaux des hommes studieux dont on n'attendoit aucune récompense." _memoires de l'institut_, vol. i. . see also the similar remarks of jardé, in the "précis sur les bibliotheques," prefixed to fournier's _dict. portatif de bibliographie_, edit. . something like the same animadversions may be found in a useful book printed nearly two centuries before: "non enim cogitant quales ipsi, sed qualibus induti vestibus sint, et quanta pompa rerum fortunæque præfulgeant--sunt enim omnino ridiculi, qui in nuda librorum quantumvis selectissimorum multitudine gloriantur, et inde doctos sese atque admirandos esse persuadent." draudius: _bibliotheca classica_, ed. . epist. ad. lect. spizelius has also a good passage upon the subject, in his description of book-gluttons ("helluones librorum"): "cum immensa pené librorum sit multitudo et varietas, fieri non potest, quin eorum opibus ditescere desiderans (hæres), non assiduam longamque lectionem adhibeat." _infelix literatus_, p. , edit. , vo.] phil. i may want time, and probably inclination, to read these observations: and, at any rate, i should be better pleased with your analysis of them. lysand. that would lead me into a wide field indeed; and, besides, our friend--who i see walking hastily up the garden--is impatient for his breakfast; 'tis better, therefore, that we satisfy just now an appetite of a different kind. phil. but you promise to renew the subject afterwards? lysand. i will make no such promise. if our facetious friend lisardo, who is expected shortly to join us, should happen to direct our attention and the discourse to the sale of malvolio's busts and statues, what favourable opportunity do you suppose could present itself for handling so unpromising a subject as bibliography? phil. well, well, let us hope he will not come: or, if he does, let us take care to carry the point by a majority of votes. i hear the gate bell ring: 'tis lisardo, surely! three minutes afterwards, lisardo and myself, who met in the passage from opposite doors, entered the cabinet. mutual greetings succeeded: and, after a hearty breakfast, the conversation was more systematically renewed. lis. i am quite anxious to give you a description of the fine things which were sold at malvolio's mansion yesterday! amongst colossal minervas, and pigmy fauns and satyrs, a magnificent set of books, in ten or twelve folio volumes (i forget the precise number) in morocco binding, was to be disposed of. lysand. the clementine and florentine museums? lis. no indeed--a much less interesting work. a catalogue of the manuscripts and printed books in the library of the french king, louis the fifteenth. it was odd enough to see such a work in such a sale! phil. you did not probably bid ten guineas for it, lisardo? lis. not ten shillings. what should i do with such books? you know i have a mortal aversion to them, and to every thing connected with bibliographical learning. phil. that arises, i presume, from your profound knowledge of the subject; and, hence, finding it, as solomon found most pursuits, "vanity of vanities, and vexation of spirit." lis. not so, truly! i have taken an aversion to it from mere whim and fancy: or rather from downright ignorance. phil. but i suppose you would not object to be set right upon any subject of which you are ignorant or misinformed? you don't mean to sport _hereditary_ aversions, or hereditary attachments? lis. why, perhaps, something of the kind. my father, who was the best creature upon earth, happened to come into the possession of a huge heap of catalogues of private collections, as well as of booksellers' books--and i remember, on a certain fifth of november, when my little hands could scarcely grasp the lamplighter's link that he bade me set fire to them, and shout forth--"long live the king!"--ever since i have held them in sovereign contempt. phil. i love the king too well to suppose that his life could have been lengthened by any such barbarous act. you were absolutely a little chi ho-am-ti, or omar![ ] perhaps you were not aware that his majesty is in possession of many valuable books, which are described with great care and accuracy in some of these very catalogues. [footnote : pope, in his dunciad, has treated the conflagration of the two great ancient libraries, with his usual poetical skill: "far eastward cast thine eye, from whence the sun and orient science their bright course begun: one god-like monarch all that pride confounds, he, whose long wall the wandering tartar bounds; heavens! what a pile! whole ages perish there, and one bright blaze turns learning into air. thence to the south extend thy gladden'd eyes; there rival flames with equal glory rise, from shelves to shelves see greedy vulcan roll, and lick up all their physic of the soul." "chi ho-am-ti, emperor of china, the same who built the great wall between china and tartary, destroyed all the books and learned men of that empire." "the caliph, omar i. having conquered egypt, caused his general to burn the ptolemean library, on the gates of which was this inscription: '[greek: psychÊs iatreion]:' 'the physic of the soul.'" warburton's note. the last editor of pope's works, (vol. v. .) might have referred us to the very ingenious observations of gibbon, upon the probability of this latter event: see his "_decline and fall of the roman empire_," vol. ix. , &c.] lis. the act, upon reflection, was no doubt sufficiently foolish. but why so warm upon the subject? lysand. let me defend philemon; or at least account for his zeal. just before you came in, he was leading me to give him some account of the rise and progress of bibliography; and was fearful that, from your noted aversion to the subject, you would soon cut asunder the thread of our conversation. lis. if you can convert me to be an admirer of such a subject, or even to endure it, you will work wonders; and, unless you promise to do so, i know not whether i shall suffer you to begin. phil. begin, my dear lysander. a mind disposed to listen attentively is sometimes half converted. o, how i shall rejoice to see this bibliographical incendiary going about to buy up copies of the very works which he has destroyed! listen, i entreat you, lisardo. lis. i am all attention; for i see the clouds gathering in the south, and a gloomy, if not a showery, mid-day, promises to darken this beauteous morning. 'twill not be possible to attend the antiques at malvolio's sale. lysand. whether the sun shine, or the showers fall, i will make an attempt--not to convert, but to state simple truths: provided you "lend me your ears." phil. and our hearts too. begin: for the birds drop their notes, and the outlines of the distant landscape are already dimmed by the drizzling rain. lysand. you call upon me as formally as the shepherds call upon one another to sing in virgil's eclogues. but i will do my best. it is gratifying to the english nation--whatever may have been the strictures of foreigners[ ] upon the paucity of their bibliographico-literary works in the th century--that the earliest printed volume upon the love and advantages of book-collecting was the _philobiblion_[ ] of richard de bury; who was bishop of durham at the close of the th century, and tutor to edward iii. i will at present say nothing about the merits and demerits of this short treatise; only i may be permitted to observe, with satisfaction, that the head of the same see, at the present day, has given many proofs of his attachment to those studies, and of his reward of such merit as attracted the notice of his illustrious predecessor. it is with pain that i am compelled to avow the paucity of publications, in our own country, of a nature similar to the _philobiblion_ of de bury, even for two centuries after it was composed; but while leland was making his library-tour, under the auspices of that capricious tyrant henry viii., many works were planned _abroad_, which greatly facilitated the researches of the learned. [footnote : "anglica gens longe fuit negligentior in consignandis ingeniorum monumentis; nihil enim ab illis prodiit, quod mereatur nominari, cum tamen sint extentque pene innumera ingeniossimæ gentis in omnibus doctrinis scripta, prodeantque quotidie, tam latina, quam vernacula lingua, plura," morhof: _polyhist. literar._ vol. i. , edit. . reimmannus carries his strictures, upon the jealousy of foreigners at the success of the germans in bibliography, with a high hand: "ringantur itali, nasum incurvent galli, supercilium adducant hispani, scita cavilla serant britanni, frendeant, spument, bacchentur ii omnes, qui præstantiam musarum germanicarum limis oculis aspiciunt," &c.--"hoc tamen certum, firmum, ratum, et inconcussum est, germanos primos fuisse in rep. literaria, qui indices librorum generales, speciales et specialissimos conficere, &c. annisi sunt."--a little further, however, he speaks respectfully of our james, hyde, and bernhard. see his ably-written _bibl. acroamatica_, pp. , .] [footnote : "_sive de amore librorum._" the first edition, hitherto so acknowledged, of this entertaining work, was printed at spires, by john and conrad hist, in , to., a book of great rarity--according to clement, vol. v. ; bauer (_suppl. bibl. libr. rarior_, pt. i. ); maichelius, p. ; and morhof, vol. i. . mons. de la serna santander has assigned the date of to this edition: see his _dict. bibliog. chois._ vol. ii. ,--but, above all, consult clement--to whom panzer, vol. iii. p. , very properly refers his readers. and yet some of clement's authorities do not exactly bear him out in the identification of this impression. mattaire, vol. i. , does not appear to have ever seen a copy of it: but, what is rather extraordinary, count macarty has a copy of a cologne edition in to., of the date of . no other edition of it is known to have been printed till the year ; when two impressions of this date were published at paris, in to.: the one by philip for petit, of which both clement and fabricius (_bibl. med. et inf. Ætat._ vol. i. , &c.) were ignorant; but of which, a copy, according to panzer, vol. ii. , should seem to be in the public library at gottingen; the other, by badius ascensius, is somewhat more commonly known. a century elapsed before this work was deemed deserving of republication; when the country that had given birth to, and the university that had directed the studies of, its illustrious author, put forth an inelegant reprint of it in to. --from which some excerpts will be found in the ensuing pages--but in the meantime the reader may consult the title-page account of herbert, vol. iii. p. . of none of these latter editions were the sharp eyes of clement ever blessed with a sight of a copy! see his _bibl. curcuse_, &c. vol. v. . the th century made some atonement for the negligence of the past, in regard to richard de bury. at frankfort his _philobiblion_ was reprinted, with "a century of philological letters," collected by goldastus, in , vo--and this same work appeared again, at leipsic, in , vo. at length the famous schmidt put forth an edition, with some new pieces, "typis et sumtibus georgii wolffgangii hammii, acad. typog. ," to. of this latter edition, neither maichelius nor the last editor of morhof take notice. it may be worth while adding that the subscription in red ink, which fabricius (_ibid._) notices as being subjoined to a vellum ms. of this work, in his own possession--and which states that it was finished at auckland, in the year , in the th of its author, and at the close of the th year of his episcopacy--may be found, in substance, in hearne's edition of leland's _collectanea_, vol. ii. , edit. .] among the men who first helped to clear away the rubbish that impeded the progress of the student, was the learned and modest conrad gesner; at once a scholar, a philosopher, and a bibliographer: and upon whom julius scaliger, theodore beza, and de thou, have pronounced noble eulogiums.[ ] his _bibliotheca universalis_ was the first thing, since the discovery of the art of printing, which enabled the curious to become acquainted with the works of preceding authors: thus kindling, by the light of such a lamp, the fire of emulation among his contemporaries and successors. i do not pretend to say that the _bibliotheca_ of gesner is any thing like perfect, even as far as it goes: but, considering that the author had to work with his own materials alone, and that the degree of fame and profit attached to such a publication was purely speculative, he undoubtedly merits the thanks of posterity for having completed it even in the manner in which it has come down to us. consider gesner as the father of bibliography; and if, at the sale of malvolio's busts, there be one of this great man, purchase it, good lisardo, and place it over the portico of your library. [footnote : his _bibliotheca_, or _catalogus universalis, &c._, was first printed in a handsome folio volume at zurich, . lycosthyne put forth a wretched abridgement of this work, which was printed by the learned oporinus, in to., . robert constantine, the lexicographer, also abridged and published it in , paris, vo.; and william canter is said by labbe to have written notes upon simler's edition, which baillet took for granted to be in existence, and laments not to have seen them; but he is properly corrected by de la monnoye, who reminds us that it was a mere report, which labbe gave as he found it. i never saw simler's own editions of his excellent abridgement and enlargement of it in and ; but frisius published it, with great improvements, in , fol., adding many articles, and abridging and omitting many others. although this latter edition be called the _edit. opt._ it will be evident that the _editio originalis_ is yet a desideratum in every bibliographical collection. nor indeed does frisius's edition take away the necessity of consulting a supplement to gesner, which appeared at the end of the _bibliothéque françoise_ of du verdier, . it may be worth stating that hallevordius's _bibliotheca curiòsa_, , , to., is little better than a supplement to the preceding work. the _pandects_ of gesner, , fol. are also well worth the bibliographer's notice. each of the books, of which the volume is composed, is preceded by an interesting dedicatory epistle to some eminent printer of day. consult baillet's _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii. p. . _bibl. creven._ vol. v. p. ; upon this latter work more particularly; and morhof's _polyhistor. literar._ vol. i. , and vogt's _catalog. libr. rarior._, p. : upon the former. although the _dictionnaire historique_, published at caen, in , notices the botanical and lexicographical works of gesner, it has omitted to mention these pandects: which however, are uncommon.] lis. all this is very well. proceed with the patriarchal age of your beloved bibliography. lysand. i was about resuming, with observing that our bale speedily imitated the example of gesner, in putting forth his _britanniæ scriptores_;[ ] the materials of the greater part of which were supplied by leland. this work is undoubtedly necessary to every englishman, but its errors are manifold. let me now introduce to your notice the little work of florian trefler, published in ;[ ] also the first thing in its kind, and intimately connected with our present subject. the learned, it is true, were not much pleased with it; but it afforded a rough outline upon which naudæus afterwards worked, and produced, as you will find, a more pleasing and perfect picture. a few years after this, appeared the _erotemata_ of michael neander;[ ] in the long and learned preface to which, and in the catalogue of his and of melancthon's works subjoined, some brilliant hints of a bibliographical nature were thrown out, quite sufficient to inflame the lover of book-anecdotes with a desire of seeing a work perfected according to such a plan: but neander was unwilling, or unable, to put his design into execution. bibliography, however, now began to make rather a rapid progress; and, in france, the ancient writers of history and poetry seemed to live again in the _bibliotheque françoise_ of la croix du maine and du verdier.[ ] nor were the contemporaneous similar efforts of cardona to be despised: a man, indeed, skilled in various erudition, and distinguished for his unabating perseverance in examining all the mss. and printed books that came in his way. the manner, slight as it was, in which cardona[ ] mentioned the vatican library, aroused the patriotic ardor of pansa; who published his _bibliotheca vaticana_, in the italian language, in the year ; and in the subsequent year appeared the rival production of angelus roccha, written in latin, under the same title.[ ] the magnificent establishment of the vatican press, under the auspices of pope sixtus v. and clement viii. and under the typographical direction of the grandson of aldus,[ ] called forth these publications--which might, however, have been executed with more splendour and credit. [footnote : the first edition of this work, under the title of "_illustrium maioris britanniæ scriptorum, hoc est, anglæ, cambriæ, ac scotiæ summarium, in quasnam centurias divisum, &c._," was printed at ipswich, in , to., containing three supposed portraits of bale, and a spurious one of wicliffe. of the half length portrait of bale, upon a single leaf, as noticed by herbert, vol. iii. , i have doubts about its appearance in all the copies. the above work was again published at basil, by opornius, in , fol., greatly enlarged and corrected, with a magnificent half length portrait of bale, from which the one in a subsequent part of this work was either copied on a reduced scale, or of which it was the prototype. his majesty has perhaps the finest copy of this last edition of bale's _scriptores britanniæ_, in existence.] [footnote : "les savans n'ont nullemont été satisfaits des règles prescrites par florian treffer (trefler) le premièr dont on connoisse un écrit sur ce sujet [de la disposition des livres dans une bibliothèque]. sa méthode de classer les livres fut imprimée à augsbourg en ." camus: _memoires de l'institut_. vol. i. . the title is "methodus ordinandi bibliothecam," augustæ, . the extreme rarity of this book does not appear to have arisen from its utility--if the authority quoted by vogt, p. , edit. , may be credited. bauer repeats vogt's account; and teisser, morhof, and baillet, overlook the work.] [footnote : it would appear, from morhof, that neander meditated the publication of a work similar to the _pandects_ of gesner; which would, in all probability, have greatly excelled it. the "_erotemata græcæ linguæ_" was published at basil in , vo. consult _polyhist. liter._ vol. i. : _jugemens des savans_, vol. iii. art. , but more particularly niceron's _memoires des hommes illustres_, vol. xxx. in regard to neander, vogt has given the title at length (a sufficiently tempting one!) calling the work "very rare," and the preface of neander (which is twice the length of the work) "curious and erudite." see his _catalog. libror. rarior._, p. , edit. .] [footnote : la croix du maine's book appeared toward the end of the year ; and that of his coadjutor, anthony verdier, in the beginning of the subsequent year. they are both in folio, and are usually bound in one volume. of these works, the first is the rarest and best executed; but the very excellent edition of both of them, by de la monnoye and juvigny, in six volumes, to., , which has realized the patriotic wishes of baillet, leaves nothing to be desired in the old editions--and these are accordingly dropping fast into annihilation. it would appear from an advertisement of de bure, subjoined to his catalogue of count macarty's books, , vo., that there were then remaining only eleven copies of this new edition upon large paper, which were sold for one hundred and twenty livres. claude verdier, son of antony, who published a supplement to gesner's bibliotheca, and a "_censio auctorum omnium veterum et recentiorum_," affected to censure his father's work, and declared that nothing but parental respect could have induced him to consent to its publication--but consult the _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii. - , upon claude's filial affection; and morhof's _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., , concerning the "censio," &c.--"misere," exclaims morhof, "ille corvos deludit hiantes: nam ubi censuram suam exercet, manifestum hominis phrenesin facile deprehendas!" the ancient editions are well described in _bibl. creven._, vol. v., - , edit. --but more particularly by de bure, nos. - . a copy of the ancient edition was sold at west's sale for _l._ _s._ see _bibl. west._, no. .] [footnote : john baptist cardona, a learned and industrious writer, and bishop of tortosa, published a quarto volume at tarracona, in , to.--comprehending the following four pieces: . _de regia sancti lamentii bibliotheca_: . _de bibliothecis_ (_ex fulvio ursino_,) et _de bibliotheca vaticana (ex omphrii schedis)_: . _de expurgandis hæreticorum propriis nominibus_: . _de dipthycis_. of these, the first, in which he treats of collecting all manner of useful books, and having able librarians, and in which he strongly exhorts philip ii. to put the escurial library into good order, is the most valuable to the bibliographer. vogt, p. , gives us two authorities to shew the rarity of this book; and baillet refers us to the _bibliotheca hispana_ of antonio.] [footnote : mutius panza's work, under the title of _ragionamenti della libraria vaticana_, rome, , to., and angelus roccha's, that of _bibliotheca apostolica vaticana, rome_, , to., relate rather to the ornaments of architecture and painting, than to a useful and critical analysis, or a numbered catalogue, of the books within the vatican library. the authors of both are accused by morhof of introducing quite extraneous and uninteresting matter. roccha's book, however, is worth possessing, as it is frequently quoted by bibliographers. how far it may be "liber valde quidem rarus," as vogt intimates, i will not pretend to determine. it has a plate of the vatican library, and another of st. peter's cathedral. the reader may consult, also, the _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., p. . my copy of this work, purchased at the sale of dr. heath's books, has a few pasted printed slips in the margins--some of them sufficiently curious.] [footnote : consult renouard's _l'imprimerie des alde_, vol. ii., , &c. one of the grandest works which ever issued from the vatican press, under the superintendence of aldus, was the vulgate bible of pope sixtus v., , fol., the copies of which, upon large paper, are sufficiently well known and coveted. a very pleasing and satisfactory account of this publication will be found in the _horæ biblicæ_ of mr. charles butler, a gentleman who has long and justly maintained the rare character of a profound lawyer, an elegant scholar, and a well-versed antiquary and philologist.] let us here not forget that the celebrated lipsius condescended to direct his talents to the subject of libraries; and his very name, as baillet justly remarks, "is sufficient to secure respect for his work," however slender it may be.[ ] we now approach, with the mention of lipsius, the opening of the th century; a period singularly fertile in bibliographical productions. i will not pretend to describe, minutely, even the leading authors in this department. the works of puteanus can be only slightly alluded to, in order to notice the more copious and valuable ones of possevinus and of schottus;[ ] men who were ornaments to their country, and whose literary and bibliographical publications have secured to them the gratitude of posterity. while the labours of these authors were enriching the republic of literature, and kindling all around a love of valuable and curious books, the _bibliotheca historica_ of bolduanus, and the _bibliotheca classica_ of draudius[ ] highly gratified the generality of readers, and enabled the student to select, with greater care and safety, such editions of authors as were deserving of a place in their libraries. [footnote : lipsius published his _syntagma de bibliothecis_, at antwerp, in , to., "in quo de ritibus variis et antiquitatibus circa rem bibliothecariam agitur." an improved edition of it, by maderus, was printed at helmstadt, in , to., with other curious bibliographical opuscula. a third edition of it was put forth by schmid, at the same place, in , to. consult morhof. _poly. lit._, vol. i., .] [footnote : "scripsit et erycius puteanus librum _de usu bibliothecæ et quidem speciatim bibliothecæ ambrosianæ mediol._, in vo., , editum, aliumque, cui titulus _auspicia bibliothecæ lovaniensis_, an. , in to." morhof. "it is true," says baillet, "that this puteanus passed for a gossipping sort of writer, and for a great maker of little books, but he was, notwithstanding, a very clever fellow." _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., . in the _bibl. crev._, vol. v., , will be found one of his letters, never before published. he died in . possevinus published a _bibliotheca selecta_ and _apparatus sacer_--of the former of which, the cologne edition of , folio, and of the latter, that of , are esteemed the most complete. the first work is considered by morhof as less valuable than the second. the "_apparatus_" he designates as a book of rather extraordinary merit and utility. of the author of both these treatises, some have extolled his talents to the skies, others have depreciated them in proportion. his literary character, however, upon the whole, places him in the first class of bibliographers. consult the _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., . he was one of the earliest bibliographers who attacked the depraved taste of the italian printers in adopting licentious capital-initial letters. catherinot, in his _art d'imprimer_, p. , makes the same complaint: so baillet informs us, vol. i., pt. i., p. , edit. : vol. iii., pt. , p. . schottus's work, _de bibl. claris hispaniæ viris, france_, , to., is forgotten in the splendour of antonio's similar production; but it had great merit in its day. _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., pt. , , edit. .] [footnote : bolduanus published a _theological_ (jenæ, ) and _philosophico philological_ (jenæ, ), as well as an _historical_ (lipsiæ, ), library; but the latter work has the pre-eminence. yet the author lived at too great a distance, wanting the requisite materials, and took his account chiefly from the frankfort catalogues--some of which were sufficiently erroneous. _polyhist. literar._ vol. i., . see also the very excellent historical catalogue, comprehending the st chap. of meusel's new edition of struvius's _bibl. histor._, vol. i., p. . draudius's work is more distinguished for its arrangement than for its execution in detail. it was very useful, however, at the period when it was published. my edition is of the date of , to.: but a second appeared at frankfort, in , to.] the name of du chesne can never be pronounced by a sensible frenchman without emotions of gratitude. his _bibliotheca historiarum galliæ_ first published in the year , vo.--although more immediately useful to foreigners than to ourselves, is nevertheless worth mentioning. morhof, if i recollect aright, supposes there was a still later edition; but he probably confused with this work the _series auctorum, &c. de francorum historia_;[ ] of which two handsome folio editions were published by cramoisy. french writers of bibliographical eminence now begin to crowd fast upon us. [footnote : the reader will find a good account of some of the scarcer works of du chesne in vogt's _catalog. libror. rarior._, p. , &c., and of the life and literary labours of this illustrious man in the th volume of niceron's _memoires des hommes illustres_.] lis. but what becomes of the english, spanish, and italian bibliographers all this while? lysand. the reproach of morhof is i fear too just; namely that, although we had produced some of the most learned, ingenious, and able men in europe--lovers and patrons of literature--yet our librarians, or university scholars, were too lazy to acquaint the world with the treasures which were contained in the several libraries around them.[ ] you cannot expect a field-marshal, or a statesman in office, or a nobleman, or a rich man of extensive connections, immersed in occupations both pressing and unavoidable--doggedly to set down to a _catalogue raisonné_ of his books, or to an analysis of the different branches of literature--while his presence is demanded in the field, in the cabinet, or in the senate--or while all his bells, at home, from the massive outer gate to the retired boudoir, are torn to pieces with ringing and jingling at the annunciation of visitors--you cannot, i say, my good lisardo, call upon a person, thus occupied, to produce--or expect from him, in a situation thus harassed, the production of--any solid bibliographical publication; but you have surely a right to expect that librarians, or scholars, who spend the greater part of their time in public libraries, will vouchsafe to apply their talents in a way which may be an honour to their patrons, and of service to their country.[ ] not to walk with folded arms from one extremity of a long room (of feet) to another, and stop at every window to gaze on an industrious gardener, or watch the slow progress of a melancholy crow "making wing to the rooky wood," nor yet, in winter, to sit or stand inflexibly before the fire, with a duodecimo jest book or novel in their hands--but to look around and catch, from the sight of so much wisdom and so much worth, a portion of that laudable emulation with which the gesners, the baillets, and the le longs were inspired; to hold intimate acquaintance with the illustrious dead; to speak to them without the fear of contradiction; to exclaim over their beauties without the dread of ridicule, or of censure; to thank them for what they have done in transporting us to other times, and introducing us to other worlds; and constantly to feel a deep and unchangeable conviction of the necessity of doing all the good in our power, and in our way, for the benefit of those who are to survive us! [footnote : see the note at p. , ante. "it is a pity," says morhof, "that the _dutch_ had such little curiosity about the literary history of their country--but the _english_ were yet more negligent and incurious."--and yet, germany, france, and italy, had already abounded with treasures of this kind!!] [footnote : senebier, who put forth a very useful and elegantly printed catalogue of the mss. in the public library of geneva, , vo., has the following observations upon this subject--which i introduce with a necessary proviso, or caution, that _now-a-days_ his reproaches cannot affect us. we are making ample amends for past negligence; for, to notice no others, the labours of those gentlemen who preside over the british museum abundantly prove our present industry. thus speaks senebier: 'ill sembleroit d'abord étonnant qu'on ait tant tradé à composer le catalogue des manuscripts de la bibliothéque de genéve; mais on peut faire plus raisonnablement ce reproche aux bibliothécaires bien payés et uniquement occupés de leur vocation, qui sont les dépositaires de tant de collections précieuses qu'on voit en italie, en france, en allemagne, et en angleterre; ils le mériteront d'autant mieux, qu'ils privent le public des piéces plus précieuses, et qu'ils ont plusieurs aids intelligens qui peuvent les dispenser de la partie le plus méchanique et la plus ennuyeuse de ce travail,' &c.] phil. hear him, hear him![ ] [footnote : this mode of exclamation or expression, like that of _cheering_ (vide p. , ante) is also peculiar to our own country; and it is uttered by both friend and foe. thus, in the senate, when a speaker upon one side of the question happens to put an argument in a strong point of view, those of the same party or mode of thinking exclaim--_hear him, hear him!_ and if he should happen to state any thing that may favour the views, or the mode of thinking, of his opponents, these latter also take advantage of his eloquence, and exclaim, _hear him, hear him!_ happy the man whom friend and foe alike delight to hear!] lis. but what is become, in the while, of the english, italian, and spanish bibliographers--in the seventeenth century? lysand. i beg pardon for the digression; but the less we say of these, during this period, the better; and yet you must permit me to recommend to you the work of pitseus, our countryman, which grows scarcer every day.[ ] we left off, i think, with the mention of du chesne's works. just about this time came forth the elegant little work of naudÆus;[ ] which i advise you both to purchase, as it will cost you but a few shillings, and of the aspect of which you may inform yourselves by taking it down from yonder shelf. quickly afterwards claude clement, "haud passibus æquis," put forth his _bibliothecæ tam privatæ quam publicæ[ ] extructio_, &c.; a work, condemned by the best bibliographical judges. but the splendour of almost every preceding bibliographer's reputation was eclipsed by that arising from the extensive and excellent publications of louis jacob;[ ] a name at which, if we except those of fabricius and muratori, diligence itself stands amazed; and concerning whose life and labours it is to be regretted that we have not more extended details. the harsh and caustic manner in which labbe and morhof have treated the works of gaddius,[ ] induce me only to mention his name, and to warn you against looking for much corn in a barn choked with chaff. we now approach the close of the seventeenth century; when, stopping for a few minutes only, to pay our respects to cinelli, conringius, and lomeier,[ ] we must advance to do homage to the more illustrious names of labbe, lambecius, and baillet; not forgetting, however, the equally respectable ones of antonio and lipenius. [footnote : pitseus's work "_de rebus anglicis_," paris, , to., vol. i., was written in opposition to bale's (vid. p. , ante). the author was a learned roman catholic; but did not live to publish the second volume. i was glad to give mr. ford, of manchester, _l._ _s._ for a stained and badly bound copy of it.] [footnote : "gabriele naudÆo nemo vixit suo tempore [greek: empeirias] bibliothecariæ peritior:" _polyhist. liter._, vol. i., . "naudæi scripta omnia et singula præstantissima sunt," vogt, p. . "les ouvrages de naudé firent oublier ce qui les avoient précédé." camus, _mem. de l'institut._, vol. i., . after these eulogies, who will refuse this author's "_avis pour dresser une bibliothéque_, paris, , , vo." a place upon his shelf? unluckily, it rarely comes across the search of the keenest collector. the other, yet scarcer, productions of naudé will be found well described in vogt's _catalog. libror. rarior._, p. . the reader of ancient politics may rejoice in the possession of what is called, the "_mascurat_"--and "_considerations politiques_"--concerning which vogt is gloriously diffuse; and peignot (who has copied from him, without acknowledgement--_bibliogr. curieuse_, pp. , ,) may as well be consulted. but the bibliographer will prefer the "_additions à l'histoire de louis xi._," , vo., and agree with mailchelius that a work so uncommon and so curious "ought to be reprinted." see the latter's amusing little book "_de præcipuis bibliothecis parisiensibus_," pp. , , &c. naudæus was librarian to the famous cardinal mazarin, the great mæcenas of his day; whose library, consisting of upwards of forty thousand volumes, was the most beautiful and extensive one which france had then ever seen. its enthusiastic librarian, whom i must be allowed to call a very wonderful bibliomaniac, made constant journeys, and entered into a perpetual correspondence, relating to books and literary curiosities. he died at abbeville in , in his rd year, on returning from sweden, where the famous christian had invited him. naudæus's "_avis, &c._", [ut supr.] was translated by chaline; but his "_avis à nosseigneurs du parlement, &c._" , to.--upon the sale of the cardinal's library--and his "_remise de la bihliothéque_ [transcriber's note: bibliothèque] [du cardinal] _entre le mains de m. tubeuf_, ," are much scarcer productions. a few of these particulars are gathered from peignot's _dict. de la bibliolologie_ [transcriber's note: bibliologie], vol. ii., p. --consult also his _dict. portatif de bibliographie_, p. v. in the former work i expected a copious piece of biography; yet, short as it is, peignot has subjoined a curious note from naudé's "_considerations politiques_"--in which the author had the hardihood to defend the massacre upon st. bartholomew's day, by one of the strangest modes of reasoning ever adopted by a rational being.] [footnote : this work, in four books, was published at lyons, , to. if it be not quite "much ado about nothing"--it exhibits, at least, a great waste of ink and paper. morhof seems to seize with avidity baillet's lively sentence of condemnation--"il y a trop de babil et trop de ce que nous appellons _fatras_," &c.] [footnote : le pere louys jacob published his "_traicté des plus belles bibliothéques publiques et particulières, qui ont esté, et qui sont à présents dans le monde_," at paris, in --again in , vo.--in which he first brought together the scattered notices relating to libraries, especially to modern ones. his work is well worth consultation; although baillet and morhof do not speak in direct terms of praise concerning it--and the latter seems a little angry at his giving the preference to the parisian libraries over those of other countries. it must be remembered that this was published as an unfinished production: as such, the author's curiosity and research are highly to be commended. i have read the greater part of it with considerable satisfaction. the same person meditated the execution of a vast work in four folio volumes--called "_la bibliothéque universelle de tous les autheurs de france, qui ont escrits en quelque sorte de sciences et de langues_"--which, in fact, was completed in : but, on the death of the author it does not appear what became of it. jacob also gave an account of books as they were published at paris, and in other parts of france, from the year to ; which was printed under the title of _bibliographia parisina_, paris, , to. consult _polyhist. liter._, vol. i., pp. , : _bibl. creven._, vol. v., pp. , . _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., p. .] [footnote : he published a work entitled "_de scriptoribus non-ecclesiasticis_," , vol. i., , vol. ii., folio: in which his opinions upon authors are given in the most jejune and rash manner. his other works, which would form a little library, are reviewed by leti with sufficient severity: but the poor man was crack brained! and yet some curious and uncommon things, gleaned from mss. which had probably never been unrolled or opened since their execution, are to be found in this "sciolum florentinum," as labbe calls him. consult the _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., p. .] [footnote : magliabechi put cinelli upon publishing his bibliotheca volante, , vo., a pretty work, with a happy title!--being an indiscriminate account of some rare books which the author picked up in his travels, or saw in libraries. it was republished, with valuable additions, by sancassani, at venice, in , to. see _cat. de lomenie_, no. . works of this sort form the ana of bibliography! conringius compiled a charming bibliographical work, in an epistolary form, under the title of _bibliotheca augusta_; which was published at helmstadt, in , to.--being an account of the library of the duke of brunswick, in the castle of wolfenbuttle. two thousand manuscripts, and one hundred and sixteen thousand printed volumes, were then contained in this celebrated collection. happy the owner of such treasures--happy the man who describes them! lomeier's, or lomejer's "_de bibliothecis liber singularis_," ultraj, - , vo., is considered by baillet among the best works upon the subject of ancient and modern libraries. from this book, le sieur le gallois stole the most valuable part of his materials for his "_traité des plus belles bibliothéques de l'europe_," , -- mo.: the title at full length (a sufficiently imposing one!) may be seen in _bibé. crevenn._, vol. v., p. ; upon this latter treatise, morhof cuttingly remarks--"magnos ille titulus strepitus facit: sed pro thesauris carbones." _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., p. . see also "_jugemens des savans_," vol. ii., p. . gallois dispatches the english libraries in little more than a page. i possess the second edition of lomeier's book ( --with both its title pages), which is the last and best--and an interesting little volume it is! the celebrated grævius used to speak very favourably of this work.] lis. pray discuss their works, or merits, _seriatim_, as the judges call it; for i feel overwhelmed at the stringing together of such trisyllabic names. these gentlemen, as well as almost every one of their predecessors, are strangers to me; and you know my bashfulness and confusion in such sort of company. lysand. i hope to make you better acquainted with them after a slight introduction, and so rid you of such an uncomfortable diffidence. let us begin with labbe,[ ] who died in the year , and in the sixtieth of his own age; a man of wonderful memory and of as wonderful application--whose whole life, according to his biographers, was consumed in gathering flowers from his predecessors, and thence weaving such a chaplet for his own brows as was never to know decay. his _nova bibliotheca_, and _bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptorum_, are the principal works which endear his memory to bibliographers. more learned than labbe was lambecius;[ ] whose _commentarii de bibliotheca cæsareâ-vindobonensis_, with nesselius's supplement to the same, [ , vols. fol.] and kollarius's new edition of both, form one of the most curious and important, as well as elaborate, productions in the annals of literature and bibliography. less extensive, but more select, valuable, and accurate, in its choice and execution of objects, is the _bibliotheca hispana vetus et nova_ of nicholas antonio;[ ] the first, and the best, bibliographical work which spain, notwithstanding her fine palaces and libraries, has ever produced. if neither philemon nor yourself, lisardo, possess this latter work [and i do not see it upon the shelves of this cabinet], seek for it with avidity; and do not fear the pistoles which the purchase of it may cost you. lipenius[ ] now claims a moment's notice; of whose _bibliotheca realis_ morhof is inclined to speak more favourably than other critics. 'tis in six volumes; and it appeared from the years to inclusive. not inferior to either of the preceding authors in taste, erudition, and the number and importance of his works, was adrien baillet;[ ] the simple pastor of lardiéres, and latterly the learned and indefatigable librarian of lamoignon. his _jugemens des savans_, edited by de la monnoye, is one of those works with which no man, fond of typographical and bibliographical pursuits, can comfortably dispense. i had nearly forgotten to warn you against the capricious works of beughem; a man, nevertheless, of wonderful mental elasticity; but for ever planning schemes too vast and too visionary for the human powers to execute.[ ] [footnote : "vir, qui in texendis catalogis totam pene vitam consumpsit." "homo ad lexica et catalogos conficiendos a naturâ factus." such is morhof's account of labbe; who, in the works above-mentioned, in the text, has obtained an unperishable reputation as a bibliographer. the _bibliotheca bibliothecarum_, thick duodecimo, or crown octavo, has run through several impressions; of which the leipsic edit. of , is as good as any; but teisser, in his work under the same title, , to., has greatly excelled labbe's production, as well by his corrections of errata as by his additions of some hundreds of authors. the _bibliotheca nummaria_ is another of labbe's well-known performances: in the first part of which he gives an account of those who have written concerning medals--in the second part, of those who have publishe [transcriber's note: published] separate accounts of coins, weights, and measures. this is usually appended to the preceding work, and is so published by teisser. the _mantissa suppellectilis_ was an unfinished production; and the _specimen novæ bibliothecæ manuscriptorum librorum_, paris, , to., is too imperfectly executed for the exercise of rigid criticism; although baillet calls it 'useful and curious.' consult the _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., , : and _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., pt. , p. , edit. . a list of labbe's works, finished, unfinished, and projected, was published at paris, in and . he was joint editor with cossart of that tremendously voluminous work--the "collectio maxima conciliorum"-- , volumes, folio.] [footnote : lambecius died at, one may almost say, the premature age of : and the above work (in eight folio volumes), which was left unfinished in consequence, (being published between the years - inclusive) gives us a magnificent idea of what its author would have accomplished [see particularly reimanni _bibl. acroamatica_, p. ] had it pleased providence to prolong so valuable an existence. it was originally sold for _imperiali_; but at the commencement of the th century for not less than _thaleri_, and a copy of it was scarcely ever to be met with. two reasons have been assigned for its great rarity, and especially for that of the th volume; the one, that lambecius's heir, impatient at the slow sale of the work, sold many copies of it to the keepers of herb-stalls: the other, that, when the author was lying on his death-bed, his servant maid, at the suggestion and from the stinginess of the same heir, burnt many copies of this eighth volume [which had recently left the press] to light the fire in the chamber. this intelligence i glean from vogt, p. : it had escaped baillet and morhof. but consult de bure, vol. vi., nos. - . reimannus published a _bibliotheca acroamatica_, hanov., , vo., which is both an entertaining volume and a useful compendium of lambecius's immense work. but in the years - , kollarius published a new and improved edition of the entire commentaries, in six folio volumes; embodying in this gigantic undertaking the remarks which were scattered in his "_analecta monumentorum omnis ævi vindobonensia_," in two folio volumes, . a posthumous work of kollarius, as a supplement to his new edition of lambecius's commentaries, was published in one folio volume, . a complete set of these volumes of kollarius's bibliographical labours, relating to the vienna library, was in serna santander's catalogue, vol. iv., no. , as well as in krohn's: in which latter [nos. , ] there are some useful notices. see my account of m. denis: post. critics have accused these "commentaries concerning the mss. in the imperial library at vienna," as containing a great deal of rambling and desultory matter; but the vast erudition, minute research, and unabateable diligence of its author, will for ever secure to him the voice of public praise, as loud and as hearty as he has received it from his abridger reimannus. in these volumes appeared the first account of the psalter, printed at mentz in , which was mistaken by lambecius for a ms. the reader will forgive my referring him to a little essay upon this and the subsequent psalters, printed at mentz, in , , &c., which was published by me in the nd volume of the _athenæum_, p. , .] [footnote : morhof considers the labours of antonio as models of composition in their way. his grand work began to be published in , vols., folio--being the _bibliotheca hispana nova_: this was succeeded, in , by the _bibliotheca hispana antiqua_--in two folio volumes: the prefaces and indexes contain every thing to satisfy the hearts of spanish literati. a new edition of the first work was published at madrid, in , vols., folio; and of the latter work, in , vols., folio.--these recent editions are very rarely to be met with in our own country: abroad, they seem to have materially lowered the prices of the ancient ones, which had become excessively scarce. see _polyhist literar._, vol. i., - : _dictionn. bibliogr._, vol. iv., p. : and _mem. de l'inst._, vol. i., . let us here not forget the learned michael casiri's _bibliotheca arabico-hispana escorialensis_, published in two superb folio volumes at madrid in . all these useful and splendid works place the spaniards upon a high footing with their fellow-labourers in the same respectable career. de la serna santander tells us that casiri's work is dear, and highly respected by the literati. see _cap. de santander_, vol iv., no. .] [footnote : the _bibliotheca realis_, &c., of lipenius contains an account of works published in the departments of _jurisprudence_, _medicine_, _philosophy_, and _theology_: of these, the _bibliotheca theologica_, et _philosophica_, are considered by morhof as the best executed. the _bibl. juridica_ was, however, republished at leipsic in two folio volumes, , with considerable additions. this latter is the last leipsic reprint of it. saxius notices only the re-impressions of , , . see his _onomast. lit._, vol. v., . i will just notice the _bibliotheca vetus et recens_ of koenigius, , folio--as chart-makers notice shoals--to be avoided. i had long thrown it out of my own collection before i read its condemnation by morhof. perhaps the following account of certain works, which appear to have escaped the recollection of lysander, may not be unacceptable. in the year , father raynaud, whose lucubrations fill folio volumes, published a quarto volume at lyons, under the title of "_erotemata de malis ac bonis libris, deque justa aut injusta eorum conditione_;" which he borowed [transcriber's note: borrowed] in part from the "_theotimus, seu de tollendis et expurgandis malis libris_," (paris, , vo.) of gabriel puhtherb. of these two works, if [transcriber's note: it] were difficult to determine which is preferable. the bibliographer need not deeply lament the want of either: consult the _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., . in the year , vogler published a very sensible "_universalis in notitiam cujusque generis bonorum scriptorum introductio_"--of this work two subsequent editions, one in , the other in , to., were published at helmstadt. the last is the best; but the second, to him who has neither, is also worth purchasing. the seven dissertations "_de libris legendis_" of bartholin, hafniæ, , vo., are deserving of a good coat and a front row in the bibliographer's cabinet. "parvæ quidem molis liberest, sed in quo quasi constipata sunt utilissima de libris monita et notitiæ ad multas disciplinas utiles." so speaks morhof.] [footnote : adrien baillet was the eldest of seven children born in a second marriage. his parents were in moderate circumstances: but adrien very shortly displaying a love of study and of book-collecting, no means, compatible with their situation, were left untried by his parents to gratify the wishes of so promising a child. from his earliest youth, he had a strong predilection for the church; and as a classical and appropriate education was then easily to be procured in france, he went from school to college, and at seventeen years of age had amassed, in two fair sized volumes, a quantity of extracts from clever works; which, perhaps having beza's example in his mind, he entitled _juvenilia_. his masters saw and applauded his diligence; and a rest of only five hours each night, during two years and a half of this youthful period, afforded baillet such opportunities of acquiring knowledge as rarely fall to the lot of a young man. this habit of short repose had not forsaken him in his riper years: "he considered and treated his body as an insolent enemy, which required constant subjection; he would not suffer it to rest more than five hours each night; he recruited it with only one meal a day--drank no wine--never came near the fire--and walked out but once a week." the consequence of this absurd regime was that baillet had ulcers in his legs, an erysipelatous affection over his body, and was, in other respects, afflicted as sedentary men usually are, who are glued to their seats from morn till night, never mix in society, and rarely breathe the pure air of heaven. these maladies shortened the days of baillet; after he had faithfully served the lamoignons as a librarian of unparalleled diligence and sagacity; leaving behind him a "_catalogue des matieres_," in volumes folio. "all the curious used to come and see this catalogue: many bishops and magistrates requested to have either copies or abridgments of it." when baillet was dragged, by his friend m. hermant, from his obscure vicarage of lardiéres, to be lamoignon's librarian, he seems to have been beside himself for joy.--"i want a man of such and such qualities," said lamoignon.--"i will bring one exactly to suit you," replied hermant--"but you must put up with a diseased and repulsive exterior."--"nous avons besoin de fond," said the sensible patron, "la forme ne m'embarasse point; l'air de ce pays, et un grain de sel discret, fera le reste: il en trouvera ici." baillet came, and his biographer tells us that lamoignon and hermant "furent ravis de le voir." to the eternal honour of the family in which he resided, the crazy body and nervous mind of baillet met with the tenderest treatment. madame lamoignon and her son (the latter, a thorough bred bibliomaniac; who, under the auspices of his master, soon eclipsed the book celebrity of his father) always took a pleasure in anticipating his wishes, soothing his irritabilities, promoting his views, and speaking loudly and constantly of the virtues of his head and heart. the last moments of baillet were marked with true christian piety and fortitude; and his last breath breathed a blessing upon his benefactors. he died a.d. , ætatis . rest his ashes in peace!--and come we now to his bibliographical publications. his "_jugemens des savans_," was first published in , &c., in nine duodecimo volumes. two other similar volumes of _anti baillet_ succeeded it. the success and profits of this work were very considerable. in the year , a new edition of it in seven volumes, quarto, was undertaken and completed by de la monnoye, with notes by the editor, and additions of the original author. the "anti baillet" formed the th volume. in the year , de la monnoye's edition, with his notes placed under the text--the corrections and additions incorporated--and two volumes of fresh matter, including the anti baillet--was republished at amsterdam, in eight duodecimo volumes, forming parts, and being, in every respect, the best edition of the _jugemens des savans_. the curious, however, should obtain the portrait of baillet prefixed to the edition of ; as the copy of it in the latter edition is a most wretched performance. these particulars, perhaps a little too long and tedious, are gleaned from the "abregé" de la vie de baillet, printed in the two last editions of the work just described.] [footnote : it will not be necessary to notice _all_ the multifarious productions, in ms. and in print, of this indefatigable bibliographer; who had cut out work enough for the lives of ten men, each succeeding the other, and well employed from morn 'till even, to execute. this is marchand's round criticism: _dict. hist._ vol. i., p. . beughem's _incunabula typographica_, , mo., is both jejune and grossly erroneous. the "_bibliographia eruditorum critico-curiosa_," , , vols., mo., being an alphabetical account of writers--extracts from whom are in the public literary journals of europe from to --with the title of their works--is beughem's best production, and if each volume had not had a separate alphabet, and contained additions upon additions, the work would have proved highly useful. his "_gallia euridita_," amst., , mo., is miserably perplexing. in addition to marchand, consult the _polyhist. literar._ of morhof, vol. i., p. ; and the note therein subjoined. see also "_bibl. creven._," vol. v., p. : _cat. de santander_, vol. iv., nos. - : - .] phil. you have at length reached the close of the th century; but my limited knowledge of bibliographical literature supplies me with the recollection of two names which you have passed over: i mean, thomas blount and antony-a-wood. there is surely something in these authors relating to editions of the works of the learned. lysand. you have anticipated me in the mention of these names. i had not forgotten them. with the former,[ ] i have no very intimate acquaintance; but of the latter i could talk in commendation till dinner time. be sure, my good lisardo, that you obtain _both_ editions of the _athenæ oxoniensis_.[ ] [footnote : sir thomas pope blount's "_censura celebriorum authorum_," londini, , folio, is unquestionably a learned work--the production of a rural and retired life--"umbraticam enim vitam et ab omni strepitu remotam semper in delitiis habui,"--says its author, in the preface. it treats chiefly of the most learned men, and sparingly of the english. his "_remarks upon poetry_," lond., , to. (in english) is more frequently read and referred to. it is a pity that he had not left out the whole of what relates to the greek and latin, and confined himself entirely to the english, poets. a life of sir thomas pope blount will be found in the new edition of the _biographia britannica_.] [footnote : the first, and, what hearne over and over again calls the genuine edition of the _athenæ oxoniensis_, was published in two folio volumes, , . that a _third_ volume was intended by the author himself may be seen from hearne's remarks in his _thom. caii. vind. antiq. oxon._, vol. i., p. xliii. for the character of the work consult his _rob. de avesb._, pp. xxvi, xxxiii. after the lapse of nearly half a century, it was judged expedient to give a new edition of these valuable biographical memoirs; and dr. tanner, afterwards bishop of st. asaph, was selected to be the editor of it. it was well known that wood had not only made large corrections to his own printed text, but had written nearly _ _ new lives--his ms. of both being preserved in the ashmolean museum. this new edition, therefore, had every claim to public notice. when it appeared, it was soon discovered to be a corrupt and garbled performance; and that the genuine text of wood, as well in his correctness of the old, as in his compositions of the new, lives, had been most capriciously copied. dr. tanner, to defend himself, declared that tonson "would never let him see one sheet as they printed it." this was sufficiently infamous for the bookseller; but the editor ought surely to have abandoned a publication thus faithlessly conducted, or to have entered his caveat in the preface, when it did appear, that he would not be answerable for the authenticity of the materials: neither of which were done. he wrote, however, an exculpatory letter to archbishop wake, which the reader may see at length in mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature_, vol. ii., p. . consult the life of the author in mr. gutch's valuable reprint of wood's "_history and antiquities of the university of oxford_," , to., vols.: also, freytag's _analect. literar._, vol. ii., . i have great pleasure in closing this note, by observing that mr. philip bliss, of st. john's college, oxford, is busily engaged in giving us, what we shall all be glad to hail, a new and faithful edition of wood's text of the _athenæ oxoniensis_, in five or six quarto volumes.] we have now reached the boundaries of the th century, and are just entering upon the one which is past: and yet i have omitted to mention the very admirable _polyhistor. literarius_ of morhof:[ ] a work by which i have been in a great measure guided in the opinions pronounced upon the bibliographers already introduced to you. this work, under a somewhat better form, and with a few necessary omissions and additions, one could wish to see translated into our own language. the name of maittaire strikes us with admiration and respect at the very opening of the th century. his elaborate _annales typographici_ have secured him the respect of posterity.[ ] le long, whose pursuits were chiefly biblical and historical, was his contemporary; an able, sedulous, and learned bibliographer. his whole soul was in his library; and he never spared the most painful toil in order to accomplish the various objects of his inquiry.[ ] and here, my dear friends, let me pay a proper tribute of respect to the memory of an eminently learned and laborious scholar and bibliographer: i mean john albert fabricius. his labours[ ] shed a lustre upon the scholastic annals of the th century; for he opened, as it were, the gates of literature to the inquiring student; inviting him to enter the field and contemplate the diversity and beauty of the several flowers which grew therein--telling him by whom they were planted, and explaining how their growth and luxuriancy were to be regulated. there are few instructors to whom we owe so much; none to whom we are more indebted. let his works, therefore, have a handsome binding, and a conspicuous place in your libraries: for happy is that man who has them at hand to facilitate his inquiries, or to solve his doubts. while fabricius was thus laudably exercising his great talents in the cause of ancient literature, the illustrious name of leibnitz[ ] appeared as author of a work of essential utility to the historian and bibliographer. i allude to his _scriptores rerum brunwicensium_, which has received a well pointed compliment from the polished pen of gibbon. after the successful labours of fabricius and leibnitz, we may notice those of struvius! whose _historical library_[ ] should be in every philological collection. [footnote : daniel george morhof, professor of poetry, eloquence, and history, was librarian of the university of khiel. he published various works, but the above--the best edition of which is of the date of --is by far the most learned and useful--"liber non sua laude privandus; cum primus fere fuerit morhofius qui hanc amoeniorum literarum partem in meliorum redigerit." _vogt._, pref. ix., edit. . its leading error is the want of method. his "_princeps medicus_," , to., is a very singular dissertation upon the cure of the evil by the royal touch; in the efficacy of which the author appears to have believed. his "_epistola de scypho vitreo per sonum humanæ vocis rupto_," kiloni, , to.--which was occasioned by a wine merchant of amsterdam breaking a wine-glass by the strength of his voice--is said to be full of curious matter. morhof died a.d. , in his rd year: beloved by all who knew the excellent and amiable qualities of his head and heart. he was so laborious that he wrote during his meals. his motto, chosen by himself,--pietate, candore, prudentia, should never be lost sight of by bibliomaniacs! his library was large and select. these particulars are gleaned from the _dict. historique_, caen, , vol. vi., p. .] [footnote : a compendious account of maittaire will be found in the third edition of my _introduction to the knowledge of rare and valuable editions of the greek and latin classics_, vol. i., p. . see too mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature, &c._, vol iii., p. ix. the various volumes of his _annales typographici_ are well described in the _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v. p. . to these may be added, in the bibliographical department, his _historia stephanorum, vitas ipsorum ac libros complectens_, , vo.--and the _historia typographorum aliquot parisiensium vitas et libros complectens_, , vo.--of these two latter works, (which, from a contemporaneous catalogue, i find were originally published at _s._ the common paper,) mr. t. grenville has beautiful copies upon large paper. the books are rare in any shape. the principal merit of maittaire's _annales typographici_ consists in a great deal of curious matter detailed in the notes; but the absence of the "lucidus ordo" renders the perusal of these fatiguing and unsatisfactory. the author brought a full and well-informed mind to the task he undertook--but he wanted taste and precision in the arrangement of his materials. the eye wanders over a vast indigested mass; and information, when it is to be acquired with excessive toil, is, comparatively, seldom acquired. panzer has adopted an infinitely better plan, on the model of orlandi; and if his materials had been _printed_ with the same beauty with which they appear to have been composed, and his annals had descended to as late a period as those of maittaire, his work must have made us eventually forget that of his predecessor. the bibliographer is, no doubt, aware that of maittaire's first volume there are two editions: why the author did not reprint, in the second edition ( ), the fac-simile of the epigram and epistle of lascar prefixed to the edition of the anthology, , and the disquisition concerning the ancient editions of quintilian (both of which were in the first edition of ), is absolutely inexplicable. maittaire was sharply attacked for this absurdity, in the "catalogus auctorum," of the "_annus tertius sæcularis inv. art. typog._," harlem, , vo., p. . "rara certe librum augendi methodus! (exclaims the author) satis patet auctorem hoc eo fecisse concilio, ut et primæ et secundæ libri sui editioni pretium suum constaret, et una æque ac altera lectoribus necessaria esset." copies of the typographical antiquities by maittaire, upon large paper, are now exceedingly scarce. the work, in this shape, has a noble appearance. while maittaire was publishing his typographical annals, orlandi put forth a similar work under the title of "_origine e progressi della stampa o sia dell' arte impressoria, e notizie dell' opere stampate dall' anno , sino all' anno _." bologna, , to. of this work, which is rather a compendious account of the several books published in the period above specified, there are copies upon strong writing paper--which the curious prefer. although i have a long time considered it as superseded by the labours of maittaire and panzer, yet i will not withhold from the reader the following critique: "cet ouvrage doit presque nécessairement être annexé à celui de maittaire à cause de plusieurs notices et recherches, qui le rendent fort curieux et intéressant." _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., - . as we are upon publications treating of typography, we may notice the "_annalium typographicorum selecta quædam capita_," hamb., , to., of lackman; and hirschius's supplement to the typographical labours of his predecessors--in the "_librorum ab anno i. usque ad annum l. sec. xvi. typis exscriptorum ex libraria quadam supellectile, norimbergæ collecta et observata, millenarius i._" &c. noriberg, , to. about this period was published a very curious, and now uncommon, octavo volume, of about pages, by seiz; called "_annus tertius sæcularis inventæ artis typographicæ_," harlem, --with several very interesting cuts relating to coster, the supposed inventor of the art of printing. it is a little strange that lysander, in the above account of eminent typographical writers, should omit to mention chevillier--whose _l'origine de l'imprimerie de paris, &c._, , to., is a work of great merit, and is generally found upon every bibliographer's shelf. baillet had supplied him with a pretty strong outline, in his short account of parisian printers. all the copies of chevillier's book, which i have seen, are printed upon what is called foxey paper. i believe there are none upon large paper. we may just notice la caille's _histoire de l'imprimerie et de la librarie_, , to., as a work full of errors. in order that nothing may be wanting to complete the typographical collection of the curious, let the "portraits of booksellers and printers, from ancient times to our own," published at nuremberg, in , folio--and "the devices and emblems" of the same, published at the same place, in , folio, be procured, if possible. the latin titles of these two latter works, both by scholtzius, will be found in the _bibl. crevenn._ vol. v. . renouard mentions the last in his "_annales de l'imprimerie des alde_," vol. ii. p. . meanwhile the _monumenta typographica_ of wolfius, hamb., , vols., vo., embraces a number of curious and scattered dissertations upon this interesting and valuable art. it may be obtained for _s._ or _s._ at present! the _amoenitatus [transcriber's note: amoenitates] literariæ, &c._, of schelhorn had like to have been passed over. it was published in small octavo volumes, at frankfort and leipsic, from the year to inclusive. the _amoenitates historiæ ecclesiasticæ et literariæ_, of the same person, and published at the same place in two octavo volumes, , should accompany the foregoing work. both are scarce and sought after in this country. in the former there are some curious dissertations, with cuts, upon early printed books. concerning the most ancient edition of the latin bibles, schelhorn put forth an express treatise, which was published at ulm in , to. this latter work is very desirable to the curious in biblical researches, as one meets with constant mention of schelhorn's bible. let me not omit zapf's _annales typographiæ augustanæ_, aug. vindel., ; which was republished, with copious additions, at augsbourg, in two parts, , to.--but unluckily, this latter is printed in the german language. upon spanish typography (a very interesting subject), there is a dissertation by raymond diosdado caballero, entitled "_de prima typographiæ hispanicæ Ætate specimen_," rome, , to.] [footnote : from the latin life of le long, prefixed to his _bibliotheca sacra_, we learn that he was an adept in most languages, ancient and modern; and that "in that part of literature connected with bibliography (typographorum et librorum historia), he retained every thing so correctly in his memory that he yielded to few literary men, certainly to no bookseller." of the early years of such a man it is a pity that we have not a better account. his _bibliotheca sacra_, paris, , folio, has been republished by masch and boerner, in four volumes, to., , and enriched with copious and valuable additions. this latter work is quite unrivalled: no young or old theologian, who takes any interest in the various editions of the holy scriptures, in almost all languages, can possibly dispense with such a fund of sacred literature. the _bibliothéque historique de la france_, , folio, by the same learned and industrious bibliographer, has met with a fate equally fortunate. fontette republished it in , in five folio volumes, and has immortalized himself and his predecessor by one of the most useful and splendid productions that ever issued from the press. de bure used to sell copies of it upon large paper, in sheets, for livres: according to the advertisement subjoined to his catalogue of count macarty's books in , vo. the presses of england, which groan too much beneath the weight of ephemeral travels and trumpery novels, are doomed, i fear, long to continue strangers to such works of national utility.] [footnote : the chief labours of fabricius ("vir [greek: ellênichôtatos]"--as reimannus truly calls him), connected with the present object of our pursuit, have the following titles: . "_bibliotheca græca, sive notitia scriptorum græcorum, &c._," hamb. - - - , &c., to., vols.--of which a new edition is now published by harles, with great additions, and a fresh arrangement of the original matter: twelve volumes have already been delivered to the public. . _bibliotheca latina_; first published in one volume, --then in three volumes, , and afterwards in two volumes, , to.;--but the last and best edition is that of , in three vols. vo., published by ernesti at leipsic--and yet not free from numerous errors. . _bibliographia antiquaria_, , to.: a new edition of schaffshausen, in , to., has superseded the old one. a work of this kind in our own language would be very useful, and even entertaining. fabricius has executed it in a masterly manner. . _bibliotheca ecclesiastica, in quâ continentur variorum authorum tractatus de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, hamb., , folio. an excellent work; in which the curious after theological tracts and their authors will always find valuable information. it is generally sharply contended for at book-auctions. . _bibliotheca latina mediæ et infimæ Ætatis, &c._, leipsic, , vols. vo.--again, with schoettgenius's supplement, in , to., vols. in . this latter is in every respect the best edition of a work which is absolutely indispensable to the philologist. a very excellent synopsis or critical account of fabricius's works was published at ams., , in to., which the student should procure. let me here recommend the _historia bibliothecæ fabricianæ_, compiled by john fabricius, - , vols. to., as a necessary and interesting supplement to the preceding works of john albert fabricius. i have often gleaned some curious bibliographical intelligence from its copious pages. the reader may consult _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., - .] [footnote : he is noticed here only as the author of "_idea bibliothecæ publicæ secundum classes scientiarum ordinandæ, fusior et contractior_," and of the "_scriptores rerum brunswicarum_," hanov., , fol., vols. "the antiquarian, who blushes at his alliance with thomas hearne, will feel his profession ennobled by the name of leibnitz. that extraordinary genius embraced and improved the whole circle of human science; and, after wrestling with newton and clark in the sublime regions of geometry and metaphysics, he could descend upon earth to examine the uncouth characters and barbarous latin of a chronicle or charter." gibbon: _post. works_, vol. ii., . consult also _mem. de l'inst._, vol. v., .] [footnote : i will not pretend to enumerate all the learned works of burchard gotthlieb struvius. his "_bibliotheca librorum rariorum_" was published in , to. the first edition of the _bibliotheca historica_ appeared as early as : a very valuable one was published by buder, in , vols.: but the last, and by far the most copious and valuable, is that which exhibits the joint editorial labours of buder and meusel, in eleven octavo volumes, , --though i believe it does not contain every thing which may be found in the edition of the _bibl. hist. selecta_, by jugler, , three vols. vo.: vide pp. iv. and vii. of the preface of meusel's edition. the _bibl. hist. select._, by jugler, was formerly published under the title of _introd. in notitiam rei literariæ et usum bibliothecæ_. jugler's edition of it contains a stiff portrait of himself in a finely embroidered satin waistcoat. the first volume, relating to foreign libraries, is very interesting: but, unluckily, the work is rare. of struvius's _bibl. saxonica_, , vo., i never saw a copy.] phil. you are advancing towards the middle of the th century, in enumerating foreign publications, without calling to mind that we have, at home, many laudable publications relating to typography and bibliography, which merit at least some notice, if not commendation. lysand. i thank you for the reproof. it is true, i was running precipitately to introduce a crowd of foreigners to your notice, without paying my respects, by the way, to the _historical libraries_ of bishop nicolson, the _bibliotheca literaria_ of wasse, and the _librarian_ of william oldys. nor should i omit to mention the still more creditable performance of bishop tanner: while the typographical publications of watson, palmer, and middleton,[ ] may as well be admitted into your libraries, if you are partial to such works; although upon this latter subject, the elegant quarto volume of ames merits particular commendation. [footnote : let us go gently over this _british_ ground, which lysander depictures in rather a flowery manner. the first edition of bishop nicolson's _english historical library_ was published in the years , , and --comprehending the entire three parts. in , came forth the _scottish_ historical library; and in , the _irish_ historical library. these three libraries, with the author's letter to bishop kennet in defence of the same, are usually published in one volume; and the last and best editions of the same are those of , fol., and , to. mr. john nichols has recently published an entertaining posthumous work of the bishop's _epistolary correspondence_, in two octavo volumes, . some of these letters throw light and interest upon the literature of the times. as to the authority of bishop nicolson, in his historical matters, i fear the sharp things which are said of his libraries by tyrrell (pref. to _hist. engl._, vol. ii., p. .), and wood (_athen. brit._, vol. ii., col. , ed. ), all which authorities are referred to by mr. nichols, are sufficiently founded upon truth. he was a violent and wrong-headed writer in many respects; but he had acumen, strength, and fancy. the _bibliotheca literaria_ of wasse (although his name does not appear as the professed editor) is a truly solid and valuable publication; worthy of the reputation of the learned editor of sallust. the work was published in numbers, which were sold at one shilling each; but, i suppose from the paucity of classical readers, it could not be supported beyond the th number ( ); when it ceased to be published. some of the dissertations are very interesting as well as erudite. oldys's _british librarian_ was published in six numbers, during the first six months of the year ; forming, with the index, an octavo volume of pages. it is difficult to say, from the conclusion (p. - ), whether the work was dropped for want of encouragement, or from the capriciousness or indolence of the author: but i suspect that the ground was suffered "to lie fallow" (to use his own words) till it was suffocated with weeds--owing to the _former_ cause: as oldys never suffered his pen to lie idle while he could "put money in his purse" from his lucubrations. we shall speak of him more particularly in part v. meanwhile, the reader is informed that the _british librarian_ is a work of no common occurrence, or mean value. it is rigidly correct, if not very learned, in bibliographical information. i once sent three guineas to procure a copy of it, according to its description, upon large paper; but, on its arrival, i found it to be not quite so large as my own tolerably amply-margined copy. bishop tanner's _bibliotheca britanico-hibernica_, which cost the author forty years' labour, was published in , folio; with a preface by dr. wilkins. we must receive it with many thanks, imperfect and erroneous as many parts of it are; but i hope the period is not very remote when a literary friend, living, as he constantly is, in an inexhaustible stock of british literature of all kinds, will give us a new edition, with copious additions and corrections, translated into our native tongue. _the history of the art of printing_ by watson, edit., , vo., is at best but a meagre performance. it happens to be rare, and, therefore, bibliomaniacs hunt after it. my copy of it, upon large paper, cost me _l._ _s._ it was formerly paton's, of edinburgh, a knowing antiquary in scottish printing. the _history of printing_, by palmer, , to., and dr. middleton's _dissertations upon the same_, , to., have been particularly treated by me, as well as the similar works of ames and herbert, in the first volume of my new edition of herbert's _british typographical antiquities_; and the public is too well acquainted with the merits and demerits of each to require their being pointed out in the present place. i will close this note by observing that the _censuria literaria_, in ten volumes octavo; and the _british bibliographer_ (now publishing) which grew out of it; mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_, six volumes, vo.; and mr. savage's continuation of _the british librarian_; are works which render the list of english publications, relating to typography and curious books, almost complete. i believe i may safely affirm that the period is not very distant when some of these latter publications, from the comparatively few copies which were struck off, will become very rare.] lis. i am glad to hear such handsome things said of the performances of our own countrymen. i was fearful, from your frequent sly allusions, that we had nothing worth mentioning. but proceed with your germans, italians, and frenchmen. lysand. you draw too severe a conclusion. i have made no sly allusions. my invariable love of truth impels me to state facts as they arise. that we have philosophers, poets, scholars, divines, lovers and collectors of books, equal to those of any nation upon earth is most readily admitted. but bibliography has never been, till now, a popular (shall i say fashionable?) pursuit amongst the english. lis. well, if what you call bibliography has produced such eminent men, and so many useful works, as those which have been just enumerated, i shall begin to have some little respect for this department of literature; and, indeed, i already feel impatient to go through the list of your bibliographical heroes.--who is the next champion deserving of notice? lysand. this confession gives me sincere pleasure. only indulge me in my rambling manner of disquisition, and i will strive to satisfy you in every reasonable particular. if ever you should be disposed to form a bibliographical collection, do not omit securing, when it comes across you, the best edition of du fresnoy's[ ] _methode pour étudier l'histoire_: it is rare, and sought after in this country. and now--softly approach, and gently strew the flowers upon, the tomb of worthy niceron:[ ] low lies the head, and quiescent has become the pen, of this most excellent and learned man!--whose productions have furnished biographers with some of their choicest materials, and whose devotion to literature and history has been a general theme of admiration and praise. the mention of this illustrious name, in such a manner, has excited in my mind a particular train of ideas. let me, therefore, in imagination, conduct you both to yonder dark avenue of trees--and, descending a small flight of steps, near the bottom of which gushes out a salient stream--let us enter a spacious grotto, where every thing is cool and silent; and where small alabaster busts, of the greater number of those bibliographers i am about to mention, decorate the niches on each side of it. how tranquil and how congenial is such a resting place!--but let us pursue our inquires. yonder sharp and well turned countenances, at the entrance of the grotto, are fixed there as representations of cardinal quirini[ ] and goujet; the _bibliothéque françoise_ of the latter of whom--with which i could wish book collectors, in general, to have a more intimate acquaintance--has obtained universal reputation.[ ] next to him, you may mark the amiable and expressive features of david clement:[ ] who, in his _bibliothéque curieuse_, has shown us how he could rove, like a bee, from flower to flower; sip what was sweet; and bring home his gleanings to a well-furnished hive. the principal fault of this bee (if i must keep up the simile) is that he was not sufficiently choice in the flowers which he visited; and, of course, did not always extract the purest honey. nearly allied to clement in sprightliness, and an equally gossipping bibliographer, was prosper marchand;[ ] whose works present us with some things no where else to be found, and who had examined many curious and rare volumes; as well as made himself thoroughly acquainted with the state of bibliography previous to his own times. [footnote : the last edition of this work is the one which was printed in fifteen volumes, crown vo., at paris, : with a copious index--and proportionable improvements in corrections and additions. it is now rare. i threw out the old edition of , four vols., to., upon large paper; and paid three guineas to boot for the new one, neatly bound.] [footnote : it is quite delightful to read the account, in the _dict. hist._, published at caen, , (vol. vi., p. ) of jean pierre niceron; whose whole life seems to have been devoted to bibliography and literary history. frank, amiable, industrious, communicative, shrewd, and learned--niceron was the delight of his friends, and the admiration of the public. his "_memoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustres, &c., avec un catalogue raisonné de leur ouvrages_," was published from the years to , in forty crown vo. volumes. a supplement of three volumes, the latter of which is divided into _two parts_, renders this very useful, and absolutely necessary, work complete in volumes. the bibliomaniac can never enjoy perfect rest till he is in possession of it!] [footnote : quirini published his "_specimen variæ literaturæ quæ in urbe brixiæ ejusque ditione paulo post typographiæ incunabula florebat_," _&c._, at brescia, in ; two vols., vo.: then followed "_catalogo delle opere del cardinale quirini uscite alla luce quasi tuttee da' torchi di mi gian maria rizzardi stampatore in brescia_," vo. in , valois addressed to him his "_discours sur les bibliothéques publiques_," in vo.: his eminence's reply to the same was also published in vo. but the cardinal's chief reputation, as a bibliographer, arises from the work entitled "_de optimorum scriptorum editionibus_." lindaugiæ, , to. this is schelhorn's edition of it, which is chiefly coveted, and which is now a rare book in this country. it is a little surprising that lysander, in his love of grand national biographical works, mingled with bibliographical notices, should have omitted to mention the _bibliotheca lusitana_ of joaov and barbosa, published at lisbon, , in four magnificent folio volumes. a lover of portuguese literature will always consider this as "opus splendidissimum et utilissimum."] [footnote : _la bibliothéque françoise, ou histoire de la littérature françoise_, of claude pierre goujet, in eighteen volumes, crown vo., , like the similar work of niceron, is perhaps a little too indiscriminate in the choice of its objects: good, bad, and indifferent authors being enlisted into the service. but it is the chéf-d'oeuvre of goujet, who was a man of wonderful parts; and no bibliographer can be satisfied without it. goujet was perhaps among the most learned, if not the "facile princeps," of those who cultivated ancient french literature. he liberally assisted niceron in his memoires, and furnished moreri with corrections for his dictionary.] [footnote : the "_bibliothèque curieuse, historique et critique, ou catalogue raisonné de livres difficiles à trouver_," of david clement, published at gottingen, hanover, and leipsic, in quarto volumes, from the year to --is, unfortunately, an unfinished production; extending only to the letter h. the reader may find a critique upon it in my _introduction to the greek and latin classics_, vol. i., p. ; which agrees, for the greater part, with the observations in the _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., . the work is a _sine quâ non_ with collectors; but in this country it begins to be--to use the figurative language of some of the german bibliographers--"scarcer than a white crow,"--or "a black swan." the reader may admit which simile he pleases--or reject both! but, in sober sadness, it is very rare, and unconscionably dear. i know not whether it was the same clement who published "_les cinq années littéraires, ou lettres de m. clément, sur les ouvrages de littérature, qui ont parus dans les années --á _;" berlin, , mo., two volumes. where is the proof of the assertion, so often repeated, that clement borrowed his notion of the above work from wendler's _dissertatio de variis raritatis librorum impressorum causis_, jen., , to.?--wendler's book is rare among us: as is also berger's _diatribe de libris rarioribus, &c._, berol. , vo.] [footnote : the principal biographical labours of this clever man have the following titles: "_histoire de l'imprimerie_," la haye, , to.--an elegant and interesting volume, which is frequently consulted by typographical antiquaries. of mercier's supplement to it, see note in the ensuing pages under the word "mercier." his "_dictionnaire historique, ou memoires critiques et littéraires_," in two folio volumes, , was a posthumous production; and a very extraordinary and amusing bibliographical common-place book it is! my friend mr. douce, than whom few are better able to appreciate such a work, will hardly allow any one to have a warmer attachment to it, or a more thorough acquaintance with its contents, than himself--and yet there is no bibliographical work to which i more cheerfully or frequently turn! in the editor's advertisement we have an interesting account of marchand: who left behind, for publication, a number of scraps of paper, sometimes no bigger than one's nail; upon which he had written his remarks in so small a hand-writing that the editor and printer were obliged to make use of a strong magnifying glass to decypher it--"et c'est ici (continues the former) sans doute le premier livre qui n'ait pu être imprimé sans le secours continuel du microscope." marchand died in , and left his mss. and books, in the true spirit of a bibliomaniac, to the university of leyden. i see, from the conclusion of this latter authority, that a new edition of marchand's history of printing was in meditation to be published, after the publication of the dictionary. whether mercier availed himself of marchand's corrected copy, when he put forth his supplement to the latter's typographical history, i have no means of ascertaining. certainly there never was a second edition of the _histoire de l'imprimerie_, by marchsnd [transcriber's note: marchand].] perhaps i ought to have noticed the unoccupied niche under which the name of vogt[ ] is inscribed; the title of whose work has been erroneously considered more seductive than the contents of it. as we go on, we approach fournier; a man of lively parts, and considerable taste. his works are small in size, but they are written and printed with singular elegance.[ ] see what a respectable and almost dignified air the highly finished bust of the pensionary meerman[ ] assumes! few men attained to greater celebrity in his day; and few men better deserved the handsome things which were said of him. polite, hospitable, of an inquisitive and active turn of mind--passionately addicted to rare and curious books--his library was a sort of bibliographical emporium, where the idle and the diligent alike met with a gracious reception. peace to the manes of such a man! turn we now round to view the features of that truly eminent and amiable bibliographer, de bure! [footnote : the earliest edition of vogt's _catalogus librorum rariorum_ was published in ; afterwards in ; again in ; again in , much enlarged and improved; and, for the last time, greatly enlarged and corrected, forming by far the "editio optima," of the work--at frankfort and leipsic, , vo.--we are told, in the new preface to this last edition, that the second and third impressions were quickly dispersed and anxiously sought after. vogt is a greater favourite with me than with the generality of bibliographers. his plan, and the execution of it, are at once clear and concise; but he is too prodigal of the term "rare." whilst these editions of vogt's amusing work were coming forth, the following productions were, from time to time, making their appearance, and endeavouring perhaps to supplant its reputation. first of all beyer put forth his _memoriæ historico-criticæ librorum rariorum_. dresd. and lips., , vo.; as well has [transcriber's note: as] his _arcana sacra bibliothecarum dresdensium_, , vo.--with a continuation to the latter, preceded by an epistle concerning the electoral library, separately published in the same year. then engel (in republicâ helveto-bernensi bibliothecarius primus) published his _bibliotheca selectissima, sive catalogus librorum in omni genere scientiarum rarissimorum_, &c., bernæ, , vo.; in which work some axioms are laid down concerning the rarity of books not perhaps sufficiently correct; but in which a great deal of curious matter, very neatly executed, will repay the reader for any expense he may incur in the purchase of it. afterwards freytag's _analecta literaria de libris rarioribus_, lips., , two vols. vo.;--and his _adparatus literarius ubi libri partim antiqui partim rari recensentur_, lipsiæ, , three volumes vo., highly gratified the curious in bibliography. in the former work the books are described alphabetically, which perhaps is the better plan: in the latter, they are differently arranged, with an alphabetical index. the latter is perhaps the more valuable of the two, although the former has long been a great favourite with many; yet, from freytag's own confession, he was not then so knowing in books, and had not inspected the whole of what he described. they are both requisite to the collector; and their author, who was an enthusiast in bibliography, ranks high in the literature of his country. in the last place we may notice the _florilegium historico-criticum librorum rariorum, cui multa simul scitu jucunda intersperguntur_, &c., of daniel gerdes; first published at groningen, in ; but afterwards in , vo., at the same place, the third and best edition. it was meant, in part, to supply the omission of some rare books in vogt: and under this title it was published in the _miscellaneæ groninganæ_, vol. ii., and vol. iii. this work of gerdes should have a convenient place in every bibliographical cabinet. i will close this attempt to supply lysander's omission of some very respectable names connected with bibliography by exhorting the reader to seize hold of a work (whenever it comes across him, which will be rarely) entitled _bibliotheca librorum rariorum universalis_, by john jacob bauer, a bookseller at nuremberg, and printed there in , vo., two vols.; with three additional volumes by way of supplement, - , which latter are usually bound in one. it is an alphabetical dictionary, like vogt's and fournier's, of what are called rare books. the descriptions are compendious, and the references respectable, and sometimes numerous. my copy of this scarce, dear, and wretchedly-printed, work, which is as large and clean as possible, and bound in pale russia, with marbled edges to the leaves--cost me _l._ _s._] [footnote : we are indebted to pierre simon fournier le jeune, for some very beautiful interesting little volumes connected with engraving and printing. . _dissertation sur l'origine et les progrés de l'art de graver en bois, &c._, paris, , vo. . _de l'origine et des productions de l'imprimerie primitive en taille de bois_, paris, , vo. . _traité sur l'origine et les progrés de l'imprimerie_, paris, . . _observations sur un ouvrage intitulé vindiciæ typographicæ_, paris, . these treatises are sometimes bound in one volume. they are all elegantly printed, and rare. we may also mention-- . _epreuves de deux petits caractères nouvellement gravès, &c._, paris, ; and especially his chef-d'oeuvre. . _manuel typographique_, paris, - , vo., two vols.: of which some copies want a few of the cuts: those upon large paper (there is one of this kind in the cracherode collections) are of the first rarity. fournier's typographical manual should be in every printing office: his types "are the models (says his namesake,) of those of the best printed books at paris at this day." _dict. port. de bibliogr._, p. , edit. .] [footnote : the _origines typographicæ_ of meerman, which was published at the hague in two handsome quarto volumes, , (after the plan or prospectus had been published in , vo.), secured its author a very general and rather splendid reputation, till the hypothesis advanced therein, concerning laurence coster, was refuted by heinecken. the reader is referred to a note in the first volume of my new edition of the _typographical antiquities of great britain_, p. xxxi. it is somewhat singular that, notwithstanding meerman's hypothesis is now exploded by the most knowing bibliographers, his dissertation concerning the claims of haerlem should have been reprinted in french, with useful notes, and an increased catalogue of all the books published in the low countries, during the th century. this latter work is entitled "_de l'invention de l'imprimerie, ou analyse des deux ouvrages publiés sur cette matière par m. meerman, &c.; suivi d'une notice chronologique et raisonnée des livres avec et sans date_," paris, , vo. the author is mons. jansen. prefixed there is an interesting account, of meerman. lysander might have noticed, with the encomium which it justly merits the _vindiciæ typographicæ_ of schoepflin, printed at strasburg, in , to.; where the claimes of gutenburg (a native of the same city) to the invention of the typographic art are very forcibly and successfully maintained.] lis. you absolutely transport me! i see all these interesting busts--i feel the delicious coolness of the grotto--i hear the stream running over a bed of pebbles--the zephyrs play upon my cheeks--o dolt that i was to abuse---- phil. hear him, hear him![ ] [footnote : vide note at p. , ante.] lysand. from my heart i pity and forgive you. but only look upon the bust of de bure; and every time that you open his _bibliographie instructive_,[ ] confess, with a joyful heart, the obligations you are under to the author of it. learn, at the same time, to despise the petty cavils of the whole zoilean race; and blush for the abbé rive,[ ] that he could lend his name, and give the weight of his example, to the propagation of coarse and acrimonious censures. [footnote : the works of guillaume-franÇois de bure deserve a particular notice. he first published his _musæum typographicum_, paris, , mo.; of which he printed but twelve copies, and gave away every one of them (including even his own) to his book-loving friends. it was published under the name of g.f. rebude. peignot is very particular in his information concerning this rare morçeau of bibliography--see his _bibliographie curieuse_, p. . afterwards appeared the _bibliographie instructive_, in seven volumes, vo., - --succeeded by a small volume of a catalogue of the anonymous publications, and an essay upon bibliography: this th volume is absolutely necessary to render the work complete, although it is frequently missing. fifty copies of this work were printed upon large paper, of a quarto size. its merits are acknowledged by every candid and experienced critic. in the third place, came forth his _catalogue des livres, &c., de l.j. gaignat, paris_, , vo., two vols.: not, however, before he had published two brochures--"_appel aux savans_," _&c._, , vo.--and "_reponse à une critique de la bibliographie instructive_," , vo.--as replies to the tart attacks of the abbé rive. the catalogue of gaignat, and the fairness of his answers to his adversary's censures, served to place de bure on the pinnacle of bibliographical reputation; while rive was suffered to fret and fume in unregarded seclusion. he died in the year , aged : and was succeeded in his bibliographical labours by his cousin william; who, with mons. van-praet, prepared the catalogue of the duke de la valliere's library, in , and published other valuable catalogues as late as the year . but both are eclipsed, in regard to the _number_ of such publications, by their predecessor gabriel martin; who died in the year , aged --after having compiled catalogues since the year . this latter was assisted in his labours by his son claude martin, who died in . see peignot's _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. i., , : vol iii., .] [footnote : the mention of de bure and the abbé rive induces me to inform the reader that the _chasse aux bibliographes_, paris, , vo., of the latter, will be found a receptacle of almost every kind of gross abuse and awkward wit which could be poured forth against the respectable characters of the day. it has now become rare. the abbé's "_notices calligraphiques et typographiques_," a small tract of pages--of which only copies were printed--is sufficiently curious; it formed the first number of a series of intended volumes ( or ) "_des notices calligraphiques de manuscrits des differens siécles, et des notices typographiques de livres du quinziéme siécle_," but the design was never carried into execution beyond this first number. the other works of rive are miscellaneous; but chiefly upon subjects connected with the belles lettres. he generally struck off but few copies of his publications; see the _bibliographie curieuse_, pp. - ; and more particularly the _dictionnaire de bibliologie_, vol. iii., p. , by the same author, where a minute list of rive's productions is given, and of which fournier might have availed himself in his new edition of the _dict. portatif de bibliographie_. from peignot, the reader is presented with the following anecdotes of this redoubted champion of bibliography. when rive was a young man, and curate of mollèges in provence, the scandalous chronicle reported that he was too intimate with a young and pretty parisian, who was a married woman, and whose husband did not fail to reproach him accordingly. rive made no other reply than that of taking the suspicious benedick in his arms, and throwing him headlong out of the window. luckily he fell upon a dunghill! in the year , upon a clergyman's complaining to him of the inflexible determination of a great lord to hunt upon his grounds--"_mettez-lui une messe dans le ventre_"--repiled [transcriber's note: replied] rive. the clergyman expressing his ignorance of the nature of the advice given, the facetious abbé replied, "go and tear a leaf from your _mass book_, wrap a musket-ball in it, and discharge it at the tyrant." the duke de la valliere used to say--when the knowing ones at his house were wrangling about some literary or bibliographical point--"gentlemen, i'll go and let loose my bull dog,"--and sent into them the abbé, who speedily put them all to rights. rive died in the year , aged seventy-one. he had great parts and great application; but in misapplying both he was his own tormentor. his library was sold in .] next to the bust of de bure, consider those of the five italian bibliographers and literati, haym, fontanini, zeno, mazzuchelli, and tiraboschi; which are placed in the five consecutive niches. their works are of various merit, but are all superior to that of their predecessor doni. although those of the first three authors should find a place in every bibliographical collection, the productions of mazzuchelli,[ ] and especially of the immortal tiraboschi, cannot fail to be admitted into every judicious library, whether vast or confined. italy boasts of few literary characters of a higher class, or of a more widely-diffused reputation than tiraboschi.[ ] his diligence, his sagacity, his candour, his constant and patriotic exertions to do justice to the reputation of his countrymen, and to rescue departed worth from ill-merited oblivion, assign to him an exalted situation: a situation with the poggios and politians of former times, in the everlasting temple of fame! bind his _storia della letteratura italiana_ in the choicest vellum, or in the stoutest russia; for it merits no mean covering! [footnote : we may first observe that "_la libraria del_ doni _fiorentino_;" vinegia, , vo., is yet coveted by collectors as the most complete and esteemed of all the editions of this work. it is ornamented with many portraits of authors, and is now rare. consult _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., p. . numerous are the editions of haym's _biblioteca italiana_; but those of milan, of the date of , to., vols., and , vo. vols., are generally purchased by the skilful in italian bibliography. the best edition of fontanini's _biblioteca dell' eloquenza italiana_ is with the annotations of zeno, which latter are distinguished for their judgment and accuracy. it was published at venice in , to., vols.; but it must be remembered that this edition contains only the _third_ book of fontanini, which is a library of the principal italian authors. all the three books (the first two being a disquisition upon the orgin [transcriber's note: origin] and progress of the italian language) will be found in the preceeding [transcriber's note: preceding] venice edition of , in one volume to. in the year - , came forth the incomparable but unfinished work of count mazzuchelli, in two folio volumes, [the latter vol. being divided into four thick parts] entittled [transcriber's note: entitled]: _gli scrittori d'italia, cioé notizie storiche e critiche intorno alle vite e agli scritti dei letterati italiani_. the death of the learned author prevented the publication of it beyond the first two letters of the alphabet. the count, however, left behind ample materials for its execution according to the original plan, which lay shamefully neglected as late as the year . see _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., p. . this work is rare in our own country. if the lover of italian philology wishes to increase his critico-literary stores, let him purchase the _biblioteca degli autori antichi greci, e latini volgarizzati_, &c., of paitoni, in five quarto volumes, : the _notizie istorico-critiche &c., degli scrittori viniziani_, [transcriber's note: corrected printer error in original; 'degli' was misplaced on preceding line] of agostini, venez., , to., vols.: and the _letteratura turchesca of_ giambatista toderini, venez., , vo., vols.--works nearly perfect of their kind, and (especially the latter one) full of curious matter.] [footnote : the best edition of his _letteratura italiana_ is that of modena, - , to., in fifteen volumes, as it contains his last corrections and additions, and has the advantage of a complete index. an excellent account of the life and labours of its wonderful author appeared in the fifth volume of the _athenæum_, to the perusal of which i strongly recommend the reader.] the range of busts which occupies the opposite niches represents characters of a more recent date. let us begin with mercier;[ ] a man of extraordinary, and almost unequalled, knowledge in every thing connected with bibliography and typography; of a quick apprehension, tenacious memory, and correct judgment; who was more anxious to detect errors in his own publications than in those of his fellow labourers in the same pursuit; an enthusiast in typographical researches--the ulysses of bibliographers! next to him stand the interesting busts of saxius and laire;[ ] the latter of whom has frequently erred, but who merited not such a castigation as subsequent bibliographers have attempted to bestow upon him: in the number of which, one is sorry to rank the very respectable name of audiffredi[ ]--whose bust, you observe, immediately follows that of laire. audiffredi has left behind him a most enviable reputation: that of having examined libraries with a curious eye, and described the various books which he saw with scrupulous fidelity. there are no lively or interesting sallies, no highly-wrought, or tempting descriptions--throughout his two quarto volumes: but, in lieu of this, there is sober truth, and sound judgment. i have mentioned audiffredi a little out of order, merely because his name is closely connected with that of laire: but i should have first directed your attention to the sagacious countenance of heinecken;[ ] whose work upon ancient printing, and whose _dictionary of engravers_ (although with the latter we have nothing just now to do) will never fail to be justly appreciated by the collector. i regret, lisardo, for your own sake--as you are about to collect a few choice books upon typography--that you will have so much to pay for the former work, owing to its extreme rarity in this country, and to the injudicious phrenzy of a certain class of buyers, who are resolved to purchase it at almost any price. let me not forget to notice, with the encomiums which they deserve, the useful and carefully compiled works of seemiller, braun, wurdtwein, de murr, rossi, and panzer, whose busts are arranged in progressive order. all these authors[ ] are greatly eminent in the several departments which they occupy; especially panzer--whose _annales typographici_, in regard to arrangement and fulness of information, leaves the similar work of his precedessor, maittaire, far behind. it is unluckily printed upon wretched paper--but who rejects the pine-apple from the roughness of its coat? get ready the wherry; man it with a choice bibliomanical crew, good lisardo!--and smuggle over in it, if you can, the precious works of these latter bibliographers--for you may saunter "from rise to set of sun," from whitechapel to hyde-park corner--for them--in vain! [footnote : barthelemy, mercier de st. leger, died in the year , and in the sixty-sixth of his age, full of reputation, and deeply regretted by those who knew the delightful qualities of his head and heart. it is not my intention to enumerate _all_ his publications, the titles of which may be found in the _siécles littéraires_, vol. iv., p. : but, in the present place, i will only observe that his "_supplement à l'histoire de l'imprimerie, par p. marchand_," was first published in , and afterwards in , to., a rare and curious work; but little known in this country. his _bibliothéque des romans, traduit de grec_, was published in , vols. mo. his letter concerning de bure's work, , vo., betrayed some severe animadversions upon the _bibliogr. instruct._: but he got a similar flagellation in return, from the abbé rive, in his _chasse aux bibliographes_--who held him and de bure, and all the bibliographical tribe, in sovereign contempt. his letter to heinecken upon the rare editions of the th century, , vo., and his other works, i never saw in any collection. the imperial library at paris purchased his copy of du verdier's and la croix du maine's bibliothéques, covered with his marginal annotations, as well as his copy of clement's _bibl. curieuse_. le blond, member of the institute, obtained his copy of de bure's _bibliographie instructive_, also enriched with ms. notes. mr. ochéda, lord spencer's librarian, who knew well the abbé de st. leger, informed me that he left behind him ample materials for a history of printing, in a new edition of his supplement to marchand's work, which he projected publishing, and which had received from him innumerable additions and corrections. "he was a man," says mr. ochéda, "the most conversant with editions of books of all kinds, and with every thing connected with typography and bibliography, that i ever conversed with." the reader may consult peignot's _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. i., p. , vol. iii., p. .] [footnote : the _onomasticon literarium_ of christopher saxius, _traject. ad rhenum_, - , seven vols. vo., with a supplement, or eighth volume, published in , is considered as a work of the very first reputation in its way. the notices of eminent men are compendious, but accurate; and the arrangement is at once lucid and new. an elegantly bound copy of this scarce work cannot be obtained for less than six and seven guineas. the first bibliographical production of the abbé laire was, i believe, the _specimen historicum typographiæ romanæ, xv. seculi, romæ_, , large vo.; of which work, a copy printed upon vellum (perhaps unique) was sold at the sale of m. d'hangard, in , for livres. _dictionn. bibliogr._, vol. iv., p. . in my introduction, &c., to the greek and latin classics, some account of its intrinsic merit will be found: vol. i., p. xviii. in the year laire published a "_dissertation sur l'origine et progrès de l'imprimerie en franche-comté_," vo.; and, in the year , came forth his catalogue raisonné of the early printed books in the library of cardinal de lomenie de brienne; under the title of "_index librorum ab inventa typographia, ad annum _," in two octavo volumes. see the article "lomenie," in the list of foreign catalogues, post. laire was also the author of a few other minor bibliographical productions. all the books in his library, relating to this subject, were covered with marginal notes; some of them very curious. see peignot's _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. i., p. : and _les siecles littéraires_, ( , vo.) vol. iv., p. .] [footnote : the works and the merits of audiffredi have been before submitted by me to the public; and mr. beloe, in the third volume of his "_anecdotes of literature_," &c., has justly observed upon the latter. in lord spencer's magnificent library at althorpe, i saw a copy of the "_editiones italicæ_," sec. xv., , to., upon large paper. it is much to be wished that some knowing bibliographer upon the continent would complete this unfinished work of audiffredi. his _editiones romanæ_, sec. xv., , to., is one of the most perfect works of bibliography extant: yet laire's "_index librorum_," &c. (see preceeding note), is necessary to supply the omission of some early books printed at rome, which had escaped even this keen bibliographer!] [footnote : heinecken's name stands deservedly high (notwithstanding his tediousness and want of taste) among bibliographical and typographical antiquaries. of his "_nachrichten von kunstlern und kunst-sachen_," leipzig, , vo., two vols., (being "new memoirs upon artists and the objects of art"--and which is frequently referred to by foreigners,) i never saw a copy. it was again published in . his "_idée générale d'une collection complette d'estampes_," &c., leips., , vo., is a most curious and entertaining book; but unconscionably dear in this country. his "_dictionnaire des artistes dont nous avons des estampes_," &c., leips. , vo., four vols., is an unfinished performance, but remarkably minute as far as it goes. the remainder, written in the german language, continues in ms. in the electorate library at dresden, forming twelve volumes. of the character of heinecken's latter work, consult huber's _manuel, &c., des amateurs de l'art_, zurich, , vo.: and a recent work entitled "_notices des graveurs_," paris, , vo., two vols. heinecken died at the advanced age of eighty.] [footnote : we will discuss their works _seriatim_, as lisardo has said above. seemiller's _bibliothecæ incolstadiensis incunabula typographica_, contains four parts, or fasciculi: they are bound in one volume, quarto, , &c.; but, unfortunately for those who love curious and carefully executed works, it is rather rare in this country. the _notitia historico-critica de libris ab art typog. invent._, by placid braun, in two parts, or volumes, , to., with curious plates, has long been a desideratum in my own collection; and my friend mr. beloe, who is luckily in possession of a copy, enjoys his triumph over me when he discovers it not in my bibliographical boudoir. the same author also published his "_notitia historico-literaria de cod. mss. in bibl. monast. ord. s. bened. ad ss. vidal. et afram augustæ ex tantibus_," aug. vindel., , to., two vols. _cat. de santander_, vol. iv., p. . i know not how any well versed bibliographer can do without the "_bibliotheca moguntina libris sæculo primo tpyographico [transcriber's note: typographico] moguntiæ impressis instructa_;" , to., of wurdtwein. it has some curious plates of fac-similes, and is rarely seen in the strand or king-street book-markets.----c.t. de murr published a work of some interest, entitled, "_memorabilia bibliothecarum publicarum norimbergensium_," norimb., - , three parts or vols. vo.; which is also rare.----rossi's valuable work concerning the annals of hebrew typography: _annales hebræo-typographici, à , ad _, parmæ, , , to., two separate publications, is prettily printed by bodoni, and is an indispensable article in the collection of the typographical antiquary. see the _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. iii., p. .----panzer's _annales typographici_, in eleven quarto volumes ( - ) is a work of the very first importance to bibliographers. its arrangement, after the manner of orlandi's, is clear and most convenient; and the references to authorities, which are innumerable, are, upon the whole, very faithful. the indexes are copious and satisfactory. this work (of which i hear there are only three copies upon large paper) contains an account of books which were printed in all parts of europe from the year , to , inclusive; but it should be remembered that the author published a distinct work in the year , to., relating to books which were printed, within the same period, in the _german language_; and this should always accompany the eleven latin volumes. i will just add from it, as a curiosity, the title and colophon (translated into english) of the first printed book in the german language:--"the publication of diethers, elector of mayence, against count adolphus of nassau; _given out under our impressed seal on tuesday, after the fourth sunday in advent, anno domini _." consult also wurdtwein's _bibl. mogunt._, p. ; and the authorities there referred to. it seems doubtful whether this curious little brochure, of which scarcely any thing more than a fragment now remains, was printed by fust and schoeffer, or by gutenberg.] what countenances are those which beam with so much quiet, but interesting, expression? they are the resemblances of denis and camus:[ ] the former of whom is better known from his _annalium typographicorum maittaire supplementum_; and the latter very generally respected abroad, although our acquaintance with him in this country is exceedingly slight. if i mistake not, i observe the mild and modest countenance of my old acquaintance, herbert, in this bibliographical group of heads? do not despise his toil[ ] because it is not sprinkled with gay conceits, or learned digressions: he wrote to be useful, not to be entertaining; and so far as he went, his work was such an improvement upon his predecessor's plan as to place it quite at the head of national typography. see yonder the sensible countenance of harwood![ ] the first writer in this country who taught us to consider the respective merits and demerits of the various editions of greek and latin authors. [footnote : michael denis, the translator of ossian, and a bibliographer of justly established eminence, was principal librarian of the imperial library at vienna, and died in the year , at the age of . his _supplement to maittaire's typographical annals_, in two parts or volumes, , to., is a work of solid merit, and indispensable to the possessor of its precursor. the bibliographical references are very few; but the descriptions of the volumes are minutely accurate. the indexes also are excellent. in the year , denis published the first volume (in three thick parts in folio) of his _codices manuscripti theologici bibl. palat. vindob._; a production which the reader will find somewhat fully described in the ensuing pages. the second volume appeared after his death in . in - , came forth his second edition of an _introduction to the knowledge of books_, in two quarto volumes; unfortunately written in the german language--but mentioned with approbation in the first volume of the _mem. de l'inst._, p. . consult also peignot's _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. i., p. ; ii., .----armand gaston camus is a bibliographer of very first rate reputation. the reader has only to peruse the following titles of some of his works, and he will certainly bewail his ill fortune if they are not to be found in his library. . _observations sur la distribution et le classement des livres d'une bibliothéque_: . _additions aux mêmes_; . _memoire sur un livre allemand_ (which is the famous tewrdannckhs; and about which is to be hoped that mr. douce will one day favour us with his curious remarks): . _addition au même_: . _memoire sur l'histoire et les procédés du polytypage et de la stéréotypie_: . _rapport sur la continuation de la collection des historiens de france, et de celle des chartres et diplomes_: . _notice d'un livre imprimé à bamberg en _. all these works are thus strung together, because they occur in the first three volumes of the _memoires de l'institut_. this curious book, printed at bamberg, was discovered by a german clergyman of the name of stenier, and was first described by him in the _magasin hist.-litt., bibliogr._ chemintz, : but camus's memoir is replete with curious matter, and is illustrated with fac-simile cuts. in the "_notices et extraits des mss. de la bibl. nationale_," vol. vi., p. , will be found a most interesting memoir by him, relating to two ancient manuscript bibles, in two volumes folio, adorned with a profusion of pictures: of some of which very elegant fac-similes are given. these pictures are in number! each of them having a latin and french verse beautifully written and illuminated beneath.--camus supposes that such a work could not now be executed under , francs!--"where (exclaims he) shall we find such modern specimens of book-luxury?" in the year , he published an admirable "_mémoire sur la collection des grands et petits voyages, et sur la collection des voyages des melchesedech thevenot_," to., with an excellent "table des matières." of his own journey into the low countries, recently published, i never met with a copy. all the preceding works, with the exception of the last, are in my own humble collection.] [footnote : a short bibliographical memoir of herbert will be found in the first volume of my edition of the _typographical antiquities of great britain_. since that was published, i have gleaned a few further particulars relating to him, which may be acceptable to the reader. shortly after the appearance of his third volume, he thus speaks in a letter to mr. price, librarian of the bodleian library, "if at any time you meet with any book of which i have not taken notice, or made any mistake in the description of it, your kind information will be esteemed a favour; as i purpose to continue collecting materials for a future publication, when enough shall be collected to make another volume." this was in april, . in the ensuing month he thus addresses his old friend mr. white, of crickhowell, who, with himself, was desperately addicted to the black-letter. "to morrow my wife and self set out for norfolk to take a little relaxation for about a fortnight. i hope my labours will in some good measure answer the expectation of my friends and subscribers in general. sure i am my best endeavours have been exerted for that purpose. i have been years collecting materials; have spent many a fair pound, and many a weary hour; and it is now ten years since the first part was committed to the press. i purpose to continue collecting materials in order to a fourth volume, &c.;--yet by no means will i make myself debtor to the public when to publish: if it shall please god to take me to himself, isaac will in due time set it forth. however i shall keep an interleaved copy for the purpose." in a letter to a mr. john banger russell (in dorsetshire), written in the ensuing month of june, the same sentiments and the same intention are avowed. thus ardent was the bibliomaniacal spirit of herbert in his d year! the _interleaved copy_ here alluded to (which was bound in six volumes to., in russia binding, and for which mr. gough had given herbert's widow _l._ _s._) is now in my possession; as well as the yet more valuable acquisition of some numerous ms. addenda to his history of printing--both of these articles having been purchased by me at the sale of mr. gough's mss. and printed books, a.d. .] [footnote : dr. edward harwood published the fourth and last edition of his "_view of the various editions of the greek and roman classics_," in the year , vo. a work which, in the public estimation, has entitled its author's memory to very considerable respect in the classical world; although the late professor porson, in the fly leaf of a copy of my second edition of a similar publication, was pleased to call the doctor by a name rather unusually harsh with _him_, who was "criticus et lenis et acutus;" censuring also my dependance upon my predecessor. in the year , was published my third edition of "_an introduction to the knowledge of rare and valuable editions of the greek and latin classics_," two volumes vo.: in which, if i may presume to talk of anything so insignificant, i have endeavoured to exhibit the opinions--not of dr. harwood alone, but of the most eminent foreign critics and editors--upon the numerous editions which, in a chronological series, are brought before the reader's attention. the remarks of the first bibliographers in europe are also, for the first time in a english publication, subjoined; so that the lover of curious, as well as of valuable, editions may be equally gratified. the authorities, exceedingly numerous as well as respectable, are referred to in a manner the most unostentatious; and a full measure of text, and to be really useful, was my design from the beginning to the end of it. to write a long and dull homily about its imperfections would be gross affectation. an extensive sale has satisfied my publishers that its merit a little counterbalances its defects.] lis. you are, no doubt, a fond and partial critic in regard to the works of herbert and harwood: but i am glad to recognise my fellow countrymen in such an illustrious assemblage. go on. lysand. we are just at the close. but a few more busts, and those very recently executed, remain to be noticed. these are the resemblances of la serna santander, cailleau, and oberlin;[ ] while several vacant niches remain to be filled up with the busts of more modern bibliographers of eminence: namely, of van-praet, fischer, lambinet, renouard, peignot, fournier, barbier, boucher, and brunet.[ ] [footnote : de la serna santander will always hold a distinguished place amongst bibliographers, not only from the care and attention with which he put forth the catalogue of his own books--the parting from which must have gone near to break his heart--but from his elegant and useful work entitled, "_dictionnaire bibliographique choisi du quinzieme siécle_," , &c., vo., in three parts or volumes. his summary of researches, upon the invention of printing, mr. edwards told me, he read "with complete satisfaction"--this occupies the first part or volume. the remaining volumes form a necessary, as well as brilliant, supplement to de bure. just at this moment, i believe that mr. beloe's, and my own, copy of the work, are the only ones in this country.----cailleau has the credit of being author of the _dictionnaire bibliographique_, &c., in three volumes, octavo, --of which there are a sufficient number of counterfeited and faulty re-impressions; but which, after all, in its original shape, edit. , is not free from gross errors; however useful it is in many respects. i suspect, however, that the abbé duclos had the greater share in this publication: but, be this as it may, the fourth supplemental volume (by the younger brunet) is, in every respect, a more accurate and valuable performance. oberlin, librarian of the central school or college at strasbourg, is author of a bibliographical treatise particularly deserving of the antiquary's attention: namely, _essai d'annales de la vie de jean gutenburg [transcriber's note: gutenberg], &c._, stasb. [transcriber's note: strasb.], an. ix., vo. his other numerous (belles-lettres) works are minutely specified by peignot in his _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. iii., p. . his edition of horace, argent., , to., is both elegant and correct.] [footnote : let us go quietly through the modern french school of bibliography.----mons. joseph van-praet is principal librarian of the imperial collection at paris, and is justly called, by some of his fellow-labourers in the same career, "one of the first bibliographers in europe." he is known to me, as a bibliographical writer, only by the part which he took, and so ably executed, in the valliere catalogue of . peignot informs us that m. van-praet is now busy in composing a little work--which i am sure will rejoice the hearts of all true bibliomaniacs to be apprised of--called a _catalogue raisonné_ of books printed upon vellum; for which he has already prepared not fewer than articles! see the _curiosités bibliogr._, p. iij. among these vellum articles, gentle reader, i assure thee that thine eyes will be blest with the description of "the shyp of fooles," printed by pynson, ! the urbanity and politeness of this distinguished librarian are equal to his knowledge.----gotthelf fischer, a saxon by birth, and librarian of the public collection at mentz, has given us the following interesting treatises, of which, i believe, not five copies are to be found in this country: namely--_essai sur les monumens typographiques de jean gutenberg, &c._, an. x. [ ], to.: and _descriptions de raretés typographiques et de manuscrits remarquables, &c._, nuremb., , vo.--the latter is in the german language, and has cuts--with a portrait of fust. by this time, the work has most probably been translated into french, as it is frequently referred to and highly spoken of by foreigners. peignot [_dict. de bibliologie_, vol. iii., p. ] refers us to the fine eulogy pronounced upon fisher [transcriber's note: fischer] (not yet years of age) by camus, in his "voyage dans les departemens réunis," p. .----lambinet will always be remembered and respected, as long as printing and bibliography shall be studied, by his "_recherches historiques littéraires et critiques, sur l'originè de l'imprimerie; particulièrement sur les premiers établissemens au_ xvme _siécle dans la belgique_," &c., brux., an. vii. ( ), vo. it is, indeed, a very satisfactory performance: the result of judgment and taste--rare union!----in like manner, renouard has procured for himself a bibliographical immortality by his _annales de l'imprimerie des aide_, , vo., two vols.: a work almost perfect of its kind, and by many degrees superior to bandini's dry _annales typog. juntarum._, lucæ, . in renouard's taste, accuracy and interest are delightfully combined; and the work is printed with unrivalled beauty. there were only six copies of it printed upon large paper; one of which i saw in the fine collection of the rt. hon. t. grenville.----few modern bibliographers have displayed so much diligence as gabriel peignot: from whom we have, . _dictionnaire raisonné de bibliologie_, paris, , vo., two vols., with a third, by way of supplement ( ). with necessary corrections and additions, this work would answer many useful purposes in an english translation. . _essai de curiosités bibliographiques_, , vo. this is a very amusing (but scarce and unconscionably dear) book. it contains elaborate descriptions of many curious and sumptuous works, which were sold for and more livres at public sales. . _dictionnaire, &c., des principaux livres condamnés au feu, supprimés ou censurés_, paris, , vo., vols. the very title of such a work must sharpen the edge of curiosity with those bibliomaniacs who have never seen it. . _bibliographie curieuse, ou notice raisonnée des livres imprimés a cent exemplaires au plus, suivie d'une notice de quelques ouvrages tirés sur papier de couleur_, paris, , vo. only one hundred copies of this thin volume were struck off: of which i possess the th copy, according to peignot's notification. indeed i am fortunate in having all his preceding works. let us wish long life and never-failing success to so brave a book-chevalier as gabriel peignot.----franÇois ignace fournier, at years of age, published an elegantly printed little volume, entitled _essai portatif de bibliographie_, , vo., of which only copies were struck off. in the year , this essay assumed the form of a dictionary, and appeared under the title of _dictionnaire portatif de bibliographie, &c._, vo., comprising , articles, printed in a very small character. last year, in the month of may, fournier put forth a new edition of this _dictionnaire_, considerably augmented; but in which (such is the fate of bibliographical studies) notwithstanding all the care of the author, brunet tells us that he has discovered not fewer than five hundred errors! let not fournier, however be discouraged; in a few years he will achieve something yet more worthy of his laudable seal in bibliography.----antoine-alexandre barbier, librarian of the council of state, has favoured us with an admirably well executed work, entitled _dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes, composés, traduits ou publiés en français, &c., accompagneé de notes historiques et critiques_, paris, _imprimis bibliogr._, , vo., two vols. see also art. "conseil d'etat," in the list of french catalogues, post. from these the reader will judge of the warm thanks to which this eminent bibliographer is entitled for his very useful labours.----g. boucher de la richarderie has, in an especial manner, distinguished himself by his _bibliothéque universelle des voyages_, paris, , vo., six vols.: a work executed with care, minuteness, and considerable interest. some of its extracts are, perhaps, unnecessarily long. the index to the sixth volume will lead the reader to consult an account of some of the most ancient, rare, and curious publications of voyages which have ever appeared: and boucher "has deserved well" of the book world by this truly valuable and almost indispensable performance.----brunet le fils. this able writer, and enthusiastic devotee to bibliography, has recently published an excellent and copious work which would appear greatly to eclipse fournier's; entitled "_manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres, contenant, . un nouveau dictionnaire bibliographigue, . une table en forme de catalogue raisonnée_," paris, , vo., vols.: in which he tells us he has devoted at least thirty years to the examination of books. the first two volumes form a scientific arrangement: the latter is an alphabetical one, referring to one or the other of the preceding volumes for a more copious account of the work. it must be confessed that brunet has, in this publication, executed a difficult task with great ability.] lis. i am quite anxious to possess the publications of these moderns: but you say nothing of their comparative value with the ancients. lysand. generally speaking, in regard to discoveries of rare books and typographical curiosities, the moderns have the advantage. they have made more rational conclusions, from data which had escaped their predecessors: and the sparkling and animated manner in which they dress out the particular objects that they describe renders the perusal of their works more pleasant and gratifying. i am not sure that they have the learning of the old school: but their works are, in general, less ponderous and repulsive. the ancient bibliographers were probably too anxious to describe every thing, however minute and unimportant: they thought it better to say too much than too little; and, finding the great mass of readers in former times, uninstructed in these particular pursuits, they thought they could never exhaust a subject by bringing to bear upon it every point, however remotely connected! they found the plain, it is true, parched and sandy; but they were not satisfied with pouring water upon it, 'till they had converted it into a deluge.[ ] [footnote : what denis says, in the preface to his _catalog. cod. mss. bibl. palat. vindob._ (of which see p. , ante) is very just; "media incedendum via; neque nudis codicum titulis, ut quibusdam bibliothecis placuit, in chartam conjectis provehi multum studia, neque _doctis, quæ superioris seculi fuit intemperantia, ambagibus et excursibus_."--this is certainly descriptive of the old school of bibliography.] lis. let me ask you, at this stage of our inquiries, what you mean by bibliographical publications?--and whether the works of those authors which you have enumerated are sufficient to enable a novice, like myself, to have pretty accurate notions about the rarity and intrinsic value of certain works? lysand. by bibliographical publications, i mean such works as give us some knowledge of the literary productions, as well as of the life, of certain learned men; which state the various and the best editions of their lucubrations; and which stimulate us to get possession of these editions. every biographical narrative which is enriched with the mention of curious and rare editions of certain works is, to a great extent, a bibliographical publication. those works which treat professedly upon books are, of course, immediately within the pale of bibliography. lis. but am i to be satisfied with the possession of those works already recommended? phil. i suppose lisardo has heard of certain valuable catalogues, and he wishes to know how far the possession of these may be requisite in order to make him a bibliographer? lysand. at present i will say nothing about the catalogues of the collections of our own countrymen. as we have been travelling principally abroad, we may direct our attention to those which relate to foreign collections. and first, let us pay a due tribute of praise to the published catalogues of libraries collected by the jesuits: men of shrewd talents and unabating research, and in derogation of whose merits voltaire and d'alembert disgraced themselves by scribbling the most contemptible lampoons. the downfall of this society led, not very indirectly, to the destruction of the ancient french monarchy. men seemed to forget that while the most shameless depredations were committed within the libraries of the jesuits, the cause of learning, as well as of liberty, suffered,--and the spoils which have glittered before our eyes, as the precious relics of these collections, serve to afford a melancholy proof how little those men stick at any thing who, in raising the war-whoop of liberty and equality, tear open the very bowels of order, tranquillity, peace, and decorum! but, to the subject. let the catalogues of public collections, when they are well arranged, be received into your library. of foreign private collections, the catalogues[ ] of du fresne, cordes, heinsias, baluze, colbert, rothelin, de boze, prefond, pompadour, gaignat, gouttard, bunau, soubise, la valliere, crevenna, lamoignon, and of several other collections, with which my memory does not just now serve me, will enable you to form a pretty correct estimate of the _marketable value_ of certain rare and sumptuous publications. catalogues are, to bibliographers, what _reports_ are to lawyers: not to be read through from beginning to end--but to be consulted on doubtful points, and in litigated cases. nor must you, after all, place too strong a reliance upon the present prices of books, from what they have produced at former sales; as nothing is more capricious and unsettled than the value of books at a public auction. but, in regard to these catalogues, if you should be fortunate enough to possess any which are printed upon _large paper, with the names of the purchasers, and the prices_ for which each set of books was sold, thrice and four times happy may you account yourself to be, my good lisardo! [footnote : as it would have required more breath than usually falls to the lot of an individual, for lysander to have given even a rough sketch of the merits, demerits, and rarity of certain foreign catalogues of public and private collections--in his discourse with his friends--i have ventured to supply the deficiency by subjoining, in the ensuing _tolerably copious_ note, a list of these catalogues, alphabetically arranged; as being, perhaps, the most convenient and acceptable plan. such an attempt is quite novel; and must be received, therefore, with many grains of allowance. although i am in possession of the greater number (at least of two thirds) of the catalogues described, i am aware that, in regard to the description of those not in my own library, i subject myself to the lash of p. morhof. "inepti sunt, qui librorum catalogos scribunt e catalogis. oculata fides et judicium præsens requiritur." _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., . but the weight of my authorities will, i trust, secure me from any great violence of critical indignation. to render so dry a subject (the very "_hortus siccus_" of bibliography) somewhat palatable, i have here and there besprinkled it with biographical anecdotes of the collectors, and of the state of french literature in the last century and a half.----d'aguesseau. _catalogue des livres imprimés et manuscrits de la bibliothéque de feu monsieur d'aguesseau_, &c., paris, , vo. "anxious to enrich his collection, (says the compiler of this catalogue) the bibliomaniac sees with delight the moment arrive when, by the sale of a library like this, he may add to his precious stores. it is, in truth, a grand collection; especially of history, arts, and sciences, and jurisprudence. the famous chancellor d'aguesseau laid the foundation of this library, which was as universal as his own genius." it would appear that the son, to whom the collection latterly belonged, was gracious in the extreme in the loan of books; and that, in consequence, a public advertisement was inserted at the foot of the "avis preliminaire," to entreat those, who had profited by such kindness, to return their borrowed (shall i say stolen?) goods? for want of these volumes, many sets of books were miserably defective.----anonymiana. _catalogus bibliothecæ anonymianæ, in quo libri rariores recensentur, una cum notis litterariis_, norimb., , vo. this is a catalogue of value, and may be well ranged with its brethren upon the bibliographer's shelf. another "_bibliotheca anonymiana_," was published ten years preceding the present one; at the hague, in three parts, one vol., vo.: which, in the _bibl. solger._, vol iii., no. , is said to contain many rare books: see also no. , _ibid._----d'artois. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de monseigneur le compte d'artois_, paris, , vo. very few copies of this catalogue, which is printed in a wide octavo page, resembling that of a quarto, were struck off: according to fournier's _dict. portat. de bibliogr._, p. , edit. . see also _cat. de boutourlin_, no. .----augustana. _catalogus bibliothecæ inclytæ reipubl. augustanæ utriusque linguæ tum græcæ tum latinæ librorum et impressorum et manu exaratorum._ aug. vindel., , fol. morhof informs us that this catalogue, of which hoeschelius was the compiler, contains an account of some manuscripts which have never been printed, as well as of some which marcus velserus published. it is, moreover, full of precious bibliographical matter; but unfortunately (the possessor of it may think otherwise) only one hundred copies were struck off. _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., . i find, however, some little difficulty about distinguishing this catalogue of the augsbourg library from the impression of , fol., which vogt mentions at p. , and of which he also talks of copies being printed. it should not be forgotten that hoeschelius published an admirable catalogue of the greek mss. in the library of augsbourg, , and again , in to. colomiés pronounces it a model in its way. _bibl. choisie_, p. - . the catalogue of the greek mss. in the library of the duke of bavaria, at munich, was published about the same period; namely, in : the compiler was a skilful man, but he tells us, at the head of the catalogue, that the mss. were open to the inspection of every one who had any work in hand, provided he were a _roman catholic_! this was being very kind to protestants! _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., part i., p. , edit. . see also vogt's _catalog. libror. rarior._, p. .----augustana. _notitia historica-literaria de libris ab artis typographicæ inventione usque ad annum, , impressis, in bibliotheca monasterii ad ss. udalricum et afram augustæ extantibus._ august, vindel, , to. this volume, which i have no doubt would gratify the curious bibliographer, it has never been my good fortune to meet with. it is here introduced upon the authority of the _cat. du cardinal de loménie_, no. : ed. . i ought not to close this account of the augsbourg catalogues of books, without remarking, on the authority of reimannus, that the _first_ published catalogue of books is that which villerius, a bookseller at augsburg, put forth in the year . see the _bibl. acroam._, p. .----aurivillius. _catalogus bibliothecæ quam collegerat carolus aurivillius_, sectio [transcriber's note: section] i. and ii., upsal, , vo. this catalogue contains a plentiful sprinkling of short literary and bibliographical notes; according to _bibl. krohn_, p. , no. .----badenhaupt. _bibliotheca selectissima; sive catalogus librorum magnam partem philologicorum, quos inter eminent. auctores græci et romani classica quos collegit e.f. badenhaupt_, berol, , vo. the pithy bibliographical notes which are here and there scattered throughout this catalogue, render it of estimation in the opinion of the curious.----baluze. _bibliotheca balusiana; seu catalogus librorum bibliothecæ d.s. baluzii, a. gab. martin_, paris, , vo., two vols. let any enlightened bibliographers read the eulogy upon the venerable baluze (who died in his eighty-eighth year, and who was the great colbert's librarian), in the preface of the _bibl. colbertina_ (vide post), and in the _dict. hist._ (caen, , vol. i., p. - ), and he will not hesitate a moment about the propriety of giving this volume a conspicuous place upon his shelf. from the _bibl. mencken_, p. , it would appear that a third volume, containing translations of some mss. in the royal library, is wanting to make this catalogue complete. this third volume is uncommon.----barberini. _index bibliothecæ francisci barberini cardinalis. romæ, typis barberinis_, , fol., three vols. in two. the widely spread celebrity of cardinal barberini suffers no diminution from this publication of the riches contained within his library. the authors are arranged alphabetically, and not according to classes. although it be not the most luminous in its arrangement, or the most accurate in its execution, this finely printed catalogue will never remain long upon a bookseller's shelf without a purchaser. it were much to be desired that our own noblemen, who have fine collections of books, would put forth (after the example of cardinal barberini) similar publications.----barthelemy. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de m. l'abbé barthelemy, par m. bernard_, , vo. the high reputation of the owner of this collection will always secure purchasers for this catalogue of useful and interesting books.----bibliographie _des pays bas, avec quelques notes. nyon, en suisse_, , to. only fifty copies of this work were printed. it is a pity that peignot, who gives us this information, does not accompany it with some account of the nature and merits of the work--which probably grew out of the _histoire littéraire des pays blas_, , in three folio volumes. _bibl. curieuse_, p. .----bodleian. _catalog. libr. bibl. publ., &c., in acad. oxon._, , to. _catal. libr. impr._, , fol. _catalogi libror. mss. angl. et hibern._, , fol. _catalogus impress. libror. bibl. bodl._, , fol., two vols. although none but catalogues of foreign public and private collections were intended to be noticed in this list, the reader will forgive a little violation of the rule laid down by myself, if i briefly observe upon the catalogues of the bodleian library and the british museum. [for the latter, vide 'museum.'] the first of these bodleian catalogues contains an account of the mss. it was prepared by dr. james, the editor of the philobiblion of de bury (vide p. , ante), and, as it was the first attempt to reduce to "lucid order" the indigested pile of mss. contained in the library, its imperfections must be forgiven. it was afterwards improved, as well as enlarged, in the folio edition of , by bernard; which contains the mss. subsequently bequeathed to the library by selden, digby, and laud, alone forming an extensive and valuable collection. the editor of morhof (vol. i., , n.) has highly commended this latter catalogue. let the purchaser of it look well to the frontispiece of the portraits of sir thomas bodley and of the fore-mentioned worthies, which faces the title-page; as it is frequently made the prey of some prowling grangerite. the first catalogue of the _printed books_ in the bodleian library was compiled by the celebrated orientalist, dr. hyde: the second by fisher: of these, the latter is the more valuable, as it is the more enlarged. the plan adopted in both is the same: namely, the books are arranged alphabetically, without any reference to their classes--a plan fundamentally erroneous: for the chief object in catalogues of public collections is to know what works are published upon particular subjects, for the facility of information thereupon--whether our inquiries lead to publication or otherwise: an alphabetical index should, of course, close the whole. it is with reluctance my zeal for literature compels me to add that a _catalogue raisonnée of the manuscripts and printed books in the bodleian library_ is an urgent desideratum--acknowledged by every sensible and affectionate son of alma mater. talent there is, in abundance, towards the completion of such an honourable task; and the only way to bring it effectually into exercise is to employ heads and hands enough upon the undertaking. let it be remembered what wanley and messrs. planta and nares have done for the cottonian and harleian mss.--and what mr. douce is now doing for those of the lansdowne collection! one gentleman alone, of a very distinguished college, in whom the acuteness and solidity of porson seem almost revived, might do wonders for the greek mss., and lend an effectual aid towards the arrangement of the others. the printed books might be assigned, according to their several classes, to the gentlemen most conversant with the same; and the numerous bibliographical works, published since the catalogue of , might be occasionally referred to, according to the plan observed in the _notitia editionum vel primariæ, &c., in bibl. bodl. oxon._, , vo.; which was judiciously drawn up by the bishop of london, and the rev. dr. william jackson. i am aware that the aged hands of the present venerable librarian of the bodleian library can do little more than lay the foundation-stone of such a massive superstructure; but even this would be sufficient to enrol his name with the magliabecchis and baillets of former times--to entitle him to be classed among the best benefactors to the library--and to shake hands with its immortal founder, in that place where are et amoena vireta fortunatorum nemorum, sedesque beatæ. bonnier. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de bonnier._ paris, , vo. this catalogue is here introduced to the bibliographer's notice in order to sharpen his bibliomaniacal appetite to obtain one of the four copies only which were printed upon large paper of dutch manufacture. see _cat. de caillard_ ( ), no. .----boutourlin. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de s.e.m. le comte de boutourlin._ paris (an. xiii.), , vo. every one must conceive a high respect for the owner of this choice collection, from the amiable sentiments which pervade the preface to the catalogue. it has a good index; and is elegantly printed. my copy is upon large paper.----de boze. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de m. claude gros de boze._ paris. _de l'imp. royale_, , small folio. this is the first printed catalogue of the choice and magnificent library of de boze, the friend and correspondent of dr. mead, between whom presents of books were continually passing--as they were the first collectors of the day in their respective countries. some have said , some , others , and others only copies of this impression were struck off, as presents for the collector's friends. consult _bibl. mead_, p. , no. . _bibl. creven._, vol. v., . _bauer's bibl. rarior._, vol. i., . _bibl. curieuse_, p. . _bibl. askev._, no. . barbier's _dict. des anonymes_, vol. ii., no. .----de boze, _de la même bibliothéque_, , vo. this catalogue, which was executed by martin, after the death of de boze, does not contain all the notices of works mentioned in the preceding one. it is, however, well deserving of a place in the bibliographer's library. peignot tells us that there was yet a _third_ catalogue printed, in vo., containing pages, and giving an account of some books taken out of de boze's collection: a few of which are described in the preceding edition of . see his _bibl. cur._, p. .----bozerian. _notice des livres précieux ye [transcriber's note: de] m. bozérian, par m. bailly_, , vo. a cabinet of "precious books," indeed! the misfortune is, so small a number of modern foreign catalogues come over here that the best of them will be found in few of our libraries. whenever the "bibliotheca bozeriana" shall be imported, it will not stop seven days upon a bookseller's shelf!----bulteau. _bibliotheca bultelliana; (caroli bulteau) a gabr. martin_, paris, , mo., vols. in one. this catalogue, which is carefully compiled, contains curious and uncommon books; many of which were purchased for the collections of préfond, de boze, and others.----bunau. _catalogus bibliothecæ bunavianæ._ lipsiæ, . six parts, in three volumes, each volume having two parts--usually bound in six vols. highly and generally esteemed as is this extensive collection, and methodically arranged catalogue, of count bunau's books, the latter has always appeared to me as being branched out into too numerous ramifications, so as to render the discovery of a work, under its particular class, somewhat difficult, without reference to the index. i am aware that what camus says is very true--namely, that "nothing is more absurd than to quarrel about catalogue-making: and that every man ought to have certain fixed and decisive ideas upon the subject," [_mem. de l'inst._ vol. i., ,] but simplicity and perspicuity, which are the grand objects in every undertaking, might have been, in my humble apprehension, more successfully exhibited than in this voluminous catalogue. it represents _over-done analysis_! yet those who are writing upon particular subjects will find great assistance in turning to the different works here specified upon the same. it is rare and high-priced. from the preface, which is well worth an attentive perusal, it appears that this grand collection, now deposited in the electoral library at dresden (see _cat. de caillard_, no. , ,) was at count bunau's country-house, situated in a pleasant village about half a mile from dresden-- vicinam videt unde lector urbem. saxius, in his _onomast. literar._, vol i., p. xxxiii., edit. , &c., has a smart notice of this splendid collection.----bunneman. _j.l. bunnemanni catalogus manuscriptorum, item librorum impressorum rarissimorum pro assignato pretio venalium._ minda, , vo. for the sake of knowing, by way of curiosity, what books (accounted rare at this period) were sold for, the collector may put this volume into his pocket, when he finds it upon a book-stall marked at _s._ _d._ in the _bibl. solger._, vol iii., no. , there was a priced copy upon large paper with bibliographical memoranda.----caillard. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de m.a.b. caillard_, paris, , vo. of this private catalogue, compiled by caillard himself, and printed upon fine dutch paper, in super-royal vo., only twenty-five copies were struck off. so says fournier, _dict. portatif de bibliographie_: p. ; edit. , and the "avant-propos" prefixed to the subsequent catalogue here following:----_livres rares et précieux de la bibliothéque de feu m. ant. bern. caillard_, paris, , vo. there were but twenty-five copies of this catalogue of truly valuable, and, in many respects, rare, and precious, books, printed upon large paper, of the same size as the preceding. this was the sale catalogue of the library of caillard, who died in , in his sixty-ninth year, and of whose bibliomaniacal spirit we have a most unequivocal proof in his purchasing de cotte's celebrated uncut copy of the first printed homer, at an enormous sum! [vide cotte, post.] "sa riche bibliothéque est á-la-fois un monument de son amour pour l'art typographique, et de la vaste étendue de ses connoissances," p. xiv. some excellent indexes close this volume; of which mr. payne furnished me with the loan of his copy upon large paper.----cambis. _catalogue des principaux manuscrits du cabinet de m. jos. l.d. de cambis_, avignon, , to. although this is a catalogue of mss., yet, the number of copies printed being very few, i have given it a place here. some of these copies contain but , others , pages; which shews that the owner of the mss. continued publishing his account of them as they increased upon him. rive, in his "_chasse aux bibliographes_," has dealt very roughly with the worthy cambis; but peignot tells us that this latter was a respectable literary character, and a well-informed bibliographer--and that his catalogue, in spite of rive's diatribe, is much sought after. see the _bibliogr. curieuse_, p. ; also _cat. de la valliere_, vol. iii., no. .----camus de limare. _catalogues des livres de m. le camus de limare_, paris, , mo.--_des livres rares et précieux de m---- (camus de limare)_, paris, , vo.--_des livres rares et précieux, reliés en maroquin, de la bibliothéque du même, paris, an trois_ ( ), vo. of the _first_ catalogue only a small number of copies was printed, and those for presents. _bibliogr. curieuse_, p. . it contains a description of de boze's extraordinary copy of du fresnoy's "methode pour étudier l'histoire," , to., four volumes, with the supplement, , two vols.; which was sold for livres; and which was, of course, upon large paper, with a thousand inviting additions, being much more complete than the similar copies in _cat. de valliere_, no. ; and _cat. de crevenna_, no. , edit. ; although this latter was preferable to the valliere copy. consult also the _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. - . the _second_ catalogue was prepared by de bure, and contains a very fine collection of natural history, which was sold at the hôtel de bullion. the printed prices are added. the _third_ catalogue, which was prepared by santus, after the decease of camus, contains some very choice articles [many printed upon vellum] of ancient and modern books superbly bound.----catalogue _des livres rares. par guillaume de bure, fils âiné._ paris, , vo. we are told, in the advertisement, that this collection was formed from a great number of sales of magnificent libraries, and that particular circumstances induced the owner to part with it. the books were in the finest order, and bound by the most skilful binders. the bibliographical notices are short, but judicious; and a good index closes the catalogue. the sale took place at the hôtel de bullion.----catalogue _fait sur un plan nouveau, systématique et raisonné, d'une bibliothéque de littérature, particulièrement d'histoire et de poésie, &c._ utrecht, , vo., two vols. a judicious and luminous arrangement of , articles, or sets of books; which, in the departments specified in the title-page, are singularly copious and rich.----catalogus _librorum rarissimorum, ab artis typographicæ inventoribus, aliisque ejus artis principibus ante annum excusorum; omnium optime conservatorum_, vo., _sine loco aut anno_. peignot, who has abridged vogt's excellent account of this very uncommon and precious catalogue, of which only twenty-five copies were printed, has forgotten to examine the last edition of the _catalog. libror. rarior._, pp. - ; in which we find that the collection contained (and not ) volumes. at the end, it is said: "pretiosissima hæc librorum collectio, cujusvis magni principis bibliotheca dignissima, constat voll. ccxlviii." consult the respectable references in vogt, _ibid._; also the _bibliogr. curieuse_ of peignot, p. .----ceran. _catalogue des livres de m. mel de saint ceran._ paris, , vo., again in , vo. these catalogues were compiled by de bure, and are carefully executed. some of the books noticed in them are sufficiently curious and rare.----clementino-vaticana. _bibliotheca orientalis clementino vaticana, in quâ manuscriptos codices orientalium linguarum recensuit joseph simonius assemanus_, romæ, . folio, four vols. asseman's son compiled an excellent catalogue of the oriental mss. in the medico-laurentian library; but this work of the father is more curious and elaborate. whenever a few half-guineas can procure it, let the country-settled philologist send his "henchman" to fly for it!--"speed, malise, speed." but alas! santander tells us that copies of it are rare. _cat. de santander_, vol. iv., no. .----colbert. _bibliotheca colbertina: seu catalogus librorum bibliothecæ quæ fuit primum j.b. colbert, deinde j.b. colbert (fil) postea j. nic. colbert, ac demum c.l. colbert._ parisiis, , vo., three vols. the preface to this valuable catalogue (executed by martin) gives us a compressed, but sufficiently perspicuous, account of the auspices under which such an extensive and magnificent collection was assembled and arranged. it contains not fewer than , articles; being perhaps , volumes. the celebrated baluze was the librarian during the life of the former branches of the colbert family; a family which, if nothing remained to perpetuate their fame but this costly monument of literary enterprise, will live in the grateful remembrance of posterity--but it wants not even such a splendid memorial! the lover of fine and curious books will always open the volumes of the colbert catalogue with a zest which none but a thorough bred bibliomaniac can ever hope to enjoy.----conseil d'etat. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque du conseil d'etat (par m. barbier, bibliothecaire du conseil d'etat)._ paris, an. xi. ( ), folio. "this catalogue is most superbly executed. the richness of the materials of which it is composed, the fine order of its arrangement, and the skilful researches exhibited in it relating to anonymous authors, are worthy of the typographical luxury of the national press, from which this curious work was put forth. it will be perfect in three parts: the third part, containing the supplement and tables, is now at press." (a.d. .) the preface and table of the divisions of this catalogue were published in a small vo. volume, . this information i glean from peignot's _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. lix.; and from the _cat. de boutourlin_, no. , i learn that only copies of so useful, as well as splendid, a work were printed, of which the french government took upon itself the distribution.----cordes. _bibliothecæ cordesianæ catalogus, cum indice titulorum_, parisiis, , to. the celebrated naudé had the drawing up and publishing of this catalogue, which is highly coveted by collectors, and is now of rare occurrence. de cordes was intimate with all the learned men of his country and age; and his eulogy, by naudé, prefixed to the catalogue, gives us a delightful account of an amiable and learned man living in the bosom, as it were, of books and of book-society. this collection, which was purchased by cardinal mazarin, formed the foundation of the latter's magnificent library. consult the _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., p. ; colomié's _biblioth. choisie_, p. ; _mem. de l'inst._, vol. i., p. . nor must we forget morhof--_polyhist. literar._, vol. i., p. ; who, after a general commendation of the collection, tells us it is remarkable for containing a fine body of foreign history. de cordes died a.d. , in the d year of his age--nearly years having been devoted by him to the formation of his library. "fortunate senex!"----cotte. _catalogue des livres rares et précieux et de mss. composant la bibliothéque de m---- (le president de cotte)_, paris, , vo. we are told by peignot that the books at this sale were sold for most exorbitant sums: "the wealthy amateurs striving to make themselves masters of the large paper alduses, elzevirs, and stephenses, which had been count d'hoym's copies." an uncut first edition of homer, in the highest state of preservation, was purchased by mons. caillaird [transcriber's note: caillard] for , livres! see the _curiosités bibliographiques_, pp. lxv, lxvj. according to _cat. de caillard_, no. ( , vo.), there were only ten copies of this catalogue printed upon large paper.----couvay. _catalogue de la bibliothéque de m. couvay, chevalier de l'ordre de christ, secrétaire du roi_, paris, , fol. very few copies of this catalogue were printed, and those only for presents. _bibliogr. curieuse_, p. .----crevenna. _catalogue raisonnée de la collection des livres de m. pierre antoine crevenna, négocient à amsterdam_, , to., six vols.--_de la même collection_, , vo., five vols.--_de la même collection_, , vo. of these catalogues of one of the most extensive and magnificent collections ever formed in amsterdam, the first impression of (to which i have generally referred) is by far the most valuable in regard to bibliographical remarks and copious description. peignot tells us that no bibliographer can do without it. it was commenced in the year , and published during the life time of peter antony crevenna, the father; from whom the collection passed into the hands of the son bolongari crevenna, and in whose lifetime it was sold by public auction. the second impression of is the sale-catalogue, and contains more books than the preceding one; but the bibliographical observations are comparatively trifling. there are copies of this latter impression upon large paper in quarto. i possess an interesting copy of the small paper, which has numerous marginal remarks in pencil, by mr. edwards; who examined the library at amsterdam, with a view to purchase it entire. the last catalogue of , which was published after the death of the son, contains a few choice books which he had reserved for himself, and, among them, a curious set of fac-simile drawings of old prints and title-pages; some of which were obtained at the sale of the elder mirabeau (vide post). it seems to have been the ruling passion of b. crevenna's life to collect all the materials, from all quarters, which had any connection, more or less, with "the origin and progress of printing," and it is for ever to be regretted that such extensive materials as those which he had amassed, and which were sold at the sale of should have been dissipated beyond the hope of restoration. see peignot's _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. iii., p. ; and his _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. .----crozat. _catalogue des livres de monsieur le president crozat de tugny_, paris, , vo. this collection was particularly rich in the belles-lettres--and especially in italian and french romance-literature.----van damme. _catalogue d'une bibliotheque, vendue publiquement à la haye, le octobre, par varon et gaillard_, , three vols. vo. "this precious and rare collection belonged to m. pierre van damme, book-merchant at amsterdam, equally well known for his knowledge of bibliography and of medals; of which latter he had a beautiful and uncommon collection." _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., p. .----dubois. _bibliotheca duboisiana, ou catalogue de la bibliothéque du cardinal dubois. a la haye_, , vo., four vols. a collection which evinces the fine taste and sound judgment of the cardinal du bois. it is not rare abroad.----elzevir. _catalogus librorum qui in bibliopolio officinæ danielis elzevirii venales extant_, ams. , mo.: , mo.--_qui in bibliopoli elzeviriano venales extant_, lug. bat., , , to. these, and other catalogues of the books printed by the distinguished family of the elzevirs, should find a place within the cabinet of bibliographers. the first book ever published by the elzevirs was of the date of ; the last, of or , by daniel elzevir, who was the only surviving branch. his widow carried on the business after his decease in . in the _dictionnaire de bibliologie_ of peignot, vol. i., p. , vol. iii., p. , will be found a pleasing account of this family of (almost) unrivalled printers.----du fay. _bibliotheca fayana seu catalogus librorum bibl. cor. hier. de cisternay du fay, digestus à gabriel martin_, paris, , vo. the catalogue of this collection, which is a judicious one, and frequently referred to, is very carefully put forth by martin. i think that i have seen a copy of it upon large paper.----fagel. _bibliotheca fageliana. a catalogue of the valuable and extensive library of the greffier fagal, of the hague: in two parts._ london, , vo. it is highly creditable to that most respectable establishment, trinity college, dublin, that the present grand collection of books was purchased "en masse" (for _l._) to be deposited within its library; thus rendering the interior of the latter "companion meet" for its magnificent exterior. the title-page of the first part announces the sale of the books by auction by mr. christie; but the above offer having been made for the whole collection, the same was forthwith transported to ireland. collectors should take care that the second part of this catalogue be not wanting, which is oftentimes the case. a good index only is requisite to make the bibliotheca fageliana rank with the most valuable publications of its kind in existence. it was compiled by the well-known s. paterson.----faultrier. _catalogus librorum bibliothecæ domini joachimi faultrier, digestus à prosper marchand_, paris, , vo. the bibliographical introductory remarks, by marchand, render this volume (which rarely occurs) very acceptable to collectors of catalogues. maittaire has spoken well of the performance, _annal. typog._ iii., p. . consult also the _mem. de l'inst._, vol. i., p. , and the _dict. de bibliologie_, vol. ii., p. , upon marchand's introductory remarks relating to the arrangement of a library.----favier. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de feu mons. l'abbé favier, prêtre à lille_, lille, , vo. a well arranged catalogue of a choice collection of books, which cost the abbé fifty years of pretty constant labour in amassing. prefixed, are some interesting notices of mss.: and, among them, of a valuable one of froissart. the prints of the abbé were afterwards sold, from a catalogue of pages, printed at lisle in the same year.----du fresne. _raphaelis tricheti du fresne bibliothecæ catalogus._ paris, , to. "i have observed," says morhof, "a number of authors in this catalogue which i have in vain sought after elsewhere. the typographical errors (especially in regard to dates, adds baillet) are innumerable: and the theological, legal, and medical works, comparatively few--but in the departments of history, antiquities, and general literature, this collection is wonderfully enriched--containing authors hardly ever heard of." _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., p. . colomiés and labbe unite in conferring the highest praises upon du fresne and his collection. see the _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., p. ; where, however, the confused and inaccurate manner in which the catalogue is executed is sharply censured by baillet. morhof informs us that this collection was disposed of by du fresne's widow, to the royal library, for , _livres_, after she had refused , for the same.----gaignat. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de feu m. louis jean gaignat, disposé et mis en ordre par guill. françois de bure le jeune._ paris, , vo., two vols. one of the best executed, and most intrinsically valuable catalogues in existence. almost all the books of gaignat were in the choicest condition; being the cream of the collections of colbert, préfond, and de boze. the possession of this rare catalogue, which is indispensable to the collector, forms what is called a supplement to de bure's "_bibliographie instructive_." there are copies struck off upon small quarto paper, to arrange with a like number of this latter work. consult _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., p. .----genÈve. _catalogue raisonné des manuscrits conservés dans la bibliothéque, &c., de genève; par jean senibier._ genève, , vo. a neatly executed and useful catalogue of some manuscripts of no mean value. it has received a good character by mons. van-praet, in the _cat. de la valliere_, vol. iii., no. . see also p. , ante.----goez. _bibliothecæ goësinæ catalogus_, leidæ, , vo. a fine collection of books and of coins distinguished the museum of goez.----golowkin. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque du comte alexis de golowkin_, leipsic, , to. it is said that only copies of this catalogue were struck off, and that not more than two of these are known to be in france. neither the type nor paper has the most inviting aspect; but it is a curious volume, and contains a description of books "infiniment précieux." consult peignot's _bibliogr. curieuse_, p. . dr. clarke, in his _travels in russia, &c._, p. , has noticed the extraordinary library of count botterline, but says nothing of golowkin's.----gouttard. _catalogue des livres rares et precieux de feu m. gouttarde par guillaume de bure fils aîné._ paris, , vo. a short bibliographical notice of the amiable and tasteful owner of this select collection precedes the description of the books. the bibliographical observations are sometimes copious and valuable. this catalogue is indispensable to the collector.----guyon. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de feu m.j.b. denis guyon, chev. seigneur de sardiere, ancien capitaine au regiment du roi, et l'un des seigneurs du canal de briare._ paris, , vo. it is justly said, in the "advertisement" prefixed to this catalogue, that, in running over the different classes of which the collection is composed, there will be found articles "capable de piquer la curiosité des bibliophiles." in ancient and modern poetry, and in romances--especially relating to chivalry--this "ancient captain" appears to have been deeply versed. the advertisement is followed by pages of "eclaircissemens"--which give an interesting account of some precious manuscripts of old poetry and romances. a ms. note, in my copy of this catalogue, informs me that the books were sold "en masse."----heinsius. (nic.) _nicolai heinsii bibliothecæ catalogus_, ( ) vo. a portrait of the elegant and learned owner of this collection faces the title-page. the books contained in it are remarkable both for their rarity and intrinsic value; and a great number of them were enriched with the notes of scaliger, salmasius, and others. few collections display more judgment and taste in the selection than the present one; and few critics have been of more essential service to the cause of ancient classical literature than nicholas heinsius. he excelled particularly in his editions of the poets. mr. dyer, of exeter, the bookseller, has a copy of this catalogue, which was formerly grævius's; in which that celebrated critic has made marginal remarks concerning the rarity and value of certain works described in it.----hohendorf. _bibliotheca hohendorfiana; ou catalogue de la bibliothéque de feu mons. george guillaume baron de hohendorf: à la haye_, , vo., three parts. a magnificent collection; which a ms. note, by dr. farmer (in my copy of the catalogue), informs me was "added to the emperor's library at vienna." in the _bibl. mencken_, p. , it is thus loftily described: "catalogus per-rarus rarissimis libris superbiens."----hoym. _catalogus librorum bibliothecæ caroli henrici comitis de hoym_, , vo. this catalogue, which is exceedingly well "digested by martin," is a great favourite with collectors. a copy out of count hoym's collection tells well--whether at a book-sale, or in a bookseller's catalogue. there are copies upon large paper, which, when priced, sell high.----hulsius. _bibliotheca hulsiana, sive catalogus librorum quos magno labore, summa cura et maximis sumptibus collegit vir consularis samuel hulsius._ hag. com. , four vols. vo. (the second and third being in two parts, and the fourth in three). this is, in sober truth, a wonderful collection of books; containing nearly , articles--which, allowing three volumes to an article, would make the owner to have been in possession of , volumes of printed books and mss. the english library, (vol. iv., pt. ii.) of nearly articles, comprehended nearly all the best books of the day. there were about articles of spanish literature. nor was the worthy consul deficient in the love of the fine arts ("hæc est, sitque diu, senis optimi voluptas et oblectatio," says the compiler of the catalogue); having , most beautiful prints of subjects relating to the bible, bound up in atlas folio volumes. long live the memory of hulsius; a consular hero of no ordinary renown!----jena. _memorabilia bibliothecæ academicæ jenensis: sive designatio codicum manuscriptorum illa bibliothecâ et librorum impressorum plerumque rariorum. joh. christophoro mylio._ jenæ, , vo. a work of some little importance; and frequently referred to by vogt and panzer. it is uncommon.----jesu soc. _bibliotheca scriptorum societatis jesu._ antv., . romæ, , fol. although this work is not a professed catalogue of books, yet, as it contains an account of the writings of those learned men who were in the society of the jesuits--and as baillet, antonio, and morhof, have said every thing in commendation of it--i strongly recommend one or the other of these editions to the bibliographer's attention. i possess the edition of ; and have frequently found the most satisfactory intelligence on referring to it. how clever some of the jesuits were in their ideas of the arrangement of a library may be seen from their "_systema bibliothecæ jesuitarum collegii ludoviciani_"--which was written by garnier for the private use of the louvain college, and which is now extremely difficult to be found. see maichelius, _de præcip. bibl. parisiens_, p. . their "_systema bibliothecæ collegii parisiensis societatis jesu_," , to. (or catalogue of books in the college of clermont), is handsomely noticed by camus in the _mem. de l'inst._, vol. i., .----just, st. _catalogue des livres en très-petit nombre qui composent la bibliothéque de m. merard de st. just, ancien maitre-d'hotêl de monsieur, frère du roi (avec les prix d'achat)._ paris, , mo. of this book, printed upon superfine paper, of the manufactory of d'annonay, only copies were struck off. _bibl. curieuse_, p. . another catalogue of the same collection (perhaps a more copious one) was put forth in , vo., prepared by m. mauger, see _diction. bibliographique_, tom. iv., p. xiv.----krohn. _catalogus bibliothecæ præstantissimorum &c., librorum selectum complectentis. libros collegit et literariis catalogum animadversionibus instruxit, b.n. krohn. editio altera._ hamb. , vo. the preface to this very excellent collection of books is written in latin by rambach; and a most interesting one it is. after giving a slight sketch of the life and literary occupations of krohn, he thus finishes the picture of his death--"ego certe (exclaims the grateful biographer), mi krohni, te amabo, et quamdiu 'spiritus hos reget artus' gratam tui memoriam ex animo nunquam elabi patiar. o! me felicem, si, qua olim me beasti, amicitiâ nunc quoque frui possem. sed fruar aliquando, cum deus me ad beatorum sedes evocaverit, ac te mihi rediderit conjunctissimum. vale, interim, pia anima; et quem jam tristem reliquisti, prope diem exspecta, in tenerrimos tuos amplexus properantem, ac de summa, quam nunc habes, felicitate tibi congratulantem," p. xix. this is the genuine language of heart-felt grief; language, which those who have lost an old and good friend will know well how to appreciate. this catalogue, which was given to me by my friend the rev. dr. gosset, 'vir in re bibliographicâ [greek: polymathestatos],' exhibits a fine collection of books ( in number) relating to history and philology. some of krohn's notes are sufficiently shrewd and intelligent.----lamoignon. _catalogue des livres imprimés et manuscrits de la bibliothéque de m. le president de lamoignon (redigé par l. fr. delatour) avec une table des auteurs, et des anonymes._ paris, , fol. the bibliographer has only to hear peignot speak in his own language, and he will not long hesitate about the price to be given for so precious [transcriber's note: 'a' missing in original] volume: "catalogue fort rare, tiré a quinze exemplaires seulement, sur du papier de coton fabriqué, par singularité, à angoulême." mr. harris, of the royal institution, possesses a copy of it, bound in orange-coloured morocco, which was presented to him by mr. payne; and, as alexander placed his beloved homer--so does he this catalogue--uner [transcriber's note: under] his pillow "quand il vent se reposer--a cause des songes agréables qu'il doit inspirer." this beautiful volume, which was printed for lamoignon's own convenience, in supplemental parts, does not, however, contain baillet's interesting latin prefece, which may be seen in the _jugemens des savans_, vol. [transcriber's note: volume number missing in original] pt. ii., p. , ed. .----lamoignon. _des livres de la bibliothéque de feu m. de lamoignon, garde de sçeaux de france._ paris, , vo., vols. these volumes contain the sale catalogue of lamoignon's books as they were purchased by mr. t. payne, the bookseller. like the great libraries of crevenna and pinelli, this immense collection (with the exception of the works upon french jurisprudence) has been dissipated by public sale. it yet delights mr. payne to think and to talk of the many thousand volumes which were bound in morocco, or russia, or white-calf-leather, "with gilt on the edges"--which this extraordinary family of book-collectors had amassed with so much care and assiduity. the preface gives us a short, but pleasing, account of the bibliomanical spirit of lamoignon's father-in-law, monsieur berryer; who spent between thirty and forty years in enriching this collection with all the choice, beautiful, and extraordinary copies of works which, from his ministerial situation, and the exertions of his book-friends, it was possible to obtain. m. berryer died in , and his son-in-law in .----lamoignon. _des livres de la même biblothéque, par nyon l'âiné._ paris, , vo. this volume presents us with the relics of a collection which, in its day, might have vied with the most splendid in europe. but every thing earthly must be dissipated.----lancelot. _catalogue des livres de feu m. lancelot de l'academie royale des belles lettres._ paris, , vo. those who are fond of making their libraries rich in french history cannot dispense with this truly valuable catalogue. lancelot, like the elder lamoignon, appears to have been "buried in the benedictions of his countrymen"--according to the energetic language of bourdaloue.----lemariÉ. _catalogue des livres de feu m. lemarié, disposé et mis en ordre, par guil. de bure, fils aîné_, paris, , vo. a well digested catalogue of a rich collection of greek and latin literature, which evinces a man of taste and judgment. nothing can be more handsomely said of a collection than what de bure has prefixed to the present one. in the _cat. de gouttard_, no. , i find a copy of it upon large paper.----lomÉnie. _index librorum ab inventa typographia da annum , &c., cum notis, &c._ senonis, , vo., two vols. the owner of this collection, whose name does not appear in the title-page, was the celebrated cardinal de lomÉnie de brienne: who is described, in the advertisement prefixed to the catalogue of his books in , [vide infra] as having, from almost early youth, pushed his love of book-collecting to an excess hardly equalled by any of his predecessors. when he was but a young ecclesiastic, and had only the expectation of a fortune, his ruling passion for books, and his attachment to fellow bibliomaniacs, was ardent and general. but let his panegyrist speak in his own language--"si le hazard procuroit à ses amis quelque objét précieux, il n'avoit de repos qu'aprés l'avoir obtenu; les sacrifices ne l'effrayoient pas; il étoit né généreaux; mais ce qu'on lui accordoit, il le devoit sur-tout à ses manières insinuantes. ses sollicitations étoient toujours assaisonnées d'un ton d'amabilité auquel on résistoit difficilement. lorsque le tems et les grâces de la cour eurent aggrandi ses moyens, ses veus s'etendirent à proportion. insensiblement il embressa tous les genres, et sa bibliothéque devint un dépôt universel. dans ses fréquens voyages, s'il s'arrêtoit quelques instans dans une ville, on le voyoit visiter lui-même les libraries, s'introduire dans les maisons religieuses, s'insinuer dans les cabinets d'amateurs, chercher par-tout à acquérir; c'etoit un besoin pour lui d'acheter sans cesse, d'entasser les volumes. cette passion a peut-être ses excés; mais du moins, elle ne fut pas pour le cardinal de loménie une manie stérile. non seulement il aimoit, il connoissoit les livres, mais il savoit s'en servir; sans contredit il fut un des hommes les plus éclairés du clergé de france."----to return from this pleasing rhapsody to the catalogue, the title of which is above given. it is composed by laire, in the latin language, with sufficient bibliographical skill: but the index is the most puzzling one imaginable. the uncommonly curious and magnificent collection, not being disposed of "en masse"--according to advertisement--was broken up; and the more ancient books were sold by auction at paris, in , from a french catalogue prepared by de bure. some of the books were purchased by mr. edwards, and sold at london in the paris collection [vide p. , post]; as were also those relating to natural history; which latter were sold by auction without his eminence's name: but it is a gross error in the _bibl. krohn_, p. , no. , to say that many of these books were impious and obscene. these are scarce and dear volumes; and as they supply some deficiencies [transcriber's note: missing 'in'] audiffredi's account of books published at rome in the xvth century [vid. p. , ante], the bibliographer should omit no opportunity of possessing them.----lomÉnie. _d'une partie des livres de la bibliothéque du cardinal de loménie de brienne_, paris, an. v. [ ], vo. this collection, the fragments or ruins of the lomenie library, contains articles, or numbers, with a rich sprinkling of italian literature; leaving behind, however, a surplus of not fewer than twelve hundred pieces relating to the italian drama--many of them rare--which were to be sold at a future auction. from the biographical memoir prefixed to this catalogue, i have given the preceding extract concerning the character of the owner of the collection--who died in the same year as the sale.----macarthy. _catalogue des livres rares et précieux du cabinet de m.l.c.d.m._ (_m. le comte de macarthy_), paris, , vo. _supplement au catalogue des livres, &c._, de m.l.c.d.m., paris, , vo. _chez de bure, fils aîné._ these books were sold in january, ; and great things are said, in the advertisement, of their rarity and beauty. the count macarthy has, at this moment, one of the most magnificent collections upon the continent. his books printed upon vellum are unequalled by those of any private collection. of the above catalogue, a copy upon strong writing paper occurs in the _cat. de gouttard_, no. .----magliabechi. _catalogus codicum sæculo_ xv. _impressorum qui in publica bibliotheca magliabechiana florentiæ adservantur. autore ferdinando fossio; ejusd. bibl. præf._, florent., , folio, three vols. a magnificent and truly valuable publication (with excellent indexes) of the collection of the famous magliabechi; concerning whom the bibliographical world is full of curious anecdotes. the reader may consult two volumes of letters from eminent men to magliabechi, published in , &c., vide _bibl. pinell_, no. , &c., edit. : wolfius's edition of the _bibliotheca aprosiana_, p. ; and the strawberry hill[c] edition of the _parallel between magliabechi and mr. hill_, , vo.--an elegant and interesting little volume. before we come to speak of his birth and bibliographical powers, it may be as well to contemplate his expressive physiognomy. [illustration] magliabechi was born at florence october , . his parents, of low and mean rank, were well satisfied when they got him into the service of a man who sold herbs and fruit. he had never learned to read; and yet he was perpetually poring over the leaves of old books that were used in his master's shop. a bookseller, who lived in the neighbourhood, and who had often observed this, and knew the boy could not read, asked him one day "what he meant by staring so much on printed paper?" magliabechi said that "he did not know how it was, but that he loved it of all things." the consequence was that he was received, with tears of joy in his eyes, into the bookseller's shop; and hence rose, by a quick succession, into posts of literary honour, till he became librarian to the grand duke of tuscany. in this situation magliabechi had nothing further, or more congenial to his feelings, to sigh for: in the florentine library he revelled without cessation in the luxury of book-learning. the strength of his memory was remarkable; one day, the grand duke sent for him to ask whether he could procure a book that was particularly scarce. "no, sir," answered magliabechi, "it is impossible; for there is but one in the world, and that is in the grand signior's library at constantinople, and is the seventh book on the second shelf on the right hand as you go in." in spite of his cobwebs, dirt, and cradle lined with books, magliabechi reached his st year. hearne has contrived to interweave the following (rather trifling) anecdote of him, in his _johan. confrat., &c., de reb. glaston_, vol. ii., --which i give merely because it is the fashion to covet every thing which appertaineth to tom hearne. "i have mentioned the bank where the mss. (concerning the epistles of st. ignatius; bank lvii.) stands, and the title of the book, because vossius tells us not in his preface which of the several mss. in this library he made use of; and to finde it out gave me so much trouble that, if the grand duke's library-keeper had not known the book, and searched it for me, i think i should never have met with it, there being not one canon of st. laurence, not their library-keeper himself, nor, i believe, any other in florence, except this sre. magliabechi, that could direct me to it. the learned bishop will be pleased to take notice of sre. maliabechi's [transcriber's note: magliabechi's] civility; who, besides procuring me the grand duke's leave to collate the epistles, attended himself in the library, all the time i was there (the licence being granted by the grand duke upon this condition): and since, as a mark of his respect to the reverend bishop, hath been pleased to present him with a book (about the florentine history) which i have committed to mr. ferne, my lord lexinton's gentleman, to be conveyed to his lordship." (mr. ledgerd's account of his collations of the florentine ms. with the edition of vossius.)----st. mark. _græca d. marci bibliotheca codicum manuscriptorum præside laurentio theopolo._ venet. , folio: _ejusdem latina et italica bibliotheca codicum manuscriptorum præside eodem_, venet. , folio. these useful and handsomely executed volumes should be found in every extensive philological collection.----medici-lorenzo. _bibliothecæ mediceo-laurentianæ et palatinæ codicum manuscriptorum orientalium catalogus digessit s.e. assemanus._ florent. , folio. a very valuable and splendid publication; evincing the laudable ambition of the medici in their encouragement of oriental literature. the editor is commended in the preface of the subsequent catalogue, p. xxxxv.----medici-lorenzo. _bibliothecæ hebraico-grecæ florentinæ sive bibliothecæ mediceo-laurentianæ catalogus ab antonio maria biscionio, &c., digestus atque editus_, florent., , folio, two vols. in one. a grand book; full of curious fac-similes of all sorts of things. it was begun to be printed in , but biscioni's death, in may, , prevented the completion of the publication 'till may . see præfat., p. xxxxvii--and particularly the colophon.----medici-lorenzo. _catalogus codicum manuscriptorum, græcorum, latinorum, et italicoram, bibliothecæ medicæ laurentianæ: angelus maria bandinus recensuit, illustravit edidit._ florent., ; vols., ; vols., folio. an equally splendid work with the preceding--and much more copious and erudite in regard to intrinsically valuable matter. the indexes are excellent. no extensive philological library should be without these volumes--especially since the name of medici has recently become so popular, from the able biographical memoirs of the family by mr. roscoe.----menarsiana. _bibliotheca menarsiana; ou catalogue de la bibliothéque de feu messire jean jaques charron, chevalier marquis de menars_, &c. a la haye, , vo. a very fine collection of books in all branches of literature. after the "ordo venditionis," there is an additional leaf pasted in, signifying that a magnificent copy of fust's bible of , upon paper, would be sold immediately after the theological mss. in folio. it brought the sum of florins. the sale commenced at nine and at two; giving the buyers time to digest their purchases, as well as their dinners, at twelve! "tempora mutantur!"----menckenius. _catalogus bibliothecæ menckenianæ ab ottone et burchardo collectæ. editior altera longe emendatior._ lips., , vo. there are some curious and uncommon books in this collection; which evince the taste and judgment of menckenius, who was a scholar of no mean reputation. perhaps the word "rare" is too lavishly bestowed upon some of the books described in it.----meon. _catalogue des livres précieux singuliéres et rares de la bibliothèque de m. meon._ paris, an. xii. ( ), vo. a very choice collection of books; catalogued with considerable care.----mercier. _catalogue de la bibliothéque de m. mercier, abbé de saint leger_, par. m. de bure, , vo. if the reader has chanced to cast his eye over the account of the abbé de st. leger, at p. , ante, he will not hesitate long about procuring a copy of the catalogue of the library of so truly eminent a bibliographer.----mÉrigot. _catalogue des livres de m.j.g. mérigot, libraire_, par m. de bure, , vo. it is very seldom that this catalogue appears in our own country: which is the more provoking as the references to it, in foreign bibliographical works, render its possession necessary to the collector. mérigot was an eminent bookseller, and prepared a good catalogue of m. lorry's library, which was sold in , vo.----st. michael. _bibliotheca codicum manuscriptorum monasterij sancti michaelis venetiarum, una cum appendice librorum impressorum sæculi_ xv. _opus posthumum joannis bened. mittarelli._ venet., , folio. it were much to be wished that, after the example of this and other monasteries, all religious houses, which have large libraries attached to them, would publish accounts of their mss. and printed books. there is no knowing what treasures are hid in them, and of which the literary world must remain ignorant, unless they are thus introduced to general notice. how many curious and amusing anecdotes may be told of precious works being discovered under barbarous titles! among others, take, gentle reader, the two following ones--relating to books of a very different character. within a volume, entitled _secreta alberti_, were found "_the fruyte of redempcyon_," printed by w. de worde, , to.; and a hitherto imperfectly described impression of _the boke of fyshinge_, printed by w. de worde, in to., without date; which usually accompanies that fascinating work, ycleped dame juliana barnes's _boke of hawkyng, huntyng, and cote armoor_. my friend mr. j. haslewood first made me acquainted with this rare treasure--telling me he had "a famous tawny little volume" to shew me: his pulse, at the same time, i ween, beating one hundred and five to the minute! the second anecdote more exactly accords with the nature of my preliminary observations. in one of the libraries abroad, belonging to the jesuits, there was a volume entitled, on the back of it "_concilium tridenti_:" the searching eye and active hands of a well-educated bibliomaniac discovered and opened this volume--when lo! instead of the _council of trent_, appeared the _first_, and almost unknown, _edition_ of the _decameron of boccaccio_! this precious volume is now reposing upon the deserted shelves of the late duke of roxburgh's library; and, at the forth-coming sale of the same, it will be most vigorously contended for by all the higher and more knowing powers of the bibliographical world; but when the gods descending swell'd the fight, then tumult rose; fierce rage and pale affright varied each face: [_pope's_] _homer's iliad_, b. xx. v. . mirabeau. _catalogue de la bibliotheque de mirabeau l'aîné, par rozet_, , vo. a fine collection of books; some of them very curious and uncommon. at the head of the choice things contained in it must be noticed the "recueil de calques, ou dessins des titres et figure d'un grand nombre des plus anciens ouvrages, gravés en bois, ou imprimés en caractères mobiles, depuis l'origine de l'imprimerie," &c. these designs were in number; of which a description is given at the head of the catalogue. they were purchased for livres, and again sold, with the same description prefixed, at the last crevenna sale of (see p. , ante). consult the _curiosités bibliographiques_ of peignot, p. .----miromenil. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de m. hüe de miromenil, garde des sceaux de france_, paris, , to. "it appears, from the catalogue of m. de coste, that this is a rare book, of which only few copies were printed, and those never sold." _bibliogr. curieuse_, p. .----montfauÇon. _diarium italicum; sive monumentorum veterum, bibliothecarum, musæorum notitiæ singulares a d. bernardo de montfauçon_, paris, , to. _bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptorum nova, autore de bern. de montfauçon_, paris, , folio, two vols. these are the bibliographical works (which i thought would be acceptable if placed in this list of catalogues) of the illustrious montfauçon; whose publications place him on the summit of antiquarian fame. so much solid sense, careful enquiry, curious research, and not despicable taste, mark his voluminous productions! the bibliographer may rest assured that he will not often be led into confusion or error in the perusal of the above curious and valuable volumes, which have always been considered precious by the philologist.----morelli. _jacobi morellii bibliothecæ regiæ divi marci venetiarum custodis, bibliotheca manuscripta græca et latina._ tom. prim. bassani, vo. morelli was the amiable and profoundly learned librarian of st. mark's at venice; and this catalogue of his greek and latin mss. is given upon the authority of peignot's _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. lix.----museum british. _catalogus librorum manuscript. bibl. cotton._, oxon., , fol. _a catalogue of the manuscripts in the cottonian library_, lond. , vo. _a catalogue of the same_, , fol. _a catalogue of the harleian manuscripts, &c._, lond., , fol., vols. _a catalogue of the same_, lond., , fol., vols. _a catalogue of the mss. of the kings library, &c._, , to. _a catalogue of the mss., &c., hitherto undescribed_, lond., , to., two vols. _catalog. libror. impress., &c._, lond., , folio, vols. these are the published catalogues of the literary treasures, in manuscript and in print, which are contained in the british museum. the _first cottonian_ catalogue has a life of sir robert cotton, and an account of his library prefixed to it. the _second_, by samuel hooper, was intended "to remedy the many defects" in the preceding catalogue, and "the injudicious manner" in which it was compiled; but it is of itself sufficiently confused and imperfect. the _third_, which is the most copious and valuable, with an index (and which has an abridged account of sir robert cotton, and of his library), was drawn up by mr. planta, the principal librarian of the british museum. a great part of the first catalogue of the _harleian mss._ was compiled by the celebrated humphrey wanley, and a most valuable and ably executed publication it is! the _second_ is executed by the rev. r. nares: it contains the preface of the first, with an additional one by himself, and a copious index; rendering this the most complete catalogue of mss. which has ever yet appeared in our own country; although one regrets that its typographical execution should not have kept pace with its intrinsic utility. the two latter catalogues of mss. above described give an account of those which were presented by royal munificence, and collected chiefly by sir hans sloane and dr. birch. the catalogue of (which is now rare) was compiled by david casley: that of , by samuel ascough. of the catalogue of _printed books_, it would be unfair to dwell upon its imperfections, since a new, and greatly enlarged and improved, impression of it is about going to press, under the editorial care and inspection of messrs. h. ellis and baber, the gentlemen to whom the printed books are at present intrusted. mr. douce, who has succeeded mr. nares as head librarian of the mss., is busily employed in examining the multifarious collection of the _lansdowne mss._ (recently purchased by the trustees of the museum), and we may hope that the day is not very far distant when the public are to be congratulated on his minute and masterly analysis of these treasures.----paris. _catalogue de la bibliothéque de m. paris de meyzieux_, paris, , vo. _bibliotheca elegantissima parisina, par m. lourent_, , vo. _the same_: lond., , vo. since the days of gaignat and the duke de la valliere, the longing eyes of bibliographers were never blessed with a sight of more splendid and choice books than were those in the possession of m. paris de meyzieux. the spira virgil of , upon vellum, will alone confer celebrity upon the _first_ catalogue--but what shall we say to the _second_? it consists of only articles, and yet, as is well observed in the preface, it was never equalled for the like number. happy is that noviciate in bibliography who can forget the tedium of a rainy day in sitting by the side of a log-wood fire, and in regaling his luxurious fancy, by perusing the account of "fine, magnificent, matchless, large paper," and "vellum" copies which are thickly studded from one end of this volume to the other. happier far the veteran, who can remember how he braved the _perils of the sale_, in encountering the noble and heavy metalled competitors who flocked, from all parts of the realm, to partake of these _parisian_ spoils! such a one casts an eye upon his well-loaded shelves, and while he sees here and there a yellow morocco aldus, or a russian leather froben, he remembers how bravely he fought for each, and with what success his exertions were crowned! for my own part, gentle reader, i frankly assure thee that--after having seen the "heures de notre dame," written by the famous jarry, and decorated with seven small exquisite paintings of the virgin and christ--and the _aldine petrarch_ and _virgil_ of , all of them executed upon snow-white vellum--after having seen only these books out of the paris collection, i hope to descend to my obscure grave in perfect peace and satisfaction! the reader may smile; but let him turn to nos. , , , of the _bibl. paris_: no. of the _cat. de la valliere_; and _curiositès bibliographiques_, p. . this strain of "ètourderie bibliographique," ought not to make me forget to observe that we are indebted to the enterprising spirit and correct taste of mr. edwards for these, as well as for many other, beautiful books imported from the continent. nor is it yet forgotten that some thorough-bred bibliomaniacs, in their way to the sale, used to call for a glass of ice, to allay the contagious inflammation which might rage in the auction-room. and now take we leave of monsieur paris de meyzieux. peace to the ashes of so renowned a book-chevalier.----petau et mansart. _bibliotheca potavina et mansartiana; ou catalogue des bibliothéques de messrs. alexander petau, et françois mansart; auxquells on a ajouté le cabinet des mss. de justus lipsius._ haye, , vo. a catalogue not very common, and well worth the bibliographer's consultation.----pinelli. _bibliotheca maphæi pinelli veneti, &c. a jacobo morellio._ venetiis, , vols., vo. _bibliotheca pinelliana: a catalogue of the magnificent and celebrated library of maffæi pinelli, late of venice_, &c., london, , vo. there can be no question about the priority, in point both of typographical beauty and intrinsic excellence, of these catalogues; the latter being only a common sale one, with the abridgment of the learned preface of morelli, and of his bibliographical notices. this immense collection (of the ancient owners of which we have a short sketch in morhof, vol. i., pp. , ) was purchased by messrs. edwards and robson: the greek and latin books were sold for _l._, the italian, for _l._--which barely repaid the expenses of purchase, including duties, carriage, and sale. although, as dr. harwood has observed, "there being no dust in venice, this most magnificent library has in general lain reposited for some centuries, in excellent preservation,"--yet the copies were not, upon the whole, in the choicest condition. there are copies of the catalogue of upon large paper. the catalogue of (with an elegant portrait of pinelli prefixed) has, at first sight, the aspect of a work printed in small quarto.----pompadour. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de feue madame la marquise de pompadour, dame du palais de la reine_, paris, , vo. the name of madame de pompadour will be always respected by bibliographers, on account of the taste and judgment which are displayed in this elegant collection. the old popular romances form the leading feature; but there is an ample sprinkling of the belles-lettres and poetry. an animated eulogium is pronounced upon mad. de pompadour by jardé, in his "précis sur les bibliothéques;" prefixed to the last edition of fournier's _dictionnaire portatif de bibliographie_, p. vij.----prÉfond. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de m.d.p. (girardot de préfond) par guillaume f. de bure_, paris, , vo. an excellent collection; not wanting in rare and magnificent productions. the owner of it was distinguished for many solid, as well as splendid, qualifications. only six copies of it were printed upon large paper. see _cat. de gaignat_, vol. ii., no. .----randon de boisset. _catalogue des livres du cabinet de feu m. randon du boisset. par guil. de bure, fils aîné_, paris, , mo. although the generality of catalogue collectors will be satisfied with the usual copy of this well-digested volume, yet i apprehend the curious will not put up with any thing short of a copy of it upon strong writing paper. such a one was in the gouttard collection. see _cat. de gouttard_, no. .----_reimannus._ _j.f. reimanni catalogus bibliothecæ theologicæ systematico-criticus._ hildes. , vo., two vols. _ejusdem accessiones uberiores ad catalogum systematico-criticum, editæ a jo. w. reimannus_, brunsv., , vo. i have before given the character of this work in the introductory part of my "knowledge of the greek and latin classics." every thing commendatory of it may be here repeated.----renati. _bibliothecæ josephi renati imperialis, &c., cardinalis catalogus, &c._ romæ, , fol. this excellent catalogue, which cost the compiler of it, fontanini, nine years of hard labour, is a most useful and valuable one; serving as a model for catalogues of large libraries. see the more minute criticism upon it in _cat. de santander_, no. . my copy, which wants the title-page, but luckily contains the latin preface, was formerly ruddiman's. the volume has pages: this is noticed because all the appendixes and addenda are comprehended in the same.----revickzky. _bibliotheca græca et latina, complectens auctores fere omnes græcia et latii veteris, &c., cum delectu editionum tam primariarum, &c., quam etiam optimarum, splendidissimarum, &c., quas usui meo paravi._ periergus deltophilus (the feigned name for revickzky), berolini, : , vo. it was the delight of count revickzky, the original owner of this collection, to devote his time and attention to the acquisition of scarce, beautiful, and valuable books; and he obtained such fame in this department of literature as to cause him to be ranked with the vallieres, pinellis, and loménies of the day. he compiled, and privately disposed of, the catalogue of his collection, which bears the above title; and to some few of which are prefixed a letter to m. l' a.d. [enini] (member of the french academy) and a preface. _three supplements_ to this catalogue were also, from time to time, circulated by him; so that the purchaser must look sharply after these acquisitions to his copy--as some one or the other of them are generally missing. peignot supposes there are only _two_ supplements. _bibl. curieuse_, p. . when count revickzky came over to england, he made an offer to earl spencer to dispose of the whole collection to his lordship, for a certain "round sum" to be paid immediately into his hands, and to receive, in addition, a yearly sum by way of annuity. so speaks fame. shortly after this contract was closed, the count died; and earl spencer, in consequence, for a comparatively small sum (the result of an immediate and generous compliance with the count's wishes!), came into the possession of a library which, united with his previous magnificent collection, and the successful ardour with which he has since continued the pursuit, places him quite at the head of all the collectors in europe--for early, rare, precious, and beautiful, books. long may he possess such treasures!--and fleeing from the turbulence of politics, and secluded as he is, both in the metropolis and at althorp, from the stunning noise of a city, may he always exclaim, with horace, as the count did before him-- sit mihi, quod nunc est, etiam minus; ut mihi vivam quod superest ævi, si quid superesse volunt dí. sit bona librorum et provisæ frugis in annum copia, ne fluitem dubiæ spe pendulus horæ. _epist. lib._ i.: _epist._ xviii. v., . sir m.m. sykes, bart., has a copy of the edition of [which is in every respect the better one], printed upon fine vellum paper. a similar copy of the edition of is noticed in the _cat. de caillard_,( ) no. . at the sale of m. meon's books, in , a copy of the first edition, charged with ms. notes of the celebrated mercier st. leger, was sold for livres.----rive. _catalogue de la bibliothéque de l'abbé rive, par archard_, marseille, , vo. a catalogue of the books of so sharp-sighted a bibliographer as was the abbé rive cannot fail to be interesting to the collector.----du roi [louis xv.] _catalogus codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecæ regiæ (studio et labore anicetti mellot). paris, e typog. reg._, , folio, four vols.----du roi. _des livres imprimés de la même bibliothéque royale. (disposè par messrs. les abbés sallier et boudot, &c.) paris, de l'imprim. royale_, - , folio, six vols. the most beautiful and carefully executed catalogue in the world: reflecting a truly solid lustre upon the literary reputation of france! the first four volumes, written in latin, comprehend an account of mss.: the six last, written in french, of printed works in theology, jurisprudence, and belles-lettres; the departments of history and the arts and sciences still remaining to be executed. de bure told us, half a century ago, that the "gens de lettres" were working hard at the completion of it; but the then complaints of bibliographers at its imperfect state are even yet continued in fournier's last edition of his _dictionnaire portatif de bibliographie_, p. . so easy it is to talk; so difficult to execute! i believe, however, that m. van-praet, one of the principal librarians, is now putting all engines to work to do away the further disgrace of such unaccountably protracted negligence. my copy of this magnificent set of books is bound in red morocco, gilt leaves, and was a presentation one from the king "au comte de neny, comme une marque de son estime, ." i should add that the first volume of "theology" contains a history of the rise and progress of the royal library, which was reprinted in vo., .----du roi. _notices et extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothéque du roi, paris. de l'imprim. roy._ , to., seven vols. it will be obvious to the candid reader that this work could not be better introduced than in the present place; and a most interesting and valuable one it is! my copy of it, which is only in six volumes [but a seventh is mentioned in _cat. de boutourlin_, no. , and in caillot's _roman bibliographique_, p. ], was purchased by me of mr. evans of pall-mall, who had shewn it to several lovers of bibliography, but none of whom had courage or curiosity enough to become master of the volumes. how i have profited by them, the supplement to my first volume of the "typographical antiquities of great britain," may in part shew. the public shall be made acquainted with still more curious excerpts. in my humble judgment the present work is a model of extraction of the marrow of old mss. it may be worth adding, the plates in the sixth volume are singular, curious and beautiful.----du roi. _accounts and extracts of the manuscripts in the library of the king of france. translated from the french_, london, , vo., two vols. "the french monarch [louis xvi.], in the publication now before us, has set an example to all europe, well worthy to be followed"--says the opening of the translator's preface. the present volumes contain a translation of only twenty-two articles from the preceding work; and very strongly may they be recommended to the curious philologist, as well as to the thorough-bred bibliomaniac.----rÖver. _bibliotheca röveriana, sive catalogus librorum qui studiis inservierunt matthiæ röveri._ lug. bat. , vo., _two parts_. from the elegant and pleasing latin preface to this most carefully compiled catalogue, we learn that the owner of the books lived to his d year--and [what must be a peculiar gratification to bibliomaniacs] that he beat pomponius atticus in the length of time during which he never had occasion to take physic; namely, years! röver's life seemed to glide away in rational tranquillity, and in total seclusion from the world; except that he professed and always shewed the greatest kindness to his numerous, and many of them helpless, relatives--"vix in publicum prodiit, nisi cultus divini externi aut propinquorum caussâ," p. xv. his piety was unshaken. like the venerable jacob bryant, his death was hastened in consequence of a contusion in his leg from a fall in endeavouring to reach a book.----rothelin. _catalogue des livres de feu m'l. abbé d'orleans de rothelin. par g. martin_, paris, , vo. this catalogue of the library of the amiable and learned abbé rothelin, "known (says camus) for his fine taste for beautiful books," is judiciously drawn up by martin, who was the de bure of his day. a portrait of its owner faces the title-page. it was the abbé rothelin who presented de boze with the celebrated '_guirlande de julie_'--a work which afterwards came into the valliere collection, and was sold for , livres,--"the highest price (says peignot) ever given for a modern book." consult his _curiosités bibliographiques_, pp. , ; and _bibl. curieuse_, p. .----sarraz. _bibliotheca sarraziana._ hag. com., , vo. this catalogue, which is frequently referred to by bibliographers, should not escape the collector when he can obtain it for a few shillings. a tolerably good preface or diatribe is prefixed, upon the causes of the rarity of books, but the volume itself is not deserving of all the fine things in commendation of it which are said in the _bibl. reiman_, pt. ii., p. , &c.----sartori. _catalogus bibliographicus librorum latinorum et germanicorum in bibliotheca cæsar. reg. et equestris academiæ theresianæ extantium, cum accessionibus originum typographicarum. vindobonensium, et duobus supplementis necnon, indice triplici, systematico, bibliographico, et typographico; auctore josepho de sartori._ vindobonæ, - , to. vol. i., ii., iii. of this very curious and greatly-to-be-desired catalogue, which is to be completed in eight volumes, it is said that only one hundred copies are struck off. peignot has a long and interesting notice of it in his _bibliographie curieuse_, p. .----schalbruck. _bibliotheca schalbruchiana; sive catalogus exquisitissimorum rarissimorumque librorum, quos collegit joh. theod. schalbruch._ amst. , vo. a very fine collection of rare and curious books. from a priced copy of the catalogue, accidentally seen, i find that some of them produced rather large sums.----schwartz. _catalogus librorum continens codd. mss. et libros sæculo_ xv. _impressos, quos possedit et notis recensuit a.g. schwarzius_, altorf. , vo. the name of schwartz is so respectable in the annals of bibliography that one cannot help giving the present catalogue a place in one's collection. according to _bibl. solger._, vol. iii., no. , a first part (there said to be printed upon large paper) was published in . schwartz's treatise, "_de orig. typog. document. primar._" altorf, , to., should have been noticed at p. , ante.----scriverius. _bibliothecæ scriverianæ catalogus_, amst., , to.--"exquisitissimus est: constat enim selectissimus omnium facultatum et artium autoribus." this is the strong recommendatory language of morhof: _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., .----serna santander. _catalogue des livres de la bibliothéque de m.c. de la serna santander; redigé et mis en ordre par lui même; avec des notes bibliographiques et littèraires_, &c. bruxelles, , vo., five volumes. an extensive collection of interesting works; with a sufficiently copious index at the end of the fourth volume. the fifth volume contains a curious disquisition upon the antiquity of signatures, catchwords, and numerals; and is enriched with a number of plates of watermarks of the paper in ancient books. this catalogue, which is rarely seen in our own country, is well worth a place in any library. it is a pity the typographical execution of it is so very indifferent. for the credit of a bibliographical taste, i hope there were a few copies struck off upon large paper.----sion college. _catalogus universalis librorum omnium in bibliotheca collegii sionii apud londinenses_; londini, , to. _ejusdem collegii librorum catalogus, &c., cura reading_, lond., , fol. as the first of these catalogues (of a collection which contains some very curious and generally unknown volumes) was published before the great fire of london happened, there will be found some books in it which were afterwards consumed, and therefore not described in the subsequent impression of . this latter, which tom osborne, the bookseller, would have called a "pompous volume," is absolutely requisite to the bibliographer: but both impressions should be procured, if possible. the folio edition is common and cheap.----smith [consul]. _bibliotheca smithiana, seu catalogus librorum d.j. smithii angli, per cognomina authorum dispositus._ venetiis, , to. _a catalogue of the curious, elegant, and very valuable library of joseph smith, esq., his britannic majesty's consul at venice, lately deceased_, , vo. these are the catalogues of the collections of books occasionally formed at venice, by mr. joseph smith, during his consulship there. the quarto impression contains a description of the books which were purchased "en masse" by his present majesty. it is singularly well executed by paschali, comprehending, by way of an appendix, the prefaces to those volumes in the collection which were printed in the fifteenth century. i possess a brochûre of pages, containing a catalogue of books printed in the fifteenth century, which has consul smith's arms at the beginning, and, at the end, this subscription, "pretiosissima hæc librorum collectio, cujusvis magni principis bibliotheca dignissima, constat voluminibus ccxlviii." the title-page has no date. i suspect it to be the same catalogue of books which is noticed at p. , ante, and which probably the consul bought: forming the greater part of his own library of early printed books. see too the _bibliogr. miscellany_, vol. ii., . the collection of was sold by auction, for mr. robson, by messrs. baker and leigh--and a fine one it was. among these books, the spira virgil of , printed upon vellum, was purchased for _only twenty-five guineas_! excidat ille dies ævo--ne postera credant sæcula--! ----solger. _bibliotheca sive supellex librorum impressorum, &c., et codicum manuscriptorum, quos per plurimos annos collegit, &c., adamus rudolphus solger._ norimb., , vo., three parts or vols. i should almost call this publication "facile princeps catalogorum"--in its way. the bibliographical notices are frequent and full; and saving that the words "rarus, rarior, et rarissimus," are sometimes too profusely bestowed, nothing seems to be wanting to render this a very first rate acquisition to the collector's library. i am indebted to the bibliomanical spirit of honest mr. manson, of gerard-street, the bookseller, for this really useful publication.----soubise. _catalogue des livres imprimés et manuscrits, &c., de feu monseigneur le prince de soubise (par feu le clerc)_, paris, , vo. a short history of this collection will be the best inducement to purchase the present catalogue, whenever it comes in the way of the collector. the foundation of this splendid library was that of the famous de thou's [vide art. thuanus, post], which was purchased by the cardinal de rohan, who added it to his own grand collection--"the fruit of a fine taste and a fine fortune." it continued to be augmented and enriched 'till, and after, it came into the possession of the prince de soubise--the last nobleman of his name--who dying in january, , the entire collection was dispersed by public auction: after it had been offered for the purchase of one or two eminent london booksellers, who have repented, and will repent to their dying day, their declining the offer. this catalogue is most unostentatiously executed upon very indifferent paper; and, while an excellent index enables us to discover any work of which we may be in want, the beautiful copies from this collection which are in the cracherode library in the british museum, give unquestionable proof of the splendour of the books. for the credit of french bibliography, i hope there are some few copies upon large paper.----tellier. _bibliotheca tellereana, sive catalogus librorum bibliotheca caroli mauritii le tellier, archiepiscopi ducis remensis. parisiis, e typographia regia_, , fol. a finely engraved portrait of tellier faces the title-page. this is a handsome volume, containing a numerous and well-chosen collection of books.----thuanus. [de thou] _bibliothecæ thuanæ catalogus_, parisiis, , vo. "three particular reasons," says baillet, "should induce us to get possession of this catalogue; first, the immortal glory acquired by de thou in writing his history, and in forming the most perfect and select library of his age: and secondly, the abundance and excellence of the books herein specified; and, thirdly, the great credit of the bibliographers du puys and quesnel, by whom the catalogue was compiled." _jugemens des savans_, vol. ii., p. , &c. morhof is equally lavish in commendation of this collection. see his _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., , . the books of de thou, whose fame will live as long as a book shall be read, were generally in beautiful condition, with his arms stamped upon the exterior of the binding, which was usually of morocco; and, from some bibliographical work (i think it is santander's catalogue), i learn that this binding cost the worthy president not less than , crowns. de thou's copy of the editio princeps of homer is now in the british museum; having been presented to this national institution by the rev. dr. cyril jackson, who has lately resigned the deanery of christ church college, oxford,--"and who is now wisely gone to enjoy the evening of life in repose, sweetened by the remembrance of having spent the day in useful and strenuous exertion." for an account of the posterior fate of de thou's library, consult the article "soubise," ante. i should add that, according to the _bibl. solgeriana_, vol. iii., p. , no. , there are copies of this catalogue upon large paper.----uffenbach. _catalogus universalis bibliothecæ uffenbachinæ librorum tam typis quam manu exaratorum._ francof. ad moen, , vo., vols. this catalogue is no mean acquisition to the bibliographer's library. it rarely occurs in a perfect and clean condition.----valliere (duc de la). _catalogue des livres provenans de la bibliothéque de m.l.d.d.l.v._, (m. le duc de la valliere) _disposé et mis en ordre par guill. franc. de bure le jeune._ paris, , vo., vols.--_des livres de la même bibliothéque._ paris, , vo.--_des livres et manuscrits de la même bibliothéque_, paris, , vo., vols.--_des livres de la même bibliothéque_, paris, , vols. vo. these twelve volumes of catalogues of this nobleman's library impress us with a grand notion of its extent and value--perhaps never exceeded by that of any private collection! it would seem that the duke de la valliere had two sales of part of his books (of which the two first catalogues are notifications) during his life-time: the two latter catalogues of sales having been put forth after his decease. of these latter (for the former contain nothing remarkable in them, except that there are copies of the first on large paper, in to.), the impression of , which was compiled by van praet and de bure, is the most distinguished for its notices of mss. and early printed books: and in these departments it is truly precious, being enriched with some of the choicest books in the gaignat collection. those printed upon vellum alone would form a little library! of the impression of , which has a portrait of the owner prefixed, there were fifty copies printed upon large paper, in to., to harmonize with the _bibliographie instructive_, and _gaignat's catalogue_. see _bibliographical miscell._, vol. ii., . twelve copies were also printed in royal vo., upon fine stout vellum paper; of which the rt. hon. t. grenville has a beautiful uncut copy in six volumes. see also _cat. de loménie_ [ ], no. . the last publication of was put forth by nyon l'aîné; and although the bibliographical observations are but few in comparison with those in the preceding catalogue, and no index is subjoined, yet it is most carefully executed; and presents us with such a copious collection of french topography, and old french and italian poetry and romances, as never has been, and perhaps never will be, equalled. it contains , articles. the count d'artois purchased this collection "en masse;" and it is now deposited in the "bibliothéque de l'arsenal." see _dictionn. bibliographique_, vol. iv., p. . it was once offered for purchase to a gentleman of this country--highly distinguished for his love of virtû. mr. grenville has also a similar large paper copy of this latter edition, of the date of .----vienna. _codices manuscripti theologici. bibl. palat. vindob. latini aliarumque occidentis linguarum_, vol. i. (in tribus partibus.) _recens._, &c., _michael denis._ vindob. , folio. some mention of this work has been made at page , ante. it may be here necessary to remark that, from the preface, it would appear to contain a ninth additional book to lambecius's well-known commentaries (vide, p. , ante) which kollarius had left unpublished at his death. the preface is well worth perusal, as it evinces the great pains which denis has taken; and the noble, if not matchless, munificence of his patron--"qui præter augustam bibliothecæ fabricam in ipsos libros centenis plura rhenensium expendit millia."--this catalogue is confined to a description of latin, with some few notices of oriental manuscripts; as the preceding work of lambecius and kollarius contained an account of the greek mss. these three parts, forming one volume, are closed by an excellent index. the second volume was published in . upon the whole, it is a noble and highly useful publication; and places its author in the foremost rank of bibliographers.----volpi. _catalogo della libreria de volpi_, &c. _opera di don gaetano volpi._ padova, , vo. the crevenna library was enriched with a great number of valuable books which came from the library of the celebrated vulpii; of which the present is a well-arranged and uncommon catalogue. annexed to it there is an account of the press of the comini, which belonged to the owners of this collection. the reader may consult _bibl. crevenn._, vol. v., pp. - ; and dr. clarke's _bibliogr. miscell._, vol. ii., .----voyage _de deux français dans le nord de l'europe, en - , (par m. de fortia)_ paris, , vo., vols. that the collector of catalogues may not scold me for this apparent deviation from the subject discussed in this note, i must inform him, upon the authority of peignot, that these interesting volumes contain "some account of the most beautiful and curious books contained in the libraries of the north, and in those of italy, spain, holland, &c." _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. lviii.----de witt. _catalogus bibliothecæ joannis de witt_, dordraci, , mo. the preface to this catalogue, (from which an extract was given in the _first_ edition of my "_introduction to the editions of the greek and latin classics_," , vo.,) gives us a pleasing account of an ardent and elegant young man in the pursuit of every thing connected with virtû. de witt seems to have been, in books and statues, &c., what his great ancestor was in politics--"paucis comparandus." a catalogue of the library of a collector of the same name was published at brussels, in , by de vos. see _cat. de santander_, vol. iv., no. .----zurich. _catalogus librorum bibliothecæ tigurinæ._ tiguri, , vo., vols. although the last, this is not the most despicable, catalogue of collections here enumerated. a reading man, who happens to winter in switzerland, may know, upon throwing his eyes over this catalogue, that he can have access to good books at zurich--the native place of many an illustrious author! the following, which had escaped me, may probably be thought worthy of forming an appendix to the preceding note. bern. _cat. codd. mss. bibl. bernensis. cum annotationibus, &c. curante sinner._ bernæ, , vo. a very curious and elegantly printed catalogue with three plates of fac-similes.----parker [abp.] _catalog. libror. mss. in bibl. coll. corporis christi in cantab., quos legavit m. parkerus archiepiscop. cant._ lond., , fol.; _eorundem libror. mss. catalogus. edidit j. nasmith._ cantab., , to. of these catalogues of the curious and valuable mss. which were bequeathed to corpus college (or bennet college, as it is sometimes called) by the immortal archbishop parker, the first is the more elegantly printed, but the latter is the more copious and correct impression. my copy of it has a fac-simile etching prefixed, by tyson, of the rare print of the archbishop, which will be noticed in part v., post.----royal institution. _a catalogue of the library of the royal institution of great britain, &c. by william harris, keeper of the library._ lond., , vo. if a lucid order, minute and correct description of the volumes of an admirably chosen library, accompanied with a copious and faithful alphabetical index, be recommendations with the bibliographer, the present volume will not be found wanting upon his shelf. it is the most useful book of its kind ever published in this country. let the bibliomaniac hasten to seize one of the five remaining copies only (out of the _fifty_ which were printed) upon large paper!----wood (anthony). _a catalogue of antony-a-wood's manuscripts in the ashmolean museum; by w. huddesford_, oxon, , vo. the very name of _old anthony_ (as it delights some facetious book-collectors yet to call him!) will secure respect for this volume. it is not of common occurrence.] [footnote c: in part vi. of this work will be found a list of books printed here. the armorial bearings of lord orford are placed at p. .] lis. you have so thoroughly animated my feelings, and excited my curiosity, in regard to bibliography, that i can no longer dissemble the eagerness which i feel to make myself master of the several books which you have recommended. lysand. alas, your zeal will most egregiously deceive you! _where_ will you look for such books? at what bookseller's shop, or at what auction, are they to be procured? in this country, my friend, few are the private collections, however choice, which contain two third parts of the excellent works before mentioned. patience, vigilance, and personal activity, are your best friends in such a dilemma. lis. but i will no longer attend the sale of malvolio's busts and statues, and gaudy books. i will fly to the strand, or king-street: peradventure-- phil. gently, my good lisardo. a breast thus suddenly changed from the cold of nova zembla to the warmth of the torrid zone requires to be ruled with discretion. and yet, luckily for you-- lis. speak--are you about to announce the sale of some bibliographical works? phil. even so. to morrow, if i mistake not, gonzalvo's choice gems, in this way, are to be disposed of. lis. consider them as my own. nothing shall stay me from the possession of them. lysand. you speak precipitately. are you accustomed to attend book-auctions? lis. no; but i will line my pockets with pistoles, and who dare oppose me? phil. and do you imagine that no one, but yourself, has his pockets "lined with pistoles," on these occasions? lis. it may be so--that other linings are much warmer than my own:--but, at any rate, i will make a glorious struggle, and die with my sword in my hand. phil. this is _book-madness_ with a vengeance! however, we shall see the issue. when and how do you propose going? lis. a chaise shall be at this door by nine in the morning. who will accompany me? lysand. our friend and philemon will prevent your becoming absolutely raving, by joining you. i shall be curious to know the result. lis. never fear. _bibliomania_ is, of all species of insanity, the most rational and praise-worthy. i here solemnly renounce my former opinions, and wish my errors to be forgotten. i here crave pardon of the disturbed manes of the martins, de bures, and patersons, for that flagitious act of _catalogue-burning_; and fondly hope that the unsuspecting age of boyhood will atone for so rash a deed. do you frankly forgive--and will you henceforth consider me as a worth [transcriber's note: worthy] "_aspirant_" in the noble cause of bibliography? lysand. most cordially do i forgive you; and freely admit you into the fraternity of bibliomaniacs. philemon, i trust, will be equally merciful. phil. assuredly, lisardo, you have my entire forgiveness: and i exult a little in the hope that you will prove yourself to be a sincere convert to the cause, by losing no opportunity of enriching your bibliographical stores. already i see you mounted, as a book chevalier, and hurrying from the country to london--from london again to the country--seeking adventures in which your prowess may be displayed--and yielding to no competitor who brandishes a lance of equal weight with your own! lis. 'tis well. at to-morrow's dawn my esquire shall begin to burnish up my armour--and caparison my courser. till then adieu! * * * * * here the conversation, in a connected form, ceased; and it was resolved that philemon and myself should accompany lisardo on the morrow. [illustration] [illustration: fari quÆ sentiat] part iii. =the auction room.= character of orlando. of ancient prices of books, and book-binding. book-auction bibliomaniacs. "as to the late method used in selling books by auction in london, i suppose that many have paid dear for their experience in this way--it being apparent that most books bought in an auction may be had cheaper in booksellers' shops." clavel: _cat. of books for , pref._ [illustration] [illustration] =the auction room.= character of orlando. of ancient prices of books, and book-binding. book auction bibliomaniacs. never, surely, did two mortals set off upon any expedition with greater glee and alacrity than did lisardo and philemon for the sale, by auction, of gonzalvo's bibliographical library. the great pains which lysander had taken in enumerating the various foreign and domestic writers upon bibliography, with his occasionally animated eulogies upon some favourite author had quite inflamed the sanguine mind of lisardo; who had already, in anticipation, fancied himself in possession of every book which he had heard described. like homer's high-bred courser, who --ere he starts, a thousand steps are lost-- our young bibliomaniac began to count up his volumes, arrange his shelves, bespeak his binder, and revel in the luxury of a splendid and nearly matchless collection. the distance from my house to the scene of action being thirteen miles, lisardo, during the first six, had pretty nearly exhausted himself in describing the delightful pictures which his ardent fancy had formed; and finding the conversation beginning to flag, philemon, with his usual good-nature and judgment, promised to make a pleasing digression from the dry subject of book-catalogues, by an episode with which the reader shall be presently gratified. having promised to assist them both, when we arrived at messrs. l. and s., in the strand, with some information relating to the prices of such books as they stood in need of, and to the various book-collectors who attended public sales, lisardo expressed himself highly obliged by the promise; and, sinking quietly into a corner of the chaise, he declared that he was now in a most apt mood to listen attentively to philemon's digressive chat: who accordingly thus began. "lord coke,"--exclaimed philemon, in a mirthful strain--"before he ventured upon '_the jurisdiction of the courts of the forest_,' wished to 'recreate himself' with virgil's description of 'dido's doe of the forest;'[ ] in order that he might 'proceed the more cheerfully' with the task he had undertaken; and thus exchange somewhat of the precise and technical language of the lawyer for that glowing tone of description which woodland scenes and hunting gaieties seldom fail to produce. even so, my good friends (pursued philemon), i shall make a little digression from the confined subject to which our attentions have been so long directed by taking you with me, in imagination, to the delightful abode of orlando." [footnote : the quaint language of lord coke is well worth quotation: "and seeing we are to treat of matters of game, and hunting, let us (to the end we may proceed the more chearfully) recreate ourselves with the excellent description of dido's doe of the forest wounded with a deadly arrow sticken in her, and not impertinent to our purpose: uritur infælix dido, totaque vagatur urbe furens, &c. and in another place, using again the word (sylva) and describing a forest saith: ibat in antiquam sylvam stabula alta ferarum." _institutes_, pt. iv., p. , ed. . thus pleasantly could our sage expounder of the laws of the realm illustrate the dry subject of which he treated!] lis. i have heard of him: a very "_helluo librorum_!" thus we only change sides--from things to men; from books to book-collectors. is this digressive? is this an episode? phil. why this abrupt interruption? if i did not know you and myself, too, lisardo, i should observe an obstinate silence during the remainder of the journey. an episode, though it suspend the main action for a while, partakes of the nature of the subject of the work. it is an _appropriate_ digression. do pray read dr. blair[ ] upon the subject--and now only listen. [footnote : _lecture_ xlii., vol. iii.] orlando (continued philemon) had from his boyhood loved books and book-reading. his fortune was rather limited; but he made shift--after bringing up three children, whom he lost from the ages of nineteen to twenty-four, and which have been recently followed to their graves by the mother that gave them birth--he made shift, notwithstanding the expenses of their college education, and keeping up the reputation of a truly hospitable table, to collect, from year to year, a certain number of volumes, according to a certain sum of money appropriated for the purchase of them; generally making himself master of the principal contents of the first year's purchase, before the ensuing one was placed upon his shelves. he lives in a large ancestral house; and his library is most advantageously situated and delightfully fitted up. disliking such a wintry residence as thomson has described[ ]--although fond of solemn retirement, and of cowper's "boundless contiguity of shade,"--he has suffered the rules of common sense always to mingle themselves in his plans of domestic comfort; and, from the bow-windowed extremity of his library, he sees realized, at the distance of four hundred yards, cæsar's gently-flowing river _arar_,[ ] in a stream which loses itself behind some low shrubs; above which is a softly-undulating hill, covered with hazel, and birch, and oak. to the left is an open country, intersected with meadows and corn fields, and terminated by the blue mountains of malvern at the distance of thirteen miles. yet more to the left, but within one hundred and fifty yards of the house, and forming something of a foreground to the landscape, are a few large and lofty elm trees, under which many a swain has rested from his toil; many a tender vow has been breathed; many a sabbath-afternoon[ ] innocently kept; and many a village-wake cordially celebrated! some of these things yet bless the aged eyes of orlando! [footnote : "in the wild depth of winter, while without the ceaseless winds blow ice, be my retreat between the groaning forest and the shore, beat by the boundless multitude of waves, a rural, sheltered, solitary scene!"---- _winter._ one would like a situation somewhat more _sheltered_, when "the ceaseless winds blow ice!"] [footnote : "flumen est _arar_, quod per fines Æduorum et sequanorum in rhodanum fluit, incredibili lenitate, ita ut oculis, in utram partem fluat, judicari nos possit." _de bell. gall._, lib. i., § x. philemon might as happily have compared orlando's quiet stream to "the silent river" ----quæ liris quietâ mordet aquâ---- which horace has so exquisitely described, in contrast with ----obliquis laborat lympha fugax trepidare rivo. _carm._, _lib._ i., _od._ xxxi., _lib._ ii., _od._ ii. yet let us not forget collin's lovely little bit of landscape-- "where slowly winds the stealing wave."] [footnote : there is a curious proclamation by q. elizabeth, relating to some sabbath recreations or games, inserted in hearne's preface to his edition of _camden's annals_, p. xxviii. it is a little too long to be given entire; but the reader may here be informed that "shooting with the standard, shooting with the broad arrow, shooting at the twelve score prick, shooting at the turk, leaping for men, running for men, wrestling, throwing the sledge, and pitching the bar," were suffered to be exhibited, on several sundays, for the benefit of one "john seconton powlter, dwelling within the parish of st. clements danes, being a poor man, having four small children, and fallen to decay."] i have slightly noticed the comfortable interior of his library.-- lis. you spoke of a bow-windowed extremity-- phil. yes, in this bow-window--the glass of which was furnished full two hundred and fifty years ago, and which has recently been put into a sensible modern frame-work--thereby affording two hours longer light to the inhabitant--in this bow-window, you will see a great quantity of stained glass of the different arms of his own, and of his wife's, family; with other appropriate embellishments.[ ] and when the evening sun-beams throw a chequered light throughout the room, 'tis pleasant to observe how orlando enjoys the opening of an aldine greek classic--the ample-margined leaves of which receive a mellower tint from the soft lustre that pervades the library. every book, whether opened or closed, is benefited by this due portion of light; so that the eye, in wandering over the numerous shelves, is neither hurt by morning glare nor evening gloom. of colours, in his furniture, he is very sparing: he considers white shelves, picked out with gold, as heretical--mahogany, wainscot, black, and red, are, what he calls, orthodox colours. he has a few busts and vases; and as his room is very lofty, he admits above, in black and gold frames, a few portraits of eminent literary characters; and whenever he gets a genuine vandyke, or velasquez, he congratulates himself exceedingly upon his good fortune. [footnote : the reader, who is partial to the lucubrations of thomas hearne, may peruse a long gossipping note of his upon the importance of _stained glass windows_--in his account of godstow nunnery. see his _guil. neubrig._, vol. ii., .] lis. all this bespeaks a pretty correct taste. but i wish to know something of the man. phil. you shall, presently; and, in hearing what i am about to relate, only let us both strive, good lisardo, so to regulate our studies and feelings that our old age may be like unto orlando's. last year i went with my uncle to pay him our annual visit. he appeared quite altered and shaken from the recent misfortune of losing his wife; who had survived the death of her children fifteen years; herself dying in the sixtieth of her own age. the eyes of orlando were sunk deeply into his forehead, yet they retained their native brilliancy and quickness. his cheeks were wan, and a good deal withered. his step was cautious and infirm. when we were seated in his comfortable library chairs, he extended his right arm towards me, and squeezing my hand cordially within his own--"philemon," said he, "you are not yet thirty, and have therefore sufficient ardour to enable you to gratify your favourite passion for books. did you ever read the inscription over the outside of my library door--which i borrowed from lomeir's account of one over a library at parma?[ ]" on my telling him that it had escaped me--"go," said he, "and not only read, but remember it."--the inscription was as follows: ingredere musis sacer, nam et hic dii habitant. item nullus amicus magis libet, quam liber. [footnote : _de bibliothecis_: p. , edit. .] "have a care," said he, on my resuming my seat--"have a care that you do not treat such a friend ill, or convert him into a foe. for myself, my course is well nigh run. my children have long taken their leave of me, to go to the common parent who created, and to the saviour who has vouchsafed to redeem, us all; and, though the usual order of nature has been here inverted, i bow to the fate which heaven has allotted me with the unqualified resignation of a christian. my wife has also recently left me, for a better place; and i confess that i begin to grow desolate, and anxious to take my departure to join my family. in my solitude, dear philemon, i have found these (pointing to his books) to be what cicero, and seneca, and our own countryman de bury,[ ] have so eloquently and truly described them to be--our friends, our instructors, and our comforts. without any affectation of hard reading, great learning, or wonderful diligence, i think i may venture to say that i have read more valuable books than it falls to the lot of the generality of book-collectors to read; and i would fain believe that i have profited by my studies. although not of the profession of the church, you know that i have always cherished a fondness for sacred literature; and there is hardly a good edition of the greek testament, or a commentator of repute upon the bible, foreign or domestic, but what you will find some reference to the same in my interleaved copy of bishop wilson's edition of the holy scriptures. a great number of these commentators themselves are in my library, as well as every authoritative edition of the greek testament, from the complutensian to griesbach's. yet do not suppose that my theological books are equal in measure to one fourth part of those in the imperial library at paris.[ ] my object has always been instruction and improvement; and when these could be obtained from any writer, whether roman catholic or protestant, arminian or calvinistic, i have not failed to thank him, and to respect him, too, if he has declared his opinions with becoming diffidence and moderation. you know that nothing so sorely grieves me as dogmatical arrogance, in a being who will always be frail and capricious, let him think and act as he please. on a sunday evening i usually devote a few hours to my theological studies--(if you will allow my sabbath-meditations to be so called) and, almost every summer evening in the week, saunter 'midst yon thickets and meadows by the river side, with collins, or thompson, or cowper, in my hand. the beautiful sentiments and grand imagery of walter scott are left to my in-door avocations; because i love to read the curious books to which he refers in his notes, and have always admired, what i find few critics have noticed, how adroitly he has ingrafted fiction upon truth. as i thus perambulate, with my book generally open, the villagers treat me as sir roger de coverley made his tenants treat the spectator--by keeping at a respectful distance--but when i shut up my volume, and direct my steps homewards, i am always sure to find myself, before i reach my threshold, in company with at least half a dozen gossipping and well-meaning rustics. in other departments of reading, history and poetry are my delight. on a rainy or snowy day, when all looks sad and dismal without, my worthy friend and neighbour, phormio, sometimes gives me a call--and we have a rare set-to at my old favourite volumes--the '_lectiones memorabiles et reconditæ_' of wolfius[ ]--a commonplace book of as many curious, extraordinary, true and false occurrences, as ever were introduced into two ponderous folios. the number of strange cuts in it used to amuse my dear children--whose parent, from the remembrance of the past, still finds a pleasing recreation in looking at them. so much, dear philemon, for my desultory mode of studying: improve upon it--but at all events, love your books for the good which they may produce; provided you open them with 'singleness of heart--' that is, a sincerity of feeling. [footnote : every school-lad who has written a copy under a writing-master, or who has looked into the second book of the _"selectæ è profanis scriptoribus," &c._, has probably been made acquainted with the sentiments of the above ancient heathen philosophers relating to learning and books; but may not have been informed of the conciliatory manner in which our countryman de bury has invited us to approach the latter. "hi sunt magistri (says he) qui nos instruunt sine vergis et ferula, sine verbis et colera, sine pane et pecunia. si accedis, non dormiunt; si inquiris, non se abscondunt; non remurmurant, si oberres; cachinnos nesciunt, si ignores." these original and apt words are placed in the title-page to the first volume of _dr. clarke's bibliographical dictionary_.] [footnote : "il y a pieds cubes de livres de théologie,"--"qui tapissent les murs des deux premières salles de la bibliothéque impériale." caillot: _roman bibliographique_, tom. i., , edit. .] [footnote : there are few men, of any literary curiosity, who would not wish to know something of the work here noticed; and much more than appears to be known of its illustrious author; concerning whom we will first discourse a little: "johannes wolfius (says melchoir [transcriber's note: melchior] adam), the laborious compiler of the _lectionum memorabilium et reconditarum centenarii_ xvi. (being a collection of curious pieces from more than authors--chiefly protestant) was a civilian, a soldier, and a statesman. he was born a.d. , at vernac, in the duchy of deux ponts; of which town his father was chief magistrate. he was bred under sturmius at strasbourg, under melancthon at wittemberg, and under cujas at bruges. he travelled much and often; particularly into france and burgundy, with the dukes of stettin, in . he attended the elector palatine, who came with an army to the assistance of the french hugonots in ; and, in , he conducted the corpse of his master back to germany by sea. after this, he was frequently employed in embassies from the electors palatine to england and poland. his last patrons were the marquisses of baden, who made him governor of mündelsheim, and gave him several beneficial grants. in , wolfius bade adieu to business and courts, and retired to hailbrun; where he completed his "_lectiones_," which had been the great employment of his life. he died may , a.d. --the same year in which the above volumes were published." thus far, in part, our biographer, in his _vitæ eruditorum cum germanorum tum exterorum_: pt. iii., p. , edit. . these particulars may be gleaned from wolfius's preface; where he speaks of his literary and diplomatic labours with great interest and propriety. in this preface also is related a curious story of a young man of the name of martin, whom wolfius employed as an amanuensis to transcribe from his "three thousand authors"--and who was at first so zealously attached to the principles of the romish church that he declared "he wished for no heaven where luther might be." the young man died a protestant; quite reconciled to a premature end, and in perfect good will with luther and his doctrine. as to wolfius, it is impossible to read his preface, or to cast a glance upon his works--"magno et pene incredibili labore multisque vigiliis elaboratum"--(as linsius has well said, in the opening of the admonition to the reader, prefixed to his index) without being delighted with his liberality of disposition, and astonished at the immensity of his labour. each volume has upwards of pages closely printed upon an indifferent brown-tinted paper; which serves nevertheless to set off the several hundreds of well executed wood cuts which the work contains. linsius's index, a thin folio, was published in the year : this is absolutely necessary for the completion of a copy. as bibliographers have given but a scanty account of this uncommon work (mentioned, however, very properly by mr. nicol in his interesting preface to the catalogue of the duke of roxburgh's books; and of which i observe in the _bibl. solgeriana_, vol. i., no. , that a second edition, printed in , is held in comparatively little estimation), so biographers (if we except melchior adam, the great favourite of bayle) have been equally silent respecting its author. fabricius, and the historical dictionary published at caen, do not mention him; and moreri has but a meagre and superficial notice of him. wolfius's _penus artis historicæ_, of which the best edition is that of , is well described in the tenth volume of fournier's _methode pour étudier l'histoire_, p. , edit. . my respect for so extraordinary a bibliomaniac as wolfius, who was groping amongst the books of the public libraries belonging to the several great cities which he visited, (in his diplomatic character--vide præf.) whilst his masters and private secretary were probably paying their devotions to bacchus--induces me to treat the reader with the following impression of his portrait. [illustration] this cut is taken from a fac-simile drawing, made by me of the head of wolfius as it appears at the back of the title-page to the preceding work. the original impression is but an indifferent one; but it presents in addition, the body of wolfius as far as the waist; with his right hand clasping a book, and his left the handle of a sword. his ponderous chain has a medallion suspended at the end. this print, which evidently belongs to the english series, has escaped granger. and yet i know not whether such intelligence should be imparted!--as the scissars may hence go to work to deprive many a copy of these "_lectiones_," of their elaborately-ornamented title-pages. forbid it, good sense!] "in a short time," continued the venerable orlando, after a pause of fifteen seconds, "in a short time i must bid adieu to this scene; to my choice copies; beautiful bindings: and all the classical furniture which you behold around you. yes!--as reimannus[ ] has well observed,--'there is no end to accumulating books, whilst the boundaries of human existence are limited, indeed!' but i have made every necessary, and, i hope, appropriate, regulation; the greater part of my library is bequeathed to one of the colleges in the university of oxford; with an injunction to put an inscription over the collection very different from what the famous ranzau[ ] directed to be inscribed over his own.--about three hundred volumes you will find bequeathed to you, dear philemon--accompanied with a few remarks not very different from what lotichius[ ] indited, with his dying breath, in his book-legacy to the learned sambucus. i will, at present, say no more. come and see me whenever you have an opportunity. i exact nothing extraordinary of you; and shall therefore expect nothing beyond what one man of sense and of virtue, in our relative situations, would pay to the other." [footnote : "vita brevis est, et series librorum longa." he adds: "Æs magnum tempus, quo id dispungere conatus est, parvum." _bibl. acroamat._, p. , sign. d [dagger symbol] .] [footnote : "henry de ranzau--avoit dressé une excellente bibliothéque au chateau de bredemberg, dans laquelle estoient conservez plusieurs manuscrits grecs et latins, et autres raretez, &c.--ce sçavant personnage a fait un decret pour sa bibliothéque, qui merite d'estre icy inseré, pour faire voir a la posterité l'affection qu'il auoit pour sa conservation." ... libros partem ne aliquam abstulerit, extraxerit, clepserit, rapserit, concerpserit, coruperit, dolo malo: illico maledictus, perpetuo execrabilis, semper detestabilis esto maneto. jacob: _traicté des bibliothéques_, pp. , . i have inserted only the fulminatory clause of this inscription, as being that part of it against which orlando's indignation seems to be directed.] [footnote : "petrus lotichius johanni sambuco pannonio gravissimo morbo laborans bononiæ, bibliothecam suam legaverit, _lib._ , _eleg._ , verba ejus lectu non injucunda: pro quibus officiis, hæres abeuntis amici, accipe fortunæ munera parva meæ. non mihi sunt baccho colles, oleisque virentes, prædiave Æmiliis conspicienda jugis. tu veterum dulces scriptorum sume libellos, attritos manibus quos juvat esse meis. invenies etiam viridi quæ lusimus ævo, dum studiis ætas mollibus apta fuit. illa velim rapidis sic uras carmina flammis ut vatem ipse suis ignibus jussit amor." lomeier: _de bibliothecis_, p. .] "so spake orlando," said philemon, with tears in his eyes, who, upon looking at lisardo and myself, found our faces covered with our handkerchiefs, and unable to utter a word. the deliberate manner in which this recital was made--the broken periods, and frequent pauses--filled up a great measure of our journey; and we found that st. paul's dome was increasing upon us in size and distinctness, and that we had not more than three miles to travel, when lisardo, wishing to give a different turn to the discourse, asked philemon what was the cause of such extravagant sums being now given at book-sales for certain curious and uncommon--but certainly not highly intrinsically-valuable--publications; and whether our ancestors, in the time of hen. viii. and elizabeth, paid in proportion for the volumes of _their_ libraries? upon philemon's declaring himself unable to gratify his friend's curiosity, but intimating that some assistance might probably be derived from myself, i took up the discourse by observing that-- "in the infancy of printing in this country (owing to the competition of foreigners) it would seem that our own printers (who were both booksellers and book-binders) had suffered considerably in their trade, by being obliged to carry their goods to a market where the generality of purchasers were pleased with more elegantly executed works at an inferior price. the legislature felt, as every patriotic legislature would feel, for their injured countrymen; and, accordingly, the statute of richard iii. was enacted,[ ] whereby english printers and book-binders were protected from the mischiefs, which would otherwise have overtaken them. thus our old friend caxton went to work with greater glee, and mustered up all his energies to bring a good stock of british manufacture to the market. what he usually sold his books for, in his life time, i have not been able to ascertain; but, on his decease, one of his _golden legends_ was valued, in the churchwardens' books, at six shillings and eight pence.[ ] whether this was a great or small sum i know not; but, from the same authority we find that twenty-two pounds were given, twelve years before, for eleven huge folios, called '_antiphoners_.'[ ] in the reign of henry viii. it would seem, from a memorandum in the catalogue of the fletewode library (if i can trust my memory with such minutiæ) that law-books were sold for about ten sheets to the groat.[ ] now, in the present day, law-books--considering the wretched style in which they are published, with broken types upon milk-and-water-tinted paper--are the dearest of all modern publications. whether they were anciently sold for so comparatively extravagant a sum may remain to be proved. certain it is that, before the middle of the sixteenth century, you might have purchased grafton's abridgment of polydore virgil's superficial work about _the invention of things_ for fourteen pence;[ ] and the same printer's book of _common prayer_ for four shillings. yet if you wanted a superbly bound _prymer_, it would have cost you (even five and twenty years before) nearly half a guinea.[ ] nor could you have purchased a decent _ballad_ much under sixpence; and _hall's chronicle_ would have drawn from your purse twelve shillings;[ ] so that, considering the then value of specie, there is not much ground of complaint against the present prices of books." [footnote : by the st of richard iii. ( , ch. ix. sec. xii.) it appeared that, whereas, a great number of the king's subjeets [transcriber's note: subjects] within this realm having "given themselves diligently to learn and exercise the craft of printing, and that at this day there being within this realm a great number cunning and expert in the said science or craft of printing, as able to exercise the said craft in all points as any stranger, in any other realm or country, and a great number of the king's subjects living by the craft and mystery of binding of books, and well expert in the same;"--yet "all this notwithstanding, there are divers persons that bring from beyond the sea great plenty of printed books--not only in the latin tongue, but also in our maternal english tongue--some bound in boards, some in leather, and some in parchment, and them sell by retail, whereby many of the king's subjects, being binders of books, and having no other faculty therewith to get their living, be destitute of work, and like to be undone, except some reformation herein be had,--be it therefore enacted, &c." by the th clause or provision, if any of these printers or sellers of printed books vend them "at too high and unreasonable prices," then the lord chancellor, lord treasurer, or any of the chief justices of the one bench or the other--"by the oaths of twelve honest and discreet persons," were to regulate their prices. this remarkable act was confirmed by the th hen. viii., ch. , which was not repealed till the th geo. ii., ch. , § . a judge would have enough to do to regulate the prices of books, by the oaths of twelve men, in the present times!] [footnote : the reader will be pleased to refer to p. cx. of the first volume of my recent edition of the _typographical antiquities of great britain_.] [footnote : the following is from 'the churchwardens' accompts of st. margaret's, westminster. "a.d. . item, for great books, called antiphoners, _l._ _s._ _d._" _manners and expenses of ancient times in england_, &c., collected by john nichols, , to., p. . _antiphonere_ is a book of anthems to be sung with responses: and, from the following passage in chaucer, it would appear to have been a common school-book used in the times of papacy: this litel childe his litel book lerning, as he sate in the scole at his primere he _alma redemptoris_ herde sing, as children lered hir _antiphonere_: _cant. tales_, v. , , &c. "a legend, an _antiphonarye_, a grayle, a psalter," &c., were the books appointed to be kept in every parish church "of the province of canterbury" by robert winchelsen. _const. provin. and of otho and octhobone_, fol. , rect., edit. .] [footnote : "the year books, v. parcels, as published, impr. in different years by pynson, berthelet, redman, myddylton, powell, smythe, rastell, and tottyl, to ." some of them have the prices printed at the end; as "the prisce of thys boke ys xiid. unbounde--the price of thys boke is xvid. un bownde;" and upon counting the sheets, it appears that the stated price of law-books, in the reign of hen. , was ten sheets for one groat. _bibl. monast-fletewodiana_, no. .] [footnote : in a copy of this book, printed by grafton in , which was in the library of that celebrated bibliomaniac, tom rawlinson, was the following singular ms. note: "at oxforde the yeare , browt down to seynbury by john darbye _pryce_ _d._ when i kepe mr. letymers shype i bout thys boke when the testament was obberagatyd that shepe herdys myght not red hit i pray god amende that blyndnes wryt by robert wyllyams keppynge shepe uppon seynbury hill. ." _camdeni annales: edit. hearne_, vol. i., p. xxx.] [footnote : from mr. nichol's curious work, i make the following further extracts: £ _s._ _d._ a.d. . item, paid for the half part of the bybell, } accordingly after the king's injunction } . item, also paid for six books of the litany } in english } . paid for iv books of the service of the church [this was probably grafton's prayer book of , fol.] . paid for a bybyl and parafrawse [from the ch. wardens accts. of st. margaret's westminster] the inventory of john port, . in the shop. item, a premmer lymmed with gold, and with imagery } written honds } (from the do. of st. mary hill, london.) to william pekerynge, a ballet, called a ryse and } wake } (from the books of the stationers' company). see pp. , , , and , of mr. nichols's work.] [footnote : by the kindness of mr. william hamper, of birmingham (a gentleman with whom my intercourse has as yet been only epistolary, but whom i must be allowed to rank among our present worthy bibliomaniacs), i am in possession of some original entries, which seem to have served as part of a day-book of a printer of the same name: "it having been pasted at the end of '_the poor man's librarie_' printed by john day in ." from this sable-looking document the reader has the following miscellaneous extracts: a.d. . £ _s._ _d._ (two) meserse of bloyene in bordis } one prymare latane & englis } ii balethis (ballads) nova of sortis ii boke of paper quire in forrell vi morse workes in forrell viij castell of love in forrelle wi: a sarmo nova x a.d. . balethis nova arbull in vo. catechis viiij prymare for a chyllde in vo. englis iv halles croneckelle nova englis xii from a household book kept in london, a.d. (in the possession of the same gent.) item, p-d for a lyttellton in english xij_d._ ---- for the booke of ij englishe lovers vj_d._ ---- for the booke of songes and sonnettes } and the booke of dyse, and a frenche booke } ij_s._ viij_d._ (viz. the frenche booke xvj_d._ the ij other bookes at viij_d._ the pece.) ---- ---- for printing the xxv orders of honest men xx_d._] lis. all this is very just. you are now creeping towards the seventeenth century. go on with your prices of books 'till nearly the present day; when the bibliomania has been supposed to have attained its highest pitch. "don't expect," resumed i, "any antiquarian exactness in my chronological detail of what our ancestors used to give for their curiously-covered volumes. i presume that the ancient method of _book-binding_[ ] added much to the expense of the purchase. but be this as it may, we know that sir ralph sadler, at the close of the sixteenth century, had a pretty fair library, with a _bible_ in the chapel to boot, for £ .[ ] towards the close of the seventeenth century, we find the earl of peterborough enlisting among the book champions; and giving, at the sale of richard smith's books in , not less than eighteen shillings and two pence for the first english edition of his beloved _godfrey of boulogne_.[ ] in queen ann's time, earl pembroke and lord oxford spared no expense for books; and dr. mead, who trod closely upon their heels, cared not at what price he purchased his _editiones principes_, and all the grand books which stamped such a value upon his collection. and yet, let us look at the priced catalogue of his library, or at that of his successor dr. askew, and compare the sums _then_ given for those _now_ offered for similar works!" [footnote : as a little essay, and a very curious one too, might be written upon the history of book-binding, i shall not attempt in the present note satisfactorily to supply such a desideratum; but merely communicate to the reader a few particulars which have come across me in my desultory researches upon the subject. mr. astle tells us that the famous _textus sancti cuthberti_, which was written in the th century, and was formerly kept at durham, and is now preserved in the cottonian library, (nero, d. iv.) was adorned in the saxon times by bilfrith, a monk of durham, with a silver cover gilt, and precious stones. simeon dunelmensis, or turgot, as he is frequently called, tells us that the cover of this fine ms. was ornamented "forensecis gemmis et auro." "a booke of gospelles garnished and wrought with antique worke of silver and gilte with an image of the crucifix with mary and john, poiz together cccxxij oz." in the secret jewel house in the tower. "a booke of gold enameled, clasped with a rubie, having on th' one side, a crosse of dyamounts, and vj other dyamounts, and th' other syde a flower de luce of dyamounts, and iiij rubies with a pendaunte of white saphires and the arms of englande. which booke is garnished with small emerades and rubies hanging to a cheyne pillar fashion set with xv knottes, everie one conteyning iij rubies (one lacking)." _archæologia_, vol. xiii., . although mr. astle has not specified the time in which these two latter books were bound, it is probable that they were thus gorgeously attired before the discovery of the art of printing. what the ancient vicars of chalk (in kent) used to pay for binding their missals, according to the original endowment settled by haymo de hethe in (which compelled the vicars to be at the expense of the same--_reg. roff._, p. ), mr. denne has not informed us. _archæologia_, vol. xi., . but it would seem, from warton, that "students and monks were anciently the binders of books;" and from their latin entries respecting the same, the word "conjunctio" appears to have been used for "ligatura." _hist. of engl. poetry_, vol. ii., p. . hearne, in no. iii. of the appendix to _adam de domerham de reb. gest. glast._, has "published a grant from rich. de paston to bromholm abbey, of twelve pence a year rent charge on his estates to _keep their books in repair_." this i gather from gough's _brit. topog._, vol. ii., p. : while from the _liber stat. eccl. paulinæ_, lond. mss., f. , (furnished me by my friend mr. h. ellis,[d] of the british museum), it appears to have been anciently considered as a part of the sacrist's duty to bind and clasp the books: "sacrista curet quod _libri bene ligentur et haspentur_," &c. in chaucer's time, one would think that the fashionable binding for the books of young scholars was _various-coloured velvet_: for thus our poet describes the library of the oxford scholar: a twenty bokes, clothed in black and red of aristotle---- (_prolog. to cant. tales._) we have some account of the style in which chaucer's royal patron, edward iii., used to have his books bound; as the following extract (also furnished me by mr. h. ellis) will testify:----"to alice claver, for the making of xvi laces and xvi tasshels for the garnyshing of diuers of the kings books, ij_s._ viij_d._----and to robert boillet for blac paper and nailles for closing and fastenyng of diuers cofyns of ffyrre wherein the kings boks were conveyed and caried from the kings grete warderobe in london vnto eltham aforesaid, v_d._----piers bauduyn stacioner for bynding gilding and dressing of a booke called titus liuius, xx_s_: for binding gilding and dressing of a booke called ffrossard, xvj_s_: or binding gilding and dressing of a booke called the bible, xvj_s_: for binding gilding and dressing of a booke called le gouuernement of kings and princes, xvj_s._" "for the dressing of ij books whereof oon is called la forteresse de foy and the other called the booke of josephus, iij_s._ iiij_d._ and for binding gilding and dressing of a booke called the bible historial, xx_s._" among the expenses entered in the wardrobe accompts th edw. iii. i suspect that it was not 'till towards the close of the th century, when the sister art of painting directed that of engraving, that books were bound in thick boards, with leather covering upon the same; curiously stamped with arabesque, and other bizarre, ornaments. in the interior of this binding, next to the leaves, there was sometimes an excavation, in which a silver crucifix was safely guarded by a metal door, with clasps. the exterior of the binding had oftentimes large embossed ornaments of silver, and sometimes of precious stones [as a note in the appendix to the _history of leicester_, by mr. nichols, p. , indicates--and as geyler himself, in his _ship of fools_, entitled "_navicula, sive speculum fatuorum_," edit. , to., thus expressly declares:--"sunt qui libros inaurunt et serica tegimenta apponunt preciosa et superba," sign. b. v. rev.], as well as the usual ornaments upon the leather; and two massive clasps, with thick metalled corners on each of the outward sides of the binding, seemed to render a book impervious to such depredations of time as could arise from external injury. meantime, however the worm was secretly engendered within the wood: and his perforating ravages in the precious leaves of the volume gave dreadful proof of the defectiveness of ancient binding, beautiful and bold as it undoubtedly was! the reader is referred to an account of a preciously bound diminutive godly book (once belonging to q. elizabeth), in the first volume of my edition of the british _typographical antiquities_, p. ; for which i understand the present owner asks the sum of _l._ we find that in the sixteenth year of elizabeth's reign, she was in possession of "oone gospell booke covered with tissue and garnished on th' onside with the crucifix and the queene's badges of silver guilt, poiz with wodde, leaves, and all, czij. oz." _archæologia_, vol. xiii., . i am in possession of the covers of a book, bound (a.d. ) in thick parchment or vellum, which has the whole length portrait of luther on one side, and of calvin on the other. these portraits, which are executed with uncommon spirit and accuracy, are encircled with a profusion of ornamental borders of the most exquisite taste and richness. we shall speak occasionally of more modern book-binding as we proceed. meanwhile, let the curious bibliomaniac glance his eye upon the copper-plate print which faces this concluding sentence--where he will see fac-similes of the portraits just mentioned.] [footnote : see the recent very beautiful edition of sir ralph sadler's _state papers_, vol. ii., p. .] [footnote : see the _catalogue of r. smith's books_, , to., p. (falsely numbered ), no. .] [footnote d: since created a knight.] lis. you allude to a late sale in pall mall, of one of the choicest and most elegant libraries ever collected by a man of letters and taste? "i do, lisardo--but see we are just entering the smoke and bustle of london; and in ten minutes shall have reached the scene of action." phil. how do you feel? lis. why, tolerably calm. my pulse beats as leisurely as did my lord strafford's at his trial--or (to borrow hamlet's phrase) --as yours, it doth temperately keep time, and makes as healthful music. phil. ninety-five to the minute! you are just now in a fit frame of mind to write a political pamphlet. pray consider what will be the issue of this madness? lis. no more! now for my catalogue; and let me attend to my marks. but our friend is not forgetful of his promise? phil. i dare say he will assist us in regulating the prices we ought to give--and more particularly in making us acquainted with the most notable book-collectors. upon my readily acquiescing in their demand, we leapt from the chaise (giving orders for it to attend by three o'clock) and hurried immediately up stairs into the auction room. the clock had struck twelve, and in half an hour the sale was to begin. not more than nine or ten gentlemen were strolling about the room: some examining the volumes which were to be sold, and making hieroglyphical marks thereupon, in their catalogues: some giving commissions to the clerk who entered their names, with the sums they intended staking, in a manner equally hieroglyphical. others, again, seemed to be casting an eye of vacancy over the whole collection; or waiting till a book friend arrived with whom they might enter into a little chat. you observe, my friends, said i, softly, yonder active and keen-visaged gentleman? 'tis lepidus. like magliabechi, content with frugal fare and frugal clothing[ ] and preferring the riches of a library to those of house-furniture, he is insatiable in his bibliomaniacal appetites. "long experience has made him sage:" and it is not therefore without just reason that his opinions are courted, and considered as almost oracular. you will find that he will take his old station, commanding the right or left wing of the auctioneer; and that he will enliven, by the gaiety and shrewdness of his remarks, the circle that more immediately surrounds him. some there are who will not bid 'till lepidus bids; and who surrender all discretion and opinion of their own to his universal book-knowledge. the consequence is that lepidus can, with difficulty, make purchases for his own library; and a thousand dexterous and happy manoeuvres are of necessity obliged to be practised by him, whenever a rare or curious book turns up. how many fine collections has this sagacious bibliomaniac seen disposed of! like nestor, who preaches about the fine fellows he remembered in his youth, lepidus (although barely yet in his grand climacteric!) will depicture, with moving eloquence, the numerous precious volumes of far-famed collectors, which he has seen, like macbeth's witches, "come like shadows, so depart!" [footnote : tenni cultu, victuque contentus, quidquid ei pecuniæ superaret in omnigenæ eruditionis libros comparandos erogabat, selectissimamque voluminum multitudinem ea mente adquisivit, ut aliquando posset publicæ utilitati--dicari, _præf. bibl. magliab. a fossio_, p. x.] and when any particular class of books, now highly coveted, but formerly little esteemed, comes under the hammer, and produces a large sum,--ah then! 'tis pleasant to hear lepidus exclaim-- o mihi præteritos referat si jupiter annos! justly respectable as are his scholarship and good sense, he is not what you may call a _fashionable_ collector; for old chronicles and romances are most rigidly discarded from his library. talk to him of hoffmen, schoettgenius, rosenmuller, and michaelis, and he will listen courteously to your conversation; but when you expatiate, however learnedly and rapturously, upon froissart and prince arthur, he will tell you that he has a heart of stone upon the subject; and that even a clean uncut copy of an original impression of each, by verard or by caxton, would not bring a single tear of sympathetic transport in his eyes. lis. i will not fail to pay due attention to so extraordinary and interesting a character--for see, he is going to take his distinguished station in the approaching contest. the hammer of the worthy auctioneer, which i suppose is of as much importance as was sir fopling's periwig of old,[ ] upon the stage--the hammer is upon the desk!--the company begin to increase and close their ranks; and the din of battle will shortly be heard. let us keep these seats. now, tell me who is yonder strange looking gentleman? [footnote : see warburton's piquant note, in mr. bowles's edition of _pope's works_, vol. v., p. . "this remarkable _periwiy_ [transcriber's note: periwig] (says he) usually made its entrance upon the stage in a sedan chair, brought in by two chairmen with infinite approbation of the audience." the _snuff-box_ of mr. l. has not a less imposing air; and when a high-priced book is balancing between _l._ and _l._ it is a fearful signal of its reaching an additional sum, if mr. l. should lay down his hammer, and delve into this said crumple-horned snuff-box!] "'tis mustapha, a vender of books. consuetudine invalescens, ac veluti callum diuturna cogitatione obducens,[ ] he comes forth, like an alchemist from his laboratory, with hat and wig 'sprinkled with learned dust,' and deals out his censures with as little ceremony as correctness. it is of no consequence to him by whom positions are advanced, or truth is established; and he hesitates very little about calling baron heinecken a tom fool, or ---- a shameless impostor. if your library were as choice and elegant as dr. h----'s he would tell you that his own disordered shelves and badly coated books presented an infinitely more precious collection; nor must you be at all surprised at this--for, like braithwait's upotomis, 'though weak in judgment, in opinion strong;' or, like the same author's meilixos, 'who deems all wisdom treasur'd in his pate,' our book-vender, in the catalogues which he puts forth, shews himself to be 'a great and bold carpenter of words;'[ ] overcharging the description of his own volumes with tropes, metaphors, flourishes, and common-place authorities; the latter of which one would think had but recently come under his notice, as they had been already before the public in various less ostentatious forms." [footnote : the curious reader may see the entire caustic passage in spizelius's _infelix literatus_, p. .] [footnote : _coryat's crudities_, vol. i., sign. (b. .) edit. .] phil. are you then an enemy to booksellers, or to their catalogues when interlaced with bibliographical notices? "by no means, philemon. i think as highly of our own as did the author of the aprosian library[ ] of the dutch booksellers; and i love to hear that the bibliographical labour bestowed upon a catalogue has answered the end proposed, by sharpening the appetites of purchasers. but the present is a different case. mustapha might have learnt good sense and good manners, from his right hand, or left hand, or opposite, neighbour; but he is either too conceited, or too obstinate, to have recourse to such aid. what is very remarkable, although he is constantly declaiming against the enormous sums of money given for books at public auctions, mustapha doth not scruple to push the purchaser to the last farthing of his commission; from a ready knack which he hath acquired, by means of some magical art in his foresaid laboratory, of deciphering the same; thus adopting in a most extraordinary manner, the very line of conduct himself which he so tartly censures in others." [footnote : see pages - , of wolfius's edition of the _bibliotheca aprosiana_, , vo. it is not because mr. ford, of manchester, has been kind enough to present me with one of the _six_ copies of his last catalogue of books, printed upon strong writing paper--that i take this opportunity of praising the contents of it,--but that his catalogues are to be praised for the pains which he exhibits in describing his books, and in referring to numerous bibliographical authorities in the description. while upon this subject, let me recommend the youthful bibliomaniac to get possession of mr. edwards's catalogues, and especially of that of . if such a catalogue were but recently published, it would be one of the pleasantest breakfast lounges imaginable to _tick off_ a few of the volumes with the hope of possessing them at the prices therein afixed.] phil. was this the gentleman whose catalogue (as you shewed me) contained the fascinating colophon of juliana berner's book of hawking, hunting, and heraldry, printed in the year , subjoined to a copy of the common reprint of it by gervase markham--thereby provoking a thousand inquiries after the book, as if it had been the first edition? "the same," resumed i. "but let us leave such ridiculous vanity." lis. who is that gentleman, standing towards the right of the auctioneer, and looking so intently upon his catalogue? "you point to my friend bernardo. he is thus anxious, because an original fragment of the fair lady's work, which you have just mentioned, is coming under the hammer; and powerful indeed must be the object to draw his attention another way. the demure prioress of sopewell abbey is his ancient sweetheart; and he is about introducing her to his friends, by a union with her as close and as honourable as that of wedlock. engaged in a laborious profession (the duties of which are faithfully performed by him) bernardo devotes his few leisure hours to the investigation of old works; thinking with the ancient poet, quoted by ashmole, that '----out of old fields as men saythe cometh all this new corne fro yeare to yeare; and out of olde bokes in good faythe cometh all this scyence that men leare:' or, with ashmole himself; that 'old words have strong emphasis: others may look upon them as rubbish or trifles, but they are grossly mistaken: for what some light brains may esteem as foolish toys, deeper judgments can and will value as sound and serious matter.[ ]' [footnote : _theatrum chemicum_: proleg. sign. a. . rev.: b. . rect. the charms of ancient phraseology had been before not less eloquently described by wolfius: "habet hoc jucundi priscorum quorundam obsoleta dictio, ac suo quodam modo rudius comta oratio, ut ex ea plus intelligamus quam dicitur; plus significetur quam effertur." _lect. memorab. epist. ded._ fol. xiv. rev. of wolfius, and of this his work, the reader will find some mention at page , ante.] "if you ask me whether bernardo be always successful in his labours, i should answer you, as i have told him, no: for the profit and applause attendant upon them are not commensurate with his exertions. moreover, i do verily think that, in some few instances, he sacrifices his judgment to another's whim; by a reluctance to put out the strength of his own powers. he is also, i had almost said, the admiring slave of ritsonian fastidiousness; and will cry 'pish' if a _u_ be put for a _v_, or a _single e_ for a _double one_: but take him fairly as he is, and place him firmly in the bibliographical scale, and you will acknowledge that his weight is far from being inconsiderable. he is a respectable, and every way a praise-worthy man: and although he is continually walking in a thick forest of black letter, and would prefer a book printed before the year , to a turtle dressed according to the rules of mr. farley, yet he can ever and anon sally forth to enjoy a stroll along the river side, with isaac walton[ ] in his hand; when 'he hath his wholesome walk and merry, at his ease: a sweet air of the sweet savour of the mead flowers, that maketh him hungry.'[ ] [footnote : "let me take this opportunity of recommending the amiable and venerable isaac walton's _complete angler_: a work the most singular of its kind, breathing the very spirit of contentment, of quiet, and unaffected philanthrophy, and interspersed with some beautiful relics of poetry, old songs, and ballads." so speaks the rev. w. lisle bowles, in his edition of _pope's works_, vol i., p. . to which i add--let me take this opportunity of recommending mr. bagster's very beautiful and creditable reprint of sir john hawkin's edition of walton's amusing little book. the plates in it are as true as they are brilliant: and the bibliomaniac may gratify his appetite, however voracious, by having copies of it upon paper of all sizes. mr. bagster has also very recently published an exquisite facsimile of the original edition of old isaac. perhaps i ought not to call it a fac-simile, for it is, in many respects, more beautifully executed.] [footnote : the reader may see all this, and much more, dressed in its ancient orthographic garb, in a proheme to the first edition of the merry art of fishing, extracted by herbert in his first volume, p. . i have said the "_merry_," and not the "_contemplative_," art of fishing--because we are informed that "yf the angler take fyshe, surely thenne is there noo man _merier_ than he is in his spyryte!!" yet isaac walton called this art, "the _contemplative_ man's recreation." but a _book-fisherman_, like myself, must not presume to reconcile such great and contradictory authorities.] "but see--the hammer is vibrating, at an angle of twenty-two and a half, over a large paper priced catalogue of major pearson's books!--who is the lucky purchaser? "quisquilius:--a victim to the bibliomania. if one single copy of a work happen to be printed in a more particular manner than another; and if the compositor (clever rogue) happen to have transposed or inverted a whole sentence or page; if a plate or two, no matter of what kind or how executed; go along with it, which is not to be found in the remaining copies; if the paper happen to be _unique_ in point of size--whether maxima or minima--oh, then, thrice happy is quisquilius! with a well-furnished purse, the strings of which are liberally loosened, he devotes no small portion of wealth to the accumulation of _prints_; and can justly boast of a collection of which few of his contemporaries are possessed. but his walk in book-collecting is rather limited. he seldom rambles into the luxuriancy of old english black-letter literature; and cares still less for a _variorum_ latin classic, stamped in the neat mintage of the elzevir press. of a greek _aldus_, or an italian _giunta_, he has never yet had the luxury to dream:--'trahit sua quemque voluptas;' and let quisquilius enjoy his hobby-horse, even to the riding of it to death! but let him not harbour malevolence against supposed injuries inflicted: let not foolish prejudices, or unmanly suspicions, rankle in his breast: authors and book-collectors are sometimes as enlightened as himself, and have cultivated pursuits equally honourable. their profession, too, may sometimes be equally beneficial to their fellow creatures. a few short years shall pass away, and it will be seen who has contributed the more effectively to the public stock of amusement and instruction. we wrap ourselves up in our own little vanities and weaknesses, and, fancying wealth and wisdom to be synonymous, vent our spleen against those who are resolutely striving, under the pressure of mediocrity and domestic misfortune, to obtain an honourable subsistence by their intellectual exertions." lis. a truce to this moralizing strain. pass we on to a short gentleman, busily engaged yonder in looking at a number of volumes, and occasionally conversing with two or three gentlemen from five to ten inches taller than himself. what is his name? "rosicrusius is his name; and an ardent and indefatigable book-forager he is. although just now busily engaged in antiquarian researches relating to british typography, he fancies himself nevertheless deeply interested in the discovery of every ancient book printed abroad. examine his little collection of books, and you will find that 'there caxton sleeps, with wynkyn at his side, one clasp'd in wood, and one in strong cow-hide!'[ ] --and yet, a beautiful volume printed at 'basil or heidelberg makes him spinne: and at seeing the word frankford or venice, though but on the title of a booke, he is readie to break doublet, cracke elbows, and over-flowe the room with his murmure.'[ ] bibliography is his darling delight--'una voluptas et meditatio assidua;'[ ] and in defence of the same he would quote you a score of old-fashioned authors, from gesner to harles, whose very names would excite scepticism about their existence. he is the author of various works, chiefly bibliographical; upon which the voice of the public (if we except a little wicked quizzing at his _black-letter_ propensities in a celebrated north briton review) has been generally favourable. although the old maidenish particularity of tom hearne's genius be not much calculated to please a bibliomaniac of lively parts, yet rosicrusius seems absolutely enamoured of that ancient wight; and to be in possession of the cream of all his pieces, if we may judge from what he has already published, and promises to publish, concerning the same. he once had the temerity to dabble in poetry;[ ] but he never could raise his head above the mists which infest the swampy ground at the foot of parnassus. still he loves 'the divine art' enthusiastically; and affects, forsooth, to have a taste in matters of engraving and painting! converse with him about guercino and albert durer, berghem and woollett, and tell him that you wish to have his opinion about the erection of a large library, and he will 'give tongue' to you from rise to set of sun. wishing him prosperity in his projected works, and all good fellows to be his friends, proceed we in our descriptive survey." [footnote : pope's _dunciad_, b. i. v. .] [footnote : _coryat's crudities_, vol. i., sign. (b. .) edit. .] [footnote : vita jacobi le long., p. xx., _biblioth. sacra_, edit. .] [footnote : see the note p. , in the first edition of the _bibliomania_.] lis. i am quite impatient to see atticus in this glorious group; of whom fame makes such loud report-- "yonder see he comes, lisardo! 'like arrow from the hunter's bow,' he darts into the hottest of the fight, and beats down all opposition. in vain boscardo advances with his heavy artillery, sending forth occasionally a forty-eight pounder; in vain he shifts his mode of attack--now with dagger, and now with broadsword, now in plated, and now in quilted armour: nought avails him. in every shape and at every onset he is discomfited. such a champion as atticus has perhaps never before appeared within the arena of book-gladiators: 'blest with talents, wealth, and taste;'[ ] and gifted with no common powers of general scholarship, he can easily master a knotty passage in eschylus or aristotle; and quote juvenal and horace as readily as the junior lads at eton quote their '_as in præsenti_:' moreover, he can enter, with equal ardour, into a minute discussion about the romance literature of the middle ages, and the dry though useful philology of the german school during the th and th centuries. in the pursuit after rare, curious, and valuable books, nothing daunts or depresses him. with a mental and bodily constitution such as few possess, and with a perpetual succession of new objects rising up before him, he seems hardly ever conscious of the vicissitudes of the seasons, and equally indifferent to petty changes in politics. the cutting blasts of siberia, or the fainting heat of a maltese sirocco, would not make him halt, or divert his course, in the pursuit of a favourite volume, whether in the greek, latin, spanish, or italian language. but as all human efforts, however powerful, if carried on without intermission, must have a period of cessation; and as the most active body cannot be at 'thebes and at athens' at the same moment; so it follows that atticus cannot be at every auction and carry away every prize. his rivals narrowly watch, and his enemies closely way-lay, him; and his victories are rarely bloodless in consequence. if, like darwin's whale, which swallows 'millions at a gulp,' atticus should, at one auction, purchase from two to seven hundred volumes, he must retire, like the '_boa constrictor_,' for digestion: and accordingly he does, for a short season, withdraw himself from 'the busy hum' of sale rooms, to collate, methodize, and class his newly acquired treasures--to repair what is defective, and to beautify what is deformed. thus rendering them 'companions meet' for their brethren in the rural shades of h---- hall; where, in gay succession, stands many a row, heavily laden with 'rich and rare' productions. in this rural retreat, or academic bower, atticus spends a due portion of the autumnal season of the year; now that the busy scenes of book-auctions in the metropolis have changed their character--and dreary silence, and stagnant dirt, have succeeded to noise and flying particles of learned dust. [footnote : dr. ferriar's _bibliomania_, v. .] "here, in his ancestral abode, atticus can happily exchange the microscopic investigation of books for the charms and manly exercises of a rural life; eclipsing, in this particular, the celebrity of cæsar antoninus; who had not universality of talent sufficient to unite the love of hawking and hunting with the passion for book-collecting.[ ] the sky is no sooner dappled o'er with the first morning sun-beams, than up starts our distinguished bibliomaniac, either to shoot or to hunt; either to realize all the fine things which pope has written about 'lifting the tube, and levelling the eye;'[ ] or to join the jolly troop while they chant the hunting song of his poetical friend.[ ] meanwhile, his house is not wanting in needful garniture to render a country residence most congenial. his cellars below vie with his library above. besides 'the brown october'--'drawn from his dark retreat of thirty years'--and the potent comforts of every species of 'barley broth'--there are the ruddier and more sparkling juices of the grape--'fresh of colour, and of look lovely, smiling to the eyz of many'--as master laneham hath it in his celebrated letter.[ ] i shall leave you to finish the picture, which such a sketch may suggest, by referring you to your favourite, thomson."[ ] [footnote : this anecdote is given on the authority of kesner's [transcriber's note: gesner's] _pandects_, fol. : rect. '[greek: alloi men hippôn] (says the grave antoninus) [greek: alloi de orneôn, alloi thêriôn ebôsin: emoi de bibliôn ktêseôs ek paidoiriou deinos entetêke pothos].'] [footnote : see pope's _windsor forest_, ver. to .] [footnote : waken lords and ladies gay; on the mountain dawns the day. all the jolly chase is here, with hawk and horse and hunting spear: hounds are in their couples yelling, hawks are whistling, horns are knelling; merrily, merrily, mingle they. "waken lords and ladies gay." waken lords and ladies gay, the mist has left the mountain grey. springlets in the dawn are steaming, diamonds on the lake are gleaming; and foresters have busy been, to track the buck in thicket green: now we come to chaunt our lay, "waken lords and ladies gay." hunting song, by walter scott: the remaining stanzas will be found in the _edinb. annual register_, vol. i., pt. ii., xxviii.] [footnote : "_whearin part of the entertainment untoo the queenz majesty of killingworth castl in warwick sheer, &c., , is signified._" edit. , p. .] [footnote : _autumn_, v. , , &c.] lis. your account of so extraordinary a bibliomaniac is quite amusing: but i suspect you exaggerate a little. "nay, lisardo, i speak nothing but the truth. in book-reputation, atticus unites all the activity of de witt and lomanie, with the retentiveness of magliabechi and the learning of le long.[ ] and yet--he has his peccant part." [footnote : the reader will be pleased to turn for one minute to pages , , , ante.] lis. speak, i am anxious to know. "yes, lisardo; although what leichius hath said of the library attached to the senate-house of leipsic be justly applicable to his own extraordinary collection[ ]--yet atticus doth sometimes sadly err. he has now and then an ungovernable passion to possess more copies of a book than there were ever parties to a deed, or stamina to a plant: and therefore i cannot call him a duplicate or triplicate collector. his best friends scold--his most respectable rivals censure--and a whole 'mob of gentlemen' who think to collect 'with ease,' threaten vengeance against--him, for this despotic spirit which he evinces; and which i fear nothing can stay or modify but an act of parliament that no gentleman shall purchase more than two copies of a work; one for his town, the other for his country, residence." [footnote : singularis eius ac propensi, in iuvandam eruditionem studii insigne imprimis monumentum exstat, bibliotheca instructissima, sacrarium bonæ menti dicatum, in quo omne, quod transmitti ad posteritatem meretur, copiose reconditum est. _e [transcriber's note: de] orig. et increment. typog. lipsiens. lips. an. typog._ sec. iii., sign. .] phil. but does he atone for his sad error by being liberal in the loan of his volumes? "most completely so, philemon. this is the 'pars melior' of every book collector, and it is indeed the better part with atticus. the learned and curious, whether rich or poor, have always free access to his library-- his volumes, open as his heart, delight, amusement, science, art, to every ear and eye impart. his books, therefore, are not a stagnant reservoir of unprofitable water, as are those of pontevallo's; but like a thousand rills, which run down from the lake on snowdon's summit, after a plentiful fall of rain, they serve to fertilize and adorn every thing to which they extend. in consequence, he sees himself reflected in a thousand mirrors: and has a right to be vain of the numerous dedications to him, and of the richly ornamented robes in which he is attired by his grateful friends." lis. long life to atticus, and to all such book heroes! now pray inform me who is yonder gentleman, of majestic mien and shape?--and who strikes a stranger with as much interest as agamemnon did priam--when the grecian troops passed at a distance in order of review, while the trojan monarch and helen were gossipping with each other on the battlements of troy! "that gentleman, lisardo, is hortensius; who, you see is in close conversation with an intimate friend and fellow-bibliomaniac--that ycleped is ulpian. they are both honourable members of an honourable profession; and although they have formerly sworn to purchase no old book but machlinia's first edition of littleton's tenures, yet they cannot resist, now and then, the delicious impulse of becoming masters of a black-letter chronicle or romance. taste and talent of various kind they both possess; and 'tis truly pleasant to see gentlemen and scholars, engaged in a laborious profession, in which, comparatively, 'little vegetation quickens, and few salutary plants take root,' finding 'a pleasant grove for their wits to walk in' amidst rows of beautifully bound, and intrinsically precious, volumes. they feel it delectable, 'from the loop-holes of such a retreat,' to peep at the multifarious pursuits of their brethren; and while they discover some busied in a perversion of book-taste, and others preferring the short-lived pleasures of sensual gratifications--which must 'not be named' among good bibliomaniacs--they can sit comfortably by their fire-sides; and, pointing to a well-furnished library, say to their wives--who heartily sympathize in the sentiment-- this gives us health, or adds to life a day!"[ ] [footnote : braithwaite's _arcadian princesse_: lib. , p. , edit. . the two immediately following verses, which are worthy of dryden, may quietly creep in here: or helps decayed beauty, or repairs our chop-fall'n cheeks, or winter-molted hairs.] lis. when i come to town to settle, pray introduce me to these amiable and sensible bibliomaniacs. now gratify a curiosity that i feel to know the name and character of yonder respectably-looking gentleman, in the dress of the old school, who is speaking in so gracious a manner to bernardo? "'tis leontes: a man of taste, and an accomplished antiquary. even yet he continues to gratify his favourite passion for book and print-collecting; although his library is at once choice and copious, and his collection of prints exquisitely fine. he yet enjoys, in the evening of life, all that unruffled temper and gentlemanly address which delighted so much in his younger days, and which will always render him, in his latter years, equally interesting and admired. like atticus, he is liberal in the loan of his treasures; and, as with him, so 'tis with leontes--the spirit of book-collecting 'assumes the dignity of a virtue.'[ ] peace and comfort be the attendant spirits of leontes, through life, and in death: the happiness of a better world await him beyond the grave! his memory will always be held in reverence by honest bibliomaniacs; and a due sense of his kindness towards myself shall constantly be impressed upon me-- dum memor ipse mei, dum spiritus hos regret artus." [footnote : _edinburgh review_, vol. xiii., p. .] phil. amen. with leontes i suppose you close your account of the most notorious bibliomaniacs who generally attend book sales in person; for i observe no other person who mingles with those already described--unless indeed, three very active young ones, who occasionally converse with each other, and now and then have their names affixed to some very expensive purchases-- "they are the three mercurii, oftentimes deputed by distinguished bibliomaniacs: who, fearful of the sharp-shooting powers of their adversaries, if they _themselves_ should appear in the ranks, like prudent generals, keep aloof. but their aides-de-camp are not always successful in their missions; for such is the obstinacy with which book-battles are now contested, that it requires three times the number of guns and weight of metal to accomplish a particular object to what it did when john duke of marlborough wore his full-bottomed periwig at the battle of blenheim. "others there are, again, who employ these mercurii from their own inability to attend in person, owing to distance, want of time, and other similar causes. hence, many a desperate bibliomaniac keeps in the back-ground; while the public are wholly unacquainted with his curious and rapidly-increasing treasures. hence sir tristram, embosomed in his forest-retreat, --down the steepy linn that hems his little garden in, is constantly increasing his stores of tales of genii, fairies, fays, ghosts, hobgoblins, magicians, highwaymen, and desperadoes--and equally acceptable to him is a copy of castalio's elegant version of homer, and of st. dunstan's book '_de occulta philosophia_;' concerning which lattter [transcriber's note: latter], elias ashmole is vehement in commendation.[ ] from all these (after melting them down in his own unparalleled poetical crucible--which hath charms as potent as the witches' cauldron in macbeth) he gives the world many a wondrous-sweet song. who that has read the exquisite poems, of the fame of which all britain 'rings from side to side,' shall deny to such ancient legends a power to charm and instruct? or who, that possesses a copy of prospero's excellent volumes, although composed in a different strain (yet still more fruitful in ancient matters), shall not love the memory and exalt the renown of such transcendent bibliomaniacs? the library of prospero is indeed acknowledged to be without a rival in its way. how pleasant it is, dear philemon, only to contemplate such a goodly prospect of elegantly bound volumes of old english and french literature!--and to think of the matchless stores which they contain, relating to our ancient popular tales and romantic legends! [footnote : he who shall have the happiness to meet with st. dunstan's worke "_de occulta philosophia_," may therein reade such stories as will make him amaz'd, &c. prolegom. to his _theatrum chemicum_, sign a., . rev.] "allied to this library, in the general complexion of its literary treasures, is that of marcellus: while in the possession of numberless rare and precious volumes relating to the drama, and especially to his beloved shakespeare, it must be acknowledged that marcellus hath somewhat the superiority. meritorious as have been his labours in the illustration of our immortal bard, he is yet as zealous, vigilant, and anxious, as ever, to accumulate every thing which may tend to the further illustration of him. enter his book-cabinet; and with the sight of how many _unique_ pieces and tracts are your ardent eyes blessed! just so it is with aurelius! he also, with the three last mentioned bibliomaniacs, keeps up a constant fire at book auctions; although he is not personally seen in securing the spoils which he makes. unparalleled as an antiquary in caledonian history and poetry, and passionately attached to every thing connected with the fate of the lamented mary, as well as with that of the great poetical contemporaries, spenser and shakespeare, aurelius is indefatigable in the pursuit of such ancient lore as may add value to the stores, however precious, which he possesses. his _noctes atticæ_, devoted to the elucidation of the history of his native country, will erect to his memory a splendid and imperishable monument. these, my dear friends, these are the virtuous and useful, and therefore salutary ends of book-collecting and book-reading. such characters are among the proudest pillars that adorn the greatest nations upon earth. "let me, however, not forget to mention that there are bashful or busy bibliomaniacs, who keep aloof from book-sales, intent only upon securing, by means of these mercurii, _stainless_ or _large paper_ copies of ancient literature. while menalcas sees his oblong cabinet decorated with such a tall, well-dressed, and perhaps matchless, regiment of _variorum classics_, he has little or no occasion to regret his unavoidable absence from the field of battle, in the strand or pall mall. and yet--although he is environed with a body guard, of which the great frederick's father might have envied him the possession, he cannot help casting a wishful eye, now and then, upon still choicer and taller troops which he sees in the territories of his rivals. i do not know whether he would not sacrifice the whole right wing of his army, for the securing of some magnificent treasures in the empire of his neighbour rinaldo: for there he sees, and adores, with the rapture-speaking eye of a classical bibliomaniac, the tall, wide, thick, clean, brilliant, and illuminated copy of the _first livy_ upon vellum--enshrined in an impenetrable oaken case, covered with choice morocco! "there he often witnesses the adoration paid to this glorious object, by some bookish pilgrim, who, as the evening sun reposes softly upon the hill, pushes onward, through copse, wood, moor, heath, bramble, and thicket, to feast his eyes upon the mellow lustre of its leaves, and upon the nice execution of its typography. menalcas sees all this; and yet has too noble a heart to envy rinaldo his treasures! these bibliomaniacs often meet and view their respective forces; but never with hostile eyes. they know their relative strength; and wisely console themselves by being each 'eminent in his degree.' like corregio, they are 'also painters' in their way." phil. a well-a-day, lisardo! does not this recital chill your blood with despair? instead of making your purchases, you are only listening supinely to our friend! lis. not exactly so. one of these obliging mercurii has already executed a few commissions for me. you forget that our friend entered into a little chat with him, just before we took possession of our seats. as to despair of obtaining book-gems similar to those of the four last mentioned bibliomaniacs, i know not what to say--yet this i think must be granted: no one could make a better use of them than their present owners. see, the elder mercurius comes to tell me of a pleasant acquisition to my library! what a murmur and confusion prevail about the auctioneer! good news, i trust? at this moment lisardo received intelligence that he had obtained possession of the catalogues of the books of bunau, crevenna, and pinelli; and that, after a desperate struggle with quisquilius, he came off victorious in a contest for de bure's _bibliographie instructive_, _gaignat's catalogue_, and the two copious ones of the _duke de la valliere_: these four latter being half-bound and uncut, in nineteen volumes. transport lit up the countenance of lisardo, upon his receiving this intelligence; but as pleasure and pain go hand in hand in this world, so did this young and unsuspecting bibliomaniac evince heavy affliction, on being told that he had failed in his attack upon the best editions of le long's _bibliotheca sacra_, fresnoy's _méthode pour etudier l'histoire_, and baillet's _jugemens des savans_--these having been carried off, at the point of the bayonet, by an irresistible onset from atticus. "remember, my friend," said i, in a soothing strain, "remember that you are but a polydore; and must expect to fall when you encounter achilles.[ ] think of the honour you have acquired in this day's glorious contest; and, when you are drenching your cups of claret, at your hospitable board, contemplate your de bure as a trophy which will always make you respected by your visitors! i am glad to see you revive. yet further intelligence?" [footnote : the reader may peruse the affecting death of this beautiful youth, by the merciless achilles, from the to th verso of the xxth book of _homer's iliad_. fortunately for lisardo, he survives the contest, and even threatens revenge.] lis. my good mercurius, for whom a knife and fork shall always be laid at my table, has just informed me that clement's _bibliotheque curieuse_, and panzer's _typographical annals_, are knocked down to me, after mustapha had picked me out for single combat, and battered my breast-plate with a thousand furious strokes! "you must always," said i, "expect tough work from such an enemy, who is frequently both wanton and wild. but i congratulate you heartily on the event of this day's contest. let us now pack up and pay for our treasures. your servant has just entered the room, and the chaise is most probably at the door." lis. i am perfectly ready. mercurius tells me that the whole amounts to---- phil. upwards of thirty guineas? lis. hard upon forty pounds. here is the draft upon my banker: and then for my precious tomes of bibliography! a thousand thanks, my friend. i love this place of all things; and, after your minute account of the characters of those who frequent it, i feel a strong propensity to become a deserving member of so respectable a fraternity. leaving them all to return to their homes as satisfied as myself, i wish them a hearty good day. upon saying this, we followed lisardo and his bibliographical treasures into the chaise; and instantly set off, at a sharp trot, for the quiet and comfort of green fields and running streams. as we rolled over westminster-bridge, we bade farewell, like the historian of the decline and fall of the roman empire, to the "fumum et opes strepitumque romæ." [illustration] [illustration: chiswick house as in .] part iv. =the library.= dr. henry's history of great britain. a game at chess.--of monachism and chivalry. dinner at lorenzo's. some account of book-collectors in england. ----wisdom loves this seat serene, and virtue's self approves:-- here come the griev'd, a change of thought to find; the curious here, to feed a craving mind: here the devout, their peaceful temple chuse; and here, the poet meets his favouring muse. crabbe's poems. (_the library._) [illustration: =ingredere ut proficias.=] [illustration] =the library.= dr. henry's history of great britain. a game of chess.--of monachism and chivalry. dinner at lorenzo's. some account of book-collectors in england. during the first seven miles of our return from the busy scene which has just been described, it was sufficiently obvious that lisardo was suffering a little under the pangs of mortification. true it was, he had filled his pocket with an ampler supply of pistoles than it ever fell to the lot of gil blas, at the same time of life, to be master of; but he had not calculated upon the similar condition of his competitors; some of whom had yet greater powers of purchase, and a more resolute determination, as well as nicer skill, in exercising these powers, than himself. thus rushing into the combat with the heat and vehemence of youth, he was of necessity compelled to experience the disappointment attendant upon such precipitancy. it was in vain that philemon and myself endeavoured to make him completely satisfied with his purchase: nothing produced a look of complacency from him. at length, upon seeing the rising ground which was within two or three miles of our respective homes, he cheered up by degrees; and a sudden thought of the treasures contained in his clement, de bure and panzer, darted a gleam of satisfaction across his countenance. his eyes resumed their wonted brilliancy, and all the natural gaiety of his disposition returned with full effect to banish every vapour of melancholy. "indeed, my good friend," said he to me--"i shall always have reason to think and speak well of your kindness shewn towards me this day; and although some years may elapse before a similar collection may be disposed of--and i must necessarily wait a tedious period 'ere i get possession of maittaire, audiffredi, and others of the old school--yet i hope to convince lysander, on the exhibition of my purchase, that my conversion to bibliography has been sincere. yes: i perceive that i have food enough to digest, in the volumes which are now my travelling companions, for two or three years to come--and if, by keeping a sharp look-out upon booksellers' catalogues when they are first published, i can catch hold of vogt, schelhorn and heinecken, my progress in bibliography, within the same period, must be downright marvellous!" "i congratulate you," exclaimed philemon, "upon the return of your reason and good sense. i began to think that the story of orlando had been thrown away upon you; and that his regular yearly purchases of a certain set of books, and making himself master of their principal contents before he ventured upon another similar purchase, had already been banished from your recollection." we were now fast approaching the end of our journey; when the groom of lorenzo, mounted upon a well-bred courser, darted quickly by the chaise, apparently making towards my house--but on turning his head, and perceiving me within it, he drew up and bade the postilion stop. a note from his master soon disclosed the reason of this interruption. lorenzo, upon hearing of the arrival of lysander and philemon, and of their wish to visit his library, had sent us all three a kind invitation to dine with him on the morrow. his close intimacy with lisardo (who was his neighbour) had left no doubt in the mind of the latter but that a similar note had been sent to his own house. after telling the messenger that we would not fail to pay our respects to his master, we drove briskly homewards; and found lysander sitting on a stile under some wide-spreading beech trees, at the entrance of the paddock, expecting our arrival. in less than half an hour we sat down to dinner (at a time greatly beyond what i was accustomed to); regaling lysander, during the repast, with an account of the contest we had witnessed; and every now and then preventing lisardo from rushing towards his packet (even in the midst of his _fricandeau_), and displaying his book-treasures. after dinner, our discussion assumed a more methodical shape. lysander bestowed his hearty commendations upon the purchase; and, in order to whet the bibliomaniacal appetite of his young convert, he slyly observed that his set of de bure's pieces were _half bound_ and _uncut_; and that by having them bound in morocco, with gilt leaves, he would excel my own set; which latter was coated in a prettily-sprinkled calf leather, with speckled edges. lisardo could not repress the joyful sensations which this remark excited; and i observed that, whenever his eyes glanced upon my shelves, he afterwards returned them upon his own little collection, with a look of complacency mingled with exultation. it was evident, therefore, that he was now thoroughly reconciled to his fortune. lysand. during your absence, i have been reading a very favourite work of mine--dr. henry's _history of great britain_; especially that part of it which i prefer so much to the history of human cunning and human slaughter; i mean, the account of learning and of learned men. phil. it is also a great favourite with me. but while i regret the inexcuseable omission of an index to such a voluminous work, and the inequality of mr. andrews's partial continuation of it, i must be permitted to observe that the history of our literature and learned men is not the most brilliant, or best executed, part of dr. henry's valuable labours. there are many omissions to supply, and much interesting additional matter to bring forward, even in some of the most elaborate parts of it. his account of the arts might also be improved; although in commerce, manners and customs, i think he has done as much, and as well, as could reasonably be expected. i question, however, whether his work, from the plan upon which it is executed, will ever become so popular as its fondest admirers seem to hope. lysand. you are to consider, philemon, that in the execution of such an important whole, in the erection of so immense a fabric, some parts must necessarily be finished in a less workman-like style than others. and, after all, there is a good deal of caprice in our criticisms. you fancy, in this fabric (if i may be allowed to go on with my simile), a boudoir, a hall, or a staircase; and fix a critical eye upon a recess badly contrived, an oval badly turned, or pillars weakly put together:--the builder says, don't look at these parts of the fabric with such fastidious nicety; they are subordinate. if my boudoir will hold a moderate collection of old-fashioned dresden china, if my staircase be stout enough to conduct you and your company to the upper rooms; and, if my hall be spacious enough to hold the hats, umbrellas and walking-sticks of your largest dinner-party, they answer the ends proposed:--unless you would _live_ in your boudoir, upon your staircase, or within your hall! the fact then is, you, philemon, prefer the boudoir, and might, perhaps, improve upon its structure; but, recollect, there are places in a house of equal, or perhaps more, consequence than this beloved boudoir. now, to make the obvious application to the work which has given rise to this wonderful stretch of imagination on my part:--dr. henry is the builder, and his history is the building, in question: in the latter he had to put together, with skill and credit, a number of weighty parts, of which the "_civil and ecclesiastical_" is undoubtedly the most important to the generality of readers. but one of these component parts was the _the history of learning and of learned men_; which its author probably thought of subordinate consequence, or in the management of which, to allow you the full force of your objection, he was not so well skilled. yet, still, never before having been thus connected with such a building, it was undoubtedly a delightful acquisition; and i question whether, if it had been more elaborately executed--if it had exhibited all the fret-work and sparkling points which you seem to conceive necessary to its completion; i question, whether the popularity of the work would have been even so great as it is, and as it unquestionably merits to be! a few passionately-smitten literary antiquaries are not, perhaps, the fittest judges of such a production. to be generally useful and profitable should be the object of every author of a similar publication; and as far as candour and liberality of sentiment, an unaffected and manly style, accompanied with weighty matter, extensive research, and faithful quotation, render a work nationally valuable--the work of dr. henry, on these grounds, is an ornament and honour to his country. phil. yet i wish he had rambled (if you will permit me so to speak) a little more into book-men and book-anecdotes. lysand. you may indulge this wish very innocently; but, certainly, you ought not to censure dr. henry for the omission of such minutiæ. lis. does he ever quote clement, de bure, or panzer? lysand. away with such bibliomaniacal frenzy! he quotes solid, useful and respectable authorities; chiefly our old and most valuable historians. no writer before him ever did them so much justice, or displayed a more familiar acquaintance with them. lis. do pray give us, lysander, some little sketches of book-characters--which, i admit, did not enter into the plan of dr. henry's excellent work. as i possess the original quarto edition of this latter, bound in russia, you will not censure me for a want of respect towards the author. phil. i second lisardo's motion; although i fear the evening presses too hard upon us to admit of much present discussion. lysand. nothing--(speaking most unaffectedly from my heart) nothing affords me sincerer pleasure than to do any thing in my power which may please such cordial friends as yourselves. my pretensions to that sort of antiquarian _knowledge_, which belongs to the history of book-collectors, are very poor, as you well know,--they being greatly eclipsed by my _zeal_ in the same cause. but, as i love my country and my country's literature, so no conversation or research affords me a livelier pleasure than that which leads me to become better acquainted with the ages which have gone by; with the great and good men of old; who have found the most imperishable monuments of their fame in the sympathizing hearts of their successors. but i am wandering-- lis. go on as you please, dear lysander; for i have been too much indebted to your conversation ever to suppose it could diverge into any thing censoriously irrelevant. begin where and when you please. lysand. i assure you it is far from my intention to make any formal exordium, even if i knew the exact object of your request. phil. tell us all about book-collecting and bibliomaniacs in this country-- lis. "commençez au commençement"--as the french adage is. lysand. in sober truth, you impose upon me a pretty tough task! "one thousand and one nights" would hardly suffice for the execution of it; and now, already, i see the owl flying across the lawn to take her station in the neighbouring oak; while even the middle ground of yonder landscape is veiled in the blue haziness of evening. come a short half hour, and who, unless the moon befriend him, can see the outline of the village church? thus gradually and imperceptibly, but thus surely, succeeds age to youth--death to life--eternity to time!--you see in what sort of mood i am for the performance of my promise? lis. reserve these meditations for your pillow, dear lysander: and now, again i entreat you--"commençez au commençement." phil. pray make a beginning only: the conclusion shall be reserved, as a desert, for lorenzo's dinner to-morrow. lysand. lest i should be thought coquettish, i will act with you as i have already done; and endeavour to say something which may gratify you as before. it has often struck me my dear friends, continued lysander--(in a balanced attitude, and seeming to bring quietly together all his scattered thoughts upon the subject) it has often struck me that few things have operated more unfavourably towards the encouragement of learning, and of book-collecting, than the universal passion for _chivalry_--which obtained towards the middle ages; while, on the other hand, a _monastic life_ seems to have excited a love of retirement, meditation, and reading.[ ] i admit readily, that, considering the long continuance of the monastic orders, and that almost all intellectual improvement was confined within the cloister, a very slow and partial progress was made in literature. the system of education was a poor, stinted, and unproductive one. nor was it till after the enterprising activity of poggio had succeeded in securing a few precious remains of classical antiquity,[ ] that the wretched indolence of the monastic life began to be diverted from a constant meditation upon "antiphoners, grailes, and psalters,"[ ] towards subjects of a more generally interesting nature. i am willing to admit every degree of merit to the manual dexterity of the cloistered student. i admire his snow-white vellum missals, emblazoned with gold, and sparkling with carmine and ultramarine blue. by the help of the microscopic glass, i peruse his diminutive penmanship, executed with the most astonishing neatness and regularity; and often wish in my heart that our typographers printed with ink as glossy black as that which they sometimes used in their writing. i admire all this; and now and then, for a guinea or two, i purchase a specimen of such marvellous leger-de-main: but the book, when purchased, is to me a sealed book. and yet, philemon, i blame not the individual, but the age; not the task, but the task-master; for surely the same exquisite and unrivalled beauty would have been exhibited in copying an ode of horace, or a dictum of quintilian. still, however, you may say that the intention, in all this, was pure and meritorious; for that such a system excited insensibly a love of quiet, domestic order, and seriousness: while those counsels and regulations which punished a "clerk for being a hunter," and restricted "the intercourse of concubines,"[ ] evinced a spirit of jurisprudence which would have done justice to any age. let us allow, then, if you please, that a love of book-reading, and of book-collecting, was a meritorious trait in the monastic life; and that we are to look upon old abbies and convents as the sacred depositories of the literature of past ages. what can you say in defence of your times of beloved chivalry? [footnote : as early as the sixth century commenced the custom, in some monasteries, of copying ancient books and composing new ones. it was the usual, and even only, employment of the first monks of marmoutier. a monastery without a library was considered as a fort or a camp deprived of the necessary articles for its defence: "claustrum sine armario, quasi castrum sine armentario." peignot, _dict. de bibliolog._, vol. i., . i am fearful that this good old bibliomanical custom of keeping up the credit of their libraries among the monks had ceased--at least in the convent of romsey, in hampshire--towards the commencement of the sixteenth century. one would think that the books had been there disposed of in bartering for _strong liquors_; for at a visitation by bishop fox, held there in , joyce rows, the abbess, is accused of _immoderate drinking_, especially in the night time; and of inviting the nuns to her chamber every evening, for the purpose of these excesses, "post completorium." what is frightful to add,--"this was a rich convent, and filled with ladies of the best families." see warton's cruel note in his _life of sir thomas pope_, p. , edit. . a tender-hearted bibliomaniac cannot but feel acutely on reflecting upon the many beautifully-illuminated vellum books which were, in all probability, exchanged for these inebriating gratifications! to balance this unfavourable account read hearne's remark about the libraries in ancient monasteries, in the sixth volume of _leland's collectanea_, p. - , edit. : and especially the anecdotes and authorities stated by dr. henry in book iii., chap, iv., sec. .] [footnote : see the first volume of mr. roscoe's _lorenzo de medici_; and the rev. mr. shepherd's _life of poggio bracciolini_.] [footnote : when queen elizabeth deputed a set of commissioners to examine into the superstitious books belonging to all-souls library, there was returned, in the list of these superstitious works, "eight grailes, seven antiphoners of parchment and bound." gutch's _collectanea curiosa_, vol. ii., . at page , ante, the reader will find a definition of the word "antiphoner." he is here informed that a "gradale" or "grail," is a book which ought to have in it "the office of sprinkling holy water: the beginnings of the masses, or the offices of _kyrie_, with the verses of _gloria in excelsis_; the _gradales_, or what is gradually sung after the epistles; the hallelujah and tracts, the sequences, the creed to be sung at mass, the offertories, the hymns holy, and lamb of god, the communion, &c., which relate to the choir at the singing of a solemn mass." this is the rev. j. lewis's account; _idem opus_, vol. ii., .] [footnote : "_of a clerk that is an hunter._" "we ordain that if any clerk be defamed of trespass committed in forest or park of any man's, and thereof be lawfully convicted before his ordinary, or do confess it to him, the diocesan shall make redemption thereof in his goods, if he have goods after the quality of his fault; and such redemption shall be assigned to him to whom the loss, hurt, or injury, is done; but if he have no goods, let his bishop grievously punish his person according as the fault requireth, lest through trust to escape punishment they boldly presume to offend." _fol._ , _rev._: vide _infra_. (the same prohibition against clergymen being hunters appears in a circular letter, or injunctions, by lee, archbishop of york, a.d. . "item; they shall not be common _hunters ne hawkers_, ne playe at gammes prohibytede, as dycese and cartes, and such oder." burnet's _hist. of the reformation_; vol. iii. p. , "collections.") "_of the removing of clerks' concubines._" "although the governors of the church have always laboured and enforced to drive and chase away from the houses of the church that rotten contagiousness of pleasant filthiness with the which the sight and beauty of the church is grievously spotted and defiled, and yet could never hitherto bring it to pass, seeing it is of so great a lewd boldness that it thursteth in unshamefastly without ceasing; we, therefore," &c. _fol._ , _rect._ "_of concubines, that is to say of them that keep concubines._" "how unbecoming it is, and how contrary to the pureness of christians, to touch sacred things with lips and hands polluted, or any to give the laws and praisings of cleanness, or to present himself in the lord's temple, when he is defiled with the spots of lechery, not only the divine and canonical laws, but also the monitions of secular princes, hath evidently seen by the judgment of holy consideration, commanding and enjoining both discreetly and also wholesomely, shamefacedness unto all christ's faithful, and ministers of the holy church." _fol._ , _rect._ _constitutions provincialles, and of otho aud [transcriber's note: and] octhobone._ redman's edit. , mo. on looking into du pin's _ecclesiastical history_, vol. ix., p. , edit. , i find that hugh of dia, by the ninth canon in the council of poictiers, (centy. xi.) ordained "that the sub-deacons, deacons, and priests, shall have no concubine, or any other suspicious women in their houses; and that all those who shall wittingly hear the mass of a priest that keeps a concubine, or is guilty of simony, shall be excommunicated."] phil. shew me in what respect the gallant spirit of an ancient knight was hostile to the cultivation of the belles-lettres? lysand. most readily. look at your old romances, and what is the system of education--of youthful pursuits--which they in general inculcate? intrigue and bloodshed.[ ] examine your favourite new edition of the _fabliaux et contes_ of the middle ages, collected by barbazan! however the editor may say that "though some of these pieces are a little too free, others breathe a spirit of morality and religion--"[ ] the main scope of the poems, taken collectively, is that which has just been mentioned. but let us come to particulars. what is there in the _ordene de chevalerie_, or _le castoiement d'un pere à son fils_ (pieces in which one would expect a little seriousness of youthful instruction), that can possibly excite a love of reading, book-collecting, or domestic quiet? again; let us see what these chivalrous lads do, as soon as they become able-bodied! nothing but assault and wound one another. read concerning your favourite _oliver of castile_,[ ] and his half-brother _arthur_! or, open the beautiful volumes of the late interesting translation of monstrelet, and what is almost the very first thing which meets your eye? why, "an esquire of arragon (one of your chivalrous heroes) named michel d'orris, sends a challenge to an english esquire of the same complexion with himself--and this is the nature of the challenge: [which i will read from the volume, as it is close at my right hand, and i have been dipping into it this morning in your absence--] [footnote : the celebrated ludovicus vives has strung together a whole list of ancient popular romances, calling them "ungracious books." the following is his saucy philippic: "which books but idle men wrote unlearned, and set all upon filth and viciousness; in whom i wonder what should delight men, but that vice pleaseth them so much. as for learning, none is to be looked for in those men, which saw never so much as a shadow of learning themselves. and when they tell ought, what delight can be in those things that be so plain and foolish lies? one killeth twenty by himself alone, another killeth thirty; another, wounded with a hundred wounds, and left for dead, riseth up again; and on the next day, made whole and strong, overcometh two giants, and then goeth away loaden with gold and silver and precious stones, mo than a galley would carry away. what madness is it of folks to have pleasure in these books! also there is no wit in them, but a few words of wanton lust; which be spoken to move her mind with whom they love, if it chance she be steadfast. and if they be read but for this, the best were to make books of bawd's crafts, for in other things what craft can be had of such a maker that is ignorant of all good craft? nor i never heard man say that he liked these books, but those that never touched good books."--_instruction of a christian woman_, sign. d. . rev., edit. . from the fifth chapter (sufficiently curious) of "what books be to be read, and what not."] [footnote : vol. ii., p. , edit. .] [footnote : "when the king saw that they were puissant enough for to wield armour at their ease, he gave them license for to do cry a justing and tournament. the which oliver and arthur made for to be cried, that three aventurous knights should just against all comers, the which should find them there the first day of the lusty month of may, in complete harness, for to just against their adversaries with sharp spears. and the said three champions should just three days in three colours: that is to wit, in black, grey and violet--and their shields of the same hue; and them to find on the third day at the lists. there justed divers young knights of the king's court: and the justing was more _asperer_ of those young knights than ever they had seen any in that country. and, by the report of the ladies, they did so knightly, every one, that it was not possible for to do better, as them thought, by their strokes. but, above all other, oliver and arthur (his loyal fellow) had the _bruit_ and _loos_. the justing endured long: it was marvel to see the hideous strokes that they dealt; for the justing had not finished so soon but that the night _separed_ them. nevertheless, the adversary party abode 'till the torches were light. but the ladies and _damoyselles_, that of all the justing time had been there, were weary, and would depart. wherefore the justers departed in likewise, and went and disarmed them for to come to the banquet or feast. and when that the banquet was finished and done, the dances began. and there came the king and the valiant knights of arms, for to enquire of the ladies and _damoyselles_, who that had best borne him as for that day. the ladies, which were all of one accord and agreement, said that oliver and arthur had surmounted all the best doers of that _journey_. and by cause that oliver and arthur were both of one party, and that they could find but little difference between them of knighthood, they knew not the which they might sustain. but, in the end, they said that arthur had done right valiantly: nevertheless, they said that oliver had done best unto their seeming. and therefore it was concluded that the _pryce_ should be given unto oliver, as for the best of them of within. and another noble knight, of the realm of algarbe, that came with the queen, had the pryce of without. when the pryce of the juste that had been made was brought before oliver, by two fair _damoyselles_, he waxed all red, and was ashamed at that present time; and said that it was of their bounty for to give him the pryce, and not of his desert: nevertheless, he received it; and, as it was of custom in guerdoning them, he kissed them. and soon after they brought the wine and spices; and then the dances and the feast took an end as for that night." _hystorye of olyuer of castylle, and of the fayre helayne, &c._, , to., sign. a. v. vj. this i suppose to be the passage alluded to by lysander. the edition from which it is taken, and of which the title was barely known to ames and herbert, is printed by wynkyn de worde. mr. heber's copy of it is at present considered to be unique. the reader will see some copious extracts from it in the second volume of the _british typographical antiquities_.] "first, to enter the lists on foot, each armed in the manner he shall please, having a dagger and sword attached to any part of his body, and a battle-axe, with the handle of such length as the challenger shall fix on. the combat to be as follows: ten strokes of the battle-axe, without intermission; and when these strokes shall have been given, and the judge shall cry out 'ho!' ten cuts with the sword to be given without intermission or change of armour. when the judge shall cry out 'ho!' we will resort to our daggers, and give ten stabs with them. should either party lose or drop his weapon, the other may continue the use of the one in his hand until the judge shall cry out 'ho!'" &c.[ ] a very pretty specimen of honourable combat, truly!--and a mighty merciful judge who required even more cuts and thrusts than these (for the combat is to go on) before he cried out "ho!" defend us from such ejaculatory umpires!-- [footnote : see _monstrelet's chronicles_, translated by thomas johnes, esq., vol. i., p. , edit. , to. another elegant and elaborate specimen of the hafod press; whose owner will be remembered as long as literature and taste shall be cultivated in this country.] lis. pray dwell no longer upon such barbarous heroism! we admit that _monachism_ may have contributed towards the making of bibliomaniacs more effectually than _chivalry_. now proceed-- these words had hardly escaped lisardo, when the arrival of my worthy neighbour narcottus (who lived by the parsonage house), put a stop to the discourse. agreeably to a promise which i had made him three days before, he came to play a game of chess with philemon; who, on his part, although a distinguished champion at this head-distracting game, gave way rather reluctantly to the performance of the promise: for lysander was now about to enter upon the history of the bibliomania in this country. the chess-board, however was brought out; and down to the contest the combatants sat--while lisardo retired to one corner of the room to examine thoroughly his newly-purchased volumes, and lysander took down a prettily executed vo. volume upon the game of chess, printed at cheltenham, about six years ago, and composed "by an amateur." while we were examining, in this neat work, an account of the numerous publications upon the game of chess, in various countries and languages, and were expressing our delight in reading anecdotes about eminent chess players, lisardo was carefully packing up his books, as he expected his servant every minute to take them away. the servant shortly arrived, and upon his expressing his inability to carry the entire packet--"here," exclaimed lisardo, "do you take the quartos, and follow me; who will march onward with the octavos." this was no sooner said than our young bibliomaniacal convert gave de bure, gaignat, and la valliere, a vigorous swing across his shoulders; while the twenty quarto volumes of clement and panzer were piled, like "ossa upon pelion," upon those of his servant--and "light of foot, and light of heart" lisardo took leave of us 'till the morrow. meanwhile, the chess combat continued with unabated spirit. here philemon's king stood pretty firmly guarded by both his knights, one castle, one bishop, and a body of common soldiers[ ]--impenetrable as the grecian phalanx, or roman legion; while his queen had made a sly sortie to surprise the only surviving knight of narcottus. narcottus, on the other hand, was cautiously collecting his scattered foot soldiers, and, with two bishops, and two castle-armed elephants, were meditating a desperate onset to retrieve the disgrace of his lost queen. an inadvertent remark from lysander, concerning the antiquity of the game, attracted the attention of philemon so much as to throw him off his guard; while his queen, forgetful of her sex, and venturing unprotected, like penthesilea of old, into the thickest of the fight, was trampled under foot, without mercy,[ ] by a huge elephant, carrying a castle of armed men upon his back. shouts of applause, from narcottus's men, rent the vaulted air; while grief and consternation possessed the astonished army of philemon. "away with your antiquarian questions," exclaimed the latter, looking sharply at lysander: "away with your old editions of the game of chess! the moment is critical; and i fear the day may be lost. now for desperate action!" so saying, he bade the king exhort his dismayed subjects. his majesty made a spirited oration; and called upon _sir launcelot_, the most distinguished of the two knights,[ ] to be mindful of his own and of his country's honour: to spare the effusion of blood among his subjects as much as possible; but rather to place victory or defeat in the comparative skill of the officers: and, at all events, to rally round that throne which had conferred such high marks of distinction upon his ancestors. "i needed not, gracious sire," replied sir launcelot--curbing in his mouth-foaming steed, and fixing his spear in the rest--"i needed not to be here reminded of your kindness to my forefathers, or of the necessity of doing every thing, at such a crisis, beseeming the honour of a true round-table knight.--yes, gracious sovereign, i swear to you by the love i bear to the lady of the lake[ ]--by the remembrance of the soft moments we have passed together in the honey-suckle bowers of her father--by all that an knight of chivalry is taught to believe the most sacred and binding--i swear that i will not return this day alive without the laurel of victory entwined round my brow. right well do i perceive that deeds and not words must save us now--let the issue of the combat prove my valour and allegiance." upon this, sir launcelot clapped spurs to his horse, and after driving an unprotected bishop into the midst of the foot-soldiers, who quickly took him prisoner, he sprang forward, with a lion-like nimbleness and ferocity, to pick out _sir galaad_, the only remaining knight in the adverse army, to single combat. sir galaad, strong and wary, like the greenland bear when assailed by the darts and bullets of our whale-fishing men, marked the fury of sir launcelot's course, and sought rather to present a formidable defence by calling to aid his elephants, than to meet such a champion single-handed. a shrill blast from his horn told the danger of his situation, and the necessity of help. what should now be done? the unbroken ranks of philemon's men presented a fearful front to the advance of the elephants, and the recent capture of a venerable bishop had made the monarch, on narcottus's side, justly fearful of risking the safety of his empire by leaving himself wholly without episcopal aid. meanwhile the progress of sir launcelot was marked with blood; and he was of necessity compelled to slaughter a host of common men, who stood thickly around sir galaad, resolved to conquer or die by his side. at length, as master laneham aptly expresses it, "get they grysly together."[ ] the hostile leaders met; there was neither time nor disposition for parley. sir galaad threw his javelin with well-directed fury; which, flying within an hair's breadth of sir launcelot's shoulder, passed onward, and, grazing the cheek of a foot soldier, stood quivering in the sand. he then was about to draw his ponderous sword--but the tremendous spear of sir launcelot, whizzing strongly in the air, passed through his thickly quilted belt, and, burying itself in his bowels, made sir galaad to fall breathless from his horse. now might you hear the shouts of victory on one side, and the groans of the vanquished on the other; or, as old homer expresses it, victors and vanquished shouts promiscuous rise. with streams of blood the slippery fields are dyed, and slaughtered heroes swell the dreadful tide. _iliad_ [passim]. [footnote : "whilst there are strong, able, and active men of the king's side, to defend his cause, there is no danger of [this] misfortune." _letter to the craftsman on the game of chess_, p. .] [footnote : "when therefore the men of one party attack those of the other, though their spleen at first may only seem bent against a _bishop_, a _knight_, or an inferior officer; yet, if successful in their attacks on that servant of the king, they never stop there: they come afterwards to think themselves strong enough even to attack _the queen_," &c. _the same_, p. .] [footnote : "_the knight_ (whose steps, as your correspondent justly observes, are not of an ordinary kind, and often surprise men who oppose him) is of great use in extricating _the king_ out of those difficulties in which his foes endeavour to entangle him.--he is a man whom a wise player makes great use of in these exigences, and who oftenest defeats the shallow schemes and thin artifices of unskilful antagonists. they must be very bad players who do not guard against the steps of _the knight_." _the same_, p. .] [footnote : "the lady of the lake; famous in king arthurz book"--says master laneham, in his letter to master humfrey martin; concerning the entertainment given by lord leicester to q. elizabeth at kenilworth castle: a.d. , edit. , p. . yet more famous, i add, in a poem under this express title, by walter scott, .] [footnote : see the authority (p. ) quoted in the note at page , ante.] and, truly, the army of narcottus seemed wasted with a great slaughter: yet on neither side, had the monarch been _checked_, so as to be put in personal danger! "while there is life there is hope," said the surviving bishop[ ] on the side of narcottus: who now taking upon him the command of the army, and perceiving sir launcelot to be pretty nearly exhausted with fatigue, and wantonly exposing his person, ordered the men at arms to charge him briskly on all sides; while his own two castles kept a check upon the remaining castle, knight, and bishop of the opposite army: also, he exhorted the king to make a feint, as if about to march onwards. sir launcelot, on perceiving the movement of the monarch, sprang forward to make him a prisoner; but he was surprised by an elephant in ambuscade, from whose castle-bearing back a well-shot arrow pierced his corslet, and inflicted a mortal wound. he fell; but, in falling, he seemed to smile even sweetly, as he thought upon the noble speech of sir bohort[ ] over the dead body of his illustrious ancestor, of the same name; and, exhorting his gallant men to revenge his fall, he held the handle of his sword firmly, till his whole frame was stiffened in death. and now the battle was renewed with equal courage and equal hopes of victory on both sides: but the loss of the flower of their armies, and especially of their beloved spouses, had heavily oppressed the adverse monarchs: who, retiring to a secured spot, bemoaned in secret the hapless deaths of their queens, and bitterly bewailed that injudicious law which, of necessity, so much exposed their fair persons, by giving them such an unlimited power. the fortune of the day, therefore, remained in the hands of the respective commanders; and if the knight and bishop, on philemon's side, had not contested about superiority of rule, the victory had surely been with philemon. but the strife of these commanders threw every thing into confusion. the men, after being trampled upon by the elephants of narcottus, left their king exposed, without the power of being aided by his castle. an error so fatal was instantly perceived by the bishop of narcottus's shattered army; who, like another ximenes,[ ] putting himself at the head of his forces, and calling upon his men resolutely to march onwards, gave orders for the elephants to be moved cautiously at a distance, and to lose no opportunity of making the opposite monarch prisoner. thus, while he charged in front, and captured, with his own hands, the remaining adverse knight, his men kept the adverse bishop from sending reinforcements; and philemon's elephant not having an opportunity of sweeping across the plain to come to the timely aid of the king,[ ] the victory was speedily obtained, for the men upon the backs of narcottus's elephants kept up so tremendous a discharge of arrows that the monarch was left without a single attendant: and, of necessity, was obliged to submit to the generosity of his captors. [footnote : "i think _the bishops_ extremely considerable throughout the whole game. one quality too they have, which is peculiar to themselves; this is that, throughout the whole game, they have a _steadiness_ in their conduct, superior to men of any other denomination on the board; as they never change their colour, but always pursue the path in which they set out." _the same_ (vid. - ) p. .] [footnote : this truly chivalrous speech may be seen extracted in mr. burnet's _specimens of english prose writers_, vol. i., . one of virgil's heroes, to the best of my recollection, dies serenely upon thinking of his beloved countrymen: ----dulces moriens reminiscitur argos!] [footnote : it is always pleasant to me to make comparisons with eminent book-patrons, or, if the reader pleases, bibliomaniacs. cardinal ximenes was the promoter and patron of the celebrated complutensian polyglott bible; concerning which i have already submitted some account to the public in my _introduction to the classics_, vol. i., pp. , . his political abilities and personal courage have been described by dr. robertson (in his history of charles v.), with his usual ability. we have here only to talk of him as connected with books. mallinkrot and le long have both preserved the interesting anecdote which is related by his first biographer, alvaro gomez, concerning the completion of the forementioned polyglott. "i have often heard john brocarius (says gomez) son of arnoldus brocarius, who printed the polyglott, tell his friends that, when his father had put the finishing stroke to the last volume, he deputed _him_ to carry it to the cardinal. john brocarius was then a lad; and, having dressed himself in an elegant suit of clothes, he gravely approached ximenes, and delivered the volume into his hands. 'i render thanks to thee, oh god!' exclaimed the cardinal, 'that thou hast protracted my life to the completion of these biblical labours.' afterwards, when conversing with his friends, ximenes would often observe that the surmounting of the various difficulties of his political situation did not afford him half the satisfaction which he experienced from the finishing of his polyglott. he died in the year , not many weeks after the last volume was published." gomez, or gomecius's work "_de rebus gestis, à francisco ximenio cisnerio archiepiscopo complut_," , fol., is a book of very uncommon occurrence. it is much to be wished that lord holland, or mr. southey, would give us a life of this celebrated political character: as the biographies of flechier and marsolier seem miserably defective, and the sources of gomez to have been but partially consulted. but i must not let slip this opportunity of commemorating the book-reputation of ximenes, without making the reader acquainted with two other singularly scarce and curious productions of the press, which owe their birth to the bibliomanical spirit of our cardinal. i mean the "_missale mixtum secundun [transcriber's note: secundum] regulum b. isidori, dictum mozarabes, cum præfat._" _a. ortiz._ toleti, , fol. and the "_breviarium, mixtum," &c._ _mozarabes._ toleti, , fol.: of the former of which there was a copy in the harleian collection; as the ensuing interesting note, in the catalogue of lord harley's books, specifies. i shall give it without abridgment: "this is the scarcest book in the whole harleian collection. at the end of it are the following words, which deserve to be inserted here:--adlaudem omnipotentis dei, nec non virginis mariæ matris ejus, omnium sanctorum sanctarumq; expletum est missale mixtum secundum regulam beati isidori dictum mozarabes: maxima cum diligentia perlectum et emendatum, per reverendum in utroq; jure doctorem dominum alfonsum ortiz, canonicum toletanum. impressum in regal. civitate toleti, jussu reverendissimi in christo patris domini d. francisci ximenii, ejusdem civitatis archiepiscopi. impensis nobilis melchioris gorricii novariensis, per magistrum petrum hagembach, almanum, anno salutis nostræ , die o mensis januarii." "this is supposed to be the ancient missal amended and purged by st. isidore, archbishop of sevil, and ordered by the council of toledo to be used in all churches; every one of which before that time had a missal peculiar to itself. the moors afterwards committing great ravages in spain, destroying the churches, and throwing every thing there, both civil and sacred, into confusion, all st. isidore's missals, excepting those in the city of toledo, were lost. but those were preserved even after the moors had made themselves masters of that city; since they left six of the churches there to the christians, and granted them the free exercise of their religion. alphonsus the sixth, many ages afterwards, expelled the moors from toledo, and ordered the roman missal to be used in those churches where st. isidore's missal had been in vogue, ever since the council above-mentioned. but the people of toledo insisting that their missal was drawn up by the most ancient bishops, revised and corrected by st. isidore, proved to be the best by the great number of saints who had followed it, and been preserved during the whole time of the moorish government in spain, he could not bring his project to bear without great difficulty. in short, the contest between the roman and toletan missals came to that height that, according to the genius of the age, it was decided by a single combat, wherein the champion of the toletan missal proved victorious. but king alphonsus, say some of the spanish writers, not being satisfied with this, which he considered as the effect of chance only, ordered a fast to be proclaimed, and a great fire to be then made; into which, after the king and people had prayed fervently to god for his assistance in this affair, both the missals were thrown; but the toletan only escaped the violence of the flames. this, continue the same authors, made such an impression upon the king that he permitted the citizens of toledo to use their own missal in those churches that had been granted the christians by the moors. however, the copies of this missal grew afterwards so scarce, that cardinal ximenes found it extremely difficult to meet with one of them: which induced him to order this impression, and to build a chapel, in which this service was chanted every day, as it had at first been by the ancient christians. but, notwithstanding this, the copies of the toletan missal are become now so exceeding rare that it is at present almost in as much danger of being buried in oblivion as it was when committed to the press by cardinal ximenes." _bibl. harl._, vol. iii., p. . but let the reader consult the more extended details of de bure (_bibl. instruct._, vol. i., no. , ), and de la serna santander (_dict. chois. bibliogr. du_ xv. _siecle_, part iii., p. ); also the very valuable notice of vogt; _cat. libror. rarior._, p. ; who mention a fine copy of the missal and breviary, each struck off upon vellum, in the collegiate church of st. ildefonso. if i recollect rightly, mr. edwards informed me that an italian cardinal was in possession of a similar copy of each. this missal was republished at rome, with a capital preface and learned notes, by lesleus, a jesuit, in , to.: and lorenzana, archbishop of toledo, republished the breviary in a most splendid manner at madrid, in . both these re-impressions are also scarce. i know not whether the late king of spain ever put his design into execution of giving a new edition of these curious religious volumes; some ancient mss. of which had been carefully collated by burriel. consult osmont's _dict. typog._, vol. i., p. ; _cat. de gaignat_, nos. , ; _cat. de la valliere_, nos. , ; _bibl. solger._, vol. ii. no. ; and _bibl. colbert_, nos. , . having expatiated thus much, and perhaps tediously, about these renowned volumes, let me introduce to the notice of the heraldic reader the _coat of arms_ of the equally renowned cardinal--of whose genuine editions of the mozarabic missal and breviary my eyes were highly gratified with a sight, in the exquisite library of earl spencer, at althorp. [illustration]] [footnote : of the _tower_ or _rook_ (or _elephant_) one may indeed--to speak in the scripture style--(and properly speaking, considering its situation) call this piece "the head stone of the corner." there are two of them; and, whilst they remain firm, his majesty is ever in safety. the common enemies, therefore, of them and their king watch their least motion very narrowly, and try a hundred tricks to decoy them from the king's side, by feints, false alarms, stumbling blocks, or any other method that can be contrived to divert them from their duty. the _same_, p. . (vide. , ante.)] thus ended one of the most memorable chess contests upon record. not more stubbornly did the grecians and romans upon troy's plain, or the english and french upon egypt's shores, contend for the palm of victory, than did philemon and narcottus compel their respective forces to signalize themselves in this hard-fought game. to change the simile for a more homely one; no northamptonshire hunt was ever more vigorously kept up; and had it not been (at least so philemon thought!) for the inadvertent questions of lysander, respecting the antiquity of the amusement, an easy victory would have been obtained by my guest over my neighbour. lysander, with his usual politeness, took all the blame upon himself. philemon felt, as all chess-combatants feel upon defeat, peevish and vexed. but the admirably well adapted conversation of lysander, and the natural diffidence of narcottus, served to smooth philemon's ruffled plumage; and at length diffused o'er his countenance his natural glow of good humour. it was now fast advancing towards midnight; when narcottus withdrew to his house, and my guests to their chambers. to-morrow came; and with the morrow came composure and hilarity in the countenances of my guests. the defeat of the preceding evening was no longer thought of; except that philemon betrayed some little marks of irritability on lysander's shewing him the fac-simile wood-cuts of the pieces and men in caxton's edition of the game of chess, which are published in the recent edition of the typographical antiquities of our country. lisardo visited us betimes. his countenance, on his entrance gave indication of vexation and disappointment--as well it might; for, on his return home the preceding evening, he found the following note from lorenzo:-- "my dear lisardo; our friend's visitors, lysander and philemon, are coming with their host to eat old mutton, and drink old sherry, with me to-morrow; and afterwards to discuss subjects of bibliography. i do not ask you to join them, because i know your thorough aversion to every thing connected with such topics. adieu! truly yours, lorenzo." "little," exclaimed lisardo, "does he know of my conversion. i'll join you uninvited; and abide by the consequences." at four o'clock we set off, in company with lisardo, for lorenzo's dinner. i need hardly add that the company of the latter was cordially welcomed by our host; who, before the course of pastry was cleared away, proposed a sparkling bumper of malmsey madeira, to commemorate his conversion to bibliomaniacism. by half-past-five we were ushered into the library, to partake of a costly dessert of rock melons and hamburgh grapes, with all their appropriate embellishments of nectarines and nuts. massive and curiously cut decanters, filled with the genuine juice of the grape, strayed backwards and forwards upon the table: and well-furnished minds, which could not refuse the luxury of such a feast, made every thing as pleasant as rational pleasure could be. lis. if lorenzo have not any thing which he may conceive more interesting to propose, i move that you, good lysander, now resume the discussion of a subject which you so pleasantly commenced last night. phil. i rise to second the motion. loren. and i, to give it every support in my power. lysand. there is no resisting such adroitly levelled attacks. do pray tell me what it is you wish me to go on with? phil. the history of book-collecting and of book-collectors in this country. lis. the history of bibliomania, if you please. lysand. you are madder than the maddest of book-collectors, lisardo. but i will gossip away upon the subjects as well as i am able. i think we left off with an abuse of the anti-bibliomaniacal powers of chivalry. let us pursue a more systematic method; and begin, as lisardo says, "at the beginning." in the plan which i may pursue, you must forgive me, my friends, if you find it desultory and irregular: and, as a proof of the sincerity of your criticism, i earnestly beg that, like the chivalrous judge, of whom mention was made last night, you will cry out "_ho!_" when you wish me to cease. but where shall we begin? from what period shall we take up the history of bookism (or, if you please, bibliomania) in this country? let us pass over those long-bearded gentlemen called the druids; for in the various hypotheses which sagacious antiquaries have advanced upon their beloved _stone-henge_, none, i believe, are to be found wherein the traces of a _library_, in that vast ruin, are pretended to be discovered. as the druids were sparing of their writing,[ ] they probably read the more; but whether they carried their books with them into trees, or made their pillows of them upon salisbury-plain, tradition is equally silent. let us therefore preserve the same prudent silence, and march on at once into the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries; in which the learning of bede, alcuin, erigena, and alfred, strikes us with no small degree of amazement. yet we must not forget that their predecessor theodore, archbishop of canterbury, was among the earliest book-collectors in this country; for he brought over from rome, not only a number of able professors, but a valuable collection of books.[ ] such, however, was the scarcity of the book article, that benedict biscop (a founder of the monastery of weremouth in northumberland), a short time after, made not fewer than five journeys to rome to purchase books, and other necessary things for his monastery--for one of which books our immortal alfred (a very _helluo librorum_! as you will presently learn) gave afterwards as much land as eight ploughs could labour.[ ] we now proceed to bede; whose library i conjecture to have been both copious and curious. what matin and midnight vigils must this literary phenomenon have patiently sustained! what a full and variously furnished mind was his! read the table of contents of the eight folio volumes of the cologne edition[ ] of his works, as given by dr. henry in the appendix to the fourth volume of his history of our own country; and judge, however you may wish that the author had gone less into abstruse and ponderous subjects, whether it was barely possible to avoid falling upon such themes, considering the gross ignorance and strong bias of the age? before this, perhaps, i ought slightly to have noticed ina, king of the west saxons, whose ideas of the comforts of a monastery, and whose partiality to _handsome book-binding_, we may gather from a curious passage in stow's chronicle or annals.[ ] [footnote : julius cæsar tells us that they dared not to commit their laws to writing. _de bell. gall._, lib. vi., § xiii.-xviii.] [footnote : dr. henry's _hist. of great britain_, vol. iv., p. , edit. , vo. we shall readily forgive theodore's singularity of opinions in respect to some cases of pharmacy, in which he held it to be "dangerous to perform bleeding on the fourth day of the moon; because both the light of the moon and the tides of the sea were then upon the increase."--we shall readily forgive this, when we think of his laudable spirit of bibliomania.] [footnote : dr. henry says that "this bargain was concluded by benedict with the king a little before his death, a.d. ; and the book was delivered, and the estate received by his successor abbot ceolfred." _hist. of great britain_, vol. iv., p. . there must be some mistake here: as alfred was not born till the middle of the ninth century. _bed. hist. abbat wermuthien, edit. smith_, pp. - , is quoted by dr. henry.] [footnote : , folio. de bure (_bibliogr. instruct._ no. ) might have just informed us that the paris and basil editions of bede's works are incomplete: and, at no. , where he notices the cambridge edition of bede's _ecclesiastical history_, ( , fol.) we may add that a previous english translation of it, by the celebrated stapleton, had been printed at antwerp in , to., containing some few admirably-well executed wood cuts. stapleton's translation has become a scarce book; and, as almost every copy of it now to be found is in a smeared and crazy condition, we may judge that it was once popular and much read.] [footnote : the passage is partly as follows--"the sayde king did also erect a chapell of gold and silver (to wit, garnished) with ornaments and vesselles likewise of golde and siluer, to the building of the which chappell hee gaue pounds of siluer, and to the altar pounde of golde, a chaleis with the patten, tenne pounde of golde, a censar pound, and twenty mancas of golde, two candlesticks, twelue pound and a halfe of siluer, a kiver for the gospel booke twenty pounds"! &c. this was attached to the monastery of glastonbury; which ina built "in a fenni place out of the way, to the end the monkes mought so much the more giue their minds to heauenly things," &c. _chronicle_, edit. , p. .] we have mentioned alcuin: whom ashmole calls one of the school-mistresses to france.[ ] how incomparably brilliant and beautifully polished was this great man's mind!--and, withal, what an enthusiastic bibliomaniac! read, in particular, his celebrated letter to charlemagne, which dr. henry has very ably translated; and see, how zealous he there shews himself to enrich the library of his archiepiscopal patron with good books and industrious students.[ ] well might egbert be proud of his librarian: the first, i believe upon record, who has composed a catalogue[ ] of books in latin hexameter verse: and full reluctantly, i ween, did this librarian take leave of his _cell_ stored with the choicest volumes--as we may judge from his pathetic address to it, on quitting england for france! if i recollect rightly, mr. turner's elegant translation[ ] of it begins thus: "o my lov'd cell, sweet dwelling of my soul, must i for ever say, dear spot, farewell?" [footnote : _theatrum chemicum_, proleg. sign. a. . rect.] [footnote : _history of great britain_, vol. iv., pp. , . "literatorum virorum fautor et mæcenas habebatur ætate sua maximus ac doctissimus," says bale: _scrip. brytan. illustr._, p. , edit. . "præ cæteris (says lomeier) insignem in colligendis illustrium virorum scriptis operam dedit egbertus eboracensis archiepiscopus, &c.: qui nobilissimam eboraci bibliothecam instituit, cujus meminit alcuinis," &c. _de bibliothecis_, p. . we are here informed that the archbishop's library, together with the cathedral of york, were accidentally burnt by fire in the reign of stephen.] [footnote : this curious catalogue is printed by dr. henry, from gale's _rer. anglicar. scriptor. vet._, tom. i., . the entire works of alcuin were printed at paris, in , folio: and again, at ratisbon, in , fol., vols. see fournier's _dict. portat. de bibliographie_, p. . some scarce separately-printed treatises of the same great man are noticed in the first volume of the appendix to bauer's _bibl. libror. rarior._, p. .] [footnote : _anglo-saxon history_, vol. ii., p. , edit. , to.] now, don't imagine, my dear lisardo, that this anguish of heart proceeded from his leaving behind all the woodbines, and apple-trees, and singing birds, which were wont to gratify his senses near the said cell, and which he could readily meet with in another clime!--no, no: this monody is the genuine language of a bibliomaniac, upon being compelled to take a long adieu of his choicest _book-treasures_, stored in some secretly-cut recess of his hermitage; and of which neither his patron, nor his illustrious predecessor, bede, had ever dreamt of the existence of copies! but it is time to think of johannes scotus erigena; the most facetious wag of his times, notwithstanding his sirname of the _wise_. "while great britain (says bale) was a prey to intestine wars, our philosopher was travelling quietly abroad amidst the academic bowers of greece;"[ ] and there i suppose he acquired, with his knowledge of the greek language, a taste for book-collecting and punning.[ ] he was in truth a marvellous man; as we may gather from the eulogy of him by brucker.[ ] [footnote : freely translated from his _script. brytan. illustr._, p. .] [footnote : scot's celebrated reply to his patron and admirer, charles the bald, was first made a popular story, i believe, among the "wise speeches" in _camden's remaines_, where it is thus told: "johannes erigena, surnamed scotus, a man renowned for learning, sitting at the table, in respect of his learning, with charles the bauld, emperor and king of france, behaved himselfe as a slovenly scholler, nothing courtly; whereupon the emperor asked him merrily, _quid interest inter scotum et sotum_? (what is there between a scot and a sot?) he merrily, but yet malapertly answered, '_mensa_'--(the table): as though the emperor were the sot and he the scot." p. . _roger hoveden_ is quoted as the authority; but one would like to know where hoveden got his information, if scotus has not mentioned the anecdote in his own works? since camden's time, this facetious story has been told by almost every historian and annalist.] [footnote : _hist. philosoph._, tom. , : as referred to and quoted by dr. henry; whose account of our book-champion, although less valuable than mackenzie's, is exceedingly interesting.] in his celebrated work upon predestination, he maintained that "material fire is no part of the torments of the damned;"[ ] a very singular notion in those times of frightful superstition, when the minds of men were harrowed into despair by descriptions of hell's torments--and i notice it here merely because i should like to be informed in what curious book the said john scotus erigena acquired the said notion? let us now proceed to alfred; whose bust, i see, adorns that department of lorenzo's library which is devoted to english history. [footnote : "he endeavours to prove, in his logical way, that the torments of the damned are mere privations of the happiness, or the trouble of being deprived of it; so that, according to him, material fire is no part of the torments of the damned; that there is no other fire prepared for them but the fourth element, through which the bodies of all men must pass; but that the bodies of the elect are changed into an ætherial nature, and are not subject to the power of fire: whereas, on the contrary, the bodies of the wicked are changed into air, and suffer torments by the fire, because of their contrary qualities. and for this reason 'tis that the demons, who had a body of an ætherial nature, were massed with a body of air, that they might feel the fire." _mackenzie's scottish writers_: vol. i., . all this may be ingenious enough; of its truth, a future state only will be the evidence. very different from that of scotus is the language of gregory narienzen: "exit in inferno frigus insuperabile: ignis inextinguibilis: vermis immortalis: fetor intollerabilis: tenebræ palpabiles: flagella cedencium: horrenda visio demonum: desperatio omnium bonorum." this i gather from the _speculum christiani_, fol. , printed by machlinia, in the fifteenth century. the idea is enlarged, and the picture aggravated, in a great number of nearly contemporaneous publications, which will be noticed, in part, hereafter. it is reported that some sermons are about to be published, in which the personality of satan is questioned and denied. thus having, by the ingenuity of scotus, got rid of the fire "which is never quenched"--and, by means of modern scepticism, of the devil, who is constantly "seeking whom he may devour," we may go on comfortably enough, without such awkward checks, in the commission of every species of folly and crime!] this great and good man, the boast and the bulwark of his country, was instructed by his mother, from infancy, in such golden rules of virtue and good sense that one feels a regret at not knowing more of the family, early years, and character, of such a parent. as she told him that "a wise and a good man suffered no part of his time, but what is necessarily devoted to bodily exercise, to pass in unprofitable inactivity"--you may be sure that, with such book-propensities as he felt, alfred did not fail to make the most of the fleeting hour. accordingly we find, from his ancient biographer, that he resolutely set to work by the aid of his wax tapers,[ ] and produced some very respectable compositions; for which i refer you to mr. turner's excellent account of their author:[ ] adding only that alfred's translation of boethius is esteemed his most popular performance. [footnote : the story of the _wax tapers_ is related both by asser and william of malmesbury, differing a little in the unessential parts of it. it is this: alfred commanded six wax tapers to be made, each inches in length, and of as many ounces in weight. on these tapers he caused the inches to be regularly marked; and having found that one taper burnt just four hours, he committed them to the care of the keepers of his chapel; who, from time to time gave him notice how the hours went. but as in windy weather the tapers were more wasted--to remedy this inconvenience, he placed them in a kind of lanthorn, there being no glass to be met with in his dominions. this event is supposed to have occurred after alfred had ascended the throne. in his younger days, asser tells us that he used to carry about, in his bosom, day and night, a curiously-written volume of hours, and psalms, and prayers, which by some are supposed to have been the composition of aldhelm. that alfred had the highest opinion of aldhelm, and of his predecessors and contemporaries, is indisputable; for in his famous letter to wulfseg, bishop of london, he takes a retrospective view of the times in which they lived, as affording "churches and monasteries filled with libraries of excellent books in several languages." it is quite clear, therefore, that our great alfred was not a little infected with the bibliomaniacal disease.] [footnote : _the history of the anglo-saxons_; by sharon turner, f.s.a., , to., vols. this is the last and best edition of a work which places mr. turner quite at the head of those historians who have treated of the age of alfred.] after alfred, we may just notice his son edward, and his grandson athelstan; the former of whom is supposed by rous[ ] (one of the most credulous of our early historians) to have founded the university of cambridge. the latter had probably greater abilities than his predecessor; and a thousand pities it is that william of malmesbury should have been so stern and squeamish as not to give us the substance of that old book, containing a life of athelstan--which he discovered, and supposed to be coeval with the monarch--because, forsooth, the account was too uniformly flattering! let me here, however, refer you to that beautiful translation of a saxon ode, written in commemoration of athelstan's decisive victory over the danes of brunamburg, which mr. george ellis has inserted in his interesting volumes of _specimens of the early english poets_:[ ] and always bear in recollection that this monarch shewed the best proof of his attachment to books by employing as many learned men as he could collect together for the purpose of translating the scriptures into his native saxon tongue. [footnote : consult _johannis rossi historia regum angliæ; edit. hearne_, , vo., p. . this passage has been faithfully translated by dr. henry. but let the lover of knotty points in ancient matters look into master henry bynneman's prettily printed impression (a.d. ) of _de antiquitate cantabrigiensis academiæ_, p. --where the antiquity of the university of cambridge is gravely assigned to the æra of gurguntius's reign, a.m. !--nor must we rest satisfied with the ingenious temerity of this author's claims in favour of his beloved cambridge, until we have patiently examined thomas hearne's edition (a.d. ) of _thomæ caii vindic. antiquitat. acad. oxon._: a work well deserving of a snug place in the antiquary's cabinet.] [footnote : edit. , vol. i., p. .] let us pass by that extraordinary scholar, courtier, statesman, and monk--st. dunstan; by observing only that, as he was even more to edgar than wolsey was to henry viii.--so, if there had then been the same love of literature and progress in civilization which marked the opening of the sixteenth century, dunstan would have equalled, if not eclipsed, wolsey in the magnificence and utility of his institutions. how many volumes of legends he gave to the library of glastonbury, of which he was once the abbot, or to canterbury, of which he was afterwards the archbishop, i cannot take upon me to guess: as i have neither of hearne's three publications[ ] relating to glastonbury in my humble library. [footnote : there is an ample catalogue raisonné of these three scarce publications in the first volume of the _british bibliographer_. and to supply the deficiency of any extract from them, in this place, take, kind-hearted reader, the following--which i have gleaned from eadmer's account of st. dunstan, as incorporated in wharton's _anglia-sacra_--and which would not have been inserted could i have discovered any thing in the same relating to book-presents to canterbury cathedral.--"once on a time, the king went a hunting early on sunday morning; and requested the archbishop to postpone the celebration of the mass till he returned. about three hours afterwards, dunstan went into the cathedral, put on his robes, and waited at the altar in expectation of the king--where, reclining with his arms in a devotional posture, he was absorbed in tears and prayers. a gentle sleep suddenly possessed him; he was snatched up into heaven; and in a vision associated with a company of angels, whose harmonious voices, chaunting _kyrie eleyson, kyrie eleyson, kyrie eleyson_, burst upon his ravished ears! he afterwards came to himself, and demanded whether or not the king had arrived? upon being answered in the negative, he betook himself again to his prayers, and, after a short interval, was once more absorbed in celestial extasies, and heard a loud voice from heaven saying--_ite, missa est_. he had no sooner returned thanks to god for the same, when the king's clerical attendants cried out that his majesty had arrived, and entreated dunstan to dispatch the mass. but he, turning from the altar, declared that the mass had been already celebrated; and that no other mass should be performed during that day. having put off his robes, he enquired of his attendants into the truth of the transaction; who told him what had happened. then, assuming a magisterial power, he prohibited the king, in future, from hunting on a sunday; and taught his disciples the _kyrie eleyson_, which he had heard in heaven: hence this ejaculation, in many places, now obtains as a part of the mass service." tom. ii., p. . what shall we say to "the amiable and elegant eadmer" for this valuable piece of biographical information?--"the face of things was so changed by the endeavours of dunstan, and his master, ethelwald, that in a short time learning was generally restored, and began to flourish. from this period, the monasteries were the schools and seminaries of almost the whole clergy, both secular and regular." collier's _eccles. history_, vol. ii., p. , col. . that glastonbury had many and excellent books, vide hearne's _antiquities of glastonbury_; pp. lxxiv-vii. at cambridge there is a catalogue of the mss. which were in glastonbury library, a.d. .] we may open the eleventh century with canute; upon whose political talents this is not the place to expatiate: but of whose bibliomaniacal character the illuminated ms. of _the four gospels_ in the danish tongue--now in the british museum, and once this monarch's own book--leaves not the shadow of a doubt! from canute we may proceed to notice that extraordinary literary triumvirate--ingulph, lanfranc, and anselm. no rational man can hesitate about numbering them among the very first rate book-collectors of that age. as to ingulph, let us only follow him, in his boyhood, in his removal from school to college: let us fancy we see him, with his _quatuor sermones_ on a sunday--and his _cunabula artis grammaticæ_[ ] on a week day--under his arm: making his obeisance to edgitha, the queen of edward the confessor, and introduced by her to william duke of normandy! again, when he was placed, by this latter at the head of the rich abbey of croyland, let us fancy we see him both adding to, and arranging, its curious library[ ]--before he ventured upon writing the history of the said abbey. from ingulph we go to lanfranc; who, in his earlier years, gratified his book appetites in the quiet and congenial seclusion of his little favourite abbey in normandy: where he afterwards opened a school, the celebrity of which was acknowledged throughout europe. from being a pedagogue, let us trace him in his virtuous career to the primacy of england; and when we read of his studious and unimpeachable behaviour, as head of the see of canterbury,[ ] let us acknowledge that a love of books and of mental cultivation is among the few comforts in this world of which neither craft nor misfortune can deprive us. to lanfranc succeeded, in book-fame and in professional elevation, his disciple anselm; who was "lettered and chaste of his childhood," says trevisa:[ ] but who was better suited to the cloister than to the primacy. for, although, like wulston, bishop of worcester, he might have "sung a long mass, and held him _apayred_ with only the offering of christian men, and was holden a clean _mayde_, and did no outrage in drink,"[ ] yet in his intercourse with william ii. and henry i., he involved himself in ceaseless quarrels; and quitted both his archiepiscopal chair and the country. his memory, however, is consecrated among the fathers of scholastic divinity. [footnote : these were the common school books of the period.] [footnote : though the abbey of croyland was burnt only twenty-five years after the conquest, its library then consisted of volumes, of which were very large. the lovers of english history and antiquities are much indebted to ingulph for his excellent history of the abbey of croyland, from its foundation, a.d. , to a.d. : into which he hath introduced much of the general history of the kingdom, with a variety of curious anecdotes that are no where else to be found. dr. henry: book iii., chap. iv., § and . but ingulph merits a more particular eulogium. the editors of that stupendous, and in truth, matchless collection of national history, entitled _recueil des historiens des gaules_, thus say of him: "il avoit tout vu en bon connoisseur, et ce qu'il rapporte, il l'écrit en homme lettré, judicieux et vrai:" tom. xi., p. xlij. in case any reader of this note and lover of romance literature should happen to be unacquainted with the french language, i will add, from the same respectable authority, that "the readers of the _round table history_ should be informed that there are many minute and curious descriptions in ingulph which throw considerable light upon the history of _ancient chivalry_." ibid. see too the animated eulogy upon him, at p. , note _a_, of the same volume. these learned editors have, however, forgotten to notice that the best, and only perfect, edition of ingulph's history of croyland abbey, with the continuation of the same, by peter de blois and edward abbas, is that which is inserted in the first volume of gale's _rerum anglicarum scriptores veteres_: oxon, . ( vols.)] [footnote : lanfranc was obliged, against his will, by the express command of abbot harlein, to take upon him the archbishopric in the year . he governed that church for nineteen years together, with a great deal of wisdom and authority. his largest work is a commentary upon the epistles of st. paul; which is sometimes not very faithfully quoted by peter lombard. his treatise in favour of the real presence, in opposition to birenger, is one of his most remarkable performances. his letters "are short and few, but contain in them things very remarkable." du pin's _ecclesiastical history_, vol. xi., p. , &c., edit. .] [footnote : _polychronicon_, caxton's edit., sign. , rev.] [footnote : _polychronicon._ caxton's edit., fol. cccvj. rev. poor caxton (towards whom the reader will naturally conceive i bear some little affection) is thus dragooned into the list of naughty writers who have ventured to speak mildly (and justly) of anselm's memory. "they feign in another fable that he (anselm) tare with his teeth christ's flesh from his bones, as he hung on the rood, for withholding the lands of certain bishoprics and abbies: polydorus not being ashamed to rehearse it. somewhere they call him a red dragon: somewhere a fiery serpent, and a bloody tyrant; for occupying the fruits of their vacant benefices about his princely buildings. thus rail they of their kings, without either reason or shame, in their legends of abominable lies: look eadmerus, helinandus, vincentius, matthew of westminster, rudborne, capgrave, william caxton, polydore, and others." this is the language of master bale, in his _actes of englyshe votaryes_, pt. ii., sign. i. vij. rev. tisdale's edit. no wonder hearne says of the author, "erat immoderata intemperantia."--_bened. abbas._, vol. i., præf. p. xx.] and here you may expect me to notice that curious book-reader and collector, girald, _archbishop of york_, who died just at the close of the th century. let us fancy we see him, according to trevisa,[ ] creeping quietly to his garden arbour, and devoting his midnight vigils to the investigation of that old-fashioned author, julius firmicus; whom fabricius calls by a name little short of that of an old woman. it is a pity we know not more of the private studies of such a bibliomaniac. and equally to be lamented it is that we have not some more substantial biographical memoirs of that distinguished bibliomaniac, herman, bishop of salisbury; a norman by birth; and who learnt the art of book-binding and book-illumination, before he had been brought over into this country by william the conqueror.[ ] (a character, by the bye, who, however completely hollow were his claims to the crown of england, can never be reproached with a backwardness in promoting learned men to the several great offices of church and state.) [footnote : "this yere deyd thomas archbisohop of york and gyralde was archebishop after him; a lecherous man, a wytch and euyl doer, as the fame tellyth, for under his pyle whan he deyde in an erber was founde a book of curyous craftes, the book hight julius frumeus. in that booke he radde pryuely in the under tydes, therefor unnethe the clerkes of his chirche would suffre him be buryed under heuene without hooly chirche," _polychronicon: caxton's edit._, sign. ., rect. (fol. cccxlij.) godwyn says that "he was laide at the entrance of the church porch." "bayle chargeth him (continues he) with sorcery and coniuration, because, forsooth, that, after his death, there was found in his chamber a volume of firmicus: who writ of astrology indeed, but of coniuration nothing that ever i heard." _catalogue of the bishops of england_, p. --edit. . concerning girard's favourite author, consult fabricius's _bibl. lat.: cura ernesti_, vol. iii., p. , &c., edit. .] [footnote : leland tells us that herman erected "a noble library at sailsbury, having got together some of the best and most ancient works of illustrious authors:" _de scriptor. britan._, vol. i., : and dugdale, according to warton (_monasticon anglican._; vol. iii., p. ), says that "he was so fond of letters that he did not disdain to bind and illuminate books."] loren. if you proceed thus systematically, my good lysander, the morning cock will crow 'ere we arrive at the book-annals even of the reformation. lysand. it is true; i am proceeding rather too methodically. and yet i suppose i should not obtain lisardo's forgiveness if, in arriving at the period of henry the second,[ ] i did not notice that extraordinary student and politician, becket! [footnote : i make no apology to the reader for presenting him with the following original character of our once highly and justly celebrated monarch, henry ii.--by the able pen of trevisa. "this henry ii. was somewhat reddish, with large face and breast; and yellow eyen and a dim voice; and fleshy of body; and took but scarcely of meat and drink: and for to _alledge_ the fatness, he travailed his body with business; with hunting, with standing, with wandering: he was of mean stature, renable of speech, and well y lettered; noble and _orped_ in knighthood; and wise in counsel and in battle; and dread and doubtfull destiny; more manly and courteous to a knight when he was dead than when he was alive!" _polychronicon_, caxton's edit., fol. cccliij., rev.] lis. at your peril omit him! i think (although my black-letter reading be very limited) that bale, in his _english votaries_, has a curious description of this renowned archbishop; whose attachment to books, in his boyish years, must on all sides be admitted. lysand. you are right. bale has some extraordinary strokes of description in his account of this canonized character: but if i can trust to my memory (which the juice of lorenzo's nectar, here before us, may have somewhat impaired), tyndale[ ] has also an equally animated account of the same--who deserves, notwithstanding his pomp and haughtiness, to be numbered among the most notorious bibliomaniacs of his age. [footnote : we will first amuse ourselves with bale's curious account of "_the fresh and lusty beginnings of_ thomas becket." as those authors report, which chiefly wrote thomas becket's life--whose names are herbert boseham, john salisbury, william of canterbury, alen of tewkesbury, benet of peterborough, stephen langton, and richard croyland--he bestoyed his youth in all kinds of lascivious lightness, and lecherous wantonness. after certain robberies, rapes, and murders, committed in the king's wars at the siege of toulouse in languedoc, and in other places else, as he was come home again into england, he gave himself to great study, not of the holy scriptures, but of the bishop of rome's lousy laws, whereby he first of all obtained to be archdeacon of canterbury, under theobald the archbishop; then high chancellor of england; metropolitan, archbishop, primate; pope of england, and great legate from antichrist's own right side. in the time of his high-chancellorship, being but an ale-brewer's son of london, john capgrave saith that he took upon him as he had been a prince. he played the courtier altogether, and fashioned himself wholly to the king's delights. he ruffled it out in the whole cloth with a mighty rabble of disguised ruffians at his tail. he sought the worldly honour with him that sought it most. he thought it a pleasant thing to have the flattering praises of the multitude. his bridle was of silver, his saddle of velvet, his stirrups, spurs, and bosses double gilt; his expenses far passing the expenses of an earl. that delight was not on the earth that he had not plenty of. he fed with the fattest, was clad with the softest, and kept company with the plesantest. was not this (think you) a good mean to live chaste? i trow it was. _englyshe votaryes_, pt. ii., sign. p. vi. rect. printed by tisdale, vo. the orthography is modernized, but the words are faithfully _balëan_! thus writes tyndale: and the king made him (becket) his chancellor, in which office he passed the pomp and pride of thomas (wolsey) cardinal, as far as the ones shrine passeth the others tomb in glory and riches. and after that, he was a man of war, and captain of five or six thousand men in full harness, as bright as st. george, and his spear in his hand; and encountered whatsoever came against him, and overthrew the jollyest rutter that was in the host of france. and out of the field, hot from bloodshedding, was he made bishop of canterbury; and did put off his helm, and put on his mitre; put off his harness, and on with his robes; and laid down his spear, and took his cross ere his hands were cold; and so came, with a lusty courage of a man of war, to fight an other while against his prince for the pope; when his prince's cause were with the law of god, and the pope's clean contrary. _practise of popish prelates._ _tyndale's works_, edit. , p. . the curious bibliographer, or collector of ancient books of biography, will find a very different character of becket in a scarce latin life of him, printed at paris in the black letter, in the fifteenth century. his archiepiscopal table is described as being distinguished for great temperance and propriety: "in ejus mensa non audiebantur tibicines non cornicines, non lira, non fiala, non karola: nulla quidem præterquam mundam splendidam et inundantem epularum opulentiam. nulla gule, nulla lascivie, nulla penitus luxurie, videbantur incitamenta. revera inter tot et tantas delicias quæ ei apponebantur, in nullo penitus sardanapalum sed solum episcopum sapiebat," &c. _vita et processus sancti thome cantuariensis martyris super libertate ecclesiastica_; paris, , sign. b. ij. rect. from a yet earlier, and perhaps the first printed, mention of becket--and from a volume of which no perfect copy has yet been found--the reader is presented with a very curious account of the murder of the archbishop, in its original dress. "than were there iiij. cursed knyghtes of leuyng yt thoughte to haue had a grete thanke of the kyng and mad her a vowe to gedir to sle thomas. and so on childremasse day all moste at nyghte they come to caunterbury into thomas hall sire reynolde beriston, sire william tracy, sire richard breton, and sire hewe morley. thanne sire reynolde beriston for he was bitter of kynde a none he seyde to thomas the king that is be yonde the see sente us to the and bad that thou shuldst asoyle the bishoppe that thou cursiddiste than seyde thomas seris they be not acursed by me but by the pope and i may not asoyle that he hathe cursid well seyde reynolde than we see thou wolte not do the kynges byddynge and swore a grete othe by the eyon of god thou shalt be dede. than cryde the othir knyghtes sle sle and they wente downe to the courte and armyd hem. than prestis and clerkis drowe hem to the church to thomas and spered the dores to hem. but whan thomas herde the knyghtes armed and wold come into the churche and myghte not he wente to the dore and un barred it and toke one of the knyghtes by the honde and seyde hit be semyth not to make a castell of holy churche, and toke hem by the honde and seyde come ynne my children in goddis name thanne for it was myrke that they myghte not see nor knowe thomas they seyde where is the traytour nay seyde thomas no traytour but archebishoppe. than one seyde to hym fle fore thou arte but dede. nay seyde thomas y come not to fle but to a byde ego pro deo mori paratus sum et pro defensione iusticie et ecclesie libertate i am redy to dye for the loue of god and for the fredomme and righte of holy churche than reynold with his swerdes poynte put off thomas cappe and smote at his hede and cutte of his crowne that it honge by like a dysche than smote anothir at him and smote hit all of than fill he downe to the grounde on his knees and elbowes and seyde god into thy hondes i putte my cause and the righte of holy churche and so deyde than the iij knyghte smote and his halfe stroke fell upon his clerkis arme that helde thomas cross be fore him and so his swerde fill down to the grounde and brake of the poynte and he seyde go we hens he is dede. and when they were all at the dore goyng robert broke wente a geyne and sette his fote to thomas necke and thruste out the brayne upon the pauement thus for righte of holoye churche and the lawe of the londe thomas toke his dethe." _the boke that is callid festiuall_; , fol. sign. m. iij. these anecdotes, which are not to be found in lyttleton or berrington, may probably be gratifying to the curious.] although i wish to be as laconic as possible in my _catalogue raisonné_ of libraries and of book-collectors, during the earlier periods of our history, yet i must beg to remind you that some of the nunneries and monasteries, about these times, contained rather valuable collections of books: and indeed those of glasgow, peterborough, and glastonbury,[ ] deserve to be particularly noticed and commended. but i will push on with the personal history of literature, or rather of the bibliomania. [footnote : "i shall retire back to _godstowe_, and, for the farther reputation of the nunns there, shall observe that they spent a great part of their time in reading good books. there was a common library for their use well furnished with books, many of which were english, and divers of them historical. the lives of the holy men and women, especially of the latter, were curiously written on vellum, and many illuminations appeared throughout, so as to draw the nunns the more easily to follow their examples." hearne's edit. _guil. neubrig._, vol. ii., p. . again he says, "it is probable they (certain sentences) were written in large letters, equal to the writing that we have in the finest books of offices, the best of which were for the use of the nunns, and for persons of distinction, and such as had weak eyes; and many of them were finely covered, not unlike the kiver for the gospell book, given to the chapell of glastonbury by king ina." p. . can the enlightened reader want further proof of the existence of the bibliomania in the nunnery of godstow? as to _peterborough_ abbey, gunston, in his history of the same place, has copied the catalogue of the different libraries belonging to the abbots. benedict, who became abbot in , had a collection of no less than _fifty-seven_ volumes. but alas! the book reputation of this monastery soon fell away: for master robert, who died abbot in , left but _seven_ books behind him; and geoffrey de croyland, who was abbot in , had only that dreary old gentleman, _avicenna_, to keep him company! at its dissolution, however, it contained volumes in mss. _gunton's peterborough_, p. . _glastonbury_ seems to have long maintained its reputation for a fine library; and even as late as the year it could boast of several classical authors, although the english books were only four in number; the rest being considered as "vetustas et inutilia." the classical authors were livy, sallust, tully, seneca, virgil, and persius. see _joh. confrat. glaston._, vol. ii., p. , : hearne's edit. "leland," says warton, "who visited all the monasteries just before their dissolution, seems to have been struck with the venerable air and amplitude of this library." _hist. engl. poetry_, diss. ii.] i should be wanting in proper respect to the gentlemanly and scholar-like editor of his works, if i omitted the mention of that celebrated tourist and topographer, girald barri, or giraldus cambrensis; whose irish and welch itinerary has been recently so beautifully and successfully put forth in our own language.[ ] giraldus, long before and after he was bishop of st. david's, seems to have had the most enthusiastic admiration of british antiquities; and i confess it would have been among the keenest delights of my existence (had i lived at the period) to have been among his auditors when he read aloud (perhaps from a stone pulpit) his three books of the topography of ireland.[ ] how many choice volumes, written and emblazoned upon snow-white vellum, and containing many a curious and precious genealogy, must this observing traveller and curious investigator have examined, when he was making the tour of ireland in the suite of prince, afterwards king, john! judge of the anxiety of certain antiquated families, especially of the welch nation, which stimulated them to open their choicest treasures, in the book way, to gratify the genealogical ardour of our tourist! [footnote : there is a supplemental volume to the two english ones, containing the only complete latin edition extant of the welsh itinerary. of this impression there are but copies printed on small, and on large, paper. the whole work is most creditably executed, and does great honour to the taste and erudition of its editor, sir richard colt hoare, bart.] [footnote : "having finished his topography of ireland, which consisted of three books, he published it at oxford, a.d. , in the following manner, in three days. on the first day he read the first book to a great concourse of people, and afterwards entertained all the poor of the town. on the second day he read the second book, and entertained all the doctors and chief scholars: and on the third day he read the third book, and entertained the younger scholars, soldiers, and burgesses."--"a most glorious spectacle (says he), which revived the ancient times of the poets, and of which no example had been seen in england." this is given by dr. henry (b. iii., ch. , § ), on the authority of giraldus's own book, _de rebus a se gestis_, lib. i. c. . twyne, in his arid little quarto latin volume of the _antiquities of oxford_, says not a word about it; and, what is more extraordinary, it is barely alluded to by antony wood! see mr. gutch's genuine edition of wood's _annals of the university of oxford_, vol. i., pp. , . warton, in his _history of english poetry_, vol. i., diss. ii., notices giraldus's work with his usual taste and interest.] lis. i wish from my heart that girald barri had been somewhat more communicative on this head! loren. of what do you suppose he would have informed us, had he indulged this bibliographical gossipping? lis. of many a grand and many a curious volume. lysand. not exactly so, lisardo. the art of book-illumination in this country was then sufficiently barbarous, if at all known. lis. and yet i'll lay a vellum aldus that henry the second presented his fair rosamond with some choice _heures de notre dame_! but proceed. i beg pardon for this interruption. lysand. nay, there is nothing to solicit pardon for! we have each a right, around this hospitable table, to indulge our book whims: and mine may be as fantastical as any. loren. pray proceed, lysander, in your book-collecting history! unless you will permit me to make a pause or interruption of two minutes--by proposing as a sentiment--"success to the bibliomania!" phil. 'tis well observed: and as every loyal subject at our great taverns drinks the health of his sovereign "with three times three up-standing," even so let us hail this sentiment of lorenzo! lis. philemon has cheated me of an eloquent speech. but let us receive the sentiment as he proposes it. loren. now the uproar of bacchus has subsided, the instructive conversation of minerva may follow. go on, lysander. lysand. having endeavoured to do justice to girald barri, i know of no other particularly distinguished bibliomaniac till we approach the æra of the incomparable roger, or friar, bacon. i say incomparable, lorenzo; because he was, in truth, a constellation of the very first splendour and magnitude in the dark times in which he lived; and notwithstanding a sagacious writer (if my memory be not treacherous) of the name of coxe, chooses to tell us that he was "miserably starved to death, because he could not introduce a piece of roast beef into his stomach, on account of having made a league with satan to eat only cheese;"[ ]--yet i suspect that the end of bacon was hastened by other means more disgraceful to the age and equally painful to himself. [footnote : "_a short treatise declaringe the detestable wickednesse of magicall sciences, as necromancie, coniuration of spirites, curiouse astrologie, and suche lyke, made by_ francis coxe." printed by allde, mo., without date ( leaves). from this curious little volume, which is superficially noticed by herbert (vol. ii., p. ), the reader is presented with the following extract, appertaining to the above subject: "i myself (says the author) knew a priest not far from a town called bridgewater, which, as it is well known in the country, was a great magician in all his life time. after he once began these practices, he would never eat bread, but, instead thereof, did always eat _cheese_: which thing, as he confessed divers times, he did because it was so concluded betwixt him and the spirit which served him," &c. sign. a viii. rect. "(r.) bacon's end was much after _the like sort_; for having a greedy desire unto meat, he could cause nothing to enter the stomach--wherefore thus miserably he starved to death." sign. b. iij. rev. not having at hand john dee's book of the defence of roger bacon, from the charge of astrology and magic (the want of which one laments as pathetically as did naudé, in his "_apologie pour tous les grands personnages, &c., faussement soupçonnez de magic_," haye, , vo., p. ), i am at a loss to say the fine things, which dee must have said, in commendation of the extraordinary talents of roger bacon; who was miserably matched in the age in which he lived; but who, together with his great patron grosteste, will shine forth as beacons to futurity. dr. friend in his _history of physic_ has enumerated what he conceived to be bacon's leading works; while gower in his _confessio amantis_ (caxton's edit., fol. ), has mentioned the brazen head-- =for to telle of such thyngs as befelle:= which was the joint manufactory of the patron and his èleve. as lately as the year , bacon's life formed the subject of a "famous history," from which walter scott has given us a facetious anecdote in the seventh volume (p. ) of _dryden's works_. but the curious investigator of ancient times, and the genuine lover of british biography, will seize upon the more prominent features in the life of this renowned philosopher; will reckon up his great discoveries in optics and physics; and will fancy, upon looking at the above picture of his study, that an explosion from gun-powder (of which our philosopher has been thought the inventor) has protruded the palings which are leaning against its sides. bacon's "_opus majus_," which happened to meet the eyes of pope clement iv., and which _now_ would have encircled the neck of its author with an hundred golden chains, and procured for him a diploma from every learned society in europe--just served to liberate him from his first long imprisonment. this was succeeded by a subsequent confinement of twelve years; from which he was released only time enough to breathe his last in the pure air of heaven. whether he expended , or , pounds of our present money, upon his experiments, can now be only matter of conjecture. those who are dissatisfied with the meagre manner in which our early biographers have noticed the labours of roger bacon, and with the _tetragonistical_ story, said by twyne to be propagated by our philosopher, of julius cæsar's seeing the whole of the british coast and encampment upon the gallic shore, "maximorum ope speculorum" (_antiquit. acad. oxon. apolog._ , to., p. ), may be pleased with the facetious story told of him by wood (_annals of oxford_, vol. i., , gutch's edit.) and yet more by the minute catalogue of his works noticed by bishop tanner (_bibl. brit. hibern._ p. ): while the following eulogy of old tom fuller cannot fail to find a passage to every heart: "for mine own part (says this delightful and original writer) i behold the name of bacon in oxford, not as of an individual man, but corporation of men; no single cord, but a twisted cable of many together. and as all the acts of strong men of that nature are attributed to an hercules; all the predictions of prophecying women to a sibyll; so i conceive all the achievements of the oxonian bacons, in their liberal studies, are ascribed to one, as chief of the name." _church history_, book iii., p. .] [illustration] only let us imagine we see this sharp-eyed philosopher at work in his study, of which yonder print is generally received as a representation! how heedlessly did he hear the murmuring of the stream beneath, and of the winds without--immersed in the vellum and parchment rolls of theological, astrological, and mathematical lore, which, upon the dispersion of the libraries of the jews,[ ] he was constantly perusing, and of which so large a share had fallen to his own lot! [footnote : warton, in his second dissertation, says that "great multitudes of their (the jews) books fell into the hands of roger bacon;" and refers to wood's _hist. et antiquit. univ. oxon._, vol. i., , --where i find rather a slight notification of it--but, in the genuine edition of this latter work, published by mr. gutch, vol. i., p. , it is said: "at their (the jews) expulsion, divers of their tenements that were forfeited to the king, came into the hands of william burnell, provost of wells; and _their books_ (for many of them were learned) to divers of our scholars; among whom, as is verily supposed, roger bacon was one: and that he furnished himself with such hebrew rarities, that he could not elsewhere find. also that, when he died, he left them to the franciscan library at oxon, which, being not well understood in after-times, were condemned to moths and dust!" weep, weep, kind-hearted bibliomaniac, when thou thinkest upon the fate of these poor hebrew mss.!] unfortunately, my friends, little is known with certainty, though much is vaguely conjectured, of the labours of this great man. some of the first scholars and authors of our own and of other countries have been proud to celebrate his praises; nor would it be considered a disgrace by the most eminent of modern experimental philosophers--of him, who has been described as "unlocking the hidden treasures of nature, and explaining the various systems by which air, and earth, and fire, and water, counteract and sustain each other"[ ]--to fix the laureate crown round the brows of our venerable bacon! [footnote : see a periodical paper, entitled _the director_! vol. ii., p. .] we have now reached the close of the thirteenth century and the reign of edward the first;[ ] when the principal thing that strikes us, connected with the history of libraries, is this monarch's insatiable lust of strengthening his title to the kingdom of scotland by purchasing "the libraries of all the monasteries" for the securing of any record which might corroborate the same. what he gave for this tremendous book-purchase, or of what nature were the volumes purchased, or what was their subsequent destination, is a knot yet remaining to be untied. [footnote : "king edward the first caused and committed divers copies of the records, and much concerning the realm of scotland, unto divers abbies for the preservance thereof; which for the most part are now perished, or rare to be had; and which privilie by the dissolution of monasteries is detained. the same king caused the libraries of all monasteries, and other places of the realm, to be purchased, for the further and manifest declaration of his title, as chief lord of scotland: and the record thereof now extant, doth alledge divers leger books of abbeys for the confirmation thereof": petition (to q. elizabeth) for an academy of antiquities and history. _hearne's curious discourses written by eminent antiquaries_; vol. ii., , edit. .] of the bibliomaniacal propensity of edward's grandson, the great edward the third, there can be no question. indeed, i could gossip away upon the same 'till midnight. his severe disappointment upon having froissart's presentation copy of his chronicles[ ] (gergeously [transcriber's note: gorgeously] attired as it must have been) taken from him by the duke of anjou, is alone a sufficient demonstration of his love of books; while his patronage of chaucer shews that he had accurate notions of intellectual excellence. printing had not yet begun to give any hint, however faint, of its wonderful powers; and scriveners or book-copiers were sufficiently ignorant and careless.[ ] [footnote : whether this presentation copy ever came, eventually, into the kingdom, is unknown. mr. johnes, who is as intimate with froissart as gough was with camden, is unable to make up his mind upon the subject; but we may suppose it was properly emblazoned, &c. the duke detained it as being the property of an enemy to france!--now, when we read of this wonderfully chivalrous age, so glowingly described by the great gaston, count de foix, to master froissart, upon their introduction to each other (vide st. palaye's memoir in the th vol. of _l'acadamie des inscriptions_, &c.), it does seem a gross violation (at least on the part of the monsieur of france!) of all gentlemanly and knight-like feeling, to seize upon a volume of this nature, as legitimate plunder! the robber should have had his skin tanned, after death, for a case to keep the book in! of edward the third's love of curiously bound books, see p. , ante.] [footnote : "how ordinary a fault this was (of 'negligently or willfully altering copies') amongst the transcribers of former times, may appear by chaucer; who (i am confident) tooke as greate care as any man to be served with the best and heedfullest scribes, and yet we finde him complayning against adam, his scrivener, for the very same: so ofte a daye i mote thy worke renew, if to correct and eke to rubbe and scrape, and all is thorow thy neglegence and rape." ashmole _theatrum chemicum_; p. .] the mention of edward the third, as a patron of learned men, must necessarily lead a book-antiquary to the notice of his eminent chancellor, richard de bury; of whom, as you may recollect, some slight mention was made the day before yesterday.[ ] it is hardly possible to conceive a more active and enthusiastic lover of books than was this extraordinary character; the passion never deserting him even while he sat upon the bench.[ ] it was probably de bury's intention to make his royal master eclipse his contemporary charles the vth, of france--the most renowned foreign bibliomaniac of his age![ ] in truth, my dear friends, what can be more delightful to a lover of his country's intellectual reputation than to find such a character as de bury, in such an age of war and bloodshed, uniting the calm and mild character of a legislator, with the sagacity of a philosopher, and the elegant-mindedness of a scholar! foreigners have been profuse in their commendations of him, and with the greatest justice; while our thomas warton, of ever-to-be-respected memory, has shewn us how pleasingly he could descend from the graver tone of a historical antiquary, by indulging himself in a chit-chat style of book-anecdote respecting this illustrious character.[ ] [footnote : see p. , ante.] [footnote : "--patescebat nobis aditus facilis, regalis favoris intuitu, ad librorum latebras libere perscrutandas. amoris quippe nostri fama volatilis jam ubique percrebuit, tamtumque librorum, et maxime veterum, ferebamur cupiditate languescere; posse vero quemlibet, nostrum _per quaternos_ facilius, quam _per pecuniam_, adipisci favorem." _philobiblion; sive de amore librorum_ (vide p. , ante), p. : edit. , to. but let the reader indulge me with another extract or two, containing evidence [transcriber's note: 'of' missing in original] the most unquestionable of the severest symptoms of the bibliomania that ever assailed a lord chancellor or a bishop!--magliabechi must have read the ensuing passage with rapture: "quamobrem cum prædicti principis recolendæ memoriæ bonitate suffulti, possemus obesse et prodesse, officere et proficere vehementer tam maioribus quam pusillis; affluxerunt, loco xeniorum et munerum, locoque, donorum et iocalium, temulenti quaterni, ac decripiti codices; nostris tamen tam affectibus, quam aspectibus, pretiosi. tunc nobilissimorum monasteriorum aperiebantur armaria, referebantur scrinia, et cistulæ solvebantur, et per longa secula in sepulchris soporata volumina, expergiscunt attonita, quæque in locis tenebrosis latuerant, novæ lucis radiis perfunduntur." "delicatissimi quondam libri, corrupti et abhominabiles iam effecti, murium fætibus cooperti, et vermium morsibus terebrati, iacebant exanimes--et qui olim purpura vestiebantur et bysso, nunc in cinere et cilicio recubantes, oblivioni traditi videbantur, domicilia tinearum. inter hæc nihilominus, captatis temporibus, magis voluptuose consedimus, quam fecisset medicus delicatus inter aromatum apothecas, ubi amoris nostri objectum reperimus et fomentum; sic sacra vasa scientiæ, ad nostræ dispensationis provenerunt arbitrium: quædam data, quædam vendita, ac nonnulla protempore commodata. nimirum cum nos plerique de hujusmodi donariis cernerent contentatos, ea sponte nostris usibus studuerent tribuere, quibus ipsi libentius caruerunt: quorum tamen negotia sic expedire curavimus gratiosi, ut et eisdem emolumentum accresceret, nullum tamen iustitia detrimentum sentiret." "porro si scyphos aureos et argenteos, si equos egregios, si nummorum summas non modicas amassemus tunc temporis, dives nobis ærarium instaurasse possemus: sed revera libros non libras maluimus, codicesque plusquam florenos, ac panfletos exiguos incrassatis prætulimus palfridis," _philobiblion_; p. , , &c. dr. james's preface to this book, which will be noticed in its proper place, in another work, is the veriest piece of old maidenish particularity that ever was exhibited! however, the editor's enthusiastic admiration of de bury obtains his forgiveness in the bosom of every honest bibliomaniac!] [footnote : charles the fifth, of france, may be called the founder of the royal library there. the history of his first efforts to erect a national library is thus, in part, related by the compilers of _cat. de la bibliothéque royale_, pt. i., p. ij.-iij.: "this wise king took advantage of the peace which then obtained, in order to cultivate letters more successfully than had hitherto been done. he was learned for his age; and never did a prince love reading and book-collecting better than did he! he was not only constantly making transcripts himself, but the noblemen, courtiers, and officers that surrounded him voluntarily tendered their services in the like cause; while, on the other hand, a number of learned men, seduced by his liberal rewards, spared nothing to add to his literary treasures. charles now determined to give his subjects every possible advantage from this accumulation of books; and, with this view, he lodged them in one of the _towers of the louvre_; which tower was hence called _la tour de la librarie_. the books occupied three stories: in the first, were desposited volumes; in the second ; and in the third, volumes. in order to preserve them with the utmost care (say sauval and felibien), the king caused all the windows of the library to be fortified with iron bars; between which was painted glass, secured by brass-wires. and that the books might be accessible at all hours, there were suspended, from the ceiling, thirty chandeliers and a silver lamp, which burnt all night long. the walls were wainscotted with irish wood; and the ceiling was covered with cypress wood: the whole being curiously sculptured in bas-relief." whoever has not this catalogue at hand (vide p. , ante) to make himself master of still further curious particulars relating to this library, may examine the first and second volume of _l'academie des inscriptions_, &c.--from which the preceding account is taken. the reader may also look into warton (diss. , vol. i., sign. f. ); who adds, on the authority of boivin's _mem. lit._, tom. ii., p. , that the duke of bedford, regent of france, "in the year (when the english became masters of paris) sent his whole library, then consisting of only volumes, and valued at livres, into england," &c. i have little doubt but that richard de bury had a glimpse of this infantine royal collection, from the following passage--which occurs immediately after an account of his ambassadorial excursion--"o beate deus deorum in syon, quantus impetus fluminis voluptatis lætificavit cor nostrum, quoties paradisum mundi _parisios_ visitare vacavimus ibi moraturi? ubi nobis semper dies pauci, præ amoris magnitudine, videbantur. ibi bibliothecæ jucundæ super sellas aromatum redolentes; ibi virens viridarium universorum voluminum," &c. _philobiblion_; p. , edit. .] [footnote : after having intruded, i fear, by the preceding note respecting _french bibliomania_, there is only room left to say of our de bury--that he was the friend and correspondent of petrarch--and that mons. sade, in his _memoirs of petrarch_, tells us that "the former did in england, what the latter all his life was doing in france, italy, and germany, towards the discovery of the best ancient writers, and making copies of them under his own superintendence." de bury bequeathed a valuable library of mss. to durham, now trinity college, oxford. the books of this library were first packed up in chests; but upon the completion of the room to receive them, "they were put into pews or studies, and chained to them." wood's _history of the university of oxford_, vol. ii., p. . gutch's edit. de bury's _philobiblion_, from which so much has been extracted, is said by morhof to "savor somewhat of the rudeness of the age, but is rather elegantly written; and many things are well expressed in it relating to bibliothecism." _polyhist. literar._, vol. i., . the real author is supposed to have been robert holcott, a dominican friar. i am, however, loth to suppress a part of what warton has so pleasantly written (as above alluded to by lysander) respecting such a favourite as de bury. "richard de bury, otherwise called richard aungervylle, is said to have alone possessed more books than all the bishops of england together. beside the fixed libraries which he had formed in his several palaces, the floor of his common apartment was so covered with books that those who entered could not with due reverence approach his presence. he kept binders, illuminators, and writers, in his palaces. petrarch says that he had once a conversation with him, concerning the island called by the ancients thule; calling him 'virum ardentis ingenii.' while chancellor and treasurer, instead of the usual presents and new-year's gifts appendant to his office, he chose to receive those perquisites in books. by the favour of edward iii. he gained access to the libraries of most of the capital monasteries; where he shook off the dust from volumes, preserved in chests and presses, which had not been opened for many ages." _philobiblion_, cap. , .--warton also quotes, in english, a part of what had been already presented to the reader in its original latin form. _hist. engl. poetry_, vol. i., diss. ii., note g., sign. h. . prettily painted as is this picture, by warton, the colouring might have been somewhat heightened, and the effect rendered still more striking, in consequence, if the authority and the words of godwyn had been a little attended to. in this latter's _catalogue of the bishops of england_, p. - , edit. , we find that de bury was the son of one sir richard angaruill, knight: "that he saith of himselfe 'exstatico quodam librorum amore potenter se abreptum'--that he was mightily carried away, and even beside himself, with immoderate love of bookes and desire of reading. he had alwaies in his house many chaplaines, all great schollers. his manner was, at dinner and supper-time, to haue some good booke read unto him, whereof he would discourse with his chaplaines a great part of the day following, if busines interrupted not his course. he was very bountiful unto the poore. weekely he bestowed for their reliefe, quarters of wheat made into bread, beside the offall and fragments of his tables. riding betweene newcastle and durham he would give _l._ in almes; from durham to stocton, _l._: from durham to aukland, marks; from durham to middleham, _l._" &c. this latter is the "pars melior" of every human being; and bibliomaniacs seem to have possessed it as largely as any other tribe of mortals. i have examined richardson's magnificent reprint of godwyn's book, in the latin tongue, london, , folio; p. ; and find nothing worth adding to the original text.] loren. the task we have imposed upon you, my good lysander, would be severe indeed if you were to notice, with minute exactness, all the book-anecdotes of the middle ages. you have properly introduced the name and authority of warton; but if you suffered yourself to be beguiled by his enchanting style, into all the bibliographical gossiping of this period, you would have no mercy upon your lungs, and there would be no end to the disquisition. lysand. forgive me, if i have transgressed the boundaries of good sense or good breeding: it was not my intention to make a "_concio ad aulam_"--as worthy old bishop saunderson was fond of making--but simply to state facts, or indulge in book chit-chat, as my memory served me. lis. nay, lorenzo, do not disturb the stream of lysander's eloquence. i could listen 'till "jocund day stood tip-toe on the mountain." phil. you are a little unconscionable, lisardo: but i apprehend lorenzo meant only to guard lysander against that minuteness of narration which takes us into every library and every study of the period at which we are arrived. if i recollect aright, warton was obliged to restrain himself in the same cause.[ ] [footnote : the part alluded to, in warton, is at the commencement of his second dissertation "on the introduction of learning into great britain." after rambling with the utmost felicity, among the libraries, and especially the monastic ones, of the earlier and middle ages--he thus checks himself by saying, that "in pursuit of these anecdotes, he is imperceptibly seduced into later periods, or rather is deviating from his subject."] loren. it belongs to me, lysander, to solicit your forgiveness. if you are not tired with the discussion of such a various and extensive subject (and more particularly from the energetic manner in which it is conducted on your part), rely upon it that your auditors cannot possibly feel _ennui_. every thing before us partakes of your enthusiasm: the wine becomes mellower, and sparkles with a ruddier glow; the flavour of the fruit is improved; and the scintillations of your conversational eloquence are scattered amidst my books, my busts, and my pictures. proceed, i entreat you; but first, accept my libation offered up at the shrine of an offended deity. lysand. you do me, and the _bibliomania_, too much honour. if my blushes do not overpower me, i will proceed: but first, receive the attestation of the deity that he is no longer affronted with you. i drink to your health and long life!--and proceed: if, among the numerous and gorgeous books which now surround us, it should be my good fortune to put my hand upon one, however small or imperfect, which could give us some account of the _history of british libraries_, it would save me a great deal of trouble, by causing me to maintain at least a chronological consistency in my discourse. but, since this cannot be--since, with all our love of books and of learning, we have this pleasing desideratum yet to be supplied--i must go on, in my usual desultory manner, in rambling among libraries, and discoursing about books and book-collectors. as we enter upon the reign of henry iv., we cannot avoid the mention of that distinguished library hunter, and book describer, john boston of bury;[ ] who may justly be considered the leland of his day. gale, if i recollect rightly, unaccountably describes his bibliomaniacal career as having taken place in the reign of henry vii.; but bale and pits, from whom tanner has borrowed his account, unequivocally affix the date of to boston's death; which is three years before the death of henry. it is allowed, by the warmest partizans of the reformation, that the dissolution of the monastic libraries has unfortunately rendered the labours of boston of scarcely any present utility. [footnote : it is said of boston that he visited almost every public library, and described the titles of every book therein, with punctilious accuracy. pits ( ) calls him "vir pius, litteratus, et bonarum litterarum fautor ac promotor singularis." bale (p. , edit. ) has even the candour to say, "mirâ sedulitate et diligentia omnes omnium regni monasteriorum bibliothecas invisit: librorum collegit titulos, et authorum eorum nomina: quæ omnia alphabetico disposuit ordine, et quasi unam omnium bibliothecam fecit." what lysander observes above is very true: "non enim dissimulanda (says gale) monasteriorum subversio, quæ brevi spatio subsecuta est--libros omnes dispersit et bostoni providam diligentiam, maxima ex parte, inutilem reddidit." _rer. anglicar. scrip. vet._, vol. iii., præf. p. . that indefatigable antiquary, thomas hearne, acknowledges that, in spite of all his researches in the bodleian library, he was scarcely able to discover any thing of boston's which related to benedictus abbas--and still less of his own compositions. _bened. abbat._ vol. i., præf. p. xvii. it is a little surprising that leland should have omitted to notice him. but the reader should consult tanner's _bibl. britan._, p. xvii., .] there is a curious anecdote of this period in rymer's foedera,[ ] about taking off the duty upon _six barrels of books_, sent by a roman cardinal to the prior of the conventual church of st. trinity, norwich. these barrels, which lay at the custom-house, were imported duty free; and i suspect that henry's third son, the celebrated john duke of bedford, who was then a lad, and just beginning to feed his bibliomaniacal appetite, had some hand in interceding with his father for the redemption of the duty. [footnote : vol. viii., p. . it is a clause roll of the th of henry iv. a.d. : "de certis libris, absque custumenda solvenda, liberandis;" and affords too amusing a specimen of custom-house latinity to be withheld from the reader. "mandamus vobis, quod certos libros _in sex barellis contentos_, priori qt conventui ecclesiæ sanctæ trinitatis norwici, per quendam adam nuper cardinalem legatos, et in portum civitatis nostræ predictæ (londinensis) ab urbe romanâ jam adductos, præfato, priori, absque custuma seu subsidio inde ad opus nostrum capiendis, liberetis indilate," &c.] lis. this duke of bedford was the most notorious bibliomaniac as well as warrior of his age; and, when abroad, was indefatigable in stirring up the emulation of flemish and french artists, to execute for him the most splendid books of devotion. i have heard great things of what goes by the name of _the bedford missal_![ ] [footnote : this missal, executed under the eye and for the immediate use of the famous john, duke of bedford (regent of france), and jane (the daughter of the duke of burgundy) his wife, was, at the beginning of the th century, in the magnificent library of harley, earl of oxford. it afterwards came into the collection of his daughter, the well-known duchess of portland; at whose sale, in , it was purchased by mr. edwards for guineas; and guineas have been, a few years ago, offered for this identical volume. it is yet the property of this last mentioned gentleman. among the pictures in it, there is an interesting one of the whole length portraits of the duke and duchess;--the head of the former of which has been enlarged and engraved by vertue for his portraits to illustrate the history of england. the missal frequently displays the arms of these noble personages; and also affords a pleasing testimony of the affectionate gallantry of the pair; the motto of the former being "a vous entier:" that of the latter, "j'en suis contente." there is a former attestation in the volume, of its having been given by the duke to his nephew, henry vi. as "a most suitable present." but the reader shall consult (if he can procure it) mr. gough's curious little octavo volume written expressly upon the subject.] lysand. and not greater than what merits to be said of it. i have seen this splendid bijou in the charming collection of our friend ----. it is a small thick folio, highly illuminated; and displaying, as well in the paintings as in the calligraphy, the graphic powers of that age, which had not yet witnessed even the dry pencil of perugino. more gorgeous, more beautifully elaborate, and more correctly graceful, missals may be in existence; but a more curious, interesting, and perfect specimen, of its kind, is no where to be seen: the portraits of the duke and of his royal brother henry v. being the best paintings known of the age. 'tis, in truth, a lovely treasure in the book way; and it should sleep every night upon an eider-down pillow encircled with emeralds! lis. hear him--hear him! lysander must be a collateral descendant of this noble bibliomaniac, whose blood, now circulating in his veins, thus moves him to "discourse most eloquently." lysand. banter as you please; only "don't disturb the stream of my eloquence." the period of this distinguished nobleman was that in which book-collecting began to assume a fixed and important character in this country. oxford saw a glimmering of civilization dawning in her obscured atmosphere. a short but dark night had succeeded the patriotic efforts of de bury; whose curious volumes, bequeathed to trinity college, had laid in a melancholy and deserted condition 'till they were kept company by those of cobham, bishop of worcester, rede, bishop of chichester, and humphrey the good duke of gloucester.[ ] now began the fashion (and may it never fall to decay!) of making presents to public libraries:--but, during the short and splendid career of henry v., learning yielded to arms: the reputation of a scholar to that of a soldier. i am not aware of any thing at this period, connected with the subject of our discourse, that deserves particular mention; although we ought never to name this illustrious monarch, or to think of his matchless prowess in arms, without calling to mind how he adorned the rough character of a soldier by the manners of a prince, the feelings of a christian, and, i had almost said, the devotion of a saint. [footnote : we will first notice cobham, bishop of worcester: who "having had a great desire to show some love to his mother the university of oxford, began, about the year , to build, or at least to make some reparations for _a library_, over the old congregation house in the north church-yard of st. mary's; but he dying soon after, before any considerable matter was done therein, left certain moneys for the carrying on of the work, and all his books, with others that had been lately procured, to be, with those belonging to the university (as yet kept in chests) reposed therein." some controversy afterwards arising between the university and oriel college, to which latter cobham belonged, the books lay in dreary and neglected state till ; when a room having been built for their reception, it was settled that they "should be reposed and chained in the said room or solar; that the scholars of the university should have free ingress and regress, at certain times, to make proficiency in them; that certain of the said books, of greater price, should be sold, till the sum of _l._ was obtained for them (unless other remedy could be found) with which should be bought an yearly rent of _l._ , for the maintenance of a chaplain, that should pray for the soul of the said bishop, and other benefactors of the university both living and dead, and have the custody or oversight of the said books, and of those in the ancient chest of books, and chest of rolls." wood's _hist. of the university of oxford_, vol. ii., pt. ii., . gutch's edit. william rede, or read, bishop of chichester, "sometimes fellow (of merton college) gave a chest with _l._ in gold in it, to be borrowed by the fellows for their relief; bond being first given in by them to repay it at their departure from the college; or, in case they should die, to be paid by their executors: a.d. . he also built, about the same time, _a library_ in the college; being the first that the society enjoyed, and gave books thereunto." wood's _history of the colleges and halls_, p. , gutch's edit. in mr. nicholl's _appendix to the history of leicester_, p. , note , i find some account of this distinguished literary character, taken from tanner's _bibl. britan._, p. . he is described, in both authorities, as being a very learned fellow of merton college, where he built and furnished _a noble library_; on the wall of which was painted his portrait, with this inscription: "gulielmus redÆus, episcopus cicestrensis, magister in theologia, profundus astronomus, quondam socius istius collegii, qui hanc librariam fieri fecit." many of read's mathematical instruments, as well as his portrait, were preserved in the library when harrison wrote his description of england, prefix'd to holinshed's chronicles; some of the former of which came into the possession of the historian. for thus writes harrison: "william read, sometime fellow of merteine college in oxford, doctor of divinitie, and the most profound astronomer that liued in his time, as appeareth by his collection, which some time i did possesse; his image is yet in the librarie there; and manie instruments of astronomie reserued in that house," &c. _chronicles_ ( ), edit. , vol. i., p. . in the year , when i visited the ancient and interesting brick-floored library of merton college, for the purpose of examining early printed books, i looked around in vain for the traces, however faded, of read's portrait: nor could i discover a single vestige of the bibliotheca readiana! the memory of this once celebrated bishop lives therefore only in what books have recorded of him; and this brief and _verbal picture_ of read is here drawn--as was the more finished resemblance of chaucer by the pencil, which occleve has left behind-- =that thei that have of him lost thoute and mynde by this peinture may ageine him fynde.= humphrey, duke of gloucester, "commonly called _the good_, was youngest brother to henry v. and the first founder of the university library in oxford, which was pillaged of the greater part of its books in the reign of edward the sixth." park's edit. of the _royal and noble authors_; vol. i., . "as for the books which he gave (says wood) they were very many, more by far than authors report; for whereas 'tis said he gave , you shall find anon that they were more than treble the number." the duke's first gift, in , of one hundred and twenty-nine treatises, was worth, according to wood, a thousand pounds. all his book presents, "amounting to above (mostly treating of divinity, physic, history, and humanity) which were from several parts of the world obtained, were transmitted to the university, and for the present laid up in chests in cobham's library. the catalogue also of them which were then sent, and the indentures for the receipt of the said books, were laid up in the chest called _cista librorum et rotulorum_." _history_ (or annals) _of the university of oxford_; vol. ii., pt. ii., . gutch's edit. consult also the recent and very amusing _history of the same university_, by mr. a. chalmers, vol. ii., p. . leland has not forgotten this distinguished bibliomaniac; for he thus lauds him in roman verse: tam clari meminit viri togata rectè gallia; tum chorus suavis cygnorum isidis ad vadum incolentûm cui magnum numerum dedit bonorum librorum, statuitque sanctiori divinus studio scholæ theatrum; nostro quale quidem videtur esse magnum tempore, forsan et futuro _cygn. cant._ vide lelandi itinerarium curâ hearne; edit. , vol. ix., p. .] the reign of his successor, henry vi., was the reign of trouble and desolation. it is not to be wondered that learning drooped, and religion "waxed faint," 'midst the din of arms and the effusion of human blood. yet towards the close of this reign some attempt was made to befriend the book cause; for the provost and fellows of eton and cambridge petitioned the king to assist them in increasing the number of books in their libraries;[ ] but the result of this petition has never, i believe, been known. [footnote : in the manuscript history of eton college, in the british museum (_mss. donat._ , p. .), the provost and fellows of eton and cambridge are stated, in the th of henry the sixth, to have petitioned the king that, as these new colleges were not sufficiently seised of books for divine service, and for their libraries, he would be pleased to order one of his chaplains, richard chestre, "to take to him such men as shall be seen to him expedient in order to get knowledge where such bookes may be found, paying a reasonable price for the same, and that the sayd men might have the first choice of such bookes, ornaments, &c., before any man, and in especiall of all manner of bookes, ornaments, and other necessaries as now _late were perteynyng to the duke of gloucester_, and that the king would particular(ly) cause to be employed herein john pye his stacioner of london." for this anecdote i am indebted to sir h. ellis. see also the interesting note in warton's _hist. engl. poet._, diss. ii., sign. f. .] i had nearly passed through the reign of henry the sixth without noticing the very meritorious labours of a sort of precursor of dean colet; i mean, sir walter sherington. he was a most assiduous bibliomaniac;[ ] and, in the true spirit of ancient monachism, conceived that no cathedral could be perfect without a library. accordingly, he not only brought together an extraordinary number of curious books, but framed laws or regulations concerning the treatment of the books, and the hours of perusing them; which, if i can trust to my memory, are rather curious, and worth your examination. they are in hearne's edition of the antiquities of glastonbury, composed in our own language. [footnote : "over the east quadrant of this (great) cloyster (on the north side of this church) was a fayre librarie, builded at the costes and charges of (sir) waltar sherington, chancellor of the duchie of lancaster, in the raigne of henrie the . which hath beene well furnished with faire written books in vellem: but few of them now do remaine there." _antiquities of glastonbury_; hearne's edit. ; p. . _regulations concerning sherington's library._ "quodque dicta libraria, hostiis ipsius per præfatos capellanos custodes ejusdem, et eorum successores, aut alterum ipsorum, apertis singulis diebus profestis annuatim á festo nativ. beat. mar. virg. usque festum annunciacionis ejusdem, ob ortu solis, donec hora nona post altam missam de servicio diei in dicta ecclesiâ cathedrali finiatur: et iterum ab hora prima post meridiem usque ad finem completorii in eadem ecclesia cathedrali, vel saltem usque ad occasum solis per eosdem, seu eorum alterum, sic continue diligenter custodiatur. et eciam singulis diebus profestis annuatim, ab eodem festo annunciacionis beatæ mariæ virginis usque ad prædictum festum nativitatis ejusdem, ab hora diei sexta, donec hora nona post altam missam in dicta ecclesia cathedrali, et iterum ab hora prima post meridiem quosque completorium in eadem ecclesia cathedrali finiatur, per præfatos capellanos, seu eorum alterum et successores suos custodes dictæ librariæ debitè et diligenter aperta, custodiatur, nisi causa racionabilis hoc fieri impediat. ita quod nullum dampnum eidem librariæ aut in libris, aut in hostiis, seruris vel fenestris vitreis ejusdem, ex negligencia dictorum capellanorum aut successorum suorum custodum dictæ librariæ evenire contingat. et si quid dampnum hujusmodi in præmissis, seu aliquo præmissorum, per negligenciam ipsorum capellanorum, seu eorum alterius, aut successorum suorum quoque modo imposterum evenerit, id vel ipsa dampnum aut dampna recompensare, emendare et satisfacere, tociens quociens contigerit, de salariis seu stipendiis suis propriis, auctoritate et judicio dictorum decani et capituli, debeant et teneantur, ut est justum. ceteris vero diebus, noctibus et temporibus hostia prædicta, cum eorum seruris et clavibus, omnino sint clausa et secure serata." _id._: p. .] we now enter upon the reign of an active and enterprising monarch; who, though he may be supposed to have cut his way to the throne by his sword, does not appear to have persecuted the cause of learning; but rather to have looked with a gracious eye upon its operations by means of the press. in the reign of edward iv., our venerable and worthy caxton fixed the first press that ever was set to work in this country, in the abbey of westminster. yes, lorenzo; now commenced more decidedly, the æra of bibliomania! now the rich, and comparatively poor, began to build them small _book rooms_ or _libraries_. at first, both the architecture and furniture were sufficiently rude, if i remember well the generality of wood cuts of ancient book-boudoirs:--a few simple implements only being deemed necessary; and a three-legged stool, "in fashion square or round," as cowper[ ] says, was thought luxury sufficient for the hard student to sit upon. now commenced a general love and patronage of books: now (to borrow john fox's language) "tongues became known, knowledge grew, judgment increased, books were dispersed, the scripture was read, stories were opened, times compared, truth discerned, falsehood detected, and with finger pointed (at)--and all, through the benefit of printing."[ ] [footnote : the entire passage is worth extraction: as it well describes many an old stool which has served for many a studious philosopher: "joint stools were then created: on three legs upborne they stood. three legs upholding firm a massy slab, in fashion square or round. on such a stool immortal alfred sat, and sway'd the sceptre of his infant realms. and such in ancient halls and mansions drear may still be seen; but perforated sore, and drilled in holes, the solid oak is found, by worms voracious eating through and through." _task_: b. i., v. , &c. it had escaped the amiable and sagacious author of these verses that such tripodical seats were frequently introduced into old book-rooms; as the subjoined print--which gives us also a curious picture of one of the libraries alluded to by lysander--may serve to shew: [illustration: _revelaciones sancte birgitte; ed. , sign. z. rev._]] [footnote : _book of martyrs_, vol. i., p. ; edit. .] lis. now you have arrived at this period, pray concentrate your anecdotes into a reasonable compass. as you have inveigled us into the printing-office of caxton, i am fearful, from your strong attachment to him, that we shall not get over the threshhold of it, into the open air again, until midnight. phil. order, order, lisardo! this is downright rudeness. i appeal to the chair!-- lorenz. lisardo is unquestionably reprehensible. his eagerness makes him sometimes lose sight of good breeding. lysand. i was going to mention some _vellum_ and _presentation_ copies--but i shall hurry forward. lis. nay, if you love me, omit nothing about "vellum and presentation copies." speak at large upon these glorious subjects. lysand. poor lisardo!--we must build an iron cage to contain such a book-madman as he promises to become! phil. proceed, dear lysander, and no longer heed these interruptions. lysand. nay, i was only about to observe that, as caxton is known to have printed _upon vellum_,[ ] it is most probable that one of his presentation copies of the romances of _jason and godfrey of boulogne_ (executed under the patronage of edward iv.), might have been printed in the same manner. be this as it may, it seems reasonable to conclude that edward the fourth was not only fond of books, as objects of beauty or curiosity, but that he had some affection for literature and literary characters; for how could the firm friend and generous patron of tiptoft, earl of worcester--with whom this monarch had spent many a studious, as well as jovial, hour--be insensible to the charms of intellectual refinement! pause we here for one moment--and let us pour the juice of the blackest grape upon the votive tablet, consecrated to the memory of this illustrious nobleman! and, as caxton has become so fashionable[ ] among us, i will read to you, from yonder beautiful copy of his english edition of "_tully upon friendship_," a part of our printer's affecting eulogy upon the translator:--"o good blessed lord god, what great loss was it of that noble, virtuous, and well-disposed lord! when i remember and advertise his life, his science, and his virtue, me thinketh god not displeased over a great loss of such a man, considering his estate and cunning," &c. "at his death every man that was there, might learn to die and take his (own) death patiently; wherein i hope and doubt not, but that god received his soul into his everlasting bliss. for as i am informed he right advisedly ordained all his things, as well for his last will of worldly goods, as for his soul's health; and patiently, and holily, without grudging, in charity, to fore that he departed out of this world: which is gladsome and joyous to hear."--what say you to this specimen of caxtonian eloquence? [footnote : consult the recent edition of the _typographical antiquities_ of our own country: vol. i., p. , , .] [footnote : as a proof of the ardour with which the books printed by him are now sought after, the reader shall judge for himself--when he is informed that an imperfect copy of the _golden legend_, one of caxton's commonest productions, produced at a book sale, a few months ago, the sum of _twenty-seven_ guineas!] lis. it has a considerable merit; but my attention has been a good deal diverted, during your appropriate recital of it, to the beautiful condition of the copy. thrice happy lorenzo! what sum will convey this volume to my own library! loren. no offer, in the shape of money, shall take it hence. i am an enthusiast in the cause of tiptoft; and am always upon the watch to discover any volume, printed by caxton, which contains the composition of the hapless earl of worcester! dr. henry has spoken so handsomely of him, and mr. park, in his excellent edition of walpole's royal and noble authors,[ ] has made his literary character so interesting that, considering the dearth of early good english authors,[ ] i know of no other name that merits greater respect and admiration. [footnote : vol i., p. , &c. _history of great britain_, by dr. henry, vol. x., p. , &c.] [footnote : "in the library of glastonbury abbey, in , there were but four books in engleish, &c. we have not a single historian, in engleish prose, before the reign of richard the second; when john treviza translateëd the polychronicon of randal higden. boston of bury, who seems to have consulted all the monasterys in engleland, does not mention one author who had written in engleish; and bale, at a lateër period, has, comparatively, but an insignificant number: nor was leland so fortunate as to find above two or three engleish books, in the monastick and other librarys, which he rummage'd, and explore'd, under the king's commission." ritson's dissertation on romance and minstrelsy: prefixed to his _ancient engleish metrical romanceës_, vol. i., p. lxxxi.] lysand. true; and this nobleman's attention to the acquisition of fine and useful books, when he was abroad, for the benefit of his own country,[ ] gives him a distinguished place in the list of bibliomaniacs. i dare say lisardo would give some few hundred guineas for his bust, executed by flaxman, standing upon a pedestal composed of the original editions of his works, bound in grave-coloured morocco by his favourite faulkener?[ ] [footnote : dr. henry's _history of great britain_; _ibid._: from which a copious note has been given in the new edition of our _typographical antiquities_; vol. i., p. , &c.] [footnote : henry faulkener, no. , george court, near the adelphi, in the strand. an honest, industrious, and excellent book-binder: who, in his mode of re-binding ancient books is not only scrupulously particular in the preservation of that important part of a volume, the margin; but, in his ornaments of tooling, is at once tasteful and exact. notwithstanding these hard times, and rather a slender bodily frame, and yet more slender purse--with five children, and the prospect of five more--honest mr. faulkener is in his three-pair-of-stairs confined workshop by five in the morning winter and summer, and oftentimes labours 'till twelve at night. severer toil, with more uniform good humour and civility in the midst of all his embarrassments, were never perhaps witnessed in a brother of the ancient and respectable craft of _book-binding_!] lis. i entreat you not to inflame my imagination by such tantalizing pictures! you know this must ever be a fiction: the most successful bibliomaniac never attained to such human happiness. phil. leave lisardo to his miseries, and proceed. lysand. i have supposed edward to have spent some jovial hours with this unfortunate nobleman. it is thought that our monarch and he partook of the superb feast which was given by the famous nevell, archbishop of york, at the inthronization of the latter; and i am curious to know of what the library of such a munificent ecclesiastical character was composed! but perhaps this feast itself[ ] is one of lisardo's fictions. [footnote : lysander is perfectly correct about the feast which was given at the archbishop's inthronization; as the particulars of it--"out of an old paper roll in the archives of the bodleian library," are given by hearne in the sixth volume of _leland's collectanea_, p. - : and a most extraordinary and amusing bill of fare it is. the last twenty dinners given by the lord mayors at guildhall, upon the first day of their mayoralties, were only _sandwiches_--compared with such a repast! what does the reader think of chickens, pigeons, coneys, "and mo," stags, bucks, and roes, with "pasties of venison colde?"--and these barely an th part of the kind of meats served up! at the high table our amiable earl of worcester was seated, with the archbishop, three bishops, the duke of suffolk, and the earl of oxford. the fictitious archiepiscopal feast was the one intended to be given by nevell to edward iv.; when the latter "appointed a day to come to hunt in more in hertfordshire, and make merry with him." nevell made magnificent preparations for the royal visit; but instead of receiving the monarch as a guest, he was saluted by some of his officers, who "arrested him for treason," and imprisoned him at calais and guisnes. the cause of this sudden, and apparently monstrous, conduct, on the part of edward, has not been told by stow (_chronicles_, p. ; edit. ), nor by godwyn, (_catalogue of the bishops of england_, p. , edit. ): both of whom relate the fact with singular naiveté. i have a strong suspicion that nevell was so far a bibliomaniac as to have had a curious collection of _astrological books_; for "there was greate correspondency betweene this archbishop and the hermetique philosophers of his time; and this is partly confirmed to me from ripley's dedication of his '_medulla_' to him, ann. ; as also the presentation of norton's '_ordinall_,'" &c. thus writes ashmole, in his _theatrum chemicum_, p. .] enough has probably been said of edward. we will stop, therefore, but a minute, to notice the completion of the humphrey library, and the bibliomaniacal spirit of master richard courtney,[ ] during the same reign; and give but another minute to the mention of the statute of richard iii. in protection of english printers,[ ] when we reach the augustan book-age, in the reign of henry vii. [footnote : speaking of the public library of oxford, at this period, hearne tells us, from a letter sent by him to thomas baker, that there was "a chaplein of the universitie chosen, after the maner of a bedell, and to him was the custodie of the librarye committed, his stipend--cvi_s_. and viii_d_. his apparell found him _de secta generosorum_. no man might come in to studdie but graduats and thoes of years contynuance in the universitie, except noblemen. all that come in must firste sweare to use the bookes well, and not to deface theim, and everye one after at his proceedings must take the licke othe. howers apoynted when they shuld come in to studdie, viz. betwene ix and xi aforenoone, and one and four afternoone, the keper geving attendaunce: yet a prerogative was graunted the chancelour mr. richard courtney to come in when he pleased, during his own lieffe, so it was in the day-tyme: and the cause seemeth, that he was cheiffe cawser and setter on of the librarye." _curious discourses by eminent antiquaries_; vol. ii., p. ., edit. .] [footnote : see page , ante. when lysander talks, above, of the reign of henry the seventh being the "augustan age for books," he must be supposed to allude to the facility and beauty of publishing them by means of the press: for at this period, abroad, the typographical productions of verard, eustace, vostre, bonfons, pigouchet, regnier, and many others ("quæ nunc perscribere longum est") were imitated, and sometimes equalled by w. de worde, pynson, and notary, at home. in regard to _intellectual_ fame, if my authority be good, "in the reign of henry vii. greek was a stranger in both universities; and so little even of latin had cambridge, of its own growth, that it had not types sufficient to furnish out the common letters and epistles of the university. they usually employed an italian, one caius auberinus, to compose them, whose ordinarry [transcriber's note: ordinary] fee was twentypence a letter." (mss. in benet college library, lib. p. p. ,) _ridley's life of ridley_, p. . "greek began to be taught in both universities: quietly at cambridge, but ('horresco referens!') with some tumult at oxford!" _ibid._] phil. before we proceed to discuss the bibliomaniacal ravages of this age, we had better retire, with lorenzo's leave, to the drawing-room; to partake of a beverage less potent than that which is now before us. lorenz. just as you please. but i should apprehend that lysander could hold out 'till he reached the reformation;--and, besides, i am not sure whether our retreat be quite ready for us. lis. pray let us not take leave of all these beauteous books, and busts, and pictures, just at present. if lysander's lungs will bear him out another twenty minutes, we shall, by that time, have reached the reformation; and then "our retreat," as lorenzo calls it, may be quite ready for our reception. lysand. settle it between yourselves. but i think i could hold out for another twenty minutes--since you will make me your only book-orator. lorenz. let it be so, then. i will order the lamps to be lit; so that lisardo may see his favourite wouvermans and berghems, in company with my romances, (which latter are confined in my satin-wood book-case) to every possible degree of perfection! lysand. provided you indulge me also with a sight of these delightful objects, you shall have what you desire:--and thus i proceed: of the great passion of henry the viith for fine books, even before he ascended the throne of england,[ ] there is certainly no doubt. and while he was king, we may judge, even from the splendid fragments of his library, which are collected in the british museum, of the nicety of his taste, and of the soundness of his judgment. that he should love extravagant books of devotion,[ ] as well as histories and chronicles, must be considered the fault of the age, rather than of the individual. i will not, however, take upon me to say that the slumbers of this monarch were disturbed in consequence of the extraordinary and frightful passages, which, accompanied with bizarre cuts,[ ] were now introduced into almost every work, both of ascetic divinity and also of plain practical morality. his predecessor, richard, had in all probability been alarmed by the images which the reading of these books had created; and i guess that it was from such frightful objects, rather than from the ghosts of his murdered brethren, that he was compelled to pass a sleepless night before the memorable battle of bosworth field. if one of those artists who used to design the horrible pictures which are engraved in many old didactic volumes of this period had ventured to take a peep into richard's tent, i question whether he would not have seen, lying upon an oaken table, an early edition of some of those fearful works of which he had himself aided in the embellishment, and of which heinecken has given us such curious fac-similes:[ ]--and this, in my humble apprehension, is quite sufficient to account for all the terrible workings in richard, which shakespeare has so vividly described. [footnote : mr. heber has a fine copy of one of the volumes of a black-letter edition of froissart, printed by eustace, upon the exterior of the binding of which are henry's arms, with his name--henricvs dvx richmvndiÆ. the very view of such a book, while it gives comfort to a low-spirited bibliomaniac, adds energy to the perseverance of a young collector! the latter of whom fondly, but vainly, thinks he may one day be blessed with a similar treasure!] [footnote : the possession of such a volume as "_the revelations of the monk of euesham_" (vide vol. ii., of the new edition of _brit. typog. antiquities_), is evidence sufficient of henry's attachment to extravagant books of devotion.] [footnote : it is certainly one of the comforts of modern education, that girls and boys have nothing to do, even in the remotest villages, with the perusal of such books as were put into the juvenile hands of those who lived towards the conclusion of the th century. one is at a loss to conceive how the youth of that period could have ventured at night out of doors, or slept alone in a darkened room, without being frightened out of their wits! nor could maturer life be uninfluenced by reading such volumes as are alluded to in the text: and as to the bed of death--_that_ must have sometimes shaken the stoutest faith, and disturbed the calmest piety. for what can be more terrible, and at the same time more audacious, than human beings arrogating to themselves the powers of the deity, and denouncing, in equivocal cases, a certainty and severity of future punishment, equally revolting to scripture and common sense? to drive the timid into desperation, and to cut away the anchor of hope from the rational believer, seem, among other things, to have been the objects of these "ascetic" authors; while the pictures, which were suffered to adorn their printed works, confirmed the wish that, where the reader might not comprehend the text, he could understand its illustration by means of a print. i will give two extracts, and one of these "bizarre cuts," in support of the preceding remarks. at page , ante, the reader will find a slight mention of the subject: he is here presented with a more copious illustration of it. "in likewise there is none that may declare the piteous and horrible cries and howlings the which that is made in hell, as well of devils as of other damned. and if that a man demand what they say in crying; the answer: all the damned curseth the creator. also they curse together as their father and their mother, and the hour that they were begotten, and that they were born, and that they were put unto nourishing, and those that them should correct and teach, and also those the which have been the occasion of their sins, as the bawd, cursed be the bawd, and also of other occasions in diverse sins. the second cause of the cry of them damned is for the consideration that they have of the time of mercy, the which is past, in the which they may do penance and purchase paradise. the third cause is of their cry for by cause of the horrible pains of that they endure. as we may consider that if an hundred persons had every of them one foot and one hand in the fire, or in the water seething without power to die, what _bruit_ and what cry they should make; but that should be less than nothing in comparison of devils and of other damned, for they ben more than an hundred thousand thousands, the which all together unto them doeth _noysaunce_, and all in one thunder crying and braying horribly."--_thordynary of crysten men_, , to., k k. ii., rect. again: from a french work written "for the amusement of all worthy ladies and gentlemen:" de la flamme tousiours esprise de feu denfer qui point ne brise de busches nest point actise ne de soufflemens embrase le feu denfer, mais est de dieu cree pour estre en celuy lieu des le premier commencement sans jamais pendre finement illec nya point de clarte mais de tenebres obscurte de peine infinie durte de miseres eternite pleur et estraignement de dens chascun membre aura la dedans tourmmens selon ce qua forfait la peine respondra au fait, &c. &c. &c. _le passe tempe de tout home, et de toute femme_; sign. q. ii., rev. printed by verard in vo., without date: (from a copy, printed upon vellum, in the possession of john lewis goldsmyd, esq.)--the next extract is from a book which was written to amuse and instruct the common people: being called by warton a "universal magazine of every article of salutary and useful knowledge." _hist. engl. poetry_: vol. ii., . in hell is great mourning great trouble of crying of thunder noises roaring with plenty of wild fire beating with great strokes like guns with a great frost in water runs and after a bitter wind comes which goeth through the souls with ire there is both thirst and hunger fiends with hooks putteth their flesh asunder they fight and curse and each on other wonder with the fight of the devils dreadable there is shame and confusion rumour of conscience for evil living they curse themself with great crying in smoak and stink they be evermore lying with other pains innumerable. _kalendar of shepherds. sign g. vij. rev. pynson's edit., fol._ [illustration] specimens of some of the tremendous cuts which are crowded into this thin folio will be seen in the second volume of the new edition of the _typographical antiquities_. however, that the reader's curiosity may not here be disappointed, he is presented with a similar specimen, on a smaller scale, of one of the infernal tortures above described. it is taken from a book whose title conveys something less terrific; and describes a punishment which is said to be revealed by the almighty to st. bridget against those who have "ornamenta indecentia in capitibus et pedibus, et reliquis membris, ad provocandum luxuriam et irritandum deum, in strictis vestibus, ostensione mamillarum, unctionibus," &c. _revelaciones sancte birgitte; edit. koeberger, , fol., sign. q., , rev._] [footnote : see many of the cuts in that scarce and highly coveted volume, entitled, "_idée generale d'une collection complètte d'estampes_." leips. , vo.] lis. this is, at least, an original idea; and has escaped the sagacity of every commentator in the last twenty-one volume edition of the works of our bard. lysand. but to return to henry. i should imagine that his mind was not much affected by the perusal of this description of books: but rather that he was constantly meditating upon some old arithmetical work--the prototype of cocker--which, in the desolation of the ensuing half century, has unfortunately perished. yet, if this monarch be accused of avaricious propensities--if, in consequence of speculating deeply in _large paper_ and _vellum_ copies, he made his coffers to run over with gold--it must be remembered that he was, at the same time, a patron as well as judge of architectural artists; and while the completion of the structure of king's college chapel, cambridge, and the building of his own magnificent chapel[ ] at westminster (in which latter, i suspect, he had a curiously-carved gothic closet for the preservation of choice copies from caxton's neighbouring press), afford decisive proofs of henry's skill in matters of taste, the rivalship of printers and of book-buyers shews that the example of the monarch was greatly favourable to the propagation of the bibliomania. indeed, such was the progress of the book-disease that, in the very year of henry's death, appeared, for the first time in this country, an edition of _the ship of fools_--in which work, ostentatious and ignorant book-collectors[ ] are, amongst other characters, severely satirized. [footnote : harpsfield speaks with becoming truth and spirit of henry's great attention to ecclesiastical establishments: "splendidum etiam illud sacellum westmonasterij, magno sumptu atque magnificentia ab eodem est conditum. in quod coenobium valde fuit liberalis et munificus. nullumque fere fuit in tota anglia monachorum, aut fratrum coenobium, nullum collegium, cujus preces, ad animam ipsius deo post obitum commendandam, sedulo non expetierat. legavit autem singulorum præfectis sex solidos et octo denarios, singulis autem eorundem presbyteris, tres solidos et quatuor denarios: ceteris non presbyteris viginti denarios." _hist. eccles. anglic._, p. , edit. , fol.] [footnote : the reader is here introduced to his old acquaintance, who appeared in the title-page to my first "_bibliomania_:"-- [illustration] i am the firste fole of all the hole navy to kepe the pompe, the helme, and eke the sayle: for this is my mynde, this one pleasoure have i-- of bokes to haue great plenty and aparayle. i take no wysdome by them: nor yet avayle nor them perceyve nat: and then i them despyse. thus am i a foole, and all that serue that guyse. _shyp of folys_, &c., _pynson's edit._, , fol.] we have now reached the threshhold of the reign of henry viii.--and of the era of the reformation. an era in every respect most important, but, in proportion to its importance, equally difficult to describe--as it operates upon the history of the bibliomania. now blazed forth, but blazed for a short period, the exquisite talents of wyatt, surrey, vaux, fischer, more, and, when he made his abode with us, the incomparable erasmus. but these in their turn. phil. you omit wolsey. surely he knew something about books? lysand. i am at present only making the sketch of my grand picture. wolsey, i assure you, shall stand in the foreground. nor shall the immortal leland be treated in a less distinguished manner. give me only "ample room and verge enough," and a little time to collect my powers, and then-- lis. "yes, and then"--you will infect us from top to toe with the book-disease! phil. in truth i already begin to feel the consequence of the innumerable miasma of it, which are floating in the atmosphere of this library. i move that we adjourn to a purer air. lysand. i second the motion: for, having reached the commencement of henry's reign, it will be difficult to stop at any period in it previous to that of the reformation. lis. agreed. thanks to the bacchanalian bounty of lorenzo, we are sufficiently enlivened to enter yet further, and more enthusiastically, into this congenial discourse. dame nature and good sense equally admonish us now to depart. let us, therefore, close the apertures of these gorgeous decanters:-- "claudite jam rivos, pueri: sat prata bibêrunt!" [illustration] [illustration: the striking device of m. morin, printer, rouen.] part v. =the drawing room.= history of the bibliomania, or account of book collectors, concluded. some in learning's garb with formal hand, and sable-cinctur'd gown, and rags of mouldy volumes. akenside; _pleasures of imagination_, b. iii., v. . [illustration] =the drawing room.= history of the bibliomania, or account of book-collectors, continued. volatile as the reader may comceive [transcriber's note: conceive] the character of lisardo to be, there were traits in it of marked goodness and merit. his enthusiasm so frequently made him violate the rules of severe politeness; and the quickness with which he flew from one subject to another, might have offended a narrator of the gravity, without the urbanity, of lysander; had not the frankness with which he confessed his faults, and the warmth with which he always advocated the cause of literature, rendered him amiable in the eyes of those who thoroughly knew him. the friends, whose company he was now enjoying, were fully competent to appreciate his worth. they perceived that lisardo's mind had been rather brilliantly cultivated; and that, as his heart had always beaten at the call of virtue, so, in a due course of years, his judgment would become matured, and his opinions more decidedly fixed. he had been left, very early in life, without a father, and bred up in the expectation of a large fortune; while the excessive fondness of his mother had endeavoured to supply the want of paternal direction, and had encouraged her child to sigh for every thing short of impossibility for his gratification. in consequence, lisardo was placed at college upon the most respectable footing. he wore the velvet cap, and enjoyed the rustling of the tassels upon his silk gown, as he paraded the high street of oxford. but although he could translate tacitus and theocritus with creditable facility, he thought it more advantageous to gratify the cravings of his body than of his mind. he rode high-mettled horses; he shot with a gun which would have delighted an indian prince; he drank freely out of cut-glasses, which were manufactured according to his own particular taste; and wines of all colours and qualities sparkled upon his table; he would occasionally stroll into the bodleian library and picture gallery, in order to know whether any acquisitions had been recently made to them; and attended the concerts when any performer came down from london. yet, in the midst of all his gaiety, lisardo passed more sombrous than joyous hours: for when he looked into a book, he would sometimes meet with an electrical sentence from cicero, seneca, or johnson, from which he properly inferred that life was uncertain, and that time was given us to prepare for eternity. he grew dissatisfied and melancholy. he scrambled through his terms; took his degree; celebrated his anniversary of twenty-one, by drenching his native village in ale which had been brewed at his birth; added two wings to his father's house; launched out into coin and picture collecting; bought fine books with fine bindings; then sold all his coins and pictures; and, at the age of twenty-five, began to read, and think, and act for himself. at this crisis, he became acquainted with the circle which has already been introduced to the reader's attention; and to which circle the same reader may think it high time now to return. upon breaking up for the drawing room, it was amusing to behold the vivacity of lisardo; who, leaping about lysander, and expressing his high gratification at the discourse he had already heard, and his pleasure at what he hoped yet to hear, reminded us of what boswell has said of garrick, who used to flutter about dr. johnson, and try to soften his severity by a thousand winning gestures. the doors were opened; and we walked into lorenzo's drawing room. the reader is not to figure to himself a hundred fantastical and fugitive pieces of furniture, purchased at mr. oakley's, and set off with curtains, carpet, and looking-glasses--at a price which would have maintained a country town of seven hundred poor with bread and soup during the hardest winter--the reader will not suppose that a man of lorenzo's taste, who called books his best wealth, would devote two thousand pounds to such idle trappings; which in the course of three years, at farthest, would lose their comfort by losing their fashion. but he will suppose that elegance and propriety were equally consulted by our host. accordingly, a satin-wood book-case of feet in width and in height, ornamented at the top with a few chaste etruscan vases--a light blue carpet, upon which were depicted bunches of grey roses, shadowed in brown--fawn-coloured curtains, relieved with yellow silk and black velvet borders--alabaster lamps shedding their soft light upon small marble busts--and sofas and chairs corresponding with the curtains--(and upon which a visitor might sit without torturing the nerves of the owner of them) these, along with some genuine pictures of wouvermans, berghem, and rysdael, and a few other (subordinate) ornaments, formed the furniture of lorenzo's drawing room. as it was _en suite_ with the library, which was fitted up in a grave style or character, the contrast was sufficiently pleasing. lisardo ran immediately to the book-case. he first eyed, with a greedy velocity, the backs of the folios and quartos; then the octavos; and, mounting an ingeniously-contrived mahogany rostrum, which moved with the utmost facility, he did not fail to pay due attention to the duodecimos; some of which were carefully preserved in russia or morocco backs, with water-tabby silk linings, and other appropriate embellishments. in the midst of his book-reverie, he heard, on a sudden, the thrilling notes of a harp--which proceeded from the further end of the library!--it being lorenzo's custom, upon these occasions, to request an old welch servant to bring his instrument into the library, and renew, if he could, the strains of "other times." meanwhile the curtains were "let fall;" the sofa wheeled round; --and the cups that cheer, but not inebriate, with "the bubbling and loud hissing urn," "welcomed the evening in." lorenzo brought from his library a volume of piranesi, and another of engravings from the heads of vandyke. lisardo, in looking at them, beat time with his head and foot; and philemon and lysander acknowledged that dr. johnson himself could never have so much enjoyed the beverage which was now before them. if it should here be asked, by the critical reader, why our society is not described as being more congenial, by the presence of those "whom man was born to please," the answer is at once simple and true--lorenzo was a bachelor; and his sisters, knowing how long and desperate would be our discussion upon the black letter and white letter, had retreated, in the morning, to spend the day with lisardo's mother--whither ---- ---- had been invited to join them. the harper had now ceased. the tea-things were moved away; when we narrowed our circle, and, two of us upon the sofa, and three upon chairs, entreated lysander to resume his narrative; who, after "clearing his pipes (like sir roger de coverley) with a loud hem or two," thus proceeded. "i think we left off," said lysander, "with seating henry the eighth upon the throne of england. it will be as well, therefore, to say something of this monarch's pretensions to scholarship and love of books. although i will not rake together every species of abuse which has been vented against him by one anthony gilbie,[ ] yet henry must be severely censured, in the estimation of the most candid inquirer, for that gross indifference which he evinced to the real interests of literature, in calmly suffering the libraries of convents and monasteries to be pillaged by the crafty and rapacious. he was bibliomaniac enough to have a few copies of his own work, in defence of the roman catholic exposition of the sacrament, struck off upon vellum:[ ] but when he quarrelled with the roman pontiff about his divorce from queen catharine, in order to marry anne boleyn,[ ] he sounded the tocsin for the eventful destruction of all monastic libraries: and although he had sent leland, under an express commission, to make a due examination of them, as well as a statistical survey of the realm, yet, being frustrated in the forementioned darling object, he cared for nothing about books, whether _upon vellum_ or _large paper_. but had we not better speak of the book ravages, during the reformation, in their proper place?" [footnote : "in the time (saith he) of king henrie the eight, when by tindall, frith, bilney, and other his faithful seruantes, god called england to dresse his vineyarde, many promise ful faire, whome i coulde name, but what fruite followed? nothing but bitter grapes, yea, bryers and brambles, the wormewood of auarice, the gall of crueltie, the poison of filthie fornication, flowing from head to fote, the contempt of god, and open defence of the cake idole, by open proclamation to be read in the churches in steede of god's scriptures. thus was there no reformation, but a deformation, in the time of the tyrant and lecherouse monster. the bore i graunt was busie, wrooting and digging in the earth, and all his pigges that followed him, but they sought onely for the pleasant fruites, that they winded with their long snoutes; and for their own bellies sake, they wrooted up many weeds; but they turned the grounde so, mingling goode and badde togeather, sweet and sower, medecine and poyson, they made, i saye, suche confusion of religion and lawes, that no good thinge could growe, but by great miracle, under suche gardeners. and no maruaile, if it be rightlye considered. for this bore raged against god, against the divell, against christe, and against antichrist, as the fome that he cast oute against luther, the racing out of the name of the pope, and yet allowing his lawes, and his murder of many christian souldiars, and of many papists, doe declare and evidentlie testifie unto us; especially the burning of barnes, jerome, and garrette, their faithfull preachers of the truthe, and hanging the same daye for the maintenaunce of the pope, poel, abel, and fetherstone, dothe clearlie painte his beastlines, that he cared for no religion. this monsterous bore for all this must needes be called the head of the church in paine of treason, displacing christ, our onely head, who ought alone to haue this title." _admonition to england and scotland, &c._, geneva, , p. . quoted by stapleton in his _counter blaste to horne's vayne blaste_, lovan., , to., fol. . gilbie was a protestant; upon which stapleton who was a rigid roman catholic, shrewdly remarks in the margin: "see how religiously the protestantes speak of their princes!"] [footnote : mr. edwards informs me that he has had a copy of the "_assertio septem sacramentorum aduersus martin lutherum_," &c. (printed by pynson in to., both with and without date-- ), upon vellum. the presentation copy to henry, and perhaps another to wolsey, might have been of this nature. i should have preferred a similar copy of the small book, printed a few years afterwards, in mo., of henry's letters in answer to luther's reply to the foregoing work. this is not the place to talk further of these curious pieces. i have seen some of pynson's books printed upon vellum; which are not remarkable for their beauty.] [footnote : those readers who are not in possession of hearne's rare edition of _robert de avesbury_, , vo., and who cannot, in consequence, read the passionate letters of henry viii. to his beloved boleyn, which form a leading feature in the appendix to the same, will find a few extracts from them in the _british bibliographer_; vol. ii., p. . some of the monarch's signatures, of which hearne has given fac-similes, are as follow: [illustration] when one thinks of the then imagined happiness of the fair object of these epistles--and reads the splendid account of her coronation dinner, by stow--contrasting it with the melancholy circumstances which attended her death--one is at loss to think, or to speak, with sufficient force, of the fickleness of all sublunary grandeur! the reader may, perhaps, wish for this, "coronation dinner?" it is, in part, strictly as follows: "while the queen was in her chamber, every lord and other that ought to do service at the coronation, did prepare them, according to their duty: as the duke of suffolk, high-steward of england, which was richly apparelled--his doublet and jacket set with orient pearl, his gown crimson velvet embroidered, his courser trapped with a close trapper, head and all, to the ground, of crimson velvet, set full of letters of gold, of goldsmith's work; having a long white rod in his hand. on his left-hand rode the lord william, deputy for his brother, as earl marshall, with ye marshal's rod, whose gown was crimson velvet, and his horse's trapper purple velvet cut on white satin, embroidered with white lions. the earl of oxford was high chamberlain; the earl of essex, carver; the earl of sussex, sewer; the earl of arundel, chief butler; on whom citizens of london did give their attendance at the cupboard; the earl of derby, cup-bearer; the viscount lisle, panter; the lord burgeiny, chief larder; the lord broy, almoner for him and his copartners; and the mayor of oxford kept the buttery-bar: and thomas wyatt was chosen ewerer for sir henry wyatt, his father." "when all things were ready and ordered, the queen, under her canopy, came into the hall, and washed; and sat down in the middest of the table, under her cloth of estate. on the right side of her chair stood the countess of oxford, widow: and on her left hand stood the countess of worcester, all the dinner season; which, divers times in the dinner time, did hold a fine cloth before the queen's face, when she list to spit, or do otherwise at her pleasure. and at the table's end sate the archbishop of canterbury, on the right hand of the queen; and in the midst, between the archbishop and the countess of oxford, stood the earl of oxford, with a white staff, all dinner time; and at the queen's feet, under the table, sate two gentlewomen all dinner time. when all these things were thus ordered, came in the duke of suffolk and the lord william howard on horseback, and the serjeants of arms before them, and after them the sewer; and then the knights of the bath, bringing in the _first course_, which was eight and twenty dishes, besides subtleties, and ships made of wax, marvellous gorgeous to behold: all which time of service, the trumpets standing in the window, at the nether end of the hall, played," &c. _chronicles_; p. : edit. , fol.] lorenz. as you please. perhaps you will go on with the mention of some distinguished patrons 'till you arrive at that period? lysand. yes; we may now as well notice the efforts of that extraordinary _bibliomaniacal triumvirate_, colet, more, and erasmus. phil. pray treat copiously of them. they are my great favourites. but can you properly place erasmus in the list? lysand. you forget that he made a long abode here, and was greek professor at cambridge. to begin, then, with the former. colet, as you well know, was dean of st. paul's; and founder of the public school which goes by the latter name. he had an ardent and general love of literature;[ ] but his attention to the improvement of youth, in superintending appropriate publications, for their use, was unremitting. few men did so much and so well, at this period: for while he was framing the statutes by which his little community was to be governed, he did not fail to keep the presses of wynkyn de worde and pynson pretty constantly at work, by publishing the grammatical treatises of grocyn, linacre, stanbridge, lilye, holte, whittington, and others--for the benefit, as well of the public, as of his own particular circle. i take it, his library must have been both choice and copious; for books now began to be multiplied in an immense ratio, and scholars and men of rank thought _a study_, or _library_, of some importance to their mansions. what would we not give for an authenticated representation of dean colet in his library,[ ] surrounded with books? you, lisardo, would be in ecstacies with such a thing! [footnote : how anxiously does colet seem to have watched the progress, and pushed the sale, of his friend erasmus's first edition of the greek testament! "quod scribis de novo testamento intelligo. et libri novæ editionis tuæ _hic avide emuntur et passim leguntur_!" the entire epistle (which may be seen in dr. knight's dry life of colet, p. ) is devoted to an account of erasmus's publications. "i am really astonished, my dear erasmus (does he exclaim), at the fruitfulness of your talents; that, without any fixed residence, and with a precarious and limited income, you contrive to publish so many and such excellent works." adverting to the distracted state of germany at this period, and to the wish of his friend to live secluded and unmolested, he observes--"as to the tranquil retirement which you sigh for, be assured that you have my sincere wishes for its rendering you as happy and composed as you can wish it. your age and erudition entitle you to such a retreat. i fondly hope, indeed, that you will choose this country for it, and come and live amongst us, whose disposition you know, and whose friendship you have proved." there is hardly a more curious picture of the custom of the times relating to the education of boys, than the dean's own statutes for the regulation of st. paul's school, which he had founded. these shew, too, the _popular books_ then read by the learned. "the children shall come unto the school in the morning at seven of the clock, both winter and summer, and tarry there until eleven; and return again at one of the clock, and depart at five, &c. in the school, no time in the year, they shall use tallow candle, in no wise, but _only wax candle_, at the costs of their friends. also i will they bring no meat nor drink, nor bottle, nor use in the school no breakfasts, nor drinkings, in the time of learning, in no wise, &c. i will they use no cockfighting, nor riding about of victory, nor disputing at saint bartholomew, which is but foolish babbling and loss of time." the master is then restricted, under the penalty of shillings, from granting the boys a holiday, or "remedy" (play-day), as it is here called, "except the king, an archbishop, or a bishop, present in his own person in the school, desire it." the studies for the lads were "erasmus's _copia_ et _institutum christiani hominii_ (composed at the dean's request), _lactantius_, _prudentius_, _juvencus_, _proba_ and _sedulius_, and _baptista mantuanus_, and such other as shall be thought convenient and most to purpose unto the true latin speech; all barbary, all corruption, all latin adulterate, which ignorant blind fools brought into this world, and with the same hath distained and poisoned the old latin speech, and the _veray_ roman tongue, which in the time of tully, and sallust, and virgil, and terence, was used--i say, that filthiness, and all such abusion, which the later blind world brought in, which more rather may be called bloterature than literature, i utterly banish and exclude out of this school." knight's _life of colet_, , . the sagacious reader will naturally enough conclude that boys, thus educated, would, afterwards, of necessity, fall victims to the ravages of the bibliomania!] [footnote : i wish it were in my power to come forward with any stronger degree of probability than the exhibition of the subjoined cut, of what might have been the interior of _dean colet's study_. this print is taken from an old work, printed in the early part of the sixteenth century, and republished in a book of alciatus's emblems, translated from the latin into italian, a.d. , vo. there is an air of truth about it; but the frame work is entirely modern, and perhaps not in the purest taste. it may turn out that this interior view of a private library is somewhat too perfect and finished for the times of colet, in this country; especially if we may judge from the rules to be observed in completing a public one, just about the period of colet's death: "md. couenawntyd and agreid wyth comell clerke, for the making off the dextis in the library, (of christ church college, oxford) to the summe off xvi, after the maner and forme as they be in magdalyn college, except the popie heedes off the seites, this to be workmanly wrought and clenly, and he to have all manner off stooff foond hym, and to have for the makyng off one dexte xs. the sum off the hole viii. li. item: borowd att magdaleyn college one c. off v. d nayle, a c. off vi. d nayle, dim. c. x. d. nayle."--_antiquities of glastonbury_; edit. hearne, p. . [illustration]] lis. pray don't make such tantalizing appeals to me! proceed, proceed. lysand. of this amiable and illustrious character i will only further observe that he possessed solid, good sense--unaffected and unshaken piety--a love towards the whole human race--and that he dignified his attachment to learning by the conscientious discharge of his duty towards god and man. he sleeps in peace beneath a monument, which has been consecrated by the tears of all who were related to him, and by the prayers of those who have been benefitted by his philanthropy. of sir thomas more,[ ] where is the schoolboy that is ignorant? he was unquestionably, next to erasmus, the most brilliant scholar of his age: while the precious biographical memoirs of him, which have luckily descended to us, place his character, in a domestic point of view, beyond that of all his contemporaries. dr. wordsworth[ ] has well spoken of "the heavenly mindedness" of more: but how are bibliomaniacs justly to appreciate the classical lore, and incessantly-active book-pursuits,[ ] of this scholar and martyr! how he soared "above his compeers!" how richly, singularly, and curiously, was his mind furnished! wit, playfulness, elevation, and force--all these are distinguishable in his writings, if we except his polemical compositions; which latter, to speak in the gentlest terms, are wholly unworthy of his name. when more's head was severed from his body, virtue and piety exclaimed, in the language of erasmus,--"he is dead: more, whose breast was purer than snow, whose genius was excellent above all his nation."[ ] [illustration: behold him going to execution--his beloved daughter (mrs. roper) rushing through the guards, to take her last embrace.] [footnote : in the first volume of my edition of sir thomas more's _utopia_, the reader will find an elaborate and faithful account of the biographical publications relating to this distinguished character, together with a copious _catalogue raisonnè_ of the engraved portraits of him, and an analysis of his english works. it would be tedious to both the reader and author, here to repeat what has been before written of sir thomas more--whose memory lives in every cultivated bosom. of this edition of the utopia there appeared a flimsy and tart censure in the _edinburgh review_, by a critic, who, it was manifest, had never examined the volumes, and who, when he observes upon the fidelity of bishop burnet's translation of the original latin of more, was resolved, from pure love of whiggism, to defend an author at the expense of truth.] [footnote : i have read this newly published biographical memoir of sir thomas more: which contains nothing very new, or deserving of particular notice in this place.] [footnote : a bibliomanical anecdote here deserves to be recorded; as it shews how more's love of books had infected even those who came to seize upon him to carry him to the tower, and to endeavour to inveigle him into treasonable expressions:--"while sir richard southwell and mr. palmer were bussie in _trussinge upp his bookes_, mr. riche, pretending," &c.--"whereupon mr. palmer, on his desposition, said, that he was soe bussie about the _trussinge upp sir tho. moore's bookes_ in a sacke, that he tooke no heed to there talke. sir richard southwell likewise upon his disposition said, that because he was appoynted only to looke to the conveyance _of his bookes_, he gave noe ear unto them."--_gulielmi roperi vita d.t. mori_; edit herne, p. , .] [footnote : epistle dedicatory to ecclesiastes: quoted in that elegant and interesting quarto volume of the "_lives of british statesmen_," by the late mr. macdiarmid; p. .] how can i speak, with adequate justice, of the author of these words!--yes, erasmus!--in spite of thy timidity, and sometimes, almost servile compliances with the capricious whims of the great; in spite of thy delicate foibles, thou shalt always live in my memory; and dear to me shall be the possession of thy intellectual labours! no pen has yet done justice to thy life.[ ] how i love to trace thee, in all thy bookish pursuits, from correcting the press of thy beloved froben, to thy social meetings with colet and more! you remember well, lisardo,--we saw, in yonder room, a _large paper_ copy of the fine leyden edition of this great man's works! you opened it; and were struck with the variety--the solidity, as well as gaiety, of his productions. [footnote : it were much to be wished that mr. roscoe, who has so successfully turned his attention to the history of _italian literature_, of the period of erasmus, would devote himself to the investigation of the philological history of the german schools, and more especially to the literary life of the great man of whom lysander is above speaking. the biographical memoirs of erasmus by le clerc, anglicised and enlarged by the learned jortin, and dr. knight's life of the same, can never become popular. they want method, style and interest. le clerc, however, has made ample amends for the defectiveness of his biographical composition, by the noble edition of erasmus's works which he put forth at leyden, in the year - , in eleven volumes folio: of which volumes the reader will find an excellent analysis or review in the _act. erudit._, a.d. , &c. le clerc, _bibl. choisie_, vol. i., ; du pin's _bibl. eccles._, vol. xiv., and _biblioth. fabric_, pt. i., ; from which latter we learn that, in the public library, at deventer, there is a copy of erasmus's works, in which those passages, where the author speaks freely of the laxity of the monkish character, have been defaced, "chartâ fenestrata." a somewhat more compressed analysis of the contents of these volumes appeared in the _sylloge opusculorum hist.-crit., literariorum, j.a. fabricii, hamb._ , to., p. , --preceded, however, by a pleasing, yet brief account of the leading features of erasmus's literary life. tn one of his letters to colet, erasmus describes himself as "a very poor fellow in point of fortune, and wholly exempt from ambition." a little before his death he sold his library to one john a lasco, a polonese, for only florins. (of this amiable foreigner, see stypye's [transcriber's note: strype's] _life of crammer_ [transcriber's note: cranmer]; b. ii., ch. xxii.) nor did he--notwithstanding his services to booksellers--and although every press was teeming with his lucubrations--and especially that of colinæeus--(which alone put forth , copies of his _colloquies_) ever become much the wealthier for his talents as an author. his bibliomaniacal spirit was such, that he paid most liberally those who collated or described works of which he was in want. in another of his letters, he declares that "he shall not recieve [transcriber's note: receive] an _obolus_ that year; as he had spent more than what he had gained in rewarding those who had made book-researches for him;" and he complains, after being five months at cambridge, that he had, fruitlessly, spent upwards of fifty crowns. "noblemen," says he, "love and praise literature, and my lucubrations; but they praise and do not reward." to his friend eobanus hessus (vol. vi., ), he makes a bitter complaint "de comite quodam." for the particulars, see the last mentioned authority, p. , . in the year , godenus, to whom erasmus had bequeathed a silver bowl, put forth a facetious catalogue of his works, in hexameter and pentameter verses; which was printed at louvain by martin, without date, in to.; and was soon succeeded by two more ample and methodical ones by the same person in , to.; printed by froben and episcopius. see marchand's _dict. bibliogr. et histor._, vol. i., p. , . the bibliomaniac may not object to be informed that froben, shortly after the death of his revered erasmus, put forth this first edition of the entire works of the latter, in nine folio volumes; and that accurate and magnificent as is le clerc's edition of the same (may i venture to hint at the rarity of large paper copies of it?), "it takes no notice of the _index expurgatorius_ of the early edition of froben, which has shown a noble art of curtailing this, as well as other authors." see _knight's life of erasmus_, p. . the mention of froben and erasmus, thus going down to immortality together, induces me to inform the curious reader that my friend mr. edwards is possessed of a chaste and elegant painting, by fuseli, of this distinguished author and printer--the portraits being executed after the most authentic representations. erasmus is in the act of calmly correcting the press, while froben is urging with vehemence some emendations which he conceives to be of consequence, but to which his master seems to pay no attention! and now having presented the reader (p. , ante) with the _supposed_ study of colet, nothing remains but to urge him to enter in imagination, with myself, into the _real_ study of erasmus; of which we are presented with the exterior in the following view--taken from dr. knight's _life of erasmus_; p. . [illustration] i shall conclude this erasmiana (if the reader will premit [transcriber's note: permit] me so to entitle it) with a wood-cut exhibition of a different kind: it being perhaps the earliest portrait of erasmus published in this country. it is taken from a work entitled, "_the maner and forme of confesion_," printed by byddell [transcriber's note: byddel], in vo., without date; and is placed immediately under an address from erasmus, to moline, bishop of condome; dated ; in which the former complains bitterly of "the pain and grief of the reins of his back." the print is taken from a tracing of the original, made by me, from a neat copy of byddel's edition, in the collection of roger wilbraham, esq. i am free to confess that it falls a hundred degrees short of albert durer's fine print of him, executed a.d. . [illustration: ]] lis. let me go and bring it here! while you talk thus, i long to feast my eyes upon these grand books. lysand. you need not. nor must i give to erasmus a greater share of attention than is due to him. we have a large and varied field--or rather domain--yet to pass over. wishing, therefore, lorenzo speedily to purchase a small bronze figure of him, from the celebrated large one at rotterdam, and to place the same upon a copy of his first edition of the _greek testament_ printed _upon vellum_,[ ] by way of a pedestal--i pass on to the notice of other bibliomaniacs of this period. [footnote : in the library of york cathedral there is a copy of the first edition of erasmus's greek and latin testament, , fol., struck off upon vellum. this, i believe, was never before generally known.] subdued be every harsher feeling towards wolsey, when we contemplate even the imperfect remains of his literary institutions which yet survive! that this chancellor and cardinal had grand views, and a magnificent taste, is unquestionable: and i suppose few libraries contained more beautiful or more numerous copies of precious volumes than his own. for, when in favour with his royal master, henry viii., wolsey had, in all probability, such an ascendency over him as to coax from him almost every choice book which he had inherited from his father, henry vii.; and thus i should apprehend, although no particular mention is made of his library in the inventories of his goods[ ] which have been published, there can be no question about such a character as that of wolsey having numerous copies of the choicest books, bound in velvet of all colours, embossed with gold or silver, and studded even with precious stones! i conceive that his own _prayer book_ must have been gorgeous in the extreme! unhappy man--a pregnant and ever-striking example of the fickleness of human affairs, and of the instability of human grandeur! when we think of thy baubles and trappings--of thy goblets of gold, and companies of retainers--and turn our thoughts to shakspeare's shepherd, as described in the soliloquy of one of our monarchs, we are fully disposed to admit the force of such truths as have been familiar to us from boyhood, and which tell us that those shoulders feel the most burdened upon which the greatest load of responsibility rests. peace to the once proud, and latterly repentant, spirit of wolsey! [footnote : in the last _variorum edition of shakspeare_, , vol. xv., p. , we are referred by mr. douce to "the particulars of this inventory at large, in stowe's _chronicle_, p. , edit. :" my copy of stowe is of the date of ; but, not a syllable is said of it in the place here referred to, or at any other page; although the account of wolsey is ample and interesting. mr. douce (_ibid._) says that, among the _harl. mss._ (no. ) there is one entitled "an inventorie of cardinal wolsey's rich householde stuffe; temp. hen. viii.; the original book, as it seems, kept by his own officers." in mr. gutch's _collectanea curiosa_, vol. ii., - , will be found a copious account of wolsey's plate:--too splendid, almost, for belief. to a life and character so well known as are those of wolsey, and upon which dr. fiddes has published a huge folio of many hundred pages, the reader will not here expect any additional matter which may convey much novelty or interest. the following, however, may be worth submitting to his consideration. the cardinal had poetical, as well as political, enemies. skelton and roy, who did not fail to gall him with their sharp lampoons, have shewn us, by their compositions which have survived, that they were no despicable assailants. in the former's "_why come ye not to court?_" we have this caustic passage: he is set so high in his hierarchy of frantic _frenesy_ and foolish fantasy, that in chamber of stars all matters there he mars, clapping his rod on the _borde_ no man dare speake a word; for he hath all the saying without any _renaying_: he rolleth in his records he saith: "how say ye my lords? is not my reason good?" good!--even good--robin-hood? borne upon every side _with pomp and with pride, &c._ to drink and for to eat sweet _ypocras_, and sweet meat, to keep his flesh chaste in lent, for his repast he eateth capons stew'd pheasant and partidge mewed. warton's _hist. engl. poetry_, vol. ii., . steevens has also quoted freely from this poem of skelton; see the editions of _shakspeare_, , and , in the play of "king henry viii." skelton's satire against wolsey is noticed by our chronicler hall: "in this season, the cardinal, by his power legantine, dissolved the convocation at paul's, called by the archbishop of canterbury; and called him and all the clergy to his convocation to westminster, which was never seen before in england; whereof master skelton, a merry poet, wrote: gentle paul lay down thy _sweard_ for peter of westminster hath shaven thy beard." _chronicle_, p. , edit. . in mr. g. ellis's _specimens of the early english poets_, vol. ii., pp. , , there is a curious extract from the same poet's "_image of ypocrycye_"--relating to sir thomas more--which is printed for the first time from "an apparently accurate transcript" of the original, in the possession of mr. heber. from the last mentioned work (vol. ii., p. , &c.), there is rather a copious account of a yet more formidable poetical attack against wolsey, in the "_rede me and be not wroth_," of william roy: a very rare and precious little black-letter volume, which, although it has been twice printed, is scarcely ever to be met with, and was unknown to warton. it will, however, make its appearance in one of the supplemental volumes of mr. park's valuable reprint of the _harleian miscellany_. while the cardinal was thus attacked, in the biting strains of poetry, he was doomed to experience a full share of reprobation in the writings of the most popular theologians. william tyndale stepped forth to shew his zeal against papacy in his "_practise of popishe prelates_," and from this work, as it is incorporated in those of tyndale, barnes, and frith, printed by day in , fol., the reader is presented with the following amusing specimen of the author's vein of humour and indignation: "and as i heard it spoken of divers, he made, by craft of necromancy, graven imagery to bear upon him; wherewith he bewitched the king's mind--and made the king to doat upon him, more than he ever did on any lady or gentlewoman: so that now the king's grace followed him, as he before followed the king. and then what he said, that was wisdom; what he praised, that was honourable only." practise of popishe prelates, p. . at p. , he calls him "porter of heaven." "there he made a journey of gentlemen, arrayed altogether in silks, so much as their very shoes and lining of their boots; more like their mothers than men of war: yea, i am sure that many of their mothers would have been ashamed of so nice and wanton array. howbeit, they went not to make war, but peace, for ever and a day longer. but to speak of the pompous apparel of my lord himself, and of his chaplains, it passeth the xij apostles. i dare swear that if peter and paul had seen them suddenly, and at a blush, they would have been harder in belief that they, or any such, should be their successors than thomas didimus was to believe that christ was risen again from death." _idem_, p. ,--"for the worship of his hat and glory of his precious shoes--when he was pained with the cholic of an evil conscience, having no other shift, because his soul could find no other issue,--he took himself a medicine, _ut emitteret spiritum per posteriora_." exposition upon the first ep. of st. john, p. . thomas lupset, who was a scholar of dean colet, and a sort of _elève_ of the cardinal, (being appointed tutor to a bastard son of the latter) could not suppress his sarcastical feelings in respect of wolsey's pomp and severity of discipline. from lupset's works, printed by berthelet in , mo., i gather, in his address to his "hearty beloved edmond"--that "though he had there with him plenty of books, yet the place suffered him not to spend in them any study: for you shall understand (says he) that i lie waiting on my lord cardinal, whose hours i must observe to be always at hand, lest i should be called when i am not by: the which should be taken for a fault of great negligence. wherefore, that i am now well satiated with the beholding of these gay hangings, that garnish here every wall, i will turn me and talk with you." (_exhortacion to yonge men_, fol. , rev.) dr. wordsworth, in the first volume of his _ecclesiastical biography_, has printed, for the first time, the genuine text of cavendish's interesting life of his reverend master, wolsey. it is well worth perusal. but the reader, i fear, is beginning to be outrageous (having kept his patience, during this long-winded note, to the present moment) for some _bibliomaniacal_ evidence of wolsey's attachment to gorgeous books. he is presented, therefore, with the following case in point. my friend mr. ellis, of the british museum, informs me that, in the splendid library of that establishment, there are two copies of galen's "_methodus medendi_," edited by linacre, and printed at paris, in folio, . one copy, which belonged to henry the eighth, has an illuminated title, with the royal arms at the bottom of the title-page. the other, which is also illuminated, has the cardinal's cap in the same place, above an empty shield. before the dedication to the king, in the latter copy, linacre has inserted an elegant latin epistle to wolsey, in manuscript. the king's copy is rather the more beautiful of the two: but the _unique_ appendage of the latin epistle shews that the editor considered the cardinal a more distinguished bibliomaniac than the monarch.] we have now reached the reformation; upon which, as burnet, collier, and strype, have written huge folio volumes, it shall be my object to speak sparingly: and chiefly as it concerns the history of the bibliomania. a word or two, however, about its origin, spirit, and tendency. it seems to have been at first very equivocal, with henry the eighth, whether he would take any decisive measures in the affair, or not. he hesitated, resolved, and hesitated again.[ ] the creature of caprice and tyranny, he had neither fixed principles, nor settled data, upon which to act. if he had listened to the temperate advice of cromwell or cranmer,[ ] he would have attained his darling object by less decisive, but certainly by more justifiable, means. those able and respectable counsellors saw clearly that violent measures would produce violent results; and that a question of law, of no mean magnitude, was involved in the very outset of the transaction--for there seemed, on the one side, no right to possess; and, on the other, no right to render possession.[ ] [footnote : "the king seemed to think that his subjects owed an entire resignation of their reasons and consciences to him; and, as he was highly offended with those who still adhered to the papal authority, so he could not bear the haste that some were making to a further reformation, before or beyond his allowance. so, in the end of the year , he set out a proclamation, in which he prohibits the importing of all foreign books, or the printing of any at home without license; and the printing of any parts of the scripture, 'till they were examined by the king and his council," &c. "he requires that none may argue against the presence of christ in the sacrament, under the pain of death, and of the loss of their goods; and orders all to be punished who did disuse any rites or ceremonies not then abolished; yet he orders them only to be observed without superstition, only as remembrances, and not to repose in them a trust of salvation."--burnet's _hist. of the reformation_. but long before this obscure and arbitrary act was passed, henry's mind had been a little shaken against papacy from a singular work, published by one fish, called "_the supplication of beggers_." upon this book being read through in the presence of henry, the latter observed, shrewdly enough, "if a man should pull down an old stone wall, and begin at the lower part, the upper part thereof might chance to fall upon his head." "and then he took the book, and put it into his desk, and commanded them, upon their allegiance, that they should not tell to any man that he had seen this book." fox's _book of martyrs_; vol. ii., p. : edit. . sir thomas more answered this work (which depicted, in frightful colours, the rapacity of the roman catholic clergy), in ; see my edition of the latter's _utopia_; vol. i., xciii.] [footnote : "these were some of the resolute steps king henry made towards the obtaining again this long struggled for, and almost lost, right and prerogative of kings, in their own dominions, of being supreme, against the encroachments of the bishops of rome. secretary cromwel had the great stroke in all this. all these counsels and methods were struck out of his head." strype's _ecclesiastical memorials_; vol. i., p. . when great murmurs ensued, on the suppression of the monasteries, because of the cessation of hospitality exercised in them, "cromwell advised the king to sell their lands, at very easie rates, to the gentry in the several counties, obliging them, since they had them upon such terms, to keep up the wonted hospitality. this drew in the gentry apace," &c. burnet's _hist. of the reformation_; vol. i., p. . "archbishop cranmer is said to have counselled and pressed the king to dissolve the monasteries; but for other ends (than those of personal enmity against 'the monks or friars'--or of enriching himself 'with the spoils' of the same); viz. that, out of the revenues of these monasteries, the king might found more bishoprics; and that dioceses, being reduced into less compass, the diocesans might the better discharge their office, according to the scripture and primitive rules.----and the archbishop hoped that, from these ruins, there would be new foundations in every cathedral erected, to be nurseries of learning for the use of the whole diocese." strype's _life of archbishop cranmer_, p. .] [footnote : "a very rational doubt yet remained, how religious persons could alienate and transfer to the king a property, of which they themselves were only tenants for life: and an act of parliament was framed in order to remove all future scruples on this head, and 'settle rapine and sacrilege,' as lord herbert terms them, 'on the king and his heirs for ever.'----it does not appear to have been debated, in either house, whether they had a power to dispossess some hundred thousand persons of their dwellings and fortunes, whom, a few years before, they had declared to be good subjects: if such as live well come under that denomination."--"now," says sir edward coke, "observe the conclusion of this tragedy. in that very parliament, when the great and opulent priory of st. john of jerusalem was given to the king, and which was the last monastery seized on, he demanded a fresh subsidy of the clergy and laity: he did the same again within two years; and again three years after; and since the dissolution exacted great loans, and against law obtained them."--_life of reginald pole_; vol. i., p. - : edit. , vo. coke's th _institute_, fol. .] latimer, more hasty and enthusiastic than his episcopal brethren, set all the engines of his active mind to work, as if to carry the point by a _coup de main_; and although his resolution was, perhaps, upon more than one occasion, shaken by the sufferings of the innocent, yet, by his example, and particularly by his sermons,[ ] he tried to exasperate every protestant bosom against the occupiers of monasteries and convents. [footnote : "it was once moved by latymer, the good bishop of worcester, that two or three of these foundations might be spared in each diocese, for the sake of hospitality. which gave the foresaid bishop occasion to move the lord crumwell once in the behalf of the _priory of malvern_." strype's _ecclesiastical memorials_, vol. i., . latimer's letter is here printed; and an interesting one it is. speaking of the prior, he tells cromwell that "the man is old, a good housekeeper, feedeth many; and that, daily. for the country is poor, and full of penury." but the hospitality and infirmities of this poor prior were less likely to operate graciously upon the rapacious mind of henry than "the marks to the king, and marks more to the said lord crumwell," which he tendered at the same time. see strype, _ibid._ for the credit of latimer, i hope this worthy prior was not at the head of the priory when the former preached before the king, and thus observed: "to let pass the _solempne_ and nocturnal bacchanals, the prescript miracles, that are done upon certain days in the west part of england, who hath not heard? i think ye have heard of saint _blesis's_ heart, which is _at malvern_, and of saint algar's bones, how long they deluded the people!" see latimer's _sermons_: edit. , to.: fol. , rect. in these sermons, as is justly said above, there are many cutting philippics--especially against "in-preaching prelates;" some of whom latimer doth not scruple to call "minters--dancers--crouchers--pamperers of their paunches, like a monk that maketh his jubilee--mounchers in their mangers, and moilers in their gay manors and mansions:" see fol. , rect. nevertheless, there are few productions which give us so lively and interesting a picture of the manners of the age as the sermons of latimer; which were spoilt in an "_editio castrata_" that appeared in the year , vo. but latimer was not the only popular preacher who directed his anathemas against the roman catholic clergy. the well known john fox entered into the cause of the reformation with a zeal and success of which those who have slightly perused his compositions can have but a very inadequate idea. the following curious (and i may add very interesting) specimen of fox's pulpit eloquence is taken from "_a sermon of christ crucified, preached at paule's crosse, the friday before easter, commonly called good fridaie_:"--"let me tell you a story, which i remember was done about the beginning of queen mary's reign, anno . there was a certain message sent, not from heaven, but from rome: not from god, but from the pope: not by any apostle, but by a certain cardinal, who was called cardinal poole, legatus a latere, legatus natus, a legate from the pope's own white side, sent hither into england. this cardinal legate, first coming to dover, was honourably received and brought to greenwich: where he again, being more honourably received by lords of high estate, and of the privy council (of whom some are yet alive) was conducted thence to the privy stairs of the queen's court at westminster, no less person than king philip himself waiting upon him, and receiving him; and so was brought to the queen's great chamber, she then being, or else pretending, not to be well at ease. stephen gardiner, the bishop of winchester, and lord chancellor of england, receiving this noble legate in the king and the queen's behalf, to commend and set forth the authority of this legate, the greatness of his message, and the supreme majesty of the sender, before the public audience of the whole parliament at that time assembled, there openly protested, with great solemnity of words, what a mighty message, and of what great importance was then brought into the realm, even the greatest message (said he) that ever came into england, and therefore desired them to give attentive and inclinable ears to such a famous legation, sent from so high authority." "well, and what message was this? forsooth, that the realm of england should be reconciled again unto their father the pope; that is to say, that the queen, with all her nobility and sage council, with so many learned prelates, discreet lawyers, worthy commons, and the whole body of the realm of england, should captive themselves, and become underlings to an italian stranger, and friarly priest, sitting in rome, which never knew england, never was here, never did, or shall do, england good. and this forsooth (said gardiner) was the greatest ambassage, the weightiest legacy that ever came to england: forgetting belike either this message of god, sent here by his apostles unto vs, or else because he saw it made not so much for his purpose as did the other, he made the less account thereof." "well, then, and will we see what a weighty message this was that gardiner so exquisitely commended? first, the sender is gone, the messenger is gone, the queen is gone, and the message gone, and yet england standeth not a rush the better. of which message i thus say, answering again to gardiner, _per inversionem rhetoricam_, that, as he sayeth, it was the greatest--so i say again, it was the lightest--legacy; the most ridiculous trifle, and most miserablest message, of all other that ever came, or ever shall come, to england, none excepted, for us to be reconciled to an outlandish priest, and to submit our necks under a foreign yoke. what have we to do more with him than with the great calypha of damascus? if reconciliation ought to follow, where offences have risen, the pope hath offended us more than his coffers are able to make us amends. we never offended him. but let the pope, with his reconciliation and legates, go, as they are already gone (god be thanked): and i beseech god so they may be gone, that they never come here again. england never fared better than when the pope did most curse it. and yet i hear whispering of certain privy reconcilers, sent of late by the pope, which secretly creep in corners. but this i leave to them that have to do with all. let us again return to our matter."--_imprinted by jhon daie_, &c., , vo., sign. a. vij.-b. i.] with henry, himself, the question of spiritual supremacy was soon changed, or merged (as the lawyers call it) into the exclusive consideration of adding to his wealth. the visitors who had been deputed to inspect the abbies, and to draw up reports of the same (some of whom, by the bye, conducted themselves with sufficient baseness[ ]), did not fail to inflame his feelings by the tempting pictures which they drew of the riches appertaining to these establishments.[ ] another topic was also strongly urged upon henry's susceptible mind: the alleged abandoned lives of the owners of them. these were painted with a no less overcharged pencil:[ ] so that nothing now seemed wanting but to set fire to the train of combustion which had been thus systematically laid. [footnote : among the visitors appointed to carry into execution the examination of the monasteries, was a dr. london; who "was afterwards not only a persecutor of protestants, but a suborner of false witnesses against them, and was now zealous even to officiousness in suppressing the monasteries. he also studied to frighten the abbess of godstow into a resignation. she was particularly in cromwell's favour:" &c. burnet: _hist. of the reformation_, vol. iii., p. . among burnet's "collection of records," is the letter of this said abbess, in which she tells cromwell that "doctor london was suddenly _cummyd_ unto her, with a great rout with him; and there did threaten her and her sisters, saying that he had the king's commission to suppress the house, spite of her teeth. and when he saw that she was content that he should do all things according to his commission, and shewed him plain that she would never surrender to his band, being her ancient enemy--then he began to entreat her and to inveigle her sisters, one by one, otherwise than ever she heard tell that any of the king's subjects had been handel'd;" vol. iii., p. . "collection." it is not very improbable that this treatment of godstow nunnery formed a specimen of many similar visitations. as to london himself, he ended his days in the fleet, after he had been adjudged to ride with his face to the horse's tail, at windsor and oakingham. fox in his _book of martyrs_, has given us a print of this transaction; sufficiently amusing. dod, in his _church history_, vol. i., p. , has of course not spared dr. london. but see, in particular, fuller's shrewd remarks upon the character of these visitors, or "emissaries;" _church history_, b. vi., pp. , .] [footnote : "the yearly revenue of all the abbies suppressed is computed at £ , _l._ _s._ _d._ besides this, the money raised out of the stock of cattle and corn, out of the timber, lead, and bells; out of the furniture, plate, and church ornaments, amounted to a vast sum, as may be collected from what was brought off from the monastery of st. edmonsbury. hence, as appears from records, marks of gold and silver, besides several jewels of great value, were seized by the visitors." collier's _ecclesiastical history_, vol. ii., . see also burnet's similar work, vol. i., p. . collier specifies the valuation of certain monasteries, which were sufficiently wealthy; but he has not noticed that of st. swithin's in winchester--of which strype has given so minute and interesting an inventory. a lover of old coins and relics may feed his imagination with a gorgeous picture of what might have been the "massive silver and golden crosses and shrines garnished with stones"--but a tender-hearted bibliomaniac will shed tears of agony on thinking of the fate of "a book of the four evangelists, written al with gold; and the utter side of plate of gold!" _life of cranmer_, _appendix_, pp. - .] [footnote : the amiable and candid strype has polluted the pages of his valuable _ecclesiastical memorials_ with an account of such horrid practices, supposed to have been carried on in monasteries, as must startle the most credulous anti-papist; and which almost leads us to conclude that _a legion of fiends_ must have been let loose upon these "friar rushes!" the author tells us that he takes his account from authentic documents--but these documents turn out to be the letters of the visitors; and of the character of one of these the reader has just had a sufficient proof. those who have the work here referred to, vol. i., p. - , may think, with the author of it, that "this specimen is enough and too much." what is a little to be marvelled at, strype suffers his prejudices against the conduct of the monks to be heightened by a letter from one of the name of beerly, at pershore; who, in order that he might escape the general wreck, turned tail upon his brethren, and vilified them as liberally as their professed enemies had done. now, to say the least, this was not obtaining what chief baron gilbert, in his famous law of evidence, has laid it down as necessary to be obtained--"the best possible evidence that the nature of the case will admit of." it is worth remarking that fuller has incorporated a particular account of the names of the abbots and of the carnal enormities of which they are supposed to have been guilty; but he adds that he took it from the d edition of speed's _hist. of great britain_, and (what is worth special notice) that it was not to be found in the prior ones: "being a posthume addition after the author's death, attested in the margine with the authority of henry steven his _apologie for herodotus_, who took the same out of an english book, containing the _vileness discovered at the visitation of monasteries_." _church history_, b. vi., pp. , .] a pause perhaps of one moment might have ensued. a consideration of what had been done, in these monasteries, for the preservation of the literature of past ages, and for the cultivation of elegant and peaceful pursuits, might, like "the still small voice" of conscience, have suspended, for a second, the final sentence of confiscation. the hospitality for which the owners of these places had been, and were then, eminently distinguished; but more especially the yet higher consideration of their property having been left with them only as a sacred pledge to be handed down, unimpaired, to their successors--these things,[ ] one would think, might have infused some little mercy and moderation into henry's decrees! [footnote : there are two points, concerning the subversion of monasteries, upon which all sensible roman catholics make a rest, and upon which they naturally indulge a too well-founded grief. the dispersion of books or interruption of study; and the breaking up of ancient hospitality. let us hear collier upon the subject: "the advantages accruing to the public from these religious houses were considerable, upon several accounts. to mention some of them: the temporal nobility and gentry had a creditable way of providing for their younger children. those who were disposed to withdraw from the world, or not likely to make their fortunes in it, had a handsome retreat to the cloister. here they were furnished with conveniences for life and study, with opportunities for thought and recollection; and, over and above, passed their time in a condition not unbecoming their quality."--"the abbies were very serviceable places for the education of young people: every convent had one person or more assigned for this business. thus the children of the neighbourhood were taught grammar and music without any charge to their parents. and, in the nunneries, those of the other sex learned to work and read english, with some advances into latin," &c.--"farther, it is to the abbies we are obliged for most of our historians, both of church and state: these places of retirement had both most learning and leisure for such undertakings: neither did they want information for such employment," _ecclesiastical history_, vol. ii., . a host of protestant authors, with lord herbert at the head of them, might be brought forward to corroborate these sensible remarks of collier. the hospitality of the monastic life has been on all sides admitted; and, according to lord coke, one of the articles of impeachment against cardinal wolsey was that he had caused "this hospitality and relief to grow into decay and disuse;" which was "a great cause that there were so many vagabonds, beggars, and thieves;"--_fourth institute_; p. , edit. . so that the author of an ancient, and now rarely perused work had just reason, in describing the friars of his time as "living in common upon the goods of a monastery, either gotten by common labour, or else upon lands and possessions where with the monastery was endowed." _pype or tonne of the lyfe of perfection_; fol. clxxii., rev. , to. and yet, should the active bibliomaniac be disposed to peruse this work, after purchasing mr. triphook's elegant copy of the same, he might probably not think very highly of the author's good sense, when he found him gravely telling us that "the appetite of clean, sweet, and fair, or fine cloaths, and oft-washing and curious _pykyng_ of the body, is an enemy of chastity," fol. ccxxix. rect. the devastation of books was, i fear, sufficiently frightful to warrant the following writers in their respective conclusions. "a judicious author (says ashmole) speaking of the dissolution of our monasteries, saith thus: many manuscripts, guilty of no other superstition then (having) _red letters_ in the front, were condemned to the fire: and here a principal key of antiquity was lost, to the great prejudice of posterity. indeed (such was learning's misfortune, at that great devastation of our english libraries, that) where a _red letter_ or a mathematical diagram appeared, they were sufficient to entitle the book to be popish or diabolical." _theatrum chemicum_; prolegom. a. . rev. "the avarice of the late intruders was so mean, and their ignorance so undistinguishing, that, when the books happened to have costly covers, they tore them off, and threw away the works, or turned them to the vilest purposes." _life of reginald pole_; vol. i., p. - , edit. , vo. the author of this last quotation then slightly notices what bale has said upon these book-devastations; and which i here subjoin at full length; from my first edition of this work:--"never (says bale) had we been offended for the loss of our libraries, being so many in number, and in so desolate places for the more part, if the chief monuments and most notable works of our excellent writers had been preserved. if there had been, in every shire of england, but one solempne library, to the preservation of those noble works, and preferment of good learning in our posterity, it had been yet somewhat. but to destroy all, without consideration, is, and will be, unto england, for ever, a most horrible infamy among the grave seniors of other nations. a great number of them, which purchased those superstitious mansions, reserved of those library-books some to serve the _jakes_, some to scour their candlesticks, and some to rub their boots: some they sold to the grocers and soap sellers; some they sent over sea to the book-binders, not in small number, but at times whole ships full, to the wondering of the foreign nations. yea, the universities of the realm are not all clear of this detestable fact. but cursed is that belly which seeketh to be fed with such ungodly gains, and shameth his natural country. i know a merchant man, which shall at this time be nameless, that _bought the contents of two noble libraries for forty shillings price_; a shame it is to be spoken! this stuff hath he occupied in the stead of grey paper, by the space of more than ten years, and yet he hath store enough for as many years to come!" preface to _leland's laboryouse journey_, &c., , vo. reprint of ; sign. c.] phil. but what can be said in defence of the dissolute lives of the monks? lysand. dissoluteness shall never be defended by me, let it be shewn by whom it may; and therefore i will not take the part, on this head, of the tenants of old monasteries. but, philemon, consider with what grace could this charge come from him who had "shed innocent blood," to gratify his horrid lusts? lis. yet, tell me, did not the dissolution of these libraries in some respects equally answer the ends of literature, by causing the books to come into other hands? lysand. no doubt, a few studious men reaped the benefit of this dispersion, by getting possession of many curious volumes with which, otherwise, they might never have been acquainted. if my memory be not treacherous, the celebrated grammarian robert wakefield[ ] was singularly lucky in this way. it is time, however, to check my rambling ideas. a few more words only, and we cease to sermonize upon the reformation. [footnote : "this robert wakefield was the prime linguist of his time, having obtained beyond the seas the greek, hebrew, chaldaic, and syriac tongues. in one thing he is to be commended, and that is this, that he carefully preserved divers books of greek and hebrew at the dissolution of religious houses, and especially some of those in the library of ramsey abbey, composed by laurence holbecke, monk of that place, in the reign of henry iv. he died at london th october, , leaving behind him the name of _polypus_, as leland is pleased to style him, noting that he was of a witty and crafty behaviour." wood's _hist. of colleges and halls_, p. , gutch's edit.] phil. there is no occasion to be extremely laconic. the evening has hardly yet given way to night. the horizon, i dare say, yet faintly glows with the setting-sun-beams. but proceed as you will. lysand. the commotions which ensued from the arbitrary measures of henry were great;[ ] but such as were naturally to be expected. at length henry died, and a young and amiable prince reigned for a few months. mary next ascended the throne; and the storm took an opposite direction. then an attempt was made to restore chalices, crucifixes, and missals. but the short period of her sovereignty making way for the long and illustrious one of her sister elizabeth, the cecils and walsinghams[ ] united their great talents with the equally vigorous ones of the queen and her favourite archbishop parker, in establishing that form of religion which, by partaking in a reasonable degree of the solemnity of the romish church, and by being tempered with great simplicity and piety in its prayers, won its way to the hearts of the generality of the people. our _great english bibles_[ ] were now restored to their conspicuous situations; and the bibliomania, in consequence, began to spread more widely and effectively. [footnote : fuller has devoted one sentence only, and that not written with his usual force, to the havoc and consternation which ensued on the devastation of the monasteries. _ch. hist._, b. vi., p. . burnet is a little more moving: _hist. of the reformation_; vol. i., p. . but, from the foregoing premises, the reader may probably be disposed to admit the conclusion of a virulent roman catholic writer, even in its fullest extent: namely, that there were "subverted monasteries, overthrown abbies, broken churches, torn castles, rent towers, overturned walls of towns and fortresses, with the confused heaps of all ruined monuments." _treatise of treasons_, , vo., fol. , rev.] [footnote : there are few bibliographers at all versed in english literature and history, who have not heard, by some side wind or other, of the last mentioned work; concerning which herbert is somewhat interesting in his notes: _typographical antiquities_, vol. iii., p. . the reader is here presented with a copious extract from this curious and scarce book--not for the sake of adding to these ponderous notes relating to the reformation--(a subject, upon which, from a professional feeling, i thought it my duty to say something!)--but for the sake of showing how dexterously the most important events and palpable truths may be described and perverted by an artful and headstrong disputant. the work was written expressly to defame elizabeth, cecil, and bacon, and to introduce the romish religion upon the ruins of the protestant. the author thus gravely talks "_of queen mary and her predecessors._ "she (mary) found also the whole face of the commonwealth settled and acquieted in the ancient religion; in which, and by which, all kings and queens of that realm (from as long almost before the conquest as that conquest was before that time) had lived, reigned, and maintained their states; and the terrible correction of those few that swerved from it notorious, as no man could be ignorant of it. as king john, without error in religion, for contempt only of the see apostolic, plagued with the loss of his state, till he reconciled himself, and acknowledged to hold his crown of the pope. king henry viii., likewise, with finding no end of heading and hanging, till (with the note of tyranny for wasting his nobility) he had headed him also that procured him to it. fol. , . "_libellous character of cecil._ "in which stem and trunk (being rotten at heart, hollow within, and without sound substance) hath our spiteful pullet (cecil) laid her ungracious eggs, mo than a few: and there hath hatched sundry of them, and brought forth chickens of her own feather, i warrant you. a hen i call him, as well for his cackling, ready and smooth tongue, wherein he giveth place to none, as for his deep and subtle art in hiding his serpentine eggs from common men's sight: chiefly for his hennish heart and courage, which twice already hath been well proved to be as base and deject at the sight of any storm of adverse fortune, as ever was hen's heart at the sight of a fox. and, had he not been by his confederate, as with a dunghill cock, trodden as it were and gotten with egg, i doubt whether ever his hennish heart, joined to his shrewd wit, would have served him, so soon to put the q.'s green and tender state in so manifest peril and adventure. fol. , rect. "_libellous characters of cecil and n. bacon._ "let the houses and possessions of these two catalines be considered, let their furniture, and building, let their daily purchases, and ready hability to purchase still, let their offices and functions wherein they sit, let their titles, and styles claimed and used, let their places in council, let their authority over the nobility, let their linking in alliance with the same, let their access to the prince, let their power and credit with her: let this their present state, i say, in all points (being open and unknown to no men) be compared with their base parentage and progeny, (the one raised out of the robes, and the other from a _sheeprive's_ son) and let that give sentence as well of the great difference of the tastes, that the several fruits gathered of this tree by your q., and by them do yield, as whether any man at this day approach near unto them in any condition wherein advancement consisteth. yea, mark you the jollity and pride that in this prosperity they shew; the port and countenance that every way they carry; in comparison of them that be noble by birth. behold at whose doors your nobility attendeth. consider in whose chambers your council must sit, and to whom for resolutions they must resort; and let these things determine both what was the purpose indeed, and hidden intention of that change of religion, and who hath gathered the benefits of that mutation: that is to say, whether for your q., for your realms, or for their own sakes, the same at first was taken in hand, and since pursued as you have seen. for according to the principal effects of every action must the intent of the act be deemed and presumed. for the objected excuses (that they did it for conscience, or for fear of the french) be too frivolous and vain to abuse any wise man. for they that under king henry were as catholic, as the six articles required: that under king edward were such protestants as the protector would have them; that under q. mary were catholics again, even to creeping to the cross: and that under q. elizabeth were first lutheran, setting up parker, cheiny, gest, bill, &c., then calvinists, advancing grindall, juell, horne, &c.: then puritans, maintaining sampson, deering, humfrey, &c.; and now (if not anabaptists and arians) plain machiavellians, yea, that they persuade in public speeches that man hath free liberty to dissemble his religion, and for authority do allege their own examples and practice of feigning one religion for another in q. mary's time (which containeth a manifest evacuation of christ's own coming and doctrine, of the apostles, preaching and practice, of the blood of the martyrs, of the constancy of all confessors; yea, and of the glorious vain deaths of all the stinking martyrs of their innumerable sects of hereticks, one and other having always taught the confession of mouth to be as necessary to salvation as the belief of heart): shall these men now be admitted to plead conscience in religion; and can any man now be couzined so much, as to think that these men by conscience were then moved to make that mutation?" fol. , . "at home, likewise, apparent it is how they provided, every way to make themselves strong there also. for being by their own marriages allied already to the house of suffolk of the blood royal, and by consequence thereof to the house of hertford also, and their children thereby incorporated to both: mark you how now by marriage of their children with wily wit and wealth together, they wind in your other noblest houses unto them that are left, i mean in credit and countenance. consider likewise how, at their own commendation and preferment, they have erected, as it were, almost a new half of your nobility (of whom also they have reason to think themselves assured) and the rest then (that were out of hope to be won to their faction) behold how, by sundry fine devices, they are either cut off, worn out, fled, banished or defaced at home," &c., fol. , rect. the good lord burghley, says strype, was so moved at this slander that he uttered these words: "god amend his spirit, and confound his malice." and by way of protestation of the integrity and faithfulness of both their services, "god send this estate no worse meaning servants, in all respects, than we two have been." _annals of the reformation_, vol. ii., . camden's _hist. of q. elizabeth_, p. ,--as quoted by herbert.] [footnote : "all curates must continually call upon their parochians to provide a book of the _holy bible in english_, of the largest form, within days next after the publication hereof, that may be chained in some open place in the church," &c. injunctions by lee, archbishop of york: burnet's _hist. of the reformation_, vol. iii., p. , collections. this custom of fixing a great bible in the centre of a place of worship yet obtains in some of the chapels attached to the colleges at oxford. that of queen's, in particular, has a noble brazen eagle, with outstretched wings, upon which the foundation members read the lessons of the day in turn.] loren. had you not better confine yourself to personal anecdote, rather than enter into the boundless field of historical survey? lysand. i thank you for the hint. having sermonized upon the general features of the reformation, we will resume the kind of discourse with which we at first set out. phil. but you make no mention of the number of curious and fugitive pamphlets of the day, which were written in order to depreciate and exterminate the roman catholic religion? some of these had at least the merit of tartness and humour. lysand. consult fox's _martyrology_,[ ] if you wish to have some general knowledge of these publications; although i apprehend you will not find in that work any mention of the poetical pieces of skelton and roy; nor yet of ramsay. [footnote : the curious reader who wishes to become master of all the valuable, though sometimes loose, information contained in this renowned work--upon which dr. wordsworth has pronounced rather a warm eulogium (_ecclesiastical biography_, vol. i., p. xix.)--should secure the _first_ edition, as well as the latter one of , or ; inasmuch as this first impression, of the date of , is said by hearne to be "omnium optima:" see his adami de domerham, _hist. de reb. gest. glaston._, vol. i., p. xxii. i also learn, from an original letter of anstis, in the possession of mr. john nichols, that "the late editions are not quite so full in some particulars, and that many things are left out about the protector seymour."] loren. skelton and roy are in my library;[ ] but who is ramsay? [footnote : vide p. , ante.] lysand. he wrote a comical poetical satire against the romish priests, under the title of "_a plaister for a galled horse_,"[ ] which raynald printed in a little thin quarto volume of six or seven pages. [footnote : in herbert's _typographical antiquities_, vol. i., p. , will be found rather a slight notice of this raw and vulgar satire. it has, however, stamina of its kind; as the reader may hence judge: mark the gesture, who that lyst; first a shorne shauelynge, clad in a clowt, bearinge the name of an honest priest, and yet in no place a starker lowte. a whore monger, a dronkard, ye makyn him be snowte-- at the alehouses he studieth, till hys witte he doth lacke. such are your minysters, to bringe thys matter about: but guppe ye god-makers, beware your galled backe. then wraped in a knaues skynne, as ioly as my horse, before the aulter, in great contemplacion confessinge the synnes of his lubbrysh corse to god and all saynctes, he counteth hys abhomination then home to the aulter, with great saintification with crosses, and blesses, with his boy lytle jacke: thus forth goeth syr jhon with all his preparation. but guppe ye god-makers, beware your galled backe. then gloria in excelsis for ioye dothe he synge more for his fat liuinge, than for devocion: and many there be that remember another thinge which syng not wyth mery hart for lacke of promocion thus some be mery, some be sory according to their porcion then forth cometh collects, bounde up in a packe, for this sainct and that sainct, for sickenes, and extorcion but guppe ye god-makers, beware your galled backe. stanzas, , , . at the sale of mr. brand's books, in , a copy of this rare tract, of six or seven pages, was sold for _l._ _s._ _d._ vide _bibl. brand_, part i., no. . this was surely more than both plaister and horse were worth! a poetical satire of a similar kind, entitled "_john bon and mast person_," was printed by daye and seres; who struck off but a few copies, but who were brought into considerable trouble for the same. the virulence with which the author and printer of this lampoon were persecuted in mary's reign is sufficiently attested by the care which was taken to suppress every copy that could be secured. the only perfect known copy of this rare tract was purchased at the sale of mr. r. forster's books, for the marquis of bute; and mr. stace, the bookseller, had privilege to make a fac-simile reprint of it; of which there were six copies struck off upon vellum. it being now rather common with book-collectors, there is no necessity to make a quotation from it here. indeed there is very little in it deserving of republication.] loren. i will make a memorandum to try to secure this "comical" piece, as you call it; but has it never been reprinted in our "_corpora poetarum anglicorum_?" lysand. never to the best of my recollection. mr. alexander chalmers probably shewed his judgment in the omission of it, in his lately published collection of our poets. a work, which i can safely recommend to you as being, upon the whole, one of the most faithful and useful, as well as elegant, compilations of its kind, that any country has to boast of. but i think i saw it in your library, lorenzo?-- loren. it was certainly there, and bound in stout russia, when we quitted it for this place. lis. dispatch your "gall'd horse," and now--having placed a justly merited wreath round the brow of your poetical editor, proceed--as lorenzo has well said--with personal anecdotes. what has become of wyatt and surrey--and when shall we reach leland and bale? lysand. i crave your mercy, master lisardo! one at a time. gently ride your bibliomaniacal hobby-horse! wyatt and surrey had, beyond all question, the most exquisitely polished minds of their day. they were far above the generality of their compeers. but although hall chooses to notice _the whistle_[ ] of the latter, it does not follow that i should notice his _library_, if i am not able to discover any thing particularly interesting relating to the same. and so, wishing every lover of his country's literature to purchase a copy of the poems of both these heroes,[ ] i march onward to introduce a new friend to you, who preceded leland in his career, and for an account of whom we are chiefly indebted to the excellent and best editor of the works of spencer and milton. did'st ever hear, lisardo, of one william thynne? [footnote : about the year , hall mentions the earl of surrey "on a great coursir richely trapped, and a greate whistle of gold set with stones and perle, hanging at a great and massy chayne baudrick-wise." chronicles: p. , a. see warton's _life of sir thomas pope_: p. , note o., ed. . this is a very amusing page about the custom of wearing whistles, among noblemen, at the commencement of the th century. if franklin had been then alive, he would have had abundant reason for exclaiming that these men "paid too much for their _whistles_!"] [footnote : till the long promised, elaborate, and beautiful edition of the works of sir thomas wyatt and lord surrey, by the rev. dr. nott,[e] shall make its appearance, the bibliomaniac must satisfy his book-appetite, about the editions of the same which have already appeared, by perusing the elegant volumes of mr. george ellis, and mr. park; _specimens of the early english poets_; vol. ii., pp. - : _royal and noble authors_, vol. i., pp. - . as to early black letter editions, let him look at _bibl. pearson_, no. ; where, however, he will find only the th edition of : the first being of the date of . the eighth and last edition was published by tonson, in , vo. it will be unpardonable not to add that the rev. mr. conybeare is in possession of a perfect copy of lord surrey's translation of a part of the Æneid, which is the third only known copy in existence. turn to the animating pages of warton, _hist. engl. poetry_; vol. iii., pp. - , about this translation and its author.] [footnote e: conducting this celebrated book through the press occupied dr. nott several years; it was printed by the father of the printer of this work, in two large to. volumes--and was just finished when, in the year , the bolt court printing-office, and all it contained, was destroyed by fire. only _two_ copies of the works of wyatt and surrey escaped, having been sent to dr. nott by the printer, as _clean sheets_.] lis. pray make me acquainted with him. lysand. you will love him exceedingly when you thoroughly know him; because he was the first man in this country who took pains to do justice to chaucer, by collecting and collating the mutilated editions of his works. moreover, he rummaged a great number of libraries, under the express order of henry viii.; and seems in every respect (if we may credit the apparently frank testimony of his son[ ]), to have been a thoroughbred bibliomaniac. secure mr. todd's _illustrations of gower and chaucer_, and set your heart at ease upon the subject. [footnote : "--but (my father, william thynne) further had commissione to serche all the libraries of england for chaucer's works, so that oute of all the abbies of this realme (which reserved any monuments thereof), he was fully furnished with multitude of bookes," &c. on thynne's discovering chaucer's pilgrim's tale, when henry viii. had read it--"he called (continues the son) my father unto hym, sayinge, 'william thynne, i doubt this will not be allowed, for i suspecte the byshoppes will call thee in question for yt.' to whome my father beinge in great fauore with his prince, sayed, 'yf your grace be not offended, i hope to be protected by you.' whereupon the kinge bydd hym goo his waye and feare not," &c. "but to leave this, i must saye that, in those many written bookes of chaucer, which came to my father's hands, there were many false copyes, which chaucer shewethe in writinge of adam scriuener, of which written copies there came to me, after my father's death, some fyve and twentye," &c. _illustrations of gower and chaucer_; pp. , , . let us not hesitate one moment about the appellation of _helluo librorum_,--justly due to master william thynne!] but it is time to introduce your favourite leland: a bibliomaniac of unparalleled powers and unperishable fame. to entwine the wreath of praise round the brow of this great man seems to have been considered by bale among the most exquisite gratifications of his existence. it is with no small delight, therefore, lorenzo, that i view, at this distance, the marble bust of leland in yonder niche of your library, with a laureate crown upon its pedestal. and with almost equal satisfaction did i observe, yesterday, during the absence of philemon and lisardo at the book-sale, the handsome manner in which harrison,[ ] in his _description of england_, prefixed to holinshed's chronicles, has spoken of this illustrious antiquary. no delays, no difficulties, no perils, ever daunted his personal courage, or depressed his mental energies. enamoured of study, to the last rational moment of his existence, leland seems to have been born for the "laborious journey" which he undertook in search of truth, as she was to be discovered among mouldering records, and worm-eaten volumes. uniting the active talents of a statist with the painful research of an antiquary, he thought nothing too insignificant for observation. the confined streamlet or the capacious river--the obscure village or the populous town--were, with parchment rolls and oaken-covered books, alike objects of curiosity in his philosophic eye! peace to his once vexed spirit!--and never-fading honours attend the academical society in which his youthful mind was disciplined to such laudable pursuits! [footnote : "one helpe, and none of the smallest, that i obtained herein, was by such commentaries as leland had sometime collected of the state of britaine; books vtterlie mangled, defaced with wet and weather, and finallie vnperfect through want of sundrie volumes." _epistle dedicatorie_; vol. i., p. vi., edit. . the history of this great man, and of his literary labours, is most interesting. he was a pupil of william lilly, the first head-master of st. paul's school; and, by the kindness and liberality of a mr. myles, he afterwards received the advantage of a college education, and was supplied with money in order to travel abroad, and make such collections as he should deem necessary for the great work which even then seemed to dawn upon his young and ardent mind. leland endeavoured to requite the kindness of his benefactor by an elegant copy of latin verses, in which he warmly expatiates on the generosity of his patron, and acknowledges that his acquaintance with the _almæ matres_ (for he was of both universities) was entirely the result of such beneficence. while he resided on the continent, he was admitted into the society of the most eminent greek and latin scholars, and could probably number among his correspondents the illustrious names of budæus, erasmus, the stephenses, faber and turnebus. here, too, he cultivated his natural taste for poetry; and, from inspecting the fine books which the italian and french presses had produced, as well as fired by the love of grecian learning, which had fled, on the sacking of constantinople, to take shelter in the academic bowers of the medici--he seems to have matured his plans for carrying into effect the great work which had now taken full possession of his mind. he returned to england, resolved to institute an inquiry into the state of the libraries, antiquities, records, and writings then in existence. having entered into holy orders, and obtained preferment at the express interposition of the king (henry viii.), he was appointed his antiquary and library-keeper; and a royal commission was issued, in which leland was directed to search after "england's antiquities, and peruse the libraries of all cathedrals, abbies, priories, colleges, &c., as also all the places wherein records, writings, and secrets of antiquity were reposited." "before leland's time," says hearne--in a strain which makes one shudder--"all the literary monuments of antiquity were totally disregarded; and students of germany, apprized of this culpable indifference, were suffered to enter our libraries unmolested, and to cut out of the books, deposited there, whatever passages they thought proper--which they afterwards published as relics of the ancient literature of their own country." _pref. to the itinerary._ leland was occupied, without intermission, in his laborious undertaking, for the space of six years; and, on its completion, he hastened to the metropolis to lay at the feet of his sovereign the result of his researches. as john kay had presented his translation of the _siege of rhodes_ to edward iv., as "a gift of his labour," so leland presented his itinerary to henry viii., under the title of _a new year's gift_; and it was first published as such by bale in , vo. "being inflamed," says the author, "with a love to see thoroughly all those parts of your opulent and ample realm, in so much that all my other occupations intermitted, i have so travelled in your dominions both by the sea coasts and the middle parts, sparing neither labour nor costs, by the space of six years past, that there is neither cape nor bay, haven, creek, or pier, river, or confluence of rivers, breaches, wastes, lakes, moors, fenny waters, mountains, valleys, heaths, forests, chases, woods, cities, burghes, castles, principal manor places, monasteries, and colleges, but i have seen them; and noted, in so doing, a whole world of things very memorable." leland moreover tells his majesty--that "by his laborious journey and costly enterprise, he had conserved many good authors, the which otherwise had been like to have perished; of the which part remained in the royal palaces, part also in his own custody," &c. as leland was engaged six years in this literary tour, so he was occupied for a no less period of time in digesting and arranging the prodigious number of mss. which he had collected. but he sunk beneath the immensity of the task. the want of amanuenses, and of other attentions and comforts, seems to have deeply affected him. in this melancholy state, he wrote to archbishop cranmer a latin epistle, in verse, of which the following is the commencement--very forcibly describing his situation and anguish of mind: est congesta mihi domi supellex ingens, aurea, nobilis, venusta, qua totus studeo britanniarum vero reddere gloriam nitori; sed fortuna meis noverca coeptis jam felicibus invidet maligna. quare, ne pereant brevi vel hora multarum mihi noctium labores omnes---- cranmere, eximium decus priorum! implorare tuam benignitatem cogor. the result was that leland lost his senses; and, after lingering two years in a state of total derangement, he died on the th of april, . "prôh tristes rerum humanarum vices! prôh viri optimi deplorandam infelicissimamque sortem!" exclaims dr. smith, in his preface to camden's life, , to. the precious and voluminous mss. of leland were doomed to suffer a fate scarcely less pitiable that [transcriber's note: than] that of their owner. after being pilfered by some, and garbled by others, they served to replenish the pages of stow, lambard, camden, burton, dugdale, and many other antiquaries and historians. "leland's remains," says bagford, "have been ever since a standard to all that have any way treated of the antiquities of england. reginald wolfe intended to have made use of them, although this was not done 'till after his death by harrison, holinshed, and others concerned in that work. harrison transcribed his itinerary, giving a description of england by the rivers, but he did not understand it. they have likewise been made use of by several in part, but how much more complete had this been, had it been finished by himself?" _collectanea_: hearne's edit., ; vol. i., p. lxxvii. polydore virgil, who had stolen from these remains pretty freely, had the insolence to abuse leland's memory--calling him "a vain-glorious man;" but what shall we say to this flippant egotist? who according to caius's testimony (_de antiq. cantab. acad._, lib. .) "to prevent a discovery of the many errors of his own history of england, collected and burnt a greater number of ancient histories and manuscripts than would have loaded a waggon." there are some (among whom i could number a most respectable friend and well qualified judge) who have doubted of the propriety of thus severely censuring polydore virgil; and who are even sceptical about his malpractices. but sir henry savile, who was sufficiently contemporaneous to collect the best evidence upon the subject, thus boldly observes: "nam polydorus, ut homo italus, et in rebus nostris hospes, et (quod caput est) neque in republica versatus, nec magni alioqui vel judicii vel ingenii, pauca ex multis delibans, et falsa plerumque pro veris amplexus, historiam nobis reliquit cum cætera mendosam tum exiliter sanè et jejunè conscriptam." _script. post. bedam._, edit. ; pref. "as for polydore virgil, he hath written either nothing or very little concerning them; and that so little, so false and misbeseeming the ingenuitie of an historian, that he seemeth to have aimed at no other end than, by bitter invectives against henry viii., and cardinal wolsey, to demerit the favour of queen mary," &c., godwyn's translation of the _annales of england_; edit. , author's preface. "it is also remarkable that polydore virgil's and bishop joscelin's edition of gildas's epistle differ so materially that the author of it hardly seems to be one and the same person." this is gale's opinion: _rer. anglican. script. vet._; vol. i., pref., p. . upon the whole--to return to leland--it must be acknowledged that he is a melancholy, as well as illustrious, example of the influence of the bibliomania! but do not let us take leave of him without a due contemplation of his expressive features, as they are given in the frontispiece of the first volume of the lives of leland, hearne, and wood. , vo. [illustration: in refectorio coll. omn. anim. oxon.]] bale follows closely after leland. this once celebrated, and yet respectable, writer had probably more zeal than discretion; but his exertions in the cause of our own church can never be mentioned without admiration. i would not, assuredly, quote bale as a decisive authority in doubtful or difficult cases;[ ] but, as he lived in the times of which he in a great measure wrote, and as his society was courted by the wealthy and powerful, i am not sure whether he merits to be treated with the roughness with which some authors mention his labours. he had, certainly, a tolerable degree of strength in his english style; but he painted with a pencil which reminded us more frequently of the horrific pictures of spagnoletti than of the tender compositions of albano. that he idolized his master, leland, so enthusiastically, will always cover, in my estimation, a multitude of his errors: and that he should leave a scholar's inventory (as fuller saps [transcriber's note: says]), "more books than money behind him," will at least cause him to be numbered among the most renowned bibliomaniacs. [footnote : like all men, who desert a religion which they once enthusiastically profess, bale, after being zealous for the papal superstitions, holding up his hands to rotten posts, and calling them his "fathers in heaven," (according to his own confession) became a zealous protestant, and abused the church of rome with a virulence almost unknown in the writings of his predecessors. but in spite of his coarseness, positiveness, and severity, he merits the great praise of having done much in behalf of the cause of literature. his attachment to leland is, unquestionably, highly to his honour; but his biographies, especially of the romish prelates, are as monstrously extravagant as his plays are incorrigibly dull. he had a certain rough honesty and prompt benevolence of character, which may be thought to compensate for his grosser failings. his reputation as a _bibliomaniac_ is fully recorded in the anecdote mentioned at p. , ante. his "magnum opus," the _scriptores britanniæ_, has already been noticed with sufficient minuteness; vide p. , ante. it has not escaped severe animadversion. francis thynne tells us that bale has "mistaken infynyte thinges in that booke de scriptoribus anglie, being for the most part the collections of lelande." _illustrations of gower and chaucer_; p. . picard, in his wretched edition of _gulielmus neubrigensis_ (edit. , p. ), has brought a severe accusation against the author of having "burnt or torn all the copies of the works which he described, after he had taken the titles of them;" but see this charge successfully rebutted in dr. pegge's _anonymiana_; p. . that bale's library, especially in the department of manuscripts, was both rich and curious, is indisputable, from the following passage in _strype's life of archbishop parker_. "the archbishop laid out for bale's rare collection of mss. immediately upon his death, fearing that they might be gotten by somebody else. therefore he took care to bespeak them before others, and was promised to have them for his money, as he told cecil. and perhaps divers of those books that do now make proud the university library, and that of benet and some other colleges, in cambridge, were bale's," p. . it would seem, from the same authority, that our bibliomaniac "set himself to search the libraries in oxford, cambridge, london (wherein there was but one, and that a slender one), norwich, and several others in norfolk and suffolk: whence he had collected enough for another volume de scriptoribus britannicis." _ibid._ the following very beautiful wood-cut of bale's portrait is taken from the original, of the same size, in the _acta romanorum pontificum_; basil, , vo. a similar one, on a larger scale, will be found in the "_scriptores_," &c., published at basil, , or --folio. mr. price, the principal librarian of the bodleian library, shewed me a rare head of bale, of a very different cast of features--in a small black-letter book, of which i have forgotten the name. [illustration]] before i enter upon the reign of elizabeth, let me pay a passing, but sincere, tribute of respect to the memory of cranmer; whose _great bible_[ ] is at once a monument of his attachment to the protestant religion, and to splendid books. his end was sufficiently lamentable; but while the flames were consuming his parched body, and while his right hand, extended in the midst of them, was reproached by him for its former act of wavering and "offence," he had the comfort of soothing his troubled spirit by reflecting upon what his past life had exhibited in the cause of learning, morality, and religion.[ ] let his memory be respected among virtuous bibliomaniacs! [footnote : i have perused what strype (_life of cranmer_, pp. , , ), lewis (_history of english bibles_, pp. - ), johnson (_idem opus_, pp. - ), and herbert (_typog. antiquities_, vol. i., p. ,) have written concerning the biblical labours of archbishop cranmer; but the accurate conclusion to be drawn about the publication which goes under the name of cranmer's, or the great bible, [transcriber's note: 'is' missing in original] not quite so clear as bibliographers may imagine. however, this is not the place to canvass so intricate a subject. it is sufficient that a magnificent impression of the bible in the english language, with a superb frontispiece (which has been most feebly and inadequately copied for lewis's work), under the archiepiscopal patronage of cranmer, did make its appearance in : and it has been my good fortune to turn over the leaves of the identical copy of it, printed upon vellum, concerning which thomas baker expatiates so eloquently to his bibliomaniacal friend, hearne. _rob. of gloucester's chronicle_; vol. i., p. xix. this copy is in the library of st. john's college, cambridge; and is now placed upon a table, to the right hand, upon entering of the same: although formerly, according to bagford's account, it was "among some old books in a private place nigh the library." _idem_; p. xxii. there is a similar copy in the british museum.] [footnote : "and thus"--says strype--(in a strain of pathos and eloquence not usually to be found in his writings) "we have brought this excellent prelate unto his end, after two years and a half hard imprisonment. his body was not carried to the grave in state, nor buried, as many of his predecessors were, in his own cathedral church, nor inclosed in a monument of marble or touchstone. nor had he any inscription to set forth his praises to posterity. no shrine to be visited by devout pilgrims, as his predecessors, s. dunstan and s. thomas had. shall we therefore say, as the poet doth: marmoreo licinus tumulo jacet, at cato parvo, pompeius nullo. quis putet esse deos? no; we are better christians, i trust, than so: who are taught, that the rewards of god's elect are not temporal but eternal. and cranmer's martyrdom is his monument, and his name will outlast an epitaph or a shrine." _life of cranmer_; p. . it would seem, from the same authority, that ridley, latimer, and cranmer, were permitted to dine together in prison, some little time before they suffered; although they were "placed in separate lodgings that they might not confer together." strype saw "a book of their diet, every dinner and supper, and the charge thereof,"--as it was brought in by the bailiffs attending them. _dinner expenses of ridley, latimer, and cranmer._ bread and ale ii_d._ item, oisters i_d._ item, butter ii_d._ item, eggs ii_d._ item, lyng viii_d._ item, a piece of fresh salmon x_d._ wine iii_d._ cheese and pears ii_d._ _charges for burning ridley and latimer._ _s._ _d._ for three loads of wood fagots item, one load of furs fagots for the carriage of the same item, a post item, two chains item, two staples item, four labourers _charges for burning cranmer._ _s._ _d._ for an of wood fagots, for an and half of furs fagots for the carriage of them to two labourers i will draw the curtain upon this dismal picture, by a short extract from one of cranmer's letters, in which this great and good man thus ingeniously urges the necessity of the scriptures being translated into the english language; a point, by the bye, upon which neither he, nor cromwell, nor latimer, i believe, were at first decided; "god's will and commandment is, (says cranmer) that when the people be gathered together, the minister should use such language as the people may understand, and take profit thereby; or else hold their peace. for as an harp or lute, if it give no certain sound that men may know what is stricken, who can dance after it--for all the sound is vain; so is it vain and profiteth nothing, sayeth almighty god, by the mouth of st. paul, if the priest speak to the people in a language which they know not." _certain most godly, fruitful, and comfortable letters of saintes and holy martyrs, &c._, ; to., fol. .] all hail to the sovereign who, bred up in severe habits of reading and meditation, loved books and scholars to the very bottom of her heart! i consider elizabeth as a royal bibliomaniac of transcendent fame!--i see her, in imagination, wearing her favourite little _volume of prayers_,[ ] the composition of queen catherine parr, and lady tirwit, "bound in solid gold, and hanging by a gold chain at her side," at her morning and evening devotions--afterwards, as she became firmly seated upon her throne, taking an interest in the embellishments of the _prayer book_,[ ] which goes under her own name; and then indulging her strong bibliomaniacal appetites in fostering the institution "for the erecting of _a library and an academy for the study of antiquities and history_."[ ] notwithstanding her earnestness to root out all relics of the roman catholic religion (to which, as the best excuse, we must, perhaps, attribute the sad cruelty of the execution of mary, queen of scots), i cannot in my heart forbear to think but that she secured, for her own book-boudoir, one or two of the curious articles which the commissioners often-times found in the libraries that they inspected: and, amongst other volumes, how she could forbear pouncing upon "_a great pricksong book of parchment_"--discovered in the library of all soul's college[ ]--is absolutely beyond my wit to divine! [illustration] [footnote : of this curious little devotional volume the reader has already had some account (p. , ante); but if he wishes to enlarge his knowledge of the same, let him refer to vol. lx. pt. ii. and vol. lxi. pt. i. of the _gentleman's magazine_. by the kindness of mr. john nichols, i am enabled to present the bibliomaniacal virtuoso with a fac-simile of the copper-plate inserted in the latter volume (p. ) of the authority last mentioned. it represents the golden cover, or binding, of this precious manuscript. of the queen's attachment to works of this kind, the following is a pretty strong proof: "in the bodl. library, among the mss. in mus. num. , are the _epistles of st. paul, &c._, printed in an old black letter in o. which was _queen elizabeth's own book_, and her own hand writing appears at the beginning, viz.: "august. i walke many times into the pleasant fieldes of the holy scriptures, where i plucke up the goodliesome herbes of sentences by pruning: eate them by reading: chawe them by musing: and laie them up at length in the hie seate of memorie by gathering them together: that so having tasted their sweetenes i may the lesse perceave the bitterness of this miserable life." the covering is done in needle work by the queen [then princess] herself, and thereon are these sentences, viz. on one side, on the borders; celvm patria: scopvs vitÆ xpvs. christvs via. christo vive. in the middle a heart, and round about it, eleva cor svrsvm ibi vbi e.c. [est christus]. on the other side, about the borders, beatvs qvi divitias scriptvrÆ legens verba vertit in opera. in the middle a star, and round it, vicit omnia pertinax virtvs with e.c., _i.e._ as i take it, elisabetha captiva, or [provided it refer to virtus] elisabethÆ captivÆ, she being, then, when she worked this covering, a prisoner, if i mistake not, at woodstock." _tit. liv. for. jul. vit. henrici_ v., p. - . [illustration]] [footnote : in the prayer-book which goes by the name of queen elizabeth's, there is a portrait of her majesty kneeling upon a superb cushion, with elevated hands, in prayer. this book was first printed in ; and is decorated with wood-cut borders of considerable spirit and beauty; representing, among other things, some of the subjects of holbein's dance of death. the last impression is of the date of . vide _bibl. pearson_; no. . the presentation copy of it was probably printed upon vellum.[f]] [footnote : the famous john dee entreated queen mary to erect an institution similar [transcriber's note: 'to' missing in original] the one above alluded to. if she adopted the measure, dee says that "her highnesse would have a most notable library, learning wonderfully be advanced, the passing excellent works of our forefathers from rot and worms preserved, and also hereafter continually the whole realm may (through her grace's goodness) use and enjoy the incomparable treasure so preserved: where now, no one student, no, nor any one college, hath half a dozen of those excellent jewels, but the whole stock and store thereof drawing nigh to utter destruction, and extinguishing, while here and there by private men's negligence (and sometimes malice) many a famous and excellent author's book is rent, burnt, or suffered to rot and decay. by your said suppliant's device your grace's said library might, in very few years, most plentifully be furnisht, and that without any one penny charge unto your majesty, or doing injury to any creature." in another supplicatory article, dated xv. jan. , dee advises copies of the monuments to be taken, and the original, after the copy is taken, to be restored to the owner. that there should be "allowance of all necessary charges, as well toward the riding and journeying for the recovery of the said worthy monuments, as also for the copying out of the same, and framing of necessary stalls, desks, and presses."--he concludes with proposing to make copies of all the principal works in ms. "in the notablest libraries beyond the sea"--"and as concerning all other excellent authors printed, that they likewise shall be gotten in wonderful abundance, their carriage only to be chargeable." he supposes that three months' trial would shew the excellence of his plan; which he advises to be instantly put into practice "for fear of the spreading of it abroad might cause many to hide and convey away their good and ancient writers--which, nevertheless, were ungodly done, and a certain token that such are not sincere lovers of good learning." [in other words, not sound bibliomaniacs.] see the appendix to hearne's edition of _joh. confrat. monach. de reb. glaston._ dee's "supplication" met with no attention from the bigotted sovereign to whom it was addressed. a project for a similar establishment in queen elizabeth's reign, when a society of antiquaries was first established in this kingdom, may be seen in hearne's _collection of curious discourses of antiquaries_; vol. ii., p. ,--when this library was "to be entitled the library of queen elizabeth, and the same to be well furnished with divers ancient books, and rare monuments of antiquity," &c., edit. .] [footnote : in mr. gutch's _collectanea curiosa_, vol. ii., p. , we have a "letter from queen elizabeth's high commissioners, concerning the superstitious books belonging to all soul's college:" the "schedule" or list returned was as follows: three mass books, old and new, and portmisses item, grailes, antiphoners of parchment and bound ---- processionals old and new ---- symnalls ---- an old manual of paper ---- an invitatorie book ---- psalters--and one covered with a skin ---- _a great pricksong book of parchment_ ---- one other pricksong book of vellum covered with a hart's skyn ---- other of paper bound in parchment ---- the founder's mass-book in parchment bound in board ---- in mr. mill his hand an antiphoner and a legend ---- a portmisse in his hand two volumes, a manual, a mass-book, and a processional.] [footnote f: the two following pages are appropriated to copies of the frontispiece (of the edit. of ), and a page of the work, from a copy in the possession of the printer of this edition of the _bibliomania_. [illustration: =elizabeth regina.= paralipom . =domine deus israel, non est similis tui deus in coelo & in terra, qui pacta custodis & misericordiam cum seruis tuis, qui ambulant coram te in toto corde suo.=] [illustration: a prayer for charitie, or loue towards our neighbours. =lord, inlighten and instruct our mindes, that we may esteeme euerie thing as it is worth, & yet not make the lesse reckoning of thee, sith nothing can be made better then thou. and secondly let us make account of man, then whome, there is nothing more excellent among the things of this world. make vs to loue him next thee, either as likest our selues, or as thy childe, and therefore our brother, or as one ordayned to bee a member of one selfe same countrie with vs.= =and cause vs also euen heere, to resemble the heauenly kingdome through mutual loue, where all hatred is quite banished, and all is full of loue, and consequently full of joy and gladnes.= amen. =giue a sweete smell as incense, &c.= =eccles. .= =matthew xxvi. - .=]] loren. you are full of book anecdote of elizabeth: but do you forget her schoolmaster, roger ascham? lysand. the master ought certainly to have been mentioned before his pupil. old roger is one of my most favourite authors; and i wish english scholars in general not only to read his works frequently, but to imitate the terseness and perspicuity of his style. there is a great deal of information in his treatises, respecting the manners and customs of his times; and as dr. johnson has well remarked, "his philological learning would have gained him honour in any country."[ ] that he was an ardent bibliomaniac, his letters when upon the continent, are a sufficient demonstration. [footnote : roger ascham is now, i should hope, pretty firmly established among us as one of the very best classical writers in our language. nearly three centuries are surely sufficient to consecrate his literary celebrity. he is an author of a peculiar and truly original cast. there is hardly a dull page or a dull passage in his lucubrations. he may be thought, however, to have dealt rather harshly with our old romance writers; nor do i imagine that the original edition of his _schoolmaster_ ( ), would be placed by a _morte d'arthur_ collector alongside of his thin black-letter quarto romances. ascham's invectives against the italian school, and his hard-hearted strictures upon the innocent ebullitions of petrarch and boccaccio, have been noticed, with due judgment and spirit, by mr. burnet, in his pleasing analysis of our philosopher's works. see _specimens of english prose writers_; vol. ii., p. . our tutor's notions of academical education, and his courteous treatment of his royal and noble scholars, will be discoursed of anon; meantime, while we cursorily, but strongly, applaud dr. johnson's almost unqualified commendation of this able writer; and while the reader may be slightly informed of the elegance and interest of his epistles; let the bibliomaniac hasten to secure bennet's edition of ascham's works (which incorparates [transcriber's note: incorporates] the notes of upton upon the schoolmaster, with the life of, and remarks upon ascham, by dr. johnson), published in a handsome quarto volume [ ]. this edition, though rather common and cheap, should be carefully reprinted in an octavo volume; to harmonize with the greater number of our best writers published in the same form. but it is time to mention something of the author connected with the subject of this work. what relates to the bibliomania, i here select from similar specimens in his english letters, written when he was abroad: "oct. . at afternoon i went about the town [of bruxelles]. i went to the frier carmelites house, and heard their even song: after, i desired to see the library. a frier was sent to me, and led me into it. there was not one good book but _lyra_. the friar was learned, spoke latin readily, entered into greek, having a very good wit, and a greater desire to learning. he was gentle and honest," &c. pp. - . "oct. . to spira: a good city. here i first saw _sturmius de periodis_. i also found here _ajax_, _electra_, and _antigone_ of _sophocles_, excellently, by my good judgment, translated into verse, and fair printed this summer by gryphius. your stationers do ill, that at least do not provide you the register of all books, especially of old authors," &c., p. . again: "hieronimus wolfius, that translated demosthenes and isocrates, is in this town. i am well acquainted with him, and have brought him twice to my lord's to dinner. he looks very simple. he telleth me that one borrheus, that hath written well upon aristot. priorum, &c., even now is printing goodly commentaries upon aristotle's rhetoric. but sturmius will obscure them all." p. . these extracts are taken from bennet's edition. who shall hence doubt of the propriety of classing ascham among the most renowned bibliomaniacs of the age?] from the tutor of elizabeth let us go to her prime minister, cecil.[ ] we have already seen how successfully this great man interposed in matters of religion; it remains to notice his zealous activity in the cause of learning. and of this latter who can possibly entertain a doubt? who that has seen how frequently his name is affixed to dedications, can disbelieve that cecil was a lover of books? indeed i question whether it is inserted more frequently in a diplomatic document or printed volume. to possess all the presentation copies of this illustrious minister would be to possess an ample and beautiful library of the literature of the sixteenth century. [footnote : the reader, it is presumed, will not form his opinion of the bibliomaniacal taste of this great man, from the distorted and shameful delineation of his character, which, as a matter of curiosity only, is inserted at p. , ante. he will, on the contrary, look upon cecil as a lover of books, not for the sake of the numerous panegyrical dedications to himself, which he must have so satisfactorily perused, but for the sake of the good to be derived from useful and ingenious works. with one hand, this great man may be said to have wielded the courageous spirit, and political virtue, of his country--and with the other, to have directed the operations of science and literature. without reading the interesting and well-written life of cecil, in mr. macdiarmid's _lives of british statesmen_ (a work which cannot be too often recommended, or too highly praised), there is evidence sufficient of this statesman's bibliomaniacal passion and taste, in the fine old library which is yet preserved at burleigh in its legitimate form--and which, to the collector of such precious volumes, must have presented a treat as exquisite as are the fresh blown roses of june to him who regales himself in the flowery fragrance of his garden--the production of his own manual labour! indeed strypes tells us that cecil's "library was a very choice one:" his care being "in the preservation, rather than in the private possession of (literary) antiquities." among other curiosities in it, there was a grand, and a sort of presentation, copy of archbishop parker's latin work of the _antiquity of the british church_; "bound costly, and laid in colours the arms of the church of canterbury, empaled with the archbishop's own paternal coat." read strype's tempting description; _life of parker_; pp. , . well might grafton thus address cecil at the close of his epistolary dedication of his _chronicles_: "and now having ended this work, and seeking to whom i might, for testification of my special good-will, present it, or for patronage and defence dedicate it, and principally, for all judgment and correction to submit it--among many, i have chosen your mastership, moved thereto by experience of your courteous judgment towards those that travail to any honest purpose, rather helping and comforting their weakness, than condemning their simple, but yet well meaning, endeavours. by which, your accustomed good acceptation of others, i am the rather boldened to beseech your mastership to receive this my work and me, in such manner as you do those in whom (howsoever there be want of power) there wanteth no point of goodwill and serviceable affection." edit. , to. if a chronicler could talk thus, a poet (who, notwithstanding the title of his poem, does not, i fear, rank among pope's bards, that "sail aloft among _the swans of thames_,") may be permitted thus to introduce cecil's name and mansion: now see these swannes the new and worthie seate of famous cicill, treasorer of the land, whose wisedome, counsell skill of princes state the world admires, then swannes may do the same: the house itselfe doth shewe the owner's wit, and may for bewtie, state, and every thing, compared be with most within the land, vallan's _tale of two swannes_, , to., reprinted in _leland's itinerary_; vol. v. p. xiii, edit. .] but the book-loving propensities of elizabeth's minister were greatly eclipsed by those of her favourite archbishop, parker: clarum et venerabile nomen gentibus, et multum nostræ quod proderat urbi. for my part, lorenzo, i know of no character, either of this or of any subsequent period, which is more entitled to the esteem and veneration of englishmen. pious, diffident, frank, charitable, learned, and munificent, parker was the great episcopal star of his age, which shone with undiminished lustre to the last moment of its appearance. in that warm and irritable period, when the protestant religion was assailed in proportion to its excellence, and when writers mistook abuse for argument, it is delightful to think upon the mild and temperate course which this discreet metropolitan pursued! even with such arrant bibliomaniacs as yourselves, parker's reputation must stand as high as that attached to any name, when i inform you that of his celebrated work upon the "_antiquity of the british church_"[ ] are only twenty copies supposed to have been printed. he had a private press, which was worked with types cast at his own expense; and a more determined book-fancier, and treasurer of ancient lore, did not at that time exist in great britain. [footnote : this is not the place to enter minutely into a bibliographical account of the above celebrated work; such account being with more propriety reserved for the history of our _typographical antiquities_. yet a word or two may be here said upon it, in order that the bibliomaniac may not be wholly disappointed; and especially as ames and herbert have been squeamishly reserved in their comunications [transcriber's note: communications] respecting the same. the above volume is, without doubt, one of the scarcest books in existence. it has been intimated by dr. drake, in the preface of his magnificent reprint of it, , fol., that only copies were struck off: but, according to stype [transcriber's note: strype], parker tells cecil, in an emblazoned copy presented to him by the latter, that he had not given the book to _four_ men in the whole realm: and peradventure, added he, "it shall never come to sight abroad, though some men, smelling of the printing of it, were very desirous cravers of the same." _life of parker_, p. . this certainly does not prove any thing respecting the number of copies printed; but it is probable that dr. drake's supposition is not far short of the truth. one thing is remarkable: of all the copies known, no two are found to accord with each other. the archbishop seems to have altered and corrected the sheets as they each came from the press. the omission of the archbishop's own life in this volume, as it contained the biography of archbishops, exclusively of himself, was endeavoured to be supplied by the publication of a sharp satirical tract, entitled, "_the life off the archbishop of canterbury, presenttye sittinge englished, and to be added to the lately sett forth in latin_," &c., mo., . after this title page there is another. "_histriola, a little storye of the acts and life of mathew, now archbishoppe of canterb._" this latter comprehends leaves, and was written either by the archbishop himself, or by his chaplain joscelyne; but whether it be at all like a distinct printed folio tract, of twelve leaves and a half, which was kept carefully undispersed in the archbishop's own possession, 'till his death--being also a biography of parker--i am not able to ascertain. the following extracts from it (as it is a scarce little volume) may be acceptable, _archbishop parker's early studies and popular preaching._ "but now, he being very well and perfectly instructed in the liberal sciences, he applied all his mind to the study of divinity, and to the reading of the volumes of the ecclesiastical fathers; and that so earnestly that, in short space of time, he bestowed his labour not unprofitably in this behalf; for, after the space of four or five years, he, issuing from his secret and solitary study into open practice in the commonwealth, preached every where unto the people with great commendation; and that in the most famous cities and places of this realm, by the authority of king henry viii., by whose letters patent this was granted unto him, together with the license of the archbishop of canterbury. in execution of this function of preaching, he gained this commodity; that the fame of him came unto the ears of king henry," &c. sign. a. iij. recto. _his attention to literature and printing, &c._ "----he was very careful, and not without some charges, to seek the monuments of former times; to know the religion of the ancient fathers, and those especially which were of the english church. therefore in seeking up the chronicles of the britons and english saxons, which lay hidden every where contemned and buried in forgetfulness, and through the ignorance of the languages not well understanded, his own especially, and his mens, diligence wanted not. and to the end that these antiquities might last long, and be carefully kept, he caused them, being brought into one place, _to be well bound and trimly covered_. and yet, not so contented, he endeavoured to set out in print certain of those ancient monuments, whereof he knew very few examples to be extant; and which he thought would be most profitable for the posterity, to instruct them in the faith and religion of the elders. [orig. 'to instructe them in the faythe and religion off the elders.] hereupon, he caused the perpetual histories of the english affairs, by _mathæus parisiensis_, once a monk of saint alban's, and _mathæus florilegus_, a monk of saint peter in westminster, written in latin, to be printed; after he had diligently conferred them with the examples which he could get in any place; to the end that, as sincerely as might be, as the authors first left them, he might deliver them into other men's hands. lastly, that he might not be unmindful of those monuments which, both in antiquity, worthiness, and authority, excelled all other, or rather wherewith none are to be compared (i mean the holy scriptures) here he thought to do great good if, by his number, he increased the _holy bibles_, which shortly would be wanting to many churches, if this discommodity were not provided for in time. therefore it seemed good unto him, first, with his learned servants, to examine thoroughly the english translation; wherein he partly used the help of his brethren bishops, and other doctors; with whom he dealt so diligently in this matter that they disdained not to be partners and fellows with him of his labor. and now all their work is set out in very fair forms and letters of print," &c. sign. c. rect. & rev. _his work de antiquitate ecclesiæ britannicæ._ "----much more praiseworthy is she (the 'assyrian queen of babylon,') than he, whosoever it was, that of late hath set forth, to the hurt of christian men, certain rhapsodies and shreds of the old forworn stories, almost forgotten--had he not (parker) now lately awakened them out of a dead sleep, and newly sewed them together in one book printed; whose glorious life promiseth not mountains of gold, as that silly heathen woman's (the aforesaid queen) tomb, but beareth christ in the brow, and is honested with this title in the front, 'de antiquitate,' &c." sign. c. iiij. rev. the satirical part, beginning with "to the christian reader," follows the biography from which these extracts have been taken. it remains to observe, that our archbishop was a bibliomaniac of the very first order; and smitten with every thing attached to a book, to a degree beyond any thing exhibited by his contemporaries. parker did not scruple to tell cecil that he kept in his house "drawers of pictures, wood-cutters, painters, limners, writers, and book-binders,"--"one of these was lylye, an excellent writer, that could counterfeit any antique writing. him the archbishop customarily used to make old books compleat,"--&c. _strype's life of parker_; pp. , . such was his ardour for book-collecting that he had agents in almost all places, abroad and at home, for the purpose of securing everything that was curious, precious, and rare: and one of these, of the name of batman (i suppose the commentator upon bartholomæus) "in the space of no more than four years, procured for our archbishop to the number of books." _id._ p. . the riches of his book bequests to cambridge are sufficiently described by strype; pp. , , , , &c. the domestic habits and personal appearance of parker are described by his biographer (p. ) as being simple and grave. notwithstanding his aversion to wearing silk, to plays and jests, and hawks and hounds (even when he was a young man), i take it for granted he could have no inward dislike to the beautiful and appropriate ceremony which marked his consecration, and which is thus narrated by the lively pen of fuller: "the east part of the chapel of lambeth was hung with tapestry, the floor spread with red cloth, chairs and cushions are conveniently placed for the purpose: morning prayers being solemnly read by andrew peerson, the archbishop's chaplain, bishop scory went up into the pulpit, and took for his text, _the elders which are among you i exhort, who also am an elder; and a witness of the sufferings of christ, &c._ sermon ended, and the sacrament administered, they proceed to the consecration. the archbishop had his rochet on, with hereford; and the suffragan of bedford, chichester, wore a silk cope; and coverdale a plain cloth gown down to his ancles. all things are done conformable to the book of ordination: litany sung; the queen's patent for parker's consecration audibly read by dr. vale: he is presented: the oath of supremacy tendered to him; taken by him; hands reverently imposed on him; and all with prayers begun, continued, concluded. in a word, though here was no theatrical pomp to made it a popish pageant; though no sandals, gloves, ring, staff, oil, pall, &c., were used upon him--yet there was ceremony enough to clothe his consecration with decency, though not to clog it with superstition." _church history_, b. ix., p. . but the virtues of the primate, however mild and unostentatious, were looked upon with an envious eye by the maligant observer of human nature; and the spontaneous homage which he received from some of the first noblemen in the realm was thus lampooned in the satirical composition just before noticed: _homage and tribute paid to archbishop parker._ "the next is, what great tributes every made bishop paid him. how they entertained his whole household or court, for the time, with sumptuous feasting. how dearly they redeemed their own cloaths, and carpets, at his chaplain's hands. what fees were bestowed on his crucifer, marshall, and other servants. all which plentiful bounty, or rather, he might have said, largess, is shrunk up, he saith, to a small sum of ten pounds, somewhat beside, but very small, bestowed, he might have said cast away, upon the archbishop's family, &c.--the same earl (of gloucester) must be his steward and chief cupbearer, the day of his inthronization: this is not to be called gracious lords, as the lords of the earth, but this is to be beyond all grace; and to be served of these gracious lords, and to be their lord paramount. in this roll of his noble tenants, the next are the lord strangways, the earl of oxford, the lord dacy, all which (saith he) owe service to that archbishop. then descendeth he to the gifts that every his suffragan provincial bishop bestoweth on him, in their life, and at their death: some their palfrey with saddle and furniture; some their rings, and some their seals. among the rest, the bishop of rochester, who is there called specially his chaplain, giveth him a brace of dogs. these be trim things for prelates to give or receive; especially of them to make such account as to print them among such special prerogatives." sign. d. iiij. v. yet even to this libel was affixed the following epitaph upon parker; which shews that truth "is great, and will prevail." matthew parker liued sober and wise learned by studie, and continuall practise, louinge, true, off life uncontrold the courte did foster him, both young and old. orderly he delt, the ryght he did defend, he lyved unto god, to god he mad his ende. let us take leave of this amiable, erudite, and truly exemplary, character, by contemplating his features--according to the ensuing cut of tyson's fac-simile of the rare ancient print, prefixed to some of the copies of the _antiquity of the british church_; premising that the supposed original painting of parker, at benet college, cambridge, is nothing more than one of the aforesaid ancient prints, delicately coloured: as a tasteful antiquary, of the first authority, discovered, and mentioned to me. [illustration]] phil. you have called the reign of henry the seventh the augustan-book-age; but, surely, this distinction is rather due to the æra of queen elizabeth? lysand. both periods merit the appellation. in henry's time, the invention of printing was of early growth; but the avidity of readers considerable. the presses of rome, venice, and paris, sent forth their costly productions; and a new light, by such means, was poured upon the darkened mind. our own presses began to contribute to the diffusion of this light; and, compared with the preceding part of the fifteenth century, the reign of henry vii. was highly distinguished for its bibliomaniacal celebrity. undoubtedly, the æra of queen elizabeth was the golden age of bibliomaniacism. do not let me forget, in my rambling method of treating of books and book-men, the name and celebrity of the renowned dr. john dee. let us fancy we see him in his conjuring cap and robes--surrounded with astrological, mathematical, and geographical instruments--with a profusion of chaldee characters inscribed upon vellum rolls--and with his celebrated _glass_ suspended by magical wires. let us then follow him into his study at midnight, and view him rummaging his books; contemplating the heavens; making calculations; holding converse with invisible spirits; writing down their responses: anon, looking into his correspondence with _count a lasco_ and the emperors adolphus and maximilian; and pronouncing himself, with the most heartfelt complacency, the greatest genius of his age![ ] in the midst of these self-complacent reveries, let us imagine we see his wife and little ones intruding; beseeching him to burn his books and instruments; and reminding him that there was neither a silver spoon, nor a loaf of bread, in the cupboard. alas, poor dee!--thou wert the dupe of the people and of the court: and, although meric casaubon has enshrined thy conjurations in a pompous folio volume, thy name, i fear, will only live in the memory of bibliomaniacs! [footnote : those who are fond of copious biographical details of astrologers and conjurers will read, with no small pleasure and avidity, the long gossipping account of dee, which hearne has subjoined to his edition of _john confrat. monach. de rebus gestis glaston._, vol. ii.; where twelve chapters are devoted to the subject of our philosopher's travels and hardships. meric casaubon--who put forth a pompous folio volume of "_a true and faithful relation of what passed for many yeers between dr. john dee and some spirits_:" --gravely assures us, in an elaborate, learned, and rather amusing preface, that the volume contains what "he thinks is not to be paralleled in that kind by any book that hath been set out in any age to read:" sign a. this is true enough; for such a farago of incongruous, risible, and horrible events, are no where else recorded. "none but itself can be its parallel." casaubon wrote a professed dissertation ( , vo.) upon witches, and nothing seemed to be too unpalatable for his credulity to swallow. a compressed and rather interesting account of dee, who was really the weakest as well as the ablest scholar and philosopher of his day, will be found in ashmole's _theatrum chemicum_, p. . from the substance of these authorities, the reader is presented with the following sketch. the first chapter in hearne's publication, which treats of the "entrance and ground plot of his first studies," informs us that he had received his latin education in london and chelmsford: that he was born in july, , and at years of age was entered at the university of cambridge, . in the three following years, "so vehemently was he bent to study that, for those years, he did inviolably keep this order; only to sleep hours every night; to allow to meat and drink (and some refreshing after) hours every day; and of the other hours, all (excepting the time of going to, and being at, divine service) was spent in his studies and learning." in may, , after having taken his bachelor's decree, he went abroad. "and after some months spent about the low countries, he returned home, and brought with him the first astronomer's staff in brass, that was made of gemma frisius devising; the two great globes of gerardus mercator's making, and the astronomer's ring of brass, as gemma frisius had newly framed it." dee's head now began to run wild upon astronomy, or rather astrology; and the tremendous assistance of the "occult art" was called in to give effect to the lectures which he read upon it at home and abroad. "he did set forth (and it was seen of the university) a greek comedy of aristophanes, named, in greek, [greek: eirênê], in latin, _pax_; with the performance of the _scarabæus_ his flying up to jupiter's palace, with a man and his basket of victuals on his back: whereat was great wondering and many vain reports spread abroad of the means how that was effected. in that college (trinity, for he had now left st. john's), by his advice and endeavours, was their christmas magistrate first named and confirmed an emperor." the first emperor of this sort, (whose _name_, it must be confessed, is rather unpopular in a university) he takes care to inform us, "was one mr. thomas _dun_, a very goodly man of person, stature, and complexion, and well learned also." dee afterwards ranks these things among "his boyish attempts and exploits scholastical." in he was made master of arts, and in the same year "went over beyond the seas again, and never after that was any more student in cambridge." abroad, almost every emperor and nobleman of distinction, according to his own account, came to see and hear him. "for recreation, he looked into the method of the civil law, and profitted therein so much that, in _antinomiis_, imagined to be in the law, he had good hap to find out (well allowed of) their agreements; and also to enter into a plain and due understanding of diverse civil laws, accounted very intricate and dark." at paris, when he gave lectures upon euclid's elements, "a thing never done publicly in any university in christendom, his auditory in rhemes college was so great, and the most part elder than himself, that the mathematical schools could not hold them; for many were fain, without the schools, at the windows, to be _auditores et spectatores_, as they could best help themselves thereto. and by the first four principal definitions representing to their eyes (which by imagination only are exactly to be conceived) a greater wonder arose among the beholders than of his _aristophanes scarabæus_ mounting up to the top of trinity hall, _ut supra_." notwithstanding the tempting offers to cause him to be domiciled in france and germany, our astrologer, like a true patriot, declined them all. the french king offered an annual stipend of french crowns; a monsieur babeu, monsieur de rohan, and monsieur de monluc, offered still greater sums, but were all refused. in germany he was tempted with the yearly salary of dollars; "and lastly, by a messenger from the russie or muscovite emperor, purposely sent with a very rich present unto him at trebona castle, and with provision for the whole journey (being above miles from the castle where he lay) of his coming to his court at moscow, with his wife, children, and whole family, there to enjoy at his imperial hands lib. sterling yearly stipend; and of his protector yearly a thousand rubles; with his diet also to be allowed him free out of the emperor's own kitchen: and to be in dignity with authority amongst the highest sort of the nobility there, and of his privy counsellors."--but all this was heroically declined by our patriotic philosopher. lord pembroke and lord leicester introduced dee to the notice of q. elizabeth, before her coronation. at which time her majesty used these words--"_where my brother hath given him a crown, i will give him a noble!_" before the accession of elizabeth, he was imprisoned on being accused of destroying queen mary by enchantment. "the queen elizabeth herself became a prisoner in the same place (hampton court) shortly afterwards; and dee had for bedfellow one barthelet green, who was afterwards burnt." dee himself was examined by bishop bonner. on the deanery of gloucester becoming void in , dee was nominated to fill it: but the same deanery was afterwards bestowed on mr. man, who was sent into spain in her majesty's service. "and now this lent, , when it became void again (says dee), i made a motion for it, but i came too late; for one that might spend or lib. a year already, had more need of it than i belike; or else this former gift was but words only to me, and the fruit ever due to others, that can espy and catch better than i for these years could do." mistris blanche à parry came to his house with an offer from the queen of "any ecclesiastical dignity within her kingdom, being then, or shortly becoming, void and vacant"--but "dee's most humble and thankful answer to her majesty, by the same messenger, was that _cura animarum annexa_ did terrifie him to deal with." he was next promised to "have of her majesty's gift other ecclesiastical livings and revenues (without care of souls annexed) as in her majesty's books were rated at two hundred pounds yearly revenue; of which her majesty's gift he never as yet had any one penny." in oct. , he had a consultation with mr. doctor bayly, her majesty's physician, "about her majestie's grievous pangs and pains by reason of the toothake and rheum," &c. "he set down in writing, with hydrographical and geographical description, what he then had to say or shew, as concerning her majesty's title royal to any foreign countries. whereof two parchment great rolls full written, of about xii white vellum skins, were good witnesses upon the table before the commissioners." dee had refused an hundred pounds for these calligraphical labours. a list of his printed and unprinted works: the former (ending with the year ), the latter (ending with the year ), in number. anno , julii ultimo, the earl of leicester and lord laskey invited themselves to dine with dee in a day or two; but our astrologer "confessed sincerely that he was not able to prepare them a convenient dinner, unless he should presently sell some of his plate or some of his pewter for it. whereupon," continues dee, "her majesty sent unto me very royally within one hour after forty angels of gold, from sion; whither her majesty was now come by water from greenwich." a little before christmas, , dee mentions a promise of another royal donation of _l._--"which intent and promise, some once or twice after, as he came in her majesty's sight, she repeated unto him; and thereupon sent unto him _fifty pounds_ to keep his christmas with that year--but what, says he, is become of the other fifty, truly i cannot tell! if her majesty can, it is sufficient; '_satis, citò, modò, satis bene_, must i say.'" in , his patroness, the countess of warwick, made a powerful diversion at court to secure for him the mastership of st. cross, then filled by dr. bennet, who was to be made a bishop.--the queen qualified her promise of dee's having it with a nota bene, _if he should be fit for it_. in , the archbishop of canterbury openly "affirmed that the mastership of st. crosse was a living most fit for him; and the lord treasurer, at hampton court, lately to himself declared, and with his hand very earnestly smitten on his breast used these very words to him--'_by my faith_, if her majestie be moved in it by any other for you, i will do what i can with her majestie to pleasure you therein, mr. dee.'" but it is time to gratify the bibliomaniac with something more to his palate. here followeth, therefore, as drawn up by our philosopher himself, an account of dee's library: " _volumes_--printed and unprinted--bound and unbound--valued at _lib._ greek, french, and high dutch, volumes of mss., alone worth _lib._ years in getting these books together." appertaining thereto, _sundry rare and exquisitely made mathematical instruments._ _a radius astronomicus_, ten feet long. _a magnet stone, or loadstone_; of great virtue--"which was sold out of the library for _v shill._ and for it afterwards (yea piece-meal divided) was more than xx _lib._ given in money and value." "_a great case or frame of boxes_, wherein some hundreds of very rare evidences of divers irelandish territories, provinces, and lands, were laid up. which territories, provinces, and lands were therein notified to have been in the hands of some of the ancient irish princes. then, their submissions and tributes agreed upon, with seals appendant to the little writings thereof in parchment: and after by some of those evidences did it appear how some of those lands came to the lascies, the mortuomars, the burghs, the clares," &c. "_a box of evidences_ antient of some welch princes and noblemen--the like of norman donation--their peculiar titles noted on the forepart with chalk only, which on the poor boxes remaineth." this box, with another, containing similar deeds, were embezzled. "one great bladder with about pound weight, of a very sweetish thing, like a brownish gum in it, artificially prepared by thirty times purifying of it, hath more than i could well afford him for crownes; as may be proved by witnesses yet living." to these he adds his _three laboratories_, "serving for pyrotechnia"--which he got together after years' labour. "all which furniture and provision, and many things already prepared, is unduly made away from me by sundry meanes, and a few spoiled or broken vessels remain, hardly worth shillings." but one more feature in poor dee's character--and that is his unparalleled serenity and good nature under the most griping misfortunes--remains to be described: and then we may take farewell of him, with aching hearts. in the th chapter, speaking of the wretched poverty of himself and family--("having not one penny of certain fee, revenue, stipend, or pension, either left him or restored unto him,")--dee says that "he has been constrained now and then to send parcels of his little furniture of plate to pawn upon usury; and that he did so oft, till no more could be sent. after the same manner went his wives' jewels of gold, rings, bracelets, chains, and other their rarities, under the thraldom of the usurer's gripes: 'till _non plus_ was written upon the boxes at home." in the th chapter, he anticipates the dreadful lot of being brought "to the stepping out of doors (his house being sold). he, and his, with bottles and wallets furnished, to become wanderers as homish vagabonds; or, as banished men, to forsake the kingdom!" again: "with bloody tears of heart, he, and his wife, their seven children, and their servant (seventeen of them in all), did that day make their petition unto their honours," &c. can human misery be sharper than this--and to be the lot of a philosopher and bibliomaniac?! but "veniet felicius Ævum."] of a wholly different cast of character and of reading was the renowned captain cox of coventry. how many of dee's magical books he had exchanged for the pleasanter magic of _old ballads_ and _romances_, i will not take upon me to say; but that this said bibliomaniacal captain had a library, which, even from master laneham's imperfect description of it,[ ] i should have preferred to the four thousand volumes of dr. john dee, is most nuquestionable [transcriber's note: unquestionable]. [footnote : let us be introduced to the sprightly figure and expression of character of this renowned coventry captain, before we speak particularly of his library. "captain cox (says the above-mentioned master laneham) came marching on valiantly before, clean trust and gartered above the knee, all fresh in a velvet cap (master golding a lent it him), flourishing with his _ton_ sword; and another fence master with him:" p. . a little before, he is thus described as connected with his library: "and first, captain cox; an odd man, i promise you: by profession a mason, and that right skilful: very cunning in fens (fencing); and hardy as gawin; for his _ton_ sword hangs at his table's end. great oversight hath he in matters of story: for as for _king arthur's_ book, _huon of bourdeaux_, the _four sons of aymon_, _bevys of hampton_, _the squyre of low degree_, _the knight of curtsy_, and the _lady fagnel_, _frederick of gene_, _syr eglamour_, _syr tryamour_, _syr lamurell_, _syr isenbras_, _syr gawyn_, _olyver of the castl_, _lucres and eurialus_, _virgil's life_, _the castl of ladies_, _the widow edyth_, _the king and the tanner_, _frier rous_, _howleglas_, _gargantua_, _robin hood_, _adam bel_, _clim on the clough_, and _william of cloudsley_, _the churl and the burd_, _the seaven wise masters_, _the wife lapt in a morel's skin_, _the sakful of nuez_, _the sergeaunt that became a fryar_, _skogan_, _collyn cloout_, _the fryar and the boy_, _elynor rumming_, and _the nutbrooun maid_, with many more than i rehearse here. i believe he has them all at his finger's ends," p. . the preceding is a list of the worthy captain's romances; some of which, at least in their original shape, were unknown to ritson: what would be the amount of their present produce under the hammer of those renowned black-letter-book auctioneers in king-street, covent garden--? speak we, in the next place, of the said military bibliomaniac's collection of books in "philosophy moral and natural." "beside _poetry_ and _astronomy_, and other hid sciences, as i may guess by the omberty of his books: whereof part are, as i remember, _the shepherd's kalendar_, _the ship of fools_, _daniel's dreams_, _the book of fortune_, _stans_, _puer ad mensam_, _the bye way to the spitl-house_, _julian of brainford's testament_, _the castle of love_, _the booget of demaunds_, _the hundred mery talez_, _the book of riddels_, _the seaven sorows of wemen_, _the proud wives' pater-noster_, _the chapman of a penniworth of wit_: beside his auncient plays; _youth and charitee_, _hikskorner_, _nugize_, _impacient poverty_, and herewith doctor _boord's breviary of health_. what should i rehearse here, what a bunch of ballads and songs, all ancient?!--here they come, gentle reader; lift up thine eyen and marvel while thou dost peruse the same: _broom broom on hill_, _so wo iz me begon_, _trolly lo over a whinny meg_, _hey ding a ding_, _bony lass upon a green_, _my bony on gave me a bek_, _by a bank az i lay_; and _two more_ he hath fair wrapt up in parchment, and bound with a whipcord!" it is no wonder that ritson, in the historical essay prefixed to his collection of _scottish songs_, should speak of some of these ballads with a zest as if he would have sacrificed half his library to untie the said "whipcord" packet. and equally joyous, i ween, would my friend mr. r.h. evans, of pall-mall, have been--during his editorial labours in publishing a new edition of his father's collection of ballads--(an edition, by the bye, which gives us more of the genuine spirit of the coxean collection than any with which i am acquainted)--equally joyous would mr. evans have been to have had the inspection of some of these 'bonny' songs. the late duke of roxburgh, of never-dying bibliomaniacal celebrity, would have parted with half the insignia of his order of the garter to have obtained _clean original copies_ of these fascinating effusions! but let us return, and take farewell of captain cox, by noticing only the remaining department of his library, as described by laneham. "as for almanacs of antiquity (a point for ephemerides) i ween he can shew from _jasper laet of antwerp_, unto _nostradam of frauns_, and thence unto our _john securiz of salisbury_. to stay ye no longer herein (concludes laneham) i dare say he hath as fair a library of these sciences, and as many goodly monuments both in prose and poetry, and at afternoon can talk as much without book, as any innholder betwixt brentford and bagshot, what degree soever he be." _a letter wherein part of the entertainment untoo the queenz majesty at killingwoorth castl in warwick-sheer, in this soomerz progrest, , is signefied_: warwick, , vo. o rare captain cox!] we now approach two characters of a more dignified cast; and who, in every respect, must be denominated the greatest bibliomaniacs of the age: i mean sir robert cotton and sir thomas bodley. we will touch upon them separately. the numerous relics which are yet preserved of the _cottonian collection_, may serve to convey a pretty strong idea of its splendour and perfection in its original shape. cotton had all the sagacity and judgment of lord coke, with a more beautifully polished mind, and a more benevolent heart. as to books, and book men, he was the mecænas[ ] of his day. his thirst for knowledge could never be satiated; and the cultivation of the mind upon the foundation of a good heart, he considered to be the highest distinction, and the most permanent delight, of human beings. wealth, pomp, parade, and titles, were dissipated, in the pure atmosphere of his mind before the invigorating sun of science and learning. he knew that the tomb which recorded the _worth_ of the deceased had more honest tears shed upon it than the pompous mausoleum which spoke only of his pedigree and possessions. accordingly, although he had excellent blood flowing in his veins, cotton sought connection with the good rather than with the great; and where he found a cultivated understanding, and an honest heart, there he carried with him his _lares_, and made another's abode his own. [footnote : there are few eminent characters of whom so many, and such ably-executed, memoirs are extant as of sir robert cotton, knt. in the present place we have nothing to do with his academical studies, his philosophical, or legislative, or diplomatic, labours: literature and _book madness_ are our only subjects of discussion. yet those who may wish for more general, and possibly more interesting, details, may examine the authorities referred to by mr. planta in his very excellent _catalogue of the mss. in the cottonian library_, , folio. sir robert cotton was educated at trinity-college, cambridge. the number of curious volumes, whether in the roman, gothic, or italic type, which he in all probability collected during his residence at the university, has not yet been ascertained; but we know that, when he made his antiquarian tour with the famous camden, ("par nobile fratrum!") in his th year, cotton must have greatly augmented his literary treasures, and returned to the metropolis with a sharpened appetite, to devour every thing in the shape of a book. respected by three sovereigns, elizabeth, james, and charles, and admired by all the literati in europe, sir robert saw himself in as eminent a situation as wealth, talents, taste, and integrity can place an individual. his collection of books increased rapidly; but ms. records, deeds, and charters, were the chief objects of his pursuit. his mansion was noble, his library extensive, and his own manners such as conciliated the esteem of almost every one who approached him. dr. smith has well described our illustrious bibliomaniac, at this golden period of his life: "ad cottoni ædes, tanquam ad communem reconditioris doctrinæ apothecam, sive ad novam academiam, quotquot animo paulo erectiori musis et gratiis litaverint, sese recepere, nullam a viro humanissimo repulsam passuri: quippe idem literas bonas promovendi studium erat omni auctoramento longe potentius. nec ista obvia morum facilitas, qua omnes bonos eruditionisque candidatos complexus est, quicquam reverentiæ qua vicissim ille colebatur, detraxerat: potius, omnium, quos familiari sermone, repititisque colloquiis dignari placuit, in se amores et admirationem hac insigni naturæ benignitate excitavit." vit. rob. cottoni, p. xxiv., prefixed to the _catalogus librorum manuscriptorum bibl. cott._, , folio. sir robert was, however, doomed to have the evening of his life clouded by one of those crooked and disastrous events, of which it is now impossible to trace the correct cause, or affix the degree of ignominy attached to it, on the head of its proper author. human nature has few blacker instances of turpitude on record than that to which our knight fell a victim. in the year , some wretch communicated to the spanish ambassador "the valuable state papers in his library, who caused them to be copied and translated into the spanish:" these papers were of too much importance to be made public; and james the st had the meanness to issue a commission "which excluded sir robert from his own library." the storm quickly blew over, and the sunshine of cotton's integrity diffused around its wonted brilliancy. but in the year , another mischievous wretch propagated a report that sir robert had been privy to a treasonable publication: because, forsooth, the original tract, from which this treasonable one had been taken, was, in the year , without the knowledge of the owner of the library, introduced into the cottonian collection. this wretch, under the abused title of librarian, had, "for pecuniary considerations," the baseness to suffer one or more copies of the pamphlet of (writtten [transcriber's note: written] at florence by dudley, duke of northumberland, under a less offensive title) to be taken, and in consequence printed. sir robert was therefore again singled out for royal vengeance: his library was put under sequestration; and the owner forbidden to enter it. it was in vain that his complete innocence was vindicated. to deprive such a man as cotton of the ocular and manual comforts of his library--to suppose that he could be happy in the most splendid drawing room in europe, without his books--is to suppose what our experience of virtuous bibliomaniacs will not permit us to accede to. in consequence, sir robert declared to his friends, "that they had broken his heart who had locked up his library from him:" which declaration he solemnly repeated to the privy council. in the year , this great and good man closed his eyes for ever upon mortal scenes; upon those whom he gladdened by his benevolence, and improved by his wisdom. such was the man, of whom gale has thus eloquently spoken:--"quisquis bona fide historiam nostram per omne ævum explicare sataget, nullum laudatum scriptorem à se desiderari exoptarique posse, quem cottonianus ille incomparabilis thesaurus promptissime non exhibebit: ea est, et semper fuit, nobilis domus ergo literatos indulgentia--hujus fores (ut illæ musaram, apud pindarum) omnibus patent. testes apello theologos, antiquarios, jurisconsultos, bibliopolas; qui quidem omnes, ex cottoniana bibliotheca, tanquam ex perenni, sed et communi fonte, sine impensis et molestiâ, abundè hauserunt." _rer. anglic. script. vet._, vol. i., præf., p. . the loss of such a character--the deprivation of such a patron--made the whole society of book-collectors tremble and turn pale. men began to look sharply into their libraries, and to cast a distrustful eye upon those who came to consult and to copy: for the spirit of cotton, like the ghost of hamlet's father, was seen to walk, before cock-crow, along the galleries and balconies of great collections, and to bid the owners of them "remember and beware"!--but to return. the library of this distinguished bibliomaniac continued under sequestration some time after his death, and was preserved entire, with difficulty, during the shock of the civil wars. in the year , it was removed to essex house, in essex-street, strand, where it continued till the year , when it was conveyed back to westminster, and deposited in little dean's yard. in october, , broke out that dreadful fire, which hearne (_benedict. abbat._, vol. i., præf. p. xvi.) so pathetically deplores; and in which the nation so generally sympathized--as it destroyed and mutilated many precious volumes of this collection. out of volumes, were destroyed, and damaged. in the year the library, to the honour of the age, and as the only atonement which could be made to the injured name of cotton, as well as to the effectual _laying_ of his perturbed spirit--was purchased by parliament, and transported within the quiet and congenial abode of the british museum: and here may it rest, unabused, for revolving ages! the collection now contains , articles. consult mr. planta's neatly written preface to the catalogue of the same; vide p. , , ante. and thus take we leave of the ever-memorable bibliomaniac, sir robert cotton, knt.] equally celebrated for literary zeal, and yet more for bibliomaniacal enthusiasm, was the famous sir thomas bodley; whose account of himself, in _prince's worthies of devon_, and particularly in one of _hearne's publications_,[ ] can never be read without transport by an affectionate son of our oxford _alma mater_. view this illustrious bibliomaniac, with his gentleman-like air, and expressive countenance, superintending, with the zeal of a custom-house officer, the shipping, or rather _barging_, of his books for the grand library which is now called by his own name! think upon his activity in writing to almost every distinguished character of the realm: soliciting, urging, arguing, entreating for their support towards his magnificent establishment; and, moreover, superintending the erection of the building, as well as examining the timbers, with the nicety of a master-carpenter!--think of this; and when you walk under the grave and appropriately-ornamented roof, which tells you that you are within the precincts of the bodleian library, pay obeisance to the portrait of the founder, and hold converse with his gentle spirit that dwells therein! [footnote : there are few subjects--to the bibliomaniac in general--and particularly to one, who, like the author of this work, numbers himself among the dutiful sons of the fair oxonian mother--that can afford a higher gratification than the history of the bodleian library, which, like virgil's description of fame, "soon grew from pigmy to gigantic size." the reader is therefore here informed, as a necessary preliminary piece of intelligence, that the present note will be more monstrous than any preceding one of a similar nature. let him, however, take courage, and only venture to dip his feet in the margin of the lake, and i make little doubt but that he will joyfully plunge in, and swim across it. of the parentage, birth, and education of bodley there seems to be no necessity for entering into the detail. the monument which he has erected to his memory is lofty enough for every eye to behold; and thereupon may be read the things most deserving of being known. how long the subject of his beloved library had occupied his attention it is perhaps of equal difficulty and unimportance to know; but his determination to carry this noble plan into effect is thus pleasingly communicated to us by his own pen: "when i had, i say, in this manner, represented to my thoughts, my peculiar estate, i resolved thereupon to possess my soul in peace all the residue of my days; to take my full farewell of state employments; to satisfy my mind with that mediocrity of worldly living that i have of my own, and so to retire me from the court; which was the epilogue and end of all my actions and endeavours, of any important note, till i came to the age of fifty-three years."--"examining exactly, for the rest of my life, what course i might take; and, having, as i thought, sought all the ways to the wood, i concluded, at the last, to set up my staff at the library door in oxon, being thoroughly persuaded, in my solitude and surcease from the commonwealth affairs, i could not busy myself to better purpose than by reducing that place (which then in every part lay ruinated and waste) to the public use of students." prince's _worthies of devon_, p. , edit. . such being the reflections and determination of sir thomas bodley, he thus ventured to lay open his mind to the heads of the university of oxford: "_to the vice-chancellor (dr. ravis) of oxon; about restoring the public library._ (this letter was published in a convocation holden march , ) sir, although you know me not, as i suppose, yet for the farthering an offer, of evident utility, to your whole university, i will not be too scrupulous in craving your assistance. i have been always of a mind that, if god, of his goodness, should make me able to do any thing, for the benefit of posterity, i would shew some token of affection, that i have ever more borne, to the studies of good learning. i know my portion is too slender to perform, for the present, any answerable act to my willing disposition: but yet, to notify some part of my desire in that behalf, i have resolved thus to deal. where there hath been heretofore a public library in oxford, which, you know, is apparent by the room itself remaining, and by your statute records, i will take the charge and cost upon me to reduce it again to his former use: and to make it fit and handsome, with seats, and shelves, and desks, and all that may be needfull, to stir up other men's benevolence, to help to furnish it with books. and this i purpose to begin, as soon as timber can be gotten, to the intent that you may reap some speedy profit of my project. and where before, as i conceive, it was to be reputed but a store of books of divers benefactors, because it never had any lasting allowance, for augmentation of the number, or supply of books decayed: whereby it came to pass that, when those that were in being were either wasted or embezelled, the whole foundation came to ruin:--to meet with that inconvenience, i will so provide hereafter (if god do not hinder my present design) as you shall be still assured of a standing annual rent, to be disbursed every year in buying of books, in officers' stipends, and other pertinent occasions, with which provision, and some order for the preservation of the place, and of the furniture of it, from accustomed abuses, it may, perhaps, in time to come, prove a notable treasure for the multitude of volumes; an excellent benefit for the use and ease of students; and a singular ornament in the university. i am, therefore, to intreat you, because i will do nothing without their public approbation, to deliver this, that i have signified, in that good sort, that you think meet: and when you please to let me know their acceptation of my offer, i will be ready to effect it with all convenient expedition. but, for the better effecting of it, i do desire to be informed whether the university be sufficiently qualified, by licence of mortmain, or other assurance, to receive a farther grant of any rent or annuity than they do presently enjoy. and, if any instruments be extant of the ancient donations to their former library, i would, with their good liking, see a transcript of them: and likewise of such statutes as were devised by the founders, or afterwards by others for the usage of the books. which is now as much as i can think on, whereunto, at your good leisure, i would request your friendly answer. and, if it lie in my ability to deserve your pains in that behalf, although we be not yet acquainted, you shall find me very forward. from london, feb. , . your affectionate friend, tho. bodley." in the easter following, "mr. bodley came to oxford to view the place on which he intended his bounty, and making them a model of the design with the help of mr. saville, warden of merton college, ordered that the room, or place of stowage, for books, should be new planked, and that benches and repositories fo [transcriber's note: for] books should be set up." wood's _annals of the university_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . the worthy founder then pursued his epistolary intercourse with the vice-chancellor: "_to mr. vice chancellor._ sir, i find myself greatly beholden unto you for the speed that you have used in proposing my offer to the whole university, which i also hear by divers friends was greatly graced in their meeting with your courteous kind speeches. and though their answer of acceptance were over thankful and respective; yet i take it unto me for a singular comfort, that it came for that affection, whose thanks in that behalf i do esteem a great deal more than they have reason to esteem a far better offer. in which respect i have returned my dutiful acknowledgement, which i beseech you to present, when you shall call a convocation, about some matter of greater moment. because their letter was in _latin_, methought it did enforce me not to show myself a truant, by attempting the like, with a pen out of practice: which yet i hope they will excuse with a kind construction of my meaning. and to the intent they may perceive that my good will is as forward to perform as to promise, and that i purpose to shew it to their best contentation, i do hold it very requisite that some few should be deputed by the rest of the house to consider, for the whole, of the fittest kind of facture of desks, and other furniture; and when i shall come to oxford, which i determine, god willing, some time before easter, i will then acquaint the self same parties with some notes of a platform, which i and mr. savile have conceived here between us: so that, meeting altogether, we shall soon resolve upon the best, as well for shew, and stately form, as for capacity and strength, and commodity of students. of this my motion i would pray you to take some notice in particular, for that my letter herewith to your public assembly doth refer itself in part to your delivery of my mind. my chiefest care is now, the while, how to season my timber as soon as possible. for that which i am offered by the special favour of merton college, although it were felled a great while since, yet of force it will require, after time it is sawed, a convenient seasoning; least by making too much haste, if the shelves and seats should chance to warp, it might prove to be an eye sore, and cost in a manner cast away. to gain some time in that regard, i have already taken order for setting sawyers a-work, and for procuring besides all other materials; wherein my diligence and speed shall bear me witness of my willingness to accomplish all that i pretend, to every man's good liking. and thus i leave and commend you to god's good tuition. from london, march , -- your assured to use in all your occasions, tho. bodley." neither this nor the preceding letter are published in mr. gutch's valuable edition of wood's original text: but are to be found, as well as every other information here subjoined, in hearne's edition of _joh. confrat. &c., de reb. glaston._, vol. ii., pp. to . we will next peruse the curious list of the first benefactors to the bodleian library. _my lord of essex_: about volumes: greater part in folio. _my lord chamberlain_: volumes, all in a manner new bound, with his arms, and a great part in folio. _the lord montacute_: costly great volumes, in folio; all bought of set purpose, and fairly bound with his arms. _the lord lumley_: volumes in folio. _sir robert sidney_: new volumes in folio, to the value of one hundred pounds, being all very fair, and especially well bound with his arms. _merton college_: volumes of singular good books in folio, &c. _mr. philip scudamor_: volumes: greatest part in folio. _mr. william gent_: volumes at the least. _mr. lawrence bodley_: very fair and new bought books in folio. (there were seven other donations--in money, from to _l._) another list of benefactors; read in convocation, july , . _sir john fortescue, knt._: volumes: of which there are greek mss. of singular worth. _mr. jo. crooke_: recorder of the city of london: good volumes; of which are in folio. _mr. henry savile_: all the greek interpreters upon aust(in). _mr. william gent, of glocester hall_: volumes; of which there are in folio. _mr. thomas allen, of do._, hath given rare mss., with a purpose to do more, and hath been ever a most careful provoker and solicitor of sundry great persons to become benefactors. _mr. william camden_, by his office _clarentius_: volumes; of which are manuscripts. _mr. thomas james, of new college_: volumes: almost all in folio, and sundry good manuscripts. with about other donations, chiefly in money. to dr. raves, vice-chanc. (read in convoc. may , .) a yet larger, and more complete, list will be found in mr. gutch's publication of wood's text. let us next observe how this distinguished bibliomaniac seized every opportunity--laying embargoes upon barges and carriages--for the conveyance of his book-treasures. the ensuing is also in mr. gutch's work: "_to the right w. mr. d. king, dean of christ-church, and vice-chancellor of the university of oxon, or, in his absence, to his deputies there._ (read in convocation, july , .) sir, i have sent down, by a western barge, all the books that i have of this year's collection, which i have requested mr. james, and other of my friends, to see safely brought from burcote, and placed in the library. sir francis vere hath sent me this year his accustomed annual gift of ten pounds. the lady mary vere, wife to sir horace vere, in the time of her widowhood (for so she is desired it should be recorded), being called mrs. hoby, of hales, in gloucestershire, hath given twenty pound. (he then enumerates about other donations, and thus goes on:) thus i thought meet to observe my yearly custom, in acquainting the university with the increase of their store: as my care shall be next, and that very shortly, to endow them with that portion of revenue and land that i have provided, whensoever god shall call me, for the full defraying of any charge that, by present likelihood, the conservation of the books, and all needful allowances to the keeper and others, may from time to time require. i will send you, moreover, a draught of certain statutes, which i have rudely conceived about the employment of that revenue, and for the government of the library: not with any meaning that they should be received, as orders made by me (for it shall appear unto you otherwise) but as notes and remembrances to abler persons, whom hereafter you may nominate (as i will also then request you) to consider of those affairs, and so frame a substantial form of government, sith that which is a foot is in many thinges defective for preservation of the library: for i hold it altogether fitting that the university convocation should be always possessed of an absolute power to devise any statutes, and of those to alter as they list, when they find an occasion of evident utility. but of these and other points, when i send you my project, i will both write more of purpose, and impart unto you freely my best cogitations, being evermore desirous, whatsoever may concern your public good, to procure and advance it so, to the uttermost of my power: as now in the meanwhile, reminding unto you my fervent affection, i rest for any service, your most assured, at commandment, tho. bodleie. london, june , ." in a letter to his "dearest friends, doctor kinge, vice-chancellor, the doctors, proctors, and the rest of the convocation house in oxon," ( th june, ) after telling them how he had secured certain landed property for the payment of the salaries and other expenses attendant upon the library, sir thomas thus draws to a conclusion: "now because i presuppose that you take little pleasure in a tedious letter, having somewhat besides to impart unto you, i have made it known by word to mr. vicechancellor, who, i know, will not fail to acquaint you with it: as withall i have intreated him to supply, in my behalf, all my negligent omissions, and defective form of thanks, for all your public honours, entertainments, letters, gifts, and other graces conferred upon me, which have so far exceeded the compass of my merits that, where before i did imagine that nothing could augment my zealous inclination to your general good, now methinks i do feel it (as i did a great while since) was very highly augmented: insomuch as i cannot but shrive myself thus freely and soothly unto you. that, albeit, among a number of natural imperfections, i have least of all offended in the humour of ambition, yet now so it is, that i do somewhat repent me of my too much niceness that way: not as carried with an appetite to rake more riches to myself (wherein, god is my witness, my content is complete) but only in respect of my greedy desire to make a livelier demonstration of the same that i bear to my common mother, than i have hitherto attained sufficient ability to put in execution. with which unfeigned testification of my devotion unto you, and with my daily fervent prayers for the endless prosperity of your joint endeavours, in that whole institution of your public library, i will close up this letter, and rest, as i shall ever, yours, in all loving and dutiful affection, thomas bodley. london, may , ." the following, which is also in mr. gutch's publication, shews the laudable restlessness, and insatiable ambition, of our venerable bibliomaniac, in ransacking foreign libraries for the completion of his own. "_to the right worshipfull mr. d. singleton, vicechancellor of the university of oxon._ (read in convocation, nov. , .) sir, about some three years past, i made a motion, here in london, to mr. pindar, consul of the company of english merchants at aleppo (a famous port in the turk's dominions) that he would use his best means to procure me some books in the syriac, arabic, turkish, and persian tongues, or in any other language of those eastern nations: because i make no doubt but, in process of time, by the extraordinary diligence of some one or other student, they may be readily understood, and some special use made of their kind of learning in those parts of the world: and where i had a purpose to reimburse all the charge that might grow thereupon, he sent of late unto me several volumes in the foresaid tongues, and of his liberal disposition hath bestowed them freely on the library. they are manuscripts all (for in those countries they have no kind of printing) and were valued in that place at a very high rate. i will send them, ere be long, praying you the while to notify so much unto the university, and to move them to write a letter of thanks, which i will find means to convey to his hands, being lately departed from london to constantinople. whether the letter be indited in latin or english, it is not much material, but yet, in my conceit, it will do best to him in english." (the remainder of this letter is devoted to a scheme of building the public schools at oxford; in which sir thomas found a most able and cheerful coadjutor, in one, _sir jo. benet_; who seems to have had an extensive and powerful connection, and who set the scheme on foot, "like a true affected son to his ancient mother, with a cheerful propension to take the charge upon him without groaning.") in april , queen elizabeth granted sir thomas "a passport of safe conveyance to denmark"; and wrote a letter to the king of denmark of the same date, within two days. she wrote, also, a letter to julius, duke of brunswick of the same date: in which the evils that were then besetting the christian world abroad were said to be rushing suddenly, as "from the trojan horse." "these three letters (observes mr. baker to his friend hearne) are only copies, but very fairly wrote, and seem to have been duplicates kept by him that drew the original letters." we will peruse but two more of these bodleian epistles, which hearne very properly adds as an amusing appendix, as well to the foregoing, as to his _reliquiæ bodleianæ_ ( , vo). they are written to men whose names must ever be held in high veneration by all worthy bibliomanacs. "_sir tho. bodley to sir robert cotton._ (_ex. bibl. cotton._) sir, i was thrice to have seen you at your house, but had not the hap to find you at home. it was only to know how you hold your old intention for helping to furnish the university library: where i purpose, god willing, to place all the books that i have hitherto gathered, within these three weeks. and whatsoever any man shall confer for the storing of it, such order is taken for a due memorial of his gift as i am persuaded he cannot any way receive a greater contentment of any thing to the value otherwise bestowed. thus much i thought to signify unto you: and to request you to hear how you rest affected. yours, to use in any occasion, tho. bodley. from my house, june ." "_sir henry savile to sir r(obert) c(otton)._ sir, i have made mr. bodley acquainted with your kind and friendly offer, who accepteth of it in most thankful manner: and if it pleaseth you to appoint to-morrow at afternoon, or upon monday or tuesday next, at some hour likewise after dinner, we will not fail to be with you at your house for that purpose. and remember i give you fair warning that if you hold any book so dear as that you would be loth to have him out of your sight, set him aside before hand. for my own part, i will not do that wrong to my judgment as to chuse of the worst, if better be in place: and, beside, you would account me a simple man. but to leave jesting, we will any of the days come to you, leaving, as great reason is, your own in your own power freely to retain or dispose. true it is that i have raised some expectation of the quality of your gift in mr. bodley, whom you shall find a gentleman in all respects worthy of your acquaintance. and so, with my best commendations, i commit you to god. this st. peter's day. your very assured friend, henry savile." it only remains now to indulge the dutiful sons of alma mater with a fac-simile wood-cut impression of the profile of the venerable founder of the bodleian library, taken from a print of a medal in the _catalogi librorum manuscriptorum angliæ, &c._, , fol.; but whether it have any resemblance to the bust of him, "carved to the life by an excellent hand at london, and shortly after placed in a niche in the south wall of the same library," with the subjoined inscription, i cannot at this moment recollect. [illustration: thomas sackvillus dorset, comes, summus angliÆ thesaurar. et hujus acad. cancellar. thomÆ bodleio equiti aurato qui bibliothecam hanc instituit honoris causa p.p.] the library of sir thomas bodley, when completed, formed the figure of a t: it was afterwards resolved, on the books accumulating, and the benefactions increasing, to finish it in the form of an h; in which state it now remains. sir kenelm digby, like a thorough bred bibliomaniac, "gave fifty very good oaks, to purchase a piece of ground of exeter college, laying on the north west side of the library; on which, and their own ground adjoining, they might erect the future fabric." the laying of the foundation of this erection is thus described by wood; concluding with a catastrophe, at which i sadly fear the wicked reader will smile. "on the thirteenth of may, being tuesday, , the vice-chancellor, doctors, heads of houses, and proctors, met at st. mary's church about of the clock in the morning; thence each, having his respective formalities on came to this place, and took their seats that were then erected on the brim of the foundation. over against them was built a scaffold, where the two proctors, with divers masters, stood. after they were all settled, the university musicians, who stood upon the leads at the west end of the library, sounded a lesson on their wind music. which being done, the singing men of christ-church, with others, sang a lesson, after which the senior proctor, mr. herbert pelham, of magdalen college, made an eloquent oration: that being ended also, the music sounded again, and continued playing till the vice-chancellor went to the bottom of the foundation to lay the first stone in one of the south angles. but no sooner had he deposited a piece of gold on the said stone, according to the usual manner in such ceremonies, but the earth fell in from one side of the foundation, and the scaffold that was thereon broke and fell with it; so that all those that were thereon, to the number of a hundred at least, namely, the proctors, principals of halls, masters, and some bachelaurs, fell down all together, one upon another, into the foundation; among whom, the under butler of exeter college had his shoulder broken or put out of joint, and a scholar's arm bruised." "the solemnity being thus concluded with such a sad catastrophe, the breach was soon after made up and the work going chearfully forward, was in four years space finished." _annals of the university of oxford_; vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . gutch's edition. we will take leave of sir thomas bodley, and of his noble institution, with the subjoined representation of the university's arms--as painted upon the ceiling of the library, in innumerable compartments; hoping that the period is not very remote when a _history of the bodleian library_, more ample and complete than any thing which has preceded it, will appear prefixed to a _catalogue of the books_, like unto that which is hinted at p. , ante, as "an urgent desideratum." [illustration: dominvs illvminatio mea]] lis. alas, you bring to my mind those precious hours that are gone by, never to be recalled, which i wasted within this glorious palace of bodley's erection! how i sauntered, and gazed, and sauntered again.-- phil. your case is by no means singular. but you promise, when you revisit the library, not to behave so naughtily again? lis. i was not then a convert to the bibliomania! now, i will certainly devote the leisure of six autumnal weeks to examine minutely some of the precious tomes which are contained in it. lysand. very good. and pray favour us with the result of your profound researches: as one would like to have the most minute account of the treasures contained within those hitherto unnumbered volumes. phil. as every sweet in this world is balanced by its bitter, i wonder that these worthy characters were not lampooned by some sharp-set scribbler--whose only chance of getting perusers for his work, and thereby bread for his larder, was by the novelty and impudence of his attacks. any thing new and preposterous is sure of drawing attention. affirm that you see a man standing upon one leg, on the pinnacle of saint paul's[ ]--or that the ghost of inigo jones had appeared to you, to give you the extraordinary information that sir christopher wren had stolen the whole of the plan of that cathedral from a design of his own--and do you not think that you would have spectators and auditors enough around you? [footnote : this is now oftentimes practised by some wag, in his "_walke in powles_." whether the same anecdote is recorded in the little slim pamphlet published in , to., under the same title--not having the work--(and indeed how should i? vide _bibl. reed_, no. , _cum pretiis_!) i cannot take upon me to determine.] lis. yes, verily: and i warrant some half-starved scrivener of the elizabethan period drew his envenomed dart to endeavour to perforate the cuticle of some worthy bibliomaniacal wight. lysand. you may indulge what conjectures you please; but i know of no anti-bibliomaniacal satirist of this period. stubbes did what he could, in his "_anatomy of abuses_,"[ ] to disturb every social and harmless amusement of the age. he was the forerunner of that snarling satirist, prynne; but i ought not thus to cuff him, for fear of bringing upon me the united indignation of a host of black-letter critics and philologists. a _large and clean_ copy of his sorrily printed work is among the choicest treasures of a shakspearian virtuoso. [footnote : "the anatomie of abuses: _contayning a discoverie, or briefe summarie of such notable vices and imperfections as now raigne in many christian countreyes of the worlde: but (especiallie) in a very famous ilande called ailgna_:" &c. printed by richard jones, , small vo. vide herbert's _typographical antiquities_, vol. iii., p. , for the whole title. sir john hawkins, in his _history of music_, vol iii., , calls this "a curious and very scarce book;" and so does my friend, mr. utterson; who revels in his morocco-coated copy of it--"_exemplar olim farmerianum!_" but let us be candid; and not sacrifice our better judgments to our book-passions. after all, stubbes's work is a caricatured drawing. it has strong passages, and a few original thoughts; and, is moreover, one of the very few works printed in days of yore which have running titles to the subjects discussed in them. these may be recommendations with the bibliomaniac; but he should be informed that this volume contains a great deal of puritanical cant, and licentious language; that vices are magnified in it in order to be lashed, and virtues diminished that they might not be noticed. stubbes equals prynne in his anathemas against "plays and interludes:" and in his chapters upon "dress" and "dancing" he rakes together every coarse and pungent phrase in order to describe "these horrible sins" with due severity. he is sometimes so indecent that, for the credit of the age, and of a virgin reign, we must hope that every virtuous dame threw the copy of his book, which came into her possession, behind the fire. this may reasonably account for its present rarity. i do not discover it in the catalogues of the libraries of _pearson_, _steevens_, or _brand_; but see _bibl. wright_, no. .] but admitting even that stubbes had drawn his arrow to the head, and grazed the skin of such men as bodley and cotton, the wound inflicted by this weapon must have been speedily closed and healed by the balsamic medicine administered by andrew maunsell, in his _catalogue of english printed books_.[ ] this little thin folio volume afforded a delicious treat to all honest bibliomaniacs. it revived the drooping spirits of the despondent; and, like the syrup of the renowned dr. brodum, circulated within the system, and put all the generous juices in action. the niggardly collector felt the influence of rivalship; he played a deeper stake at book-gambling; and hastened, by his painfully acquired knowledge of what was curious and rare in books, to anticipate the rustic collector--which latter, putting the best wheels and horses to his carriage, rushed from the country to the metropolis, to seize, at maunsell's shop, a choice copy of _cranmer's bible, or morley's canzonets_.[ ] [footnote : this catalogue, the first publication of the kind ever put forth in this country, is complete in two parts; , folio: first part containing pages, exclusive of three preliminary epistles: the second, pages; exclusive of three similar introductory pieces. the _first part_ is devoted entirely to divinity: and in the dedicatory epistle to queen elizabeth, maunsell tells her majesty that he thought it "worth his poor labour to collect a catalogue of the divine books, so mightily increased in her reign; whereby her majesty's most faithful and loving subjects may be put in remembrance of the works of so excellent authors," &c. the second part is devoted to a brief account of books in the remaining branches of literature, arts, sciences, &c. maunsell promised to follow it up by a _third_ part; but a want of due encouragement seems to have damped the bibliographical ardour of the compiler; for this third part never appeared: a circumstance which, in common with the late mr. steevens, all bibliomaniacs may "much lament." see the _athenæum_, vol i., ; also herbert's _typographical antiquities_, vol ii., p. . a copy of this volume has found its way into the advocates' library at edinburgh; _cat. adv. libr._, vol ii., p. . ruddiman, who was formerly the librarian of this latter valuable collection, had probably read hearne's commendation of it:--namely, that it was "a very scarce, and yet a very useful, book." _bened. abbat._, vol. i., p. liv. mr. heber possesses a curious copy of it, which was formerly herbert's, with the margins filled with his ms. addenda.] [footnote : "of the translation appointed to bee read in churches, in kinge henry the , his daies," printed in the largest volume, . "tho. morley, bachiler of musique, and one of her maiestie's royal chappell, _his conzonets_, or little short songes to three voyces. prin. by tho. est. . to." see p. ., pt. i., p. , pt. ii., of _maunsell's catalogue_; but let the reader consult p. , ante, concerning this "largest volume" of the holy scriptures.] let us, however, not forget that we have reached the reign of james i.; a monarch who, like justinian, affected to be "greatly given to study of books;"[ ] and who, according to burton's testimony, wished he had been chained to one of the shelves of the bodleian library.[ ] of all literary tastes, james had the most strange and sterile. let us leave him to his _demonology_; but notice, with the respect that it merits, the more rational and even elegantly cultivated mind of his son prince henry;[ ] of whose passion for books there are some good evidences upon record. we will next proceed to the mention of a shrewd scholar and bibliomaniac, and ever active voyager, ycleped thomas coryate, the _peregrine of odcombe_. this facetious traveller, who was as quaint and original a writer as old tom fuller, appears (when he had time and opportunity) to have taken special notice of libraries; and when he describes to us his "worm eaten" copy of _josephus's antiquities_,[ ] "written in ancient longobard characters in parchment," one cannot but indulge a natural wish to know something of the present existence of a ms. which had probably escaped oberthür, the last laborious editor of josephus. [footnote : "greatly gyuen to study of bokys:" _rastell's chronicle, or pastyme of people_, p. , edit. , to.] [footnote : the passage is somewhere in burton's _anatomy of mechanoly_. but i cannot just now, put my finger upon it.] [footnote : the works of king james i. (of england) were published in rather a splendid folio volume in the year . amongst these, his _demonology_ is the "opus maximum." of his son prince henry, there is, in this volume, at the top of one of the preliminary pieces, a very pretty half length portrait; when he was quite a boy. a charming whole length portrait of the same accomplished character, when he was a young man, engraved by paas, may be seen in the first folio edition of drayton's _polyolbion_: but this, the reader will tell me, is mere grangerite information. proceed we, therefore, to a pithy, but powerful, demonstration of the bibliomaniacal character of the said prince henry. "in the paper office, there is a book, no. , containing prince henry's privy-purse expences, for one year," &c. the whole expense of one year was _l._ among other charges, the following are remarkable: £ _s._ _d._ th october, paid to a frenchman, that presented _a book_ th october, paid mr. holyoak for writing a _catalogue of the library_ which the prince had of lord lumley &c. &c. &c. _apology for the believers in the shakspeare-papers_, , vo., p. .] [footnote : look, gentle reader, at the entire ungarbled passage--amongst many similar ones which may be adduced--in vol. i., p. , of his "_crudities_"--or travels: edit. , vo. coryat's [transcriber's note: alternative spelling] talents, as a traveller, are briefly, but brilliantly, described in the _quarterly review_, vol. ii., p. .] let me here beseech you to pay due attention to the works of henry peacham, when they come across you. the first edition of that elegantly written volume, "_the compleat gentleman_," was published i believe in the reign of james i., in the year . loren. i possess not only this, but every subsequent copy of it, and a fair number of copies of his other works. he and braithwait were the "par nobile fratrum" of their day. phil. i have often been struck with some curious passages in peacham, relating to the education of youth[ ] in our own country; as i find, from them, that the complaint of _severity of discipline_ still continued, notwithstanding the able work of roger ascham, which had recommended a mild and conciliatory mode of treatment. [footnote : the history of the education of youth in this country might form an amusing little octavo volume. we have _treatises_ and _essays_ enough upon the subject; but a narrative of its first rude efforts, to its present, yet not perfected, form, would be interesting to every parent, and observer of human nature. my present researches only enable me to go back as far as trevisa's time, towards the close of the th century; when i find, from the works of this vicar of berkeley, that "every friar that had _state in school_, such as they were then, had an huge library." _harl. mss._, no. . but what the particular system was, among youth, which thus so highly favoured the bibliomania, i have not been able to ascertain. i suspect, however, that knowledge made but slow advances; or rather that its progress was almost inverted; for, at the end of the subsequent century, our worthy printer, caxton, tells us that he found "but few who could write in their registers the occurrences of the day." _polychronicon; prol. typog. antiquit._, vol. i., . in the same printer's prologue to _catho magnus_ (_id._, vol. i., ) there is a melancholy complaint about the youth of london; who, although, when children, they were "fair, wise, and prettily bespoken--at the full ripening, they had neither kernel nor good corn found in them." this is not saying much for the academic or domestic treatment of young gentlemen, towards the close of the th century. at the opening of the ensuing century, a variety of elementary treatises, relating to the education of youth, were published chiefly under the auspices of dean colet, and composed by a host of learned grammarians, of whom honourable mention has been made at page , ante. these publications are generally adorned with a rude wood-cut; which, if it be copied from truth, affords a sufficiently striking proof of the severity of the ancient discipline: for the master is usually seated in a large arm-chair, with a tremendous rod across his knees; and the scholars are prostrate before him, either on the ground upon bended knees, or sitting upon low benches. nor was this rigid system relaxed in the middle of the same (xvith) century; when roger ascham composed his incomparable treatise, intitled the "_schoolmaster_;" the object of which was to decry the same severity of discipline. this able writer taught his countrymen the value of making the road to knowledge smooth and inviting, by smiles and remunerations, rather than by stripes and other punishments. indeed, such was the stern and draco-like character which schoolmasters of this period conceived themselves authorized to assume that neither rank, nor situation, nor sex, were exempt from the exercise of their tyranny. lady jane grey tells ascham that her former teacher used to give her "pinches, and cuffs, and bobs," &c. the preface to the schoolmaster informs us that two gentlemen, who dined with ascham at cecil's table, were of opinion that nicolas udal, then head master of eaton school, "was the best schoolmaster of their time, and the _greatest beater_!" bishop latimer, in his fourth sermon (edit. , fol. to ), has drawn such a picture of the londoners of this period that the philosopher may imagine that youths, who sprung from such parents, required to be ruled with a rod of iron. but it has been the fashion of all writers, from the age of st. austin downwards, to depreciate the excellences, and magnify the vices, of the times in which they lived. ludovicus vives, who was latimer's contemporary, has attacked both schoolmasters and youths, in an ungracious style; saying of the former that "some taught ovid's books of love to their scholars, and some make expositions and expounded the vices." he also calls upon the young women, in the language of st. jerome, "to avoid, as a mischief or poison of chastity, young men with heads bushed and trimmed; and sweet smelling skins of outlandish mice." _instruction of a christian woman_; edit. , sign. d , rect. &c. i am not aware of any work of importance, relating to the education of youth, which appeared till the publication of the _compleat gentleman_ by henry peacham: an author, who richly deserves all the handsome things above said of him in the text. his chapters "_of the duty of masters_," and "_of the duty of parents_," are valuable upon many accounts: inasmuch as they afford curious anecdotes of the system of academic and domestic education then pursued, and are accompanied with his own sagacious and candid reflections. peacham was an _aschamite_ in respect to lenity of discipline; as the following extracts, from the foregoing work, (edit. ) will unequivocally prove. peacham first observes upon the different modes of education: "but we see on the contrary, out of the master's carterly judgment, like horses in a team, the boys are set to draw all alike, when some one or two prime and able wits in the school, [greek: auto didaktoi] (which he culs out to admiration if strangers come, as a costardmonger his fairest pippins) like fleet hovnds go away with the game, when the rest need helping over a stile a mile behind: hence, being either quite discouraged in themselves, or taken away by their friends (who for the most part measure their learning by the form they set in), they take leave of their books while they live," &c. p. . "some affect, and severer schools enforce, a precise and tedious strictness, in long keeping the schollers by the walls: as from before six in the morning, till twelve or past: so likewise in the afternoon. which, beside the dulling of the wit and dejecting the spirit (for, "otii non minus quam negotii ratio extare debet") breeds in him, afterwards, a kind of hate and carelessness of study when he comes to be "sui juris," at his own liberty (as experience proves by many, who are sent from severe schools unto the universities): withall over-loading his memory, and taking off the edge of his invention, with over heavy tasks, in themes, verses," &c., p. . "nor is it my meaning that i would all masters to be tyed to one method, no more than all the shires of england to come up to london by one highway: there may be many equally alike good. and since method, as one saith, is but [greek: odopoiêtikê], let every master, if he can, by pulling up stiles and hedges, make a more near and private way to himself; and in god's name say, with the divinest of poets, _deserta per avia dulcis raptat amor. juvat ire iugis, quâ nulla priorum_ castaliam _molli divertitur orbita clivo._ (georg. libi. iij.) with sweet love rapt, i now by deserts pass, and over hills where never track of yore: descending easily, yet remembered was, that led the way to castalie before. (peacham.) but instead of many good, they have infinite bad; and go stumbling from the right, as if they went blindfold for a wager. hence cometh the shifting of the scholler from master to master; who, poor boy (like a hound among a company of ignorant hunters hollowing every deer they see), misseth the right, begetteth himself new labour, and at last, by one of skill and well read, beaten for his paines," pp. , . peacham next notices the extreme severity of discipline exercised in some schools. "i knew one, who in winter would ordinarily, in a cold morning, whip his boys over for no other purpose than to get himself a heat: another beats them for swearing, and all the while sweares himself with horrible oaths. he would forgive any fault saving that! i had, i remember, myself (neer st. alban's in hertfordshire, where i was born) a master, who, by no entreaty, would teach any scholler he had farther than his father had learned before him; as if he had only learned but to read english, the son, though he went with him seven years, should go no further: his reason was, they would then prove saucy rogues, and controle their fathers! yet these are they that oftentimes have our hopefull gentry under their charge and tuition, to bring them up in science and civility!" p. . this absurd system is well contrasted with the following account of the lenity observed in some of the schools on the continent: "in germany the school is, and as the name imports, it ought to be, merely, ludus literarius, a very pastime of learning, where it is a rare thing to see a rod stirring: yet i heartily wish that our children of england were but half so ready in writing and speaking latin, which boys of ten and twelve years old will do so roundly, and with so neat a phrase and style, that many of our masters would hardly mend them; having only for their punishment, shame; and for their reward, praise," p. . "wherefore i cannot but commend the custome of their schools in the low-countries, where for the avoyding of this tedious sitting still, and with irksome poring on the book all day long, after the scholler hath received his lecture, he leaveth the school for an houre, and walkes abroad with one or two of his fellows, either into the field or up among the trees upon the rampire, as in antwerp, breda, vtrecht, &c., when they confer and recreate themselves till time calls them in to repeat, where perhaps they stay an hour; so abroad again, and thus at their pleasure the whole day," p. . thus have we pursued the _history of the education of boys_ to a period quite modern enough for the most superficial antiquary to supply the connecting links down to the present times. nor can we conclude this prolix note without observing upon two things which are remarkable enough: first, that in a country like our own--the distinguishing characteristics of whose inhabitants are gravity, reserve, and good sense--lads should conduct themselves with so much rudeness, flippancy, and tyranny towards each other--and secondly, that masters should, in too many instances, exercise a discipline suited rather to a government of despotism and terror than to a land of liberty and social comfort! but all human improvement, and human happiness, is progressive. speramus meliora!] lysand. but you must not believe every thing that is said in favour of _continental_ lenity of discipline, shewn to youth, if the testimony of a modern newspaper may be credited!---- lis. what your newspaper may hold forth i will not pretend to enter into. lysand. nay, here is the paragraph; which i cut out from "_the observer_," and will now read it to you. "a german magazine recently announced the death of a schoolmaster in suabia, who, for years, had superintended a large institution with old fashioned severity. from an average, inferred by means of recorded observations, one of the ushers had calculated that, in the course of his exertions, he had given _ , canings, , floggings, , custodes, , tips with the ruler, , boxes on the ear, and , tasks by heart_. it was further calculated that he had made _ boys stand on peas, kneel on a sharp edge of wood, wear the fool's cap, and , hold the rod_. how vast (exclaims the journalist) the quantity of human misery inflicted by a single perverse educator!" now, my friends, what have you to say against the _english_ system of education? phil. this is only defending bad by worse. lis. where are we digressing? what are become of our bibliomaniacal heroes? lysand. you do right to call me to order. let us turn from the birch, to the book, history. contemporaneous with peacham, lived that very curious collector of ancient popular little pieces, as well as lover of "sacred secret soul soliloquies," the renowned _melancholy_ composer, ycleped robert burton;[ ] who, i do not scruple to number among the most marked bibliomaniacs of the age; notwithstanding his saucy railing against frankfort book-fairs. we have abundance of testimony (exclusive of the fruits of his researches, which appear by his innumerable marginal references to authors of all ages and characters) that this original, amusing, and now popular, author was an arrant book-hunter; or, as old anthony hath it, "a devourer of authors." rouse, the librarian of bodleian, is said to have liberally assisted burton in furnishing him with choice books for the prosecution of his extraordinary work. [footnote : i suppose lysander to allude to a memorandum of hearne, in his _benedictus abbas_, p. iv., respecting robert burton being a collector of "ancient popular little pieces." from this authority we find that he gave "a great variety" of these pieces, with a multitude of books, of the best kind, to the "bodleian library."--one of these was that "opus incomparabile," the "_history of tom thumb_," and the other, the "_pleasant and merry history of the mylner of abingdon_." the expression "sacred secret soul soliloquies" belongs to braithwait: and is thus beautifully interwoven in the following harmonious couplets: ----no minute but affords some tears. no walks but private solitary groves shut from frequent, his contemplation loves; no treatise, nor discourse, so sweetly please as sacred-secret soule soliloquies. _arcadian princesse_, lib. , p. . and see, gentle reader, how the charms of solitude--of "walking alone in some solitary grove, betwixt wood and water, by a brook-side, to meditate upon some delightsome and pleasant subject" are depicted by the truly original pencil of this said robert burton, in his _anatomy of melancholy_, vol. i., p. , edit. . but our theme is bibliomania. take, therefore, concerning the same author, the following: and then hesitate, if thou canst, about his being infected with the book-disease. "what a catalogue of new books all this year, all this age (i say) have our frank-furt marts, our domestic marts, brought out! twice a year, 'proferunt se nova ingenia et ostentant;' we stretch our wits out! and set them to sale: 'magno conatu nihil agimus,' &c. 'quis tam avidus librorum helluo,' who can read them? as already, we shall have a vast chaos and confusion of books; we are oppressed with them; our eyes ake with reading, our fingers with turning," &c. this is painting _ad vivum_--after the life. we see and feel every thing described. truly, none but a thorough master in bibliomaniacal mysteries could have thus thought and written! see "_democritus to the reader_," p. ; perhaps the most highly finished piece of dissection in the whole _anatomical work_.] about this period lived lord lumley; a nobleman of no mean reputation as a bibliomaniac. but what shall we say to lord shaftesbury's eccentric neighbour, henry hastings? who, in spite of his hawks, hounds, kittens, and oysters,[ ] could not for [transcriber's note: extraneous 'for'] forbear to indulge his book propensities though in a moderate degree! let us fancy we see him, in his eightieth year, just alighted from the toils of the chase, and listening, after dinner, with his "single glass" of ale by his side, to some old woman with "spectacle on nose" who reads to him a choice passage out of john fox's _book of martyrs_! a rare old boy was this hastings. but i wander--and may forget another worthy, and yet more ardent, bibliomaniac, called john clungeon, who left a press, and some books carefully deposited in a stout chest, to the parish church at southampton. we have also evidence of this man's having _erected a press_ within the same; but human villany has robbed us of every relic of his books and printing furniture.[ ] from southampton, you must excuse me if i take a leap to london; in order to introduce you into the wine cellars of one john ward; where, i suppose, a few choice copies of favourite authors were sometimes kept in a secret recess by the side of the oldest bottle of hock. we are indebted to hearne for a brief, but not uninteresting, notice of this _vinous_ book collector.[ ] [footnote : of the bibliomaniacal spirit of lord lumley the reader has already had some slight mention made at pages , , ante. of henry hastings, gilpin has furnished us with some anecdotes which deserve to be here recorded. they are taken from hutchin's _hist. of dorsetshire_, vol. ii., p. . "mr. hastings was low of stature, but strong and active, of a ruddy complexion, with flaxen hair. his cloaths were always of green cloth. his house was of the old fashion; in the midst of a large park, well stocked with deer, rabbits, and fish-ponds. he had a long narrow bowling green in it, and used to play with round sand bowls. here too he had a banquetting room built, like a stand in a large tree. he kept all sorts of hounds, that ran buck, fox, hare, otter, and badger; and had hawks of all kinds, both long and short winged. his great hall was commonly strewed with marrow-bones, and full of hawk-perches, hounds, spaniels, and terriers. the upper end of it was hung with fox-skins of this and the last year's killing. here and there a pole-cat was intermixed, and hunter's poles in great abundance. the parlour was a large room, completely furnished in the same style. on a broad hearth, paved with brick, lay some of the choicest terriers, hounds, and spaniels. one or two of the great chairs had litters of cats in them, which were not to be disturbed. of these, three or four always attended him at dinner, and a little white wand lay by his trencher, to defend it, if they were too troublesome. in the windows, which were very large, lay his arrows, cross-bows, and other accoutrements. the corners of the room were filled with his best hunting and hawking poles. his oyster table stood at the lower end of the room, which was in constant use twice a day, all the year round; for he never failed to eat oysters both at dinner and supper, with which the neighbouring town of pool supplied him. at the upper end of the room stood a small table with a double desk; one side of which held a church bible: the other the book of martyrs. on different tables in the room lay hawks'-hoods, bells, old hats, with their crowns thrust in, full of pheasant eggs, tables, dice, cards, and store of tobacco pipes. at one end of this room was a door, which opened into a closet, where stood bottles of strong beer and wine; which never came out but in single glasses, which was the rule of the house, for he never exceeded himself, nor permitted others to exceed. answering to this closet was a door into an old chapel; which had been long disused for devotion; but in the pulpit, as the safest place, was always to be found a cold chine of beef, a venison pasty, a gammon of bacon, or a great apple-pye, with thick crust, well baked. his table cost him not much, though it was good to eat at. his sports supplied all but beef and mutton, except on fridays, when he had the best of fish. he never wanted a london pudding, and he always sang it in with "_my part lies therein-a_." he drank a glass or two of wine at meals; put syrup of gilly-flowers into his sack, and had always a tun glass of small beer standing by him, which he often stirred about with rosemary. he lived to be an hundred, and never lost his eyesight, nor used spectacles. he got on horseback without help, and rode to the death of the stag till he was past fourscore." gilpin's _forest scenery_, vol. ii., pp. , . i should add, from the same authority, that hastings was a neighbour of anthony ashley cooper, earl of shaftesbury, with whom (as was likely enough) he had no cordial agreement.] [footnote : "in the northern chapel which is parted from the side aile by a beautiful open gothic screen, is a handsome monument to the memory of the lord chancellor wriothesly, and a _large and costly standing chest_, carved and inlaid, and stated, by an inscription on its front, to have been given, _with the books in it_, by john clungeon. the inscription is as follows: "john, the sonne of john clungeon of this towne, alderman, _erected this presse_ and gave certain books, who died, anno . "the books are, however, now gone, and the surplices, &c. are kept in the chest." see a tasteful and elegantly printed little volume, entitled "_a walk through southampton_;" by sir h.c. englefield, bart. , vo., p. .] [footnote : ward is described by hearne as being "a citizen and vintner of london," and "a lover of antiquity's." he had a copy of the _chartulary of dunstaple_, in ms., which was put by wanley into the harleian collection. the following entry is too much of a characteristic trait, not to be gratifying to the palate of a thorough bred bibliomaniac; it relates to the said chartulary:--"also this vellum, at both ends of the booke, was then added, put in, and inserted, at the costs of the said mr. (john) ward, in the said yeare of our lord, , _s._ _d._ binding and claspes vellum " _annals of dunstaple priory_, vol. i., p. xxx., note.] lis. if master cox, "by profession a mason," and living in the country, could have collected such a cabinet of romances and ballads--why should not a wine merchant, living in the metropolis, have turned his attention to a similar pursuit, and have been even more successful in the objects of it? phil. i know not; particularly as we have, at the present day, some commercial characters--whose dealings in trade are as opposite to books as frogs are to roast beef--absolute madmen in search after black-letter, large paper, and uncut copies! but proceed, lysander. lysand. such was the influence of the _book mania_ about, or rather a little before, this period that even the sacred retirement of a monastery, established upon protestant principles, and conducted by rules so rigid as almost to frighten the hardiest ascetic, even such a spot was unable to resist the charms of book-collecting and book-embellishment. how st. jerome or st. austin would have lashed the ferrar family[ ] for the gorgeous decorations of their volumes, and for devoting so much precious time and painful attention to the art and mystery of book-binding! yes, lisardo; it is truly curious to think upon the _little gidding monastery_--near which, perhaps, were ----"rugged rocks, that holy knees had worn--" and to imagine that the occupiers of such a place were infected--nay, inflamed--with a most powerful ardour for curious, neat, splendid, and, i dare venture to affirm, matchless copies of the several volumes which they composed! but i will now hasten to give very different evidence of the progress of this disease, by noticing the labours of a bibliomaniac of first rate celebrity; i mean elias ashmole:[ ] whose museum at oxford abundantly proves his curious and pertinacious spirit in book-collecting. his works, put forth under his own superintendence, with his name subjoined, shew a delicate taste, an active research, and, if we except his _hermetical_ propensities, a fortunate termination. his "opus maximum" is the _order of the garter_; a volume of great elegance both in the composition and decorations. your copy of it, i perceived, was upon _large paper_; and cost you-- [footnote : it remains here to make good the above serious charges brought against the ancient and worthy family of the ferrars; and this it is fully in my power to do, from the effectual aid afforded me by dr. wordsworth, in the fifth volume of his _ecclesiastical biography_; where the better part of dr. peckard's life of nicholas ferrar is published, together with some valuable and original addenda from the archiepiscopal library at lambeth. be it, however, known to dr. wordsworth, and the reviewer of the ecclesiastical biography in the _quarterly review_, vol. iv., pp. , , that hearne had previously published a copious and curious account of the monastery at little gidding in the supplement to his _thom. caii. vind. antiquit. oxon._, , vo., vol. ii.: which, as far as i have had an opportunity of examining dr. wordsworth's account, does not appear to have been known to this latter editor. we will now proceed to the bibliomaniacal anecdotes of nicholas ferrar, senior and junior. "amongst other articles of instruction and amusement, mr. ferrar (senior) entertained an ingenious _book-binder_ who taught the family, females as well as males, the whole art and skill of _book-binding_, gilding, lettering, and what they called pasting-printing, by the use of the rolling press. by this assistance he composed a full harmony, or concordance, of the four evangelists, _adorned with many beautiful pictures_, which required more than a year for the composition, and was divided into heads or chapters." there is then a minute account of the mechanical process (in which the nieces assisted) how, by means of "great store of the best and strongest white paper, nice knives and scissars, pasting and rolling-press" work--the arduous task was at length accomplished: and mary collet, one of mr. ferrar's nieces, put the grand finishing stroke to the whole, by "doing a deed"--which has snapt asunder the threads of penelope's web for envy:--"she bound the book entirely, all wrought in gold, in a new and most elegant fashion." the fame of this book, or concordance, as it was called, reached the ears of charles i., who "intreated" (such was his majesty's expression) to be favoured with a sight of it. laud and cousins, who were then chaplains in waiting, presented it to the king; who "after long and serious looking it over, said, 'this is indeed a most valuable work, and in many respects to be presented to the greatest prince upon earth: for the matter it contains is the richest of all treasures. the laborious composure of it into this excellent form of _an harmony_, the judicious contrivance of the method, the curious workmanship in so neatly cutting out and disposing the text, _the nice laying of these costly pictures, and the exquisite art expressed in the binding_, are, i really think, not to be equalled. i must acknowledge myself to be, indeed, greatly indebted to the family for this jewel: and whatever is in my power i shall, at any time, be ready to do for any of them.'" _eccles. biogr._, vol. v., - . this was spoken, by charles, in the true spirit of a book-knight! cromwell, i suppose, would have shewn the same mercy to this treasure as he did to the madonnas of raffaelle--thrown it behind the fire, as idolatrous! the nephew emulated and eclipsed the bibliomaniacal celebrity of his uncle. at the age of twenty-one, he executed three books (or "works" as they are called) of uncommon curiosity and splendour. archbishop laud, who had a keen eye and solid judgment for things of this sort (as the reader will find in the following pages) undertook to introduce young ferrars to the king. the introduction is told in such a pleasing style of _naiveté_, and the manual dexterity of the young bibliomaniac is so smartly commended by charles, that i cannot find it in my heart to abridge much of the narrative. "when the king saw the archbishop enter the room, he said, 'what have you brought with you those _rarities_ and _jewels_ you told me of?' 'yea, sire,' replied the bishop; 'here is the young gentleman and his works.' so the bishop, taking him by the hand, led him up to the king. he, falling down on his knees, the king gave him his hand to kiss, bidding him rise up. the box was opened, and nicholas ferrar, first presented to the king that book made for the prince; who taking it from him, looking well on the outside, which was _all green velvet, stately and richly gilt all over, with great broad strings, edged with gold lace, and curiously bound_, said, 'here is a fine book for charles, indeed! i hope it will soon make him in love with what is within it, for i know it is good,' &c. and lo! here are also store of _rare pictures_ to delight his eye with! &c., &c. then, turning him to the lord of canterbury, he said, 'let this young gentleman have your letters to the princes to-morrow, to richmond, and let him carry this present. it is a good day, you know, and a good work would be done upon it.' so he gave nicholas ferrar the book; who, carrying it to the box, took out of it a very large paper book, which was the fourth work, and laid it on the table before the king. 'for whom,' said the king, 'is this model?' 'for your majesty's eyes, if you please to honour it so much.' 'and that i will gladly do,' said the king, 'and never be weary of such sights as i know you will offer unto me.' the king having well perused the title page, beginning, 'the gospel of our lord and blessed saviour, jesus christ, in eight several languages,' &c., said unto the lords, 'you all see that one good thing produceth another. here we have more and more rarities; from print now to pen. these are fair hands, well written, and as well composed.' then replied the lord of canterbury, 'when your majesty hath seen all, you will have more and more cause to admire.' 'what!' said the king, 'is it possible we shall behold yet more rarities?' then said the bishop to nicholas ferrar, 'reach the other piece that is in the box:' and this we call the fifth work; the title being _novum testamentum, &c., in viginti quatuor linguis, &c._ the king, opening the book, said, 'better and better. this is the largest and fairest paper that ever i saw.' then, reading the title-page, he said, 'what is this? what have we here? the incomparablest book this will be, as ever eye beheld. my lords, come, look well upon it. this finished, must be the emperor of all books. it is the crown of all works. it is an admirable masterpiece. the world cannot match it. i believe you are all of my opinion.' the lords all seconded the king, and each spake his mind of it. 'i observe two things amongst others,' said the king, 'very remarkable, if not admirable. the first is, how is it possible that a young man of twenty-one years of age (for he had asked the lord of canterbury before, how old nicholas ferrar was) should ever attain to the understanding and knowledge of more languages than he is of years; and to have the courage to venture upon such an atlas work, or hercules labour. the other is also of high commendation, to see him write so many several languages, so well as these are, each in its proper character. sure so few years had been well spent, some men might think, to have attained only to the _writing_ thus fairly, of these twenty-four languages!' all the lords replied his majesty had judged right; and said, except they had seen, as they did, the young gentleman there, and the book itself, all the world should not have persuaded them to the belief of it." _ecclesiastical biography_, vol. v., pp. , . but whatever degree of credit or fame of young ferrars might suppose to have been attached to the execution of these "pieces," his emulation was not damped, nor did his industry slacken, 'till he had produced a specimen of much greater powers of book-decoration. his appetite was that of a giant; for he was not satisfied with any thing short of bringing forth a volume of such dimensions as to make the bearer of it groan beneath its weight--and the beholders of it dazzled with its lustre, and astonished at its amplitude. perhaps there is not a more curious book-anecdote upon record than the following. "charles the st, his son charles, the palsgrave, and the duke of lennox, paid a visit to the monastery of little gidding, in huntingdonshire--the abode of the ferrars."--"then, the king was pleased to go into the house, and demanded where the great book was, that he had heard was made for charles's use. it was soon brought unto him; and the _largeness_ and _weight_ of it was such that he that carried it seemed to be _well laden_. which the duke, observing, said, 'sir, one of your strongest guard will but be able to carry this book.' it being laid on the table before the king, it was told him that, though it were then fairly bound up in _purple velvet_, that the outside was not fully finished, as it should be, for the prince's use and better liking. 'well,' said the king, 'it is very well done.' so he opened the book, the prince standing at the table's end, and the palsgrave and duke on each side of the king. the king read the title page and frontispice all over very deliberately; and well viewing the form of it, how adorned with _a stately garnish of pictures, &c._, and the curiousness of the writing of it, said, 'charles, here is a book that contains excellent things. this will make you both wise and good.' then he proceeded to turn it over, leaf by leaf, and took exact notice of all in it: and it being _full of pictures of sundry mens cuts_, he could tell the palsgrave, who seemed also to be knowing in that kind, that this and this, and that and that, were of such a man's graving and invention. the prince all the while greatly eyed all things; and seemed much to be pleased with the book. the king having spent some hours in the perusal of it, and demanding many questions was occasion as, concerning the contrivement, and having received answers to all he demanded, at length said, 'it was only _a jewel for a prince_, and hoped charles would make good use of it: and i see and find, by what i have myself received formerly from this good house, that they go on daily in the prosecution of these excellent pieces. they are brave employments of their time.' the palsgrave said to the prince, 'sir, your father the king is master of the goodliest ship in the world, and i may now say you will be master of the gallantest greatest book in the world: for i never saw _such paper_ before; and believe there is no book of this largeness to be seen in christendom.' 'the paper and the book in all conditions,' said the king, 'i believe it not to be matched. here hath also in this book not wanted, you see, skill, care, nor cost.' 'it is a most admirable piece,' replied the duke of richmond. so the king, closing the book, said, 'charles, this is yours.' he replied, 'but, sir, shall i not now have it with me?' reply was made by one of the family, 'if it please your highness, the book is not _on the outside so finished_ as it is intended for you, but shall be, with all expedition, done, and you shall have it.' 'well,' said the king, 'you must content yourself for a while.'"--_ecclesiastical biography_, vol. v., p. .] [footnote : in the year , was published an octavo volume, containing the lives of william lilly the astrologer, and elias ashmole the antiquary: two of the greatest _cronies_ of their day. the particulars of ashmole's life are drawn from his own _diary_, in which is detailed every thing the most minute and ridiculous; while many of the leading features in his character, and many interesting occurrences in his life, are wholly suppressed. the editor has not evinced much judgment in causing posterity to be informed when ashmole's "_great and little teeth ached, or were loose_:" when his "_neck break forth, occasioned by shaving his beard with a bad razor_" (p. ); when "_his maid's bed was on fire, but he rose quickly (thanking god) and quenched it_" (p. ); and when he "_scratched the right-side of his buttocks, &c., and applied pultices thereunto, made of white bread crums, oil of roses, and rose leaves_;" (p. --and see particularly the long and dismal entries at p. .) all this might surely have been spared, without much injury to the reputation of the sufferer. yet, in some other minute entries, we glean intelligence a little more interesting. at p. , we find that ashmole had quarrelled with his wife; and that "mr. serjeant maynard observed to the court that there were sheets of depositions on his wife's part, and not one word proved against him of using her ill, or ever giving her a bad or provoking word:" at page , we find ashmole accompanying his heraldic friend dugdale, in his "visitations" of counties; also that "his picture was drawn by le neve in his herald's coat:" loggan afterwards drew it in black lead: p. . but here again (p. ) we are gravely informed that "_his tooth, next his fore tooth in his upper jaw, was very loose, and he easily pulled it out, and that one of his middle teeth in his lower jaw, broke out while he was at dinner_." he sat (for the last time) for "a second picture to mr. ryley," p. . ashmole's intimacy with lilly was the foundation of the former's (supposed) profundity in alchemical and astrological studies. in this diary we are carefully told that "mr. jonas moore brought and acquainted him with mr. william lilly, on a friday night, on the th of november," p. . ashmole was then only years of age; and it will be readily conceived how, at this susceptible period, he listened with rapture to his master's exposition of the black art, and implicitly adopted the recipes and maxims he heard delivered. hence the pupil generally styled himself _mercuriophilus anglicus_, at the foot of most of his title-pages: and hence we find such extraordinary entries, in the foresaid diary, as the following: "this night (august , ) about one of the clock, i fell ill of a surfeit, occasioned by drinking _water after venison_. i was greatly oppressed in my stomach; and next day mr. saunders, _the astrologian_, sent me a piece of briony-root to hold in my hand; and within a quarter of an hour my stomach was freed from that great oppression," p. . "sep. , , i came to mr. john tompson's, who dwelt near dove bridge; he used a call, and had responses in a soft voice," p. . at p. is narrated the commencement of his acquaintance with the famous arise evans, a welsh prophet: whose "_echo from heaven_," &c., parts, , mo., is a work noticed by warburton, and coveted by bibliomaniacs. yet one more quack-medicine entry: "march , . i took early in the morning a good dose of elixir, and hung three spiders about my neck, and they drove my ague away--deo gratias!" p. . it seems that ashmole always punctually kept "_the astrologer's feast_;" and that he had such celebrity as a curer of certain diseases, that lord finch the chancellor "sent for him to cure him of his rheumatism. he dined there, but would not undertake the cure," p. . this was behaving with a tolerable degree of prudence and good sense. but let not the bibliomaniac imagine that it is my wish to degrade honest old elias ashmole, by the foregoing delineation of his weaknesses and follies. the ensuing entries, in the said diary, will more than counterbalance any unfavourable effect produced by its precursors; and i give them with a full conviction that they will be greedily devoured by those who have been lucky enough to make good purchases of the entire libraries of deceased characters of eminence. in his th year, ashmole "bought of mr. milbourn all his books and mathematical instruments;" and the day after (n.b. " o'clock, min. post merid.") "he bought mr. hawkins's books," p. . in the ensuing year he "agreed with mrs. backhouse, of london, for her deceased husband's books," p. . he now became so distinguished as a successful bibliomaniac that seldon and twysden sought his acquaintance; and "mr. tredescant and his wife told him that they had been long considering upon whom to bestow their _closet of curiosities_, and at last had resolved to give it unto him," p. . having by this time (a.d. ) commenced his famous work upon _the order of the garter_, he was introduced to charles ii.: kissed hands, and was appointed by the king "to make a description of his medals, and had them delivered into his hands, and _henry the viiith's closet_ assigned for his use," p. . in this same year came forth his "_way to bliss_;" to.: a work so invincibly dull that i despair of presenting the reader with any thing like entertainment even in the following heterogeneous extract: "when our natural heat, the life of this little world, is faint and gone, the body shrinks up and is defaced: but bring again heat into the parts, and likewise money into the bankrupt's coffers, and they shall be both lusty, and flourish again as much as ever they did. but how may this heat be brought again? to make few words, even as she is kept and held by due _meat_ and _motion_; for if she faint, and falleth for want of them only, then give her them, and she shall recover herself again. meat is the bait that draws her down: motion comes after, like a _gad-bee_, to prick her forward; but the work is performed in this order. first this meat, which is that fine and æthereal oyl often above-described, by the exceeding piercing swifteness, divides, scatters, and scowres away the gross and foul dregs and leavings which, for want of the tillage of heat, had overgrown in our bodies, and which was cast, like a blockish stay-fish in the way, to stay the free course of the ship of life: these flying out of all sides, abundantly pluck up all the old leavings of hair, nails, and teeth, by the roots, and drive them out before them: in the mean while, our medicine makes not onely clear way and passage for life, if she list to stir and run her wonted race (which some think enough of this matter), but also scattereth all about her due and desired meat, and first moisture to draw her forward. by which means our life, having gotten both her full strength and liveliness, and returned like the sun in summer into all our quarters, begins to work afresh as she did at first; (for being the same upon the same, she must needs do the same) knitting and binding the weak and loose joynts and sinews, watering and concocting all by good digestion; and then the idle parts like leaves shall, in this hot summer, spring and grow forth afresh, out of this new and young temper of the body: and all the whole face and shew shall be young again and flourishing," pp. , . with such a farrago of sublime nonsense were our worthy forefathers called upon to be enlightened and amused! but i lose sight of ashmole's _book-purchases_. that he gave away, as well as received, curious volumes, is authenticated by his gift of "five volumes of mr. dugdale's works to the temple library:" p. . "again: i presented the public library at oxford with three folio volumes, containing a description of the consular and imperial coins there, which i had formerly made and digested, being all fairly transcribed with my own hand," p. . but mark well: "my first boatful of books, which were carried to mrs. tredescant's, were brought back to the temple:" also, (may ) "i bought mr. john booker's study of books, and gave _l._ for them," p. . in the same year that his _order of the garter_ was published, his "good friend mr. wale sent him dr. dee's original books and papers," p. . but he yet went on buying: "nil actum reputans, dum quid superesset agendum:" for thus journalises our super-eminent bibliomaniac:--(june , ) "i bought mr. lilly's library of books of his widow, for fifty pounds," p. . in august, , ashmole went towards oxford, "to see the building prepared to receive his rarities;" and in march, , "the last load of his rarities was sent to the barge." in july, , he received a parcel of books from j.w. irnhoff, of nurembergh, among which was his _excellentium familiarum in gallia genealogia_: p. . but it is time to put an end to this unwieldly note: reserving the account of ashmole's _order of the garter_, and _theatrum chemicum_, for the ensuing one--and slightly informing the reader, of what he may probably be apprized, that our illustrious bibliomaniac bequeathed his museum of curiosities and library of books to his beloved alma mater oxoniensis--having first erected a large building for their reception. it is justly said of him, in the inscription upon his tombstone, durante musÆo ashmoleano oxon. nunquam moriturus. a summer month might be profitably passed in the ashmolean collection of books! let us not despair that a complete _catalogue raisonné_ of them may yet be given.] loren. not eight guineas--although you were about to say _fourteen_! lysand. even so. but it must have been obtained in the golden age of book-collecting? loren. it was obtained, together with an uncut copy of his _theatrum chemicum_,[ ] by my father, at the shop of a most respectable bookseller, lately living, at mews-gate, and now in pall-mall--where the choicest copies of rare and beautiful books are oftentimes to be procured, at a price much less than the extravagant ones given at book-sales. you observed it was bound in blue morocco--and by that coryphæus of book-binders, the late roger payne! [footnote : first let us say a few words of the theatrum chemicum britannicum, as it was the anterior publication. it contains a collection of ancient english poetical pieces relating to alchemy, or the "hermetique mysteries;" and was published in a neat quarto volume, in ; accompanied with a rich sprinkling of plates "cut in brass," and copious annotations, at the end, by ashmole himself. of these plates, some are precious to the antiquary; for reasons which will be given by me in another work. at present, all that need be said is that a fine tall copy of it brings a fair sum of money. i never heard of the existence of a _large paper_ impression. it went to press in july ; and on the th of january following, "the first copy of it was sold to the earl of pembroke:" see the diary, pp. - . in may, , ashmole made his first visit to the record office in the tower, to collect materials for his work of "the order of the garter." in may following, hollar accompanied the author to windsor, to take views of the castle. in the winter of , ashmole composed a "good part of the work at roe-barnes (the plague increasing)." in may, , a copy of it was presented to king charles ii.: and in june, the following year, ashmole received "his privy-seal for _l._ out of the custom of paper, which the king was pleased to bestow upon him for the same." this, it must be confessed, was a liberal remuneration. but the author's honours increased and multiplied beyond his most sanguine expectations. princes and noblemen, abroad and at home, read and admired his work; and ashmole had golden chains placed round his neck, and other superb presents from the greater part of them; one of which (from the elector of brandenburgh) is described as being "composed of ninety links, of philagreen links in great knobs, most curious work," &c. in short, such was the golden harvest which showered down upon him on all sides, on account of this splendid publication, that "he made a feast at his house in south lambeth, in honour to his benefactors of the work of the garter." i hope he had the conscience to make hollar his vice-president, or to seat him at his right hand; for this artist's _engravings_, much more than the author's composition, will immortalize the volume. yet the artist--died in penury! these particulars relating to this popular work, which it was thought might be amusing to the lover of fine books, have been faithfully extracted from the 'forementioned original and amusing diary. _the order of the garter_ was originally sold for _l._ _s._ see _clavel's catalogue_, , p. .] lysand. i observed it had a "glorious aspect," as bibliographers term it. lis. but what has become of ashmole all this while? lysand. i will only further remark of him that, if he had not suffered his mind to wander in quest of the puzzling speculations of alchemy and astrology--which he conceived himself bound to do in consequence, probably, of wearing john dee's red velvet night cap--he might have mingled a larger portion of common sense and sound practical observations in his writings. but a truce to worthy old elias. for see yonder the bibliomaniacal spirit of archbishop laud pacing your library! with one hand resting upon a folio,[ ] it points, with the other, to your favourite print of the public buildings of the university of oxford--thereby reminding us of his attachment, while living, to literature and fine books, and of his benefactions to the bodleian library. now it "looks frowningly" upon us; and, turning round, and shewing the yet reeking gash from which the life-blood flowed, it flits away-- par levibus ventis, volucrique simillima somno! [footnote : archbishop laud, who has [transcriber's note: was] beheaded in the year , had a great fondness for sumptuous decoration in dress, books, and ecclesiastical establishments; which made him suspected of a leaning towards the roman catholic religion. his life has been written by dr. heylin, in a heavy folio volume of pages; and in which we have a sufficiently prolix account of the political occurrences during laud's primacy, but rather a sparing, or indeed no, account of his private life and traits of domestic character. in lloyd's _memoirs of the sufferers_ from the year to inclusive ( , fol.) are exhibited the articles of impeachment against the archbishop; and, amongst them, are the following bibliomaniacal accusations. "art. . receiving a _bible_, with a crucifix embroidered on the cover of it by a lady. art. . a book of popish pictures, _two missals_, pontificals, and breviaries, which he made use of as a scholar. art. . his (own) admirable _book of devotion_, digested according to the ancient way of canonical hours, &c. art. . _the book of sports_, which was published first in king james his reign, before he had any power in the church; and afterward in king charles his reign, before he had the chief power in the church," &c., pp. - . but if laud's head was doomed to be severed from his body in consequence of these his bibliomaniacal frailties, what would have been said to the fine copy of one of the _salisbury primers or missals_, printed by pynson upon vellum, which once belonged to this archbishop, and is now in the library of st. john's college, oxford?! has the reader ever seen the same primate's copy of the _aldine aristophanes_, , in the same place? 'tis a glorious volume; and i think nearly equals my friend mr. heber's copy, once lord halifax's, of the same edition. of laud's benefactions to the bodleian library, the bibliographer will see ample mention made in the _catalogus librorum manuscriptorum angliæ, hiberniæ_, &c., , folio. the following, from heylin, is worth extracting: "being come near the block, he (laud) put off his doublet, &c., and seeing through the chink of the boards that some people were got under the scaffold, about the very place where the block was seated, he called to the officer for some dust to stop them, or to remove the people thence; saying, it was no part of his desire 'that his blood should fall upon the heads of the people.' never did man put off mortality with a better courage, nor look upon his bloody and malicious enemies with more christian charity." _cyprianus anglicus_; or the _life and death of laud_; , fol.; p. . in the master's library at st. john's, oxford, they shew the velvet cap which it is said laud wore at his execution; and in which the mark of the axe is sufficiently visible. the archbishop was a great benefactor to this college. mr. h. ellis, of the museum, who with myself were "quondam socii" of the same establishment, writes me, that "among what are called the king's pamphlets in the british museum, is a fragment of a tract, without title, of fifty-six pages only, imperfect; beginning, 'a briefe examination of a certaine pamphlet lately printed in scotland, and intituled _ladensium autocatacrisis_,' &c., 'the cantabarians self-conviction.' on the blank leaf prefixed, is the following remark in a hand of the time. 'this briefe examen following, was found in the archbishop's (laud?) library, wher the whole impression of these seauen sheets was found, but nether beginning nor ending more then is hearein contained. may th, .' this work, (continues mr. ellis,) which is a singular and valuable curiosity, is in fact a personal vindication of archbishop laud, not only from the slanders of the pamphlet, but from those of the times in general: and from internal evidence could have been written by no one but himself. it is in a style of writing beyond that of the ordinary productions of the day."] peace, peace, thou once "lofty spirit"--peace to thy sepulchre--always consecrated by the grateful student who has been benefited by thy bounty! perhaps laud should have been noticed a little earlier in this list of bibliomanical heroes; but, having here noticed him, i cannot refrain from observing to you that the notorious hugh peters revelled in some of the spoils of the archbishop's library; and that there are, to the best of my recollection, some curious entries on the journals of the house of commons relating to the same.[ ] [footnote : i am indebted to the same literary friend who gave me the intelligence which closes the last note, for the ensuing particulars relating to hugh peters; which are taken from the journals of the lower house: "ao. - . march . ordered, that a study of books, to the value of _l._ out of such books as are sequestered, be forthwith bestowed upon mr. peters." _journals of the house of commons_, vol. ii., p. . "ao. . april. whereas this house was formerly pleased to bestow upon mr. peters books to the value of _l._, it is this day ordered that mr. recorder, mr. whitlock, mr. hill, or two of them, do cause to be delivered to mr. peters, to the value of _l._, books out of the private and particular study of the archbishop of canterbury." _id._, vol. iii., p. . "ao. . junij. dies publicæ humiliationis. mr. peters made a large and full relation of the state of the western counties, and of the proceedings of my lord general's army, since its coming thither," &c. "whereas, formerly, books to the amount of _l._ were bestowed upon mr. peters out of the archbishop's private library, and whereas the said study is appraised at above _l._ more than the _l._, it is ordered this day that mr. peters shall have the whole study of books freely bestowed upon him." _id._ p. . "ao. . may . ordered, that all books and papers, heretofore belonging to the library of the archbishop of canterbury, and now, or lately, in the hands of mr. hugh peters, be forthwith secured." in ashmole's life, before the first volume of his antiq. of berkshire, it is said in aug. , "mr. ashmole had a commission to examine that infamous buffoon and trumpeter of rebellion, hugh peters, concerning the disposal of the pictures, jewels, &c., belonging to the royal family, which were committed chiefly to his care, and sold and dispersed over europe: which was soon brought to a conclusion by the obstinacy or ignorance of their criminal, who either would not, or was not able to, give the desired satisfaction."] lis. this is extraordinary enough. but, if i well remember, you mentioned, a short time ago, the name of braithwait as connected with that of peacham. now, as i persume [transcriber's note: presume] lorenzo has not tied down his guests to any rigid chronological rules, in their literary chit-chat, so i presume you might revert to braithwait, without being taxed with any great violation of colloquial order. lysand. nay, i am not aware of any _bookish_ anecdote concerning braithwait. he was mentioned with peacham as being a like accomplished character.[ ] some of his pieces are written upon the same subjects as were peacham's, and with great point and elegance. he seems, indeed, to have had the literary credit and moral welfare of his countrymen so much at stake that, i confess, i have a vast fondness for his lucubrations. his "_english gentlewoman_" might be reprinted with advantage. [footnote : the talents of richard braithwait do not appear to me to be so generally known and highly commended as they merit to be. his _nursery for gentry_, , to. (with his portrait in an engraved frontispiece by marshall), is written with the author's usual point and spirit; but, as i humbly conceive, is a less interesting performance than his _english gentleman_, , to. (with a frontispiece by marshall), or _english gentlewoman_, , to. (also with a frontispiece by the same artist). there is a terseness and vigour in braithwait's style which is superior to that of his contemporary, peacham; who seems to excel in a calm, easy, and graceful manner of composition. both these eminent writers are distinguished for their scholastic and gentlemanly attainments; but in the "divine art of poesy" (in which light i mean here more particularly to display the powers of braithwait) peacham has no chance of being considered even as a respectable competitor with his contemporary. mr. george ellis, in his pleasing _specimens of the early english poets_, vol. iii., p. , has selected two songs of braithwait "from a work not enumerated by wood;" calling the author, "a noted wit and poet." his fame, however, is not likely to "gather strength" from these effusions. it is from some passages in _the arcadian princesse_--a work which has been already, and more than once, referred to, but which is too dislocated and heterogeneous to recommend to a complete perusal--it is from some passages in _this_ work that i think braithwait shines with more lustre as a poet than in any to which his name is affixed. take the following miscellaneous ones, by way of specimens. they are sometimes a little faulty in rhyme and melody: but they are never lame from imbecility. ----he has the happiest wit, who has discretion to attemper it. and of all others, those the least doe erre, who in opinion are least singular. let stoicks be to opposition given, who to extreames in arguments are driven; submit thy judgment to another's will if it be good; oppose it mildly, ill. _lib._ iv., p. . strong good sense has been rarely exhibited in fewer lines than in the preceding ones. we have next a vigorously drawn character which has the frightful appellation of _uperephanos_, who still thought that th' world without him would be brought to nought: for when the dogge-starre raged, he used to cry, "no other atlas has the world but i. i am that only _hee_, supports the state; cements divisions, shuts up janus' gate; improves the publike fame, chalks out the way how princes should command, subjects obey. nought passeth my discovery, for my sense extends itself to all intelligence." &c. &c. &c. so well this story and this embleme wrought, _uperephanos_ was so humble brought, as he on earth disvalu'd nothing more, than what his vainest humour priz'd before. more wise, but lesse conceited of his wit; more pregnant, but lesse apt to humour it; more worthy, 'cause he could agnize his want; more eminent, because less arragant. in briefe, so humbly-morally divine, he was esteem'd the _non-such_ of his time. _id._, pp. , . another character, with an equally bizarre name, is drawn with the same vigour: _melixos_; such a starved one, as he had nothing left but skin and bone. the shady substance of a living man, or object of contempt wheree'er he came. yet had hee able parts, and could discourse, presse moving reasons, arguments enforce, expresse his readings with a comely grace, and prove himselfe a _consul_ in his place! _id._, p. . we have a still more highly-coloured, and indeed a terrific, as well as original, picture, in the following animated verses: next him, _uptoomos_; one more severe, ne'er purple wore in this inferiour sphere: rough and distastefull was his nature still, his life unsociable, as was his will. _eris_ and _enio_ his two pages were, his traine stern _apuneia_ us'd to beare. terrour and thunder echo'd from his tongue, though weake in judgment, in opinion strong. a fiery inflammation seiz'd his eyes, which could not well be temper'd any wise: for they were bloud-shot, and so prone to ill, as basiliske-like, where'ere they look, they kill. no laws but draco's with his humour stood, for they were writ in characters of bloud. his stomacke was distemper'd in such sort nought would digest; nor could he relish sport. his dreames were full of melancholy feare, bolts, halters, gibbets, halloo'd in his eare: fury fed nature with a little food, which, ill-concocted, did him lesser good, _id._, p. . but it is time to pause upon braithwait. whoever does not see, in these specimens, some of the most powerful rhyming couplets of the early half of the seventeenth century, if not the model of some of the verses in dryden's satirical pieces, has read both poets with ears differently constructed from those of the author of this book.] as i am permitted to be desultory in my remarks, (and, indeed, i craved this permission at the outset of them) i may here notice the publication of an excellent _catalogue of books_, in , to.; which, like its predecessor, maunsell's, helped to inflame the passions of purchasers, and to fill the coffers of booksellers. whenever you can meet with this small volume, purchase it, lisardo; if it be only for the sake of reading the spirited introduction prefixed to it.[ ] the author was a man, whoever he may chance to be, of no mean intellectual powers. but to return. [footnote : this volume, which has been rather fully described by me in the edition of more's _utopia_, vol. ii., p. , --where some specimens of the "introduction," so strongly recommended by lysander, will be found--is also noticed in the _athenæum_, vol. ii., ; where there is an excellent analysis of its contents. here, let me subjoin only one short specimen: in praise of learning, it is said: "wise and learned men are the surest stakes in the hedge of a nation or city: they are the best conservators of our liberties: the hinges on which the welfare, peace, and happiness, hang; the best public good, and only commonwealth's men. these lucubrations, meeting with a true and brave mind, can conquer men; and, with the basilisk, kill envy with a look." sign. e. . rect.] where sleep now the relics of dyson's library, which supplied that _helluo librorum_, richard smith, with "most of his rarities?"[ ] i would give something pretty considerable to have a correct list--but more to have an unmolested sight--of this library, in its original state: if it were merely to be convinced whether or not it contained a copy of the _first edition of shakespeare_, of larger dimensions, and in cleaner condition, than the one in philander's collection! [footnote : "h. dyson (says hearne) a person of a very strange, prying, and inquisitive genius, in the matter of books, as may appear from many libraries; there being books, chiefly in old english, almost in every library, that have belonged to him, with his name upon them." _peter langtoft's chronicles_, vol. i., p. xiii. this intelligence hearne gleaned from his friend mr. t. baker. we are referred by the former to the _bibl. r. smith_, p. , alias , no. , to an article, which confirms what is said of smith's "collecting most of his rarities out of the library of h. dyson." the article is thus described in bibl. smith, _ibid._; " six several catalogues of all such books, touching the state ecclesiastical as temporal of the realm of england, which were published upon several occasions, in the reigns of k. henry the viith and viiith, philip and mary, q. elizabeth, k. james, and charles i., collected by mr. h. dyson: out of whose library was gathered, by mr. smith, a great part of the rarities of this catalogue." a catalogue of the books sold in the reign of hen. vii. would be invaluable to a bibliographer! let me add, for the sake of pleasing, or rather, perhaps, tantalising my good friend mr. haleswood, that this article is immediately under one which describes "_an ancient ms. of hunting_, in vellum (wanting something) _quarto_." i hear him exclaim--"where is this treasure now to be found?" perhaps, upon the cover of a book of devotion!] i have incidentally mentioned the name of richard smith.[ ] such a bibliomaniac deserves ample notice, and the warmest commendation. ah, my lisardo! had you lived in the latter days of charles ii.--had you, by accident, fallen into the society of this indefatigable book-forager, while he pursued his book-rounds in _little britain_--could you have listened to his instructive conversation, and returned home with him to the congenial quiet and avocations of his book-room--would you, however caressed st. james's, or even smiled upon by the first duchess in the land--have cared a rush for the splendours of a court, or concentrated your best comforts in a coach drawn by six cream-coloured horses? would you not, on the contrary, have thought with this illustrious bibliomaniac, and with the sages of greece and rome before him, that "in books is wisdom, and in wisdom is happiness." [footnote : from the address to the reader, prefixed to the catalogue of richard smith's books, which was put forth by chiswel the bookseller, in may , to.--the bibliomaniac is presented with the following interesting but cramply written, particulars relating to the owner of them: "though it be needless to recommend what to all intelligent persons sufficiently commend itself, yet, perhaps, it may not be unacceptable to the ingenious to have some short account concerning _this so much celebrated, so often desired, so long expected, library_, now exposed to sale. the gentleman that collected it was a person infinitely curious and inquisitive after books; and who suffered nothing considerable to escape him, that fell within the compass of his learning; for he had not the vanity of desiring to be master of more than he knew how to use. he lived to a very great age, and spent a good part of it almost entirely in the search of books. being as constantly known every day to walk his rounds through the shops as he sat down to meals, where his great skill and experience enabled him to make choice of what was not obvious to every vulgar eye. he lived in times which ministered peculiar opportunities of meeting with books that are not every day brought into publick light; and few eminent libraries were bought where he had not the liberty to pick and choose. and while others were forming arms, and new-modelling kingdoms, _his_ great ambition was to become master of a good book. hence arose, as that vast number of his books, so the choiceness and rarity of the greatest part of them; and that of all kinds, and in all sorts of learning," &c. "nor was the owner of them a meer idle possessor of so great a treasure: for as he generally _collated_ his books upon the buying of them (upon which account the buyer may rest pretty secure of their being perfect) so he did not barely turn over the leaves, but observed the defects of impressions, and the ill arts used by many; compared the differences of editions; concerning which, and the like cases, he has entered memorable, and very useful, remarks upon very many of the books under his own hand: observations wherein, certainly, never man was more diligent and industrious. thus much was thought fit to be communicated to publick notice, by a gentleman who was intimately acquainted both with mr. smith and his books. _this excellent library will be exposed by auction, and the sale will begin on monday the th day of may next, at the auction house, known by the name of_ the swan, _in great st. bartholomew's close, and there continue, day by day, the five first days of every week, till all the books be sold._" in this catalogue of richard smith's books, the sharp-eyed bibliomaniac will discover twelve volumes printed by caxton; which collectively, produced only the sum of _l._ _s._ _d._ the price of each of these volumes has been already given to the public (_typog. antiq._, vol i., p. cxxxii.) i suppose a thousand guineas would _now_ barely secure perfect copies of them! the catalogue itself is most barbarously printed, and the arrangement and description of the volumes such as to damn the compiler "to everlasting fame." a number of the most curious, rare, and intrinsically valuable books--the very insertion of which in a bookseller's catalogue would probably now make a hundred bibliomaniacs start from their homes by star-light, in order to come in for the _first pickings_--a number of volumes of this description are huddled together in one lot, and all these classed under the provoking running title of "_bundles of books_," or "_bundles of sticht books_!" but it is time to bid adieu to this matchless collection. leaving the virtuoso "to toil, from rise to set of sun" after w. sherwin's "extra rare and fine" portrait of the collector, which will cost him hard upon ten pounds (see _sir william musgrave's catalogue of english portraits_, p. , no. ), and to seize, if it be in his power, a copy of the catalogue itself, "with the prices and purchasers' names" (vide _bibl. lort._, no. ). i proceed to attend upon lysander: not, however, without informing him that strype (_life of cranmer_, p. ), as well as hearne (_liber niger scaccarii_, vol. ii., p. ), has condescended to notice the famous library of this famous collector of books, richard smith!] lis. in truth i should have done even more than what your barren imagination has here depicted. smith's figure, his address, his conversation, his library-- loren. enough--peace! there is no end to lisardo's _fruitful_ imagination. we are surfeited with the richness of it. go on, dear lysander; but first, satisfy a desire which i just now feel to be informed of the period when _sales of books, by auction_, were introduced into this country. lysand. you take _that_ for granted which remains [transcriber's note: missing 'to' in original] be _proved_: namely, my ability to gratify you in this particular. of the precise period when this memorable revolution in the sale of books took place i have no means of being accurately informed: but i should think not anterior to the year , or ; for, in the year , to the best of my recollection, the catalogue of the library of dr. seaman was put forth; to which is prefixed an address to the reader, wherein the custom of selling books by auction is mentioned as having been but of recent origin in our country.[ ] it was, however, no sooner introduced than it caught the attention, and pleased the palates, of bibliomaniacs exceedingly: and clavel, a bookseller, who published useful catalogues of books to be sold in his own warehouse, retorted in sharp terms upon the folly and extravagance which were exhibited at book auctions. however, neither clavel nor his successors, from that period to the present, have been able to set this custom aside, nor to cool the fury of book-auction bibliomaniacs--who, to their eternal shame be it said, will sometimes, from the hot and hasty passions which are stirred up by the poisonous miasmata floating in the auction-room, give a sum twice or thrice beyond the real value of the books bidden for! indeed, i am frequently amused to see the vehemence and rapture with which a dirty little volume is contended for and embraced--while a respectable bookseller, like portius, coolly observes across the table--"i have a better copy on sale at one third of the price!" [footnote : a part of the address "to the reader," in the catalogue above-mentioned by lysander, being somewhat of a curiosity, is here reprinted in its unadulterated [transcriber's note: remainder of sentence missing in original] "reader, "it hath not been usual here in england to make _sale of books by way of auction or who will give most for them_: but it having been practised in other countreys to the advantage both of buyers and sellers, it was therefore conceived (for the encouragement of learning) to publish the sale of these books this manner of way; and it is hoped that this will not be unacceptable to schollers: and therefore, methought it convenient to give an advertisement concerning the manner of proceeding therein. _first_, that having this catalogue of the books, and their editions, under their several heads and numbers, it will be more easie for any person of quality, gentleman, or others, to depute any one to buy such books for them as they shall desire, if their occasions will not permit them to be present at the auction themselves." the _second_ clause is the usual one about _differences_ arising. the _third_, about discovering the imperfections of the copies before they are taken away. the _fourth_, that the buyers are to pay for their purchases within one month after the termination of the auction. the _fifth_, that the sale is to begin "punctually at o'clock in the morning, and two in the afternoon; and this to continue daily until all the books be sold; wherefore it is desired that the gentlemen, or those deputed by them, may be there precisely at the hours appointed, lest they should miss the opportunity of buying those books which either themselves or their friends desire." as this is the earliest auction catalogue which i have chanced to meet with, the _present_ reader may probably be pleased with the following specimens, selected almost at random of the prices which were given for books at a public sale, in the year . _in folio._ philologists. _s._ _d._ pet. heylyn's cosmographie, lond. . io. stow's annals, or chronicles of england, &c. ibid., . burton's anatomy of melancholy, oxon, . geo. withers, his emblems; illustrated with brass figures, . os. gabelhower's book called the dutch physic, dort, . p. . _in quarto._ philologie. the royal passage of her majesty, from the } tower to whitehall, lond., . } the vision of the goddesses, a mask by the } queen and her ladies, . } king james his entertainment through the city } of london, ibid. } a particular entertainment of the queen and } prince, . } the magnificent entertainment of king james, } queen anne, and prince henry frederick, . } her majesties speech to both houses of } parliament, . } _s._ _d._ vox coeli, or news from heaven, . } an experimental discovery of the spanish } practises, . } tho. scotts aphorisms of state, or secret } articles for the re-edifying the romish } church, . } the tongue combat between two english } souldiers, . } votivæ angliæ, or the desires and wishes of } england, . } a book of fishing, with hook and line, and } other instruments, . } p. . now a-days, the last article alone would pr duce [transcriber's note: produce]--shall i say _nine_ times the sum of the whole? but once more: _in octavo._ philologists. rob. crowley's confutation and answer to a } wicked ballade of the abuse of the } sacrament of the altar, . } philargyne, or covetousness of great britain, } . } a confutation of articles of nicol sharton's, } . } the voice of the last trumpet, blown by the } seventh angel, . } _s._ _d._ rob. crowley's four last things. } a petition against the oppressors of the poor } of this realm, . } a supplication of the poor commons, . } piers plowman exhortation to the parliament, } and a new-year's gift, . } the hurt of sedition to the commonwealth, . } to continue the _history of book auctions_, a little further. two years after the preceding sale, namely, in , were sold the collections of dr. manton, dr. worsley, and others. in the address to the reader, prefixed to manton's catalogue, it would seem that this was the "_fourth_ triall" of this mode of sale in our own country. the conditions and time of sale the same as the preceding; and because one briggs, and not one cooper, drew up the same, cooper craves the reader's "excuse for the mistakes that have happened; and desires that the saddle may be laid upon the right horse." in this collection there is a more plentiful sprinkling of english books; among which, dugdale's warwickshire, , was sold for _l._ _s._; and fuller's worthies for the same sum. the "collections of pamphlets, bound together in quarto," were immense. dr. worsley's collection, with two others, was sold two months afterwards; namely, in may, : and from the address "to the reader," it would appear that dr. manton's books brought such high prices as to excite the envy of the trade. worsley's collection was sold at and , the usual hours "at the house over against the hen and chickens, in pater-noster row." the venders thus justify themselves at the close of their address: "we have only this to add in behalf of ourselves; that, forasmuch as a report has been spread that we intend to use indirect means to advance the prices, we do affirm that it is a groundless and malicious suggestion of some of our own trade, envious of our undertaking: and that, to avoid all manner of suspicion of such practice, we have absolutely refused all manner of commissions that have been offered us for buying (some of them without limitation): and do declare that the company shall have nothing but candid and ingenuous dealing from john dunmore. richard chiswel." at this sale, the shakspeare of brought _s._; and of , _l._ _s._ in the november and december of the same year were sold by auction the books of voet, sangar, and others, and from the preface to each catalogue it would seem that the sale of books by auction was then but a recent, yet a very successful, experiment; and that even collections from abroad were imported, in order to be disposed of in a like manner.] lis. from what you say, it would appear to be wiser to lay out one's money at a bookseller's than at a book-auction? lysand. both methods must of necessity be resorted to: for you cannot find with the one what you may obtain at the other. a distinguished collector, such as the late mr. reed, or mr. gough, or mr. joseph windham, dies, and leaves his library to be sold by auction for the benefit of his survivors. now, in this library so bequeathed, you have the fruits of book-labour, collected for a long period, and cultivated in almost every department of literature. a thousand radii are concentrated in such a circle; for it has, probably, been the object of the collector's life to gather and to concentrate these radii. in this case, therefore, you must attend the auction; you must see how such a treasure is scattered, like the sibylline leaves, by the winds of fate. you must catch at what you want, and for what you have been a dozen years, perhaps, in the pursuit of. you will pay dearly for these favourite volumes; but you have them, and that is comfort enough; and you exclaim, as a consolation amidst all the agony and waste of time which such a contest may have cost you,--"where, at what bookseller's, are such gems now to be procured?" all this may be well enough. but if i were again to have, as i have already had, the power of directing the taste and applying the wealth of a young collector--who, on coming of age, wisely considers books of at least as much consequence as a stud of horses--i would say, go to mr. payne, or mr. evans, or mr. mackinlay, or mr. lunn, for your greek and latin classics; to mr. dulau, or mr. deboffe, for your french; to mr. carpenter, or mr. cuthell, for your english; and to mr. white for your botany and rare and curious books of almost every description. or, if you want delicious copies, in lovely binding, of works of a sumptuous character, go and drink coffee with mr. miller, of albemarle street--under the warm light of an argand lamp--amidst a blaze of morocco and russia coating, which brings to your recollection the view of the temple of the sun in the play of pizarro! you will also find, in the vender of these volumes, courteous treatment and "gentlemanly notions of men and things." again, if you wish to speculate deeply in books, or to stock a newly-discovered province with what is most excellent and popular in our own language, hire a vessel of tons' burthen, and make a contract with messrs. longman, hurst, and co., who are enabled, from their store of _quires_, which measure feet in height, by in length, and in width, to satisfy all the wants of the most craving bibliomaniacs. in opposition to this pyramid, enter the closet of mr. triphook, jun., of st. james's street--and resist, if it be in your power to resist, the purchase of those clean copies, so prettily bound, of some of our rarest pieces of black-letter renown! loren. from this digression, oblige us now by returning to our bibliomaniacal history. lysand. most willingly. but i am very glad you have given me an opportunity of speaking, as i ought to speak, of some of our most respectable booksellers, who are an ornament to the cause of the bibliomania. we left off, i think, with noticing that renowned book-collector, richard smith. let me next make honourable mention of a "_par nobile fratrum_" that ycleped are north. the "lives" of these men, with an "examen" (of "kennet's history of england"), were published by a relative (i think a grandson) of the same name; and two very amusing and valuable quarto volumes they are! from one of these lives, we learn how pleasantly the lord keeper used to make his meals upon some one entertaining law-volume or another: how he would breakfast upon _stamford_,[ ] dine upon _coke_, and sup upon _fitzherbert_, &c.; and, in truth, a most insatiable book appetite did this eminent judge possess. for, not satisfied ("and no marvel, i trow") with the foregoing lean fare, he would oftentimes regale himself with a well-served-up course of the _arts_, _sciences_, and the _belles-lettres_! [footnote : these are the words of lord keeper north's biographer: "there are of law-books, institutions of various sorts, and reports of cases (now) almost innumerable. the latter bear most the controversial law, and are read as authority such as may be quoted: and i may say the gross of law lecture lies in them. but to spend weeks and months wholly in them, is like horses in a string before a loaden waggon. they are indeed a careful sort of reading, and chiefly require common-placing, and that makes the work go on slowly. his lordship therefore used to mix some institutionary reading with them, as after a fulness of the reports in a morning, about noon, to take a repast in _stamford_, _compton_, or the lord _coke's_ pleas of the crown and jurisdiction of courts, _manwood_ of the forest law, _fitzherbert's_ natura brevium; and also to look over some of the antiquarian books, as _britton_, _bracton_, _fleta_, _fortescue_, _hengham_, _the old tenures narrationes novæ_, the old _natura brevium_, and the diversity of courts. these, at times, for change and refreshment, being books all fit to be known. and those that, as to authority, are obsoleted, go rounder off-hand, because they require little common-placing, and that only as to matter very singular and remarkable, and such as the student fancies he shall desire afterwards to recover. and, besides all this, the day afforded him room for a little history, especially of england, modern books, and controversy in print, &c. in this manner he ordered his own studies, but with excursions into _humanity_ and _arts_, beyond what may be suitable to the genius of every young student in the law." _life of lord keeper guildford_, pp. , . _north's lives_, edit. , to.] his brother, dr. john north, was a still greater _helluo librorum_; "his soul being never so staked down as in an old bookseller's shop." not content with a superficial survey of whatever he inspected, he seems to have been as intimately acquainted with all the book-selling fraternity of _little-britain_ as was his contemporary, richard smith; and to have entered into a conspiracy with robert scott[ ]--the most renowned book vender in this country, if not in europe--to deprive all bibliomaniacs of a chance of procuring rare and curious volumes, by sweeping every thing that came to market, in the shape of a book, into their own curiously-wrought and widely-spread nets. nay, even scott himself was sometimes bereft of all power, by means of the potent talisman which this learned doctor exercised--for the latter, "at one lift," would now and then sweep a whole range of shelves in scott's shop of every volume which it contained. and yet how whimsical, and, in my humble opinion, ill-founded, was dr. north's taste in matters of typography! would you believe it, lisardo, he preferred the meagre classical volumes, printed by the _gryphii_, in the italic letter, to the delicate and eye-soothing lustre of the _elzevir_ type--? [footnote : "now he began to look after books, and to lay the foundation of a competent library. he dealt with mr. robert scott, of _little-britain_, whose sister was his grandmother's woman; and, upon that acquaintance he expected, and really had from him, useful information of books and their editions. this mr. scott was, in his time, the greatest librarian in europe; for, besides his stock in england, he had warehouses in francfort, paris, and other places, and dealt by factors. after he was grown old, and much worn by multiplicity of business, he began to think of his ease and to leave off. whereupon he contracted with one mills, of st. paul's church-yard, near £ , deep, and articled not to open his shop any more. but mills, with his auctioneering, atlasses, and projects, failed, whereby poor scott lost above half his means: but he held to his contract of not opening his shop, and when he was in london (for he had a country house), passed most of his time at his house amongst the rest of his books; and his reading (for he was no mean scholar) was the chief entertainment of his time. he was not only an expert bookseller, but a very conscientious good man; and when he threw up his trade, europe had no small loss of him. our doctor, at one lift, bought of him a whole set of greek classics in folio, of the best editions. this sunk his stock at that time; but afterwards, for many years of his life, all that he could (as they say) rap or run, went the same way. but the progress was small; for such a library as he desired, compared with what the pittance of his stock would purchase, allowing many years to the gathering, was of desperate expectation. he was early sensible of a great disadvantage to him in his studies, by the not having a good library in his reach; and he used to say that a man could not be a scholar at the second-hand: meaning, that learning is to be had from the original authors, and not from any quotations, or accounts in other books, for men gather with divers views, and, according to their several capacities, often perfunctorily, and almost always imperfectly: and through such slight reading, a student may know somewhat, but not judge of either author or subject. he used to say _an old author could not be unprofitable_; for although in their proper time they had little or no esteem, yet, in after times, they served to interpret words, customs, and other matters, found obscure in other books; of which a. gellius is an apt instance. he courted, as a fond lover, all _best editions, fairest character, best bound and preserved_. if the subject was in his favour (as the classics) he cared not how many of them he had, even of the same edition, if he thought it among the best, either _better bound_, _squarer cut_, _neater covers_, or some such qualification caught him. he delighted in the small editions of the classics, by seb. gryphius; and divers of his acquaintance, meeting with any of them, bought and brought them to him, which he accepted as choice presents, although perhaps he had one or two of them before. he said that the _black italic_ character agreed with his eye sight (which he accounted but weak) better than any other print, the old elzevir not excepted, whereof the characters seemed to him more blind and confused than those of the other. continual use gives men a judgment of things comparatively, and they come to fix on that as most proper and easy which no man, upon cursory view, would determine. _his soul was never so staked down as in an old bookseller's shop_; for having (as the statutes of the college required) taken orders, he was restless till he had compassed some of that sort of furniture as he thought necessary for his profession. he was, for the most part, his own factor, and seldom or never bought by commission; which made him lose time in turning over vast numbers of books, and he was very hardly pleased at last. i have borne him company at shops for hours together, and, minding him of the time, he hath made a dozen proffers before he would quit. by this care and industry, at length, he made himself master of a very considerable library, wherein the choicest collection was _greek_." there is some smartness in the foregoing observations. the following, in a strain of equal interest, affords a lively picture of the _bookselling trade_ at the close of the th century: "it may not be amiss to step a little aside, to reflect on the vast change in the trade of books, between that time and ours. then, _little-britain_ was a plentiful and perpetual emporium of learned authors; and men went thither as to a market. this drew to the place a mighty trade; the rather because the shops were spacious, and the learned gladly resorted to them, where they seldom failed to meet with agreeable conversation. and the booksellers themselves were knowing and conversible men, with whom, for the sake of bookish knowledge, the greatest wits were pleased to converse. and we may judge the time as well spent there, as (in latter days) either in tavern or coffee-house: though the latter hath carried off the spare hours of most people. but now this emporium is vanished, and trade contracted into the hands of two or three persons, who, to make good their monopoly, ransack, not only their neighbours of the trade that are scattered about town, but all over england, aye, and beyond sea too, and send abroad their circulators, and, in that manner, get into their hands all that is valuable. the rest of the trade are content to take their refuse, with which, and the fresh scum of the press, they furnish one side of a shop, which serves for the sign of a bookseller, rather than a real one; but, instead of selling, dealing as factors, and procure what the country divines and gentry send for; of whom each hath his book factor, and, when wanting any thing, writes to his bookseller, and pays his bill. and it is wretched to consider what pickpocket work, with help of the press, these demi-booksellers make. they crack their brains to find out selling subjects, and keep hirelings in garrets, at hard meat, to write and correct by the great (qu. groat); and so puff up an octavo to a sufficient thickness, and there's six shillings current for an hour and a half's reading, and perhaps never to be read or looked upon after. one that would go higher must take his fortune at blank walls, and corners of streets, or repair to the sign of bateman, innys, and one or two more, where are best choice and better pennyworth's. i might touch other abuses, as bad paper, incorrect printing, and false advertising; all which, and worse, is to be expected, if a careful author is not at the heels of them." life of the hon. and rev. dr. john north. _north's lives_, edit. , to., p. , &c. at page , there is a curious account of the doctor's amusing himself with keeping spiders in a glass case--feeding them with bread and flies--and seeing these spiders afterwards quarrel with, and destroy, each other--"parents and offspring!"] lis. "_de gustibus_--" you know the rest. but these norths were brave bibliomaniacs! proceed, we are now advancing towards the threshold of the eighteenth century; and the nearer you come to it, the greater is the interest excited. lysand. take care that i don't conclude with the memorable catalogue-burning deed of your father! but i spare your present feelings. all hail to the noble book-spirit by which the _lives of oxford-athenians_, and the _antiquities of oxford university_, are recorded and preserved beyond the power of decay![ ] all hail to thee, old anthony a-wood! may the remembrance of thy researches, amidst thy paper and parchment documents, stored up in chests, pews, and desks, and upon which, alas! the moth was "feeding sweetly," may the remembrance of these thy laborious researches always excite sensations of gratitude towards the spirit by which they were directed! now i see thee, in imagination, with thy cautious step, and head bowing from premature decay, and solemn air, and sombre visage, with cane under the arm, pacing from library to library, through gothic quadrangles; or sauntering along the isis, in thy way to some neighbouring village, where thou wouldst recreate thyself with "pipe and pot." yes, anthony! while the _bodleian_ and _ashmolean_ collections remain--or rather as long as englishmen know how to value that species of literature by which the names and actions of their forefathers are handed down to posterity, so long shall the memory of thy laudable exertions continue unimpaired! [footnote : the name and literary labours of anthony wood are now held in general, and deservedly high, respect: and it is somewhat amusing, though not a little degrading to human nature, to reflect upon the celebrity of that man who, when living, seems to have been ridiculed by the proud and flippant, and hated by the ignorant and prejudiced, part of his academical associates. the eccentricities of wood were considered heretical; and his whims were stigmatized as vices. the common herd of observers was unable to discover, beneath his strange garb, and coarse exterior, all that acuteness of observation, and retentiveness of memory, as well as inflexible integrity, which marked the intellectual character of this wonderful man. but there is no necessity to detain and tantalize the reader by this formal train of reasoning, when a few leading features of wood's person, manners, and habits of study, &c., have been thus pleasingly described to us by hearne, in the life of him prefixed to the genuine edition of the _history and antiquities (or annals) of the university of oxford_. "he was equally regardless of envy or fame, out of his great love to truth, and therefore 'twas no wonder he took such a liberty of speech, as most other authors, out of prudence, cunning, or design, have usually declined. and indeed, as to his language, he used such words as were suitable to his profession. it is impossible to think that men, who always converse with old authors, should not learn the dialect of their acquaintance--an antiquary retains an old word, with as much religion as an old relick. and further, since our author was ignorant of the rules of conversation, it is no wonder he uses so many severe reflections, and adds so many minute passages of men's lives. i have been told that it was usual with him, for the most part, to rise about four o'clock in the morning, and to eat hardly any thing till night; when, after supper, he would go into some by-alehouse in town, or else to one in some village near, and there by himself take his _pipe and pot_," &c. "but so it is that, notwithstanding our author's great merits, he was but little regarded in the university, being observed to be more clownish than courteous, and always to go in an old antiquated dress. indeed he was a mere scholar, and consequently must expect, from the greatest number of men, disrespect; but this notwithstanding, he was always a true lover of his mother, the university, and did more for her than others care to do that have received so liberally from her towards their maintenance, and have had greater advantages of doing good than he had. yea, his affection was not at all alienated, notwithstanding his being so hardly dealt with as to be expelled; which would have broken the hearts of some. but our author was of a most noble spirit, and little regarded whatever afflictions he lay under, whilst he was conscious to himself of doing nothing but what he could answer. at length after he had, by continual drudging, worn out his body, he left this world contentedly, by a stoppage of his urine, anno domini , and was buried in the east corner of the north side of st. john's church, adjoyning to merton college, and in the wall is a small monument fixed, with these words: h.s.e. antonius wood, antiquarius. _ob. nov._ ao. , æt. ." in his person, he was of a large robust make, tall and thin, and had a sedate and thoughtful look, almost bordering upon a melancholy cast. mr. hearne says, in his _collectanea mss._, that though he was but sixty-four years of age when he died, he appeared to be above fourscore; that he used spectacles long before he had occasion for them, that he stooped much when he walked, and generally carried his stick under his arm, seldom holding it in his hand. as to the manner of his life, it was solitary and ascetic. the character which gassendus gives of peireskius, may, with propriety, be used as descriptive of mr. wood's. "as to the care of his person, cleanliness was his chief object, he desiring no superfluity or costliness, either in his habit or food. his house was furnished in the same manner as his table; and as to the ornament of his private apartment, he was quite indifferent. instead of hangings, his chamber was furnished with the prints of his particular friends, and other men of note, with vast numbers of commentaries, transcripts, letters, and papers of various kinds. his bed was of the most ordinary sort; his table loaded with papers, schedules, and other things, as was also every chair in the room. he was a man of strict sobriety, and by no means delicate in the choice of what he eat. always restrained by temperance, he never permitted the sweet allurements of luxury to overcome his prudence." such, as is here represented, was the disposition of mr. wood: of so retired a nature as seldom to desire or admit a companion at his walks or meals; so that he is said to have dined alone in his chamber for thirty years together. mr. hearne says that it was his custom to "go to the booksellers at those hours when the greater part of the university were at their dinners," &c. and at five leaves further, in a note, we find that, "when he was consulting materials for his _athenæ oxon._, he would frequently go to the booksellers, and generally give money to them, purposely to obtain titles of books from them; and 'twas observed of him that he spared no charges to make that work as compleat and perfect as possible." _hearne's coll. mss. in bodl. lib._, vol. ix., p. . the following letter, describing wood's last illness, and the disposition of his literary property, is sufficiently interesting to be here, in part, laid before the reader: it was written by mr. (afterwards bishop) tanner to dr. charlett. "honoured master, yesterday, at dinner-time, mr. wood sent for me; when i came, i found mr. martin and mr. bisse of wadham (college) with him, who had (with much ado) prevailed upon him to set about looking over his papers, so to work we went, and continued tumbling and separating some of his mss. till it was dark. we also worked upon him so far as to sign and declare that sheet of paper, which he had drawn up the day before, and called it _his will_; for fear he should not live till night. he had a very bad night of it last night, being much troubled with vomiting. this morning we three were with him again, and mr. martin bringing with him the form of a will, that had been drawn up by judge holloway, we writ his will over again, as near as we could, in form of law. he has given to the university, to be reposited in the _museum ashmol._, all his mss., not only those of his own collection, but also all others which he has in his possession, except some few of dr. langbain's miscellanea, which he is willing should go to the public library. he has also given all his printed books and pamphlets to the said musæum which are not there already. this benefaction will not, perhaps, be so much valued by the university as it ought to be, because it comes from anthony wood; but truly it is a most noble gift, his collection of mss. being invaluable, and his printed books, most of them, not to be found in town," &c. this letter is followed by other accounts yet more minute and touching, of the last mortal moments of poor old anthony! it now remains to say a few words about his literary labours. a short history of the editions of the _athenæ oxonienses_ (vide p. , ante) has already been communicated to the reader. we may here observe that his _antiquities of the university_ shared a similar fate; being garbled in a latin translation of them, which was put forth under the auspices of bishop fell: , fol., in vols. wood's own ms. was written in the english language, and lay neglected till towards the end of the th century, when the rev. mr. gutch conferred a real benefit upon all the dutiful sons of alma mater, by publishing the legitimate text of their venerable and upright historian; under the title of _the history and antiquities of the colleges and halls_, , to., with a supplemental volume by way of _appendix_, , to., containing copious indexes to the two. then followed the annals of the university at large, viz. _the history and antiquities of the university of oxford_; , to., in two volumes; the latter being divided into _two_ parts, or volumes, with copious indexes. these works, which are now getting scarce, should be in every philological, as well as topographical, collection. in order to compensate the reader for the trouble of wading through the preceding tremendous note, i here present him with a wood-cut facsimile of a copper-plate print of wood's portrait, which is prefixed to his life, , vo. if he wishes for more curious particulars respecting wood's literary labours, let him take a peep into _thomæ caii vindic. antiq. acad. oxon._: , vo., vol. i., pp. xl. xliii. _edit. hearne._ wood's study, in the ashmolean museum, is yet to be seen. it is filled with curious books, which, however, have not hitherto been catalogued with accuracy. ritson has availed himself, more successfully than any antiquary in poetry, of the book treasures in this museum. [illustration]] a very few years after the death of this distinguished character, died dr. francis bernard;[ ] a stoic in bibliography. neither beautiful binding, nor amplitude of margin, ever delighted his eye or rejoiced his heart: for he was a stiff, hard, and straight-forward reader--and learned, in literary history, beyond all his contemporaries. his collection was copious and excellent; and although the compiler of the catalogue of his books sneers at any one's having "an entire collection in physic," (by the bye, i should have told you that bernard was a _doctor of medicine_,) yet, if i forget not, there are nearly pages in this said catalogue which are thickly studded with "_libri medici_," from the folio to the duodecimo size. many very curious books are afterwards subjoined; and some precious _bijous_, in english literature, close the rear. let bernard be numbered among the most learned and eminent bibliomaniacs. [footnote : i do not know that i could produce a better recipe for the cure of those who are affected with the worst symptoms of the book-mania, in the _present day_, than by shewing them how the same symptoms, upwards of a _century ago_, were treated with ridicule and contempt by a collector of very distinguished fame, both on account of his literary talents and extensive library. the following copious extract is curious on many accounts; and i do heartily wish that foppish and tasteless collectors would give it a very serious perusal. at the same time, all collectors possessed of common sense and liberal sentiment will be pleased to see their own portraits so faithfully drawn therein. it is taken from the prefatory address, "to the reader. the character of the person whose collection this was, is so well known, that there is no occasion to say much of him, nor to any man of judgment that inspects the catalogue of the collection itself. something, however, it becomes us to say of both; and this i think may with truth and modesty enough be said, that as few men knew books, and that part of learning which is called _historia litteraria_, better than himself, so there never yet appeared in england so choice and valuable a catalogue to be thus disposed of as this before us: more especially of that sort of books which are out of the common course, which a man may make the business of his life to collect, and at last not to be able to accomplish. a considerable part of them being so little known, even to many of the learned buyers, that we have reason to apprehend this misfortune to attend the sale, that there will not be competitors enough to raise them up to their just and real value. certain it is this library contains not a few which never appeared in any auction here before; nor indeed, as i have heard him say, for ought he knew, (and he knew as well as any man living) _in any printed catalogue in the world_."--"we must confess that, being a person who collected his books for use, and not for ostentation or ornament, he seemed no more solicitous about _their_ dress than _his own_; and therefore you'll find that a _gilt back_, or a _large margin_, was very seldom any inducement to him to buy. 'twas sufficient that he had the book." "though considering that he was so unhappy as to want heirs capable of making that use of them which he had done, and that therefore they were to be dispersed after this manner; i have heard him condemn his own negligence in that particular; observing, that the garniture of a book was as apt to recommend it to a great part of our _modern collectors_ (whose learning goes not beyond the edition, the title-page, and the printer's name) as the intrinsic value could. but that he himself was not a mere nomenclator, and versed only in title-pages, but had made that just and laudable use of his books which would become all those that set up for collectors, i appeal to the literati of his acquaintance, who conversed most frequently with him; how full, how ready, and how exact he was in answering any question that was proposed to him relating to learned men, or their writings; making no secret of any thing that he knew, or any thing that he had; being naturally one of the most communicative men living, both of his knowledge and his books."--"and give me leave to say this of him, upon my own knowledge; that he never grudged his money in procuring, nor his time or labour in perusing, any book which he thought could be any ways instructive to him, and having the felicity of a memory always faithful, always officious, which never forsook him, though attacked by frequent and severe sickness, and by the worst of diseases, old age, his desire of knowledge attended him to the last; and he pursued his studies with equal vigour and application to the very extremity of his life." it remains to add a part of the title of the catalogue of the collection of this extraordinary bibilomaniac [transcriber's note: bibliomaniac]: "_a catalogue of the library of the late learned_ dr. francis bernard, _fellow of the college of physicians, and physician to st. bartholomew's hospital, &c._," , vo. the english books are comprised in articles; and, among them, the keen investigator of ancient catalogues will discover some prime rarities.] having at length reached the threshold, let us knock at the door, of the eighteenth century. what gracious figures are those which approach to salute us? they are the forms of bishops fell and more:[ ] prelates, distinguished for their never ceasing admiration of valuable and curious works. the former is better known as an editor; the latter, as a collector--and a collector, too, of such multifarious knowledge, of such vivid and just perceptions, and unabating activity--that while he may be hailed as the _father of_ =black-letter= _collectors_ in this country, he reminds us of his present successor in the same see; who is not less enamoured of rare and magnificent volumes, but of a different description, and whose library assumes a grander cast of character. [footnote : as i have already presented the public with some brief account respecting bishop fell, and sharpened the appetites of grangerites to procure rather a rare portrait of the same prelate (see _introd. to the classics_, vol. i., ), it remains only to add, in the present place, that hearne, in his _historia vitæ et regni ricardi ii._, , vo., p. , has given us a curious piece of information concerning this eminent bibliomaniac, which may not be generally known. his authority is anthony wood. from this latter we learn that, when anthony and the bishop were looking over the _history and antiquities of the university of oxford_, to correct it for the press, fell told wood that "wicliffe was a grand dissembler; a man of little conscience; and what he did, as to religion, was more out of vain glory, and to obtain unto him a name, than out of honesty--or to that effect." can such a declaration, from such a character, be credited? bishop more has a stronger claim on our attention and gratitude. never has there existed an episcopal bibliomaniac of such extraordinary talent and fame in the walk of _old english literature_!--as the reader shall presently learn. the bishop was admitted of clare hall, cambridge, in . in , he became bishop of norwich; and was translated to ely in ; but did not survive the translation above seven years. how soon and how ardently the passion for collecting books possessed him it is out of my present power to make the reader acquainted. but that more was in the zenith of his bibliomaniacal reputation while he filled the see of norwich is unquestionable; for thus writes strype: "the right reverend, the lord bishop of norwich, the possessor of a great and curious collection of mss. and other ancient printed pieces (little inferior to mss. in regard of their scarceness) hath also been very considerably assistant to me as well in this present work as in others;" &c. preface (sign. a ) to _life of aylmer_, , vo. burnet thus describes his fine library when he was bishop of ely. "this noble record was lent me by my reverend and learned brother, dr. more, bishop of ely, who has gathered together a most valuable treasure, both of printed books and manuscripts, beyond what one can think that the life and labour of one man could have compassed; and which he is as ready to communicate, as he has been careful to collect it." _hist. of the reformation_, vol. iii., p. . it seems hard to reconcile this testimony of burnet with the late mr. gough's declaration, that "the bishop collected his library by plundering those of the clergy in his diocese; some he paid with sermons or more modern books; others only with '_quid illiterati cum libris_.'" on the death of more, his library was offered to lord oxford for _l._; and how that distinguished and truly noble collector could have declined the purchase of such exquisite treasures--unless his own shelves were groaning beneath the weight of a great number of similar volumes--is difficult to account for. but a public-spirited character was not wanting to prevent the irreparable dispersion of such book-gems: and that patriotic character was george i.!--who gave _l._ for them, and presented them to the public library of the university of cambridge!-- "these are imperial works, and worthy kings!" and here, benevolent reader, the almost unrivalled _bibliotheca moriana_ yet quietly and securely reposes. well do i remember the congenial hours i spent (a.d. ) in the _closet_ holding the most precious part of bishop more's collection, with my friend the rev. mr. ----, tutor of one of the colleges in the same university, at my right-hand--(himself "greatly given to the study of books") actively engaged in promoting my views, and increasing my extracts--but withal, eyeing me sharply "ever and anon"--and entertaining a laudable distrust of a keen book-hunter from a rival university! i thank my good genius that i returned, as i entered, with clean hands! my love of truth and of bibliography compels me to add, with a sorrowful heart, that not only is there no printed catalogue of bishop more's books, but even the fine public library of the university remains unpublished in print! in this respect they really do "order things better in france." why does such indifference to the cause of general learning exist--and in the th century too? let me here presume to submit a plan to the consideration of the syndics of the press; provided they should ever feel impressed with the necessity of informing the literati, of other countries as well as our own, of the book treasures contained in the libraries of cambridge. it is simply this. let the books in the public library form the substratum of the _catalogue raisonné_ to be printed in three or more quarto volumes. if, in any particular department, there be valuable editions of a work which are _not_ in the public, but in another, library--ex. gr. in trinity, or st. john's--specify this edition in its appropriate class; and add _trin. coll., &c._--if this copy contain notes of bentley, or porson, add "_cum notis bentleii_," _&c._: so that such a catalogue would present, not only _every_ volume in the _public library_, but _every valuable_ edition of a work in the whole university. nor is the task so herculean as may be thought. the tutors of the respective colleges would, i am sure, be happy, as well as able, to contribute their proportionate share of labour towards the accomplishment of so desirable and invaluable a work.] the opening of the th century was also distinguished by the death of a bibliomaniac of the very first order and celebrity. of one, who had, no doubt, frequently discoursed largely and eloquently with luttrell, (of whom presently) upon the rarity and value of certain editions of old _ballad poetry_: and between whom presents of curious black-letter volumes were, in all probability, frequently passing. i allude to the famous samuel pepys;[ ] secretary to the admiralty. [footnote : "_the maitland collection of manuscripts_ was ever in the collector's (sir richard maitland's) family."--"his grandson was raised to the dignity of earl of lauderdale." "the duke of lauderdale, a descendant of the collector's grandson, presented the maitland collection, along with other mss., to samuel pepys, esq. secretary of the admiralty to charles ii. and james ii. mr. pepys was one of the earliest collectors of rare books, &c. in england; and the duke had no taste for such matters; so either from friendship, or some point of interest, he gave them to mr. pepys,"--who "dying may, , in his st year, ordered, by will, the pepysian library at magdalen college, cambridge, to be founded, in order to preserve his very valuable collection entire. it is undoubtedly the most curious in england, those of the british museum excepted; and is kept in excellent order." mr. pinkerton's preface, p. vii., to _ancient scottish poems from the maitland collection, &c._, , vo., vols. i wish it were in my power to add something concerning the parentage, birth, education, and pursuits of the extraordinary collector of this extraordinary collection; but no biographical work, which i have yet consulted, vouchsafes even to mention his name. his merits are cursorily noticed in the _quarterly review_, vol. iv., p. - . through the medium of a friend, i learn from sir lucas pepys, bart., that our illustrious bibliomaniac, his great uncle, was president of the royal society, and that his collection at cambridge contains a _diary_ of his life, written with his own hand. but it is high time to speak of the black-letter gems contained in the said collection. that the pepysian collection is at once choice and valuable cannot be disputed; but that access to the same is prompt and facile, is not quite so indisputable. there is a ms. catalogue of the books, by pepys himself, with a small rough drawing of a view of the interior of the library. the books are kept in their original (i think walnut-wood) presses: and cannot be examined unless in the presence of a fellow.--such is the nice order to be observed, according to the bequest, that every book must be replaced where it was taken from; and the loss of a single volume causes the collection to be confiscated, and transported to benet-college library. oh, that there were _an act of parliament_ to regulate bequests of this kind!--that the doors to knowledge might, by a greater facility of entrance, be more frequently opened by students; and that the medium between unqualified confidence and unqualified suspicion might be marked out and followed. are these things symptomatic of an iron or a brazen age! but the bibliomaniac is impatient for a glance at the 'forementioned black-letter treasures!--alas, i have promised more than i can perform! yet let him cast his eye upon the first volume of the recent edition of _evans' collection of old ballads_ (see _in limine_, p. ix.) and look into the valuable notes of _mr. todd's illustrations of gower and chaucer_,--in which latter, he will find no bad specimen of these _pepysian gems_, in the exultation of my friend, the author, over another equally respected friend--in consequence of his having discovered, among these treasures, a strange, merry, and conceited work, entitled "_old meg of herefordshire for a mayd-marian; and hereford town for a morris-daunce, &c._," , to., p. . ex uno disce omnes. the left-handed critic, or anti-black-letter reader, will put a wicked construction upon the quotation of this motto in capital letters: let him: he will repent of his folly in due time.] now it was a convincing proof to me, my dear friends, that the indulgence of a passion for books is perfectly compatible with any situation, however active and arduous. for while this illustrious bibliomaniac was sending forth his messengers to sweep every bookseller's shop from the tweed to penzance, for the discovery of old and almost unknown ballads--and while his name rung in the ears of rival collectors--he was sedulous, in his professional situation, to put the _navy of old england_ upon the most respectable footing; and is called the _father_ of that system which, carried into effect by british hearts of oak, has made the thunder of our cannon to be heard and feared on the remotest shores. nor is it a slight or common coincidence that a spirit of book-collecting, which stimulated the _secretary_ of the admiralty at the opening of the th century, should, at the close of it, have operated with equal or greater force in a _first lord_ of the same glorious department of our administration. but we shall speak more fully of this latter character, and of his matchless collection, in a future stage of our discussion. while we are looking round us at this period, we may as well slightly notice the foundation of the _blenheim library_. the duke of marlborough[ ] was resolved that no naval commander, or person connected with the navy, should eclipse himself in the splendour of book-collecting: but it was to prince eugene that marlborough was indebted for his taste in this particular; or rather the english commander was completely bitten with the bibliomaniacal disease in consequence of seeing eugene secure rare and magnificent copies of works, when a city or town was taken: and the german prince himself expatiates upon the treasures of his library, with a rapture with which none but the most thorough-bred bibliomaniacs can ever adequately sympathise. [footnote : the library at blenheim is one of the grandest rooms in europe. the serpentine sheet of water, which flows at some little distance, between high banks of luxuriant and moss-woven grass, and is seen from the interior, with an overhanging dark wood of oaks, is sufficient to awaken the finest feelings that ever animated the breast of a bibliomaniac. the books are select and curious, as well as numerous; and although they may be eclipsed, in both these particulars, by a few rival collections, yet the following specimen is no despicable proof of the ardour with which marlborough, the founder of the library, pushed forward his bibliomaniacal spirit. i am indebted to mr. edwards for this interesting list of the ancient classics printed upon vellum in the blenheim library. apoll. rhodius augustinus, _de civ. dei_ _spiræ_ a. gellius, _romæ_ aug. _de civ. dei_ _jenson_ biblia moguntina bonifacii decretalia ciceronis _rhetorica_ _jens_ ---- _epist. fam._ _spiræ_ ---- _officia_ _mogunt_ ---- ---- ---- _tuscul. ques._ _jenson_ _clementis const._ _mogunt_ ---- _fust. s.a._ durandus horatius landini ---- epist. justinian _mogunt_ lactantius _a rot_ lucian _florent_ petrarca _spira_ plinius _jenson_ quintilian _campani_ sallustius _spira_ v. maximus, s.a. virgilius _spira_ the present marquis of blandford inherits, in no small degree, the book-collecting spirit of his illustrious ancestor. he is making collections in those departments of literature in which the blenheim library is comparatively deficient; and his success has already been such as to lead us to hope for as perfect a display of volumes printed by _caxton_ as there is of those executed by foreign printers. the marquis's collection of _emblems_ is, i believe, nearly perfect: of these, there are a few elegantly printed catalogues for private distribution. lysander, above, supposes that marlborough caught the infection of the _book-disease_ from prince eugene; and the supposition is, perhaps, not very wide of the truth. the library of this great german prince, which is yet entire, (having been secured from the pillage of gallic vandalism, when a certain emperor visited a certain city) is the proudest feature in the public library at vienna. the books are in very fine old binding, and, generally of the largest dimensions. and, indeed, old england has not a little to boast of (at least, so bibliomaniacs must always think) that, from the recently published _memoirs of eugene_ ( , vo., p. ), it would appear that the prince "bought his fine editions of books at london:"--he speaks also of his "excellent french, latin, and italian works, well bound"--as if he enjoyed the "arrangment" of _them_, as much as the contemplation of his "cascades, large water-spouts, and superb basins." _ibid._ whether eugene himself was suddenly inflamed with the ardour of buying books, from some lucky spoils in the pillaging of towns--as lysander supposes--is a point which may yet admit of fair controversy. for my own part, i suspect the german commander had been straying, in his early manhood, among the fine libraries in _italy_, where he might have seen the following exquisite _bijous_-- _in st. mark's, at venice._ apuleius } aulus gellius } printed upon vellum. petrarca } _in the chapter house at padua._ ciceronis _epist. ad atticum_ _jenson_ } quintilian _jenson_ } macrobius } solinus _jenson_ } printed upon vellum. catullus } plautus } ovidii opera _bonon._ } the public is indebted to mr. edwards for the timely supply of the foregoing bibliographical intelligence.] ever ardent in his love of past learning, and not less voracious in his bibliomaniacal appetites, was the well known narcissus luttrell. nothing--if we may judge from the spirited sketch of his book character, by the able editor[ ] of dryden's works--nothing would seem to have escaped his lynx-like vigilance. let the object be what it would (especially if it related to _poetry_) let the volume be great or small, or contain good, bad, or indifferent warblings of the muse--his insatiable craving had "stomach for them all." we may consider his collection as the fountain head of those copious streams which, after fructifying the libraries of many bibliomaniacs in the first half of the eighteenth century, settled, for a while, more determinedly, in the curious book-reservoir of a mr. wynne--and hence, breaking up, and taking a different direction towards the collections of farmer, steevens, and others, they have almost lost their identity in the innumerable rivulets which now inundate the book-world. [footnote : "in this last part of his task, the editor (walter scott) has been greatly assisted by free access to a valuable collection of fugitive pieces of the reigns of charles ii., james ii., william iii., and queen anne. this curious collection was made by narcissus luttrell, esq., under whose name the editor usually quotes it. the industrious collector seems to have bought every poetical tract, of whatever merit, which was hawked through the streets in his time, marking carefully the price and date of the purchase. his collection contains the earliest editions of many of our most excellent poems, bound up, according to the order of time, with the lowest trash of grub-street. it was dispersed on mr. luttrell's death," &c. preface to _the works of john dryden_, : vol. i., p. iv. mr. james bindley and mr. richard heber are then mentioned, by the editor, as having obtained a great share of the luttrell collection, and liberally furnished him with the loan of the same, in order to the more perfect editing of dryden's works. but it is to the persevering book-spirit of mr. edward wynne, as lysander above intimates, that these notorious modern bibliomaniacs are indebted for the preservation of most of the choicest relics of the _bibliotheca luttrelliana_. mr. wynne lived at little chelsea; and built his library in a room which had the reputation of having been locke's _study_. here he used to sit, surrounded by innumerable books--a "great part being formed by an eminent and curious collector in the last century"--viz. the aforesaid narcissus luttrell. (see the title to the catalogue of his library.) his books were sold by auction in ; and, that the reader may have some faint idea of the treasures contained in the _bibliotheca wynniana_, he is presented with the following extracts: lot a parcel of pamphlets on poetry, vo. £ _s._ _d._ do. tragedies and comedies, to. and vo. do. historical and miscellaneous, to. and vo. poetical, historical, and miscellaneous, folio do. giving an account of horrid murders, storms, prodigies, tempests, witchcraft, ghosts, earthquakes, &c., _with frontispieces_ and _cuts_, to. and vo. do. historical and political, english and foreign, from to do. consisting of petitions, remonstrances, declarations, and other political matters, from to , during the great rebellion, and the whole of the protectorate: _a very large parcel, many of them with cuts_. purchased by the present marquis of bute do. of single sheets, giving an account of the various sieges in ireland in - ; and consisting likewise of elegies, old ballads, accounts of murders, storms, political squibs, &c. &c., _many of them with curious plates_, from to . purchased by the same lots - comprised a great number of "_old poetry and romances_," which were purchased by mr. baynes for _l._ _s._ lot comprehended a "_collection of old plays--gascoigne, white, windet, decker, &c._," vols.: which were sold for _l._ _s._ never, to be sure, was a precious collection of english history and poetry so wretchedly detailed to the public, in an auction catalogue! it should be noticed that a great number of poetical tracts was disposed of, previous to the sale, to dr. farmer, who gave not more than forty guineas for them. the doctor was also a determined purchaser at the sale, and i think the ingenious mr. waldron aided the illustrious commentator of shakspeare with many a choice volume. it may be worth adding that wynne was the author of an elegant work, written in the form of dialogues, entitled _eunomus_, or _discourses upon the laws of england_, vols., vo. it happened to be published at the time when sir william blackstone's _commentaries on the laws of england_ made their appearance; and, in consequence, has seen only three editions: the latter being published in , vols., vo.] why have i delayed, to the present moment, the mention of that illustrious bibliomaniac, earl pembroke? a patron of poor scholars, and a connoisseur, as well as collector, of every thing the most precious and rare in the book-way. yet was his love of _virtû_ not confined to objects in the shape of volumes, whether printed or in ms.: his knowledge of statues and coins was profound;[ ] and his collection of these, such as to have secured for him the admiration of posterity. [footnote : [illustration] the reader will find an animated eulogy on this great nobleman in walpole's _anecdotes of painters_, vol. iv., ; part of which was transcribed by joseph warton for his variorum edition of pope's works, and thence copied into the recent edition of the same by the rev. w.l. bowles. but pembroke deserved a more particular notice. exclusively of his fine statues and architectural decorations, the earl contrived to procure a great number of curious and rare books; and the testimonies of maittaire (who speaks indeed of him with a sort of rapture!) and palmer show that the productions of jenson and caxton were no strangers to his library. _annales typographici_, vol. i., . edit. . _history of printing_, p. . "there is nothing that so surely proves the pre-eminence of virtue more than the universal admiration of mankind, and the respect paid it by persons in opposite interests; and, more than this, it is a sparkling gem which even time does not destroy: it is hung up in the temple of fame, and respected for ever." _continuation of granger_, vol. i., , &c. "he raised (continues mr. noble) a collection of antiques that were unrivalled by any subject. his learning made him a fit companion for the literati. wilton will ever be a monument of his extensive knowledge; and the princely presents it contains, of the high estimation in which he was held by foreign potentates, as well as by the many monarchs he saw and served at home. he lived rather as a primitive christian; in his behaviour, meek; in his dress, plain: rather retired, conversing but little." burnet, in the _history of his own times_, has spoken of the earl with spirit and propriety. thus far the first edition of the bibliomania. from an original ms. letter of anstis to ames (in the possession of mr. john nichols) i insert the following memoranda, concerning the book celebrity of lord pembroke. "i had the book of juliana barnes (says anstis) printed at st. albans, , about hunting, which was afterwards reprinted by w. de worde at westminster, --but the earl of pembroke would not rest till he got it from me." from a letter to lewis (the biographer of caxton) by the same person, dated oct. , , anstis says that "the earl of pembroke would not suffer him to rest till he had presented it to him." he says also that "he had a later edition of the same, printed in , _on parchment_, by w. de worde, which he had given away: but he could send to the person who had it." from another letter, dated may , , this "person" turns out to be the famous john murray; to whom we are shortly to be introduced. the copy, however, is said to be "imperfect; but the st. albans book, a fair folio." in this letter, lord pembroke's library is said to hold "the greatest collection of the first books printed in england." perhaps the reader will not be displeased to be informed that in the _antiquities of glastonbury_, published by hearne, , p. lviii, there is a medal, with the reverse, of one of the earl's ancestors in queen elizabeth's time, which had escaped evelyn. it was lent to hearne by sir philip sydenham, who was at the expense of having the plate engraved.] while this nobleman was the general theme of literary praise there lived a _bibliomaniacal triumvirate_ of the names of bagford, murray, and hearne: a triumvirate, perhaps not equalled, in the mere love of book-collecting, by that which we mentioned a short time ago. at the head, and the survivor of these three,[ ] was thomas hearne; who, if i well remember, has been thus described by pope, in his dunciad, under the character of wormius: but who is he, in closet close ypent, of sober face, with learned dust besprent? right well mine eyes arede the myster wight, on parchment scraps y-fed, and wormius hight. [footnote : the former bibliomaniacal triumvirate is noticed at p. , ante. we will now discuss the merits of the above, _seriatim_. and first of john bagford, "by profession a bookseller; who frequently travelled into holland and other parts, in search of scarce books and valuable prints, and brought a vast number into this kingdom, the greater part of which were purchased by the earl of oxford. he had been in his younger days a shoemaker; and for the many curiosities wherewith he enriched the famous library of dr. john more, bishop of ely, his lordship got him admitted into the charter house. he died in , aged ; after his death, lord oxford purchased all his collections and papers for his library: these are now in the harleian collection in the british museum. in were published, in the philosophical transactions, his proposals for a general history of printing."--bowyer and nichol's _origin of printing_, pp. , , note. it has been my fortune (whether good or bad remains to be proved) not only to transcribe, and cause to be reprinted, the slender memorial of printing in the philosophical transactions, drawn up by wanley for bagford, but to wade through _forty-two_ folio volumes, in which bagford's materials for a history of printing are incorporated, in the british museum: and from these, i think i have furnished myself with a pretty correct notion of the collector of them. bagford was the most hungry and rapacious of all book and print collectors; and, in his ravages, he spared neither the most delicate nor costly specimens. he seems always to have expressed his astonishment at the most common productions; and his paper in the philosophical transactions betrays such simplicity and ignorance that one is astonished how my lord oxford, and the learned bishop of ely, could have employed so credulous a bibliographical forager. a modern collector and lover of _perfect_ copies, will witness, with shuddering, among bagford's immense collection of title-pages in the museum, the frontispieces of the complutensian polyglot, and chauncy's history of hertfordshire, torn out to illustrate a history of printing. his enthusiasm, however, carried him through a great deal of laborious toil; and he supplied in some measure, by this qualification, the want of other attainments. his whole mind was devoted to book-hunting; and his integrity and diligence probably made his employers overlook his many failings. his handwriting is scarcely legible, and his orthography is still more wretched; but if he was ignorant, he was humble, zealous, and grateful; and he has certainly done something towards the accomplishment of that desirable object, an accurate general history of printing. the preceding was inserted in the _first edition_ of this work. it is incumbent on me to say something more, and less declamatory, of so extraordinary a character; and as my sources of information are such as do not fall into the hands of the majority of readers, i trust the prolixity of what follows, appertaining to the aforesaid renowned bibliomaniac, will be pardoned--at least by the lover of curious biographical memoranda. my old friend, tom hearne, is my chief authority. in the preface to that very scarce, but rather curious than valuable, work, entitled _guil. roper vita d. thomæ mori_, , vo., we have the following brief notice of bagford: §. ix. "epistolas et orationes excipit anonymi scriptoris chronicon; quod idcirco godstovianum appellare visum est, quia in illud forte fortuna inciderim, quum, anno mdccxv. una cum joannÆ bagfordio, amico egregio ad rudera prioratûs de godstowe juxta oxoniam animi recreandi gratia, perambularem. de illo vero me prius certiorem fecerat ipse bagfordius, qui magno cum nostro moerore paullo post londini obiit, die nimirum quinto maij anno mdccxvi. quum jam annum ætatis sexagessimum quintum inplerisset, ut è litteris intelligo amici ingenio et humanitate ornati jacobei sothebeii, junioris, qui, si quis alius, è familiaribus erat bagfordii. virum enimvero ideo mihi quam maxime hâc occasione lugendum est, quod amicum probitate et modestia præditum amiserim, virumque cum primis diligentem et peritum intercidisse tam certum sit quam quod certissimum. quamvis enim artes liberales nunquam didicisset, vi tamen ingenii ductus, eruditus plane evasit; et, ut quod verum est dicam, incredibile est quam feliciter res abstrusas in historiis veteribus explicaverit, nodosque paullo difficiliores ad artis typographicæ incunabula spectantes solverit et expedierit. expertus novi quod scribo. quotiescunque enim ipsum consului (et quidem id sæpissime faciendum erat) perpetuo mihi aliter atque exspectaveram satisfecit, observationis itidem nonnunquam tales addens, quales antea neque mihi neque viris longe doctioribus in mentem venerant. quidni itaque virum magnum fuisse pronunciarem, præcipue quum nostra sententia illi soli magni sint censendi, qui recte agant, et sint vere boni et virtute præditi?"--_præf._ pp. xxi., ii. in hearne's perface [transcriber's note: preface] to _walter hemingford's_ history, bagford is again briefly introduced: "at vero in hoc genere fragmenta colligendi omnes quidem alios (quantum ego existimare possum) facile superavit joannes bagfordius, de quo apud hemingum, &c. incredibile est, quanta usus sit diligentia in laciniis veteribus coacervandis. imo in hoc labore quidem tantum versari exoptabat quantum potuit, tantum autem re vera versabatur, quantum ingenio (nam divino sane fruebatur) quantum mediocri doctrina (nam neque ingenue, neque liberaliter, unquam fuit educatus) quantum usu valuit," p. ciii. the reader here finds a reference to what is said of bagford, in the _hemingi wigornensis chartularium_; which, though copious, is really curious and entertaining, and is forthwith submitted to his consideration. "it was therefore very laudable in my friend, mr. j. bagford (who i think was born in fetter-lane, london) to employ so much of his time as he did in collecting remains of antiquity. indeed he was a man of a very surprising genius, and had his education (for he was first a shoe-maker, and afterwards for some time a book-seller) been equal to his natural genius, he would have proved a much greater man than he was. and yet, without this education, he was certainly the greatest man in the world in his way. i do not hear of any monument erected to his memory, but 'twas not without reason that a worthy gentleman, now living in london, designed the following epitaph for him: hic. sitvs. joannes. bagfordivs. antiquarivs. penitvs. britannvs. cujvs. nuda. solertia. aliorvm. vicit. operosam. diligentiam. obiit. maii. v. a.d. m.dcc.xvi. Ætatis [lxv.] viri. simplicis. et. sine. fvco. memoria. ne. periret. hunc. lapidem. posvit.... "'tis very remarkable that, in collecting, his care did not extend itself to books and to fragments of books only; but even to the very _covers_, and to _bosses_ and _clasps_; and all this that he might, with greater ease, compile the history of printing, which he had undertaken, but did not finish. in this noble work he intended a discourse about _binding books_ (in which he might have improved what i have said elsewhere about the ancient Æstels) and another about the _art of making paper_, in both which his observations were very accurate. nay, his skill _in paper_ was so exquisite that, at first view, he could tell the place where, and the time when, any paper was made, though at never so many years' distance. i well remember that, when i was reading over a famous book of collections (written by john lawerne, monk of worcester, and now preserved) in the bodleian library, mr. bagford came to me (as he would often come thither on purpose to converse with me about curiosities) and that he had no sooner seen the book, but he presently described the time when, and the place where, the paper of which it consists, was made. he was indefatigable in his searches, and was so ambitious of seeing what he had heard of, relating to his noble design, that he had made several journies into holland to see the famous books there. nor was he less thirsty after other antiquities, but, like old john stow, was for seeing himself, if possible (although he travelled on foot), what had been related to him. insomuch that i cannot doubt, but were he now living, he would have expressed a very longing desire of going to worcester, were it for no other reason but to be better satisfied about the famous monumental stones mentioned by heming (_chart, wigorn._, p. ), as he often declared a most earnest desire of walking with me (though i was diverted from going) to guy's cliff by warwick, when i was printing that most rare book called, _joannis rossi antiquarii warwicensis historia regum angliæ_. and i am apt to think that he would have shewed as hearty an inclination of going to stening in sussex, that being the place (according to asser's life of Ælfred the great) where k. ethelwulph (father of k. alfred) was buried, though others say it was at winchester," &c. "mr. bagford was as communicative as he was knowing: so that some of the chief curiosities in some of our best libraries are owing to him; for which reason it was that the late _bishop of ely_, dr. more (who received so much from him), as an instance of gratitude, procured him a place in the charter-house. i wish all places were as well bestowed. for as mr. bagford was, without all dispute, a very worthy man, so, being a despiser of money, he had not provided for the necessities of old age. he never looked upon those as true philosophers that aimed at heaping up riches, and, in that point, could never commend that otherwise great man, seneca, who had about two hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling, at use in britain; the loan whereof had been thrust upon the britains, whether they would or no. he would rather extol such men as a certain rector near oxford, whose will is thus put down in writing, by richard kedermister, the last abbot but one of winchcomb (_leland collect._ vol. vi., ), in the margin of a book (i lately purchased) called _hieronymi cardinalis vitas patrum_, lugd. mcccccii. to. nihil habeo, nihil debeo, benedicamus domino. testamentum cujusdam rectoris, juxta oxoniam decedentis circiter annum salutis, ." "nor was mr. bagford versed only in our own old writers, but in those likewise of other countries, particularly the roman. his skill in that part of the roman history that immediately relates to britain is sufficiently evident from his curious letter, printed at the beginning of leland's collectanea. that he might be the better acquainted with the roman stations, and the several motions of the soldiers from one place to another, he used to pick up coins, and would, upon occasion, discourse handsomely, and very pertinently, about them; yet he would keep none, but would give them to his friends, telling them (for he was exemplarily modest and humble) that he had neither learning nor sagacity enough to explain and illustrate them, and that therefore it was more proper they should be in the possession of some able persons. he would have done any thing to retrieve a roman author, and would have given any price for so much as a single fragment (not yet discovered) of the learned commentaries, written by agrippina, mother to nero, touching the fortunes of her house, which are (as i much fear) now utterly lost, excepting the fragment or two cited out of them by pliny the elder and cornelius tacitus; as he would also have stuck at no price for a grammar _printed at tavistock_, commonly called =the long grammar=. when he went abroad he was never idle, but if he could not meet with things of a better character, he would divert himself with looking over _ballads_, and he was always mightily pleased if he met with any that were old. anthony à wood made good collections, with respect to ballads, but he was far outdone by mr. bagford. our modern ballads are, for the most part, romantic; but the old ones contain matters of fact, and were generally written by good scholars. in these old ones were couched the transactions of our great heroes: they were a sort of chronicles. so that the wise founder of new college permitted them to be sung, by the fellows of that college, upon extraordinary days. in those times, the poets thought they had done their duty when they had observed truth, and put the accounts they undertook to write, into rhythm, without extravagantly indulging their fancies. nobody knew this better than mr. bagford; for which reason he always seemed almost ravished when he happened to light upon old rhythms, though they might not, perhaps, be so properly ranged under the title of ballads," &c., pp. - . being unable to furnish a portrait of bagford (although i took some little trouble to procure one) i hope the reader--if his patience be not quite exhausted--will endeavour to console himself, in lieu thereof, with a specimen of bagford's epistolary composition; which i have faithfully copied from the original among the _sloanian mss._, no. , in the british museum. it is written to sir hans sloane. _from my lodgings_, july , . worthy sir, since you honoured me with your good company for seeing printing and card-making, i thought it my duty to explain myself to you per letter on this subject. till you had seen the whole process of card-making, i thought i could not so well represent it unto you by writing--for this i take to be the first manner of printing. in this short discouse [transcriber's note: discourse] i have explained myself when i design to treat of it in the famous subject of the art of printing. it hath been the labour of several years past, and if now i shall have assistance to midwife it into the world, i shall be well satisfied for the sake of the curious. for these years past i have spared no cost in collecting books on this subject, and likewise drafts of the effigies of our famous printers, with other designs that will be needful on this subject. if this short account of the design of the whole shall give you any satisfaction, i shall esteem my pains well bestowed. hitherto, i have met with no encouragement but from three reverend gentlemen of bennet college in cambridge, who generously, of their own accord, gave me pound each, which is all i ever received of any person whatsoever. it may indeed be imputed to my own neglect, in not acquainting the learned with my design, but modesty still keeps me silent. i hope your goodness will pardon my impertinence. i shall be ready at all times to give you any satisfaction you desire on this subject, who am, honoured sir, your most humble servant to command, jo. bagford. _for the worthy sir hans slone_ [transcriber's note: sloane]. and now it only remains to close the whole of this bagfordiana by the following unique communication. one of bagford's friends sent him this letter with the subjoined device:--"_for my lovinge friend mr. jno. bagford._--you having shewed me so many rebuses, as i was returning home, i thought of one for you--a bagge, and below that, a fourd or passable water." (_harl. ms._, no. .) [illustration] i wish it were in my power to collect information, equally acceptable with the foregoing, respecting the above-named john murray; but hearne, who was his intimate friend, has been very sparing in his anecdotes of him, having left us but a few desultory notices, written chiefly in the latin language. the earliest mention of him that i find is the following: "verum illud præcipue mentionem meretur, quod mutuo accepi, schedula una et altera jam excusa, á joanne murario londinensi, rei antiquariæ perscrutatore diligenti, cui eo nomine gratias ago." "denique subdidi descriptionem fenestrarum depictarum ecclesiæ parochialis de fairford in agro glocestriensi, è schedula quam mutuo sumpsi ab amico supra laudato johanne murrario, qui per literas etiam certiorem me fecit è codice quodam vetusto ms. fuisse extractum. neque dubito quin hic idem fuerit codex quem olim in ecclesia de fairford adservatum surripuisse nebulonem quempiam mihi significavit ecclesiæ ædituus, vir simplex, necnon ætate et scientia venerandus." præf: p. xxii. _guil. roperi vita thomæ mori_, , vo., edit. hearne. there is another slight mention of murray, by hearne, in the latter's edition of _thom. caii. vindic. antiq. acad. oxon_, vol. ii., - --where he discourses largely upon the former's copy of _rastel's pastyme of people_: a book which will be noticed by me very fully on a future occasion. at present, it may suffice to observe that a perfect copy of it is probably the rarest english book in existence. there is a curious copper plate print of murray, by vertue, in which our bibliomaniac's right arm is resting upon some books entitled "_hearne's works, sessions papers, tryals of witches_." beneath is this inscription: _hoh maister john murray of sacomb, the works of old time to collect was his pride, till oblivion dreaded his care: regardless of friends, intestate he dy'd, so the rooks and the crows were his heir._ g.n. of the above-mentioned thomas britton, i am enabled to present a very curious and interesting account, from a work published by hearne, of no very ordinary occurrence, and in the very words of hearne himself. it is quite an unique picture. "before i dismiss this subject, i must beg leave to mention, and to give a short account of, one that was intimately acquainted with mr. bagford, and was also a great man, though of but ordinary education. the person i mean is mr. thos. britton, the famous _musical small coal man_, who was born at or near higham ferrers in northamptonshire. thence he went to london, where he bound himself apprentice to a small coal man in st. john baptist's street. after he had served his full time of seven years, his master gave him a sum of money not to set up. upon this, tom went into northamptonshire again, and after he had spent his money, he returned again to london, set up the _small coal trade_ (notwithstanding his master was still living) and withall, he took a stable, and turned it into a house, which stood the next door to the little gate of st. john's of jerusalem, next clerkenwell green. some time after he had settled here, he became acquainted with dr. garenciers, his near neighbour, by which means he became an excellent chymist, and perhaps, he performed such things in that profession, as had never been done before, with little cost and charge, by the help of a moving elaboratory, that was contrived and built by himself, which was much admired by all of that faculty that happened to see it; insomuch that a certain gentleman in wales was so much taken with it that he was at the expense of carrying him down into that country, on purpose to build him such another, which tom performed to the gentleman's very great satisfaction, and for the same he received of him a very handsome and generous gratuity. besides his great skill in chymistry, he was as famous for his knowledge in the _theory of music_; in the practical part of which faculty he was likewise very considerable. he was so much addicted to it that he pricked with his own hand (very neatly and accurately), and left behind him, a valuable collection of music, mostly pricked by himself, which was sold upon his death for near a hundred pounds. not to mention the excellent collection of printed books, that he also left behind him, both of chemistry and music. besides these books that he left behind him, he had, some years before his death, sold by auction a _noble collection of books_, most of them in the _rosacrucian faculty_ (of which he was a great admirer): whereof there is a printed catalogue extant (as there is of those that were sold after his death), which i have often looked over with no small surprize and wonder, and particularly for the great number of mss. in the before mentioned faculties that are specified in it. he had, moreover, a considerable collection of musical instruments, which were sold for fourscore pounds upon his death, which happened in september , being upwards of threescore years of age; and (he) lyes buried in the church-yard of clerkenwell, without monument or inscription: being attended to his grave, in a very solemn and decent manner, by a great concourse of people, especially of such as frequented the musical club, that was kept up for many years at his own charges (he being a man of a very generous and liberal spirit) at his own little cell. he appears by the print of him (done since his death) to have been a man of an ingenuous countenance and of a sprightly temper. it also represents him as a comely person, as indeed he was; and withal, there is a modesty expressed in it every way agreeable to him. under it are these verses, which may serve instead of an epitaph: tho' mean thy rank, yet in thy humble cell did gentle peace and arts unpurchas'd dwell; well pleas'd apollo thither led his train, and music warbled in her sweetest strain. cyllenius, so, as fables tell, and jove, came willing guests to poor philemon's grove. let useless pomp behold, and blush to find so low a station, such a liberal mind. in short, he was an extraordinary and very valuable man, much admired by the gentry; even those of the best quality, and by all others of the more inferior rank, that had any manner of regard for probity, sagacity, diligence, and humility. i say humility, because, though he was so much famed for his knowledge, and might, therefore, have lived very reputably without his trade, yet he continued it to his death, not thinking it to be at all beneath him. mr. bagford and he used frequently to converse together, and when they met _they seldom parted very soon_. their conversation was very often about old mss. and the havock made of them. they both agreed to retrieve what fragments of antiquity they could, and, upon that occasion, they would frequently divert themselves in talking of old chronicles, which both loved to read, though, among our more late chronicles printed in english, isaackson's was what they chiefly preferred for a general knowledge of things; a book which was much esteemed also by those two eminent chronologers, bishop lloyd and mr. dodwell. by the way, i cannot but observe that isaackson's chronicle is really, for the most part, bishop andrews's; isaackson being amanuensis to the bishop." _hemingi chartular. eccles. wigornien._, vol. ii., - , edit. hearne. see also, _robert of glocester's chronicle_, vol. i., p. lxxii. we will close our account of this perfectly _unique_ bibliomaniac by subjoining the title of the _catalogue of his books_; for which i am indebted to the ever-active and friendly assistance of mr. heber. the volume is so rare that the late mr. reed told mr. h. he had never seen another copy: but another has recently been sold, and is now in the curious collection of mr. r. baker. "the library of mr. thomas britton, small-coal man, deceas'd: who, at his own charge, kept up a concort of musick above years, in his little cottage. being a curious collection of every ancient and uncommon book in divinity, history, physick, chemistry, magick, &c. also a collection of mss. chiefly on vellum. _which will be sold by auction at paul's coffee house, &c., the th day of january, - , at five in the evening._ by thomas ballard, esq., vo., p. . containing articles in folio-- in to.-- in octavo-- pamphlets--and mss." a few of the works, in octavo, were sufficiently amatory. the third and last character above mentioned, as making this illustrious bibliomaniacal triumvirate complete, is thomas hearne. that pope, in the verses which lysander has quoted, meant this distinguished antiquary seems hardly to be questioned; and one wonders at the jesuitical note of warburton, in striving to blow the fumes of the poet's satire into a different direction. they must settle upon poor hearne's head: for wanley's antiquarian talents were equally beyond the touch of satire and the criticism of the satirist. warton has, accordingly, admitted that hearne was represented under the character of wormius; and he defends the character of hearne very justly against the censures of pope. his eulogy will be presently submitted to the reader. gibbon, in his _posthumous works_, vol. ii., , has aimed a deadly blow at the literary reputation of hearne; and an admirer of this critic and historian, as well as an excellent judge of antiquarian pursuits, has followed up gibbon's mode of attack in a yet more merciless manner. he calls him "thomas hearne, of black-letter memory, _carbone notandus_"--"a weaker man (says he) never existed, as his prefaces, so called, lamentably show." he continues in this hard-hearted strain: but i have too much humanity to make further extracts. he admits, however, the utility of most of hearne's publications--"of which he was forced to publish a few copies, at an extravagant subscription." the remarks of this (anonymous) writer, upon the neglect of the cultivation of english history, and upon the want of valuable editions of our old historians, are but too just, and cannot be too attentively perused. see _gentleman's magazine_, vol. , pt. , - (a.d. ). thus far in deterioration of poor hearne's literary fame. let us now listen to writers of a more courteous strain of observation. prefixed to tanner's _bibliotheca britannico-hibernica_, there is a preface, of which dr. wilkins is the reputed author. the whole of hearne's publications are herein somewhat minutely criticised, and their merits and demerits slightly discussed. it is difficult to collect the critic's summary opinion upon hearne's editorial labours; but he concludes thus: "quia autem leporis est mortuis insultare leonibus, cineres celeberrimi hujus et olim mihi amicissimi viri turbare, neutiquam in animum inducere possum," p. xlvii. mr. gough, in his _british topography_, vol. ii., p. , calls hearne an "acute observer;" but, unluckily, the subject to which the reader's attention is here directed discovers our antiquary to have been in error. j. warton, in the passage before alluded to, observes: "in consideration of the many very accurate and very elegant editions which hearne published of our valuable old chronicles, which shed such a light on english history, he (hearne) ought not to have been so severely lashed as in these bitter lines," (quoted in the text, p. , ante) _pope's works_, edit. bowles; vol. v., . let the reader consult also dr. pegge's _anonymiana_, in the passages referred to, in the truly valuable index attached to it, concerning hearne. thus much, i submit, may be fairly said of our antiquary's labours. that the greater part of them are truly useful, and absolutely necessary for a philological library, must on all sides be admitted. i will mention only the _chronicles of langtoft and robert of gloucester_; _adam de domerham, de rebus glastoniensibus_; _gulielmus neubrigensis_; _forduni scotichronicon_; and all his volumes appertaining to _regal biography_:--these are, surely, publications of no mean importance. hearne's prefaces and appendices are gossiping enough; sometimes, however, they repay the labour of perusal by curious and unlooked-for intelligence. yet it must be allowed that no literary cook ever enriched his dishes with such little piquant sauce, as did hearne: i speak only of their _intrinsic_ value, for they had a very respectable exterior--what winstanley says of ogilvey's publications being, applicable enough to hearne's;--they were printed on "special good paper, and in a very good letter." we will now say a few words relative to hearne's habits of study and living--taken from his own testimony. in the preface prefixed to _roper's life of sir thomas more_, p. xix. (edit. ), he describes himself "as leading the life of an ascetic." in the preface to the _annals of dunstable priory_, his bibliographical diligence is evinced by his saying he had "turned over every volume in the bodleian library." in one of his prefaces (to which i am not able just now to refer) he declares that he was born--like our british tars--"for action:" and indeed his activity was sufficiently demonstrated; for sometimes he would set about transcribing for the press papers which had just been put into his hands. thus, in the _antiquities of glastonbury_, p. , he writes, "the two following old evidences were lent me _to-day_ by my friend the hon. benedict leonard calvert, esq." his excessive regard to fidelity of transcription is, among many other evidences that may be brought forward, attested in the following passage: "have taken particular care (saith mr. harcourt, in his letter to me from aukenvyke, sep. , ) in the copying; well knowing your exactness." _benedict abbas_, vol ii., . but this servility of transcription was frequently the cause of multiplying, by propagating, errors. if hearne had seen the word "faith" thus disjointed--"fay the"--he would have adhered to this error, for "faythe." as indeed he has committed a similar one, in the _battle of agincourt_, in the appendix to thomas de elmham: for he writes "breth reneverichone"--instead of "brethren everichone"--as mr. evans has properly printed it, in his recent edition of his father's _collection of old ballads_, vol. ii., . but this may be thought trifling. it is certainly not here meant to justify capriciousness of copying; but surely an obvious corruption of reading may be restored to its genuine state: unless, indeed, we are resolved to consider antiquity and perfection as synonymous terms. but there are some traits in hearne's character which must make us forgive and forget this blind adherence to the errors of antiquity. he was so warm a lover of every thing in the shape of a book that, in the preface to _alured of beverley_, pp. v. vi., he says that he jumped almost out of his skin for joy, on reading a certain ms. which thomas rawlinson sent to him ("vix credi potest qua voluptate, qua animi alacritate, perlegerim," &c.). similar feelings possessed him on a like occasion: "when the pious author (of the _antiquities of glastonbury_) first put it (the ms.) into my hands, i read it over with as much delight as i have done anything whatsoever upon the subject of antiquity, and i was earnest with him to print it," p. lxxviii. hearne's horror of book-devastations is expressed upon a variety of occasions: and what will reconcile him to a great portion of _modern_ readers--and especially of those who condescend to read this account of him--his attachment to the black-letter was marvelously enthusiastic! witness his pathetic appeal to the english nation, in the th section of his preface to _robert of gloucester's chronicle_, where he almost predicts the extinction of "right good" literature, on the disappearance of the _black-letter_! and here let us draw towards the close of these hearneana, by contemplating a wood-cut portrait of this illustrious bibliomaniac; concerning whose life and works the reader should peruse the well-known volumes published at oxford in , vo.: containing the biographical memoirs of leland, bale, hearne, and wood. [illustration: obiit mdccxxxv: Ætatis suÆ lvii. _deut. xxxii: . remember the days of old._] the library of hearne was sold in february, , by osborne the book-seller; "the lowest price being marked in each book." the title-page informs us of what all bibliomaniacs will be disposed to admit the truth, that the collection contained "a very great variety of uncommon books, and scarce ever to be met withal," &c. there is, at bottom, a small wretched portrait of hearne, with this well known couplet subjoined: pox on't quoth _time_ to _thomas hearne_, whatever i _forget_ you learn. let the modern collector of chronicles turn his eye towards the th page of this catalogue--nos. , --and see what "compleat and very fair" copies of these treasures were incorporated in hearne's extensive library!] a little volume of book chit-chat might be written upon the marvellous discovesies [transcriber's note: discoveries] and voluminous compilations of bagford and hearne: and to these, we may add another _unique_ bibliomaniac, who will go down to posterity under the distinguished, and truly enviable, title of "_the musical small-coal man_;" i mean, master thomas britton. yes, lisardo; while we give to the foregoing characters their full share of merit and praise; we admit that bagford's personal activity and manual labour have hardly been equalled--while we allow john murray to have looked with sharper eyes after black-letter volumes than almost any of his predecessors or successors--while we grant thomas hearne a considerable portion of scholarship, an inflexible integrity, as well as indefatigable industry, and that his works are generally interesting, both from the artless style in which they are composed, and the intrinstic utility of the greater part of them, yet let our admiration be [transcriber's note: superfluous 'be'] "be screwed to its sticking place," when we think upon the wonderous genius of the aforesaid thomas britton; who, in the midst of his coal cellars, could practise upon "fiddle and flute," or collate his curious volumes; and throwing away, with the agility of a harlequin, his sombre suit of business-cloths, could put on his velvet coat and bag-wig, and receive his concert visitors, at the stair-head, with the politeness of a lord of the bedchamber! loren. in truth, a marvellous hero was this _small-coal man_! have you many such characters to notice? lysand. not many of exactly the same stamp. indeed, i suspect that hearne, from his love of magnifying the simple into the marvellous, has a little caricatured the picture. but murray seems to have been a quiet unaffected character; passionately addicted to old books of whatever kind they chanced to be; and, in particular, most enthusiastically devoted to a certain old english chronicle, entitled _rastell's pastime of (the) people_. phil. i observed a notification of the re-appearance of this chronicle in some of the magazines or reviews: but i hope, for the benefit of general readers, the orthography will be modernized. loren. i hope, for the sake of consistency with former similar publications,[ ] the ancient garb will not be thrown aside. it would be like--what dr. johnson accuses pope of having committed--"clothing homer with ovidian graces." [footnote : the ancient chonicles of the history of our country are in a progressive state of being creditably reprinted, with a strict adherence to the old phraseology. of these chronicles, the following have already made their appearance: holinshed, , to., vols.; hall, , to.; grafton, , to., vols.; fabian, , to. this latter is not a mere reprint of the first edition of fabian, but has, at the bottom, the various readings of the subsequent impressions. the index is copious and valuable. indeed, all these re-impressions have good indexes. the public will hear, with pleasure, that arnold, harding, and lord berners' translation of froissard, and rastell, are about to bring up the rear of these popular chroniclers.] lysand. much may be said on both sides of the question. but why are we about to make learned dissertations upon the old english chronicles? lis. proceed, and leave the old chroniclers to settle the matter themselves. who is the next bibliomaniac deserving of particular commendation? lysand. as we have sometimes classed our bibliomaniacs in tribes, let me now make you acquainted with another _trio_, of like renown in the book-way: i mean anstis, lewis, and ames. of these in their turn. anstis[ ] stands deservedly the first in the list; for he was, in every respect, a man of thorough benevolent character, as well as a writer of taste and research. i do not know of any particulars connected with his library that merit a distinct recital; but he is introduced here from his connection with the two latter bibliographers. lewis[ ] is known to us, both as a topographer and bibliographical antiquary. his _life of caxton_ has been reprinted with additions and corrections; and, in particular, his edition of _wicliffe's new testament_ has been recently put forth by the rev. mr. baber, in a handsome quarto volume, with valuable emendations. lewis was a sharp censurer of hearne, and was somewhat jealous of the typographical reputation of ames. but his integrity and moral character, as well as his love of rare and curious books, has secured for him a durable reputation. of ames, and here--though a little out of order--i may add herbert--the public has already heard probably "more than enough." they were both, undoubtedly, men of extraordinary mental vigour and bodily activity in the darling pursuit which they cultivated.[ ] indeed, herbert deserves high commendation; for while he was rearing, with his own hands, a lofty pyramid of typographical fame, he seems to have been unconscious of his merits; and, possessing the most natural and diffident character imaginable, he was always conjuring up supposed cases of vanity and arrogance, which had no foundation whatever but in the reveries of a timid imagination. his _typographical antiquities_ are a mass of useful, but occasionally uninteresting, information. they are as a vast plain, wherein the traveller sees nothing, immediately, which is beautiful or inviting; few roses, or cowslips, or daisies; but let him persevere, and walk only a little way onward, and he will find, in many a shelter'd recess, "flowers of all hue," and herbs of all qualities: so that fragrance and salubrity are not wanting in this said plain, which has been thus depicted in a style so marvellously metaphorical! [footnote : the reader will be pleased to consult the account of earl pembroke, p. , ante, where he will find a few traits of the bibliomaniacal character of anstis. he is here informed, from the same authority, that when anstis "acquainted bagford that he would find in rymer a commission granted to caxton, appointing him ambassador to the duchess of burgundy, he (bagford) was transported with joy." of hearne he thus speaks: "i am ashamed that mr. hearne hath made so many mistakes about the translation of _boetius, printed at tavistock_; which book i had, and gave it to the duke of bedford." but in another letter (to lewis) anstis says, "i lent this book to one mr. ryder, who used me scurvily, by presenting it, without my knowledge, to the duke of bedford." there are some curious particulars in this letter about the abbey of tavistock. anstis's _order of the garter_ is a valuable book; and will one day, i prognosticate, retrieve the indifferent credit it now receives in the book-market. the author loved rare and curious volumes dearly; and was, moreover, both liberal and prompt in his communications. the reader will draw his own conclusions on anstis's comparative merit with lewis and ames, when he reaches the end of the second note after the present one.] [footnote : concerning the rev. john lewis, i am enabled to lay before the reader some particulars now published for the first time, and of a nature by no means uninteresting to the lovers of literary anecdote. his printed works, and his bibliographical character, together with his conduct towards ames, have been already sufficiently described to the public: _typographical antiquities_, vol. i., - . and first, the aforesaid reader and lovers may peruse the following extract from an original letter by lewis to ames: "i have no other design, in being so free with you, than to serve you, by doing all i can to promote your credit and reputation. i take it, that good sense and judgment, attended with care and accuracy in making and sorting a collection, suits every one's palate: and that they must have none at all who are delighted with trifles and play things fit only for fools and children: such, for the most part, as thomas hearne dished out for his chaps, among whom i was so silly as to rank myself." again, to the same person, he thus makes mention of lord oxford and hearne: "i can truly say i never took ill any thing which you have written to me: but heartily wish you well to succeed in the execution of your projects. i han't sense to see, by the death of lord oxford, how much more you are likely to make your account better. but time will shew. i don't understand what you mean by his having a love to surprize people with his vast communications. dr. r(awlinson, qu.?) tells me he knew nobody who had so free a use of his lordship's rarities as t. hearne, a sure proof of the exactness and solidity of his lordship's judgment. but hearne answered, perhaps, his lordship's design of making the world have a very great opinion of his collections, and setting an inestimable value on them. and this hearne attempted; but his daubing is, i think, too coarse, and the smoke of his incense troublesome and suffocating." but it is to the loan of a copy of lewis's folio edition of the _history of the translations of the bible_, belonging to my friend mr. g.v. neunburg, that i am indebted for the following further, and more interesting, particulars. this valuable copy, illustrated with some rare prints, and charged with numerous ms. memoranda, contains some original letters to lewis by the famous dr. white kennet, bishop of peterborough: from which these extracts are taken. "jan. , - . dear sir; i thank you for your kind acceptance of the advice to my clergy: well meant, i pray god well applied. i have wisht long to see your _life of wiclif_, and shall now impatiently expect it. i am not surprised that a man of dignity, near you, should be jealous of publishing an impartial account of that good old evangelical author, &c. i have a mighty veneration for wicliff, and am the more angry with mr. russell for deceiving the world in his promise of the bible, after proposals given and money taken. but he has in other respects behaved so very basely that, forgiving him, i have done with him for ever. i would not have you discouraged, by an ungrateful world, or by a sharp bookseller. go on, and serve truth and peace what you can, and god prosper your labours." signed "wh. peterbor." "feb. , - . you perceive your own unhappiness in not being able to attend the press. i cannot but importune you to revise the whole, to throw the additions and corrections into their proper places, to desire all your friends and correspondents to suggest any amendments, or any new matter; in order to publish a new correct edition that will be a classic in our history, &c.--if the booksellers object against a second edition till the full disposal of the first, i hope we may buy them off with subscription for a new impression; wherein my name should stand for six copies, and better example i hope would be given by more able friends. i pray god bless your labours and reward them." several letters follow, in which this amiable prelate and learned antiquary sends lewis a good deal of valuable information for his proposed second edition of the life of wicliffe; but which was never put to press. one more extract only from the bishop of peterborough, and we bid farewell to the rev. john lewis: a very respectable bibliomaniac. "rev. sir; in respect to you and your good services to the church and our holy religion, i think fit to acquaint you that, in the _weekly journal_, published this day, oct. ( ), by _mr. mist_, there is a scandalous advertisement subscribed m. earbury, beginning thus: 'whereas a pretended _vindication of john wickliffe_ has been published under the name of one lewis of margate, by the incitement, as the preface asserts, of the archbishop of canterbury, and in the same i am injuriously reflected upon as a scurrilous writer, this is to inform the public that i shall reserve the author for a more serious whipping in my leisure hours, and in the meantime give him a short correction for his benefit, if he has grace and sense to take it'--and ending thus--'why does this author persuade the world the late archbishop of canterbury could have any veneration for the memory of one who asserts god ought to obey the devil; or that he could be desirous to open the impure fountains from whence the filth of bangorianism has been conveyed to us? m. earbury." "i confess (proceeds the bishop) i don't know that, in the worst of causes, there has appeared a more ignorant, insolent, and abandoned writer than this matth. earbury. whether you are to answer, or not to answer, the f. according to his folly, i must leave to your discretion. yet i cannot but wish you would revise the life of wickliffe; and, in the preface, justly complain of the spiteful injuries done to his memory, and, through his sides, to our reformation. i have somewhat to say to you on that head, if you think to resume it. i am, in the mean time, your affectionate friend and brother, wh. petesbor."] [footnote : it is unnecessary for me to add any thing here to the copious details respecting these eminent bibliomaniacs, ames and herbert, which have already been presented to the public in the first volume of the new edition of the _typographical antiquities_ of our own country. see also p. , ante; and the note respecting the late george steevens, post.] by mentioning herbert in the present place, i have a little inverted the order of my narrative. a crowd of distinguished bibliomaniacs, in fancy's eye, is thronging around me, and demanding a satisfactory memorial of their deeds. loren. be not dismayed, lysander. if any one, in particular, looks "frowningly" upon you, leave him to me, and he shall have ample satisfaction. lysand. i wish, indeed, you would rid me of a few of these book-madmen. for, look yonder, what a commanding attitude thomas baker[ ] assumes! [footnote : thomas baker was a learned antiquary in most things respecting _typography_ and _bibliography_; and seems to have had considerable influence with that distinguished corps, composed of hearne, bagford, middleton, anstis, and ames, &c. his life has been written by the rev. robert masters, camb., , vo.; and from the "catalogue of forty-two folio volumes of ms. collections by mr. baker"--given to the library of st. john's college, cambridge--which the biographer has printed at the end of the volume--there is surely sufficient evidence to warrant us in concluding that the above-mentioned thomas baker was no ordinary bibliomaniac. to hearne in particular (and indeed to almost every respectable author who applied to him) he was kind and communicative; hence he is frequently named by the former in terms of the most respectful admiration: thus--"vir amicissimus, educatus optime, emendatus vitâ, doctrinâ clarus, moribus singularis et perjucundus, exemplum antiquitatis, cujus judicio plurimum esse tribuendum mecum fatebuntur litterati:" _vita mori_, p. xviii. in his preface to the _antiquities of glastonbury_, p. cxxx., hearne calls him "that great man;" and again, in his _walter hemingford_, vol. i., p. xvii.--"amicus eruditissimus, mihi summe colendus; is nempe, qui è scriniis suis mss. tam multa meam in gratiam deprompsit." indeed, hearne had good occasion to speak well of the treasures of baker's "_scrinia_;" as the appendix to his _thomas de elmham_ alone testifies. of baker's abilities and private worth, we have the testimonies of middleton (_origin of printing_, p. ) and warburton. the latter thus mentions him: "good old mr. baker, of st john's college, has indeed, been very obliging. the people of st. john's almost adore the man." _masters's life of baker_, p. . this authority also informs us that "mr. baker had, for many years before his death, been almost a recluse, and seldom went farther than the college walks, unless to a coffee-house in an evening, after chapel, where he commonly spent an hour with great chearfulness, conversing with a select number of his friends and acquaintance upon literary subjects," p. . every thing the most amiable, and, i had almost said, enviable, is here said of the virtues of his head and heart; and that this venerable bibliomaniac should have reached his th year is at least a demonstration that tarrying amongst folios and octavos, from morn till night (which baker used to do, in st. john's library, for nearly years together), does not unstring the nerves, or dry up the juices, of the human frame. yet a little further extension of this note, gentle reader, and then we bid adieu to thomas baker, of ever respectable book-memory. among the mss., once the property of herbert, which i purchased at the late sale of mr. gough's mss., i obtained a volume full of extracts from original letters between baker and ames; containing also the _will_ of the former, which is not inserted in master's life of him, nor in the _biographia britannica_. the original documents are in his majesty's library, and were bought at the sale of mr. tutet's books, a.d. ; no. . from this will, as herbert has copied it, the reader is presented with the following strong proofs of the bibliomaniacal "ruling passion, strong in death," of our illustrious antiquary. but let us not omit the manly tone of piety with which this will commences. "in the name of god, amen! i, thomas baker, ejected fellow of st. john's college, cambridge, do make my last will and testament, as follows: first, i commend my soul into the hands of almighty god (my most gracious and good god), my faithful creator and merciful redeemer, and, in all my dangers and difficulties, a most constant protector. blessed for ever be his holy name." "as to the temporal goods which it hath pleased the same good god to bestow upon me (such as all men ought to be content with) and are, i bless god, neither poverty nor riches--i dispose of them in the following manner." here follow a few of his book bequests, which may be worth the attention of those whose pursuits lead them to a particular examination of these authors. "whereas i have made a deed of gift or sale for one guinea, of volumes in folio, of my own hand-writing, to the right honourable edward earl of oxford, i confirm and ratify that gift by this my last will. and i beg his lordship's acceptance of 'em, being sensible that they are of little use or value, with two other volumes in fol., markt vol. , , since convey'd to him in like manner. to my dear cosin, george baker, of crook, esq., i leave the _life of cardinal wolsey_, noted with my own hand, _lord clarendon's history_, with cuts and prints; and _winwood's memorials_, in three volumes, fol., with a five pound (jacobus) piece of gold, only as a mark of respect and affection, since he does not want it. to my worthy kinsman and friend mr. george smith, i leave _godwin de præsulibus angliæ_, and _warræus de præsulibus hibernia_, both noted with my own hand. to st. john's college library i leave all such books, printed or mss., as i have and are wanting there: excepting that i leave in trust to my worthy friend, dr. middleton, for the university library, _archbishop wake's state of the church_, noted and improved under his own hand; _bp. burnet's history of the reformation_, in three volumes, noted in my hand; and _bp. kennett's register and chronicle_ (for the memory of which three great prelates, my honoured friends, i must always have due regard). to these i add mr. ansty's, my worthy friend, _history of the garter_, in two vols., fol. _wood's athenæ oxon._; and _maunsell's catalogue_; both noted with my own hand--and _gunton's and patrick's history of the church of peterburgh_, noted (from bishop kennett) in my hand; with fifteen volumes (more or less) in fol., all in my own hand; and three volumes in to., part in my own hand." let us conclude in a yet more exalted strain of christian piety than we began. "lastly, i constitute and appoint my dear nephew, richard burton, esq., my sole executor, to whom i leave every thing undisposed of, which i hope will be enough to reward his trouble. may god almighty bless him, and give him all the engaging qualities of his father, all the vertues of his mother, and none of the sins or failings of his uncle, which god knows are great and many:--and humbly, o my god, i call for mercy! in testimony of this my will, i have hereunto set my hand and seal, this th day of october, . tho. baker. and now, o my god, into thy hands i contentedly resign myself: whether it be to life or death, thy will be done! long life i have not desired (and yet thou hast given it me). give me, if it be thy good pleasure, an easy and happy death. or if it shall please thee to visit me sorely, as my sins have deserved, give me patience to bear thy correction, and let me always say (even with my dying breath) thy will be done, amen, amen." subjoined was this curious memorandum: "at the making of this will, i have, in the corner of my outer study, next my chamber, guineas; and on the other side of the study towards the river, guineas, more or less, in several canvass bags, behind the shelves, being more secret and hidden, to prevent purloyning. one or more of the shelves markt g. among the latter is a five pound (jacobus) piece of gold."] loren. never fear. he is an old acquaintance of mine; for, when resident at st. john's, cambridge, i was frequently in the habit of conversing with his spirit in the library, and of getting curious information relating to choice and precious volumes, which had escaped the sagacity of his predecessors, and of which i fear his successors have not made the most proper use. phil. this is drawing too severe a conclusion. but baker merits the thanks of a book-loving posterity. lysand. he is satisfied with this mention of his labours; for see, he retreats--and theobald[ ] and tom rawlinson rush forward to claim a more marked attention: although i am not much disposed to draw a highly finished picture of the editor of shakespeare. [footnote : notwithstanding pope has called theobald by an epithet which i have too much respect for the ears of my readers to repeat, i do not scruple to rank the latter in the list of bibliomaniacs. we have nothing here to do with his edition of shakspeare; which, by the bye, was no despicable effort of editorial skill--as some of his notes, yet preserved in the recent editions of our bard, testify--but we may fairly allow theobald to have been a lover of caxtonian lore, as his curious extract in _mist's journal_, march , , from our old printer's edition of virgil's Æneid, , sufficiently testifies. while his gothic library, composed in part of "caxton, wynkyn, and de lyra," proves that he had something of the genuine blood of bibliomaniacism running in his veins. see mr. bowles's edition of _pope's works_, vol. v., , .] lis. is thomas rawlinson[ ] so particularly deserving of commendation, as a bibliomaniac? [footnote : let us, first of all, hear hearne discourse rapturously of the bibliomaniacal reputation of t. rawlinson: "in his fuit amicus noster nuperus thomas rawlinsonus; cujus peritiam in supellectile libraria, animique magnitudinem, nemo fere hominum eruditorum unquam attigit, quod tamen vix agnoscet seculum ingratum. quanquam non desunt, qui putent, ipsius memoriæ statuam deberi, idque etiam ad sumptus bibliopolarum, quorum facultates mire auxerat; quorum tamen aliqui (utcunque de illis optime meritus fuisset) quum librorum rawlinsoni auctio fieret, pro virili (clandestinò tamen) laborabant, ut minus auspicatò venderentur. quod videntes probi aliquot, qui rem omuem noverant, clamitabant, ô homines scelestos! hos jam oportet in cruciatum hinc abripi! quod hæc notem, non est cur vitio vertas. nam nil pol falsi dixi, mi lector. quo tempore vixit rawlinsonus (et quidem perquam jucundum est commemorare), magna et laudabilis erat æmulatio inter viros eruditos, aliosque etiam, in libris perquirendis ac comparandis, imo in fragmentis quoque. adeo ut domicilia, ubi venales id genus res pretiosæ prostabant, hominum coetu frequenti semper complerentur, in magnum profecto commodum eorum, ad quos libri aliæque res illæ pertinebant; quippe quod emptores parvo ære nunquam, aut rarissime, compararent." _walter hemingford, præfat._, p. civ. in his preface to _alured de beverly_, pp. v. vi., the copious stores of rawlinson's library, and the prompt kindness of the possessor himself, are emphatically mentioned; while in the preface to _titi livii foro-juliensis vit. henrici v._, p. xi., we are told, of the former, that it was "plurimis libris rarissimis referta:" and, in truth, such a "bibliotheca refertissima" was perhaps never before beheld. rawlinson was introduced into the tatler, under the name tom folio. his own house not being large enough, he hired _london house_, in aldersgate street, for the reception of his library; and there he used to regale himself with the sight and the scent of innumerable black letter volumes, arranged in "sable garb," and stowed perhaps "three deep," from the bottom to the top of his house. he died in ; and catalogues of his books for sale continued, for nine succeeding years, to meet the public eye. the following is, perhaps, as correct a list of these copious and heterogeneously compiled catalogues, as can be presented to the reader. i am indebted to the library of mr. heber for such a curious bibliographical morçeau. i. _a catalogue of choice and valuable books in most faculties and languages; being part of the collection made by thomas rawlinson, esq._, which will begin to be sold by auction at paul's coffee house, the west-end of st. paul's, th dec., , beginning every evening at , by thomas ballard, bookseller, at the rising sun, little britain. mo. price s. pages.----ii. _a catalogue_, &c., being the nd part of the collection by t. rawlinson, esq., to be sold by auction at paul's coffee-house, th march, - , every evening at , by t. ballard. mo. price s., paged on from the last, pp. to . [these two parts contain together vo. lots; in to., in folio.]----iii. _a catalogue_, &c., being the third part of the collection by t. rawlinson, esq., to be sold by auction at paul's coffee-house, th oct., , every evening at , by t. ballard. mo. price s. (no paging or printer's letter.)----iv. _a catalogue_, &c., being the th part of the collection by t. rawlinson, esq., to be sold by auction at paul's coffee-house, nd april, , every evening at , by t. ballard, mo. price s. (no paging or printer's letter.)----v. & vi. _a catalogue_, &c., being the th part of the collection by t. rawlinson, esq., to be sold by auction at paul's coffee-house, th jan. , every evening at , by t. ballard. mo. price s. altho' this vol. seems to have been the last of only one sale--yet it may be collected, from the concurrent testimony of his notes in more copies than one--that it was divided and sold at two different times; the latter part commencing about the middle of the volume, with the _libri theologici_. in folio.--test. nov. , being the first article. this collection began to be sold in feb. . [ ?]--vii. _a catalogue_, &c., being the th part of the collection made by t. rawlinson, esq., _deceased_, which will begin to be sold by auction at london-house, in aldersgate street, nd march, , every evening at , by charles davis, bookseller. mo. price _s._ _d._ (no paging--printer's mark at bottom irregularly continued from to .)--viii. _bibliotheca rawlinsoniana_, being a cat. of part the val. libr. of tho. rawlinson, esq., deceased: which will begin to be sold by auction at the bedford coffee-house, in the great piazza, covent garden, the th of this present april [ ] every evening at , by charles davis, bookseller. vo. price _d._ ( days' sale-- lots.)----ix. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, &c., pars_ ix. being a cat. of part of the libr. of th. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, th oct., , every evening at , by t. ballard. vo. price _s._ ( days' sale, lots.)----x. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, &c., pars altera_, being a cat. of part of lib. of th. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, d nov., , every evening at , by th. ballard. vo. price _s._ ( days' sale, articles.)----xi. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, pars altera_, being a catalogue of part of the library of t. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, d jan. - , every evening, saturdays excepted, at . vo. price _s._ ( days' sale, lots.)----xii. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, pars altera_, being a cat. of part of the library of th. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, th march, - , every evening at , by t. ballard. price _s._ ( vo. days' sale, lots.)----xiii. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, pars altera_, being a cat. of part of the library of th. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, st april, , every evening at , by t. ballard. price _s._ ( vo. days' sale, lots.)----xiv. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, pars altera_, being a cat. of part of the library of t. rawlinson, esq., deceased, to be sold by auction at st. paul's coffee-house, nov. , every evening at , by t. ballard. price _s._ ( vo. days' sale, lots.)----xv. _bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ, pars altera_, being a cat. of part of the library of t. rawlinson, f.r.s., deceased, to be sold by auction th nov., , at st. paul's coffee-house, every evening at , by tho. ballard. price _s._ ( vo. days' sale, lots.)----xvi. _codicum manuscriptorum bibliothecæ rawlinsonianæ catalogus--cum appendice impressorum_--to be sold th march, - , at st. paul's coffee-house, every night at , by t. ballard. price _s._ ( vo., days' sale, mss. lots--appendix ). to these may be added, _picturæ rawlinsonianæ_--being the collection of original paintings of t. rawlinson, esq., f.r.s., by the best masters--part of which were formerly the earl of craven's collection. to be sold by auction, at the two golden balls, in hart street, covent garden, th april, , at . vo. ( lots.) now let any man, in his sober senses, imagine what must have been the number of volumes contained in the library of the above-named thomas rawlinson? does he imagine that the tomes in the bodleian, vatican, and british museum were, in each single collection, more numerous than those in the _aldersgate street_ repository?--or, at any rate, would not a view of this aldersgate street collection give him the completest idea of the _ne plus ultra_ of book-phrensy in a private collector? rawlinson would have cut a very splendid figure, indeed, with posterity, if some judicious catalogue-maker, the paterson of former times, had consolidated all these straggling _bibliothecal_ corps into one compact wedge-like phalanx. or, in other words, if one thick octavo volume, containing a tolerably well classed arrangement of his library, had descended to us--oh, then we should all have been better able to appreciate the extraordinary treasures of such a collection! the genius of pearson and crofts would have done homage to the towering spirit of rawlinson.] lysand. if the most unabating activity and an insatiable appetite--if an eye, in regard to books, keen and sparkling as the ocean-bathed star--if a purse, heavily laden and inexhaustible--if store-rooms rivalled only by the present warehouses of the east-india company--if a disposition to spread far and wide the influence of the bibliomania, by issuing a _carte blanche_ for every desperately smitten antiquary to enter, and partake of the benefits of, his library--be criteria of book-phrensy--why then the resemblance of this said tom rawlinson ought to form a principal ornament in the capital of that gigantic column, which sustains the temple of book fame! he was the _tom folio_ of the tatler, and may be called the _leviathan_ of book-collectors during nearly the first thirty years of the eighteenth century. lis. i suppose, then, that bagford, murray, and hearne, were not unknown to this towering bibliomaniac? lysand. on the contrary, i conclude, for certain, that, if they did not drink wine, they constantly drank coffee, together: one of the huge folio volumes of bleau's atlas serving them for a table. but see yonder the rough rude features of humphrey wanley[ ] peering above the crowd! all hail to thy honest physiognomy--for thou wert a rare _book-wight_ in thy way! and as long as the fame of thy patron harley shall live, so long, honest humphrey, dost thou stand a sure chance of living "for aye," in the memory of all worthy bibliomaniacs. [footnote : lysander is well warranted in borrowing the pencil of jan steen, in the above bold and striking portrait of wanley: who was, i believe, as honest a man, and as learned a librarian, as ever sat down to morning chocolate in velvet slippers. there is a portrait of him in oil in the british museum, and another similar one in the bodleian library--from which latter it is evident, on the slightest observation, that the inestimable, i ought to say immortal, founder of the _cow pox system_ (my ever respected and sincere friend, dr. jenner) had not then made known the blessings resulting from the vaccine operation: for poor wanley's face is absolutely _peppered_ with _variolous_ indentations! yet he seems to have been a hale and hearty man, in spite of the merciless inroads made upon his visage; for his cheeks are full, his hair is cropt and curly, and his shoulders have a breadth which shew that the unrolling of the harleian mss. did not produce any enervating effluvia or mismata [transcriber's note: miasmata]. our poet, gay, in his epistle to pope, _ep._ , thus hits off his countenance: o wanley, whence com'st thou with _shorten'd hair_, and _visage_, from thy shelves, _with_ dust besprent? but let us hear the testimony of a friend and fellow bibliomaniac, called thomas hearne. the following desultory information is translated from the preface to the _annales prioratûs de dunstable_--wherein, by the bye, there is a good deal of pleasant information relating to wanley. we are here told that wanley was "born at coventry; and, in his younger days, employed his leisure hours in turning over ancient mss., and imitating the several hands in which they were written. lloyd, bishop of litchfield and coventry, in one of his episcopal visitations, was the first who noticed and patronized him. he demanded that wanley should be brought to him; he examined him "suis ipsius, non alterius, oculis;" and ascertained whether what so many respectable people had said of his talents was true or false--'a few words with you, young man,' said the bishop. wanley approached with timidity--'what are your pursuits, and where are the ancient mss. which you have in your possession?' wanley answered readily; exhibited his mss., and entered into a minute discussion respecting the ancient method of painting." hearne then expatiates feelingly upon the excessive care and attention which wanley devoted to ancient mss.; how many pieces of vellum he unrolled; and how, sometimes, in the midst of very urgent business, he would lose no opportunity of cultivating what was useful and agreeable in his particular pursuit. his hobby horse seems to have been the discovery of the ancient method of colouring or painting--yet towards british history and antiquities he constantly cast a fond and faithful eye. how admirably well-calculated he was for filling the situation of librarian to lord oxford is abundantly evinced by his catalogue of the harleian mss.; vide p. , ante. of his attachment to the bibliomania there are innumerable proofs. take this, _inter alia_; "i spoke to mr. wanley, who is not unmindful of his promise, but says he will not trouble you with a letter, till he has something better to present you, which he doubts not he shall have this winter _among mr. harley's mss._ mr. wanley has the greatest collection of _english bibles, psalters, &c._, that ever any one man had. they cost him above _l._, and he has been above twenty years in collecting them. he would part with them, i believe, but i know not at what price." _masters's life of baker_, p. . consult also the preface to the _catalogue of the harleian mss._, , vols., folio, p. .] a softer noise succeeds; and the group becomes calm and attentive, as if some grand personage were advancing. see, 'tis harley, earl of oxford![ ] [footnote : there was an amusing little volume, printed in , vo., concerning the library of the late king of france; and an equally interesting one might have been composed concerning the harleian collection--but who can now undertake the task?--who concentrate all the rivulets which have run from this splendid reservoir into other similar pieces of water? the undertaking is impracticable. we have nothing, therefore, i fear, left us but to sit down and weep; to hang our harps upon the neighbouring willows, and to think upon the book "sion," with desponding sensations that its foundations have been broken up, and its wealth dissipated. but let us adopt a less flowery style of communication. before harley was created a peer, his library was fixed at wimple, in cambridgeshire, the usual place of his residence; "whence he frequently visited his friends at cambridge, and in particular mr. baker, for whom he always testified the highest regard. this nobleman's attachment to literature, the indefatigable pains he took, and the large sums he expended in making the above collection, are too well known to stand in need of any further notice." _masters's life of baker_, p. . the eulogies of maittaire and hearne confirm every thing here advanced by masters; and the testimony of pope himself, that harley "left behind him one of the finest libraries in europe," warrants us, if other testimonies were not even yet daily before our eyes, to draw the same conclusion. in a periodical publication entitled _the director_, to which i contributed all the intelligence under the article "bibliographiana," there appeared the following copious, and, it is presumed, not uninteresting, details respecting the earl of oxford, and his library. after the sale of mr. bridges's books, no event occurred in the bibliographical world, worthy of notice, till the sale of the famous _harleian library_, or the books once in the possession of the celebrated harley, earl of oxford. this nobleman was not less distinguished in the political than in the literary world; and "was a remarkable instance of the fickleness of popular opinion, and the danger of being removed from the lower to the upper house of parliament." (noble's _continuation of granger_, vol. ii., .) he was born in the year , was summoned to the house of lords by the titles of earl of oxford and mortimer, in ; declared minister and lord high treasurer in the same year; resigned, and was impeached, in the year ; acquitted, without being brought to a trial, in ; and died at his house in albemarle street, in . a character so well known in the annals of this country needs no particular illustration in the present place. the _harleian collection of mss._ was purchased by government for , _l._, and is now deposited in the british museum (vide p. , ante). the _books_ were disposed of to thomas osborne, of gray's inn, bookseller;--to the irreparable loss, and, i had almost said, the indelible disgrace, of the country. it is, indeed, for ever to be lamented that a collection so extensive, so various, so magnificent, and intrinsically valuable, should have become the property of one who necessarily, from his situation in life, became a purchaser, only that he might be a vender, of the volumes. osborne gave , _l._ for the collection; a sum which must excite the astonishment of the present age, when it is informed that lord oxford gave , _l._ for the _binding_ only, of the least part of them. (from oldys's _interleaved langbaine_. see brydges's _cens. literar._, vol. i., p. .) in the year - appeared an account of this collection, under the following title, _catalogus bibliothecæ harleianæ, &c._, in four volumes (the th not properly appertaining to it). dr. johnson was employed by osborne to write the preface, which, says boswell, "he has done with an ability that cannot fail to impress all his readers with admiration of his philological attainments." _life of johnson_, vol. i., , edit. to. in my humble apprehension, the preface is unworthy of the doctor: it contains a few general philological reflections, expressed in a style sufficiently stately, but is divested of bibliographical anecdote and interesting intelligence. the first two volumes are written in latin by johnson; the third and fourth volumes, which are a repetition of the two former, are composed in english by oldys: and, notwithstanding its defects, it is the best catalogue of a large library of which we can boast. it should be in every good collection. to the volumes was prefixed the following advertisement: "as the curiosity of spectators, before the sale, may produce disorder in the disposition of the books, it is necessary to advertise the public that there will be no admission into the library before the day of sale, which will be on tuesday, the th of february, ." it seems that osborne had charged the sum of _s._ to each of his first two volumes, which was represented by the booksellers "as an avaricious innovation;" and, in a paper published in "_the champion_," they, or their mercenaries, reasoned so justly as to allege that "if osborne could afford a very large price for the library, he might therefore afford to _give away_ the catalogue." _preface to_ vol. iii., p. . to this charge osborne answered that his catalogue was drawn up with great pains, and at a heavy expense; but, to obviate all objections, "those," says he, "who have paid five shillings a volume shall be allowed, at any time within three months after the day of sale, either to return them in exchange for books, or to send them back, and receive their money." this, it must be confessed, was sufficiently liberal. osborne was also accused of _rating his books at too high a price_: to this the following was his reply, or rather dr. johnson's; for the style of the doctor is sufficiently manifest: "if, therefore, i have set a high value upon books--if i have vainly imagined literature to be more fashionable than it really is, or idly hoped to revive a taste well nigh extinguished, i know not why i should be persecuted with clamour and invective, since i shall only suffer by my mistake, and be obliged to keep those books which i was in hopes of selling."--_preface to the d volume._ the fact is that osborne's charges were extremely moderate; and the sale of the books was so very slow that johnson assured boswell "there was not much gained by the bargain." whoever inspects osborne's catalogue of (four years after the harleian sale), will find in it many of the most valuable of lord oxford's books; and, among them, a copy of the aldine plato of , _struck off upon vellum_, marked at _l._ only: for this identical copy lord oxford gave guineas, as dr. mead informed dr. askew; from the latter of whose collections it was purchased by dr. hunter, and is now in the hunter museum. there will also be found, in osborne's catalogues of and , some of the scarcest books in english literature, marked at , or , or _s._, for which three times the number of _pounds_ is now given. analysis of the harleian library. i shall take the liberty of making an arrangement of the books different from that which appears in the harleian catalogue; but shall scrupulously adhere to the number of departments therein specified. and first of those in . _divinity._ in the _greek_, _latin_, _french_, and _italian_ languages, there were about theological volumes. among these, the most rare and curious were bamler's bible of , beautifully illuminated, in volumes: schæffer's bible of . the famous zurich bible of , "all of which, except a small part done by theodoras bibliander, was translated from the hebrew by a jew, who styled himself leo judæ, or the lion of judah. the greek books were translated by petrus cholinus. the new testament is erasmus's." the scrutinium scripturarum of rabbi samuel, mant., ; a book which is said "to have been concealed by the jews nearly years: the author of it is supposed to have lived at a period not much later than the destruction of jerusalem." the islandic bible of , "not to be met with, without the utmost difficulty, and therefore a real curiosity." the works of hemmerlin, basil: ; "the author was ranked in the first class of those whose works were condemned by the church of rome." the mozarabic missal printed at toledo, in --of which some account is given at p. , ante. the collection of _english_ books in divinity could not have amounted to less than volumes. among the rarest of these, printed in the fifteenth century, was "the festyvall, begynning at the fyrst sonday of advent, in worship of god and all his sayntes," &c., printed at paris, in . there was ten books printed by caxton, and some exceedingly curious ones by wynkyn de worde and pynson. . _history and antiquities._ there appear to have been, on the whole, nearly volumes in this department: of which, some of those relating to great britain were inestimable, from the quantity of ms. notes by sir william dugdale, archbishop parker, thomas rawlinson, thomas baker, &c. the preceding number includes relating to the history and antiquities of italy; to those of france. (this part of the catalogue deserves particular attention, as it contains a larger collection of pieces relating to the history of france than was, perhaps, ever exposed to sale in this nation; here being not only the ancient chronicles and general histories, but the memoirs of particular men, and the genealogies of most of the families illustrious for their antiquity. see _bibl. harl._, vol. iii., p. .) to those of spain; and about relating to germany and the united provinces. . _books of prints, sculpture, and drawings._ in this department, rich beyond description, there could not have been fewer than , articles, on the smallest computation: of which nearly were original drawings by the great italian and flemish masters. the works of callot were preserved in large volumes, containing not fewer than _nine hundred and twelve prints_. "all choice impressions, and making the completest set of his works that are to be seen." see _bibl. harl._, vol. iii., no. , "hollar's works, consisting of all his pieces, and bound in folio volumes, in morocco. one of the completest and best sets in the world, both as to the number and goodness of the impressions." vid. _ibid._, no. . it is now in the library of the duke of rutland. "one hundred and thirty-three heads of illustrious men and women, after vandyke. this set of vandyke's heads may be said to be the best and completest that is to be met with any where: there being the heads which he etched himself, as likewise worked off by martin vanden enden: and what adds still to the value of them is that the greater part were collected by the celebrated marriette at paris, his name being signed on the back, as warranting them good proofs." tne [transcriber's note: the] engravings from raphael's paintings, upwards of in number, and by the best foreign masters, were contained in splendid morocco volumes. the works of the sadelers, containing upwards of prints, in large folio volumes, were also in this magnificent collection: and the albert durers, goltziuses, rembrandts, &c., innumerable! . _collection of portraits._ this magnificent collection, uniformly bound in large folio volumes, contained a series of heads of illustrious and remarkable characters, to the amount of nearly , in number. it is said, in the catalogue, to be "perhaps the largest collection of heads ever exposed to sale." we are also informed that it "was thought proper, for the accommodation of the curious, to separate the volumes." eheu! eheu! . _philosophy, chemistry, medicine, &c._ under this head, comprehending anatomy, astronomy, mathematics, and alchemy, there appear to have been not fewer than volumes in the foreign languages, and about in the english: some of them of the most curious kind, and of the rarest occurrence. . _geography, chronology, and general history._ there were about volumes on these subjects, written in the latin, french, italian, and spanish languages: and about volumes in our own language. some of the scarcest books printed by caxton were among the latter. . _voyages and histories relating to the east and west indies._ about volumes:--nearly equally divided into the english and foreign languages. among the english, were caxton's "recuyell of the historys of troye," (supposed to be the first book printed in this country;) and his "siege and conquest of jherusalem," . . _civil, canon, and statute law._ at least volumes: in the foreign languages, and the remaining in english. . _books of sculpture, architecture, &c._ not fewer than volumes, comprehending every thing published up to that period which was valuable or rare. of these, more than were written in latin, italian, french, or spanish--and embellished with every beauty of graphic illustration. . _greek and latin classics; grammars and lexicons._ this very valuable body of grecian and roman literature could not have included fewer than volumes--and, among these, almost every work of rarity and excellence. in the article of "cicero" alone, there were volumes printed in the _fifteenth century_; every subsequent edition of that and other authors, then distinguished for its accuracy or erudition, may also, i believe, be discovered in the catalogue. most book-collectors know the sumptuous manner in which the harleian copies are bound. . _books printed upon vellum._ in this interesting department of typography, there were about volumes--upwards of in folio, in quarto, and in octavo. of the former, the most curious and rare articles were the mentz bible of , vols., and the travels of breydenbachus, printed at mentz in . "this book is an uncommon object of curiosity, as it is, perhaps, the first book of travels that was ever printed, and is adorned with maps and pictures very remarkable. the view of _venice_ is more than five feet long, and the map of the _holy land_ more than three; there are views of many other cities. it is printed in the gothic character." see _bibl. harl._, vol. iii., no. . the octavos were chiefly "heures à l'usage," so common at the beginning of the th century: but, if the catalogue be correctly published, there appears to have been one of these books printed at paris, as early as the year , "extremely beautiful cuts." see the _bibl. harl._, vol. iv., no. . now, if this were true, it would make known a curious fact in parisian typography--for the usually received opinion among bibliographers is that no printed book appeared in france before the year , when the art was first introduced at _tours_; and none at _paris_ before the year - --when crantz and friburger were engaged to print there. . _english poetry, romances, and novels._ there could not have been fewer than volumes in this amusing department; and among them some editions of the rarest occurrence. every thing printed by caxton on these subjects, including a complete and magnificent copy of _morte d'arthur_, was in the collection--and, in respect to other curious works, it will be sufficient to mention only the following, as a specimen. "kynge-richarde cuer du lyon, w. de worde, : gascoigne's poesies, --spenser's shepheardes calenders, : webbe's discourse of english poetrie, : nash's art of english poesie, ." some of these volumes were afterwards marked by osborne, in his catalogues, at or shillings! . _livres françois, ital., et hispan._ there might have been volumes in these foreign languages, of which nearly related to _poetry_ (exclusively of others in the foregoing and following departments). . _parliamentary affairs and trials._ upwards of volumes. . _trade and commerce._ about volumes. it will be seen from the preceding divisions, and from the gradual diminution of the number of volumes in each, that i have gone through the principal departments of the harleian collection of books: and yet there remain _fifty departments_ to be enumerated! these are the following: . _critici et opera collecta._ . _vultus et imagines illust. virorum._ . _pompæ, ceremoniæ, et exequiæ._ . _de re militari, de arte equestri, et de re navali._ . _heraldica._ . _epistolæ, panegyrici, et orationes._ . _bibliothecarii et miscellanei._ . _tractatus pacis et politici._ . _traductions des auteurs gr. et latin._ . _translations from greek and latin authors._ . _laws, customs, &c., of the city of london._ . _military, naval affairs, and horsemanship._ . _heraldry._ . [transcriber's note: .] _husbandry, gardening, agriculture._ . _magic, sorcery, witchcraft._ . _miraculous, monstrous, and supernatural._ . _lives of eminent persons._ . _laws and customs of divers places._ . _tythes, sacrilege, and non-residence, &c._ . _cases of divers persons._ . _prisons and prisoners._ . _lives of murderers, highwaymen, pirates, &c._ . _speeches of persons executed for divers offences._ . _justices, juries, and charges._ . _poor, and charitable uses._ . _matrimony, divorce, &c._ . _universities._ . _allegiance, supremacy, non resistance, &c._ . _bank and bankers._ . _funds, taxes, public credit, money, coin, &c._ . _war and standing armies._ . _admiralty and navy._ . _letters on various subjects._ . _treatises of peace, royal prerogative, &c._ . _navigation._ . _education, grammar and schools._ . _ludicrous, entertaining, satirical, and witty._ . _english miscellanies._ . _ecclesiastical and civil history of scotland._ . _do. of ireland._ . _grammars and dictionnaries._ . _plays, and relating to the theatre._ . _mathematics._ . _astrology, astronomy, and chymistry._ . _horsemanship._ . _cookery._ . _convocation._ . _sieges, battles, war, &c._ . _pomp and ceremony._ . _books relating to writing and printing._ . _essays on various subjects._ it will probably be no very unreasonable computation to allow to each of these remaining divisions volumes: so that multiplying the whole divisions by there will be the additional number of volumes to make the library complete. i ought to mention that, in my account of this extensive library, i have not included the _pamphlets_. of these alone, according to mr. gough (_brit. topog._ v., i., ), there were computed to be , ! we will now say a few words about the private character of lord oxford, and conclude with a brief account of osborne. every body has heard of the intimacy which subsisted between pope and the earl of oxford. in the year , when the latter was at his country seat, pope sent him a copy of parnell's poems (of which he had undertaken the publication on the decease of parnell), with a letter in poetry and prose. it seems that pope wished to prefix his own verses to the collection; and thus alludes to them, in his letter to lord harley of the date of : "poor parnell, before he died, left me the charge of publishing those few remains of his: i have a strong desire to make them, their author, and their publisher, more considerable, by addressing and dedicating them all to you, &c. all i shall say for it is that 'tis the only dedication i ever writ, and shall be the only one, whether you accept it or not: for i will not bow the knee to a less man than my lord oxford, and i expect to see no greater in my time." the following is the latter part of the _poetical epistle_ here alluded to: and sure, if aught below the seats divine can touch immortals, 'tis a soul like thine: a soul supreme, in each hard instance tried, above all pain, all passion, and all pride; the rage of power, the blast of public breath, the lust of lucre, and the dread of death. in vain to deserts thy retreat is made; the muse attends thee to thy silent shade: 'tis her's the brave man's latest steps to trace, rejudge his acts, and dignify disgrace. when int'rest calls off all her sneaking train, and all th' obliged desert, and all the vain; she waits, or to the scaffold, or the cell, when the last lingering friend has bid farewell. ev'n now, she shades thy evening walk with bays, (no hireling she, no prostitute of praise) ev'n now, observant of the parting ray, eyes the calm sun-set of thy various day; thro' fortune's cloud one truly great can see, nor fears to tell that mortimer is he! _pope's works_, vol. ii., p. - . bowles's edit. the following was the reply of the earl of oxford to mr. pope. sir, i received your packet, which could not but give me great pleasure to see you preserve an old friend in your memory; for it must needs be very agreeable to be remembered by those we highly value. but then, how much shame did it cause me when i read your very fine verses inclosed! my mind reproached me how far short i came of what your great friendship and delicate pen would partially describe me. you ask my consent to publish it: to what straits doth this reduce me! i look back, indeed, to those evenings i have usefully and pleasantly spent with mr. pope, mr. parnell, dean swift, the doctor (arbuthnot), &c. i should be glad the world knew you admitted me to your friendship; and since your affection is too hard for your judgment, i am contented to let the world know how well mr. pope can write upon a barren subject. i return you an exact copy of the verses, that i may keep the original, as a testimony of the only error you have been guilty of. i hope, very speedily, to embrace you in london, and to assure you of the particular esteem and friendship wherewith i am your, &c., oxford. of tom osborne i have in vain endeavoured to collect some interesting biographical details. what i know of him shall be briefly stated. he was the most celebrated bookseller of his day; and appears, from a series of his catalogues in my possession, to have carried on a successful trade from the year to . what fortune he amassed, is not, i believe, very well known: his collections were truly valuable, for they consisted of the purchased libraries of the most eminent men of those times. in his stature he was short and thick; and, to his inferiors, generally spoke in an authoritative and insolent manner. "it has been confidently related," says boswell, "that johnson, one day, knocked osborne down in his shop with a folio, and put his foot upon his neck. the simple truth i had from johnson himself. 'sir, he was impertinent to me, and i beat him. but it was not in his shop: it was in my own chamber.'" to. edit., i., . of osborne's philological attainments, the meanest opinion must be formed, if we judge from his advertisements, which were sometimes inserted in the london gazette, and drawn up in the most ridiculously vain and ostentatious style. he used to tell the public that he possessed "all the pompous editions of classicks and lexicons." i insert the two following advertisements, prefixed, the one to his catalogue of , the other to that of , for the amusement of my bibliographical readers, and as a model for messrs. payne, white, miller, evans, priestley, and cuthell. "this catalogue being very large, and of consequence very expensive to the proprietor, he humbly requests that, if it falls into the hands of any gentleman _gratis_, who chooses not himself to be a purchaser of any of the books contained in it, that such gentleman will be pleased to recommend it to any other whom he thinks may be so, or to return it." to his catalogue of was the following: "to the nobility and gentry who please to favour me with their commands. it is hoped, as i intend to give no offence to any nobleman or gentleman, that do me the honour of being my customer, by putting a price on my catalogue, by which means they may not receive it as usual--it is desired that such nobleman or gentleman as have not received it, would be pleased to send for it; and it's likewise requested of such gentleman who do receive it, that, if they chuse not to purchase any of the books themselves, _they would recommend it to any bookish gentleman of their acquaintance, or to return it_, and the favour shall be acknowledged by, their most obedient and obliged, t. osborne." i shall conclude with the following curious story told of him, in mr. nichols's _anecdotes of bowyer_ the printer. "mr. david papillon, a gentleman of fortune and literary taste, as well as a good antiquary (who died in ) contracted with osborne to furnish him with an _l._ worth of books, at _threepence a piece_. the only conditions were, that they should be perfect, and that there should be no duplicate. osborne was highly pleased with his bargain, and the first great purchase he made, he sent mr. p. a large quantity; but in the next purchase, he found he could send but few, and the next, still fewer. not willing, however, to give up, he sent books worth _five shillings_ a piece; and, at last, was forced to go and beg to be let off the contract. eight thousand books would have been wanted!"--see p. - , note [symbol: double dagger].] lis. let us rise to pay him homage! phil. lisardo is now fairly bewitched. he believes in the existence of the group!--help, ho! fetters and warder for-- loren. philemon loves to indulge his wit at his friend's expense. is't not so, lisardo? lis. i forgive him. 'twas a "glorious fault." but, indeed, i would strip to the skin, if this said nobleman longed for my coat, waistcoat, small clothes, and shirt, to form him a cushion to sit upon! i have heard such wonderful things said of his library!-- lysand. and not more wonderful than its reputation justifies. well might pope be enamoured of such a noble friend--and well might even dr. mead bow to the superior splendour of such a book-competitor! while the higher order of bibliomaniacs, reposing upon satin sofas, were quaffing burgundy out of harley's curiously cut goblets, and listening to the captivating tale of mead or folkes, respecting a vellum _editio princeps_--the lower order, with bagford at their head, were boisterously regaling themselves below, drinking ale round an oaken table, and toasting their patron, till the eye could no longer discover the glass, nor the tongue utter his name. aloft, in mid air, sat the soothed spirits of smith and north; pointing, with their thin, transparent fingers, to the apotheosis of caxton and aldus! suddenly, a crowd of pipy fragrance involves the room: these ærial forms cease to be visible; and broken sounds, like the retiring tide beneath dover cliff, die away into utter silence. sleep succeeds: but short is the slumber of enthusiastic bibliomaniacs! the watchman rouses them from repose: and the annunciation of the hour of "two o'clock, and a moonlight morning," reminds them of their cotton night-caps and flock mattrasses. they start up, and sally forwards; chaunting, midst the deserted streets, and with eyes turned sapiently towards the moon, "long life to the king of book-collectors, harley, earl of oxford!" loren. a truce, lysander! i entreat a truce! lysand. to what? loren. to this discourse. you must be exhausted. phil. indeed i agree with lorenzo: for lysander has surpassed, in prolixity, the reputation of any orator within st. stephen's chapel. it only remains to eclipse, in a similar manner, the speeches which were delivered at hardy's trial--and then he may be called the _nonpareil_ of orators! lysand. if you banter me, i am dumb. nor did i know that there was any thing of eloquence in my chit-chat. if lisardo had had my experience, we might _then_ have witnessed some glittering exhibitions of imagination in the book-way! lis. my most excellent friend, i will strive to obtain this experience, since you are pleased to compliment me upon what i was not conscious of possessing--but, in truth, lysander, our obligations to you are infinite. lysand. no more; unless you are weary of this discourse-- phil. lis. weary!? loren. let me here exercise my undeniable authority. a _sandwich_, like the evening rain after a parching day, will recruit lysander's exhausted strength. what say you? lysand. "i shall in all things obey your high command." but hark--i hear the outer gate bell ring! the ladies are arrived: and you know my bashfulness in female society. adieu, bibliomania! 'till the morrow. loren. nay, you are drawing too dismal conclusions. my sisters are not sworn enemies to this kind of discourse. * * * * * the arrival of almansa and belinda, the sisters of lorenzo put a stop to the conversation. so abrupt a silence disconcerted the ladies; who, in a sudden, but, it must be confessed, rather taunting, strain--asked whether they should order their bed-chamber candlesticks, and retire to rest? lis. not if you are disposed to listen to the most engaging book-anecdote orator in his majesty's united realms! alman. well, this may be a sufficient inducement for us to remain. but why so suddenly silent, gentlemen? loren. the conversation had ceased before you arrived. we were thinking of a _hung-beef sandwich_ and a glass of madeira to recruit lysander's exhausted powers. he has been discoursing ever since dinner. belind. i will be his attendant and cup-bearer too, if he promises to resume his discourse. but you have probably dispatched the most interesting part. lysand. not exactly so, i would hope, fair lady! your brother's hospitality will add fresh energy to my spirit; and, like the renewed oil in an exhausted lamp, will cause the flame to break forth with fresh splendour. belind. sir, i perceive your ingenuity, at least, has not forsaken you--in whatever state your memory may be!-- * * * * * here the _sandwiches_ made their appearance: and lorenzo seated his guests, with his sisters, near him, round a small circular table. the repast was quickly over: and philemon, stirring the sugar within a goblet of hot madeira wine and water, promised them all a romantic book-story, if the ladies would only lend a gracious ear. such a request was, of course, immediately complied with. phil. the story is short-- lis. and sweet, i ween. phil. that remains to be proved. but listen. you all know my worthy friend, ferdinand: a very _helluo librorum_. it was on a warm evening in summer--about an hour after sunset--that ferdinand made his way towards a small inn, or rather village alehouse, that stood on a gentle eminence, skirted by a luxuriant wood. he entered, oppressed with heat and fatigue; but observed, on walking up to the porch "smothered with honey-suckles" (as i think cowper expresses it), that every thing around bore the character of neatness and simplicity. the holy-oaks were tall and finely variegated in blossom: the pinks were carefully tied up: and roses of all colours and fragrance stood around, in a compacted form, like a body-guard, forbidding the rude foot of trespasser to intrude. within, ferdinand found corresponding simplicity and comfort. the "gude" man of the house was spending the evening with a neighbour; but poached eggs and a rasher of bacon, accompanied with a flagon of sparkling ale, gave our guest no occasion to doubt the hospitality of the house, on account of the absence of its master. a little past ten, after reading some dozen pages in a volume of sir egerton brydges's _censura literaria_, which he happened to carry about him, and partaking pretty largely of the aforesaid eggs and ale, ferdinand called for his candle, and retired to repose. his bed-room was small, but neat and airy: at one end, and almost facing the window, there was a pretty large closet, with the door open: but ferdinand was too fatigued to indulge any curiosity about what it might contain. he extinguished his candle, and sank upon his bed to rest. the heat of the evening seemed to increase. he became restless; and, throwing off his quilt, and drawing his curtain aside, turned towards the window, to inhale the last breeze which yet might be wafted from the neighbouring heath. but no zephyr was stirring. on a sudden, a broad white flash of lightning--(nothing more than summer heat) made our bibliomaniac lay his head upon his pillow, and turn his eyes in an opposite direction. the lightning increased--and one flash, more vivid than the rest, illuminated the interior of the closet, and made manifest--_an old mahogany book-case_, stored with books. up started ferdinand, and put his phosphoric treasures into action. he lit his match, and trimmed his candle, and rushed into the closet--no longer mindful of the heavens--which now were in a blaze with the summer heat. the book-case was guarded both with glass and brass wires--and the key--no where to be found! hapless man!--for, to his astonishment, he saw _morte d'arthur_, printed by _caxton_--_richard coeur de lyon_, by _w. de worde_--_the widow edyth_, by _pynson_--and, towering above the rest, a large paper copy of the original edition of _prince's worthies of devon_; while, lying transversely at top, reposed _john weever's epigrams_, "the spirit of captain cox is here revived"--exclaimed ferdinand--while, on looking above, he saw a curious set of old plays, with _dido, queen of carthage_, at the head of them! what should he do? no key: no chance of handling such precious tomes--'till the morning light, with the landlord, returned! he moved backwards and forwards with a hurried step--prepared his pocket knife to cut out the panes of glass, and untwist the brazen wires--but a "_prick of conscience_" made him desist from carrying his wicked design into execution. ferdinand then advanced towards the window; and throwing it open, and listening to the rich notes of a concert of nightingales, forgot the cause of his torments--'till, his situation reminding him of "_the churl and the bird_," he rushed with renewed madness into the cupboard--then searched for the bell--but, finding none, he made all sorts of strange noises. the landlady rose, and, conceiving robbers to have broken into the stranger's room, came and demanded the cause of the disturbance. "madam," said ferdinand, "is there no possibility of inspecting the _books_ in the _cupboard_--where is the key?" "alack, sir," rejoined the landlady, "what is there that thus disturbs you in the sight of those books? let me shut the closet-door and take away the key of it, and you will then sleep in peace." "sleep in _peace_!" resumed ferdinand--"sleep in _wretchedness_, you mean! i can have no peace unless you indulge me with the key of the book-case. to whom do such gems belong?" "sir, they are not stolen goods."--"madam, i ask pardon--i did not mean to question their being honest property--but"--"sir, they are not mine or my husband's." "who, madam, who is the lucky owner?" "an elderly gentleman of the name of--sir, i am not at liberty to mention his name--but they belong to an elderly gentleman." "will he part with them--where does he live? can you introduce me to him?"--the good woman soon answered all ferdinand's rapid queries, but the result was by no means satisfactory to him. he learnt that these uncommonly scarce and precious volumes belonged to an ancient gentleman, whose name was studiously concealed; but who was in the habit of coming once or twice a week, during the autumn, to smoke his pipe, and lounge over his books: sometimes making extracts from them, and sometimes making observations in the margin with a pencil. whenever a very curious passage occurred, he would take out a small memorandum book, and put on a pair of large tortoise-shell spectacles, with powerful magnifying glasses, in order to insert this passage with particular care and neatness. he usually concluded his evening amusements by sleeping in the very bed in which ferdinand had been lying. such intelligence only sharpened the curiosity, and increased the restlessness, of poor ferdinand. he retired to this said bibliomaniacal bed, but not to repose. the morning sun-beams, which irradiated the book-case with complete effect, shone upon his pallid countenance and thoughtful brow. he rose at five: walked in the meadows till seven; returned and breakfasted--stole up stairs to take a farewell peep at his beloved _morte d'arthur_--sighed "three times and more"--paid his reckoning; apologised for the night's adventure; told the landlady he would shortly come and visit her again, and try to pay his respects to the anonymous old gentleman. "meanwhile," said he, "i will leave no bookseller's shop in the neighbourhood unvisited, 'till i gain intelligence of his name and character." the landlady eyed him steadily; took a pinch of snuff with a significant air; and, returning, with a smile of triumph, to her kitchen, thanked her stars that she had got rid of such a madman! ladies and gentlemen, i have done. lis. and creditably done, too! alman. if this be a specimen of your previous conversation, we know not what we have lost by our absence. but i suspect, that the principal ingredient of poetry, fiction, has a little aided in the embellishment of your story. belin. this is not very gallant or complimentary on your part, almansa. i harbour no suspicion of its verity; for marvellous things have been told me, by my brother, of the whimsical phrensies of book-fanciers. loren. if you will only listen a little to lysander's _sequel_, you will hear almost equally marvellous things; which i suspect my liberally minded sister, almansa, will put down to the score of poetical embellishment. but i see she is conscious of her treasonable aspersions of the noble character of bibliomaniacs, and is only anxious for lysander to resume. alman. sir, i entreat you to finish your history of bibliomaniacs. your friend, philemon, has regaled us with an entertaining episode, and you have probably, by this time, recovered strength sufficient to proceed with the main story. lysand. madam, i am equally indebted to your brother for his care of the body, and to my friend for his recreation of the mind. the midnight hour, i fear, is swiftly approaching. loren. it is yet at a considerable distance. we have nearly reached the middle of the eighteenth century, and you may surely carry on your reminiscential exertions to the close of the same. by that time, we may be disposed for our nightcaps. lysand. unheeded be the moments and hours which are devoted to the celebration of eminent book-collectors! let the sand roll down the glass as it will; let "the chirping on each thorn" remind us of aurora's saucy face peering above the horizon! in such society, and with such a subject of discussion, who-- lis. lysander brightens as his story draws to a close: his colouring will be more vivid than ever. belind. tell me--are bibliographers usually thus eloquent? they have been described to me as a dry, technical race of mortals--quoting only title-pages and dates. lysand. madam, believe not the malicious evidence of book-heretics. let ladies, like yourself and your sister, only make their appearance with a choice set of bibliomaniacs, at this time of night, and if the most interesting conversation be not the result--i have very much under-rated the colloquial powers of my brethren. but you shall hear. we left off with lauding the bibliomaniacal celebrity of harley, earl of oxford. before the dispersion of his grand collection, died john bridges,[ ] a gentleman, a scholar, and a notorious book-collector. the catalogue of his books is almost the first classically arranged one in the eighteenth century: and it must be confessed that the collection was both curious and valuable. bridges was succeeded by anthony collins,[ ] the free thinker; a character equally strange and unenviable. book-fanciers now and then bid a few shillings, for a copy of the catalogue of his library; and some sly free-thinkers, of modern date, are not backward in shewing a sympathy in their predecessor's fame, by the readiness with which they bid a half-guinea, or more, for a _priced copy_ of it. [footnote : _bibliothecæ bridgesianæ catalogus_: or a catalogue of the library of john bridges, esq., consisting of above books and manuscripts in all languages and faculties; particularly in classics and history; and especially the history and antiquities of great britain and ireland, &c., london, , vo. two different catalogues of this valuable collection of books were printed. the one was analysed, or a _catalogue raisonné_, to which was prefixed a print of a grecian portico, &c., with ornaments and statues: the other (expressly for the sale) was an indigested and extremely confused one--to which was prefixed a print, designed and engraved by a. motte, of an oak felled, with a number of men cutting down and carrying away its branches; illustrative of the following greek motto inscribed on a scroll above--[greek: dryos pesousês pas anêr xyleuetai]; "an affecting momento (says mr. nichols, very justly, in his _anecdotes of bowyer_, p. ) to the collectors of great libraries, who cannot, or do not, leave them to some public accessible repository." my friend, dr. gosset, was once so fortunate as to pick up for me a _large paper_ copy of the analysed catalogue, bound in old blue morocco, and ruled with red lines, for _s._!--"happy day!"] [footnote : in the year - , there was sold by auction at st. paul's coffee house, in st. paul's church yard (beginning every evening at five o'clock), the library of the celebrated free thinker, anthony collins, esq. "containing a collection of several thousand volumes in greek, latin, english, french, and spanish; in divinity, history, antiquity, philosophy, husbandry, and all polite literature: and especially many curious travels and voyages; and many rare and valuable pamphlets." this collection, which is divided into _two parts_ (the first containing articles, the second ), is well worthy of being consulted by the theologian who is writing upon any controverted point of divinity; as there are articles in it of the rarest occurrence. the singular character of its owner and of his works is well known: he was at once the friend and the opponent of locke and clarke, who both were anxious for the conversion of a character of such strong, but misguided, talents. the former, on his death-bed, wrote collins a letter to be delivered to him after his decease, which was full of affection and good advice.] we may here but slightly allude to the bibliographical reputation of maittaire, as so much was said of him the day before yesterday.[ ] [footnote : the reader will find some account of maittaire's bibliographical labours at p. , ante; and of his editions of the ancient classics, at p. , vol. ii., of my _introduction to the knowledge of rare and valuable editions of the greek and latin classics_. he need here only be informed that maittaire's books were sold by auction in november, , and january, ; the catalogue of them forming _two parts_, with one of these dates affixed to each. the collection must have been uncommonly numerous; and of their intrinsic value the reader will best judge by the following extract from the "advertisement," by cock the auctioneer, at the back of the title-page: "tho' the books, in their present condition, make not the most ostentatious appearance, yet, like the late worthy possessor of them, however plain their outside may be, they contain within an invaluable treasure of ingenuity and learning. in fine, this is (after fifty years' diligent search and labour in collecting) the entire library of mr. maittaire; whose judgement in the choice of books, as it ever was confessed, so are they, undoubtedly, far beyond whatever i can attempt to say in their praise. in exhibiting them thus to the public, i comply with the will of my deceased friend; and in printing the catalogue from his own copy just as he left it (tho' by so doing it is the more voluminous) i had an opportunity, not only of doing the justice i owe to his memory, but also of gratifying the curious." i incline strongly to think there were no copies of this catalogue printed upon large paper. when priced, the usual copy brings a fair round sum.] belin. all this may be very learned and just. but of these gentlemen i find no account in the fashionable necrologies. loren. only wait a little, and lysander will break forth with the mention of some transcendental bibliomaniac. lysand. yes, ever renowned richard mead![ ] thy _pharmacopæal_ reputation is lost in the blaze of thy _bibliomaniacal_ glory! Æsculapius may plant his herbal crown round thy brow, and hygeia may scatter her cornucopia of roses at thy feet--but what are these things compared with the homage offered thee by the gesners, baillets, and le longs, of old? what avail even the roseate blushes of thousands, whom thy medical skill, may have snatched from a premature grave--compared with the life, vigour, animation and competition which thy example infused into the book-world! [footnote : it is almost impossible to dwell on the memory of this great man, without emotions of delight--whether we consider him as an eminent physician, a friend to literature, or a collector of books, pictures, and coins. benevolence, magnanimity, and erudition were the striking features of his character. his house was the general receptacle of men of genius and talent, and of every thing beautiful, precious, and rare. his curiosities, whether books, or coins, or pictures, were freely laid open to the public; and the enterprising student, and experienced antiquary, alike found amusement and a courteous reception. he was known to all foreigners of intellectual distinction, and corresponded both with the artisan and the potentate. the great patron of literature, and the leader of his profession, it was hardly possible, as lysander has well observed, "for modest merit if properly introduced to him, to depart unrewarded or ungratified." the clergy, and, in general, all men of learning, received his advice gratuitously; and his doors were open every morning to the most indigent, whom he frequently assisted with money. although his income, from his professional practice, was very considerable, he died by no means a rich man--so large were the sums which he devoted to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts! the sale of dr. mead's _books_ commenced on the th of november, , and again on the th of april, : lasting together days. the sale of the _prints_ and _drawings_ continued nights. the _gems_, _bronzes_, _busts_, and _antiquities_, days. his books produced £ pictures prints and drawings coins and medals antiquities ------------ amount of all the sales £ , ------------ it would be difficult to mention, within a moderate compass, all the rare and curious articles which his library contained--but the following are too conspicuous to be passed over. the _spira virgil_, of , _pfintzing's tewrdanchk's_, , _brandt's stultifera navis_, , and the _aldine petrarch_, of , all upon vellum. the large paper _olivet's cicero_ was purchased by dr. askew, for _l._ _s._, and was sold again at his sale for _l._ _s._ the king of france bought the editio princeps of _pliny senior_ for _l._ _s._: and mr. wilcock, a bookseller, bought the magnificently illuminated _pliny by jenson_, of , for _l._ _s._: of which maittaire has said so many fine things. the _french_ books, and all the works upon the _fine arts_, were of the first rarity and value, and bound in a sumptuous manner. winstanley's _prospects of audley end_ brought _l._ an amusing account of some of the pictures will be found in mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_, vol. i., , . but consult also _nichols's anecdotes of bowyer_, p. , &c. of the catalogue of dr. mead's books, there were only six copies printed upon _large paper_. see _bibl. lort_, no. . i possess one of these copies, uncut and priced. dr. mead had parted, in his life-time, to the present king's father, with several miniature pictures of great value (walpole anec., vol. i., ) by isaac oliver and holbein, which are now in his majesty's collection. dr. askew had purchased his greek mss. for _l._ pope has admirably well said, "rare _monkish manuscripts_ for hearne alone, and _books_ for mead, and _butterflies_ for sloane." _epistle_ iv. upon which his commentator, warburton, thus observes: "these were two eminent physicians; the one had an excellent library, the other the finest collection in europe of natural curiosities." for nearly half a century did dr. mead pursue an unrivalled career in his profession. he was (perhaps "thrice") presented with the presidentship of the college of physicians, which he ("thrice") refused. one year it is said he made _l._, a great sum in his time! his regular emoluments were between _l._ and _l._ per annum. he died on the th of february, , in the st year of his age. on his death, dr. askew, who seems to have had a sort of filial veneration for his character, and whose pursuits were in every respect congenial with dr. mead's, presented the college of physicians with a marble bust of him, beautifully executed by roubilliac, and for which he paid the sculptor _l._ a whimsical anecdote is connected with the execution of this bust. roubilliac agreed with dr. askew for _l._: the doctor found it so highly finished that he paid him for it _l._ the sculptor said this was not enough, and brought in a bill for _l._ _s._ dr. askew paid this demand, even to the odd shillings, and then enclosed the receipt to mr. hogarth, to produce at the next meeting of artists. nichols's _anec. of bowyer_, p. . "i cannot help," says mr. edwards, the late ornithologist, "informing succeeding generations that they may see the _real features_ of dr. mead in this bust: for i, who was as well acquainted with his face as any man living, do pronounce this bust of him to be so like that, as often as i see it, my mind is filled with the strongest idea of the original." hearne speaks of the meadean family with proper respect, in his _alured de beverly_, p. xlv.; and in _walter hemingford_, vol. i., xxxv. in his _gulielmus nubrigensis_, vol. iii., p. (note), he says of our illustrious bibliomaniac:--"that most excellent physician, and truly great man, dr. richard mead, to whom i am eternally obliged." there is an idle story somewhere told of dr. mead's declining the acceptance of a challenge to fight with swords--alleging his want of skill in the art of fencing: but this seems to be totally void of authority. thus far, concerning dr. mead, from the first edition of this work, and the paper entitled "the director." the following particulars, which i have recently learnt of the mead family, from john nicholl, esq., my neighbour at kensington, and the maternal grandson of the doctor, may be thought well worth subjoining. matthew mead, his father, was a clergyman. he gave up his living at stepney in ; which was afterwards divided into the four fine livings now in the gift of brazen-nose college, oxford. his parishioners built him a chapel; but he retired to a farm in the country, and had the reputation of handling a bullock as well as any butcher in the county. he went abroad in the reign of james ii., and had his sons, samuel and richard, educated under grævius. samuel mead, _his brother_, was a distinguished chancery barrister, and got his _l._ per ann.; his cronies were wilbraham and lord harcourt. these, with a few other eminent barristers, used to meet at a coffee-house, and drink their favourite, and then fashionable, liquor--called _bishop_, which consisted of red wine, lemon, and sugar. samuel was a shy character, and loved privacy. he had a good country house, and handsome chambers in lincoln's inn, and kept a carriage for his sister's use, having his coachmaker's arms painted upon the panel. what is very characteristic of the modesty of his profession, he pertinaciously refused a silk gown! a word or two remains to be said of our illustrious bibliomaniac richard. his brother left him , _l._, and giving full indulgence to his noble literary feelings, the doctor sent carte, the historian, to france, to rummage for mss. of _thuanus_, and to restore the castrated passages which were not originally published for fear of offending certain families. he made buckley, the editor, procure the best _ink and paper_ from holland, for this edition of thuanus, which was published at his own expense; and the doctor was remarkably solicitous that nothing of exterior pomp and beauty should be wanting in the publication. the result verified his most sanguine expectation; for a finer edition of a valuable historian has never seen the light. dr. ward, says mr. nichols, is supposed to have written mead's latin, but the fact is not so; or it is exclusively applicable to the _later_ pieces of mead. the doctor died in his rd year (and in full possession of his mental powers), from a fall occasioned by the negligence of a servant. he was a great _diagnostic_ physician; and, when he thought deeply, was generally correct in judging of the disorder by the appearance of the countenance.] the tears shed by virtuous bibliomaniacs at harley's death were speedily wiped away, when the recollection of thine, and of thy contemporary's, folkes's[ ] fame, was excited in their bosoms. illustrious bibliomaniacs! your names and memories will always live in the hearts of noble-minded literati: the treasures of your museums and libraries--your liberal patronage and ever-active exertions in the cause of virtu--whether connected with coins, pictures, or books--can never be banished, at least, from my grateful mind:--and if, at this solemn hour, when yonder groves and serpentine walks are sleeping in the quiet of moon-light, your spirits could be seen placidly to flit along, i would burst from this society--dear and congenial as it is--to take your last instructions, or receive your last warnings, respecting the rearing of a future age of bibliomaniacs! ye were, in good earnest, noble-hearted book-heroes!--but i wander:--forgive me! [footnote : "_a catalogue of the entire and valuable library of_ martin folkes, esq., president of the royal society, and member of the royal academy of sciences at paris, lately deceased; which will be sold by auction, by samuel baker, at his house in york street, covent-garden. to begin on monday, february , , and to continue for forty days successively (sundays excepted). catalogues to be had at most of the considerable places in europe, and all the booksellers of great britain and ireland. price sixpence." this collection was an exceedingly fine one; enriched with many books of the choicest description, which mr. folkes had acquired in his travels in italy and germany. the works on natural history, coins, medals, inscriptions, and on the fine arts in general, formed the most valuable department--those on the greek, latin, and english classics were comparatively of inferior importance. it is a great pity the catalogue was not better digested; or the books classed according to the nature of their contents. the following prices, for some of the more rare and interesting articles, will amuse a bibliographer of the present day. the chronicles of fabian, hall, and grafton, did not, altogether, bring quite _l._, though the copies are described as perfect and fair. there seems to have been a fine set of sir wm. dugdale's works (nos. - ) in vols., which, collectively, produced about guineas! at the present day, they are worth about _l._--in _spanish literature_, the history of south america, by john duan and ant. di ulloa, madr., fol., in vols., was sold for _l._: a fine large paper copy of the description of the monastery of st. lorenzo, and the escorial, madr., , brought _l._ _s._; de lastanosa's spanish medals, huesca, fol., , _l._ _s._--in _english_, the first edition of shakspeare, , which is now what a french bibliographer would say, "presque introuvable," produced the sum of _l._ _s._; and fuller's worthies, _s._!----_fine arts, antiquities, and voyages._ sandrart's works, in folio volumes (of which a fine perfect copy is now rarely to be met with, and of very great value) were sold for _l._ _s._ only: desgodetz roman edifices, paris, , _l._ _s._ galleria giustiniano, vols., fol., _l._ _s._ le brun's voyages in muscovy, &c., in large paper, _l._ _s._ de rossi's raccolta de statue, &c., rom., , _l._ _s._ medailles du regne de louis le grand: de l'imp. roy. . p. fol., , _l._ _s._ _d._----the works on _natural history_ brought still higher prices: but the whole, from the present depreciation of money, and increased rarity of the articles, would now bring thrice the sums then given.--of the _greek and latin classics_, the pliny of and were sold to dr. askew, for _l._ _s._ and _l._ _s._ _d._ at the doctor's sale they brought _l._ and _l._, although the first was lately sold (a.d. ) among some duplicates of books belonging to the british museum, at a much lower price: the copy was, in fact, neither large nor beautiful. those in lord spencer's, and the hunter and cracherode collections, are greatly superior, and would each bring more than double the price. from a priced copy of the sale catalogue, upon _large paper_, and uncut, in my possession, i find that the amount of the sale, consisting of articles, was _l._ _s._ the _prints, and drawings_ of mr. folkes occupied a sale of days: and his _pictures_, _gems_, _coins_, and _mathematical instruments_, of five days. mr. martin folkes may justly be ranked among the most useful, as well as splendid, literary characters, of which this country can boast. he appears to have imbibed, at a very early age, an extreme passion for science and literature; and to have distinguished himself so much at the university of cambridge, under the able tuition of dr. laughton, that, in his rd year, he was admitted a fellow of the royal society. about two years afterwards he was chosen one of the council; and rose in succession to the chair of the presidentship, which, as lysander above truly says, he filled with a credit and celebrity that has since never been surpassed. on this occasion he was told by dr. jurin, the secretary, who dedicated to him the th vol. of the transactions, that "the greatest man that ever lived (sir isaac newton) singled him out to fill the chair, and to preside in the society, when he himself was so frequently prevented by indisposition; and that it was sufficient to say of him that he was _sir isaac's friend_." within a few years afterwards, he was elected president of the society of antiquaries. two situations, the filling of which may be considered as the _ne plus ultra_ of literary distinction. mr. folkes travelled abroad, with his family, about two years and a half, visiting the cities of rome, florence, and venice--where he was noticed by almost every person of rank and reputation, and whence he brought away many a valuable article to enrich his own collection. he was born in the year , and died of a second stroke of the palsy, under which he languished for three years, in . he seems to have left behind him a considerable fortune. among his numerous bequests was one to the royal society of _l._, along with a fine portrait of lord bacon, and a large cornelian ring, with the arms of the society engraved upon it, for the perpetual use of the president and his successors in office. the mss. of his own composition, not being quite perfect, were, to the great loss of the learned world, ordered by him to be destroyed. the following wood-cut portrait is taken from a copper-plate in the _portraits des hommes illustres de denmark_, to., parts, : part th, a volume which abounds with a number of copper-plate engravings, _worked off_ in a style of uncommon clearness and brilliancy. some of the portraits themselves are rather stiff and unexpressive; but the vignettes are uniformly tasteful and agreeable. the seven parts are rarely found in an equal state of perfection. [illustration] dr. birch has drawn a very just and interesting character of this eminent man, which may be found in nichols's _anecdotes of bowyer_, pp. - . mr. edwards, the late ornithologist, has described him in a simple, but appropriate, manner. "he seemed," says he, "to have attained to universal knowledge; for, in the many opportunities i have had of being in his company, almost every part of science has happened to be the subject of discourse, all of which he handled as an adept. he was a man of great politeness in his manners, free from all pedantry and pride, and, in every respect, the real, unaffected, fine gentleman."] alman. pray keep to this earth, and condescend to notice us mortals of flesh and blood, who have heard of dr. mead, and martin folkes, only as eminently learned and tasteful characters. lysand. i crave your forgiveness. but dr. mead's cabinet of coins, statues, and books, was so liberally thrown open for the public inspection that it was hardly possible for modest merit, if properly made known to him, to depart unrewarded or ungratified. nor does the renowned president of the royal and antiquarian societies--martin folkes--merit a less warm eulogy; for he filled these distinguished situations with a credit which has never since been surpassed. but there is yet an illustrious tribe to be recorded. we have, first, richard rawlinson,[ ] brother of the renowned _tom folio_, whose choice and tasteful collection of books, as recorded in auctioneering annals, is deserving of high commendation. but his name and virtues are better known in the university, to which he was a benefactor, than to the noisy circles of the metropolis. the sale of orator henley's books "followed hard upon" that of richard rawlinson's; and if the spirit of their owner could, from his "gilt tub," have witnessed the grimaces and jokes which marked the sale--with the distorted countenances and boisterous laughter which were to be seen on every side--how it must have writhed under the smart of general ridicule, or have groaned under the torture of contemptuous indignation! peace to henley's[ ] vexed _manes_!--and similar contempt await the efforts of all literary quacks and philosophical knaves! [footnote : "bibliotheca rawlinsoniana, _sive catalogus librorum richardi rawlinson_, ll.d. qui prostabunt venales sub hasta, apud samuelem baker, in vico dicto york-street, covent garden, londoni, die lunæ marti mdcclvi." with the following whimsical greek motto in the title-page: [greek: kai gar o taôs dia to spanion thaumazetai]. eubulus. ("the peacock is admired on account of its rarity.") this valuable library must have contained nearly , volumes, multiplying the number of articles ( ) by --the usual mode of calculation. unfortunately, as was the case with dr. mead's and mr. folkes's, the books were not arranged according to any particular classification. old black-letter english were mixed with modern italian, french, and latin; and novels and romances interspersed with theology and mathematics. an _alphabetical_ arrangement, be the books of whatever kind they may, will in general obviate the inconvenience felt from such an undigested plan; and it were "devoutly to be wished," by all true bibliographers, that an act of parliament should pass for the due observance of this alphabetical order. we all know our a, b, c, but have not all analytical heads; or we may differ in our ideas of analysis. the scientific and alphabetical _united_ is certainly better; like mr. harris's excellent catalogue, noticed at p. , ante. the "_méthode pour dresser une bibliothéque_," about which de bure, formey, and peignot have so solemnly argued, is not worth a moment's discussion. every man likes to be his own librarian, as well as "his own broker." but to return to dr. rawlinson's collection. on examining a priced catalogue of it, which now lies before me, i have not found any higher sum offered for a work than _l._ _s._ for a collection of fine prints, by aldegrever. (no. .) the greek and latin classics, of which there were few _editiones principes_, or on _large paper_, brought the usual sums given at that period. the old english black-letter books, which were pretty thickly scattered throughout the collection, were sold for exceedingly low prices--if the copies were perfect. witness the following: £ _s._ _d._ the newe testament in english, the ymage of both churches, after the revelation of st. john, by bale, the boke called the pype or tonne of perfection, by richard whytforde, the visions of pierce plowman, the creede of pierce plowman, the bookes of moses, in english, bale's actes of english votaryes, the boke of chivalrie, by caxton the boke of st. alban's, by w. de worde these are only very few of the rare articles in english literature; of the whole of which (perhaps upwards of in number) i believe the boke of st. albans brought the highest sum. hence it will be seen that this was not the age of curious research into the productions of our ancestors. shakspeare had not then appeared in a proper _variorum edition_. theobald, pope, and warburton, had not investigated the =black-letter= lore of ancient english writers for the illustration of their favourite author. this was reserved for capell, farmer, steevens, malone, chalmers, reed, and douce: and it is expressly to these latter gentlemen (for johnson and hanmer were very sparing, or very shy, of the black-letter), that we are indebted for the present spirit of research into the works of our ancestors. the sale of the _books_ lasted days. there was a second sale of _pamphlets, books of prints, &c._, in the following year, which lasted days: and this was immediately succeeded by a sale of the doctor's _single prints and drawings_, which continued days. dr. rawlinson's benefactions to oxford, besides his anglo-saxon endowment at st. john's college, were very considerable; including, amongst other curiosities, _a series of medals of the popes_, which the doctor supposed to be one of the most complete collections in europe; and a great number of valuable mss., which he directed to be safely locked up, and not to be opened till seven years after his decease. he died on the th of april, . to st. john's college, where he had been a gentleman commoner, dr. rawlinson left the bulk of his estate, amounting to near _l._ a year: _a plate of abp. laud_, volumes of _parliamentary journals and debates_, a set of _rymer's foedera_, his _greek_, _roman_, and _english coins_, not given to the bodleian library; all his plates engraved at the expense of the society of antiquaries; his diploma, and his _heart_; which latter is placed in a beautiful urn against the chapel wall, with this inscription: urbi thesaurus, ibi cor. ric. rawlinson, ll.d. & ant. s.s. olim hujus collegii superioris ordinis commensalis. obiit. vi. apr. mdcclv. hearne speaks of him, in the preface of his _tit. liv. for. jul. vita hen. v._, p. xvi., as "vir antiquis moribus ornatus, perque eam viam euns, quæ ad immortalem gloriam ducit."] [footnote : this gentleman's library, not so remarkable for the black-letter as for whimsical publications, was sold by auction, by samuel paterson (the earliest sale in which i find this well known book-auctioneer engaged), in june, , and the three ensuing evenings. the title of the sale catalogue is as follows:----"_a catalogue of the original mss. and manuscript collections of the late_ reverend mr. john henley, a.m., independent minister of the oratory, &c., in which are included sundry collections of the late mons. des maizeaux, the learned editor of bayle, &c., mr. lowndes, author of the report for the amendment of silver coins, &c., dr. patrick blair, physician at boston, and f.r.s., &c. together with original letters and papers of state, addressed to henry d'avenant, esq., her britannic majesty's envoy at francfort, from to inclusive." few libraries have contained more curious and remarkable publications than did this. the following articles, given as notable specimens, remind us somewhat of addison's memoranda for the spectator, which the waiter at the coffee-house picked up and read aloud for the amusement of the company.----no. . god's manifestation by a star to the dutch. a mortifying fast-diet at court. on the birth day of the first and oldest young gentleman. all corrupt: none good; no, not one.---- . general thumbissimo. the spring reversed, or the flanderkin's opera and dutch pickle herrings. the creolean fillip, or royal mishap. a martial telescope, &c. england's passion sunday, and april changelings.---- . speech upon speech. a telescope for tournay. no battle, but worse, and the true meaning of it. an army beaten and interred.---- . signs when the p. will come. was captain sw-n, a prisoner on parole, to be catechised? david's opinion of like times. the seeds of the plot may rise though the leaves fall. a perspective, from the blair of athol. the pretender's popery. murder! fire! where! where!---- . taking carlise, catching an eel by the tail. address of a bishop, dean, and clergy. swearing to the p----r, &c. anathema denounced against those parents, masters, and magistrates, that do not punish the sin at stokesley. a speech, &c. a parallel between the rebels to k. charles i. and those to his successor. _jane cameron_ looked killing at _falkirk_.---- . let stocks be knighted, write, sir bank, &c., the ramhead month. a proof that the writers against popery, fear it will be established in this kingdom. a scheme wisely blabbed to root and branch the highlanders. let st. patrick have fair play, &c.----of orator henley i have not been able to collect any biographical details, more interesting than those which are to be found in warburton's notes to pope's dunciad: he was born at melton mowbray, in leicestershire, in , and was brought up at st. john's college, in the university of cambridge. after entering into orders, he became a preacher in london, and established a lecture on sunday evenings, near lincoln's-inn fields, and another on wednesday evenings, chiefly on political and scientific subjects. each auditor paid one shilling for admission. "he declaimed," says warburton, "against the greatest persons, and occasionally did our poet (pope) that honour. when he was at cambridge, he began to be uneasy; for it shocked him to find he was commanded to believe against his own judgment in points of religion, philosophy, &c.: for his genius leading him freely to _dispute all propositions_, and _call all points to account_, he was impatient under those fetters of the free-born mind." when he was admitted into priest's orders, he thought the examination so short and superficial that he considered it "_not necessary to conform to the christian religion_, in order either to be a deacon or priest." with these quixotic sentiments he came to town; and "after having, for some years, been a writer for the booksellers, he had an ambition to be so for ministers of state." the only reason he did not rise in the church, we are told, "was the envy of others, and a disrelish entertained of him, because _he was not qualified to be a complete spaniel_." however, he offered the service of his pen to two great men, of opinions and interests directly opposite: but being rejected by both of them, he set up a new project, and styled himself, "_the restorer of ancient eloquence._" henley's pulpit, in which he preached, "was covered with velvet, and adorned with gold." it is to this that pope alludes, in the first couplet of his second book of the dunciad: high on a gorgeous seat, that far outshone henley's _gilt tub_---- "he had also an altar, and placed over it this extraordinary inscription, '_the primitive eucharist._'" we are told by his friend welsted (narrative in oratory transact. no. ) that "he had the assurance to form a plan, which no mortal _ever thought of_; he had success against all opposition; challenged his adversaries to fair disputations, and _none would dispute with him_: he wrote, read, and studied, twelve hours a day; composed three dissertations a week on all subjects; undertook to teach in _one year_ what schools and universities teach in _five_: was not terrified by menaces, insults, or satires; but still proceeded, matured his bold scheme, and put the church and _all that in danger_!" see note to dunciad, book iii., v. . pope has described this extraordinary character with singular felicity of expression: but, where each science lifts its modern type, hist'ry her pot, divinity her pipe, while proud philosophy repines to shew, dishonest sight! his breeches rent below; imbrown'd with native bronze, lo! henley stands, tuning his voice and balancing his hands. how fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue! how sweet the periods, neither said nor sung! still break the benches, henley! with thy strain, while sherlock, hare, and gibson, preach in vain. oh great restorer of the good old stage, preacher at once, and zany of thy age, oh worthy thou, of egypt's wise abodes, a decent priest, where monkeys were the gods! but fate with butchers plac'd thy priestly stall, meek modern faith to murder, hack, and mawl; and bade thee live, to crown britannia's praise, in toland's, tindal's, and in woolston's days. _dunciad_, b. iii., v. , &c. bromley, in his catalogue of engraved portraits, mentions _four_ of orator henley: two of which are inscribed, one by worlidge "the orator of newport market;" another (without engraver's name) "a rationalist." there is a floating story which i have heard of henley. he gave out that he would shew a new and expeditious method of converting a pair of boots into shoes. a great concourse of people attended, expecting to see something very marvellous; when henley mounted his "tub," and, holding up a boot, he took a knife, and _cut away the leg part of the leather_!] there are, i had almost said, innumerable contemporaneous bibliomaniacal characters to be described--or rather, lesser stars or satellites that move, in their now unperceived orbits, around the great planets of the book world--but, at this protracted hour of discussion, i will not pretend even to mention their names. lis. yet, go on--unless the female part of the audience be weary--go on describing, by means of your great telescopic powers, every little white star that is sprinkled in this bibliomaniacal _via lactea_![ ] [footnote : with great submission to the "reminescential" talents of lysander, he might have devoted one _minute_ to the commendation of the very curious library of john hutton, which was disposed of, by auction, in the same year ( ) in which genl. dormer's was sold. hutton's library consisted almost entirely of _english literature_: the rarest books in which are printed in the italic type. when the reader is informed that "_robinsons life, actes, and death of prince arthur_," and his "_ancient order, societie, and unitie, laudable of the same_," , to. (see no. ; concerning which my worthy friend, mr. haslewood, has discoursed so accurately and copiously: _british bibliographer_, vol. i., pp. ; ), when he is informed that this produced only _s._ _d._--that "_hypnerotomachia_," , to. (no. ), was sold for only _s._--the _myrrour of knighthood_, , to. (no. ), only _s._--_palmerin of england_, pts. in vols. , , to. (no. ), _s._--_painter's palace of pleasure_, vols. in , - , to. (no. )--when, i say, the tender-hearted bibliomaniac thinks that all these rare and precious black letter gems were sold, collectively, for only _l._ _s._ _d._!--what must be his reproaches upon the lack of spirit which was evinced at this sale! especially must his heart melt within him, upon looking at the produce of some of these articles at the sale of george steevens' books, only years afterwards! no depreciation of money can account for this woful difference. i possess a wretchedly priced copy of the _bibl. huttoniana_, which i purchased, without title-page or a decent cover, at the sale of mr. gough's books, for _s._ lysander ought also to have noticed in its chronological order, the extensive and truly valuable library of robert hoblyn; the catalogue of which was published in the year , vo., in two parts: pp. . i know not who was the author of the arrangement of this collection; but i am pretty confident that the judicious observer will find it greatly superior to every thing of its kind, with hardly even the exception of the _bibliotheca croftsiana_. it is accurately and handsomely executed, and wants only an index to make it truly valuable. the collection, moreover, is a very sensible one. my copy is upon _large paper_; which is rather common.] alman. upon my word, lisardo, there is no subject however barren, but what may be made fruitful by your metaphorical powers of imagination. lis. madam, i entreat you not to be excursive. lysander has taken a fresh sip of his nectar, and has given a hem or two--preparing to resume his narrative. lysand. we have just passed over the bar that separates the one half of the th century from the other: and among the ensuing eminent collectors, whose brave fronts strike us with respect, is general dormer:[ ] a soldier who, i warrant you, had faced full many a cannon, and stormed many a rampart, with courage and success. but he could not resist the raging influence of the book-mania: nor could all his embrasures and entrenchments screen him from the attacks of this insanity. his collection was both select and valuable. [footnote : "_a catalogue of the genuine and elegant library of the late_ sir c.c. dormer, collected by lieutenant general james dormer; which will be sold, &c., by samuel baker, at his house in york-street, covent garden; to begin on monday, february the th, , and to continue the nineteen following evenings." at the end of the catalogue we are told that the books were "in general of the best editions, and in the finest condition, many of them in _large paper_, bound in morocco, gilt leaves," &c. this was a very choice collection of books; consisting almost entirely of french, greek, latin, italian, and spanish. the number of articles did not exceed ; and of volumes, probably not . the catalogue is neatly printed, and copies of it on _large paper_ are exceedingly scarce. among the most curious and valuable articles are the following:----no. . les glorieuses conquestes de louis le grand, par pontault, _en maroquin_. paris, . ("_n.b. in this copy many very fine and rare portraits are added, engraved by the most eminent masters._")----no. . recueil des maisons royales, fort bien gravés par sylvestre, &c. (n.b. in the book was the following note. "_ce recueil des maisons royales n'est pas seulement complet, en toutes manières, mais on y a ajouté plusieurs plans, que l'on ne trouvent que très rarement._")----no. . fabian's chronicle, .---- , hall's ditto. .---- . higden's polychronicon. . (i suspect that dr. askew purchased the large paper hutchinson's xenophon, and hudson's thucydides. nos. , .)----no. . don quixote, por cervantes. madr., to., . in hoc libro hæc nota est. "_cecy est l'edition originale; il y a une autre du mesme année, imprimée en quarto à madrid, mais imprimée apres cecy. j'ay veu l'autre, et je les ay comparez avec deux autres editions du mesme année, ; une imprimée à lisbonne, en to., l'autre en valentia, en_ vo."----no. . thuanus by buckley, on _large paper_, in volumes, folio; a magnificent copy, illustrated with many beautiful and rare portraits of eminent characters, mentioned by de thou. (n.b. this very copy was recently sold for _l._)----from no. to the end of the catalogue ( articles) there appears a choice collection of italian and spanish books.] we have before noticed the celebrated diplomatic character, consul smith, and have spoken with due respect of his library: let us here, therefore, pass by him,[ ] in order to take a full and complete view of a _non-pareil_ collector: the first who, after the days of richard smith, succeeded in reviving the love of black-letter lore and of caxtonian typography--need i say james west?[ ] [footnote : the reader has had a sufficiently particular account of the book-collections of consul smith, at p. , ante, to render any farther discussion superfluous. as these libraries were collected _abroad_, the catalogues of them were arranged in the place here referred to.] [footnote : i am now to notice, in less romantic manner than lysander, a collection of books, in _english literature_, which, for rarity and value, in a proportionate number, have never been equalled; i mean the library of james west, esq., _president of the royal society_. the sale commenced on march , , and continued for the twenty-three following days. the catalogue was digested by samuel paterson, a man whose ability in such undertakings has been generally allowed. the title was as follows: "bibliotheca westiana; _a catalogue of the curious and truly valuable library of the late_ james west, esq., _president of the royal society, deceased_; comprehending a choice collection of books in various languages, and upon most branches of polite literature: more especially such as relate to the history and antiquities of great britain and ireland; their early navigators, discoverers, and improvers, and the _ancient english literature_: of which there are a great number of uncommon books and tracts, elucidated by ms. notes and original letters, and embellished with scarce portraits and devices, rarely to be found: including the works of caxton, lettou, machlinia, the anonymous st. albans school-master, wynkyn de worde, pynson, and the rest of the old english typographers. digested by samuel paterson, and sold by messrs. langfords." the title-page is succeeded by the preface. "the following catalogue exhibits a very curious and uncommon collection of printed books and tracts. of british history and antiquities, and of _rare old english literature_, the most copious of any which has appeared for several years past; formed with great taste, and a thorough knowledge of authors and characters, by that judicious critic and able antiquary the late james west, esq., president of the royal society. several anonymous writers are herein brought to light--many works enlarged and further explained by their respective authors and editors--and a far greater number illustrated with the ms. notes and observations of some of our most respectable antiquaries: among whom will be found the revered names of camden, selden, spelman, somner, dugdale, gibson, tanner, nicolson, gale, le neve, hearne, anstis, lewis, st. amand, ames, browne, willis, stukely, mr. west, &c. but, above all, the intense application and unwearied diligence of the admirable bishop white kennett, upon the ecclesiastical, monastical, constitutional, and topographical history of great britain, so apparent throughout this collection, furnish matter even to astonishment; and are alone sufficient to establish the reputation, and to perpetuate the memory, of this illustrious prelate, without any other monuments of his greatness." "in an age of general inquiry, like the present, when studies less interesting give place to the most laudable curiosity and thirst after investigating every particular relative to the history and literature of our own country, nothing less than an elaborate digest of this valuable library could be expected; and, as a supplement to the history of english literature, more desired." "that task the editor has cheerfully undertaken: and, he flatters himself, executed as well as the short time allowed would permit. he further hopes, to the satisfaction of such who are capable of judging of its utility and importance." "the lovers of engraved english portraits (a species of modern connoisseurship which appears to have been first started by the late noble earl of oxford, afterwards taken up by mr. west, mr. nicolls, editor of cromwell's state-papers, mr. ames, &c., and since perfected by the muse of strawberry-hill, the rev. wm. granger, and some few more ingenious collectors) may here look to find a considerable number of singular and scarce heads, and will not be disappointed in their search." thus much paterson; who, it must be confessed, has promised more than he has performed: for the catalogue, notwithstanding it was the _second_ which was published (the first being by a different hand, and most barbarously compiled) might have exhibited better method and taste in its execution. never were rare and magnificent books more huddled together and smothered, as it were, than in this catalogue. let us now proceed to an analysis of mr. west's collection. . _volumes of miscellaneous tracts._ these volumes extend from no. to , from to , from to , and from no. to .--among them are some singularly choice and curious articles. the following is but an imperfect specimen. no. . atkyns on printing, _with the frontispiece_, &c., &c., to. . g. whetstone's honorable profession of a soldier, , &c., to. . life and death of wolsey, , &c. . nashe's lenten stuffe, with the praise of the red herring, , &c. to. (the three articles together did not exceed) £ _s._ _d._ . a mornynge remembrance, had at the moneth mynde of the noble prynces countesse of rychmonde, &c. wynkyn de worde, &c. to. . oh! read over dr. john bridges, for it is a worthie worke, &c. bl. letter, &c. to. strange and fearful newes from plasto, near bow, in the house of one paul fox, a silk weaver, where is daily to be seene throwing of stones, bricbats, oyster-shells, bread, cutting his work in pieces, breaking his windows, &c. _no date_, to. . leylande's journey and serche, given of hym as a newe yeares gyfte to k. henry th, enlarged by bale, bl. letter, , vo., (with three other curious articles.) . a disclosing of the great bull and certain calves that he hath gotten, and especially the monster bull that roared at my lord byshop's gate. bl. letter, pr. by daye. no date. to. the preceding affords but a very inadequate idea of the "pithie, pleasant, and profitable" discourses mid tracts which abounded among the miscellaneous articles of mr. west's library. whatever be the defects of modern literature, it must be allowed that we are not _quite so coarse_ in the _title pages_ of our books. . _divinity._ this comprehended a vast mass of information, under the following general title. scarce tracts: old and new testaments (including almost all the first english editions of the new testament, which are now of the rarest occurrence): commentators: ecclesiastical history: polemics: devotions, catholic and calvinistical: enthusiasm: monastical history: lives of saints: fathers: missionaries: martyrs: modern divines and persons of eminent piety: free thinkers: old english primers: meditations: some of the earliest popish and puritanical controversy: sermons by old english divines, &c. in the whole articles: probably about volumes. these general heads are sufficient to satisfy the bibliographer that, with such an indefatigable collector as was mr. west, the greater part of the theological books must have been extremely rare and curious. from so _many caxtons_, _wynkyn de wordes_, _pynsons, &c._, it would be difficult to select a _few_ which should give a specimen of the value of the rest. suffice it to observe that such a cluster of _black letter gems_, in this department of english literature, has never since been seen in any sale catalogue. . _education, languages, criticism, classics, dictionaries, catalogues of libraries, &c._ there were about volumes in these departments. the catalogues of english books, from that of maunsell in , to the latest before mr. west's time, were nearly complete. the treatises on education, and translations of the ancient classics, comprehended a curious and uncommon collection. the greek and latin classics were rather select than rare. . _english poetry, romances, and miscellanies._ this interesting part of the collection comprehended about articles, or probably about volumes: and, if the singularly rare and curious books which may be found _under these heads alone_ were now to be concentrated in one library, the owner of them might safely demand guineas for such a treasure! i make no doubt but that his majesty is the fortunate possessor of the greater number of articles under all the foregoing heads. . _philosophy, mathematics, inventions, agriculture, and horticulture, medicine, cookery, surgery, &c._ two hundred and forty articles, or about volumes. . _chemistry, natural history, astrology, sorcery, gigantology._ probably not more than volumes. the word "gigantology," first introduced by mr. paterson, i believe, into the english language, was used by the french more than two centuries ago. see no. in the catalogue. . _history and antiquities._ this comprehended a great number of curious and valuable productions, relating both to foreign and domestic transactions. . _heraldry and genealogy._ an equal number of curious and scarce articles may be found under these heads. . _antient legends and chronicles._ to the english antiquary, few departments of literature are more interesting than this. mr. west seems to have paid particular attention to it, and to have enriched his library with many articles of this description of the rarest occurrence. the lovers of caxton, fabian, hardyng, hall, grafton, and holinshed, may be highly gratified by inspecting the various editions of these old chroniclers. i entreat the diligent bibliographer to examine the first articles of page of the catalogue. alas! when will such gems again glitter at one sale? the fortunate period for collectors is gone by: a knowledge of books almost every where prevails. at york, at exeter, at manchester, and at bristol, as well as in london, this knowledge may be found sometimes on the dusty stall, as well as in the splendid shop. the worth of books begins to be considered by a different standard from that of the quantity of gold on the exterior! we are now for "_drinking deep_," as well as "_tasting_!" but i crave pardon for this digression, and lose sight of mr. west's _uniques_. . _topography._ even to a veteran like the late mr. gough, such a collection as may be found from p. to of the catalogue, would be considered a very first-rate acquisition. i am aware that the gothic wainscot and stained glass windows of _enfield study_ enshrined a still more exquisite topographical collection! but we are improved since the days of mr. west; and every body knows to _whom_ these improvements are, in a great measure, to be attributed! when i call to mind the author of "_british topography_" and "_sepulchral monuments_," i am not insensible to the taste, diligence, and erudition of the "par nobile fratrum," who have gratified us with the "_environs of london_," and the three volumes of "_magna britannia_!" catalogues of mr. west's library, with the sums for which the books were sold, are now found with difficulty, and bring a considerable price. the late mr. g. baker, who had a surprisingly curious collection of priced catalogues, was in possession of the _original sale_ one of west's library. it is interleaved, and, of course, has the prices and names of the purchasers. mr. heber has also a priced copy, with the names, which was executed by my industrious and accurate predecessor, william herbert, of typographico-antiquarian renown. the number of articles, on the whole, was ; and of the volumes as many articles were single, probably about . _ample_ as some "pithy" reader may imagine the foregoing analysis to be, i cannot find it in my heart to suffer such a collection, as was the _bibliotheca westiana_, to be here dismissed in so _summary_ a manner. take, therefore, "pleasaunt" reader, the following account of the _prices_ for which some of the aforesaid book-gems were sold. they are presented to thee as a matter of curiosity only; and not as a criterion of their present value. and as master caxton has of late become so popular amongst us, we will see, inter alios, what some of the books printed by so "simple a person" produced at this renowned sale. no. . salesbury (wyllyam) his dictionary in englyshe and welshe, moste necessary to all such welshemen as wil spedly learne the english tongue, &c. _printed by waley_, , to. £ _s._ _d._ . mulcaster (rich.) of the right writing of our english tung. _imp. by vautrollier_, , to. . florio's frutes to be gathered of trees of divers but delyghtfule tastes to the tongues of italians and englishmen, also his garden of recreation, &c., , to. . eliot's indian grammar, _no title_. thus much for grammatical tracts. . the fyve bokes of moses, wythe the prologes of wyllyam tyndale, b.b. , _printed in different characters at different periods_, vo. . the actes of the apostles translated into englyshe metre, by chrystofer tye, doctor in musyke, with notes to synge, and also to play upon the lute. _printed by seres_, , mo. . the newe testament, with the prologes of wyllyam tyndale, cuts, printed at andwarp, &c., , mo. . the same, with the same cuts, emprynted at antwerpe, by m. crom, , _a fine copy, in morocco binding_ (title wanting). . the gospels of the fower evangelists, translated in the olde saxons tyme, &c. sax. and eng. imprinted by daye, , to. . the discipline of the kirk of scotlande, subscribet by the handes off superintendentes, one parte off ministers, and scribet in oure generalle assemblies ad edenbourg, decemb., . _no title._ to. . the most sacred bible, recognised with great diligence by richard taverner, &c., _printed by byddell for barthelet, , in russia_. . the byble in englyshe of the largest and greatest volume, &c. _printed by grafton_, , folio. . speculum vite christi, the booke that is cleped the myrroure of the blessed lyf of jhesu cryste, _emprynted by caxton_, fol., _no date, fine copy in morocco_. . the prouffytable boke for mannes soule, &c., _emprynted by caxton_, fol., no date, a fine copy in morocco. . cordyale, or of the fowre last thynges, &c., _emprynted by caxton_, , fol., _fine copy in morocco_. . the pylgremage of the sowle, &c., , folio, _emprynted by caxton_. . the booke entytled and named ryal, &c., _translated and printed by caxton_, , _fine morocco copy_. . the arte and crafte to knowe well to dye; _translated and prynted by caxton_, , folio. so take we leave of divinity! . hall's virgidemiarum, lib. vi. , , mo. "mr. pope's copy, who presented it to mr. west, telling him that he esteemed them the best poetry and truest satire in the english language." (n.b. these satires were incorrectly published in , vo.: a republication of them, with pertinent notes, would be very acceptable.) . churchyard's works; vols. in , _very elegant_, bl. letter. . the passe tyme of pleasure, &c., _printed by wynkyn de worde_, , to., fine copy. . merie conceited jests of george peele, gent. , to. robin the devil, his two penni-worth of wit in half a penni-worth of paper, &c., , to. . the hye waye to the spyttell hous; printed by the compyler rob. copland, no date. . another copy of the spyttell house; "a thousande fyve hundredth fortye and foure," no printer's name, mark, or date, to. here begynneth a lytell propre jest, called cryste crosse me spede, a b c. . chaucer's work; first edition, _emprentyd by caxton_, folio, _in russia_. . ---- troylus and creseyde, _printed b [transcriber's note: by] caxton_, folio. . ---- booke of fame, _printed by caxton_, folio. . gower de confessione amantis; _printed by caxton_, , folio, _in morocco_. . the bokys of haukyng and hunting; _printed at seynt albons_, , _folio: fine copy in morocco_. and here farewell poetry! . the booke of the moste victoryouse prynce, guy of warwick. _impr. by w. copland_, to. . the historye of graunde amoure and la bell pucel, &c. _impr. by john wayland_, , to. . the historye of olyver of castylle, &c. _impr. by wynkyn de worde_, , to. . the booke of the ordre of chyvalry or knyghthode. _translated and printed by william caxton_; no date, a fine copy in russia, to. (shall i put one, or one hundred marks--not of admiration but of astonishment--at this price?! but go on kind reader!) . the boke of jason: _emprynted by caxton_, folio. . the boke of fayttes of armes and of chyvalrye, _emprynted by caxton_, , folio. . thystorye, &c., of the knyght parys, and of the fayre vyenne, &c. , fol., _translated and printed by caxton_. [illustration: caxton.] but why should i go on tantalising the s----s, h----s, s----s, r----s, and u----s, of the day, by further specimens of the _enormous_ sums here given for such _common_ editions of old romances? mr. george nicol, his majesty's bookseller, told me, with his usual pleasantry and point, that he got abused in the public papers, by almon and others, for his having purchased nearly the whole of the caxtonian volumes in this collection for his majesty's library. it was said abroad that "a scotchman had lavished away the king's money in buying old black-letter books." a pretty specimen of _lavishing_ away royal money, truly! there is also another thing, connected with these _invaluable_ (i speak as a bibliomaniac--and, perhaps, as a metaphysician may think--as a fool! but let it pass!) with these invaluable purchases:--his majesty, in his directions to mr. nicol, forbade any competition with those purchasers who wanted books of science and belles-lettres for their _own professional_ or _literary_ pursuits: thus using, i ween, the powers of his purse in a manner at once merciful and wise.--"o si sic"--may we say to many a heavy-metalled book-auction bibliomaniac of the present day!--old tom payne, the father of the respectable mr. payne, of pall-mall, used to tell mr. nichol--_pendente hastâ_--that he had been "raising all the caxtons!" "many a copy," quoth he, "hath _stuck_ in my shop at two guineas!" mr. nichols, in his amusing biography of bowyer, has not devoted so large a portion of his pages to the description of mr. west's collection, life, and character, as he has to many collectors who have been less eminently distinguished in the bibliographical world. whether this was the result of the paucity, or incongruity, of his materials, or whether, from feelings of delicacy he might not choose to declare all he knew, are points into which i have neither right nor inclination to enquire. there seems every reason to conclude that, from youth, west had an elegant and well-directed taste in matters of literature and the fine arts. as early as the year , he shewed the munificence of his disposition, in these respects, by befriending hearne with a plate for his _antiquities of glastonbury_; see p. --which was executed, says hearne, "sumptibus ornatissimi amicissimique juvenis (multis sane nominibus de studiis nostris optime meriti) jacobi west," &c. so in his pref. to _adam de domerham de reb. gest. glaston_:--"antiquitatum ac historiarum nostrarum studiosus in primis--jacobus west." p. xx. and in his _walter hemingford_, we have:--"fragmentum, ad civitatem oxoniensem pertinens, admodum egregium, mihi dono dedit amicus eximius jacobus west--is quem alibi juvenem ornatissimum appellavi," &c., p. . how the promise of an abundant harvest, in the mature years of so excellent a young man, was realized, the celebrity of west, throughout europe, to his dying day, is a sufficient demonstration. i conclude with the following; which is literally from nichols's _anecdotes of bowyer_. "james west, of alscott, in the county of warwick, esq., m.a., of baliol college, oxford, (son of richard west, said to be descended, according to family tradition, from leonard, a younger son of thomas west, lord delawar, who died in ) was representative in parliament for st. alban's, in ; and being appointed one of the joint secretaries of the treasury, held that office till . in or , his old patron the duke of newcastle, obtained for him a pension of _l._ a year. he was an early member, and one of the vice presidents, of the antiquary society; and was first treasurer, and afterwards president, of the royal society. he married the daughter and heiress of sir thomas stephens, timber merchant, in southwark, with whom he had a large fortune in houses in rotherhithe; and by whom he had a son, james west, esq., now ( ) of alscott, one of the auditors of the land-tax, and sometime member of parliament for boroughbridge, in yorkshire (who in married the daughter of christopher wren, of wroxhall in warwickshire, esq.), and had two daughters. mr. west died in july, . his large and valuable collection of manuscripts was sold to the _earl of shelburne_, and is now deposited in the british museum."] loren. all hail to thee--transcendant bibliomaniac of other times!--of times, in which my father lived, and procured, at the sale of thy precious book-treasures, not a few of those rare volumes which have so much gladdened the eyes of lisardo. belin. i presume you mean, dear brother, some of those _black-looking_ gentlemen, bound in fancifully marked coats of morocco, and _washed_ and _ironed_ within (for you collectors must have recourse to a woman's occupation) with so much care and nicety that even the eyes of our ancient rebecca, with "spectacle on nose" to boot, could hardly detect the cunning' conceit of your binder! loren. spare my feelings and your own reputation, if you wish to appreciate justly the noble craft of book-repairing, &c.--but proceed, dear lysander. lysand. you cannot have a greater affection towards the memory of the collector of the _bibliotheca westiana_ than myself. hark--! or is it only a soft murmur from a congregation of autumnal zephyrs!--but methought i heard a sound, as if calling upon us to look well to the future fate of our libraries--to look well to their being _creditably catalogued_--"for" (and indeed it _is_ the voice of west's spirit that speaks) "my collection was barbarously murdered; and hence i am doomed to wander for a century, to give warning to the ----, ----, and ----, of the day, to execute this useful task with their own hands! yes; even the name of paterson has not saved my collection from censure; but his hands were then young and inexperienced--yet i suffer from this innocent error!" away, away, vexed spirit--and let thy head rest in peace beneath the sod! alman. for heaven's sake, into what society are we introduced, sister? all mad--book mad! but i hope harmless. lysand. allay your apprehensions; for, though we may have the energies of the lion, we have the gentleness of the "unweaned lamb." but, in describing so many and such discordant characters, how can i proceed in the jog-trot way of--"next comes such a one--and then follows another--and afterwards proceeds a third, and now a fourth!?" alman. sir, you are right, and i solicit your forgiveness. if i have not sufficient bookish enthusiasm to fall down and worship your caxtonian deity, james west, i am at least fully disposed to concede him every excellent and amiable quality which sheds lustre upon a literary character. lysand. all offence is expiated: for look, the spirit walks off calmly--and seems to acknowledge, with satisfaction, such proper sentiments in the breast of one whose father and brother have been benefited by his book treasures. the rapturous, and, i fear you will think, the wild and incoherent, manner in which i have noticed the sale of the _bibliotheca westiana_ had nearly driven from my recollection that, in the preceding, the same, and subsequent, year, there was sold by auction a very curious and extraordinary collection of books and prints belonging to honest tom martin,[ ] _of palgrave_, in suffolk: a collector of whom, if i remember rightly, herbert has, upon several occasions, spoken with a sort of veneration. if lavater's system of physiognomy happen to receive your approbation, you will conclude, upon contemplating tom's frank countenance--of which a cut precedes the title-page of the first catalogue--that the collector of palgrave must have been "a fine old fellow." martin's book-pursuits were miscellaneous, and perhaps a little too wildly followed up; yet some good fortune contributed to furnish his collection with volumes of singular curiosity. [footnote : "hereafter followeth" rather a rough outline of the contents of honest tom martin's miscellaneous and curious collection. to the ivth part i have added a few prices, and but a few. i respect too much the quiet and comfort of the present race of bibliomaniacs, to inflame their minds by a longer extract of such tantalizing sums given for some of the most extraordinary volumes in english literature.----i. _a catalogue of the library of_ mr. thomas martin, _of palgrave, in suffolk, lately deceased. lynn, printed by w. whittingham_, , vo. with a portrait engraved by lamborn, from a painting of bardwell. articles; with pages of appendix, containing mss.----no. . juliana barnes on hawking, &c., black-letter, wants a leaf, folio. . chauncey's history of hertfordshire, with marginal notes, by p. le neve, esq., , folio. . scriptores rerum brunsvicensium, vols. folio, . ("n.b. only sets in england at the accession of geo. iii.")----ii. _a catalogue of the very curious and numerous collection of manuscripts of_ thomas martin, esq., _of suffolk, lately deceased_. consisting of pedigrees, genealogies, heraldic papers, old deeds, charters, sign manuals, autographs, &c., likewise some very rare old printed books. sold by auction by baker and leigh, april , , vo. the mss. (of many of which edmonson was a purchaser) consisted of articles, ending with "the o's, in old english verse--st. bridget." among the volumes only of "scarce printed books" were the following:--no. . edwards' paradyse of daynty devices, . . the holy life of saynt werburge, printed by pynson, . the lyfe of saynte radegunde, by pynson. lyfe of saynt katherine, printed by waley, to.----iii. _a catalogue of the remaining part of the valuable collection of the late well known antiquary_, mr. martin, _of palgrave, suffolk_: consisting of many very valuable and ancient manuscripts on vellum, early printed black-letter books, and several other scarce books; his law library, deeds, grants, and pedigrees; a valuable collection of drawings and prints, by the best masters--and his collection of greek, roman, saxon, and english coins--with some curiosities. sold by auction by baker and leigh, th may, . vo. this collection consisted of articles, exclusively of the coins, &c., which were in number. among the printed books were several very curious ones; such as----no. . the death and martyrdom of campione the jesuite, , vo. . heywood's "if you know not me, you know nobody," , to. "this has a wood-cut of the whole length of q. elizabeth, and is very scarce." . fabyan's chronicle. this i take it was the first edition. . promptuarium parvulorum. pynson, folio, . see hearne's peter langtoft, vol. ii., - . . dives et pauper; yis tretyys ben dyvydit into elevene partys, and ev'ry part is dyvidit into chapitalis. "the above extremely curious and valuable manuscript on vellum is wrote on pages. vide leland, vol. ii., : bale, . pits, . ms., to." . original proclamations of q. elizabeth, folio. "a most rare collection, and of very great value: the earl of oxford once offered mr. martin one hundred guineas for them, which he refused." qu. what they sold for? . the pastyme of the people; the cronycles of dyvers realmys, and most specyally of the realme of englond, &c., by john rastell. an elegant copy, in the original binding, large folio, black-letter, london, . "supposed to be only two or three copies existing;" but see page , ante. the folio manuscripts, extending to no. , are very curious; especially the first numbers.----iv. _bibliotheca martiniana. a catalogue of the entire library of the late eminent antiquary_ mr. thomas martin, _of suffolk_. containing some thousand volumes in every language, art, and science, a large collection of the scarcest early printers, and some hundreds of manuscripts, &c., which will begin to be sold very cheap, on saturday, june ( ). by martin booth and john berry, booksellers, at their warehouse in the angel yard, market place, norwich, and continue on sale only two months: vo. this catalogue is full of curious, rare, and interesting books; containing articles; all priced. take, as a sample, the following: no. . wynkyn de worde's reprint of juliana berners' book of hawking, &c., , folio, _l._ _s._ _d._: no. . copland's ditto of ditto, fair _s._ _d._ . a collection of old romances in the dutch language, with wood-cuts, very fair, to , folio . horace's art of poetry, by drant, , to. . a certayne tragedye, &c., entitled, freewil, wants title, very fair and scarce, to. . historie of prince arthur and his knights of the round table, , to. . the life off the archbishopp off canterbury presentlye sittinge, &c. imprinted in , vo., neat a severe satire against parker, abp. of canterbury, for which 'tis said the author was punished with the loss of his arm. . amorous tales, by james sanforde, very rare, printed by bynneman, , mo. (or small vo. perhaps) . hereafter followeth a little boke whyche hath to name whye come ye not to court: by mayster skelton; printed by anthony kytson, no date. a little boke of philip sparrow, compiled by mayster skelton; printed by ant. veale, no date, very fair, both vo. "this is a most extraordinarily scarce edition of skelton's pieces, and has besides these, some other fragments of his by various early printers."] but i proceed. the commotions excited in the book world, by means of the sales of the _bibliotheca westiana_ and _martiniana_, had hardly ceased, when a similar agitation took place from the dispersion of the _monastic library_ which once belonged to serjeant fletewode;[ ] a bibliomaniac who flourished in full vigour during the reign of elizabeth. the catalogue of these truly curious books is but a sorry performance; but let the lover of rare articles put on his bathing corks, and swim quietly across this ocean of black-letter, and he will be abundantly repaid for the toil of such an aquatic excursion. [footnote : the year following the sale of mr. west's books, a very curious and valuable collection, chiefly of english literature, was disposed of by auction, by paterson, who published the catalogue under the following title: "bibliotheca monastico-fletewodiana." "_a catalogue of rare books and tracts in various languages and faculties; including the ancient conventual library of missenden abbey, in buckinghamshire_; together with some choice remains of that of the late eminent serjeant at law, william fletewode, esq., recorder of london, in the reign of queen elizabeth; among which are several specimens of the earliest typography, foreign and english, including caxton, wynkyn de worde, pynson, and others: a fine collection of english history, some scarce old law books, a great number of old english plays, several choice mss. upon vellum, and other subjects of literary curiosity. also several of the best editions of the classics, and modern english and french books. sold by auction by s. paterson, december," , vo., lots, or articles. i am in possession of a _priced catalogue_ of this collection, with the names of the purchasers. the latter were principally herbert, garrick, dodd, elmsley, t. payne, richardson, chapman, wagstaff, bindley, and gough. the following is a specimen of some curious and interesting articles contained in this celebrated library: no. . bale's brefe chronycle relating to syr johan oldecastell, . the life off the th archbishop off canterbury, presentlye sittinge, , &c. life of hen. hills, printer to o. cromwell, with the relation of what passed between him and the taylor's wife in black friars, , vo., &c. £ _s._ _d._ purchased by mores. to . upwards of thirty _scarce theological tracts_, in latin and english. to . a fine collection of early english translations, in black letter, with some good foreign editions of the classics. not exceeding, in the whole , . two copies of the _first edition_ of bacon's essays, . mirabile dictu! the reader will just glance at no. , in the catalogue, en passant, to . ( _l._ _s._) and ( _s._) but more particularly to . the boke of tulle of olde age, &c. _emprynted by caxton_, , folio . the boke which is sayd or called cathon, &c. _printed by the same_, , folio. purchased by alchorne . the doctrinal of sapyence, _printed by the same_, , folio. purchased by alchorne . the booke named the cordyal, _printed by the same_, , folio but there is no end to these curious volumes. i will, however, only add that there were upwards of articles of _old plays_, mostly in quarto. see page . of _antiquities_, _chronicles_, and _topography_, it would be difficult to pitch upon the rarest volumes. the collection, including very few mss., contained probably about volumes. the catalogue, in a clean condition, is somewhat uncommon.] you will imagine that the book-disease now began to be more active and fatal than ever; for the ensuing year (namely, in ) died the famous anthony askew, m.d. those who recollect the zeal and scholarship of this illustrious bibliomaniac,[ ] and the precious volumes with which his library was stored, from the choice collections of de boze, gaignat, mead, and folkes, cannot but sigh, with grief of heart, on reflecting upon such a victim! how ardently, and how kindly (as i remember to have heard one of his intimate friend [transcriber's note: friends] say) would askew unlock the stores of his glittering book-treasures!--open the magnificent folio, or the shining duodecimo, _printed upon vellum_, and embossed with golden knobs, or held fast with silver clasps! how carefully would he unrol the curious _manuscript_, decipher the half effaced characters--and then, casting an eye of ecstacy over the shelves upon which similar treasures were lodged, exult in the glorious prospect before him! but death--who, as horace tells us, equally exercises the knocker of the palace and cottage-door, made no scruple to rap at that of our renowned doctor--when askew, with all his skill in medicine and knowledge of books, yielded to the summons of the grim tyrant--and died lamented, as he lived beloved! [footnote : lysander is now arrived, pursuing his chronological order, at a very important period in the annals of book-sales. the name and collection of dr. askew are so well known in the bibliographical world that the reader need not be detained with laboured commendations on either: in the present place, however, it would be a cruel disappointment not to say a word or two by way of preface or prologue. dr. anthony askew had eminently distinguished himself by a refined taste, a sound knowledge, and an indefatigable research, relating to every thing connected with grecian and roman literature. it was to be expected, even during his life, as he was possessed of sufficient means to gratify himself with what was rare, curious, and beautiful, in literature and the fine arts, that the public would one day be benefited by such pursuits: especially as he had expressed a wish that his treasures might be unreservedly submitted to sale, after his decease. in this wish the doctor was not singular. many eminent collectors had indulged it before him: and, to my knowledge, many modern ones still indulge it. accordingly, on the death of dr. askew, in , appeared, in the ensuing year, a catalogue of his books for sale, by messrs. baker and leigh, under the following title: "bibliotheca askeviana, _sive catalogus librorum rarissimorum antonii askew, m.d., quorum auctio fiet apud s. baker et g. leigh, in vico dicto york street, covent garden, londini, die lunæ, februarii_, mdcclxxv, _et in undeviginti sequentes dies_." a few copies were struck off on _large paper_, which are yet rather common. my own copy is of this kind, with the prices, and names of the purchasers. we are told, by the compiler of the catalogue, that it was thought "unnecessary to say much with respect to this library of the late dr. anthony askew, as the collector and the collection were so well known in almost all parts of europe." afterwards it is observed that "the books in general are in very fine condition, many of them bound in morocco, and russia leather, with gilt leaves." "to give a particular account," continues the compiler, "of the _many scarce editions_ of books in this catalogue would be almost endless, therefore the _first editions_ of the classics, and some _extremely rare books_, are chiefly noticed. the catalogue, without any doubt, contains the best, rarest, and most valuable collection of greek and latin books that was ever sold in england, and the great time and trouble of forming it will, it is hoped, be a sufficient excuse for the price put to it." ( _s._ _d._ the small paper, and _s._ the large.) this account is not overcharged. the collection in regard to greek and roman literature was _unique_ in its day. enriched with many a tome from the harleian, dr. mead's, martin folkes's, and dr. rawlinson's library, as well as with numerous rare and splendid articles from foreign collections (for few men travelled with greater ardour, or had an acuter discrimination than dr. askew), the books were sought after by almost every one then eminent for bibliographical research. his majesty was a purchaser, says mr. j. nichols, to the amount of about _l._; dr. hunter, to the amount of _l._; and de bure (who had commissions from the king of france and many foreign collectors, to the amount of _l._) made purchases to the same amount; dr. maty was solicited by the trustees of the british museum not to be unmindful of _that repository_; and accordingly he became a purchaser to a considerable amount. the late worthy and learned mr. m. cracherode, whose library now forms one of the most splendid acquisitions of the british museum, and whose _bequest_ of it will immortalize his memory, was also among the "emptores literarii" at this renowned sale. he had enriched his collection with many an "_exemplar askevianum_;" and, in his latter days, used to elevate his hands and eyes, and exclaim against the prices _now_ offered for editiones principes. the fact is, dr. askew's sale has been considered a sort of _era_ in bibliography. since that period, rare and curious books in greek and latin literature have been greedily sought after, and obtained (as a recent sale abundantly testifies) at most extravagant prices. it is very well for a veteran in bibliographical literature, as was mr. cracherode, or as are mr. wodhull, and dr. gosset--whose collections were, in part, formed in the days of de bure, gaignat, askew, duke de la valliere, and lamoignon--it is very well for such gentlemen to declaim against _modern prices_! but what is to be done? classical books grow scarcer every day, and the love of literature, and of possessing rare and interesting works, increases in an equal ratio. hungry bibliographers meet, at sales, with well-furnished purses, and are resolved upon sumptuous fare! thus the hammer _vibrates_, after a bidding of forty pounds, where formerly it used regularly to _fall_ at four! but we lose sight of dr. askew's _rare editions_, and _large paper copies_. the following, gentle reader, is but an imperfect specimen! no. . chaucer's works, by _pynson_, no date £ _s._ _d._ . cicero of old age, by caxton, . gilles (nicole) annales, &c., de france. paris, fol. , tom. sur velin . Æginetæ (pauli) præcepta salubria; paris, quarto, . on vellum . Æsopi fabulæ. _edit. princeps circ._ . boccacio, il teseide, _ferar._, . _prima edizione_ [this copy, which is called, "_probably unique_," was once, i suspect, in consul smith's library. see _bibl. smith_, p. lxiii. the reader will find some account of it in warton's history of engl. poetry, vol. i., . it was printed, as well as the subsequent editions of , and , "with some deviations from the original, and even misrepresentations of the story." his majesty was the purchaser of this precious and uncommon book.] . cornelius nepos, . _edit. prin._ . alexander de ales, super tertium sententiar. , on vellum . anthologia græca. _edit. prin._ , on vellum in dr. hunter's museum. . ammianus marcellinus, . _edit. prin._ . ciceronis opera omnia, oliveti, vols. quarto, , _charta maxima_ . ejusdem officia, . _edit. prin._ . catullus, tibullus, et propertius; aldi, vo., . in membranis this copy was purchased by the late mr. m.c. cracherode, and is now, with his library, in the british museum. it is a beautiful book; but cannot be compared with lord spencer's aldine vellum virgil, of the same size. . durandi rationale, &c., . in membranis the beginning of the st chapter was wanting. lord spencer has a perfect copy of this rare book, printed upon spotless vellum. . platonis opera, apud aldum; vols., fol., . _edit. prin._ on vellum. purchased by the late dr. william hunter; and is, at this moment, with the doctor's books and curiosities, at _glasgow_. the reader can have no idea of the beauty of these vellum leaves. the ink is of the finest lustre, and the whole typographical arrangement may be considered a masterpiece of printing. if i could forget the magnificent copy which i have seen (but not upon vellum) of the "etymologicum magnum," in the luton library, i should call _this_ the chef-d'oeuvre of the aldine press. . plinii hist. natural; apud spiram, fol., . _edit. princeps._ this copy has been recently sold for a sum considerably less than it brought. it bears no kind of comparison with the copy in lord spencer's, dr. hunter's, and the cracherode, collections. these latter are _giants_ to it! . id. cum notis harduini; , vols., on vellum . tewrdranckhs; poema germanica, norimb. fol., , on vellum. this is a book of uncommon rarity. it is a poetical composition on the life and actions of the emperor maximilian i., and was frequently reprinted; but not with the same care as were the earlier editions of and --the latter, at augsburg, by john schouspergus. koellerus, who purchased a copy of this work on vellum, for crowns, has given a particularly tempting description of it. see schelhorn's "_amoenitates literaræ [transcriber's note: literariæ]_," tom. ii., -iii., . dr. hunter purchased dr. askew's copy, which i have seen in the museum of the former: the wood-cuts, in number, justify every thing said in commendation of them by papillon and heinecken. probably dr. askew purchased the above copy of osborne; for i find one in the _bibl. harleian_, vol. iii., no. . see, too, _bibl. mead_, p. , no. ; where a vellum copy, of the edition of , was sold for _l._ _s._ my friend, mr. douce, has also beautiful copies of the editions of and , upon paper of the finest lustre. it has been a moot point with bibliographers whether the extraordinary type of this book be _wood_, and cut in solid blocks, or moveable types of _metal_. no one is better able to set this point "at rest," as lawyers call it, than the gentleman whose name is here last mentioned. . terentianus maurus de literis, syllabis, et metris horatii. _mediol._ fol., "this is judged to be the only copy of this edition in england, if not in the whole world. dr. askew could find no copy in his travels over europe, though he made earnest and particular search in every library which he had an opportunity of consulting." note in the catalogue. it was purchased by dr. hunter, and is now in his museum. originally it belonged to dr. taylor, the editor of lysias and demosthenes, who originally procured it from the harleian library, for _four_ guineas only. we are told that, during his life, _one hundred_ guineas would not have obtained it! * * * * * rare and magnificent as the preceding articles may be considered, i can confidently assure the reader that they form a very small part of the extraordinary books in dr. askew's library. many a _ten_ and _twenty pounder_ has been omitted--many a _prince_ of an edition passed by unregarded! the articles were in number; probably comprehending about volumes. they were sold for _l._ it remains only to add that dr. askew was a native of kendal, in westmorland; that he practised as a physician there with considerable success, and, on his establishment in london, was visited by all who were distinguished for learning, and curious in the fine arts. dr. mead supported him with a sort of paternal zeal; nor did he find in his _protegé_ an ungrateful son. (see the director, vol. i., p. .) few minds were probably more congenial than were those of mead and askew: the former had, if i may so speak, a magnificence of sentiment which infused into the mind of the latter just notions of a character aiming at _solid intellectual_ fame; without the petty arts and dirty tricks which we now see too frequently pursued to obtain it. dr. askew, with less pecuniary means of gratifying it, evinced an equal ardour in the pursuit of books, mss., and inscriptions. i have heard from a very worthy old gentleman, who used to revel 'midst the luxury of askew's table, that few men exhibited their books and pictures, or, as it is called, _shewed the lions_, better than did the doctor. of his attainments in greek and roman literature it becomes not me to speak, when such a scholar as dr. parr has been most eloquent in their praise. i should observe that the mss. of dr. askew were separately sold in , and produced a very considerable sum. the appendix to scapula, published in an vo. volume, in , was compiied [transcriber's note: compiled] from one of these mss.] after an event so striking and so melancholy, one would think that future _virtuosi_ would have barricadoed their doors, and fumigated their chambers, in order to escape the ravages of the _book-pest_:--but how few are they who profit by experience, even when dearly obtained! the subsequent history of the bibliomania is a striking proof of the truth of this remark: for the disease rather increased, and the work of death yet went on. in the following year ( ) died john ratcliffe;[ ] a bibliomaniac of a very peculiar character. if he had contented himself with his former occupation, and frequented the butter and cheese, instead of the book, market--if he could have fancied himself in a brown peruke, and russian apron, instead of an embroidered waistcoat, velvet breeches, and flowing periwig, he might, perhaps, have enjoyed greater longevity; but, infatuated by the _caxtons_ and _wynkyn de wordes_ of the west and fletewode collections, he fell into the snare; and the more he struggled to disentangle himself, the more certainly did he become a victim to the disease. [footnote : bibliotheca ratcliffiana; or, "_a catalogue of the elegant and truly valuable library of_ john ratcliffe, _esq., late of bermondsey, deceased_. the whole collected with great judgment and expense, during the last thirty years of his life: comprehending a large and most choice collection of the rare old english _black-letter_, in fine preservation, and in elegant bindings, printed by caxton, lettou, machlinia, the anonymous st. alban's schoolmaster, wynkyn de worde, pynson, berthelet, grafton, day, newberie, marshe, jugge, whytchurch, wyer, rastell, coplande, and the rest of the _old english typographers_: several missals and mss., and two pedigrees on vellum, finely illuminated." the title-page then sets forth a specimen of these black-letter gems; among which our eyes are dazzled with a galaxy of caxtons, wynkyn de wordes, pynsons, &c., &c. the sale took place on march , ; although the _year_ is unaccountably omitted by that renowned auctioneer, the late mr. christie, who disposed of them. if ever there was a _unique_ collection, this was one--the very essence of old divinity, poetry, romances, and chronicles! the articles were only in number; but their intrinsic value amply compensated for their paucity. the following is but an inadequate specimen: no. . horace's arte of poetrie, pistles, and satyres, by durant, . _first english. edition_ £ _s._ _d._ . the shepard's calendar, . whetstone's castle of delight, . the pastyme of people, _printed_ by rastell. curious wood-cuts . the chronicles of englande, _printed by caxton_, fine copy, . ditto, _printed at st. albans_, . purchased by dr. hunter, and now in his museum (which copy i have seen) . barclay's shyp of folys, printed by pynson, , _first edit._, a fine copy . the doctrinal of sapyence, _printed by caxton_, . the boke called cathon, _ditto_, . purchased by dr. hunter, and now in his museum . the polytyque boke, named tullius de senectute, in englyshe, _printed by caxton_, . the game of chesse playe. no date. _printed by caxton_ . the boke of jason, _printed by caxton_ . the polychronicon of ranulph higden, translated by trevisa, . _printed by the same_, and purchased by dr. hunter . legenda aurea, or the golden legende. _printed by the same_, . mr. ratcliffe's ms. catalogue of the _rare old black-letter and other curious and uncommon books_, vols. [this would have been the most delicious article to _my_ palate. if the present owner of it were disposed to part with it, i could not find it in my heart to refuse him _compound interest_ for his money. as is the wooden frame-work to the bricklayer, in the construction of his arch, so might mr. ratcliffe's ms. catalogues be to me in the compilation of a certain _magnum opus_!] i beg pardon of the _manes_ of "john ratcliffe, esq.," for the very inadequate manner in which i have brought forward his collection to public notice. the memory of such a man ought to be dear to the "_black-letter-dogs_" of the present day: for he had (mirabile dictu!) _upwards of_ thirty caxtons! i take the present opportunity of presenting the reader with the following engraving of the ratcliffe library, oxon. [illustration] if i might hazard a comparison between mr. james west's and mr. john ratcliffe's collections, i should say that the former was more extensive; the latter more curious. mr. west's, like a magnificent _champagne_, executed by the hand of claude or both, and enclosing mountains, meadows, and streams, presented to the eye of the beholder a scene at once luxuriant and fruitful: mr. ratcliffe's, like one of those confined pieces of scenery, touched by the pencil of rysdael or hobbima, exhibited to the beholder's eye a spot equally interesting, but less varied and extensive: the judgment displayed in both might be the same. the sweeping foliage and rich pasture of the former could not, perhaps, afford greater gratification than the thatched cottage, abrupt declivities, and gushing streams of the latter. to change the metaphor--mr. west's was a magnificent repository; mr. ratcliffe's, a cabinet of curiosities. of some particulars of mr. ratcliffe's life, i had hoped to have found gleanings in mr. nichols's _anecdotes of bowyer_; but his name does not even appear in the index; being probably reserved for the second forth-coming enlarged edition. meanwhile, it may not be uninteresting to remark that, like magliabechi, (vide p. , ante) he imbibed his love of reading and collecting from the accidental possession of scraps and leaves of books. the fact is, mr. ratcliffe once kept a _chandler's shop_ in the borough; and, as is the case with all retail traders, had great quantities of old books brought to him to be purchased at so much _per lb._! hence arose his passion for collecting the _black-letter_, as well as _stilton cheeses_: and hence, by unwearied assiduity, and attention to business, he amassed a sufficiency to retire, and live, for the remainder of his days, upon the luxury of old english literature!] it is with pain that i trace the ravages of the book-mania to a later period. many a heart yet aches, and many a tear is yet shed, on a remembrance of the mortality of this frightful disease. after the purchasers of ratcliffe's treasures had fully perused, and deposited in fit places within their libraries, some of the scarcest volumes in the collection, they were called upon to witness a yet more splendid victim to the bibliomania: i mean, the honourable topham beauclerk.[ ] one, who had frequently gladdened johnson in his gloomy moments; and who is allowed, by that splenetic sage and great teacher of morality, to have united the elegant manners of a gentleman with the mental accomplishments of a scholar. beauclerk's catalogue is a fair specimen of the analytico-bibliographical powers of paterson: yet it must be confessed that this renowned champion of catalogue-makers shines with greater, and nearly perfect, splendour, in the collection of the rev. thomas crofts[ ]--a collection which, taking it "for all in all," i know not whether it be exceeded by any which this country has recorded in the shape of a private catalogue. the owner was a modest, careful, and acutely sagacious bibliomaniac: learned, retired, yet communicative: and if ever you lay hold of a _large paper_ copy of a catalogue of his books, which, as well as the small, carries the printed prices at the end, seize it in triumph, lisardo, for it is a noble volume, and by no means a worthless prize. [footnote : there are few libraries better worth the attention of a scholarlike collector than was the one of the distinguished character above noticed by lysander. the catalogue of beauclerk's books has the following title: "_bibliotheca beauclerkiana; a catalogue of the large and valuable library of the late honourable_ topham beauclerk, f.r.s., _deceased_; comprehending an excellent choice of books, to the number of upwards of , volumes, &c. sold by auction, by mr. paterson, in april, ," vo. the catalogue has two parts: part i. containing ; part _ii._ , pp. the most magnificent and costly volume was the largest paper copy of dr. clarke's edition of cæsar's commentaries, , fol., which was sold for _l._; and of which the binding, according to dr. harwood's testimony, cost _l._ _s._ there is nothing, in _modern_ times, very marvellous in this price of binding. of the _two parts_ of the beauclerk collection, the _second_ is the most valuable to the collector of english antiquities and history, and the _first_ to the general scholar. but let not the bibliomaniac run too swiftly over the first, for at nos. , , he will find two books which rank among the rarest of those in old english poetry. at the close of the second part, there are a few curious manuscripts; three of which are deserving of a description here. part ii. . thomas of arundel, his legend in old english verse; vii parts, with the entre, or prologue: _written a.d. m.c.vii. upon vellum, the capitals illuminated_, fol. here follows a specimen of the verse £ _s._ _d._ _ye fyrst pt of ys yt es of mon and of his urechednes._ _ye secounde pte folowyng es of ye worldes unstabillnes._ _ye yyrdde pt yt is of deth & of peyn yt wt hy geth._ _the ferthe parte is of purgatorye yere soules ben clensed of her folye._ _ye fyfte pt of ys dey of doom & of tokens yt byfore shul coom._ _ye syxte pt of ys boke to telle yt speketh of ye peynes of helle._ _ye seventhe part of joys in heven yat bene more yenne tong may neuen._ . the life and acts of st. edmond, king and martyr, by john lydgate, monk of bury, fol.: _a choice ms. upon vellum, illuminated throughout, and embellished with historical miniatures_. for a specimen of the verse, take the first stanza: _the noble stoory to putte in remembraunce of seynt edmond mayd martre and kyng with his suppoor: my style i wyl avaunce ffirst to compyle afftre my konnyng his gloryous lyff his birthe and his gynnying and by discent how he was soo good was in saxonye borne of the royal blood._ . the armes, honours, matches, and issues of the auncient and illustrious family of veer: described in the honourable progeny of the earles of oxenford and other branches thereof. together with a genealogical deduction of this noble family from the blood of forreyne princes: viz. emperours, kings, dukes, and earles, &c. _gathered out of history, recordes, and other monuments of antiquity, by percivall goulding, gent. the arms illuminated, folio._ i will just add that this catalogue is creditably printed in a good size octavo volume, and that there are copies upon _large paper_. the arrangement of the books is very creditable to the bibliographical reputation of paterson.] [footnote : when the reader is informed that paterson tells us, in the preface of this volume, that "in almost every language and science, and even under the shortest heads, some one or more rare articles occur; but in the copious classes, such as follow, literary curiosity is gratified, is _highly feasted_"--and that the author of this remark used, in his latter days, to hit his knee hard with his open hand, and exclaim--"by g----, crofts' catalogue is my chef d'oeuvre, out and out"--when he reflects, i say, for a minute upon these two bibliographical stimuli, he will hasten (if he have it not already) to seize upon that volume of which the following is but an imperfect specimen of the treasures contained in it: "_bibliotheca croftsiana: a catalogue of the curious and distinguished library of the late reverend and learned_ thomas crofts, a.m., &c. sold by auction, by mr. paterson, in april, ," vo. this collection, containing articles, although not quite so generally useful as the preceding, is admirably well arranged; and evinces, from the rarity of some of the volumes in the more curious departments of literature, the sound bibliographical knowledge and correct taste of mr. crofts: who was, in truth, both a scholar and bibliomaniac of no ordinary reputation. i hasten to treat the reader with the following _excerpta croftsiana_: being a selection of articles from this catalogue, quite according with the present prevailing fashion of book-collecting: no. . raccolta de poeti provenzali ms. antiq. _supermembr._, vo., _cor. turc. avec une table des noms des troubadours contenu dans ce ms._ £ _s._ _d._ . les cent nouvelles nouvelles, _lettres gothiques_, fig. fol., _velin paris, imprimées par nic. desprez_. m.d.v. . le chevalier de la tour. et le guidon des guerres; _lettres gothiques, fig. fol. maroq. rouge, imprimé à paris, pour guil. eustace._ m.d.xiv. . le premier, second, et tiers volume de lancelot du lac; _nouvellement imprimé à paris. l'an mil cinq cens et xx, pour michel le noir; lettres gothiques, fig. fol. maroq. rouge_ . le premier et le second volume du sainct greaal, contenant la conqueste dudict sainct greaal, faicte par lancelot du lac, galaad perceval et boors; _lettres gothiques, fig. fol. maroq. rouge, paris, imprimé par phel le noir_, m.d.xxiii "ce volume est un des plus rares de la classe des romans de chevalerie. t.c." . ci commence guy de warwick chevalier dangleterre qui en son tems fit plusieurs prouesses et conquestes en allemaigne, ytalie, et dannemarche. et aussi sur les infidelles ennemys de la crestienté; _lettres gothiques, fig. fol. maroq. rouge. paris, imprimé par ant. couteau_, m.d.xxv. . le premier et le second volume de merlin, qui est le premier livre de la table ronde, avec plusieurs choses moult recreative: aussi les prophecies de merlin, qui est le tierce partie et derniere: _lettres gothiques, tom. to., maroq. rouge, paris_, m.d.xxviii. . la treselegante, delicieuse, melliflue, et tresplaisante hystoire du tresnoble, victori, et excellentissime roy perceforest, roy de la grand bretaigne, fundateur du francpalais et du temple du souverain dieu. en laquelle lecture pourra veoir la source et decoration de toute chevalerie, culture de vraye noblesse, prouesses, &c. avecques plusieurs propheties, comptes damans, et leur divers fortunes. _lettres gothiques, tom. en fol., paris, chez galliot du pre_, m.d.xxviii. . le tiers, quart, cinquiesme, sixiesme, et dernier volumes des anciennes croniques dangleterre, faictz et gestes du trespreux et redoubte en chevalerie, le noble roy perceforest: _imprimé à paris pour egide gourmont et phil. le noir_, m.d.xxxii. tom. folio . le parangon des nouvelles, honestes et delectables à tous ceulx qui desirent voir et ouyr choses nouvelles et recreatives soubz umbre et couleur de joyeuste, vo. fig. maroq. rouge. _imprimez à lyon, par denys de harsy_, . les parolles joyeuses et dicts memorables des nobles et saiges homes anciens, redigez par le gracieulx et honeste poete messire francoys petrarcque, _fig. ib._ . l'histoire de isaie le triste filz de tristan de leonnoys, jadis chevalier de la table ronde, et de la royne izeut de cornouaille, ensemble les nobles prouesses de chevallerie faictes par marc lexille filz. au dict isaye: _lettres gothiques, avec fig., to., maroq. rouge. on les vend à paris par jehan bonfons_, "there is no direct date either at the beginning or end, nor any privilege annexed to this rare romance. mr. crofts, though extremely accurate, for the most part, has made no remark; neither has the industrious mr. de bure taken notice of this particular edition. the date is, nevertheless, obvious, according to my conjecture. after the words filz du dict isaye, in the general title, at some distance, stand these numerals lxv. c. at first i apprehended they referred to the work, as containing so many chapters; but upon examining the table, i found the romance to consist of chapters: i conclude they must relate to the date of the book, and are to be read lxv. ante m.d.c., or . s.p." . meliadus de leonmoys. du present volume sont contenus les nobles faictz darmes du vaillant roy meliadus. ensemble plusieurs autres nobles proesses de chevalerie faictes tant par le roy artus, palamedes, &c., &c. _lettres gothiques, fig., fol., maroq. bleu, paris, chez galliot du pré_ . lhystoire tresrecreative, traictant des faictz et gestes du noble et vaillant chevalier theseus de coulongne, par sa proesse empereur de rome. et aussi de sons fils gadifer, empereur de grece. pareillement des trois enfans de gadifer, cestassavoir regnault, reynier, et regnesson, &c. _lettres gothiques, avec fig. to., en peau russe. paris, pour jehan bonfons, s.a._ . l'histoire palladienne, traitant des gestes et genereux faitz d'armes et d'armour de plusieurs grandz princes et seigneurs, specialement de palladien filz du roy milanor d'angleterre, et de la belle selenine, &c.; par feu cl. colet champenois, _fig., fol., maroquin jaune. paris, de l'imprimerie d'estien. goulleau_, . hist. du noble tristan prince de leonnois, chevalier de la table ronde, et d'yseulte, princesse d'yrlande, royne de cornouaille; fait francois par jean maugin, dit l'angevin, _fig., to., maroq. rouge, rouen_. . l'hist. du noble et vaillant chevalier paris et la belle vienne, _ to., rouen_ . histoires prodigieuses, extractes de plusieurs fameux autheurs, grecs et latins, par pier boaisteau, cl. de tesserant, f. de belleforest, rod. hoyer, &c., _fig. tom. en , mo., maroq. rouge. par chez la verfue cavellat_, . valentine and orson, cuts, black letter, to. _london; no date_. (not sold.) . hollinshed's (raphe) and william harrison's chronicles of england, scotland, and ireland, continued by john hooker, alias vowell, and others; _black letter, vols. fol., large paper, in russia_, . lynch (jo.) seu gratiani lucii hiberni cambrensis eversus, seu potius historica fides, in rebus hibernicis, giraldo cambrensi abrogata, fol. _impress. an. . sine loco aut nomine impressoris_ "liber inter historicos hibernicos rarissimus et inventu difficilimus, quippe cujus pars maxima exemplarium in incendio periit londinensi. sub lucii gratiani nomine latet verus autor johannes lynch (tuamensis archidiaconus) qui post gallvæ deditionem, exul in gallia hocce opus patriæ vindex composuit. t.c." this catalogue contains articles. there are printed lists of the prices for which each set of books was sold: but i am afraid that an arrant bibliomaniac, like myself (for thus my friends are cruel enough to call me!) will be content only with a _large paper_ copy of it, with the prices neatly penned in the margin. i conclude that lysander recommends the volume in this shape to all tasteful collectors.] lis. but there are surely other large paper---- alman. what can there possibly be in a large paper copy of a _catalogue of books_ which merits the appellation of "nobleness" and "richness?" loren. you are a little out of order. such a question cuts the heart of a bibliographer in twain. pray let lysander pursue his narrative. lysand. i have no sort of objection to such interruptions. but i think the day is not very far distant when females will begin to have as high a relish for _large paper_ copies of every work as their male rivals. now let us go on quietly towards the close of my long-winded bibliomaniacal history. and first let us not fail to pay due respect to the cabinet of literary bijoux collected by that renowned bibliomaniac, mark cephas tutet.[ ] his collection was distinguished by some very uncommon articles of early date, both of foreign and british typography; and, if you take a peep into lorenzo's priced copy of the catalogue containing also the purchasers' names, you will find that most notorious modern bibliomaniacs ran away with the choicest prizes. tutet's catalogue, although drawn up in a meagre and most disadvantageous style, is a great favourite with me; chiefly for the valuable articles which it exhibits. [footnote : _a catalogue of the genuine and valuable collection of printed books and manuscripts of the late_ mark cephas tutet, esq., to be sold by auction by mr. gerard, on wednesday, the th of february, , vo. this library evinces the select taste and accurate judgment of its collector. there were only articles, or lots; but these in general were both curious and valuable. i will give a specimen or two of the tutet cabinet of books. no. . various catalogues of curiosities, elegantly bound in volumes, and a few loose: _most of them priced, with the purchasers' names_. a.d. to , vo. £ _s._ _d._ . two volumes of ancient and modern cards, _eleg. in russia_ [these volumes were purchased by mr. payne's father, and of him by mr. gough. at the sale of the mss. of the latter ( ) they were purchased by mr. robert triphook, bookseller, of st. james's street; with a view of making them instrumental to a work which he is projecting, _upon the history and antiquity of playing cards_.] . broughton's concent of scripture: _printed upon vellum_ . snelling's silver coinage,-- ; ditto gold coinage, ; ditto copper coinage, ; ditto miscellaneous views, ; ditto jettons, : all in folio "these form a complete set of snelling's works in folio, and are interspersed with a great number of very useful and interesting notes and observations, by mr. tutet." . the byble, &c. printed by grafton and whitchurch, , folio [there is a note here by tutet which does not evince any profound knowledge of english etymology.] . rede me and be not wroth, mo., no place nor date . servetus de trinitatis erroribus, _cor. tur._, , mo. . ---- de trinitate divinâ, lond., , to. . the arte and crafte to know well to dye. _printed by caxton_, , folio . hautin, figures des monnoyes de france, , folio . parker de antiq. brit. ecclesiæ, , folio. a long and curious note is here appended . the boke of hawkinge, huntynge, and fysshynge, , fol. . sancta peregrinatio in mont. syon, &c. , folio ["this is the first book of travels that was ever printed. the maps are very remarkable; that of the holy land is above feet long."] . spaccio della bestia trionfante. _paris_, , vo. . expositio sancti jeronimi in symbolum apostolorum, _cor. maur. oxon._, , to. . polychronycon; _printed by caxton_, , to. . pfintzing (melchoir [transcriber's note: melchior]) his german poem of the adventures of the emperor maximilian, under the name of tewrdanckh's. nuremb., , folio . initial letters, vignettes, cul de lampes, &c., vols., _elegantly bound in russia_. [these beautiful books are now in the possession of mr. douce] . bouteroue, recherches curieuses des monnoyes de france: _in morocco, gilt, paris_, , folio . froissart's chronicles; printed by pynson, , folio, vols. _a beautiful copy elegantly bound._ . recule of the hystoryes of troye; _printed by caxton_, ( ) folio. _a very fine copy, and quite complete._ . ciceronis officia, , to. _on paper._ and thus we take leave of that judicious and tasteful bibliomaniac, mark cephas tutet! three months after the sale of the preceding library, appeared the _bibliotheca universalis selecta_ of samuel paterson; containing a collection to be sold by auction in may, . to this catalogue of articles, there is a short (i wish i could add "sweet") preface, which has been extracted in the _gentleman's magazine_, vol. lvi., p. ; and in the _censura literaria_, vol. ii., p. --but, whatever accidental reputation the volume may have received from the notice of it in these periodical works, i deem both the preface and the work itself quite unworthy of paterson's credit. there is an alphabetical index (not always very correct); and a few bibliographical notes are subjoined to the specification of the titles; and these considerations alone will give the book a place in the library of the bibliomaniac. the collection is, in fact, neither universal nor select: and the preface is written in the worst of all styles, containing the most commonplace observations.] the following year, was sold, in a similar way, the select and very curious collection of richard wright, m.d.;[ ] the strength of which lay chiefly in publications relating to the _drama_ and _romances_. it is, in my humble opinion, a most judicious, as well as neatly printed, little catalogue; and not more than a dozen copies of it, i think, were printed upon _large paper_. secure this volume, lisardo, if you wish to add to your riches in english bibliography. [footnote : lysander has not drawn too strong an outline in his picture of the _bibliotheca wrightiana_. the collection was elegant and select. let us say a little more about it. "_a catalogue of the library of_ richard wright, m.d. &c., consisting of an elegant and extensive collection of books in every branch of learning, &c., many of the scarcest editions of the old english poets, novels, and romances; also a most singular assemblage of theatrical writers, including the rarest productions of the english drama." sold by auction by t. and j. egerton, april rd, , vo. the volume is neatly printed, and the books in the collection are arranged in alphabetical order under their respective departments. we will now fill up a little of the aforementioned strong outline of the picture of wright's library: which contained articles. , , - - - - , - - , exhibit a glorious specimen of the ancient english chronicles--which, collectively, did not produce a sum above £ _s._ _d._ . england's parnassus, , vo. . churchyarde's choice, , to. . ---- first part of his chippes, , to. . robert greene's works, vols., _elegantly bound_, to. (containing pieces.) . shyp of folys. _printed by pynson_, , fol. . skelton's works: , vo. . turberville's epitaphs, epigrams, songs and sonnets, , vo. my copy has no price to this article. . thomas nashe's works, in three vols. to., containing pieces to , comprehends _the english theatre_. these numbers exhibit almost every thing that is rare, curious, and valuable in this popular department. i know not how to select stars from such a galaxy of black-letter lustre--but the reader may follow me to the ensuing numbers, which will at least convince him that i am not insensible to the charms of _dramatic bijoux_, nos. - : - - : : - - - : : : - - : (dekker's pieces: in number--sold for _l._ _s._ eheu!) : . (heywood's plays, _l._ _s._) .-- : (marston's pieces, _l._ _s._) . (tragedie of dido, , _l._ _s._ euge!) . (middleton; pieces: _l._ _s._) - . (george peele's: _l._ _s._) : (sackville's ferrex and porrex: _l._ _s._)--but--"quo musa tendis?" i conclude, therefore, with the following detailed _seriatim_. . shakspeare's works; , folio. _first edition; bound in russia leather, with gilt leaves._ . the same; . _second impression._ . the same; . _the same._ . the same; . _third edit. in russia._ . the same; . _fourth edition._ my copy of this catalogue is upon _large paper_, beautifully priced by a friend who "hath an unrivalled pen in this way;" and to whom i owe many obligations of a higher kind in the literary department--but whose modesty, albeit he was born on the banks of the liffey, will not allow me to make the reader acquainted with his name. therefore, "stat nominis umbra:" viz. ----!] loren. was wright's the only collection disposed of at this period, which was distinguished for its dramatic treasures? i think henderson's[ ] library was sold about this time? [footnote : _a catalogue of the library of_ john henderson, esq. (late of covent garden theatre), &c. sold by auction by t. and j. egerton, on february, , vo. do not let the lover of curious books in general imagine that henderson's collection was entirely dramatical. a glance at the contents of page to page , inclusively, will shew that this library contained some very first-rate rarities. when the dramatic collector enters upon page , (to the end of the volume, p. ) i will allow him to indulge in all the _mania_ of this department of literature, "withouten ony grudgynge." he may also ring as many _peals_ as it pleaseth him, upon discovering that he possesses all the copies of a dramatic author, ycleped _george peele_, that are notified at nos. - ! henderson's library was, without doubt, an extraordinary one. as we are upon _dramatic libraries_, let us, for fear lysander should forget it, notice the following, though a little out of chronological order. "_a catalogue, &c., of the late_ mr. james william dodd, of the _theatre royal, drury lane, &c. sold by auction by leigh and sotheby_, jan. , , vo., lots." there was more of the _drama_ in this than in henderson's collection. mr. kemble purchased the dearest volume, which was "whetstone's promos and cassandra," , to. (no. ) for _l._ _s._ mr. george nicol (for the late duke of roxburgh) kept up a tremendous fire at this sale! akin to dodd's, was the "_curious and valuable library of_ george smyth, esq.--sold by leigh and sotheby, june , , vo." there were many uncommon books in this collection, exclusively of those appertaining to the drama; and when i mention, in this latter department--hughes's misfortunes of prince arthur, &c., printed by robinson, , to. (no. ; _l._ _s._), both the parts of shakespeare's henry the fourth ( - , to., nos. - ; _l._ _s._), his much ado about nothing, , to., (no. ; _l._ _s._)--i say enough to sharpen the collector's appetite to obtain, if he have it not, possession of this curious but barbarously printed catalogue. to these, let me add the "_catalogue of a portion of the library of_ william fillingham, esq., _consisting of old quarto plays, early english poetry, and a few scarce tracts, &c., sold by leigh and sotheby_, april , vo." the arrangement of this small catalogue is excellent. many of the books in it are of the rarest occurrence; and, to my knowledge, were in the finest preservation. the collector is no more! he died in india; cut off in the prime of life, and in the midst of his intellectual and book-collecting ardour! he was a man of exceedingly gentlemanlike manners, and amiable disposition; and his taste was, upon the whole, well cultivated and correct. many a pleasant, and many a profitable, hour have i spent in his "delightsome" library!!!] lysand. it was; and if you had not reminded me of it, i should have entirely forgotten it. catalogues of _dramatic libraries_, well arranged, are of great service to the cause of the bibliomania. lis. i wish we could procure some act of parliament to induce the dramatic collectors--by a fair remuneration--to give a well analysed account of their libraries. we should then have the _bibliotheca roxburghiana_, _bibliotheca maloniana_, and what say you to the _bibliotheca kemblëiana_. lysand. you are running wild. let me continue my bibliomaniacal history. we may now advance directly to the exquisite--and shall i say, unparalleled?--library of major pearson![ ] a gentleman, who has far eclipsed the bibliomaniacal reputation of his military predecessor, general dormer. this extraordinary collection was sold by auction the very next year ensuing the sale of dr. wright's books and so thickly and richly is it sprinkled with the black-letter, and other curious lore--so varied, interesting, and valuable, are the departments into which it is divided--that it is no wonder his present majesty, the late duke of roxburgh, and george steevens, were earnest in securing some of the choicest gems contained in the same. such a collection, sold at the present day--when there is such a "_qui vive_" for the sort of literature which it displays--what would it produce? at least four times more, than its sum total, two and twenty years ago! [footnote : if the reader attend only to the above flourishing eulogy, by lysander, upon the extraordinary collection of major, or thomas, pearson, i fear he will not rise from the perusal of these pages impressed with very accurate notions of the same. to qualify such ardent panegyric, and at the same time to please the hearts of all honest bibliomaniacs, i here subjoin something like a sober analysis of the _bibliotheca pearsoniana_. the title to the sale catalogue is as follows: "_biblioth. pearson. a catalogue of the library of_ thomas pearson, esq. _containing a very extensive collection of the best and rarest books in every branch of english literature, &c. sold by auction by t. and j. egerton, in april, _," vo. like all the sale catalogues put forth by the egertons, the present is both judiciously arranged and neatly printed. it is said that there are only twelve copies upon _large paper_; but i doubt the smallness of this number. my own is of this kind, superbly bound, and priced with a neatness peculiar to the calligraphical powers of the 'forementioned friend. it may not be amiss to prefix an extract from a newspaper of the day; in which this sale was thus noticed: "the black-lettero-mania, which raged so furiously in the course of last spring at the sale of dr. wright's books, has broken out with still greater violence at the present auction of major pearson's library. this assertion may be countenanced by the following examples." then follow a few specimens of the prices given. the reader is now presented with copious specimens, selected according to their numerical order: the addenda, between inverted commas, being copied from the said newspaper. . webbe's discourse of english poetrie, , to. £ _s._ _d._ "bought by mr. steevens versus mr. malone." . puttenham's art of english poesie, , to. . the fyrst boke of the introduction to knowledge, &c.; _printed by w. copland_, no date, to. "by the rev. mr. brand versus lord charlemont." . the castell of laboure; _emprynted by pynson_, to., _no date_. . dekker's miscellaneous pieces, , &c., to. . a curious collection of sundry rare pieces, to. . drollery's (eleven) , &c., vo. these droll pieces are now much coveted by knowing bibliomaniacs. mr. heber and mr. hill have each a copious collection of them; and mr. gutch of bristol, a bookseller of great spirit in his trade, and of equal love of general literature, recently gratified the curious by exhibiting, in his catalogue of , a number of "_garlands_;" which ere now, have, in all probability, proved a successful bait for some hungry book fish. . sir john harrington's most elegant and witty epigrams, with portrait, , vo. . flowers of epigrammes, &c. _impr. by shepperd_, , mo. . the paradise of dainty devises, &c., _printed for e. white_, , to. the workes of a young wit, by n.b. b.l. _printed by thomas dawson, no date_. watson's mistresse, &c., and sonnets, b.l. _imperf._ diana, by the earl and countess of oxenford, _printed for j. roberts_, wanting title, to. "bought by mr. steevens versus mr. malone." . england's helicon, , to. "by ditto versus ditto." . the example of vertu; _printed by w. de worde_, to. "bought by mr. mason versus mr. malone." . a mirrour of mysterie; _finely written upon, vellum, with two very neat drawings with pen and ink_, , to. . manley's affliction and deliverance of saints, portr. , vo. . tragedie of sir richard grenvile, knt. printed by j. roberts, , vo. . laquei ridiculosi, or springes for woodcocks, by henry parrot, , vo. n.b. _this little volume was sold for as many guineas at the sale of mr. reed's books in ._ . lyf of st. ursula; _impr. by wynkyn de worde_, no date, to. . lyf and history of saynt werburge. _printed by pynson_, , to. n.b. _this volume was sold for _l._ _s._ at the last mentioned sale._ . this lot comprehends a cluster of precious little black-letter pieces, which were purchased at the sale of west's books, by major pearson. eight in the whole: executed before the year . . the goodly garlande, or chaplet of laurell, by maister skelton; _impr._ by fawkes, , to. see here a long note upon the rarity and intrinsic worth of this curious little volume. "purchased by brand versus the king." . ancient songs and ballads; written on various subjects, and printed between the years and ; chiefly collected by robert earl of oxford, and purchased at the sale of the library of james west, esq., in (for _l._): increased by several additions: _ volumes bound in russia leather_. "bought by mr. nicol for the duke of roxburgh, versus messrs. arnold and ritson." "n.b. the preceding numerous and matchless collection of _old ballads_ are all printed in the black-letter, and decorated with many hundred wooden prints. they are pasted upon paper, with borders (printed on purpose) round each ballad: also, a printed title and index to each volume. to these are added the paragraphs which appeared in the public papers respecting the above curious collection, at the time they were purchased at mr. west's." thus far messrs. egerton. i have to add that the late duke of roxburgh became the purchaser of these "matchless" volumes. whilst in major pearson's possession, "with the assistance of mr. reed, the collection received very great additions, and was bound in two very large volumes; in this state (says mr. nicol,) it was bought by the duke of roxburghe. after the industrious exertions of two such skilful collectors as major pearson and mr. reed, the duke did not flatter himself with ever being able to add much to the collection; but, as usual, he undervalued his own industry. finding that his success far exceeded his expectations, he determined to add a _third volume_ to the collection. among these new acquisitions are some very rare ballads; one quoted by hamlet, of which no other copy is known to exist." _preface to the roxburgh catalogue_, p. . the ballad here alluded to may be seen in mr. evans's recent edition of his father's _collection of old ballads_; vol. i., p. . to . these numbers comprehend a very uncommon and interesting set of _old romances_! which, collectively, did not produce _l._--but which now, would have been sold for----!? to . an extraordinary collection of the english drama. and thus farewell major pearson!] lis. o rare thomas pearson! i will look sharply after a _large paper_, _priced_, copy of the _bibliotheca pearsoniana_! lysand. you must pay smartly for it, if you are determined to possess it. belin. madness!--madness inconceivable!--and undescribed by darwin, arnold, and haslam! but, i pray you, proceed. lysand. alas, madam, the task grows more and more complex as i draw towards the completion of it. in the year the book-treasures of the far-famed pinelli[ ] collection were disposed of by public auction: nor can one think, without some little grief of heart, upon the dispersion of a library, which (much more than commercial speculations and profits) had, for upwards of a century, reflected so much credit upon the family of its possessors. the atmosphere of our metropolis, about this period, became as much infected with the miasmata of the book-plague as it did, about years before, with the miasmata of a plague of a different description: for the worthy inhabitants of westminster had hardly recovered from the shock of the bibliomaniacal attack from the pinelli sale, 'ere they were doomed to suffer the tortures of a similar one in that of the paris[ ] collection. this latter was of shorter duration; but of an infinitely more powerful nature: for then you might have seen the most notorious bibliomaniacs, with blood inflamed and fancies intoxicated, rushing towards the examination of the truly matchless volumes contained within this collection. yet remember that, while the whole of pall mall was thronged with the carriages of collectors, anxious to carry off in triumph some _vellum copy_ of foreign execution--there was sold, in a quiet corner of the metropolis, the copious and scholar-like collection of michael lort, d.d. the owner of this latter library was a learned and amiable character, and a bibliographer of no mean repute.[ ] his books were frequently enriched with apposite ms. remarks; and the variety and extent of his collection, suited to all tastes, and sufficiently abundant for every appetite, forms, i think, a useful model after which future bibliomaniacs may build their libraries. [footnote : mention has already been made of the different _catalogues of the_ pinelli _collection_: see p. , ante. here, as lysander has thought proper again to notice the name of the collector, i am tempted to add a few specimens of the extraordinary books contained in his extraordinary library: adding thereto the prices for which they were sold. but--again and again i observe, _in limine_--these sums form no criterion of the _present_ worth of the books; be the same more or less! it is a document only of bibliographical curiosity. no. . la biblia sacra in lingua vulgare tradotta; . folio. vols. £ _s._ _d._ . bandello, canti xi delle lodi della signora lucrezia gonzaga di gazuolo, &c., , vo. . dante, la divina comedia; , folio. _ediz. prin._ . petrarca, le rime. venez. , to. _prin. ediz._ . sannazzaro, l'arcadia. ven. ald. , vo. _esemp. stampata in cartapecora._ . biblia polyglotta; complut. , &c., folio. vols. _exemplar integerrimum splendidissimum._ impressum in membranis. all the world (perhaps i should have said the _bibliographical_ world) has heard of this pre-eminently wonderful set of books; now in count macarty's library at thoulouse. my friend, dr. gosset--who will not (i trust) petition for excommunicating me from the orthodox church to which i have the honour of belonging, if i number him in the upper class of bibliomaniacs--was unable to attend the sale of the pinelli collection, from severe illness: but he _did petition_ for a sight of one of these volumes of old ximenes's polyglott--which, much more effectually than the spiders round ashmole's neck (vide p. , ante), upon an embrace thereof, effected his cure. shakspeare, surely, could never have meant to throw such "physic" as this "to the dogs?!" but, to return. . anthologia epig. græc. . to. _exemp. impr. in membranis._ . theocritus (absque ulla nota) to. _editio princeps._ . plautus, . folio. _editio princeps._ , . aulus gellius, , folio. _edit. princeps._ , . macrobius, , folio. _edit. prin._ , . priscianus de art. gram. . fol. _in membranis._ [sale catalogue, , vo.] but--"jam satis." it probably escaped lysander that, while the sale of the pinelli collection attracted crowds of bibliomaniacs to conduit street, hanover square, a very fine library was disposed of, in a quiet and comfortable manner, at the rooms of messrs. leigh and sotheby, in york street, covent garden; under the following title to the catalogue: _a catalogue of a very elegant and curious cabinet of books, lately imported from france_, &c. (sold in may, ). my priced copy of this catalogue affixes the name (in ms.) of macartney, as the owner of this precious "cabinet." there were only articles; containing a judicious sprinkling of what was elegant, rare, and curious, in almost every department of literature. the eleventh and twelfth days' sale were devoted to mss.; many of them of extraordinary beauty and singularity. it was from this collection, no. , that lord spencer obtained, for a comparatively small sum, one of the most curious books (if not an unique volume) in the class of early english printed ones, which are in his own matchless collection. it is the "_siege of rhodes_," which has a strong appearance of being the production of caxton's press. the copy is perfectly clean and almost uncut.] [footnote : if the reader will be pleased to turn to page , ante, he will find a tolerably copious and correct list of the different sales of books which were once in the possession of mons. paris de meyzieux. in the same place he will also find mention made of a singular circumstance attending the sale of the above collection noticed by lysander. as a corollary, therefore, to what has been before observed, take the following specimens of the books--with the prices for which they are sold--which distinguished the _bibliotheca parisiana_. they are from the french catalogue, , vo. no. . biblia sacra latina vulgatæ editionis (ex translatione et cum præfationibus s. hieronymi); venetiis, n. jenson, , vol. in fol.: _avec miniatures, relié en mar. r. doublé de tabis, dentelles et boîtes_: imprime sur velin. "on connoît l'extrême rareté de cette belle edition quand les exemplaires sont sur vélin. nous n'en connoissons qu'un seul, bien moins beau que celui ci; celui que nous annonçons est de toute beauté, et on ne peut rien ajouter au luxe de la relieure." £ _s._ _d._ . biblia sacra vulgatæ editionis, tribus tomis distincta (jussu sixt. v., pontificis maximi edita); _romæ, ex typographia apostolica vaticana_, ; _in. fol. ch. mag. maroquin rouge_. "superbe exemplaire d'un livre de la plus grande rareté; il porte sur la couverture les armes de sixte quint." . epitome passionis jesu christi, in o. sur velin avec miniatures. _manuscrit très précieux_ du commencement du siecle, contenant feuillets écrits en ancienne ronde bâtarde, et pages de miniatures d'un dessein et d'un fini inappréciables. "les desseins sont d'albert durer, tels qu'il les a gravés dans ses ouvrages, et l'exécution est si animée qu'on peut croire qu'elle est, en tout ou en partie, de la main de ce peintre célebre. on ne peut trop louer la beauté de ce livre." . officium beatæ mariæ virginis cum calendario; in o. mar. r. dentelles. "_cette paire d'heures manuscrite_ sur velin, est sans contredit une des plus belles et des plus achevées que l'on puisse trouver. au rare mérite de sa parfaite exécution elle réunit encore celui d'avoir été faite pour françoise er, roi de france, et d'être décoree dans toutes ses pages de l'embléme et du chiffre de ce monarque. ce manuscrit, d'un prix inestimable, est ecrit en lettres rondes sur un vélin très blanc"--"il est decoré de très belles capitales, de guirlandes superbes de fleurs, de culs-de-lampe, & de bordures ornées d'oiseaux, d'insectes, de fleurs et de lames d'or très brillant."--"il est impossible de donner une idée satisfaisante de le beauté et de la richesse de peintures admirables qui enrichissent autant de pages de pouces et demi de hauteur, sur environ pouces de largeur; elles sont au dessus de toute expression; mais il n'y en a qu'une qui soit du temps de françois er.; un seigneur dont on voit les armes peintes sur le second feuillet, a fait exécuter les autres dans la siecle dernier, avec une magnificence peu commune. les tableaux et les ornemens dont il a enrichi ce précieux manuscrit se distinguent par une composition savante et gracieuse, un dessin correct, une touche précieuse et un coloris agréable," &c. . heures de notre-dame, écrites à la main, , par jarry, parisien, in o. _chagrin noir, avec deux fermoirs d'or et boîte de mar. bl._ "ces heures sont un chef-d'oeuvre d'écriture & de peinture. le fameux jarry, qui n'a pas encore eu son égal en l'art d'écrire, s'y est surpassé, & y a prouvé que la regularité, la netteté & la precision des caracteres du burin et de l'impression pouvoient être imitées avec la plume à un degré de perfection inconcevable."--"le peintre, dont le nom nous est inconnu, & qui doit avoir été un des plus fameux du siecle de louis xiv., a travaillé à l'envi avec nicolas jarry à rendre ces heures dignes d'admiration."--"les sept peintures dont il les a enriches, sont recommendables par la purité de leur dessein, la vivacité des couleurs, la verité de l'expression, et leur précieux fini." this matchless little volume was purchased by mr. johnes of hafod, and presented by him to his daughter, who has successfully copied the miniatures; and, in the true spirit of a female bibliomaniac, makes this book her travelling companion "wherever she goes." . office de la vierge, _manuscrit_, avec miniatures et un grand nombre de figures bizarres, oiseaux, etc. supérieurement executé; vol. in o. _m. bl. doublé de tapis, avec étuis_. "on ne peut rien voir de plus agréable & de mieux diversifié que les différents sujets des miniatures; en tout, cet exemplaire est un des plus beaux que j'aie jamais vus; c'est celui de picart. il est à remarquer à cause du costume de quelques figures; il a été relié avec le plus grand soin et la plus grande dépense." . l'art de connoître et d'apprécier les miniatures des anciens manuscrits; par m. l'abbé rive, avec tableaux enlumines, copiés d'après les plus beaux manuscrits qui se trouvoient dans la bibliothéque de m. le duc de la valliere, et d'autres précieux cabinets. _exemplaire peint_ sur velin. "m. l'abbé rive se proposoit de donner une dissertation sur les manuscrits enluminés pour accompagner ces dessins; mais jusqu'ici ayant des raisons qui l'empêchent d'en gratifier le public, il en a donné la description en manuscrit (le seul qui existe) au propriétaire de ce superbe exemplaire." . les faicts, dictes et ballades de maitre alain chartier: _paris, pierre le caron, sans date, in fol. velours vert_; imprime sur velin. "exemplaire qui ne laisse rien à desirer, pour la grandeur des marges, la peinture des miniatures et de toutes les lettres capitales. la finesse des lignes rouges, qui divisent chaque ligne, demontre combien on a été engagé à le rendre précieux. il est dans sa relieure originale parfaitement bien conservé; il a appartenu à claude d'urfé: l'edition passe pour étre de l'année, . _voyez bibliographie instructive_, no. ." . contes de la fontaine, avec miniatures, vignettes et culs-de-lampes à chaque conte; vol. in o.; m. bleu, doublé de tapis, étuis. "_manuscrit incomparable_ pour le génie et l'exécution des dessins. il est inconcevable que la vie d'un artiste ait pu suffire pour exécuter d'une manière si finie un si grand nombre de peintures exquises; le tout est d'un coloris éclatant, d'une conservation parfaite, & sur du vélin egalement blanc et uni; enfin c'est un assemblage de miniatures précieuses et dignes d'orner le plus beau cabinet." l'ecriture a été faite par monchaussé, et les miniatures par le fameux marolles. . opere di francesco petrarcha; _senza luogho_ , _mar. r. doublé de tabis et étui_; imprime sur velin. "exemplaire sans prix, avec grand nombre de miniatures charmantes. il passoit pour constant à florence, où je l'ai acheté, qu'il avoite été imprimé à part probablement pour quelqu'un des mêdicis, et sur les corrections de l'edition de ; car les fautes ne s'y trouvent pas, et il ne m'a pas éte possible d'en découvrir une seule.--la parfaite conservation de ce livre précieux démontre combien ses possesseurs ont été sensible a sa valeur. p----." . collectiones peregrinationum in indiam orientalem et in indiam occidentalem, xxv partibus comprehensæ, &c. _francof. ad mæen. , &c., vol. reliés en , folio; maroq. citr. bleu et rouge._ "exemplaire de la plus grande beauté, et qui possede autant de perfection que pouvoient lui donner les soins et les connoissances des plus grands amateurs." . les grands chroniques de france (dites les chroniques de st. denys); _paris, antoine verard_, , vols. fol. _vel. rouge, et boîtes_; imprime sur velin. "exemplaire d'une magnificence étonante pour la blancheur du vélin, la grandeur des marges, et l'ouvrage immense de l'enluminure; chaque lettre-capitale étant peinte en or, et contenant miniatures, dont sont de la grandeur des pages, et environ de pouces de hauteur sur de largeur. il est encore dans sa relieure originale, et d'une fraîcheur & d'une conservation parfaites: il a appartenu à claude d'urfé." . chroniques de france, d'angleterre, d'ecosse, d'espagnes, et de bretaigne, etc.; par _froissart; paris, g. eustace, . vol. in fol. mar. r. doublé de tabis, et boîtes_ imprime sur velin. "on peut regarder ce livre comme un des plus rares qui existe. l'exemplaire est unique et inconnu aux meilleurs bibliographes; sauvage ne l'a jamaie vu; il est de la premiere beauté par la blancheur du vélin, & par sa belle conservation. on y a joint tout le luxe de la rélieure." _in the hafod collection._ ] [footnote : the following is the title of the bibliotheca lortiana. "_a catalogue of the entire and valuable library of the late_ rev. michael lort, d.d., f.r.s. and a.s., _which will be sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, &c., april , _," vo. the sale lasted twenty-five days; and the number of lots or articles was . the ensuing specimens of a few of the book-treasures in this collection prove that lysander's encomium upon the collector is not without foundation. no. . gardiner's (bishop) detection of the devil's sophistry, ms. title: printed by _john hertford, in aldersgate street, at the cost and charges of robert toye_, , mo. note in this book: "though this book is imperfect, yet the remarkable part of it, viz. sheet e, printed in the greek letter, and sheet f in latin, with the roman letter, are not wanting." £ _s._ _d._ . hale's (t.) account of new inventions, in a letter to the earl of marlborough, vo. note in this book: "many curious particulars in this book, more especially a prophetic passage relative to the duke of marlborough, p. xlvii." . harrison's (michael) four sermons. "n.b. the author of this book cut the types himself, and printed it at st. ives," vo. . festival (the) impressus rothomage, , to. in this book (which is in english) at the end of each festival is a narration of the life of the saint, or of the particular festival. . festival (the) with wooden cuts, compleat: _emprynted by wynkyn de worde_, , to. . johnson's (dr. sam.) journey to the western islands of scotland. "in this book is contained the cancelled part of page , relative to litchfield cathedral; likewise the cancelled part of page , respecting the cave at egg, and the transaction there; also parts of reviews and newspapers, concerning dr. johnson; two plates, ms. copy of a letter of dr. johnson's: and henderson's letter to johnson on his journey to scotland." , vo. . muggleton's acts of the witnesses of the spirit; _with heads, ms. remarks, and notes_, . ludowick muggleton, born in bishopgate street, ; put apprentice to john quick, a taylor. married a virgin of , ætat. suæ . another virgin of , ætat. . a third virgin wife of , ætat. . chosen a prophet , to. . muggleton's and reeve's volume of spiritual epistles; elegantly bound, with a head of muggleton underneath a ms. note, , to. . lower's voyage of charles ii. made into holland, head and plates. hague. . folio. n.b. "a very uncommon book, containing many curious particulars." . owen's (dr. john) divine originall, &c. of the scriptures, oxford, , vo. note in this book: "one of the scarcest and best of dr. owen's works." . psalms (the whole booke of) with hymns, by ravenscroft, with music, vo. "note; in this book are some tunes by john milton, the great poet's father. see page , ." . stubbes's anatomie of abuses, printed at london by richard jones, august, , vo. note in this book: "i bought this rare book at the auction of mr. joseph hart's books, in may , where it cost me _s._ &c." m.l. [the reader may just run back to page , ante; where he will find some account of this work.] . champ fleury, auquel est contenu l'art et science de la deue et vraye proportion de lettres antiques et romaines selon le corps et visage humain, avec figures. par. . folio. "_this uncommon book was sold at an auction, , for l. s._" . alberti descriptione di tutta italia, venez., , to. note in this book--"_this is a very scarce and much valued account of italy._" with another curious note respecting the author. . aldrete varias antiguedales de espana, africa, y otras provincias. amberes, , to. _note in this book_: "one of the most valuable books of this kind in the spanish language, and very rarely to be met with." . humfredi, vita episcop. juelli, foliis deauratis, lond. ap dayum, , to. _note in this book_: "at the end of this book are probably some of the first hebrew types used in england." . præsidis (epistola r.a.p.) generalis et regiminis totius congregationis anglicanæ ordinis st. benedicti. duaci, . vo. [_note in this book_: "this is a very scarce book; it was intended only for the use of the order, and care taken that it should not get into improper hands. see the conclusion of the general's mandate, and of the book itself."] . wakefeldi oratio de laudibus et utilitate trium linguarum, arabicæ, chaldaicæ, & hebraicæ; atque idiomatibus hebraicis quæ in utroque testamento inveniuntur. _lond. ap. winandum de worde._--shirwode liber hebræorum concionatoris, seu ecclesiasten. antv. . to. _note in this book_: "these two pieces by shirwood and wakefield are exceedingly rare." for some particulars concerning the very respectable dr. lort, the reader may consult the _gentleman's magazine_; vol. lx. pt. ii. p. , .] alman. i am glad to hear you notice such kind of collections; for utility and common sense have always appeared to me a great desideratum among the libraries of your professed bibliomaniacs. belin. yes:--you pride yourselves upon your large paper, and clean, and matchless copies--but you do not dwell quite so satisfactorily upon your useful and profitable volumes--which, surely stand not in need of expensive embellishments. lort's collection would be the library for my money--if i were disposed to become a female bibliomaniac! lis. you are even a more jejune student than myself in bibliography, or you would not talk in this strain, belinda. abuse fine copies of books! i hope you forgive her, lysander? lysand. most cordially. but have i not discoursed sufficiently? the ladies are, i fear, beginning to be wearied; and the night is "almost at odds with morning which is which." loren. nay, nay, we must not yet terminate our conversation. pursue, and completely accomplish, the noble task which you have begun. but a few more years to run down--a few more renowned bibliomaniacs to "kill off"--and then we retire to our pillows delighted and instructed by your---- lysand. halt! if you go on thus, there is an end to our "table talk." i now resume. loren. yet a word to save your lungs, and slightly vary the discourse. let me take you with me to ireland, about this time; where, if you reremember [transcriber's note: remember], the library of denis daly[ ] was disposed of by public auction. my father attended the sale; and purchased at it a great number of the _old english chronicles_, and volumes relating to _english history_, which lisardo so much admired in the library. you remember the copy of birch's _lives of illustrious persons of great britain_! [footnote : _a catalogue of the library of the late right honourable_ denis daly, _which will be sold by auction on the first of may, , by james vallance._ _dublin_, vo. a fac-simile copper-plate of a part of the first psalm, taken from a bible erroneously supposed to have been printed by ulric zell in , faces the title-page; and a short and pertinent preface succeeds it. the collection was choice and elegant: the books are well described, and the catalogue is printed with neatness. the copies on _large paper_ are very scarce. i subjoin, as a curiosity, and for the sake of comparing with modern prices, the sums for which a few popular articles in english history were disposed of. no. . tyrrell's general history of england, vols. lond. , fol. "to this copy mr. tyrell has made considerable additions in ms. written in a fair hand, which must be worthy of the attention of the learned." £ _s._ _d._ . rapin's history of england with tyndal's continuation, vols. _elegantly bound in russia_. lond. - , folio. "one of the most capital sets of rapin extant; besides the elegant portraits of the kings and queens, monuments, medals, &c. engraved for this work, it is further enriched with the beautiful prints executed by vertue and houbraken, for birch's illustrious heads." folio. . carte's general history of england, vols., fine paper, _elegant in russia_. lond. , folio. . birch's lives of illustrious persons of great britain, with their heads by houbraken and vertue; vols. in one, _first impression of the plates, imperial paper_. lond. - , folio. it is impossible to give a perfect idea of this book: every plate is fine, and appears to be selected from the earliest impressions: it is now very scarce. . campbell's vitruvius britannicus, with woolfe's and gandon's continuation, vols. _large paper, fine impressions of the plates, elegantly bound in morocco, gilt leaves, &c._ lond. - , folio. . wood's historia et antiquitates oxoniensis, _large paper, russia, gilt leaves, &c._ ox. . . biographia britannica, vols. _large paper, elegantly bound_. lond. , fol. . ---- ---- vols. new edition, _elegantly bound in green turkey_. lond. . . mathæi paris, monachi albanensis angli, historia major, a wats. lond. , folio. . mathæi westmonasteriensis, flores historiarum. franc. , folio. . historiæ anglicanæ scriptores varii, a sparke. lond. , folio. . historiæ anglicanæ scriptores x. a twysden; tom. fol. _deaurat._ lond. , folio. . rerum anglicarum scriptores post bedam, a saville, fol. _deaurat._ lond. , folio. . rerum anglicarum scriptorum veterum, a gale; tom. fol. _deaurat._ lond. - . . rerum britannicarum, scriptores vetustiores. lugd. , folio. . prynne's records, vols., with the _frontispieces complete, gilt, broad border of gold_. lond. - . "for an account of this rare and valuable work, see oldy's british librarian, page ii. not more than copies of the first vol. were rescued from the fire of london, ." folio. i learn from the nephew of the late mr. archer, of dublin, bookseller, that the late lord clare offered guineas for the collection--which contained only lots or articles. the offer was rejected. although the amount of the sale did not exceed _l._--according to a rough calculation.] lis. i do:--and a marvellously fine one it is! loren. well, this was formerly _exemplar dalyanum_. but now proceed. i wished only to convince you that the miasmata (as you call them) of the bibliomaniacal disease had reached our sister kingdom. of scotland[ ]--i know nothing in commendation respecting the bibliomania. [footnote : this is rather a hasty speech, on the part of lorenzo. the copious and curious catalogues of those booksellers, messrs. constable, laing, and blackwood--are a sufficient demonstration that the cause of the _bibliomania_ flourishes in the city of edinburgh. whether they have such desperate bibliomaniacs in scotland, as we possess in london, and especially of the book-auction species--is a point which i cannot take upon me to decide. certain it is that the notes of their great poet are not deficient in numerous tempting extracts from rare black-letter tomes; and if his example be not more generally followed than it is, the fault must lie with some scribe or other who counteracts its influence by propagating opinions, and recommending studies, of a different, and less tasteful, cast of character. i am fearful that there are too many politico-economical, metaphysical, and philosophical miasmata, floating in the atmosphere of scotland's metropolis, to render the climate there just now favourable to the legitimate cause of the bibliomania.] i had nearly forgotten to mention, with the encomiums which they merit, the select, curious, and splendid collections of the chauncys:[ ] very able scholars, and zealous bibliomaniacs. many a heavy-metalled competitor attended the sale of the _bibliotheca chauncyana_; and, i dare say, if such a collection of books were now _sub hastâ_---- [footnote : _a catalogue of the elegant and valuable libraries of_ charles chauncy, m.d. f.r.s. and f.s.a.; _and of his brother_, nathaniel chauncy, _esq., both deceased: &c. sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, april, _, vo.: articles. no. . booke of raynarde the foxe, morocco, gilt leaves, _london by thomas gaultier_, , vo. £ _s._ _d._ . merie tales by master skelton, poet laureat; _imprinted by thomas colwell_; no date, mo. . the pleasunt historie of lazarillo de tormes, by david rouland; _impr. at london, by abel jeffes_, , mo. . the newe testament, corrected by tyndal, with exhortations by erasmus; _gilt leaves_, , mo. . more's utopia, by robynson; _impr. by abraham veale_, mo. ( .) "n.b. in this are the passages which have been left out in the later editions." (but the reader may be pleased to examine my edition of this translation of the utopia; , vols., vo., see vol. i., p. clix.) . the epidicion into scotland of the most woorthely fortunate prince edward, duke of somerset, uncle unto our most noble sovereign, &c., edward the vith; _imprinted by grafton_; , vo. (at the sale of mr. gough's books in , a fine copy of this work was sold for _l._ _s._) . ben jonson his volpone, or the foxe; _morocco, gilt leaves_, , to. "in this book is this note written by ben jonson himself. 'to his loving father, and worthy friend mr. john florio: the ayde of his muses. ben jonson seales this testimony of friendship and love.'" . nychodemus's gospell, _morocco, gilt leaves, emprynted at london, by wynkyn de worde_, , to. . oxford and cambridge verses; _in blue and red morocco, gilt leaves, with gold tassels_, vols., , &c., fol. . caius of english dogges, the diversities, the names, the natures, and the properties, by fleming; _imprinted at london by richard johnes_, , to. . the life and death of the merry devill of edmonton, with the pleasant prancks of smug the smith, sir john, and mine host of the george, about the stealing of venison, frontispiece, to. . speculum xristiani, corio turcico, impress. _london, p. willelmum de machlinia_ ad instanciam nec non expensas henrici urankenburg, mercatoris, _sine anno vel loco, circa_, , to. . [transcriber's note: sic] a hundreth sundrie flowers, bounde up in one small poesie, gathered in the fyne outlandish gardins of euripides, ovid, petrake, aristo, and others. _london_, to. . the recuile of the historie of troie; _imprynted_ , _by william copland, folio_ . the pastyme of people. the chronicles of dyvers realmys, and most specyally of the realme of englond, brevely compylyd and _emprynted in chepesyde at the sygne of the mearmayde, next polly's gate (made up with ms.) morocco, gilt leaves_, folio . cunningham's cosmographical glasse. _lond. printed by daye_, , fol. (i conclude that it had the portrait.) . ptolomæi cosmographie; cum tab. georgr. [transcriber's note: geogr.] illum. _impress. in membranis_, , fol. . virgilii opera: _impres. in membram. venet. ap. barthol. cremonens_, , fol. (two leaves on vellum in ms. very fairly written) purchased by the late mr. quin. . plinii hist. naturalis; venet. , folio. _impres. in membranis._ the first leaf illuminated on very fine vellum paper. note in this book: "this book, formerly lord oxford's, was bought by him of andrew hay for guineas." purchased by mr. edwards. there was also a magnificent copy of _pynson's first edition of chaucer's works_, in folio, which is now in the collection of earl spencer.] lis. he means "under the hammer."--ladies are not supposed to know these cramp latin phrases.-- lysand. well, "under the hammer:"--if, i say, such a collection were now to be disposed of by public auction, how eager and emulous would our notorious book-collectors be to run away with a few splendid spoils! we will next notice a not less valuable collection, called the _bibliotheca monroiana_; or the library of dr. john monro;[ ] the sale of which took place in the very year, and a little before, the preceding library was disposed of. don't imagine that monro's books were chiefly medical; on the contrary, besides exhibiting some of the rarest articles in old english literature, they will convince posterity of the collector's accurate taste in italian belles lettres: and here and there you will find, throughout the catalogue, some interesting bibliographical memoranda by the doctor himself. [footnote : "_bibliotheca elegantissima monroiana: a catalogue of the elegant and valuable library of_ john munro, m.d., _physician to bethelem hospital, lately deceased. sold by auction by leigh and sotherby [transcriber's note: sotheby], &c. april d, _, vo." as usual i subjoin a few specimens of the collector's literary treasures in confirmation of the accuracy of lysander's eulogy upon the collection----no. , cowell's interpreter; or, booke containing the signification of words, _first edition_, ("rare to be met with.") _camb. by legate_, , to.----no. . cent (les) nouvelles nouvelles, ou pour mieux dire, nouveaux comptes à plaisance, par maniere de joyeuseté.----_lettres gothiques, fig. et bois et titre mss. feuilles dorées, en maroquin, paris, par ant. verard_, , fol.----no. , heide beschryving der nieuevlyks uitgevonden en geoctrojeerde slang-brand-spuiten, en haare wijze van brand-blussen, tegenwoordig binnen _amsterdam in gebruik zynde. wyze figuurs amst._ , fol. "_note in this book: paris_, . paid for this book for his grace the duke of kingston, by mr. hickman, _l._" a great sum for a book about a "newly discovered fire engine!"----no. , vivre (le livre intitulé l'art de bein) et de bien mourir, lettres gothiques, avec fig. en maroquin dorées sur tranches. _imprimé à paris_, , to. note by dr. munro: "it is a very scarce book, more so than generally thought." with a long account of the book on separate papers.----no. , ariosto, orlando furioso, con figure da porro, foglio dorat. venet. , to. n.b. in this copy the true print is replaced _with a fine head of ariosto_, and _elegantly inlaid with morocco and calf_.----no. , boccacio (nimpale fiesolano: composto par il clarissimo poeta misser joanni) fiorentino, &c. rigato. senza data, to. see in this book a long account of this poem from dom. maria manni, in the istoria del decamerone, p. . "from what manni says in the above account, i suppose this to be the first edition he makes mention of, as there is no place or date to be found. j.m."----no. . dante di landino, con. fig. la prima edizione di landino, impf. _firenze per nicholo di lorenzo della magna_, , folio. "in this book are several remarks by dr. munro, on separate papers. an old scarce print, separate. on the title-page the following initials c m/dc r; upon which the doctor remarks it might probably be the signature of charles the first, whose property it might have been. the doctor likewise observes this copy, though imperfect, is still very valuable, on account of its having eight plates, the generality having only the two first."----no. , molinet (les faictz et dictz de bone memoire maistre jehan) _lettres gothiques, en maroquin par._ , vo.----no. , peri fiesole distrutta, poema: with portrait and engraved title, firenze, , to. _note in this book_: "this is the only copy i ever saw of this work, which i imagine is at present become extremely scarce. the title and portrait are engraved by callott. the portrait is common enough, but the title, known by the name of the bella giardiniera, very seldom seen. j.m."----no. . ridolfi, le maraviglie dell'arte, overo le vite di pittori veneti e dello stato, con. fig. tom. to. n.b. on the blank leaf of this book is an etching by carolus rodolphus, with this _ms. note_: "i imagine this to be an etching of cavaier rodolphi, as i do not remember any other of the name."----no. , lazii in genealogiam austriacam, basil. ap. oporinum, .--lazii vienna austriæ basil, . francolin res gestæ viennensis, cum fig. _viennæ austriæ excudebat raphæl hofhalter_, . folio. _note in this book_: "the last book in this volume is curious and uncommon."] we shall now run rapidly towards the close of the eighteenth century. but first, you may secure, for a shilling or two, the southgate collection;[ ] and make up your minds to pay a few more shillings for good copies, especially upon _large paper_, of all the parts of the catalogues of the library of george mason[ ]. this collection was an exceedingly valuable one; rather select than extensive: exhibiting, in pretty nearly an equal degree, some of the rarest books in greek, latin, and english literature. the _keimelion_ of the masonian cabinet, in the estimation of the black-letter bibliomaniacs, was a perfect copy of the _st. albans' edition_ of juliana barnes's book of _hawking, hunting_, and _angling_; which perfect copy is now reposing in a collection where there are _keimelia_ of far greater value to dim its wonted lustre. but let mason have our admiration and esteem. his library was elegant, judicious, and, in many respects, very precious: and the collector of such volumes was a man of worth and learning. [footnote : "_museum southgatianum; being a catalogue of the valuable collection of books, coins, medals, and natural history of the late rev._ richard southgate, a.b., f.a.s., &c. to which are prefixed memoirs of his life. london: printed for leigh and sotheby," &c. , vo. the books were comprised in lots. the coins and medals extend, in the catalogue, to pages. the shells and natural curiosities (sold in may, ) to pages. this catalogue possesses, what every similar one should possess, a compendious and perspicuous account of the collector. my copy of it is upon _large paper_; but the typographical execution is sufficiently defective.] [footnote : lysander is right in noticing "_all the parts_" of the masonian library. i will describe them particularly. pt. i. _a catalogue of a considerable portion of the greek and latin library of_ george mason, esq., with some articles in the italian, french, english, and other languages, &c. sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, on wednesday, january , , vo. articles. pt. ii. _a catalogue of most of the reserved portion of the greek and latin library of_ g.m., &c., chiefly classical and bibliographical, with a few miscellaneous articles in french: sold as before, may , , &c. articles. pt. iii. _a catalogue of a considerable portion of the remaining library of_ g.m., esq.--chiefly historical, with some curious theological, and some scientific, articles: sold as before; nov. to ; , &c. articles. pt iv. _a catalogue, &c., of the remaining library of_ g.m., esq.--chiefly belles lettres, english, french, and italian, &c., sold as before; april , : articles. these four parts, priced, especially the latter one--are uncommon. my copies of all of them are upon _large paper_. it must have been a little heart-breaking for the collector to have seen his beautiful library, the harvest of many a year's hard reaping, melting away piece-meal, like a snow-ball--before the warmth of some potent cause or other, which now perhaps cannot be rightly ascertained. see here, gentle reader, some of the fruits of this golden masonian harvest!--gathered almost promiscuously from the several parts. they are thus presented to thy notice, in order, amongst other things, to stimulate thee to be equally choice and careful in the gathering of similar fruits. part i. no. . winstanley's audley end, inscribed to james the second, fol. _never published for sale_ £ _s._ _d._ . hypnerotomachia poliphili, c.t. _f.d. ald._ . aquinæ (thomæ) quartiscriptum, c.r. _moguntiæ schoeffer_, , fol. . cicero de officiis, c.t. f.d. _moguntiæ ap. fust._ . to. in hoc exemplari rubrica inter libros secundum ac tertium habet singularia errata, quæ in nullo alio exemplari adhuc innotuerunt; viz. _primus_ ponitur pro _secundus_, _secundus_ pro _tertius_, et _secundum_ pro _tertium_ . chalcondylas, moschopulus, et corinthus, gr. _editio princeps._ vide notam ante librum . constantini lexicon græcum. _genevæ_, . ciceronis orationes, c.t. viridi f.d. _per adamum de ambergau_, , fol. . homerus, gr., vol., _editio princeps_, c.r. flor. . xenophon, gr., _editio princeps_, c.t. f.d. _flor. ap. junt._ , fol. part iii. . maundrel's journey from aleppo to jerusalem, _l.p. oxf._ , vo. first edition of the entire work . the psalter of david, large b.l. c.t. nigro f.d. _cantorbury, in st. paule's parysh, by john mychell_, , to. . the gospels in saxon and english, dedicated to queen elizabeth, by john foxe, c.t. nigro, f.d. _lond. by daye_, , to. . the new testament, by thomas matthew, , to. ["there are cuts to the revelations, different from any mr. herbert had seen; nor had he seen the book itself, till he was writing his 'corrections and additions,' where, at p. , he describes it."] . nychodemus' gospell, c.t. f.d. _wood prints. wynkyn de worde_, , to. . english prymer, in red and black types: _with emblematic frontispiece from a wood-cut_. c.t. cæruleo f.d. _byddell_, , to. printed on vellum . speculum christiani (in latin prose and english verse) c.t. nigro. _in civitate londoniarum, per wilhelmum de machlinia. supposed to be the first book printed in london, and about_ , to. . contemplation of synners, (latin prose and english verse) with double frontispiece, and other wood-cuts. _westminster, by wynkyn de worde_, , to. . (walter hylton's) scala perfectionis, london, _without temple-barre_, by julyan notary, , to. . dives and pauper, c.r. _first dated impression by pynson_, , folio . hackluyt's collection of voyages, b.l. vols. in . lond. . "this work contains in vol. i. (beginning at p. ) a political tract in verse (of the time of henry vi.) exhorting england to keep the sea." . arnold's chronicle, or customs of london, b.l. c.t.--f.d. ( ) folio . chaucer's hertfordshire; _with all the plates_, c.r. _once the book of white kennet, bishop of peterborough; whose marginal notes in are pp._ , , , folio . froissart's chronycles, vols. c.r. f.d. _printed by pynson_, - , _folio_, vols. . rastell's pastyme of people, c.t.--f.d. johannes rastell, ( ) _one page and part of a pieced leaf written._ . monasticon anglicanum, vols. ligat. in , c.r. all the plates, lond. , , . "this copy contains that very scarce leaf, which sometimes follows the title-page of the first volume: an account of which leaf (by tanner and hearne) may be seen from p. to p. of the sixth volume of leland's collectanea, and their account rectified by bridges, at the conclusion of hearne's preface to titus livius foro-juliensis." folio. . hardyng's chronicle (in verse) c.r.--f.d. _with an original grant (on vellum) from henry vi. to hardyng, londoni._ grafton, , to. [this beautiful copy, formerly west's, is now in the collection of george hibbert, esq.] . fabian's chronicle, c.t. cærulo f.d. vols. in . b.l. lond. w. rastell, . "this edition (as well as pynson's) has the hymns to the virgin, though mr. t. warton thought otherwise." folio. part iv. [transcriber's note: in this section, no prices are given in the original.] . kendall's flowers of epigrams, b.l.--c.r. _leaf is wanting_, mo. . m(arloe)'s ovid's elegies and epigrams, by j. d(avies of hereford). (ovid's head engraved by w.m.) c.t.--f.d. _middlebourg_, mo. . observations on authors, ancient and modern, vol. lond. - . "this was dr. jortin's own copy, who has written the name of each author to every piece of criticism, and added a few marginal remarks of his own," vo. . valentine and orson, b.l. cuts. _wants title, two leaves in one place, and a leaf in another_, to. . la morte d'arthur, b.l. _wood-cuts_, lond. _thomas east._ _wants one leaf in the middle of the table._ see _ms. note prefixed_. . barnes's (dame juliana) boke of haukynge, huntynge, and cootarmuris, c.t.--f.d. _seynt albon's_, folio, . "this perhaps is the only perfect copy of this original edition, which is extant. its beginning with sig. a ii is no kind of cantradiction [transcriber's note: contradiction] to its being perfect; the registers of many latin books at this period mention the first leaf of a as quite blank. the copy of the public library at cambridge is at least so worn or mutilated at the bottom of some pages that the bottom lines are not legible." [this copy is now in the matchless collection of earl spencer.] . chaucer's canterbury tales, c.r. _woodcuts, pynson_, folio, "this is pynson's original edition, and probably the first book he printed. see a long ms. note prefixed. bound up at the end of this copy are two leaves of a ms. on vellum, which take in the conclusion of the miller's prologue, and beginning of his tale. one of these pages is illuminated, and has a coloured drawing of the miller on his mule." . mort d'arthur, b.l. _woodcuts. lond. w. copland._ see ms. notes at the beginning and end, folio. . roy's _rede me and be not wrothe, for i say nothing but trothe._ "this is the famous satire against cardinal wolsey, printed some years before his fall. see herbert, p. , vo." [the reader may look for one minute at page , ante.] . boetius, (the boke of comfort, by) translated into englishe tonge (in verse) _emprented in the exempt monastery of taverstock, in denshire, by me, thomas rycharde, monke of the said monastery_, , to. . caxton's blanchardyn and eglantine, or proude lady of love, c.t.--f.d., _printed by caxton_, folio. [see my edition of the _typograhical [transcriber's note: typographical] antiquities_, vol. i. p. .] . hawkyng, huntyng, and fyshyng, (from juliana barnes) b.l. _woodcuts. lond. toye, and w. copland_, to. _see ms. notes prefixed._ . hawys's compendions story, or exemple of vertue, b.l.--c.r. _wood-cuts_, _ib._ _wynkyn de worde_, . . ---- passe-tyme of pleasure, b.l. _wood-cuts ib. by w. de worde_, , to. . spenser's shephearde's calendar. c.t.--f.d., _wood-cuts: first edition, ib._ singleton, , to. . taylor, the water poet (fifteen different pieces by) all of posterior date to the collection of his works. among them is the life of old par, with par's head, and plates of curious needle-work. the volume also contains some replies to taylor. a written list of all the contents is prefixed. lond. and oxford, to. . tulle of old age (translated by william botoner, or of worcester) _pr. by caxton_, . folio. ---- of friendship, translated by tiptoft, earl of worcester; to which is added another tract written by the same earl, c.r.--f.d.--l.r. _explicit per caxton_, folio.] how shall i talk of thee, and of thy wonderful collection, o rare richard farmer?[ ]--and of thy scholarship, acuteness, pleasantry, singularities, varied learning, and colloquial powers! thy name will live long among scholars in general; and in the bosoms of virtuous and learned bibliomaniacs thy memory shall ever be enshrined! the walls of emanuel college now cease to convey the sounds of thy festive wit--thy volumes are no longer seen, like richard smith's "bundles of sticht books," strewn upon the floor; and thou hast ceased, in the cause of thy beloved shakspeare, to delve into the fruitful ore of black-letter literature. peace to thy honest spirit; for thou wert wise without vanity, learned without pedantry, and joyous without vulgarity! [footnote : there is but a scanty memorial of this extraordinary and ever respectable bibliomaniac, in the _gentleman's magazine_; vol. lxvii. pt. ii. p. : : nor is it noticed, among farmer's theologico-literary labours, that he was author of an ingenious essay upon the _demoniacs_ mentioned in scripture; in which essay he took up the idea of mede, that these demoniacs were _madmen_. dr. farmer's essay upon the _learning of shakespeare_ is, in respect to the materials, arguments, and conclusions--what the late bishop of salisbury's [douglas] was upon _miracles_--original, powerful, and incontrovertible. never was there an octavo volume, like farmer's upon shakespeare--which embraced so many, and such curious, points, and which displayed such research, ingenuity, and acuteness--put forth with so little pomp, parade, or pedantry. its popularity was remarkable; for it delighted both the superficial and deeply-versed reader in black-letter lore. dr. parr's well applied ciceronian phrase, in lauding the "ingenious and joy-inspiring language" of farmer, gives us some notion of the colloquial powers of this acute bibliomaniac; whose books were generally scattered upon the floor, as lysander above observes, like old richard smith's "stitched bundles." farmer had his foragers; his jackalls: and his avant-couriers: for it was well known how dearly he loved every thing that was interesting and rare in the literature of former ages. as he walked the streets of london--careless of his dress--and whether his wig was full-bottomed or narrow-bottomed--he would talk and "mutter strange speeches" to himself; thinking all the time, i ween, of some curious discovery he had recently made in the aforesaid precious black-letter tomes. but the reader is impatient for the _bibliotheca farmeriana_: the title to the catalogue whereof is as follows. "_bibl. farm. a catalogue of the curious, valuable, and extensive library in print and manuscript, of the late_ rev. richard farmer, _d.d., canon residentiary of st. paul's; master of emanuel college: librarian to the university of cambridge; and fellow of the royal & antiquary societies_ (deceased, &c.) sold by auction by mr. king; may, ," vo. [ articles]. the collection is justly said, in the title page, to contain the "most rare and copious assemblage of _old english poetry_ that, perhaps, was ever exhibited at one view; together with a great variety of _old plays_, and early printed books, english and foreign, in the black-letter." the reader has already (p. ante) had some intimation of the source to which dr. farmer was chiefly indebted for these poetical and dramatical treasures; of some of which, "hereafter followeth" an imperfect specimen: no. . marbecke (john) the book of common prayer, noted, . to. see dr. burney's long account of this very scarce book in his history of musick, vol. ii. p. , &c. £ _s._ _d._ . skinner's discovery and declaration of the inquisition of spayne, _imp. j. daye_, , to. . shippe of fooles, by brant, wood cuts, _imp. wynkyn de worde_, , to. . brunswyke's medical dictionary, translated by huet, _imp. by treveris_, . folio. . customs of the citie of london, or arnold's chronicle, with the nut-brown mayde, _ st edition_, , folio. . annalia dubrensia, or robert dover's olimpic games upon cotswold-hills, _with frontispiece_, . . barley-breake, or a warning for wantons, by w.n. , to. . britton's bowre of delights, by n.b. . to. . byrd's (will.) psalmes, sonets, and songs of sadnes and pietie made into musicke of partes. . ditto sacræ cantiones, parts; and various madrigals and canzonets, by morley, weelkes, wilbye, bateson, &c. to. . copie of a letter sent from the roaring boyes in elizium, to the two arrant knights of the grape in limbo, alderman abel and m. kilvert, the two projectors for wine; with their portraits. . turbervile's (george) epitaphs, epigrams, songs and sonets, with a discourse of the freendly affections of tymetes to pyndara his ladie, b.l. , _imp. by denham_, vo. . virgil's Æneis, the first foure bookes, translated into english heroicall verse, by richard stanyhurst, with other poetical devises thereunto annexed; _impr. by bynneman_, , vo. . essayes of a prentise in the divine art of poesie (king james vi.) _edinburgh, by vautrollier_, , vo. . fulwell's (ulpian) flower of fame, or bright renoune and fortunate raigne of king henry viii. b.l. with curious wood cuts: _imp. by will. hoskin_, , to. . flytting (the) betwixt montgomerie and polwarte, _edin._, , to. . horace's art of poetrie, pistles, and satyrs, english'd by drant, b.l. _imp. by marshe_, , to. . humours ordinarie, where a man may be verie merrie and exceeding well used for his sixpence, , to. . mastiffe whelp, with other ruff-island-like curs fetcht from among the antipodes, which bite and barke at the fantasticall humourist and abuses of the time. . merry jest of robin hood, and of his life, with a new play for to be plaied in may-games; very pleasant and full of pastime, b.l. _imp. by edward white_, to. . milton's paradise lost, in books, st _edit._ . . ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- _ nd title page_, . . ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- _ rd title page_, .--"n.b. the three foregoing articles prove that there were no less than three different title-pages used, to force the sale of the first edition of this matchless poem." s. p[aterson.] . paradyse of daynty devises, b.l. extremely scarce, _imp. by henry disle_, , to. . peele's (g.) device of the pageant borne before woolstone dixie, lord mayor of london, oct. , , b.l. see dr. f.'s note; as probably the only copy. to. . percy's (w.) sonnets to the fairest cælia, . to. . psalter (the whole) translated into english metre, which containeth an hundreth and fifty psalms. the title and first page written. _imp. by john daye_, . "this translation was by archbishop parker, and is so scarce that mr. strype tells us he could never get a sight of it." see master's history of c.c.c.c. mr. wharton supposes it never to have been published, but that the archbishop's wife gave away some copies. "it certainly (he adds) is at this time extremely scarce, and would be deservedly deemed a fortunate acquisition to those capricious students who labour to collect a library of rarities." hist. of eng. poetry, vol. iii. . it has a portrait of the archbishop. to. . somner's (henry) orpheus and eurydice, . to. . shakespeare's works, _ st edition, in folio, wants title, last leaf written from the_ to. . . metrical romances, written in the reign of richard iid. or rather about the end of the reign of henry iiid. or beginning of edward i. (see note,) _purchased at dr. monro's auction by dr. farmer_, for _l._ . these booke is called ars moriendi, of william baron, esq., to remayne for ever to the nonnye of deptford; _on vellum, bound in purple velvet_. . chaucer's noble and amorous auncyent hystory of troylus and cresyde, in fyve bokes, _imprynted by wynkyn de worde_, . here begynneth the temple of glass, _imp. by wynkyn de worde_. the castell of pleasure, _imp. by ditto_. here begynneth a lyttell treatise cleped la conusauce d'amours. _imp. by pynson_. the spectacle of lovers, _imp. by wynkyn de worde_. history of tytus and gesippus, translated out of latin into englyshe, by wyllyam walter, sometime servaunte to syr henry marney, cnyght, chaunceler of the duchy of lancastre, _imp. by ditto_. the love and complayntes betwene mars and venus. the fyrst fynders of the vii scyences artificiall, _printed by julian notarye_. guystarde and sygysmonde, translated by wyllyam walter, _imp. by wynkyn de worde_, . the complaynte of a lover's lyfe, _imp. by ditto_. here begynneth a lytel treatyse, called the disputacyon of complaynte [of] the harte, thorughe perced with the lokynge of the eye, _imp. by wynkyn de worde_. this boke is named the beaultie of women, translated out of french into englyshe, _imp. by wier_. here begynneth a lytel treatise, called the controverse betwene a lover and a jaye, lately compyled, _imp. by wynkyn de worde_. _the above very rare and ancient pieces of poetry are bound_ in one vol. _with curious wood-cuts, and in fine preservation._ 'the temple of glass alone was sold for _l._ _s._ and the present vol. may, with propriety, be deemed matchless.' all in quarto. [n.b. _these articles should have preceded_ no. ; at p. , ante.] and here, benevolent reader, let us bid farewell to richard farmer of transcendant bibliomaniacal celebrity! it is in vain to look forward for the day when book-gems, similar to those which have just been imperfectly described from the _bibl. farmeriana_, will be disposed of at similar prices. the young collector may indulge an ardent hope; but, if there be any thing of the spirit of prophecy in my humble predictions, that hope will never be realised. dr. farmer's copies were, in general, in sorry condition; the possessor caring little (like dr. francis bernard; vide p. , ante) for large margins and splendid binding. his own name, generally accompanied with a bibliographical remark, and both written in a sprawling character, usually preceded the title-page. the science (dare i venture upon so magnificent a word?) of bibliography was, even in farmer's latter time, but jejune, and of limited extent: and this will account for some of the common-place bibliographical memoranda of the owner of these volumes. we may just add that there are some few copies of this catalogue printed on _large paper_, on paper of a better quality than the small; which latter is sufficiently wretched. i possess a copy of the former kind, with the _prices_ and _purchasers' names_ affixed--and moreover, _uncut_!] a poor eulogy, this, upon farmer!--but my oratory begins to wax faint. for this reason i cannot speak with justice of the friend and fellow-critic of farmer--george steevens[ ]--of shakspearian renown! the library of this extraordinary critic and collector was sold by auction in the year ; and, being formed rather after the model of mason's, than of farmer's, it was rich to an excess in choice and rare pieces. nor is it an uninteresting occupation to observe, in looking among the prices, the enormous sums which were given for some volumes that cost steevens not a twentieth part of their produce:--but which, comparatively with their present worth, would bring considerably higher prices! what arduous contention, "_renardine shifts_," and bold bidding; what triumph on the one part, and vexation on the other, were exhibited at the book-sale!--while the auctioneer, like jove looking calmly down upon the storm which he himself had raised, kept his even temper; and "ever and anon" dealt out a gracious smile amidst all the turbulence that surrounded him! memorable æra!--the veteran collector grows young again in thinking upon the valour he then exhibited; and the juvenile collector talks "braggartly" of other times--which he calls the golden days of the bibliomania--when he reflects upon his lusty efforts in securing an _exemplar steevensianum_! [footnote : if lysander's efforts begin to relax--what must be the debilitated mental state of the poor annotator, who has accompanied the book-orator thus long and thus laboriously? can steevens receive justice at _my_ hands--when my friends, aided by hot madeira, and beauty's animating glances, acknowledge their exhausted state of intellect?! however, i will make an effort: 'nothing extenuate nor set down aught in malice.' the respectable compiler of the _gentleman's magazine_, vol. lxx. p. , has given us some amusing particulars of steevens's literary life: of his coming from hampstead to london, at the chill break of day, when the overhanging clouds were yet charged with the 'inky' purple of night--in order, like a true book-chevalier, to embrace the first dank impression, or proof sheet, of his own famous octavo edition of _shakspeare_; and of mr. bulmer's sumptuous impression of the text of the same. all this is well enough, and savours of the proper spirit of bibliomaniacism: and the edition of our immortal bard, in fifteen well printed octavo volumes, ( ) is a splendid and durable monument of the researches of george steevens. there were from to copies of the octavo edition printed upon large paper; and lord spencer possesses, by bequest, mr. steevens' own copy of the same, illustrated with a great number of rare and precious prints; to which, however, his lordship, with his usual zeal and taste, has made additions more valuable even than the gift in its original form. the vo. edition of is covetted with an eagerness of which it is not very easy to account for the cause; since the subsequent one of , in octavo volumes, is more useful on many accounts: and contains steevens's corrections and additions in every play, as well as , in particular, in that of macbeth. but i am well aware of the stubbornness and petulancy with which the previous edition is contended for in point of superiority, both round a private and public table; and, leaving the collector to revel in the luxury of an uncut, half-bound, morocco copy of the same, i push onward to a description of the _bibliotheca steevensiana_. yet a parting word respecting this edition of . i learn, from unquestionable authority, that steevens stipulated with the publishers that they should pay mr. reed _l._ for editorship, and _l._ to mr. w. harris, librarian of the royal institution, for correcting the press: nor has the editor in his preface parted from the truth, in acknowledging mr. harris to be 'an able and vigiland [transcriber's note: vigilant] assistant.' mr. h. retained, for some time, steevens' corrected copy of his own edition of , but he afterwards disposed of it, by public auction, for _l._ he has also at this present moment, mr. josiah boydell's copy of mr. felton's picture of our immortal bard; with the following inscription, painted on the back of the pannel, by mr. steevens: _may, ._ _copied by josiah boydell, at my request, from the remains of the only genuine portrait of william shakspeare._ george steevens. the engraved portrait of shakspeare, prefixed to this edition of , is by no means a faithful resemblance of mr. boydell's admirably executed copy in oil. the expenses of the edition amounted to _l._; but no copies now remain with the publishers. we will now give rather a copious, and, as it must be acknowledged, rich, sprinkling of specimens from the _bibliotheca steevensiana_, in the departments of rare old poetry and the drama. but first let us describe the title to the catalogue of the same. _a catalogue of the curious and valuable library of_ george steevens, _esq., fellow of the royal and antiquary societies (lately deceased). comprehending an extraordinary fine collection of books, &c._, sold by auction by mr. king, in king street, covent garden, may, . vo. [ articles: amount of sale _l._ _s._] old poetry. no. . gascoigne's (geo.) workes, or a hundreth sundrie flowers bounde in one small poesie, (including) supposes, com. from ariosto; jocosta, tr. from euripides, &c. b.l. _first edition. lond. impr. by bynneman_, , to. £ _s._ _d._ 'with ms. notes respecting this copy and edition by mr. steevens.' . another copy, d edition (with considerable additions); among other, the princely pleasures of kenilworth castle, the steele glass, the complainte of phylomene, b.l. _ib. impr. by abell jeffes_, , to., _with ms. references, by messrs. bowles and steevens._ . another copy, including all the aforementioned, and a delicate diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes, b.l. _lond. impr. by rich. jhones_, , vo. the glasse of gouernement, to. _b.l. russia, with ms. references_. the droome of doomesday, parts, b.l. _ib._ , to. 'the above two volumes are supposed to comprise the compleatest collection of gascoigne's works extant.' . googe (barnabe) eglogs, epytaphes, and sonnettes newly written, b.l., _small vo. fine copy in russia, lond. impr. by tho. colwell for raffe newbery, dwelynge in fleet streete a little above the conduit, in the late shop of tho. bartelet_. see mr. steevens's note to the above; in which he says there is no scarcer book in the english language, and that dr. farmer, messrs. t. warton and js. reed, had never seen another copy. . lodge (tho.) life and death of william longbeard, the most famous and witty english traitor, borne in the citty of london, accompanied with manye other most pleasant and prettie histories, to. _b.l. printed by rich. yardley and peter short_, . [cost mr. steevens _s._ _d._!] . the paradyse of dainty devises, ms. a fac-simile of the first edition, in , _finished with the greatest neatness by mr. steevens, to. in russia_. . the paradice of dainty devises, devised and written for the most part by m. edwardes, sometime of her majestie's chappell; the rest by sundry learned gentlemen, both of honor and worship. _lond. printed by edwd. allde_, , to. . the paradice of daintie devises, b.l. interleaved, _ib. printed for edw. white_, , to. breton (nich.) workes of a young wyt, trust up with a fardell of prettie fancies, profitable to young poetes, prejudicial to no man, and pleasant to every man, to pass away idle tyme withal, _b.l. to. interleaved with a ms. list of the author's works by messrs. steevens, ritson, and park: impr. at lond. nigh unto the three cranes in the vintree, by tho. dawson, and tho. gardyner_. soothern's odes, to. b.l. interleaved with copious ms. notes, and an extract from the european magazine relative to the author: _wants title, no date_. watson (tho.) passionate centurie of love, to. b.l. interleaved: the first sonnets, and the latter ones, from , in ms. _lond. impr. by john wolfe_. "the above curious collection of old poems are bound together in russia, with border of gold, and may be deemed with propriety, _matchless_." . puttenham's arte of english poesie, in bookes, with a wood-cut of queen elizabeth; _choice copy, in morocco, to. ib. printed by rich. field_, . . roy (will.) satire on cardinal wolsey, a poem; _b.l. sm._ vo. _russia, no date nor place_. . skelton (jo.) poet laureat, lyttle workes, viz. speake parot. the death of the noble prynce, king edwarde the fourthe. a treatyse of the scottes. ware the hawke, the tunnynge of elynoure rummyng, sm. vo. b.l. _impr. at lond. in crede lane, jhon kynge, and thomas marshe_, no date. mo. hereafter foloweth a lyttle booke, called colyn clout, _b.l. impr. by john wyght_, mo. hereafter foloweth a little booke of phyllip sparrow, _b.l. impr. by robert tob._ mo. hereafter foloweth a little booke which has to name, whi come ye not to courte, _b.l. impr. by john wyght_. mo. . skelton (master, poet laureat) merie tales, b.l. mo. _lond. impr. by tho. colwell, no date._ "see note, in which mr. steevens says he never saw another copy." . warren (will.) a pleasant new fancie of a foundling's device intitled and cald the nurcerie of names, with wood borders, b.l. to. _ib. impr. by rich. jhones_, . . watson (tho.) passionate centurie of love; _b.l. to. the title, dedication, and index, ms. by mr. steevens_. "manuscript poems, transcribed from a collection of ancient english poetry, in the possession of sam. lysons, esq., formerly belonging to anne cornwallis, by mr. steevens." . ---- passionate centurie of love, divided into two parts, b.l. to. _russia. lond. impr. by john wolfe_. . england's helicon, collected by john bodenham, with copious additions, and an index in ms. by mr. steevens, to. _russia, ib. printed by j.r._ . . weblee [webbe] (will.) discourse of english poetrie, together with the author's judgment, touching the reformation of our english verse, _b.l._ to. _russia, ib. by john charlewood_, . the drama; and early plays of shakespeare. . the plot of the plays of frederick and basilea, and of the deade man's fortune, the original papers which hung up by the side scenes in the playhouses, for the use of the prompter and the acter, earlier than the time of shakspeare. . anonymous, a pleasant comedie, called common conditions, _b.l. imperf. to. in russia._ "of this dramatick piece, no copy, except the foregoing mutilated one, has hitherto been discovered: with a long note by mr. steevens, and references to kirkman, langbaine, baker, reed," &c. . bale (john) tragedie, or enterlude, manifesting the chiefe promises of god unto man, compyled an. do. , b.l. to. _now first impr. at lond. by john charlewood_, . . marlow (chr.) and tho. nash, tragedie of dido, queene of carthage, played by the children of her majesties' chappell, to. _russia, lond. printed by the widdowe owin_, . . peele (geo.) the old wives tale, a pleasant conceited comedie played by the queene's majesties' players; to. _in russia; ib. impr. by john danter_, . "n.b. a second of the above is to be found in the royal library; a third copy is unknown." steevens' note. early plays of shakspeare. . the tragedie of hamlet, prince of denmark, no title, to. _lond._ . _with ms. notes, &c., by mr. steevens._ . the tragedy of hamlet, prince of denmark, to. _ib. printed by r. young_, . . the history of henrie the fourth, with the battell of shrewsburie, &c.; with the famous conceits of sir john falstaffe, part i. to. _ib. printed by s.s._ . . the same, _ib. printed for mathew lay_, , to. . the same, _ib. printed by w.w._ . _with ms. notes, &c. by mr. steevens._ . the same, _ib. printed by norton_, . . the d part of henry the fourth, continuing to his death, and coronation of henrie the fift, with the humours of sir john falstaffe and swaggering pistoll, as acted by the lord chamberlayne his servants. _first edit. to. ib. printed by v.s._ . . the same, _ib. to. printed by val. simmes_, . . the chronicle history of henry the fift, with his battell fought at agincourt in france, together with auntient pistoll, as playd by the lord chamberlayne his servants. _first edit._ to. _inlaid on large paper, ib. printed by thomas creede_, . . the chronicle history of henry the fift, &c. to. _lond._ . . the true tragedie of richarde, duke of yorke, and the death of good king henrie the sixt, as acted by the earle of pembroke his servants, to. _inlaid on large paper, ib. printed by w.w._ . . the whole contention betweene the two famous houses, lancaster and yorke, with the tragicall ends of the good duke humphrey, richard, duke of yorke, and king henrie the sixt, _divided into parts_, to. _ib. no date_. . the first and second part of the troublesome raigne of john, king of england, with the discoverie of king richard cordelion's base sonne (vulgarly named the bastard fauconbridge) also the death of king john at swinstead abbey, as acted by her majesties players, to. _lond. impr. by val. simmes_, . . the first and second part of the troublesome raigne of john, king of england, &c., _ib. printed by aug. matthews_, . . the true chronicle history of the life and death of king lear, and his three daughters, with the unfortunate life of edgar, sonne and heire to the earl of glocester, and his sullen and assumed humour of tom of bedlam, by his majestie's servants. _first edit._ to. _ib._ . . [transcriber's note: ] another edition, differing in the title-page and signature of the first leaf. to. _ib._ . . the most excellent historie of the merchant of venice, with the extreme crueltie of shylocke the jew towards the sayd merchant, in cutting a just pound of his flesh: and the obtayning of portia by his choyce of three chests, as acted by the lord chamberlaine his servants, _first edit. inlaid oil large paper; to. at london, printed by john roberts_, . . the excellent history of the merchant of venice, with the extreme crueltie of shylocke the jew; _first edit. to. inlaid on large paper, printed by john roberts_, . . a most pleasant and excellent conceited comedie of syr john falstaffe and the merrie wives of windsor, as acted by the lord chamberlaine's servants. _first edit. to. lond. printed by t.c._ . . a most pleasant and excellent conceited comedy of sir john falstaffe and the merry wives of windsor, with the swaggering vaine of antient pistoll and corporal nym, _ to. inlaid. lond._ . . the merry wives of windsor, with the humours of sir john fallstaffe, also the swaggering vaine of ancient pistoll and corporal nym, to. _lond. printed by t.h._ . . a midsommer night's dreame, as acted by the lord chamberlaine's servantes, first edit. _impr. at lond. for thos. fisher_, to. , _part of one leaf wanting_. . another copy, _first edit. inlaid, ib._ . . much adoe about nothing, as acted by the lord chamberlaine his servants, _first edit._ to. _ib. printed by val. simmes_, . . the tragedy of othello the moore of venice, as acted at the globe and at the black friers, by his majesties servants, to. _lond. printed by n.o._ , _with ms. notes and various readings by mr. steevens_. . the tragedy of othello the moore of venice, as acted at the globe and at the black friers, to. _lond. printed by a.m._ . . tragedie of othello; _ th edit._ to. _ib._ . . the tragedie of king richard the second, as acted by the lord chamberlaine his servants, to. lond. _printed by val. simmes_, . . tragedie of king richard the second, as acted by the lord chamberlaine his servants, to. _printed by w.w._ . . the tragedie of king richard the second, with new additions of the parliament scene, and the deposing of king richard, as acted by his majestie's servants at the globe, to. _lond._ , _with ms. notes, &c. by mr. steevens_. . the life and death of king richard the second, with new additions of the parliament scene, and the deposing of king richard, as acted at the globe by his majesties servants, to. _lond._ . . the tragedie of king richard the third, as acted by the lord chamberlain his servants, to. lond. _printed by tho. creede_. . _defective at the end._ . the tragedie of king richard the third, containing his treacherous plots against his brother clarence, the pitiful murther of his innocent nephews, his tirannical usurpation, with the whole course of his detested life, and most deserved death, as acted by his majesties servants, to. _lond. printed by tho. creede_, , _with notes and various readings by mr. steevens._ . the same, to. _ib._ . . tragedie of king richard the third, as acted by the king's majesties servants, to. _ib._ . . the most excellent and lamentable tragedie of romeo and juliet, to. _a fragment. lond._ . . the same, compleat, inlaid on large paper, to. _ib., impr. by tho. creede_, . [_second edition._] . the same, to. lond. , _with ms. notes and readings by mr. steevens_. . the same, to. _ib. printed by r. young_, . . a pleasant conceited historie, called the taming of the shrew, as acted by the earle of pembroke's servants. _first edit._ to. _inlaid on large paper, ib., printed by v.s._ . . a wittie and pleasant comedie, called the taming of a shrew, as acted by his majesties servants, at the blacke friers and the globe, to., _ib., printed by w.s._ . . the most lamentable tragedie of titus andronicus, as plaide by the king's majesties servants, to. _inlaid, ib., printed for edward white_, . . the history of troylus and cresseide, as acted by the king's majesties servants at the globe. _first. edit._ to., _ib., imp. by g. alde_, . . the lamentable tragedie of locrine, the eldest sonne of king brutus, discoursing the warres of the brittaines and hunnes, with ther discomfiture, to. _ib., printed by thomas creede_, . . the london prodigall, as plaide by the king's majesties servants, to. _ib., printed by t.c._ . . the late and much admired play called pericles, prince of tyre, with the true relation of the whole historie and fortunes of the said prince, as also the no lesse strange and worthy accidents in the birth and life of his daughter marianna, acted by his majesties servants at the globe on the banck-side, to. _ib._, . . another edition, to. _ib._ . . the first part of the true and honourable history of the life of sir john old-castle, the good lord cobham, as acted by the earle of nottingham his servants, to. _lond._ . . a yorkshire tragedy, not so new, as lamentable and true, to. lond. . . (twenty plays) published by mr. steevens, vols. _large paper, ib._, . _only copies taken off on large paper_ editions of shakspeare's works. . comedies, histories, and tragedies, published according to the true originall copies, by john heminge and hen. condell, _fol. russia. lond. printed by isaac juggard and edwd. blount_. ; _with a ms. title, and a fac-simile drawing of the portrait by mr. steevens_. . the same: d edit. folio, fine copy morocco, gilt leaves, _ib._ . _in this book is the hand writing of king charles i. by whom it was presented to sir tho. herbert, master of the revels._ . the same: d edit. with the additional plays, fol., neat and scarce, _ib._ . see _note by mr. steevens_. . the same: th edit. , folio. . hammer's (sir tho.) edition; vols. mo. _lond._ . . the same: with cuts, vols. to. _elegantly bound in hog-skin_. . pope and warburton, vols. vo. _lond._ . . ---- vols. mo., with sir thos. hammer's glossary. _dub._ . . capell, (edw.) vols. vo. lond. _printed by dryden leach_, . . johnson, (sam.) vols. vo. _lond._ . . ---- and geo. steevens, vols. vo. _ib._ . . ---- in single plays, vols. _boards, ib._ . johnson and steevens: vols. d edit. with malone's supplement, vols., and the plates from bell's edition, _ib._ . . ---- vols. d edit. _ib._ . . ---- th edit. with a glossarial index, vols. vo. _ib._ . . malone, (edm.) vols. vo. _ib._ . . ---- another copy, vols. vo. _ib._ . ran (jos.) vols. vo. oxf. . . ---- with ayscough's index, vols. vo. russia, marbled leaves, published by stockdale, _ib._ - . . eccles, vols. vo. _ib._ . . from the text of mr. malone's edit. by nichols, vols. mo. lond. . . from the text of mr. steevens, last edit. vols. mo. _ib._ . . ---- vols. mo. _ib._ . . ---- vols. mo. birm. by r. martin. . ---- vols. bell's edit. no plates. lond. . . ---- vols. mo. with annotations, bell's edit. fine paper, with plates, beautiful impressions, _ib._ . . ---- vols. mo. bell's edition; _large paper_, finest possible impressions of the plates, superbly bound in green turkey, double bands, gilt leaves, _ib._ . the dramatic works of; text corrected by geo. steevens, esq.; published by boydell and nichol, in large to., nos. with the large and small plates; first and finest impressions, , &c. n.b. three more numbers complete the work. . harding, no. , l.p. containing prints, with a portrait of lewis theobald, as published by richardson, and some account of him, by mr. steevens. . ditto, ditto. . traduit de l'anglois, toms. par. . . in german, vols. mo. zurich, . . king lear, macbeth, hamlet, othello, and julius cæsar, by jennings, lond. . . macbeth, with notes by harry rowe, mo. york, . . ---- vo. d edit. _ib._ . . antony and cleopatra, by edw. capell; vo. lond. . . the virgin queen; a drama, attempted as a sequel to shakspeare's tempest, by g.f. waldron, vo. . . ---- annotations on as you like it, by johnson and steevens, bell's edit. . ---- another copy . shakspeare's sonnets, never before imprinted, to. at lond. by g. ald, . . ---- poems, vo. _ib._ . . ---- venis [transcriber's note: venus] and adonis, vo. _ib._ . . rymer (tho.) short view of tragedy, with reflection on shakspeare, &c. vo. b. . . shakspeare restored, by lewis theobald, to. _ib._ . . whalley's (peter) on the learning of; _ib._ . remarks on a late edition of shakspeare, by zach. grey, _ib._ , and other tracts. . morris (corbyn) essay towards fixing the true standard of wit, humour, &c. vo. _ib._ . . critical observations on, by john upton; vo. d edit. lond. . . ---- illustrated, by charlotte lennox; vols. mo. _ib._ . . notes on shakspeare, by zachary grey; vols. vo. _ib._ . . beauties of shakspeare, by william dodd, vols. mo. _ib._ . . beauties of shakspeare, by wm. dodd; vols. mo. _ib._ . . ---- (revival of) text, by heath, vo. _ib._ . . observations and conjectures on some passages of, by tho. trywhit [transcriber's note: tyrwhitt]; vo. oxford, . . farmer (rich) on the learning of; vo. morocco. camb. . _only copies on this paper._ . ---- london. vo. , with mr. capell's shakspeariana, vo., _only copies printed_, . . malone (edm.) letter on, to dr. farmer; vo. _ib._ . . letter to david garrick (on a glossary to) by rich. warner, vo. _ib._ . there were copies of the catalogue of steeven's books struck off on large paper, on bastard _royal octavo_, and in _quarto_. it remains to say a few words of the celebrated collector of this very curious library. the wit, taste, and classical acquirements of george steevens are every where recorded and acknowledged. as an editor of his beloved shakspeare, he stands unrivalled; for he combined, with much recondite learning and indefatigable research, a polish of style, and vigour of expression, which are rarely found united in the same person. his definitions are sometimes both happy and singular; and his illustrations of ancient customs and manners such as might have been expected from a head so completely furnished, and a hand so thoroughly practised. i will not say that george steevens has evinced the learning of selden upon drayton, or of bentley upon phalaris; nor did his erudition, in truth, rise to the lofty and commanding pitch of these his predecessors: nor does there seem much sense or wit in hunting after every _pencil-scrap_ which this renowned bibliomaniac committed to paper--as some sadly bitten book-collectors give evidence of. if i have not greatly misunderstood the characteristics of steevens's writings, they are these--wit, elegance, gaiety, and satire, combined with almost perfect erudition in english dramatic antiquities. let us give a specimen of his classical elegance in dignifying a subject, which will be relished chiefly by grangerites. having learnt that a copy of skelton's verses on elinour rummin, the famous ale-wife of england, with her portrait in the title-page, was in the library of the cathedral of lincoln (perhaps, formerly, captain coxe's copy; vide p. , ante), he prevailed on the late dean, sir richard kaye, to bring the book to london; but as it was not suffered to go from the dean's possession, mr. s. was permitted to make a _fac-simile_ drawing of the title, at the dean's house in harley-street. this drawing he gave to richardson, the printseller, who engraved and published it among the copies of scarce portraits to illustrate granger. the acquisition of this rarity produced from him the following _jeu d'esprit_; the merit of which can only be truly appreciated by those who had the pleasure of knowing the eminent portrait collectors therein mentioned, and whose names are printed in capital letters. eleonora rediviva. to seek this nymph among the glorious dead, tir'd with his search on earth, is gulston fled:-- still for these charms enamoured musgrave sighs; to clasp these beauties ardent bindley dies: for these (while yet unstaged to public view,) impatient brand o'er half the kingdom flew; these, while their bright ideas round him play, from classic weston force the roman lay: oft too, my storer, heaven has heard thee swear, not gallia's murdered queen was half so fair: "a new europa!" cries the exulting bull, "my granger now, i thank the gods, is full:"-- even cracherode's self, whom passions rarely move, at this soft shrine has deign'd to whisper love.-- haste then, ye swains, who rumming's form adore, possess your eleanour, and sigh no more. it must be admitted that this is at once elegant and happy. * * * * * we will now say somewhat of the man himself. mr. steevens lived in a retired and eligibly situated house, just on the rise of hampstead heath. it was paled in; and had, immediately before it, a verdant lawn skirted with a variety of picturesque trees. formerly, this house has been a tavern, which was known by the name of the _upper flask_: and which my fair readers (if a single female can have the courage to peruse these bibliomaniacal pages) will recollect to have been the same to which richardson sends clarissa in one of her escapes from lovelace. here steevens lived, embosomed in books, shrubs, and trees: being either too coy, or too unsociable, to mingle with his neighbours. his habits were indeed peculiar: not much to be envied or imitated; as they sometimes betrayed the flights of a madman, and sometimes the asperities of a cynic. his attachments were warm, but fickle both in choice and duration. he would frequently part from one, with whom he had lived on terms of close intimacy, without any assignable cause; and his enmities, once fixed, were immovable. there was, indeed, a kind of venom in his antipathies; nor would he suffer his ears to be assailed, or his heat to relent, in favour of those against whom he entertained animosities, however capricious and unfounded. in _one_ pursuit only was he consistent: _one_ object only did he woo with an inflexible attachment; and that object was _dame_ drama. i have sat behind him, within a few years of his death, and watched his sedulous attention to the performances of strolling players, who used to hire a public room in hampstead; and towards whom his gallantry was something more substantial than mere admiration and applause: for he would make liberal presents of gloves, shoes, and stockings--especially to the female part of the company. his attention, and even delight, during some of the most wretched exhibitions of the dramatic art, was truly surprising; but he was then drooping under the pressure of age, and what passed before him might serve to remind him of former days, when his discernment was quick and his judgment matured. it is, however, but justice to this distinguished bibliomaniac to add that, in his literary attachments he was not influenced by merely splendid talents or exalted rank. to my predecessor herbert (for whose memory i may be allowed, at all times, to express a respectful regard) steevens seems to have shewn marked attention. i am in possession of more than a dozen original letters from him to this typographical antiquary, in which he not only evinces great friendliness of disposition, but betrays an unusual solicitude about the success of herbert's labours; and, indeed, contributes towards it by nearly a hundred notices of rare and curious books which were unknown to, or imperfectly described by, herbert himself. at the close of a long letter, in which, amongst much valuable information, there is a curious list of churchyard's _pieces_--which steevens urges herbert to publish--he thus concludes: "dear sir, "i know not where the foregoing lists of churchyard's pieces can appear with more propriety than in a work like yours; and i therefore venture to recommend them as worth republication. if you publish, from time to time, additions to your book, you may have frequent opportunity of doing similar service to old english literature, by assembling catalogues of the works of scarce, and therefore almost forgotten, authors. by occasional effusions of this kind you will afford much gratification to literary antiquaries, and preserve a constant source of amusement to yourself: for in my opinion, no man is so unhappy as he who is at a loss for something to do. your present task grows towards an end, and i therefore throw out this hint for your consideration." (_july_ , .) a little further he adds: "in your vol. ii. p. , you have but an imperfect account of tyro's '_roaring megge_,' &c. i shall therefore supply it underneath, as the book now lies before me. i have only room left to tell you i am always your very faithfully, g. steevens." but the bibliomanical spirit of the author of this letter, is attested by yet stronger evidence: _hampstead heath_, august th [transcriber's note: th], . "sir, "i have borrowed the following books for your use--dr. farmer's copy of ames, with ms. notes by himself, and an interleaved maunsell's catalogue, with yet more considerable additions by baker the antiquary. the latter i have promised to return at the end of this month, as it belongs to our university library. i should not choose to transmit either of these volumes by any uncertain conveyance; and therefore shall be glad if you will let me know how they may be safely put into your hands. if you can fix a time when you shall be in london, my servant shall wait on you with them; but i must entreat that our library book may be detained as short a time as possible. i flatter myself that it will prove of some service to you, and am, "your very humble servant, "g. steevens." the following was herbert's reply. "_cheshunt_, august th, . "sir, "as it must give you great satisfaction to know that the books were received safe by me last night, it affords me equal pleasure to send you the earliest assurance of it. i thank you sincerely for the liberty you have allowed me of keeping them till i come to london, on monday, the th of september; when i shall bring them with me, and hope to return them safe at mr. longman's, between and o'clock; where, if it may be convenient to you, i shall be very happy to meet you, and personally to thank you for the kind assistance you have afforded me. if that may not suit you, i will gladly wait on you where you shall appoint by a line left there for me; and shall ever esteem myself, "your most obliged humble servant, "w. herbert." the following, and the last, epistolary specimen of the renowned g. steevens--with which i shall treat my reader--is of a general gossipping black-letter cast; and was written two years before the preceding. _hampstead heath_, june th, . "dear sir, "a desire to know how you do, and why so long a time has elapsed since you were seen in london, together with a few queries which necessity compels me to trouble you with, must be my apology for this invasion of your retirement. can you furnish me with a transcript of the title-page to watson's sonnets or love passions, to. bl. l.? as they are not mentioned by puttenham, in , they must, i think, have appeared after that year. can you likewise afford me any account of a collection of poems, bl. l., to. by one john southern? they are addressed 'to the ryght honourable the earle of oxenforde;' the famous vere, who was so much a favourite with queen elizabeth. this book, which contains only four sheets, consists of odes, epitaphs, sonnets to diana, &c. i bought both these books, which seem to be uncommonly rare, at the late sale of major pearson's library. they are defective in their title-pages, and without your assistance must, in all probability, continue imperfect. give me leave to add my sincere hope that your long absence from london has not been the result of indisposition, and that you will forgive this interruption in your studies, from "your very faithful and obedient servant, "geo. steevens." "p.s. i hope your third volume is in the press, as it is very much enquired after." it is now time to bid farewell to the subject of this tremendous note; and most sincerely do i wish i could 'draw the curtain' upon it, and say 'good night,' with as much cheerfulness and satisfaction at [transcriber's note: as] atterbury did upon the close of his professional labours. but the latter moments of steevens were moments of mental anguish. he grew not only irritable, but outrageous; and, in full possession of his faculties, he raved in a manner which could have been expected only from a creature bred up without notions of morality or religion. neither complacency nor 'joyful hope' soothed his bed of death. his language was, too frequently, the language of imprecation; and his wishes and apprehensions such as no rational christian can think upon without agony of heart. although i am not disposed to admit the whole of the testimony of the good woman who watched by his bed-side, and paid him, when dead, the last melancholy attentions of her office--although my prejudices (as they may be called) will not allow me to believe that the windows shook, and that strange noises and deep groans were heard at midnight in his room--yet no creature of common sense (and this woman possessed the quality in an eminent degree) could mistake oaths for prayers, or boisterous treatment for calm and gentle usage. if it be said--why "draw his frailties from their drear abode?" the answer is obvious, and, i should hope, irrefragable. a duty, and a sacred one too, is due to the living. past examples operate upon future ones: and posterity ought to know, in the instance of this accomplished scholar and literary antiquary, that neither the sharpest wit, nor the most delicate intellectual refinement, can, alone, afford a man 'peace at the last.' the vessel of human existence must be secured by other anchors than these, when the storm of death approaches!] loren. you have seen a few similar copies in the library; which i obtained after a strenuous effort. there was certainly a very great degree of book-madness exhibited at the sale of steevens's library--and yet i remember to have witnessed stronger symptoms of the bibliomania! lis. can it be possible? does this madness 'grow with our growth, and strengthen with our strength?' will not such volcanic fury burn out in time? phil. you prevent lysander from resuming, by the number and rapidity of your interrogatories. revert to your first question. lis. truly, i forget it. but proceed with your history, lysander; and pardon my abruptness. lysand. upon condition that you promise not to interrupt me again this evening? lis. i pledge my word. proceed. lysand. having dispatched our account of the sale of the last-mentioned distinguished book-collector, i proceed with my historical survey: tho', indeed, it is high time to close this tedious bibliomaniacal history. the hour of midnight has gone by:--and yet i will not _slur over_ my account of the remaining characters of respectability. the collections of strange[ ] and woodhouse are next, in routine, to be noticed. the catalogue of the library of the former is a great favourite of mine: the departments into which the books are divided, and the compendious descriptions of the volumes, together with the extent and variety of the collection, may afford considerable assistance to judicious bibliomaniacs. poor woodhouse:[ ] thy zeal outran thy wit: thou wert indefatigable in thy search after rare and precious _prints and books_; and thy very choice collection of both is a convincing proof that, where there is wealth and zeal, opportunities in abundance will be found for the gratification of that darling passion, or insanity, now called by the name of bibliomania! [footnote : _bibliotheca strangeiana; a catalogue of the general, curious, and extensive library of that distinguished naturalist and lover of the fine arts, the late_ john strange, esq., l.l.d. f.r.s. and s.a., many years his britannic majesty's resident at the republic of venice. comprehending an extraordinary fine collection of books and tracts, in most languages and sciences, to the number of upwards of _four-score thousand, &c._ digested by samuel paterson. sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, march , , vo., articles. this is a plain, unaffected, but exceedingly well-digested, catalogue of a very extraordinary collection of books in all departments of literature. i do not know whether it be not preferable, in point of arrangement, to any catalogue compiled by paterson. it has, however, a wretched aspect; from the extreme indifference of the paper.] [footnote : we will first give the title to the catalogue of the late mr. woodhouse's collection of prints. "_a catalogue of the choice and valuable collection of antient and modern prints, &c._, selected with the highest taste from all the collections at home and abroad, &c. sold by auction by mr. christie; january, ." the _first part_ ends with the th day's sale; the second commences with the sixth day's sale and concludes on the sixteenth, with the malborough [transcriber's note: marlborough] gems. although we may have to give specimens of some of the _rare and precious_ prints contained in this collection, in the course of part vi. of this work, yet the reader, i would fain hope, will not be displeased with the following interesting extract, with the annexed prices, of the prints from the marlborough gems. [_this assemblage, the result of twenty years' collecting, contains a greater number than ever has been at one time offered to the public.--the first volume is complete, and may be accounted unique, as all the impressions are before the numbers, the artists' names, or proofs without any letters, as in the presentation copies: the subject of cupid and psyche is with variations, and the whole may be regarded as a great rarity. those of the second volume are few in number, but in point of curiosity, no ways inferior._] lot. £ _s._ _d._ . _one._ cæsar in the temple of venus. _proof before any letters._ . _two._ no. . scipio africanus. no. . lucius c. sylla. . _two._ no. . julias cæsar; caput laureatum. [transcriber's note: julius] no. . marcus junius brutus. . _two._ no. . marcus junius brutus; cum caduceo. no. . lepidus; cum lituo. . _two._ no. . augusti caput; cum corona radiata. no. . augusti pontificis maximi insign. &c. . _two._ no. . marcellii octaviæ, filii augusti nepotis caput: opus elegantissimum. no. . liviæ protome: cum capite laureato et velato pectore: simul tiberii pueri prope adstantis caput arboris ignotæ foliis redimitum. . _two._ no. . tiberii caput juvenile. no. . germanici togati protome; cum capite laureato, facie plena, &c. . _two._ no. . agrippinæ majoris uxoris germanici & caligulæ matris caput laureatum; sub effigie dianæ. no. . ejusdem agrippinæ: sub effigie cereris. . _two._ no. . galbæ caput laureatum. no. . ejusdem galbæ caput. . _two._ no. . nervæ togati protome; cum capite laureato, plena facie; opus pulcherrimum. no. . ejusdem nervæ caput. . _two._ no. . marcianæ, trajani sororis, caput. no. . sabinæ hadriani uxoris caput. . _two._ no. . antinoi caput, cum pectore velato. no. . caracalla togati protome facie plena. . _two._ no. . caracallæ caput laureatum. no. . juliæ domnæ, severi uxoris, caput. . _two._ no. . laocoontes caput. no. . semiramidis, vel potius musæ, caput cum pectore. . _three._ no. . minervæ alcidiæ caput galeatum; operis egregii, edit. var. . _two._ no. . phocionis caput. no. . jovis et junonis capita jugata. . _three._ no. . veneris caput. no. . bacchæ caput var. . _two._ no. . hercules bibax, stans. no. . bacchus, stans. . _two._ no. . faunus tigridis pelli insidens, cauda, &c. no. . athleta, stans, qui dextra manus trigelem, &c. . _two._ no. . mercurius stans. no. . mars, stans, armatus. . _two._ no. . miles de rupe descendens, eximii sculptoris græci opus. no. . diomedes palladio potitus cum ulysse altercatione contendit. . _two._ no. . dei marini natantes. no. . miles vulneratus a militibus duobus sustentatur. . _two._ no. . miles militi vulnerato opitulato. no. . mulier stolata cum virgine. . _two._ no. . faunus pelle caprina ex humeris pendente vestitus; pedem super suggestum ignotæ figuræ figit et infantem genu sustinet. no. . alexandri magni effigies. . _two._ no. . Æneam diomedes a saxo percussum conservat. no. . pompeiæ cujusdam ob victoriam partam descriptio. . _two._ no. . amazon amazonem morientem } sustinet juxta equus. } } . no. . fragmen gemmæ bacchi, &c. } . _one._ no. . nuptiæ psyches et cupidonis, _rariss._ . _one._ no. . ditto, ditto, _rariss._ . _one._ frontispiece to second volume; _proof, before the inscription on the arms; very rare_. . _two._ no. . ptolomæus. } } . no. . metrodorus. } . _two._ no. . socrates et plato. no. . sappho. . _two._ no. . ignotum caput scyllacis opus. no. . ignotum caput. . _two._ no. . medusa. no. . hercules et iole. . _two._ no. . l. junius brutus. no. . annibal. . _two._ no. . mecænes. no. . drusus tiberii filius. . _two._ no. . caput ignotum, antonini forsan junioris. no. . equi. . _two._ no. . mercurii templum. no. . coronis. . _two._ no. . cupidonis. no. . faunus. . _three._ no. . omphale incedens. no. . biga, var. . _two._ no. . silenus, tigris, &c. var. . _two._ the vignette to the second volume; _proof, very fine, and etching, perhaps, unique_. for an interesting account of the engravings of the devonshire gems--the rival publication of those from the marlborough collection--the reader may consult mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_; vol. i. - . the entire collection of mr. woodhouse's prints produced _l._ _s._ _d._ we will now make handsome mention of the bibliotheca woodhousiana. _a catalogue of the entire, elegant, and valuable library of john woodhouse, esq., comprising a rich and extensive collection of books, &c. sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, december, ._ vo. the collection was rather choice and rich, than extensive: having only articles. some of the rarest editions in old english literature were vigorously contended for by well-known collectors: nor did the library want beautiful and useful works of a different description. the following specimens will enable the reader to form a pretty correct estimate of the general value of this collection. no. . antonie (the tragedie of) doone into english by the countesse of pembroke, r.m. g.l. lond. . mo. £ _s._ _d._ . barnabee's journal, with bessie bell, _first edit. b.m. g.l._ . mo. . bastard's (thomas) chrestoleros, seven bookes of epigrammes, _g.m. g.l._ . mo. . chaucer, by tyrwhitt, with the glossary, g.m. g.l. vol. . vo. . cokain's (sir aston) poems and plays, _with head_, r.m. g.l. vol. . vo. . a paire of turtle doves, or the history of bellora and fidelio, bl. l. to. _see ms. note by steevens_, . . burnet's history of his own times, _large paper_, r.m. g.l. vol. . to. . dodsley's collection of old plays, _large paper_, vols. . vo. _only six copies printed in this manner._ . latham's general synopsis of birds, with index, vols. with reverse plates, elegantly painted by miss stone, now mrs. smith: r.m. g.m.l. to. 'n.b. _of the above set of books, there are only_ copies.' . clarendon's history of the rebellion, with his life, large paper, vols. _boards, uncut_, , , fol. . heath's chronicle, _frontispiece and heads_, r.m. g.l. . vols. vo. . knight's life of colet, _large paper_; plates, elegant, in light brown calf, g.l.m. , vo. . knight's life of erasmus, _large paper_, plates, elegant, in light brown calf, g.l.m. , vo. . lewin's birds of great britain, with the eggs accurately figured, elegantly painted with back ground, vols. in . _a superb copy, in g.m. g.m.l._ , to. . martyn's universal conchologist; english entomologist: and aranei, or natural history of spiders, vols. elegantly coloured. _a superb copy_, in r.m. g.m.l. , , and , to. . harrison's seven triumphal arches, in honor of james i., all the [seven] parts complete; _curious and very rare_, r.m. g.l. . folio. . hearne and bryne's antiquities and views in great britain, _proof impressions_, m. g.l. , oblong folio. . skelton's (mayster) poems: colyn clout, _lond. by john whygte_. whi come ye not to courte; _lond. by john whygte_. phillyp sparow; speak parot; death of the noble prynce, &c. see note. _lond. by john kynge and thomas marshe_. merie tales; _unique_, see note. _lond. by thomas colwell_, vol. bl. l. r.m. g.l. mo. . monument of matrons, containing seven severall lamps of virginitie, by thomas bentley; bl. l. r. vols. , to. . nychodemus gospell, wood-cuts, bl. l. g.l. r.m. _lond. wynkyn de worde_, , to. . pennant's history of quadrupeds, boards, _uncut, large paper, proof plates_, , to. . the late expedition in scotlande, made by the kinges hyhnys armye, under the conduit of the ryht honourable the earl of hertforde, the yere of our lorde god, . bl. l. r.m. g.l. _lond. by reynolde wolfe_, , vo. . sommers's (lord) collection of scarce and valuable tracts, vols. r. g.l. , , , , folio. . temple of glas, bl. l. see notes by g. mason. _wynkyn de worde, no date_, to. . tour (a) through the south of england, wales, and part of ireland, in , large paper, proof plates, coloured, . n.b. "of the above book only six copies were printed." . vicar's england's parliamentary chronicle, r. g.l. complete, parts, vols. , to. . speed's theatre of great britain, maps, r. g.l. m.l. _a remarkable fine copy_, . . the myrrour and dyscrypcyon of the worlde, with many mervaylles, wood-cuts, b.m. g.l. _emprynted by me lawrence andrewe_, , folio. . the recuile of the histories of troie, translated into english by william caxton, very fair, b.m. g.l. _imprynted at london by w. copland_, , fol. . the myrroure of golde for the synfull soule, bl. l. wood-cuts. _imprynted at lond. in the fleete-strete, at the sygne of the sun, by wynkyn de worde_, , to. . barclay's (alexander) egloges, out of a boke named in latin, miserie curialium, compyled by eneas sylvius, poete and oratour, bl. l. _woodcuts, five parts, and complete_, g.m. _imprynted by wynkyn de worde_, to. . holy life and history of saynt werburge, very frutefull for all christian people to rede. poems, bl. l. g.m. _imp. by richard pynson_, , to. amount of the sale, _l._ _s._] phil. i attended the sale of woodhouse's prints and books; and discovered at it as strong symptoms of the madness of which we are discoursing as ever were exhibited on a like occasion. i have the catalogue upon fine paper, which, however, is poorly printed; but i consider it rather a curious bibliographical morçeau. lysand. make the most of it, for it will soon become scarce. and now--notwithstanding my former boast to do justice to the remaining bibliomaniacal characters of respectability--as i find my oral powers almost exhausted, i shall barely mention the sales, by auction, of the collections of wilkes, ritson, and boucher[ ]--although i ought to mention the _bibliotheca boucheriana_ with more respect than its two immediate predecessors; as the collector was a man endowed with etymological acumen and patience; and i sincerely wish the public were now receiving the benefit of the continuation of his dictionary; of which the author published so excellent a specimen, comprehending only the letter a. dr. jamieson has, to be sure, in a great measure done away the melancholy impression which lexicographical readers would otherwise have experienced--by the publication of his own unrivalled "_scottish dictionary_;" yet there is still room enough in the literary world for a continuation of boucher. [footnote : it did not, perhaps, suit lysander's notions to make mention of book-sales to which no collectors' names were affixed; but, as it has been my office, during the whole of the above conversation, to sit in a corner and take notes of what our book-orator has said, as well to correct as to enlarge the narrative, i purpose, gentle reader, prefacing the account of the above noticed three collections by the following bibliomaniacal specimen: '_a catalogue of a capital and truly valuable library, the genuine property of a gentleman of fashion, highly distinguished for his fine taste_,' &c.: sold by auction by mr. christie, may, , vo. articles: amount of the sale, _l._ _s._; being nearly _l._ an article. now for the beloved specimens: no. . baptistæ portæ de humanâ physiognomia, _with wood-cuts. hanoviæ_, , et johannis physiophili opuscula. _aug. vin._ , vo. £ _s._ _d._ . officium beatæ virginis. _this unique_ manuscript _on vellum of the th century, is enriched with highly finished miniature paintings, and is one of the most perfect and best preserved missals known in england._ . a complete set of the barbou classics, vols. _elegantly bound in green_ (_french_) morocco, with gilt leaves, vo. . gesta et vestigia danorum extra daniam, v. _large paper, with a portrait in satin of the prince to whom it is dedicated, lips: et hafn_: , to. _black morocco, gilt leaves._ n.b. 'it is supposed that the rolliad was taken from this work.' . brittania, lathmon, et villa bromhamensis, poëmatia; _bodoni, parma_, , _red morocco_, folio. . contes des fées; paris, , vo. vols. imprimÉe sur velin. this unique copy is ornamented with nineteen original drawings, and was made for the late madame royale: _elegantly bound in blue morocco and enclosed in a morocco case_. . memoires du comte de grammont. _edition printed for the comte d'artois._ _par._ . vo. this beautiful small work, from the text of which harding's edition was copied, is adorned with several high finished portraits in miniature, painted by a celebrated artist, and is elegantly bound in green morocco, with morocco case. . l'antiquité expliquée, par montfaucon, with fine plates; _large paper copy_, vol. red (french) _morocco, with gilt leaves_; and monarchie françoise, , v. l. p. _correspondently bound_, folio. . anacreontis carmina, gr. et lat. from a ms. in the vatican of the tenth century: with _beautiful coloured miniatures by piale, appropriate to each ode, in rich morocco binding_. _romæ_, . folio. early in the year in which this collection was disposed of, the very beautiful choice, and truly desirable library of george galway mills, esq. was sold by auction by mr. jeffery, in february, . my copy of this well-executed catalogue is upon _large paper_; but it has not the prices subjoined. meanwhile let the sharp-sighted bibliomaniac look at no. , , , , , , , only. thus it will be seen that the year was most singularly distinguished for _book-auction bibliomaniacism_! we now proceed to notice the sales of the libraries of those bibliomaniacs above mentioned by lysander. _a catalogue of the very valuable library of the late_ john wilkes, esq., m.p., _&c., sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, in november_, , vo.: articles. there are few articles, except the following deserving of being extracted. no. . bernier theologie portatif, lond. --boulanger recherches sur l'origine du despotisme oriental, morocco, gilt leaves. lond. , vo. 'n.b. the "recherches" were printed by mr. wilkes, at his own private printing press, in great george street, westminster, in .' . catullus, recensuit johannes wilkes; _impress. in membranis_, red morocco, gilt leaves. lond. ap. nichols, , to. . copies taken from the records of the c. of k.b. . "note in this book--printed by p.c. webe, one of the solicitors to the treasury, never published," &c. . theophrasti characteres: græce, johannes wilkes, recensuit. _impress. in membranis_, lond. , to. . wilkes's history of england, no. i. , to. next comes the account of the library of that redoubted champion of ancient lore, and anti-wartonian critic, joseph ritson. his books, upon the whole, brought very moderate sums. _a catalogue of the entire and curious library and manuscripts of the late_ joseph ritson, esq., _&c., sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, december_ , , vo. no. . skelton's (maister) workes, ms. notes, and lists of the different editions of skelton's works, and likewise of those never printed; and of these last, in whose possession many of them are, , vo. £ _s._ _d._ . jeffrey of monmouth's british history, by thompson; a great number of ms. notes, on separate papers, by mr. ritson. lond. , vo. . the sevin seages. translatit out of paris in scottis meter, be johne rolland in dalkeith, with one moralitie after everie doctouris tale, and siclike after the emprice tale, togidder with one loving landaude to everie doctour after his awin tale, and one exclamation and outcrying upon the emprerouris wife after his fals contrusit tale. _imprentit at edinburgh, be johne ros, for henrie charteris_, , to. "note in this book by mr. ritson; no other copy of this edition is known to exist, neither was it known to ames, herbert," &c. &c. . a new enterlude, never before this tyme imprinted, entreating of the life and repentance of marie magadelene [transcriber's note: magdalene], not only godlie, learned and fruitfull, but also well furnished with pleasant myrth and pastime, very delectable for those which shall heare or reade the same, _made by the learned charke [transcriber's note: clarke] lewis wager--printed_ , ms. . bibliographia scotica; anecdotes biographical and literary of scotish writers, historians, and poets, from the earliest account to the nineteenth century, in two parts, intended for publication. . shakspeare, by johnson and steevens, vols. containing a great number of manuscript notes, corrections, &c. &c. together with vols. of manuscript notes, by mr. ritson, prepared by him for the press, intending to publish it. the year ensuing (of which lysander has, very negligently, taken no notice) was distinguished for the sale of a collection of books, the like unto which had never been seen, since the days of the dispersion of the parisian collection. the title of the auction catalogue was, in part, as follows: _a catalogue of a most splendid and valuable collection of books, superb missals, original drawings, &c. the genuine property of a gentleman of distinguished taste, retiring into the country, &c._ sold by auction by mr. christie, april, , vo. articles: total amount, _l._--being almost _l._ an article. i attended both days of this sale and the reader shall judge of my own satisfaction, by that which _he_ must receive from a perusal of the following specimens of this _bibliotheca splendidissima_. no. . a most complete set of sir william dugdale's works, containing monasticon anglicanum, in vols. ; monasticon, vol. , editio secunda, vols.; monasticon, in english, with steevens's continuation, vols.; warwickshire, first edition; warwickshire, second edition, by thomas, vols.; st. paul's, first and second edition, vols.; baronage, vols.; history of imbanking, first and second editions, vols.; origines juridiciales, third edition; view of the troubles; summons of the nobility; usage of arms and office of lord chancellor. _this fine set of dugdale is elegantly bound in russia leather in volumes._ £ _s._ _d._ (now worth _l._) . biographia britannica, vols. , folio. a matchless set illustrated with portraits, fine and rare, and _elegantly bound in russia leather_. . homeri ilias et odyssea, vols. glasgow, , fol. an unique copy, on _large paper_, illustrated with flaxman's plates to the iliad, and original drawings, by miss wilkes, to the odyssey; _superbly bound in blue turkey_. . milton's poetical works, large paper, tonson, . milton's historical works, &c., by birch, vols. large paper, , vols. _elegantly bound in russia leather_. . ogilby's historical works, containing britannia, china, vols. japan, asia, africa, and america, with fine plates by hollar, vols. folio, _fine copy in russia_. . lord clarendon's history of the grand rebellion, vols. folio, _large paper, splendidly bound in morocco_, . . winwood's memorials of affairs of state, vols. . _large paper, elegantly bound, and gilt leaves_. . wood's athenæ oxonienses, vols. best edition, . _a fine copy on large paper, elegantly bound in russia, with gilt leaves_, fol. from no. to , inclusive (only volumes), there was a set of "_painted missals and curious manuscripts_," which were sold for _l._ among them, was mr. john towneley's matchless missal, decorated by the famous francesco veronese--"one of the finest productions of the kind ever imported from italy:" see no. . for an account of the books printed upon vellum in this collection, see part vi. let us close this note with the _bibliotheca boucheriana_; of which such respectable mention is above justly made by lysander. "_a catalogue of the very valuable and extensive library of the late_ rev. jonathan boucher, _a.m., f.r.s., vicar of epsom, surrey. comprehending a fine and curious collection in divinity, history, &c.: sold by auction by leigh and sotheby; in february_, ." _first part_, articles: _second part_, articles: _third part_, published in : articles. i attended many days during this sale; but such was the warm fire, directed especially towards divinity, kept up during nearly the whole of it, that it required a heavier weight of metal than i was able to bring into the field of battle to ensure any success in the contest. i cannot help adding that these catalogues are wretchedly printed.] ah, well-a-day!--have i not come to the close of my book-history? are there any other bibliomaniacs of distinction yet to notice? yes!--i well remember the book-sale events of the last four years. i well remember the curiosity excited by the collections of the marquis of lansdowne, john brand, isaac reed, richard porson, alexander dalrymple, and richard gough,[ ] and with these i must absolutely make my bibliomaniacal peroration! illustrious men!---- [footnote : for the same reason as has been adduced at p. , ante, and from a strong wish to render this _list of book auctions_ as perfect as my opportunities will allow, i shall persevere, at the foot of lysander's narrative, in submitting to the attention of the curious reader a still further account of sales than those above alluded to in the text. as this will be the last note in part v., i hope, however late the hour, or exhausted his patience, that the reader will also persevere to the close of it, and then wish the author "good night," along with his friends, whose salutations are above so dramatically described. at the very opening of the year in which mr. boucher's books were sold, the magnificent collection of the marquis of lansdowne was disposed of. i well remember the original destination of this numerous library: i well remember the long, beautiful, and classically ornamented room, in which, embellished and guarded by busts, and statues of gods and heroes, the books were ranged in quiet and unmolested order, adjoining to the noblest mansion in london. if the consideration of external, or out-of-door, objects be put out of the question, this library-room had not its superior in great britain. let us now come to particulars: "_bibliotheca lansdowniana. a catalogue of the entire library of the late most noble william_ marquis of lansdowne; _sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, &c. january_, ." vo. the following is but a slender specimen of the printed books in the lansdowne collection. no. . arthur kynge (the story of the most noble and worthy) the whiche was fyrst of the worthyes christen, and also of his noble and valyaunt knyghtes of the round table; _newly imprynted and corrected, black letter, title-page emblazoned, turkey. imp. at lond. by wyllyam coplande_, , folio. in the collection of mr. dent. £ _s._ _d._ . ashmole's (elias) institution, laws, and ceremonies of the order of the garter, plates by hollar, _l. paper, green morocco, border of gold, gilt leaves_, , folio. . chronica del rey don alonso el onzeno, roy de castilla, &c. _liter. goth. mar. verd. volladolid [transcriber's note: valladolid]._ , folio. . ---- del rey don pedro. d. enrrique [transcriber's note: enrique], y d. juan, _pampl._ , folio. . ---- des reys de portugal, d. joanno i. d. duarte, e d. alfonso, _lisboa_, , folio. . gazette, london, from the beginning, to inclusive, vol. folio. . leyes del reyno, del don philippe ii. recopilacion de las, tom. alcala, . folio. . ---- de los reynos de las indias, del don carlos ii. tom. madrid, , folio. . money; a very curious collection of single sheets, &c., and with several ms. memorandums and papers on that subject, bound in one volume. . somers' (lord) tracts, vol. lond. , . . stuart's (james) antiquities of athens, plates, vol. , , folio. . stukeley's (wm.) itinerary, cuts, _russia_, vol. in vol. , , folio. . a very rare collection of tracts, documents, and pamphlets, consisting of above volumes, tending to illustrate the history of the french revolution--together with more than volumes relative to the transactions in the low countries, between the years and , and their separation from the house of austria:--amongst the above will be found the following works. des etats generaux, &c. par. . vol. process verbaux de la première assemblée, vol. ditto de la seconde vol. ditto de la convocation vol. revolution françoise, vol. from to , wanting vol. , , and . la bastile devoilée. par. . sir james m'intosh's vindiciæ gallicæ, and numerous pieces relative to the constitution and administration of the french government, in its executive, legislative, judicial, and financial departments, by messrs. mirabeau, turgot, barrere, calonne, necker, &c. i should observe that the prints or engravings of the marquis, together with the _printed prices_ for which they, and the foregoing library, were sold, are usually added to the catalogue of the books. in the spring of , the manuscripts belonging to the same noble collector were catalogued to be sold by public auction. these manuscripts, in the preface of the _first_ volume of the catalogue, are said to 'form one of the noblest and most valuable private collections in the kingdom.' it is well known that the collection never came to the hammer; but was purchased by parliament for _l._, and is deposited in the british museum. a catalogue of it is now _sub prelo_; vide p. , ante. we are next to notice the sale by auction of the library of the late rev. john brand. the first part of this collection was disposed of in the spring of ; and the catalogue had this title: _bibliotheca brandiana. a catalogue of the unique, scarce, rare, curious, and numerous collection of works, &c., being the entire library of the late_ rev. john brand, _fellow and secretary of the antiquarian society, author of the history of newcastle, popular antiquities, &c. sold by auction by mr. stewart_, may, . this first part contained articles, or lots, of printed books; exclusively of lots of manuscripts. hereafter followeth, gentle reader, some specimens, selected almost at random, of the 'unique, scarce, rare, and curious' books contained in the said library of this far-famed secretary of the society of antiquaries. no. . _ane compendious booke of godly and spiritual songs_, bl. lett. vo. edinb. . £ _s._ _d._ . academy of pleasure, with portraits of drayton, g. withers, f. quarles, and b. jonson, lon. , vo. . a curtaine lecture, _rare and curious_, frontispiece, lond. , vo. . a banquet of jests, or change of cheare, with portrait of archee, the king's jester. _rare._ lond. , vo. . arnold's chronicle of the customs of london, a fine copy, perfect, _printed by pynson_, fol. . . an alvearie, or quadruple dictionarie, by baret. francof. fol. . . dyalogue of dives and pauper, _that is to say, the rich and the pore, fructuously tretyng upon the ten commandments_, black-letter, printed by pynson, fol. . . allot's england's parnassus, vo. . . a booke of fishing, with hooke and line, , vo. a booke of engines and traps to take polcats, buzzards, rats, mice, &c. cuts, _very rare_, [see p. , ante.] . archy's dream, sometimes jester to his majestie, but expelled the court by canterbury's malice, _very rare_, vo. . a new dialogue between the angell of god and shepherdes in the felde, black-letter. _pr. by day_, vo. . a dialogue betweene two neighbours, concernyng ceremonyes in the first year of queen mary, black-letter, with portrait of mary, by delarum, from roane, by michelwood, , vo. . a short inuentory of certayne idle inventions, black-letter, _very rare_. . a juniper lecture, with the description of all sorts of women, good and bad, _very rare_. lond. , vo. . a quip for an upstart courtier; or a quaint dispute betweene velvet breeches and cloth breeches, wherein is set downe the disorders in all estates and trades, _with portraits_. lond. printed by g.p., , to. . articles to be enquired into by various bishops, &c., in their visitations; upwards of one hundred; _a very curious, scarce, and unique collection_, to. . barbiere (john) the famous game of chesse play, cuts, . the most ancient and learned play, the philosopher's game, invented for the honourable recreation of the studious, by w.f., black-letter, , to. . a plaister for a galled horse, _very rare_, , to. [see herbert's ames, vol. i. : and p. ; ante.] . a counter blaste to tobacco. lond. , to. . bentley's (thos.) monument of matrons, containing seven severall lamps of virginitie, or distinct treatises, collated and perfect, a very fine copy, extremely rare and curious, _imprinted at london, by thomas dawson, for william seres, extremely rare_, black-letter, , to. . bert (edmund) an approved treatise of hawkes and hunting. lond. , to. . burton (wm.) seven dialogues, black-letter. lond. . george whetstone's mirrour for magistrates of cities, b.l., printed by richard jones, , to. . byshop's (john) beautifull blossomes, black-letter, imprinted by henrie cockyn, , to. . characters (viz.) the surfeit to a.b.c. lond. . dr. lupton's london and country carbonadoed and quartered into seuerall characters, . essayes and characters, by l.g., , vo. . england's jests refined and improved, , vo. . catharo's diogenes in his singularitie, wherein is comprehended his merrie baighting fit for all men's benefits: christened by him a _nettle for nice noses_, by l.t., black-letter, , to. . fages (mrs.) poems, fames roule, &c., _rare_, lond. , to. . stukeley's (wm.) itinerarium curiosum; _vols. in_ , _russia_, folio. . the blazon of jealousie, written in italian, by varchi. lond. , vo. . tracts: dial of witches, ; lancaster witches, ; trial of yorkshire witches, ; the golden fleece, ; cage of diabolical possession, to. . the most strange and admirable discoverie of the three witches of warboys, arraigned, convicted, and executed at the last assizes at huntington; for bewitching the five daughters of robert throckmorton, esq., and divers other persons, with sundrie devilish and grievous torments; and also for bewitching to death the lady crumwell. _extra rare_, to. . witches apprehended, examined, and executed for notable villanies, by them committed both by land and water, with a strange and most true triall how to know whether a woman be a witch or not: _with the plate_. _extra rare_, to. . the pleasure of princes, the art of angling, together with the ordering and dieting of the fighting cocke, , to. . the knyght of the toure; _a perfect and fine specimen of the father of english printers_, , folio. the reader (if he pleases) may consult my first volume, p. , of the _typographical antiquities of great britain_, for some account of this edition. my copy of this first part of the catalogue of brand's books is upon _large paper, with the prices inserted in the margin_. the _second part_ of the bibliotheca brandiana, containing duplicates and pamphlets, was sold in february, , by mr. stewart. there were articles. few collections attracted greater attention before, and during, the sale than did the library of the late mr. isaac reed: a critic and literary character of very respectable second-rate reputation. the public journals teemed, for a time, with book-anecdotes concerning this collection; and the _athenæum_, _monthly mirror_, _censura literaria_, _european magazine_, struck out a more bold outline of the bibliotheca reediana than did the generality of their fellow journals. reed's portrait is prefixed to the european magazine, the monthly mirror, and the catalogue of his own books: it is an indifferently stippled scraping, copied from a fine mellow mezzotint, from the characteristic pencil of romney. this latter is a private plate, and, as such, is rare. to return to the library. the preface to the catalogue was written by the rev. h.j. todd. it is brief, judicious, and impressive; giving abundant proof of the bibliomaniacal spirit of the owner of the library--who would appear to have adopted the cobler's well-known example of applying one room to almost every domestic purpose: for reed made his library 'his parlour, kitchen, and hall.' a brave and enviable spirit this!--and, in truth, what is comparable with it? but the reader is beginning to wax impatient for a more particular account. here it is: _bibliotheca reediana. a catalogue of the curious and extensive library of the late isaac reed, esq., of staple inn, deceased. comprehending a most extraordinary collection of books in english literature, &c.: sold by auction, by messrs. king and lochée: november_, , _ vo._ the following specimens of some of reed's scarce volumes are copied, in part, from the account which was inserted in the _athenæum_, vol. iii., pp. , , under the extraordinary signatures of w. caxton and w. de worde. no. . a portfolio of single-sheet ballads. £ _s._ _d._ . colman (w.) death's duel, vo., _frontispiece_. . barnefield's affectionate shepherd, _very rare_, to. . . a musical concort of heavenly harmonie, called churchyard's charitie. _see ms. notes in churchyard's pieces, by steevens, reed_, &c., , to. . churchyard's lamentable and pitiable description of the woeful warres in flanders, , to. . ---- a true discourse of the succeeding governors in the netherlands, and the civil warres there begun in , to. . ---- a light bundle of lively discourses, called churchyard's charge, presented as a new year's gift to the earl of savoy, , to. . ---- challenge, b.l., , with a copious manuscript account of his works, by j. reed, and a small octavo tract, called a discourse of rebellion, , to. . gascoigne (george) whole workes, _fine copy in russia_, to., b.l., . . cynthia, with certain sonnets, _rare_, , vo. . whetstone (george) mirror of true honor, and christain [transcriber's note: christian] nobilitie, exposing the life, death, and divine vertues of francis earl of bedford, b.l., , to. . beaumont and fletcher's philaster; or love lies a bleeding, _frontispiece_, to., . . shakspeariana, a large assemblage of tracts by various authors, relative to shakspeare, neatly bound in vols. vo. . stillingfleet (benj.) plays, never either finished or published. _the only copy ever seen by mr. reed._ . a volume of unpublished and unprinted fables, by john ellis, scrivener and translator of maphaeus. _note by mr. reed:_ 'it was given to me by mr. john sewell, bookseller, to whom mr. ellis bequeathed his manuscripts. see my account of mr. ellis in the european magazine, jan. : large to.' the volume is enriched with fine engravings, appropriate to each fable. . notitia dramatica, both printed and manuscript; containing a chronological account of the chief incidents relating to the english theatres, from nov. , to st dec. . "collected from various sources, but chiefly the public advertisers, which were lent me by mr. woodfall for the purpose. this volume contains the most material facts relating to the theatres for the last fifty years, and will be useful to any person who may wish to compile a history of the stage." isaac reed, staple's inn, aug. . . of this catalogue, there are _only twelve copies_ printed upon large paper; which were all distributed previous to the sale of the books. the common paper copies are very indifferently executed. the late mr. george baker had the completest _l.p._ copy of this catalogue in existence. before we proceed to give an account of subsequent book-sales, it may be as well to pause for a few minutes--and to take a retrospective view of the busy scene which has been, in part, described: or rather, it may be no incurious thing to lay before the reader for a future century (when the ashes of the author shall have long mouldered into their native dust) a statement of the principal book-sales which took place from november, , to november, --at messrs. leigh and sotheby's king and lochée's, and mr. stewart's. the minor ones carried on under covent-garden piazza, tom's coffee-house, &c., are not necessary to be noticed. in calculating the number of volumes, i have considered one article, or lot, with the other, to comprehend three volumes. the result is as follows. _book-sales by messrs._ leigh _and_ sotheby. volumes. rev. edward bowerbank's library. earl of halifax's mr. john voigt's sutton sharpe's, esq. george mason's, ditto mr. burdon's charles bedford's, esq. rev. charles bathurst's sir john sebright's, bt. (duplicates). bishop horsley's mr. e. edward's lieut. col. thos. velley's _four miscellaneous_ ------ , _book-sales by_ king _and_ lochÉe. volumes. r. foster's, esq. library dr. john millar's mr. c. martin's mr. daniel waldron's rev. thomas towle's mr. brice lambert's c. dilly's isaac reed's _six miscellaneous_ ------ , _book-sales by_ mr. stewart. mr. law's library lord thurlow's mr. william bryant's rev. w.w. fitzthomas's rev. john brand's george stubbs, esq. _three miscellaneous_ ------ , total sold by messrs. leigh and sotheby messrs. king and lochée mr. stewart ------- , such has been the circulation of books, within the foregoing period, by the hands of _three auctioneers only_; and the prices which a great number of _useful_ articles brought is a sufficient demonstration that books are esteemed for their _intrinsic value_, as well as for the adventitious circumstances which render them _rare_ or _curious_. but prosterity [transcriber's note: posterity] are not to judge of the prevalence of knowledge in these times by the criterion of, what are technically called, _book-sales_ only. they should be told that, within the same twelve months, thousands and tens of thousands of books of all sorts have been circulated by the _london booksellers_; and that, without travelling to know the number disposed of at bristol, liverpool, york, manchester, or exeter, it may be only necessary to state that _one distinguished house_ alone, established not quite a furlong from the railings of st. paul's cathedral, sold not far short of _two hundred thousand volumes_ within the foregoing period! if learning continue thus to thrive, and books to be considered as necessary furniture to an apartment; if wealthy merchants are resolved upon procuring large paper copies, as well as indian spices and russian furs; we may hail, in anticipation, that glorious period when the book-fairs of _leipsic_ shall be forgotten in the superior splendour of those of _london_! but to return to our chronological order: the ensuing year, , was distinguished for no small mischief excited in the bibliomaniacal world by the sales of many curious and detached libraries. the second part of mr. brand's collection which was sold in the spring of this year, has been already noticed. the close of the year witnessed the sales, by auction, of the books of samuel ewer, esq. (retiring into the country), and of mr. machel stace, bookseller. the former collection was very strong in bibliography; and the latter presented a singularly valuable 'collection of rare and select' books, relating to old english literature elegantly bound: containing articles. mr. stace had published, the preceding year, '_a catalogue of curious and scarce books and tracts_:' which, with the preceding, merit a snug place upon the bibliographer's shelf. we now enter upon a more busy year of sales of books by auction. the bibliomania had only increased by the preceding displays of precious and magnificent volumes. and first came on, in magnitude and inportance [transcriber's note: importance], the sales of alexander dalrymple and professor porson. of these in turn. _a catalogue of the extensive and valuable library of books: part i. late the property of_ alex. dalrymple, esq. f.r.s., _deceased_. hydrographer to the board of admiralty, and the hon. east india company, &c., sold by auction by king and lochée, may , , vo.-- articles: _a catalogue, &c., part ii. of the same: sold by auction by the same_: nov. .-- articles. i should add that there is a stippled engraving of dalrymple, with fac-simile of his hand-writing, which faces the title page to _part first_ of this extraordinary and numerous collection; of books of geography, voyages, and travels. i strongly recommend copies of these catalogues to be in every library of extent and utility. we are now to notice: _a catalogue of part of the library of the late richard porson, a.m., greek professor of the university of cambridge_, &c.: sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, june th, , vo.-- articles: amount of the books, _l._ _s._ _d._ the subjoined is rather a rich, though brief, specimen of some of the valuable books contained in the library of this profound greek scholar; in whom the acuteness of bentley, and the erudition of hemsterhusius, were more than revived. no. . biblia græca, et novum testamentum græce, lectionibus d.j.j. griesbach, vols., boards, uncut, ms. notes at the beginning of each vol. hal. sax. - , vo. £ _s._ _d._ the notes amounted to the correction of typographical errors and addition to a note of griesbach's, consisting of authorities he ought to have added. . athenæus, gr. lat., cum animadversionibus i. casauboni, vols., ms. notes, lugduni, , folio. . chariton de amor. chaeræ et callirrhoe, gr. lat. cum animadversionibus, j.p. d'orville--amst. , to. porson's note in the beginning. 'opus plenum eruditionis, judicii et sagacitatis non item.' . homeri ilias et odyssea (the grenville edition) boards, uncut, with the original portrait. oxoniæ, to., _large paper_: vols. . eustathius in homerum, vols., morocco, gilt leaves, par. , fol. . shakspeare's (william) plays by johnson and steevens, vols., boards, uncut, , vo. anecdotes and memoirs of richard porson are strewn, like spring flowers in an extensive pasture, in almost every newspaper, magazine, and journal. among the latter, there is an interesting one by dr. adam clarke in the _classical journal_, no. iv., p. . the _hand-writing_ of porson is a theme of general admiration, and justly so; but his _greek_ characters have always struck me as being more stiff and cramped than his roman and italic. i well remember when he shewed me, and expatiated eloquently upon, the famous ms. of plato, of the th century. poor fillingham was of the party. little did i then expect that three years only would deprive the world of its great classical ornament, and myself of a well-informed and gentle-hearted friend! we will now close our account of the book-ravages in the year , by noticing the dispersion of a few minor corps of bibliomaniacal troops, in the shape of printed volumes. _bibliotheca maddisoniana: a catalogue of the extensive and valuable library of the late_ john maddison, _esq., of the foreign department in the post office, &c._: sold by auction by king and lochée, march, , vo. a judicious and elegant collection. articles. ii. _a catalogue of a curious, valuable, and rare collection of books in typography, history, voyages, early english poetvy [transcriber's note: poetry], romances, classics_, &c.: the property of a collector well known for his literary taste, &c. sold by auction by mr. stewart, april, , vo. some curious volumes were in these articles or lots. iii. _a catalogue of the very valuable and elegant library of_ emperor john alexander woodford, esq., sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, may, , vo.-- articles. this was a sumptuous collection; and the books, in general, brought large prices, from being sharply contended for. iv. _a catalogue of the interesting and curious historical and biographical part of the_ library of a gentleman, particularly interesting, during the reign of elizabeth, the grand rebellion, the usurpation, restoration, and abdication, &c., sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, in may, , vo. only articles; but a singularly curious and elegant collection; the catalogue of which i strongly recommend to all 'curious, prying, and inquisitive' bibliomaniacs. the first half of the ensuing year, , was yet more distinguished for the zeal and energy--shall i say madness?--displayed at book-auctions. the sale of mr. gough's books excited an unusual ferment among english antiquaries: but the sale of a more extensive, and truly beautifully classical, collection in pall mall, excited still stronger sensations. as the _prices_ for some of the articles sold in the gough collection have already been printed in the _gentleman's magazine_, vol. lxxx., pt. ii., and as those for which some of the _latter_ collection were sold, appeared in the th number of _the classical journal_, it only remains for me to subjoin the following account. i. _a catalogue of the entire and valuable library (with the exception of the department of topography, bequeathed to the bodleian library) of that eminent antiquary_, richard gough, esq., deceased, &c., sold by auction by leigh and sotheby, april, , vo.-- articles. the manuscripts conclude the catalogue, at no. . prefixed to the printed books, there is an account of the collector, mr. gough, executed by the faithful pen of mr. nichols. my own humble opinion of this celebrated antiquary has already been before the public: _typog. antiquit._, vol. i., . ii. _a catalogue of books containing all the rare, useful, and valuable publications in every department of literature, from the first invention of printing to the present time, all of which are in the most perfect condition, &c._: sold by auction by mr. jeffery, may, , vo.-- articles. another catalogue of the same collection, elegantly printed in royal octavo, but omitting the auctioneer's notices of the relative value of certain editions, was published by mr. constable of edinburgh, bookseller: with the prices and purchasers' names subjoined: and of which it is said only copies are printed. the rev. mr. heath is reported to have been the owner of this truly select and sumptuous classical library: the sale of which produced _l._ never did the bibliomaniac's eye alight upon 'sweeter copies'--as the phrase is; and never did the bibliomaniacal barometer rise higher than at this sale! the most marked phrensy characterized it. a copy of the editio princeps of homer (by no means a first-rate one) brought _l._: and all the aldine classics produced such an electricity of sensation that buyers stuck at nothing to embrace them! do not let it hence be said that _black-letter lore_ is the only fashionable pursuit of the present age of book-collectors. this sale may be hailed as the omen of better and brighter prospects in literature in general: and many a useful philological work, although printed in the latin or italian language--and which had been sleeping, unmolested, upon a bookseller's shelf these dozen years--will now start up from its slumber, and walk abroad in a new atmosphere, and be noticed and 'made much of.' here i terminate my _annotation labours_ relating to anecdotes of book-collectors, and accounts of book-auctions. unless i am greatly deceived, these labours have not been thrown away. they may serve, as well to awaken curiosity in regard to yet further interesting memoranda respecting scholars, as to shew the progressive value of books, and the increase of the disease called the bibliomania. some of the most curious volumes in english literature have in these notes, been duly recorded; nor can i conclude such a laborious, though humble, task, without indulging a fond hope that this account will be consulted by all those who make book-collecting their amusement. but it is now time to rise up, with the company described in the text, and to put on my hat and great-coat. so i make my bow, wishing, with _l'envoy_ at the close of marmion, to all, to each, a fair good night, and pleasing dreams, and slumbers light.] loren. do you mean to have it inferred that there were no collections, of value or importance, which were sold in the mean time? lysand. i thank you for stopping me: for i am hoarse as well as stupid: i consider the foregoing only as the greater stars or constellations in the bibliographical hemisphere. others were less observed from their supposed comparative insignificancy; although, if you had attended the auctions, you would have found in them many very useful, and even rare and splendid, productions. but we are all 'tickled with the whistling of a name!' loren. ay, and naturally enough too. if i look at my stubbes's _anatomy of abuses_, which has received _your abuse_ this evening, and fancy that the leaves have been turned over by the scientific hand of pearson, farmer, or steevens, i experience, by association of ideas, a degree of happiness which i never could have enjoyed had i obtained the volume from an unknown collector's library. lis. very true; and yet you have only master stubbes's work after all! loren. even so. but this _fictitious_ happiness, as you would call it, is, in effect, _real_ happiness; inasmuch as it produces positive sensations of delight. lis. well, there is no arguing with such a bibliomaniac as yourself, lorenzo. belin. but allow, brother, that this degree of happiness, of which you boast, is not quite so exquisite as to justify the very high terms of purchase upon which it is often times procured. lysand. there is no such thing as the 'golden mediocrity' of horace in book pursuits. certain men set their hearts upon certain copies, and '_coûte qu'il coûte_' they must secure them. undoubtedly, i would give not a little for parker's own copy of the book of _common prayer_, and shakspeare's own copy of both parts of his _henry the fourth_. alman. well, lisardo, we stand no chance of stemming the torrent against two such lusty and opiniated bibliomaniacs as my brother and lysander: although i should speak with deference of, and acknowledge with grateful respect, the extraordinary exertions of the latter, this evening, to amuse and instruct us. lis. this evening?----say, this day:--this live-long day--and yesterday also! but have you quite done, dear lysander? lysand. have you the conscience to ask for more? i have brought you down to the year of our lord _one thousand eight hundred and eleven_; and without touching upon the collections of living bibliomaniacs, or foretelling what may be the future ravages of the bibliomania in the course of only the next dozen years, i think it proper to put an end to my book-collecting history, and more especially to this long trial of your auricular patience. loren. a thousand thanks for your exertions! although your friend, with whom you are on a visit, knows pretty well the extent of my bibliographical capacity, and that there have been many parts in your narrative which were somewhat familiar to me, yet, upon the whole, there has been a great deal more of novelty, and, in this novelty, of solid instruction. sincerely, therefore lysander, i here offer you my heart-felt thanks. lysand. i receive them as cordially: from an assurance that my digressions have been overlooked; or, if noticed, forgiven. it would be gross vanity, and grosser falsehood, to affirm that the discourse of this day, on my part, has given anything like a full and explicit history of all the most eminent book-collectors and patrons of learning which have reflected such lustre upon the literary annals of our country:--no, lorenzo: a complete account, or a perfect description, of these illustrious characters would engage a conversation, not for one day--but one week. yet i have made the most of the transient hour, and, by my enthusiasm, have perhaps atoned for my deficiency of information. lis. but cannot you resume this conversation on the morrow? lysand. my stay with our friend is short, and i know not how he means to dispose of me to-morrow. but i have done--certainly done--with _personal history_! loren. that may be. yet there are other departments of the bibliomania which may be successfully discussed. the weather will probably be fine, and let us enjoy a morning _conversazione_ in the alcove? belin. surely, lysander may find something in the fruitful pigeon-holes of his imagination--as the abbè sieyes used to do--from which he may draw forth some system or other? alman. you have all talked loudly and learnedly of the book-disease; but i wish to know whether a _mere collector_ of books be a bibliomaniac? lysand. certainly not. there are symptoms of this disease _within the very books themselves_ of a bibliomaniac. alman. and pray what are these? lysand. alas, madam!--why are you so unreasonable? and how, after knowing that i have harrangued for more than 'seven hours by westminster clock'--how can you have the conscience to call upon me to protract the oration? the night has already melted into morning; and i suppose grey twilight is discoverable upon the summit of the hills. i am exhausted; and long for repose. indeed, i must wish you all a good night. belin. but you promise to commence your _symptomatic_ harangue on the morrow? lysand. if my slumbers are sound, lady fair, and i rise tolerably recruited in strength, i will surely make good my promise. again, good night! belin. sir, a very good night: and let our best thanks follow you to your pillow. alman. remember, as you sink to repose, what a quantity of good you have done, by having imparted such useful information. lysand. i shall carry your best wishes, and grateful mention of my poor labours, with me to my orisons. adieu!--'tis very late. * * * * * here the company broke up. lisardo slept at lorenzo's. philemon and lysander accompanied me to my home; and as we past lorenzo's outer gate, and looked backward upon the highest piece of rising ground, we fancied we saw the twilight of morning. never was a mortal more heartily thanked for his colloquial exertions than was lysander. on reaching home, as we separated for our respective chambers, we shook hands most cordially; and my eloquent guest returned the squeeze, in a manner which seemed to tell that he had no greater happiness at heart than that of finding a reciprocity of sentiment among those whom he tenderly esteemed. at this moment, we could have given to each other the choicest volume in our libraries; and i regretted that i had not contrived to put my black-morocco copy of the small _aldine petrarch, printed upon_ vellum, under lysander's pillow, as a 'pignus amicitiæ.'--but we were all to assemble together in lorenzo's alcove on the morrow; and this thought gave me such lively pleasure that i did not close my eyes 'till the clock had struck five. such are the bed-luxuries of a bibliomaniac! [illustration] [illustration: the reader is here presented with one of the "facs," or ornamental letters in _pierce ploughman's creed_.] part vi. =the alcove.= symptoms of the bibliomania.----probable means of its cure. "one saith this booke is too long: another, too short: the third, of due length; and for fine phrase and style, the like [of] that booke was not made a great while. it is all lies, said another; the booke is starke naught." _choice of change_; . to., sign. n. i. [illustration] [illustration] =the alcove.= symptoms of the bibliomania.----probable means of its cure. softly blew the breeze, and merrily sung the lark, when lisardo quitted his bed-chamber at seven in the morning, and rang lustily at my outer gate for admission. so early a visitor put the whole house in commotion; nor was it without betraying some marks of peevishness and irritability that, on being informed of his arrival, i sent word by the servant to know what might be the cause of such an interruption. the reader will readily forgive this trait of harshness and precipitancy, on my part, when he is informed that i was then just enjoying the "honey dew" of sleep, after many wakeful and restless hours. lisardo's name was announced: and his voice, conveyed in the sound of song-singing, from the bottom of the garden, left the name of the visitor no longer in doubt. i made an effort, and sprung from my bed; and, on looking through the venetian blinds, i discovered our young bibliomaniacal convert with a book sticking out of his pocket, another half opened in his hand (upon which his eyes were occasionally cast), and a third kept firmly under his left arm. i thrust my head, "night-cap, tassel and all," out of window, and hailed him; not, however, before a delicious breeze, wafted over a bed of mignonette, had electrified me in a manner the most agreeable imaginable. lisardo heard, and hailed me in return. his eyes sparkled with joy; his step was quick and elastic; and an unusual degree of animation seemed to pervade his whole frame. "here," says he, "here is _the british bibliographer_[ ] in my hand, a volume of mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_ in my pocket, while another, of mr. d'israeli's _curiosities of literature_, is kept snugly under my arm, as a corps de reserve, or rallying point. if these things savour not of bibliography, i must despair of ever attaining to the exalted character of a bibliomaniac!" [footnote : _the british bibliographer_ is a periodical publication; being a continuation of a similar work under the less popular title of _the censura literaria_; concerning which see p. , ante. it is a pity that mr. savage does not continue his _british librarian_; (of which numbers are already published) as it forms a creditable supplement to oldys's work under a similar title; vide p. , ante. a few of the ensuing numbers might be well devoted to an analysis of _sir william dugdale's_ works, with correct lists of the plates in the same.] "you are up betimes," said i. "what dream has disturbed your rest?" "none" replied he; "but the most delightful visions have appeared to me during my sleep. since you left lorenzo's, i have sipt nectar with leland, and drunk punch with bagford. richard murray has given me a copy of rastell's _pastime of people_,[ ] and thomas britton has bequeathed to me an entire library of the rosicrusian[ ] philosophy. moreover, the venerable form of sir thomas bodley has approached me; reminding me of my solemn promise to spend a few autumnal weeks,[ ] in the ensuing year, within the precincts of his grand library. in short, half the bibliomaniacs, whom lysander so enthusiastically commended last night, have paid their devoirs to me in my dreams, and nothing could be more handsome than their conduct towards me." [footnote : the reader may have met with some slight notices of this curious work in pp. ; ; ; ; ; ante.] [footnote : see p. , ante.] [footnote : see p. , ante.] this discourse awakened my friends, lysander and philemon; who each, from different rooms, put their heads out of window, and hailed the newly-risen sun with night caps which might have been mistaken for persian turbans. such an unexpected sight caused lisardo to burst out into a fit of laughter, and to banter my guests in his usual strain of vivacity. but on our promising him that we would speedily join his peripatetic bibliographical reveries, he gave a turn towards the left, and was quickly lost in a grove of acacia and laurustinus. for my part, instead of keeping this promise, i instinctively sought my bed; and found the observation of franklin,--of air-bathing being favourable to slumber,--abundantly verified--for i was hardly settled under the clothes 'ere i fell asleep: and, leaving my guests to make good their appointment with my visitor, i enjoyed a sweet slumber of more than two hours. as early rising produces a keen appetite for bodily, as well as mental, gratification, i found my companions clamorous for their breakfast. a little before ten o'clock, we were all prepared to make a formal attack upon muffins, cake, coffee, tea, eggs, and cold tongue. the window was thrown open; and through the branches of the clustering vine, which covered the upper part of it, the sun shot a warmer ray; while the spicy fragrance from surrounding parterres, and jessamine bowers, made even such bibliomaniacs as my guests forgetful of the gaily-coated volumes which surrounded them. at length the conversation was systematically commenced on the part of lysander. lysand. to-morrow, philemon and myself take our departure. we would willingly have staid the week; but business of a pressing nature calls _him_ to manchester--and _myself_ to bristol and exeter. lis. some bookseller,[ ] i warrant, has published a thumping catalogue at each of these places. ha!--here i have you, sober-minded lysander! you are as arrant a book-madman as any of those renowned bibliomaniacs whom you celebrated yesterday evening!--yet, if you love me, take me with you! my pistoles are not exhausted. [footnote : i ought to have noticed, under lysander's eulogy upon _london booksellers_ (see p. , ante) the very handsome manner in which mr. roscoe alludes to their valuable catalogues--as having been of service to him in directing his researches into foreign literature. his words are these: "the rich and extensive catalogues published by edwards, payne, and other _london booksellers_, who have of late years diligently sought for, and imported into england, whatever is curious or valuable in foreign literature, have also contributed to the success of my inquiries." _lorenzo de medici_: pref. p. xxvii., edit. , vo.] phil. peace, lisardo!--but you are, in truth, a bit of a prophet. it is even as you surmise. we have each received a forwarded letter, informing us of very choice and copious collections of books about to be sold at these respective places. while i take my departure for mr. ford of manchester, lorenzo is about to visit the book-treasures of mr. dyer of exeter, and mr. gutch of bristol:--but, indeed, were not this the case, our abode here must terminate on the morrow. lis. i suppose the names you have just mentioned describe the principal booksellers at the several places you intend visiting. lysand. even so: yet i will make no disparaging comparisons.[ ] we speak only of what has come within our limited experience. there may be many brave and sagacious bibliopolists whose fame has not reached our ears, nor perhaps has any one of the present circle ever heard of the late mr. miller of bungay;[ ] who, as i remember my father to have said, in spite of blindness and multifarious occupations, attached himself to the book-selling trade with inconceivable ardour and success. but a word, lisardo! [footnote : lysander is right. since the note upon mr. ford's catalogue of was written (see p. , ante), the same bookseller has put forth another voluminous catalogue, of nine thousand and odd articles; forming, with the preceding, , lots. this is doing wonders for a provincial town; and that a _commercial_ one!! of mr. gutch's spirit and enterprise some mention has been made before at p. , ante. he is, as yet, hardly _mellowed_ in his business; but a few years only will display him as thoroughly _ripened_ as any of his brethren. he comes from a worthy stock; long known at our _alma mater oxoniensis_:--and as a dutiful son of my university mother, and in common with every one who is acquainted with his respectable family, i wish him all the success which he merits. mr. george dyer of exeter is a distinguished _veteran_ in the book-trade: his catalogue of , in two parts, containing , articles, has, i think, never been equalled by that of any provincial bookseller, for the value and singularity of the greater number of the volumes described in it. as lysander had mentioned the foregoing book-vending gentlemen, i conceived myself justified in _appending_ this note. i could speak with pleasure and profit of the catalogues of booksellers to the _north of the tweed_--(see p. , ante); but for fear of awaking all the frightful passions of wrath, jealousy, envy--i stop: declaring, from the bottom of my heart, in the language of an auld northern bard: i hait flatterie; and into wourdis plane, and unaffectit language, i delyte: (_quod maister alexander arbothnat; in anno_ .)] [footnote : there is something so original in the bibliomanical character of the above-mentioned mr. miller that i trust the reader will forgive my saying a word or two concerning him. thomas miller of bungay, in suffolk, was born in , and died in . he was put apprentice to a grocer in norwich: but neither the fragrance of spices and teas, nor the lusciousness of plums and figs, could seduce young miller from his darling passion of reading, and of buying odd volumes of the _gentleman's_ and _universal magazine_ with his spare money. his genius was, however, sufficiently versatile to embrace both trades; for in , he set up for himself in the character of _grocer_ and _bookseller_. i have heard mr. otridge, of the strand, discourse most eloquently upon the brilliant manner in which mr. miller conducted his complicated concerns; and which, latterly, were devoted entirely to the _bibliomania_. although bungay was too small and obscure for a spirit like miller's to disclose its full powers, yet he continued in it till his death; and added a love of portrait and coin, to that of book, collecting. for fifty years his stock, in these twin departments, was copious and respectable; and notwithstanding total blindness, which afflicted him during the last six years of his life, he displayed uncommon cheerfulness, activity, and even skill in knowing where the different classes of books were arranged in his shop. mr. miller was a warm loyalist, and an enthusiastic admirer of mr. pitt. in , when provincial copper coins were very prevalent, our bibliomaniac caused a die of himself to be struck; intending to strike some impressions of it upon gold and silver, as well as upon copper. he began with the latter; and the die breaking when only impressions were struck off, miller, in the true spirit of numismatical _virtû_, declined having a fresh one made. view here, gentle reader, a wood-cut taken from the same: "this coin, which is very finely engraved, and bears a strong profile likeness of himself, is known to collectors by the name of 'the miller halfpenny.' mr. miller was extremely careful into whose hands the impressions went; and they are now become so rare as to produce at sales from three to five guineas." _gentleman's magazine_; vol. lxxiv., p. . [illustration]] lis. twenty, if you please. lysand. what are become of malvolio's busts and statues, of which you were so solicitous to attend the sale, not long ago? lis. i care not a brass farthing for them:--only i do rather wish that i had purchased the count de neny's _catalogue of the printed books and manscripts [transcriber's note: manuscripts] in the royal library of france_. that golden opportunity is irrevocably lost! phil. you wished for these books, to _set fire_ to them perhaps--keeping up the ancient custom so solemnly established by your father?[ ] [footnote : the reader may not object to turn for one moment to p. , ante.] lis. no more of this heart-rending subject! i thought i had made ample atonement. lysand. 'tis true: and so we forgive and forget. happy change!--and all hail this salubrious morning, which witnesses the complete and effectual conversion of lisardo! instead of laughing at our book-hobbies, and ridiculing all bibliographical studies--which, even by a bibliographer in the dry department of the law, have been rather eloquently defended and enforced[ ]--behold this young bibliomaniacal chevalier, not daunted by the rough handling of a london book-auction, anxious to mount his courser, and scour the provincial fields of bibliography! happy change! from my heart i congratulate you! [footnote : "our nation (says mr. bridgeman) has been too inattentive to bibliographical criticisms and enquiries; for, generally, the english reader is obliged to resort to foreign writers to satisfy his mind as to the value of authors. it behoves us, however, to consider that there is not a more useful, or a more desirable branch of education than a knowledge of books; which, being correctly attained, and judiciously exercised, will prove the touchstone of intrinsic merit, and have the effect of saving many a spotless page from prostitution." _legal bibliography_; , vo. (to the reader.)] lis. from the bottom of mine, i congratulate you, lysander, upon the resuming of your wonted spirits! i had imagined that the efforts of yesterday would have completely exhausted you. how rapturously do i look forward for the symptoms of the bibliomania to be told this morning in lorenzo's alcove! you have not forgotten your promise! lysand. no, indeed; but if i am able to do justice to the elucidation of so important a subject, it will be in consequence of having enjoyed a placid, though somewhat transient, slumber: notwithstanding the occurrence of a very uncommon _dream_! lis. "i dreamt a dream last night;" which has been already told--but what was yours? lysand. nay, it is silly to entertain one another with stories of phantastic visions of the night. i have known the most placid-bosomed men grow downright angry at the very introduction of such a discourse. phil. that may be; but we have, luckily, no such _placidly-moulded_ bosoms in the present society. i love this sort of gossipping during breakfast, of all things. if our host permit, do give us your dream, lysander! lis. the dream!--the dream!--i entreat you. lysand. i fear you will fall asleep, and dream yourself, before the recital of it be concluded. but i will get through it as well as i can. methought i was gently lifted from the ground into the air by a being of very superior size, but of an inexpressible sweetness of countenance. although astonished by the singularity of my situation, i was far from giving way entirely to fear; but, with a mixture of anxiety and resignation, awaited the issue of the event. my guide or protector (for so this being must now be called) looked upon me with an air of tenderness, mingled with reproof; intimating, as i conceived, that the same superior power, which had thus transported me above my natural element, would of necessity keep me in safety. this quieted my apprehensions. we had travelled together through an immensity of space, and could discover the world below as one small darkened spot, when my guide interrupted the awful silence that had been preserved, by the following exclamation: "approach, o man, the place of thy destination--compose thy perturbed spirits, and let all thy senses be awakened to a proper understanding of the scene which thou art about to behold." so saying, he moved along with an indescribable velocity; and while my eyes were dazzled by an unusual effulgence of light, i found myself at rest upon a solid seat--formed of crystal, of prodigious magnitude. my guide then fixed himself at my right hand, and after a vehement ejaculation, accompanied by gestures, which had the effect of enchantment upon me, he extended a sceptre of massive gold, decorated with emeralds and sapphires. immediately there rose up a mirror of gigantic dimensions, around which was inscribed, in fifty languages, the word "truth." i sat in mute astonishment. "examine," said my guide, with a voice the most encouraging imaginable, "examine the objects reflected upon the surface of this mirror." "there are none that are discernible to my eyes," i replied. "thou shalt soon be gratified then," resumed this extraordinary being (with a severe smile upon his countenance), "but first let me purge thine eyes from those films of prejudice which, in the world you inhabit, are apt to intercept the light of truth." he then took a handful of aromatic herbs, and, rubbing them gently upon my temples, gave me the power of contemplating, with perfect discernment, the objects before me. wonderful indeed was this scene: for upon the surface of the mirror the whole world seemed to be reflected! at first, i could not controul my feelings: but, like a child that springs forward to seize an object greatly beyond its grasp, i made an effort to leave my seat, and to _mingle_ in the extraordinary scene. here, however, my guide interfered--and, in a manner the most peremptory and decisive, forbade all further participation of it. "_view_ it attentively," replied he, "and impress firmly on thy memory what thou shalt see--it may solace thee the remainder of thy days." the authoritative air, with which these words were delivered, quite repressed and unnerved me. i obeyed, and intently viewed the objects before me. the first thing that surprised me was the representation of all the metropolitan cities of europe. london, paris, vienna, berlin, and petersburg, in particular, occupied my attention; and, what was still _more_ surprising, i seemed to be perfect master of every event going on in them--but more particularly of the transactions of _bodies corporate_. i saw presidents in their chairs, with secretaries and treasurers by their sides; and to whatever observations were made the most implicit attention was paid. here, an eloquent lecturer was declaiming upon the beauty of morality, and the deformity of vice: there, a scientific professor was unlocking the hidden treasures of nature, and explaining how providence, in all its measures, was equally wonderful and wise. the experiments which ensued, and which corroborated his ingenious and profound remarks, suspended a well-informed audience in rapturous attention; which was followed by instinctive bursts of applause. again i turned my eyes, and, contiguous to this scene, viewed the proceedings of two learned sister societies, distinguished for their labours in _philosophy_ and _antiquity_. methought i saw the spirits of newton and of dugdale, looking down with complacency upon them, and congratulating each other upon the _general_ progress of civilization since they had ceased to mingle among men. "these institutions," observed my guide, "form the basis of rational knowledge, and are the source of innumerable comforts: for the _many_ are benefitted by the researches and experiments of the _few_. it is easy to laugh at such societies, but it is not quite so easy to remedy the inconveniences which would be felt, if they were extinct. nations become powerful in proportion to their wisdom; it has uniformly been found that where philosophers lived, and learned men wrote, there the arts have flourished, and heroism and patriotism have prevailed. true it is that discrepancies will sometimes interrupt the harmony of public bodies. but why is perfection to be expected, where every thing must necessarily be imperfect? it is the duty of man to make the _nearest approaches_ to public and private happiness. and if, as with a sponge, he wipe away such establishments, genius has little incentive to exertion, and merit has still less hope of reward. now cast your eyes on a different scene." i obeyed, and, within the same city, saw a great number of asylums and institutions for the ignorant and helpless. i saw youth instructed, age protected, the afflicted comforted, and the diseased cured. my emotions at this moment were wonderfully strong--they were perceived by my guide, who immediately begged of me to consider the manner by which _epidemic maladies_ were prevented or alleviated, and especially how _the most fatal of them_ had been arrested in its progress. i attentively examined the objects before me, and saw thousands of smiling children and enraptured mothers walking confidently 'midst plague and death! i saw them, happy in the protection which had been afforded them by the most useful and most nutritious of animals! "enough," exclaimed my guide, "thou seest here the glorious result of a philosophical mind, gifted with unabatable ardour of experiment. thou wilt acknowledge that, compared with the triumph which such a mind enjoys, the conquests of heroes are puerile, and the splendour of monarchy is dim!" during this strain, i fancied i could perceive the human being, alluded to by my guide, retire apart in conversation with another distinguished friend of humanity, by those unwearied exertions the condition of many thousand poor people had been meliorated. "there is yet," resumed my guide, "another scene equally interesting as the preceding. from a pure morality flows a pure religion: look therefore on those engaged in the services of christianity." i looked, and saw a vast number of my fellow-creatures prostrate in adoration before their creator and redeemer. i fancied i could hear the last strains of their hallelujahs ascending to the spot whereon i sat. "observe," said my protector, "all do not worship in the same manner, because all assent not to the same creed; but the intention of each may be pure: at least, common charity teaches us thus to think, till some open act betray a malignity of principle. toleration is the vital spark of religion: arm the latter with the whips of persecution, and you convert her into a fiend scattering terror and dismay! in your own country you enjoy a liberty of sentiment beyond every other on the face of the globe. learn to be grateful for such an inestimable happiness." these words had hardly escaped my guide, when i was irresistibly led to look on another part of the mirror where a kind of imperial magnificence, combined with the severest discipline, prevailed. "you are contemplating," resumed my preternatural monitor, "one of the most interesting scenes in europe. see the effect of revolutionary commotions! while you view the sable spirit of the last monarch of france gliding along, at a distance, with an air of sorrow and indignation; while you observe a long line of legitimate princes, exiled from their native country, and dependant upon the contributions of other powers; mark the wonderful, the unparalleled reverse of human events! and acknowledge that the preservation of the finest specimens of art, the acquisition of every thing which can administer to the wants of luxury, or decorate the splendour of a throne--the acclamations of hired multitudes or bribed senates--can reflect little lustre on that character which still revels in the frantic wish of enslaving the world! it is true, you see yonder, vienna, petersburg, stockholm, and berlin, bereft of their ancient splendour, and bowing, as it were, at the feet of a despot--but had these latter countries kept alive one spark of that patriotism which so much endears to us the memories of greece and rome--had they not, in a great measure, become disunited by factions, we might, even in these days, however degenerate, have witnessed something like that national energy which was displayed in the bay of salamis, and on the plains of marathon." my guide perceiving me to be quite dejected during these remarks, directed my attention to another part of the mirror, which reflected the transactions of the _western_ and _eastern_ world. at first, a kind of _mist_ spread itself upon the glass, and prevented me from distinguishing any object. this, however, gradually dissolved, and was succeeded by a thick, black smoke, which involved every thing in impenetrable obscurity. just as i was about to turn to my guide, and demand the explanation of these appearances, the smoke rolled away, and instantaneously, there flashed forth a thousand bickering flames. "what," cried i, "is the meaning of these objects?" "check, for one moment, your impatience, and your curiosity shall be gratified," replied my guide. i then distinctly viewed thousands of _black men_, who had been groaning under the rod of oppression, starting up in all the transport of renovated life, and shouting aloud "we are free!" one tall commanding figure, who seemed to exercise the rights of a chieftain among them, gathered many tribes around him, and addressed them in the following few, but comprehensive, words: "countrymen, it has pleased the great god above to make man instrumental to the freedom of his fellow-creatures. while we lament our past, let us be grateful for our present, state: and never let us cease, each revolving year, to build an altar of stones to the memory, of that great and good man, who hath principally been the means of our freedom from slavery. no: we will regularly perform this solemn act, as long as there shall remain one pebble upon our shores." "thus much," resumed my guide, "for the dawning felicities of the _western_ world: but see how the _eastern_ empires are yet ignorant and unsettled!" i was about to turn my eyes to persia and india, to china and japan, when to my astonishment, the surface of the mirror became perfectly blackened, except in some few circular parts, which were tinged with the colour of blood. "the future is a fearful sight," said my guide; "we are forbidden its contemplation, and can only behold the gloomy appearances before us: they are ominous ones!" my mind, on which so many and such various objects had produced a confused effect, was quite overpowered and distracted. i leaned upon the arm of the chair, and, covering my face with my hands, became absorbed in a thousand ideas, when a sudden burst of thunder made me start from my seat--and, looking forward, i perceived that the mirror, with all its magical illusions had vanished away! my preternatural guide then placed himself before me, but in an altered female form. a hundred various coloured wings sprung from her arms, and her feet seemed to be shod with sandals of rubies; around which numerous cherubs entwined themselves. the perfume that arose from the flapping of her wings was inexpressibly grateful; and the soft silvery voices of these cherubic attendants had an effect truly enchanting. no language can adequately describe my sensations on viewing this extraordinary change of object. i gazed with rapture upon my wonderful guide, whose countenance now beamed with benevolence and beauty. "ah!" exclaimed i, "this is a vision of happiness never to be realized! thou art a being that i am doomed never to meet with in the world below." "peace:" whispered an unknown voice; "injure not thy species by such a remark: the object before thee is called by a name that is familiar to thee--it is 'candour.' she is the handmaid of truth, the sister of virtue, and the priestess of religion." i was about to make reply, when a figure of terrific mien, and enormous dimensions, rushed angrily towards me, and, taking me up in my crystal chair, bore me precipitately to the earth. in my struggles to disengage myself, i awoke: and on looking about me, with difficulty could persuade myself that i was an inhabitant of this world. my sensations were, at first, confused and unpleasant; but a reflection on the mirror of truth, and its divine expositor, in a moment tranquillized my feelings. and thus have i told you my dream. * * * * * lysander had hardly concluded the recital of his dream--during which it was impossible for us to think of quaffing coffee or devouring muffins--when the servant entered with a note from lorenzo: "my dear friend, "the morning is propitious. hasten to the alcove. my sisters are twining honey-suckles and jessamine round the portico, and i have carried thither a respectable corps of bibliographical volumes, for lysander to consult, in case his memory should fail. all here invoke the zephyrs to waft their best wishes to you. "truly your's, "lorenzo." the note was no sooner read than we all, as if by instinct, started up; and, finishing our breakfast as rapidly as did the trojans when they expected an early visit from the grecians, we sallied towards lorenzo's house, and entered his pleasure grounds. nothing could be more congenial than every circumstance and object which presented itself. the day was clear, calm, and warm; while a crisp autumnal air nimbly and sweetly recommend itself unto our gentle senses.[ ] [footnote : _macbeth_; act i., sc. vi. dr. johnson has happily observed, upon the above beautiful passage of shakespeare, that "_gentle sense_ is very elegant; as it means _placid_, _calm_, _composed_; and intimates the peaceable delight of a fine day." shakespeare's works; edit. ; vol x., p. . alain chartier, in the motto prefixed to the second part of this bibliographical romance, has given us a yet more animated, and equally characteristic, picture. thomson's serene morning, unfolding fair the last autumnal day, is also very apposite; and reminds us of one of those soft and aërial pictures of claude loraine, where a heaven-like tranquillity and peace seem to prevail. delightful scenes!--we love to steal a short moment from a bustling world, to gaze upon landscapes which appear to have been copied from the paradise of our first parents. delusive yet fascinating objects of contemplation! you whisper sweet repose, and heart-soothing delight! we turn back upon the world; and the stunning noises of virgil's cyclops put all this fair elysium to flight.] at a distance, the reapers were carrying away their last harvest load; and numerous groups of gleaners picking up the grain which they had spared, were marching homewards in all the glee of apparent happiness. immediately on our left, the cattle were grazing in a rich pasture meadow; while, before us, the white pheasant darted across the walk, and the stock-dove was heard to wail in the grove. we passed a row of orange trees, glittering with golden fruit; and, turning sharply to our right, discovered, on a gentle eminence, and skirted with a profusion of shrubs and delicately shaped trees, the wished-for alcove. we quickly descried almansa busied in twining her favourite honey-suckles round the portico; while within belinda was sitting soberly at work, as if waiting our arrival. the ladies saluted us as we approached; and lorenzo, who till now had been unperceived, came quietly from the interior, with his favourite edition of _thomson_[ ] in his hand. [footnote : this must be a favourite edition with every man of taste. it was printed by bensley, and published by du roveray, in the year . the designs were by hamilton, and the engravings principally by fittler. the copy which lorenzo had in his hand was upon _large paper_; and nothing could exceed the lustre of the type and plates. the editions of _pope_, _gray_, and _milton_, by du roveray, as well as those of _the spectator_, _guardian_, _tatler_, by messrs. sharpe and hailes, are among the most elegant, as well as accurate, publications of our old popular writers.] the alcove at a distance, had the appearance of a rustic temple.[ ] the form, though a little capricious, was picturesque; and it stood so completely embosomed in rich and variegated foliage, and commanded so fine a swell of landscape, that the visitor must be cold indeed who could approach it with the compass of palladio in one hand, and the square of inigo jones in the other. we entered and looked around us. [footnote : lorenzo was not unmindful that it had been observed by lipsius (_syntag. de bibliothecis_) and, after him, by thomasinus (_de donar. et tabell-votiv._ c. . p. .) that the ancients generally built their libraries near to, or adjoining their _temples_; "ut veram seram sedem sacratorum ingenii fætuum loca sacra esse ostenderent:" bibliothecas (inquit) procul abesse (sc. a templis) noluerunt veteres, ut ex præclaris ingeniorum monumentis dependens mortalium, gloria, in deorum tutela esset. this i gather from spizolius's _infelix literatus_: p. .] those who have relished the mild beauties of wynants' pictures would be pleased with the view from the alcove of lorenzo. the country before was varied, undulating, and the greater part, highly cultivated. some broad-spreading oaks here and there threw their protecting arms round the humble saplings; and some aspiring elms frequently reared their lofty heads, as land-marks across the county. the copses skirted the higher grounds, and a fine park-wood covered the middle part of the landscape in one broad umbrageous tone of colouring. it was not the close rusticity of hobbima--or the expansive, and sometimes complicated, scenery of berghem--or the heat-oppressive and magnificent views of both--that we contemplated; but, as has been before observed, the mild and gentle scenery of wynants; and if a cascade or dimpling brook had been near us, i could have called to my aid the transparent pencil of rysdael, in order to impress upon the reader a proper notion of the scenery. but it is high time to make mention of the conversation which ensued among the tenants of this alcove. loren. i am heartily glad we are met under such propitious circumstances. what a glorious day! alman. have you recovered, sir, the immense fatigue you must have sustained from the exertions of yesterday? my brother has no mercy upon a thoroughly-versed book guest! lysand. i am indeed quite hearty: yet, if any thing heavy and indigested hung about me, would not the contemplation of such a landscape, and such a day, restore every thing to its wonted ardour?! you cannot conceive how such a scene affects me: even to shedding tears of pleasure--from the reflections to which it gives rise. belin. how strangely and how cruelly has the character of a bibliographer been aspersed! last night you convinced me of the ardour of your enthusiasm, and of the eloquence of your expression, in regard to your favourite subject of discussion!--but, this morning, i find that you can talk in an equally impassioned manner respecting garden and woodland scenery? lysand. yes, madam: and if i possessed such a domain as does your brother, i think i could even improve it a little--especially the interior of the alcove! i don't know that i could attach to the house a more appropriate library than he has done; even if i adopted the octagonal form of the _hafod library_;[ ] which, considered with reference to its local situation, is, i think, almost unequalled:--but it strikes me that the interior of this alcove might be somewhat improved. [footnote : hafod, in cardiganshire, south wales, is the residence of thomas johnes, esq., m.p., and lord lieutenant of the county. mr. malkin, in his _scenery, antiquities, and biography, of south wales_, , to., and dr. smith, in his _tour to hafod_, , folio, have made us pretty well acquainted with the local scenery of hafod:--yet can any pen or pencil do this --paradise, open'd in the wild, perfect justice! i have seen mr. stothard's numerous little sketches of the pleasure-grounds and surrounding country, which are at once faithful and picturesque. but what were this "paridise" of rocks, waterfalls, streams, woods, copses, dells, grottos, and mountains, without the hospitable spirit of the owner--which seems to preside in, and to animate, every summer-house and alcove. the book-loving world is well acquainted with the _chronicles of froissart_, _joinville_, _de brocquiere_, and _monstrelet_, which have issued from the hafod press; and have long deplored the loss, from fire, which their author, mr. johnes, experienced in the demolition of the greater part of his house and library. the former has been rebuilt, and the latter replenished: yet no phoenix spirit can revivify the ashes of those volumes which contained the romances notified by the renowned don quixote! but i am rambling too wildly among the hafod rocks--i hasten, therefore to return and take the reader with me into the interior of mr. johnes's largest library, which is terminated by a conservatory of upwards of feet. as the ancient little books for children [hight _lac puerorum_!] used to express it--"look, here it is." [illustration]] loren. what defects do you discover here, lysander? lysand. they are rather omissions to be supplied than errors to be corrected. you have warmed the interior by a grecian-shaped stove, and you do right; but i think a few small busts in yonder recesses would not be out of character. milton, shakespeare, and locke, would produce a sort of inspiration which might accord with that degree of feeling excited by the contemplation of these external objects. loren. you are right. 'ere you revisit this spot, those inspiring gentlemen shall surround me. belin. and pray add to them the busts of thomson and cowper: for these latter, in my opinion, are our best poets in the description of rural life. you remember what cowper says-- god made the country, and man made the town? alman. this may be very well--but we forget the purpose for which we are convened. lis. true: so i entreat you, master lysander, to open--not the debate--but the discussion. lysand. you wish to know what are the symptoms of the bibliomania?--what are the badges or livery marks, in a library, of the owner of the collection being a bibliomaniac? alman. even so. my question, yesterday evening, was--if i remember well--whether a _mere collector_ of books was necessarily a bibliomaniac? lysand. yes: and to which--if i also recollect rightly--i replied that the symptoms of the disease, and the character of a bibliomaniac, were discoverable in the very books themselves! lis. how is this? alman & belin. do pray let us hear. phil. at the outset, i entreat you, lysander, not to overcharge the colouring of your picture. respect the character of your auditors; and, above all things, have mercy upon the phlogistic imagination of lisardo! lysand. i will endeavour to discharge the important office of a bibliomaniacal mentor, or, perhaps, Æsculapius, to the utmost of my power: and at all events, with the best possible intentions. before we touch upon the _symptoms_, it may be as well to say a few words respecting the _general character_ of the book disease. the ingenious peignot[ ] defines the bibliomania to be "a passion for possessing books; not so much to be instructed by them, as to gratify the eye by looking on them." this subject has amused the pens of foreigners; although we have had nothing in our own language, written expressly upon it, 'till the ingenious and elegantly-composed poem of dr. ferriar appeared; after which, as you well know, our friend put forth his whimsical brochure.[ ] [footnote : "la birliomanie [transcriber's note: bibliomanie] est la fureur de posséder des livres, non pas tant pour s'instruire, que pour les avoir et pour en repaître sa vue. le bibliomane ne connait ordinairement les livres que par leur titre, leur frontispice, et leur date; il s'attache aux bonnes editiones et les poursuit à quelque titre que ce soit; la relieure le seduit aussi, soit par son ancienneté, soit par sa beauté," &c. _dictionnaire de bibliologie_. vol. i. p. . this is sufficiently severe: see also the extracts from the _memoires de l'institut_: p. , ante. the more ancient foreign writers have not scrupled to call the bibliomania by every caustic and merciless terms: thus speaks the hard-hearted geyler: "tertia nola est, multos libros coacervare propter animi voluptatem curiosam. fastidientis stomachi est multa degustare, ait seneca. isti per multos libros vagant legentes assidue: nimirum similles fatuis illis, qui in urbe cicumeunt domos singulas, et earum picturas dissutis malis contuentur: sicque curiositate trahuntur, &c. contenti in hâc animi voluptate, quam pascunt per volumina varia devagando et liguriendo. itaque gaudent hic de larga librorum copia, operosa utique sed delectabilis sarcina, et animi jucunda distractio: imo est hæc ingens librorum copia ingens simul et laboris copia, et quietis inopia--huc illucque circum agendum ingenium: his atque illis pregravanda memoria."--_navicula sive sæculum fatuorum_, , to. sign b. iiij rev. thus speaks sebastian brandt upon the subject, through the medium of our old translation: styll am i besy bokes assemblynge for to have plenty it is a pleasaunte thynge in my conceyt, and to have them ay in honde; but what they mene do i nat understonde. _shyp of folys_: see p. , ante. there is a short, but smart and interesting, article on this head in mr. d'israeli's _curiosities of literature_: vol. i. . "bruyere has touched on this mania with humour; of such a collector (one who is fond of superb bindings only), says he, as soon as i enter his house, i am ready to faint on the stair-case from a strong smell of russia and morocco leather. in vain he shews me fine editions, gold leaves, etruscan bindings, &c.--naming them one after another, as if he were shewing a gallery of pictures!" lucian has composed a biting invective against an ignorant possessor of a vast library. "one who opens his eyes with an hideous stare at an old book; and after turning over the pages, chiefly admires _the date_ of its publication." but all this, it may be said, is only general declamation, and means nothing!] [footnote : the first work, i believe, written expressly upon the subject above discussed was a french publication, entitled _la bibliomanie_. of the earliest edition i am uninformed; but one was published at the hague in , vo. dr. ferriar's poem upon the subject, being an epistle to richard heber, esq.--and which is rightly called by lysander 'ingenious and elegant'--was published in , to.: pp. : but not before an equally ingenious, and greatly more interesting, performance, by the same able pen, had appeared in the trans. of the manchester literary society, vol. iv., p. - --entitled _comments upon sterne_; which may be fairly classed among the species of bibliomaniacal composition; inasmuch as it shews the author to be well read in old books; and, of these, in burton's anatomy of melancholy in particular. look for half a minute at p. , ante. in the same year of dr. ferriar's publication of the bibliomania, appeared the _voyage autour de ma bibliothèque roman bibliographique_: by ant. caillot; in three small duodecimo volumes. there is little ingenuity and less knowledge in these meagre volumes. my own superficial work, entitled, _bibliomania_, or _book-madness: containing some account of the history, symptoms and cure of this fatal disease; in an epistle addressed to richard heber, esq._, quickly followed dr. ferriar's publication. it contained pages, with a tolerably copious sprinkling of notes: but it had many errors and omissions, which it has been my endeavour to correct and supply in the present new edition, or rather newly-constructed work. vide preface. early in the ensuing year (namely, in ) appeared _bibliosophia, or book-wisdom: containing some account of the pride, pleasure, and privileges of that glorious vocation, book-collecting. by an aspirant. also, the twelve labours of an editor, separately pitted against those of hercules_, mo. this is a good-humoured and tersely written composition: being a sort of commentary upon my own performance. in the ensuing pages will be found some amusing poetical extracts from it. and thus take we leave of publications upon the bibliomania!] whether peignot's definition be just or not, i will not stop to determine: but when i have described to you the various symptoms, you will be better able to judge of its propriety. lis. describe them _seriatim_, as we were observing yesterday. lysand. i will; but let me put them in battle array, and select them according to their appearances. there is, first, a passion for _large paper copies_; secondly, for _uncut copies_; thirdly, for _illustrated copies_; fourthly, for _unique copies_; fifthly, for _copies printed upon vellum_; sixthly, for _first editions_; seventhly, for _true editions_; and eighthly, for _books printed in the black-letter_. belin. i have put these symptoms down in my pocket-book; and shall proceed to catechise you according to your own method. first, therefore, what is meant by large paper copies? lysand. a certain set, or limited number of the work, is printed upon paper of a _larger dimension, and superior quality_, than the ordinary copies. the press-work and ink are, always, proportionably better in these copies: and the price of them is enhanced according to their beauty and rarity. _this symptom_ of the bibliomania is, at the present day, both general and violent. indeed, there is a set of collectors, the shelves of whose libraries are always made proportionably stout, and placed at a due distance from each other, in order that they may not break down beneath the weight of such ponderous volumes. belin. can these things be? phil. yes; but you should draw a distinction, and not confound the grolliers, de thous, and colberts of modern times, with "a set of collectors," as you call them, who are equally without taste and knowledge. lis. we have heard of de thou and colbert, but who is grollier?[ ] [footnote : the reader may be better pleased with the ensuing soberly-written account of this great man than with philemon's rapturous eulogy. john grollier was born at lyons, in ; and very early displayed a propensity towards those elegant and solid pursuits which afterwards secured to him the admiration and esteem of his contemporaries. his address was easy, his manners were frank, yet polished; his demeanour was engaging, and his liberality knew no bounds. as he advanced in years, he advanced in reputation; enjoying a princely fortune, the result, in some measure, of a faithful and honourable discharge of the important diplomatic situations which he filled. he was grand treasurer to francis i., and was sent by that monarch as ambassador to pope clement vii. during his abode at rome, he did not fail to gratify his favourite passion of book-collecting; and employed the alduses to print for him an edition of terence in vo., : of which a copy _upon vellum_, was in the imperial library at vienna; see _l'imp. des alde_; vol. i., . he also caused to be published, by the same printers, an edition of his friend budæus's work, _de asse et partibus ejus_, , to.; which, as well as the terence, is dedicated to himself, and of which the presentation copy, _upon vellum_, is now in the library of count m'carthy, at toulouse: it having been formerly in the soubise collection: vide p. , ante--and no. of the _bibl. soubise_. it was during grollier's stay at rome, that the anecdote, related by egnatio, took place. 'i dined (says the latter) along with aldus, his son, manutius, and other learned men, at grollier's table. after dinner, and just as the dessert had been placed on the table, our host presented each of his guests with a pair of gloves filled with ducats.' but no man had a higher opinion of grollier, or had reason to express himself in more grateful terms of him, than de thou. this illustrious author speaks of him as "a man of equal elegance of manners, and spotlessness of character. his books seemed to be the counterpart of himself, for neatness and splendour; not being inferior to the glory attributed to the library of asinius pollio, the first who made a collection of books at rome. it is surprising, notwithstanding the number of presents which he made to his friends, and the accidents which followed on the dispersion of his library, how many of his volumes yet adorn the most distinguished libraries of paris, whose chief boast consists in having an _exemplar grollerianum_!" the fact was grollier returned to paris with an immense fortune. during his travels he had secured, from basil, venice, and rome, the most precious copies of books which could be purchased: and which he took care to have bound in a singular manner, indicative at once of his generosity and taste. the title of the book was marked in gilt letters upon one side, and the words--of which the annexed wood-cut is a fac-simile--upon the other; surrounded with similar ornaments to the extremities of the sides, whether in folio or duodecimo. [illustration: portio mea do mine sit in terra vi venti vm. beneath the title of the book: 'io: grollerii et amicorum.'] this extraordinary man, whom france may consider the first bibliomaniac of the sixteenth century, died at paris in the year , and in the th of his age. let us close this account of him with an extract from marville's _melanges d'histoire et de litérature_; "la bibliothèque de m. grollier s'est conservée dans l'hôtel de vic jusqu'à ces annêes dernieres qu'elle a été venduë à l'encan. elle meritoit bien, étant une des premieres et des plus accomplies qu'aucun particulier se soit avisé de faire à paris, de trouver, comme celle de m. de thou, un acheteur qui en conservât le lustre. la plûpart des curieux de paris ont profité de ses débris. j'en ai eu à ma part quelques volumes à qui rien ne manque: ni pour la bonté des editions de ce tems là, ni pour la beauté du papier et la propreté de la relieure. il semble, à les voir, que les muses qui ont contribué à la composition du dedans, se soient aussi appliquées à les approprier au dehors, tant il paroît d'art et d'esprit dans leurs ornemens. ils sont tous dorez avec une delicatesse inconnuë aux doreurs d'aujourd'hui. les compartemens sont pients de diverses couleurs, parfaitemente bien dessinez, et tous de differentes figures, &c.:" vol. i., p. , edit. . then follows a description, of which the reader has just had ocular demonstration. after such an account, what bibliomaniac can enjoy perfect tranquillity of mind unless he possess a _grollier copy_ of some work or other? my own, from which the preceding fac-simile was taken, is a folio edition ( ) of _rhenanus, de rebus germanicis_; in the finest preservation.] phil. lysander will best observe upon him. lysand. nay; his character cannot be in better hands. phil. grollier was both the friend and the treasurer of francis the first; the bosom companion of de thou, and a patron of the aldine family. he had learning, industry, and inflexible integrity. his notions of _virtû_ were vast, but not wild. there was a magnificence about every thing which he did or projected; and his liberality was without bounds. he was the unrivalled mecænas of book-lovers and scholars; and a more insatiable bibliomaniacal appetite was never, perhaps, possessed by any of _his_ class of character. lis. i thank you for this _grollieriana_. proceed, lysander with your large paper copies. alman. but first tell us--why are these copies so much coveted? do they contain more than the ordinary ones? lysand. not in the least. sometimes, however, an extra embellishment is thrown into the volume--but this, again, belongs to the fourth class of symptoms, called _unique copies_--and i must keep strictly to order; otherwise i shall make sad confusion. belin. keep to your large paper, exclusively.[ ] [footnote : let us first hear dr. ferriar's smooth numbers upon this tremendous symptom of the bibliomania: but devious oft, from ev'ry classic muse, the keen collector meaner paths will choose: and first the margin's breadth his soul employs, pure, snowy, broad, the type of nobler joys. in vain might homer roll the tide of song, or horace smile, or tully charm the throng; if crost by pallas' ire, the trenchant blade or too oblique, or near, the edge invade, the bibliomane exclaims, with haggard eye, 'no margin!'--turns in haste, and scorns to buy. _the bibliomania_; v. - . next come the rivals strains of 'an aspirant.' first maxim. who slaves the monkish folio through, with lore or science in his view, _him_ ... visions black, or devils blue, shall haunt at his expiring taper;-- yet, 'tis a weakness of the wise, to chuse the volume by the size, and riot in the pond'rous prize-- dear copies--_printed on_ large paper! _bibliosophia_; p. iv. after these saucy attacks, can i venture upon discoursing, in a sober note-like strain--upon those large and magnificent volumes concerning which lysander, above, pours forth such a torrent of eloquence? yes--gentle reader--i will even venture!--and will lay a silver penny to boot (see peacham's '_worth of a penny_'--) that neither dr. ferriar nor the 'aspirant' could withhold their ejaculations of rapture upon seeing any one of the following volumes walk majestically into their libraries. mark well, therefore, a few scarce works printed upon large paper. _lord bacon's essays_; , vo. there were only six copies of this edition struck off upon royal folio paper: one copy is in the cracherode collection, in the british museum; and another is in the library of earl spencer. mr. leigh, the book-auctioneer, a long time ago observed that, if ever one of these copies were to be sold at an auction, it would probably bring - _l._--! i will not insert the _first_ figure; but _two noughts_ followed it.----_twenty plays of shakspeare from the old quarto editions_; , vo., vols. only twelve copies printed upon large paper. see _bibl. steevens_: no. ; and p. , ante.----_dodsley's collection of old plays_; , vo., vols. only six copies struck off upon large paper. bibl. woodhouse, no. .----_the grenville homer_; , to., vols. fifty copies of this magnificent work are said to have been printed upon large paper; which have embellishments of plates. mr. dent possesses the copy which was professor porson's, and which was bought at the sale of the professor's library, in boards, for _l._, see p. , ante. seven years ago i saw a sumptuous copy in morocco, knocked down for _l._ _s._----_mathæi paris, monachi albanenses, &c.; historia major; a wats_; lond. ; folio. this is a rare and magnificent work upon large paper; and is usually bound in two volumes.----_historiæ anglicanæ scriptores x; a twysden_; , folio. of equal rarity and magnificence are copies of this inestimable production.----_rerum anglicarum scriptores veteres, a gale_; , ; folio, volumes. there were but few copies of this, now generally coveted, work printed upon large paper. the difference between the small and the large, for amplitude of margin and lustre of ink, is inconceivable.----_historiæ anglicanæ scriptores varii, a sparke_; lond. , folio. the preface to this work shews that there are copies of it, like those of dr. clarke's edition of cæsar's commentaries, upon paper of three different sizes. the 'charta maxima' is worthy of a conspicuous place upon the collector's shelf; though in any shape the book has a creditable aspect.----_recueil des historiens des gaules, &c., par boucquet_; , ; folio, vols. it is hardly possible for the eye to gaze upon a more intrinsically valuable work, or a finer set of volumes, than are these, as now exhibited in mr. evans's shop, and bound in fine old red morocco by the best binders of france. they were once in my possession; but the 'res angusta domi' compelled me to part with them, and to seek for a copy not so tall by head and shoulders. since the year , two additional volumes have been published. we will now discourse somewhat of english books. _scott's discoverie of whitcraft_; , to. of this work, which has recently become popular from mr. douce's frequent mention of it (illustrations of shakspeare, &c., , vols., vo.), my friend, mr. utterson, possesses a very beautiful copy upon large paper. it is rarely one meets with books printed in this country, before the year , struck off in such a manner. this copy, which is secured from 'winter and rough weather' by a stout coat of skilfully-tool'd morocco, is probably unique.----_weever's funeral monuments_; , folio. mr. samuel lysons informs me that he has a copy of this work upon large paper. i never saw, or heard of, another similar one.----_sanford's genealogical history_; , folio. at the sale of baron smyth's books, in , messrs. j. and a. arch purchased a copy of this work upon large paper for _l._ a monstrous price! a similar copy is in the library of mr. grenville, which was obtained from mr. evans of pall-mall. the curious should purchase the anterior edition (of ) for the sake of better impressions of the plates; which, however, in any condition, are neither tasteful nor well engraved. what is called '_a good hollar_' would weigh down the whole set of them!----_strype's ecclesiastical memorials_; , _folio_, vols.----_annals of the reformation_; , _folio_, vols. happy the collector who can regale himself by viewing large paper copies of these inestimable works! in any shape or condition, they are now rare. the latter is the scarcer of the two; and upon large paper brings, what the french bibliographers call, 'un prix enorme.' there is one of this kind in the beautiful library of mr. thomas grenville.----_hearne's works_--'till mr. bagster issued his first reprints of robert of gloucester and peter langtoft, upon paper of three different sizes--(of which the largest, in quarto, has hardly been equalled in modern printing)--used to bring extravagant sums at book-auctions. at a late sale in pall-mall, were [transcriber's note: where] the books in general were sold at extraordinary prices, the large paper hearnes absolutely 'hung fire'--as the sportsman's phrase is.----_hudibras, with dr. grey's annotations, and hogarth's cuts_; , vols. there were but twelve copies of this first and best edition of dr. grey's labours upon hudibras (which warburton strangely abuses--) printed upon large paper: and a noble book it is in this form!----_milner's history of winchester_; , to., vols. of this edition there were, i believe, either twelve or twenty-four copies printed upon large paper; which brings serious sums in the present general rage for books of this description.----_kennet's (bp.) parochial antiquities; oxford_, , to. the only known copy of this work upon large paper is in the fine library of sir richard colt hoare, bart. this copy was probably in the collection of 'that well-known collector, joseph browne, esq., of shepton mallet, somersetshire:' as a similar one 'in russia, gilt leaves,' was sold in pt. ii. of his collection, no. , for _l._ _s._ _d._ and purchased in the name of thornton.----_the chronicles of froissart and monstrelet_: translated by thomas johnes, esq. hafod, , , quarto, vols.: including a volume of plates to monstrelet. of these beautiful and intrinsically valuable works, there were only copies struck off upon folio; which bring tremendous prices.----_history of the town of cheltenham, and its environs_; , vo. there were a few copies of this superficial work printed upon large paper in royal octavo, and a _unique_ copy upon paper of a quarto size; which latter is in the possession of my friend mr. thomas pruen, of the same place. a part of this volume was written by myself; according to instructions which i received to make it 'light and pleasant.' an author, like a barrister, is bound in most cases to follow his instructions! as i have thus awkwardly introduced myself, i may be permitted to observe, at the foot of this note, that all the large paper copies of my own humble lucubrations have been attended with an unexpectedly successful sale. of the _introduction to the classics_, edit. , vo., there were fifty copies, with extra plates, struck off in royal octavo, and published at _l._ _s._: these now sell for _l._ _s._: the portrait of _bishop fell_ making them snapped at, with a perch-like spirit, by all true grangerites. of the _typographical antiquities_ of our own country there were printed in a superb style, upon imperial paper, in to.; these were published at _l._ _s._ a copy. the following anecdote shews how they are 'looking up'--as the book-market phrase is. my friend ---- parted with his copy; but finding that his slumbers were broken, and his dreams frightful, in consequence, he sought to regain possession of it; and cheerfully gave _l._ _s._! for what, but a few months before, he had possessed for little more than one half the sum! the same friend subscribes for a _large paper_ of the _present work_, of which there are only eighteen copies printed: and of which my hard-hearted printer and myself seize each upon a copy. will the same friend display equal fickleness in regard to this volume? if he does, he must smart acutely for it: nor will _l._ _s._ redeem it! it is justly observed, in the first edition of this work, that, 'analogous to large paper, are tall copies: that is, copies of the work published on the ordinary size paper, and barely cut down by the binder,' p. . to _dwarfise_ a volume is a 'grievous fault' on the part of any binder; but more particularly is it an unpardonable one on the part of him who has had a long intercourse with professed bibliomaniacs! to a person who knows anything of typographical arrangement, the distinction between _tall_ and _large paper_ copies is sufficiently obvious. for this reason, i am quite decided that the supposed large paper copy of _scapula's lexicon_, possessed by mr. ----, of caversham, near reading, is only a _tall_ copy of the work, as usually printed: nor is this copy more stately than another which i have seen. the owner of the volume will suppress all feelings which he may entertain against my heretical opinions (as i fear he will call them), when he considers that he may dispose of his scapula for a sum three times beyond what he gave for it. let him put it by the side of his neighbour dr. valpy's numerous large paper copies of the old folio classics, and he will in a moment be convinced of the accuracy of the foregoing remark. fine paper copies of a work should be here noticed; as they are sought after with avidity. the most beautiful work of this kind which i ever saw, was _rapin's history of england, in nine folio volumes, bound in red morocco, and illustrated with houbraken's_ heads; which sir m.m. sykes recently purchased of mr. evans, the bookseller,--for a comparatively moderate sum. a similar copy (exclusively of the illustrations) of rapin's history of england, which was once in the library of the royal institution, was burnt in the fire that destroyed covent-garden theatre; it having been sent to mr. mackinlay, the book-binder, who lived near the theatre.] lysand. i have little to add to what has been already said of this symptom. that a volume, so published, has a more pleasing aspect, cannot be denied. it is the oak, in its full growth, compared with the same tree in its sapling state: or, if you please, it is the same picture a little more brilliant in its colouring, and put into a handsomer frame. my friend marcus is a very dragon in this department of book-collecting: nothing being too formidable for his attack. let the volume assume what shape it may, and let the price be ever so unconscionable--he hesitates not to become a purchaser. in consequence, exclusively of all the _dugdales_ and _montfaucons_, upon large paper, and in the finest bindings, he possesses the _grand folio classics_, the _benedictine editions of the fathers_, the _county histories_, and all works, of a recent date, upon _history_ and the _belles lettres_. in short, nothing can be more magnificent than the interior of his library; as nothing but giants, arrayed in the most splendid attire, are seen to keep guard from one extremity of the room to the other. lis. who is this marcus? i'll rival him in due time!--but proceed. belin. thus much, i presume, for the first symptom of the bibliomania. now pray, sir, inform us what is meant by that strange term, uncut copies? lysand. of all the symptoms of the bibliomania, this is probably the most extraordinary.[ ] it may be defined a passion to possess books of which the edges have never been sheared by the binder's tools. and here i find myself walking upon doubtful ground:--your friend [turning towards me] atticus's _uncut hearnes_ rise up in "rough majesty" before me, and almost "push me from my stool." indeed, when i look around in your book-lined tub, i cannot but acknowledge that this symptom of the disorder has reached your own threshold; but when it is known that a few of your bibliographical books are left with the edges uncut _merely to please your friends_ (as one must sometimes study their tastes as well as one's own), i trust that no very serious conclusions will be drawn about the fatality of your own case. [footnote : as before, let us borrow the strains of 'an aspirant:' second maxim. who, with fantastic pruning-hook, dresses the borders of his book, merely to ornament its look-- amongst philosophers a fop is: what if, perchance, he thence discover facilities in turning over? the virtuoso is a lover of coyer charms in "uncut copies." _bibliosophia_; p. v. i have very little to add in illustration of lysander's well-pointed sarcasms relating to this _second symptom of_ book-madness. i think i once heard of an uncut _cranmer's bible_; but have actually seen a similar conditioned copy of _purchas's pilgrimes and pilgrimage_, which is now in the beautiful library of the honourable t. grenville.] as to uncut copies, although their inconvenience [an uncut lexicon to wit!] and deformity must be acknowledged, and although a rational man can wish for nothing better than a book _once well bound_, yet we find that the extraordinary passion for collecting them not only obtains with full force, but is attended with very serious consequences to those "que n'out point des pistoles" (to borrow the idea of clement; vol. vi. p. ). i dare say an uncut _first shakspeare_, as well as an _uncut vellum aldus_[ ] would produce a little annuity! [footnote : i doubt of the existence of an uncut _first shakspeare_; although we have recently had evidence of an uncut _first homer_; for thus speaks peignot: "a superb copy of this editio princeps was sold at the sale of m. de cotte's books, in , for livres: but it must be remarked that this copy was in the most exquisite preservation, as if it had just come from the press. moreover, it is probably the only one the margins of which have never been either 'shaven or shorn.'" _curiosités bibliographiques_, p. lxv. vi.; see also p. , ante. dr. harwood, at page , of his _view of the editions of the classics_, speaks of an uncut vellum aldus, of , vo. "mr. quin shewed me a fine copy of it printed in vellum with the _leaves uncut_, which he bought of mr. egerton at a very moderate price. it is, perhaps (adds he), the only _uncut_ vellum aldus in the world." from the joyous strain of this extract, the doctor may be fairly suspected of having strongly exhibited this second symptom of the bibliomania!] belin. 'tis very strange'--as hamlet says at the walking of his father's ghost! but now for your illustrated copies! lysand. you have touched a vibrating string indeed!--but i will suppress my own feelings, and spare those of my friend. a passion for books _illustrated_, or adorned with _numerous prints_[ ] representing characters, or circumstances, mentioned in the work, is a very general and violent symptom of the bibliomania. the origin, or first appearance, of this symptom, has been traced by some to the publication of the rev. ---- granger's "_biographical history of england_;" but whoever will be at the pains of reading the preface of that work will see that granger shelters himself under the authorities of evelyn, ashmole, and others; and that he _alone_ is not to be considered as responsible for all the mischief which this passion for collecting prints has occasioned. granger, however, was the first who introduced it in the form of a history; and surely "in an evil hour" was that history published; although its amiable author must be acquitted of "malice prepense." [footnote : this third symptom has not escaped the discerning eye of the manchester physician; for thus sings dr. ferriar: he pastes, from injur'd volumes snipt away, his _english heads_ in chronicled array, torn from their destin'd page (unworthy meed of knightly counsel, and heroic deed), not _faithorne's_ stroke, nor _field's_ own types can save the gallant veres, and one-eyed ogle brave. indignant readers seek the image fled, and curse the busy fool who _wants a head_. proudly he shews, with many a smile elate, the scrambling subjects of the _private plate_ while time their actions and their names bereaves, they grin for ever in the guarded leaves. _the bibliomania_; v. - . these are happy thoughts, happily expressed. in illustration of v. , the author observes,--"three fine heads, for the sake of which, the beautiful and interesting commentaries of sir francis vere have been mutilated by collectors of english portraits." dr. ferriar might have added that, when a grangerian bibliomaniac commences his illustrating career, he does not fail to make a desperate onset upon _speed_, _boissard_, and the _heroologia_. even the lovely prints of _houbraken_ (in dr. birch's account of illustrious persons of great britain) escape not the ravages of his passion for illustration. the plates which adorn these books are considered among the foundation materials of a grangerian building. but it is time, according to my plan, to introduce other sarcastic strains of poetry. third maxim. who, swearing not a line to miss, doats on the leaf his fingers kiss, thanking the _words_ for all his bliss,-- shall rue, at last, his passion frustrate: _we_ love the page that draws its flavour from draftsman, etcher, and engraver and hint the booby (by his favour) _his_ gloomy copy to "illustrate." _bibliosophia_; p. v. at this stage of our inquiries, let me submit a new remedy as an acquisition to the _materia medica_, of which many first-rate physicians may not be aware--by proposing a =recipe for illustration.= take any passage from any author--to wit: the following (which i have done, quite at random) from speed: '_henry le spenser_, the warlike _bishop of norwich_, being drawn on by _pope vrban_ to preach _the crusade_, and to be general against _clement_ (whom sundry _cardinals_ and great _prelates_ had also elected pope) having a fifteenth granted to him, for that purpose, by _parliament_,' &c. _historie of great britaine_, p. , edit. . now, let the reader observe, here are _only four_ lines; but which, to be properly illustrated, should be treated thus: st, procure all the portraits, at all periods of his life, of _henry le spencer_; dly, obtain every view, ancient and modern, like or unlike, of the city of _norwich_; and, if fortune favour you, of _every bishop of the same see_; dly, every portrait of _pope vrban_ must be procured; and as many prints and drawings as can give some notion of _the crusade_--together with a few etchings (if there be any) of _peter the hermit_ and _richard i._, who took such active parts in the crusade; thly, you must search high and low, early and late, for every print of _clement_; thly, procure, or you will be wretched, as many fine prints of _cardinals_ and _prelates_, singly or in groups, as will impress you with a proper idea of _the conclave_; and thly, see whether you may not obtain, at some of our most distinguished old-print sellers, views of the _house of parliament_ at the period (a.d. .) here described!!! the result, gentle reader, will be this: you will have work enough cut out to occupy you for one whole month at least, from rise to set of sun--in parading the streets of our metropolis: nor will the expense in _coach_ hire, or _shoe leather_, be the least which you will have to encounter! the prints themselves may cost _some_thing! lest any fastidious and cynical critic should accuse me, and with apparent justice, of gross exaggeration or ignorance in this _recipe_, i will inform him, on good authority, that a late distinguished and highly respectable female collector, who had commenced an illustrated bible, procured not fewer than _seven hundred prints_ for the illustration of the th, st, d, d, th, and th verses of the st chapter of genesis! the illustrated copy of mr. fox's historical work, mentioned in the first edition of this work, p. , is now in the possession of lord mountjoy. the similar copy of walter scott's edition of dryden's works, which has upwards of portraits, is yet in the possession of mr. miller, the bookseller.] granger's work seems to have sounded the tocsin for a general rummage after, and plunder of, old prints. venerable philosophers, and veteran heroes, who had long reposed in unmolested dignity within the magnificent folio volumes which recorded their achievements, were instantly dragged forth from their peaceful abodes, to be inlaid by the side of some clumsy modern engraving, within an _illustrated granger_! nor did the madness stop here. illustration was the order of the day; and _shakspeare_[ ] and _clarendon_ became the next objects of its attack. from these it has glanced off, in a variety of directions, to adorn the pages of humbler wights; and the passion, or rather this symptom of the bibliomania, yet rages with undiminished force. if judiciously treated, it is, of all the symptoms, the least liable to mischief. to possess a series of well-executed portraits of illustrious men, at different periods of their lives, from blooming boyhood to phlegmatic old age, is sufficiently amusing; but to possess _every_ portrait, _bad_, _indifferent_, and _unlike_, betrays such a dangerous and alarming symptom as to render the case almost incurable! [footnote : lysander would not have run on in this declamatory strain, if it had been _his_ good fortune, as it has been _mine_, to witness the extraordinary copy of an illustrated shakspeare in the possession of earl spencer; which owes its magic to the perseverance and taste of the dowager lady lucan, mother to the present countess spencer. for sixteen years did this accomplished lady pursue the pleasurable toil of illustration; having commenced it in her th, and finished it in her th year. whatever of taste, beauty, and judgment in decoration--by means of portraits, landscapes, houses, and tombs--flowers, birds, insects, heraldic ornaments, and devices,--could dress our immortal bard in a yet more fascinating form, has been accomplished by the noble hand which undertook so herculean a task--and with a truth, delicacy, and finish of execution, which have been rarely equalled! these magnificent volumes (being the folio edition printed by bulmer) are at once beautiful and secured by green velvet binding, with embossed clasps and corners of solid silver, washed with gold. each volume is preserved in a silken cover--and the whole is kept inviolate from the impurities of bibliomaniacal miasmata, in a sarcophagus-shaped piece of furniture of cedar and mahogany. what is the pleasure experienced by the most resolute antiquary, when he has obtained a peep at the inmost sarcophagus of the largest pyramid of egypt, compared with that which a tasteful bibliomaniac enjoys upon contemplating this illustrated shakespeare, now reposing in all the classical magnificence and congenial retirement of its possessor?--but why do i surpass lysander in the warmth and vehemence of narration! and yet, let me not forget that the same noble owner has _another_ illustrated copy of the same bard, on a smaller scale, of which mention has already been made in my account of the donor of it, the late george steevens. turn, gentle reader, for one moment, to page , ante. the illustrated clarendon, above hinted at by lysander, is in the possession of mr. h.a. sutherland; and is, perhaps, a matchless copy of the author: every siege, battle, town, and house-view--as well as portrait--being introduced within the leaves. i will not even hazard a conjecture for how many _thousand pounds_ its owner might dispose of it, if the inclination of parting with it should ever possess him. the british museum has recently been enriched with a similar copy of pennant's _london_, on large paper. prints and drawings of all descriptions, which could throw light upon the antiquities of our metropolis, are inserted in this extraordinary copy, which belonged to the late mr. crowles; who expended _l._ upon the same, and who bequeathed it, in the true spirit of _virtû_, to the museum. let cracherode and crowles be held in respectful remembrance!] there is another mode of _illustrating copies_ by which this symptom of the bibliomania may be known; it consists in bringing together, from different works, [including newspapers and magazines, and by means of the scissars, or otherwise by transcription] every page or paragraph which has any connexion with the character or subject under discussion. this is a useful[ ] and entertaining mode of illustrating a favourite author; and copies of works of this nature, when executed by skilful hands, should be deposited in public libraries; as many a biographical anecdote of eminent literary characters is preserved in consequence. i almost ridiculed the idea of an _illustrated chatterton_, 'till the sight of your friend bernardo's copy, in eighteen volumes, made me a convert to the utility that may be derived from a judicious treatment of this symptom of the bibliomania: and indeed, of a rainy day, the same bibliomaniac's similar copy of _walton's complete angler_ affords abundant amusement in the perusal. [footnote : numerous are the instances of the peculiar use and value of copies of this kind; especially to those who are engaged in publications of a similar nature. oldys's _interleaved langbaine_ (of mr. reed's transcript of which a copy is in the possession of mr. heber) is re-echoed in almost every recent work connected with the belles-lettres of our country. oldys himself was unrivalled in this method of illustration; if, exclusively of langbaine, his copy of _fuller's worthies_ [once mr. steevens', now mr. malone's. see _bibl. steevens_, no. ] be alone considered! this oldys was the oddest mortal that ever wrote. grose, in his _olio_, gives an amusing account of his having "a number of small parchment bags inscribed with the names of the persons whose lives he intended to write; into which he put every circumstance and anecdote he could collect, and from thence drew up his history." see noble's _college of arms_, p. . thus far the first edition of this work; p. . it remains to add that, whatever were the singularities and capriciousness of oldys, his talents were far beyond mediocrity; as his publication of the _harleian miscellany_, and _raleigh's history of the world_, abundantly prove. to the latter, a life of raleigh is prefixed; and the number of pithy, pleasant, and profitable notes subjoined shew that oldys's bibliographical talents were not eclipsed by those of any contemporary. his _british librarian_ has been more than once noticed in the preceding pages: vide p. : . there is a portrait of him, in a full-dressed suit and bag-wig, in one of the numbers of the european magazine; which has the complete air of a fine gentleman. let me just observe, in elucidation of what lysander above means by this latter mode of illustrating copies, that in the bodleian library there is a copy of _kuster's edition of suidas_ filled, from beginning to end, with ms. notes and excerpts of various kinds, by the famous d'orville, tending to illustrate the ancient lexicographer.] lis. forgive me, if i digress a little. but is not the knowledge of _rare_, _curious_, and _beautiful prints_--so necessary, it would seem, towards the perfecting of _illustrated copies_--is not this knowledge of long and difficult attainment? lysand. unquestionably, this knowledge is very requisite towards becoming a complete pupil in the school of granger.[ ] nor is it, as you very properly suppose, of short or easy acquirement. [footnote : granger's _biographical history of england_ was first published, i believe, in , to., vols. it has since undergone four impressions; the last being in , vo., vols. _a continuation of the same_, by the rev. mark noble, was published in , vo., vols.: so that if the lover of rare and curious prints get possession of these volumes, with ames's _catalogue of english heads_, , vo.; and walpole's _catalogue of engravers_, , vo.; bromley's _catalogue of engraved portraits_, , to.; together with catalogues of english portraits, being the collections of mr. barnard, sir w. musgrave, mr. tyssen, sir james-winter lake; and many other similar catalogues put forth by mr. richardson and mr. grave; he may be said to be in a fair way to become master of the whole arcana of print-collecting. but let him take heed to the severe warning-voice uttered by rowe mores, in his criticism upon the catalogue of english heads, published by ames: 'this performance (says the splenetic and too prophetic critic) is not to be despised: judiciously executed, a work of this sort would be an appendage entertaining and useful to the readers of english biography; and it ought to be done at the common labour, expense, and charges of these _iconoclasts_--because their depredations are a grand impediment to another who should attempt it: and if this _goût_ for prints and thieving continues, let private owners and public libraries look well to their books, for there will not remain a valuable book ungarbled by their connoisseuring villany: for neither honesty nor oaths restrain them. yet these _fanciers_, if prints themselves are to be collected, instead of being injurious to every body, might make themselves serviceable to posterity, and become a kind of _medalists_ (who, by the bye, are almost as great thieves as themselves, though the hurt they do is not so extensive, as it lies chiefly among themselves, who all hold this doctrine, that "exchange is no robbery;" but, if they could filch without exchanging, no scruple of conscience would prevent them): we say they might render themselves useful to posterity, by gathering together the historical, political, satyrical, anecdotal and temporal pieces, with which the age abounds; adding an explanation of the intent and meaning for the instruction and amusement of times to come. the misfortune is, they must buy the one, but they can steal the other; and steal they will, although watched with the eyes of argus: unless the valuables, like some other _jocalia_, are shewn to them through a grate; and even _then_, the keeper must be vigilant!' _of english founders and foundries_; p. . this extract is curious on account of the tart, but just, sentiments which prevail in it; but, to the bibliomaniac, it is doubly curious, when he is informed that _only eighty copies_ of this typographical treatise (of pages--including the appendix) were printed. the author was a testy, but sagacious, bibliomaniac, and should have been introduced among his brethren in part v. it is not, however, too late to subjoin the following: _bibliotheca moresiana. a catalogue of the large and valuable library of printed books, rare old tracts, manuscripts, prints, and drawings, copper plates, sundry antiquities, philosophical instruments, and other curiosities, of that eminent british antiquary_, the late rev. and learned edward rowe mores, f.a.s., deceased, &c. sold by auction by mr. patterson, august . this collection exhibited, like its owner, a strange mixture of what was curious, whimsical, and ingenious in human nature. there were lots of printed books. _the rare old black-letter books and tracts_, begin at p. .] alman. how so? a very little care, with a tolerably good taste, is only required to know when a print is _well engraved_. lysand. alas, madam! the excellence of engraving is oftentimes but a _secondary_ consideration! belin. do pray explain. lysand. i will, and as briefly and perspicuously as possible. there are, first, _all the varieties of the same print_[ ] to be considered!--whether it have the _name of the character_, or _artist_, omitted or subjoined: whether the head of the print be without the body, or the body without the head--and whether this latter be finished, or in the outline, or ghostly white! then you must go to _the dress_ of this supposed portrait:--whether full or plain; court or country-fashioned: whether it have a hat, or no hat; feather, or no feather; gloves, or no gloves; sword, or no sword; and many other such momentous points. [footnote : the reader, by means of the preceding note, having been put in possession of some of the principal works from which information, relating to print-collecting may be successfully gleaned, it remains for me--who have been described as sitting in a corner to compile notes for lysander's text-discourse--to add something by way of illustration to the above sweeping satire. one or the other of the points touched upon in the text will be found here more particularly elucidated. catalogue of barnard's prints; , vo. th day's sale. no. . sir thos. isham de lamport, by loggan and valck; _before the names of the artists, very fine_. £ _s._ _d._ . king charles i. on horseback, with the page, by lombard; _very fine and scarce_. . the same plate; _with cromwell's head substituted for the king's--variation in the drapery_. . the same: a curious proof--_the face blank and no inscription at bottom--drapery of the page different_--and other variations. . catharine, queen of k. charles ii.; _in the dress in which she arrived: very scarce_. by faithorne. . queen elizabeth; habited in the superb court dress in which she went to st. paul's to return thanks for the defeat of the spanish armada--by passe; from a painting of isaac oliver. [i have known from _l._ to _l._ given for a fine impression of this curious print: but i am as well pleased with mr. turner's recently published, and admirably executed, facsimile mezzotint engraving of it; a proof of which costs _l._ _s._ every member of the two houses--and every land and sea captain--ought to hang up this print in his sitting-room.] eighth day's sale. . esther before ahasuerus: engraved by hollar; _first impression; with the portraits at top; curious and extremely rare_. . jo. banfi hunniades; _proof; very fine and rare_. by the same. . the same print, _with variations_. by the same. . the stone-eater; _with his history below_. by the same. _very rare._ . sir thomas chaloner; by the same. _a proof impression. one of the scarcest prints in existence._ [a similar print has been since sold for _l._; which is in the collection of mr. john townley; whose hollars are unrivalled!] . herbert, earl of pembroke; _before the alteration_. by the same. . devereux, earl of essex; _on horseback_. by the same. . devereux, earl of essex: _standing on foot; whole length_. by the same. . algernon, earl of northumberland; _on horseback_. by the same. . lady elizabeth shirley; _an unfinished proof, the chaplet round her head being only traced; curious and extremely rare_. by the same. . _a reverse of the proof; very fine_. by the same. catalogue of sir william musgrave's prints. third day's sale. . george, earl of berkeley; oval, _in his robes_, ; _extra fie [transcriber's note: fine] and rare_. . george, duke of buckingham; oval; _cloak over his left arm, hand on sword, nine lines expressive of his titles, &c._ sold by p. stent: _fine and extra rare_. . george, earl of cumberland; _whole length, dressed for a tournament_. by r. white. fifth day's sale. . the newcastle family, in a room, after diepenbeke, by clowet; _a beautiful proof, before the verses, extra rare_. [there is a very indifferent copy of this print. the original may be seen in the collection of the marquis of stafford and sir m.m. sykes, bart. nothing can exceed the tenderness and delicacy of clowet's engraving of this naturally conceived and well-managed picture.] tenth day's sale. . richard smith; virtuoso and literary character. by w. sherwin; _extra rare and fine_. [see my account of this distinguished bibliomaniac at p. , ante. sir m.m. sykes is in possession of sir william musgrave's copy of the portrait.] eleventh day's sale. . sir francis willoughby; _with a view of wollaton hall_; mezzotint by t. man, _extra rare_. . sir francis wortley; , folio: with trophies, books, &c., by a. hertochs: extra rare and fine. eighteenth day's sale. . dr. francis bernard; _a touched proof_; _very rare_. [the reader may recollect this sagacious bibliomaniac, as noticed at page , ante.] twentieth day's sale. . sir matthew lister; m.d. ; by p. van somer; _fine proof, extra rare_. . humphrey lloyd, of denbigh, antiquary, ætat. , . by faber, , _extra rare and fine_. twenty-first day's sale. . sir john marsham; ætat. . by r. white, _extra rare and fine_. . martin master; ætat. . . by r. gaywood, _extra_ rare _and_ fine. twenty-seventh day's sale. . lady paston, wife of sir william paston, by w. faithorne; _extra rare and fine_. . mary, countess of pembroke, by simon passe, . _fine and rare._ . penelope, countess of pembroke, in an oval, by w. hollar. _rare._ . anne clifford, countess of pembroke, by r. white: _extra_ rare _and_ fine. [the prints at this sale--the catalogue containing pages--were sold for _l._ _s._] miscellaneous catalogues of prints. first day's sale. . richard cromwell, lord protector, in a square. "this portrait was etched by hollar, but he was afraid to put his name to it; and the plate was destroyed as soon as richard resigned his pretensions to the protectorship." note by mr. hillier. _very rare._ . lord digby, in armour; after vander borcht. _extra_ rare _and_ fine. . robert devereux, earl of essex, _standing, whole length: army in the distance_, , _fine and rare_. . the same, on horseback: under the horse a map of england; : _first state of the plate; extra fine and rare_. . hollar's own portrait, in an oval, ætat. , : _with variations in the arms_. sixth day's sale. . sir william paston, : esteemed faithorne's finest portrait: _extra rare_. . carew reynell, from the fothergill collection: _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . prince rupert, in armour, _right hand on the breast_: after vandyck. sold by robert peake. _extra_ fine _and_ rare. thirteenth day's sale. . king and queen of bohemia, and five children, by wm. passe, with thirty-two englishes [qu?]; : _extra fine and rare_, the same plate; _with the addition of five children; the youngest in a cradle_. . the same, sitting under a tree; with four children; the youngest playing with a rabbit: fine _and_ rare. . james, duke of york: _with the anchor, proof_; very fine and rare. ( th day's sale.) . sir francis winderbank and lord finch; _with finch's wings flying to winderbank_; extra rare. ( th day.) _a catalogue of a genuine and valuable collection of english and foreign portraits, &c., sold by auction by mr. richardson, february_ , . st day's sale. . princess augusta maria, daughter of charles i. _in hat and feather_, ætat. , : by henry danckers, . _fine and rare._ . anne, queen of james i. with her daughter anne; _curiously dressed, whole length_. by j. visscher: _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . mary, queen of scotts: "scotorumque nunc regina"--_in an oval: cap adorned with jewels, feather-fan in her hand_, &c. by peter mynginus: _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . prince frederick, count palatine, with princess elizabeth, _whole length, superbly dressed_: by r. elstracke: _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . henry the eighth, _with hat and feather, large fur tippet_: by c. m(atsis); _very_ fine, _and supposed unique_. . mary, queen of scots: _veil'd cross at her breast: ætat._ , : _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . queen elizabeth; _superbly dressed, between two pillars: extra_ fine _and_ rare. _a catalogue of a valuable and genuine collection of prints, drawings, and elegantly illustrated books, &c., sold by auction by mr. richardson; march_, . . henry, lord darnley, by passe; fine _and very_ rare. . sir philip sidney, by elstracke; _extremely_ fine. . thomas howard, earl of suffolk, by ditto, _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . edward somerset, earl of worcester, by simon passe: rare _and_ fine. . henry vere, earl of oxford, sold by compton holland; _very_ rare _and_ fine. . henry wriothesly, earl of southampton, by simon passe; _most brilliant impression, extra rare_. . thomas howard, earl of arundel, by the same; _rare and very fine_. . richard sackville, earl of dorset, by the same; _extra fine and rare_--(with a copy by thane). . john digby, earl of bristol; rare and fine: from the fothergill collection. . robert sidney, viscount lisle, by simon passe; _rare and very fine_. . edmund, baron sheffield: by elstracke; _very fine_. . james, lord hay, by simon passe; _brilliant impression_, fine _and_ rare. . george mountaine, bishop of london; g.y. sculpsit; _very fine and rare_. . sir julius cæsar, by elstracke; _extra_ fine _and_ rare. . arthurus severus nonesuch o'toole, by delaram; _most brilliant impression, and very rare_ (with the copy). . sir john wynn de gwedir, by vaughan; _very rare_. . prince frederic henry, by delaram: _very_ fine _and_ rare. . prince rupert, by faithorne; _very_ fine _and_ rare. . sir john hotham, governor of hull; _whole length; extremely_ rare _and_ fine. . edward mascall, by gammon. . edward wetenhall, bishop of corke and ross; mezzotint, by becket; _fine_. . andrew lortie, by van somer. . thomas cole, large mezzotint. . sir william portman, mezzotint. . anthony, earl of shaftesbury, by blooteling; _exceeding_ fine _impression_. . sir patrick lyon, of carse, by white. . sir greville verney, by loggan. . marmaduke rawdon, by white; fine. . slingsby bethel, _whole length_, by w. sherwin (with small copy). . samuel malines, by lombart; very fine. . thomas killegrew, _as sitting with the dog_: by faithorne. _a catalogue of a very choice assemblage of english portraits, and of foreigners who have visited england: serving to illustrate granger's biographical history; the property of an eminent collector_, &c., sold by auction, by messrs. king and lochée, april, . but it is time to pause. the present note may have completely served to shew, not only that lysander was right in drawing such bold conclusions respecting the consequences resulting from the publication of granger's biographical history, and the capriciousness of print-fanciers respecting impressions _in their various stages_, and with _all their varieties_,--but, that the pursuit of print-collecting is both costly and endless. for one 'fine and rare' _print_, by hollar, faithorne, elstracke, the passes, delaram, or white, how many truly precious and useful _volumes_ may be collected? "all this is vastly fine reasoning"--methinks i hear a grangerite exclaim--"but compare the comfort afforded by your 'precious and useful volumes' with that arising from the contemplation of eminent and extraordinary characters, executed by the _burin_ of some of those graphic heroes before-mentioned--and how despicable will the dry unadorned volume appear!! on a dull, or rainy day, look at an illustrated shakespeare, or hume, and then find it in your heart, if you can, to depreciate the grangerian passion!!" i answer, the grangerite is madder than the bibliomaniac:--and so let the matter rest.] next let us discuss the serious subject of the _background_!--whether it be square or oval; dark or light; put in or put out; stippled or stroked; and sundry other similar, but most important, considerations. again; there are engravings of _different sizes_, and _at different periods_, of the same individual, or object: and of these, the varieties are as infinite as of any of those attached to the vegetable system. i will not attempt even an outline of them. but i had nearly forgotten to warn you, in your rembrandt _prints_, to look sharply after _the burr_! alman. mercy on us--what is this _burr_?! lysand. a slight imperfection only; which, as it rarely occurs, makes the impression more valuable. it is only a sombre tinge attached to the copper, before the plate is sufficiently polished by being worked; and it gives a smeared effect, like smut upon a lady's face, to the impression! but i am becoming satirical. which is the next symptom that you have written down for me to discourse upon? lis. i am quite attentive to this delineation of a _print connoisseur_; and will not fail to mark _all the_ rembrandt[ ] _varieties_, and take heed to the _burr_! [footnote : all the book and print world have heard of daulby's _descriptive catalogue of the works of rembrandt_, &c. liverpool, , vo. the author's collection of rembrandt's prints (according to a ms. note prefixed to my copy of it, which is upon _large paper_ in to.--of which _only fifty_ impressions were struck off) was sold at liverpool, in , in one lot; and purchased by messrs. colnaghi, manson, and vernon, for _l._ it was sold in , in separate lots, for _l._, exclusively of every expense; after the purchasers had been offered _l._ for the same. some of these prints came into the possession of the late mr. woodhouse (vide p. , ante); and it is from the catalogue of _his_ collection of prints that i present the reader with the following rembrandtiana; beseeching him to take due heed to what lysander has above alluded to by _all the varieties and the burr_! lot daulby . abraham entertaining the three angels; _very_ fine, _with the burr, on india paper_. £ _s._ _d._ . the angel appearing to the shepherds; _very fine, presque unique_. . the flight into egypt, in the style of elsheimer; _on india paper, the st impression, extremely rare_. . the hundred guilder piece. this impression on india paper, _with the burr_, is acknowledged by the greatest connoisseurs in this kingdom to be the most brilliant extant. . ditto, restored plate, by capt. baillie, _likewise on india paper, and very fine_. . the good samaritan; _the st impression with the white tail_, most beautifully finished, with a light point, and fine hand; very fine and rare. . our lord before pilate, _second impression on india paper_, fine _and_ scarce. . same subject, third impression, _with the mask, extremely rare_: from the collection of the burgomaster six. . the descent from the cross. this print is beautifully executed, the composition is grand, and the head full of character; _ st and most brilliant impression_. . the rat-killer; _a most beautiful impression_. . the marriage of jason and creusa; _a st impression, without the crown_, on india paper, very brilliant. . the hog; a remarkably fine impression, from houbraken's collection: _scarce_. . the shell. this piece is finely executed, and this impression, _with the white ground, may be regarded as presque unique_. . ledikant, or french bed. _this is the entire plate, and is a very great rarity._ . the woman with the arrow: _very scarce_. . the three trees; _as fine as possible_. . a village near a high road, arched: _ st impression on india paper, before the cross hatchings_: scarce. . a landscape of an irregular form; _ st impression, with the burr, very scarce_. . blement de jonge; _ st impression, the upper bar of the chair is left white, extremely rare_. . ditto, _second impression_, very _scarce_. . ditto, third impression, _very_ fine. . abraham france, _with the curtain, on india paper_. . [transcriber's note: .] ditto: _with the chair_. . ditto; _with the figures on the paper which he holds in his wands_. all these impressions are rare and fine. . old haaring or haring, the burgo-master; _beautiful impression on india paper, with the burr, extremely rare_. . young haaring, beautiful impression from houbraken's collection; _scarce_. . john lutma; _ st impression before the window_, &c. _extremely rare_. . john aselyn; _ st impression, with the easel, extremely rare_. . wtenbogardus, the dutch minister; a most beautiful and brilliant impression, oval, on a square plate; _proof, before the pillar, arch, verses, or any inscription: presque unique_. . the gold weigher; _ st impression, with_ the face blank, _extremely rare_. . ditto; _a most beautiful and brilliant impression; and esteemed the_ finest _extant_. from the collection of capt. baillie. . the little coppenol, with the picture; _the second and rarest impression, generally esteemed the st_; from the earl of bute's collection. . ditto; without the picture, very fine. . the great coppenol, remarkably fine. . the advocate tol; _a superb impression, extremely rare with the copy_. . the burgo-master six; _a most extraordinary impression, the name and age of the burgo-master are wanting, and the two middle figures in the date are reversed: a very great rarity_. perhaps the finest collection of rembrandt's prints, in great britain, is that in the possession of lord viscount fitzwilliam, at richmond; a nobleman of extremely retired habits, and equally distinguished for his taste, candour, and erudition. his paintings and books are of the very first class.] lysand. do so; and attend the shops of mr. richardson, mr. woodburn, and mr. grave, and you may soon have a chance of gratifying your appetite in these strange particulars. but beware of a hogarth rage! lis. is that so formidable? lysand. the longest life were hardly able to make the collection of hogarth's prints complete! the late mr. ireland has been the linnæus to whom we are indebted for the most minute and amusing classification of the almost innumerable varieties of the impressions of hogarth's plates.[ ] [footnote : the marquis of bute has, i believe, the most extraordinary and complete collection of hogarth's prints that is known. of the _election dinner_ there are six or seven varieties; gloves, and no gloves; hats, from one to the usual number; lemon, and no lemon; punch bowl, and no punch bowl. but of these _varying_ prints, the most curious is the one known by the name of _evening_: with a little boy and girl, crying, in the back-ground. at first, hogarth did _not_ paint _the girl_, and struck off very few impressions of the plate in this state of the picture. a friend observing to him that the boy was crying with no apparent cause of provocation, hogarth put in the little girl tantalizing him. but--happy he! who has the print of the 'evening' _without_ the little girl: fifteen golden guineas (rare things now to meet with!) ought not to induce him to part with it. of the copper-plate portraits by hogarth, the original of '_sarah malcolm, executed_ ,' is among the very rarest; a copy of this selling for _l._ _s._ _d._ at barnard's sale. the reader has only to procure that most interesting of all illustrative works, _hogarth illustrated by john ireland_, , ( d edit.) vols., vo.; and, for a comparatively trifling sum, he may be initiated into all the mysteries of hogarthian _virtû_. the late right hon. w. wyndham's collection of hogarth's prints, bequeathed to him by mr. george steevens, was _bought in_ for little more than guineas.] lis. i will stick to rembrandt and leave hogarth at rest. but surely, this rage for _portrait collecting_ cannot be of long duration. it seems too preposterous for men of sober sense and matured judgment to yield to. lysand. so think _you_--who are no collector! but had you accompanied me to mr. christie's on friday[ ] last, you would have had convincing evidence to the contrary. a little folio volume, filled with one hundred and fifty-two prints, produced-- [footnote : if the reader casts his eye upon pages - he will find that the ardour of print and portrait collecting has not abated since the time of sir w. musgrave. as a corroboration of the truth of lysander's remark, i subjoin a specimen (being only four articles) of the present rage for 'curious and rare' productions of the _burin_--as the aforesaid grangerite (p. ) terms it. no. . the right honourable and truly generous henry veere, earl of oxford, viscount bulbeck, &c. lord high chamberlain of england. j. payne sculp. with a large hat and feather, small, in a border with many figures. will. passo, sculp. tho. jenner exc. on distinct plates. _the most brilliant impression of a print of the greatest rarity._ £ _s._ _d._ . generall (edward) cecyll son to the right honourable the earle of exeter, &c. in an oval; in armour. simmon passæs, sculp. anno . sould in pope's head alley, also by john sudbury and george humble. _most brilliant impression of a print of the greatest rarity._ . the true portraicture of richard whitington, thrise lord mayor of london, a vertuous and godly man, full of good workes (and those famous) &c. r. elstracke sculp. are to be sold by compton holland over against the exchange: _first impression with the hand on a skull. extra fine and rare._ . mull'd sack; a fantastic and humourous chimney-sweeper, so called: with cap, feather, and lace band: cloak tuck'd up; coat ragged; scarf on his arm; left leg in a fashionable boot, with a spur; on his right foot a shoe with a rose; sword by his side, and a holly bush and pole on his shoulder; in his left hand, another pole with a horn on it; a pipe, out of which issues smoke, is in his right hand; at the bottom are eight verses (as given in granger, vol. ii., p. ). are to be sold by compton holland over against the exchange, with further manuscript account by a provost of eton. _considered unique_ [but not so]. ] lis. perhaps, three hundred guineas? lysand. just double the sum, i believe. lis. o rare james granger--thy immortality is secured! but we forget our symptoms of the bibliomania. belin. as i am the examiner, i here demand of you, sir, what may be the meaning of the _fourth symptom_ of the bibliomaniacal disease, which you call unique copies? lysand. a passion for a book of which only one copy was printed, or which has any peculiarity about it[ ] by either, or both, of the foregoing methods of illustration--or which is remarkable for its size, beauty, and condition--or has any embellishment, rare, precious and invaluable--which the researches of the most sedulous bibliomaniac, for three and thirty long years, would not be able to produce--is indicative of a rage for _unique copies_; and is unquestionably a strong prevailing symptom of the bibliomania. let me therefore urge every sober and cautious collector not to be fascinated by the terms "_curious and rare_;" which 'in slim italics' (to copy dr. ferriar's happy expression[ ]) are studiously introduced into booksellers' catalogues to lead the unwary astray. such a collector may fancy himself proof against the temptation; and will, in consequence, call _only to look at_ this unique book, or set of books; but--led away by the passion which inflamed berryer and caillard[ ]--when he views the morocco binding, silk water-tabby lining, blazing gilt edges; when he turns over the white and unspotted leaves; gazes on the amplitude of margin; on a rare and lovely print introduced; and is charmed with the soft and coaxing manner in which, by the skill of herring, mackinlay, rodwell, lewis, or faulkener, "leaf succeeds to leaf"--he can no longer bear up against the temptation; and, confessing himself vanquished, purchases, and retreats--exclaiming with virgil's shepherd---- ut vidi, ut perii--ut me malus abstulit error! [footnote : let us again quote a stanza from the 'aspirant:' fourth maxim. who in _all_ copies finds delight-- the wrong not scenting from the right-- and, with a choiceless appetite, just comes to _feed_, ... like soph, or templar, out on his iron stomach!--_we_ have rarities we merely _see_, nor taste our phoenix though it be ... serv'd up in the "unique exemplar," _bibliosophia_, p. v. one of the most curious proofs of the seductive popularity of unique copies may be drawn from the following excerpt from a catalogue of a library sold at utrecht in ; which was furnished me by mr. h. ellis from a copy of the catalogue in the possession of mr. cayley of the augmentation office. no. . les avantures de telemaque, o. rotterd. _av. fig. en cart._ 'cet exemplaire est tout _barbouillé_. mais il est _de la main de la jeune princesse wilhelmine auguste de saxe-weimar, qui y a appris le françois en_ !!!' i will mention a unique copy of a somewhat different cast of character. of the magnificent and matchless edition of shakspeare, printed by mr. bulmer and published by mr. nicols, between the years and , there were one hundred copies, of the first six plays only, struck off upon imperial folio, or _colombier paper_; in which the large engravings, published at the shakspeare gallery (now the british institution) might be incorporated and bound up. the late george steevens undertook the revision of the text, intending to complete the entire plays in a similar form; but the trouble and expense attending this part of the undertaking were so great that the further prosecution of it was abandoned. mr. bulmer preserved the whole of the proof-sheets of this partial colombier impression; and to form a '_unique_ edition' (these are his own words) he bound them up in the exact order in which the plays were printed. on the margins of many of the sheets, besides the various corrections, emendations, and notes to the printer, by mr. steevens, there are some original sonnets, a scene for a burlesque tragedy, and other happy effusions from the pen of the same elegant and learned editor. need i ask the reader, whether he would have the _barbouillé_ (unique) copy of telemaque of the young princesse wilhelmine auguste de saxe-weimar (like the vicar of wakefield, i like to give the full name) or mr. bulmer's similar copy of shakspeare? the difference would soon be found in king street or the strand! i must mention one more example--of a nature different from both the preceding--of what lysander has above, elaborately, and perhaps, a little confusedly, described as unique copies. it is colonel stanley's copy of _de bry_ (see a superb one before noticed) which is bound in seven folio volumes, in blue morocco, by padaloup, and is considered superior to every known copy. it contains all the maps and prints, with their variations, according to the _bibliographie instructive_, no. , _cat. de paris de meyzieu_, ; no. , _cat. de santander_, no. ; and _camus sur les collections des grands et petits voyages_, , to.: with both editions of the first nine parts of the west indies, and duplicates of parts x. and xi. it has also a considerable number of duplicate plates, where a superior impression could be procured at any expense. the owner of this unique copy, of a work unrivalled for its utility and elegance, is distinguished for a noble collection, bound by our choicest binders, in whatever is splendid and precious in the belles lettres, voyages, and travels. take two more illustrations, kind-hearted reader!----_goldsmith's deserted village_, . mr. bulmer printed a single copy of this beautiful poem, in quarto, upon satin--picked and prepared in a very curious manner. it was purchased by a foreigner. his impressions upon vellum are noticed, post.----_falconer's shipwreck_, , vo. mr. miller caused _two_ copies only (is [transcriber's note: it] is _almost_ unique!) of this beautiful edition, printed by bensley, to be struck off upon satin, in imperial vo. one of these copies now remains with him for sale.] [footnote : the passage, above alluded to, is as follows: at ev'ry auction, bent on fresh supplies, he cons his catalogue with anxious eyes: where'er the slim italics mark the page, _curious and rare_ his ardent mind engage. _the bibliomania_; v. .] [footnote : a slight mention of mons. berryer, the father-in-law of lamoignon, is made at p. , ante. the reader is here presented with a more finished portrait of this extraordinary bibliomaniac: a portrait, which will excite his unbounded admiration, if not envy!--for such a careful and voluptuous collector, in regard to _binding_, was, i believe, never before known; nor has he been since eclipsed. 'm. berryer, successivement secrétaire d'etat au département de la marìne, ministre, puis garde des sceaux de france, s'étoit occupé pendant près de quarante années à se former un cabinet des plus beaux livres grecs et latins, anciennes éditions, soit de france, soit des pays étrangers, &c. par un soin et une patience infatigables, à l'aide de plusieurs coopérateurs éclairés, savans même en bibliographie, qui connoissoient ses études, délassement de ses places, il avoit recueilli les plus belles éditions; de telle sorte qu'il a toujours su se procurer un exemplaire parfait de chaque édition par un moyen simple quoique dispendieux. si les catalogues des ventes publiques lui apprenoient qu'il existoit un exemplaire _plus beau, plus grand de marge, mieux conservé_, de tout auteur, &c., que celui qu'il possédoit, il le fasoit acquérir sans s'embarrasser du prix, et il se défaisoit à perte de l'exemplaire moins beau. la majeure partie des auteurs anciens et modernes de son cabinet a été changée huit ou dix fois de cette manière. il ne _s'arrêtoit_ qu'après s'être assuré qu'il avoit _le plus bel exemplaire connu_, soit pour la marge, soit pour la force du papier, soit pour la magnificence de la conservation et _de la relieure_.' 'a l'égard des ouvrages d'editions modernes, même celles faites en pays étranger, m. berryer vouloit les avoir en feuilles: il en faisoit choisir, dans plusieurs exemplaires, un parfait, et il le faisoit relier _en maroquin de choix_; le ministere de la marìne qu'il avoit rempli, lui ayant donné toutes les facilités d'en être abondamment et fidèlement pourvu dans toutes les echelles du levant. on collationnoit ensuite pour vérifier s' il n'y avoit ni transposition, ni omission de feuilles ou de pages?!!' _cat. m. lamoignon_, . pref. p. ij. iij. berryer was slightly copied by caillard (of whom see p. , ante) in the luxury of _book-binding_. 'm. caillard avoit le soin _de faire satiner_ presque tous livres qu'il faisoit relier, et principalement les grands ouvrages; qu'il est difficile d'avoir parfaitement reliés sans ce precedé.' _cat. de caillard_; p. x. (avertisement.) but i know not whether caillard did not catch the phrensy from the elder mirabeau. in the catalogue of his books, p. ii., we are thus told of him:--'l'acquisition d'un _beau livre_ lui causoit des transports de joie inexprimables: il l'examinoit, l'admiriot [transcriber's note: l'admiroit]: il vouloit que chacun partagêat avec lui le même enthousiasme.' his biographer properly adds: 'de quelle surprise n'auroit-on pas été, si l'on eût su que c'etoit la le même homme qui, du haut de la tribune, faisoit trembler les despotes et les factieux!' ponder here, gentle reader, upon the effects of a _beautiful_ book! let no one, however, imagine that we _grave englishmen_ are averse or indifferent to 'le luxe de la relieure'!! no: at this present moment, we have the best bookbinders in europe; nor do we want good authority for the encouragement of this fascinating department relating to the bibliomania. read here what mr. roscoe hath so eloquently written in commendation of it: 'a taste for the exterior decoration of books has lately arisen in this country, in the gratification of which no small share of ingenuity has been displayed; but if we are to judge of the present predilection for learning by the degree of expense thus incurred, we must consider it as greatly inferior to that of the romans during the times of the first emperors, or of the italians at the th century. and yet it is, perhaps, difficult to discover why a favourite book should not be as proper an object of elegant ornament as the head of a cane, the hilt of a sword, or the latchet of a shoe.' _lorenzo de medici_; vol. ii., , vo. edition. did geyler allude to such bibliomaniacs in the following sentence? sunt qui libros inaurant et serica tegimenta apponunt preciosa et superba. grandis hæc fatuitas! _navicula, sive speculum fatuorum_; (navis stultifera) _sign. b. v. rev._] belin. for the benefit--not of the 'country gentlemen,' but--of the 'country ladies,' do pray translate these latin words. we are always interested about the pastoral life. lis. it only means, belinda, that this said shepherd was blockhead enough to keep gazing upon his beloved fair, although every glance shot him through the heart, and killed him a hundred times. still he caressed the cause of his ruin. and so bibliomaniacs hug the very volumes of which they oftentimes know they cannot afford the purchase money! i have not forgotten your account of dr. dee:[ ] but the ladies were then absent. [footnote : see p. , ante.] belin. well, let us now go on to the explanation of the _fifth symptom_ of the bibliomania; which you have called, copies printed upon vellum! lysand. a desire for books printed in this manner[ ] is an equally strong and general symptom of the biblomania; but, as these works are rarely to be obtained of modern date, the collector is obliged to have recourse to specimens executed, three centuries ago, in the printing offices of aldus, verard, or the giunti. although the _bibliotheque imperiale_, at paris, and the library of count m'carthy, at toulouse, are said to contain the greatest number of books, printed upon vellum, yet, those who have been fortunate enough to see copies of this kind in the libraries of his majesty, the duke of marlborough, earl spencer, mr. johnes, and the late mr. cracherode (which latter is now in the british museum) need not travel on the continent for the sake of being convinced of their exquisite beauty and splendour. an _unique_ copy of the first livy, upon vellum, (of which the owner has excited the envy of foreigners) is a library of itself!--and the existence of vellum copies of wynkyn de worde's reprint of _juliana barnes's book of hawking, &c._, complete in every respect, (to say nothing of his majesty's similar copy of caxton's _doctrinal of sapience_, in the finest preservation) are sufficient demonstrations of the prevalance of this symptoms of the bibliomania in the times of our forefathers; so that it cannot be said, as some have asserted, to have appeared entirely within the last half century. [footnote : william horman, who was head master of eton school at the opening of the sixteenth century, was, i apprehend, the earliest writer in this country who propagated those symptoms of the bibliomania indicative of a passion for _large paper_ and _vellum_ copies; for thus writes the said horman, in his _vulgaria_, printed by pynson, in folio, : a book, curious and interesting upon every account. 'the greatest and highest of price, is _paper imperial_. (herbert, vol i., p. .) _parchment leaves_ be wont to be ruled, that there may be a _comely margent_: also, strait lines of equal distance be draw[en] within, that the writing may shew fair,' _fol._ . from these two sentences (without quoting horman's praise of the presses of froben and aldus; fol. ) i think it may be fairly inferred that a love of _large paper_ and _vellum_ copies was beginning to display itself in the period just mentioned. that this love or passion is now eagerly and generally evinced, i shall proceed to give abundant proof; but first let me not forget our bibliomaniacal satirist: fifth maxim. who blindly take the book display'd by pettifoggers in the trade. nor ask of what the leaf was made, that _seems like paper_--i can tell 'em, that though 'tis possible to squint through any page with letters in't, no copy, though an angel print, reads elegantly--but "on vellum." _bibliosophia_, p. vi. i proceed to give evidence of the present passion which prevails, respecting books of the description of which we are now speaking, by extracting a few articles from the library of which such honourable mention was made at p. - , ante. they are all works printed upon vellum. no. . epistolæ beati jeronimi. impressio moguntinæ facta per virum famatum in hæc arte petrum schoiffer de gernsheym, vols., . _a fine specimen of a grand book, superbly bound in blue turkey._ folio. £ _s._ _d._ . sexti decretalium opus præclarum bonifacii vii., pont. max. in nobili urbe moguncia non atramento è plumali ereâque pennâ cannâve per petrum schoiffer de gernsheym consummatum. a.d. . _a most beautiful work, superbly bound in blue turkey._ . [transcriber's note: .] constitutiones clementis papæ quinti, unà cum apparatu domini joannis andreæ. venetiis impress. ere atque industriâ nicolai jenson gallici, . _a most beautiful specimen of clean vellum, with a fine illumination, bound in purple velvet._ folio. . leonora, from the german of burgher, by mr. spencer, with the designs of lady diana beauclerc, . folio. _a beautiful unique copy, with the plates worked on satin, superbly bound in blue turkey._ . dryden's fables, with engravings from the pencil of lady beauclerc. _a beautiful unique copy, splendidly bound in morocco, with the plates worked on satin._ . missale monasticum secundum ritum et consuetudinem ordinis gallæ umbrosæ. venetiis, per ant. de giunta florentinum, . _a most beautiful copy of a very rare book, with plates and illuminations, bound in morocco._ folio. . postilla super libros n. testamenti fratris nicolai de lyra. venet. per joan. de colonia et nic. jenson, . _a fine specimen of beautiful vellum, with illuminations, bound in blue turkey._ folio. . the german bible, by martin luther, vols. augspurg, , folio. _a most fair, and beautiful copy, with coloured plates, in the finest preservation, and bound in crimson velvet, with two cases._--'the copies on vellum of this fine edition were printed at the charges of john frederick, elector of saxony, (vide panzer).' folio. . le livre de jehan bocasse de la louenge et vertu des nobles et cleres dames. paris, _par ant. verard_, . _a beautiful work, with curious illuminations, finely bound in blue turkey._ folio. . virgilii opera curâ brunck. argentorati, . _an unique copy, bound in morocco, with a case._ quarto. . somervile's chace, a poem, with fine plates on wood, by bewick. printed by bulmer, . quarto. _a beautiful unique copy, splendidly bound in green, morocco._ . poems by goldsmith and parnell, with fine plates on wood by bewick. printed by bulmer, . _a beautiful unique copy, superbly bound in green morocco._ . the gardens, a poem, by the abbe de lisle, with fine plates by bartolozzi, coloured. printed by bensley, . _a fine book, and bound in green morocco._ quarto. . the castle of otranto, by the earl of oxford. printed at parma, . _a fine copy elegantly bound in blue morocco._ quarto. . coustumes du pais de normandie. rouen, . _a beautiful unique copy, on fine white vellum, the presentation copy to the duke de joyeuse; in old morocco._ . p. virgilii maronis codex antiquissimus in bibliotheca mediceo-laurentiana. florent. . _a curious facsimile of the old ms. bound in yellow morocco_, to. . junius's letters, vols., vo. printed by bensley, . _a beautiful unique copy, with the plates also worked on vellum, bound in morocco._ . il castello di otranto, storia gotica, lond. . _beautifully printed, with fine cuts, illuminated, bound in morocco._ . milton's paradise regained, poems, and sonnets, and latin poems, with notes, vols. printed by bensley, , vo. _a unique and beautiful copy, bound in blue turkey._ . la guirlande de julie offerte a mademoiselle de rambouillet, par le marq. de montausier. paris de l'imprim. de monsieur, , vo. 'this matchless book is embellished with exquisite miniatures, paintings of flowers, and wreaths of flowers, to illustrate the work, and is one of the most exquisite performances ever produced;' _superbly bound in green morocco_. [ guineas were bidden; but the book was passed on and not sold.] . la vedova, commedia facetissima di nic. buonaparte cittadino florentino. paris, , vo. a curious work by an ancestor of the first consul; _a beautiful unique copy, superbly bound in red morocco_. . the old english baron, a gothic story, by clara reeve, , vo. _richly bound in blue turkey._ . the oeconomy of human life, with fine plates, . _a beautiful unique copy, with the plates finely tinted in colours and superbly bound in morocco_, vo. . dr. benjamin franklin's works. paris, , vo. _a beautiful unique copy, and bound in crimson velvet._ . the dance of death. painted by holbein, and engraved by hollar, _a beautiful unique copy, with the plates exquisitely painted, and very richly bound in red morocco_. . la gerusalemme liberata di torquato tasso, vols. parigi presso molini, , vo. _a beautiful copy, bound in green morocco._ . catullus, tibullus, et propertius, vols. par. ap. coustelier, , vo. _a singularly beautiful copy, and bound in old blue turkey._ . opere toscane di luigi alamanni. leoni. ap. gryphia, . _a most beautiful copy, presented to king francis i. of france: old morocco._ . a new testament in german. augsburg, , mo. a fine copy, with illuminations, of a very rare edition. lysander has above noticed the collection of count m'carthy of toulouse. by the kindness of mr. roche, banker, at cork, i learn that this collection 'is a truly splendid one.' the possessor's talents are not confined to the partial walk of bibliography: in his younger years, he was considered one of the first gentlemen-violin players in europe. he quitted ireland forty years ago, and now resides at toulouse, in his th year, surrounded by a numerous and respectable family. his leading passion, in book-collecting, (like his countryman's, poor mr. quin--who gave guineas for the spira virgil of , _in membranis_!) is marked by a fondness for works _printed upon vellum_. from mr. roche, mr. edwards, and other quarters, i am enabled to present the reader with a list of a _few_ of count m'carthy's books upon vellum. psalmorum codex; _mogunt._ _fust and schoiffer._ folio, . ---- ----; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . durandi rationale; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . _clementis papæ v. constitutiones_; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . ---- ---- ---- ----; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . catholicon; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . biblia sacra latina; _ibid._ _apud eosdem._ folio, . [his majesty and earl spencer possess similar copies of these works.] franciscus de retras comment. vitiorum; _nuremb._ folio, . hieronimi epistolæ; _mogunt._ _fust and schoiffer._ folio, . (another copy: very large thick paper.) priscianus de art. grammat. _venet._ _vin. spira._ folio, . (see p. , ante.) liber sextus decretalium bonif. papæ viii. _mogunt._ folio, . guarini regulæ; quarto, . quintiliani institutiones; _jenson_, folio, . baptista de alberti de amore; quarto, . de amoris remedio: quarto, . biblia in ling. volg. folio, , vols. historia natur. de plinio tradotto da landino; _jenson, venet._ . (a similar copy is in mr. coke's library at holkam; illuminated, and in magnificent condition.) biblia sacra polyglotta; ximenis; _complut._ folio, , &c., vols. (see page , ante; for a brief account of this extraordinary copy.) plutarchi vitæ (lat.); _venet._ _n. jenson._ folio, . vol. . aristotelis opera varia (lat.); _venet._ folio, . vols. (this was the pinelli copy, and was purchased for _l._ _s._) statii achilles; _brixiæ._ folio, . chroniques de france, dictes de st. denys; _paris._ folio, . vol. & . anthologia græca; _florent._ quarto, . lancelot du lac; _paris._ _verard_, folio, . vol. . boccace des nobles malheureux; _ibid._ folio, . appollonius rhodius; _florent._ quarto, . destruction de troy le grant; _paris._ folio, . poliphili hyperonotomachia; _venet._ folio, . mer des histores; _paris._ folio, (no date) vols. monstrelet chronique de; _paris._ folio, (no date) vols. roman de la rose; _paris._ _verard._ folio, (no date) ---- de tristan; _ibid._ _id._ (no date) ---- d' ogier le danois; _ibid._ _id._ (no date) ---- de melis et lenin; _ibid._ _id._ (no date) i have heard that count m'carthy's books do not exceed in number; and of these, perhaps, no private collector in europe has an equal number printed upon vellum. in our own country, however, the finest vellum library in the world might be composed from the collections of his majesty, the duke of marlborough, earl spencer, sir m.m. sykes, bart., mr. johnes, mr. coke, and the quin collection. yet let us not forget the finest _vellum copy_ in the world of the first edition of _aristotle's works_ (wanting one volume) which may be seen in the library of corpus christi college, oxford. of mr. edward's _similar_ copy _of the first livy_, lysander and myself (vide part iii.) have spoken like honest bibliomaniacs. earl spencer possesses the rival volume, printed by the same printers, (sweynheym and pannartz) and upon the same material, in his pliny senior of --but let all quiet bibliomaniacs wait with patience till the work of mons. praet upon this subject, alluded to at p. , ante, shall have made its appearance! and then--let us see whether we can prevail upon some gnome to transport to us, through the 'thin air,' pynson's '_ship of fools_' upon vellum!!] lis. are we as successful in printing upon vellum as were our forefathers? lysand. certainly not; if we except some of the works from the press of bodoni--which are oftentimes truly brilliant. but the fault, in general, is rather in the preparation of the vellum than in the execution of the press-work. loren. you have seen, lisardo, my small volumes of '_heures_,' or '_missals_,' as they are called; some of them in ms. and others in print--and what can be more delicate than the texture of the vellum leaves, or more perfect than the execution of penmanship and printing? alman. i have often set whole hours, my dear brother, in contemplating with rapture the sparkling radiance of these little volumes; and wish in my heart i had a few favourite authors executed in a similar manner! i should like to employ bodoni[ ] for life. [footnote : it is not because bodoni printed better than our popular printers--that his books upon vellum are more beautiful than those produced by the london presses--but that the italian vellum (made of the abortive calf) is, in general, more white and delicate. there is not, perhaps, a lovelier little vellum book in existence than the _castle of otranto_, printed by bodoni in , vo. a copy of this, with the plates worked on white satin, was in the collection of mr. g.g. mills; and sold at the sale of his books in ; no. ; see p. , ante. from the former authority it would appear that only six copies were printed in this manner. by the kindness of mr. edwards, i am in possession of a '_lettera pastorale_' of fr. adeodato turchi--a small tract of pages--printed upon paper, by bodoni, in a style of uncommon delicacy: having all the finish and picturesque effect of copper-plate execution. but the chef d'oeuvre of bodoni seems to be an edition of _homer_, in three great folio volumes, each consisting of pages, with the text only. the artist employed six years in the preparations, and the printing occupied eighteen months. one hundred and forty copies only were struck off. the copy presented to bonaparte was upon vellum, of a size and brilliancy altogether unparalleled. _american review_, no. ., p. . january, . in our admiration of bodoni, let us not forget didot: who printed a single copy of _voltaire's henriade_ upon vellum, in quarto, with a brilliancy of execution, and perfection of vellum, which can never be suppassed [transcriber's note: surpassed]. this copy formerly belonged to a farmer general, one of didot's most intimate friends, who perished in the revolution. didot also printed a number of copies of french translations of english works, upon the same material: so correct, beautiful, and tasteful, that mr. bulmer assures me nothing could exceed it. all these small richly-feathered birds were once here, but have now taken their flight to a warmer climate. our modern books upon vellum are little short of being downright wretched. i saw the _life of nelson_, in two large quartos, printed in this manner; and it would have been the first work which i should have recommended a first-rate collector to have thrown out of his library.[g] many of the leaves were afflicted with the jaundice beyond hope of cure. the censure which is here thrown out upon others reaches my own doors: for i attempted to execute a single copy of my _typographical antiquities_ upon vellum, with every possible attention to printing and to the material upon which it was to be executed. but i failed in every point: and this single wretchedly-looking book, had i presevered [transcriber's note: persevered] in executing my design, would have cost me about _seventy-five_ guineas!] [footnote g: this book was printed at bolt court during the apprenticeship of the printer of this edit. of biblio., who speaking from remembrance, ventures to suggest that the above remark is rather too strong--although there was confessedly a great deal of trouble in procuring good vellum. he believes only _one_ copy was done; it was the property of alexander davidson, esq. banker, and, being in his library in ireland, when the mansion was burned down, it was destroyed. he had insured it for £ --the insurance office disputed his claim, and a trial at dublin took place. the late mr. bensley was subpoenaed to give evidence of its value, but, being reluctant to go, he persuaded the parties that warwick, one of his pressmen, who worked it off, was a better witness; he accordingly went, his evidence succeeding in establishing mr. davidson's claim. this same warwick worked off many of the splendid specimens of typography mentioned in _bibliomania_, being one of the very best workmen in the printing business--particularly in wood-cuts. he afterwards became private printer to the late sir egerton bridges, bart., at lee priory--and is long since dead.] lis. i could go on, 'till midnight, indulging my wishes of having favourite books printed upon vellum leaves; and at the head of these i would put _crammer's bible_ for i want scholarship sufficient to understand the _complutensian polyglott of cardinal ximenes_.[ ] [footnote : see pages , , ante.] berlin. [transcriber's note: belin.] so much for the _vellum symptom_. proceed we now to the _sixth_: which upon looking at my memoranda, i find to be the first editions. what is the meaning of this odd symptom? lysand. from the time of ancillon to askew, there has been a very strong desire expressed for the possesssion [transcriber's note: possession] of _original_ or _first published editions_[ ] of works; as they are in general superintended and corrected by the author himself, and, like the first impressions of prints are considered more valuable. whoever is possessed with a passion for collecting books of this kind, may unquestionably be said to exhibit a strong symptom of the bibliomania: but such a case is not quite hopeless, nor is it deserving of severe treatment or censure. all bibliographers have dwelt on the importance of these editions[ ] for the sake of collation with subsequent ones; and of detecting, as is frequently the case, the carelessness displayed by future editors. of such importance is the _first edition shakspeare_[ ] considered, on the score of correctness, that a fac-simile reprint of it has been recently published. in regard to the greek and latin classics, the possession of these original editions is of the first consequence to editors who are anxious to republish the legitimate text of an author. wakefield, i believe, always regretted that the first edition of lucretius had not been earlier inspected by him. when he began _his_ edition, the editio princeps was not (as i have understood) in that storehouse of almost every thing which is exquisite and rare in ancient and modern classical literature--need i add the library of earl spencer?[ ] [footnote : all german and french bibliographers class these first editions among rare books; and nothing is more apt to seduce a noviciate in bibliography into error than the tempting manner in which, by aid of capital or italic types, these editiones primariÆ or _editiones principes_ are set forth in the most respectable catalogues published abroad as well as at home. but before we enter into particulars, we must not forget that this sixth sympton [transcriber's note: symptom] of the bibliomania has been thus pungently described in the poetical strains of an "aspirant!" sixth maxim. who of editions recks the least, but, when that hog, his mind would feast fattens the intellectual beast with old, or new, without ambition,-- i'll teach the pig to soar on high, (if pigs had pinions, by the bye) how'er the _last_ may _satisfy_, the _bonne bouche_ is the "first edition." _bibliosophia_; p. vi. these first editions are generally, with respect to foreign works, printed in the fifteenth or in the early part of the sixteenth century: and indeed we have a pretty rich sprinkling of a similar description of first editions executed in our own country. it is not, therefore, without justice that we are described, by foreign bibliographers, as being much addicted to this class of books: "with what avidity, and at what great prices, this character of books is obtained by the dutch, and _especially by the english_, the very illustrious zach. conrad ab uffenbach shews, in the preface to the second volume of his catalogue." vogt; p. xx., edit. . there is a curious and amusing article in bayle (english edition, vol i., , &c.) about the elder ancillon, who frankly confessed that he "was troubled with the bibliomania, or disease of buying books." mr. d'israeli says that he "always purchased _first editions_, and never waited for second ones," but i find it, in the english bayle, note d, "he chose _the best_ editions." the manner in which ancillon's library was pillaged by the ecclesiastics of metz (where it was considered as the most valuable curiosity in the town) is thus told by bayle: "ancillon was obliged to leave metz: a company of ecclesiastics, of all orders, came from every part, to lay hands on this fine and copious library, which had been collected with the utmost care during forty years. they took away a great number of the books together; and gave a little money, as they went out, to a young girl, of twelve or thirteen years of age, who looked after them, that they might have it to say they had _paid for them_. thus ancillon saw that valuable collection dispersed, in which, as he was wont to say, his chief pleasure and even his heart was placed!"--edit. . a pleasant circumstance, connected with our present subject, occurred to the rev. dr. charles burney. at a small sale of books which took place at messrs. king and lochée's, some few years ago, the doctor sent a commission, for some old grammatical treatises; and calling with mr. edwards to see the success of the commission, the latter, in the true spirit of bibliomaniacism, pounced upon an anciently-bound book, in the lot, which turned out to be--nothing less than the _first edition_ of manilius by regiomontanus: one of the very scarcest books in the class of those of which we are treating! by the liberality of the purchaser, this _primary bijou_ now adorns the noble library of the bishop of ely.] [footnote : an instance of this kind may be adduced from the _first edition_ of fabian, printed in ; of which chronicle messrs. longman, hurst, and co. have just published a new edition, superintended by mr. h. ellis, and containing various readings from all the editions at the foot of the text. "the antiquary," says the late mr. brand, "is desired to consult the edition of fabian, printed by pynson, in , because there are others, and i remember to have seen one in the bodleian library at oxford, with a continuation to the end of queen mary, , in which the language is much modernized." _shakspeare_, edit. , vol. xviii., pp. , . see also what has been before said (p. .) of an _after_ edition of speed.] [footnote : a singular story is "extant" about the purchase of the late duke of roxburgh's copy of the first edition of shakspeare. a friend was bidding for him in the sale-room: his grace had retired to one end of the room, coolly to view the issue of the contest. the biddings rose quickly to guineas; a great sum in former times: but the duke was not to be daunted or defeated. a slip of paper was handed to him, upon which the propriety of continuing the contest was suggested. his grace took out his pencil; and, with a coolness which would have done credit to prince eugene, he wrote on the same slip of paper, by way of reply-- lay on macduff! and d----d be he who first cries "hold, enough!" such a spirit was irresistible, and bore down all opposition. the duke was of course declared victor, and he marched off, triumphantly, with the volume under his arm. lord spencer has a fine copy of this first edition of shakspeare, collated by steevens himself.] [footnote : we raise the column to the hero who has fought our battles by sea or land; and we teach our children to look up with admiration and reverence towards an object so well calculated to excite the best sympathies of the human heart. all this is well; and may it never be neglected! but there are other characters not less noble, and of equal glory to a great nation like our own; and they are those who, to the adventitious splendour of hereditary rank, add all the worth and talent of a private condition, less exposed to temptation, and suited to the cultivation of peaceful and literary pursuits. such a character is george john earl spencer! a nobleman, not less upright and weighty in the senate than polished and amiable in private life; who, cool and respected amidst the violence of party, has filled two of the most important offices of state in a manner at once popular and effective; and who, to his general love of the fine arts, and acquaintance with classical literature, has superadded the noble achievement of having collected the finest private library in europe! the reader has already met with sufficient mention of this collection to justify what is here said in commendation of it.... in the deepest recess of althorpe park--where the larch and laurustinus throw their dark yet pleasing shade--and where ----pinus ingens, albaque populus umbram hospitalem consociare amant ramis-- let the doric temple be raised, with its white-marbled columns, sacred to the memory of this illustrious nobleman! let his bust, in basso-relievo, with appropriate embellishments, adorn the most conspicuous compartment within: and peace and virtue, and filial affection, will, i am sure, be the guardians of so cherished a spot! [illustration: arms of earl spencer. dieu defend le droit]] it must not, however, be forgotten that, if first editions are, in some instances, of great importance, they are in many respects superfluous, and only incumber the shelves of a collector; inasmuch as the labours of subsequent editors have corrected the errors of their predecessors, and superseded, by a great fund of additional matter, the necessity of consulting them. thus, not to mention other instances (which present themselves while noticing the present one), all the fine things which colomiés and reimannus have said about the rarity of la croix du maine's bibliothéque, published in , are now unnecessary to be attended to, since the publication of the ample and excellent edition of this work by de la monnoye and juvigny, in six quarto volumes, . lis. upon the whole, i should prefer the best to the first edition; and you, lorenzo, may revel in the possession of your _first shakespeare_--but give me the last variorum edition _in twenty-one volumes_. loren. "chacun a son gout," yet it may be as well to possess them _both_. indeed, i not only have these editions, but a great number of the early plays printed in quarto;[ ] which are considered the _ne plus ultra_ of shakspearian bibliomaniacism. [footnote : a pretty copious list of these valuable early plays will be found at pages - - - , ante.] belin. much good may these wretchedly printed volumes do you! now let me proceed with my pupil. tell us, good lysander, what can you possibly mean by the _seventh symptom_ of the bibliomania, called true editions? lysand. my definition of this strange symptom will excite your mirth.[ ] some copies of a work are struck off with deviations from the usually received ones, and although these deviations have generally neither sense nor beauty to recommend them (and indeed are principally _defects_!), yet copies of this description are eagerly sought after by collectors of a certain class. what think you of such a ridiculous passion in the book-way? [footnote : observing the usual order of notification, we will first borrow the poetical aid of "an aspirant:" seventh maxim. who dares to "write me down an ass," when, spying through the curious mass, i rub my hands, and wipe my glass, if, chance, an _error_ bless my notice-- will prize when drill'd into his duty, these lovely warts of ugly beauty; for books, when _false_ (it may be new t'ye), are "true editions:"--odd,--but _so_ 'tis. let us proceed to see whether this biting satire be founded upon truth, or not. accidental variations from the common impressions of a work form what are called true editions: and as copies, with such variations (upon the same principle as that of _prints_; vide p. - , ante) are rare, they are of course sought after with avidity by knowing bibliomaniacs. thus speaks ameilhon upon the subject:--"pendant l'impression d'un ouvrage il est arrivé un accident qui, à telle page et à telle ligne, a occasioné un renversement dans les lettres d'un mot, et que ce désordre n'a été rétabli qu'apres le tirage de six ou sept exemplaires; ce qui rend ces exemplaires défectueux presque uniques, et leur donne, â les entendre, une valeur inappréciable; car voila un des grands secrets de cet art, qui, au reste, s'acquiert aisément avec de la memoire." _mem. de l'institut_: vol. ii., p. . the author of these words then goes on to abuse the purchasers and venders of these strange books; but i will not quote his saucy tirade in defamation of this noble department of bibliomaniacism. i subjoin a few examples in illustration of lysander's definition:--_cæsar. lug. bat._ , mo. _printed by elzevir._ in the bibliotheca revickzkiana we are informed that the _true_ elzevir edition is known by having the plate of a buffalo's head at the beginning of the preface and body of the work: also by having the page numbered , which _ought_ to have been numbered . a further account is given in my introduction to the classics, vol. i., p. .--_horace_, londini, , vo., vols. published by pine. the _true_ edition is distinguished by having at page , vol. ii., the _incorrect_ reading "post est."--for "protest."--_virgil._ lug. bat., , mo. printed by elzevir. the _true_ edition is known, by having at plate , before the bucolics, the following latin passage _printed in red ink_. "ego vero frequentes a te literas accepi." consul de bure, no. .--_idem._ birmingh. , to. printed by baskerville. a particular account of the _true_ edition will be found in the second volume of my "introduction to the classics," p. --too long to be here inserted.--_bocaccio._ il decamerone, venet. , to. consult de bure no. ; bandini, vol. ii. , ; (who, however, is extremely laconic upon this edition, but copious upon the anterior one of ) and haym, vol. iii., p. , edit. . bibl. paris., no. . clement. (vol. iv. ,) has abundance of reference, as usual, to strengthen his assertion in calling the edition "_fort rare_." the reprint, or spurious edition, has always struck me as the prettier book of the two. these examples appeared in the first edition of this work. i add to them what of course i was not enabled to do before. in the second edition of _the bibliomania_, there are some variations in the copies of the small paper; and one or two decided ones between the small and large. in the small, at page , line , we read "beat with perpetual _forms_." in the large, it is properly "beat with perpetual _storms_." which of these is indicative of the _true_ edition? again: in the small paper, p. , line , we read properly "claudite jam rivos pueri, sat _prata_ biberunt." in the large paper, "claudite jam rivos pueri, sat _parta_ biberunt." it was in my power to have cancelled the leaf in the large paper as well as in the small; but i thought it might thereby have taken from the former the air of a _true_ edition; and so the blunder (a mere transposition of the letters _ar_) will go down to a future generation in the large paper. there is yet another slight variation between the small and large. at p. , in the account of the catalogue of krohn's books, the concluding sentence wholly varies: but i believe there is not an _error_ in either, to entitle one to the rank of _truism_ more than another.[h]] [footnote h: during the youth of the printer of this book, a curious mistake occurred: a splendid folio work was going on for dr. bonnell thornton; in a certain page, as printers technically say, _a space stood up_; the dr. (not understanding printers' marks) wrote on a head page "take out horizontal line at p. so and so"--the compositor inserted these words as a _displayed line_ in the head-page whereon they were written--the reader passed it in the revise--and it was so worked off! being eventually detected--the leaf was of course cancelled.] alman. it seems to me to be downright idiotism. but i suspect you exaggerate? lysand. in sober truth, i tell you only what every day's experience in the book-market will corroborate. belin. well!--what strange animals are you bibliomaniacs. have we any other symptom to notice? yes, i think lysander made mention of an _eighth_; called a passion for the black-letter. can any eyes be so jaundiced as to prefer volumes printed in this crabbed, rough, and dismal manner? loren. treason--downright treason! lisardo shall draw up a bill of indictment against you, and lysander shall be your judge. belin. my case would then be desperate; and execution must necessarily follow. lis. i shall be better able to form an opinion of the expediency of such a measure after lysander has given us his definition of this eighth and last symptom. proceed, my friend. lysand. of all symptoms of the bibliomania, this _eighth_ symptom is at present the most powerful and prevailing. whether it was imported into this country, from holland, by the subtlety of schelhorn[ ] (a knowing writer upon rare and curious books) may be a point worthy of consideration. but whatever be its origin, certain is that books printed in the =black-letter=, are now coveted with an eagerness unknown to our collectors in the last century. if the spirits of west, ratcliffe, farmer, and brand, have as yet held any intercourse with each other, in that place "from whose bourne no traveller returns," which must be the surprise of the three former, on being told, by the latter, of the prices given for some of the books at the sale of his library! [footnote : his words are as follows: "ipsa typorum ruditas, ipsa illa atra crassaque literarum facies _belle tangit sensus_," _&c._ was ever the black-letter more eloquently described: see his _amoentates [transcriber's note: amoenitates] literariæ_, vol. i., p. . but for the last time, let us listen to the concluding symptomatic stanza of an "aspirant;" eighth maxim. who dreams the _type_ should please us all, that's not too thin, and not too tall, nor much awry, nor over small, and, if but roman, asks no better-- may die in darkness:--i, for one, disdain to tell the barb'rous hun that persians but adore the sun till taught to know _our_ god--=black-letter=. _bibliosophia_: p. vii. however cruel may be the notes of one poet, it seems pretty clear that the glorious subject, or bibliomaniacal symptom, of which we are treating, excited numbers of a softer character in the muse of dr. ferriar: for thus sings he--inspired by the possession of _black-letter_ tomes: in red morocco drest, he loves to boast the bloody murder, or the yelling ghost; or dismal ballads, sung to crowds of old, now cheaply bought for thrice their weight in gold. v. - . ev'n i, debarr'd of ease and studious hours, confess, mid' anxious toil, its lurking pow'rs. how pure the joy, when first my hands unfold the small, rare volume, black with tarnished gold! _the bibliomania_, l. - . but let us attend to a more scientific illustration of this eighth symptom. 'black-letter, which is used in england, descends from the gothic characters; and is therefore called _gothic_ by some, _old english_ by others; but printers give it the name of _black-letter_, because its face taking in a larger compass than roman or italic of the same body, the full and spreading strokes thereof appear more _black_ upon paper than common.' _smith's printer's grammar_; edit. , p. . the same definition is given in a recent similar work; with the addition that 'black-letter is more expensive than roman or italic, its broad face requiring an extraordinary quantity of ink, which always gives the best coloured paper a yellow cast, unless worked upon that of a superior quality. it has a good effect in a title-page, if disposed with taste.' stower's _printer's grammar_; , p. . to these authorities we may add, from rowe mores, that 'wynkyn de worde's letter was of _the square english_ or _black face_, and has been the pattern for his successors in the art.' _of english founders and foundries_; , vo. p. , . 'the same black-letter printer,' says palmer or psalmanaazar, 'gave a greater scope to his fancy, and formed such a variety of sorts and sizes of letter that, for several years after him, none of his successors attempted to imitate him therein.' _general history of printing_; p. . it is not necessary to collect, in formal array, the authorities of foreigners upon this important subject; although it may be as well to notice the strange manner in which momoro, in his _traité elémentaire de l'imprimerie_, p. , refers us to an elucidation of the gothic letter ('appelé du nom de certains peuples qui vinrent s'établir dans la gothie, plus de quatre cens ans avant j.c.') in one of the plates of fournier's _dictionnaire typographique_: vol. ii. p. --which, in truth, resembles anything but the gothic type, as understood by modern readers.--smith and mr. stower have the hardihood to rejoice at the present general extinction of the black-letter. they were not, probably, aware of hearne's eulogy upon it--'as it is a reproach to us (says this renowned antiquary) that the saxon language should be so forgot as to have but few (comparatively speaking) that are able to read it; so 'tis a greater reproach that the black-letter, which was the character so much in use in our grandfathers' days, should be now (as it were) disused and rejected; especially when we know the best editions of our english bible and common-prayer (to say nothing of other books) are printed in it.' _robert of gloucester's chronicle_: vol. i., p. lxxxv. i presume the editor and publisher of the forth-coming fac-simile re-impression of juliana barnes's book of hawking, hunting, &c., are of the same opinion with hearne: and are resolved upon eclipsing even the black-letter reputation of the afore-named wynkyn de worde.--a pleasant black-letter anecdote is told by chevillier, of his having picked up, on a bookseller's stall, the first edition of the _speculum salutis_ sive _humanæ salvationis_ (one of the rarest volumes in the class of those printed in the middle of the fifteenth century) for the small sum of four livres! _l'origine de l'imprimerie_; p. . this extraordinary event soon spread abroad, and was circulated in every bibliographical journal. schelhorn noticed it in his _amoenitates literariæ_: vol. iv. - : and so did maichelius in his _introd. ad hist. lit. et præcip. bibl. paris_, p. . nor has it escaped the notice of a more recent foreign bibliographer. ameilhon makes mention of chevillier's good fortune; adding that the work was 'un de ces livres rares au premièr degré, qu' un bon bibliomane ne peut voir sans trépigner de joie, si j'ose m'exprimer ainsi.' _mem. de l'institut_. vol. ii. - . this very copy, which was in the sorbonne, is now in the imperial, library at paris. _ibid._ a similar, though less important, anecdote is here laid before the reader from a communication sent to me by mr. wm. hamper of birmingham. '"_tusser's five hundred points of good husbandry, black-letter, sewed_," was valued at sixpence, in a catalogue of a small collection of books on the sale at the shop of mr. william adams, loughborough, in the year : and, after in vain suing the coy collector at this humble price, remained unsold to the present year, , when (thanks to your _bibliomania_!) it brought a golden guinea.'--i have myself been accused of 'an admiration to excess' of black-letter lore; and of recommending it in every shape, and by every means, directly and indirectly. yet i have surely not said or done any thing half so decisive in recommendation of it as did our great moralist, dr. johnson: who thus introduces the subject in one of his periodical papers.--'the eldest and most venerable of this society, was hirsutus: who, after the first civilities of my reception, found means to introduce the mention of his favourite studies, by a severe censure of those who want the due regard for their native country. he informed me that he had early withdrawn his attention from foreign trifles, and that since he begun to addict his mind to serious and manly studies, he had very carefully amassed all the _english books_ that were printed in the =black-letter=. this search he had pursued so diligently that he was able to show the deficiencies of the best catalogues. he had long since completed his _caxton_, had three sheets of _treveris_, unknown to antiquaries, and wanted to a perfect [collection of] _pynson_ but two volumes: of which one was promised him as a legacy by its present possessor, and the other he was resolved to buy at whatever price, when quisquilius' library should be sold. hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing or slighting a book than that it was printed in the roman or the gothick letter, nor any ideas but such as his favourite volumes had supplied: when he was serious, he expatiated on the narratives of johan de trevisa, and, when he was merry, regaled us with a quotation from the _shippe of fools_.' rambler, no. .--nor was the doctor himself quite easy and happy 'till he had sold, in the character of a bookseller, a few volumes--probably of black-letter celebrity. mr. boswell relates that 'during the last visit which the doctor made to litchfield, the friends, with whom he was staying missed him one morning at the breakfast table. on inquiring after him of the servants, they understood that he had set off from litchfield at a very early hour, without mentioning to any of the family whither he was going. the day passed without the return of the illustrious guest, and the party began to be very uneasy on his account, when, just before the supper hour, the door opened, and the doctor stalked into the room. a solemn silence of a few minutes ensued; nobody daring to enquire the cause of his absence, which was at length relieved by johnson addressing the lady of the house as follows: "madam, i beg your pardon for the abruptness of my departure this morning, but i was constrained to it by my _conscience_. fifty years ago, madam, on this day, i committed a breach of filial piety, which has ever since lain heavy on my mind, and has not until this day been expiated. my father, you recollect, was a bookseller, and had long been in the habit of attending _walsall market_; and opening a stall for the sale of his books during that day. confined to his bed by indisposition, he requested of me, this time fifty years ago, to visit the market, and attend the stall in his place. but, madam, my pride prevented me from doing my duty, and i gave my father a refusal. to do away the sin of this disobedience, i this day went in a post-chaise to walsall, and going into the market at the time of high business, uncovered my head, and stood with it bare an hour before the stall which my father had formerly used, exposed to the sneers of the by-standers, and the inclemency of the weather: a penance, by which i have propitiated heaven for this only instance, i believe, of contumacy towards my father."'--is it not probable that dr. johnson himself might have sold for sixpence, a _tusser_, which now would have brought a 'golden guinea?'] a perusal of these prices may probably not impress the reader with any lofty notions of the superiority of the black-letter; but this symptom of the bibliomania is, nevertheless, not to be considered as incurable, or wholly unproductive of good. under a proper spirit of modification, it has done, and will continue to do, essential service to the cause of english literature. it guided the taste, and strengthened the judgment, of tyrwhitt in his researches after chaucerian lore. it stimulated the studies of farmer and steevens, and enabled them to twine many a beauteous flower round the brow of their beloved shakspeare. it has since operated, to the same effect, in the labour of mr. douce,[ ] the porson of old english and french literature; and in the editions of milton and spenser, by my amiable and excellent friend mr. todd, the public have had a specimen of what the _black-letter_ may perform, when temperately and skilfully exercised. [footnote : in the criticisms which have passed upon mr. douce's "_illustrations of shakspeare and ancient manners_," it has not, i think, been generally noticed that this work is distinguished for the singular diffidence and urbanity of criticism, as well as depth of learning, which it evinces; and for the happy illustrations of the subjects discussed by means of fac-simile wood-cuts.] i could bring to your recollection other instances; but your own memories will better furnish you with them. let me not, however, omit remarking that the beautiful pages of the '_minstrelsy of the scottish border_' and '_sir tristrem_' exhibit, in the notes, (now and then thickly studded with black-letter references) a proof that the author of '_the lay_,' '_marmion_,' and '_the lady of the lake_,' has not disdained to enrich his stores with such intelligence as black-letter books impart. in short, although this be a strong and general symptom of the bibliomania, it is certainly not attended with injurious effects when regulated by prudence and discretion. an undistinguishable voracious appetite to swallow _every thing_, because printed in the black-letter, must necessarily bring on an incurable disease, and, consequently, premature dissolution. there is yet one other, and a somewhat generally prevailing, symptom, indicative of the prevalence of the bibliomania; and this consists in a fondness for books which have been printed for private distribution[ ] only, or at a private press. what is executed for a few, will be coveted by many; because the edge of curiosity is whetted, from a supposition that something very extraordinary, or very curious, or very uncommon, is propagated in this said book, so partially distributed. as to works printed at a _private press_, we have had a very recent testimony of the avidity with which certain volumes, executed in this manner, and of which the impression has been comparatively limited, have been sought after by book _cognoscenti_. [footnote : the reader may not object to be made acquainted with a few distinguished productions, printed for private distribution. the reader is indebted to mr. bulmer, at whose elegant press these works were printed, for the information which follows:--museum worsleyanum; by sir _richard worsley_; , , atlas folio, vols. the first volume of this work, of which copies were printed, was finished in may, , and circulated, with the plates only of vol. ii., amongst the chosen friends of sir richard worsley, the author; who was, at that time, the diplomatic resident at venice from our court. the second volume, with the letter-press complete, of which only copies were printed, was finished in . the entire expense attending this rare and sumptuous publication (of which a copy is in the library of the royal institution) amounted to the enormous sum of , _l._ and from the irregularity of delivering the second volume of plates, in the first instance, without the letter-press, many of the copies are incomplete.----the father's revenge; _by the earl of carlisle, k.g._ &c., , to. a limited impression of this very beautiful volume, decorated with engravings from the pencil of westall, was circulated by the noble author among his friends. i saw a copy of it, bound in green morocco, with the original letter of the donor, in the library of earl spencer at althorp.----mount st. gothard: _by the late duchess of devonshire_, folio. only fifty copies of this brilliant volume were printed; to a few of which, it is said, lady diana beauclerc lent the aid of her ornamental pencil, in some beautiful drawings of the wild and romantic scenery in the neighbourhood of mount st. gothard.----dissertation on etruscan vases; _by mr. christie_. imperial to. with elegant engravings. only copies of this truly classical volume were printed. from the death of one or two of the parties, who became originally possessed of it, as a present from the author, it has fallen to the lot of mr. christie to become, professionally, the vender of a work which he himself never meant to be sold. a copy was very lately disposed of, in this manner, for _l._----bentleii epistolÆ; _edited by_ [the rev.] _dr. charles burney_: , to. this is one of the most beautiful productions of the shakspeare press; nor are the intrinsic merits of the volume inferior to its external splendour. the scarcer copies of it are those in medium quarto; of which only were printed: of the imperial quarto, there were executed.--i add two more similar examples, which were not printed at the shakspeare press:--lord baltimore's _gaudia poetica_; lat. angl. et gall. with plates. (no date). large quarto. only ten copies of this rare volume were printed, and those distributed among the author's friends: a copy of it was sold for _l._ _s._ at the sale of mr. reed's books: see bibl. reed, no. . it was inserted for sale in the catalogue of mr. burnham, bookseller at northampton, a.d. --with a note of its rarity subjoined.----views in orkney and on the north-eastern coast of scotland. taken in . etched . folio. _by the marchioness of stafford._--the letter-press consists of twenty-seven pages: the first of which bears this unassuming designation; "some account of the orkney islands, extracted from dr. barry's history, and wallace's and brand's descriptions of orkney." to this chapter or division is prefixed a vignette of _stroma_; and the chapter ends at p. . then follow four views of the orkney islands.--the next chapter is entitled "the cathedral of kirkwall," which at the beginning exhibits a vignette of the _cathedral of st. magnus_, and at the close, at p. , a vignette of a _tomb in the cathedral_. to these succeed two plates, presenting views of the _inside of the cathedral_, and an _arch in the cathedral_.--the third chapter commences at p. , with "the earl of orkney's palace," to which a vignette of a _street in kirkwall_ is prefixed. it ends at p. , and is followed by a plate exhibiting a view of the _door-way of the earl's palace_; by another of the _hall of the earl's palace_; and by a third containing two views, namely, the _inside of the hall_, and, upon a larger scale, the _chimney in the hall_.--"the bay of the frith" is the subject of the fourth chapter; which exhibits at the beginning a vignette of the _hills of hoy_. it closes at p. , with a vignette of _the dwarfy stone_. then follow six plates, containing a view of the _bay of frith_, a _view from hoy_, two views of the _eastern and western circles of the stones of stennis_, and two views of _stromness_.--the next chapter is entitled "duncansbay or dungsby-head," which bears in front a vignette of _wick_, and at the end, in p. , a vignette of the _castle of freswick_. three plates follow: the first presenting a view of _duncansbay-head_: the second, views of the _stacks of hemprigs_ and the _hills of schrabiner or schuraben_; the third, a view of _the ord_.--"the castle of helmsdale" is the title of the succeeding chapter, to which is prefixed a vignette of _helmsdale castle_. it ends at p. , with a vignette of the _bridge of brora_. then follow two plates, presenting views of _helmsdale castle_, and the _coast of sutherland_.--the subject of the next chapter is "dunrobin castle," (the ancient seat of her ladyship's ancestors, and now a residence of her ladyship,) which presents, at the beginning, a vignette of _dunrobin castle_, and after the close of the chapter, at p. , four plates; the first of which is a view of _dunrobin castle_ and the surrounding scenery; the second, a smaller view of the _castle_: the third, a view of _druid stones_, with another of _battle stones in strathflete_: and the fourth, _dornoch, with the thane's cross_.--the last chapter is entitled "the chapel of rosslyn," to which is prefixed a vignette of _rosslyn chapel_. it is followed by four plates; the first exhibiting a view of a _column in rosslyn chapel_; the second, a _door-way in the chapel_; the third, the _tomb of sir william st. clair_; and the fourth, _hawthornden_, the residence of the elegant and plaintive drummond; with whose beautiful sonnet, to this his romantic habitation, the volume closes: "dear wood! and you, sweet solitary place, where i estranged from the vulgar live," &c. of the volume which had been thus described, only copies were printed. the views were all drawn and etched by her ladyship: and are executed with a spirit and correctness which would have done credit to the most successful disciple of rembrandt. a copy of the work, which had been presented to the late right hon. c.f. greville, produced, at the sale of his books, the sum of sixteen guineas.] lis. you allude to the strawberry hill press?[ ] [footnote : for the gratification of such desperately-smitten bibliomaniacs, who leave no stone unturned for the possession of what are called strawberry hill _pieces_, i subjoin the following list of books, printed at the celebrated seat of sir horace walpole (afterwards lord orford) at strawberry hill: situated between richmond and twickenham, on the banks of the thames. this list, and the occasional bibliographical memoranda introduced, are taken from the collection of strawberry hill books in the library of the marquis of bute, at luton; all of them being elegantly bound by kalthoeber, in red morocco.----i. _two odes by mr. gray._ "[greek: phônanta synetoisi]," pindar olymp. ii. printed for r. and j. dodsley, , to., pages, copies. in these copies there is sometimes (but very rarely) prefixed a short poem of six stanzas, in alternate rhyme, "to mr. gray, on his poems." as there were _only six copies_ of these verses printed, i subjoin them: repine not, gray, that our weak dazzled eyes thy daring heights and brightness shun, how few can track the eagle to the skies, or, like him, gaze upon the sun! the gentle reader loves the gentle muse, that little dares, and little means, who humbly sips her learning from _reviews_, or flutters in the _magazines_. no longer now from learning's sacred store, our minds their health and vigour draw; homer and pindar are revered no more, no more the _stagyrite is law_. though nurst by these, in vain thy muse appears to breathe her ardours in our souls; in vain to sightless eyes, and deaden'd ears, thy lightning gleams, and thunder rolls! yet droop not gray, nor quit thy heav'n-born art: again thy wondrous powers reveal, wake slumb'ring virtue in the _briton's_ heart. and rouse us to _reflect_ and _feel_! with antient deeds our long-chill'd bosoms fire, those deeds which mark'd eliza's reign! make _britons_ greeks again.--then strike the lyre, and pindar shall not sing in vain. ----ii. _a journey into england_, originally written in latin, _by paul hentzner_. in the year . printed . advertisement of pages in a fine large beautiful type, printed on paper of great delicacy. the body of the work, which is printed in a smaller type, occupies double pages; on account of the latin and english being on the opposite pages, each page is marked with the same number. only copies of this curious and elegant work were printed.--iii. _fugitive pieces in verse and prose. pereunt et imputantur._ mdcclviii. vo. two pages of dedication "to the honourable major general henry seymour conway:" two pages of a table of contents, body of the work pages. printed with the small type: and only copies struck off.--iv. _an account of russia as it was in the year . by charles lord whitworth._ printed at s.h. mdcclviii, vo. advertisement pages, body of this work --with a page of errata, copies printed. this is an interesting and elegantly printed little volume.--v. _a parallel, in the manner of plutarch, between a most celebrated man of florence, and one scarce ever heard of in england. by the reverend mr. spence_, , vo. this is the beautiful and curious little volume, of which mention has already been made at p. , ante. seven hundred copies of it were printed; and from a copy, originally in the possession of the late mr. john mann, of durham, i learnt that "the clear profits arising from the sale of it being about _l._, were applied for the benefit of mr. hill and his family." (magliabechi was "the man of florence;" and hill "the one scarce ever heard of in england.") a copy of this edition, with ms. notes by mr. cole, was purchased by mr. waldron, at the sale of george steevens's books, for _l._ _s._ it was reprinted by dodsley: but the curious seek only the present edition.----vi. _lucani pharsalia_, mdcclx, to. this is the most beautiful volume, in point of printing, which the strawberry hill press ever produced. a tolerably copious account of it will be found in my _introduction to the classics_, vol. ii., p. . kirgate the printer (recently deceased) told me that uncommon pains were taken with its typographical execution.----vii. _anecdotes of painting in englaud_ [transcriber's note: england]; mdcclxi. four volumes; _catalogue of engravers_, to., one volume. this is the _first_, and, on account of having the earliest impressions of the plates, the _best_ edition of this amusing, and once popular work. it was reprinted in quarto, in ; of which edition i believe copies were struck off. again, in , crown vo., five volumes, without the plates.----viii. _the life of edward lord herbert of cherbury_, written by himself. printed in the year mdcclxix, to. dedication of two pages to lord powis. advertisement six pages, not numbered. after this, there should be a "genealogical table of the family of herbert," which is very scarce, on account of its being suppressed by mr. walpole, for its inaccuracy. the life occupied pages. "mr. walpole," says the late mr. cole, "when i was with him in the autumn of , at which time the book was partly printed, told me that either one or two hundred copies were to be printed; half to be sent to the earl of powis, and the other half he was to reserve for himself, as presents to his friends; so that, except the book is reprinted by some bookseller, privately, as probably it will, it will be a curiosity. it was not published till the end of june, , when the honourable editor sent it to me.----ix. _poems by anna chambers_, countess temple. mdcclxiv, to. this volume, containing poems on various subjects, is printed in pages, with a large, but not very elegant type. only copies were struck off.----x. _the mysterious mother._ a tragedy, by mr. horace walpole. sit mihi fas audita loqui. virg. printed at s.h., mdcclxviii. vo. no vignette on the back. first leaf, errata, and "persons" [of the play.] printed with the small type on pages; after which follows a "postscript" of pages. only copies printed. an uncut copy was recently sold for _l._ _s._----xi. _cornélie vestale. tragédie._ imprimée à s.h. mdcclxviii, vo., copies. the title-page is followed by a letter "a mons. horace walpole." a page of the names of the actors forms the commencement of the work, which contains pages, neatly printed. only copies printed, of which were sent to paris.----xii. _poems by the reverend mr. hoyland_, mdcclxix, vo. the advertisement ends at p. iv.; the odes occupy pages. although this little volume is not printed with the usual elegance of the s.h. press, it is valuable from its scarcity, on account of its never having been re-printed. only copies were struck off.----xiii. _original letters from k. edward vi. to barnaby fitzpatrick_, , to. i am not acquainted with any circumstance, intrinsic or extrinsic, that renders this small volume sought after.----xiv. _miscellaneous antiquities, or a collection of curious papers_: either republished from scarce tracts, or now first printed from original mss. two numbers printed by thomas kirgate, mdcclxxii, to. no. i. advertisement of two pages, ending p. iv. the number contains besides: contents. chap. i. "an account of some tournaments and other martial diversions." this was reprinted from a work written by sir william segar, norroy; and is called by the author, honour, military and ceuill, printed at london in . chap. ii. of "justs and tournaments," &c., from the same. chap. iii. "a triumph in the reigne of king richard the second, ," from the same. chap. iv. "a militarie triumph at brussels, anno ," from the same. chap. v. "of justs and tourneaments," &c., from the same. chap. vi. "triumphes military, for honour and loue of ladies: brought before the kings of england," from the same. chap. vii. "of the life and actions in armes since the reigne of queene elizabeth," from the same. chap. viii. "the original occasions of the yeerely triumph in england." all these tracts are taken from the above work. no. ii. second leaf, a plate of a head from the original wood-cut by hans holbein. contents. this number is almost entirely occupied by the "life of sir thomas wyat, the elder," copied by mr. gray from the originals in the harleian collection, now in the british museum. this extends to p. , after which is an appendix of eight pages on a few miscellaneous subjects. five hundred copies were printed.----xv. _memoirs du comte de grammont_, par monsieur le comte antoine hamilton. nouvelle edition, augumentée denotes et eclaircissemens necessaires. par m. horace walpole. mdcclxxii, to. the title-page is succeeded by a dedication "à madame ----," in six lines and a half, printed in a very large type. then follows an "avis de l'editour," and "avertissement," occupying three pages. an "epitre à monsieur le comte de grammont,' continues to p. xxi: then a "table des chapitres," to p. xxiii., on the back of which are the errata. the body of the work extends to pages; which are succeeded by "table des personnes," or index, in three pages. these memoirs are printed with the middle size type; but neither the type nor paper are so beautiful as are those of hentzner's travels, or the comparison between magliabechi and hill. portraits. . le comte antoine hamilton, faces the title page. . philibert, comte de grammont, opposite the "epitre:" badly executed. . a portrait of miss warminster, opposite p. , in the style of worlidge's gems. . mademoiselle d'hamilton, comtesse de grammont, faces p. . this engraving, by g. powle, is executed in a style of beauty and spirit that has seldom been surpassed. . lord chesterfield, second earl, in the style of the preceding; very beautiful. there were only copies of this edition printed, of which were sent as presents to paris.----xvi. _the sleep walker, a comedy_: in two acts. translated [by lady craven] from the french, in march. printed by t. kirgate, mdcclxxviii, vo. it is printed in the small type on pages, exclusively of viii. introductory ones, of "prologues" and "persons," &c. only copies were printed: and of these, one was sold for _l._ in the year , at a public auction.----xvii. _a letter to the editor of the miscellanies of thomas chatterton._ printed by t. kirgate. mdcclxxix, vo. this title is preceded by what is called a bastard title: and is followed by pages of the work, not very elegantly printed. only copies.----xviii. _the muse recalled_, an ode occasioned by the nuptials of lord viscount althorp (the late earl spencer) and miss lavinia bingham, eldest daughter of charles, lord lucan, march vi., mdcclxxxi. by william jones, esq. printed by thomas kirgate, mdcclxxxi. to. eight pages, exclusively of the title-page. printed in the middle size type; but neither the paper nor typographical execution are in the best style of the s.h. press. only copies printed.----xix. _a description of the villa of mr. horace walpole, youngest son of sir robert walpole, earl of orford, at strawberry hill, near twickenham, middlesex._ with an inventory of the furniture, pictures, curiosities, &c. printed by thomas kirgate, mcclxxxiv, to. this book contains pages in the whole. it was preceded by a small quarto impression of mdcclxxiv: which is scarce; and of which there are large paper copies. the work entitled _Ædes walpolianæ_ was printed in mdcclxvii. plates to the edition of . . frontispiece, gothic; motto on a scroll, "fari quæ sentiat." . north front of strawberry hill. . entrance of strawberry hill. . view of the prior's garden, at ditto. . chimney in the great parlour. . chimney in the china room. . chimney in the yellow bedchamber. . do. ---- ---- blue bedchamber. . staircase at strawberry hill. . library at ditto. . chimney piece of the holbein chamber. . the gallery. . chimney in the round room. . the cabinet. . view from the great bedchamber. . garden gate. . view of the chapel in the garden at strawberry hill. . the shell bench. . view from the terrace at strawberry hill. . east view of the cottage garden at strawberry hill. there were only copies of this edition printed. the following may amuse the curious reader: "mr. walpole is very ready to oblige any curious persons with the sight of his house and collection; but as it is situated so near to london, and in so populous a neighbourhood, and as he refuses a ticket to nobody that sends for one, it is but reasonable that such persons as send should comply with the rules he has been obliged to lay down for shewing it:--any person, sending a day or two before may have a ticket for four persons for a day certain;--no ticket will serve but on the day for which it is given. if more than four persons come with a ticket, the housekeeper has positive orders to admit none of them;--every ticket will admit the company only between the hours of twelve and three before dinner, and only one company will be admitted on the same day;--the house will never be shewn after dinner, nor at all but from the first of may to the first of october;--as mr. walpole has given offence by sometimes enlarging the number o [transcriber's note: of] four, and refusing that latitude to others, he flatters himself that for the future nobody will take it ill that he strictly confines the number; as whoever desires him to break his rule does in effect expect him to disoblige others, which is what nobody has a right to desire of him;--persons desiring a ticket may apply either to strawberry hill, or to mr. walpole's, in berkeley square, london. if any person does not make use of the ticket, mr. walpole hopes he shall have notice: otherwise he is prevented from obliging others on that day, and thence is put to great inconvenience;--they who have tickets are desired not to bring children."----xx. _a copy of all the works of mr. walpole that were printed by him before his death_, , to. this brochure, which has been called "rare" in book-auction catalogues, has been sold for upwards of two guineas.----xxi. _postscript to the royal and noble authors._ mdccxxxvi, vo. there should be, before the title-page, an outline etching of "reason, rectitude, and justice, appearing to christin de pisan, &c., from an illumination in the library of the king of france," which is exceedingly well engraved. the work contains only pages: and there were but copies printed. the _royal and noble authors_ were first printed in , vo. vols.----xxii. _essai sur l'art des jardins modernes_, par m. horace walpole. traduit en françois, par m. le duc de nivernois, en mdcclxxxiv. _imprimé à s.h._ par t. kirgate, mdcclxxxv. with an opposite title in english, to. it contains double pages, and every page of french has an opposite one of english. not printed in the best manner of s.h. a copy of this book was sold for _l._; at a sale in .----xxiii. _bishop banner's ghost._ printed by t.k. mdlccxxxix, to. on the first leaf is the following "argument." "in the gardens of the palace of fulham is a dark recess: at the end of this stands a chair, which once belonged to bishop bonner. a certain bishop of london (the late beilby porteus) more than years after the death of the aforesaid bonner, just as the clock of the gothic chapel had struck six, undertook to cut, with his own hand, a narrow walk through this thicket, which is since called the _monk's walk_. he had no sooner begun to clear the way, than lo! suddenly up started from the chair, the ghost of bishop bonner, who, in a tone of just and bitter indignation, uttered the following verses." this curious publication contains only four pages of stanzas, written in alternate rhyme, of and feet metre.----xxiv. _the magpie and her brood_; a fable, from the tales of bonaventure de periers, valet de chambre to the queen of navarre; addressed to miss hotham. this is a very scarce poetical tract of four pages only; subscribed h.w.----xxv. _fourteen different pieces, printed at strawberry hill, of verses, cards, &c._ this title i borrow from a book-auction catalogue. at a sale in , these detached pieces were sold for _l._ _s._; but it is not in my power to identify them. whether they be the same "_parcel of scraps, and loose leaves of poetry, epigrams_," _&c._ which, according to a daily newspaper, were sold at the commencement of this year "for pounds," i am also equally ignorant. see _kirgate's catalogue_, , no. .----xxvi. _hieroglyphic tales_, vo. only seven copies printed; _idem_, no. . from newspaper authority, i learn that these tales formed "a small pamphlet of two sheets, crown vo.," which were sold for _l._; and i understand that the late mr. g. baker was the purchaser. n.b. they are incorporated in the author's printed works; but this is not having the _first_ and _true edition_! there is nothing like the comfort of bleeding smartly for exhibiting these fourth and fifth symptoms of the bibliomania! vide pp. , , ante.----xxvii. _additions to first editions of walpole's lives of the painters, sewed._----xxviii. _the press at strawberry hill to his royal highness the duke of clarence, a poem._----xxix. _the master of otranto in durance._----xxx. _air, a poem._----xxxi. _a poetical epistle to mrs. crewe._----xxxii. _a poetical epistle to lady horatio waldegrave, on the death of the duke of ancaster._----xxxiii. _the press at strawberry hill to miss mary and miss agnes berry, a poetical epistle._ [these last seven articles are taken from mr. cuthell's catalogue of .] i should add that a much more copious and complete list, though not possessing all the intelligence here communicated, was prepared by the late mr. george baker for press; and printed, since his decease, for donations to his particular friends. only twenty copies of this bibliographical brochure are said to have been executed. we will now take leave of the prelum walpolianum by subjoining a copy of the most elegant title-page vignette which ever issued from it. [illustration: fari quÆ sentiat] before the reader's eyes are finally turned from a contemplation of this elegant device--and as connected with the subject of private presses--let me inform him that the marquis of bute is in possession of a thin folio volume, exhibiting paintings, upon vellum, of the various devices used by pope sixtus v., in the frontispieces of the several works which issued from the apostolical press, while he filled the papal chair. to a tasteful bibliomaniac, few volumes would afford so much delight as a contemplation of the present one. it is quite a _keimelion_ in its way!] lysand. i do; but i have not so ardent an admiration of these volumes, as the generality of collectors. on the contrary, i think that the _hafod press_ has, by one single production only, outweighed the whole of the _walpolian_ lucubrations; at least on the score of utility. i might here add, to the foregoing symptoms, a passion to possess works which have been _suppressed_, _condemned_, or _burnt_; but all these things rank under the head of _causes of the rarity_ of books; and as an entire volume might be written upon _this_ symptom _alone_, i can here only allude to to [transcriber's note: second 'to' erroneous] the subject; hoping some diligent bibliographer will one day do for _us_ what foreigners have done for other nations. thus have i, rather slightly, discussed the _symptoms of the disease, called_ =the bibliomania=. during this discussion, i see our friend has been busy, as he was yesterday evening, in making sketches of notes; and if you examine the finished pictures of which such outlines may be made productive, you will probably have a better notion of the accuracy of my classification of these symptoms. it is much to be wished, whatever may be the whims of desperate book-collectors, that, in _some_ of those volumes which are constantly circulating in the bibliomaniacal market, we had a more clear and satisfactory account of the rise and progress of arts and sciences. however strong may be my attachment to the profession of the cloth, i could readily exchange a great number of old volumes of polemical and hortatory divinity for interesting disquisitions upon the manners, customs, and general history of the times. over what a dark and troublesome ocean must we sail, before we get even a glimpse at the progressive improvement of our ancestors in civilised life! oh, that some judicious and faithful reporter had lived three hundred and odd years ago!--we might then have had a more satisfactory account of the _origin of printing with metal types_. lis. pray give us your sentiments upon this latter subject. we have almost the whole day before us:--the sun has hardly begun to decline from his highest point. lysand. a very pretty and smooth subject to discuss, truly! the longest day and the most effectually-renovated powers of body and mind, are hardly sufficient to come to any satisfactory conclusion, upon the subject. how can i, therefore, after the fatigues of the whole of yesterday, and with barely seven hours of daylight yet to follow, pretend to enter upon it? no: i will here only barely mention trithemius[ ]--who might have been numbered among the patriarchal bibliographers we noticed when discoursing in our friend's cabinet--as an author from whom considerable assistance has been received respecting early typographical researches. indeed, trithemius merits a more marked distinction in the annals of literature than many are supposed to grant him: at any rate, i wish his labours were better known to our own countrymen. [footnote : we are indebted to the abbé trithemius, who was a diligent chronicler and indefatigable visitor of old libraries, for a good deal of curious and interesting intelligence; and however scioppius (_de orig. domûs austriac._), brower (_vit. fortunat. pictav._, p. .), and possevinus (_apparant sacr._ p. ), may carp at his simplicity and want of judgment, yet, as baillet (from whom i have borrowed the foregoing authorities) has justly remarked--"since the time of trithemius there have been many libraries, particularly in germany, which have been pillaged or burnt in the destruction of monasteries; so that the books which he describes as having seen in many places, purposely visited by him for inspection, may have been destroyed in the conflagration of religious houses." _jugemens des savans_; vol. ii., pt. i., p. , edit. mo. it is from trithemius, after all, that we have the only _direct_ evidence concerning the origin of printing with metal types: and the bibliographical world is much indebted to chevelier (_l'origine de l'imprimerie de paris_, , to., pp. - .) for having been the first to adduce the positive evidence of this writer; who tells us, in his valuable _chronicon hirsaugiens_ ( , vols. folio), that he received his testimony from the mouth of fust's son-in-law--"ex ore petri opilionis audivi,"--that guttenburg [transcriber's note: gutenberg] was the author of the invention. the historical works of trithemius were collected and published in , in folio, two parts, and his other works are minutely detailed in the th volume of the _dictionnarie [transcriber's note: dictionnaire] historique_, published at caen, in . of these, one of the most curious is his _polygraphia_: being first printed at paris, in , in a beautiful folio volume; and presenting us, in the frontispiece, with a portrait of the abbé; which is probably the first, if not the only legitimate, print of him extant. whether it be copied from a figure on his tomb--as it has a good deal of the _monumental_ character--i have no means of ascertaining. for the gratification of all tasteful bibliomaniacs, an admirable facsimile is here annexed. the _polygraphia_ of trithemius was translated into french, and published in , folio. his work _de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, colon, , to., with two appendices, contains much valuable matter. the author died in his th year, a.d. : according to the inscription upon his tomb in the monastery of the benedictines at wirtzburg. his life has been written by busæus, a jesuit. see la monnoye's note in the _jugemens des savans_; _ibid._ [illustration]] lis. i will set his works down among my literary _desiderata_. but proceed. lysand. with what? am i to talk for ever? belin. while you discourse so much to the purpose, you may surely not object to a continuance of this conversation. i wish only to be informed whether bibliomaniacs are indisputably known by the prevalence of all, or of any, of the symptoms which you have just described. alman. is there any other passion, or fancy, in the book-way, from which we may judge of bibliomaniacism? lysand. let me consider. yes; there is one other characteristic of the book-madman that may as well be noticed. it is an ardent desire to collect all the editions of a work which have been published. not only the first--whether _uncut, upon large paper_, _in the black-letter_, _unique_, _tall_, or _illustrated_--but all the editions.[ ] [footnote : i frankly confess that i was, myself, once desperately afflicted with this _eleventh_ symptom of _the bibliomania_; having collected not fewer than _seventy-five_ editions of the greek testament--but time has cooled my ardour, and mended my judgment. i have discarded seventy, and retain only five: which are _r. steevens's_ of , _the elzevir_ of , _mill's_ of , _westein's_ of , and _griesbach's_ of --as beautifully and accurately reprinted at oxford.] belin. strange--but true, i warrant! lysand. most true; but, in my humble opinion, most ridiculous; for what can a sensible man desire beyond the earliest and best editions of a work? be it also noticed that these works are sometimes very capricious and extroardinary [transcriber's note: extraordinary]. thus, baptista is wretched unless he possess every edition of our early grammarians, _holt_, _stanbridge_, and _whittinton_: a reimpression, or a new edition, is a matter of almost equal indifference: for his slumbers are broken and oppressive unless _all_ the _dear wynkyns_ and _pynsons_ are found within his closet!--up starts florizel, and blows his bugle, at the annunciation of any work, new or old, upon the diversions of _hawking_, _hunting_, or _fishing_![ ] carry him through camillo's cabinet of dutch pictures, and you will see how instinctively, as it were, his eyes are fixed upon a sporting piece by wouvermans. the hooded hawk, in his estimation, hath more charms than guido's madonna:--how he envies every rider upon his white horse!--how he burns to bestride the foremost steed, and to mingle in the fair throng, who turn their blue eyes to the scarcely bluer expanse of heaven! here he recognises _gervase markham_, spurring his courser; and there he fancies himself lifting _dame juliana_ from her horse! happy deception! dear fiction! says florizel--while he throws his eyes in an opposite direction, and views every printed book upon the subject, from _barnes_ to _thornton_. [footnote : some superficial notes, accompanied by an interesting wood-cut of a man carrying hawks for sale, in my edition of robinson's translation of _more's utopia_, kindled, in the breast of mr. joseph haslewood, a prodigious ardour to pursue the subjects above-mentioned to their farthest possible limits. not eolus himself excited greater commotion in the mediterranean waves than did my bibliomaniacal friend in agitating the black-letter ocean--'a sedibus imis'--for the discovering of every volume which had been published upon these delectable pursuits. accordingly there appeared in due time--'[post] magni procedere menses'--some very ingenious and elaborate disquisitions upon hunting and hawking and fishing, in the ninth and tenth volumes of _the censura literaria_; which, with such additions as his enlarged experience has subsequently obtained, might be thought an interesting work if reprinted in a duodecimo volume. but mr. haslewood's mind, as was to be expected, could not rest satisfied with what he considered as mere _nuclei_ productions: accordingly, it became clothed with larger wings, and meditated a bolder flight; and after soaring in a _hawk_-like manner, to mark the object of its prey, it pounced upon the book of _hawking, hunting, fishing, &c._, which had been reprinted by w. de worde, from the original edition published in the abbey of st. albans. prefixed to the republication of this curious volume, the reader will discover a great deal of laborious and successful research connected with the book and its author. and yet i question whether, in the midst of all the wood-cuts with which it abounds, there be found any thing more suitable to the 'high and mounting spirit' (see braithwait's amusing discourse upon hawking, in his _english gentleman_, p. - .) of the editor's taste, than the ensuing representation of a pilgrim hawker?!--taken from one of the frontispieces of _l'acadamia peregrina del doni_; , to., fol. . [illustration] we will conclude this _hawking_ note with the following excerpt from one of the earliest editions of the abridgment of our statutes:--'nul home pringe les oves dascu[n] _faucon_, _goshawke_, _lan_, ou swan hors de le nyst sur peyn de inprison p[our] vn an et vn iour et de faire fyn all volunte le roy et que nul home puis le fest de paque p[ro]chyn auenpart ascun _hawke_ de le brode dengl' appell vne _nyesse_, _goshawke_, _lan_, ou _laneret_ sur sa mayn, sur peyn de forfaiture son _hawke_, et que null enchasse ascun hawke hors de c[ou]uerte sur peyne de forfaiture x li. lun moyte al roy et lauter a celuy que voet sur.' anno xi. h. vij. ca. xvij. _abbreviamentum statutorum_; printed by pynson, , vo., fol. lxxvij.] there are other tastes of an equally strange, but more sombre, character. dion will possess every work which has any connexion, intimate or remote, with _latimer_ and _swedenborg_;[ ] while antigonus is resolved upon securing every lucubration of _withers_ or _warburton_; whether grave or gay, lively or severe. [footnote : as i could not consistently give emanuel swedenborg a niche among the bibliomaniacal heroes noticed towards the conclusion of part v. of this work, i have reserved, for the present place, a few extracts of the titles of his works, from a catalogue of the same, published in ; which i strenuously advise the curious to get possession of--and for two reasons: first, if he be a _swedenborgian_, his happiness will be nearly complete, and he will thank me for having pointed out such a source of comfort to him: secondly, if he be _not_ a disciple of the same master, he may be amused by meditating upon the strange whims and fancies which possess certain individuals, and which have sufficient attractions yet to make proselytes and converts!! written march , a.d. . now for the extracts. '_a catalogue of the printed and unprinted works_ of the hon. emanuel swedenborg, in chronological order. to which are added some observations, recommending the perusal of his theological writings. together with a compendious view of the faith of a new heaven and a new church, in its universal and particular forms. london, printed by robert hindmarsh, no. , clerkenwell close, mdcclxxxv. those marked thus (*) are translated into english.' no. . _regnum animale_, or the animal kingdom in three parts. the first treats of the viscera of the abdomen, or the lower region. the second, of the viscera of the breast, or of the organs of the superior region. the third, of the skin, the touch, and the taste, and of organical forms in general. part printed at the hague, and part in london, , , in to. . _de cultu et amore dei_, or of the worship and love of god. the first part treats of the origin of the earth, of paradise, of the birth, infancy, and love of the first man, or adam. london, , in to. the second part treats of the marriage of the first man, of the soul, of the intellectual spirit, of the state of integrity, and of the image of god. london, , to. . _arcana coelestia_, or heavenly mysteries contained in the sacred scriptures or word of the lord, manifested and laid open, in an explanation of the books of genesis and exodus, interspersed with relations of wonderful things seen in the world of spirits, and the heaven of angels. london, from to , in eight volumes, to. "in this work the reader is taught to regard the letter of the scriptures as the repository of holy and divine things within; as a cabinet containing the infinite treasures and bright gems of spiritual and celestial wisdom; &c."(*).... . _de coelo et inferno_; or a treatise concerning heaven and hell, and of the wonderful things therein heard and seen. london, , to. "by this work the reader may attain to some conception of the heavenly kingdom, and may learn therein that all social virtues, and all the tender affections that give consistence and harmony to society, and do honour to humanity, find place and exercise in the utmost purity in those delectable abodes; where every thing that can delight the eye, or rejoice the heart, entertain the imagination, or exalt the understanding, conspire with innocence, love, joy, and peace, to bless the spirits of just men made perfect, and to make glad the city of our god," &c.(*)] loren. i suspect that, like many dashing artists, you are painting for _effect_? phil. on the part of lysander, i may safely affirm that the preceding has been no caricatured description. i know more than one baptista, and florizel, and dion, and antigonus. lis. i hope i shall shortly add to the number of such an enthusiastic class of book-collectors--i'm for _natural history_; and, in this department, for birds and beasts--_gesner_ and _bewick_![ ] [footnote : the works upon natural history by gesner, and especially the large tomes published about the middle of the sixteenth century, are, some of them, well worth procuring; on account of the fidelity and execution of the wood-cuts of birds and animals. bewick's earliest editions of _birds_ and _beasts_ should be in the cabinet of every choice collector.] phil. restrain your wild feelings--listen to the sober satire of lysander. have you nothing else, in closing this symptomatic subject, to discourse upon? lysand. there is certainly another point not very remotely connected with the two preceding; and it is this: a passion to possess large and voluminous works, and to estimate the treasures of our libraries rather by their extent and splendour than by their intrinsic worth: forgetting how prettily ronsard[ ] has illustrated this subject by the utility and beauty of small rivers in comparison with those which overflow their banks and spread destruction around. "oh combien (says cailleau, in his _roman bibliographique_) un petit livre bien pensé, bein [transcriber's note: bien] plein, et bein [transcriber's note: bien] écrit, est plus agréable, plus utile à lire, que ces vastes compilations à la formation desquelles l'intérêt a présidé plus souvent que le bon-goût!" [footnote : ie te confesse bien que le fleuve de seine a le cours grand et long, mais tousiours il attraine avec soy de la fange, et ses plis recourbrez, sans estre iamais nets, sont tousiours embourbez: vn petit ruisselet a tousiours l'onde nette, aussi le papillon et la gentille auette y vont puiser de l'eau, et non en ces torrens qui tonnent d'vn grand bruit pas les roches courant: petit sonnets bien faits, belles chansons petites, petits discourds gentils, sont les fleurs des charites, des soeurs et d'apollon, qui ne daignent aymer ceux qui chantent une oeuvre aussi grand que la mer, sans riue ny sans fond, de tempestes armée et qui iamais ne dort tranquille ny calmée. _poems de ronsard_; fol. . paris . mo. these are pretty lines, and have a melodious flow; but ronsard, in his and feet metres, is one of the most fascinating of the old french poets. the subject, above alluded to by lysander, may be yet more strongly illustrated: for thus speaks spizelius upon it. 'solent viri multijugæ lectionis, qui avidè, quos possunt versant libros, ut in mentis ventrem trajicere eos velle, totosque devorare videantur, elegantis proverbii salivâ librorum helluones nuncupari; ipso quidem tullio prælucente, qui avidos lectores librorum, ac propemodum insiatiables helluones dixit, siquidem _vastissima volumina_ percurrant, et quicquid boni succi exprimere possunt, propriis et alienis impendant emolumentis." again: "maxima cum sit eorum literarum stoliditas, qui, quod nocte somniarunt, continuo edunt in lucem, neque ipsa virium imbecillitate suarum, ab arduo scribendi munere et onere, sese revocari patiuntur," &c. _infelix literatus_; pp. , . morof is worth our notice upon this subject: "veniamus ad bibliothecas ipsas, quales vel privatæ sunt, vel publicæ. illæ, quanquam in molem tantam non excrescant ut publicæ; sunt tamen etiam inter privatos viri illustres et opulenti qui in libris omnis generis coemendis nullis parcunt sumptibus. quorum [greek: bibliomanian] reprehendit seneca _ep._ . , _et de tranquil. animi_ c. , ridet lucianus in libello [greek: pros apaideuton kai polla biblia ônoumenon]; et auson. _epigr._ . sunt ita animati nonnulli, ut _magno de flumine malint quam de fonticulo tantundem sumere;_ cum vastioris bibliothecæ minor interdum usus sit, quam ejus quæ selectis paucioribus libris constat." _polyhist. literar._ vol. i., p. . he goes on in a very amusing manner; but this note may be thought already too long.] belin. well; we live in a marvellous book-collecting and book-reading age--yet a word more: alman. i crave your pardon, belinda; but i have a thought which must be now imparted, or the consequence may be serious. lysand. i wait both your commands. alman. my thought--or rather the subject which now occupies my mind--is this: you have told us of the symptoms of the _disease of book-madness_, now pray inform us, as a tender-hearted physician, what are the _means of its cure_? belin. the very question i was about to put to our bibliomaniacal physician. pray inform us what are the means of cure in this disorder? lysand. you should say probable means of cure, as i verily believe there are no certain and correct remedies. belin. well, sir, _probable_ means--if it must be so. discourse largely and distinctly upon these. lysand. briefly and perspicuously, if you please: and thus we begin. in the _first place_, the disease of the bibliomania is materially softened, or rendered mild, by directing our studies to _useful_ and _profitable_ works; whether these be printed upon small or large paper, in the gothic, roman, or italic type. to consider merely the _intrinsic excellence_, and not the _exterior splendour_, or adventitious value, of any production will keep us perhaps wholly free from this disease. let the midnight lamp be burnt to illuminate the stores of antiquity--whether they be romances, or chronicles, or legends, and whether they be printed by aldus or caxton--if a brighter lustre can thence be thrown upon the pages of modern learning! to trace genius to its source, or to see how she has been influenced or modified by the lore of past times, is both a pleasing and profitable pursuit. to see how shakspeare, here and there, has plucked a flower from some old ballad or popular tale, to enrich his own unperishable garland;--to follow spenser and milton in their delightful labyrinths 'midst the splendour of italian literature; are studies which stamp a dignity upon our intellectual characters! but, in such a pursuit, let us not overlook the wisdom of modern times, nor fancy that what is only ancient can be excellent. we must remember that bacon, boyle, locke, taylor, chillingworth, robertson, hume, gibbon, and paley, are names which always command attention from the wise, and remind us of the improved state of reason and acquired knowledge during the two last centuries. alman. there seems at least sound sense, with the prospect of much future good, in this _first_ recipe. what is your second. lysand. in the _second place_, the reprinting of scarce and intrinsically valuable works is another means of preventing the propagation of this disorder. amidst all our present sufferings under the bibliomania, it is some consolation to find discerning and spirited booksellers republishing the ancient chroniclers; and the collections known by the names of "_the harleian miscellany_" and "_lord somers' tracts_," and "_the voyages of hakluyt_."[ ] these are noble efforts, and richly deserve the public patronage. [footnote : in the _quarterly review_ for august, , this my second remedy for curing the disease of the bibliomania is considered as inefficient. i have a great respect for this review, but i understand neither the premises nor conclusions therein laid down concerning the subject in discussion. if "those who cannot afford to purchase original publications must be content with entire reprints of them" (i give the very words, though not the entire sentence), it surely tends to lessen the degree of competition for "the original publication." a sober reader, or an economical book-buyer, wants a certain tract on the ground of its utility:--but take my own case--who have very few hundreds per annum to procure food for the body as well as the mind. i wish to consult roy's tract of "rede me and be not wroth," (vide p. , ante)--or the "expedition into scotland" of (see mr. beloe's _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_, vol. ii., p. ), because these are really interesting, as well as rare, volumes. there is at present no reprint of either; and can i afford to bid ten or twelve guineas for each of them at a public book-sale? but--let them be faithfully _reprinted_, and even a golden guinea (if such a coin be now in the pocket of a poor bibliomaniac like myself) would be considered by me as _dear_ terms upon which to purchase the _original_ edition! the reviewer has illustrated his position by a model of the pigot diamond; and intimates that this model does not "lessen the public desire to possess the original." lord mansfield once observed that nothing more frequently tended to perplex an argument than a simile--(the remark is somewhere in _burrows's reports_); and the judge's dictum seems here a little verified. if the glass or crystal model could reflect _all the lustre_ of the original, it would be of equal utility; but it cannot. now the reprint _does_ impart _all_ the intelligence and intrinsic worth of the original (for "the ugliness of the types" cannot be thought worthy of aiding the argument one way or another) therefore the reprint of roy's poetical tract is not illustrated by the model of the pigot diamond: which latter cannot impart the intrinsic value of the original. let us now say a word about the _reprints_ above commended by lysander. when mr. harding went to press with the first volume of the _harleian miscellany_, his zeal struggled with his prudence about the number of copies to be printed of so voluminous a work. accordingly, he ventured upon only copies. as the work advanced, (and, i would hope, as the recommendation of it, in the last edition of the bibliomania, promoted its sale) he took courage, and struck off another copies of the earlier volumes: and thus this magnificent reprint (which will be followed up by two volumes of additional matter collected by mr. park, its editor) may be pronounced a profitable, as well as generally serviceable, publication to the cause of literature. the original edition of _lord somers' tracts_ having become exceedingly scarce, and the arrangement of them being equally confused, three spirited booksellers, under the editorial inspection of mr. walter scott, are putting forth a correct, well arranged, and beautiful reprint of the same invaluable work. five volumes are already published. _the voyages of hakluyt_ are republishing by mr. evans, of pall mall. four volumes are already before the public; of which only copies of the small, and of the large, are printed. the reprint will contain the whole of hakluyt, with the addition of several scarce voyages and travels.] loren. i fully coincide with these sentiments; and, as a proof of it, regularly order my london bookseller to transmit to me every volume of the reprint of these excellent works as it is published. belin. can you find it in your heart, dear brother, to part with your black-letter chronicles, and hakluyt's voyages, for these new publications? loren. i keep the best editions of the ancient chronicles; but the new fabian, the harleian miscellany, lord somers' tracts, and the voyages, are unquestionably to be preferred; since they are more full and complete. but proceed with your other probable means of cure. lysand. in the _third place_, the editing of our best ancient authors, whether in prose or poetry,[ ] is another means of effectually counteracting the mischievous effects arising from the bibliomaniacal disease; and, on this score, i do think this country stands pre-eminently conspicuous; for we are indefatigable in our attentions towards restoring the corrupted texts of our poets. [footnote : the last new editions of our standard belles-lettres writers are the following: which should be found in every gentleman's library. _shakspeare_, , vols., or , vols. (vide p. , ante); _pope_, by _jos. warton_; , vols. vo.; or by _lisle bowles_, , vols. vo.; _spenser_, by _h.j. todd_, , vols. vo.; _milton_, by _the same_, vols., vo.; _massinger_, by _w. gifford_, , vols. vo.; _sir david lyndsay_, by _george chalmers_, , vols. vo.; _dryden_, by _walter scott_, , vols. vo.; _churchill_, by ----, , vols. vo.; _hudibras_, by _dr. grey_, , or , vols. vo.; _ben. jonson_, by _w. gifford_ (_sub prelo_); and _bishop corbett's poems_, by _octavius gilchrist_, , vo.] phil. yet forgive me if i avow that this same country, whose editorial labours you are thus commending, is shamefully deficient in the cultivation of _ancient english history_! i speak my sentiments roundly upon this subject: because you know, lysander, how vigilantly i have cultivated it, and how long and keenly i have expressed my regret at the almost total apathy which prevails respecting it. there is no country upon earth which has a more plentiful or faithful stock of historians than our own; and if it were only to discover how superficially some of our recent and popular historians have written upon it, it were surely worth the labour of investigation to examine the yet existing records of past ages. loren. to effect this completely, you should have a national press. lis. and why not? have we here no patriotic spirit similar to that which influenced the francises, richlieus, colberts, and louises of france? alman. you are getting into bibliographical politics! proceed, good lysander, with your other probable means of cure. lysand. in the _fourth place_, the erection of public institutions[ ] is of great service in diffusing a love of books for their intrinsic utility, and is of very general advantage to scholars and authors who cannot purchase every book which they find it necessary to consult. [footnote : the royal, london, surrey, and russel institutions, have been the means of concentrating, in divers parts of the metropolis, large libraries of useful books; which, it is to be hoped, will eventually bring into disgrace and contempt what are called _circulating libraries_--vehicles, too often, of insufferable nonsense, and irremediable mischief!] phil. you are right. these institutions are of recent growth, but of general utility. they are a sort of _intellectual hospitals_--according to your mode of treating the bibliomania. yet i dare venture to affirm that the _news-paper room_ is always better attended than the _library_! lysand. let us have no sarcasms. i will now give you the _fifth_ and last probable means of cure of the bibliomania; and that is _the study of bibliography_.[ ] [footnote : "unne [transcriber's note: une] bonne bibliographie," says marchand, "soit générale soit particuliére, soit profane soit écclésiastique, soit nationale, provinciale, ou locale, soit simplement personelle, en un mot de quelque autre genre que ce puisse être, n'est pas un ouvrage aussi facile que beaucoup de gens se le pourroient imaginer; mais, elles ne doivent néanmoins nullement prévenir contre celle-ci. telle qu'elle est, elle ne laisse pas d'être bonne, utile, et digne d'être recherchée par les amateurs de l'histoire litteraire." _diction. historique_, vol. i. p. . peignot, in his _dictionnaire de bibliologie_, vol. i. , has given a very pompous account of what ought to be the talents and duties of a bibliographer. it would be difficult indeed to find such qualifications, as he describes, united in one person! de bure, in the eighth volume of his _bibliographie instructive_, has prefixed a "discourse upon the science of bibliography, and the duties of a bibliographer," which is worth consulting: but i know of nothing which better describes, in few words, such a character, than the following: "in eo sit multijuga materiarum librorumque notitia, ut saltem potiores eligat et inquirat: fida et sedula apud exteras gentes procuratio, ut eos arcessat; summa patientia ut rarè venalis expectet; peculium semper præsens et paratum, ne, si quando occurrunt, emendi, occasio intercidat: prudens denique auri argentique contemptus, ut pecuniis sponte careat quæ in bibliothecam formandam et nutriendam sunt insumendæ. si forte vir literatus eo felicitatis pervenit ut talem thesaurum coacervaverit, nec solus illo invidiose fruatur, sed usam cum eruditis qui virgilias suas utilitati publicæ devoverunt, liberaliter communicet;" &c.--_bibliotheca hulsiana_, vol. i. præfat. p. , . morhof abounds with sagacious reflections upon this important subject: but are there fifty men in great britain who love to read the _polyhistor literarius_? the observations of ameilhon and camus, in the _memoires de l'institut_, are also well worth consultation; as are those of le long, and his editor, prefixed to the last edition of the _bibliotheca sacra_.] lis. excellent!--treat copiously upon this my darling subject. belin. you speak with the enthusiasm of a young convert; but i should think the study of bibliography a sure means of increasing the violence of the book-disease. lysand. the encouragement of _the study of bibliography_, in its legitimate sense, and towards its true object, may be numbered among the most efficacious cures for this destructive malady. to place competent librarians over the several departments of a large public library; or to submit a library, on a more confined scale, to one diligent, enthusiastic, well-informed, and well-bred bibliographer or librarian (of which in this metropolis we have so many examples), is doing a vast deal towards directing the channels of literature to flow in their proper courses. and thus i close the account of my recipes for the cure of the bibliomania. a few words more and i have done. it is, my friends, in the erection of libraries as in literary compositions, the task is difficult, and will generally meet with opposition from some fastidious quarter,[ ] which is always betraying a fretful anxiety to bring every thing to its own ideal standard of perfection. to counteract the unpleasant effect which such an impression must necessarily produce, be diligent and faithful, to your utmost ability, in whatsoever you undertake. you need not evince the fecundity of a german[ ] author; but only exert your best endeavours, and leave the issue to a future generation. posterity will weigh, in even scales, your merits and demerits, when all present animosities and personal prejudices shall have subsided; and when the utility of our labours, whether in promoting wisdom or virtue, shall be unreservedly acknowledged. you may sleep in peace before this decision take place; but your children may live to witness it; and your name, in consequence, become a passport for them into circles of learning and worth. let us now retreat; or, rather, walk round lorenzo's grounds. we have had _book-discussion_ enough to last us to the end of the year.[ ] i begin to be wearied of conversing. [footnote : my favourite author, morhof, has spoken 'comme un brave homme' upon the difficulty of literary enterprizes, and the facility and venom of detraction: i support his assertion 'totis viribus'; and to beg to speak in the same person with himself. 'non ignotum mihi est, quantæ molis opus humeris meis incumbat. oceanum enim ingressus sum, in quo portum invenire difficile est, naufragii periculum à syrtibus et scopulis imminet. quis enim in tanta multitudine rerum et librorum omnia exhauriret? quis non alicubi impingeret? quis salvum ab invidia caput retraheret, ac malignitatis dentes in liberiore censura evitaret? præterea ut palato et gustu differunt convivæ, ita judiciis dissident lectores, neque omnium idem de rebus sensus est, hoc præsertim tempore, quo plures sunt librorum judices, quam lectores, et è lectoribus in lictores, ubique virgas et secures expedituros, multi degenerant.' _præf. morhof._--even the great lambecius (of whom see p. , ante) was compelled to deliver his sentiments thus:--'laborem hunc meum non periculosum minus et maglignis liventium _zoilorum_ dentibus obnoxium, quam prolixum foro et difficilem.' prod. hist. lit. _proleg._ one of the roman philosophers (i think it was seneca) said, in his last moments, 'whether or not the gods will be pleased with what i have done, i cannot take upon me to pronounce: but, this i know--it has been my invariable object to please them.' for 'the gods' read 'the public'--and then i beg leave, in a literary point of view, to repeat the words of seneca.] [footnote : 'from the last catalogue of the fair of lepisic [transcriber's note: leipsic], it would appear that there are now in germany _ten thousand two hundred and forty three authors_, full of _health_ and _spirit_, and each of whom publishes at least _once a year_!' _american review_, jan. , p. .] [footnote : through the favour of dr. drury, the editor is enabled to present the reader with an original letter, enclosing a list of books directed to be purchased by benjamin heath, esq.; also his portrait. this document would have been better inserted, in point of chronological order, in part v., but, as the editor did not receive it till long after that part was printed, he trusts it will be thought better late than never. the direction. [illustration: [handwritten] to mr john mann at the hand in hand fire office in angel court on snow hill [illegible] in london] exeter, st march, . dear sir, i take the liberty presuming upon the intimacy of our acquaintance to employ you in a pretty troublesome affair. fletcher gyles, bookseller in holbourn, with whom i had some dealings about two years ago, has lately sent me down a catalogue of a library which will begin to be sold by auction at his house next monday evening. as i have scarce laid out any money in books for these two years past, the great number of valuable books contained in this collection, together with the tempting prospect of getting them cheaper in an auction than they are to be had in a sale, or in any other way whatsoever, has induced me to lay out a sum of mony this way, at present, which will probably content my curiosity in this kind, for several years to come. mr. gyles has offered himself to act for me, but as i think 'tis too great a trial of his honesty to make him at the same time both buyer & seller, & as books are quite out of my brother's way, i have been able to think of no friend i could throw this trouble upon but you. i propose to lay out about £ or £ , and have drawn up a list of the books i am inclined to, which you have in the first leaf, with the price to each book, which i would by no means exceed, but as far as which, with respect to each single book, i would venture to go; though i am persuaded upon the whole they are vastly overvalued. for my valuation is founded in proportion upon what i have been charged for books of this kind, when i have sent for them on purpose from london, and i have had too many proofs that the booksellers make it a rule to charge near double for an uncommon book, when sent for on purpose, of what they would take for it in their own shops, or at a sale. so that, though the amount of the inclosed list is above £ , yet, when deductions are made for the savings by the chance of the auction, & for the full rate of such books as i may be over bid in, i am satisfied it will come within the sum i propose. now, sir, the favour which i would beg of you is to get some trusty person (& if you should not be able readily to think of a proper person yourself, mr. hinchcliffe or mr. peele may probably be able to recommend one) to attend this auction, in my behalf, from the beginning to the end, & to bid for me agreeably to the inclosed list & (as the additional trouble of it over and above the attendance would not be great) to mark in the catalogue, which you may have of mr. gyles for a shilling, the price every book contained in the catalogue is sold at, for my future direction in these matters. for this service i would willingly allow guineas, which, the auction continuing days, is shillings over and above half a crown a day; or, if that is not sufficient, whatever more shall be thought necessary to get my commission well executed. it may be necessary to observe to you that the auction requires the attendance of the whole day, beginning at eleven in the morning, and ending at two and at five in the afternoon, and ending at eight. it may also be proper to inform the person you shall employ that he is not to govern his first bidding by the valuation in my list for many of the books will very probably be sold for less than half what i have marked them at; he is therefore, in every instance, to bid low at first, and afterwards to continue advancing just beyond the other bidders, till he has either bought the book, or the price i have fixed it at is exceeded. there are many books in the list which have several numbers before them; the meaning of which is that the very same book is in several places of the catalogue; and in that case, i would have the first of them bought, if it be in very good condition, otherwise let the person employed wait till the other comes up. i would desire him also not to buy any book at all that is both dirty & ragged; but, though the binding should not be in very good order, that would be no objection with me, provided the book was clean. i would also desire him not to bid for any number in the catalogue that is not expressly mentioned in my list, upon a supposition that it may be the same book with some that are mentioned in it; nor to omitt any book that is actually upon the list, upon an imagination, from the title, that it may be there more than once; for i have drawn it up upon an exact consideration of the editions of the books, insomuch that there is no book twice upon the list, but where there is a very great difference in the editions; nor is any of the books in my list oftener in the catalogue than is expressly specified in it. by the conditions of sale, the auction is constantly adjourned from fryday night to monday morning, the saturday being appointed for fetching away, at the expence of the buyer, the books bought the week before, & for payment of the mony. this part of the trouble i must beg you to charge yourself with; &, in order to enable you, as to the payment, i shall send you up, either by the next post, or, however, time enough for the saturday following, fifty pounds. i would beg the favour of you to let me hear from you, if possible, by the return of the post; & also to give me an account by every saturday night's post what books are bought for me, and at what price. as to which you need only mention the numbers without the titles, since i have a catalogue by me. when the auction is ended, i shall take the liberty of giving you farther directions about packing up the books, & the way i would have them sent down. when i drew up my list, i had not observed one of the conditions of sale, which imports that no person is to advance less than a shilling after twenty shillings is bid for any book. now you will find a pretty many books which i have valued at more than twenty shillings marked at an odd sixpence; in all which cases, i would have the bidder add sixpence more to the price i have fixed, in order to make it even money, & conformable to the conditions of the auction. and now, dear sir, another person would make a thousand apologies for giving you all this trouble; all which superfluous tediousness i shall spare you, being persuaded i shall do you a great pleasure in giving you an opportunity of being serviceable to me, as i am sure it would be a very sensible one to me, if i ever had it in my power to be of any use to you. mine and my wive's humble respects wait upon mrs. mann, and you will be so good to present my hearty services to all our friends. i am most sincerely, dear sir, [illustration: [handwritten] your faithful & affectionate humble servt. benj heath] [illustration: his seal.] £ _s._ _d._ octavo pet. angeli bargæi poemata hieron. fracastorij poemata or , or , joan. leonis africæ desc. christ. longolij orationes et epistolæ pierij valeriani hexametri quarto diogenes laertius octavo or , scaligerana or , car. ogerij iter danicum quarto plautus taubmanni octavo hen. lornenij itinerarium quarto marcus antonius de dominis hen. stephani dialogus ausonii opera anacreon and sappho excerpta ex polybio sophocles and eschylus ------------ carried forward £ £ _s._ _d._ brought forward octavo or , or , historia gothorum or , or , lucretius gifanij is casaubon de satyrica poesi quarto or , iamblicus de vita pythag. aulus gellius gronovij statij quæ extant barthij octavo or , martial scriverij quarto juvenal henninij manilij astronomicon poetriarum octo folio fam. strada da bello belgico octavo virgilius illustratus paulli manutij epistolæ folio or , or , io. leunclavij annales octavo senecæ tragediæ scriverij pontani opera folio demosthenis et Æschinis opera thucydides wasse platonis opera herodoti historia quarto pauli collomesij opera bern. pensini vita baronij octavo or , poesis philosophica folio philostrati opera historiæ romanæ scriptores plutarchi opera octavo caninij hellenismus or , virgilius hiensij folio geo. buchanani opera plautus lambini horatius turnebi et lambini octavo dom. baudij amores folio Æschyli tragediæ octavo lud. kusterus de vero usu, &c. quarto gab. faerni fabulæ centum folio luciani opera ------------- carried forward £ £ _s._ _d._ brought forward dionis cassij historia diodorus siculus appiani historia palladius de gentibus indiæ isocratij orationes quarto papin. statij opera claudian cum animad. barthij folio maffæi historia indica saxonis grammatici historia octavo huntingtoni epistolæ quarto and. nangerij opera tho. hyde historia relig. vett. pers. claud. salmasij epistolæ theocriti moschi bionis hesiodus græce folio rerum moscoviticarum coment. angeli politiani opera octavo ausonius mythographi latini quarto aristotelis opera octavo fabricij bibliotheca latina quarto sannazarij poemata octavo meursij elegantiæ statij opera is casauboni comment. maximi tyrij dissertationes folio nic. antonij bibliotheca hispan. octavo ovidij opera folio nic. antonij bibliotheca hisp. vetus octavo pet. dan. huetij comentarius sir john suckling's plays, &c. dr. downe's poems quarto lord's discovery of the banian religion folio or , burnet's theory of ye earth octavo milton's poems king's british merchant ------------- carried forward £ £ _s._ _d._ brought forward milton's paradise regained folio wheeler's journey into greece octavo or , grevil's life of sir p. sidney jobson debes's description of feroe terry's voyage to the east indies quarto description de l'egypte apologie de m. castar replique de m. girac octavo geddes's history of the church, &c. songs by the earl of surrey or , oeuvres de sarasin or , scaligerana quarto viaggi di pietro della valli opera di annibale caro orlando inamorato or , pastor fido or , morgante maggiore or , la gerusalemme liberata il verato orlando inamorato historia della guerre civili scritti nella causa veniziana historia della sacra inquisitione examinatione sopra la rhetorica or , istoria diplomatica fasti consolari di salvini satire del menzini folio bibliotheca napolitana di toppi orlando furioso quarto or , dialoghi del speroni poetica di aristotele volgarizzata poetica di aristotele di piccolomini della difesa della comedia di dante squittinio della liberta veneta il goffredo col. comento di beni dante di daniello ------------- carried forward £ £ _s._ _d._ brought forward folio historia del regno di napoli historia del consilio tridentino vocabularia della crusca octavo voyage de bachanmont, &c. or , or , or , ragionamenti del aretino prose fiorentine lettre volgari gravina della ragione poetica battaglie di mugio or , la comedia di dante quarto degli raguagli di parnaso il decameron di boccaccio or , lezioni di varchi l'amadigi di tasso folio l'adone del marino il libro del cortegiano istoria del concilio di trento la historia di italia di guicciardini octavo rime diverse del mutio l'amorosa fiametta compendio del historie di nap. opere di guilio cammillo l'aminta di tasso l'opere poetiche di guarin comedie di m. agnolo firenz. notize de libri rari satire e rime di aristo delle eloquenza italiana comedie varie labarinto d'amore di boccac. opere di redi quarto lettere di vincenzio martelli or , ameto di boccaccio or , le rime di petrarca ragionamento dell' academico -------------- carried forward £ £ _s._ _d._ brought forward poesie liriche del testi octavo il petrarca or , lettre di paolo sarpi opere burleschi di berni or , prose di m. agnolo firenz. commento di ser agresto l'aminta di tasso la secchia rapita or , comedie di aretino trattato delle materie benef. il do libro delle opere burlesch. quarto annotationi e discorsi gyrone il cortese il decamerone di boccaccio historia della cose passate apologia degli academia della guerra di fiandra rime e prose di maffei discorsi poetichi octavo la libreria del doni la cassaria teatro italiano la divina comedia di dante la rime di angelo di cestanzo tutte le opere di bernia -------------- £ --------------] * * * * * lysander concluded; when lorenzo rose from his seat, and begged of us to walk round his grounds. it was now high noon; and, after a pleasant stroll, we retreated again to the alcove, where we found a cold collation prepared for our reception. the same day we all dined at lisardo's; and a discussion upon the pleasures and comparative excellences of _music_ and _painting_ succeeded to the conversation which the foregoing pages have detailed. a small concert in the evening recreated the exhausted state of lysander's mimd [transcriber's note: mind]. the next day, my friends left me for their respective places of destination. lorenzo and his sisters were gathered round my outer gate; and lisardo leapt into the chaise with lysander and philemon; resolved to equal, if not eclipse, his bibliographical tutor in the ardour of book researches. "adieu," said lysander, putting his hand out of the chaise--"remember, in defence of my bibliomaniacal gossipping, that similis never knew happiness _till he became acquainted with_ books."[ ] the postillion smacked his whip; and the chaise, following the direction of the road to the left, quickly disappeared. the servant of lysander followed gently after, with his master's and philemon's horses: taking a near direction towards lysander's home. [footnote : 'it is reported that a certain man, of the name of similis, who fought under the emperor hadrian, became so wearied and disgusted with the number of troublesome events which he met with in that mode of life, that he retired and devoted himself wholly to leisure and _reading_, and to meditations upon divine and human affairs, after the manner of pythagoras. in this retirement, similis was wont frequently to exclaim that '_now_ he began to _live_:' at his death, he desired the following inscription to be placed upon his tomb. [greek: similis en tautha keitai bioue men etÊ ebdomÊkonta zÊsas de etÊ epta] _here lies similis; in the seventieth year of his age but only the seventh of his life._ this story is related by dion cassius; and from him told by spizelius in his _infelix literarius_; p. .] lorenzo and his sisters returned with me to the cabinet. a gloom was visible upon all our countenances; and the ladies confessed that the company and conversation of my departed guests, especially of lysander, were such as to leave a void which could not easily be supplied. for my part, from some little warmth each sister betrayed in balancing the solid instruction of lysander and the humorous vivacity of lisardo, against each other, i thought the former had made a powerful impression upon the mind of belinda, and the latter upon that of almansa: for when the probability of a speedy revisit from both of them was mentioned the sisters betrayed unusual marks of sensibility; and upon lorenzo's frankly confessing, though in a playful mood, that such brothers-in-law would make him "as happy as the day was long"--they both turned their faces towards the garden, and appeared as awkward as it was possible for well-bred ladies to appear. it was in vain that i turned to my library and opened a large paper, illustrated, copy of daulby's _catalogue of rembrandt's prints_, or mr. miller's new edition of the _memoirs of count grammont_, or even the _roman de la rose_, printed by galliot du pré, upon vellum.... nothing produced a kind look or a gracious word from them. silence, sorrow, and indifference, succeeded to loquacity, joy, and enthusiasm. i clearly perceived that some _other_ symptom, wholly different from any thing connected with the bibliomania, had taken possession of their gentle minds. but what has a bibliographical romance to do with _love_ and _marriage_? reader adieu!--when thou hast nothing better deserving of perusal before thee, take up these pages; and class the author of them, if thou wilt, with the bostons, or smiths, or norths, of "other times;" with those who have never wished to disturb the peaceful haunts of intellectual retirement; and whose estate, moreover, like joseph scaliger's, lies chiefly under his hat. [illustration] * * * * * p. . to the list of useful bibliographical works, published about the period here designated, i might have added the _lexicon literarium_ of theophilus georgius; _cum suppl. ad an._ . _leips._ - , folio; two thick and closely printed volumes, with an excellent chronological arrangement. it is not common in this country. p. . the abbé rive was also the author of-- . _notice d'un roman d'artus comte de bretagne_: paris, , to. _pp._ . . _etrennes aux joueurs de cartes, ou eclaircissemens historiques et critiques sur l'invention des cartes à jouer; paris_, , mo. _pp._ . these works are slightly commended in the "advertissement" to the vallière catalogue, , pp. xxv-vj. they are reviewed by a rival author. p. . since writing the first note, concerning the "_assertio septem sacramentorum_," &c., i have seen a magnificent copy of the same, printed upon vellum, in the library of earl spencer; which redeems the coldness of my opinion in regard to books printed by pynson upon vellum. the painted ornaments, in lord spencer's copy, were, in all probability, executed abroad. the art, in our own country, was then too rude for such elegance of decoration. p. . i was right in my prediction about these _garlands_ being swallowed up by some "hungry book-fish!" i saw them, a few days after, in the well-furnished library of atticus: who exhibited them to me in triumph--grasping the whole of them between his finger and thumb! they are marvellous well-looking little volumes--clean, bright, and "rejoicing to the eye!"--many of them, moreover, are first editions! the severest winter cannot tarnish the foliage of such "garlands!" p. . among the illustrated grangers i forgot to notice the ample and magnificent copies belonging to the marquis of bute and mr. john towneley. [illustration: dr. benjamin heath.] supplement. [illustration] the supplement. part i. the evening walk. the scenery and the dialogue of this part are more especially _waltonian_. the characters are few; but lysander must of necessity be the author--as he is the principal actor in the scene, and throughout the entire work the principal intelligence is derived from his lips. the scene itself is not absolutely ideal. at the little village of ----, upon the upper grounds, near marlow, and necessarily commanding a sweep of the thames in one of its most richly wooded windings, there lived a mr. jacobs, the friend of the adjoining rector, whose table was as bounteous as his heart was hospitable; and whose frequent custom it was, in summer months, to elicit sweet discourse from his guests, as they sauntered, after an early supper, to inhale the fragrance of "dewy eve," and to witness the ascendancy of the moon in a cool and cloudless sky. i have partaken more than once of these "tusculan" discussions; and have heard sounds, and witnessed happiness, such as is not likely to be my lot again. philemon is at rest in his grave, as well as menander and sicorax. the two latter, it is well known, were tom warton and joseph ritson. "the husband of poor lavinia" was a most amiable gentleman, but timid to a morbid excess. without strong powers of intellect, he was tenacious of every thing which he advanced, and yet the farthest possible from dogmatic rudeness. there are cankers that eat into the _heart_ as well as the cheek; and because mr. shacklewell (the nicas of my text) happened to discover a few unimportant errors in that husband's last performance, the latter not only thought much and often about it, but seemed to take it seriously to heart, and scarcely survived it a twelvemonth. gonzalo, mentioned at page , was a mr. jessop; an exceedingly lively, inoffensive, but not over wise gentleman; a coxcomb to excess in every thing; but not without vivacious parts, which occasionally pleased, from the _manner_ in which they were exhibited. of handsome person and fluent speech, he was generally acceptable to the fair sex; but he made no strong _individual_ impression, as he was known to use the same current phrases and current compliments to all. just possible it was that his personal attractions and ready utterance were beginning to strike a _root_ or two in some one female bosom; but it was impossible for these roots to penetrate deeply, and take an _exclusive_ hold. i believe mr. jessop quitted the neighbourhood of marlow shortly after the publication of the bibliomania, to return thither no more. alfonso was a mr. morell; a name well known in oxfordshire. he was always in the _same_ false position, from the beginning to the end; but i am not sure whether this be not better than a perpetually shifting false position. disguise it as you may, an obstinate man is preferable to a _trimmer_; be he a common man, or an uncommon man; a layman or a clergyman; "in crape," or "in lawn." the compliment paid by lysander (at pages , ) to dr. vincent, late dean of westminster, and head master of westminster school, were acknowledged by that venerable and most worthy, as well as erudite, character, in a letter to me, which i deemed it but an act of justice to its author to publish in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. iii. p. . poor mr. barker (edmund henry), who is handsomely mentioned in the dean's letter, has very lately taken his departure from us, for _that_ quiet which he could not find upon earth. "take him for all in all" he was a very extraordinary man. irritable to excess; but ardent and ambitious in his literary career. his industry, when, as in former days, it was at its height, would have killed half the scholars of the time. how he attained his fiftieth year, may be deemed miraculous; considering upon what a tempestuous sea his vessel of life seemed to be embarked. latterly, he took to politics; when--"farewell the tranquil mind!" part ii. the cabinet. this portion of the "bibliomania," embracing about fourscore pages, contains a _précis_, or review of the more popular works, then extant, upon bibliography. it forms an immense mass of materials; which, if expanded in the ordinary form of publication, would alone make a volume. i have well nigh forgotten the names of some of the more ancient heroes of bibliographical renown, but still seem to cling with a natural fondness to those of gesner, morhof, maittaire, and fabricius: while labbe, lambecius, and montfauçon, le long, and baillet, even yet retain all their ancient respect and popularity. as no _fresh characters_ are introduced in this second part of the bibliomania, it may be permitted me to say a word or two upon the substance of the materials which it contains. the immense note upon the "_catalogue of libraries_," alphabetically arranged, from page to page , is now, necessarily, imperfect; from the number of libraries which have been subsequently sold or described. among the _latter_, i hope i may naturally, and justifiably, make mention of the bibliotheca spenceriana; or, a descriptive catalogue of the early printed books of the late george john earl spencer, k.g.; comprising, in the whole, seven volumes; with the addition of the cassano library, or books purchased of the duke of cassano, by the noble earl, when at naples, in the year . in the "_reminiscences of my literary life_," i have given a sort of graphic description of this extensive work, and of the circumstances attending its publication. _that_ work now rests upon its own particular, and, i will fearlessly add, solid, basis. for accuracy, learning, splendour, and almost interminable embellishment, it may seem at once to command the attention, and to challenge the commendation, of the most fastidious: but it is a flower which blooms more kindly in a foreign, than in its native, soil. it has obtained for me the notice and the applause of learned _foreigners_; and when i travelled abroad i received but too substantial proofs that what was slighted _here_ was appreciated in _foreign_ parts. our more popular reviews, which seem to thrive and fatten best upon lean fare, passed this magnificent work over in a sort of sly or sullen silence; and there is no record of its existence in those of our journals which affect to strike the key-note only of what is valuable in science, literature, and the fine arts. painful as it must ever be to my feelings to contrast the avidity of former purchasers to become possessed of it with the caprice and non-chalance which have marked the conduct of those possessors themselves, i will yet hope that, in the bosom of the successor to this matchless library--as well as to the name and fortunes of its late owner--there will ever remain but _one feeling_, such as no misconception and no casualty will serve to efface. it is pleasing, yea, soothing, 'midst the buffetting surges of later life, to be able to keep the anchor of one's vessel _well bit_ in the interstices of granite. much later than the publication last alluded to, were the sale catalogues of the libraries of sir mark masterman sykes, bart., deceased; the rev. henry drury; george hibbert, esq., deceased; and sir francis freeling, bart., deceased. they were all sold by mr. evans, of pall mall; as well indeed as was the library of the late duke of marlborough, when marquis of blandford. what books! and what prices! it should seem that "there were giants," both in purse and magnitude of metal, "in those days!" but a mighty "man in valour" has recently sprung up amongst us; who, spurning the acquisition of solitary _lots_, darts down upon a whole _library_, and bears it off "at one fell swoop." long life to the spirit which possesses him! it is almost a national redemption. part iii. the auction-room. we are here introduced into one of the most bustling and spirit-stirring portions of the whole work. it is full of characters--alas! now, with only _two_ exceptions, mouldering in their coffins! philemon (who was one of my earliest and steadiest friends) introduces us to a character, which, under the name of orlando, made some impression upon the public, as it was thought to represent michael wodhull, esq., of thenford hall, near banbury; an admirable greek scholar (the translator of euripides), and perhaps the most learned bibliographer of his age. the conjecture of orlando being the representative of mr. wodhull was not a vain conjecture; although there were, necessarily (i will not say _why_), parts that slightly varied from the original. mr. wodhull re-appears, in his natural person, in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. iii. p. - . since the publication of that work, a curious history attaches to his memory. within a twelvemonth of the expiration of the statute of limitation, an action at law, in the shape of an ejectment, was set on foot by a neighbouring family, to dispossess the present rightful occupant, s.a. severne, esq., of the beautiful domain of thenford; to ransack the library; to scatter abroad pictures and curiosities of every description; on the alleged ground of insanity, or incompetency to make a will, on the part of mr. wodhull. as i had been very minute in the account of mr. wodhull's person, in the work just alluded to, i became a _witness_ in the cause; and, as it was brought into chancery, my deposition was accordingly taken. i could have neither reluctance nor disinclination to meet the call of my excellent friend, mr. severne; as i was abundantly confident that the charge of "incompetency to make a will" could not rest upon the slightest foundation. it was insinuated, indeed, that the sister-in-law, miss ingram, had forged mr. wodhull's name to the will. such a conspiracy, to defraud an honourable man and legitimate descendant of his property, is hardly upon record; for, waiting the accidents that might occur by death, or otherwise, in the lapse of twenty years, the cause was brought into the vice chancellor's court with the most sanguine hope of success. i was present during one of the days of argument, and heard my own letter read, of which i had (contrary to my usual habits) taken a copy. the plaintiffs had written to me (suppressing the fact of the intended action), requesting to have my opinion as to mr. wodhull's capability. i returned such an answer as truth dictated. the counsel for the plaintiffs (_ut mos est_) showered down upon the defendant every epithet connected with base fraud and low cunning, of which the contents of the brief seemed to warrant the avowal. in due course, sir knight bruce, now one of the supernumerary vice chancellors, rose to reply. his speech was one undisturbed stream of unclouded narrative and irresistible reasoning. the vice chancellor (shadwell) gave judgment; and my amiable and excellent friend, mr. severne, was not only to return in triumph to the mansion and to the groves which had been built and planted by his venerable ancestor, mr. wodhull, but he was strongly advised, by the incorruptible judge on the bench, to bring an action against the plaintiffs for one of the foulest conspiracies that had ever been developed in a court of justice. the defendant might have transported the whole kit of them. but the _giving_ advice, and the _following_ it when given, are two essentially different things. a thousand guineas had been already expended on the part of mr. severne! when does my lord brougham _really_ mean to reform the law? a recent publication ("cranmer, a novel") has said, "that he applies _sedatives_, when he should have recourse to _operations_." but the reader must now hurry with me into "the auction room." of the whole group there represented, full of life and of action, two only remain to talk of the conquests achieved![ ] and mr. hamper, too--whose note, at p. , is beyond all price--has been lately "gathered to his fathers." "ibimus, ibimus!" but for our book-heroes in the auction room. [footnote : before mention made of the auction room, there is a long and particular account of the "_lectionum memorabilium et reconditarum centenarii xvi._" by john wolf, in , folio; with a fac simile, by myself, of the portrait of the author. it had a great effect, at the time, in causing copies of this work to be sedulously sought for and sold at extravagant prices. i have known a fine copy of this ugly book bring £ _s._] the first in years, as well as in celebrity, is lepidus; the representative of the late rev. dr. gosset. in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. iii. p. , ample mention is made of him; and here it is, to me, an equally grateful and delightful task to record the worth, as well as the existence, of his two sons, isaac and thomas, each a minister of the church of england. the former is covered with _olive branches_ as well as with reputation; while the latter, declining the "branches" in question, rests upon the stem of his own inflexible worth, and solid scholastic attainments. mrs. gardiner, the wife of a major gardiner, is the only daughter of dr. gosset; a wife, but not a mother. the second in the ranks is mustapha. every body quickly found out the original in mr. gardiner, a bookseller in pall mall; who quickly set about repelling the attack here made upon him, by a long note appended to the article "bibliomania," in one of his catalogues. gardiner never lacked courage; but, poor man! his brains were under no controul. we _met_ after this reply, and, to the best of my recollection, we exchanged ... _smiles_. the catalogue in question, not otherwise worth a stiver, has been sold as high as s., in consequence of the dibdinian flagellation. poor gardiner! his end was most deplorable. we approach bernardo, who was intended to represent the late mr. joseph haslewood; and of whose book-fame a very particular, and i would hope impartial, account will be found in the "_literary reminiscences of my literary life_." there is no one portion of that work which affords me more lively satisfaction on a re-perusal. the cause of the _individual_ was merged in the cause of _truth_. the strangest compound of the strangest materials that ever haunted a human brain, poor bernardo was, in spite of himself, a man of _note_ towards his latter days. every body wondered what was in him; but something, certainly worth the perusal; oozed out of him in his various motley performances; and especially in his edition of drunken barnaby's tour, which exhibited the rare spectacle of an accurate latin (as well as english) text, by an individual who did not know the dative singular from the dative plural of _hic, hæc, hoc_! haslewood, however, "hit the right nail upon the head" when he found out the _real_ author barnaby, in richard brathwait; from the unvarying designation of "_on the errata_," at the end of brathwait's pieces, which is observable in that of his "_drunken barnaby's tour_." it was an [greek: eurêcha] [transcriber's note: [greek: eurêka]] in its way; and the late mr. heber used to shout aloud, "stick to _that_, haslewood, and your fame is fixed!" he was always proud of it; but lost sight of it sadly, as well as of almost every thing else, when he composed "_the roxburghe revels_." yet what could justify the cruelty of dragging this piece of private absurdity before the public tribunal, on the death of its author? even in the grave our best friends may be our worst foes. at page we are introduced to quisquilius, the then intended representative of mr. george baker, of st. paul's churchyard; whose prints and graphic curiosities were sold after his death for several thousand pounds. mr. baker did not survive the publication of the bibliomania; but it is said he got scent of his delineated character, which ruffled every feather of his plumage. he was thin-skinned to excess; and, as far as that went, a _heautontomorumenos_! will this word "re-animate his clay?" the "short gentleman," called rosicrusius, at page , must necessarily be the author of the work. he has not grown _taller_ since its publication, and his coffers continue to retain the same stinted condition as his person. yet what has he not _produced_ since that representation of his person? how has it pleased a gracious providence to endow him with mental and bodily health and stamina, to prosecute labours, and to surmount difficulties, which might have broken the hearts, as well as the backs, of many a wight "from five to ten inches taller than himself!" i desire to be grateful for this prolongation of labour as well as of life; and it will be my heart-felt consolation, even to my dying hour, that such "labour" will be acceptable to the latest posterity. yet a word or two by way of epilogue. the "reminiscences" contain a catalogue raisonné of such works as were published up to the year . since then the author has not been idle. the "_tour into the north of england and scotland_," in two super-royal octavos, studded with graphic gems of a variety of description--and dedicated to the most illustrious female in europe, for the magnificence of a library, the fruit chiefly of her own enterprise and liberality--has at least proved and maintained the spirit by which he has been long actuated. to re-animate a slumbering taste, to bring back the gay and gallant feelings of past times, to make men feel as gentlemen in the substitution of _guineas_ for _shillings_, still to uphold the beauty of the press, and the splendour of marginal magnitude, were, alone, objects worthy an experiment to accomplish. but this work had other and stronger claims to public notice and patronage; and it did not fail to receive them. six hundred copies were irrevocably fixed in the course of the first eighteen months from the day of publication, and the price of the large paper has attained the sum of £ . _s._ strange circumstances have, however, here and there, thrown dark shadows across the progress of the sale. if it were pleasing to the author, in the course of his journey, to receive attentions, and to acknowledge hospitalities, from the gay and the great, it were yet more pleasing to hope and to believe that such attentions and hospitalities had been acknowledged with feelings and expressions becoming the character of a gentleman. they have been so; as the pages of the work abundantly testify. but english courtesy is too frequently _located_. it is a coin with a feeble impress, and seems subject to woful attrition in its circulation. the countenance, which beams with complacency on receiving a guest to enliven a dull residence, in a desolate neighbourhood, is oftentimes overcharged with sadness, or collapses into rigidity, if the same guest should come under recognizance in a populous city. when i write "instructions for an author on his travels," i will advise a measured civility and a constrained homage:--to criticise fearlessly, and to praise sparingly. there are hearts too obtuse for the operations of gratitude. the scotch have behaved worthy of the inhabitants of the "land of cakes." in spirit i am ever present with them, and rambling 'midst their mountains and passes. if an author may criticise his own works, i should say that the preface to the scotch tour is the best piece of composition of which i have been ever guilty. how little are people aware of the pleasure they sometimes unconsciously afford! when mr. james bohn, the publisher of the scotch tour, placed me, one day, accidentally, opposite a long list of splendidly bound books, and asked me "if i were acquainted with their author?" i could not help inwardly exclaiming ... "non omnis moriar!"[ ] i am too poor to present them to my "sovereign mistress, the queen victoria;" but i _did_ present her majesty, in person, with a magnificently bound copy of the _scotch tour_; of which the acceptance was never acknowledged from the royal quarter; simply because, according to an etiquette which seems to me to be utterly incomprehensible, books presented _in person_ are not acknowledged by the donee. i will not presume to quarrel with what i do not exactly understand; but i will be free to confess that, had i been _aware_ of this mystery, i should have told her majesty, on presenting the volume, that "i had the greater pleasure in making the offering, as her illustrious father had been among the earliest and warmest patrons of my book-career; and that the work in question contained no faithless account of one of the most interesting portions of her dominions." this copy for the queen had a special vellum page, on which the dedication, or inscription, was printed in letters of gold. [footnote : this magnificent set of books, not _all_ upon large paper, was valued at £ . it has been since sold to lord bradford.] at length we approach the once far-famed atticus: the once illustrious richard heber, esq., the self-ejected member of the university of oxford. even yet i scarcely know how to handle this subject, or to expatiate upon a theme so extraordinary, and so provocative of the most contradictory feelings. but it were better to be brief; as, in fact, a very long account of mr. heber's later life will be found in my _reminiscences_, and there is little to add to what those pages contain. it may be here only necessary to make mention of the sale of his wonderful library; wonderful in all respects--not less from the variety and importance of its contents, than from the unparalleled number of _duplicate volumes_--even of works of the first degree of rarity. of the latter, it may suffice to observe that, of the editio princeps of _plato_, there were not fewer than _ten_ copies; and of that of _aristotle_, five or six copies: each the production of the aldine press. several of these platonic copies were, to my knowledge, beautiful ones; and what more than _one_ such "beautiful copy" need mortal man desire to possess? i believe the copy of the plato bought at the sale of dr. heath's library in was, upon the whole, the most desirable.[ ] both works are from the press of the elder aldus. [footnote : the rt. hon. thomas grenville possesses a copy of this first edition (from the library of the rev. theodore williams) in an _uncut_ state. it may defy all competition. there is, however, in the spencer library, at althorp, described by me in the second volume of the bibliotheca _spenceriana_, a very beautiful copy, delicately ruled with red lines, which may be pronounced as almost in its primitive state. the leaves "discourse most eloquently" as you turn them over: and what sound, to the ears of a thorough bred bibliomaniac, can be more "musical?"] it may be observed, as mere preliminary matter, that it was once in contemplation to publish the literary life of mr. heber; and an impression comes across my mind that i had tendered my services for the labour in question. the plan was however abandoned--and perhaps wisely. there was also to have been a portrait prefixed, from the pencil of mr. masquerier, the _only_ portrait of him--in later life--but the strangest whims and vagaries attended the surrendering, or rather the _not_ surrendering, of the portrait in question. i am in possession of a correspondence upon this subject which is perfectly _sui generis_. the library of mr. heber was consigned to the care and discretion of messrs. payne and foss--booksellers of long established eminence and respectability. it was merely intended to be an alphabetical, sale catalogue, with no other bibliographical details than the scarcity or curiosity of the article warranted. it was also of importance to press the sale, or sales, with all convenient dispatch: but the mass of books was so enormous that two years ( - ) were consumed in the dispersion of them, at home; to say nothing of what was sold in flanders, at paris, and at neuremberg. i have of late been abundantly persuaded that the acquisition of books--anywhere, and of whatever kind--became an ungovernable passion with mr. heber; and that he was a bibliomaniac in its strict as well as enlarged sense. of his library at neuremberg he had never seen a volume; but he thought well of it, as it was the identical collection referred to by panzer, among his other authorities, in his typographical annals. of the amount of its produce, when sold, i am ignorant. i have said that the catalogue, which consisted of xii parts (exclusively of a portion of foreign books, which were sold by the late mr. wheatley) was intended merely to be a sale catalogue, without bibliographical remarks; but i must except parts ii, iv, and xi: the first of these containing the _drama_, the second the _english poetry_, and the third the _manuscripts_--which, comparatively, luxuriate in copious and apposite description. "si sic omnia!" but it were impracticable. i believe that the manuscript department, comprised in about articles, produced upwards of £ . it may not be amiss to subjoin the following programme. part. i. articles; sold by sotheby ii. ---- ditto iii. ---- ditto iv. ---- sold by evans v. ---- sold by wheatley vi. ---- sold by evans vii. ---- ditto viii. ---- ditto ix. ---- sold by sotheby x. ---- ditto xi. ---- sold by evans xii. ---- sold by wheatley from which it should seem, first that the total number of _articles_ was nearly _fifty three thousand_--a number that almost staggers belief; and places the collections of tom rawlinson and the earl of oxford at a very considerable distance behind; although the latter, for _condition_ (with one exception), has never been equalled, and perhaps will probably never be surpassed. secondly, if it be a _legitimate_ mode of computation--taking two books for each article, one with another, throughout the entire catalogue--it will follow that the entire library of mr. heber, in england, contained not fewer than _one hundred and five thousand volumes_. the _net_ amount of the sale of this unparalleled mass of books is said to have been £ , : a large sum, when the deductions from commissionship and the government-tax be taken into consideration.[ ] dr. harwood thought that the sale of askew library was a remarkable one, from its bringing a guinea per article--one with another--of the articles of which the library was composed. the _history_ of the heber sale might furnish materials for a little jocund volume, which can have nothing to do here; although there is more than _one_ party, mixed up with the tale, who will find anything but cause of _mirth_ in the recital. that such a monument, as this library, should have been suffered to crumble to pieces, without a syllable said of its owner, is, of all the marvellous occurrences in this marvellous world, one of the most marvellous: and to be deprecated to the latest hour. yet, who was surrounded by a larger troop of friends than the individual who raised the monument? [footnote : these deductions, united, are about per cent.: nearly £ , to be deducted from the gross proceeds.] one anecdote may be worth recording. the present venerable and deeply learned president of magdalen college, oxford, told me that, on casting up the number of odd--or appendant volumes, (as or more) to the several articles in the catalogue--he found it to amount to _four thousand_. now, primâ facie, it seems hardly credible that there should have been _such_ a number, in _such_ a library, not deserving of mention as distinct articles: but it must be taken into consideration that mr. heber bought _many_ lots for the sake of _one_ particular book: and, considering the enormous extent of his library, it is not a very violent supposition, or inference, that these volumes were scarcely deserving of a more particular notice. pontevallo was the late john dent, esq., whose library was sold in ; and of which library that of the late robert heathcote formed the basis. it contained much that was curious, scarce, and delectable; but the sale of it exhibited the first grand melancholy symptoms of the decay of the bibliomania. the sweynheym and pannartz livy of , upon vellum, was allowed to be knocked down for £ ! mr. evans, who had twice before sold that identical volume--first, in the sale of mr. edwards's library (see _bibliographical decameron_, vol. iii. p.--) and secondly in that of the late sir m.m. sykes, bart, (who had purchased the book for £ )--did all that human powers could do, to obtain a higher bidding--but messrs. payne and foss, with little more than the _breathing_ of competition, became the purchasers at the very moderate sum first mentioned. from them it seemed to glide naturally, as well as necessarily, into the matchless collection of the rt. hon. thomas grenville. i yet seem to hear the echo of the clapping of sir m.m. sykes's hands, when i was the herald of the intelligence of his having become the purchaser! these echoes have all died away _now_: unless indeed they are likely to be revived by a holford or a bottfield. hortensius was the late sir william bolland, knt.: and, a few years before his death, one of the barons of his majesty's exchequer. he died in his th year. he was an admirable man in all respects. i leave those who composed the domestic circle of which he was the delightful focus, to expatiate upon that worth and excellence of which they were the constant witnesses and participators-- "he best shall _paint_ them who shall _feel_ them most." to me, the humbler task is assigned of recording what is only more particularly connected with books and virtu. and yet i may, not very inappositely, make a previous remark. on obtaining a seat upon the bench, the first circuit assigned to him was that of "the oxford." it proved to be heavy in the criminal calendar: and mr. baron bolland had to pass sentence of death upon three criminals. a maiden circuit is rarely so marked; and i have reason to believe that the humane and warm-hearted feelings of the judge were never before, or afterwards, subjected to so severe a trial. it was a bitter and severe struggle with all the kindlier feelings of his heart. but our theme is books. his library was sold by public auction, under mr. evans's hammer, in the autumn of . one anecdote, connected with his books, is worth recording. in my decameron, vol. iii. p. , mention will be found of a bundle of poetical tracts, belonging to the chapter-library at lincoln, round which, on my second visit to that library, i had, in imitation of captain cox (see page -- ante), entwined some whip-cord around them--setting them apart for the consideration of the dean and chapter, whether a _second_ time, i might not become a purchaser of some of their book-treasures? i had valued them at fourscore guineas. the books in question will be found mentioned in a note at page of the third volume of the bibliographical decameron. i had observed as follows in the work just referred to, "what would hortensius say to the gathering of such flowers, to add to the previously collected _lincoln nosegay_?" the reader will judge of my mingled pleasure and surprise (dashed however with a few grains of disappointment on not becoming the proprietor of them _myself_) when the baron, one day, after dining with him, led me to his book-case, and pointing to these precious tomes, asked me if i had ever seen them _before_? for a little moment i felt the "obstupui" of Æneas. "how is this?" exclaimed i. "the secret is in the vault of the capulets"--replied my friend--and it never escaped him. "those are the identical books mentioned in your decameron." not many years afterwards i learnt from the late benjamin wheatley that _he_ had procured them on a late visit to lincoln; and that _my_ price, affixed, was taken as their just value. of these linclonian [transcriber's note: lincolnian] treasures, one volume alone--the rape of lucrece--brought one hundred guineas at the sale of the judge's library, beginning on the th of november, . see no. ; where it should seem that only four other perfect copies are known. the library of the late mr. baron bolland, consisting of articles, brought a trifle _more_ than a guinea per article. it was choice, curious, and instructively miscellaneous. its owner was a man of taste as well as a scholar; and the crabbed niceties of his profession had neither chilled his heart nor clouded his judgment. he revelled in his small cabinet of english coins; which he placed, and almost worshipped, among his fire-side lares. they were, the greater part of them, of precious die--in primitive lustre; and he handled them, and expatiated on them, with the enthusiasm of a snelling, and the science of a foulkes. his walls were covered with modern pictures, attractive from historical or tasteful associations. there was nothing but what seemed to "point a moral, or adorn a tale." his passion for books was of the largest scale and dimensions, and marked by every species of almost enviable enthusiasm. his anecdotes, engrafted on them, were racy and sparkling; and i am not quite sure whether it was not in contemplation by him to build a small "_oratoire_" to the memories of caxton and wynkyn de worde. he considered the folios of the latter, in the fifteenth century, to be miracles of typographical execution; and, being a poet himself, would have been in veritable ecstacies had he lived to see the unique chaucer of , which it was my good luck to obtain for the library of the rt. hon. thomas grenville. i will add but a few specimens of his library-- no. £ _s._ _d._ armony of byrdes, printed by wyght. mo., a poem, in six line stanzas. mr. heber's copy. a little volume of indescribable rarity arnold's chronicle, to., printed at antwerp, by doesborch ( )? boccus and sydracke, printed by godfray, at the wits and charge of robert saltousde, monke of canterbury, to. cicero de officiis, ulric zel chaucer's troylus and cresseyde, printed by pynson. ( .) folio. this volume had been successively in the libraries of hubert, the duke of roxburghe, and mr. herbert. it was in parts imperfect marston's scourge of villanie. ( .) mo. first edition: of terrific rarity glanville, de proprietatibus rerum. printed by w. de worde. folio holland's heroologia anglica. ( .) folio. so tall a copy that it had the appearance of large paper shakspeare's venus and adonis. ( .) mo. third edition shakspeare's lucrece. first edition. . quarto (this was the lincoln-chapter copy.) the entire produce of the sale was £ . ulpian, the associate of hortensius, was, and _is_ (i rejoice to add) a barrister-at-law, and one of the six clerks in chancery. in the _decameron_, vol. iii. p. --, he appears under the more euphonous as well as genial name of palmerin: but the "hermitage" there described has been long deserted by its master and mistress--who have transferred their treasures and curiosities to the sea-girt village, or rather town, of ryde and its vicinity: where stained-glass windows and velvet bound tomes are seen to yet greater advantage. leontes, mentioned at page , was the late james bindley, esq.--of whom a few interesting particulars will be found in the third volume of my _bibliographical decameron_. he died before the publication of this latter work. sir tristrem was the late sir walter scott--then in the effulgence of poetical renown! prospero was the late francis douce, esq. my reminiscences make copious mention of these celebrated characters. aurelius was intended as the representative of the late george chalmers, esq.--the most learned and the most celebrated of all the antiquarians and historians of scotland. his caledonia is a triumphant proof of his giant-powers. never before did an author encounter such vast and various difficulties: never was such thick darkness so satisfactorily dispersed. it is a marvellous work, in four large quarto volumes; but so indifferently printed, and upon such wretched paper, that within the next century, perhaps, not six copies of it will be found entire. the less laborious works of mr. chalmers were statistical and philological. of the latter, his tracts relating to _shakspeare_, and his life of _mary queen of scots_ may be considered the principal. on the death of mr. george chalmers in , his nephew became possessed of his library; and on the death of the nephew, in , it was placed by the executors in the hands of mr. evans, who brought the first part to sale on the th of september, . it consisted of articles, and produced the sum of £ . the second part was brought to the same hammer, on february , , and produced the sum of £ _s._ _d._ it is on the _latter_ part that i am disposed to dwell more particularly, because it was so eminently rich in shakspearian lore; and because, at this present moment, the name of our immortal dramatist seems to be invested with a fresh halo of incomparable lustre. the first edition of his smaller works has acquired most extraordinary worth in the book-market. the second part of mr. chalmers's collection shews that the _sonnets_ of produced a hundred guineas; while the _rape of lucrece_ (which, perhaps, no human being has ever had the perseverance to read through) produced £ in a preceding sale: see page . the _venus and adonis_ has kept close pace with its companions. we may now revel among the rarities of the first part of this extraordinary collection-- no. £ _s._ _d._ bale's comedy concernynge thre lawes of nature, moses and christ, corrupted by the sodomytes, pharisees and papystes most wicked, wants the title, first edition, curious portrait of the author, excessively rare. inprented per nicholaum bamburgensem, wilkins' concilia magnæ britanniæ et hiberniæ, vols. . folio [such a price is one among the few _harmless_ fruits of the puseian controversy!] churchyard's worthiness of wales, first edition, very rare, . quarto [in my earlier days of book-collecting, i obtained a copy of this most rare volume, in an _uncut state_, from a mr. keene, of hammersmith, who asked me "if i thought _half-a-guinea_ an extravagant price for it?" i unhesitatingly replied in the negative. not long after, the late mr. sancho, who succeeded mr. payne, at the mews gate, went on his knees to me, to purchase it for _two guineas_! his attitude was too humble and the tone of his voice too supplicatory to be resisted. he disposed of it to his patron-friend, the hon. s. elliott, for five pounds five shillings. mr. elliott had a very choice library; and was himself a most amiable and incomparable man. it is some twenty-five years since i first saw him at the late earl spencer's, at althorp.] churchyard. the firste of churchyardes chippes, containinge twelue seuerall labours, green morocco, gilt leaves, the second part of churchyard's chips was never published. churchyard's generall rehearsall of warres, called churchyardes choise, imprinted by white, the latter part of this work is in verse, and some have supposed that churchyard intended it to form the second part of his chips. gascoyne's delicate diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes, excessively rare; only one other copy known, namely, that which was in the libraries of g. steevens and r. heber.--see heber's catalogue, part iv. no. . imprinted by johnes, ---- wolsey's grammar. rudimenta grammatices et docendi methodus scholæ gypsuichianæ per thomam cardinalem ebor, institutam, &c., rare, antv. the preface, containing directions for the conduct of the school, is written by cardinal wolsey. the grammar is by dean colet and lilly. the complete history of cornwall, part ii., being the parochial history, (by william hals,) extremely rare this is one of the rarest books in the class of british topography. the first part was never printed, it has therefore no general title. a copy is in the library of the right hon. thomas grenville. patrick hannay's nightingale, sheretine, happy husband, songs, sonnets, &c., with the frontispiece, including the extremely rare portrait of patrick hannay, an excessively rare volume when perfect, we believe only one other perfect copy is known, that which was successively in the libraries of bindley, perry, sykes, and rice. no poetical volume in the libraries of these celebrated collectors excited a more lively interest, or a keener competition. this was obtained by mr. chalmers at pinkerton's sale in . the portrait of hannay is a great desideratum to the granger collectors. hutton's (henry dunelmensis) follic's anatomie, or satyrs and satyricall epigrams, . mo. de foe. review of the affairs of france and of all europe, as influenced by that nation, with historical observations on public affairs, and an entertaining part in every sheet (by defoe), vols., excessively rare. the most perfect copy known, this is the great desideratum of all the collectors of de foe's works. it is the most perfect copy known; that which approaches it the nearest is the copy in the british museum; but that only extends to vols. cronycle of englonde wyth the frute of tymes, compyled by one somtyme mayster of saynt albons. newly enprynted by wynkyn de worde, . the descrypcyon of englonde (in prose), also the descrypcyon of the londe of wales, in verse, emprynted by me wynkyn de worde, , vols. in . the first editions by wynkyn de worde, extremely rare fulwell's (ulpian) flower of fame, containing the bright renowne and most fortunate raigne of king henry viii., wherein is mentioned of matters, by the rest of our cronographers ouerpassed, in verse and prose, extremely rare, imprinted by hoskins, see an account of this very curious work in the censura literaria, vol. , p. to , written by gilchrist. it was described from the late mr. neunberg's copy, which was sold for £ . _s._ fulwell (ulpian). the first parte of the eighth liberall science: entituled ars adulandi, the arte of flatterie, first edition, excessively rare, title mended, a piece wanting in the centre. to. imprinted by jones, (marlowe) the true tragedie of richarde duke of yorke, and the death of good king henrie the sixt, with the whole contention betweene the two houses lancaster and yorke, as it was sundrie times acted by the right honourable the earle of pembroke, his servants, first edition, excessively rare, and believed to be unique, very fine copy, printed at london by p.s. . to. [i refer with pleasure to mr. evans' long, learned, and satisfactory note upon this most precious volume; which i had the satisfaction of seeing in the bodleian library, for which it was purchased by mr. rodd, the bookseller.] greene in conceipt. new raised from his grave to write the tragique history of faire valeria of london, by j. d(ickenson), very rare. to. hake, of gold's kingdom, described in sundry poems, , mo. hakluyt. divers voyages touching the discoverie of america, and the islands adjacent unto the same, made first of all by our englishmen, and afterwards by the frenchmen and britons, with both the maps, excessively rare, only one other copy known to contain the two maps. imprinted by woodcocke, . to. hogarde (myles) "a mirrour of loue, which such light doth giue, that all men may learne, how to loue and liue." imprinted by caly, . part ii. fraunce's (abraham) lamentations of amintas for the death of phillis, a poem; excessively rare fyssher's (jhon, student of oxford) poems written in dialogue, wants the title and part of a leaf, extremely rare. imprinted by john tisdale, gascoigne's whole woorkes, with the comedy of supposes and the steele glasse, best edition, very fine copy, in russia. imprinted by jesse, at the end of the volume there is a tract by gascoigne, entitled "certain notes of instruction concerning the making of verses, or rimes, in english." the tract is not mentioned in the list of contents on the title, and the four leaves very rarely occur. marshall's (george) compendious treatise, in metre, declaring the firste originall of sacrifice, and of the buylding of aultars and churches, a poem, extremely rare. cawood, harvey's (gabriel) foure letters and certaine sonnets, especially touching robert greene and other parties by him abused. printed by wolfe, gabriel harvey was the intimate friend of spenser. the immediate occasion of harvey's writing these letters was to resent greene's attack on his father; but the permanent value of the volume is the very interesting notices harvey gives of his literary contemporaries. the work concludes with a sonnet of spenser, addressed to harvey. meeting of gallants at an ordinarie, or the walkes of powles, very scarce, . mo. this scarce and curious little volume is not mentioned by lowndes. the work commences with a poetical dialogue between warre, famine, and pestilence. the tales of my landlord then follow, "where the fatte host telles tales at the upper ende of the table." mine host, however, does not have all the conversation to himself. the guests take a very fair share. one of the interlocutors, gingle-spur, alludes to one of shakspeare's plays. "this was a prettie comedy of errors, my round host." [i shall place all the shakspearian articles consecutively; that the reader may observe in what a rapid ratio their pecuniary value has increased. of the sonnets, the right hon. thomas grenville possesses one copy, and thomas jolley, esq., another. the history of the acquisition of the _latter_ copy is one of singular interest; almost sufficient to add _another_ day to a bibliographical decameron. this copy is in pristine condition, and looks as if snatched from the press. mr. jolley also possesses a very fine and perfect copy of the first edition of shakspeare's works, in folio; but a similar copy, in the library of the right honourable thomas grenville, will, perhaps, always continue unrivalled.] shakspeare's venus and adonis; unique. edinburgh, by john writtoun, and are to bee sold in his shop, a little beneath the salt trone, we are always extremely cautious in using the designation unique; but we think we may safely do so upon the present occasion. we have made very extensive inquiries on the subject, and have recently written to david laing, esq., keeper of the library of the writers to the signet, from whom we have received a confirmation of our belief. beloe, in describing this copy, says "it must be considered as an indubitable proof that at a very early period the scotch knew, and admired, the genius of shakspeare." he might have continued, its proceeding from the press of writtoun, was an additional proof, as he only published small popular tracts. beloe has erroneously given the date , and lowndes has copied his error. the first books printed by writtoun were about . his will is printed in the bannatyne miscellany. the second edition of this precious poem, printed in , produced the sum of £ , at the sale of baron bolland's library: see page , ante. [transcriber's note: ] shakespeare's comedies, tragedies, and histories, first edition. the title a reprint, but the portrait original. with the verses of ben jonson, original, but inlaid, blue morocco, shake-speares sonnets, neuer before imprinted, extremely rare, most beautiful copy, in russia. london, by g. eld for t.t. and are to be solde by william apsley, shakspeare's most excellent historie of the merchant of venice, with the extreame crueltie of shylock the jew, first edition, extremely rare, printed by j. r(oberts) for thomas heyes, another copy, second edition, very scarce, printed by j. roberts, another copy, shakspeare's midsommer nights dreame, second edition, printed by james roberts, shakspeare's most lamentable tragedie of titus andronicus, second edition, very scarce, only one perfect copy of the first edition is known. shakspeare, his true chronicle history of the life and death of king lear and his three daughters, second edition, printed for n. butter, shakspeare's famous historie of troylus and cresseid, with the conceited wooing of pandoras prince of licia, first edition, extremely rare, imprinted by g. eld, shakspeare's richard the second, with new additions of the parliament scene, and the deposing of king richard [there were many other early editions of the plays of shakspeare, but the preceding were the most prominent.] ovid. the flores of ouide de arte amandi, with their englysshe afore them and two alphabete tablys, extremely rare, very fine copy wynandus de worde, [this edition was wholly unknown to me.] newton's (t.) atropeion delion, or the death of delia, (queen elizabeth) with the teares of her funerall, very scarce, hilarie (hughe) the resurrection of the masse, with the wonderful vertues of the same, a poem, excessively rare, imprinted at strasburgh in elsas, this is a very bitter satire on the ceremonies, doctrines, and ministers of the roman catholic church. skelton. here after foloweth certaine bokes complyed by mayster skelt[=o], poet laureat, speake parot, ware the hawke, tunnynge of eleanoure rummyne, &c., imprinted by kynge and marche. here after foloweth a little boke called colyn clout, by master skelton poete laureate, imprynted by veale. here after foloweth a little boke, why come ye not to courte, by mayster skelton, poet laureate. this is skelton's celebrated satire against cardinal wolsey, imprinted by veale. a little boke of philip sparow, by mayster skelton, poete laureate, imprinted by walley--a very curious collection of poems by skelton, each very rare, in bussia [transcriber's note: russia] in d'israeli's recent work, the amenities of literature, there is an excellent article upon skelton, which contains many acute and original observations. speaking of the skeltonical verse, d'israeli says, "in the quick-returning rhymes, the playfulness of the diction, and the pungency of new words, usually ludicrous, often expressive, and sometimes felicitous, there is a stirring spirit, which will be best felt in an audible reading. the velocity of his verse has a carol of its own. the chimes ring in the ear, and the thoughts are flung about like wild coruscations." see vol. , p. to . octavo. pierce plowman. newes from the north, otherwise called the conference between simon certain and pierce plowman, faithfully collected by t.f. student, extremely rare. e. allde, s. (r.) the phoenix nest, built up with the most rare and refined workes of noblemen, woorthy knightes, gallant gentlemen, masters of arts and braue schollers, full of varietie, excellent invention and singular delight, never before this time published, set foorth by r.s. of the inner temple, gentleman, excessively rare. imprinted by john jackson, mr. heber had written in his copy, "mr. malone has a copy bought at dr. farmer's sale, (now in the bodleian library,) but i know of no other." we may add, those two copies, and the present, are the only perfect copies known. sidney's (sir phillip) apologie for poetrie, first edition, excessively rare. printed for henry olney, "foure sonnets written by henrie constable to sir philip sidneys soule" are prefixed. these have not been reprinted in the subsequent editions. only three other copies of the first edition of this elegant and valuable treatise are known. one of which is in the british museum, and one in the bridgewater library. the third part of mr. chalmers's library--abundantly rich in scotch literature, and containing much valuable illustration of the history of printing in scotland, will probably quickly succeed the publication of this work. mr. chalmers had frequently expressed to me his intention as well as inclination to give a complete history of the scotish press; and if the materials collected by him find their way into his native country, it is to be hoped that some enterprising spirit, like that which animates the present librarian of the signet library, will find sufficient encouragement to bring them before the public. i bargain for a _quarto_. menalcas (whose fame expands more largely in the _bibliographical decameron_ and _reminiscences_) was my old and "very singular good friend" the rev. henry joseph thomas drury, rector of fingest, and second master of harrow school; second, because he declined to become the _first_. his library, so rich and rare in classical lore--manuscript as well as printed--was sold by mr. evans in . the catalogue contained not fewer than articles. the bindings, chiefly in lewisian calf and morocco, were "de toute beauté;" and the "oblong cabinet" sparkled as the setting sun shot its slanting rays down the backs of the tomes. of this catalogue there were copies only printed upon writing paper, for presents. this library was strikingly illustrative of the character of its late owner; for it is little more than a twelvemonth since he has been called away from that numerous and endearing circle, in the midst of which i saw him sitting, about a twelvemonth before his departure--the happiest of the happy--on the day of the nuptials of his youngest daughter but one, with captain beavan. his books were in fine condition throughout--gaily attired in appropriate bindings of calf or morocco, as the character and condition might be. his love of old classical _manuscripts_ was properly and greatly beyond that of printed books: but each class was so marked and identified by his calligraphical ms. notes, that you were in a moment convinced his books were not purchased for the mere sake of gorgeous furniture. so entirely were his classical feelings mixed up with his library, that he prefixed, over the entrance door of his oblong cabinet, in printed letters of gold, the following lines--of which the version is supplied from the "_arundines cami_," edited by his eldest son, the rev. henry drury. in musei mei aditu. pontificum videas penetralibus eruta lapsis antiquas monachum vellera passa manus, et veteres puncto sine divisore papyros, quæque fremit monstris litera picta suis: Ætatis decimæ spectes industria quintæ: quam pulcra archetypos imprimat arte duces aldinas ædes ineuns et limina juntÆ quosque suos stephanus vellet habere lares. h.i.t.d. over the threshold of my library. from mouldering abbey's dark scriptorium brought, see vellum tomes by monkish labour wrought; nor yet the comma born, papyri see, and uncial letters wizard grammary; view my _fifteeners_ in their rugged line; what ink! what linen! only known long syne-- entering where aldus might have fixed his throne, or harry stephens covetted his own. h.d. they were part and parcel of the _owner_ himself. his mind was traceable in many a fly leaf. his latinity was perspicuity and accuracy itself. he was, in all respects, a ripe and a good scholar; and the late provost of eton (the rev. dr. goodall) told me, on an occasion which has been, perhaps, too _emphasised_ in certain bibliographical pages,[ ] that "england could not then produce a better greek metrical scholar than his friend henry drury." what was remarkable, he never assumed an _ex cathedrâ_ position in society. in bringing forward or pressing quotations, whatever fell from him, came easily and naturally, but rarely. accustomed for many years to be the favourite of the _harrovians_, he never affected the airs of the pedagogue. how he _could_ criticise, sufficiently appears in an article on the _musæ edinburgenses_ in an early number of the quarterly review. [footnote : _bibliographical decameron._ dr. goodall always appeared to me to _affect_ irascibility upon the subject alluded to. the contents might have been published at charing cross.] yet this may be considered secondary matter; and i hasten to record the qualities of his heart and disposition. they were truly christian-like; inasmuch as a fond and large spirit of benevolence was always beating in his bosom, and mantling over a countenance of singular friendliness of expression. he had the _power_ of saying sharp and caustic things, but he used his "giant-strength" with the gentleness of a child. his letters, of which many hundreds have fallen to my lot, are a perfect reflex of his joyous and elastic mind. there was not a pupil under his care who looked forward to a _holiday_ with more unqualified delight than _he_; and when we strayed together beneath, or upon the heights of, the dover cliffs (where i _last_ saw him, in the summer of ) he would expatiate, with equal warmth and felicity, upon the abbey of st. rhadagund, and the keep of dover castle. our visit to barfreston church, in the neighbourhood, can never be effaced from my mind. his mental enthusiasm and bodily activity could not have been exceeded by that of the captain of harrow school. he took up my meditated "history of the dover" as if it were his own work; and his success, in cause of subscription, in most instances, was complete. and now, after an intimacy (minutely recorded in my _reminiscences_) of thirty-three years, it has pleased god to deprive me of his genial and heart-stirring society. his last moments were of those of a christian--"rooted and built up" in that belief, which alone sustains us in the struggle of parting from those whom we cherish as the most idolised objects upon earth! it was towards sun-set that i first paused upon his tomb, in the church-yard, near the summit of harrow hill. for a few moments i was breathless--but _not_ from the steepness of the ascent. the inscription, i would submit, is too much in the "minor key." it was the production of his eldest son, who preferred to err from under-rating, rather than over-rating, the good qualities of his parent. for myself-- "as those we love decay, we die in part; string after string is severed from the heart!" &c. &c. &c. thomson. on the death of mr. drury, his small library, the remains of his former one, was sold by auction; and those classical books, interleaved, and enriched with his manuscript notes, brought large prices. one manuscript, of especial celebrity--_childe harold_--given him by the author, his pupil, lord byron--became the property of its publisher, mr. murray; who purchased it upon terms at once marking his high sense of the talents of the author, and his respect for the family where it had been placed. it may be doubtful whether the autograph of any poem, since paradise lost, would have obtained a larger sum--had it been submitted to public sale. rinaldo.--rinaldo was the late mr. edwards; of the sale of whose library an extended account will be found in my decameron. it remains, briefly, but emphatically, to remark, that of all the book heroes, whose valorous achievements are here recorded, two only have survived the lapse of thirty years. let _half_ of another similar course of time roll on, and where will the survivors be? if not at rest in their graves, they will in all probability be "sans teeth, sans eyes, sans everything:"--at least, very far beyond "the lean and slippered pantaloon." leaving my surviving friends to fight their own battles, i think i may here venture to say, in quiet simplicity and singleness of heart, that books, book-sales, and book-men, will then--if i am spared--pass before me as the faint reflex of "the light of other days!" ... when literary enterprise and literary fame found a proportionate reward; and when the sickly sentimentality of the novelist had not usurped the post of the instructive philologist. but enough of rosicrusis. [illustration: constantia labore et] part iv. the library. this part embraces the _history of literature_, in the formation of libraries, from the conquest to the commencement of the reign of henry viii., and undoubtedly contains much that is curious and instructive. two new characters only are introduced: lorenzo and narcottus. the former was intended to represent the late sir masterman mark sykes, bart.: the latter, a william templeman, esq., of hare hatch, berkshire. sir mark sykes was not less known than respected for the suavity of his manners, the kindness of his disposition, and the liberality of his conduct on all matters connected with _books_ and _prints_. a long and particular account of his library, and of many of his book-purchases, will be seen in the third volume of the _bibliographical decameron_; and at pages , of my _literary reminiscences_. his library and his prints brought, each, pretty much the same sum: together, £ , --an astounding result! sir mark is the last great bibliomaniacal sun that has shed its golden, as well as parting, rays, upon a terribly chap-fallen british public! mr. templeman, represented as narcottus, was a great chess-player: and although caxton's "game at chess" is a mere dull morality, having nothing to do with the game strictly so called, yet he would have everything in his library where the word "chess" was introduced. in the words of the old catch, he would "add the night unto the day" in the prosecution of his darling recreation, and boasted of having once given a signal defeat to the rev. mr. bowdler, after having been defeated himself by lord henry seymour, the renowned chess-champions of the isle of wight. he said he once sat upon phillidor's knee, who patted his cheek, and told him "there was nothing like chess and english roast beef." the notice of poor george faulkner at page --one of the more celebrated book-binders of the day, is amplified at page of the second volume of the decameron; where the painful circumstances attending his death are slightly mentioned. he yet lives, and lives strongly, in my remembrance. since then, indeed within a very few years, the famous charles lewis--of whose bibliopegistic renown the decameronic pages have expatiated fully--has ceased to be. he was carried off suddenly by an apoplectic seizure. his eldest son--a sort of "spes altera romæ," in his way--very quickly followed the fate of his father. the name of lewis will be always held high in the estimation of bibliopegistic virtuosi. but the art of book-binding is not deteriorating: and i am not sure whether john clarke, of frith street, soho, be not as "mighty a man" in his way as any of his predecessors. there is a solidity, strength, and squareness of workmanship about his books, which seem to convince you that they may be tossed from the summit of snowdon to that of cader idris without detriment or serious injury. his gilding is first rate; both for choice of ornament and splendour of gold. nor is his coadjutor, william bedford, of less potent renown. he was the great adjunct of the late charles lewis--and imbibes the same taste and the same spirit of perseverance. accident brought me one morning in contact with a set of the new dugdale's monasticon, bound in blue morocco, and most gorgeously bound and gilded, lying upon the table of mr. james bohn--a mountain of bibliopegistic grandeur! a sort of irrepressible awe kept you back even from turning over the coats or covers! and what a work--deserving of pearls and precious stones in its outward garniture! "who was the happy man to accomplish such a piece of binding?"[ ] observed i. "who but john clarke?"--replied the bibliopole. [footnote : good binding--even roger-payne-binding--is gadding abroad every where. at oxford, they have "a spirit" of this description who loses a night's rest if he haplessly shave off the sixteenth part of an inch of a rough edge of an uncut hearne. my friend, dr. bliss, has placed volumes before me, from the same mintage, which have staggered belief as an indigenous production of academic soil. at reading, also, some splendid leaves are taken from the same _book_. mr. snare, the publisher, keeps one of the most talented bookbinders in the kingdom--from the school of clarke; and feeds him upon something more substantial than rose leaves and jessamine blossoms. he is a great man for a halequin's jacket: and would have gone crazy at the sight of some of the specimens at strawberry hill. no man can put a varied-coloured morocco coat upon the back of a book with greater care, taste, and success, than our reading bibliopegist.] part v. the drawing-room. this part is a copious continuation of the history of book collectors and collections up to the year . there is nothing to add in the way of character; and the subject itself is amply continued in the tenth day of the _bibliographical decameron_. in both works will be found, it is presumed, a fund of information and amusement, so that the reader will scarcely demand an extension of the subject. indeed, a little volume would hardly suffice to render it the justice which it merits; but i am bound to make special mention of the untameable perseverance, and highly refined taste, of b.g. windus, esq., one of my earliest and steadiest supporters; and yet, doth he not rather take up a sitting in the alcove--amongst _illustrators of fine works_? [illustration: the cave of despair. _drawn by j. thurston.--engraved by robert branston._] part vi. the alcove. a word only:--and that respecting _illustrated copies_. leaving mr. windus in full possession of his raphael morghens, william woollets, william sharpes, &c.--and allowing him the undisturbed relish of gazing upon, and pressing to his heart's core, his _grey_ turners--let me only introduce to the reader's critical attention and admiration the opposite subject, executed by the late mr. branston, and exhibiting _the cave of despair_ from spenser's fairy queen. the figures were drawn on the blocks by the late j. thurston, esq. =illustrated copies.= under the _illustration_-symptom of bibliomania, a fund of amusing anecdote, as well as of instructive detail, presents itself. we may travel in a carriage and four--from morn 'till night--and sweep county after county, in pursuit of all that is exquisite, and rare, and precious, and unattainable in other quarters: but i doubt if our horses' heads can be turned in a direction better calculated to answer all the ends in view than in front of [illustration: ravensbury lodge, lower mitcham,] the residence of the late proprietor of this work. there we once beheld such a copy of the best of all existing _encyclopædias_--that of the late dr. rees--as is no where else to be found. it was upon _large_ and _fine_ paper--bound in fourscore volumes--with separately executed title pages, in a style of pure art--and _illustrated_ with not fewer than ten thousand extra plates. the reader may, and will, naturally enough, judge of the wide, if not boundless, field for illustration--comprehending in fact (as the title of the work denounces) the circle of all knowledge, arts and sciences; but he can have no idea of the _manner_ in which this fertile and illimitable field is filled up, till he gazes upon the copy in question. here then was not only a _reading_, but a _graphic_, library in itself. whatever other works _profusely_ dilate upon was here _concentrated_--and deeply impressed upon the mind by the charm, as well as the intelligence, of graphical ornament. you seemed to want nothing, as, upon the turning over of every leaf, the prodigality of art ennobled, while it adorned, the solidity of the text. you have kept your horses already waiting three hours--and they are neighing and snorting for food: and you must turn them into the stable for suitable provender--for the owner of this production would tell you that you had scarcely traversed through one-third of the contents of the volumes. he orders an additional fowl to be placed on the spit, and an extra flagon of combe and delafield's brightest ale to be forth-coming: while his orchard supplies the requisite addenda of mulberries, pears, and apples, to flank the veritable lafitte. you drink and are merry. then comes the argand lamp; and down with the encyclopedistic volumes. the plates look brighter and more beautiful. there is no end of them--nor limits to your admiration. be it summer or winter, there is food for sustenance, and for the gratification of the most exquisite palate. to contemplate such a performance, the thorough-bred book-votary would travel by torch-light through forty-eight hours of successive darkness!...: but the horses are again neighing--for their homes. you must rouse the slumbering post-boy: for "the bell of the church-clock strikes one." * * * * * p.s.--the late mr. walmsley--who employed me to print this present edition--narrowly watched all our movements, and was much gratified by the appearance of the work, so far as it had gone before his death--frequently urged me to append a short account of the progress of our art during the last thirty years--i.e. since the publication of the former edition of _bibliomania_. the subject is too diffuse for a mere note: and during the life-time of so many able printers as now exercise their calling in the metropolis, it would be invidious to particularize eminence in our profession (whereas among our immediate predecessors it is, perhaps just to say that there were only _two_ printers of great celebrity, the late _mr. bulmer_ and my late father). i shall therefore merely mention some events which have had such influence on our art as that the case is now very different to what it was thirty years ago, when the good execution of printing at once testified to the skill and industry of the printer--as he could command neither good _presses_, _types_, nor _ink_, &c.--paper being then almost the only matter to be had in perfection. we have _now_ excellent and powerful iron presses--stanhopes, columbians, imperials, &c. _then_ the celebrated specimens of typography were produced by _miserable_ wooden presses. we have _now_ ink of splendid lustre, at a fourth of the cost of fabrication _then_--for both mr. bulmer and my father were perpetually trying expensive experiments--and not always succeeding: our ink is now to be depended on for _standing_, it works freely, and can be had at reasonable prices at the extensive factory of messrs. shackell and lyons, clerkenwell, who made the ink used for this work. there are several eminent engineers who make the best of presses. our _letter_ may safely be pronounced, if not perfect, as near perfection as it will ever reach--and while the celebrated type-foundries of messrs. caslon, chiswell street, and messrs. figgins, west street, are within the reach of the metropolitan printers, there can be no excuse for failing to execute good printing on the score of inferior type. the substitution of the _inking roller_, instead of the cumbrous and inconvenient old balls, has much eased the labours of the pressman and facilitated the regularity of colour. the inking roller at the hand press was adopted, and offered to the printers generally, by my friend, mr. applegath, shortly after _steam-printing_ was introduced by my father--about which so much has been said in periodical publications, &c., that it is needless here to enlarge on the subject--more especially as it is principally applicable to work of inferior character, newspapers, reviews, magazines, &c.; and, further, it is not a very tempting subject to the son of him who was led to devote the energies of the latter years of his active life, and the well-earned fortune which his great typographical celebrity had secured, to the adoption of a mode of printing which, how much soever it may benefit newspaper proprietors and others--certainly has done any thing but benefit his family; and has thus added another instance to the many on record of the ill success attending the patronage of inventors. b. bensley. _woking, surrey, june_ , . * * * * * finis. indexes. chronological, bibliographical, and general. chronological index. lovers and collectors of books in great britain. seventh century. theodore, archbishop of canterbury, benedict, bishop, abbot of weremouth, , venerable bede, eighth century. ina, king of the west saxons, alouin, abbot of tours, ninth century. scotus erigena, king alfred, , king athelstan, st. dunstan, archbishop of canterbury, eleventh century. king canute, ingulph, abbot of croyland, lanfranc, archbishop of canterbury, anselm, archbishop of canterbury, , giraldus, archbishop of york, twelfth century. herman, bishop of salisbury, thomas À becket, archbishop of canterbury, - thirteenth century. giraldus cambrensis, bishop of st. david's, , roger bacon, - fourteenth century. king edward the first, king edward the third, richard de bury, bishop of durham, - fifteenth century. john boston, , john plantagenet, first duke of bedford, , thomas cobham, bishop of worcester, robert rede, bishop of chichester, humphrey plantagenet, first duke of gloucester, sir walter sherington, john tiptoft, earl of worcester, george neville, archbishop of york, king henry the seventh, , , sixteenth century. the earl of surrey--sir thomas wyatt, king henry the eighth, - john colet, dean of st. paul's, , - sir thomas more, - erasmus, - cardinal wolsey, - robert wakefield, john leland, - john bale, bishop of ossory, , thomas cranmer, archbishop of canterbury, , queen elizabeth, - roger ascham, , william cecil, first earl of burleigh, matthew parker, archbishop of canterbury, - dr. john dee, , captain cox, sir robert cotton, - sir thomas bodley, - seventeenth century. king james the first, thomas coryate, henry peacham, robert burton, john, lord lumley, henry hastings, - john clungeon, john ward, the ferrar family, - elias ashmole, windsor herald, - william laud, archbishop of canterbury, , henry dyson, richard smith, , dr. seaman, francis north, lord-keeper, hon. and rev. john north, d.d., anthony À wood, - francis bernard, m.d., , eighteenth century. john fell, bishop of oxford, , john more, bishop of ely, samuel pepys, john churchill, first duke of marlborough, prince eugene, narcissus luttrell, edward wynne, henry herbert, ninth earl of pembroke, , john bagford, - john murray, thomas britton, - thomas hearne, - john anstis, garter king of arms, rev. john lewis, - joseph ames--william herbert, thomas baker, - lewis theobald, thomas rawlinson, - humphrey wanley, robert harley, first earl of oxford, - thomas osborne, , john bridges, anthony collins, michael maittaire, richard mead, m.p., - martin folkes, - richard rawlinson, - john (orator) henley, - general james dormer, james west, thomas martin, - serjeant william fleetwood, anthony askew, m.d., - john ratcliffe, , hon. topham beauclerk, rev. thomas crofts, - mark cephas tutet, , richard wright, m.d., john henderson, william fillingham, major thomas pearson, - rev. michael lort, d.d., - right hon. denis daly, , charles chauncy, m.d. } nathaniel chauncy, } , john munro, m.d., rev. richard southgate, george mason, - rev. richard farmer, d.d., - george steevens, - john strange, john woodhouse, george galway mills, john wilkes, , joseph ritson, rev. jonathan boucher, william petty, first marquess of lansdowne, , rev. john brand, - isaac reed, - alexander dalrymple, richard porson, , john maddison, emperor john alexander woodford, richard gough, rev. benjamin heath, , - bibliographical index. list of works consulted or referred to:--criticisms on their intrinsic value being occasionally introduced in the foregoing pages. agostini (lionardo). _notizie istorico-critiche, &c., scritt. viniz._, agrippa (cornelius). _vanity of human sciences_, _occult philosophy_, _ib._ ames (joseph). _typographical antiquities_, _the same_; by herbert, _anonymiana_, _anthologia græca._ dr. askew's copy upon vellum, pinelli do. (afterwards count m'carthy's), [_de_] _antiquitate cantab. acad._, antonio (nicolas). _biblioth. hispana vet. et nov._, _archæologia_, arnold (richard). _his chronicle_, , _arthur._ _robinson's life, actes, and death of_, &c., , east's edition of, copland's do., , ascham (roger). _works by bennet_, ashmole (elias). _theatricum chemicum_, , , , , , , , _diary_, , _way to bliss_, _order of the garter_, , _assertio septem sacramentorum, &c._, _athenæum_, , audiffredi (jean baptiste). _editiones romanæ_, _editiones italicæ_, _ib._ baillet (adrien). _jugemens des savans_, , , , , _catalogue des matières_, _anti baillet_, _ib._ bale (john). _scriptores illustres britanniæ_, , , _actes of englyshe votaryes_, , _preface to leland's laboryouse journey_, , _ballads._ _ancient songs and ballads._ see evans, _in the general index_. barbier (antoine alexandre). _dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymés et pseudonymes françoises_, _cat. des livres de la bibliothèque du conseil d'etat_, barclaii (johannis). _satyricon_, barclay (alexander). _egloges_, &c., barnes (juliana). _on hawking, hunting, &c._, , west's copy of the st. albans' edition of, mason's copy of do., ---- ---- of copland's edition, _ib._ martin's, of wynkyn de worde's, tutet's, of do., bartholin (thomas). _de libris legendis_, bauer (john jacob). _bibliotheca librorum rariorum universalis_, , beloe (rev. wm.) _anecdotes of literature and scarce books_, , , , beughem (cornelius de). _incunabula typographica_, _bibliogr. erudit. crit.-curiosa_, _ib._ _gallia erudita_, _ib._ beyer (augustus). _memoriæ hist.-criticæ libror. rarior._, _arcana sacra bibliothecar. dresdens_, _ib._ _biblia polyglot complut._, _bibliographia scotica._ ritson's ms. of, _bibliographie curieuse._ see peignot. _bibliographie des pays bas_, _bibliomania_, , , , , _bibliosophia_, , , , , , , , , _bibliotheca lusitana_, by machado, _biographia britannica._ an extraordinary copy of, blount (sir thomas pope). _censura celebriorum authorum_, boccaccio (giovanni), _il teseide_, _decamerone_, bolduanus (paul). _bibliotheca historica_, boucher (de la richarderie). _bibliothèque universelle des voyages_, braithwait (richard). _arcadian princesse_, , , - _nursery for gentry_, _english gentleman and gentlewoman_, braun (placid). _notitia hist.-crit. de libris ab art. typog. inv._, _notitia hist.-liter. de cod. mss. in bibl. monast. ord. st. bened._, &c., bridgman (richard whalley). _legal bibliography_, _british bibliographer_, , , , _british librarian_, by savage, , broughton (hugh). _concent of scripture_--upon vellum, brunet (j.c.). _manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres_, , bry (theodore de). _perigrationes_, &c., brydges (sir samuel egerton, k.j.) _censura literaria_, , bure (guillaume françois de). _bibliographie instructive_, , , , , , _musæum typographicum_, _cat. des livres de gaignat_, _ib._ _appel aux savans_, _ib._ _reponse à une critique de la bibl. instr._, , bure (g.f. de fils). _cat. des livres du duc de la valliere_, burnet (george). _specimens of english prose writers_, , burnet (gilbert). _hist. of the reformation_, , , , , , , burton (robert). _anatomy of melancholy_, bury (richard de). _philobiblion, sine de amore librorum_, , , byddell (john). _maner and forme of confession_, bysshop (john). _beautifull blossomes_, caballero (r.d.). _de prima typog. hist. Ætat. specimen_, cæsar. _de bell. gall._, , caille (jean de la). _hist. de l'imprimerie et de la librarie_, cailleau. _dictionnaire bibliographique_, , , , , caillot (antoine). _roman bibliographique_, , camden (william). _remaines_, , _annales_, , camus (amurand gaston). _observations sur la distribution, &c., des livres d'une bibliothèque_, _additions aux mêmes_, _ib._ _memoires sur une livre allemand (teurdanckhs)_, _addition aux mêmes_, _ib._ _memoire, &c., sur le polytypage et stereotype_, _ib._ _rapport sur la continuation, &c., des hist. de france_, _ib._ _notice d'un livre imprimé à bamberg_, _ib._ _memoire sur la collection des grands et petits voyages_, _ib._ _voyage dans les départmens réunis_, cardona (j.b.) _de reg. sanct. lament. bibliotheca_, _de bibliothecis, &c._, _ib._ _de expurgandis hæreticorum propr. nom._, _ib._ _de dypthicis_, _ib._ casaubon (meric). _a relation concerning dee and some spirits_, casiri (michael). _biblioth. arab. hisp. escurial._, _catalogues: foreign._ augsbourg, , aurivillius, badenhaupt, _ib._ baluze, _ib._ barberini, _ib._ barthelemy, bern, _bibliog. des pays bas._, bonnier, boutourlin, _ib._ boze, _ib._ bozérian, _ib._ bulteau, _ib._ bunau, bunneman, _ib._ caillard, _ib._ cambis, camus de limare, _ib._ _catalogue des livres rares_ _par de bure_, _ib._ _fait sur un plan nouveau_, _ib._ _catalogus librorum rarissimorum_, _ib._ ceran, clement-vatican, _ib._ colbert, , conseil d'etat, cordes, _ib._ cotte, couvay, _ib._ crevenna, , , crozat, damme [van], _ib._ dubois, _ib._ elzevir, _ib._ fagel, _ib._ faultrier, _ib._ favier, _ib._ fay [du], _ib._ fresne [du], gaignat, , genève, goez, _ib._ golowkin, _ib._ gouttard, _ib._ guyon, _ib._ heinsius (nic.), hohendorf, _ib._ hoym, _ib._ hulsius, , jena, jesu-soc., just (st.), _ib._ krohn, _ib._ lamoignon, , lancelot, lemarié, _ib._ lomenie de brienne, , macarthy (ct.), magliabechi, , mark (st.), medici-lorenzo, _ib._ manarsiana, _ib._ menckenius, _ib._ meon, _ib._ mercier, merigot, _ib._ michael (st.), _ib._ mirabeau, _ib._ miromenil, montfaucon, _ib._ morelli, _ib._ paris, petau and mansart, _ib._ pinelli, , , pompadour, préfond, randon de boisset, _ib._ reimannius, _ib._ renati, _ib._ revickzky, rive, _ib._ roi (louis xv.), , , röver, rothelin, sarraz, _ib._ sartori, _ib._ schalbruck, _ib._ schwartz, _ib._ scriverius, _ib._ serna santander, solger, , soubise, tellier, _ib._ thuanus (de thou), _ib._ uffenbach, _ib._ valliere (duc de la), , vienna, volpi, voyage de deux françois, &c. _ib._ zurich, _ib._ _catalogues: english._ ames (of engl. heads), askew, beauclerk, bernard (dr. f.), boucher, bodleian, , brand, bridges, britton, chauncy, collins (anthony), (concannon), corpus christi (cambr.), cotton, , crofts, dalrymple, daly, dodd, dormer, farmer, fillingham, fletewode, folkes, gough, harley (earl of oxford), , hearne, (heath), henderson, henley, hoblyn, hutton, _ib._ institution (royal), lansdowne, lort, maddison, manton, maittaire, martin, , mason, mills, mores (rowe), munro, museum (british), , osborne, paterson, pearson, pepys, porson, ratcliffe, rawlinson (richard), rawlinson (thomas), reed, ritson, seaman (dr.), sion college, smith (consul), smith (richard), smyth, southgate, stace, steevens, swedenborg, (thurlo), tutet (m.c.), west, wilkes, wood (anthony), woodford, woodhouse, _prints_, ---- _books_, worsley (dr.), wright, wynne, _catalogue of books_, , to., caxton (william). books printed by him in west's collection, , in the fletewode do., in dr. askew's do., in john ratcliffe's do., , in tutet's do., in macartney's do., in mason's do., , in brand's do., chalmers (mr. alexander). _history of the university_ of oxford, _collection of the english poets_, chalmers (mr. george). _apology for the believers in shakespeare, &c._, _edition of sir david lynday's poem_, chartier (alain). _livres des quartre dames_, _les faicts, dictes, et ballades_, chaucer (geoffrey). _canterbury tales_, , , _troylus and creyseyde_, chesne (andrew du). _biblioth. hist. galliæ_, _chess._ works relating thereto, , chevillier (andrew). _l'origine de l'imprimerie à paris_, , , _series auctor. de franc. hist._, _ib._ _choice of change_, _churchyard's pieces_, , cinelli (john). _bibliotheca volante_, clarke (rev. dr. adam), _bibliographical dictionary_, clarke (dr. edward daniel). _travels in russia_, _classical journal_, , clement (claude). _extract. bibl. tam privatæ quam publicæ_, ---- (david). _bibliothèque curieuse_, _les cinq années literaires_, _ib._ coke (sir edward). _institutes_, , collier (rev. jeremy). _ecclesiastical history_, , - conringius (herman). _bibliotheca augusta_, coryat (thomas). _crudities_, , , coxe (francis). _detestible wickedness of magical sciences_, cowper (william). _the task_, , croix du maine (françois grude de la) et du verdier. _bibliothèque françoise_, _cynthia; with certain sonnets_, dante (alighieri). _la divina comedia_ ( ), di landini ( ), darwin (john), m.d. _zoonomia_, _debates between the_ [french and english] _heralds_, dekker (thomas). _works_, , denis (michael). _supplementum maittairii annal._, _codices manuscripti theol. bibl. palat. vindob._, , , _dictionnaire bibliographique._ see cailleau. _historique._ caen, , , _de bibliologie._ see peignot. _director_, the, d'israeli (isaac). _curiosities of literature_, , _dives et pauper._ pynson's edition of ( ), , martin's vellum ms. of, dodd (charles). _church history_, dolman (robert). see _treatise of treasons_, post. doni (anthony francis). _la libraria_, draudius (george). _bibliotheca classica_, , _drolleries_, dugdale (sir william). his _works_, complete, du pin (louis ellies). _ecclesiastical history_, , , dunstan (st.) _de occulta philosophia_, durandi (gulielmus). _rationale_, upon vellum, ellis (mr. george). _specimens of the early english poets_, , , , engel (samuel). _bibliotheca selectissima, &c._, _england's helicon_, , englefield (sir h.c.) _walk through southampton_, _example of sertu_, fabricius (john albert). _bibliotheca græca_, _bibliotheca latina_, _ib._ _bibliographia antiquaria_, _ib._ _bibliotheca ecclesiastica_, _ib._ _bibl. lat. mediæ et inf. Ætatis_, , _sylloge opusc. hist. cat. lit. j.a. fabricii_, _hist. bibliothecæ fabricianæ_, , ferriar (john), m.d. _comments upon sterne_, _the bibliomania_, , , , , _festiuall, the boke that is called_, fischer (gotthelf). _essai sur les monum. de typog. de gutenberg_, _descriptions de raretés typographique, &c._, _fishing._ books upon, , , fontaine (john de la), _contes de la_--manuscript de mons. paris, fontanini (giusto). _biblioteca del eloquenza italiana_, fossius (ferdin). _cat. biblioth. magliabechi_, , , fournier (françois j.) _dict. portatif de bibliographie_, , , , fournier (pierre simon). _dissertation sur l'origine, &c., de graver en bois_, _de l'origine et productions de l'imp., &c., en bois_, _ib._ _traité sur l'origine, &c., de l'imprimerie_, _ib._ _observations, &c., sur les vindicæ typographicæ_, _ib._ _epreuves de caractères nouvellement gravés_, _ib._ _manuel typographique_, _ib._ fox (john). _book of martyrs_, , , fresnoy (n.c. du). _methode pour etudier l'histoire_, freytag (f.g.). _analecta literaria_, _adparatus literarius_, _ib._ froissart (sir john). _chronicles_, , fuller (rev. thomas), d.d. _church history_, , , , gaddius (james). _de scriptoribus non ecclesiastices_, gale (thomas), d.d. _rerum anglicar. script. vet._, , , gallois (john). _traité des plus belles bibliothèques_, gascoigne (george). _works_, in steevens's collection, in reed's collection, _gentleman's magazine_, , , , , , , georgius. _lexicon literarium_, gerdes (daniel). _florilegium hist.-crit. libror. rarior., &c._, gesner (conrad). _bibliotheca, seu catalogus universalis_, _pandectæ_, , geyler (john). _navicula sive speculum fatuorum_, , gibbon (edward). _decline and fall of the roman empire_, _posthumous works_, gildas's _epistle_, girald barri. _sir richard colt hoare's edition of_, goddard (william). _satyrical dialogue, betweene alexander, &c., and diogenes_, godwyn (francis). _catalogue of the bishops of england_, , , _annales of england_, gomez, or gomecius (alvarez). _de rebus gestis cardinalis ximines_, googe (barnabe). his works in steevens's collection, gough (richard). _british topography_, , goujet (claude peter). _bibliothèque françois_, &c., gower (john). _confessio amantis_, grafton (richard). _chronicles_, gunton (simon). _hist. of peterborough abbey_, gutch (rev. john). _collectanea curiosa_, , , hallevordius. _bibliotheca curiosa_, hardyng (john). _chronicle_, harpsfield (nicholas). _hist. eccles. anglicana_, harrison. _seven triumphal arches_, harwood (rev. edward), d.d. _view of the various editions of the greek and roman classics_, haym (nicolas francis). _biblioteca italiana_, hearne (thomas). _johan. ros. hist. angl. regum_, _thom. caii vindic. antiq. acad. oxon._, , , , _antiquities of glastonbury_, , , , , , , _john. confrat. mon. de rebus glastoniens._, , , _adam de domerham de rebus gest. glaston._, , , _guil. neubrig. hist._, _curious discourses by eminent antiquaries_, , , _benedictus abbas_, , , , _robert de avesbury_, _guliel. roperi vita d.t. mori_, , , , , _robert of glocester_, , , _peter langtoft's chronicle_, , _tit. liv. foro-juliensis_, , , _annals of dunstaple priory_, _liber niger scaccarii_, _hist. vit. et regni ricardi ii._, , _walt. hemingford hist._, , , , , , _heming. wigorens. chartular._, , , _thomas de elmham_, , _alured de beverley_, , heinecken (baron). _nachrichten von kunstlern_, &c., _idée generale d'une collection d'estampes_, , _dictionnaire des artistes_, henry (rev. robert), d.d. _history of great britain_, , , , , , , herbert (william). _typographical antiquities_, , , , , _heures de notre dame_, heylin (rev. peter), d.d. _life and death of archbishop laud_, hirschius (c.c.). _librorum ab anno i. usque ad annum l. sec. xvi._, horatius. _carmen_, lib. i., &c., jacob (louis). _traicté des plus belles bibliothèques_, , _bibliothèque universelle_, _bibliotheca parisina_, jansen. _de l'invention de l'imprimerie_, _john bon and mast. person_, johnson. _upon english bibles_, _kalender of shepherds_, kennet (white, d.d., bishop of peterborough). _parochial antiquities_, knight (rev. samuel), d.d. _life of colet_, , _life of erasmus_, , koenigius (george matthias). _biblioth. vet. et nov._, kollarius (adam francis). his edition of lambecius's _commentarii_, &c., , labbe (philip). _bibliotheca bibliothecarum_, _bibliotheca nummaria_, _mantissa suppellectilis_, _ib._ _specimen nov. bibl. manuscript_, _ib._ _collectio maxima conciliorum_, _ib._ lackman (adam herne). _annal. typog. selecta quædam capita_, laire (franciscus xavier). _specimen hist. typog. rom._, _dissertation sur l'imprimerie en franche comté_, _index libror. ab invent, typog. ad ann. _, , lambecius (pierre). _commentarii de bibl. cæsar vindobon._, lambinet (p.). _recherches, &c., sur l'origine de l'imprimerie_, &c., , laneham (robert). _letter of the entertainment given to q. elizabeth at killingworth castle_, , latimer (hugh), archbishop of canterbury. _sermons_, , leibnitz (godfrey william de). _idea bibliothecæ publiæ_, &c., _scriptores rerum brunsvicensium_, _ib._ leland (john). _collectanea_, , , _de scriptoribus britannicis_, _itinerarium_, le long (jacques). _bibliotheca sacra_, _bibliothèque historique de la france_, lewin. _birds of great britain_, lewis (rev. john). _upon english bibles_, _life off the archbishop of canterbury_, &c., lipenius (martin). _biblioth. theol. med. philos. jurid._, lipsius (justus). _syntagma de bibliothecis_, lloyd (david). _memoirs of the sufferers_, lomeier (john). _de bibliothecis liber singularis_, , , lupset (thomas). _exhortacion to yonge men_, macdiarmid (john). _lives of british statesmen_, , mackenzie (george), m.d. _scottish writers_, maichelius (daniel). _de præcip. bibl. paris_, , maittaire (michael). _annales typographici_, , , _historia stephanorum_, &c., _historia typographor. aliquot. parisiens_, marchand (prosper). _dict. historique, ou mémoires critiques_, &c., , , , _histoire de l'imprimerie_, , _marie magdalene._ life and repentance of, marville. _melanges d'histoire et de literature_, masters (robert). _life of thomas baker_, , maunsell (andrew). _catalogue of english books_, mazzuchelli (giovanni maria). _gli scrittori d'italia_, &c., meerman (gerard). _origines typographicæ_, _memoires de l'institut national_, , , , , _memoirs (old and new) of literature_, mercier de st. leger. _supplement á l'histoire de l'imprimerie par marchand_, _his bibliographical character_, _ib._ _catalogue of his books_, middleton (rev. conyer), d.d. _dissertation upon the origin of the art of printing_, momoro (antoine françois). _traité elementaire de l'imprimerie_, monstrelet (enguerand de). _chronicles of, translated by mr. johnes_, _monthly mirror_, _monthly review_, more (sir thomas). _utopia_, , , mores (edward rowe). _of english founders and founderies_, , morhof (daniel george). _polyhistor. literarius_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _princeps medicus_, _epistola de scypho vitreo per somn. human. voc. rupto_, murr (c.t. de). _memorabilia biblioth. public. norimb._, nash (thomas). wright's collection of his _works_, naudé or naudæus (gabriel). _avis pour dresser une bibliothèque_, _mascurat_, _ib._ _considerations politiques_, _ib._ _additions à l'histoire de louis xi._, _ib._ _avis à nos seigneurs de parlement_, _ib._ _remise de la bibliothèque, &c._, _ib._ _catalog. biblioth. cordes._, _apologie, &c., faussement soupçonnez de magie_, neander (michael). _erotemata græcæ linguæ_, niceron (jean pierre). _mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustres_, nichols (john). _manners and expenses of ancient times in england_, - _history of leicestershire_, _anecdotes of bowyer_, , , , nicolson (william, d.d., bishop). _english, scottish, and irish hist. libraries_, _epistolary correspondence_, _ib._ noble (rev. mark). _continuation of granger_, north (roger). _life of lord keeper guildford_, _life of the hon. and rev. dr. john north_, - _examen_, oberlin (jeremiah james). _essai d'annales de la vie de jean gutenberg_, ogilby (william). _his works_, oldys (william). _british librarian_, , , _life of raleigh_, _harleian miscellany_, _ib._ _interleaved langbaine_, _oliver of castille. romance of_, , , _ordynary of christian men_, orlandi (pellegrino antonio). _origine e progressi della stampa, &c._, osmont. _dictionnaire typographique_, otho and octhobone. _constitutions provinciales_, painter (william). _palace of pleasure_, hutton's copy of, paitoni (giacomo maria). _biblioteca degli autori antichi, &c._, palmer (samuel). _history of printing_, , pansa (mutius). _biblioteca vaticana_, panzer (george wolfgang francis). _annales typographici_, _annalen der altern deutschen literatur, &c._, _ib._ _paradise of dainty devises_, , , park (mr. thomas). _royal and noble authors_, , , _edition of the harleian miscellany_, _passe temps de tout hommes, &c._, peacham (henry). _compleat gentleman_, - peignot (gabriel). _dictionnaire de bibliologie_, , , , , , , , , _essai de curiosités bibliographiques_, , , _dictionnaire, &c., des livres condamnés, &c., ou censurés_, _bibliographie curieuse_, , petrarca (francisco) [transcriber's note: francesco]. _le rime_ ( ), _opere de_ ( ), pitseus (johannes). _de rebus anglicis_, , _plaister for a galled horse_, , plato. _opera omnia_--upon vellum, plinii. _hist. naturalis_ ( ), upon vellum, ( ), upon vellum, _pole. life of reginald_, , _polychronicon._ _caxton's edit._, , _pope (sir thomas). life of_, , possevinus (antonius). _bibliotheca selecta, &c._, _apparatus sacer_, _ib._ praet (joseph van). _cat. des mss. du duc de la valliere_, , _cat. des livres imprimés sur velin_, prince (john). _worthies of devon_, priscianus. _de art. gram._ ( ), _promptuarium parvulorum_, . martin's copy of, prynne (william). _records_, puhtherb (gabriel). _de tollendis et expurgandis malis libris_, puteanus (ericus). _de usu bibliothecæ_, &c., _auspicia bibliothecæ lovaniensis_, _ib._ puttenham (george). _art of english poesie_, _pype or tonne of perfection_, , quirini (angelo maria, cardinal). _specimen variæ literaturæ brixiens_, _catalogo delle opere, &c._, _ib._ _de optimorum scriptorum editionibus_, _ib._ rastell (john). _chronicle, or pastyme of people_, martin's copy of, ratcliffe's copy of, chauncy's copy of, mason's copy of, raynaud (theophilus). _erotemata de malis ac bonis libris, &c._, _recueil des historiens des gaules_, , [transcriber's note: ] reimannus. _bibliotheca acroamatica_, , renouard (antoine auguste). _l'imprimerie des alde_, , , _revelacions of a monk of euisham_, _revelationes scancte [transcriber's note: sancte] birgitte_, _reviews._ _american_, , _edinburgh_, , _monthly_, _quarterly_, , , , ridley (nicholas, bishop of london). _life of ridley_, ritson (joseph). _ancient english metrical romances_, rive (abbé jean joseph). _chasse aux bibliographes_, _notices calligraphiques, &c._, _ib._ _anecdotes of_, _ib._ _catalogue of his library_, _l'art de connoitre les miniatures des mss. anciens_, _notice d'un roman d'artus_, _etrennes aux joueurs des cartes_, _ib._ _robin hood. a merry jest of_, roccha (angelus). _bibliotheca vaticana_, _romances_ in croft's library, - in farmer's ditto, ronsard (peter de). _poemes de_, rossi (john bernard de). _annales hebræo-typographici_, roy (william). _rede me and be not wroth_, , , , , rymeri (thomas). _foedera_, , sandford (francis). _genealogical history_, savile (sir henry). _scriptores post bedam_, saxius (christopher). _onomasticon literarium_, , schelhorn (j.g.) _amoenitates literariæ_, &c., , , _amoenitates hist. ecclesiast. et lit._, schoepflin (john daniel). _vindicæ typographicæ_, scholtzius. _icones bibliopolorum et typographorum_, _thesaurus symbolorum et ac emblematum_, _ib._ schottus (andreas). _de bibl. et claris. hisp. viris_, scott (reginald). _discovery of witchcraft_, scott (walter). _hunting song_, _marmion_, _lady of the lake_, _edition of dryden's works_, , _edition of the somers tracts_, seemiller (sebastian). _bibl. ingolstad. incunab. typog._, seiz (john christopher). _annus tertius sæcular. inv. hist. typog._, , senebier (jean). _catalogue des mss. de genève_, , serna santander. _catalogue des livres de_, , , _diction. bibliogr. choisi du xv. siecle_, , _sevin seages, the_, shakspeare. edit. , , early editions of in wright's collection, in smyth's ditto, in farmer's ditto, in steevens's ditto, - steevens's own edition of, the edition of , _ib._ portrait of, ritson's manuscript notes relating to, reed's collection of tracts relating to, _ship of fools_, , , skelton (john). _works of_, martin's set of, wright's ditto, pearson's ditto, steevens's ditto, woodhouse's ditto, smith (john). _printer's grammar_, snelling (thomas). _works upon the coinage_, _speculum christiani_, chauncy's copy of, mason's copy of, speed (john). _hist. of great britain_, spizelius (theophilus). _infelix literatus_, , , stapleton (thomas). _translation of bede's ecclesiastical history_, _counterblast to horne's vayne blaste_, stowe (john). _chronicle, or annals_, , , , , struvius (gottlieb). _bibliotheca librorum rariorum_, _bibliotheca historica_, _ib._ _cura meusel_, _ib._ _bibliotheca hist. selecta_, _bibliotheca saxonica_, _ib._ strype (rev. john). _life of cranmer_, , , , , , _ecclesiastical memorials_, , , _annals of the reformation_, _life of parker_, , , stubbes (philip). _anatomy of abuses_, , [transcriber's note: ] _supplicacion of beggars_, tanner (thomas, bishop of st. asaph). _edition of wood's athenæ oxonienses_, _bibliotheca britan. hibernica_, , , , teisser (anthony). _bibliotheca bibliothecarum_, terentianus (maurus). dr. askew's copy of, _tewrdanckhs._ a book so called, , dr. askew's copy of--upon vellum, tutet's copy of, thomson (james). _winter_, ; _autumn_, tiraboschi (girolamo). _letteratura italiana_, toderini (giambatista). _letteratura turchesca_, todd (rev. henry john). _illustrations of gower and chaucer_, , , , _treatise of treasons_, trefler (florian). _disposition des livres dans une bibliothéque_, _troie, recueil of the histories of_, turner (mr. sharon). _history of the anglo saxons_, tusser (thomas). _five hundred points of good husbandry_, twyne (bryan). _antiquit. acad. oxon._, , tyndale (william). _the practice of popishe prelates_, , tyrrel (sir james). _hist. of england._ daly's copy of, _universal historical bibliothéque_, vallans. _tale of two swannes_, valois. _discours sur les bibliothéques publiques_, van praet (joseph), virgilii _opera_ ( ), upon vellum; do. ( ); do., _vita et processus, &c., thomæ à becket_, vives (ludovicus). _instruction of a christian woman_, , vogler. _universalis in notit. cuj. generis bonor. scriptor. introd._, vogt (john). _catalogus librorum rariorum_, , , , , , , _walks in powles_, walton (izaak). _complete angler_, , , , warton (joseph). _hist. engl. poetry_, , , , , , , , , , , wasse. _bibliotheca literaria_, watson. _history of the art of printing_, webbe (william). _discourse of english poetrie_, , _weekly memorials for the ingenious_, wendler (john christian). _dissertatio de var. raritat. libror. impress. causis_, werburge (st.). _life of._ martin's copy of, pearson's do., woodhouse's do., wharton (henry). _anglia sacra_, withers (george). _emblems_, wolfius (john christian). _monumenta typographica_, _bibl. aprosiana_, wolfius (john). _lectiones memorabiles, &c._, , wordsworth (rev. christopher, d.d.). _ecclesiastical biography_, , , , _works of the learned_, wood (anthony). _athenæ oxonienses_, , _hist. and antiq. of the colleges and halls of oxford_, , _annals of the university of oxford_, , , , , , , , wurdtwein (stephen alexander). _bibliotheca moguntina_, ximenes (cardinal francis). _bibl. polyglot. complut._, , _missale mozarabicum_, _breviarum mozarabicum_, _ib._ zapf (george william). _annales typog. augustan._, general index. _agrippa_ (_cornelius_). account of some of his works, _d'aguesseau_ (_chancellor_). account of his library, _alcove, the._ description of lorenzo's, , _alcuin_, _alfred_, _alphonso._ an obstinate literary character, _ames_ (_joseph_), _ancillon._ pillage of his library, _anne boleyn._ her coronation dinner described by stow, , _anselm_, _anstis_ (_john_). original letter of, literary character of, , _antiphoners_, _antonio_ (_nicolas_). _see bibliographical index._ _arch_ (_messrs. john and arthur_). their purchase of sandford's genealogical history, l.p., _aristotle's works_--printed upon vellum, _d'artois_ (_count_). catalogue of his library, purchase of the vallière collection, _ascham_, (_roger_). his 'schoolmaster' commended, _ashmole_ (_elias_). some account of, - _askew_ (_dr. anthony_). some account of, with specimens of his library, - _atticus._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, - , _auctions of books._ their origin in this country, - warmth of bidders at, _audiffredi_ (_jean baptiste_). _see bibliographical index._ _autumnal morning_, , _baber_ (_rev. henry hervey_). preparation of the catalogue of the museum printed books, his edition of wickliffe's translation of the new testament, _bacon_ (_roger, or friar_), - _bacon_ (_sir nathaniel_). libellous character of, _bagford_ (_john_). some account of, - wood-cut of his rebus, or device, _baillet_ (_adrien_). some account of, - --_see bibliographical index._ _baker_ (_thomas_). some account of, - extract from his will, _baker_ (_late mr. george_). copy of reed's catalogue of books, catalogue of strawberry-hill pieces, _bale_ (_john, bishop of ossory_). some account of, - his portrait, _baltimore_ (_lord_). his 'gaudia poetica,' _barnes_ (_juliana_). her work on hunting, &c., , , , , _barthélémy_ (_abbé_). catalogue of his library, _bartholin._ _see bibliographical index._ _beauclerk_ (_hon. topham_). account of his library, , _becket_ (_thomas à_), account of his murder, _bede_, _bedford_ (_john, duke of_). his beautiful missal, , _beloe_ (_rev. mr._). _see bibliographical index._ _benedict_ (_biscop_), _benet_ (_sir john_). assists sir t. bodley in erecting the bodl. library, _bernard_ (_dr. francis_). some account of his library, , engraving of his portrait, _bernardo._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, his copy of an illustrated chatterton, of walton's complete angler, _ib._ _berryer_ (_mons._). his care and skill in having his books bound, _beughem._ _see bibliographical index._ _bibles._ ancient english, _bibliographers._ character of aspersed, _bibliography._ cabinet of, opinions of foreign critics thereupon, , outline of its rise and progress, - utility and importance of the study so called, _bibliomania._ history of the bibliomania, or of english book-collectors, - see _chronological index_. definition of, and works upon, - { . large paper copies, , , - { tall and fine paper do., { . uncut copies, - { . illustrated copies, - { . unique copies, - symptoms of the { . copies printed upon vellum, - disease so called; { . first editions, - being a passion { . true editions, - for { . books printed in the black letter, - { . for private distribution, - { . at a private press, - { . suppressed, condemned, &c., { . all the editions of a work, - { . large and voluminous works, { . studying of useful & profitable works, probable means of { . reprints of scarce and valuable works, the cure of { . editing of the best authors, { . erection of literary institutions, { . study of bibliography, , _bibliomaniacs._ character of, book-auction bibliomaniacs, _black letter._ passion for books printed in the, - _blandford_ (_marquis of_). his zeal in collecting books printed by caxton, _blenheim._ account of the library there, _blount_ (_thomas_). see _bibliographical index_. _bodleian library._ catalogue of, history of its erection, - list of some of the contributors to, , _bodley_ (_sir thomas_). some account of, - wood-cut portrait of, _bodoni._ beauty of his books printed upon vellum, _books._ ancient prices of, - illuminated, of terror. their effects upon young minds, - skill of the ferrar family in binding, - account of ancient binding of, - skill in modern book-binding, , importation of in barrels, sales of by public auction, - , printed upon vellum, , , , - upon satin, in the black letter, - for private distribution, - at private presses, - _book-rooms, or libraries._ simplicity of ancient, , _booksellers._ of respectability in london, , in scotland, in provincial towns, _book-story._ a romantic one, - _boston_ (_john_), , _boucher_ (_rev. jonathan_). his supplement to johnson's dictionary, , account of his library, _braithwait_ (_richard_). his poetry commended, - _brand_ (_rev. john_). account of his library, - _bridges_ (_john_). sale of his library, _britain, little._ famous for the bookselling trade, , , _britton_ (_thomas_). some account of, - sale of his library, _bulmer_ (_mr. william_). his sumptuous edition of shakspeare, the same, a unique copy of, his edition of the deserted village upon satin, _bure_ (_guillaume françois de, and guill. le jeune de_). see _bibliographical index_. _burney_ (_rev. charles, ll.d._). his fortunate purchase of a manilius, his edition of bentley's epistles, _burton_ (_robert_), _bury_ (_richard de_). editions of his philobiblion, extract from, account of, - _bute_ (_marquis of_). his copy of hogarth's prints, his collection of the devices of pope sixtus v., his valuable granger, _butler_ (_mr. charles_). his literary character, _caillard_ (_m._). his uncut first homer, , his nicety in having his books bound, _caille_ (_jean de la_). see _bibliographical index_. _cambridge._ catalogue of the books contained in the university wanted, _canute_, _carlisle_ (_earl of_). his "father's revenge," _casiri._ see _bibliographical index_. _catalogues._ importance of making good ones, foreign and english. see "catalogue," _bibliographical index_. _caxton_ (_william_). reviled by bale, _his various printed books_, , _&c._ see _bibliographical index_. _his portrait_, _cecil._ libellous character of, , _charles the fifth of france._ founder of the royal library, , description of do., _chauncey_ (_dr. charles and nathaniel_). account of their libraries, , _cheering._ explanation of this word, , _chess._ game of, described, - _chevillier_ (_andrew_). see _bibliographical index_. _chi ho-am-ti._ an incendiary of libraries, _chivalry and romances._ books relating thereto, - _christie_ (_john_). his "dissertation on etruscan vases," _chronicles, ancient._ reprints of, _cinelli_ (_john_). see _bibliographical index_. _clavel_ (_robert_). his book-catalogues, _clerk, or clergyman._ regulations concerning, _clungeon_ (_john_), _cobham_ (_thomas, bishop of worcester_), _colbert_ (_j.b._). catalogue of his library, _colet_ (_john, dean_). some account of, - print of his supposed study, _collins_ (_anthony_). sale of his library, _conringius_ (_herman_). see _bibliographical index_. _conybeare_ (_rev. mr._). his copy of lord surrey's translation of part of the Æneid, _coryate_ (_thomas_), _cotton_ (_sir robert_). some account of, - _covent garden theatre._ quarrels relating thereto, _cox_ (_captain_). some account of, , his library, _cranmer_ (_thomas, archbishop of canterbury_). some account of, , his bible upon vellum, expense of his execution, _crevenna library._ catalogues of, _critics and criticism._ true spirit and character of, superficialness and severity of, _crofts_ (_rev. thomas_). account of his library, - _cromwell_ (_thomas_). his conduct in respect to the reformation, _crowles._ his copy of an illustrated pennant, _dalrymple_ (_alexander_). sale of his library, _daly_ (_denis, rt. hon._). account of his library, , _dee_ (_dr. john_). some account of, - his library, _denis_ (_michael_). see _bibliographical index_. _devonshire_ (_late duchess of_). her "mount st. gothard," _didot._ skill of his printing upon vellum, _dodd_ (_james william_). account of his library, _dormer_ (_general_). catalogue of his library, _douce_ (_francis_). his partiality for a foreign bibliographical work, preparation of the lansdowne collection of mss., account of wolsey's property, skill in old english and french literature, criticisms on his "illustrations of shakspeare," &c., _ib._ _dramatic libraries_, , _dramatica notitia_, _dream._ lysander's, - _dunstan_ (_st._). his work "de occulta philosophia," some account of, _dyson_ (_henry_), _education of youth_, - _edward the first_, _edward the third_, , _edwards_ (_mr._). his copy of the catalogue of the crevenna library, zeal in the importation of foreign books of rarity and value, copy of the first edition of livy--upon vellum, catalogues commended, in possession of the bedford missal, his painting of erasmus and froben by fuseli, communication respecting count m'carthy's books, _elizabeth_ (_queen_). her book of devotions, plate of the golden cover of, account of her love of books, , engravings from her prayer-book, , _ellis_ (_sir henry_). preparation of catalogue of the museum printed books, his bibliographical communications, , , edition of fabian's chronicles, _english._ want of curiosity respecting their own literary history, importance of a national press to, _episode._ what is meant thereby, _erasmus._ some account of, - painting of him and froben, print of his study, rude wood-cut portrait of him, _ib._ a copy of his first edition of the gr. test.--upon vellum, editions of his words, _eugene_ (_prince_). his magnificent library, _evans_ (_mr. r.h._). his edition of old english ballads, , a respectable vender of classical books, his copy of his recueil des historiens des gaules, his reprint of hakluyt's voyages, _fabricius_ (_john albert_). see _bibliographical index_. _fabricius_ (_john_). see _bibliographical index_. _falconer_ (_william_). poem of the shipwreck printed upon satin, _farmer_ (_rev. richard, d.d._). account of his library, - _faulkener_ (_henry_). a skilful and honest book-binder, _ferdinand._ a romantic book-story concerning, - _ferrar family._ their attachment to books, and skill in book-binding, - _fillingham_ (_late mr. william_). his library and character of, _first editions._ passion for collecting, - _fishing._ whether a merry or contemplative art, _fitzwilliam_ (_lord viscount_). his collection of rembrandt's prints, _fletewode_ (_serjeant william_). account of his monastic library, _florizel._ his attachment to hawking, &c., _folkes_ (_martin_). some account of, - sale and analysis of his library, wood-cut of his portrait, _fopling_ (_sir_). his periwig, _ford_ (_mr._), _bookseller._ his catalogues commended, , _froissart_ (_sir john_). a presentation copy of his chronicles, . see _johnes_ (_colonel thomas_). _gaddius._ his bibliographical work, _gaignat_ (_louis jean_). catalogue of library, , _gesner_ (_conrad_). see _bibliographical index_. his works on natural history, _gifford_ (_mr. william_). his edition of massinger, forthcoming edition of ben jonson, _ib._ _gilbie_ (_anthony_). his character of henry the eighth, _gilchrist_ (_octavius_). his edition of bp. corbett's poems, _girald barri_, , , _glastonbury monastery library_, _godstow nunnery library_, _ib._ _golden legend_, by caxton, _goldsmyd_ (_mr. john lewis_). his vellum copy of "le passe temps," &c., _gonzalo._ a vain literary character, _gossett_ (_rev. dr. isaac_), , _gough_ (_richard_). sale of his library, _goujet_ (_claude peter_). see _bibliographical index_. _grailes._ definition of, _granger_ (_rev. james_). his biographical history of england, _grangerite spirit_, , , _grenville_ (_right hon. thomas_). his large-paper copy of hist. steph. & vit. typ. paris, his large-paper copy of renouard, a similar copy of the vallière catalogue, a similar copy of sandford's genealogical history, a similar copy of strype's annals, _grenville homer._ published by the grenville family, _grollier_ (_john_). some account of, - pattern of the binding of his books, _gutch_, (_mr._), bookseller, , _hamper_ (_mr. william_). his bibliographical communications, , _harley_ (_robert, earl of oxford_). some account of, - analysis of his library, - pope's eulogy upon, , _harris_ (_mr. william_). his catalogue of the royal institution library commended, his correction of the press for reed's edition of shakspeare, in possession of mr. boydell's copy of the original head of shakspeare, his copy of the lamoignon catalogue, _haslewood_ (_mr. joseph_). in possession of a curious volume, his attachment to books upon hawking, &c., , his communication in the british bibliographer, _hastings_ (_henry_). some account of, _hawker-pilgrim._ wood-cut of, _hear! hear!_ explanation of this phrase, _hearne_ (_thomas_). some account of, - wood-cut of his portrait, sale of his library, list of most of his works. see _bibliographical index_. _heath_ (_dr. benjamin_). his fine library, original bibliographical letter of, - fac-simile of his writing, _heber_ (_mr. richard_). his copy of "the debate between the heraldes," of oliver of castille, of froissart by eustace, manuscript of skelton's "image of ypocrisy," copy of maunsell's catalogue, of the first aldine aristophanes, of the catalogue of britton's books, of the catalogues of t. rawlinson's books, _heinecken._ see _bibliographical index_. _heinsius_ (_nicholas_). catalogue of his library, _hell._ descriptions of the torments of, , _henderson_ (_john_). account of his library, , _henley_ (_john, or orator_). account of his library, , anecdotes of, , _henry_ (_rev. robert, d.d._). character of his history of great britain, - _henry the second._ trevisa's character of, _henry the fifth._ warlike character of, _henry the sixth_, _henry the seventh_, - _henry the eighth_, - _herbert_ (_william_). author of the typographical antiquities, particulars relating to, , his correspondence with steevens, , _herman_ (_bishop of salisbury_), _history, ancient english._ neglect of the study of, _hoare_ (_sir richard colt_). his edition of giraldus cambrensis, his large paper copy of kennet's paroch. antiq., _hoblyn_ (_robert_). catalogue of his books commended, _hortensius._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _humphrey_ (_duke of gloucester_), _hutton_ (_john_). his curious collection of books, _illustrated copies_, - _illustration._ recipe for, _ina_ (_king of the west saxons_), _inscription over a library door_, , , _institutions._ public, literary, and scientific, _jacob_ (_louis_). see _bibliographical index_. _jamieson_ (_dr. john_). his scottish dictionary commended, _jesuits._ their bibliographical labours commended, _johnes_ (_col. thomas_). his edition of monstrelet, copy of "heures de notre dame," pleasure-grounds, view of his library, _johnson_ (_dr. samuel_). anecdote of his selling books, , quotation from the rambler about the black-letter, _kay_ (_john_). his siege of rhodes, _kennet_ (_white, bishop of peterborough_). original letters of, opinion of wicliffe, _ib._ _kenrick_ (_william, ll.d._). his review of dr. johnson's tour to the hebrides, _kollarius._ see _bibliographical index_. _labbe_ (_philip_). see _bibliographical index_. _laire_ (_abbé francis xavier_). see _bibliographical index_. _lambecius_ (_pierre_). see _bibliographical index_. _lanfranc, archbishop of canterbury_, _lansdowne_ (_william fitzmaurice petty, first marquis of_). account of his library, , , _large paper copies._ account of valuable works of this character, - the author's publications of this kind, _latimer_ (_hugh, bishop of worcester_). his conduct with respect to the reformation, his sermons quoted, his death, , _laud_ (_william, archbishop of canterbury_). account of his execution, patronage of the ferrar family, _leibnitz_ (_godfrey william de_). see _bibliographical index_. _leland_ (_john_). some account of, - _leontes._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _lepidus._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _lewis_ (_rev. john_). his literary character, - severe opinion of hearne, _liberality_ of religious sentiment, _libraries._ devastation of, at the reformation, - dramatic, , _lisardo._ his general character, - his bibliomaniacal enthusiasm, - , , _literary characters._ quixotic, , careless, acrimonious, vain, , obstinate, critical, , useful, _lomeier_ (_john_). see _bibliographical index_. _lomenie_ (_cardinal de brienne_). account of, and catalogue of his library, , _longman, hurst, rees, orme, and co._ their extensive trade as booksellers, _lorenzo._ a neighbour of the author, his house and grounds, library, drawing-room, alcove, - _lort_ (_dr. michael_). account of his library, - _lotichius_ (_peter_). his latin verses concerning his library, _lumley_ (_john, lord_), , _luttrel_ (_narcissus_). his extraordinary collection of books, _lysons_ (_mr. samuel_). his large paper copy of weever's funeral monuments, _macartney_ (_mr._). account of his library, _maddison_ (_john_). sale of his library, _magliabechi_ (_antonio_). some account of, - _maittaire_ (_michael_). some account of, . see _bibliographical index_. sale of his library, _malvolio._ sale of his busts and statues, , _manton_ (_dr._) sale of his books, _marcellus._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _marchand_ (_prosper_). see _bibliographical index_. _marlborough gems._ in woodhouse's collection, - _martin_ (_thomas, of palgrave_). account of his library, - _mary_ (_queen of philip ii._). commended by a roman catholic writer, _mary_ (_queen of scots_). her portrait, _mason_ (_george_). account of his library, - _maunsell_ (_andrew_). his catalogue of english books, _mazzuchelli_ (_giovanni maria_). see _bibliographical index_. _m'carthy_ (_count_). catalogue of a former library of, his present fine collection of books, , _mead_ (_richard, m.d._). some account of, - sale of his library, pictures, and coins, &c., account of his family, _medici_ (_lorenzo de_). catalogue of the oriental mss. in the library of, _meerman_ (_gerard_). see _bibliographical index_. _menalcas._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _menander._ a literary character, _mercier_ (_de st. leger_). see _bibliographical index_. _mercurii._ attending book-sales, _middleton_ (_rev. conyers, d.d._). see _bibliographical index_. _miller_ (_thomas_). account of, _miller_ (_william_). his illustrated copy of scott's dryden, edition of the shipwreck, of the memoirs of grammont, _mills_ (_george galway_). his fine library, _mirabeau_ (_victor riquetti, marquis de_). catalogue of his library, his passion for beautiful books, _missals._ beauty of their execution, , the toletan and mazarabic, , _monasteries._ books contained in, visitors of, ancient hospitality of, alleged abandoned lives of the keepers, depositories and promoters of literature, devastation of, - _monastic life._ comparison between the monastic and chivalrous age, as most favourable to the bibliomania, _monro_ (_dr. john_). account of his library, , _montfaucon_ (_bernard de_). his bibliographical labours, _moonlight night._ influence of, , _more_ (_john, bishop of ely_). some account of, , _more_ (_sir thomas_), - _morhof_ (_daniel george_). some account of, _murray_ (_john_). some account of, _museum, the british._ the librarians of commended, catalogue of its printed books and manuscripts, , _mustapha._ a book-auction bibliomaniac and book vender, , _naude, or naudæus_ (_gabriel_). his works commended, . see _bibliographical index_. _nelson, life of._ printed upon vellum, _neville_ (_george, archbishop of york_). feast at his inthronization, fond of astrology, _ib._ _niceron._ see _bibliographical index_. _nicholls_ (_mr. john_). his communications respecting dr. mead's family, _nicol_ (_mr. george_). his anecdotes concerning some volumes printed by caxton, _north_ (_francis, lord-keeper_), ---- (_dr. john_), , their passion for books, _oldys_ (_william_). his literary labours appreciated, . see _bibliographical index_. _omar._ supposed destroyer of the alexandrian library, _orlando._ character of, - _osborne_ (_thomas_). the bookseller, , , _painted glass._ hearne's commendation of, _panzer_ (_george wolfgang francis_). see _bibliographical index_. _papillon_ (_mr. david_). book-anecdote concerning him and osborne, _paris de meyzieux._ account, and catalogues, of his fine library, , - _parker_ (_matthew, archbishop_). some account of, - catalogue of his mss., antiquity of the british church, - , libellous life of, his consecration, woodcut portrait of, _paterson_ (_samuel_). his bibliotheca universalis, _payne_ (_mr._). his purchase of the lamoignon library, _peacham_ (_henry_), his "compleat gentleman" quoted, _pearson_ (_thomas, or major_). account of his library, - _pembroke_ (_earl of_). his passion for books, , , _pepys_ (_samuel_). account of his professional and book ardour, , _peterborough abbey library_, (_white, kennet, bishop of_). his opinion of wickliffe, (_earl of_). his passion for books, _peters_ (_hugh_). in possession of a part of laud's library, _pinelli._ catalogues of the pinelli library, an account of the library so called, , _pitts, or pitseus_ (_johannes_). his work commended, _porson_ (_richard_). sale of his library, his erudition, and skilful penmanship, _portraits._ _sales of engravings of rare and curious_, - , , algernon, earl of northumberland, by hollar, anne, queen of james i., by visscher, banfi-hunniades (john), by hollar, the same, with variations, _ib._ berkeley (george, earl of), by hollar, bernard (dr. francis), _ib._ bethell (slingsby), by w. sherwin, bohemia, king and queen of, and family, buckingham (george, duke of), sold by stent, cæsar (sir julius) by elstracke, catharine, queen of charles ii., by faithorne, cecyll (edward), general, by passe, chaloner (sir thomas), by hollar, charles i., by lombard, _ib._ the same, with cromwell's head, _ib._ princess augusta maria, daughter of, by danckers, cole (thomas), cromwell (richard, lord protector), by hollar, cumberland (george, earl of), by r. white, darnley (henry, lord), by passe, devereux, earl of essex, on horseback, by hollar, , the same, standing on foot, by do., , digby (lord), in armour, after vander borcht, elizabeth (queen), in superb court dress, by passe, superbly dressed, between pillars, frederic (prince), &c., with princess elizabeth, by elstracke, hay (lord james), by passe, henry the eighth, by c. m[atsis], henry (prince frederic), by delaram, hollar, his own portrait, hotham (sir john), governor of hull, howard (thomas, earl of suffolk), by elstracke, (thomas, earl of arundel), isham (sir thomas), by loggan, killegrew (thomas), by faithorne, lister (sir matthew, m.d.), by p.v. somer, lloyd (humphrey, of denbigh), by faber, _ib._ lortie (andrew), by van somer, lyon (sir patrick, of carse), by white, _ib._ malines (samuel), by lombart, _ib._ marsham (sir john), by r. white, mary, queen of scots, by mynginus, the same, veiled, &c., _ib._ mascall (edward), by gammon, master martin, by r. gaywood, mountaine (george), bishop of london, g.y. sculpsit, newcastle family, by clowet, o'toole (arthurus severus nonesuch), by delaram, paston (lady), wife of sir w. paston, by faithorne, (sir william), by faithorne, _ib._ pembroke (herbert, earl of), by hollar, (mary, countess of), by passe, (penelope, countess of), by hollar, _ib._ (ann clifford, countess of), by r. white, _ib._ portman (sir william), rawdon (marmaduke), by white, reynell (carew), rupert (prince), by faithorne, sold by r. peake, sack (mull'd), sold by compton holland, sackville (richard, earl of dorset), by passe, shaftesbury (anthony, earl of), by blooteling, _ib._ sheffield (baron edmond), by elstracke, _ib._ shirley (lady elizabeth), by hollar, the same, by do., _ib._ sidney (sir philip), by elstracke, sidney (robert, viscount lisle), by passe, smith (richard), by w. sherwin, somerset (edward, earl of worcester), by passe, stone-eater (the), by hollar, vere (henry, earl of oxford), sold by compton holland, the same, by payne, passe, &c., verney (sir greville), by loggan, wetenhall (edward, bishop of corke and ross), by becket, _ib._ whitington (richard, lord mayor of london), by elstracke, willoughby (sir francis), by t. man, windebank (sir f.) and lord finch, wortley (sir francis), by hertocks, wriothesley (henry, earl of southampton), by passe, wynn (sir john, de gwedir), by vaughan, york (james, duke of), _press, national._ want of, _printers, english._ protected by the statute of richard iii., _printing._ benefit of, _print-sales._ barnard, , sir w. musgrave, , miscellaneous, - _prints._ account of rare and curious ones, - _prospero._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _psalters._ the author's essay upon the ancient psalters printed at mentz, _pynson_ (_richard_), his books upon vellum, _quin_ (_mr._). his passion for books printed upon vellum, _quisquilius._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _ranzau_ (_henry de_). inscription over his library door, _ratcliffe_ (_john_). account of his library, , comparison between the collections of west and ratcliffe, _rawlinson_ (_thomas_). his passion for book-collecting, - catalogues of his several book-sales, , _rawlinson_ (_richard_). sale, and specimens, of his library, , _rede, or read_ (_william, bishop of chichester_), _reed_ (_isaac_). some account of him and his library, , _reformation._ history of the, as connected with the bibliomania, - _rembrandt._ account of the scarcest engravings by him, - _reprints_ of voluminous and useful works applauded, , _revickzky_ (_count_). catalogue, and disposal, of his library, _reviews._ their advantages and disadvantages, rise and progress, , _richard de bury_, - _rinaldo._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _ritson_ (_joseph_). his character, under that of sycorax, - sale of his books, _rive_ (_abbé jean joseph_). see _bibliographical index_. _roche_ (_mr._). his communication respecting count m'carthy, _roscoe_ (_mr. william_). proposed to write a life of erasmus, his commendation of handsome book-binding, _rosicrusius._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, , _roveray_ (_du_). his publications commended, _rowe mores_ (_edward_). sale of his library, _roxburgh_ (_john, duke of_). anecdote of, _royal institution._ catalogue of the library of, _sales, book._ account of their establishment, - number of, in the years - , , _satin._ books printed upon, _saxius_ (_christopher_). see _bibliographical index_. _scaliger_ (_joseph_). the author's estate compared with that of, _scott_ (_robert_). a celebrated bookseller, _scott_ (_sir walter_). beauty of his poetry, . see _bibliographical index_. _scotus erigena_ (_johannes_). account of his writings, _scribes, or scriveners._ ignorance of the ancient, _seaman_ (_dr._) catalogue of his books, - _sharp and hailes._ their publications commended, _sherington_ (_sir walter_). regulations concerning his library, , _similis._ inscription upon his tomb, _smith_ (_consul_). catalogue of his library, , _smith_ (_richard_). account and sale of his library, - engraving of his portrait, _smyth_ (_george_). account of his library, _snuff-box_ of mr. l., _soubise_ (_prince de_). catalogue of his library, _southgate_ (_richard_). account of his collections, _spencer_ (_george john, earl_). his purchase of count revickzky's library, his copies of the mozarabic missal & breviary, copy of the siege of rhodes, printed by caxton, copy of pynson's edition of chaucer's works, copies of illustrated shakspeares, copy of pliny, printed by sweynhem and pannartz, upon vellum, eulogy upon his character, armorial ensigns of, copy of the "assertio septem," upon vellum, _stafford_ (_marchioness of_). description of a private publication by, her skill in etching, _stanley_ (_colonel_). his fine copy of de bry, _steevens_ (_george_). some account of, - analysis of his library, - his verses on eleanour rummin, his letters to herbert, - _strange_ (_john_). his library commended, _strawberry-hill press._ account of books printed there, , vignette device of the house, _struvius._ see _bibliographical index_. _stubbes._ see _bibliographical index_. _surrey_ (_henry howard, earl of_). his whistle, an intended edition of his works by the rev. dr. nott, _ib._ _sutherland_ (_col. alexander hendras_). his extraordinary copy of an illustrated clarendon, _sycorax._ a literary character, - _sykes_ (_sir mark masterman_). his copy of the revickzky catalogue, of rapin's history of england, _tanner_ (_thomas, bishop of st. asaph_). account of his editorship of wood's athen. oxon., his bibl. brit. hibernica, _testament, greek._ number of editions of, _tewrdanckhs._ a book so called, , _theobald_ (_lewis_). his love of old books, _theodore_ (_archbishop of canterbury_), _theological volumes._ great number of, in the imperial library at paris, _thuanas_ [_de thou, jaques auguste_]. account, and catalogue, of his library, _thynne_ (_william_). a distinguished bibliomaniac, _tiptoft_ (_john, earl of worcester_), , _tiraboschi_ (_girolamo_). see _bibliographical index_. _titles of books._ strangely lettered upon the binding, _todd_ (_rev. henry john_). see _bibliographical index_. his editions of milton and spenser commended, _triphook_ (_mr. robert_)--bookseller, his projected work on, 'the history of playing cards,' _tristrem_ (_sir_). a book-auction bibliomaniac, _trithemius_ (_john_). some account of, , wood-cut portrait of, _true editions._ account of, - _tutet_ (_mark cephas_). account of his library, , _ulpian._ a book-auction bibliomaniac, _uncut copies._ passion for the possession of, - _unique copies._ illustration of, - _utterson_ (_mr. edward vernon_). his copy of stubbes's anatomy of abuses, of scott's discoverie of witchcraft, _vallière_ (_duc de la_). anecdote of him and the abbé rive, catalogues of his library, _vellum, books printed upon_, , , , --but see particularly - _visitors of ancient monasteries_, _wakefield_ (_robert_), , _walpole_ (_francis_). heraldic quarterings of, _walpole_ (_horace_). see 'strawberry hill press.' _wanley_ (_humphrey_). some account of, , _warton_ (_thomas_). celebrated under the character of menander, _west_ (_james_). account of, and analysis of his library, - prices of some of his books sold by auction, , , comparison of his library with j. ratcliffe's, _wicliffe_ (_john_). bishop fell's character of, mr. baber's edition of his new testament, life of, by lewis, _wilbraham_ (_mr. roger_). his copy of the 'manner and forme of confession,' _wilkes_ (_john_). account of his library, _wilson_ (_thomas, bishop of sodor and man_). his edition of the bible, _witches._ tracts relating to, at brand's sale, _wolfius_ (_john_). see _bibliographical index_. wood-cut portrait of, _wolsey_ (_thomas, cardinal_), - his character by skelton, roy, and tyndale, , , fine books presented to him, _wood_ (_anthony_). some account of, - . _see bibliographical index._ woodcut portrait of, _woodford_ (_emperor john alexander_). sale of his library, _woodhouse_ (_mr. john_). his collection of prints, - his collection of books, - _worsley_ (_dr._). sale of his books by auction, _worsley_ (_sir richard_). his 'museum worsleyanum,' _wright_ (_richard, m.d._). account of his library, , _wynne_ (_edward_). account of his library, , _ximenes_ (_cardinal francis_). see _bibliographical index_. life of him by lord holland, or mr. southey, a literary desideratum, _youth._ character and history of the education of the ancient english youth, - a bibliographical _antiquarian_ and picturesque tour. printed by william nicol, at the shakespeare press. [illustration: ann of brittany. from an illustrated missal in the royal library at paris.] london. published june . by r. jennings. poultry. a bibliographical _antiquarian_ and picturesque tour in france and germany. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin, d.d. member of the royal academy at rouen, and of the academy of utrecht. second edition. volume ii. dei omnia plena. london: published by robert jennings, and john major. . contents of volume ii. contents. volume ii. letter i. paris. _the boulevards. public buildings. street scenery. fountains_. letter ii. _general description of the bibliothèque du roi. the librarians_. letter iii. _the same subject continued_. letter iv. _the same subject continued_. letter v. paris. _some account of the early printed and rare books in the royal library_. letter vi. _conclusion of the account of the royal library. the library of the arsenal_. letter vii. _library of ste. geneviève. the abbé mercier st. léger. library of the mazarine college, or institute. private library of the king. mons. barbier, librarian_. _introduction to letter viii_. letter viii. _some account of the late abbé rive. booksellers. printers. book binders_. letter ix. _men of letters. dom brial. the abbé bétencourt. messrs. gail, millin, and langlès. a roxburghe banquet_. letter x. _the collections of denon, quintin craufurd, and the marquis de sommariva_. letter xi. _notice of m. willemin's monumens français inédits. miscellaneous antiquities. present state of the fine arts. general observations upon the national character_. letter xii. _paris to strasbourg. nancy_. letter xiii. strasbourg. _establishment of the protestant religion. the cathedral. the public library_. letter xiv. _society. environs of strasbourg. domestic architecture. manners and customs. literature. language_. [illustration] _letter i._ paris. the boulevards. public buildings. street scenery. fountains.[ ] _paris, june , _. you are probably beginning to wonder at the tardiness of my promised despatch, in which the architectural minutiæ of this city were to be somewhat systematically described. but, as i have told you towards the conclusion of my previous letter, it would be to very little purpose to conduct you over every inch of ground which had been trodden and described by a host of tourists, and from which little of interest or of novelty could be imparted. yet it seems to be absolutely incumbent upon me to say _something_ by way of local description. perhaps the boulevards form the most interesting feature about paris. i speak here of the _principal_ boulevards:--of those, extending from _ste. madelaine_ to _st. antoine_; which encircle nearly one half the capital. either on foot, or in a carriage, they afford you singular gratification. a very broad road way, flanked by two rows of trees on each side, within which the population of paris seems to be in incessant agitation--lofty houses, splendid shops, occasionally a retired mansion, with a parterre of blooming flowers in front--all manner of merchandize exposed in the open air--prints, muslins, _kaleidoscopes_, (they have just introduced them[ ]) trinkets, and especially watch chains and strings of beads, spread in gay colours upon the ground--the undulations of the chaussée--and a bright blue sky above the green trees--all these things irresistibly rivet the attention and extort the admiration of a stranger. you may have your boots cleaned, and your breakfast prepared, upon these same boulevards. felicitous junction of conveniences! this however is only a hasty sketch of what may be called a morning scene. afternoon approaches: then, the innumerable chairs, which have been a long time unoccupied, are put into immediate requisition: then commences the "high exchange" of the loungers. one man hires two chairs, for which he pays two sous: he places his legs upon one of them; while his body, in a slanting position, occupies the other. the places, where these chairs are found, are usually flanked by coffee houses. incessant reports from drawing the corks of beer bottles resound on all sides. the ordinary people are fond of this beverage; and for four or six sous they get a bottle of pleasant, refreshing, small beer. the draught is usually succeeded by a doze--in the open air. what is common, excites no surprise; and the stream of population rushes on without stopping one instant to notice these somniferous indulgences. or, if they are not disposed to sleep, they sit and look about them: abstractedly gazing upon the multitude around, or at the heavens above. pure, idle, unproductive listlessness is the necessary cause of such enjoyment. evening approaches: when the boulevards put on their gayest and most fascinating livery. then commences the bustle of the _ice mart_: in other words, then commences the general demand for ices: while the rival and neighbouring _caffés_ of tortoni and riche have their porches of entrance choked by the incessant ingress and egress of customers. the full moon shines beautifully above the foliage of the trees; and an equal number of customers, occupying chairs, sit without, and call for ices to be brought to them. meanwhile, between these loungers, and the entrances to the caffés, move on, closely wedged, and yet scarcely in perceptible motion, the mass of human beings who come only to exercise their eyes, by turning them to the right or to the left: while, on the outside, upon the chaussée, are drawn up the carriages of visitors (chiefly english ladies) who prefer taking their ice within their closed morocco quarters. the varieties of ice are endless, but that of the _vanille_ is justly a general favourite: not but that you may have coffee, chocolate, punch, peach, almond, and in short every species of gratification of this kind; while the glasses are filled to a great height, in a pyramidal shape, and some of them with layers of strawberry, gooseberry, and other coloured ice--looking like pieces of a harlequin's jacket--are seen moving to and fro, to be silently and certainly devoured by those who bespeak them. add to this, every one has his tumbler and small water-bottle by the side of him: in the centre of the bottle is a large piece of ice, and with a tumbler of water, poured out from it, the visitor usually concludes his repast. the most luxurious of these ices scarcely exceeds a shilling of our money; and the quantity is at least half as much again as you get at a certain well-known confectioner's in piccadilly. it is getting towards midnight; but the bustle and activity of the boulevards have not yet much abated. groups of musicians, ballad-singers, tumblers, actors, conjurors, slight-of-hand professors, and raree-shew men, have each their distinct audiences. you advance. a little girl with a raised turban (as usual, tastefully put on) seems to have no mercy either upon her own voice or upon the hurdy-gurdy on which she plays: her father shews his skill upon a violin, and the mother is equally active with the organ; after "a flourish"--not of "trumpets"--but of these instruments--the tumblers commence their operations. but a great crowd is collected to the right. what may this mean? all are silent; a ring is made, of which the boundaries are marked by small lighted candles stuck in pieces of clay. within this circle stands a man--apparently strangled: both arms are extended, and his eyes are stretched to their utmost limits. you look more closely--and the hilt of a dagger is seen in his mouth, of which the blade is introduced into his stomach! he is almost breathless, and ready to faint--but he approaches, with the crown of a hat in one hand, into which he expects you should drop a sous. having made his collection, he draws forth the dagger from its carnal sheath, and, making his bow, seems to anticipate the plaudits which invariably follow.[ ] or, he changes his plan of operations on the following evening. instead of the dagger put down his throat, he introduces a piece of wire up one nostril, to descend by the other--and, thus self-tortured, demands the remuneration and the applause of his audience. in short, from one end of the boulevards to the other, for nearly two english miles, there is nought but animation, good humour, and, it is right to add, good order;--while, having strolled as far as the boulevards _de bondy_, and watched the moon-beams sparkling in the waters which play there within the beautiful fountain so called,--i retread my steps, and seek the quiet quarters in which this epistle is penned. the next out-of-door sources of gratification, of importance, are the _gardens of the thuileries_, the _champs elysées_, and the promenade within the _palais royal_; in which latter plays a small, but, in my humble opinion, the most beautifully constructed fountain which paris can boast of. of this, presently. the former of these spots is rather pretty than picturesque: rather limited than extensive: a raised terrace to the left, on looking from the front of the thuileries, is the only commanding situation--from which you observe the seine, running with its green tint, and rapid current, to the left--while on the right you leisurely examine the rows of orange trees and statuary which give an imposing air of grandeur to the scene. at this season of the year, the fragrance of the blossoms of the orange trees is most delicious. the statues are of a colossal, and rather superior kind ... for garden decoration. there are pleasing vistas and wide gravel walks, and a fine evening usually fills them with crowds of parisians. the palace is long, but rather too low and narrow; yet there is an air of elegance about it, which, with the immediately surrounding scenery, cannot fail to strike you very agreeably. the white flag of st. louis floats upon the top of the central dome. the _champs elysées_ consist of extensive wooded walks; and a magnificent road divides them, which serves as the great attractive mall for carriages-- especially on sundays--while, upon the grass, between the trees, on that day, appear knots of male and female citizens enjoying the waltz or quadrille. it is doubtless a most singular, and animated scene: the utmost order and good humour prevailing. the _place louis quinze_, running at right angles with the thuileries, and which is intersected in your route to the _rue de la paix_, is certainly a most magnificent front elevation; containing large and splendid houses, of elaborate exterior ornament. when completed, to the right, it will present an almost matchless front of domestic architecture, built upon the grecian model. it was in this place, facing his own regal residence of the thuileries, that the unfortunate louis--surrounded by a ferocious and bloodthirsty mob--was butchered by the guillotine. come back with me now into the very heart of paris, and let us stroll within the area of the _palais royal_. you may remember that i spoke of a fountain, which played within the centre of this popular resort. the different branches, or _jets d'eau_, spring from a low, central point; and crossing each other in a variety of angles, and in the most pleasing manner of intersection, produce, altogether, the appearance of the blossom of a large flower: so silvery and transparent is the water, and so gracefully are its glassy petals disposed. meanwhile, the rays of the sun, streaming down from above, produce a sort of stationary rainbow: and, in the heat of the day, as you sit upon the chairs, or saunter beneath the trees, the effect is both grateful and refreshing. the little flower garden, in the centre of which this fountain seems to be for ever playing, is a perfect model of neatness and tasteful disposition: not a weed dare intrude: and the earth seems always fresh and moist from the spray of the fountain-- while roses, jonquils, and hyacinths scatter their delicious fragrance around. for one minute only let us visit the _caffé des mille colonnes_: so called (as you well know) from the number of upright mirrors and glasses which reflect the small columns by which the ceiling is supported. brilliant and singular as is this effect, it is almost eclipsed by the appearance of the mistress of the house; who, decorated with rich and rare gems, and seated upon a sort of elevated throne--uniting great comeliness and (as some think) beauty of person--receives both the homage and (what is doubtless preferable to her) the _francs_ of numerous customers and admirers. the "wealth of either ind" sparkles upon her hand, or glitters upon her attire: and if the sun of her beauty be somewhat verging towards its declension, it sets with a glow which reminds her old acquaintance of the splendour of its noon-day power. it is yet a sharply contested point whether the ice of this house be preferable to that of tortoni: a point, too intricate and momentous for my solution. "non nostrum est ... tantas componere lites." of the _jardin des plantes_, which i have once visited, but am not likely to revisit--owing to the extreme heat of the weather, and the distance of the spot from this place--scarcely too much can be said in commendation: whether we consider it as a _dépôt_ for live or dead animals, or as a school of study and instruction for the cultivators of natural history. the wild animals are kept, in their respective cages, out of doors, which is equally salutary for themselves and agreeable to their visitors. i was much struck by the perpetual motion of a huge, restless, black bear, who has left the marks of his footsteps by a concavity in the floor:--as well as by the panting, and apparently painful, inaction of an equally huge white or gray bear--who, nurtured upon beds of greenland ice, seemed to be dying beneath the oppressive heat of a parisian atmosphere. the same misery appeared to beset the bears who are confined, in an open space, below. they searched every where for shade; while a scorching sun was darting its vertical rays upon their heads. in the museum of dead, or stuffed animals, you have every thing that is minute or magnificent in nature, from the creeping lizard to the towering giraffe, arranged systematically, and in a manner the most obvious and intelligible: while cuvier's collection of fossil bones equally surprises and instructs you. it is worth all the _catacombs_ of all the capitals in the world. if we turn to the softer and more beauteous parts of creation, we are dazzled and bewildered by the radiance and variety of the tribes of vegetables--whether as fruits or flowers; and, upon the whole, this is an establishment which, in no age or country, hath been surpassed. it is not necessary to trouble you with much more of this strain. the out-of-door enjoyments in paris are so well known, and have been so frequently described--and my objects of research being altogether of a very different complexion--you will not, i conclude, scold me if i cease to expatiate upon this topic, but direct your attention to others. not however but that i think you may wish to know my sentiments about the principal architectural buildings of paris--as you are yourself not only a lover, but a judge, of these matters--and therefore the better qualified to criticise and correct the following remarks--which flow "au bout de la plume"--as madame de sévigné says. in the first place, then, let us stop a few minutes before the thuileries. it hath a beautiful front: beautiful from its lightness and airiness of effect. the small central dome is the only raised part in the long horizontal line of this extended building: not but what the extremities are raised in the old fashioned sloping manner: but if there had been a similar dome at each end, and that in the centre had been just double its present height, the effect, in my humble opinion, would have harmonised better with the extreme length of the building. it is very narrow; so much so, that the same room contains windows from which you may look on either side of the palace: upon the gardens to the west, or within the square to the east. adjoining to the thuileries is the louvre: that is to say, a long range of building to the south, parallel with the seine, connects these magnificent residences: and it is precisely along this extensive range that the celebrated _gallery of the louvre_ runs. the principal exterior front, or southern extremity of the louvre, faces the seine; and to my eye it is nearly faultless as a piece of architecture constructed upon grecian and roman models. but the interior is yet more splendid. i speak more particularly of the south and western fronts: that facing the north being more ancient, and containing female figure ornaments which are palpably of a disproportionate length. the louvre quadrangle (if i may borrow our old college phrase) is assuredly the most splendid piece of ornamental architecture which paris contains. the interior of the edifice itself is as yet in an unfinished condition;[ ] but you must not conclude the examination of this glorious pile of building, without going round to visit the _eastern_ exterior front--looking towards notre-dame. of all sides of the square, within or without, this colonnade front is doubtless the most perfect of its kind. it is less rich and crowded with ornament than any side of the interior--but it assumes one of the most elegant, airy, and perfectly proportionate aspects, of any which i am just now able to recollect. perhaps the basement story, upon which this double columned colonnade of the corinthian order runs, is somewhat too plain--a sort of affectation of the rustic. the alto-relievo figures in the centre of the tympanum have a decisive and appropriate effect. the advantage both of the thuileries and louvre is, that they are well seen from the principal thoroughfares of paris: that is to say, along the quays, and from the chief streets running from the more ancient parts on the south side of the seine. the evil attending our own principal public edifices is, that they are generally constructed where they _cannot_ be seen to advantage. supposing one of the principal entrances or malls of london, both for carriages and foot, to be on the _south_ side of the thames, what could be more magnificent than the front of _somerset house_, rising upon its hundred columns perpendicularly from the sides of a river... three times as broad as the seine, with the majestic arches of _waterloo bridge!_--before which, however, the stupendous elevation of _st. paul's_ and its correspondent bridge of _black friars_, could not fail to excite the wonder, and extort the praise, of the most anti-anglican stranger. and to crown the whole, how would the venerable nave and the towers of _westminster abbey_--with its peculiar bridge of westminster ... give a finish to such a succession of architectural objects of metropolitan grandeur! although in the very heart, of parisian wonder, i cannot help, you see, carrying my imagination towards our own capital; and suggesting that, if, instead of furnaces, forges, and flickering flames--and correspondent clouds of dense smoke--which give to the southern side of the thames the appearance of its being the abode of legions of blacksmiths, and glass and shot makers--we introduced a little of the good taste and good sense of our neighbours--and if ... but all this is mighty easily said--though not quite so easily put in practice. the truth however is, my dear friend, that we should _approximate_ a little towards each other. let the parisians attend somewhat more to our domestic comforts and commercial advantages--and let the londoners sacrifice somewhat of their love of warehouses and manufactories--and then you will have hit the happy medium, which, in the metropolis of a great empire, would unite all the conveniences, with all the magnificence, of situation. of other buildings, devoted to civil purposes, the chamber of deputies, the hÔtel des invalides, with its gilded dome (a little too profusely adorned,) the institute, and more particularly the mint, are the chief ornaments on the south side of the seine. in these i am not disposed to pick the least hole, by fastidious or hypercritical observations. only i wish that they would contrive to let the lions, in front of the façade of the institute, (sometimes called the _collège mazarin_ or _des quatre nations_--upon the whole, a magnificent pile) discharge a good large mouthful of water-- instead of the drivelling stream which is for ever trickling from their closed jaws. nothing can be more ridiculous than the appearance of these meagre and unappropriate objects: the more to be condemned, because the french in general assume great credit for the management of their fountains. of the four great buildings just noticed, that of the mint, or rather its façade, pleases me most. it is a beautiful elevation, in pure good taste; but the stone is unfortunately of a coarse grain and of a dingy colour. of the bridges thrown across the seine, connecting all the fine objects on either side, it must be allowed that they are generally in good taste: light, yet firm; but those, in iron, of louis xvi. and _des arts_, are perhaps to be preferred. the _pont neuf_, where the ancient part of paris begins, is a large, long, clumsy piece of stone work: communicating with the island upon which _notre dame_ is built. but if you look eastward, towards old paris, from the top of this bridge--or if you look in the same direction, a little towards the western side, or upon the quays,--you contemplate, in my humble opinion, one of the grandest views of street scenery that can be imagined! the houses are very lofty--occasionally of six or even eight stories--the material with which they are built is a fine cream-coloured stone: the two branches of the river, and the back ground afforded by _notre dame_, and a few other subordinate public buildings, altogether produce an effect--especially as you turn your back upon the sun, sinking low behind the _barrière de neuilly_--which would equally warm the hearts and exercise the pencils of the turners and calcots of our own shores. indeed, i learn that the former distinguished artist has actually made a drawing of this picture. but let me add, that my own unqualified admiration had preceded the knowledge of this latter fact. among other buildings, i must put in a word of praise in behalf of the halle-aux-blÉ's--built after the model of the pantheon at rome. it is one hundred and twenty french feet in diameter; has twenty-five covered archways, or arcades, of ten feet in width; of which six are open, as passages of ingress and egress--corresponding with the like number of opposite streets. the present cupola (preceded by one almost as large as that of the pantheon at rome) is built of iron and brass--of a curious, light, and yet sufficiently substantial construction--and is unassailable by fire. i never passed through this building without seeing it well stocked with provender; while its area was filled with farmers, who, like our own, assemble to make the best bargain. yet let me observe that, owing to the height of the neighbouring houses, this building loses almost the whole of its appropriate effect. nor should the exchange, in the _rue des filles st. thomas_, be dismissed without slight notice and commendation. it is equally simple, magnificent, and striking: composed of a single row, or peristyle, of corinthian pillars, flanking a square of no mean dimensions, and presenting fourteen pillars in its principal front. at this present moment, it is not quite finished; but when completed, it promises to be among the most splendid and the most perfect specimens of public architecture in paris.[ ] beautiful as many may think _our_ exchange, in my humble opinion it has no pretensions to compete with that at paris. the hÔtel de ville, near the _place de grève_, is rather in the character of the more ancient buildings in france: it is exceedingly picturesque, and presents a noble façade. being situated amidst the older streets of paris, nothing can harmonise better with the surrounding objects. compared with the metropolis, on its present extended scale, it is hardly of sufficient importance for the consequence usually attached to this kind of building; but you must remember that the greater part of it was built in the sixteenth century, when the capital had scarcely attained half its present size. the _place de grève_ during the revolution, was the spot in which the guillotine performed almost all its butcheries. i walked over it with a hurrying step: fancying the earth to be yet moist with the blood of so many immolated victims. of other hÔtels, i shall mention only those of de sens and de soubise. the entrance into the former yet exhibits a most picturesque specimen of the architecture of the early part of the xvith century. its interior is devoted to every thing ... which it ought _not_ to be. the hôtel de soubise is still a consequential building. it was sufficiently notorious during the reigns of charles v. and vi.: and it owes its present form to the enterprising spirit of cardinal rohan, who purchased it of the guise family towards the end of the xviith century. there is now, neither pomp nor splendour, nor revelry, within this vast building. all its aristocratic magnificence is fled; but the antiquary and the man of curious research console themselves on its possessing treasures of a more substantial and covetable kind. you are to know that it contains the _archives of state_ and the _royal printing office_. paris has doubtless good reason to be proud of her public buildings; for they are numerous, splendid, and commodious; and have the extraordinary advantage over our own of not being tinted with soot and smoke. indeed, when one thinks of the sure invasion of every new stone or brick building in london, by these enemies of external beauty, one is almost sick at heart during the work of erection. the lower tier of windows and columns round st. paul's have been covered with the dirt and smoke of upwards of a century: and the fillagree-like embellishments which distinguish the recent restorations of henry the viith's chapel, in westminster abbey, are already beginning to lose their delicacy of appearance from a similar cause. but i check myself. i am at paris--and not in the metropolis of our own country. a word now for street scenery. paris is perhaps here unrivalled: still i speak under correction--having never seen edinburgh. but, although _portions_ of that northern capital, from its undulating or hilly site, must necessarily present more picturesque appearances, yet, upon the whole, from the superior size of paris, there must be more numerous examples of the kind of scenery of which i am speaking. the specimens are endless. i select only a few--the more familiar to me. in turning to the left, from the _boulevard montmartre_ or _poissonière_, and going towards the _rue st. marc_, or _rue des filles st. thomas_ (as i have been in the habit of doing, almost every morning, for the last ten days--in my way to the royal library) you leave the _rue montmartre_ obliquely to the left. the houses here seem to run up to the sky; and appear to have been constructed with the same ease and facility as children build houses of cards. in every direction about this spot, the houses, built of stone, as they generally are, assume the most imposing and picturesque forms; and if a canaletti resided here, who would condescend to paint without water and wherries, some really magnificent specimens of this species of composition might be executed--equally to the credit of the artist and the place. if you want old fashioned houses, you must lounge in the long and parallel streets of _st. denis_ and _st. martin_; but be sure that you choose dry weather for the excursion. two hours of heavy rain (as i once witnessed) would cause a little rushing rivulet in the centre of these streets--and you could only pass from one side to the other by means of a plank. the absence of _trottoirs_--- or foot-pavement--is indeed here found to be a most grievous defect. with the exception of the _place vendome_ and the _rue de la paix_, where something like this sort of pavement prevails, paris presents you with hardly any thing of the kind; so that, methinks, i hear you say, "what though your paris be gayer and more grand, our london is larger and more commodious." doubtless this is a fair criticism. but from the _marché des innocens_--a considerable space, where they sell chiefly fruit and vegetables,[ ]--(and which reminded me something of the market-places of rouen) towards the _hôtel de ville_ and the _hôtel de soubise_, you will meet with many extremely curious and interesting specimens of house and street scenery: while, as i before observed to you, the view of the houses and streets in the _isle st. louis_, from the _pont des ars_, the _quai de conti_, the _pont neuf_, or the _quai des augustins_--or, still better, the _pont royal_--is absolutely one of the grandest and completest specimens of metropolitan scenery which can be contemplated. once more: go as far as the _pont louis xvi._, cast your eye down to the left; and observe how magnificently the seine is flanked by the thuileries and the louvre. surely, it is but a sense of justice and a love of truth which compel an impartial observer to say, that this is a view of regal and public splendor--without a parallel in our own country! the _rue de richelieu_ is called the bond-street of paris. parallel with it, is the _rue vivienne_. they are both pleasant streets; especially the former, which is much longer, and is rendered more striking by containing some of the finest hotels in paris. hosiers, artificial flower makers, clock-makers, and jewellers, are the principal tradesmen in the rue de richelieu; but it has no similarity with bond-street. the houses are of stone, and generally very lofty--while the _academie de musique_[ ] and the _bibliothèque du roi_ are public buildings of such consequence and capacity (especially the former) that it is absurd to name the street in which they are situated with our own. the rue vivienne is comparatively short; but it is pleasing, from the number of flowers, shrubs, and fruits, brought thither from the public markets for sale. no doubt the _place vendome_ and the _rue de la paix_ claim precedence, on the score of magnificence and comfort, to either of these, or to any other streets; but to my taste there is nothing (next to the boulevards) which is so thoroughly gratifying as the rue de richelieu. is it because some few hundred thousand _printed volumes_ are deposited therein? but of all these, the _rue st. honoré_, with its faubourg so called, is doubtless the most distinguished and consequential. it seems to run from west to east entirely through paris; and is considered, on the score of length, as more than a match for our oxford street. it may be so; but if the houses are loftier, the street is much narrower; and where, again, is your foot-pavement--to protect you from the eternal movements of fiacre, cabriolet, voiture and diligence? besides, the undulating line of our oxford-street presents, to the tasteful observer, a sight--perfectly unrivalled of its kind--especially if it be witnessed on a clear night, when its thousand gas-lighted lamps below emulate the starry lustre of the heavens above! to an inexperienced eye, this has the effect of enchantment. add to the houses of oxford-street but two stories, and the appearance of this street, in the day time, would be equally imposing: to which add--what can never be added--the atmosphere of paris! you will remark that, all this time, i have been wholly silent about the _palace de luxembourg_, with its beautiful though flat gardens--of tulips, jonquils, roses, wall flowers, lilac and orange trees--its broad and narrow walks--its terraces and statues. the façade, in a line with the _rue vaugirard_, has a grand effect--in every point of view. but the south front, facing the gardens, is extremely beautiful and magnificent; while across the gardens, and in front,--some short english mile--stands the observatory. yet fail not to visit the interior square of the palace, for it is well worth your notice and admiration. this building is now the _chambre des pairs_. its most celebrated ornament was the famous suite of paintings, by rubens, descriptive of the history of henry iv. these now adorn the gallery of the louvre. it is a pity that this very tasteful structure--which seems to be built of the choicest stone--should be so far removed from what may be called the fashionable part of the city. it is in consequence reluctantly visited by our countrymen; although a lover of botany, or a florist, will not fail to procure two or three roots of the different species of _tulips_, which, it is allowed, blow here in uncommon luxuriance and splendor. the preceding is, i am aware, but a feeble and partial sketch--compared with what a longer residence, and a temperature more favourable to exercise (for we are half scorched up with heat, positive and reflected)--would enable me to make. but "where are my favourite ecclesiastical edifices?" methinks i hear you exclaim. truly you shall know as much as i know myself; which is probably little enough. of notre-dame, the west front, with its marygold window, is striking both from its antiquity and richness. it is almost black from age; but the alto-relievos, and especially those above the doors, stand out in almost perfect condition. these ornaments are rather fine of their kind. there is, throughout the whole of this west front, a beautiful keeping; and the towers are, _here_, somewhat more endurable--and therefore somewhat in harmony. over the north-transept door, on the outside, is a figure of the virgin--once holding the infant jesus in her arms. of the latter, only the feet remain. the drapery of this figure is in perfectly good taste: a fine specimen of that excellent art which prevailed towards the end of the xiiith century. above, is an alto-relievo subject of the slaughter of the innocents. the soldiers are in quilted armour. i entered the cathedral from the western door, during service-time. a sight of the different clergymen engaged in the office, filled me with melancholy--and made me predict sad things of what was probably to come to pass! these clergymen were old, feeble, wretchedly attired in their respective vestments--and walked and sung in a tremulous and faltering manner. the architectural effect in the interior is not very imposing: although the solid circular pillars of the nave--the double aisles round the choir--and the old basso-relievo representations of the life of christ, upon the exterior of the walls of the choir--cannot fail to afford an antiquary very singular satisfaction. the choir appeared to be not unlike that of st. denis. the next gothic church, in size and importance, is that of st. gervais-- situated to the left, in the rue de monceau. it has a very lofty nave, but the interior is exceedingly flat and divested of ornament. the pillars have scarcely any capitals. the choir is totally destitute of effect. some of the stained glass is rich and old, but a great deal has been stolen or demolished during the revolution. there is a good large modern picture, in one of the side chapels to the right: and yet a more modern one, much inferior, on the opposite side. in almost every side chapel, and in the confessionals, the priests were busily engaged in the catechetical examination of young people previous to the first communion on the following sabbath, which was the fête-dieu. the western front is wholly grecian--perhaps about two hundred years old. it is too lofty for its width--but has a grand effect, and is justly much celebrated. yet the _situation_ of this fine old gothic church is among the most wretched of those in paris. it is preserved from suffocation, only by holding it head so high. next in importance to st. gervais, is the gothic church of st. eustache: a perfect specimen, throughout, of that adulterated style of gothic architecture (called its _restoration!_) which prevailed at the commencement of the reign of francis i. faulty, and even meretricious, as is the whole of the interior, the choir will not fail to strike you with surprise and gratification. it is light, rich, and lofty. this church is very large, but not so capacious as st. gervais--while situation is, if possible, still more objectionable. let me not forget my two old favourite churches of st. germain des prÈs, _and st. geneviève_; although of the latter i hardly know whether a hasty glimpse, both of the exterior and interior, be not sufficient; the greater part having been destroyed during the revolution.[ ] the immediate vicinity of the former is sadly choaked by stalls and shops--and the west-front has been cruelly covered by modern appendages. it is the church dearest to antiquaries; and with reason.[ ] i first visited it on a sunday, when that part of the service was performed which required the fullest intonations of the organ. the effect altogether was very striking. the singular pillars-- of which the capitals are equally massive and grotesque, being sometimes composed of human beings, and sometimes of birds and beasts, especially towards the choir--the rising up and sitting down of the congregation, and the yet more frequent movements of the priests--the swinging of the censers--and the parade of the vergers, dressed in bag wigs, with broad red sashes of silk, and silk stockings--but, above all, the most scientifically touched, as well as the deepest and loudest toned, organ i ever heard-- perfectly bewildered and amazed me! upon the dispersion of the congregation--which very shortly followed this religious excitation--i had ample leisure to survey every part of this curious old structure; which reminded me, although upon a much larger scale, of the peculiarities of st. georges de bocherville, and notre dame at guibray. certainly, very much of this church is of the twelfth century--and as i am not writing to our friend p*** i will make bold to say that some portions of it yet "smack strongly" of the eleventh. nearer to my residence, and of a kindred style of architecture, is the church of st. germain aux auxerrois. the west front or porch is yet sound and good. nothing particularly strikes you on the entrance, but there are some interesting specimens of rich old stained glass in the windows of the transepts. the choir is completely and cruelly modernised. in the side chapels are several good modern paintings; and over an altar of twisted columns, round which ivy leaves, apparently composed of ivory, are creeping, is a picture of three figures in the flames of purgatory. this side-chapel is consecrated to the offering up of orisons "_for the souls in purgatory_." it is gloomy and repulsive. death's heads and thigh bones are painted, in white colours, upon the stained wall; and in the midst of all these fearful devices, i saw three young ladies intensely occupied in their devotions at the railing facing the altar. here again, i observed priests examining young people in their catechism; and others in confessionals, receiving the confessions of the young of both sexes, previous to their taking the first sacrament on the approaching _fête-dieu_. contiguous to the sorbonne church, there stands, raising its neatly constructed dome aloft in air, the _nouvelle eglise ste. geneviève_, better known by the name of the pantheon. the interior presents to my eye the most beautiful and perfect specimen of grecian architecture with which i am acquainted. in the crypt are seen the tombs of french warriors; and upon the pavement above, is a white marble statue of general leclerc (brother in law of bonaparte,) who died in the expedition to st. domingo. this, statue is too full of conceit and affectation both in attitude and expression. the interior of the building is about english feet in length, by in width; but it is said that the foundation is too weak. from the gallery, running along the bottom of the dome--the whole a miniature representation of our st. paul's--you have a sort of panorama of paris; but not, i think, a very favourable one. the absence of sea-coal fume strikes you very agreeably; but, for picturesque effect, i could not help thinking of the superior beauty of the panorama of rouen from the heights of mont ste. catharine. it appears to me that the small lantern on the top of the dome wants a finishing apex.[ ] yonder majestic portico forms the west front of the church called st. sulpice ... it is at once airy and grand. there are two tiers of pillars, of which this front is composed: the lower is doric; the upper ionic: and each row, as i am told, is nearly forty french feet in height, exclusively of their entablatures, each of ten feet. we have nothing like this, certainly, as the front of a parish church, in london. when i except st. paul's, such exception is made in reference to the most majestic piece of architectural composition, which, to my eye, the wit of man hath yet devised. the architect of the magnificent front of st. sulpice was servandoni; and a street hard by (in which dom brial, the father of french history, resides) takes its name from this architect. there are two towers--one at each end of this front,--about two hundred and twenty feet in height from the pavement: harmonising well with the general style of architecture, but of which, that to the south (to the best of my recollection) is left in an unaccountably, if not shamefully, unfinished state.[ ] these towers are said to be about one _toise_ higher than those of notre dame. the interior of this church is hardly less imposing than its exterior. the vaulted roofs are exceedingly lofty; but for the length of the nave, and more especially the choir, the transepts are disproportionably short. nor are there sufficiently prominent ornaments to give relief to the massive appearance of the sides. these sides are decorated by fluted pilasters of the corinthian order; which, for so large and lofty a building, have a tame effect. there is nothing like the huge, single, insulated column, or the clustered slim pilasters, that separate the nave from the side aisles of the gothic churches of the early and middle ages. the principal altar, between the nave and the choir, is admired for its size, and grandeur of effect; but it is certainly ill-placed, and is perhaps too ornamental, looking like a detached piece which does not harmonise with the surrounding objects. indeed, most of the altars in french churches want simplicity and appropriate effect: and the whole of the interior of the choir is (perhaps to my fastidious eye only,) destitute of that quiet solemn character, which ought always to belong to places of worship. rich, minute, and elaborate as are many of the gothic choirs of our own country, they are yet in harmony; and equally free from a frivolous or unappropriate effect. behind the choir, is the chapel of our lady: which is certainly both splendid and imposing. upon the ceiling is represented the assumption of the virgin, and the walls are covered with a profusion of gilt ornament, which, upon the whole, has a very striking effect. in a recess, above the altar, is a sculptured representation of the virgin and infant christ, in white marble, of a remarkably high polish: nor are the countenances of the mother and child divested of sweetness of expression. they are represented upon a large globe, or with the world at their feet: upon the top of which, slightly coiled, lies the "bruised" or dead serpent. the light, in front of the spectator, from a concealed window, (a contrivance to which the french seem partial) produces a sort of magical effect. i should add, that this is the largest parochial church in paris; and that its organ has been pronounced to be matchless. the rival churches of st. sulpice--rival ones, rather from similarity of structure, than extent of dimensions--are the oratoire and st. roch: both situated in the rue st. honoré. st. roch is doubtless a very fine building--with a well-proportioned front--and a noble flight of steps; but the interior is too plain and severe for my taste. the walls are decorated by unfluted pilasters, with capitals scarcely conformable to any one order of architecture. the choir however is lofty, and behind it, in our lady's chapel if i remember rightly, there is a striking piece of sculpture, of the crucifixion, sunk into a rock, which receives the light from an invisible aperture as at st. sulpice. to the right, or rather behind this chapel, there is another--called the _chapel of calvary_,--in which you observe a celebrated piece of sculpture, of rather colossal dimensions, of the entombment of christ. the dead saviour is borne to the sepulchre by joseph of arimathea, st. john, and the three maries. the name of the sculptor is _deseine_. certainly you cannot but be struck with the effect of such representations--which accounts for these two chapels being a great deal more attended, than the choir or the nave of the church. it is right however to add, that the pictures here are preferable to those at st. sulpice: and the series of bas-reliefs, descriptive of the principal events in the life of christ, is among the very best specimens of art, of that species, which paris can boast of. very different from either of these interiors is that of _st. philippe du roule_; which presents you with a single insulated row of fluted ionic pillars, on each side of the nave; very airy, yet impressive and imposing. it is much to my taste; and i wish such a plan were more generally adopted in the interiors of grecian-constructed churches. the choir, the altar ... the whole is extremely simple and elegant. nor must the roof be omitted to be particularly mentioned. it is an arch, constructed of wood; upon a plan originally invented by philibert delorme--so well known in the annals of art in the sixteenth century. the whole is painted in stone colour, and may deceive the most experienced eye. this beautiful church was built after the designs of chalgrin, about the year ; and is considered to be a purer resemblance of the antique than any other in paris. this church, well worth your examination, is situated in a quarter rarely visited by our countrymen--in the _rue du faubourg du roule_, not far from the barriers. not very remotely connected with the topic of churches, is that of the sabbaths ... as spent in paris. they are nearly the same throughout all france. as bonaparte had no respect for religion itself, so he had less for the forms connected with the upholding of it. parades, battles, and campaigns--were all that he cared about: and the parisians, if they supplied him with men and money--the _materiel_ for the execution of these objects--were left to pray, preach, dance, or work, just as they pleased on the sabbath day. the present king,[ ] as you well know, attempted the introduction of something like an _english sabbath_: but it would not do. when the french read and understand grahame[ ] as well as they do thomson, they will peradventure lend a ready and helping hand towards the completion of this laudable plan. at present, there is much which hurts the eye and ear of a well-educated and well-principled englishman. there is a partial shutting up of the shops before twelve; but after mid-day the shop-windows are uniformly closed throughout paris. meanwhile the cart, the cabriolet, the crier of herbs and of other marketable produce--the sound of the whip or of the carpenter's saw and hammer--the shelling of peas in the open air, and the plentiful strewing of the pod hard by--together with sundry, other offensive and littering accompaniments--all strike you as disagreeable deviations from what you have been accustomed to witness at home. add to this, the half-dirty attire--the unshaven beard of the men, and the unkempt locks of the women--produce further revolting sensations. it is not till past mid-day that the noise of labour ceases, and that the toilette is put into a complete state for the captivation of the beholder. by four or five o'clock the streets become half thinned. on a sunday, every body rushes into the country. the tradesman has his little villa, and the gentleman and man of fortune his more capacious rural domain; and those, who aspire neither to the one or the other, resort to the _bois de boulogne_ and the _champs elysées_, or to the gardens of _beaujon_, and _tivoli_--or to the yet more attractive magnificence of the palace and fountains of _versailles_--where, in one or the other of these places, they carouse, or disport themselves--in promenades, or dancing groups--till ... majores.. cadunt de montibus umbræ. this, generally and fairly speaking, is a summer sabbath in the metropolis of france. unconscionable as you may have deemed the length of this epistle, i must nevertheless extend it by the mention of what i conceive to be a very essential feature both of beauty and utility in the street scenery of paris. it is of the fountains that i am now about to speak; and of some of which a slight mention has been already made. i yet adhere to the preference given to that in the _palais royal_; considered with reference to the management of the water. it is indeed a purely aqueous exhibition, in which architecture and sculpture have nothing to do. not so are the more imposing fountains of the marchÉ des innocens, de grenelle, and the boulevard bondy. for the first of these,[ ] the celebrated _lescot_, abbé de clagny, was the designer of the general form; and the more celebrated jean goujon the sculptor of the figures in bas-relief. it was re-touched and perfected in , and originally stood in the angle of the two streets, of _aux fers_ and _st. denis_, presenting only two façades to the beholder. it was restored and beautified in ; and in it changed both its form and its position by being transported to the present spot-- the _marché des innocens_--the market for vegetables. two other similar sides were then added, making it a square: but the original performances of goujon, which are considered almost as his master-piece, attract infinitely more admiration than the more recent ones of pajou. goujon's figures are doubtless very delicately and successfully executed. the water bubbles up in the centre of the square, beneath the arch, in small sheets, or masses; and its first and second subsequent falls, also in sheets, have a very beautiful effect. they are like pieces of thin, transparent ice, tumbling upon each other; but the _lead_, of which the lower half of the fountain is composed--as the reservoir of the water--might have been advantageously exchanged for _marble_. the lion at each corner of the pedestal, squirting water into a sarcophagus-shaped reservoir, has a very absurd appearance. upon the whole, this fountain is well deserving of particular attention. the inscription upon it is fontivm nymphis; but perhaps, critically speaking, it is now in too exposed a situation for the character of it's ornaments. a retired, rural, umbrageous recess, beneath larch and pine-- whose boughs wave high and murmur in the hollow wind-- seems to be the kind of position fitted for the reception of a fountain of this character. the fontaine de grenelle is almost entirely architectural; and gives an idea of a public office, rather than of a conduit. you look above--to the right and the left--but no water appears. at last, almost by accident, you look down, quite at its base, and observe two insignificant streams trickling from the head of an animal. the central figure in front is a representation of the city of paris: the recumbent figures, on each side, represent, the one the seine, the other the marne. above, there are four figures which represent the four seasons. this fountain, the work of bouchardon, was erected in upon the site of what formed a part of an old convent. a more simple, and a more striking fountain, to my taste, is that of the ecole de chirurgie; in which a comparatively large column of water rushes down precipitously between two doric pillars--which form the central ones of four--in an elegant façade. yet more simple, more graceful, and more capacious, is the fountain of the boulevard bondy--which i first saw sparkling beneath the lustre of a full moon. this is, in every sense of the word, a fountain. a constant but gentle undulation of water, from three aqueous terraces, surmounted by three basins, gradually diminishing in size, strike you with peculiar gratification--view it from whatever quarter you will: but seen in the neighbourhood of _trees_, the effect, in weather like this, is absolutely heart-refreshing. the only objectionable part of this elegant structure, on the score of art, are the lions, and their positions. in the first place, it is difficult to comprehend why the mouth of a _lion_ is introduced as a channel for the transmission of water; and, in the second place, these lions should have occupied the basement portion of the structure. this beautiful fountain, of which the water is supplied by the _canal d'ourcq_, was finished only about seven or eight years ago. nor let the fountain of triumph or victory, in the _place du châtelet_, be forgotten. it is a column, surmounted by a gilt statue of victory, with four figures towards its pedestal. the four jets-d'eau, from its base,--which are sufficiently insignificant--empty themselves into a circular basin; but the shaft of the column, to my eye, is not free from affectation. the names of some of bonaparte's principal victories are inscribed upon that part of the column which faces the pont au change. there is a classical air of elegance about this fountain, which is fifty feet in height. but where is the elephant fountain?--methinks i hear you exclaim. it is yet little more than in embryo: that is to say, the plaster-cast of it only is visible--with the model, on a smaller scale, completed in all its parts, by the side of it. it is really a stupendous affair.[ ] on entering the temporary shed erected for its construction, on the site of the bastille, i was almost breathless with astonishment for a moment. imagine an enormous figure of the unwieldy elephant, _full fifty feet high!_ you see it, in the front, foreshortened--as you enter; and as the head is the bulkiest portion of the animal, you may imagine something of the probable resulting effect. certainly it is most imposing. the visitor, who wishes to make himself acquainted with the older, and more original, national character of the french--whether as respects manners, dresses, domestic occupations, and public places of resort--will take up his residence in the _rue du bac_, or at the _hotel des bourbons_; within twenty minutes walk of the more curious objects which are to be found in the quartiers saint andré des arcs, du luxembourg, and saint germain des près. ere he commence his morning perambulations, he will look well at his map, and to what is described, in the route which he is to take, in the works of landon and of legrand, or of other equally accurate topographers. two things he ought invariably to bear in mind: the first, not to undertake too much, for the sake of saying how _many_ things he has seen:--and the second, to make himself thoroughly master of what he _does_ see. all this is very easily accomplished: and a fare of thirty sous will take you, at starting, to almost any part of paris, however remote: from whence you may shape your course homewards at leisure, and with little fatigue. such a visitor will, however, sigh, ere he set out on his journey, on being told that the old gothic church of _st. andré-des-arcs_--the abbey of _st. victor_--the churches of the _bernardins_, and of _st. etienne des près_, the _cloisters_ of _the cordeliers_, and the _convent of the celestins_ ... exist no longer ... or, that their remains are mere shadows of shades! but in the three quarters of paris, above mentioned, he will gather much curious information--in spite of the havoc and waste which the revolution has made; and on his return to his own country he will reflect, with pride and satisfaction, on the result of his enterprise and perseverance. to my whimsically formed taste, old paris has in it very much to delight, and afford valuable information. not that i would decry the absolute splendor, gaiety, comfort, and interminable variety, which prevail in its more modern and fashionable quarters. and certainly one may fairly say, that, on either side the seine, paris is a city in which an englishman,-- who is resolved to be in good humour with all about him, and to shew that civility to others which he is sure to receive from the better educated classes of society here--cannot fail to find himself pleased, perfectly at ease, and well contented with his fare. compared with the older part of london, the more ancient division of paris is infinitely more interesting, and of a finer architectural construction. the conical roofs every now and then remind you of the times of francis i.; and the clustered arabesques, upon pilasters, or running between the bolder projections of the façades, confirm you in the chronology of the buildings. but time, caprice, fashion, or poverty, will, in less than half a century, materially change both the substance and surfaces of things. it is here, as at rouen--you bewail the work of destruction which has oftentimes converted cloisters into workshops, and consecrated edifices into warehouses of every description. human nature and the fate of human works are every where the same. let two more centuries revolve, and the thuileries and the louvre may possibly be as the bastille and the temple. such, to my feelings, is paris--considered only with reference to its _local_: for i have really done little more than perambulate its streets, and survey its house-tops--with the important exceptions to be detailed in the succeeding letters from hence. of the treasures contained _beneath_ some of those "housetops"--more especially of such as are found in the shape of a book--whether as a ms. or a printed volume--prepare to receive some particulars in my next. [ ] [several notes in this volume having reference to mons. crapelet, a printer of very considerable eminence at paris, it may be proper to inform the reader that that portion of this tour, which may be said to have a more exclusive reference to france, usually speaking--including the notice of strasbourg--was almost entirely translated by mons. crapelet himself. an exception however must be made to those parts which relate to the _king's private library_ at paris, and to _strasbourg_: these having been executed by different pens, evidently in the hands of individuals of less wrongheadedness and acrimony of feeling than the parisian printer. mons. crapelet has prefixed a preface to his labours, in which he tells the world, that, using my more favourite metaphorical style of expression, "a crusade has risen up against the infidel dibdin." metaphorical as may be this style, it is yet somewhat alarming: for, most assuredly, when i entered and quitted the "beau pays" of france, i had imagined myself to have been a courteous, a grateful, and, under all points of view, an orthodox visitor. it seems however, from the language of the french typographer, that i acted under a gross delusion; and that it was necessary to have recourse to his sharp-set sickle to cut away all the tares which i had sown in the soil of his country. upon the motive and the merit of his labours, i have already given my unbiassed opinion.[a] here, it is only necessary to observe, that i have not, consciously, falsified his opinions, or undervalued his worth. let the reader judge between us. [a] vide preface. [ ] [they have now entirely lost the recollection, as well as the sight, of them.] [ ] ["the parisians would doubtless very willingly get rid of such a horrid spectacle in the streets and places of the metropolis: besides, it is not unattended with danger to the actors themselves."--crapelet.] [ ] ["and will continue to be so, it is feared--to the regret of all frenchmen--for a long time. it is however the beginning of a new reign. the building of some new edifices will doubtless be undertaken. but if the king were to order the _finishing_ of all the public buildings of paris, the epoch of the reign of charles x. would assuredly be the most memorable for arts, and the embellishment of the capital." crapelet. .] [ ] [it is now completed: but seven years elapsed, after the above description, before the building was in all respects considered to be finished.] [ ] [a most admirable view of this market place, with its picturesque fountain in the centre, was painted by the younger mr. chalon, and exhibited at somerset house. a well executed _print_ of such a thoroughly characteristic performance might, one would imagine, sell prosperously on either side of the channel.] [ ] [this building, which may perhaps be better known as that of the _opera_, is now rased to the ground--in consequence of the assassination of the duke de berri there, in february, , on his stepping into his carriage on quitting the opera. but five years were suffered to elapse before the work of demolition was quite completed. and when will the monument to the duke's memory be raised?--crapelet.] [ ] [it is now entirely demolished, to make way for a large and commodious street which gives a complete view of the church of st. stephen. crapelet.] [ ] the views of it, as it appeared in the xvith century, represent it nearly surrounded by a wall and a moat. it takes its name as having been originally situated _in the fields_. [ ] [two years ago was placed, upon the top of this small lantern, a gilt cross, thirty-eight feet high: of english measurement: and the church has been consecrated to the catholic service. crapelet. thus, the criticism of an english traveller, in , was not entirely void of foundation.] [ ] [our public buildings, which have continued long in an unfinished state, strike the eyes of foreigners more vividly than they do our own: but it is impossible to face the front of st. sulpice without partaking of the sentiment of the author. crapelet.] [ ] [louis xviii.] [ ] [_read and understand_ grahame.]--mr. grahame is both a very readable and understandable author. he has reason to be proud of his poem called the sabbath: for it is one of the sweetest and one of the purest of modern times. his _scene_ however is laid in the country, and not in the metropolis. the very opening of this poem refreshes the heart--and prepares us for the more edifying portions of it, connected with the performance of the religious offices of our country. this beautiful work will live as long as sensibility, and taste, and a virtuous feeling, shall possess the bosoms of a british public. [ ] see the note p. , ante. [ ] it is now completed. _letter ii._ general description of the bibliothÈque du roi. the librarians. _hôtel des colonies, rue de richelieu_. the moment is at length arrived when you are to receive from me an account of some of the principal treasures contained in the royal library of paris. i say "_some_":--because, in an epistolary communication, consistently with my time, and general objects of research--it must be considered only as a slight selection, compared with what a longer residence, and a more general examination of the contents of such a collection, might furnish. yet, limited as my view may have been, the objects of that view are at once rich and rare, and likely to afford all true sons of bibliomania and virtu the most lively gratification. this is a bold avowal: but i fear not to make it, and: the sequel shall be the test of its modesty and truth. you observe, i have dated my letter from a different quarter. in fact, the distance of my former residence from the bibliothèque du roi--coupled with the oppressive heat of the weather--rendered my morning excursions thither rather uncomfortable; and instead of going to work with elastic spirits, and an untired frame, both mr. lewis and myself felt jaded and oppressed upon our arrival. we are now, on the contrary, scarcely fifty yards from the grand door of entrance into the library. but this is only tantalizing you. to the library, therefore, at once let us go. the exterior and interior, as to architectural appearance, are rather of a sorry description: heavy; comparatively low, without ornament, and of a dark and dingy tint. towards the street, it has the melancholy air of a workhouse. but none of the apartments, in which the books are contained, look into this street; so that, consequently, little inconvenience is experienced from the incessant motion and rattling of carts and carriages--the rue de richelieu being probably the most frequented in paris. yet, repulsive as may be this exterior, it was observed to me--on my suggesting what a fine situation the quadrangle of the louvre would make for the reception of the royal library--that, it might be questioned whether even _that_ quadrangle were large enough to contain it;--and that the present building, however heavy and ungracious of aspect, was better calculated for its present purpose than probably any other in paris. in the centre of the edifice--for it is a square, or rather a parallelogram-shaped building--stands a bronze naked figure of diana; stiff and meagre both in design and execution. it is of the size of life; but surely a statue of _minerva_ would have been a little more appropriate? on entering the principal door, in the street just mentioned, you turn to the right, and mount a large stone staircase--after attending to the request, printed in large characters, of "_essuyez vos souliers_"--as fixed against the wall. this entrance goes directly to the collection of printed books. on reaching the first floor, you go straight forward, within folding doors; and the first room, of considerable extent, immediately receives you. the light is uniformly admitted by large windows, to the right, looking into the quadrangle before mentioned. you pass through this room--where scarcely any body lingers--and enter the second, where are placed the editiones principes, and other volumes printed in the fifteenth century. to an _experienced_ eye, the first view of the contents of this second room is absolutely magical; such copies of such rare, precious, magnificent, and long-sought after impressions!... it is fairy-land throughout. there stands the _first homer_, unshorn by the binder; a little above, is the first _roman edition of eustathius's_ commentary upon that poet, in gorgeous red morocco, but printed upon vellum! a budæus _greek lexicon_ (francis i.'s own copy) also upon vellum! the _virgils, ovids, plinies_ ... and, above all, the _bibles_--but i check myself; in order to conduct you regularly through the apartments, ere you sit down with me before each volume which i may open. in this second-room are two small tables, rarely occupied, but at one or the other of which i was stationed (by the kind offices of m. van praet) for fourteen days--with almost every thing that was exquisite and rare, in the old book-way, behind and before me. let us however gradually move onwards. you pass into the third room. here is the grand rendezvous of readers. six circular or rather oval tables, each capable of accommodating twelve students, and each generally occupied by the full number, strike your eye in a very pleasing manner, in the centre of this apparently interminable vista of printed volumes. but i must call your particular attention to the _foreground_ of this magical book-view. to the left of this third room, on entering, you observe a well-dressed gentleman (of somewhat shorter stature than the author of this description) busied behind a table; taking down and putting up volumes: inscribing names, and numbers, and titles, in a large folio volume; giving orders on all sides; and putting several pairs of legs into motion in consequence of those orders--while his own are perhaps the least spared of any. this gentleman is no less a personage than the celebrated monsieur van praet; one of the chief librarians in the department of the printed books. his aspect is mild and pleasant; while his smart attire frequently forms a striking contrast to habiliments and personal appearances of a very different, and less conciliating description, by which he is surrounded.[ ] m. van praet must be now approaching his sixtieth year; but his age sits bravely upon him--for his step is rapid and firm, and his physiognomical expression indicative of a much less protracted period of existence.[ ] he is a fleming by birth; and, even in shewing his first eustathius, or first pliny, upon vellum, you may observe the natural enthusiasm of a frenchman tempered by the graver emotions of a native of the netherlands. this distinguished bibliographer (of whom, somewhat more in a future epistle) has now continued nearly forty years in his present situation; and when infirmity, or other causes, shall compel him to quit it, france will never replace him by one possessing more appropriate talents! he doats upon the objects committed to his trust. he lives almost entirely among his dear books ... either on the first floor or on the ground floor: for when the hour of departure, two o'clock, arrives, m. van praet betakes him to the quieter book realms below--where, surrounded by _grolier, de thou_, and _diane de poictiers_, copies, he disports him till his dinner hour of four or five--and 'as the evening shades prevail,' away hies he to his favourite '_théatre des italiens_,' and the scientific treat of italian music. this i know, however--and this i will say--in regard to the amiable and excellent gentleman under description--that, if i were king of france, mons. van praet should be desired to sit in a roomy, morocco-bottomed, mahogany arm chair--not to stir therefrom--but to issue out his edicts, for the delivery of books, to the several athletic myrmidons under his command. of course there must be occasional exceptions to this rigid, but upon the whole salutary, "ordonnance du roy." indeed i have reason to mention a most flattering exception to it--in my own favour: for m. van praet would come into the second room, (just mentioned) and with his own hands supply me with half a score volumes at a time--of such as i wished to examine. but, generally speaking, this worthy and obliging creature is too lavish of his own personal exertions. he knows, to be sure, all the bye-passes, and abrupt ascents and descents; and if he be out of sight--in a moment, through some secret aperture, he returns as quickly through another equally unseen passage. upon an average, i set his bibliomaniacal peregrinations down at the rate of a full french league per day. it is the absence of all pretension and quackery--the quiet, unobtrusive manner in which he opens his well-charged battery of information upon you--but, more than all, the glorious honours which are due to him, for having assisted to rescue the book treasures of the abbey of st. germain des près from destruction, during the horrors of the revolution--that cannot fail to secure to him the esteem of the living, and the gratitude of posterity. [illustration: gold medal of louis xii. from the cabinet des medailles at paris.] we must now leave this well occupied and richly furnished chamber, and pass on to the fourth room--in the centre of which is a large raised bronze ornament, representing apollo and the muses--surrounded by the more eminent literary characters of france in the seventeenth century. it is raised to the glory of the grand monarque louis xiv. and the figure of apollo is intended for that of his majesty. the whole is a palpable failure: a glaring exhibition of bad french taste. pegasus, the muses, rocks, and streams, are all scattered about in a very confused manner; without connection, and of course without effect. even the french allow it to be "mesquin, et de mauvais goût." but let me be methodical. as you enter this fourth room, you observe, opposite--before you turn to the right--a door, having the inscription of cabinet des medailles. this door however is open only twice in the week; when the cabinet is freely and most conveniently shewn. of its contents--in part, precious beyond comparison--this is the place to say only one little word or two: for really there would be no end of detail were i to describe even its most remarkable treasures. francis i. and his son henry ii. were among its earliest patrons; when the cabinet was deposited in the louvre. the former enriched it with a series of valuable gold medals, and among them with one of louis xii., his predecessor; which has not only the distinction of being beautifully executed, but of being the largest, if not the first of its kind in france.[ ] the specimens of greek art, in coins, and other small productions, are equally precious and select. vases, shields, gems, and cameos--the greater part of which are described in caylus's well-known work--are perfectly enchanting. but the famous agat of the ste. chapelle--supposed to be the largest in the world, and which has been engraved by giradet in a manner perfectly unrivalled--will not fail to rivet your attention, and claim your most unqualified commendation. the sardonyx, called the vase of ptolemy, is another of the great objects of attraction in the room where we are now tarrying--and beautiful, and curious, and precious, it unquestionably is. doubtless, in such a chamber as this, the classical archæologist will gaze with no ordinary emotions, and meditate with no ordinary satisfaction. but i think i hear the wish escape him--as he casts an attentive eye over the whole--"why do they not imitate us in a publication relating to them? why do they not put forth something similar to what we have done for our _museum marbles_? or rather, speaking more correctly, why are not the _marlborough gems_ considered as an object of rivalry, by the curators of this exquisite cabinet? paris is not wanting both in artists who design, and who engrave, in this department, with at least equal skill to our own."[ ] let us now return to the books. in the fourth book-room there is an opening in the centre, to the left, nearly facing the bronze ornament--through which, as you enter, and look to the left, appear the upper halves of two enormous globes. the effect is at first, inconceivably puzzling and even startling: but you advance, and looking down the huge aperture occasioned by these gigantic globes, you observe their bases resting on the ground floor: both the upper and ground floor having the wainscots entirely covered by books. these globes are the performance of vincent coronelli, a venetian; and were presented to louis xiv. by the cardinal d'etrées, who had them made for his majesty. you return back into the fourth room--pace on to its extremity, and then, at right angles, view the fifth room--or, comprising the upper and lower globe rooms, a seventh room; the whole admirably well lighted up from large side windows. observe further--the whole corresponding suite of rooms, on the ground floor, is also nearly filled with printed books, comprising the _unbound copies_--and one chamber, occupied by the more exquisite specimens of the presses of the _alduses_, the _giuntæ_, the _stephens_, &c. upon vellum, or on _large paper_. another chamber is exclusively devoted to large paper copies of _all_ descriptions, from the presses of all countries; and in one or the other of these chambers are deposited the volumes from the library of _grolier_ and _de thou_--names, dear to book-collectors; as an indifferent copy has hardly ever yet been found which was once deposited on the shelves of either. you should know that the public do not visit this lower suite of rooms, it being open only to the particular friends of the several librarians. the measurement of these rooms, from the entrance to the extremity of the fifth room, is upwards of feet. now, my good friend, if you ask me whether the interior of this library be superior to that of our dear bodleian, i answer, at once, and without fear of contradiction--it is very much _inferior_. it represents an interminable range of homely and commodious apartments; but the bodleian library, from beginning to end--from floor to ceiling--is grand, impressive, and entirely of a bookish appearance. in that spacious and lofty receptacle--of which the ceiling, in my humble opinion, is an unique and beautiful piece of workmanship--all is solemn, and grave, and inviting to study: yet echoing, as it were, to the footsteps of those who once meditated within its almost hallowed precincts--the _bodleys_, the _seldens_, the _digbys_, the _lauds_ and _tanners_, of other times![ ] but i am dreaming: forgetting that, at this moment, you are impatient to enter the _ms. department_ of the royal library at paris. be it so, therefore. and yet the very approach to this invaluable collection is difficult of discovery. instead of a corresponding lofty stone stair-case, you cross a corner of the square, and enter a passage, with an iron gate at the extremity--leading to the apartments of messrs. millin and langlès. a narrow staircase, to the right, receives you: and this stair-case would appear to lead rather to an old armoury, in a corner-tower of some baronial castle, than to a suite of large modern apartments, containing probably, upon the whole, the finest collection of _engravings_ and of _manuscripts_, of all ages and characters, in europe. nevertheless, as we cannot mount by any other means, we will e'en set footing upon this stair-case, humble and obscure as it may be. you scarcely gain the height of some twenty steps, when you observe the magical inscription of cabinet des estampes. your spirits dance, and your eyes sparkle, as you pull the little wire--and hear the clink of a small corresponding bell. the door is opened by one of the attendants in livery-- arrayed in blue and silver and red--very handsome, and rendered more attractive by the respectful behaviour of those who wear that royal costume. i forgot to say that the same kind of attendants are found in all the apartments attached to this magnificent collection--and, when not occupied in their particular vocation of carrying books to and fro, these attendants are engaged in reading, or sitting quietly with crossed legs, and peradventure dosing a little. but nothing can exceed their civility; accompanied with a certain air of politeness, not altogether divested of a kind of gentlemanly deportment. on entering the first of those rooms, where the prints are kept, you are immediately struck with the narrow dimensions of the place--for the succeeding room, though perhaps more than twice as large, is still inadequate to the reception of its numerous visitors.[ ] in this first room you observe a few of the very choicest productions of the burin, from the earliest periods of the art, to the more recent performances of _desnoyer_, displayed within glazed frames upon the wainscot. it really makes the heart of a connoisseur leap with ecstacy to see such _finiguerras, baldinis, boticellis, mantegnas, pollaiuolos, israel van meckens, albert durers, marc antonios, rembrandts, hollar, nanteuils, edelincks, &c._; while specimens of our own great master engravers, among whom are _woollet_ and _sharp_, maintain a conspicuous situation, and add to the gratification of the beholder. the idea is a good one; but to carry it into complete effect, there should be a gallery, fifty feet long, of a confined width, and lighted from above:[ ] whereas the present room is scarcely twenty feet square, with a disproportionably low ceiling. however, you cannot fail to be highly gratified--and onwards you go--diagonally--and find yourself in a comparatively long room--in the midst of which is a table, reaching from nearly one end to the other, and entirely filled (every day) with visitors, or rather students--busied each in their several pursuits. some are quietly turning over the succeeding leaves, on which the prints are pasted: others are pausing upon each fine specimen, in silent ecstacy--checking themselves every instant lest they should break forth into rapturous exclamations!... "silence" being rigidly prescribed by the curators--and, i must say, as rigidly maintained. others again are busied in deep critical examination of some ancient ruin from the pages of _piranesi_ or of _montfaucon_--now making notes, and now copying particular parts. meanwhile, from the top to the bottom of the sides of the, room, are huge volumes of prints, bound in red morocco; which form indeed the materials for the occupations just described.[ ] but, hanging upon a pillar, at the hither end of this second room, you observe a large old drawing of a head or portrait, in a glazed frame; which strikes you in every respect as a great curiosity. m. du chesne, the obliging and able director of this department of the collection, attended me on my first visit. he saw me looking at this head with great eagerness. "enfin voilà quelque chose qui mérite bien vôtre attention"--observed he. it was in fact the portrait of "their good but unfortunate king john"--as my guide designated him. this drawing is executed in a sort of thick body colour, upon fine linen: the back-ground is gold: now almost entirely tarnished--and there is a sort of frame, stamped, or pricked out, upon the surface of the gold--as we see in the illuminations of books of that period. it should also seem as if the first layer, upon which the gold is placed, had been composed of the white of an egg--or of some such glutinous substance. upon the whole, it is an exceedingly curious and interesting relic of antient graphic art. to examine minutely the treasures of such a collection of prints--whether in regard to ancient or modern art--would demand the unremitted attention of the better part of a month; and in consequence, a proportionate quantity of time and paper in embodying the fruits of that attention.[ ] there is only one other curiosity, just now, to which i shall call your attention. it is the old wood cut of st. christopher--of which certain authors have discoursed largely.[ ] they suppose they have an impression of it here-- whereas that of lord spencer has been hitherto considered as unique. his lordship's copy, as you well know, was obtained from the buxheim monastery, and was first made public in the interesting work of heineken.[ ] the copy now under consideration is not pasted upon boards, as is lord spencer's-- forming the interior linings in the cover or binding of an old ms.--but it is a loose leaf, and is therefore subject to the most minute examination, or to any conclusion respecting the date which may be drawn from the _watermark_. upon _such_ a foundation i will never attempt to build an hypothesis, or to draw a conclusion; because the same water-mark of bamberg and of mentz, of venice and of rome, may be found within books printed both at the commencement and at the end of the fifteenth century. but for the print--as it _is_. i have not only examined it carefully, but have procured, from m. coeuré, a fac-simile of the head only--the most essential part--and both the examination and the fac-simile convince me... that the st. christopher in the bibliothèque du roi is not an impression from the _same block_ which furnished the st. christopher now in the library of st. james's place. the general character of the figure, in the royal library here, is thin and feeble compared with that in lord spencer's collection; and i am quite persuaded that m. du chesne,--who fights his ground inch by inch, and reluctantly (to his honour, let me add) assents to any remarks which may make his own cherished st. christopher of a comparatively modern date-- will, in the end, admit that the parisian impression is a _copy_ of a later date--and that, had an opportunity presented itself of comparing the two impressions with each other,[ ] it would never have been received into the library at the price at which it was obtained--i think, at about francs. however, although it be not the st. christopher, it is a graphic representation of the saint which may possibly be as old as the year . but we have tarried quite long enough, for the present, within the cabinet of engravings. let us return: ascend about a dozen more steps; and enter the library of manuscripts. as before, you are struck with the smallness of the first room; which leads, however, to a second of much larger dimensions--then to a third, of a boudoir character; afterwards to a fourth and fifth, rather straitened--and sixthly, and lastly, to one of a noble length and elevation of ceiling--worthy in all respects of the glorious treasures which it contains. let me, however, be more explicit. in the very first room you have an earnest of all the bibliomaniacal felicity which these mss. hold out. look to the left--upon entering--and view, perhaps lost in a very ecstacy of admiration--the _romances_ ... of all sizes and character, which at first strike you! what _launcelot du lacs, tristans, leonnois, arturs, ysaises_, and feats of the _table ronde_, stand closely wedged within the brass-wired doors that incircle this and every other apartment! _bibles, rituals, moralities_, ... next claim your attention. you go on--_history, philosophy, arts and sciences_ ... but it is useless to indulge in these rhapsodies. the fourth apartment, of which i spake, exhibits specimens of what are seen more plentifully, but not of more curious workmanship, in the larger room to which it leads. here glitter, behind glazed doors, old volumes of devotion bound in ivory, or gilt, or brass, studded with cameos and precious stones; and covered with figures of all characters and ages--some of the xiith--and more of the immediately following centuries. some of these bindings (among which i include _diptychs_) may be as old as the eleventh--and they have been even carried up to the tenth century. let us however return quickly back again; and begin at the beginning. the first room, as i before observed, has some of the most exquisitely illuminated, as well as some of the most ancient mss., in the whole library. a phalanx of _romances_ meets the eye; which rather provokes the courage, than damps the ardor, of the bibliographical champion. nor are the illuminated _bibles_ of less interest to the graphic antiquary. in my next letter you shall see what use i have made of the unrestrained liberty granted me, by the kind-hearted curators, to open what doors, and examine what volumes, i pleased. meanwhile let me introduce you to the excellent monsieur gail, who is sitting at yonder desk--examining a beautiful greek ms. of polybius, which once belonged to henry ii. and his favourite diane de poictiers. m. gail is the chief librarian presiding over the greek and latin mss., and is himself professor of the greek language in the royal college of france. of this gentleman i shall speak more particularly anon. at the present moment it may suffice only to observe that he is thoroughly frank, amiable, and communicative, and dexterous in his particular vocation: and that he is, what we should both call, a hearty, good fellow-- a natural character. m. gail is accompanied by the assistant librarians mm. de. l'epine, and mÉon: gentlemen of equal ability in their particular department, and at all times willing to aid and abet the researches of those who come to examine and appreciate the treasures of which they are the joint curators. indeed i cannot speak too highly of these gentlemen-- nor can i too much admire the system and the silence which uniformly prevail. another principal librarian is m. langlÈs:[ ] an author of equal reputation with monsieur gail--but his strength lies in oriental literature; and he presides more especially over the persian, arabic, and other oriental mss. to the naïveté of m. gail, he adds the peculiar vivacity and enthusiasm of his countrymen. to see him presiding in his chair (for he and m. gail take alternate turns) and occupied in reading, you would think that a book worm could scarcely creep between the tip of his nose and the surface of the _codex bombycinus_ over which he is poring. he is among the most short-sighted of mortals--as to _ocular_ vision. but he has a bravely furnished mind; and such a store of spirits and of good humour--talking withal unintermittingly, but very pleasantly---that you find it difficult to get away from him. he is no indifferent speaker of our own language; and i must say, seems rather proud of such an acquirement. both he and m. gail, and m. van praet, are men of rather small, stature-- _triplicates_, as it were, of the same work[ ]--but of which m. gail is the tallest copy. one of the two head librarians, just mentioned, sits at a desk in the second room--and when any friends come to see, or to converse with him--the discussion is immediately adjourned to the contiguous boudoir-like apartment, where are deposited the rich old bindings of which you have just had a hasty description. here the voices are elevated, and the flourishes of speech and of action freely indulged in. in the way to the further apartment, from the boudoir so frequently mentioned, you pass a small room--in which there is a plaster bust of the king--and among the books, bound, as they almost all are, in red morocco, you observe two volumes of tremendously thick dimensions; the one entitled _alexander aphrodiæsus, hippocrates, &c._--the other _plutarchi vitæ parallelæ et moralia, &c._ they contain nothing remarkable for ornament, or what is more essential, for intrinsic worth. nevertheless you pass on: and the last--but the most magnificent--of _all_ the rooms, appropriated to the reception of books, whether in ms. or in print, now occupies a very considerable portion of your attention. it is replete with treasures of every description: in ancient art, antiquities, and both sacred and profane learning: in languages from all quarters, and almost of all ages of the world. here i opened, with indescribable delight the ponderous and famous _latin bible of charles the bald_--and the religious manual of his brother the _emperor lotharius_--composed chiefly of transcripts from the gospels. here are ivory bindings, whether as diptychs, or attached to regular volumes. here are all sorts and sizes of the uncial or capital-letter mss-- in portions, or entire. here, too, are very precious old illuminations, and specimens--almost without number--admirably arranged, of every species of bibliographical virtÙ, which cannot fail to fix the attention, enlarge the knowledge, and improve the judgment, of the curious in this department of research. such, my dear friend, is the necessarily rapid--and, i fear, consequently imperfect--sketch which i send you of the general character of the bibliothÈque du roi; both as respects its dead and its living treasures. it remains to be seen how this sketch will be completed.--- and i hereby give you notice, that my next letter will contain some account of a few of the more ancient, curious, and splendid manuscripts--to be followed by a second letter, exclusively devoted to a similar account of the printed books. if i execute this task according to my present inclinations--and with the disposition which i now feel, together with the opportunities which have been afforded me--it will not, i trust, be said that i have been an idle or unworthy visitor of this magnificent collection. [ ] [mons. crapelet takes fire at the above passage: simply because he misunderstands it. in not one-word, or expression of it, is there any thing which implies, directly or indirectly, that "it would be difficult to find another public establishment where the officers are more active, more obliging, more anxious to satisfy the public than in the above." i am talking only of _dress_--and commending the silk stockings of mons. van praet at the expense of those by whom he is occasionally surrounded.] [ ] so, even now: . [ ] in the year , the late m. millin published a dissertation upon this medal, to which he prefixed an engraving of the figure of louis. there can indeed be but one opinion that the engraving is unworthy of the original. [for an illustration of the _medallic history of france_, i scarcely recollect any one object of art which would be more gratifying, as well as apposite, than a faithful engraving of such a medal: and i call upon my good friend m. du chesne to set such a history on foot. there is however another medal, of the same monarch, of a smaller size, but of equal merit of execution, which has been selected to grace the pages of this second edition--in the opposite plate. the inscription is as follows: ludovico xii. regnante cÆsare altero. gaudet omnis natio: from which it is inferred that the medal was struck in consequence of the victory of ravenna, or of louis's triumphant campaigns in italy. a short but spirited account is given of these campaigns in le noir's _musée des monumens français_, tome ii. p. - .] [ ] ["and it is mr. dibdin who makes this confession! let us render justice to his impartiality on this occasion. such a confession ought to cause some regret to those who go to seek engravings in london." crapelet, vol. ii. p. . the reader shall make his own remark on the force, if there be any, of this gratuitous piece of criticism of the french translator.] [ ] [and, till within these few months, those of the rev. dr. nicoll, regius professor of the hebrew language! that amiable and modest and surprisingly learned oriental scholar died in the flower of his age (in his th year) to the deep regret of all his friends and acquaintances, and, i had well nigh said, to the irreparable loss of the university.] [ ] ["this observation is just; and it is to be hoped that they will soon carry into execution the royal ordonance of october, , which appropriates the apartments of the treasury, contiguous, to be united to the establishment, as they become void. however, what took place in , respecting some buildings in the rue neuve des petits champs, forbids us to suppose that this wished for addition will take place." crapelet, p. .] [ ] [m. crapelet admits the propriety of such a suggested improvement; and hopes that government will soon take it up for the accommodation of the visitors--who sometimes are obliged to wait for a _vacancy_, before they can commence these researches.] [ ] [mons. crapelet estimates the number of these splendid volumes (in ,) at "more than six thousand!"] [ ] [m. crapelet might have considered this confession as a reason, or apology, sufficient for not entering into all those details or descriptions, which he seems surprised and vexed that i omitted to travel into.] [ ] _an enquiry into the history of engraving upon copper and in wood_, , to. vol. by w.y. ottley. mr. ottley, in vol. i. p. , has given the whole of the original cut: while in the first volume p. iii. of the _bibliotheca spenceriana_, only the figure and date are given. [ ] _idée générale d'une collection complette des estampes. leips._ . vo. [ ] since the above was written, the rival st. cristopher have been placed _side by side_. when lord spencer was at paris, last year, ( ,) on his return from italy--he wrote to me, requesting i would visit him there, and bring st. christopher with me. that saint was therefore, in turn, carried across the water--and on being confronted with his name-sake, at the royal library ... it was quite evident, at the first glance, as m. du chesne admitted--that they were impressions taken from _different blocks_. the question therefore, was, after a good deal of pertinacious argument on both sides--which of the two impressions was the more ancient? undoubtedly it was that of lord[b] spencer's. [b] [the reasons, upon which this conclusion was founded, are stated at length in the preceding edition of this work: since which, i very strongly incline to the supposition that the paris impression is a _proof_--of one of the _cheats_ of de murr.] [ ] he died in and a notice of his life and labours appeared in the _annales encyclopèdiques_. [ ] "m. dibdin may well make the _fourth_ copy--as to size." crapelet, p. . _letter iii._ the same subjects continued. _paris, june , _. as i promised, at the conclusion of my last, you shall accompany me immediately to the royal library; and taking down a few of the more ancient manuscripts relating to _theology_--especially those, which, from age, art, or intrinsic worth, demand a more particular examination--we will both sit down together to the enjoyment of what the librarians have placed before us. in other words, i shall proceed to fill up the outline (executed with a hurrying pencil) which was submitted to you in my previous letter. first, therefore, for bibles, liturgies, rituals, legends, moral treatises, &c. _quatuor evangelia. "codex membranaceus, olim abbatiæ s. medardi suessionensis in uncialibus litteris et auricis scriptus. sæc. vi."_ the preceding is written in an old hand, inserted in the book. it is a folio volume of unquestionably great antiquity; but i should apprehend that it is _antedated_ by at least _two_ centuries. it is full of embellishment, of a varied and splendid character. the title to each gospel is in very large capital letters of gold, upon a purple ground: both the initial letter and the border round the page being elaborately ornamented. the letter prefixed to st. matthew's gospel is highly adorned, and in very good taste. each page consists of two columns, in capital letters of gold, throughout: within borders of a quiet purple, or lilac tint, edged with gold. it has been said that no two borders are alike altogether. a portrait of each evangelist is prefixed to the title; apparently coeval with the time: the composition is rather grotesque; the colours are without any glaze, and the perspective is bad. latin bible of charles the bald. folio. when this volume was described by me, on a former occasion,[ ] from merely printed authorities, of course it was not in my power to do it, if i may so speak, "after the life,"--for although nearly ten centuries have elapsed since this bible has been executed, yet, considering its remote age, it may be said to be fresh and in most desirable condition. the authority, just hinted at, notices that this magnificent volume was deposited in the library by _baluze_, the head librarian to colbert; but a note in that eminent man's hand writing, prefixed, informs us that the canons of the cathedral church at metz made colbert a present of it. the reverse of the last leaf but one is occupied by latin verses, in capital letters of gold, at the top of which, in two lines, we make out--" _qualiter uiuian monachus sci martini consecrat hanc bibliam karolo ipatorj_," &c. the ensuing and last leaf is probably, in the eye of an antiquarian virtuoso, more precious than either of its decorative precursors. it exhibits the portrait of charles the bald; who is surrounded by four attendants, blended, as it were, with a group of twelve below--in the habits of priests--listening to the oration of one, who stands nearly in the centre.[ ] this illumination, in the whole, measures about fourteen inches in height by nearly ten and a half in width: the purple ground being frequently faded into a greenish tint. the volume itself is about twenty inches in height by fifteen wide. psalter of charles the bald. this very precious volume was also in the library of the great colbert. it is a small quarto, bound in the most sumptuous manner. the exterior of the first side of the binding has an elaborate piece of sculpture, in ivory, consisting of small human figures, beasts, &c.; and surrounded with oval and square coloured stones. the exterior of the other, or corresponding, side of the binding has the same species of sculpture, in ivory; but no stones. the text of the volume is in gold capitals throughout; but the ornaments, as well as the portrait of charles, are much inferior to those in that just described. however, this is doubtless a valuable relic. prayer book of charles the bald; in small to. this is rather an _evangelistarium_, or excerpts from the four gospels. the writing is a small roman lower-case. the illuminations, like those in the bible, are rubbed and faded, and they are smaller. the exterior ornament of the binding, in the middle, contains a group of ivory figures--taken from the _original_ covering or binding. book of the gospels, of the emperor lotharius. although it is very probable that this book may be of a somewhat earlier date than the ms. just described, yet as its original possessor was brother to _charles the bald_, it is but courtesy to place him in the second rank after the french monarch; and accordingly i have here inserted the volume in the order which i apprehend ought to be observed. an ancient ms. memorandum tells us that this book was executed in the th year of the christian era, and in the th of the emperor's reign. on the reverse of the first leaf is the portrait of the emperor, with an attendant on each side. the text commences on the recto of the second leaf. on the reverse of the same leaf, is a representation of the creator. upon the whole, this book may be classed among the most precious specimens of early art in this library. on the cover are the royal arms. latin bible. fol. this ms. of the sacred text is in four folio volumes, and undoubtedly cannot be later than the thirteenth century. the text is written with three columns in each page. of the illuminations, the figures are sketches, but freely executed: the colouring coarse and slightly put on: the wings of some of the angels reminded me of those in the curious _hyde-book_, belonging to the marquis of buckingham at stowe; and of which, as you may remember, there are fac-similes in _the bibliographical decameron_.[ ] the group of angels (on the reverse of the fourth leaf of the first volume), attending the almighty's commands, is cleverly managed as to the draperies. the soldiers have quilted or net armour. the initial letters are sometimes large, in the fashion of those in the bible of charles the bald, but very inferior in execution. in this ms. we may trace something, i think, of the decline of art. psalterium latinÈ, vo. if i were called upon to select any one volume, of given octavo dimensions, i do not know whether i should not put my hand upon the _present_--for you are hereby to know that this was the religious manual of st. louis:--his own choice copy--selected, i warrant, from half a score of performances of rival scribes, rubricators, and illuminators. its condition is absolutely wonderful--nor is the history of its locomotiveness less surprising. first, for an account of its contents. on the reverse of the first fly-leaf, we read the following memorandum--in red: "_cest psaultier fu saint loys. et le dona la royne iehanne deureux au roy charles filz du roy iehan, lan de nres' mil troys cens soissante et neuf. et le roy charles pnt filz du dit roy charles le donna a madame marie de frace sa fille religieuse a poissi. le iour saint michel lan mil iiij^c._" this hand writing is undoubtedly of the time. a word now about the history of this volume. as this extract indicates, it was deposited in a monastery at poissy. when that establishment was dissolved, the book was brought to m. chardin, a bookseller and a bibliomaniac. he sold it, some twenty-five years ago, to a russian gentleman, from whom it was obtained, at moscow, by the grand duke nicholas.[ ] the late king of france, through his ambassador, the count de noailles, obtained it from the grand duke--who received, in return, from his majesty, a handsome present of two sèvre vases. it is now therefore safely and judiciously lodged in the royal library of france. it is in wooden covers, wrapped in red velvet. the vellum is singularly soft, and of its original pure tint. historical paraphrase of the bible. lat. and fr. folio. if any ms. of the sacred text were to be estimated according to the _number of the illuminations_ which it contained, the present would unquestionably claim precedence over every other. in short, this is the ms. of which camus, in the _notices et extraits des mss. de la bibliothèque nationale_, vol. vi. p. , has given not only a pretty copious account, but has embellished that account with fac-similes--one large plate, and two others--each containing four subjects of the illuminations. after an attentive survey of the various styles of art observable in these decorations, i am not disposed to allow the antiquity of the ms. to go beyond the commencement of the xvth century. a sight of the frontispiece causes a re-action of the blood in a lover of genuine large margins. the book is cropt--not _quite_ to the quick!... but then this frontispiece displays a most delicate and interesting specimen of graphic art. it is executed in a sort of gray tone:--totally destitute of other colour. according to camus, there are upwards of five thousand illuminations; and a similar work, in his estimation, could not _now_ be executed under , francs. a similar ms. this consists but of one volume, of a larger size, of leaves. it is also an historical bible. the illuminations are arranged in a manner like those of the preceding; but in black and white only, delicately shaded. the figures are tall, and the females have small heads; just what we observe in those of the _roman d'alexandre_, in the bodleian library. it is doubtless a manuscript of nearly the same age, although this may be somewhat more recent. liber generationis ihi xti. of all portions of the sacred text--not absolutely a consecutive series of the gospels, or of any of the books of the old testament--the present is probably, not only the oldest ms. in that particular department, but, with the exception of the well known _codex claromontanus_, the most ancient volume in the royal library. it is a folio, having purple leaves throughout, upon which the text is executed in silver capitals. both the purple and the silver are faded. on the exterior of the binding are carvings in ivory, exceedingly curious, but rather clumsy. the binding is probably coeval with the ms. they call it of the ninth century; but i should rather estimate it of the eighth. it is undoubtedly an interesting and uncommon volume. evangelium sti. iohannis. this is a small oblong folio, bound in red velvet. it is executed in a very large, lower-case, coarse gothic and roman letter, alternately:--in letters of gold throughout. the page is narrow, the margin is large, and the vellum soft and beautiful. there is a rude portrait of the evangelist prefixed, on a ground entirely of gold. the capital initial letter is also rude. the date of this manuscript is pushed as high as the eleventh century: but i doubt this antiquity. liber precum: cum notis, canticis et figuris. i shall begin my account of prayer books, breviaries, &c. with the present: in all probability the most ancient within these walls. the volume before me is an oblong folio, not much unlike a tradesman's day-book. a ms. note by maugerard, correcting a previous one, assigns the composition of this book to a certain monk, of the name of _wickingus_, of the abbey of prum, of the benedictin order. it was executed, as appears on the reverse of the forty-eighth leaf, "_under the abbotships of gilderius and stephanus_." it is full of illuminations, heavily and clumsily done, in colours, which are now become very dull. i do not consider it as older than the twelfth century, from the shield with a boss, and the depressed helmet. there are interlineary annotations in a fine state of preservation. in the whole, ninety-one leaves. it is bound in red morocco. breviare de belleville: octavo. volumes. rich and rare as may be the graphic gems in this marvellous collection, i do assure you, my good friend, that it would be difficult to select two octavo volumes of greater intrinsic curiosity and artist-like execution, than are those to which i am now about to introduce you:--especially the first. they were latterly the property of louis xiv. but had been originally a present from charles vi. to our richard ii. thus you see a good deal of personal history is attached to them. they are written in a small, close, gothic character, upon vellum of the most beautiful colour. each page is surrounded by a border, (executed in the style of the age--perhaps not later than ) and very many pages are adorned by illuminations, especially in the first volume, which are, even now, as fresh and perfect as if just painted. the figures are small, but have more finish (to the best of my recollection) than those in our roman d'alexandre, at oxford. at the end of the first volume is the following inscription--written in a stiff, gothic, or court-hand character: the capital letters being very tall and highly ornamented. "_cest breuiare est a l'usaige des jacobins. et est en deux volumes dont cest cy le premier, et est nomme le breuiaire de belleville. et le donna el roy charles le vj^e. au roy richart dangleterre, quant il fut mort le roy henry son successeur l'envoya a son oncle le duc de berry, auquel il est a present."_ this memorandum has the signature of "flamel," who was secretary to charles vi. on the opposite page, in the same ancient gothic character, we read: "_lesquelz volumes mon dit seigneur a donnez a ma dame seur marie de france. ma niepce."_ signed by the same. the abbé l'epine informs me that flamel was a very distinguished character among the french: and that the royal library contains several books which belonged to him. breviary of john duke of bedford. pursuing what i imagine to be a tolerably correct chronological order, i am now about to place before you this far-famed _breviary_: companion to the missal which originally belonged to the same eminent possessor, and of which our countrymen[ ] have had more frequent opportunities of appreciating the splendour and beauty than the parisians; as it is not likely that the former will ever again become the property of an englishman. doubtless, at the sale of the duchess of portland's effects in , some gallant french nobleman, if not louis xvi. himself, should have given an unlimited commission to purchase it, in order that both _missal_ and _breviary_ might have resumed that close and intimate acquaintance, which no doubt originally subsisted between them, when they lay side by side upon the oaken shelves of their first illustrious owner. of the _two_ performances, however, there can be no question that the superiority lies decidedly with the _missal_: on the score of splendour, variety, and skilfulness of execution. the last, and by much the most splendid illumination, is _that_ for which the artists of the middle age, and especially the old illuminators, seem to have reserved all their powers, and upon which they lavished all their stock of gold, ultramarine, and carmine. you will readily anticipate that i am about to add--the _assumption of the virgin_. one's memory is generally fallacious in these matters; but of all the exquisite, and of all the minute, elaborate, and dazzling works of art, of the illuminatory kind, i am quite sure that i have not seen any thing which _exceeds_ this. to _equal_ it--there may be some few: but its superior, (of its own particular class of subject) i think it would be very difficult to discover. horÆ beatÆ mariÆ virginis. this may be called either a large thick octavo, or a very small folio. probably it was originally more decidedly of the latter kind. it is bound in fish skin; and a ms. note prefixed thus informs us. "_manuscrit aqui du c^{en} papillon au commencement du mois de frimaire de lan xii. de la république."_ this is without doubt among the most superb and beautiful books, of its class, in the royal library. the title is ornamented in an unusual but splendid manner. some of the larger illuminations are elaborately executed; especially the first--representing the _annunciation_. the robe of the angel, kneeling, is studded with small pearls, finished with the minutest touches. the character of art, generally throughout, is that of the time and manner of the volume last described: but the present is very frequently inferior in merit to what may be observed in the bedford breviary. in regard to the number of decorations, this volume must also be considered as less interesting: but it possesses some very striking and very brilliant performances. thus, _st. michael and the devil_ is absolutely in a blaze of splendor; while the illumination on the reverse of the same leaf is not less remarkable for a different effect. a quiet, soft tone--from a profusion of tender touches of a grey tint, in the architectural parts of the ornaments--struck me as among the most pleasing specimens of the kind i had ever seen. the latter and larger illuminations have occasionally great power of effect, from their splendid style of execution--especially that in which the central compartment is occupied by _st. george and the dragon_. some of the smaller illuminations, in which an angel is shewing the cruelties about to be inflicted on the wicked, by demons, are terrific little bits! as for the vellum, it is "de toute beauté." historia beatÆ mariÆ virginis. folio. this is briefly described in the printed catalogue, under number . it is a large and splendid folio, in a very fine state of preservation; but of which the art is, upon the whole, of the ordinary and secondary class of merit. yet it is doubtless a volume of great interest and curiosity. even to english feelings, it will be gratifying to observe in it the portrait of _louisa of savoy_, mother of francis i. that illustrious lady is sitting in a chair, surrounded by her attendants; and is in all probability a copy from the life. the performance is a metrical composition, in stanzas of eleven verses. i select the opening lines, because they relate immediately to the portrait in question. _tres excellente illustre et magnificque fleur de noblesse exquise et redolente dame dhonneur princesse pacifique salut a ta maieste precellente tes seruiteurs par voye raisonnable tant iusticiers que le peuple amyable. de amyens cite dicte de amenite recomandant sont par humilite leur bien publicque en ta grace et puissance toy confessant estre en realite mere humble et franche au grant espoir de france_. the text is accompanied by the common-place flower arabesques of the period. hours of anne of brittany. the order of this little catalogue of a few of the more splendid and curious illuminated manuscripts, in the royal library of france, has at length, my worthy friend, brought me in contact with the magical and matchless volume usually designated by the foregoing title. you are to know--in the first place--that, of all the volumes in this most marvellous library, the present is deemed the most precious. not even the wishes and regulations of royalty itself allow of its migration beyond the walls of the public library. there it is kept: there it is opened, and shewn, and extolled beyond any limits fixed to the admiration of the beholder. it is a rare and bewitching piece of art, i do assure you: and so, raising your expectations to their highest pitch, i will allow you to anticipate whatever is wonderful in francesco veronese and gorgeous in girolamo dei libri.[ ] perhaps, however, this is not the most happy illustration of the art which it displays. the first view of this magical volume is doubtless rather disheartening: but the sight of the original silver clasps (luckily still preserved) will operate by way of a comforter. upon them you observe this ornament: [illustration.] denoting, by the letter and the ducal crown, that the book belonged to anne, duchess of brittany. on the reverse of the second leaf we observe the _dead christ_ and the _three maries_. these figures are about six inches in height. they are executed with great delicacy, but in a style somewhat too feeble for their size. one or two of the heads, however, have rather a good expression. opposite to this illumination is the _truly invaluable_ portrait of anne herself: attended by two females, each crowned with a glory; one is displaying a banner, the other holding a cross in her hand. to the left of these attendants, is an old woman, hooded, with her head encircled by a glory. they are all three sweetly and delicately touched; but there are many evident marks of injury and ill usage about the surface of the colouring. yet, as being _ideal_ personages, my eye hastily glided off them to gaze upon the illustrious lady, by whose orders, and at whose expense, these figures were executed. it is upon the duchess that i fix my eye, and lavish my commendations. look at her[ ] as you here behold her. her gown is brown and gold, trimmed with dark brown fur. her hair is brown. her necklace is composed of coloured jewels. her cheek has a fresh tint; and the missal, upon which her eyes are bent, displays highly ornamented art. the cloth upon the table is dark crimson. the _calendar_ follows; in which, in one of the winter months, we observe a very puerile imitation of flakes of snow falling over the figures and the landscape below. the calendar occupies a space of about six inches by four, completely enclosed by a coloured margin. then begins a series of the most beautiful ornaments of flowers, fruits, insects, &c. for which the illuminators of this period were often eminently distinguished. these ornaments are almost uniformly introduced in the fore-edges, or right-side margins, of the leaves; although occasionally, but rarely, they encircle the text. they are from five to six inches in length, or height; having the latin name of the plant at top, and the french name at the bottom. probably these titles were introduced by a later hand. it is really impossible to describe many of them in terms of adequate praise. the downy plum is almost bursting with ripeness: the butterfly's wings seem to be in tremulous motion, while they dazzle you by their varied lustre: the hairy insect puts every muscle and fibre into action, as he insinuates himself within the curling of the crisped leaves; while these leaves are sometimes glittering with dew, or coated with the finest down. the flowers and the vegetables are equally admirable, and equally true to nature. to particularise would be endless. assuredly these efforts of art have no rival--of their kind. _scripture subjects. saints, confessors, &c._ succeed in regular order, with accompaniments of fruits and flowers, more or less exquisitely executed:--the whole, a collection of peculiar, and, of its kind, unrivalled art. this extraordinary volume measures twelve inches by seven and a half. hours belonging to pope paul iii. vo. the portrait of the pope is at the bottom of the first ornament, which fixes the period of its execution to about the middle of the sixteenth century. towards the end the pages are elaborately ornamented in the arabesque manner. there are some pleasing children: of that style of art which is seen in the missal belonging to sir m.m. sykes, of the time of francis i.[ ] the scription is very beautiful. the volume afterwards belonged to pius vi., whose arms are worked in tambour on the outside. it is kept in a case, and is doubtless a fine book. missals: numbers - . under this head i shall notice two pretty volumes of the devotional kind; of which the subjects are executed in red, blue, &c.--and of which the one seems to be a copy of the other. the borders exhibit a style of art somewhat between that of julio clovio and what is seen in the famous missal just mentioned. missal of henry iv. no. . this book is of the end of the xvith century. the ground is gold, with a small brilliant, roman letter for text. the subjects are executed in a pale chocolate tint, rather capricious than tasteful. it has been cropt in the binding. the name and arms of henry are on the exterior. thus much, my dear friend, for the sacred text--either in its original, uninterrupted state--or as partially embodied in _missals_, _hours_, or _rituals_. i think it will now be but reasonable to give you some little respite from the toil of further perusal; especially as the next class of mss. is so essentially different. in the mean while, i leave you to carry the image of anne of brittany to your pillow, to beguile the hours of languor or of restlessness. a hearty adieu. [ ] _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. xxxi. [ ] earl vivian, and eleven monks, in the act of presenting the volume to charles. [ ] vol. i. p. lvi.-vii. [ ] the present emperor of russia. [ ] a very minute and particular description of this missal, together with a fac-simile of the duke of bedford kneeling before his tutelary saint george, will be found in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. cxxxvi-cxxxix. [ ] for an account of these ancient worthies in the art of illumination, consult the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. cxlii.-clxiv. [ ] see the opposite plate. [the beautiful copy of the original, by mr. g. lewis, from which the plates in this work were taken, is now in the possession of thomas ponton, esq.] [ ] [it was bought at sir mark's sale, by messrs. rivington and cochrane. see a fac-simile of one of the illuminations in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. clxxix.] _letter iv._ the same subject continued. are you thoroughly awake, and disenchanted from the magic which the contents of the preceding letter may have probably thrown around you? arouse--to scenes of a different aspect, but of a not less splendid and spirit-stirring character. buckle on your helmet, ... for the trumpet sounds to arms. the _knights of the round table_ call upon you, from their rock-hewn, or wood-embowered, recesses, to be vigilant, faithful, enterprising, and undaunted. in language less elevated, and somewhat more intelligible, i am about to place before you a few illuminated mss. relating to history and romance; not without, in the first place, making a digression into one or two volumes of moralities, if they may be so called. prepare therefore, in the first place, for the inspection of a couple of volumes--which, for size, splendor, and general state of preservation, have no superior in the royal library of france. citÉ de dieu: no. : folio. vols. these are doubtless among the most magnificent _shew-books_ in this collection; somewhat similar, in size and style of art, to the ms. of _valerius maximus_, in our british museum--of which, should you not have forgotten it, some account may be read in the _bibliographical decameron_.[ ] at the very first page we observe an assemblage of popes, cardinals, and bishops, with a king seated on his throne in the midst of them. the figures in the fore-ground are from four to five inches high; and so in gradation upwards. the colouring of some of the draperies is in a most delightful tone. the countenances have also a soft and quiet expression. the arms of _graville_ (grauille?) are in the circular border. three leaves beyond, a still larger and more crowded illumination appears--in a surprising state of freshness and beauty; measuring nearly a foot and a half in height. it is prefixed to the _first book_, and is divided into a group in the clouds, and various groups upon the earth below. these latter are representations of human beings in all situations and occupations of life--exhibiting the prevalence both of virtues and vices. they are encircled at bottom by a group of demons. the figures do not exceed two inches in height. nothing can exceed the delicacy and brilliancy of this specimen of art about the middle of the fifteenth century:---a ms. date of shewing the precise period of its execution. this latter is at the end of the first volume. each book, into which the work is divided, has a large illumination prefixed, of nearly equal beauty and splendor. les echecs amoureux. folio. no. . the title does not savour of any moral application to be derived from the perusal of the work. nevertheless, there are portions of it which were evidently written with that view. it is so lovely, and i had almost said so matchless, a volume, that you ought to rejoice to have an account of it in any shape. on the score of delicate, fresh, carefully-executed art, this folio may challenge comparison with any similar treasure in the bibliothèque du roi. the subjects are not crowded, nor minute; nor of a very wonderful and intricate nature; but they are quietly composed, softly executed, and are, at this present moment, in a state of preservation perfectly beautiful and entire. boccace; des cas des nobles hommes et femmes: no. . the present seems to be the fit place to notice this very beautiful folio volume of one of the most popular works of boccaccio. copies of it, both in ms. and early print--are indeed common in foreign libraries. there is a date of at the very commencement of the volume: but i take the liberty to question whether that be the date of its actual execution. the illuminations in this manuscript exhibit a fine specimen of the commencement of that soft, and as some may think woolly, style of art, which appears to so much advantage in the _bedford missal and bedford breviary_; and of which, indeed, a choice specimen of circular ornaments is seen round the first large illumination of the creation and expulsion of adam and eve. these illuminations are not of first rate merit, nor are they all by the same hand. the same work: with the same date--but the hand-writing is evidently more modern. of the illuminations, it will be only necessary to mention the large one at fol. iij.c. (ccc.) in which the gray tints and the gold are very cleverly managed. at the end is seen, in a large sprawling character, the following inscription: "_ce livre est a le harne. fille et seur de roys de france, duchesse de bourbonnois et dauuergne. contesse de clermont et de tourez. dame de beaujeu."_ this inscription bears the date of ; not very long before which i suspect the ms. to have been executed. the same: of the same date--which date i am persuaded was copied by each succeeding scribe. the illuminations are here generally of a very inferior character: but the first has much merit, and is by a superior hand. the text is executed in a running secretary gothic. there are two other mss. of the same work which i examined; and in one of which the well known subject of the _wheel of fortune_ is perhaps represented for the first time. it usually accompanied the printed editions, and may be seen in that of our pynson, in ,[ ] folio. i suspect, from one of the introductory prefaces, that the celebrated _laurent le premier fait_ was the principal scribe who gave a sort of fashion to this ms. in france. ptolemÆus, _latinè_. a magnificent ms.--if size and condition be alone considered. it is however precious in the estimation of collectors of portraits, as it contains one of louis xii;[ ]--this portrait is nearly in the centre of the frontispiece to the book. behind the monarch stand two men; one leaning upon his staff. a large gothic window is above. a crucifix and altar are beneath it. there is but one other similar illumination in the volume; and each nearly occupies the whole of the page--which is almost twenty-three inches long by fourteen wide. the other illumination is hardly worth describing. this noble volume, which almost made the bearer stoop beneath its weight, is bound in wood:--covered with blue velvet, with a running yellow pattern, of the time of louis--but now almost worn away. tite-live. fol. a noble and magnificent ms. apparently of the beginning of the xvth. century. it seems to point out the precise period when the artists introduced those soft, full-coloured, circular borders--just after the abandonment of the sharp outline, and thin coat of colour--discoverable in the illuminations of the xiiith and xivth centuries. the first grand illumination, with a circular border, is an interesting illustration of this remark. the backgrounds to the pictures are the well-known small bright squares of blue and gold. the text is in a firm square and short gothic character. l'histoire romaine: no. : folio, vols. written in the french language. these are among the _shew books_ of the library. the exterior pattern of the binding is beautiful in the extreme. such a play of lines, in all directions, but chiefly circular, i never before saw. the date, on the outside, is . the writing and the illuminations are of the latter part of the xvth century; and although they are gorgeous, and in a fine state of preservation, yet is the character of the art but secondary, and rather common. royal biography of france. fol. this exquisite volume may be justly designated as the _nonpareil_ of its kind. it is rather a book of portraits, than a ms. with intermixed illuminations. the scription, in a sort of cursive, secretary gothic character, merits not a moment's attention: the pencil of the artist having wholly eclipsed the efforts of the scribe. such a series of exquisitely finished portraits, of all the kings of france (with the unaccountable omission, unless it has been taken out, of that of louis xii.) is perhaps no where else to be seen. m. coeuré, the french artist employed by me, stood in ecstasies before it! these portraits are taken from old monuments, missals, and other ancient and supposed authentic documents. they are here touched and finished in a manner the most surprisingly perfect. the book appears to have been executed expressly for charles ix.--to whom it was in fact presented by _dutilliet_, (the artist or the superintendant of the volume) in his proper person. the gilt stamp of the two reversed c's are on the sides of the binding. i should add, that the portraits are surrounded by borders of gold, shaded in brown, in the arabesque manner. all the portraits are whole lengths; and if my time and pursuits had permitted it, i should, ere this, have caused m. coeuré to have transfused a little of his enthusiasm into faithful facsimiles of those of francis i.--my avowed favourite--of which one represents him in youth, and the other in old age. why do not the noblesse of france devote some portion of that wealth, which may be applied to worse purposes, in obtaining a series of engravings executed from this matchless volume?! romances, books of tournament, &c. lancelot du lac shall lead the way. he was always considered among the finest fellows who ever encircled the _table ronde_--and _such_ a copy of his exploits, as is at this moment before me, it is probably not very easy for even yourself to conceive. if the height and bulk of the knight were in proportion to this written record of achievements, the plume of his helmet must have brushed the clouds. this enormous volume (no. ) is divided into three books or parts: of which the first part is illuminated in the usual coarse style of the latter end of the xivth century. the title to this first part, in red ink, is the most perfect resemblance of the earliest type used by caxton, which i remember to have seen in an ancient manuscript. the other titles do not exhibit that similarity. the first part has ccxlviij. leaves. the second part has no illuminations: if we except a tenderly touched outline, in a brownish black, upon the third leaf--which is much superior to any specimen of art in the volume. this second part has cccj. leaves. at the end:-- _sensuit le liure du saint graal_. the spaces for illuminations are regularly preserved, but by what accident or design they were not filled up remains to be conjectured. the third part, or book, is fully illuminated like the first. there is a very droll illumination on folio vij.^{xx}. xij. at the end of the volume, on folio ccxxxiij., recto, is the following date: "_aujourduy iiij. jour du jullet lan mil ccc. soixante dix a este escript ce livre darmes par micheaugatelet prestre demeurant en la ville de tournay_." just before the colophon, on the reverse of the preceding leaf, is a common-place illumination of the interment of a figure in a white sheet--with this incription: ici: gist. lecors: galahavt: seignevr des. lointenes. iles. et. avecqves. lvi. repovse: mesire lancelot. dvlac. mellievr. chrl. dv. mvde. apres. gvaleat. there are two or three more illuminated mss. of our well-beloved lancelot. one, in six volumes, has illuminations, but they are of the usual character of those of the fifteenth century. lancelot du lac, &c. this ms. is in three volumes. the first contains only, as it were, an incipient illumination: but there is preserved, on the reverse of the binding, and written in the same character with the text, three lines--of which the private history, or particular application, is now forgotten--although we learn, from the word _bloys_ being written at top, that this ms. came from the library of catherine de medici--when she resided at blois. the second volume of this copy is in quite a different character, and much older than the first. the colophon assigns to it the date of . the volume is full of illuminations, and the first leaf exhibits a fair good specimen of those drolleries which are so frequently seen in illuminated mss. of that period. the third volume is in a still different hand-writing: perhaps a little more ancient. it has a few slight illuminations, only as capital initials. lancelot du lac: no. . this ms. is executed in a small gothic character, in ink which has now become much faded. from the character of the illuminations, i should consider it to be much more ancient than either of the preceding--even at the commencement of the thirteenth century. among the illuminations there is a very curious one, with this prefix; _vne dame venant a.c. chr. q dort en son lit & ele le volt baisier. mais vne damoiselle li deffendi_ you will not fail to bear in mind that the history of lancelot du lac will be also found in those of tristan and arthur. i shall now therefore introduce you to a ms. or two relating to the former. tristan. no. , vols. _folio_. this is a very fine old ms. apparently of the middle of the xivth century. the writing and the embellishments fairly justify this inference. the first volume contains three hundred and fifty-one leaves. on the reverse of the last leaf but one, is the word "_anne_" in large lower-case letters; but a ms. memorandum, in a later hand, at the end, tells us that this copy was once the property of "_the late dame agnes" &c_. the second volume is written in more of the secretary gothic character--and is probably somewhat later than the first. it is executed in double columns. the illuminations are little more than outlines, prettily executed upon a white ground--or rather the vellum is uncoloured. this volume seems to want a leaf at the commencement, and yet it has a title at top, as if the text actually began there. the colophon is thus: _explicit le romat de. t. et de yseut qui fut fait lan mille. iijc. iiijxx. et xix. la veille de pasques grans._ tristan, fils de meliadus. no. . a folio of almost unparalleled breadth of back;--measuring more than six inches and a quarter, without the binding. a beautiful illumination once graced the first leaf, divided into four compartments, which is now almost effaced. in the third compartment, there are two men and two women playing at chess, in a vessel. what remains, only conveys an imperfect idea of its original beauty. the lady seems to have received check-mate, from the melancholy cast of her countenance, and her paralised attitude. the man is lifting up both hands, as if in the act of exultation upon his victory. the two other figures are attendants, who throw the dice. upon the whole, this is among the prettiest bits i have yet seen. it is worth noticing that the yellow paint, like our indian yellow, is here very much used; shaded with red. the generality of the illuminations are fresh; but there is none of equal beauty with that just described. from the scription, and the style of art, i should judge this ms. to have been executed about the year or ; but a memorandum, apparently in a somewhat later hand, says it was finished in :--_par michean gonnot de la brouce pstre demeurant a croysant._ some lines below have been scratched out. the colophon, just before, is on the recto of the last leaf: _explicit le romans de tristan et de la royne yseult la blonde royne de cornoalle._ tristan: no. . _folio._ vols. the illuminations are magnificent, but lightly coloured and shaded. the draperies are in good taste. the border to the first large illumination, in four parts, is equally elegant in composition and colouring, and a portion of it might be worth copying. there is a pretty illumination of two women sitting down. a table cloth, with dinner upon it, is spread upon the grass between them:--a bottle is plunged into a running stream from a fountain, with an ewer on one side in the fore-ground. one woman plays upon the guitar while the other eats her dinner. the second volume has a fine illumination divided into four parts, with a handsome border--not quite perhaps so rich as the preceding. among the subjects, there is a singular one of lancelot du lac helping a lady out of a cauldron in a state of nudity: two gentlemen and a lady are quietly looking on. the text appertaining to this subject runs thus: "_et quant elle voit lancelot si lui dist hoa sire cheualiers pour dieu ostes moy de ceste aure ou il a eaue qui toute mait et lancelot vint a la aure et prent la damoiselle par la main et lentrait hors. et quant elle se voit deliure elle luy chiet aux pies et lui baise la iambe et lui dist sire benoite soit leure que vous feustes oncques nes, &c_." the top of the last leaf is cut off: and the date has been probably destroyed. the colophon runs thus: _cy fenist le livre de tristan et de la royne yseult de cornouaille et le graal que plus nen va_. the present is a fine genuine old copy: in faded yellow morocco binding-- apparently not having been subjected to the torturing instruments of de rome. le roy artus. no. . folio. i consider this to be the oldest illuminated ms. of the present romance which i have yet seen. it is of the date of , as its colophon imports. it is written in double columns, but the illuminations are heavy and sombre;--about two inches in height, generally oblong. there are grotesques, attached to letters, in the margin. the backgrounds are thick, shining gold. at the end: _explicit de lanselot. del lac[ ] ces roumans fu par escris. en lan del incarnation nostre segnor. mil deus cens et sixante et quatorse le semedi apres pour ce li ki lescrist_. it is in a fine state of preservation. mons. méon shewed me a manuscript of the st. graal, executed in a similar style, and written in treble columns. le meme. this is a metrical ms of the xiiith century: executed in double columns. the illuminations are small but rather coarse. it is in fine preservation. bound in green velvet. formerly the outsides of this binding had silver gilt medallions; five on each side. these have been latterly stolen. i also saw a fine perceforest, in four large folio volumes upon vellum, written in a comparatively modern gothic hand. the illuminations were to be _supplied_--as spaces are left for them. there is also a paper ms. of the same romance, not illuminated. roman de la rose: no. . i consider this to be the oldest ms. of its subject which i have seen. it is executed in a small gothic character, in two columns, with ink which has become much faded: and from the character, both of the scription and the embellishments, i apprehend the date of it to be somewhere about the middle of the xivth century. the illuminations are small, but pretty and perfect; the backgrounds are generally square, diamond-wise, without gold; but there are backgrounds of solid shining gold. the subjects are rather quaintly and whimsically, than elegantly, treated. in the whole, one hundred and sixty leaves. from romances, of all and of every kind, let us turn our eyes towards a representation of subjects intimately connected with them: to wit, a book of tournaments. no. . folio. this volume is in a perfect blaze of splendour. hither let prospero and palmerin resort--to choose their casques, their gauntlets, their cuirasses, and lances: yea, let more than one-half of the roxburghers make an annual pilgrimage to visit this tome!-- which developes, in thirteen minutes, more chivalrous intelligence than is contained even in the mystical leaves of the _fayt of arms and chyvalrye_ of our beloved caxton. be my pulse calm, and my wits composed, as i essay the description of this marvellous volume. beneath a large illumination, much injured, of louis xi. sitting upon his throne--are the following verses: _pour exemple aulx nobles et gens darmes qui appetent les faitz darmes hautes le sire de gremthumsé duyt es armes volut au roy ce livre presenter_. next ensue knights on horseback, heralds, &c.--with a profusion of coat-armours: each illumination occupying a full page. on the reverse of the ninth leaf, is a most interesting illumination, in which is seen the figure of _john duke of brittany_. he is delivering a sword to a king at arms, to carry to his cousin, the duke of bourbon; as he learns, from general report, that the duke is among the bravest champions in christendom, and in consequence he wishes to break a lance with him. the illumination, where the duke thus appears, is quite perfect, and full of interest: and i make no doubt but the countenance of the herald, who is kneeling to receive the sword, is a faithful portrait. it is full of what may be called individuality of character. the next illumination represents the _duke of bourbon accepting the challenge_, by receiving the sword. his countenance is slightly injured. the group of figures, behind him, is very clever. the ensuing illumination exhibits the herald offering the duke de bourbon the choice of eight coats of armour, to put on upon the occasion. a still greater injury is here observable in the countenance of the duke. the process of conducting the tournay, up to the moment of the meeting of the combatants, is next detailed; and several illuminations of the respective armours of the knights and their attendants, next claim our attention. on the reverse of the xxxijnd, and on the recto of the xxxiijd leaf, the combat of the two dukes is represented. the seats and benches of the spectators are then displayed: next a very large illumination of the procession of knights and their attendants to the place of contest. then follows an interesting one of banners, coat armours, &c. suspended from buildings--and another, yet larger and equally interesting, of the entry of the judges. i am yet in the midst of the emblazoned throng. look at yonder herald, with four banners in his hand. it is a curious and imposing sight. next succeeds a formal procession--preparing for the combat. it is exceedingly interesting, and many of the countenances are full of natural expression. this is followed by a still more magnificent cavalcade, with judges in the fore-ground; and the "dames et damoiselles," in fair array to the right. we have next a grand rencontre of the knights attendant--carried on beneath a balcony of ladies whose bright eyes reign influence, and decide the prize. these ladies, thus comfortably seated in the raised balcony, wear what we should now call the _cauchoise_ cap. a group of grave judges is in another balcony, with sundry mottos spread below. in the rencontre which takes place, the mace seems to be the general instrument of attack and defence. splendid as are these illuminations, they yield to those which follow; especially to that which _immediately_ succeeds, and which displays the preparation for a tournament to be conducted upon a very large scale. we observe throngs of combatants, and of female spectators in boxes above. these are rather more delicately touched. now comes ... the mixed and stubborn fight of the combatants. they are desperately engaged with each other; while their martial spirit is raised to the highest pitch by the sharp and reverberating blasts of the trumpet. the trumpeters blow their instruments with all their might. every thing is in animation, bustle, energy, and confusion. a man's head is cut off, and extended by an arm, to which--in the position and of the size we behold--it would be difficult to attach a body. blood flows copiously on all sides. the reward of victory is seen in the next and _last_ illumination. the ladies bring the white mantle to throw over the shoulders of the conqueror. in the whole, there are only lxxiiij. leaves. this is unquestionably a volume of equal interest and splendor; and, when it was fresh from the pencil of the illuminator, its effect must have been exquisite.[ ] book of tournaments: no. . vo. we have here a sort of miniature exhibition of the chief circumstances displayed in the previous and larger ms. it is questionless a very precious book; but has been cruelly cropt. the text and ornaments are clearly of the end of the fifteenth century; perhaps about . nothing can well exceed the brilliancy and power of many of the illuminations, which are very small and very perfect. the knight, with a representation of the trefoil, (or what is called club, in card playing) upon a gold mantle, kills the other with a black star upon a white mantle. this mortal combat is the last in the book. each of the knights, praying before going to combat, is executed with considerable power of expression. the ladies have the high (cauchoise) cap or bonnet. the borders, of flowers, are but of secondary merit. polybius, _græcè_. folio. m. gail placed before me, in a sly manner--as if to draw off my attention from the volumes of chivalry just described,--the present beautiful ms. of polybius. it is comparatively recent, being of the very commencement of the sixteenth century: but the writing exhibits a perfect specimen of that style or form of character which the stephenses and turnebus, &c. appear to have copied in their respective founts of the greek letter. it has also other, and perhaps stronger, claims to notice. the volume belonged to henry ii. and diane de poictiers, and the decorations of the pencil are worthy of the library to which it was attached. the top ornament, and the initial letter,--at the beginning of the text--are each executed upon a blue ground, shaded in brown and gold, in the most exquisitely tasteful manner. this initial letter has been copied "ad amussim" by old robert stephen. upon the whole, this is really an enchanting book, whether on the score of writing or of ornament. farewell, now, therefore--to the collection of mss. in the _bibliothèque du roi_ at paris. months and years may be spent among them, and the vicissitudes of seasons (provided fires were occasionally introduced) hardly felt. i seem, for the last fortnight, to have lived entirely in the "olden time;" in a succession of ages from that of charles the bald to that of henri quatre: and my eyes have scarcely yet recovered from the dazzling effects of the illuminator's pencil. "ii faut se reposer un peu." [ ] vol. i. p. ccxx-i. [ ] see _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. iv p. . [ ] the fac-simile drawing of this portrait, by m. coeuré--from which the print was taken, in the previous edition of this work--is also in the possession of my friend mr. ponton. see note, page ante. [ ] the words "del lac" are in a later hand. [ ] what is rather singular, there is a duplicate of this book: a copy of every illumination, done towards the beginning of the sixteenth century; but the text is copied in a smaller hand, so as to compress the volume into lxviij. leaves. unluckily, the copies of the illuminations are not only comparatively coarse, but are absolutely faithless as to resemblances. there is a letter prefixed, from a person named _le hay_, of the date of , in which the author tells some gentleman that he was in hopes to procure the volume for crowns; but afterwards, the owner obstinately asking , _le hay_ tells his friend to split the difference, and offer . this book once belonged to one "_hector le breton sievr de la doynetrie_"--as the lettering upon the exterior of the binding implies--and as a letter to his son, of the date of , within the volume, also shows. this letter is signed by le breton. _letter v._ some account of early printed and rare books in the royal library. as the art of printing rather suddenly, than gradually, checked the progress of that of writing and illuminating--and as the pressman in consequence pretty speedily tripped up the heels of the scribe--it will be a natural and necessary result...that i take you with me to the collection of printed books. accordingly, let us ascend the forementioned lofty flight of stone steps, and paying attention to the affiche of "wiping our shoes," let us enter: go straight forward: make our obeisance to monsieur van praet, and sit down doggedly but joyfully to the glorious volumes...many of them rough with barbaric gold, which, through his polite directions, are placed before us. to come to plain matter of fact. receive, my good friend, in right earnest and with the strictest adherence to truth, a list of some of those rarer and more magnificent productions of the ancient art of printing, which i have been so many years desirous of inspecting, and which now, for the first time, present themselves to my notice and admiration. after the respectable example of m. van praet,[ ] i shall generally, add the sizes, or measurement[ ] of the respective books examined--not so much for the sake of making those unhappy whose copies are of less capacious dimensions, as for the consolation of those whose copies may lift up their heads in a yet more aspiring attitude. one further preliminary remark. i send you this list precisely in the order in which chance, rather than a preconcerted plan, happened to present the books to me. recueil des histoires de troye. _printed by caxton_. folio. the late m. de la serna santander, who was head librarian of the public library at brussels, purchased this book for the royal library for francs.[ ] it is in the finest possible state of preservation; and is bound in red morocco, with rather a tawdry lining of light blue water-tabby silk. the same work. _printed by verard, without date_. folio. this copy is upon vellum; in the finest possible condition both for size and colour. it is printed in verard's small gothic type, in long lines, with a very broad margin. the wood-cuts are coloured. the last leaf of the first book is ms.: containing only sixteen lines upon the recto of the leaf. this fine copy is bound in red morocco. horÆ beatÆ virginis, gr. _printed by aldus_. . mo. perhaps the rarest aldine volume in the world:--when found in a perfect state. m. renouard had not been able to discover a copy to enrich his instructive annals of the aldine typography.[ ] the present copy is four inches and five eighths, by three inches and a half. it is in its original clasp binding, with stamped leather-outsides.[ ] the shyppe of fooles. _printed by wynkyn de worde_. . vo. at length this far-famed and long talked of volume has been examined. it is doubtless a prodigious curiosity, and unique--inasmuch as this copy is upon vellum. the vellum is stout but soft. i suspect this copy to be rather cropt. it is bound in red morocco, and is perfectly clean and sound throughout. roman de jason. in french. _printed by caxton_. folio. a little history is attached to the acquisition of this book, which may be worth recital. an unknown, and i may add an unknowing, person, bought this most exceedingly rare volume, with the _qudriloge of alain chartier_, , folio, in one and the same ancient wooden binding, for the marvellously moderate sum of-- _one louis_! the purchaser brought the volume to m. de la serna santander, and asked him if he thought _two_ louis too much for their value. that wary bibliographer only replied, "i do not think it is." he became the purchaser; and instantly and generously consigned the volumes to their present place of destination.[ ] you may remember that the collection of anthony storer, in the library of eton college, also possesses this book-- at present wanting in lord spencer's library. the present copy contains one hundred and thirty-two leaves, including a blank leaf; and is in a perfect state of preservation. psalterium, latinè. _printed by fust and schoiffher_. . folio. editio princeps. this celebrated volume is a recent acquisition. it was formerly the copy of girardot de préfond, and latterly that of count m'carthy; at whose sale it was bought for , francs. it is cruelly cropt, especially at the side margins; and is of too sombre and sallow a tint. measurement-- fourteen inches, by nine and a half. it is doubtless an absolutely necessary volume in a collection like the present. only seven known copies in the world. psalterium, latinè. _printed by the same_. : folio. _editio secunda_. the first six leaves have been evidently much thumbed; and the copy, from the appearance of the first leaf alone, is as evidently cropt. for the colophon, both of this and of the preceding edition, examine the catalogue of lord spencer's library.[ ] upon the whole, it strikes me, as far as recollection may serve, that his lordship's copy of each edition is preferable to those under consideration.[ ] this copy measures sixteen inches and a quarter, by twelve and one-eighth. psalterium, latinè. _printed by schoiffher_. . folio. a magnificent volume: and what renders it still more desirable, it is printed upon vellum. lord spencer's copy is upon paper. the _previous_ editions are _always_ found upon vellum. fine and imposing as is the copy before me, it is nevertheless evident--from the mutilated ancient numerals at top--that it has been somewhat cropt. this fine book measures sixteen inches and five eighths, by eleven inches and seven eighths. psalterium, latinè. _printed by schoiffher_. . folio. this book (wanting in the cabinet at st. james's place) is upon paper. as far as folio cxxxvij. the leaves are numbered: afterwards, the printed numerals cease. a ms. note, in the first leaf, says, that the text of the first sixteen leaves precisely follows that of the first edition of . the present volume will be always held dear in the estimation of the typographical antiquary. it is the last in which the name of _peter schoiffher_, the son-in-law of fust, appears to have been introduced. that printer died probably a short time afterwards. it measures fifteen inches and one eighth in height, by ten inches and seven eighths in width. psalterium, latinè. _printed by schoiffher's son_. . folio. a fine and desirable copy, printed upon vellum. it is tolerably fair: measuring fifteen inches, by ten inches and three quarters. i have little hesitation in estimating _these five copies_ of the earlier editions of the psalter, to be worth, at least, one thousand pounds. biblia latina. (_supposed to have been printed in .)_ folio. this is the famous edition called the mazarine bible, from the first known copy of it having been discovered in the library of that cardinal, in the college founded by himself. bibliography has nearly exhausted itself in disquisitions upon it. but this copy--which is upon paper--is the copy _of all copies_; inasmuch as it contains the memorable inscription, or coeval ms. memorandum, of its having been illuminated in .[ ] in the first volume, this inscription occurs at the end of the printed text, in three short lines, but to the best of my recollection, the memorandum resembles the printed text rather more than the fac-simile of it formerly published by me. in the second volume, this inscription is in three long lines and is well enough copied in the m'carthy catalogue. it may be as well to give you a transcript of this celebrated memorandum, as it proves unquestionably the impression to have been executed before any known volume with a printed date. it is taken from the end of the second volume.[ ] the same edition.--this is a sound and desirable copy, printed upon vellum; but much inferior in every respect, to another similar copy in the possession of messrs. g. and w. nicol, booksellers to his majesty.[ ] it measures fifteen inches and three-fourths, by nearly eleven and six eighths. biblia latina. _printed by pfister, at bamberg_. folio. three volumes. the rarest of all latin bibles, when found in a perfect state. this was lord oxford's copy, and is not to be equalled for its beauty and soundness of condition. what renders it precious and unique, is an undoubted coeval ms. date, in red ink, of . some of the leaves in the first volume are wholly uncut. it is in handsome, substantial russia binding. durandi rationale div. off. _printed by fust and schoiffher_. . folio. here are not fewer than _three_ copies of this early, and much coveted volume: all of course upon vellum. the tallest of them measures sixteen inches and a half, by twelve and one eighth; and is in red morocco binding. biblia germanica. _supposed to be printed by mentelin_. _without date_. folio. if we except the earlier leaves--of which the first is in ms., upon vellum, and the three succeeding, which are a little tender and soiled-- this is a very fine copy; so large, as to have many bottom rough margins. at the end of the second volume an ancient ms. memorandum absurdly assigns the printing of this edition to fust, and its date to . the paper of this impression is certainly not very unlike that of the _catholicon_ of . biblia pauperum. a block-book. this is a cropt, but clean and uncoloured copy. i suspect, however, that it has been washed in some parts. it is in red morocco binding. biblia polonica. . folio. this is the famous protestant polish bible, put forth under the patronage of prince radziwill; and concerning which a good deal has been already submitted to the public attention.[ ] but the copy under consideration was a _presentation_ copy from a descendant of prince radziwill--to the public library of sedan, to be there deposited through the intervention of lord james russell; as the following memorandum, in the prince's own hand writing, attests: "_hoc sacrarum literarum veteris nouique testamenti opus, fidelissima cura maiorum meorum vetustis typis polonicis excusum, in bibliothecam sedanensem per nobilem virum dominum jacobum russelium, ill^{mi} principis friderici mauritii bullionei ad me exlegatum inferendum committo_. _h. radziwill_." it is nevertheless an imperfect copy, as it wants the title-page. m. van praet thinks it otherwise complete, but i suspect that it is not so. biblia sclavonica; . folio. of this exceedingly scarce volume--which m. van praet placed before me as almost unique--the present is a fine and desirable copy: in its original binding--with a stamped ornament of the crucifixion on each side. one of these ornaments is quite perfect: the other is somewhat injured. biblia bohemica. _printed in _. folio. among the rarest of the early-printed versions of the sacred text: and this copy happens to be a most beautiful and desirable one. it is wanting in lord spencer's collection; which renders a minute description of it the more desirable. the first signature, _a i_, appears to be blank. on _a ii_ begins a prologue or prefatory proheme, ending on the reverse of _a vj_. it has a prefix, or title, in fifteen lines, printed in red. the text is uniformly printed in double columns, in a sharp secretary-gothic character, with ink sufficiently black, upon paper not remarkably stout, but well manufactured. there are running titles, throughout. the last eight leaves upon signature _i_ are printed in red and black lines alternately, and appear to be an index. the colophon, in nineteen lines, is at the bottom of the second column, on the reverse of _mm viij_. this book is thought to have been printed at _prague_. the present copy is bound in blue morocco. new testament: _in the dutch and russian languages_. this volume, which is considered to be unique, and of which indeed i never saw, or heard of, another copy, bears the imprint of "_'t gravenhage--iohannes van duren, boecverkoper_. mdccxvii." folio. the dutch text is uniformly printed in capital letters; the russian, in what i conceive to be lowercase, and about two-thirds the size of the dutch. the cause of the scarcity of perfect copies is, that very nearly the whole of the impression was _lost at sea_. the present copy undoubtedly affords decided demonstrations of a marine soaking: parts of it being in the most piteous condition. the first volume contains leaves: the second, leaves. the copy is yet in boards, in the most tender condition. m. van praet thinks it _just_ possible that there may be a _second_ similar copy. the _third_ (if there be a second) is known to have perished in the flames at moscow. the pentateuch: _in hebrew_. _printed in _. _folio_. a very fine copy, printed upon vellum. the press work has a rich and black appearance; but the vellum is rather soiled. one leaf presents us with the recto covered by ms. of a brown tint--and the reverse covered by printed text. the last page is certainly ms. this however is a rare and costly tome. tracts printed by pfister, _at bamberg_; folio. this is really a matchless volume, on the score of rarity and curiosity. it begins with a tract, or moral treatise, upon death. the wood cuts, five in number, are very large, filling nearly the whole page. one of them presents us with death upon a white horse; and the other was immediately recognised by me, as being the identical subject of which a fac-simile of a portion is given to the public in lord spencer's catalogue[ ]--but which, at that time, i was unable to appropriate. this tract contains twenty-four leaves, having twenty-eight lines in a full page. in all probability it was the _first_ of the tracts printed by pfister in the present volume. the four histories, so fully detailed in the work just referred to, immediately follow. this is of the date of . then the biblia pauperum, also fully described in the same work. this treatise is without date, and contains seventeen leaves; with a profusion of wood cuts, of which fac-similes have been given by me to the public. these three copies are in remarkably fine preservation; and this volume will be always highly treasured in the estimation of the typographical antiquary. the latin bible, by pfister, has been just described to you. there was a yet more precious typographical gem ... in this very library; by the same printer--with very curious wood cuts,--of one of which heineken has indulged us with a fac-simile. i mean the fables ... with the express date of . but recent events have caused it to be restored to its original quarters.[ ] lactantii institutiones, &c. _printed in the soubiaco monastery_. . folio. this was lord oxford's copy, and may be called almost uncut. you are to learn, that copies of this beautifully printed book are by no means very uncommon--although formerly, if i remember rightly, de bure knew but of one copy in france--but copies in a fine state, and of such dimensions as are mr. grenville's and the one now before me, must be considered as of extremely rare occurrence. this copy measures thirteen inches, one-eighth, and one-sixteenth--by very nearly nine inches one-eighth. you will smile at this particularity; but depend upon it there are ruler-carrying collectors who will thank me heartily for such a rigidly minute measurement. sts. augustinus de civitate dei. _printed in the soubiaco monastery_. . folio. it always does the heart of a bibliographer good to gaze upon a fine copy of this resplendent volume. it is truly among the master-pieces of early printing: but what will be your notions of the copy now under description, when i tell you, not only that it once belonged to our beloved francis i., but that, for amplitude and condition, it rivals the copy in the library at _st. james's place_? in short, it was precisely between _this very copy_, and that of my lord spencer, that m. van praet paused-- ("j'ai balancé" were, i think, the words used to me by that knowing bibliographer) and pondered and hesitated ... again and again ... ere he could decide upon which of the two was to be parted with! but, supposing the size and condition of each to be fairly "balanced" against the other, m. van praet could not, in honour and conscience, surrender the copy which had been formerly in the library of one of the greatest of the french monarchs ... and so the spirit of francis i. rests in peace ... as far as the retention of this copy may contribute to its repose. it is doubtless more brilliant and more attractive than lord spencer's--which, however, has no equal on the _other_ side of the channel: but it is more beaten, and i suspect, somewhat more cropt. i forgot to say, that there are several capital initials in this copy tolerably well illuminated, apparently of the time of francis--who, i am persuaded, loved illuminators of books to his heart. i shall now continue literally as i began:--without any regard to dates, or places where printed. catholicon. _printed by gutenburg_: . folio. vols. this copy is upon vellum; but yet much inferior to the absolutely unrivalled membranaceous copy in mr. grenville's precious library. this copy measures fifteen inches one eighth, by eleven inches one eighth. it is bound in red morocco. grammatica rhythmica. _printed by fust and schoiffher_; . folio. how you would start back with surprise--peradventure mingled with indignation-- to be told that, for this very meagre little folio, somewhat cropt, consisting but of eleven leaves cruelly scribbled upon ... not fewer than _three thousand three hundred livres_ were given--at the sale of cardinal lomenie's library, about thirty years ago! it is even so. and wherefore? because only _one_ other copy of it is known:--and that "other" is luckily reposing upon the mahogany shelves in st. james's place. the present copy measures ten inches seven eighths, by eight inches. vocabularius. _printed by bechtermuntze_; . quarto. editio princeps-- one of the rarest books in the world. indeed i apprehend this copy to be absolutely unique. this work is a latin and german vocabulary, of which a good notion may be formed by the account of the _second_ edition of it, in , in a certain descriptive catalogue.[ ] to be perfect, there should be leaves. a full page has thirty-five lines. this copy is in as fine, clean, and crackling condition, as is that of lord spencer of the second impression. it is eight inches and a half in height, by five inches and five eighths in width. hartlieb's book of chiromancy. _supposed to have been printed with wooden blocks_. folio. you may remember the amusement which you said was afforded you by the account of, and the fac-similes from, this very strange and bizarre production--in the _bibliographical decameron_. the copy before me is much larger and finer than that in lord spencer's collection. the figure of the doctor and of the princess anna are also much clearer in their respective impressions; and the latter has really no very remote resemblance to what is given in the _bibl. spenceriana_[ ] of one of the queens of hungary. if so, perhaps the period of its execution may not be quite so remote as is generally imagined: for the hungarian chronicle, from which that regal figure was taken, is of the date of . historia beatÆ virginis. _without date_. this is doubtless rather an extraordinary volume. the text is printed only on one side of the leaf: so as to leave, alternately, the reverses and rectos blank--facing each other. but this _alone_ is no proof of its antiquity; for, from the character both of the wood cuts and the type, i am quite persuaded that this volume could not have been executed much before the year . it is not improbable that this book might have been printed at _ulm_. it is a very beautiful copy, and bound in blue morocco. virgilius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. editio princeps. the enormous worth and rarity of this exceedingly precious volume may be estimated from this very copy having been purchased, at the sale of the duke de la valliere's library, in , for four thousand one hundred and one livres. the first leaf of the _bucolics_, of which the margin of the page is surrounded by an ancient illumination, gives unfortunate evidence of the binding of chamot.[ ] in other words, this copy, although in other respects white and sound, has been too much cropt. it measures eleven inches and six eighths, by nearly seven inches and five eighths. virgilius. _printed by vindelin de spira_. . here are not fewer than _two_ delicious copies of this exceedingly rare impression--and the most delicious happens to be upon vellum. "o rare felicity!... (you exclaim) to spend so many hours within scarcely more than an arm's length of such cherished and long-sought after treasures!" but it is true nevertheless. the vellum copy demands our more immediate attention. it is very rarely, indeed, that this volume can be obtained in any state, whether upon vellum or paper;[ ] but in the condition in which it is here found, it is a very precious acquisition. some few leaves are a little tawny or foxy, and the top of the very first page makes it manifest that the volume has suffered a slight degree of amputation. but such defects are only as specks upon the sun's disk. this copy, bound in old yellow morocco binding of the gaignat period, measures very nearly twelve inches and three quarters, by eight inches and five eighths. the same edition. a copy upon paper: in the most unusual condition. the pages are numbered with a pen, rather neatly: but these numerals had better have been away. a frightful (gratuitous) ms. title--copied in a modern hand, from another of the date of --strikes us; on opening the volume, in a very disagreeable manner. at top we read "_ad usum h.d. henrici e.c.m.c._" the first page of the text is surrounded by an old illumination: and the title to the bucolics is inserted, by the hand, in gold capital letters. from the impression appearing on the six following leaves, it should seem that this illuminated border had been stamped, after the book was bound. the condition of this classical treasure may be pronounced, upon the whole, to be equally beautiful and desirable. perhaps there has been the slightest possible cropping; as the ancient ms. numerals are occasionally somewhat invisible. however, this is a most lovely book: measuring thirteen inches and one quarter, in height, by nine inches and very nearly one quarter in width. virgilius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. second roman edition; of yet greater scarcity than the first. this was politian's own copy, and is so large as to be almost _uncut_: having the margins filled with scholia, and critical observations, in almost the smallest hand-writing to be met with: supposed to be also from the pen of politian. the autograph and subscription of that eminent scholar meet our eye at the top of the very first fly leaf. of all ancient editions of virgil, this is probably not only the most estimable, but is so scarce as to have been, till lately, perfectly unknown. according to the ancient ms. numerals in this copy, there should be leaves--to render the volume perfect. in our own country, it is-- with a sigh i speak it!--only to be found (and _that_, in an _imperfect_ state) in the library of dr. wm. hunter at glasgow.[ ] this invaluable volume is preserved in good, sound, characteristic old binding. virgilius. _printed by ghering_. . _quarto_. this impression is perhaps rather rare than valuable; although i am free to admit it is yet a desideratum in the spencerian collection. it commences with an address by the famous beroaldus to i. francus, his pupil, on the reverse of the first leaf--in which the tutor expresses his admiration of virgil in the following manner: "te amantissime mi johannes hortor, te moneo, et si pateris oro, ut virgilium lectites. virgilio inhies: illum colas; illum dies noctesque decates. ille sit semper in manibus. et ut præceptoris fungar officio, illud potissimum tibi pecipia et repetens iterumque iterumque monebo: ut humanitatis studia ac masuetiores musas avidissime complectaris." this edition is executed in the printer's second (handsome) fount of roman type, upon very thick paper.[ ] the present copy, although apparently cropt, is sound and desirable. plinii hist. naturalis. _printed by j. de spira_. . folio. editio princeps:--but oh,! marvellous specimen--a copy upon vellum! fair is the colour and soft is the texture of this exquisite production--bound in two volumes. i examined both volumes thoroughly, and am not sure that i discovered what might be fairly called one discoloured leaf. it is with equal pain and difficulty that one withdraws one's eyes from such a beautiful book-gem. this copy measures fifteen inches and a half, by ten inches and three-eighths. the same edition. upon paper. a remarkably fine copy: well beaten however-- and, i should be loth to assert positively, not free from some washing--for the ancient red numerals, introduced by the pencil of the rubricator, and designating the several books and chapters, seem to have faded and been retouched. i observe also, that some of the ancient illuminated letters, which had probably faded during the process of washing or cleaning, have been retouched, and even painted afresh--especially in the blue back-grounds. the first page is prettily illuminated; but there are slight indications of the worm at the end of the volume. upon the whole, however, this is a magnificent book, and inferior only to lord spencer's unrivalled copy--upon paper. it measures sixteen inches and five eighths, by eleven inches and one sixteenth, and is handsomely bound in red morocco. plinii historia naturalis. _printed by jenson_, . folio. a copy upon vellum: but, upon the whole, i was disappointed in the size and condition of this book. the vellum has not had justice done to it in the binding, being in parts crumpled. the first page is however beautifully illuminated. this copy measures sixteen inches, by ten and three eighths. plinii hist. nat. italicè. _printed by jenson_. . folio. a copy upon vellum. about the first forty leaves are cruelly stained at top. the last eight or ten leaves are almost of a yellow tint. in other parts, where the vellum is white, (for it is of a remarkably fine quality) nothing can exceed the beauty of this book: but it has been, i suspect, very severely cropt--if an opinion may be formed from its companion upon paper, about to be described. it is fifteen inches in height, by ten and a quarter in width. the same edition. _printed by the same printer_. i suspect this to be perhaps the finest paper copy in the world: as perfect as lord spencer's copy of the first edition of the same author. every thing breathes of its pristine condition: the colour and the substance of the paper: the width of the margin, and the purity of the embellishments:[ ] this copy will also serve to convince the most obstinate, that, when one catches more than a glimpse of the ms. numerals at top, and ms. signatures at bottom, one has hopes of possessing the book in its primitive plenitude. it is sixteen inches and three quarters in height, by nearly eleven inches and a quarter in width. livius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. editio princeps. a fine copy, in three thin volumes. the margins, however, are not free from ms. notes, and there are palpable evidences of a slight truncation. yet it is a fine copy: measuring fifteen inches and very nearly three quarters, by eleven inches one eighth. in red morocco binding. livius. _printed by ulric han_. _without date_. folio. in three thin volumes. a large copy, but evidently much washed, from the faint appearance of the marginal notes. some leaves are very bad--especially the earlier ones of the preface and the text. the latter, however, have a very pretty ancient illumination. this copy measures fifteen inches five eighths, by ten seven eighths.[ ] livius. _printed by vindelin de spira_. . fol. a magnificent copy, in two volumes: much preferable to either of the preceding. the first page of text has a fine old illumination. it is clean and sound throughout: measuring fifteen inches five eighths, by eleven inches--within an eighth. the same edition. printed upon vellum. this copy, if i remember rightly, is considered to be unique.[ ] it is that which was formerly preserved in the public library at lyons, and had been lent to the late duke de la vallière during his life only--to enrich his book-shelves--having been restored to its original place of destination upon the death of the duke. it is both in an imperfect and lacerated condition: the latter, owing to a cannon ball, which struck it during the siege of lyons. the first volume, which begins abruptly thus: "ex parte altera ripe, &c." is a beautiful book; the vellum being of a uniform, but rather yellow tint. it measures fourteen inches five eighths, by nine and six eighths. the second volume makes a kind-hearted bibliographer shudder. the cannon ball took it obliquely, so as to leave the first part of the volume less lacerated than the latter. in the latter part, however, the direction of the destructive weapon went, capriciously enough, across the page. this second volume yet exhibits a fine old illumination on the first page. livius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . fol. vols. a fine copy, and larger than either of the preceding: but the beginning of the first volume and the conclusion of the second are slightly wormed. there is a duplicate leaf of the beginning of the text, which is rather brown, but illuminated in the ancient manner. this copy measures fifteen inches and a half, by eleven one eighth. let me now vary the bibliographical theme, by the mention of a few copies of works of a miscellaneous but not unamusing character. and first, for a small cluster of caxtons and machlinias. tully of old age, &c. _printed by caxton_, . a cropt and soiled copy; whereas copies of this caxtonian production are usually in a clean and sound condition. the binding is infinitely too gaudy for the state of the interior. it appears to want the treatise upon friendship. this book once belonged to william burton the leicestershire historian; as we learn from this inscription below the colophon: "_liber willmi burton lindliaci leicestrensis socij inter. templi, ex dono amici mei singularis m^{ri}. iohanis price, socij interioris. templi, . jan. . anno regni regis iacobi quarto_." on the reverse is a fac-simile of the same subscription, beneath an exceedingly well executed head of burton, in pen and ink. art and crafte to know well to dye. _printed by caxton_. . folio. this book was sold to the royal library of france, many years ago, by mr. payne, for the moderate sum of £ . s. it is among the rarest of the volumes from the press of caxton. every leaf of this copy exhibits proof of the skill and care of roger payne; for every leaf is inlaid and mounted, with four lines of red ink round each page--not perhaps in the very best taste. the copy is also cramped or choked in the back. statutes of richard iii. _printed by machlinia_. folio. _without date_. a perfect copy for size and condition; but the binding is much too gay. i refer you to the typographical antiquities[ ] for an account of this edition: nova statuta. _printed by the same_. folio. you must examine the pages last referred to, for a description of this elaborately executed volume; printed upon paper of an admirable quality. the present is a sound, clean, and desirable copy: but why in such gay, red morocco, binding? liber modorum significandi. _printed at st. alban's_; . quarto. the only copy of this rare volume i have ever seen. it appears to be bound in what is called the old oxford binding, and the text is preceded by a considerable quantity of old coeval ms. relating to the science of arithmetic. a full page has thirty-two lines. the signatures _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, run in eights: _f_ has six leaves. on the recto of _f_ vj is the colophon: this copy had belonged successively to tutet and wodhull. a ms. treatise, in a later hand, concludes the volume. the present is a sound and desirable copy. boccaccio. il decamerone. _printed by valdarfer_. . folio. this is the famous edition about which all the journals of europe have recently "rung from side to side." but it wants much in value of the yet more famous copy[ ] which was sold at the sale of the duke of roxburghe's library; inasmuch as it is defective in the first leaf of the text, and three leaves of the table. in the whole, according to the comparatively recent numerals, there are leaves. this copy measures eleven inches and a half, by seven inches and seven eighths. it is bound in red morocco, with inside marble leaves. the same work. _printed by p. adam de michaelibus_. _mantua_, . an edition of almost equal rarity with the preceding; and of which, i suspect, there is only one perfect copy (at blenheim) in our own country. the table contains seven leaves; and the text, according to the numbers of this copy, has leaves. a full page has forty-one lines. the present is a sound, genuine copy; measuring, exclusively of the cover, twelve inches three eighths, by eight seven eighths. boccace. ruines des nobles hommes & femmes. _printed by colard mansion, at bruges_. . folio. this edition is printed in double columns, in mansion's larger type, precisely similar to what has been published in the bibliotheca spenceriana.[ ] the title is in red--with a considerable space below, before the commencement of the text, as if this vacuum were to be supplied by the pencil of the illuminator. the present is a remarkably fine copy. the colophon is in six lines. fait de la guerre. _printed by colard mansion_. _without date_. folio. this rare book is printed in a very different type from that usually known as the type of colard mansion: being smaller and closer--but decidedly gothic. a full page has thirty-two lines. there are neither numerals, signatures, nor catchwords. on the recto of the twenty-ninth and last leaf, we read _impressum brugis per colardum mansion._ the reverse is blank. this is a fine genuine copy, in red morocco binding. lascaris grammatica grÆca. . quarto. the first book printed in the greek language; and, as such, greatly sought after by the curious. this is a clean, neat copy, but i suspect a little washed and cropt. nevertheless, it is a most desirable volume.[ ] aulus gellius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. editio princeps. a sound and rather fine copy: almost the whole of the old ms. numerals at top remaining. it is very slightly wormed at the beginning. this copy measures thirteen inches by nine. cÆsar. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. editio princeps: with ms. notes by victorius. a large sound copy, but the first few leaves are soiled or rather thumbed. the marginal edges are apparently uncut. it measures twelve inches seven eighths by nine inches one eighth. apuleius. _printed by the same_. . folio. editio princeps. all these first editions are of considerable rarity. the present copy is, upon the whole, large and sound: though not free from marginal notes and stains. the first few leaves at top are slightly injured. it measures thirteen inches one eighth, by nine inches.[ ] ausonius. . folio: with all the accompanying pieces.[ ] editio princeps; and undoubtedly much rarer than either of the preceding volumes. of the present copy, the first few leaves are wormed in the centre, and a little stained. the first illuminated leaf of the text is stained; so is the second leaf, not illuminated. in the whole, eighty-six leaves. the latter leaves are wormed. this copy is evidently cropt. catullus, tibullus & propertius. . folio. editio princeps. of equal, if not greater, rarity than even the ausonius. this is a sound and very desirable copy--displaying the ancient ms. signatures. the edges of the leaves are rather of a foxy tint. after the catullus, a blank leaf. this copy measures eleven inches one eighth, by very nearly seven inches five eighths. homeri opera. gr. . folio. editio princeps. when you are informed that this copy is ... uncut ... you will necessarily figure to yourself a volume of magnificent, as well as pristine, dimensions. yet, without putting on spectacles, one discovers occasionally a few foxy spots towards the edges; and the first few leaves are perhaps somewhat tawny. upon the whole, however, the condition is wonderful: and i am almost ashamed of myself at having talked about foxy spots and tawny tints. this copy is bound in red morocco, in a sensible, unassuming manner. for the comfort of such, whose copies aspire to the distinction of being _almost_ uncut, i add, that this volume measures fourteen inches, by about nine inches and five eighths. homeri opera. gr. . _printed by bodoni_. folio. volumes. this grand copy is printed upon vellum, and is the presentation copy to bonaparte--to whom this edition was dedicated, by bodoni.[ ] splendid, large, and beautiful, as is this typographical performance, i must candidly own that there is something about it which "likes me not." the vellum, however choice, and culled by bodoni's most experienced foragers, is, to my eye, too white--which arises perhaps from the text occupying so comparatively small a space in the page. nor is the type pleasing to my taste. it is too cursive and sparkling; and the upper strokes are uniformly too thin. in short, the whole has a cold effect. however, this is questionless one of the most magnificent productions of the modern press. the volumes measure two feet in length. croniques de france. _printed by verard_. . folio. three vols. a glorious copy--printed upon vellum! the wood-cuts are coloured. it is bound in red morocco. launcelot du lac. _printed by verard_. . folio. vols. also upon vellum. in red morocco binding. there is yet another copy of the same date, upon vellum, but with different illuminations: equally magnificent and covetable. in red morocco binding. gyron le courtoys: auecques la devise des armes de tous les cheualiers de la table ronde. _printed by verard_. _without date_. folio. printed upon vellum. this was once a fine thumping fellow of a copy!--but it has lost somewhat of its stature by the knife of the binder--or rather from the destruction of the library of st. germain des près: whence it was thrown into the streets, and found next day by m. van praet. many of the books, from the same library, were thrown into cellars. it is evident, from the larger illuminations, and especially from the fourth, on the recto of _d vj_, that this volume has suffered in the process of binding. in old blue morocco. roman de la rose. _printed by verard_. _without date_. small folio. in double columns, in prose. this superbly bound volume--once the property of h. durfé, having his arms in the centre, and corner embellishments, in metal, on which are the entwined initials t.c.--is but an indifferent copy. it is printed upon vellum; and has been, as i suspect, rather cruelly cropt in the binding. much of the vellum is also crumpled and tawny. l'horloge de sapience. _printed by verard_. . folio. one of the loveliest books ever opened, and printed upon vellum. every thing is here perfect. the page is finely proportioned, the vellum is exceedingly beautiful, and the illuminations have a brilliance and delicacy of finish not usually seen in volumes of this kind. the borders are decorated by the pencil, and the second may be considered quite perfect of its kind. this book is bound by bradel l'ainé. milles et amys. _printed by verard_. _without date_. folio. a copy upon vellum. from the same library as the copy of the roman de la rose, just described; and in the same style of binding. it is kept in the same case; but, although cropt, it is a much finer book. the cuts are coloured, and the text is printed in double columns. i do not at this present moment remember to have seen another copy of this edition of the work. ieu des eschez. _without name of printer (but probably by verard) or date_. folio.[ ] this is one of the numerous french originals from which caxton printed his well known moralised work, under the title of the _game and play of the chesse_. this fine copy is printed upon vellum, in a large gothic letter, in double columns. the type has rather an uneven appearance, from the thickness of the vellum. there are several large prints, which, in this copy, are illuminated. l'arbre des batailles. _printed by verard_. . folio. another fine volume, printed upon vellum. with the exception only of one or two crumpled or soiled leaves, this copy is as perfect as can be desired. look from _d iiij_. to _ej_, for a set of exquisitely printed leaves upon vellum, which cannot be surpassed. the cuts are here coloured in the usually bold and brilliant style. la chasse et le depart d'amours. _printed by verard_. . folio. this volume of interesting old french poetry, upon vellum, which is printed in double columns, formerly belonged to the abbey of st. germain des près--as an inscription upon the title denotes. the work abounds with very curious, and very delectable old french poetry. look, amongst a hundred other similar things, at the _"balade ioyeuse des taverniers_," on the reverse _q_. i: each stanza ending with _les tauerniers qui brouillent nostre vin._ la nef des folz du monde. _printed by verard. without date_. folio. a most magnificent copy; printed upon vellum. every page is highly illuminated, with ample margins. what is a little extraordinary, the reverse of the sixth leaf has ms. text above and below the large illumination; while the recto of the same leaf has printed text. the present noble volume, which has the royal arms stamped on the exterior, is one of the few old books which has not suffered amputation by recent binding. the same work. _printed by the same_. folio. the poetry is in double columns, and the cuts are coloured. i apprehend this copy to be much cropt. it is upon vellum: rather tawny, but upon the whole exceedingly sound and desirable. l'art de bien mourir. _printed for verard_. _without date_. folio. a fragment only of the work. in large gothic type; double columns: cuts coloured. there are two cuts of demons torturing people in a cauldron, such as may be seen in the second volume of my typographical antiquities.[ ] some of these cuts, in turn, may be taken from the older ones in block books. the present copy is upon vellum, rather tawny: but it is large and sound. in calf binding. paraboles [de] maistre alain [de lille] _printed by verard_, . folio. a magnificent volume, for size and condition. it is printed in verard's large type, in long lines. the illuminations are highly coloured. this copy is upon vellum.[ ] suppose, now, i throw in a little variety from the preceding, by the mention of a rare _italian_ book or two? let me place before you a choice copy of the monte sancto di dio. _printed in _. folio. this, you know, is the volume about which the collectors of early copper-plate engraving are never thoroughly happy until they possess a perfect copy of it: perhaps a copy of a more covetable description than that which is now before me. there is a duplicate of the first cut: of which one impression is faint, and miserably coloured, and the other is so much cut away to the left, as to deprive the man, looking up, of his left arm. there is an exceedingly well executed duplicate of the large christ, drawn with a pen. in the genuine print there is too much of the burr. the impression of the devil eating human beings, within the lake of fire, is a good bold one. this copy is bound in red morocco, but in a flaunting style of ornament. la sforziada. _printed in _. folio. it is just possible you may not have forgotten the description of a copy of this work--like the present, struck off upon vellum--which appears in the _bibliographical decameron_.[ ] that copy, you may remember, adorns the choice collection of our friend george hibbert, esq.[ ] the book before me is doubtless a most exquisite one; and the copy is of large dimensions. the illuminated first page very strongly resembles that in the copy just mentioned. the portraits appear to be the same: but the cardinal is differently habited, and his phisiognomical expression is less characteristic here than in the same portrait in mr. hibbert's copy. the head of duke sforza, his brother, seems to be about the same. the lower compartment of this splendidly illuminated page differs materially from that of mr. hibbert's copy. there are two figures kneeling, apparently portraits; with the sea in the distance. the figure of st. louis appears in the horizon--very curious. to the right, there are rabbits within an enclosure, and human beings growing into trees. the touch and style of the whole are precisely similar to what we observe in the other copy so frequently mentioned. the capital initials are also very similar. it is a pity that, during the binding, (which is in red morocco) the vellum has been so very much crumpled. this copy measures thirteen inches and seven eighths, by nine inches and three eighths. i must now lay before you a few more classics, and conclude the whole with miscellaneous articles. terentius. _printed by ulric han_. folio. _without date_. in all probability the first edition of the author by ulric han, and perhaps the second in chronological order; that of mentelin being considered the first. it is printed in ulric han's larger roman type. this may be considered a fine genuine copy--in old french binding, with the royal arms. aristotelis opera. _printed by aldus_. , &c. vols. would you believe it--here are absolutely two copies of this glorious effort of the aldine press, printed upon vellum!? one copy belonged to the famous _henri ii. and diane de poictiers_, and is about an eighth of an inch taller and wider than the other; but the other has not met with fair play, from the unskilful manner in which it has been bound--in red morocco. perhaps the interior of this second copy may be preferred to that of henri ii. the illuminations are ancient, and elegantly executed, and the vellum seems equally white and beautiful. probably the tone of the vellum in the other copy may be a _little_ more sombre, but there reigns throughout it such a sober, uniform, mellow and genuine air--that, brilliant and captivating as may be the red morocco copy--_he_ ought to think more than _once_ or _twice_ who should give it the preference. the arms of the morocco copy, in the first page of the life of aristotle, from diogenes laertius, have been cut out. this copy came from the monastery of st. salvador; and the original, roughly stamped, edges of the leaves are judiciously preserved in the binding. both copies have the _first_ volume upon _paper_. indeed it seems now clearly ascertained that it was never printed upon vellum.[ ] the copy of henri ii. measures twelve inches and a quarter, by eight and an eighth. plutarchi opuscula moralia. _printed by aldus_. . folio. vols. another, delicious membranaceous treasure from the fine library of henri ii. and diane de poictiers; in the good old original coverture, besprinkled with interlaced d's and h's. it is in truth a lovely book--measuring ten inches and five eighths, by seven inches and three eighths; but i suspect a little cropt. some of the vellum is also rather tawny--especially the first and second leaves, and the first page of the text of plutarch. these volumes reminded me of the first aldine plato, also upon vellum, in the library of dr. w. hunter; but i question if the plato be _quite_ so beautiful a production. eustathius in homerum. . folio. vols. printed upon vellum--and probably unique. a set of matchless volumes--yet has the binder done them great injustice, by the manner in which the backs are cramped or choked. the exteriors, in blazing red morocco, are not in the very best taste. a good deal of the vellum is also of too yellow a tint, but it is of a most delicate quality. aristotelis ethica nichomachea. gr. this volume forms a part only of the first aldine edition of the nichomachean ethics of aristotle. the margins are plentifully charged with the scholia of basil the great, as we learn from an original letter of "constantinus palæocappa, grecus" to henry the second--whose book it was, and who shewed the high sense he entertained of the scholia, by having the volume bound in a style of luxury and splendour beyond any thing which i remember to have seen--as coming from his library. the reverse of the first leaf exhibits a beautiful frame work, of silver ornaments upon a black ground--now faded; with the initials and devices of henry and diane de poictiers. their arms and supporters are at top. within this frame work is the original and beautifully written letter of constantine palæocappa. on the opposite page the text begins--surrounded by the same brilliant kind of ornament; having an initial h of extraordinary beauty. the words, designating the scholia, are thus: [greek: meta scholiÔn basileiou tou megalou.] these scholia are written in a small, close, and yet free greek character, with frequent contractions. several other pages exhibit the peculiar devices of henry and diana--having silver crescents and arrow-stocked quivers. this book is bound in boards, and covered with dark green velvet, now almost torn to threads. in its original condition, it must have been an equally precious and resplendent tome. it measures twelve inches and a quarter, by eight inches and three eighths. euclides. _printed by ratdolt_. . folio. a copy upon vellum. the address of ratdolt, as it sometimes occurs, is printed in golden letters; but i was disappointed in the view of this book. unluckily the first leaf of the text is ms. but of the time. at the bottom, in an ancient hand, we read "_monasterii s. saluatoris bonon. signatus in inuentario numero ._" it is a large copy, but the vellum is rather tawny. priscianus. _printed by v. de spira_. . folio. first edition, upon vellum. this is a book, of which, as you may remember, some mention has been previously made;[ ] and i own i was glad to turn over the membranaceous leaves of a volume which had given rise, at the period of its acquisition, to a good deal of festive mirth. at the first glance of it, i recognised the cropping system. the very first page of the text has lost, if i may so speak, its head and shoulders: nor is such amputation to be wondered at, when we read, to the left, "_relié par_ derome dit le jeune." would you believe it--nearly one half of the illumination, at top, has been sliced away? the vellum is beautifully delicate, but unluckily not uniformly white. slight, but melancholy, indications of the worm are visible at the beginning--which do not, however, penetrate a great way. yet, towards the end, the ravages of this book-devourer are renewed: and the six last leaves exhibit most terrific evidences of his power. this volume is bound in gay green morocco--with water-tabby pink lining. budÆus. comment. gr. ling. . folio. francis the first's own copy--and upon vellum! you may remember that this book was slightly alluded to at the commencement of a preceding letter. it is indeed a perfect gem, and does one's heart good to look at it. budæus was the tutor of francis, and i warrant that he selected the very leaves, of which this copy is composed, for his gallant pupil. old ascensius was the printer: which completes the illustrious trio. the illuminations, upon the rectos of the first and second leaves, are as beautiful as they are sound. upon the whole, this book may fairly rank with any volume in either of the vellum sets of the aldine aristotle. it is bound in red morocco; a little too gaudily. ciceronis orationes. _printed by valdarfer_. : folio. still revelling among vellum copies of the early classics. this is a fine book, but it is unluckily imperfect. i should say that it was of large and genuine dimensions, did not a little close cropping upon the first illuminated page tell a different tale. it measures twelve inches and six eighths, by eight inches and a half. upon the whole, though there be a few uncomfortably looking perforations of the worm, this is a very charming copy. its imperfections do not consist of more than the deficiency of one leaf, which contains the table. ovidii opera omnia. _printed by azoguidi_. . folio. vols. the supposed first edition, and perhaps (when complete)[ ] the rarest editio princeps in existence. the copy before me partakes of the imperfection of almost every thing earthly. it wants two leaves: but it is a magnificent, and i should think unrivalled, copy--bating such imperfection. it measures very nearly thirteen inches and a quarter, by little more than eight inches three quarters. it is bound in red morocco. Æsopus. latinè. _printed by dom. de vivaldis, &c_. . folio. a most singular volume--in hexameter and pentameter, verses. to every fable is a wood cut, quite in the ballad style of execution, with a back-ground like coarse mosaic work. the text is printed in a large clumsy gothic letter. the present is a sound copy, but not free from stain. bound in blue morocco. Æsopus. italicè. _edited by tuppi_. . folio. a well known and highly coveted edition: but copies are very rare, especially when of goodly dimensions. this is a large and beautiful book; although i observe that the border, on the right margin of the first leaf, is somewhat cut away. the graphic art in this volume has a very imposing appearance. ---- germanicè. _without date or name of printer_. folio. this edition is printed in a fine large open gothic type. there is the usual whole length cut of Æsop. the other cuts are spirited, after the fashion of those in boccacio de malis mulier. illust.--printed by john zeiner at ulm in . the present is a fine, sound copy: in red morocco binding. Æsopus. germanicè. _without date, &c_. folio. this impression, which, like the preceding, is destitute of signatures and catchwords, is printed in a smaller gothic type. the wood cuts are spirited, with more of shadow. some of the initial letters are pretty and curious. some of the pages (see the last but fifteen) contain as many as forty-five lines. the present is a fine, large copy. ---- hispanicè. _printed at burgos._ . folio. this is a beautiful and interesting volume, full of wood cuts. the title is within a broad bold border, thus: "_libro del asopo famoso fabulador historiado en romace_." on the reverse is the usual large wood cut of Æsop, but his mouth is terribly diminished in size. the leaves are numbered in large roman numerals. a fine clean copy, in blue morocco binding. and now, my dear friend, let us both breathe a little, by way of cessation from labour: yourself from reading, and your correspondent from the exercise of his pen. i own that i am fairly tired ... but in a few days i shall resume the book theme with as much ardour as heretofore. [ ] in his meditated catalogue raisonné of the books printed upon vellum in the royal library. [this catalogue is now printed, in vo. vols. . there are copies on large paper. it is a work in all respects worthy of the high reputation of its author. a _supplement_ to it--of books printed upon vellum in _other_ public, and many distinguished _private_ libraries, appeared in , vo. vols.--with two additional volumes in . these volumes are the joy of the heart of a thorough bred bibliographer.] [ ] the measurement is necessarily confined to the leaves--_exclusively_ of the binding. [ ] see the art. "_roman de jason_" [ ] [there are, now, ten known _perfect_ copies of this book, of which six are in england. m. renouard, in his recent edition of the _annals of the aldine press_, vol. i. p. , has been copious and exact.] [ ] [since bound in blue morocco by thouvenin.] [ ] [this anecdote, in the preceding edition of the tour, was told, inaccurately, as belonging to the caxton's edition of the _recueil des hist. de troye_: see p. ante. i thank m. crapelet for the correction.] [ ] _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. , &c. [ ] [the finest copy in the world of the second edition, as to amplitude, is, i believe, that in the bodleian library at oxford. a very singular piece of good fortune has now made it perfect. it was procured by messrs. payne and foss of m. artaria at manheim.] [ ] nine years ago i obtained a fac-simile of this memorandum; and published an essay upon the antiquity of the date of the above bible, in the _classical journal_, vol. iv. p. - . of mr. j.a. valpy. but latterly a more complete fac-simile of it appeared in the catalogue of count m'carthy's books. [ ] "_iste liber illuminatus, ligatus & completus est per henricum cremer vicariu ecclesie sancti stephani maguntini sub anno dni millesimo quatringentesimo quinquagesimo sexto, festo assumptionis gloriose virginis marie. deo gracias. alleluja_." [ ] [this copy having one leaf of ms.--but executed with such extraordinary accuracy as almost to deceive the most experienced eye--was sold in , by public auction, for _l_. and is now in the collection of henry perkins, esq.] [ ] _bibl. spenceriana_; vol. i. p. - . [ ] _bibl. spenceriana_; vol. i. p. - ; where there is also an account of the book itself--from the description of camus. the work is entitled by camus, the allegory of death. [ ] this subject is briefly noticed in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. ; and the book itself is somewhat particularly described there. i think i remember lord spencer to have once observed, that more than a slight hope was held out to him, by the late duke of brunswick, of obtaining this typographical treasure. this was before the french over-ran prussia. [ ] see _bibl. spenceriana_; vol. iii. p. , vol. iv. p. . [ ] vol. iii. p. . [ ] [i had said "de rome"--incorrectly--in the previous edition. "m. dibdin poursuit partout d'un trait vengeur le coupable derome: mais ici c'est au relieur chamot qu'il doit l'addresser." crapelet; vol. iii. p. .] [ ] [the very sound copy of it, upon paper, belonging to the late sir m.m. sykes, bart. was sold at the sale of his library for guineas.] [ ] that sigh has at length ceased to rend my breast. it will be seen, from the sequel of this tour, that a good, sound, perfect copy of it, now adorns the shelves of the _spencerion library_. the virgils indeed, in that library, are perfectly unequalled throughout europe. [ ] [there is a fine copy of this very rare edition in the public library at cambridge.] [ ] [fine as is this book, it is yet inferior in _altitude_ to the copy in the public library at cambridge.] [ ] [there was another copy of this edition, free from the foregoing objections, which had escaped me. this omission frets m. crapelet exceedingly; but i can assure him that it was unintentional; and that i have a far greater pleasure in describing _fine_, than _ordinary_, copies--be they whose they may.] [ ] [not so. there was another copy upon vellum, in the library of count melzi, which is now in that of g.h. standish, esq. i _know_ that guineas were once offered for this most extraordinary copy, bound in volumes in foreign coarse vellum.] [ ] vol. ii. p. : or to the _bibliotheca spenceriana_; vol. iv. p. . [ ] now in lord spencer's collection. [ ] vol. i. p. - . [ ] [to the best of my recollection and belief, the finest copy of this most estimable book, is that in the library of the rt. hon. thomas grenville.] [ ] [the finest copy of this valuable edition, which i ever saw, is that in the public library at cambridge.] [ ] _see bibl. spenceriana_; vol. i. page . [ ] [i had called it a unique copy; but m. crapelet says, that there was a second similar copy, offered to the late eugene beauharnais.] [ ] [it is the edition of verard, of the date of . the copy looks as if it had neither printer's name or date, because the last lines of the colophon have been defaced. see _cat. des livr. iniprim. sur vèlin de la bibl. du roi_. vol. iii. p. . crapelet.] [ ] at page , &c. [ ] [see _cat. des livr. sur vélin_, vol. iv. no. .] [ ] vol. iii. p. . [ ] [mr. hibbert's beautiful copy, above referred to, is about to be sold at the sale of his library, in the ensuing spring; and is fully described in the catalogue of that library, at p. : but the fac-simile portrait of francis sforza, prefixed to the catalogue, wants, i suspect, the high finished brilliancy, or force, of the original.] [ ] [not so: see the _introduction to the classics_, vol. . p. . edit. the _only known_ copy of the first volume, upon vellum, is that in the library of new college, oxford.] [ ] see the _bibliographical decameron_; vol. iii. p. . [ ] [the only entirely perfect copy in europe, to my knowledge, is that in the library of the right hon. thomas grenville.] _letter vi._ conclusion of the account of the royal library. the library of the arsenal. my last letter left me on the first floor of the royal library. i am now about to descend, and to take you with me to the ground floor--where, as you may remember i formerly remarked, are deposited the _aldine vellums_ and _large papers_, and choice and curious copies from the libraries of _grolier, diane de poictiers_, and _de thou_. the banquet is equally delicious of its kind, although the dishes are of a date somewhat more remote from the time of apicius. corresponding with the almost interminable suite of book-rooms above, is a similar suite below stairs: but the general appearance of the latter is comparatively cold, desolate, and sombre. the light comes in, to the right, less abundantly; and, in the first two rooms, the garniture of the volumes is less brilliant and attractive. in short, these first two lower rooms may be considered rather as the depot for the cataloguing and forwarding of all modern books recently purchased. let me now conduct you to the _third room_ in this lower suite, which may probably have a more decided claim upon your attention. here are deposited, as i just observed, the vellum alduses and other curious and choice old printed volumes. i will first mention nearly the whole of the former. homeri opera. gr. _printed by aldus. without date_. vo. vols. a white and beautiful copy--with large, and genuine margins--printed upon vellum. in its original binding, with the ornaments tolerably entire:--and what binding should this be, but that of henry the second and diane de poictiers? let me just notice that this copy measures six inches and a half, by three inches and six eighths. euripidis opera. gr. . vo. vols. a fair and desirable copy upon vellum; but a little objectionable, as being ruled with red lines rather unskilfully. it is somewhat coarsely bound in red morocco, and preserved in a case. this vellum treasure is among the desiderata of earl spencer's library; and i sincerely wish his lordship no worse luck than the possession of a copy like that before me.[ ] hecuba, et iphigenia in aulide. gr. and lat. . vo. a very rare book, and quite perfect, as far as it goes. this copy, also upon vellum, is much taller than the preceding of the entire works of euripides; but the vellum is not of so white a tint. anthologia grÆca. gr. . vo. a very fine genuine copy, upon excellent vellum. i suspect this copy to be a little broader, but by no means taller, than a similar copy in lord spencer's collection. horatius. . vo. upon vellum: a good, sound copy; although inferior to lord spencer's. martialis. . vo. would you believe it?--here are _two_ copies upon vellum, and _both_ originally belonged to grolier. they are differently illuminated, but the tallest--measuring six inches three eighths, by three inches six eighths--is the whitest, and the preferable copy, notwithstanding one may discern the effects of the nibbling of a worm at the bottom corner. it is, however, a beautiful book, in every respect. the initial letters are gold. in the other copy there are the arms of grolier, with a pretty illumination in the first page of the text. it is also a sound copy. lucretius. . vo. this copy, upon vellum, is considered to be unique. it is fair, sound, and in all respects desirable. cicero de officiis. _without date_. vo. this is but a moderate specimen of the aldine vellum, if it be not a counterfeit--which i suspect.[ ] ciceronis orationes. . vo. upon vellum. only the first volume, which however is quite perfect and desirable--measuring six inches and a quarter, by very nearly four inches. but prepare for an account of a perfect, and still more magnificent, vellum copy of the orations of cicero--when i introduce you to the _library of st. geneviève_. hist. august. scriptores. . vo. vols. a sound and fair copy--of course upon vellum--but too much cropt in the binding. the foregoing are all the _aldine, greek and latin classics_, printed upon vellum, which the liberal kindness of m. van praet enabled me to lay my hands upon. but here follows another membranaceous gem of the aldine family. petrarcha. . vo. a beautiful, white copy, measuring six inches and a half, by three and three quarters. it is, however, somewhat choked in the binding, (in blue morocco) as too many of bozerian's performances usually are.[ ] close to this book is the giunta reprint of --also upon vellum: but of a foxy and unpleasing tint. now for a few large paper alduses--of a variety of forms and of characters. but i must premise that the ensuing list of those upon vellum, is very far indeed from being complete. horÆ. gr. . mo. a beautiful copy, among the very rarest of books which have issued from the aldine press. here is also _one_ volume of the aldine aristotle, upon _large paper_: and only one. did the _remaining_ volumes ever so exist? i should presume they did. biblia grÆca. . folio. upon _thick paper_. francis the first's own copy. a glorious and perhaps matchless copy. yet it is rebacked, in modern binding, in a manner ... almost shameful! plautus. . small quarto. a very fine copy; in all appearance large paper, and formerly belonging to grolier. ausonius. . vo. large paper; very fine; and belonging to the same. valerius maximus. . vo. the same--in _all_ respects. priscianus. . vo. every characteristic before mentioned. sannazarii arcadia. _ital_. . vo. the same. ---- _de partu virginis_. . vo. an oblong, large paper grolier, like most of the preceding. isocrates. gr. . folio. eustratius in aristot. gr. . both upon _large paper_, of the largest possible dimensions, and in the finest possible condition; add to which--rich and rare old binding! both these books, upon large paper, are wanting in lord spencer's collection; but then, as a pretty stiff set-off, his lordship has the themistius of -- which, for size and condition, may challenge either of the preceding--and which is here wanting. galenus. . gr. folio. vols. a matchless set, upon _large paper_. the binding claims as much attention, before you open the volumes, as does a finely-proportioned greek portico--ere you enter the temple or the mansion. the foregoing are all, doubtless, equally splendid and uncommon specimens of the beauty and magnificence of the press of the _alduses_: and they are also, with very few exceptions, as intrinsically valuable as they are fine. i shall conclude my survey of these lower-book-regions by noticing a few more uncommon books of their kind. catharin de siena. . folio. this volume is also a peculiarity in the aldine department. it is, in the first place, a very fine copy--and formerly belonged to anne of brittany. in the second place, it has a wood-cut prefixed, and several introductory pieces, which, if i remember rightly, do not belong to lord spencer's copy of the same edition. isocrates. gr. _printed at milan_. . folio. what is somewhat singular, there is another copy of this book which has a title and imprint of the date of or ; in which the old greek character of the body of the work is rather successfully imitated.[ ] biblia polyglotta complutensia. - . fol. vols. i doubt exceedingly whether this be not the largest and finest copy in existence. it may possibly be even _large paper_--but certainly, if otherwise, it is among the most ample and beautiful. the colour, throughout, is white and uniform; which is not the usual characteristic of copies of this work. it measures fourteen inches and three quarters in height, and belonged originally to henry ii. and diane de poictiers. it wanted only _this_ to render it unrivalled; and it now undoubtedly _is_ so. testamentum novum. gr. _printed by r. stephen_. . folio. another treasure from the same richly-fraught collection. it is quite a perfect copy; but some of the silver ornaments of the sides have been taken off. let me now place before you a few more testimonies of the splendour of that library, which was originally the chief ornament of the _chateau d'anet_,[ ] and not of the louvre. herodotus. gr. _printed by aldus_, . folio. i had long supposed lord spencer's copy--like this, upon large paper--to be the finest first aldine herodotus in existence: but the first glimpse only of the present served to dissipate that belief. what must repeated glimpses have produced? lucianus. gr. _printed by the same_. . folio. equally beautiful--large, white, and crackling--with the preceding. suidas. gr. _printed by the same_. . folio. the same praise belongs to this copy; which, like its precursors, is clothed in the first mellow and picturesque binding. eustathius in homerum. . folio. vols. a noble copy--eclipsed perhaps, in amplitude only, by that in the collection of mr. grenville. dion cassius. gr. . folio. appianus. gr. . folio. dionysius halicarnassensis. . folio. these exquisitely well printed volumes are from the press of the stephens. the present copies, clothed in their peculiar bindings, are perhaps the most beautiful that exist. they are from the library of the chateau d'anet. let it not be henceforth said that the taste of henri ii. was not _well_ directed by the influence of diane de poictiers, in the choice of books. ciceronis opera omnia. _printed by the giunti_, . folio. vols. i introduce this copy to your notice, because there are four leaves of _various readings_, at the end of the fourth volume, which m. van praet said he had never observed, nor heard of, in any other copy.[ ] i think also that there are two volumes of the same edition upon large paper:--the rest being deficient. does any perfect copy, of this kind, exist? poetÆ grÆci heroici. . _printed by h. stephen._ folio. de thou's own copy--and, upon the whole, perhaps matchless. the sight of this splendid volume would repay the toil of a pilgrimage of some fourscore miles, over lapland snows. there is another fine copy of the same edition, which belonged to diana and her royal slave; but it is much inferior to de thou's. the frequent mention of de thou reminds me of the extraordinary number of copies, which came from his library, and which are placed upon the shelves of the _fourth_ or following room. perhaps no other library can boast of such a numerous collection of similar copies. it was, while gazing upon these interesting volumes along with m. van praet, that the latter told me he remembered seeing the entire library of de thou--before it was dispersed by the sale of the collection of the prince de soubise in --in which it had been wholly embodied, partly by descent, and partly by purchase. and now farewell ... to the bibliothÈque du roi. we have, i think, tarried in it a good long time; and recreated ourselves with a profusion of rich and rare gems in the book-way--whether as specimens of the pencil, or of the press. i can never regret the time so devoted--nor shall ever banish from my recollection the attention, civility, and kindness which i have received, from all quarters, in this magnificent library. it remains only to shake hands with the whole _corps bibliographique_, who preside over these regions of knowledge, and whose names have been so frequently mentioned--and, making our bow, to walk arm in arm together to the library of the arsenal. the way thither is very interesting, although not very short. whether your hackney coachman take you through the _marché des innocents_, or straight forward, along the banks of the seine--passing two or three bridges--you will be almost equally amused. but reflections of a graver cast will arise, when you call to mind that it was in his way to this very library--to have a little bibliographical, or rather perhaps political, chat with his beloved sully--that henry iv. fell by the hand of an assassin.[ ] they shew you, at the further end of the apartments--distinguished by its ornaments of gilt, and elaborate carvings--the _very boudoir_ ... where that monarch and his prime minister frequently retired to settle the affairs of the nation. certainly, no man of education or of taste can enter such an apartment without a diversion of some kind being given to the current of his feelings. i will frankly own that i lost, for one little minute, the recollection of the hundreds and thousands of volumes-- including even those which adorn the chamber wherein the head librarian sits--which i had surveyed in my route thither. however, my present object must be exclusively confined to an account of a very few choice articles of these hundreds and thousands of volumes. biblia latina. _printed by fust and schoiffher_, . vols. there are not fewer than _three_ copies of this edition, which i shall almost begin to think must be ranked among books of ordinary occurrence. of these three, two are upon vellum, and the third is upon paper. the latter, or paper copy, is cruelly cropt, and bad in every respect. of the two upon vellum, one is in vellum binding, and a fair sound copy; except that it has a few initials cut out. the other vellum copy, which is bound in red morocco-- measuring full fifteen inches and a half, by eleven inches and a quarter-- affords the comfortable evidence of ancient ms. signatures at bottom. there are doubtless some exceptionable leaves; but, upon the whole, it is a very sound and desirable copy. it was obtained of the elder m. brunet, father of the well-known author of the manuel du libraire. m. brunet senior found it in the garret of a monastery, of which he had purchased the entire library; and he sold it to the father of the present comte d'artois for six hundred livres ... only! romaunt de jason, _supposed to be printed by caxton_. folio. _without date_. this is a finer copy than the one in the royal library; but it is imperfect, wanting two leaves. here is a copy of the very rare edition of the morlini _novella comoediæ et fabulæ_, printed in in to.:--also of the _teatro jesuitico--impresso en coimbra_, , to.:--and of the _missa latina_, printed by mylius in , vo. which latter is a satire upon the mass, and considered exceedingly rare. i regretted to observe so very bad a copy of the original _giunta_ edition of the boccaccio of , to. missale parisiense. . folio. a copy upon vellum. i do not think it possible for any library, in any part of the world, to produce a more lovely volume than that upon which, at this moment, i must be supposed to be gazing! in the illuminated initial letters, wood-cuts, tone and quality of the vellum, and extreme skilfulness of the printer--it surely cannot be surpassed. nor is the taste of the binding inferior to its interior condition. it is habited in the richly-starred morocco livery of claude d'urfé: in other words, it came from that distinguished man's library. originally it appears to have been in the "_bibliothèque de l'eglise à paris_." _mozarabic missal and breviary_. , . folio. original editions. these copies are rather cropt, but sound and perfect. the delphin statius. two copies: of which that in calf is the whitest, and less beaten: the other is in dark morocco. the abbé grosier told me that de bure had offered him forty louis for one of them: to which i replied, and now repeat the question, "where is the use of keeping _two_?" rely upon it, that, within a dozen years from hence, it will turn out that these delphin statiuses have never been even _singed_ by a fire![ ] i begin to suspect that this story may be classed in the number of bibliographical delusions-- upon which subject our friend * * could publish a most interesting crown octavo volume: meet garniture for a bibliomaniac's breakfast table. here is the aldine bible of , in greek, upon _thick paper_, bound in red morocco. also a very fine copy of the _icelandic bible_ of , folio, bound in the same manner. among the religious formularies, i observed a copy of the _liturgia svecanæ ecclesiæ catliolicæ et orthodoxæ conformis_, in , folio--which contains only lxxvi leaves, besides the dedication and preface. it has a wood-cut frontispiece, and the text is printed in a very large gothic letter. the commentary is in a smaller type. this may be classed among the rarer books of its kind. but i must not forget a ms. of _the hours of st. louis_--considered as _contemporaneous_. it is a most beautiful small folio, or rather imperial octavo; and is in every respect brilliant and precious. the gold, raised greatly beyond what is usually seen in mss. of this period, is as entire as it is splendid. the miniature paintings are all in a charming state of preservation, and few things of this kind can be considered more interesting. this library has been long celebrated for its collection of _french topography_ and of early _french_ and _spanish romances_; a great portion of the latter having been obtained at the sale of the nyon library. i shall be forgiven, i trust, if i neglect the former for the latter. prepare therefore for a list of some choice articles of this description--in every respect worthy of conspicuous places in all future _roxburghe_ and _stanley_ collections. the books now about to be described are, i think, almost all in that apartment which leads immediately into sully's boudoir. they are described just as i took them from the shelves. richard-sans peur, &c. "_a paris par nicolas et pierre bonfons_," &c. _without date_. to. it is executed in a small roman type, in double columns. there is an imposing wood-cut of richard upon horseback, in the frontispiece, and a very clumsy one of the same character on the reverse. the signatures run to e in fours. an excellent copy. le meme romant. "_imprime nouuelement a paris_." at the end, printed by "_alain lotrain et denis janot_." to. _without date_. the title, just given is printed in a large gothic letter, in red and black lines, alternately, over a rude-wood cut of richard upon horseback. the signatures a, b, c, run in fours: d in eight, and e four. the text is executed in a small coarse gothic letter, in long lines. the present is a sound good copy. robert le dyable. "la terrible et merueilleuse vie de robert le dyable iiii c." to. _without date_. the preceding is over a large wood-cut of robert, with a club in his hand, forming the frontispiece. the signatures run to d, in fours; with the exception of a, which has eight leaves. the work is printed in double columns, in a small gothic type. a sound desirable copy. sypperts de vineuaulx. "lhystoire plaisante et recreative faisant metion des prouesses et vaillaces du noble sypperts de vineuaulx et de ses dix septs filz nouuellement imprime." at the end: printed for "_claude veufue de feu iehan sainct denys_," to. _without date_. on the reverse of this leaf there is a huge figure of a man straddling, holding a spear and shield, and looking over his left shoulder. i think i have seen this figure before. this impression is executed in long lines, in a small gothic letter. a sound copy of a very rare book.[ ] guy de vvarwich. "lhystoire de guy de vvarwich cheualier dagleterre &c. to. _no date_. the preceding is over a wood-cut of the famous guy and his fair felixe. at bottom, we learn that it is executed in a small gothic type, in double columns. the colophon is on the reverse of v. six. messer nobile socio. "le miserie de li amanti di messer mobile socio." colophon: "_stampata in vinegia per maestro bernardino de vitali veneciano_ mdxxxiii." to. this impression is executed in long lines, in a fair, good, italic letter. the signatures, from _a_ to _y_ inclusively, run in fours. the colophon, just given, is on the reverse of _z_ i. of this romance i freely avow my total ignorance. castille et artus d'algarbe. to. this title is over what may be called rather a spirited wood-cut. the date below is . it is printed in double columns, in a small roman type. in the whole, forty-eight leaves. a desirable copy. la nef des dames. to, _without date_. this title is composed of one line, in large lower-case gothic, in black, (just as we see in some of the title pages of gerard de leeu) with the rest in four lines, in a smaller gothic letter, printed in red. in this title page is also seen a wood-cut of a ship, with the virgin and child beneath. this book exhibits a fine specimen of rich gothic type, especially in the larger fount--with which the poetry is printed. there is rather an abundant sprinkling of wood cuts, with marginal annotations. the greater part of the work is in prose, in a grave moral strain. the colophon is a recapitulation of the title, ending thus: "_imprime a lyon sur le rosne par iaques arnollet_." this is a sound but somewhat soiled copy. in torn parchment binding. novelas for maria de zayas, &c. _en zaragoça, en el hospital real_, &c. _ano _." to. these novels are ten in number; some of them containing spanish poetry. an apparently much enlarged edition appeared in . to. "_corregidas y enmendadas en esta ultima impression_." novelas amorosas. _madrid_, . to. twelve novels, in prose: leaves. subjoined in this copy, are the "heroydas belicas, y amoras, &c." _en barcelona_, &c. . to. the whole of these latter are in three-line stanzas: leaves. svcessos y prodigos de amor. _en madrid_. . to. leaves. at the end: "orfeo, en lengva castellana. a la decima mvsa." by the same author: in four cantos: thirty-one leaves. el cavallero cid. "el cid rvy diez de viuar." the preceding title is over a wood-cut of a man on horseback, trampling upon four human bodies. at bottom: _impresso con licencia en salamanca, ano de _." to.: pages. at the end are, the "_seys romances del cid ruy diaz de biuar_." the preceding is on a (i). only four leaves in the whole; quite perfect, and, as i should apprehend, of considerable rarity. this slender tract appears to have been printed at _valladolid por la viuda de francisco de cordoua, ano de _." to. fiorio e biancifiore. "_impressa, &c. ne bologna, delanno del nostro signore m.cccclxxx. adi. xxiii. di decembre. laus deo."_ folio. doubtless this must be the _prima edizione_ of this long popular romance; and perhaps the present may be a unique copy of it. caxton, as you may remember, published an english prosaïc version of it in the year ; and no copy of _that_ version is known, save the one in the cabinet at st. james's place. this edition has only eight leaves, and this copy happens unluckily to be in a dreadfully shattered and tender state. at the end: _finito e il libra del fidelissimo amore che portorno insieme fiorio e biancifiore_ subjoined to the copy just described is another work, thus entitled: secreto solo e in arma ben amaistrato sia qualunqua nole essere inamorato. got gebe ir eynen guten seligen mogen. the preceding, line for line, is printed in a large gothic type: the rest of the work in a small close gothic letter. both pieces, together, contain sixty-three leaves. commedia de celestina. "_vendese la presente obra en la ciudad de anuers_," &c. mo. _without date_. i suspect however that this scarce little volume was _printed_ as well as "_sold_" at paris. milles et amys. "_a rouen chez la veufue de louys costé_." to. without date. the frontispiece has a wood-cut of no very extraordinary beauty, and the whole book exhibits a sort of ballad-style of printing. it is executed in a roman letter, in double columns. ogier le danois. "_on les vend a lyon_, &c." folio. at the end is the date of , over the printer's device of a lion couchant, and a heart and crown upon a shield. it is a small folio, printed in a neat and rather brilliant gothic type, with several wood-cuts. galien et jaqueline. "_les nobles prouesses et vaillances de galien restaure_," &c. , folio. the preceding is over a large wood-cut of a man on horseback; and this romance is printed by the same printer, in the same place, and, as you observe, in the same year--as is that just before described. huon de bourdeaux. here are four editions of this romance:--to which i suspect fourscore more might be added. the first is printed at _paris_ for _bonfons_, in double columns, black letter, with rude wood-cuts. a fine copy: from the colbert collection. the second edition is of the date of : in long lines, roman letter, approaching the ballad-style of printing. the third edition is "_a troyes, chez nicolas oudot_, &c. ." to. in double columns, small roman letter. no cuts, but on the recto and reverse of the frontispiece. the fourth edition is also "_a troyes chez pierre garnier_, ," to. in double columns, roman letter. a very ballad-like production. les quatre filz aymon, two. editions. one. "_à lyon par benoist rigaud_, ," to. the printing is of the ballad-kind, although there are some spirited wood-cuts, which have been wretchedly pulled. the generality are as bad as the type and paper. mabrian. &c. "_a troyes, chez oudot_, ," to. a vastly clever wood-cut frontispiece, but wretched paper and printing. from the _cat. de nyon_; no. . morgant le geant. "_a troyes, chez nicholas oudot_, , to." a pretty wood-cut frontispiece, and an extraordinary large cut of st. george and the dragon on the reverse. there was a previous edition by the same printer at rouen, in , which contains the second book--wanting in this copy. gerard comte de nevers, &c. , to. the title is over the arms of france, and the text is executed in a handsome gothic letter, in long lines. at the end, it appears to have been printed for _philip le noir_. it is a very small quarto, and the volume is of excessive rarity. the present is a fine copy, in red morocco binding. cronique de florimont, &c. at "_lyons--par olivier arnoullet_," to. at the end is the date of . this impression is executed in a handsome gothic type, in long lines. troys filz de roys. printed for "_nicolas chrestien--en la rue neufue nostre dame_," &c. without date, to. the frontispiece displays a large rude wood cut; and the edition is printed in the black letter, in double columns. all the cuts are coarse. the book, however, is of uncommon occurrence. paris et vienne:--"_à paris, chez simon caluarin rue st. jacques_." without date: in double columns; black letter, coarsely printed. a pretty wood-cut at the beginning is repeated at the end. this copy is from the colbert library. pierre de provence et la belle maguelonne. . to. the title is over a large wood-cut of a man and woman, repeated on the reverse of the leaf. the impression is in black letter, printed in long lines, with rather coarse wood-cuts. i apprehend this small quarto volume to be of extreme rarity. jehan de saintre--"_paris, pour jehan bonfons_," &c. to. _without date_. a neatly printed book, in double columns, in the gothic character. there is no cut but in the frontispiece. a ms. note says, "this is the first and rarest edition, and was once worth twelve louis." the impression is probably full three centuries old. berinus et aygres de laymant. at bottom: sold at "_paris par jehan de bonfons_, to. _no date._ it is in double columns, black letter, with the device of the printer on the reverse of the last leaf. a rare book. jean de paris. "le romat de iehan de paris, &c. _à paris, par jehan bonfons_, to. _without date_. in black letter, long lines: with rather pretty wood-cuts. a ms. note at the end says: "ce roman que jay lu tout entier est fort singulier et amusant--cest de luy douvient le proverbe "_train de jean de paris_." cest ici la plus ancienne edition. elle est rare." the present is a sound copy. there are some pleasing wood-cuts at the end. cronique de cleriadus, &c. "_on les vend à lyon au pres de nostre dame de confort cheulx oliuier arnoullet_. at the end; . to. this edition, which is very scarce, is executed in a handsome gothic type, in long lines. the present is a cropt but sound copy. guillaume de palerne, &c. at bottom--beneath a singular wood-cut of some wild animal (wolf or fox) running away with a child, and a group of affrighted people retreating--we read: "_on les vent a lyon aupres dame de confort chez oliuier arnoulle_." at the end is the date of . ---- another edition of the same romance, _printed at rouen, without date, by the widow of louis costé_, to. a mere ballad-style of publication: perhaps not later than .--the date of our wretched and yet most popular impression of the knights of the round table. daigremont et vivian. _printed by arnoullet, at lyons_, in , to. it is executed in a handsome gothic letter, in long lines. this copy is bound up with the _first_ edition of the cronique de florimont--for which turn to a preceding page[ ]. in the same volume is a third romance, entitled la belle helayne, , to.:--_printed by the same printer_, with a singular wood-cut frontispiece; in a gothic character not quite so handsome as in the two preceding pieces. jourdain de blave. _a paris, par nicolas chrestien_," to. _without date_. printed in double columns, in a small coarse gothic letter. doolin de mayence. _a paris--n. bonfons_. _without date_, to. probably towards the end of the sixteenth century; in double columns, in the roman letter. here is another edition, _printed at rouen_, by _pierre mullot_; in roman letter; in double columns. a coarse, wretched performance. meurvin fils d'oger, &c. _a paris;--nicolas bonfons_." to. _without date_. in the roman letter, in double columns. a fine copy. melusine. evidently by _philip le noir_, from his device at the end. it is executed in a coarse small gothic letter; with a strange, barbarous frontispiece. another edition, having a copy of the same frontispiece,-- "_nouuellement imprimee a troyes par nicolas oudot. ."_ to. numerous wood-cuts. in long lines, in the roman letter. trebisond. at the end: for "_iehan trepperel demourat en la rue neufue nostre dame a lenseigne de lescu de frac_. without date, to. the device of the printer is at the back of the colophon. this impression is executed in the black letter, in double columns, with divers wood-cuts. hector de troye. the title is over a bold wood-cut frontispiece, and _arnoullet_ has the honour of being printer of the volume. it is executed in the black letter, in long lines. after the colophon, at the end, is a leaf containing a wood-cut of a man and woman, which i remember to have seen more than once before. and now, methinks, you have had a pretty liberal assortment of romances placed before you, and may feel disposed to breathe the open air, and quit for a while this retired but interesting collection of ancient tomes. here, then, let us make a general obeisance and withdraw; especially as the official announce of "deux heures viennent de sonner" dissipates the charm of chivalrous fiction, and warns us to shut up our volumes and begone. [ ] [the only copy of it in england, upon vellum, is that in the royal library in the british museum.] [ ] [it seems that it is a production of the giunti press. cat. _des livr. &c. sur vélin_, vol. ii. p. .] [ ] [i learn from m. crapelet that this book is a _lyons counterfeit_ of the aldine press; and that the _genuine_ aldine volume, upon vellum, was obtained, after my visit to paris, from the macarthy collection.] [ ] [i had blundered sadly, it seems, in the description of this book in the previous edition of this work: calling it a _theocritus_, and saying there was a second copy on _large paper_. m. crapelet is copious and emphatic in his detection of this error.] [ ] [i thank m. crapelet for the following piece of information--from whatever source he may have obtained it: "the library of henri ii. and diane de poictiers was sold by public auction in , after the death of madame la princesse marie de bourbon, wife of louis-joseph, duc de vendome, who became proprietor of the chateau d'anet. the library, was composed of a great number of mss. and printed books, exceedingly precious. the sale catalogue of the library, which is a small duodecimo of pages, including the addenda, is become very scarce." crapelet; vol. iii. . my friend m. gail published a very interesting brochure, about ten years ago, entitled _lettres inedites de henri ii. diane de poitiers, marie stuart, françois, roi dauphin &c_. amongst these letters, there was only one specimen which the author could obtain of the _united_ scription, or rather signatures, of henry and diana. of these signatures he has given a fac-simile; for which the reader, in common with myself, is here indebted to him. below this _united_ signature, is one of diana herself--from a letter entirely written in her own hand. it must be confessed that she was no calligraphist. [autographs: henri ii, diane de poitiers] [ ] [my friend mr. drury possessed a similar copy.] [ ] it may not be generally known that one of the most minute and interesting accounts of this assassination is given in _howell's familiar letters_. the author had it from a friend who was an eye-witness of the transaction. [ ] as for the "_singeing_."--or the reputed story of the greater part of them having been _burnt_--my opinion still continues to be as implied above: i will only now say that fortunate is that _vendor_ who can obtain _ l._ for a copy--be that copy brown or fair. [ ] [my friend, the late robert lang, esq. whose extraordinary collection of romances was sold at the close of the preceding year, often told me, that the above was the _only_ romance which he wanted to complete his collection.] [ ] page , ante. _letter vii._ library of ste. geneviÈve. the abbÉ mercier st. lÉger. library of the mazarine college, or institute. private library of the king. mons. barbier, librarian. it is just possible that you may not have forgotten, in a previous letter, the mention of ste. geneviÈve--situated in the old quarter of paris, on the other side of the seine; and that, in opposition to the _ancient_ place or church, so called, there was the _new_ ste. geneviève--or the pantheon. my present business is with the _old_ establishment: or rather with the library, hard by the old church of ste. geneviève. of all interiors of libraries, this is probably the most beautiful and striking; and it is an absolute reproach to the taste of antiquarian art at paris, that so beautiful an interior has not been adequately represented by the burin. there is surely spirit and taste enough in this magnificent capital to prevent such a reproach from being of a much longer continuance. but my business is with the _original_, and not with any _copy_ of it--however successful. m. flocon is the principal librarian, but he is just now from home[ ]. m. le chevalier is the next in succession, and is rarely from his official station. he is a portly gentleman; unaffected, good-natured, and kind-hearted. he has lived much in england, and speaks our language fluently: and catching my arm, and leaning upon it, he exclaimed, with a sort of heart's chuckle--in english, "with all my soul i attend you to the library." on entering that singularly striking interior, he whispered gently in my ear "you shall be consigned to a clever attendant, who will bring you what you want, and i must then leave you to your occupations." "you cannot confer upon me a greater favour," i replied. "bon, (rejoined he) je vois bien que vous aimez les livres. a ça, marchons." i was consigned to a gentleman who sat at the beginning of the left rectangular compartment--for the library is in the form of a cross--and making my bow to my worthy conductor, requested he would retire to his own more important concerns. he shook me by the hand, and added, in english--"good day, god bless you, sir." i was not wanting in returning a similar salutation. the library of ste. geneviÈve exhibits a local of a very imposing, as well as extensive, appearance. from its extreme length,--which cannot be less than two hundred and thirty feet, as i should conjecture--it looks rather low. yet the ceiling being arched, and tolerably well ornamented, the whole has a very harmonious appearance. in the centre is a cupola: of which the elder restout, about ninety years ago, painted the ceiling. they talk much of this painting, but i was not disposed to look at it a second time. the charm of the whole arises, first, from the mellow tone of light which is admitted from the glazed top of this cupola; and, secondly, from the numerous busts, arranged along the sides, which recal to your remembrance some of the most illustrious characters of france--for arts, for arms, for learning, and for public spirit. these busts are at the hither end, as you enter. busts of foreigners continue the suite towards the other extremities. a good deal of white carved ornament presents itself, but not unpleasantly: the principal ground colour being of a sombre tint, harmonising with that of the books. the floor is of glazed tile. it was one of the hottest of days when i first put my foot within this interior; and my very heart seemed to be refreshed by the coolness--the tranquillity--the congeniality of character--of every thing around me! in such a place, "hours" (as cowper somewhere expresses it) may be "thought down to moments." a sort of soft, gently-stealing, echo accompanies every tread of the foot. you long to take your place among the studious, who come every day to read in the right compartment of the cross; and which compartment they as regularly _fill_. meanwhile, scarcely a whisper escapes them. the whole is, indeed, singularly inviting to contemplation, research, and instruction. but it was to the left of the cupola--and therefore opposite the studious corps just mentioned--that m. le chevalier consigned me to my bibliographical attendant. i am ignorant of his name, but cannot be forgetful of his kind offices. the ms. catalogue (they have no printed one) was placed before me, and i was requested to cater for myself. among the _libri desiderati_ of the fifteenth century, i smiled to observe the _naples horace of_ ... but you wish to be informed of the _acquired_, and not of the _desiderated_, treasures. prepare, therefore, for a treat-- of its kind. lactantius. _printed in the soubiaco monastery_. . folio. this was pope pius the sixth's copy. indeed the greater number of the more valuable early books belonged to that amiable pontiff; upon whom audiffredi (as you may well remember) has passed so warm and so well merited an eulogium[ ]. the papal copy, however, has its margins scribbled upon, and is defective in the leaf which contains the errata. augustinus de civitate dei. _printed in the same monastery_. . folio. the margins are broad, but occasionally much stained. the copy is also short. from the same papal collection. cicero de oratore. _printed in the same monastery_. _without date_. folio. a sound copy, but occasionally scribbled upon. the side margins are rather closely cropt. biblia latina. . folio. vols. i saw only the first volume, which displays a well-proportioned length and breadth of margin. the illuminations appear to be nearly coeval, and are of a soft and pleasing style of execution. yet the margins are rather deformed by the designation of the chapters, in large roman numerals, of a sprawling character. biblia italica. _kalend. de octobrio_. . folio. vols. a perfectly magnificent copy (measuring sixteen inches three eighths, by ten and six eighths) of this very rare edition; of which a minute and particular account will be found in the catalogue of earl spencer's library.[ ] after a careful inspection--rather than from actual comparison--i incline to think that these noble volumes came from the press of _valdarfer_. the copy under description is bound in brown calf, with red speckled edges to the leaves. this is a copy of an impression of which the library may justly be proud. biblia polonica. . folio. in style of printing and embellishment like our coverdale's bible of . whether it be a reprint (which is most probable) of the famous polish bible of , i am unable to ascertain. virgilius. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. ( .) folio. first edition; of the greatest rarity. probably this is the finest copy (once belonging to pius vi.) which is known to exist; but it must be considered as imperfect--wanting the priapeia. and yet it may be doubted whether the latter were absolutely printed by sweynheym and pannartz for their _first_ edition? this copy, bound in white calf, with the papal arms on the sides, measures twelves inches and a quarter in length, by eight inches and five eighths in width: but the state of the illumination, at the beginning of the bucolics, shews the volume to have been cropt--however slightly. all the illuminations are quiet and pretty. upon the whole, this is a very precious book; and superior in most respects to the copy in the royal library.[ ] plinius senior. . folio. editio princeps. a copy from the same papal library; very fine, both as to length and width.--you rarely meet with a finer copy. _the jenson edition_ of is here comparatively much inferior. cicero. rhetorica vetus. _printed by jenson_. . folio. a great curiosity: inasmuch as it is a copy upon vellum. it has been cruelly cut down, but the vellum is beautiful. it is also choked in the back, in binding. from the collection of the same pope. suetonius. _printed by i.p. de lignamine_. . folio. a magnificent copy; measuring thirteen inches and one eighth in height. the first leaf is, however, objectionable. from the same collection. quintilianus. institutiones. _by the same printer_. . folio. this and the preceding book are first editions. a copy of equal beauty and equal size with the suetonius. from the same collection. priscianus. _printed by v. de spira_. . folio. first edition. we have here a truly delicious copy--upon vellum--and much superior to a similar copy in the royal library[ ] i ought slightly to notice that a few of the leaves, following the date, are tawny, and others mended. upon the whole, however, this is a book which rejoices the eye and warms the heart of a classical bibliographer. it is bound in pale calf, with gilt stamped edges, and once belonged to the pontiff from whose library almost every previously-described volume was obtained. dante. _printed by petrus [adam de michaelibus.] mantua_. . folio. a large and fair copy of an exceedingly rare edition. it appears to be quite perfect. boetius. _printed by frater iohannes_ . to. it is for the first time that i open the leaves of this scarce edition. it is printed in a sharp and rather handsome roman type, and this copy has sixty-three numbered leaves. anthologia grÆca. . to. we have here a most desirable copy--upon vellum, which is equally soft and white. it has been however peppered a little by a worm, at the beginning and end; especially at the end. it is coated in a goodly sort ofgaignat binding. ciceronis opera omnia. _milan_. . folio. vols. this is the finest copy of this rare set of volumes which it has been my lot yet to examine; but the dedication of the printer, minutianus, to i.i. trivulcius, on the reverse of the first leaf of the first volume, is unluckily wanting. there are, who would call this a _large paper_ copy. marsilius ficinus: in dionysium areopagitam. _printed by laurentius, the son of franciscus a venetian; at florence. without date_. folio. this is certainly a very beautiful and genuine book, in this particular condition-- upon vellum--but the small gothic type, in which it is printed, is a good deal blurred. the binding is in its first state: in a deep red-coloured leather, over boards. i should apprehend this impression to be chiefly valuable on the score of rarity and high price, when it is found upon vellum. the foregoing are what i selected from the _fifteeners_; after running an attentive eye over the shelves upon which the books, of that description are placed. in the same case or division where these fifteeners are lodged, there happen to be a few _alduses_, upon vellum--so beautiful, rare, and in such uncommon condition, that i question whether m. van praet doth not occasionally cast an envious eye upon these membranaceous treasures-- secretly, and perhaps commendably, wishing that some of them may one day find their way into the royal collection!... you shall judge for yourself. homeri opera. gr. _printed by aldus. without date_. mo. vols. first aldine impression; and this copy perhaps yields only to the one in the royal library.[ ] these volumes are differently bound; but of the two, that containing the _iliad_, gains in length what it loses in breadth. the vellum is equally soft, white, and well-conditioned; and perhaps, altogether, the copy is only one little degree inferior to that in the royal library. the odyssey is bound in old red morocco, with stampt gilt edges. this copy was purchased from the salviati library. ciceronis orationes. _printed at the aldine press_. . vo. vols. surely this copy is the _ne plus ultra_ of a vellum aldus! in size, condition, and colour, nothing can surpass it. when i say this, i am not unmindful of the royal copies here, and more particularly of the _pindar and ovid_ in st. james's place. but, in truth, there reigns throughout the rectos and reverses of each of these volumes, such a mellow, quiet, and genuine tone of colour, that the most knowing bibliographer and the most fastidious collector cannot fail to express his astonishment on turning over the leaves. they are bound in old red morocco, with the arms of a cardinal on the exterior; and (with the exception of the first volume, which is some _very_ little shorter) full six inches and a half, by four inches. shew me its like if you can! i shall mention only three more volumes; but neither of them aldine; and then take leave of the library of ste. geneviève. missale mozarabicum. . folio. a fine copy for size and colour; but unluckily much wormed at the beginning, though a little less so at the end. it measures nearly thirteen inches one quarter, by nine three eighths. from the stamped arms of three stars and three lizards, this copy appears to have belonged to the _cardinal juigné_, archbishop of paris; who had a fine taste for early printed books. vitruvius, _printed by the giunti_, . vo. a delicious copy; upon white, soft, spotless vellum. i question if it be not superior to mr. dent's;[ ] as it measures six inches and three-quarters, by four. a cruel worm, however, has perforated as far as folio ; leaving one continued hole behind him. the binding of this exquisite book is as gaudy as it is vulgar. tewerdanckhs. _printed in _. folio. first edition. this is doubtless a fine copy--upon thick, but soft and white, vellum. fortunately the plates are uncoloured, and the copy is quite complete in the table. it measures fifteen inches in length, by nine inches three quarters in width. such appeared to me, on a tolerably careful examination of the titles of the volumes, to be among the chief treasures in the early and more curious department of books belonging to the ste. geneviÈve library. without doubt, many more may be added; but i greatly suspect that the learned in bibliography would have made pretty nearly a similar selection; frequently, during the progress of my examinations, i looked out of window upon the square, or area, below--which was covered at times by numerous little parties of youths (from the college of henry iv.) who were partaking of all manner of amusements, characteristic of their ages and habits. with, and without, coats--walking, sitting, or running,--there they were! all gay, all occupied, all happy:--unconscious of the alternate miseries and luxuries of the _bibliomania_!--unknowing in the nice distinctions of type from the presses of _george laver_, _schurener de bopardia_, and _adam rot_: uninitiated in the agonising mysteries of rough edges, large margins, and original bindings! but ... where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise. this is soberly quoted--not meaning thereby to scratch the cuticle, or ruffle the temper, of a single roxburgher. and now, my friend, as we are about to quit this magnificent assemblage of books, i owe it to myself--but much more to your own inextinguishable love of bibliographical history--to say "one little word, or two"--ere we quit the threshold--respecting the abbé mercier saint lÉger ... the head librarian, and great living ornament of the collection, some fifty years ago. i am enabled to do this with the greater propriety, as my friend m. barbier is in possession of a number of literary anecdotes and notices respecting the abbé--and has supplied me with a brochure, by chardon de la rochette, which contains a notice of the life and writings of the character in question. i am sure you will be interested by the account, limited and partial as it must necessarily be: especially as i have known those, to whose judgments i always defer with pleasure and profit, assert, that, of all bibliographers, the abbé mercier st. léger was the first, in eminence, which france possessed, i have said so myself a hundred times, and i repeat the asseveration. yet we must not forget niceron. mercier saint léger was born on the st of april, . at fifteen years of age, he began to consider what line of life he should follow. a love of knowledge, and a violent passion for study and retirement, inclined him to enter the congregation of the _chanoines réguliers_--distinguished for men of literature; and, agreeably to form, he went through a course of rhetoric and philosophy, before he passed into divinity, as a resident in the abbey _de chatrices_ in the diocese of _chalons sur marne_. it was there that he laid the foundation of his future celebrity as a literary bibliographer. he met there the venerable caulet, who had voluntarily resigned the bishopric of grenoble, to pass the remainder of his days in the abbey in question--of which he was the titular head--in the midst of books, solitude, and literary society. mercier saint léger quickly caught the old man's eye, and entwined himself round his heart. approaching blindness induced the ex-bishop to confide the care of his library to st. léger--who was also instructed by him in the elements of bibliography and literary history. he taught him also that love of order and of method which are so distinguishable in the productions of the pupil. death, however, in a little time separated the master from the scholar; and the latter scarcely ever mentioned the name, or dwelt upon the virtues, of the former, without emotions which knew of no relief but in a flood of tears. the heart of mercier st. léger was yet more admirable than his head. st. léger, at twenty years of age, returned to paris. the celebrated pingré was chief librarian of the ste. genevieve collection; and st. léger attached himself with ardour and affection to the society and instructions of his principal. he became joint second librarian in ; when pingré, eminent for astronomy, departing for india to observe the transit of venus over the sun's disk, st. léger was appointed to succeed him as chief--and kept the place till the year . these twelve years were always considered by st. léger as the happiest and most profitable of his life. during this period he lent a helping hand in abridging the _journal de trevoux_. in september, , louis xv. laid the foundation-stone, with great pomp and ceremony, of the new church of ste. geneviève. after the ceremony, he desired to see the library of the old establishment--in which we have both been so long tarrying. mercier spread all the more ancient and curious books upon the table, to catch the eye of the monarch: who, with sundry lords of the bed-chamber, and his _own_ librarian bignon, examined them with great attention, and received from mercier certain information respecting their relative value, and rarity. every now and then louis turned round, and said to bignon, "bignon, have i got that book in my library?" the royal librarian ... answered not a word--but hiding himself behind choiseul, the prime minister, seemed to avoid the sight of his master. mercier, however, had the courage and honesty to reply, "no, sire, that book is _not_ in your library." the king spent about an hour in examining the books, chatting with the librarian, (mercier) and informing himself on those points in which he was ignorant. it was during this conversation, that the noble spirit of mercier was manifested. the building of the library of st. victor was in a very crazy state: it was necessary to repair it, but the public treasury could not support that expense. "i will tell your majesty, (said mercier) how this may be managed without costing you a single crown. the headship of the abbey of st. victor is vacant: name a new abbot; upon condition, each year, of his ceding a portion of his revenue to the reparation of the library." if the king had had one spark of generous feeling, he would have replied by naming mercier to the abbey in question, and by enjoining the strict fulfilment of his own proposition. but it was not so. yet the scheme was carried into effect, although others had the glory of it. however, the king had not forgotten mercier, nor the bibliographical lesson which he had received in the library of ste. geneviève. one of these lessons consisted in having the distinctive marks pointed out of the famous _bible of sixtus v_. published in . a short time after, on returning from mass, along the great gallery of versailles, louis saw the head librarian of ste. geneviève among the spectators.. and turning to his prime minister, exclaimed "choiseul, how can one distinguish the _true_ bible of sixtus v.?" "sire, (replied the unsuspecting minister) i never was acquainted with that book." then, addressing himself to mercier, the king repeated to him--without the least hesitation or inaccuracy--the lesson which he had learnt in the library of ste. geneviève. there are few stories, i apprehend, which redound so much to this king's credit. louis gave yet more substantial proofs of his respect for his bibliographical master, by appointing him, at the age of thirty-two, to the headship of the abbey of _st. léger de soissons_--and hence our hero derives his name. in mercier surrendered the ste. geneviève library to pingré, on his return from abroad--and in the privacy of his own society, set about composing his celebrated _supplément à l'histoire de l'imprimerie par prosper marchand_--of which the second edition, in , is not only more copious but more correct. the abbé rive, who loved to fasten his teeth in every thing that had credit with the world, endeavoured to shake the reputation of this performance.. but in vain. mercier now travelled abroad; was received every where with banqueting and caresses; a distinction due to his bibliographical merits--and was particularly made welcome by meerman and crevenna. m. ochéda, earl spencer's late librarian--and formerly librarian to crevenna--has often told me how pleased he used to be with mercier's society and conversation during his visit to crevenna. on his return, mercier continued his work, too long suspended, upon the latin poets of the middle age. his object was, to give a brief biography of each; an analysis of their works, with little brilliant extracts and piquant anecdotes; traits of history little known; which, say chardon de la rochette and m. barbier, (who have read a great part of the original ms.) "are as amusing as they are instructive." but the revolution was now fast approaching, and the meek spirit of mercier could ill sustain the shock of such a frightful calamity. besides, he loved his country yet dearer than his books. his property became involved: his income regularly diminished; and even his privacy was invaded. in a decree passed the convention for issuing a "commission for the examination of monuments." mercier was appointed one of the thirty-three members of which the commission was composed, and the famous barrère was also of the number. barrère, fertile in projects however visionary and destructive, proposed to mercier, as a _bright thought_, "to make a short extract from every book in the national library: to have these extracts superbly printed by didot;--and to ... burn all the books from which they were taken!" it never occurred to this revolutionising idiot that there might be a _thousand_ copies of the _same work_, and that some hundreds of these copies might be out of the national library! of course, mercier laughed at the project, and made the projector ashamed of it.[ ] robespierre, rather fiend than man, now ruled the destinies of france. on the th of july, , mercier happened to be passing along the streets when he saw _sixty-seven human beings_ about to undergo the butchery of the guillotine. every avenue was crowded by spectators--who were hurrying towards the horrid spectacle. mercier was carried along by the torrent; but, having just strength enough to raise his head, he looked up ... and beheld his old and intimate friend the ex-abbé roger ... in the number of devoted victims! that sight cost him his life. a sudden horror ... followed by alternate shiverings, and flushings of heat ... immediately seized him. a cold perspiration hung upon his brow. he was carried into the house of a stranger. his utterance became feeble and indistinct, and it seemed as if the hand of death were already upon him. yet he rallied awhile. his friends came to soothe him. hopes were entertained of a rapid and perfect recovery. he even made a few little visits to his friends in the vicinity of paris. but ... his fine full figure gradually shrunk: the colour as gradually deserted his cheek--and his eye sensibly lacked that lustre which it used to shed upon all around. his limbs became feeble, and his step was both tremulous and slow. he lingered five years ... and died at ten at night, on the th of may , just upon the completion of his jubilee of his bibliographical toil. what he left behind, as annotations, both in separate papers, and on the margins of books, is prodigious. m. barbier shewed me his projected _third_ edition of the _supplément to marchand_, and a copy of the _bibliothèque françoise of de la croix du maine_, &c. covered, from one end to the other, with marginal notes by him.[ ] that amiable biographer also gave me one of his little bibliographical notices, as a specimen of his hand writing and of his manner of pursuing his enquiries.[ ] such are the feelings, and such the gratifications; connected with a view of the library of ste. geneviÈve. whenever i visit it, i imagine that the gentle spirit of mercier yet presides there; and that, as it is among the most ancient, so is it among the most interesting, of book locals in paris. come away with me, now, to a rival collection of books--in the mazarine college, or institute. of the magnificence of the exterior of this building i have made mention in a previous letter. my immediate business is with the interior; and more especially with that portion of it which relates to _paper_ and _print_. you are to know, however, that this establishment contains _two libraries_; one, peculiar to the institute, and running at right angles with the room in which the members of that learned body assemble: the other, belonging to the college, to the left, on entering the first square--from the principal front. the latter is the _old_ collection, of the time of cardinal mazarin, and with _that_ i begin. it is deposited chiefly on the first floor; in two rooms running at right angles with each other: the two, about feet long. these rooms may be considered very lofty; certainly somewhat more elevated than those in the royal library. the gallery is supported by slender columns, of polished oak, with corinthian capitals. the general appearance is airy and imposing. a huge globe, eight feet in diameter, is in the centre of the angle where the two rooms meet. the students read in either apartment: and, as usual, the greatest order and silence prevail. but not a _fust and schoiffher_--nor a _sweynheym and pannartz_--nor an _ulric han_--in this lower region ... although they say the collection contains about , volumes. what therefore is to be done? the attendant sees your misery, and approaches: "que desirez vous, monsieur?" that question was balm to my agitated spirits. "are the old and more curious books deposited here?" "be seated, sir. you shall know in an instant." away goes this obliging creature, and pulls a bell by the side of a small door. in a minute, a gentleman, clothed in black--the true bibliographical attire--descends. the attendant points to me: we approach each other: "a la bonne heure--je suis charmé...." you will readily guess the remainder. "donnez vous la peine de monter." i followed my guide up a small winding stair-case, and reached the topmost landing place. a succession of small rooms--(i think _ten_ in number) lined with the _true_ furniture, strikes my astonished eye, and makes warm my palpitating heart. "this is charming"--exclaimed i, to my guide, monsieur thiebaut--"this is as it should be." m. thieubaut bowed graciously. the floors are all composed of octagonal, deeply-tinted red, tiles: a little too highly glazed, as usual; but cool, of a good picturesque tint, and perfectly harmonising with the backs of the books. the first little room which you gain, contains a plaster-bust of the late abbé hooke,[ ] who lived sometime in england with the good cardinal----. his bust faces another of palissot. you turn to the right, and obtain the first foreshortened view of the "ten little chambers" of which i just spoke. i continued to accompany my guide: when, reaching the _first_ of the last _three_ rooms, he turned round and bade me remark that these last three rooms were devoted exclusively to "books printed in the _fifteenth century_: of which they possessed about fifteen hundred." this intelligence recruited my spirits; and i began to look around with eagerness. but alas! although the crop was plentiful, a deadly blight had prevailed. in other words, there was number without choice: quantity rather than quality. yet i will not be ill-natured; for, on reaching the third of these rooms, and the last in the suite, monsieur thiebaut placed before me the following select articles. biblia latina. _printed by fust and schoiffher: without date, but supposed to be in the year or _. folio. vols. for the last dozen years of my life, i had earnestly desired to see this copy: not because i had heard much of its beauty, but because it is the _identical_ copy which gave rise to the calling of this impression the mazarine bible.[ ] certainly, all those copies which i had previously seen--and they cannot be fewer than ten or twelve--were generally superior; nor must this edition be henceforth designated as "of the very first degree of rarity." biblia latina. _printed by the same_, . folio. vols. a fair, sound, large copy: upon vellum. the date is printed in red, at the end of each volume--a variety, which is not always observable. this copy is in red morocco binding. biblia italica. _printed by vindelin de spira, kalend. august. _. folio. vols. a fine copy of an extremely rare edition; perhaps the rarest of all those of the early italian versions of the bible. it is in calf binding, but cropt a little. legenda sanctorum. italicè. "_impresse per maestro nicolo ienson, &c. without date_. folio. the author of the version is _manerbi_: and the present is the _first impression_ of it. it is executed in double columns, in the usually delicate style of printing by jenson: and this volume is doubtless among the rarer productions of the printer. servius in virgilium. _printed by ulric han. without date_. folio. this is a volume of the most unquestionable rarity; and _such_ a copy of it as that now before me, is of most uncommon occurrence.[ ] can this be surprising, when i tell you that it once belonged to henri ii. and diane de poictiers! the leaves absolutely talk to you, as you turn them over. yet why do i find it in my heart to tell you that, towards the middle, many leaves are stained at the top of the right margin?! there are also two worm holes towards the end. but what then? the sun has its spots. plautus. . folio. editio princeps. although _this_ volume came also from the collection of the _illustrious pair_ to whom the previous one belonged, yet is it unworthy of such owners. i suspect it has been cropt in its second binding. it is stained all through, at top, and the three introductory leaves are cruelly repellent. cÆsar. . folio. editio princeps. a very fine, genuine copy; in the original binding--such as all sweynheym and pannartz's _ought_ to be. it is tall and broad: but has been unluckily too much written upon. lactantius. . _by the same printers_. perhaps, upon the whole, the finest copy of this impression which exists. yet a love of truth compels me to observe--only in a very slight sound, approaching to a whisper--that there are indications of the ravages of the worm, both at the beginning and end; but very, very trivial. it is bound like the preceding volume; and measures thirteen inches and nearly three quarters, by about nine inches and one eighth. cicero de officiis. . to. second edition, upon paper; and therefore rare. but this copy is sadly stained and wormed. cicero de natura deorum, &c. _printed by vindelin de spiraa_. . folio. a fine sound copy, in the original binding. silius italicus. _printed by laver_. . folio. a good, sound copy; and among the very rarest books from the press of laver, in such condition. catullus, tibullus, et propertius. . folio. the knowing, in early classical bibliography, are aware that this _editio princeps_ is perhaps to be considered as only _one_ degree below the first impressions of lucretius and virgil in rarity. the longest life may pass away without an opportunity of becoming the purchaser of such a treasure. the present is a tall, fair copy; quite perfect. in red morocco binding. dante. _printed by numeister_. . folio. considered to be the earliest impression. this is rather a broad than a tall copy; and not free from stain and the worm. but it is among the very best copies which i have seen. * * * * * it will not be necessary to select more flowers from this choice corner of the tenth and last room of the upper suite of apartments: nor am i sure that, upon further investigation, the toil would be attended with any very productive result. yet i ought not to omit observing to you that this library owes its chief celebrity to the care, skill, and enthusiasm of the famous _gabriel naudé_, the first librarian under the cardinal its founder. of naudé, you may have before read somewhat in certain publications;[ ] where his praises are set forth with no sparing hand. he was perhaps never excelled in activity, bibliographical _diplomacy_, or zeal for his master; and his expressive countenance affords the best index of his ardent mind. he purchased every where, and of all kinds, of bodies corporate and of individuals. but you must not imagine that the _mazarine library_, as you now behold it, is precisely of the same dimensions, or contains the same books, as formerly. if many rare and precious volumes have been disposed of, or are missing, or lost, many have been also procured. the late librarian was lucas joseph hooke, and the present is mons. petit radel.[ ] we will descend, therefore, from these quiet and congenial regions; and passing through the lower rooms, seek the _other_ collection of books attached to this establishment. the library, which is more immediately appropriated to the institute of france, may consist of , volumes,[ ] and is contained in a long room--perhaps of one hundred feet--of which the further extremity is supposed to be _adorned_ by a statue of voltaire. this statue is raised within a recess, and the light is thrown upon it from above from a concealed window. of all deviations from good taste, this statue exhibits one of the most palpable. voltaire, who was as thin as a hurdle, and a mere bag of bones, is here represented as an almost _naked_ figure, sitting: a slight mantle over his left arm being the only piece of drapery which the statue exhibits. the poet is slightly inclining his head to the left, holding a pen in his right hand. the countenance has neither the fire, force, nor truth, which denon's terra-cotta head of the poet seems to display. the extremities are meagre and offensive. in short, the whole, as it appears to me, has an air approaching the burlesque. opposite to this statue are the colossal busts of la-grange and malesherbes; while those of peiresc and franklin are nearly of the size of nature. they are all in white marble. that of peiresc has considerable expression. this may be called a collection of _books of business_; in other words, of books of almost every day's reference--which every one may consult. it is particularly strong in _antiquities_ and _history_: and for the latter, it is chiefly indebted to dom brial--the living father of french history[ ]--that excellent and able man (who is also one of the secretaries of the institute) having recommended full two-thirds of the _long sets_ (as they are called) which relate to ancient history. the written catalogue is contained in fourteen folio volumes, interleaved; there being generally only four articles written in a page, and those four always upon the recto of each leaf. this is a good plan: for you may insert your acquisitions, with the greatest convenience, for a full dozen years to come. no _printed_ catalogue of either of these libraries, or of those of the arsenal and ste. geneviève, exists: which i consider to be a _stain_--much more frightful than that which marks the copy of the "_servius in virgilium_," just before described! it remains now to make mention of a _third_ collection of books--which may be considered in the light both of a public and a private library. i mean, the collection appropriated more particularly for the _king's private use_,[ ] and which is deposited beneath the long gallery of the louvre. its local is as charming as it is peculiar. you walk by the banks of the seine, in a line with the south side of the louvre, and gain admittance beneath an archway, which is defended by an iron grating. an attendant, in the royal livery, opens the door of the library--just after you have ascended above the entresol. you enquire "whether monsieur barbier, the chief librarian, be within?" "sir, he is never absent. be pleased to go straight forward, as far as you can see."[ ] what a sight is before me! nothing less than _thirteen_ rooms, with a small arched door in the centre, through which i gaze as if looking through a tube. each of these rooms is filled with books; and in one or the other of them are assembled the several visitors who come to read. the whole is perfectly magical. meanwhile the nephew of m. barbier walks quickly, but softly, from one room to another, to take down the several volumes enquired after. at length, having paced along upwards of feet of glazed red tile, and wondering when this apparently interminable suite of apartments will end, i view my estimable friend, the head librarian deeply occupied in some correction of bayle or of moreri--sitting at the further extremity. his reception of me is more than kind. it is hearty and enthusiastic. "now that i am in this magical region, my good friend, allow me to inspect the famous prayer book of charlemagne?"--was my first solicitation to mons. barbier. "gently,"--said my guide. "you are almost asking to partake of forbidden fruit. but i suppose you must not be disappointed." this was only sharpening the edge of my curiosity--for "wherefore this mystery, good m. barbier?" "_that_ you may know another time. the book is here: and you shall immediately inspect it."--was his reply. m. barbier unlocked the recess in which it is religiously preserved; took off the crimson velvet in which it is enveloped; and springing backward only two feet and a half, exclaimed, on presenting it, "le voilà--dans toute sa beauté pristine." i own that i even forgot _charles the bald_--and eke his imperial brother _lotharius_,[ ]--as i gazed upon the contents of it. with these contents it is now high time that you should be made acquainted. evangelistarium, or prayer book--once belonging to charlemagne. folio. the subject-matter of this most precious book is thus arranged. in the first place, there are five large illuminations, of the entire size of the page, which are much discoloured. the first four represent the _evangelists_: each sitting upon a cushion, not unlike a bolster. the fifth is the figure of our saviour. the back ground is purple: the pillow-like seat, upon which christ sits, is scarlet, relieved by white and gold. the upper garment of the figure is dark green: the lower, purple, bordered in part with gold. the foot-stool is gold: the book, in the left hand, is red and gold: the arabesque ornaments, in the border, are blue, red, and gold. the hair of our saviour is intended to be flaxen. the text is in double columns, upon a purple ground, within an arabesque border of red, purple, yellow, and bluish green. it is uniformly executed in letters of gold, of which the surface is occasionally rather splendid. it consists of a series of gospel extracts, for the whole year, amounting to about two hundred and forty-two. these extracts terminate with "_et ego resuscitabo eum in novissimo die. amen_" next comes a christian calendar, from the dominical year dcclxxv. to dccxcvii. on casting the eye down these years, and resting it on that of dcclxxxi, you observe, in the columns of the opposite leaf, this very important entry, or memorandum--in the undoubted writing of the time: "_in isto anno ivit dominus_, rex karolus, _ad scm petrvm et baptisatus est filius eius_ pippinus _a domino apostolico_;" from which i think it is evident (as is observed in the account of this precious volume in the _annales encyclopédiques_, vol. iii. p. ) that this very book was commanded to be written chiefly to perpetuate a notice of the baptism, by pope adrian, of the emperor's son pippin.[ ] there is no appearance whatever of fabrication, in this memorandum. the whole is coeval, and doubtless of the time when it is professed to have been executed. the last two pages are occupied by latin verses, written in a lower-case, cursive hand; but contemporaneous, and upon a purple ground. from these verses we learn that the last scribe, or copyist, of the text of this splendid volume, was one godescale, or godschalcus, a german. the verses are reprinted in the _décades philosophiques_. this ms. was given to the _abbey of st. servin_, at toulouse; and it was religiously preserved there, in a case of massive silver, richly embossed, till the year ; when the silver was stolen, and the book carried off, with several precious relics of antiquity, by order of the president of the administration, (le sieur s*****) and thrown into a magazine, in which were many other vellum mss. destined ... to be burnt! one's blood curdles at the narrative. there it lay--- expecting its melancholy fate; till a monsieur de puymaurin, then detained as a prisoner in the magazine, happened to throw his eye upon the precious volume; and, writing a certain letter about it, to a certain quarter--(which letter is preserved in the fly leaves, but of which i was denied the transcription, from motives of delicacy--) an order was issued by government for the conveyance of the ms. to the metropolis. this restoration was effected in may .[ ] i think you must admit, that, in every point of view, this ms. ranks among the most interesting and curious, as well as the most ancient, of those in the several libraries of paris. but this is the _only_ piece of antiquity, of the book kind, in the library. of modern performances, i ought to mention a french version of ossian, in quarto, which was the favourite reading book of the ex-emperor; and to which isabey, at his express command, prefixed a frontispiece after the design of gérard. this frontispiece is beautifully and tenderly executed: a group of heroes, veiled in a mist, forms the back-ground. the only other modern curiosity, in this way, which i deem it necessary to notice, is a collection of original drawings of flowers, in water colours, by rÉdoutÉ, upon vellum: in seven folio volumes; and which cost , francs.[ ] nothing can exceed--and very few efforts of the pencil can equal--this wonderful performance. such a collection were reasonable at the fore-mentioned price. and now, my good friend, suppose i furnish you with an outline of the worthy head-librarian himself? a.a. barbier has perhaps not long "turned the corner" of his fiftieth year. peradventure he may be fifty three.[ ] in stature, he is above the middle height, but not very tall. in form, he is robust; and his countenance expressive of great conciliatoriness and benignity. there is a dash of the "old school" about the attire of m. barbier, which i am goth enough to admire: while his ardour of conversation, and rapidity of utterance, relieved by frequent and expressive smiles, make his society, equally agreeable and instructive. he is a literary bibliographer to the very back bone; and talks of what he has done, and of what he purposes to do, with a "gaieté de coeur" which is quite delightful. he is now engaged in an _examen critique et complément des dictionnaires historiques les plus repandus_;[ ] while his _dictionnaire des auteurs anonymes et pseudonymes_, in vols. vo., and his _bibliothéque d'un homme de gout_," in five similar volumes, have already placed him in the foremost rank of french bibliographers. such is his attention to the duties of his situation, as librarian, that from one year's end to the other, with the exception of sundays, he has _no holiday_. his home-occupations, after the hours of public employment (from twelve to four) are over, are not less unintermitting--in the pursuits of literary bibliography. it was at this home, that m. barbier shewed me, in his library, some of the fruits of his long and vigorously pursued "travail." he possesses mercier saint léger's own copy of his intended _third_ edition of the _supplement to marchand's history of printing_. it is, in short, the second edition, covered with ms. notes in the hand-writing of mercier himself.[ ] he also possesses (but as the property of the royal library) the same eminent bibliographer's copy of the _bibliothèque française de la croix du maine_, in six volumes, covered in like manner with ms. notes by the same hand. to a man of m. barbier's keen literary appetite, this latter must prove an inexhaustible feast. i was shewn, in this same well-garnished, but unostentatious collection, goujet's own catalogue of his own library. it is in six folio volumes; well written; with a ruled frame work round each page, and an ornamental frontispiece to the first volume. every book in the catalogue has a note subjoined; and the index is at once full and complete.[ ] m. barbier has rather a high notion, and with justice, of goujet: observing to me, that _five_ volumes, out of the _ten_ of the last edition of moreri's dictionary--which were edited by goujet--as well as his _bibliothéque française_, in eighteen duodecimo volumes--entitled him to the lasting gratitude of posterity. on my remarking that the want of an index, to this _latter_ work, was a great drawback to the use which might be derived from it, m.b. readily coincided with me--and hoped that a projected new edition would remedy this defect. m.b. also told me that goujet was the editor of the _dictionnaire de richelet_, of , in three folio volumes--which had escaped my recollection. my first visit to m. barbier was concluded by his begging my acceptance of a copy of the _first edition of phædrus_, in , mo.; which contained, bound up with it, a copy of the _second_ edition of ; with various readings to the _latter_, from a ms. which was burnt in . this gift was expressly intended for lord spencer's library, and in a few months from hence (as i have previously apprized his lordship) it shall "repose upon the shelves" of his collection.[ ] it is now high time to relieve you; as you must begin to be almost wearied with bibliography. you have indeed, from the tenor of these five last letters, been made acquainted with some of the chief treasures in the principal libraries of paris. you have wandered with me through a world of books; and have been equally, with myself, astonished and delighted with what has been placed before you. here, then, i drop the subject of bibliography--only to be resumed as connected with an account of book-men. [ ] [because i have said that m. flocon was "from home" at the time i visited the library, and that m. le chevalier was rarely to be found abroad, m. crapelet lets loose such a tirade of vituperation as is downright marvellous and amusing to peruse. most assuredly i was not to know m. flocon's bibliographical achievements and distinction by _inspiration_; and therefore i hasten to make known both the one and the other--in a version of a portion of the note of my sensitive translator: "m. flocon is always at work; and one of the most zealous librarians in paris: he has worked twenty years at a catalogue of the immense library of ste. geneviève, of which the fruits are, twenty-four volumes--ready for press. assuredly such a man cannot be said to pass his life away from his post." crapelet, vol iv. p. , . most true--and who has said that he does? certainly not the author of this work. my translator must have here read without his spectacles.] [ ] _editiones italicæ_; . _præf._ [ ] vol. i. p. - . it is there observed that "there does not seem to be any reason for assigning this edition, to a _roman_ press." [ ] see page ante [ ] see page ante. [ ] see page ante. [ ] [now the property of the right hon. t. grenville; having been purchased at the sale of mr. dent's library for _l_.] [ ] m. crapelet doubts the truth of this story. he need not. [ ] [see the account of m. barbier, post.] [ ] it is on a small piece of paper, addressed to m. barbier: "cherchez dans les depôts bien soigneusement, tous les ouvrages d'andre cirine: entr'autres ses _de venatione libri ii: messanæ_ . vo. _de natura et solertia canum; panormi_, . to. _de venatione et natura animalium libri v. ibid_, . vol. in to.--tous avec figures gravées en bois. peut être dans la _bibl. des théatres_ y étoient-ils. je me recommande toujours à m, barbier pour la _scala coeli_, in folio, pour les _lettres de rangouge_, et pour les autres livres qu'il a bien voulu se charger de rechercher pour moy." st. leger. [ ] the abbé hooke preceded the abbé le blond; the late head librarian. the present head librarian m. petit radel, has given a good account of the mazarine library in his _recherches sur les bibliotheques_, &c. , vo.; but he has been reproached with a sort of studied omission of the name of liblond--who, according to a safe and skilful writer, may be well considered the second founder of the mazarine library. the abbé liblond died at st. cloud in . in m. renouard's catalogue of his own books, vol. ii. p. , an amusing story is told about hooke's successor, the abbé le blond, and renouard himself. [ ] _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. , &c. and page ante. [ ] when lord spencer was at paris in , he told mm. petit radel and thiebaut, who attended him, that it was "the finest copy he had ever seen." whereupon, one of these gentlemen wrote with a pencil, in the fly-leaf, "lord spencer dit que c'est le plus bel exemplaire qu'il ait vu." and well might his lordship say so. [ ] _bibliomania_, p. . _bibliographical decameron_, vol. ii. p. . [ ] mons. petit-radel has lately ( ) published an interesting octavo volume, entitled "_recherches sur les bibliothéques anciennes et modernes,&c._ with a "_notice historique sur la bibliothéque mazarine_: to which latter is prefixed a plate, containing portraits in outline, of mazarin, colbert, naudé and le blond." at the end, is a list of the number of volumes in the several public libraries at paris: from which the following is selected. royal library _printed volumes_ about , _ditto, as brochures_, &c. , manuscripts , library of the arsenal printed volumes , manuscripts , library of st. genevieve printed volumes , manuscripts , mazarine library printed volumes , manuscripts , library of the prefecture (hotel de la ville) printed volumes , ------- institute printed volumes , this last calculation i should think very incorrect. m. petit radel concludes his statement by making the whole number of accessible volumes in paris amount to _one million, one hundred and twenty-five thousand, four hundred and thirty-seven_. in the several departments of france, collectively, there is _more_ than that number. but see the note ensuing. [ ] [mons. crapelet says, , volumes: but i have more faith in the first, than in the second, computation: not because it comes from myself, but because a pretty long experience, in the numbering of books, has taught me to be very moderate in my numerical estimates. i am about to tell the reader rather a curious anecdote connected with this subject. he may, or he may not, be acquainted with the public library at cambridge; where, twenty-five years ago, they boasted of having , volumes; and now, , volumes. in the year , i ventured to make, what i considered to be, rather a minute and carefull calculation of the whole number: and in a sub note in the _library companion_, p. , edit. , stated my conviction of that number's not exceeding , volumes, including mss. in the following year, a very careful estimate was made, by the librarians, of the whole number:--and the result was, that there were only.... , volumes!] [ ] now, numbered with the dead. vide post. [ ] [the translation of the whole of the concluding part of this letter, beginning from above, together with the few notes supplied, as seen in m. crapelet's publication, is the work of m. barbier's nephew.] [ ] [for m. barbier junior's note, which, in m. crapelet's publication, is here subjoined, consult the end of the letter.] [ ] see pages - ante. [ ] [this conclusion is questioned with acuteness and success by m. barbier's nephew. it seems rather that the ms. was finished in , to commemorate the victories of charlemagne over his lombardic enemies in .] [ ] [this restoration, in the name of the city of toulouse, was made in the above year--on the occasion of the baptism of bonaparte's son. but it was not placed in the king's private library till . barbier jun.] [ ] [now complete in volumes--at the cost of , francs!] [ ] [the latter was the true guess: for m. barbier died in , in his th year.] [ ] it was published in . in one of his recent letters to me, the author thus observes--thereby giving a true portraiture of himself-- "je sais, monsieur, quelle est votre ardeur pour le travail: je sais aussi que c'est le moyen d'être heureux: ainsi je vous félicite d'être constamment occupé." m. barbier is also one of the contributors to the _biographie universelle_,[ ] and has written largely in the _annales encyclopédiques_. among his contributions to the latter, is a very interesting "_notice des principaux écrits relatifs à la personne et aux ouvrages de j.j. rousseau_." his "_catalogue des livres dans la bibliothéque du conseil d'etat_, transported to fontainbleau in , and which was executed in a handsome folio volume, in , is a correct and useful publication. i boast with justice of a copy of it, on fine paper, of which the author several years ago was so obliging as to beg my acceptance. [from an inscription in the fly-leaf of this catalogue, i present the reader with a fac-simile of the hand-writing of its distinguished author.] [autograph] [ ] [i "alone am responsible for this sin. _suum cuique_." barbier, jun.] [ ] [these volumes form the numbers and of the catalogue of m. barbier's library, sold by auction in .] [ ] [consult _bibl. barbier_: nos. , , .] [ ] [the agreeable and well instructed bibliographer, to the praises of whom, in the preceding edition of this work, i was too happy to devote the above few pages, is now no more. mons. barbier died in , and his library--the richest in literary bibliography in paris,--was sold in . on referring to page ante, it will be seen that i have alluded to a note of m. barbier's nephew, of which some mention was to be made in this place. i will give that note in its _original language_, because the most felicitous version of it would only impair its force. it is subjoined to these words of my text: "be pleased to go strait forward as far as you can see." "l'homme de service lui-même ne ferait plus cette rêponse aujourd'hui. peu de temps après l'impression du voyage de m. dibdin, ce qu'on appelle une _organisation_ eut lieu. après vingt-sept ans de travaux consacrés à la bibliographique et aux devoirs de sa place, m. barbier, que ses fonctions paisibles avoient protégés contre les terribles dénonciations de , n'a pu régister, en , aux délations mensongères de quelque commis sous m. lauriston. _insere nunc, meliboee, pyros; pone ordine vites_! j'ai partagé pendant vingt ans les travaux de mon oncle pour former la bibliothéque de la couronne, et j'ai du, ainsi que lui, être mis a la retraite au moment de la promotion du nouveau conservateur." crapelet, vol. iv. p. . i will not pretend to say _what_ were the causes which led to such a disgraceful, because wholly unmerited, result. but i have reason to believe that a dirty faction was at work, to defame the character of the librarian, and in consequence, to warp the judgment of the monarch. nothing short of infidelity to his trust should have moved such a man from the chair which he had so honourably filled in the private library of louis xviii. but m. barbier was beyond suspicion on this head; and in ability he had perhaps, scarcely an equal--in the particular range of his pursuits. his _retreating_ pension was a very insufficient balm to heal the wounds which had been inflicted upon him; and it was evident to those, who had known him long and well, that he was secretly pining at heart, and that his days of happiness were gone. he survived the dismissal from his beloved library only five years: dying in the plenitude of mental vigour. i shall always think of him with no common feelings of regret: for never did a kinder heart animate a well-stored head. i had hoped, if ever good fortune should carry me again to paris, to have renewed, in person, an acquaintance, than which none had been more agreeable to me, since my first visit there in : but ... "diis aliter visum est." there is however a mournful pleasure in making public these attestations to the honour of his memory; and, in turn, i must be permitted to quote from the same author as the nephew of m. barbier has done.... his saltem accumulem donis, et fungar inani munere.... perhaps the following anecdote relating to the deceased, may be as acceptable as it is curious. those of my readers who have visited paris, will have constantly observed, on the outsides of houses, the following letters, painted in large capitals: macl: implying--as the different emblems of our fire offices imply-- "m[aison] a[ssurée] c[ontre] l'[incendie]:" in plain english, that such houses are insured against fire. walking one afternoon with m. barbier, i pointed to these letters, and said, "you, who have written upon _anonymes_ and _pseudonymes_, do you know what those letters signify?" he replied, "assuredly--and they can have but _one_ meaning." "what is that?" he then explained them as i have just explained them. "but (rejoined i) since i have been at paris, i have learnt that they also imply _another_ meaning." "what might that be?" stopping him, and gently touching his arm, and looking round to see that we were not overheard, i answered in a suppressed tone:-- "m[es] a[mis] c[hassez] l[ouis]." he was thunderstruck. he had never heard it before: and to be told it by a stranger! "mais (says he, smiling, and resuming his steps) "voila une chose infiniment drole!" let it be remembered, that this heretical construction upon these initial capitals was put at a time when the _bonaparte fever_ was yet making some of the pulses of the parisians beat strokes to the minute. _now_, his majesty charles x. will smile as readily at this anecdote as did the incomparable librarian of his regal predecessor. [introduction to letter viii.] before entering upon the perusal of this memorable letter--which, in the previous edition, was numbered letter xxx,--(owing to the letters having been numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end) i request the reader's attention to a few preliminary remarks, which may possibly guide him to form a more correct estimate of its real character. mons. licquet having published a french version of my ninth letter, descriptive of the public library at rouen, (and to which an allusion has been made in vol. i. p. .) mons. crapelet (see p. , ante) undertook a version of the _ensuing_ letter: of which he printed _one hundred copies_. both translations were printed in m. crapelet's office, to arrange, in type and form of publication, as much as possible with my own; so that, if the _intrinsic_ merit of these versions could not secure purchasers, the beauty of the paper and of the press work (for both are very beautiful) might contribute to their circulation. to the version of m. crapelet[ ] was prefixed a _preface_, combining such a mixture of malignity and misconception, that i did not hesitate answering it, in a privately printed tract, entitled "a roland for an oliver." of this tract, "only _thirty-six copies were printed_." "so much the better for the author"--says m. crapelet. the sequel will shew. in the publication of the _entire_ version of my tour, by m.m. licquet and crapelet, the translation of this viiith letter appears as it did in the previous publication--with the exception of the omission of the _preface_: but in lieu of which, there is another and a short preface, by m. crapelet, to the third volume, where, after telling his readers that his previous attempt had excited my "holy wrath," he seems to rejoice in the severity of those criticisms, which, in certain of our _own_ public journals, have been passed upon my subsequent bibliographical labours. with these criticisms i have here nothing to do. if the authors of them can reconcile them to their own good sense and subsequent reflections, and the public to their own independence of judgment, the voice of remonstrance will be ineffectual. time will strike the balance between the critic and the author: and without pretending to explore the mysteries of an occasional _getting-up_ of reviews of particular articles, i think i can speak in the language of justice, as well as of confidence, of the author of one of these reviews, by a quotation from the _ajax flagellifer_ of sophocles. [greek: blepô gar echthron phôta, kai tach' an kakois gelôn, ha dê kakourgos exikoit' anêr.--] to return to m. crapelet; and to have done with him. the _motive_ for his undertaking the version of this memorable letter, about "booksellers, printers, and bookbinders at paris," seems to be wholly inconceivable; since the logic of the undertaking would be as follows. because i have spoken favourably of the whole typographical fraternity--and because, in particular, of m. crapelet, his _ménage_, and madame who is at the head of it--_because_ i have lauded his press equally with his cellar--therefore the "_un_holy wrath" of m. crapelet is excited; and he cannot endure the freedom taken by the english traveller. it would be abusing the confidence reposed in me by written communications, from characters of the first respectability, were i to make public a few of the sentiments contained in them--expressive of surprise and contempt at the performance of the french typographer. but in mercy to my adversary, he shall be spared the pain of their perusal. [ ] [a young stranger, a frenchman--living near the mountainous solitudes between lyons and the entrance into italy--and ardently attached to the study of bibliography--applied himself, under the guidance of a common friend--dear to us both from the excellence of his head and heart--to a steady perusal of the _bibliographical decameron_, and the _tour_. he mastered both works within a comparatively short time. he then read _a roland for an oliver_--and voluntarily tendered to me his french translation of it. how successfully the whole has been accomplished, may be judged from the following part--being the version of my preface only. observation preliminaire. "la production de m. crapelet rappelée, dans le titre précédent, sera considérée comme un phénomène dans son genre. elle est, certes, sans antécédent et, pour l'honneur de la france, je desire qu'elle n'ait pas d'imitateurs. quiconque prendra la peine de lire la trentième lettre de mon voyage, soit dans l'original, soit dans la version de m. crapelet, en laissant de coté les notes qui appartiennent an traducteur, conviendra facilement que cette lettre manifeste les sentimens les plus impartiaux et les plus honorables à l'état actuel de la librairie et de l'imprimerie à paris. dans plusieurs passages, où l'on compare l'éxécution typographique, dans les deux pays, la supériorité est décidée en faveur de la france. quant a _l'esprit_ qui a dicté cette lettre, je déclare, comme homme d'honneur, ne l'avoir pas composée, dans un systême d'opposition, envers ceux qu'elle concerne plus particulièrement. "cependant, il n'en a pas moins plu à m. crapelet, imprimeur de paris, l'un de ceux dont il y est fait plus spécialement l'éloge, d'accompagner sa traduction de cette lettre, de notes déplacées et injurieuses pour le caractère de l'auteur et de son ouvrage. par suite probablement du peu d'étendue de ses idées et de l'organisation vicieuse de ses autres sens, ce typographe s'est livré a une séries d'observations qui outragent autant la raison que la politesse, et qui décèlent hautement sa malignité et sa noirceur. les formes de son procédé ne sont pas moins méprisables que le fond. avec la prétention avouée de ne répandre que partiellement sa version, (voulant blesser et cependant timide pour frapper) il s'est servi de ses propres presses et il a imprimé le texte et les notes avec des caractères et sur un papier aussi semblables que possible à ceux de l'ouvrage qu'il venait de traduire. il en a surveillé, a ce qu'on assure, l'impression, avec l'attention personelle la plus scrupuleuse, en sorte qu'il n'est aucune _epreuvé égarée_, qui ait été soumise à d'autres yeux que les siens. il a prit soin, en outre, d'en faire tirer, au moins, cent exemplaires, et de les répandre.[c] comme ces cent exemplaires seront probablement lus par dix fois le même nombre de personnes, il y aurait eu plus de franchisé et peut-être plus de bon sens de la part de m. crapelet à diriger publiquement ses coups contre moi que de le faire sous la couverture d'un _pamphlet privé_. il a fait choix de ce genre d'attaque; il ne me reste plus qu'à adopter une semblable méthode de défense: si ce n'est, qu'au lieu de cent exemplaires, ces remarques ne seront véritablement imprimée qu'a _trente six_. ce procédé est certes plus délicat que celui de mon adversaire; mais soit que m. crapelet ait préféré l'obscurité à la lumière, il n'en est pas moins évident que son intention a été d'employer tous ses petits moyens, a renverser la réputation d'un ouvrage, dont il avoue lui-même avoir à peine lu la cinquantième partie! "par le contenu de ses notes, on voit qu'il a cherché, avec une assiduité condamnable, a recueillir le mal qu'il me suppose avoir eu l'intention de dire des personnes que j'ai citées, et cependant, après tout ce travail, a peine a-t-il pû découvrir l'ombre d'une seule allusion maligne. jamais on ne fit un usage plus déplorable de son tems et de ses peines, car toutes les phrases de cette production sont aussi obscures que tirées de loin. "il est difficile, ainsi que je l'ai déjà observé, de se rendre compte des motifs d'une telle conduite. mais m. crapelet n'a fait part de son secret à personne, et d'après l'échantillon dont il s'agit ici, je n'ai nulle envie de le lui demander. t.f.d. "j'avais eu d'abord l'intention de relever chacunes des notes de m. crapelet, mais de plus mûres réfléxions m'ont fait connaitre l'absurdité d'une telle enterprise. je m'en suis donc tenu à la préface, sans toutefois, ainsi que le lecteur pourra s'en appercevoir, laisser tomber dans l'oubli le mérite des notes. encore un mot; m. crapelet m'a attaqué et je me suis défendu. il peut récommencer, si cela lui fait plaisir; mais désormais je ne lui répondrai que par le silence et le mépris." [c] "m. crapelet, en sa qualité de critique, a mis ici du raffinement; car je soupçonne qu'il y a eu au moins vingt cinq exemplaires tirés sur papier vélin. c'est ainsi qu'il sait dorer sa pillule, pour la rendre plus présentable aux dignes amis de l'auteur, les bibliophiles de paris. mais ces messieurs ont trop bon gout pour l'accepter. _letter viii._ some account of the late abbÉ rive. booksellers. printers. book-binders. i make no doubt that the conclusion of my last letter has led you to expect a renewal of the book theme: but rather, i should hope, as connected with those bibliographers, booksellers, and printers, who have for so many years shed a sort of lustre upon _parisian literature_. it will therefore be no unappropriate continuation of this subject, if i commence by furnishing you with some particulars respecting a bibliographer who was considered, in his life time, as the terror of his acquaintance, and the pride of his patron: and who seems to have never walked abroad, or sat at home, without a scourge in one hand, and a looking-glass in the other. droll combination!-- you will exclaim. but it is of the abbÉ rive of whom i now speak; the very _ajax flagellifer_ of the bibliographical tribe, and at the same time the vainest and most self-sufficient. he seems, amidst all the controversy in which he delighted to be involved, to have always had _one_ never-failing source of consolation left:--that of seeing himself favourably reflected-- from the recollection of his past performances--in the mirror of his own conceit! i have before[ ] descanted somewhat upon probably the most splendid of his projected performances, and now hasten to a more particular account of the man himself. it was early one morning--before i had even commenced my breakfast--that a stranger was announced to me. and who, think you, should that stranger turn out to be? nothing less than the _nephew_ of the late abbé rive. his name was morenas. his countenance was somewhat like that which sir thomas more describes the hero of his utopia to have had. it was hard, swarthy, and severe. he seemed in every respect to be "a travelled man." but his manners and voice were mild and conciliating. "some one had told him that i had written about the abbé rive, and that i was partial to his work. would i do him the favour of a visit? when i might see, at his house, (_rue du vieux colombier, près st. sulpice_) the whole of the abbé's mss. and all his projected works for the press. they were for sale. possibly i might wish to possess them?" i thanked the stranger for his intelligence, and promised i would call that same morning. m. morenas has been indeed a great traveller. when i called, i found him living up two pair of stairs, preparing for another voyage to senegal. he was surrounded by _trunks_ ... in which were deposited the literary remains of his uncle. in other words, these remains consisted of innumerable _cards_, closely packed, upon which the abbé had written all his memoranda relating to ... i scarcely know what. but the whole, from the nephew's statement, seemed to be an encyclopædia of knowledge. in one trunk, were about _six thousand_ notices of mss. of all ages; and of editions in the fifteenth century. in another trunk, were wedged about _twelve thousand_ descriptions of books in all languages, except those of french and italian, from the sixteenth century to his own period: these were professed to be accompanied with critical notes. in a third trunk was a bundle of papers relating to the _history of the troubadours_; in a fourth, was a collection of memoranda and literary sketches, connected with the invention of arts and sciences, with antiquities, dictionaries, and pieces exclusively bibliographical. a fifth trunk contained between _two and three thousand_ cards, written upon on each side, respecting a collection of prints; describing the ranks, degrees, and dignities of all nations--of which eleven folio _cahiers_ were published, in --without the letter-press-- but in a manner to make the abbé extremely dissatisfied with the engraver. in a sixth trunk were contained his papers respecting earthquakes, volcanoes, and geographical subjects: so that, you see, the abbé rive at least fancied himself a man of tolerably universal attainments. it was of course impossible to calculate the number, or to appreciate the merits, of such a multifarious collection; but on asking m. morenas if he had made up his mind respecting the _price_ to be put upon it, he answered, that he thought he might safely demand francs for such a body of miscellaneous information. i told him that this was a sum much beyond my means to adventure; but that it was at least an object worthy of the consideration of the "higher powers" of his own government. he replied, that he had little hopes of success in those quarters: that he was anxious to resume his travels; talked of another trip to senegal; for that, after so locomotive a life, a sedentary one was wearisome to him.... ... "trahit sua quemque voluptas!" over the chimney-piece was a portrait, in pencil, of his late uncle: done from the life. it was the only one extant. it struck me indeed as singularly indicative of the keen, lively, penetrating talents of the original. on the back of the portrait were the lines which are here subjoined: _dès sa plus tendre enfance aux études livré, la soif de la science l'a toujours dévoré. une immense lecture enrichit ses écrits, et la critique sure en augmente le prix._ these lines are copied from the _journal des savans_ for october . iean joseph rive was born at apt, in , and died at marseilles in . he had doubtless great parts, natural and acquired: a retentive memory, a quick perception, and a vast and varied reading. he probably commenced amassing his literary treasures as early as his fourteenth year; and to his latest breath he pursued his researches with unabated ardour. but his career was embittered by broils and controversies; while the frequent acts of kindness, and the general warmth of heart, evinced in his conduct, hardly sufficed to soften the asperity, or to mitigate the wrath, of a host of enemies--which assailed him to the very last. but cadmus-like, he sowed the seeds from which these combatants sprung. whatever were his defects, as a public character, he is said to have been, in private, a kind parent, a warm friend, and an excellent master. the only servant which he ever had, and who remained with him twenty-four years, mourned his loss as that of a father. peace to his ashes! from bibliography let me gently, and naturally, as it were, conduct you towards bibliopolism. in other words, allow me to give you a sketch of a few of the principal booksellers in this gay metropolis; who strive, by the sale of instructive and curious tomes, sometimes printed in the black letter of _gourmont_ and _marnef_, to stem the torrent of those trivial or mischievous productions which swarm about the avenues of the palais royal. in ancient times, the neighbourhood of the sorbonne was the great mart for books. when i dined in this neighbourhood, with my friend m. gail, the greek professor at the college royale, i took an opportunity of leisurely examining this once renowned quarter. i felt even proud and happy to walk the streets, or rather tread the earth, which had been once trodden by _gering_, _crantz_, and _fiburger_.[ ] their spirits seemed yet to haunt the spot:--but no volume, nor even traces of one--executed at their press-- could be discovered. to have found a perfect copy of _terence_, printed in their first roman character, would have been a _trouvaille_ sufficiently lucky to have compensated for all previous toil, and to have franked me as far as strasbourg. the principal mart for booksellers, of old and second hand books, is now nearer the seine; and especially in the _quai des augustins_. _messrs. treuttel and würtz, panckoucke, renouard_, and _brunet_, live within a quarter of a mile of each other: about a couple of hundred yards from the _quai des augustins_. further to the south, and not far from the hotel de clugny, in the _rue serpente_, live the celebrated debure. they are booksellers to the king, and to the royal library; and a more respectable house, or a more ancient firm, is probably not to be found in europe. messrs. debure are as straight-forward, obliging, and correct, in their transactions, as they are knowing in the value, and upright in the sale, of their stock in trade. no bookseller in paris possesses a more judicious stock, or can point to so many rare and curious books. a young collector may rely with perfect safety upon them; and accumulate, for a few hundred pounds, a very respectable stock of _editiones principes_ or _rarissimæ_. i do not say that such young collector would find them _cheaper there_, or _so cheap_ as in _pall-mall_; but i do say that he may rest assured that messieurs debure would never, knowingly, sell him an imperfect book. of the debure, there are two brothers: of whom the elder hath a most gallant propensity to _portrait-collecting_--and is even rich in portraits relating to _our_ history. of course the chief strength lies in french history; and i should think that monsieur debure l'ainé shewed me almost as many portraits of louis xiv. as there are editions of the various works of cicero in the fifteenth century.[ ] but my attention was more particularly directed to a certain boudoir, up one pair of stairs, in which madame debure, their venerable and excellent mother, chooses to deposit some few very choice copies of works in almost every department of knowledge. there was about _one_ of the _best_ editions in each department: and whether it were the bible, or the history of the bucaineers--whether a lyrical poet of the reign of louis xiv. or the ballad metres of that of françois premier ... there you found it!--bound by padaloup, or deseuille, or de rome. what think you, among these "choice copies," of the _cancionero generale_ printed at toledo in , in the black letter, double columned, in folio? enough to madden even our poet-laureat--for life! i should add, that these books are not thus carefully kept together for the sake of _shew_: for their owner is a fair good linguist, and can read the spanish with tolerable fluency. long may she yet read it.[ ] the debure had the selling, by auction, of the far-famed m'carthy library; and i saw upon their shelves some of the remains of that splendid membranaceous collection. indeed i bought several desirable specimens of it: among them, a fine copy of _vindelin de spira's_ edition ( ) of _st. cyprians epistles_, upon vellum.[ ] like their leading brethren in the neighbourhood, messieurs debure keep their country house, and there pass the sabbath. the house of treuttel and wurtz is one of the richest and one of the most respectable in europe. the commerce of that house is chiefly in the wholesale way; and they are, in particular, the publishers and proprietors of all the great classical works put forth at _strasbourg_. indeed, it was at this latter place where the family first took root: but the branches of their prosperity have spread to paris and to london with nearly equal luxuriance. they have a noble house in the _rue de bourbon_, no. : like unto an hotel; where each day's post brings them despatches from the chief towns in europe. their business is regulated with care, civility, and dispatch; and their manners are at once courteous and frank. nothing would satisfy them but i must spend a sabbath with them, at their country house at _groslai_; hard by the village and vale of montmorenci. i assented willingly. on the following sunday, their capacious family coach, and pair of sleek, round, fat black horses, arrived at my lodgings by ten o'clock; and an hour and three quarters brought me to groslai. the cherries were ripe, and the trees were well laden with fruit: for montmorenci cherries, as you may have heard, are proverbial for their excellence. i spent a very agreeable day with mine hosts. their house is large and pleasantly situated, and the view of paris from thence is rather picturesque. but i was most struck with the conversation and conduct of madame treuttel. she is a thoroughly good woman. she has raised, at her own expense, an alms-house in the village for twelve poor men; and built a national school for the instruction of the poor and ignorant of both sexes. she is herself a lutheran protestant; as are her husband and her son-in-law m. würtz. at first, she had some difficulties to encounter respecting the _school_; and sundry conferences with the village curé, and some of the head clergy of paris, were in consequence held. at length all difficulties were surmounted by the promise given, on the part of madame treuttel, to introduce only the french version of the bible by _de sacy_. hence the school was built, and the children of the village flocked in numbers to it for instruction. i visited both the alms-house and the school, and could not withhold my tribute of hearty commendation at the generosity, and thoroughly christian spirit, of the foundress of such establishments. there is more good sense and more private and public virtue, in the application of superfluous wealth in this manner, than in the erection of a hundred palaces like that at _versailles!_[ ] a different, and a more touching object presented itself to my view in the garden. walking with madame, we came, through various détours, into a retired and wooded part: where, on opening a sort of wicket gate, i found myself in a small square space, with hillocks in the shape of _tumuli_ before me. a bench was at the extremity. it was a resting place for the living, and a depository of the dead. flowers, now a good deal faded, were growing upon these little mounds--beneath which the dead seemed to sleep in peace. "what might this mean?" "sir," replied madame treuttel, "this is consecrated ground. my son-in-law sleeps here--and his only and beloved child lies by the side of him. you will meet my daughter, his wife, at dinner. she, with myself, visit this spot at stated seasons--when we renew and indulge our sorrows on the recollection of those who sleep beneath. these are losses which the world can never repair. we all mean to be interred within the same little fenced space.[ ] i have obtained a long lease of it--for some fifty years: at the expiration of which time, the work of dissolution will be sufficiently complete with us all." so spake my amiable and enlightened guide. the remainder of the day--during which we took a stroll to montmorenci, and saw the house and gardens where rousseau wrote his _emile_--was spent in a mixed but not irrational manner: much accordant with my own feelings, and most congenial with a languid state of body which had endured the heats of paris for a month, without feeling scarcely a breath of air the whole time. antoine-augustin renouard, living in the _rue st. andré des arts_, is the next bibliopolist whom i shall introduce to your attention. he is among the most lynx-eyed of his fraternity: has a great knowledge of books; a delightful aldine library;[ ]--from which his annals of the aldine press were chiefly composed--and is withal a man in a great and successful line of business. i should say he is a rich man; not because he has five hundred bottles of burgundy in his cellar, which some may think to be of a more piquant quality than the like number of his _alduses_--but because he has published some very beautiful and expensive editions of the latin and french classics, with equal credit to himself and advantage to his finances.[ ] he _debuted_ with a fine edition of _lucan_ in , folio; and the first catalogue of his books was put forth the following year. from that moment to the present, he has never slackened head, hand, or foot, in the prosecution of his business; while the publication of his _annals of the aldine press_ places him among the most skilful and most instructive booksellers in europe. it is indeed a masterly performance: and as useful as it is elegantly printed.[ ] m. renouard is now occupied in an improved edition of _voltaire_, which he means to adorn with engravings; and of which he shewed me the original drawings by moreau, with many of the plates.[ ] he seems in high spirits about the success of it, and leans with confidence upon the strength of a host of subscribers. nor does a rival edition, just struggling into day, cause him to entertain less sanguine expectations of final success. this enterprising bookseller is now also busily occupied about a _descriptive catalogue of his own library_, in which he means to indulge himself in sundry gossipping notes, critical disquisitions, and piquant anecdotes. i look forward with pleasure to its appearance; and turn a deaf ear to the whispers which have reached me of an intended _brush_ at the decameron.[ ] m. renouard has allowed me free access to his library; which also contains some very beautiful copies of books printed in the fifteenth century. among these latter, his vellum valdarfer is of course considered, by himself and his friends, as the _keimelion_ of the collection. it is the edition of the _orations of cicero_, printed by valdarfer, at venice, in , folio: a most exquisite book--which may be fairly considered as perfect throughout. it is in its second binding, but _that_ may be as old as the time of francis i.: perhaps about the middle of the sixteenth century. this copy measures thirteen inches in height, by eight inches and seven-eighths in width:--almost, i conceive, in its original state of amplitude. i will frankly own that i turned over the leaves of this precious book, again and again--"sighed and looked, &c." "but would no price tempt the owner to part with it?" "none. it is reserved as the bijou of my catalogue, and departs not from hence." severe, but just decree! there is only one other known copy of it upon vellum, which is in the royal library[ ]--but which wants a leaf of the table; an imperfection, not belonging to the present copy. the other "great guns," as vellum books, in the collection of m. renouard, are what is called the _familiar epistles of cicero_ printed by _aldus_ in , mo: and the _petrarch_ of , vo. also printed by aldus. of these, the _latter_ is by much the preferable volume. it is almost as large as it can well be: but badly bound in red morocco.[ ] the cicero is short and sallow-looking. it was on the occasion of his son starting for the first time on a bibliographical tour, and, on crossing the rhine, and finding this cicero and the almost equally rare _aldine virgil_ of , that a relation of this "fortunate youth" invoked his muse in some few verses, which he printed and gave to me.[ ] these are little "plaisanteries" which give a relish to our favourite pursuits; and which may at some future day make the son transcend the father in bibliographical renown. perhaps the father has already preferred a prayer upon the subject, as thus: [greek: zeu, alloi te theoi, dote dê kai tonde genesthai paid emon ôs kai egô per, ....] there are some few noble volumes, from the press of _sweynheym and pannartz_, in this collection; and the finest copy of the first lucian in greek, which perhaps any where exists.[ ] it was obtained at a recent sale, (where it was coated in a lapping-over vellum surtout) at a pretty smart price; and has been recently clothed in blue morocco. m. renouard has also some beautiful copies from the library of _de thou_, and a partly uncut _aldine theophrastus_ of , which belonged to henry the second and diane de poictiers; as well as a completely uncut copy of the first _aldine aristotle_.[ ] few men probably have been luckier in obtaining several of their choice articles; and the little anecdotes which he related to me, are such as i make no doubt will appear in the projected catalogue raisonné of his library. he is just now briskly engaged in the pursuit of _uncut elzevirs_ ... and coming to breakfast with me, the other morning, he must needs pick up a beautiful copy of this kind, in two small volumes, neatly half bound, (of which i have forgotten the title,) and of which he had been for some time in the pursuit. m. renouard also took occasion to tell me that, in his way to my chambers, he had sold, or subscribed, of a forthcoming work to be published by him--just _nine hundred and ninety-nine copies!_ of course, after such a _trouvaille_ and such a subscription, he relished his breakfast exceedingly. he is a man of quick movements, of acute perceptions, of unremitting ardour and activity of mind and body-- constantly engaged in his business, managing a very extensive correspondence, and personally known to the most distinguished collectors of italy. like his neighbours, he has his country-house, or rather farm, in picardy[ ] whither he retires, occasionally to view the condition and growing strength of that species of animal, from the backs of which his beloved aldus of old, obtained the _matériel_ for his vellum copies. but it is time to wish m. renouard a good morning, and to take you with me to his neighbour-- mons. brunet, the younger. this distinguished bibliographer, rather than bookseller, lives hard by--in the _rue gît-le-coeur_. he lives with his father, who superintends the business of the shop. the rue gît-le-coeur is a sorry street--very diminutive, and a sort of cropt copy--to what it should have been, or what it might have been. however, there lives jacq. ch. brunet, fils: a writer, who will be known to the latest times in the bibliographical world. he will be also thanked as well as known; for his _manuel du libraire_ is a performance of incomparable utility to all classes of readers and collectors. you mount up one pair of stairs:--the way is gloomy, and might well lead to a chamber in the monastery of la trappe. you then read an incription, which tells you that "in turning the button you pull the bell." the bell sounds, and _mons. brunet, pere_, receives you--with, or without, a silken cap upon his head. he sits in a small room, sufficiently well filled with books. "is the son at home?" "open that door, sir, you will find him in the next room." the door is immediately opened--and there sits the son, surrounded by, and almost imprisoned in, papers and books. his pen is in his hand: his spectacles are upon his nose: and he is transcribing or re-casting some precious little bit of bibliographical intelligence; while, on looking up and receiving you, he seems to be "full of the labouring god!" in short, he is just now deeply and unintermittingly engaged in a new and _third_ edition of his _manuel_.[ ] the shelves of his room almost groan beneath the weight of those writers from whom he gathers his principal materials. "vous voilà, mons. brunet, bien occupé!;" "oui, monsieur, cela me fait autant de plaisir que de peine." this is a very picture of the man.... "the labour we delight in physics pain,"--said lady macbeth of old; and of a most extraordinary kind must the labour of mons. brunet be considered, when the pleasure in the prosecution of it balances the pain. we talked much and variously at our first interview: having previously interchanged many civilities by letter, and myself having been benefitted by such correspondence, in the possession of a _large paper_ copy of his first edition--of which he was pleased to make me a present, and of which only twenty copies were struck off. i told him that i had given charles lewis a carte blanche for its binding, and that i would back _his_ skill--the result of such an order--against any binding at that time visible in any quarter of paris! mons. b. could not, in his heart, have considered any other binding superior. he told me, somewhat to my astonishment, and much to my gratification, that, of the first edition of his _manuel_, he had printed and sold _two thousand_ copies. this could never have been done in our country: because, doubting whether it would have been so accurately printed, it could never have been published, in the same elegant manner, for the same price. the charges of our printers would have been at least double. in the typographical execution of it, m. crapelet has almost outdone himself. reverting to the author, i must honestly declare that he has well merited all he has gained, and will well merit all the gains which are in store for him. his application is severe, constant, and of long continuance. he discards all ornament,[ ] whether graphic or literary. he is never therefore digressive; having only a simple tale to tell, and that tale being almost always _well_ and _truly_ told.[ ] in his opinions, he is firm and rational, and sometimes a little pugnacious in the upholding of them. but he loves only to breathe in a bibliographical element, and is never happier than when he has detected some error, or acquired some new information; especially if it relate to an _editio princeps_.[ ] there is also something very naïf and characteristic in his manner and conversation. he copies no one; and may be said to be a citizen of the world. in short, he has as little _nationality_ in his opinions and conversation, as any frenchman with whom i have yet conversed. thus much for the leading booksellers of paris on the south side of the seine: or, indeed, i may say in the whole city. but, because the south is a warm and genial aspect in the bringing forth of all species of productions, it does not necessarily follow that ... there should be _no_ bibliopolistic vegetation on the _north_ side of the seine. prepare therefore to be introduced to mons. chardin, in the _rue st. anne_, no. ; running nearly at right angles with the _rue st. honoré_, not far from the _eglise st. roq._ m. chardin is the last surviving remains of the old school of booksellers in paris; and as i love antiquities of almost all kinds, i love to have a little occasional gossip with m. chardin. a finer old man, with a more characteristic physiognomy, hath not appeared in france from the time of gering downwards. m. chardin is above the mean height; is usually attired in a rocquelaure; and his fine flowing grey locks are usually surmounted by a small black silk cap. his countenance is penetrating, but mild: and he has a certain air of the "old school" about him, which is always, to my old-fashioned taste, interesting and pleasing. in his youth he must have been handsome, and his complexion is yet delicate. but good old m. chardin is an oddity in his way. he physics "according to the book"--that is, according to the almanack; although i should think he had scarcely one spare ounce of blood in his veins. phlebotomy is his "dear delight." he is always complaining, and yet expects to be always free from complaint. but madame will have it so, and monsieur is consenting. he lives on the floor just above the entresol, and his two or three small apartments are gaily furnished with books. the interior is very interesting; for his chief treasures are locked up within glazed cabinets, which display many a rich and rare article. these cabinets are beautifully ornamented: and i do assure you that it is but justice to their owner to say, that they contain many an article which does credit to his taste. this taste consists principally in a love of ornamented mss. and printed books upon vellum, in general very richly bound.[ ] it is scarcely seven years ago since m. chardin published an octavo catalogue, of nearly two hundred pages, of mss. and printed books ... all upon vellum. he has been long noted for rarities of this kind. "il n'y a que des livres rares" is his constant exclamation--as you open his glazed doors, and stretch forth your hand to take down his treasures. he is the edwards of france, but upon a smaller scale of action. nor does he push his _wares_, although he does his _prices_. you may buy or not, but you must _pay_ for what you _do_ buy. there is another oddity about this courteous and venerable bibliopolist. he has a great passion for making his _alduses_ perfect by means of _manuscript_; and i must say, that, supposing this plan to be a good one, he has carried it into execution in a surprisingly perfect manner: for you can scarcely, by candle-light, detect the difference between what is printed and what is executed with a pen. i think it was the whole of the _scholia_ attached to the aldine _discorides_, in folio, and a great number of leaves in the _grammatical institutes of urbanus_, of , to. with several other smaller volumes, which i saw thus rendered perfect: how any scribe can be sufficiently paid for such toil, is to me inconceivable: and how it can answer the purpose of any bookseller so to complete his copies, is also equally unaccountable: for be it known, that good m. chardin leaves _you_ to make the _discovery_ of the ms. portion; and when you _have_ made it,--he innocently subjoins--"oui, monsieur, n'est il pas beau?" in a sort of passage, between his principal shew-room and his bed room, is contained a very large collection of tracts and printed volumes relating to the fair sex: being, in fact, nothing less than a prodigious heap of publications "for and against" the ladies. m. chardin will not separate them--adding that the "bane and antidote must always go together." this singular character is also vehemently attached to antiquarian _nick-knackery_. old china, old drawings, old paintings, old carvings, and old relics--of whatever kind--are surveyed by him with a curious eye, and purchased with a well-laden purse. he never speaks of goujin but in raptures. we made an exchange the other day. m. chardin hath no small variety of walking canes. he visited me at the hôtel one morning, leaning upon a fine dark bamboo-stick, which was _headed_ by an elaborately carved piece of ivory--the performance of the said goujon. it consisted of a recumbent female, (with a large flapped hat on) of which the head was supported by a shield of coat armour.[ ] we struck a bargain in five minutes. he presented me the _stick_, on condition of my presenting him with a choice copy of the _Ædes althorpianæ_. we parted well satisfied with each other; but i suspect that the purchase of about four-score pounds worth of books, added much to the satisfaction on his part. like all his brethren of the same craft, m. chardin disports himself on saturdays and sundays at his little "ferme ornée," within some four miles of paris-- having, as he gaily told me "nothing now to do but to make poesies for the fair sex."[ ] with chardin i close my bibliopolistic narrative; not meaning thereby to throw other booksellers into the least degree of shade, but simply to transmit to you an account of such as i have seen and have transacted business with. and now, prepare for some account of printers ... or rather of _three presses_ only,--certainly the most distinguished in paris. i mean those of the didot and that of m. crapelet. the name of didot will last as long as learning and taste shall last in any quarter of the globe: nor am i sure, after all, that what _bodoni, bensley_, and _bulmer_ have done, collectively, has redounded _more_ to the credit of their countries than what didot has achieved for france. in ancient classical literature, however, bodoni has a right to claim an exception and a superiority. the elder, _pierre didot_, is printer to his majesty. but when pierre didot l'ainé chose to adopt his _own_ fount of letter--how exquisitely does his skill appear in the folio _virgil_ of , and yet more, perhaps, in the folio horace of !? these are books which never have been, and never _can_ be, eclipsed. yet i own that the horace, from the enchanting vignettes of _percier_, engraved by girardais, is to my taste the preferable volume.[ ] firmin didot now manages the press in the _rué jacob;_ and if he had never executed any thing but the _lusiad_ of _camoens_, his name would be worthy to go down to posterity by the side of that of his uncle. the number of books printed and published by the didots is almost incredible; especially of publications in the latin and french languages. of course i include the _stereotype_ productions: which are very neat and very commodious--but perhaps the page has rather too dazzling an effect. i paid a visit the other day to the office of firmin didot; who is a letter founder "as well as a printer.[ ] to a question which i asked the nephew, (i think) respecting the number of copies and sizes, of the famous _lusiad_ just mentioned, he answered, that there were only _two hundred_ copies, and those only of _one size_. let that suffice to comfort those who are in terror of having the small paper, and to silence such as try to depreciate the value of the book, from the supposed additional number of copies struck off. i wished to know the costs and charges of _printing_, &c.--from which the comparative price of labour in the two countries might be estimated. m. didot told me that the entire charges for printing, and pulling, one thousand copies of a full octavo size volume--containing thirty lines in a page, in a middle-size-letter--including _every thing_ but _paper_--was thirty-five francs per sheet. i am persuaded that such a thing could not be done at home under very little short of double the price:--whether it be that our printers, including the most respectable, are absolutely more extravagant in their charges, or that the wages of the compositors are double those which are given in france. after didot, comes crapelet--in business, skill, and celebrity. he is himself a very pleasant, unaffected man; scarcely thirty-six; and likely, in consequence, to become the richest printer in paris. i have visited him frequently, and dined with him once--when he was pleased to invite some agreeable, well-informed, and gentlemanly guests to meet me. among them was a m. rey, who has written "_essais historiques et critiques sur richard iii. roi d'angleterre_," just printed in a handsome octavo volume by our host. our conversation, upon the whole; was mixed; agreeable, and instructive. madame crapelet, who is at this moment (as i should conjecture) perhaps pretty equally divided between her twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth year, and who may be classed among the prettier ladies of paris, did the honours of the fête in a very agreeable manner: nor can it be a matter of surprise that the choicest chambertin and champagne sparkled upon the table of _one_--who, during the libations of his guests; had the tympans and friskets of _twenty-two presses_ in full play![ ] we retired, after dinner, into a spacious drawing room to coffee and liqueurs: and anon, to a further room, wherein was a book-case filled by some of the choicest specimens of the press of its owner, as well as of other celebrated printers. i have forgotten what we took down or what we especially admired: but, to a question respecting the _present_ state of business, as connected with _literature_ and _printing_, at paris, m. crapelet replied (as indeed, if i remember rightly, m. didot did also) that "matters never went on better." reprints even of old authors were in agitation: and two editions of _montaigne_ were at that moment going on in his own house. i complimented m. crapelet--and with equal sincerity and justice--upon the typographical execution of m. brunet's _manuel du libraire_. no printer in our own country, could have executed it more perfectly. "what might have been the charge per sheet?" my host received the compliment very soberly and properly; and gave me a general item about the expense of printing and paper, &c., which really surprised me; and returned it with a warm eulogy upon the paper and press-work of a recent publication from the _shakspeare press_--which, said he, "i despair of excelling." "and then (added he), your prettily executed vignettes, and larger prints! in france this branch of the art is absolutely not understood[ ]--and besides, we cannot publish books at _your_ prices!" we must now bid adieu to the types of m. crapelet below stairs, and to his "good cheer" above; and with him take our leave of parisian booksellers and printers.[ ] what then remains, in the book way, worthy of especial notice? do you ask this question? i will answer it in a trice--book-binding. yes ... some few hours of my residence in this metropolis have been devoted to an examination of this _seductive_ branch of book commerce. and yet i have not seen--nor am i likely to see--one single binder: either _thouvenin, or simier, or braidel, or lesné_. i am not sure whether courteval, or either of the bozérians, be living: but their _handy works_ live and are lauded in every quarter of paris. the restorer, or the father, (if you prefer this latter appellative) of modern book-binding in france, was the elder bozérian: of whose productions the book-amateurs of paris are enthusiastically fond. bozérian undoubtedly had his merits;[ ] but he was fond of gilt tooling to excess. his ornaments are too minute and too profuse; and moreover, occasionally, very unskilfully worked. his choice of morocco is not always to my taste; while his joints are neither carefully measured, nor do they play easily; and his linings are often gaudy to excess. he is however hailed as the legitimate restorer of that taste in binding, which delighted the purchasers in the augustan age of book-collecting. one merit must not be denied him: his boards are usually square, and well measured. his volumes open well, and are beaten ... too unmercifully. it is the reigning error of french binders. they think they can never beat a book sufficiently. they exercise a tyranny over the leaves, as bad as that of eastern despots over their prostrate slaves. let them look a little into the bindings of those volumes before described by me, in the lower regions of the royal library[ ]--and hence learn, that, to hear the leases crackle as they are turned over, produces _nearly_ as much comfort to the thorough-bred collector, as does the prattling of the first infant to the doating parent. thouvenin[ ] and simier are now the morning and evening stars in the bibliopegistic hemisphere. of these, thouvenin makes a higher circle in the heavens; but simier shines with no very despicable lustre. their work is good, substantial, and pretty nearly in the same taste. the folio psalter of , (i think) in the royal library, is considered to be the _ne plus ultra_ of modern book-binding at paris; and, if i mistake not, thouvenin is the artist in whose charcoal furnace, the tools, which produced this _êchantillon_, were heated. i have no hesitation in saying, that, considered as an extraordinary specimen of art, it is a failure. the ornaments are common place; the lining is decidedly bad; and there is a clumsiness of finish throughout the whole. the head-bands--as indeed are those of bozérian--are clumsily managed: and i may say that it exhibits a manifest inferiority even to the productions of mackinlay, hering, clarke, and fairbairn. indeed either of these artists would greatly eclipse it. i learn that thouvenin keeps books in his possession as long as does a _certain_ binder with us--- who just now shall be nameless. of course charles lewis would smile complacently if you talked to _him_ about rivalling such a performance![ ] there is a book-binder of the name of lesnÉ--just now occupied, as i learn, in writing a poem upon his art[ ]--who is also talked of as an artist of respectable skill. they say, however, that he _writes_ better than he _binds_. so much the worse for his little ones, if he be married. indeed several very sensible and impartial collectors, with whom i have discoursed, also seem to think that the art of book-binding in france is just now, if not retrograding, at least stationary--and apparently incapable of being carried to a higher pitch of excellence. i doubt this very much. they can do what they have done before. and no such great conjuration is required in going even far beyond it. let thouvenin and simier, and even the _poet_ himself, examine carefully the choice of tools, and manner of gilding, used by our more celebrated binders, and they need not despair of rivalling them. above all, let them look well to the management of the backs of their books, and especially to the headbands. the latter are in general heavy and inelegant. let them also avoid too much choking and beating, (i use technical words--- which you understand as well as any french or english bookbinder) and especially to be square, even, and delicate in the bands; and the "saturnia regna" of book-binding in france may speedily return. [ ] _bibliomania_; p. . _bibliographical decameron_; vol. i. p. xxii. [ ] see the _bibliographical decameron_; vol. ii. p. . [ ] [consistently with the plan intended to be pursued in this edition, i annex a fac-simile of their autograph.] [illustration] [ ] [madame debure died a few years ago at an advanced age.] [ ] [mr. hibbert obtained this volume from me, which will be sold at the sale of his library in the course of this season.] [ ] [nothing can be more perfectly ridiculous and absurd than the manner in which m. crapelet flies out at the above expression! he taunts us, poor english, with always drawing comparisons against other nations, in favour of the splendour and opulence of our own hospitals and charitable foundations--a thought, that never possessed me while writing the above, and which would require the peculiar obliquity, or perversity of talents, of my translator to detect. i once thought of _dissecting_ his petulant and unprovoked note--but it is not worth blunting the edge of one's pen in the attempt.] [ ] [in a few years afterwards, the body of the husband of madame treuttel was consigned to _this_, its _last_ earthly resting-place. m. jean-george treuttel, died on the th dec. , not long after the completion of his d year: full of years, full of reputation, and credit, and of every sublunary comfort, to soothe those who survived him. i have before me a printed memoir of his obsequies--graced by the presence and by the orations of several excellent ministers of the lutheran persuasion: by all the branches of his numerous family; and by a great concourse of sympathising neighbours. few citizens of the world, in the largest sense of this expression, have so adorned the particular line of life in which they have walked; and m. treuttel was equally, to his country and to his family, an ornament of a high cast of character. "o bon et vertueux ami, que ne peut tu voir les regrets de tous ceux qui t' accompagnent à ta derniere demeure, pour te dire encore une fois à revoir!" _discours_ de m. comartin _maire de groslai_: dec. .] [ ] ["delightful" as was this library, the thought of the money for which it might sell, seems to have been more delightful. the sale of it-- consisting of articles--took place in the spring of last year, under the hammer of mr. evans; and a surprisingly prosperous sale it was. i would venture to stake a good round sum, that no one individual was _more_ surprized at this prosperous result than the owner of the library himself. the gross produce was £ . s. the net produce was such... as ought to make that said owner grateful for the spirit of competition and high liberality which marked the biddings of the purchasers. in what country but old england could such a spirit have been manifested! will mons. renouard, in consequence, venture upon the transportation of the _remaining_ portion of his library hither? there is a strong feeling that he _will_. with all my heart--but let him beware of his modern vellums!!] [ ] [i shall _now_ presume to say, that m. renouard is a "very rich man;" and has by this time added _another_ bottles of high-flavoured burgundy to his previous stock. the mention of m. renouard's burgundy has again chafed m. crapelet: who remarks, that "it is useless to observe how ridiculous such an observation is." then why _dwell_ upon it--and why quote three verses of boileau to bolster up your vapid prose, mons. g.a. crapelet.?] [ ] [the _second_ edition of this work, greatly enlarged and corrected, appeared in , in volumes: printed very elegantly at the son's (paul renouard's) office. of this improved edition, the father was so obliging as to present me with a copy, accompanied by a letter, of which i am sure that its author will forgive the quotation of its conclusion--to which is affixed his autograph. "quoiqu'il en soit, je vous prie de vouloir bien l'agréer comme un témoignage de nos anciennes liaisons, et d'être bien persuadé du dévouement sincere et amical avec lequel je n'ai jamais cessé d'être. votre très humble serviteur, [autograph: aulaug. renouard] [ ] [now completed in volumes vo.: and the most copious and correct of all the editions of the author. it is a monument, as splendid as honourable, of the publisher's spirit of enterprise. for particulars, consult the _library companion_, p. , edit. .] [ ] the year following the above description, the catalogue, alluded to, made its appearance under the title of "_catalogue de la bibliothèque d'un amateur_," in four not _very_ capacious octavo volumes: printed by crapelet, who finds it impossible to print--_ill_. i am very glad such a catalogue has been published; and i hope it will be at once a stimulus and a model for other booksellers, with large and curious stocks in hand, to do the same thing. but i think m. renouard might have conveniently got the essentials of his bibliographical gossipping into _two_ volumes; particularly as, in reading such a work, one must necessarily turn rapidly over many leaves which contain articles of comparatively common occurrence, and of scarcely common interest. it is more especially in regard to _modern_ french books, of which he seems to rejoice and revel in the description--(see, among other references, vol. iii. p. - ) that we may be allowed to regret such dilated statements; the more so, as, to the fastidious taste of the english, the engravings, in the different articles described, have not the beauty and merit which are attached to them by the french. yet does m. renouard narrate pleasantly, and write elegantly. in regard to the "_brush_ at the decameron," above alluded to, i read it with surprise and pleasure--on the score of the moderate tone of criticism which it displayed--and shall wear it in my hat with as much triumph as a sportsman does a "brush" of a different description! was it _originally_ more _piquan?_ i have reason not only to suspect, but to know, that it was. be this as it may, i should never, in the first place, have been backward in returning all home thrusts upon the aggressor--and, in the second place, i am perfectly disposed that my work may stand by the test of such criticism. it is, upon the whole, fair and just; and _justice_ always implies the mention of _defects_ as well as of excellencies. it may, however, be material to remark, that the _third_ volume of the decameron is hardly amenable to the tribunal of french criticism; inasmuch as the information which it contains is almost entirely national--and therefore partial in its application. [ ] [not so. messrs. payne and foss once shewed me a yet _larger_ copy of it upon vellum, than even m. renouard's: but so many of the leaves had imbibed an indelible stain, which no skill could eradicate, that it was scarcely a saleable article. it was afterwards bought by mr. bohn at a public auction.] [ ] [it was sold at the sale of his aldine library for £ . s. d. and is now, i believe, in the fine collection of sir john thorold, bart, at syston park. the cicero did not come over for sale.] [ ] [in the previous edition i had supposed, erroneously, that it was the father, m. renouard himself, who had invoked his name on the occasion. the verses are pretty enough, and may as well find a place _here_ as in m. crapelet's performance. je l'ai vu ce fameux bouquin qui te fait un titre de gloire: tout francois qui passe le rhin doit remporter une victoire.] [ ] [m. renouard obtained it at a public sale in paris, against a very stiff commission left for it by myself. a copy of equal beauty is in the library of the right hon. t. grenville.] [ ] [the theophrastus was sold for £ s. d. and the aristotle for £ . the latter is in the library of the rt. hon. t. grenville, having been subsequently coated in red morocco by c. lewis.] [ ] [it seems that i have committed a very grave error, in the preceding edition, by making mons. renouard "superintend the gathering in of his vintage," at his country-house (st. valerie) whereas there are no vineyards in picardy. france and wine seemed such synonymes, that i almost naturally attached a vineyard to every country villa.] [ ] [it was published in .] [ ] "the luxurious english bibliographer is astonished at the publication of the "manuel" without the accompaniment of plates, fac-similes, vignettes, and other graphic attractions. it is because _intrinsic merit_ is preferable to form and ornament: _that_ at once establishes its worth and its success." crapelet, vol. iv. p. . this amiable translator and sharp-sighted critic never loses an opportunity of a _fling_ at the "luxurious english bibliographer!" [ ] [my translator again brandishes his pen in order to draw _good-natured_ comparisons. "it would be lucky for him, if, to the qualities he possesses, m. dibdin would unite those which he praises in m. brunet: his work and the public would be considerable gainers by it: his books would not be so costly, and would be more profitable. the english author describes nothing in a _sang-froid_ manner: he is for ever _charging_: and, as he does not want originality in his vivacity, he should seem to wish to be the callot of bibliography." crapelet. _ibid_. i accept the title with all my heart.] [ ] when he waited upon lord spencer at paris, in , and was shewn by his lordship the _ulric han juvenal_ (in the smallest character of the printer) and the _horace_ of , by _arnoldus de bruxella_, his voice, eyes, arms, and entire action ... gave manifest proofs how he felt upon the occasion! [it only remains to dismiss this slight and inadequate account of so amiable and well-versed a bibliographer, with the ensuing-fac-simile of his autograph.] [autograph: brunet, libraire, rue gît-le-couer, no .] [ ] chardin passe surtout parmi les amateurs pour le plus vétilleux de tous les connaisseurs; il fait naître, encourage, anime l'industrie; les beaux livres font seul le charme de sa vie. la reliure, _poëme didactique_. par lesne'. , vo. p. . [ ] [this curiosity is now in the limited, but choice and curious, collection of my old and very worthy friend mr. joseph haslewood. the handle of the stick is decorated by a bird's head, in ivory, which i conjectured to be that of an _eagle_; but my friend insisted upon it that it was the head of an _hawk_. i knew what this _meant_--and what it would _end_ in: especially when he grasped and brandished the cane, as if he were convinced that the sculptor had anticipated the possession of it by the editor of juliana barnes. it is whispered that my friend intends to surprise the roxburghe club (of which he is, in all respects a most efficient member) with proofs of an _engraving_ of this charming little piece of old french carving.] [ ] mons. chardin is since dead at a very advanced age. his mental faculties had deserted him a good while before his decease: and his decease was gentle and scarcely perceptible. the portrait of him, in the preceding edition of this work, is literally the man himself. m. crapelet has appended one very silly, and one very rude, if not insulting, note, to my account of the deceased, which i will not gratify him by translating, or by quoting in its original words. [ ] [a copy of the horace upon vellum (and i believe, the _only_ one) with the original drawings of percier, will be sold in the library of mr. hibbert, during the present season.] [ ] ["and unquestionably the best letter founder. his son, m. amb. firmin didot; who has for a long time past cut the punches for his father, exhibits proof of a talent worthy, of his instructor." crapelet.] [ ] [the translation of the above passage runs so smoothly and so evenly upon "all fours," that the curious reader may be gratified by its transcription: "on ne doit pas être surpris que le meilleur vin de champagne et de chambertin ait été servi sur la tablé de celui qui, au milieu des toasts de ses convives, avait pour accompagnement le bruit agréable. des frisquettes et des tympans de vingt-deux presses.".vol. ii. .] [ ] ["would one not suppose that i had told m. dibdin that it was impossible for the french to execute as fine plates as the english? if so, i should stand alone in that opinion. i only expatiated on the beauty of the wood-cut vignettes which adorn many volumes of the to. shakspeare by bulmer. (n.b. mr. bulmer never printed a shakspeare in to. or with wood cuts; but mr. bensley _did_--in an vo. form.) their execution is astonishing. wood engraving, carried to such a pitch of excellence in england, is, in fact, very little advanced in france: and on this head i agree with m. dibdin." crapelet, iv. .] [ ] ["how can m. dibdin forget the respect due to his readers, to give them a recital of dinners, partaken of at the houses of private persons, as if he were describing those of a tavern? how comes it that he was never conscious of the want of good taste and propriety of conduct, to put the individuals, of whom he was speaking, into a sort of dramatic form, and even the misttresses of the house! crapelet: vol. iv. . i have given as unsparing a version as i could (against myself) in the preceding extract; but the _sting_ of the whole matter, as affecting m. crapelet, may be drawn from the concluding words. and yet, where have i spoken ungraciously and uncourteously of madame?] [ ] [_bozérian undoubtedly had his merits_.]--lesné has been singularly lively in describing the character of bozérian's binding. in the verse ... il dit, et secouant le joug de la manie.... he appears to have been emulous of rivalling the strains, of the epic muse; recalling, as it were, a sort of homeric scene to our recollection: as thus--of achilles rushing to fight, after having addressed his horses: [greek: e ra, kai en prôtois iachôn eche mônuchas hippos] [ ] some account of french bookbinders may be also found in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. ii. p. - . [ ] cependant thouvenin est un de ces hommes extraordinaires qui, semblables à ces _corps lumineux_ que l'on est convenu d'appeler _cometes_, paraissent une fois en un siècle. si, plus ambitieux de gloire que de fortune, il continue à, se surveiller; si, moins ouvrier qu'artiste, il s'occupe sans relache du perfectionnement de la reliure, il fera époque dans son art comme ces grands hommes que nous admirons font époque dans la littérature. p. . [ ] [in the year , lord spencer sent over to the marquis de chateaugiron, a copy of the _ovid de tristilus, translated by churchyard_, , to. (his contribution to the roxburghe club) as a present from one president of bibliophiles to another. it was bound by lewis, in his very best style, in morocco, with vellum linings, within a broad border of gold, and all other similar seductive adjuncts. lewis considered it as a challenge to the whole bibliopegistic fraternity at paris:--a sort of book-gauntlet;--thrown down for the most resolute champion to pick up--if he dare! thouvenin, simier, bozérian (as has been intimated to me) were convened on the occasion:--they looked at the gauntlet: admired and feared it: but no man durst pick it up! obstupuere animi:---- ante omnes stupet ipse dares[d].... in other words, the marquis de chateaugiron avowed to me that it was considered to be the _ne plus ultra_ of the art. what say you to this, messrs. lesné and crapelet? [d] _thouvenin_. [ ] this poem appeared early in the year , under the following title. "_la reliure, poème didactique en six chants_; précédé d'une idée analytique de cet art, suivi de notes historiques et critiques, et d'un mémoire soumis à la société d'encouragement, ainsi qu'au jury d'exposition de , relatif à des moyens de perfectionnement, propres à retarder le renouvellement des reliures. par lesnÉ. paris, . vo. pp. . the motto is thus: hâtez-vous lentement, et sans perdre courage, vingt fois sur le métier remettez votre ouvrage; polissez-le sans cesse et le repolissez. _boileau art. poét._ ch. . this curious production is dedicated to the author's son: his first workman; seventeen years of age; and "as knowing, in his business at that early period of life as his father was at the age of twenty-seven." the dedication is followed by a preface, and an advertisement, or "idée analytique de la reliure." in the preface, the author deprecates both precipitate and severe criticism; "he is himself but a book-binder--and what can be expected from a muse so cultivated?" he doubts whether it will be read all through; but his aim and object have been to fix, upon a solid basis, the fundamental principles of his art. the subject, as treated in the dictionary of arts and trades by the french academy, is equally scanty and inaccurate. the author wishes that all arts were described by artists, as the reader would gain in information what he would lose in style. "i here repeat (says he) what i have elsewhere said in bad verse. there are amateur collectors who know more about book-binding, than even certain good workmen; but there are also others, of a capricious taste, who are rather likely to lead half-instructed workmen astray, than to put them in the proper road." in the poetical epistle which concludes the preface, he tells us that he had almost observed the horatian precept: his poem having cost eight years labour. the opening of it may probably be quite sufficient to give the reader a proper notion of its character and merits. je célèbre mon art; je dirai dans mes vers, combien il éprouva de changemens divers; je dirai ce que fut cet art en sa naissance; je dirai ses progrès, et, de sa décadence. je nommerai sans fard les ineptes auteurs: oui, je vais dérouler aux yeux des amateurs: des mauvais procédés la déplorable liste. je nommerai le bon et le mauvais artiste; _letter ix._ men of letters. dom brial. the abbÉ bÉtencourt. messrs. gail, millin, and langÈs. a roxburghe banquet. _paris, june , _. my dear friend, we have had of late the hottest weather in the memory of the oldest parisian: but we have also had a few flying thunder showers, which have helped to cool the air, and to refresh both the earth and its inhabitants. in consequence, i have made more frequent visits; and have followed up my morning occupations among books, by the evening society of those who are so capable, from their talents, of adding successfully to their number. among the most eminent, as well as most venerable of historical antiquaries, is the celebrated dom brial, an ex-benedictin. he lives in the _rue servandoni_, on the second-floor, in the very bosom, as it were, of his library, and of city solitude. my first visit to him, about three weeks ago, was fortified by an introductory letter from our friend * * *. the old gentleman (for he is about seventy four) was busily occupied at his dinner--about one o'clock; and wearing a silk night cap, and habited en rocquelaure, had his back turned as his servant announced me. he is very deaf; but on receiving the letter, and recognising the hand-writing of our friend, he made me heartily welcome, and begged that i would partake of his humble fare. this i declined; begging, on the other hand that he would pursue his present occupation, and allow me to examine his library. "with the greatest pleasure (replied he); but you will find it a very common-place one." his books occupy each of the four rooms which form the suite of his dwelling. of course i include the bed room. they are admirably selected: chiefly historical, and including a very considerable number in the ecclesiastical department. he has all the historians relating to our own country. in short, it is with tools like these, and from original mss. lent him from the royal library--which his official situation authorizes--- that he carries on the herculean labour of the _recueil des historiens des gaules, &c._ commenced by bouquet and other editors, and of which he shewed me a great portion of the xviith volume--as well as the commencement of the xviiith--already printed. providence may be graciously pleased to prolong the life of this learned and excellent old man till the _latter_ volume be completed; but _beyond_ that period, it is hardly reasonable or desirable to wish it; for if he die, he will then have been gathered to his fathers in a good old age.[ ] but the labours of dom brial are not confined to the "recueil," just mentioned. they shine conspicuous in the "_histoire littéraire de la france_," of which fifteen goodly quarto volumes are already printed; and they may be also traced in the famous work entitled _l'art de, verifier les dates_, in three large folio volumes, published in , &c. "quand il est mort, il n'a point son élevè"[ ]--says his old and intimate friend the abbÉ bÉtencourt; an observation, which, when i heard it, filled me with mingled regret and surprise--for why is this valuable, and most _patriotic_ of all departments of literature, neglected _abroad_ as well as _at home_? it is worth all the _digamma_ disquisitions in the world; and france, as well as italy, was once rich in historical literati. dom brial is very little above the mean height. he stoops somewhat from age; but, considering his years, and incessantly sedentary labours, it is rather marvellous that he does not exhibit more striking proofs of infirmity. his voice is full and strong; his memory is yet retentive, and his judgment sound. his hand-writing is extremely firm and legible. no man ever lived, or ever will, or can live, more completely devoted to his labours. they are his meat and drink--as much as his "bouilli et petites poies:"--of which i saw him partaking on repeated visits. occupied from morning till night in the prosecution of his studies--in a quarter of paris extremely secluded--he appears to be almost unconscious of passing occurrences without;[ ] except it be of the sittings of the _institute_, which he constantly attends, on fridays, as one of the secretaries. i have twice dined with him; and, each time, in company with the abbé bétencourt, his brother secretary at the institute; and his old, long-tried, and most intimate friend. the abbé bÉtencourt was not unknown to me during his late residence in england, as an emigré: but he is still-better known to our common friend * * *, who gave me the letter of introduction to dom brial. that mutual knowledge brought us quickly together, and made us as quickly intimate. the abbé is above the middle height; wears his own grey hair; has an expressive countenance, talks much; and well, and at times drolly. yet his wit or mirth is well attempered to his years. his manner of _rallying_ his venerable friend is very amusing; for dom brial, from his deafness, (like most deaf men) drops at times into silence and abstraction. on each of my dinner-visits, it was difficult to say which was the hotter day. but dom brial's residence, at the hour of dinner, (which was four--for my own accommodation) happened luckily to be in the _shade_. we sat down, three, to a small circular table, (in the further or fourth room) on the tiled floor of which was some very ancient wine, within the immediate grasp of the right hand of the host. an elderly female servant attended in the neighbouring room. the dinner was equally simple, relishing, and abundant; and the virtues of the "old wine" were quickly put into circulation by the benedictin founder of the feast. at six we rose from table, and walked in the luxembourg gardens, hard by. the air had become somewhat cooler. the sun was partially concealed by thin, speckled clouds: a gentle wind was rising; and the fragrance of innumerable flowers, from terraces crowded with rose-trees, was altogether so genial and refreshing, that my venerable companions--between whom i walked arm in arm--declared that "they hardly knew when the gardens had smelt so sweetly." we went straight onward--towards the _observatoire_, the residence of the astronomer royal. in our way thither we could not avoid crossing the _rue d' enfer_, where marshal ney was shot. the spot, which had been stained with his blood, was at this moment covered by skittles, and groups of stout lads were enjoying themselves in all directions. it should seem that nothing but youthful sports and pastimes had ever prevailed there: so insensibly do succeeding occupations wear away all traces of the past. i paused for half a minute, casting a thoughtful eye towards the spot. the abbé bétencourt moralised aloud, and dom brial seemed inwardly to meditate. we now reached the observatory. the sub-principal was at home, and was overjoyed to receive his venerable visitors. he was a fellow-townsman of dom brial, and we were shewn every thing deserving of notice. it was nearly night-fall, when, on reaching the rue servandoni, i wished my amiable companions adieu, till we met again. i have before mentioned the name of m. gail. let me devote a little more time and attention to him. he is, as you have been also previously told, the curator of the greek and latin mss. in the royal library, and a greek professor in the collège royale. there is no man, at all alive to a generous and kind feeling, who can deny m. gail the merit of a frank, benevolent, and hearty disposition. his greek and latin studies, for the last thirty-five years, have neither given a severe bias to his judgment, nor repressed the ebullitions of an ardent and active imagination. his heart is yet all warmth and kindness. his fulfilment of the duties of his chair has been exemplary and beneficial; and it is impossible for the most zealous and grateful of her sons, to have the prosperity of the collège royale more constantly in view, than my friend i.b. gail has that of the university of paris. his labours, as a scholar, have been rather useful than critical. he has edited _anacreon_ more than once: and to the duodecimo edition of , is prefixed a small portrait--medallion-wise--of the editor; which, from the costume of dress and juvenility of expression, does not much remind me of the editor as he now is. m. gail's great scholastic work is his greek, latin, and french, editions of _xenophon_ and _thucydides_, in twenty-four quarto volumes; but in the execution of this performance he suffered himself to be rather led astray by the attractions of the _bibliomania_. in other words, he chose to indulge in membranaceous propensities; and nothing would serve m. gail's turn but he must have a unique copy upon vellum! in a quarto form.[ ] twenty four quarto volumes upon vellum!.. enough to chill the ardour and drain the purse of the most resolute and opulent publisher. when i dined with the editor, the other day, i was shewn these superb volumes with all due form and solemnity: and i must say that they do very great credit to the press of the elder didot. yet i fear that it will be a long time before the worthy m. gail is remunerated for his enterprising and speculative spirit. in all the duties attached to his situation in the royal library, this worthy character is equally correct and commendable. he is never so fully occupied with old greek and latin mss., but that he will immediately attend to your wants; and, as much as depends upon himself, will satisfy them most completely. anacreon has left behind some little deposit of good humour and urbanity, which has continued to nourish the heart of his translator; for m. gail is yet jocose, and mirth-loving; fond of a lively repartee, whether in conversation or in writing. he may count some sixty-two years. but it is high time to introduce you to another of these "confrères" at the bibliothèque du roi; of whom indeed, hitherto, i have made but a slight mention. you will readily guess that this must be the well-known aubin louis millin--the head of the department of antiquities; or the principal _archaeologist_ of the establishment. my friend mr. dawson turner having furnished me with introductory credentials, i called upon m. millin within twenty-four hours of my arrival at paris. in consequence, from that time to this, i have had frequent intercourse with him. indeed i am willing to hope that our acquaintance has well nigh mellowed into friendship. he is a short, spare, man; with a countenance lighted up by intelligence rather than moulded by beauty. but he is evidently just now (and indeed, as i learn, has been for some time past) labouring under severe indisposition. he is the thorough frenchman both in figure and manners: light, cheerful, active, diligent, and exceedingly good natured and communicative. his apartments are admirably furnished: and his library does him infinite honour--considering the limited means by which it has been got together. his abode is the constant resort of foreigners, from all countries, and of all denominations; and the library is the common property of his friends, and even of strangers--when they are well recommended to him. millin has been a great traveller; but, if the reports which have reached me prove true, his second voyage to italy, recently accomplished, have sown the seeds of incurable disease in his constitution. indeed: when i look at him, at times, i fancy that i discover _that_ in his countenance ... which i wish were not so palpable ... to my observation. his collection of drawings, of fac-similes of all descriptions--of prints and of atlasses--is immense. they are freely laid open to the inspection of any curious observer: and i have already told you how heartily m. millin begged that mr. lewis would consider his house as his _home_--for the prosecution of his drawings from the illuminated mss. in the royal library, when the regular time of attendance in that place was closed. the other day, we had a superb déjeuné à la fourchette at m. millin's--about three o'clock. it was attended by two marchionesses, of the _bas bleu_ order; and by the whole corps of the confrères bibliographiques of the royal library. several other literary _distingués_ were of the party: and we sat down, a very agreeable mélange, both to gossip and to eat and drink. m. langlès was all animation and all intelligence; and m. van praet seemed for a time to have forgotten vellum aristotles and virgils in alternate libations of champagne and noyeau. meanwhile, the worthy gail, by his playful sallies and repartees, afforded a striking contrast to the balanced attitude and grave remarks of the respectable caperonnier, the senior librarian. poor millin himself had no appetite, but picked a little here and there. we sat down about fourteen; rose at six--to coffee and conversazione; and retired shortly after: some to the theatre, and others to their country houses. this is pretty nearly a correct picture of the bettermost society of paris at this time of the year. in regard to the literary reputation of millin, i well know that, in england, it is rather the fashion to sneer at him; but this sneer may proceed as often from ignorance, as from superiority of information. the truth is, m. millin does _too much_ to do every thing _well_. at one moment, he is busied with a dyptych: at another, he is examining a coin or a medal: during the third, he is lost in admiration over a drawing of a tomb or statue:--his attendant enters with a proof-sheet to engage his fourth moment--and so it goes on--from sunrise to sunset; with pen in hand, or blank or printed paper before him, he is constantly occupied in the pursuit of some archaeological enquiry or other. this praise, however--and no mean or unperishable praise it is--most indisputably belongs to him. he was almost the only one in france; who, during the reign of terror, bloodshed, and despotism--cherished and kept alive a taste for national antiquities. but for _his_ perseverance, and the artists employed by _him_, we should not now have had those _graphic_ representations of many buildings, and relics of art, which have since perished irretrievably. another praise also belongs to him; of no very insignificant description. he is among the most obliging and communicative of literary parisians; and does not suffer his good nature to be soured, or his activity to abate, from the influence of _national_ prejudice. he has a large acquaintance among foreigners; and i really think that he loves the english next best to his own countrymen. but whoever applies to him with civility, is sure to be as civilly received. so much for millin.[ ] this group of literary _whole lengths_ would however be imperfect without the introduction of monsieur langlÈs. the _forte_ of m. langlès consists in his cultivation of, and enthusiastic ardor for, _oriental literature_. he presides, in fact, over the persian, arabic, and other oriental mss. and he performs the duties of his office, as a public librarian, with equal punctuality and credit. he has also published much upon the languages of the east, but is considered less profound than de sacy: although both his conversation and his library attest his predilection for his particular studies. m. langlès is eclipsed by no one for that "gaieté de coeur" which, when joined with good manners and honourable principles, renders a well-bred frenchman an exceedingly desirable companion. he loves also the arts; as well of sculpture as of painting and of engraving. his further room affords unquestionable evidence of his attachment to _english prints_. wilson, west, and wilkie--from the burins of woollett, raimbach, and burnet--struck my eye very forcibly and pleasingly. m. langlès admires and speaks our language. "your charming wilkie (says he) pleases me more and more. why does he not visit us? he will at least find here some _good proofs_ of my respect for his talents." of course he could not mean to pun. i was then told to admire his impression of woollett's _battle of la hogue_; and indeed i must allow that it is one of the very best which i have seen. he who possesses _that_, need not distress himself about any of the impressions of the _death of wolfe_; which is also in the collection of langlès. his library is probably less extensive than millin's; but it is not less choice and valuable. his collection of books (in which are a great number of our best voyages and travels) relating to asia--and particularly his philological volumes, as connected with the different languages of that country, cannot be too much commended. i saw sir john malcolm's _history of persia_ lying upon his table. "how do you like that work, m. langlès?" "sir (replied he) i more than like it--i love it: because i love the author." in fact, i knew that sir john and he were well acquainted with each other, and i believe that the copy in question bore the distinctive mark of being "ex dono auctoris." i have had a good deal of interesting conversation with m. langlès about the history of books during the revolution; or rather about that of the royal library. he told me he was appointed one of the commissioners to attend to the distribution of those countless volumes which were piled up in different warehouses, as the produce of the _ransacked monasteries_. i am not sure, whether, within the immediate neighbourhood of the royal library, he did not say that there were at least _half a million of books_. at that time, every public meeting of parisians--whatever might be the professed object--was agitated, and often furious. one of the red-hot demagogues got up in the assembly, and advised "mangling, maiming, or burning the books: they were only fit for cartridges, wadding, or fuel: they were replete with marks of feudalism and royalty--for they had arms or embellishments on them, which denoted them to belong to aristocrats." this speech made some impression: his comrades were for carrying the motion immediately into execution, by sword and faggot.... but m. langlès rose ... calm, collected, and actuated by feelings a little more accordant with the true spirit of patrotism. "citizens," said the orientalist, "we must not do mischief, in the desire of doing good. let the books remain where they are. if you set fire to them, can you say how far the flames shall extend? our own great national library, so renowned and celebrated throughout europe! may become the prey of the devouring element, and _then_ how will you be reproached by posterity! again--if you convert them to _other_ purposes of destruction, how can you hope to prevent the same example from being followed in other places? the madness of the multitude will make no distinction; and as many pikes and swords may be carried within the great library, as within the various depositories of the monastic books. pause awhile. respect those collections of books, and you will both respect yourselves and preserve the great national library. in due time, we shall make a proper selection from them, and enrich the book stores of the capital!" so spake m. langlès; and the assembly assented to his contre-projet--luckily for paris and themselves.[ ] but nearly all these worthy characters, of whom i have just made mention, had an opportunity of exhibiting their social qualities, of whatever description, at a sort of festival which i gave the other day (last wednesday) in honour of the _roxburghe club_--which met on that same day, i presume, at the clarendon hotel. this parisian roxburghe banquet went off upon the whole with flying colours. you shall know as much about it as is likely to interest you. having secured my guests, (messrs. denon, gail, langlÈs, van praet and millin) and fixed both the place and hour of repast, i endeavoured to dress out a little bill of fare of a _bibliomaniacal_ description--to rival, in its way, that of _mons. grignon_, in the _rue neuve des petits champs_, (within two minutes walk of the royal library,) where we were to assemble, at five o'clock. i knew that millin would put my toasts or sentiments into good french, and so i took courage against the hour of meeting. i had secured a ground-floor apartment, looking upon a lawn, with which it communicated by open doors. the day was unusually hot and oppressive. after finishing my labours at the royal library, i returned to my hotel, arranged my little matters connected with the by-play of the festival--dressed--and resorted to grignon's. every thing looked well and auspiciously. our room was in the shade; and a few lingering breezes seemed to play beneath the branches of an acacia. the dark green bottles, of various tapering shapes, were embedded in pails of ice, upon the table: and napkins and other goodly garniture graced the curiously woven cloth. i hung up, in the simplicity of my heart--over the seat which i was to occupy,-- the portrait of _john king of france_, which m. coeuré had just finished;-- not considering that this said john had been beaten and taken prisoner, at the battle of poictiers by our black prince! never was a step more injudicious, or an ornament more unappropriate. however, there it hung throughout the day. a dinner of the very best description, exclusively of the wine, was to be served up for _twelve francs_ a head. i make no doubt but the club paid a _little_ more where they assembled in london! at length came the hour of dinner, and with the hour the guests. i requested brother van praet to be deputy chairman; and taking my seat beneath the unfortunate john king of france, gave the signal for a general attack--upon whatever was placed before the guests. monsieur denon, however, did not arrive till after the first course. he had been detained by a visit from the duke of bedford. m. millin sat at my right hand, and m. gail at my left. the first course consisted chiefly of fruit, and slices of anchovy, crossed. a large paper copy of a _melon_ cut a magnificent appearance in the centre; but all this quickly gave way to fish, flesh, and fowl of a various but substantial description. poor millin had no appetite, and would only carve. he looked particularly ill. the rest ate, drank, and were merry. the desert was of the very best quality: and this was succeeded by the introduction of a little of english fashion and manners. we drank toasts, connected with the object of the day's festival; and never were a set of guests more disposed to relish both the wine and the sentiment which accompanied each glass. they even insisted upon a "three times three" for "lord spencer and the club!" but if we were merry, we were wise. shortly after dinner, m. gail rose, as if in a moment of inspiration, from his seat--and recited the latin verses which are here enclosed.[ ] they will at least make you admire the good humour of thé poet. he afterwards chanted a song: his own literal version of thé xixth ode of anacreon, beginning [greek: hê gê melaina pinei]. the guests declared that they had never sat so long at table, or were more happy. i proposed a stroll or a seat upon the lawn. chairs and benches were at hand; and we requested that the coffee might be brought to us out of doors. it was now after sun-set; and a lurid sky was above our head. our conversation was desultory as to topics, but animated as to manner. i had never witnessed m. van praet more alive to social disquisition. we talked of books, of pictures, and of antiquities... and i happened, with the same witless simplicity which had pinned the portrait of king john over my seat at dinner, to mention that volume, of almost unparalleled rarity, ycleped _the fables of pfister, printed at bamberg_ in :--which they had recently restored to the wolfenbuttel library! it was "more than enough" for the acute feelings of the devoted head-librarian. m. van praet talked with legs and arms, as well as with tongue, in reply to my observations upon the extraordinary worth and singular rarity of that singular volume. "alas, sir, nothing pained me more. truly--"here a smart flash of lightning came across us--which illumined our countenances with due effect: for it had been sometime past almost wholly dark, and we had been talking to each other without perceiving a feature in our respective faces. m. langlès joined in m. van praet's lamentation; and the baron denon, who (as i learnt) had been the means of obtaining that identical precious volume, united his tones of commiseration with those of his brethren. the lightning now became more frequent, and in larger flashes--but neither sharp nor very dazzling. meanwhile the notes of a skilfully touched harp were heard from one of the windows of a neighbouring house, with a mingled effect which it was difficult to describe. _pfister_, books, busts, and music, now wholly engrossed our attention--and we were absolutely enveloped in blue lightning. we had continued our discourse till towards midnight, had not the rain come down in a manner equally sudden and severe. it was one of the heaviest showers which i remember to have witnessed. the storm was directly in the centre of paris, and over our heads. we retreated precipitately to the deserted banqueting room; and had a reinforcement of coffee. after such a series of melting hot weather, i shall not easily forget the refreshing sweetness emitted from every shrub upon the lawn. about ten o'clock, we thought of our respective homes.[ ] i went into another room to pay the reckoning; liberated king john from his second confinement; shook hands very heartily with my guests--and returned to my lodgings by no means out of humour or out of heart with the day's entertainment. whether they have been more rational, or more _economical_, in the celebration of the same festival, at home, is a point, which i have some curiosity, but no right, to discuss. certainly they could not have been happier. having come to the conclusion of my account of the roxburghe banquet, and it being just now hard upon the hour of midnight, i must relinquish my correspondent for my pillow. a good night. [ ] he died on the th of may, ; on the completion of his th year. see the next note but one. [ ] the reader may be amused with the following testy note of my vigilant translator, m. crapelet: the very sir fretful plagiary of the minor tribe of french critics! "cette phrase, qui n'est pas française, est ainsi rapportée par l'auteur. m. l'abbé bétencourt, aura dit a peu près: "il mourra sans laisser d'élève." m. dibdin qui parle et entend fort bien le français, est il excusable de faire mal parler un academicien franÇais, et surtout de rendre vicieuses presque toutes les phrases qu'il veut citer textuellement? l'exactitude! l'exactitude! c'est la première vertu du bibliographe; on ne saurait trop le répéter a m. dibdin." crapelet. vol. iv. . quære tamen? ought not m. crapelet to have said "il mourrira?" the sense implies the future tense: but ... how inexpiable the offence of making a french academician speak bad french!!--as if every reader of common sense would not have given _me_, rather than the _abbé bétencourt_, credit for this bad speaking? [ ] [in a short, and pleasing, memoir of him, in the _révue encyclopédique, th livraison, p. , &c._ it is well and pleasantly observed, that, "such was his abstraction from all surrounding objects and passing events, he could tell you who was bishop of such a diocese, and who was lord of such a fief, in the xiith century, much more readily, and with greater chance of being correct, than he would, who was the living minister of the interior, or who was the then prefect of the department of the seine?" by the kindness of a common friend, i have it in my power to subjoin a fac-simile of the autograph of this venerable departed:] [autograph] [ ] the _thucydides_ was published first; in twelve volumes vo. vol. ii. ; with various readings, for the first time, from thirteen mss. not before submitted to the public eye. the french version, in four volumes, with the critical notes of the editor, may be had separately. the vellum to. copy of the thucydides consists of fourteen volumes; but as the volumes are less bulky than those of the xenophon, they may be reduced to seven. the _xenophon_ was published in , in seven volumes, to. the latin version is that of leunclavius; the french version and critical notes are those of m. gail. the vellum copy, above alluded to, is divided into ten volumes; the tenth being an atlas of fifty-four maps. some of these volumes are very bulky from the thickness of the vellum. upon this unique copy, m. gail submitted to me, in writing, the following remarks. "of the xenophon, two vellum copies were printed; but of these, one was sent to the father of the present king of spain, and received by him in an incomplete state--as the spanish ambassador told m. gail: only six volumes having reached the place of their destination. the editor undertakes to give authenticated attestations of this fact." "if," say m. gail's written observations, "one considers that each sheet of vellum, consisting of eight pages, cost five francs ten sous, and three more francs in working off--and that skins of vellum were frequently obliged to be had from foreign countries, owing to the dearth of them at paris--whereby the most extravagant demands were sometimes obliged to be complied with--add to which, that fifteen years have passed away since these sums were paid down in hard cash,--the amount of the original expenses is doubled." the volumes are in stout boards, and preserved in cases. in one of his letters to me, respecting the sale of his vellum copy--the worthy professor thus pleasantly remarks: "je ne veux pas m'enricher avec ce livre qui, lorsque je serai cendres, aura un bien grand prix. je n'ai que le desir de me débarrasser d'une richesse qui m'est à charge, et ne convient nullement à un modeste et obscur particulier, comme moi." i subjoin the autograph of this worthy and learned professor: hoping yet to shake the hand heartily which guided the pen. [autograph] [ ] m. millin died about the middle of the following month, ere i had reached vienna. his library was sold by auction in may , under the superintendence of messrs. debure, who compiled the sale catalogue. it produced , francs. the catalogue contained articles or numbers; of which several were very long sets. one article alone, no. ., consisted of volumes in folio, quarto, and octavo. it is thus designated, "recueil de pieces sur les arts, la litte'rature, les antiquite's, _en latin, en italien, et en françois_. this article produced francs, and was purchased by the grand duke of tuscany. millin had brought up from boyhood, and rescued from poverty and obscurity, a lad of the name of _mention_. this lad lived with him many years, in the capacity of a valet and private secretary. in his second and last voyage to italy, millin declined taking him with him, but left him at home, in his house, with a salary of fifty francs per month. five months after his departure, in february, , a great quantity of smoke was seen issuing from the windows of millin's apartments. several people rushed into the room. they found the drawings and loose papers taken from the portfolios, rolled up lightly, and the room on fire at the four corners! a lighted candle was placed in the middle of the room. suspicion immediately fell upon mention. they ran to his bed chamber: found the door fastened: burst it open--and saw the wretched valet weltering in his blood ... yet holding, in his-right hand, the razor with which he had cut his throat! he was entirely dead. millin's collection of letters from his numerous correspondents perished in the flames. this accident, which also deprived millin of a fund of valuable materials that he was preparing for a _dictionary of the fine arts_, and for a _recueil de pièces gravées inédites_--might have also had an infinitely more fatal tendency: as it occurred _within_ the walls which contain the royal library! millin received the news of this misfortune, in italy, with uncommon fortitude and resignation. but this second voyage, as has been already intimated, (see p. ) hastened his dissolution. he planned and executed infinitely too much; and never thoroughly recovered the consequent state of exhaustion of body and mind. as he found his end approaching, he is reported to have said--"i should like to have lived longer, in order to have done more good--but god's will be done! i have lived fifty-nine years, the happiest of men--and should i not be ungrateful towards providence, if i complained of its decrees?!" and when still nearer his latter moments--he exclaimed: "i have always lived, and i die, a frenchman: hating no one: complaining only of those who retard the cause of reason and truth. i have never, intentionally, hurt a single creature. if i have injured any one, i ask pardon of him for the error of my understanding." he died on the th of august, and his body was interred in the churchyard of père la chaise. his old friend and colleague, m. gail, pronounced a funeral discourse over his grave--in which, as may be well supposed, his feelings were most acutely excited. i subjoin a facsimile of millin's autograph: from the richly furnished collection of mr. upcott, of the london institution. [autograph: a.l. millin] [ ] [mons. langlès survived the above account between five and six years; dying january , . his library was sold by auction in march, . it was copious and highly creditable to his memory. from the source whence the preceding autograph was derived, i subjoin the following autograph. [autograph: l langlès] [ ] monsieur millin had been before hand in his description of this day's festival, but his description was in prose. it appeared in the _annales encyclopédiques_, for the ensuing month, july, , and was preceded by a slight historical sketch of the club, taken chiefly from the bibliographical decameron. his account of the festival may amuse some of my readers, who have not been accustomed to peruse _english toasts_ cloathed in french language. it is briefly thus: "pendant que les membres du roxburghe club célébroient le juin la mémoire des premiers imprimeurs de boccace, à venise et en angleterre, sous la présidence de sa grâce lord spencer; m. dibdin, vice-président, s'unissoit à ce banquet bibliographique par une répétition qu'il en faisoit à paris. il avoit appelé à ce banquet m. denon, à qui la france doit encore une grande partie des manuscrits et des éditions rares dont elle s'est enrichie, et plusieurs conservateurs de la bibliothèque royale, mm. vanpraet, langle's, gail, et millin. on pense bien que l'histoire littéraire, la bibliographie, devinrent un inépuisable sujet pour la conversation. l'entretien offrit un mélange de gaïté et de gravité qui convient aux banquets des muses; et selon l'adage antique, les convives étoient plus que trois et moins que neuf. m. gail lut sur cette réunion des vers latins, dont les toasts bruyans ne permirent pas de savourer d'abord tout le sel et l'esprit. ils doivent être imprimés dans _l'hermes romanus_. "m.d., amphitryon et président du festin, porta, comme il convenoit, les premiers toasts: °. a la santé de milord spencer et des honorables membres du roxburghe club. °. a la mémoire de christophe valdarfer, inprimeur du boccace de ; livre dont l'acquisition fait par le duc de marlborough, fut l'occasion de la fondation du roxburghe club. °. a la mémoire immortelle de guillaume caxton, premier imprimeur anglois. °. a la gloire de la france. °. a l'union perpétuelle de la france et de l'angleterre. °. a la prospérité de la bibliothèque royale de france. °. a la santé de ses dignes conservateurs, dont le savoir est inépuisable, et dont l'obligeance ne se lasse jamais. °. a la propagation des sciences, des arts, des lettres, et de la bibliomanie. °. au désir de se revoir le même jour chaque année. "les convives ont rendu ces toasts par un autre qu'ils ont porté, avec les hurras et les trois fois d'usage en angleterre, au vice-président du roxburghe-club, qui leur avoit fait l'honneur de les rassembler. "la séance a fini à l'heure où le président du roxburghe-club lève celle de londres; et le vice-président, m. dibdin, a soigneusement réuni les bouchons, pour les porter en angleterre comme un signe commémoratif de cet agréable banquet."[e] the verses of monsieur gail were as follow:--but i should premise that he recited them with zest and animation. auspice jam phæbo, spenceroque auspice, vestrum illa renascentis celebravit gaudia lucis concilium, stupuit quondam quâ talibus emptus boccacius cunctorum animis, miratus honores ipse suos, atque ipsa superbiit umbra triumpho. magna quidem lux illa, omni lux tempore digna. cui redivivus honos et gloria longa supersit _atque utinam ex vobis unus, vestræque fuissem_ lætitiæ comes, et doctæ conviva _trapezæ_. sed nune invitorque epulis, interque volentes gallus apollineâ sedeo quasi lege britannos. arridet d***: habet nos una voluptas. me quoque librorum meministis amore teneri, atque virûm studiis, quos gallia jactat alumnos: nam si _caxtonio_ felix nunc anglia gaudet, non minus ipsa etiam _stephanorum_ nomina laudat. hic nonnulla manent priscæ vestigia famæ. nobis thucydides, xenophon quoque pumice et auro, quem poliit non parca manus; felicior ille si possit ...[f] melius conjungere musas! [greek: koina ta panta philôn] perhibent: at semper amici quidquid doctorum est: tantis ego lætor amicis. Æternum hæc vigeat concordia pocula firment artesque et libri, quæ nectant foedera reges, utramque et socient simul omnia vincula gentem. cecinit joan. b. gail, lector regius in biblioth. regiâ codd. gr. et lat. præfectus. while one of the london morning newspapers (which shall be here nameless) chose to convert this harmless scene of festive mirth into a coarse and contemptible attack upon its author, the well-bred bibliomanes of paris viewed it with a different feeling, and drew from it a more rational inference. it was supposed, by several gentlemen of education and fortune, that a rival society might be established among themselves--partaking in some degree of the nature of that of the roxburghe, although necessarily regulated by a few different laws. taking the regulations of the roxburghe club (as laid down in the _ninth day_ of the _decameron_) as the basis, they put together a code of laws for the regulation of a similar society which they chose, very aptly, to call les bibliophiles. behold then, under a new name, a _parisian roxburghe society_. when i visited paris, in the summer, of , i got speedily introduced to the leading members of the club, and obtained, from m. durand de lanÇon, (one of the most devoted and most efficient of the members) that information--which is here submitted to the public: from a persuasion that it cannot be deemed wholly uninteresting, or out of order, even by the most violent enemies of the _cause_." the _object_ of this society of the bibliophiles must be expressed in the proper language of the country. it is "_pour nourrir, reléver, et faire naître méme la passion de la_ _bibliomanie_." i put it to the conscience of the most sober-minded observer of men and things--if any earthly object can be more orthodox and legitimate? the society meet, as a corporate body, twice in the year: once in april, the second time in december; and date the foundation of their club from the st of january . whatever they print, bears the general title of "_mélanges_;"[g] but whether this word will be executed in the black-letter, lower-case, or in roman capitals, is not yet determined upon. one or two things, however, at starting, cannot fail to be premised; and indeed has been already observed upon--as a species of _heresy_. the society assemble to a "déjeuné à la fourchette," about twelve o'clock: instead of to a "seven o'clock dinner," as do the london roxburghers: whereby their constitutions and pockets are less affected. the other thing, to observe upon, is, that they do not print (and publish among themselves) such very strange, and out-of-the way productions, as do the london roxburghers. for truly, of _some_ of the latter, it may be said with the anonymous poet in the _adversaria_ of barthius, verum hæc nee puer edidici, nee tradita patre accepi, nee aristotelis de moribus umquam librum, aut divini platonis dogmata legi. _edit. fabri_. , col. , vol. i. and why is it thus? because these reprints are occasionally taken (quoting caspar barthius himself, in the xxth chapter of his iid book of adversaria, _edit. ead_.) "ex libro egregiè obscuro et a blattis tineisque fere confecto." but, on the other hand, they are perfectly harmless: sweet without soure, and honny without gall: as spenser observes in his _colin clout's come home again: edit._ : sign. e.f. or, as is observed in _les illustrations de france, edit_. , to. litt. goth.: le dedens nest, ne trop cler, ne trop brun, mais delectable a veoir...comme il me semble. _sign. cii. rev_. a genuine disciple of the roxburghe club will always exclaim "delectable a veoir" let the contents of the book be "cler," or "brun." nor will such enthusiastic member allow of the epithets of "hodg-podge, gallimaufry, rhapsody," &c. which are to be found in the "transdentals general," of bishop wilkins's famous "_essay towards a real character and a philosophical language:"_ edit. , fol. p. --as applicable to his beloved reprints! i annex the names of the members of the societé des bibliophiles, as that club was first established. . le marquis de chateaugiron, _président_. . guilbert de pixérécours, _secrétaire_. . le chevalier walckenaer, _membre de l'institut, trésorier._ . alph. de malartic, _maître des requêtes._ . durand de lançon. . edouard de chabrol. . berard, _maître des requêtes_. . le vcte. de morel-vindé, _pair de france._ . madame la duchesse de raguse, (_par courtoisie_.) . pensier. . comte juste de noailles. . le baron hely d'oisel, _conseiller d'etat._ . le marquis scipion du nocere, _officier superieur du garde du corps_. . hippolyte de la porte. . de monmerqué, _conseiller à la cour royale_. . coulon, _à lyon._ . le duc de crussol. . le comte d'ourches, _à nancy._ . le chevalier langlès, _membre de l'institut._ . duriez, _à lille._ . le marquis germain garnier, _pair de france_. . monsieur le chevalier artaud, _secrétaire d' ambass. à rome_. it remains to conclude this, i fear unconscionably long, note, as the above letter is concluded, with the mention of another banquet. this banquet was given by the bibliophiles to the noble president of the roxburghe club, when the latter was at paris in the spring of the year . the vice-president of the roxburghe club, who happened at the same time to be at paris, also received the honour of an invitation. the festival took place at _beauvilliers'_, the modern apicius of parisian restorateurs. about twelve guests sat down to table. the marquis de chateaugiron was in the chair. they assembled at six, and separated at half-past nine. all that refinement and luxury could produce, was produced on the occasion. champagnes of different tints, and of different qualities--_lively_ like m. langlès, or _still_ like monsieur ****; fish, dressed as they dress it à la rocher de cancale-- poultry, and pastry--varied in form, and piquant in taste--but better, and more palatable than either, conversation--well regulated and instructive--mingled with the most respectful attention to the illustrious guest for whom the banquet had been prepared--gave a charm and a "joyaunce" to the character of that festival--which will not be easily effaced from the tablets of the narrator's memory. where all shine pretty equally, it seems invidious to particularise. yet i may be allowed to notice the hearty urbanity of the marquis, the thorough good humour and bibliomaniacal experience of the comte d'ourches, (who, ever and anon, would talk about an edition of _virgil's pastorals printed by eggesteyn_) the vivacious sallies of the chevalier langlès, the keen yet circumspect remarks of the comte noailles, the vigilant attention and toast-stirring propensities of m.d. de lançon, the _elzevirian_ enthusiasm of m. berard, the ... but enough ... "claudite jam rivos pueri--sat prata biberunt." [e] these corks are yet ( ) in my possession: preserved in an old wooden box, with ribs of iron, of the time of louis xi. [f] the word here in the original is not clear. [g] [they have now published four volumes, in royal vo. of singular beauty and splendour: but the fourth vol. falls far short of its precursors in the intrinsic value of its contents. the first volume is so scarce, as to have brought £ . at a sale in paris. i possess the three latter vols. only, by the kindness of the society, in making me, with earl spencer, an honorary associate.] [ ] [the reader must not break up with the party, until he has cast his eye upon the autograph of an individual, of as high merit and distinction in the department which he occupies, as any to which he has yet been introduced. it only remains to say--it is the autograph of mons. [autograph] _letter x._ the collections of denon, quintin craufurd, and the marquis de sommariva. all the world has heard of the famous denon, the egyptian traveller; and editor of the great work of the _antiquities of egypt_, published in , in two sumptuous folio volumes. as you possess a copy of the french work,[ ] with choice impressions of the plates, i need say nothing further upon the subject--except that i believe it to be one of the very finest works of the kind, which has ever appeared ... on the score of art. but the author has other claims to attention and popularity. he was an intimate friend--and certainly the confidential adviser--of buonaparte, in all public schemes connected with the acquisition of pictures and statues: and undoubtedly he executed the task confided to him with _ability_. he was verging oh his sixtieth year, when he started with his master upon the egyptian expedition--a proof at least of energy, as well as of good disposition, in the cause. but denon has been a great european traveller: he has had access to private, as well as to public, cabinets; and has brought home some rich fruits of his enterprise and taste. his house, on the _quai malaquais_, is the rendezvous of all the english of any taste--who have respectable letters of introduction; and i must do him the justice to say, that, never did a man endure the _inconveniences_ which must frequently result from keeping such open house, with greater adroitness and good humour than does the baron denon. i have sometimes found his principal rooms entirely filled by my countrymen and countrywomen; and i once, from the purest accident, headed a party of _twenty-two_ ... in which were three british officers, and more than that number of members of either university. i will fairly own that, on receiving us, he drew me quietly aside, and observed:--"mon ami, quand vous viendrez une autre fois, ne commandez pas, je vous prie, une armée si nombreuse. je m'imaginois encore en egypte." what was still more perplexing, we found there a party of english as numerous as ourselves. it was thus, however, that he rebuked my indiscretion. we had twice exchanged visits and cards before we met. the card of denon was worth possessing, from the simple, unaffected modesty which it evinced. you merely read the word denon upon it!... the owner of the collection which i am about to describe, is certainly "un peu passé" as to years; but he has a cheerful countenance, with the tint of health upon it; small, gray, sparkling eyes, and teeth both regular and white.[ ] he is generally dressed in black, and always as a gentleman. his figure, not above the middle height, is well formed; and his step is at once light and firm. there is doubtless a good deal which is very prepossessing in his manners. as he understands nothing of the english language, he can of course neither read nor speak it. it is now time to give you some idea of this curious collection. you ascend a lofty and commodious stone staircase (not very common in paris) and stop at the _first_ floor:--another comfort, also very rare in paris. this collection is contained in about half a dozen rooms: lofty, airy, and well furnished. the greater number of these rooms faces the seine. the first contains a miscellaneous assemblage of bronze busts, and pictures of teniers, watteau, and of the more modern school of paris. of these, the watteau is singular, rather than happy, from its size.[ ] the two teniers are light, thin, pictures; sketches of pigs and asses; but they are very covetable morsels of the artist.[ ] in a corner, stands the skeleton of a female mummy in a glass case, of which the integuments are preserved in a basket. this is thought to be equally precious and uncommon. m. denon shews the foot of the figure (which is mere bone and muscle) with amazing triumph and satisfaction. he thinks it is as fine as that of the venus de medicis, but there is no accounting for tastes. among the busts is one of west, of neckar, and of denon himself: which latter i choose here to call "_denon the first_." the second room contains a very surprising, collection of phoenician, egyptian, and other oriental curiosities: and in a corner, to the left, is a set of small drawers, filled with very interesting medals of eminent characters, of all descriptions, chiefly of the sixteenth century. above them is a portrait of the owner of the collection--which i choose to call "_denon the second_." this room exhibits a very interesting mélange. over the fire place are some busts; of which the most remarkable are those of _petrarch_ and _voltaire_; the former in bronze, the latter in terra-cotta; each of the size of life. voltaire's bust strikes me as being the best representation of the original extant. it is full of character; a wonderful mixture of malignity, wit, and genius.[ ] the third room is the largest, and the most splendidly hung with pictures. of these, the circular little guercino--a holy family--is, to my poor judgment, worth the whole.[ ] the rysdael and both are very second rate. as you approach the fire-place, your attention is somewhat powerfully directed to a small bronze whole length figure of buonaparte--leaning upon a table, with his right hand holding a compass, and his left resting upon his left thigh.[ ] some charts, with a pair of compasses, are upon the table; and i believe this represents him in his cabin, on his voyage to egypt. is there any representation of him, in the same situation, upon his _return_? however, it is an admirable piece of workmanship. in this room is also (if i remember rightly) the original colossal head of the ex-emperor, when a young man, in white marble, by canova. but i must not omit informing you that here is also another portrait, in oil, of the owner of the collection--which, if you please, we will call "_denon the third_." you next enter a narrow, boudoir-shaped apartment, which contains, to my taste, the most curious and precious morsels of art which the baron denon possesses. they are specimens of the earlier schools of painting, commencing with what are called _giottos_ and _cimabues_--down to a very striking modern picture of a group of children, by a late french artist, just before the time of our reynolds. this latter you would really conceive to have been the production of sir joshua himself. of the specimens of the earlier schools, i was most struck with the head of pisani, the inventor of medals--of the fifteenth century--painted by _antonello da messina_, a pupil of john van eyk. it is full of nature and of character. i could not get away from it. "is it possible to obtain a copy of this picture?"--said i to its owner. "i understand you, (replied denon) you wish to carry that copy to your own country. and to have it engraved there?" ... "most unquestionably"--resumed i. "it is at your service (he rejoined); laurent will copy it admirably." i hardly knew how to thank mons. denon sufficiently.[ ] [illustration: pisani.] [illustration: denon.] there was another head ...but "non omnia possumus omnes." i mean, one of a female in profile, by masaccio. it was full of expression.[ ] "what, (said its owner,) must you have an engraving of _that_ head also? it is bespoke; by myself. in short, every thing which you behold in these rooms (including even your favourite pisani) will be _lithographised_ for the publication of my own collection." of course, after this declaration, i was careful of what i did or said. "but there was yet _one_ thing in this collection--of which, as i saw such a variety, he could not refuse me a copy." "what might that be?" "a portrait of himself: from marble, from oil, or from enamel." "take your choice: he replied: "faites ce que vous voulez,"--and it was agreed that m. laguiche should make a drawing of the bust, in white marble, (i think the sculptor's name is bosio) which is indeed very like him.[ ] there is also a large and beautiful enamel of denon, full dressed with all his orders, by augustin; perhaps the most perfect specimen of that artist which france possesses. it is the work of several years past, when denon had more flesh upon his cheek, and more fire in his eye. we may therefore say that this room contains "_denon the fourth, and denon the fifth_!" in the same room you observe a very complete specimen of a papyrus inscription; brought from egypt. indeed the curiosities brought from that country (as might naturally be supposed) are numerous and valuable. but my attention was directed to more _understandable_ objects of art. opposite to the bust of denon, is one of his late master, the ex-emperor, in bronze: and above this latter, is a small picture, by _lucas cranach_, of a man with a bag of money tempting a young woman: full of character, and singularly striking. this room--or the one adjoining, i have forgotten which--contains m. denon's collection of the prints of marc antonio or of rembrandt--or of both; a collection, which is said to be _unequalled_.[ ] whether the former be more precious than the latter, or whether both be superior to what our british museum contains of the same masters, is a point which has not yet been fairly determined. but i asked, one morning, for a glimpse of the rembrandts. we were alone; just after we had breakfasted together. m. denon commenced by shewing me two different states of the _coach landscape_, and the two _great coppinols_ with _white grounds_--each varying somewhat!!! "enough," cried i--holding up both hands,--"you beat all in england and all in france!" from hence you pass into a fourth room, which is m. denon's bed-chamber. about the fire-place are numerous little choice bits of the graphic art. two small _watteaus_, in particular, are perfectly delicious;[ ] as well as a very small _sebastian bourdon_; of a holy family. in a corner, too much darkened, is a fine small portrait of _parmegiano_ in profile: full of expression--and, to the best of my recollection, never engraved. these are, i think, the chief bijoux in the bed-room; except that i might notice some ancient little bronzes, and an enamel or two by petitot. you now retrace your steps, and go into a fifth room, which has many fair good pictures, of a comparatively modern date; and where, if i mistake not, you observe at least _one_ portrait in oil of the master of the premises. this therefore gives us "_denon the seventh_!" it is here that the master chiefly sits: and he calls it his workshop. his drawers and port-folios are, i think, filled with prints and old-drawings: innumerable, and in the estimation of the owner, invaluable. you yet continue your route into a further room,-- somewhat bereft of furniture, or en dishabille. here, among other prints, i was struck with seeing that of _the late mr. pitt_; from edridge's small whole length. the story attached to it is rather singular. it was found on board the first naval prize (a frigate) which the french made during the late war; and the captain begged monsieur denon's acceptance of it. here were also, if i remember rightly, prints of mr. fox and lord nelson; but, as objects of _art_, i could not help looking with admiration--approaching to incredulity--upon three or four large prints, after rembrandt and paul potter, which m. denon assured me were the production of _his_ burin! i could scarcely believe it. whatever be the merits of denon, as a critical judge of art, ancient or modern, there is no person, not wholly blinded by prejudice, or soured by national antipathies, that can deny him great zeal, great talent, and great feeling ... in the several pursuits of art, of which his apartments furnish such splendid evidence. but, you may be disposed to add, "has this celebrated man no collection of books?--no library? at least he must have a _missal_ or two?" 'tis even so, my friend. library, he has none: for as "one swallow does not make a summer," so three or four pretty little illuminated volumes do not constitute a library. however, what he has of this kind, has been freely exhibited to me; and i here send you a transscript of some notes taken upon the spot. i was first shewn a small missal, prettily executed in a gothic type, of the italian form, after the models of those of jenson and hailbrun. the calendar has the paintings injured. on the reverse of the last leaf of the calendar, we read, in roman capitals, the following impressive annotation: deum time, pauperes sustine, memento finis. on the reverse of the ensuing leaf, is a large head of christ, highly coloured: but with the lower part of the face disproportionately short: not unlike a figure of a similar kind, in the duke of devonshire's missal, described on a former occasion.[ ] the crucifixon, on the next leaf but one, is full of spirit and effect. then commence the _drolleries_: or a series of subjects most whimsically conceived, but most sweetly touched and finished. you cannot imagine any thing more perfect of their kind and for their size, than are the beasts, birds, insects, fruits, and flowers. the vellum harmonises admirably, from its colour and quality. there are several comparatively large illuminations: some with very small figures; and two (one of st. john the baptist, and the other of christ mocked) are of great beauty in respect to force of colour. the initial capitals are executed with equal attention to taste in composition, and delicacy in colouring. this diminutive volume is only four inches high, by about two inches and three quarters wide. it is bound in red velvet, and mounted with silver knobs, with heads of cherubim upon them. it is fastened by a silver clasp; upon which is painted, and glazed, a head of christ--of the time, as i conceive. m. denon told me he bought this little gem of a bookseller in italy, for francs. he has another missal, about half an inch wider and taller, in the binding of the time, with stamped ornaments. this exhibits flowers, fruits, and birds, in the margins; touched with great delicacy and truth. some of the borders have a gold ground, shaded with brown, upon which the fruit is richly brought out in relief: others have human figures; and the border, encircling the temptation of our first parents, has nothing superior to it--and is really worth an engraved fac-simile: but not in _lithography!_ it is on the forty-fifth leaf. one of the heads, in the border, is like that of our edward vi. the third illuminated ms. volume, in m. denon's possession, is probably the most valuable. it is a quarto, written in the spanish language, and bearing the date of . the scription is in red and black letters, alternately. this book contains several large illuminations, and coloured borders; and i was told, by its owner, that it was the _very book_ upon which the oaths of initiation into the spanish inquisition were administered. its condition is most perfect. the first large illumination represents a saint, with his scull divided by a sword, and blood streaming copiously from him: a palm, with three crowns, is in his right hand; a book is in his left: at top we read "_exsurge domine, et judica causam tuam_." the saint is surrounded by a border of fruits and flowers. it is the principal embellishment in the volume. this book is in its original, black leather, stamped binding, with knobs and clasps. a marginal note thus remarks: "_ynoscan obligados asseruier cargome off^o. de ella salbo si de su voluntad loquisier en servi_." in my last visit to denon,[ ] i met with andrieu; a name which reflects lustre upon the fine arts. as a medallist, he has no equal, nor perhaps ever had any, among the french. our own simon enables us to oppose to him a rival of great and unquestionable talents; but we have slept soundly, both in the _medallic_ and _numismatic_ art, since the time of cromwell: except that we were shook a little out of our slumbers during the reigns of anne and george i. andrieu has more of the pure greek feeling about him, than simon ever evinced: and prefers executing his _hair_ more in masses than in detail. he is therefore on this head, a copyist; but he transfuses into the countenance that soul and intelligence which we delight to contemplate, and which we are prompt to own, in the countenances upon greek coins. the series of _bonaparte-medals_ are, almost entirely, i believe, the work of his hand. but _every_ head is _safe_ with andrieu. he had just brought a medal of the present king (louis xviii.) to shew denon. it was about the size of our half crown, in bronze. the countenance was in profile:--an admirable, and a very strong resemblance. the reverse was the equestrian statue of henri iv., upon the pont-neuf.[ ] upon the whole, quite as good, as an effort of _art_, as what has been done for bonaparte. the artist had well nigh succeeded in drawing me into a sort of half temptation to bespeak an impression of the medal _in gold_. "it was but a trifling sum--some twenty louis, or thereabouts. it would look so sharp and splendid in gold! and...." "i thank you much sir, (replied i) but twenty louis will carry me almost to _strasbourg_, whither i am to proceed in about a week or ten days." one thing i must add, much to his good sense and pure patriotic feeling:--he had been indirectly solicited to strike some medals, commemorative of the illustrious achievements of our wellington: but this he pointedly declined. "it was not, sir, for _me_ to perpetuate the name of a man who had humbled the power, and the military glory, of my _own country_." such was his remark to me. what is commendable in mudie,[ ] would have been ill-timed, if not disgraceful, in andrieu. come with me, now, to a very different exhibition: to a unique collection, of its kind: to a collection, not frequently visited: as little known; but undoubtedly well deserving both of being often visited and described. it is of the _collection of paintings_ belonging to mr. quintin craufurd, living in the _rue d'anjou_, no. , that i am about to speak:--the fruits of a long residence (upwards of thirty years) in france; during the alternate commotions of republicanism and despotism. a letter of introduction procured me every facility of access to make repeated examinations of these treasures; and during my sojournings i fancied myself holding converse alternately with some of the grandees of the time of francis i. and louis xiv. such a collection of _french portraits_--almost entirely of characters who have cut a figure in _history_--is no where else to be seen in paris. in my estimation, it is beyond all price. facing you, as you enter, stands--firmly upon his legs, and looking you manfully in the face--- the gallant and faithful _comte de brienne, grand master of the ceremonies to francis i. and henry ii._ a fine picture; and quite perfect.[ ] to the left, is a charming whole length portrait, by _velasquez_: a tender and exquisitely careful specimen of art. of other whole lengths, but subordinately executed, you should notice one of _christine, duchesse de savoie_, daughter of henry ii. and catherine de medicis; very curious, and in perfect preservation. there is a duplicate of this picture in the louvre. a much more curious picture is a whole length, supposed to be of _agnes sorel_, mistress of charles vii. one minute's reflection will correct this designation of the portrait. in the time of agnes sorel, portrait painting, in oil, was unknown--at least in france. the costume betrays the misnomer: for it is palpably not of the time of agnes sorel. here is also a whole length of _isabella, daughter of philip ii._ and governess of the low countries. there are several small fancy pictures; among which i was chiefly, and indeed greatly struck, with a woman and two children by _stella_. 'tis a gem of its kind. [illustration: comte de brienne, from an original painting in the collection of the late quintin crauford esq. london, published june , by r. jennings, poultry.] leaving this room, you turn, to the left--into a small room, but obscurely lighted. here is a virgin and child, by _sasso ferrato_, that cannot be surpassed. there is a freedom of design, a crispness of touch, and a mellowness of colouring, in this picture, that render it a performance very much above the usual representations of this subject. in the same room is a spirited, but somewhat singular, picture of the _birth of venus_. it exhibits the conception and touch of a master. the colouring is very sober. the name of the artist is not upon the frame, and as i was generally alone when i made my memoranda, i had no one to instruct me. you leave this room, and pass on--catching a glimpse of a lawn richly bedecked with flowers and shrubs--into a long and lofty room, which unites the two enviable distinctions of library and gallery. here you are bewildered for an instant: that is to say, you are divided in your attention between the admiration of the proportion and structure of the room, and the alternate captivation of books, busts, and pictures. but as you have had enough of _paper_ and _print_ in former despatches, i shall confine myself here exclusively to the _pencil_ and the _chisel_. let us first walk leisurely about the ground floor, ere we mount the gallery. to begin with the busts. that of the late _abbé barthelemi_, in white marble, immediately strikes you.[ ] it is full of nature and of character; and the hair has just enough of the antique gusto about it to render the toute ensemble equally classical and individualised--if you will allow this latter expression. here is a terra-cotta head of _corneille_, of very indifferent workmanship; and much inferior to a similar representation of him at rouen. the terra-cotta head of _rousseau_ is considerably better. but the marble bust of _voltaire_, by houdon, throws every thing about it into tameness. it is as fine as is the terra-cotta bust of the same person which denon possesses. here, however, the poet is in a peruque, or dress-wig. his eyes sparkle with animation. every feature and every muscle seems to be in action: and yet it is perfectly free from caricature or affectation. a surprising performance. this head and that of barthelemi are quite perfect of their kind. and yet i am not sure whether i should not have preferred the fine bronze bust of _henri ii._, somewhat larger than life, to either of the preceding. but i must not forget the colossal head of _bonaparte_, when a young man, by canova. it is of white marble: considered to be the original. denon has a similar head, by the same artist. i am not sure if i do not prefer mr. craufurd's. of paintings, on this floor, the head of _francis i_. by titian--(which may be called rather a finished sketch, and which is retouched in parts) is a very desirable performance; but it is inferior to the same head, by the same artist, in the louvre. here is a charming portrait of a lady in the time of louis xv., who chose to lead the life of a _réligieuse_: sweetly and naturally touched. a fine portrait of _grotius_ is also here; well deserving a conspicuous place in any cabinet of learning.[ ] we will now walk up stairs to the gallery. of course, in the confined space between the balustrade and the wainscot (not much more than three feet), it is barely possible to appreciate the full effect of the paintings; but i here send you a list of the greater part of them, with brief remarks, upon the general accuracy of which you may rely. _madame scarron_, with the _duc du maine_; apparently by mignard: in a very fresh and perfect state. a fine head of _racine_, and similar one of _de la motte_. _mademoiselle de guiche, princesse de monaco_; in all probability by mignard. good. _mademoiselle hamilton, comtesse de grammont_; by mignard. if the comte de grammont chose to fall in love only with beautiful women, he could scarcely, upon his own principles, (which indeed were any thing but moral) have found any one so lovely as was his wife. yet i have seen handsomer portraits of her than this. _anne de gonzague_. she was princess palatine, and daughter of charles duke of nevers. this is a half length portrait. a garland is in her right hand. a gay and pleasing picture. _le chancelier d'aguesseau_. by rigaud. a fine mellow portrait. _louis xi_. a whole length; supposed to be by leonardo da vinci. not very credible. it is a fine, bold, horribly-looking portrait: not in the very best state of preservation. _blaise pascal_. very fine. the artist's name is not inscribed; but there is a murillo-like effect about this portrait, which is very striking. pascal holds a letter in his hand. next to pascal is a prodigiously fine oval portrait (is it of _fontaine_?) by rigaud. no name is subjoined. _comtesse de la fayette_. a fine countenance: hands apparently recoloured. in yellow drapery. _julie-lucie d'augennes, duchesse de montausier._ she died in . the portrait is by mignard. it represents this celebrated female, when young, _encadred_ by flowers. the carnation tints of the flesh, and the blue lustre of the eye, have nothing finer in the whole circle of mignard's performances. this is a picture from which the eye is withdrawn with no common reluctance. it is clear, bright, fresh, and speaking.[ ] the _wife of p. de champagne_. she holds a small oval portrait of the mother of her husband, the famous painter, in her lap. the picture is by p. de champagne himself. the head of the mother is very clever: but the flesh has perhaps too predominant a tint of pinkish-purple throughout. _madame de la sabliere_. oval: very clever. _madame deshoulieres_. similar, in both repects. _madame cornuel_. oval: a stiff performance. _madame la duchesse d'orleans_. she is represented as hebe. a pretty picture; but a little too much "frenchified." _madame de staal_. oval. beautiful and perfect. _madame la marquise de rambouillet_. a° . a most beautiful picture. the head and shoulders are worthy of vandyke. the curtain, in the background, is flowered; and perhaps too hard. _madame la duchesse de la valliere, mère du dernier duc de ce nom_. she was the mother of the duke de la valliere who had the celebrated library; and died in , within three months of reaching her hundredth year! she was an old woman, but yet very handsome, when this portrait was painted. her colour is yet tender, and her features are small and regular. the eyes have unusual intelligence, for so protracted a period of life. it is a half length, and i should think by rigaud. she is sitting in a chair, holding a tea spoon in her right hand, and a tea cup in her left. this may have some allusion, of which i am ignorant. the whole picture is full of nature, and in a fine tone of colour. the _duke of monmouth_. he is sitting: holding a truncheon in his right hand. a helmet and plume are before him. he wears a white sash. this is a dark, but may be called a finely painted, picture. yet the duke is not represented as a handsome man. _turenne_. by p. de champagne. fine. _bossuet_. by rigaud. this is not only considered as the chef-d'oeuvre of rigaud, but it has been pronounced to be the finest portrait ever executed within the last century of the french school.[ ] it is a whole length; and is well known to you from the wonderful print of it by drevet. the representation is worthy of the original; for bossuet was one of the last of the really great men of france. he had a fine capacity and fine scholarship: and was as adroit in polemics as richelieu was in politics. he resembled somewhat our horsley in his pulpit eloquence,--and was almost as pugnacious and overbearing in controversy. he excelled in quickness of perception, strength of argument, and vehemence of invective; yet his sermons are gradually becoming neglected--while those of fenelon, massillon, and saurin are constantly resorted to ... for the fine taste, pure feeling, and christianlike consolation which breathe throughout them. one thing, in this fine whole length portrait of bossuet, cannot fail to be noticed by the curious. the head seems to have been separately painted, on a small square piece of canvass, and _let into_ the picture. there is certainly a _rifacimento_ of some kind or other; which should denote the head to have been twice painted. _c. paulin_. by champagne. paulin was first confessor to louis xiv.; and had therefore, i should apprehend, enough upon his hands. this is a fine portrait. _william iii_. harsh and stiff. it is a performance (as most of those of william seem to be) for the model of a head of a ship. _colbert, evéque de montpellier_. a fine head. _fléchier, evéque de nismes_. a very fine portrait. the name of the painter does not appear. a fine half length portrait of a _marshal of france_, with a truncheon in his hand. both the hands are beautifully drawn and coloured. _maréchal duc d'harcourt_. by rigaud. _eliz. angelique de montmorenci, duchesse de chatillon_. she died in in her th year. this is a fine picture, but injured and retouched. the left hand rests upon a lion's head. _f. marie de bourbon, fille de madame de montespan, et femme du régent_. a stiffish picture; but the countenance is pleasing. _madame la duchesse de névers, fille de madame de thianges, et nièce de madame de montespan_. a bow is in her right hand, and a dog in her left. the countenance is beautiful and well painted. the eyes and mouth in particular have great sweetness of expression. _duc de montausier_; in a hat and red feather. by rigaud. _madame la duchesse de sforce: fille cadette de madame de thianges_. a small whole length, sitting: with two greyhounds in her lap, and a third at her side. _le ministre colbert_. by mignard. a fine picture.[ ] _marie leezinska, femme de louis xv_. a cleverly painted head. _le cardinal mazarin_. by p. de champagne. whole length. a fine portrait-- which i never contemplate without thinking of the poor unfortunate "man in an iron mask!" _madame de motteville_. she died in her th year, in . this is merely the head and shoulders; but in the vandyke style of execution. _charles paris d'orleans, dernier duc de longueville._ he was killed in the famous passage of the rhine, at tolhuys, in . _charles i_. by vandyke. a beautiful half length portrait. perhaps too highly varnished. _le marquis de cinq-mars_. he was beheaded at the age of twenty-two, in september . there is also a whole length of him, in a rich, white, flowered dress. a genuine and interesting picture. _mary queen of scots_. whole length: in a white dress. a copy; or, if an old picture, repainted all over. _don carlos_, the unfortunate son of philip ii. of spain. a beautiful youth; but this picture, alleged to have been painted by alfonso sanchez coello, must be a copy. the foregoing are the principal decorations along the gallery of this handsome and interesting room. in an adjoining closet, where were once two or three portraits of bonaparte, is a beautiful and highly finished small whole length of _philip duke of orleans_, regent of france. also a whole length of _marmontel_, sitting; executed in crayon. the curiously carved frame, in a brown-coloured wood, in which this latter drawing is contained, is justly an object of admiration with visitors. i have scarcely seen a more appropriate ornament, for a choice cabinet, than this estimable portrait of marmontel. here are portraits of _neckar_, and _clement marot_, in crayons: the latter a copy. here is, too, a cleverly painted portrait of _l. de boulogne_. we descend--to a fourth room, or rather to a richly furnished cabinet-- below stairs. every thing here is "en petit." whether whole lengths, or half lengths, they are representations in miniature. what is this singular portrait, which strikes one to the left, on entering? can it be so? yes ... diane de poictiers again! she yet lives every where in france. 'tis a strange performance; but i have no hesitation in calling it an original ... although in parts it has been palpably retouched. but the features--and especially the eyes--(those "glasses of the soul," as old boiastuau calls them[ ]) seem to retain their former lustre and expression. this highly curious portrait is a half length, measuring only ten inches by about eight. it represents the original without any drapery, except a crimson mantle thrown over her back. she is leaning upon her left arm, which is supported by a bank. a sort of tiara is upon her head. her hair is braided. above her, within a frame, is the following inscription, in capital roman letters: "_comme le cerf brait après le décours des eaues; ainsi brait mon ame, après toy, ô dieu_." ps. xlii. upon the whole, this is perhaps the most legitimate representation of the original which france possesses.[ ] in the same boudoir is a small and beautifully coloured head of _francis i._ here is a portrait of the famous _duchess of portsmouth_, on horseback, in red; and another of the _duchess of nevers_, in a blue riding jacket. but much more estimable, and highly to be prized--as works of art--- are the two murillos: one, apparently of st. francis, which was always religiously preserved in the bed-chamber of madame de maintenon, having been given to her by louis xiv. the other, although fine, has less general interest. i could hardly sufficiently admire the whole length of _jacques callot_, painted by himself. it is delicious, of its kind. there is a very curious and probably coeval picture representing whole length portraits of the _cardinals of guise and lorraine_, and the _dukes of guise and mayenne_,[ ] the figures are very small, but appear to be faithful representations. an old portrait of _louis roi de sicile, père de réné_,--a small head, supposed to be of the fifteenth century--is sufficiently singular, but i take this to be a copy. yet the likeness may be correct. a whole length of _washington_, with a black servant holding his horse, did not escape my attention. nor, as an antiquary, could i refuse bestowing several minutes attention upon the curious old portrait (supposed to be by _jean de bruges_) of _charlotte, wife of louis xi._ it is much in the style of the old illuminations. in one of the lower rooms, i forget which, is a portrait of bonaparte; the upper part of the same representation of him which appeared in london from the pencil of david. he is placed by the side of a portrait (of the same dimensions) of his conqueror, wellington: but i am not much disposed to admire the style of execution of our hero. it is a stiff, formal, and severely executed picture. assuredly the present school of french portrait painters is most egregiously defective in expression; while ours, since the days of reynolds, has maintained a most decided superiority. i believe i have now noticed every thing that is more particularly deserving of attention in the collection of mr. quintin craufurd ... but i cannot retrace my steps without again expressing my admiration of the _local_ of this little domain. the garden, offices, and neighbourhood render it one of the most desirable residences in paris.[ ] as i happen to be just now in the humour for gossiping about the fine arts, suppose i take you with me to the collection of paintings of the marquis de sommariva, in the _rue du bas rempart_? it is among the most distinguished, and the most celebrated, in paris; but i should say it is rather eminent for sculpture than for painting. it is here that canova reigns without a rival. the early acquaintance and long tried friend of the marquis, that unrivalled sculptor has deposited here what he considers to be the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of his art, as a single figure. of course, i speak of his _magdalen_. but let me be methodical. the open day for the inspection of his treasures is _friday_. when i entered, not a creature was in the rooms. the general effect was splendid and imposing. i took out my memorandum-book, and went directly to work; noticing only those subjects which appeared, on one account or other, to be more particularly deserving of attention. there is a pretty picture of cupid and psyche, by _carlo cignani_; the simple and quiet effect of which is much heightened by being contrasted with the very worst representation of the _same subject_, which i ever saw, by _david_: painted last year at brussels. how the marquis can afford so many square yards of his walls for the reception of such a performance, is almost marvellous. it is, throughout, in the worst possible taste. the countenance of cupid, who is sitting on the bed or couch with the vacant grin of an ideot, is that of a negro. it is dark, and of an utterly inane expression. the colouring is also too ruddy throughout. near to this really heartless picture, is one of a woman flying; well drawn, and rather tenderly coloured. opposite, is a picture of venus supported in the air by a group of cupids. the artist is _prudhon_. in the general glare of colour, which distinguishes the french school, it is absolutely refreshing to have the eye soothed by something like an attempt, as in this picture, at a mellow chiaro-oscuro. it has undoubted merit. it is, upon the whole, finely coloured; but the countenance of venus is so pale as to have an almost deathly effect. it is intended to represent her as snatched away from the sight of her dead adonis. in common courtesy i must make but brief mention of a very clumsy, and ill-drawn child, by de broisefremont: and hasten, in the next room, to the magnificent picture of _diana and endymion_, painted by guerin in , and lately engraved. this picture is a very fair illustration of the merits and demerits of the french school of painting. the drawing of endymion is, upon the whole, good; but a palpable copy of the antique. this necessarily gives it somewhat an air of affectation. the shepherd lies upon a bed of clouds, (terminated by an horizon which is warmed by the rays of a setting sun) very gracefully and perhaps naturally. he seems to sleep soundly. his whole figure and countenance glow with the warmth of beauty and youth. i will not disturb his slumbers by finding the least fault--even with the disposition of the extremities. but his nightly visitor--the enamoured goddess--is, of all female figures which i have ever seen upon canvass, one of the most affected, meagre, and uninteresting. diana has been exchanged for an opera dancer. the waist is pinched in, the attitude is full of conceit, and there is a dark shadow about the neck, as if she had been trying some previous experiment with a _rope_! endymion could never open his eyes to gaze upon a figure so utterly unworthy of the representation of an enamoured deity.[ ] the cupids must also be condemned; for they are poor in form, and indifferent in execution. the back ground has considerable merit: but i fear the picture is too highly glazed. in this room also is the famous picture of _belisarius_, engraved with so much éclat by desnoyers. i own that i like the engraving better than the painting; for i see no occasion for such a disproportionate quantity of warm colouring as this picture exhibits. pope (in his epistle to jarvis, i think) says of artists, that, "to paint the naked is their dear delight." no artists ever delighted so much in this branch of painting as the french. does not this taste argue a want--not only of respect, but--of _feeling?_ it was therefore pleasing to me, my dear friend, to turn my attention from the studied display of naked goddesses, in the collection of the worthy marquis of sommariva, towards objects a little more qualified to gratify the higher feelings connected with art:--and the first thing which soothed me, when i _had_ so turned my attention, was, the _terpsichore_ of _canova_. you know it from the print by morghen. the countenance, to my eye, is the perfection of female beauty:--yet it is a countenance which seems to be the abstract--the result of study, and of combination--rather than of beauty, as seen "in mortal race which walks the earth." the drapery appears to be studiously neglected--giving it the appearance of the antique, which had been battered and bruised by the casualties of some two thousand years. by this, i mean that the folds are not only numerous, but the intermediate parts are not marked by that degree of precision and finish, which, in my opinion, they ought to have received. yet the whole has an enchantingly simple air: at once classical, pure, and impressive. the marquis has indeed great reason to be proud of it. but if i pat the right cheek of canova with one hand, i must cuff his left cheek with the other. here is a cupid by him, executed in . it is evidently the production of a mind not ripened to its fullest powers. in other words, i should call it "a poor, flat thing." we approach the far-famed magdalen. immediately opposite the boudoir, where the last mentioned treasures are deposited, you observe a door, or aperture, half covered with silken drapery of a greyish brown tint. there was something mysterious in the appearance, and equally so in the approach. i had no intimation of what it led to; for, as i told you, not a creature besides myself was in the rooms. with a gently raised hand i drew the drapery aside, entered ... and looked before me. there stood the magdalen. there she was, (more correctly speaking) kneeling; in anguish and wretchedness of soul--her head hanging down--contemplating a scull and cross, which were supported by her knees. her dishevelled hair flowed profusely over her back and shoulders. her cheeks were sunk. her eyes were hollow. her attitude was lowly and submissive. you could not look at her without feeling pity and compassion. such, in few words, is the magdalen of canova. for the first five minutes i was lost in surprise and admiration. the windows are hid by white curtains; and the interior is hung all over with the same grey silk drapery, before noticed. a glass, placed behind the figure, affords you a view of the back while you are contemplating the front. this is very ingenious; but it is probably too artificial. the effect of the room, however--from the silken drapery with which it is entirely covered--is, although studied, upon the whole excellent. of course the minutes flew away quickly in such a place, and before such an object; and i think i viewed the figure, in every possible direction, for full three quarters of an hour. the result of that view--after the first feelings of admiration had subsided--i proceeded forthwith to impart: and shall be most happy to be set right if i have erred, in the conclusion which i draw. in truth, there can be only one or two little supposed impeachments of the artist's judgment, in the contemplation of this extraordinary figure. the magdalen has probably too much of the abject expression of _mendicity_ in her attitude; and, for a creature thus poor and prostrate, one is surprised to find her gazing upon a _golden_ cross. it is a piece of finery ill placed in the midst of such wretchedness. but canova is fond of gilt; yet what is appropriate in _hebe_ may be discordant in the _magdalen_. this penitent creature, here so touchingly expressed, is deeply wrapped in meditation upon her crucified master. she has forsaken the world ... to follow the cross!--but surely this idea would have been more powerfully expressed, if the cross had _not_ been _visible_?. was this object necessary to tell the tale?--or, rather, did not the sculptor deem it necessary to _balance_ (as is called) the figure? nor am i over well satisfied with the scull. it is common-place. at any rate, if scull and cross must be there, i wish the cross had been simply of stone--as is the scull. my next objection relates to a somewhat more important point. i think the _face_ and _figure_ do not seem to belong to the _same_ human being: the former is shrunken, ghastly, and indicative of extreme constitutional debility: the latter is plump, well formed, and bespeaks a subject in the enjoyment of full health. can such an union, therefore, be quite correct? in the different views of this figure, especially in profile, or behind, you cannot fail to be struck with the general beauty of the form; but this beauty arises from its fulness and just proportion. in gazing upon it, in front, you are pained by the view of a countenance shrunk almost to emaciation! can this be in nature? and do not mental affliction and bodily debility generally go together? the old painters, even as far back as the time of illuminators of books, used to represent the magdalen as plump, even to fatness,--and stout in all respects; but her _countenance_ usually partook of this vigour of stamina. it was full, rosy, and healthful. the older artists sometimes placed the magdalen in a very awkward, and perhaps impossible, situation; and she was even made to be buried up to the bosom in earth--still exercising her devotions. canova has doubtless displayed great pathos in the wretched aspect, and humiliated attitude, of his magdalen; but he has, at the same time, not been inattentive to beauty of form. i only wish she appeared to be in as good condition as the _torso_ indicates. a fastidious observer might say the figure was not _quite balanced_, and that she must fall backward--if she retained such an attitude for a quarter of an hour. but this is hyper-criticism. the date of the execution of this figure is : and parts of it clearly indicate that, if the sculptor were now to re-execute it, he would have paid even yet more attention to the finishing of the hair. upon the whole, however, it is a masterly effort of modern art. it is almost fixed that we leave paris within a week or ten days from hence:--and then, for green fields, yellow corn, running streams, ripened fruit, and all the rural evidences of a matured summer. [ ] it was translated into english, and published in this country on a reduced scale, both as to text and engravings--but a reprint of it, with a folio volume of plates, &c. had appeared also in . at the time, few publications had such a run; or received a commendation, not more unqualified than it was just. see an account of this work in the _library companion_, p. . edit. . [ ] [m. denon died in , aged . the sale of his _marbles, bronzes, pictures, engravings, &c._ took place in .] [ ] [it was sold at the sale of m. denon's pictures for francs, and is numbered in the catalogue.] [ ] [one of these pictures brought , , and the other francs: prices, infinitely below their real worth. they should have been sold here!] [ ] [m. crapelet says--this bust was modelled after the life by pigalle: and was, in turn, the model of that belonging to the figure of voltaire in the library of the institute: see p. ante.] [ ] [the result--judging from the comparative prices obtained at the sale--has confirmed the propriety of my predilection. it brought francs. in the sale catalogue, is the following observation attached: "on admire dans ce précieux tableau de chevalet la facilité surprenante de pinceau et cette harmonic parfaite de couleur qui faisaient dire au tiarini, peintre contemporain, "seigneur guerchin, vous faites ce que vous voulez, et nous autres ce que nous pouvons." no. .] [ ] ["this figure was cast from a model made by montoni in . there were only six copies of it, of which four were in _bronze_ and two in _silver_." _cat._ no. . i have not been able to learn the price for which it was sold.] [ ] the opposite plate will best attest the truth of the above remark. it exhibits a specimen of that precise period of art, when a taste for the gothic was beginning somewhat to subside. the countenance is yet hard and severely marked; but the expression is easy and natural, and the _likeness_ i should conceive to be perfect. as such, the picture is invaluable. [so far in the preceding edition. the sequel is a little mortifying. the above picture, an undoubted _original_--and by a master (the supposed pupil of john van eyk) who introduced the art of oil-painting into italy--was sold for only francs: whereas the _copy_ of it, in oil, by laurent, executed expressly for the accompanying plate (and executed with great skill and fidelity) cost francs!] [ ] [what a taste have the virtuosi at paris! this interesting picture was allowed to be sold for francs only. who is its fortunate possessor?] [ ] [the opposite plate, which exhibits the head in question, is a sufficient confirmation of the above remark.] [ ] [first, of the marc antonios. since the sale of the _silvestre_ collection, in , nothing had been seen at paris like that of m. denon. it was begun to be formed in the eighteenth century: from which it is clear, that, not only was every proof at least an hundred years old, but, at that period, zanetti, the previous possessor of this collection, sought far and wide, and with unremitting diligence, for the acquisition of the choicest impressions of the engraver. in fact, this collection, (contained in an imperial folio volume, bound in morocco--and of which i necessarily took but a hasty glance) consisted of _original_ impressions, and of of such as were executed in the _school_ of m. antonio. of the original impressions, the whole, with the exception of four only, belonged to zanetti. "if, says the compiler of the catalogue, ( , vo. p. ij.) some of the impressions have a dingy tint, from the casualties of time, none have been washed, cleaned, or passed through chemical experiments to give them a treacherous look of cleanliness." this is sound orthodoxy. the whole was put up in one lot, and ... bought in. secondly, for the rembrandts. the like had never been before submitted to public auction. the collections of _silvestre_ and _morel de vindé_ out and out eclipsed! _zanetti_ again--the incomparable--the felicitous--the unrivalled zanetti had been the possessor of this collection also. but yet more ... john peter zoomer, a contemporary (and peradventure a boon companion) of rembrandt, was the original former of the collection. it is therefore announced as being complete in all respects--"exhibiting all the changes, retouches, beautiful proofs, on india and other paper: ample margins, unstained, uninjured; and the impressions themselves, in every stage, bright, rich, and perfect. the result of all the trouble and expence of years toil of collection is concentrated in this collection." so says john peter zoomer, the original collector and contemporary of rembrandt. it consisted of original pieces: , attributed to rembrandt, without his name: , of john lievens, ferdinand bol, and j.g. villet: copies: and engraved in the manner of rembrandt. the whole contained in large folio volumes, bound in red morocco. no reasonable man will expect even a précis of the treasures of this marvellous collection: a glance of the text will justify every thing to follow: but the "advertisement" to the catalogue prepares the purchaser for the portrait of _rembrandt with the bordered cloak_-- ditto, _with the sabre--ephraim bonus_ with the _black ring_--the _coppinol_, as above described--the _advocate tolling_--the _annunciation of christ's nativity to the shepherds--the _resurrection of lazarus--christ healing the sick_; called the _hundred guilders_[h]--the _astrologer asleep_--and several _landscapes_ not elsewhere to be found--of which one, called the _fishermen_ (no. ) had escaped bartsch, &c. &c. the descriptions of the several articles of which this collection was composed, occupy pages of the catalogue. the three volumes were put up to sale--as a single lot--at the price of , francs:--and there was _no purchaser_. of its present destiny, i am ignorant: but there are those in this country, who, to my knowledge, would have given , francs. i ought to add, that m. denon's collection of callot's works, in three large folio volumes,--bound in calf--also once the property of zanetti--and than which a finer set is supposed never to have been exhibited for sale--produced francs: certainly a moderate sum, if what zanetti here says of it (in a letter to his friend gaburri, of the date of ) be true. "if ever you do this country (venice) the honour of a visit, you will see in my little cabinet a collection of callots, such as you will not see elsewhere--not in the royal collection at paris, nor in the prince eugene's, at vienna--where the finest and rarest impressions are supposed to be collected. i possess _every_ impression of the plates which callot executed; many of them containing first proofs, retouched and corrected by the engraver himself in red chalk. i bought this collection at paris, and it cost me francs. they say it was formed by the engraver himself for his friend m. gérard an amateur of prints." "it should seem that zanetti's description was a little overcharged; but in _his_ time there was no complete catalogue of the artists." cat. p. . [h] it formed no. of the catalogue; where it is described as being "a magnificent proof upon india paper, with a margin of lines all round it. it was with the bur, and before the cross-hatchings upon the mane of the ass." the finest copy of this subject, sold in this country, was that formerly in the collection of m. bernard; and recently purchased by t. wilson, esq. will the reader object to disporting himself with some rembrandtiana, in the _bibliomania_ p. - .? [ ] one of those pictures (no. in the catalogue) produced francs: the other, only francs. the sebastian bourdon (no. ,) was sold for francs, and the parmegiano, (no. ) for francs. [ ] see the _bibliographical decameron_; vol. i. p. clvii. &c. [m. denon's missal was purchased by an english amateur, and sold at the sale of the rev. theodore williams's library for £ . s.] [ ] [ere we take leave of this distinguished frenchman, let us dwell for two seconds on his autograph. [autograph: denon] [ ] there has been recently struck (i think, in ) a medal with the same obverse and reverse, of about the size between an english farthing and halfpenny. the statue of henry is perhaps the miracle of art: but it requires a microscopic glass to appreciate its wonders. correctly speaking, probably, such efforts are not in the purest good taste. simplicity is the soul of numismatic beauty. [ ] the artist who struck the series of medals to commemorate the campaigns of the duke of wellington, from his landing in portugal to the battle of waterloo. [ ] [see the opposite plate, which represents the upper part of the picture.] [ ] [i sent a commission for it, for a friend, at the sale of mr. craufurd's effects, but lost it.] [ ] [purchased by myself: and now at hodnet.] [ ] [this picture was purchased for the gallery at althorp. there is an exquisite drawing of it by wright, for the purpose of a stipling engraving.] [ ] it was purchased by the late king of france for , francs. [ ] [purchased for the gallery at althorp.] [ ] the above quotation is incomplete; for the passage alluded to runs thus.--"where is the painter so well sorting his colours, that could paint these faire eyes that are the _windows of the body, and glasses of the soul_." the continuation is in a very picturesque style. see the _theatre or rule of the world_, p. - , quoted in a recent ( ) edition of _more's utopia_, vol. ii. p. . but _primaudaye's french academy_, lond. , to. runs very much in the same strain. [ ] a little graphic history belongs to this picture. i obtained a most beautiful and accurate copy of it by m. le coeuré, on a reduced scale: from which mr. j. thomson made an engraving, as a private plate, and only copies were struck off. the plate was then destroyed; the impressions selling for a guinea. they are now so rare as to be worth treble that sum: and proofs upon india paper, before the letter, may be worth £ . s. three proofs only were struck off of the plate in its _mutilated_ state; of which my friends mr. haslewood and mr. g. h. freeling rejoice in their possession of a copy. the drawing, by coeuré, was sold for guineas at the sale of my drawings, by mr. evans, in , but it has been subsequently sold for only _nine_ guineas; and of which my worthy friend a. nicholson, esq.--"a good man, and a true"--is in the possession. subsequently, the above original picture was sold; and i was too happy to procure it for the gallery at althorp for _twelve_ guineas only! [ ] [a magnificent whole length portrait of this first duke de guise, painted by porbus--with a warmth and vigour of touch, throughout, which are not unworthy of titian--now adorns the very fine gallery at althorp: where is also a whole length portrait of anne of austria, by mignard. both pictures are from the same collection; and are each probably the masterpiece of the artist. they are of the size of life.] [ ] [mr. craufurd died at paris in .] [ ] ["amateurs, connaisseurs, examinateurs, auteurs de revues du salon, parodistes même, vous n'entendez rien à ce genre de critique; prenez m. dibdin pour modèle: voila' la _bonne école_!" chapelet, vol. iv. p. . my translator shall here have the full benefit of his own bombastical nonsense.] _letter xi._ notice of m. willemin's monumens franÇais inÉdits. miscellaneous antiquities. present state of the fine arts. general observations upon the national character. _july , _. i rejoice that it is in my power once more--and certainly for the last time, from hence--to address you upon a few subjects, which, from your earlier replies to my paris letters, you seem to think that i have lost sight of. these subjects, relate chiefly to antiquities. be assured that i have never, for one moment, been indifferent to them; but in the vast bibliographical field which the public libraries of this place held out for my perambulation, it was impossible, in the first instance, not to take advantage of the curious, and probably useful information, to be derived from thence. i must begin therefore by telling you that i had often heard of the unassuming and assiduous author of the _monumens français inédits_, and was resolved to pay him a visit. i found him in the _rue babile_ towards the eastern end of the rue st. honoré, living on the third floor. several young females were in the ante-room, colouring the plates of that work; which are chiefly in outline and in aqua-tint. each livraison contains six plates, at twelve francs the livraison. the form is folio, and about twenty-eight numbers are printed.[ ] there is something in them of every thing: furniture, dresses, houses, castles, churches, stained glass, paintings, and sculpture. illuminated mss. are as freely laid under contribution as are the outsides and insides of buildings, of whatsoever description. indeed i hardly ever visited the public library without finding m. willemin busied, with his pencil and tracing paper, with some ancient illuminated ms. the style of art in the publication here noticed, is, upon the whole, feeble; but as the price of the work is moderate, no purchaser can reasonably complain. the variety and quantity of the embellishments will always render m. willemin's work an acceptable inmate in every well-chosen library. i recommend it to you strongly; premising, that the author professedly discards all pretension to profound or very critical antiquarian learning. for himself, m. willemin is among the most enthusiastic, but most modest, of his antiquarian brethren. he has seen better days. his abode and manners afford evidence that he was once surrounded by comparative affluence and respectability. a picture of his deceased wife hung over the chimney-piece. the back-ground evinced a gaily furnished apartment. "yes, sir, (said m.w.--on observing that i noticed it) such was _once_ my room, and its _chief ornament_"--of course i construed the latter to be his late wife. "alas! (resumed he) in better days, i had six splendid cabinets filled with curiosities. i have now--not a single one! such is life." he admitted that his publication brought him a very trifling profit; and that, out of his own country, he considered the _london_ market as the most advantageous to him. a large broken phial, containing water and a fleur-de-lis in full bloom, was the only, ornament of his mantle piece. "have you no curiosities of any kind--(said i to him) for sale?" "none--" replied he; but he had _drawings_ of a few. "have the kindness to shew me some of these drawings"--and forthwith appeared the case and _pocket-knife of diane de poictiers_, drawn from the original by langlois. "where is the original?" observed i, hastily. "ha, sir, you are not singular in your question. a nobleman of your country was almost losing his wits because he could not purchase it:--and yet, this original was once to be obtained for _twenty louis_!" i confess i was glad to obtain the drawing of langlois for two napoleons. it is minutely and prettily executed, and apparently with great fidelity. m. willemin proceeded to shew me a few more drawings for his national work, telling me precisely what he _meant_, and what he did _not_ mean, to publish. his own drawings with a pen are, some of them, of a masterly execution; and although of a less brilliant and less classical style than those of le noir, m. willemin is still an artist of whom his country will always have reason to be proud. i bought several drawings of him.[ ] one represents the sculptured figures upon the outside of the _grand portal_ of the _cathedral of chartres._ these figures seem to be of the thirteenth century. the other drawing is of a rich piece of _fayence_, or of painted and glazed earthenware dish, and about the middle of the sixteenth century: of which i remember to have seen some very curious specimens at denon's. but nothing can be more singular, and at the same time more beautiful of its kind, than the present specimen--supposed to be the work of the famous bernard palissy. paris is full of such treasures. of all cities, paris is probably that which abounds with rich and curious relics of ancient art. its churches, its palaces, its public buildings-- sometimes grotesque and sometimes magnificent--furnish alike subjects for admiration and materials for collection. but the genius of the french does not lie in this pursuit. from the commencement of the sixteenth century, the antiquities of paris might have supplied a critical antiquary with matter for a publication which could have been second only to the immortal work of piranesi. but with the exception of montfaucon, (which i admit to be a most splendid exception) and recently of millin and le noir, france hardly boasts of an indigenous antiquary. in our own country, we have good reason to be proud of this department of literature. the names of leland, camden, cotton, dugdale, gibson, tanner, gough, and lysons, place us even upon a level with the antiquarians of italy. it was only the other day that m. willemin was urging me, on my return to england, to take _beauvais_ in my way, in order to pay a visit to madame la comtesse de g., living at a chateau about three leagues from that place. she possesses a collection of carved wood, in bas-reliefs, porches, stair-cases, &c. all from a neighbouring dilapidated abbey; and, among other things, one singular piece of sculpture, descriptive of the temptation of st anthony. he had reason to think that the countess might be more successfully tempted than was the saint just mentioned; in other words, that these things were to be had rather for "money" than for "love." for specimens of the costume of the lower classes, the _south_ side of the seine must be chiefly visited. the great streets which lead thither are those of _st. victor, st. jaques_, and _de la harpe_. mr. lewis had frequently strolled to this quarter of paris; and his attention was one morning particularly directed to a group of _blanchisseuses_--who were halting beneath their burdens to have a little gossip with each other. see how characteristically he has treated the subject. [illustration] one of the causes of the want of encouragement in national antiquities, among the french, may arise from the natural love of the people for what is gay and gaudy, rather than for what is grave and instructive. and yet, when will nations learn that few things tend so strongly to keep alive a pure spirit of patriotism as _such_ a study or pursuit? as we reverence the past, so do we anticipate the future. to love what our forefathers have done in arts, in arms, or in learning, is to lay the surest foundation for a proper respect for our own memories in after ages. but with millin, i fear, the study of archaeology will sleep soundly, if not expire, among the parisians. visconti has doubtless left a splendid name behind him here; but visconti was an italian. no; my friend--the arts have recently taken an exclusive turn for the admiration, even to adoration, of portrait and historical painters: no lysonses, no blores, no mackenzies are patronised either at paris or in the other great cities of france. i must however make an honourable exception in favour of the direction given to the splendid talents of madame jaquotot. and i cannot, in common justice, omit, on this occasion, paying a very sincere tribute of respect to the present king[ ]--who has really been instrumental to this direction. i have lately paid this clever lady a morning visit, with a letter of introduction from our common friend m. langlès. as i was very courteously received, i begged that i might only see such specimens of her art as would give her the least possible trouble, and afford me at the same time an opportunity of judging of her talents. madame jaquotot was as liberal in the display of her productions, as she was agreeable and polite in her conversation. i saw all her performances. her copies of leonardo da vinci and guido, in black crayons, are beautiful of their kind; but her enamel copies, upon porcelaine, of the _portraits of the more celebrated characters of france_--executed at the desire and expense of his majesty--perfectly delighted me. the plan is as excellent as its execution is perfect. but such performances have not been accomplished without a heavy previous expense, on the score of experiments. i was told that the artist had sunk a sum little short of five or six hundred pounds sterling, in the different processes for trying and fixing her colours. but she seems now to walk upon firm ground, and has nothing but an abundant harvest to look forward to. indeed, for every portrait, square, or oval, (although scarcely more than _three inches_ in height) she receives a hundred louis d'or. this is a truly princely remuneration: but i do not consider it overpaid. some of the earlier portraits are taken from illuminated manuscripts; and, among them, i quickly recognised that of my old friend _anne of brittany_,--head and shoulders only: very brilliant and characteristic--but mr. lewis is "yet a painter." as all these bijoux (amounting perhaps to twelve or fifteen in number) were displayed before me, i fancied i was conversing with the very originals themselves. the whole length of _henri iv_., of the same size as the original in the louvre, is probably the chef d'oeuvre of madame jaquotot. it is exquisitely perfect. when she comes down to the reign of louis xiv., she has necessarily recourse to the originals of petitot; of which the louvre contains a precious glazed case, enclosing about four or five dozen, of them. here again the copyist treads closely upon the heels of her predecessor; while her portrait of _anne of austria_ comes fully up to every thing we discover in the original. upon the whole, i spent a pleasant and most instructive hour with this accomplished lady; and sincerely wish that all talents, like hers, may receive a similar direction and meet with an equally liberal reward. you must not fail to bear in mind that, in my humble judgment, this department of art belongs strictly to national antiquities. for _one_, who would turn his horse's head towards madame jaquotot's dwelling, in the _rue jacob_, fifty would fly with rapture to view a whole length by gÉrard, or a group by david. in portrait painting, and historical composition, these are the peculiar heroes. none dare walk within their circle: although i think girodet may sometimes venture to measure swords with the latter. would you believe it? the other day, when dining with some smart, lively, young parisians, i was compelled to defend raffaelle against david? the latter being considered by them _superior_ to the italian artist in a _knowledge of drawing_. proh pudor! this will remind you of jervas's celebrated piece of nonsensical flattery to himself--when, on pope's complimenting that artist upon one of his portraits, he compassionately exclaimed "_poor little tit_!"--surely all these national prejudices are as unwise as they are disgusting. of gérard, i would wish to speak with respect; but an artist, who receives from fifteen to twenty thousand francs for the painting of a whole length portrait, stands upon an eminence which exposes him to the observation of every man. in the same degree, also, does his elevation provoke the criticism of every man. but, however respectfully i may wish to speak of gérard, i do not, in my conscience, consider him superior to what may be called the _second rate_ class of portrait-painters in england.[ ] his outline is often hard, and full of affectation of a knowledge of drawing: his colouring is as frequently severe and metallic, and there is rarely any expression of mind or soul in his faces. i saw at laugier's the other day, his portrait of madame de stael--painted from _recollection_. he certainly had _forgotten_ how to _colour_ when he executed it. forster (a very clever, sensible, and amiable young man) is busied, or rather has just finished, the engraving of a portrait of the duke of wellington, by the same painter. what has depended upon _him_ has been charmingly done: but the figure of the great original--instead of giving you the notion of the first captain of his age[ ]--is a poor, trussed-up, unmeaning piece of composition: looking-out of the canvas with a pair of eyes, which, instead of seeming to anticipate and frustrate (as they _have_ done) the movements of his adversary, as if by magic, betray an almost torpidity or vacancy of expression! the attitude is equally unnatural and ungraceful. another defect, to my eye, in gérard's portraits, is, the quantity of flaunting colour and glare of varnish with which his canvas is covered. the french cognoscenti swear by "the _swearing of the horatii_" of david. i saw a reduced copy of the large picture at the luxembourg, by the artist himself--at didot's: and it was while discussing the comparative merits and demerits of this famous production, that i ventured to observe that raffaelle would have drawn the hands better. a simultaneous shout of opposition followed the remark. i could scarcely preserve common gravity or decorum: but as my antagonists were serious, i was also resolved to enact a serious part. it is not necessary to trouble you with a summary of my remarks; although i am persuaded i never talked so much french, without interruption, for so long a space of time. however, my opponents admitted, with a little reluctance, that, if the hands of the horatii were not ill drawn, the _position_ of them was sufficiently affected. i then drew their attention, to the _cupid and psyche_ of the same master, in the collection of the marquis of sommariva, (in the notice of which my last letter was pretty liberal) but i had here a less obstinate battle to encounter. it certainly appeared (they admitted) that david did not improve as he became older. among the painters of eminence i must not forget to mention laurent. the french are not very fond of him, and certainly they under-rate his talents. as a colourist, some of his satins may vie with those of vanderwerf. he paints portraits, in small, as well as fancy-subjects. of the former, that of his daughter is beautifully executed. of the latter, his _young falconer_ is a production of the most captivating kind. but it is his _joan of arc_ which runs away with the prize of admiration. the government have purchased the house in which that celebrated female was born,[ ] and over the door of which an ancient statue of her is to be seen. laurent's portrait is also purchased to be placed over the chimney-piece of the room; and it is intended to supply furniture, of the character which it originally might have possessed. but if france cannot now boast her mignard, rigaud, or the poussins, she has reason to be proud of her present race of _engravers_. of these, desnoyers evidently takes the lead. he is just now in italy, and i shall probably not see him--having twice called in vain. i own undisguisedly that i am charmed with all his performances; and especially with his sacred subjects from raffaelle:--whom, it is just possible, he may consider to be a somewhat better draftsman than david. there is hardly any thing but what he adorns by his touch. he may consider the whole length portrait of _bonaparte_ to be his chef-d'oeuvre; but his _vierge au linge, vierge dite la belle jardinière_,--and perhaps, still finer, that called _au donataire_--are infinitely preferable, to my taste. the portrait has too much of detail. it is a combination of little parts; of flowered robes, with a cabinet-like background: every thing being almost mechanical, and the shield of the ex-emperor having all the elaborate minutiæ of grignion. i am heretic enough to prefer the famous whole length of poor louis xvi, by bervic after callet: there is such a flow of line and gracefulness of expression in this latter performance! but desnoyers has uncommon force, as well as sweetness and tenderness, in the management of historical subjects: although i think that his recent production of _eliezer and rebecca_, from _nicolo poussin_, is unhappy--as to choice. his females have great elegance. his line never flows more freely than in the treatment of his female figures; yet he has nothing of the style of finishing of our strange. his _francis_ i, and _marguerite de valois_ is, to my eye, one of the most finished, successful, and interesting of his performances. it is throughout a charming picture, and should hang over half the mantle pieces in the kingdom. his portrait of _talleyrand_ is brilliant; but there are parts very much too black. it will bear no comparison with the glorious portrait of our _john hunter_, by sharp--from sir j. reynolds. desnoyers engraves only for himself: that is to say, he is the sole proprietor of his performances, and report speaks him to be in the receipt of some twenty-five thousand francs per annum. he deserves all he has gained--both in fortune and reputation. massard works in the same school with desnoyers. he is harder in his style of outline as well as of finishing; but he understands his subject thoroughly, and treats it with skill and effect. andouin is lately come out with a whole length portrait of the present king: a palpable copy, as to composition, of that of his late brother. there are parts of the detail most exquisitely managed, but the countenance is rather too severely marked. lignon is the prince of portrait-engravers. his head of _mademoiselle mars_--though, upon the whole, exhibiting a flat, and unmeaning countenance, when we consider that it represents the first comic actress in europe--is a master-piece of graphic art. it is wrought with infinite care, brilliancy, and accuracy. the lace, over the lady's shoulder, may bid defiance even to what drevet and masson have effected of the like kind. the eyes and the gems of mademoiselle mars seem to sparkle with a rival lustre; but the countenance is too flat, and the nose wants elevation and beauty. for this latter, however, neither gérard nor lignon are amenable to criticism. upon the whole, it is a very surprising performance. if i were called upon to notice lignon's chef d'oeuvre, i would mention the frontispiece to the magnificent impression of _camoens' lusiad_, containing the head of the author, surrounded by an arabesque border of the most surprising brilliancy of composition and execution. you must however remember, that it is in the splendid work entitled le musÉe franÇais, that many fine specimens of all the artists just mentioned are to be found. there is no occasion to be more particular in the present place. i must not omit the notice of forster and laugier: both of whom i have visited more than once. at the same time, i beg it may be distinctly understood that the omission of the names of _other_ engravers is no implication that they are passed over as being unworthy of regard. on the contrary, there are several whom i could mention who might take precedence even of the two last noticed. some of forster's academic figures, which gained him the prize, are very skilfully treated; both as to drawing and finishing. his print of _titian's mistress_ exhibits, in the face and bosom of the female, a power and richness of effect which may contend with some of the best efforts of desnoyers's burin. the reflex-light, in the mirror behind, is admirably managed; but the figure of titian, and the lower parts of his mistress--especially the arms and hands--are coarse, black, and inharmonious. his _wellington_ is a fine performance, as to mechanical skill. m. bénard, the well-known print-seller to his majesty, living on the _boulevards italiens_, laughed with me the other day at the rival wellington--painted by lawrence, and engraved by bromley,--as a piece of very inferior art! but men may laugh on the wrong side of the face. i consider, however, that what has depended upon forster, has been done with equal ability and truth. undoubtedly the great failing of the picture is, that it can hardly be said to have even a faint resemblance of the original. m. laugier has not yet reached his full powers of maturity; but what he has done is remarkable for feeling and force. his _daphne and chloe_, and _hero and leander_ are early performances, but they are full of promise, and abound in excellences. colour and feeling are their chief merit. the latter print has the shadows too dark. the former is more transparent, more tender, and in better keeping. the foreground has, in some parts, the crispness and richness of woollett. they tell me that it is a rare print, and that only copies were struck off--at the expense of the society of arts. laugier has recently executed a very elaborate print of leander, just in the act of reaching the shore--(where his mistress is trembling for his arrival in a lighted watch-tower) but about to be buried in the overwhelming waves. the composition of the figure is as replete with affectation, as its position is unnatural, if not impossible. the waves seem to be suspended over him--on purpose to shew off his limbs to every degree of advantage. he is perfectly canopied by their "gracefully-curled tops." the engraving itself is elaborate to excess: but too stiff, even to a metallic effect. it can never be popular with us; and will, i fear, find but few purchasers in the richly garnished repertoire of the worthy colnaghi. indeed it is a painful, and almost repulsive, subject. laugier's portrait of _le vicomte de chateaubriand_ exhibits his prevailing error of giving blackness, rather than depth, to his shadows. black hair, a black cravat, and black collar to the coat--with the lower part of the background almost "gloomy as night"--are not good accessories. this worthy engraver lives at present with his wife, an agreeable and unaffected little woman, up four pair of stairs, in the _rue de paradis_. i told him--and as i thought with the true spirit of prediction--that, on a second visit to paris i should find him descended--full two stories: in proportion as he was ascending in fortune and fame. the french are either not fond of, or they do not much patronise, engraving in the _stippling_ manner: "_au poinctilliet_"--as they term it. roger is their chief artist in this department. he is clever, undoubtedly; but his shadows are too black, and the lighter parts of his subjects want brilliancy. what he does "en petit," is better than what he does upon a larger scale." in _mezzotint_ the parisians have not a single artist particularly deserving of commendation. they are perhaps as indifferent as we are somewhat too extravagantly attached, to it. speaking of the french school of engraving, in a general and summary manner--especially of the line engravers--one must admit that there is a great variety of talent; combined with equal knowledge of drawing and of execution; but the general effect is too frequently hard, glittering, and metallic. the draperies have sometimes the severity of armour; and the accessories, of furniture or other objects, are frequently too highly and elaborately finished. nor is the flesh always free from the appearance of marble. but the names i have mentioned, although not entirely without some of these defects, have great and more than counter-balancing excellences. in the midst of all the graphic splendour of modern paris, it was delightful music to my ears to hear wilkie and raimbach so highly extolled by m. bénard. "ha, votre _wilkie_--voilà un génie distingué!" who could say "nay?" but let burnet have his share of graphic praise; for the _blind fiddler_ owes its popularity throughout europe to _his_ burin. they have recently copied our friend wilkie's productions on a small scale, in aqua-tint; cleverly enough--for three francs a piece. i told benard that the duke of wellington had recently bespoke a picture from mr. wilkie's pencil. "what is the subject to be?"--demanded he, quickly. i replied, in the very simplicity of my heart, "soldiers regaling themselves, on receiving the news of the victory of waterloo." mons. bénard was paralised for one little moment: but rallying quickly, he answered, with perfect truth, as i conceive "_comment donc_, tout est waterloo, _chez vous!_" m. bénard spoke very naturally, and i will not find fault with him for such a response; for he is an obliging, knowing, and a very pleasant tradesman to do business with. he admits, readily and warmly, that we have great artists, both as painters and engravers; and pointing to sharpe's _john hunter_ and _the doctors of the church_--which happened to be hanging just before us--he observed that "these, efforts had never been surpassed by his own countrymen." i told him (while conversing about the respective merits of the british and french schools of engraving) that it appeared to me, that in france, there was no fine feeling for landscape engraving; and that, as to antiquarian art, what had been produced in the publications of mr. britton, and in the two fine topographical works--mr. clutterbuck's hertfordshire," and. mr. surtees' durham--exhibited such specimens of the burin, in that department, as could scarcely be hoped to be excelled.[ ] m. bénard did not very strenuously combat these observations. the great mart for _printselling_ is the boulevards; and more especially that of the _boulevards italiens_. a stranger can have no conception of the gaiety and brilliance of the print-shops, and print-stalls, in this neighbourhood. let him first visit it in the morning about nine o'clock; with the sun-beams sparkling among the foliage of the trees, and the incessant movements of the populace below, who are about commencing another day's pilgrimage of human life. a pleasant air is stirring at this time; and the freshness arising from the watering of the footpath--but more particularly the fragrance from innumerable bouquets, with mignonette, rose trees, and lilacs--extended in fair array--is altogether quite charming and singularly characteristic. but my present business is with prints. you see them, hanging in the open air--framed and not framed--for some quarter of a mile: with the intermediate space filled by piles of calf-bound volumes and sets of apparently countless folios. here are _moreri, bayle_, the _dictionnaire de trévoux, charpentier_, and the interminable _encyclopédie_: all very tempting of their kind, and in price:--but all utterly unpurchasable--on account of the heavy duties of importation, arising from their weight. however--again i say--my present business is with _prints_. generally speaking, these prints are pleasing in their manner of execution, reasonable in price, and of endless variety. but the perpetual intrusion of subjects of studied nudity is really at times quite disgusting. it is surprising (as i think i before remarked to you) with what utter indifference and apathy, even females, of respectable appearance and dress, will be gazing upon these subjects; and now that the art of _lithography_ is become fashionable, the print-shops of paris will be deluged with an inundation of these odious representations, which threaten equally to debase the art and to corrupt morals. this cheap and wholesale circulation of what is mischievous, and of really most miserable execution, is much to be deplored. even in the better part of art, lithography will have a pernicious effect. not only a well-educated and distinguished engraver will find, in the long run his business slackening from the reduced prices at which prints. are sold, but a _bad taste_ will necessarily be the result: for the generality of purchasers, not caring for comparative excellence in art, will be well pleased to give _one_ franc, for what, before, they could not obtain under _three_ or _five_. hence we may date the decline and downfall of art itself. i was surprised, the other day, at hearing denon talk so strongly in favour of lithography. i told him "it was a bastard art; and i rejoiced, in common with every man of taste or feeling, that _that_ art had not made its appearance before the publication of his work upon egypt." it may do well for "the whisker'd pandour and the fierce hussar"-- or it may, in the hands of such a clever artist as vernet, be managed with good effect in representations of skirmishes of horse and foot--groups of banditti--a ruined battlement, or mouldering tower--overhanging rocks-- rushing torrents--or umbrageous trees--but, in the higher department of art, as connected with portrait and historical engraving, it cannot, i apprehend, attain to any marked excellence.[ ] portraits however--of a particular description--_may_ be treated with tolerable success; but when you come to put lithographic engraving in opposition to that of _line_--the _latter_ will always and necessarily be ... velut inter ignes luna minores! i cannot take leave of a city, in which i have tarried so long, and with so much advantage to myself, without saying one word about the manners, customs, and little peculiarities of character of those with whom i have been recently associating. yet the national character is pretty nearly the same at rouen and at caen, as at paris; except that you do not meet with those insults from the _canaille_ which are but too frequent at these first-mentioned places. every body here is busy and active, yet very few. have any thing _to do_--in the way of what an englishman would call _business_. the thoughtful brow, the abstracted, look, the hurried step.. which you see along cheapside and cornhill ... are here of comparatively rare appearance. yet every body is "sur le pavé." every body seems to live out of doors. how the _ménage_ goes on--and: how domestic education is regulated--strikes the inexperienced eye of an englishman as a thing quite inconceivable. the temperature of paris is no doubt very fine, although it has been of late unprecedentedly hot; and a french workman, or labourer, enjoys, out of doors--from morning till night those meals, which, with us, are usually partaken of within. the public places of entertainment are pretty sure to receive a prodigious proportion of the population of paris every evening. a mechanic, or artisan, will devote two thirds of his daily gains to the participation of this pleasure. his dinner will consist of the most meagre fare--at the lowest possible price--provided, in the evening, he can hear _talma_ declaim, _or albert_ warble, or see _pol_ leap, or _bigotini_ entrance a wondering audience by the grace of her movements, and the pathos of her dumb shew, in _nina._ the preceding strikes me as the general complexion of character of three fourths of the parisians: but then they are gay, and cheerful, and apparently happy. if they have not the phlegm of the german, or the thoughtfulness of ourselves, they are less cold, and less insensible to the passing occurrences of life. a little pleases them, and they give in return much more than they receive. one thing, however, cannot fail to strike and surprise an attentive observer of national character. with all their quickness, enthusiasm, and activity, the mass of french people want that admirable quality which i unfeignedly think is the particular characteristic of ourselves:--i mean, _common sense_. in the midst of their architectural splendor--while their rooms are refulgent with gilding and plate-glass; while their mantle-pieces sparkle with or-molu clocks; or their tables are decorated with vases, and artificial flowers of the most exquisite workmanship--and while their carpets and curtains betray occasionally all the voluptuousness of eastern pomp ... you can scarcely obtain egress or ingress into the respective apartments, from the wretchedness of their _locks_ and _keys!_ mechanical studies or improvements should seem to be almost entirely uncultivated--for those who remember france nearly half a century ago, tell me that it was pretty much then as it is now. another thing discomposes the sensitive nerves of the english; especially those of our notable housewives. i allude to the rubbishing appearance of their _grates_--and the dingy and sometimes disgusting aspect of carpets and flowered furniture. a good mahogany dining table is a perfect rarity[ ]--and let him, who stands upon a chair to take down a quarto or octavo, beware how he encounter a broken shin or bruised elbow, from the perpendicularity of the legs of that same chair. the same want of common-sense, cleanliness, and convenience--is visible in nearly the whole of the french ménage. again, in the streets--their cabriolet drivers and hackney coachmen are sometimes the most furious of their tribe. i rescued, the other day, an old and respectable gentleman-- with the cross of st. louis appendant to his button-hole--from a situation, in which, but for such a rescue, he must have been absolutely knocked down and rode over. he shook his cane at the offender; and, thanking me very heartily for my protection, observed, "these rascals improve daily in their studied insult of all good frenchmen." the want of _trottoirs_ is a serious and even absurd want; as it might be so readily supplied. their carts are obviously ill-constructed, and especially in the caps of the wheels; which, in a narrow street--as those of paris usually are--unnecessarily occupy a _foot_ of room, where scarcely an _inch_ can be spared. the rubbish piled against the posts, in different parts of the street, is as disgusting as it is obviously inconvenient. a police "ordonnance" would obviate all this in twenty-four hours. yet in many important respects the parisian multitude read a lesson to ourselves. in their public places of resort, the french are wonderfully decorous; and along the streets, no lady is insulted by the impudence of either sex. you are sure to walk in peace, if you conduct yourself peaceably. i had intended to say a word upon morals: and religion; but the subject, while it is of the highest moment, is beyond the reach of a traveller whose stay is necessarily short, and whose occupations, upon the whole, have been confined rather among the dead than the living. farewell, therefore, to paris. i have purchased a very commodious travelling carriage; to which a pair of post-horses will be attached in a couple of days--and then, for upwards of three hundred miles of journey--towards strasbourg! no schoolboy ever longed for a holiday more ardently than i do for the relaxation which this journey will afford me. a thousand hearty farewells! [ ] [the work is now perfect in volumes.] [ ] [i here annex a fac-simile of his autograph from the foot of the account for these drawings.] [illustration] [ ] then, louis xviii. [ ] ["sir t. lawrence, who painted the portrait of the late duke de richlieu, which was seen at the last exhibition, is undoubtedly of the first class of british portrait painters; but, according to mr. dibdin's judgment, many artists would have preferred to have sided with our gérard." crapelet. vol. iv. . i confess i do not understand this reasoning: nor perhaps will my readers.] [ ] [here, mons. crapelet drily and pithily says, "translated from the english." what then? can there be the smallest shadow of doubt about the truth of the above assertion? none--with posterity.] [ ] at domremi, in lorraine. [ ] when desnoyers was over here, in , he unequivocally expressed his rapture about our antiquarian engravings--especially of gothic churches. mr. wild's _lincoln cathedral_ produced a succession of ecstatic remarks. "when your fine engravings of this kind come over to paris we get little committees to sit upon them"--observed desnoyers to an engraver--who communicated the fact to the author. [ ] [the experience of ten years has confirmed the truth of the above remark.] [ ] [not so now! mahogany, according to m. crapelet, is every where at paris, and at the lowest prices.] _letter xii._ paris to strasbourg. _hotel de l'esprit, strasbourg, july , _. i can hardly describe to you the gratification i felt on quitting the "trein-trein".of paris for the long, and upon the whole interesting, journey to the place whence i date this despatch. my love of rural sights, and of rural enjoyments of almost every kind, has been only equalled by my admiration of the stupendous cathedral of this celebrated city. but not a word about the city of strasbourg itself, for the present. my description, both of _that_ and of its _curiosities_, will be properly reserved for another letter; when i shall necessarily have had more leisure and fitter opportunities for the execution of the task. on the eleventh of this month, precisely at ten o'clock, the rattling of the hoofs of two lusty post horses--together with the cracking of an _experimental_ flourish or two of the postilion's whip--were heard in the court-yard of the hôtel des colonies. nothing can exceed the punctuality of the poste royale in the attendance of the horses at the precise hour of ordering them. travellers, and especially those from our _own_ country, are not _quite_ so punctual in availing themselves of this regularity; but if you keep the horses for the better part of an hour before you start, you must pay something extra for your tardiness. of all people, the _english_ are likely to receive the most useful lesson from this wholesome regulation. by a quarter past ten, mr. lewis and myself having mounted our voiture, and given the signal for departure, received the "derniers adieux" of madame the hostess, and of the whole corps of attendants. on leaving the gates of the hotel, the postilion put forth all his energies in sundry loud smackings of his whip; and as we went at a cautious pace through the narrower streets, towards the _barriers of st. martin_, i could not but think, with inward satisfaction, that, on visiting and leaving a city, so renowned as paris, for the _first_ time, i had gleaned more intellectual fruit than i had presumed to hope for; and that i had made acquaintances which might probably ripen into a long and steady friendship. in short, my own memoranda, together with the drawings of messrs. lewis and coeuré, were results, which convinced me that my time had not been mispent, and that my objects of research were not quite undeserving of being recorded. few reflections give one so much pleasure, on leaving, a city--where there are so many thousand temptations to abuse time and to destroy character. the day of our departure was very fine, tending rather to heat. in a little half hour we cleared the barrier of st. martin, and found ourselves on the broad, open, route royale--bordered by poplars and limes. to the right, was the pretty village of _belleville:_ to the left, at the distance of some six or eight english miles, we observed _montmorenci, st. germain en laye_, and, considerably nearer, _st. denis_. all these places, together with _versailles,_ i had previously visited--montmorenci and st. denis twice-- and intended to have given you an account of them; but you could have received from me scarcely any thing more than what the pages of the commonest tour would have supplied you with. we first changed horses at _bondy_, the forest of which was once very extensive and much celebrated. you now behold little more than a formal avenue of trees. the _castle of raincy_, situated in this forest, is to the right, well-wooded--and the property of the duke of orleans. _ville-parisis_ was the next prettiest spot, in our route to _claye_, where we again changed horses. the whole route, from _ville-parisis_ to _meaux_, was exceedingly pleasing and even picturesque. at meaux we dined, and have reason to remember the extravagant charges of the woman who kept the inn. the heat of the day was now becoming rather intense. while our veal-cutlet was preparing, we visited the church; which had frequently, and most picturesquely, peeped out upon us during our route. it is a large, cathedral-like looking church, without transepts, only one tower (in the west front), is built--with the evident intention of raising another in the same aspect. they were repairing the west front, which is somewhat elaborately ornamented; but so intensely hot was the sun--on our coming out to examine it--that we were obliged to retreat into the interior, which seemed to contain the atmosphere of a different climate. a tall, well-dressed, elderly priest, in company with a middle-aged lady, were ascending the front steps to attend divine service. hot as it was, the priest saluted us, and stood a half minute without his black cap--with the piercing rays of the sun upon a bald head. the bell tolled softly, and there was a quiet calm about the whole which almost invited, us to _postpone_ our attack upon the dinner we had ordered. ten francs for a miserable cutlet--and a yet more wretchedly-prepared fricandeau--with half boiled artichokes, and a bottle of undrinkable vin ordinaire--was a charge sufficiently monstrous to have excited the well known warmth of expostulation of an english traveller--but it was really too hot to talk aloud! the landlady pocketed my money, and i pocketed the affront which so shameful a charge may be considered as having put upon me. we now rolled leisurely on towards _la ferté-sous-jouarre:_ about five french-leagues from meaux--not without stopping to change horses at _st. jean,_ &c. the heat would not even allow of the exercise of the postilion's whip. every body, and every thing seemed to be oppressed by it. the labourer was stretched out in the shade, and the husbandman slept within the porch of his cottage. we had no sooner entered the little town of la ferté-sous-jouarre, and driven to the post-house, when not fewer than four blacksmiths came rushing out of their respective forges, to examine every part of the carriage. "a nail had started here: a screw was wanting there: and a fracture had taken place in another direction: even the perch was given way in the centre!" "alas, for my voiture de voyage!" exclaimed i to my companion. meanwhile, a man came forward with a red-hot piece of iron, in the shape of a cramp, to fix round the perch--which hissed as the application was made. and all this--before i could say wherefore! or even open my mouth to express astonishment! they were absolutely about to take off the wheels of the carriage; to examine, and to grease them--but it was then for the first time, that i opened a well-directed fire of expostulation; from which i apprehend that they discovered i was not perfectly ignorant either of their language or of their trickery. however, the rogues had _four_ francs for what they had the impudence to ask _six_; and considering my vehicle to be now proof against the probability of an accident, i was resolved to leave the town in the same good humour in which i had entered it. on quitting, we mounted slowly up a high ascent, and saw from thence the village of _jouarre_, on a neighbouring summit, smothered with trees. it seemed to consist of a collection of small and elegant country houses, each with a lawn and an orchard. at the foot of the summit winds the unostentatious little stream of _le petit morin_ the whole of this scenery, including the village of _montreuil-aux-lions_--a little onwards--was perfectly charming, and after the english fashion: and as the sky became mellowed by the rays of the declining sun, the entire landscape assumed a hue and character which absolutely refreshed our spirits after the heat of the previous part of the journey. we had resolved to sleep at _chateau-thierry_, about seven leagues off, and the second posting-place from where we had last halted. night was coming on, and the moon rose slowly through a somewhat dense horizon, as we approached our rendezvous for the evening. all was tranquil and sweet. we drove to the inn called the _sirène_, situated in the worst possible part of the town: but we quickly changed our determination, and bespoke beds for the night, and horses for the following morning, at the _poste royale_. the landlady of the inn was a tartar--of her species. she knew how to talk civilly; and, for her, a more agreeable occupation--how to charge! we had little rest, and less sleep. by a quarter past five i was in the carriage; intending to breakfast at _epernay_, about twenty-five miles off. the first post-station is _parois_. it is a beautiful drive thither, and the village itself is exceedingly picturesque. from _parois_ to _dormans_, the next post village, the road continues equally interesting. we seemed to go each post like the wind; and reached _epernay_ by nine o'clock. the drive from dormans to epernay is charming; and as the sky got well nigh covered by soft fleecy clouds when we reached the latter place, our physical strength, as well as animal spirits, seemed benefited by the change. i was resolved to _bargain_ for every future meal at an inn: and at epernay i bespoke an excellent breakfast of fruit, eggs, coffee and tea, at three francs a head. this town is the great place in france for the manufacture of _vin de champagne_. it is here where they make it in the greatest quantities; although _sillery_, near rheims, boasts of champagne of a more delicate quality. i learnt here that the prussians, in their invasion of france in , committed sad havoc with this tempting property. they had been insulted, and even partially fired upon--as they passed through the town,--and to revenge themselves, they broke open the cellars of m ..., the principal wine merchant; and drank the contents of only--_one hundred thousand bottles of champagne_!" "but," said the owner of these cellars, (beyond the reach of the hearing of the prussians, as you may be well assured!) "they did not break open my _largest vault_ ... where i had _half as much again!_. "indeed, i was told that the wine vaults of epernay were as well worth inspection, as the catacombs of paris. i should observe to you that the river _marne_, one of the second-rate rivers, of france, accompanies you pretty closely all the way from chateau thierry to chalons--designated as _chalons-sur-marne._ from epernay to chalons you pass through nothing but corn fields. it is a wide and vast ocean of corn--with hardly a tree, excepting those occasionally along the road, within a boundary of ten miles. chalons is a large and populous town; but the churches bear sad traces of revolutionary fury. some of the porches, once covered with a profusion of rich, alto-relievo sculpture, are absolutely treated as if these ornaments had been pared away to the very quick! scarcely a vestige remains. it is in this town where the two great roads to strasbourg--one by _metz_, and the other by _nancy_--unite. the former is to the north, the latter to the south. i chose the latter; intending to return to paris by the former. on leaving chalons, we purposed halting to dine at _vitry-sur-marne_--distant two posts, of about four leagues each. _la chaussée,_ which we reached at a very smart trot, was the first post town, and is about half way to vitry. from thence we had "to mount a huge hill"--- as the postilion told us; but it was here, as in normandy--these huge hills only provoked our laughter. however, the wheel was subjected to the drag-chain--and midst clouds of white dust, which converted us into millers, we were compelled to descend slowly. vitry was seen in the distance, which only excited our appetite and made us anxious to increase our pace. on reaching vitry, i made my terms for dinner with the landlady of the principal inn--who was literally as sharp as a razor. however, we had a comfortable room, a good plain dinner, with an excellent bottle of _vin de beaune_, for three francs each. "could monsieur refuse this trifling payment?" he could not. before dinner i strolled to the principal church-- which is indeed a structure of a most noble appearance--like that of st. sulpice in form, and perhaps of a little more than half its size. it is the largest parish church which i have yet seen; but it is comparatively modern. it was sunday; and a pleasing spectacle presented itself on entering. a numerous group of young women, dressed almost entirely in white, with white caps and veils, were singing a sort of evening hymn-- which i understood to be called the _chaplet of the virgin_. their voices, unaccompanied by instrumental music, sounded sweetly from the loftiness of the roof; and every singer seemed to be touched with the deepest sense of devotion. they sang in an attitude with the body leaning forward, and the head gently inclined. the silence of the place--its distance from the metropolis--the grey aspect of the heavens--and the advanced hour of the day ... all contributed to produce in our minds very pleasing and yet serious sensations. i shall not easily forget the hymn called the chaplet of the virgin, as it was sung in the church of vitry. after leaving this place we successively changed horses at _longchamp_ and at _st. dizier_. to our great comfort, it began to threaten rain. while the horses were being changed at the former place, i sat down upon a rough piece of stone, in the high road, by the side of a well dressed paysanne, and asked her if she remembered the retreat of bonaparte in the campaign of --and whether he had passed there? she said she remembered it well. bonaparte was on horseback, a little in advance of his troops--and ambled gently, within six paces of where we were sitting. his head was rather inclined, and he appeared to be very thoughtful. _st. dizier_ was the memorable place upon which bonaparte made a rapid retrograde march, in order to get into the rear of the allied troops, and thus possess himself of their supplies. but this desperate movement, you know, cost him his capital, and eventually his empire. st. dizier is rather a large place, and the houses are almost uniformly white. night and rain came on together as we halted to change horses. but we were resolved upon another stage--to _saudrupt_: and were now about entering the department of lorraine. the moon struggled through a murky sky, after the cessation of rain, as we entered _saudrupt_: which is little better than a miserable village. travellers seldom or never sleep here; but we had gone a very considerable distance since five in the morning, and were glad of any thing in the shape of beds. not an inn in normandy which we had visited, either by day or by night, seemed to be more sorry and wretched than this, where we--stretched our limbs, rather than partook of slumber. at one in the morning, a young and ardent lover chose to serenade his mistress, who was in the next house, with a screaming tune upon a half-cracked violin--which, added to the never-ceasing smacking of whips of farmers, going to the next market town-- completed our state of restlessness and misery. yet, the next morning, we had a breakfast ... so choice, so clean, and so refreshing--in a place of all others the least apparently likely to afford it--that we almost fancied our strength had been recruited by a good night's sleep. the landlord could not help his miserable mansion, for he was very poor: so i paid him cheerfully and liberally for the accommodation he was capable of affording, and at nine o'clock left saudrupt in the hope of a late dinner at nancy-- the capital of lorraine. the morning was fresh and fair. in the immediate neighbourhood of saudrupt is the pretty village of _brillon_, where i noticed some stone crosses; and where i observed that particular species of domestic architecture, which, commencing almost at longchamps, obtains till within nearly three stages of strasbourg. it consists in having rather low or flat roofs, in the italian manner, with all the beams projecting _outside_ of the walls: which gives it a very unfinished and barbarous look. and here too i began to be more and more surprised at the meagreness of the population of the _country_. even on quitting epernay, i had noticed it to my companion. the human beings you see, are chiefly females--ill-featured, and ill complexioned-- working hard beneath the rays of a scorching sun. as to that sabbath-attire of cleanliness, even to smartness among our _own_ country people, it is a thing very rarely to be seen in the villages of france. at brillon, we bought fine cherries, of a countrywoman for two sous the pound. _bar-le duc_ is the next post-town. it is a place of considerable extent and population: and is divided into the upper and lower town. the approach to it, along hilly passes, covered with vineyards, is pleasant enough. the driver wished to take us to the upper town--to see the church of st. peter, wherein is contained "a skeleton perforated with worm-holes, which was the admiration of the best connoisseurs." we civilly declined such a sight, but had no objection to visit the church. it was a saint's day: and the interior of the church was crowded to excess by women and lads. an old priest was giving his admonition from the high altar, with great propriety and effect: but we could not stay 'till the conclusion of the service. the carriage was at the door; and, reascending, we drove to the lower town, down a somewhat fearful descent, to change horses. it was impossible to avoid noticing the prodigious quantity of fruit--especially of currants and strawberries. _ligny_ was our next halting place, to change horses. the route thither was sufficiently pleasant. you leave the town through rather a consequential gateway, of chaste tuscan architecture, and commence ascending a lofty hill. from hence you observe, to the left, an old castle in the outskirts of the town. the road is here broad and grand: and although a very lively breeze was playing in our faces, yet we were not insensible to the increasing heat of the day. we dined at _st. aubin_. a hearty good-humoured landlady placed before us a very comfortable meal, with a bottle of rather highly-flavoured vin ordinaire. the inn was little better than a common ale house in england: but every thing was "très propre." on leaving, we seemed to be approaching high hills, through flat meadows--where very poor cattle were feeding. a pretty drive towards _void_ and _laye_, the next post-towns: but it was still prettier on approaching _toul_, of which the church, at a distance, had rather a cathedral-like appearance. we drank tea at toul--but first proceeded to the church, which we found to be greatly superior to that of meaux. its interior is indeed, in parts, very elegant: and one lancet-shaped window, in particular, of stained glass, may even vie with much of what the cathedral of this place affords. at toul, for the first time since quitting paris, we were asked for our passports; it being a fortified town. our next stage was _dommartin_; behind which appeared to be a fine hilly country, now purpled by the rays of a declining sun. the church of toul, in our rear, assumed a more picturesque appearance than before. at _velaine_, the following post-town, we had a pair of fine mettlesome prussian horses harnessed to our voiture, and started at a full swing trot--through the forest of hayes, about a french league in length. the shade and coolness of this drive, as the sun was getting low, were quite refreshing. the very postilion seemed to enjoy it, and awakened the echoes of each avenue by the unintermitting sounds of numberless flourishes of his whip. "how tranquil and how grand!" would he occasionally exclaim. on clearing the forest, we obtained the first glimpse of something like a distant mountainous country: which led us to conclude that we were beginning to approach the vosges--or the great chain of mountains, which, running almost due north and south, separates france from alsace. below, glittered the spires of _nancy_--as the sun's last rays rested upon them. a little distance beyond, shot up the two elegant towers of _st. nicholas_; but i am getting on a little too fast.... the forest of hayes can be scarcely less than a dozen english miles in breadth. i had never before seen so much wood in france. yet the want of water is a great draw-back to the perfection of rural scenery in this country. we had hardly observed one rivulet since we had quitted the little glimmering stream at chateau-thierry. we now gained fast upon nancy, the capital of lorraine. it is doubtless among the handsomest provincial towns in europe; and is chiefly indebted for its magnificence to stanislaus, king of poland, who spent the latter part of his life there, and whose daughter was married to louis xv. the annexation of lorraine to france has been considered the masterpiece of louis's policy. nancy may well boast of her broad and long streets: running chiefly at right angles with each other: well paved, and tolerably clean. the houses are built chiefly of stone. here are churches, a theatre, a college, a public library--palace-like buildings--public gardens-- hospitals, coffee houses, and barracks. in short, nancy is another caen; but more magnificent, although less fruitful in antiquities. the _place de la liberté_ et _d'alliance_ et _de la carriére_ may vie with the public buildings of bath; but some of the sculptured ornaments of the _former_, exhibit miserable proofs of the fury of the revolutionists. indeed nancy was particularly distinguished by a visit of the marseillois gentry, who chose to leave behind pretty strong proofs of their detestation of what was at once elegant and harmless. the headless busts of men and women, round the house of the governor, yet prove the excesses of the mob; and the destruction of two places of worship was the close of their devastating labours. nancy is divided into the _old_ and the _new town_. the four principal streets, dividing the latter nearly at right angles, are terminated by handsome arches, in the character of _gateways_. they have a noble appearance. on the first evening of our arrival at nancy, we walked, after a late cup of tea, into the public garden--at the extremity of the town. it was broad moon light; and the appearance of the _caffés_, and several _places_, had quite a new and imposing effect; they being somewhat after the parisian fashion. after a day of dust, heat, and rapid motion, a seat upon one of the stone-benches of the garden--surrounded by dark green trees, of which the tops were tipt with silver by the moon beam--could not fail to refresh and delight me: especially as the tranquillity of the place was only disturbed by the sounds of two or three groups of _bourgeoises_, strolling arm in arm, and singing what seemed to be a popular, national air--of which the tune was somewhat psalm-like. the broad walks abounded with bowers, and open seats; and the general effect was at once singular and pleasing. the hotel-royal is an excellent inn; and the owners of it are very civil people. my first visits were paid to churches and to bookseller's shops. of churches, the _cathedral_ is necessarily the principal. it is large, lofty, and of an elegant construction, of the grecian order: finished during the time of stanislaus. the ornamental parts are too flaunting; too profuse, and in bad taste. this excess of decoration pervades also the house of the governor; which, were it not so, might vie with that of lord burlington; which it is not unlike in its general appearance. in the cathedral, the monument of stanislaus, by girardon, is _considered_ to be a chef-d'ouvre. there was a girardet--chief painter to stanislaus, who is here called "the rival of apelles:" a rival with a vengeance! from thence i went to an old church--perhaps of the thirteenth, but certainly of the fourteenth century. they call it, i think, _st. epreuve._ in this church i was much struck with a curious old painting, executed in distemper, upon the walls of a side aisle, which seemed to be at least three hundred years old. it displayed the perils and afflictions of various saints, on various emergencies, and how they were all eventually saved by the interposition of the virgin. a fine swaggering figure, in the foreground, dressed out in black and yellow-striped hose, much delighted me. parts of this curious old picture were worth copying. near to this curiosity seemed to be a fine, genuine painting, by vandyke, of the virgin and child--the first exhibition of the kind which i had seen since leaving paris. it formed a singular contrast to the picture before described. on quitting this old church, i could not help smiling to observe a bunch of flowers, in an old mustard pot--on which was inscribed "_moutarde fine de nageon, à dijon_--" placed at the feet of a statue of the virgin as a sacred deposit! on leaving the church, i visited two booksellers: one of them rather distinguished for his collection of _alduses_--as i was informed. i found him very chatty, very civil, but not very reasonable in his prices. he told me that he had plenty of old books--_alduses_ and _elzevirs, &c_.--with lapping-over vellum-bindings. i desired nothing better; and followed him up stairs. drawer after drawer was pulled out. these m. renouard had seen: those the comte d'ourches had wished to purchase; and a third pile was destined for some nobleman in the neighbourhood. there was absolutely nothing in the shape of temptation--except a _greek herodian_, by theodore martin of louvain, and a droll and rather rare little duodecimo volume, printed at amsterdam in , entitled _la comédie de proverbes_. the next bookseller i visited, was a printer. "had he any thing old and curious?" he replied, with a sort of triumphant chuckle, that he "once had _such_ a treasure of this kind!" "what might it have been?" "a superb missal--for which a goldsmith had offered him twelve sous for each initial letter upon a gold ground--but which he had parted with, for francs, to the library of a benedictin monastery--now destroyed. it had cost him twelve sous." "but see, sir, (continued he) is not this curious?" "it is a mere reprint, (replied i) of what was first published three hundred years ago." "no matter--buy it, and read it--it will amuse you--and it costs only five sous." i purchased two copies, and i send you here the title and the frontispiece. "_le dragon rouge, ou l'art de commander les esprits célestes, aériens, terrestres, infernaux. avec le vrai secret de faire parler les morts; de gagner toutes les fois qu'on met aux lotteries; de découvrir les trésors," &c_. [illustration] the bookseller told me that he regularly sold hundreds of copies of this work, and that the country people yet believed in the efficacy of its contents! i had been told that it was in this very town that a copy of _the mazarine bible_ had been picked up for some _half_ _dozen francs!_--and conveyed to the public library at munich. towards the evening, i visited the public library by appointment. indeed i had casually met the public librarian at the first bouquiniste's: and he fixed the hour of half-past six. i was punctual almost to the minute; and on entering the library, found a sort of bodley in miniature: except that there was a great mass of books in the middle of the room--placed in a parallelogram form--which i thought must have a prodigiously heavy pressure upon the floor. i quickly began to look about for _editiones principes_; but, at starting, my guide placed before me two copies of the celebrated _liber nanceidos_:[ ] of which _one_ might be fairly said to be _large paper_. on continuing my examination, i found civil and canon law-- pandects, glosses, decretals, and commentaries--out of number: together with no small sprinkling of medical works. among the latter was a curious, and _mentelin_-like looking, edition of _avicenna_. but _ludolphus's life of christ_, in latin, printed in the smallest type of _eggesteyn_, in , a folio, was a volume really worth opening and worth coveting. it was in its original monastic binding--large, white, unsullied, and abounding with rough marginal edges. it is supposed that the library contains , volumes. attached to it is a museum of natural history. but alas! since the revolution it exhibits a frightful picture of decay, devastation, and confusion. to my eye, it was little better than the apothecary's shop described by romeo. it contained a number of portraits in oil, of eminent naturalists; which are palpable copies, by the same hand, of originals ... that have probably perished. the museum had been gutted of almost every thing that was curious or precious. indeed they want funds, both for the museum and the library. it was near night-fall when i quitted the library, and walked with the librarian in a pleasant, open space, near one of the chief gates or entrances before mentioned. the evening was uncommonly sweet and serene: and the moon, now nearly full, rose with more than her usual lustre ... in a sky of the deepest blue which i had yet witnessed. i shall not readily forget the conversation of that walk. my companion spoke of his own country with the sincerity of a patriot, but with the good sense of an honest, observing, reflecting man. i had never listened to observations better founded, or which seemed calculated to produce more beneficial results. of _our_ country, he spoke with an animation approaching to rapture. it is only the exercise of a grateful feeling to record this--of a man--whose name i have forgotten, and whose person i may never see again. on quitting each other, i proceeded somewhat thoughtfully, to an avenue of shady trees, where groups of men and women were sitting or strolling--beneath the broad moon beam--and chanting the popular airs of their country. the next morning i quitted nancy. the first place of halting was _st. nicholas_--of which the elegant towers had struck us on the other side of nancy. it was no post town: but we could not pass such an ecclesiastical edifice without examining it with attention. the village itself is most miserable; yet it could once boast of a _press_ which gave birth to the _liber nanceidos_.[ ] the space before the west front of the church is absolutely choked by houses of the most squalid appearance--so that there is hardly getting a good general view of the towers. the interior struck us as exceedingly interesting. there are handsome transepts; in one of which is a large, circular, central pillar; in the other, an equally large one, but twisted. one is astonished at finding such a large and beautiful building in such a situation; but formerly the place might have been large and flourishing. the west front of this church may rival two-thirds of similar edifices in france. _domballe_ was the next post: the drive thither being somewhat picturesque. _luneville_ is the immediately following post town. it is a large and considerable place; looking however more picturesque at a distance than on its near approach: owing to the red tiles of which the roofs are composed. here are handsome public buildings; a fountain, with eight jets d'eau-- barracks, a theatre, and the castle of prince charles, of lorraine. a good deal of business is carried on in the earthenware and cotton trade--of both which there is a manufactory--together with that of porcelaine. this place is known in modern history from the _treaty of luneville_ between the austrians and french in . from hence we went to _bénaménil_, the next stage; and in our way thither, we saw, for the first time since leaving paris, a _flock of geese!_ dined at _blamont_--the succeeding post town. while our cutlets were preparing we strolled to the old castle, now in a state of dilapidation. it is not spacious, but is a picturesque relic. within the exterior walls is a fine kitchen garden. from the top of what might have been the donjon, we surveyed the surrounding country--at that moment rendered hazy by an atmosphere of dense, heated, vapour. indeed it was uncommonly hot. upon the whole, both the village and _castle of blamont_ merit at least the leisurely survey of an entire day. on starting for _héming_, the next post, we were much pleased by the sight of a rich, verdant valley, fertilized by a meandering rivulet. the village of _richeval_ had particular attractions; and the sight of alternate woods and meadows seemed to mitigate the severity of the heat of the day. at héming we changed horses, opposite a large fountain where cattle were coming to drink. the effect was very picturesque; but there was no time for the pencil of mr. lewis to be exercised. in less than five minutes we were off for _sarrebourg_. evening came on as we approached it. here i saw _hops_ growing, for the first time; and here, for the first time, i heard the _german language_ spoken--and observed much of the german character in the countenances of the inhabitants. the postilion was a german, and could not speak one word of french. however, he knew the art of driving--for we seemed to fly like the wind towards _hommarting_--which we reached in half an hour. it was just two leagues from sarrebourg. we stopped to change horses close to what seemed to be a farm house; and as the animals were being "yoked to the car," for another german phaeton, i walked into a very large room, which appeared to be a kitchen. two long tables were covered with supper; at each of which sat--as closely wedged as well could be--a great number of work-people of both sexes, and of all ages. huge dogs were moving backwards and forwards, in the hope of receiving some charitable morsel;, and before the fire, on a littered hearth, lay stretched out two tremendous mastiffs. i walked with fear and trembling. the cooks were carrying the evening meal; and the whole place afforded such an _interior_--as jan steen would have viewed with rapture, and wilkie have been delighted to copy. meanwhile the postilion's whip was sounded: the fresh horses were neighing: and i was told that every thing was ready. i mounted with alacrity. it was getting dark; and i requested the good people of the house to tell the postilion that i did not wish him to _sleep_ upon the road. the hint was sufficient. this second german postilion seemed to have taken a leaf out of the book of his predecessor: for we exchanged a sharp trot for a full swing canter--terminating in a gallop; and found ourselves unexpectedly before the gates of _phalsbourg_. did you ever, my dear friend, approach a fortified town by the doubtful light of a clouded moon, towards eleven of the clock? a mysterious gloom envelopes every thing. the drawbridge is up. the solitary centinel gives the pass-word upon the ramparts; and every footstep, however slight, has its particular echo. judge then of the noise made by our heavy-hoofed coursers, as we neared the drawbridge. "what want you there?" said a thundering voice, in the french language, from within. "a night's lodging," replied i. "we are english travellers, bound for strasbourg." "you must wait till i speak with the sub-mayor." "be it so." we waited patiently; but heard a great deal of parleying within the gates. i began to think we should be doomed to retrace our course--when, after a delay of full twenty minutes, we heard ... to our extreme satisfaction ... the creaking of the hinges (but not as "harsh thunder") of the ponderous portals--which opened slowly and stubbornly--and which was succeeded by the clanking of the huge chain, and the letting down of the drawbridge. this latter rebounded slightly as it reached its level: and i think i hear, at this moment, the hollow rumbling noise of our horses' feet, as we passed over the deep yawning fosse below. our passports were now demanded. we surrendered them willingly, on the assurance given of receiving them the following morning. the gates were now closed behind us, and we entered the town in high glee. "you are a good fellow," said i to the gatesman: come to me at the inn, to-morrow morning, and you shall be thanked in the way you like best." the landlord of the inn was not yet a-bed. as he heard our approach, he called all his myrmidons about him--and bade us heartily welcome. he was a good-looking, sleek, jolly-faced man: civilly spoken, with a ready utterance, which seemed prepared to touch upon all kinds of topics. after i had bespoken tea and beds, and as the boiling water was getting ready, he began after the following fashion: "hé bien mons. le comte ... comment vont les affaires en angleterre? et votre grand capitaine, le duc de vellington, comment se porte il? ma foi, à ce moment, il joue un beau rôle." i answered that "matters were going on very well in england, and that our great captain was in perfectly good health." "vous le connoissez parfaitement bien, sans doute?"--was his next remark. i told him i could not boast of that honour. "neanmoins, (added he) il est connu par-tout." i readily admitted the truth of this observation. our dialogue concluded by an assurance on his part, that we should find our beds excellent, our breakfast on the morrow delicious--and he would order such a pair of horses (although he strongly recommended _four_,) to be put to our carriage, as should set all competition at defiance. his prediction was verified in every particular. the beds were excellent; the breakfast, consisting of coffee, eggs, fruit, and bread and butter, (very superior to what is usually obtained in france) was delicious; and the horses appeared to be perfect of their kind. the reckoning was, to be sure, a little severe: but i considered this as the payment or punishment of having received the title of _count_ ... without contradiction. it fell on my ears as mere words of course; but it shall not deceive me a second time. we started a little time after nine; and on leaving the place i felt more than usual anxiety and curiosity to catch the first glimpse of the top of _strasbourg cathedral_,--a building, of which i had so long cherished even the most extravagant notions. the next post town was _saverne_; and our route thither was in every respect the most delightful and gratifying of any, and even of all the routes, collectively, which we had yet experienced. as you approach it, you cross over a part of the famous chain of mountains which divide old france from germany, and which we thought we had seen from the high ground on the other side of nancy. the country so divided, was, and is yet, called alsace: and the mountains, just mentioned, are called the _vosges_. they run almost due north and south: and form a commanding feature of the landscape in every point of view. but for saverne. it lies, with its fine old castle, at the foot of the pass of these mountains; but the descent to it--is glorious beyond all anticipation! it has been comparatively only of late years that this road, or pass, has been completed. in former times, it was almost impassable. as the descent is rapid and very considerable, the danger attending it is obviated by the high road having been cut into a cork-screw-shape;[ ] which presents, at every spiral turn (if i may so speak) something new, beautiful, and interesting. you continue, descending, gazing on all sides. to the right, suspended almost in the air--over a beetling, perpendicular, rocky cliff-- feathered half way up with nut and beech--stands, or rather nods, an old castle in ruins. it seems to shake with every breeze that blows: but there it stands--and has stood--for some four centuries: once the terror of the vassal, and now ... the admiration of the traveller! the castle was, to my eye, of all castles which i had seen, the most elevated in its situation, and the most difficult of access. the clouds of heaven seemed to be resting upon its battlements. but what do i see yonder? "is it the top of the spire of strasbourg cathedral?" "it _is,_ sir," replied the postilion. i pulled off my travelling cap, by way of doing homage; and as i looked at my watch, to know the precise time, found it was just ten o'clock. it was worth making a minute of. yet, owing to the hills before--or rather to those beyond, on the other side of the rhine, which are very much loftier--the first impression gives no idea of the extraordinary height of the spire. we continued to descend, slowly and cautiously, with _saverne_ before us in the bottom. to the left, close to the road side, stands an obelisk: on which is fixed, hi gilt letters, this emphatic inscription: _alsatia._ every thing, on reaching the level road, bespoke a distinct national character. it was clear that we had forsaken french costume, as well as the french language, among the common people: so obvious is it, as has been remarked to me by a strasbourgeois, that "mountains, and not rivers, are the natural boundaries of countries." the women wore large, flat, straw hats, with a small rose at the bottom of a shallow crown; while their throats were covered, sometimes up to the mouth, with black, silk cravats. their hair was platted, hanging down in two equal divisions. the face appeared to be flat. the men wore shovel hats, of which the front part projected to a considerable distance; and the perpetually recurring response of "_yaw yaw_"--left it beyond all doubt that we had taken leave of the language of "the polite nation." at length we reached saverne, and changed horses. this town is large and bustling, and is said to contain upwards of four thousand inhabitants. we did not stop to examine any of its wonders or its beauties; for we were becoming impatient for strasbourg. the next two intermediate post towns were _wasselonne_ and _ittenheim_--and thence to strasbourg: the three posts united being about ten leagues. from ittenheim we darted along yet more swiftly than before. the postilion, speaking in a germanised french accent, told us, that "we were about to visit one of the most famous cities in the world--and _such_ a cathedral!" the immediate approach to strasbourg is flat and uninteresting; nor could i, in every possible view of the tower of the cathedral, bring myself to suppose it--what it is admitted to be--the _loftiest ecclesiastical edifice in the world_! the fortifications about strasbourg are said to afford one of the finest specimens of the skill of vauban. they may do so; but they are very flat, tame, and unpicturesque. we now neared the barriers: delivered our passports; and darted under the first large brick arched way. a devious paved route brought us to the second gate;--and thus we entered the town; desiring the post-boy to drive to the _hôtel de l'esprit_. "you judge wisely, sir, (replied he) for there is no hotel, either in france or germany, like it." so saying, he continued, without the least intermission, to make circular flourishes with his whip--accompanied by such ear-piercing sounds, as caused every inhabitant to gaze at us. i entreated him to desist; but in vain. "the english always enter in this manner," said he-- and having reached the hotel, he gave _one_ super-eminent flourish--which threw him off his balance, and nearly brought him to the ground. when i paid him, he pleaded hard for an _extra five sous_ for this concluding flourish! i am now therefore safely and comfortably lodged in this spacious hotel, by the side of the river _ill_--of which it is pleasing to catch the lingering breezes as they stray into my chamber. god bless you. * * * * * p.s. one thing i cannot help adding--perhaps hardly deserving of a postscript. all the way from paris to strasbourg, i am persuaded that we did not meet _six_ travelling equipages. the lumbering diligence and steady poste royale were almost the only vehicles in action besides our own. nor were _villas_ or _chateaux_ visible; such as, in our own country, enliven the scene and put the traveller in spirits. [ ] a folio volume, printed at st. nicolas, a neighbouring village, in . it is a poem, written in latin hexameter verse by p. blaru [p. de blarrovivo]--descriptive of the memorable siege of nancy in , by charles the rash, duke of burgundy: who perished before the walls. his death is described in the sixth book, _sign_. t. iiij: the passage relating to it, beginning "est in nanceijs aratro locus utilis aruis:" a wood cut portrait of the commanding french general, renet, is in the frontispiece. a good copy of this interesting work should always grace the shelves of an historical collector. brunet notices a copy of it upon vellum, in some monastic library in lorraine. [three days have not elapsed, since i saw a similar copy in the possession of messrs. payne and foss, destined for the royal library at paris. a pretty, rather than a magnificent, book.] [ ] see page . [ ] when this 'chaussée,' or route royale, was completed, it was so admired, that the ladies imitated its cork-screw shape, by pearls arranged spirally in their hair; and this head dress was called _coiffure à la saverne_. _letter xiii._ strasbourg. establishment of the protestant religion. the cathedral. the public library. _hôtel de l'esprit, july , _. my dear friend; it is sunday; and scarcely half an hour ago, i heard, from a lutheran church on the other side of the water, what i call good, hearty, rational psalm-singing: without fiddles or trombones or serpents. thus, although considerably further from home, i almost fancied myself in old england. this letter will touch chiefly upon topics of an antiquarian cast, but of which i venture to anticipate your approbation; because i have long known your attachment to the history of alsace--and that you have schoepflin's admirable work[ ] upon that country almost at your finger's ends. the city of strasbourg encloses within its walls a population of about fifty thousand souls. i suspect, however, that in former times its population was more numerous. at this present moment there are about two hundred-and fifty streets, great and small; including squares and alleys. the main streets, upon the whole, are neither wide nor narrow; but to a stranger they have a very singular appearance, from the windows being occasionally covered, on the outside, with _iron bars_, arranged after divers fashions. this gives them a very prison-like effect, and is far from being ornamental. the glazing of the windows is also frequently very curious. in general, the panes of glass are small, and circular, confined in leaden casements. the number of houses in strasbourg is estimated at three thousand five hundred. there are not fewer than forty-seven bridges in the interior of the town. these cross the branches of the rivers _ill_ and _bruche_--which empty themselves into the _rhine_. the fortifications of strasbourg are equally strong and extensive; but they assumed formerly a more picturesque, if not a more powerful aspect.[ ] there are _seven parishes_; of which four are catholic, and three protestant. this brings me to lay before you a brief outline of the rise and progress of protestantism in this place. yet, as a preliminary remark, and as connected with our mutual antiquarian pursuits, you are to know that, besides parish churches, there were formerly _fourteen convents_, exclusively of chapelries. all these are minutely detailed in the recent work of m. hermann,[ ] from which indeed i have gleaned the chief of the foregoing particulars. a great many of these convents were suppressed in the sixteenth century, upon the establishment of the protestant religion. but for a brief outline of the rise and progress of this establishment. it must indeed be brief; but if so, it shall at least be clear and faithful. the forerunner of luther (in my opinion) was john geyler; a man of singular intrepidity of head and heart. he was a very extraordinary genius, unquestionably; and the works which he has bequeathed to posterity evince the variety of his attainments. geyler preached boldly in the cathedral against the lax manners and doubtful morality of the clergy. he exhorted the magistrates to do their duty, and predicted that there must be an alteration of religious worship ere the general morals of the community could be amended. they preserve a stone chair or pulpit, of very curious workmanship, but which had nearly been destroyed during the revolution, in which geyler used to deliver his lectures. he died in ; and within a dozen years after his death the doctrines of luther, were sedulously inculcated. the ground had been well prepared for such seed. the court of rome looked on with uneasiness; and the pope sent a legate to strasbourg in , to vent his anathemas, and to raise a strong party against the growth of this new heresy--as it was called. at this time, the reformed doctrine was even taught in the cathedral; and, a more remarkable thing to strike the common people, the rector of the church of st. thomas (the second religious establishment of importance, after that of the cathedral) ventured to marry! he was applauded both by the common people and by many of the more respectable families. his example was followed: and the religious of both sexes were allowed to leave their establishments, to go where they would, and to enter upon the married state. in the mass was generally abolished: and the protestant religion was constantly exercised in the cathedral. the spirit both of geyler and of luther might have rejoiced to find, in , the chapter of st. thomas resolutely avowing its determination to perform the protestant--and nothing but the protestant--religion within its own extensive establishment. the flame of the new religion seemed now to have reached all quarters, and warmed all hearts. but a temporary check to its progress was given by the cautious policy of charles v. that wary and heartless monarch (who had even less religion than he had of the ordinary feelings of humanity) interfered with the weight of his power, and the denunciations of his vengeance. yet he found it necessary neither wholly to suppress, nor wholly to check, the progress of the protestant religion: while, on the other hand, the strasbourgeois dreaded too much the effects of his power to dispute his will by any compact or alliance of opposition. in , therefore, the matter stood thus. the cathedral, and the collegiate and parish churches of st. peter the elder and st. peter the younger, as well as the oratory of all saints, adopted the _catholic_ form of worship. the other parish churches adopted that of the _protestant_. yet in there happened such a serious affray in the cathedral church itself--between the catholics and protestants--as taught the former the obvious necessity of conceding as much as possible to the latter. it followed, that, towards the end of the same century, there were, in the cathedral chapter, _seventeen protestant_, and _eight catholic_ canons. among the _latter_, however, was the celebrated cardinal de lorraine:--one of the most powerful, the most furious, and the most implacable of the enemies of protestantism. the part he took in the massacre of st. bartholomew's day, consigns his name to everlasting ignominy and detestation. in a league was formed for the adjustment of the differences between the catholics and protestants: but the unfortunate thirty years war breaking out in , and desolating nearly the whole of germany, prevented the permanent consolidation of the interests of either party. all this time strasbourg was under the power, as it even now speaks the language, and partakes of the customs and manners, of germany: but its very situation rendered it the prey of both the contending powers of germany and france. at length came the memorable, and as i suspect treacherous, surrender of strasbourg to the arms of louis xiv, in september ; when the respective rights and privileges of the catholics and protestants were placed upon a definite footing: although, before this event, the latter had considerably the ascendancy. these rights were endeavoured to be shaken by the revocation of the edict of nantes in --not however before the jesuits had been striving to warp the feelings of the latter in favour of the former. the catholic religion was, by the articles of the surrender of the city, established in the cathedral, in the subordinate churches of st. peter the elder and st. peter the younger, and in the oratory of all saints: and it has continued to be exercised pretty much in the same proportion unto this day. the majority of the inhabitants are however decidedly protestants. such is a succinct, but i believe not unfaithful, account of the establishment of the protestant religion at strasbourg. this subject therefore naturally brings me to notice the principal _temple of worship_ in which the rites of either religion seem, for a long time, to have been alternately exercised; and this temple can be no other than _the minster_--or, as we should say, the _cathedral._ ere i assume the office of the historian, let me gratify my inclinations as a spectator. let me walk round this stupendous structure. at this moment, therefore, consider me as standing in full gaze before its west front--from which the tower springs. this tower seems to reach to heaven. indeed the whole front quite overwhelms you with alternate emotions of wonder and delight. luckily there is some little space before it, in which trees have been recently planted; and where (as i understand) the fruit and vegetable market is held. at the further end of this space in approaching the cathedral, and in running the eye over the whole front, the first thing that strikes you is, the red or copperas colour of the stone--which i presume to be a species of sand stone. this gives a sort of severe metallic effect. however you are riveted to the spot wherein you command the first general survey of this unparalleled front. the delicacy, the finish, the harmonious intricacy, and faery-like lightness, of the whole--even to the summit of the spire;--which latter indeed has the appearance of filigree work, raised by enchantment, and through the interstices of which the bright blue sky appears with a lustre of which you have no conception in england--all this, i say, perfectly delights and overwhelms you. you want words to express your ideas, and the extent of your gratification. you feel convinced that the magnificent edifice before you seems to be the _ne plus ultra_ of human skill in ornamental gothic architecture. undoubtedly one regrets here, as at antwerp, the absence of a corresponding tower; but you are to form your judgment upon what is _actually_ before you, and, at the same time, to bear in mind that this tower and spire--for it partakes of both characters--is full _four hundred and seventy four_ english feet in height![ ]--and, consequently, some twenty or thirty feet only lower than the top of st. peter's at rome. one is lost in astonishment, on bearing such an altitude in mind, considering the delicacy of the spire. there is no place fitting for a satisfactory view of it, within its immediate vicinity.[ ] this western front, or facade, is divided into three stages or compartments. the bottom or lower one is occupied by three magnificent porches; of which the central is by far the loftiest and most ornamental. the period of their execution is from the year to : a period, when gothic architecture was probably at its highest pitch of perfection. the central porch is divided into five compartments on each side--forming an angle of about forty-five degrees with the door-way. the lower parts of these divisions contain each a statue, of the size of life, upon its respective pediment. the upper parts, which blend with the arch-like construction, are filled with small statues, upon pediments, having a sort of brilliant, fretted appearance. all these figures are representations of characters in scripture. again, above this archway, forming the central ornaments of the sharper angles, are the figures of the almighty, the virgin and child, and solomon. in front, above the door way, upon a flat surface, are four sculptured compartments; devoted to scriptural subjects. the same may be said of the right and left porch. they are equally elaborate, and equally devoted to representations of scriptural subjects. they will have it, that, according to tradition, the daughter of ervin de steinbach, the chief architect of the western front, worked a great deal at this central porch, and even sculptured several of the figures. however this may be, the _tout ensemble_ is really beyond any thing which could be satisfactorily conveyed by a written description. we now cast our eye upon the second division of this stupendous facade; and here our attention is almost exclusively devoted to the enormous circular or marygold window, in the central compartment. it is filled with stained glass--and you are to know that the circumference of the outer circle is one hundred and sixty-english feet: or about fifty-three feet in diameter; and i challenge you to shew me the like--in any building of which you have any knowledge! perhaps the most wonderful part of this structure is the open filigree work of the tower, immediately above the platform: though i admit that the _spiral_ part is exceedingly curious and elaborate. of course there was no examining such a wonder without mounting to the platform, and ascending the tower itself. the platform is about three hundred feet from the pavement. we quitted this tenement, and walked straight forward upon the platform. what a prospect was before us. there flowed the rhine! i felt an indescribable joy on my first view of that majestic river. there it flowed ... broad and rapid ... and apparently peaceful, within its low banks. on the other, or eastern side of it, was a range of lofty hills, of a mountainous character. on the opposite side of the town ran the great chain of hills--called the vosges--which we had crossed in our route hither; and of which we had now a most extensive and unobstructed view. these hills were once the abode of adventurous chieftains and powerful nobles; and there was scarcely an eminence but what had been formerly crowned by a baronial castle.[ ] below, appeared the houses of strasbourg ... shrunk to rabbit-hutches--and the people ... to emmets! it remained to ascend the opposite tower. at each of the four corners there is a spiral stair-case, of which the exterior is open work, consisting of slender but lofty pillars; so that the ascending figure is seen at every convolution. it has a fearful appearance to the adventurer: but there is scarcely the possibility of danger. you go round and round, and observe three distinct terminations of the central work within--forming three roofs--of which, the _third_ is eminently beautiful. i could not help expressing my astonishment at some of the exterior columns, which could not be much less than threescore feet in height, and scarcely twelve inches in diameter! having gained the top of one of these corner spiral stair-cases, i breathed and looked around me. a new feature presented itself to my view. about one hundred feet beneath, was the body of this huge cathedral. immediately above, rose the beautifully-tapering and curiously ornamented spire--to the height of probably, one hundred and twenty-five feet! it seemed indeed as if both tower and spire were direct ladders to the sky. the immortal artist who constructed them, and who lived to witness the completion of his structure, was joan hÜltz, a native of cologne. the date of their completion is . thus, on the continent as well as in england, the period of the most florid style of gothic architecture was during the first half of the fifteenth century. i essayed to mount to the very pinnacle; or _bouton_ of the spire; but the ascent was impracticable--owing to the stair-case being under repair. on the summit of this spire, there once stood a _statue of the virgin,_ above a cross. that statue was taken down at the end of the fifteenth century, and is now placed over the south porch. but, what do you think supplied its place during the late revolution, or in the year of our lord , on the th day of may? truly, nothing less than a large cap, made of tin, and painted red--called the _cap of liberty!_ thank heaven, this latter was pulled down in due time--and an oblong diamond-shaped stone is now the finishing piece of masonry of this wonderful building. in descending, i stopped again at the platform, and was requested to see the great bell; of which i had heard the deep-mouthed roar half a dozen times a day, since my arrival. it is perhaps the finest toned bell in europe, and appeared to me terrifically large--being nearer eight than seven feet high.[ ] they begin to toll it at four or five o'clock in the summer-mornings, to announce that the gates of the town are opened. in case of fire at night, it is very loudly tolled; and during a similar accident in the day time, they suspend a pole, with a red flag at the end of it, over that part of the platform which is in a line with the direction of the fire. a grand defect in the structure of this cathedral, as it strikes me, is, that the nave and transepts do not seem to belong to such a western front. they sink into perfect insignificance. nor is the style of their exterior particularly deserving of description. yet there is _one_ feature in the external architecture of this cathedral--namely, a series or suite of drolleries ... of about four or five feet high ... which cannot fail to attract the antiquary's especial notice. these figures are coarsely but spiritedly cut in stone. they are placed upon the bracket which supports the galleries, or balcony, of the eastern side of the facade of the tower, and are about sixty-five english feet from the ground. they extend to thirty-two feet in length. through the kind offices of my friend mr. schweighæuser, junior, (of whom by and by) i have obtained drawings of these droll subjects,[ ] and i am sure that, in common with many of our friends, you will be amused with the sight of a few of them. they are probably of the date of ; [illustration] [illustration] the common people call this series the _sabbath of demons,_ or _the dance of the witches_. you are to know, however, that on the opposite side of the cathedral there is a series of figures, of the same size, and executed nearly in the same style of art, descriptive of scriptural events, mixed with allegorical subjects. having now pointed out what appears to me to be chiefly interesting in the _exterior_ of this marvellous building, it is right that i give you some notion of its _interior_: which will however occupy but a short portion of your attention. indeed--i grieve to speak it--both the exterior and interior of the _nave_ are wholly unworthy of such a magnificent west-front. the nave and choir together are about three hundred and fifty-five english feet in length; of which the nave is two hundred and forty-four--evidently of too scanty dimensions. the width of the nave and side aisles is one hundred and thirty-two feet: the height of the nave is only seventy-two feet. the larger of the nine clustered columns is full seventy-two feet in circumference; the more delicate, thirty feet. there is really nothing striking in this nave; except that, on turning round, and looking up to the painted glass of the circular or marygold window, you observe the colours of it, which are very rich, and absolutely gay, compared with those of the other windows. there is a profusion of painted glass in almost all the windows; but generally of a sombre tint, and of a correspondent gloomy effect. indeed, in consequence of this profusion, the cathedral absolutely wants light. the choir is sixty-seven feet wide, without side aisles, and is much lower than the nave. it is impossible to speak of this choir without indignation. my good friend--the whole of this interior has recently undergone rather a martyrdom than a metamorphosis. the sides are almost entirely covered with _grecian_ pilasters and pillars; and so are the ornaments about the altar. what adds to the wretched effect of the whole, is, a coat of _white-wash_, which was liberally bestowed upon it some forty years ago; and which will require at least the lapse of another century to subdue its staring effect. there are only three chapels in this cathedral. of _altars_ there are not fewer than twelve: the principal being in the chapels of st. lawrence and st. catharine. it was near the chapel of _st. catharine_, that, on the morning of our first visit, we witnessed a group of country people, apparently from the neighbourhood of _saverne_--from their huge, broad, flat hats--engaged in devotion before the image of some favourite saint. the rays of a bright sun darted through the windows, softened by the varied tints of the stained glass, upon their singular countenances and costumes; and the effect was irresistibly striking and interesting. in the centre of the south transept, there rises a fine, slender, clustered column, reaching to its very summit. on the exterior of this column--placed one above another, but retreating or advancing, or in full view, according to the position of the spectator--are several figures, chiefly females; probably five feet high, with labels or scrolls, upon each of which is an inscription. i never saw any thing more elegant and more striking of its kind. these figures reach a great way up the pillar--probably to the top-- but at this moment i cannot say decidedly. it is here, too, that the famous strasbourg _clock_, (about which one dasypodius hath published a latin treatise in a slim quarto volume[ ]) is placed. this, and the tower, were called the _two great wonders of germany_. this clock may be described in few words: premising, that it was preceded by a clock of very extraordinary workmanship, fabricated in the middle of the fourteenth century--of which, the _only_ existing portion is, a _cock_, upon the top of the left perpendicular ornament, which, upon the hourly chiming of the bells, used to flap his wings, stretch out his neck, and crow twice; but being struck by lightning in the year , it lost its power of action and of sending forth sound. no modern skill has been able to make this cock crow, or to shake his wings again. the clock however is now wholly out of order, and should be placed elsewhere. it is very lofty; perhaps twenty feet high: is divided into three parts, of which the central part represents _our saviour_ and _death_, in the middle, each in the act as if to strike a bell. when, in complete order, death used to come forward to strike the _quarters_; and, having struck them, was instantly repelled by our saviour. when he came forward to strike the _hour_, our saviour in turn retreated:-- a whimsical and not very comprehensible arrangement. but old clocks used to be full of these conceits. upon throwing an eye over what i have just written, i find that i have omitted to notice the celebrated stone pulpit, in the nave, enriched with small figures--of the latter end of the fifteenth century. in fact, the date of , in arabic numerals, (if i remember rightly) is at the bottom of it, to the right of the steps. this pulpit, my good friend, is nothing less than the very ecclesiastical rostrum from which the famous _john geyler_ thundered his anathemas against the monkish clergy. you may remember that some slight notice was taken of it at the beginning of this letter, in which the progress of protestantism at strasbourg was attempted to be traced. i will frankly own to you, that, of all pulpits, throughout normandy, or in paris--as yet examined by me--i have seen none which approaches to this; so rich, varied, and elaborate are its sculptured ornaments.[ ] the revolutionists could only contrive to knock off the figure which was upon the top of the canopy, with other contiguous ornaments; all of which might be easily restored. [illustration: stone pulpit, strasbourg cathedral.] a word now about the great _organ_. if strasbourg have been famous for architects, masons, bell-founders, and clock-makers, it has been not less so for organ builders. as early as the end of the thirteenth century, there were several organs in this cathedral: very curious in their structure, and very sonorous in their notes. the present great organ, on the _left side_ of the nave, on entering at the western door, was built by silbermann about a century-ago: and is placed about fifty feet above the pavement. it has six bellowses, each bellows being twelve feet long and six wide: but they are made to act by a very simple and sure process. the tone is tremendous-- when all the stops are pulled out--as i once heard it, during the performance of a particularly grand chorus! yet is this tone mellow and pleasing at the same time. notwithstanding the organ could be hardly less than three hundred feet distant from the musicians in the choir, it sent forth sounds so powerful and grand--as almost to overwhelm the human voice, with the accompaniments of trombones and serpents. perhaps you will not be astonished at this, when i inform you that it contains not fewer than two thousand two hundred and forty-two pipes. this is not the first time you have heard me commend the organs upon the continent. one of the most remarkable features belonging to the history of strasbourg cathedral, is, the number of _shocks of earthquakes_ which have affected the building. it is barely possible to enumerate all these frightful accidents; and still more difficult to give credence to one third of them. they seem to have happened two or three times every century; and, latterly, yet more frequently. take one recital as a specimen: and believe it--if you can. in the year , so great was the agitation of the earth, that the tower was moved one foot out of its perpendicular direction--but recovered its former position presently. "what however is _quite certain_--(says grandidier)--the holy water, contained in a stone reservoir or basin, at the bottom of a column, near the pavement, was thrown by this same agitation, to upwards of _half the height of a man_--and to the distance of _eighteen feet!_ the record of this marvellous transaction is preserved in a latin inscription, on a slab of black marble, fastened to the lower part of the tower, near the platform."[ ] in a severe tempest of thunder and lightning occasioned some serious injuries to portions of the cathedral; but in it suffered still more from a similar cause. indeed the havoc among the slighter ornamental parts, including several delicately carved figures, is recorded to have been dreadful. of the subordinate churches of strasbourg, the principal, both for size and antiquity, is that of _st. thomas_. i visited it several times. the exterior is one of the most tasteless jumbles of all styles and ages of art that can be imagined; and a portion of it is covered with brick. but i question if there be not parts much older than the cathedral. the interior compensates somewhat for the barbarism of the outside. it is large and commodious, but sadly altered from its original construction; and has recently been trimmed up and smartened in the true church-warden style. the great boast of this church is its monuments; which, it must be confessed, are upon the whole exceedingly interesting. as to their antiquity, i noticed two or three of the thirteenth century; but they pretend to run up as high as the tenth. indeed i saw one inscription of the eleventh century--executed in gothic letters, such as we observe of the latter end of the sixteenth. this could not be a coeval inscription; for i doubt whether there exist, any where, a monumental tablet of the eleventh century executed in _coeval gothic_ letters. the service performed here is after the confession of augsbourg; in other words, according to the reformed lutheran church. a small crucifix, placed upon an altar between the nave and the choir, delicately marks this distinction; for luther, you know, did not wage an interminable war against crucifixes. of _modern_ monuments, the boast and glory of this church is that of the famous marshal saxe; who died at the age of , in the year . while i was looking very intently at it, the good verger gently put a printed description of it into my hands, on a loose quarto sheet. i trust to be forgiven if i read only its first sentence:--_cette grande composition réunit aux richesse de l'art des phidias et des bouchardon, les traits de la grande poésie._" "take any shape but this"--thought i to myself--and, folding it up as gently as it had been delivered to me, i put it into my pocket. my good friend, i do beseech you to hear me out--when i preface my remarks by saying, that, of all monuments, _this_ is one of the most tasteless and uninteresting. listen to a brief but faithful description of it. an immense pyramidal-shaped gray marble forms the background. upon such a back-ground there might have been a group of a _dozen_ figures at least. however, there happen to be only _four_ of the human species, and three of animals. these human figures are, the marshal; a woman weeping lustily--i had almost said blubbering; (intended to represent france) hercules; and a little child--of some order or degree, not less affected than the female. the animals are, a lion, a leopard, (which latter has a bear-like form) and an eagle. i will now tell you what they are all doing. before the marshal, is an opened grave; into which this illustrious hero, clad in complete armour, is about to march with a quiet, measured step--as unconcernedly, as if he were descending a flight of steps which led to a conservatory. the woman--that is france--is, in the meantime, weeping aloud; pointing to the grave, and very persuasively intreating the marshal to enter--as his mortal moments have expired. i should add that death--a large formidable-looking figure, veiled by a piece of drapery, is also at hand: seeming to imply that hesitation and reluctance, on the part of the hero, are equally unavailing. next comes hercules; who is represented as stationary, thoughtful, and sorrow-stricken, as france is agitated and in motion. the lion and leopard (one representing holland, and the other england-- intending to convey the idea that the hero had beaten the armies of both countries) are between the marshal and hercules: the leopard is lying upon his back--in a very frolicksome attitude. the lion is also not less abstracted from the general grief of the figures. and this large, ugly, unmeaning composition--they have the temerity to call the union of art by phidias and bouchardon--with the inspiration of sublime poetry! i will make no comments.[ ] it is one of those _felicitous_ efforts which have the enviable distinction of carrying its own text and commentary. below this vast mural monument, is a vault, containing the body of the marshal. i descended into it, and found it well ventilated and dry. the coffin is immediately obvious: it contains the body of the chieftain enclosed in two cases--of which the first is _silver_, and the second _copper_. the heart is, i believe, elsewhere. forming a strikingly happy contrast to this huge, unmeaning production--are the modest and unassuming monuments of _schoepflin_, _oberlin_, and _koch_: men, of whom strasbourg has good reason to be proud. nor let the monument of old _sebastian schmidt_ escape the notice and commendation of the pensive observer. these were all "fine fellows in their day:" and died, including the illustrious marshal, steady in the faith they had espoused-- that is, in the belief and practice of the tenets of the reformed church. i have no time for a particular description of these monuments. schoepflin's consists of a bronze bust of himself placed in the front of a white marble urn, between two cinnamon-colour columns, of the corinthian order--of free stone. the head is thought to be very like. oberlin's is in better taste. you see only his profile, by ohmacht, in white marble--very striking. the accompaniments are figures in white marble, of which a muse, in rilievo, is larger than life. the inscriptions, both for schoepflin and oberlin, are short and simple, and therefore appropriate. the monument of koch is not less simple. it consists of his bust--about to be crowned with a fillet of oaken leaves--by a figure representing the city of strasbourg. below the bust is another figure weeping--and holding beneath its arms, a scroll, upon which the works of the deceased are enumerated. koch died in his seventy-sixth year, in the year . ohmacht is also the sculptor of koch's monument. upon the whole, i am not sure that i have visited any church, since the cathedral of rouen, of which the interior is more interesting, on the score of monuments, than that of st. thomas at strasbourg. i do not know that it is necessary to say any thing about the old churches of st. stephen and st. martin: except that the former is supposed to be the most ancient. it was built of stone, and said to be placed upon a spot in which was a roman fort--the materials of which served for a portion of the present building. st. martin's was erected in upon a much finer plan than that of _st. arbogaste_--which is said to have been built in the middle of the twelfth century. among the churches, now no longer _wholly_ appropriated to sacred uses, is that called the _new temple_--attached to which is the public library. the service in this church is according to the protestant persuasion. i say this church is not _wholly_ devoted to religious rites: for what was once the _choir_, contains, at bottom, the books belonging to the public university; and, at top, those which were bequeathed to the same establishment by schoepflin. the general effect-- both from the pavement below, and the gallery above--is absolutely transporting. shall i tell you wherefore? this same ancient choir--now devoted to _printed tomes_--contains some lancet-shaped windows of _stained glass_ of the most beautiful and exquisite pattern and colours!... such as made me wholly forget those at _toul_, and _almost_ those at _st. owen_. even the stained glass of the cathedral, here, was recollected... only to suffer by the comparison! it should seem that the artist had worked with alternate dissolutions of amethyst, topaz, ruby, garnet, and emerald. look at the first three windows, to the left on entering, about an hour before sun-set:--they seem to fill the whole place with a preternatural splendor! the pattern is somewhat of a persian description, and i should apprehend the antiquity of the workmanship to be scarcely exceeding three hundred years. yet i must be allowed to say, that these exquisitely sparkling, if not unrivalled, specimens of stained glass, do not belong to a place now _wholly_ occupied by _books_. could they not be placed in the chapel of st. lawrence, or of st. catharine, in the cathedral? as i am now at the close of my account of ecclesiastical edifices--and as this last church happens to be closely connected with a building of a different description--namely, the public library--you will allow me to _colophonise_ my first strasbourg epistle with some account of the _contents_ of this library. the amiable and excellent younger schweighæuser, who is head librarian, and one of the professors in this gymnase, was so obliging as to lend me the key of the library, to which i had access at all hours of the day. the public hours are from two till four, sundays excepted. i own that this accommodation was extremely agreeable and convenient to me. i was under no restraint, and thus left to my own conscience alone not to abuse the privilege conceded. that conscience has never given me one "prick" since the conclusion of my researches.[ ] my researches were usually carried on above stairs, at the table where the visitors sat. of the mss. i did not deem it worth while to take any particular account; but there was _one_, so choice, so splendid, so curious, so interesting, and in such an extraordinary state of preservation, that you may as well know it is called the famous _hortus deliciarum_ of _herarde, abbess of landsberg_. the subjects are miscellaneous; and most elaborately represented by illuminations. battles, sieges, men tumbling from ladders which reach to the sky--conflagrations, agriculture--devotion, penitence--revenge, murder,--in short, there is hardly a passion, animating the human breast, but what is represented here. the figures in armour have _nasals_, and are in quilted mail: and i think there can be little doubt but that both the text and the decorations are of the latter end of the twelfth century. it is so perfect in all its parts, and so rich of its particular description, that it not only well merits the labour which has been bestowed upon it by its recent editor mr. engleheardt, but it may probably vie with any similar production in europe.[ ] however, of other mss. you will i am sure give me credit for having examined the celebrated _depositions in the law-suit between fust and gutemberg_--so intimately connected with the history of early printing, and so copiously treated upon by recent bibliographers.[ ] i own that i inspected these depositions (in the german language) with no ordinary curiosity. they are doubtless most precious; yet i cannot help suspecting that the _character_ or letter is _not_ of the time; namely of . it should rather seem to be of the sixteenth century. perhaps at the commencement of it. these documents are written in a small folio volume, in one uniform hand--a kind of law-gothic--from beginning to end. the volume has the following title on the exterior; "_dicta testium magni consilij anno dni m^o. cccc^o. tricesimo nono_. the paper is strong and thick, and has a pair of scales for the water-mark. the younger schweighæuser thinks my doubts about its age not well founded; conceiving it to be a coeval document. but this does not affect its authenticity, as it may have been an accurate and attested copy--of an original which has now perished. certainly the whole book has very much the air of a _copy_: and besides, would not the originals have been upon separate rolls of parchment?[ ] i now come to the printed books: of which, according to the ms. catalogue by oberlin, (who was head librarian here) there are not fewer _than four thousand three hundred, printed before the year _:--and of these, again, upwards of _eleven hundred without dates_. this, at first hearing, sounds, what the curious would call, promising; but i must say, that of the _dated_ and _dateless_ books, printed before the year , which i took down, and carefully opened--and this number could not be less than four or five hundred--there was scarcely one in five which repaid the toil of examination: and this too, with a thermometer frequently standing at eighty-nine and ninety, in the shade in the open air! fortunately for my health, and for the exertion of physical strength, the public library happened to be very cool--while all the windows were opened, and through the openings was frequently heard the sound of young voices, practising the famous _martin luther's hymn_--as it is called. this latter was particularly grateful to me. i heard the master first sing a stave, and he was in general accurately followed by his pupils--who displayed the well-known early tact of germans in the science of music. but to revert to the early printed books. first german bible; supposed to have been _printed by mentelin_; without date: folio. towards the latter half of this copy, there are some interesting embellishments, in outline, in a bistre tint. the invention and execution of many of them are admirable. where they are _coloured_, they lose their proper effect. an illumination, at the beginning of the book of _esther_, bears the unequivocal date of : but the edition was certainly four or five years earlier. this bible is considered to be the earliest german version: but it is not so. latin bible, by mentelin: in his second character. this bible i saw for the first time; but panzer is decidedly wrong in saying that the types resemble the larger ones in mentelin's _valerius maximus_, _virgil_ and _terence_: they may be nearly as tall, but are not so broad and large. from a ms. note, the d leaf appears to be wanting. this copy is a singularly fine one. it is white, and large, and with rough edges throughout. it is also in its first binding, of wood. latin bible; _printed by eggesteyn_. here are several editions, and a duplicate of the first--which is printed in the second smallest character of eggesteyn.[ ] the two copies of this first edition are pretty much alike for size and condition: but _one_ of them, with handsome illuminations at the beginning of each volume, has the precious coeval ms. date of --as represented by the fac-simile of it in _schoepflin's vind. typog. tab. v._ probably the date of the printing might have been at least a year earlier. latin bible: _printed by jenson_, . folio. a fine copy, upon paper. the first page is illuminated. to this list of impressions of the sacred text, may be added a fine copy of the sclavonian bible of , folio, with wood cuts, and another of the hungarian bible of , folio: the latter in double columns, with a crowdedly-printed margin, and an engraved frontispiece. as to books upon miscellaneous subjects, i shall lay before you, without any particular order, my notes of the following: of the _speculum morale_ of p. bellovacensis, here said to be printed by mentelin in , in double columns, roman type, folio--there is a copy, in one volume, of tremendously large dimensions; as fine, clean, and crackling as possible. also a copy of the _speculum judiciale_ of durandus, _printed at strasbourg by hussner and rekenhub_, in , folio. hussner was a citizen of strasbourg, and his associate a priest at mentz. here is also a perfect copy of the latin ptolemy, of the supposed date of , with a fine set of the copper-plates. but i must make distinct mention of a _latin chronicle, printed by gotz de sletztat_ in , in folio. it is executed in a coarse, large gothic type, with many capital roman letters. at the end of the alphabetical index of leaves, we read as follows: deo gratias. _a tpe ade vsqz ad annos cristi acta et gesta hic suffitienter nuclient sola spes mea. in virginis gracia nicholaus gotz. de sletzstat._ the preceding is on the recto; on the reverse of the same leaf is an account of inventors of _arts_: no mention is made of that of _printing_. then the prologue to the chronicle, below which is the device of gotz;[ ] having his name subjoined. the text of the chronicle concludes at page cclxxx--printed numerals--with an account of an event which took place in the year . but the present copy contains another, and the concluding leaf--which may be missing in some copies--wherein there is a particular notice of a splendid event which took place in , between charles duke of burgundy, and frederick the roman emperor, with maximilian his son; together with divers dukes, earls, and counts attending. the text of this leaf ends thus; _save gairt vive bvrgvnd._ below, within a circle, "sixtus quartus." this work is called, in a ms. prefix, the _chronicle of foresius_. i never saw, or heard of, another copy. the present is fine and sound; and bound in wood, covered with leather. here are two copies of st. _jerom's epistles, printed by schoeffher_ in ; of which that below stairs is one of the most magnificent imaginable; in two folio volumes. hardly any book can exceed, and few equal it, in size and condition--unless it be the theological works of archbishop antonius, _printed by koeberger_, in , in one enormous folio volume. as a specimen of koeberger's press, i am unable at the present moment to mention any thing which approaches it. i must also notice a copy of the _speculum humanæ salvationis, printed at basle, by richel_, in , folio. it is a prodigious volume, full of wood cuts, and printed in double columns in a handsome gothic type. this work seems to be rather a _history of the bible_; having ten times the matter of that which belongs to the work with this title usually prefixed. the copy is in its original wooden binding. junianus maius. _de propriet. priscor. verborum, printed at treviso by bernard de colonia_, , folio. i do not remember to have before seen any specimen of this printer's type: but what he has done here, is sufficient to secure for him typographical immortality. this is indeed a glorious copy--perfectly large paper--of an elegantly printed book, in a neat gothic type, in double columns. the first letter of the text is charmingly illuminated. i shall conclude these miscellaneous articles by the notice of two volumes, in the list of romances, of exceedingly rare occurrence. these romances are called _tyturell_ and _partzifal_. the author of them was _wolfram von escenbach_. they are each of the date of , in folio. the tyturell is printed prose-wise, and the partzifal in a metrical form. we now come to the roman classics, (for of the greek there are _few or none_)--before the year . let me begin with _virgil_. here is _mentelin's_ very rare edition; but cropt, scribbled upon, and wanting several leaves. however, there is a most noble and perfect copy of servius's commentary upon the same poet, _printed by valdarfer_ in , folio, and bound in primitive boards. there are two perfect copies of _mentelin's_ edition (which is the first) of valerius maximus, of which one is wormed and cropt. the _other_ mentelin copy of the valerius maximus, without the commentary, is perhaps the largest i ever saw--with the ancient ms. signatures at the bottom-corners of the leaves. unluckily, the margins are rather plentifully charged with ms. memoranda. of cicero, there are of course numerous early editions. i did not see the _de officiis_ of , or of , of which hermann speaks, and to which he affixes the _novel_ date of :--but i did see the _de oratore_, printed by _vindelin de spira_ without date; and _such_ a copy i shall probably never see again! the colour and substance of the paper are yet more surprising than the size. it is hardly possible to see a finer copy of the _scriptores hist. augustæ, printed by p. de lavagna_ in , folio. it possesses all the legitimate evidences of pristine condition, and is bound in its first coat of oak. here is a very fine copy of the _plutarchi vitæ paralellæ_, printed in the letter r, in two large folio volumes, bound in wood, covered by vellum of the sixteenth century. but, if of _any_ book, it is of the first edition of _catullus tibullus et propertius_, of , folio--that this library has just reason to be proud. here are in fact _two_ copies, equally sound, pure and large: but in _one_ the _propertius_ is wanting;[ ] in lieu of which, however, there is the first edition of juvenal and persius by v. de spira-- in equal purity of condition. the perfect copy has the sylvÆ of statius subjoined. it should seem, therefore, that the juvenal and persius had supplied the place of the propertius and statius, in one copy. you are well aware of the extreme rarity of this first edition of catullus tibullus et propertius. i now take leave of the _public library of strasbourg_; not however without mentioning rather an amusing anecdote connected with some of the books just described; nor without an observation or two upon the present state of the library. the anecdote is thoroughly bibliographical. after having examined some of the finer books before mentioned, and especially having dwelt upon the latin bible of mentelin, and a few copies of the rarer classics, i ventured to descant upon the propriety of _parting_ with those for which there was _no use_, and which, without materially strengthening their own collection, might, by an advantageous sale, enable them to enrich their collection by valuable modern books: of which they obviously stood in _need_. i then proposed so many hundred francs, for such and such volumes. messrs. schweighæuser, jun. dahler, and several other professors were standing round me--when i made this proposition. on the conclusion of it, professor dahler put his hand upon my shoulder--stooped down--(for i was sitting the whole time)--and looking half archly, replied thus: "monsieur le bibliographe, vous raisonnez bien: mais--nous conserverons nos anciens livres." these sturdy conservators were not to be shaken; and none but _duplicates_ were to be parted with.[ ] the next observation relates to the collection. never did a collection stand in greater need of being weeded. there are medical books sufficient to supply six copies for the library of every castellated mansion along the vosges[ ]--should any of them ever be repaired and put in order. schoepflin's library furnishes many duplicates both in history and theology; and in _classics_ they should at least make good their series of the more important _first editions_. the want of a perfect _virgil_ by _mentelin_, and the want of a _first terence_, by the same printer--their boasted townsman--are reproachful wants. at any rate, they should not let slip any opportunity of purchasing the first _ovid, horace, ausonius_, and _lucretius_. no man is more deeply impressed with a conviction of these wants, than the present chief librarian, the younger schweighæuser; but, unfortunately, the pecuniary means of supplying them are slender indeed. i find this to be the case wherever i go. the deficiency of funds, for the completion of libraries, may however be the cry of _other_ countries besides _france_. as to booksellers, for the sale of modern works, and for doing, what is called "a great stroke of business," there is no one to compare with the house of treuttel and wÜrtz--of which firm, as you may remember, very honourable mention was made in one of my latter letters from paris. their friendly attention and hospitable kindness are equal to their high character as men of business. it was frequently in their shop that i met with some of the savants of strasbourg; and among them, the venerable and amiable lichtenberger, author of that very judicious and pains taking compilation entitled _initia typographica_. i was also introduced to divers of the learned, whose names i may be pardoned for having forgotten. the simplicity of character, which here marks almost every man of education, is not less pleasing than profitable to a traveller who wishes to make himself acquainted with the literature of the country through which he passes. [ ] _alsatia illustrata_, - , folio, two volumes. [ ] in the middle of the fifteenth century there were not fewer than nine principal gates of entrance: and above the walls were built, at equal distances, fifty-five towers--surmounted, in turn, by nearly thirty towers of observation on the exterior of the walls. but in the beginning of the sixteenth century, from the general adoption of gunpowder in the art of war, a different system of defence was necessarily adopted; and the number of these towers was in consequence diminished. at present there are none. they are supplied by bastions and redoubts, which answer yet better the purposes of warfare. [ ] this work is entitled "_notices historiques, statistiques et littéraires, sur la ville de strasbourg_." , vo. a second volume, published in , completes it. a more judicious, and, as i learn, faithful compilation, respecting the very interesting city of which it treats, has not yet been published. [ ] i had before said english feet; but a note in m. crapelet's version (supplied, as i suspect, by my friend m. schweighæuser,) says, that from recent strict trigonometrical measurement, it is french feet in height. [ ] the _robertsau_, about three quarters of a mile from strasbourg, is considered to be the best place for a view of the cathedral. the robertsau is a well peopled and well built suburb. it consists of three nearly parallel streets, composed chiefly of houses separated by gardens--the whole very much after the english fashion. in short, these are the country houses of the wealthier inhabitants of strasbourg; and there are upwards of seventy of them, flanked by meadows, orchards, or a fruit or kitchen garden. it derives the name of _robertsau_ from a gentleman of the name of _robert,_ of the ancient family of _bock_. he first took up his residence there about the year , and was father of twenty children. consult _hermann_; vol. i. p. . [ ] "the engineer specklin, who, in order to complete his map of alsace, traversed the whole chain of the vosges, estimates the number of these castles at little short of _two hundred_: and pushes the antiquity of some of them as far back as the time of the romans." see _hermann_; vol. i. p. , note : whose compressed account of a few of these castellated mansions is well worth perusal, i add this note, from something like a strong persuasion, that, should it meet the eye of some enterprising and intelligent english antiquary, it may stimulate him--within the waning of two moons from reading it, provided those moons be in the months of spring--to put his equipage in order for a leisurely journey along the vosges! [ ] this was formerly called the bell of the holy ghost. it was cast in , by john gremp of strasbourg. it cost florins; and weighs eighty quintals;, or lb.: nearly four tons. it is twenty-two french feet in circumference, and requires six men to toll it. in regard to the height, i must not be supposed to speak from absolute data. yet i apprehend that its altitude is not much over-rated. grandidier has quite an amusing chapter (p. , &c.) upon the thirteen bells which are contained in the tower of this cathedral. [ ] it was necessary, on the part of my friend, to obtain the consent of the prefect to make these drawings. a moveable scaffold was constructed, which was suspended from the upper parts--and in this _nervous_ situation the artist made his copies--of the size of the foregoing cuts. the expense of the scaffold, and of making the designs, was very inconsiderable indeed. the worthy prefect, or mayor, was so obliging as to make the scaffold a mere gratuitous affair; six francs only being required for the men to drink! [can i ever forget, or think slightly of, such kindness? never.] cicognara, in his _storia della scultura_, , folio, has given but a very small portion of the above dance; which was taken from the upper part of a neighbouring house. it is consequently less faithful and less complete. [in the preceding edition of this work, there are not fewer than _eleven_ representations of these drolleries.] [ ] i think this volume is of the date of . conrad dasypodius was both the author of the work, and the chief mechanic or artisan employed in making the clock--about which he appears to have taken several journeys to employ, and to consult with, the most clever workmen in germany. the wheels and movements were made by the two habrechts, natives of schaffhausen. [ ] [the reader may form some notion of its beauty and elaboration of ornament, from the opposite plate: taken from a print published about a century and a half ago.] [ ] see grandidier, p. : where the latin inscription is given. the _ephémérides de l'académie des curieux de la nature_, vol. ii. p. , &c. are quoted by this author--as a contemporaneous authority in support of the event above mentioned. [ ] my french translator will have it, that, "this composition, though not without its faults, is considered, in the estimation of all connoisseurs, as one of the finest funereal monuments which the modern chisel has produced." it may be, in the estimation of _some_--but certainly of a _very small_ portion of--connoisseurs of first rate merit. our chantry would sicken or faint at the sight of such allegorical absurdity. [ ] [this avowal has subjected me to the gentle remonstrance of the librarian in question, and to the tart censure of m. crapelet in particular. "voilà le reverend m. dibdin (exclaims the latter) qui se croit obligé de déclarer qu'il n'a rien derobé!" and he then quotes, apparently with infinite delight, a passage from the _quarterly review_, (no. lxiii. june ) in which i am designated as having "extraordinary talents for ridicule!" but how my talents "for ridicule" (of which i very honestly declare my unconsciousness) can be supposed to bear upon the above "prick of conscience," is a matter which i have yet to learn. my amiable friend might have perhaps somewhat exceeded the prescribed line of his duty in letting me have the key of the library in question--but, can a declaration of such confidence not having been misplaced, justify the flippant remarks of my annotator?] [ ] [it is now published in an entire state by the above competent editor.] [ ] see the authorities quoted, and the subject itself handled, in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. , &c. [ ] [here again my sensitive annotator breaks out into something little short of personal abuse, for my daring to _doubt_ what all the world before had held in solemn _belief_! still, i will continue to doubt; without wishing this doubt to be considered as "paroles d'evangile"-- as m. crapelet expresses it.] [ ] fully described in the _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. , with a fac-simile of the type. [ ] a fac-simile of this device appears in a latin bible, without name of printer, particularly described in the _Ædes althorpianæ_; vol. ii. p. . hence we learn that the bible in question, about the printer of which there appears to be some uncertainty among bibliographers, was absolutely printed by gotz. [ ] the imperfect copy, being a duplicate, was disposed of for a copy of the _bibl. spenceriana_; and it is now in the fine library of the rt. hon. t. grenville. the very first glance at this copy will shew that the above description is not overcharged. [ ] "these duplicates related to some few articles of minor importance belonging to the library of the public school, and which had escaped a former revision. the cession was made with due attention to forms, and with every facility." such (as i have reason to believe) is the remark of m. schweighæuser himself. what follows--evidently by the hand of m. crapelet--is perfectly delicious ... of its kind. "that m. dibdin should have preferred such an indiscreet request to the librarians in question--impelled by his habitual vivacity and love of possessing books--is conceivable enough: but, that he should _publish_ such an anecdote--that he should delight in telling us of the rudeness which he committed in sitting while the gentlemen about him were standing, is to affect a very uncommon singularity"!!! [greek: Ô popoi!] [ ] there are yet libraries, and rare books, in the district. i obtained for my friend the rev. h. drury, one of the finest copies in england of the first edition of _cicero's offices_, of , to. upon vellum--from the collection of a physician living in one of the smaller towns near the vosges. this copy was in its ancient oaken attire, and had been formerly in a monastic library. for this acquisition my friend was indebted to the kind offices of the younger m. schweighæuser. _letter xiv._ society. environs of strasbourg. domestic architecture, manners and customs. literature. language. my last letter, however copious, was almost wholly confined to _views of interiors_; that is to say, to an account of the cathedral and of the public library. i shall now continue the narrative with views of interiors of a different description; with some slight notices of the _society_ and of the city of strasbourg; concluding the whole, as well as closing my strasbourg despatches, with a summary account of manners, customs, and literature. the great _greek luminary_, not only of this place, but perhaps of germany--the elder schweighÆuser--happens to be absent. his son tells me that he is at _baden_ for the benefit of the waters, and advises me to take that "enchanting spot" (as he calls it) in my way to stuttgart. "'twill be only a trifling détour." what however will be the _chief_ temptation--as i frankly told the younger schweighæuser--would be the society of his father; to whom the son has promised a strong letter of introduction. i told you in my last that i had seen lichtenberger at treuttel and würtz's. i have since called upon the old gentleman; and we immediately commenced a bibliographical parley. but it was chiefly respecting lord spencer's copies of the _letters of indulgence of pope nicolas v._ of the date of , that he made the keenest enquiries. "was the date legitimate?" i assured him there could be no doubt of it; and that what hæberlin had said, followed by lambinet, had no reference whatever to his lordship's copies--for that, in _them_, the final units were compressed into a v and not extended by five strokes, thus--_iiiij_. as he was unacquainted with my account of these copies in the _bibliotheca spenceriana_, i was necessarily minute in the foregoing statement. the worthy old bibliographer was so pleased with this account, that he lifted up his eyes and hands, and exclaimed, "one grows old always to learn something." m. haffner, who was one of the guests at a splendid, but extremely sociable dinner party at _madame franc's_[ ] the principal banker here--is a pleasing, communicative, open-countenanced, and open-hearted gentleman. he may be about sixty years of age. i viewed his library with admiration. the order was excellent; and considering what were his _means_, i could not but highly compliment him upon his prudence and enthusiasm. this was among the happiest illustrations of the _bibliomania_ which i had ever witnessed. the owner of this well chosen collection shewed me with triumph his copy of the first greek testament by _erasmus_, and his copies of the same sacred book by _r. stephen_ and _wetstein_, in folio. here too i saw a body of philological theology (if i may use this term) headed by _walchius_ and _wolff_, upon the possession of a similar collection of which, my late neighbour and friend, dr. gosset, used to expatiate with delight. let me now take you with me out of doors. you love architecture of all descriptions: but "the olden" is always your "dear delight." in the construction of the streets of strasbourg, they generally contrive that the corner house should _not_ terminate with a right angle. such a termination is pretty general throughout strasbourg. of the differently, and sometimes curiously, constructed iron bars in front of the windows, i have also before made mention. the houses are generally lofty; and the roofs contain two or three tiers of open windows, garret-fashioned; which gives them a picturesque appearance; but which, i learn, were constructed as granaries to hold flour--for the support of the inhabitants, when the city should sustain a long and rigorous siege. as to _very ancient_ houses, i cannot charge my memory with having seen any; and the most ancient are those on the other side of the _ill_; of which several are near the convent before mentioned. the immediate environs of strasbourg (as i have before remarked) are very flat and poor, in a picturesque point of view. they consist chiefly of fields covered with the _tobacco plant_, which resembles that of our horse-radish; and the trade of tobacco may be considered the staple, as well as the indigenous, commodity of the place. this trade is at once extensive and lucrative; and regulated by very wholesome laws. the outskirts of the town, considered in an architectural point of view, are also very indifferent. as to the general character, or rather appearance, of the strasbourgeois, it is such as to afford very considerable satisfaction. the manners and customs of the people are simple and sober. the women, even to the class of menial servants, go abroad with their hair brushed and platted in rather a tasteful manner, as we even sometimes observe in the best circles of our own country. the hair is dressed _à la grecque_, and the head is usually uncovered: contrary to the broad round hats, and depending queues, of the women inhabiting the neighbourhood of _saverne_. but you should know that the farmers about strasbourg are generally rich in pocket, and choice and dainty in the disposition of their daughters--with respect to wedlock. they will not deign to marry them to bourgeois of the ordinary class. they consider the blood running in their families' veins to be polluted by such an intermixture; and accordingly they are oftentimes saucy, and hold their heads high. even some of the fair dames coming from the high "countre," whom we saw kneeling the other day, in the cathedral, with their rural attire, would not commute their circular head pieces for the most curiously braided head of hair in the city of strasbourg. the utmost order and decency, both in dress and conduct, prevail in the streets and at spectacles. there seems to be that sober good sense among the strasbourgeois--which forms a happy medium between the gaiety of their western, and the phlegm of their eastern, neighbours; and while this general good order obtains, we may forgive "officers for mounting guard in white silk stockings, or for dancing in boots at an assembly--and young gentlemen for wearing such scanty skirts to their coats:"--subjects, which appear to have ruffled the good temper of the recent historian of strasbourg.[ ] it seems clear that the morals of the community, and especially of the female part, were greatly benefited by the reformation,[ ] or establishment of the protestant religion. in alluding to manners and customs, or social establishments of this place, you ought to know that some have imagined the origin of _free-masonry_ may be traced to strasbourg; and that the first _lodges_ of that description were held in this city. the story is this. the cathedral, considered at the time of its erection as a second _solomon's temple_, was viewed as the wonder of the modern world. its masons, or architects, were the theme of universal praise. up rose, in consequence, the cathedrals of _vienna, cologne, landshut_ and others: and it was resolved that, on the completion of such stately structures, those, whose mechanical skill had been instrumental to their erection, should meet in one common bond, and chant together, periodically, at least their _own_ praises. their object was to be considered very much above the common labourer, who wore his apron in front, and carried his trowel in his hand: on the contrary, _they_ adopted, as the only emblems worthy of their profession, the level, the square, and the compass. all the lodges, wherever established, considered that of strasbourg as the common parent; and at a meeting held at ratisbon in , it was agreed that the architect of strasbourg cathedral should be the _grand master of free-masons_; and one dotzinger of worms, who had succeeded hulz in , (just after the latter, had finished the spire) was acknowledged to be the first grand master. i own my utter ignorance in the lore of free-masonry; but have thought it worth while to send you these particulars: as i know you to be very "curious and prying" in antiquarian researches connected with this subject. strasbourg has been always eminent for its literary reputation, from the time of the two sturmii, or rather from that of geyler, downwards. it boasts of historians, chroniclers, poets, critics, and philologists. at this present moment the public school, or university, is allowed to be in a most flourishing condition; and the name of schweighÆuser alone is sufficient to rest its pretensions to celebrity on the score of _classical_ acumen and learning. while, within these last hundred years, the names of schoepflin, oberlin, and koch, form a host in the department of _topography_ and _political economy_. in _annals_ and _chronicles_, perhaps no provincial city in europe is richer; while in _old alsatian poetry_ there is an almost inexhaustible banquet to feast upon. m. engelhardt, the brother in law of m. schweighæuser junr. is just now busily engaged in giving an account of some of the ancient love poets, or _minne-singers_; and he shewed me the other day some curious drawings relating to the same, taken from a ms. of the xiiith century, in the public library. but oberlin, in , published an interesting work "_de poetis alsatiæ eroticis medii ævi_"--and more lately in ; m. arnold in his "_notice littéraire et historique sur les poëtes alsaciens_," , vo.--enriched by the previous remarks of schoepflin, oberlin, and frantz--has given a very satisfactory account of the achievements of the muses who seem to have inhabited the mountain-tops of alsatia--from the ninth to the sixteenth century inclusively. it is a fertile and an interesting subject. feign would i, if space and time allowed, give you an outline of the same; from the religious metres of _ottfried_ in the ninth--to the charming and tender touches which are to be found in the _hortus deliciarum_[ ] of _herade_ abbess of landsberg, in the twelfth-century: not meaning to pass over, in my progress, the effusions of philology and poetry which distinguished the rival abbey of _hohenbourg_ in the same century. indeed; not fewer than three abbesses-- _rélinde, herade, and _edelinde_--cultivated literature at one and the same time: when, in arnold's opinion, almost the whole of europe was plunged in barbarism and ignorance. then comes _günther_, in the fifteenth century; with several brave geniuses in the intervening period: and, latterly, the collection of the _old troubadour poetry of alsace_, by _roger maness_--of which there is a ms. in the royal library at paris; and another (containing matter of a somewhat later period) in the public library here; of which latter not a specimen, as i understand, has seen the light in the form of a printed text. in later times, _brandt, wimphelin, locher, baldus, pfeffel_, and _nicolay_, are enough to establish the cause of good poetry, and the celebrity of this city in the production of such poets. as to the _meister-sængers_ (or master-singers) who composed the strains which they sang, perhaps the cities of mentz and nuremberg may vie with that of strasbourg, in the production of this particular class. _hans sachs_ of nuremberg, formerly a cobler, was considered to be the very _coryphoeus_ of these master-singers. at the age of fourscore he is said to have composed four thousand three hundred and seventy verses. a word or two only respecting the language spoken at strasbourg. from the relative situation of the town, this language would necessarily be of a mixed character: that is to say, there would be intermarriages between the germans and french--and the offspring of such marriages would necessarily speak a _patois_. this seems to be generally admitted. the ancient language of strasbourg is said to have been the pure dialect of _suabia_; but, at present, the dialect of _saxony_, which is thought to be purer as well as more fashionable, is carefully taught in the schools of both sexes, and spoken by all the ministers in the pulpit. luther wrote in this dialect, and all protestant preachers make use of it as a matter of course. yet hermann labours to prove how much softer the dialect of high germany is than that of high saxony. there have lately appeared several small brochures in the _common language_ of the town--such, of course, as is ordinarily spoken in the shops and streets: and among others, a comedy called; _der pfingst-montag_, written (says hermann) with much spirit; but the author of this latter work has been obliged to mark the pronunciation, which renders the perusal of it somewhat puzzling. it is also accompanied with a glossary. but that you, or your friends, may judge for yourselves, i send you a specimen of the _patois_, or common language spoken in the street--in the enclosed ballad: which i purchased the other day, for about a penny of our money, from an old goody, who was standing upon a stool, and chanting it aloud to an admiring audience. i send you the first four stanzas.[ ] im namen der allerheiligsten dreifaltigkeit das goldene abc, neu verfasst für jedermann, dass er mit ehr' bestehen kann. alles ist an gottes segen, was wir immer thun, gelegen, arbeit aber bleibt doch unsre pflicht: der träge hat den segen gottes nicht. behalt' ein weises maass in allen stücken; das uebertriebne kann dich nicht beglücken. dies sprichwort trifft in allen dingen ein: das gute selbst muss eingeschränket seyn. christ! sey der rache nicht ergeben, der zorn verbittert nur das leben; und wer dem feinde gern verzeiht, geniesst schon hier der seligkeit. der wird verachtet von der welt, der das gegebne wort nicht hält: drum gieb dein wort nich leicht von dir; hast du's gethan, so steh' dafür. _in the name of the most holy trinity._ the golden a b c. _newly set forth to enable every man to stand fast in honour._ _howe'er employed, we ev'ry nerve should strain on all our works god's blessings to obtain. whilst here on earth to labour we're ordain'd; the lazy never yet god's blessing gain'd._ _in all things strive a medium to procure; redundance never can success insure: this proverb will in all things be found true, that good itself, should have its limits due. christian! avoid revenge and strife, for anger tends to embitter life: and he who readily forgives his foe, ev'n here on earth true happiness shall know. he who the promise he hath given denies, will find the world most justly him despise; be cautious then how thou a promise make, but, having made it, ne'er that promise break_. dannbach is the principal greek printer of this place; his greek type (which i cannot too much commend) is precisely that used in the _bipont thucydydes_ and _plato_. the principal printers, for works in which the greek type is not introduced, is levrault _pere et fils_: and i must say that, if even a fastidious author, a resident strasbourgeois,--whose typographical taste had been formed upon the beautifully executed volumes of bodoni, didot, or bulmer--chose to publish a fine book, he need not send it to _paris_ to be printed; for m. levrault is both a skilful, intelligent, and very able printer and publisher. i visited him more than once. he has a considerable commercial establishment. his shop and warehouses are large and commodious; and madame levrault is both active and knowing in aiding and abetting the concerns of her husband. i should consider their house to be a rich one. m. levrault is also a very fair typographical antiquary. he talked of fust and jenson with earnestness, and with a knowledge of their productions; and told me that he had, up stairs, a room full of old books, especially of those printed by _aldus_--and begged i would walk up and inspect them. you will give me credit for having done so readily. but it was a "poor affair,"--for the fastidious taste of an englishman. there was literally nothing in the way of temptation; and so i abstained from tempting the possessor by the offer of napoleons or golden ducats. we had a long and a very gratifying interview; and i think he shewed me (not for the purpose of sale) a copy of the famous tract of st. austin, called _de arte prædicandi_, printed by _fust_ or by _mentelin_; in which however, as the copy was imperfect, he was not thoroughly conversant. they are all proud at strasbourg of their countryman mentelin, and of course yet more so of gutenberg; although this latter was a native of mentz. mr. levrault concluded his conversation by urging me, in strong terms, to visit _colmar_ ere i crossed the rhine; as that place abounded with "des incunables typographiques." i told him that it was impossible; that i had a great deal on my hands to accomplish on the other side of the rhine; and that my first great stroke, in the way of book-acquisitions, must be struck at _stuttgart_. m. levrault seemed surprised--"for truly," (added he) "there are no _old_ books there, save in the _public library_." i smiled, and wished him a good day. upon the whole, my dear friend, i have taken rather an affection for this place. all classes of people are civil, kind, and communicative: but my obligations are due, in a more especial manner, to the younger mr. schweighæuser and to madame francs. i have passed several pleasant evenings with the former, and talked much of the literature of our country with him and his newly married spouse: a lively, lady-like, and intelligent woman. she is warm in commendation of the _mary stuart_ of schiller; which, in reply to a question on my part, she considers to be the most impassioned of that dramatist's performances. of english she knows nothing; but her husband is well read in thomson, akenside, and pope; and of course is sufficiently well acquainted with our language. a more amiable and zealous man, in the discharge of his duties as a teacher of youth, the town of strasbourg does not possess. his little memoir of koch has quite won my heart.[ ] you have heard me mention the name of ohmacht, a sculptor. he is much caressed by the gentry of this place. madame francs shewed me what i consider to be his best performance; a profile, in white marble, of her late daughter, who died in childbed, in her twenty-first year. it is a sweet and tender production: executed upon the greek model--and said to be a strong resemblance of the deceased. madame francs shewed it to me, and expatiated upon it with tears in her eyes: as she well might--for the _character_ of the deceased was allowed to have been as attractive as her countenance.[ ] i will candidly confess that, in other respects, i am a very _qualified_ admirer of the talents of ohmacht. his head of oberlin is good; but it is only a profile. i visited his _studio_, and saw him busy upon a colossal head of luther--in a close-grained, but coarse-tinted, stone. i liked it as little as i have always liked heads of that celebrated man. i want to see a resemblance of him in which vulgarity shall be lost in energy of expression. never was there a countenance which bespoke greater intrepidity of heart. i am hastening to the close of this despatch, and to take leave of this place. through the interposition of messrs. treuttel and würtz, i have hired a respectable servant, or laquais, to accompany me to vienna, and back again to manheim. his name is _rohfritsch_; and he has twice visited the austrian capital in the rear of napoleon's army,--when he was only in his sixteenth or seventeenth year--as a page or attendant upon one of the generals. he talks the french and german languages with equal fluency. i asked him if we needed fire arms; at which he smiled--as if wondering at my simplicity or ignorance. in truth, the question was a little precipitate; for, the other evening, i saw two or three whiskered bavarian travellers, starting hence for munich, in an open, fourgon-shaped travelling carriage, with two benches across it: on the front bench sat the two gentlemen, wrapped round with clokes: on the hinder bench, the servant took his station--not before he had thrown into the carriage two huge bags of _florins_, as unconcernedly as if they had been bags of _pebbles_. they were to travel all night--without sabre, pistol, or carbine, for protection. i own this gave me a very favourable opinion of the country i was about to visit; and on recollecting it, had good reason to acquiesce in the propriety of the smiles of rohfritsch. every thing, therefore, is now settled: gold ducats and silver florins have been obtained from madame francs; and to morrow we start. my next will be from _stuttgart_--where a "deed of note" will, i trust, be accomplished. fare you well. [ ] [this dinner party is somewhat largely detailed in the preceding edition of this work; but it scarcely merits repetition here; the more so, since the presiding hostess is no more!] [ ] _hermann_; vol. i. p. . [ ] _greatly benefited by the reformation_.]--among the benefactors to the cause of public morality, was the late lamented and ever memorable koch. before the year , it should seem, from koch's statement, that even whole streets as well as houses were occupied by women of a certain description. after this year, there were only two houses of ill fame left. the women, of the description before alluded to, used to wear black and white hats, of a sugar-loaf form, over the veil which covered their faces; and they were confined strictly to this dress by the magistrates. these women were sometimes represented in the sculptured figures about the cathedral. hermann says that there may yet be seen, over the door of a house in the _bickergase_ (one of the streets now called _rue de la fontaine_, which was formerly devoted to the residence of women of ill fame) a bas-relief, representing two figures, with the following german inscription beneath: _diss haus steht in gottes hand wird zu deu freud'gen kindern gennant._ which he translates thus: _cette maison; dans la main de dieu, s'appelle aux enfans bien joyeux_. it should seem, therefore, (continues hermann) that this was one of the houses in which a public officer attended, to keep order, prevent quarrels, and exact municipal rights. the book, in which the receipt of this tax was entered, existed during the time of the revolution, and is thought to be yet in existence. hermann, vol. i. p. . [ ] see p. ante. [ ] for the english metrical version i am indebted to "an old hand at these matters." [ ] since the publication of this tour, i have received several pleasant and thoroughly friendly letters from the above excellent individual: and i could scarcely forgive myself if i omitted this opportunity of annexing his autograph:--as a worthy companion to those which have preceded it. [autograph: schweighæuser] [ ] [madame francs, whose kind and liberal conduct towards me can never be forgotten, has now herself become the subject of a monumental effigy. she died (as i learn) in the year .] end of vol. ii. * * * * * london: printed by w. nicol, cleveland-row, st. james's. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's note: a number of typographical errors have been maintained in the current version of this book. a complete list is found at the end of the text. forgotten books of the american nursery a history of the development of the american story-book by rosalie v. halsey [illustration: _the devil and the disobedient child_] boston charles e. goodspeed & co. copyright, , by c.e. goodspeed & co. of this book seven hundred copies were printed in november , by d.b. updike, at the merrymount press, boston table of contents chapter page i. introductory ii. the play-book in england iii. newbery's books in america iv. patriotic printers and the american newbery v. the child and his book at the end of the eighteenth century vi. toy-books in the early nineteenth century vii. american writers and english critics index illustrations _the devil and the disobedient child_ frontispiece from "the prodigal daughter." sold at the printing office, no. , cornhill, boston. [j. and j. fleet, ?] facing page _the devil appears as a french gentleman_ from "the prodigal daughter." sold at the printing office, no. , cornhill, boston. [j. and j. fleet, ?] _title-page from "the child's new play-thing"_ printed by j. draper; j. edwards in boston [ ]. now in the new york public library, astor, lenox, and tilden foundations _title-page from "a little pretty pocket-book"_ printed by isaiah thomas, worcester, mdcclxxxvii. now in the new york public library, astor, lenox, and tilden foundations _a page from "a little pretty pocket-book"_ printed by isaiah thomas, worcester, mdcclxxxvii. now in the new york public library, astor, lenox, and tilden foundations _john newbery's advertisement of children's books_ from the "pennsylvania gazette" of november , _title-page of "the new gift for children"_ printed by zechariah fowle, boston, . now in the library of the historical society of pennsylvania _miss fanny's maid_ illustration from "the new gift for children," printed by zechariah fowle, boston, . now in the library of the historical society of pennsylvania _a page from a catalogue of children's books printed by isaiah thomas_ from "the picture exhibition," worcester, mdcclxxxviii _illustration of riddle xiv_ from "the puzzling-cap," printed by john adams, philadelphia, _frontispiece from "the history of little goody two-shoes"_ from one of _the first worcester edition_, printed by isaiah thomas in mdcclxxxvii. now in the library of the historical society of pennsylvania _sir walter raleigh and his man_ copper-plate illustration from "little truths," printed in philadelphia by j. and j. crukshank in _foot ball_ copper-plate illustration from "youthful recreations," printed in philadelphia by jacob johnson about _jacob johnson's book-store in philadelphia about _ _a wall-paper book-cover_ from "lessons for children from four to five years old," printed in wilmington (delaware) by peter brynberg in _tom the piper's son_ illustration and text engraved on copper by william charles, of philadelphia, in _a kind and good father_ woodcut by alexander anderson for "the prize for youthful obedience," printed in philadelphia by jacob johnson in _a virginian_ illustration from "people of all nations," printed in philadelphia by jacob johnson in _a baboon_ illustration from "a familiar description of beasts and birds," printed in boston by lincoln and edmands in _drest or undrest_ illustration from "the daisy," published by jacob johnson in _little nancy_ probably engraved by william charles for "little nancy, or, the punishment of greediness," published in philadelphia by morgan & yeager about _children of the cottage_ engraved by joseph i. pease for "the youth's sketch book," published in boston by lilly, wait and company in _henrietta_ engraved by thomas illman for "the american juvenile keepsake," published in brockville, u.c., by horace billings & co. in _a child and her doll_ illustration from "little mary," part ii, published in boston by cottons and barnard in _the little runaway_ drawn and engraved by j.w. steel for "affection's gift," published in new york by j.c. riker in chapter i _introductory_ thy life to mend this _book_ attend. _the new england tutor_ london ( - ) to be brought up in fear and learn a b c. foxe, _book of martyrs_ _forgotten books of the american nursery_ chapter i _introductory_ a shelf full of books belonging to the american children of colonial times and of the early days of the republic presents a strangely unfamiliar and curious appearance. if chronologically placed, the earliest coverless chap-books are hardly noticeable next to their immediate successors with wooden sides; and these, in turn, are dominated by the gilt, silver, and many colored bindings of diminutive dimensions which hold the stories dear to the childish heart from revolutionary days to the beginning of the nineteenth century. then bright blue, salmon, yellow, and marbled paper covers make a vivid display which, as the century grows older, fades into the sad-colored cloth bindings thought adapted to many children's books of its second quarter. an examination of their contents shows them to be equally foreign to present day ideas as to the desirable characteristics for children's literature. yet the crooked black type and crude illustrations of the wholly religious episodes related in the oldest volumes on the shelf, the didactic and moral stories with their tiny type-metal, wood, and copper-plate pictures of the next groups; and the "improving" american tales adorned with blurred colored engravings, or stiff steel and wood illustrations, that were produced for juvenile amusement in the early part of the nineteenth century,--all are as interesting to the lover of children as they are unattractive to the modern children themselves. the little ones very naturally find the stilted language of these old stories unintelligible and the artificial plots bewildering; but to one interested in the adult literature of the same periods of history an acquaintance with these amusement books of past generations has a peculiar charm and value of its own. they then become not merely curiosities, but the means of tracing the evolution of an american literature for children. to the student desiring an intimate acquaintance with any civilized people, its lighter literature is always a great aid to personal research; the more trivial, the more detailed, the greater the worth to the investigator are these pen-pictures as records of the nation he wishes to know. something of this value have the story-books of old-fashioned childhood. trivial as they undoubtedly are, they nevertheless often contain our best sketches of child-life in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,--a life as different from that of a twentieth century child as was the adult society of those old days from that of the present time. they also enable us to mark as is possible in no other way, the gradual development of a body of writing which, though lagging much behind the adult literature, was yet also affected by the local and social conditions in america. without attempting to give the history of the evolution of the a b c book in england--the legitimate ancestor of all juvenile books--two main topics must be briefly discussed before entering upon the proper matter of this volume. the first relates to the family life in the early days of the massachusetts commonwealth, the province that produced the first juvenile book. the second topic has to do with the literature thought suitable for children in those early puritan days. these two subjects are closely related, the second being dependent upon the first. both are necessary to the history of these quaint toy volumes, whose stories lack much meaning unless the conditions of life and literature preceding them are understood. when the pilgrim fathers, seeking freedom of faith, founded their first settlements in the new country, one of their earliest efforts was directed toward firmly establishing their own religion. this, though nominally free, was eventually, under the mathers, to become a theocracy as intolerant as that faith from which they had fled. the rocks upon which this religion was builded were the bible and the catechism. in this history of toy-books the catechism is, however, perhaps almost the more important to consider, for it was a product of the times, and regarded as indispensable to the proper training of a family. the puritan conception of life, as an error to be rectified by suffering rather than as a joy to be accepted with thanksgiving, made the preparation for death and the dreadful day of judgment the chief end of existence. the catechism, therefore, with its fear-inspiring description of hell and the consequences of sin, became inevitably the chief means of instructing children in the knowledge of their sinful inheritance. in order to insure a supply of catechisms, it was voted by the members of the company in sixteen hundred and twenty-nine, when preparing to emigrate, to expend " shillings for dussen and ten catechismes."[ -a] a contract was also made in the same year with "sundry intended ministers for catechising, as also in teaching, or causing to be taught the companyes servants & their children, as also the salvages and their children."[ -b] parents, especially the mothers, were continually exhorted in sermons preached for a century after the founding of the colony, to catechize the children every day, "that," said cotton mather, "you may be continually dropping something of the _catechism_ upon them: some honey out of the rock"! indeed, the learned divine seems to have regarded it as a soothing and toothsome morsel, for he even imagined that the children cried for it continuously, saying: _"o our dear parents, acquaint us with the great god.... let us not go from your tender knees, down to the place of dragons. oh! not parents, but ostriches: not parents, but prodigies."_[ -c] much dissension soon arose among the ministers of the settlements as to which catechism should be taught. as the result of the discussion the "general corte," which met in sixteen hundred and forty-one, "desired that the elders would make a catechism for _the instruction of youth in the grounds of religion_."[ -d] to meet this request, several clergymen immediately responded. among them was john cotton, who presumably prepared a small volume which was entitled "_milk for babes_. drawn out of the breast of both testaments. chiefly for the spiritual nourishment of _boston_ babes in either england: but may be of like use for any children." for the present purpose the importance of this little book lies in the supposition that it was printed at cambridge, by daye, between sixteen hundred and forty-one and sixteen hundred and forty-five, and therefore was the first book of any kind written and printed in america for children;--an importance altogether different from that attached to it by the author's grandson, cotton mather, when he asserted that "milk for babes" would be "valued and studied and improved till new england cease to be new england."[ -a] to the little colonials this "catechism of new england" was a great improvement upon any predecessor, even upon the westminster shorter catechism, for it reduced the one hundred and seven questions of that famous body of doctrine to sixty-seven, and the longest answer in "milk for babes" contained only eighty-four words.[ -b] as the century grew older other catechisms were printed. the number produced before the eighteenth century bears witness to the diverse views in a community in which they were considered an essential for every member, adult or child. among the six hundred titles roughly computed as the output of the press by seventeen hundred in the new country, eleven different catechisms may be counted, with twenty editions in all; of these the titles of four indicate that they were designed for very little children. in each community the pastor appointed the catechism to be taught in the school, and joined the teacher in drilling the children in its questions and answers. indeed, the answers were regarded as irrefutable in those uncritical days, and hence a strong shield and buckler against manifold temptations provided by "yt ould deluder satan." to offset the task of learning these doctrines of the church, it is probable that the mothers regaled the little ones with old folk-lore tales when the family gathered together around the great living-room fire in the winter evening, or asked eagerly for a bedtime story in the long summer twilight. tales such as "jack the giant killer," "tom thumb," the "children in the wood," and "guy of warwick," were orally current even among the plain people of england, though frowned upon by many of the puritan element. therefore it is at least presumable that these were all familiar to the colonists. in fact, it is known that john dunton, in sixteen hundred and eighty-six, sold in his boston warehouse "the history of tom thumb," which he facetiously offered to an ignorant customer "in folio with marginal notes." besides these orally related tales of enchantment, the children had a few simple pastimes, but at first the few toys were necessarily of home manufacture. on the whole, amusements were not encouraged, although "in the year sixteen hundred and ninety-five mr. higginson," writes mrs. earle, "wrote from massachusetts to his brother in england, that if toys were imported in small quantity to america, they would sell." and a venture of this character was certainly made by seventeen hundred and twelve in boston. still, these were the exception in a commonwealth where amusements were considered as wiles of the devil, against whom the ministers constantly warned the congregations committed to their charge. home in the seventeenth century--and indeed in the eighteenth century--was a place where for children the rule "to be seen, not heard," was strictly enforced. to read judge sewall's diary is to be convinced that for children to obtain any importance in life, death was necessary. funerals of little ones were of frequent occurrence, and were conducted with great ceremony, in which pomp and meagre preparation were strangely mingled. baby henry sewall's funeral procession, for instance, included eight ministers, the governor and magistrates of the county, and two nurses who bore the little body to the grave, into which, half full of water from the raging storm, the rude coffin was lowered. death was kept before the eyes of every member of the colony; even two-year-old babies learned such mournful verse as this: "i, in the burying place may see graves shorter than i; from death's arrest no age is free young children too may die; my god, may such an awful sight awakening be to me! oh! that by grace i might for death prepared be." when the younger members of the family are otherwise mentioned in the judge's diary, it is perhaps to note the parents' pride in the eighteen-months-old infant's knowledge of the catechism, an acquirement rewarded by the gift of a red apple, but which suggests the reason for many funerals. or, again, difficulties with the alphabet are sorrowfully put down; and also deliquencies at the age of four in attending family prayer, with a full account of punishments meted out to the culprit. such details are, indeed, but natural, for under the stern conditions imposed by cotton and the mathers, religion looms large in the foreground of any sketch of family life handed down from the first century of the massachusetts colony. perhaps the very earliest picture in which a colonial child with a book occupies the centre of the canvas is that given in a letter of samuel sewall's. in sixteen hundred and seventy-one he wrote with pride to a friend of "little betty, who though reading passing well, took three moneths to read the first volume of the book of martyrs" as she sat by the fire-light at night after her daily task of spinning was done. foxe's "martyrs" seems gruesome reading for a little girl at bedtime, but it was so popular in england that, with the bible and catechism, it was included in the library of all households that could afford it. just ten years later, in sixteen hundred and eighty-one, bunyan's "pilgrim's progress" was printed in boston by samuel green, and, being easily obtainable, superseded in a measure the "book of martyrs" as a household treasure. bunyan's dream, according to macaulay, was the daily conversation of thousands, and was received in new england with far greater eagerness than in the author's own country. the children undoubtedly listened to the talk of their elders and gazed with wide-open eyes at the execrable plates in the imported editions illustrating christian's journey. after the deaths by fire and sword of the martyrs, the pilgrim's difficulties in the slough of despond, or with the giant despair, afforded pleasurable reading; while mr. great heart's courageous cheerfulness brought practically a new characteristic into puritan literature. to bunyan the children in both old and new england were indebted for another book, entitled "a book for boys and girls: or, country rhimes for children. by j.b. licensed and entered according to order."[ -a] printed in london, it probably soon made its way to this country, where bunyan was already so well known. "this little octavo volume," writes mrs. field in "the child and his book," "was considered a perfect child's book, but was in fact only the literary milk of the unfortunate babes of the period." in the light of modern views upon juvenile reading and entertainment, the puritan ideal of mental pabulum for little ones is worth recording in an extract from the preface. the following lines set forth this author's three-fold purpose: "to show them how each fingle-fangle, on which they doting are, their souls entangle, as with a web, a trap, a gin, or snare. while by their play-things, i would them entice, to mount their thoughts from what are childish toys to heaven for that's prepar'd for girls and boys. nor do i so confine myself to these as to shun graver things, i seek to please, those more compos'd with better things than toys: tho thus i would be catching girls and boys." in the seventy-four meditations composing this curious medley--"tho but in homely rhimes"--upon subjects familiar to any little girl or boy, none leaves the moral to the imagination. nevertheless, it could well have been a relaxation, after the daily drill in "a b abs" and catechism, to turn the leaves and to spell out this: upon the frog the frog by nature is both damp and cold, her mouth is large, her belly much will hold, she sits somewhat ascending, loves to be croaking in gardens tho' unpleasantly. _comparison_ the hypocrite is like unto this frog; as like as is the puppy to the dog. he is of nature cold, his mouth is wide to prate, and at true goodness to deride. doubtless, too, many little puritans quite envied the child in "the boy and the watchmaker," a jingle wherein the former said, among other things: "this watch my father did on me bestow a golden one it is, but 'twill not go, unless it be at an uncertainty; i think there is no watch as bad as mine. sometimes 'tis sullen, 'twill not go at all, and yet 'twas never broke, nor had a fall." the same small boys may even have enjoyed the tedious explanation of the mechanism of the time-piece given by the _watchmaker_, and after skipping the "comparison" (which made the boy represent a convert and the watch in his pocket illustrative of "grace within his heart"), they probably turned eagerly to the next meditation _upon the boy and his paper of plumbs_. weather-cocks, hobby-horses, horses, and drums, all served bunyan in his effort "to point a moral" while adorning his tales. in a later edition of these grotesque and quaint conceptions, some alterations were made and a primer was included. it then appeared as "a book for boys and girls; or temporal things spiritualized;" and by the time the ninth edition was reached, in seventeen hundred and twenty-four, the book was hardly recognizable as "divine emblems; or temporal things spiritualized." at present there is no evidence that these rhymes were printed in the colonies until long after this ninth edition was issued. it is possible that the success attending a book printed in boston shortly after the original "country rhimes" was written, made the colonial printers feel that their profit would be greater by devoting spare type and paper to the now famous "new england primer." moreover, it seems peculiarly in keeping with the cast of the new england mind of the eighteenth century that although bunyan had attempted to combine play-things with religious teaching for the english children, for the little colonials the first combination was the elementary teaching and religious exercises found in the great "puritan primer." each child was practically, if not verbally, told that "this little catechism learned by heart (for so it ought) the primer next commanded is for children to be taught." the primer, however, was not a product wholly of new england. in sixteen hundred and eighty-five there had been printed in boston by green, "the protestant tutor for children," a primer, a mutilated copy of which is now owned by the american antiquarian society. "this," again to quote mr. ford, "was probably an abridged edition of a book bearing the same title, printed in london, with the expressed design of bringing up children in an aversion to popery." in protestant new england the author's purpose naturally called forth profound approbation, and in "green's edition of the tutor lay the germ of the great picture alphabet of our fore-fathers."[ -a] the author, benjamin harris, had immigrated to boston for personal reasons, and coming in contact with the residents, saw the latent possibilities in "the protestant tutor." "to make it more salable," writes mr. ford in "the new england primer," "the school-book character was increased, while to give it an even better chance of success by an appeal to local pride it was rechristened and came forth under the now famous title of 'the new england primer.'"[ -b] a careful examination of the titles contained in the first volume of evans's "american bibliography" shows how exactly this infant's primer represented the spirit of the times. this chronological list of american imprints of the first one hundred years of the colonial press is largely a record in type of the religious activity of the country, and is impressive as a witness to the obedience of the press to the law of supply and demand. with the puritan appetite for a grim religion served in sermons upon every subject, ornamented and seasoned with supposedly apt scriptural quotations, a demand was created for printed discourses to be read and inwardly digested at home. this demand the printers supplied. amid such literary conditions the primer came as light food for infants' minds, and as such was accepted by parents to impress religious ideas when teaching the alphabet. it is not by any means certain that the first edition of this great primer of our ancestors contained illustrations, as engravers were few in america before the eighteenth century. yet it seems altogether probable that they were introduced early in the next century, as by seventeen hundred and seventeen benjamin harris, jr., had printed in boston "the holy bible in verse," containing cuts identical with those in "the new england primer" of a somewhat later date, and these pictures could well have served as illustrations for both these books for children's use, profit, and pleasure. at all events, the thorough approval by parents and clergy of this small school-book soon brought to many a household the novelty of a real picture-book. hitherto little children had been perforce content with the few illustrations the adult books offered. now the printing of this tiny volume, with its curious black pictures accompanying the text of religious instruction, catechism, and alphabets, marked the milestone on the long lane that eventually led to the well-drawn pictures in the modern books for children. it is difficult at so late a day to estimate correctly the pleasure this famous picture alphabet brought to the various colonial households. what the original illustrations were like can only be inferred from those in "the holy bible in verse," and in the later editions of the primer itself. in the bible adam (or is it eve?) stands pointing to a tree around which a serpent is coiled. by seventeen hundred and thirty-seven the engraver was sufficiently skilled to represent two figures, who stand as colossal statues on either side of the tree whose fruit had such disastrous effects. however, at a time when art criticism had no terrors for the engraver, it could well have been a delight to many a family of little ones to gaze upon "the lion bold the lamb doth hold" and to speculate upon the exact place where the lion ended and the lamb began. the wholly religious character of the book was no drawback to its popularity, for the two great diaries of the time show how absolutely religion permeated the atmosphere surrounding both old and young. cotton mather's diary gives various glimpses of his dealing with his own and other people's children. his son increase, or "cressy," as he was affectionately called, seems to have been particularly unresponsive to religious coercion. mather's method, however, appears to have been more efficacious with the younger members of his family, and of elizabeth and samuel (seven years of age) he wrote: "my two younger children shall before the psalm and prayer answer a quæstion in the catechism; and have their leaves ready turned unto the proofs of the answer in the bible; which they shall distinctly read unto us, and show what they prove. this also shall supply a fresh matter for prayer." again he tells of his table talk: "tho' i will have my table talk facetious as well as instructive ... yett i will have the exercise continually intermixed. i will set before them some sentence of the bible, and make some useful remarks upon it." other people's children he taught as occasion offered; even when "on the road in the woods," he wrote on another day, "i, being desirous to do some good, called some little children ... and bestowed some instruction with a little book upon them." to children accustomed to instruction at all hours, the amusement found in the pages of the primer was far greater than in any other book printed in the colonies for years. certain titles indicate the nature of the meagre juvenile literary fare in the beginning of the new eighteenth century. in seventeen hundred nicholas boone, in his "shop over against the old meeting-house" in boston, reprinted janeway's "token for children." to this was added by the boston printer a "token for the children of new england, or some examples of children in whom the fear of god was remarkably budding when they dyed; in several parts of new england." of course its author, the reverend mr. mather, found colonial "examples" as deeply religious as any that the mother country could produce; but there is for us a grim humor in these various incidents concerning pious and precocious infants "of thin habit and pale countenance," whose pallor became that of death at so early an age. if it was by the repetition of such tales that the puritan divine strove to convert cressy, it may well be that the son considered it better policy, since death claimed the little saints, to remain a sinner. by seventeen hundred and six two juvenile books appeared from the press of timothy green in boston. the first, "a little book for children wherein are set down several directions for little children: and several remarkable stories both ancient and modern of little children, divers whereof are lately deceased," was a reprint from an english book of the same title, and therefore has not in this chronicle the interest of the second book. the purpose of its publication is given in mather's diary: [ ] d. im. friday. about this time sending my little son to school, where ye child was learning to read, i did use every morning for diverse months, to write in a plain hand for the child, and send thither by him, _a lesson in verse_, to be not only _read_, but also _gott_ by heart. my proposal was to have the child improve in goodness, at the same time that he improved in _reading_. upon further thoughts i apprehended that a collection of some of them would be serviceable to ye good education of other children. so i lett ye printer take them & print them, in some hope of some help to thereby contributed unto that great intention of a _good education_. the book is entituled _good lessons for children_; or instruction provided for a little son to learn at school, when learning to read. although this small book lives only by record, it is safe to assume from the extracts of the author's diary already quoted, that it lacked every quality of amusement, and was adapted only to those whom he described, in a sermon preached before the governor and council, as "verie sharpe and early ripe in their capacities." "good lessons" has the distinction of being the first american book to be composed, like many a modern publication, for a particular young child; and, with its purpose "to improve in goodness," struck clearly the keynote of the greater part of all writing for children during the succeeding one hundred and seventy-five years. the first glimpse of the amusement book proper appears in that unique "history of printing in america," by isaiah thomas. this describes, among other old printers, one thomas fleet, who established himself in boston about . "at first," wrote mr. thomas, "he printed pamphlets for booksellers, small books for children and ballads" in pudding lane.[ -a] "he owned several negroes, one of which ... was an ingenious man and cut on wooden blocks all the pictures which decorated the ballads and small books for his master."[ -b] as corroborative of these statements thomas also mentions thomas fleet, sr., as "the putative compiler of mother goose melodies, which he first published in , bearing the title of 'songs for the nursery.'" much discussion has arisen as to the earliest edition of mother goose. thomas's suggestion as to the origin of the first american edition has been of late years relegated to the region of myth. nevertheless, there is something to be said in favor of the existence of some book of nonsense at that time. the boston "news letter" for april - , , contained a criticism of tate and brady's version of the psalms, in which the reviewer wrote that in psalm vi the translators used the phrase, "a wretch forlorn." he added: "( ) there is nothing of this in the original or the english psalter. ( ) 'tis a low expression and to add a low one is the less allowable. but ( ) what i am most concerned for is, that it will be apt to make our children think of the line in their vulgar play song; much like it, 'this is the maiden all forlorn.'" we recognize at once a reference to our nursery friend of the "house that jack built;" and if this and "tom thumb" were sold in boston, why should not other ditties have been among the chap-books which thomas remembered to have set up when a 'prentice lad in the printing-house of zechariah fowle, who in turn had copied some issued previously by thomas fleet? in further confirmation of thomas's statement is a paragraph in the preface to an edition of mother goose, published in boston in , by monroe & francis. the editor traces the origin of these rhymes to a london book entitled, "rhymes for the nursery or lullabies for children," "that," he writes, "contained many of the identical pieces handed down to us." he continues: "the first book of the kind known to be printed in this country _bears_ [_the italics are mine_] the title, '_songs for the nursery: or mother goose's melodies for children_.' something probably intended to represent a goose, with a very long neck and mouth wide open, covered a large part of the title-page; at the bottom of which was: 'printed by t. fleet, at his printing house, pudding lane (boston) .' several pages were missing, so that the whole number could not be ascertained." the editor clearly writes as if he had either seen, or heard accurately described, this piece of _americana_, which the bibliophile to-day would consider a treasure trove. later writers doubt whether any such book existed, for it is hardly credible that the puritan element which so largely composed the population of boston in the first quarter of the eighteenth century would have encouraged the printing of any nonsensical jingles. boston, however, was not at this time the only place in the colonies where primers and religious books were written and printed. in philadelphia, andrew bradford, famous as the founder of the "american weekly mercury," had in put through his press, probably upon subscription, the "last words and dyeing expressions of hannah hill, aged years and near three months." this morbid account of the death of a little quakeress furnished the philadelphia children with a book very similar to mather's "token." not to be outdone by any precocious example in pennsylvania, the reverend mr. mather soon found an instance of "early piety in elizabeth butcher of boston, being just years and months old," when she died in . in two years two editions of her life had been issued "to instruct and to invite little children to the exercise of early piety." such mortuary effusions were so common at the time that benjamin franklin's witty skit upon them is apropos in this connection. in , at the age of sixteen, under the pseudonym of mrs. dogood, he wrote a series of letters for his brother's paper, "the new england courant." from the following extract, taken from these letters, it is evident that these children's "last words" followed the prevailing fashion: _a receipt_ to make a _new england_ funeral _elegy_. _for the title of your elegy_. of these you may have enough ready made at your hands: but if you should chuse to make it yourself you must be sure not to omit the words _aetatis suae_, which will beautify it exceedingly. _for the subject of your elegy_. take one of your neighbors who has lately departed this life; it is no great matter at what age the party dy'd, but it will be best if he went away suddenly, being _kill'd_, _drown'd_ or _froze to death_. having chosen the person, take all his virtues, excellencies, &c. and if he have not enough, you may borrow some to make up a sufficient quantity: to these add his last words, dying expressions, &c. if they are to be had: mix all these together, and be sure you strain them well. then season all with a handful or two of melancholy expressions, such as _dreadful, dreadly, cruel, cold, death, unhappy, fate, weeping eyes_, &c. having mixed all these ingredients well, put them in an empty scull of some _young harvard_; (but in case you have ne'er a one at hand, you may use your _own_,) then let them ferment for the space of a fortnight, and by that time they will be incorporated into a body, which take out and having prepared a sufficient quantity of double rhimes, such as _power, flower; quiver, shiver; grieve us, leave us; tell you, excel you; expeditions, physicians; fatigue him, intrigue him_; &c. you must spread all upon paper, and if you can procure a scrap of latin to put at the _end_, it will garnish it mightily: then having affixed your name at the bottom with a _maestus composuit_, you will have an excellent elegy. n.b. this receipt will serve when a female is the subject of your elegy, provided you borrow a greater quantity of virtues, excellencies &c. of other original books for children of colonial parents in the first quarter of that century, "a looking-glass" did but mirror more religious episodes concerning infants, while mather in his zeal had also published "an earnest exhortation" to new england children, and "the a, b, c, of religion. fitted unto the youngest and lowest capacities." to this, taking advantage of the use of rhymes, he appended further instruction, including "the body of divinity versified." with our knowledge of the clergyman's methods with his congregation it is not difficult to imagine that he insisted upon the purchase of these godly aids for every household. in attempting to reproduce the conditions of family life in the early settlements and towns of colonial days, we turn quite naturally to the newspapers, whose appearance in the first quarter of the eighteenth century was gladly welcomed by the people of their time, and whose files are now eagerly searched for items of great or small importance. indeed, much information can be gathered from their advertisements, which often filled the major part of these periodicals. apparently shop-keepers were keen to take advantage of such space as was reserved for them, as sometimes a marginal note informed the public that other advertisements must wait for the next issue to appear. booksellers' announcements, however, are not too frequent in boston papers, and are noticeably lacking in the early issues of the philadelphia "weekly mercury." this dearth of book-news accounts for the difficulty experienced by book-lovers of that town in procuring literature--a lack noticed at once by the wide-awake young franklin upon his arrival in the city, and recorded in his biography as follows: "at the time i established myself in pennsylvania [ ] there was not a bookseller's shop in any of the colonies to the southward of boston. in new york and phil'a the printers were indeed stationers; they sold only paper, etc., ballads, and a few books. those who lov'd reading were obliged to send for their books from london." franklin undertook to better this condition by opening a shop for the sale of foreign books. both he and his rival in journalism, andrew bradford, had stationer's shops, in which were to be had besides "good writing paper; cyphering slates; ink powders, etc., chapmens books and ballads." bradford also advertised in seventeen hundred and thirty that all persons could be supplied with "primers and small histories of many sorts." "small histories" were probably chap-books, which, hawked about the country by peddlers or chapmen, contained tales of "fair rosamond," "jane grey," "tom thumb" or "tom hick-a-thrift," and though read by old and young, were hardly more suitable for juvenile reading than the religious elegies then so popular. these chap-books were sold in considerable quantities on account of their cheapness, and included religious subjects as well as tales of adventure. one of the earliest examples of this chap-book literature, thought suitable for children, was printed in the colonies by the press of thomas fleet, already mentioned as a printer of small books. this book of , being intended for ready sale, was such as every puritan would buy for the family library. entitled "the prodigal daughter," it told in psalm-book metre of a "proud, vain girl, who, because her parents would not indulge her in all her extravagances, bargained with the devil to poisen them." the parents, however, were warned by an angel of her intentions: "one night her parents sleeping were in bed nothing but troubled dreams run in their head, at length an angel did to them appear saying awake, and unto me give ear. a messenger i'm sent by heaven kind to let you know your lives are both design'd; your graceless child, whom you love so dear, she for your precious lives hath laid a snare. to poison you the devil tempts her so, she hath no power from the snare to go: but god such care doth of his servants take, those that believe on him he'll not forsake. "you must not use her cruel or severe, for though these things to you i do declare, it is to show you what the lord can do, he soon can turn her heart, you'll find it so." the daughter, discovered in her attempt to poison their food, was reproached by the mother for her evil intention and swooned. every effort failed to "bring her spirits to revive:" "four days they kept her, when they did prepare to lay her body in the dust we hear, at her funeral a sermon then was preach'd, all other wicked children for to teach.... but suddenly they bitter groans did hear which much surprized all that then were there. at length they did observe the dismal sound came from the body just laid in the ground." the puritan pride in funeral display is naïvely exhibited in the portrayal of the girl when she "in her coffin sat, and did admire her winding sheet," before she related her experiences "among lonesome wild deserts and briary woods, which dismal were and dark." but immediately after her description of the lake of burning misery and of the fierce grim tempter, the puritan matter-of-fact acceptance of it all is suggested by the concluding lines: "when thus her story she to them had told, she said, put me to bed for i am cold." the illustrations of a later edition entered thoroughly into the spirit of the author's intent. the contemporary opinion of the french character is quaintly shown in the portrait of the devil dressed as a french gentleman, his cloven foot discovering his identity. whatever deficiencies are revealed in these early attempts to illustrate, they invariably expressed the artist's purpose, and in this case the devil, after the girl's conversion, is drawn in lines very acceptable to puritan children's idea of his personality. almanacs also were in demand, and furnished parents and children, in many cases, with their entire library for week-day reading. "successive numbers hung from a string by the chimney or ranked by years and generations on cupboard shelves."[ -a] but when franklin made "poor richard" an international success, he, by giving short extracts from swift, steele, defoe, and bacon, accustomed the provincial population, old and young, to something better than the meagre religious fare provided by the colonial press. such, then, were the literary conditions for children when an advertisement inserted in the "weekly mercury" gave promise of better days for the little philadelphians.[ -b] strangely enough, this attempt to make learning seem attractive to children did not appear in the booksellers' lists; but crowded in between tandums, holland tapes, london steel, and good muscavado sugar,--"guilt horn books" were advertised by joseph sims in as "for sale on reasonable terms for cash." [illustration: _the devil appears as a french gentleman_] horn-books in themselves were only too common, and not in the least delightful. made of thin wood, whereon was placed a printed sheet of paper containing the alphabet and lord's prayer, a horn-book was hardly, properly speaking, a book at all. but when the printed page was covered with yellowish transparent horn, secured to the wooden back by strips of brass, it furnished an economical and practically indestructible elementary text-book for thousands of english-speaking children on both sides of the atlantic. sometimes an effort was also made to guard against the inconvenient faculty of children for losing school-books, by attaching a cord, which, passing through a hole in the handle of the board, was hung around the scholar's neck. but since nothing is proof against the ingenuity of a schoolboy, many were successfully disposed of. although printed by thousands, few in england or in america have survived the century that has elapsed since they were used. occasionally, in tearing down an old building, one of these horn-books has been found; dropped in a convenient hole, it has remained secure from parents' sight, until brought to light by workmen and prized as a curiosity by grown people of the present generation. this notice of little gilt horn-books was inserted in the "weekly mercury" but once. whether the supply was quickly exhausted, or whether they did not prove a successful novelty, can never be known; but at least they herald the approach of the little gilt story-books which ten years later were to make the name of john newbery well known in english households, and hardly less familiar in the american colonies. so far the only attractions to induce children to read have been through the pictures in the primer of new england, and by the gilding of the horn-book. from further south comes the first note of amusement in reading, as well as the first expression of pleasure from the children themselves in regard to a book. in , in virginia, two letters were written and received by r.h. lee and george washington. these letters, which afford the first in any way authentic account of tales of real entertainment, are given by mr. lossing in "the home of washington," and tell their own tale: [_richard henry lee to george washington_] pa brought me two pretty books full of pictures he got them in alexandria they have pictures of dogs and cats and tigers and elefants and ever so many pretty things cousin bids me send you one of them it has a picture of an elefant and a little indian boy on his back like uncle jo's sam pa says if i learn my tasks good he will let uncle jo bring me to see you will you ask your ma to let you come to see me. richard henry lee. [_g. washington to r.h. lee_] dear dickey--i thank you very much for the pretty picture book you gave me. sam asked me to show him the pictures and i showed him all the pictures in it; and i read to him how the tame elephant took care of the master's little boy, and put him on his back and would not let anybody touch his master's little son. i can read three or four pages sometimes without missing a word.... i have a little piece of poetry about the picture book you gave me but i mustn't tell you who wrote the poetry. g.w.'s compliments to r.h.l. and likes his book full well, henceforth will count him his friend and hopes many happy days he may spend. your good friend george washington. in a note mr. lossing states that he had copies of these two letters, sent him by a mr. lee, who wrote: "the letter of richard henry lee was written by himself, and uncorrected sent by him to his boy friend george washington. the poetical effusion was, i have heard, written by a mr. howard, a gentleman who used to visit at the house of mr. washington." it would be gratifying to know the titles of these two books, so evidently english chap-book tales. it is probable that they were imported by a shop-keeper in alexandria, as in seventeen hundred and forty-one there was only one press in virginia, owned by william sharps, who had moved from annapolis in seventeen hundred and thirty-six. luxuries were so much more common among the virginia planters, and life was so much more roseate in hue than was the case in the northern colonies, that it seems most natural that two southern boys should have left the earliest account of any real story-books. though unfortunately nameless, they at least form an interesting coincidence. bought in seventeen hundred and forty-one, they follow just one hundred years later than the meeting of the general court, which was responsible for the preparation of cotton's "milk for babes," and precede by a century the date when an american story-book literature was recognized as very different from that written for english children. footnotes: [ -a] _records of mass. bay_, vol. i, p. h. [ -b] _ibid._, vol. i, p. e. [ -c] ford, _the new england primer_, p. . [ -d] _records of mass. bay_, vol. i, p. . [ -a] ford, _the new england primer_, p. . [ -b] _ibid._ [ -a] in the possession of the british museum. [ -a] ford, _the new england primer_, p. . [ -b] _ibid._ [ -a] thomas, _history of printing in america_, vol. iii, p. . [ -b] _ibid._, vol. i, p. . [ -a] sears, _american literature_, p. . [ -b] although this appears to be the first advertisement of gilt horn-books in philadelphia papers, an inventory of the estate of michael perry, a boston bookseller, made in seventeen hundred, includes sixteen dozen gilt horn-books. chapter ii - he who learns his letters fair, shall have a coach and take the air. _royal primer_, newbery, our king the good no man of blood. _the new england primer_, chapter ii - _the play-book in england_ the vast horde of story-books so constantly poured into modern nurseries makes it difficult to realize that the library of the early colonial child consisted of such books as have been already described. the juvenile books to-day are multiform. the quantities displayed upon shop-counters or ranged upon play-room shelves include a variety of subjects bewildering to all but those whose business necessitates a knowledge of this kind of literature. for the little child there is no lack of gayly colored pictures and short tales in large print; for the older boys and girls there lies a generous choice, ranging from bunny stories to jungle books, or they "may see how all things are, seas and cities near and far. and the flying fairies' looks in the picture story-books." the contrast is indeed extreme between that scanty fare of dull sermons and "the new england primer" given to the little people of the early eighteenth century, and this superabundance prepared with lavish care for the nation of american children. the beginning of this complex juvenile literature is, therefore, to be regarded as a comparatively modern invention of about seventeen hundred and forty-five. from that date can be traced the slow growth of a literature written with an avowed intention of furnishing amusement as well as instruction; and in the toy-books published one hundred and fifty years ago are found the prototypes of the present modes of bringing fun and knowledge to the american fireside. the question at once arises as to the reason why this literature came into existence; why was it that children after seventeen hundred and fifty should have been favored in a way unknown to their parents? to even the casual reader of english literature the answer is plain, if this subject of toy-books be regarded as of near kin to the larger body of writing. it has been somewhat the custom to consider children's literature as a thing wholly apart from that of adults, probably because the majority of the authors of these little tales have so generally lacked the qualities indispensable for any true literary work. in reality the connection between the two is somewhat like that of parent and child; the smaller body, though lacking in power, has closely imitated the larger mass of writing in form and kind, and has reflected, sometimes clearly, sometimes dimly, the good or bad fashions that have shared the successive periods of literary history, like a child who unconsciously reproduces a parent's foibles or excellences. it is to england, then, that we must look to find the conditions out of which grew the necessity for this modern invention--the story-book. the love of stories has been the splendid birthright of every child in all ages and in all lands. "stories," wrote thackeray,--"stories exist everywhere; there is no calculating the distance through which the stories have come to us, the number of languages through which they have been filtered, or the centuries during which they have been told. many of them have been narrated almost in their present shape for thousands of years to the little copper-coloured sanscrit children, listening to their mothers under the palm-trees by the banks of the yellow jumna--their brahmin mother, who softly narrated them through the ring in her nose. the very same tale has been heard by the northern vikings as they lay on their shields on deck; and the arabs couched under the stars on the syrian plains when their flocks were gathered in, and their mares were picketed by the tents." this picturesque description leads exactly to the point to be emphasized: that children shared in the simple tales of their people as long as those tales retained their freshness and simplicity; but when, as in england in the eighteenth century, the literature lost these qualities and became artificial, critical, and even skeptical, it lost its charm for the little ones and they no longer cared to listen to it. fashion and taste were then alike absorbed in the works of dryden, pope, addison, steele, and swift, and the novels from the pens of richardson, fielding, and smollett had begun to claim and to hold the attention of the english reading public. the children, however, could neither comprehend nor enjoy the witty criticism and subtle treatment of the topics discussed by the older men, although, as will be seen in another chapter, the novels became, in both the original and in the abridged forms, the delight of many a "young master and miss." meanwhile, in the american colonies the people who could afford to buy books inherited their taste for literature as well as for tea from the puritans and fashionables in the mother country; although it is a fact familiar to all, that the works of the comparatively few native authors lagged, in spirit and in style, far behind the writings of englishmen of the time. the reading of one who was a boy in the older era of the urbane addison and the witty pope, and a man in the newer period of the novelists, is well described in benjamin franklin's autobiography. "all the little money," wrote that book-lover, "that came into my hands was laid out in books. pleased with the pilgrim's progress, my collection was of john bunyan's works in separate volumes. i afterwards sold them to buy r. burton's historical collections; they were chapmen's books, and cheap, or in all." burton's "historical collections" contained history, travels, adventures, fiction, natural history, and biography. so great was the favor in which they were held in the eighteenth century that the compiler, nathaniel crouch, almost lost his identity in his pseudonym, and like the late mr. clemens, was better known by his nom-de-plume than by his family name. according to dunton, he "melted down the best of the english histories into twelve-penny books, which are filled with wonders, rarities and curiosities." although characterized by dr. johnson as "very proper to allure backward readers," the contents of many of the various books afforded the knowledge and entertainment eagerly grasped by franklin and other future makers of the american nation. the scarcity of historical works concerning the colonies made burton's account of the "english empire in america" at once a mine of interest to wide-awake boys of the day. number viii, entitled "winter evenings' entertainment," was long a source of amusement with its stories and riddles, and its title was handed down to other books of a similar nature. to children, however, the best-known volume of the series was burton's illustrated versification of bible stories called "the youth's divine pastime." but the subjects chosen by burton were such as belonged to a very plain-spoken age; and as the versifier was no euphuist in his relation of facts, the result was a remarkable "pastime for youth." the literature read by english children was, of course, the same; the little ones of both countries ate of the same tree of knowledge of facts, often either silly or revolting. to deliver the younger and future generations from such unpalatable and indigestible mental food, there was soon to appear in london a man, john newbery by name, who, already a printer, publisher, and vendor of patent medicines, seized the opportunity to issue stories written especially for the amusement of little children. while newbery was making his plans to provide pleasure for young folks in england, in the colonies the idea of a child's need of recreation through books was slowly gaining ground. it is well to note the manner in which the little colonists were prepared to receive newbery's books as recreative features crept gradually into the very few publications of which there is record. in seventeen hundred and forty-five native talent was still entirely confined to writing for little people lugubrious sermons or discourses delivered on sunday and "catechize days," and afterwards printed for larger circulation. the reprints from english publications were such exotics as, "a poesie out of mr. dod's garden," an alluring title, which did not in the least deceive the small colonials as to the religious nature of its contents. in new york the dutch element, until the advent of garrat noel, paid so little attention to the subject of juvenile literature that the popularity of watts's "divine songs" (issued by an englishman) is well attested by the fact that at present it is one of the very few child's books of any kind recorded as printed in that city before . but in boston, old thomas fleet, in , saw the value of the element of some entertainment in connection with reading, and, when he published "the parents' gift, containing a choice collection of god's judgments and mercies," lives of the evangelists, and other religious matter, he added a "variety of pleasant pictures proper for the entertainment of children." this is, perhaps, the first printed acknowledgment in america that pictures were commendable to parents _because_ entertaining to their offspring. such an idea put into words upon paper and advertised in so well-read a sheet as the "boston evening post," must surely have impressed fathers and mothers really solicitous for the family welfare and anxious to provide harmless pleasure. this pictorial element was further encouraged by franklin, when, in , he reprinted, probably for the first time in this country, "dilworth's new guide to the english tongue." in this school-book, after the alphabets and spelling lessons, a special feature was introduced, that is, illustrated "select fables." the cuts at the top of each fable possess an added interest from the supposition that they were engraved by the printer himself; and the constant use of the "guide" by colonial school-masters and mistresses made their pupils unconsciously quite ready for more illustrated and fewer homiletic volumes. indeed, before the middle of the century pictures had become an accepted feature of the few juvenile books, and "the history of the holy jesus" versified for little ones was issued by at least two old boston printers in and with more than a dozen cuts. among the rare extant copies of this small chap-book is one that, although torn and disfigured by tiny fingers and the century and a half since it pleased its first owner, bears the personal touch of this inscription "ebenezer ... bought june ... ... price = =d." was the price marked upon its page as a reminder that two shillings was a large price to pay for a boy's book? perhaps for this reason it received the careful handling that has enabled us to examine it, when so many of its contemporaries and successors have vanished. the versified story, notwithstanding its quaintness of diction, begins with a dignified directness: "the glorious blessed time had come, the father had decreed, jesus of _mary_ there was born, and in a manger laid." at the end are two _hymns_, entitled "delight in the lord jesus," and "absence from christ intolerable." the final stanza is typical of one puritan doctrine: "the devil throws his fiery darts, and wicked ones do act their parts, to ruin me when christ is gone, and leaves me all alone." the woodcuts are not the least interesting feature of this old-time duodecimo, from the picture showing the mother reading to her children to the illustration of the quaking of the earth on the day of the crucifixion. crude and badly drawn as they now seem, they were surely sufficient to attract the child of their generation. about the same time old zechariah fowle, who apprenticed isaiah thomas, and both printed and vended chap-books in back street, boston, advertised among his list of books "lately publish'd" this same small book, together with "a token for youth," the "life and death of elizabeth butcher," "a preservative from the sins and follies of childhood and youth," "the prodigal daughter," "the happy child," and "the new gift for children with cuts." of these "the new gift" was certainly a real story-book, as one of a later edition still extant readily proves. thus the children in both countries were prepared to enjoy newbery's miniature story-books, although for somewhat different reasons: in england the literature had reached a point too artificial to be interesting to little ones; in america the product of the press and the character of the majority of the juvenile importations, the reprints, or home-made chap-books, has been shown to be such as would hardly attract those who were to be the future arbiters of the colonies' destiny. the reasons for the coming to light of this new form of infant literature have been dwelt upon in order to show the necessity for some change in the kind of reading-matter to be put in the hands of the younger members of the family. the natural order of consideration is next to point out the phase it assumed upon its appearance in england,--a phase largely due to the influence of one man,--and once there, the modifications effected by the fashions in adult fiction. although there was already much interest in the education and welfare of children still in the nursery, the character of the first play-books was probably due to the esteem in which the opinions of the philosopher, john locke, were held. he it was who gradually moved the vane of public opinion around to serious consideration of recreation as a factor in the well-being of these nursery inmates. although it took time for locke's ideas upon the subject to sink into the public mind, it is impossible to compare one of the first attempts to produce a play-book, "the child's new play-thing," with the advice written to his friend, edward clarke, without feeling that the progress from the religious books to primers and readers (such as "dilworth's guide"), and then onward to story-books, was largely the result of the publication of his letters under the title of "thoughts on education." in these letters locke took an extraordinary course: he first made a quaint plea for the _general welfare_ of mr. clarke's little son. "i imagine," he wrote, "the minds of children are as easily turned this or that way as water itself, and though this be the principal part, and our main care should be about the inside, yet the clay cottage is not to be neglected. i shall therefore begin with the case, and consider first the _health_ of the body." under health he discussed clothing, including thin shoes, "that they may leak and let in water." a pause was then made to show the benefits of wet feet as against the apparent disadvantages of filthy stockings and muddy boots; for mothers even in that time were inclined to consider their floors and steps. bathing next received attention. bathing every day in cold water, locke regarded as exceedingly desirable; no exceptions were to be made, even in the case of a "puleing and tender" child. the beneficial effects of air, sunlight, the establishment of good conduct, diet, sleep, and "physick" were all discussed by the doctor and philosopher, before the development of the mind was touched upon. "education," he wrote, "concerns itself with the forming of children's minds, giving them that seasoning early, which shall influence their lives later." this seasoning referred to the training of children in matters pertaining to their general government and to the reverence of parents. for the puritan population it was undoubtedly a shock to find locke interesting himself in, and moreover advocating, dancing as a part of a child's education; and worst of all, that he should mention it before their hobby, learning. in this connection it is worth while to make mention of a favorite primer, which, published about the middle of the eighteenth century, was entitled "the hobby horse." locke was quite aware that his method would be criticised, and therefore took the bull by the horns in the following manner. he admitted that to put the subject of learning last was a cause for wonder, "especially if i tell you i think it the least part. this may seem strange in the mouth of a bookish man, and this making usually the chief, if not only bustle and stir about children; this being almost that alone, which is thought on, when people talk about education, make it the greater paradox." an unusual piece of advice it most surely was to parents to whose children came the task of learning to read as soon as they were given spoon-food. even more revolutionary to the custom of an eighteenth century mother was the admonition that reading "be never made a task." locke, however, was not the man to urge a cure for a bad habit without prescribing a remedy, so he went on to say that it was always his "fancy that learning be made a play and recreation to children"--a "fancy" at present much in vogue. to accomplish this desirable result, "dice and play-things with the letters on them" were recommended to teach children the alphabet; "and," he added, "twenty other ways may be found ... to make this kind of learning a sport to them." letter-blocks were in this way made popular, and formed the approved and advanced method until in these latter days pedagogy has swept aside the letter-blocks and syllabariums and carried the sport to word-pictures. this theory had a practical result in the introduction to many households of "the child's new play-thing." this book, already mentioned, was printed in england in seventeen hundred and forty-three, and dedicated to prince george. in seventeen hundred and forty-four we find through the "boston evening post" of january that the third edition was sold by joseph edwards, in cornhill, and it was probably from this edition that the first american edition was printed in seventeen hundred and fifty. from the following description of this american reprint (one of which is happily in the lenox collection), it will be seen that the "play-thing" was an attempt to follow locke's advice, as well as a connecting link between the primer of the past and the story-book of the near future. the title, which the illustration shows, reads, "the child's new play-thing being a spelling-book intended to make learning to read a diversion instead of a task. consisting of scripture-histories, fables, stories, moral and religious precepts, proverbs, songs, riddles, dialogues, &c. the whole adapted to the capacities of children, and divided into lessons of one, two, three and four syllables. the fourth edition. to which is added three dialogues; . shewing how a little boy shall make every body love him. . how a little boy shall grow wiser than the rest of his school-fellows. . how a little boy shall become a great man. designed for the use of schools, or for children before they go to school." [illustration: _title-page from "the child's new play-thing"_] coverless and faded, hard usage is written in unmistakable characters upon this play-thing of a whole family. upon a fly-leaf are the autographs of "ebenezer ware and sarah ware, their book," and upon another page these two names with the addition of the signatures of "ichabod ware and cyrus ware ." one parent may have used it when it was fresh from the press of draper & edwards in boston; then, through enforced economy, handed it down to the next generation, who doubtless scorned the dedication so eminently proper in seventeen hundred and fifty, so thoroughly out of place thirty-seven years later. there it stands in large black type: to his royal highness prince george this little play-thing is most humbly dedicated by his royal highness's devoted servant of especial interest are the alphabets in "roman, italian, and english names" on the third page, while page four contains the dear old alphabet in rhyme, fortunately not altogether forgotten in this prosaic age. we recognize it as soon as we see it. "a apple-pye b bit it c cut it," and involuntarily add, d divided it. after the spelling lessons came fables, proverbs, and the splendid "stories proper to raise the attention and excite the curiosity of children" of any age; namely, "st. george and the dragon," "fortunatus," "guy of warwick," "brother and sister," "reynard the fox," "the wolf and the kid." "the good dr. watts," writes mrs. field, "is supposed to have had a hand in the composition of this toy book especially in the stories, one of which is quite in the style of the old hymn writer." here it is: "once on a time two dogs went out to walk. tray was a good dog, and would not hurt the least thing in the world, but snap was cross, and would snarl and bite at all that came in his way. at last they came to a town. all the dogs came round them. tray hurt none of them, but snap would grin at one, snarl at the next, and bite a third, till at last they fell on him and tore him limb from limb, and as poor tray was with him, he met with his death at the same time. _moral_ "by this fable you see how dangerous it is to be in company with bad boys. tray was a quiet harmless dog, and hurt nobody, but, &c."[ -a] thus we find that locke sowed the seed, watts watered the soil in which the seed fell, and that newbery, after mixing in ideas from his very fertile brain, soon reaped a golden harvest from the crop of readers, picture-books, and little histories which he, with the aid of certain well-known authors, produced. according to his biographer, mr. charles welsh, john newbery was born in a quaint parish of england in seventeen hundred and thirteen. although his father was only a small farmer, newbury inherited his bookish tastes from an ancestor, ralph or rafe newbery, who had been a great publisher of the sixteenth century. showing no inclination toward the life of a farmer, the boy, at sixteen, had already entered the shop of a merchant in reading. the name of this merchant is not known, but inference points to mr. carnan, printer, proprietor, and editor of one of the earliest provincial newspapers. in seventeen hundred and thirty-seven, at the death of carnan, john newbery, then about twenty-four years of age, found himself one of the proprietor's heirs and an executor of the estate. carnan left a widow, to whom, to quote her son, newbery's "love of books and acquirements as a printer rendered him very acceptable." the amiable and well-to-do widow and newbery were soon married, and their youngest son, francis newbery, eventually succeeded his father in the business of publishing. [illustration: _title-page from "a little pretty pocket-book"_] shortly after newbery's marriage his ambition and enterprise resulted in the establishment of his family in london, where, in seventeen hundred and forty-four, he opened a warehouse at _the bible and crown_, near devereux court, without temple bar. meanwhile he had associated himself with benjamin collins, a printer in salisbury. collins both planned and printed some of newbery's toy volumes, and his name likewise was well-known to shop-keepers in the colonies. newbery soon found that his business warranted another move nearer to the centre of trade. he therefore combined two establishments into one at the now celebrated corner of st. paul's churchyard, and at the same time decided to confine his attention exclusively to book publishing and medicine vending. before his departure from devereux court, newbery had published at least one book for juvenile readers. the title reads: "little pretty pocket-book, intended for the instruction and amusement of little master tommy and pretty miss polly, with an agreeable letter to read from jack the giant killer, as also a ball and pincushion, the use of which will infallibly make tommy a good boy, and polly a good girl. to the whole is prefixed a letter on education humbly addressed to all parents, guardians, governesses, &c., wherein rules are laid down for making their children strong, healthy, virtuous, wise and happy." to this extraordinarily long title were added couplets from dryden and pope, probably because extracts from these poets were usually placed upon the title-page of books for grown people; possibly also in order to give a finish to miniature volumes that would be like the larger publications. a wholly simple method of writing title-pages never came into even newbery's original mind; he did for the juvenile customer exactly what he was accustomed to do for his father and mother. and yet the habit of spreading out over the page the entire contents of the book was not without value: it gave the purchaser no excuse for not knowing what was to be found within its covers; and in the days when books were a luxury and literary reviews non-existent, the country trade was enabled to make a better choice. [illustration: _a page from "a little pretty pocket-book"_] the manner in which the "little pretty pocket-book" is written is so characteristic of those who were the first to attempt to write for the younger generation in an amusing way, that it is worth while to examine briefly the topics treated. an american reprint of a later date, now in the lenox collection, will serve to show the method chosen to combine instruction with amusement. the book itself is miniature in size, about two by four inches, with embossed gilt paper covers--newbery's own specialty as a binding. the sixty-five little illustrations at the top of its pages were numerous enough to afford pleasure to any eighteenth century child, although they were crude in execution and especially lacked true perspective. the first chapter after the "address to parents" and to the other people mentioned on the title-page gives letters to master tommy and miss polly. first, tommy is congratulated upon the good character that his nurse has given him, and instructed as to the use of the "pocket-book," "which will teach you to play at all those innocent games that good boys and girls divert themselves with." the boy reader is next advised to mark his good and bad actions with pins upon a red and black ball. little polly is then given similar congratulations and instructions, except that in her case a pincushion is to be substituted for a ball. then follow thirty pages devoted to "alphabetically digested" games, from "the _great a play_" and "the _little_ _a play_" to "the _great and little rs_," when plays, or the author's imagination, give out and rhymes begin the alphabet anew. modern picture alphabets have not improved much upon this jingle: "great a, b and c and tumble down d, the cat's a blind buff, and she cannot see." next in order are four fables with morals (written in the guise of letters), for in newbery's books and in those of a much later period, we feel, as mr. welsh writes, a "strong determination on the part of the authors to place the moral plainly in sight and to point steadily to it." pictures also take a leading part in this effort to inculcate good behaviour; thus _good children_ are portrayed in cuts, which accompany the directions for attaining perfection. proverbs, having been hitherto introduced into school-books, appear again quite naturally in this source of diversion, which closes--at least in the american edition--with sixty-three "rules for behaviour." these rules include those suitable for various occasions, such as "at the meeting-house," "home," "the table," "in company," and "when abroad with other children." to-day, when many such rules are as obsolete as the tiny pages themselves, this chapter affords many glimpses of the customs and etiquette of the old-fashioned child's life. such a direction as "be not hasty to run out of meeting-house when worship is ended, as if thou weary of being there" (probably an american adaptation of the english original), recalls the well-filled colonial meeting-house, where weary children sat for hours on high seats, with dangling legs, or screwed their small bodies in vain efforts to touch the floor. again we can see the anxious mothers, when, after the long sermon was brought to a close, they put restraining hands upon the little ones, lest they, in haste to be gone, should forget this admonition. the formalism of the time is suggested in this request, "make a bow always when come home, and be instantly uncovered," for the ceremony of polite manners in these bustling days has so much relaxed that the modern boy does all that is required if he remembers to be "instantly uncovered when come home." among the numerous other requirements only one more may be cited--a rule which reveals the table manners of polite society in its requisite for genteel conduct: "throw not anything under the table. pick not thy teeth at the table, unless holding thy napkin before thy mouth with thine other hand." with such an array of intellectual and moral contents, the little "pocket-book" may appear to-day to be almost anything except an amusement book. yet this was the phase that the english play-book first assumed, and it must not be forgotten that english prose fiction was only then coming into existence, except such germs as are found in the character sketches in the "spectator" and in the cleverly told incidents by defoe. in , when newbery published this duodecimo, dr. samuel johnson was the presiding genius of english letters; four years earlier, fiction had come prominently into the foreground with the publication of "pamela" by samuel richardson; and between seventeen hundred and forty and seventeen hundred and fifty-two, richardson's "clarissa harlowe," smollett's "roderick random" and "peregrine pickle," and fielding's "tom jones" were published. this fact may seem irrelevant to the present subject; nevertheless, the idea of a veritable story-book, that is a book relating a tale, does not seem to have entered newbery's mind until after these novels had met with a deserved and popular success. the result of newbery's first efforts to follow locke's advice was so satisfactory that his wares were sought most eagerly. "very soon," said his son, francis newbery, "he was in the full employment of his talents in writing and publishing books of amusement and instruction for children. the call for them was immense, an edition of many thousands being sometimes exhausted during the christmas holidays. his friend, dr. samuel johnson, who, like other grave characters, could now and then be jocose, had used to say of him, 'newbery is an extraordinary man, for i know not whether he has read or written most books.'"[ -a] the bookseller was no less clever in his use of other people's wits. no one knows how many of the tiny gilt bindings covered stories told by impecunious writers, to whom the proceeds in times of starvation were bread if not butter. newbery, though called by goldsmith "the philanthropic publisher of st. paul's churchyard," knew very well the worth to his own pocket of these authors' skill in story-writing. between the years seventeen hundred and fifty-seven and seventeen hundred and sixty-seven, the english publisher was at the height of his prosperity; his name became a household word in england, and was hardly less well known to the little colonials of america. newbery's literary associations, too, were both numerous and important. before oliver goldsmith began to write for children, he is thought to have contributed articles for newbery's "literary magazine" about seventeen hundred and fifty-eight, while johnson's celebrated "idler" was first printed in a weekly journal started by the publisher about the same time. for the "british magazine" newbery engaged smollett as editor. in this periodical appeared goldsmith's "history of miss stanton." when later this was published as "the vicar of wakefield," it contained a characterization of the bookseller as a good-natured man with red, pimpled face, "who was no sooner alighted than he was in haste to be gone, for he was ever on business of the utmost importance, and he was at that time actually compiling materials for the history of mr. thomas trip."[ -a] with such an acquaintance it is probable that newbery often turned to goldsmith, giles jones, and tobias smollett for assistance in writing or abridging the various children's tales; even the pompous dr. johnson is said to have had a hand in their production--since he expressed a wish to do so. newbery himself, however, assumed the responsibility as well as the credit of so many little "histories," that it is exceedingly difficult to fix upon the real authors of some of the best-known volumes in the publisher's juvenile library. the histories of "goody two-shoes" and "tommy trip" (once such nursery favorites, and now almost, if not quite, forgotten) have been attributed to various men; but according to mr. pearson in "banbury chap-books," goldsmith confessed to writing both. certainly, his sly wit and quizzical vein of humor seem to pervade "goody two-shoes"--often ascribed to giles jones--and the notes affixed to the rhymes of mother goose before she became americanized. again his skill is seen in the adaptation of "wonders of nature and art" for juvenile admirers; and for "fables in verse" he is generally considered responsible. as all these tales were printed in the colonies or in the young republic, their peculiarities and particularities may be better described when dealing with the issues of the american press. john newbery, the most illustrious of publishers in the eyes of the old-fashioned child, died in , at the comparatively early age of fifty-four. yet before his death he had proved his talent for producing at least fifty original little books, to be worth considerably more than the biblical ten talents. no sketch of newbery's life should fail to mention another large factor in his successful experiment--the insertion in the "london chronicle" and other newspapers of striking and novel advertisements of his gilt volumes, which were to be had for "six-pence the price of binding." an instance of his skill appeared in the "london chronicle" for december , -january , : "the philosophers, politicians, necromancers, and the learned in every faculty are desired to observe that on the st of january, being new year's day (oh, that we may all lead new lives!) mr. newbery intends to publish the following important volumes, bound and gilt, and hereby invites all his little friends who are good to call for them at the bible and sun in st. paul's churchyard, but those who are naughty to have none."[ -a] christopher smart, his brother-in-law, who was an adept in the art of puffing, possibly wrote many of the advertisements of new books--notices so cleverly phrased that they could not fail to attract the attention of many a country shop-keeper. in this way thousands were sold to the country districts; and book-dealers in the american commonwealths, reading the english papers and alert to improve their trade, imported them in considerable quantities. after newbery's death, his son, francis, and carnan, his stepson, carried on the business until seventeen hundred and eighty-eight; from that year until eighteen hundred and two edward newbery (a nephew of the senior newbery), who in seventeen hundred and sixty-seven had set up a rival establishment, continued to publish new editions of the same little works. yet the credit of this experiment of printing juvenile stories belongs entirely to the older publisher. through them he made a strong protest against the reading by children of the lax chap-book literature, so excellently described by mr. john ashton in "chap-books of the eighteenth century;" and although his stories occasionally alluded to disagreeable subjects or situations, these were unfortunately familiar to his small patrons. the gay little covers of gilt or parti-colored paper in which this english publisher dressed his books expressed an evident purpose to afford pleasure, which was increased by the many illustrations that adorned the pages and added interest to the contents. to the modern child, these books give no pleasure; but to those who love the history of children of the past, they are interesting for two reasons. in them is portrayed something of the life of eighteenth century children; and by them the century's difference in point of view as to the constituents of a story-book can be gauged. moreover, all newbery's publications are to be credited with a careful preparation that later stories sadly lacked. they were always written with a certain art; if the language was pompous, we remember dr. johnson; if the style was formal, its composition was correct; if the tales lacked ease in telling, it was only the starched etiquette of the day reduced to a printed page; and if they preached, they at least were seldom vulgar. the preaching, moreover, was of different character from that of former times. hitherto, the fear of the lord had wholly occupied the author's attention when he composed a book "proper for a child as soon as he can read;" now, material welfare was dwelt upon, and a good boy's reward came to him when he was chosen the lord mayor of london. good girls were not forgotten, and were assured that, like goody two-shoes, they should attain a state of prosperity wherein "their fortune and their fame would fix and gallop in their coach and six." goody two-shoes, with her particular method of instilling the alphabet, and such books as "king pippin" (a prodigy of learning) may be considered as tiny commentaries upon the years when johnson reigned supreme in the realm of learning. these and many others emphasized not the effects of piety,--cotton mather's forte,--but the benefits of learning; and hence the good boy was also one who at the age of five spelt "apple-pye" correctly and therefore eventually became a great man. at the time of newbery's death it was more than evident that his experiment had succeeded, and children's stories were a printed fact. footnotes: [ -a] field, _the child and his book_, p. . [ -a] welsh, _bookseller of the last century_, pp. , . [ -a] foster, _life of goldsmith_, vol. i, p. . [ -a] welsh, _bookseller of the last century_, p. . chapter iii - kings should be good not men of blood. _the new england primer_, if faith itself has different dresses worn what wonder modes in wit should take their turn. pope: _essay on man_ chapter iii - _newbery's books in america_ in the middle of the eighteenth century thursdays were red-letter days for the residents of the quaker town of philadelphia. on that day thomas bradford sent forth from the "sign of the bible" in second street the weekly number of the "pennsylvania journal," and upon the same day his rival journalists, franklin and hall, issued the "pennsylvania gazette." on thursday, the fifteenth of november, seventeen hundred and fifty, old style, the good people of the town took up their newspapers with doubtless a feeling of comfortable anticipation, as they drew their chairs to the fireside and began to look over the local occurrences of the past week, the "freshest foreign advices," and the various bits of information that had filtered slowly from the northern and more southern provinces. on this particular evening the subscribers to both newspapers found a trifle more news in the "journal," but in each paper the same domestic items of interest, somewhat differently worded. the latest news from boston was that of november fifth, from new york, november eighth, the annapolis item was dated october tenth, and the few lines from london had been written in august. the "gazette" (a larger sheet than the "journal") occasionally had upon its first page some timely article of political or local interest. but more frequently there appeared in its first column an effusion of no local color, but full of sentimental or moral reflections. in this day's issue there was a long letter, dated new york, from one who claimed to be "beauty's votary." this expressed the writer's disappointment that an interesting "piece" inserted in the "gazette" a fortnight earlier had presented in its conclusion "an unexpected shocking image." the shock to the writer it appears was the greater, because the beginning of the article had, he thought, promised a strong contrast between "furious rage in our rough sex, and gentle mildness adorn'd with beauty's charms in the other." the rest of the letter was an apostrophe to the fair sex in the sentimental and florid language of the period. to the women, we imagine, this letter was more acceptable than to the men, who found the shipping news more to their taste, and noted with pleasure the arrival of the ship carolina and the snow strong, which brought cargoes valuable for their various industries. advertisements filled a number of columns. among them was one so novel in its character that it must have caught the eye of all readers. the middle column on the second page was devoted almost entirely to an announcement that john newbery had for "sale to schoolmasters, shopkeepers, &c, who buy in quantities to sell again," "the museum," "a new french primer," "the royal battledore," and "the pretty book for children." this notice--a reduced fac-simile of which is given--made newbery's début in philadelphia; and it must not be forgotten that but a short period had elapsed since his first book had been printed in england. [illustration: _john newbery's advertisement of children's books_] franklin had doubtless heard of the publisher in st. paul's churchyard through mr. strahan, his correspondent, who filled orders for him from london booksellers; but the omission of the customary announcement of special books as "to be had of the printer hereof" points to newbery's enterprise in seeking a wider market for his wares, and franklin's business ability in securing the advertisement, as it is not repeated in the "journal." this "museum" was probably a newer book than the "royal primer," "battledore," and "pretty book," and consequently was more fully described; and oddly enough, all of these books are of earlier editions than mr. welsh, newbery's biographer, was able to trace in england. "the museum" still clings to the same idea which pervaded "the play-thing." its second title reads: "a private tutor for little masters and misses." the contents show that this purpose was carried out. it tutored them by giving directions for reading with eloquence and propriety; by presenting "the antient and present state of _great britain_ with a compendious history of _england_;" by instructing them in "the solar system, geography, arts and sciences" and the inevitable "rules for behaviour, religion and morality;" and it admonished them by giving the "dying words of great men when just quitting the stage of life." as a museum it included descriptions of the seven wonders of the world, westminster abbey, st. paul's churchyard, and the tower of london, with an ethnological section in the geographical department! all of this amusement was to be had for the price of "one shilling," neatly bound, with, thrown in as good measure, "letters, tales and fables illustrated with cuts." such a library, complete in itself, was a fine and most welcome reward for scholarship, when prizes were awarded at the end of the school session. importations of "parcels of entertaining books for children" had earlier in the year been announced through the columns of the "gazette;" but these importations, though they show familiarity with newbery's quaint phraseology in advertising, probably also included an assortment of such little chap-books as "tom thumb," "cinderella" (from the french of monsieur perrault), and some few other old stories which the children had long since appropriated as their own property. in we find new york waking up to the appreciation of children's books. there j. waddell and james parker were apparently the pioneers in bringing to public notice the fact that they had for sale little novel-books in addition to horn-books and primers; and moreover the "weekly post-boy" advertised that these booksellers had "pretty books for little masters and misses" (clearly a newbery imitation), "with blank flourished christmas pieces for scholars." but as yet even franklin had hardly been convinced that the old way of imparting knowledge was not superior to the then modern combination of amusement and instruction; therefore, although with his partner, david hall, he without doubt sold such children's books as were available, for his daughter sally, aged seven, he had other views. at his request his wife, in december, , wrote the following letter to william strahan: madam,--i am ordered by my master to write for him books for sally franklin. i am in hopes she will be abel to write for herself by the spring. sets of the perceptor best edit. doz. of croxall's fables. doz. of bishop kenns manual for winchester school. doz. familiar forms, latin and eng. ainsworth's dictionaries, best edit. doz. select tales and fables. doz. costalio's test. cole's dictionarys latin and eng. a half doz. doz. of clarke's cordery. boyle's pliny vols. vo. sets of nature displayed in vols. mo. one good quarto bibel with cudes bound in calfe. penrilla. art of making common salt. by browning. my dafter gives her duty to mr. stroyhan and his lady, and her compliments to master billy and all his brothers and sisters.... your humbel servant deborah franklin little sally franklin could not have needed eight dozen copies of aesop's fables, nor four ainsworth's dictionaries, so it is probable that deborah franklin's far from ready pen put down the book order for the spring, and that sally herself was only to be supplied with the "perceptor," the "fables," and the "one good quarto bibel." as far as it is now possible to judge, the people of the towns soon learned the value of newbery's little nursery tales, and after seventeen hundred and fifty-five, when most of his books were written and published, they rapidly gained a place on the family book-shelves in america. by seventeen hundred and sixty hugh gaine, printer, publisher, patent medicine seller, and employment agent for new york, was importing practically all the englishman's juvenile publications then for sale. at the "bible and crown," where gaine printed the "weekly mercury," could be bought, wholesale and retail, such books as, "poems for children three feet high," "tommy trapwit," "trip's book of pictures," "the new year's gift," "the christmas box," etc. gaine himself was a prominent printer in new york in the latter half of the eighteenth century. until the revolution his shop was a favorite one and well patronized. but when the hostilities began, the condition of his pocket seems to have regulated his sympathies, and he was by turn whig and tory according to the possession of new york by so-called rebels, or king's servants. when the british army evacuated new york, gaine, wishing to keep up his trade, dropped the "crown" from his sign. among the enthusiastic patriots this ruse had scant success. in freneau's political satire of the bookseller, the first verse gives a strong suggestion of the ridicule to follow: "and first, he was, in his own representation, a printer, once of good reputation. he dwelt in the street called hanover-square, (you'll know where it is if you ever was there next door to the dwelling of mr. brownjohn, who now to the drug-shop of pluto is gone) but what do i say--who e'er came to town, and knew not hugh gaine at the _bible_ and _crown_." a contemporary of, and rival bookseller to, gaine in seventeen hundred and sixty was james rivington. mr. hildeburn has given rivington a rather unenviable reputation; still, as he occasionally printed (?) a child's book, mr. hildeburn's remarks are quoted: "until the advent of rivington it was generally possible to tell from an american bookseller's advertisement in the current newspapers whether the work offered for sale was printed in america or england. but the books he received in every fresh invoice from london were 'just published by james rivington' and this form was speedily adopted by other booksellers, so that after the advertisement of books is no longer a guide to the issues of the colonial press." although rivington did not set up a press until about seventeen hundred and seventy-three,--according to mr. hildeburn,--he had a book-shop much earlier. here he probably reprinted the title-page and then put an elaborate notice in the "weekly mercury" for november , , as follows: james rivington _bookseller and stationer from london over against the golden key in hanover square._ this day is published, price, seven shillings, and sold by the said james rivington, adorned with two hundred pictures the fables of aesop with a moral to each fable in verse, and an application in prose, intended for the use of the youngest of readers, and proper to be put into the hands of children, immediately after they have done with the spelling-book, it being adapted to their tender capacities, the fables are related in a short and lively manner, and they are recommended to all those who are concerned in the education of children. this is an entire new work, elegantly printed and ornamented with much better cuts than any other edition of aesop's fables. be pleased to ask for draper's aesop. from such records of parents' care as are given in mrs. charles pinckney's letters to her husband's agent in london, and josiah quincy's reminiscences of his early training, it seems very evident that john locke's advice in "thoughts on education" was read and followed at this time in the american colonies. therefore, in accordance with the bachelor philosopher's theory as to reading-matter for little children, the bookseller recommended the "fables" to "those concerned in the education of children." it is at least a happy coincidence that one of the earliest books (as far as is known to the writer), aside from school and religious books, issued as published in america for children, should have been the one locke had so heartily recommended. this is what he had said many years previously: "when by these gentle ways he begins to _read_, some easy pleasant book, suited to his capacities, should be put into his hands, wherein the entertainment that he finds might draw him on, and reward his pains in reading, and yet not such as will fill his head with perfectly useless trumpery, or lay the principles of vice and folly. to this purpose, i think aesop's fables the best which being stories apt to delight and entertain a child, may yet afford useful reflections to a grown man.... if his aesop has pictures in it, it will entertain him much better and encourage him to read." the two hundred pictures in rivington's edition made it, of course, high priced in comparison with newbery's books: but new york then contained many families well able to afford this outlay to secure such an acquisition to the family library. hugh gaine at this time, as a rule, received each year two shipments of books, among which were usually some for children, yet about he began to try his own hand at reprinting newbery's now famous little duodecimos. in that year we find an announcement through the "new york mercury" that he had himself printed "divers diverting books for infants." the following list gives some idea of their character: _just published by hugh gaine_ a pretty book for children; or an easy guide to the english tongue. the private tutor for little masters and misses. food for the mind; or a new riddle book compiled for the use of little good boys and girls in america. by jack the giant-killer, esq. a collection of pretty poems, by tommy tag, esq. aesop's fables in verse, with the conversation of beasts and birds, at their several meetings. by woglog the great giant. a little pretty book, intended for the amusement of little master tommy and pretty miss polly, with two letters from jack the giant-killer. be merry and wise: or the cream of the jests. by tommy trapwit, esq. the title of "food for the mind" is of special importance, since in it gaine made a clever alteration by inserting the words "good boys and girls in _america_." the colonials were already beginning to feel a pride in the fact of belonging to the new country, america, and therefore gaine shrewdly changed the english title to one more likely to induce people to purchase. gaine and rivington alone have left records of printing children's story-books in the town of new york before the revolution; but before they began to print, other booksellers advertised their invoices of books. in garrat noel, a dutchman, had announced that he had "the very prettiest gilt books for little masters and misses that ever were invented, full of wit and wisdom, at the surprising low price of only one shilling each finely bound and adorned with a number of curious cuts." by noel had increased his stock and placed a somewhat larger advertisement in the "mercury" of december . the late arrival of his goods may have been responsible for the bargains he offered at this holiday sale. garrat noel _begs leave to inform the public, that according to his annual custom, he has provided a very large assortment of books for entertainment and improvement of youth, in reading, writing, cyphering, and drawing, as proper presents at _christmas_ and _new-year_._ the following small, but improving histories, are sold at _two shillings_, each, neatly bound in red, and adorn'd with cuts. [symbol: hand]those who buy _six_, shall have a _seventh gratis_, and buying only _three_, they shall have a present of a fine large copper-plate christmas piece: [_list of histories follows._] the following neat gilt books, very instructive and amusing being full of pictures, are sold at _eighteen pence_ each. fables in verse and prose, with the conversation of birds & beasts at their several meetings, routs and assemblies for the improvement of old and young, etc. to-day none of these gay little volumes sold in new york are to be seen. the inherent faculty of children for losing and destroying books, coupled with the perishable nature of these toy volumes, has rendered the children's treasures of seventeen hundred and sixty-two a great rarity. the historical society of pennsylvania is the fortunate possessor of one much prized story-book printed in that year; but though it is at present in the quaker city, a printer of boston was responsible for its production. in isaiah thomas's recollections of the early boston printers, he described zechariah fowle, with whom he served his apprenticeship, and samuel draper, fowle's partner. these men, about seventeen hundred and fifty-seven, took a house in marlborough street. here, according to thomas, "they printed and opened a shop. they kept a great supply of ballads, and small pamphlets for book pedlars, of whom there were many at that time. fowle was bred to the business, but he was an indifferent hand at the press, and much worse at the case." this description of the printer's ability is borne out by the "new-gift for children," printed by this firm. it is probably the oldest story-book bearing an american imprint now in existence, and for this reason merits description, although its contents can be seen in the picture of the title-page. brown with age and like all chap-books without a cover--for it was newbery who introduced this more durable and attractive feature--all sizes in type were used to print its fifteen stories. the stories in themselves were not new, as it is called the "fourth edition." it is possible that they were taken from the banbury chap-books, which also often copied newbery's juvenile library, as the list of his publications compiled by mr. charles welsh does not contain this title. the loyalty of the boston printers found expression on the third page by a very black cut of king george the third, who appears rather puzzled and not a little unhappy; but it found favor with customers, for as yet the colonials thought their king "no man of blood." on turning the page queen charlotte looks out with goggle-eyes, curls, and a row of beads about the size of pebbles around her thick neck. the picture seems to be a copy from some miniature of the queen, as an oval frame with a crown surmounting it encircles the portrait. the stories are so much better than some that were written even after the nineteenth century, that extracts from them are worth reading. the third tale, called "the generosity of confessing a fault," begins as follows: "miss _fanny goodwill_ was one of the prettiest children that ever was seen; her temper was as sweet as her looks, and her behavior so genteel and obliging that everybody admir'd her; for nobody can help loving good children, any more than they can help being angry with those that are naughty. it is no wonder then that her papa and mama lov'd her dearly, they took a great deal of pains to improve her mind so that before she was seven years old, she could read, and talk, and work like a little woman. one day as her papa was sitting by the fire, he set her upon his knees, kiss'd her, and told her how very much he lov'd her; and then smiling, and taking hold of her hand, my dear fanny, said he, take care never to tell a lye, and then i shall always love you as well as i do now. you or i may be guilty of a fault; but there is something noble and generous in owning our errors, and striving to mend them; but a lye more than doubles the fault, and when it is found out, makes the lyar appear mean and contemptible.... thus, my dear, the lyar is a wretch, whom nobody trusts, nobody regards, nobody pities. indeed papa, said miss _fanny_, i would not be such a creature for all the world. you are very good, my little _charmer_, said her papa and kiss'd her again." [illustration: _title-page from "the new gift for children"_] the inevitable temptation came when miss fanny went on "a visit to a miss in the neighborhood; her mama ordered her to be home at eight o'clock; but she was engag'd at play, and did not mind how the time pass'd, so that she stay'd till near ten; and then her mama sent for her." the child of course was frightened by the lateness of the hour, and the maid--who appears in the illustration with cocked hat and musket!--tried to calm her fears with the advice to "tell her mama that the miss she went to see had taken her out." "_no mary_, said miss _fanny_, wiping her pretty eyes, i am above a lye;" and she rehearsed for the benefit of the maid her father's admonition. story ix tells of the _good girl and pretty girl_. in this the pretty child had bright eyes and pretty plump cheeks and was much admired. she, however, was a meanly proud girl, and so naughty as not to want to grow wiser, but applied to those good people who happened to be less favored in looks such terms as "bandy-legs, crump, and all such naughty names." the good sister "could read before the pretty miss could tell a letter; and though her shape was not so genteel her behavior was a great deal more so. but alas! the pretty creature fell sick of the small-pox, and all her beauty vanished." thus in the eighteenth century was the adage "beauty is but skin deep" brought to bear upon conduct. on the last page is a cut of "louisburg demolished," which had served its time already upon almanacs, but the eight cuts were undoubtedly made especially for children. moreover, since they do not altogether illustrate the various stories, they are good proof that similar chap-book tales were printed by fowle and draper for little ones before the war of independence. in the southern provinces the sea afforded better transportation facilities for household necessities and luxuries than the few post-lines from the north could offer. bills of exchange could be drawn against london, to be paid by the profits of the tobacco crops, a safer method of payment than any that then existed between the northern and southern towns. in the regular orders sent by george washington to robert carey in london, twice we find mention of the children's needs and wishes. in the very first invoice of goods to be shipped to washington after his marriage with mrs. custis in seventeen hundred and fifty-nine, he ordered " shillings worth of toys, little books for children beginning to read and a fashionable dressed baby to cost shillings;" and again later in ordering clothes, "toys, sugar, images and comfits" for his step-children he added: "books according to the enclosed list to be charged equally to john parke custis and martha parke custis." but in boston the people bought directly from the booksellers, of whom there were already many. one of these was john mein, who played a part in the historic non-importation agreement. in seventeen hundred and fifty this englishman had opened in king street a shop which he called the "london book-store." here he sold many imported books, and in seventeen hundred and sixty-five, when the population of boston numbered some twenty thousand, he started the "earliest circulating library, advertised to contain ten thousand volumes."[ -a] this shop was both famous and notorious: famous because of its "very grand assortment of the most modern books;" notorious because of the accusations made against its owner when the colonials, aroused by the action of parliament, passed the non-importation agreement. before the excitement had culminated in this "agreement," john mein's lists of importations show that the children's pleasure had not been forgotten, and after it their books singularly enough were connected with this historic action. in , in the "boston evening post," we find mein's announcement that "little books with pictures for children" could be purchased at the london book-store; in december, , he advertised through the columns of the "boston chronicle," among other books, "in every branch of polite literature," a "great variety of entertaining books for children, proper for presents at christmas or new-year's day--prices from two coppers to two shillings." in august of the following year mein gave the names of seven of newbery's famous gilt volumes, as "to be sold" at his shop. these "pretty little entertaining and instructive books" were "giles gingerbread," the "adventures of little tommy trip with his dog jouler," "tommy trip's select fables," and "an excellent pastoral hymn," "the famous tommy thumb's little story-book," "leo, the great giant," and "urax, or the fair wanderer--price eight pence lawful money. _a very interesting tale in which the protection of the almighty_ is proved to be the first and chief support of the female sex." number seven in the list was the story of the "cruel giant barbarico," and it is one of this edition that is now among the rare americana of the boston public library. the imprint upon its title-page coincides with isaiah thomas's statement that though "fleming was not concerned with mein in book-selling, several books were printed at their house for mein." its date, , would indicate that mein had reproduced one of his importations to which allusion has already been made. the book in marbled covers, time-worn and faded now, was sold for only "six-pence lawful" when new, possibly because it lacked illustrations. [illustration: _miss fanny's maid_] one year later, when the non-importation agreement had passed and was rigorously enforced in the port of boston, these same little books were advertised again in the "chronicle" of december - under the large caption, printed in america and to be sold by john mein. times had so changed within one year's space that even a child's six-penny book was unpopular, if known to have been imported. mein was among those accused of violating the "agreement;" he was charged with the importation of materials for book-making. in a november number of the "chronicle" of seventeen hundred and sixty-nine, mein published an article entitled "a state of the importation from great britain into the port of boston with the advertisement of a set of men, who assume to themselves the title of _all the well disposed merchants_." in this letter the london book-store proprietor vigorously defended himself, and protested that the quantity of his work necessitated some importations not procurable in boston. he also made sarcastic references to other men whom he thought the cap fitted better with less excuse. it was in the following december that he tried to keep this trade in children's books by his apparently patriotic announcement regarding them. his protests were useless. already in disfavor with some because he was supposed to print books in america but used a london imprint, his popularity waned; he was marked as a loyalist, and there was little of the spirit of tolerance for such in that hot-bed of patriotism. the air was so full of the growing differences between the colonials and the king's government, that in seventeen hundred and seventy mein closed out his stock and returned to england. on the other hand, the patriotic booksellers did not fail to take note of the crystallization of public opinion. robert bell in philadelphia appended a note to his catalogue of books, stating that "the lovers and practisers of patriotism are requested to note that all the books in this catalogue are either of american manufacture, or imported before the non-importation agreement." the supply of home-made paper was of course limited. so much was needed to circulate among the colonies pamphlets dealing with the injustice of the king's government toward his american subjects, that it seems remarkable that any juvenile books should have been printed in those stirring days before the war began. it is rather to be expected that, with the serious turn that events had taken and the consequent questions that had arisen, the publications of the american press should have received the shadow of the forthcoming trouble--a shadow sufficient to discourage any attempt at humor for adult or child. evidence, however, points to the fact that humor and amusement were not totally lacking in the issues of the press of at least one printer in boston, john boyle. the humorous satire produced by his press in seventeen hundred and seventy-five, called "the first book of the american chronicles of the times," purported to set forth the state of political affairs during the troubles "wherein all our calamities are seen to flow from the fact that the king had set up for our worship the god of the heathen--the tea chest." this pamphlet has been one to keep the name of john boyle among the prominent printers of pre-revolutionary days. additional interest accrues for this reason to a play-book printed by boyle--the only one extant of this decade known to the writer. this quaint little chap-book, three by four inches in size, was issued in seventeen hundred and seventy-one, soon after boyle had set up his printing establishment and four years before the publication of the famous pamphlet. it represents fully the standard for children's literature in the days when newbery's tiny classics were making their way to america, and was indeed advertised by mein in seventeen hundred and sixty-eight among the list of books "printed in america." its title, "the famous tommy thumb's little story-book: containing his life and adventures," has rather a familiar sound, but its contents would not now be allowed upon any nursery table. since the days of the anglo-saxons, tom thumb's adventures have been told and retold; each generation has given to the rising generation the version thought proper for the ears of children. in boyle's edition this method resulted in realism pushed to the extreme; but it is not to be denied that the yellowed pages contain the wondrous adventures and hairbreadth escapes so dear to the small boy of all time. the thrilling incidents were further enlivened, moreover, by cuts called by the printer "_curious_" in the sense of very fine: and _curious_ they are to-day because of the crudeness of their execution and the coarseness of their design. nevertheless, the grotesque character of the illustrations was altogether effective in impressing upon the reader the doughty deeds of his old friend, tom thumb. the book itself shows marks of its popularity, and of the hard usage to which it was subjected by its happy owner, who was not critical of the editor's freedom of speech. the coarseness permitted in a nursery favorite makes it sufficiently clear that the standard for the ideal toy-book of the eighteenth century is no gauge for that of the twentieth. child-life differed in many particulars, as mr. julian hawthorne pointed out some years ago, when he wrote that the children of the eighteenth century "were urged to grow up almost before they were short-coated." we must bear this in mind in turning to another class of books popular with adult and child alike in both england and america before and for some years after the revolution. this was the period when the novel in the hands of richardson, fielding, and smollett was assuming hitherto unsuspected possibilities. allusion must be made to some of the characteristics of their work, since their style undoubtedly affected juvenile reading and the tales written for children. taking for the sake of convenience the novels of the earliest of this group of men, samuel richardson, as a starting-point, we find in pamela and mr. lovelace types of character that merge from the puritanical concrete examples of virtue and vice into a psychological attempt to depict the emotion and feeling preceding every act of heroine and villain. through every stage of the story the author still clings to the long-established precedent of giving moral and religious instruction. afterwards, when fielding attempted to parody "pamela," he developed the novel of adventure in high and low life, and produced "joseph andrews." he then followed this with the character-study represented by "tom jones, foundling." richardson in "pamela" had aimed to emphasize virtue as in the end prospering; fielding's characters rather embody the principle of virtue being its own reward and of vice bringing its own punishment. smollett in "humphrey clinker's adventures" brought forth fun from english surroundings instead of seeking for the hero thrilling and daring deeds in foreign countries. he also added to the list of character-studies "roderick random," a tale of the sea, the mystery of which has never palled since "robinson crusoe" saw light. there was also the novel of letters. in the age of the first great novelists letter-writing was among the polite arts. it was therefore counted a great but natural achievement when the epistolary method of revealing the plot was introduced. "clarissa harlowe" and "sir charles grandison" were the results of this style of writing; they comprehended the "most important concerns of private life"--"concerns" which moved with lingering and emotional persistency towards the inevitable catastrophe in "clarissa," and the happy issue out of the misunderstandings and misadventures which resulted in miss byron's alliance with sir charles. until after the next (nineteenth) century had passed its first decade these tales were read in full or abridged forms by many children among the fashionable and literary sets in england and america. indeed, the art of writing for children was so unknown that often attempts to produce child-like "histories" for them resulted in little other than novels upon an abridged scale. but before even abridged novels found their way into juvenile favor, it was "customary in richardson's time to read his novels aloud in the family circle. when some pathetic passage was reached the members of the family would retire to separate apartments to weep; and after composing themselves, they would return to the fireside to have the reading proceed. it was reported to richardson, that, on one of these occasions, 'an amiable little boy sobbed as if his sides would burst and resolved to mind his books that he might be able to read pamela through without stopping.' that there might be something in the family novel expressly for children, richardson sometimes stepped aside from the main narrative to tell them a moral tale."[ -a] mr. cross gives an example of this which, shorn of its decoration, was the tale of two little boys and two little girls, who never told fibs, who were never rude and noisy, mischievous or quarrelsome; who always said their prayers when going to bed, and therefore became fine ladies and gentlemen. to make the tales less difficult for amiable children to read, an abridgment of their contents was undertaken; and goldsmith is said to have done much of the "cutting" in "pamela," "clarissa harlowe," "sir charles grandison," and others. these books were included in the lists of those sent to america for juvenile reading. in boston, cox and berry inserted in the "boston gazette and country journal" a notice that they had the "following little books for all good boys and girls: the brother's gift, or the naughty girl reformed. the sister's gift, or the naughty boy reformed. the hobby horse, or christmas companion. the cries of london as exhibited in the streets. the puzzling cap. the history of tom jones. the history of joseph andrews. abridg'd from the works of h. fielding the history of pamela. abridg'd from the works of samuel richardson, esq. the history of grandison. the history of clarissa." up to this time the story has been rather of the books read by the puritan and quaker population of the colonies. there had arisen during the first half of the eighteenth century, however, a merchant class which owed its prosperity to its own ability. such men sought for their families the material results of wealth which only a place like boston could bestow. many children, therefore, were sent to this town to acquire suitable education in books, accomplishments, and deportment. a highly interesting record of a child of well-to-do parents has been left by anna green winslow, who came to boston to stay with an aunt for the winters of and . her diary gives delightful glimpses of children's tea-parties, fashions, and schools, all put down with a childish disregard of importance or connection. it is in these jottings of daily occurrences that proof is found that so young a girl read, quite as a matter of course, the abridged works of fielding and richardson. on january , , she wrote in her diary, "a happy new year, i have bestowed no new year's gifts, as yet. but have received one very handsome one, viz, the history of joseph andrews abreviated. in nice guilt and flowers covers." again, she put down an account of a day's work, which she called "a piecemeal for in the first place i sew'd on the bosom of unkle's shirt, and mended two pairs of gloves, mended for the wash two handkerch'fs, (one cambrick) sewed on half a border of a lawn apron of aunt's, read part of the xxist chapter of exodous, & a story in the mother's gift." later she jotted in her book the loan of " of cousin charles' books to read, viz.--the puzzling cap, the female orators & the history of gaffer two shoes." little miss winslow, though only eleven years of age, was a typical child of the educated class in boston, and, according to her journal, also followed the english custom of reading aloud "with miss winslow, the generous inconstant and sir charles grandison." it is to be regretted that her diary gives no information as to how she liked such tales. we must anticipate some years to find a comment in the commonplace book of a connecticut girl. lucy sheldon lived in litchfield, a thriving town in eighteen hundred, and did much reading for a child in those days. upon "sir charles grandison" she confided to her book this offhand note: "read in little grandison, which shows that, virtue always meets its reward and vice is punished." the item is very suggestive of goldsmith's success in producing an abridgment that left the moral where it could not be overlooked. to discuss in detail this class of writings is not necessary, but a glance at the story of "clarissa" gives an instructive impression of what old-fashioned children found zestful. "clarissa harlowe" in its abridged form was first published by newbery, senior. the book that lies before the writer was printed in seventeen hundred and seventy-two by his son, francis newbery. in size five by three and one-half inches, it is decked in once gay parti-colored heavy dutch paper, with a delicate gold tracery over all. this paper binding, called by anna winslow "flowery guilt," can no longer be found in holland, the place of its manufacture; with sarsinet and other fascinating materials it has vanished so completely that it exists only on the faded bindings of such small books as "clarissa." the narrative itself is compressed from the original seven volumes into one volume of one hundred and seventy-six closely printed pages, with several full-page copper-plate illustrations. the plot, however, gains rather than loses in this condensed form. the principal distressing situations follow so fast one upon the other that the intensity of the various episodes in the _affecting_ history is increased by the total absence of all the "moving" letters found in the original work. the "lordly husband and father," "the imperious son," "the proud ambitious sister, arabella," all combined to force the universally beloved and unassuming clarissa to marry the wealthy mr. somers, who was to be the means of "the aggrandisement of the family." clarissa, in this perplexing situation, yielded in a desperate mood to "the earnest entreaties of the artful lovelace to accept the protection of the ladies of his family." who these ladies were, to whom the designing lovelace conducted the agitated heroine, is set forth in unmistakable language; and thereafter follow the treacherous behaviour exhibited by lovelace, the various attempts to escape by the unhappy beauty, and her final exhaustion and death. an example of the style may be given in this description of the death-scene: "clarissa had before remarked that all would be most conveniently over in bed: the solemn, the most important moment approached, but her soul ardently aspiring after immorality [immortality was of course the author's intention], she imagined the time moved slowly; and with great presence of mind, she gave orders in relation to her body, directing her nurse and the maid of the house, as soon as she was cold, to put her into her coffin. the colonel [her cousin], after paying her another visit, wrote to her uncle, mr. john harlowe, that they might save themselves the trouble of having any further debates about reconciliation; for before they could resolve, his dear cousin would probably be no more.... "a day or two after, mr. belford [a friend] was sent for, and immediately came; at his entrance he saw the colonel kneeling by her bed-side with the ladies right hand in both his, which his face covered bathing it with tears, though she had just been endeavoring to comfort him, in noble and elevated strains. on the opposite side of the bed was seated mrs. lovick, who leaning against the bed's-head in a most disconsolate manner, turned to him as soon as she saw him, crying, o mr. belford, the dear lady! a heavy sigh not permitting her to say more. mrs. smith [the landlady] was kneeling at the bed's feet with clasped fingers and uplifted eyes, with tears trickling in large drops from her cheeks, as if imploring help from the source of all comfort. "the excellent lady had been silent a few minutes, and was thought speechless, she moving her lips without uttering a word; but when mrs. lovick, on mr. belford's approach, pronounced his name, o mr. belford! cried she, in a faint inward voice, now!--now!--i bless god, all will soon be over--a few minutes will end this strife--and i shall be happy," etc. her speech was long, although broken by dashes, and again she resumed, "in a more faint and broken accent," the blessing and directions. "she then sunk her head upon the pillow; and fainting away, drew from them her hands." once more she returned to consciousness, "when waving her hand to him [mr. belford] and to her cousin, and bowing her head to every one present, not omitting the nurse and maid servant, with a faltering and inward voice, she added bless--bless--you all!--" the illustrations, in comparison with others of the time, are very well engraved, although the choice of subjects is somewhat singular. the last one represents clarissa's friend, "miss howe" (the loyal friend to whom all the absent letters were addressed), "lamenting over the corpse of clarissa," who lies in the coffin ordered by the heroine "to be covered with fine black cloth, and lined with white satin." as one lays aside this faded duodecimo, the conviction is strong that the texture of the life of an old-fashioned child was of coarser weave than is pleasant to contemplate. how else could elders and guardians have placed without scruple such books in the hands of children? the one explanation is to be found in such diaries as that of anna winslow, who quaintly put down in her book facts and occurrences denoting the maturity already reached by a little miss of eleven. footnotes: [ -a] winsor, _memorial history of boston_, vol. ii, p. xix. [ -a] cross, _development of the english novel_, pp. , . chapter iv - the british king lost states thirteen. _the new england primer_, philadelphia, the good little boy that will not tell a lie, shall have a plum-pudding or hot apple-pye. _jacky dandy's delight_, worcester, chapter iv - _patriotic printers and the american newbery_ when john mein was forced to close his london book-store in boston and to return to england in , the children of that vicinity had need to cherish their six-penny books with increased care. the shadow of impending conflict was already deep upon the country when mein departed; and the events of the decade following seventeen hundred and seventy-three--the year of the boston tea-party--were too absorbing and distressing for such trifling publications as toy-books to be more than occasionally printed. indeed, the history of the american revolution is so interwoven with tales of privation of the necessities of life that it is astonishing that any printer was able to find ink or paper to produce even the nursery classic "goody two-shoes," printed by robert bell of philadelphia in seventeen hundred and seventy-six. in new york the conditions were different. the loyalists, as long as the town was held by the british, continued to receive importations of goods of all descriptions. among the booksellers, valentine nutter from time to time advertised children's as well as adults' books. hugh gaine apparently continued to reprint newbery's duodecimos; and, in a rather newer shop, roger and berry's, in hanover square, near gaine's, could be had "gilt books, together with stationary, jewelry, a collection of the most books, bibles, prayer-books and patent medicines warranted genuine." elsewhere in the colonies, as in boston, the children went without new books, although very occasionally such notices as the following were inserted in the newspapers: _just imported and to be sold by thomas bradford_ at his book-store in market-street, adjoining the coffee-house _the following books_ ... little histories for children, among which are, book of knowledge, joe miller's jests, jenny twitchells' ditto, the linnet, the lark (being collections of best songs), robin redbreast, choice spirits, argalus & parthenia, valentine and orson, seven wise masters, seven wise mistresses, russell's seven sermons, death of abel, french convert, art's treasury, complete letter-writer, winter evening entertainment, stories and tales, triumphs of love, being a collection of short stories, joseph andrews, aesop's fables, scotch rogue, moll flanders, lives of highwaymen, lives of pirates, buccaneers of america, robinson crusoe, twelve caesars. such was the assortment of penny-dreadfuls and religious tracts offered in seventeen hundred and eighty-one to the philadelphia public for juvenile reading. it is typical of the chapmen's library peddled about the colonies long after they had become states. "valentine and orson," "the seven wise masters," "the seven wise mistresses," and "winter evening entertainment" are found in publishers' lists for many years, and, in spite of frequent vulgarities, there was often no discrimination between them and newbery's far superior stories; but by eighteen hundred and thirty almost all of these undesirable reprints had disappeared, being buried under the quantities of sunday-school tales held in high favor at that date. meanwhile, the six years of struggle for liberty had rendered the necessaries of life in many cases luxuries. as early as seventeen hundred and seventy-five, during the siege of boston, provisions and articles of dress had reached such prices that we find thrifty mrs. john adams, in braintree, massachusetts, foreseeing a worse condition, writing her husband, who was one of the council assembled in philadelphia, to send her, if possible, six thousand pins, even if they should cost five pounds. prices continued to rise and currency to depreciate. in seventeen hundred and seventy-nine mrs. adams reported in her letters to her husband that potatoes were ten dollars a bushel, and writing-paper brought the same price per pound. yet family life went on in spite of these increasing difficulties. the diaries and letters of such remarkable women as the patriotic abigail adams, the quakeress, mrs. eliza drinker, the letters of the loyalist and exile, james murray, the correspondence of eliza pinckney of charleston, and the reminiscences of a whig family who were obliged to leave new york upon the occupation of the town by british forces, abound in those details of domestic life that give a many sided picture. joys derived from good news of dear ones, and family reunions; anxieties occasioned by illness, or the armies' depredations; courageous efforts on the part of mothers not to allow their children's education and occupations to suffer unnecessarily; tragedies of death and ruined homes--all are recorded with a "particularity" for which we are now grateful to the writers. it is through these writings, also, that we are allowed glimpses of the enthusiasm for the cause of liberty, or king, which was imbibed from the parents by the smallest children. on the whig side, patriotic mothers in new england filled their sons with zeal for the cause of freedom and with hatred of the tyranny of the crown; while in the more southern colonies the partisanship of the little ones was no less intense. "from the constant topic of the present conversation," wrote the rev. john j. zubly (a swiss clergyman settled in south carolina and georgia), in an address to the earl of dartmouth in seventeen hundred and seventy-five,--"from the constant topic of the present conversation, every child unborn will be impressed with the notion--it is slavery to be bound at the will of another 'in all things whatsoever.' every mother's milk will convey a detestation of this maxim. were your lordship in america, you might see little ones acquainted with the word of command before they can distinctly speak, and shouldering of a gun before they are well able to walk."[ -a] the children of the tories had also their part in the struggle. to some the property of parents was made over, to save it from confiscation in the event of the success of the american cause. to others came the bitterness of separation from parents, when they were sent across the sea to unknown relatives; while again some faint manuscript record tells of a motherless child brought from a comfortable home, no longer tenable, to whatever quarters could be found within the british lines. fortunately, children usually adapt themselves easily to changed conditions, and in the novelty and excitement of the life around them, it is probable they soon forgot the luxuries of dolls and hobby-horses, toy-books and drums, of former days. in the commonwealth of pennsylvania the sentiment of the period was expressed in two or three editions of "the new england primer." already in one had appeared containing as frontispiece a poor wood-cut of john hancock. in the enthusiasm over the appointment of george washington as commander-in-chief brought out another edition of the a b c book with the same picture labelled "general washington." the custom of making one cut do duty in several representations was so well understood that this method of introducing george washington to the infant reader naturally escaped remark. another primer appeared four years later, which was advertised by walters and norman in the "pennsylvania evening post" as "adorned with a beautiful head of george washington and other copper-plates." according to mr. hildeburn, this small book had the honor of containing the first portrait of washington engraved in america. while such facts are of trifling importance, they are, nevertheless, indications of the state of intense feeling that existed at the time, and point the way by which the children's books became nationalized. in new england the very games of children centred in the events which thrilled the country. josiah quincy remembered very well in after life, how "at the age of five or six, astride my grandfather's cane and with my little whip, i performed prodigies of valor, and more than once came to my mother's knees declaring that i had driven the british out of boston." afterwards at phillips academy, in andover, between seventeen hundred and seventy-eight and seventeen hundred and eighty-six, josiah and his schoolfellows "established it as a principle that every hoop, sled, etc., should in some way bear _thirteen_ marks as evidence of the political character of the owner,--if which were wanting the articles became fair prize and were condemned and forfeited without judge, jury, or decree of admiralty."[ -a] other boys, such as john quincy adams, had tutors at home as a less expensive means of education than the wartime price of forty dollars a week for each child that good boarding-schools demanded. but at their homes the children had plenty of opportunity to show their intense enthusiasm for the cause of liberty. years later, mr. adams wrote to a quaker friend: "for the space of twelve months my mother with her infant children dwelt, liable every hour of the day and of the night to be butchered in cold blood, or taken and carried to boston as hostages. my mother lived in uninterrupted danger of being consumed with them all in a conflagration kindled by a torch in the same hands which on the seventeenth of june [ ] lighted the fires of charlestown."[ -b] he was, of course, only one of many boys who saw from some height near their homes the signs of battle, the fires of the enemy's camps, the smoke rising from some farm fired by the british, or burned by its owner to prevent their occupation of it. with hearts made to beat quickly by the news that filtered through the lines, and heads made old by the responsibility thrust upon them,--in the absence of fathers and older brothers,--such boys as john quincy adams saw active service in the capacity of post-riders bearing in their several districts the anxiously awaited tidings from congress or battlefield. fortunate indeed were the families whose homes were not disturbed by the military operations. from boston, new york, and philadelphia, families were sent hastily to the country until the progress of the war made it possible to return to such comforts as had not been destroyed by the british soldiers. the "memoirs of eliza morton," afterward mrs. josiah quincy, but a child eight years of age in seventeen hundred and seventy-six, gives a realistic account of the life of such whig refugees. upon the occupation of new york by the british, her father, a merchant of wealth, as riches were then reckoned, was obliged to burn his warehouse to save it from english hands. mr. morton then gathered together in the little country village of basking ridge, seven miles from morristown, new jersey, such of his possessions as could be hastily transported from the city. among the books saved in this way were the works of thurston, thomson, lyttleton, and goldsmith, and for the children's benefit, "dodsley's collection of poems," and "pilgrim's progress." "this," wrote mrs. quincy, "was a great favorite; mr. greatheart was in my opinion a hero, well able to help us all on our way." during the exile from new york, as eliza morton grew up, she read all these books, and years afterward told her grandchildren that while she admired the works of thurston, thomson, and lyttleton, "those of goldsmith were my chief delight. when my reading became afterward more extensive i instinctively disliked the extravagant fiction which often injures the youthful mind." the war, however, was not allowed to interfere with the children's education in this family. in company with other little exiles, they were taught by a venerable old man until the evacuation of philadelphia made it possible to send the older children to germantown, where a mr. leslie had what was considered a fine school. the schoolroom walls were hung with lists of texts of scripture beginning with the same letter, and for globes were substituted the schoolmaster's snuffbox and balls of yarn. if these failed to impress a child with the correct notions concerning the solar system, the children themselves were made to whirl around the teacher. in basking ridge the children had much excitement with the passing of soldiers to washington's headquarters in morristown, and with watching for "the post" who carried the news between philadelphia, princeton, and morristown. "'the post,' mr. martin," wrote mrs. quincy, "was an old man who carried the mail, ... he was our constant medium of communication; and always stopped at our house to refresh himself and horse, tell the news, and bring packets. he used to wear a blue coat with yellow buttons, a scarlet waistcoat, leathern small-clothes, blue yarn stockings, and a red wig and cocked hat, which gave him a sort of military appearance. he usually traveled in a sulky, but sometimes in a chaise, or on horseback.... mr. martin also contrived to employ himself in knitting coarse yarn stockings while driving or rather jogging along the road, or when seated on his saddle-bags on horseback. he certainly did not ride _post_, according to the present [ ] meaning of that term." deprived like many other children of newbery's peaceful biographies and stories, the little mortons' lives were too full of an intense daily interest to feel the lack of new literature of this sort. tales of the campaigns told in letters to friends and neighbors were reëchoed in the ballads and songs that formed part of the literary warfare waged by whig or loyal partisans. children of to-day sing so zestfully the popular tunes of the moment, that it requires very little imagination to picture the schoolboy of revolutionary days shouting lustily verses from "the battle of the kegs," and other rhymed stories of military incidents. such a ballad was "a song for the red coats," written after the successful campaign against burgoyne, and beginning: "come unto me, ye heroes, whose hearts are true and bold, who value more your honor, than others do their gold! give ear unto my story, and i the truth will tell, concerning many a soldier, who for his country fell." children, it has been said, are good haters. to the patriot boy and girl, the opportunity to execrate benedict arnold was found in these lines of a patriotic "ditty" concerning the fate of major andré: "when he was executed he looked both meek and mild; he looked upon the people, and pleasantly he smiled. it moved each eye to pity, caused every heart to bleed; and every one wished him released-- and _arnold_ in his stead."[ -a] loyalist children had an almost equal supply of satirical verse to fling back at neighbors' families, where in country districts some farms were still occupied by sympathizers with great britain. a vigorous example of this style of warfare is quoted by mr. tyler in his "literature of the american revolution," and which, written in seventeen hundred and seventy-six, is entitled "the congress." it begins: "these hardy knaves and stupid fools, some apish and pragmatic mules, some servile acquiescing tools,-- these, these compose the congress!"[ -b] or, again, such taunts over the general poverty of the land and character of the army as were made in a ballad called "the rebels" by a loyalist officer: "with loud peals of laughter, your sides, sirs, would crack, to see general convict and colonel shoe-black, with their hunting-shirts and rifle-guns, see cobblers and quacks, rebel priests and the like, pettifoggers and barbers, with sword and with pike." those loyalists who lived through this exciting period in america's history bore their full share in the heavy personal misfortunes of their political party. the hatred felt toward such colonials as were true to the king has until recently hardly subsided sufficiently to permit any sympathy with the hardships they suffered. driven from their homes, crowded together in those places occupied by the english, or exiled to england or halifax, these faithful subjects had also to undergo separation of families perhaps never again united. such a loyalist was james murray. forced to leave his daughter and grandchildren in boston with a sister, he took ship for halifax to seek a living. there, amid the pressing anxieties occasioned by this separation, he strove to reëstablish himself, and sent from time to time such articles as he felt were necessary for their welfare. thus he writes a memorandum of articles sent in seventeen hundred and eighty by "mr. bean's cartel to miss betsy murray:--viz: everlasting yards; binding piece, nankeen - / yards. of gingham gown patterns; pairs red shoes from a.e.c. for boys, jack and ralph, a parcel--to mrs. brigden, pair silk shoes and some flowers--arthur's geographical grammar,--locke on education,-- children's books," etc. and in return he is informed that "charlotte goes to dancing and writing school, improves apace and grows tall. betsy and charles are much better but not well. the rest of the children are in good health, desiring their duty to their uncle and aunt inman, and thanks for their cake and gloves." to such families the end of the war meant either the necessity for making permanent their residence in the british dominion, or of bearing both outspoken and silent scorn in the new republic. for the americans the peace of yorktown brought joy, but new beginnings had also to be made. farms had been laid waste, or had suffered from lack of men to cultivate them; industries were almost at a standstill from want of material and laborers. still the people had the splendid compensation of freedom with victory, and men went sturdily back to their homes to take up as far as possible their various occupations. an example of the way in which business undertaken before the war was rapidly resumed, or increased, is afforded by the revival of prosperity for the booksellers in boston, new york, and philadelphia. renewals of orders to london agents were speedily made, for the americans still looked to england for their intellectual needs. in philadelphia--a town of forty thousand inhabitants in seventeen hundred and eighty-three--among the principal booksellers and printers were thomas bradford, mr. woodhouse, mr. oswald, mr. pritchard,--who had established a circulating library,--robert aitkin, mr. liddon, mr. dunlap, mr. rice, william and david hall, benjamin bache, j. crukshank, and robert bell. bell had undoubtedly the largest bookstore, but seems not to have been altogether popular, if an allusion in "the philadelphiad" is to be credited. this "new picture of the city" was anonymously published in seventeen hundred and eighty-four, and described, among other well-known places, robert bell's book-shop: bell's book store just by st. paul's where dry divines rehearse, bell keeps his store for vending prose and verse, and books that's neither ... for no age nor clime, lame languid prose begot on hobb'ling rhyme. here authors meet who ne'er a spring have got, the poet, player, doctor, wit and sot, smart politicians wrangling here are seen, condemning jeffries or indulging spleen. in bell's facilities for printing had enabled him to produce an edition of "little goody two-shoes," which seems likely to have been the only story-book printed during the troubled years of the revolution. besides this, bell printed in "aesop's fables," as did also robert aitkin; and j. crukshank had issued during the war an a b c book, written by the old schoolmaster, a. benezet, who had drilled many a philadelphian in his letters. after the revolution benjamin bache apparently printed children's books in considerable quantities, and orders were sent by other firms to england for juvenile reading-matter. new england also has records of the sale of these small books in several towns soon after peace was established. john carter, "at shakespeare's head," in providence, announced by a broadside issued in november, seventeen hundred and eighty-three, that he had a large assortment of stationers' wares, and included in his list "gilt books for _children_," among which were most of newbery's publications. in hartford, connecticut, where there had been a good press since seventeen hundred and sixty-four, "the children's magazine" was reprinted in seventeen hundred and eighty-nine. its preposterous titles are noteworthy, since it is probable that this was the first attempt at periodical literature made for young people in america. one number contains: an easy introduction to geography. the schoolboy addressed to the editors. moral tales continued. tale viii. the jealous wife. the affectionate sisters. familiar letters on various subjects,--continued.... letter v from _phillis flowerdale_ to _miss truelove_. letter vi from _miss truelove_ to _phillis flowerdale_. poetry.--the sweets of may. the cottage retirement. advice to the fair. the contented cottager. the tear. the honest heart. the autograph of eben holt makes the contents of the magazine ludicrous as subjects of interest to a boy but having nothing better, eben most surely read it from cover to cover. in charleston, south carolina, robert wells imported the books read by the members of the various branches of the ravenel, pinckney, prioleau, drayton, and other families. boston supplied the juvenile public largely through e. battelle and thomas andrews, who were the agents for isaiah thomas, the american newbery. an account of the work of this remarkable printer of worcester, massachusetts, has been given in dr. charles l. nichols's "bibliography of worcester." thomas's publications ranked as among the very best of the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and were sought by book-dealers in the various states. at one time he had sixteen presses, seven of which were in worcester. he had also four bookstores in various towns of massachusetts, one in concord, new hampshire, one in baltimore, and one in albany. in , at the age of ten, thomas had set up as his "'prentice's token," a primer issued by a. barclay in cornhill, boston, entitled "tom thumb's play-book, to teach children their letters as soon as they can speak." although this primer was issued by barclay, thomas had already served four years in a printer's office, for according to his own statement he had been sent at the age of six to learn his trade of zechariah fowle. here, as 'prentice, he may have helped to set up the stories of the "holy jesus" and the "new gift," and upon the cutting of their rude illustrations perhaps took his first lessons in engraving. for we know that by seventeen hundred and sixty-four he did fairly good work upon the "book of knowledge" from the press of the old printer. upon the fly-leaf of a copy of this owned by the american antiquarian society, founded by thomas, is the statement in the worcester printer's handwriting, "printed and cuts engraved by i. thomas then years of age for z. fowle when i.t. was his apprentice: bad as the cuts are executed, there was not at that time an artist in boston who could have done them much better. some time before, and soon after there were better engravers in boston." these cuts, especially the frontispiece representing a boy with a spy-glass and globe, and with a sextant at his feet, are far from poor work for a lad of thirteen. "the battered dictionary," says dr. nichols, "and the ink-stained bible which he found in fowle's office started him in his career, and the printing-press, together with an invincible determination to excel in his calling, carried him onward, until he stands to-day with franklin and baskerville, a type of the man who with few educational advantages succeeds because he loves his art for his art's sake." in supplying to american children a home-made library, thomas, although he did no really original work for children, such as his english prototype, newbery, had accomplished, yet had a motive which was not altogether selfish and pecuniary. the prejudice against anything of british manufacture was especially strong in the vicinity of boston; and it was an altogether natural expression of this spirit that impelled the worcester printer, as soon as his business was well established, to begin to reprint the various little histories. these reprints were all pirated from newbery and his successors, newbery and carnan; but they compare most favorably with them, and so far surpassed the work of any other american printer of children's books (except possibly those of bache in philadelphia) that his work demands more than a passing mention. beginning, like most printers, with the production of a primer in seventeen hundred and eighty-four, by seventeen hundred and eighty-six thomas was well under way in his work for children. in that year at least eleven little books bore his imprint and were sent to his boston agents to be sold. in the "worcester magazine" for june, , thomas addressed an "advertisement to booksellers," as follows: "a large assortment of all the various sizes of children's books, known by the name of newbery's little books for children, are now republished by i. thomas in worcester, massachusetts. they are all done excellently in his english method, and it is supposed the paper, printing, cuts, and binding are in every way equal to those imported from england. as the subscriber has been at great expense to carry on this particular branch of printing extensively, he hopes to meet with encouragement from the booksellers in the united states." evidently he did meet with great encouragement from parents as well as booksellers; and it is suspected that the best printed books bearing imprints of other booksellers were often printed in worcester and bound according to the taste and facilities of the dealer. that this practice of reprinting the title-page and rebinding was customary, a letter from franklin to his nephew in boston gives indisputable evidence: philada. nov. , . loving cousin: i have lately set up one of my grand-children, benja. f. bache, as a printer here, and he has printed some very pretty little books for children. by the sloop friendship, capt. stutson, i have sent a box address'd to you, containing of each volume, in sheets, which i request you would, according to your wonted goodness, put in a way of being dispos'd of for the benefit of my dear sister. they are sold here, bound in marbled paper at s. a volume; but i should suppose it best, if it may be done, to sell the whole to some stationer, at once, unbound as they are; in which case i imagine that half a dollar a quire may be thought a reasonable price, allowing usual credit if necessary. my love to your family, & believe me ever, your affectionate uncle b. franklin. jona. williams, esq. franklin's reference to the philadelphia manner of binding toy-books in marbled paper indicates that this home-made product was already displacing the attractive imported gilt embossed and parti-colored covers used by thomas, who seems never to have adopted this ugly dress for his juvenile publications. as the demand for his wares increased, thomas set up other volumes from newbery's stock, until by seventeen hundred and eighty-seven he had reproduced practically every item for his increasing trade. it was his custom to include in many of these books a catalogue of the various tales for sale, and in "the picture exhibition" we find a list of fifty-two stories to be sold for prices varying from six pence to a shilling and a half. these books may be divided into several classes, all imitations of the english adult literature then in vogue. the alphabets and primers, such as the "little lottery book," "christmas box," and "tom thumb's play-thing," are outside the limits of the present subject, since they were written primarily to instruct; and while it is often difficult to draw the line where amusement begins and instruction sinks to the background, the title-pages can usually be taken as evidence at least of the author's intention. these other books, however, fall naturally under the heads of jest and puzzle books, nature stories, fables, rhymes, novels, and stories--all prototypes of the nursery literature of to-day. the jest and joke books published by thomas numbered, as far as is known to the writer, only five. their titles seem to offer a feast of fun unfulfilled by the contents. "be merry & wise, or the cream of the jests and the marrow of maxims," by tommy trapwit, contained concentrated extracts of wisdom, and jokes such as were current among adults. the children for whom they were meant were accustomed to nothing more facetious than the following jest: "an arch wag said, _taylors_ were like _woodcocks_ for they got their substance by their long bills." perhaps they understood also the point in this: "a certain lord had a termagant wife, and at the same time a chaplain that was a tolerable poet, whom his lordship desired to write a copy of verses upon a shrew. i can't imagine, said the chaplain, why your lordship should want a copy, who has so good an original." other witticisms are not quotable. [illustration: _a page from a catalogue of children's books printed by isaiah thomas_] conundrums played their part in the eighteenth century juvenile life, much as they do to-day. these were to be found in "a bag of nuts ready cracked," and "the big and little puzzling caps." "food for the mind" was the solemn title of another riddle-book, whose conundrums are very serious matters. riddle xiv of the "puzzling cap" is typical of its rather dreary contents: "there was a man bespoke a thing, which when the maker home did bring, this same maker did refuse it; he who bespoke it did not use it and he who had it did not know whether he had it, yea or no." this was a nut also "ready cracked" by the answer reproduced in the illustration. nature stories were attempted under the titles of "the natural history of four footed beasts," "jacky dandy's delight; or the history of birds and beasts in verse and prose," "mr. telltruth's natural history of birds," and "tommy trip's history of beasts and birds." all these were written after oliver goldsmith's "animated nature" had won its way into great popularity. as a consequence of the favorable impression this book had made, goldsmith is supposed to have been asked by newbery to try his hand upon a juvenile natural history. possibly it was as a result of newbery's request that we have the anonymous "jacky dandy's delight" and "tommy trip's history of beasts and birds." the former appears to be a good example of goldsmith's facility for amusing himself when doing hack-work for newbery. how like goldsmith's manner is this description of a monkey: "the monkey mischievous like a naughty boy looks; who plagues all his friends, and regards not his books. "he is an active, pert, busy animal, who mimicks human actions so well that some think him rational. the indians say, he can speak if he pleases, but will not lest he should be set to work. herein he resembles those naughty little boys who will not learn a, lest they should be obliged to learn b, too. he is a native of warm countries, and a useless beast in this part of the world; so i shall leave him to speak of another that is more bulky, and comes from cold countries: i mean the bear." to poke fun in an offhand manner at little boys and girls seemed to have been the only conception of humor to be found in the children's books of the period, if we except the "jests" and the attempts made in a ponderous manner on the title-pages. the title of "the picture exhibition; containing the original drawings of eighteen disciples.... published under the inspection of mr. peter paul rubens,..." is evidently one of newbery's efforts to be facetious. to the author, the pretence that the pictures were by "disciples of peter paul rubens" evidently conveyed the same idea of wit that "punch" has at times represented to others of a later century. fables have always been a mine of interest to young folks, and were interspersed liberally with all moral tales, but "entertaining fables" bears upon its title-page a suggestion that the children's old friend, "aesop," appeared in a new dress. another series of books contained the much abridged novels written for the older people. "peregrine pickle" and "roderick random" were both reprinted by isaiah thomas as early as seventeen hundred and eighty-eight. these tales of adventure seem to have had their small reflections in such stories as "the adventures of a pincushion," and "the adventures of a peg-top," by dorothy kilner, an englishwoman. mention has already been made of "pamela" and "clarissa" in condensed form. these were books of over two hundred pages; but most of the toy-books were limited to less than one hundred. a remarkable instance of the pith of a long plot put into small compass was "the history of tom jones." a dog-eared copy of such an edition of "tom jones" is still in existence. its flowery dutch binding covers only thirty-one pages, four inches long, with a frontispiece and five wood-cut illustrations. in so small a space no detailed account of the life of the hero is to be expected; nevertheless, the first paragraph introduces tom as no ordinary foundling. mr. allworthy finds the infant in his bed one evening and rings up his housekeeper mrs. deborah wilkins. "she being a strict observer of decency was exceedingly alarmed, on entering her master's room, to find him undressed, but more so on his presenting her with the child, which he ordered immediately to be taken care of." the story proceeds--with little punctuation to enable the reader to take breath--to tell how the infant is named, and how mr. allworthy's nephew, master bilfil, is also brought under that generous and respectable gentleman's protection. tommy turned out "good," as mr. allworthy had hoped when he assumed charge of him; and therefore eventually inherited riches and gained the hand of miss sophia western, with whom he rode about the country in their "coach and six." of the stories in this juvenile library, the names, at least, of "giles gingerbread," "little king pippin," and "goody two-shoes" have been handed down through various generations. one hundred years ago every child knew that "little king pippin" attained his glorious end by attention to his books in the beginning of his career; that "giles gingerbread" first learned his alphabet from gingerbread letters, and later obtained the patronage of a fine gentleman by spelling "apple-pye" correctly. thus did his digestion prove of material assistance in mental gymnastics. [illustration: _illustration of riddle xiv in "the puzzling-cap"_] but the nursery favorite was undoubtedly "margery, or little goody two-shoes." she was introduced to the reader in her "state of rags and care," from which she gradually emerged in the chapters entitled, "how and about little margery and her brother;" "how little margery obtained the name of goody two-shoes;" "how she became a tutoress" to the farmers' families in which she taught spelling by a game; and how they all sang the "cuz's chorus" in the intervals between the spelling lesson and the composition of sentences like this: "i pray god to bless the whole country, and all our friends and all our enemies." like the usual heroine of eighteenth century fiction, she married a title, and as lady jones was the lady bountiful of the district. from these tales it is clear that piety as the chief end of the story-book child has been succeeded by learning as the desideratum; yet morality is still pushed into evidence, and the american mother undoubtedly translated the ethical sign-boards along the progress of the tale into biblical admonitions. all the books were didactic in the extreme. a series of four, called "the mother's," "father's," "sister's," and "brother's gifts," is a good example of this didactic method of story-telling. "the father's gift" has lessons in spelling preceded by these lines: "let me not join with those in play, who fibs and stories tell, i with my book will spend the day, and not with such boys dwell. for one rude boy will spoil a score as i have oft been told; and one bad sheep, in time, is sure to injure all the fold." "the mother's gift" was confined largely to the same instructive field, but had one or two stories which conformed to the sentiment of the author of "the adventures of a pincushion," who stated her motive to be "that of providing the young reader with a few pages which should be innocent of corrupting if they did not amuse." "the brother's" and "sister's gifts," however, adopt a different plan of instruction. in "the brother's gift" we find a brother solicitous concerning his sister's education: "miss kitty bland was apt, forward and headstrong; and had it not been for the care of her brother, billy, would have probably witnessed all the disadvantages of a modern education"! upon kitty's return from boarding-school, "she could neither read, nor sew, nor write grammatically, dancing stiff and awkward, her musick inelegant, and everything she did bordered strongly on affectation." here was a large field for reformation for billy to effect. he had no doubts as to what method to pursue. she was desired to make him twelve shirts, and when the first one was presented to him, "he was astonished to find her lacking in so useful a female accomplishment." exemplary conversation produced such results that the rest of the garments were satisfactory to the critical billy, who, "as a mark of approbation made her a present of a fine pair of stays." "the sister's gift" presents an opposite picture. in this case it is master courtley who, a "youth of folly and idleness," received large doses of advice from his sister. this counsel was so efficient with billy's sensitive nature that before the story ends, "he wept bitterly, and declared to his sister that she had painted the enormity of his vices in such striking colors, that they shocked him in the greatest degree; and promised ever after to be as remarkable for generosity, compassion and every other virtue as he had hitherto been for cruelty, forwardness and ill-nature." virtue in this instance was its own reward, as billy received no gift in recognition of his changed habits. to the modern lover of children such tales seem strangely ill-suited to the childish mind, losing, as they do, all tenderness in the effort of the authors (so often confided to parents in the preface) "to express their sentiments with propriety." such criticism of the style and matter of these early attempts to write for little people was probably not made by either infant or adult readers of that old-time public. the children read what was placed before them as intellectual food, plain and sweetened, as unconcernedly as they ate the food upon their plates at meal-time. that their own language was the formal one of the period is shown by such letters as the following one from mary wilder, who had just read "the mother's gift:" lancaster, october th, . hond. madm: your goodness to me i cannot express. my mind is continually crowded with your kindness. if your goodness could be rewarded, i hope god will repay you. if you remember, some time ago i read a story in "the mother's gift," but i hope i shall never resemble miss gonson. o dear! what a thing it is to disobey one's parents. i have one of the best masters. he gave me a sheet of paper this morning. i hope uncle flagg will come up. i am quite tired of looking for betsy, but i hope she will come. when school is done keeping, i shall come to sudbury. what a fine book mrs. chapone's letters is: my time grows short and i must make my letter short. your dutiful daughter, p.w. nursery rhymes and jingles of these present days have all descended from song-books of the eighteenth century, entitled "little robin red breast," "a poetical description of song birds," "tommy thumb's song-book," and the famous "melodies of mother goose," whose name is happily not yet relegated to the days of long ago. two extracts from the "poetical description of song birds" will be sufficient to show how foreign to the birds familiar to american children were the descriptions: the bullfinch this lovely bird is charming to the sight: the back is glossy blue, the belly white, a jetty black shines on his neck and head; his breast is flaming with a beauteous red. the twite green like the linnet it appears to sight, and like the linnet sings from morn till night. a reddish spot upon his rump is seen, short is his bill, his feathers always clean: when other singing birds are dull or nice, to sing again the merry twites entice. reflections of the prevailing taste of grown people for biography are suggested in three little books, of two of which the author was mrs. pilkington, who had already written several successful stories for young ladies. her "biography for girls" contains various novelettes, in each of which the heroine lives the conventional life and dies the conventional death of the period, and receives a laudatory epitaph. they are remarkable only as being devoid of any interest. her "biography for boys" does not appear to have attained the same popularity as that for girls. a third book, "the juvenile biographers," containing the "lives of little masters and misses," is representative of the changes made in many books by the printer to cater to that pride in the young republic so manifest in all local literary productions. in one biography we note a representative to the massachusetts assembly: "as master sammy had always been a very sober and careful child, and very attentive to his books, it is no wonder that he proved, in the end, to be an excellent scholar. "accordingly, when he had reached the age of fourteen, mr. william goodall, a wealthy merchant in the city of boston, took him into his counting house, in order to bring him up in the merchantile way, and thereby make his fortune. "this was a sad stroke to his poor sister nancy, who having lost both her papa and mama, was now likely to lose her brother likewise; but sammy did all he could to appease her, and assured her, that he would spend all his leisure time with her. this he most punctually performed, and never were brother and sister as happy in each other's company as they were. "mr. william goodall was highly satisfied with sammy's behaviour, and dying much about the time that miss nancy was married to the gentleman, he left all his business to sammy, together with a large capital to carry it on. so much is mr. careful esteemed (for we must now no longer call him master sammy) that he was chosen in the late general election, representative in the general court, for one of the first towns in new england, without the least expense to himself. we here see what are the effects of good behaviour." this adaptation of the english tale to the surroundings of the american child is often found in thomas's reprints, and naturally, owing to his enthusiasm over the recent change in the form of government, is made wholly by political references. therefore while the lark and the linnet still sang in songs and the cowslips were scattered throughout the nature descriptions, master friendly no longer rode in the lord mayor's coach, but was seated as a congressman in a sedan chair, "and he looked--he looked--i do not know what he looked like, but everybody was in love with him." the engraver as well as the biographer of the recently made representative was evidently at a loss as to his appearance, as the four dots indicating the young gentleman's features give but a blank look perhaps intended to denote amazement at his election. the illustrations of thomas's toy reprints should not be overlooked. the worcester printer seems to have rewritten the "introduction" to "goody two-shoes," and at the end he affixed a "letter from the printer which he desires may be inserted. sir: i have come with your copy, and so you may return it to the vatican, if you please; and pray tell mr. angelo to brush up his cuts; that in the next edition they may give us a good impression." this apology for the character of the illustrations serves as an introduction to a most interesting subject of conjecture as to the making of the cuts, and particularly as to the engraving of the frontispiece in "goody two-shoes." [illustration: _goody twoshoes._] it will be remembered that isaiah thomas in his advertisement to booksellers had expressly mentioned the great expense he had incurred in bringing out the juvenile books in "the english method." but mr. edwin pearson, in his delightful discussion of "banbury chap-books," has also stated that the wood-cut frontispiece in the first american edition of "goody two-shoes," printed by thomas, was engraved by bewick, the famous english illustrator. a comparison of the reproduction of the bewick engraving in mr. pearson's book with the frontispiece in thomas's edition shows so much difference that it is a matter of regret that mr. pearson withheld his authority for attributing to bewick the representation of margery two-shoes. besides the inference from thomas's letter that the poor cuts would be improved before another edition should be printed, there are several points to be observed in comparing the cuts. in the first place, the execution in the thomas cut suggests a different hand in the use of the tools; again, the reversed position of the figure of "goody" indicates a copy of the english original. also the expression of thomas's heroine, although slightly mincing, is less distressed than the british dame's, to say nothing of the variation in the fashion of the gowns. and such details as the replacing of the english landscape by the spire of a meeting-house in the distance seem to confirm the impression that the drawing was made after, but not by bewick. in the cuts scattered throughout the text the same difference in execution and portrayal of the little schoolmistress is noticeable. margery, upon her rounds to teach the farmers' children to spell such words as "plumb-pudding" "(and who can suppose a better?)," presents her full face in the newbery edition, and but a three-quarter view to her american admirers. these facts, together with the knowledge that isaiah thomas was a fair engraver himself, make it possible that his apology for the first impression of the tiny classic was for his own engraving, which he thought to better. thomas not only copied and pirated newbery's juvenile histories, but he adopted his method of advertising by insertions in the text of these tales. for example, in "the travels of robinson crusoe, written by himself," the little reader was told, "if you learn this book well and are good, you can buy a larger and more complete history of mr. crusoe at your friend the bookseller's in worcester near the court house." in "the mother's gift," there is described well-brought-up miss nugent displaying to ill-bred miss jones, "a pretty large collection of books neatly bound and nicely kept," all to be had of mr. thomas; and again mr. careful, in "virtue and vice," "presented at christmas time to the sons and daughters of his friends, little gilt books to read, such as are sold at mr. thomas' near the court house in worcester." thomas and his son continued to send out these toy-books until their gay bindings faded away before the novelty of the printed paper covers of the nineteenth century. footnotes: [ -a] tyler, _literary history of the american revolution_, vol. i, p. . [ -a] _life of josiah quincy_, p. . boston, . [ -b] earle, _child life in colonial days_, p. . [ -a] tyler, _literature of the american revolution_, vol. ii, p. . [ -b] _ibid._, p. . chapter v - by washington great deeds were done. _the new england primer_, new york, line after line their wisdom flows page after page repeating. t.g. hake chapter v - _the child and his book at the end of the century_ any attempt to trace the slow development of the american child's story of the nineteenth century must inevitably be made through the school-books written during the previous one. before this, english books had been adapted to the american trade. but now the continued interest in education produced text-books pervaded with the american spirit. they cannot, therefore, be ignored as sporadically in the springtime of the young republic, they, like crocuses, thrust forward in the different states their blue and yellow covers. next to clergymen, schoolmasters received the veneration of the people, for learning and godliness went hand in hand. it was the schoolmaster who reinforced the efforts of the parents to make good americans of the young folks, by compiling text-books which outsold the english ones hitherto used. in the new editions of the old "new england primer," laudatory verse about general washington replaced the alphabet rhyme: "whales in the sea god's voice obey." proud parents thereafter heard their infants lisp: "by washington great deeds were done." for older pupils noah webster's speller almost superseded dilworth's, and his "little readers' assistant" became the first reader of many children. webster as schoolmaster in a country district prepared this book for his own scholars. it was printed in hartford in seventeen hundred and ninety, and contained a list of subjects suitable for farmers' children: i. a number of stories mostly taken from the history of america, and adorned with cuts. ii. rudiments of english grammar. iii. the federal catechism, being a short and easy explanation of the constitution of the united states. iv. general principles of government and commerce. v. farmers' catechism containing plain rules of husbandry. bennington, vermont, contributed in "the little scholar's pretty pocket companion in rhyme and verse," this indirect allusion to political affairs: "'twas a toy of royalty, of late almost forgot, 'tis said she represented france on english monarchies arms, but lately broke his chains by chance and widely spread alarms." but the most naïve attempt to inculcate patriotism together with a lesson in obedience is found in "the child's instructor," published about seventeen hundred and ninety-one, and written by a philadelphian. philadelphia had become the residence of the president--a fact that may account for one of the stories in this book about an infant prodigy called billy. "the child at five years of age was always good and obedient, and prone to make such a remark as, 'if you would be wise you must always attend to your vowels and consonants.' when general washington came to town billy's mama asked him to say a speech to the ladies, and he began, 'americans! place constantly before your eyes, the deplorable scenes of your servitude, and the enchanting picture of your deliverance. begin with the infant in his cradle; let the first word he lisps be _washington_.' the ladies were all delighted to hear billy speak so well. one said he should be a lawyer, and another said he should be president of the united states. but billy said he could not be either unless his mama gave him leave."[ -a] another philadelphian attempted to embody political sentiment in "a tale--the political balance; or, the fate of britain and america compared." this juvenile has long since disappeared, but it was advertised by its printer, francis bailey, in seventeen hundred and ninety-two, together with "the history of the little boy found under a haycock," and several other books for children. one year later a "history of the american revolution" for children was also printed in philadelphia for the generation who had been born since the war had ended. this was written in the biblical phraseology introduced and made popular by franklin in his famous "parable against persecution." this enthusiasm over the results of the late war and scorn for the defeated english sometimes indeed cropped out in the newbery reprints. an edition ( ) of "goody two-shoes" contains this footnote in reference to the tyranny of the english landlord over goody's father: _"such is the state of things in britain. americans prize your liberty, guard your rights and be happy._"[ -b] in this last decade of the century that had made a nation of the colonial commonwealths, the prosperity of the country enabled more printers to pirate the generally approved newbery library. samuel hall in boston, with a shop near the court-house, printed them all, using at times the dainty covers of flowery dutch or gilt paper, and again another style of binding occasionally used in england. "the death and burial of cock robin," for instance, has a quaint red and gilt cover, which according to mr. charles welsh was made by stamping paper with dies originally used for printing old german playing-cards. he says: "to find such a cover can only be accounted for by the innocence of the purchasers as to the appearance of his satanic majesty's picture cards and hence [they] did not recognize them." in one corner of the book cover is impressed the single word "münch," which stamps this paper as "made in germany." hall himself was probably as ignorant of the original purpose of the picture as the unsuspecting purchaser, who would cheerfully have burned it rather than see such an instrument of the devil in the hands of its owner, little sally barnes. [illustration: frontispiece. sr. walter raleigh and his man.] of samuel hall's reprints from the popular english publications, "little truths" was in all probability one of the most salable. so few books contained any information about america that one of these two volumes may be regarded as of particular interest to the young generation of his time. the author of "little truths," william darton, a quaker publisher in london, does not divulge from what source he gleaned his knowledge. his information concerning americans is of that misty description that confuses indians ("native americans") with people of spanish and english descent. the usual "introduction" states that "the author has chose a method after the manner of conversations between children and their instructor," and the dialogue is indicated by printing the children's observations in italics. these volumes were issued for twenty years after they were introduced by hall, and those of an eighteen hundred philadelphia edition are bound separately. number one is in blue paper with copper-plate pictures on both covers. this volume gives information regarding farm produce, live-stock, and about birds quite unfamiliar to american children. but the second volume, in white covers, introduces the story of sir walter raleigh and his pipe-smoking incident, made very realistic in the copper-plate frontispiece. the children's question, "_did sir walter raleigh find out the virtues of tobacco?_" affords an excellent opportunity for a discourse upon smoking and snuff-taking. these remarks conclude with this prosaic statement: "hundreds of sensible people have fell into these customs from example; and, when they would have left them off, found it a very great difficulty." next comes a lesson upon the growth of tobacco leading up to a short account of the slave-trade, already a subject of differing opinion in the united states, as well as in england. of further interest to small americans was a short tale of the discovery of this country. perhaps to most children their first book-knowledge of this event came from the pages of "little truths." hall's books were not all so proper for the amusement of young folks. a perusal of "capt. gulliver's adventures" leaves one in no doubt as to the reason that so many of the old-fashioned mothers preferred to keep such tales out of children's hands, and to read over and over again the adventures of the pilgrim, christian. mrs. eliza drinker of philadelphia in seventeen hundred and ninety-six was re-reading for the third time "pilgrim's progress," which she considered a "generally approved book," although then "ridiculed by many." the "legacy to children" mrs. drinker also read aloud to her grandchildren, having herself "wept over it between fifty and sixty years ago, as did my grandchildren when it was read to them. she, hannah hill, died in , and ye book was printed in by andrew bradford." but mrs. drinker's grandchildren had another book very different from the pious sayings of the dying hannah. this contained " little stories and as many pictures drawn and written by nancy skyrin," the mother of some of the children. p. widdows had bound the stories in gilt paper, and it was so prized by the family that the grandmother thought the fact of the recovery of the book, after it was supposed to have been irretrievably lost, worthy of an entry in her journal. careful inquiry among the descendants of mrs. drinker has led to the belief that these stories were read out of existence many years ago. what they were about can only be imagined. perhaps they were incidents in the lives of the same children who cried over the pathetic morbidity of hannah's dying words; or possibly rhymes and verses about school and play hours of little philadelphians; with pictures showing bait-the-bear, trap-ball, and other sports of days long since passed away, as well as "i spie hi" and marbles, familiar still to boys and girls. [illustration: _foot ball_] from the fact that these stories were written for the author's own children, another book, composed less than a century before, is brought to mind. comparison of even the meagre description of mrs. skyrin's book with cotton mather's professed purpose in "good lessons" shows the stride made in children's literature to be a long one. yet a quarter of a century was still to run before any other original writing was done in america for children's benefit. nobody else in america, indeed, seems to have considered the question of writing for nursery inmates. mrs. barbauld's "easy lessons for children from two to five years old," written for english children, were considered perfectly adapted to gaining knowledge and perhaps amusement. it is true that when benjamin bache of philadelphia issued "easy lessons," he added this note: "some alterations were thought necessary to be made in this ... american edition, to make it agree with the original design of rendering instruction easy and useful.... the climate and the familiar objects of this country suggested these alterations." except for the substitution of such words as "wheat" for "corn," the intentions of the editor seem hardly to have had result, except by way of advertisement; and are of interest merely because they represent one step further in the direction of americanizing the story-book literature. all mrs. barbauld's books were considered excellent for young children. as a "dissenter," she gained in the esteem of the people of the northern states, and her books were imported as well as reprinted here. perhaps she was best known to our grandparents as the joint author, with dr. aikin, of "evenings at home," and of "hymns in prose and verse." both were read extensively for fifty years. the "hymns" had an enormous circulation, and were often full of fine rhythm and undeserving of the entire neglect into which they have fallen. of course, as the fashion changed in the "approved" type of story, mrs. barbauld suffered criticism. "mrs. and miss edgeworth in their 'practical education' insisted that evil lurked behind the phrase in 'easy lessons,' 'charles wants his dinner' because of the implication 'that charles must have whatever he desires,' and to say 'the sun has gone to bed,' is to incur the odium of telling the child a falsehood."[ -a] but the manner in which these critics of mrs. barbauld thought they had improved upon her method of story-telling is a tale belonging to another chapter. when miss edgeworth's wave of popularity reached this country mrs. barbauld's ideas still flourished as very acceptable to parents. a contemporary and rival writer for the english nursery was mrs. sarah trimmer. her works for little children were also credited with much information they did not give. after the publication of mrs. barbauld's "easy lessons" (which was the result of her own teaching of an adopted child), mrs. trimmer's friends urged her to make a like use of the lessons given to her family of six, and accordingly she published in seventeen hundred and seventy-eight an "easy introduction into the knowledge of nature," and followed it some years after its initial success by "fabulous histories," afterwards known as the "history of the robins." although mrs. trimmer represents more nearly than mrs. barbauld the religious emotionalism pervading sunday-school libraries,--in which she was deeply interested,--the work of both these ladies exemplifies the transitional stage to that labor-in-play school of writing which was to invade the american nursery in the next century when parley and abbott throve upon the proceeds of the educational narrative. defoe's "robinson crusoe" and thomas day's "sanford and merton" occupied the place in the estimation of boys that the doings of mrs. barbauld's and mrs. trimmer's works held in the opinion of the younger members of the nursery. edition followed upon edition of the adventures of the famous island hero. in philadelphia, in seventeen hundred and ninety-three, william young issued what purported to be the sixth edition. in new york many thousands of copies were sold, and in eighteen hundred and twenty-four we find a spanish translation attesting its widespread favor. in seventeen hundred and ninety-four, isaiah thomas placed the surprising adventures of the mariner as on the "coast of america, lying near the mouth of the great river oroonoque." parents also thought very highly of thomas day's "children's miscellany" and "sanford and merton." to read this last book is to believe it to be possibly in the style that dr. samuel johnson had in mind when he remarked to mrs. piozzi that "the parents buy the books but the children never read them." yet the testimony of publishers of the past is that "sanford and merton" had a large and continuous sale for many years. "'sanford and merton,'" writes mr. julian hawthorne, "ran 'robinson crusoe' harder than any other work of the eighteenth century particularly written for children." "the work," he adds, "is quaint and interesting rather to the historian than to the general, especially the child, reader. children would hardly appreciate so amazingly ancient a form of conversation as that which resulted from tommy [the bad boy of the story] losing a ball and ordering a ragged boy to pick it up: "'bring my ball directly!' "'i don't choose it,' said the boy. "'sirrah,' cried tommy, 'if i come to you i will make you choose it.' "'perhaps not, my pretty master,' said the boy. "'you little rascal,' said tommy, who now began to be very angry, 'if i come over the hedge i will thrash you within an inch of your life.'" the gist of tommy's threat has often been couched in modern language by grandsons of the boys from whom the socratic mr. day wrote to expose the evils of too luxurious an education. his method of compilation of facts to be taught may best be given in the words of his preface: "all who have been conversant in the education of very young children, have complained of the total want of proper books to be put in their hands, while they are taught the elements of reading.... the least exceptional passages of books that i could find for the purpose were 'plutarch's lives' and xenophon's 'history of the institution of cyrus,' in english translation; with some part of 'robinson crusoe,' and a few passages from mr. brooke's 'fool of quality.' ... i therefore resolved ... not only to collect all such stories as i thought adapted to the faculties of children, but to connect these by continued narration.... as to the histories themselves, i have used the most unbounded licence.... as to the language, i have endeavored to throw into it a greater degree of elegance and ornament than is usually to be met with in such compositions; preserving at the same time a sufficient degree of simplicity to make it intelligible to very young children, and rather choosing to be diffuse than obscure." with these objects in mind, we can understand small tommy's embellishment of his demand for the return of his ball by addressing the ragged urchin as "sirrah." mr. day's "children's miscellany" contained a number of stories, of which one, "the history of little jack," about a lost child who was adopted by a goat, was popular enough to be afterwards published separately. it is a debatable question as to whether the parents or the children figuring in this "miscellany" were the more artificial. "proud and unfeeling girl," says one tender mother to her little daughter who had bestowed half her pin money upon a poor family,--"proud and unfeeling girl, to prefer vain and trifling ornaments to the delight of relieving the sick and miserable! retire from my presence! take away with you trinket and nosegay, and receive from them all the comforts they are able to bestow!" why mr. day's stories met with such unqualified praise at the time they were published, this example of canting rubbish does not reveal. in real life parents certainly did retain some of their substance for their own pleasure; why, therefore, discipline a child for following the same inclination? in contrast to mr. day's method, mrs. barbauld's plan of simple conversation in words of one, two, and three syllables seems modern. both aimed to afford pleasure to children "learning the elements of reading." where mrs. barbauld probably judged truly the capacity of young children in the dialogues with the little charles of "easy lessons," mr. day loaded his gun with flowers of rhetoric and overshot infant comprehension. nevertheless, in spite of the criticism that has waylaid and torn to tatters thomas day's efforts to provide a suitable and edifying variety of stories, his method still stands for the distinct secularization of children's literature of amusement. moreover, as mr. montrose j. moses writes in his delightful study of "children's books and reading," "he foreshadowed the method of retelling incidents from the classics and from standard history and travel,--a form which is practised to a great extent by our present writers, who thread diverse materials on a slender wire of subsidiary story, and who, like butterworth and knox, invent untiring families of travellers who go to foreign parts, who see things, and then talk out loud about them." besides tales by english authors, there was a french woman, madame de genlis, whose books many educated people regarded as particularly suitable for their daughters, both in the original text and in the english translations. in aaron burr's letters we find references to his interest in the progress made by his little daughter, theodosia, in her studies. his zeal in searching for helpful books was typical of the care many others took to place the best literature within their children's reach. from theodosia's own letters to her father we learn that she was a studious child, who wrote and ciphered from five to eight every morning and during the same hours every evening. to improve her french, mr. burr took pains to find reading-matter when his law practice necessitated frequent absence from home. thus from west chester, in seventeen hundred and ninety-six, when theodosia was nine years old, he wrote: i rose up suddenly from the sofa and rubbing my head--"what book shall i buy for her?" said i to myself. "she reads so much and so rapidly that it is not easy to find proper and amusing french books for her; and yet i am so flattered with her progress in that language, that i am resolved that she shall, at all events, be gratified." so ... i took my hat and sallied out. it was not my first attempt. i went into one bookseller's after another. i found plenty of fairy tales and such nonsense, for the generality of children of nine or ten years old. "these," said i, "will never do. her understanding begins to be above such things." ... i began to be discouraged. "but i will search a little longer." i persevered. at last i found it. i found the very thing i sought. it is contained in two volumes, octavo, handsomely bound, and with prints and reprints. it is a work of fancy but replete with instruction and amusement. i must present it with my own hand. yr. affectionate a. burr. what speculation there must have been in the burr family as to the name of the gift, and what joy when mr. burr presented the two volumes upon his return! from a letter written later by mr. burr to his wife, it appears that he afterward found reason to regret his purchase, which seems to have been madame de genlis's famous "annales." "your account," he wrote, "of madame genlis surprises me, and is new evidence of the necessity of reading books before we put them in the hands of children." opinion differed, of course, concerning the french lady's books. in new york, in miss dodsworth's most genteel and fashionable school, a play written from "the dove" by madame de genlis was acted with the same zest by little girls of ten and twelve years of age as they showed in another play taken from "the search after happiness," a drama by the quakeress and religious writer, hannah more. these plays were given at the end of school terms by fond parents with that appreciation of the histrionic ability of their daughters still to be seen on such occasions. no such objection as mrs. burr made to this lady's "annales" was possible in regard to another french book, by berquin. entitled "ami des enfans," it received under the rev. mr. cooper's translation the name "the looking glass for the mind." this collection of tales supposedly mirrored the frailties and virtues of rich and poor children. it was often bound in full calf, and an edition of seventeen hundred and ninety-four contains a better engraved frontispiece than it was customary to place in juvenile publications. for half a century it was to be found in the shop of all booksellers, and had its place in the library of every family of means. there are still those among us who have not forgotten the impression produced upon their infant minds by certain of the tales. some remember the cruel child and the canary. others recollect their admiration of the little maid who, when all others deserted her young patroness, lying ill with the smallpox, won the undying gratitude of the mother by her tender nursing. the author, blind himself to the possibilities of detriment to the sick child by unskilled care, held up to the view of all, this example of devotion of one girl in contrast to the hard-heartedness of many others. this book seems also to have been called by the literal translation of its original title, "ami des enfans;" for in an account of the occupations of one summer sunday in seventeen hundred and ninety-seven, julia cowles, living in litchfield, connecticut, wrote: "attended meeting all day long, but do not recollect the text. read in 'the children's friend.'" many children would not have been permitted to read so nearly secular a book; but evidently julia cowles's parents were liberal in their view of sunday reading after the family had attended "meeting all day long." in addition to the interest of the context of these toy-books of a past generation, one who handles such relics of a century ago sees much of the fashions for children of that day. in "the looking glass," for instance, the illustrations copied from engravings by the famous english artist, bewick, show that at the end of the eighteenth century children were still clothed like their elders; the coats and waistcoats, knee breeches and hats, of boys were patterned after gentlemen's garments, and the caps and aprons, kerchiefs and gowns, for girls were reproductions of the mothers' wardrobes. again, the fly-leaf of "the history of master jacky and miss harriot" arrests the eye by its quaint inscription: "rozella ford's book. for being the second speller in the second class." at once the imagination calls up the exercises in a village school at the end of a year's session: a row of prim little maids and sturdy boys, standing before the school dame and by turn spelling in shrill tones words of three to five syllables, until only two, rozella and a better speller, remain unconfused by dilworth's and webster's word mysteries. then the two children step forward with bow and curtsey to receive their tiny gilt prizes from a pile of duodecimos upon the teacher's desk. indeed, the giving of rewards was carried to such an extent as to become a great drain upon the meagre stipend of the teacher. thus when in copper-plate handwriting we find in another six-penny volume the inscription: "benjamin h. bailey, from one he esteems and loves, mr. hapgood," we read between its lines the self-denial practised by mr. hapgood, who possibly received, like many other teachers, but seventy-five cents a week besides his board and lodging. other books afford a glimpse of children's life: the formal every-day routine, the plays they enjoyed, and their demonstration of a sensibility as keen as was then in fashion for adults. the "history of a doll," lying upon the writer's table, is among the best in this respect. it was evidently much read by its owner and fairly "loved to pieces." when it reached this disintegrated stage, a careful mother, or aunt, sewed it with coarse flax thread inside a home-made cover of bright blue wall-paper. although the "history of the pedigree and rise of the pretty doll" bears no date, its companion story in the wall-paper wrapper has the imprint seventeen hundred and ninety-one, and this, together with the press-work, places it as belonging to the eighteenth century. it offers to the reader a charming insight into the formality of many an old-fashioned family: the deportment stiff with the starched customs of that day, the seriousness of their fun, and the sensibility among little maidens akin to that exhibited in the heroines of fiction created by richardson and fielding. the chapter concerning "the pedigree of the doll" treats of finding a branch of a tree by a carver, who was desired by sir john amiable to make one of the best dolls in his power for his "pretty little daughter who was as good as she was pretty." the carver accordingly took the branch and began carving out the head, shoulders, body, and legs, which he soon brought to their proper shape. "he then covered it with a fine, flesh-colored enamel and painted its cheeks in the most lively manner. it had the finest black and sparkling eyes that were ever beheld; its cheeks resembled the blushing rose, its neck the lilly, and its lips the coral." the doll is presented, and the next chapter tells of "an assembly of little female gossips in full debate on the clothing of the doll." "miss polly having made her papa a vast number of courtesies for it, prevailed on her brother to go round to all the little gossips in the neighborhood, begging their company to tea in the afternoon, in order to consult in what mode the doll should be dressed." the company assembled. "miss micklin undertook to make it a fine ruffled laced shift, miss mantua to make it a silk sacque and petticoat; and in short, every one contributed, in some measure, to dress out this beautiful creature." "everything went on with great harmony till they came to the head-dress of the doll; and here they differed so much in opinion, that all their little clappers were going at once.... luckily, at this instant mrs. amiable happened to come in, and soon brought the little gossips to order. the matter in dispute was, whether it should have a high head-dress or whether the hair should come down on the forehead, and the curls flow in natural ringlets on the shoulders. however, after some pretty warm debate, this last mode was adopted, as most proper for a little miss." in chapter third "the doll is named:--accidents attend the ceremony." here we have a picture of a children's party. "the young ladies and gentlemen were entertained with tea and coffee; and when that was over, each was presented with a glass of raisin wine." during the christening ceremony an accident happened to the doll, because master tommy, the parson, "in endeavouring to get rid of it before the little gossips were ready to receive it, made a sad blunder.... miss polly, with tears in her eyes, snatched up the doll and clasped it to her bosom; while the rest of the little gossips turned all the little masters out of the room, that they might be left to themselves to inquire more privately into what injuries the dear doll had received.... amidst these alarming considerations tommy amiable sent the ladies word, that, if they would permit him and the rest of the young gentlemen to pass the evening among them in the parlour, he would engage to replace the nose of the doll in such a manner that not the appearance of the late accident should be seen." permission was accordingly granted for a surgical operation upon the nose, but "as to the fracture in one of the doll's legs, it was never certainly known how that was remedied, as the young ladies thought it very indelicate to mention anything about the matter." the misadventures of the doll include its theft by a monkey in the west indies, and at this interesting point the only available copy of the tale is cut short by the loss of the last four pages. the charm of this book lies largely in the fact that the owner of the doll does not grow up and marry as in almost every other novelette. this difference, of course, prevents the story from being a typical one of its period, but it is, nevertheless, a worthy forerunner of those tales of the nineteenth century in which an effort was made to write about incidents in a child's life, and to avoid the biographical tendency. before leaving the books of the eighteenth century, one tale must be mentioned because it contains the germ of the idea which has developed into mr. george's "junior republic." it was called "juvenile trials for robbing orchards, telling tales and other heinous offenses." "this," said dr. aikin--mrs. barbauld's brother and collaborator in "evenings at home"--"is a very pleasing and ingenious little work, in which a court of justice is supposed to be instituted in a school, composed of the scholars themselves, for the purpose of trying offenses committed at school." in "trial the first" master tommy tell-truth charges billy prattle with robbing an orchard. the jury, after hearing billy express his contrition for his act, brings in a verdict of guilty; but the judge pardons the culprit because of his repentant frame of mind. miss delia, the offender in case _number two_, does not escape so lightly. miss stirling charges her with raising contention and strife among her school-fellows over a piece of angelica, "whereby," say her prosecutors, "one had her favorite cap torn to pieces, and her hair which had been that day nicely dressed, pulled all about her shoulders; another had her sack torn down the middle; a third had a fine flowered apron of her own working, reduced to rags; a fourth was wounded by a pelick, or scratch of her antagonist, and in short, there was hardly one among them who had not some mark to shew of having been concerned in this unfortunate affair." that the good dr. aikin approved of the punishment decreed, we are sure. the little prisoner was condemned to pass three days in her room, as just penalty for such "indelicate" behaviour. by the close of the century miss edgeworth was beginning to supersede mrs. barbauld in england; but in america the taste in juvenile reading was still satisfied with the older writer's little charles, as the correct model for children's deportment, and with giles gingerbread as the exemplary student. the child's lessons had passed from "be good or you will go to hell" to "be good and you will be rich;" or, with the puritan element still so largely predominant, "be good and you will go to heaven." virtue as an ethical quality had been shown in "goody two-shoes" to bring its reward as surely as vice brought punishment. it is to be doubted if this was altogether wholesome; and it may well be that it was with this idea in mind that dr. johnson made his celebrated criticism of the nursery literature in vogue, when he said to mrs. piozzi, "babies do not want to be told about babies; they like to be told of giants and castles, and of somewhat which can stretch and stimulate their little minds."[ -a] the learned doctor, having himself been brought up on "jack the giant killer" and "the history of blue beard," was inclined to scorn newbery's tales as lacking in imaginative quality. that dr. johnson was really interested in stories for the young people of his time is attested by a note written in seventeen hundred and sixty-three on the fly-leaf of a collection of chap-books: "i shall certainly, sometime or other, write a little story-book in the style of these. i shall be happy to succeed, for he who pleases children will be remembered by them."[ -b] in america, however, it is doubtful whether any true critical spirit regarding children's books had been reached. fortunately in england, at the beginning of the next century, there was a man who dared speak his opinion. mrs. barbauld and mrs. trimmer (who had contributed "fabulous histories" to the juvenile library, and for them had shared the approval which greeted mrs. barbauld's efforts) were the objects of charles lamb's particular detestation. in a letter to coleridge, written in , he said: "goody two shoes is almost out of print. mrs. barbauld's stuff has banished all the old classics of the nursery, and the shopman at newbery's hardly deigned to reach them off an old exploded corner of a shelf, when mary asked for them. mrs. barbauld's and mrs. trimmer's nonsense lay in piles about. knowledge insignificant and vapid as mrs. barbauld's books convey, it seems, must come to a child in the shape of knowledge; and his empty noddle must be turned with conceit of his own powers when he has learned that a horse is an animal and billy is better than a horse, and such like, instead of that beautiful interest in wild tales, which made the child a man, while all the time he suspected himself to be no bigger than a child. science has succeeded to poetry no less in the little walks of children than of men. is there no possibility of arresting this force of evil? think what you would have been now, if instead of being fed with tales and old wives' fables in childhood, you had been crammed with geography and natural history. hang them! i mean the cursed barbauld crew, those blights and blasts of all that is human in man and child."[ -a] to lamb's extremely sensitive nature, the vanished hand of the literary man of grub street could not be replaced by mrs. barbauld's wish to instruct by using simple language. it is possible that he did her some injustice. yet a retrospective glance over the story-book literature evolved since newbery's juvenile library was produced, shows little that was not poor in quality and untrue to life. therefore, it is no wonder that lamb should have cried out against the sore evil which had "beset a child's mind." all the poetry of life, all the imaginative powers of a child, mrs. barbauld, mrs. trimmer, and mr. day ignored; and newbery in his way, and the old ballads in their way, had appealed to both. in both countries the passion for knowledge resulted in this curious literature of amusement. in england books were written; in america they were reprinted, until a religious revival left in its wake the series of morbid and educational tales which the desire to write original stories for american children produced. footnotes: [ -a] miss hewins, _atlantic monthly_, vol. lxi, p. . [ -b] brynberg. wilmington, . [ -a] miss repplier, _atlantic monthly_, vol. lvii, p. . [ -a] hill, _johnsonian miscellany_, vol. i, p. . [ -b] _ibid._ [ -a] welsh, _introduction to goody two shoes_, p. x. chapter vi - her morals then the matron read, studious to teach her children dear, and they by love or duty led, with pleasure read. _a mother's remarks_, philadelphia, mama! see what a pretty book at day's papa has bought, that i may at its pictures look, and by its words be taught. chapter vi - _toy-books in the early nineteenth century_ on the d of december, , there appeared anonymously in the "troy (new york) sentinel," a christmas ballad entitled "a visit from st. nicholas." this rhymed story of santa claus and his reindeer, written one year before its publication by clement clarke moore for his own family, marks the appearance of a truly original story in the literature of the american nursery. we have seen the somewhat lugubrious influence of puritan and quaker upon the occasional writings for american children; and now comes a story bearing upon its face the features of a dutchman, as the jolly old gentleman enters nursery lore with his happy errand. up to this time children of wholly english extraction had probably little association with the feast of st. nicholas. the christmas season had hitherto been regarded as pagan in its origin by people of puritan or scotch descent, and was celebrated only as a religious festival by the descendants of the more liberal adherents to the church of england. the dutch element in new york, however, still clung to some of their traditions; and the custom of exchanging simple gifts upon christmas day had come down to them as a result of a combination of the church legend of the good st. nicholas, patron of children, and the scandinavian myth of the fairy gnome, who from his bower in the woods showered good children with gifts.[ -a] but to celebrate the day quietly was altogether a different thing from introducing to the american public the character of santa claus, who has become in his mythical entity as well known to every american as that other dutch legendary personage, rip van winkle. in the "visit from st. nicholas" mr. moore not only introduced santa claus to the young folk of the various states, but gave to them their first story of any lasting merit whatsoever. it is worthy of remark that as every impulse to write for juvenile readers has lagged behind the desire to write for adults, so the composition of these familiar verses telling of the arrival in america of the mysterious and welcome visitor on "the night before christmas, when all through the house not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse," fell at the end of that quarter of the nineteenth century to which we are accustomed to refer as the beginning of the national period of american literature. it is, of course, true that the older children of that period had already begun to enjoy some of the writings of irving and cooper, and to learn the fortunately still familiar verses by hopkinson, key, drake, and halleck. school-readers have served to familiarize generation after generation with "hail columbia," "the star spangled banner," and sometimes with "the american flag." it is, doubtless, their authors' jubilant enthusiasm over the freedom of the young republic that has caused the children of the more mature nation to delight in the repetition of the patriotic verses. the youthful extravagance of expression pervading every line is reëchoed in the heart of the schoolboy, who likes to imagine himself, before anything else, a patriot. but until "donder and blitzen" pranced into the foreground as santa claus' steeds, there was nothing in american nursery literature of any lasting fame. thereafter, as the custom of observing christmas day gradually became popular, the perennial small child felt--until automobiles sent reindeer to the limbo of bygone things--the thrill of delight and fear over the annual visit of santa claus that the bigger child experiences in exploding fire-crackers on the fourth of july. there are possibilities in both excitements which appeal to one of the child's dearest possessions--his imagination. it is this direct appeal to the imagination that surprises and delights us in mr. moore's ballad. to re-read it is to be amazed that anything so full of merriment, so modern, so free from pompousness or condescension, from pedantry or didacticism, could have been written before the latter half of the nineteenth century. not only its style is simple in contrast with the labored efforts at simplicity of its contemporaneous verse, but its story runs fifty years ahead of its time in its freedom from the restraining hand of the moralist and from the warning finger of the religious teacher, if we except nathaniel hawthorne's "wonder book." in our examination of the toy-books of twenty years preceding its publication, we shall find nothing so attractive in manner, nor so imaginative in conception. indeed, we shall see, upon the one hand, that fun was held in with such a tight curb that it hardly ever escaped into print; and upon the other hand that the imagination had little chance to develop because of the prodigal indulgence in realities and in religious experience from which all authors suffered. we shall also see that these realities were made very uncompromising and uncomfortable to run counter to. duty spelled in capital letters was a stumbling-block with which only the well-trained story-book child could successfully cope; recreation followed in small portions large shares of instruction, whether disguised or bare faced. the religion-in-play, the ethics-in-play, and the labor-in-play schools of writing for children had arrived in america from the land of their origin. the stories in vogue in england during this first quarter of the nineteenth century explain every vagary in america. there fashionable and educational authorities had hitched their wagon to the literary star, miss edgeworth, and the followers of her system; while the religiously inclined pinned their faith also upon tracts written by miss hannah more. in this still imitative land the booksellers simply reprinted the more successful of these juvenile publications. the changes, therefore, in the character of the juvenile literature of amusement of the early nineteenth century in america were due to the adoption of the works of these two englishwomen, and to the increased facilities for reproducing toy-books, both in press-work and in illustrations. hannah more's allegories and religious dramas, written to coöperate with the teachings of the first sabbath day schools, are, of course, outside the literature of amusement. yet they affected its type in america as they undoubtedly gave direction to the efforts of the early writers for children. miss more, born in seventeen hundred and fifty-four, was a woman of already established literary reputation when her attention was attracted by robert raikes's successful experiment of opening a sunday-school, in seventeen hundred and eighty-one. during the religious revival that attended the preaching of george whitefield, raikes, already interested in the hardships and social condition of the working-classes, was further aroused by his intimate knowledge of the manner of life of some children in a pin factory. to provide instruction for these child laborers, who, without work or restrictions on sundays, sought occupation far from elevating, raikes founded the first "sabbath day school." the movement spread rapidly in england, and ten years later, in seventeen hundred and ninety-one, under the inspiration of bishop white, the pioneer first day school in america was opened in philadelphia. the good bishop was disturbed mentally by the religious and moral degeneracy of the poor children in his diocese, and annoyed during church services by their clamor outside the churches--a noise often sufficient to drown the prayers of his flock and the sermons of his clergy. to occupy these restless children for a part of the day, two sessions of the school were held each sunday: one before the morning service, from eight until half-past ten o'clock, and the other in the afternoon for an hour and a half. the bible was used as a reader, and the teaching was done regularly by paid instructors. the first sunday-school library owed its origin to a wish to further the instruction given in the school, and hence contained books thought admirably adapted to sunday reading. among the somewhat meagre stock provided for this purpose were doddridge's "power of religion," miss more's tracts and the writings of her imitators, together with "the fairchild family," by mrs. sherwood, "the two lambs," by mrs. cameron, "the economy of human life," and a little volume made up of selections from mrs. barbauld's works for children. "the economy of human life," said miss sedgwick (who herself afterwards wrote several good books for girls), "was quite above my comprehension, and i thought it unmeaning and tedious." testimony of this kind about a book which for years appeared regularly upon booksellers' lists enables us to realize that the average intelligent child of the year eighteen hundred was beginning to be as bored by some of the literature placed in his hands as a child would be one hundred years later. to increase this special class of books, hannah more devoted her attention. her forty tracts comprising "the cheap repository" included "the shepherd of salisbury plain" and "the two shoemakers," which, often appearing in american booksellers' advertisements, were for many years a staple article in sunday-school libraries, and even now, although pushed to the rear, are discoverable in some such collections of books. their objective point is best given by their author's own words in the preface to an edition of "the search after happiness; a pastoral drama," issued by jacob johnson of philadelphia in eighteen hundred and eleven. miss more began in the self-depreciatory manner then thought modest and becoming in women writers: "the author is sensible it may have many imperfections, but if it may be happily instrumental in producing a regard to religion and virtue in the minds of young persons, and afford them an innocent, and perhaps not altogether unuseful amusement in the exercise of recitation, the end for which it was originally composed ... will be fully answered." a drama may seem to us above the comprehension of the poor and illiterate class of people whose attention miss more wished to hold, but when we feel inclined to criticise, let us not forget that the author was one who had written little eight-year-old thomas macaulay: "i think we have nearly exhausted the epics. what say you to a little good prose? johnson's 'hebrides,' or walton's 'lives,' unless you would like a neat edition of cowper's poems or 'paradise lost.'" miss more's influence upon the character of sunday-school books in england undoubtedly did much to incline many unknown american women of the nineteenth century to take up this class of books as their own field for religious effort and pecuniary profit. contemporary with hannah more's writings in the interest of religious life of sunday-school scholars were some of the literary products of the painstaking pen of maria edgeworth. mention of miss edgeworth has already been made. about her stories for children criticism has played seriously, admiringly, and contemptuously. it is not the present purpose, however, to do other than to make clear her own aim, and to try to show the effect of her extremely moral tales upon her own generation of writers for american children. it is possible that she affected these authors more than the child audience for whom she wrote. little ones have a wonderful faculty for seizing upon what suits them and leaving the remainder for their elders to discuss. maria edgeworth's life was a long one. born in seventeen hundred and sixty-seven, when john newbery's books were at the height of their fame, she lived until eighteen hundred and forty-nine, when they were scarcely remembered; and now her own once popular tales have met a similar fate. she was educated by a father filled with enthusiasm by the teachings of rousseau and with advice from the platitudinous family friend, thomas day, author of "sanford and merton." only the truly genial nature and strong character of miss edgeworth prevented her genius from being altogether swamped by this incongruous combination. fortunately, also, her busy practical home life allowed her sympathies full sway and counteracted many of the theories introduced by mr. edgeworth into his family circle. successive stepmothers filled the edgeworth nursery with children, for whom the devoted older sister planned and wrote the stories afterward published. in seventeen hundred and ninety-one maria edgeworth, at her father's suggestion, began to note down anecdotes of the children of the family, and later these were often used as copy to be criticised by the little ones themselves before they were turned over to the printer. her father's educational conversations with his family were often committed to paper, and these also furnished material from which miss edgeworth made it her object in life to interweave knowledge, amusement, and ethics. indeed, it has been most aptly said that between the narrow banks of richard edgeworth's theories "his daughter's genius flowed through many volumes of amusement." [illustration: _jacob johnson's book-store._] her first collection of tales was published under the title of "the parent's assistant," although miss edgeworth's own choice of a name had been the less formidable one of "the parent's friend." based upon her experience as eldest sister in a large and constantly increasing family, these tales necessarily struck many true notes and gave valuable hints to perplexed parents. in "the parent's assistant" realities stalked full grown into the nursery as "every object in creation furnished hints for contemplation." the characters were invariably true to their creator's original drawing. a good girl was good from morning to night; a naughty child began and ended the day in disobedience, and by it bottles were smashed, strawberries spilled, and lessons disregarded in unbroken sequence. in later life miss edgeworth confessed to having occasionally introduced in "harry and lucy" some nonsense as an "alloy to make the sense work well;" but as all her earlier children's tales were subjected to the pruning scissors of mr. edgeworth, this amalgam is to-day hardly noticeable in "popular tales," "early lessons," and "frank," which preceded the six volumes of "harry and lucy." although a contemporary of mrs. barbauld, who had written for little children "easy lessons," miss edgeworth does not seem to have been well known in america until about eighteen hundred and five. then "harry and lucy" was brought out by jacob johnson, a philadelphia book-dealer. this was issued in six small red and blue marbled paper volumes, although other parts were not completed until eighteen hundred and twenty-three. between the first and second parts of volume one the educational hand of mr. edgeworth is visible in the insertion of a "glossary," "to give a popular meaning of the words." "this glossary," the editor, mr. edgeworth, thought, "should be read to children a little at a time, and should be made the subject of conversation. afterwards they will read it with more pleasure." the popular meaning of words may be succinctly given by one definition: "dry, what is not wet." could anything be more lucid? among the stories by miss edgeworth are three rarely mentioned by critics, and yet among the most natural and entertaining of her short tales. they were also printed by jacob johnson in philadelphia, in eighteen hundred and five, under the simple title, "three stories for children." "little dog trusty" is a dog any small child would like to read about; "the orangeman" was a character familiar to english children; and "the cherry orchard" is a tale of a day's pleasure whose spirit american children could readily seize. in each miss edgeworth had a story to tell, and she told it well, even though "she walked," as has been often said, "as mentor beside her characters." of miss edgeworth's many tales, "waste not, want not" was long considered a model. in it what mr. edgeworth styled the "shafts of ridicule" were aimed at the rich nephew of mr. gresham. mr. gresham (whose prototype we strongly suspect was mr. edgeworth himself) "lived neither in idleness nor extravagance," and was desirous of adopting an heir to his considerable property. therefore, he invited two nephews to visit him, with the object of choosing the more suitable for his purpose; apparently he had only to signify his wish and no parental objection to his plan would be interposed. the boys arrive: hal, whose mama spends her days at bath over cards with lady diana sweepstake, is an ill-bred child, neither deferential to his uncle, nor with appetite for buns when queen-cakes may be had. his cousin ben, on the contrary, has been taught those virtuous habits that make for a respectful attitude toward rich uncles and assure a dissertation upon the beneficial effect of buns _versus_ queen-cakes. the boys, having had their characters thus definitely shown, proceed to live up to them in every particular. from start to finish it is the virtuous ben--his generosity, thrift, and foresight are never allowed to lapse for an instant--who triumphs in every episode. he saves his string, "good whipcord," when requested by mr. gresham to untie a parcel, and it thereafter serves to spin a fine new top, to help hal out of a difficulty with his toy, and in the final incident of the story, an archery contest, our provident hero, finding his bowstring "cracked," calmly draws from his pocket the still excellent piece of cord, and affixing it to his bow, wins the match. hal betrays his great lack of self-control by exclaiming, "the everlasting whipcord, i declare," and thereupon patty, mr. gresham's only child, who has suffered from hal's defects of character, openly rejoices when the prize is given to ben. as is usual with miss edgeworth's badly behaved children, the reader now sees the error of hal's ways, and perceives also that in the lad's acknowledgment of the truth of the formerly scorned motto, "waste not, want not," the era of his reformation has begun. perpetual action was the key to the success of miss edgeworth's writings. if to us her fictitious children seem like puppets whose strings are too obviously jerked, the monotonous moral cloaked in the variety of incident was liked by her own generation, miss edgeworth not only pleased the children, but received the applause of their parents and friends. sir walter scott, the prince of story-tellers, found much to admire in her tales, and wrote of "simple susan:" "when the boy brings back the lamb to the little girl, there is nothing for it but to put down the book and cry." susan was the pattern child in the tale, "clean as well as industrious," while barbara--a violent contrast--was conceited and lazy, and a _lady_ who "could descend without shame from the height of insolent pride to the lowest measure of fawning familiarity." therefore it is small wonder that sir walter passed her by without mention. however much we may value an english author's admiration for miss edgeworth's story-telling gifts, it is to america that we naturally turn to seek contemporary opinion. in educational circles there is no doubt that miss edgeworth won high praise. that her books were not always easy to procure, however, we know from a letter written from washington by mrs. josiah quincy, whose life as a child during the revolution has already been described. when mrs. quincy was living in the capital city in eighteen hundred and ten, during her husband's term as congressman, she found it difficult to provide her family with books. she therefore wrote to boston to a friend, requesting to have sent her miss edgeworth's "moral tales," "if the work can be obtained in one of the bookstores. if not," she continued, "borrow one ... and i will replace it with a new copy. cut the book out of its binding and enclose the pages in packets.... be careful to send the entire text and title page." the scarcity in washington of books for young people mrs. quincy thought justified the hope that reprinting these tales would be profitable to a bookseller in whose efforts to introduce a better taste among the inhabitants she took a keen interest. but mrs. quincy need not have sent to boston for them. jacob johnson in philadelphia had issued most of the english author's books by eighteen hundred and five, and new york publishers probably made good profit by printing them. reading aloud was both a pastime and an education to families in those early days of the republic. although mrs. quincy made every effort to procure miss edgeworth's stories for her family because, in her opinion, "they obtained a decided preference to the works of hannah more, mrs. trimmer and mrs. chapone," for reading aloud she chose extracts from shakespeare, milton, addison, and goldsmith. indeed, if it were possible to ask our great-grandparents what books they remembered reading in their childhood, i think we should find that beyond somewhat hazy recollections of miss edgeworth's books and berquin's "the looking glass for the mind," they would either mention "robinson crusoe," newbery's tales of "giles gingerbread," "little king pippin," and "goody two-shoes" (written fifty years before their own childhood), or remember only the classic tales and sketches read to them by their parents. certainly this is the case if we may take as trustworthy the recollections of literary people whose childhood was passed in the first part of the nineteenth century. catharine sedgwick, for instance, has left a charming picture of american family life in a country town in eighteen hundred--a life doubtless paralleled by many households in comfortable circumstances. among the host of little prigs and prudes in story-books of the day, it is delightful to find in catharine sedgwick herself an example of a bookish child who was natural. her reminiscences include an account of the way the task of sweeping out the schoolhouse after hours was made bearable by feasts of malaga wine and raisins. these she procured from the store where her father kept an open account, until the bill having been rendered dotted over with such charges "per daughter catharine," these treats to favorite schoolmates ceased. also a host of intimate details of this large family's life in the country brings us in touch with the times: fifteen pairs of calfskin shoes ordered from the village shoemaker, because town-bought morocco slippers were few and far between; the excitement of a silk gown; the distress of a brother, whose trousers for fête occasions were remodelled from an older brother's "blue broadcloth worn to fragility--so that robert [the younger brother] said he could not look at them without making a rent;" and again the anticipation of the father's return from philadelphia with gifts of necessaries and books. after seventeen hundred and ninety-five mr. sedgwick was compelled as a member of congress to be away the greater part of each year, leaving household and farm to the care of an invalid wife. memories of mr. sedgwick's infrequent visits home were mingled in his daughter's mind with the recollections of being kept up until nine o'clock to listen to his reading from shakespeare, don quixote, or hudibras. "certainly," wrote miss sedgwick, "i did not understand them, but some glances of celestial light reached my soul, and i caught from his magnetic sympathy some elevation of feeling, and that love of reading which has been to me an 'education.'" "i was not more than twelve years old," she continues, "i think but ten--when one winter i read rollin's ancient history. the walking to our schoolhouse was often bad, and i took my lunch (how well i remember the bread and butter, and 'nut cake' and cold sausage, and nuts and apples that made the miscellaneous contents of that enchanting lunch-basket!), and in the interim between morning and afternoon school i crept under my desk (the desks were so made as to afford little close recesses under them) and read and munched and forgot myself in cyrus' greatness." it is beyond question that the keen relish induced by the scarcity of juvenile reading, together with the sound digestion it promoted, overbalanced in mental gain the novelties of a later day. the sedgwick library was probably typical of the average choice in reading-matter of the contemporary american child. half a dozen little story-books, berquin's "children's friend" (the very form and shade of color of its binding with its green edges were never forgotten by any member of the sedgwick family), and the "looking glass for the mind" were shelved side by side with a large volume entitled "elegant extracts," full of ballads, fables, and tales delightful to children whose imagination was already excited by the solemn mystery of rowe's "letters from the dead to the living." since none of these books except those containing an infusion of religion were allowed to be read on sunday, the sedgwick children extended the bounds by turning over the pages of a book, and if the word "god" or "lord" appeared, it was pounced upon as sanctified and therefore permissible. where families were too poor to buy story-books, the children found what amusement they could in the parents' small library. in ministers' families sermons were more plentiful than books. mrs. h.b. stowe, when a girl, found barrels of sermons in the garret of her father, the rev. dr. beecher, in litchfield, connecticut. through these sermons his daughter searched hungrily for mental food. it seemed as if there were thousands of the most unintelligible things. "an appeal on the unlawfulness of a man's marrying his wife's sister" turned up in every barrel by the dozens, until she despaired of finding an end of it. at last an ancient volume of "arabian nights" was unearthed. here was the one inexhaustible source of delight to a child so eager for books that at ten years of age she had pored over the two volumes of the "magnalia." the library advantages of a more fortunately placed old-fashioned child we know from dr. holmes's frequent reference to incidents of his boyhood. he frankly confessed that he read in and not through many of the two thousand books in his father's library; but he found much to interest him in the volumes of periodicals, especially in the "annual register" and rees's "encyclopedia." although apparently allowed to choose from the book-shelves, there were frequent evidences of a parent's careful supervision. "i remember," he once wrote to a friend, "many leaves were torn out of a copy of dryden's poems, with the comment 'hiatus haud diflendus,' but i had like all children a kind of indian sagacity in the discovery of contraband reading, such as a boy carries to a corner for perusal. sermons i had enough from the pulpit. i don't know that i ever read one sermon of my own accord during my childhood. the 'life of david,' by samuel chandler, had adventures enough, to say nothing of gallantry, in it to stimulate and gratify curiosity." "biographies of pious children," wrote dr. holmes at another time, "were not to my taste. those young persons were generally sickly, melancholy, and buzzed around by ghostly comforters or discomforters in a way that made me sick to contemplate." again, dr. holmes, writing of the revolt from the commonly accepted religious doctrines he experienced upon reading the rev. thomas scott's family bible, contrasted the gruesome doctrines it set forth with the story of christian told in "pilgrim's progress," a book which captivated his imagination. as to story-books, dr. holmes once referred to mrs. barbauld and dr. aikin's joint production, "evenings at home," with an accuracy bearing testimony to his early love for natural science. he also paid a graceful tribute to lady bountiful of "little king pippin" in comparing her in a conversation "at the breakfast table" with the appearance of three maiden ladies "rustling through the aisles of the old meeting-house, in silk and satin, not gay but more than decent." although dr. holmes was not sufficiently impressed with the contents of miss edgeworth's tales to mention them, at least one of her books contained much of the sort of information he found attractive in "evenings at home." "harry and lucy," besides pointing a moral on every page, foreshadowed that taste for natural science which turned every writer's thought toward printing geographical walks, botanical observations, natural history conversations, and geological dissertations in the guise of toy-books of amusement. a batch of books issued in america during the first two decades of the nineteenth century is illustrative of this new fashion. these books, belonging to the labor-in-play school, may best be described in their american editions. one hundred years ago the american publishers of toy works were devoting their attention to the make-up rather than to the contents of their wares. the steady progress of the industrial arts enabled a greater number of printers to issue juvenile books, whose attractiveness was increased by better illustrations; and also with the improved facilities for printing and publishing, the issues of the various firms became more individual. at the beginning of the century the cheaper books entirely lost their charming gilt, flowery dutch, and silver wrappers, as home products came into use. size and illustrations also underwent a change. [illustration: _a wall-paper book-cover_] in philadelphia, benjamin and jacob johnson, and later johnson and warner, issued both tiny books two inches square, and somewhat larger volumes containing illustrations as well as text. these firms used for binding gray and blue marbled paper, gold-powdered yellow cardboard, or salmon pink, blue, and olive-green papers, usually without ornamentation. in eighteen hundred j. and j. crukshank, of the same town, began to decorate with copper-plate cuts the outside of the white or blue paper covers of their imprints for children. other printers followed their example, especially after wood-engraving became more generally used. in wilmington, delaware, john adams printed and sold "the new history of blue beard" in both peacock-blue and olive-green paper covers; but peter brynberg, also of that town, was still in eighteen hundred and four using quaint wall-paper to dress his toy imprints. matthew carey, the well-known printer of school-books for the children of philadelphia, made a "child's guide to spelling and reading" more acceptable by a charming cover of yellow and red striped paper dotted over with little black hearts suggestive of the old primer rhyme for the letter b: "my book and heart shall never part." in new york the dealers in juvenile books seem either to have bound in calf such classics as "the blossoms of morality," published by david longworth at the shakespeare gallery in eighteen hundred and two, or in decorated but unattractive brown paper. this was the cover almost invariably used for years by samuel wood, the founder of the present publishing-house of medical works. he began in eighteen hundred and six to print the first of his many thousands of children's religious, instructive, and nursery books. as was the custom in order to insure a good sale, wood first brought out a primer, "the young child's a b c." he decorated its quaker gray cover with a woodcut of a flock of birds, and its title-page with a picture, presumably by alexander anderson, of a girl holding up a dove in her left hand and holding down a lamb with her right. in new england, nathaniel coverly of salem sometimes used a watered pink paper to cover his sixteen page toy-books, and in boston his son, as late as eighteen hundred and thirteen, still used pieces of large patterned wall-paper for six-penny books, such as "tom thumb," "old mother hubbard," and "cock robin." the change in the appearance of most toy-books, however, was due largely to the increased use of illustrations. the work of the famous english engraver, thomas bewick, had at last been successfully copied by a physician of new york, dr. alexander anderson. dr. anderson was born in new york in seventeen hundred and seventy-five, and by seventeen hundred and ninety-three was employed by printers and publishers in new york, new jersey, philadelphia, and even charleston to illustrate their books. like other engravers, he began by cutting in type-metal, or engraving upon copper. in seventeen hundred and ninety-four, for durell of new york, he undertook to make illustrations, probably for "the looking glass for the mind." beginning by copying bewick's pictures upon type-metal, when "about one-third done, dr. anderson felt satisfied he could do better on wood."[ -a] in his diary we find noted an instance of his perseverance in the midst of discouragement: "sept. . this morning i was quite discouraged on seeing a crack in the wood. employed as usual at the doctor's, came home to dinner, glued the wood and began again with fresh hopes of producing a good wood engraving." september found him "pretty well satisfied with the impression and so was durell." in eighteen hundred he engraved all the pictures on wood for a new edition of the same book, and from this time he seems to have discontinued the use of type-metal, which he had employed in his earlier work as illustrator of the "pilgrim's progress" issued by hugh gaine, and of "tom thumb's folio" printed by brewer. after eighteen hundred and twelve anderson almost gave up engraving on copper also, and devoted himself to satisfying the great demand for his work on wood. for durell of new york, an extensive reprinter of english books, from toy-books to a folio edition of josephus, he reproduced the english engravings, never making, according to mr. lossing, more than a frontispiece for the larger volumes. although samuel wood and sons of new york also gave dr. anderson many orders for cuts for their various juvenile publications, he still found time to engrave for publishers of other cities. we find his illustrations in the toy-books printed in boston and philadelphia; and for sidney babcock, a new haven publisher of juvenile literature, he supplied many of the numerous woodcuts required. the best of anderson's work as an engraver coincided with the years of babcock's very extensive business of issuing children's books, between and . his cuts adorned the juvenile duodecimos that this printer's widely extended trade demanded; and even as far south as charleston, south carolina, babcock, like isaiah thomas, found it profitable to open a branch shop. anderson's illustrations are the main features of most of babcock's little blue, pink, and yellow paper-covered books; especially of those printed in the early years of the nineteenth century. we notice in them the changes in the dress of children, who no longer were clothed exactly in the semblance of their elders, but began to assume garments more appropriate to their ages, sports, and occupations. anderson also sometimes introduced into his pictures a negro coachman or nurse in the place of the footman or maid of the english tale he illustrated. while the demand for the engraver's work was constant, his remuneration was small, if we are to judge by babcock's payment of only fifty shillings for fifteen cuts. for these toy-books anderson made many reproductions from bewick's cuts, and although he did not equal the englishman's work, he so far surpassed his pupils and imitators of the early part of the century that his engravings are generally to be recognized even when not signed. in eighteen hundred and two dr. anderson began to reproduce for david longworth bewick's "quadrupeds," and these "cuts were afterwards made use of, with the bewick letter-press also, for a series of children's books."[ -a] in eighteen hundred and twelve, for munroe & francis of boston, dr. anderson made after j. thompson a set of cuts, mainly remarkable "as the chief of his few departures from the style of his favorite, bewick."[ -a] the custom of not signing either text or engravings in the children's books has made it difficult to identify writers and illustrators of juvenile literature. but some of the best engravers undoubtedly practised their art on these toy-books. nathaniel dearborn, who was a stationer, printer, and engraver in boston about eighteen hundred and eleven, sometimes signed the full-page illustrations on both wood and copper, and abel bowen, a copper-engraver, and possibly the first wood-engraver in boston, signed a very curious publication entitled "a metamorphosis"--a manifold paper which in its various possible combinations transformed one figure into another in keeping with the progress of the story. c. gilbert, a pupil of mason, who had introduced the art of wood-engraving in philadelphia from boston, engraved on wood certainly the two full-page illustrations for "a present for a little girl," printed in eighteen hundred and sixteen for a baltimore firm, warner & hanna. adams and his pupils, lansing and morgan, also did work on children's books. adams seems to have worked under anderson's instruction, and after eighteen hundred and twenty-five did cuts for some books in the juvenile libraries of s. wood and mahlon day of new york. of the engravers on copper, many tried their hands on these toy-books. among them may be mentioned amos doolittle of new haven, james poupard, john neagle, and w. ralph of philadelphia, and rollinson of new york, who is credited with having engraved the silver buttons on the coat worn by washington on his inauguration as president. but of the copper-plate engravers, perhaps none did more work for children's books than william charles of philadelphia. charles, who is best known by his series of caricatures of the events of the war of and of local politics, worked upon toy-books as early as eighteen hundred and eight, when in philadelphia he published in two parts "tom the piper's son; illustrated with whimsical engravings." in these books both text and pictures were engraved, as will be seen in the illustration. charles's plates for a series of moral tales in verse were used by his successors, mary charles, morgan & yeager, and morgan & sons, for certainly fifteen years after the originals were made. to william charles the children in the vicinity of philadelphia were also probably indebted for the introduction of colored pictures. it is possible that the young folks of boston had the novelty of colored picture-books somewhat before charles introduced them in philadelphia, as we find that "the history and adventures of little henry exemplified in a series of figures" was printed by j. belcher of the massachusetts town in . these "figures" exhibited little henry suitably attired for the various incidents of his career, with a movable head to be attached at will to any of the figures, which were not engraved with the text, but each was laid in loose on a blank page. william charles's method of coloring the pictures engraved with the text was a slight advance, perhaps, upon the illustrations inserted separately; but it is doubtful whether these immovable plates afforded as much entertainment to little readers as the separate figures similar to paper dolls which belcher, and somewhat later charles also, used in a few of their publications. [illustration: _tom the piper's son_] the "peacock at home," engraved by charles and then colored in aqua-tint, is one of the rare early colored picture-books still extant, having been first issued in eighteen hundred and fourteen. the coloring of the illustrations at first doubled the price, and seems to have been used principally for a series of stories belonging to what may be styled the ethics-in-play type of juvenile literature, and entitled the "history and adventures of little william," "little nancy," etc. these tales, written after the objective manner of miss edgeworth, glossed over by rhyme, contained usually eight colored plates, and sold for twenty-five cents each instead of twelve cents, the price of the picture-book without colored plates. sometimes, as in the case of "cinderella," we find the text illustrated with a number of "elegant figures, to dress and undress." the paper doll could be placed behind the costumes appropriate to the various adventures, and, to prevent the loss of the heroine, the book was tied up with pink or blue ribbon after the manner of a portfolio. with engravers on wood and copper able to make more attractive the passion for instruction which marked the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the variety of toy-book literature naturally became greater. indeed, without pictures to render somewhat entertaining the labor-in-play school, it is doubtful whether it could have attained its widespread popularity. it is, of course, possible to name but a few titles typical of the various kinds of instruction offered as amusement. "to present to the young reader a little miscellany of natural history, moral precept, sentiment, and narrative," dr. kendall wrote "keeper's travels in search of his master," "the canary bird," and "the sparrow." "the prize for youthful obedience" endeavored to instill a love for animals, and to promote obedient habits. its story runs in this way: "a kind and good father had a little lively son, named francis; but, although that little boy was six years old, he had not yet learned to read. "his mama said to him, one day, 'if francis will learn to read well, he shall have a pretty little chaise.' "the little boy was vastly pleased with this; he presently spelt five or six words and then kissed his mama. "'mama,' said francis, 'i am delighted with the thoughts of this chaise, but i should like to have a horse to draw it.' "'francis shall have a little dog, which will do instead of a horse,' replied his mama, 'but he must take care to give him some victuals, and not do him any harm.'" the dog was purchased, and named chloe. "she was as brisk as a bee, prettily spotted, and as gentle as a lamb." we are now prepared for trouble, for the lesson of the story is surely not hidden. chloe was fastened to the chaise, a cat secured to serve as a passenger, and "francis drove his little chaise along the walk." but "when he had been long enough among the gooseberry trees, his mama took him in the garden and told him the names of the flowers." we are thus led to suppose that francis had never been in the garden before! the mother is called away. we feel sure that the trouble anticipated is at hand. "as soon as she was gone francis began whipping the dog," and of course when the dog dashed forward the cat tumbled out, and "poor chloe was terrified by the chaise which banged on all sides. francis now heartily repented of his cruel behaviour and went into the house crying, and looking like a very simple boy." [illustration: _a kind and good father_] "i see very plainly the cause of this misfortune," said the father, who, however, soon forgave his repentant son. thereafter every day francis learned his lesson, and was rewarded by facts and pictures about animals, by table-talks, or by walks about the country. knowledge offered within small compass seems to have been a novelty introduced in philadelphia by jacob johnson, who had a juvenile library in high street. in eighteen hundred and three he printed two tiny volumes entitled "a description of various objects." bound in green paper covers, the two-inch square pages were printed in bold type. the first volume contained the illustrations of the objects described in the other. the characterizations were exceedingly short, as, for example, this of the "puppet show:" "here are several little boys and girls looking at a puppet show, i suppose you would like to make one of them." four years later johnson improved upon this, when he printed in better type "people of all nations; an useful toy for girl or boy." of approximately the same size as the other volumes, it was bound with stiff sides and calf back. the plates, engraved on copper, represent men of various nationalities in the favorite alphabetical order. a is an american. v is a virginian,--an indian in scant costume of feathers with a long pipe,--who, the printed description says, "is generally dressed after the manner of the english; but this is a poor african, and made a slave of." an orang-outang represents the letter o, and according to the author, is "a wild man of the woods, in the east indies. he sleeps under trees, and builds himself a hut. he cannot speak, but when the natives make a fire in the woods he will come and warm himself." ten years later there was still some difficulty in getting exact descriptions of unfamiliar animals. thus in "a familiar description of beasts and birds" the baboon is drawn with a dog's body and an uncanny head with a snout. the reader is informed that "the baboon has a long face resembling a dog's; his eyes are red and very bright, his teeth are large and strong, but his swiftness renders him hard to be taken. he delights in fishing, and will stay for a considerable time under water. he imitates several of our actions, and will drink wine, and eat human food." another series of three books, written by william darton, the english publisher and maker of toy-books, was called "chapters of accidents, containing caution and instruction." thrilling accounts of "escapes from danger" when robbing birds'-nests and hunting lions and tigers were intermingled with wise counsel and lessons to be gained from an "upset cart," or a "balloon excursion." with one incident the philadelphia printer took the liberty of changing the title to "cautions to walkers on the streets of philadelphia." high street, now market street, is represented in a picture of the young woman who, unmindful of the warning, "never to turn hastily around the corner of a street," "ran against the porter's load and nearly lost one of her eyes." the change, of course, is worthy of notice only because of the slight effort to locate the story in america. [illustration: _a virginian_] [illustration: _a baboon_] an attempt to familiarize children with flowers resulted in two tales, called "the rose's breakfast" and "flora's gala," in which flowers were personified as they took part in fêtes. "garden amusements, for improving the minds of little children," was issued by samuel wood of new york with this advertisement: "this little treatise, (written and first published in the great emporium of the british nation) containing so many pleasing remarks for the juvenile mind, was thought worthy of an american edition.... being so very natural, ... and its tendency so moral and amusing, it is to be hoped an advantage will be obtained from its re-publication in freedonia." dialogue was the usual method of instruction employed by miss edgeworth and her followers. in "garden amusements" the conversation was interrupted by a note criticising a quotation from milton as savoring too much of poetic license. cowper also gained the anonymous critic's disapproval, although it was his point of view and not his style that came under censure. in still another series of stories often reprinted from london editions were those moral tales with the sub-title "cautionary stories in verse." mr. william james used these "cautionary verses for children" as an example of the manner in which "the muse of evangelical protestantism in england, with the mind fixed on the ideas of danger, had at last drifted away from the original gospel of freedom." "chronic anxiety," mr. james continued, "marked the earlier part of this [nineteenth] century in evangelical circles." a little salmon-colored volume, "the daisy," is a good example of this series. each rhyme is a warning or an admonition; a chronic fear that a child might be naughty. "drest or undrest" is typical of the sixteen hints for the proper conduct of every-day life contained in the innocent "daisy:" "when children are naughty and will not be drest, pray what do you think is the way? why, often i really believe it is best to keep them in night-clothes all day! "but then they can have no good breakfast to eat, nor walk with their mother and aunt; at dinner they'll have neither pudding nor meat, nor anything else that they want. "then who would be naughty and sit all the day in night-clothes unfit to be seen! and pray who would lose all their pudding and play for not being drest neat and clean." two other sets of books with a like purpose were brought out by charles about eighteen hundred and sixteen. one began with those familiar nursery verses entitled "my mother," by ann taylor, which were soon followed by "my father," all the family, "my governess," and even "my pony." the other set of books was "calculated to promote benevolence and virtue in children." "little fanny," "little nancy," and "little sophie" were all held up as warnings of the results of pride, greed, and disobedience. [illustration: _drest or undrest_] the difference between these heroines of fiction and the characters drawn by maria edgeworth lies mainly in the fact that they spoke in rhyme instead of in prose, and that they were almost invariably naughty; or else the parents were cruel and the children suffered. rarely do we find a cheerful tale such as "the cherry orchard" in this cautionary style of toy-book. still more rarely do we find any suspicion of that alloy of nonsense supposed by miss edgeworth to make the sense work well. it is all quite serious. "little nancy, or, the punishment of greediness," is representative of this sort of moral and cautionary tale. the frontispiece, "embellishing" the first scene, shows nancy in receipt of an invitation to a garden party: "now the day soon appear'd but she very much fear'd she should not be permitted to go. her best frock she had torn, the last time it was worn; which was very vexatious, you know." however, the mother consents with the _caution_: "not to greedily eat the nice things at the treat; as she much wished to break her of this." arrived at the party, nancy shared the games, and "at length was seated, with her friends to be treated; so determin'd on having her share, that she drank and she eat ev'ry thing she could get, yet still she was loth to forbear." the disastrous consequences attending nancy's disregard of her mother's admonition are displayed in a full-page illustration, which is followed by another depicting the sorrowful end in bed of the day's pleasure. then the moral: "my young readers beware, and avoid with great care such _excesses_ as these you've just read; for be sure you will find it your interest to mind what your friends and relations have said." perhaps of all the toy imprints of the early century none are more curious in modern eyes than the three or four german translations printed by philadelphia firms. in eighteen hundred and nine johnson and warner issued "kleine erzählungen über ein buch mit kupfern." this seems to be a translation of "a mother's remarks over a set of cuts," and contains a reference to another book entitled "anecdoten von hunden." still another book is extant, printed in eighteen hundred and five by zentler, "unterhaltungen für deutsche kinder." this, according to its preface, was one of a series for which jacob and benjamin johnson had consented to lend the plates for illustrations. patriotism, rather than diversion, still characterized the very little original work of the first quarter of the century for american children. a book with the imposing title of "geographical, statistical and political amusement" was published in philadelphia in eighteen hundred and six. "this work," says its advertisement, "is designed as an easy means of uniting instruction with pleasure ... to entice the youthful mind to an acquaintance with a species of information [about the united states] highly useful." "the juvenile magazine, or miscellaneous repository of useful information," issued in eighteen hundred and three, contained as its only original contribution an article upon general washington's will, "an affecting and most original composition," wrote the editor. this was followed seven years later by the well-known "life of george washington," by m.l. weems, in which was printed the now famous and disputed cherry-tree incident. its abridged form known to present day nursery lore differs from the long drawn out account by weems, who, like thomas day, risked being diffuse in his desire to show plainly his moral. the last part of the story sufficiently gives his manner of writing: "presently george and his hatchet made their appearance. 'george,' said his father, 'do you know who killed that beautiful little cherry tree yonder in the garden?' that was a tough question; and george staggered under it for a moment; but quickly recovered himself, and looking at his father, with the sweet face of youth brightened with the inexpressible charm of all conquering truth, he bravely cried out, 'i can't tell a lie, pa; you know i can't tell a lie. i did cut it with my hatchet!' 'run to my arms, you dearest boy,' cried his father in transports, 'run to my arms; glad am i, george, that you killed my tree; for you have paid me for it a thousand fold. such an act of heroism is worth more than a thousand trees, though blossomed with silver, and their fruits of purest gold.'" franklin's "way to wealth" was considered to be perfectly adapted to all children's comprehension, and was issued by various publishers of juvenile books. by eighteen hundred and eight it was illustrated and sold "with fine engravings for twenty-five cents." of patriotic poetry there was much for grown folks, but the "patriotic and amatory songster," advertised by s. avery of boston about the time weems's biography was published, seems a title ill-suited to the juvenile public for whom avery professed to issue it. among the books which may be cited as furnishing instructive amusement with less of the admixture of moral purpose was the "london cries for children," with pictures of street peddlers. this was imitated in america by the publication of the "cries of new york" and "cries of philadelphia." in the lenox collection there is now one of the various editions of the "cries of new york" (published in ), which is valuable both as a record of the street life of the old-fashioned town of ninety-six thousand inhabitants, and as perhaps the first child's book of purely local interest, with original woodcuts very possibly designed and engraved by alexander anderson. the "cries of new york" is of course modelled after the "london cries," but the account it gives of various incidents in the daily life of old new york makes us grateful for the existence of this child's toy. a picture of a chimney-sweep, for instance, is copied, with his cry of "sweep, o, o, o, o," from the london book, but the text accompanying it is altered to accord with the custom in new york of firing a gun at dawn: "about break of day, after the morning gun is heard from governor's island, and so through the forenoon, the ears of the citizens are greeted with this uncouth sound from figures as unpleasant to the sight, clothed in rags and covered with soot--a necessary and suffering class of human beings indeed--spending their childhood thus. and in regard to the unnecessary bawling of those sooty boys; it is _admirable_ in such a noisy place as this, where every needless sound should be hushed, that such disagreeable ones should be allowed. the prices for sweeping chimneys are--one story houses twelve cents; two stories, eighteen cents; three stories, twenty-five cents, and so on." "hot corn" was also cried by children, whose business it was to "gather cents, by distributing corn to those who are disposed to regale themselves with an ear." baked pears are pictured as sold "by a little black girl, with the pears in an earthen dish under her arm." at the same season of the year, "here's your fine ripe water-melons" also made itself heard above the street noises as a street cry of entirely american origin. again there were pictured "oyster stands," served by negroes, and these were followed by cries of "fine clams: choice clams, here's your rock-a-way beach clams: here's your fine young, sand clams," from flushing cove bay, which the text explains, "turn out as good, or perhaps better," than oysters. the introduction of negroes and negro children into the illustrations is altogether a novelty, and together with the scenes drawn from the street life of the town gave to the old-fashioned child its first distinctly american picture-book. indeed, with the exception of this and an occasional illustration in some otherwise english reproduction, all the american publishers at this time seem to have modelled their wares for small children after those of two large london firms, j. harris, successor to newbery, and william darton. to darton, the author of "little truths," the children were indebted for a serious attempt to improve the character of toy-books. a copper-plate engraver by profession, darton's attention was drawn to the scarcity of books for children by the discovery that there was not much written for them that was worth illustrating. like newbery, he set about to make books himself, and with john harvey, also an engraver, he set up in grace church street an establishment for printing and publishing, from which he supplied, to a great extent, the juvenile books closely imitated by american printers. besides his own compositions, he was very alert to encourage promising authors, and through him the famous verses of jane and ann taylor were brought into notice. "original poems," and "rhymes for the nursery," by these sisters, were to the old-time child what stevenson's "child's garden of verses" is to the modern nursery. darton and harvey paid ten pounds for the first series of "original poems," and fifteen pounds for the second; while "rhymes for the nursery" brought to its authors the unusual sum of twenty pounds. the taylors were the originators of that long series of verses for infants which "my sister" and "my governess" strove to surpass but never in any way equalled, although they apparently met with a fair sale in america. [illustration: _little nancy_] enterprising american booksellers also copied the new ways of advertising juvenile books. an instance of this is afforded by johnson and warner of philadelphia, who apparently succeeded jacob and benjamin johnson, and had, by eighteen hundred and ten, branch shops in richmond, virginia, and lexington, kentucky. they advertised their "neatly executed books of amusement" in book notes in the "young gentlemen and ladies' magazine," by means of digressions from the thread of their stories, and sometimes by inserting as frontispiece a rhyme taken from one used by john harris of st. paul's churchyard: "at jo---- store in market street a sure reward good children meet. in coming home the other day i heard a little master say for ev'ry three-pence there he took he had received a little book. with covers neat and cuts so pretty there's not its like in all the city; and that for three-pence he could buy a story book would make one cry; for little more a book of riddles: then let us not buy drums and fiddles nor yet be stopped at pastry cooks', but spend our money all in books; for when we've learnt each bit by heart mamma will treat us with a tart." later, when engraving had become more general in use, william charles cut for an advertisement, as frontispiece to some of his imprints, an interior scene containing a shelf of books labelled "w. charles' library for little folks." about the same time another form of advertisement came into use. this was the publisher's _recommendation_, which frequently accompanied the narrative in place of a preface. the "story of little henry and his bearer," by mrs. sherwood, a writer of many english sunday-school tales, contained the announcement that it was "fraught with much useful instruction. it is recommended as an excellent thing to be put in the hands of children; and grown persons will find themselves well paid for the trouble of reading it." little henry belonged to the sunday-school type of hero, one whose biography dr. holmes doubtless avoided when possible. yet no history of toy-books printed presumably for children's amusement as well as instruction should omit this favorite story, which represents all others of its class of religion-in-play books. the following incidents are taken from an edition printed by lincoln and edmunds of boston. this firm made a special feature of "books suitable for presents in sunday-school." they sold wholesale for eight dollars a hundred, such tales as taylor's "hymns for infant minds," "friendly instruction," fenelon's "reflections," doddridge's "principles of the christian religion," "pleasures of piety in youth," "walks of usefulness," "practical piety," etc. the objective point of little henry's melancholy history was to prove the "usefulness of female missionaries," said its editor, mrs. cameron, a sister of the author, who at the time was herself living in india. mrs. sherwood based the thread of her story upon the life of a household in india, but it winds itself mainly around the conversion of the faithful indian bearer who served five-year-old henry. this small orphan was one of those morbidly religious children who "never said a bad word and was vexed when he heard any other person do it." he also, although himself "saved by grace," as the phrase then ran in evangelical circles, was chronically anxious lest he should offend the lord. to quote verbatim from this relic of the former religious life would savor too much of ridiculing those things that were sacred and serious to the people of that day. yet the main incidents of the story were these: henry's conversion took place after a year and a half of hard work on the part of a missionary, who finally had the satisfaction of bringing little henry "from the state of grossest heathen darkness and ignorance to a competent knowledge of those doctrines necessary to salvation." this was followed immediately by the offer of henry to give all his toys for a bible with a purple morocco cover. then came the preparations for the teacher's departure, when she called him to her room and catechized him in a manner worthy of cotton mather a century before. after his teacher's departure the boy, mindful of the lady's final admonition, sought to make a christian of his bearer, boosy. like so many story-book parents, henry's mother was altogether neglectful of her child; and consequently he was left much to the care of boosy--time which he improved with "arguments with boosy concerning the great creator of things." but it is not necessary to follow henry through his ardent missionary efforts to the admission of the black boy of his sinful state, nor to the time when the hero was delivered from this evil world. enough has been said to show that the religious child of fiction was not very different from little elizabeth butcher or hannah hill of colonial days, whose pious sayings were still read when "little henry" was introduced to the american child. indeed, when mrs. sherwood's fictitious children were not sufficiently religious to come up to the standard of five-year-old henry, their parents were invariably as pious as the father of the "fairchild family." this was imported and reprinted for more than one generation as a "best seller." it was almost a modernized version of janeway's "token for children," with mather's supplement of "a token for the children of new england," in its frequent production of death-bed scenes, together with painful object lessons upon the sinfulness of every heart. to impress such lessons mr. fairchild spared his family no sight of horror or distress. he even took them to see a man on the gallows, "that," said the ingenuous gentleman, "they may love each other with a perfect and heavenly love." as the children gazed upon the dreadful object the tender father described in detail its every phase, and ended by kneeling in prayer. the story of evelyn in the third chapter was written as the result of a present of books from an american _universalist_, whose doctrines mrs. sherwood thought likely to be pernicious to children and should be controverted as soon as possible. later, other things emanating from america were considered injurious to children, but this seems to be the first indication that american ideas were noticed in english juvenile literature. but all this lady's tales were not so lugubrious, and many were immense favorites. children were even named for the hero of the "little millenium boy." publishers frequently sent her orders for books to be "written to cuts," and the "busy bee," the "errand boy," and the "rose" were some of the results of this method of supplying the demand for her work. naturally, mrs. sherwood, like miss edgeworth, had many imitators, but if we could believe the incidents related as true to life, parents would seem to have been either very indifferent to their children or forever suspicious of them. in newbery's time it had been thought no sin to wear fine buckled shoes, to be genteelly dressed with a wide "ribband;" but now the vain child was one who wore a white frock with pink sash, towards whom the finger of scorn was pointed, and from whom the moral was unfailingly drawn. vanity was, apparently, an unpardonable sin, as when in a "moral tale," "mamma observed the rising lass by stealth retiring to the glass to practise little arts unseen in the true genius of thirteen." the constant effort to draw a lesson from every action sometimes led to overstepping the bounds of truth by the parents themselves, as for example in a similar instance of love for a mirror. "what is this i see, harriet?" asked a mother in "emulation." "is that the way you employ your precious time? i am no longer surprised at the alteration in your looks of late, that you have appeared so sickly, have lost your complexion; in short i have twenty times been on the point of asking you if you are ill. you look shockingly, child." "i am very well, mamma, indeed," cried harriet, quite alarmed. "impossible, my dear, you can never look well, while you follow such an unwholesome practice. looking-glasses were never intended for little girls, and very few sensible people use them as there is something really poisonous in their composition. to use them is not only prejudicial to the health but to the disposition." although this conception of the use of looking-glasses as prejudicial to right living seems to hark back to the views expressed in the old story of the "prodigal daughter," who sat before a mirror when the devil made his second appearance, yet the world of story-book literature, even though its creators were sometimes either careless or ignorant of facts, now also emphasized the value of general knowledge, which it endeavored to pour in increasing quantity into the nursery. miss more had started the stream of goody-goody books, while miss edgeworth, mrs. barbauld, and thomas day were the originators of the deluge of conversational bores, babies, boys, and teachers that threatened to flood the family book-shelves of america when the american writers for children came upon the scene. footnotes: [ -a] as long ago as seventeen hundred and sixty-two, garrat noel, a dutch bookseller in new york, advertised that, "according to his annual custom, he ... provided a very large assortment of books ... as proper presents at christmas." see page . [ -a] linton, _wood engraving in america_. boston, . [ -a] linton, _wood engraving in america_. boston, . [ -a] linton, _wood engraving in america_. boston, . chapter vii - old story-books! old story-books! we owe you much, old friends, bright-coloured threads in memory's warp, of which death holds the ends. who can forget? who can spurn the ministers of joy that waited on the lisping girl and petticoated boy? talk of your vellum, gold embossed, morocco, roan, and calf; the blue and yellow wraps of old were prettier by half. eliza cooke their works of amusement, when not laden with more religion than the tale can hold in solution, are often admirable. _quarterly review_, chapter vii - _american writers and english critics_ it is customary to refer to the early writings of washington irving as works that marked the time when literature pure and simple developed in america. such writing as had hitherto attracted attention concerned itself, not with matters of the imagination, but with facts and theories of current and momentous interest. religion and the affairs of the separate commonwealths were uppermost in people's minds in colonial days; political warfare and the defence of the policy of congress absorbed attention in revolutionary times; and later the necessity of expounding principles of government and of fostering a national feeling produced a literature of fact rather than of fancy. gradually all this had changed. a new generation had grown up with more leisure for writing and more time to devote to the general culture of the public. the english periodical with its purpose of "improving the taste, awakening the attention, and amending the heart," had once met these requirements. later on these periodicals had been keenly enjoyed, but at the same time there appeared american magazines, modelled after them, but largely filled by contributions from literary americans. early in the nineteenth century such publications were current in most large towns. from the short essays and papers in these periodicals to the tales of cooper and irving the step, after all, was not a long one. the children's literature of amusement developed, after the end of the eighteenth century, in a somewhat similar way, although as usual tagging along after that of their parents. with the constantly increasing population the production of children's books grew more profitable, and in eighteen hundred and two benjamin johnson made an attempt to publish a "juvenile magazine" in philadelphia. its purpose was to be a "miscellaneous repository of useful information;" but the contents were so largely drawn from english sources that it was probably, like the toy-books, pirated from an english publisher. indeed, one of the few extant volumes contains only one article of distinctly american composition among essays on _education_, the _choice of a wife_, _love_, papers on natural history, selections from poems by coleridge and cowper; and by anonymous makers of verse about _consumption_ and _friendship_. the american contribution, a discussion of president washington's will, has already been mentioned. in the same year, , the "juvenile olio" was started, edited by "amyntor," but like johnson's "juvenile magazine," was only issued at irregular intervals and was short-lived. other ventures in children's periodicals continued to be made, however. the "juvenile magazine," with "religious, moral, and entertaining pieces in prose and verse," was compiled by arthur donaldson, and sold in eighteen hundred and eleven as a monthly in philadelphia--then the literary centre--for twelve and a half cents a number. in eighteen hundred and thirteen, in the same city, the "juvenile portfolio" made its appearance, possibly in imitation of joseph dennie's "port folio;" but it too failed from lack of support and interest. boston proved more successful in arousing attention to the possibilities in a well-conducted children's periodical, although it was not until thirteen years later that lydia maria child established the "juvenile miscellany for the instruction and amusement of youth." three numbers were issued in , and thereafter it appeared every other month until august, , when it was succeeded by a magazine of the same name conducted by sarah j. hale. this periodical is a landmark in the history of story-writing for the american child. here at last was an opportunity for the editors to give to their subscribers descriptions of cities in their own land in place of accounts of palaces in persia; biographies of national heroes instead of incidents in the life of mahomet; and tales of indians rather than histories of arabians and turks. for its pages mrs. sigourney, miss eliza leslie, mrs. wells, miss sedgwick, and numerous anonymous contributors gladly sent stories of american scenes and incidents which were welcomed by parents as well as by children. in the year following the first appearance of mrs. hale's "juvenile miscellany," the march number is typical of the amusement and instruction the editor endeavored to provide. this contained a life of benjamin franklin (perhaps the earliest child's life of the philosopher and statesman), a tale of an indian massacre of an entire settlement in maine, an essay on memory, a religious episode, and extracts from a traveller's journal. the traveller, quite evidently a bostonian, criticised new york in a way not unfamiliar in later days, as a city where "the love of literature was less strong than in some other parts of the united states;" and then in trying to soften the statement, she fell into a comparison with philadelphia, also made many times since the gentle critic observed the difference. "new york," she wrote, "has energy, spirit, and bold, lofty enterprise, totally wanting in philadelphia, ... a place of neat, well regulated plans." also, like the english story-book of the previous century, this american "miscellany" introduced _maxims for a student_, found, it cheerfully explained, "among the manuscripts of a deceased friend." puzzles and conundrums made an entertaining feature, and as the literary _chef d'oeuvre_ was inserted a poem supposed to be composed by a babe in south carolina, but of which the author was undoubtedly mrs. gilman, whose ideas of a baby's ability were certainly not drawn from her own nursery. a rival to the "juvenile miscellany" was the "youth's companion," established at this time in boston by nathaniel p. willis and the reverend asa rand. the various religious societies also began to issue children's magazines for sunday perusal: the massachusetts sunday school union beginning in the "sabbath school times," and other societies soon following its example. "parley's magazine," planned by samuel g. goodrich and published by lilly, wait and company of boston, ran a successful course of nine years from eighteen hundred and thirty-three. the prospectus declared the intention of its conductors "to give descriptions of manners, customs, and countries, travels, voyages, and adventures in various parts of the world, interesting historical notes, biography, particularly of young persons, original tales, cheerful and pleasing rhymes, and to issue the magazine every fortnight." the popularity of the name of peter parley insured a goodly number of subscriptions from the beginning, and the life of "parley's magazine" was somewhat longer than any of its predecessors. in the south the idea of issuing a juvenile magazine was taken up by a firm in charleston, and the "rose bud" was started in eighteen hundred and thirty. the "rose bud," a weekly, was largely the result of the success of the "juvenile miscellany," as the editor of the southern paper, mrs. gilman, was a valued contributor to the "miscellany," and had been encouraged in her plan of a paper for children of the south by the boston conductors of the northern periodical. mrs. gilman was born in boston, and at sixteen years of age had published a poem most favorably criticised at the time. marrying a clergyman who settled in charleston, she continued her literary work, but was best known to our grandmothers as the author of "recollections of a new england housekeeper." the "rose bud" soon blossomed into the "southern rose," a family paper, but faded away in . among other juvenile weeklies of the time may be mentioned the "juvenile rambler" and the "hive," which are chiefly interesting by reason of the opportunity their columns offered to youthful contributors. another series of "miscellaneous repositories" for the instructive enjoyment of little people was furnished by the annuals of the period. these, of course, were modelled after the adult annuals revolving in social circles and adorning the marble-topped tables of drawing-rooms in both england and america. issued at the christmas and new year seasons, these children's annuals formed the conventional gift-book for many years, and publishers spared no effort to make them attractive. indeed, their red morocco, silk, or embossed scarlet cloth bindings form a cheerful contrast to the dreary array of black and drab cloth covering the fiction of both old and young. better illustrations were also introduced than the ugly cuts "adorning" the other books for juvenile readers. oliver pelton, joseph andrews (who ranked well as an engraver), elisha gallaudet, joseph g. kellogg, joseph i. pease, and thomas illman were among the workers in line-engraving whose early work served to illustrate, often delightfully, these popular collections of children's stories. among the "annualettes," "keepsakes," "evening hours," and "infant's hours" published at intervals after eighteen hundred and twenty-five the "token" stands preëminent. edited by samuel g. goodrich (peter parley) between the years eighteen hundred and twenty-eight and eighteen hundred and forty-two, its contents and illustrations were almost entirely american. edward everett, bishop doane, a.h. everett, john quincy adams, longfellow, hawthorne, miss sedgwick, eliza leslie, dr. holmes, horace greeley, james t. fields, and gulian verplanck--all were called upon to make the "token" an annual treat to children. of the many stories written for it, only hawthorne's "twice told tales" survive; but the long list of contributors of mark in american literature cannot be surpassed to-day by any child's book by contemporary authors. the contents, although written in the style of eighty years ago, are undoubtedly good from a literary standpoint, however out of date their story-telling qualities may be. and, moreover, the "token" assuredly gave pleasure to the public for which its yearly publication was made. [illustration: _children of the cottage_] by eighteen hundred and thirty-five the "annual" was in full swing as a popular publication. then an international book was issued, "the american juvenile keepsake," edited by mrs. hofland, the well-known writer of english stories for children. mrs. hofland cried up her wares in a manner quite different from that of the earlier literary ladies. "my table of contents," she wrote in her introduction, "exhibits a list of names not exceeded in reputation by any preceding juvenile annual; for, although got up with a celerity almost distressing in the hurry it imposed, such has been the kindness of my literary friends, that they have left me little more to wish for." among the english contributors were miss mitford, miss jean roberts, miss browne, and mrs. hall, the ablest writers for english children, and already familiar to american households. mrs. hofland, herself, wrote one of its stories, noteworthy as an early attempt of an english author to write for an american juvenile public. she found her theme in the movement of emigration strong in england just then among the laboring people. no amount of discouragement and bitter criticism of the united states by the british press was sufficient to stem appreciably the tide of laborers that flowed towards the country whence came information of better wages and more work. mrs. hofland, although writing for little americans, could not wholly resist the customary fling at american life and society. she acknowledged, however, that long residence altered first impressions and brought out the kernel of american character, whose husk only was visible to sojourners. she deplored the fact that "gay english girls used only to the polished society of london were likely to return with the impression that the men were rude and women frivolous." this impression the author was inclined to believe unjust, yet deemed it wise, because of the incredulous (perhaps even in america!), to back her own opinion by a note saying that this view was also shared by a valued friend who had lived fourteen years in raleigh, south carolina. having thus done justice, in her own eyes, to conditions in the new country, mrs. hofland, launched the laborer's family upon the sea, and followed their travels from new york to lexington, kentucky, at that time a land unknown to the average american child beyond some hazy association with the name of daniel boone. it was thus comparatively safe ground on which to place the struggles of the immigrants, who prospered because of their english thrift and were an example to the former residents. of course the son grew up to prove a blessing to the community, and eventually, like the heroes in old isaiah thomas's adaptations of newbery's good boys, was chosen congressman. there is another point of interest in connection with this english author's tale. whether consciously or not, it is a very good imitation of peter parley's method of travelling with his characters in various lands or over new country. it is, perhaps, the first instance in the history of children's literature of an american story-writer influencing the english writer of juvenile fiction. and it was not the only time. so popular and profitable did goodrich's style of story become that somewhat later the frequent attempts to exploit anonymously and profitably his pseudonymn in england as well as in america were loudly lamented by the originator of the "tales of peter parley." it is, moreover, suggestive of the gradual change in the relations between the two countries that anything written in america was thought worth imitating. america, indeed, was beginning to supply incidents around which to weave stories for british children and tales altogether made at home for her own little readers. in the same volume mrs. s.c. hall also boldly attempted to place her heroine in american surroundings. philadelphia was the scene chosen for her tale; but, having flattered her readers by this concession to their sympathies and interest, the author was still sufficiently insular to doubt the existence of a competent local physician in this the earliest medical centre in the united states. an english family had come to make their home in the city, where the mother's illness necessitated the attendance of a french doctor to make a correct diagnosis of her case. an operation was advised, which the mother, mrs. allen, hesitated to undergo in an unknown land. emily, the fourteen-year-old daughter, urged her not to delay, as she felt quite competent to be in attendance, having had "five teeth drawn without screaming; nursed a brother through the whooping-cough and a sister through the measles." "ma foi, mademoiselle," said the french doctor, "you are very heroic; why, let me see, you talk of being present at an operation, which i would not hardly suffer my junior pupils to attend." "put," said the heroic damsel, "my resolution, sir, to any test you please; draw one, two, three teeth, i will not flinch." and this courage the writer thought could not be surpassed in a london child. it is needless to say that emily's fortitude was sufficient to endure the sight of her mother's suffering, and to nurse her to complete recovery. evidently residence in america had not yet sapped the young girl's moral strength, or reduced her to the frivolous creature an american woman was reputed in england to be. among the home contributors to "the american juvenile keepsake" were william l. stone, who wrote a prosy article about animals; and mrs. embury, called the mitford of america (because of her stories of village life), who furnished a religious tale to controvert the infidel doctrines considered at the time subtly undermining to childish faith, with probable reference to the unitarian movement then gaining many adherents. mrs. embury's stories were so generally gloomy, being strongly tinged with the melancholy religious views of certain church denominations, that one would suppose them to have been eminently successful in turning children away from the faith she sought to encourage. for this "keepsake" the same lady let her poetical fancy take flight in "the remembrance of youth is a sigh," a somewhat lugubrious and pessimistic subject for a child's christmas annual. occasionally a more cheerful mood possessed "ianthe," as she chose to call herself, and then we have some of the earliest descriptions of country life in literature for american children. there is one especially charming picture of a walk in new england woods upon a crisp october day, when the children merrily hunt for chestnuts among the dry brown leaves, and the squirrels play above their heads in the many colored boughs. [illustration: _henrietta_] dr. holmes has somewhere remarked upon the total lack of american nature descriptions in the literature of his boyhood. no birds familiar to him were ever mentioned; nor were the flowers such as a new england child could ever gather. only english larks and linnets, cowslips and hawthorn, were to be found in the toy-books and little histories read to him. "everything was british: even the robin, a domestic bird," wrote the doctor, "instead of a great fidgety, jerky, whooping thrush." but when peter parley, jacob abbott, lydia maria child, mrs. embury, and eliza leslie began to write short stories, the annuals and periodicals abounded in american scenes and local color. there was also another great incentive for writers to work for children. this was the demand made for stories from the american sunday school union, whose influence upon the character of juvenile literature was a force bearing upon the various writers, and whose growth was coincident with the development of the children's periodical literature. the american sunday school union, an outgrowth of the several religious publication societies, in eighteen hundred and twenty-four began to do more extensive work, and therefore formed a committee to judge and pronounce upon all manuscripts, which american writers were asked to submit. the sessions of the sunday-schools were no longer held for illiterate children only. the younger members of each parish or church were found upon its benches each sunday morning or afternoon. to promote and to impress the religious teaching in these schools, rewards were offered for well-prepared lessons and regular attendance. also the scholars were encouraged to use the sunday-school library. for these different purposes many books were needed, but naturally only those stamped with the approval of the clergyman in charge were circulated. the board of publication appointed by the american sunday school union--composed chiefly of clergymen of certain denominations--passed upon the merits of the many manuscripts sent in by piously inclined persons, and edited such of them as proved acceptable. the marginal notes on the pages of the first edition of an old sunday-school favorite bear witness to the painstaking care of the editors that the leaflets, tracts, and stories poured in from all parts of the country should "shine by reason of the truth contained," and "avoid the least appearance, the most indirect insinuations, of anything which can militate against the strictest ideas of propriety." the tales had also to keep absolutely within the bounds of religion. many were the stories found lacking in direct religious teaching, or returned because religion was not vitally connected with the plot, to be rewritten or sent elsewhere for publication. the hundreds of stories turned out in what soon became a mechanical fashion were of two patterns: the one of the good child, a constant attendant upon sabbath school and divine worship, but who died young after converting parent or worldly friend during a painful illness; the other of the unregenerate youth, who turned away from the godly admonition of mother and clergyman, refused to attend sunday-school, and consequently fell into evil ways leading to the thief's or drunkard's grave. often a sick mother was introduced to claim emotional attention, or to use as a lay figure upon which to drape scripture texts as fearful warnings to the black sheep of the family. indeed, the little reader no sooner began to enjoy the tale of some sweet and gentle girl, or to delight in the mischievous boy, than he was called upon to reflect that early piety portended an early death, and youthful pranks led to a miserable old age. neither prospect offered much encouragement to hope for a happy life, and from conversations with those brought up on this form of religious culture, it is certain that if a child escaped without becoming morbid and neurotic, there were dark and secret resolves to risk the unpleasant future in favor of a happy present. the stories, too, presented a somewhat paradoxical familiarity with the ways of a mysterious providence. this was exceedingly perplexing to the thoughtful child, whose queries as to justice were too often hushed by parent or teacher. in real life, every child expected, even if he did not receive, a tangible reward for doing the right thing; but providence, according to these authors, immediately caused a good child to become ill unto death. it is not a matter for surprise that the healthy-minded, vigorous child often turned in disgust from the sunday-school library to search for cooper's tales of adventure on his father's book-shelves. the correct and approved child's story, even if not issued under religious auspices, was thoroughly saturated with religion. whatever may have been the practice of parents in regard to their own reading, they wished that of the nursery to show not only an educational and moral, but a religious tendency. the books for american children therefore divided themselves into three classes: the denominational story, to set forth the doctrines of one church; the educational tale; and the moral narrative of american life. the denominational stories produced by the several sunday-school societies were, as has been said, only a kind of scaffolding upon which to build the teachings of the various churches. but their sale was enormous, and a factor to be reckoned with because of their influence upon the educational and moral tales of their period. by eighteen hundred and twenty-seven, fifty-thousand books and tracts had been sent out by one sunday-school society alone.[ -a] there are few things more remarkable in the history of juvenile literature than the growth of the business of the american sunday school union. by eighteen hundred and twenty-eight it had issued over seven hundred of these religious trifles, varying from a sixteen-page duodecimo to a small octavo volume; and most of these appear to have been written by americans trying their inexperienced pens upon a form of literature not then recognized as difficult. the influence of such a flood of tiny books could hardly have been other than morbid, although occasionally there floated down the stream duodecimos which were grasped by little readers with eagerness. such volumes, one reader of bygone sunday-school books tells us, glimmered from the dark depths of death and prison scenes, and were passed along with whispered recommendation until their well-worn covers attracted the eye of the teacher, and were quickly found to be missing from library shelves. others were commended in their stead, such as described the city boy showing the country cousin the town sights, with most edifying conversation as to their history; or, again, amusement of a light and alluring character was presumably to be found in the story of a little maid who sat upon a footstool at her mother's knee, and while she hemmed the four sides of a handkerchief, listened to the account of missionary enterprises in the dark corners of the earth. to us of to-day the small illustrations are perhaps the most interesting feature, preserving as they do children's occupations and costumes. in one book we see quaintly frocked and pantaletted girls and much buttoned boys in sunday-school. in another, entitled "election day," are pictured two little lads watching, from the square in front of independence hall, the handing in of votes for the president through a window of the famous building--a picture that emphasizes the change in methods of casting the ballot since eighteen hundred and twenty-eight. that engravers were not always successful when called upon to embellish the pages of the sunday-school books, many of them easily prove. that the designers of woodcuts were sometimes lacking in imagination when obliged to depict bible verses can have no better example than the favorite vignette on title-pages portraying "my soul doth magnify the lord" as a man with a magnifying glass held over a blank space. perhaps equal in lack of imagination was the often repeated frontispiece of "mercy streaming from the cross," illustrated by a large cross with an effulgent rain beating upon the luxuriant tresses of a languishing lady. there were many pictures but little art in the old-fashioned sunday-school library books. it was in philadelphia that one of the first, if not the first children's library was incorporated in as the apprentices' library. eleven years later this library contained more than two thousand books, and had seven hundred children as patrons. the catalogue of that year is indicative of the prevalence of the sunday-school book. "adventures of lot" precedes the "affectionate daughter-in-law," which is followed by "anecdotes of christian missions" and "an alarm to unconverted sinners." turning the yellowed pages, we find "hannah swanton, the casco captive," histories of bible worthies, the "infidel class," "little deceiver reclaimed," "letters to little children," "juvenile piety," and "julianna oakley." the bookish child of this decade could not escape from the "reformed family" and the consumptive little christian, except by taking refuge in the parents' novels, collections of the british poets and essayists, and the constantly increasing american writings for adults. perhaps in this way the sunday-school books may be counted among that long list of such things as are commonly called blessings in disguise. [illustration: _a child and her doll_] aside from the strictly religious tale, the contents of the now considerable output of harper and brothers, mahlon day, samuel wood and sons of new york; cottons and barnard, lincoln and edmunds, lilly, wait and company, munroe and francis of boston; matthew carey, conrad and parsons, morgan and sons, and thomas t. ashe of philadelphia--to mention but a few of the publishers of juvenile novelties--are convincing proof that booksellers catered to the demand for stories with a strong religious bias. the "new york weekly," indeed, called attention to day's books as "maintaining an unbroken tendency to virtue and piety." when not impossibly pious, these children of anonymous fiction were either insufferable prigs with a steel moral code, or so ill-bred as to be equally impossible and unnatural. the favorite plan of their creators was to follow miss edgeworth's device of contrasting the good and naughty infant. the children, too, were often cousins: one, for example, was the son of a gentleman who in his choice of a wife was influenced by strict religious principles; the other boy inherited his disposition from his mother, a lady of bland manners and fine external appearance, but who failed to establish in her offspring "correct principles of virtue, religion, and morality." the author paused at this point in the narrative to discuss the frailties of the lady, before resuming its slender thread. who to-day could wade through with children the good-goody books of that generation? happily, many of the writers for little ones chose to be unknown, for it would be ungenerous to disparage by name these ladies who considered their productions edifying, and in their ingenuousness never dreamed that their stories were devoid of every quality that makes a child's book of value to the child. they were literally unconscious that their tales lacked that simplicity and directness in style, and they themselves that knowledge of human nature, absolutely necessary to construct a pleasing and profitable story. the watchwords of these painstaking ladies were "religion, virtue, and morality," and heedless of everything else, they found oblivion in most cases before they gained recognition from the public they longed to influence. the decade following eighteen hundred and thirty brought prominently to the foreground six american authors among the many who occasioned brief notice. of these writers two were men and four were women. jacob abbott and samuel g. goodrich wrote the educational tales, abbott largely for the nursery, while goodrich devoted his attention mainly to books for the little lads at school. the four women, mrs. sarah j. hale, miss eliza leslie, miss catharine sedgwick, and mrs. lydia h. sigourney, wrote mainly for girls, and took american life as their subject. mrs. hale wrote much for adults, but when editor of the "juvenile miscellany," she made various contributions to it. yet to-day we know her only by one of her "poems for children," published in boston in eighteen hundred and thirty--"mary had a little lamb." mary's lamb has travelled much farther than to school, and has even reached that point when its authorship has been disputed. quite recently in the "century magazine" mrs. hale's claim to its composition has been set forth at some length by mr. richard w. hale, who shows clearly her desire when more than ninety years of age to be recognized as the originator of these verses, in fact, "shortly before her death," wrote mr. hale, "she directed her son to write emphatically that every poem in her book of eighteen hundred and thirty was of her own composition." although rarely seen in print, "mary had a little lamb" has outlived all other nursery rhymes of its day; perhaps because it had most truly the quality, unusual at the time, of being told directly and simply--a quality, indeed, that appeals to every generation. miss leslie, like mrs. hale, did much editing, beginning on adult gift-books and collections of housewife's receipts, and then giving most of her attention to juvenile literature. as editor miss leslie did good work on the "violet" and the "pearl," both gift-books for children. she also abridged, edited, and rewrote "the wonderful traveller," and the adventures of munchausen, gulliver, and sindbad, heroes often disregarded by this period of lack of imagination and over-supply of educational theories. also, as a writer of stories for little girls and school-maidens, eliza leslie met with warm approval on both sides of the atlantic. undoubtedly the success of eliza leslie's "american girls' book," modelled after the english "boy's own book," and published in , added to the popularity attained by her earlier work, although of this she was but the compiler. the "american girls' book" was intended for little girls, and by dialogue, the prevailing mode of conveying instruction or amusement, numerous games and plays were described. already many of the pastimes have gone out of fashion. "lady queen anne" and "robin's alive," "a dangerous game with a lighted stick," are altogether unknown; "track the rabbit" has changed its name to "fox and geese;" "hot buttered beans" has found a substitute in "hunt the thimble;" and "stir the mush" has given place to "going to jerusalem." but miss leslie did more than preserve for us these old-fashioned games. she has left sketches of children's ways and nature in her various stories for little people. she shared, of course, in the habit of moralizing characteristic of her day, but her children are childish, and her heroines are full of the whims, and have truly the pleasures and natural emotions, of real children. miss leslie began her work for children in eighteen hundred and twenty-seven, when "atlantic stories" were published, and as her sketches of child-life appeared one after another, her pen grew more sure in its delineation of characters and her talent was speedily recognized. even now "birthday stories" are worth reading and treasuring because of the pictures of family life eighty years ago. the "souvenir," for example, is a christmas tale of old philadelphia; the "cadet's sister" sketches life at west point, where the author's brother had been a student; while the "launch of the frigate" and "anthony and clara" tell of customs and amusements quite passed away. the charming description of children shopping for their simple christmas gifts, the narrative of the boys who paid a poor lad in a bookstore to ornament their "writing-pieces" for more "respectable presents" to parents, the quiet celebration of the day itself, can ill be spared from the history of child life and diversions in america. it is well to be reminded, in these days of complex and expensive amusements, of some of the saner and simpler pleasures enjoyed by children in miss leslie's lifetime. all of this writer's books, moreover, have some real interest, whether it be "althea vernon," with the description of summer life and fashions at far rockaway (new york's manhattan beach of ), or "henrietta harrison," with its sarcastic reference to the fashionable school where the pupils could sing french songs and italian operas, but could not be sure of the notes of "hail columbia." or again, the account is worth reading of the heroine's trip to new york from philadelphia. "simply habited in a plaid silk frock and thibet shawl," little henrietta starts, under her uncle's protection, at five o'clock in the morning to take the boat for bordentown, new jersey. there she has her first experience of a railway train, and looks out of the window "at all the velocity of the train will allow her to see." at heightstown small children meet the train with fruit and cakes to sell to hungry travellers. and finally comes the wonderful voyage from amboy to the battery in new york, which is not reached until night has fallen. this is the simple explanation as to why eliza leslie's books met with so generous a reception: they were full of the incidents which children love, and unusually free from the affectations of the pious fictitious heroine. the stories of miss catharine sedgwick also received most favorable criticism, and in point of style were certainly better than miss leslie's. her reputation as a literary woman was more than national, and "redwood," one of her best novels, was attributed in france to fenimore cooper, when it appeared anonymously in eighteen hundred and twenty-four. miss sedgwick's novels, however, pass out of nursery comprehension in the first chapters, although these were full of a healthy new england atmosphere, with coasting parties and picnics, indians and gypsies, nowhere else better described. the same tone pervades her contributions to the "juvenile miscellany," the "token," and the "youth's keepsake," together with her best-known children's books, "stories for children," "a well spent hour," and "a love token for children." in contrast to mrs. sherwood's still popular "fairchild family," catharine sedgwick's stories breathe a sunny, invigorating atmosphere, abounding in local incidents, and vigorous in delineation of types then plentiful in new england. "she has fallen," wrote one admirer, most truthfully, in the "north american review" of ,--"she has fallen upon the view, from which the treasures of our future literature are to be wrought. a literature to have real freshness must be moulded by the influences of the society where it had its origin. letters thrive, when they are at home in the soil. miss sedgwick's imaginations have such vigor and bloom because they are not exotics." another reviewer, aroused by english criticism of the social life in america, and full of the much vaunted theory that "all men are equal," rejoiced in the author's attitude towards the so-called "help" in new england families in contrast to miss more's portrayal of the english child's condescension towards inferiors, which he thought unsuitable to set before the children in america. all miss sedgwick's stories were the product of her own keen intelligence and observation, and not written in imitation of miss more, miss edgeworth, or mrs. sherwood, as were the anonymous tales of "little lucy; or, the pleasant day," or "little helen; a day in the life of a naughty girl." they preached, indeed, at length, but the preaching could be skipped by interested readers, and unlike the work of many contemporaries, there was always a thread to take up. mrs. lydia h. sigourney, another favorite contributor to magazines, collected her "poetry for children" into a volume bearing this title, in eighteen hundred and thirty-four, and published "tales and essays" in the same year. these were followed two years later by "olive buds," and thereafter at intervals she brought out several other books, none of which have now any interest except as examples of juvenile literature that had once a decided vogue and could safely be bought for the sunday-school library. the names of mrs. anna m. wells, mrs. frances s. osgood, mrs. farrar, mrs. eliza l. follen, and mrs. seba smith were all well beloved by children eighty years ago, and their writings, if long since lost sight of, at least added their quota to the children's publications which were distinctly american. if the quantity of books sold is any indication of the popularity of an author's work, nothing produced by any of these ladies is to be compared with the "tales of peter parley" and the "rollo books" of jacob abbott. the tendency to instruct while endeavoring to entertain was remodelled by these men, who in after years had a host of imitators. great visions of good to children had overtaken dreams of making children good, with the result that william darton's conversational method of instruction was compounded with miss edgeworth's educational theories and elaborated after the manner of hannah more. samuel goodrich, at least, confessed that his many tales were the direct result of a conversation with miss more, whom, because of his admiration for her books, he made an effort to meet when in england in eighteen hundred and twenty-three. while talking with the old lady about her "shepherd of salisbury plain," the idea came to mr. goodrich that he, himself, might write for american children and make good use of her method of introducing much detail in description. as a child he had not found the few toy-books within his reach either amusing or interesting, with the exception of this englishwoman's writings. he resolved that the growing generation should be better served, but little dreamed of the unprecedented success, as far as popularity was concerned, that the result of his determination would prove. after his return to america, the immediate favorable reception of the "token," under goodrich's direction, led to the publication in the same year ( ) of "peter parley's tales about america," followed by "tales about europe." at this date of retrospection the first volume seems in many ways the best of any of the numerous books by the same author. the boy hero, taken as a child companion upon a journey through several states, met with adventures among indians upon the frontiers, and saw places of historical significance. every incident is told in imitation of miss more, with that detailed description which goodrich had found so fascinating. if a little overdone in this respect, the narrative has certainly a freshness sadly deficient in many later volumes. even the second tale seems to lack the engaging spontaneity of the first, and already to grow didactic and recitative rather than personal. but both met with an equally generous and appreciative reception. parley's educational tales were undoubtedly the american pioneers in what may be readily styled the "travelogue" manner used in later years by elbridge brooks and many other writers for little people. these early attempts of parley's to educate the young reader were followed by one hundred others, which sold like hot cakes. of some tales the sales reached a total of fifty thousand in one year, while it is estimated that seven million of peter parley's "histories" and "tales" were sold before the admiration of their style and qualities waned. peter parley took his heroes far afield. jacob abbott adopted another plan of instruction in the majority of his books. beginning in eighteen hundred and thirty-four with the "young christian series," the reverend mr. abbott soon had readers in england, scotland, germany, france, holland, and india, where many of his volumes were translated and republished. in the "rollo books" and "franconia" an attempt was made to answer many of the questions that children of each century pour out to astonish and confound their elders. the child reader saw nothing incongruous in the remarkable wisdom and maturity of mary bell and beechnut, who could give advice and information with equal glibness. the advice, moreover, was often worth following, and the knowledge occasionally worth having; and the little one swallowed chunks of morals and morsels of learning without realizing that he was doing so. most of both was speedily forgotten, but many adults in after years were unconsciously indebted to goodrich and abbott for some familiarity with foreign countries, some interest in natural science. notwithstanding the immense demand for american stories, there was fortunately still some doubt as to whether this remodelled form of instructive amusement and moral story-book literature did not lack certain wholesome features characteristic of the days when fairies and folklore, and newbery's gilt volumes, had plenty of room on the nursery table. "i cannot very well tell," wrote the editor of the "fairy book"[ -a] in ,--"i cannot very well tell why it is that the good old histories and tales, which used to be given to young people for their amusement and instruction, as soon as they could read, have of late years gone quite out of fashion in this country. in former days there was a worthy english bookseller, one mr. newbery, who used to print thousands of nice little volumes of such stories, which, as he solemnly declared in print in the books themselves, he gave away to all little boys and girls, charging them only a sixpenny for the gold covers. these of course no one could be so unreasonable as to wish him to furnish at his own expense.... yet in the last generation, american boys and girls (the fathers and mothers, grandfathers and grandmothers of the present generation) were not wholly dependent upon mr. newbery of st. paul's church-yard, though they knew him well and loved him much. the great benjamin franklin, when a printer in philadelphia, did not disdain to print divers of newbery's books adorned with cuts in the likeness of his, though it must be confessed somewhat inferior.[ -b] yet rude as they were, they were probably the first things in the way of pictures that west and copley ever beheld, and so instilled into those future painters, the rudiments of that art by which they afterwards became so eminent themselves, and conferred such honour upon their native country. in somewhat later time there were the worthy hugh gaine, at the sign of the bible and crown in pearl street, and the patriotic samuel loudon, and the genuine and unadulterated new yorker, evert duyckinck, besides others in boston and philadelphia, who trod in the steps of newbery, and supplied the infant mind with its first and sweetest literary food. the munificent newbery, and the pious and loyal hugh gaine, and the patriotic samuel loudon are departed. banks now abound and brokers swarm where loudon erst printed, and many millions worth of silk and woolen goods are every year sold where gaine vended his big bibles and his little story-books. they are all gone; the glittering covers and their more brilliant contents, the tales of wonder and enchantment, the father's best reward for merit, the good grandmother's most prized presents. they are gone--the cheap delight of childhood, the unbought grace of boyhood, the dearest, freshest, and most unfading recollections of maturer life. they are gone--and in their stead has succeeded a swarm of geological catechisms, entomological primers, and tales of political economy--dismal trash, all of them; something half-way between stupid story-books and bad school-books; being so ingeniously written as to be unfit for any useful purpose in school and too dull for any entertainment out of it." this is practically charles lamb's lament of some thirty years before. lamb had despised the learned charles, mrs. barbauld's peg upon which to hang instruction, and now an american shakespeare lover found the use of toy-books as mechanical guides to knowledge for nursery inmates equally deplorable. yet an age so in love with the acquirement of solid facts as to produce a parley and an abbott was the period when the most famous of all nursery books was brought out from the dark corner into which it had been swept by the theories of two generations, and presented once again as "the only true mother goose melodies." the origin of mother goose as the protecting genius of the various familiar jingles has been an interesting field of speculation and research. the claim for boston as the birthplace of their sponsor has long ago been proved a poor one, and now seems likely to have been an ingenious form of advertisement. but boston undoubtedly did once again make popular, at least in america, the lullabies and rhymes repeated for centuries around french or english firesides. the history of mother goose and her brood is a long one. "mother goose," writes mr. walter t. field, "began her existence as the raconteuse of fairy tales, not as the nursery poetess. as la mère oye she told stories to french children more than two hundred and fifty years ago." according to the researches made by mr. field in the literature of mother goose, "the earliest date at which mother goose appears as the author of children's stories is , when charles perrault, a distinguished french littérateur, published in paris a little book of tales which he had during that and the preceding year contributed to a magazine known as 'moejen's recueil,' printed at the hague. this book is entitled 'histoires ou contes du tems passé, avec des moralitez,' and has a frontispiece in which an old woman is pictured, telling stories to a family group by the fireside while in the background are the words in large characters, 'contes de ma mère l'oye.'" it seems, however, to have been john newbery's publishing-house that made mother goose sponsor for the ditties in much the form in which we now have them. in newbery's collection of "melodies" there were numerous footnotes burlesquing dr. johnson and his dictionary, together with jests upon the moralizing habit prevalent among authors. there is evidence that goldsmith wrote many of these notes when doing hack-work for the famous publisher in st. paul's churchyard. it is known, for instance, that in january, , goldsmith celebrated the production of his "good natur'd man" by dining his friends at an inn. during the feast he sang his favorite song, said to be "there was an old woman tos't up in a blanket, seventy times as high as the moon." this was introduced quite irrelevantly in the preface to "mother goose's melodies," but with the apology that it was a favorite with the editor. there is also the often quoted remark of miss hawkins as confirming goldsmith's editorship: "i little thought what i should have to boast, when goldsmith taught me to play jack and jill, by two bits of paper on his fingers." but neither of these statements seems to have more weight in solving the mystery of the editor's name than the evidence of the whimsically satirical notes themselves. how like the author of the "vicar of wakefield" and the children's "fables in verse" is this remark underneath: "'there was an old woman who liv'd under a hill, and if she's not gone, she lives there still.' "this is a self evident proposition, which is the very essence of truth. she lived under the hill, and if she's not gone, she lives there still. nobody will presume to contradict this. _croesa._" and is not this also a good-natured imitation of that kind of seriously intended information which mr. edgeworth inserted some thirty years later in "harry and lucy:" "dry, what is not wet"? again this note is appended to "see saw margery daw jacky shall have a new master:" "it is a mean and scandalous practise in authors to put notes to things that deserve no notice." who except goldsmith was capable of this vein of humor? when munroe and francis in boston undertook about eighteen hundred and twenty-four to republish these old-fashioned rhymes, in the practice of the current theory that everything must be simplified, they omitted all these notes and changed many of the "melodies." sir walter scott's "donnel dhu" was included, and the beautiful shakespeare selections, "when daffodils begin to 'pear," "when the bee sucks," etc., were omitted. doubtless the american editors thought that they had vastly improved upon the newbery publication in every word changed and every line omitted. in reality, they deprived the nursery of much that might well have remained as it was, although certain expressions were very properly altered. in a negative manner they did one surprising and fortunate thing: in leaving out the amusing notes they did not attempt to replace them, and consequently the nursery had one book free from that advice and precept, which in other verse for children resulted in persistent nagging. the illustrations were entirely redrawn, and abel bowen and nathaniel dearborn were asked to do the engraving for this americanized edition. of the poetry written in america for children before eighteen hundred and forty there is little that need be said. much of it was entirely religious in character and most of it was colorless and dreary stuff. the "child's gem" of eighteen hundred and thirty-eight, considered a treasury of precious verse by one reviewer, and issued in embossed morocco binding, was characteristic of many contemporary _poems_, in which nature was forced to exude precepts of virtue and industry. the following stanzas are no exception to the general tone of the contents of practically every book entitled "poetry for children:" "'be good, little edmund,' your mother will say, she will whisper it soft in your ear, and often repeat it, by night and by day that you may not forget it, my dear. "and the ant at its work, and the flower-loving bee and the sweet little bird in the wood as it warbles its song, from its nest in the tree, seems to say, 'little eddy be good.'" the change in the character of the children's books written by americans had begun to be seriously noticed in england. although there were still many importations (such as the series written by mrs. sherwood), there was some inclination to resent the stocking of american booksellers' shelves by the work of local talent, much to the detriment of english publishers' pockets. the literary critics took up the subject, and thought themselves justified in disparaging many of the american books which found also ready sale on english book-counters. the religious books underwent scathing criticism, possibly not undeserved, except that the english productions of the same order and time make it now appear that it was but the pot calling the kettle black. almost as much fault was found with the story-books. it apparently mattered little that the tables were now turned and british publishers were pirating american tales as freely and successfully as thomas and philadelphia printers had in former years made use of newbery's, and darton and harvey's, juvenile novelties in book ware. in the "quarterly review" of , in an article entitled "books for children," the writer found much cause for complaint in regard to stories then all too conspicuous in bookshops in england. "the same egregious mistakes," said the critic, "as to the nature of a child's understanding--the same explanations, which are all but indelicate, and always profane--seem to pervade all these american mentors; and of a number by peter parley, abbott, todd, &c., it matters little which we take up." "under the name of peter parley," continued the disgruntled gentleman, after finding only malicious evil in poor mr. todd's efforts to explain religious doctrines, "such a number of juvenile school-books are current--some greatly altered from the originals and many more by _adopters_ of _mr. goodrich's_ pseudonym--that it becomes difficult to measure the merits or demerits of the said _magnus parens_, goodrich." liberal quotations followed from "peter parley's farewell," which was censured as palling to the mind of those familiar with the english sources from which the facts had been irreverently culled. the reviewer then passed on to another section of "american abominations" which "seem to have some claim to popularity since they are easily sold." "these," continued the anonymous critic, "are works not of amusement--those we shall touch upon later--but of that half-and-half description where instruction blows with a side wind.... accordingly after impatient investigation of an immense number of little tomes, we are come to the conclusion that they may be briefly classified--firstly, as containing such information as any child in average life who can speak plainly is likely to be possessed of; and secondly, such as when acquired is not worth having." to this second class of book the reverend mr. abbott's "rollo books" were unhesitatingly consigned. they were regarded as curiosities for "mere occupation of the eye, and utter stagnation of the thoughts, full of empty minutiae with all the rules of common sense set aside." next the writer considered the style of those americans who persuaded shillings from english pockets by "ingeniously contrived series which rendered the purchase of a single volume by no means so recommendable as that of all." the "uncouth phraseology, crack-jack words, and puritan derived words are nationalized and therefore do not permit cavilling," continued the reviewer, dismayed and disgusted that it was necessary to warn his public, "but their children never did, or perhaps never will, hear any other language; and it is to be hoped they _understand_ it. at all events, we have nothing to do but keep ours from it, believing firmly that early familiarity with refined and beautiful forms ... is one of the greatest safeguards against evil, if not necessary to good." however, the critic did not close his article without a good word for those ladies in whose books we ourselves have found merit. "their works of amusement" he considered admirable, "when not laden with more religion than the tale can hold in solution. miss sedgwick takes a high place for powers of description and traits of nature, though her language is so studded with americanisms as much to mar the pleasure and perplex the mind of an english reader. besides this lady, mrs. sigourney and mrs. seba smith may be mentioned. the former, especially, to all other gifts adds a refinement, and nationality of subject, with a knowledge of life, which some of her poetical pieces led us to expect. indeed the little americans have little occasion to go begging to the history or tradition of other nations for topics of interest." the "westminster review" of eighteen hundred and forty was also in doubt "whether all this americanism [such as parley's 'tales' contained] is desirable for english children, were it," writes the critic, "only for them we keep the 'pure well of english undefiled,' and cannot at all admire the improvements which it pleases that go-ahead nation to claim the right of making in our common tongue: unwisely enough as regards themselves, we think, for one of the elements in the power of a nation is the wide spread of its language." this same criticism was made again and again about the style of american writers for adults, so that it is little wonder the children's books received no unqualified praise. but americanisms were not the worst feature of the "inundation of american children's books," which because of their novelty threatened to swamp the "higher class" english. they were feared because of the "multitude of false notions likely to be derived from them, the more so as the similarity of name and language prevents children from being on their guard, and from remembering that the representations that they read are by foreigners." it was the american view of english institutions (presented in story-book form) which rankled in the british breast as a "condescending tenderness of the free nation towards the monarchical régime" from which at any cost the english child must be guarded. in this respect peter parley was the worst offender, and was regarded as "a sad purveyor of slip-slop, and no matter how amusing, ignorant of his subject." that gentleman, meanwhile, read the criticisms and went on making "bread and butter," while he scowled at the english across the water, who criticised, but pirated as fast as he published in america. gentle miss eliza leslie received altogether different treatment in this review of american juvenile literature. she was considered "good everywhere, and particularly so for the meridian in which her tales were placed;" and we quite agree with the reviewer who considered it well worth while to quote long paragraphs from her "tell tale" to show its character and "truly useful lesson." "to america," continued this writer, "we also owe a host of little books, that bring together the literature of childhood and the people; as 'home,' 'live and let live' [by miss sedgwick], &c., but excellent in intention as they are, we have our doubts, as to the general reception they will meet in this country while so much of more exciting and elegant food is at hand." even if the food of amusement in england appeared to the british mind more spiced and more _elegant_, neither miss leslie's nor miss sedgwick's fictitious children were ever anaemic puppets without wills of their own,--a type made familiar by miss edgeworth and persisted in by her admirers and successors,--but vitalized little creatures, who acted to some degree, at least, like the average child who loved their histories and named her dolls after favorite characters. to-day these english criticisms are only of value as showing that the american story-book was no longer imitating the english tale, but was developing, by reason of the impress of differing social forces, a new type. its faults do not prevent us from seeing that the spirit expressed in this juvenile literature is that of a new nation feeling its own way, and making known its purpose in its own manner. while we smile at sedulous endeavors of the serious-minded writers to present their convictions, educational, religious, or moral, in palatable form, and to consider children always as a race apart, whose natural actions were invariably sinful, we still read between the lines that these writers were really interested in the welfare of the american child; and that they were working according to the accepted theories of the third decade of the nineteenth century as to the constituents of a juvenile library which, while "judicious and attractive, should also blend instruction with innocent amusement." [illustration: _the little runaway_] and now as we have reached the point in the history of the american story-book when it is popular at least in both english-speaking countries, if not altogether satisfactory to either, what can be said of the value of this juvenile literature of amusement which has developed on the tiny pages of well-worn volumes? if, of all the books written for children by americans seventy-five years and more ago, only nathaniel hawthorne's "wonder book" has survived to the present generation; of all the verse produced, only the simple rhyme, "mary had a little lamb," and clement moore's "the night before christmas" are still quoted, has their history any value to-day? if we consider that there is nothing more rare in the fiction of any nation than the popular child's story that endures; nothing more unusual than the successful well-written juvenile tale, we can perhaps find a value not to be reckoned by the survival or literary character of these old-fashioned books, but in their silent testimony to the influence of the progress of social forces at work even upon so small a thing as a child's toy-book. the successful well-written child's book has been rare, because it has been too often the object rather than the manner of writing that has been considered of importance; because it has been the aim of all writers either to "improve in goodness" the young reader, as when, two hundred years ago, cotton mather penned "good lessons" for his infant son to learn at school, or, to quote the editor of "affection's gift" (published a century and a quarter later), it has been for the purpose of "imparting moral precepts and elevated sentiments, of uniting instruction and amusement, through the fascinating mediums of interesting narrative and harmony of numbers." the result of both intentions has been a collection of dingy or faded duodecimos containing a series of impressions of what each generation thought good, religiously, morally, and educationally, for little folk. if few of them shed any light upon child nature in those long-ago days, many throw shafts of illumination upon the change and progress in american ideals and thought concerning the welfare of children. as has already been said, the press supplied what the public taste demanded, and if the writers produced for earlier generations of children what may now be considered lumber, the press of more modern date has not progressed so far in this field of literature as to make it in any degree certain that our children's treasures may not be consigned to an equal oblivion. for these too are but composites made by superimposing the latest fads or theories as to instructive amusement of children upon those of previous generations of toy-books. most of what was once considered the "perfume of youth and freshness" in a literary way has been discarded as dry and unprofitable, mistaken or deceptive; and yet, after all has been said by way of criticism of methods and subjects, these chap-books, magazines, gift and story books form our best if blurred pictures of the amusements and daily life of the old-time american child. we are learning also to prize these small "histories" as part of the progress of the arts of book-making and illustration, and of the growth of the business of publishing in america; and already we are aware of the fulfilment of what was called by one old bookseller, "tom thumb's maxim in trade and politics:" "he who buys this book for two-pence, and lays it up till it is worth three-pence, may get an hundred per cent by the bargain." footnotes: [ -a] _election day_, p. . american sunday school union, . [ -a] mr. g.c. verplanck was probably the editor of this book, published by harper & bros. [ -b] this statement the writer has been unable to verify. _index_ index abbott, jacob, , , , , , , . abbott, john s.c., . a, b, c book, . a, b, c of religion, . absence from christ intolerable, . adams, john, . adams, mrs. john, . adams, j.a., . adams, john quincy, . addison, joseph, . adventures of a peg-top, . adventures of a pincushion, , , . adventures of lot, . aesop, , , , , , , . affectionate daughter-in-law, . affection's gift, . aikin, dr. john, , , . ainsworth, robert, . aitkin, robert, , . alarm to unconverted sinners, an, . althea vernon, . american antiquarian society, . american flag, . american girls' book, . american juvenile keepsake, , . american sunday school union, , , . american weekly mercury, . ami des enfans, , . amyntor, . anderson, dr. alexander, - , . andré, major john, . andrews, joseph, . andrews, thomas, . anecdoten von hunden, . anecdotes of christian missions, . animated nature, . annales of madame de genlis, . annual register, . anthony and clara, . arabian nights, . argalus & parthenia, . arnold, benedict, , . arthur's geographical grammar, . art's treasury, . ashe, thomas t., . ashton, john, . atlantic stories, . avery, s., . babcock, sidney, , . bache, benjamin, , , , , . bag of nuts ready cracked, . bailey, francis, . banbury chap-books, , , . barbauld, anna letitia, - , , - , , , , , . barclay, andrew, , . baskerville, john, . battelle, e., . battle of the kegs, . be merry and wise, , . beecher, rev. dr. lyman, . belcher, j., , . bell, robert, , , , , . benezet, anthony, . berquin, arnaud, , , . bewick, thomas, , , , , , . bewick's quadrupeds, . bibliography of worcester, . big and little puzzling caps, . biography for boys, . biography for girls, , . birthday stories, . blossoms of morality, . blue beard, the history of, , . body of divinity versified, . book for boys and girls; or, country rhimes for children, . book for boys and girls; or, temporal things spiritualized, . book of knowledge, , . book of martyrs, . books for children, . bookseller of the last century, the, , . boone, daniel, . boone, nicholas, . boston chronicle, , . boston evening post, , , . boston gazette and country journal, . boston news letter, . boston public library, . bowen, abel, , . boy and his paper of plumbs, . boy and the watchmaker, . boy's own book, . boyle, john, , . bradford, andrew, , , . bradford, thomas, , , . brewer, printer, . brooke, henry, . brooks, elbridge, . brother's gift, , , . browne, miss, . brynberg, peter, . buccaneers of america, . bunyan, john, - . burr, aaron, - . burr, theodosia, , . burton, r., , . burton's historical collections, . busy bee, . butcher, elizabeth, , , . butterworth, hezekiah, . cadet's sister, . cameron, lucy lyttleton, , . canary bird, the, . carey, matthew, , . carey, robert, . carnan, mr., , . carter, john, . catechism, , , , . catechism of new england, . cautionary stories in verse, . century magazine, . chandler, samuel, . chap-books of the eighteenth century, . chapone, hester, , , . chapters of accidents, . charles, mary, . charles, william, , , , . cheap repository, . cherry orchard, the, , . child, lydia maria, , . child and his book, , . children in the wood, . children's books and reading, . children's friend, , . children's magazine, the, . children's miscellany, , . child's garden of verses, stevenson's, . child's gem, . child's guide to spelling and reading, . child's instructor, , . child's new play-thing, , - . choice spirits, . christmas box, , . cinderella, , . clarissa harlowe, , - , . clarke, edward, . cock robin, . collection of pretty poems, . collins, benjamin, . complete letter-writer, . congress, the, . conrad and parsons, , . contes de ma mère l'oye, . cooper, james fenimore, , , , . cooper, rev. mr., . copley, john stuart, . cotton, john, , , . cottons and barnard, . country rhimes for children, , . coverly, nathaniel, . cowper, william, , . cox and berry, . cries of london, , . cries of new york, - . cries of philadelphia, . cross, wilbur l., . crouch, nathaniel, . cruel giant barbarico, . crukshank, joseph, , , . custis, john parke, . custis, martha parke, . cuz's chorus, . daisy, the, . darton, william, , , , . darton and harvey, . day, mahlon, , , . day, thomas, - , , , , , . daye, john, . dearborn, nathaniel, , . death and burial of cock robin, . death of abel, . defoe, daniel, . delight in the lord jesus, . description of various objects, a, . development of the english novel, . dennie, joseph, . dilworth, thomas, , , , . divine emblems, . divine songs, . doane, bishop g.w., . doddridge, philip, , . dodsley, robert, . don quixote, . donaldson, arthur, . donnel dhu, . doolittle, amos, . dove, the, . drake, joseph rodman, . draper, samuel, . draper and edwards, . drinker, eliza, , . dryden's poems, . dunlap, john, . dunton, john, , . durell, publisher, , . duyckinck, evert, . early lessons, . earnest exhortation, . easy introduction into the knowledge of nature, . easy lessons for children, , , , . economy of human life, . edgeworth, maria, , , , - , , , - , , , , , , . edgeworth, richard lovell, - , . edwards, joseph, . elegant extracts, . embury, emma c., , . emulation, . english empire in america, . entertaining fables, . errand boy, . evenings at home, , , , . everett, alexander h., . everett, edward, . fables in verse, , . fabulous histories, , . fair rosamond, . fairchild family, the, , , . fairy book, . familiar description of beasts and birds, . farrar, eliza ware, . father's gift, the, . female orators, . fenelon's reflections, . field, e.m., , . field, walter t., . fielding, henry, , , , , . fields, james t., . first book of the american chronicles of the times, . fleet, thomas, , , , . fleming, john, . flora's gala, . follen, eliza l., . food for the mind, , , . fool of quality, . ford, paul leicester, . fowle, zechariah, , , , . fowle and draper, . fox and geese, . foxe, john, . franconia, . frank, . franklin, benjamin, - , , , , - , , , , , , . franklin, sally, , . franklin and hall, . french convert, . friendly instruction, . gaffer two shoes, . gaine, hugh, , , , , , , . gallaudet, elisha, . garden amusements, . generous inconstant, the, . genlis, madame stéphanie-félicité de, , . geographical, statistical and political amusement, . george's junior republic, . gilbert, c., . giles gingerbread, , , , . gilman, caroline, , . going to jerusalem, . goldsmith, oliver, , , , , , , , , . good lessons for children, , , . good natur'd man, . goodrich, samuel g., , - , , , , , - , , - . goody two-shoes, , , , , , , - , , - , . greeley, horace, . green, samuel, , , . green, timothy, . gulliver's adventures, . guy of warwick, . hail columbia, , . hale, richard w., . hale, sarah j., , , . hall, anna maria, , . hall, david, , , . hall, samuel, , . hall, william, . halleck, fitz-greene, . hannah swanton, the casco captive, . happy child, . harper and brothers, , . harris, benjamin, . harris, john, , . harry and lucy, , , , . harvey, john, . hawkins, laetitia matilda, . hawthorne, julian, , , . hawthorne, nathaniel, , , . hebrides, . henrietta harrison, . hildeburn, charles r., , . hill, george birbeck, . hill, hannah, , . histoires ou contes du tems passé, . historical society of pennsylvania, . history of a doll, . history of printing in america, , . history of the american revolution, . history of the holy jesus, , , . history of the institution of cyrus, . history of the robins, . hive, the, . hobby horse, the, , . hofland, barbara, , . holmes, dr. oliver wendell, - , , , . holy bible in verse, . home, . home of washington, . hopkinson, joseph, . hot buttered beans, . house that jack built, . howard, mr., . hudibras, . hunt the thimble, . hymns for infant minds, . hymns in prose and verse, . "ianthe." _see_ embury. illman, thomas, . infidel class, . irving, washington, , . jack and jill, . jack the giant killer, , . jacky dandy's delight, , . james, william, , . jane grey, . janeway, james, , . jenny twitchell's jests, . joe miller's jests, . johnson, benjamin, , , , . johnson, jacob, , , , , , , , . johnson, dr. samuel, , - , , , , , . johnson and warner, , , . johnsonian miscellany, . jones, giles, , . joseph andrews, , , . josephus, . julianna oakley, . juvenile biographers, , . juvenile magazine, , . juvenile miscellany, - , , . juvenile olio, . juvenile piety, . juvenile portfolio, . juvenile rambler, . juvenile trials for robbing orchards, etc., , . keeper's travels in search of his master, . kellogg, joseph g., . kendall, dr., . key, francis scott, . kilner, dorothy, . king pippin, , , , . kleine erzählungen über ein buch mit kupfern, . knox, thomas w., . lady queen anne, . lamb, charles, , , . lansing, g., . lark, the, . launch of the frigate, . lee, richard henry, , . legacy to children, . lenox collection, . leo, the great giant, . leslie, eliza, , , , - , , . letters from the dead to the living, . letters to little children, . liddon, mr., . life of david, . lilly, wait and company, , . lincoln and edmunds, , . linnet, the, . linton, william james, , , . literary magazine, . literature of the american revolution, . little book for children, . little boy found under a haycock, . little deceiver reclaimed, . little dog trusty, . little fanny, . little helen, . little henry, . little henry and his bearer, , . little jack, . little lottery book, . little lucy, . little millenium boy, . little nancy, , - . little pretty pocket-book, a, - , . little readers' assistant, , . little robin red breast, . little scholar's pretty pocket companion, . little sophie, . little truths, , , . little william, . live and let live, . lives of highwaymen, . lives of pirates, . locke, john, - , , , , . london chronicle, . longfellow, henry w., . longworth, david, , . looking-glass, a, . looking glass for the mind, , , , , . lossing, benson j., , , . loudon, samuel, . love token for children, . macaulay, t.b., . magnalia, . mary had a little lamb, , , . mason, a.j., . massachusetts sunday school union, . master jacky and miss harriot, . mather, cotton, , , , - , , , , , , , . mather, elizabeth, . mather, increase, - . mather, samuel, . mein, john, - , , . metamorphosis, a, . milk for babes, , , . milton, john, , . mr. telltruth's natural history of birds, . mitford, mary russell, . moejen's recueil, . moll flanders, . moore, clement clarke, - , . moral tale, . moral tales, . more, hannah, , - , , , - . morgan, engraver, . morgan and sons, , . morgan and yeager, . morton, eliza, . moses, montrose j., . mother goose melodies, , , , , - . mother's gift, , , , . mother's remarks over a set of cuts, a, . munroe and francis, , , , . murray, james, . museum, the, , . my father, . my governess, , . my mother, . my pony, . my sister, . natural history of four footed beasts, . neagle, john, . new england courant, , . new england primer, , , - , , , , . new french primer, . new gift for children with cuts, , - , . new guide to the english tongue, . new picture of the city, . new year's gift, . new york mercury, . new york weekly, . newbery, carnan, . newbery, edward, . newbery, francis, , , , . newbery, john, , , , - , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . newbery, ralph, . nichols, dr. charles l., , . night before christmas, the, , , . noel, garrat, , . north american review, . nutter, valentine, . old mother hubbard, . olive buds, . orangeman, the, . original poems, . osgood, frances s., . oswald, ebenezer, . pamela, , , , , . parable against persecution, . paradise lost, . parent's assistant, . parents' gift, . parker, james, . parley, peter. _see_ goodrich, s.g. pastoral hymn, . patriotic and amatory songster, . peacock at home, . pearl, the, . pearson, edwin, , . pease, joseph i., . pedigree and rise of the pretty doll, - . pelton, oliver, . pennsylvania evening post, . pennsylvania gazette, , . pennsylvania journal, . people of all nations, , . peregrine pickle, , . perrault, charles, , . perry, michael, . philadelphiad, the, . picture exhibition, the, , . pilgrim's progress, , , , , , . pilkington, mary, . pinckney, eliza, . play-thing, the, . pleasures of piety in youth, . plutarch's lives, . poems for children, . poems for children three feet high, . poesie out of mr. dod's garden, . poetical description of song birds, . poetry for children, , . popular tales, . poupard, james, . power of religion, . practical education, . practical piety, . present for a little girl, . preservative from the sins and follies of childhood, . pretty book for children, , , . principles of the christian religion, . pritchard, mr., . private tutor for little masters and misses, . prize for youthful obedience, , . prodigal daughter, the, - , , . protestant tutor for children, , . puritan primer, . puzzling cap, , . quarterly review, . quincy, mrs. josiah, , . raikes, robert, . ralph, w., . rand, rev. asa, . rebels, the, . recollections of a new england housekeeper, . redwood, . rees's encyclopedia, . reformed family, . remembrance of youth is a sigh, . rhymes for the nursery, , . rice, mr., . richardson, samuel, , - , . rivington, james, , , . roberts, jean, . robin red breast, . robin's alive, . robinson crusoe, , , , , , . roderick random, , . roger and berry, . rollin's ancient history, . rollinson, william, . rollo books, , , . rose, the, . rose bud, . rose's breakfast, the, . rowe, elizabeth, . royal battledore, , . royal primer, . russell's seven sermons, . sabbath school times, . sanford and merton, , . scotch rogue, . scott, sir walter, , . scott's (rev. thomas) family bible, . search after happiness, , . sedgwick, catharine maria, , , , , , , , , , . seven wise masters, . seven wise mistresses, . sewall, henry, . sewall, samuel, , . shakespeare, william, , . sharps, william, . sheldon, lucy, . shepherd of salisbury plain, , . sherwood, mary martha, , , , , , . sigourney, lydia h., , , , . simple susan, . sims, joseph, . sir charles grandison, - . sister's gift, , - . skyrin, nancy, , . smart, christopher, . smith, elizabeth oakes, , . smollett, tobias, , , , . song for the red coats, . songs for the nursery, , . southern rose, . souvenir, . sparrow, the, . star spangled banner, . stevenson, robert louis, . stir the mush, . stone, william l., . stories and tales, . stories for children, . stowe, harriet beecher, . strahan, william, - . tale, a: the political balance, . tales and essays, . taylor, ann, , . taylor, jane, , . tell tale, . thackerary, w.m., . thomas, isaiah, - , , , , - , , , - , , , , . thompson, john, . thoughts on education, , , . three stories for children, . todd, john, d.d., . token, the, , , , . token for children, , . token for the children of new england, , , . token for youth, . tom hick-a-thrift, . tom jones, , , , , . tom the piper's son, . tom thumb, , , , , , , , , , , . tommy trapwit, . tommy trip, , , , . track the rabbit, . trimmer, sarah, , , , , . trip's book of pictures, . triumphs of love, . troy (n.y.) sentinel, . twelve caesars, . twice told tales, . two lambs, . two shoemakers, . tyler, moses coit, . unterhaltungen für deutsche kinder, . urax, or the fair wanderer, . valentine and orson, . verplanck, gulian c., , . vicar of wakefield, , . violet, the, . waddell, j., . walks of usefulness, . walters and norman, . walton's lives, . warner and hanna, . washington, george, , , , , , , , , . waste not, want not, - . watts, isaac, , , . way to wealth, . webster, noah, , , . weekly mercury, , , , , , . weekly post-boy, . weems's life of george washington, , . well spent hour, . wells, anna m., , . wells, robert, . welsh, charles, , , , , , , , . west, benjamin, . westminster review, . westminster shorter catechism, . white, william, d.d., . whitefield, george, . widdows, p., . wilder, mary, . willis, nathaniel p., . winslow, anna green, - , . winter evenings' entertainment, , . wonder book, , . wonderful traveller, . wonders of nature and art, . wood, samuel, , , , . wood, samuel, and sons, , . wood-engraving in america, - . woodhouse, william, . worcester magazine, . xenophon, . young, william, . young child's a b c, . young christian series, . young gentlemen and ladies' magazine, . youth's companion, . youth's divine pastime, . youth's keepsake, . zentler, publisher, . * * * * * * transcriber's note: the following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained. misspelled words and typographical errors: p. ix edmands for edmunds p. newbury for newbery p. period missing at end of the sentence "to a boy but" p. paragraph ends with , "her own generation," p. sentence ends with a comma: "the originator of these verses," p. thackerary for thackeray inconsistent hyphenation: folk-lore / folklore school-fellows / schoolfellows school-masters / schoolmasters small-pox / smallpox wood-cut / woodcut a bibliographical antiquarian and picturesque tour. printed by william nicol, at the shakspeare press [illustration: fille de chambre, nuremberg] a bibliographical, antiquarian and picturesque tour in france and germany. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin, d.d. member of the royal academy at rouen, and of the academy of utrecht. second edition. volume iii. [illustration: logo] dei omnia plena. london: published by robert jennings, and john major. . contents of volume iii. contents volume iii. letter i. strasbourg to stuttgart. baden. the elder schweighæuser. stuttgart. the public library. the royal library, letter ii. the royal palace. a bibliographical negotiation. dannecker the sculptor. environs of stuttgart, letter iii. departure from stuttgart. ulm. augsbourg. the picture gallery at augsbourg, letter iv. augsbourg. civil and ecclesiastical architecture. population. trade. the public library, letter v. munich. churches. royal palace. picture gallery. the public library, letter vi. further book-acquisitions. society. the arts, letter vii. freysing. landshut. altöting. salzburg. the monastery of st. peter, letter viii. salzburg to chremsminster. the lake gmunden. the monastery of chremsminster. lintz, letter ix. the monasteries of st. florian, mölk, and göttwic, letter x. vienna. imperial library. illuminated mss. and early printed books, letter xi. population. streets and fountains. churches. convents. palaces. theatres. the prater. the emperor's private library. collection of duke albert. suburbs. monastery of closterneuburg. departure from vienna, supplement. ratisbon, nuremberg, manheim, letter i. strasbourg to stuttgart. baden. the elder schweighÆuser. stuttgart. the public library. the royal library. _stuttgart, poste royale, august , ._ within forty-eight hours of the conclusion of my last, i had passed the broad and rapidly-flowing rhine. having taken leave of all my hospitable acquaintances at strasbourg, i left the _hôtel de l'esprit_ between five and six in the afternoon--when the heat of the day had a little subsided--with a pair of large, sleek, post horses; one of which was bestrode by the postilion, in the red and yellow livery of the duchy of baden. our first halting place, to change horses, was _kehl_; but we had not travelled a league on this side of the rhine, ere we discovered a palpable difference in the general appearance of the country. there was more pasture-land. the houses were differently constructed, and were more generally surrounded by tall trees. our horses carried us somewhat fleetly along a good, broad, and well-conditioned road. nothing particularly arrested our attention till we reached _bischoffsheim, à la haute monté_; where the general use of the german language soon taught us the value of our laquais; who, from henceforth, will be often called by his baptismal name of charles. at bischoffsheim, while fresh horses were being put to, i went to look at the church; an humble edifice--but rather picturesquely situated. in my way thither i passed, with surprise, a great number of _jews_ of both sexes; loitering in all directions. i learnt that this place was the prescribed _limits_ of their peregrinations; and that they were not suffered, by law, to travel beyond it: but whether this law restricted them from entering suabia, or bavaria, i could not learn. i approached the church, and with the aid of a good-natured verger, who happened luckily to speak french, i was conducted all over the interior--which was sufficiently neat. but the object of my peculiar astonishment was, that jews, protestants, and catholics, all flocked alike, and frequently, at the same time, to exercise their particular forms of worship within this church!--a circumstance, almost partaking of the felicity of an utopian commonwealth. i observed, indeed, a small crucifix upon the altar, which confirmed me in the belief that the lutheran worship, according to the form of the augsbourg confession, was practised here; and the verger told me there was no other place of worship in the village. his information might be deceitful or erroneous; but it is to the honour of his character that i add, that, on offering him a half florin for his trouble in shewing me the church, he seemed to think it a point of conscience _not_ to receive it. his refusal was mild but firm--and he concluded by saying, gently repelling the hand which held the money, "jamais, jamais!" is it thus, thought i to myself, that "they order things in" germany? the sun had set, and the night was coming on apace, after we left _bischoffsheim_, and turned from the high road on the left, leading to rastadt to take the right, for _baden_. for the advantage of a nearer cut, we again turned to the right--and passed through a forest of about a league in length. it was now quite dark and late: and if robbers were abroad, this surely was the hour and the place for a successful attack upon defenceless travellers. the postboy struck a light, to enjoy the comfort of his pipe, which he quickly put to his mouth, and of which the light and scent were equally cheering and pleasant. we were so completely hemmed in by trees, that their branches brushed strongly in our faces, as we rolled swiftly along. every thing was enveloped in silence and darkness: but the age of banditti, as well as of chivalry--at least in germany--appears to be "gone." we sallied forth from the wood unmolested; gained again the high road; and after discerning some lights at a distance, which our valet told us (to our great joy) were the lights of baden, we ascended and descended--till, at midnight, we entered the town. on passing a bridge, upon which i discerned a whole-length statue of _st. francis_, (with the infant christ in his arms) we stopped, to the right, at the principal hotel, of which i have forgotten the name; but of which, one monsieur or le baron cotta, a bookseller of this town, is said to be the proprietor. the servants were yet stirring: but the hotel was so crowded that it was impossible to receive us. we pushed on quickly to another, of which i have also forgotten the name--and found the principal street almost entirely filled by the carriages of visitors. here again we were told there was no room for us. had it not been for our valet, we must have slept in the open street; but he recollected a third inn, whither we went immediately, and to our joy found just accommodation sufficient. we saw the carriage safely put into the remise, and retired to rest. the next morning, upon looking out of window, every thing seemed to be faëry land. i had scarcely ever before viewed so beautiful a spot. i found the town of baden perfectly surrounded by six or seven lofty, fir-clad hills, of tapering forms, and of luxuriant verdure. thus, although compared with such an encircling belt of hills, baden may be said to lie in a hollow--it is nevertheless, of itself, upon elevated ground; commanding views of lawns, intersected by gravel walks; of temples, rustic benches, and detached buildings of a variety of description. every thing, in short, bespeaks nature improved by art; and every thing announced that i was in a place frequented by the rich, the fashionable, and the gay. i was not long in finding out the learned and venerable schweighÆuser, who had retired here, for a few weeks, for the benefit of the waters--which flow from _hot_ springs, and which are said to perform wonders. rheumatism, debility, ague, and i know not what disorders, receive their respective and certain cures from bathing in these tepid waters. i found the professor in a lodging house, attached to the second hotel which we had visited on our arrival. i sent up my name, with a letter of introduction which i had received from his son. i was made most welcome. in this celebrated greek scholar, and editor of some of the most difficult ancient greek authors, i beheld a figure advanced in years--somewhere about seventy-five--tall, slim, but upright, and firm upon his legs: with a thin, and at first view, severe countenance--but, when animated by conversation, and accompanied by a clear and melodious voice, agreeable, and inviting to discourse. the professor was accompanied by one of his daughters; strongly resembling her brother, who had shewn me so much kindness at strasbourg. she told me her father was fast recovering strength; and the old gentleman, as well as his daughter, strongly invited us to dinner; an invitation which we were compelled to decline. on leaving, i walked nearly all over the town, and its immediate environs: but my first object was the church, upon the top of the hill; from which the earliest (_protestant_) congregation were about to depart--not before i arrived in time to hear some excellently good vocal and instrumental music, from the front seat of a transverse gallery. there was much in this church which had an english air about it: but my attention was chiefly directed to some bronze monuments towards the eastern extremity, near the altar; and fenced off, if i remember rightly, by some rails from the nave and side aisles. of these monuments, the earliest is that of _frederick, bishop of treves_. he died in , in his th year. the figure of him is recumbent: with a mitre on his head, and a quilted mail for his apron. the body is also protected, in parts, with plate armour. he wears a ring upon each of the first three fingers of his right hand. it is an admirable piece of workmanship: bold, sharp, correct, and striking in all its parts. near this episcopal monument is another, also of bronze, of a more imposing character; namely, of _leopold william margrave or duke of baden_, who died in , and of the _duchess_, his wife. the figure of leopold, evidently a striking portrait, is large, heavy, and ungracious; but that of his wife makes ample amends--for a more beautifully expressive and interesting bronze figure, has surely never been reared upon a monumental pedestal. she is kneeling, and her hands are closed--in the act of prayer. the head is gently turned aside, as well as inclined: the mouth is very beautiful, and has an uncommon sweetness of expression: the hair, behind, is singular but not inelegant. the following is a part of the inscription: "_vivit post funera virtus. numinis hinc pietas conjugis inde trahit_." i would give half a dozen ducats out of the supplemental supply of madame francs to have a fine and faithful copy of this very graceful and interesting monumental figure. as i left the church, the second (_catholic_) congregation was entering for divine worship. meanwhile the heavens were "black with clouds;" the morning till eleven o'clock, having been insufferably hot and a tremendous thunder storm--which threatened to deluge the whole place with rain--moved, in slow and sullen majesty, quite round and round the town, without producing any other effect than that of a few sharp flashes, and growling peals, at a distance. but the darkened and flitting shadows upon the fir trees, on the hills, during the slow wheeling of the threatening storm, had a magnificently picturesque appearance. the walks, lawns, and rustic benches about baden, are singularly pretty and convenient. here was a play-house; there, a temple; yonder, a tavern, whither the _badenois_ resorted to enjoy their sunday dinner. one of these taverns was unusually large and convenient. i entered, as a stranger, to look around me: and was instantly struck by the notes of the deepest-toned bass voice i had ever heard--accompanied by some rapidly executed passages upon the harp. these ceased--and the softer strains of a young female voice succeeded. yonder was a _master singer_[ ]--as i deemed him--somewhat stooping from age; with white hairs, but with a countenance strongly characteristic of intellectual energy of _some_ kind. he was sitting in a chair. by the side of him stood the young female, about fourteen, from whose voice the strains, just heard, had proceeded. they sang alternately, and afterwards together: the man holding down his head as he struck the chords of his harp with a bold and vigorous hand. i learnt that they were uncle and niece. i shall not readily forget the effect of these figures, or of the songs which they sang; especially the sonorous notes of the mastersinger, or minstrel. he had a voice of most extraordinary compass. i quickly perceived that i was now in the land of music; but the guests seemed to be better pleased with their food than with the songs of this old bard, for he had scarcely received a half florin since i noticed him. professor schweighæuser came to visit me at the appointed hour of six, in order to have an evening stroll together to a convent, about two miles off, which is considered to be the fashionable evening walk and ride of the place. i shall long have reason to remember this walk; as well from the instructive discourse of my venerable and deeply learned guide, as from the beauty of the scenery and variety of the company. as the heat of the day subsided, the company quitted their tables in great crowds. the mall was full. here was eugene beauharnois, drawn in a carriage by four black steeds, with traces of an unusual length between the leaders and wheel horses. a grand duke was parading to the right: to the left, a marchioness was laughing _à pleine gorge_. here walked a count, and there rode a general. bavarians, austrians, french, and english--intermixed with the tradesmen of baden, and the rustics of the adjacent country--all, glittering in their gayest sabbath-attires, mingled in the throng, and appeared to vie with each other in gaiety and loudness of talk. we gained a more private walk, within a long avenue of trees; where a small fountain, playing in the midst of a grove of elm and beech, attracted the attention both of the professor and ourselves. "it is here," observed the former--"where i love to come and read your favourite thomson." he then mentioned pope, and quoted some verses from the opening of his essay on man--and also declared his particular attachment to young and akenside. "but our shakspeare and milton, sir--what think you of these?" "they are doubtless very great and superior to either: but if i were to say that i understood them as well, i should say what would be an untruth: and nothing is more disgusting than an affectation of knowing what you have, comparatively, very little knowledge of." we continued our route towards the convent, at a pretty brisk pace; with great surprise, on my part, at the firm and rapid movements of the professor. having reached the convent, we entered, and were admitted within the chapel. the nuns had just retired; but we were shewn the partition of wood which screens them most effectually from the inquisitive eyes of the rest of the congregation. we crossed a shallow, but rapidly running brook, over which was only one plank, of the ordinary width, to supply the place of a bridge. the venerable professor led the way--tripping along so lightly, and yet so surely, as to excite our wonder. we then mounted the hill on the opposite side of the convent; where there are spiral, and neatly trimmed, gravel walks, which afford the means of an easy and pleasant ascent--but not altogether free from a few sharp and steep turnings. from the summit of this hill, the professor bade me look around, and view a valley which was the pride of the neighbourhood, and which was considered to have no superior in suabia. it was certainly very beautiful--luxuriant in pasture and woodland scenery, and surrounded by hills crowned with interminable firs. as we descended, the clock of the convent struck eight, which was succeeded by the tolling of the convent bell. after a day of oppressive heat, with a lowering atmosphere threatening instant tempest, it was equally, grateful and refreshing to witness a calm blue sky, chequered by light fleecy clouds, which, as they seemed to be scarcely impelled along by the evening breeze, were fringed in succession by the hues of a golden sun-set. the darkening shadows of the trees added to the generally striking effect of the scene. as we neared the town, i perceived several of the common people, apparently female rustics, walking in couples, or in threes, with their arms round each others necks, joining in some of the popular airs of their country. the off-hand and dextrous manner in which they managed the _second parts_, surprised and delighted me exceedingly. i expressed my gratification to mr. schweighæuser, who only smiled at my wondering simplicity. "if _these_ delight you so much, what would you say to our _professors_?"--observed he. "possibly, i might not like them quite so well," replied i. the professor pardoned such apparent heresy; and we continued to approach the town. we were thirsty from our walk, and wished to enter the tea gardens to partake of refreshment. our guide became here both our interpreter and best friend; for he insisted upon treating us. we retired into a bocage, and partook of one of the most delicious bottles of white wine which i ever remember to have tasted. he was urgent for a second bottle; but i told him we were very sober englishmen. in our way home, the discourse fell upon literature, and i was anxious to obtain from our venerable companion an account of his early studies, and partialities for the texts of such greek authors as he had edited. he told me that he was first put upon collations of greek mss. by our _dr. musgrave_, for his edition of _euripides_; and that he dated, from that circumstance, his first and early love of classical research. this attachment had increased upon him as he became older--had "grown with his growth, and strengthened with his strength"--and had induced him to grapple with the unsettled, and in parts difficult, texts of _appian_, _epictetus_, and _athenæus_. he spoke with a modest confidence of his _herodotus_--just published: said that he was even then meditating a _second_ latin version of it: and observed that, for the more perfect execution of the one now before the public, he had prepared himself by a diligent perusal of the texts of the purer latin historians. we had now entered the town, and it was with regret that i was compelled to break off such interesting conversation. in spite of the lateness of the hour (ten o'clock) and the darkness of the evening, the worthy old grecian would not suffer me to accompany him home--although the route to his house was devious, and in part precipitously steep, and the professor's sight was not remarkably good. when we parted, it was agreed that i should breakfast with him on the morrow, at eight o'clock, as we intended to quit baden at nine. the next morning, i was true to the hour. the professor's coffee, bread, butter, and eggs were excellent. having requested our valet to settle every thing at the inn, and bring the carriage and horses to the door of m. schweighæuser by nine o'clock, i took a hearty leave of our amiable and venerable host, accompanied with mutual regrets at the shortness of the visit--and with a resolution to cultivate an acquaintance so heartily began. as we got into the carriage, i held up his portrait which mr. lewis had taken,[ ] and told him "he would be neither out of _sight_ nor out of _mind_" he smiled graciously--waved his right hand from the balcony upon which he stood--and by half-past nine we found the town of baden in our rear. i must say that i never left a place, which had so many attractions, with keener regret, and a more fixed determination to revisit it. that "revisit" may possibly never arise; but i recommend all english travellers to spend a week, at the least, at baden--called emphatically, _baden-baden_. the young may be gratified by the endless amusements of society, in many of its most polished forms. the old may be delighted by the contemplation of nature in one of her most picturesque aspects, as well as invigorated by the waters which gush in boiling streams from her rocky soil. i shall not detain you a minute upon the road from baden to this place; although we were nearly twenty-four hours so detained. _rastadt_ and _karlsruhe_ are the only towns worth mentioning in the route. the former is chiefly distinguished for its huge and tasteless castle or palace--a sort of versailles in miniature; and the latter is singularly pleasing to an englishman's eye, from the trim and neat appearance of the houses, walks, and streets; which latter have the footpaths almost approaching to our pavement. you enter and quit the town through an avenue of lofty and large stemmed poplars, at least a mile long. the effect, although formal, is pleasing. they were the loftiest poplars which i had ever beheld. the churches, public buildings, gardens, and streets (of which _latter_ the principal is a mile long) have all an air of tidiness and comfort; although the very sight of them is sufficient to freeze the blood of an antiquary. there is nothing, apparently, more than ninety-nine years old! we dined at karlsruhe, and slept at _schweiberdingen_, one stage on this side of stuttgart: but for two or three stages preceding stuttgart, we were absolutely astonished at the multitude of apple-trees, laden, even to the breaking down of the branches, with goodly fruit, just beginning to ripen: and therefore glittering in alternate hues of red and yellow--all along the road-side as well as in private gardens. the vine too was equally fruitful, and equally promising of an abundant harvest. there was a drizzling rain when we entered this town. we passed the long range of royal stables to the right, and the royal palace to the left; the latter, with the exception of a preposterously large gilt crown placed upon the central part of a gilt cushion, in every respect worthy of a royal residence. on, driving to the hotel of the _roi d'angleterre_, we found every room and every bed occupied; and were advised to go to the place from whence i now address you. but the _roman emperor_ is considered to be more fashionable: that is to say, the charges are more extravagant. another time, however, i will visit neither the one nor the other; but take up my quarters at the _king of wirtemberg_--the neatest, cleanliest, and most comfortable hotel in stuttgart. in _this_ house there is too much noise and bustle for a traveller whose nerves are liable to be affected. as a whole, stuttgart is a thoroughly dull place. its immediate environs are composed of vine-covered hills, which, at this season of the year, have an extremely picturesque appearance; but, in winter, when nothing but a fallow-like looking earth is visible, the effect must be very dreary. this town is large, and the streets--especially the _könings-strasse,_ or king-street,--are broad and generally well paved. the population may be about twenty-two thousand. he who looks for antiquities, will be cruelly disappointed; with the exception of the _hôtel de ville_, which is placed near a church, and more particularly of a _crucifix_--there is little or nothing to satisfy the hungry cravings of a thorough-bred english antiquary. the latter is of stone, of a rough grain, and sombre tint: and the figures are of the size of life. they are partly mutilated; especially the right leg of our saviour, and the nose of st. john. yet you will not fail to distinguish, particularly from the folds of the drapery, that precise character of art which marked the productions both of the chisel and of the pencil in the first half of the sixteenth century. the christ is, throughout, even including the drapery, finely marked; and the attitude of the virgin, in looking up, has great expression. she embraces intensely the foot of the cross; while her eyes and very soul seem to be as intensely rivetted to her suffering and expiring son. i was not long in introducing myself to m. le bret, the head librarian; for the purpose of gaining admission to the public library. that gentleman and myself have not only met, but met frequently and cordially. each interview only increased the desire for a repetition of it: and the worthy and well-informed head librarian has partaken of a trout and veal dinner with me, and shared in one bottle of _fremder wein_, and in another of _ordinärer wein_.[ ] we have, in short, become quite sociable; and i will begin by affirming, that, a more thoroughly competent, active, and honourable officer, for the situation which he occupies, his majesty the king of würtemberg does not possess in any nook, corner, or portion of his suabian dominions. i will prove what i say at the point of--my pen. yet more extraordinary intelligence. a "deed of note" has been performed; and to make the mystery more mysterious, you are to know that i have paid my respects to the king, at his late levee; the first which has taken place since the accouchement of the queen.[ ] and what should be the _object_ of this courtly visit? truly, nothing more or less than to agitate a question respecting the possession of _two old editions of virgil_, printed in the year . but let me be methodical. when i parted from lord spencer on this "bibliographical, antiquarian and picturesque tour," i was reminded by his lordship of the second edition of the _virgil_ printed at rome by _sweynheym_ and _pannartz_, and of another edition, _printed by adam_, in , both being in the public library of this place:--but, rather with a desire, than any seriously-grounded hope, on his part of possessing them. now, when we were running down upon _nancy_--as described in a recent despatch,[ ] i said to mr. lewis, on obtaining a view of what i supposed might be the vosges, that, "behind the vosges was the _rhine_, and on the other side of the rhine was _stuttgart!_ and it was at stuttgart that i should play my first trump-card in the bibliographical pack which i carried about me." but all this seemed mystery, or methodised madness, to my companion. however, i always bore his lordship's words in mind--and something as constantly told me that i should gain possession of these long sought after treasures: but in fair and honourable combat: such as beseemeth a true bibliographical knight. having proposed to visit the public library on the morrow--and to renew the visit as often and as long as i pleased--i found, on my arrival, the worthy head librarian, seriously occupied in a careful estimate of the value of the virgils in question--and holding up _brunet's manuel du libraire_ in his right hand--"tenez, mon ami," exclaimed he, "vous voyez que la seconde édition de virgile, imprimée par vos amis sweynheym et pannartz, est encore plus rare que la premiére." i replied that "c'étoit la fantasie seule de l'auteur." however, he expressed himself ready to receive preliminaries, which would be submitted to the minister of the interior, and by him--to the king; for that the library was the exclusive property of his majesty. it was agreed, in the first instance, that the amount of the pecuniary value of the two books should be given in modern books of our own country; and i must do m. le bret the justice to say, that, having agreed upon the probable pecuniary worth, he submitted a list of books, to be received in exchange, which did equal honour to his liberality and judgment. i have said something about the _local_ of this public library, and of its being situated in the market-place.[ ] this market-place, or square, is in the centre of the town; and it is the only part, in the immediate vicinity of which the antiquarian's eye is cheered by a sight of the architecture of the sixteenth century. it is in this immediate vicinity, that the _hôtel de ville_ is situated; a building, full of curious and interesting relics of sculpture in wood and stone. just before it, is a fountain of black marble, where the women come to fetch water, and the cattle to drink. walking in a straight line with the front of the public library (which is at right angles with the hôtel de ville) you gain the best view of this hotel, in conjunction with the open space, or market place, and of the churches in the distance. about this spot, mr. lewis fixed himself, with his pencil and paper in hand, and produced a drawing from which i select the following felicitous portion. [illustration: drawing] but to return to the public library. you are to know therefore, that the public library of stuttgart contains, in the whole, about , volumes. of these, there are not fewer than volumes relating to the _sacred text_: exclusively of duplicates. this library has been indeed long celebrated for its immense collection of _bibles_. the late king of würtemberg, but more particularly his father, was chiefly instrumental to this extraordinary collection:--and yet, of the very earlier latin impressions, they want the _mazarine_, or the _editio princeps_; and the third volume of _pfister's_ edition. indeed the first volume of their copy of the latter wants a leaf or two of prefatory matter. they have two copies of the first _german bible_, by _mentelin_[ ]--of which _one_ should be disposed of, for the sake of contributing to the purchase of the earliest edition of the latin series. each copy is in the original binding; but they boast of having a _complete series of german bibles_ before the time of luther; and of luther's earliest impression of , printed by peypus, they have a fine copy upon vellum, like that in the althorp library; but i think taller. of fust's bible of , there is but an indifferent and cropt copy, upon paper; but of the _polish bible_ of , there is a very fine one, in the first oaken binding. of _english bibles_, there is no edition before that of , of which the copy happens to be imperfect. they have a good large copy, in the original binding, of the _sclavonian bible_ of . yet let me not dismiss this series of earlier bibles, printed in different languages, without noticing the copies of _italian versions_ of august and october . of the august impression, there is unluckily only the second volume; but such _another_ second volume will not probably be found in any public or private library in europe. it is just as if it had come fresh from the press of _vindelin de spira_, its printer. some of the capital letters are illuminated in the sweetest manner possible. the leaves are white, unstained, and crackling; and the binding is of wood. of the _october_ impression, the copy is unequal: that is to say, the first volume is cruelly cut, but the second is fine and tall. it is in blue morocco binding. i must however add, in this biblical department, that they possess a copy of our _walton's polyglott_ with the _original dedication_ to king charles ii.; of the extreme rarity of which m. le bret was ignorant.[ ] i now come to the classics. of course the _two virgils_ of were the first objects of my examination. the _roman_ edition was badly bound in red morocco; that of _adam_ was in its original binding of wood. when i opened the _latter_, it was impossible to conceal my gratification. i turned to m. le bret, and then to the book--and to the head librarian, and to the book--again and again! "how now, mons. le bibliographe?" (exclaimed the professor--for m. le bret is a professor of belles-lettres), "i observe that you are perfectly enchanted with what is before you?" there was no denying the truth of the remark--and i could plainly discern that the worthy head librarian was secretly enjoying the attestations of my transport. "the more i look at these two volumes (replied i, very leisurely and gravely,) the more i am persuaded that they will become the property of earl spencer." m. le bret laughed aloud at the strangeness of this reply. i proceeded to take a particular account of them.[ ] here is an imperfect copy of an edition of _terence_, by _reisinger_, in folio; having only leaves, and twenty-two lines in a full page.[ ] it is the first copy of this edition which i ever saw; and i am much deceived if it be exceeded by any edition of the same author in rarity: and when i say this, i am not unmindful of the editio princeps of it by _mentelin_--which happens _not_ to be here. there is, however, a beautifully white copy of this latter printer's editio princeps of _valerius maximus_; but not so tall as the largest of the two copies of this same edition which i saw at strasbourg. of the _offices of cicero_, of , there is rather a fine tall copy (within a quarter of an inch of ten inches high) upon vellum; in the original wooden binding. the first two or three leaves have undergone a little martyrdom, by being scribbled upon. of j. de spira's edition of the _epistles of cicero_, of --having the colophon on the recto of the last leaf--here is a fine, broad-margined copy, which however ought to be cleansed from the stains which disfigure it. i was grieved to see so indifferent a copy of the edit. prin. of _tacitus_: but rejoiced at beholding so large and beautiful a one (in its original wooden binding) of the _lucan_ of , with the commentary of omnibonus; printed as i conceive, by _i. de colonia and m. de gherretzem_.[ ] but i had nearly forgotten to acquaint you with a remarkably fine, thick-leaved, crackling copy--yet perhaps somewhat cropt--of cardinal _bessarion's epistles_, printed by sweynheym and pannartz at rome in . it is in old gilt edges, in a sort of binding of wood. i now come to the notice of a few choice and rare _italian books_: and first, for _dante_. here is probably the rarest of all the earlier editions of this poet: that is to say, the edition printed at naples by tuppo, in two columns, having forty-two lines in a full column. at the end of the _inferno_, we read "gloria in excelsis deo," in the gothic letter; the text being uniformly roman. at the end of the _purgatorio_: soli deo gloria. erubescat judeus infelir. at the end of the _paradiso_: deo gratias--followed by tuppo's address to honofrius carazolus of naples. a register is on the recto of the following and last leaf. this copy is large, but in a dreadfully loose, shattered, and dingy state--in the original wooden binding. so precious an edition should be instantly rebound. here is the dante of , with the _commentary of guido terzago, printed at milan in_ , folio. the text of the poet is in a fine, round, and legible roman type--that of the commentator, in a small and disagreeable gothic character. _petrarch_ shall follow. the rarest edition of him, which i have been able to put my hand upon, is that printed at bologna in with the commentary of franciscus philelphus. each sonnet is followed by its particular comment. the type is a small roman, not very unlike the smallest of ulric han, or reisinger's usual type, and a full page-contains forty-one lines. of _boccaccio_, here is nothing which i could observe particularly worthy of description, save the very rare edition of the _nimphale_ of , printed by _bruno valla of piedmont_, and _thomaso of alexandria._ a full page has thirty-two lines. i shall conclude the account of the rarer books, which it was my chance to examine in the public library of stuttgart, with what ought perhaps, more correctly, to have formed the earliest articles in this partial catalogue:--i mean, the _block books_. here is a remarkably beautiful, and uncoloured copy of the first latin edition of the _speculum humanæ salvationis_. it _has_ been bound--although it be now unbound, and has been unmercifully cut. as far as i can trust to my memory, the impressions of the cuts in this copy are sharper and clearer than any which i have seen. of the _apocalypse_, there is a copy of the second edition, wanting a leaf. it is sound and clean, but coloured and cut. unbound, but formerly bound. here is a late german edition of the _ars moriendi_, having thirty-four lines on the first page. of the _historia beatæ virginis_, here is a copy of what i should consider to be the second latin edition; precisely like a german edition of the _biblia pauperum_, with the express date of ,--which is also here. the similarity is in the style of art and character of the type, which latter has much of a _bamberg_ cast about it. but of the _latin biblia pauperum_ here is a copy of the first edition, very imperfect, and in wretched condition. and thus much, or rather thus little, for _block books._ a word or two now for the manuscripts--which, indeed, according to the order usually observed in these letters, should have preceded the description of the printed books. i will begin with a _psalter,_ in small folio, which i should have almost the hardihood to pronounce of the _tenth_--but certainly of the early part of the _eleventh_--century. the text is executed in lower-case roman letters, large and round. it abounds with illuminations, of about two inches in height, and six in length--running horizontally, and embedded as it were in the text. the figures are, therefore, necessarily small. most of these illuminations, have a greenish back-ground. the armour is generally in the roman fashion: the helmets being of a low conical form, and the shields having a large knob in the centre. next comes an _evangelistarium_ "seculo undecimo aut circà annum :--pertinuit ad monasterium gengensbachense in germania, ut legitur in margine primi folii." the preceding memorandum is written at the beginning of the volume, but the inscription to which it alludes has been partly destroyed--owing to the tools of a modern book-binder. the scription of this old ms. is in a thick, lower case, roman letter. the illuminations are interesting: especially that of the scribe, at the beginning, who is represented in a white and delicately ornamented gown, or roquelaure, with gold, red, and blue borders, and a broad black border at bottom. the robe should seem to be a monastic garment: but the figure is probably that of st. jerom. it is standing before an opened book. the head is shaved at top; an azure glory is round the head. the back-ground of the whole is gold, with an arabesque border. i wish i could have spared time to make a facsimile of it. there are also figures of the four evangelists, in the usual style of art of this period; the whole in fine preservation. the capital initials are capricious, but tasteful. we observe birds, beasts, dragons, &c. coiled up in a variety of whimsical forms. the l. at the beginning of the "liber generationis," is, as usual in highly executed works of art of this period, peculiarly elaborate and striking. a _psalter_, of probably a century later, next claims our attention. it is a small folio, executed in a large, bold, gothic character. the illuminations are entirely confined to the capital initials, which represent some very grotesque, and yet picturesque grouping of animals and human figures--all in a state of perfect preservation. the gold back-grounds are not much raised, but of a beautiful lustre. it is apparently imperfect at the end. the _binding_ merits distinct notice. in the centre of one of the outside covers, is a figure of the almighty, sitting; in that of the other, are the virgin and infant christ, also sitting. each subject is an illumination of the time of those in the volume itself; and each is surrounded by pencil-coloured ornaments, divided into squares, by pieces of tin, or lead soldered. a sheet of _horn_ is placed over the whole of the exterior cover, to protect it from injury. this binding is uncommon, but i should apprehend it to be not earlier than the very commencement of the xvth century. i have not yet travelled out of the twelfth century; and mean to give you some account of rather a splendid and precious ms. entitled _vitæ sanctorum_--supposed to be of the same period. it is said to have been executed under the auspices of the _emperor conrad,_ who was chosen in and died in . it is an elegant folio volume. the illuminations are in outline; in red, brown, or blue--firmly and truly touched, with very fanciful inventions in the forms of the capital letters. the initial letter prefixed to the account of the _assumption of the virgin_, is abundantly clever and whimsical; while that prefixed to the life of _st. aurelius_ has even an imposing air of magnificence, and is the most important in the volume. here is a curious _history of the bible, in german verse_, as i learn, by rudolph, count of hohen embs. whether "curious" or not, i cannot tell; but i can affirm that, since opening the famous ms. of the roman d'alexandre,[ ] at oxford, i have not met with a finer, or more genuine ms. than the present. it is a noble folio volume; highly, although in many places coarsely, adorned. the text is executed in a square, stiff, german letter, in double columns; and the work was written (as m. le bret informed me, and as warranted by the contents) "in obedience to the orders of the emperor conrad, son of the emperor frederick ii: the greater part of it being composed after the chronicle of geoffrey de viterbe." to specify the illuminations would be an endless task. at the end of the ms. are the following colophonic verses: _uf den fridag was sts brictius do nam diz buch ende alsus nach godis geburten dusint jar dar su ccc dni vnx achtzig als eyn har_. the "_ccc_" are interlined, in red ink: but the whole inscription implies that the book was finished in , on friday, the day of st. brictius. it follows therefore that it could not have been written during the life-time of conrad iv. who was elected emperor in . this interesting ms. is in a most desirable condition. there are two or three _missals_ deserving only of brief notice. one, of the xivth century, is executed in large gothic letter; having an exceedingly vivid and fresh illumination of a crucifixion, but in bad taste, opposite the well-known passage of "te igitur clementissime," &c. it is bound in red satin. two missals of the xvth century--of which one presents only a few interesting prints connected with art. it is ornamented in a sort of bistre outline, preparatory to colouring--of which numerous examples may be seen in the breviary of the duke of bedford in the royal library at paris.[ ] i examined half a dozen more missals, which the kind activity of m. le bret had placed before me, and among them found nothing deserving of particular observation,--except a thick, short, octavo volume, in the german language, with characteristic and rather clever embellishments; especially in the borders. there is a folio volume entitled "_la vie, mort, et miracles de st. jerome_." the first large illumination, which is prettily composed, is unluckily much injured in some parts. it represents the author kneeling, with his cap in his right hand, and a book bound in black, with gold clasps and knobs, in the other. a lady appears to receive this presentation-volume very graciously; but unfortunately her countenance is obliterated. two female attendants are behind her: the whole, gracefully composed. i take this ms. to be of the end of the xvth. century. there is a most desirable ms. of the _roman de la rose_--of the end of the xivth century; in double columns; with some of the illuminations, about two inches square, very sweet and interesting. that, on the recto of folio xiiij, is quite charming. the "testament" of the author, j. de meun, follows; quietly decorated, within flowered borders. the last illumination but one, of our saviour, sitting upon a rainbow is very singular. this ms. is in its old binding of wood. a few _miscellaneous articles_ may be here briefly noticed. first: a german metrical version of the game of chess, moralized, called _der schachzabel._ this is an extraordinary, and highly illuminated ms. upon paper; written in a sort of secretary gothic hand, in short rhyming verse, as i conceive about the year , or . the embellishments are large and droll, and in several of them we distinguish that thick, and shining, but cracked coat of paint which is upon the old print of st. bridget, in lord spencer's collection.[ ] among the more striking illuminations is the _knight_ on horseback, in silver armour, about nine inches high--a fine showy fellow! his horse has silver plates over his head. many of the pieces in the game are represented in a highly interesting manner, and the whole is invaluable to the antiquary. this ms. is in boards. second: a german version of _maundeville_, of the date of , with curious, large, and grotesque illuminations, of the coarsest execution. it is written in double columns, in a secretary gothic hand, upon paper. the heads of the polypheme tribe are ludicrously horrible. third:--_herren duke of brunswick_, or the _chevalier au lion_,--a ms. relating to this hero, of the date of . a lion accompanies him every where. among the embellishments, there is a good one of this animal leaping upon a tomb and licking it--as containing the mortal remains of his master. fourth: a series of german stanzas, sung by birds, each bird being represented, in outline, before the stanza appropriated to it. in the whole, only three leaves. the "last and not least" of the mss. which i deem it worthy to mention, is an highly illuminated one of _st. austin upon the psalms_. this was the _first_ book which i remembered to have seen, upon the continent, from the library of the famous _corvinus king of hungary,_ about which certain pages have discoursed largely. it was also an absolutely beautiful book: exhibiting one of the finest specimens of art of the latter end of the xvth century. the commentary of the saint begins on the recto of the second leaf, within such a rich, lovely, and exquisitely executed border--as almost made me forget the embellishments in the _sforziada_ in the royal library of france.[ ] the border in question is a union of pearls and arabesque ornaments quite standing out of the background ... which latter has the effect of velvet. the arms, below, are within a double border of pearls, each pair of pearls being within a gold circle upon an ultramarine ground. the heads and figures have not escaped injury, but other portions of this magical illumination have been rubbed or partly obliterated. a ms. note, prefixed by m. le bret, informs us, in the opinion of its writer, that this illumination was the work of one "_actavantes de actavantibus of florence_,--who lived towards the end of the xvth century," and who really seems to have done a great deal for corvinus. the initial letters, throughout this volume, delicately cross-barred in gold, with little flowers and arabesques, &c. precisely resemble those in the ms. of mr. hibbert.[ ] such a white, snowy page, as the one just in part described, can scarcely be imagined by the uninitiated in ancient illuminated mss. the binding, in boards covered with leather, has the original ornaments, of the time of corvinus, which are now much faded. the fore-edges of the leaves preserve their former gilt-stamped ornaments. upon the whole--an almost matchless book! such, my good friend, are the treasures, both in ms. and in print, which a couple of morning's application, in the public library of stuttgart, have enabled me to bring forward for your notice. a word or two, now, for the treasures of the royal library, and then for a little respite. the library of his majesty is in one of the side wings, or rather appurtenances, of the palace: to the right, on looking at the front. it is on the first floor--where _all_ libraries should be placed--and consists of a circular and a parallelogram-shaped room: divided by a screen of ionic pillars. a similar screen is also at the further end of the latter room. the circular apartment has a very elegant appearance, and contains some beautiful books chiefly of modern art. a round table is in the centre, covered with fine cloth, and the sides and pillars of the screen are painted wholly in white--as well as the room connected with it. a gallery goes along the latter, or parallelogram-shaped apartment; and there are, in the centre, two rows of book-cases, very tall, and completely filled with books. these, as well as the book-cases along the sides, are painted white. an elaborately painted ceiling, chiefly composed of human figures, forms the graphic ornament of the long library; but, unluckily, the central book-cases are so high as to cover a great portion of the painting--viewed almost in any direction. at the further end of the long library, facing the circular extremity, is a bust of the late king of würtemberg, by dannecker. it bears so strong a resemblance to that of our own venerable monarch, that i had considered it to be a representation of him--out of compliment to the dowager queen of würtemberg, his daughter. the ceiling of this library is undoubtedly too low for its length. but the circular extremity has something in it exceedingly attractive, and inviting to study. in noticing some of the contents of this library, i shall correct the error committed in the account of the public library, by commencing here with the manuscripts in preference to the printed books. the mss. are by no means numerous, and are perhaps rather curious than intrinsically valuable. i shall begin with an account of a _prayer-book, or psalter,_ in a quarto form, undoubtedly of the latter end of the xiith century. its state of preservation, both for illumination and scription, is quite exquisite. it appears to have been expressly executed for herman, and sophia his wife, king and queen of hungary and bohemia--who lived at the latter end of the twelfth century. the names of these royal patrons and owners of, the volume are introduced at the end of the volume, in a sort of litany: accompanied with embellishments of the mother of christ, saints and martyrs, &c.: as thus: "_sophia regina vngariæ, regina bohemiæ_"--"_herman lantgrauius turingie, rex vngariæ, rex bohemiæ_." in the litany, we read (of the _latter_) in the address to the deity, "_vt famulu tuu_ hermannv _in tua misericordia confidente, confortare et regere dignter:_" so that there is no doubt about the age of the ms. in the representations of the episcopal dresses, the tops of the mitres are depressed--another confirmation of the date of the book. the initial letters, and especially the b before the psalms, are at once elegant and elaborate. among the subjects described, the _descent into hell_, or rather the place of torment, is singularly striking and extraordinary. the text of the ms. is written in a large bold gothic letter. this volume has been recently bound in red morocco, and cruelly cut in the binding. of course, here are some specimens of illuminated _hours_, both in manuscript and print. in the former, i must make you acquainted with a truly beautiful volume; upon the fly leaf of which we read as follows: "i f, rt, lo _fortitudo eius rhodum tenuit amadeus graff^{ } sauoia_." below, "_biblioth: sem: mergenth_:" then, a long german note, of which i understood not one word, and as m. le bret was not near me, i could not obtain the solution of it. but although i do not understand one word of this note, i do understand that this is one of the very prettiest, and most singularly illuminated missals, which any library can possess: broad margins: vellum, white as snow in colour, and soft as that of venice in touch! the text is written in a tall, close, gothic character--between, as i should conceive, the years and . the _drolleries_ are delightfully introduced and executed. the initial letters are large and singular; the subject being executed within compartments of gothic architecture. the figures, of which these subjects are composed, are very small; generally darkly shaded, and highly relieved. they are numerous. of these initial letters, the fifth to the ninth, inclusively, are striking: the sixth being the most curious, and the ninth the most elaborate. the binding of this volume seems to be of the sixteenth century. this is as it should be. but, more precious than either, or than both, or than three times as many of the preceding illuminated volumes--in the estimation of our friend * * * would be a ms. of which the title runs thus: "_libri duo de vita_ s. willibroordi _archiepiscopi autore humili de vita_ alcuini _cum prefat. ad beonradum archiepiscopum. liber secundus metrice scriptus est_."[ ] then an old inscription, thus: "_althwinus de vita willibrordi epi_." there can be no doubt of this ms. being at least as old as the eleventh century. the printed books--at least the account of such as seemed to demand a more particular examination, will not occupy a very great share of your attention. i will begin with a pretty little vellum copy of the well-known _hortulus animæ_, of the date of , in mo., printed by _wilhelmus schaffener de ropperswiler,_ at _strasbourg_. the vellum is excellent; and the wood cuts, rather plentifully sprinkled through the volume, happen fortunately to be well-coloured. this copy appears to have come from the "_weingarth monastery"_, with the date of upon it--as that of its having been then purchased for the monastery. it is in its original wooden binding: wanting repair. here are a few _roman classics_, which are more choice than those in the public library: as _reisinger's suetonius_, in to. but cropt, and half bound in red morocco, with yellow sprinkled edges to the leaves--a woful specimen of the general style of binding in this library. _lucretius_, : _manilius_, : both in one volume, bound in wood--and sound and desirable copies. _eutropius_, ; by laver; a sound, desirable copy, in genuine condition. of _bibles_, here is the greek aldine folio of , in frightful half binding, cropt to the quick: also an hungarian impression of the two books of samuel and of kings, of , in folio--beginning: az ket samvel: colophon: _debreczenbe_, &c. mdlxv: in wretched half binding. the small paper of the _latin bibles_ of , . and of _greek testaments_ here are the first, second, fourth and fifth editions of erasmus; the first, containing both parts, is in one volume, in original boards, or binding; a sound and clean copy: written upon, but not in a _very_ unpicturesque manner. the second edition is but an indifferent copy. the following may be considered _miscellaneous articles._ i will begin with the earliest. _st. austin de singularitate clericorum_, printed in a small quarto volume by _ulric zel_, in : a good, sound, but cropt copy, along with some opuscula of _gerson_ and _chrysostom_, also printed by zel: these, from the schönthal monastery. at the end of this dull collection of old theology, are a few ms. opuscula, and among them one of the _gesta romanorum:_ i should think of the fourteenth century. the _wurtzburg synod_, supposed to be printed by reyser, towards the end of the fifteenth century; and of which there is a copy in the public library, as well as another in that of strasbourg. to the antiquary, this may be a curious book. i mention it again,[ ] in order to notice the name and seal of "iohannes fabri,--clericus maguntin diocesz publicus imperiali auctoritate notarius, &c. scriba iuratus"--which occur at about one fourth part of the work: as i am desirous of knowing whether this man be the same, or related to the, printer so called, who published the _ethics of cato_ in ?--of which book i omitted to mention a copy in the public library here.[ ] bound up with this volume is fyner's edition of _p. niger contra perfidos iudæos_, , folio. fyner lived at eislingen, in the neighbourhood of this place, and it is natural to find specimens of his press here. the _stella meschiah_ of , is here cruelly cropt, and bound in the usually barbarous manner, with a mustard-coloured sprinkling upon the edges of the leaves. _historie von der melusina:_ a singular volume, in the german language, printed without date, in a thin folio. it is a book perfectly _à la_ douce; full of whimsical and interesting wood cuts, which i do not remember to have seen in any other ancient volume. from the conclusion of the text, it appears to have been composed or finished in , but i suspect the date of its typographical execution to be that of at the earliest. i looked about sharply for fine, old, mellow-tinted _alduses:_--but to no purpose. yet i must notice a pretty little aldine _petrarch_ of , mo. bound with _sannazarius de partu virginis_, by the same printer, in , mo.: in old stamped binding--but somewhat cropt. the leaves of both copies crackle lustily on turning them over. these, also, from the weingarth monastery. i noticed a beautiful little petrarch of , vo. with the commentary of velutellus; having a striking device of neptune in the frontispiece: but no _membranaceous_ articles, of this character and period, came across my survey. i cannot, however, take leave of the royal library (a collection which i should think must contain , volumes) without expressing my obligations for the unrestricted privilege of examination afforded me by those who had the superintendance of it. but i begin to be wearied, and it is growing late. the account of the "court-levee," and the winding up of other stuttgart matters, must be reserved for to-morrow. the watchman has just commenced his rounds, by announcing, as usual, the hour of _ten_--which announce is succeeded by a long (and as i learn _metrical_) exhortation--for the good folks of stuttgart to take care of their fires and candles. i obey his injunctions; and say good night. [ ] see vol. ii. p. . [ ] [of this portrait, which may be truly said to enrich the pages of the previous edition of the tour, a more _liberal_ use has been made than i was prepared to grant. my worthy friends, messrs. treuttel, würtz, and richter were welcome to its republication; but a _third edition_ of it, by another hand, ought not to have been published without permission. the original of this portrait has ceased to exist. after a laborious life of fourscore years, the learned schweighæuser has departed--in the fullest maturity of reputation arising from classical attainments; to which must be added, all the excellences of a mild, affable, christian-like disposition. as a husband, a father, and a friend, none went before him: no one displayed these domestic virtues in a more perfect and more pleasing form. as a greek scholar and commentator, he may be said to rank with hemsterhusius, wyttenbach, and heyne. he was equally the boast of strasbourg and the glory of his age. never was profound learning more successfully united with "singleness of heart," and general simplicity of character. he ought to have a splendid monument (if he have it not already?) among his fellow worthies in the church of st. thomas at strasbourg. peace to his ashes!] [ ] for the first time, my bill (which i invariably called for, and settled, every day) was presented to me in a printed form, in the _black letter_, within an ornamented border. it was entitled rechnung von gottlob ernst teichmann, zum waldhorn in stuttgart. the printed articles, against which blanks are left, to be filled up according to the quantity and quality of the fare, were these: fruhstuck, mittag-essen, nacht essen, fremder wein, ordinarier wein, verschiedenes, logis, feuerung, bediente. i must be allowed to add, that the head waiter of the waldhorn, or _hunting horn_, was one of the most respectably looking, and well-mannered, of his species. he spoke french fluently, but with the usual german accent. the master of the inn was coarse and bluff, but bustling and civil. he frequently devoted one of the best rooms in his house to large, roaring, singing, parties--in which he took a decided lead, and kept it up till past midnight. [ ] [the late duchess of oldenburg.] [ ] see vol. ii. p. . [ ] [this public library is now pulled down, and another erected on the site of it.] [ ] in one of these copies is an undoubtedly coeval memorandum in red ink, thus: "_explicit liber iste anno domini millesio quadringentissimo sexagesimosexto_ ( ) _format^{ } arte impssoria p venerabilem viru johane mentell in argentina_," &c. i should add, that, previously to the words "_sexagesimosexto_" were those of "_quiquagesimosexto_"--which have been erased by the pen of the scribe; but not so entirely as to be illegible. i am indebted to m. le bret for the information that this bible by mentelin is more ancient than the one, without date or place, &c. (see _bibl. spencer_, vol. i. p. , &c.) which has been usually considered to be anterior to it. m. le bret draws this conclusion from the comparative antiquity of the language of mentelin's edition. [ ] this was the _second_ copy, with the same original piece, which i had seen abroad; that in the library of the arsenal at paris being the first. i have omitted to notice this, in my account of that library, vol. ii. p. - , &c. [ ] [both volumes will be found particularly described in the _Ædes althorpianæ_, vol. ii. p. - .] [ ] lord spencer has recently obtained a perfect copy of this most rare edition--by the purchase of the library of the duke di cassano, at naples. see the _cassano catalogue_, p. . [ ] a very particular description of this rare edition will be found in the _bibl. spencer_, vol. ii. p. . [ ] see the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. cxcviii. [ ] see vol. ii. p. . [ ] see _ottley's history of engraving_, vol. i. p. ; where a fac-simile of this cut is given--which, in the large paper copies, is coloured. [ ] see vol. ii. p. - . [ ] the sforziada: see the catalogue of his library, no. . [ ] the prologue of this metrical life begins thus: _ecce tuis parui uotis uenerande sacerdos cor quia de vro feruet amore mihi pontificis magna wilbroodi et psulis almus recurrens titulis inclyta gesta tuis sit lux inferior strepitant cum murmure rauco illius egregi^{ } sermo meus meritis_ this life consists of only leaves, having verses in a full page. it is printed in the _lect. antiq. of canisius_, vol. ii. p. ; and the prose life is printed by _surius_ and by _mabillon_. [ ] before described in the _bibl. spenceriana_; vol. iv. p. . [ ] the book in question has the following colophon: _hoc opus exiguum perfecit rite iohannes fabri: cui seruat lingonis alta lares. ac uoluit formis ipsum fecisse casellis. m.cccc.lxxcii de mense maii_. the _s_ is very singular, being smaller than the other letters, and having a broken effect. this copy, in the public library at stuttgart, is not bound, but in excellent condition. letter ii. the royal palace. a bibliographical negotiation. dannecker the sculptor. environs of stuttgart. the morrow is come; and as the morning is too rainy to stir abroad, i sit down to fulfil the promise of last night. this will be done with the greater cheerfulness and alacrity, as the evenings have been comparatively cooler, and my slumbers, in consequence, more sound and refreshing. m. le bret--must be the first name mentioned upon this occasion. in other words, the negotiation about the _two virgils_, through the zeal and good management of that active head-librarian, began quickly to assume a most decided form; and i received an intimation from mr. hamilton, our chargé d'affaires, that the king expected to see me upon the subject at the "circle"--last sunday evening. but before you go with me to court, i must make you acquainted with the place in which the court is held: in other words, with the royal palace of stuttgart. take away the gilt cushion and crown at the top of it, and the front façade has really the air of a royal residence. it is built of stone: massive and unpretending in its external decorations, and has two wings running at right angles with the principal front elevation. to my eye, it had, at first view, and still continues to have, more of a palace-like look than the long but slender structure of the tuilleries. to the left, on looking at it--or rather behind the left wing is a large, well-trimmed flower-garden, terminating in walks, and a carriage way. just in front of this garden, before a large bason of water, and fixed upon a sort of parapet wall--is a very pleasing, colossal group of two female statues--_pomona_ and _flora_, as i conceive--sculptured by dannecker. their forms are made to intertwine very gracefully; and they are cut in a coarse, but hard and pleasingly-tinted, stone. for out-of-door figures, they are much superior to the generality of unmeaning allegorical marble statues in the gardens of the thuilleries. the interior of the palace has portions, which may be said to verify what we have read, in boyish days, of the wonder-working powers of the lamp of aladdin. here are porphyry and granite, and rosewood, and satin-wood, porcelaine, and or-molu ornaments, in all their varieties of unsullied splendor. a magnificent vestibule, and marble staircase; a concert room; an assembly-room; and chamber of audience: each particularly brilliant and appropriate; while, in the latter, you observe a throne, or chair of state, of antique form, but entirely covered with curious gilt carvings--rich, without being gaudy--and striking without being misplaced. you pass on--room after room--from the ceilings of which, lustres of increasing brilliance depend; but are not disposed to make any halt till you enter a small apartment with a cupola roof--within a niche of which stands the small statue of _cupid_; with his head inclined, and one hand raised to feel the supposed-blunted point of a dart which he holds in the other. this is called the cupid-room, out of compliment to dannecker the sculptor of the figure, who is much patronised by the queen. a statue or two by canova, with a tolerable portion of gobeleine tapestry, form the principal remaining moveable pieces of furniture. a minuter description may not be necessary: the interiors of all palaces being pretty much alike--if we put pictures and statues out of the question. from the palace, i must now conduct you to the "circle" or drawing room--which i attended. mr. hamilton was so obliging as to convey me thither. the king paid his respects personally to each lady, and was followed by the queen. the same order was observed with the circle of gentlemen. his majesty was dressed in what seemed to be an english uniform, and wore the star of the order of the bath. his figure is perhaps under the middle size, but compact, well formed, and having a gentlemanly deportment. the queen was, questionless, the most interesting female in the circle. to an englishman, her long and popular residence in england, rendered her doubly an object of attraction. she was superbly dressed, and yet the whole had a simple, lady-like, appearance. she wore a magnificent tiara of diamonds, and large circular diamond ear rings: but it was her _necklace_, composed of the largest and choicest of the same kind of precious stones, which flashed a radiance on the eyes of the beholder, that could scarcely be exceeded even in the court-circles of st. petersburg. her hair was quietly and most becomingly dressed; and with a small white fan in her hand, which she occasionally opened and shut, she saluted, and discoursed with, each visitor, as gracefully and as naturally as if she had been accustomed to the ceremony from her earliest youth. her dark eyes surveyed each figure, quickly, from head to foot--while ... "_favours_ to none, to all she _smiles_ extends." among the gentlemen, i observed a young man of a very prepossessing form and manners--having seven orders, or marks of distinction hanging from his button-holes. every body seemed anxious to exchange a word with him; and he might be at farthest in his thirtieth year. i could not learn his name, but i learnt that his _character_ was quite in harmony with his _person_: that he was gay, brave, courteous and polite: that his courage knew no bounds: that he would storm a citadel, traverse a morass, or lead on to a charge, with equal coolness, courage, and intrepidity: that repose and inaction were painful to him--but that humanity to the unfortunate, and the most inflexible attachment to relations and friends, formed, equally, distinctive marks of his character. this intelligence quite won my heart in favour of the stranger, then standing and smiling immediately before me; and i rejoiced that the chivalrous race of the _peterboroughs_ was not yet extinct, but had taken root, and "borne branch and flower," in the soil of suabia. when it came to my turn to be addressed, the king at once asked--"if i had not been much gratified with the books in the public library, and particularly with two _ancient editions_ of virgil?" i merely indicated an assent to the truth of this remark, waiting for the conclusion to be drawn from the premises. "there has been some mention made to me (resumed his majesty) about a proposed exchange on the part of lord spencer, for these two ancient editions, which appear to be wanting in his lordship's magnificent collection. for my part, i see no objection to the final arrangement of this business--if it can be settled upon terms satisfactory to all parties." this was the very point to which i was so anxious to bring the conference. i replied, coolly and unhesitatingly, "that it was precisely as his majesty had observed; that his own collection was strong in _bibles_, but comparatively weak in ancient _classics_: and that a diminution of the _latter_ would not be of material consequence, if, in lieu of it, there could be an increase of the _former_--so as to carry it well nigh towards perfection; that, in whatever way this exchange was effected, whether by money, or by books, in the first instance, it would doubtless be his majesty's desire to direct the application of the one or the other to the completion of his _theological collection_." the king replied "he saw no objection whatever to the proposed exchange--and left the forms of carrying it into execution with his head librarian m. le bret." having gained my point, it only remained to make my bow. the king then passed on to the remainder of the circle, and was quickly followed by the queen. i heard her majesty distinctly tell general allan,[ ] in the english language, that "she could never forget her reception in england; that the days spent there were among the happiest of her life, and that she hoped, before she died, again to visit our country." she even expressed "gratitude for the cordial manner in which she had been received, and, entertained in it."[ ] the heat had now become almost insupportable; as, for the reason before assigned, every window and door was shut. however, this inconvenience, if it was severe, was luckily of short duration. a little after nine, their majesties retired towards the door by which they had entered: and which, as it was reopened, presented, in the background, the attendants waiting to receive them. the king and queen then saluted the circle, and retired. in ten minutes we had all retreated, and were breathing the pure air of heaven. i preferred walking home, and called upon m. le bret in my way. it was about half past nine only, but that philosophical bibliographer was about retiring to rest. he received me, however, with a joyous welcome: re-trimmed his lamp; complimented me upon the success of the negotiation, and told me that i might now depart in peace from stuttgart--for that "the affair might be considered as settled."[ ] i have mentioned to you, more than once, the name of dannecker the sculptor. it has been my good fortune to visit him, and to converse with him much at large, several times. he is one of the most unaffected of the living phidias-tribe; resembling much, both in figure and conversation, and more especially in a pleasing simplicity of manners, our celebrated _chantry_. indeed i should call dannecker, on the score of art as well as of person, rather the chantry than the _flaxman_ or _canova_ of suabia. he shewed me every part of his study; and every cast of such originals as he had executed, or which he had it in contemplation to execute. of those that had left him, i was compelled to be satisfied with the plaster of his famous ariadne, reclining upon the back of a passant leopard, each of the size of life. the original belongs to a banker at frankfort, for whom it was executed for the sum of about one thousand pounds sterling. it must be an exquisite production; for if the _plaster_ be thus interesting what must be the effect of the _marble_? dannecker told me that the most difficult parts of the group, as to detail, were the interior of the leopard's feet, and the foot and retired drapery of the female figure--which has one leg tucked under the other. the whole composition has an harmonious, joyous effect; while health, animation, and beauty breathe in every limb and lineament of ariadne. but it was my good fortune to witness _one_ original of dannecker's chisel--of transcendent merit. i mean, the colossal head of schiller; who was the intimate friend, and a townsman of this able sculptor. i never stood before so expressive a modern countenance. the forehead is high and wide, and the projections, over the eye-brows, are boldly, but finely and gradually, marked. the eye is rather full, but retired. the cheeks are considerably shrunk. the mouth is full of expression, and the chin somewhat elongated. the hair flows behind in a broad mass, and ends in a wavy curl upon the shoulders: not very unlike the professional wigs of the french barristers which i had seen at paris. upon the whole, i prefer this latter--for breadth and harmony--to the eternal conceit of the wig à la grecque. "it was so (said dannecker) that schiller wore his hair; and it was precisely with this physiognomical expression that he came out to me, dressed en roquelaure, from his inner apartment, when i saw him for the last time. i thought to myself--on so seeing him--(added the sculptor) that it is thus that i will chisel your bust in marble." dannecker then requested me to draw my hand gently over the forehead--and to observe by what careful, and almost imperceptible gradations, this boldness of front had been accomplished; i listened to every word that he said about the extraordinary character then, as it were, before me, with an earnestness and pleasure which i can hardly describe; and walked round and round the bust with a gratification approaching to ecstacy. they may say what they please--at rome or at london--but a _finer_ specimen of art, in its very highest department, and of its particular kind, the chisel of _no living_ sculptor hath achieved. as a bust, it is perfect. it is the man; with all his mind in his countenance; without the introduction of any sickly airs and graces, which are frequently the result of a predetermination to treat it--as _phidias_ or _praxiteles_ would have treated it! it is worth a host of such figures as that of marshal saxe at strasbourg. "would any sum induce you to part with it?"--said i, in an under tone, to the unsuspecting artist ... bethinking me, at the same time, of offering somewhere about louis d'or--"none:" replied dannecker. "i loved the original too dearly to part with this copy of his countenance, in which i have done my utmost to render it worthy of my incomparable friend." i think the artist said that the queen had expressed a wish to possess it; but he was compelled to adhere religiously to his determination of keeping it for himself. dannecker shewed me a plaster cast of his intended figure of christ. it struck me as being of great simplicity of breadth, and majesty of expression; but perhaps the form wanted fulness--and the drapery might be a little too sparing. i then saw several other busts, and subjects, which have already escaped my recollection; but i could not but be struck with the quiet and unaffected manner in which this meritorious artist mentioned the approbation bestowed by canova upon several of his performances. he is very much superior indeed to ohmacht; but comparisons have long been considered as uncourteous and invidious--and so i will only add, that, if ever dannecker visits england--which he half threatens to do--he shall be fêted by a commoner, and patronised by a duke. meanwhile, you have here his autograph for contemplation. [illustration: autograph of dannecker] [ ] afterwards sir alexander allan, bart. i met him and captain c * * *, of the royal navy, in their way to inspruck. but sir alexander (than whom, i believe a worthier or a braver man never entered the profession of which he was so distinguished an ornament) scarcely survived the excursion two years. [ ] the queen of würtemberg survived the levee, above described, only a few months. her death was in consequence of over-maternal anxiety about her children, who were ill with the measles. the queen was suddenly called from her bed on a cold night in the month of january to the chamber where her children were seriously indisposed. forgetful of herself, of the hour, and of the season, she caught a severe cold: a violent erysipelatous affection, terminating in apoplexy, was the fatal result--and she, who, but a few short-lived months before, had shone as the brightest star in the hemisphere of her own court;--who was the patroness of art;--and of two or three national schools, building, when i was at stuttgart, at her own expense--was doomed to become the subject of general lamentation and woe. she was admired, respected, and beloved. it was pleasing, as it was quite natural, to see her (as i had often done) and the king, riding out in the same carriage, or phaeton, without any royal guard; and all ranks of people heartily disposed to pay them the homage of their respect. in a letter from m. le bret, of the th of june , i learnt that a magnificent chapel, built after the grecian model, was to contain the monument to be erected to her memory. her funeral was attended by six hundred students from tubingen, by torch light. [ ] for the sake of juxta-position, i will here mention the sequel, as briefly as may be. the "affair" was far from being at that time "settled." but, on reaching manheim, about to recross the rhine, on my return to paris--i found a long and circumstantial letter from my bibliographical correspondent at stuttgart, which seemed to bring the matter to a final and desirable issue. "so many thousand francs had been agreed upon--there only wanted a well bound copy of the _bibliographical decameron_ to boot:--and the virgils were to be considered as his lordship's property." mr. hamilton, our chargé d'affaires, had authority to pay the money--and i ... walked instantly to _artaria's_--purchased a copy of the work in question, (which happened to be there, in blue morocco binding,) and desired my valet to get ready to start the next morning, by three or four o'clock, to travel post to stuttgart: from whence he was not to return _without_ bringing the virgils, in the same carriage which would convey him and the decameronic volumes. charles rohfritsch immediately prepared to set out on his journey. he left manheim at three in the morning; travelled without intermission to stuttgart,--perhaps fourscore or ninety miles from manheim--put up at his old quarters _zum waldhorn_ (see p. , ante.) waited upon m. le bret with a letter, and the morocco tomes--received the virgils--and prepared for his return to manheim--which place he reached by two on the following morning. i had told him that, at whatever hour he arrived, he was to make his way to my chamber. he did as he was desired. "les voila!"--exclaimed he, on placing the two volumes hastily upon the table.--"ma foi, monsieur, c'est ceci une drôle d'affaire; il y a je ne sçai pas combien de lieues que j'ai traversé pour deux anciens livres qui ne valent pas à mes yeux le tiers d'un napoleon!" i readily forgave him all this saucy heresy--and almost hugged the volumes ... on finding them upon my table. they were my constant travelling companions through france to calais; and when i shewed the _adam virgil_ to m. van praet, at paris--"enfin (remarked he, as he turned over the broad-margined and loud-crackling leaves) voilà un livre dont j'ai beaucoup entendu parler, mais que je n'ai jamais vu!" these words sounded as sweet melody to mine ears. but i will unfeignedly declare, that the joy which crowned the whole, was, when i delivered _both_ the books ... into the hands of their present noble owner: with whom they will doubtless find their final resting place. [such was my bibliographical history--eleven years ago. since that period no copy of either edition has found its way into england. "terque quaterque beatus!"] letter iii. departure from stuttgart. ulm. augsbourg. the picture gallery at augsbourg. _augsbourg, hôtel des trois nègres, aug. , ._ my dear friend; i have indeed been an active, as well as fortunate traveller, since i last addressed you; and i sit down to compose rather a long despatch, which, upon the whole, will be probably interesting; and which, moreover, is penned in one of the noblest hotels in europe. the more i see of germany, the more i like it. behold me, then in _bavaria_; within one of its most beautiful cities, and looking, from my window, upon a street called _maximilian street_--which, for picturesque beauty, is exceeded only by the high-street at oxford. a noble fountain of bronze figures in the centre of it, is sending forth its clear and agitated waters into the air--only to fall, in pellucid drops, into a basin of capacious dimensions: again to be carried upwards, and again to descend. 'tis a magnificent fountain; and i wish such an one were in the centre of the street above mentioned, or in that of waterloo place. but to proceed with my journal from stuttgart. i left that capital of the kingdom of würtemberg about five in the afternoon, accompanied by my excellent friend m. le bret, who took a seat in the carriage as far as the boundaries of the city.[ ] his dry drollery, and frankness of communication, made me regret that he could not accompany us--at least as far as the first stage _plochingen_;--especially as the weather was beautiful, and the road excellent. however, the novelty of each surrounding object--(but shall ... i whisper a secret in your ear?--the probably successful result of the negotiation about the two ancient editions of virgil--yet more than each surrounding object) put me in perfect good humour, as we continued to roll pleasantly on towards our resting-place for the night--either _göppingen_, or _geislingen_,--as time and inclination might serve. the sky was in a fine crimson glow with the approaching sun-set, which was reflected by a river of clear water, skirted in parts by poplar and birch, as we changed horses at _plochingen_. it was, i think, _that_ town, rather than göppingen, (the next stage) which struck us, en passant, to be singularly curious and picturesque on the score of antiquity and street scenery. it was with reluctance that i passed through it in so rapid a manner: but necessity alone was the excuse. we slept, and slept comfortably, at _göppingen_. from thence to _geislingen_ are sweet views: in part luxuriant and cultivated, and in part bold and romantic. here, were the humble and neatly-trimmed huts of cottagers; there, the lofty and castle-crowned domains of the baron. it was all pleasing and heart-cheering; while the sky continued in one soft and silvery tint from the unusual transparency of the day. on entering _geislingen_, our attention was quickly directed to other, and somewhat extraordinary, objects. in this town, there is a great manufactory of articles in _ivory_; and we had hardly stopped to change horses--in other words, the postilion had not yet dismounted--ere we were assailed by some half dozen ill-clad females, who crawled up the carriage, in all directions, with baskets of ivory toys in their hands, saluting us with loud screams and tones--which, of course, we understood to mean that their baskets might be lightened of their contents. our valet here became the principal medium of explanation. charles rohfritsch raised himself up from his seat; extended, his hands, elevated his voice, stamped, seized upon one, and caught hold of another, assailant at the same time--threatening them with the vengeance of the police if they did not instantly desist from their rude assaults. it was indeed high time to be absolute; for mr. lewis was surrounded by two, and i was myself honoured by a visit of three, of this gipsy tribe of ivory-venders: who had crawled over the dicky, and up the hinder wheels, into the body of the carriage. there seemed to be no alternative but to purchase _something_. we took two or three boxes, containing crucifixes, toothpicks, and apple-scoops; and set the best face we could upon this strange adventure. meanwhile, fresh horses were put to; and the valet joked with the ivory venders--having desired the postilion, (as he afterwards informed me) as soon as he was mounted, to make some bold flourishes with his whip, to stick his spurs into the sides of his horses, and disentangle himself from the surrounding female throng as speedily as he could. the postilion did as he was commanded: and we darted off at almost a full gallop. a steep hill was before us, but the horses continued to keep their first pace, till a touch of humanity made our charioteer relax from his efforts. we had now left the town of geislingen behind us, but yet saw the ivory venders pointing towards the route we had taken. "this has been a strange piece of business indeed, sir," (observed the valet). "these women are a set of mad-caps; but they are nevertheless women of character. they always act thus: especially when they see that the visitors are english--for they are vastly fond of your countrymen!" we were now within about twenty english miles of ulm. nothing particular occurred, either by way of anecdote or of scenery, till within almost the immediate approach, or descent to that city--the last in the suabian territories, and which is separated from bavaria by the river danube. i caught the first glance of that celebrated river (here of comparatively trifling width) with no ordinary emotions of delight. it recalled to my memory the battle of _blenheim_, or of _hochstedt_; for you know that it was across this very river, and scarcely a score of miles from ulm, that the victorious marlborough chased the flying french and bavarians--at the battle just mentioned. at the same moment, almost, i could not fail to contrast this glorious issue with the miserable surrender of the town before me--then filled by a large and well-disciplined army, and commanded by that non-pareil of generals, j.g. mack!--into the power of bonaparte... almost without pulling a trigger on either side--the place itself being considered, at the time, one of the strongest towns in europe. these things, i say, rushed upon my memory, when, on the immediate descent into ulm, i caught the first view of the tower of the minster ... which quickly put marlborough, and mack, and bonaparte out of my recollection. i had never, since quitting the beach at brighton, beheld such an _english-like_ looking cathedral--as a whole; and particularly the tower. it is broad, bold, and lofty; but, like all edifices, seen from a neighbouring and perhaps loftier height, it loses, at first view, very much of the loftiness of its character. however, i looked with admiration, and longed to approach it. this object was accomplished in twenty minutes. we entered ulm about two o'clock: drove to an excellent inn (the _white stag_--which i strongly recommend to all fellow-travellers) and ordered our dinner to be got ready by five; which, as the house was within a stone's cast of the cathedral, gave us every opportunity of visiting it before hand. the day continued most beautiful: and we sallied forth in high spirits, to gaze at and to admire every object of antiquity which should present itself. you may remember my mentioning, towards the close of my last despatch, that a letter was lying upon the table, directed to one of the professors of the university, or _gymnase_, of this place. the name of that professor was veesenmeyer; a very respectable, learned, and kind-hearted gentleman. i sought his house (close to the cathedral) the very first thing on quitting the hotel. the professor was at home. on receiving my letter, by the hands of a pretty little girl, one of his daughters, m. veesenmeyer made his appearance at the top of a short stair case, arrayed in a sort of woollen, quilted jacket, with a green cloth cap on, and a pipe in his mouth--which latter seemed to be full as tall as himself. i should think that the professor could not be taller than his pipe, which might be somewhere about five feet in length. his figure had an exceedingly droll appearance. his mode of pronouncing french was somewhat germanized; but i strained every nerve to understand him, as my valet was not with me, and as there would have been no alternative but to have talked latin. i was desirous of seeing the library, attached to the cathedral. "could the professor facilitate that object?" "most willingly--" was his reply--"i will write a note to * * the librarian: carry it to him, and he will shew you the library directly, if he be at home." i did as he desired me; but found the number of the house very difficult to discover--as the houses are numbered, consecutively, throughout the town--down one street and up another: so that, without knowing the order of the _streets_ through which the numbers run, it is hardly possible for a stranger to proceed. having sauntered round and round, and returned almost to the very spot whence i had set out, i at last found the residence of the librarian.--on being admitted, i was introduced to a tall, sharp-visaged, and melancholy-complexioned gentleman, who seemed to rise six feet from the ground on receiving me. he read the professor's note: but alas! could not speak one word of french. "placetne tibi, domine, sermone latino uti?" i answered in the affirmative; but confessed that i was totally out of the habit of speaking it in england: and besides, that our _mode of pronunciation_ was very different from that of other countries. the man of dark vestments and sombre countenance relaxed into a gentle smile, as i added the latter part of this remark: and i accompanied him quickly, but silently, to the library in question. its situation is surely among the most whimsical in existence. it is placed up one pair of stairs, to the left of the choir; and you ascend up to it through a gloomy and narrow stone staircase. if i remember rightly, the outward door, connecting with the stairs, is in the cathedral yard. the library itself is very small; and a print, being a portrait of its donor, hangs up against the shelves--facing as you enter. i had never seen this print before. it was an interesting portrait; and had, i think, a date of somewhere about . the collection was chiefly theological; yet there were a few old classics, but of very secondary value. the only book that i absolutely coveted, was a folio, somewhat charged with writing in the margins, of which the title and colophon are as follow:--for i obtained permission to make a memorandum of them. "gutheri ligurini poetæ clarissimi diui frid. pri dece libri foeliciter editi: _impssi per industriu & ingeniosu magistru erhardu oeglin ciuem augustesem ano sesquimillesimo & septimo mese apprilio_" this edition contains m vj, in sixes. the preceding article is followed by six leaves, containing supplemental matter. i asked my sable attendant, if this book could be parted with--either for money, or in exchange for other books? he replied, "that that point must be submitted to the consideration of a chapter: that the library was rarely or never visited; but that he considered it would not be proper to disturb its order, or to destroy its identity, since it was a _sacred legacy_." i told him that he reasoned well; but that, should the chapter change such a resolution, my address would be found at vienna, poste restante, till the th of the following month. we parted in terms of formal politeness; being now and then a little checked in my discourse, by the reply, on his part, of "non prorsus intelligo." i am glad, however, to have seen this secluded cabinet of books; which would have been the very place for the study of anthony wood or thomas hearne. it had quite an air of monastic seclusion, and it seemed as if scarcely six persons had trod the floor, or six volumes had been taken down from the shelves, since the day when the key was first turned upon the door which encloses the collection. after a few "_salves_," and one "_vale_," i returned to the white stag. the cathedral of ulm is doubtless among the most respectable of those upon the continent. it is large and wide, and of a massive and imposing style of architecture. the buttresses are bold, and very much after the english fashion. the tower is the chief exterior beauty. before we mounted it, we begged the guide, who attended us, to conduct us all over the interior. this interior is very noble: and even superior, as a piece of architecture, to that of strasbourg. i should think it even longer and wider--for the truth is, that the tower of _strasbourg_ cathedral is as much too _tall_, as that of _ulm_ cathedral is too _short_, for its nave and choir. not very long ago, they had covered the interior by a white wash; and thus the mellow tint of probably about five centuries--in a spot where there are few immediately surrounding houses--and in a town of which the manufactories and population are comparatively small--the _latter_ about , --thus, i say, the mellow tint of these five centuries (for i suppose the cathedral to have been finished about the year ) has been cruelly changed for the staring and chilling effects of whiting. the choir is interesting in a high degree. at the extremity of it, is an altar--indicative of the lutheran form of worship[ ] being carried on within the church--upon which are oil paintings upon wood, emblazoned with gilt backgrounds--of the time of _hans burgmair_, and of others at the revival of the art of painting in germany. these pictures turn upon hinges, so as to shut up, or be thrown open; and are in the highest state of preservation. their subjects are entirely scriptural; and perhaps old _john holbein_, the father of the famous hans holbein, might have had a share in some of them. perhaps they may come down to the time of _lucas cranach_. whenever, or by whomsoever executed, this series of paintings, upon the high altar of the cathedral of ulm, cannot be viewed without considerable satisfaction. they were the first choice specimens of early art which i had seen on this side of the rhine; and i of course contemplated them with the hungry eye of an antiquary. after a careful survey of the interior, the whole of which had quite the air of english cleanliness and order, we prepared to mount the famous tower. our valet, rohfritsch, led the way; counting the steps as he mounted, and finding them to be about three hundred and seventy-eight in number. he was succeeded by the guide. mr. lewis and myself followed in a more leisurely manner; peeping through the interstices which presented themselves in the open fretwork of the ornaments, and finding, as we continued to ascend, that the inhabitants and dwelling houses of ulm diminished gradually in size. at length we gained the summit, which is surrounded by a parapet wall of some three or four feet in height. we paused a minute, to recover our breath, and to look at the prospect which surrounded us. the town, at our feet, looked like the metropolis of laputa. yet the high ground, by which we had descended into the town--and upon which bonaparte's army was formerly encamped--seemed to be more lofty than the spot whereon we stood. on the opposite side flowed the _danube_: not broad, nor, as i learnt very deep; but rapid, and in a serpentine direction. the river here begins to be navigable for larger boats; but there is little appearance of bustle or business upon the quays. few or no white sails, floating down the stream, catch the morning or the evening sun-beam: no grove of masts: no shouts of mariners: no commercial rivalry. but what then? close to the very spot where we stood, our attention was directed to a circumstance infinitely more interesting, to the whimsical fancy of an antiquary, than a whole forest of masts. what might this be? listen. "do you observe, here, gentlemen?" said the guide--pointing to the coping of the parapet wall, where the stone is a little rubbed, "i do"--(replied i) "what may this mean?" "look below, sir, (resumed he) how fearfully deep it is. you would not like to tumble down from hence?" this remark could admit but of one answer--in the _negative_; yet the man seemed to be preparing himself to announce some marvellous fact, and i continued mute. "mark well, gentlemen; (continued he) it was here, on this identical spot, that our famous emperor maximilian stood upon one leg, and turned himself quite round, to the astonishment and trepidation of his attendants! he was a man of great bravery, and this was one of his pranks to shew his courage. this story, gentlemen, has descended to us for three centuries; and not long ago the example of the emperor was attempted to be imitated by two officers,--one of whom failed, and the other succeeded. the first lost his balance, and was precipitated to the earth--dying the very instant he touched the ground; the second succeeded, and declared himself, in consequence, maximilian the second!" i should tell you, however, that these attempts were not made on the same day. the officers were austrian. the room in the middle of the platform, and surmounted by a small spire does not appear to be used for any particular purpose. having satisfied our curiosity, and in particular stretched our eyes "as far (to borrow caxton's language) as we well might"--in the direction of _hochstedt_--we descended, extremely gratified; and sought the hotel and our dinner. upon the whole, the cathedral of ulm is a noble ecclesiastical edifice: uniting simplicity and purity with massiveness of composition. few cathedrals are more uniform in the style of their architecture. it seems to be, to borrow technical language, all of a piece. near it, forming the foreground of the munich print, are a chapel and a house surrounded by trees. the chapel is very small, and, as i learnt, not used for religious purposes. the house (so professor veesenmeyer informed me) is supposed to have been the residence and offices of business of john zeiner, the well known _printer_, who commenced his typographical labours about the year ,[ ] and who uniformly printed at ulm; while his brother gunther as uniformly exercised his art in the city whence i am now addressing you. they were both natives of _reutlingen_; a town of some note between tubingen and ulm. let no man, from henceforth, assert that all culinary refinement ceases when you cross the rhine; at least, let him not do so till he has tasted the raspberry-flavoured soufflet of the _white stag of ulm_. it came on the table like unto a mountain of cream and eggs, spreading its extremities to the very confines of the dish; but, when touched by the magic-working spoon, it collapsed, and concentrated into a dish of moderate and seemly dimensions. in other words, this very soufflet--considered by some as the _crux_ of refined cookery--was an exemplification of all the essential requisites of the culinary art: but without the _cotelette_, it would not have satisfied appetites which had been sharpened by the air of the summit of the tower of the cathedral. the inn itself is both comfortable and spacious. we dined at one corner of a ball-room, upon the first floor, looking upon a very pleasant garden. after dinner, i hastened to pay my respects to professor veesenmeyer, according to appointment. i found him, where all professors rejoice to be found, in the centre of his library. he had doffed the first dress in which i had seen him; and the long pipe was reposing horizontally upon a table covered with green baize. we began a bibliographical conversation immediately; and he shewed me, with the exultation of a man who is conscious of possessing treasures for which few, comparatively, have any relish--his _early printed_ volumes, upon the lower shelf of his collection. evening was coming on, and the daylight began to be treacherous for a critical examination into the condition of old volumes. the professor told me he would send me a note, the next morning, of what further he possessed in the department of early printing,[ ] and begged, in the mean time, that he might take a walk with me in the town. i accepted his friendly offer willingly, and we strolled about together. there is nothing very interesting, on the score of antiquities, except it be the _rath haus_, or town hall; of which the greater part may be, within a century, as old as the cathedral.[ ] on the following morning i left ulm, well pleased to have visited the city; and, had the time allowed, much disposed to spend another twenty-four hours within its walls. but i had not quitted my bed (and it was between six and seven o'clock in the morning) before my good friend the professor was announced: and in half a second was standing at the foot of it. he pulled off his green cloth cap, in which i had first seen him--and i pulled off my night cap, to return his salutation--raising myself in bed. he apologised for such an early intrusion, but said "the duties of his situation led him to be an early riser; and that, at seven, his business of instructing youth was to begin." i thanked him heartily for his polite attentions--little expecting the honour of so early a visit. he then assumed a graver expression of countenance, and a deeper tone of voice; and added, in the latin language--"may it please providence, worthy sir, to restore you safely, (after you shall have examined the treasures in the imperial library of vienna) to your wife and family. it will always gratify me to hear of your welfare." the professor then bowed: shut the door quickly, and i saw him no more. i mention this little anecdote, merely to give you an idea of the extreme simplicity, and friendliness of disposition, (which i have already observed in more than this one instance) of the german character. the day of my departure was market-day at ulm. having ordered the horses at ten o'clock, i took a stroll in the market-place, and saw the several sights which are exhibited on such occasions. poultry, meat, vegetables, butter, eggs, and--about three stalls of modern books. these books were, necessarily, almost wholly, published in the german language; but as i am fond of reading the popular manuals of instruction of every country--whether these instructions be moral, historical, or facetious--i purchased a couple of copies of the _almanac historique nommé le_ _messager boiteux_, &c: a quarto publication, printed in the sorriest chap-book manner, at colmar, and of which the fictitious name of _antoine souci, astronome et hist._ stands in the title-page as the author. a wood-cut of an old fellow with a wooden leg, and a letter in his right hand, is intended to grace this title-page. "do you believe (said i to the young woman, who sold me the book, and who could luckily stammer forth a few words of french) what the author of this work says?" "yes, sir, i believe even _more_ than what he says--" was the instant reply of the credulous vender of the tome. every body around seemed to be in good health and good spirits; and a more cheerful opening of a market-day could not have been witnessed. perhaps, to a stranger, there is no sight which makes him more solicitous to become acquainted with new faces, in a new country, than such a scene as this. all was hilarity and good humour: while, above, was a sky as bright and blue as ever was introduced into an illuminated copy of the devotional volumes printed by the father of the ulm press; to wit, _john zeiner of reutlingen_. we crossed the danube a little after ten o'clock, and entered the territories of the king of bavaria. fresh liveries to the postilion--light blue, with white facings--a horn slung across the shoulders, to which the postilion applied his lips to blow a merry blast[ ]all animated us: as, upon paying the tax at the barriers, we sprung forward at a sharp trot towards _augsbourg_. the morning continued fine, but the country was rather flat; which enabled us, however, as we turned a frequent look behind, to keep the tower of the cathedral of ulm in view even for some half dozen miles. the distance before us now became a little more hilly: and we began to have the first glimpse of those _forests of firs_ which abound throughout bavaria. they seem at times interminable. meanwhile, the churches, thinly scattered here and there; had a sort of mosque or globular shaped summit, crowned by a short and slender spire; while the villages appeared very humble, but with few or no beggars assailing you upon changing horses. we had scarcely reached _günzbourg_, the first stage, and about fourteen miles from ulm, when we obtained a glimpse of what appeared to be some lofty mountains at the distance of forty or fifty miles. upon enquiry, i found that they were a part of a chain of mountains connected with those in the tyrol. it was about five o'clock when we reached augsbourg; and, on entering it, we could not but be struck with the _painted exteriors_, and elaborate style of architecture, of the houses. we noticed, with surprise not wholly divested of admiration, shepherds and shepherdesses, heroes and heroines, piazzas, palaces, cascades, and fountains--in colours rather gay than appropriate--depicted upon the exterior walls:--and it seemed as if the accidents of weather and of time had rarely visited these decorations. all was fresh, and gay, and imposing. but a word about our inn, (_the three moors_) before i take you out of doors. it is very large; and, what is better, the owner of it is very civil. your carriage drives into a covered gate way or vestibule, from whence the different stair-cases, or principal doors, lead to the several divisions of the house. the front of the house is rich and elegant. on admiring it, the waiter observed--"yes, sir, this front is worthy of the reputation which the _hôtel of the three moors_ possesses throughout europe." i admitted it was most respectable. our bed rooms are superb--though, by preference, i always chose the upper suit of apartments. the _caffé_ for dining, below, is large and commodious; and i had hardly bespoke my first dinner, when the head-waiter put the _travelling book_ into my hands: that is, a book, or _album_, in which the names and qualities of all the guests at that inn, from all parts of europe, are duly registered. i saw the names of several of my countrymen whom i well knew; and inscribed my own name, and that of my companion, with the simplest adjuncts that could be devised. in doing so, i acted only according to precedent. but the boast and glory of this inn is its gallery of pictures: for sale. the great ball-room, together with sundry corridores and cabinets adjoining, are full of these pictures; and, what renders the view of them more delectable, is, the _catalogue_:--printed in the _english language_, and of which a german is the reputed author. my attention, upon first running over these pictures was, unluckily, much divided between them and the vehicle of their description. if i turned to the number, and to the description in the printed catalogue, the language of the latter was frequently so whimsical that i could not refrain from downright laughter.[ ] however, the substance must not be neglected for the shadow; and it is right that you should know, in case you put your travelling scheme of visiting this country, next year, into execution, that the following observations may not be wholly without their use in directing your choice--as well as attention--should you be disposed to purchase. here is _said_ to be a portrait of _arcolano armafrodita_, a famous physician at rome in the xvth century, by _leonardo da vinci_. believe neither the one nor the other. there are some _albert durers_; one of the _trinity,_ of the date of , and another of the _doctors of the church_ dated : the latter good, and a choice picture of the early time of the master. a portrait of an old man, kit-cat, _supposed_ by _murillo_. two ancient pictures by _holbein_ (that is, the _father_ of hans holbein) of the _fugger family_--containing nine figures, portraits, of the size of life: dated and deserving of notice. an old woman veiled, half-length, by _j. levens_: very good. here are two _lucas cranachs_, which i should like to purchase; but am fearful of dipping too deeply into madame francs's supplemental supply. one is a supposed portrait (it is a mere supposition) of _erasmus_ and his mistress; the other is an old man conversing with a girl. as specimens of colouring, they are fine--for the master; but i suspect they have had a few retouches. here is what the catalogue calls "a _fuddling-bout. beautyful small piece, by rembrand_:" nº. : but it is any thing but a beautiful piece, and any thing but a rembrandt. there is a small picture, said to be by _marchessini_, of "christ dragged to the place of execution." it is full of spirit, and i think quite original. at first i mistook it for a _rubens_; and if marchessini, and not otho venius, had been his master, this mistake would have been natural. i think i could cull a nosegay of a few vivid and fragrant flowers, from this graphic garden of plants of all colours and qualities. but i shrewdly suspect that they are in general the off-scourings of public or private collections; and that a thick coat of varnish and a broad gilt frame will often lead the unwary astray. while i am upon the subject of _paintings_, i must take you with me to the town hall ... a noble structure; of which the audience room, up one pair of stairs--and in which charles v. received the deputies respecting the famous _augsbourg confession of faith_, in ,--is, to my taste, the most perfectly handsome room which i have ever seen. the wainscot or sides are walnut and chestnut wood, relieved by beautiful gilt ornaments. the ceiling is also of the same materials; but marked and diversified by divisions of square, or parallelogram, or oval, or circular, forms. this ceiling is very lofty, for the size of the room: but it is a fault (if it be one) on the right side. i should say, that this were a chamber worthy of the cause--and of the actors--in the scene alluded to. it is thoroughly imperial: grave, grand, and yet not preposterously gorgeous. above this magnificent room is the picture gallery. it is said to receive the overflowings of the gallery of munich--which, in turn, has been indebted to the well known gallery of dusseldorf for its principal treasures. however, as a receiver of cast-off apparel, this collection must be necessarily inferior to the parent wardrobe, yet i would strongly recommend every english antiquary--at all desirous of increasing his knowledge, and improving his taste, in early german art--to pay due attention to this singular collection of pictures at augsbourg. he will see here, for the first time in bavaria--in his route from the capital of france--productions, quite new in character, and not less striking from boldness of conception and vigor of execution. augsbourg may now be considered the soil of the _elder holbein_, _hans burgmair_, _amberger_, and _lucas cranach_. here are things, of which richardson never dreamt, and which walpole would have parted with three fourths of his graphic embellishments at strawberry hill to have possessed. here are also portraits of some of the early reformers, of which an excellent divine (in the vicinity of hackney church) would leap with transport to possess copies, wherewith to adorn his admirable collection of english ecclesiastical history. here, too, are capricious drolleries, full of character and singularity--throwing light upon past manners and customs--which the excellent prospero would view with ... an almost coveting eye! but to be more particular; and to begin with the notice of a curious performance of john, or the elder holbein. it is divided, like many of the pictures of the old german masters, into three compartments. the _nativity_ occupies one; the _assumption_ another: and the decapitation of _st. dorothy_ the third. in the assumption, the trinity, composed of three male figures, is introduced as sanctifying the virgin--who is in front. below this group is the church of "_maria maior_," having two bells in the steeple; upon one of which, in the act of being tolled, is the date of : upon the other, in a quiescent state, are the words hans holbein: with the initial l.b. to the right. to the left, at bottom, is the inscription hie litbe gra; to the right, below, on a piece of stone, the initial h. the third piece in this composition, the death of st. dorothy, exhibits a sweetly-drawn and sweetly coloured countenance in that of the devoted saint. she is kneeling, about to receive the uplifted sword of the executioner; evincing a firmness, yet meekness of resignation, not unworthy the virgin martyrs of the pencils of raphael and guido. her hair is long, and flows gracefully behind. a little boy, habited in a whimsical jacket, offers her a vase filled with flowers. the whole picture is rich and mellow in its colouring, and in a fine state of preservation. another piece, by the same uncommon artist, may be also worth particular notice. it is a miscellaneous performance, divided into three compartments; having, in the upper part of the first, a representation of the agony in the garden of gethsemane. our saviour is placed in a very singular situation, within a rock. the comforting angel appears just above him. below is the pope, in full costume, in the character of st. peter, with a key in his left hand, and in his right a scroll; upon the latter of which is this inscription: "_auctoritate aplica dimitto vob omia pcta_"[ ] the date of is below. this picture, which is exceedingly gorgeous, is in the purest state of preservation. another compartment represents our saviour and the virgin surrounded by male and female martyrs. one man, with his arms over his head, and a nail driven through them into his skull, is very striking: the head being well drawn and coloured. to the left, are the pope, bishops, and a cardinal between st. christopher and a man in armour. one bishop (_st. erasmus_) carries a spit in his left hand, designating the instrument whereby he suffered death. this large picture is also in a very fine state of preservation. a third display of the graphic talents of the elder holbein (as i should conceive, rather than of the son, when young--as is generally believed) claims especial notice. this picture is a representation of the leading events in the _life of st. paul_; having, like most other performances of this period, many episodes or digressions. it is also divided into three compartments; of which the central one, as usual, is the most elevated. the first compartment, to the left, represents the conversion of st. paul above, with his baptism by ananias below. in this baptism is represented a glory round the head of st. paul--such as we see round that of christ. before them stands a boy, with a lighted torch and a box: an old man is to the left, and another, with two children, to the right. this second old man's head is rather fine. to the left of the baptism, a little above, is st. paul in prison, giving a letter to a messenger. the whole piece is, throughout, richly and warmly coloured, and in a fine state of preservation. the central piece has, above, ["_basilica sancti pauli_."] christ crowned with thorns. the man, putting a sceptre in his hand, is most singularly and not inelegantly clothed; but one or two of the figures of the men behind, occupied in platting the crown of thorns, have a most extraordinary and original cast of countenance and of head-dress. they appear ferocious, but almost ludicrous, from bordering upon caricature; while the leaves; and bullrush-like ornaments of their head-dress, render them very singularly striking personages. to the right, joseph of arimathea is bargaining for the body of jesus; the finger of one hand placed against the thumb of the other telling the nature of the action admirably. below this subject, in the centre, is st. paul preaching at athens. one of the figures, listening to the orator with folded arms, might have given the hint to raphael for one of _his_ figures, in a similar attitude, introduced into the famous cartoon of the same subject. before st. paul, below, a woman is sitting--looking at him, and having her back turned to the spectator. the head-dress of this figure, which is white, is not ungraceful. i made a rude copy of it; but if i had even coloured like * * * i could not have done justice to the neck and back; which exhibited a tone of colour that seemed to unite all the warmth of titian with all the freshness of rubens. in the foreground of this picture, to the right, st. peter and st. paul are being led to execution. there is great vigour of conception and of touch (perhaps bordering somewhat upon caricature) in the countenances of the soldiers. one of them is shewing his teeth, with a savage grin, whilst he is goading on the apostles to execution. the headless trunk of st. paul, with blood spouting from it, lies to the left; the executioner, having performed his office, is deliberately sheathing his sword. the colouring throughout may be considered perfect. we now come to the remaining, or third compartment. this exhibits the interment of st. paul. there is a procession from a church, led on by the pope, who carries the head of the apostle upon a napkin. the same head is also represented as placed between the feet of the corpse, in the foreground. there is a clever figure, in profile, of a man kneeling in front: the colouring of the robe of a bishop, also kneeling, is rich and harmonious. a man, with a glory round his head, is let down in a basket, as from prison, to witness the funeral. but let me not forget to notice the head of an old man, in the procession, (coming out of the church-door) and turning towards the left:--it is admirably well touched. i shall now give you a notion of the talents of hans burgmair--a painter, as well as engraver, of first-rate abilities. i will begin with what i consider to be the most elaborate specimen of his pencil in this most curious gallery of pictures. the subject is serious, but miscellaneous: and of the date of . it consists of patriarchs, evangelists, martyrs, male and female, and popes, &c. the virgin and christ are sitting, at top, in distinguished majesty. the countenances of the whole group are full of nature and expression: that of the virgin is doubtless painted after a living subject. it exhibits the prevailing or favourite _mouth_ of the artist; which happens however to be generally somewhat awry. the cherub, holding up a white crown, and thrusting his arm as it were towards the spot where it is to be fixed, is prettily conceived. upon the whole, this picture contains some very fine heads. another picture of hans burgmair, worth especial attention, is dated . it is, as usual, divided, into three compartments; and the subject is that of _st. ursula and her virgins_. although of less solid merit than the preceding, it is infinitely more striking; being most singularly conceived and executed. the gold ornaments, and gold grounds, are throughout managed with a freedom and minuteness of touch which distinguish many of the most beautiful early missals. in the first compartment, or division, are a group of women round "_sibila ancyra phrygiæ_." the dresses of these women, especially about the breast, are very curious. some of their head dresses are not less striking, but more simple; having what may be called a cushion of gold at the back of them. in the second compartment is the _crucifixion_--in the warmest and richest (says my memorandum, taken on the very spot) glow of colour. beneath, there is a singular composition. before a church, is a group of pilgrims with staves and hats on; a man, not in the attire of a pilgrim, heads them; he is habited in green, and points backwards towards a woman, who is retreating; a book is in his left hand. the attitudes of both are very natural. further to the right, a man is retreating--going through an archway--with a badge (a pair of cross keys) upon his shoulder. the retreating woman has also the same badge. to the left, another pilgrim is sitting, apparently to watch; further up, is a house, towards which all the pilgrims seem to be directing their steps to enter. a man and woman come out of this house to receive them with open arms. the third division continues the history of st. ursula. her attire, sitting in a vessel by the side of her husband gutherus, is sumptuous in the extreme. i would have given four ducats for a copy of it, but mr. lewis was otherwise engaged. a pope and cardinal are to the right of st. ursula: the whole being in a perfect blaze of splendour. below, they are dragging the female saint and her virgin companions on shore, for the purpose of decapitation. an attitude of horror, in one of the virgins, is very striking. there is a small picture by burgmair of the _virgin and christ_, in the manner of the italian masters, which is a palpable failure. the infant is wretchedly drawn, although, in other respects, prettily and tenderly coloured. burgmair was out of his element in subjects of dignity, or rather of _repose_. where the workings of the mind were not to be depicted by strong demarcations of countenance, he was generally unsuccessful. hence it is, that in a subject of the greatest repose, but at the same time intensity of feeling--the _crucifixion_--this master, in a picture here, of the date of , has really outdone himself: and perhaps is not to be excelled by _any_ artist of the same period. i could not take my eyes from this picture--of which the figures are about half the size of life. it is thus treated. our saviour has just breathed his dying exclamation--"it is finished." his head hangs down--cold, pale death being imprinted upon every feature of the face. it is perhaps a painfully-deadly countenance: copied, i make no doubt, from nature. st. anne, mary, and st. john, are the only attendants. the former is quite absorbed in agony--her head is lowly inclined, and her arms are above it. (the pattern of the drapery is rather singular). mary exhibits a more quiet expression: her resignation is calm and fixed, while her heart seems to be broken. but it is in the figure and countenance of _st. john_, that the artist has reached all that an artist _could_ reach in a delineation of the same subject. the beloved disciple simply looks upwards--upon the breathless corpse of his crucified master. in that look, the world appears to be for ever forgotten. his arms and hands are locked together, in the agony of his soul. there is the sublimest abstraction from every artificial and frivolous accompaniment--in the treatment of this subject--which you can possibly conceive. the background of the picture is worthy of its nobler parts. there is a sobriety of colouring about it which annibal caracci would not have disdained to own. i should add, that there is a folding compartment on each side of the principal subject, which, moving upon hinges, may be turned inwards, and shut the whole from view. each of these compartments contains one of the two thieves who were crucified with our saviour. there is a figure of s. lazarus below one of them, which is very fine for colour and drawing. the last, in the series of old pictures by german masters, which i have time to notice, is an exceedingly curious and valuable one by christopher amberger. it represents _the adoration of the magi_. there are throughout very successful attempts at reflected light; but what should set this picture above all price, in my humble estimation, is a portrait--and the finest which i remember to have seen--of melancthon:--executed when he was in the vigour of life, and in the full possession of physiognomical expression. he is introduced in the stable just over those near the virgin, who are coming to pay their homage to the infant christ: and is habited in black, with a black cap on. mr. lewis made the following rough copy of the head in pencil. to the best of my recollection, there is _no engraving_ of it--so that you will preserve the enclosed for me, for the purpose of having it executed upon copper, when i reach england. it is a countenance full of intellectual expression. [illustration] of the supposed _titians_, _caraccis_, _guidos_, _cignanis_, and _paolo veroneses_, i will not presume to say one word; because i have great doubts about their genuineness, or, at any rate, integrity of condition. i looked about for _albert durer_, and _lucas cranach_, and saw with pleasure the portraits of my old friends _maximilian i._ and _charles v._ by the former--and a _samson and dalila_ by the latter: but neither, i think, in the very first rate style of the artist. there was a frightful, but expressive and well coloured, head of a dwarf, or fool, of which mr. lewis took a pencil-copy; but it is not of sufficient importance to enclose in this despatch. it is the early german school of art which is here the grand and almost exclusive feature of attraction--speaking in an antiquarian point of view. reÏchard estimates the number of these pictures at _twelve hundred_, but i should rather say _seven hundred_. i find, however, that it will be impossible to compress all my _augsbourg_ intelligence in one epistle; and so i reserve the remainder for another opportunity. [ ] [several years have elapsed since i have received a letter from mons. le bret. is he alive? if he be living, let him be assured of my unalterable and respectful attachment: and that i have unfeigned pleasure in annexing a fac-simile of his autograph--from a letter to me of the date of june th : a letter, which i received on the th of the same month following--the very day of our _roxburghe anniversary dinner_. singularly enough, this letter begins in the following strain of bibliographical jocoseness: "_monsieur, et très reverend frère de boocace l'immortel!_"] [illustration: signature--f.c. lebret] [ ] the predominant religion is the protestant. indeed i may say that the number of catholics is exceedingly limited: perhaps, not an eighth part of the population of the town. [ ] i presume this to be the earliest date which any of his books exhibit. his brother gunther, or ginther (for the name is spelt both ways in his colophons) began to print in . lord spencer possesses a beautiful copy (which i obtained from the library of st. peter's monastery, at salzbourg) of _bonaventure's meditations upon the life of christ_, of the date of , printed by g. zainer, or (zeiner) at augsbourg; and considered to be the first effort of his press. [ ] the note, above mentioned, was written in latin: the professor telling me that he preferred that language to the french, as he thought he could write it more grammatically. a _latin note_ must be rather a curiosity to my readers: which, as it is purely bibliographical, and in other respects highly characteristic of the _bon-hommie_ of the writer, shall receive a place here. after mentioning the books above specified, the professor goes on thus: "haec paucula e pluribus notare libuit, quæ reliqua temporis angustia ostendere non permisit. habeo enim alias, quas vocant, editiones principes, e.g. diogenis laertii, bas. - . josephi, bas. . fol. jo. chrysostomi [greek: _peri pronoias_] - . ej. [greek: peri hierôsunês], ib - . aliorum græcorum et patrum. calpurnii et nemesiani eclogarum editionem, ab. do. alex. brassicano curatam editionem ad ms. antiquum factam et argent. - . impressam. præterea aliquot aldinas et juntinas editiones, aliquot a mich. vascosano, paris. factas, in quibus thucydidis libri iii. priores, paris. . . cujus margini lectt. varr. e msto adscriptæ sunt, non memoratæ in editione bipontina. Æschylus, ex edit. franc. robortelli, venet. . . idem ex ed. henr. stephani, ex offic. henr. stephani, . . dionysii halic. opera rhet. ex. ed. rob. stephani, par. . fol. diodor. sicul. ex edit. henr. stephani, . fol. "pauculos codd. mss. e. gr. ciceronis de officiis, aratoris in acta app. fragmenta liuii et terentii ostendere tempus non concessit: præter eos habeo aliquot ciceronis orationes, excerpta ex liuio, duos historiæ griseldis, et alios minoris pretii. "maximam collectionis, bibliothecam appellare non fas est, meæ partem efficit magnus librorum et libellorum numerus ab ao. . usque ad . editorum a reformatoribus eorumque aduersariis, qui numerum sex millium superant, in quibus adsunt serueti de trinitatis erroribus, eiusdemque dialogi, tomi pasquillorum, henr. corn. agrippæ aliquot opera, lemnii epigrammata, aliquot libelli, lutheri et melancthonis manu ornati; præterea alia collectio documentorum, quorum antiquissimum est ab. a. et epistolarum [greek: _autographôn_], a viris doctis sæculorum xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. conscriptarum, in quibus henr. steinhoevvelii, raym. peraudi, lutheri, melancthonis, zwinglii, gruteri, casauboni, ludolfi, camerarii, patris, rittershusiorum, piccarti, aliorumque. "sed nolo longiore enarratione molestus esse, ne vanus esse uidear, a quo vitio nemo me alienior est. vt divina providentia iter prosperum esse iubeat, est, quod ex animo tibi, vir--precatur vlmæ, aug. mdcccxviii. [illustration: signature] p.s. et tibi præsenti, et superiora heri nocte et somno ingruente scribens referre omiseram, esse mihi ex xxii. libris _ab academia veneta, della fama dicta_, editis xv. omnes adeo sunt rari, ut vel instructissimæ bibliothecae vix aliquot eorum habeant. addo _germanicam sixti papæ bullæ datæ versionem,_ sine dubio vlmæ eodem anno impressam, et quinque foliis constantem; quam apud me vidisti." the professor, with the above note, was also so obliging as to present me with a copy of his "_specimen historico-litterarium de academia veneta_. qua scholarchæ et vniversum gymnasii quod ulmæ floret consilium mæcenates patronos fautores ejusdem gymnasii ad orationem aditialem a.d. xxiv. febr. a. , habendam officiose atque decenter invitant."--a latin brochure of twelve pages: "_ulmæ ex officina wagneri, patris_." [ ] [there is an excellent lithographic print of this rath haus, which i possess.] [ ] the postboys in the duchy of baden, and in the territories of würtemberg, have also horns; but i never could get any thing, in the character of a tune, performed by either of them. the moment you enter bavaria, you observe a greater elasticity of character. [the arms of bavaria head the first page of this third volume of my tour.] [ ] the reader may try the effect of perusing the following articles (taken from this printed catalogue) upon his own muscles. the performance, as i suspect, is by a native of augsbourg. . _portrait of justus lipsius by rembrand_. this head of a singulary verity shews of draughts of a man of science: the treatement of clothing is most perfectful, the respiring of life, the hands all wunder-worthy to be admired. . _a hunting-piece_ of great beauty by schneyders, the dogs seem to be alife, the wild-fowls, a hare, toils, just as in nature. . _queen marie christine of sweden_ represented in a very noble situation of body and tranquility of mind, of a fine verity and a high effect of clair-obscure. by rembrand. . _cromwell olivier_, kit-cat the size of life, a portrait of the finest carnation, who shews of a perfect likeness and verity, school of vandyk, perhaps by himself. . portrait of _charles the first king of england_ (so many portraits of famous persons by classick painters will very seldom be found into a privat collection) good picture by janson van miereveld. . a large and precious battle piece representing a scene of the famous _victory by blindheim wonen by marleborough_ over the frensh . we see here the portrait of this hero very resembling, he in a graceful attitude on horsebak, is just to order a movement: a many generals and attendance are arround him. the leaguer, the landscape, the groups, the fighting all with the greatest thruth, there is nothing that does not contribute to embellish this very remarcable picture, painted by a contemporary of the evenement and famous artist in battle pieces, george philipp rugendas. [ ] this was no uncommon representation in the early period of art. "in the church of st. peter the younger, at strasbourg, about the year , there was a kind of large printed placard, with figures on each side of it, suspended near a confessional. on one side, was a naked christ, removing the fire of purgatory with his cross, and sending all those, who came out of the fire, to the pope--who was seated in his pontifical robes, having letters of indulgence before him. before him, also, knelt emperors, kings, cardinals, bishops and others: behind him was a sack of silver, with many captives delivered from mahometan slavery--thanking the supreme pontiff, and followed by clergymen paying the ransom money to the turks. there might also be seen captives, at the bottom of a deep well, shut down by bars of iron; and men, women, and children, making all manner of horrible contortions. "those, says the chronicler wencker, "who saw such a piteous sight, wept, and gave money liberally--for the possession of indulgences;--of which the money, raised by the sale, was supposed to be applied towards the ransom of christian captives." hermann; _notices historiques, &c. de strasbourg_: vol. ii. p. . letter iv. augsbourg. civil and ecclesiastical architecture. population. trade. the public library. in ancient times--that is to say, upwards of three centuries ago--the city of augsbourg was probably the most populous and consequential in the kingdom of bavaria. it was the principal residence of the noblesse, and the great mart of commerce. dukes, barons, nobles of every rank and degree, became domiciled here. a thousand blue and white flags streamed from the tops of castellated mansions, and fluttered along the then almost impregnable ramparts. it was also not less remarkable for the number and splendour of its religious establishments. here was a cathedral, containing twenty-four chapels; and an abbey or monastery (of _saints vlric and afra_) which had no rival in bavaria for the size of its structure and the wealth of its possessions. this latter contained a library, both of mss. and printed books, of which the recent work of braun has luckily preserved a record;[ ] and which, but for such record, would have been unknown to after ages. the treasures of this library are now entirely dispersed; and munich, the capital of bavaria, is the grand repository of them. augsbourg, in the first instance, was enriched by the dilapidations of numerous monasteries; especially upon the suppression of the order of the jesuits. the paintings, books, and relics, of every description, of such monasteries as were in the immediate vicinity of this city, were taken away to adorn the town hall, churches, capitals and libraries. of this collection, (of which no inconsiderable portion, both for number and intrinsic value, came from the neighbouring monastery of eichstadt,[ ]) there has of course been a pruning; and many flowers have been transplanted to munich. yet there are _graphic_ treasures in augsbourg well deserving the diligent search and critical examination of the english antiquary. the church of the _recollets_ has an organ which is considered among the noblest in europe: nor must i forget to notice the pulpit, by eichlen, and some old pictures in the church of st. anne. [illustration: monastery of saints ulric & afra, augsburg.] the town hall in this city, which i mentioned in my last letter, is thought to be the finest in germany. it was yet exceeded, as i learn, by the old episcopal palace, now dismembered of its ancient dimensions, and divided into public offices of government. the principal church, at the end of the _maximilian street_, is that which once formed the chief ornament of the famous abbey of sts. ulric and afra.[ ] i should think that there is no portion of the present building older than the fourteenth century; while it is evident that the upper part of the tower is of the middle of the sixteenth. it has a nearly globular or mosque-shaped termination--so common in the greater number of the bavarian churches. it is frequented by congregations both of the catholic and protestant persuasion; and it was highly gratifying to see, as i saw, human beings assembled under the same roof, equally occupied in their different forms of adoration, in doing homage to their common creator. it was also pleasing, the other day, to witness, upon some high religious festival, the crowds of respectable and well-dressed people (chiefly females) who were issuing from the church just above mentioned. it had quite an english sunday appearance. i have said that these females were "well dressed"--i should, rather have said superbly dressed: for their head-ornaments--consisting of a cap, depressed at top, but terminating behind in a broad bow--are usually silk, of different colours, entirely covered with gold or silver gauze, and spangles. the hair appeared to be carefully combed and plaited, either turned up in a broad mass behind, or terminating in ringlets. i asked the price of one of the simplest of these caps--worn by the common order of servants--and found it to be little less than a guinea. but they last long, and the owners attach some importance to them. augsbourg was once distinguished for great learning and piety, as well as for political consequence; and she boasts of a very splendid _martyrological roll_.[ ] at the present day, all is comparatively dull and quiet; but you cannot fail to be struck with the magnificence of many of the houses, and the air of importance hence given to the streets; while the paintings upon the outer walls add much to the splendid effect of the whole. the population of augsbourg is supposed to amount to about thirty thousand. in the time of maximilian, and charles v. it was, i make no doubt, twice as numerous. of the trade of augsbourg, i am not enabled to transmit any very flattering details. silks, stuffs, dimity, (made here for the first time) and jewellery, are the chief commodities; but for the _latter_, connected with articles of dress, there is rather a brisk demand. the reputation of the manufactory of _seethaler_, is deserving of mention. in the repository of this respectable tradesman you will find varieties of every description: rings, buckles, clasps, bracelets, and images of saints, of peculiar and interesting forms. yet they complain here of stagnation of commerce in almost every one of its branches: although they admit that the continuance of peace will bring things comfortably round again. the late war exhausted both the population and the treasury of bavaria. they do a good stroke of business in the concerns of the bank: and this is considered rather a famous place for the management of letters and bills of exchange. with respect to the _latter_, some singular customs and privileges are, i understand, observed here: among others, if a bill become due on a _wednesday_, eight days of grace are invariably allowed. it was the thoughts of the public library alone that afforded the chief comfort to the depressed state of my spirits, from the excessive heat of the day. what i might _do_, and at last, what i had _done_, within the precincts of that same library, was sure to be my greatest solace during the evening rambles near the ramparts. the good fortune which attended me at stuttgart, has followed to this place. within two yards' length of me repose, at this present instant, the first _horace_, and the finest copy imaginable of the _polish protestant bible_ of prince radzivil--together with a _latin bible_ of , by _frisner and sensenschmidt_, in two enormous folio volumes, of an execution of almost unparalleled magnificence. these are no common stimulants to provoke appetite. it remains to see whether the banquet itself be composed of proportionably palatable ingredients. on leaving stuttgart, m. le bret told me that messrs. beyschlag and may were the principal librarians or curators of the public library of this place; and that i should find them intelligent and pleasant gentlemen. professor veesenmeyer at ulm confirmed this statement. i had a letter from the latter, to the rector beyschlag, which procured me an immediate entrance into the library. the rector's coadjutor, professor may, was also most prompt to shew me every rarity. in the countenance of the _latter_, i saw, what you could not fail to call that of a handsome-looking english gentleman. i had never before so vehemently desired to speak the german language, or for my new acquaintance to speak my own. however, the french tongue was the happy medium of imparting my ideas and propositions to both the gentlemen in question; and we had hardly exchanged half a dozen sentences, when i opened what i considered (and what eventually turned out to be) a well directed fire upon the ancient volumes by which i was at the time surrounded. the exterior of this library has a monastic form. the building is low and unpretending, having an octangular tower, up the staircase of which you mount to the library. it is situated within a stone's throw of the high street. the interior of the library is not less unpretending than its exterior: but in a closet, at the hither end, (to the left on entering) are preserved the more ancient, choice, and curious volumes. in one compartment of this cabinet-like retreat are contained the _books printed at augsbourg_ in the infancy of the press of this town:[ ] a collection, extremely creditable in itself and in its object; and from which, no consideration, whether of money, or of exchange for other books, would induce the curators to withdraw a volume. of course i speak not of _duplicates_ of the early augsbourg press. two comparatively long rooms, running in parallel lines, contain the greater part of the volumes of the public library; and amongst them i witnessed so many genuine, fair, and original conditioned copies of literary works, of the early period of the reformation, that i almost sighed to possess them--except that i knew they could not possibly pay the expenses of conveyance. but for the "well directed fire" above alluded to. it produced a _capitulation_ respecting the following articles--which were selected by myself from the boudoir just mentioned, and about which neither mystery was observed nor secrecy enjoined. in fact, the contract, of the venders was to be submitted to, and sanctioned by, the supreme magistracy of the place. the rector beyschlag hath much of merriment and of wit in his composition. "now, sir,"--observed he--"bring those treasures forward which we can spare, and let us afterwards settle about their value: ourselves affixing a price." i desired nothing better. in consequence forth came the _first_ (quarto) _horace_, without date or place, fair, sound, and perfect: the _familiar epistles of cicero_ of the date of , by s. and pannartz, in a condition perfectly unparalleled in every respect; the _latin bible_ of _frisner and sensenschmidt_ of , in an equally desirable and pristine condition;[ ] the _polish protestant bible_ of , with its first rough-edged margins and in wooden binding; _st. jerom's epistles_, printed _at parma_, by _a. de portilia_--most captivating to the eye; with a curious black-letter broadside, in latin sapphics, pasted in the interior of the cover; the _history of bohemia, by pope pius ii_, of , as fresh and crackling as if it had just come from the printer: _schuzler's edition of the hexameron of ambrosius_, : the _hungarian chronicle_ of .... "ohe jam satis est...." for one bargain, at least,--methinks i hear you remark. it may be so; but the measure must be fuller. accordingly, after having shot off my great guns, i brought my howitzers into play. then commenced a pleasant and not unprofitable parley respecting little grammatical tracts, devotional manuals, travels, philology, &c. when lo!--up sprung a delightful crop of _lilies_, _donatuses_, _mandevilles_, _turrecrematas_, _brandts_, _matthews of cracow_--in vellum surcoats, white in colour, firm in substance, and most talkative in turning over their leaves! these were mere _florin_ acquisitions: the preceding were paid for in heavy metal of a _golden_ hue. it is not fair to betray all that took place upon this cockerian transaction; but there may be no harm in mentioning that my purse was lightened by upwards of louis d'or. my spirits were lightened in the same proportion. neither venders nor vendee grieved at the result. professor may was most joyous; and although the rector beyschlag was sonorous in voice, restless in action, and determined in manner--about fixing an alarmingly high price upon the _first horace_--yet, by degrees, he subsided into a softer note, and into a calmer action--and the horace became _mine_ by a sort of contre-projet proposition. nothing would please professor may but that i must go home with him, and try my luck in purchasing a few similar rarities out of his _own_ collection. i did so. madame francs' supplemental supply became gradually diminished, and i began to think that if i went on in this manner i should not only never reach _vienna_, but not even _munich_. this doubt was frankly stated to my book-guardians; and my _ducats_ were immediately commuted into _paper_. the result will doubtless prove the honour of the purchaser; for i have drawn upon a quarter which i had exclusively in view when i made the bargain, and which was never known to fail me. "surely," thought i to myself as i returned to my hotel, "messrs. beyschlag and may are among the most obliging and the most enlightened of their fraternity." i returned to the public library the next morning, as well to conclude a bargain for an exchange of books for certain recent bibliographical publications, as to take a list of a few of the more rare, fine, and curious volumes, in their own collection, which were destined _always_ to retain their situations. they have, very properly, the first book printed at augsbourg: namely, _aurbach's meditations upon the life of christ_, of the date of , printed by _gunther zainer_. but one of the most uncommon books examined by me was "_augustinus ypponensis episcopus de consensu evangelistarum: in ciuitate langingen. impressus. anno a partu virginis salutifero. millesimoquadringentesimoseptuagesimotercio. pridie idus. aprilis_." the type is very singular; half gothic and half roman. of the printer and place i know nothing; except that i learnt from the librarians that "_langingen_" is situated about ten leagues from augsbourg, upon the danube. i made every effort--as well by the _ducat_ as by the _exchange_ method--to prevail upon them to part with this book; but to no purpose. the blood-freezing reply of professor veesenmeyer was here repeated--"ça reste, à ... augsbourg." this book is unbound. another volume, of the same equivocal but tempting description, was called "_alcuinus de trinitate_:--impressum in uttipurrha _monasterio sacto^{ } marty^{ }, alexadri et theodri. ordiis scti bndicti. anno sesquimillesimo kl. septembris_ [hebrew]." it is printed in a rude gothic letter; and a kind of fly leaf contains a wood-cut portrait of alcuin. the monastery, where this volume was printed, is now suppressed. a pretty little volume--"as fresh as a daisy" (so says my ms. note taken upon the spot) of the "_hortulus rosarium de valle lachrymarum_" (to which a latin ode by s. brandt is prefixed), printed by i. de olpe, in , in the original wooden binding--closed my researches among the volumes executed in the fifteenth century. as i descended into the sixteenth century, the choice was less, although the variety was doubtless greater. a fine genuine copy of _geyler's navicula fatuorum_, , to. in its original binding, was quickly noted down, and as quickly _secured_. it was a duplicate, and a ducat made it my own. it is one of the commonest books upon the continent--although there _was_ a time when certain bibliomaniacal madcaps, with us, pushed the bidding for this volume up to the monstrously insane sum of £ :[ ]--and all, because it was coated in a grolier binding! among the theological books, of especial curiosity, my guides directed my attention to the following: "_altera hæc pars testam^ti. veteris emendata est iuxta censuras inquisitionis hispanicæ an^o _. nouu testam. recusandu omnino est; rejicienduq. propter plurimos errores qui illius scholiis sunt inserti." this was nothing else than the younger r. stephen's edition of the vulgate bible of , folio, of which the _new testament_ was absolutely sealed up. it had belonged to the library of the jesuits. there was a copy of erasmus, "_expurgatus iuxta censuram academiæ louaniæ an^o _." the name of the printer--which in the preceding bible had been tried to be _cancelled_--was here uniformly _erased_: but it was doubtless the basil edition of erasmus by good old honest froben and his sons-in-law.[ ] what think you of undoubted proofs of stereotype printing in the middle of the sixteenth century? it is even so. what adds to the whimsical puzzle is, that these pieces of metal, of which the surface is composed of types, fixed and immoveable, are sometimes inserted in wooden blocks, and introduced as titles, mottoes, or descriptions of the subjects cut upon the blocks. professor may begged my acceptance of a specimen or two of the types, thus fixed upon plates of the same metal. they rarely exceeded the height of four or five lines of text, by about four or five inches in length. i carried away, with his permission, two proofs (not long ago pulled) of the same block containing this intermixture of stereotype and block-wood printing. i believe i have now told you all that appears worthy of being told, (as far as my own opportunities of observation have led me) of the city of augsbourg. i shall leave it (to-morrow) with regret; since a longer residence would, i am persuaded, have introduced me to very pleasant society, and made me acquainted with antiquities, of all kinds, well deserving of _some_ record, however trivial. as it is, i must be content with what the shortness of my time, and the more immediately pressing nature of my pursuits, have brought me in contact. a sight of the _crucifixion by hans burgmair_, and the possession of the most genuine copy of the _editio princeps of horace_, have richly repaid all the toil and expense of the journey from stuttgart. the horace, and the protestant polish bible of , will be my travelling companions--at least as far as _munich_--from whence my next despatch will be dated.[ ] i hope, indeed, to dine at that renowned city ere "the set of to-morrow's sun." in the mean while, adieu. [ ] his account of the printed books in the xvth century, in the monastery above mentioned, was published in , in vols. to. that of the manuscripts, in the same monastic library, was published in , in vols. or rather perhaps, six parts, to. [ ] among the books in this monastery was an uncut copy of the famous edition of the _meditationes j. de turrecremata_, of the date of , which is now in the library of earl spencer. in hartmann schedel's _chronicon norimbergense_, , fol. clxii, are portraits of the founders of the town and monastery of eichstadt, or eistett; together with a large wood-cut view of the town. this monastery appears to have been situated on a commanding eminence. [ ] [this abbey was questionless one of the most celebrated and wealthy in europe. the antiquarian reader will be pleased with the opposite plate--presenting a bird's eye view of it, in the year --(when it stood in its pristine splendour) from the _monasteriologia_, attached to the _imagines sanctorum_.] [ ] in the bavaria sancta of raderus, - , vols. folio, will be found a succession of martyrological details--adorned by a series of beautiful engravings by _ralph sadeler_. the text is in latin, and the author has apparently availed himself of all the accessible authorities, in manuscript and print, which were likely to give interest and weight to his narrative. but it seems to have been composed rather for the sake of the engravings--which are generally most admirably executed. great delicacy and truth of drawing, as well as elegance of grouping, are frequently discernible in them; and throughout the whole of the compositions there is much of the air of _parmegiano's_ pencil; especially in the females. sadeler makes his monks and abbots quite _gentlemen_ in their figures and deportment; and some of his miracles are described with great singularity and force of effect. [ ] such is zapf's work, entitled _annales typographiæ augustanæ_, ; to. republished with copious additions in , two volumes, to. the text of the latter is (unfortunately, for the unlearned) printed in the german language. [ ] [this latin bible came from the eichstadt monastery.] [ ] _bibliographical decameron_, vol. iii. p. . [ ] see the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. ii. p. . &c. [ ] [the first horace, the cicero epist. ad familiares, , the latin bible by frisner and sensenschmidt, and the polish bible of , (all so warmly and so justly eulogised in the above pages) have been reposing these last ten years in the library of earl spencer: and magnificent and matchless as is that library, it contains no finer volumes than the four preceding. i conclude this detail by subjoining the autographs of the two bibliographical worthies who have cut such a conspicuous figure in the scene above described. the latter is now no more.] [autographs] letter v. munich. churches. royal palace. picture gallery. public library. _munich; hôtel of the black eagle; aug. , ._ my dear friend; behold me, now, in the capital of bavaria: in a city remarkable for its bustle, compared with the other german cities which i have visited, and distinguished rather for the general creditable appearance of the houses and public buildings, than for any peculiar and commanding remains of antiquity. but ere i speak of the city, let me detain you for a few seconds only with an account of my journey thither; and of some few particulars which preceded my departure from augsbourg. it turned out as i predicted. "ere the set of sun," ensuing my last despatch, i drove to the principal front of this large, comfortless, and dirty inn; and partook of a dinner, in the caffé, interrupted by the incessant vociferations of merchants and traders who had attended the market (it being market day when i arrived), and annoyed beyond measure by the countless swarms of flies, which chose to share my cutlet with me. on taking a farewell look of augsbourg, my eyes seemed to leave unwillingly those objects upon which i gazed. the paintings, the town hall, the old monastery of saints ulric and afra, all--as i turned round to catch a parting glance--seemed to have stronger claims than ever upon my attention, and to reproach me for the shortness of my visit. however, my fate was fixed--and i now only looked steadily forward to munich; my imagination being warmed (you will say "inflamed") with the thoughts of the countless folios, in manuscript and in print--including _block-books_, unheard and undreamt of--which had been described to me as reposing upon the shelves of the royal or public library. in consequence, hans burgmair, albert durer, and the elder holbein were perfectly forgotten--after we had reached the first stage, and changed horses at _merching_. from augsbourg to munich is but a pleasant and easy drive of about forty-five english miles. the last stage, from _fürstenfelbruck_ to this place, is chiefly interesting; while the two tall brick towers of the cathedral church of nôtre dame keep constantly in view for the last seven or eight miles. a chaussée, bordered on each side by willows, poplars, and limes, brings you--in a tediously straight line of four or five miles--up to the very gates of munich. at first view, munich looks like a modern city. the streets are tolerably spacious, the houses are architectural, and the different little squares, _or places_, are pleasant and commodious. it is a city of business and bustle. externally, there is not much grandeur of appearance, even in the palaces or public buildings, but the interiors of many of these edifices are rich in the productions of ancient art;--whether of sculpture, of painting, of sainted relics, or of mechanical wonders. every body just now is from home; and i learn that the bronzes of the prince royal--which are considered to be the finest in europe--are both out of order and out of view. this gallant prince loves also pictures and books: and, of the latter, those more especially which were printed by the _family of aldus_. upon the whole, there is something very anglicised in the appearance both of this city and of its inhabitants. of the latter, i have reason to speak in a manner the most favourable:--as you shall hear by and by. but let me now discourse (which i must do very briefly) of inanimate objects--or works of art--before i come to touch upon human beings ... here in constant motion: and, as it should seem--alternately animated by hope and influenced by curiosity. the population of munich is estimated at about , . of course, as before, i paid my first visit to the cathedral, or mother church of nÔtre dame, upon the towers of which i had fixed my eyes for a whole hour on the approach to the city. both the nave and towers, which are of red brick, are frightful in the extreme; without ornament: without general design: without either meaning or expression of any kind. the towers cannot be less than feet in height: but the tops are mere pepper-boxes. no part of this church, or cathedral, either within or without, can be older than the middle of the fifteenth century.[ ] the interior has really nothing deserving of particular description. but i check myself in an instant: it _has_ something--eminently worthy of distinct notice and the most unqualified praise. it has a monument of the emperor louis iv. which was erected by his great-grandson maximilian i. duke of bavaria, in - . the designer of this superb mausoleum was _candit_: the figures are in black marble, the ornaments are in bronze; the latter executed by the famous _krummper_, of weilheim. i am ignorant of the name of the sculptor. this monument stands in the centre of the choir, of which it occupies a great portion. it is of a square form, having, at each corner, a soldier, of the size of life, bending on one knee and weeping: supporting, at the same time, a small flag between his body and arm. these soldiers are supposed to guard the ashes of the dead. between them are three figures, of which two stand back to back. between these two, somewhat more elevated, is raised the figure of the emperor louis iv.--dressed in his full imperial costume. but the two figures, just mentioned, are absolutely incomparable. one of them is _albert v._ in armour, in his ducal attire:[ ] the other is _william v._ habited in the order of the golden fleece. this habit consists of a simple broad heavy garment, up to the neck. the wearer holds a drawn sword in his right hand, which is turned a little to the right. this figure may be full six feet and a half high. the head is uncovered; and the breadth of the drapery, together with the erect position of the figure, and the extension of the sword, gives it one of the most commanding, and even appalling, airs imaginable. i stood before it, till i almost felt inclined to kneel and make obeisance. the entire monument is a noble and consummate specimen of art: and can hardly have any superior, of its kind, throughout europe. perhaps i should add that the interior of this church contains twenty-four large octagonal pillars, dividing the nave from the side aisles: and that around these latter and the choir, there are not fewer than twenty-four chapels, ornamented with the tombs of ancient families of distinction. this interior is about english feet in length, by about in width. of the other churches, that of st. michael, attached to the _late college of the jesuits_,--now forming the public academy or university, and containing the public library--is probably the most beautiful for its simplicity of ornament and breadth of parts. indeed at this moment i can recollect nothing to be put in competition with it, as a comparatively modern edifice. this interior is, as to _roman_ architecture, what that of st. ouen is as to _gothic_: although the latter be of considerably greater extent. it is indeed the very charm of interior architecture: where all the parts, rendered visible by an equal distribution of light, meet the eye at the same time, and tell their own tale. the vaulted roof, full english feet in length, has not a single column to support it. pilasters of the corinthian order run along each side of the interior, beneath slightly projecting galleries; which latter are again surmounted by rows of pilasters of the doric order, terminating beneath the spring of the arched roof. the windows are below the galleries. statues of prophets, apostles, and evangelists, grace the upper part of the choir--executed from the characteristic designs of candit. the pulpit and the seats are beautifully carved. opposite the former, are oratories sustained by columns of red marble; and the approach to the royal oratory is rendered more impressive by a flight of ten marble steps. the founder of this church was william v., who lies buried in a square vault below: near which is an altar, where they shew, on all saints day, the brass coffins containing the ashes of the princes of bavaria. the period of the completion of this church is quite at the end of the sixteenth century.[ ] but ere i quit it, i must not fail to direct your attention to a bronze crucifix in the interior--which is in truth a masterpiece of art. my eye ran over the whole of this interior with increased delight at every survey; and while the ceremony of high mass was performing--and the censers emitted their clouds of frankincense--and the vocal and instrumental sounds of a large congregation pervaded every portion of the edifice--it was with reluctance (but from necessity) that i sought the outward door, to close it upon such a combination of attractions! of the nine or ten remaining churches, it will not be necessary to notice any other than that of st. caetan, built by the electress adelaide, and finished about the year . it was built in the accomplishment of a vow. the pious and liberal adelaide endowed it with all the relics of art, and all the treasures of wealth which she could accumulate. it is doubtless one of the most beautiful churches in bavaria:--quite of the italian school of art, and seems to be a st. peter's at rome in miniature. the architect was agostino barella, of bologna. this church is in the form of a cross. in the centre is a cupola, sustained by pillars of the corinthian order. the light comes down from the windows of this cupola in a very mellow manner; but there was, when i saw it, rather a want of light. the nave is vaulted: and the principal altar is beneath the dome, separating the nave from the choir. the façade, or west front, is a building of yesterday, as it were: namely, of ; but it is beautiful and striking. this church is considered to be the richest in munich for its collection of pictures; but nothing that i saw there made me forget, for one moment, the crucifixion by hans burgmair.[ ] i should say that the interior of this church is equally distinguished for the justness of its proportions, the propriety of its ornaments, and the neatness of its condition. it is an honour to the city of munich. there were, some half century ago, about a dozen more churches;--but they have been since either destroyed or _desecrated_. from the churches, i must conduct you, but in a very rapid manner, to some of the public buildings; reserving, as usual, my last and more leisurely description for the public library. of these buildings, the _hôtel de ville_, _theatres_, and _royal residence_, are necessarily the most imposing in size, and most attractive from their objects of public utility or amusement. the royal palace was built by maximilian i.--a name as great in the annals of bavaria, as the same name was in those of austria about a century before. this palace is of about two centuries standing: and its eastern façade measures english feet in length. it abounds, within and without, with specimens of bronze ornaments: and two bronze lions (the work of krummper, after the designs of candit) which support the shields of the electoral houses of bavaria and lorraine, have been considered superior to the lion in the place of. st. mark at venice. this immense pile of building contains three courts. in that of "the fountain," to the left, under an arch, is a huge black pebble stone, weighing nearly bavarian pounds. an old german inscription, of the date of , tells you that a certain bavarian duke, called _christopher the leaper_, threw this same pebble stone to a considerable distance. near it, you observe three large nails driven into the wall. the highest of them may be about twelve feet from the ground:--the mark which christopher the leaper reached in one of his frolicksome jumps. i find they are lovers of marvellous attainments, in bavaria:--witness, the supposed feat of the great emperor maximilian upon the parapet wall at the top of the cathedral of ulm.[ ] to describe the fountains and bronze figures, in these three courts, would be endless; but they strike you with a powerful degree of admiration--and a survey of every thing about you, is a convincing proof that you have entered a country where they shrink not from solidity and vastness in their architectural achievements: while the lighter, or ornamental parts, are not less distinguished by the grace of their design and the vigour of their execution. will you believe it--i have not visited, nor shall i have an opportunity of visiting, the _interior_? an interior, in which i am told that there are such gems, jewels, and varieties--such miracles of nature and of art, as equally baffle description and set competition at defiance. as thus:--a chapel, of which the pavement is mosaic work, composed of amethysts, jaspers, and lapis lazuli: of which the interior of its cupola is composed of lapis lazuli, adorned with gilt bronze: wherein is to be seen a statue of the virgin, in a drapery of solid gold, with a crown upon her head, composed of diamonds:--a massive golden crucifix, adorned with precious stones--and upon which there is an inscription cut upon an emerald an inch square: again, small altars, supported by columns of transparent amethyst, &c. i will say nothing of two little caskets, studded with cameos and turquoises, in this chapel of fairy land--(built by maximilian i.) of which one contains two precious pictures by jean d'aix la chapelle--and the other (of massive gold, weighing twenty-four pounds) a painting of the resurrection and of paradise, in enamel. even the very organ is constructed of gold, silver, ebony, turquois and lapis lazuli ornaments; of pearls and of coral. as to the huge altar of massive silver--adorned with cariatides, candelabra, statues, vases, and bouquets of the same metal--and especially the _pix_, lined with diamonds, rubies, and pearls--what shall i say of these--all the fruit of the munificent spirit of maximilian? truly, i would pass over the whole with an indifferent eye, to gaze upon a simple altar of pure gold--the sole ornament of the prison of the unfortunate mary queen of scots; which pope leo xi. gave to william v. elector of bavaria--and which bears the following inscription: exilii comes et carceris imago haec mariae stuardae, scot. reg. fuit, fuisset et caedis, si vixisset. not less marvellous things are told of the _jewellery_ in this palace of wonders:--among which the blue diamond ... attached to the order of the golden fleece--which is set open, and which, opposed to the sun, emits rays of the most dazzling lustre,--is said to be the nonpareil of coloured precious stones. it weighs carats and grains. of the _pearls_, that called the palatinat, half white and half black, is considered the greatest curiosity; but in a cabinet is preserved the choicest of all choice specimens of precious art and precious metals. it is a statue of _st. george and the dragon_, of the height of about a foot and a half, in pure and solid gold: the horse is agate: the shield is of enamelled gold: the dragon is jasper: the whole being thickly studded with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls--to the number of at least two thousand! another cabinet contains the crowns of emperors, dukes and.... but you are already dazzled and bewildered; and i must break off the description of this enchanted palace. what is of easy access is rarely visited. i asked several of my acquaintance here, whether this spectacle were worth seeing?--and they as frequently replied in the negative as in the affirmative. but the picture gallery i _have_ seen, and seen with attention;--although i am not likely to pay it a second visit. i noted down what i saw: and paid particular attention to the progress of art in the early german school of painting. i knew that this collection had long enjoyed a great celebrity: that it had been the unceasing object of several of the old dukes of bavaria to enrich it; and that the famous theodore, equally the admirer of books and of pictures, had united to it the gallery of paintings collected by him at manheim. it moreover contained the united collections of deux-ponts and dusseldorf. this magnificent collection is arranged in seven large rooms on the same floor. every facility of access is afforded; and you observe, although not so frequently as at paris, artists at work in copying the treasures before them. in the entrance-hall, where there is a good collection of books upon the fine arts, are specimens by _masaccio_, _garofalo_, _ghirlandaio_, _perugino_, _lucas de leyden_, _amberger_, _wohlgemuth_, _baldonetti, aldegrave_, _quinten matsys_--with several others, by masters of the same period, clearly denoting the order of time in which they are supposed to have been executed. i was well pleased, in this division of the old school, to recognise specimens of my old friends hans burgmair and the elder holbein; and wished for no individual at my elbow so much as our excellent friend w.y. ottley:--a profound critic in works of ancient art, but more particularly in the early italian and german schools. to conduct you through all these apartments, or seven rooms, with the methodical precision of an experienced guide, is equally beyond my inclination and ability. much as i may admire one or two _titians_, one or two of the _caracci_ school, the same number of _veroneses_ and _schidones_, and a partial sprinkling of indifferent _raffaelles_, i should say that the boast of this collection are the pictures by _rubens and vandyke_. of the former there are some excellent portraits; but his two easel pictures--the one, the _fall of the damned_, and the other the _beatitude of the good_--are marvellous specimens of art. the figures, extending from heaven to earth, in either picture, are linked, or grouped together, in that peculiarly bold and characteristic manner which distinguishes the pencil of the master.[ ] the colouring throughout is fresh, but mellow and harmonious. among the larger pictures by this renowned artist, are _susanna and the elders_, and _the death of seneca_; the latter considered as a distinguished production. but some of the whole length portraits, by the same hand, pleased me better. the pictures of rubens occupy more particularly the fourth room. vandyke shines in the second, sixth, and seventh rooms: in which are some charming whole length portraits--combining, almost, the dignity of titian with the colouring of rembrandt:--and yet, more natural in expression, more elegant in attitude, and more beautiful in drawing, than you will find in the productions of either of these latter artists. if the art, whether of sculpture or of painting, take not deep root, and send forth lusty branches laden with goodly fruit, at munich--the fault can never be in the _soil_, but in the waywardness of the _plant_. there is encouragement from every quarter; as far as the contemplation of art, in all its varieties, and all its magnificence, can be said to be a stimulus to exertion. when the re-action of a few dozen years of peace shall have nearly obliterated the ravages and the remembrance of war--when commerce and civil competition shall have entirely succeeded to exaction and tyranny from a foreign force--(which it now holds forth so auspicious a promise of accomplishing)--and when literature shall revert within its former fruitful channels of enlightening the ignorant, gratifying the learned, and illustrating what is obscure among the treasures of former times--then i think munich will be a proud and a flourishing city indeed.[ ] but more of this subject on a future occasion. let us take a walk abroad--in the fields, or in the immediate vicinity of the town--for methinks we have both had sufficient in-door occupation of late. one of the principal places of resort, in the immediate vicinity of munich, is a garden--laid out after the english fashion--and of which the late count rumford had the principal direction. it is really a very pleasing, and to my taste, successful effort of art--or rather adaptation of nature. a rapid river, or rivulet (a branch of the _iser_) of which the colour is a hazy or misty blue, very peculiar--runs under a small bridge which you pass. the bed of the river has a considerable descent, and the water runs so rapidly, as to give you the idea that it would empty itself in a few hours. yet--"labitur et labetur in omne volubilis ævum." i strolled frequently in the shady walks, and across the verdant lawns, of this pleasant garden; wherein are also arbour-covered benches, and embowered retreats--haunts of meditation--where ... voices, through the void deep sounding, seize th'enthusiastic ear! but skell must not be deprived of his share of praise in the construction of this interesting pleasure ground. he was the principal active superintendant; and is considered to have had a thorough knowledge of _optical effect_ in the construction of his vistas and lawns. a chinese pagoda, a temple to apollo--and a monument to gessner, the pastoral poet--the two latter embosomed in a wood--are the chief objects of attraction on the score of art. but the whole is very beautiful, and much superior to any thing of the kind which i have seen since leaving england. i told you, at the beginning of this letter, that it was market-day when we arrived here. mr. lewis, who loses no opportunity of adding to the stores of his sketch book, soon transferred a group of market people to his paper, of which you are here favoured with a highly finished copy. the countenances, as well as the dresses, are strongly indicative of the general character of the german women. [illustration] i was surprised to be told, the other day, that the city of munich, although lying upon a flat, apparently of several miles in circumference, is nevertheless situated upon very lofty ground:--full twelve or thirteen hundred feet above the level of the sea--and that the snow-charged blasts, from the tyrolese mountains, towards the end of autumn, render it at times exceedingly cold and trying to the constitution. but i must now revert to the city, and proceed at once to an account of the most interesting of all the public edifices at munich--in my very humble, and perhaps capricious, estimation. of course you will instantly catch at what i mean. "what, but the edifice which contains the public library?" 'tis wisely conjectured; and to this boundless region of books, of almost every age and description, let us instantly resort: first paying our respects to the directors and librarians of the establishment. of the former, the baron von moll, and mr. frederic schlichtegroll are among the principal: of the latter, messrs. scherer and bernhard have the chief superintendence: of all these gentlemen, more in my next.[ ] at present, suffice it to say, that i was constantly and kindly attended during my researches by m. bernhard--who proved himself in the frequent discussions, and sometimes little controversies, which we had together, to be one of the very best bibliographers i had met upon the continent. in the bibliographical lore of the fifteenth century, he has scarcely a superior: and i only regretted my utter ignorance of the german language, which prevented my making myself acquainted with his treatises, upon certain early latin and german bibles, written in that tongue. but it was his kindness--his diffidence--his affability, and unremitting attention--which called upon me for every demonstration of a sense of the obligations i was under. it will not be easy for me to forget, either the kind-hearted attentions or the bibliographical erudition of m. bernhard ... "quæ me cunque vocant terræ." be it known to you therefore, my good friend, that the public library at munich is attached to what was once the _college of jesuits_; and to which the beautiful church, described in a few preceding pages, belonged. on the suppression of the order of jesuits, the present building was devoted to it by charles theodore in : a man, who, in more than this one sense, has deserved well of his country. would you believe it? they tell me that there are at least _half a hundred_ rooms filled by books and mss. of one kind or other--including duplicates--and that they suppose the library contains nearer _four_, than _three hundred thousand volumes_! i scarcely know how to credit this; although i can never forget the apparently interminable succession of apartments--in straight lines, and in rectangular lines: floor upon floor: even to the very summit of the building, beneath the slanting roofs--such as i had seen at stuttgart. but _here_ it should seem as if every monastery throughout bavaria had emptied itself of its book-treasures ... to be poured into this enormous reservoir. but i will now begin my labours in good earnest. an oblong, narrow, boudoir-sort of apartment, contains the more precious mss., the block books, and works printed upon vellum. this room is connected with another, at right angles, (if i remember well) which receives the more valuable works of the fifteenth century--the number of which latter, alone, are said to amount to nearly _twenty thousand_. in such a farrago, there must necessarily be an abundance of trash. these, however, are how under a strict assortment, or classification; and i think that i saw not fewer than half a dozen assistants, under the direction of m. bernhard, hard at work in the execution of this desirable task. latin ms. of the gospels; _in small folio_. i have no hesitation in ascribing this ms. to the ninth century. it is replete with evidences of this, or even of an earlier, period. it is executed in capital letters of silver and gold, about a quarter of an inch in height, upon a purple ground. of course the ms. is upon vellum. the beginning of the text is entirely obliterated; but on the recto of the xvth leaf we read "_explt breuiarium_." latin ms. of the gospels; in _large folio_. this is a more superb, but more recent, ms. than the preceding. yet i suspect it to be not much later than the very early part of the eleventh century. it is executed in a large, lower-case, roman letter: somewhat bordering upon the gothic. but the binding, at the very outset, is too singular and too resplendent to be overlooked. the first side of it has the crucifixion, in a sort of parallelogram frame work--in the centre: surrounded by a double arabesque, or greek border, of a most beautiful form. the whole is in ivory, of a minute and surprisingly curious workmanship. the draperies partake of the character of late roman art. round this central ivory piece of carving, is a square, brass border, with the following inscription; which, from the character of the capital letters, (for it is wholly composed of such) is comparatively quite modern: grammata qvi qverit cognoscere vere hoc mathesis plene qvadratvm plavdat habere en qui veraces sophie fulsere sequaces ornat perfectam rex heinrich stemmate sectam. in the outer border are precious stones, and portraits, with inscriptions in greek capital letters. these portraits and inscriptions seem to me to be perfect, but barbarous, specimens of byzantine art. around the whole are the titles of the four gospels in coeval capital letters. the general effect of this first side of the book-cover, or binding, is perfect--for antiquarian genuineness and costliness. the other side of the binding contains representations of the cardinal virtues, in brass, with the lamb in the centre: but they are comparatively modern. the interior of this book does not quite accord with its exterior. it is in pure condition, in every respect; but the art is rather feeble and barbarous. the titles to the gospels are executed upon a purple ground. the larger subjects, throughout the illuminations, are executed with freedom, but the touch is heavy and the effect weak. the gold back grounds are rather sound than resplendent. yet is this ms., upon the whole, a most costly and precious volume. latin psalter. probably of the latter part of the twelfth century. the text is executed in a lower-case gothic. in the calendar of saints are found the names of edward the martyr, cuthbert, guthlac, etheldrith, and thomas à becket. i think i am fully justified in calling this one of the richest, freshest, and most highly ornamented psalters in existence. the illuminations are endless, and seem to comprise the whole history of the bible. in the representations of armour, we observe the semicircular and slightly depressed helmet, and no nasels. i must now lay before you a ms. of a very different description--called the romance of sir tristrant;[ ] in verse. this ms. is wholly in the german language; written in the xiiith century, and containing fifteen illuminations. m. schérer, the head librarian, was so obliging as to furnish me with an account of it; having himself translated, as literally as possible, the original text into our own language. i shall now put together a few miscellaneous notices, taken, like all the preceding, from the articles themselves--and which you will find to relate chiefly to books of missals and offices, &c. i shall begin, however, with a highly illuminated ms. called the twelve sibyls. this beautiful book is doubtless of the xvth century. it begins with a representation of the "_sibila persica_." the principal merit of these illuminations may, by some, be thought to consist in their _freshness_; but others will not fail to remark, that the accompaniments of these figures, such as the chairs on which they sit, and the pillars which form the frame work of the pieces, are designed and executed in a style of art worthy of the florentine school of this period. every sibyl is succeeded by a scriptural subject. if the faces of these figures were a little more animated and intelligent, this book would be a charming specimen of art of the xvth century. the _erythræan sibyl_ holds a white rose very prettily in her left hand. the _agrippinian sibyl_ holds a whip in her left hand, and is said "to have prophesied xxx years concerning the flagellation of christ." this volume is a thin quarto, in delightful condition; bound in yellow morocco, but a _sufferer_ by the binding. a calendar. this is a pretty little duodecimo volume, containing also short prayers to christ; and embellished by a representation of the several months in the calendar. each illumination has a border, and its apposite characteristic subject attached to the month. among the latter, those of october and november are vigorously touched and warmly finished. a picture of the deluge follows december. the scription is in a neat roman character. this book is bound in lilac velvet, with silver clasps, and preserved in a yellow morocco case. office of the virgin. an exquisite little octavo or rather duodecimo; bound in silver, with coloured ornaments inlaid. the writing, in small roman, shews an italian calligraphist. the vellum is white, and of the most beautiful quality. the text is surrounded by flowers, fruits, insects, animals, &c. the initial letters are sparkling, and ornamented in the arabesque manner. but the compositions, or scriptural subjects, are the most striking. among the more beautiful specimens of high finishing, is the figure of joseph--with the virgin and child--after the subject of the circumcision. upon the whole, the colours are probably too vivid. the subjects seem to be copies of larger paintings; and there is a good deal of french feeling and french taste in their composition. the rogue of a binder has shewn his love of cropping in this exquisite little volume. the date of is upon the binding. missal: beginning with the _oratio devota ad faciem dni nostri ihu xpi_--a most exquisite volume in vo.: bound in black fish skin, with silver clasps of an exceedingly graceful form, washed with gold, and studded with rubies, emeralds, and other coloured stones. the head of christ, with a globe in his hand, faces the beginning of the text. this figure has a short chin, like many similar heads which i have seen: but the colours are radiant, and the border, in which our saviour is bearing his cross, below, is admirably executed. the beginning of st. john's gospel follows. the principal subjects have borders, upon a gray or gold ground, on which flowers are most beautifully painted: and some of the subjects themselves, although evidently of flemish composition, are most brilliantly executed. there is great nature, and vigour of touch, in the priests chanting, while others are performing the offices of religion. the _annunciation_ is full of tenderness and richness; and, in the _christ in the manger_--from whose countenance, while lying upon the straw, the light emanates and shines with such beauty upon the face of the virgin--we see the origin perhaps of that effect which has conferred such celebrity upon the notte of corregio. what gives such a thorough charm to this book, is, the grace, airiness, and truth of the flowers--scattered, as it were, upon the margins by the hand of a faëry. they have perhaps suffered somewhat by time: but they are truth and tenderness itself. the writing is a large handsome square gothic. office of the virgin: bound in massive silver--highly ornamented, in the arabesque manner, and washed with gold. the back is most ingeniously contrived. but if the exterior be so attractive, the interior is not less so--for such a sweetly, and minutely ornamented, book, is hardly to be seen. the margins are very large and the text is very small: only about fifteen lines, by about one inch and three quarters wide. upon seeing the margins, m. schérer, the head-librarian, exclaimed, "i hope that satisfies you!" but they are by no means disproportionate--and the extraordinary colour and quality of the vellum render them enchanting. we come now to the ornaments. these are clusters of small flowers, strung in a pearl-like manner, and formed or grouped into the most pleasing and tasteful shapes. the figures are small, with a well indicated outline. how pretty are the little subjects at the foot of each month of the calendar! and how totally different from the common-place stiffness, and notorious dullness, of the generality of flemish pieces of this character! this book has no superior of its kind in europe; and is worthy, on a small scale, of what we see in the superb folios of matthias corvinus.[ ] a book of prayers--almost entirely spoilt by damp and rottenness within. i should think, from the writing and illuminations, it was executed between the years and . the outside is here the principal attraction. it is a very ancient massive binding, in silver. on each side is a sacred subject; but on that, where the crucifixion is represented, the figure to the right has considerable expression. at the bottom of each compartment are the arms of bavaria and of the dukes of milan. this is a precious treasure in its way. the present is probably the proper place to notice the _principal gem_--in the department of illuminated books of devotion--preserved in the royal library at munich:--i mean, what is called, albert durer's prayer book. this consists merely of a set of marginal embellishments in a small folio volume, of which the text, written in a very large lower-case gothic letter, forms the central part. these embellishments are said to be by the hand of albert durer: although, if i mistake not, there is a similar production, or continuation, by lucas cranach. they are executed in colours of bistre, green, purple, or pink; with a very small portion of shadow--and apparently with a reed pen. nothing can exceed the spirit of their conception, the vigour of their touch, and the truth both of their drawing and execution. they consist chiefly of _capriccios_, accompanied by the figure or figures of four saints, &c. they afford one addition to the very many proofs, which i have already seen, of the surprising talents of albert durer: and, if i remember rightly; this very volume has been lithographised at munich, and published in our own country.[ ] descending lower in the chronological order of my researches, i now come to the notice of four very splendid and remarkable folio volumes, comprising only the text of the seven penitential psalms: and which exhibit extraordinary proofs of the united skill of the _scribe_, the _musician_, the _painter_, and the _book binder_--all engaged in the execution of these volumes. of each of these artists, there is a portrait; but among them, none please my fancy so much as that of gaspar ritter, the book-binder. all these portraits are executed in body colour, in a slight but bold manner, and appear to me to be much inferior to the general style of art in the smaller and historical compositions, illustrative of the text of the book. but gaspar ritter well merits a distinct notice; for these volumes display the most perfect style of binding, which i have yet seen, of the sixteenth century. they are in red morocco, variegated with colours, and secured by clasps. every thing about them is firm, square, knowing and complete. the artist, or painter, to whom these volumes are indebted for their chief attraction, was john mielich; a name, of which i suspect very little is known in england. his portrait bears the date of . looking fairly through these volumes--not for the sake of finding fault, or of detecting little lapses from accuracy of drawing, or harmony of composition--i do not hesitate one moment to pronounce the series of embellishments, which they contain, perfectly unrivalled--as the production of the same pencil. their great merit consists in a prodigious freedom of touch and boldness of composition. the colouring seems to be purposely made subordinate. figures the most minute, and actions the most difficult to express, are executed in a ready, off-hand manner, strongly indicative, of the masterly powers of the artist. the subjects are almost interminable in number, and endless in variety. i shall now proceed at once to an account of the xylographical productions, or of block books in the public library of this place; and shall begin with a work, of which (according to my present recollection) no writer hath yet taken notice. it is a _life of christ_, in small quarto, measuring scarcely five inches by four. the character of the type is between that of pfister and the mazarine bible, although rather more resembling the latter. each side of the leaf has text, or wood cut embellishments. the first eight pages contain fifteen lines in a page: the succeeding two pages only thirteen lines; but the greater number of the pages have fourteen lines. it is precisely the dotted ground, in the draperies, that impresses me with a notion of the antiquity of these cuts. such a style of art is seen in all the earlier efforts of wood engraving, such as the _st. bernardinus_ belonging to m. van-praet, and the prints pasted within the covers of mr. george nicol's matchless copy of the mazarine bible, upon vellum, in its original binding.[ ] m. bernhard also shewed me, from his extraordinary collection of early prints, taken from the old ms. volumes in this library, several of this precise character; and to which we may, perhaps with safety, assign the date of at the latest. i have been particular in the account of this curious little volume, not so much because it is kept in a case, and considered to be _unique_, as because, to the best of my recollection, no account of it is to be found in any bibliographical publication. exhortation against the turks, &c.: of the supposed date of . this is the singular tract, of which baron aretin (the late head librarian of this establishment) published an entire fac-simile; and which, from the date of m.cccc.lv appearing at the bottom line of the first page, was conceived to be of that period. m. bernhard, however,--in an anonymous pamphlet--proved, from some local and political circumstances introduced, or referred to, in the month of _december_--in the calendar attached to this exhortation--that the _genuine_ date should rather be . this brochure is also considered to be unique. it is a small quarto, of six leaves only, of which the first leaf is blank. the type is completely in the form of that of pfister, and the paper is unusually thick. at the bottom of the first leaf it is observed, in ms. "_liber eximiæ raritatis et inter cimelia bibliothecæ asservandus. f. er_." ars memorandi, &c. here are not fewer than _five copies_ of this well known--and perhaps first--effort of block-book printing. these are of the earliest dates, yet with trifling variations. the wood cuts in all the copies are coloured; some more heavily than others; and in one of them you observe, in the figure of st. matthew, that red or crimson glossy wash, or colour, so common in the earliest prints--and which is here carried over the whole figure. one of these five copies is unbound. ars moriendi. here are two editions, of which one copy is indisputably the most ancient--like that in lord spencer's library,[ ]--but of a considerably larger size, in quarto. there can be no doubt of the whole of this production being xylographical. unluckily this fine copy has the first and last pages of text in ms. the other pages, with blank-reverses, are faintly impressed in brown ink: especially the first, which seems to be injured. a double-line border is round each page. this copy, which is bound in blue morocco, has also received injury from a stain. i consider the second copy, which is bound in red morocco, to be printed with moveable _metal_ types. the ink is however of a palish brown. i never saw another copy of this latter impression. biblia pauperum. _in latin_. i doubt whether this be the first edition; but at any rate it is imperfect. _in german_: with the date of . here are two copies; of which i was anxious to obtain the duplicate (the largest and uncoloured,) for the library in st. james's place; but the value fixed upon it was too high; indeed a little extravagant. the apostles creed. _in german_. only seven leaves, but pasted together--so that, the work is an opistographised production. this is a very rare, and indeed unique volume; and utterly unknown to bibliographers. each cut is about the same size, and there are twelve in the whole. there is no other text but the barbarous letters introduced at the bottom of the cut. mirabilia urbis romÆ. another generally unknown xylographic performance; printed in the german language: being a small quarto. i have secured a duplicate of this singular volume for lord spencer's library, intending to describe it in the _Ædes althorpianæ_.[ ] the life of st. meinrat; _in german_, in a series of wood-cut representations. this saint was murdered by two men, whose christian names were peter and richard, and who were always afterwards haunted by a couple of crows. there is a german introduction of two pages, preceding the cuts. these cuts are forty-eight in number. at the thirtieth cut, the saint is murdered; the earlier series representing the leading events of his life. the thirty-first cut represents the murderers running away; an angel being above them; in the thirty-second cut, they continue to be pursued. the thirty-third cut thus describes them; the german and the version being as follow; "_hie furt man die mord vo danne un wil schleisse vn redern die rappen volget alle zit hin nach vn stechet sy_." "here they bring the murderers, in order to drag them upon the hurdle to execution, and to break them upon the wheel. the crows follow and peck them." in the thirty-fourth cut peter and richard are tied and dragged at the heels, of a horse. in the thirty-fifth they are broken upon the wheel. the _calendar of regiomontanus_--a decidedly xylographical production; the first date is , the last . a fine sound copy, but cropt. in a duplicate copy the name of the mathematician is given at the end. cantica canticorum. first edition. a beautiful copy; cropt, but clean. sixteen cuts, uncoloured. the leaves have been evidently pasted together. another copy, coloured; but of a later date. in fine preservation. a third copy; apparently the first edition; washed all over with a slight brown tint, and again coarsely coloured in parts: this copy singularly enough, is intermixed with portions of the first edition (as i take it) of the _apocalypse_: very clumsily coloured. a fourth copy, also, as i conceive, of the first edition; rather heavily coloured. the back grounds are uncoloured. this is larger than the other copies. defensio immaculatÆ conceptionis b.m.v. _without place; of the date of _. this is a latin treatise; having four cuts in each page, with the exception of the first two pages, which exhibit only saints ambrose, austin, jerom and gregory. at the bottom of the figure of st. austin, second column, first page, it is thus written; "_f.w. _." in the whole sixteen pages. the style of art is similar to that used in the antichrist.[ ] of this tract, evidently xylographical, i never saw or heard of another copy. the foregoing list may be said to comprise the _chief rarities_ among the block books in the public library at munich; and if i am not mistaken, they will afford no very unserviceable supplement to the celebrated work of heineken upon the same subject. from this department in the art of printing, we descend naturally to that which is connected with metal types; and accordingly i proceed to lay before you another list of _book-rarities_--taken from the earlier _printed volumes_ in this most extraordinary library. we will begin with the best and most ancient of all books:--the bible. they have a very singular copy of what is called the _mazarine edition_: or rather the parent impression of the sacred text:--inasmuch as it contains (what, i believe, no other copy in europe contains, and therefore m. bernhard properly considers it as unique) _four printed leaves of a table_, as directions to the rubricator. at the end of the psalter is a ms. note thus: "_explicit psalterium, _." this copy is in other respects far from being desirable, for it is cropt, and in very ordinary calf binding. _mentelin's german bible_. here are two copies of this first impression of the bible in the german language: both of which have distinct claims to render them very desirable. in the one is an inscription, in the german language, of which m. bernhard supplied me with the following literal version: "_hector mulich and otilia his wife; who bought this bible in the year of our lord, , on the twenty-seventh day of june, for twelve florins_." their arms are below. the whole is decidedly a coeval inscription. here, therefore, is another testimony[ ] of the printing of this bible at least as early as the year . at the end of the book of jeremiah, in the same copy, is a ms. entry of ; "_sub papa paulo secundo et sub imperatore frederico tertio_." the second copy of this edition, preserved in the same library, has a german ms. memorandum, executed in red ink, stating that this edition is "_well translated, without the addition of a single word, faithful to the latin: printed at strasbourg with great care_." this memorandum is doubtless of the time of the publication of the edition; and the curators of the library very judiciously keep both copies. a third, or triplicate copy, of mentelin's edition--much finer than either of the preceding--and indeed abounding with rough edges--was purchased by me for the library in st. james's place; but it was not obtained for a sum beneath its full value.[ ] here is a copy of _eggesteyn's latin bible_, containing forty-five lines in a full page, with the important date of "_ th may, _"--in a coeval ms. memorandum. thus, you see, here is a date two years earlier[ ] than that in a copy of the same bible in the public library at strasbourg; and i think, from hence, we are well warranted in supposing that both mentelin and eggesteyn had their presses in full play at strasbourg in --if not earlier. this copy of eggesteyn's first bible, which is in its original binding of wood, is as fine and large as it is precious. i shall continue, miscellaneously, with the earlier printed books. _t. aquinas de virtutibus et vitiis_; printed by _mentelin_ in his smallest character. at the end, there is the following inscription, in faded green ink; _johannes bamler de augusta hui^ libri illuiator anno _. thus bamler should seem to be an illuminator as well as printer,[ ] and panzer is wrong in supposing that bamler _printed_ this book. of course panzer formed his judgment from a copy which wanted such accidental attestation. _ptolemy_, : with all the maps, coloured. _livy_ ( ): very fine--in its original binding--full sixteen inches high. _cæsar_, : very fine, in the original binding. _lucan_, : equally fine, and coated in the same manner. _apuleius_, : imperfect and dirty. the foregoing, you know, are all editiones principes. but judge of my surprise on finding neither the first edition of _terence_, nor of _valerius maximus_, nor of _virgil_[ ]--all by mentelin. i enquired for the first _roman_ or _bologna ovid_: but in vain. it seemed that i was enquiring for "blue diamonds;"[ ]--so precious and rare are these two latter works. here are very fine copies of the _philosophical works of cicero, printed by ulric han_--with the exception of the tusculan questions and the treatise upon oratory, of the dates of , --which are unluckily wanting. m. bernhard preserves _four_ copies of the _euclid_ of , because they have printed variations in the margins. one of these copies has the prefix, or preface of one page, printed in letters of gold. i saw another such a copy at paris. here is the _milan horace of _--the text only. the _catholicon by gutenberg, of _: upon vellum: quite perfect as to the text, but much cropt, and many pieces sliced out of the margins--for purposes, which it were now idle to enquire after; although i have heard of a durandus of in our own country, which, in ancient times, had been so served for the purpose of writing directions on parcels of game, &c. _catholicon of by g. zeiner_; also upon vellum, and equally cropt--but otherwise sound and clean. this copy contains an ancient manuscript note which must be erroneous; as it professes the first owner to have got possession of the book before it was _printed_: in other words, an _unit_ was omitted in the date, and we should read for .[ ] among the more precious italian books, is a remarkably fine copy of the old edition of the _decameron of boccaccio_, called the _deo gracias_--which lord spencer purchased at the sale of the borromeo library in london, last year. it is quite perfect, and in a fine, large condition. it was taken to paris on a certain memorable occasion, and returned hither on an occasion equally memorable. it contains leaves of text and two of table; and has red ms. prefixes. it came originally from the library of petrus victorius, from which indeed there are many books in this collection, and was bought by the king of bavaria at rome. what was curious, m. bernhard shewed me a minute valuation of this very rare volume, which he had estimated at florins--somewhere about £ . below the price given by lord spencer for his copy, of which four leaves are supplied by ms. here is a magnificent copy of the _dante of _, with xx cuts; the twentieth being precisely similar to that of which a fac-simile appears in the b.s. this copy was _demanded_ by the library at paris, and xix. cuts only were specified in the demand; the twentieth cut was therefore secreted, from another copy--which other copy has a duplicate of the first cut, pasted at the end of the preface. the impressions of the cuts, in the copy under description, are worthy of the condition of the text and of the amplitude of the margins. it is a noble book, in every point of view. i was shewn a great curiosity by this able bibliographer; nothing less than a sheet, or _broadside_, containing _specimens of types from ratdolf's press_. this sheet is in beautiful preservation, and is executed in double columns. the first ten specimens are in the _gothic_ letter, with a gradually diminishing type. the last is thus: _hunc adeas mira quicunq: volumina queris arte uel ex animo pressa fuisse tuo seruiet iste tibi: nobis (sic) iure sorores incolumem seruet vsq: rogare licet._ this is succeeded by three gradually diminishing specimens of the printer's _roman_ letter. then, four lines of greek, in the jensonian or venetian character: next, in large black letter, as below.[ ] but a still greater curiosity, in my estimation, was a small leaf; by way of _advertisement_, containing a list of publications issuing from the press of a printer whose name has not yet been discovered, and attached apparently to a copy of the _fortalitium fidei_; in which it was found. luckily there was a duplicate of this little broadside--or advertisement--and i prevailed upon the curators, or rather upon m. bernhard (whose exclusive property it was) to part with this sibylline leaf, containing only nineteen lines, for a copy of the _Ædes althorpianæ-- _as soon as that work should be published.[ ] of course, this is secured for the library in st. james's place. i am now hastening to the close of this catalogue of the munich book-treasures. you remember my having mentioned a sort of oblong cabinet, where they keep the books printed upon vellum--together with block books, and a few of the more ancient and highly illuminated mss. i visited this cabinet the first thing on entering--and the last thing on leaving--the public library. "where are your _vellum alduses_, good mr. bernhard?" said i to my willing and instructive guide. "you shall see only _two_ of them"--(rejoined he) but from these you must not judge of the remainder. so saying, he put into my hands the _first editions of horace and virgil_, each of , and bound in one volume, in old red morocco. they were gems--almost of the very first order, and--almost of their original magnitude: measuring six inches and three eighths, by three inches and seven eighths. they are likewise sound and clean: but the virgil is not equal to lord spencer's similar copy, in whiteness of colour, or beauty of illumination. indeed the illuminations in the munich copy are left in an unfinished state. in the ardour of the moment i talked of these two precious volumes being worth " louis d'or." m.b. smiled gently, as he heard me, and deliberately returned the volumes to their stations--intimating, by his manner, that not thrice that sum should dispossess the library of such treasures. i have lost my memoranda as to the number of these vellum alduses; but the impression upon my mind is, that they have not more than _six_. of course, i asked for a vellum _tewrdanckhs_ of , and my guide forthwith placed _two_ membranaceous copies of this impression before me:--adding, that almost every copy contained variations, more or less, in the text. indeed i found m.b. "doctissimus" upon this work; and i think he said that he had published upon it as well as camus.[ ] this is about the ninety-ninth time that i have most sensibly regretted my utter ignorance, of the language (german) in which it pleaseth m. bernhard to put forth his instructive bibliographical lucubrations. of these two copies, one has the cuts coloured, and is very little cropt: the other has the cuts uncoloured, and is decidedly cropt. with the tewrdanckhs, i take my leave both of the public library of munich and (for the present) of its obliging and well-informed second librarian. but i must not leave this world of books without imparting to you the satisfaction which i felt on witnessing half a dozen grave-looking scribes employed, chiefly under the direction of m. bernhard, in making out a classed catalogue of _fifteeners_--preparatory to the sale of their duplicates. this catalogue will be important in many respects; and i hope to see it in my own country within two years from the date of the present epistle.[ ] and now methinks it is high time to put the concluding paragraph to this said epistle--so charged with bibliographical intelligence respecting the capital of bavaria. you must give it more than _one_ perusal if you wish to digest it thoroughly. my next, within forty-eight hours hereof, will leave me on the eve of departure from hence. in the meanwhile, prepare for some pleasant book tidings in my ensuing despatch. [ ] both the nave and towers appear in hartmann schedel's view of munich, in the _nuremberg chronicle_ of : see fol. ccxxvi. the "pepper-box" terminations are, i conceive, of a later date. [ ] i take this to be the famous albert who died in ; and who, in schedel's time, kept lions for his disport--at munich: "qui sua magnificentia plures nutrit leones" _chron. norimb._ . _ibid._ [ ] the steeple fell down in the year , and has never been rebuilt. [ ] see p. ante. [ ] see p. ante. [ ] [sir j. reynolds criticised these pictures when they were in the _dusseldorf gallery_: but i cannot just now lay my hand upon his remarks.] [ ] [it has made, and is yet making, great strides towards the accomplishment of the above-mentioned objects--since the above passage was written.] [ ] [with the exception of the first, (although i do not make this exception with _confidence_) all the above-named gentlemen have ceased to exist. mr. bernhard i believe died before the publication of the preceding edition of this work: and i add, with perfect sincerity, that _his_ decease, and that of _m. adam bartsch_ (vide post) were, to me, among the bitterest regrets which i ever experienced in my intercourse with foreign literati. [ ] the able editor of the romance of sir tristream, ascribed to thomas of ercildoune, appears to have been entirely ignorant of the existence of this highly curious and coeval german version. i regret that i am unable to give the reader a complete analysis of the whole. from this account, i select the following very small portion--of fidelity of version--with a fac-simile of one of the embellishments. so all his thoughts were wavering: _wilen abe vn wilent an_-- one while above, and one while down, _er tet wol an im selben schin_ he truly on himself made shew, _daz der minnende mot_ that an amorous mind behaves _reht als der vrie fogel tot_ even as the bird in the open air, _der durch die friheit dier hat_ who, by the liberty he enjoys, _vf daz gelimde twi gestat_ slightly sits on the lime-twig down; _als er des limes danne entsebet_ as soon as he the lime descrys, _vnd er sieh vf ze fluhte hebet_ and rises up to fly in haste, _so chlebet er mit den fossen an_. his feet are clinging to the twig. this simile of the bird seems expressed in the illumination, of which the outline has been faithfully copied by mr. lewis: [illustration] [ ] see page ante. [ ] it appeared in the year , and was sold for l. s. d. but a blank space was left in the middle--which, in the original, is occupied by a heavy gothic text. the publication of the continuation by lucas cranach appeared in . [ ] now in the collection of henry perkins, esq. [ ] see _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. xv-xxiii. where fac-similes of some of the cuts will be found. [ ] where it is fully described, in vol. ii. p. , &c. with fac-similes of the type and ornaments. an entire page of it is given at p. . [ ] see _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. xxxi. [ ] a copy in the public library at stuttgart has a ms. memorandum in which the same dominical date is entered. see note, at page ante. [ ] it must be mentioned, however, that a fine copy of the _german edition of breydenbach's travels, of _, was given into the bargain. [ ] in the _bibl. spencer_, vol. i. p. - --where a fac-simile of the type of this edition is given--the impression is supposed to have been executed in "the year at latest." the inscription of in the strasbourg copy (see vol. ii. p. .) should seem at least to justify the caution of this conclusion. but, from the above, we are as justified in assigning to it a date of at least two years earlier. [ ] lord spencer possesses a copy of _st. austin de civitate dei_, with the commentary of trivetus, printed by mentelin, which was also illuminated by bamler in the same year as above-- . the memorandum to this effect, by bamler, is given in the _Ædes althorpianæ_; vol. ii. p. . [ ] i will not say _positively_ that the virgil is _not_ there; but i am pretty sure of the absence of the two preceding works. my authority was, of course, the obliging and well informed m. bernhard. [ ] see page ante. [ ] the inscription is this: "_anno dni millesimo cccc^o lxviij^o. conparatus est iste katholicon tpe iohis hachinger h^{ } ccclie p tunc imeriti pptti. p. xlviij aureis r flor^{ } taxatus p. h xxi faciunt in moneta vsuali xlvj t d_." so that it seems a copy of this work, upon vellum, was worth at the time of its publication, _forty-six golden florins_. [ ] _indicis characterum diversarum manerieru impressioni parataru: finis. erhardi ratdolt augustensis viri solertissimi: preclaro ingenio & mirifica arte: qua olim venetijs excelluit celebratissimus. in imperiali nunc vrbe auguste vindelicorum laudatissime impressioni dedit. annoq; salutis_ m.cccc.lxxxxvi. _cale aprilis sidere felici compleuit_. [ ] an admirably executed fac-simile of the above curious document appears in the work here referred to: vol. ii. p. --where the subject of its probable printer is gone into at considerable length. [ ] the reader, if he have leisure and inclination, may consult a long note in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. , respecting the best authorities to be consulted upon the above very splendid and distinguished performance. camus is included in the list of authorities referred to. [ ] seven years have elapsed since the above was written, but no classed catalogue of any portion of the public library of munich has appeared in this country. speaking of _duplicates_, not printed in the fifteenth century, it may be worth observing that they have at munich not fewer than six copies (double the number of those at strasbourg;) of the acta sanctorum; good handsome copies in vellum binding. [since the first edition of this tour was published, several copies of this stupendous, but unfortunately imperfect work, have been imported into england: among which, however, none, to my recollection, have found their way from munich. indeed, the heavy expense of carriage is almost an interdiction: unless the copies were obtained at very moderate prices.] letter vi. further book-acquisitions. society. the arts. the bright bibliographical star, which shone upon me at stuttgart, has continued to shine with the same benign lustre at this place. "[greek: _heurêka heurêka_]"!--the scarcest and brightest of all the aldine gems has been found and secured by me: that gem, for which m. renouard still continues to sigh and to rave, alternately, in despair of a _perfect_ copy; and which has, only very recently, been placed among the most brilliant ornaments of the royal library at paris.[ ] what may these strange exclamations and inuendos imply?--methinks i hear you say. you shall know in a trice--which just brings me to the very point with which my previous epistle concluded. those "pleasant book-tidings," referred to in my last, and postponed for the present opportunity, are "as hereafter followeth." in my frequent conversations with the guardians of the public library, i learnt that one stoeger, a bookseller chiefly devoted to the purchase and sale of _aldine_ volumes, resided in this metropolis; that his abode was rather private than public; and that his "magasin" was lodged on the second or third floor, in a row of goodly houses, to the right, on entering the city. m. bernhard added, that mr. stoeger had even a copy of the first aldine edition of the _greek hours_ (printed in )--which is the very gem above alluded to; "but (observed my intelligent informant, as he accompanied me to the door of the bookseller in question) "he will not part with it: for both the prince royal and our public library have been incessant in their importunities to possess it. he sets an extravagant price upon it." having been instructed from early youth, "never to take that for _granted_ which remained to be _proved_," i thanked the worthy m. bernhard for his intelligence; and, wishing him a good morning, entered the chamber of mr. stoeger. i had previously heard (and think that i have before made mention) of the eagerness with which the prince royal of bavaria purchases _alduses_; and own, that, had i chosen to reflect one little minute, i might have been sufficiently disheartened at any reasonable prospect of success, against two such formidable opponents as the prince and the public library. however, in cases of emergency, 'tis better to think courageously and to act decisively. i entered therefore the chamber of this aldine bookseller, resolved upon bearing away the prize--"coute qu'il coute"--provided that prize were not absolutely destined for another. m. stoeger saluted me formally but graciously. he is a short, spare man, with a sharp pair of dark eyes, and speaks french with tolerable fluency. we immediately commenced a warm bibliographical discussion; when mr. stoeger, all of a sudden, seemed to raise himself to the height of six feet--gave three strides across the room--and exclaimed, "well, sir; the cabinet of my lord spencer wants something which i possess in yonder drawer." i told him that i knew what it was he alluded to; and, with the same decision with which i seemed to bespeak the two virgils at stuttgart, i observed, that "_that_ want would soon cease; for that ere i quitted the room, the book in question would doubtless become the property of the nobleman whom he had just mentioned." mr. stoeger, for three seconds, was lost in astonishment: but instinctively, as it were; he approached the drawer: opened it: and shewed me an unbound, sombre-looking, but sound and perfect copy of the _first edition_ of the greek hours, _printed by aldus_. as i had among my papers a collation of the perfect copy at paris, i soon discovered that mr. stoeger's copy was also complete; and ... in less than fifteen minutes i gained a _complete victory_ over the prince royal of bavaria and the corps bibliographique of messrs. von moll, schlichtegroll, schérer, bernhard, &c.--the directors and guardians of the public library at munich. in other words, this tiny book, measuring not quite four inches, by not quite three, was _secured_--for the cabinet in question--at the price of * * florins!! the vender, as i shrewdly suspect, had bought it of a brother bookseller at augsbourg,[ ]of the name of kransfelder (a worthy man; whom i visited--but with whom i found nothing but untransportable latin and german folios) for ... peradventure only the _hundredth part_ of the sum which he was now to receive. what shall we say? the vender is designated by mr. schlichtegroll, in the preface of the last sale catalogue of the duplicates of the public library ( , vo.) as "bibliopola honestissimus"--and let us hope that he merits the epithet. besides, books of this excessive rarity are objects of mere caprice and fancy. to return to this "bibliopola honestissimus," i looked out a few more tempting articles, of the aldine character,[ ] and receiving one or two as a douceur; in the shape a present, settled my account with mr. stoeger ... and returned to my lodging more and more confirmed in the truth of the position of "not taking _that_ for granted which remained to be _proved_." the whole of this transaction was, if i may so speak, in the naughty vanity of my heart, a sort of _octodecimo_ illustration of the "veni, vidi, vici" of a certain illustrious character of antiquity. of a very different character from this _aldine bibliopolist_ is a bookseller of the name of von fischheim: the simplest, the merriest, the most artless of his fraternity. it was my good friend mr. hess (of whom i shall presently speak somewhat more at large) who gave me information of his residence. "you will find there (added he) all sorts of old books, old drawings, pictures, and curiosities." what a provocative for an immediate and incessant attack! i took my valet with me--for i was told that mr. von fischheim could not speak a word of french--and within twenty minutes of receiving the information, found myself in the dark and dreary premises of this same bibliopolist. he lives on the first floor; but the way thither is almost perilous. mr. fischheim's cabinet of curiosities was crammed even to suffocation; and it seemed as if a century had elapsed since a vent-hole had been opened for the circulation of fresh air. i requested the favour of a pinch of snuff from mr. fischheim's box, to counteract all unpleasant sensations arising from effluvia of a variety of description--but i recommend english visitors in general to _smoke a segar_ while they rummage among the curiosities of mr. fischheim's cabinet! old tom hearne might here, in a few minutes, have fancied himself ... any thing he pleased! the owner of these miscellaneous treasures wore one unvarying smile upon his countenance during the whole time of my remaining with him. he saw me reject this, and select that; cry "pish" upon one article, and "bravo" upon another--with the same settled complacency of countenance. his responses were short and pithy, and i must add, pleasant: for, having entirely given up all hopes of securing any thing in the shape of a good picture, a good bust, or a genuine illumination from a rich old ms., i confined myself strictly to printed books--and obtained some very rare, precious, and beautifully-conditioned volumes upon most reasonable and acceptable terms.[ ] having completed my purchase, the books were sent to the hotel by a shopman, in the sorriest possible garb, but who wore, nevertheless, a mark of military distinction in his button-hole. from henceforth i can neither think, nor speak, but with kindness of paul ludwig von fischheim, the simplest, the merriest, and most artless of his fraternity. the day following this adventure, i received a note informing me that a person, practising physic, but also a collector and seller of old books, would be glad to see me in an adjoining street. he had, in particular, some "rare old bibles." another equally stimulant provocative! i went, saw, and... returned--with scarcely a single trophy. old bibles there were--but all of too recent a date: and all in the _latin_ language. yet i know not how it was, but i suffered myself to be prevailed upon to give some twenty florins for a doubtfully-printed _avicenna_, and a _biblia historica moralisata_. had i yielded to further importunities, or listened to further information, i might have filled the large room in which i am now sitting--and which is by much the handsomest in the hotel[ ]--with oak-bound folios, vellum-clad quartos, and innumerable broadsides. but i resisted every entreaty: i had done sufficient--at least for the first visit to the capital of bavaria. and doubtless i have good reason to be satisfied with these bavarian book-treasures. there they all lie; within as many strides of me as mr. stoeger took across the room; while, more immediately within reach, and eyed with a more frequent and anxious look, repose the _greek hours_, the _first horace_, the _mentelin german bible_, and the _polish protestant bible_; all--all destined for the cabinet of which mr. stoeger made such enthusiastic mention. a truce now to books, and a word or two about society. i arrived here at a season when munich is considered to be perfectly empty. none of the noblesse; no public gaieties; no chargé d'affaires--all were flown, upon the wings of curiosity or of pleasure towards the confines of italy. but as my business was rather with books and bookmen, i sought chiefly the society of the latter, nor was i disappointed. i shall introduce them one by one. first therefore for the baron von moll; one of the most vivacious and colloquial of gentlemen; and who perhaps has had more to do with books than any one of his degree in bavaria. i know not even if he have not had two or more monastic libraries to dispose of--which descended to him as ancestral property. i am sure he talked to me of more than one chateau, or country villa, completely filled with books; of which he meditated the disposal by public or private sale. and this, too--after he had treated with the british museum through the negotiation of our friend the rev. mr. baber, for two or three thousand pounds worth of books, comprehending, chiefly, a very valuable theological collection. the baron talked of twenty thousand volumes being here and there, with as much sang-froid and certainty as bonaparte used to talk of disposing of the same number of soldiers in certain directions. the other sunday afternoon i accompanied him to one of his villas, in the direct road from munich--near which indeed i had passed in my route hither. or, rather, speaking more correctly the baron accompanied me:--as he bargained for my putting a pair of post-horses to my carriage. he wished me to see his books, and his rural domain. the carriage and burden were equally light, and the road was level and hard. we therefore reached the place of our destination in a short hour. it was a very pleasant mansion, with a good garden, and several fertile fields of pasture and arable land. the baron made it his summer residence. his books filled the largest room in the house. he invited me to look around, to select any volumes that i might fancy, provided they were not grammatical or lexicographical--for, in that department, he never wished his strength to be diminished, or his numbers to be lessened. i did as he desired me: culled a pretty book-posey;--not quite so blooming as that selected at lincoln,[ ] some dozen years ago,--and, as the sun was setting, voted the remainder of the evening, till supper-time, to a walk with the baron upon the neighbouring heights. the evening was fair and mild, and the baron was communicative and instructive. his utterance is rapid and vehement; but with a tone of voice and mode of action by no means uninteresting. we talked about the possession of munich by the french forces, under the command of moreau, and he narrated some particulars equally new and striking. of moreau, he spoke very handsomely; declaring him to have been a modest, grave, and sensible man--putting his great military talents entirely out of the question. the baron himself, like every respectable inhabitant of munich, was put under military surveillance. two grenadiers and a petty officer were quartered upon him. he told me a curious anecdote about bonaparte and marshal lasnes--if i remember rightly, upon the authority of moreau. it was during the crisis of some great battle in austria, when the fate of the day was very doubtful, that bonaparte ordered lasnes to make a decisive movement with his cavalry; lasnes seemed to hesitate. bonaparte reiterated the order, and lasnes appeared to hesitate again--as if doubting the propriety of the movement. bonaparte eyed him with a look of ineffable contempt; and added--almost fixing his teeth together, in a hissing but biting tone of sarcasm--"_est-ce que je t'ai fait trop riche?_" lasnes dashed his spurs into the sides of his charger, turned away, and prepared to put the command of his master into execution. so much for the baron von moll. the name of schlichtegroll was frequently mentioned in my last letter. it is fitting, therefore, that you should know something of the gentleman to whom this name appertains. mr. f. schlichtegroll is the director in chief of the public library at munich. i was introduced to him in a room contiguous to that where they keep their models of public buildings--such as bridges, barriers, fortifications, &c. which are extremely beautiful and interesting. the director received me in the heartiest manner imaginable; and within five minutes of our first salutation, i found his arm within my own, as we walked up and down the room--discoursing about first editions, block-books, and works printed upon vellum. he was delighted to hear of my intention to make a vigorous attack, with pen, ink, and paper, upon the oblong cabinet of _fifteeners_ and precious mss. of which my last letter made especial mention; and promised to afford me every facility which his official situation might command. unluckily for a more frequent intercourse between us, which was equally wished by both parties, the worthy director was taken ill towards the latter part of my stay;[ ]--not however before i had visited him twice, and been his guest attended by a numerous party. mr. scherer is the third figure upon this bibliographical piece of canvass, of which i deem it essential to give you a particular description. he is very hearty, very alert in the execution of his office, and is "all over english" in his general appearance and manner of conduct. he is learned in oriental literature; is a great reader of english reviews; and writes our language with fluency and tolerable correctness. he readily volunteered his kind offices in translating the german ms. of _sir tristrem_, of which my last letter made mention--and i have been indebted to him upon every occasion, wherein i have solicited his aid, for much friendly and much effectual attention. he has, luckily for his own character, vouchsafed to _dine_ with me; although it was with difficulty i could prevail upon him so to do, and for him to allow me to dine at the protracted hour of _four_. after dinner, it was with pleasure,--when surrounded by all the book-treasures, specified in the early part of this letter, and which were then lying in detached piles upon the floor[ ]--i heard mr. schérer expatiate upon the delight he felt in taking a trip, every summer or autumn, among the snow-capt mountains of the tyrol; or of burying his cares, as well as changing his studies and residence, by an excursion along the lakes and mountains of switzerland. "when that season arrives (added he--stretching forth both arms in a correspondently ardent manner) i fly away to these grand scenes of silence and solitude, and forget the works of man in the contemplation of those of nature!" as he spake thus, my heart went a good way with him: and i could not but express my regret that london was not situated like the capital of bavaria. of mr. bernhard, the sub-librarian, i have already spoken frequently; and in a manner, i trust, to shew that i can never be insensible either of his acquirements or his kindness. he has one of the meekest spirits--accompanied by the firmest decision--which ever marked the human character; and his unconsciousness both of the one and of the other renders his society the more delightful. a temporary farewell to bibliography, and to bibliographers. you may remember that i introduced the name of hess, in a former part of this letter; with an intention of bringing the character, to whom it belonged, at a future period before your notice. you will be gratified by the mention of some particulars connected with him. mr. hess has passed his grand climacteric; and is a professor of design, but more especially a very distinguished engraver. his figure, his manner of conversation, his connections, and his character, are all such--as to render it pleasing to find them combined with a man of real talent and worth. i had brought with me, from england, a drawing or copy of one of the original portraits at althorp--supposed to be painted by anthony more--with a view of getting it engraved abroad. it is very small, scarcely four inches square. i had shewn it at paris to lignon, who _modestly_ said he would execute it in his very best manner, for francs! m. hess saw it--and was in extacies. "would i allow him to engrave it?" "name your price." "i should think about thirty-five guineas." "i should think (replied i) that that sum would entitle me to your best efforts." "certainly; and you shall have them"--rejoined he. i then told him of the extravagance of lignon. he felt indignant at it. "not (added he) that i shall execute it in _his_ highly finished manner." i immediately consigned the precious portrait into his hands--with a written agreement to receive the engraving of it next year, at the stipulated sum.[ ] thus you see i have set mr. hess to work in my absence--when i quit munich--which will be to-morrow, or the following day at farthest. this worthy artist won upon me at every interview. his dress and address were truly gentlemanly; and as he spoke the english language as well as he did the french, we were of course glad to renew our visits pretty frequently. his anxiety to promote my views, and to afford my companion every assistance in his power, connected with the fine arts, will be long and gratefully remembered by us.[ ] but mr. nockher shall not be passed over "sub silentio." he is a banker; and i found another francs in the promptitude and liberality of his offers of pecuniary supply. he, together with mr. hess, has tasted the best red wine, at my humble table, that the _schwartzen adler_ can afford; and i have quaffed his souchong, in society in which i should like to have mingled again and again. the subjects of pictures and prints occupied every moment of our time, and almost every word of our discussion; and mr. nockher shewed me his fine impression of the _dresden raphael_, in a manner that proved how perfectly well he was qualified to appreciate the merits of the graphic art. that print, you know, is considered to be the masterpiece of modern art; and it is also said that the engraver--having entirely finished every portion of it--did not live to see a finished proof. mr. nockher bought it for some three or four napoleons, and has refused twenty for it. i own that, to my eye, this print has more power, expression, and i may say colouring, than almost any which i remember to have seen. the original is in the second, or darker style of colouring, of the master; and this engraving of it is as perfect a copy of the manner of the original, as that by raphael morghen of the last supper of leonardo da vinci--so celebrated all over europe. mr. nockher is both a good-natured man, and a man of business; and the facility and general correctness of his mode of speaking the english language, renders a communication with him very agreeable. he has undertaken to forward all my book-purchases to england--with the exception of a certain _little greek duodecimo_, which has taken a marvellous fancy to be the travelling companion of its present master. mr. nockher also promises to forward all future book-purchases which i may make--and which may be directed for him at munich--on to england. thus, therefore--when i quit this place--i may indulge a pleasing anticipation of the future, without any anxieties respecting the past.[ ] and now fare you well. within twenty-four hours i start from hence, upon rather a _digressive_ excursion; and into which the baron von moll and m. schlichtegroll have rather coaxed, than reasoned, me. i am to go from hence to _freysing_ and _landshut_--and then diverge down, to the right, upon _salzburg_--situated 'midst snow-clad mountains, and containing a library within the oldest monastery in austria. i am to be prepared to be equally struck with astonishment at the crypt of freysing, and at the tower of landshut--and after having "revelled and rioted" in the gloomy cloisters and sombre apartments of st. peter's monastery, at salzburg, i am instructed to take the _lake of gmunden_ in my way to the _monastery of chremsminster_--in the direct route to lintz and vienna. a world of variety and of wonder seems therefore to be before me; and as my health has been recently improved, from the comparatively cool state of the weather, i feel neither daunted nor depressed at the thought of any difficulties, should there be any, which may await me in the accomplishment of this journey. my next, god willing, will assuredly be from salzburg--when i shall have rested awhile after a whirl of some two hundred miles. [ ] [see vol. ii. p. . renouard, _l'imprim. des alde_, vol. i. - . there are however, now, i believe, in this country, five copies of this very rare book; of which four are perfect.] [ ] the copy in question had, in , been the property of f. gregorius, prior of the monastery of sts. ulric and afra at augsbourg: as that possessor's autograph denotes. [ ] the principal of these "tempting articles" were a fine first _statius_ of , _asconius pedianus_, . _cicero de officiis_, , and _leonicerus de morbo gallico_--with the leaf of errata: wanting in the copy in st. james's place. but perhaps rarer than either, the _laurentius maoli_ and _averrois_, each of --intended for _presents_. but mr. stoeger had forgotten these intended presents--and _charged_ them at a good round sum. i considered his word as his bond--and told him that honest englishmen were always in the habit of so considering the words of honest germans. i threatened him with the return of the whole cargo, including even the beloved _greek hours_. mr. stoeger seemed amazed: hesitated: relented: and adhered to his original position. had he done otherwise, i should doubtless have erased the epithet "honestissimus," in all the copies of the sale catalogue above alluded to, which might come within my notice, and placed a marginal emendation of "avidissimus." [ ] it may be a novel, and perhaps gratifying, sight to the reader to throw his eye over a list (of a few out of the fifty articles) like the following: _flor. kreutz. liber moralizat. biblic. ulm_. . folio. fine copy _biblia vulg. hist. ital. venet._ giunta . fol. _horatius. venet._ . to. fig. lig. incis. _cronica del rey don iuan_. _sevilla_. . to. _breviarium. teutonicè_. to. in membranis. a most beautiful and spotless book. it contains only the pars hyemalis of the cathedral service. _dictionarium pauperum_. _colon_. . vo. _pars quart. ind. orient. francof_. . _fabulæ Æsopicæ_. _cura brandt_. . folio. perhaps a matchless copy; in original binding of wood. full of cuts thirteen different opuscula, at one florin each; many very curious and uncommon the lord's prayer and creed--in the german language--printed by "_fricz crewsner_," in : folio: _broadside_. perhaps unique the florin, at the time of my residence at munich, was about s. d. [ ] [however severely i may have expressed myself in a preceding page ( ) of the general condition of this huge inn, yet i cannot but gaze upon the subjoined view of it with no ordinary sensation of delight when i remember that the three-windowed room, on the first floor, to the right--close to the corner--was the room destined to be graced by the book treasures above mentioned. this view may also serve as a general specimen of the frontage of the larger inns in bavaria.] [illustration] [ ] [all the _book-world_ has heard mention of the lincolne nosegay, --a small handful of flowers, of choice hues, and vigorous stems, culled within the precincts of one of the noblest cathedrals in europe. neither covent garden at home, nor the marché aux fleurs at paris, could boast of such a posey. i learn, however, with something approaching to horror, that the nosegay in question has been counterfeited. a _spurious_ edition (got up by some unprincipled speculator, and, i must add, bungling hand--for the typographical discrepancy is obvious) is abroad. roxburghers, look well to your book-armouries! the foe may have crept into them, and exchanged your steel for painted wood.] [ ] there is something so hearty and characteristic in the director's last letter to me, that i hope to be pardoned if i here subjoin a brief extract from it. "m. schérer vient me quitter, et m'annoncer que votre départ est fixé pour demain. jamais maladie--auxquelles, heureusement, je suis très rarement exposé--m'est survenu aussi mal-à-propos qu'à cette fois-ci. j'avois compté de jouir encore au moins quelques jours, après mon rétablissement, de votre entretien, et jetter les fondemens d'une amitié collegiale pour la future. la nouvelle, que m. schérer m'apporte, me désole. j'avois formé le plan de vous accompagner pour voir quelqu'uns de nos institutions rémarquables, principalement _la lithographie_, "vana somnia!" votre résolution de quitter munich plutôt que je n'avois pensé, détruit mes esperances. n'est-ce-pas possible que vous passiez par munich à votre retour de vienne? utinam! combien de choses restent, sur lesquelles j'esperais de causer et de traiter avec vous! "i bono alite: pede fausto." [autograph] [the author of this letter is no more!] [ ] see the note, p. ante. [ ] this engraving appears in the _Ædes althorpianæ_, vol. i. p. . on my return to england, it was necessary to keep up a correspondence with the amiable and intelligent character in question. i make no apology, either to the reader, or to the author of the epistle, for subjoining a copy of one of these letters--premising, that it relates to fac-similes of several old copper cuts in the public library at munich, as well as to his own engraving of the above-mentioned portrait. there is something throughout the whole of this letter so hearty, and so thoroughly original, that i am persuaded it will be perused with extreme gratification: _munich, may, ._ dear and reverend sir; i am a good old fellow, and a passable engraver; but a very bad correspondent. you are a ... and minister of a religion which forgive all faults of mankind; and so i hope that you will still pardon me the retardation of mine answer. i am now years old, and have never had any sickness in mine life, but i have such an averseness against writing, that only the _sight_ of an ink-horn, pen and paper, make me feeling all sort of fevers of the whole medicinal faculty;--and so i pray that you would forgive me the brevity of mine letters. following your order, i send you jointly the first proof prints of those plates still (already) finished. the plate of that beautiful head of an english artist, is not yet so far advanced; but in about six weeks you will have it--and during this time, i expect your answer and direction to whom i shall deliver the whole. i wish and hope heartily that the fac-similes and portraits would be correspondent with your expectation. i hold it for necessary and interesting, to give you a true copy of that old print--"_christ in the lap of god the father_." you'll see that this print is cutten round, and carefully pasted upon another paper on a wooden band of a book: which proves not only a high respect for a precious antiquity, but likewise that this print is much older than the date of --which is written in red ink, over the cutten outlines, of that antique print. you may be entirely assured of the fidelity of both fac-similes. now i pray you heartily to remember my name to our dear mr. lewis, with my friendliest compliments, and told him that the work on _lithography_ is now finished, and that he shall have it by the first occasion. in expectation of your honorable answer, i assure you of the highest consideration and respect of your most obedient humble servant, [autograph] [ ] [this graphic worthy now _ceases to exist_. he died in his seventy-first year--leaving behind, the remembrance of virtues to be reverenced and of talents to be imitated.] [ ] [another obituary presses closely upon the preceding--but an obituary which rends one's heart to dwell upon:--for a kinder, a more diligent, and more faithful correspondent than was mr. nockher, it has never been my good fortune to be engaged with. almost while writing the _above_ passage, this unfortunate gentleman ... destroyed himself:--from embarrassment of circumstances!] letter vii. freysing. landshut. altÖting. salzburg. the monastery of st. peter. _salzburg; golden ship, aug. , ._ my dear friend; if ever i wished for those who are dear to me in england, to be my companions during any part of this "_antiquarian_ and _picturesque_ tour," (for there are comparatively few, i fear, who would like to have been sharers of the "_bibliographical_" department of it) it has been on the route from munich to this place: first, darting up to the north; and secondly, descending gradually to the south; and feasting my eyes, during the descent, upon mountains of all forms and heights, winding through a country at once cultivated and fertile, and varied and picturesque. yes, my friend, i have had a glimpse, and even more than a glimpse, of what may be called alpine scenery: and have really forgotten fust, schoeffher, and mentelin, while contemplating the snow-capt heights of the _gredig_, _walseberg_, and _untersberg_:--to say nothing of the _gross klokner_, which raises its huge head and shoulders to the enormous height of , feet above the level of the sea. these be glorious objects!--but i have only gazed; and, gazed at a distance of some twenty or thirty miles. surrounded as i am, at this moment,--in one of the most marvellous and romantic spots in europe--in the vicinity of lakes, mountain-torrents, trout-streams, and salt-mines,--how can you expect to hear any thing about mss. and printed books? they shall not, however, be _wholly_ forgotten; for as i always endeavour to make my narrative methodical, i must of necessity make mention of the celebrated library of ingoldstadt, (of which seemiller has discoursed so learnedly in a goodly quarto volume,) now, with the university of the same place, transferred to landshut--where i slept on the first night of my departure from munich. a secret, but strong magnetic power, is pulling me yet more southerly, towards _inspruck_ and _italy_. no saint in the golden legend was ever more tortured by temptation, than i have been for the last twenty-four hours ... with the desire of visiting those celebrated places. thrice has some invisible being--some silver-tongued sylph--not mentioned, i apprehend, in the nomenclature of the rosicrusian philosophy, whispered the word ... "rome ..." in mine ear--and thrice have i replied in the response... "vienna!" i am therefore firmly fixed: immoveably resolved ... and every southerly attraction shall be deserted for the capital of austria: having determined to mingle among the benedictin and augustin monks of _chremsminster_, _st. florian_, and _mölk_--and, in the bookish treasures of their magnificent establishments, to seek and obtain something which may repay the toil and expense of my journey. but why do i talk of monastic delights only in _contemplation_? i have _realized_ them. i have paced the cloisters of st. peter's, the mother-convent of austria: have read inscriptions, and examined ornaments, upon tombstones, of which the pavement of these cloisters is chiefly composed: have talked bad latin with the principal, and indifferently good french with the librarian--have been left alone in the library--made memoranda, or rather selected books for which a _valuable consideration_ has been proposed--and, in short, fancied myself to be thoroughly initiated in the varieties of the bavarian and austrian characters. indeed, i have almost the conceit to affirm that this letter will be worth both postage and preservation. let me "begin at the beginning." on leaving munich, i had resolved upon dining at freysingen, or _freysing_; as well to explore the books of mr. mozler, living there--and one of the most "prying" of the bibliopolistic fraternity throughout germany--as to examine, with all imaginable attention, the celebrated church to which a monastery had been formerly attached--and its yet more celebrated _crypt_. all my munich friends exhorted me to descend into this crypt; and my curiosity had been not a little sharpened by the lithographic views of it (somewhat indifferently executed) which i had seen and purchased at munich. some of my munich friends considered the crypt of freysing to be coeval with charlemagne. this was, at least, a very romantic conjecture. the morning was gray and chill, when we left the _schwartzen adler_; but as we approached garching, the first stage, the clouds broke, the sun shone forth, and we saw freysing, (the second stage) situated upon a commanding eminence, at a considerable distance. in our way to garching, the river iser and the plains of hohenlinden lay to the right; upon each of which, as i gazed, i could not but think alternately of moreau and campbell. you will readily guess wherefore. the former won the memorable battle of hohenlinden--fought in the depth of winter--by which the austrians were completely defeated, and which led to the treaty of luneville: and the latter (that is, our thomas campbell) celebrated that battle in an _ode_--of which i never know how to speak in sufficient terms of admiration: an ode, which seems to unite all the fire of pindar with all the elegance of horace; of which, parts equal gray in sublimity, and collins in pathos. we drove to the best, if not the only, inn at freysing; and, ordering a late dinner, immediately visited the cathedral;--not however without taking the shop of mozler, the bookseller, in our way, and finding--to my misfortune--that the owner was absent on a journey; and his sister, the resident, perfectly ignorant of french. we then ascended towards the cathedral, which is a comparatively modern building; at least every thing _above_ ground is of that description. the crypt, however, more than answered my expectations. i should have no hesitation in calling it perfectly unique; as i have neither seen, nor heard, nor read of any thing the least resembling it. the pillars, which support the roof, have monsters crawling up their shafts--devouring one another, as one sees them in the margins of the earlier illuminated mss. the altar beneath our lady's chapel was a confused mass of lumber and rubbish; but, if i were to select--from all the strange and gloomy receptacles, attached to places of religious worship, which i have seen since quitting the shores of my own country--any one spot, in preference to another, for the celebration of mysterious rites--it should be the crypt of the cathedral of freysing. and perhaps i should say that portions of it might be as old as the latter end of the eleventh century. from the foundation, we ascended to the very summit of the building; and from the top of the tower, had a most extensive and complete view of the plains of _hohenlinden_, the rapid _iser_, and the gray mist of munich in the distance. i was much struck with a large bell, cast about fourscore years ago; the exterior of which was adorned by several inscriptions, and rather whimsical ornaments. having gratified a curiosity of this kind, my companion and valet left me, for a stroll about the town; when i requested the guide (who could luckily talk a little bad french) to shew me the library belonging to the monastery formerly attached to the cathedral. he told me that it was the mere relics of a library:--the very shadow of a shade. indeed it was quickly obvious that there were certain _hiatuses_ upon the shelves--which told their own tale pretty readily. the books, once occupying them, had been taken to munich. the room is light, cheerful, and even yet well garnished with books: most of them being in white forel or vellum binding. there were bibles, out of number, about the beginning of the sixteenth century; and an abundant sprinkling of glosses, decretals, canon law, and old fashioned scholastic lore of the same period. nevertheless, i was glad to have examined it; and do not know that i have visited many more desirable book-apartments since i left england. in my way to the inn, i took a more leisurely survey of the collection of mr. mozler: but his sister had not returned from vespers, and i was left absolutely alone--with the exception of a female servant; who, pointing to the book-room above stairs, as the supposed fittest place for my visit, betook herself to her culinary occupations. since the sight of the premises of the younger manoury at caen,[ ] i had never witnessed such a scene of darkness, lumber, and confusion:--yet i must do mr. mozler the justice to say, that there was much which might have repaid the toil of a minute examination. but i was pressed for time: and the appetites of my travelling companions might be sharpened so as to stand in need of an immediate attack upon the cotelette and wine. we dined as expeditiously as ever the trojans or grecians did, on expecting a sally from the foe. the red wine was, i think, the most delicious i had then drank in germany. a little before six, we left freysing for _moosburg_: a ten mile stage; but we had not got a quarter of a league upon our journey, when we discovered, to the right, somewhat in our rear, a more complete view of the tyrolese mountains than we had yet seen. they appeared to be as huge monsters, with overtopping heads, disporting themselves in an element of their own--many thousand feet in the air! it was dusk when we changed horses at _moosburg_: and the moon, then pretty far advanced towards the full, began to supply the light of which we stood so much in need. _landshut_ was our next and final stage; but it was unlucky for the first view of a church, of which the tower is considered to be the highest in bavaria, that we were to see it at such a moment. the air of the evening was mild, and the sky was almost entirely covered by thin flaky clouds, as we pushed on for landshut. on our immediate approach to it, the valet told us that he well remembered the entrance of the french into landshut, on bonaparte's advance to munich and vienna. he was himself in the rear of the assault--attending upon his master, one of the french generals. he said, that the french entered the further end of the town from that where we should make our entrance; and that, having gained a considerable eminence, by a circuitous route, above the river, unobserved, they rushed forward--bursting open the barriers--and charging the austrians at the point of the bayonet. the contest was neither long nor sanguinary. a prudent surrender saved the town from pillage, and the inhabitants from slaughter. on entering landshut, without having caught any thing like a determined view of the principal church, we found the centre of the principal street entirely occupied by booths and stalls, for an approaching fair--to take place within a few following days. the line of wooden buildings could scarcely extend less than half a mile. we drove to the principal inn, which was spacious and _tolerably_ clean; bespoke good beds, and found every appearance of comfort. i was resolved to devote the next day entirely to the public library--attached to the university, brought hither from ingoldstadt. of course i had been long acquainted with the general character of the early-printed books, from the valuable work of seemiller;[ ] and was resolved to make especial enquiry, in the first place, for the aldine duodecimo of the _greek hours_, of which you have already heard so much. i carried with me a letter to professor siebenkees, the head librarian. in short, i anticipated a day of bibliographical "joyaunce." i was not disappointed in my expectations. the day was as beautiful without, as i found it profitable within doors. the professor was all kindness, and was pleased to claim a long and intimate acquaintance with me, through certain works which need not be here mentioned: but it would be the height of affectation _not_ to avow the satisfaction i felt in witnessing a thoroughly cut-open, and tolerably well-thumbed copy, of the _bibl. spenceriana_ lying upon his table. i instantly commenced the examination of the library, while the professor as readily offered his services of assistance. "where are your _aldine greek hours_ of ?" observed i. "alas, sir, that book exists no longer here!"--replied the professor, in a melancholy tone of voice, and with an expression of countenance which indicated more than was meant by his _words_. "nevertheless, (rejoined i) seemiller describes it as having been at ingoldstadt." "he does so--but in the conveyance of the books from thence hither, it has _somehow_ disappeared."[ ] again the professor _looked_ more significantly than he _spake_. "what is invisible cannot be seen"--observed i--"and therefore allow me to take notes of what is before my eyes." "most willingly and cheerfully. here is every thing you wish. the more you write, the greater will be my satisfaction; although, after paris and munich, there is scarcely any thing worthy of particular description. but ere you begin your labours, allow me to introduce you to the several rooms in which the books are contained." i expressed great pleasure in complying with the professor's request, and followed him into every apartment. this library, my dear friend, is placed in one of the prettiest situations imaginable. some meandering branches of the iser intersect and fertilize considerable tracts of meadow land; equally rich in colour and (as i learnt) in produce: and terminated by some gently swelling hills, quite in the vicinity of the town. the whole had a perfectly english aspect. the rooms were numerous, and commanded a variety of views. they were well lighted by side windows, and the shelves and wainscots were coloured chiefly in white. one small hexagonal closet, or cabinet, on the first floor--(as is indeed the whole suite of apartments) caught my fancy exceedingly, and won my very heart. the view before it, or rather from three of its six sides, was exhilirating in the extreme. "here mr. professor, quoth i, (gently laying hold of his left arm) here will i come, and, if in any spot, put together my materials for a _third_ edition of the bibliomania." the worthy professor, for a little moment, thought me serious--and quickly replied "by all means do so: and you shall be accommodated with every thing necessary for carrying so laudable a design into execution." it was a mere bibliomaniacal vision:[ ] dissipated the very moment i had quitted the apartment for another. i shall now give you the result of my examination of a few of the rarer and early-printed books in the public library of landshut. and first of manuscripts. an _evangelistarium_, probably of the tenth century, is worth particular notice; if it be only on the score of its scription--which is perfectly beautiful: the most so of any, of such a remote period, which i have ever seen. it is a folio volume, bound in wood, with a stamped parchment cover of about the end of the fifteenth century. they possess a copy of the _oldest written laws of bavaria_; possibly of the twelfth--but certainly of the thirteenth century. it is a duodecimo ms. inlaid in a quarto form. no other ms. particularly struck my fancy, in the absence of all that was greek or roman: but a very splendid _polish missal_, in vo. which belonged to sigismund, king of poland, in the sixteenth century, seemed worthy of especial notice. the letters are graceful and elegant; but the style of art is heavy, although not devoid of effect. the binding is crimson velvet, with brass knobs, and a central metallic ornament--apparently more ancient than the book itself. this latter may have been possibly taken from another volume. of the _printed books_--after the treasures of this kind seen (as the professor intimated) at paris and munich--there was comparatively very little which claimed attention. they have a cropt and stained copy of mentelin's _german bible_, but quite perfect: two copies of the _supposed_ first _german bible_, for one of which i proposed an exchange in a copy of the b.s. and of the _Ædes althorpianæ_ as soon as this latter work should be published. the proposition was acceded to on the part of the head librarian, and it will be forwarded to the honest and respectable firm of john and arthur arch, booksellers; who, previously to my leaving england, had requested me to make something like a similar purchase for them--should a fine copy of this german bible present itself for sale.[ ] here i saw mentelin's edition of the _de civitate dei_ of _st. austin_: and a good sound copy of the very rare edition of _mammotrectus_, printed by _helias de helie_, in : a beautiful copy of _martin brand's psalter_ of , printed at leipsic, in to. in a large square gothic type; and a duplicate copy of the leipsic psalter of the preceding year, printed by _conrad kachelovez_, in to. which latter i obtained for the library in st. james's place. there were at least ten copies of the early block books; of which the _ars memorandi_ and the _anti-christ_ (with extracts inserted in the latter from the b.s.) appeared to be the more ancient and interesting. but i must not forget to mention a very indifferent and imperfect copy of the _latin bible of fust_, of , upon vellum. a few leaves in each volume are wanting. here too i saw the _pfarzival_ of (as at strasbourg) printed in a metrical form. as i got among the books of the _sixteenth_ century, i was much more gratified with the result of my researches. i will begin with a very choice article: which is nothing less than a copy of the _complutensian polyglott_, purchased by eckius, in , of the celebrated demetrius chalcondylas--as the following coeval ms. memorandum attests: "rome empta biblia ista p eckium p xiiij ducatis largis a demetrio calcondyla anno ; mortuo iam leone papa in decembri." the death of leo is here particularly mentioned, because, during his life, it is said that that pontiff prohibited the sale of the work in question. the copy is fair and sound; but both this, and a duplicate copy, wants the sixth volume, being the dictionary or vocabulary. the mention of eckius leads me to notice a little anecdote connected with him. he was, as you may have read, one of the most learned, most eloquent, and most successful of luther's antagonists. he was also the principal theological professor in the university of ingoldstadt. they preserve at landshut, brought from the former place, the chair and the doctor's cap of their famous anti-lutheran champion. you see both of these in one of the principal apartments of the public library. i was requested to sit in the chair of the renowned eckius, and to put his doctorial bonnet upon my head. i did both:--but, if i had sat for a century to come, i should never have fancied myself eckius ... for more reasons than _one_. the sub librarian, who is a catholic, (professor siebenkees being a protestant) has shewn great good sense in preserving all the tracts, which have fallen in his way, both _for_ and _against_ the lutheran controversy. you go between two small book-cases, or sets of shelves, and find _luther_ in front, and _eckius_ and his followers in the rear of you; or vice versa. a considerable number of rare and curious little pieces of _erasmus_ and _melancthon_, are mixed in this collection, which is far from being small either in number or value. in this interesting collection, i saw a good copy of ross's work against luther, of the date of , which appeared to me to be printed by pynson.[ ] it had the autograph of sir thomas more--("_thom^{ } mor^{ }"--_) who indeed is said to have been the author of the work. this very copy belonged to eckius, and was given to him by the author, when eckius came over to england in : the fact being thus attested in the hand-writing of the latter: "_codex iste dono datus est mihi johanni eckio ab illius autore in anglia, dum visendi cupidus in insulam traiecissem, , augusto x_." the worthy professor next put into my hands what he considered to be an _absolutely unique_ copy of _der veis ritter_, in , folio: adding, that no other copy of the adventures of the _white knight_, of the _same_ date, was known to bibliographers. i assented to the observation--equally from courtesy and sheer ignorance. but surely this is somewhat difficult to believe. there was nothing further that demanded a distinct registry; and so, making my bow, and shaking hands with the worthy librarian very heartily, i quitted this congenial spot;--not however before i had been introduced to a professor of botany (whose name has now escaped me) who was busily engaged in making extracts in the reading room, with a short pipe by the side of him, and a small red tasselled cap upon his head. he had an expressive countenance; understood our language so as to read shakespeare with facility, and even with rapture: and to a question of mine, whether he was not much gratified with schlegel's critical remarks upon that dramatist, he replied, that "he did not admire them so much, as, from the edinburgh review, the english appeared to do." to another question--"which of shakspeare's plays pleased him most?" he replied, unhesitatingly, "_romeo and juliet_." i own, i should have thought that the mystical, or philosophy-loving, brain of a german would have preferred _hamlet_. on leaving the library, i surveyed the town with tolerably minute attention. after munich, it appeared sufficiently small. its population indeed scarcely exceeds . the day turned out very beautiful, and my first and principal attention was directed to _st. martin's church_; of which the tower (as i think i before told you) is considered to be full feet in height, and the loftiest in bavaria. but its height is its principal boast. both in detail, and as a whole, the architecture is miserably capricious and tasteless. it is built of red brick. many of the monuments in the church-yard, but more particularly some mural ones, struck me as highly characteristic of the country. among these rude specimens of sculpture, the representation of _our saviour's agony in the garden_--the favourite subject in bavaria--was singularly curious to a fresh eye. it may be between two and three hundred years old; but has suffered no injury. they have, in the principal street, covered walks, for foot-passengers, in a piazza-fashion, a little resembling those at chester: but neither so old nor so picturesque. the intermixture of rural objects, such as trees and grass plats--in the high street of landshut--renders a stroll in the town exceedingly agreeable to the lover of picturesque scenery. the booths and stalls were all getting ready for the fair--which i learnt was to last nearly a fortnight: and which i was too thankful to have escaped. we left landshut on a fine sun-shining afternoon, purposing to sleep at the second stage--_neümarkt_--(angl. "newmarket") in the route to salzburg. _neümarkt_ is little better than a small village, but we fared well in every respect at the principal, if not the only, inn in the place. our beds were even luxurious. neümarkt will be quickly forgotten: but the following stage--or _altöting_--will not be so easily banished from our recollection. we reached it to a late breakfast--after passing through the most fertile and beautifully varied country which i had yet seen--and keeping almost constantly in view the magnificent chain of the tyrolese mountains, into the very heart of which we seemed to be directing our course. altÖting is situated upon an eminence. we drove into the place, or square, and alighted at what seemed to be a large and respectable inn. two ladies and two gentlemen had just arrived before us, from munich, by a different route: and while i was surveying them, almost mistaking them for english, and had just exchanged salutations, my valet came and whispered in my ear that "these good folks were come on a pilgrimage to the shrine of the _black virgin_." while i was wondering at this intelligence, the valet continued: "you see that small church in the centre of the square--it is _there_ where the richest shrine in bavaria is deposited; and to-day is a 'high day' with the devotees who come to worship." on receiving this information, we all three prepared to visit this mean-looking little church. i can hardly describe to you with sufficient accuracy, the very singular, and to me altogether new, scene which presented itself on reaching the church. there is a small covered way--in imitation of cloisters--which goes entirely round it. the whole of the interior of these cloisters is covered with little pictures, images, supposed relics--and, in short votive offerings of every description, to the holy virgin, to whom the church is dedicated. the worshippers believe that the mother of christ was an _african_ by birth, and therefore you see little black images of the virgin stuck up in every direction. at first, i mistook the whole for a parcel of pawnbrokers shops near each other: and eyed the several articles with a disposition, more or less, to become a purchaser of a few. but the sound of the chant, and the smell of the frankincense, broke in upon my speculations, and called my attention to the interior. i entered with a sort of rush of the congregation. this interior struck me as being scarcely thirty feet by twenty; but the eye is a deceitful rule in these cases. however, i continued to advance towards the altar; the heat, at the same time, being almost suffocating. an iron grating separated the little chapel and shrine of our _black lady_ from the other portion of the building; and so numerous, so constant, and apparently so close, had been the pressure and friction of each succeeding congregation, for probably more than two centuries, that some of these rails, or bars, originally at least one inch square, had been worn to _half_ the size of their pristine dimensions. it was with difficulty, on passing them, that i could obtain a peep at the altar; which, however, i saw sufficiently distinctly to perceive that it was entirely covered with silver vases, cups, dishes, and other _solid_ proofs of devotional ardour--which in short seemed to reach to the very roof. having thus far gratified my curiosity, i retreated as quickly as possible; for not a window was open, and the little light which these windows emitted, together with the heat of the place, produced so disagreeable an effect as to make me apprehensive of sudden illness. on reaching the outward door, and enjoying the freedom of respiration, i made a sort of secret, but natural vow, that i would never again visit the shrine of _our black lady_ on a festival day. an excellent breakfast--together with the neatness and civility of the female attendants--soon counter-acted the bad effects of the hydrogen contained within the walls of the place of worship we had just quitted. every thing around us wore a cheerful and pleasing aspect; inasmuch as every thing reminded us of our own country. the servants were numerous, and all females; with their hair braided in a style of elegance which would not have disgraced the first drawing-room in london. we quaffed coffee out of cups which were perfectly of the brobdignagian calibre; and the bread had the lightness and sweetness of cake. between eleven and twelve, charles rohfritsch (alias our valet) announced that the carriage and horses were at the door; and on springing into it, we bade adieu to the worthy landlady and her surrounding attendants, in a manner quite natural to travellers who have seen something very unusual and interesting, and who have in other respects been well satisfied with good fare, and civil treatment. not one of the circle could speak a word of french; so i told charles to announce to them that we would not fail to spread the fame of their coffee, eggs, and bread, all over england! they laughed heartily--and then gave us a farewell salutation ... by dropping very-formal curtesies--their countenances instantly relapsing into a corresponding gravity of expression. in three minutes the inn, the square, and the church of the _black virgin_, were out of sight. the postilion put his bugle to his mouth, and played a lively air--in which the valet immediately joined. the musical infatuation, for an instant, extended to ourselves; for it was a tune which we had often heard in england, and which reminded me, in particular, of days of past happiness--never to return! but the sky was bright, the breeze soft, the road excellent, and the view perfectly magnificent. it was evident that we were now nearing the tyrolese mountains. "at the foot of yonder second, sharp-pointed hill, lies salzburg"--said the valet: on receiving his intelligence from the post-boy. we seemed to be yet some twenty miles distant. to the right of the hill pointed out, the mountains rose with a loftier swell, and, covered by snow, the edges or terminations of their summits seemed to melt into the sky. our road now became more hilly, and the time flew away quickly, without our making an apparently proportionate progress towards salzburg. at length we reached _burckhausen_; which is flanked by the river _salz_ on one side, and defended by a lofty citadel on the other. it struck us, upon the whole, as rather a romantic spot: but the road, on entering the town, is in some places fearfully precipitous. the stratum was little better than rock. we were not long in changing horses, and made off instantly for _tittmaning_; the last stage but one on that side of salzburg. the country wore a more pleasing aspect. stately trees spread their dark foliage on each side of the road; between the stems, and through the branches of which, we caught many a "spirit-stirring" view of the mountains in the neighbourhood of salzburg--which, on our nearer approach, seemed to have attained double their first grandeur. after having changed horses at _tittmaning_, and enjoyed a delightfully picturesque ride from burckhausen thither, we dined at the following stage, _lauffen_; a poor, yet picturesque and wildly-situated, large village. while the dinner was preparing, i walked to the extremity of the street where the inn is situated, and examined a small church, built there upon high ground. the cloisters were very striking; narrow and low, but filled with mural monuments, of a singular variety of character. it was quite evident, from numberless exhibitions of art--connected with religious worship--along the road-side, or attached to churches--that we had now entered a territory quite different from that of baden, wirtemberg, and even the northern part of bavaria. small crucifixes, and a representation of the _agony in the garden_, &c, presented themselves frequently to our view; and it seemed as if austria were a land of even greater superstition than bavaria. on concluding our dinner, and quitting lauffen, it grew dusk, and the rain began to fall in a continued drizzling shower. "it always rains at salzburg, sir," said the valet--repeating the information of the post boy. this news made us less cheerful on leaving lauffen than we were on quitting _altöting_: but "hope travelled through"--even till we reached the banks of the river salz, within a mile or two of salzburg--where the austrian dominions begin, and those of bavaria terminate. our carriage was here stopped, and the trunks were examined, very slightly, on each side of the river. the long, wooden, black and yellow-striped bar of austria--reaching quite across the road--forbade further progress, till such examination, and a payment of four or five florins, as the barrier-tax,--had been complied with. i had imagined that, if our trunks had been examined on _one_ side of the water, there needed no examination of them on the _other_; unless we had had intercourse with some water fiend in the interval. it seemed, however, that i reasoned illogically. we were detained full twenty minutes, by a great deal of pompous palaver--signifying nothing--on the part of the austrian commissioner; so that it was quite dark when we entered the barriers of the town of salzburg:--mountains, trees, meadows, and rivulets having been long previously obliterated from our view. the abrupt ascents and descents of the streets--and the quivering reflection of the lights from the houses, upon the surface of the river _salz_--soon convinced us that we were entering a very extraordinary town. but all was silent: neither the rattling of carriages, nor the tread of foot-passengers, nor the voice of the labourer, saluted our ear on entering salzburg--when we drove briskly to the _gölden-schiff_, in the _place de la cathedrale_, whence i am now addressing you. this inn is justly considered to be the best in the town; but what a melancholy reception--on our arrival! no rush of feet, no display of candles, nor elevation of voices, nor ringing of the bell--- as at the inns on our great roads in england--but ... every body and every, thing was invisible. darkness and dulness seemed equally to prevail. one feeble candle at length glimmered at the extremity of a long covered arch-way, while afterwards, to the right, came forward two men--with what seemed to be a farthing candle between them, and desired to know the object of our halting? "beds, and a two-day's residence in your best suite of apartments," replied i quickly--for they both spoke the french language. we were made welcome by one of them, who proved to be the master, and who helped us to alight. a long, and latterly a wet journey, had completely fatigued us--and after mounting up one high stair-case, and rambling along several loosely-floored corridors--we reached our apartments, which contained each a very excellent bed. wax candles were placed upon the tables: a fire was lighted: coffee brought up; and a talkative, and civil landlord soon convinced us that we had no reason to grumble at our quarters.[ ] on rising the next morning, we gazed upon almost every building with surprise and delight; and on catching a view of the citadel--in the back ground, above the place de la cathedrale--it seemed as if it were situated upon an eminence as lofty as quito. i quickly sought the _monastery of st. peter_;--the oldest in the austrian dominions. i had heard, and even read about its library; and imagined that i was about to view books, of which no bibliographer had ever yet--even in a vision--received intelligence. but you must wait a little ere i take you with me to that monastic library. there is a pleasing chime of bells, which are placed outside of a small cupola in the _place_, in which stands the cathedral. i had heard this chime during the night--when i would rather have heard ... any thing else. what struck me the first thing, on looking out of window, was, the quantity of grass--such as ossian describes within the walls of _belcluthah_--growing between the pavement in the square. "wherefore was this?" "sir, (replied the master of the gölden schiff) this town is undergoing a gradual and melancholy depopulation. before the late war, there were , inhabitants in salzburg: at present, there are scarcely , . this _place_ was the constant resort of foreigners as well as townsmen. they filled every portion of it. now, you observe there is only a narrow, worn walk, which gives indication of the route of a few straggling pedestrians. even the very chimes of yonder bells (which must have _delighted_ you so much at every third hour of the night!) have lost their pleasing tone;--and sound as if they foreboded still further desolation to salzburg." the man seemed to feel as he spoke; and i own that i was touched by so animated and unexpected a reply. i examined two or three old churches, of the gothic order, of which i have already forgotten the names--unless they be those of _ste. trinité_ and _st. sebastien_. in one of them--it being a festival--there was a very crowded congregation; while the priest was addressing his flock from the steps of the altar, in a strain of easy and impassioned eloquence. wherever i went--and upon almost whatever object i gazed--there appeared to be traces of curious, if not of remote, antiquity. indeed the whole town abounds with such--among which are some roman relics, which have been recently ( ) described by goldenstein, in a quarto volume published here, and written in the german language.[ ] but you are impatient for the monastery of st. peter.[ ] your curiosity shall be no longer thwarted; and herewith i proceed to give you an account of my visit to that venerable and secluded spot--the abode of silence and of sanctity. it was my first appearance in a fraternity of monks; and those of the order of st. benedict. i had no letter of recommendation; but, taking my valet with me, i knocked at the outer gate--and received immediate admission within some ancient and low cloisters: of which the pavement consisted entirely of monumental slabs. the valet sought the librarian, to make known my wishes of examining the library; and i was left alone to contemplate the novel and strange scene which presented itself on all sides. there were two quadrangles, each of sufficiently limited dimensions. in the first, there were several young monks playing at skittles in the centre of the lawn. both the bowl and pins were of unusually large dimensions, and the direction of the former was confined within boards, fixed in the earth. these athletic young benedictins (they might be between twenty and thirty years of age) took little or no notice of me; and while my eye was caught by a monumental tablet, which presented precisely the same coat-armour as the device used by fust and schoeffher,--and which belonged to a family that had been buried about two hundred and fifty years--the valet returned, and announced that the principal of the college desired to see me immediately. i obeyed the summons in an instant, and followed rohfritsch up stairs. there, on the first floor, a middle-aged monk received me, and accompanied me to the chamber of the president. on rapping at the door with his knuckles, a hollow but deep-toned voice commanded the visitor to enter. i was introduced with some little ceremony, but was compelled, most reluctantly, to have recourse to latin, in conversing with the principal. he rose to receive me very graciously; and i think i never before witnessed a countenance which seemed to _tell_ of so much hard fagging and meditation. he must have read every _father_, in the _editio princeps_ of his works. his figure and physiognomical expression bespoke a rapid approach to the grand climacteric of human life. the deeply-sunk, but large and black, beaming eye--the wan and shrivelled cheek--the nose, somewhat aquiline, with nostrils having all the severity of sculpture--sharp, thin lips--an indented chin--and a highly raised forehead, surmounted by a little black silk cap--(which was taken off on the first salutation) all, added to the gloom of the place, and the novelty of the costume, impressed me in a manner not easily to be forgotten. my visit was very short, as i wished it to be; and it was concluded with an assurance, on the part of the principal, that the librarian would be at home on the following day, and ready to attend me to the library:--but, added the principal, on parting, "we have nothing worthy of the inspection of a traveller who has visited the libraries of paris and munich. at mölk, you will see fine books, and a fine apartment for their reception." for the sake of _keeping_, in the order of my narrative, i proceed to give you an account of the visit to the library, which took place on the morrow, immediately after breakfast. it had rained the whole of the preceding night, and every hill and mountain about salzburg was obscured by a continuation of the rain on the following day. i began to think the postilion spoke but too true, when he said "it always rains at salzburg." yet the air was oppressive; and huge volumes of steam, as from a cauldron, rose up from the earth, and mingled with the descending rain. in five minutes, i was within the cloisters of the monastery, and recognised some of the _skittling_ young monks--whom i had seen the day before. one of them addressed me very civilly, in the french language, and on telling him the object of my visit, he said he would instantly conduct me to mr. gaertner, the librarian. on reaching the landing place, i observed a long corridore--where a somewhat venerable benedictin was walking, apparently to and fro, with a bunch of keys in one hand, and a thick embossed-quarto under his other arm. the very sight of him reminded me of good _michael neander_, the abbot of the monastery of st. ildefonso--the friend of budæus[ ]--of whom (as you may remember) there is a print in the _rerum germanicarum scriptores_, published in , folio. "that, sir, is the librarian:"--observed my guide: "he waits to receive you." i walked quickly forward and made obeisance. anon, one of the larger keys in this said bunch was applied to a huge lock, and the folding and iron-cramped doors of the library were thrown open. i descended by a few steps into the ante-room, and from thence had a completely fore-shortened view of the library. it is small, but well filled, and undoubtedly contains some ancient and curious volumes: but several _hiatuses_ gave indication that there had been a few transportations to vienna or munich. the small gothic windows were open, and the rain now absolutely descended in torrents. nevertheless, i went quickly and earnestly to work. a few slight ladders were placed against the shelves, in several parts of the library, by means of which i left no division unexplored. the librarian, after exchanging a few words very pleasantly, in the french language, left me alone, unreservedly to prosecute my researches. i endeavoured to benefit amply by this privilege; but do not know, when, in the course of three or four hours, i have turned over the leaves of so many volumes ... some of which seemed to have been hardly opened since they were first deposited there ... to such little purpose. however, he is a bad sportsman who does not hit _something_ in a well-stocked cover; and on the return of the librarian, he found me busily engaged in laying aside certain volumes--with a written list annexed--"which might _possibly_, be disposed of ... for a valuable consideration?" "your proposal shall be attended to, but this cannot be done immediately. you must leave the _consideration_ to the principal and the elder brethren of the monastery." i was quite charmed by this response; gave my address, and taking a copy of the list, withdrew. i enclose you the list or catalogue in question.[ ] certainly i augur well of the result: but no early _virgil_, nor _horace_, nor _ovid_, nor _lucretius_, nor even an early _greek bible_ or _testament_! what struck me, on the score of rarity, as most deserving of being secured, were some little scarce grammatical and philological pieces, by the french scholars of the early part of the sixteenth century; and some controversial tracts about erasmus, luther, and eckius. so much for the monastic visit to st. peter's at salzburg; and yet you are not to quit it, without learning from me that this town was once famous for other similar establishments[ ]--which were said anciently to vie with the greater part of those in austria, for respectability of character, and amplitude of possessions. at present, things of this sort seem to be hastening towards a close, and i doubt whether the present principal will have half a dozen successors. it remains only to offer a brief sketch of some few other little matters which took place at salzburg; and then to wish you good bye--as our departure is fixed for this very afternoon. we are to travel from hence through a country of mountains and lakes, to the _monastery of chremsminster_, in the route to lintz--on the high road to vienna. i have obtained a letter to the vice-president of _mölk monastery_, from a gentleman here, who has a son under his care; so that, ere i reach the capital of austria, i shall have seen a pretty good sprinkling of _benedictins_--as each of these monasteries is of the order of st. benedict. the evening of the second day of our visit here, enabled me to ascertain something of the general character of the scenery contiguous to the town. this scenery is indeed grand and interesting. the summit of the lowest hill in the neighbourhood is said to be feet above the level of the sea. i own i have strong doubts about this. it is with the heights of mountains, as with the numbers of books in a great library,--we are apt to over-rate each. however, those mountains, which seem to be covered with perennial snow, must be doubtless feet above the same level.[ ] to obtain a complete view of them, you must ascend some of the nether hills. this we intended to do--but the rain of yesterday has disappointed all our hopes. the river _salz_ rolls rapidly along; being fed by mountain torrents. there are some pretty little villas in the neighbourhood, which are frequently tenanted by the english; and one of them, recently inhabited by lord stanhope, (as the owner informed me,) has a delightful view of the citadel, and the chain of snow-capt mountains to the left. the numerous rapid rivulets, flowing into the salz, afford excellent trout-fishing; and i understood that sir humphry davy, either this summer, or the last, exercised his well-known skill in this diversion here. the hills abound with divers sorts of four-footed and winged game; and, in short, (provided i could be furnished with a key of free admission into the library of st. peter's monastery) i hardly know where i could pass the summer and autumn months more completely to my satisfaction than at salzburg. what might not the pencils of turner and calcott here accomplish, during the mellow lights and golden tints of autumn? of course, in a town so full of curiosities of every description, i am not able, during so short a stay in it, to transmit you any intelligence about those sights which are vulgarly called the _lions_. but i must not close this rambling, desultory letter, without apprising you that i have walked from one end of the _mönschberg_ to the other. this is an excavation through a hard and high rocky hill, forming the new gate, or entrance into the town. the success of this bold undertaking was as complete, as its utility is generally acknowledged: nor shall it tarnish the lustre of the _mitre_ to say, that it was a bishop of salzburg who conceived, and superintended the execution of, the plan. a very emphatic inscription eternises his memory: "te saxa loquuntur." the view, from the further end of it, is considered to be one of the finest in europe: but, when i attempted to enjoy it, every feature of the landscape was obscured by drizzling rain. "it always rains at salzburg!"--said, as you may remember, the postilion from lauffen. it may do so: but a gleam of _sunshine_ always enlivens that moment, when i subscribe myself, as i do now, your affectionate and faithful friend. [ ] see vol. i. p. . [ ] it is thus entitled: _bibliothecæ ingolstadiensis incunabula typographica_, , to.: containing four parts. a carefully executed, and indispensably necessary, volume in every bibliographical collection. [ ] [i rejoice to add, in this edition of my tour, that the lost sheep has been found. it had not straggled from the fold when i was at landshut; but had got _penned_ so snugly in some unfrequented corner, as not to be perceived.] [ ] [a vision, however, which again haunts me!] [ ] this copy has since reached england, and has been arrayed in a goodly coat of blue morocco binding. whether it remain in cornhill at this precise moment, i cannot take upon me to state; but i can confidently state that there is _not a finer copy_ of the edition in question in his britannic majesty's united dominions. [this copy now-- --ceases to exist... in cornhill.] [ ] on consulting the _typog. antiquities_, vol. ii. p. , i found my conjectures confirmed. the reader will there see the full title of the work--beginning thus: "_eruditissimi viri guilelmi rossei opus elegans, doctum, festiuum, pium, quo pulcherrime retegit, ac refellit, insanas lutheri calumnias," &c._ it is a volume of considerable rarity. [ ] the charges were moderate. a bottle of the best red ordinary wine (usually--the best in every respect) was somewhere about s. d. our lodgings, two good rooms, including the charge of three wax candles, were about four shillings per day. the bread was excellent, and the _cuisine_ far from despicable. [ ] we learn from pez (_austriacar. rer._ vol. ii. col. , taken from the chronicle of the famous _admont monastery_,) that, in the year , the cathedral and the whole city of salzburg were destroyed by fire. so, that the antiquity of this, and of other relics, must not be pushed to too remote a period. [ ] before the reader commences the above account of a visit to this monastery, he may as well be informed that the subjoined bird's-eye view of it, together with an abridged history (compiled from trithemius, and previous chroniclers) appears in the _monasteriologia of stengelius_, published in , folio. [illustration] the monastery is there described as--"et vetustate et dignitate nulli è germaniæ monasteriis secundum." rudbertus is supposed to have been its founder:--"repertis edificiis basilicam in honore sancti petri construxit:" _chronicon norimberg._ fol. cliii.; edit. . but this took place towards the end of the sixth century. from godfred's _chronicon gotvvicense_, , folio, pt. i. pp. , , --the library of this monastery, there called "antiquissima," seems to have had some very ancient and valuable mss. in stengelius's time, ( ) the monastery appears to have been in a very flourishing condition. [ ] as it is just possible the reader may not have a very distinct recollection of this worthy old gentleman, and ambulatory abbot--it may be acceptable to him to know, that, in the _thanatologia of budæus_ (incorporated in the _tres selecti scriptores rerum germanicarum_, , folio, p. , &c.) the said neander is described as a native of sorau, in bohemia, and as dying in his th year, a.d. , having been forty-five years principal of the monastery of st. ildefonso. a list of his works, and a laudatory greek epigram, by budæus, "upon his effigy," follow. [ ] for the sake of juxta-position i here lay before the reader a short history of the issue, or progress of the books in question to their present receptacle, in st. james's place. a few days after reaching _vienna_, i received the following "pithy and pleasant" epistle from the worthy librarian, "mon très-revérend pasteur. en esperant que vous êtes arrivé à vienne, à bon port, j'ai l'honneur de declarer à vous, que le prix fixé des livres, que vous avez choisi, et dont la table est ajoutée, est louis d'or, ou florins. agréez l'assurance, &c." [autographs] i wrote to my worthy friend mr. nockher at munich to settle this subject immediately; who informed me, in reply, that the good monks would not part with a single volume till they had received "the money upon the nail,"--"l'argent comptant." that dexterous negotiator quickly supplied them with the same; received the case of books; and sent them down the rhine to holland, from thence to england: where they arrived in safe and perfect condition. they are all described in the second volume of the _Ædes athorpianæ_; together with a beautiful fac-simile of an illuminated head, or portrait, of _gaietanus de tienis_, who published a most elegantly printed work upon aristotle's four books of meteors, _printed by maufer_, in , folio; and of which the copy in the salzburg library was adorned by the head (just mentioned) of the editor. _Æd. althorp._ vol. ii. p. . among the books purchased, were two exquisite copies, filled with wood cuts, relating to the Æsopian fables: a copy of one of which, entitled _Æsopus moralisatus_, was, i think, sold at the sale of the duke of marlborough's books, in , for somewhere about l. [ ] in hartmann schedel's time, salzburg--which was then considered as the capital of bavaria--"was surrounded by great walls, and was adorned by many beautiful buildings of temples and monasteries." a view of salzburg, which was formerly called juvavia, is subjoined in the _nuremberg chronicle_, fol. cliii. _edit._ . consult also the _chronicon gotvvicense_, , folio, pt. ii. p. --for some particulars respecting the town taking its name from the river _juvavia_ or _igonta_. salzburg was an archbishopric founded by charlemagne: see the _script. rer. german._ edited by _nidanus et struvius_, folio, vol. i. p. . [ ] on the morning following my arrival at salzburg, i purchased a card, and small chart of the adjacent country and mountains. of the latter, the _gross klokner_, _klein klokner_, are each about feet above the level of the sea; the _weisbachhorn_ is about feet of similar altitude; _der hohe narr_ about the same height; and the _hohe warte_ about , ; while the _ankogl_ and _herzog ernst_, are each. the lowest is the _gaisberg_ of feet; but there is a regular gradation in height, from the latter, to the gross klokner, including about mountains. [illustration] letter viii. salzburg. to chremsminster. the lake gmunden. the monastery of chremsminster. lintz. _lintz; on the road to vienna, aug. , ._ in order that i may not be too much in arrear in my correspondence, i snatch an hour or two at this place, to tell you what have been my sights and occupations since i quitted the extraordinary spot whence i last addressed you. learn therefore, at the outset, that i have been, if possible, more gratified than heretofore. i have shaped my course along devious roads, by the side of huge impending mountains; have skirted more than one lake of wide extent and enchanting transparency; have navigated the celebrated _lake of gmunden_ from one end to the other--the greater part of which is surrounded by rocky yet fertilized mountains of a prodigious height;--have entered one of the noblest and richest monasteries of austria--and darted afterwards through a country, on every side pleasing by nature, and interesting from history. my only regret is, that all this has been accomplished with too much precipitancy; and that i have been compelled to make sketches in my mind, as it were, when the beauty of the objects demanded a finished picture. i left salzburg on the afternoon after writing my last epistle; and left it with regret at not having been able to pay a visit to the salt mines of _berchtesgaden_ and _hallein_: but "non omnia possumus omnes." the first stage, to _koppf_, was absolutely up hill, the whole way, a short german league and a half: probably about seven english miles. we were compelled to put a leader to our two horses, and even then we did little more than creep. but the views of the country we had left behind us, as we continued ascending, were glorious in the extreme. each snow-capt mountain appeared to rise in altitude--as we continued to mount. our views however were mere snatches. the sun was about to set in a bed of rain. large black clouds arose; which, although they added to the grandeur of picturesque composition, prevented us from distinctly surveying the adjacent country. masses of deep purple floated along the fir-clad hills: now partially illumined by the sun's expiring rays, and now left in deep shadow--to be succeeded by the darkness of night. the sun was quite set as we stopped to change horses at _koppf_: and a sort of premature darkness came on:--which, however, was relieved for a short time by a sky of partial but unusual clearness of tint. the whole had a strange and magical effect. as the horses were being put to, i stepped across the road to examine the interior of a small church--where i observed, in the side aisle, a group of figures of the size of life--which, at that sombre hour, had a very extraordinary effect. i approached nearer, and quickly perceived that this group was intended to represent the _agony in the garden of gethsemane_. our saviour, at a little distance, was upon his knees, praying; and the piety of some _religieuse_ (as i afterwards learnt) had caused a white handkerchief to be fixed between his hands. the disciples were represented asleep, upon the ground. on coming close to the figures (which were raised upon a platform, of half the height of a man) and removing the moss upon which they were recumbent, i found that they were mere _trunks_, without legs or feet: the moss having been artfully placed, so as to conceal these defects when the objects were seen at a distance. of course it was impossible to refrain from a smile, on witnessing such a sight. the horses were harnessed in ten minutes; and, having no longer any occasion for a leader, we pursued our route with the usual number of two. the evening was really enchanting; and upon the summit of one of the loftiest of the hills--which rose perpendicularly as a bare sharp piece of rock--we discerned a pole, which we conjectured was fixed there for some particular purpose. the postilion told us that it was the stem of the largest fir-tree in the country, and that there were annual games celebrated around it--in the month of may, when its summit was crowned with a chaplet. our route was now skirted on each side, alternately, by water and by mountain. the _mande see_, _aber see_, and _aller see_, (three beautiful lakes) lay to the left; of which we caught, occasionally, from several commanding heights, most magnificent views--as the last light of day seemed to linger upon their surfaces. they are embosomed in scenery of the most beautiful description. when we reached _st. gilgen_, or _gilling_, we resolved upon passing the night there. it was quite dark, and rather late, when we entered this miserable village; but within half a league of it, we ran a very narrow chance of being overturned, and precipitated into a roaring, rapid stream, just below the road--along the banks of which we had been sometime directing our course. a fir-pole lay across the road, which was undiscernible from the darkness of the night; and the carriage, receiving a violent concussion, and losing its balance for a moment--leaning over the river--it was doubtful what would be the issue. upon entering the archway of the inn, or rather public house--from the scarcity of candles, and the ignorance of rustic ostlers, the door of the carriage (it being accidentally open) was completely wrenched from the body. never, since our night's lodging at _saudrupt_,[ ] had we taken up our quarters at so miserable an auberge. the old woman, our landlady, seemed almost to cast a suspicious eye upon us; but the valet in a moment disarmed her suspicions. it was raw, cold, and late; but the kitchen fire was yet in full force, and a few earthen-ware utensils seemed to contain something in the shape of eatables. you should know, that the kitchen fire-places, in germany, are singularly situated; at least all those at the public inns where we have stopped. a platform, made of brick, of the height of about three feet, is raised in the centre of the floor. the fire is in the centre of the platform. you look up, and see directly the open sky through the chimney, which is of a yawning breadth below, but which narrows gradually towards the top. it was so cold, that i requested a chair to be placed upon the platform, and i sat upon it--close to the kitchen fire--receiving very essential benefit from the position. all the kitchen establishment was quickly put in requisition: and, surrounded by cook and scullion--pots, pans, and culinary vessels of every description--i sat like a monarch upon his throne: while mr. lewis was so amused at the novelty of the scene, that he transferred it to his sketch-book. it was midnight when we attacked our _potage_--in the only visitor's bed-room in the house. two beds, close to each other, each on a sloping angle of nearly forty-five degrees, were to receive our wearied bodies. the _matériel_ of the beds was _straw_; but the sheets were white and well aired, and edged (i think) with a narrow lace; while an eider down quilt--like a super-incumbent bed--was placed upon the first quilt. it was scarcely day-light, when mr. lewis found himself upon the floor, awoke from sleep, having gradually slid down. by five o'clock, the smith's hammer was heard at work below--upon the door of the dismembered carriage--and by the time we had risen at eight o'clock, the valet reported to us that the job was just _then_ ... in the very state in which it was at its _commencement_! so much for the reputation of the company of white-smiths at _st. gilgen_. we were glad to be off by times; but i must not quit this obscure and humble residence without doing the landlady the justice to say, that her larder and kitchen enabled us to make a very hearty breakfast. this, for the benefit of future travellers--benighted like ourselves. the morning lowered, and some soft rain fell as we started: but, by degrees, the clouds broke away, and we obtained a complete view of the enchanting country through which we passed--as we drove along by the banks of the _aber_ lake, to _ischel_. one tall, sharp, and spirally-terminating rock, in particular, kept constantly in view before us, on the right; of which the base and centre were wholly feathered with fir. it rose with an extraordinary degree of abruptness, and seemed to be twice as high as the spire of strasbourg cathedral. to the left, ran sparkling rivulets, as branches of the three lakes just mentioned. an endless variety of picturesque beauty--of trees, rocks, greenswards, wooded heights, and glen-like passes--canopied by a sky of the deepest and most brilliant blue--were the objects upon which we feasted till we reached _ischel_: where we changed horses. here we observed several boats, of a peculiarly long and narrow form, laden with salt, making their way for the _steyer_ and _ens_ rivers, and from thence to the danube. to describe what we saw, all the way till we reached the _traun see_, or the lake of gmunden, would be only a repetition of the previous description. at _inderlambach_, close to the lake in question, we stopped to dine. this is a considerable village, or even country town. on the heights are well-trimmed gravel walks, from which you catch a commanding view of the hither end of the lake; and of which the sight cheered us amazingly. we longed to be afloat. there is a great manufactory of salt carried on upon these heights--at the foot of which was said to be the best inn in the town. thither we drove: and if high charges form the test of the excellence of an inn, there is good reason to designate this, at _inderlambach_, as such. we snatched a hasty meal, (for which we had nearly fifteen florins to pay) being anxious to get the carriage and luggage aboard one of the larger boats, used in transporting travellers, before the sun was getting too low ... that we might see the wonders of the scenery of which we had heard so much. it was a bright, lovely afternoon; and about half-past six we were all, with bag and baggage, on board. six men, with oars resembling spades in shape, were to row us; and a seventh took the helm. the water was as smooth as glass, and of a sea-green tint, which might have been occasioned by the reflection of the dark and lofty wood and mountainous scenery, by which the lake is surrounded. the rowers used their oars so gently, as hardly to make us sensible of their sounds. the boat glided softly along; and it was evident, from the varying forms of the scenery, that we were making considerable way. we had a voyage of at least nine english miles to accomplish, ere we reached the opposite extremity--called _gmunden_; and where we were told that the inn would afford us every accommodation which we might wish. on reaching the first winding or turning of the lake, to the left, a most magnificent and even sublime object--like a mountain of rock--presented itself to the right. it rose perpendicularly--vast, craggy, and of a height, i should suppose, little short of feet. its gray and battered sides--now lighted up by the varied tints of a setting sun--seemed to have been ploughed by many a rushing torrent, and covered by many a winter's snow. meanwhile the lake was receiving, in the part nearest to us, a breadth of deep green shadow, as the sun became lower and lower. the last faint scream of the wild fowl gave indication that night was coming on; and the few small fishermen's huts, with which the banks were slightly studded, began to fade from the view. yet the summit of the mountain of rock, which i have just mentioned, was glowing with an almost golden hue. i cannot attempt a more minute description of this enchanting scene. one thing struck me very forcibly. this enormous rocky elevation seemed to baffle all our attempts to _near_ it--and yet it appeared as if we were scarcely a quarter of a mile from it. this will give you some notion of its size and height. at length, the scenery of the lake began to change--into a more quiet and sober character.... we had now passed the rocky mountain, and on looking upon its summit, we observed that the golden glow of sunshine had subsided into a colour of pale pink, terminating in alternate tints of purple and slate. almost the whole landscape had faded from the eye, when we reached the end of our voyage; having been more than two hours upon the lake. on disembarking, we made directly for the inn--where we found every thing even exceeding what we had been led to expect--and affording a very striking and comfortable contrast to the quarters of the preceding evening at st. gilgen. sofas, carpets, lustres, and two good bed-rooms--a set of china which might have pleased a german baron--all glittered before our eyes, and shewed us that, if we were not well satisfied, the fault would be our own. the front windows of the hotel commanded a direct and nearly uninterrupted length-view of the lake; and if the full moon had risen ... but one cannot have every thing one wants--even at the hotel of gmunden. we ordered a good fire, and wax candles to be lighted; a chafing dish, filled with live charcoal caused a little cloud of steam to be emitted from a copper kettle--of which the exterior might have been _cleaned_ ... during the _last_ century. but we travelled with our own tea; and enjoyed a succession of cups which seemed to make us "young and lusty as eagles:" and which verified all the pleasing things said in behalf of this philosophical beverage by the incomparable cowper. mr. lewis spent two hours in _penning in_ his drawings; and i brushed up my journal---opened my map--and catechised the landlord about the monastery of chremsminster, which it was resolved to visit on the following (sunday) morning. excellent beds (not "sloping in an angle of degrees"--) procured us a comfortable night's rest. in the morning, we surveyed the lake, the village, and its immediate vicinity. we inspected two churches, and saw a group of women devoutly occupied in prayer by the side of a large tombstone--in a cemetery at a distance from any church. the tombstones in germany are whimsical enough. some look like iron cross-bows, others like crosses; some nearly resemble a gibbet; and others a star. they are usually very slender in their structure, and of a height scarcely exceeding four or five feet. by eleven in the morning, the postboy's bugle sounded for our departure. the carriage and horses were at the door: the postboy, arrayed in an entirely new scarlet jacket, with a black velvet collar edged with silver lace, the livery of austria, was mounted upon a strong and lofty steed; and the travellers being comfortably seated, the whip sounded, and off we went, up hill, at a good round cantering pace. a large congregation, which was quitting a church in the vicinity of the inn, gazed at us, as we passed, with looks and gestures as if they had never seen two english travellers before. the stage from gmunden to chremsminster is very long and tedious; but by no means devoid of interest. we halted an hour to rest the horses, about half-way on the route; which i should think was full eight english miles from the place of starting. on leaving gmunden, and gaining the height of the neighbouring hills, we looked behind, or rather to the right, upon the _back_ part of that chain of hills and rocks which encircle the lake over which we had passed the preceding evening. the sky was charged with large and heavy clouds; and a broad, deep, and as it were stormy, tint of dark purple ... mantled every mountain which we saw--with the exception of our old gigantic friend, of which the summit was buried in the clouds. at a given distance, you form a tolerably good notion of the altitude of mountains; and from this latter view of those in question, i should think that the highest may be about feet above the level of the lake. it was somewhere upon two o'clock when we caught the first glimpse of the spire and lofty walls of the monastery of chremsminster. this monastery is hid by high ground,--till you get within a mile of the town of _chrems_; so called, from a river, of the same name, which washes almost the walls of the monastery. i cannot dissemble the joy i felt on the first view of this striking and venerable edifice. it is situated on a considerable eminence--and seems to be built upon a foundation of rock. its mosque-fashioned towers, the long range of its windows, and height of its walls, cannot fail to arrest the attention very forcibly. just on the spot where we caught the first view of it, the road was not only very precipitous, but was under repair; which made it absolutely perilous. the skill of our postilion, however extricated us from all danger; and on making the descent, i opened my portmanteau in front of me--which was strapped to the back-seat of the carriage--pulled out the green silk purse which i had purchased at dieppe, within a few hours of my landing in france--and introducing my hand into it, took from thence some dozen or twenty napoleons--observing at the same time, to mr. lewis, and pointing to the monastery--that "these pieces would probably be devoted to the purchasing of a few book-treasures from the library of the edifice in view." in five minutes we drove up to the principal, or rather only inn, which the town seemed to afford. the first thing i did, was, to bespeak an immediate dinner, and to send a messenger, with a note (written in latin) to the vice principal or librarian of the monastery--"requesting permission to inspect the library, being english travellers bound for vienna." no answer was returned ... even on the conclusion of our dinner; when,--on calling a council, it was resolved that we should take the valet and a guide with us, and immediately assail the gates of the monastery. i marched up the steep path which leads to these gates, with the most perfect confidence in the success of my visit. vespers were just concluded; and three or four hundred at least of the population of chrems were pouring forth from the church doors, down the path towards the town. on entering the quadrangle in which the church is situated, we were surprised at its extent, and the respectability of its architecture. we then made for the church--along the cloisters--and found it nearly deserted. a few straggling supplicants were however left behind--ardent in prayer, upon their knees: but the florid style of the architecture of the interior of this church immediately caught my attention and admiration. the sides are covered with large oil paintings, which look like copies of better performances; while, at each lower corner of these pictures, stands a large figure of a saint, boldly sculptured, as if to support the painting. throwing your eye along this series of paintings and sculpture, on each side of the church, the whole has a grand and imposing effect--while the _subjects_ of some of the paintings, describing the tortures of the damned, or the occupations of the good, cannot fail, in the mind of an enthusiastic devotee, to produce a very powerful sensation. the altars here, as usual in germany, and even at lauffen and koppf--are profusely ornamented. we had hardly retreated from the church--lost in the variety of reflections excited by the novelty of every surrounding object--when i perceived a benedictin, with his black cap upon his head, walking with a hurried step towards us ... along the cloisters. as he approached, he pulled off his cap, and saluted us very graciously: pouring forth a number of sentences, in the latin language, (for he could not speak a word of french) with a fluency and rapidity of utterance, of which, i could have no conception; and of which, necessarily, i could not comprehend one half. assuming a more leisurely method of address, he asked me, what kind of books i was more particularly anxious to see: and on replying "those more especially which were printed in the fifteenth century--the "_incunabula_"--he answered, "come with me; and, although the librarian be absent, i will do my utmost to assist you." so saying, we followed him into his cell, a mere cabin of a room: where i observed some respectably-looking vellum-clad folios, and where his bed occupied the farther part. he then retired for the key: returned in five seconds, and requested that we would follow him up stairs. we mounted two flights of a noble staircase; the landing-place of the _first_ of which communicated with a lofty and magnificent, arched corridor:--running along the whole side of the quadrangle. the library is situated at the very top of the building, and occupies (as i should apprehend) one half of the side of the quadrangle. it is a remarkably handsome and cheerful room, divided into three slightly indicated compartments; and the colour, both of the wainscot and of the backs of the books, is chiefly white. the first thing that struck me was, the almost unbounded and diversified view from thence. i ran to the windows--but the afternoon had become black and dismal, and the rain was descending fast on all sides; yet, in the haze of distance, i thought i could discern the chain of huge mountains near the lake of gmunden. their purple sides and craggy summits yet seemed to rise above the clouds, which were resting upon the intermediate country, and deluging it with rain. the benedictin confirmed my suspicions as to the identity of the country before us, and then bade me follow, him quickly. i followed m. hartenschneider (for so the worthy benedictin wrote his name) to the further division, or compartment of the library; and turning to the left, began an attack upon the _fifteeners_--which were placed there, on the two lowest shelves. my guide would not allow of my taking down the books ... from sheer politeness. "they might prove burdensome"--as if _any thing_, in the shape of a book, could be considered a burden! the first volume i opened, was one of the most beautiful copies imaginable--utterly beyond all competition, for purity and primitiveness of condition--of schoiffher's edition of _st. austin de civitate dei_, with the commentary of trivetus, of the date of . that work is everywhere--in all forms, types, and conditions--upon the continent. the worthy m. hartenschneider seemed to be marvellously pleased with the delight i expressed on the view of this magnificent volume. he then placed before me the _catholicon_ of , by g. zainer: a cropt, but clean and desirable copy. upon my telling him that i had not long ago seen a copy of it upon vellum, in the public library at munich, he seemed to be mute and pensive... and to sigh somewhat inwardly. pausing awhile, he resumed, by telling me that the only treasure they had possessed, in the shape of a vellum book, was a copy of the same work of st. austin, printed chiefly by _john de spira_ (but finished by his brother _vindelin_) of the date of ; but with which, and many other book-curiosities, the french general _lecourbe_ chose to march away; in the year . that cruel act of spoliation was commemorated, or revenged, by an angry latin distich. i was also much gratified by a beautifully clean copy of the _durandi rationale_ by i. zeiner, of the date of : as well as with the same printer's _aurea biblia_, of the same date, which is indeed almost every where upon the continent. but nothing came perfectly up to the copy of schoiffher's edition of the _de civ. dei._ m. hartenschneider added, that the imperial library at vienna had possessed itself of their chief rarities in early typography: but he seemed to exult exceedingly on mentioning the beautiful and perfect state of their delphin classics. "do you by chance possess the _statius_?--" observed i. "come and see--" replied my guide: and forthwith he took me into a recess, or closet, where my eye was greeted with one of the most goodly book-sights imaginable. there they all stood--those delphin classics--in fair array and comeliest condition. i took down the statius, and on returning it, exclaimed "exemplar pulcherrimum et optime conservatum." "pretiosissimumque," rejoined my cicerone. "and the _prudentius_--good m. hartenschneider--do you possess it?" "etiam"--replied he. "and the _catullus_, _tibullus_, and _propertius_?" they were there also: but one of the volumes, containing the tibullus, was with a brother monk. that monk (thought i to myself) must have something of a tender heart. "but tell me, worthy and learned sir, (continued i) why so particular about the _statius_? here are twenty golden pieces:" (they were the napoleons, taken from the forementioned silken purse[ ])--"will these procure the copy in question?" "it is in vain you offer any thing: (replied m. hartenschneider) we have refused this very copy even to princes and dukes." "listen then to me:" resumed i: "it seems you want that great work, such an ornament to our own country, and so useful to every other--the _monasticon anglicanum of sir william dugdale_. will you allow me to propose a fair good copy of that admirable performance, in exchange for your statius?" "i can promise nothing--replied m. hartenschneider--as that matter rests entirely with the superiors of the monastery; but what you say appears to be very reasonable; and, for myself, i should not hesitate one moment, in agreeing to the proposed exchange." my guide then gave me to understand that he was _professor of history_; and that there were not fewer than one hundred monks upon the establishment. i was next intreated, together with my travelling friend and our valet, to stop and pass the night there. we were told that it was getting late and dark; and that there was only a cross road between chrems and _ens_, in the route to _lintz_--to which latter place we were going. "you cannot reach lintz (said our hospitable attendant) before midnight; but rain and darkness are not for men with nice sensibilities to encounter. you and your friend, and eke your servant, shall not lack a hospitable entertainment. command therefore your travelling equipage to be brought hither. you see (added he smiling) we have room enough for all your train. i beseech you to tarry with us." this is almost a literal version of what m. hartenschneider said--and he said it fluently, and even in an impassioned manner. i thanked him again and again; but declared it to be impossible to comply with his kind wishes. "the hospitality of your order (observed i to the professor) is equal to its learning." m. hartenschneider bowed: and then taking me by the arm, exclaimed, "well, since you cannot be prevailed upon to stay, you must make the most of your time. come and see one or two of our more ancient mss." he then placed before me an _evangelistarium_ of the eighth century, which he said had belonged to charlemagne, the founder of the monastery.[ ] it was one of the most perfect pieces of calligraphy which i had ever seen; perhaps superior to that in the public library at landshut. but this ms. is yet more precious, as containing, what is considered to be, a compact between charlemagne and the first abbot of the monastery, executed by both parties. i looked at it with a curious and sceptical eye, and had scarcely the courage to _doubt_ its authenticity. the art which it exhibits, in the illuminations of the figures of the evangelists, is sufficiently wretched--compared with the specimens of the same period in the celebrated ms. (also once belonging to charlemagne) in the private library of the king at paris.[ ] i next saw a ms. of the _sonnets of petrarch_, in a small folio, or super royal octavo size, supposed to have been executed in the fifteenth century, about seventy years after the death of the poet. it is beautifully written in a neat roman letter, and evidently the performance of an italian scribe; but it may as likely be a copy, made in the early part of the fifteenth century, of a ms. of the previous century. however, it is doubtless a precious ms. the ornaments are sparingly introduced, and feebly executed. on quitting these highly interesting treasures, m. h. and myself walked up and down the library for a few minutes, (the rain descending in torrents the whole time) and discoursed upon the great men of my own country. he mentioned his acquaintance with the works of bacon, locke, swift, and newton--and pronounced the name of the last ... with an effervescence of feeling and solemnity of utterance amounting to a sort of adoration. "next to newton," said he, "is your bacon: nor is the interval between them _very_ great: but, in my estimation, newton is more an angel than a mortal. he seemed to have been always communing with the deity." "all this is excellent, sir,--replied i: but you say not one word about our divine _shakspeare_." "follow me--rejoined he--and you shall see that i am not ignorant of that wonderful genius--and that i do not talk without book." whereupon m.h. walked, or rather ran, rapidly to the other end of the library, and put into my hands _baskerville's edition_ of that poet,[ ] of the date of --which i frankly told him i had never before seen. this amused him a good deal; but he added, that the greater part of shakspeare was incomprehensible to him, although he thoroughly understood _swift_, and read him frequently. it was now high time to break off the conversation, interesting as it might be, and to think of our departure: for the afternoon was fast wearing away, and a starless, if not a tempestuous, night threatened to succeed. charles rohfritsch was despatched to the inn below--to order the horses, settle the reckoning, and to bring the carriage as near to the monastery as possible. meanwhile mr. l. and myself descended with m. hartenschneider to his own room--where i saw, for the first time, the long-sought after work of the _annales hirsaugienses_ of _trithemius_, _printed in the monastery of st. gall_ in , vols., folio, lying upon the professor's table. m.h. told me that the copy belonged to the library we had just quitted. i had indeed written to kransfelder, a bookseller at augsbourg, just before leaving munich, for _two_ copies of that rare and estimable work--which were inserted in his sale catalogue; and i hope to be lucky enough to secure both--for scarcely ten shillings of our money.[ ] it now only remained to bid farewell to the most kind, active, and well-informed m. hartenschneider--and to quit (probably for ever) the monastery of chremsminster. like the worthy professor veesenmeyer at ulm, he "committed me to god's especial good providence--" and insisted upon accompanying me, uncovered, to the very outer gates of the monastery: promising, all the way, that, on receiving my proposals in writing, respecting the statius, he would promote that object with all the influence he might possess.[ ] just as he had reached the further limits of the quadrangle, he met the librarian himself--and introduced me to him: but there was now only time to say "vale!" we shook hands--for the first ... and in all probability ... the last time. every thing was in readiness--on reaching the bottom of the hill. a pair of small, and apparently young and mettlesome horses, were put to the carriage: the postilion was mounted; and nothing remained but to take our seats, and bid adieu to _chrems_ and its monastery. the horses evinced the fleetness of rein deer at starting; and on enquiring about their age and habits, i learnt that they were scarcely _three_ years old--had been just taken from the field--and had been but _once_ before in harness. this intelligence rather alarmed us. however, we continued to push vigorously forward, along a very hilly road, in which no difference whatever was made between ascents and descents. it was a good long sixteen mile stage; and darkness and a drizzling rain overtook us ere we had got over half of it. there were no lights to the carriage, and the road was the most devious i had ever travelled. the horses continued to fly like the wind, and the charioteer began to express his fatigue in holding them in. at length we saw the light of _ens_, to the right--the first post town on the high road from lintz to vienna. this led us to expect to reach the main road quickly. we passed over a long wooden bridge--under which the river ens, here broad and rapid, runs to empty itself into the danube: and... nearer the hour of eleven than ten, we drove to the principal inn in the place. it was fair time: and the town of lintz was glittering with lights, and animated by an unusual stir of population. the centre of the _place_ or square, where the inn is situated, was entirely filled by booths; and it was with difficulty we could gain admission within the inn, or secure rooms when admitted. however, we had no reason to complain, for the chambermaid (an exceedingly mirthful and active old woman) assured us that lord and lady castlereagh on their route to vienna in , had occupied the very beds which she had destined for us. these beds were upon the second floor, in a good large room, warmed by a central stove of earthenware tiles--the usual fireplace in germany. the first floor of the inn was wholly occupied by travellers, merchants, dealers, and adventurers of every description--the noise of whose vociferations, and the tramp of whose movements, were audible even till long after midnight. i am tarrying in a very large, very populous, and excellently well built town. lintz, or linz, has a population of at least , souls: and boasts, with justice, not only of its beautiful public buildings, but of its manufactories of stuffs, silks, and printed calicoes. the _place_, before this inn, affords evidence of the splendour of these wares; and the interiors of several booths are in a perfect blaze--from the highly ornamented gold gauze caps worn by the upper classes of the middling people, even more brilliant than what was observed at augsbourg. i was asked equal to four guineas of our money for one of these caps, in my reconnoissance before breakfast this morning--nor, as i afterwards learnt, was the demand exorbitant. i must bid you farewell in haste. i start for vienna within twenty minutes from this time, and it is now nearly-mid-day. but ere i reach the capital of austria, i hope to pay a string of monastic visits:--beginning with that of _st. florian_, about a dozen miles from this place, just before you reach ens, the next post town; so that, ere i again address you (which cannot be until i reach vienna,) i shall have made rather a rambling and romantic tour. "omne ignotum pro magnifico"--yet, if i mistake not; (from all that i can collect here) _experience_ will confirm what hope and ignorance suggest. [ ] vol. ii. p. - . [ ] see p. ante. [ ] it should seem, from the pages of pez and nidanus, that charlemagne was either the founder, or the patron, or endower, of almost every monastery in germany. stengelius, however, gives a a very romantic origin to the foundation of chremsminster. "the eldest son of tassilo, a duke or elector of bavaria, went out a hunting in the winter; when, having been separated from his companions, in a large wood, he met a wild boar of an enormous size, near a fountain and pool of water. notwithstanding the fearful odds between them, tassilo gallantly received the animal upon the point of his hunting spear, and dispatched him with a tremendous wound: not however without a fatal result to himself. rage, agony, and over exertion... proved fatal to the conqueror: and when, excited by the barking of the dogs, his father and the troop of huntsmen came up to see what it might be, they witnessed the spectacle of the boar and the young tassilo lying dead by the side of each other. the father built the monastery of chremsminster upon the fatal spot--to the memory of his beloved but unfortunate son. he endowed it with large possessions, and his endowments were confirmed by pope adrian and the emperor charlemagne--in the year . the history of the monastery is lost in darkness, till the year , when engelbert, bishop of passau, consecrated it anew; and in , diepold, another bishop of passau, added greatly to its possessions; but he was, in other respects, as well as manegold in , a very violent and mischievous character. bishop ulric, in , was a great benefactor to it; but i do not perceive when the present building was erected: although it is possible there may be portions of it as old as the thirteenth century. see _pez: script. rer. austriac._, vol. i. col. , &c.: _vol. ii._ col. , &c. at the time of publishing the _monasteriologia of stengelius_, , (where there is a bird's-eye view of the monastery, as it now generally appears) wolffradt (or wolfardt) was the abbot--who, in the author's opinion, "had no superior among his predecessors." i go a great way in thinking with stengelius; for this worthy abbot built the monks a "good supper-room, two dormitories, a sort of hospital for the sick, and a library, with an abundant stock of new books. also a sacristy, furnished with most costly robes, &c. _monasteriologia_; sign. a. it was doubtless the bibliotheca wolfradtiana in which i tarried--as above described--with equal pleasure and profit. [ ] see vol. ii. p. . [ ] this i presume to be the "spurious" birmingham edition, which is noticed by steevens in the _edit. shakspeare_, . vo. vol. ii. p. . [ ] they were both secured. one copy is now in the althorp library, and the other in that of mr. heber. [ ] on the very night of my arrival at lintz, late as it was, i wrote a letter to the abbot, or head of the monastery, addressed thus--as the professor had written it down: "_ad reverendissimum dominum anselmum mayerhoffer inclyti monasterii cremifanensis abbatem vigilantissimum cremifanum_." this was enclosed in a letter to the professor himself with the following direction: "_ad rev. dm. udalricum hartenschneider professum monasterij cremifanensis et historiæ ibidem professorem publicum. cremifanum_:" the professor having put into my hands the following written memorandum: "pro commutandis--quos designasti in bibliotheca nostra, libris--primo abbatem adire, aut litteris saltem interrogare necesse est: quas, si tibi placuerit, ad me dirigere poteris." [autograph] this he wrote with extreme rapidity. in my letter, i repeated the offer about the monasticon; with the addition of about a dozen napoleons for the early printed books above mentioned; requesting to have an answer, poste restante, at vienna. no answer has since reached me. the abbot should seem to have preferred statius to dugdale. [but his statius now has declined wofully in pecuniary worth: while the dugdale, in its newly edited form, has risen threefold.] letter ix. the monasteries of st. florian, mÖlk, and gÖttwic. _vienna; hotel of the emperor of hungary, aug. , ._ my dear friend; give me your heartiest congratulations; for i have reached, and am well lodged at, the extreme limit of my "bibliographical, antiquarian, and picturesque tour." behold me, therefore, at vienna, the capital of austria: once the abode of mighty monarchs and renowned chieftains: and the scene probably of more political vicissitudes than any other capital in europe. the ferocious turk, the subtle italian, and the impetuous frenchman, have each claimed vienna as their place of residence by right of conquest; and its ramparts have been probably battered by more bullets and balls than were ever discharged at any other fortified metropolis. at present, however, my theme must be entirely monastic. prepare, therefore, to receive an account of some monastic visits, which have perfectly won my heart over to the institutions of st. benedict and st. augustin. indeed i seem to have been mingling with a new set of human beings, and a new order of things; though there was much that put me in mind of the general character of my ever-cherished university of oxford. not that there is _any one_ college, whether at oxford or at cambridge, which in point of architectural magnificence, can vie with some of those which i am about to describe. my last letter, as you may remember, left us upon the point of starting from lintz, for the monastery of st. florian. that monastery is situated within about three miles of _ens_, the next post town from lintz. the road thither was lined, on each side, with the plum and the pear tree--in their alternate tints of saffron and purple--but far from being ripe. the sight, altogether, was as pleasing as it was novel: and especially were my spirits gladdened, on thinking of the fortunate escape from the perils that had seemed to have awaited us in our route from chremsminster the preceding evening. on turning out of the main road, about a dozen miles from lintz, we began to be sensible of a gentle ascent,--along a pleasant, undulating road, skirted by meadows, copses, and corn-fields. in ten minutes, the valet shouted out--"_voilà le monastère de st. florian!_" it was situated upon an eminence, of scarcely half the height of chremsminster; but, from the abruptness of the ascent, as you enter the village, and make towards the monastery, it appears, on an immediate approach, to be of a very considerable elevation. it looked nobly, as we neared it. the walls were massive, and seemed to be embedded in a foundation of granite. some pleasing little cultivated spots, like private gardens, were between the outer walls and the main body of the building. it rained heavily as we rolled under the archway; when an old man and an old woman demanded, rather with astonishment than severity, what was the object of our visit? having received a satisfactory answer, the gates were opened, and we stopped between two magnificent flights of steps, leading on each side to the cloisters. several young monks, excited by the noise of the carriage, came trooping towards the top of the stairs, looking down upon us, and retreating, with the nimbleness and apparent timidity of deer. their white streamers, or long lappets, suspended from the back of the black gown, (the designation of the _augustine_ order) had a very singular appearance. having received a letter of recommendation to the librarian, m. klein, i delivered it to the porter--and in a few seconds observed two short monks uncovered, advancing towards me. m. klein spoke french--after a certain fashion--which however made us understand one another well enough; and on walking along the cloisters, he took me by the arm to conduct me to the abbot. "but you have doubtless _dined_?" observed he,--turning sharply upon me. it was only between one and two o'clock; and therefore i thought i might be pardoned, even by the severest of their own order, for answering in the _negative_. my guide then whispered to his attendant (who quickly disappeared) and carried me directly to the abbot. such a visit was worth paying. i entered with great solemnity; squeezing my travelling cap into a variety of forms, as i made obeisance,--on observing a venerable man, nearer fourscore than seventy, sitting, with a black cap quite at the back part of his head, and surrounded by half a dozen young monks, who were standing and waiting upon him with coffee (after dinner) which was placed upon the table before him. he was the principal. the old gentleman's countenance was wan, and rather severely indented, but lighted up by a dark and intelligent pair of eyes. his shoulders were shrouded in a large gray fur tippet; and, on receiving me, he demonstrated every mark of attention--by giving his unfinished cup of coffee to one of his attendants, and, pulling off his cap, endeavouring to rise. i advanced and begged there might be no further movement. as he spoke french, we quickly understood each other. he bade me see every thing that was worth seeing; and, on his renewing the _dinner_ question, and receiving an answer in the negative, he commanded that a meal of some sort should be forthwith got ready. in this, however, he had been anticipated by the librarian. i made my retreating bow, and followed my guide who, by this time, had assumed quite a pleasant air of familiarity with me. i accompanied him to the library. it is divided into three rooms; of which the largest, at the further end, is the most characteristic. the central room is small, and devoted to mss. none as i learnt, either very old, very curious, or very valuable. the view from this suite of apartments must, on a fine day, be lovely. bad as was the weather, when i looked from the windows, i observed, to the left, some gently sloping and sweetly wooded pleasure grounds, with the town of _ens_, in the centre, at the distance of about three miles. to the right, were more undulating hills, with rich meadows in the foreground; while, immediately below, was the ornamented garden of the monastery. the prospect _within_ doors was not quite of so gratifying a description. it seemed to be the mere shadow of a library. of old books, indeed, i saw nothing worth noticing--except a white and crackling, but cropt, copy of _ratdolt's appian_ of , (always a beautiful book) and a _latin version of josephus_, printed at venice in by _maufer_, a citizen of rouen. this latter was really a very fine book. there was also _ratdolt's euclid_ of --which indeed is every where abroad--but which generally has variations in the marginal diagrams. of _bibles_, either latin or german, i saw nothing more ancient than the edition by sorg, in the _german_ language of the date of . i paused an instant over the _tyturell_ of , (the only really scarce book in the collection) and threw a gilded bait before the librarian, respecting the acquisition of it;--but m. klein quite _screamed_ aloud at the proposition--protesting that "not a single leaf from a single book should be parted with!" "you are quite right," added i. "my guide eyed me as if he could have said, "how much at variance are your thoughts and words!" and yet i spake very sincerely. mr. klein then placed a clean, but cropt, copy of the _first aldine pindar_ before me; adding, that he understood it to be rare. "it is most rare," rejoined i:--but it is yet "rarer than most rare" when found upon vellum!--as it is to be seen in lord spencer's library." he seemed absolutely astonished at this piece of intelligence--and talked about its pecuniary value. "no money can purchase it. it is beyond all price"--rejoined i. whereupon my guide was struck with still deeper astonishment. there were all the _polyglott bibles_, with the exception of the _complutensian_; which appears to be uncommon in the principal libraries upon the continent. _walton's polyglott_ was the royal copy; which led to a slight discussion respecting the royal and republican copies. m. klein received most implicitly all my bibliographical doctrine upon the subject, and expressed a great desire to read dr. adam clarke's essay upon the same. when i spoke of the small number of copies upon large paper, he appeared to marvel more than ever--and declared "how happy the sight of such a copy would make him, from his great respect for the editor!" there was a poor sprinkle of _english books_; among which however, i noticed shakspeare, milton, swift, and thomson; i had declared myself sufficiently satisfied with the inspection of the library, when dinner was announced; but could not reconcile it to myself to depart, without asking "whether they had the _tewrdanckh_?" "yes, and upon vellum, too!" was the librarian's reply. it was a good sound copy. the dinner was simple and nourishing. the wine was what they call the white wine of austria: rather thin and acid. it still continued to rain. our friends told us that, from the windows of the room in which we were eating, they could, in fair weather; discern the snow-capt mountains of the tyrol:--that, from one side of their monastery they could look upon green fields, pleasure gardens, and hanging woods, and from the other, upon magnificent ranges of hills terminated by mountains covered with snow. they seemed to be proud of their situation, as they had good reason to be. i found them exceedingly chatty, pleasant, and even facetious. i broached the subject of politics--but in a very guarded and general manner. the lively librarian, however, thought proper to observe--"that the english were doing in _india_ what bonaparte had been doing in _europe_." i told him that such a doctrine was a more frightful heresy than any which had ever crept into his own church: at which he laughed heartily, and begged we would not spare either the _bouillé_ or the wine. we were scarcely twenty minutes at our meal, being desirous of seeing the church, the picture gallery, and the saloon--belonging to the monastery. it was not much after three o'clock, and yet it was unusually dark for the hour of the day. however, we followed our guides along a magnificent corridor--desirous of seeing the pictures first. if the number of paintings, and of apartments alone, constitute a good collection of pictures, this of saint florian is doubtless a very fair specimen of a picture gallery. there are three rooms and a corridor (or entrance passage) filled with paintings, of which three fourths at least are palpable copies. the _subjects_ of some of the paintings were not exactly accordant with monastic gravity; among these i regret that i am compelled to include a copy of a magdalen from rubens--and a satyr and sleeping nymph, apparently by lucas giordano. nevertheless the collection is worth a second and a third examination; which, if time and circumstances had allowed, we should in all probability have given it. a series of subjects, fifteen in number, illustrative of the life of st. florian,[ ] (the great fire-extinguishing saint,--to whom the monastery is dedicated, and who was born at _ens_, in the neighbourhood) cuts a most distinguished figure in this collection. there is a good, and i think genuine, head of an old woman by rubens, which i seemed to stumble upon as if by accident, and which was viewed by my guides with a sort of apathy. mr. lewis was half lost in extacies before a pretty little sketch by paolo veronese; when, on my observing to him that the time was running away fast, m. klein spoke aloud in the english language--"_mister louise_, (repeating my words) _teime fleis_." he laughed heartily upon uttering it, and seemed to enjoy the joke full as much as my companion, to whom the words were addressed. there were several specimens of the old german masters, but i suspect most of them were copies. the day seemed to be growing darker and darker, although it was only somewhere between three and four o'clock. we descended quickly to see the church, where i found charles (the valet) and several other spectators. we passed through a small sacristy or vestry, in the way to it. this room was fitted up with several small confessionals, of the prettiest forms and workmanship imaginable: having, in front, two twisted and slender columns, of an ebony tint: the whole--exceedingly inviting to confession. here the dean met us; a grave, sober, sensible man, with whom i conversed in latin. we entered the church, on the tip-toe of expectation: nor were we disappointed. it is at once spacious and magnificent; but a little too profuse in architectural ornament. it consists of a nave and transepts, surmounted by a dome, with a choir of very limited dimensions. the choir is adorned, on each side, just above the several stalls, by an exceedingly rich architrave, running the whole length, in a mixed roman and gothic style. the altar, as usual, is a falling off. the transepts are too short, and the dome is too small. the nave is a sort of elongated parallelogram. it is adorned on each side by pillars of the corinthian order, and terminated by an _organ_ ... of the most gorgeous and imposing appearance. the pipes have completely the appearance of polished silver, and the wood work is painted white, richly relieved by gold. for size and splendor united, i had never seen any thing like it. the whole was perfectly magical. on entering, the dean, m. klein, and three or four more benedictins, made slight prostrations on one knee, before the altar; and, just as they rose, to our astonishment and admiration, the organ burst forth with a power of intonation (every stop being opened) such as i had never heard exceeded. as there were only a few present, the sounds were necessarily increased, by being reverberated from every part of the building: and for a moment it seemed as if the very dome would have been unroofed, and the sides burst asunder. we looked up; then at each other: lost in surprise, delight, and admiration. we could not hear a word that was spoken; when, in some few succeeding seconds, the diapason stop only was opened ... and how sweet and touching was the melody which it imparted! "oh dieu! (exclaimed our valet) que cela est ravissant, et même pénétrant." this was true enough. a solemn stave or two of a hymn (during which a few other pipes were opened) was then performed by the organist ... and the effect was, as if these notes had been chanted by an invisible choir of angels. the darkness of the heavens added much to the solemnity of the whole. silence ensuing, we were asked how we liked the church, the organ, and the organist? of course there could be but one answer to make. the pulpit--situated at an angle where the choir and transept meet, and opposite to the place where we entered--was constructed of the black marble of austria, ornamented with gold: the whole in sober good taste, and admirably appropriate. we left this beautiful interior, to snatch a hasty view of the dormitories and saloon, and to pay our farewell respects to the principal. the architect of this church was a florentine, and it was built something more than a century ago. it is doubtless in too florid a style. instead of calling the bed-chambers by the homely name of "dormitories," they should be designated (some at least), as state bed rooms. at each corner of several of the beds was a carved figure, in gilt--serving as a leg. the beds are generally capacious, without canopies; but their covertures--in crimson, blue, or yellow silk--interspersed with spots of gold or silver--gave indication, in their faded state, of their original costliness and splendor. the rooms are generally large: but i hurried through them, as every thing--from the gloomy state of the afternoon, and more especially from the absence of almost every piece of furniture--had a sombre and melancholy air. nothing is more impressive than the traces of departed grandeur. they had once (as i learnt) carousals and rejoicings in this monastery;--and the banquet below made sweet and sound the slumbers above. but matters have recently taken a different and less auspicious turn. the building stands, and will long stand--unless assailed by the musquet and cannon--a proud monument of wealth and of art: while the revenues for its support ... are wasting every year! but i hope my intelligence is incorrect. the highest gratification was yet in store for me: in respect to an architectural treat. in our way to the saloon, i noticed, over the door of a passage, a small whole length of a man, in a formal peruke and dress, walking with a cane in his hand. a noble building or two appeared in the background. "who might this be?" "that, sir, (replied the dean) is the portrait of the architect of this monastery and of mÖlk. he was born, and lived, in an obscure village in the neighbourhood; and rose to unrivalled eminence from the pure strength of native genius and prudent conduct." i looked at the portrait with increased admiration. "might i have a copy of it--for the purpose of getting it engraved?" "there can surely be no objection,"--replied the dean. but alas, my friend, i fear it will never be my lot to possess this portrait--in _any_ form or condition. if my admiration of this architect increased as i continued to gaze upon his portrait, to what a pitch was it raised on entering the _saloon_! i believe that i may safely say i never before witnessed such a banquetting room. it could not be less than sixty feet long, by forty feet wide and forty high;--and almost entirely composed of salzburg marble,[ ] which is of a deep red tint, but mellow and beautiful. the columns, in exceedingly bold alto-relievo, spring from a dado about the height of a man's chest, and which is surmounted by a bold and beautiful architrave. these columns, of the ionic and corinthian orders, judiciously intermixed, rise to a fine bold height: the whole being terminated by a vaulted ceiling of a beautiful and light construction, and elaborately and richly ornamented. i never witnessed a finer proportioned or a more appropriately ornamented room. it is, of its kind, as perfect as the town hall at augsbourg;[ ] and suitable for an imperial coronation. to a question respecting the antiquity of the monastery,[ ] j m. klein replied, that their _crypt_ was considered to be of the eleventh century. i had not a moment's leisure to examine it, but have some doubts of the accuracy of such a date. the dean, m. klein, and several monks followed us down stairs, where the carriage was drawn up to receive us--and helping us into it, they wished us a hearty farewell. assuredly i am not likely to forget the monastery of st. florian. we were not long in reaching _ens_, the first post town on the high road from lintz to vienna. on approaching it, our valet bade us notice the various signs of _reparation_ of which the outer walls and the fronts of many houses gave evidence. nearly half of the town, in short, (as he informed us) had been destroyed by fire in bonaparte's advance upon vienna. the cannon balls had done much, but the flames had done more. we slept at the next post town, _strengberg_, but could not help continuing to express our surprise and admiration of the fruit trees (the pear and plum) which lined each side of the road. we had determined upon dining at mölk the next day. the early morning was somewhat inauspicious; but as the day advanced, it grew bright and cheerful. some delightful glimpses of the danube, to the left, from the more elevated parts of the road, accompanied us the whole way; till we caught the first view, beneath a bright blue sky, of the towering church and monastery of mÖlk.[ ] conceive what you please, and yet you shall not conceive the situation of this monastery. less elevated above the road than chremsminster, but of a more commanding style of architecture, and of considerably greater extent, it strikes you--as the danube winds round and washes its rocky base--as one of the noblest edifices in the world. the wooded heights of the opposite side of the danube crown the view of this magnificent edifice, in a manner hardly to be surpassed. there is also a beautiful play of architectural lines and ornament in the front of the building, indicative of a pure italian taste, and giving to the edifice, if not the air of towering grandeur, at least of dignified splendour. i send you a small bird's-eye view of it--necessarily furnishing a very inadequate representation--for which i am indebted to professor pallas, the sub-principal. [illustration] as usual, i ordered a late dinner, intending to pay my respects to the principal, and obtain permission to inspect the library. my late monastic visits had inspired me with confidence; and i marched up the steep sides of the hill, upon which the monastery is built, quite assured of the success of the visit i was about to pay. you must now accompany the bibliographer to the monastery. in five minutes from entering the outer gate of the first quadrangle--looking towards vienna, and which is the more ancient part of the building--i was in conversation with the vice principal and librarian, each of us speaking latin. i delivered the letter which i had received at salzburg, and proceeded to the library. in proceeding with the librarian along the first corridor, i passed a portly figure, with an expressive countenance, dressed precisely like the duke of norfolk,[ ] in black waistcoat, breeches, and stockings, with a gray coat. he might seem to be a sort of small paper copy of that well-known personage, for he resembled him in countenance as well as in dress. on meeting, he saluted me graciously: and he had no sooner passed, than my guide whispered in my ear, "that is the famous bibliographer, the abbÉ strattman, late principal librarian to the emperor." i was struck at this intelligence; and wished to run back after the abbé,--but, in a minute, found myself within the library. i first went into a long, narrow, room--devoted, the greater part, to mss.:--and at the hither end of which (that is, the end where i entered) were two figures--as large as, and painted after, the life. they were cut out in wood, or thick pasteboard; and were stuck in the centre of the space between the walls. one was an old gentleman, with a pair of bands, and a lady, his wife, opposite to him. each was sitting upon a chair. a dog (if i remember rightly) was between them. the effect was at first rather _startling_; for these good folks, although they had been sitting for the best part of a century, looked like life, and as if they were going to rise up, and interrogate you for impertinently intruding upon their privacy. on nearing them, i found that the old gentleman had been a great pedagogue, and a great benefactor to the library: in short, the very mss. by which we were surrounded were _solid_ proofs of his liberality. i was urgent and particular about the _contents_ of these mss.; but my guide (otherwise a communicative and well-informed man) answered my questions in a manner so general, as to lead me to conclude that they had never been sufficiently examined. there might be at least four thousand volumes in this long and narrow room. from thence we proceeded, across a passage, to a small room--filled with common useful books, for the young men of which the monastic society is now composed; and who i learnt were about one hundred and twenty in number. there were, however, at one end of this room, some coins and medals. i was curious about ascertaining whether they had any _greek gold coins_, but was answered that they had none. this room is divided into two, by a partition something like the modern fashion of dividing our drawing rooms. the whole is profusely ornamented with paintings executed upon the walls; rather elegantly than otherwise. the view from this library is really enchanting--and put every thing seen, from a similar situation at landshut, and almost even at chremsminster, out of my recollection. you look down upon the danube, catching a fine sweep of the river, as it widens in its course towards vienna. a man might sit, read, and gaze--in such a situation--till he fancied he had scarcely one earthly want! i now descended a small stair-case, which brought me directly into the large library--forming the right wing of the building, looking up the danube towards lintz. i had scarcely uttered three notes of admiration, when the abbÉ strattman entered; and to my surprise and satisfaction, addressed me by name. we immediately commenced an ardent unintermitting conversation in the french language, which the abbé speaks fluently and correctly. we darted at once into the lore of bibliography of the fifteenth century; when the abbé descanted largely upon the wonders i should see at vienna:--especially the sweynheyms and pannartz' upon vellum! "here (continued he) there is absolutely nothing worthy of your inspection. we have here no edit. prin. of _horace_, or _virgil_, or _terence_, or _lucretius_: a copy of the _decretals of pope boniface_, of the date of , is our earliest and only vellum treasure of the xvth century. but you will doubtless take the _monastery of göttwic_ in your way?" i replied that i was wholly ignorant of the existence of such a monastery. "then see it--(said, he) and see it carefully; for the library contains _incunabula_ of the most curious and scarce kind. besides, its situation is the noblest in austria." you will give me credit for not waiting for a _second_ importunity to see such a place, before i answered--"i will most assuredly visit the monastery of göttwic." i now took a leisurely survey of the library; which is, beyond all doubt, the finest room of its kind which i have seen upon the continent:--not for its size, but for its style of architecture, and the materials of which it is composed. i was told that it was "the imperial library in miniature:"--but with this difference, let me here add, in favour of mölk--that it looks over a magnificently-wooded country, with the danube rolling its rapid course at its base. the wainscot and shelves are walnut tree, of different shades, inlaid, or dovetailed, surmounted by gilt ornaments. the pilasters have corinthian capitals of gilt; and the bolder or projecting parts of a gallery, which surrounds the room, are covered with the same metal. every thing is in harmony. this library may be about a hundred feet in length, by forty in width. it is sufficiently well furnished with books, of the ordinary useful class, and was once, i suspect, much richer in the bibliographical lore of the fifteenth century. the abbé strattman bade me examine a _ms. of horace_, of the twelfth century, which he said had been inspected by mitscherlich.[ ] it seemed to be of the period adjudged to it. the vice-principal, m. pallas, now made his appearance. he talked french readily, and we all four commenced a very interesting conversation, "did any books ever travel out of this library?"--said i. "surely there must be many which are rather objects of curiosity than of utility: rarely consulted, no doubt; but which, by being exchanged for others of a more modern and useful description, would contribute more effectually to the purposes of public education, in an establishment of such magnitude?" these questions i submitted with great deference, and without the least hesitation, to the vice principal; who replied in such a manner as to induce me immediately to ascend the staircase, and commence a reconnaissance among the books placed above the gallery. the result of twenty minutes examination was, if not absolutely of the _most_ gratifying kind, at least sufficient to induce me to offer _twenty louis d'or_ for some thirty volumes, chiefly thin quartos, containing many greek grammatical and philosophical tracts, of which i had never before seen copies. some scarce and curious theological latin tracts were also in this number. i turned the books upon their fore-edges, leaving their ends outwards, in order to indicate those which had been selected. m. pallas told me that he could say nothing definitive in reply,[ ] for that the matter must be submitted to the prelate, or head of the monastery, who, at that time, was at vienna, perhaps at the point of death. from the library we went to the church. this latter is situated between the two wings: the wings themselves forming the saloon and the library. as we were about to leave the library, the abbé observed--"here, we have food for the _mind_: in the opposite quarter we dine--which is food for the _body_:[ ] between both, is the church, which contains food for the _soul_." on entering the corridor, i looked up and saw the following inscription (from _mac._ c. xii. v. .) over the library door: "_habentes solatio sanctos libros qui sunt in manibus nostris_." my next gratification was, a view of the portrait of bertholdus dietmayr--the founder, or rather the restorer, both of the library and of the monastery--possessing a countenance full of intelligence and expression. beneath the portrait, which is scarcely half the size of life, is the following distich: _bertholdi dietmayr quidquid mortale, tabella, ingentemque animum_ bibliotheca, _refert._ "there," exclaimed the abbé strattman--"there you have the portrait of a _truly_ great man: one of the three select and privy counsellors of the emperor charles vi. dietmayr was a man of a truly lofty soul, of a refined taste, and of unbounded wealth and liberality of spirit. even longer than this edifice shall last, will the celebrity of its founder endure." my heart overflowed with admiration as i heard the words of the abbé, gazing, at the same time, intently upon the portrait of the prelate dietmayr. such men keep the balance of this world even. on reaching the last descending step, just before entering the church, the vice principal bade me look upwards and view the cork-screw stair-case. i did so: and to view and admire was one and the same operation of the mind. it was the most perfect and extraordinary thing of the kind which i had ever seen--the consummation (as i was told) of that particular species of art. the church is the very perfection of ecclesiastical roman architecture: that of chremsminster, although fine, being much inferior to it in loftiness and richness of decoration. the windows are fixed so as to throw their concentrated light beneath a dome, of no ordinary height, and of no ordinary elegance of decoration; but this dome is suffering from damp, and the paintings upon the ceiling will, unless repaired, be effaced in the course of a few years. the church is in the shape of a cross; and at the end of each of the transepts, is a rich altar, with statuary, in the style of art usual about a century ago. the pews--made of dark mahogany or walnut tree, much after the english fashion, but lower and more tasteful--are placed on each side of the nave, on entering; with ample space between them. they are exclusively appropriated to the tenants of the monastery. at the end of the nave, you look to the left, opposite,--and observe, placed in a recess--a pulpit ... which, from top to bottom, is completely covered with gold. and yet, there is nothing gaudy, or tasteless, or glaringly obtrusive, in this extraordinary clerical rostrum. the whole is in the most perfect taste; and perhaps more judgment was required to manage such an ornament, or appendage,--consistently with the splendid style of decoration exacted by the founder--(for it was expressly the prelate dietmayr's wish that it _should_ be so adorned) than may, on first consideration, be supposed. in fact, the whole church is in a blaze of gold; and i was told that the gilding alone cost upwards of ninety thousand florins. upon the whole, i understood that the church of this monastery was considered as the most beautiful in austria; and i can easily believe it to be so. the time flew away so quickly that there was no opportunity of seeing the saloon. indeed, i was informed that it was occupied by the students--an additional reason why i _ought_ to have seen it. "but have you no old paintings, mr. vice principal--no burgmairs, cranachs, or albert durers?" said i to m. pallas. "ha! (observed he in reply,) you like old pictures, then, as well as old books. come with me, and you shall be satisfied." so saying, the abbé strattman[ ] left us, and i followed the vice principal--into a small, wainscoted room, of which he touched the springs of some of the compartments, and anon there was exhibited to my view a series of sacred subjects, relating to the life of christ, executed by the first and last named masters: exceedingly fresh, vigorously painted, and one or two of them very impressive, but bordering upon the grotesque. i am not sure that i saw any thing more striking of the kind even in the extraordinary collection at augsbourg. from this room i was conducted into the prelate's apartment, where i observed a bed--in an arched recess--which might be called a bed of state. "our prelate has left his apartment for the last time; he will never sleep in this bed again"--observed m. pallas, fixing himself at the foot of it, and directing his eyes towards the pillow. i saw what it was to be beloved and respected; for the vice principal took the end of his gown to wipe away a little _dust_ (as he was pleased to call it--but i suspect it was a starting tear) which had fallen into his eye. i was then shewn a set of china, manufactured at vienna--upon some of the pieces of which were painted views of the monastery. this had been presented to the prelate; and i was then, as a final exhortation, requested to view the country around me. need i again remark, that this country was enchantingly fine? on returning to the inn, and dining, we lingered longer than we were wont to do over our dessert and white wine, when the valet came to announce to us that from thence to _st. pölten_ was a long stage; and that if we wished to reach the latter before dark, we had not ten minutes to spare. this hint was sufficient: and the ten minutes had scarcely elapsed when we were on the high road to st. pölten. it was indeed almost with the last glimmer of daylight that we entered this town, yet i could observe, on descending the hill by which we entered it, a stone crucifix, with the usual accompanying group. i resolved to give it a careful examination on the morrow. the inn at st. pölten (i think it was the dolphin) surprised us by its cheerfulness and neatness. the rooms were papered so as to represent gothic interiors, or ornamented gardens, or shady bowers. every thing was--almost--as an englishman could wish it to be. having learnt that the monastery of gÖttwic was a digression of only some twelve or fourteen miles, i resolved to set off to visit it immediately after an early breakfast. we had scarcely left the town, when we observed a group of rustics, with a crucifix carried in front--indicating that they were about to visit some consecrated spot, for the purpose of fulfilling a vow or performing an annual pilgrimage. i stopped the carriage, to take a survey of so novel a scene; but i confess that there was nothing in it which induced me to wish to be one of the party. if i mistake not, this was the first pilgrimage or procession, of the kind, which i had seen in austria, or even in bavaria. it was a sorry cavalcade. some of the men, and even women, were without shoes and stockings; and they were scattered about the road in a very loose, straggling manner. many of the women wore a piece of linen, or muslin, half way up their faces, over the mouth; and although the road was not very smooth, both men and women appeared to be in excellent spirits, and to move briskly along--occasionally singing, and looking up to the crucifix--which a stout young man carried at the head of them. they were moving in the direction of the monastery of göttwic. it was cold and cloudy at starting; but on leaving the main road, and turning to the left, the horizon cleared up--and it was evident that a fine day was in store for us. our expectations were raised in proportion to the increasing beauty of the day. the road, though a cross one, was good; winding through a pleasant country, and affording an early glimpse of the monastery in question--at the distance of at least ten miles--and situated upon a lofty eminence. the first view of it was grand and imposing, and stimulated us to urge our horses to a speedier course. the country continued to improve. some vineyards were beginning to shew the early blush of harvest; and woods of fir, and little meandring streams running between picturesque inequalities of ground, gave an additional interest to every additional mile of the route. at length we caught a glimpse of a crowd of people, halting, in all directions. some appeared to be sitting, others standing, more lying; and a good number were engaged in devotion before a statue. as we approached them, we observed the statue to be that of st. francis; around which this numerous group of pilgrims appeared to have marshalled themselves--making a halt in their pilgrimage (as we afterwards learnt) to the monastery of göttwic. the day continued to become more and more brilliant, and the scenery to keep pace with the weather. it was evident that we were nearing the monastery very rapidly. on catching the first distinct view of it, my companion could not restrain his admiration. at this moment, from the steepness of the ascent, i thought it prudent to descend, and to walk to the monastery. the view from thence was at once commanding and enchanting. the danube was the grand feature in the landscape; while, near its very borders, at the distance perhaps of three english miles, stood the post town of _chrems_. the opposite heights of the danube were well covered with wood. the sun now shone in his meridian splendour, and every feature of the country seemed to be in a glow with his beams. i next turned my thoughts to gain entrance within the monastery, and by the aid of my valet it was not long before that wished for object was accomplished. the interior is large and handsome, but of less architectural splendor than mölk or even st. florian. the librarian, odilo klama, was from home. not a creature was to be found; and i was pacing the cloisters with a dejected air, when my servant announced to me that the vice principal would receive me, and conduct me to the head or president. this was comforting intelligence. i revived in an instant; and following, along one corridor, and up divers stair-cases, i seemed to be gaining the summit of the building, when a yet more spacious corridor brought me to the door of the president's apartments: catching views, on my way thither, of increasing extent and magnificence. but all consideration of exterior objects was quickly lost on my reception at head quarters. the principal, whose name is altmann, was attired in a sort of half-dignity dress; a gold chain and cross hung upon his breast, and a black silk cap covered his head. a gown, and what seemed to be a cassock, covered his body. he had the complete air of a gentleman, and might have turned his fiftieth year. his countenance bespoke equal intelligence and benevolence:--but alas! not a word of french could he speak--and latin was therefore necessarily resorted to by both parties. i entreated him to forgive all defects of composition and of pronunciation; at which he smiled graciously. the vice principal then bowed to the abbot and retreated; but not before i had observed them to whisper apart--and to make gesticulations which i augured to portend something in the shape of providing refreshment, if not dinner. my suspicion was quickly confirmed; for, on the vice principal quitting the apartment, the abbot observed to me--"you will necessarily partake of our dinner--which is usually at _one_ o'clock; but which i have postponed till _three_, in order that i may conduct you over the monastery, and shew you what is worthy of observation. you have made a long journey hither, and must not be disappointed." the manner in which this was spoken was as courteous as the purport of the speech was hospitable. "be pleased to be covered (continued the abbot) and i will conduct you forthwith to the library: although i regret to add that our librarian odilo is just now from home--having gone, for the day, upon a botanical excursion towards chrems--as it is now holiday time." in our way to the library, i asked the principal respecting the revenues of the establishment and its present condition--whether it were flourishing or otherwise--adding, that chremsminster appeared to me to be in a very flourishing state." "they are much wealthier (observed the principal) at chremsminster than we are here. establishments like this, situated near a metropolis, are generally more _severely_ visited than are those in a retired and remote part of the kingdom. our very situation is inviting to a foe, from its commanding the adjacent country. look at the prospect around you. it is unbounded. on yon opposite wooded heights, (on the other side of the danube) we all saw, from these very windows, the fire and smoke of the advanced guard of the french army, in contest with the austrians, upon bonaparte's first advance towards vienna. the french emperor himself took possession of this monastery. he slept here, and we entertained him the next day with the best _dejeuné à la fourchette_ which we could afford. he seemed well satisfied with his reception; but i own that i was glad when he left us. strangers to arms in this tranquil retreat, and visited only, as you may now visit us, for the purpose of peaceful hospitality, it agitated us extremely to come in contact with warriors and chieftains. the preceding was not delivered in one uninterrupted flow of language; but i only string it together as answers to various questions put by myself. "observe yonder"--continued the abbot--"do you notice an old castle in the distance, to the left, situated almost upon the very banks of the danube?" "i observe it well," replied i. "that castle, (answered he) so tradition reports, once held your richard the first, when he was detained a prisoner by leopold marquis of austria, on his return from the holy-land." the more the abbot spoke, and the more i continued to gaze around, the more i fancied myself treading upon faëry ground, and that the scene in which i was engaged partook of the illusion of romance. "our funds (continued my intelligent guide, as he placed his hand upon my arm, and arrested our progress towards the library) need be much more abundant than they really are. we have great burdens to discharge. all our food is brought from a considerable distance, and we are absolutely dependant upon our neighbours for water, as there are neither wells nor springs in the soil." "i wonder (replied i) why such a spot was chosen--except for its insulated and commanding situation--as water is the first requisite in every monastic establishment?" "do you then overlook the _danube_?"--resumed he--"we get our fish from thence; and, upon the whole, feel our wants less than it might be supposed." in our way to the library, i observed a series of oil paintings along the corridor--which represented the history of the founder, and of the foundation, of the monastery.[ ] the artist's name was, if i remember rightly, helgendoeffer--or something like it. many of the subjects were curious, and none of them absolutely ill executed. i observed the devil, or some imp, introduced in more than one picture; and remarked upon it to my guide. he said--"where will you find truth unmixed with fiction?" my observation was adroitly parried; and we now found ourselves close to the library door; where three or four benedictins, (for i should have told you that this famous monastery is of the order of _st. benedict_) professors on the establishment, were apparently waiting to receive us. they first saluted the abbot very respectfully, and then myself--with a degree of cheerfulness amounting almost to familiarity. in a remote and strange place, of such a character, nothing is more encouraging than such a reception. two of our newly joined associates could luckily speak the french language, which rendered my intercourse with the principal yet more pleasing and satisfactory to myself. the library door was now opened, and i found myself within a long and spacious room--of which the book-shelves were composed of walnut tree--but of which the architectural ornaments were scarcely to be endured, after having so recently seen those in the library of mölk. however, it may be fairly said that the library was worthy of the monastery: well stored with books and mss., and probably the richest in bibliographical lore in austria, after that at vienna. we now entered the saloon, for dinner. it was a larger light, and lofty room. the ceiling was covered with paintings of allegorical subjects, in fresco, descriptive of the advantages of piety and learning. among the various groups, i thought i could discern--as i could only take a hasty survey during my meal--the apotheosis of the founder of the monastery. perhaps i rather wished to see it there, than that it was absolutely depicted. however, we sat down, at the high table--precisely as you may remember it in the halls at oxford--to a plentiful and elegant repast. the principal did me the honour of placing me at his right hand. grace was no sooner said, than mr. lewis made his appearance, and seemed to view the scene before him with mingled delight and astonishment. he had, in fact, just completed his sketch of the monastery, and was well satisfied at seeing me in such quarters, and so occupied. the brethren were also well pleased to receive him, but first begged to have a glance at the drawing--with which they were highly gratified. my companion having joined the festive board, the conversation, and the cups of rhenish wine, seemed equally to circulate without restraint. we were cheerful, even to loud mirth; and the smallness of the party, compared with the size of the hall, caused the sounds of our voices to be reverberated from every quarter. meantime, the sun threw his radiant beams through a window of noble dimensions, quite across the saloon--so as to keep us in shadow, and illuminate the other parts of the room. thus we were cool, but the day without had begun to be sultry. behind me, or rather between the abbot and myself, stood a grave, sedate, and inflexible-looking attendant--of large, square dimensions--habited in a black gown, which scarcely reached the skirts of his coat. he spake not; he moved not; save when he saw my glass emptied, which without any previous notice or permission, he made a scrupulous point of filling ... even to the very brim!... with the most highly flavoured rhenish wine which i had yet tasted in germany. our glasses being of the most capacious dimensions, it behoved me to cast an attentive eye upon this replenishing process; and i told the worthy master of the table that we should be quickly revelling in our cups. he assured me that the wine, although good, was weak; but begged that i would consider myself at liberty to act as i pleased. in due time, the cloth was cleared; and a dessert, consisting chiefly of delicious peaches, succeeded. a new order of bottles was introduced; tall, square, and capacious; which were said to contain wine of the same quality, but of a more delicate flavour. it proved indeed to be most exquisite. the past labours of the day, together with the growing heat, had given a relish to every thing which i tasted; and, in the full flow of my spirits, i proposed--a sentiment, which i trusted would be considered as perfectly orthodox--"long life, and happy times to the present members, and increasing prosperity to, the monastery of göttwic." it was received and drank with enthusiasm. the abbot then proceeded to give me an account of a visit paid him by lord minto, some years ago, when the latter was ambassador at vienna; and he spoke of that nobleman's intelligent conversation, and amiable manners, in a way which did him great credit. "come, sir;" said he: "you shall not find me ungrateful. i propose drinking prosperity and long life to every representative of the british nation who is resident at vienna. may the union between your country and ours become indissoluble." i then requested that we might withdraw; as the hours were flying away, and as we purposed sleeping within one stage of vienna on that same evening. "your wishes shall be mine," answered the abbot. whereupon he rose--with all the company--and stepping some few paces backwards, placed his hands across his breast upon the gold cross; half closed his eyes; and said grace--briefly and softly; in a manner the most impressive which i had ever witnessed. we then quickly left the noble room in which we had been banquetting, and prepared to visit the church and what might be called the state apartments, which we had not before seen. after the rooms at st. florian, there was not much particularly to admire in those of göttwic: except that they appeared to be better lighted, and most of them commanded truly enchanting views of the danube and of the surrounding country. in one room, of smaller dimensions, ornamented chiefly in white and gold (if i remember rightly) a _collection of prints_ was kept; but those which i saw were not very remarkable for their antiquity, or for their beauty of subject or of impression. the sun was now getting low, and we had a stage of at least fourteen miles to accomplish ere we could think of retiring to rest. "show us now, worthy sir, your crypt and church; and then, with pain be it pronounced, we must bid you farewell. within little more than two hours, darkness will have covered the earth." such was my remark to the abbot; who replied: "say not so: we cannot part with you yet. at any rate you must not go without a testimony of the respect we entertain for the object of your visit. those who love books, will not object to increase their own stock by a copy of our chronicon gotwicense--commenced by one of my learned predecessors, but alas! never completed. come with me to my room, before we descend to the church, and receive the work in question." upon which, the amiable head of the monastery set off, at rather a hurried pace, with myself by the side of him, along several corridors--towards his own apartment, to present me with this chronicle. i received it with every demonstration of respect--and entreated the abbot to inscribe a "_dono dedit_" in the fly leaf, which would render it yet more valuable in my estimation.[ ] he cheerfully complied with this request. the courtesy, the frankness, the downright heartiness of feeling with which all this was done--together with the value of the present--rendered it one of the most delightful moments of my existence. i instinctively caught the abbot's arm, pressed his hand with a cordial warmth between both of mine--and pausing one little moment, exclaimed "_dies hic omninò commemoratione dignus!_" a sort of sympathetic shouting succeeded; for, by this time, the whole of our party had reached the abbot's rooms. i now requested, to be immediately taken to the church; and within five minutes we were in the crypt. it scarcely merits one word of description on the score of antiquity; and may be, at the farthest, somewhere about three centuries old. the church is small and quite unpretending, as a piece of architecture. on quitting the church, and passing through the last court, or smaller quadrangle, we came to the outer walls: and leaving them, we discerned--below--the horses, carriage, and valet ... waiting to receive us. our amiable host and his benedictin brethren determined to walk a little way down the hill, to see us fairly seated and ready to start. i entreated and remonstrated that this might not be; but in vain. on reaching the carriage, we all shook hands very cordially together, but certainly i pressed those of the abbot more earnestly than the rest. we then saluted by uncovering; and, stepping into the carriage, i held aloft the first volume of the gÖttwic chronicle--exclaiming ... "_valete, domini eruditissimi: dies hic commemoratione dignus_:" to which the abbot replied, with peculiarly emphatic sonorousness of voice, "_vale: deus te, omnesque tibi charissimos, conservet_." they then stopped for a moment ... as the horses began to be put in motion ... and retracing their steps up the hill, towards the outer gate of the monastery, disappeared. i thought--but it might not be so--that i discerned the abbot, at the distance of some two hundred yards, yet lingering alone--with his right arm raised, and shaking it as the last and most affectionate token of farewell. the evening was serene and mild; and the road, although a cross way, was perfectly sound--winding through a country of fertility and picturesque beauty. we saw few vineyards: but those which met our eyes showed the grape to be in its full purple tint, if not beginning to ripen. i had resolved upon stopping to sleep at _sirghartskirchen_ within two stages of vienna--thus avoiding the post town of _perschling_, which is situated in the direct road to vienna from _st. pölten_--which latter place, as you may remember, we had left in the morning. before the darker shades of evening began to prevail, we turned round to catch a farewell glance of the hospitable monastery which we had left behind--and were lucky in viewing it, (scarcely less than seven or eight miles in our rear) just as the outline of its pinnacles could be discerned against a clear, and yet almost brilliant, sky. it was quite dark, and nearer upon eleven than ten o'clock, when we entered the insignificant post town of _sirghartskirchen_--where we stretched our limbs rather than reposed; and after a hasty, but not very ill provided breakfast, the next morning, we pushed on for _burkersdorf_, the last post town on that side of vienna. it may be about nine english miles from burkersdorf to the capital; of which the greater part is rather agreeable than otherwise. it was here, as in approaching strasbourg, that i turned my eyes in all directions to catch an early glimpse of the tower of st. stephen's cathedral, but in vain. at length, to the right, we saw the magnificent chateau of _schönbrunn_. the road now became flat and sandy, and the plains in the vicinity of the capital destitute of trees. "voilà la cathedrale!" shouted the valet. it was to the left, or rather a little in front: of a tapering, spire-like form: but, seeing only a small portion of it--the lower part being concealed by the intervening rising ground--i could form no judgment of its height. we now neared the suburbs, which are very extensive, and swarming with population. i learnt that they entirely surrounded the capital, in an equal state of populousness. the barriers were now approached: and all the fears, which my accidental travelling acquaintance at augsbourg had put into my head, began to revive and to take possession of me. but what has an honest man to fear? "search closely (observed i to the principal examining officer) for i suspect that there is something contraband at the bottom of the trunk. do you forbid the importation of an old greek manual of devotion?"--said i, as i saw him about to lay his hand upon the precious aldine volume, of which such frequent mention has been already made. the officer did not vouchsafe even to open the leaves--treating it, questionless, with a most sovereign contempt; but crying, "bah!--vous pouvez bien passer," he replaced the things which he had very slightly discomposed, and added that he wished all contraband articles to consist of similar materials. we parted with mutual smiles; but i thought there lingered something like a feeling of reproach, in the last quiver or turn of his lip, at my not having slipt two or three florins into his hand--which was broad and brawny enough to have grasped threescore or a hundred. "i will remember you on my return,"--exclaimed i, as the carriage drove off. he gave me a most sceptical shake of the head, as he retreated into his little tenement, like a mastiff into his kennel. the whole of vienna, as it now seemed--with its cathedral, churches, palaces, and ramparts--was before us. as we approached the chief entrance, or gateway, i recognised the _imperial library_; although it was only a back view of it. in truth, it appeared to be just as i remembered it in the vignette-frontispiece of denis's folio catalogue of the latin theological mss. contained in the same library. my memory proved to be faithful; for we were assured that the building in view _was_ the library in question. it was our intention to take up our quarters at the principal inn, called the _empress of austria_; and, with this view, we drove up to the door of that hotel: but a tall, full-dressed man, with a broad sash across his body, and a silver-tipped staff in his right hand, marched pompously up to the door of the carriage, took off his hat, and informed us with great solemnity that "the hotel was entirely filled, and that his master could not have the honour of entertaining us." on receiving this intelligence, we were comforted by the assurance, on the part of the post-boy and valet, that the second hotel, called the _crown of hungary_,--and situated in the _himelfort gasse_, or _heaven-gate street_--was in every respect as desirable as that which we were compelled to quit. accordingly we alighted at the door of the _hungarische krone_--equally marvelling, all the way thither, at the enormous size of the houses, and at the narrowness of the streets. but it is time to terminate this epistle. yet i must not fail informing you, that every thing strikes me as approximating very much to my own native country. the countenances, the dresses, the manners of the inhabitants, are very nearly english. my apartments are gay as well as comfortable. a green-morocco sofa, beneath a large and curiously cut looking-glass--with chairs having velvet seats, and wainscot and ceiling very elegantly painted and papered--all remind me that i am in a respectable hotel. a strange sight occupied my attention the very first morning after my arrival. as the day broke fully into my room--it might be between five and six o'clock--i heard a great buzzing of voices in the street. i rose, and looking out of window, saw, from one end of the street to the other, a countless multitude of women--sitting, in measured ranks, with pots of cream and butter before them. it was in fact the chief market day for fruit, cream, and butter; and the _himelfort gasse_ is the principal mart for the sale of these articles. the weather has recently become milder, and i feel therefore in better trim for the attack upon the imperial library, where i deliver my credentials, or introductory letters, to-morrow. god bless you. [ ] st. florian was a soldier and sufferer in the time of the emperors diocletian and maximinian. he perished in the tenth and last persecution of the christian church by the romans. the judge, who condemned him to death, was aquilinus. after being importuned to renounce the christian religion, and to embrace the pagan creed, as the only condition of his being rescued from an immediate and cruel death, st. florian firmly resisted all entreaties; and shewed a calmness, and even joyfulness of spirits, in proportion to the stripes inflicted upon him previous to execution. he was condemned to be thrown into the river, from a bridge, with a stone fastened round his neck. the soldiers at first hesitated about carrying the judgment of aquilinus into execution. a pause of an hour ensued: which was employed by st. florian in prayer and ejaculation! a furious young man then rushed forward, and precipitated the martyr into the river: "fluvius autem suscipiens martyrem christi, expavit, et elevatis undis suis, in quodam eminentiori loco in saxo corpus ejus deposuit. tunc annuente favore divino, adveniens aquila, expansis alis suis in modum crucis, eum protegebat." _acta sanctorum; mens. maii_, vol. i. p. . st. florian is a popular saint both in bavaria and austria. he is usually represented in armour, pouring water from a bucket to extinguish a house, or a city, in flames, which is represented below. raderus, in his _bavaria sacra_, vol. i. p. , is very particular about this monastery, and gives a list of the pictures above noticed, on the authority of sebastianus ab adelzhausen, the head of the monastery at that time; namely in . he also adorns his pages with a copper cut of the martyr about to be precipitated into the river, from the bank--with his hands tied behind him, without any stone about his neck. but the painting, as well as the text of the acta sanctorum, describes the precipitation as from a bridge. the form of the invocation to the saint is, "o martyr and saint, florian, keep us, we beseech thee, by night and by day, from all harm by fire, or from other casualties of this life." [ ] "nostris vero temporibus reverendissimi præpositi studio augustum sanc templum raro marmore affatim emicans, paucisque inuidens assurexit." this is the language of the _germania austriaca, seu topographia omnium germaniæ provinciarum_, , folio, p. : when speaking of the monastery of st. florian. [ ] see p. , ante. [ ] it may be only sufficient to carry it as far back as the twelfth century. what precedes that period is, as usual, obscure and unsatisfactory. the monastery was originally of the _benedictin_ order; but it was changed to the _augustine_ order by engelbert. after this latter, altman reformed and put it upon a most respectable footing--in . he was, however, a severe disciplinarian. perhaps the crypt mentioned by m. klein might be of the latter end of the xiith century; but no visible portion of the superincumbent building can be older than the xvith century. [ ] the history of this monastery is sufficiently fertile in marvellous events; but my business is to be equally brief and sober in the account of it. in the _scriptores rerum austriacarum_ of _pez_, vol. i. col. - , there is a chronicle of the monastery, from the year of its foundation to , begun to be written by an anonymous author in , and continued to the latter period by other coeval writers--all monks of the monastery. it is printed by pez for the first time--and he calls it "an ancient and genuine chronicle." the word mölk, or mölck,--or, as it appears in the first map in the _germania austriaca, seu topographia omnium germaniæ provinciarum_, , fol. melck--was formerly written "medilicense, medlicense, medlicum, medlich, and medelick, or mellicense." this anonymous chronicle, which concludes at col. , is followed by "a short chtonicle of conrad de wizenberg," and "an anonymous history of the foundation of the monastery," compared with six other mss. of the same kind in the library at mölk. the whole is concluded by "an ancient necrology of the monastery," commenced in the xiith century, from a vellum ms. of the same date. in the _monasteriologia of stengelius_, we have a list of the heads or primates of mölk, beginning with sigiboldus, in , (who was the first that succeeded leopold, the founder) down to valentinus, in ; who was living when the author published his work. there is also a copper-plate print of a bird's eye view of the monastery, in its ancient state, previously to the restoration of it, in its present form, by dietmayr. [ ] [the late duke.] [ ] i do not however find it in the notitia literaria prefixed to the edition of horace, published by mitscherlich in : see vol. i. p. xxvi. where he notices the mss. of the poet which are deposited in the libraries of germany. [ ] it was not till my arrival at manheim, on my return to paris, that i received the "definitive reply" of the worthy sub-principal--which was after the following manner. "monsieur--la lettre du septembre, que vous m'avez faite l'honneur de m'écrire, je ne l'ai reçue que depuis peu, c'est-à-dire, depuis le retour de mon voyage. les scrupules que vous faites touchant l'échange des livres, ont été levés par vous-même dans l'instant que vous en avez faites la proposition. mais, malheureusement, la lettre qui devait apporter la confirmation du prélat, n'a apportée que la triste nouvelle de sa mort. vous sentez bien, que dès ce moment il ne sauroit plus être question de rien. je ne doute pas, que quoique aucun livre ancien ne soit jusqu'à ce moment sorti de la bibliothèque du couvent, le prélat n'eut fait une exception honorable en égard a l'illustre personnage auquel ces livres ont été destines et à la collection unique d'un art, a fait naitre toutes les bibliothèques, &c. j'ai l'honneur, &c. votre trés humble et très obeisant serviteur," [autograph] [ ] in an octavo volume published by a dr. cadet, who was a surgeon in bonaparte's army in the campaign in austria, in , and who entitles his work--_voyage en autriche, en moravie, et en bavière_--published at paris in --we are favoured with a slight but spirited account of the monastery of mölk--of the magnificence of its structure, and of the views seen from thence: but, above all, of the produce of its cellars. the french generals were lodged there, in their route to vienna; and the doctor, after telling us of the extent of the vaults, and that a carriage might be turned with ease in some of them, adds, "in order to have an idea of the abundance which reigns there, it may be sufficient only to observe, that, for four successive days, during the march of our troops through mölk, towards vienna, there were delivered to them not less than from to , pints of wine per day--and yet scarcely one half of the stock was exhausted! the monastery, however, only contains twelve réligieux. the interior of the church is covered with such a profusion of gilt and rich ornaments, that when the sun shines full upon it, it is difficult to view it without being dazzled." page . the old monastery of mölk successfully stood a siege of three months, against the hungarians, in the year . see _germ. austriaca_, &c. p. . [ ] [the abbé strattman survived the above interview only about _five years_. i hope and trust that the worthy vice principal is as well now, as he was about three years ago, when my excellent friend mr. lodge, the librarian of the university of cambridge, read to him an off-hand german version of the whole of this account of my visit to his monastery.] [ ] this history has come down to us from well authenticated materials; however, in the course of its transmission, it may have been partially coloured with fables and absurdities. the founder of the monastery was altmann, bishop of passau; who died in the year , about twenty years after the foundation of the building. the two ancient biographies of the founder, each by a monk or principal of the monastery, are introduced into the collection of austrian historians by _pez_; vol. i. col. - . stengelius has a bird's eye view of the monastery as it appeared in , and before the principal suite of apartments was built. but it is yet in an unfinished state; as the view of it from the copper-plate engraving, at page ante, represents it with the _intended_ additions and improvements. these latter, in all probability, will never be carried into effect. this monastery enjoyed, of old, great privileges and revenues. it had twenty-two parish churches--four towns--several villages, &c. subject to its ecclesiastical jurisdiction; and these parishes, together with the monastery itself, were not under the visitation of the diocesan (of passau) but of the pope himself. stengelius (_monasteriologia_, sign. c) speaks of the magnificent views seen from the summit of the monastery, on a clear day; observing, however, (even in his time) that it was without springs or wells, and that it received the rain water in leaden cisterns. "cæterùm (adds he) am[oen]issimum et plané aspectu jucundissimum habet situm." towards the middle of the seventeenth century, this monastery appears to have taken the noble form under which it is at present beheld. it has not however escaped from more than _one_ severe visitation by the turks. [ ] on my arrival in england, i was of course equally anxious and happy to place the chronicon gÖtwicense in the library at althorp. but i have not, in the text above, done full justice to the liberality of the present abbot of the monastery. he gave me, in addition, a copy--of perhaps a still scarcer work--entitled "_notitia austriæ antiquæ et mediæ seu tam norici veteris quam pagi et marchæ_, &c." by magnus klein, abbot of the monastery, and of which the first volume only was published "typis monasterii tegernseensis," in , to. this appears to be a very learned and curious work. and here ... let me be allowed for the sake of all lovers of autographs of good and great men--to close this note with a fac-simile of the hand writing (in the "dono dedit"--as above mentioned) of the amiable and erudite donor of these acceptable volumes. it is faithfully thus:--the _original_ scription will only, i trust, perish with the book: [autograph] letter x. imperial library. illuminated manuscripts and early printed books. vienna; _hotel of the crown of hungary, sept. , _. it gave me the sincerest pleasure, my dear friend, to receive your letter... only a very few hours after the transmission of my last. at such a distance from those we love and esteem, you can readily imagine the sort of _comfort_ which such communications impart. i was indeed rejoiced to hear of the health and welfare of your family, and of that of our friend * *, who is indeed not only a thorough-bred _rorburgher_, but a truly excellent and amiable man. the account of the last anniversary-meeting of the club has, however, been a little painful to me; inasmuch as it proves that a sort of _heresy_ has crept into the society--which your vice-president, on his return, will labour as effectually as he can to eradicate.[ ] i had anticipated your wishes. you tell me, "send all you can collect about the imperial library of vienna; its mss. and printed books: its treasures in the shape of _fifteeners_ and _sixteeners_: in short, be copious (say you) in your description." the present letter will at least convince you that i have not been sparing in the account solicited; and, in truth, i am well pleased to postpone a description of the buildings, and usual sights and diversions of this metropolis, until i shall have passed a few more days here, and had fuller opportunities of making myself acquainted with details. compared with every other architectural interior which i have yet seen, this library is beyond doubt the most magnificent in its structure. but if my admiration be thus great of the building, and of the _books_, it is at least equally so of _those_ who have the _management_ of them. you must know that i arrived here at a very unfortunate moment for bibliographical research. the holidays of the librarians commence at the latter end of august, and continue 'till the end of september. i had no sooner delivered my letter of introduction to the well known mons. adam de bartsch--an aulic counsellor, and chief director of the library--than he stepped backward with a thoughtful and even anxious brow. "what is the matter, sir, am i likely to be intrusive?" "my good friend"--replied he--taking my arm with as pleasant an air of familiarity as if i had been an old acquaintance--"you have visited us at a most unlucky moment: but let me turn the matter over in my mind, and you shall have my determination on the morrow." that "determination" was as agreeable as it was unexpected; and really on my part--without the least affectation--unmerited. "i have been talking the matter over with my brethren and coadjutors in the library-department, (said m. bartsch) and we have agreed--considering the great distance and expense of your journey--to give you an extra week's research among our books. we will postpone our regular trip to _baden_,--whither the court, the noblesse, and our principal citizens at present resort--in order that you may have an opportunity of perfecting your enquiries. you will of course make the most of your time." i thanked m. bartsch heartily and unfeignedly for his extreme civility and kindness, and told him that he should not find me either slothful or ungrateful. in person m. bartsch is shorter than myself; but very much stouter. he is known in the graphic world chiefly by his _le peintre graveur_; a very skilful, and indeed an invaluable production, in sixteen or eighteen octavo volumes--illustrated with some curious fac-similes. he is himself an artist of no ordinary ability; and his engravings, especially after some of rubens's pictures, are quite admirable. few men have done so much at his time of life, and borne the effect of so much strenuous toil, so well as himself. he is yet gay in spirit, vigorous in intellect, and sound in judgment; and the simplicity of his character and manners (for in truth we are become quite intimate) is most winning.[ ] messrs. payne and kopitar are the librarians who more immediately attend to the examination of the books. the former is an abbé--somewhat stricken in years, and of the most pleasing and simple manners. i saw little of him, as he was anxious for the breezes of baden; but i saw enough to regret that he would not meet his brother librarians at the hotel of the _crown of hungary_, where i had prepared the best fare in my power to entertain them.[ ] m. kopitar is an invaluable labourer in this bibliographical vineyard. i had formerly seen him while he was in england; when he came with mr. henry foss to st. james's place, to examine the _aldine volumes_, and especially those printed upon vellum. he himself reminded me of the chary manner in which i seemed to allow him to handle those precious tomes. "you would scarcely permit me (said he smilingly) to hold them half a minute in my hands: but i will not treat you after the same fashion. you shall handle _our_ vellum books, whether in ms. or in print, as long and as attentively as you please." i felt the rebuke as it became a _preu_ chevalier in bibliography to feel it. "i am indebted to you, m. kopitar, (said i, in reply) in more senses than _one_--- on this my visit to your imperial library." "but (observed he quickly) you only did what you _ought_ to have done." all power of rejoinder was here taken away. m. kopitar is a thoroughly good scholar, and is conversant in the polish, german, hungarian, and italian languages. he is now expressly employed upon the _manuscripts_; but he told me (almost with a sigh!) that he had become so fond of the _fifteeners_, that he reluctantly complied with the commands of his superiors in entering on the ms. department. before i lay my _catalogue raisonné_ of such books as i have examined, before you, it is right and fitting that i make some mention of the repository in which these books are placed. in regard to the dimensions of the library, and the general leading facts connected with the erection of the building, as well as the number of the books, my authority is perhaps the best that can be adduced: namely, that of mons. de bartsch himself. know then, my good friend, that the imperial library of vienna is built over a succession of arched vaults, which are made to contain the carriages of the emperor. you ascend a broad staircase, to the left, which is lined with fragments of greek and roman antiquities. almost the first room which you enter, is the reading room. this may hold about thirty students comfortably, but i think i saw more than forty on my first entrance: of whom several, with the invincible phlegm of their country, were content to stand--leaning against the wall, with their books in their hands. this room is questionless too small for the object to which it is applied; and as it is the fashion, in this part of the world, seldom or never to open the windows, the effect of such an atmosphere of hydrogen is most revolting to sensitive nerves. when the door was opened ... which at once gave me the complete length view of the grand library ... i was struck with astonishment! such another sight is surely no where to be seen.[ ] the airiness, the height, the splendour, the decorative minutiæ of the whole--to say nothing of the interminable rows of volumes of all sizes, and in all colours of morocco binding--put every thing else out of my recollection. the floor is of red and white marble, diamond-wise. i walked along it, with m. bartsch on my right hand and m. kopitar on my left, as if fearful to scratch its polished surface:--first gazing upon the paintings of the vaulted roof, and then upon the statues and globes, alternately, below--while it seemed as if the power of expressing the extent of my admiration, had been taken from me. at length i reached the central compartment of this wonderful room, which is crowned with a sort of oval and very lofty cupola, covered with a profusion of fresco paintings. in the centre, below, stands a whole-length statue, in white marble, of charles vi., under whose truly imperial patronage this library was built. around him are sixteen whole length statues of certain austrian marshals, also in white marble; while the books, or rather folios, (almost wholly bound in red morocco) which line the sides of the whole of this transept division of the room, were pointed out to me as having belonged to the celebrated hero, prince eugene. illustrious man!--thought i to myself--it is a taste like this which will perpetuate thy name, and extol thy virtues, even when the memory of thy prowess in arms shall have faded away! "see yonder"--observed m. bartsch--"there are, i know not how many, atlas folios of that prince's collection of prints. it is thought to be unrivalled." "but where (replied i) is the _statue_ of this heroic collector, to whom your library is probably indebted for its choicest treasures? tell me, who are these marshals that seem to have no business in such a sanctuary of the muses--while i look in vain for the illustrious eugene?" there was more force in this remark than i could have possibly imagined--for my guide was silent as to the names of these austrian marshals, and seemed to admit, that prince eugene... _ought_ to have been there. "but is it _too late_ to erect his statue? cannot he displace one of these nameless marshals, who are in attitude as if practising the third step of the _minuet de la cour_?" "doucement, doucement, mon ami ... (replied m.b.) il faut considérer un peu...." "well, well--be it so: let me now continue my general observation of the locale of this magical collection." m.b. readily allowed me; and seemed silently to enjoy the gratification which i felt and expressed. i then walked leisurely to the very extremity of the room; continuing to throw a rapid, but not uninterested glance upon all the accessories of gilding, carved work, paintings, and statuary, with which the whole seemed to be in a perfect blaze. i paced the library in various directions; and found, at every turn or fresh point of view, a new subject of surprise and admiration. there is a noble gallery, made of walnut tree, ornamented with gilding and constructed in a manner at once light and substantial, which runs from one extremity of the interior to the other. it is a master-piece of art in its way. upon the whole, there is no furnishing you with any very correct notion of this really matchless public library. at the further end of the room, to the left, is a small door; which, upon opening, brings you into the interior of a moderately sized, plain room, where the _fifteeners_ are lodged. the very first view of these ancient tomes caused a certain palpitation of the heart. but neither this sort of book-jewel room, nor the large library just described--leading to it--are visited without the special license of the curators: a plan, which as it respects the latter room, is, i submit, exceedingly absurd; for, what makes a noble book-room look more characteristic and inviting, than its being _well filled with students_? besides, on the score of health and comfort--at least in the summer months--such a plan is almost absolutely requisite. the manuscripts are contained in a room, to the right, as you enter: connected with the small room where m. bartsch, as commander-in-chief, regularly takes his station--from thence issuing such orders to his officers as best contribute to the well-being of the establishment. the ms. room is sufficiently large and commodious, but without any architectural pretensions. it may be about forty feet long. here i was first shewn, among the principal curiosities, a _senatus consultum de bacchanalibus coercendis_: a sort of police ordonnance, on a metal plate--supposed to have been hung up in some of the public offices at rome nearly years before the birth of christ. it is doubtless a great curiosity, and invaluable as an historical document--as far as it goes. here is a _map_, upon vellum, of the _itinerary_ of _theodosius the great_, of the fourth century; very curious, as exhibiting a representation of the then known world, in which the most extraordinary ignorance of the relative position of countries prevails. i understood that both _pompeii_ and _herculaneum_ were marked on this map. one of the most singular curiosities, of the antiquarian kind, is a long leather roll of _mexican hieroglyphics_, which was presented to the emperor charles v., by ferdinand cortez. there are copies of these hieroglyphics, taken from a copper plate; but the solution of them, like most of those from egypt, will always be perhaps a point of dispute with the learned. but the objects more particularly congenial with _my_ pursuits, were, as you will naturally guess, connected rather with _vellum mss._ of the _scriptures_ and _classics_: and especially did i make an instant and earnest enquiry about the famous fragment of the book of genesis, of the fourth century, of which i had before read so much in lambecius, and concerning which my imagination was, strangely enough, wrought up to a most extraordinary pitch. "place before me that fragment, good m. kopitar," said i eagerly--"and you shall for ever have my best thanks." "_that_, and every thing else (replied he) is much at your service: fix only your hours of attendance, and our treasures are ready for your free examination." this was as it should be. i enter therefore at once, my good friend, upon the task of giving you a catalogue raisonné of those mss. which it was my good fortune to examine in the nine or ten days conceded to me for that purpose; and during which i seemed to receive more than ordinary attention and kindness from the principal librarians. fragment of the book of genesis--undoubtedly of the end of the fourth century, at earliest. this fragment is a collection of twenty-four leaves, in a folio form, measuring twelve inches by ten, of a small portion of the book of genesis, written in large greek capital letters of gold and silver, now much faded, upon a purple ground. every page of these twenty-four leaves is embellished with a painting, or illumination, coloured after nature, purposely executed _below_ the text, so that it is a running _graphic_ illustration--as we should say--of the subject above. there is too small a portion of the text to be of much critical importance, but i believe this greek text to be the _oldest extant_ of sacred writ: and therefore i rejoiced on viewing this venerable and precious relic of scriptural antiquity. lambecius and mabillon have given fac-similes of it; and i think montfaucon also--in his _palæographia græca_. at the end of this fragment, are four pages of the _gospel of st. luke_--or, rather, figures of the four evangelists; which are also engraved by lambecius, and, from him, by nesselius and kollarius.[ ] sacramentarium, seu missa papÆ gregorii, an oblong large octavo, or small folio form. i own i have doubts about calling this volume a contemporaneous production; that is to say, of the latter end of the sixth century. the exterior, which, on the score of art, is more precious than the interior, is doubtless however of a very early period. it consists of an ivory figure of st. jerome, guarded by a brass frame. the character of the interior, as to its scription, does not appear to be older than the tenth century. german bible of the emperor wenceslaus, in six folio volumes. this too was another of the particularly curious mss. which, since the account of it in my decameron, i had much desired to see. it is, upon the whole, an imperial production: but as extraordinary, and even whimsical, as it is magnificent. of these six volumes, only three are illuminated; and of the third, only two third parts are finished. the text is a large lower-case gothic letter, very nearly a quarter of an inch in height. the ornamental or border illuminations have more grace and beauty than the subjects represented; although, to the eye of an antiquarian virtuoso, the representations of the unfortunate monarch will be the most interesting. i should notice by the way, on the competent authority of m. kopitar, that this german version of the bible is one of the most ancient extant. these books have suffered, in the binding, from the trenchant tools of the artist. the gold in the illuminations is rather bright than refulgent. i now proceed with an account of some other mss. appertaining to scripture; and hasten to introduce to your notice a magnificent folio volume, entitled evangelistarium, with a lion's head in the centre of the exterior binding, surrounded by golden rays, and having a lion's head in each corner of the square. the whole is within an arabesque border. there can be no doubt of the binding being of the time of frederick iii. of the middle of the fourteenth century; and it is at once splendid and tasteful. the book measures nearly fifteen inches by ten. the inside almost surpasses any thing of the kind i have seen. the vellum is smooth, thin, and white--and the colours are managed so as to have almost a faëry like effect. each page is surrounded with a light blue frame, having twisted flowers for corner ornaments: the whole of a quiet, soft tint, not unlike what appears in the bible of wenceslaus. every line is written in a tall, broad gothic letter--and every letter is _gold_. but the illuminations merit every commendation. they are of various kinds. some are divided into twelve compartments: but the initial l, to the first page, _l_[_iber generationis_] is the most tasteful, as well as elaborate thing i ever saw.[ ] the figures of angels, on the side, and at bottom, have even the merit of greek art. a large illumination of our saviour, with the virgin and joseph below, closes the volume: which really can hardly be sufficiently admired. the date of the text is . i shall now give you an account of a few missals of a higher order on the score of art. and first, let me begin with a beautiful flemish missal, in vo.: in the most perfect state of preservation--and with the costliest embellishments--as well as with a good number of drollerries _dotted_ about the margins. the frame work, to the larger subjects, is composed of gothic architecture. i am not sure that i have seen any thing which equals the _drolleries_--for their variety, finish, and exquisite condition. the vellum is not to be surpassed. what gives this book an additional value is, that it was once the property of charles v.: for, on the reverse of fol. , at bottom, is the following memorandum in his hand writing: _afin que ie ioye de vous recommandé accepté bonne dame cest mis sÿ en escript vostre vraÿ bon mestre._ charles. a lovely bird, in the margin, is the last illumination. in the whole, there are leaves. the next article is a large missal, in letters of gold and silver, upon black paper: a very extraordinary book--and, to me, unique. the first illumination shews the arms of milan and austria, quarterly, surrounded by an elaborate gold border. the text is in letters of silver--tall stout gothic letters--with the initial letters of gold. some of the subjects are surrounded by gold borders, delightfully and gracefully disposed in circles and flowers. at the bottom of the page, which faces the descent of the holy ghost, is a fool upon horseback--very singular--and very spiritedly touched. the binding is of red velvet, with a representation of the cloven tongues at the day of pentecost in silver-gilt. a third missal, of the same beautiful character, is of an octavo form. the two first illuminations are not to be exceeded, of their kind. the borders, throughout, are arabesque, relieved by _cameo gris_,--with heads, historical subjects, and every thing to enchant the eye and warm the heart of a tasteful antiquary. the writing is a black, large, gothic letter, not unlike the larger gothic font used by ratdolt. the vellum is beautiful. the binding is in the grolier style. the last and not the least, in the estimation of a competent judge of mss.,--is, a german version of the hortulus animÆ of s. brant. the volume in question is undoubtedly among the loveliest books in the imperial library. the character, or style of art, is not uncommon; but such a series of sweetly drawn, and highly finished subjects, is hardly any where to be seen--and certainly no where to be eclipsed. i should say the art was rather parisian than flemish. the first in the series, is the following; executed for me by m. fendi. it occurs where the illuminations usually commence, at the foot of the first page of the first psalm. observe, i beseech you, how tranquilly the boat glides along, and how comfortable the party appears. it is a hot day, and they have cut down some branches from the trees to fasten in the sides of the boat--in order to screen them from the heat of the sun. the flagon of wine is half merged in the cooling stream--so that, when they drink, their thirst will be more effectually quenched. there are viands, in the basket, beside the rower; and the mingled sounds of the flageolets and guitar seem to steal upon your ear as you gaze at the happy party--and, perhaps, long to be one of them! [illustration] a hundred similar sweet things catch the eye as one turns over the spotless leaves of this snow-white book. but the very impressive scene of christ asleep, watched by angels--(with certain musical instruments in their hands, of which m. kopitar could not tell me the names,) together with another illumination of mary, and joseph in the distance, can hardly be described with justice. the apostles and saints are large half lengths. st. anthony, with the devil in the shape of a black pig beneath his garment, is cleverly managed; but the head is too large. among the female figures, what think you of mary magdalene--as here represented? and where will you find female penance put to a severer trial? i apprehend the box, in front of her, to be a _pix_, containing the consecrated elements. [illustration] i now proceed to give you some account of mss. of a different character: _classical_, _historical_, and appertaining to _romance_--which seemed to me to have more particular claims upon the attention of the curious. the famous greek dioscorides shall lead the way. this celebrated ms. is a large, thick, imperial quarto; measuring nearly fifteen inches by twelve. the vellum is thin, and of a silky and beautiful texture. the colours in the earlier illuminations are thickly coated and glazed, but very much rubbed; and the faces are sometimes hardly distinguishable. the supposed portrait of dioscorides (engraved--as well as a dozen other of these illuminations--in lambecius, &c.) is the most perfect. the plants are on one side of the leaf, the text is on the other. the former are, upon the whole, delicately and naturally coloured. at the end, there is an ornithological treatise, which is very curious for the colouring of the birds. this latter treatise is written in a smaller greek capital letter than the first; but m. kopitar supposes it to be as ancient. we know from an indisputably coeval date, that this precious ms. was executed by order of the empress juliana anicia in the year of christ . there is a smaller ms. of dioscorides, of a more recent date, in which the plants are coloured, and executed--one, two, or three, in number--upon the rectos of the leaves, with the text below, in two columns. both the illuminations and the text are of inferior execution to those of the preceding ms. montfaucon, who never saw the larger, makes much of the smaller ms.; which scarcely deserves comparison with it. philostratus; lat. this is the ms. which belonged to matthias corvinus--and of which the illuminations are so beautiful, that nesselius has thought it worth while to give a fac-simile of the first--from whence i gave a portion to the public in the bibliog. decameron.[ ] i think that i may safely affirm, that the two illuminations, which face each other at the beginning, are the finest, in every respect, which i have seen of that period; but they have been sadly damaged. the two or three other illuminations, by different hands, are much inferior. the vellum and writing are equally charming. valerius maximus. this copy has the name of _sambucus_ at the bottom of the first illumination, and was doubtless formerly in the collection of matthias corvinus--the principal remains of whose magnificent library (although fewer than i had anticipated) are preserved in this collection. the illumination in the ms. just mentioned, is very elegant and pleasing; but the colours are rather too dark and heavy. the intended portrait of the roman historian, with the arms and supporters below, are in excellent good taste. the initial letters and the vellum are quite delightful. the scription is very good. livius: in six folio volumes. we have here a beautiful and magnificent ms. in a fine state of preservation. there is only one illumination in each volume; but that "one" is perhaps the most perfect specimen which can be seen of that open, undulating, arabesque kind of border, which is rather common in print as well as in ms., towards the end of the fifteenth century. these six illuminations, for invention, delicacy, and brilliancy of finish, are infinitely beyond any thing of the kind which i have seen. the vellum is perfectly beautiful. to state which of these illuminations is the most attractive, would be a difficult task; but if you were at my elbow, i should direct your particular attention to that at the beginning of the ixth book of the ivth decad--especially to the opposite ornament; where two green fishes unite round a circle of gold, with the title, in golden capitals, in the centre. o matthias corvinus, thou wert surely the emperor of book collectors! book of blazonry, or of arms. this is an enormous folio ms. full of heraldic embellishments relating to the house of austria. among these embellishments, the author of the text--who lived in the xvith century, and who was a very careful compiler--has preserved a genuine, original portrait of leopold de sempach, of the date of . it is very rarely that you observe portraits of this character, or form, introduced into mss. of so early a period. a nobler heraldic volume probably does not exist. it is bound in wood, covered with red velvet; and the edges are gilt, over coloured armorial ornaments. from _such_ a volume, the step is both natural and easy to romances. sir tristan shall lead the way. here are _three_ mss. of the feats of that knight of the round table. the first is of the xiiith century; written in three columns, on a small thick gothic letter. it has some small, and perfect illuminations. this ms. became the property of prince eugene. it was taken to paris, but restored: and has yet the french imperial eagle stamped in red ink. it is indeed a "gloriously ponderous folio." a second ms. of the same romance is written in two columns, in a full short gothic letter. it is very large, and the vellum is very perfect. the illuminations, which are larger than those in the preceding ms. are evidently of the early part of the xvth century. this book also belonged to prince eugene. it is doubtless a precious volume. a third ms. executed in pale ink, in a kind of secretary gothic letter, is probably of the latter end of the xivth century. the illuminations are only slightly tinted. brut d'angletterre. i should apprehend this ms. to be of the early part of the xivth century. it is executed in a secretary gothic letter, in double columns, and the ink is much faded in colour. it has but one illumination, which is at the beginning, and much faded. this was also prince eugene's copy; and was taken to paris, but restored. the last, but perhaps the most valuable in general estimation, of the mss. examined by me, was the autograph of the gerusalemme liberata, or, as formerly called, conquistata,[ ] of tasso: upon which no accomplished italian can look but with feelings almost approaching to rapture. the ms. is imperfect; beginning with the xxxth canto of the second book, and ending with the lxth canto of the twenty-third book. the preceding will probably give you some little satisfaction respecting the mss. in this very precious collection. i proceed therefore immediately to an account of the printed books; premising that, after the accounts of nearly similar volumes, described as being in the libraries previously visited, you must not expect me to expatiate quite so copiously as upon former occasions. i have divided the whole into four classes; namely, . theology; . classics; . miscellaneous, latin; (including lexicography) . italian; and . french and german, exclusively of theology. i have also taken the pains of arranging each class in alphabetical order; so that you will consider what follows to be a very sober, and a sort of bibliopolistic, catalogue. theology. augustinus (sts.) de civ. dei. _printed in the soubiaco monastery, _. folio. a fine large copy; but not equal to that in the royal library at paris or in lord spencer's collection. i should think, however, that this may rank as the third copy for size and condition. ---- _printed by jenson._ . folio. a very beautiful book, printed upon white and delicate vellum. many of the leaves have, however, a bad colour. i suspect this copy has been a good deal cropt in the binding. augustini s. epistolÆ. libri xiii. confessionum. . quarto. this volume is printed in long lines, in a very slender roman type, which i do not just now happen to remember to have seen before; and which _almost_ resembles the delicacy of the types of the first _horace_, and the _florus_ and _lucan_--so often noticed: except that the letters are a little too round in form. the present is a clean, sound copy; unbound. biblia latina. this is the _mazarine_ edition; supposed to be the first bible ever printed. the present is far from being a fine copy; but valuable, from possessing the four leaves of a rubric which i was taught to believe were peculiar to the copy at munich.[ ] biblia latina; _printed by pfister_, folio, volumes. i was told that the copy here was upon vellum; but inaccurately. the present was supplied by the late mr. edwards; but is not free from stain and writing. yet, although nothing comparable with the copy in the royal library at paris, or with that in st. james's place, it is nevertheless a very desirable acquisition--and is quite perfect. ---- _printed by fust and schoeffher._ . folio. vols. upon vellum. this was colbert's copy, and is large, sound, and desirable. ---- _printed by mentelin._ without date. perhaps the rarest of all latin bibles; of which, however, there is a copy in the royal library at paris, and in the public libraries of strasbourg and munich. i should conjecture its date to be somewhere about .[ ] the present is a clean and sound, but much cropt copy. ---- _printed by sweynhyem and pannartz._ folio. - , vols. a remarkably fine large copy, almost uncut: in modern russia binding. this must form a portion of the impression by the same printers, with the commentary of de lyra, in five folio volumes. biblia latina; _printed by hailbrun_. . folio. here are _two_ copies; of which one is upon vellum, and the other upon paper: both beautiful--but the vellum copy is, i think, in every respect, as lovely a book as lord spencer's similar copy. it measures eleven inches one sixteenth by seven one eighth. it has, however, been bound in wretched taste, some fifty years ago, and is a good deal cropt in the binding. the paper copy, in vols. is considerably larger. biblia latina. _printed by jenson_. . folio. here, again, are two copies; one upon paper, the other upon vellum. of these, the vellum copy is much damaged in the principal illumination, and is also cropt in the binding. the paper copy can hardly be surpassed, if equalled. biblia italica. malherbi. _printed in the month of october,_ . folio. vols. perhaps one of the finest and largest copies in existence; measuring, sixteen inches five eighths by eleven. it is bound (if i remember rightly) in blue morocco. biblia hebraica. _printed at soncino_. . folio. first edition of the hebrew bible. of all earliest impressions of the sacred text, this is doubtless the most rare. i am not sure that there are _two_ copies of it in england or in france. in our own country, the bodleian library alone possesses it. this is a beautiful, clean copy, but cropt a little too much in the binding. it has had a journey to _paris_, and gained a coat of blue morocco by the trip. the binder was bozerain. this was the first time that i had seen a copy of the first hebrew bible. there was only one _other_ feeling to be gratified:--that _such_ a copy were safely lodged in st. james's place. biblia polonica. . folio. the abbé strattman, at mölk, had apprised me of the beauty and value of this copy--of one of the scarcest impressions of the sacred text. this copy was, in fact, a presentation copy to the emperor maximilian ii., from prince radzivil the editor and patron of the work. it is rather beautifully white, for the book--which is usually of a very sombre complexion. the leaves are rather tender. it is bound in red velvet; but it is a pity they do not keep it in a case--as the back is wearing away fast. notwithstanding the abbé strattman concluded his account of this book with the exclamation of--"il n'y en a pas comme celui-là," i must be allowed to say, that lord spencer may yet indulge in a strain of triumph... on the possession of the copy, of this same work, which i secured for him at augsbourg;[ ] and which is, to the full, as large, as sound, and in every respect as genuine a book. jeronimi sti. epistolÆ. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz._ . folio. vols. a magnificent and unique copy, upon vellum. "there are only six vellum sweynheyms and pannartz in the world,"--said the abbé strattman to me, in the library of the monastery of mölk. "which be they?" replied i. "they are these"--answered he ... "the _cæsar_, _aulus gellius_, and _apuleius_--ach the edit. prin.--of the date of : and the _epistles of st jerom_, of --all which four books you will see at vienna:--the _livy_, which mr. edwards bought; and the _pliny_ of , which is in the library of lord spencer. these are the only known vellum sweynheyms and pannartz." i looked at the volumes under consideration, therefore, with the greater attention. they are doubtless noble productions; and this copy is, upon the whole, fine and genuine. it is not, however, so richly ornamented, nor is the vellum quite so white, as lord spencer's pliny above mentioned. yet it is bound in quiet old brown calf, having formerly belonged to cardinal bessarion, whose hand writing is on the fly leaf. it measures fifteen inches three eighths, by eleven one sixteenth. lactantii opera. _printed in the soubiaco monastery._ . folio. here are two copies of this earliest production of the italian press. that which is in blue morocco binding, is infinitely the worse of the two. the other, in the original binding of wood, is, with the exception of mr. grenville's copy, the finest which i have ever seen. this however is slightly stained, by water, at top. ---- _printed at rostock._ . folio. a copy upon vellum--which i had never seen before. the vellum is thin and beautiful, but this is not a _comfortable_ book in respect to binding. a few leaves at the beginning are stained. upon the whole, however, it is a singularly rare and most desirable volume.[ ] missale mozarabicum. . folio. first edition. a book of exceedingly great scarcity, and of which i have before endeavoured to give a pretty full and correct history.[ ] the present is a beautiful clean copy, bound in blue morocco, apparently by de seuil--from the red morocco lining within: but this copy is not so large as the one in st. james's place. the mozarabic breviary, its companion, which is bound in red morocco, has been cruelly cropt. missale herbipolense. folio: with the date of in the prefatory admonition. this precious book is upon vellum; and a more beautiful and desirable volume can hardly be found. there is a copper-plate of coat-armour, in outline, beneath the prefatory admonition; and m. bartsch, who was by the side of me when i was examining the book, referred me to his _peintre graveur_, vol. x. p. . where this early copper-plate is noticed. psalterium. latinè. _printed by fust and schoeffher._ . folio. editio princeps. if there be one book, more than another, which should induce an ardent bibliographer to make a pilgrimage to vienna, this is assuredly the volume in question! and yet, although i could not refrain from doing, what a score of admiring votaries had probably done before me--namely, bestowing a sort of _oscular_ benediction upon the first leaf of the text--yet, i say, it may be questionable whether this copy be as large and fair as that in our royal collection!? doubtless, however, this is a very fine and almost invaluable copy of the first book printed with metal types, with a date subjoined. you will give me credit for having asked for a sight of it, the _very first thing_ on my entrance into the room where it is kept. it is, however, preserved in rather a loose and shabby binding, and should certainly be protected by every effort of the bibliopegistic art. the truth is, as m. kopitar told me, that every body--old and young, ignorant and learned--asks for a sight of this marvellous volume; and it is, in consequence, rarely kept in a state of quiescence one week throughout the year: excepting during the holidays. psalterium. latinè. _without printer's name or date._ _folio._ this is doubtless a magnificent book, printed in the gothic letter, in red and black, with musical lines not filled up by notes. the text has services for certain saints days. what rendered this volume particularly interesting to my eyes, was, that on the reverse of the first leaf, beneath two lines of printed text, (in the smaller of two sizes of gothic letter) and two lines of scored music in red, i observed an impression of the very same copper-plate of coat-armour, which i had noticed in the wurtzburg missal of , at oxford, described in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. . although m. bartsch had noticed this copper-plate, in its outline character, in the above previously described wurtzburg missal, he seemed to be ignorant of its existence in this psalter. the whole of this book is as fresh as if it had just come from the press. testamentum nov. bohemicè. _without date._ folio. this is probably one of the very rarest impressions of the sacred text, in the xvth century, which is known to exist. it is printed in the gothic type, in double columns, and a full page contains thirty-six lines. there are running titles. the text, at first glance, has much of the appearance of bämler's printing at augsbourg; but it is smaller, and more angular. why should not the book have been printed in bohemia? this is a very clean, desirable copy, in red morocco binding. turrecremata i. de. in librum psalmorum. _printed at crause in suabia._ folio. this, and the copy described as being in the public library at munich, are supposed to be the only known copies of this impression. below the colophon, in pencil, there is a date of : but quære upon what authority? this copy is in most miserable condition; especially at the end. ancient classical authors. Æsopus. gr. quarto. editio princeps. a sound and perfect copy: ruled. ---- _ital._ . quarto. in italian poetry, by manfred de monteferrato. ---- . quarto. in italian prose, by the same. of these two versions, the italian appears to be the same as that of the verona impression of : the cuts are precisely similar. the present is a very sound copy, but evidently cropt. apuleius. . _printed by sweynheym and pannartz._ folio. editio princeps. this copy is upon vellum. it is tall and large, but not so fine as is the following article: ---- _printed by jenson._ . folio. a fine sound copy; in red morocco binding. formerly belonging to prince eugene. aulus gellius. . folio. edit. prin. this is without doubt one of the very finest vellum copies of an old and valuable classic in existence. there are sometimes (as is always the case in the books from the earlier roman press) brown and yellow pages; but, upon the whole, this is a wonderful and inestimable book. it is certainly unique, as being printed upon vellum. note well: the _jerom, apuleius_, and _aulus gellius_--with one or two others, presently to be described--were cardinal bessarion's own copies; and were taken from the library of st. mark at venice, by the austrians, in their memorable campaign in italy. i own that there are hardly any volumes in the imperial library at vienna which interested me so much as these vellum sweynheyms and pannartz! ausonius. . folio. editio princeps. the extreme rarity of this book is well known. the present copy is severely cropt at top and bottom, but has a good side marginal breadth. it has also been washed; but you are only conscious of it by the scent of soap. cÆsar. . _printed by s. and pannartz._ folio. edit. princeps. a beautiful and unique copy--upon vellum. this was formerly prince eugene's copy; and i suspect it to be the same which is described in the _bibl. hulziana_, vol. i. no. --as it should seem to be quite settled that the printers, sweynheym and pannartz, printed only _one_ copy of their respective first editions upon vellum. it is however but too manifest that this precious volume has been cropt in binding--which is in red morocco. ---- . _printed by the same._ folio. this also was prince eugene's copy; and is much larger and finer than the preceding--on the score of condition. cicero de officiis. , quarto. here are _two_ copies: each upon vellum. one, in blue morocco, is short and small; but in very pretty condition. the other is stained and written upon. it should be cast out. ---- . quarto. upon vellum. a beautiful copy, which measures very nearly ten inches in height.[ ] in all these copies, the title of the "paradoxes" is printed. ciceronis. epist. fam. . folio. editio princeps. cardinal bessarion's own copy, and unquestionably the finest that exists. the leaves are white and thick, and crackle aloud as you turn them over. it is upon paper, which makes me think that there never was a copy upon vellum; for the cardinal, who was a great patron of sweynheym and pannartz, the printers, would doubtless have possessed it in that condition. at the beginning, however, it is slightly stained, and at the end slightly wormed. yet is this copy, in its primitive binding, finer than any which can well be imagined. the curious are aware that this is supposed to have been the _first book printed at rome_; and that the blanks, left for the introduction of greek characters, prove that the printers were not in possession of the latter when this book was published. the cardinal has written two lines, partly in greek and partly in latin, on the fly leaf. this copy measures eleven inches three eighths by seven inches seven eighths. cicero. rhetorica vetus. printed by jenson. when i had anticipated the beauty of a vellum copy of this book (in the _bibl. spencer._ vol. i. p. --here close at hand) i had not of course formed the idea of seeing such a one here. this vellum copy is doubtless a lovely book; but the vellum is discoloured in many places, and i suspect the copy has been cut down a little. ---- orationes. _printed by s. and pannartz._ . folio. a beautifully white and genuine copy; but the first few leaves are rather soiled, and it is slightly wormed towards the end. a _fairer_ sweynheym and pannartz is rarely seen. ---- opera omnia. . folio. vols. a truly beautiful copy, bound in red morocco; but it is not free from occasional ms. annotations, in red ink, in the margins. it measures sixteen inches and three quarters in height, by ten inches and three quarters in width. a fine and perfect copy of this _first edition of the entire works_ of cicero, is obtained with great difficulty. a nobler monument of typographical splendour the early annals of the press cannot boast of. homeri opera omnia. gr. . folio. editio princeps. a sound, clean copy, formerly prince eugene's; but not comparable with many copies which i have seen. batrachomyomachia. gr. without date or place. quarto. edit. prin: executed in red and black lines, alternately. this is a sound, clean, and beautiful copy; perhaps a little cropt. in modern russia binding. juvenalis. folio. _printed by ulric han_, in his larger type. a cruelly cropt copy, with a suspiciously ornamented title page. this once belonged to count delci. juvenalis. _printed by i. de fivizano _. _without date_. folio. this is a very rare edition, and has been but recently acquired. it contains twenty-seven lines in a full page. there are neither numerals, signatures, nor catchwords. on the sixty-ninth and last leaf, is the colophon. a sound and desirable copy; though not free from soil. luciani opuscula quÆdam. lat. _printed by s. bevilaquensis._ . quarto. this is really one of the most covetable little volumes in the world. it is a copy printed upon vellum; with most beautiful illuminations, in the purest italian taste. look--if ever you visit the imperial library--at the last illumination, at the bottom of _o v_, recto. it is indescribably elegant. but the binder should have been hung in chains. he has cut the book to the very quick--so as almost to have entirely sliced away several of the border decorations. ovidii fasti. _printed by azoguidi._ . folio. this is the whole of what they possess of this wonderfully rare edit. prin. of ovid, printed at bologna by the above printer:--and of this small portion the first leaf is wanting. ----, opera omnia, _printed by sweynheym and pannartz_. . folio. vols. this is a clean, large copy; supplied from two old libraries. the volumes are equally large, but the first is in the finer condition. ----, epistolÆ et fasti. i know nothing of the printer of this edition, nor can i safely guess where it was printed. the epistles begin on the recto of _aa ii_ to _gg v_; the fasti on a i to vv ix, including some few other opuscula; of which my memorandum is misplaced. at the end, we read the word finis. plinius senior. _printed by i. de spira_. . folio. editio princeps. we have here the identical copy--printed upon vellum--of which i remember to have heard it said, that the abbé strattman, when he was at the head of this library, declared, that whenever the french should approach vienna, he would march off with _this_ book under _one_ arm, and with the first psalter under the other! this was heroically said; but whether such declaration was ever _acted_ upon, is a point upon which the bibliographical annals of that period are profoundly silent. to revert to this membranaceous treasure. it is in one volume, beautifully white and clean; but ("horresco referens;") it has been cruelly deprived of its legitimate dimensions. in other words, it is a palpably cropt copy. the very first glance of the illumination at the first page confirms this. in other respects, also, it can bear no comparison with the vellum copy in the royal library at paris.[ ] yet is it a book ... for which i know more than _one_ roxburgher who would promptly put pen to paper and draw a check for guineas--to become its possessor. plinius senior. _printed by jenson._ . folio. another early pliny--upon vellum: very fine, undoubtedly; but somewhat cropt, as the encroachment upon the arms, at the bottom of the first illuminated page, evidently proves. the initial letters are coloured in that sober style of decoration, which we frequently observe in the illuminated volumes of sweynheym and pannartz; but they generally appear to have received some injury. upon the whole, i doubt if this copy be so fine as the similar copies, upon vellum, in the libraries of the duke of devonshire and the late sir m. m. sykes. this book is bound in the highly ornamented style of french binding of the xviith century; and it measures almost sixteen inches one eighth, by ten inches five eighths. plinius. italicè. _printed by jenson._ . folio. a fine, large, pure, crackling copy; in yellow morocco binding. it was prince eugene's copy; but is yet inferior, in magnitude, to the copy at paris.[ ] silius italicus. _printed by laver._ . folio. the largest, soundest, and cleanest copy of this very rare impression, which i remember to have seen:--with the exception, perhaps, of that in the bodleian library. suetonius. _printed by s. and pannartz._ . folio. second edition. a fine, sound copy, yet somewhat cropt. the first page of the text has the usual border printed ornament of the time of printing the book. this was prince eugene's copy. suidas, gr. . folio. vols. this editio princeps of suidas is always, when in tolerable condition, a wonderfully striking book: a masterpiece of solid, laborious, and beautiful greek printing. but the copy under consideration--which is in its pristine boards, covered with black leather--was lambecius's own copy, and has his autograph. it is, moreover, one of the largest, fairest, and most genuine copies ever opened. tacitus. _printed by i. de spira._ folio. edit. prin. this is the whitest and soundest copy, of this not very uncommon book, which i have seen. it has however lost something of its proper dimensions by the cropping of the binder. terentius. _printed by mentelin, without date._ folio. editio princeps. of exceedingly great rarity. the present copy, which is in boards--but which richly deserves a russia or morocco binding--is a very good, sound, and desirable copy. valerius maximus. _printed by schoeffher._ . fol. upon vellum; a charming, sound copy. this book is not very uncommon upon vellum. virgilius. _printed by mentelin._ _without date._ folio. perhaps the rarest of all the early mentelin classics; and probably the second edition of the author. the present is a beautiful, white, sound copy, and yet probably somewhat cropt. it is in red morocco binding. next to the very extraordinary copy of this edition, in the possession of mr. george hibbert, i should say that _this_ was the finest i had ever seen. ---- _printed by v. de spira._ . folio. it is difficult to find a thoroughly beautiful copy of this very rare book. the present is tolerably fair and rather large, but i suspect washed. the beginning is brown, and the end very brown. ---- _printed by the same._ . folio. this copy is perhaps the most beautiful in the world of the edition in question. it has the old ms. signatures in the corner, which proves how important the preservation of these _witnesses_ is to the confirmation of the size and genuineness of a copy of an old book. no wonder the french got possession of this matchless volume on their memorable visit to vienna in or . it was bound in france, in red morocco, and is honestly bound. this is, in short, a perfect book. ---- _printed by jenson._ . folio. a very fine, crackling copy, in the old wooden binding; but the beginning and end are somewhat stained. miscellaneous latin.[ ] Æneas sylvius de duobus amantibus. without date. quarto. this is the only copy which i have seen, of probably what may be considered the first edition of this interesting work. it has twenty-three lines in a full page, and is printed in the large and early roman type of _gering_, _crantz_, and _friburger_. cæsar and stoll doubtless reprinted this edition. in the whole, there are forty-four leaves. the present is a fair sound copy. alexander gallus: vulgò de villa dei: doctrinale. _without date._ folio. there are few books which i had so much wished to see as the present. the bibliographers of the old school had a great notion of the typographical antiquity of this _work_ if not of _this edition_ of it: but i have very little hesitation, in the first place, of attributing it to the press of _vindelin de spira_--and, in the second place, of assigning no higher antiquity to it than that of the year . it is however a book of some intrinsic curiosity, and of unquestionably great rarity. i saw it here for the first time. the present copy is a decidedly much-cropt folio; but in most excellent condition. aquinas thomas. secunda secondÆ. _printed by schoeffher._ . folio. a fine, large copy, printed upon vellum: the vellum is rather too yellow; but this is a magnificent book, and exceedingly rare in such a state. it is bound in red morocco. ---- opus quartiscriptum. _printed by schoeffher._ . folio. we have here another magnificent specimen of the early mentz press, struck off upon vellum, and executed in the smallest gothic type of the printer. this is a gloriously genuine copy; having the old pieces of vellum pasted to the edges of the leaves, by way of facilitating the references to the body of the text. there is a duplicate copy of this edition, upon paper, wanting some of the earlier leaves, and which had formerly belonged to prince eugene. it is, in other respects, fair and desirable. ---- in evang. matth. et marc. _printed by sweynheym and pannartz._ . folio. a fine, large, white, and crackling copy; but somewhat cut; and not quite free from the usual foxy tint of the books executed by these earliest roman printers. bartholus. lectura. _printed by v. de spira._. , folio. one of the finest specimens imaginable of the press of v. de spira. it is a thick folio, executed in double columns. the first page of this copy is elegantly illuminated with portraits, &c.; but the arms at bottom prove that some portion of the margin has been cut away--even of this magnificent copy. at the end--just before the date, and the four colophonic verses of the printer--we read: "_finis primi ptis lecture dni bartoli super ffto nouo_." bellovacensis (p.) speculum historiale, folio. the four volumes in one!--of eight inches in thickness, including the binding. the present copy of this extraordinary performance of peter de beauvais is as pure and white as possible. the type is a doubtful gothic letter: doubtful, as to the assigning to it its proper printer. catholicon. . folio. vols. a tolerably fair good copy; in red morocco binding. ---- . _printed by gunther zeiner._ vols. folio. this copy is upon vellum, of a fair and sound quality. i suspect that it has been somewhat diminished in size, and may not be larger than the similar copy at göttwic monastery. in calf binding. durandus. rat. div. offic. _printed by fust and schoeffher._ . folio. this book, which is always upon vellum, was the duke de la valliere's copy. it is the thinnest i ever saw, but it is quite perfect. the condition is throughout sound, and the margins appear to retain all their pristine amplitude. it is bound in morocco. ficheti rhetorica. _printed by gering_, &c. quarto. this copy is upon vellum, not indifferently illuminated: but it has been cruelly cropt. ludolphus. de terra sancta and itinere iheroso-lomitano. _without date or place._ folio. i never saw this book, nor this work, before. the text describes a journey to jerusalem, undertaken by ludolphus, between the years and . this preface is very interesting; but i have neither time nor space for extracts. at the end: "_finit feliciter libellus de itinere ad terram sanctam, &_." this impression is printed in long lines, and contains thirty-six leaves.[ ] mammotrectus. _printed by schoeffher._ . folio. here are two copies; of which one is upon vellum--but the paper copy is not only a larger, but in every respect a fairer and more desirable, book. the vellum copy has quite a foggy aspect. nonius marcellus. _without name of printer or place._ . folio. this is the first edition of the work with a date, but the printer is unknown. it is executed in a superior style of typographical elegance; and the present is as fine and white a copy of it as can possibly be possessed. i think it even larger than the göttwic copy. petrarcha. historia griseldis. _printed by g. zeiner._ . folio. whether _this_ edition of the history of patient grisel, or that printed by zel, without date, be the earliest, i cannot pretend to say. this edition is printed in the roman type, and perhaps is among the very earliest specimens of the printer so executed. it is however a thin, round, and scraggy type. the book is doubtless of extreme rarity. this copy was formerly prince eugene's, and is bound in red morocco. phalaridis epistolÆ. lat. . quarto. this is the first time (if i remember rightly) that the present edition has come under my notice. it is doubtless of excessive rarity. the type is a remarkably delicate, round, widely spread and roman letter. at the end is the colophon, in capital letters. phalaridis epistolÆ. _printed by ulric han._ _without date._ folio. this is among the rarest editions of the latin version of the epistles of phalaris. it is executed in the second, or ordinary roman type of ulric han. in the whole there are thirty leaves; and i know not why this impression may not be considered as the first, or at least the second, of the version in question. poggii facetiÆ. _without name of printer, place, or date._ folio. it is for the first time that i examine the present edition, which i should not hesitate to pronounce the first of the work in question. the types are those which were used in the _eusebian monastery_ at rome. a full page has twenty-three lines. this is a sound, clean copy; in calf binding. priscianus. _printed by v. de spira._ . folio. editio princeps. a beautiful, large, white, and crackling copy, in the original wooden binding. is one word further necessary to say that a finer copy, upon paper, cannot exist? priscianus. _printed by ulric han._ folio. with the metrical version of _dionysius de situ orbis_ at the end. this is a very rare book. the fount of greek letters clearly denotes it to come from a press at rome, and that press was assuredly ulric han's. this appears to have been gaignat's copy, and is sound and desirable, but not so fine as the copy of this edition in the library of göttwic monastery. ptolemÆus. lat. _printed at bologna._ . folio. there can be no doubt of this date being falsely put for or even . but this is a rare book to possess, with all the copper plates, which this copy has--and it is moreover a fine copy. ptolemÆus. _printed by buckinck._ . folio. another fine and perfect copy of a volume of considerable rarity, and interest to the curious in the history of early engraving. turrecremata i. de. meditationes. _printed by ulric han._ . folio. this wonderfully rare volume is justly shewn among the "great guns" of the imperial library. it was deposited here by the late mr. edwards; and is considered by some to be the _first book printed at rome_, and is filled with strange wood-cuts.[ ] the text is uniformly in the large gothic character of ulric han. the french were too sensible of the rarity and value of this precious book, to suffer it to remain upon the shelves of the imperial library after their first triumphant visit to vienna; and accordingly it was carried off, among other book trophies, to paris--from whence it seems, naturally as it were, to have taken up its present position. this is a very fine copy; bound in blue morocco, with the cuts uncoloured. it measures thirteen inches and a quarter, by very nearly nine and a quarter: being, what may be fairly called, almost its pristine dimensions. whenever you visit this library, ask to see, among the very first books deserving of minute inspection, this copy of the meditations of john de turrecremata: but, remember--_a yet finer_ copy is within three stones-throw of buckingham palace! valturius de re militari. . folio. edit. prin. a fine, clean copy; in red morocco binding. formerly, in the collection of prince eugene. such a hero, however, should have possessed it upon vellum!--although, of the two copies of this kind which i have seen, neither gave me the notion of a very fine book. books in the italian language. _bella (la) mono._ _without name of printer._ . quarto. this is the first time of my inspecting the present volume; of which the printer is not known--but, in all probability, the book was printed _at venice_. it is executed in a round, tall, roman letter. this is a cropt and soiled, but upon the whole, a desirable copy: it is bound in red morocco, and was formerly prince eugene's. _berlinghieri._ _geografia._ _without place or date._ folio. prima edizione. it does the heart good to gaze upon such a copy of so estimable and magnificent a production as the present. this book belonged to prince eugene, and is bound in red morocco. it is quite perfect--with all the copper-plate maps. _boccaccio._ _il decamerone._ _printed by zarotus._ . folio. this is an exceedingly rare edition of the decameron. it is executed in the small and elegantly formed gothic type of the printer, with which the latin Æsop, of the same date, in to, was printed. notwithstanding this copy is of a very brown hue, and most cruelly cut down--as the illuminated first page but too decisively proves--it is yet a sound and desirable book. this is the only early edition, as far as i had an opportutunity of ascertaining, which they appear to possess of the decameron of boccaccio. of the _philocolo_, there is a folio edition of ; and of the _nimphale_ there is a sound and clean copy of a dateless edition, in to., without name of place or printer, which ends thus--and which possibly may be among the very earliest impressions of that work: finito il nimphale di fiesole che tracto damore. _caterina da bologna._ _without date or name of printer._ quarto. this is a very small quarto volume of great rarity; concluding with some poetry, and some particulars of the life of the female saint and author. it appears to have wholly escaped brunet. incomezao alcune cose d'la uita d'la sopra nominata beata caterina. there are neither manuals, signatures, nor catchwords. this volume looks like a production of the _bologna_ or _mantua_ press. i never saw another copy of this curious little work. _caterina da siena legendi di._ _printed in the monastery of st. james, at florence._ . quarto. this is the edition which brunet very properly pronounces to be "excessively rare." it is printed in double columns, in a small, close, and scratchy gothic type. on the th and last leaf, is the colophon. _dante._ _printed by neumister._ . folio. prima edizione. this copy is ruled, but short, and in a somewhat tender condition. although not a first rate copy, it is nevertheless desirable; yet is this book but a secondary typographical performance. the paper is always coarse in texture, and sombre in tint. _dante_. . folio. with the commentary of landino. this is doubtless a precious copy, inasmuch as it contains twenty copper-plate impressions, and is withal in fair and sound condition. the fore-edge margin has been however somewhat deprived of its original dimensions. _decor puellarum. printed by jenson_. quarto. with the false date of for . this volume, which once gave rise to such elaborate bibliographical disquisition, now ceases to have any extraordinary claims upon the attention of the collector. it is nevertheless a _sine qua non_ in a library with any pretension to early typographical curiosities. the present copy is clean and tolerably large: bound by de rome. _fazio. dita mundi. printed by l. basiliensis_. . folio. prima edizione. of unquestionably great rarity; and unknown to the earlier bibliographers. it is printed in double columns, with signatures, to _o_ in eighths: _o_ has only four leaves. this copy has the signatures considerably below the text, and they seem to have been a clumsy and _posterior_ piece of workmanship. it has been recently bound in russia. _frezzi. il quadriregio_. . folio. prima edizione. i have before sufficiently expatiated upon the rarity of this impression. the present is a large copy, but too much beaten in the binding. the first leaf is much stained. a few of the others are also not free from the same defect. _fulgosii bapt. anteros.: sive de amore. printed by l. pachel. milan_. . on the reverse of the title, is a very singular wood-cut--where death is sitting upon a coffin, and a blinded cupid stands leaning against a tree before him: with a variety of other allegorical figures. the present is a beautiful copy, in red morocco binding. _gloria mulierum. printed by jenson_. quarto. this is another of the early jenson pieces which are coveted by the curious and of which a sufficiently particular account has been already given to the public[ ] this copy is taller than that of the _decor puellarum_ (before described) but it is in too tender a condition. _legende di sancti per nicolao di manerbi, printed by jenson. without date_. folio. it is just possible that you may not have forgotten a brief mention of a copy of this very rare book in the mazarine library at paris,[ ] that copy, although beautiful, was upon paper: the present is upon vellum--illuminated, very delicately in the margins, with figures of divers saints. i take the work to be an italian version of the well known legenda sanctorum. the book is doubtless among the most beautiful from the press of jenson, who is noticed in the prefatory advertisement of manerbi. _luctus christianorum. printed by jenson_. quarto. another of the early pieces of jenson's press; and probably of the date of . the present is a fair, nice copy; but has something of a foggy and suspicious aspect about it. i suspect it to have been washed. _monte sancto di dio_. . folio. the chief value of this book consists in its having good impressions of the three copper plates. of these, only _one_ is in the present copy, which represents the devil eating his victims in the lake of avernus, as given in the la valliere copy. yet the absence of the two remaining plates, as it happens, constitutes the chief attraction of this copy; for they are here supplied by two fac-similes, presented to the library by leopold duke of tuscany, of the most wonderfully perfect execution i ever saw. _petrarcha. sonetti e trionfi. printed by v. de spira._ . folio. prima edizione. the last leaf of the table is unluckily manuscript; and the last leaf but one of the text is smaller than the rest--which appear to have been obtained, from another copy. in other respects, this is a large, sound, and desirable copy. it belonged to prince eugene. _petrarcha. sonetti e trionfi. printed by zarotus._ . folio. this edition (if the present copy of it be perfect) has no prefix of table or biographical memorandum of petrarch. a full page contains forty, and sometimes forty-two lines. on the recto of the last leaf is the colophon. this is a sound and clean, but apparently cropt copy; in old blue morocco binding. _petrarcha sonetti e trionfi. printed by jenson._ . folio. a sound and desirable copy, in red morocco binding; formerly belonging to prince eugene. ----. _comment. borstii in trionfi. printed at bologna._ . folio. here are two copies of this beautifully printed, and by no means common, book. one of them belonged to prince eugene; and a glance upon the top corner ms. pagination evidently proves it to have been cropt. it is in red morocco binding. the other copy, bound in blue morocco, has the table inlaid; and is desirable--although inferior to the preceding. _poggio. historia fiorentina. printed by i. de rossi._ (jacobus rubeus) . folio. first edition of the italian version. this copy is really a great curiosity., the first seven books are printed _upon paper_ of a fine tone and texture, and the leaves are absolutely _uncut_: a few leaves at the beginning are soiled--especially the first; but the remainder are in delightful preservation, and shew what an old book _ought_ to be. the eighth book is entirely printed upon vellum; and some of these vellum leaves are perfectly enchanting. they are of the same size with the paper, and _also uncut._ this volume has never been bound. i entreated m. bartsch to have it handsomely bound, but not to touch the fore edges. he consented readily. _regula confitendi peccata sua._ . quarto. of this book i never saw another copy. the author is picenus, and the work is written throughout in the italian language. there are but seven leaves--executed in a letter which resembles the typographical productions of bologna and mantua. * * * * * german, french, and spanish books. _bone vie (livre de);_ qui est appelee madenie. _printed by a. neyret at chambery._ . folio. as far as signature vj, the subject is prose: afterwards commences the poetry--"appelle la somme de la vision iehan du pin." the colophon is on the reverse of the last leaf but one. a wood-cut is on the last leaf. this small folio volume is printed in a tall, close, and inelegant gothic type; reminding me much of the livre de chasse printed at the same place, in , and now in lord spencer's library.[ ] _chevalier (le) delibre._ . quarto. this book is filled with some very neat wood cuts, and is printed in the gothic letter. the subject matter is poetical. no name appears, but i suspect this edition to have been, printed in the office of verard. _cité des dames (le tresor de la)_--"sclon dame christine." without date. folio. a fine, tall, clean copy; upon vellum. the printer seems in all probability to have been _verard_. in red morocco binding. _coronica del cid ruy diaz._ _printed at seville._ _without date._ quarto. the preceding title is beneath a neat wood-cut of a man on horseback, brandishing his sword; an old man, coming out of a gate, is beside him. the signatures from _a_ to _i vj_, are in eights. on _f ij_ is a singular wood-cut of a lion entering a room, where a man is apparently sleeping over a chess-board, while two men are rising from the table: this cut is rudely executed. on _i v_ is the colophon. this edition is executed in that peculiarly rich and handsome style of printing, in a bold gothic letter, which distinguishes the early annals of the spanish press. the present beautifully clean copy belonged to prince eugene; but it has been severely cropt. _ein nuizlich büchlin_ das man nennet den pilgrim das hat der würdig doctor keyserperg zü augspurg geprediget. such is the title of this singular tract, printed by _lucas zeisenmair_ at augsbourg in . small to. it has many clever and curious wood-cuts; and i do not remember, in any part of germany where i have travelled, to have seen another copy of it. _fierbras._ _printed by g. le roy._ . folio. this is a small folio, and the third edition of the work. this copy is quite perfect; containing the last leaf, on which is a large wood-cut. all the cuts here are coloured after the fashion of the old times. this sound and desirable copy, in red morocco binding, once graced the library of prince eugene. _iosephe._ _printed by verard._ . folio. "_cy finist l'hystoire de josephus de la bataille judaique, &c_." this is a noble folio volume; printed in the large handsome type of verard, abounding with wood cuts. it is in red morocco binding. _jouvencel (le)._ _printed by verard_, . folio. this is a fine copy, with coloured cuts, printed upon vellum. it is badly bound. _lancelot du lac._ _printed by verard._ . folio. vols. first edition. a fine clean copy, but somewhat cropt. it once belonged to prince eugene, and is bound in red morocco. ---- _printed by the same._ . folio. vols. upon vellum. in fine old red morocco binding, beautifully tooled. this copy measures fifteen inches six-eighths in height, by ten inches five-eighths in width. _les deux amans._ _printed by verard._ . quarto. the title is beneath the large l, of which a fac-simile appears in the first vol. of my edition of our _typographical antiquities_. the work is old french poetry. verard's device is on the last leaf. a copy of this book is, in all probability, in a certain black-letter french-metrical cabinet in portland place. _maguelone (la belle)._ _printed by trepperel._ . quarto. the preceding title is over trepperel's device. the wood cuts in this edition have rather unusual merit; especially that on the reverse of ciiii. a very desirable copy. _marco polo. von venedig des grost landtfarer. germanicè._ _printed by creusner._ . folio. this is the first edition of the travels of marco polo; and i am not sure whether the present copy be not considered unique.[ ] a complete paginary and even lineal transcript of it was obtained for mr. marsden's forth-coming translation of the work, into our own language--under the superintendence of m. kopitar. its value, therefore, may be appreciated accordingly. _regnars (les)_ "trauersant les perilleuses voyes des folles frances du möde." _printed by verard._ _no date._ to. this is a french metrical version from the german of sebastian brandt. the present edition is printed in the black letter, double columns, with wood cuts. this is a fair good copy, bound in red morocco, and formerly belonging to prince eugene. _tewrdannckh._ . folio. the emperor maximilian's own copy!--of course upon vellum. the cuts are coloured. the abbé strattman had told me that i should necessarily find this to be the largest and completest copy in existence. it is very white and tall, measuring fifteen inches, by nine and three quarters; and perhaps the largest known. yet i suspect, from the smooth glossy surface of the fore edge--in its recent and very common-place binding, in russia--that the side margin was once broader.[ ] the cuts should not have been coloured, and the binding should haye been less vulgar: here is another copy, not quite so large, with the cuts uncoloured.[ ] _tristran: chlr de la table ronde "nouellement imprime a paris_." folio. _printed by verard._ without date. this is a fine sound copy, in old handsome calf binding. _thucydide (l'hystoire de)._ _printed by g. gourmont._ without date. folio. the translator was claude de seyssel, when bishop of marseilles, and the edition was printed at the command of francis the first. it is executed in the small, neat, secretary gothic type of gourmont; whose name is at the bottom of the title-page. this is a beautiful copy, struck off upon vellum; but it is much cut in the fore edge, and much choked in the back of the binding, which is in red morocco. it belonged to prince eugene. * * * * * comparatively copious as may be the preceding list, i fear it will not satisfy you unless i make some mention of _block books_, and inform you whether, as you have long and justly supposed, there be not also a few _cartons_ in the imperial library. these two points will occupy very little more of my time and attention. first then of _xylographical_ productions--or of books supposed to have been printed by means of wooden blocks. i shall begin with an unique article of this description. it is called _liber regum, seu vita davidis_: a folio, of twenty leaves: printed on one side only, but the leaves are here pasted together. two leaves go to a signature, and the signatures run from a to k. each page has two wood cuts, about twice as long as the text; or, rather, about one inch and three quarters of the text doubled. the text is evidently xylographic. the ink is of the usual pale, brown colour. this copy is coloured, of the time of the publication of the book. it is in every respect in a fine and perfect state of preservation. here is the second, if not third edition, of the _biblia pauperum_; the second edition of the _apocalypse_; the same of the _history of the virgin_; and a coloured and cropt copy of _hartlib's book upon chiromancy_: so much is it cropt, that the name of _schopff_, the supposed printer, is half cut away. the preceding books are all clumsily bound in modern russia binding. as some compensation, however, there is a fine bound copy, in red morocco binding, of the latin edition of the _speculum humanæ salvationis_; and a very fine large copy, in blue morocco binding, of the first edition of the _ars memorandi per figuras_; which latter had belonged to prince eugene. of the caxtons, the list is more creditable; and indeed very much to be commended: for, out of our own country, i question whether the united strength of all the continental libraries could furnish a more copious supply of the productions of our venerable first printer. i send you the following account--just as the several articles happened to be taken down for my inspection. _chaucer's book of fame_: a neat, clean, perfect copy: in modern russia binding. the _mayster of sentence_, &c. this is only a portion of a work, although it is perfect of itself, as to signatures and imprint. this copy, in modern russia binding, is much washed, and in a very tender state. _game of chess_; second edition. in very tender condition: bound in blue morocco, with pink lining. an exceedingly _doctored_ copy. _iason_: a cropt, and rather dirty copy: which formerly belonged to gulstone. it appears to be perfect; for gulstone has observed in ms. "_this book has leaves, as i told them carefully. 'tis very scarce and valuable, and deserves an extraordinary good binding_." below, is a note, in french; apparently by count reviczky. _godfrey of boulogne_: a perfect, large copy, in old red morocco (apparently harleian) binding. on the fly leaf, count reviczky has written a notice of the date and name of the printer of the book. opposite the autograph of _ames_ (to whom this copy once belonged) the old price of _l._ _s._ is inserted. on the first page of the text, is the ancient autograph of _henry norreys_. this is doubtless the most desirable caxtonian volume in the collection. this department of bibliography may be concluded by the mention of a sound and desirable copy of the first edition of _littleton's tenures_ by _lettou_ and _machlinia_, which had formerly belonged to bayntun of gray's inn. this, and most of the preceding articles, from the early english press, were supplied to the imperial library by the late mr. edwards. and now, my good friend, i hope to have fulfilled even your wishes respecting the earlier and more curious book-treasures in the imperial library. but i must candidly affirm, that, although _you_ may be satisfied, it is not so with myself. more frequent visits, and less intrusion upon the avocations of messrs. bartsch and kopitar--who ought, during the whole time, to have been inhaling the breezes of baden,--would doubtless have enabled me to render the preceding catalogue more copious and satisfactory; but, whatever be its defects, either on the score of omission or commission, it will at least have the merit of being the first, if not the only, communication of its kind, which has been transmitted for british perusal. to speak fairly, there is a prodigious quantity of lumber--in the shape of books printed in the fifteenth century--in this imperial library, which might be well disposed of for more precious literary productions. the mss. are doubtless, generally speaking, of great value; yet very far indeed from being equal, either in number or in intrinsic worth, to those in the royal library at paris. it is also to be deeply regretted, that, both of these mss. and printed books--with the exception of the ponderous and digressive work of lambecius upon the former,--there should be no printed _catalogue raisonné_. but i will hope that the "saturnia regna" are about to return; and that the love of bibliographical research, which now seems generally, to pervade, the principal librarians of the public collections upon the continent, will lead to the appearance of some solid and satisfactory performance upon the subjects of which this letter has treated. fare you well. the post will depart in a few minutes, and i am peremptorily summoned to the operatical ballet of _der berggeist_. [ ] [all this is profound matter, or secret history--(such as my friend mr. d'israeli dearly loves) for future writers to comment upon.] [ ] [mons. bartsch did not live to peruse this humble record of his worth. more of him in a subsequent note.] [ ] [m. payne now ceases to exist.] [ ] my excellent friend m.a. de bartsch has favoured me with the following particulars relating to the imperial library. the building was begun in , and finished in , by joseph emanuel, baron de fischer, architect of the court: the same who built the beautiful church of st. charles borromeo, in the suburbs. the library is german feet in length, by in width: the oval dome, running at right angles, and forming something like transepts, is feet long, and feet high, by wide. the fresco-paintings, with which the ceiling of the dome in particular is profusely covered, were executed by daniel gran. the number of the books is supposed to amount to , volumes: of which were printed in the xvth. century, and are atlas folios filled with engravings. these volumes contain about , prints; of which the pecuniary value, according to the computation of the day, cannot be less than , , "florins argent de convention"--according to a valuation (says m. bartsch) which i made last year. this may amount to £ , . of our money. i apprehend there is nothing in europe to be put in competition with such a collection. [ ] the reader may not be displeased to consult, for one moment, the _bibliog. decameron_; vol. i. pp. xliii. iv. [ ] [a sad tale is connected with the procuring of a copy, or fac-simile, of the initial letter in question. i was most anxious to possess a _coloured_ fac-simile of it; and had authorised m. bartsch to obtain it at _almost_ any price. he stipulated (i think with m. fendi) to obtain it for £ . sterling; and the fac-simile was executed in all respects worthy of the reputation of the artist, and to afford m. bartsch the most unqualified satisfaction. it was dispatched to me by permission of the ambassador, in the messenger's bag of dispatches:--but it never reached me. meanwhile my worthy friend m. bartsch became impatient and almost angry at the delay; and the artist naturally wondered at the tardiness of payment. something like _suspicion_ had began to take possession of my friend's mind--when the fact was disclosed to him ... and his sorrow and vexation were unbounded. the money was duly remitted and received; but "the valuable consideration" was never enjoyed by the too enthusiastic traveller. this beautiful copy has doubtless perished from accident.] [ ] vol. ii. p. . [ ] tasso, in fact, retouched and almost remodelled his poem, under the title of _jerusalem conquered_, and published it under that of jerusalem delivered. see upon these alterations and corrections, brunet, _manuel du libraire_, vol. iii. p. . edit. ; _haym bibl._ ital. vol. ii. p. . edit. ; and particularly ginguené _hist. lit. d'italie,_ vol. v. p. . [ ] see p. , ante. [ ] lord spencer has now obtained a copy of it--as may be seen in _Ædes althorpianæ_, vol. ii. pp. - , where a facsimile of the type is given. [ ] see pages , , , , ante. his lordship's first copy of the polish protestant bible had been obtained from three imperfect copies at vienna; for which i have understood that nearly a hundred guineas were paid. the augsbourg copy now supplies the place of the previous one; which latter, i learn, is in the bodleian library, at oxford. [ ] a particular account of this edition will be found in the _bibl. spencer._ vol. iv. page . [ ] see the _bibl. spencer._; vol. i. page - . [ ] it is singular enough that the curators of this library, some twenty years ago, threw out prince eugene's copy of the above edition, as a duplicate--which happened to be somewhat larger and finer. this latter copy, bound in red morocco, with the arms of the prince on the sides, now graces the shelves of lord spencer's library. see _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. i. p. , . [ ] see vol. ii. p. . [ ] see vol. ii. p: . [ ] including lexicography. [ ] a copy of this edition (printed in all probability by fyner of eislingen) was sold at the sale of mr. hibbert's library for £ . s. [ ] [of which, specimens appear in the _Ædes althorpianæ_, vol. ii. p. , &c. from the copy in lord spencer's collection--a copy, which may be pronounced to be the finest known copy in the world!] [ ] _bibl. spenceriana_; vol. iv. p. . [ ] vol. ii. p. . [ ] this book is fully described, with numerous fac-similes of the wood-cuts, in the Ædes' althorpianæ, vol. ii. p. - . [ ] since the above was written, lord spencer has obtained a very fine and perfect copy of it, through messrs. payne and foss: which copy will be found fully described, with a fac-simile of a supposed whole-length portrait of marco polo, in the _Ædes althorpianæ_, vol. ii. p. . [ ] i think i remember to have seen, at messrs. payne and foss's, the finest copy of this book in england. it was upon vellum, in the original binding, and measured fourteen inches three quarters by nine and a half. unluckily, it wanted the whole of the table at the end. see the _bibliog. decameron_, vol. i. p. . [recently, my neighbour and especial good friend sir f. freeling, bart. has fortunately come into the possession of a most beautifully fair and perfect copy of this resplendent volume.] [ ] while upon the subject of this book, it may not be immaterial to add, that i saw the original paintings from which the large wood blocks were taken for the well known work entitled "the _triumphs of the emperor maximilian_" in large folio. these paintings are in water colours, upon rolls of vellum, very fresh--and rather gaudily executed. they do not convey any high notion of art, and i own that i greatly prefer the blocks (of which i saw several) to the original paintings. these were the blocks which our friend mr. douce entreated mr. edwards to examine when he came to vienna, and with these he printed the well-known edition of the triumphs, of the date of . letter xi. population. streets and fountains. churches. convents. palaces. theatres. the prater. the emperor's private library. collection of duke albert. suburbs. monastery of closterneuburg. departure from vienna. _vienna, september_ , . my dear friend; "extremum hunc--mihi concede laborem." in other words, i shall trouble you for the last time with an epistle from the austrian territories: at any rate, with the last communication from the capital of the empire. since my preceding letter, i have stirred a good deal abroad: even from breakfast until a late dinner hour. by the aid of a bright sky, and a brighter moon, i have also visited public places of entertainment; for, having completed my researches at the library, i was resolved to devote the mornings to society and sights out of doors. i have also made a pleasant day's trip to the monastery of closterneuburg--about nine english miles from hence; and have been led into temptation by the sight of some half dozen folios of a yet more exquisite condition than almost any thing previously beheld. i have even bought sundry tomes, of monks with long bushy beards, in a monastery in the suburbs, called the rossau; and might, if i had pleased, have purchased their whole library--covered with the dust and cobwebs of at least a couple of centuries. as, in all previous letters, when arrived at a new capital, i must begin the present by giving you some account of the population, buildings, public sights, and national character of the place in which i have now tarried for the last three weeks; and which--as i think i observed at the conclusion of my _first_ letter from hence--was more characteristic of english fashions and appearances than any thing before witnessed by me ... even since my landing at dieppe. the city of vienna may contain a population of , souls; but its suburbs, which are _thirty-three_ in number, and i believe the largest in europe, contain full _three times_ that number of inhabitants.[ ] this estimate has been furnished me by m. bartsch, according to the census taken in . vienna itself contains houses; palaces; and catholic parishes; convents, of which three are filled by _religieuses_; one protestant church; one of the reformed persuasion; two churches of the united greek faith, and one of the greek, not united.[ ] of synagogues, i should think there must be a great number; for even _judaism_ seems, in this city, to be a thriving and wealthy profession. hebrew bibles and hebrew almanacks are sufficiently common. i bought a recent impression of the former, in five crown octavo volumes, neatly bound in sheep skin, for about seven shillings of our money; and an atlas folio sheet of the latter for a penny. you meet with jews every where: itinerant and stationary. the former, who seem to be half jew and half turk, are great frequenters of hotels, with boxes full of trinkets and caskets. one of this class has regularly paid me a visit every morning, pretending to have the genuine attar of roses and rich rubies to dispose of. but these were not to my taste. i learnt, however, that this man had recently married his daughter,--and boasted of having been able to give her a dowry equal to , l. of our money. he is short of stature, with a strongly-expressive countenance, and a well-arranged turban--and laughs unceasingly at whatever he says himself, or is said of him. as vienna may be called the key of italy, on the land side--or, speaking less figuratively, the concentrating point where greeks, turks, jews, and italians meet for the arrangement of their mercantile affairs throughout the continent of europe--it will necessarily follow that you see a great number of individuals belonging to the respective countries from whence they migrate. accordingly, you are constantly struck with the number and variety of characters, of this class, which you meet from about the hour of three till five. short clokes, edged with sable or ermine, and delicately trimmed mustachios, with the throat exposed, mark the courteous greek and albanian. long robes, trimmed with tarnished silver or gold, with thickly folded girdles and turbans, and beards of unrestrained growth, point out the majestic turk. the olive-tinted visage, with a full, keen, black eye, and a costume half greek and half turkish, distinguish the citizen of venice or verona. most of these carry pipes, of a varying length, from which volumes of fragrant smoke occasionally issue; but the exercise of smoking is generally made subservient to that of talking: while the loud laugh, or reirated reply, or, emphatic asseveration, of certain individuals in the passing throng, adds much to the general interest of the scene. smoking, however, is a most decidedly general characteristic of the place. two shops out of six in some streets are filled with pipes, of which the _bowls_ exhibit specimens of the most curious and costly workmanship. the handles are generally short. a good austrian thinks he can never pay too much for a good pipe; and the upper classes of society sometimes expend great sums in the acquisition of these objects of comfort or fashion. it was only the other evening, when, in company with my friends messrs. g. and s., and madame la comtesse de------a gentleman drew forth from his pocket a short pipe, which screwed together in three divisions, and of which the upper part of the bowl--(made in the fashion of a black-a-moor's head) near the aperture--was composed of diamonds of great lustre and value. upon enquiry, i found that this pipe was worth about l. of our money!--and what surprised me yet more, was, the cool and unconcerned manner in which the owner pulled it out of a loose great-coat pocket--as if it had been a tobacco box not worth half a dozen kreutzers! such is their love of smoking here, that, in one of their most frequented coffee-houses--where i went after dinner for a cup of coffee--the centre of the room was occupied by two billiard tables, which were surrounded by lookers on:--from the mouths of every one of whom, including even the players themselves, issued constant and pungent puffs of smoke, so as to fill the whole room with a dense cloud, which caused me instantly to retreat... as if grazed by a musket ball. of female society i can absolutely say little or nothing. the upper circles of society are all broken up for the gaieties of baden. yet, at the opera, at the prater, and in the streets, i should say that the general appearance and manners of the females are very interesting; strongly resembling, in the former respect, those of our own country. in the streets, and in the shops, the women wear their own hair, which is generally of a light brown colour, apparently well brushed and combed, platted and twisted into graceful forms. in complexion, they are generally fair, with blue eyes; and in stature they are usually short and stout. the men are, i think, every where good-natured, obliging, and extremely anxious to pay you every attention of which you stand in need. if i could but speak the language fluently, i should quickly fancy myself in england. the french language here is less useful than the italian, in making yourself understood. so much for the living, or active life. let me now direct your attention to inanimate objects; and these will readily strike you as relating to _buildings_--in their varied characters of houses, churches and palaces. first, of the streets. i told you, a little before, that there are upwards of one hundred and twenty palaces, so called, in vienna; but the truth is, almost every street may be said to be filled with palaces: so large and lofty are the houses of which they are usually composed. sometimes a street, of a tolerable length, will contain only a dozen houses--as, for instance, that of the _wallnerstrasse:_ at the further end of which, to the right, lives mr.------ the second banker (count fries being the first) in vienna. some of the banking-houses have quite the air of noblemen's chateaux. it is true, that these houses, like our inns of court, are inhabited by different families; yet the external appearance, being uniform, and frequently highly decorated, have an exceedingly picturesque appearance. the architectural ornaments, over the doors and windows--so miserably wanting in our principal streets and squares, and of which the absence gives to portland place the look, at a distance, of a range of barracks--are here, yet more than at augsbourg or munich, boldly and sometimes beautifully managed. the _palace of prince eugene_[ ] in the street in which i reside, and which no englishman ought to gaze at without emotions of pleasure--is highly illustrative of the justice of the foregoing remark. this palace is now converted into the _mint_. the door-ways and window-frames are, generally, throughout the streets of vienna, of a bold and pleasing architectural character. from one till three, the usual hour of dining, the streets of vienna are stripped of their full complement of population; but from three till six; at the latter of which hours the plays and opera begin, there is a numerous and animated population. notwithstanding the season of the year, the days have been sometimes even sultry; while over head has constantly appeared one of the bluest and brightest skies ever viewed by human eyes. among the most pleasing accompaniments or characteristics of street scenery, at vienna, are the fountains. they are very different from those at paris; exhibiting more representations of the human figure, and less water. in the _place_, before mentioned, is probably the most lofty and elaborate of these sculptured accompaniments of a fountain: but, in a sort of square called the _new market_, and through which i regularly passed in my way to the imperial library--there is a fountain of a particularly pleasing, and, to my eye, tasteful cast of character; executed, i think, by donner. a large circular cistern receives the water, which is constantly flowing into it, from some one or the other of the surrounding male and female figures, of the size of life. one of these male figures, naked, is leaning over the side of the cistern, about to strike a fish, or some aquatic monster, with a harpoon or dart--while one of his legs (i think it is the right) is thrown back with a strong muscular expression, resting upon the earth--as if to balance the figure, thus leaning forward--thereby giving it an exceedingly natural and characteristic air. upon the whole, although i am not sure that any _one_ fountain, of the character just mentioned, may equal that in the high street at augsbourg, yet, taken collectively, i should say that vienna has reason to claim its equality with any other city in europe, on the score of this most picturesque, and frequently salutary, accompaniment of street scenery. in our own country, which has the amplest means of any other in the world, of carrying these objects of public taste into execution, there seems to be an infatuation--amounting to hopeless stupidity--respecting the uniform exclusion of them. while i am on these desultory topics, let me say a word or two respecting the _quoi vivre_ in this metropolis. there are few or no _restaurateurs_: at least, at this moment, only two of especial note.[ ] i have dined at each--and very much prefer the vin du pays, of the better sort [ ]--which is red, and called _vin d'offner_ (or some such name) to that at paris. but the _meats_, are less choice and less curiously cooked; and i must say that the sense of smelling is not very acute with the germans. the mutton can only be attacked by teeth of the firmest setting. the beef is always preferable in a stewed or boiled state; although at our ambassador's table, the other day, i saw and partook of a roasted sirloin which would have done honour to either tavern in bishopsgate-street. the veal is the _safest_ article to attack. the pastry is upon the whole relishing and good. the bread is in every respect the most nutritive and digestive which i have ever partaken of. the _fruit_, at this moment, is perfectly delicious, especially, the pears. peaches and grapes are abundant in the streets, and exceedingly reasonable in price. last sunday, we dined at the palace of _schönbrunn;_ or rather, in the suite of apartments, which were formerly servant's offices,--but which are now fitted up in a very tasteful and gay manner, for the reception of sunday visitors: it being one of the principal fashionable places of resort on the sabbath. we had a half boiled and half stewed fowl, beefsteak, and fritters, for dinner. the, beef was perfectly uneatable, as being entirely _gone_--but the other dishes were good and well served. the dessert made amends for all previous grievances. it consisted of peaches and grapes--just gathered from the imperial garden: the emperor allowing his old servants (who are the owners of the taverns, and who gain a livelihood from sunday visitors) to partake of this privilege. the choicest table at paris or at london could not boast of finer specimens of the fruit in question. i may here add, that the _slaughter-houses_ are all in the suburbs--or, at any rate, without the ramparts. this is a good regulation; but it is horribly disgusting, at times, to observe carts going along, with the dead bodies of animals, hanging down the sides, with their heads cut off. of all cities in europe, vienna is probably the most distinguished for the excellence of its carriages of every description--and especially for its _hackney coaches._ i grant you, that there is nothing here comparable with our london carriages, made on the nicest principles of art: whether for springs, shape, interior accommodations, or luxury; but i am certain that, for almost every species of carriage to be obtained at london, you may purchase them _here_ at half the price. satin linings of yellow, pink, and blue, are very prevalent ... even in their hackney coaches. these latter, are, in truth, most admirable, and of all shapes: landau, barouche, phaeton, chariot, or roomy family coach. glass of every description, at vienna--from the lustre that illuminates the imperial palace to that which is used in the theatre--is excellent; so that you are sure to have plate glass in your fiacre. the coachmen drive swiftly, and delight in rectangular turns. they often come thundering down upon you unawares, and as the streets are generally very narrow, it is difficult to secure a retreat in good time. at the corners of the streets are large stone posts, to protect the houses from the otherwise constant attrition from the wheels. the streets are paved with large stones, and the noise of the wheels, arising from the rapidity of their motion,--re-echoed by the height of the houses, is no trifling trial to nervous strangers. of the chief objects of architecture which decorate street scenery, there are none, to my old-fashioned eyes, more attractive and more thoroughly beautiful and interesting--from a thousand associations of ideas--than places of worship--and of course, among these, none stands so eminently conspicuous as the mother-church, or the cathedral, which, in this place, is dedicated to _st. stephen_. the spire has been long distinguished for its elegance and height. probably these are the most appropriate, if not the only, epithets of commendation which can be applied to it. after strasbourg and ulm, it appears a second-rate edifice. not but what the spire may even vie with that of the former, and the nave may be yet larger than that of the latter: but, as a _whole_, it is much inferior to either--even allowing for the palpable falling off in the nave of strasbourg cathedral. the spire, or tower--for it partakes of both characters--is indeed worthy of general admiration. it is oddly situated, being almost detached--and on the _south_ side of the building. indeed the whole structure has a very strange, and i may add capricious, if not repulsive, appearance, as to its exterior. the western and eastern ends have nothing deserving of distinct notice or commendation. the former has a porch, which is called "_the giant's porch_:" it should rather be designated as that of the _dwarf_. it has no pretensions to size or striking character of any description. some of the oldest parts of the cathedral appear to belong to the porch of the eastern end. as you walk round the church, you cannot fail to be struck with the great variety of ancient, and to an englishman, whimsical looking mural monuments, in basso and alto relievos. some of these are doubtless both interesting and curious. but the spire[ ] is indeed an object deserving of particular admiration. it is next to that of strasbourg in height; being feet of vienna measurement. it may be said to begin to taper from the first stage or floor; and is distinguished for its open and sometimes intricate fretwork. about two-thirds of its height, just above the clock, and where the more slender part of the spire commences, there is a gallery or platform, to which the french quickly ascended, on their possession of vienna, to reconnoitre the surrounding country. the very summit of the spire is bent, or inclined to the north; so much so, as to give the notion that the cap or crown will fall in a short time. as to the period of the erection of this spire, it is supposed to have been about the middle, or latter end, of the fifteenth century. it has certainly much in common with the highly ornamental gothic style of building in our own country, about the reign of henry the vith. the coloured glazed tiles of the roof of the church are very disagreeable and _unharmonising_. these colours are chiefly green, red, and blue. indeed the whole roof is exceedingly heavy and tasteless. i will now conduct you to the interior. on entering, from the south-east door, you observe, to the left, a small piece of white marble--which every one touches, with the finger or thumb charged with holy water, on entering or leaving the cathedral. such have been the countless thousands of times that this piece of marble has been so touched, that, purely, from such friction, it has been worn nearly _half an inch_ below the general surrounding surface. i have great doubts, however, if this mysterious piece of masonry be as old as the walls of the church, (which may be of the fourteenth century) which they pretend to say it is. the first view of the interior of this cathedral, seen even at the most favourable moment--which is from about three till five o'clock--is far from prepossing. indeed, after what i had seen at rouen, paris, strasboug, ulm, and munich, it was a palpable disappointment. in the first place, there seems to be no grand leading feature of simplicity: add to which, darkness reigns every where. you look up, and discern no roof--not so much from its extreme height, as from the absolute want of windows. every thing not only looks dreary, but is dingy and black--from the mere dirt and dust which seem to have covered the great pillars of the nave--and especially the figures and ornament upon it--for the last four centuries. this is the more to be regretted, as the larger pillars are highly ornamented; having human figures, of the size of life, beneath sharply pointed canopies, running up the shafts. the extreme length of the cathedral is feet of vienna measurement. the extreme width, between the tower and its opposite extremity--or the transepts--is _ _ feet. there are comparatively few chapels; only four--but many _bethstücke_ or _prie-dieus_. of the former, the chapels of _savoy_ and _st. eloy_ are the chief: but the large sacristy is more extensive than either. on my first entrance, whilst attentively examining the choir, i noticed--what was really a very provoking, but probably not a very uncommon sight,--a maid servant deliberately using a long broom in sweeping the pavement of the high altar, at the moment when several very respectable people, of both sexes, were kneeling upon the steps, occupied in prayer. but the devotion of the people is incessant--all the day long,--and in all parts of the cathedral. the little altars, or _prie-dieus,_ seem to be innumerable. yonder kneels an emaciated figure, before a yet more emaciated crucifix. it is a female--bending down, as it were, to the very grave. she has hardly strength to hold together her clasped hands, or to raise her downcast eye. yet she prays--earnestly, loudly, and from the heart. near her, kneels a group of her own sex: young, active, and ardent--as she _once_ was; and even comely and beautiful ... as she _might_ have been. they evidently belong to the more respectable classes of society--and are kneeling before a framed and glazed picture of the virgin and child, of which the lower part is absolutely smothered with flowers. there is a natural, and as it were well-regulated, expression of piety among them, which bespeaks a genuineness of feeling and of devotion. meanwhile, service is going on in all parts of the cathedral. they are singing here: they are praying there: and they are preaching in a third place. but during the whole time, i never heard one single note of the organ. i remember only the other sunday morning--walking out beneath one of the brightest blue skies that ever shone upon man--and entering the cathedral about nine o'clock. a preacher was in the principal pulpit; while a tolerably numerous congregation was gathered around him. he preached, of course, in the german language, and used much action. as he became more and more animated, he necessarily became warmer, and pulled off a black cap--which, till then, he had kept upon his head: the zeal and piety of the congregation at the same time seeming to increase with the accelerated motions of the preacher. in other more retired parts, solitary devotees were seen--silent, and absorbed in prayer. among these, i shall not easily forget the head and the physiognomical expression of one old man--who, having been supported by crutches, which lay by the side of him--appeared to have come for the last time to offer his orisons to heaven. the light shone full upon his bald head and elevated countenance; which latter indicated a genuineness of piety, and benevolence, of disposition, not to be soured... even by the most-bitter of worldly disappointments! it seemed as if the old man were taking leave of this life, in full confidence of the rewards which await the righteous beyond the grave. not a creature was near him but myself;--when, on the completion of his devotions, finding that those who had attended him thither were not at hand to lead him away--he seemed to cast an asking eye of assistance upon me: nor did he look twice before that assistance was granted. i helped to raise him up; but, ere he could bring my hand in contact with his lips, to express his thankfulness--his friends ... apparently his daughter, and two grandchildren ... arrived--and receiving his benediction, quietly, steadily, and securely, led him forth from the cathedral. no pencil ... no pen ... can do justice to the entire effect of this touching picture. so much for the living. a word or two now for the dead. of course this latter alludes to the monuments of the more distinguished characters once resident in and near the metropolis. among these, doubtless the most elaborate is that of the _emperor frederick iii_.--in the florid gothic style, surmounted by a tablet, filled with coat-armour, or heraldic shields. some of the mural monuments are very curious, and among them are several of the early part of the sixteenth century--which represent the chins and even mouths of females, entirely covered by drapery: such as is even now to be seen ...and such as we saw on descending from the vosges; but among these monuments--both for absolute and relative antiquity--none will appear to the curious eye of an antiquary so precious as that of the head of the architect of the cathedral, whose name was _pilgram._ this head is twice seen--first, on the wall of the south side aisle, a good deal above the spectator's eye, and therefore in a foreshortened manner--as the following representation of it testifies;[ ] [illustration: s. fresman.] the second representation of it is in one of the heads in the hexagonal pulpit--in the nave, and in which the preacher was holding forth as before mentioned. some say that these heads represent one and the same person; but i was told that they were designated for those of the _master_ and _apprentice:_ the former being the apprentice, and the latter the master. the preceding may suffice for a description of this cathedral; in which, as i before observed, there is a palpable want of simplicity and of breadth of construction. the eye wanders over a large mass of building, without being able to rest upon any thing either striking from its magnificence, or delighting by its beauty and elaborate detail. the pillars which divide the nave from the side aisles, are however excluded from this censure. there is one thing--and a most lamentable instance of depraved taste it undoubtedly is--which i must not omit mentioning. it relates to the representation of our saviour. whether as a painting, or as a piece of sculpture, this sacred figure is generally made most repulsive--even, in the cathedral. it is meagre in form, wretched in physiognomical expression, and marked by disgusting appearances of blood about the forehead and throat. in the church of _st. mary_, supposed to be the oldest in vienna, as you enter the south door, to the left, there is a whole length standing figure of christ--placed in an obscure niche--of which the part, immediately under the chin, is covered with red paint, in disgusting imitation of blood: as if the throat had been recently cut,--and patches of paint, to represent drops of blood, are also seen upon the feet! in regard to other churches, that of _st. mary_, supposed to be, in part, as old as the xiiith century, has one very great curiosity, decidedly worthy of notice. it is a group on the outside, as you enter a door in a passage or court--through which the whole population of vienna should seem to pass in the course of the day. this group, or subject, represents our _saviour's agony in the garden of gethsemane_: the favourite subject of representation throughout austria. in the foreground, the figure of christ, kneeling, is sufficiently conspicuous. sometimes a handkerchief is placed between the hands, and sometimes not. his disciples are asleep by the side of him. in the middle ground, the soldiers, headed by judas iscariot, are leaping over the fence, and entering the garden to seize him: in the back ground, they are leading him away to caiphas, and buffeting him in the route. these latter groups are necessarily diminutive. the whole is cut in stone--i should think about three centuries ago--and painted after the life. as the people are constantly passing along, you observe, every now and then, some devout citizen dropping upon his knee, and repeating a hurried prayer before the figure of christ. the _church of the augustins_ is near at hand; and the contents of _that_ church are, to my taste and feelings, more precious than any of which vienna may boast. i allude to the famous monument erected to the memory of the wife of the present venerable duke albert of saxe teschen. it is considered to be the chef d'oeuvre of canova; and with justice. the church of the augustins laying directly in my way to the imperial library, i think i may safely say that i used, two mornings out of three, to enter it--on purpose to renew my acquaintance with the monument in question. my admiration increased upon every such renewal. take it, all in all, i can conceive nothing in art to go beyond it. it is alone worth a pilgrimage to vienna: nor will i from henceforth pine about what has perished from the hand of phidias or praxiteles--it is sufficient that this monument remains... from the chisel of canova. i will describe it briefly, and criticise it with the same freedom which i used towards the _madonna_ of the same sculptor, in the collection of the marquis de sommariva at paris.[ ] at the time of my viewing it, a little after ten o'clock, the organ was generally playing--and a very fine chant was usually being performed: rather soft, tender, and impressive--than loud and overwhelming. i own that, by a thousand associations of ideas, (which it were difficult to describe) this coincidence helped to give a more solemn effect to the object before me. you enter a door, immediately opposite to it--and no man of taste can view it, unexpectedly, for the first time, without standing still ... the very moment it meets his eyes! this monument, which is raised about four feet above the pavement, and is encircled by small iron palisades--at a distance just sufficient to afford every opportunity of looking correctly at each part of it--consists of several figures, in procession, which are about to enter an opened door, at the base of a pyramid of gray marble. over the door is a medallion, in profile, of the deceased... supported by an angel. to the right of the door is a huge lion couchant, asleep. you look into the entrance ... and see nothing ... but darkness: neither boundary nor termination being visible. to the right, a young man--resting his arm upon the lion's mane, is looking upwards, with an intensity of sorrowful expression. this figure is naked; and represents the protecting genius of the afflicted husband. to the left of the door, is the moving procession. one tall majestic female figure, with dishevelled hair, and a fillet of gold round her brow, is walking with a slow, measured step, embracing the urn which contains the ashes of the deceased. her head is bending down, as if her tears were mingling with the contents of the urn. the drapery of this figure is most elaborate and profuse, and decorated with wreaths of flowers. two children--symbolical, i suppose, of innocence and purity--walk by her side ... looking upwards, and scattering flowers. in the rear, appear three figures, which are intended to represent the charitable character of the deceased. of these, two are eminently conspicuous ... namely, an old man leaning upon the arm of a young woman ... illustrative of the bounty and benevolence of the duchess:--and intended to represent her liberality and kind-heartedness, equally in the protection of the old and feeble, as in that of the orphan and helpless young. the figures are united, as it were, by a youthful female, with a wreath of flowers; with which, indeed the ground is somewhat profusely strewn: so as, to an eye uninitiated in ancient costume, to give the subject rather a festive character. the whole is of the size of life.[ ] such is the mere dry descriptive detail of this master-piece of the art of canova. i now come to a more close and critical survey of it; and will first observe upon what appear to me to be the (perhaps venial) defects of this magnificent monument. in the first place, i could have wished the medallion of the duchess and the supporting angel--_elsewhere_. it is a common-place, and indeed, here, an irrelevant ornament. the deceased has passed into eternity. the apparently interminable excavation into which the figures are about to move, helps to impress your mind with this idea. the duchess is to be thought of ... or seen, in the mind's eye... as an inhabitant of _another world_ ... and therefore not to be brought to your recollection by a common-place representation of her countenance in profile--as an inhabitant of _earth._ besides, the chief female figure or mourner, about to enter the vault, is carrying her ashes in an urn: and i own it appears to me to be a little incongruous--or, at least, a little defective in that pure classical taste which the sculptor unquestionably possesses,--to put, what may be considered visible and invisible--or tangible and intangible--representations of the _same_ person before you at the _same_ time. if a representation of the figure of the duchess be necessary, it should not be in the form of a medallion. the pyramidal back-ground would doubtless have had a grander effect without it. the lion is also, to me, an objectionable subject. if allegory be necessary, it should be pure, and not mixed. if a _human figure_, at one end of the group, be considered a fit representation of benevolence ... the notion or idea meant to be conveyed by a _lion_, at the other end, should not be conveyed by the introduction of an animal. nor is it at all obvious--supposing an animal to be necessary--to understand why a lion, who may be considered as placed there to guard the entrance of the pyramid, should be represented _asleep?_ if he be sympathising with the general sorrow, he should not be sleeping; for acute affliction rarely allows of slumber. if his mere object be to guard the entrance, by sleeping he shews himself to be unworthy of trust. in a word, allegory, always bad in itself, should not be _mixed_; and we naturally ask what business lions and human beings have together? or, we suppose that the females in view have well strung nerves to walk thus leisurely with a huge lion--even sleeping--in front of them! the human figures are indeed delightful to contemplate. perfect in form, in attitude, and expression, they proclaim the powers of a consummate master. a fastidious observer might indeed object to the bold, muscular strength of the old man--as exhibited in his legs and arms--and as indicative of the maturity, rather than of the approaching extinction, of life ... but what sculptor, in the representation of such subjects, can resist the temptation of displaying the biceps and gastrocnemian muscles? the countenances are all exquisite: all full of nature and taste... with as little introduction, as may be, of grecian art. to my feelings, the figure of the young man--to the right of the lion--is the most exquisitely perfect. his countenance is indeed heavenly; and there is a play and harmony in the position and demarcation of his limbs, infinitely beyond any thing which i can presume to put in competition with it. in every point of view, in which i regarded this figure, it gained upon my admiration; and on leaving the church, for the last time, i said within myself--"if i have not seen the _belvedere apollo_, i have again and again viewed the monument to the memory of the _duchess albert of saxe-teschen_, by canova... and i am satisfied to return to england in consequence." from churches we will walk together to convents. here are only two about which i deem it necessary to give you any description; and these are, the _convent of the capuchins_, near the new market place, and that of the _franciscans_, near the street in which i lodge. the former is tenanted by long-bearded monks. on knocking at the outer gate, the door was opened by an apparently middle-aged man, upon whose long silvery, and broad-spreading beard, the light seemed to dart down with a surprisingly, picturesque effect. behind him was a dark cloister; or at least, a cloister very partially illumined--along which two younger monks were pacing in full costume. the person who opened the outward door proved to be the _porter_. he might, from personal respectability, and amplitude of beard, have been the _president_. on my servant's telling him our object was to view the imperial tombs, which are placed in a vault in this monastery, he disappeared; and we were addressed by a younger person, with a beard upon a comparatively diminutive scale, and with the top of his hair very curiously cut in a circular form. he professed his readiness to accompany us immediately into the receptacle of departed imperial grandeur. he spoke latin with myself, and his vernacular tongue with the valet. i was soon satisfied with the sepulchral spectacle. as a whole, it has a poor and even disagreeable effect: if you except one or two tombs, such as those of _francis i_. emperor of the romans, and _maria theresa_--which latter is the most elaborately ornamented of the whole: but it wants both space and light to be seen effectually, and is moreover i submit, in too florid a style of decoration. like the generality of them, it is composed of bronze. the tombs of the earlier emperors of germany lie in a long and gloomy narrow recess--where little light penetrates, and where there is little space for an accurate examination. i should call them rather _coffin-shells_ than monuments. when i noticed the tomb of the emperor joseph ii. to my guide, he seemed hardly to vouchsafe a glance at it ... adding, "yes, he is well known every where!" they rather consider him (from the wholesale manner in which the monasteries and convents were converted by him to civil purposes) as a sort of _softened-down henry viii_. upon the whole, the living interested me more than the dead ... in this gloomy retirement ... notwithstanding these vaults are said to contain very little short of fourscore tombs of departed emperors and monarchs. the monastery of the franciscans is really an object worth visiting ... if it be only to convince you of the comfort and happiness of ... _not_ being a _franciscan monk._ i went thither several times, and sauntered in the cloisters of the quadrangle. an intelligent middle-aged woman--a sort of housekeeper of the establishment--who conversed with me pretty fluently in the french language, afforded me all the information which i was desirous of possessing. she said she had nothing to do with the kitchen, or dormitories of the monks. they cooked their own meat, and made their own beds. you see these monks constantly walking about the streets, and even entering the hotels. they live chiefly upon alms. they are usually bare-headed, and bare-footed--with the exception of sandals. their dress is a thick brown cloak, with a cowl hanging behind in a peaked point: the whole made of the coarsest materials. they have no beards--and yet, altogether, they have a very squalid and dirty appearance. it was towards eight o'clock, when i walked for the first time, in the cloisters; and there viewed, amongst other mural decorations, an oil painting--in which several of their order are represented as undergoing martyrdom--by hanging, and severing their limbs. it was a horrid sight ... and yet the _living_ was not very attractive. although placed in the very heart of the metropolis of their country, this franciscan fraternity appears to be insensible of every comfort of society. to their palate, nothing seems to be so sweet as the tainted morsel upon the trencher--and to their ear, no sound more grateful than the melancholy echo, from the tread of their own cloister. every thing, which so much pleased and gratified me in the great austrian monasteries of chremsminster, st. florian, mÕlk, and gÕttwic, would, in such an atmosphere, and in such a tenement as the franciscan monastery here, have been chilled, decomposed, and converted into the very reverse of all former and cheerful impressions. no walnut-tree shelved libraries: no tier upon tier of clasp and knob-bound folios: no saloon, where the sides are emblazoned by salzburg marble; and no festive board, where the watchful seneschal never allows the elongated glass to remain five minutes unreplenished by rhenish wine of the most exquisite flavour! none of these, nor of any thing even remotely approximating to them, were to be witnessed, or partaken of, in the dreary abode of monachism which i have just described. you will be glad to quit such a comfortless residence; and i am equally impatient with yourself to view more agreeable sights. having visited the tombs of departed royalty, let us now enter the abodes--or rather palaces--of _living_ imperial grandeur. i have already told you that vienna, on the first glance of the houses, looks like a city of palaces; those buildings, which are professedly _palatial_, being indeed of a glorious extent and magnificence. and yet--it seems strange to make the remark ... will you believe me when i say, that, of the various palaces, or large mansions visited by me, that of the emperor is the least imposing--as a whole? the front is very long and lofty; but it has a sort of architectural tameness about it, which gives it rather the air of the residence of the lord chamberlains than of their regal master. yet the _saloon_, in this palace, must not be passed over in silence. it merits indeed warm commendation. the roof, which is of an unusual height, is supported by pillars in imitation of polished marble ... but why are they not marble _itself_? the prevailing colour is white--perhaps to excess; but the number and quality of the looking glasses, lustres, and chandeliers, strike you as the most prominent features of this interior. i own that, for pure, solid taste, i greatly preferred the never-to-be-forgotten saloon in the monastery of st. florian.[ ] the rooms throughout the palaces are rather comfortable than gorgeous--if we except the music and ball rooms. some scarlet velvet, of scarce and precious manufacture, struck me as exceedingly beautiful in one of the principal drawing rooms. i saw here a celebrated statue of a draped female, sitting, the workmanship of canova. it is worthy of the chisel of the master. as to paintings, there are none worth description on the score of the old masters. every thing of this kind seems to be concentrated in the palace of the belvedere. to the belvedere palace, therefore, let us go. i visited it with mr. lewis--taking our valet with us, immediately after breakfast--on one of the finest and clearest-skied september mornings that ever shone above the head of man. we had resolved to take the _ambras_, or the little belvedere, in our way; and to have a good, long, and uninterrupted view of the wonders of art--in a variety of departments. both the little belvedere and the large belvedere rise gradually above the suburbs; and the latter may be about a mile and a half from the ramparts of the city. the _ambras_ contains a quantity of ancient horse and foot armour; brought thither from a chateau of that name, near inspruck, and built by the emperor charles v. such a collection of old armour--which had once equally graced and protected the bodies of their wearers, among whom, the noblest names of which germany can boast may be enrolled--was infinitely gratifying to me. the sides of the first room were quite embossed with suspended shields, cuirasses, and breast-plates. the floor was almost filled by champions on horseback--yet poising the spear, or holding it in the rest--yet _almost_ shaking their angry plumes, and pricking the fiery sides of their coursers. here rode maximilian--and there halted charles his son. different suits of armour, belonging to the same character, are studiously shewn you by the guide: some of these are the foot, and some the horse, armour: some were worn in fight--yet giving evidence of the mark of the bullet and battle axe: others were the holiday suits of armour ... with which the knights marched in procession, or tilted at the tournament. the workmanship of the full-dress suits, in which a great deal of highly wrought gold ornament appears, is sometimes really exquisite. the second, or long room, is more particularly appropriated to the foot or infantry armour. in this studied display of much that is interesting from antiquity, and splendid from absolute beauty and costliness, i was particularly gratified by the sight of the armour which the emperor maximilian wore as a foot-captain. the lower part, to defend the thighs, consists of a puckered or plated steel-petticoat, sticking out at the bottom of the folds, considerably beyond the upper part. it is very simple, and of polished steel. a fine suit of armour--of black and gold--worn by an archbishop of salzburg in the middle of the fifteenth century, had particular claims upon my admiration. it was at once chaste and effective. the mace was by the side of it. this room is also ornamented by trophies taken from the turks; such as bows, spears, battle-axes, and scymitars. in short, the whole is full of interest and splendor. i ought to have seen the arsenal--which i learn is of uncommon magnificence; and, although not so curious on the score of antiquity, is yet not destitute of relics of the old warriors of germany. among these, those which belonged to my old bibliomaniacal friend corvinus, king of hungary, cut a conspicuous and very respectable figure. i fear it will be now impracticable to see the arsenal as it ought to be seen. it is now approaching mid-day, and we are walking towards the terrace in front of the great belvedere palace: built by the immortal eugene in the year , as a summer residence. probably no spot could have been selected with better judgment for the residence of a prince--who wished to enjoy, almost at the same moment, the charms of the country with the magnificence of a city view... unclouded by the dense fumes which for ever envelope our metropolis. it is in truth a glorious situation. walking along its wide and well cultivated terraces, you obtain the finest view imaginable of the city of vienna. indeed it may be called a picturesque view. the spire of the cathedral darts directly upwards, as it were, to the very heavens. the ground before you, and in the distance, is gently undulating; and the intermediate portion of the suburbs does not present any very offensive protrusions. more in the distance, the windings of the danube are seen; with its various little islands, studded with hamlets and fishing huts, lighted up by a sun of unusual radiance. indeed the sky, above the whole of this rich and civilized scene, was, at the time of our viewing it, almost of a dazzling hue: so deep and vivid a tint we had never before beheld. behind the palace, in the distance, you observe a chain of mountains which extends into hungary. as to the building itself, i must say that it is perfectly _palatial_; in its size, form, ornaments, and general effect. he must be fastidious indeed, who could desire a nobler residence for the most illustrious character in the kingdom! among the treasures, which it contains, it is now high time to enter and to look about us. yet what am i attempting?--to be your _cicerone_ ... in every apartment, covered with canvas or pannel, upon which colours of all hues, are seen from the bottom to the top of the palace!? it cannot be. my account, therefore, is necessarily a mere sketch. rubens, if any artist, seems here to "rule and reign without control!" two large rooms are filled with his productions; besides several other pictures, by the same hand, which are placed in different apartments. here it is that you see verified the truth of sir joshua's remark upon that wonderful artist: namely, that his genius seems to expand with the size of his canvas. his pencil absolutely riots here--in the most luxuriant manner--whether in the majesty of an altarpiece, in the gaiety of a festive scene [ ], or in the sobriety of portrait-painting. his _ignatius loyola_ and _st. francis xavier_--of the former class--each seventeen feet high, by nearly thirteen wide--are stupendous productions ... in more senses than one. the latter is, indeed, in my humble judgment, the most marvellous specimen of the powers of the painter which i have ever seen... and you must remember that both england and france are not without some of his most celebrated productions--which i have frequently examined. in the _old german school_, the series is almost countless: and of the greatest possible degree of interest and curiosity. here are to be seen _wohlgemuths, albert durers,_ both the _holbeins, lucas cranachs, ambergaus,_ and _burgmairs_ of all sizes and degrees of merit. among these ancient specimens--which are placed in curious order, in the very upper suite of apartments, and of which the back-grounds of several, in one solid coat of gilt, lighten up the room like a golden sunset--you must not fail to pay particular attention to a singularly curious old subject--representing the _life, miracles, and passion of our saviour_, in a series of one hundred and fifty-eight pictures--of which the largest is nearly three feet square, and every other about fifteen inches by ten. these subjects are painted upon eighty-six small pieces of wood; of which seventy-two are contained in six folding cabinets, each cabinet holding twelve subjects. in regard to _teniers, gerard dow, mieris, wouvermann,_ and _cuyp_ ... you must look _at home_ for more exquisite specimens. this collection contains, in the whole, not fewer than fifteen hundred paintings: of which the greater portion consists of pictures of very large dimensions. i could have lived here for a month; but could only move along with the hurried step, and yet more hurrying eye, of an ordinary visitor[ ]. about three english miles from the great belvedere--or rather about the same number of miles from vienna, to the right, as you approach the capital--is the famous palace of schÖnbrunn. this is a sort of summer-residence of the emperor; and it is here that his daughter, the ex-empress of france, and the young bonaparte usually reside. the latter never goes into italy, when his mother, as duchess of parma, pays her annual visit to her principality. at this moment her son is at baden, with the court. it was in the schönbrunn palace that his father, on the conquest of vienna, used to take up his abode; rarely, venturing into the city. he was surely safe enough here; as every chamber and every court yard was filled by the élite of his guard--whether as officers or soldiers. it is a most magnificent pile of building: a truly imperial residence--but neither the furniture nor the objects of art, whether connected with sculpture or painting, are deserving of any thing in the shape of a _catalogue raisonné_. i saw the chamber where young bonaparte frequently passes the day; and brandished his flag staff, and beat upon his drum. he is a soldier (as they tell me) every inch of him; and rides out, through the streets of vienna, in a carriage of state drawn by four or six horses, receiving the _homages_ of the passing multitude. to return to the schÖnbrunn palace. i have already told you that it is vast, and capable of accommodating the largest retinue of courtiers. it is of the _gardens_ belonging to them, that i would now only wish to say a word. these gardens are really worthy of the residence to which they are attached. for what is called ornamental, formal, gardening--enriched by shrubs of rarity, and trees of magnificence--enlivened by fountains--adorned by sculpture--and diversified by vistos, lawns, and walks--interspersed with grottos and artificial ruins--you can conceive nothing upon a grander scale than these: while a menagerie in one place (where i saw a large but miserably wasted elephant)--a flower garden in another--a labyrinth in a third, and a solitude in a fourth place--each, in its turn; equally beguiles the hour and the walk. they are the most spacious gardens i ever witnessed. the preceding is all i can tell you, from actual observation, about the palaces at vienna. those of the noblesse, with the exception of that of duke albert, i have not visited; as i learn that the families are from home--and that the furniture is not arranged in the order in which one could wish it to be for the purpose of inspection or admiration. but i must not omit saying a word or two about the treasury--where the court jewels and regalia are kept and where curious clocks and watches, of early nuremburg manufacture, will not fail to strike and astonish the antiquary. but there are other objects, of a yet more powerful attraction: particularly a series of _crowns_ studded with gems and precious stones, from the time of maximilian downwards. if i remember rightly, they shewed me here the crown which that famous emperor himself wore. it is, comparatively, plain, ponderous, and massive. among the more modern regal ornaments, i was shewn a precious diamond which fastened the cloak of the emperor or empress (i really forget which) on the day of coronation. it is large, oval-shaped, and, in particular points of view, seemed to flash a dazzling radiance throughout the room. it was therefore with a _refreshing_ sort of delight that i turned from "the wealth of either ind" to feast upon a set of old china, upon which the drawings are said to have been furnished by the pencil of raffaelle. i admit that this is a sort of _suspicious_ object of art: in other words, that, if all the old china, _said_ to be ornamented by the pencil of raffaelle, were really the production of that great man, he could have done nothing else but paint upon baked earth from his cradle to his grave--and all the _oil paintings_ by him _must_ be spurious. the present, however, having been presented by the pope, may be safely allowed to be genuine. in this suite of apartments--filled, from one extremity to the other, with all that is gay, and gorgeous, and precious, appertaining to royalty--i was particularly struck with the insignia of regality belonging to bonaparte as king of rome. it was a crown, sceptre, and robe--of which the two former were composed of metal, like brass--but of a form particularly chaste and elegant. there is great facility of access afforded for a sight of these valuable treasures, and i was surprised to find myself in a crowd of visitors at the outer door, who, upon gaining entrance, rushed forward in a sort of scrambling manner, and spread themselves in various directions about the apartment. upon seeing one of the guides, i took him aside, and asked him in a quiet manner "what was done with all these treasures when the french visited their capital?" he replied quickly, and emphatically, "they were taken away, and safely lodged in the emperor's hungarian dominions." you may remember that the conclusion of my last letter left me just about to start to witness an entertainment called _der berggeist_, or the _genius of the mountain;_ and that, in the opening of this letter, i almost made boast of the gaiety of my evening amusements. in short, for a man fond of music--and in the country of gluck, mozart and haydn--_not_ to visit the theatres, where a gratification of this sort, in all the perfection and variety of its powers, is held forth, might be considered a sort of heresy hardly to be pardoned. accordingly, i have seen _die zauberflöte, die hochzeit des figaro_, and _don giovanni:_ the two former quite enchantingly performed--but the latter greatly inferior to the representation of it at our own opera house. the band, although less numerous than ours, seems to be perfect in every movement of the piece. you hear, throughout, a precision, clearness, and brilliancy of touch--together with a facility of execution, and fulness of instrumental tone--which almost impresses you with the conviction that the performers were _born_ musicians. the principal opera house, or rather that in which the principal singers are engaged, is near the palace, and is called _im theater nächst dem kärnthnerthoc_. here i saw the _marriage of figaro_ performed with great spirit and éclat. a young lady, a new performer of the name, of _wranizth_, played susannah in a style exquisitely naïve and effective. she was one of the most natural performers i ever saw; and her voice seemed to possess equal sweetness and compass. she is a rising favourite, and full of promise. madame _hönig_ played mazelline rather heavily, and sung elaborately, but scientifically. the germans are good natured creatures, and always prefer commendation to censure. hence the plaudits with which these two rival syrens were received. the other, opera house, which is in the suburbs, and called _schauspielhause_, is by much the larger and more commodious place of entertainment. i seized with avidity the first opportunity of seeing the _zauberflöte_ here, and here also i saw don giovanni: the former as perfectly, in every respect, as the latter was inefficiently, performed. but here i saw the marvellous ballet, or afterpiece, called _die berggeist_; and i will tell you why i think it marvellous. it is entirely performed by children of all ages--from three to sixteen--with the exception of the venerable-bearded old gentleman, who is called the _genius of the mountain_. the author of the piece or ballet "von herrn ballet-meister"--is _friedrich horschelt:_ who, if in such a department or vocation in society a man may be said (and why should he not?) to "deserve well of his country," is, i think, eminently entitled to that distinction. the truth is, that, all the little rogues (i do not speak literally) whom we saw before us upon the stage--and who amount to nearly one hundred and twenty in number--were absolutely beggar-children, and the offspring of beggars, or of the lowest possible classes in society. they earned a livelihood by the craft of asking alms. mr. horschelt conceived the plan of converting these hapless little vagabonds into members of some honest and useful calling. he saw an active little match girl trip across the street, and solicit alms in a very winning and even graceful manner--"that shall be my _columbine_," said he:--and she was so. a young lad of a sturdy form, and sluggish movement, is converted into a _clown_: a slim youth is made to personate _harlequin_--and thus he forms and puts into action the different characters of his entertainment... absolutely and exclusively out of the very lowest orders of society. to witness what these metamorphosed little creatures perform, is really to witness a miracle. every thing they do is in consonance with a well-devised and well-executed plot. the whole is in harmony. they perform characters of different classes; sometimes allegorical, as præternatural beings--sometimes real, as rustics at one moment, and courtiers at another--but whether as fairies, or attendants upon goddesses--and whether the dance be formal or frolicksome--whether in groups of many, or in a pas de deux, or pas seul--they perform with surprising accuracy and effect. the principal performer, who had really been the little match girl above described, and who might have just turned her sixteenth year--would not have disgraced the boards of the paris opera--at a moment, even, when albert and bigotini were engaged upon them. i never witnessed any thing more brilliant and more perfect than she was in all her evolutions and pirouettes. nor are the lads behind hand in mettle and vigorous movement. one boy, about fourteen, almost divided the plaudits of the house with the fair nymph just mentioned--who, during the evening, had equally shone as a goddess, a queen, a fairy, and a columbine. the emperor of austria, who is an excellent good man--and has really the moral welfare of his people at heart--was at first a little fearful about the _effect_ of this early metamorphosis of his subjects into actors and actresses; but he learnt, upon careful enquiry, that these children, when placed out in the world--as they generally are before seventeen, unless they absolutely prefer the profession in which they have been engaged--generally turn out to be worthy and good members of society. their salaries are fixed and moderate, and thus superfluous wealth does not lead them into temptation. on the conclusion of the preceding piece, the stage was entirely filled by the whole juvenile _corps dramatique_--perhaps amounting to about one hundred and twenty in number. they were divided into classes, according to size, dress, and talent. after a succession of rapid evolutions, the whole group moved gently to the sound of soft music, while masses of purple tinted clouds descended, and alighted about them. some were received into the clouds--which were then lifted up--and displayed groups of the smallest children upon their very summits, united by wreaths of roses; while the larger children remained below. the entire front of the stage, up to the very top, was occupied by the most extraordinary and most imposing sight i ever beheld--and as the clouds carried the whole of the children upwards, the curtain fell, and the piece concluded. on its conclusion, the audience were in a perfect frenzy of applause, and demanded the author to come forward and receive the meed of their admiration. he quickly obeyed their summons--and i was surprised, when i saw him, at the youthfulness of his appearance, the homeliness of his dress, and the simplicity of his manners. he thrice bowed to the audience, laying his hand the same number of times upon his heart. i am quite sure that, if he were to come to london, and institute the same kind of exhibition, he would entirely fill drury lane or covent garden--as i saw the _schauspielhause_ filled--with parents and children from top to bottom. but a truce to _in-door_ recreations. you are longing, no doubt, to scent the evening breeze along the banks of the prater, or among the towering elms of the augarten--both public places of amusement within about a league of the ramparts of the city. it was the other sunday evening when i visited the prater, and when--as the weather happened to be very fine--it was considered to be full: but the absence of the court, and of the noblesse, necessarily gave a less joyous and splendid aspect to the carriages and their attendant liveries. in your way to this famous place of sabbath evening promenade, you pass a celebrated coffee house, in the suburbs, called the _leopoldstadt_, which goes by the name of the _greek coffee-house_--on account of its being almost entirely frequented by greeks--so numerous at vienna. do not pass it, if you should ever come hither, without entering it--at least _once_. you would fancy yourself to be in greece: so thoroughly characteristic are the countenances, dresses, and language of every one within. [illustration: the prater, vienna.] but yonder commences the procession ... of horse and foot: of cabriolets, family coaches, german waggons, cars, phaetons, and landaulets ... all moving in a measured manner, within their prescribed ranks, towards the prater. we must accompany them without loss of time. you now reach the prater. it is an extensive flat, surrounded by branches of the danube, and planted on each side with double rows of horse chesnut trees. the drive, in one straight line, is probably a league in length. it is divided by two roads, in one of which the company move _onward_, and in the other they _return_. consequently, if you happen to find a hillock only a few feet high, you may, from thence, obtain a pretty good view of the interminable procession of the carriages before mentioned: one current of them, as it were, moving forward, and another rolling backward. but, hark!--the notes of a harp are heard to the left ... in a meadow, where the foot passengers often digress from the more formal tree-lined promenade. a press of ladies and gentlemen is quickly seen. you mingle involuntarily with them: and, looking forward, you observe a small stage erected, upon which a harper sits and two singers stand. the company now lie down upon the grass, or break into standing groups, or sit upon chairs hired for the occasion--to listen to the notes so boldly and so feelingly executed.[ ] the clapping of hands, and exclamations of bravo! succeed: and the sounds of applause, however warmly bestowed, quickly die away in the open air. the performers bow: receive a few kreutschers ... retire; and are well satisfied. the sound of the trumpet is now heard behind you. tilting feats are about to be performed: the coursers snort and are put in motion: their hides are bathed in sweat beneath their ponderous housings; and the blood, which flows freely from the pricks of their riders' spurs, shews you with what earnestness the whole affair is conducted. there, the ring is thrice carried off at the point of the lance. feats of horsemanship follow in a covered building, to the right; and the juggler, conjurer, or magician, displays his dexterous feats, or exercises his potent spells ... in a little amphitheatre of trees, at a distance beyond. here and there rise more stately edifices, as theatres ... from the doors of which a throng of heated spectators is pouring out, after having indulged their grief or joy at the mary stuart of schiller, or the----of----.. in other directions, booths, stalls, and tables are fixed; where the hungry eat, the thirsty drink, and the merry-hearted indulge in potent libations. the waiters are in a constant state of locomotion. rhenish wine sparkles here; confectionary glitters there; and fruit looks bright and tempting in a third place. no guest turns round to eye the company; because he is intent upon the luxuries which invite his immediate attention--or he is in close conversation with an intimate friend, or a beloved female. they talk and laugh,--and the present seems to be the happiest moment of their lives. all is gaiety and good humour. you return again to the foot-promenade, and look sharply about you, as you move onward, to catch the spark of beauty, or admire the costume of taste, or confess the power of expression. it is an albanian female who walks yonder ... wondering, and asking questions, at every thing she sees. the proud jewess, supported by her husband and father, moves in another direction. she is covered with brocade and flaunting ribbands; but she is abstracted from every thing around her ... because her eyes are cast downwards upon her stomacher, or sideways to obtain a glimse of what may be called her spangled epaulettes. her eye is large and dark: her nose is aquiline: her complexion is of an olive brown: her stature is majestic, her dress is gorgeous, her gait is measured--and her demeanour is grave and composed. "she _must_ be very rich," you say--as she passes on. "she is _prodigiously_ rich," replies the friend, to whom you put the question:--for seven virgins, with nosegays of choicest flowers, held up her bridal train; and the like number of youths, with silver-hilted swords, and robes of ermine and satin, graced the same bridal ceremony. her father thinks he can never do enough for her; and her husband, that he can never love her sufficiently. whether she be happy or not, in consequence, we have no time to stop to enquire ... for, see yonder! three "turbaned turks" make their advances. how gaily, how magnificently they are attired! what finely proportioned limbs--what beautifully formed features! they have been carousing, peradventure, with some young greeks--who have just saluted them, en passant--at the famous coffee-house before-mentioned. every thing around you is novel and striking; while the verdure of the trees and lawns is yet fresh, and the sun does not seem yet disposed to sink below the horizon. the carriages still move on, and return, in measured procession. those who are within, look earnestly from the windows--to catch a glance of their passing friends. the fair hand is waved here; the curiously-painted fan is shaken there; and the repeated nod is seen in almost every other passing landaulet. not a heart seems sad; not a brow appears to be clouded with care. such--or something like the foregoing--is the scene which usually passes on a sunday evening--perhaps six months out of the twelve--upon the famous prater at vienna; while the tolling bell of st. stephen's tower, about nine o'clock--and the groups of visitors hurrying back, to get home before the gates of the city are shut against them--usually conclude the scene just described. and now, my good friend, methinks i have given you a pretty fair account of the more prominent features of this city--in regard to its public sights; whether as connected with still or active life: as churches, palaces, or theatres. it remains, therefore, to return again, briefly, but yet willingly, to the subject of books; or rather, to the notice of two _private collections,_ especially deserving of description--and of which, the first is that of the emperor himself. his majesty's collection of books and prints is kept upon the second and third floors of a portion of the building connected with the great imperial library. mr. t. young is the librarian; and he also holds the honourable office of being secretary of his majesty's privy council. he is well deserving of both situations, for he fills them with ability and success. he has the perfect appearance of an englishman, both in figure and face. as he speaks french readily and perfectly well, our interviews have been frequent, and our conversations such as have led me to think that we shall not easily forget each other. but for the library, of which he is the guardian. it is contained in three or four rooms of moderate dimensions, and has very much the appearance of an english country gentleman's collection of about , volumes. the bindings are generally in good taste: in full-gilt light and gray calf--with occasional folios and quartos resplendent in morocco and gold. i hardly know when i have seen a more cheerful and comfortable looking library; and was equally gratified to find such a copious sprinkling of publications from old england. but my immediate, and indeed principal object, was, a list of a few of the _rarities_ of the emperor's private collection, as well in ms. as in print. mr. young placed before me much that was exquisite and interesting in the former, and splendid and creditable in the latter, department. he begged of me to judge with my own eyes, and determine for myself; and he would then supply me with a list of what he considered to be most valuable and splendid in the collection. accordingly, what here ensues, must be considered as the united descriptions of my guide and myself:--mr. young having composed his memoranda in the latin language. first, of the manuscripts. the _gospels;_ a vellum folio:--with illuminated capitals, and thirteen larger paintings, supposed to be of the thirteenth--but i suspect rather of the fourteenth--century. a _breviary ... "for the use of charles the bold, duke of burgundy_" this vellum ms. is of the fifteenth century, and was executed for the distinguished character to whom it is expressly dedicated. this is really an elegant volume: written in the gothic character of the period, and sprinkled with marginal and capital initial decorations. here are--as usual in works of this kind, executed for princes and great men--divers illuminations of figures of saints, of which there are three of larger size than the rest: and, of these three, one is eminently interesting, as exhibiting a small portrait of duke charles himself, kneeling before his tutelary saint. here is an exceedingly pretty octavo volume of _hours,_ of the fifteenth century, fresh and sparkling in its illuminations, with marginal decorations of flowers, monsters, and capriccios. it is in the binding of the time--the wood, covered with gilt ornaments. _office of the virgin:_ a neat vellum ms. of the fourteenth century--with ornamented capital initials and margins, and about two dozen of larger illuminations. but the chief attraction of this ms. arises from the text having been written by four of the most celebrated princesses of the house of austria, whose names are inscribed in the first fly leaf. here is a "_boccace des cas des nobles_" by laurent premier fait--which is indeed every where. nor must a sprinkle of _roman classics_ be omitted to be noticed, however briefly. a _celsus, portions of livy,_ the _metamorphosis of ovid_, _seneca's tragedies_, the _Æneid of virgil_, and _juvenal_: none, i think, of a later period than the beginning or middle of the fifteenth century--just before the invention of printing. among the mss. of a miscellaneous class, are two which i was well pleased to examine: namely, the _funerailles des reines de france_, in folio--adorned with eleven large illuminations of royal funerals--and a work entitled _mayni jasonis juris consulti eq. rom. cæs., &c, epitalamion, in_ to. the latter ms. is, in short, an epithalamium upon the marriage of maximilian the great and blanche maria, composed by m. jaso, who was a ducal senator, and attached to the embassy which returned with the destined bride for maximilian. what is its _chief_ ornament, in my estimation, are two sweetly executed small portraits of the royal husband and his consort. i was earnest to have fac-similes of them; and mr. young gave me the strongest assurances that my wishes should be attended to.[ ] thus much; or perhaps thus little, for the mss. still more brief must be my account of the printed books: and first for a fifteener or two. it is an edition of _dio chrysostom de regno_, without date, or name of printer, in to.; but most decidedly executed (as i told mr. young) by _valdarfer_. what renders this copy exceedingly precious is, that it is printed upon vellum; and is, i think, the only known copy so executed. it is in beautiful condition. here is a pretty volume of _hours_, in latin, with a french metrical version, printed in the fifteenth century, without date, and struck off upon vellum. it has wood-cuts, which are coloured of the time. from a copy of ms. verses, at the beginning of the volume, we learn that "the author of this metrical version was _peter gringore,_ commonly called _vaudemont_, herald at arms to the duke of lorraine; who dedicated and brought this very copy to _renatus of bourbon_." i was much struck with a magnificent folio _missal_, printed at venice by that skilful typographical artist _i.h. de landoia,_ in --upon vellum: with the cuts coloured.[ ] a few small vellum _hours_ by _vostre_ and vivian are sufficiently pretty. in the class of books printed upon vellum, and continuing with the sixteenth century, i must not fail to commence with the notice of two copies of the _tewrdannckh_, each of the date of , and each upon vellum. one is coloured, and the other not coloured. mr. young describes the former in the following animated language: "exemplar omnibus numeris absolutum, optimeque servatum. præstantissimum, rarissimumque tum typographicæ, tum xylographicæ artis, monumentum." _lucani pharsalia,_ . folio. printed by degen. a beautiful copy, of a magnificent book, upon vellum; illustrated by ten copper plates. _m.c. frontonis opera: edidit maius mediol_. . to. an unique copy; upon vellum. _flore medicale decrite par chaumeton & peinte par mme. e. panckoucke & i.f. turpin. paris,_ . supposed to be unique, as a vellum copy; with the original drawings, and the cuts printed in bistre. here is also a magnificent work, called "_omaggio delle provincie venetæ_" upon the nuptials of the present emperor and empress of austria. it consists of seventeen copper-plates, printed upon vellum, and preserved in two cases, covered with beautiful ornaments and figures, in worked gold and silver, &c. of this magnificent production of art, there were two copies only printed upon vellum, and this is one of them. up stairs, on the third floor, is kept his majesty's collection of engraved portraits--which amount, as mr. young informed me, to not fewer than , in number. they commence with the earliest series, from the old german and italian masters, and descend regularly to our own times. of course such a collection contains very much that is exquisite and rare in the series of _british portraits_. mr. young is an italian by birth; but has been nurtured, from earliest youth, in the austrian dominions. he is a man of strong cultivated parts, and so fond of the literature of the "_zodiacus vitæ_" of _marcellus palingenius_--translated by our _barnabe googe_: of the editions of which translation he was very desirous that i should procure him a copious and correct list. but it is the gentle and obliging manners--the frank and open-hearted conversation--and, above all, the high-minded devotedness to his royal master and to his interests, that attach, and ever will attach, mr. young to me--by ties of no easily dissoluble nature. we have parted ... perhaps never to meet again; but he may rest assured that the recollection of his kindnesses ("semper honos nomenque," &c.) will never be obliterated from my memory.[ ] scarcely a stone's throw from the imperial library, is the noble mansion of the venerable duke albert of _saxe-teschen:_ the husband of the lady to whose memory canova has erected the proudest trophy of his art. this amiable and accomplished nobleman has turned his eightieth year; and is most liberal and kind in the display of all the treasures which belong to him.[ ] these "treasures" are of a first-rate character; both as to _drawings_ and _prints_. he has no rival in the _former_ department, and even surpasses the emperor in the latter. i visited and examined his collection (necessarily in a superficial manner) twice; paying only particular attention to the drawings of the italian school--including those of claude lorraine. i do not know what is in our _own_ royal collection, but i may safely say that our friend mr. ottley has some finer _michel angelos and raffaelles_--and the duke of devonshire towers, beyond all competition, in the possession of _claude lorraines_. yet you are to know that the drawings of duke albert amount to nearly , in number. they are admirably well arranged--in a large, light room--overlooking the ramparts. having so recently examined the productions of the earlier masters in the german school, at munich--but more particularly in prince eugene's collection of prints, in the imperial library here--i did not care to look after those specimens of the same masters which were in the port folios of the duke albert. the _albert durer_ drawings, however, excited my attention, and extorted the warmest commendation. it is quite delightful to learn (for so m. bartsch told me--the duke himself being just now at baden) that this dignified and truly respectable old man, yet takes delight in the treasures of his own incomparable collection. "whenever i visit him (said my "fidus achates" m.b.) he begs me to take a chair and sit beside him; and is anxious to obtain intelligence of any thing curious, or rare, or beautiful, which may add to the worth of his collection." it is now high time, methinks, to take leave not only of public and private collections of books, but of almost every thing else in vienna. yet i must add a word connected with literature and the fine arts. as to the former, it seems to sleep soundly. few or no literary societies are encouraged, few public discussions are tolerated, and the capital of the empire is without either _reviews_ or _institutions_--which can bear the least comparison with our own. the library of the university is said, however, to hold fourscore thousand volumes. few critical works are published there; and for _one_ greek or roman classic put forth at vienna, they have _half_ a _score_ at leipsic, franckfort, leyden, and strasbourg. but in oriental literature, m. hammer is a tower of strength, and justly considered to be the pride of his country. the academy of painting is here a mere shadow of a shade. in the fine arts, munich is as six to one beyond vienna. a torpidity, amounting to infatuation, seems to possess those public men who have influence both on the councils and prosperity of their country. when the impulse for talent, furnished by the antique gems belonging to the imperial collection,[ ] is considered, it is surprising how little has been accomplished at vienna for the last century. m. bartsch is, however, a proud exception to any reproach arising from the want of indigenous talent. his name and performances alone are a host against such captious imputations.[ ] there wants only a few wiser heads, and more active spirits, in some of the upper circles of society, and vienna might produce graphic works as splendid as they would be permanent. we will now leave the city for the country, or rather for the immediate neighbourhood of vienna; and then, having, i think, sent you a good long vienna despatch, must hasten to take leave--not only of yourself, but of this metropolis. whether i shall again write to you before i cross the rhine on my return home--is quite uncertain. let me therefore make the most of the present: which indeed is of a most unconscionable length. turn, for one moment, to the opening of it--and note, there, some mention made of certain monasteries--one of which is situated at closterneuburg, the other in the suburbs. i will first take you to the former--a pleasant drive of about nine miles from hence. mr. lewis, myself, and our attendant rohfritsch, hired a pair of horses for the day; and an hour and a half brought us to a good inn, or restaurateur's immediately opposite the monastery in question. in our route thither, the danube continued in sight all the way--which rendered the drive very pleasant. the river may be the best part of a mile broad, near the monastery. the sight of the building in question was not very imposing, after those which i had seen in my route to vienna. the monastery is, in fact, an incomplete edifice; but the foundations of the building are of an ancient date.[ ] having postponed our dinner to a comparatively late hour, i entered, as usual, upon the business of the monastic visit. the court-yard, or quadrangle, had a mean appearance; but i saw enough of architectural splendour to convince me that, if this monastery had been completed according to the original design, it would have ranked among the noblest in austria. on obtaining admission, i enquired for the librarian, but was told that he had not yet (two o'clock) risen from dinner. i apologised for the intrusion, and begged respectfully to be allowed to wait till he should be disposed to leave the dining-room. the attendant, however, would admit of no such arrangement; for he instantly disappeared, and returned with a monk, habited in the _augustine_ garb, with a grave aspect and measured step. he might be somewhere about forty years of age. as he did not understand a word of french, it became necessary again to brush up my latin. he begged i would follow him up stairs, and in the way to the library, would not allow me to utter one word further in apology for my supposed rudeness in bringing him thus abruptly from his "symposium." a more good natured man seemingly never opened his lips. having reached the library, the first thing he placed before me--as the boast and triumph of their establishment--was, a large paper copy (in quarto) of an edition of the _hebrew bible_, edited by i. hahn, one of their fraternity, and published in , vols.[ ] this was accomplished under the patronage of the head of the monastery, _gaudentius dunkler_: who was at the sole expense of the paper and of procuring new hebrew types. i threw my eye over the dedication to the president, by hahn, and saw the former with pleasure recognised as the modern ximenes. having thanked the librarian for a sight of these volumes--of which there is an impression in an octavo and cheap form, "for the use of youth"--i begged that i might have a sight of the _incunabula typographica_ of which i had heard a high character. he smiled, and said that a few minutes would suffice to undeceive me in this particular. whereupon he placed before me ... such a set of genuine, unsoiled, uncropt, _undoctored_, ponderous folio tomes ... as verily caused my eyes to sparkle, and my heart to leap! they were, upon the whole---and for their number--_such_ copies as i had never before seen. you have here a very accurate account of them--taken, with the said copies "oculis subjectis." _st. austin de civitate dei_, . _folio_. a very large and sound copy, in the original binding of wood; but not free from a good deal of ms. annotation. _mentelin's german bible_; somewhat cropt, and in its second binding, but sound and perfect. _supposed first german bible_: a large and fine copy, in its first binding of wood. _apuleius_, . folio. the largest and finest copy which, i think, i ever beheld--with the exception of some slight worm holes at the end. _livius_, . folio. vols. _printed by v. de spira._ in the original binding. when i say that this copy appears to be full as fine as that in the collection of mr. grenville, i bestow upon it the highest possible commendation. _plutarchi vit. parall._ vol. folio. in the well known peculiarly shaped letter r. this copy, in one magnificent folio volume, is the largest and finest i ever saw: but--eheu! a few leaves are wanting at the end. _polybius. lat._ . folio. the printers are sweynheym and pannartz. a large, fine copy; in the original binding of wood: but four leaves at the end, with a strong foxy tint at top, are worm-eaten in the middle. let me pursue this _amusing_ strain; for i have rarely, within so small a space--in any monastic library i have hitherto visited--found such a sprinkling of classical volumes. _plinius senior_, . folio. printed by jenson. a prodigiously fine, large copy. a ms. note, prefixed, says: "_hunc librum comparuit jacobus pemperl pro viij t d. an [ ] ," &c. xenophontis cyropædia_. lat. _curante philelpho_. with the date of the translation, . a very fine copy of a well printed book. _mammotrectus_, . folio. printed by schoeffher. a fine, white, tall copy; in its original wooden binding. _sti. jeronimi epistolæ_. . folio. printed by sweynheym and pannartz. in one volume: for size and condition probably unrivalled. in its first binding of wood. _gratiani decretales_. . folio. printed by schoeffher. upon vellum: in one enormous folio volume, and in an unrivalled state of perfection. perhaps, upon the whole, the finest vellum schoeffher in existence. it is in its original binding, but some of the leaves are loose. _opus consiliorum i. de calderi_. . idem opus: _anthonii de burtrio_. . folio. each work printed by _adam rot, metensis_: a rare printer, but of whose performances i have now seen a good number of specimens. these works are in one volume, and the present is a fine sound copy. _petri lombardi quat. lib. sentent_. folio. this book is without name of printer or date; but i should conjecture it to be executed in eggesteyn's largest gothic character, and, from a ms. memorandum at the end, we are quite sure that the book was printed in at latest. the memorandum is as follows: "_iste liber est magistri leonardi fruman de hyersaw_, ." such appeared to me to be the choicer, and more to be desiderated, volumes in the monastic library of closterneuberg--which a visit of about a couple of hours only enabled me to examine. i say "_desiderated_"--my good friend--because, on returning home, i revolved within myself what might be done with propriety towards the _possession_ of them.[ ] having thanked the worthy librarian, and expressed the very great satisfaction afforded me by a sight of the books in question--which had fully answered the high character given of them--i returned to the auberge--dined with an increased appetite in consequence of such a sight--and, picking up a "white stone," as a lucky omen, being at the very extent of my _bibliographical_, _antiquarian_, and _picturesque tour_--returned to vienna, to a late cup of tea; well satisfied, in every respect, with this most agreeable excursion. there now remains but one more subject to be noticed--and, then, farewell to this city--and hie for manheim, paris, and old england! that one subject is again connected with old books and an old monastery ... which indeed the opening of this letter leads you to anticipate. in that part of the vast suburbs of vienna which faces the north, and which is called the rossau--there stands a church and a _capuchin convent_, of some two centuries antiquity: the latter, now far gone to decay both in the building and revenues. the outer gate of the convent was opened--as at the capuchin convent which contains the imperial sepulchres--by a man with a long, bushy, and wiry beard ... who could not speak one word of french. i was alone, and a hackney coach had conveyed me thither. what was to be done. "_bibliothecam hujusce monasterii valdè videre cupio--licetne domine?"_ the monk answered my interrogatory with a sonorous "_imo_:" and the gates closing upon us, i found myself in the cloisters--where my attendant left me, to seek the principal and librarian. in two minutes, i observed a couple of portly capuchins, pacing the pavement of the cloister, and approaching me with rather a hurried step. on meeting, they saluted me formally--and assuming a cheerful air, begged to conduct me to the library. we were quickly within a room, of very moderate dimensions, divided into two compartments, of which the shelves were literally thronged and crammed with books, lying in all directions, and completely covered with dust. it was impossible to make a selection from such an indigested farrago: but the backs happening to be lettered, this afforded me considerable facility. i was told that the "whole library was at my disposal!"--which intelligence surprised and somewhat staggered me. the monks seemed to enjoy my expression of astonishment. i went to work quickly; and after upwards of an hour's severe rummaging, among uninteresting folios and quartos of medicine, canon-law, scholastic metaphysics, and dry comments upon the decretals of popes boniface and gratian--it was rather from courtesy, than complete satisfaction, that i pitched upon a few ... of a miscellaneous description--begging to have the account, for which the money should be immediately forthcoming. they replied that my wishes should be instantly attended to--but that it would be necessary to consult together to reconsider the prices--and that a porter should be at the hotel of the _crown of hungary_, with the volumes selected--to await my final decision. as a _book-bill_ sent from a monastery, and written in the latin language, may be considered _unique_ in our country--and a curiosity among the _roxburghers _--i venture to send you a transcript of it: premising, that i retained the books, and paid down the money: somewhere about _ l. s. d_. you will necessarily smile at the epithets bestowed upon your friend. plurimum reverende, ac venerande domine! mitto cum hisce, quos tibi seligere placuit, libros, eosdemque hic breviter describo, addito pretio, quo nobis conventum est; et quidem ex catalogo desumptos: florins. missale rom. pro pataviensis ecclæ ritu. missa defunctorum. val. martialis epigrammatum opus. xenophontis apologia socratis epulario &c. de conceptu et triplici mariæ v. candore ac demum trithemii annales hirsaug. et aristotelis opera edit. sylburgii ----- quæ cuncta tibi optime convenire, teque valere perpetim precor et opto. p. joan. sarcander mra. _ord. serv. b.m.v._ this is the last _bibliomaniacal_ transaction in which i am likely to be engaged at vienna; for, within thirty-six hours from hence, the post horses will be in the archway of this hotel, with their heads turned towards old england. in that direction my face will be also turned ... for the next month or five weeks to come; being resolved upon spending the best part of a fortnight of those five weeks, at _ratisbon_, _nuremberg_, and _manheim_. you may therefore expect to hear from me again--certainly for the _last_ time--at manheim, just before crossing the rhine for chalons sur marne, metz, and paris. i shall necessarily have but little leisure on the road--for a journey of full miles is to be encountered before i reach the hither bank of the rhine at manheim. farewell then to vienna:--a long, and perhaps final farewell! if i have arrived at a moment when this capital is comparatively thinned of its population, and bereft of its courtly splendors--and if this city may be said to be _now_ dull, compared with what its _winter_ gaieties will render it--i shall nevertheless not have visited it in vain. books, whether as mss. or printed volumes, have been inspected by me with an earnestness and profitable result--not exceeded by any previous similar application: while the company of men of worth, of talents, and of kindred tastes, has rendered my social happiness complete. the best of hearts, and the friendliest of dispositions, are surely to be found in the capital of austria. farewell. it is almost the hour of midnight--and not a single note of the harp or violin is to be heard in the streets. the moon shines softly and sweetly. god bless you. [ ] in hartman schedel's time, these suburbs seem to have been equally distinguished. "habet (says he, speaking of vienna) suburbia maxima et ambiciosa." _chron. norimb._ . fol. xcviii. rev. [ ] schedel's general description of the city of vienna, which is equally brief and spirited, may deserve to be quoted. "vienna autem urbs magnifica ambitu murorum cingitur duorum millium passuum: habet fossa et vallo cincta: urbs autem fossatum magnum habet: undique aggerem prealtum: menia deinde spissa et sublimia frequentesque turres; et propugnacula ad bellum prompta. Ædes civium amplae et ornatae: structura solida et firma, altæ domorum facies magnificaeque visuntur. unum id dedecori est, quod tecta plerumque ligna contegunt pauca lateres. cetera edificia muro lapideo consistunt. pictæ domus, et interius et exterius splendent. ingressus cuiusque domum in ædes te principis venisse putabis." _ibid._ this is not an exaggerated description. a little below, schedel says "there is a monastery, called st. jerome, (much after the fashion of our _magdalen_) in which reformed prostitutes are kept; and where, day and night, they sing hymns in the teutonic dialect. if any of them are found relapsing into their former sinful ways, they are thrown headlong into the danube." "but (adds he) they lead, on the contrary, a chaste and holy life." [ ] i suspect that the houses opposite the palace are of comparatively recent construction. in _pfeffel's viva et accurata delineatio_ of the palaces and public buildings of vienna, (oblong folio,) the palace faces a wide place or square. eighteen sculptured human figures, apparently of the size of life, there grace the topmost ballustrade in the copper-plate view of this truly magnificent residence. [ ] [recently however the number of _restaurateurs_ has become considerable.] [ ] in hartmann schedel's time, there appears to have been a very considerable traffic in wine at vienna: "it is incredible (says he) what a brisk trade is stirring in the article of wine,[ ] in this city. twelve hundred horses are daily employed for the purposes of draught--either for the wine drank at vienna, or sent up the danube--against the stream--with amazing labour and difficulty. it is said that the wine cellars are frequently as deep _below_ the earth, as the houses are _above_ it." schedel goes on to describe the general appearance of the streets, and the neatness of the interiors, of the houses: adding, "that the windows are generally filled with stained glass, having iron-gratings without, where numerous birds sing in cages. the winter (remarks he) sets in here very severely." _chron. norimb_. , fol. xcix. [ ] the vintage about vienna should seem to have been equally abundant a century after the above was written. in the year , when a severe shock of earthquake threatened destruction to the tower of the cathedral--and it was absolutely necessary to set about immediate repairs--the _liquid_ which was applied to make the most astringent _mortar_, was wine: "l'on se servit de _vin,_ qui fut alors en abondance, pour faire le _plâtre_ de cette batise." _denkmahle der baukunst und bildneren des mittelalters in dem oesterreichischen kaiserthume_. germ. fr. part iii. p. . - . [ ] there is a good sized (folded) view of the church, or rather chiefly of the south front of the spire, in the "_vera et accurata delineatio omnium templorum et cænobiorum_" of vienna, published by pfeffel in the year , oblong folio. [ ] this head has been published as the first plate in the third livraison of the ecclesiastical antiquities of vienna--accompanied by french and german letter-press. i have no hesitation in saying that, without the least national bias or individual partiality, the performance of mr. lewis--although much smaller, is by far the most _faithful_; nor is the engraving less superior, than the drawing, to the production of the vienna artist. this latter is indeed faithless in design and coarse in execution. beneath the head, in the original sculpture, and in the latter plate, we read the inscription m.a.p. . it is no doubt an interesting specimen of sculpture of the period. [ ] vol. ii. p. - . [ ] there is a large print of it (which i saw at vienna) in the line manner, but very indifferently executed. but of the last, detached group, above described, there is a very fine print in the line manner. [ ] see p. ante. [ ] as in that of the _feast of venus in the island of cythera_: about eleven feet by seven. there is also another, of himself, in the garden of love--with his two wives--in the peculiarly powerful and voluptuous style of his pencil. the picture is about four feet long. his portrait of one of his wives, of the size of life, habited only in an ermine cloak at the back (of which the print is well known) is an extraordinary production ... as to colour and effect. [ ] i am not sure whether any publication, connected with this extraordinary collection, has appeared since _chrétien de mechel's catalogue des tableaux de la galerie impériale et royale de vienne_; , vo.: which contains, at the end, four folded copper-plates of the front elevations and ground plans of the great and little belvederes. he divides his work into the _venetian, roman, florentine, bolognese_, and _ancient and modern flemish schools_: according to the different chambers or apartments. this catalogue is a mere straight-forward performance; presenting a formal description of the pictures, as to size and subject, but rarely indulging in warmth of commendation, and never in curious and learned research. the preface, from which i have gleaned the particulars of the history of the collection, is sufficiently interesting. my friend m. bartsch, if leisure and encouragement were afforded him, might produce a magnificent and instructive work--devoted to this very extraordinary collection. (upon whom, now, shall this task devolve?!) [ ] see the opposite plate. [ ] the truth is, not only fac-similes of these illuminations, but of the initial l, so warmly mentioned at page , were executed by m. fendi, under the direction of my friend m. bartsch, and dispatched to me from vienna in the month of june --but were lost on the road. [ ] lord spencer has recently obtained a copy of this exquisitely printed book from the m'carthy collection. see the _Ædes althorpianæ;_ vol. ii. p. . [ ] [i annex, with no common gratification, a fac-simile of the autograph of this most worthy man, [illustration]] [ ] he has (_now_) been _dead_ several years. [ ] eckhel's work upon these gems, in , folio, is well known. the apotheosis of augustus, in this collection, is considered as an unrivalled specimen of art, upon sardonyx. i regretted much not to have seen these gems, but the floor of the room in which they are preserved was taken up, and the keeper from home. [ ] it will be only necessary to mention--for the establishment of this fact--the engraved works alone of m. bartsch, from masters of every period, and of every school, amounting to in number: an almost incredible effort, when we consider that their author has scarcely yet passed his grand climacteric. his _peintre graveur_ is a literary performance, in the graphic department, of really solid merit and utility. the record of the achievements of m. bartsch has been perfected by the most affectionate and grateful of all hands--those of his son, _frederic de bartsch_--in an octavo volume, which bears the following title, and which has the portrait (but not a striking resemblance) of the father prefixed:--"_catalogue des estampes de_ j. adam de bartsch, _chevalier de l'ordre de léopold, conseiller aulique et premier garde de la bibl. imp. et roy. de la cour, membre de l'academie des beaux arts de vienne_." . vo. pp. . there is a modest and sensible preface by the son--in which we are informed that the catalogue was not originally compiled for the purpose of making it public. the following is a fac-simile of the autograph of this celebrated graphical critic and artist. [illustration] [ ] the monastery of closterneuburg, or nevenburg, or nuenburg, or newburg, or neunburg--is supposed to have been built by leopold the pious in the year . it was of the order of st. augustin. they possess (at the monastery, it should seem) a very valuable chronicle, of the xiith century, upon vellum--devoted to the history of the establishment; but unluckily defective at the beginning and end. it is supposed to have been written by the head of the monastery, for the time being. it is continued by a contemporaneous hand, down to the middle of the fourteenth century. they preserve also, at closterneuburg, a necrology--of five hundred years--down to the year . "inter cæteros præstantes veteres codices manuscriptos, quos insignis bibliotheca claustro-neoburgensis servat, est pervetus inclytæ ejusdem canoniæ necrologium, ante annos quingentos in membranis elegantissimè manu exaratum, et a posteriorum temporum auctoribus continuatum." _script. rer. austriacar. cura pez._ . vol. . col. , . [ ] the librarian, maximilian fischer, informed me the quarto copies were rare, for that only were printed. the octavo copies are not so, but they do not contain all the marginal references which are in the quarto impressions. [ ] in fact, i wrote a letter to the librarian, the day after my visit, proposing to give florins in specie for the volumes above described. my request was answered by the following polite, and certainly most discreet and commendable reply: "d....domine! litteris a te . sept. scriptis et sept. a me receptis, de tuo desiderio nonnullos bibliothecæ nostræ libros pro pecunia acquirendi, me certiorem reddidisti; ast mihi respondendum venit, quod tuis votis obtemperare non possim. copia horum librorum ad cimelium bibliothecæ claustroneoburgensis merito refertur, et maxima sunt in æstimatione apud omnes confratres meos; porro, lege civili cautum est, ne libri et res rariores abbatiarum divenderentur. si unum aliumve horum, ceu duplicatum, invenissem, pro æquissimo pretio in signum venerationis transmisissem. "ad alia, si præstare possem, officia, me paratissimum invenies, simulque te obsecro, me æstimatorem tui sincerrimum reputes, hinc me in ulteriorem recordationem commendo, ac dignum me æstimes quod nominare me possem, ... dominationis tuæ _e canonia claustroneoburgensi_, addictissimum _septbr_ . maximilianum fischer. can. reg. bibliothec. et archivar." _supplement_. ratisbon, nuremberg, manheim. _supplement_. having found it impracticable to write to my friend--on the route from vienna to paris, and from thence to london--the reader is here presented with a few supplemental particulars with which that route furnished me; and which, i presume to think, will not be considered either misplaced or uninteresting. they are arranged quite in the manner of memoranda, or heads: not unaccompanied with a regret that the limits of this work forbid a more extended detail. i shall immediately, therefore, conduct the reader from vienna to ratisbon. i left vienna, with my travelling companion, within two days after writing the last letter, dated from that place--upon a beautiful september morning. but ere we had reached _st. pölten_, the face of the heavens was changed, and heavy rain accompanied us till we got to mölk, where we slept: not however before i had written a note to the worthy _benedictine fraternity_ at the monastery--professing my intention of breakfasting with them the next morning. this self-invitation was joyfully accepted, and the valet, who returned with the written answer, told me that it was a high day of feasting and merry-making at the monastery--and that he had left the worthy monks in the plenitude of their social banquet. we were much gratified the next morning, not only by the choice and excellence of the breakfast, but by the friendliness of our reception. so simple are manners here, that, in going up the hill, towards the monastery, we met the worthy vice principal, pallas, habited in his black gown--returning from a baker's shop, where he had been to bespeak the best bread. i was glad to renew my acquaintance with the abbé strattman, and again solicited permission for mr. lewis to take the portrait of so eminent a bibliographer. but in vain: the abbé answering, with rather a melancholy and mysterious air, that "the world was lost to him, and himself to the world." we parted--with pain on both sides; and on the same evening slept, where we had stopt in our route to vienna, at _lintz_. the next morning (sunday) we started betimes to breakfast at _efferding_. our route lay chiefly along the banks of the danube ... under hanging woods on one side, with villages and villas on the other. the fog hung heavily about us; and we could catch but partial and unsatisfactory glimpses of that scenery, which, when lightened by a warm sunshine, must be perfectly romantic. at efferding our carriage and luggage were examined, while we breakfasted. the day now brightened up, and nothing but sunshine and "the song of earliest birds" accompanied us to _sigharding_,--the next post town. hence to _scharding_, where we dined, and to _fürsternell_, where we supped and slept. the inn was crowded by country people below, but we got excellent quarters in the attics; and were regaled with peaches, after supper, which might have vied with those out of the imperial garden at vienna. we arose betimes, and breakfasted at _vilshofen_--and having lost sight of the danube, since we left efferding, we were here glad to come again in view of it: and especially to find it accompany us a good hundred miles of our route, till we reached _ratisbon_. _straubing_, where we dined--and which is within two posts of ratisbon--is a very considerable town. the danube washes parts of its suburbs. as the day was uncommonly serene and mild, even to occasional sultriness, and as we were in excellent time for reaching ratisbon that evening, we devoted an hour or two to rambling in this town. mr. lewis made sketches, and i strolled into churches, and made enquiries after booksellers shops, and possessors of old books: but with very little success. a fine hard road, as level as a bowling green, carries you within an hour to _pfätter_--the post town between straubing and ratisbon--and almost twice that distance brings you to the latter place. it was dark when we entered ratisbon, and having been recommended to the hotel of the _agneau blanc_ we drove thither, and alighted ... close to the very banks of the danube--and heard the roar of its rapid stream, turning several mills, close as it were to our very ears. the master of the hotel, whose name is _cramer_, and who talked french very readily, received us with peculiar courtesy; and, on demanding the best situated room in the house, we were conducted on the second floor, to the chamber which had been occupied, only two or three days before, by the emperor of austria himself, on his way to _aix-la-chapelle_. the next morning was a morning of wonder to us. our sitting-room, which was a very lantern, from the number of windows, gave us a view of the rushing stream of the danube, of a portion of the bridge over it, of some beautifully undulating and vine-covered hills, in the distance, on the opposite side--and, lower down the stream, of the town-walls and water-mills, of which latter we had heard the stunning sounds on our arrival.[ ] the whole had a singularly novel and pleasing appearance. but if the sitting room was thus productive of gratification, the very first walk i took in the streets was productive of still greater. on leaving the inn, and turning to the left, up a narrow street, i came in view of a house ... upon the walls of which were painted, full three hundred years ago, the figures of _goliath and david_. the former could be scarcely less than twenty feet high: the latter, who was probably about one-third of that height, was represented as if about to cast the stone from the sling. the costume of goliath marked the period when he was thus represented;[ ] and i must say, considering the time that has elapsed since that representation, that he is yet a fine, vigorous, and fresh-looking fellow. i continued onwards, now to the right, and afterwards to the left, without knowing a single step of the route. an old, but short square gothic tower--upon one of the four sides of which was a curious old clock, supported by human figures--immediately caught my attention. the _town hall_ was large and imposing; but the _cathedral_, surrounded by booths--it being fair-time--was, of course, the great object of my attention. in short, i saw enough within an hour to convince me, that i was visiting a large, curious, and well-peopled town; replete with antiquities, and including several of the time of the romans, to whom it was necessarily a very important station. ratisbon is said to contain a population of about , souls. the cathedral can boast of little antiquity. it is almost a building of yesterday; yet it is large, richly ornamented on the outside, especially on the west, between the towers--and is considered one of the noblest structures of the kind in bavaria.[ ] the interior wants that decisive effect which simplicity produces. it is too much broken into parts, and covered with monuments of a very heterogeneous description. near it i traced the cloisters of an old convent or monastery of some kind, now demolished, which could not be less than five hundred years old. the streets of ratisbon are generally picturesque, as well from their undulating forms, as from the antiquity of a great number of the houses. the modern parts of the town are handsome, and there is a pleasant inter-mixture of trees and grass plats in some of these more recent portions. there are some pleasing public walks, after the english fashion; and a public garden, where a colossal sphinx, erected by the late philosopher _gleichen_, has a very imposing appearance. here is also an obelisk erected to the memory of gleichen himself, the founder of these gardens; and a monument to the memory of keplar, the astronomer; which latter was luckily spared in the assault of this town by the french in . but these are, comparatively, every day objects. a much more interesting source of observation, to my mind, were the very few existing relics of the once celebrated monastery of st. emmeram--and a great portion of the remains of another old monastery, called st. james--which latter may indeed be designated the _college of the jacobites_; as the few members who inhabit it were the followers of the house and fortunes of the pretender, james stuart. the monastery, or _abbey of st. emmeram_ was one of the most celebrated throughout europe; and i suspect that its library, both of mss. and printed books, was among the principal causes of its celebrity.[ ] the intelligent and truly obliging mr. a. kraemer, librarian to the prince of tour and taxis, accompanied me in my visit to the very few existing remains of st. emmeram--which indeed are incorporated, as it were, with the church close to the palace or residence of the prince. as i walked along the corridors of this latter building, after having examined the prince's library, and taken notes of a few of the rarer or more beautiful books, i could look through the windows into the body of the church itself. it is difficult to describe this religious edifice, and still more so to know what portions belonged to the old monastery. i saw a stone chair--rude, massive, and almost shapeless--in which _adam_ might have sat ... if dates are to be judged of by the barbarism of form. something like a crypt, of which the further part was uncovered--reminded me of portions of the crypt at _freysing_; and among the old monuments belonging to the abbey, was one of _queen hemma_, wife of ludovic, king of bavaria: a great benefactress, who was buried there in . the figure, which was whole-length, and of the size of life, was painted; and might be of the fourteenth century. there is another monument, of _warmundus, count of wasserburg_, who was buried in . these monuments have been lithographised, from the drawings of quaglio, in the "_denkmahle der baukunst des mittelalters im koenigreiche baiern_," . folio. of all interesting objects of architectural antiquity in ratisbon, none struck me so forcibly--and indeed none is in itself so curious and singular--as the monastery of st. james, before slightly alluded to. the front of that portion of it, connected with the church, should seem to be of an extremely remote antiquity. it is the ornaments, or style of architecture, which give it this character of antiquity. the ornaments, which are on each side of the door way, or porch, are quite extraordinary, and appear as if the building had been erected by mexicans or hindoos. quaglio has made a drawing, and published a lithographic print of the whole of this entrance. i had conjectured the building to be of the twelfth century, and was pleased to have my conjecture confirmed by the assurance of one of the members of the college (either mr. richardson or mr. sharp) that the foundations of the building were laid in the middle of the xiith century; and that, about twenty miles off, down the danube, there was another monastery, now in ruins, called _mosburg_, if i mistake not--which was built about the same period, and which exhibited precisely the same style of architecture. but if the entire college, with the church, cloisters, sitting rooms, and dormitories, was productive of so much gratification, the _contents_ of these rooms, including the _members_ themselves, were productive of yet greater. to begin with the head, or president, dr. c. arbuthnot: one of the finest and healthiest looking old gentlemen i ever beheld--in his eighty-second year. i should however premise, that the members of this college--only six or eight in number, and attached to the interests of the stuarts--have been settled here almost from their infancy: some having arrived at seven, and others at twelve, years of age. their method of speaking their _own_ language is very singular; and rather difficult of comprehension. nor is the _french_, spoken by them, of much better pronunciation. of manners the most simple, and apparently of principles the most pure, they seem to be strangers to those wants and wishes which frequently agitate a more numerous and polished establishment; and to move, as it were, from the cradle to the grave ... "the world forgetting, by the world forgot." as soon as the present head ceases to exist,[ ] the society is to be dissolved--and the building to be demolished.[ ] i own that this intelligence, furnished me by one of the members, gave a melancholy and yet more interesting air to every object which i saw, and to every member with whom i conversed. the society is of the benedictine order, and there is a large whole length portrait, in the upper cloisters, or rather corridor, of st. benedict--with the emphatic inscription of "pater monachorum." the _library_ was carefully visited by me, and a great number of volumes inspected. the local is small and unpretending: a mere corridor, communicating with a tolerably good sized room, in the middle, at right angles. i saw a few _hiatuses_, which had been caused by disposing of the volumes, that had _filled_ them, to the cabinet in st. james's place. in fact, mr. horn--so distinguished for his bibliographical _trouvailles_--had been either himself a _member_ of this college, or had had a _brother_, so circumstanced, who foraged for him. what remained was, comparatively, mere chaff: and yet i contrived to find a pretty ample sprinkling of greek and latin philosophy, printed and published at paris by _gourmont_, _colinæus_, and the _stephens_, in the first half of the sixteenth century. there were also some most beautifully-conditioned hebrew books, printed by the _stephen family_;--and having turned the bottoms of those books outwards, which i thought it might be possible to purchase, i requested the librarian to consider of the matter; who, himself apparently consenting, informed me, on the following morning, that, on a consultation held with the other members, it was deemed advisable not to part with any more of their books. i do not suppose that the whole would bring l. beneath a well known hammer in pall-mall. the public library was also carefully visited. it is a strange, rambling, but not wholly uninteresting place--although the collection is rather barbarously miscellaneous. i saw more remains of roman antiquities of the usual character of rings, spear-heads, lachrymatories, &c.--than of rare and curious old books: but, among the latter, i duly noticed _mentelin's edition of the first german bible_. no funds are applied to the increase of this collection; and the books, in an upper and lower room, seem to lie desolate and forlorn, as if rarely visited--and yet more rarely opened. compared with the celebrated public libraries in france, bavaria, and austria, this of ratisbon is ... almost a reproach to the municipal authorities of the place. i cannot however take leave of the book-theme, or of ratisbon--without mentioning, in terms of unfeigned sincerity, the obligations i was under to m. augustus kraemer, the librarian of the prince of tour and taxis; who not only satisfied, but even anticipated, my wishes, in every thing connected with antiquities. there is a friendliness of disposition, a mildness of manner, and pleasantness both of mien and of conversation, about this gentleman, which render his society extremely engaging. upon the whole, although i absolutely gained nothing in the way of book-acquisitions, during my residence at ratisbon, i have not passed three pleasanter days in any town in bavaria than those which were spent here. it is a place richly deserving of the minute attention of the antiquary; and the country, on the opposite side of the danube, presents some genuine features of picturesque beauty. nor were the civility, good fare, and reasonable charges of the _agneau blanc_, among the most insignificant comforts attending our residence at ratisbon. we left that town a little after mid-day, intending to sleep the same evening at neumarkt, within two stages of nuremberg. about an english mile from ratisbon, the road rises to a considerable elevation, whence you obtain a fine and interesting view of that city--with the danube encircling its base like a belt. from this eminence i looked, for the last time, upon that magnificent river--which, with very few exceptions, had kept in view the whole way from vienna: a distance of about two hundred and sixty english miles. i learnt that an aquatic excursion, from ulm to ratisbon, was one of the pleasantest schemes or parties of pleasure, imaginable--and that the english were extremely partial to it. our faces were now resolutely turned towards nuremberg; while a fine day, and a tolerably good road, made us insensible of any inconvenience which might otherwise have resulted from a journey of nine german miles. we reached _neumarkt_ about night-fall, and got into very excellent quarters. the rooms of the inn which we occupied had been filled by the duke of wellington and lord and lady castlereagh on their journey to congress in the winter of . the master of the inn related to us a singular anecdote respecting the duke. on hearing of his arrival, the inhabitants of the place flocked round the inn, and the next morning the duke found the _tops of his boots half cut away_--from the desire which the people expressed of having "some memorial of the great captain of the age."[ ] no other, or more feasible plan presented itself, than that of making interest with his grace's groom--when the boots were taken down to be cleaned on the morning following his arrival. perhaps the duke's _coat_, had it been seen, might have shared the same fate. the morning gave me an opportunity of examining the town of _neumarkt_, which is surrounded by a wall, in the _inner_ side of which is a sort of covered corridor (now in a state of great decay) running entirely round the town. at different stations there are wooden steps for the purpose of ascent and descent. in a churchyard, i was startled by the representation of the _agony in the garden_ (so often mentioned in this tour) which was executed in stone, and coloured after the life, and which had every appearance of _reality_. i stumbled upon it, unawares: and confess that i had never before witnessed so startling a representation of the subject. having quitted neumarkt, after breakfast, it remained only to change horses at _feucht_, and afterwards to dine at nuremberg. of all cities which i had wished to see, before and since quitting england, nuremberg was that upon which my heart seemed to be the most fixed.[ ] it had been the nursery of the fine arts in bavaria; one of the favourite residences of maximilian the great; the seat of learning and the abode equally of commerce and of wealth during the sixteenth century. it was here too, that albert durer--perhaps the most extraordinary genius of his age--lived and died: and here i learnt that his tombstone, and the house in which he resided, were still to be seen. the first view of the spires and turretted walls of nuremberg[ ] filled me with a sensation which it is difficult to describe. within about five english miles of it, just as we were about to run down the last descent, from the bottom of which it is perfectly level to the very gates of the city--we discovered a group of peasants, chiefly female, busied in carrying barrows, apparently of fire wood, towards the town. on passing them, the attention of mr. lewis was caught by one female countenance in particular--so distinguished by a sweetness and benevolence of expression--that we requested the postilion to stop, that we might learn some particulars respecting this young woman, and the mode of life which she followed. she was without stockings; of a strong muscular form, and her face was half buried beneath a large flapping straw hat. we learnt that her parents were engaged in making black lead pencils (a flourishing branch of commerce, at this moment, at nuremberg) for the wholesale dealers; and they were so poor, that she was glad to get a _florin_ by conveying wood (as we then saw her) four miles to nuremberg. it was market-day when we entered nuremberg, about four o'clock. the inn to which we had been recommended, proved an excellent one: civility, cleanliness, good fare, and reasonable charges--these form the tests of the excellence of the _cheval rouge_ at nuremberg. in our route thither, we passed the two churches of st. _lawrence_ and st. _sebald_, of which the former is the largest--and indeed principal place of worship in the town. we also passed through the market-place, wherein are several gothic buildings--more elaborate in ornament than graceful in form or curious from antiquity. the whole square, however, was extremely interesting, and full of population and bustle. the town indeed is computed to contain , inhabitants. we noticed, on the outsides of the houses, large paintings, as at ratisbon, of gigantic figures: and every street seemed to promise fresh gratification, as we descended one and ascended another. my first object, on settling at the hotel, was to seek out the public library, and to obtain an inspection of some of those volumes which had exercised the pen of de murr, in his latin _memoirs of the public library of nuremberg_. i was now also in the birthplace of panzer--another, and infinitely more distinguished bibliographer,--whose _typographical annals of europe_ will for ever render his memory as dear to other towns as to nuremberg. in short, when i viewed the _citadel_ of this place--and witnessed, in my perambulations about the town, so many curious specimens of gothic architecture, i could only express my surprise and regret that more substantial justice had not been rendered to so interesting a spot. i purchased every thing i could lay my hand upon, connected with the _published antiquities_ of the town; but that "every thing" was sufficiently scanty and unsatisfactory. before, however, i make mention of the public library, it may be as well briefly to notice the two churches--- _st. sebald_ and _st. lawrence_. the former was within a stone's throw of our inn. above the door of the western front, is a remarkably fine crucifix of wood--placed, however, in too deep a recess--said to be by _veit stoss_. the head is of a very fine form, and the countenance has an expression of the most acute and intense feeling. a crown of thorns is twisted round the brow. but this figure, as well as the whole of the outside and inside of the church, stands in great need of being repaired. the towers are low, with insignificant turrets: the latter evidently a later erection--probably at the commencement of the sixteenth century. the eastern extremity, as well indeed as the aisles, is surrounded by buttresses; and the sharp-pointed, or lancet windows, seem to bespeak the fourteenth, if not the thirteenth century. the great "wonder" of the interior, is the _shrine of the saint_,[ ] (to whom the church is dedicated,) of which the greater part is silver. at the time of my viewing it, it was in a disjointed state--parts of it having been taken to pieces, for repair: but from geisler's exquisite little engraving, i should pronounce it to be second to few specimens of similar art in europe. the figures do not exceed two feet in height, and the extreme elevation of the shrine may be about eight feet. nor has geisler's almost equally exquisite little engraving of the richly carved gothic _font_ in this church, less claim upon the admiration of the connoisseur. the mother church, or cathedral of _st. lawrence_, is much larger, and portions of it may be of the latter end of the thirteenth century. the principal entrance presents us with an elaborate door-way--perhaps of the fourteenth century--with the sculpture divided into several compartments, as at rouen, strasbourg, and other earlier edifices. there is a poverty in the two towers, both from their size, and the meagerness of the windows; but the slim spires at the summit, are, doubtless, nearly of a coeval date with that which supports them. the bottom of the large circular, or marygold window, is injured in its effect by a gothic balustrade of a later period. the interior of this church has certainly nothing very commanding or striking, on the score of architectural grandeur or beauty; but there are some painted glass-windows--especially by _volkmar_---which are deserving of particular attention. nuremberg has one advantage over many populous towns; its public buildings are not choked up by narrow streets: and i hardly know an edifice of distinction, round which the spectator may not walk with perfect ease, and obtain a view of every portion which he is desirous of examining. _the fraüenkerche_, or the _church of st. mary_, in the market-place, has a very singular construction in its western front. a double arched door-way, terminated by an arch at the top, and surmounted by a curious triangular projection from the main building, has rather an odd, than a beautiful effect. above, terminating in an apex--surmounted by a small turret, are five rows of gothic niches, of which the extremities, at each end, narrow--in the fashion of steps, gradually--from the topmost of which range or rows of niches, the turret rises perpendicularly. it is a small edifice, and has been recently doomed to make a very distinguished figure in the imposing lithographic print of quaglio.[ ] the interior of this church is not less singular, as may be seen in the print published about sixty years ago, and yet faithful to its present appearance. i know not how it was, but i omitted to notice the ci-devant church of _ste. claire_, where there is said to be the most ancient stained glass window which exists--that is, of the middle of the thirteenth century; nor did i obtain a sight of the seven pillars of _adam kraft_, designating the seven points or stations of the passion of our saviour. but in the _rath-hauz platz_, in the way to the public library, i used to look with delight--almost every morning of the four days which i spent at nuremberg--at the fragments of gothic architecture, to the right and left, that presented themselves; and among these, none caught my eye and pleased my taste, so fully, as the little hexagonal gothic window, which has sculptured subjects beneath the mullions, and which was attached to the _pfarrhof_, or clergyman's residence, of st. sebald. if ever mr. blore's pencil should be exercised in this magical city for gothic art, i am quite persuaded that _this window_ will be one of the subjects upon which its powers will be most successfully employed. a little beyond, in a very handsome square, called st. giles's place, lived the famous anthony koberger; the first who introduced the art of printing into nuremberg--and from whose press, more bibles, councils, decretals, chronicles, and scholastic works, have proceeded than probably from any other press in europe. koberger was a magnificent printer, using always a bold, rich, gothic letter--and his first book, _comestorium vitiorum_, bears the date of .[ ] they shew the house, in this square, which he is said to have occupied; but which i rather suspect was built by his nephew john koberger, who was the son of sebaldus koberger, and who carried on a yet more successful business than his uncle. not fewer than seventeen presses were kept in constant employ by him, and he is said to have been engaged in a correspondence with almost every printer and bookseller in europe. it was my good fortune to purchase an original bronze head of him, of _messrs. frauenholz_ and _co_., one of the most respectable and substantial houses, in the print trade, upon the continent. this head is struck upon a circular bronze of about seven inches in diameter, bearing the following incription: joannes koberger ... sein. altr. xxxx: that is, john koberger, in the fortieth year of his age. the head, singularly enough, is _laureated;_ and in the upper part of it are two capital letters, of which the top parts resemble a b or d--and f or e. it is a fine solid piece of workmanship, and is full of individuality of character. from an old ms. inscription at the back, the original should appear to have died in . i was of course too much interested in the history of the kobergers, not to ask permission, to examine the premises from which so much learning and piety had once issued to the public; and i could not help being struck with at least the _space_ which these premises occupied. at the end of a yard, was a small chapel, which formerly was, doubtless, the printing office or drying room of the kobergers. the interior of the house was now so completely devoted to other uses, that one could identify nothing. the church of st. giles, in this place, is scarcely little more than a century old; as a print of it, of the date of , represents the building to be not yet complete. i shall now conduct the reader at once to the public library; premising, that it occupies the very situation which it has held since the first book was deposited in it. this is very rarely the case abroad. it is, in fact, a small gothic quadrangle, with the windows modernised; and was formerly a convent of _dominicans_. m. ranner, the public librarian, (with whom--as he was unable to speak french, and myself equally unable to speak his own language--i conversed in the latin tongue) assured me that there was anciently a printing press here--conducted by the dominicans--who were resolved to print no book but what was the production of one of their own order. i have great doubts about this fact, and expressed the same to m. ranner; adding, that i had never seen a book so printed; the librarian, however, reiterated his assertion, and said that the monastery was built in the eleventh century. there is certainly no visible portion of it older than the beginning of the fifteenth century. the library itself is on the first floor, and fills two rooms, running parallel with each other; both of them sufficiently dismal and uninviting. it is said to contain , volumes; but i much question whether there be half that number. there are some precious mss. of which m. ranner has published a catalogue in two octavo volumes, in the latin language, in a manner extremely creditable to himself, and such as to render de murr's labour upon the same subjects almost useless. among these mss. i was shewn one in the hebrew language--of the eleventh or twelfth century--with very singular marginal illuminations, as grotesques or capriccios; in which the figures, whether human beings, monsters, or animals, were made out by _lines composed of hebrew characters_, considered to be a gloss upon the text. as to the _printed books_ of an early date, they are few and unimportant--if the _subject_ of them be exclusively considered. there is a woeful want of _classics_, and even of useful literary performances. here, however, i saw the far-famed _i. de turrecremata meditationes_ of , briefly described by de murr; of which, i believe, only two other copies are known to exist--namely, one in the imperial library at vienna,[ ] and the other in the collection of earl spencer. it is an exceedingly precious book to the typographical antiquary, inasmuch as it is supposed to be the first production of the press of _ulric han_. the copy in question has the plates coloured; and, singularly enough, is bound up in a wooden cover with _honorius de imagine mundi_, printed by koberger, and the _hexameron_ of _ambrosius_, printed by schuzler in . it is, however, a clean, sound copy; but cut down to the size of the volumes with which it is bound. here is the _boniface_ of , by fust, upon vellum: with a large space on the rectos of the second and third leaves, purposely left for the insertion of ms. or some subsequent correction. the _durandus of_ has the first capital letter stamped with red and blue, like the smaller capital initials in the psalter of . in this first capital initial, the blue is the outer portion of the letter. the _german bible by mentelin_ is perfect; but wretchedly cropt, and dirty even to dinginess. here is a very fine large genuine copy of _jenson's quintilian_ of . of the _epistles of st. jerom_, here are the early editions by _mentelin_ and _sweynheym_ and _pannartz_; the latter, of the date of : a fine, large copy--but not free from ms. annotations. more precious, however, in the estimation of the critical bibliographer--than either, or the whole, of the preceding volumes--is the very rare edition of the _decameron of boccaccio_, of the date of , printed at _mantua, by a. de michaelibus_.[ ] such a copy as that in the public library at nuremberg, is in all probability unparalleled: it being, in every respect, what a perfect copy should be--white, large, and in its pristine binding. a singular coincidence took place, while i was examining this extraordinarily rare book. m. lechner, the bookseller, of whom i shall have occasion to speak again, brought me a letter, directed to his own house, from earl spencer. in that letter, his lordship requested me to make a particular collation of the edition of boccaccio--with which i was occupied at the _very moment of receiving it_. of course, upon every account, that collation was made. upon its completion, and asking m. ranner whether any consideration would induce the curators of the library to part with this volume, the worthy librarian shouted aloud!... adding, that, "not many weeks before, an english gentleman had offered the sum of sixty louis d'or for it,--but not _twice_ that sum could be taken!... and in fact the book must never leave its present quarters--no ... not even for the noble collection in behalf of which i pleaded so earnestly." m. ranner's manner was so positive, and his voice so sonorous,--that i dreaded the submission of any contre-projet ... and accordingly left him in the full and unmolested enjoyment of his beloved decameron printed by _adam de michaelibus_. m. ranner shewed me a sound, fair copy of the _first florentine homer_ of ; but cropt, with red edges to the leaves. but i was most pleased with a sort of cupboard, or closet-fashioned recess, filled with the first and subsequent editions of all the pieces written by _melancthon_, i was told that there were more than eight hundred of such pieces. these, and a similar collection from the pens of _luther_ and _eckuis_ at landshut,[ ] would, as i conceive, be invaluable repertories for the _history of the reformation upon the continent_. although i examined many shelves of books, for two successive days, in the public library of nuremberg, i am not conscious of having found any thing more deserving of detail than what has been already submitted to the reader. of all edifices, more especially deserving of being visited at nuremberg, the citadel is doubtless the most curious and ancient, as well as the most remarkable. it rises to a considerable height, close upon the outer walls of the town, within about a stone's throw of the end of _albrecht durer strasse_--or the street where albert durer lived--and whose house is not only yet in existence, but still the object of attraction and veneration with every visitor of taste, from whatever part of the world he may chance to come. the street running down, is the street called (as before observed) after albert durer's own name; and the _well_, seen about the middle of it, is a specimen of those wells--built of stone--which are very common in the streets of nuremberg. the house of albert durer is now in a very wretched, and even unsafe condition. the upper part is supposed to have been his study. the interior is so altered from its original disposition, as to present little or nothing satisfactory to the antiquary. it would be difficult to say how many coats of whitewash have been bestowed upon the rooms, since the time when they were tenanted by the great character in question. passing through this street, therefore, you turn to the right, and continue onwards, up a pretty smart ascent; when the entrance to the citadel, by the side of a low wall--in front of an old tower--presents itself to your attention. it was before breakfast that my companion and self visited this interesting interior, over every part of which we were conducted by a most loquacious _cicerone_, who spoke the french language very fluently, and who was pleased to express his extreme gratification upon finding that his visitors were _englishmen_. the tower, of the exterior of which there is a very indifferent engraving in the _singularia norimbergensia_, and the adjoining chapel, may be each of the thirteenth century; but the tombstone of the founder of the monastery, upon the site of which the present citadel was built, bears the date of . this tombstone is very perfect; lying in a loose, unconnected manner, as you enter the chapel:--the chapel itself having a crypt-like appearance. this latter is very small. from the suite of apartments in the older parts of the citadel, there is a most extensive and uninterrupted view of the surrounding country, which is rather flat. at the distance of about nine miles, the town of _furth_ (furta) looks as if it were within an hour's walk; and i should think that the height of the chambers, (from which we enjoyed this view,) to the level ground of the adjacent meadows, could be scarcely less than three hundred feet. in these chambers, there is a little world of curiosity for the antiquary: and yet it was but too palpable that very many of its more precious treasures had been transported to munich. in the time of maximilian ii., when nuremberg may be supposed to have been in the very height of its glory, this citadel must have been worth a pilgrimage of many score miles to have visited. the ornaments which remain are chiefly pictures; of which several are exceedingly precious. our guide hastened to show us the celebrated two venuses of _lucas cranach_, which are most carefully preserved within folding doors. they are both whole lengths, of the size of life. one of them, which is evidently the inferior picture, is attended by a cupid; the other is alone, having on a broad red velvet hat--but, in other respects, undraped. for this latter picture, we were told that two hundred louis d'or had been offered and refused--which they well might have been; for i consider it to be, not the only chef-d'oeuvre of l. cranach, but in truth a very extraordinary performance. there is doubtless something of a poverty of drawing about it; but the colouring glows with a natural warmth which has been rarely surpassed even by titian. it is one of the most elaborated pictures--yet producing a certain breadth of effect--which can be seen. the other venus is perhaps more carefully painted--but the effect is cold and poor. here is also, by the same artist, a masterly little head of _st. hubert_; and, near it, a charming portrait of _luther's wife_, by hans holbein; but the back-ground of the latter being red and comparatively recent, is certainly not by the same hand. the countenance is full of a sweet, natural expression; and if this portrait be a faithful one of the wife of luther, we must give that great reformer credit for having had a good taste in the choice of a wife--as far as _beauty_ is concerned. here are supposed portraits of _charlemagne and sigismund ii.,_ by albert durer--which exhibit great freedom of handling, and may be considered magnificent specimens of that master's better manner of portrait painting. the heads are rather of colossal size. the draperies are most elaborately executed. i observed here, with singular satisfaction, _two_ of the well-known series of the twelve apostles, supposed to be both painted and engraved by albert durer. they were _st. john_ and _st. paul_; the drapery, especially of the latter, has very considerable merit. but probably the most interesting picture to the generality of visitors--and indeed it is one entitled to particular commendation by the most curious and critical--is, a large painting, by _sandrart_, representing a fête given by the austrian ambassador, at nuremberg, upon the conclusion of the treaty of peace at westphalia, in , after the well known thirty year's war. this picture is about fourteen feet long, by ten wide. the table, at which the guests are banquetting, is filled by all the great characters who were then assembled upon the occasion. an english knight of the garter is sufficiently conspicuous; his countenance in three quarters, being turned somewhat over his left shoulder. the great fault of this picture is, making the guests to partake of a banquet, and yet to turn all their faces _from it_--in order that the spectator may recognise their countenances. those who sit at table, are about half the size of life. to the right of them, is a group as large as life, in which sandrart has introduced himself, as if painting the picture. his countenance is charmingly coloured; but it is a pity that all propriety of perspective is so completely lost, by placing two such differently sized groups in the same chamber. this picture stands wofully in need of being repaired. it is considered--and apparently with justice--to be the chef d'oeuvre of the master. i have hardly ever seen a picture, of its kind, more thoroughly interesting--both on the score of subject and execution; but it is surely due to the memory of an artist, like sandrart,--who spent the greater part of a long life at nuremberg, and established an academy of painting there--that this picture ... be at least _preserved_ ... if there be no means of engraving it. in these curious old chambers, it was to be expected that i should see some _wohlegemuths_--as usual, with backgrounds in a blaze of gold, and figures with tortuous limbs, pinched-in waists, and caricatured countenances. in a room, pretty plentifully encumbered with rubbish, i saw a charming _snyders;_ being a dead stag, suspended from a pole. there is here a portrait of _albert durer_, by himself; but said to be a copy. if so, it is a very fine copy. the original is supposed to be at munich. there was nothing else that my visit enabled me to see, particularly deserving of being recorded; but, when i was told that it was in this citadel that the ancient emperors of germany used oftentimes to reside, and make carousal, and when i saw, _now_, scarcely any thing but dark passages, unfurnished galleries, naked halls, and untenanted chambers--i own that i could hardly refrain from uttering a sigh over the mutability of earthly fashions, and the transitoriness of worldly grandeur. with a rock for its base, and walls almost of adamant for its support--situated also upon an eminence which may be said to look frowningly down over a vast sweep of country--the citadel of nuremberg should seem to have bid defiance, in former times, to every assault of the most desperate and enterprising foe. it is now visited only by the casual traveller ... who is frequently startled at the echo of his own footsteps. while i am on the subject of ancient art--of which so many curious specimens are to be seen in this citadel--it may not be irrelevant to conduct the reader at once to what is called the _town hall_--a very large structure--of which portions are devoted to the exhibition of old pictures. many of these paintings are in a very suspicious state, from the operations of time and accident; but the great boast of the collection are the triumphs of maximilian i, executed by _albert durer_--which, however, have by no means escaped injury. i was accompanied in my visit to this interesting collection by mr. boerner, a partner in the house of frauenholz and co.--and had particular reason to be pleased by the friendliness of his attentions, and by the intelligence of his observations. a great number of these pictures (as i understood) belonged to messrs. frauenholz and co.; and among them, a portrait by _pens_, struck me as being singularly admirable and exquisite. the countenance, the dress, the attitude, the drawing and colouring, were as perfect as they well might be. but this collection has also suffered from the transportation of many of its treasures to munich. the rooms, halls, and corridors of this hôtel de ville give you a good notion of municipal grandeur. nuremberg was once the life and soul of _art_ as well as of _commerce_. the numismatic, or perhaps medallic, productions of her artists, in the xvith century, might, many of them, vie with the choicest efforts of greece. i purchased two silver medals, of the period just mentioned, which are absolutely perfect of their kind: one has, on the obverse, the profile of an old man with a flowing beard and short bonnet, with the circumscription of _Ætatis suæ lxvi._; and, on the reverse, the words _de coelo victoria. anno m.d. xlvi._ surrounding the arms of bavaria. i presume the head to be a portrait of some ancient bavarian general; and the inscription, on the reverse, to relate to some great victory, in honour of which the medal was struck. the piece is silver-gilt. the boldness of its relief can hardly be exceeded. the other medal represents the portrait of _joh. petreius typographus, anno Ætat. suæ._ iil. ( ), _anno_ --executed with surprising delicacy, expression, and force. but evidences of the perfect state of art in ancient times, at nuremberg, may be gathered from almost every street in which the curious visitor walks. on the first afternoon of my arrival here, i was driven, by a shower of rain, into a small shop--upon a board, on the exterior of which were placed culinary dishes. the mistress of the house had been cleaning them for the purpose of shewing them off to advantage on the sunday. one of these dishes--which was brass, with ornaments in high relief--happened to be rather deep, but circular, and of small diameter. i observed a subject in relief, at the bottom, which looked very like art as old as the end of the fifteenth century--although a good deal worn away, from the regularity pf periodical rubbing. the subject represented the eating of the forbidden fruit. adam, eve, the serpent, the trees, and the fruit--with labels, on which the old gothic german letter was sufficiently obvious--all told a tale which was irresistible to antiquarian feelings. accordingly i proposed terms of purchase (one ducat) to the good owner of the dish:--who was at first exceedingly surprised at the offer ... wondering what could be seen so particularly desirable in such a homely piece of kitchen furniture ... but, in the end, she consented to the proposal with extraordinary cheerfulness. in another shop, on a succeeding day, i purchased two large brass dishes, of beautiful circular forms, with ornaments in bold relief--and brought the whole culinary cargo home with me. while upon the subject of _old art_--of which there are scarcely a hundred yards in the city of nuremberg that do not display some memorial, however perishing--i must be allowed to make especial mention of the treasures of baron derschau--a respectable old prussian nobleman, who has recently removed into a capacious residence, of which the chambers in front contain divers old pictures; and one chamber in particular, backward, is filled with curiosities of a singular variety of description.[ ] i had indeed heard frequent mention of this gentleman, both in austria and bavaria. his reception of me was most courteous, and his conversation communicative and instructive. he _did_, and did _not_, dispose of things. he _was_, and was _not_, a sort of gentleman-merchant. one drawer was filled with ivory handled dirks, hunting knives, and pipe-bowls; upon which the carver had exercised all his cunning skill. another drawer contained implements of destruction in the shape of daggers, swords, pistols, and cutlasses: all curiously wrought. a set of _missals_ occupied a third drawer: portfolios of drawings and _prints_, a fourth; and sundry _volumes_, of various and not uninteresting character, filled the shelves of a small, contiguous book-case. every thing around me bore the aspect of _temptation_; when, calling upon my tutelary genius to defend me in such a crisis, i accepted the baron's offer, and sat down by the side of him upon a sofa--which, from the singularity of its form and _matériel_, might formerly possibly have supported the limbs of albert durer himself. the baron commenced the work of _incantation_ by informing me that he was once in possession of the _journal_, or day-book, of albert durer:--written in the german language--and replete with the most curious information respecting the manner of his own operations, and of those of his workmen. from this journal, it appeared that albert durer was in the habit of _drawing upon the blocks_, and that his men performed the remaining operation of _cutting away the wood_. i frankly confessed that i had long suspected this: and still suspect the same process to have been used in regard to the wood cuts supposed to have been executed by _hans holbein_. on my eagerly enquiring what had become of this precious journal, the baron replied with a sigh--which seemed to come from the very bottom of his heart--that "it had perished in the flames of a house, in the neighbourhood of one of the battles fought between bonaparte and the prussians!!" the baron is both a man of veracity and virtù. in confirmation of the latter, he gave all his very extraordinary collection of original blocks of wood, containing specimens of art of the most remote period of wood engraving, to the royal university at berlin--from which collection has been regularly published, those livraisons, of an atlas form, which contain impressions of the old blocks in question.[ ] it is hardly possible for a graphic antiquary to possess a more completely characteristic and _beguiling_ publication than this. on expressing a desire to purchase any little curiosity or antiquity, in the shape of _book_ or _print_, for which the baron had no immediate use, i was shewn several rarities of this kind; which i did not scruple to request might be laid aside for me--for the purpose of purchasing. of these, in the book way, the principal were a _compendium morale_: a latin folio, printed upon vellum, without date or name of printer--and so completely unknown to bibliographers, that panzer, who had frequently had this very volume in his hands, was meditating the writing of a little treatise on it; and was interrupted only by death from carrying his design into execution. it is in the most perfect state of preservation. a volume of _hours_, and a _breviary of cracow_, for the winter part, printed upon vellum--in the german language, exceedingly fair and beautiful. a terence of (for florins), and the first edition of _erasmus's greek testament_, , for florins. the "_compendium"_ was charged by the baron at about _l_. sterling. these, with the austrian historians, pez, schard, and nidanus, formed a tolerably fair acquisition.[ ] in the _print_ way, i was fortunate in purchasing a singularly ancient wood-cut of _st. catherine_, in the peculiarly dotted manner of the fifteenth century. this wood-cut was said to be unique. at any rate it is very curious and rare; and on my return to england, m. du chesne, who is the active director in the department of the prints at paris, prevailed upon me to part with my st. catherine--at a price, which sufficiently shewed that he considered it to be no very indifferent object to the royal collection of france. this however was a perfectly secondary consideration. the print was left behind at paris, as adding something to a collection of unrivalled value and extent, and where there were previously deposited two or three similar specimens of art. but the baron laid the greatest stress upon a copper plate impression of a crucifixion, of the date of : which undoubtedly had a very staggering aspect.[ ] it is described in the subjoined note; and for reasons, therein detailed, i consider it to be much less valuable than the _st. catherine_.[ ] i also purchased of the baron a few _martin schoens, albert durers_, and _israel van mechlins_; and what i preferred to either, is a beautiful little illumination, cut out of an old choral book, or psalter, said, by the vendor, to be the production of _weimplan_, an artist, at ulm, of the latter end of the fifteenth century. on my return to england, i felt great pleasure in depositing this choice morceau of ancient art in the very extraordinary collection of my friend mr. ottley--at the same price for which i had obtained it--about five and twenty shillings. upon the whole, i was well satisfied with the result of the "temptation" practised upon me at baron derschau's, and left the mansion with my purse lightened of about florins. the baron was anxious to press a choice _aldus_ or two upon me; but the word "choice" is somewhat ambiguous: and what was considered to be so at _nuremberg_, might receive a different construction in _london_. i was, however, anxious to achieve a much nobler feat than that of running away with undescribed printed volumes, or rare old prints--whether from copper or wood. it was at nuremberg that the ebner family had long resided: and where the _codex ebnerianus_--a greek ms. of the new testament, of the xiith. century--had been so much celebrated by the elaborate disquisition of de murr--which is accompanied by several copper plate fac-simile engravings of the style of art in the illuminations of the ms. in question. i had heard that the ancient splendors of the ebner family had been long impaired; that their library had been partly dispersed; and that this very ms. was yet to be purchased. i resolved, therefore, to lose no opportunity of becoming possessed of it ... preparing myself to offer a very considerable sum, and trusting that the spirit of some private collector, or public body, in my own country, would not long allow it to be a burden on my hands. accordingly, by the interposition and kind offices of m. lechner, the bookseller, i learnt, not only in what quarter the ms. was yet preserved, but that its owners were willing to dispose of it for a valuable consideration. a day and hour were quickly appointed. the gentleman, entrusted with the ms.--m. lechner as interpreter, my own valet, as interpreter between myself and m. lechner, who could not speak french very fluently--all assembled at the _cheval rouge_: with the codex ebnerianus, bound in massive silver, lying upon the table between us. it is a small, thick quarto volume; written in the cursive greek character, upon soft and fair coloured vellum, and adorned with numerous illuminations in a fine state of preservation. its antiquity cannot surely be carried beyond the xiith century. on the outside of one of the covers, is a silver crucifix. upon the whole, this precious book, both from its interior and exterior attractions, operated upon me infinitely more powerfully than the ivory-handled knives, gilt-studded daggers, gorgeous scraps of painting, or antique-looking prints ... of the baron derschau. we soon commenced an earnest conversation; all four of us frequently being upon our legs, and speaking, at the same time. the price was quickly fixed by the owner of the ms.; but not so readily consented to by the proposed purchaser. it was louis d'or. i adhered to the offer of : and we were each inflexible in our terms. i believe indeed, that if my louis d'or could have been poured from a bag upon the table, as "argent-comptant," the owner of the ms. _could_ not have resisted the offer: but he seemed to think that, if paper currency, in the shape of a bill, were resorted to, it would not be prudent to adopt that plan unless the sum of l. were written upon the instrument. the conference ended by the ms. being carried back to be again deposited in the family where it had so long taken up its abode. it is, however, most gratifying for me to add, that its return to its ancient quarters was only temporary; and that it was destined to be taken from them, for ever, by british spirit and british liberality. when mr. john payne visited germany, in the following year, i was anxious to give him some particulars about this ms. and was sanguine enough to think that a second attempt to carry it off could not fail to be successful. the house of messrs. payne and foss, so long and justly respected throughout europe, invested their young representative with ample powers for negotiation--and the _codex ebnerianus_, after having been purchased by the representative in question, for the sum first insisted upon by the owner--now reposes upon the richly furnished shelves of the bodleian library--where it is not likely to repose _in vain_; and from whence no efforts, by the most eminently successful bibliographical diplomatist in europe, can dislodge it. i must now say a few words respecting the present state of the fine arts at nuremberg, and make mention of a few things connected with the vicinity of the town, ere i conduct the reader to manheim: regretting, however, that i am necessitated to make that account so summary. i consider m. klein to be among the very brightest ornaments of this place, as an artist. i had seen enough of his productions at vienna, to convince me that his pencil possessed no ordinary powers. he is yet a young man; somewhere between thirty and forty, and leads occasionally a very romantic life--but admirably subservient to the purposes of his art. he puts a knapsack upon his back, filled with merely necessary articles of linen and materials for work--and then stops, draws, eats, drinks, and sleeps where it pleases him: wherever his eye is gratified by strong characteristics of nature--whether on cattle, peasants, soldiers, or cossacks. klein appears to have obtained his exquisite knowledge of animal painting from having been a pupil of gabler--a professed studier of natural history, and painter of animals. the pupil was unluckily absent from nuremberg, when i was there; but from many enquiries of his ultimate friends, i learnt that he was of a cheerful, social disposition--fond of good company, and was in particular a very active and efficient member of a _society of artists_, which has been recently established at nuremberg. klein himself, however, resides chiefly at vienna--there not being sufficient patronage for him in his native city. his water-coloured drawings, in particular, are considered admirable; but he has lately commenced painting in oil--with considerable success. his _etchings_, of which he has published about one hundred, are in general masterly; but perhaps they are a little too metallic and severe. his observation of nature is at once acute and correct. in the neighbourhood of nuremberg--that is to say, scarcely more than an english mile from thence--are the grave and tomb-stone of albert durer. dr. bright having printed that artist's epitaph at length[ ]--and it being found in most biographical details relating to him--it need not be here repeated. the monument is simple and striking. in the churchyard, there is a representation of the crucifixion, cut in stone. it was on a fine, calm evening, just after sunset, that i first visited the tombstone of albert durer; and shall always remember the sensations, with which that visit was attended, as among the most pleasing and impressive of my life. the silence of the spot,--its retirement from the city--the falling shadows of night, and the increasing solemnity of every monument of the dead--- together with the mysterious, and even awful effect, produced by the colossal crucifix... but yet perhaps, more than either, the recollection of the extraordinary talents of the artist, so quietly sleeping beneath my feet ... all conspired to produce a train of reflections which may be readily conceived, but not so readily described. if ever a man deserved to be considered as the glory of his age and nation, albert durer was surely that man. he was, in truth, the shakspeare of his art--for the _period_. notwithstanding i had made every enquiry among the principal booksellers, of _antiquars_, [ ] for rare and curious old volumes, i literally found nothing worth purchasing. the baron derschau was doubtless my best friend on this score. yet i was told that, if i would put a pair of horses to my carriage, and drive, to _furth_--a short two german mile stage from nuremberg, and which indeed i had distinctly seen from the windows of the citadel--i should find there, at a certain antiquar's, called heerdegen, an endless, variety of what was precious and curious in the department of which i was in search. accordingly, i put the wheels of my carriage in motion, within twenty-four hours of receiving the intelligence. the road to furth is raised from the level of the surrounding country, and well paved in the centre. it is also lined by poplar trees, a great part of the way. i have reason to remember this visit for many a long day. having drove to m. heerdegen's door, i was received with sufficient courtesy; and was told to mount to the top of the house, where the more ancient books were kept, while he, m. heerdegen, settled a little business below. that business consisted in selling so many old folios, by the pound weight, in great wooden scales;--the vendor, all the time, keeping up a cheerful and incessant conversation. the very _sight_ of this transaction was sufficient to produce an hysterical affection--and, instead of mounting upwards, i stood--stock still--wondering at such an act of barbarity! having requested permission to open the volumes in question, and finding them to contain decretals, and glosses upon councils, i recovered myself by degrees ... and leisurely walked to the very topmost floor of the house. m. heerdegen was not long after me. he is a most naïf character; and when he is pleased with a customer, he presents him with an india ink drawing of his own portrait. on receiving this testimony of his approbation, i did not fail to make my proper acknowledgements: but, with respect to the books with which i was to load my carriage, there was scarcely a shadow of hope, of even securing a dozen volumes worth transporting to the banks of the rhine. however, after three hours pretty severe labour--having opened and rejected i know not how many books of medicine, civil and canon law, scholastic divinity, commentaries upon aristotle, and disputations connected with duns scotus, together with a great number of later impressions of the latin bible in the xvth century--i contrived to get a good _latin plutarch_, some pretty aldine octavos, a few _lochers_ and _brandts_, a rare little german poetical tract, of four leaves, called the _wittemberg nightingale_, and an _italian bible_ printed by the _giuntæ_, which had belonged to _melancthon_, and contained his autograph:--all which, with some pieces by _eckius_, _schottus_, and _erasmus_, to the amount of _l._ _s._ of english money, were conveyed with great pomp and ceremony below. however, i had not been long with m. heerdegen, before a clergyman, of small stature and spare countenance, made his appearance and saluted me. he had seen the carriage pass, and learnt, on enquiry, that the traveller within it had come expressly to see m. heerdegen. he introduced himself as the curate of the neighbouring church, of which m. fronmüller was the rector or pastor: adding, that _his own_ church was the only place of christian worship in the village. this intelligence surprised me; but the curate, whose name was _link_, continued thus: "this town, sir, consists of a population of ten thousand souls, of which four-fifths are _jews;_ who are strictly forbidden to sleep within the walls of nuremberg. it is only even by a sort of courtesy, or sufferance, that they are allowed to transact business there during the day time." m. link then begged i would accompany him to his own church, and to the rector's house--taking his own house in the way. there was nothing particularly deserving of notice in the church, which has little claim to antiquity. it had, however, a good organ. the rector was old and infirm. i did not see him, but was well pleased with his library, which is at once scholar-like and professional. the library of the curate was also excellent of its kind, though limited, from the confined means of its owner. it is surprising upon what small stipends the protestant clergy live abroad; and if i were to mention that of m. link, i should only excite the scepticism of my readers. i was then conducted through the village--which abounded with dirty figures and dirty faces. the women and female children were particularly disgusting, from the little attention paid to cleanliness. the men and boys were employed in work, which accounted for their rough appearance. the place seems to swarm with population--and if a plague, or other epidemic disorder should prevail, i can hardly conceive a scene in which it is likely to make more dreadful havoc than at _furth_. although i had not obtained any thing _very special_ at this place, in the book way, i was yet glad to have visited it--were it only for the sake of adding one more original character to the _bibliopolistic fraternity_ upon the continent. in spite of the very extraordinary _line_ of business which m. heerdegen chooses to follow, i have reason to think that he "turns a good penny" in the course of the year; but own that it was with surprise i learnt that mr. bohn, the bookseller of frith street,[ ] had preceded me in my visit--and found some historical folios which he thought well worth the expense of conveyance to england. it remains only to return for a few hours to nuremberg, and then to conduct the reader to manheim. one of the four days, during which i remained at nuremberg, happened to be _sunday_; and of all places upon the continent, sunday is, at nuremberg, among the gayest and most attractive. the weather was fine, and the whole population was alternately within and without the city walls. some bavarian troops of cavalry were exercising near the public walks, and of course a great multitude was collected to witness their manoeuvres. on casting my eye over this concourse of people, attired in their best clothes, i was particularly struck with the head dresses of the women: composed chiefly of broad-stiffened riband, of different colours, which is made to stick out behind in a flat manner--not to be described except by the pencil of my graphic companion. the figure, seen in the frontispiece of the third volume of this work, is that of the _fille de chambre_ at our hotel, who was habited in her sunday attire; and it displays in particular the riband head-dress--which was of black water-tabby sarsenet. but as these ribands are of different colours, and many of them gay and gorgeous, their appearance, in the open air--and where a great number of people is collected, and in constant motion--is that, as it were, of so many moving suns. in general, the _nurembergeoises_ have little pretensions to beauty: they are; however, active, civil, and intelligent. it is rarely one takes leave of an hotel with regret when every days journey brings us sensibly nearer home. but it is due to the kind treatment and comfortable lodgings, of which i partook at nuremberg; to say, that no traveller can leave the _cheval rouge_ without at least wishing that all future inns which he visits may resemble it. we left nuremberg after dinner, resolving to sleep at _ansbach_; of which place the margrave and margravine were sufficiently distinguished in our own country. i had received a letter of introduction to monsieur le comte de drechsel, president de la regence--and president of the corporation of nuremberg--respecting the negotiation for the boccaccio of ; from which, however, i augured no very favourable result. the first stage from nuremberg is _kloster heilbronn_: where, on changing horses, the master of the inn pressed me hard to go and visit the old church, which gives the name to the village, and which was said to contain some curious old paintings by albert durer: but there was literally no time--and i began to be tired ... almost of albert durers! at ansbach we drove to the _crown_, a large and excellent inn. it was nightfall when we entered the town, but not so dark as to render the size and extent of the margrave's palace invisible, nor so late as to render a visit to two booksellers, after a late cup of tea, impracticable. at one place, i found something in the shape of old books, but purchased nothing--except an edition of boccaccio's tales, in french, with the well known plates of roman le hooge, . vo. it was loosely bound in sorry calf, but a florin could not be considered too much for it, even in its sombre state. the other bookseller supplied, by the tender of his friendly offices, the deficiencies of his collection--which, in fact, consisted of nothing but a stock of modern publications. the next morning i visited the comte drechsel--having first written him a note, and gently touched upon the point at issue. he received me with courtesy; and i found him particularly intelligent--but guarded in every expression connected with any thing like the indulgence, even of a hope, of obtaining the precious volume in question. he would submit my proposition to the municipality. he understood english perfectly well, and spoke french fluently. i had received intimation of a collection of rare and curious old books, belonging to a mr...., in the environs of ansbach; who, having recently experienced some misfortunes, had meditated the sale of his library. the owner had a pretty country house, scarcely a stone's throw from the outskirts of the town, and i saw his wife and children--but no books. i learnt that these latter were conveyed to the town for the purpose of sale; and having seen a few of them, i left a commission for a copy of _fust and schoeffher's_ edition of pope boniface's councils of , upon vellum. i have never heard of the result of the sale. from ansbach to _heilbronn_, which can be scarcely less than sixty english miles, few things struck me on the road more forcibly than the remains of a small old church and cloisters at _feuchtwang_--where we stopped to change horses, the first stage after ansbach. it rained heavily, and we had only time to run hastily through these very curious old relics, which, if appearances formed the test of truth, might, from the colour of the stone and the peculiarity of the structure, have been old enough to designate the first christian place of worship established in germany. the whole, however, was upon a singularly small scale. i earnestly recommend every english antiquary to stop longer than we did at feuchtwang. from thence to _heilbronn_, we passed many a castle-crowned summit, of which the base and adjacent country were covered by apparently impenetrable forests of fir and elm; but regretted exceedingly that it was quite nightfall when we made the very steep and _nervous_ entrance into _hall_--down a mountainous descent, which seemed to put the carriage on an inclined plane of forty-five degrees. we were compelled to have four horses, on making the opposite ascent; and were even preceded by boys, with links and torches, over a small bridge, under which runs a precipitous and roaring stream. hall is a large, lively, and much frequented town. _heilbronn_, or _hailbrunn_, is a large consequential town; and parts of it are spacious, as well as curious from appearances of antiquity. the large square, where we changed horses, was sufficiently striking; and the hotel de ville in particular was worthy of being copied by the pencil of my companion. but we were only passing travellers, anxious to reach manheim and to cross the rhine. the country about heilbronn is picturesque and fertile, and i saw enough to convince me that two days residence there would not be considered as time thrown away. it is one of the principal towns in the kingdom of wirtemberg, and situated not many leagues from the black forest, or _schwartz wald_, where wild boars and other wild animals abound, and where st. hubert (for aught i know to the contrary) keeps his nocturnal revels in some hitherto unfrequented glen ... beneath the radiance of an unclouded moon. but if _heilbronn_ be attractive, from the imposing appearance of the houses, _heidelberg_ is infinitely more so; containing a population of nine thousand inhabitants. we reached this latter place at dinner time, on sunday--but as it rained heavily for the last hour previous to our entrance, we could not take that survey of the adjacent country which we so much desired to do. yet we saw sufficient to delight us infinitely: having travelled along the banks of the river _neckhar_ for the last three or four miles, observing the beautifully wood-crowned hills on the opposite side. but it is the castle, or old palace of heidelberg--where the grand dukes of baden, or old electors palatine, used to reside--and where the celebrated tun, replenished with many a score hogshead of choice rhenish wine--form the grand objects of attraction to the curious traveller. the palace is a striking edifice more extensive than any thing i had previously seen; but in the general form of its structure, so like _holland house_ at kensington, that i hesitated not one moment to assign the commencement of the sixteenth century, as the period of the building in question. the date of ,[ ] cut in stone, over one of the principal doors, confirmed my conjecture. i now looked eagerly on all sides--observing what portions were more or less dilapidated, and wondering at the extent and magnificence of the building. room after room, corridor succeeding corridor--saloons, galleries, banquetting apartments, each and all denuded of its once princely furniture--did not fail to strike my imagination most forcibly. here was the _hall of chivalry_, which had been rent asunder by lightning: yonder, a range of statues of the old _electors counts palatine_:--a tier of granite columns stood in another direction, which had equally defied the assaults of the foe and the ravages of time. in one part, looking down, i observed an old square tower, which had been precipitated in consequence (as i learnt) of an explosion of gunpowder. it was doubtless about a century older than the building from which i observed it. on an eminence, almost smothered with larch and lime, and nearly as much above ourselves as we were from the town, stand the ruins of another old castle ... the residence of the older counts palatine. the whole scene was full of enchantment to an antiquarian traveller; and i scarcely knew how to quit one portion of it for another. the terrace, at the back of the castle, forms a noble and commanding walk. here, in former days, the counts and dukes of the empire, with all their trains of duchesses and damoiselles, used to parade in full pomp and magnificence, receiving the homage of their dependants, and the applause of the townsmen. from hence, indeed, they might have looked down, in the proud spirit of disdain, upon their vassal subjects:--or, in case of rebellion, have planted their cannon and pulverised their habitations in a little hour. it is hardly possible to conceive a more magnificent situation ... but now, all is silence and solitude. the wild boar intrudes with impunity into the gardens--and the fowls of heaven roost within those spacious chambers, which were once hung with rich arras, or covered with gorgeous tapestry. scarcely three human beings ... who seem to sleep out their existence ... are now the tenants of that mansion, where once scarcely fewer than one hundred noblemen with their attendants, found comfortable accommodations. a powerful, and yet not unpleasing melancholy, touches the heart ... as one moves leisurely along these speaking proofs of the mutability of earthly grandeur. no man visits this proud palace without visiting also the equally celebrated tun--of which _merian_, in his well known views, has supplied us with a print or two. it is placed in the lower regions of the palace, in a room by itself--except that, by the side of it, there stands a small cask which may hold a hogshead, and which is considered to be the _ne plus ultra_ of the art of cooperage. it is made in the neatest and closest- fitting manner imaginable, without either a nail, or piece of iron, or encircling hoop; and i believe it to be nearly as old as the _great tun_. this latter monstrous animal, of his species, is supported by ribs--of rather a picturesque appearance--which run across the belly of the cask, at right angles with the staves. as a wine cask, it has long maintained its proud distinction of being the _largest in the world_. a stair-case is to the right of it, leading to a little square platform at the top; upon which frolicksome lads and lasses used, in former days, to dance, when the tub had been just filled with the produce of the passing year's vintage. the guide told us that one elector or grand duke, i think it was charles theodore, had immortalised himself, by having, during his regency, caused the great tun of heidelberg to be fairly _twice emptied_;--"those (added he) were golden days, never to return. at present, and for a long time past, the cask is filled almost to the very top with _mere lees_." in an adjoining cellar, i was shewn a set of casks, standing perpendicularly, called the _twelve apostles_. the whole of this subterraneous abode had, i must confess, a great air of hospitality about it; but when i mentioned to the guide the enormous size of those casks used by our principal london brewers--compared with which, even the "great tun" was a mere tea-cup--he held up his hands, shook his head, and exclaimed with great self- satisfaction... "cela ne se peut pas être!" after i had dined, i called upon m. schlosser, one of the professors of the university--for which this town is rather celebrated.[ ] attached to this university, is a famous _library of mss. and printed books_--but more especially of the former. it has been long known under the name of the _palatine library;_ and having been seized and transported to the vatican, at the conclusion of the thirty years war, and from thence carried to paris, was, in the year , at the urgent intercession of the king of prussia, restored to its ancient-resting-place. what "a day of joyance" was that when this restoration took place! m. schlosser adverted to it with a satisfaction amounting... almost to rapture. that gentleman made me a present of the first part of his _universal biography_, published at _franckfort on the main_, the preceding year, in vo.--in the german language--with copious and erudite notes. he shewed me the earlier printed volumes of the public library; of which, having unluckily lost the few memoranda i had taken--but which i believe only included the notice of a _first caesar_, _first suetonius_, and _first tacitus_--i am not able to give any particular details. m. schlosser conversed a good deal, and very earnestly, about lord spencer's library--and its probable ultimate destination; seeming to dread its "_dispersion_" as a national calamity. it was late in the afternoon, when darkness was rather prematurely coming on--and the rain descending almost in torrents--that i left heidelberg for manheim--the _ultima thule_ of my peregrinations on the german side of the rhine. the road is nearly straight, in good order, and lined with poplar trees. people of all descriptions--on foot, in gigs, carriages, and upon horseback--were hastening home--as upon a sunday evening with _us_:--anxious to escape the effects of a soaking rain. unfavourable as the weather was, i could not help looking behind, occasionally, to catch glimpses of the magnificent palace of heidelberg; which seemed to encrease, in size and elevation as we continued to leave it in the rear. the country, also, on the other side of the _neckhar_, was mountainous, wooded, and picturesque: the commencement of that chain of hills, which, extending towards _mayence_ and _cologne_, form the favourite and well known scenery which englishmen delight to visit. as my eye ran along this magnificent range, i could not but feel something approaching to deep regret ... that _other_ causes, besides those of the lateness of the season, operated in preventing me from pursuing my course in that direction. it was impossible ... however i might have wished to visit the cities where _fust_ and _schoeffher_ and _ulric zel_ are supposed to lie entombed, and where the first productions of the press were made public--it was impossible for me to do otherwise than to make manheim the _colophon_ of my bibliographical excursion. the glass had been _turned_ for some time past, and the sand was fast running out. it was rather late when we drove to the _golden fleece_ at manheim, the best inn in the town--and situated in a square, which, when we visited it, was filled by booths: it being fair time. with difficulty we got comfortable lodgings, so extremely crowded was the inn. the court-yard was half choked up with huge casks of rhenish wine, of different qualities; most of them destined for england--and all seemed to be agitation and bustle. the first night of my arrival was a night of mixed pleasure and pain, by the receipt of nearly a dozen letters from vienna, munich, stuttgart, and london, collectively: the whole of which had been purposely directed to this place. the contents of the stuttgart letter have been already detailed to the reader.[ ] the first object of my visitation at manheim, on the morrow, was the house of dom. artaria--known, throughout the whole of germany, as the principal mercantile house for books, prints, and pictures.[ ] with these objects of commerce, was united that of _banking_: forming altogether an establishment of equal prosperity and respectability. the house is situated in the principal square, at the corner of one of the streets running into it. it has a stone front, and the exterior is equally as attractive in appearance, as the interior is from substantial hospitality. the civility, the frankness, the open-heartedness of my reception here was, if possible, more warm and encouraging than in any previous place in germany; and what rendered the whole perfectly delightful, was, the thorough english-like appearance of every thing about me. books, prints, pictures--and household furniture of every description--bespoke the judicious and liberal taste of the owner of the mansion; while the large and regular supplies of letters and despatches, every morning, gave indication of a brisk and opulent commerce. it so happened that, the very first morning of my visit to m. artaria, there arrived trucks, filled with boxes and bales of goods purchased at the frankfort fair--which had not been long over. in some of these ponderous cases, were pictures of the old masters; in others, _prints_.. chiefly from paris and london,[ ] and principally from the house of messrs. longman and co. in paternoster row. among these latter, was a fine set of the _bibliotheca topographica britannica,_ in ten volumes, to. bound in russia--which had been bespoke of m. artaria by some bavarian count: and which must have cost that count very little short of guineas. the shelves of the front repository were almost wholly filled with english books, in the choicest bindings; and dressed out to catch and captivate the susceptible _bibliomaniac_, in a manner the most adroit imaginable. to the left, on entrance, were two rooms filled with choice paintings; many of them just purchased at the frankfort fair. some delicious flemish pictures, among which i particularly noticed a little _paul potter_--valued at five hundred guineas--and some equally attractive italian performances, containing, among the rest, a most desirable and genuine portrait of _giovanni bellini_--valued at one hundred and fifty guineas--were some of the principal objects of my admiration. but, more interesting than either, in my humble judgment, and yet not divested of a certain vexatious feeling, arising from an ignorance of the original--was a portrait, painted in oil, of the size of life, quite in the manner of _hans holbein_ ... yet with infinitely more warmth and power of carnation-tint. it was alive--and looked you through, as you entered the room. few galleries, of portraits contain a more perfect specimen of the painting of the times. for the original, i believe, m. artaria asked three hundred guineas.[ ] the purse and table of m. artaria were as open and as richly furnished as were his repositories of books and pictures; and i was scolded because i had not made _his house_ my head quarters during my residence at manheim. i dined with him, however, twice out of the four days of my stay; and was indifferent to plays and public places of resort, in the conversation and company which i found at his house. yet it was during the circulation of his double-quart bottles of old rhenish wine--distributed with a liberality not to be exceeded by the benedictines at the monastery at göttwic, and yet more exquisite and choice in its flavour--that the gallant host poured forth the liberal sentiments which animated a bosom... grateful to providence for the success that had crowned his steadily and well directed labours! i never saw a man upon whom good fortune sat more comfortably, or one whom it was so little likely to spoil. half of my time was spent in the house of m. artaria, because there i found the kind of society which i preferred--and which contained a mixture of the antiquary and collector, with the merchant and man of the world. after this, who shall say that a fac-simile of his autograph (now that he is no more!) can be unacceptable even to the most fastidious. [illustration] among the antiquaries, were messrs. traiteur and koch. the former had been public librarian at munich; and related to me the singular anecdote of having picked up the _first mentz bible_, called the _mazarine_, for a few francs at nancy. m. traiteur is yet enthusiastic in his love of books, and shewed me the relics of what might have been a curious library. he has a strange hypothesis, that the art of printing was invented at _spire;_ on account of a medal having been struck there in , commemorative of that event; which medal was found during the capture of that place about two centuries ago. he fixed a very high price--somewhere about forty pounds--upon the medal; which, however, i never saw. he hoped (and i hope so too, for his own sake) that the prince royal of bavaria would offer him that sum for it, to enrich his collection at munich. m. traiteur talked largely of a german book in his possession, with the express date of ; but though i was constantly urging him to shew it to me, he was not able to put his hand upon it. i bought of him, however, about ten pounds worth of books, among which was the _life of st. goar _, printed by _schoeffher_ in , quarto--the date of which had been artfully altered to --by scratching out the final xi. this was not the knavery of the vender. m. traiteur _offered_ me the _tewrdanckhs_ of , upon paper, for ten pounds: a sum, much beyond what i considered to be its real worth--from the copy having been half bound, and a good deal cropt. he was incessant in his polite attentions to me. m. koch had been, if he be not yet, a grocer; but was so fond of rare old books, that he scarcely ever visited his canisters and sugar-loaves. i bought some very curious little pieces of him, to the amount of ten or twelve guineas: among which, was the strange and excessively rare tract, in latin and german, entitled _de fide concubinarum in sacerdotes_, of which a very particular account appears in the _bibliographical decameron_, vol. i. p. , . his simplicity of manners and friendliness of disposition were equally attractive; and i believe if he had possessed the most precious aldine classics, upon vellum, i could have succeeded in tempting him to part with them. the town of manheim is large, neat, and populous; containing , souls. the streets run generally at right angles, and are sufficiently airy and wide. but, compared with the domestic architecture of augsburg, munich, and vienna, the houses are low, small, and unornamented. the whole place has much the appearance of a handsome provincial town in england. there are gardens and public walks; but the chief of these is connected with the old red-stone palace of the former elector palatine. the rhine terminates these walks on one side; and when i visited them, which was twice during my stay, that river was running with a rapid and discoloured current. the rhine is broad here; but its banks are tame. a mound is raised against it, in some parts, to prevent partial overflows, and a fine terrace crowns its summits. a bridge of boats, over which you pass into france, is immediately in view. upon the whole, these gardens, which seem to be laid out in the english fashion, and which are occasionally varied by some pleasing serpentine walks, are left in a sad state of neglect. the breeze from the river plays freely along the osiers and willows, with which its banks are plentifully planted; and i generally felt refreshed by half an hour's walk upon the broad, dry, gravel terrace, which comes close up to the very windows of the palace. the palace itself is of an enormous size--but is now bereft of every insignia of royalty. it is chiefly (as i understood) a depôt for arms. i ought to mention, among the social gratifications, of which i partook at manheim, that arising from the kind attentions of m. ackermann; a gentleman, retired from business, and residing in the place or square:--devoting the evening of a bachelor's life to the amusement resulting from a small but well chosen collection of coins and medals. he shewed me several of surprising delicacy and finish ... more especially of the sixteenth century, executed at nuremberg--and tempted me to become a purchaser of the _gold royal_ of our _edward iv._, for which i offered him five louis. as he thought himself handsomely paid, he presented me, in addition, with a beautiful silver medal of the sixteenth century--struck at nuremberg--of which particular mention has been made in a preceding, page.[ ] one of my visits to m. ackermann was diversified by the sight of a profusion of fine grapes, of both colours, which had been just gathered from his garden--within the suburbs of the town:--where, indeed, a number of finely trimmed gardens, belonging to the citizens of manheim, are kept in the highest state of cultivation. the vintage had now set through-out germany and france; and more delicious grapes than those presented to me by m.a., could seldom be partaken of. yet i know not if they were quite equal to those of ratisbon and heilbrunn. passing along a very extensive vineyard, we stopped--requesting the valet to alight, and try to procure us some of the tempting fruit in view ... in order to slake our thirst during a hot journey. in a second he disappeared, and in a minute reappeared--with a bunch of black grapes--so large, full, and weighty ... that i question if van huysum or de heem ever sat down to such a model for the exercise of their unrivalled pencils. the juice of this bunch was as copious and delicious as the exterior was downy and inviting. we learnt, however, that these little acts of depredation were not always to be committed with impunity; for that, in the middle of extensive fields, when the grape was ripe enough to be gathered, watch-boxes were placed--and keepers within these boxes were armed with carbines, loaded with something more weighty than _powder_! it only remains to mention, that, having left particular directions with the house of m. artaria, to forward all _the_ cases which had been consigned to me, at their own house, from vienna and nuremberg, to that of messrs. arch and co., booksellers, cornhill, i had nothing to do but renew my letter of credit, and pass over the rhine into france. i started immediately after dinner, from m. artaria's house; horses having been brought to the door. manheim to paris. about four o'clock we passed over the bridge of boats, across the rhine, and changed horses at _ogersheim_ and _spire_, sleeping at _germezsheim_. the rhine flows along the meadows which skirt the town of spire; and while the horses were changing, we took a stroll about the cathedral. it is large, but of a motley style of architecture--and, in part, of a moorish cast of character. nothing but desolation appears about its exterior. the roof is sunk, and threatens to fall in every moment. no service (i understood) was performed within--but in a contiguous garden were the remains of a much older edifice, of an ecclesiastical character. around, however, were the traces of devastation and havoc--the greater part arising from the bullets and cannon balls of the recent campaigns. it was impossible, however, for a _typographical antiquary_ to pass through this town, without feeling some sensations approaching to a sort of pleasing melancholy: for here were born the two spiras--or _john and vindelin de spira_--who introduced the art of printing into venice. i do not suppose that there exists any relic of domestic architecture here old enough to have been contemporaneous with the period of their births. the journey to paris, through the route we took, was such--till we reached _st. avold_, about two hundred and fifty english miles from the capital--as is never likely to induce me to repeat the attempt. the continuation of the chain of mountains called the _vosges_, running northerly from strasbourg downwards--renders the road wearisome, and in parts scarcely passable--as the government has recently paid no attention to its reparation. _landau_, _weissenbourg_, and _bitche_ are the principal fortified towns; the latter, indeed, boasts of a commanding fort--upon a very elevated piece of ground, ranked among the more successful efforts of vauban. the german language continued chiefly to be spoken among the postilions and lower orders, till we left _forbach_ for _st. avold_. at _landau_, about three hundred and sixty miles from paris, i parted with my valet--- for strasbourg; under the impression that he would be glad to resume his acquaintance with me, on any future occasion: at the same time he seemed to long to be taken with us to _london_--a city, of all others, he said, he was desirous of seeing. he had also half imbibed the notion that its streets were paved with gold. _metz_ is a noble city: finely situated, strongly fortified, and thickly inhabited. the _moselle_ encircles a portion of it in a very picturesque manner. the inn, called the _cheval blanc_, should rather be that of _cheval noir_--if it take its epithet from the colour of the interior--for a dirtier hotel can scarcely exist. it was a fine moonlight night when we left metz, on a sunday, resolving to sleep two stages on the road. the next day we dined at _dombasle_, a stage beyond _verdun_; and were within about seventy miles of _chalons sur marne_. the vintage and the fruits of autumn were now rich and abundant on all sides. the fields were all purple, and the orchards all red and gold. wine casks, stained with the gushing juice, met us between every stage; while on the right hand and left, we saw the women walking beneath their perpendicular baskets, laden with the most bountiful produce of the vineyard. such a year of plenty had hardly been remembered within the oldest memory. mean time, the song and the roundelay were heard from all quarters; and between _dombasle_ and _clermont_, as we ascended a wooded height, with the sun setting in a flame of gold, in front--we witnessed a rural sight, connected with the vintage, which was sufficient to realise all the beautiful paintings ever executed by _watteau_ and _angelis_. it was late when we reached _chalons_. the next day, we started for _rheims_, and stopped at _sillery_ in our way--the last stage on that side of it. the day was really oppressive--although we were in the middle of october. at sillery we drank some champagne--for which it is famous--the produce of the same year's vintage. it had not been made a fortnight--and tasted rather sharp and strong. this, we were triumphantly told, was the sure test of its turning out excellent. we were infinitely delighted with rheims, more especially with the cathedral. the western porches--and particularly that on the north side--are not less beautifully, than they are elaborately, sculptured. the interior, immediately within the western porches--or rather on the reverse sides of them--presents sculpture of admirable workmanship:--of the fourteenth century. but the porches appeared much lower than i had imagined. in the nave is an isolated roman sculpture,[ ] of the lower age, cut in a block of marble--and unconnectedly placed there. this has been engraved in the _antiquité expliquée_ of _montfaucon_. at the further end of the choir, is an elaborately sculptured modern monument--containing many beautiful figures in white marble:--upon the whole, one of the most interesting which i had seen upon the continent. the upper part of the exterior of the cathedral, on the south side, is very elegantly carved; but the towers are short, and under repair. the lower part of the south exterior of the cathedral is entirely marred, as to picturesque effect, by the recent buildings attached to it. upon the whole, however, the cathedral at rheims is a very pure and interesting specimen of gothic architecture. nor must i omit an anecdote connected with its present state of preservation. that it escaped the ravages of the revolution, was owing, as i learnt, to the respect which was paid to the curé of some neighbouring parish. he came down to the armed multitude, when they were ripe for every species of destruction. he told them--they might take his life ... but entreated them to spare the mother church. they spared both: but many marks of their devastation are yet seen; and pieces of old sculpture, dragged from their original places of destination, are stuck about in different parts, over shopkeepers' doors. i could have filled a caravan with several curious specimens of this kind:--which would have been joyfully viewed by many a member of the society of antiquaries. the population of rheims is estimated at about thirty thousand. it appears to be situated in a fertile and picturesque country. as the weather continued not only serene, but almost sultry--and as we began to be weary of packing and unpacking, and sleeping at so many different inns in the route--i resolved upon travelling all night, and pushing on at once for paris: where our fatigue would have a temporary cessation. i left, therefore, this venerable city about six o'clock in the evening--intending to travel without intermission till i reached my old quarters at the _hôtel des colonies_, in the _rue de richelieu_. the road is paved in the middle, the whole way to paris; but we were careful to avoid the centre. in other respects, this road is broad, and has a noble appearance. as we quitted rheims, and were gaining the height of the first hill, on the paris side, we turned round to take a farewell view of the venerable cathedral. it will be long ere i forget that view. the moon, now at full, was rising--in unclouded majesty--just above the summit of the old towers of the cathedral. her orb was clear, pale, and soft; and yet completely irradiated. the towers and western front were in a cold, gray tint: the houses, of inferior dimensions, were shrunk to insignificancy. there was, therefore, nothing but a cloudless sky, a full moon, and the cathedral of rheims:--objects, upon which the eye rests, and the imagination riots... as ours did ... till a turning of the road shut out the scenery from our view. it was considerably past midnight when i reached _soissons_--the principal town between rheims and paris. i breakfasted at _dammartin_. about mid-day i entered paris, and found the hostess of the _hôtel des colonies_, (who had been apprised by letter of our intention of returning thither) perfectly disposed to give me a cordial reception, after an absence of about three months. having settled my affairs, and enjoyed a short repose at paris of a fortnight, i returned with my companion, by the diligence, to calais; and landed at dover within about six months, and a half of my departure from brighton to dieppe. although my tour was carried on in the most favourable of seasons--and with every sort of comfort, and attention arising from letters of recommendation, and hospitable receptions in consequence--yet i had undergone, from a constant state of excitement and occupation, a great deal of bodily and mental fatigue; and i question if poor park, ... had it pleased providence to have allowed him to re-visit his native shore... would have retouched british earth with greater joy than i experienced, when, leaping from the plank, put out from the boat, i planted my foot upon the shingles at dover ... ... _reddens landes domino_.[ ] [ ] the emperor of austria having stopped at this hotel, the landlord asked his permission to call it from henceforth by his _majesty's name_; which was readily granted. there is an _album_ here, in which travellers are requested to inscribe their names, and in which i saw the _imperial autograph_. [ ] especially in the striped broad shoes; which strongly resemble those in the series of wood-cuts descriptive of the triumphs of the emperor maximilian. [ ] there is a lithographic print of it recently published, from the drawing of quaglio--of the same folio size with the similar prints of ulm and nuremburg. the date of the _towers_ of the cathedral of ratisbon may be ascertained with the greatest satisfaction. from the _nuremberg chronicle_ of folio xcviii, recto, it appears that when the author (hartmann schedel) wrote the text of that book, "the edifice was yet incomplete." this incomplete state, alludes, as i suspect, to the towers; for in the wood-cut, attached to the description, there is a crane fixed upon the top of _one_ of the towers, and a stone being drawn up by it--this tower being one story shorter than the other. schedel is warm in commendation of the numerous religious establishments, which, in his time, distinguished the city of ratisbon. of that of st. emmeran, the following note supplies some account. [ ] lord spencer possesses some few early classics from this monastic library, which was broken up about twenty years ago. his lordship's copy of the _pliny of_ , folio, from the same library, is, in all probability, the finest which exists. the monastery of st. emmeram was doubtless among the "most celebrated throughout europe." in hartmann schedel's time, it was "an ample monastery of the order of st. benedict." in the _acta sanctorum, mense septembris, vol. vi. sep_. , p. , the writer of the life of st. emmeram supposes the monastery to have been built towards the end of the viith century. it was at first situated _without_ the walls,--but was afterwards (a.d. ) included within the walls. hansizius, a jesuit, wrote a work in , concerning the origin and constitution of the monastery--in which he says it was founded by theodo in . the body of st. emmeram was interred in the church of st. george, by gaubaldus, in the viiith century, which church was reduced to ashes in ; but three years afterwards, they found the body of st. emmeram, preserved in a double chest, or coffin, and afterwards exposed it, on whitsunday, , in a case of silver--to all the people. [ ] he died in april, . [ ] [not so--as i understand. it is re-established in its previous form.] [ ] so i heard him called everywhere--in austria and bavaria--by men of every degree and rank in society; and by _professional_ men as frequently as by others. i recollect when at landshut, standing at the door of the hotel, and conversing with two gallant-looking bavarian officers, who had spent half their lives in the service: one of them declaring that "he should like to have been _opposed_ to wellington--to have _died_ even in such opposition, if he could not have vanquished him." i asked him, why? "because (said he) there is glory in such a contest--for he is, doubtless, the first captain of the age." [ ] dr. bright, in _travels in lower hungary_, p. - , has an animated passage connected with this once flourishing, but now comparatively drooping, city. in the _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. iii. p. - , will be found an extract or two, from schedel's _nuremberg chronicle_, fol. c., &c. edit. , which may serve to give a notion of the celebrity of nuremberg about three centuries and a half ago. [ ] or rather, walls which have certain round towers, with a projecting top, at given intervals. these towers have a very strong and picturesque appearance; and are doubtless of the middle part of the fifteenth century. in hartman schedel's time, there were as many of them as there were days in the year. [ ] [a large and most beautiful print of this interesting shrine has been published since the above was written. it merits every commendation.] [ ] this is a striking and interesting print--and published in england for _l._ _s._ the numerous figures introduced in it are habited in the costume of the seventeenth century. [ ] the author of this work was _franciscus de retz_. as a first essay of printing, it is a noble performance. the reader may see the book pretty fully described in the _bibl. spenceriana_, vol. iii. p. . [ ] see p. ante. [ ] see a copy of it described at paris; vol. ii. p. . [ ] see p. ante. [ ] [he is since dead.] [ ] only three livraisons of this work have, i believe, been yet published:--under the title of "_gravures en bois des anciens maîtres allemands tirées des planches originales recueillies par_ iulian albert derschau. _publiées par rodolphe zecharie becker_." the last, however, is of the date of --and as the publisher has now come down to wood-blocks of the date of , it may be submitted whether the work might not advantageously cease? some of the blocks in this third part seem to be a yard square. [ ] they are now in the library of earl spencer. [ ] i will describe this singular specimen of old art as briefly and perspicuously as i am able. it consists of an impression, in pale black ink--resembling very much that of aquatint, of a subject cut upon copper, or brass, which is about seventeen inches in height (the top being a little cut away) and about ten inches six-eighths in width. the upper part of the impression is in the shape of an obtusely pointed, or perhaps rather semicircular, gothic window--and is filled by involutions of forms or patterns, with great freedom of play and grace of composition: resembling the stained glass in the upper parts of the more elaborated gothic windows of the beginning of the fifteenth century. round the outer border of the subject, there are seven white circular holes, as if the metal from which the impression was taken, had been _nailed up_ against a wall--and these blank spots were the result of the aperture caused by the space formerly occupied by the nails. below, is the subject of the crucifixion. the cross is ten inches high: the figure of christ, without the glory, six inches: st. john is to the left, and the mother of christ to the right of the cross; and each of these figures is about four inches high. the drawing and execution of these three figures, are barbarously puerile. to the left of st. john is a singular appearance of the _upper_ part of _another_ plate, running at right angles with the principal, and composed also in the form of the upper portion of a gothic window. to the right of the virgin, and of the plate, is the "staggering" date abovementioned. it is thus: m.cccc.xxx. this date is fixed upon the stem of a tree, of which both the stem and the branches above appear to have been _scraped_, in the copper, almost _white_--for the sake of introducing the inscription, or _date_. the date, moreover, has a very suspicious look, in regard to the execution of the letters of which it is composed. as to the _paper_, upon which the impression is taken, it has, doubtless, much of the look of old paper; but not of that particular kind, either in regard to _tone_ or _quality_, which we see in the prints of mechlin, schoen, or albert durer. but what gives a more "staggering aspect" to the whole affair is, that the worthy derschau had _another_ copy of this _same_ impression, which he sold to mr. john payne, and which is now in the highly curious collection of mr. douce. this was fortunate, to say the least. the copy purchased by myself, is now in the collection of earl spencer. [ ] i should add, that the _dotted_ manner of executing this old print, may be partly seen in that at page of vol. iii. of the second edition of this work; but still more decidedly in the old prints pasted within the covers of the extraordinary copy of the _mazarine bible_, upon vellum, once in the possession of messrs. nicol, booksellers to his late majesty, and now in that of henry perkins, esq. [ ] _travels in lower hungary_, , to. p. . [ ] _buchhandler_ is bookseller: and _antiquar_ a dealer in old books. in nuremberg, families exist for centuries in the same spot. i.a. endter, one of the principal booksellers, resides in a house which his family have occupied since the year . my intercourse was almost entirely with m. lechner--one of the most obliging and respectable of his fraternity at nuremberg. [ ] [now of henrietta street covent garden. as is a sturdy oak, of three centuries growth, compared with a sapling of the last season's transplanting, so is the business of mr. bohn, now, compared with what it was when the _above_ notice was written.] [ ] it is either , or . [ ] the reputation of the university of heidelberg, which may contain students, greatly depends upon that of the professors. the students are generally under twenty years of age. their dress and general appearance is very picturesque. the shirt collar is open, the hair flowing, and a black velvet hat or cap, of small and square dimensions, placed on one side, gives them a very knowing air. one young man in particular, scarcely nineteen from his appearance, displayed the most beautiful countenance and figure which i had ever beheld. he seemed to be _raphael_ or _vandyke_ revived. [ ] see note at page - . [ ] since march , called the firm of artaria and fontaine. [ ] among the prints recently imported from the _latter_ place, was the whole length of the duke of wellington, engraved by bromley, from the painting of sir thomas lawrence. i was surprised when m. artaria told me that he had sold _fifty copies_ of this print--to his bavarian and austrian customers. in a large line engraving, of the meeting of the sovereigns and prince schwartzenberg, after the battle of leipsic--from the painting of p. krafft--and published by artaria and fontaine in january --it is gratifying to read the name of our scott--as that of the engraver of the piece--although it had been _previously_ placed in other hands. [ ] [it was brought to england about three years ago, and is yet, i believe, a purchasable article in some repository. it should at least be _seen_ by the whole tribe of cognoscenti in pall mall.] [ ] see page . [ ] the town is said to abound with roman antiquities; among which is a triumphal arch of the time of augustus, and an arcade called the _romulus_. it was at rheims where the holy _ampoule_, or oil for consecrating the kings of france was kept--who were usually crowned here. a jacobin ruffian, of the name of _ruht_, destroyed this ampoule during the revolution. this act was succeeded by his own self-destruction. [ ] christmas carol: printed by wynkyn de worde, , to. see _typog. antiquities_, vol. ii. p. . the end. printed by william nicol, at the shakspeare press, cleveland row, st. james's. lists of stories and programs for story hours compiled by the staff of the children's department st. louis public library and edited by effie l. power revised edition new york foreword this story-hour material was first published in the monthly bulletin of the st. louis public library in and was later reprinted in pamphlet form. it has been slightly revised for the present edition but the form and viewpoint has not been changed and most of the notes remain as originally written for the st. louis public library staff. the editor has made no attempt to compile a complete handbook on story-telling but has merely brought together in uniform printed form, story lists and programs for story hours as they have been used to meet the needs in the various divisions of the children's department of the st. louis public library. no claim is made to originality, but the editor assumes all responsibility for the form and standard of the lists as here presented. the aim has been to keep the lists brief and to give short, practical outlines which may be extended. since library story-telling is directed primarily toward inspirational reading, the selections listed are chiefly from literary sources. a wealth of material in the form of biography and history has not been included, because books in those classes have been fully indexed by subject in the library catalogues. for example: a list of christmas stories has been included among the lists for special days, but none has been given for washington's birthday or independence day. there is, however, a list of patriotic and historical narrative poems. further explanations will be found in the short paragraphs preceding each list, and in the index to titles of stories. effie l. power, _director of work with children_. cleveland public library, february , . contents foreword stories for little children stories for children three and four years old stories for children five and six years old suggestions for story hours for little children stories for special days; chiefly for little children christmas stories easter stories thanksgiving stories arbor day stories hallowe'en stories stories for older children greek cycle stories norse cycle stories king arthur tales charlemagne and roland legends chivalry tales stories from chaucer stories from the faerie queene irish hero tales stories from shakespeare stories from the old testament stories from the new testament robin hood stories ballad stories for reading aloud narrative poems prose selections and stories books about story telling index to titles books referred to in the foregoing lists stories for children three and four years old. the arrangement is in the order of degree of difficulty. where the title would naturally appear in the library catalogue, the author's name only is given. where a title appears in several lists, the source is given only in one, which is indicated by giving the page number in bold face type preceding title in the index at the end of this pamphlet. many of the stories listed may be found in simplified form in the primers and readers on the little children's shelves. rhymes from mother goose. a was an apple pie. a was an archer who shot at a frog. this is the house that jack built. three little kittens lost their mittens. old mother hubbard. sing a song of sixpence. the queen of hearts. i saw a ship a-sailing. tom he was a piper's son. london bridge is broken down. cock robin and jenny wren. who killed cock robin? _best versions of mother goose:_ lang. nursery rhyme book. norton. heart of oak books, v. i. book of nursery rhymes; welsh. mother goose's melodies. wheeler. see also the caldecott picture books. the old woman and her pig. _best versions:_ jacobs. english fairy tales. lang. nursery rhyme book. _other versions:_ bailey and lewis. for the children's hour. bryant. how to tell stories. lansing. rhymes and stories. norton. heart of oak books, v. i. o'shea. six nursery classics. scudder. book of folk stories. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. chicken licken _or_ henny penny. _best versions_: jacobs. english fairy tales. scudder. book of folk stories. _other versions_: arnold _and_ gilbert. stepping stones to literature, v. . (chicken little.) asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. (hen who went to dovrefjeld.) bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (chicken little.) blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (chicken little.) darton. wonder book of beasts. lansing. rhymes and stories. norton. heart of oak books, v. i. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. tappan. folk stories and fables. peter rabbit. potter. the gingerbread man.[ ] three little pigs.[ ] the pancake.[ ] three goats. poulsson. through the farmyard gate. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] golden cobwebs. _best versions_: bryant. best stories to tell. bryant. how to tell stories. little black sambo. bannerman. the cock, the mouse and the little red hen.[ ] lefevre. how jack went to seek his fortune. _best version_: jacobs. english fairy tales. three billy goats gruff.[ ] the travels of a fox.[ ] the elves and the shoemaker. _best versions_: grimm. fairy tales; ed. by lucas. scudder. fables and folk stories. _other versions_: bailey and lewis. for the children's hour bryant. stories to tell. norton. heart of oak books, v. i. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. the cat and the mouse. _best version_: jacobs. english fairy tales. _other versions_: arnold _and_ gilbert. stepping stones to literature, v. i. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. darton. wonder book of beasts. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] stories for children five and six years old. as i walked over the hills one day. (poem by mrs. carter.) _best versions:_ chisholm. golden staircase. wiggin _and_ smith. pinafore palace. bremen town musicians. _best versions:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. scudder. fables and folk stories. dame wiggin of lee and her seven wonderful cats. _best versions:_ dame wiggin of lee and seven wonderful cats. norton. heart of oak books, v. . o'shea. six nursery classics. doll in the grass. _best versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. epaminondas. _best versions:_ bryant. stories to tell to children. bryant. best stories to tell. the hobyahs. _best version:_ jacobs. more english fairy tales. the half chick or medio pollito.[ ] how the camel got his hump. kipling. just so stories. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] johnny cake _or_ wee bannock[ ]. the jumblies. (poem by lear.) lear. nonsense songs. lambikin. _best version:_ jacobs. indian fairy tales. _other versions:_ bryant. stories to tell. steel. tales of the punjab. little grey pony. lindsay. mother stories. little one-eye, two-eyes and three-eyes[ ]. little red hen and the grain of wheat. _best version:_ bryant. stories to tell. _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. mother hulda _or_ mother holle. _best version:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. _other versions:_ blaisdell. child life in many lands. lang. red fairy book. night before christmas. (poem by clement c. moore.) moore. night before christmas; il. by jessie wilcox smith. moore. night before christmas (linen picture book). [footnote : for source, see page number in bold face type in index.] ole shut-eye stories. _best versions:_ andersen. wonder stories. andersen. fairy tales. peter rabbit plays a joke. burgess. old mother west wind. quick running squash. aspinwall. short stories for short people. rat princess. bryant. how to tell stories. the sheep and the pig who set up house-keeping. _best version:_ thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. (ram and the pig.) asbjoernsen. tales from the fjeld. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (adapted.) wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. snow white and rose red.[ ] spotty the turtle wins a race. burgess. old mother west wind. stolen charm. _best version:_ williston. japanese fairy tales. st series. the straw, the coal and the bean. _best version:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (why the bean wears a stripe.) blaisdell. child life in many lands. strong. all the year round; spring. the sun and the wind. _best version:_ aesop. fables; ed. by jacobs. three bears.[ ] timothy's shoes. ewing. lob-lie-by-the-fire; and other tales.(to be adapted) titty mouse and tatty mouse. _best version:_ jacobs. english fairy tales. tom, the water baby. kingsley. water babies, ch. . (to be adapted.) why all men love the moon. _best version:_ holbrook. book of nature myths. _other versions:_ blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (sun, the moon and the wind.) jacobs. indian fairy tales. (sun, moon and wind go to dinner.) who stole the bird's nest? (poem by l.m. child.) _best version:_ wiggin _and_ smith. posy ring. _other versions:_ lovejoy. nature in verse. waterman. graded memory selections. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] why the evergreens never lose their leaves. _best version:_ holbrook. book of nature myths. the wise men of gotham. _best version:_ jacobs. more english fairy tales. the wolf and the seven little goats. _best version:_ grimm. household stories tr. by crane. _other versions:_ blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (adapted.) (wolf and seven little goslings.) grimm. fairy tales. (wolf and the seven young kids.) mulock. fairy book. (wolf and the seven young goslings.) suggestions for story hours for little children. the following programs for story hours for the little children are suggestive only. it is desirable that the best folk tales be repeated as often as the children desire, and that poems should be read or recited in connection with the stories where there is a response. the little children should never be held longer than half an hour, and twenty minutes is better. the stories to be told together are numbered and . this grouping may be changed and additions may be made from books which have been duplicated freely in the juvenile book collections, but the selection should be kept to the standard of this list. also, it is not required that the groups of stories should be used in the order listed. see also lists for special days. programs for story hours. . water of life. (story of the three sons.) _best version:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. _other versions:_ grimm. fairy tales; il. by folkard. grimm. german household tales; tr. by edwardes. jerrold. reign of king oberon. shaw. fairy tales for the second school year. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. wiggin _and_ smith. magic casements. _alternative_ water of life. (story of the faithful servant.) _best version:_ pyle. wonder clock. _other versions:_ lang. golden mermaid. lang. pink fairy book. . princess whom nobody could silence. _best version:_ thomsen. east o' the sun. (princess who could not be silenced.) _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. compare with peter fiddle-de-dee in bay. danish fairy and folk tales. * * * * * . princess and the pea. _best versions:_ andersen. fairytales; tr. by lucas. andersen. stories and tales; tr. by dulcken. . lad who went to the north wind. _best versions:_ asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy world. bay. danish fairy and folk tales. carroll _and_ brooks. third reader. (boy and the north wind.) treadwell. reading-literature, first reader. * * * * * . tinder box. _best versions:_ andersen. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. andersen. wonder stories; tr. by dulcken. _other versions:_ lang. yellow fairy book. welsh. fairy tales children love. winnington. outlook fairy book. . travels of a fox. _best version:_ winnington. outlook story book. _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. johnson. oak tree fairy book. * * * * * . robin goodfellow. _best version:_ rhys. english fairy book. _other versions:_ coates. fireside encyclopaedia of poetry. (merry pranks of robin goodfellow.) dana. household book of poetry. (merry pranks of robin goodfellow.) _alternative._ . presents of the little folk. _best version:_ grimm. fairy tales. (little folks' presents.) _other versions:_ grimm. german household tales. grimm. household fairy tales; tr. by boldrey.(the greedy goldsmith's reward.) . the fairies. (poem by robert bird.) wiggin _and_ smith. posy ring. see other poems about fairies in wiggin _and_ smith. golden numbers _and_ posy ring. * * * * * . snow queen. _best versions:_ andersen. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. andersen. wonder stories; tr. by dulcken. _other versions:_ lang. pink fairy book. welsh. fairy tales children love. do not tell a second story. . golden bird. _best version:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. asbjoernsen. tales from the fjeld. baldwin. fairy stories and fables. grimm. best stories. grimm. household fairy tales; tr. by boldrey. lang. green fairy book. marshall. fairy tales of all nations. norton. heart of oak books, v. . scudder. children's book. scudder. fables and folk stories. wiggin _and_ smith. magic casements. compare with golden mermaid in lang. green fairy book. . husband who was to mind the house. _best versions:_ asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy world. asbjoernsen. popular tales from the norse; tr. by dasent. laboulaye. fairy tales. (good woman.) laboulaye. last fairy tales. (grizzled peter.) tappan. folk stories and fables. * * * * * . billy beg and the bull. _best version:_ macmanus. in chimney corners. _other versions:_ bryant. best stories to tell. bryant. how to tell stories. wiggin. tales of wonder. . cock, the mouse and the little red hen. _best version:_ lefevre. cock, the mouse and the little red hen. _other versions:_ van sickle. riverside reader, nd. (adapted.) compare with little red hen in blaisdell. child life, in tale and fable. nd reader. lansing. rhymes and stories. treadwell. reading-literature, primer. * * * * * . ugly duckling. _best versions:_ andersen. fairy tales; ed. by lucas. andersen. wonder stories; tr. by dulcken. _other versions:_ arnold _and_ gilbert. stepping stones to literature, v. . bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (adapted.) baldwin. fairy reader. blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (adapted.) boston collection of kindergarten stories. carroll _and_ brooks. third reader. coussens. child's book of stories. gibbon. old king cole. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. orange fairy book. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mcmurry. classic myths. norton. heart of oak books, v. . (adapted.) perkins. twenty best fairy tales. scudder. children's book. tappan. folk stories and fables. whittier. child life in prose. . good little mouse. _best versions:_ d'aulnoy. fairy tales; tr. by planché. lang. red fairy book. _other versions:_ heller. little golden hood. lang. snowdrop and other stories. valentine. old, old fairy tales. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. * * * * * . necklace of truth. _best version:_ mace. home fairy tales. . pancake. _best version:_ thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy world. asbjoernsen. tales from the fjeld. brown. jingle primer. coussens. child's book of stories. lansing. rhymes and stories. treadwell. reading-literature, primer. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. compare with gingerbread man in bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. bryant. best stories to tell. coussens. child's book of stories. grover. folk-lore reader, bk. i. st. nicholas, v. . summers. readers, st year. treadwell. reading-literature, primer. compare with johnny cake in bailey. firelight stories. baldwin. second fairy reader. jacobs. english fairy tales. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. compare with wee bannock in jacobs. more english fairy tales. . goody two-shoes. _best versions_: welsh ed. history of little goody two-shoes. scudder. children's book. _other versions_: blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (adapted.) crane. goody two-shoes. norton. heart of oak books, v. . poulsson. in the child's world. (adapted.) welsh. stories children love. . pied piper. (poem by browning.) blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. bellamy and goodwin. open sesame, pt. . browning. pied piper of hamelin; il. by greenaway. browning. poems. chisholm. golden staircase. lucas. book of verses for children. patmore. children's garland from the best poets. white. poetry for school readings. whittier. child life in poetry. wiggin _and_ smith. golden numbers. _prose versions_: bryant. best stories to tell. bryant. how to tell stories. crommelin. famous legends. jacobs. more english fairy tales. (pied piper of franchville.) lang. red fairy book. (rat catcher.) lang. snow man and other stories. (rat catcher.) * * * * * . east o' the sun and west o' the moon. _best versions_: asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy world. dasent. popular tales from the norse. jerrold. reign of king oberon. lang. blue fairy book. lang. sleeping beauty and other stories. wiggin and smith. fairy ring. . epaminondas. _best versions:_ bryant. best stories to tell. bryant. stories to tell. * * * * * . black bull of norroway. _best version:_ jacobs. more english fairy tales. _other versions:_ lang. blue fairy book. rhys. english fairy book. compare with red bull of norroway in singleton. goldenrod fairy book. . goody 'gainst-the-stream. _best version:_ asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. (contrary woman.) asbjoernsen. tales from the fjeld. * * * * * . half chick. _best version:_ lang. green fairy book. _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (adapted.) brown. jingle primer. bryant. best stories to tell. bryant. stories to tell. carroll _and_ brooks. third reader. howard. banbury cross stories. laboulaye. fairy tales. (story of coquerico.) mace. home fairy tales. (medio pollito.) treadwell. reading-literature. ist reader. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. (story of coquerico.) . the bee, the harp, the mouse and the bum-clock. macmanus. donegal fairy stories. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. * * * * * . scarface. _best version:_ grinnell. blackfoot lodge tales. _other version:_ wilson. myths of the red children. . why the sea is salt. _best versions:_ asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. (quern at the bottom of the sea.) asbjoernsen. popular tales from the norse; tr. by dasent. bryant. how to tell stories. (adapted.) coussens. child's book of stories. lang. blue fairy book. lang. cinderella; and other fairy stories. tappan. folk stories and fables. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. compare with coffee-mill which grinds salt in bay. danish fairy and folk tales. . old pipes and the dryad. stockton. bee man of orn. stockton. fanciful tales. . the old woman and the tramp. _best versions_: djurklon. fairy tales from the swedish. wiggin and smith. tales of laughter. * * * * * . the elephant's child. kipling. just so stories. kipling reader for elementary grades. do not tell a second story. * * * * * . jack and the bean stalk. _best version_: jacobs. english fairy tales. _other versions_: baldwin. fairy stories and fables. carroll _and_ brooks. third reader. coussens. child's book of stories. crane. red riding hood's picture book. cruikshank. fairy book. gibbon. old king cole. heller. little golden hood. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. jack and the bean stalk. lang. red fairy book. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mulock. fairy book. norton. heart of oak books, v. . o'shea. old world wonder stories. perkins. twenty best fairy tales. rhys. english fairy book; il. by whitney. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. fables and folk stories. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. valentine. old, old fairy tales. welsh. fairy tales children love. . three billy-goats gruff. _best versions:_ baldwin. fairy stories and fables. (three goats named bruse.) thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north; tr. by dasent. asbjoernsen. fairy world. bailey. firelight stories. coussens. child's book of stories. dasent. popular tales from the norse. treadwell. reading-literature, primer. van sickle. riverside readers, nd. wiggin and smith. tales of laughter. * * * * * . tiger, brahman and jackal. _best version:_ jacobs. indian fairy tales. _other versions:_ bryant. stories to tell. steel. tales of the punjab. . cinderella _or_ aschenputtel. _best versions:_ grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. grimm. household stories; tr. by crane. _other versions:_ baldwin. fairy stories and fables. canton. reign of king herla. coussens. child's book of stories. cruikshank. fairy book. grimm. household tales; tr. by lucas. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. blue fairy book. lang. cinderella mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mcmurry. classic stories. marshall. fairy tales of all nations. mulock. fairy book. norton. heart of oak books, v. . perkins. twenty best fairy tales. perrault. tales of mother goose. rhys. english fairy book; il. by whitney. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. scudder. fables and folk stories. shaw. fairy tales for the second school year. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. valentine. old, old fairy tales. welsh. fairy tales children love. compare with rushen coatie in jacobs. more english fairy tales _and_ huron cinderella in kennedy. new world fairy book. * * * * * . aladdin, or the wonderful lamp. _best versions:_ arabian nights; ed. by wiggin _and_ smith. fairy tales from the arabian nights; ed. by dixon. _other versions:_ arabian nights; ed. by lang. arabian nights; ed. by olcott. arabian nights; ed. by rouse. arnold _and_ gilbert. stepping stones to literature, v. . (adapted.) blaisdell. child life in literature. (adapted.) coussens. child's book of stories. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. blue fairy book. lang. history of whittington and other stories. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. norton. heart of oak books, v. . (adapted.) scudder. children's book. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. welsh. fairy tales children love. . the hobyahs. _best version_: jacobs. more english fairy tales. * * * * * . beauty and the beast. _best versions_: lang. blue fairy book. scudder. children's book. _other versions_: bay. danish fairy and folk tales. (beauty and the horse.) coussens. child's book of stories. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. jack, the giant killer and other fairy stories. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mulock. fairy book. perkins. twenty best fairy tales. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. fables and folk stories. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. valentine. old, old fairy tales. welsh. fairy tales children love. . gudbrand-on-the-hillside _or_ dame gudbrand. _best versions_: asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions_: laboulaye. fairy tales. (good woman.) laboulaye. last fairy tales. tappan. folk stories and fables. compare with andersen. what the good man does is sure to be right. * * * * * . jack the giant killer. _best version_: jacobs. english fairy tales. _other versions_: coussens. child's book of stories. gibbon. old king cole. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. blue fairy book. lang. jack the giant killer. mabie. fairy tales every child should know marshall. fairy tales of all nations. mulock. fairy book. norton. heart of oak books, v. . o'shea. old world wonders stories. perkins. twenty best fairy tales. rhys. english fairy book. scudder. children's book. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales welsh. fairy tales children love. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. . three sillies. _best versions_: jacobs. english fairy tales. tappan. folk stories and fables. compare with six sillies in lang. red fairy book. . little one-eye, two-eyes and three-eyes. _best versions_: grimm. household fairy tales; tr. by boldrey. scudder. fables and folk stories. _other versions_: grimm. fairy tales; wiltse, pt. . grimm. german household tales. lang. green fairy book. lansing. rhymes and stories. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. marshall. fairy tales of all nations. mulock. fairy book. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. shaw. fairy tales for second school year. tappan. folk stories and fables. thompson. fairy tale and fable. treadwell. reading-literature, st reader. (little two-eyes.) welsh. fairy tales children love. . mr. vinegar. _best version_: jacobs. english fairy tales. * * * * * . sleeping beauty in the wood. _best version_: lang. blue fairy book. (omit part after awakening by the prince.) _other versions_: bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (sleeping princess.) carroll _and_ brooks. third reader. coussens. child's book of stories. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lane. stories for children. lang. sleeping beauty. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mulock. fairy book. norton. heart of oak books, v. . perkins. twenty best fairy tales. perrault. tales of mother goose. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. scudder. fables and folk stories. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. valentine. old, old fairy tales. welsh. fairy tales children love. winnington. outlook fairy book. the lang and valentine versions give a second part of the story which the others omit. compare with briar rose in baldwin. fairy reader. grimm. fairy tales tr. by lucas. grimm. german popular fairy tales tr. by boldrey. grimm. household tales; tr. by edwardes. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. compare with the myth of the awakening of brunhilda. . nanny who wouldn't go home to supper. _best versions_: asbjoernsen. fairy tales from the far north. asbjoernsen. tales from the fjeld. (how they got hair lock home.) compare with old woman and her pig in jacobs. english fairy tales _and_ munacher manachar in jacobs. celtic fairy tales. * * * * * . snow-white and rose-red. _best versions_: grimm. household stories. grimm. household fairy tales; tr. by boldrey. _other versions_: blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. coussens. child's book of stories. grimm. best stories. grimm. fairy tales; wiltse, pt. . grimm. house in the wood; il. by brooke. lane. stories for children. lang. blue fairy book. lang. little red riding hood; and other stories. mulock. fairy book. perkins. twenty best fairy tales. singleton. goldenrod fairy book. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. . the lad and the fox. _best versions:_ djurklon. fairy tales from the swedish. wiggin and smith. tales of laughter. * * * * * . three bears. _best versions:_ jacobs. english fairy tales. lang. green fairy book. _other versions:_ arnold _and_ gilbert. stepping stones to literature, v. . bailey. firelight stories. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. baldwin. fairy stories and fables. blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. (silver locks.) boston collection of kindergarten stories. brooke. story of the three bears. bryant. how to tell stories. coussens. child's book of stories. (goldilocks.) crane. mother hubbard picture book. darton. wonder book of beasts. (adapted.) grover. folk-lore readers, bk. . howard. banbury cross stories. jerrold. big book of fairy tales. lang. snow man and other stories. lansing. rhymes and stories. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. mcmurry. classic stories. norton. heart of oak books, v. . o'shea. six nursery classics. rhys. english fairy book. scudder. book of folk stories. scudder. children's book. summers. readers. st year. tappan. folk stories and fables. thompson. fairy tale and fable. tileston. children's hour. tileston. sugar and spice. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. valentine. old, old fairy tales. in jacobs' english fairy tales and lang's green fairy book, a version by southey has been followed exactly. in some of the other versions a little girl has been substituted for the old woman and there are minor variations. in mrs. valentine's old, old fairy tales, the story has been greatly changed and lengthened. compare scrapefoot in jacobs. more english fairy tales. . tom thumb. _best versions:_ jacobs. english fairy tales. scudder. children's book. _other versions:_ baldwin. fairy stories and fables. blaisdell. child life in tale and fable. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. norton. heart of oak books, v. . scudder. book of folk stories. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. old, old fairy tales. wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. . three little pigs. _best versions:_ brooke. story of the three little pigs. jacobs. english fairy book. _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour brooke. golden goose book. brown. jingle primer. bryant. how to tell stories. coussens. child's book of stories. darton. wonder book of beasts. grover. folk-lore readers, bk. . lansing. rhymes and stories. treadwell. reading-literature, st reader. valentine. aunt louisa's book of fairy tales. wiggin _and_ smith. tales of laughter. compare with the story of three pigs in baldwin. fairy stories and fables. lang. green fairy book. lang. snow man and other stories. summers. readers, st year. . the cock and the crested hen. _best versions:_ djurklou. fairy tales from the swedish. wiggin and smith. tales of laughter. * * * * * . the tar baby. . how mr. rabbit was too sharp for mr. fox. . how mr. rabbit lost his fine bushy tail. _best version:_ harris. uncle remus, his songs and his sayings. * * * * * . king of the golden river. ruskin. king of the golden river. . robert of lincoln. (poem by bryant.) bryant. poems. lovejoy. nature in verse for children. repplier. book of famous verse. wiggin _and_ smith. posy ring. * * * * * . little snow-white. _best version_: grimm. household stories; tr. by crane. _other versions_: lang. red fairy book. mabie. fairy tales every child should know mulock. fairy book. tappan. folk stories and fables. valentine. old, old fairy tales. (snowdrop.) . three wishes. _best versions_: jacobs. more english fairy tales. laboulaye. last fairy tales. * * * * * . wild swans. _best versions_: andersen. fairy tales. andersen. wonder stories. _other versions_: asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales. (twelve wild ducks.) grimm. household stories; tr. by crane. (six swans.) jerrold. reign of king oberon. thomsen. east o' the sun. (twelve wild ducks.) wiggin _and_ smith. fairy ring. . boots and his brothers. _best versions_: asbjoernsen. norse fairy tales. (jack and his brothers.) thomsen. east o' the sun. _other versions:_ bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour. (peter, paul and espen.) laboulaye. fairy tales. laboulaye. last fairy tales. tappan. folk stories and fables. * * * * * . tom hickathrift. _best versions:_ jacobs. more english fairy tales. rhys. english fairy book. . diana; and the story of orion. _best version:_ francillon. gods and heroes. * * * * * . the fisherman and his wife. _best version:_ grimm. household stories; tr. by crane. _other versions:_ baldwin. fairy stories and fables. grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. lang. green fairy book. scudder. children's book. . the banyan deer. _best version:_ jatakas. jataka tales; babbitt. * * * * * . fisherman and the genii. _best version:_ arabian nights; ed. by wiggin _and_ smith. _other versions:_ fairy tales from the arabian nights; ed. by dixon. arabian nights; ed. by lang. arabian nights; ed. by olcott. . the lady of shalott. (poem by tennyson.) tennyson. poems. couch. oxford book of english verse. wiggin _and_ smith. golden numbers. * * * * * . whittington and his cat. _best version:_ jacobs. english fairy tales. _other versions:_ baldwin. fifty famous stories retold. lang. history of whittington. norton. heart of oak books, v. . scudder. the book of fables and folk stories . orpheus and eurydice. _best version:_ francillon. gods and heroes. _other versions:_ carpenter. hellenic tales. firth. stories of old greece. * * * * * . adventures of nils. lagerlöf. wonderful adventures of nils. outline: the elf--the wild geese--glimminge castle (cut)--the rat charmer--the great crane dance--on kullaberg--ulvasa--lady. do not tell a second story. * * * * * . persephone. _best versions:_ adams. myths of old greece. (proserpina.) hawthorne. tanglewood tales. (pomegranate seeds.) _other versions:_ burt. herakles, the hero of thebes. cooke. nature myths. cox. tales of ancient greece. francillon. gods and heroes. mabie. myths every child should know. (hawthorne version.) . how the leaves came down. (poem by coolidge.) lovejoy. nature in verse for children. skinner. arbor day manual. wiggin _and_ smith. posy ring. * * * * * . hansel and grethel. _best versions:_ grimm. household stories; tr. by crane. grimm. fairy tales; tr. by lucas. lang. blue fairy book. _other versions:_ jerrold. reign of king oberon. mabie. fairy tales every child should know. tappan. folk stories and fables. . quick running squash. aspinwall. short stories for short people. * * * * * . peterkin and the little grey hare. _best version:_ pyle. wonder clock. . mirror of matsuyama. _best versions:_ williston. japanese fairy tales. st ser. wiggin _and_ smith. magic casements * * * * * . the reformed pirate. stockton. floating prince. . how the camel got his hump.[ ] . the camel's hump. (poem.) kipling. just so stories. kipling reader for elementary grades. [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] stories for special days; chiefly for little children. christmas stories for poems see granger. index to poetry and recitations: appendix. _birth of christ._ the bible. st. matthew, chap. . st. luke, chap. . see also adaptations in collections of bible stories. _christ legends._ babouscka. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. dickinson _and_ skinner. children's book of christmas stories, p. . dier. children's book of christmas, p. . coming of the prince. field. little book of profitable tales, p. . herman's treasure box. broadus. book of the christ child, p. . legend of st. christopher. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . broadus. book of the christ child, p. . chenoweth. stories of the saints, p. . olcott. good stories for great holidays, p. . smith and hazeltine. christmas in legend and story, p. . st. nicholas, v. , p. . scudder. book of legends, p. . legend of the christ child. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . harrison, christmas-tide, p. . little friend. brown. flower princess, p. . story of the other wise man. van dyke. where love is, god is. tolstoi. _stories._ bird's christmas carol. wiggin. captured santa claus. page. christmas before last. stockton. bee-man of orn and other tales, p. . christmas cake. lindsay. more mother stories, p. . christmas cuckoo. browne. granny's wonderful chair, p. . christmas dream. alcott. lulu's library, v. , p. . christmas every day. howells. christmas every day; and other stories. christmas in the barn. dickinson, children's book of christmas stories, p. . poulsson. in the child's world, p. . christmas masquerade. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . wilkins. pot of gold, p. . christmas truants. stockton. clocks of rondaine, p. . stockton. fanciful tales, p. . christmas turkey and how it came. alcott. lulu's library, v. , p. . christmas under the snow. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . miller. kristy's queer christmas, p. . clocks of rondaine. stockton. clocks of rondaine, p. . stockton. fanciful tales, p. . dog of flanders. ouida. felix. stein. troubadour tales, p. . fir-tree. andersen. wonder stories, p. . bryant. best stories to tell to children, p. . dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . lang. pink fairy book, p. , lansing. fairy tales, v. , p. . schauffler. christmas, p. . scudder. children's book, p. . first christmas tree. van dyke. first christmas tree in new england. colonial stories retold from st. nicholas, p. . golden cobwebs. bryant. best stories to tell to children, p. . bryant. how to tell stories to children, p. . dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . schauffler. christmas, p. . gretchen and the wooden shoe. lindsay. mother stories, p. . how christmas came to the santa maria flats. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . how the fir tree became the christmas tree. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . in the great walled country. alden. why the chimes rang, p. . jimmy scarecrow's christmas. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . legend of the christmas rose. lagerlöf. girl from the marsh croft, p. . smith _and_ hazeltine. christmas in legend and story, p. . little cake bird. tregarthen. north cornwall fairies and legends. little cosette. (adapted from victor hugo.) bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . little girl's christmas. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . little gretchen and the wooden shoe. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . harrison. christmas-tide, p. . master sandy's snap dragon. brooks. storied holidays, p. . my grandmother's grandmother's christmas candle. colonial stories retold from st. nicholas, p. . new altar. broadus. book of the christ child, p. . peterkin's christmas tree. hale. peterkin papers, p. . picciola. blaisdell. child life in many lands, p. . wiggin _and_ smith. story hour, p. . poor count's christmas. stockton. st. nicholas, v. , p. ; p. . sabot of little wolff. coppée. blaisdell. child life; fifth reader, p. . dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . smith _and_ hazeltine. christmas in legend and story, p. . santa claus at simpson's bar. harte. luck of roaring camp, p. . schauffler. christmas, p. . santa claus on a lark. gladden. santa claus on a lark; and other christmas stories, p. . silver hen. wilkins. pot of gold, p. . solomon crow's christmas pockets. stuart. solomon crow's christmas pockets; and other tales, p. . symbol and the saint. field. little book of profitable tales, p. . tailor of gloucester. potter. tell tale tile. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . miller. kristy's queer christmas, p. . three little christmas trees that grew on the hill. o'grady _and_ throop. story teller's book, p. . tilly's christmas. alcott. aunt jo's scrap bag, no. , p. . tiny tim. dickens. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . dickens. christmas carol, ch. . harrison. christmas-tide, p. . tommy trot's visit to santa claus. page. voyage of the wee red cap. dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . where the christmas tree grew. wilkins. young lucretia and other stories, p. . why the chimes rang. alden. why the chimes rang, p. . dickinson. children's book of christmas stories, p. . easter stories. the resurrection. the bible. st. matthew, ch. . see also adaptations in collections of bible stories. _stories._ boy that was scaret o' dyin'. slosson. story-tell lib, p. . boy who discovered the spring. alden. why the chimes rang. easter snow storm. st. nicholas, v. , p. . fred's easter monday. st. nicholas, v. , p. . general's easter box. our holidays, p. . st. nicholas, v. , p. . herr oster hase. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . king robert of sicily. (poem by longfellow.) longfellow. poems. ladders to heaven. ewing. mary's meadow, p. . the legend of easter eggs. (poem by fitz-james o'brien.) olcott. story-telling poems, p. . lesson of faith. gatty. parables from nature, p. . poulsson. in the child's world, p. . boston collection of kindergarten stories, p. . (adapted.) harrison. in story-land, p. . (story of the small green caterpillar.) olcott. good stories, p. . (adapted.) little lilac bush. wiggin. polly oliver's problem, p. . mother hubbard's easter lily. bigham. stories of mother goose village, p. . persephone.[a] plant that lost its berry. slosson. story-tell lib, p. . sacred flame. lagerlöf. christ legends, p. . selfish giant. wilde. happy prince, and other tales, p. . sleeping beauty in the wood.[ ] snowdrop. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . star and the lily. emerson. indian myths, p. . mabie. myths every child should know, p. . (adapted.) trinity flower. ewing. mary's meadow, p. . [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] thanksgiving stories. all the plums. st. nicholas, : . an old time thanksgiving. st. nicholas, : . schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . ann mary; her two thanksgivings. wilkins, m.e. young lucretia, p. . schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . borrowing a grandmother. st. nicholas, : . boston thanksgiving story. poulsson. in the child's world, p. bunny's thanksgiving. jewett. bunny stories, p. . "chusey." coolidge. new year's bargain, p. . coming of thanksgiving. warner. being a boy, p. . first thanksgiving. austin. standish of standish, p. . schwartz. five little strangers, p. . first thanksgiving day. schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . wiggin _and_ smith. story hour, p. . grandma's thanksgiving story. half a hundred stories, p. . schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . helen's thanksgiving. coolidge. round dozen, p. . how patty gave thanks. poulsson. in the child's world, p. . in the cellar. st. nicholas, : . janie leech's angel. moulton. bed time stories, p. . jericho bob. st. nicholas, : . schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . minna's thanksgiving. (poem.) poulsson. through the farmyard gate, p. , chap. xxi. mischief's thanksgiving. coolidge. mr. thankful. st. nicholas, : . old fashioned thanksgiving. alcott. patem's salmagundi. brooks. storied holidays, p. . polly's thanksgiving. schauffler. thanksgiving, p. . the ragged pedlar. naomi, _aunt_. jewish fairy tales and fables, p. . the runaway's thanksgiving. boyesen. norseland tales, p. . story of ruth and naomi. the bible. book of ruth. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . (adapted.) story of the first corn. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . (adapted from longfellow's hiawatha.) thanksgiving at hollywood. half a hundred stories, p. . thanksgiving dinner. white. when molly was six, p. . a thanksgiving dinner that flew away. st. nicholas, : . our holidays, p. . turkeys turning the tables. howells. christmas every day, p. . wee pumpkin's thanksgiving. bigham. stories of mother goose village, p. . who ate the dolly's dinner. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . see also books on united states history--colonial period. arbor day stories. appleseed john. bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . harrison. in story-land, p. . (old johnny appleseed.) olcott. story telling poems, p. . (poem.) poulsson. in the child's world, p. . apollo and daphne. francillon. gods and heroes, p. . kupfer. stories of long ago, p. . olcott. good stories, p. . baucis and philemon. hawthorne. wonder book, p. . (the miraculous pitcher.) bailey _and_ lewis. for the children's hour, p. . (adapted.) olcott. good stories, p. . honest woodman. poulsson. in the child's world, p. . karl and the dryad. brown. star jewels, p. . legend of the cowslip. wiltse. stories for the kindergarten, p. . little brown seed. howliston. cat-tails and other tales, p. . maple leaf and the violet. wiggin _and_ smith. story hour, p. . mary's meadow. ewing. (to be adapted.) old pipes and the dryad.[a] story of the morning glory seed. poulsson. in the child's world, p. . talk of the trees. andrews. stories mother nature told, p. . three little birds. richards. five minute stories, p. . tree in the city. richards. golden windows, p. . twig that became a tree. schauffler. arbor day, p. . walnut tree that wanted to bear tulips. howliston. cat-tales and other tales, p. . wiltse. stories for the kindergarten, p. . why the evergreen never lose their leaves.[ ] [footnote : for source, see page number preceding title in index.] hallowe'en stories. buried moon. jacobs. more english fairy tales. chace of the gilla dacar. curtin. hero tales of ireland. rolleston. high deeds of finn. murdoch's rath. ewing. old fashioned fairy tales. tamlane. jacobs. more english fairy tales. tappan. old ballads in prose. stories for older children. the cycle story hours in the st. louis public library are planned to interest older boys and girls in great works of literature and to inspire them to read along one line for several weeks or months. stories in a series are told at a definite hour each week to encourage regular attendance. however, each story is complete in itself and any boys and girls of nine years and more are invited to attend whether or not they are registered borrowers of books. greek cycle stories. greek myths. . the gorgon's head. . three golden apples. . the miraculous pitcher. . the chimaera. . the minotaur. . the pygmies. . the golden fleece. _sources for the story teller:_ hawthorne. wonder book. hawthorne. tanglewood tales. kingsley. heroes, or, greek fairy tales for my children. the hawthorne books are greek myths interpreted into moral stories written in the author's inimitable style. the characters are more human and real to the child than those in the kingsley version. kingsley retains the greek spirit and tells the stories in bold, strong, heroic outlines. they are probably more easily adapted than the hawthorne versions. stories from the odyssey. . adventures of ulysses with the lotus eaters and the cyclops. . kingdom of the winds and the island of circe. . the visit to the land of shades. . song of the sirens, scylla and charybdis and the oxen of the sun. . the island of calypso and the shipwreck on the coast of phaeocia. . princess nausicaa. . battle of the beggars. . triumph of ulysses. _sources for the story teller:_ homer. odyssey; tr. by w.c. bryant. parts read or recited from this straightforward, dignified translation in blank verse will be appreciated by children. homer. odyssey; done into english prose by butcher and lang. homer; tr. by g.h. palmer. both the above are accepted classic prose translations. the prose of palmer is so direct, simple and rhythmic that a twelve-year-old child can enjoy it. butcher and lang use an older english style in the endeavor to make the translation an accurate historical document. the archaic language with its somewhat involved phrasing is confusing to children and makes it less readable than the palmer translation. marvin. adventures of odysseus. this book is for boys and girls to read for themselves. so much of the homeric spirit is retained and it is so well done that it will be very suggestive in organizing and preparing stories from the odyssey for oral rendition. stories from the iliad. . cause of the trojan war. . the quarrel of the chiefs and the results. . the duel of paris and menelaus. the great battles and the death of patroclus. . achilles in his sorrow vows vengeance on troy. the armor of achilles. . death of hector. priam and achilles. . the wooden horse and the end of the trojan war. _sources for the story teller:_ homer. iliad; tr. into english by w.c. bryant. an interesting, dignified and scholarly rendition into english blank verse. homer. the iliad for boys and girls by a.j. church. the iliad translated into direct and simple prose. homer. stories from the iliad by h.l. havell. the atmosphere and spirit of the iliad are well kept in this most excellent prose version of the iliad. it may be used with older boys and girls and is a valuable aid in the preparation of the stories. norse cycle stories. norse myths . beginning of all things. . how odin lost his eye. how odin brought the mead to asgard. . sif's hair. . iduna's apples. . thor and the frost giants. . balder and the mistletoe. . binding of the fenris wolf. . punishment of loki. . twilight of the gods and the new earth. nibelungen lied. . forging of the sword. . story of greyfell. . curse of gold. . fafnir, the dragon. . awakening of brunhilda. _sources for the story teller:_ northern mythology: anderson, r.b. norse mythology. a complete and systematic presentation of the norse mythology as embodied in the elder and younger eddas and later sagas. brown, a.f. in the days of giants. the best form for younger children. a simple narration of the main facts of norse mythology in story form, suggesting the strength of the original sagas. buxton, e.m. wilmot. stories of norse heroes. a very satisfactory collection of northern myths, including the story of the nibelungs. bulfinch, thomas. age of fable. an excellent text book. gives three chapters to northern mythology. carlyle, thomas. the hero as divinity; odin. _in his_ heroes and hero-worship. this essay is most interesting and inspiring to the story-teller who is presenting scandinavian mythology. mabie, h.w. norse stories. in this collection the rugged strength of the norse tales is modified by a style that polishes and a beauty which (however delightful in reading), could have been present only in a vague way in the original stories. nibelungen lied. fall of the nibelungers; tr. by w.n. lettsom. most of the adaptations are based on this translation. the nibelungs; tr. from the german of f. schmidt by g. upton. _adaptations:_ baldwin, james. story of siegfried. a version of that part of the nibelungen lied which relates to the story of siegfried. incidentally the most important myths of the norse gods are woven into the story. the most popular children's version, but very freely adapted. chapin, a.a. story of the rhinegold. stories of richard wagner's four operas which form the 'nibelungen cycle.' the treatment of the theme is full of strength but differs from other versions of the nibelungen story. church, a.j. treasure of the nibelungs. _in his_ heroes of chivalry and romance. brief account of the nibelung story, leading to fuller versions. mcspadden, j.w. stories from wagner. contains the stories in simple form of a number of wagner's great operas. the tale of the rhinegold, as given here, is the best of the versions of wagner for children. morris, william. story of sigurd the bolsung. very charming poetical version. king arthur tales. . how arthur proved his kingship. . the winning of the queen. . how the round table was established. . three knights of the round table: sir launcelot, first champion. who was held by all men to be the most excellent, noble perfect knight champion who was ever seen in the world from the very beginning of chivalry unto the time when his son sir galahad appeared, like a bright star of extraordinary splendor shining in the sky.--_pyle_. . sir tristram, second champion. if sir launcelot was the chiefest of all the knights who ever came unto king arthur's court, then it is hard to say whether sir tristram or sir percival was second unto him in renown.--_pyle_. . sir percival, third champion. . quest of the grail. the recovery of the grail was the crowning glory of the reign of king arthur.--_pyle_. . passing of arthur. and i do hope that you may have found pleasure in considering their lives. for me seemed they offered a very high example that anyone might follow to his betterment who lives in this world where so much that is ill needs to be amended.--_pyle_. _additional stories_: story of merlin. the boy of the kitchen, sir gareth. marriage of sir gawaine. story of balin. _sources for the story teller_: malory, sir thomas. boy's king arthur ed. by sidney lanier. follows the malory tales very closely. the greater part of the language is unchanged, though the spelling is modernized. lanier has divided the tales into six books, grouping the stories around a central hero from whom the books derive their name. book . king arthur, . sir launcelot, . sir gareth, . sir tristram, . sir galahad and sir percival, . death of king arthur. malory, sir thomas. book of king arthur and his noble knights; ed. by mary macleod. tales selected from le morte d'arthur and simplified. covers the whole period of the reign of king arthur and includes stories of some of his knights, sir launcelot, sir gareth, sir tristram, and sir galahad. pyle, howard. story of king arthur and his knights. --story of sir launcelot and his companions. --story of the champions of the round table. --story of the grail and the passing of arthur. very complete and free versions of the arthurian legends from malory and other sources. the style is delightful and the language beautiful. illustrated by the author. tennyson, alfred. idylls of the king. _contents_: coming of arthur; the round table; gareth and lynette; marriage of geraint; geraint and enid; balin and balan; merlin and vivien; lancelot and elaine, the holy grail; pelleas and ettarre; the last tournament; guinevere; the passing of arthur. portions of the arthur legends told in poetic form. charlemagne and roland legends. . roland's youth. . the story of ogier, the dane. . the story of ralph. . "a roland for an oliver." . the deeds of magwis and reinold of montalban. . the battle of roncesvalles. _sources for the story teller_: baldwin, james. the story of roland. some of the many legends of french chivalry that cluster around the names of charlemagne and roland, translated into english prose and woven into a story with roland as the center of interest. the main incidents have been derived from a variety of sources, but the arrangement and connecting parts are the author's own invention, making the whole an acceptable and interesting version. church, a.j. stories of charlemagne. the old tales shortened and compressed but still retaining life and color and reflecting the spirit of the times. five of the legends which are distinct in themselves have been used. "the four sons of aymon," "ralph, the collier," "fireabras," "the song of roland," and "duke huon of bordeaux." greene, f.n., and kirk, d.w. with spurs of gold. a short account of roland and charlemagne, dealing principally with the battle of roncesvalles. maitland, louise. heroes of chivalry. contains a very clear, brief account of the life and adventures of roland, divided into five parts. roland. the song of roland, translated into english verse; o'hagan. the story of the battle of roncesvalles, the spirit of chivalry, the bravery of the knights, the friendship of roland and oliver, and the treachery of ganelon are all told in stirring, rhythmic verse. chivalry tales. compiled to interest boys and girls in historical fiction. _britain, th century_. . winning of the queen. _outline_: feast at carleon--messenger comes from west country--king arthur's journey to tintagalon--meeting of merlin and arthur--king leaves in disguise--arthur at cameliard--maiden beholds a knight at the fountain but finds only a gardener's boy--lady guinevere sees the knight--gardener's boy wears his cap before lady guinevere and she discovers the knight of the fountain--challenge of duke mordaunt--king arthur seeks armor and is accepted as lady guinevere's champion--duke mordaunt overthrown--king arthur overthrows sir geraint, sir gawaine and sir ewaine and sends them to lady guinevere--meeting with sir pellias--the return of the gardener's boy--four knights serve the gardener's boy--king arthur proclaims himself to his four knights--king arthur and his knights overthrow the duke and his men--king leodegrance desires to wed his daughter to the "white champion"--the gardener removes his cap. _source_: pyle. king arthur and his knights. . sir marrok. _outline_: marrok chosen for a great task--marrok honored at court--coming of lady irma to the forest--marrok summoned to aid king arthur--how it fared in bedegrain with marrok away--sir marrok's return--how sir marrok saved the lady agnes--how the wolf did its work--story of the son of sir simon--sir tristram and the wolf--the stranger knight--sir marrok comes into his own. _source_: french. sir marrok. _france, th century_. . story of roland. _outline_: charlemagne and his peers--bertha and her husband flee from court in disguise--boyhood of roland--quarrel with oliver--the wrestling match--roland and oliver pledge eternal friendship--coming of charlemagne--meeting between the king and the boy of the cave--roland goes to france--ganelon's jealousy of roland--revolt of one of the nobles--battle arranged between champions of king and noble--revolt ended--moslem invasion of europe--charlemagne wars for seven years--envoys of peace from moslem king--king asks advice--roland cries "war"--ganelon counsels peace--ganelon chosen as envoy to the king--plots treason--departure for spain--the pass at roncesvalles. _sources:_ baldwin. story of roland. church. stories of charlemagne. greene. with spurs of gold. macgregor. story of france. _spain, th century._ . the alhambra. _outline_: moors in spain--the alhambra built--destruction of moorish power in europe--legend of the three beautiful princesses--legend of the rose of the alhambra. _source:_ irving. alhambra. _spain, th century._ . the cid. _outline_: time and conditions in spain--character of roderigo--he proves his father's champion--rescues men from moors and wins title--the cid and the leper--chosen as champion to save the city of calahorra--death of king ferdinand--quarrel over division of kingdom--the cid sent to urrica--the queen defies her brother--murder of sancho--alfonso becomes king--his attitude toward the cid--the cid banished, becomes a free lance--captain of valencia--death of the cid. _sources:_ stories from the chronicles of the cid by m.w. plummer. story of the cid for young people, by c.d. wilson. greene. with spurs of gold. _england and france, th and th centuries_. . richard my king; page of count renaud; armorer's apprentice. _source:_ stories of chivalry retold from st. nicholas. _holy land, th century_. . the talisman. (part .) _outline_: meeting and encounter of christian and saracen knights--pledge of friendship and journey to cell of the hermit--scene in chapel of the hermit--camp of richard, the lion heart--coming of kenneth and the arabian physician--conflict outside the tent of richard--kenneth placed in charge of english banner--kenneth deserts his post to aid the lady edith--english flag dishonored--kenneth summoned to tent of richard--kenneth sentenced to death by richard--kenneth becomes bond servant of arabian physician and leaves english camp. . the talisman. (part .) _outline_: journey of kenneth, the physician discovered and the departure of kenneth in disguise to camp of richard--nubian slave saves life of king and proves who was traitor in camp--combat arranged between conrade and saladin's champion--meeting of richard and saladin--the combat--kenneth crowned victor. _source:_ scott. the talisman. _england, th century_. . ivanhoe. (part .) _outline_: scene at dinner in home of cedric, the saxon--entrance of templars, palmer, the lady rowena, and the jew--hasty departure of palmer and jew on the morrow--jew furnishes the palmer with equipment for tournament-- st, nd and d day--chaplet of laurel placed on head of the victor--"ivanhoe" and "palmer" one. . ivanhoe. (part .) _outline_: departure of black knight to cell of "the friar"--ivanhoe taken in charge by rebecca and father--capture of cedric's party by men in disguise--victor of archery contest with cedric's two servants journeys to cell of the friar and enlists sympathy of black knight--locksley gathers his men and with the black knight storms the castle of front de boeuf--guilbert escapes with rebecca and takes her to the home of the knights templars where rebecca is proclaimed a witch--combat--death of bois-guilbert--black knight proclaims that he is england's rightful king--marriage of rowena and ivanhoe--departure of rebecca and her father--death of richard. _source:_ scott. ivanhoe. _england, th century._ . boy's ride. _outline_: hugo attacked on his way to the castle--the cause, treason within the walls--the plan of lady atherly and hugo--robert sadler sets forth on an errand--hugo rides forth with humphrey--william lorimer in charge of castle--lady de atherly and her son flee--in the forest--ferrybridge--the isle of axholme--lady de atherly and son safe in scotland--robert sadler returns to the castle to find it deserted--hugo's journey to lincoln--in the fens--coming of the king--capture of hugo and his release--hugo and humphrey disguised as novice and priest and as maiden and soldier--lord de launay rescues hugo and humphrey--hugo knighted. _source:_ zollinger. boy's ride. _france, th century._ . st. louis. _outline:_ conditions in france at the time of louis' accession to throne--queen blanche as regent--enmity of nobles--marriage of louis and margaret--war with england--vow of st. louis--strategy of king in preparation for crusades--louis in egypt--encounter at nansourah--king taken captive--return to france--louis as king of france--private life--the th crusade--death of st. louis. _sources:_ macgregor. story of france. perry. st. louis. _france, th century. reign of king louis ix._ . count hugo's sword. _outline_: at the inn of william, the conqueror--its history--geoffrey's connection with the inn, and the cause of his grief--coming of count hugo--the strolling jongleur brings news from rouen--geoffrey secretes the "saracen sword"--the count discovers his loss and geoffrey confesses to the theft--the wrath of count hugo--coming of the king's heralds--release of geoffrey--summons to court of king louis ix. _source:_ stein. troubadour tales. _england and holy land, th century. reign of henry iii and richard i._ . the prince and the page. _outline_: the hunter captures the two fugitives--princess eleanor pleads for the pardon of richard and his servant--richard becomes a royal page--the landing of the crusaders--death of king louis--illness of john--richard's wrath--return of sir raynal--richard writes to england--richard accused of sending letter to order arrest of prince henry--the combat--richard sent as messenger meets his brother--richard accused of being in league with his brothers--edward defends his page--the pilgrim in the hospitalier--richard gives his life for his prince. _source:_ yonge. prince and the page. _germany, th century._ . the boy and the baron. _outline_: "shining knight" hides his treasure and becomes a captive--carl, the armorer, finds a child among the osiers and takes him into his own home--wulf's first visit to the castle and what befell--wulf makes the castle his home--enmity of conradt--the baron declared an outlaw--the baron breaks ill news to elsie--flight of wulf and elsie--wulf becomes messenger to the king--the battle--the "shining knight" brought forth from the dungeon--knighting of wulf. _source:_ knapp. the boy and the baron. _germany, th century._ . otto of the silver hand. _outline_: "dragon's house," its inmates--baron conrad goes forth to fleece the merchants and is shorn--otto at st. michaelsburg--otto returns to the "dragon's house"--conrad answers the summons of the king--capture of otto--hans enters baron henry's castle--flight of baron conrad and his men--conrad's last stand--otto before king rudolph. _source:_ pyle. otto of the silver hand. _england, th and th centuries. reigns of henry iv and v._ . men of iron. _outline_: plot against life of the king--murder of sir john dale at falworth castle--the flight from falworth castle--life at crosby dale--miles training under diccon--miles takes service under the earl of mackworth--friendship of miles and gascoyne--training of esquires--quarrel between miles and blunt--sir james' interest in miles--"knights of the rose," their oath and what came of it--miles meets the lady anne and her cousin--earl of mackworth finds miles in the garden--coming of henry iv--miles is knighted and wins his first tournament--departure for france--in the company of the prince of wales--miles in the presence of the king challenges the earl of alban to do battle--death of the earl of alban--miles betrothed to the lady anne. _source:_ pyle. men of iron. _england, th century, reign of henry v._ . king henry v. _outline_: madcap prince and his companions--death of king henry iv--henry v crowned king--meeting of king and falstaff--preparation for war with france--the dauphin's message and the king's answer--siege of harfleur--henry as commander--king in disguise enters tents of his soldiers--battle of agincourt--the king's reception on his return to england--war with france renewed--treaty of peace--the king's marriage. _sources:_ couch. historical tales from shakespeare. shakespeare. king henry iv. shakespeare. king henry v. _france, th century._ _reign of charles vi and vii._ . joan of arc. _outline:_ conditions in france at the death of charles vi--childhood of joan--heavenly voices tell joan her mission--the voices become more urgent--her brutal reception from the lord vaucouleurs--the faith of the people in joan--money and an escort provided--in the presence of the dauphin--before the learned men of poitiers--march to orleans--the siege--joan before the council--end of the siege--surrender of beaugency--joan meets english army under talbot and utterly routs it--coronation of charles vii at rheims--indolence of king--refuses to renew attack on paris--joan wounded--the french retreat, a blow to joan's prestige--people lose faith in her--capture--treatment in prison--trial--death. _sources:_ lang. red true story book. macgregor. story of france. boutet de monvel. joan of arc. _france, th century._ _reign of charles viii and louis xii._ . bayard. _outline:_ the boy's choice--the page--touching shields--in the garrison--the tournament--war--capture of milan--the duel--bayard guards the bridge--siege of mezieres--death of bayard. _sources:_ andrews. story of bayard. greene. with spurs of gold. macgregor. story of france. _england, th century._ _reign of henry viii and edward vi._ . prince and the pauper. _outline:_ birth of tom and the prince--the occupants of "orful court"--tom visits the palace and changes garments with the prince--tom as the "prince of wales"--the prince's experience in the school grounds--his meeting with mr. canty--flight of the canty family--tom and the king--life in the palace, death of the king--meeting of prince and miles hendon--miles becomes protector to the "king of dreams"--prince and the hermit--prince as kitchenboy--miles finds his ward and takes him home--sir hugh denounces his brother as an imposter and has him imprisoned--the prison--miles takes flogging for the prince--the coronation of the king--appearance of the rightful king--where is the great seal?--"long live the king"--miles hendon sits in the presence of the king. _source:_ clemens. prince and the pauper. stories from chaucer . prologue. the priest's tale. the cock and the fox. . the lawyer's tale. constance. . the clerk's tale. patient griselda. . the knight's tale. palamon and arcite. . the franklin's tale. dorigen. _sources for the story teller:_ chaucer, geoffrey. the student's chaucer; ed. by skeat. _adaptations:_ tales of the canterbury pilgrims; retold from chaucer and others by f.j. harvey darton. this is the most attractive and complete edition of the chaucer stories for children. the text is freely rendered and the author has rearranged the stories in groups. the book is charmingly illustrated by hugh thomson. stories from chaucer retold from the canterbury tales by j.w. mcspadden. an excellent rendition of the chaucer stories. the author has followed closely chaucer's lines and in many places has included the original verse. this version will be found helpful in the preparation of the ten stories that it contains. canterbury chimes; or chaucer tales retold for children by f. storr and h. turner. this collection gives the prologue and six of the pilgrims' stories. it follows closely the original verse, but is not as attractive as the mcspadden version, although the two are similar. the chaucer story book by eva march tappan. includes eleven stories freely told and simplified. on this account may be used for younger children. some of the atmosphere of chaucer's original tales is lost but the plots are made very clear, which is an aid in the preparation of the stories. stories from the faerie queene. . adventures of una and the red cross knight. the quest--the wood of error--the knight deceived by the magician, forsakes una--the knight's adventures--una and the lion and what befell her later--the last fight and the end of the quest. . the legend of britomart. britomart looks into the magic mirror and later starts on her quest--what strange adventures befell britomart--the great tournament for the golden girdle--how britomart ended her quest. . the adventures of sir artegall. minor adventures in which sir artegall rights many wrongs--his adventures with the queen of the amazons and his rescue by britomart--the death of the tyrant grantorto. . the adventures of sir calidore. the quest--sir calidore's encounter with the discourteous knight--pasterella, and the successful ending of the quest. _sources for the story teller:_ spenser, edmund. works; ed. by r. morris. _adaptations:_ stories from the faerie queene; retold from spenser by l.h. dawson. similar to the macleod version, but not so conveniently arranged for the story teller. stories from the faerie queene; by mary macleod. this contains more stories than the other versions and the material is so arranged that the story teller will find it a help in making out a program for a longer cycle. the best and most attractive edition to use with children. una and the red cross knight, and other tales from spenser's faerie queene; by n.g. royde-smith. this book gives chiefly the first part of spenser's faerie queene--the adventures of una and the red cross knight--but it is excellently told and charmingly illustrated by t.h. robinson. in a good many places spenser's original verse has been inserted, which gives an added charm. irish hero tales. . quest of the sons of turenn. . cuchulain's youth. . strife for the dun cow of cooley. . cuchulain and ferdia. . cuchulain's death. . fate of the sons of usna. . king fergus and king iubdan. . chase of the gilla dacar. . oisin in the land of youth. _sources for the story teller:_ curtin, jeremiah. hero tales of ireland. for the most part disconnected stories of adventure, which, though full of interest, lack the peculiar celtic flavor. contains: chase of the gilla dacar. gregory, augusta, _lady_. cuchulain of muirthemne. the most detailed account of cuchulain told with great sympathy in dignified, often metrical prose. contains: cuchulain's youth, strife for the dun cow, cuchulain and ferdia, cuchulain's death, fate of the sons of usna. hull, eleanor. boys' cuchulain. an abridged and adapted version of the cuchulain legend that retains much of the heroic spirit. requires little preparation from the story teller. contains: cuchulain's youth, strife for the dun cow, cuchulain's death, fate of the sons of usna. joyce, p.w. old celtic romances. a translation may either follow the very words or reproduce the life and spirit of the original. i have chosen this latter course.--_author's pref._ contains: chase of the gilla dacar, oisin in the land of youth. o'grady, s.h. silva gadelica. valuable and interesting material in the raw. contains: king fergus and king iubdan, chase of the gilla dacar. rolleston, t.w. high deeds of finn. simple versions which possess a genuine atmosphere, although the author did not go directly to the manuscripts for his material. contains: king fergus and king iubdan, chase of the gilla dacar, oison in the land of youth. stories from shakespeare. . as you like it. . much ado about nothing. . macbeth. . king john. . merchant of venice. . taming of the shrew. . julius caesar. . hamlet. . tempest. . comedy of errors. . king lear. . midsummer night's dream. . coriolanus. . twelfth night. . winter's tale. . king richard iii. _sources for the story teller:_ shakespeare, william. shakespeare plays; ed. by i. gollancz. (temple edition.) _adaptations:_ historical tales from shakespeare by a.t.q. couch. contains eight of shakespeare's historical plays, clearly told; coriolanus, julius caesar, king john, king richard nd, king henry th, king henry th, king henry th, and king richard rd. the children's shakespeare; stories from the plays; told and chosen by a.s. hoffman. a number of the best known plays retold in prose with the most famous speeches included in the original verse. contains: as you like it, julius caesar, king henry th, king john, king lear, king richard nd, macbeth, merchant of venice, midsummer night's dream and tempest. these are also published separately. tales from shakespeare; by charles and mary lamb. a well known popular version of twenty of shakespeare's plays. tempest, midsummer night's dream, winter's tale, much ado about nothing, as you like it, two gentlemen of verona, merchant of venice, cymbeline, king lear, macbeth, all's well that ends well, taming of the shrew, comedy of errors, measure for measure, twelfth night, timon of athens, romeo and juliet, hamlet, othello, and pericles, prince of tyre. the shakespeare story-book, by mary macleod. seventeen of shakespeare's best known plays; tempest, two gentlemen of verona, much ado about nothing, midsummer night's dream, merchant of venice, as you like it, taming of the shrew, twelfth night, romeo and juliet, macbeth, hamlet, king lear, othello, cymbeline, winter's tale and comedy of errors. these stories have been told with accuracy and the book has proved popular with children. midsummer night's dream; introductory story, decorations and il. by l.f. perkins. an adapted version of midsummer night's dream, with a short introductory story of shakespeare's time and charming illustrations by the editor. stories from the old testament. . the creation. the garden of eden. . the story of noah. the building of the ark--the flood--the message of the dove--the bow in the clouds. . the story of abraham. god's promise--toward the land of canaan--isaac's birth--abraham offers up isaac to god--isaac and rebecca--jacob and esau--jacob's dream--jacob and rachel. . the story of joseph. joseph and his brothers--the coat of many colors--in the land of egypt--pharaoh's dream--the famine--the brothers go down to buy corn--their second journey--the cup--joseph makes himself known to his brothers--jacob finds his sons--jacob's blessing. . the story of moses and the children of israel. the israelites in bondage--the child in the bulrushes--the burning bush--bricks without straw--the miracle--the ten plagues--the flight from egypt--across the red sea--through the wilderness--the ten commandments--the worship of the golden calf--the building of the tabernacle--balaam and the ass--moses' death--joshua leads them into the promised land. . the story of gideon. the story of samson. . david, the shepherd king. saul disobeys god and david is made king--david plays the harp before saul--david kills the giant, goliath--saul seeks to kill david--the love of jonathan and david--david spares saul's life--the battle of gilboa--david's lament--the twenty-third psalm. . the story of solomon. solomon's choice--he sits in wise judgment between two women--the building of the temple--the visit of the queen of sheba--some of the proverbs of solomon. . the story of ruth. the story of esther. . little samuel. daniel, the fearless. _sources for the story teller:_ bible text: douay version. king james version. josephus, flavius. our young folks josephus. a simplification of the jewish history of josephus. contains: story of abraham--story of joseph--story of moses--stories of gideon and samson--story of david--story of solomon--stories of ruth and esther. _adaptations of the bible text_: bible stories retold by l.l. weedon. retold simply but not without dignity. bible stories. old testament; with an introduction and notes by r.g. moulton. "stories in the language of scripture, altered only by omissions." bible stories in bible language, by e.t. potter. similar in plan to the moulton and tappan editions. garden of eden, by g. hodges. stories from the first nine books of the old testament. somewhat modern in spirit. contains: the creation; story of noah; story of abraham; story of joseph; story of moses; stories of gideon and samson; story of david; story of ruth; story of samuel. old, old story book, compiled from the old testament by e.m. tappan. the bible text is followed literally, omissions being made for the sake of clearness. old testament stories, selected for the children by e. chisholm. retains the dignity and simplicity of the bible narrative. contains: story of abraham; story of joseph; story of moses. stories from the old testament for children, by h.s.b. beale. told in the language of the bible save where the abridgment requires explanation from the author. contains: story of abraham; story of joseph; story of moses; stories of gideon and samson; story of david; story of solomon; little samuel. story of the bible, by c. foster. "told in simple language adapted to all ages, but especially to the young." story of the chosen people, by h.a. guerber. a direct, historical narrative having considerable background. stories from the new testament. . the child jesus. the birth of jesus--the flight into egypt--the return to nazareth--the boy in the temple. . the beginning of jesus' ministry. jesus' baptism--his temptation--choosing his disciples--the miracle of the fishes. . miracles. the man with palsy--at the pool of bethesda--the man with the withered hand--the sermon on the mount. . other miracles. he heals the son of the widow of nain--jairus' daughter--he feeds the multitude--he walks on the sea--he raises lazarus from the dead. . parables. the lost sheep--the prodigal son--the sower--the story of the good samaritan--jesus blesses little children. . last events in jesus' life on earth. his betrayal by judas--his crucifixion--the women at the tomb--his resurrection from the dead--the last supper--his ascension into heaven. . st. stephen, the first martyr. st. peter's vision. . story of st. paul. _sources for the story teller:_ _bible text:_ douay version. king james version. _adaptations:_ when the king came; stories from the four gospels, by george hodges. the life of christ directly and simply told, with a matter of fact treatment of the supernatural and miraculous. story of stories, by r.c. gillie. a connected life of christ with due emphasis on its spiritual significance. stories from the life of christ, by j.h. kelman. selected from the gospels, retaining the biblical language. little child's life of jesus, by a. steedman. reverent in tone, but somewhat weakened by the adaptation. robin hood stories. . how robin hood became an outlaw. . the shooting-match at nottingham. . little john's adventures at the sheriff's house. . robin hood and will scarlet. . robin hood aids a knight in distress. . robin hood and his men go to london to shoot for the queen. . king richard's adventures with robin hood. _sources for the story teller:_ macleod, mary. book of ballad stories. includes tales of robin hood's adventures taken from early sources. the stories are told very briefly and lack the charm of the more modern versions. mcspadden, j.w. stories of robin hood and his merry outlaws. contains stories of robin hood and his band. not as good as the howard pyle version, but the best inexpensive edition. perkins, l.f. robin hood. the history and adventures of robin hood retold in verse, and attractively illustrated by the author. good to give to children to acquaint them with the ballad form. pyle, howard. the merry adventures to robin hood. this is undoubtedly the best prose version of the robin hood ballads and the best source for the story teller. it fully expresses the out of door atmosphere and the spirit of good fellowship and adventure that is found in the original ballads. rhead, l.j. bold robin hood and his outlaw band. a retelling in prose style is good but lacks spirit and humor of pyle versions. tappan, e.m. robin hood. this collection gives stories of robin hood's exploits. some of the stories have been slightly altered, but the atmosphere has been kept in the main. ballad stories. . kinmont willie. . black agnace of dunbar. . patient griselda. . saddle to rags. . the beggar's daughter of bednall-green. . muckle-mou'ed meg. . sir patrick spens. . barring of the door. . the ballad of chevy chase. . the king of france's daughter. . the king and the miller. . the heir of linne. _sources for the story teller_: greenwood, grace. stories from famous ballads; ed. by caroline burnite. a new edition of grace greenwood's collection of nine of the old ballads. they are told in a direct and simple way, and with a great deal of charm. contains: patient griselda, the beggar's daughter, sir patrick spens. chevy chase, king of france's daughter, king and the miller and the heir of linne. grierson, e.w. children's tales from scottish ballads. a splendid collection of seventeen of the best known ballads retold in prose for children. they are well written and full of the spirit of romance and adventure. contains: kinmont willie, black agnes of dunbar, muckle-mou'ed meg, sir patrick spens, the heir of linne. macleod, mary. a book of ballad stories. thirty-four ballads in prose, including the robin hood and many other well known tales. the selection of material is good. contains: patient griselda, saddle to rags, the beggar's daughter, the king and the miller, the heir of linne. percy, thomas. the boy's percy, being old ballads from percy's reliques; s. lanier. a scholarly collection, in poetry form, of thirty-five english ballads. some of them could not be used for telling, but they are all interesting and should be read in order to get the old ballad spirit. contains: chevy chase, the king and the miller, the heir of linne. smith, j.c. _and_ soutar, g.a. a book of ballads for boys and girls. a collection of fifty-four ballads divided into three parts; ballads of romance, ballads historical and legendary, ballads literary and elegiac. each ballad is told in verse with an explanatory note and there is a general introduction on ballad poetry. contains: kinmont willie, sir patrick spens, and chevy chase. tappan, e.m. old ballads in prose. this collection comprises twenty-two of the old ballad stories. in it are found several humorous stories not contained in the other collections. a good book to use with children. contains: saddle to rags and barring of the door. a selection of modern narrative poems, chiefly historical. for reading aloud. ancient mariner. coleridge. the armada. macaulay. barbara frietchie. whittier. the battle of the baltic. campbell. the battle of agincourt. drayton. the battle of charlestown harbor. hayne. the brown dwarf of rügen. whittier. the burial of moses. alexander. the courtship of miles standish. longfellow. the defense of the alamo. joaquin miller. the destruction of sennacherib. lord byron. evangeline. longfellow. horatius. macaulay. the emperor's bird's nest. longfellow. idylls of the king. tennyson. the inchcape rock. southey. incident of the french camp. browning. ivry, a song of the huguenots. macaulay. john gilpin's ride. cowper. king alfred and the harper. sterling. the landing of the pilgrims. hemans. the leak in the dike. phoebe gary. lochinvar. scott. lord ullin's daughter. campbell. marmion. scott. paul revere's ride. longfellow. the pied piper of hamelin. browning. the revenge. tennyson. sheridan's ride. read. sohrab and rustum. arnold. the song of hiawatha. longfellow. storming of corinth. lord byron. the vision of sir launfal. lowell. the wreck of the hesperus. longfellow. _sources:_ gayley, c.m. _and_ flaherty, m.c. poetry of the people. _contents_: older ballads; poems of england; poems of scotland; poems of ireland; poems of america. a very complete collection of well known and less known historical and patriotic poems. recently revised to include twenty-seven poems and national anthems of the world war. henley, w.e. lyra heroica. a book of patriotic verse, chiefly from english sources. contains also the ballads of chevy chase, sir patrick spens, kinmont willie and others. lang, a. blue poetry book. old ballads, english historical poems and a few others. longfellow, h.w. complete poetical works. olcott, f.j. story telling poems. arranged under the following headings: deeds of right and wrong; fairies, magic and mystery; jolly rhymes and poems; sad poems; historical legends and stories; sacred stories and legends. scollard, clinton. ballads of american bravery. poems commemorating valorous deeds and brave men in american history, such as the men of the alamo, kearny at the seven pines, keenan's charge, john burns of gettysburg, sheridan's ride, a ballad of manila bay, down the little big horn, battle of charlestown harbor. scott, sir walter. poetical works. tennyson, alfred. idylls of the king. wiggin _and_ smith. golden numbers. a book of english verse for boys and girls. some divisions are: story poems, when banners are waving, tales of olden time, one of the best collections for general use. see also, granger. an index to poetry and recitations. prose selections and stories to read aloud to boys and girls. about elizabeth eliza's piano. hale. peterkin papers. adventures of pinocchio. collodi. the adventures of a fourth. aldrich. story of a bad boy. adventures of the windmills. cervantes. don quixote; ed. by parry an animal show at night. bostock. training of wild animals. arkansaw bear. paine. attack of the savages. marryat. masterman ready. bear that had a bank account. boyesen. boyhood in norway. bee-man of orn. stockton. boldheart (dickens). lucas. runaways and castaways. box s round up. lummis. new mexico david. a brave rescue and a rough ride. blackmore. lorna doone. a captured santa claus. page. a centurion of the thirtieth. kipling. puck of pook's hill. christian meets apollyon. bunyan. pilgrim's progress. christmas carol. dickens. cricket on the hearth. dickens. daisy's jewel box. alcott. spinning wheel stories. the deep-sea diver. moffett. careers of danger and daring. dog of flanders. ouida. favorite of the gods. hutchinson. golden porch. the fight. hughes. tom brown's school days. fishing on the grand banks. kipling. captains courageous. gallagher. davis. the gold bug. foe. the great locomotive chase. pittenger. booth. wonderful escapes by americans. (adapted.) great stone face. hawthorne. green cap. brown. star jewels. how amyas threw his sword into the sea. kingsley. westward ho! how otto dwelt at st. michaelsburg. pyle. otto of the silver hand. how otto lived in the dragon's house. pyle. otto of the silver hand. how tom sawyer whitewashed the fence. clemens. adventures of tom sawyer. in the pasture. spyri. heidi. jackanapes. ewing. jack farley's flying switch. warman. short rails. jawbone telegraph. lummis. king of the broncos. johnny bear. seton. lives of the hunted. just so stories. kipling. the kid engineer. spearman. nerve of foley. lance of kanana, pp. - . french. legend of sleepy hollow. irving. sketch book. little lame prince. mulock. the little post boy. taylor. boys of other countries. lord of the air. roberts. kindred of the wild. a mad tea-party. carroll. alice in wonderland. maggie tulliver tries to run away from her shadow. eliot. mill on the floss. lucas. runaways and castaways. mary's meadow. ewing. men of iron, ch. , , . pyle. monkey that would not kill. drummond. njal's burning. njals saga. heroes of iceland; ed. by french. . . kipling. day's work. of that harvest feast. french. story of rolf and the viking's bow. onatoga's sacrifice. (story of the piasau bird.) indian stories retold from st. nicholas. st. nicholas, v. , p. . our first whale. bullen. cruise of the cachalot. peter schlemihl. chamisso. peter spots, fireman. hill. fighting fire. "pieces of eight." stevenson. treasure island. the pickwickians disport themselves on the ice. dickens. pickwick papers. rab and his friends. brown. the race. dodge. hans brinker. raggylug; the story of a cottontail rabbit. seton. wild animals i have known. rikki-tikki-tavi. kipling. jungle book. rip van winkle. irving. sketch book. rose and the ring. thackeray. the snow queen. andersen. story of sonny sahib. ch. , , . cotes. solomon crow's christmas pockets. stuart. some other birds are taught to fly. wiggin. bird's christmas carol. sons of the vikings. boyesen. modern vikings. tom's first royal dinner. clemens. prince and the pauper. toomai of the elephants. kipling. jungle book. uncle remus, his songs and his sayings. harris. a voyage of discovery. wyss. swiss family robinson. voyage to lilliput. swift. gulliver's travels. widow o'callaghan's boys. ch. , . zollinger. see also hassler. graded list of stories for reading aloud. books about story telling. _best sources:_ bryant, s.c. how to tell stories to children. one of the most practical and helpful books on the subject. fine common-sense is used in all that is said on the purpose of story-telling, the selection of stories and how to adapt and to tell the story. some specific uses of the story in the school room are given besides a graded collection of thirty-two stories and a short list of books in which the story teller will find stories not too far from the form in which they are needed. cowles, j.d. the art of story telling. a useful elementary book. contains about stories in form suited to young children. lyman, edna. story telling; what to tell and how to tell it. story telling; what to tell and how to tell it. "the purpose of this book is not in any way to attempt to give information to those who have devoted both time and study to the subject or who have had practical experience in story telling, but rather to make a few suggestions to those mothers, teachers and librarians who are interested in its use as a phase of another occupation." the chapters on "reading aloud to children" and "arranging the program of miscellaneous stories" are particularly suggestive. contains good outlines for cycle story hours for older children. olcott, f.j. story telling poems. there is an introduction addressed to the story-teller suggesting ways in which the poems may be used. the poems are indexed under such ethical subjects as courage, humility, etc. _other sources:_ bryant, s.c. stories to tell to children. fifty-one stories with some suggestions for telling. there is a clear statement of the value to the child of the type of story which specifically teaches a certain ethical lesson and also the kind of story that has no moral to offer. the author believes in telling one to three in favor of the latter kind. the book also contains a few principles underlying the dramatization of stories for young children. clemens, samuel l. how to tell a story. the different methods required in telling witty, comic and humorous stories. houghton, mrs. l.s. telling bible stories. the author aims to inspire mothers and teachers to use the old testament stories more freely in developing the religious nature of the child. keyes, a.m. stories and story-telling. the author is head of the department of english in the brooklyn training school for teachers. besides a discussion of method and theory the book contains about stories, including a good selection of short stories suitable for young children to reproduce. macclintock, p.l. literature in the elementary school. chapters and are suggestive in regard to analyzing a story and the characteristics of a good story. partridge, e.n. _and_ g.e. story telling in school and home. a large part of the book is devoted to the use of the story in teaching language, history, nature study and to its place in moral education. there are well chosen stories re-told from myths, legends, fables and history. ransome, arthur. a history of story-telling; studies in the development of narrative. the chapter on "origins" deals with story-telling outside books. st. john, e.p. stories and story telling in moral and religious education. a book on methods written from a sane point of view. at the end of each chapter are many quotations from such authors as g. stanley hall, felix adler, froebel, and george adam smith, and also a bibliography. wyche, r.t. some great stories and how to tell them. emphasis is laid upon the psychological principles and the spiritual equipment in telling stories. the epic stories of siegfried, beowulf and ulysses are given prominence with a retelling of beowulf and four stories from king arthur. one chapter is devoted to the "story teller's league" and its work. index to titles of stories and selections. about elizabeth eliza's piano abraham, story of achilles in his sorrow vows vengeance on troy adventure of the windmills adventures of a fourth adventures of nils adventures of pinocchio adventures of sir artegall adventures of sir calidore adventures of ulysses adventures of una and the red cross knight aladdin alhambra all the plums an animal show at night an old time thanksgiving ancient mariner ann mary; her two thanksgivings appleseed john apollo and daphne arkansaw bear armada armor of achilles armorer's apprentice as i walked over the hills one day as you like it aschenputtel attack of the savages awakening of brunhilda babouscka balder and the mistletoe balin banyan deer barbara fritchie barring of the door battle of agincourt battle of the baltic battle of the beggars battle of charlestown harbor battle of roncesvalles baucis and philemon bayard bear that had a bank account beauty and the beast beauty and the horse bee, the harp, and the mouse and the bum-clock bee-man of orn beggar's daughter of bednall green beginning of all things beginning of jesus' ministry bible, the billy beg and the bull binding of the fenris wolf bird's christmas carol birth of christ black agnace of dunbar black bull of norroway boldheart boots and his brothers borrowing a grandmother boston thanksgiving story box s round up boy and the baron boy and the north wind boy of the kitchen; sir gareth boy that was scaret o' dyin' boy who discovered the spring boy's ride brave rescue and a rough ride bremen town musicians briar rose brown dwarf of ruegen bunny's thanksgiving burial of moses buried moon camel's hump captured santa claus , cat and the mouse cause of the trojan war centurion of the thirtieth chase of the gilla dacar , chevy chase chicken licken chicken little child jesus chimaera christian meets apollyon christmas before last christmas cake christmas carol christmas cuckoo christmas dream christmas every day christmas in the barn christmas masquerade christmas truants christmas turkey and how it came christmas under the snow "chusey" cid, the cinderella clerks tale clocks of rondaine cock and the crested hen cock and the fox cock and the mouse and the little red hen coffee mill which grinds salt comedy of errors coming of thanksgiving coming of the prince constance contrary woman coquerico coriolanus count hugo's sword courtship of miles standish creation, the cricket on the hearth cuchulain and ferdia cuchulain's death cuchulain's youth curse of gold daisy's jewel box dame gudbrand dame wiggin of lee and her seven wonderful cats daniel, the fearless david, the shepherd king death of hector defence of the alamo deeds of magwis and reinold of montalban deep-sea diver destruction of sennacherib diana; and the story of orion dog of flanders , doll in the grass dorigen duel of paris and menelaus east o' the sun and west o' the moon easter snow storm elephant's child elves and the shoemaker emperor's bird's nest epaminondas , esther evangeline fafnir, the dragon the fairies fate of the sons of usna favorite of the gods felix fight, the fir-tree first christmas tree first christmas tree in new england first thanksgiving first thanksgiving day fisherman and his wife fisherman and the genii fishing on the grand banks forging of the sword fred's easter monday franklins tale gallegher; a news-paper story garden of eden general's easter box gideon gingerbread man gold bug golden bird golden cobwebs , golden fleece goldilocks good little mouse good woman , goody 'gainst-the-stream goody two-shoes gorgon's head grandma's thanksgiving story great battles great locomotive chase great stone face greedy goldsmith's reward green cap gretchen and the wooden shoe grizzled peter gudbrand-on-the-hillside half chick hamlet hansel and grethel heir of linne hen who went to dovrefjeld helen's thanksgiving henny penny hermann's treasure box herr oster hase hobyahs , honest woodman horatius how amyas threw his sword into the sea how arthur proved his kingship how christmas came to santa maria flats how jack went to seek his fortune how mr. rabbit lost his fine bushy tail how mr. rabbit was too sharp for mr. fox how odin brought the mead of asgar how odin lost his eye how otto dwelt at saint michaelsburg how otto lived in the dragon's house how patty gave thanks how robin hood became an outlaw how the camel got his hump how the fir-tree became the christmas tree how the leaves came down how the round table was established how they got hair lock home how tom sawyer whitewashed the fence huron cinderella husband who was to mind the house iduna's apples idylls of the king in the cellar in the great walled country in the pasture the inchcape rock incident of the french camp island of calypso island of circe ivanhoe ivry, the song of the huguenots jack and his brothers jack and the bean stalk jack farley's flying switch jack, the giant killer jackanapes janie leech's angel jawbone telegraph jericho bob jimmy scarecrow's christmas joan of arc john gilpin's ride johnny bear johnny cake joseph julius caesar jumblies just so stories karl and the dryad kid engineer, the king alfred and the harper king and the miller king fergus and king iubdan king henry, the fifth king john king lear king of france's daughter king of the golden river king richard, the third king richard's adventures with robin hood king robert of sicily kingdom of the winds kinmont willie knights tale lad and the fox lad who went to the north wind ladders to heaven lady of shalott lambikin lance of kanana landing of the pilgrims last events in jesus' life on earth lawyers tale leak in the dike legend of britomart legend of easter eggs legend of st. christopher legend of sleepy hollow legend of the christ child legend of the christmas rose legend of the cowslip lesson of faith little black sambo little brown seed little cake bird little cosette little folks' presents little friend little girls' christmas little gretchen and the wooden shoe little grey pony little john's adventures at the sheriff's house little lame prince little lilac bush little one-eye, two-eyes and three-eyes little post boy little red hen little red hen and the grain of wheat little two-eyes little samuel little snow-white lochinvar lord of the air lord ullin's daughter macbeth mad tea-party maggie tulliver tries to run away from her shadow maple leaf and the violet marmion marriage of sir gawain mary's meadow , master sandy's snap-dragon medio pollito men of iron , merchant of venice merlin merry pranks of robin goodfellow midsummer night's dream minna's thanksgiving minotaur miracles miraculous pitcher mirror of matsuyama mischief's thanksgiving mr. thankful mr. vinegar monkey that would not kill moses, and the children of israel mother holle mother hubbard's easter lily mother hulda much ado about nothing muckle-mou'ed meg munacher and manacher murdoch's rath my grandmother's grandmother's christmas candle nanny who wouldn't go home to supper necklace of truth new altar nibelungen lied night before christmas njal's burning noah northern mythology . of that harvest feast ogier, the dane oisin in the land of youth old fashioned thanksgiving old pipes and the dryad old woman and her pig old woman and the tramp ole shut-eye stories onatoga's sacrifice orpheus and eurydice other miracles otto of the silver hand our first whale oxen of the sun page of count renaud palamon and arcite pancake parables passing of arthur patem's salmagundi patient griselda patroclus paul revere's ride persephone peter fiddle-de-dee peter, paul and espen peter rabbit peter rabbit plays a joke peter schlemihl peter spots, fireman peterkin and the little grey hare peterkin's christmas tree phaeocia piasau bird picciola "pieces of eight" the pickwickians disport themselves on the ice pied piper of franchville pied piper of hamelin , plant that lost its berry polly's thanksgiving pomegranate seeds poor count's christmas presents of the little folk priam and achilles prince and the page prince and the pauper princess and the pea princess nausicaa princess whom nobody could silence priests tale proserpina punishment of loki pygmies quarrel of the chiefs and the results quern at the bottom of sea quest of the grail quest of the sons of turenn quick running squash , rab and his friends the race ragged pedlar ram and the pig raggylug; the story of a cottontail rabbit rat catcher rat princess red bull of norroway reformed pirate the revenge resurrection, the rhymes from mother goose richard, my king rikki-tikki-tavi rip van winkle robert of lincoln robin goodfellow robin hood aids a knight in distress robin hood and his men go to london to shoot for the queen robin hood and will scarlet roland "a roland for an oliver" roland's youth rose and the ring runaway's thanksgiving rushen coatie ruth ruth and naomi sabot of little wolff sacred flame saddle to rags st. louis st. paul st. peter's vision st. stephen; the first martyr samson santa claus at simpson's bar santa claus on a lark scarface scrapefoot scylla and charybdis selfish giant sheep and the pig who set up house-keeping sheridan's ride shooting-match at nottingham sif's hair silver hen silver locks sir launcelot, first champion sir marrok sir patrick spens sir percival, third champion sir tristram, second champion six sillies six swans sleeping beauty in the wood sleeping princess snow queen snowdrop , snow-white and rose-red sohrab and rustum solomon solomon crow's christmas pockets , some other birds are taught to fly song of hiawatha song of the sirens sonny sahib sons of the vikings spotty, the turtle, wins the race star and the lily stolen charm storming of corinth story of greyfell story of ralph story of the faithful servant story of the first corn story of the morning glory seed story of the other wise man story of the three sons straw, the coal and the bean strife for the dun cow of cooley sun and the wind sun, moon and wind go to dinner sun, the moon and the wind symbol and the saint tailor of gloucester talk of the trees taming of the shrew tamlane tar baby tell tale tile tempest thanksgiving at hollywood thanksgiving dinner thanksgiving dinner that flew away thor and the frost giants three bears three billy goats gruff three goats three goats named bruse three golden apples three knights of the round table three little birds three little christmas trees that grew on the hill three little pigs three sillies three wishes tiger, brahman and jackal tilly's christmas timothy's shoes tinder box tiny tim titty mouse and tatty mouse tom hickathrift tom, the water baby tom thumb tommy trot's visit to santa claus tom's first royal dinner toomai of the elephants travels of a fox tree in the city trinity flower triumph of ulysses trojan war turkey's turning the tables twelve wild ducks twelfth night twig that became a tree twilight of the gods and the new earth ugly duckling uncle remus, his songs and his sayings vision of sir launfal visit to the land of shades voyage of discovery voyage of the wee red cap voyage to lilliput walnut tree that wanted to bear tulips water of life wee bannock wee pumkin's thanksgiving what the good man does is sure to be right where love is, god is where the christmas tree grew whittington and his cat who ate the dolly's dinner? who stole the bird's nest why all men love the moon why the bean wears a stripe why the chimes rang why the evergreens never lose their leaves why the sea is salt widow o'callaghan's boys wild swans winning of the queen winter's tale wise men of gotham wolf and seven little goslings wolf and seven young kids wolf and the seven little goats wooden horse wreck of the hesperus books referred to in the foregoing lists. adams, william, _ed_. myths of old greece. amer. book co., c. aesop. fables; joseph jacobs, ed. cranford ed. macmillan, $ . . alcott, l.m. aunt jo's scrap bag. v., little, $ . ea. -- lulu's library. v, little, $ . ea. -- old-fashioned thanksgiving. little, $ . . -- spinning wheel stories. little, $ . . alden, r.m. -- why the chimes rang. bobbs, $ . . aldrich, t.b. story of a bad boy. houghton, $ . . andersen, h.c. fairy tales; tr. by mrs. a. lucas. dutton, $ . . andersen, h.c. stories and tales. houghton $ . . -- wonder stories; tr. by dulcken. houghton, $ . . anderson, r.b. norse mythology. scott, $ . . andrews, jane. stories mother nature told her children. ginn, c. arabian nights. fairy tales from the arabian nights, ed. by e. dixon. putnam, $ . . -- ed. by lang. longmans, $ . . -- ed. by f.j. olcott. holt, $ . . -- ed. with an introd. by w.h.d. rouse; illus. by w. paget. dutton, $ . . prices are only approximate. includes a few books temporarily out of print. -- ed. by wiggin and smith; illus. by maxfield parrish. scribner, $ . . arnold, s.l. _and_ gilbert, c.b. stepping stones to literature. silver, v. i, ; v. , c; v. , c; v. , c. asbjoernsen, p.c. fairy tales from the far north. burt, $ . . --the fairy world; folk and fairy tales; tr. by h.l. braekstad; with an introd. by e.w. gosse. de wolfe, $ . . --norse fairy tales; tr. by dasent. lippincott, $ . . --tales from the field, a series of popular tales from the norse, by sir g. dasent, il. by m. smith. putnam, $ . . aspinwall, _mrs._ alicia. short stories for short people. dutton, $ . . aulnoy, m. d'. fairy tales; tr. by j.r. planche. mckay, $ . . austin, _mrs._ jane (goodwin). standish of standish. houghton, $ . . bailey, c.s. _and_ lewis, c.m. firelight stories. bradley, $ . . --for the children's hour. bradley, $ . . baldwin, james. fairy reader. amer. book co., c. --fairy stories and fables. amer. book co., c. --second fairy reader. amer. book co., c. --the story of roland. scribner, $ . . --story of siegfried. scribner, $ . bannerman, helen. little black sambo. reilly, c. bay, j.c., _comp_. danish fairy and folk tales. harper, $ . . bayard, p. du t., _chevalier_ de. the story of bayard; ed. by a.g. andrewes; with illus. by v. lecomte. lane, $ . . bellamy, b.w. _and_ goodwin, _mrs._ m. (w.), _eds._ open sesame, v. ginn, c. ea. bible. _whole._ the holy bible; containing the old and new testaments; translated out of the original tongues and compared with former translations. king james version. amer. bible soc., $ . -$ . . --_whole._ the holy bible; tr. from the latin vulgate; the o.t. first pub. at douay, , and the n.t. at rheims, . benziger, $ . -$ . . --_whole. selections._ bible stories in bible language by e.t. potter. appleton, $ . . --_whole. selections._ bible stories retold by l.l. weedon. button, $ . . --_whole. selections._ story of the bible, by c. foster. foster, $ . . --_o.t. selections._ bible stories. old testament; with an introduction and notes by r.g. moulton. macmillan, c. --_o.t. selections._ old, old story book, compiled from the old testament by e.m. tappan. houghton, $ . . --_o.t. selections._ old testament stories, selected for the children by e. chisholm. dutton, $ . . --_o.t. selections._ stories from the old testament for children, by h.s.b. beale. duffield, $ . . --_n.t. selections._ stories from the life of christ, by j.h. kelman. dutton, $ . . bigham, m.a. stories of mother goose village. rand, $ . . blackmore, r.d. lorna doone. crowell, $ . . blaisdell, e.a. _and_ m.f. child life in literature, th reader. macmillan, c. blaisdell, e.a. child life; th reader. macmillan, c. --child life in many lands; rd reader. macmillan, c. --child life in tale and fable; nd reader. macmillan, c. booth, w.s. wonderful escapes by americans. houghton, $ . . bostock, f.c. training of wild animals. century, $ . . boston. kindergarten teachers, _comp._ the boston collection of kindergarten stories. hammett, c. boutet de monvel. joan of arc. mckay, $ . . boyesen, h.h. boyhood in norway. scribner, $ . . --modern vikings. scribner, $ . . --norseland tales. scribner, $ . . broadus, e.h. book of the christ child. appleton, $ . . brooke, l.l. story of the three bears. warne, c. --story of three little pigs. warne, c. brooks, e.s. storied holidays. lothrop, $ . . brown, a.f. flower princess. houghton, $ . . --in the days of giants; norse tales. houghton, $ . . --star jewels and other wonders. houghton, $ . . brown, c.l. _and_ bailey, c.s. jingle primer. amer. book co., c. brown, john. rab and his friends. page, c. browne, frances. granny's wonderful chair and its tales of fairy times. dutton (everyman's library). $ . . browning, robert. complete poetic and dramatic works. cambridge ed. houghton, $ . . bryant, s.c. best stories to tell. houghton, $ . . --how to tell stories to children. houghton $ . . --stories to tell children. houghton, $ . . bryant, w.c. poetical works. appleton, $ . . bulfinch, thomas. age of fable. dutton, $ . . lothrop, $ . . bullen, f.t. cruise of the cachalot round the world after sperm whales. appleton, $ . bunyan, john. pilgrim's progress. century, $ . . burgess, t.w. old mother west wind. little, $ . . burt, m.e. herakles, the hero of thebes. scribner, c. buxton, e.m.w. stories of norse heroes told by the northmen. crowell, $ . . carlyle, thomas. heroes and hero worship. scribner, $ . . carpenter, e.j. hellenic tales; a book of golden hours with the old story tellers. little, c. carroll, c.f. _and_ brooks, s.c. third reader. appleton, c. carroll, lewis, _pseud._ alice's adventures in wonderland; il. by tenniel. macmillan, $ . . --il. by rackham. doubleday, $ . . cervantes-saavedra, miguel de. don quixote of the mancha; retold by judge parry. lane, $ . . chamisso, adelbert von. peter schlemihl; with plates by g. cruikshank. putnam, $ . . chapin, a.a. story of the rhinegold. harper, $ . . charles, _mrs._ e.r. chronicles of the schönberg-cotta family. burt, $ . . chaucer, geoffrey. canterbury chimes; or chaucer tales retold for children by f. storr and h. turner. paul, s. d. little, $ . . --the chaucer story book by eva march tappan. houghton, $ . . --stories from chaucer retold from the canterbury tales by j.w. mcspadden. crowell, c. --the student's chaucer, skeat. macmillan, $ . . --tales of the canterbury pilgrims; retold from chaucer and others by f.j. harvey darton. stokes, $ . . chenoweth, _mrs._ c. (van d.). stories of the saints. houghton, $ . . chisholm, louey, _comp._ golden staircase. putnam, $ . . church, a.j. heroes of chivalry and romance. macmillan, $ . --stories of charlemagne. macmillan, $ . . clemens, s.l. adventures of tom sawyer. harper, $ . . --how to tell a story and other essays. harper, $ . . --prince and the pauper. harper, $ . . coates, h.t., _ed._ fireside encyclopaedia of poetry. pop. ed. winston, $ . . collodi, c., _pseud._ adventures of pinocchio. ginn, c. colonial stories; retold from st. nicholas. century, $ . . cooke, f.j. nature myths and stories for little children. flanagan, ¢. coolidge, susan, _pseud._ mischief's thanksgiving and other stories. little, $ . . round dozen. little, $ . . cotes, _mrs._ s.j. story of sonny sahib. appleton, $ . . couch, a.t.q. historical tales from shakespeare. scribner, $ . . oxford book of english verse. oxford, $ . . coussens, p.w., _comp._ child's book of stories; pictures by j.w. smith. duffield, $ . . cowles, j.d. the art of story telling. mcclurg, $ . . cox, _sir_ g.w. tales of ancient greece. mcclurg, $ . . crane, walter. goody two shoes picture book. lane, $ . . crommelin, e.g. famous legends. century, ¢. cruikshank fairy book; w. illus. by cruikshank. putnam, $ . . curtin, jeremiah. hero tales of ireland. little, $ . . dame wiggins of lee and her seven wonderful cats. london, allen, s. dana, c.a. household book of poetry. appleton, $ . . darton, f.j.h. wonder book of beasts. stokes, $ . . davis, r.h. gallegher; and other stories. scribner, $ . . dickens, charles. christmas carol. houghton, c. cricket on the hearth. houghton, c. posthumous papers of the pickwick club. v. macmillan $ . . dickinson, a.d. _and_ skinner, a.m., _eds._ children's book of christmas stories. doubleday, $ . . dier, j.c., _comp._ children's book of christmas. macmillan, $ . . djurklou, n.g. fairy tales from the swedish. stokes, $ . . dodge, _mrs._ m. (m.). hans brinker. new amsterdam ed. scribner, $ . . drummond, henry. monkey that would not kill. dodd, $ . . edgar, m.g. treasury of verse for little children. crowell, $ . . eliot, george, _pseud._ mill on the floss. little, $ . . emerson, e.r., _comp._ indian myths. osgood, $ . . ewing, _mrs._ j.h. (g.). jackanapes. little, $ . . lob-lie-by-the-fire; il. by g. cruikshank. macmillan, $ . . mary's meadow. little, $ . . old fashioned fairy tales. little, c. field, eugene. little book of profitable tales. scribner, $ . . firth, e.m. stories of old greece. heath, c. francillon, r.e. gods and heroes. ginn, c. french, allen. story of rolf and the viking's bow. little, $ . . french, h.w. lance of kanana. lothrop, $ . . gatty, _mrs._ margaret. parables from nature. pott, $ . . gayley, c.m. _and_ flaherty, m.c., _eds._ poetry of the people. ginn, $ . . gibbon, j.m., _ed._ old king cole. dutton, $ . . gillie, r.c. story of stories. macmillan, $ . . gladden, washington. santa claus on a lark. century, $ . . gleason, orissa. trouble in santa claus land. baker, c. goody two shoes. history of little goody two shoes. heath, c. greene, f.n. _and_ kirk, d.w. with spurs of gold. little, $ . . greenwood, grace. stories from famous ballads; ed. by caroline burnite. ginn, c. gregory, augusta, _lady, ed. and tr._ cuchulain of muirthemne; ed. by w.b. yeats. scribner, $ . . grierson, e.w. children's tales from the scottish ballads. macmillan, $ . . grimm, j.l.k. _and_ w.k. fairy tales; tr. by mrs. e. lucas. lippincott, $ . . fairy tales; wiltse. v. ginn, c ea. german household tales. houghton, c. grimm's best stories; ed. and adapted for pupils of the rd reader. univ. pub. co., c. grimm's fairy tales; with introd. by j. ruskin; illus. by c. folkard. macmillan, $ . . household fairy tales; tr. by boldry. mcloughlin, $ . . household stories; tr. by crane. macmillan, $ . . household tales; ed. and partly tr. anew by marian edwardes. dutton, $ . . grinnell, g.b. blackfoot lodge tales. scribner, $ . . grover, e.o. folk-lore reader; bk. . atkinson, c. guerber, h.a. story of the chosen people. amer. bk. co., c. hale, l.p. peterkin papers. houghton, $ . . half a hundred stories. bradley, c. harris, j.c. uncle remus; his songs and sayings; il. by a.b. frost. appleton, $ . . harrison, elizabeth, _ed._ christmas-tide. chicago kindergarten college, $ . . in story-land. chicago kindergarten college, $ . . harte, bret. luck of roaring camp. houghton, $ . . hawthorne, nathaniel. tanglewood tales. houghton, $ . . tanglewood tales; il. by g.w. edwards. houghton, $ . . wonder book. houghton, $ . . heller, _mrs. and_ bates, lois. little golden hood. longmans, c. henley, w.e., _ed._ lyra heroica. scribner, $ . . hill, c.t. fighting a fire. century, $ . . hodges, g. garden of eden. houghton, $ . . when the king came; stories from the four gospels. houghton, $ . . holbrook, florence. book of nature myths. houghton, $ . . homer. adventures of odysseus, retold by f.s. marvin and others; il. by c. robinson. dutton, $ . . --iliad; tr. into english by w.c. bryant. houghton, $ . . --the iliad for boys and girls by a.j. church. macmillan, $ . . --odyssey; tr. by w.c. bryant. houghton, $ . . --odyssey; done into english prose by s.h. butcher and a. lang. macmillan, c. --odyssey; tr. by g.h. palmer. houghton, $ . . --stories from the iliad by h.l. havell. dodge, $ . . houghton, _mrs._ l.s. (s.). telling bible stories. scribner, $ . . howard, f.w. banbury cross stories. merrill, c. howells, w.d. christmas every day. harper, $ . . howliston, m.h. cat-tails and other tales. flanagan, c. hughes, thomas. tom brown's school days. harper, $ . . hull, eleanor. boys' cuchulain. crowell, $ . . hutchinson, w.m.l. golden porch; a book of greek fairy tales. longmans, o.p. indian stories retold from st. nicholas. century, $ . . irving, washington. alhambra. macmillan, $ . . --sketch book. macmillan, $ . . jacobs, joseph, _ed._ english fairy tales. putnam, $ . . --more english fairy tales. putnam, $ . . --indian fairy tales. putnam, $ . . jatakas. jataka tales; re-told by e.c. babbitt. century, $ . . jerrold, w.c., _ed._ big book of fairy tales; robinson. caldwell, $ . . --reign of king oberon. dutton, $ . . johnson, clifton, _ed._ oak tree fairy book. little, $ . . josephus, flavius. our young folks' josephus. lippincott, $ . . joyce, p.w. old celtic romances. longmans, $ . . kennedy, h.a. new world fairy book with illus. by h.r. millar. dutton, $ . . keyes, a.m. stories and story-telling. appleton, $ . . kingsley, charles. heroes, or greek fairy tales for my children. macmillan, $ . . --water-babies. lippincott, $ . . baker, $ . . --westward ho! crowell, $ . . kipling, rudyard. captains courageous. century, $ . . --day's work. doubleday, $ . . --jungle book. century, $ . . --just so stories. doubleday, $ . . --puck of pook's hill. doubleday, $ . . kipling reader for elementary grades. appleton, c. knapp, adeline. the boy and the baron. century, $ . . kupfer, e.m. stories of long ago. heath, c. laboulaye, edouard. fairy tales. mckay, $ . . -- last fairy tales. harper, $ . . lagerlöf, selma. christ legends. holt, $ . . -- girl from the marsh croft. little, $ . . -- wonderful adventures of nils; tr. by v.s. howard. doubleday, $ . . lamb, charles, _and_ lamb, mary. tales from shakespeare. dutton, $ . houghton, $ . . lane, m.a. stories for children. amer. book co., c. lang, andrew, _ed._ blue fairy book. longmans, v $ . . -- blue poetry book. longmans, $ . . -- cinderella; and other stories. longmans, c. -- golden mermaid. longmans, c. -- green fairy book. longmans, $ . . -- history of whittington. longmans, c. -- jack and the bean stalk. longmans, c. -- jack, the giant killed. longmans, c. -- little red riding hood; and other stories. longmans, c. -- nursery rhyme book. warne, $ . . -- orange fairy book. longmans, $ . . -- pink fairy book. longmans, $ . . -- red fairy book. longmans, $ . . -- red true story book. longmans, $ . . -- sleeping beauty and other stories. longmans, c. -- snow man, and other stories. longmans, c. -- snowdrop, and other stories. longmans, c. -- yellow fairy book. longmans, $ . . lansing, m.f. fairy tales, v. ginn, c ea. -- _comp._ rhymes and stories. ginn, c. lefevre, félicité. the cock, and the mouse, and the little red hen. jacobs, $ . . lindsay, maud. more mother stories. bradley, $ . . -- mother stories. bradley, $ . . longfellow, h.w. complete poetical works. houghton, $ . . lovejoy, m.i., _comp._ nature in verse. silver, c. lucas, e.v., _comp._ book of verses for children. holt, $ . . -- runaways and castaways. lond., wells-gardner, s. d. stokes, $ . . lummis, c.f. king of the broncos, and other stories of new mexico. scribner, $ . . -- new mexico david, and other stories and sketches of the southwest. scribner, $ . . lyman, edna. story telling; what to tell and how to tell it. mcclurg, c. mable, h.w., _ed._ fairy tales every child should know. grosset $ . . -- myths every child should know. grosset $ . . -- norse stories. dodd, $ . . macclintock, p.l. literature in the elementary school. univ. of chicago, $ . . macdonell, anne. italian fairy book. stokes, $ . . o.p. macé, jean. macé's fairy book; home fairy tales; tr. by m.l. booth. harper, $ . . macgregor, mary. story of france. stokes, $ . . macleod, mary. book of ballad stories. stokes, $ . . mac manus, seumas. donegal fairy stories. mcclure, $ . . -- in chimney corners. doubleday, $ . . mcmurry, _mrs._ l.b. classic stories. pub. sch. pub. co., c. mcspadden, j.w. stories from wagner. crowell, $ . -- stories of robin hood and his merry outlaws. crowell, $ . . maitland, louise. heroes of chivalry. silver, c. malory, thomas. book of king arthur and his noble knights; ed. by mary macleod. stokes, $ . . -- boy's king arthur; ed. by sidney lanier. scribner, $ . . marryat, frederick. masterman ready. burt, $ . . marshall, logan, _tr._ fairy tales of all nations. winston, $ . . miller, o.t., _pseud._ kristy's queer christmas. houghton, $ . . moffett, cleveland. careers of danger and daring. century, $ . . moore, clement. night before christmas; il. by jessie wilcox smith. houghton, $ . . -- night before christmas, (linen picture book). mcloughlin, $ . . morris, william. story of sigurd the bolsung. longmans, $ . . mother goose. book of nursery rhymes, ed. by charles welsh. heath, c. moulton, _mrs._ l.c. bedtime stories. little, $ . . mulock, d.m. fairy book. harper, $ . . -- little lame prince; il. by hope dunlap. rand, $ . . naomi, _aunt, pseud._ jewish fairy tales and fables. bloch, $ . . nibelungen lied, das. fall of the nibelungers; tr. by w.n. lettsom. scribner, $ . . -- the nibelungs; tr. from the german of f. schmidt by g. upton. mcclurg, c. njals saga. heroes of iceland, ed. by allen french. little, $ . . norton, c.e., _ed._ heart of oak books. heath, v. , c; v. , c; v. , c. o'grady, alice, _and_ throop, frances. story-teller's book. rand, $ . . o'grady, s.h. silva gadelica. lond., williams, s. olcott, f.j. story telling poems. houghton, $ . . olcott, frances jenkins. good stories for great holidays. houghton, $ . . o'shea, m.v. old world wonder stories. heath, c. -- six nursery classics. heath, c. ouida, _pseud._ dog of flanders. lippincott, $ . . our holidays; retold from st. nicholas. century, $ . . page, t.n. captured santa claus. scribner, $ . . paine, a.b. arkansas bear. altemus, $ . . partridge, e.n. _and_ g.e. story telling in school and home. sturgis, $ . . patmore, c.k.d. children's garland. macmillan, $ . . percy, thomas. the boy's percy, being old ballads from percy's reliques; s. lanier. scribner, $ . . perkins, _mrs._ l. (f.), _comp._ robin hood. stokes, $ . . -- _comp._ twenty best fairy tales. stokes, $ . . perrault, charles. tales of mother goose; tr. by charles welsh. heath, c. perry, frederick. st. louis, the most christian king. 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[new ed.] houghton, $ . . seton, e.t. lives of the hunted. scribner, $ . . -- wild animals i have known. scribner, $ . . shakespeare, william. historical plays from shakespeare by a.t.q. couch. scribner, $ . . -- midsummer night's dream; introductory story, decorations and ill. by l.f. perkins. stokes, $ . . -- the shakespeare story-book, by mary macleod. barnes, $ . . -- shakespeare plays, v. ed. by i. gollancz. (temple edition.) dutton, $ . ea. skinner, c.r. arbor day manual. bardeen, $ . . slosson, _mrs._ annie t. story-tell lib. scribner, c. smith, j.c. _and_ soutar, g. a book of ballads for boys and girls. lond., clarendon press, c. smith, elva and hazeltine, alice i. christmas in legend and story. lothrop, $ . . spearman, f.h. nerve of foley and other railroad stories. harper, $ . . spenser, edmund. complete works; ed. by r. morris. macmillan, $ . ea. -- stories from the faerie queene; by mary macleod. stokes, $ . . -- stories from the faerie queene; retold from spenser by l.h. dawson. crowell, $ . . -- una and the red cross knight, and other tales from spenser's faerie queene; by n.g. royde-smith. dutton, $ . . spyri, johanna. heidi; tr. by dole. ginn, c. steedman, a. little child's life of jesus. stokes, $ . . steel, _mrs._ f.a. tales of the punjab, told by the people, with notes by r.c. temple. macmillan, $ . . stein, evaleen. troubadour tales. bobbs, $ . . stevenson, r.l. treasure island; il. by paget. scribner, $ . . stockton, f.r. clocks of rondaine, and other stories. scribner, $ . . -- fanciful tales. scribner, c. -- floating prince, and other fairy tales. scribner, $ . . stories of chivalry retold from st. nicholas. century, $ . . strong, f.l. all the year round; spring. ginn, c. stuart, _mrs._ r. 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[picture: william shakespeare] a life of william shakespeare by sidney lee. _with portraits and facsimiles_ fourth edition london smith, elder, & co., waterloo place [all rights reserved] _printed november_ (_first edition_). _reprinted december_ (_second edition_); _december_ (_third edition_); _february_ (_fourth edition_). preface this work is based on the article on shakespeare which i contributed last year to the fifty-first volume of the 'dictionary of national biography.' but the changes and additions which the article has undergone during my revision of it for separate publication are so numerous as to give the book a title to be regarded as an independent venture. in its general aims, however, the present life of shakespeare endeavours loyally to adhere to the principles that are inherent in the scheme of the 'dictionary of national biography.' i have endeavoured to set before my readers a plain and practical narrative of the great dramatist's personal history as concisely as the needs of clearness and completeness would permit. i have sought to provide students of shakespeare with a full record of the duly attested facts and dates of their master's career. i have avoided merely aesthetic criticism. my estimates of the value of shakespeare's plays and poems are intended solely to fulfil the obligation that lies on the biographer of indicating succinctly the character of the successive labours which were woven into the texture of his hero's life. aesthetic studies of shakespeare abound, and to increase their number is a work of supererogation. but shakespearean literature, as far as it is known to me, still lacks a book that shall supply within a brief compass an exhaustive and well-arranged statement of the facts of shakespeare's career, achievement, and reputation, that shall reduce conjecture to the smallest dimensions consistent with coherence, and shall give verifiable references to all the original sources of information. after studying elizabethan literature, history, and bibliography for more than eighteen years, i believed that i might, without exposing myself to a charge of presumption, attempt something in the way of filling this gap, and that i might be able to supply, at least tentatively, a guide-book to shakespeare's life and work that should be, within its limits, complete and trustworthy. how far my belief was justified the readers of this volume will decide. i cannot promise my readers any startling revelations. but my researches have enabled me to remove some ambiguities which puzzled my predecessors, and to throw light on one or two topics that have hitherto obscured the course of shakespeare's career. particulars that have not been before incorporated in shakespeare's biography will be found in my treatment of the following subjects: the conditions under which 'love's labour's lost' and the 'merchant of venice' were written; the references in shakespeare's plays to his native town and county; his father's applications to the heralds' college for coat-armour; his relations with ben jonson and the boy actors in ; the favour extended to his work by james i and his court; the circumstances which led to the publication of the first folio, and the history of the dramatist's portraits. i have somewhat expanded the notices of shakespeare's financial affairs which have already appeared in the article in the 'dictionary of national biography,' and a few new facts will be found in my revised estimate of the poet's pecuniary position. in my treatment of the sonnets i have pursued what i believe to be an original line of investigation. the strictly autobiographical interpretation that critics have of late placed on these poems compelled me, as shakespeare's biographer, to submit them to a very narrow scrutiny. my conclusion is adverse to the claim of the sonnets to rank as autobiographical documents, but i have felt bound, out of respect to writers from whose views i dissent, to give in detail the evidence on which i base my judgment. matthew arnold sagaciously laid down the maxim that 'the criticism which alone can much help us for the future is a criticism which regards europe as being, for intellectual and artistic {vii} purposes, one great confederation, bound to a joint action and working to a common result.' it is criticism inspired by this liberalising principle that is especially applicable to the vast sonnet-literature which was produced by shakespeare and his contemporaries. it is criticism of the type that arnold recommended that can alone lead to any accurate and profitable conclusion respecting the intention of the vast sonnet-literature of the elizabethan era. in accordance with arnold's suggestion, i have studied shakespeare's sonnets comparatively with those in vogue in england, france, and italy at the time he wrote. i have endeavoured to learn the view that was taken of such literary endeavours by contemporary critics and readers throughout europe. my researches have covered a very small portion of the wide field. but i have gone far enough, i think, to justify the conviction that shakespeare's collection of sonnets has no reasonable title to be regarded as a personal or autobiographical narrative. in the appendix (sections iii. and iv.) i have supplied a memoir of shakespeare's patron, the earl of southampton, and an account of the earl's relations with the contemporary world of letters. apart from southampton's association with the sonnets, he promoted shakespeare's welfare at an early stage of the dramatist's career, and i can quote the authority of malone, who appended a sketch of southampton's history to his biography of shakespeare (in the 'variorum' edition of ), for treating a knowledge of southampton's life as essential to a full knowledge of shakespeare's. i have also printed in the appendix a detailed statement of the precise circumstances under which shakespeare's sonnets were published by thomas thorpe in (section v.), and a review of the facts that seem to me to confute the popular theory that shakespeare was a friend and _protege_ of william herbert, third earl of pembroke, who has been put forward quite unwarrantably as the hero of the sonnets (sections vi., vii., viii.) {ix} i have also included in the appendix (sections ix. and x.) a survey of the voluminous sonnet-literature of the elizabethan poets between and , with which shakespeare's sonnetteering efforts were very closely allied, as well as a bibliographical note on a corresponding feature of french and italian literature between and . since the publication of the article on shakespeare in the 'dictionary of national biography,' i have received from correspondents many criticisms and suggestions which have enabled me to correct some errors. but a few of my correspondents have exhibited so ingenuous a faith in those forged documents relating to shakespeare and forged references to his works, which were promulgated chiefly by john payne collier more than half a century ago, that i have attached a list of the misleading records to my chapter on 'the sources of biographical information' in the appendix (section i.) i believe the list to be fuller than any to be met with elsewhere. the six illustrations which appear in this volume have been chosen on grounds of practical utility rather than of artistic merit. my reasons for selecting as the frontispiece the newly discovered 'droeshout' painting of shakespeare (now in the shakespeare memorial gallery at stratford-on-avon) can be gathered from the history of the painting and of its discovery which i give on pages - . i have to thank mr. edgar flower and the other members of the council of the shakespeare memorial at stratford for permission to reproduce the picture. the portrait of southampton in early life is now at welbeck abbey, and the duke of portland not only permitted the portrait to be engraved for this volume, but lent me the negative from which the plate has been prepared. the committee of the garrick club gave permission to photograph the interesting bust of shakespeare in their possession, {x} but, owing to the fact that it is moulded in black terra-cotta no satisfactory negative could be obtained; the engraving i have used is from a photograph of a white plaster cast of the original bust, now in the memorial gallery at stratford. the five autographs of shakespeare's signature--all that exist of unquestioned authenticity--appear in the three remaining plates. the three signatures on the will have been photographed from the original document at somerset house, by permission of sir francis jenne, president of the probate court; the autograph on the deed of purchase by shakespeare in of the house in blackfriars has been photographed from the original document in the guildhall library, by permission of the library committee of the city of london; and the autograph on the deed of mortgage relating to the same property, also dated in , has been photographed from the original document in the british museum, by permission of the trustees. shakespeare's coat-of-arms and motto, which are stamped on the cover of this volume, are copied from the trickings in the margin of the draft-grants of arms now in the heralds' college. the baroness burdett-coutts has kindly given me ample opportunities of examining the two peculiarly interesting and valuable copies of the first folio {xi} in her possession. mr. richard savage, of stratford-on-avon, the secretary of the birthplace trustees, and mr. w. salt brassington, the librarian of the shakespeare memorial at stratford, have courteously replied to the many inquiries that i have addressed to them verbally or by letter. mr. lionel cust, the director of the national portrait gallery, has helped me to estimate the authenticity of shakespeare's portraits. i have also benefited, while the work has been passing through the press, by the valuable suggestions of my friends the rev. h. c. beeching and mr. w. j. craig, and i have to thank mr. thomas seccombe for the zealous aid he has rendered me while correcting the final proofs. _october_ , . contents i--parentage and birth distribution of the name of shakespeare the poet's ancestry the poet's father his settlement at stratford the poet's mother , april the poet's birth and baptism alleged birthplace ii--childhood, education, and marriage the father in municipal office brothers and sisters the father's financial difficulties - shakespeare's education his classical equipment shakespeare's knowledge of the bible queen elizabeth at kenilworth withdrawal from school , dec. the poet's marriage richard hathaway of shottery anne hathaway anne hathaway's cottage the bond against impediments , may birth of the poet's daughter susanna formal betrothal probably dispensed with iii--the farewell to stratford early married life poaching at charlecote unwarranted doubts of the tradition justice shallow the flight from stratford iv--on the london stage the journey to london richard field, shakespeare townsman theatrical employment a playhouse servitor the acting companies the lord chamberlain's company shakespeare, a member of the lord chamberlain's company the london theatres place of residence in london actors' provincial tours shakespeare's alleged travels in scotland in italy shakespeare's roles his alleged scorn of an actor's calling v--early dramatic work the period of his dramatic work, - his borrowed plots the revision of plays chronology of the plays metrical tests _love's labour's lost_ _two gentlemen of verona_ _comedy of errors_ _romeo and juliet_ , _march_ _henry vi_ , _sept._ greene's attack on shakespeare chettle's apology divided authorship of _henry vi_ shakespeare's coadjutors shakespeare's assimilative power lyly's influence in comedy marlowe's influence in tragedy _richard iii_ _richard ii_ shakespeare's acknowledgments to marlowe _titus andronicus_ , august the merchant of venice shylock and roderigo lopez king john , dec. _comedy of errors_ in gray's inn hall early plays doubtfully assigned to shakespeare _arden of feversham_ ( ) _edward iii_ _mucedorus_ _faire em_ ( ) vi--the first appeal to the reading public , _april_ publication of _venus and adonis_ , _may_ publication of _lucrece_ enthusiastic reception of the poems shakespeare and spenser patrons at court vii--the sonnets and their literary history the vogue of the elizabethan sonnet shakespeare's first experiments majority of his shakespeare's composed their literary value circulation in manuscript their piratical publication in _a lover's complaint_ thomas thorpe and 'mr. w. h.' the form of shakespeare's sonnets their want of continuity the two 'groups' main topics of the first 'group' main topics of the second 'group' the order of the sonnets in the edition of lack of genuine sentiment in elizabethan sonnets their dependence on french and italian models sonnetteers' admissions of insincerity contemporary censure of sonnetteers' false sentiment shakespeare's scornful allusions to sonnets in his plays viii--the borrowed conceits of the sonnets slender autobiographical element in shakespeare's sonnets the imitative element shakespeare's claims of immortality for his sonnets a borrowed conceit conceits in sonnets addressed to a woman the praise of 'blackness' the sonnets of vituperation gabriel harvey's _amorous odious sonnet_ jodelle's _contr' amours_ ix--the patronage of the earl of southampton biographic fact in the 'dedicatory' sonnets the earl of southampton the poet's sole patron rivals in southampton's favour shakespeare's fear of another poet barnabe barnes probably the chief rival other theories as to the chief rival's identity sonnets of friendship extravagances of literary compliment patrons habitually addressed in affectionate terms direct references to southampton in the sonnets of friendship his youthfulness the evidence of portraits sonnet cvii. the last of the series allusions to queen elizabeth's death allusions to southampton's release from prison x--the supposed story of intrigue in the sonnets sonnets of melancholy and self-reproach the youth's relations with the poet's mistress _willobie his avisa_ ( ) summary of conclusions respecting the sonnets xi--the development of dramatic power - _midsummer night's dream_ _all's well that ends well_ _the taming of the shrew_ stratford allusions in the induction wincot _henry iv_ falstaff _the merry wives of windsor_ _henry v_ essex and the rebellion of shakespeare's popularity and influence shakespeare's friendship with ben jonson the mermaid meetings meres's eulogy value of his name to publishers _the passionate pilgrim_ _the phoenix and the turtle_ xii--the practical affairs of life shakespeare's practical temperament his father's difficulties his wife's debt - the coat of arms , may . the purchase of new place fellow-townsmen appear to shakespeare for aid shakespeare's financial position before shakespeare's financial position after his later income incomes of fellow actors - shakespeare's formation of his estate at stratford the stratford tithes - recovery of small debts xiii--maturity of genius literary work in _much ado about nothing_ _as you like it_ _twelfth night_ _julius caesar_ the strife between adult actors and boy actors shakespeare's references to the struggle ben jonson's _poetaster_ shakespeare's alleged partisanship in the theatrical warfare _hamlet_ the problem of its publication the first quarto, the second quarto, the folio version, popularity of _hamlet_ _troilus and cressida_ treatment of the theme , _march_ queen elizabeth's death james i's patronage xiv--the highest themes of tragedy , nov. _othello_ , dec. _measure for measure_ _macbeth_ _king lear_ _timon of athens_ _pericles_ _antony and cleopatra_ _coriolanus_ xv--the latest plays the placid temper of the latest plays _cymbeline_ _a winter's tale_ _the tempest_ fanciful interpretations of _the tempest_ unfinished plays the lost play of _cardenio_ _the two noble kinsmen_ _henry viii_ the burning of the globe theatre xvi--the close of life plays at court in actor-friends final settlement at stratford domestic affairs , _march_ purchase of a house in blackfriars , oct. attempt to enclose the stratford common fields , april rd. shakespeare's death , april th. shakespeare's burial the will shakespeare's bequest to his wife shakespeare's heiress legacies to friends the tomb in stratford church shakespeare's personal character xvii--survivors and descendants mrs. judith quiney, ( - ) mrs. susanna hall ( - ) the last descendant shakespeare's brothers, edmund, richard, and gilbert xviii--autographs, portraits, and memorials spelling of the poet's name autograph signatures shakespeare's portraits the stratford bust the 'stratford portrait' droeshout's engraving the 'droeshout' painting later portraits the chandos portrait the 'jansen' portrait the 'felton' portrait the 'soest' portrait miniatures the garrick club bust alleged death-mask memorials in sculpture memorials at stratford xix--bibliography quartos of the poems in the poet's lifetime posthumous quartos of the poems the 'poems' of quartos of the plays in the poet's lifetime posthumous quartos of the plays the first folio the publishing syndicate the prefatory matter the value of the text the order of the plays the typography unique copies the sheldon copy estimated number of extant copies reprints of the first folio the second folio - the third folio the fourth folio eighteenth-century editions nicholas rowe ( - ) alexander pope ( - ) lewis theobald ( - ) sir thomas hanmer ( - ) bishop warburton ( - ) dr. johnson ( - ) edward capell ( - ) george steevens ( - ) edmund malone ( - ) variorum editions nineteenth-century editors alexander dyce ( - ) howard staunton ( - ) nikolaus delius ( - ) the cambridge edition ( - ) other nineteenth-century editions xx--posthumous reputation views of shakespeare's contemporaries ben jonson tribute english opinion between and dryden's view restoration adaptations english opinion from onwards stratford festivals shakespeare on the english stage the first appearance of actresses in shakespearean parts david garrick ( - ) john philip kemble ( - ) mrs. sarah siddons ( - ) edmund kean ( - ) william charles macready ( - ) recent revivals shakespeare in english music and art boydell's shakespeare gallery shakespeare in america translations shakespeare in germany german translations modern german critics shakespeare on the german stage shakespeare in france voltaire's strictures french critics' gradual emancipation from voltairean influence shakespeare on the french stage shakespeare in italy in holland in russia in poland in hungary in other countries xxi--general estimates general estimate shakespeare's defects character of shakespeare's achievement its universal recognition appendix i--the sources of biographical knowledge contemporary records abundant first efforts in biography biographers of the nineteenth century stratford topography specialised studies in biography epitomes aids to study of plots and text concordances bibliographies critical studies shakespearean forgeries john jordan ( - ) the ireland forgeries ( ) list of forgeries promulgated by collier and others ( - ) ii--the bacon-shakespeare controversy its source toby matthew's letter of chief exponents of the theory its vogue in america extent of the literature absurdity of the theory iii--the youthful career of the earl of southampton shakespeare and southampton southampton's parentage , _oct._ southampton's birth his education recognition of southampton's beauty in youth his reluctance to marry intrigue with elizabeth vernon southampton's marriage - southampton's imprisonment later career , _nov._ his death iv--the earl of southampton as a literary patron southampton's collection of books references in his letters to poems and plays his love of the theatre poetic adulation barnabe barnes's sonnet tom nash's addresses gervase markham's sonnet florio's address the congratulations of the poets in elegies on southampton v--the true history of thomas thorpe and 'mr. w. h.' the publication of the 'sonnets' in the text of the dedication publishers' dedications thorpe's early life his ownership of the manuscript of marlowe's _lucan_ his dedicatory address to edward blount in character of his business shakespeare's sufferings at publishers hands the use of initials in dedications of elizabethan and jacobean books frequency of wishes for 'happiness' and 'eternity' in dedicatory greetings five dedications by thorpe 'w. h.' signs dedication of southwell's 'poems' 'w. h.' and mr. william hall the 'onlie begetter' means 'only procurer' vi--'mr. william herbert' origin of the notion that 'mr. w. h.' stands for william herbert the earl of pembroke known only as lord herbert in youth thorpe's mode of addressing the earl of pembroke vii--shakespeare and the earl of pembroke shakespeare with the acting company at wilton in the dedication of the first folio in no suggestion in the sonnets of the youth's identity with pembroke aubrey's ignorance of any relation between shakespeare and pembroke viii--the 'will' sonnets elizabethan meanings of 'will' shakespeare's uses of the word shakespeare's puns on the word arbitrary and irregular use of italics by elizabethan and jacobean printers the conceits of sonnets cxxxv.-vi. interpreted sonnet cxxxv sonnet cxxxvi sonnet cxxxiv sonnet cxliii ix--the vogue of the elizabethan sonnet, - wyatt's and surrey's sonnets published watson's _centurie of love_ sidney's _astrophel and stella_ i. collected sonnets of feigned love daniel's _delia_ fame of daniel's sonnets constable's _diana_ barnabe barne's sonnets watson's _tears of fancie_ giles fletcher's _licia_ lodge's _phillis_ drayton's _idea_ percy's _coelia_ _zepheria_ barnfield's sonnets to ganymede spenser's _amoretti_ _emaricdulfe_ sir john davies's _gullinge sonnets_ linche's diella griffin _fidessa_ thomas campion's sonnets william smith's _chloris_ robert tofte's _laura_ sir william alexander's _aurora_ sir fulke greville's _coelica_ estimate of number of love-sonnets issued between and ii. sonnets to patrons, - iii. sonnets on philosophy and religion x--bibliographical note on the sonnet in france, - ronsard ( - ) and 'la pleiade' the italian _n_. sonnetteers of the sixteenth century philippe desportes ( - ) chief collections of french sonnets published between and minor collections of french sonnets published between and index i--parentage and birth distribution of the name. shakespeare came of a family whose surname was borne through the middle ages by residents in very many parts of england--at penrith in cumberland, at kirkland and doncaster in yorkshire, as well as in nearly all the midland counties. the surname had originally a martial significance, implying capacity in the wielding of the spear. { a} its first recorded holder is john shakespeare, who in was living at 'freyndon,' perhaps frittenden, kent. { b} the great mediaeval guild of st. anne at knowle, whose members included the leading inhabitants of warwickshire, was joined by many shakespeares in the fifteenth century. { c} in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the surname is found far more frequently in warwickshire than elsewhere. the archives of no less than twenty-four towns and villages there contain notices of shakespeare families in the sixteenth century, and as many as thirty-four warwickshire towns or villages were inhabited by shakespeare families in the seventeenth century. among them all william was a common christian name. at rowington, twelve miles to the north of stratford, and in the same hundred of barlichway, one of the most prolific shakespeare families of warwickshire resided in the sixteenth century, and no less than three richard shakespeares of rowington, whose extant wills were proved respectively in , , and , were fathers of sons called william. at least one other william shakespeare was during the period a resident in rowington. as a consequence, the poet has been more than once credited with achievements which rightly belong to one or other of his numerous contemporaries who were identically named. the poet's ancestry. the poet's ancestry cannot be defined with absolute certainty. the poet's father, when applying for a grant of arms in , claimed that his grandfather (the poet's great-grandfather) received for services rendered in war a grant of land in warwickshire from henry vii. { } no precise confirmation of this pretension has been discovered, and it may be, after the manner of heraldic genealogy, fictitious. but there is a probability that the poet came of good yeoman stock, and that his ancestors to the fourth or fifth generation were fairly substantial landowners. { a} adam shakespeare, a tenant by military service of land at baddesley clinton in , seems to have been great-grandfather of one richard shakespeare who held land at wroxhall in warwickshire during the first thirty-four years (at least) of the sixteenth century. another richard shakespeare who is conjectured to have been nearly akin to the wroxhall family was settled as a farmer at snitterfield, a village four miles to the north of stratford-on-avon, in . { b} it is probable that he was the poet's grandfather. in he was renting a messuage and land at snitterfield of robert arden; he died at the close of , and on february of the next year letters of administration of his goods, chattels, and debts were issued to his son john by the probate court at worcester. his goods were valued at pounds s. { c} besides the son john, richard of snitterfield certainly had a son henry; while a thomas shakespeare, a considerable landholder at snitterfield between and , whose parentage is undetermined, may have been a third son. the son henry remained all his life at snitterfield, where he engaged in farming with gradually diminishing success; he died in embarrassed circumstances in december . john, the son who administered richard's estate, was in all likelihood the poet's father. the poet's father. about john shakespeare left snitterfield, which was his birthplace, to seek a career in the neighbouring borough of stratford-on-avon. there he soon set up as a trader in all manner of agricultural produce. corn, wool, malt, meat, skins, and leather were among the commodities in which he dealt. documents of a somewhat later date often describe him as a glover. aubrey, shakespeare's first biographer, reported the tradition that he was a butcher. but though both designations doubtless indicated important branches of his business, neither can be regarded as disclosing its full extent. the land which his family farmed at snitterfield supplied him with his varied stock-in-trade. as long as his father lived he seems to have been a frequent visitor to snitterfield, and, like his father and brothers, he was until the date of his father's death occasionally designated a farmer or 'husbandman' of that place. but it was with stratford-on-avon that his life was mainly identified. his settlement at stratford. in april he was living there in henley street, a thoroughfare leading to the market town of henley-in-arden, and he is first mentioned in the borough records as paying in that month a fine of twelve-pence for having a dirt-heap in front of his house. his frequent appearances in the years that follow as either plaintiff or defendant in suits heard in the local court of record for the recovery of small debts suggest that he was a keen man of business. in early life he prospered in trade, and in october purchased two freehold tenements at stratford--one, with a garden, in henley street (it adjoins that now known as the poet's birthplace), and the other in greenhill street with a garden and croft. thenceforth he played a prominent part in municipal affairs. in he was elected an ale-taster, whose duty it was to test the quality of malt liquors and bread. about the same time he was elected a burgess or town councillor, and in september , and again on october , , he was appointed one of the four petty constables by a vote of the jury of the court-leet. twice--in and --he was chosen one of the affeerors--officers appointed to determine the fines for those offences which were punishable arbitrarily, and for which no express penalties were prescribed by statute. in he was elected one of the two chamberlains of the borough, an office of responsibility which he held for two years. he delivered his second statement of accounts to the corporation in january . when attesting documents he occasionally made his mark, but there is evidence in the stratford archives that he could write with facility; and he was credited with financial aptitude. the municipal accounts, which were checked by tallies and counters, were audited by him after he ceased to be chamberlain, and he more than once advanced small sums of money to the corporation. the poet's mother. with characteristic shrewdness he chose a wife of assured fortune--mary, youngest daughter of robert arden, a wealthy farmer of wilmcote in the parish of aston cantlowe, near stratford. the arden family in its chief branch, which was settled at parkhall, warwickshire, ranked with the most influential of the county. robert arden, a progenitor of that branch, was sheriff of warwickshire and leicestershire in ( hen. vi), and this sheriff's direct descendant, edward arden, who was himself high sheriff of warwickshire in , was executed in for alleged complicity in a roman catholic plot against the life of queen elizabeth. { } john shakespeare's wife belonged to a humbler branch of the family, and there is no trustworthy evidence to determine the exact degree of kinship between the two branches. her grandfather, thomas arden, purchased in an estate at snitterfield, which passed, with other property, to her father robert; john shakespeare's father, richard, was one of this robert arden's snitterfield tenants. by his first wife, whose name is not known, robert arden had seven daughters, of whom all but two married; john shakespeare's wife seems to have been the youngest. robert arden's second wife, agnes or anne, widow of john hill (_d._ ), a substantial farmer of bearley, survived him; but by her he had no issue. when he died at the end of , he owned a farmhouse at wilmcote and many acres, besides some hundred acres at snitterfield, with two farmhouses which he let out to tenants. the post-mortem inventory of his goods, which was made on december , , shows that he had lived in comfort; his house was adorned by as many as eleven 'painted cloths,' which then did duty for tapestries among the middle class. the exordium of his will, which was drawn up on november , , and proved on december following, indicates that he was an observant catholic. for his two youngest daughters, alice and mary, he showed especial affection by nominating them his executors. mary received not only pounds s. d. in money, but the fee-simple of asbies, his chief property at wilmcote, consisting of a house with some fifty acres of land. she also acquired, under an earlier settlement, an interest in two messuages at snitterfield. { } but, although she was well provided with worldly goods, she was apparently without education; several extant documents bear her mark, and there is no proof that she could sign her name. the poet's birth and baptism. john shakespeare's marriage with mary arden doubtless took place at aston cantlowe, the parish church of wilmcote, in the autumn of (the church registers begin at a later date). on september , , his first child, a daughter, joan, was baptised in the church of stratford. a second child, another daughter, margaret, was baptised on december , ; but both these children died in infancy. the poet william, the first son and third child, was born on april or , . the latter date is generally accepted as his birthday, mainly (it would appear) on the ground that it was the day of his death. there is no positive evidence on the subject, but the stratford parish registers attest that he was baptised on april . alleged birthplace. some doubt is justifiable as to the ordinarily accepted scene of his birth. of two adjoining houses forming a detached building on the north side of henley street, that to the east was purchased by john shakespeare in , but there is no evidence that he owned or occupied the house to the west before . yet this western house has been known since as the poet's birthplace, and a room on the first floor is claimed as that in which he was born. { } the two houses subsequently came by bequest of the poet's granddaughter to the family of the poet's sister, joan hart, and while the eastern tenement was let out to strangers for more than two centuries, and by them converted into an inn, the 'birthplace' was until occupied by the harts, who latterly carried on there the trade of butcher. the fact of its long occupancy by the poet's collateral descendants accounts for the identification of the western rather than the eastern tenement with his birthplace. both houses were purchased in behalf of subscribers to a public fund on september , , and, after extensive restoration, were converted into a single domicile for the purposes of a public museum. they were presented under a deed of trust to the corporation of stratford in . much of the elizabethan timber and stonework survives, but a cellar under the 'birthplace' is the only portion which remains as it was at the date of the poet's birth. { } ii--childhood, education, and marriage the father in municipal office. in july , when william was three months old, the plague raged with unwonted vehemence at stratford, and his father liberally contributed to the relief of its poverty-stricken victims. fortune still favoured him. on july , , he reached the dignity of an alderman. from onwards he was accorded in the corporation archives the honourable prefix of 'mr.' at michaelmas he attained the highest office in the corporation gift, that of bailiff, and during his year of office the corporation for the first time entertained actors at stratford. the queen's company and the earl of worcester's company each received from john shakespeare an official welcome. { } on september , , he was chief alderman, a post which he retained till september the following year. in alexander webbe, the husband of his wife's sister agnes, made him overseer of his will; in he bought two houses in stratford, one of them doubtless the alleged birthplace in henley street; in he contributed twelvepence to the beadle's salary. but after michaelmas he took a less active part in municipal affairs; he grew irregular in his attendance at the council meetings, and signs were soon apparent that his luck had turned. in he was unable to pay, with his colleagues, either the sum of fourpence for the relief of the poor or his contribution 'towards the furniture of three pikemen, two bellmen, and one archer' who were sent by the corporation to attend a muster of the trained bands of the county. brothers and sisters. meanwhile his family was increasing. four children besides the poet--three sons, gilbert (baptised october , ), richard (baptised march , ), and edmund (baptised may , ), with a daughter joan (baptised april , )--reached maturity. a daughter ann was baptised september , , and was buried on april , . to meet his growing liabilities, the father borrowed money from his wife's kinsfolk, and he and his wife mortgaged, on november , , asbies, her valuable property at wilmcote, for pounds to edmund lambert of barton-on-the-heath, who had married her sister, joan arden. lambert was to receive no interest on his loan, but was to take the 'rents and profits' of the estate. asbies was thereby alienated for ever. next year, on october , , john and his wife made over to robert webbe, doubtless a relative of alexander webbe, for the sum apparently of pounds, his wife's property at snitterfield. { a} the father's financial difficulties. john shakespeare obviously chafed under the humiliation of having parted, although as he hoped only temporarily, with his wife's property of asbies, and in the autumn of he offered to pay off the mortgage; but his brother-in-law, lambert, retorted that other sums were owing, and he would accept all or none. the negotiation, which was the beginning of much litigation, thus proved abortive. through and a creditor, john brown, was embarrassingly importunate, and, after obtaining a writ of distraint, brown informed the local court that the debtor had no goods on which distraint could be levied. { b} on september , , john was deprived of his alderman's gown, on the ground of his long absence from the council meetings. { c} education. happily john shakespeare was at no expense for the education of his four sons. they were entitled to free tuition at the grammar school of stratford, which was reconstituted on a mediaeval foundation by edward vi. the eldest son, william, probably entered the school in , when walter roche was master, and perhaps he knew something of thomas hunt, who succeeded roche in . the instruction that he received was mainly confined to the latin language and literature. from the latin accidence, boys of the period, at schools of the type of that at stratford, were led, through conversation books like the 'sententiae pueriles' and lily's grammar, to the perusal of such authors as seneca terence, cicero, virgil, plautus, ovid, and horace. the eclogues of the popular renaissance poet, mantuanus, were often preferred to virgil's for beginners. the rudiments of greek were occasionally taught in elizabethan grammar schools to very promising pupils; but such coincidences as have been detected between expressions in greek plays and in shakespeare seem due to accident, and not to any study, either at school or elsewhere, of the athenian drama. { } dr. farmer enunciated in his 'essay on shakespeare's learning' ( ) the theory that shakespeare knew no language but his own, and owed whatever knowledge he displayed of the classics and of italian and french literature to english translations. but several of the books in french and italian whence shakespeare derived the plots of his dramas--belleforest's 'histoires tragiques,' ser giovanni's 'il pecorone,' and cinthio's 'hecatommithi,' for example--were not accessible to him in english translations; and on more general grounds the theory of his ignorance is adequately confuted. a boy with shakespeare's exceptional alertness of intellect, during whose schooldays a training in latin classics lay within reach, could hardly lack in future years all means of access to the literature of france and italy. the poet's classical equipment. with the latin and french languages, indeed, and with many latin poets of the school curriculum, shakespeare in his writings openly acknowledged his acquaintance. in 'henry v' the dialogue in many scenes is carried on in french, which is grammatically accurate if not idiomatic. in the mouth of his schoolmasters, holofernes in 'love's labour's lost' and sir hugh evans in 'merry wives of windsor,' shakespeare placed latin phrases drawn directly from lily's grammar, from the 'sententiae pueriles,' and from 'the good old mantuan.' the influence of ovid, especially the 'metamorphoses,' was apparent throughout his earliest literary work, both poetic and dramatic, and is discernible in the 'tempest,' his latest play (v. i. seq.) in the bodleian library there is a copy of the aldine edition of ovid's 'metamorphoses' ( ), and on the title is the signature wm. she., which experts have declared--not quite conclusively--to be a genuine autograph of the poet. { } ovid's latin text was certainly not unfamiliar to him, but his closest adaptations of ovid's 'metamorphoses' often reflect the phraseology of the popular english version by arthur golding, of which some seven editions were issued between and . from plautus shakespeare drew the plot of the 'comedy of errors,' but it is just possible that plautus's comedies, too, were accessible in english. shakespeare had no title to rank as a classical scholar, and he did not disdain a liberal use of translations. his lack of exact scholarship fully accounts for the 'small latin and less greek' with which he was credited by his scholarly friend, ben jonson. but aubrey's report that 'he understood latin pretty well' need not be contested, and his knowledge of french may be estimated to have equalled his knowledge of latin, while he doubtless possessed just sufficient acquaintance with italian to enable him to discern the drift of an italian poem or novel. { } shakespeare and the bible. of the few english books accessible to him in his schooldays, the chief was the english bible, either in the popular genevan version, first issued in a complete form in , or in the bishops' revision of , which the authorised version of closely followed. references to scriptural characters and incidents are not conspicuous in shakespeare's plays, but, such as they are, they are drawn from all parts of the bible, and indicate that general acquaintance with the narrative of both old and new testaments which a clever boy would be certain to acquire either in the schoolroom or at church on sundays. shakespeare quotes or adapts biblical phrases with far greater frequency than he makes allusion to episodes in biblical history. but many such phrases enjoyed proverbial currency, and others, which were more recondite, were borrowed from holinshed's 'chronicles' and secular works whence he drew his plots. as a rule his use of scriptural phraseology, as of scriptural history, suggests youthful reminiscence and the assimilative tendency of the mind in a stage of early development rather than close and continuous study of the bible in adult life. { a} withdrawal from school. shakespeare was a schoolboy in july , when queen elizabeth made a progress through warwickshire on a visit to her favourite, the earl of leicester, at his castle of kenilworth. references have been detected in oberon's vision in shakespeare's 'midsummer night's dream' (ii. ii. - ) to the fantastic pageants and masques with which the queen during her stay was entertained in kenilworth park. leicester's residence was only fifteen miles from stratford, and it is possible that shakespeare went thither with his father to witness some of the open-air festivities; but two full descriptions which were published in , in pamphlet form, gave shakespeare knowledge of all that took place. { b} shakespeare's opportunities of recreation outside stratford were in any case restricted during his schooldays. his father's financial difficulties grew steadily, and they caused his removal from school at an unusually early age. probably in , when he was thirteen, he was enlisted by his father in an effort to restore his decaying fortunes. 'i have been told heretofore,' wrote aubrey, 'by some of the neighbours that when he was a boy he exercised his father's trade,' which, according to the writer, was that of a butcher. it is possible that john's ill-luck at the period compelled him to confine himself to this occupation, which in happier days formed only one branch of his business. his son may have been formally apprenticed to him. an early stratford tradition describes him as 'a butcher's apprentice.' { } 'when he kill'd a calf,' aubrey proceeds less convincingly, 'he would doe it in a high style and make a speech. there was at that time another butcher's son in this towne, that was held not at all inferior to him for a naturall witt, his acquaintance, and coetanean, but dyed young.' the poet's marriage. at the end of shakespeare, when little more than eighteen and a half years old, took a step which was little calculated to lighten his father's anxieties. he married. his wife, according to the inscription on her tombstone, was his senior by eight years. rowe states that she 'was the daughter of one hathaway, said to have been a substantial yeoman in the neighbourhood of stratford.' richard hathaway of shottery. anne hathaway. on september , , richard hathaway, 'husbandman' of shottery, a hamlet in the parish of old stratford, made his will, which was proved on july , , and is now preserved at somerset house. his house and land, 'two and a half virgates,' had been long held in copyhold by his family, and he died in fairly prosperous circumstances. his wife joan, the chief legatee, was directed to carry on the farm with the aid of her eldest son, bartholomew, to whom a share in its proceeds was assigned. six other children--three sons and three daughters--received sums of money; agnes, the eldest daughter, and catherine, the second daughter, were each allotted pounds s. d, 'to be paid at the day of her marriage,' a phrase common in wills of the period. anne and agnes were in the sixteenth century alternative spellings of the same christian name; and there is little doubt that the daughter 'agnes' of richard hathaway's will became, within a few months of richard hathaway's death, shakespeare's wife. anne hathaway's cottage. the house at shottery, now known as anne hathaway's cottage, and reached from stratford by field-paths, undoubtedly once formed part of richard hathaway's farmhouse, and, despite numerous alterations and renovations, still preserves many features of a thatched farmhouse of the elizabethan period. the house remained in the hathaway family till , although the male line became extinct in . it was purchased in behalf of the public by the birthplace trustees in . the bond against impediments. no record of the solemnisation of shakespeare's marriage survives. although the parish of stratford included shottery, and thus both bride and bridegroom were parishioners, the stratford parish register is silent on the subject. a local tradition, which seems to have come into being during the present century, assigns the ceremony to the neighbouring hamlet or chapelry of luddington, of which neither the chapel nor parish registers now exist. but one important piece of documentary evidence directly bearing on the poet's matrimonial venture is accessible. in the registry of the bishop of the diocese (worcester) a deed is extant wherein fulk sandells and john richardson, 'husbandmen of stratford,' bound themselves in the bishop's consistory court, on november , , in a surety of pounds, to free the bishop of all liability should a lawful impediment--'by reason of any precontract' [_i.e._ with a third party] or consanguinity--be subsequently disclosed to imperil the validity of the marriage, then in contemplation, of william shakespeare with anne hathaway. on the assumption that no such impediment was known to exist, and provided that anne obtained the consent of her 'friends,' the marriage might proceed 'with once asking of the bannes of matrimony betwene them.' bonds of similar purport, although differing in significant details, are extant in all diocesan registries of the sixteenth century. they were obtainable on the payment of a fee to the bishop's commissary, and had the effect of expediting the marriage ceremony while protecting the clergy from the consequences of any possible breach of canonical law. but they were not common, and it was rare for persons in the comparatively humble position in life of anne hathaway and young shakespeare to adopt such cumbrous formalities when there was always available the simpler, less expensive, and more leisurely method of marriage by 'thrice asking of the banns.' moreover, the wording of the bond which was drawn before shakespeare's marriage differs in important respects from that adopted in all other known examples. { } in the latter it is invariably provided that the marriage shall not take place without the consent of the parents or governors of both bride and bridegroom. in the case of the marriage of an 'infant' bridegroom the formal consent of his parents was absolutely essential to strictly regular procedure, although clergymen might be found who were ready to shut their eyes to the facts of the situation and to run the risk of solemnising the marriage of an 'infant' without inquiry as to the parents' consent. the clergyman who united shakespeare in wedlock to anne hathaway was obviously of this easy temper. despite the circumstance that shakespeare's bride was of full age and he himself was by nearly three years a minor, the shakespeare bond stipulated merely for the consent of the bride's 'friends,' and ignored the bridegroom's parents altogether. nor was this the only irregularity in the document. in other pre-matrimonial covenants of the kind the name either of the bridegroom himself or of the bridegroom's father figures as one of the two sureties, and is mentioned first of the two. had the usual form been followed, shakespeare's father would have been the chief party to the transaction in behalf of his 'infant' son. but in the shakespeare bond the sole sureties, sandells and richardson, were farmers of shottery, the bride's native place. sandells was a 'supervisor' of the will of the bride's father, who there describes him as 'my trustie friende and neighbour.' birth of a daughter. the prominence of the shottery husbandmen in the negotiations preceding shakespeare's marriage suggests the true position of affairs. sandells and richardson, representing the lady's family, doubtless secured the deed on their own initiative, so that shakespeare might have small opportunity of evading a step which his intimacy with their friend's daughter had rendered essential to her reputation. the wedding probably took place, without the consent of the bridegroom's parents--it may be without their knowledge--soon after the signing of the deed. within six months--in may --a daughter was born to the poet, and was baptised in the name of susanna at stratford parish church on the th. formal betrothal probably dispensed with. shakespeare's apologists have endeavoured to show that the public betrothal or formal 'troth-plight' which was at the time a common prelude to a wedding carried with it all the privileges of marriage. but neither shakespeare's detailed description of a betrothal { } nor of the solemn verbal contract that ordinarily preceded marriage lends the contention much support. moreover, the whole circumstances of the case render it highly improbable that shakespeare and his bride submitted to the formal preliminaries of a betrothal. in that ceremony the parents of both contracting parties invariably played foremost parts, but the wording of the bond precludes the assumption that the bridegroom's parents were actors in any scene of the hurriedly planned drama of his marriage. a difficulty has been imported into the narration of the poet's matrimonial affairs by the assumption of his identity with one 'william shakespeare,' to whom, according to an entry in the bishop of worcester's register, a license was issued on november , (the day _before_ the signing of the hathaway bond), authorising his marriage with anne whateley of temple grafton. the theory that the maiden name of shakespeare's wife was whateley is quite untenable, and it is unsafe to assume that the bishop's clerk, when making a note of the grant of the license in his register, erred so extensively as to write anne whateley of temple grafton' for 'anne hathaway of shottery.' the husband of anne whateley cannot reasonably be identified with the poet. he was doubtless another of the numerous william shakespeares who abounded in the diocese of worcester. had a license for the poet's marriage been secured on november , { } it is unlikely that the shottery husbandmen would have entered next day into a bond 'against impediments,' the execution of which might well have been demanded as a preliminary to the grant of a license but was wholly supererogatory after the grant was made. iii--the farewell to stratford anne hathaway's greater burden of years and the likelihood that the poet was forced into marrying her by her friends were not circumstances of happy augury. although it is dangerous to read into shakespeare's dramatic utterances allusions to his personal experience, the emphasis with which he insists that a woman should take in marriage 'an elder than herself,' { a} and that prenuptial intimacy is productive of 'barren hate, sour-eyed disdain, and discord,' suggest a personal interpretation. { b} to both these unpromising features was added, in the poet's case, the absence of a means of livelihood, and his course of life in the years that immediately followed implies that he bore his domestic ties with impatience. early in twins were born to him, a son (hamnet) and a daughter (judith); both were baptised on february . all the evidence points to the conclusion, which the fact that he had no more children confirms, that in the later months of the year ( ) he left stratford, and that, although he was never wholly estranged from his family, he saw little of wife or children for eleven years. between the winter of and the autumn of --an interval which synchronises with his first literary triumphs--there is only one shadowy mention of his name in stratford records. in april there died edmund lambert, who held asbies under the mortgage of , and a few months later shakespeare's name, as owner of a contingent interest, was joined to that of his father and mother in a formal assent given to an abortive proposal to confer on edmund's son and heir, john lambert, an absolute title to the estate on condition of his cancelling the mortgage and paying pounds. but the deed does not indicate that shakespeare personally assisted at the transaction. { } poaching at charlecote. shakespeare's early literary work proves that while in the country he eagerly studied birds, flowers, and trees, and gained a detailed knowledge of horses and dogs. all his kinsfolk were farmers, and with them he doubtless as a youth practised many field sports. sympathetic references to hawking, hunting, coursing, and angling abound in his early plays and poems. { } and his sporting experiences passed at times beyond orthodox limits. a poaching adventure, according to a credible tradition, was the immediate cause of his long severance from his native place. 'he had,' wrote rowe in , 'by a misfortune common enough to young fellows, fallen into ill company, and, among them, some, that made a frequent practice of deer-stealing, engaged him with them more than once in robbing a park that belonged to sir thomas lucy of charlecote near stratford. for this he was prosecuted by that gentleman, as he thought, somewhat too severely; and, in order to revenge that ill-usage, he made a ballad upon him, and though this, probably the first essay of his poetry, be lost, yet it is said to have been so very bitter that it redoubled the prosecution against him to that degree that he was obliged to leave his business and family in warwickshire and shelter himself in london.' the independent testimony of archdeacon davies, who was vicar of saperton, gloucestershire, late in the seventeenth century, is to the effect that shakespeare 'was much given to all unluckiness in stealing venison and rabbits, particularly from sir thomas lucy, who had him oft whipt, and sometimes imprisoned, and at last made him fly his native county to his great advancement.' the law of shakespeare's day ( eliz. cap. ) punished deer-stealers with three months' imprisonment and the payment of thrice the amount of the damage done. unwarranted doubts of the tradition. the tradition has been challenged on the ground that the charlecote deer-park was of later date than the sixteenth century. but sir thomas lucy was an extensive game-preserver, and owned at charlecote a warren in which a few harts or does doubtless found an occasional home. samuel ireland was informed in that shakespeare stole the deer, not from charlecote, but from fulbroke park, a few miles off, and ireland supplied in his 'views on the warwickshire avon,' , an engraving of an old farmhouse in the hamlet of fulbroke, where he asserted that shakespeare was temporarily imprisoned after his arrest. an adjoining hovel was locally known for some years as shakespeare's 'deer-barn,' but no portion of fulbroke park, which included the site of these buildings (now removed), was lucy's property in elizabeth's reign, and the amended legend, which was solemnly confided to sir walter scott in by the owner of charlecote, seems pure invention. { } justice shallow the ballad which shakespeare is reported to have fastened on the park gates of charlecote does not, as rowe acknowledged, survive. no authenticity can be allowed the worthless lines beginning 'a parliament member, a justice of peace,' which were represented to be shakespeare's on the authority of an old man who lived near stratford and died in . but such an incident as the tradition reveals has left a distinct impress on shakespearean drama. justice shallow is beyond doubt a reminiscence of the owner of charlecote. according to archdeacon davies of saperton, shakespeare's 'revenge was so great that' he caricatured lucy as 'justice clodpate,' who was (davies adds) represented on the stage as 'a great man,' and as bearing, in allusion to lucy's name, 'three louses rampant for his arms.' justice shallow, davies's 'justice clodpate,' came to birth in the 'second part of henry iv' ( ), and he is represented in the opening scene of the 'merry wives of windsor' as having come from gloucestershire to windsor to make a star-chamber matter of a poaching raid on his estate. the 'three luces hauriant argent' were the arms borne by the charlecote lucys, and the dramatist's prolonged reference in this scene to the 'dozen white luces' on justice shallow's 'old coat' fully establishes shallow's identity with lucy. the flight from stratford. the poaching episode is best assigned to , but it may be questioned whether shakespeare, on fleeing from lucy's persecution, at once sought an asylum in london. william beeston, a seventeenth-century actor, remembered hearing that he had been for a time a country schoolmaster 'in his younger years,' and it seems possible that on first leaving stratford he found some such employment in a neighbouring village. the suggestion that he joined, at the end of , a band of youths of the district in serving in the low countries under the earl of leicester, whose castle of kenilworth was within easy reach of stratford, is based on an obvious confusion between him and others of his name. { } the knowledge of a soldier's life which shakespeare exhibited in his plays is no greater and no less than that which he displayed of almost all other spheres of human activity, and to assume that he wrote of all or of any from practical experience, unless the evidence be conclusive, is to underrate his intuitive power of realising life under almost every aspect by force of his imagination. iv--on the london stage the journey to london. to london shakespeare naturally drifted, doubtless trudging thither on foot during , by way of oxford and high wycombe. { a} tradition points to that as shakespeare's favoured route, rather than to the road by banbury and aylesbury. aubrey asserts that at grendon near oxford, 'he happened to take the humour of the constable in "midsummer night's dream"'--by which he meant, we may suppose, 'much ado about nothing'--but there were watchmen of the dogberry type all over england, and probably at stratford itself. the crown inn, (formerly cornmarket street) near carfax, at oxford, was long pointed out as one of his resting-places. richard field, his townsman. to only one resident in london is shakespeare likely to have been known previously. { b} richard field, a native of stratford, and son of a friend of shakespeare's father, had left stratford in to serve an apprenticeship with thomas vautrollier, the london printer. shakespeare and field, who was made free of the stationers' company in , were soon associated as author and publisher; but the theory that field found work for shakespeare in vautrollier's printing-office is fanciful. { a} no more can be said for the attempt to prove that he obtained employment as a lawyer's clerk. in view of his general quickness of apprehension, shakespeare's accurate use of legal terms, which deserves all the attention that has been paid it, may be attributable in part to his observation of the many legal processes in which his father was involved, and in part to early intercourse with members of the inns of court. { b} theatrical employment. tradition and common-sense alike point to one of the only two theatres (the theatre or the curtain) that existed in london at the date of his arrival as an early scene of his regular occupation. the compiler of 'lives of the poets' ( ) { c} was the first to relate the story that his original connection with the playhouse was as holder of the horses of visitors outside the doors. according to the same compiler, the story was related by d'avenant to betterton; but rowe, to whom betterton communicated it, made no use of it. the two regular theatres of the time were both reached on horseback by men of fashion, and the owner of the theatre, james burbage, kept a livery stable at smithfield. there is no inherent improbability in the tale. dr. johnson's amplified version, in which shakespeare was represented as organising a service of boys for the purpose of tending visitors' horses, sounds apocryphal. a playhouse servitor. there is every indication that shakespeare was speedily offered employment inside the playhouse. in the two chief companies of actors, claiming respectively the nominal patronage of the queen and lord leicester, returned to london from a provincial tour, during which they visited stratford. two subordinate companies, one of which claimed the patronage of the earl of essex and the other that of lord stafford, also performed in the town during the same year. shakespeare's friends may have called the attention of the strolling players to the homeless youth, rumours of whose search for employment about the london theatres had doubtless reached stratford. from such incidents seems to have sprung the opportunity which offered shakespeare fame and fortune. according to rowe's vague statement, 'he was received into the company then in being at first in a very mean rank.' william castle, the parish clerk of stratford at the end of the seventeenth century, was in the habit of telling visitors that he entered the playhouse as a servitor. malone recorded in a stage tradition 'that his first office in the theatre was that of prompter's attendant' or call-boy. his intellectual capacity and the amiability with which he turned to account his versatile powers were probably soon recognised, and thenceforth his promotion was assured. the acting companies. shakespeare's earliest reputation was made as an actor, and, although his work as a dramatist soon eclipsed his histrionic fame, he remained a prominent member of the actor's profession till near the end of his life. by an act of parliament of ( eliz. cap. ), which was re-enacted in ( eliz. cap. ), players were under the necessity of procuring a license to pursue their calling from a peer of the realm or 'personage of higher degree;' otherwise they were adjudged to be of the status of rogues and vagabonds. the queen herself and many elizabethan peers were liberal in the exercise of their licensing powers, and few actors failed to secure a statutory license, which gave them a rank of respectability, and relieved them of all risk of identification with vagrants or 'sturdy beggars.' from an early period in elizabeth's reign licensed actors were organised into permanent companies. in and following years, besides three companies of duly licensed boy-actors that were formed from the choristers of st. paul's cathedral and the chapel royal and from westminster scholars, there were in london at least six companies of fully licensed adult actors; five of these were called after the noblemen to whom their members respectively owed their licenses (viz. the earls of leicester, oxford, sussex, and worcester, and the lord admiral, charles, lord howard of effingham), and one of them whose actors derived their license from the queen was called the queen's company. the lord chamberlain's company. the patron's functions in relation to the companies seem to have been mainly confined to the grant or renewal of the actors' licenses. constant alterations of name, owing to the death or change from other causes of the patrons, render it difficult to trace with certainty each company's history. but there seems no doubt that the most influential of the companies named--that under the nominal patronage of the earl of leicester--passed on his death in september to the patronage of ferdinando stanley, lord strange, who became earl of derby on september , . when the earl of derby died on april , , his place as patron and licenser was successively filled by henry carey, first lord hunsdon, lord chamberlain (_d._ july , ), and by his son and heir, george carey, second lord hunsdon, who himself became lord chamberlain in march . after king james's succession in may the company was promoted to be the king's players, and, thus advanced in dignity, it fully maintained the supremacy which, under its successive titles, it had already long enjoyed. a member of the lord chamberlain's. it is fair to infer that this was the company that shakespeare originally joined and adhered to through life. documentary evidence proves that he was a member of it in december ; in may, he was one of its leaders. four of its chief members--richard burbage, the greatest tragic actor of the day, john heming, henry condell, and augustine phillips were among shakespeare's lifelong friends. under this company's auspices, moreover, shakespeare's plays first saw the light. only two of the plays claimed for him--'titus andronicus' and ' henry vi'--seem to have been performed by other companies (the earl of sussex's men in the one case, and the earl of pembroke's in the other). the london theatres. when shakespeare became a member of the company it was doubtless performing at the theatre, the playhouse in shoreditch which james burbage, the father of the great actor, richard burbage, had constructed in ; it abutted on the finsbury fields, and stood outside the city's boundaries. the only other london playhouse then in existence--the curtain in moorfields--was near at hand; its name survives in curtain road, shoreditch. but at an early date in his acting career shakespeare's company sought and found new quarters. while known as lord strange's men, they opened on february , , a third london theatre, called the rose, which philip henslowe, the speculative theatrical manager, had erected on the bankside, southwark. at the date of the inauguration of the rose theatre shakespeare's company was temporarily allied with another company, the admiral's men, who numbered the great actor edward alleyn among them. alleyn for a few months undertook the direction of the amalgamated companies, but they quickly parted, and no further opportunity was offered shakespeare of enjoying professional relations with alleyn. the rose theatre was doubtless the earliest scene of shakespeare's pronounced successes alike as actor and dramatist. subsequently for a short time in he frequented the stage of another new theatre at newington butts, and between and the older stages of the curtain and of the theatre in shoreditch. the curtain remained open till the civil wars, although its vogue after was eclipsed by that of younger rivals. in richard burbage and his brother cuthbert demolished the old building of the theatre and built, mainly out of the materials of the dismantled fabric, the famous theatre called the globe on the bankside. it was octagonal in shape, and built of wood, and doubtless shakespeare described it (rather than the curtain) as 'this wooden o' in the opening chorus of 'henry v' ( . ). after the globe was mainly occupied by shakespeare's company, and in its profits he acquired an important share. from the date of its inauguration until the poet's retirement, the globe--which quickly won the first place among london theatres--seems to have been the sole playhouse with which shakespeare was professionally associated. the equally familiar blackfriars theatre, which was created out of a dwelling-house by james burbage, the actor's father, at the end of , was for many years afterwards leased out to the company of boy-actors known as 'the queen's children of the chapel;' it was not occupied by shakespeare's company until december or january , when his acting days were nearing their end. { a} place of residence in london. in london shakespeare resided near the theatres. according to a memorandum by alleyn (which malone quoted), he lodged in near 'the bear garden in southwark.' in one william shakespeare, who was assessed by the collectors of a subsidy in the sum of s. d. upon goods valued at pounds, was a resident in st. helen's parish, bishopsgate, but it is not certain that this taxpayer was the dramatist. { b} shakespeare's alleged travels. in scotland. the chief differences between the methods of theatrical representation in shakespeare's day and our own lay in the fact that neither scenery nor scenic costume nor women-actors were known to the elizabethan stage. all female _roles_ were, until the restoration in , assumed in the public theatres by men or boys. { c} consequently the skill needed to rouse in the audience the requisite illusions was far greater then than at later periods. but the professional customs of elizabethan actors approximated in other respects more closely to those of their modern successors than is usually recognised. the practice of touring in the provinces was followed with even greater regularity then than now. few companies remained in london during the summer or early autumn, and every country town with two thousand or more inhabitants could reckon on at least one visit from travelling actors between may and october. a rapid examination of the extant archives of some seventy municipalities selected at random shows that shakespeare's company between and frequently performed in such towns as barnstaple, bath, bristol, coventry, dover, faversham, folkestone, hythe, leicester, maidstone, marlborough, new romney, oxford, rye in sussex, saffron walden, and shrewsbury. { a} shakespeare may be credited with faithfully fulfilling all his professional functions, and some of the references to travel in his sonnets were doubtless reminiscences of early acting tours. it has been repeatedly urged, moreover, that shakespeare's company visited scotland, and that he went with it. { b} in november english actors arrived in scotland under the leadership of lawrence fletcher and one martin, and were welcomed with enthusiasm by the king. { a} fletcher was a colleague of shakespeare in , but is not known to have been one earlier. shakespeare's company never included an actor named martin. fletcher repeated the visit in october . { b} there is nothing to indicate that any of his companions belonged to shakespeare's company. in like manner, shakespeare's accurate reference in 'macbeth' to the 'nimble' but 'sweet' climate of inverness, { c} and the vivid impression he conveys of the aspects of wild highland heaths, have been judged to be the certain fruits of a personal experience; but the passages in question, into which a more definite significance has possibly been read than shakespeare intended, can be satisfactorily accounted for by his inevitable intercourse with scotsmen in london and the theatres after james i's accession. in italy. a few english actors in shakespeare's day occasionally combined to make professional tours through foreign lands, where court society invariably gave them a hospitable reception. in denmark, germany, austria, holland, and france, many dramatic performances were given before royal audiences by english actors between and . { a} that shakespeare joined any of these expeditions is highly improbable. actors of small account at home mainly took part in them, and shakespeare's name appears in no extant list of those who paid professional visits abroad. it is, in fact, unlikely that shakespeare ever set foot on the continent of europe in either a private or professional capacity. he repeatedly ridicules the craze for foreign travel. { b} to italy, it is true, and especially to cities of northern italy, like venice, padua, verona, mantua, and milan, he makes frequent and familiar reference, and he supplied many a realistic portrayal of italian life and sentiment. but the fact that he represents valentine in the 'two gentlemen of verona' (i. i. ) as travelling from verona to milan by sea, and prospero in 'the tempest' as embarking on a ship at the gates of milan (i. ii. - ), renders it almost impossible that he could have gathered his knowledge of northern italy from personal observation. { a} he doubtless owed all to the verbal reports of travelled friends or to books, the contents of which he had a rare power of assimilating and vitalising. shakespeare's roles. the publisher chettle wrote in that shakespeare was 'exelent in the qualitie { b} he professes,' and the old actor william beeston asserted in the next century that shakespeare 'did act exceedingly well.' { c} but the _roles_ in which he distinguished himself are imperfectly recorded. few surviving documents refer directly to performances by him. at christmas he joined the popular actors william kemp, the chief comedian of the day, and richard burbage, the greatest tragic actor, in 'two several comedies or interludes' which were acted on st. stephen's day and on innocents' day (december and ) at greenwich palace before the queen. the players received 'xiii_li_. vj_s_. viii_d_. and by waye of her majesties rewarde vi_li_. xiii_s_. iiij_d_., in all xx_li_. { a} neither plays nor parts are named. shakespeare's name stands first on the list of those who took part in the original performances of ben jonson's 'every man in his humour' ( ). in the original edition of jonson's 'sejanus' ( ) the actors' names are arranged in two columns, and shakespeare's name heads the second column, standing parallel with burbage's, which heads the first. but here again the character allotted to each actor is not stated. rowe identified only one of shakespeare's parts, 'the ghost in his own "hamlet,"' and rowe asserted his assumption of that character to be 'the top of his performance.' john davies of hereford noted that he 'played some kingly parts in sport.' { b} one of shakespeare's younger brothers, presumably gilbert, often came, wrote oldys, to london in his younger days to see his brother act in his own plays; and in his old age, when his memory was failing, he recalled his brother's performance of adam in 'as you like it.' in the folio edition of shakespeare's 'works' his name heads the prefatory list 'of the principall actors in all these playes.' alleged scorn of an actor's calling. that shakespeare chafed under some of the conditions of the actor's calling is commonly inferred from the 'sonnets.' there he reproaches himself with becoming 'a motley to the view' (cx. ), and chides fortune for having provided for his livelihood nothing better than 'public means that public manners breed,' whence his name received a brand (cxi. - ). if such self-pity is to be literally interpreted, it only reflected an evanescent mood. his interest in all that touched the efficiency of his profession was permanently active. he was a keen critic of actors' elocution, and in 'hamlet' shrewdly denounced their common failings, but clearly and hopefully pointed out the road to improvement. his highest ambitions lay, it is true, elsewhere than in acting, and at an early period of his theatrical career he undertook, with triumphant success, the labours of a playwright. but he pursued the profession of an actor loyally and uninterruptedly until he resigned all connection with the theatre within a few years of his death. v.--early dramatic efforts dramatic work. the whole of shakespeare's dramatic work was probably begun and ended within two decades ( - ), between his twenty-seventh and forty-seventh year. if the works traditionally assigned to him include some contributions from other pens, he was perhaps responsible, on the other hand, for portions of a few plays that are traditionally claimed for others. when the account is balanced, shakespeare must be credited with the production, during these twenty years, of a yearly average of two plays, nearly all of which belong to the supreme rank of literature. three volumes of poems must be added to the total. ben jonson was often told by the players that 'whatsoever he penned he never blotted out (_i.e._ erased) a line.' the editors of the first folio attested that 'what he thought he uttered with that easinesse that we have scarce received from him a blot in his papers.' signs of hasty workmanship are not lacking, but they are few when it is considered how rapidly his numerous compositions came from his pen, and they are in the aggregate unimportant. his borrowed plots. by borrowing his plots he to some extent economised his energy, but he transformed most of them, and it was not probably with the object of conserving his strength that he systematically levied loans on popular current literature like holinshed's 'chronicles,' north's translation of 'plutarch,' widely read romances, and successful plays. in this regard he betrayed something of the practical temperament which is traceable in the conduct of the affairs of his later life. it was doubtless with the calculated aim of ministering to the public taste that he unceasingly adapted, as his genius dictated, themes which had already, in the hands of inferior writers or dramatists, proved capable of arresting public attention. the revision of plays. the professional playwrights sold their plays outright to one or other of the acting companies, and they retained no legal interest in them after the manuscript had passed into the hands of the theatrical manager. { } it was not unusual for the manager to invite extensive revision of a play at the hands of others than its author before it was produced on the stage, and again whenever it was revived. shakespeare gained his earliest experience as a dramatist by revising or rewriting behind the scenes plays that had become the property of his manager. it is possible that some of his labours in this direction remain unidentified. in a few cases his alterations were slight, but as a rule his fund of originality was too abundant to restrict him, when working as an adapter, to mere recension, and the results of most of his labours in that capacity are entitled to rank among original compositions. chronology of the plays. metrical tests. the determination of the exact order in which shakespeare's plays were written depends largely on conjecture. external evidence is accessible in only a few cases, and, although always worthy of the utmost consideration, is not invariably conclusive. the date of publication rarely indicates the date of composition. only sixteen of the thirty-seven plays commonly assigned to shakespeare were published in his lifetime, and it is questionable whether any were published under his supervision. { } but subject-matter and metre both afford rough clues to the period in his career to which each play may be referred. in his early plays the spirit of comedy or tragedy appears in its simplicity; as his powers gradually matured he depicted life in its most complex involutions, and portrayed with masterly insight the subtle gradations of human sentiment and the mysterious workings of human passion. comedy and tragedy are gradually blended; and his work finally developed a pathos such as could only come of ripe experience. similarly the metre undergoes emancipation from the hampering restraints of fixed rule and becomes flexible enough to respond to every phase of human feeling. in the blank verse of the early plays a pause is strictly observed at the close of each line, and rhyming couplets are frequent. gradually the poet overrides such artificial restrictions; rhyme largely disappears; recourse is more frequently made to prose; the pause is varied indefinitely; extra syllables are, contrary to strict metrical law, introduced at the end of lines, and at times in the middle; the last word of the line is often a weak and unemphatic conjunction or preposition. { } to the latest plays fantastic and punning conceits which abound in early work are rarely accorded admission. but, while shakespeare's achievement from the beginning to the end of his career offers clearer evidence than that of any other writer of genius of the steady and orderly growth of his poetic faculty, some allowance must be made for ebb and flow in the current of his artistic progress. early work occasionally anticipates features that become habitual to late work, and late work at times embodies traits that are mainly identified with early work. no exclusive reliance in determining the precise chronology can be placed on the merely mechanical tests afforded by tables of metrical statistics. the chronological order can only be deduced with any confidence from a consideration of all the internal characteristics as well as the known external history of each play. the premisses are often vague and conflicting, and no chronology hitherto suggested receives at all points universal assent. 'love's labour's lost.' there is no external evidence to prove that any piece in which shakespeare had a hand was produced before the spring of . no play by him was published before , and none bore his name on the title-page till . but his first essays have been with confidence allotted to . to 'love's labour's lost' may reasonably be assigned priority in point of time of all shakespeare's dramatic productions. internal evidence alone indicates the date of composition, and proves that it was an early effort; but the subject-matter suggests that its author had already enjoyed extended opportunities of surveying london life and manners, such as were hardly open to him in the very first years of his settlement in the metropolis. 'love's labour's lost' embodies keen observation of contemporary life in many ranks of society, both in town and country, while the speeches of the hero biron clothe much sound philosophy in masterly rhetoric. its slender plot stands almost alone among shakespeare's plots in that it is not known to have been borrowed, and stands quite alone in openly travestying known traits and incidents of current social and political life. the names of the chief characters are drawn from the leaders in the civil war in france, which was in progress between and , and was anxiously watched by the english public. { } contemporary projects of academies for disciplining young men; fashions of speech and dress current in fashionable circles; recent attempts on the part of elizabeth's government to negotiate with the tsar of russia; the inefficiency of rural constables and the pedantry of village schoolmasters and curates are all satirised with good humour. the play was revised in , probably for a performance at court. it was first published next year, and on the title-page, which described the piece as 'newly corrected and augmented,' shakespeare's name first appeared in print as that of author of a play. 'two gentlemen of verona.' less gaiety characterised another comedy of the same date, 'the two gentlemen of verona,' which dramatises a romantic story of love and friendship. there is every likelihood that it was an adaptation--amounting to a reformation--of a lost 'history of felix and philomena,' which had been acted at court in . the story is the same as that of 'the shepardess felismena' in the spanish pastoral romance of 'diana' by george de montemayor, which long enjoyed popularity in england. no complete english translation of 'diana' was published before that of bartholomew yonge in , but a manuscript version by thomas wilson, which was dedicated to the earl of southampton in , was possibly circulated far earlier. some verses from 'diana' were translated by sir philip sidney and were printed with his poems as early as . barnabe rich's story of 'apollonius and silla' (from cinthio's 'hecatommithi'), which shakespeare employed again in 'twelfth night,' also gave him some hints. trifling and irritating conceits abound in the 'two gentlemen,' but passages of high poetic spirit are not wanting, and the speeches of the clowns, launce and speed--the precursors of a long line of whimsical serving-men--overflow with farcical drollery. the 'two gentlemen' was not published in shakespeare's lifetime; it first appeared in the folio of , after having, in all probability, undergone some revision. { } 'comedy of errors.' shakespeare next tried his hand, in the 'comedy of errors' (commonly known at the time as 'errors'), at boisterous farce. it also was first published in . again, as in 'love's labour's lost,' allusion was made to the civil war in france. france was described as 'making war against her heir' (iii. ii. ). shakespeare's farcical comedy, which is by far the shortest of all his dramas, may have been founded on a play, no longer extant, called 'the historie of error,' which was acted in at hampton court. in subject-matter it resembles the 'menaechmi' of plautus, and treats of mistakes of identity arising from the likeness of twin-born children. the scene (act iii. sc. i.) in which antipholus of ephesus is shut out from his own house, while his brother and wife are at dinner within, recalls one in the 'amphitruo' of plautus. shakespeare doubtless had direct recourse to plautus as well as to the old play, and he may have read plautus in english. the earliest translation of the 'menaechmi' was not licensed for publication before june , , and was not published until the following year. no translation of any other play of plautus appeared before. but it was stated in the preface to this first published translation of the 'menaechmi' that the translator, w. w., doubtless william warner, a veteran of the elizabethan world of letters, had some time previously 'englished' that and 'divers' others of plautus's comedies, and had circulated them in manuscript 'for the use of and delight of his private friends, who, in plautus's own words, are not able to understand them.' 'romeo and juliet.' such plays as these, although each gave promise of a dramatic capacity out of the common way, cannot be with certainty pronounced to be beyond the ability of other men. it was in 'romeo and juliet,' shakespeare's first tragedy, that he proved himself the possessor of a poetic and dramatic instinct of unprecedented quality. in 'romeo and juliet' he turned to account a tragic romance of italian origin, { a} which was already popular in english versions. arthur broke rendered it into english verse from the italian of bandello in , and william painter had published it in prose in his 'palace of pleasure' in . shakespeare made little change in the plot as drawn from bandello by broke, but he impregnated it with poetic fervour, and relieved the tragic intensity by developing the humour of mercutio, and by grafting on the story the new comic character of the nurse. { b} the ecstasy of youthful passion is portrayed by shakespeare in language of the highest lyric beauty, and although a predilection for quibbles and conceits occasionally passes beyond the author's control, 'romeo and juliet,' as a tragic poem on the theme of love, has no rival in any literature. if the nurse's remark, ''tis since the earthquake now eleven years' (i. iii. ), be taken literally, the composition of the play must be referred to , for no earthquake in the sixteenth century was experienced in england after . there are a few parallelisms with daniel's 'complainte of rosamond,' published in , and it is probable that shakespeare completed the piece in that year. it was first printed anonymously and surreptitiously by john danter in from an imperfect acting copy. a second quarto of (by t. creede for cuthbert burbie) was printed from an authentic version, but the piece had probably undergone revision since its first production. { } of the original representation on the stage of three other pieces of the period we have more explicit information. these reveal shakespeare undisguisedly as an adapter of plays by other hands. though they lack the interest attaching to his unaided work, they throw invaluable light on some of his early methods of composition and his early relations with other dramatists. 'henry vi.' on march , , a new piece, called 'henry vi,' was acted at the rose theatre by lord strange's men. it was no doubt the play which was subsequently known as shakespeare's 'the first part of henry vi.' on its first performance it won a popular triumph. 'how would it have joyed brave talbot (the terror of the french),' wrote nash in his 'pierce pennilesse' ( , licensed august ), in reference to the striking scenes of talbot's death (act iv. sc. vi. and vii.), 'to thinke that after he had lyne two hundred yeares in his tombe, hee should triumphe againe on the stage, and have his bones newe embalmed with the teares of ten thousand spectators at least (at severall times) who, in the tragedian that represents his person, imagine they behold him fresh bleeding!' there is no categorical record of the production of a second piece in continuation of the theme, but such a play quickly followed; for a third piece, treating of the concluding incidents of henry vi's reign, attracted much attention on the stage early in the following autumn. greene's attack. chettle's apology. the applause attending the completion of this historical trilogy caused bewilderment in the theatrical profession. the older dramatists awoke to the fact that their popularity was endangered by the young stranger who had set up his tent in their midst, and one veteran uttered without delay a rancorous protest. robert greene, who died on september , , wrote on his deathbed an ill-natured farewell to life, entitled 'a groats-worth of wit bought with a million of repentance.' addressing three brother dramatists--marlowe, nash, and peele or lodge--he bade them beware of puppets 'that speak from our mouths,' and of 'antics garnished in our colours.' 'there is,' he continued, 'an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his _tygers heart wrapt in a players hide_ supposes he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you; and being an absolute _johannes factotum_ is, in his owne conceit, the only shake-scene in a countrie. . . . never more acquaint [those apes] with your admired inventions, for it is pity men of such rare wits should be subject to the pleasures of such rude groomes.' the 'only shake-scene' is a punning denunciation of shakespeare. the tirade was probably inspired by an established author's resentment at the energy of a young actor--the theatre's factotum--in revising the dramatic work of his seniors with such masterly effect as to imperil their hold on the esteem of manager and playgoer. the italicised quotation travesties a line from the third piece in the trilogy of shakespeare's 'henry vi:' oh tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide. but shakespeare's amiability of character and versatile ability had already won him admirers, and his successes excited the sympathetic regard of colleagues more kindly than greene. in december greene's publisher, henry chettle, prefixed an apology for greene's attack on the young actor to his 'kind hartes dreame,' a tract reflecting on phases of contemporary social life. 'i am as sory,' chettle wrote, 'as if the originall fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have seene his [_i.e._ shakespeare's] demeanour no lesse civill than he [is] exelent in the qualitie he professes, besides divers of worship have reported his uprightnes of dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing that aprooves his art.' divided authorship of 'henry vi.' the first of the three plays dealing with the reign of henry vi was originally published in the collected edition of shakespeare's works; the second and third plays were previously printed in a form very different from that which they subsequently assumed when they followed the first part in the folio. criticism has proved beyond doubt that in these plays shakespeare did no more than add, revise, and correct other men's work. in 'the first part of henry vi' the scene in the temple gardens, where white and red roses are plucked as emblems by the rival political parties (act ii. sc. iv.), the dying speech of mortimer, and perhaps the wooing of margaret by suffolk, alone bear the impress of his style. a play dealing with the second part of henry vi's reign was published anonymously from a rough stage copy in , with the title 'the first part of the contention betwixt the two famous houses of yorke and lancaster.' a play dealing with the third part was published with greater care next year under the title 'the true tragedie of richard, duke of yorke, and the death of good king henry the sixt, as it was sundrie times acted by the earl of pembroke his servants.' in both these plays shakespeare's revising hand can be traced. the humours of jack cade in 'the contention' can owe their savour to him alone. after he had hastily revised the original drafts of the three pieces, perhaps with another's aid, they were put on the stage in , the first two parts by his own company (lord strange's men), and the third, under some exceptional arrangement, by lord pembroke's men. but shakespeare was not content to leave them thus. within a brief interval, possibly for a revival, he undertook a more thorough revision, still in conjunction with another writer. 'the first part of the contention' was thoroughly overhauled, and was converted into what was entitled in the folio 'the second part of henry vi;' there more than half the lines are new. 'the true tragedie,' which became 'the third part of henry vi,' was less drastically handled; two-thirds of it was left practically untouched; only a third was thoroughly remodelled. { } shakespeare's coadjutors. who shakespeare's coadjutors were in the two successive revisions of 'henry vi' is matter for conjecture. the theory that greene and peele produced the original draft of the three parts of 'henry vi,' which shakespeare recast, may help to account for greene's indignant denunciation of shakespeare as 'an upstart crow, beautified with the feathers' of himself and his fellow dramatists. much can be said, too, in behalf of the suggestion that shakespeare joined marlowe, the greatest of his predecessors, in the first revision of which 'the contention' and the 'true tragedie' were the outcome. most of the new passages in the second recension seem assignable to shakespeare alone, but a few suggest a partnership resembling that of the first revision. it is probable that marlowe began the final revision, but his task was interrupted by his death, and the lion's share of the work fell to his younger coadjutor. shakespeare's assimilative power. shakespeare shared with other men of genius that receptivity of mind which impels them to assimilate much of the intellectual effort of their contemporaries and to transmute it in the process from unvalued ore into pure gold. had shakespeare not been professionally employed in recasting old plays by contemporaries, he would doubtless have shown in his writings traces of a study of their work. the verses of thomas watson, samuel daniel, michael drayton, sir philip sidney, and thomas lodge were certainly among the rills which fed the mighty river of his poetic and lyric invention. kyd and greene, among rival writers of tragedy, left more or less definite impression on all shakespeare's early efforts in tragedy. it was, however, only to two of his fellow dramatists that his indebtedness as a writer of either comedy or tragedy was material or emphatically defined. superior as shakespeare's powers were to those of marlowe, his coadjutor in 'henry vi,' his early tragedies often reveal him in the character of a faithful disciple of that vehement delineator of tragic passion. shakespeare's early comedies disclose a like relationship between him and lyly. lyly's influence in comedy. lyly is best known as the author of the affected romance of 'euphues,' but between and he produced eight trivial and insubstantial comedies, of which six were written in prose, one was in blank verse, and one was in rhyme. much of the dialogue in shakespeare's comedies, from 'love's labour's lost' to 'much ado about nothing,' consists in thrusting and parrying fantastic conceits, puns, or antitheses. this is the style of intercourse in which most of lyly's characters exclusively indulge. three-fourths of lyly's comedies lightly revolve about topics of classical or fairy mythology--in the very manner which shakespeare first brought to a triumphant issue in his 'midsummer night's dream.' shakespeare's treatment of eccentric character like don armado in 'love's labour's lost' and his boy moth reads like a reminiscence of lyly's portrayal of sir thopas, a fat vainglorious knight, and his boy epiton in the comedy of 'endymion,' while the watchmen in the same play clearly adumbrate shakespeare's dogberry and verges. the device of masculine disguise for love-sick maidens was characteristic of lyly's method before shakespeare ventured on it for the first of many times in 'two gentlemen of verona,' and the dispersal through lyly's comedies of songs possessing every lyrical charm is not the least interesting of the many striking features which shakespeare's achievements in comedy seem to borrow from lyly's comparatively insignificant experiments. { } marlowe's influence in tragedy. 'richard iii.' marlowe, who alone of shakespeare's contemporaries can be credited with exerting on his efforts in tragedy a really substantial influence, was in and at the zenith of his fame. two of shakespeare's earliest historical tragedies, 'richard iii' and 'richard ii,' with the story of shylock in his somewhat later comedy of the 'merchant of venice,' plainly disclose a conscious resolve to follow in marlowe's footsteps. in 'richard iii' shakespeare, working single-handed, takes up the history of england near the point at which marlowe and he, apparently working in partnership, left it in the third part of 'henry vi.' the subject was already familiar to dramatists, but shakespeare sought his materials in the 'chronicle' of holinshed. a latin piece, by dr. thomas legge, had been in favour with academic audiences since , and in the 'true tragedie of richard iii' from some other pen was published anonymously; but shakespeare's piece bears little resemblance to either. throughout shakespeare's 'richard iii' the effort to emulate marlowe is undeniable. the tragedy is, says mr. swinburne, 'as fiery in passion, as single in purpose, as rhetorical often, though never so inflated in expression, as marlowe's "tamburlaine" itself.' the turbulent piece was naturally popular. burbage's impersonation of the hero was one of his most effective performances, and his vigorous enunciation of 'a horse, a horse! my kingdom for a horse!' gave the line proverbial currency. 'richard ii.' 'richard ii' seems to have followed 'richard iii' without delay. subsequently both were published anonymously in the same year ( ) as they had 'been publikely acted by the right honorable the lorde chamberlaine his servants;' but the deposition scene in 'richard ii,' which dealt with a topic distasteful to the queen, was omitted from the early impressions. prose is avoided throughout the play, a certain sign of early work. the piece was probably composed very early in . marlowe's tempestuous vein is less apparent in 'richard ii' than in 'richard iii.' but if 'richard ii' be in style and treatment less deeply indebted to marlowe than its predecessor, it was clearly suggested by marlowe's 'edward ii.' throughout its exposition of the leading theme--the development and collapse of the weak king's character--shakespeare's historical tragedy closely imitates marlowe's. shakespeare drew the facts from holinshed, but his embellishments are numerous, and include the magnificently eloquent eulogy of england which is set in the mouth of john of gaunt. acknowledgments to marlowe. in 'as you like it' (iii. v. ) shakespeare parenthetically commemorated his acquaintance with, and his general indebtedness to, the elder dramatist by apostrophising him in the lines: dead shepherd! now i find thy saw of might: 'who ever loved that loved not at first sight?' the second line is a quotation from marlowe's poem 'hero and leander' (line ). in the 'merry wives of windsor' (iii. i. - ) shakespeare places in the mouth of sir hugh evans snatches of verse from marlowe's charming lyric, 'come live with me and be my love.' between february and the end of the year the london theatres were closed, owing to the prevalence of the plague, and shakespeare doubtless travelled with his company in the country. but his pen was busily employed, and before the close of he gave marvellous proofs of his rapid powers of production. 'titus andronicus.' 'titus andronicus' was in his own lifetime claimed for shakespeare, but edward ravenscroft, who prepared a new version in , wrote of it: 'i have been told by some anciently conversant with the stage that it was not originally his, but brought by a private author to be acted, and he only gave some master-touches to one or two of the principal parts or characters.' ravenscroft's assertion deserves acceptance. the tragedy, a sanguinary picture of the decadence of imperial rome, contains powerful lines and situations, but is far too repulsive in plot and treatment, and too ostentatious in classical allusions, to take rank with shakespeare's acknowledged work. ben jonson credits 'titus andronicus' with a popularity equalling kyd's 'spanish tragedy,' and internal evidence shows that kyd was capable of writing much of 'titus.' it was suggested by a piece called 'titus and vespasian,' which lord strange's men played on april , ; { } this is only extant in a german version acted by english players in germany, and published in . { a} 'titus andronicus' was obviously taken in hand soon after the production of 'titus and vespasian' in order to exploit popular interest in the topic. it was acted by the earl of sussex's men on january , - , when it was described as a new piece; but that it was also acted subsequently by shakespeare's company is shown by the title-page of the first extant edition of , which describes it as having been performed by the earl of derby's and the lord chamberlain's servants (successive titles of shakespeare's company), as well as by those of the earls of pembroke and sussex. it was entered on the 'stationers' register' to john danter on february , . { b} langbaine claims to have seen an edition of this date, but none earlier than that of is now known. 'merchant of venice.' for part of the plot of 'the merchant of venice,' in which two romantic love stories are skilfully blended with a theme of tragic import, shakespeare had recourse to 'il pecorone,' a fourteenth-century collection of italian novels by ser giovanni fiorentino. { c} there a jewish creditor demands a pound of flesh of a defaulting christian debtor, and the latter is rescued through the advocacy of 'the lady of belmont,' who is wife of the debtor's friend. the management of the plot in the italian novel is closely followed by shakespeare. a similar story is slenderly outlined in the popular medieval collection of anecdotes called 'gesta romanorum,' while the tale of the caskets, which shakespeare combined with it in the 'merchant,' is told independently in another portion of the same work. but shakespeare's 'merchant' owes much to other sources, including more than one old play. stephen gosson describes in his 'schoole of abuse' ( ) a lost play called 'the jew . . . showne at the bull [inn]. . . representing the greedinesse of worldly chusers and bloody mindes of usurers.' this description suggests that the two stories of the pound of flesh and the caskets had been combined before for purposes of dramatic representation. the scenes in shakespeare's play in which antonio negotiates with shylock are roughly anticipated, too, by dialogues between a jewish creditor gerontus and a christian debtor in the extant play of 'the three ladies of london,' by r[obert] w[ilson], . there the jew opens the attack on his christian debtor with the lines: signor mercatore, why do you not pay me? think you i will be mocked in this sort? this three times you have flouted me--it seems you make thereat a sport. truly pay me my money, and that even now presently, or by mighty mahomet, i swear i will forthwith arrest thee. subsequently, when the judge is passing judgment in favour of the debtor, the jew interrupts: stay, there, most puissant judge. signor mercatore consider what you do. pay me the principal, as for the interest i forgive it you. shylock and roderigo lopez. above all is it of interest to note that shakespeare in 'the merchant of venice' betrays the last definable traces of his discipleship to marlowe. although the delicate comedy which lightens the serious interest of shakespeare's play sets it in a wholly different category from that of marlowe's 'jew of malta', the humanised portrait of the jew shylock embodies distinct reminiscences of marlowe's caricature of the jew barabbas. but shakespeare soon outpaced his master, and the inspiration that he drew from marlowe in the 'merchant' touches only the general conception of the central figure. doubtless the popular interest aroused by the trial in february and the execution in june of the queen's jewish physician, roderigo lopez, incited shakespeare to a new and subtler study of jewish character. { } for shylock (not the merchant antonio) is the hero of the play, and the main interest culminates in the jew's trial and discomfiture. the bold transition from that solemn scene which trembles on the brink of tragedy to the gently poetic and humorous incidents of the concluding act attests a mastery of stagecraft; but the interest, although it is sustained to the end, is, after shylock's final exit, pitched in a lower key. the 'venesyon comedy,' which henslowe, the manager, produced at the rose on august , , was probably the earliest version of 'the merchant of venice,' and it was revised later. it was not published till , when two editions appeared, each printed from a different stage copy. 'king john.' to must also be assigned 'king john,' which, like the 'comedy of errors' and 'richard ii,' altogether eschews prose. the piece, which was not printed till , was directly adapted from a worthless play called 'the troublesome raigne of king john' ( ), which was fraudulently reissued in as 'written by w. sh.,' and in as by 'w. shakespeare.' there is very small ground for associating marlowe's name with the old play. into the adaptation shakespeare flung all his energy, and the theme grew under his hand into genuine tragedy. the three chief characters--the mean and cruel king, the noblehearted and desperately wronged constance, and the soldierly humourist, faulconbridge--are in all essentials of his own invention, and are portrayed with the same sureness of touch that marked in shylock his rapidly maturing strength. the scene, in which the gentle boy arthur learns from hubert that the king has ordered his eyes to be put out, is as affecting as any passage in tragic literature. 'comedy of errors' in gray's inn hall. at the close of a performance of shakespeare's early farce, 'the comedy of errors,' gave him a passing notoriety that he could well have spared. the piece was played on the evening of innocents' day (december ), , in the hall of gray's inn, before a crowded audience of benchers, students, and their friends. there was some disturbance during the evening on the part of guests from the inner temple, who, dissatisfied with the accommodation afforded them, retired in dudgeon. 'so that night,' the contemporary chronicler states, 'was begun and continued to the end in nothing but confusion and errors, whereupon it was ever afterwards called the "night of errors."' { } shakespeare was acting on the same day before the queen at greenwich, and it is doubtful if he were present. on the morrow a commission of oyer and terminer inquired into the causes of the tumult, which was attributed to a sorcerer having 'foisted a company of base and common fellows to make up our disorders with a play of errors and confusions.' early plays doubtfully assigned to shakespeare. two plays of uncertain authorship attracted public attention during the period under review ( - )--'arden of feversham' (licensed for publication april , , and published in ) and 'edward iii' (licensed for publication december , , and published in ). shakespeare's hand has been traced in both, mainly on the ground that their dramatic energy is of a quality not to be discerned in the work of any contemporary whose writings are extant. there is no external evidence in favour of shakespeare's authorship in either case. 'arden of feversham' dramatises with intensity and insight a sordid murder of a husband by a wife which took place at faversham in , and was fully reported by holinshed. the subject is of a different type from any which shakespeare is known to have treated, and although the play may be, as mr. swinburne insists, 'a young man's work,' it bears no relation either in topic or style to the work on which young shakespeare was engaged at a period so early as or . 'edward iii' is a play in marlowe's vein, and has been assigned to shakespeare on even more shadowy grounds. capell reprinted it in his 'prolusions' in , and described it as 'thought to be writ by shakespeare.' many speeches scattered through the drama, and one whole scene--that in which the countess of salisbury repulses the advances of edward iii--show the hand of a master (act ii. sc. ii.) but there is even in the style of these contributions much to dissociate them from shakespeare's acknowledged productions, and to justify their ascription to some less gifted disciple of marlowe. { a} a line in act ii. sc. i. ('lilies that fester smell far worse than weeds') reappears in shakespeare's sonnets' (xciv. l. ). { b} it was contrary to his practice to literally plagiarise himself. the line in the play was doubtless borrowed from a manuscript copy of the 'sonnets.' 'mucedorus.' two other popular plays of the period, 'mucedorus' and 'faire em,' have also been assigned to shakespeare on slighter provocation. in charles ii.'s library they were bound together in a volume labelled 'shakespeare, vol. i.,' and bold speculators have occasionally sought to justify the misnomer. 'mucedorus,' an elementary effort in romantic comedy, dates from the early years of elizabeth's reign; it was first published, doubtless after undergoing revision, in , and was reissued, 'amplified with new additions,' in . mr. payne collier, who included it in his privately printed edition of shakespeare in , was confident that a scene interpolated in the version (in which the king of valentia laments the supposed loss of his son) displayed genius which shakespeare alone could compass. however readily critics may admit the superiority in literary value of the interpolated scene to anything else in the piece, few will accept mr. collier's extravagant estimate. the scene was probably from the pen of an admiring but faltering imitator of shakespeare. { } 'faire em.' 'faire em,' although not published till , was acted by shakespeare's company while lord strange was its patron, and some lines from it are quoted for purposes of ridicule by robert greene in his 'farewell to folly' in . it is another rudimentary endeavour in romantic comedy, and has not even the pretension of 'mucedorus' to one short scene of conspicuous literary merit. vi--the first appeal to the reading public publication of 'venus and adonis.' during the busy years ( - ) that witnessed his first pronounced successes as a dramatist, shakespeare came before the public in yet another literary capacity. on april , , richard field, the printer, who was his fellow-townsman, obtained a license for the publication of 'venus and adonis,' a metrical version of a classical tale of love. it was published a month or two later, without an author's name on the title-page, but shakespeare appended his full name to the dedication, which he addressed in conventional style to henry wriothesley, third earl of southampton. the earl, who was in his twentieth year, was reckoned the handsomest man at court, with a pronounced disposition to gallantry. he had vast possessions, was well educated, loved literature, and through life extended to men of letters a generous patronage. { } 'i know not how i shall offend,' shakespeare now wrote to him, 'in dedicating my unpolished lines to your lordship, nor how the world will censure me for choosing so strong a prop to support so weak a burden. . . . but if the first heir of my invention prove deformed, i shall be sorry it had so noble a godfather.' 'the first heir of my invention' implies that the poem was written, or at least designed, before shakespeare's dramatic work. it is affluent in beautiful imagery and metrical sweetness, but imbued with a tone of license which may be held either to justify the theory that it was a precocious product of the author's youth, or to show that shakespeare was not unready in mature years to write with a view to gratifying a patron's somewhat lascivious tastes. the title-page bears a beautiful latin motto from ovid's 'amores:' { a} vilia miretur vulgus; mihi flavus apollo pocula castalia plena ministret aqua. the influence of ovid, who told the story in his 'metamorphoses,' is apparent in many of the details. but the theme was doubtless first suggested to shakespeare by a contemporary effort. lodge's 'scillaes metamorphosis,' which appeared in , is not only written in the same metre (six-line stanzas rhyming _a b a b c c_), but narrates in the exordium the same incidents in the same spirit. there is little doubt that shakespeare drew from lodge some of his inspiration. { b} 'lucrece.' a year after the issue of 'venus and adonis,' in , shakespeare published another poem in like vein, but far more mature in temper and execution. the digression (ll. - ) on the destroying power of time, especially, is in an exalted key of meditation which is not sounded in the earlier poem. the metre, too, is changed; seven-line stanzas (chaucer's rhyme royal, _a b a b b c c_) take the place of six-line stanzas. the second poem was entered in the 'stationers' registers' on may , , under the title of 'a booke intitled the ravyshement of lucrece,' and was published in the same year under the title 'lucrece.' richard field printed it, and john harrison published and sold it at the sign of the white greyhound in st. paul's churchyard. the classical story of lucretia's ravishment and suicide is briefly recorded in ovid's 'fasti,' but chaucer had retold it in his 'legend of good women,' and shakespeare must have read it there. again, in topic and metre, the poem reflected a contemporary poet's work. samuel daniel's 'complaint of rosamond,' with its seven-line stanza ( ), stood to 'lucrece' in even closer relation than lodge's 'scilla,' with its six-line stanza, to 'venus and adonis.' the pathetic accents of shakespeare's heroine are those of daniel's heroine purified and glorified. { a} the passage on time is elaborated from one in watson's 'passionate centurie of love' (no. lxxvii.) { b} shakespeare dedicated his second volume of poetry to the earl of southampton, the patron of his first. he addressed him in terms of devoted friendship, which were not uncommon at the time in communications between patrons and poets, but suggest that shakespeare's relations with the brilliant young nobleman had grown closer since he dedicated 'venus and adonis' to him in colder language a year before. 'the love i dedicate to your lordship,' shakespeare wrote in the opening pages of 'lucrece,' 'is without end, whereof this pamphlet without beginning is but a superfluous moiety. . . what i have done is yours; what i have to do is yours; being part in all i have, devoted yours.' enthusiastic reception of the poems. in these poems shakespeare made his earliest appeal to the world of readers, and the reading public welcomed his addresses with unqualified enthusiasm. the london playgoer already knew shakespeare's name as that of a promising actor and playwright, but his dramatic efforts had hitherto been consigned in manuscript, as soon as the theatrical representation ceased, to the coffers of their owner, the playhouse manager. his early plays brought him at the outset little reputation as a man of letters. it was not as the myriad-minded dramatist, but in the restricted role of adapter for english readers of familiar ovidian fables, that he first impressed a wide circle of his contemporaries with the fact of his mighty genius. the perfect sweetness of the verse, and the poetical imagery in 'venus and adonis' and 'lucrece' practically silenced censure of the licentious treatment of the themes on the part of the seriously minded. critics vied with each other in the exuberance of the eulogies in which they proclaimed that the fortunate author had gained a place in permanence on the summit of parnassus. 'lucrece,' wrote michael drayton in his 'legend of matilda' ( ), was 'revived to live another age.' in william clerke in his 'polimanteia' gave 'all praise' to 'sweet shakespeare' for his 'lucrecia.' john weever, in a sonnet addressed to 'honey-tongued shakespeare' in his 'epigramms' ( ), eulogised the two poems as an unmatchable achievement, although he mentioned the plays 'romeo' and 'richard' and 'more whose names i know not.' richard carew at the same time classed him with marlowe as deserving the praises of an english catullus. { } printers and publishers of the poems strained their resources to satisfy the demands of eager purchasers. no fewer than seven editions of 'venus' appeared between and ; an eighth followed in . 'lucrece' achieved a fifth edition in the year of shakespeare's death. shakespeare and spenser. there is a likelihood, too, that spenser, the greatest of shakespeare's poetic contemporaries, was first drawn by the poems into the ranks of shakespeare's admirers. it is hardly doubtful that spenser described shakespeare in 'colin clouts come home againe' (completed in ), under the name of 'aetion'--a familiar greek proper name derived from [greek text], an eagle: and there, though last not least is aetion; a gentler shepheard may no where be found, whose muse, full of high thought's invention, doth, like himselfe, heroically sound. the last line seems to allude to shakespeare's surname. we may assume that the admiration was mutual. at any rate shakespeare acknowledged acquaintance with spenser's work in a plain reference to his 'teares of the muses' ( ) in 'midsummer night's dream' (v. i. - ). the thrice three muses, mourning for the death of learning, late deceased in beggary, is stated to be the theme of one of the dramatic entertainments wherewith it is proposed to celebrate theseus's marriage. in spenser's 'teares of the muses' each of the nine laments in turn her declining influence on the literary and dramatic effort of the age. theseus dismisses the suggestion with the not inappropriate comment: that is some satire keen and critical, not sorting with a nuptial ceremony. but there is no ground for assuming that spenser in the same poem referred figuratively to shakespeare when he made thalia deplore the recent death of 'our pleasant willy.' { } the name willy was frequently used in contemporary literature as a term of familiarity without relation to the baptismal name of the person referred to. sir philip sidney was addressed as 'willy' by some of his elegists. a comic actor, 'dead of late' in a literal sense, was clearly intended by spenser, and there is no reason to dispute the view of an early seventeenth-century commentator that spenser was paying a tribute to the loss english comedy had lately sustained by the death of the comedian, richard tarleton. { a} similarly the 'gentle spirit' who is described by spenser in a later stanza as sitting 'in idle cell' rather than turn his pen to base uses cannot be reasonably identified with shakespeare. { b} patrons at court. meanwhile shakespeare was gaining personal esteem outside the circles of actors and men of letters. his genius and 'civil demeanour' of which chettle wrote arrested the notice not only of southampton but of other noble patrons of literature and the drama. his summons to act at court with the most famous actors of the day at the christmas of was possibly due in part to personal interest in himself. elizabeth quickly showed him special favour. until the end of her reign his plays were repeatedly acted in her presence. the revised version of 'love's labour's lost' was given at whitehall at christmas , and tradition credits the queen with unconcealed enthusiasm for falstaff, who came into being a little later. under elizabeth's successor he greatly strengthened his hold on royal favour, but ben jonson claimed that the queen's appreciation equalled that of james i. when jonson wrote in his elegy on shakespeare of those flights upon the banks of thames that so did take eliza and our james, he was mindful of many representations of shakespeare's plays by the poet and his fellow-actors at the palaces of whitehall, richmond, or greenwich during the last decade of elizabeth's reign. vii--the sonnets and their literary history the vogue of the elizabethan sonnet. it was doubtless to shakespeare's personal relations with men and women of the court that his sonnets owed their existence. in italy and france, the practice of writing and circulating series of sonnets inscribed to great men and women flourished continuously throughout the sixteenth century. in england, until the last decade of that century, the vogue was intermittent. wyatt and surrey inaugurated sonnetteering in the english language under henry viii, and thomas watson devoted much energy to the pursuit when shakespeare was a boy. but it was not until , when sir philip sidney's collection of sonnets entitled 'astrophel and stella' was first published, that the sonnet enjoyed in england any conspicuous or continuous favour. for the half-dozen years following the appearance of sir philip sidney's volume the writing of sonnets, both singly and in connected sequences, engaged more literary activity in this country than it engaged at any period here or elsewhere. { } men and women of the cultivated elizabethan nobility encouraged poets to celebrate in single sonnets their virtues and graces, and under the same patronage there were produced multitudes of sonnet-sequences which more or less fancifully narrated, after the manner of petrarch and his successors, the pleasures and pains of love. between and no aspirant to poetic fame in the country failed to seek a patron's ears by a trial of skill on the popular poetic instrument, and shakespeare, who habitually kept abreast of the currents of contemporary literary taste, applied himself to sonnetteering with all the force of his poetic genius when the fashion was at its height. shakespeare's first experiments. shakespeare had lightly experimented with the sonnet from the outset of his literary career. three well-turned examples figure in 'love's labour's lost,' probably his earliest play; two of the choruses in 'romeo and juliet' are couched in the sonnet form; and a letter of the heroine helen, in 'all's well that ends well,' which bears traces of very early composition, takes the same shape. it has, too, been argued ingeniously, if not convincingly, that he was author of the somewhat clumsy sonnet, 'phaeton to his friend florio,' which prefaced in florio's 'second frutes,' a series of italian-english dialogues for students. { } majority of shakespeare's sonnets composed in . but these were sporadic efforts. it was not till the spring of , after shakespeare had secured a nobleman's patronage for his earliest publication, 'venus and adonis,' that he became a sonnetteer on an extended scale. of the hundred and fifty-four sonnets that survive outside his plays, the greater number were in all likelihood composed between that date and the autumn of , during his thirtieth and thirty-first years. his occasional reference in the sonnets to his growing age was a conventional device--traceable to petrarch--of all sonnetteers of the day, and admits of no literal interpretation. { } in matter and in manner the bulk of the poems suggest that they came from the pen of a man not much more than thirty. doubtless he renewed his sonnetteering efforts occasionally and at irregular intervals during the nine years which elapsed between and the accession of james i in . but to very few of the extant examples can a date later than be allotted with confidence. sonnet cvii., in which plain reference is made to queen elizabeth's death, may be fairly regarded as a belated and a final act of homage on shakespeare's part to the importunate vogue of the elizabethan sonnet. all the evidence, whether internal or external, points to the conclusion that the sonnet exhausted such fascination as it exerted on shakespeare before his dramatic genius attained its full height. their literary value. in literary value shakespeare's sonnets are notably unequal. many reach levels of lyric melody and meditative energy that are hardly to be matched elsewhere in poetry. the best examples are charged with the mellowed sweetness of rhythm and metre, the depth of thought and feeling, the vividness of imagery and the stimulating fervour of expression which are the finest fruits of poetic power. on the other hand, many sink almost into inanity beneath the burden of quibbles and conceits. in both their excellences and their defects shakespeare's sonnets betray near kinship to his early dramatic work, in which passages of the highest poetic temper at times alternate with unimpressive displays of verbal jugglery. in phraseology the sonnets often closely resemble such early dramatic efforts as 'love's labour's lost' and 'romeo and juliet.' there is far more concentration in the sonnets than in 'venus and adonis' or in 'lucrece,' although occasional utterances of shakespeare's roman heroine show traces of the intensity that characterises the best of them. the superior and more evenly sustained energy of the sonnets is to be attributed, not to the accession of power that comes with increase of years, but to the innate principles of the poetic form, and to metrical exigencies, which impelled the sonnetteer to aim at a uniform condensation of thought and language. circulation in manuscript. in accordance with a custom that was not uncommon, shakespeare did not publish his sonnets; he circulated them in manuscript. { } but their reputation grew, and public interest was aroused in them in spite of his unreadiness to give them publicity. a line from one of them: lilies that fester smell far worse than weeds (xciv. ), { a} was quoted in the play of 'edward iii,' which was probably written before . meres, writing in , enthusiastically commends shakespeare's 'sugred { b} sonnets among his private friends,' and mentions them in close conjunction with his two narrative poems. william jaggard piratically inserted in two of the most mature of the series (nos. cxxxviii. and cxliv.) in his 'passionate pilgrim.' their piratical publication in . 'a lover's complaint.' at length, in , the sonnets were surreptitiously sent to press. thomas thorpe, the moving spirit in the design of their publication, was a camp-follower of the regular publishing army. he was professionally engaged in procuring for publication literary works which had been widely disseminated in written copies, and had thus passed beyond their authors' control; for the law then recognised no natural right in an author to the creations of his brain, and the full owner of a manuscript copy of any literary composition was entitled to reproduce it, or to treat it as he pleased, without reference to the author's wishes. thorpe's career as a procurer of neglected 'copy' had begun well. he made, in , his earliest hit by bringing to light marlowe's translation of the 'first book of lucan.' on may , , he obtained a license for the publication of 'shakespeares sonnets,' and this tradesman-like form of title figured not only on the 'stationers' company's registers,' but on the title-page. thorpe employed george eld to print the manuscript, and two booksellers, william aspley and john wright, to distribute it to the public. on half the edition aspley's name figured as that of the seller, and on the other half that of wright. the book was issued in june, { } and the owner of the 'copy' left the public under no misapprehension as to his share in the production by printing above his initials a dedicatory preface from his own pen. the appearance in a book of a dedication from the publisher's (instead of from the author's) pen was, unless the substitution was specifically accounted for on other grounds, an accepted sign that the author had no hand in the publication. except in the case of his two narrative poems, which were published in and respectively, shakespeare made no effort to publish any of his works, and uncomplainingly submitted to the wholesale piracies of his plays and the ascription to him of books by other hands. such practices were encouraged by his passive indifference and the contemporary condition of the law of copyright. he cannot be credited with any responsibility for the publication of thorpe's collection of his sonnets in . with characteristic insolence thorpe took the added liberty of appending a previously unprinted poem of forty-nine seven-line stanzas (the metre of 'lucrece') entitled 'a lover's complaint,' in which a girl laments her betrayal by a deceitful youth. the poem, in a gentle spenserian vein, has no connection with the 'sonnets.' if, as is possible, it be by shakespeare, it must have been written in very early days. thomas thorpe and 'mr. w. h.' a misunderstanding respecting thorpe's preface and his part in the publication has led many critics into a serious misinterpretation of shakespeare's poems. { } thorpe's dedication was couched in the bombastic language which was habitual to him. he advertised shakespeare as 'our ever-living poet.' as the chief promoter of the undertaking, he called himself 'the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth,' and in resonant phrase designated as the patron of the venture a partner in the speculation, 'mr. w. h.' in the conventional dedicatory formula of the day he wished 'mr. w. h.' 'all happiness' and 'eternity,' such eternity as shakespeare in the text of the sonnets conventionally foretold for his own verse. when thorpe was organising the issue of marlowe's 'first book of lucan' in , he sought the patronage of edward blount, a friend in the trade. 'w. h.' was doubtless in a like position. he is best identified with a stationer's assistant, william hall, who was professionally engaged, like thorpe, in procuring 'copy.' in 'w. h.' won a conspicuous success in that direction, and conducted his operations under cover of the familiar initials. in that year 'w. h.' announced that he had procured a neglected manuscript poem--'a foure-fould meditation'--by the jesuit robert southwell who had been executed in , and he published it with a dedication (signed 'w. h.') vaunting his good fortune in meeting with such treasure-trove. when thorpe dubbed 'mr. w. h.,' with characteristic magniloquence, 'the onlie begetter [_i.e._ obtainer or procurer] of these ensuing sonnets,' he merely indicated that that personage was the first of the pirate-publisher fraternity to procure a manuscript of shakespeare's sonnets and recommend its surreptitious issue. in accordance with custom, thorpe gave hall's initials only, because he was an intimate associate who was known by those initials to their common circle of friends. hall was not a man of sufficiently wide public reputation to render it probable that the printing of his full name would excite additional interest in the book or attract buyers. the common assumption that thorpe in this boastful preface was covertly addressing, under the initials 'mr. w. h.,' a young nobleman, to whom the sonnets were originally addressed by shakespeare, ignores the elementary principles of publishing transactions of the day, and especially of those of the type to which thorpe's efforts were confined. { } there was nothing mysterious or fantastic, although from a modern point of view there was much that lacked principle, in thorpe's methods of business. his choice of patron for this, like all his volumes, was dictated solely by his mercantile interests. he was under no inducement and in no position to take into consideration the affairs of shakespeare's private life. shakespeare, through all but the earliest stages of his career, belonged socially to a world that was cut off by impassable barriers from that in which thorpe pursued his calling. it was wholly outside thorpe's aims in life to seek to mystify his customers by investing a dedication with any cryptic significance. no peer of the day, moreover, bore a name which could be represented by the initials 'mr. w. h.' shakespeare was never on terms of intimacy (although the contrary has often been recklessly assumed) with william, third earl of pembroke, when a youth. { } but were complete proofs of the acquaintanceship forthcoming, they would throw no light on thorpe's 'mr. w. h.' the earl of pembroke was, from his birth to the date of his succession to the earldom in , known by the courtesy title of lord herbert and by no other name, and he could not have been designated at any period of his life by the symbols 'mr. w. h.' in pembroke was a high officer of state, and numerous books were dedicated to him in all the splendour of his many titles. star-chamber penalties would have been exacted of any publisher or author who denied him in print his titular distinctions. thorpe had occasion to dedicate two books to the earl in later years, and he there showed not merely that he was fully acquainted with the compulsory etiquette, but that his sycophantic temperament rendered him only eager to improve on the conventional formulas of servility. any further consideration of thorpe's address to 'mr. w. h.' belongs to the biographies of thorpe and his friend; it lies outside the scope of shakespeare's biography. { a} the form of shakespeare's sonnets. shakespeare's 'sonnets' ignore the somewhat complex scheme of rhyme adopted by petrarch, whom the elizabethan sonnetteers, like the french sonnetteers of the sixteenth century, recognised to be in most respects their master. following the example originally set by surrey and wyatt, and generally pursued by shakespeare's contemporaries, his sonnets aim at far greater metrical simplicity than the italian or the french. they consist of three decasyllabic quatrains with a concluding couplet, and the quatrains rhyme alternately. { b} a single sonnet does not always form an independent poem. as in the french and italian sonnets of the period, and in those of spenser, sidney, daniel, and drayton, the same train of thought is at times pursued continuously through two or more. the collection of shakespeare's sonnets thus presents the appearance of an extended series of independent poems, many in a varying number of fourteen-line stanzas. the longest sequence (i.-xvii.) numbers seventeen sonnets, and in thorpe's edition opens the volume. want of continuity. the two 'groups.' it is unlikely that the order in which the poems were printed follows the order in which they were written. fantastic endeavours have been made to detect in the original arrangement of the poems a closely connected narrative, but the thread is on any showing constantly interrupted. { } it is usual to divide the sonnets into two groups, and to represent that all those numbered i.-cxxvi. by thorpe were addressed to a young man, and all those numbered cxxvii.-cliv. were addressed to a woman. this division cannot be literally justified. in the first group some eighty of the sonnets can be proved to be addressed to a man by the use of the masculine pronoun or some other unequivocal sign; but among the remaining forty there is no clear indication of the kind. many of these forty are meditative soliloquies which address no person at all (cf. cv. cxvi. cxix. cxxi.) a few invoke abstractions like death (lxvi.) or time (cxxiii.), or 'benefit of ill' (cxix.) the twelve-lined poem (cxxvi.), the last of the first 'group,' does little more than sound a variation on the conventional poetic invocations of cupid or love personified as a boy. { } and there is no valid objection to the assumption that the poet inscribed the rest of these forty sonnets to a woman (cf. xxi. xlvi. xlvii.) similarly, the sonnets in the second 'group' (cxxvii.-cliv.) have no uniform superscription. six invoke no person at all. no. cxxviii. is an overstrained compliment on a lady playing on the virginals. no. cxxix. is a metaphysical disquisition on lust. no. cxlv. is a playful lyric in octosyllabics, like lyly's song of 'cupid and campaspe,' and its tone has close affinity to that and other of lyly's songs. no. cxlvi. invokes the soul of man. nos. cliii. and cliv. soliloquise on an ancient greek apologue on the force of cupid's fire. { } main topics of the first 'group.' the choice and succession of topics in each 'group' give to neither genuine cohesion. in the first 'group' the long opening sequence (i.-xvii.) forms the poet's appeal to a young man to marry so that his youth and beauty may survive in children. there is almost a contradiction in terms between the poet's handling of that topic and his emphatic boast in the two following sonnets (xviii.-xix.) that his verse alone is fully equal to the task of immortalising his friend's youth and accomplishments. the same asseveration is repeated in many later sonnets (cf. lv. lx. lxiii. lxxiv. lxxxi. ci. cvii.) these alternate with conventional adulation of the beauty of the object of the poet's affections (cf. xxi. liii. lxviii.) and descriptions of the effects of absence in intensifying devotion (cf. xlviii. l. cxiii.) there are many reflections on the nocturnal torments of a lover (cf. xxvii. xxviii. xliii. lxi.) and on his blindness to the beauty of spring or summer when he is separated from his love (cf. xcvii. xcviii.) at times a youth is rebuked for sensual indulgences; he has sought and won the favour of the poet's mistress in the poet's absence, but the poet is forgiving (xxxii.-xxxv. xl.-xlii. lxix. xcv.-xcvi.) in sonnet lxx. the young man whom the poet addresses is credited with a different disposition and experience: and thou present'st a pure unstained prime. thou hast pass'd by the ambush of young days, either not assail'd, or victor being charg'd! at times melancholy overwhelms the writer: he despairs of the corruptions of the age (lxvi.), reproaches himself with carnal sin (cxix.), declares himself weary of his profession of acting (cxi. cxii.), and foretells his approaching death (lxxi.-lxxiv.) throughout are dispersed obsequious addresses to the youth in his capacity of sole patron of the poet's verse (cf. xxiii. xxxvii. c. ci. ciii. civ.) but in one sequence the friend is sorrowfully reproved for bestowing his patronage on rival poets (lxxviii.-lxxxvi.) in three sonnets near the close of the first group in the original edition, the writer gives varied assurances of his constancy in love or friendship which apply indifferently to man or woman (cf. cxxii. cxxiv. cxxv.) main topics of the second 'group.' in two sonnets of the second 'group' (cxxvi.-clii.) the poet compliments his mistress on her black complexion and raven-black hair and eyes. in twelve sonnets he hotly denounces his 'dark' mistress for her proud disdain of his affection, and for her manifold infidelities with other men. apparently continuing a theme of the first 'group,' the poet rebukes the woman, whom he addresses, for having beguiled his friend to yield himself to her seductions (cxxxiii.-cxxxvi.) elsewhere he makes satiric reflections on the extravagant compliments paid to the fair sex by other sonnetteers (no. cxxx.) or lightly quibbles on his name of 'will' (cxxx.-vi.) in tone and subject-matter numerous sonnets in the second as in the first 'group' lack visible sign of coherence with those they immediately precede or follow. it is not merely a close study of the text that confutes the theory, for which recent writers have fought hard, of a logical continuity in thorpe's arrangement of the poems in . there remains the historic fact that readers and publishers of the seventeenth century acknowledged no sort of significance in the order in which the poems first saw the light. when the sonnets were printed for a second time in --thirty-one years after their first appearance--they were presented in a completely different order. the short descriptive titles which were then supplied to single sonnets or to short sequences proved that the collection was regarded as a disconnected series of occasional poems in more or less amorous vein. lack of genuine sentiment in elizabethan sonnets. their dependence on french and italian models. in whatever order shakespeare's sonnets be studied, the claim that has been advanced in their behalf to rank as autobiographical documents can only be accepted with many qualifications. elizabethan sonnets were commonly the artificial products of the poet's fancy. a strain of personal emotion is occasionally discernible in a detached effort, and is vaguely traceable in a few sequences; but autobiographical confessions were very rarely the stuff of which the elizabethan sonnet was made. the typical collection of elizabethan sonnets was a mosaic of plagiarisms, a medley of imitative studies. echoes of the french or of the italian sonnetteers, with their platonic idealism, are usually the dominant notes. the echoes often have a musical quality peculiar to themselves. daniel's fine sonnet (xlix.) on 'care-charmer, sleep,' although directly inspired by the french, breathes a finer melody than the sonnet of pierre de brach { a} apostrophising 'le sommeil chasse-soin' (in the collection entitled 'les amours d'aymee'), or the sonnet of philippe desportes invoking 'sommeil, paisible fils de la nuit solitaire' (in the collection entitled 'amours d'hippolyte'). { b} but, throughout elizabethan sonnet literature, the heavy debt to italian and french effort is unmistakable. { c} spenser, in , at the outset of his literary career, avowedly translated numerous sonnets from du bellay and from petrarch, and his friend gabriel harvey bestowed on him the title of 'an english petrarch'--the highest praise that the critic conceived it possible to bestow on an english sonnetteer. { d} thomas watson in , in his collection of metrically irregular sonnets which he entitled '[greek text], or a passionate century of love,' prefaced each poem, which he termed a 'passion,' with a prose note of its origin and intention. watson frankly informed his readers that one 'passion' was 'wholly translated out of petrarch;' that in another passion 'he did very busily imitate and augment a certain ode of ronsard;' while 'the sense or matter of "a third" was taken out of serafino in his "strambotti."' in every case watson gave the exact reference to his foreign original, and frequently appended a quotation. { a} drayton in , in the dedicatory sonnet of his collection of sonnets entitled 'idea,' declared that it was 'a fault too common in this latter time' 'to filch from desportes or from petrarch's pen.' { b} lodge did not acknowledge his borrowings more specifically than his colleagues, but he made a plain profession of indebtedness to desportes when he wrote: 'few men are able to second the sweet conceits of philippe desportes, whose poetical writings are ordinarily in everybody's hand.' { c} giles fletcher, who in his collection of sonnets called 'licia' ( ) simulated the varying moods of a lover under the sway of a great passion as successfully as most of his rivals, stated on his title-page that his poems were all written in 'imitation of the best latin poets and others.' very many of the love-sonnets in the series of sixty-eight penned ten years later by william drummond of hawthornden have been traced to their sources in the italian sonnets not merely of petrarch, but of the sixteenth-century poets guarini, bembo, giovanni battista marino, tasso, and sannazzaro. { a} the elizabethans usually gave the fictitious mistresses after whom their volumes of sonnets were called the names that had recently served the like purpose in france. daniel followed maurice seve { b} in christening his collection 'delia;' constable followed desportes in christening his collection 'diana;' while drayton not only applied to his sonnets on his title-page in the french term 'amours,' but bestowed on his imaginary heroine the title of idea, which seems to have been the invention of claude de pontoux, { c} although it was employed by other french contemporaries. sonnetteers' admission of insincerity. with good reason sir philip sidney warned the public that 'no inward touch' was to be expected from sonnetteers of his day, whom he describes as '[men] that do dictionary's method bring into their rhymes running in rattling rows; [men] that poor petrarch's long deceased woes with newborn sighs and denizened wit do sing.' sidney unconvincingly claimed greater sincerity for his own experiments. but 'even amorous sonnets in the gallantest and sweetest civil vein,' wrote gabriel harvey in 'pierces supererogation' in , 'are but dainties of a pleasurable wit.' drayton's sonnets more nearly approached shakespeare's in quality than those of any contemporary. yet drayton told the readers of his collection entitled 'idea' { } (after the french) that if any sought genuine passion in them, they had better go elsewhere. 'in all humours _sportively_ he ranged,' he declared. giles fletcher, in , introduced his collection of imitative sonnets entitled 'licia, or poems of love,' with the warning, 'now in that i have written love sonnets, if any man measure my affection by my style, let him say i am in love. . . . here, take this by the way . . . a man may write of love and not be in love, as well as of husbandry and not go to the plough, or of witches and be none, or of holiness and be profane.' { a} contemporary censure of sonnetteers' false sentiment. 'gulling sonnets.' the dissemination of false sentiment by the sonnetteers, and their monotonous and mechanical treatment of 'the pangs of despised love' or the joys of requited affection, did not escape the censure of contemporary criticism. the air soon rang with sarcastic protests from the most respected writers of the day. in early life gabriel harvey wittily parodied the mingling of adulation and vituperation in the conventional sonnet-sequence in his 'amorous odious sonnet intituled the student's loove or hatrid.' { b} chapman in , in a series of sonnets entitled 'a coronet for his mistress philosophy,' appealed to his literary comrades to abandon 'the painted cabinet' of the love-sonnet for a coffer of genuine worth. but the most resolute of the censors of the sonnetteering vogue was the poet and lawyer, sir john davies. in a sonnet addressed about to his friend, sir anthony cooke (the patron of drayton's 'idea'), he inveighed against the 'bastard sonnets' which 'base rhymers' 'daily' begot 'to their own shames and poetry's disgrace.' in his anxiety to stamp out the folly he wrote and circulated in manuscript a specimen series of nine 'gulling sonnets' or parodies of the conventional efforts. { a} even shakespeare does not seem to have escaped davies's condemnation. sir john is especially severe on the sonnetteers who handled conceits based on legal technicalities, and his eighth 'gulling sonnet,' in which he ridicules the application of law terms to affairs of the heart, may well have been suggested by shakespeare's legal phraseology in his sonnets lxxxvii. and cxxiv.; { b} while davies's sonnet ix., beginning: 'to love, my lord, i do knight's service owe' must have parodied shakespeare's sonnet xxvi., beginning: 'lord of my love, to whom in vassalage,' etc. { c} shakespeare's scornful allusion to sonnets in his plays. echoes of the critical hostility are heard, it is curious to note, in nearly all the references that shakespeare himself makes to sonnetteering in his plays. 'tush, none but minstrels like of sonnetting,' exclaims biron in 'love's labour's lost' (iv. iii. ). in the 'two gentlemen of verona' (iii. ii. seq.) there is a satiric touch in the recipe for the conventional love-sonnet which proteus offers the amorous duke: you must lay lime to tangle her desires by wailful sonnets whose composed rime should be full fraught with serviceable vows . . . say that upon the altar of her beauty you sacrifice your sighs, your tears, your heart. mercutio treats elizabethan sonnetteers even less respectfully when alluding to them in his flouts at romeo: 'now is he for the numbers that petrarch flowed in: laura, to his lady, was but a kitchen-wench. marry, she had a better love to be-rhyme her.' { } in later plays shakespeare's disdain of the sonnet is still more pronounced. in 'henry v' (iii. vii. et seq.) the dauphin, after bestowing ridiculously magniloquent commendation on his charger, remarks, 'i once writ a sonnet in his praise, and begun thus: "wonder of nature!"' the duke of orleans retorts: 'i have heard a sonnet begin so to one's mistress.' the dauphin replies: 'then did they imitate that which i composed to my courser; for my horse is my mistress.' in 'much ado about nothing' (v. ii. - ) margaret, hero's waiting-woman, mockingly asks benedick to 'write her a sonnet in praise of her beauty.' benedick jestingly promises one so 'in high a style that no man living shall come over it.' subsequently (v. iv. ) benedick is convicted, to the amusement of his friends, of penning 'a halting sonnet of his own pure brain' in praise of beatrice. viii--the borrowed conceits of the sonnets slender autobiographical element in shakespeare's sonnets. the imitative element. at a first glance a far larger proportion of shakespeare's sonnets give the reader the illusion of personal confessions than those of any contemporary, but when allowance has been made for the current conventions of elizabethan sonnetteering, as well as for shakespeare's unapproached affluence in dramatic instinct and invention--an affluence which enabled him to identify himself with every phase of emotion--the autobiographic element in his sonnets, although it may not be dismissed altogether, is seen to shrink to slender proportions. as soon as the collection is studied comparatively with the many thousand sonnets that the printing presses of england, france, and italy poured forth during the last years of the sixteenth century, a vast number of shakespeare's performances prove to be little more than professional trials of skill, often of superlative merit, to which he deemed himself challenged by the efforts of contemporary practitioners. the thoughts and words of the sonnets of daniel, drayton, watson, barnabe barnes, constable, and sidney were assimilated by shakespeare in his poems as consciously and with as little compunction as the plays and novels of contemporaries in his dramatic work. to drayton he was especially indebted. { } such resemblances as are visible between shakespeare's sonnets and those of petrarch or desportes seem due to his study of the english imitators of those sonnetteers. most of ronsard's nine hundred sonnets and many of his numerous odes were accessible to shakespeare in english adaptations, but there are a few signs that shakespeare had recourse to ronsard direct. adapted or imitated conceits are scattered over the whole of shakespeare's collection. they are usually manipulated with consummate skill, but shakespeare's indebtedness is not thereby obscured. shakespeare in many beautiful sonnets describes spring and summer, night and sleep and their influence on amorous emotion. such topics are common themes of the poetry of the renaissance, and they figure in shakespeare's pages clad in the identical livery that clothed them in the sonnets of petrarch, ronsard, de baif, and desportes, or of english disciples of the italian and french masters. { } in sonnet xxiv. shakespeare develops ronsard's conceit that his love's portrait is painted on his heart; and in sonnet cxxii. he repeats something of ronsard's phraseology in describing how his friend, who has just made him a gift of 'tables,' is 'character'd' in his brain. { a} sonnet xcix., which reproaches the flowers with stealing their charms from the features of his love, is adapted from constable's sonnet to diana (no. ix.), and may be matched in other collections. elsewhere shakespeare meditates on the theory that man is an amalgam of the four elements, earth, water, air, and fire (xl.-xlv.) { b} in all these he reproduces, with such embellishments as his genius dictated, phrases and sentiments of daniel, drayton, barnes, and watson, who imported them direct from france and italy. in two or three instances shakespeare showed his reader that he was engaged in a mere literary exercise by offering him alternative renderings of the same conventional conceit. in sonnets xlvi. and xlvii. he paraphrases twice over--appropriating many of watson's words--the unexhilarating notion that the eye and heart are in perpetual dispute as to which has the greater influence on lovers. { a} in the concluding sonnets, cliii. and cliv., he gives alternative versions of an apologue illustrating the potency of love which first figured in the greek anthology, had been translated into latin, and subsequently won the notice of english, french, and italian sonnetteers. { b} shakespeare's claims of immortality for his sonnets a borrowed conceit. in the numerous sonnets in which shakespeare boasted that his verse was so certain of immortality that it was capable of immortalising the person to whom it was addressed, he gave voice to no conviction that was peculiar to his mental constitution, to no involuntary exaltation of spirit, or spontaneous ebullition of feeling. he was merely proving that he could at will, and with superior effect, handle a theme that ronsard and desportes, emulating pindar, horace, ovid, and other classical poets, had lately made a commonplace of the poetry of europe. { a} sir philip sidney, in his 'apologie for poetrie' ( ) wrote that it was the common habit of poets to tell you that they will make you immortal by their verses. { b} 'men of great calling,' nash wrote in his 'pierce pennilesse,' , 'take it of merit to have their names eternised by poets.' { c} in the hands of elizabethan sonnetteers the 'eternising' faculty of their verse became a staple and indeed an inevitable topic. spenser wrote in his 'amoretti' ( , sonnet lxxv.) my verse your virtues rare shall eternize, and in the heavens write your glorious name. drayton and daniel developed the conceit with unblushing iteration. drayton, who spoke of his efforts as 'my immortal song' (_idea_, vi. ) and 'my world-out-wearing rhymes' (xliv. ), embodied the vaunt in such lines as: while thus my pen strives to eternize thee (_idea_ xliv. ). ensuing ages yet my rhymes shall cherish (_ib._ xliv. ). my name shall mount unto eternity (_ib._ xliv. ). all that i seek is to eternize thee (_ib._ xlvii. ). daniel was no less explicit this [_sc._ verse] may remain thy lasting monument (_delia_, xxxvii. ). thou mayst in after ages live esteemed, unburied in these lines (_ib._ xxxix. - ). these [_sc._ my verses] are the arks, the trophies i erect that fortify thy name against old age; and these [_sc._ verses] thy sacred virtues must protect against the dark and time's consuming rage (_ib._ l. - ). conceits in sonnets addressed to a woman. shakespeare, in his references to his 'eternal lines' (xviii. ) and in the assurances that he gives the subject of his addresses that the sonnets are, in daniel's exact phrase, his 'monument' (lxxxi. , cvii. ), was merely accommodating himself to the prevailing taste. characteristically in sonnet lv. he invested the topic with a splendour that was not approached by any other poet: { } not marble, nor the gilded monuments of princes, shall outlive this powerful rhyme; { } but you shall shine more bright in these contents than unswept stone besmear'd with sluttish time. when wasteful war shall statues overturn, and broils root out the work of masonry, nor mars his sword nor war's quick fire shall burn the living record of your memory. 'gainst death and all-oblivious enmity shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room even in the eyes of all posterity that wear this world out to the ending doom. so, till the judgement that yourself arise, you live in this, and dwell in lovers' eyes. the imitative element is no less conspicuous in the sonnets that shakespeare distinctively addresses to a woman. in two of the latter (cxxxv.-vi.), where he quibbles over the fact of the identity of his own name of will with a lady's 'will' (the synonym in elizabethan english of both 'lust' and 'obstinacy'), he derisively challenges comparison with wire-drawn conceits of rival sonnetteers, especially of barnabe barnes, who had enlarged on his disdainful mistress's 'wills,' and had turned the word 'grace' to the same punning account as shakespeare turned the word 'will.' { a} similarly in sonnet cxxx. beginning my mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun; coral is far more red than her lips' red . . . if hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head, { b} he satirises the conventional lists of precious stones, metals, and flowers, to which the sonnetteers likened their mistresses' features. the praise of 'blackness.' in two sonnets (cxxvii. and cxxxii.) shakespeare amiably notices the black complexion, hair, and eyes of his mistress, and expresses a preference for features of that hue over those of the fair hue which was, he tells us, more often associated in poetry with beauty. he commends the 'dark lady' for refusing to practise those arts by which other women of the day gave their hair and faces colours denied them by nature. here shakespeare repeats almost verbatim his own lines in 'love's labour's lost'(iv. iii. - ), where the heroine rosaline is described as 'black as ebony,' with 'brows decked in black,' and in 'mourning' for her fashionable sisters' indulgence in the disguising arts of the toilet. 'no face is fair that is not full so black,' exclaims rosaline's lover. but neither in the sonnets nor in the play can shakespeare's praise of 'blackness' claim the merit of being his own invention. sir philip sidney, in sonnet vii. of his 'astrophel and stella,' had anticipated it. the 'beams' of the eyes of sidney's mistress were 'wrapt in colour black' and wore 'this mourning weed,' so that whereas black seems beauty's contrary, she even in black doth make all beauties flow. { a} to his praise of 'blackness' in 'love's labour's lost' shakespeare appends a playful but caustic comment on the paradox that he detects in the conceit. { b} similarly, the sonnets, in which a dark complexion is pronounced to be a mark of beauty, are followed by others in which the poet argues in self-confutation that blackness of feature is hideous in a woman, and invariably indicates moral turpitude or blackness of heart. twice, in much the same language as had already served a like purpose in the play, does he mock his 'dark lady' with this uncomplimentary interpretation of dark-coloured hair and eyes. the sonnets of vituperation. the two sonnets, in which this view of 'blackness' is developed, form part of a series of twelve, which belongs to a special category of sonnetteering effort. in them shakespeare abandons the sugared sentiment which characterises most of his hundred and forty-two remaining sonnets. he grows vituperative and pours a volley of passionate abuse upon a woman whom he represents as disdaining his advances. the genuine anguish of a rejected lover often expresses itself in curses both loud and deep, but the mood of blinding wrath which the rejection of a lovesuit may rouse in a passionate nature does not seem from the internal evidence to be reflected genuinely in shakespeare's sonnets of vituperation. it was inherent in shakespeare's genius that he should import more dramatic intensity than any other poet into sonnets of a vituperative type; but there is also in his vituperative sonnets a declamatory parade of figurative extravagance which suggests that the emotion is feigned and that the poet is striking an attitude. he cannot have been in earnest in seeking to conciliate his disdainful mistress--a result at which the vituperative sonnets purport to aim--when he tells her that she is 'black as hell, as dark as night,' and with 'so foul a face' is 'the bay where all men ride.' gabriel harvey's 'amorous odious sonnet.' but external evidence is more conclusive as to the artificial construction of the vituperative sonnets. again a comparison of this series with the efforts of the modish sonnetteers assigns to it its true character. every sonnetteer of the sixteenth century, at some point in his career, devoted his energies to vituperation of a cruel siren. ronsard in his sonnets celebrated in language quite as furious as shakespeare's a 'fierce tigress,' a 'murderess,' a 'medusa.' barnabe barnes affected to contend in his sonnets with a female 'tyrant,' a 'medusa,' a 'rock.' 'women' (barnes laments) 'are by nature proud as devils.' the monotonous and artificial regularity with which the sonnetteers sounded the vituperative stop, whenever they had exhausted their notes of adulation, excited ridicule in both england and france. in shakespeare's early life the convention was wittily parodied by gabriel harvey in 'an amorous odious sonnet intituled the student's loove or hatrid, or both or neither, or what shall please the looving or hating reader, either in sport or earnest, to make of such contrary passions as are here discoursed.' { } after extolling the beauty and virtue of his mistress above that of aretino's angelica, petrarch's laura, catullus's lesbia, and eight other far-famed objects of poetic adoration, harvey suddenly denounces her in burlesque rhyme as 'a serpent in brood,' 'a poisonous toad,' 'a heart of marble,' and 'a stony mind as passionless as a block.' finally he tells her, if ever there were she-devils incarnate, they are altogether in thee incorporate. jodelle's 'contr' amours.' in france etienne jodelle, a professional sonnetteer although he is best known as a dramatist, made late in the second half of the sixteenth century an independent endeavour of like kind to stifle by means of parody the vogue of the vituperative sonnet. jodelle designed a collection of three hundred sonnets which he inscribed to 'hate of a woman,' and he appropriately entitled them 'contr' amours' in distinction from 'amours,' the term applied to sonnets in the honeyed vein. only seven of jodelle's 'contr' amours' are extant, but there is sufficient identity of tone between them and shakespeare's vituperative efforts almost to discover in shakespeare's invectives a spark of jodelle's satiric fire. { } the dark lady of shakespeare's 'sonnets' may therefore be relegated to the ranks of the creatures of his fancy. it is quite possible that he may have met in real life a dark-complexioned siren, and it is possible that he may have fared ill at her disdainful hands. but no such incident is needed to account for the presence of 'the dark lady' in the sonnets. it was the exacting conventions of the sonnetteering contagion, and not his personal experiences or emotions, that impelled shakespeare to give 'the dark lady' of his sonnets a poetic being. { } she has been compared, not very justly, with shakespeare's splendid creation of cleopatra in his play of 'antony and cleopatra.' from one point of view the same criticism may be passed on both. there is no greater and no less ground for seeking in shakespeare's personal environment the original of 'the dark lady' of his sonnets than for seeking there the original of his queen of egypt. ix--the patronage of the earl of southampton biographic fact in the 'dedicatory' sonnets. amid the borrowed conceits and poetic figures of shakespeare's sonnets there lurk suggestive references to the circumstances in his external life that attended their composition. if few can be safely regarded as autobiographic revelations of sentiment, many of them offer evidence of the relations in which he stood to a patron, and to the position that he sought to fill in the circle of that patron's literary retainers. twenty sonnets, which may for purposes of exposition be entitled 'dedicatory' sonnets, are addressed to one who is declared without periphrasis and without disguise to be a patron of the poet's verse (nos. xxiii., xxvi., xxxii., xxxvii., xxxviii., lxix., lxxvii.-lxxxvi., c., ci., cvi.) in one of these--sonnet lxxviii.--shakespeare asserted: so oft have i invoked thee for my muse and found such fair assistance in my verse as every alien pen hath got my use and under thee their poesy disperse. subsequently he regretfully pointed out how his patron's readiness to accept the homage of other poets seemed to be thrusting him from the enviable place of pre-eminence in his patron's esteem. the earl of southampton the poet's sole patron. shakespeare's biographer is under an obligation to attempt an identification of the persons whose relations with the poet are defined so explicitly. the problem presented by the patron is simple. shakespeare states unequivocally that he has no patron but one. sing [_sc._ o muse!] to the ear that doth thy lays esteem, and gives thy pen both skill and argument (c. - ). for to no other pass my verses tend than of your graces and your gifts to tell (ciii. - ). the earl of southampton, the patron of his narrative poems, is the only patron of shakespeare that is known to biographical research. no contemporary document or tradition gives the faintest suggestion that shakespeare was the friend or dependent of any other man of rank. a trustworthy tradition corroborates the testimony respecting shakespeare's close intimacy with the earl that is given in the dedicatory epistles of his 'venus and adonis' and 'lucrece', penned respectively in and . according to nicholas rowe, shakespeare's first adequate biographer, 'there is one instance so singular in its magnificence of this patron of shakespeare's that if i had not been assured that the story was handed down by sir william d'avenant, who was probably very well acquainted with his affairs, i should not venture to have inserted; that my lord southampton at one time gave him a thousand pounds to enable him to go through with a purchase which he heard he had a mind to. a bounty very great and very rare at any time.' there is no difficulty in detecting the lineaments of the earl of southampton in those of the man who is distinctively greeted in the sonnets as the poet's patron. three of the twenty 'dedicatory' sonnets merely translate into the language of poetry the expressions of devotion which had already done duty in the dedicatory epistle in prose that prefaces 'lucrece.' that epistle to southampton runs: the love { } i dedicate to your lordship is without end; whereof this pamphlet, without beginning, is but a superfluous moiety. the warrant i have of your honourable disposition, not the worth of my untutored lines, makes it assured of acceptance. what i have done is yours; what i have to do is yours; being part in all i have, devoted yours. were my worth greater, my duty would show greater; meantime, as it is, it is bound to your lordship, to whom i wish long life, still lengthened with all happiness. your lordship's in all duty, william shakespeare. sonnet xxvi. is a gorgeous rendering of these sentences:-- lord of my love, to whom in vassalage thy merit hath my duty strongly knit, to thee i send this written ambassage, to witness duty, not to show my wit: duty so great, which wit so poor as mine may make seem bare, in wanting words to show it, but that i hope some good conceit of thine in thy soul's thought, all naked, will bestow it; till whatsoever star that guides my moving, points on me graciously with fair aspect, and puts apparel on my tatter'd loving to show me worthy of thy sweet respect then may i dare to boast how i do love thee; till then not show my head where thou may'st prove me. { } the 'lucrece' epistle's intimation that the patron's love alone gives value to the poet's 'untutored lines' is repeated in sonnet xxxii., which doubtless reflected a moment of depression: if thou survive my well-contented day, when that churl death my bones with dust shall cover, and shalt by fortune once more re-survey these poor rude lines of thy deceased lover, compare them with the bettering of the time, and though they be outstripp'd by every pen, reserve them for my love, not for their rhyme, exceeded by the height of happier men. o, then vouchsafe me but this loving thought: 'had my friend's muse grown with this growing age, a dearer birth than this his love had brought, to march in ranks of better equipage; { } but since he died and poets better prove, theirs for their style i'll read, his for his love.' a like vein is pursued in greater exaltation of spirit in sonnet xxxviii.: how can my muse want subject to invent, while thou dost breathe, that pour'st into my verse thine own sweet argument, too excellent for every vulgar paper to rehearse? o give thyself the thanks, if aught in me worthy perusal stand against thy sight; for who's so dumb that cannot write to thee, when thou thyself dost give invention light? be thou the tenth muse, ten times more in worth than those old nine which rhymers invocate; and he that calls on thee, let him bring forth eternal numbers to outlive long date. if my slight muse do please these curious days, the pain be mine, but thine shall be the praise. the central conceit here so finely developed--that the patron may claim as his own handiwork the _protege's_ verse because he inspires it--belongs to the most conventional schemes of dedicatory adulation. when daniel, in , inscribed his volume of sonnets entitled 'delia' to the countess of pembroke, he played in the prefatory sonnet on the same note, and used in the concluding couplet almost the same words as shakespeare. daniel wrote: great patroness of these my humble rhymes, which thou from out thy greatness dost inspire . . . o leave [_i.e._ cease] not still to grace thy work in me . . . whereof the travail i may challenge mine, but yet the glory, madam, must be thine. elsewhere in the sonnets we hear fainter echoes of the 'lucrece' epistle. repeatedly does the sonnetteer renew the assurance given there that his patron is 'part of all' he has or is. frequently do we meet in the sonnets with such expressions as these:-- [i] by a _part of all_ your glory live (xxxvii. ); thou art _all the better part of me_ (xxxix. ); my spirit is thine, _the better part of me_ (lxxiv. ); while 'the love without end' which shakespeare had vowed to southampton in the light of day reappears in sonnets addressed to the youth as 'eternal love' (cviii. ), and a devotion 'what shall have no end' (cx. ). rivals in southampton's favour. the identification of the rival poets whose 'richly compiled' 'comments' of his patron's 'praise' excited shakespeare's jealousy is a more difficult inquiry than the identification of the patron. the rival poets with their 'precious phrase by all the muses filed' (lxxxv. ) must be sought among the writers who eulogised southampton and are known to have shared his patronage. the field of choice is not small. southampton from boyhood cultivated literature and the society of literary men. in no nobleman received so abundant a measure of adulation from the contemporary world of letters. { a} thomas nash justly described the earl, when dedicating to him his 'life of jack wilton' in , as 'a dear lover and cherisher as well of the lovers of poets as of the poets themselves.' nash addressed to him many affectionately phrased sonnets. the prolific sonnetteer barnabe barnes and the miscellaneous literary practitioner gervase markham confessed, respectively in and , yearnings for southampton's countenance in sonnets which glow hardly less ardently than shakespeare's with admiration for his personal charm. similarly john florio, the earl's italian tutor, who is traditionally reckoned among shakespeare's literary acquaintances, { b} wrote to southampton in , in his dedicatory epistle before his 'worlde of wordes' (an italian-english dictionary), 'as to me and many more, the glorious and gracious sunshine of your honour hath infused light and life.' shakespeare's fear of a rival poet. shakespeare magnanimously and modestly described that _protege_ of southampton, whom he deemed a specially dangerous rival, as an 'able' and a 'better' 'spirit,' 'a worthier pen,' a vessel of 'tall building and of goodly pride,' compared with whom he was himself 'a worthless boat.' he detected a touch of magic in the man's writing. his 'spirit,' shakespeare hyperbolically declared, had been 'by spirits taught to write above a mortal pitch,' and 'an affable familiar ghost' nightly gulled him with intelligence. shakespeare's dismay at the fascination exerted on his patron by 'the proud full sail of his [rival's] great verse' sealed for a time, he declared, the springs of his own invention (lxxxvi.) barnabe barnes probably the rival. there is no need to insist too curiously on the justice of shakespeare's laudation of the other poet's' powers. he was presumably a new-comer in the literary field who surprised older men of benevolent tendency into admiration by his promise rather than by his achievement. 'eloquence and courtesy,' wrote gabriel harvey at the time, 'are ever bountiful in the amplifying vein;' and writers of amiability, harvey adds, habitually blazoned the perfections that they hoped to see their young friends achieve, in language implying that they had already achieved them. all the conditions of the problem are satisfied by the rival's identification with the young poet and scholar barnabe barnes, a poetic panegyrist of southampton and a prolific sonnetteer, who was deemed by contemporary critics certain to prove a great poet. his first collection of sonnets, 'parthenophil and parthenophe,' with many odes and madrigals interspersed, was printed in ; and his second, 'a centurie of spiritual sonnets,' in . loud applause greeted the first book, which included numerous adaptations from the classical, italian, and french poets, and disclosed, among many crudities, some fascinating lyrics and at least one almost perfect sonnet (no. lxvi. 'ah, sweet content, where is thy mild abode?') thomas churchyard called barnes 'petrarch's scholar;' the learned gabriel harvey bade him 'go forward in maturity as he had begun in pregnancy,' and 'be the gallant poet, like spenser;' campion judged his verse to be 'heady and strong.' in a sonnet that barnes addressed in this earliest volume to the 'virtuous' earl of southampton he declared that his patron's eyes were 'the heavenly lamps that give the muses light,' and that his sole ambition was 'by flight to rise' to a height worthy of his patron's 'virtues.' shakespeare sorrowfully pointed out in sonnet lxxviii. that his lord's eyes that taught the dumb on high to sing, and heavy ignorance aloft to fly, have added feathers to the learned's wing, and given grace a double majesty; while in the following sonnet he asserted that the 'worthier pen' of his dreaded rival when lending his patron 'virtue' was guilty of plagiarism, for he 'stole that word' from his patron's 'behaviour.' the emphasis laid by barnes on the inspiration that he sought from southampton's 'gracious eyes' on the one hand, and his reiterated references to his patron's 'virtue' on the other, suggest that shakespeare in these sonnets directly alluded to barnes as his chief competitor in the hotly contested race for southampton's favour. in sonnet lxxxv. shakespeare declares that 'he cries amen to every hymn that able spirit [_i.e._ his rival] affords.' very few poets of the day in england followed ronsard's practice of bestowing the title of hymn on miscellaneous poems, but barnes twice applies the word to his poems of love. { a} when, too, shakespeare in sonnet lxxx. employs nautical metaphors to indicate the relations of himself and his rival with his patron-- my saucy bark inferior far to his . . . your shallowest help will hold me up afloat, he seems to write with an eye on barnes's identical choice of metaphor: my fancy's ship tossed here and there by these [_sc._ sorrow's floods] still floats in danger ranging to and fro. how fears my thoughts' swift pinnace thine hard rock! { b} other theories as to the rival's identity. gervase markham is equally emphatic in his sonnet to southampton on the potent influence of his patron's 'eyes,' which, he says, crown 'the most victorious pen'--a possible reference to shakespeare. nash's poetic praises of the earl are no less enthusiastic, and are of a finer literary temper than markham's. but shakespeare's description of his rival's literary work fits far less closely the verse of markham and nash than the verse of their fellow aspirant barnes. many critics argue that the numbing fear of his rival's genius and of its influence on his patron to which shakespeare confessed in the sonnets was more likely to be evoked by the work of george chapman than by that of any other contemporary poet. but chapman had produced no conspicuously 'great verse' till he began his translation of homer in ; and although he appended in to a complete edition of his translation a sonnet to southampton, it was couched in the coldest terms of formality, and it was one of a series of sixteen sonnets each addressed to a distinguished nobleman with whom the writer implies that he had no previous relations. { } drayton, ben jonson, and marston have also been identified by various critics with 'the rival poet,' but none of these shared southampton's bounty, nor are the terms which shakespeare applies to his rival's verse specially applicable to the productions of any of them. sonnets of friendship. many besides the 'dedicatory' sonnets are addressed to a handsome youth of wealth and rank, for whom the poet avows 'love,' in the elizabethan sense of friendship. { } although no specific reference is made outside the twenty 'dedicatory' sonnets to the youth as a literary patron, and the clues to his identity are elsewhere vaguer, there is good ground for the conclusion that the sonnets of disinterested love or friendship also have southampton for their subject. the sincerity of the poet's sentiment is often open to doubt in these poems, but they seem to illustrate a real intimacy subsisting between shakespeare and a young maecenas. extravagances of literary compliment. extravagant compliment--'gross painting' shakespeare calls it--was more conspicuous in the intercourse of patron and client during the last years of elizabeth's reign than in any other epoch. for this result the sovereign herself was in part responsible. contemporary schemes of literary compliment seemed infected by the feigned accents of amorous passion and false rhapsodies on her physical beauty with which men of letters servilely sought to satisfy the old queen's incurable greed of flattery. { } sir philip sidney described with admirable point the adulatory excesses to which less exalted patrons were habituated by literary dependents. he gave the warning that as soon as a man showed interest in poetry or its producers, poets straightway pronounced him 'to be most fair, most rich, most wise, most all.' 'you shall dwell upon superlatives . . . your soule shall be placed with dante's beatrice.' { a} the warmth of colouring which distinguishes many of the sonnets that shakespeare, under the guise of disinterested friendship, addressed to the youth can be matched at nearly all points in the adulation that patrons were in the habit of receiving from literary dependents in the style that sidney described. { b} patrons habitually addressed in affectionate terms. shakespeare assured his friend that he could never grow old (civ.), that the finest types of beauty and chivalry in mediaeval romance lived again in him (cvi.), that absence from him was misery, and that his affection for him was unalterable. hundreds of poets openly gave the like assurances to their patrons. southampton was only one of a crowd of maecenases whose panegyrists, writing without concealment in their own names, credited them with every perfection of mind and body, and 'placed them,' in sidney's apt phrase, 'with dante's "beatrice."' illustrations of the practice abound. matthew roydon wrote of his patron, sir philip sidney: his personage seemed most divine, a thousand graces one might count upon his lovely cheerful eyne. to heare him speak and sweetly smile you were in paradise the while. edmund spenser in a fine sonnet told his patron, admiral lord charles howard, that 'his good personage and noble deeds' made him the pattern to the present age of the old heroes of whom 'the antique poets' were 'wont so much to sing.' this compliment, which shakespeare turns to splendid account in sonnet cvi., recurs constantly in contemporary sonnets of adulation. { a} ben jonson apostrophised the earl of desmond as 'my best-best lov'd.' campion told lord walden, the earl of suffolk's undistinguished heir, that although his muse sought to express his love, 'the admired virtues' of the patron's youth bred such despairing to his daunted muse that it could scarcely utter naked truth. { b} dr. john donne includes among his 'verse letters' to patrons and patronesses several sonnets of similar temper, one of which, acknowledging a letter of news from a patron abroad, concludes thus: and now thy alms is given, thy letter's read, the body risen again, the which was dead, and thy poor starveling bountifully fed. after this banquet my soul doth say grace, and praise thee for it and zealously embrace thy love, though i think thy love in this case to be as gluttons', which say 'midst their meat they love that best of which they most do eat. { } the tone of yearning for a man's affection is sounded by donne and campion almost as plaintively in their sonnets to patrons as it was sounded by shakespeare. there is nothing, therefore, in the vocabulary of affection which shakespeare employed in his sonnets of friendship to conflict with the theory that they were inscribed to a literary patron with whom his intimacy was of the kind normally subsisting at the time between literary clients and their patrons. direct references to southampton in the sonnets of friendship. we know shakespeare had only one literary patron, the earl of southampton, and the view that that nobleman is the hero of the sonnets of 'friendship' is strongly corroborated by such definite details as can be deduced from the vague eulogies in those poems of the youth's gifts and graces. every compliment, in fact, paid by shakespeare to the youth, whether it be vaguely or definitely phrased, applies to southampton without the least straining of the words. in real life beauty, birth, wealth, and wit sat 'crowned' in the earl, whom poets acclaimed the handsomest of elizabethan courtiers, as plainly as in the hero of the poet's verse. southampton has left in his correspondence ample proofs of his literary learning and taste, and, like the hero of the sonnets, was 'as fair in knowledge as in hue.' the opening sequence of seventeen sonnets, in which a youth of rank and wealth is admonished to marry and beget a son so that 'his fair house' may not fall into decay, can only have been addressed to a young peer like southampton, who was as yet unmarried, had vast possessions, and was the sole male representative of his family. the sonnetteer's exclamation, 'you had a father, let your son say so,' had pertinence to southampton at any period between his father's death in his boyhood and the close of his bachelorhood in . to no other peer of the day are the words exactly applicable. the 'lascivious comment' on his 'wanton sport' which pursues the young friend through the sonnets, and is so adroitly contrived as to add point to the picture of his fascinating youth and beauty, obviously associates itself with the reputation for sensual indulgence that southampton acquired both at court and, according to nash, among men of letters. { } his youthfulness. there is no force in the objection that the young man of the sonnets of 'friendship' must have been another than southampton because the terms in which he is often addressed imply extreme youth. in , a date to which i refer most of the sonnets southampton was barely twenty-one, and the young man had obviously reached manhood. in sonnet civ. shakespeare notes that the first meeting between him and his friend took place three years before that poem was written, so that, if the words are to be taken literally, the poet may have at times embodied reminiscences of southampton when he was only seventeen or eighteen. { a} but shakespeare, already worn in worldly experience, passed his thirtieth birthday in , and he probably tended, when on the threshold of middle life, to exaggerate the youthfulness of the nobleman almost ten years his junior, who even later impressed his acquaintances by his boyish appearance and disposition. { b} 'young' was the epithet invariably applied to southampton by all who knew anything of him even when he was twenty-eight. in sir robert cecil referred to him as the 'poor young earl.' the evidence of portraits. but the most striking evidence of the identity of the youth of the sonnets of 'friendship' with southampton is found in the likeness of feature and complexion which characterises the poet's description of the youth's outward appearance and the extant pictures of southampton as a young man. shakespeare's many references to his youth's 'painted counterfeit' (xvi., xxiv., xlvii., lxvii.) suggest that his hero often sat for his portrait. southampton's countenance survives in probably more canvases than that of any of his contemporaries. at least fourteen extant portraits have been identified on good authority--nine paintings, three miniatures (two by peter oliver and one by isaac oliver), and two contemporary prints. { } most of these, it is true, portray their subject in middle age, when the roses of youth had faded, and they contribute nothing to the present argument. but the two portraits that are now at welbeck, the property of the duke of portland, give all the information that can be desired of southampton's aspect 'in his youthful morn.' { } one of these pictures represents the earl at twenty-one, and the other at twenty-five or twenty-six. the earlier portrait, which is reproduced on the opposite page, shows a young man resplendently attired. his doublet is of white satin; a broad collar, edged with lace, half covers a pointed gorget of red leather, embroidered with silver thread; the white trunks and knee-breeches are laced with gold; the sword-belt, embroidered in red and gold, is decorated at intervals with white silk bows; the hilt of the rapier is overlaid with gold; purple garters, embroidered in silver thread, fasten the white stockings below the knee. light body armour, richly damascened, lies on the ground to the right of the figure; and a white-plumed helmet stands to the left on a table covered with a cloth of purple velvet embroidered in gold. such gorgeous raiment suggests that its wearer bestowed much attention on his personal equipment. but the head is more interesting than the body. the eyes are blue, the cheeks pink, the complexion clear, and the expression sedate; rings are in the ears; beard and moustache are at an incipient stage, and are of the same, bright auburn hue as the hair in a picture of southampton's mother that is also at welbeck. { a} but, however scanty is the down on the youth's cheek, the hair on his head is luxuriant. it is worn very long, and falls over and below the shoulder. the colour is now of walnut, but was originally of lighter tint. [picture: henry wriothesley] the portrait depicting southampton five or six years later shows him in prison, to which he was committed after his secret marriage in . a cat and a book in a jewelled binding are on a desk at his right hand. here the hair falls over both his shoulders in even greater profusion, and is distinctly blonde. the beard and thin upturned moustache are of brighter auburn and fuller than before, although still slight. the blue eyes and colouring of the cheeks show signs of ill-health, but differ little from those features in the earlier portrait. from either of the two welbeck portraits of southampton might shakespeare have drawn his picture of the youth in the sonnets. many times does he tell us that the youth is fair in complexion, and that his eyes are fair. in sonnet lxviii., when he points to the youth's face as a map of what beauty was 'without all ornament, itself and true'--before fashion sanctioned the use of artificial 'golden tresses'--there can be little doubt that he had in mind the wealth of locks that fell about southampton's neck. { b} sonnet cvii. the last of the series. a few only of the sonnets that shakespeare addressed to the youth can be allotted to a date subsequent to ; only two bear on the surface signs of a later composition. in sonnet lxx. the poet no longer credits his hero with juvenile wantonness, but with a 'pure, unstained prime,' which has 'passed by the ambush of young days.' sonnet cvii., apparently the last of the series, was penned almost a decade after the mass of its companions, for it makes references that cannot be mistaken to three events that took place in --to queen elizabeth's death, to the accession of james i, and to the release of the earl of southampton, who had been in prison since he was convicted in of complicity in the rebellion of the earl of essex. the first two events are thus described: the mortal moon hath her eclipse endured and the sad augurs mock their own presage; incertainties now crown themselves assured and peace proclaims olives of endless age. allusion to elizabeth's death. it is in almost identical phrase that every pen in the spring of was felicitating the nation on the unexpected turn of events, by which elizabeth's crown had passed, without civil war, to the scottish king, and thus the revolution that had been foretold as the inevitable consequence of elizabeth's demise was happily averted. cynthia (_i.e._ the moon) was the queen's recognised poetic appellation. it is thus that she figures in the verse of barnfield, spenser, fulke greville, and ralegh, and her elegists involuntarily followed the same fashion. 'fair cynthia's dead' sang one. luna's extinct; and now beholde the sunne whose beames soake up the moysture of all teares, wrote henry petowe in his 'a fewe aprill drops showered on the hearse of dead eliza,' . there was hardly a verse-writer who mourned her loss that did not typify it, moreover, as the eclipse of a heavenly body. one poet asserted that death 'veiled her glory in a cloud of night.' another argued: 'naught can eclipse her light, but that her star will shine in darkest night.' a third varied the formula thus: when winter had cast off her weed our sun eclipsed did set. oh! light most fair. { a} at the same time james was constantly said to have entered on his inheritance 'not with an olive branch in his hand, but with a whole forest of olives round about him, for he brought not peace to this kingdom alone' but to all europe. { b} allusions to southampton's release from prison. 'the drops of this most balmy time,' in this same sonnet, cvii., is an echo of another current strain of fancy. james came to england in a springtide of rarely rivalled clemency, which was reckoned of the happiest augury. 'all things look fresh,' one poet sang, 'to greet his excellence.' 'the air, the seasons, and the earth' were represented as in sympathy with the general joy in 'this sweetest of all sweet springs.' one source of grief alone was acknowledged: southampton was still a prisoner in the tower, 'supposed as forfeit to a confined doom.' all men, wrote manningham, the diarist, on the day following the queen's death, wished him at liberty. { a} the wish was fulfilled quickly. on april , , his prison gates were opened by 'a warrant from the king.' so bountiful a beginning of the new era, wrote john chamberlain to dudley carleton two days later, 'raised all men's spirits . . . and the very poets with their idle pamphlets promised themselves' great things. { b} samuel daniel and john davies celebrated southampton's release in buoyant verse. { c} it is improbable that shakespeare remained silent. 'my love looks fresh,' he wrote in the concluding lines of sonnet cvii., and he repeated the conventional promise that he had so often made before, that his friend should live in his 'poor rhyme,' 'when tyrants' crests and tombs of brass are spent.' it is impossible to resist the inference that shakespeare thus saluted his patron on the close of his days of tribulation. shakespeare's genius had then won for him a public reputation that rendered him independent of any private patron's favour, and he made no further reference in his writings to the patronage that southampton had extended to him in earlier years. but the terms in which he greeted his former protector for the last time in verse justify the belief that, during his remaining thirteen years of life, the poet cultivated friendly relations with the earl of southampton, and was mindful to the last of the encouragement that the young peer offered him while he was still on the threshold of the temple of fame. x--the supposed story of intrigue in the sonnets it is hardly possible to doubt that had shakespeare, who was more prolific in invention than any other poet, poured out in his sonnets his personal passions and emotions, he would have been carried by his imagination, at every stage, far beyond the beaten tracks of the conventional sonnetteers of his day. the imitative element in his sonnets is large enough to refute the assertion that in them as a whole he sought to 'unlock his heart.' it is likely enough that beneath all the conventional adulation bestowed by shakespeare on southampton there lay a genuine affection, but his sonnets to the earl were no involuntary ebullitions of a devoted and disinterested friendship; they were celebrations of a patron's favour in the terminology--often raised by shakespeare's genius to the loftiest heights of poetry--that was invariably consecrated to such a purpose by a current literary convention. very few of shakespeare's 'sugared sonnets' have a substantial right to be regarded as untutored cries of the soul. it is true that the sonnets in which the writer reproaches himself with sin, or gives expression to a sense of melancholy, offer at times a convincing illusion of autobiographic confessions; and it is just possible that they stand apart from the rest, and reveal the writer's inner consciousness, in which case they are not to be matched in any other of shakespeare's literary compositions. but they may be, on the other hand, merely literary meditations, conceived by the greatest of dramatists, on infirmities incident to all human nature, and only attempted after the cue had been given by rival sonnetteers. at any rate, their energetic lines are often adapted from the less forcible and less coherent utterances of contemporary poets, and the themes are common to almost all elizabethan collections of sonnets. { } shakespeare's noble sonnet on the ravages of lust (cxxix.), for example, treats with marvellous force and insight a stereotyped theme of sonnetteers, and it may have owed its whole existence to sir philip sidney's sonnet on 'desire.' { a} the youth's relations with the poet's mistress. only in one group, composed of six sonnets scattered through the collection, is there traceable a strand of wholly original sentiment, not to be readily defined and boldly projecting from the web into which it is wrought. this series of six sonnets deals with a love adventure of no normal type. sonnet cxliv. opens with the lines: two loves i have of comfort and despair which like two angels do suggest (_i.e._ tempt) me still: the better angel is a man right fair, the worser spirit a woman colour'd ill. { b} the woman, the sonnetteer continues, has corrupted the man and has drawn him from his 'side.' five other sonnets treat the same theme. in three addressed to the man (xl., xli., and xlii.) the poet mildly reproaches his youthful friend for having sought and won the favours of a woman whom he himself loved 'dearly,' but the trespass is forgiven on account of the friend's youth and beauty. in the two remaining sonnets shakespeare addresses the woman (cxxxiii. and cxxxiv.), and he rebukes her for having enslaved not only himself but 'his next self'--his friend. shakespeare, in his denunciation elsewhere of a mistress's disdain of his advances, assigns her blindness, like all the professional sonnetteers, to no better defined cause than the perversity and depravity of womankind. in these six sonnets alone does he categorically assign his mistress's alienation to the fascinations of a dear friend or hint at such a cause for his mistress's infidelity. the definite element of intrigue that is developed here is not found anywhere else in the range of elizabethan sonnet-literature. the character of the innovation and its treatment seem only capable of explanation by regarding the topic as a reflection of shakespeare's personal experience. but how far he is sincere in his accounts of his sorrow in yielding his mistress to his friend in order to retain the friendship of the latter must be decided by each reader for himself. if all the words be taken literally, there is disclosed an act of self-sacrifice that it is difficult to parallel or explain. but it remains very doubtful if the affair does not rightly belong to the annals of gallantry. the sonnetteer's complacent condonation of the young man's offence chiefly suggests the deference that was essential to the maintenance by a dependent of peaceful relations with a self-willed and self-indulgent patron. southampton's sportive and lascivious temperament might easily impel him to divert to himself the attention of an attractive woman by whom he saw that his poet was fascinated, and he was unlikely to tolerate any outspoken protest on the part of his _protege_. there is no clue to the lady's identity, and speculation on the topic is useless. she may have given shakespeare hints for his pictures of the 'dark lady,' but he treats that lady's obduracy conventionally, and his vituperation of her sheds no light on the personal history of the mistress who left him for his friend. 'willobie his avisa.' the emotions roused in shakespeare by the episode, even if potent at the moment, were not likely to be deep-seated or enduring. and it is possible that a half-jesting reference, which would deprive shakespeare's amorous adventure of serious import, was made to it by a literary comrade in a poem that was licensed for publication on september , , and was published immediately under the title of 'willobie his avisa, or the true picture of a modest maid and of a chaste and constant wife.' { } in this volume, which mainly consists of seventy-two cantos in varying numbers of six-line stanzas, the chaste heroine, avisa, holds converse--in the opening section as a maid, and in the later section as a wife--with a series of passionate adorers. in every case she firmly repulses their advances. midway through the book its alleged author--henry willobie--is introduced in his own person as an ardent admirer, and the last twenty-nine of the cantos rehearse his woes and avisa's obduracy. to this section there is prefixed an argument in prose (canto xliv.) it is there stated that willobie, 'being suddenly affected with the contagion of a fantastical wit at the first sight of avisa, pineth a while in secret grief. at length, not able any longer to endure the burning heat of so fervent a humour, [he] bewrayeth the secrecy of his disease unto his familiar friend _w. s._, _who not long before had tried the courtesy of the like passion and was now newly recovered of the like infection_. yet [w. s.], finding his friend let blood in the same vein, took pleasure for a time to see him bleed, and instead of stopping the issue, he enlargeth the wound with the sharp razor of willing conceit,' encouraging willobie to believe that avisa would ultimately yield 'with pains, diligence, and some cost in time.' 'the miserable comforter' [w. s.], the passage continues, was moved to comfort his friend 'with an impossibility,' for one of two reasons. either 'he now would secretly laugh at his friend's folly' because he 'had given occasion not long before unto others to laugh at his own.' or 'he would see whether another could play his part better than himself, and, in viewing after the course of this loving comedy,' would 'see whether it would sort to a happier end for this new actor than it did for _the old player_. but at length this comedy was like to have grown to a tragedy by the weak and feeble estate that h. w. was brought unto,' owing to avisa's unflinching rectitude. happily, 'time and necessity' effected a cure. in two succeeding cantos in verse w. s. is introduced in dialogue with willobie, and he gives him, in _oratio recta_, light-hearted and mocking counsel which willobie accepts with results disastrous to his mental health. identity of initials, on which the theory of shakespeare's identity with h. w.'s unfeeling adviser mainly rests, is not a strong foundation, { } and doubt is justifiable as to whether the story of 'avisa' and her lovers is not fictitious. in a preface signed hadrian dorell, the writer, after mentioning that the alleged author (willobie) was dead, discusses somewhat enigmatically whether or no the work is 'a poetical fiction.' in a new edition of the same editor decides the question in the affirmative. but dorell, while making this admission, leaves untouched the curious episode of 'w. s.' the mention of 'w. s.' as 'the old player,' and the employment of theatrical imagery in discussing his relations with willobie, must be coupled with the fact that shakespeare, at a date when mentions of him in print were rare, was eulogised by name as the author of 'lucrece' in some prefatory verses to the volume. from such considerations the theory of 'w. s.'s' identity with willobie's acquaintance acquires substance. if we assume that it was shakespeare who took a roguish delight in watching his friend willobie suffer the disdain of 'chaste avisa' because he had 'newly recovered' from the effects of a like experience, it is clear that the theft of shakespeare's mistress by another friend did not cause him deep or lasting distress. the allusions that were presumably made to the episode by the author of 'avisa' bring it, in fact, nearer the confines of comedy than of tragedy. summary of conclusions respecting the sonnets. the processes of construction which are discernible in shakespeare's sonnets are thus seen to be identical with those that are discernible in the rest of his literary work. they present one more proof of his punctilious regard for the demands of public taste, and of his marvellous genius and skill in adapting and transmuting for his own purposes the labours of other workers in the field that for the moment engaged his attention. most of shakespeare's sonnets were produced in under the incitement of that freakish rage for sonnetteering which, taking its rise in italy and sweeping over france on its way to england, absorbed for some half-dozen years in this country a greater volume of literary energy than has been applied to sonnetteering within the same space of time here or elsewhere before or since. the thousands of sonnets that were circulated in england between and were of every literary quality, from sublimity to inanity, and they illustrated in form and topic every known phase of sonnetteering activity. shakespeare's collection, which was put together at haphazard and published surreptitiously many years after the poems were written, was a medley, at times reaching heights of literary excellence that none other scaled, but as a whole reflecting the varied features of the sonnetteering vogue. apostrophes to metaphysical abstractions, vivid picturings of the beauties of nature, adulation of a patron, idealisation of a _protege's_ regard for a nobleman in the figurative language of amorous passion, amiable compliments on a woman's hair or touch on the virginals, and vehement denunciation of the falseness and frailty of womankind--all appear as frequently in contemporary collections of sonnets as in shakespeare's. he borrows very many of his competitors' words and thoughts, but he so fused them with his fancy as often to transfigure them. genuine emotion or the writer's personal experience very rarely inspired the elizabethan sonnet, and shakespeare's sonnets proved no exception to the rule. a personal note may have escaped him involuntarily in the sonnets in which he gives voice to a sense of melancholy and self-remorse, but his dramatic instinct never slept, and there is no proof that he is doing more in those sonnets than produce dramatically the illusion of a personal confession. only in one scattered series of six sonnets, where he introduced a topic, unknown to other sonnetteers, of a lover's supersession by his friend in a mistress's graces, does he seem to show independence of his comrades and draw directly on an incident in his own life, but even there the emotion is wanting in seriousness. the sole biographical inference deducible from the sonnets is that at one time in his career shakespeare disdained no weapon of flattery in an endeavour to monopolise the bountiful patronage of a young man of rank. external evidence agrees with internal evidence in identifying the belauded patron with the earl of southampton, and the real value to a biographer of shakespeare's sonnets is the corroboration they offer of the ancient tradition that the earl of southampton, to whom his two narrative poems were openly dedicated, gave shakespeare at an early period of his literary career help and encouragement, which entitles the earl to a place in the poet's biography resembling that filled by the duke alfonso d'este in the biography of ariosto, or like that filled by margaret, duchess of savoy, in the biography of ronsard. xi--the development of dramatic power 'midsummer night's dream.' but, all the while that shakespeare was fancifully assuring his patron [how] to no other pass my verses tend than of your graces and your gifts to tell, his dramatic work was steadily advancing. to the winter season of probably belongs 'midsummer night's dream.' { } the comedy may well have been written to celebrate a marriage--perhaps the marriage of the universal patroness of poets, lucy harington, to edward russell, third earl of bedford, on december , ; or that of william stanley, earl of derby, at greenwich on january , - . the elaborate compliment to the queen, 'a fair vestal throned by the west' (ii. i. _seq._), was at once an acknowledgment of past marks of royal favour and an invitation for their extension to the future. oberon's fanciful description (ii. ii. - ) of the spot where he saw the little western flower called 'love-in-idleness' that he bids puck fetch for him, has been interpreted as a reminiscence of one of the scenic pageants with which the earl of leicester entertained queen elizabeth on her visit to kenilworth in . { } the whole play is in the airiest and most graceful vein of comedy. hints for the story can be traced to a variety of sources--to chaucer's 'knight's tale,' to plutarch's 'life of theseus,' to ovid's 'metamorphoses' (bk. iv.), and to the story of oberon, the fairy-king, in the french mediaeval romance of 'huon of bordeaux,' of which an english translation by lord berners was first printed in . the influence of john lyly is perceptible in the raillery in which both mortals and immortals indulge. in the humorous presentation of the play of 'pyramus and thisbe' by the 'rude mechanicals' of athens, shakespeare improved upon a theme which he had already employed in 'love's labour's lost.' but the final scheme of the 'midsummer night's dream' is of the author's freshest invention, and by endowing--practically for the first time in literature--the phantoms of the fairy world with a genuine and a sustained dramatic interest, shakespeare may be said to have conquered a new realm for art. 'all's well.' more sombre topics engaged him in the comedy of 'all's well that ends well,' which may be tentatively assigned to . meres, writing three years later, attributed to shakespeare a piece called 'love's labour's won.' this title, which is not otherwise known, may well be applied to 'all's well.' 'the taming of the shrew,' which has also been identified with 'love's labour's won,' has far slighter claim to the designation. the plot of 'all's well,' like that of 'romeo and juliet,' was drawn from painter's 'palace of pleasure' (no. xxxviii.) the original source is boccaccio's 'decamerone' (giorn. iii. nov. ). shakespeare, after his wont, grafted on the touching story of helena's love for the unworthy bertram the comic characters of the braggart parolles, the pompous lafeu, and a clown (lavache) less witty than his compeers. another original creation, bertram's mother, countess of roussillon, is a charming portrait of old age. in frequency of rhyme and other metrical characteristics the piece closely resembles 'the two gentlemen,' but the characterisation betrays far greater power, and there are fewer conceits or crudities of style. the pathetic element predominates. the heroine helena, whose 'pangs of despised love' are expressed with touching tenderness, ranks with the greatest of shakespeare's female creations. 'taming of the shrew.' 'the taming of the shrew'--which, like 'all's well,' was first printed in the folio--was probably composed soon after the completion of that solemn comedy. it is a revision of an old play on lines somewhat differing from those which shakespeare had followed previously. from 'the taming of a shrew,' a comedy first published in , { } shakespeare drew the induction and the scenes in which the hero petruchio conquers catherine the shrew. he first infused into them the genuine spirit of comedy. but while following the old play in its general outlines, shakespeare's revised version added an entirely new underplot--the story of bianca and her lovers, which owes something to the 'supposes' of george gascoigne, an adaptation of ariosto's comedy called 'i suppositi.' evidence of style--the liberal introduction of tags of latin and the exceptional beat of the doggerel--makes it difficult to allot the bianca scenes to shakespeare; those scenes were probably due to a coadjutor. stratford allusions in the induction. the induction to 'the taming of the shrew' has a direct bearing on shakespeare's biography, for the poet admits into it a number of literal references to stratford and his native county. such personalities are rare in shakespeare's plays, and can only be paralleled in two of slightly later date--the 'second part of henry iv' and the 'merry wives of windsor.' all these local allusions may well be attributed to such a renewal of shakespeare's personal relations with the town, as is indicated by external facts in his history of the same period. in the induction the tinker, christopher sly, describes himself as 'old sly's son of burton heath.' burton heath is barton-on-the-heath, the home of shakespeare's aunt, edmund lambert's wife, and of her sons. the tinker in like vein confesses that he has run up a score with marian hacket, the fat alewife of wincot. { } the references to wincot and the hackets are singularly precise. the name of the maid of the inn is given as cicely hacket, and the alehouse is described in the stage direction as 'on a heath.' wincot. wincot was the familiar designation of three small warwickshire villages, and a good claim has been set up on behalf of each to be the scene of sly's drunken exploits. there is a very small hamlet named wincot within four miles of stratford now consisting of a single farmhouse which was once an elizabethan mansion; it is situated on what was doubtless in shakespeare's day, before the land there was enclosed, an open heath. this wincot forms part of the parish of quinton, where, according to the parochial registers, a hacket family resided in shakespeare's day. on november , , 'sara hacket, the daughter of robert hacket,' was baptised in quinton church. { } yet by warwickshire contemporaries the wincot of 'the taming of the shrew' was unhesitatingly identified with wilnecote, near tamworth, on the staffordshire border of warwickshire, at some distance from stratford. that village, whose name was pronounced 'wincot,' was celebrated for its ale in the seventeenth century, a distinction which is not shown by contemporary evidence to have belonged to any place of like name. the warwickshire poet, sir aston cokain, within half a century of the production of shakespeare's 'taming of the shrew,' addressed to 'mr. clement fisher of wincott' (a well-known resident at wilnecote) verses which begin _shakspeare_ your _wincot_ ale hath much renowned, that fox'd a beggar so (by chance was found sleeping) that there needed not many a word to make him to believe he was a lord. in the succeeding lines the writer promises to visit 'wincot' (_i.e._ wilnecote) to drink such ale as _shakspeare_ fancies did put kit sly into such lordly trances. it is therefore probable that shakespeare consciously invested the home of kit sly and of kit's hostess with characteristics of wilnecote as well as of the hamlet near stratford. wilmcote, the native place of shakespeare's mother, is also said to have been popularly pronounced 'wincot.' a tradition which was first recorded by capell as late as in his notes to the 'taming of the shrew' (p. ) is to the effect that shakespeare often visited an inn at 'wincot' to enjoy the society of a 'fool who belonged to a neighbouring mill,' and the wincot of this story is, we are told, locally associated with the village of wilmcote. but the links that connect shakespeare's tinker with wilmcote are far slighter than those which connect him with wincot and wilnecote. the mention of kit sly's tavern comrades-- stephen sly and old john naps of greece, and peter turf and henry pimpernell-- was in all likelihood a reminiscence of contemporary warwickshire life as literal as the name of the hamlet where the drunkard dwelt. there was a genuine stephen sly who was in the dramatist's day a self-assertive citizen of stratford; and 'greece,' whence 'old john naps' derived his cognomen, is an obvious misreading of greet, a hamlet by winchcombe in gloucestershire, not far removed from shakespeare's native town. 'henry iv.' in shakespeare turned once more to english history. from holinshed's 'chronicle,' and from a valueless but very popular piece, 'the famous victories of henry v,' which was repeatedly acted between and , { } he worked up with splendid energy two plays on the reign of henry iv. they form one continuous whole, but are known respectively as parts i. and ii. of 'henry iv.' the 'second part of henry iv' is almost as rich as the induction to 'the taming of the shrew' in direct references to persons and districts familiar to shakespeare. two amusing scenes pass at the house of justice shallow in gloucestershire, a county which touched the boundaries of stratford (iii. ii. and v. i.) when, in the second of these scenes, the justice's factotum, davy, asked his master 'to countenance william visor of woncot { a} against clement perkes of the hill,' the local references are unmistakable. woodmancote, where the family of visor or vizard has flourished since the sixteenth century, is still pronounced woncot. the adjoining stinchcombe hill (still familiarly known to natives as 'the hill') was in the sixteenth century the home of the family of perkes. very precise too are the allusions to the region of the cotswold hills, which were easily accessible from stratford. 'will squele, a cotswold man,' is noticed as one of shallow's friends in youth (iii. ii. ); and when shallow's servant davy receives his master's instructions to sow 'the headland' 'with red wheat,' in the early autumn, there is an obvious reference to the custom almost peculiar to the cotswolds of sowing 'red lammas' wheat at an unusually early season of the agricultural year. { b} the kingly hero of the two plays of 'henry iv' had figured as a spirited young man in 'richard ii;' he was now represented as weighed down by care and age. with him are contrasted (in part i.) his impetuous and ambitious subject hotspur and (in both parts) his son and heir prince hal, whose boisterous disposition drives him from court to seek adventures among the haunters of taverns. hotspur is a vivid and fascinating portrait of a hot-headed soldier, courageous to the point of rashness, and sacrificing his life to his impetuous sense of honour. prince hal, despite his vagaries, is endowed by the dramatist with far more self-control and common sense. falstaff. on the first, as on every subsequent, production of 'henry iv' the main public interest was concentrated neither on the king nor on his son, nor on hotspur, but on the chief of prince hal's riotous companions. at the outset the propriety of that great creation was questioned on a political or historical ground of doubtful relevance. shakespeare in both parts of 'henry iv' originally named the chief of the prince's associates after sir john oldcastle, a character in the old play. but henry brooke, eighth lord cobham, who succeeded to the title early in , and claimed descent from the historical sir john oldcastle, the lollard leader, raised objection; and when the first part of the play was printed by the acting-company's authority in ('newly corrected' in ), shakespeare bestowed on prince hal's tun-bellied follower the new and deathless name of falstaff. a trustworthy edition of the second part of 'henry iv' also appeared with falstaff's name substituted for that of oldcastle in . there the epilogue expressly denied that falstaff had any characteristic in common with the martyr oldcastle. oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man. but the substitution of the name 'falstaff' did not pass without protest. it hazily recalled sir john fastolf, an historical warrior who had already figured in 'henry vi' and was owner at one time of the boar's head tavern in southwark; according to traditional stage directions, { } the prince and his companions in 'henry iv' frequent the boar's head, eastcheap. fuller in his 'worthies,' first published in , while expressing satisfaction that shakespeare had 'put out' of the play sir john oldcastle, was eloquent in his avowal of regret that 'sir john fastolf' was 'put in,' on the ground that it was making overbold with a great warrior's memory to make him a 'thrasonical puff and emblem of mock-valour.' the offending introduction and withdrawal of oldcastle's name left a curious mark on literary history. humbler dramatists (munday, wilson, drayton, and hathaway), seeking to profit by the attention drawn by shakespeare to the historical oldcastle, produced a poor dramatic version of oldcastle's genuine history; and of two editions of 'sir john oldcastle' published in , one printed for t[homas] p[avier] was impudently described on the title-page as by shakespeare. but it is not the historical traditions which are connected with falstaff that give him his perennial attraction. it is the personality that owes nothing to history with which shakespeare's imaginative power clothed him. the knight's unfettered indulgence in sensual pleasures, his exuberant mendacity, and his love of his own ease are purged of offence by his colossal wit and jollity, while the contrast between his old age and his unreverend way of life supplies that tinge of melancholy which is inseparable from the highest manifestations of humour. the elizabethan public recognised the triumphant success of the effort, and many of falstaff's telling phrases, with the names of his foils, justice shallow and silence, at once took root in popular speech. shakespeare's purely comic power culminated in falstaff; he may be claimed as the most humorous figure in literature. 'merry wives of windsor.' in all probability 'the merry wives of windsor,' a comedy inclining to farce, and unqualified by any pathetic interest, followed close upon 'henry iv.' in the epilogue to the 'second part of henry iv' shakespeare had written: 'if you be not too much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will continue the story with sir john in it . . . where for anything i know falstaff shall die of a sweat, unless already a' be killed with your hard opinions.' rowe asserts that 'queen elizabeth was so well pleased with that admirable character of falstaff in the two parts of "henry iv" that she commanded him to continue it for one play more, and to show him in love.' dennis, in the dedication of 'the comical gallant' ( ), noted that the 'merry wives' was written at the queen's 'command and by her direction; and she was so eager to see it acted that she commanded it to be finished in fourteen days, and was afterwards, as tradition tells us, very well pleased with the representation.' in his 'letters' ( , p. ) dennis reduces the period of composition to ten days--'a prodigious thing,' added gildon, { a} 'where all is so well contrived and carried on without the least confusion.' the localisation of the scene at windsor, and the complimentary references to windsor castle, corroborate the tradition that the comedy was prepared to meet a royal command. an imperfect draft of the play was printed by thomas creede in ; { b} the folio of first supplied a complete version. the plot was probably suggested by an italian novel. a tale from straparola's 'notti' (iv. ), of which an adaptation figured in the miscellany of novels called tarleton's 'newes out of purgatorie' ( ), another italian tale from the 'pecorone' of ser giovanni fiorentino (i. ), and a third romance, the fishwife's tale of brainford in the collection of stories called 'westward for smelts,' { c} supply incidents distantly resembling episodes in the play. nowhere has shakespeare so vividly reflected the bluff temper of contemporary middle-class society. the presentment of the buoyant domestic life of an elizabethan country town bears distinct impress of shakespeare's own experience. again, there are literal references to the neighbourhood of stratford. justice shallow, whose coat-of-arms is described as consisting of 'luces,' is thereby openly identified with shakespeare's early foe, sir thomas lucy of charlecote. when shakespeare makes master slender repeat the report that master page's fallow greyhound was 'outrun on cotsall' (i. i. ), he testifies to his interest in the coursing matches for which the cotswold district was famed. 'henry v.' the spirited character of prince hal was peculiarly congenial to its creator, and in 'henry v' shakespeare, during , brought his career to its close. the play was performed early in , probably in the newly built globe theatre. again thomas creede printed, in , an imperfect draft, which was thrice reissued before a complete version was supplied in the first folio of . the dramatic interest of 'henry v' is slender. there is abundance of comic element, but death has removed falstaff, whose last moments are described with the simple pathos that comes of a matchless art, and, though falstaff's companions survive, they are thin shadows of his substantial figure. new comic characters are introduced in the persons of three soldiers respectively of welsh, scottish, and irish nationality, whose racial traits are contrasted with telling effect. the irascible irishman, captain macmorris, is the only representative of his nation who figures in the long list of shakespeare's _dramatis personae_. the scene in which the pedantic but patriotic welshman, fluellen, avenges the sneers of the braggart pistol at his nation's emblem, by forcing him to eat the leek, overflows in vivacious humour. the piece in its main current presents a series of loosely connected episodes in which the hero's manliness is displayed as soldier, ruler, and lover. the topic reached its climax in the victory of the english at agincourt, which powerfully appealed to patriotic sentiment. besides the 'famous victories,' { } there was another lost piece on the subject, which henslowe produced for the first time on november , . 'henry v' may be regarded as shakespeare's final experiment in the dramatisation of english history, and it artistically rounds off the series of his 'histories' which form collectively a kind of national epic. for 'henry viii,' which was produced very late in his career, he was only in part responsible, and that 'history' consequently belongs to a different category. essex and the rebellion of . a glimpse of autobiography may be discerned in the direct mention by shakespeare in 'henry v' of an exciting episode in current history. in the prologue to act v. shakespeare foretold for robert devereux, second earl of essex, the close friend of his patron southampton, an enthusiastic reception by the people of london when he should come home after 'broaching' rebellion in ireland. were now the general of our gracious empress, as in good time he may, from ireland coming, bringing rebellion broached on his sword, how many would the peaceful city quit to welcome him!--(act v. chorus, ll. - .) essex had set out on his disastrous mission as the would-be pacificator of ireland on march , . the fact that southampton went with him probably accounts for shakespeare's avowal of sympathy. but essex's effort failed. he was charged, soon after 'henry v' was produced, with treasonable neglect of duty, and he sought in , again with the support of southampton, to recover his position by stirring up rebellion in london. then shakespeare's reference to essex's popularity with londoners bore perilous fruit. the friends of the rebel leaders sought the dramatist's countenance. they paid s. to augustine phillips, a leading member of shakespeare's company, to induce him to revive at the globe theatre 'richard ii' (beyond doubt shakespeare's play), in the hope that its scene of the killing of a king might encourage a popular outbreak. phillips subsequently deposed that he prudently told the conspirators who bespoke the piece that 'that play of kyng richard' was 'so old and so long out of use as that they should have small or no company at it.' none the less the performance took place on saturday (february , ), the day preceding that fixed by essex for the rising. the queen, in a later conversation with william lambarde (on august , ), complained that 'this tragedie' of 'richard ii,' which she had always viewed with suspicion, was played at the period with seditious intent 'forty times in open streets and houses.' { } at the trial of essex and his friends, phillips gave evidence of the circumstances under which the tragedy was revived at the globe theatre. essex was executed and southampton was imprisoned until the queen's death. no proceedings were taken against the players, { a} but shakespeare wisely abstained, for the time, from any public reference to the fate either of essex or of his patron southampton. shakespeare's popularity and influence. such incidents served to accentuate shakespeare's growing reputation. for several years his genius as dramatist and poet had been acknowledged by critics and playgoers alike, and his social and professional position had become considerable. inside the theatre his influence was supreme. when, in , the manager of the company rejected ben jonson's first comedy--his 'every man in his humour'--shakespeare intervened, according to a credible tradition (reported by rowe but denounced by gifford), and procured a reversal of the decision in the interest of the unknown dramatist who was his junior by nine years. he took a part when the piece was performed. jonson was of a difficult and jealous temper, and subsequently he gave vent to an occasional expression of scorn at shakespeare's expense, but, despite passing manifestations of his unconquerable surliness, there can be no doubt that jonson cherished genuine esteem and affection for shakespeare till death. { b} within a very few years of shakespeare's death sir nicholas l'estrange, an industrious collector of anecdotes, put into writing an anecdote for which he made dr. donne responsible, attesting the amicable relations that habitually subsisted between shakespeare and jonson. 'shakespeare,' ran the story, 'was godfather to one of ben jonson's children, and after the christening, being in a deep study, jonson came to cheer him up and asked him why he was so melancholy. "no, faith, ben," says he, "not i, but i have been considering a great while what should be the fittest gift for me to bestow upon my godchild, and i have resolv'd at last." "i pr'ythee, what?" sayes he. "i' faith, ben, i'll e'en give him a dozen good lattin spoons, and thou shalt translate them."' { } the mermaid meetings. the creator of falstaff could have been no stranger to tavern life, and he doubtless took part with zest in the convivialities of men of letters. tradition reports that shakespeare joined, at the mermaid tavern in bread street, those meetings of jonson and his associates which beaumont described in his poetical 'letter' to jonson: 'what things have we seen done at the mermaid? heard words that have been so nimble, and so full of subtle flame, as if that every one from whence they came had meant to put his whole wit in a jest, and had resolved to live a fool the rest of his dull life.' 'many were the wit-combats,' wrote fuller of shakespeare in his 'worthies' ( ), 'betwixt him and ben jonson, which two i behold like a spanish great galleon and an english man of war; master jonson (like the former) was built far higher in learning, solid but slow in his performances. shakespear, with the englishman of war, lesser in bulk, but lighter in sailing, could turn with all tides, tack about, and take advantage of all winds by the quickness of his wit and invention.' mere's eulogy, . of the many testimonies paid to shakespeare's literary reputation at this period of his career, the most striking was that of francis meres. meres was a learned graduate of cambridge university, a divine and schoolmaster, who brought out in a collection of apophthegms on morals, religion, and literature which he entitled 'palladis tamia.' in the book he interpolated 'a comparative discourse of our english poets with the greek, latin, and italian poets,' and there exhaustively surveyed contemporary literary effort in england. shakespeare figured in meres's pages as the greatest man of letters of the day. 'the muses would speak shakespeare's fine filed phrase,' meres asserted, 'if they could speak english.' 'among the english,' he declared, 'he was the most excellent in both kinds for the stage' (_i.e._ tragedy and comedy). the titles of six comedies ('two gentlemen of verona, 'errors,' 'love's labour's lost,' 'love's labour's won,' 'midsummer night's dream,' and 'merchant of venice') and of six tragedies ('richard ii,' 'richard iii,' 'henry iv,' 'king john,' 'titus,' and 'romeo and juliet') were set forth, and mention followed of his 'venus and adonis,' his 'lucrece,' and his 'sugred { } sonnets among his private friends.' these were cited as proof 'that the sweet witty soul of ovid lives in mellifluous and honey-tongued shakespeare.' in the same year a rival poet, richard barnfield, in 'poems in divers humors,' predicted immortality for shakespeare with no less confidence. and shakespeare, thou whose honey-flowing vein (pleasing the world) thy praises doth obtain, whose _venus_ and whose _lucrece_ (sweet and chaste) thy name in fame's immortal book have placed, live ever you, at least in fame live ever: well may the body die, but fame dies never. value of his name to publishers. shakespeare's name was thenceforth of value to unprincipled publishers, and they sought to palm off on their customers as his work the productions of inferior pens. as early as , thomas creede, the surreptitious printer of 'henry v' and the 'merry wives,' had issued the crude 'tragedie of locrine, as 'newly set foorth, overseene and corrected. by w. s.' it appropriated many passages from an older piece called 'selimus,' which was possibly by greene and certainly came into being long before shakespeare had written a line of blank verse. the same initials--'w.s.' { }--figured on the title-page of 'the true chronicle historie of thomas, lord cromwell,' which was licensed on august , , was printed for william jones in that year, and was reprinted verbatim by thomas snodham in . on the title-page of the comedy entitled 'the puritaine, or the widdow of watling streete,' which george eld printed in , 'w.s.' was again stated to be the author. shakespeare's full name appeared on the title-pages of 'the life of old-castle' in (printed for t[homas] p[avier]), of 'the london prodigall' in (printed by t. c. for nathaniel butter), and of 'the yorkshire tragedy' in (by r. b. for thomas pavier). none of these six plays have any internal claim to shakespeare's authorship; nevertheless all were uncritically included in the third folio of his collected works,( ). schlegel and a few other critics of repute have, on no grounds that merit acceptance, detected signs of shakespeare's genuine work in one of the six, 'the yorkshire tragedy;' it is 'a coarse, crude, and vigorous impromptu,' which is clearly by a far less experienced hand. the fraudulent practice of crediting shakespeare with valueless plays from the pens of comparatively dull-witted contemporaries was in vogue among enterprising traders in literature both early and late in the seventeenth century. the worthless old play on the subject of king john was attributed to shakespeare in the reissues of and . humphrey moseley, a reckless publisher of a later period, fraudulently entered on the 'stationers' register' on september , , two pieces which he represented to be in whole or in part by shakespeare, viz. 'the merry devill of edmonton' and the 'history of cardenio,' a share in which was assigned to fletcher. 'the merry devill of edmonton,' which was produced on the stage before the close of the sixteenth century, was entered on the 'stationers' register,' october , , and was first published anonymously in ; it is a delightful comedy, abounding in both humour and romantic sentiment; at times it recalls scenes of the 'merry wives of windsor,' but no sign of shakespeare's workmanship is apparent. the 'history of cardenio' is not extant. { } francis kirkman, another active london publisher, who first printed william rowley's 'birth of merlin' in , described it on the title-page as 'written by william shakespeare and william rowley;' it was reprinted at halle in a so-called 'collection of pseudo-shakespearean plays' in . 'the passionate pilgrim.' but poems no less than plays, in which shakespeare had no hand, were deceptively placed to his credit as soon as his fame was established. in william jaggard, a well-known pirate publisher, issued a poetic anthology which he entitled 'the passionate pilgrim, by w. shakespeare.' the volume opened with two sonnets by shakespeare which were not previously in print, and there followed three poems drawn from the already published 'love's labour's lost;' but the bulk of the volume was by richard barnfield and others. { } a third edition of the 'passionate pilgrim' was printed in with unaltered title-page, although the incorrigible jaggard had added two new poems which he silently filched from thomas heywood's 'troia britannica.' heywood called attention to his own grievance in the dedicatory epistle before his 'apology for actors' ( ), and he added that shakespeare resented the more substantial injury which the publisher had done him. 'i know,' wrote heywood of shakespeare, '[he was] much offended with m. jaggard that (altogether unknown to him) presumed to make so bold with his name.' in the result the publisher seems to have removed shakespeare's name from the title-page of a few copies. this is the only instance on record of a protest on shakespeare's part against the many injuries which he suffered at the hands of contemporary publishers. 'the phoenix and the turtle.' in shakespeare's full name was appended to 'a poetical essaie on the phoenix and the turtle,' which was published by edward blount in an appendix to robert chester's 'love's martyr, or rosalins complaint, allegorically shadowing the truth of love in the constant fate of the phoenix and turtle.' the drift of chester's crabbed verse is not clear, nor can the praise of perspicuity be allowed to the appendix to which shakespeare contributed, together with marston, chapman, ben jonson, and 'ignoto.' the appendix is introduced by a new title-page running thus: 'hereafter follow diverse poeticall essaies on the former subject, viz: the turtle and phoenix. done by the best and chiefest of our modern writers, with their names subscribed to their particular workes: never before extant.' shakespeare's alleged contribution consists of thirteen four-lined stanzas in trochaics, each line being of seven syllables, with the rhymes disposed as in tennyson's 'in memoriam.' the concluding 'threnos' is in five three-lined stanzas, also in trochaics, each stanza having a single rhyme. the poet describes in enigmatic language the obsequies of the phoenix and the turtle-dove, who had been united in life by the ties of a purely spiritual love. the poem may be a mere play of fancy without recondite intention, or it may be of allegorical import; but whether it bear relation to pending ecclesiastical, political, or metaphysical controversy, or whether it interpret popular grief for the death of some leaders of contemporary society, is not easily determined. { } happily shakespeare wrote nothing else of like character. xii--the practical affairs of life shakespeare's practical temperament. shakespeare, in middle life, brought to practical affairs a singularly sane and sober temperament. in 'ratseis ghost' ( ), an anecdotal biography of gamaliel ratsey, a notorious highwayman, who was hanged at bedford on march , , the highwayman is represented as compelling a troop of actors whom he met by chance on the road to perform in his presence. at the close of the performance ratsey, according to the memoir, addressed himself to a leader of the company, and cynically urged him to practise the utmost frugality in london. 'when thou feelest thy purse well lined (the counsellor proceeded), buy thee some place or lordship in the country that, growing weary of playing, thy money may there bring thee to dignity and reputation.' whether or no ratsey's biographer consciously identified the highwayman's auditor with shakespeare, it was the prosaic course of conduct marked out by ratsey that shakespeare literally followed. as soon as his position in his profession was assured, he devoted his energies to re-establishing the fallen fortunes of his family in his native place, and to acquiring for himself and his successors the status of gentlefolk. his father's difficulties. his father's pecuniary embarrassments had steadily increased since his son's departure. creditors harassed him unceasingly. in one nicholas lane pursued him for a debt for which he had become liable as surety for his brother henry, who was still farming their father's lands at snitterfield. through and john shakespeare retaliated with pertinacity on a debtor named john tompson. but in a creditor, adrian quiney, obtained a writ of distraint against him, and although in he attested inventories taken on the death of two neighbours, ralph shaw and henry field, father of the london printer, he was on december of the same year 'presented' as a recusant for absenting himself from church. the commissioners reported that his absence was probably due to 'fear of process for debt.' he figures for the last time in the proceedings of the local court, in his customary _role_ of defendant, on march , . he was then joined with two fellow traders--philip green, a chandler, and henry rogers, a butcher--as defendant in a suit brought by adrian quiney and thomas barker for the recovery of the sum of five pounds. unlike his partners in the litigation, his name is not followed in the record by a mention of his calling, and when the suit reached a later stage his name was omitted altogether. these may be viewed as indications that in the course of the proceedings he finally retired from trade, which had been of late prolific in disasters for him. in january - he conveyed a slip of land attached to his dwelling in henley street to one george badger. his wife's debt. there is a likelihood that the poet's wife fared, in the poet's absence, no better than his father. the only contemporary mention made of her between her marriage in and her husband's death in is as the borrower at an unascertained date (evidently before ) of forty shillings from thomas whittington, who had formerly been her father's shepherd. the money was unpaid when whittington died in , and he directed his executor to recover the sum from the poet and distribute it among the poor of stratford. { } it was probably in that shakespeare returned, after nearly eleven years' absence, to his native town, and worked a revolution in the affairs of his family. the prosecutions of his father in the local court ceased. thenceforth the poet's relations with stratford were uninterrupted. he still resided in london for most of the year; but until the close of his professional career he paid the town at least one annual visit, and he was always formally described as 'of stratford-on-avon, gentleman.' he was no doubt there on august , , when his only son, hamnet, was buried in the parish church; the boy was eleven and a half years old. the coat-of-arms. at the same date the poet's father, despite his pecuniary embarrassments, took a step, by way of regaining his prestige, which must be assigned to the poet's intervention. { a} he made application to the college of heralds for a coat-of-arms. { b} then, as now, the heralds when bestowing new coats-of-arms commonly credited the applicant's family with an imaginary antiquity, and little reliance need be placed on the biographical or genealogical statements alleged in grants of arms. the poet's father or the poet himself when first applying to the college stated that john shakespeare, in , while he was bailiff of stratford, and while he was by virtue of that office a justice of the peace, had obtained from robert cook, then clarenceux herald, a 'pattern' or sketch of an armorial coat. this allegation is not noticed in the records of the college, and may be a formal fiction designed by john shakespeare and his son to recommend their claim to the notice of the heralds. the negotiations of , if they were not apocryphal, were certainly abortive; otherwise there would have been no necessity for the further action of . in any case, on october , , a draft, which remains in the college of arms, was prepared under the direction of william dethick, garter king-of-arms, granting john's request for a coat-of-arms. garter stated, with characteristic vagueness, that he had been 'by credible report' informed that the applicant's 'parentes and late antecessors were for theire valeant and faithfull service advanced and rewarded by the most prudent prince king henry the seventh of famous memories sythence whiche tyme they have continewed at those partes [_i.e._ warwickshire] in good reputacion and credit;' and that 'the said john [had] maryed mary, daughter and heiress of robert arden, of wilmcote, gent.' in consideration of these titles to honour, garter declared that he assigned to shakespeare this shield, viz.: 'gold, on a bend sable, a spear of the first, and for his crest or cognizance a falcon, his wings displayed argent, standing on a wreath of his colours, supporting a spear gold steeled as aforesaid.' in the margin of this draft-grant there is a pen sketch of the arms and crest, and above them is written the motto, 'non sans droict.' { } a second copy of the draft, also dated in , is extant at the college. the only alterations are the substitution of the word 'grandfather' for 'antecessors' in the account of john shakespeare's ancestry, and the substitution of the word 'esquire' for 'gent' in the description of his wife's father, robert arden. at the foot of this draft, however, appeared some disconnected and unverifiable memoranda which john shakespeare or his son had supplied to the heralds, to the effect that john had been bailiff of stratford, had received a 'pattern' of a shield from clarenceux cook, was a man of substance, and had married into a worshipful family. { } [picture: coat-of-arms] neither of these drafts was fully executed. it may have been that the unduly favourable representations made to the college respecting john shakespeare's social and pecuniary position excited suspicion even in the habitually credulous minds of the heralds, or those officers may have deemed the profession of the son, who was conducting the negotiation, a bar to completing the transaction. at any rate, shakespeare and his father allowed three years to elapse before (as far as extant documents show) they made a further endeavour to secure the coveted distinction. in their efforts were crowned with success. changes in the interval among the officials at the college may have facilitated the proceedings. in the earl of essex had become earl marshal and chief of the heralds' college (the office had been in commission in ); while the great scholar and antiquary, william camden, had joined the college, also in , as clarenceux king-of-arms. the poet was favourably known to both camden and the earl of essex, the close friend of the earl of southampton. his father's application now took a new form. no grant of arms was asked for. it was asserted without qualification that the coat, as set out in the draft-grants of , had been _assigned_ to john shakespeare while he was bailiff, and the heralds were merely invited to give him a 'recognition' or 'exemplification' of it. { } at the same time he asked permission for himself to impale, and his eldest son and other children to quarter, on 'his ancient coat-of-arms' that of the ardens of wilmcote, his wife's family. the college officers were characteristically complacent. a draft was prepared under the hands of dethick, the garter king, and of camden, the clarenceux king, granting the required 'exemplification' and authorising the required impalement and quartering. on one point only did dethick and camden betray conscientious scruples. shakespeare and his father obviously desired the heralds to recognise the title of mary shakespeare (the poet's mother) to bear the arms of the great warwickshire family of arden, then seated at park hall. but the relationship, if it existed, was undetermined; the warwickshire ardens were gentry of influence in the county, and were certain to protest against any hasty assumption of identity between their line and that of the humble farmer of wilmcote. after tricking the warwickshire arden coat in the margin of the draft-grant for the purpose of indicating the manner of its impalement, the heralds on second thoughts erased it. they substituted in their sketch the arms of an arden family living at alvanley in the distant county of cheshire. with that stock there was no pretence that robert arden of wilmcote was lineally connected; but the bearers of the alvanley coat were unlikely to learn of its suggested impalement with the shakespeare shield, and the heralds were less liable to the risk of litigation. but the shakespeares wisely relieved the college of all anxiety by omitting to assume the arden coat. the shakespeare arms alone are displayed with full heraldic elaboration on the monument above the poet's grave in stratford church; they alone appear on the seal and on the tombstone of his elder daughter, mrs. susanna hall, impaled with the arms of her husband; { a} and they alone were quartered by thomas nash, the first husband of the poet's granddaughter, elizabeth hall. { b} some objection was taken a few years later to the grant even of the shakespeare shield, but it was based on vexatious grounds that could not be upheld. early in the seventeenth century ralph brooke, who was york herald from till his death in , and was long engaged in a bitter quarrel with his fellow officers at the college, complained that the arms 'exemplified' to shakespeare usurped the coat of lord mauley, on whose shield 'a bend sable' also figured. dethick and camden, who were responsible for any breach of heraldic etiquette in the matter, answered that the shakespeare shield bore no more resemblance to the mauley coat than it did to that of the harley and the ferrers families, which also bore 'a bend sable,' but that in point of fact it differed conspicuously from all three by the presence of a spear on the 'bend.' dethick and camden added, with customary want of precision, that the person to whom the grant was made had 'borne magistracy and was justice of peace at stratford-on-avon; he maried the daughter and heire of arderne, and was able to maintain that estate.' { } purchase of new place. meanwhile, in , the poet had taken openly in his own person a more effective step in the way of rehabilitating himself and his family in the eyes of his fellow townsmen. on may he purchased the largest house in the town, known as new place. it had been built by sir hugh clopton more than a century before, and seems to have fallen into a ruinous condition. but shakespeare paid for it, with two barns and two gardens, the then substantial sum of pounds. owing to the sudden death of the vendor, william underhill, on july , , the original transfer of the property was left at the time incomplete. underhill's son fulk died a felon, and he was succeeded in the family estates by his brother hercules, who on coming of age, may , completed in a new deed the transfer of new place to shakespeare. { a} on february , - , shakespeare was described as a householder in chapel street ward, in which new place was situated, and as the owner of ten quarters of corn. the inventory was made owing to the presence of famine in the town, and only two inhabitants were credited with a larger holding. in the same year ( ) he procured stone for the repair of the house, and before had planted a fruit orchard. he is traditionally said to have interested himself in the garden, and to have planted with his own hands a mulberry-tree, which was long a prominent feature of it. when this was cut down, in , numerous relics were made from it, and were treated with an almost superstitious veneration. { b} shakespeare does not appear to have permanently settled at new place till . in the house, or part of it, was occupied by the town clerk, thomas greene, 'alias shakespeare,' who claimed to be the poet's cousin. his grandmother seems to have been a shakespeare. he often acted as the poet's legal adviser. it was doubtless under their son's guidance that shakespeare's father and mother set on foot in november --six months after his acquisition of new place--a lawsuit against john lambert for the recovery of the mortgaged estate of asbies in wilmcote. the litigation dragged on for some years without result. appeals for aid from his fellow-townsmen. three letters written during by leading men at stratford are still extant among the corporation's archives, and leave no doubt of the reputation for wealth and influence with which the purchase of new place invested the poet in his fellow-townsmen's eyes. abraham sturley, who was once bailiff, writing early in , apparently to a brother in london, says: 'this is one special remembrance from our father's motion. it seemeth by him that our countryman, mr. shakspere, is willing to disburse some money upon some odd yardland or other at shottery, or near about us: he thinketh it a very fit pattern to move him to deal in the matter of our tithes. by the instructions you can give him thereof, and by the friends he can make therefor, we think it a fair mark for him to shoot at, and would do us much good.' richard quiney, another townsman, father of thomas (afterwards one of shakespeare's two sons-in-law), was, in the autumn of the same year, harassed by debt, and on october appealed to shakespeare for a loan of money. 'loving countryman,' the application ran, 'i am bold of you as of a friend craving your help with xxx_li_.' quiney was staying at the bell inn in carter lane, london, and his main business in the metropolis was to procure exemption for the town of stratford from the payment of a subsidy. abraham sturley, writing to quiney from stratford ten days later (on november , ), pointed out to him that since the town was wholly unable, in consequence of the dearth of corn, to pay the tax, he hoped 'that our countryman, mr. wm. shak., would procure us money, which i will like of, as i shall hear when and where, and how.' financial position before . the financial prosperity to which this correspondence and the transactions immediately preceding it point has been treated as one of the chief mysteries of shakespeare's career, but the difficulties are gratuitous. there is practically nothing in shakespeare's financial position that a study of the contemporary conditions of theatrical life does not fully explain. it was not until , when the globe theatre was built, that he acquired any share in the profits of a playhouse. but his revenues as a successful dramatist and actor were by no means contemptible at an earlier date. his gains in the capacity of dramatist formed the smaller source of income. the highest price known to have been paid before to an author for a play by the manager of an acting company was pounds; pounds was the lowest rate. { a} a small additional gratuity--rarely apparently exceeding ten shillings--was bestowed on a dramatist whose piece on its first production was especially well received; and the author was by custom allotted, by way of 'benefit,' a certain proportion of the receipts of the theatre on the production of a play for the second time. { b} other sums, amounting at times to as much as pounds, were bestowed on the author for revising and altering an old play for a revival. the nineteen plays which may be set to shakespeare's credit between and , combined with such revising work as fell to his lot during those eight years, cannot consequently have brought him less than pounds, or some pounds a year. eight or nine of these plays were published during the period, but the publishers operated independently of the author, taking all the risks and, at the same time, all the receipts. the publication of shakespeare's plays in no way affected his monetary resources, although his friendly relations with the printer field doubtless secured him, despite the absence of any copyright law, some part of the profits in the large and continuous sale of his poems. but it was as an actor that at an early date he acquired a genuinely substantial and secure income. there is abundance of contemporary evidence to show that the stage was for an efficient actor an assured avenue to comparative wealth. in robert greene describes in his tract entitled 'never too late' a meeting with a player whom he took by his 'outward habit' to be 'a gentleman of great living' and a 'substantial man.' the player informed greene that he had at the beginning of his career travelled on foot, bearing his theatrical properties on his back, but he prospered so rapidly that at the time of speaking 'his very share in playing apparel would not be sold for pounds.' among his neighbours 'where he dwelt' he was reputed able 'at his proper cost to build a windmill.' in the university play, 'the return from parnassus' ( ?), a poor student enviously complains of the wealth and position which a successful actor derived from his calling. england affords those glorious vagabonds, that carried erst their fardles on their backs, coursers to ride on through the gazing streets, sweeping it in their glaring satin suits, and pages to attend their masterships; with mouthing words that better wits had framed, they purchase lands and now esquires are made. { a} the travelling actors, from whom the highwayman gamaliel ratsey extorted a free performance in , were represented as men with the certainty of a rich competency in prospect. { b} an efficient actor received in as large a regular salary as pounds. the lowest known valuation set an actor's wages at s. a day, or about pounds a year. shakespeare's emoluments as an actor before are not likely to have fallen below pounds; while the remuneration due to performances at court or in noblemen's houses, if the accounts of be accepted as the basis of reckoning, added some pounds. thus over pounds (equal to , pounds of to-day) would be shakespeare's average annual revenue before . such a sum would be regarded as a very large income in a country town. according to the author of 'ratseis ghost,' the actor, who may well have been meant for shakespeare, practised in london a strict frugality, and there seems no reason why shakespeare should not have been able in to draw from his savings pounds wherewith to buy new place. his resources might well justify his fellow-townsmen's opinion of his wealth in , and suffice between and to meet his expenses, in rebuilding the house, stocking the barns with grain, and conducting various legal proceedings. but, according to tradition, he had in the earl of southampton a wealthy and generous friend who on one occasion gave him a large gift of money to enable 'him to go through with' a purchase to which he had a mind. a munificent gift, added to professional gains, leaves nothing unaccounted for in shakespeare's financial position before . financial position after . after his sources of income from the theatre greatly increased. in the heirs of the actor richard burbage were engaged in litigation respecting their proprietary rights in the two playhouses, the globe and the blackfriars theatres. the documents relating to this litigation supply authentic, although not very detailed, information of shakespeare's interest in theatrical property. { } richard burbage, with his brother cuthbert, erected at their sole cost the globe theatre in the winter of - , and the blackfriars theatre, which their father was building at the time of his death in , was also their property. after completing the globe they leased out, for twenty-one years, shares in the receipts of the theatre to 'those deserving men shakespeare, hemings, condell, philips, and others.' all the shareholders named were, like burbage, active members of shakespeare's company of players. the shares, which numbered sixteen in all, carried with them the obligation of providing for the expenses of the playhouse, and were doubtless in the first instance freely bestowed. hamlet claims, in the play scene (iii. ii. ), that the success of his improvised tragedy deserved to get him 'a fellowship in a cry of players'--a proof that a successful dramatist might reasonably expect such a reward for a conspicuous effort. in 'hamlet,' moreover, both a share and a half-share of 'a fellowship in a cry of players' are described as assets of enviable value (iii. ii. - ). how many shares originally fell to shakespeare there is no means of determining. records of later subdivisions suggest that they did not exceed two. the globe was an exceptionally large and popular playhouse. it would accommodate some two thousand spectators, whose places cost them sums varying between twopence and half a crown. the receipts were therefore considerable, hardly less than pounds daily, or some , pounds a year. according to the documents of , an actor-sharer at the globe received above pounds a year on each share, besides his actor's salary of pounds. thus shakespeare drew from the globe theatre, at the lowest estimate, more than pounds a year in all. his interest in the blackfriars theatre was comparatively unimportant, and is less easy to estimate. the often quoted documents on which collier depended to prove him a substantial shareholder in that playhouse have long been proved to be forgeries. the pleas in the lawsuit of show that the burbages, the owners, leased the blackfriars theatre after its establishment in for a long term of years to the master of the children of the chapel, but bought out the lessee at the end of , and then 'placed' in it 'men-players which were hemings, condell, shakespeare, etc.' to these and other actors they allotted shares in the receipts, the shares numbering eight in all. the profits were far smaller than at the globe, and if shakespeare held one share (certainty on the point is impossible), it added not more than pounds a year to his income, and that not until . later income. his remuneration as dramatist between and was also by no means contemptible. prices paid to dramatists for plays rose rapidly in the early years of the seventeenth century, { } while the value of the author's 'benefits' grew with the growing vogue of the theatre. the exceptional popularity of shakespeare's plays after gave him the full advantage of higher rates of pecuniary reward in all directions, and the seventeen plays which were produced by him between that year and the close of his professional career in probably brought him an average return of pounds each or pounds in all--nearly pounds a year. at the same time the increase in the number of court performances under james i, and the additional favour bestowed on shakespeare's company, may well have given that source of income the enhanced value of pounds a year. { } thus shakespeare in the later period of his life was earning above pounds a year in money of the period. with so large a professional income he could easily, with good management, have completed those purchases of houses and land at stratford on which he laid out, between and , a total sum of pounds, or an annual average of pounds. these properties, it must be remembered, represented investments, and he drew rent from most of them. he traded, too, in agricultural produce. there is nothing inherently improbable in the statement of john ward, the seventeenth-century vicar of stratford, that in his last years 'he spent at the rate of a thousand a year, as i have heard,' although we may reasonably make allowance for exaggeration in the round figures. incomes of fellow-actors. shakespeare realised his theatrical shares several years before his death in , when he left, according to his will, pounds in money in addition to an extensive real estate and numerous personal belongings. there was nothing exceptional in this comparative affluence. his friends and fellow-actors, heming and condell, amassed equally large, if not larger, fortunes. burbage died in worth pounds in land, besides personal property; while a contemporary actor and theatrical proprietor, edward alleyn, purchased the manor of dulwich for , pounds (in money of his own day), and devoted it, with much other property, to public uses, at the same time as he made ample provision for his family out of the residue of his estate. gifts from patrons may have continued occasionally to augment shakespeare's resources, but his wealth can be satisfactorily assigned to better attested agencies. there is no ground for treating it as of mysterious origin. { a} formation of the estate at stratford - . between and , while london remained shakespeare's chief home, he built up at stratford a large landed estate which his purchase of new place had inaugurated. in his father died, being buried on september . he apparently left no will, and the poet, as the eldest son, inherited the houses in henley street, the only portion of the property of the elder shakespeare or of his wife which had not been alienated to creditors. shakespeare permitted his mother to reside in one of the henley street houses till her death (she was buried september , ), and he derived a modest rent from the other. on may , , he purchased for pounds of the rich landowners william and john combe of stratford acres of arable land near the town. the conveyance was delivered, in the poet's absence, to his brother gilbert, 'to the use of the within named william shakespere.' { b} a third purchase quickly followed. on september , , at a court baron of the manor of rowington, one walter getley transferred to the poet a cottage and garden which were situated at chapel lane, opposite the lower grounds of new place. they were held practically in fee-simple at the annual rental of s. d. it appears from the roll that shakespeare did not attend the manorial court held on the day fixed for the transfer of the property at rowington, and it was consequently stipulated then that the estate should remain in the hands of the lady of the manor until he completed the purchase in person. at a later period he was admitted to the copyhold, and he settled the remainder on his two daughters in fee. in april he purchased from the combes acres of pasture land, to add to the of arable land that he had acquired of the same owners in . the stratford tithes. as early as abraham sturley had suggested that shakespeare should purchase the tithes of stratford. seven years later, on july , , he bought for pounds of ralph huband an unexpired term of thirty-one years of a ninety-two years' lease of a moiety of the tithes of stratford, old stratford, bishopton, and welcombe. the moiety was subject to a rent of pounds to the corporation, who were the reversionary owners on the lease's expiration, and of pounds to john barker, the heir of a former proprietor. the investment brought shakespeare, under the most favourable circumstances, no more than an annuity of pounds, and the refusal of persons who claimed an interest in the other moiety to acknowledge the full extent of their liability to the corporation led that body to demand from the poet payments justly due from others. after he joined with two interested persons, richard lane of awston and thomas greene, the town clerk of stratford, in a suit in chancery to determine the exact responsibilities of all the tithe-owners, and in they presented a bill of complaint to lord-chancellor ellesmere, with what result is unknown. his acquisition of a part-ownership in the tithes was fruitful in legal embarrassments. recovery of small debts. shakespeare inherited his father's love of litigation, and stood rigorously by his rights in all his business relations. in march he recovered in london a debt of pounds from one john clayton. in july , in the local court at stratford, he sued one philip rogers, to whom he had supplied since the preceding march malt to the value of pound s. d, and had on june lent s. in cash. rogers paid back s., and shakespeare sought the balance of the account, pound s. d. during and he was at law with another fellow-townsman, john addenbroke. on february , , shakespeare, who was apparently represented by his solicitor and kinsman thomas greene, { a} obtained judgment from a jury against addenbroke for the payment of pounds, and pound s. costs, but addenbroke left the town, and the triumph proved barren. shakespeare avenged himself by proceeding against one thomas horneby, who had acted as the absconding debtor's bail. { b} xiii--maturity of genius literary work in . with an inconsistency that is more apparent than real, the astute business transactions of these years ( - ) synchronise with the production of shakespeare's noblest literary work--of his most sustained and serious efforts in comedy, tragedy, and romance. in , after abandoning english history with 'henry v,' he addressed himself to the composition of his three most perfect essays in comedy--'much ado about nothing,' 'as you like it,' and 'twelfth night.' their good-humoured tone seems to reveal their author in his happiest frame of mind; in each the gaiety and tenderness of youthful womanhood are exhibited in fascinating union; while shakespeare's lyric gift bred no sweeter melodies than the songs with which the three plays are interspersed. at the same time each comedy enshrines such penetrating reflections on mysterious problems of life as mark the stage of maturity in the growth of the author's intellect. the first two of the three plays were entered on the 'stationers' registers' before august , , on which day a prohibition was set on their publication, as well as on the publication of 'henry v' and of ben jonson's 'every man in his humour.' this was one of the many efforts of the acting company to stop the publication of plays in the belief that the practice was injurious to their rights. the effort was only partially successful. 'much ado,' like 'henry v,' was published before the close of the year. neither 'as you like it' nor 'twelfth night,' however, was printed till it appeared in the folio. 'much ado.' in 'much ado,' which appears to have been written in , the brilliant and spirited comedy of benedick and beatrice, and of the blundering watchmen dogberry and verges, is wholly original; but the sombre story of hero and claudio, about which the comic incident revolves, is drawn from an italian source, either from bandello (novel. xxii.) through belleforest's 'histoires tragiques,' or from ariosto's 'orlando furioso' through sir john harington's translation (canto v.) ariosto's version, in which the injured heroine is called ginevra, and her lover ariodante, had been dramatised before. according to the accounts of the court revels, 'a historie of ariodante and ginevra was showed before her majestie on shrovetuesdaie at night' in . { } throughout shakespeare's play the ludicrous and serious aspects of humanity are blended with a convincing naturalness. the popular comic actor william kemp filled the role of dogberry, and cowley appeared as verges. in both the quarto of and the folio of these actors' names are prefixed by a copyist's error to some of the speeches allotted to the two characters (act iv. scene ii.) 'as you like it.' 'as you like it,' which quickly followed, is a dramatic adaptation of lodge's romance, 'rosalynde, euphues golden legacie' ( ), but shakespeare added three new characters of first-rate interest--jaques, the meditative cynic; touchstone, the most carefully elaborated of all shakespeare's fools; and the hoyden audrey. hints for the scene of orlando's encounter with charles the wrestler, and for touchstone's description of the diverse shapes of a lie, were clearly drawn from a book called 'saviolo's practise,' a manual of the art of self-defence, which appeared in from the pen of vincentio saviolo, an italian fencing-master in the service of the earl of essex. none of shakespeare's comedies breathes a more placid temper or approaches more nearly to a pastoral drama. yet there is no lack of intellectual or poetic energy in the enunciation of the contemplative philosophy which is cultivated in the forest of arden. in rosalind, celia, phoebe, and audrey, four types of youthful womanhood are contrasted with the liveliest humour. 'twelfth night.' the date of 'twelfth night' is probably , and its name, which has no reference to the story, doubtless commemorates the fact that it was designed for a twelfth night celebration. 'the new map with the augmentation of the indies,' spoken of by maria (iii. ii. ), was a respectful reference to the great map of the world or 'hydrographical description' which was first issued with hakluyt's 'voyages' in or , and first disclosed the full extent of recent explorations of the 'indies' in the new world and the old. { a} like the 'comedy of errors,' 'twelfth night' achieved the distinction, early in its career, of a presentation at an inn of court. it was produced at middle temple hall on february , - , and manningham, a barrister who was present, described the performance. { b} manningham wrote that the piece was 'much like the "comedy of errors" or "menechmi" in plautus, but most like and neere to that in italian called "inganni."' two sixteenth-century italian plays entitled 'gl' inganni' ('the cheats'), and a third called 'gl' ingannati,' bear resemblance to 'twelfth night.' it is possible that shakespeare had recourse to the last, which was based on bandello's novel of nicuola, { c} was first published at siena in , and became popular throughout italy. but in all probability he drew the story solely from the 'historie of apolonius and silla,' which was related in 'riche his farewell to militarie profession' ( ). the author of that volume, barnabe riche, translated the tale either direct from bandello's italian novel or from the french rendering of bandello's work in belleforest's 'histoires tragiques.' romantic pathos, as in 'much ado,' is the dominant note of the main plot of 'twelfth night,' but shakespeare neutralises the tone of sadness by his mirthful portrayal of malvolio, sir toby belch, sir andrew aguecheek, fabian, the clown feste, and maria, all of whom are his own creations. the ludicrous gravity of malvolio proved exceptionally popular on the stage. 'julius caesar,' . in shakespeare made a new departure by drawing a plot from north's noble translation of plutarch's 'lives.' { a} plutarch is the king of biographers, and the deference which shakespeare paid his work by adhering to the phraseology wherever it was practicable illustrates his literary discrimination. on plutarch's lives of julius caesar, brutus, and antony, shakespeare based his historical tragedy of 'julius caesar.' weever, in , in his 'mirror of martyrs,' plainly refers to the masterly speech in the forum at caaesar's funeral which shakespeare put into antony's mouth. there is no suggestion of the speech in plutarch; hence the composition of 'julius caesar' may be held to have preceded the issue of weever's book in . the general topic was already familiar on the stage. polonius told hamlet how, when he was at the university, he 'did enact julius caesar; he was kill'd in the capitol: brutus kill'd him.' { b} a play of the same title was known as early as , and was acted in by shakespeare's company. shakespeare's piece is a penetrating study of political life, and, although the murder and funeral of caesar form the central episode and not the climax, the tragedy is thoroughly well planned and balanced. caesar is ironically depicted in his dotage. the characters of brutus, antony, and cassius, the real heroes of the action, are exhibited with faultless art. the fifth act, which presents the battle of philippi in progress, proves ineffective on the stage, but the reader never relaxes his interest in the fortunes of the vanquished brutus, whose death is the catastrophe. while 'julius caesar' was winning its first laurels on the stage, the fortunes of the london theatres were menaced by two manifestations of unreasoning prejudice on the part of the public. the earlier manifestation, although speciously the more serious, was in effect innocuous. the puritans of the city of london had long agitated for the suppression of all theatrical performances, and it seemed as if the agitators triumphed when they induced the privy council on june , , to issue to the officers of the corporation of london and to the justices of the peace of middlesex and surrey an order forbidding the maintenance of more than two playhouses--one in middlesex (alleyn's newly erected playhouse, the 'fortune' in cripplegate), and the other in surrey (the 'globe' on the bankside). the contemplated restriction would have deprived very many actors of employment, and driven others to seek a precarious livelihood in the provinces. happily, disaster was averted by the failure of the municipal authorities and the magistrates of surrey and middlesex to make the order operative. all the london theatres that were already in existence went on their way unchecked. { a} the strife between adult and boy actors. more calamitous was a temporary reverse of fortune which shakespeare's company, in common with the other companies of adult actors, suffered soon afterwards at the hands, not of fanatical enemies of the drama, but of playgoers who were its avowed supporters. the company of boy-actors, chiefly recruited from the choristers of the chapel royal, and known as 'the children of the chapel,' had since been installed at the new theatre in blackfriars, and after the fortunes of the veterans, who occupied rival stages, were put in jeopardy by the extravagant outburst of public favour that the boys' performances evoked. in 'hamlet,' the play which followed 'julius caesar,' shakespeare pointed out the perils of the situation. { b} the adult actors, shakespeare asserted, were prevented from performing in london through no falling off in their efficiency, but by the 'late innovation' of the children's vogue. { a} they were compelled to go on tour in the provinces, at the expense of their revenues and reputation, because 'an aery [_i.e._ nest] of children, little eyases [_i.e._ young hawks],' dominated the theatrical world, and monopolised public applause. 'these are now the fashion,' the dramatist lamented, { b} and he made the topic the text of a reflection on the fickleness of public taste: hamlet. do the boys carry it away? rosencrantz. ay, that they do, my lord, hercules and his load too. hamlet. it is not very strange; for my uncle is king of denmark, and those that would make mows at him while my father lived, give twenty, forty, fifty, a hundred ducats apiece for his picture in little. jealousies in the ranks of the dramatists accentuated the actors' difficulties. ben jonson was, at the end of the sixteenth century, engaged in a fierce personal quarrel with two of his fellow dramatists, marston and dekker. the adult actors generally avowed sympathy with jonson's foes. jonson, by way of revenge, sought an offensive alliance with 'the children of the chapel.' under careful tuition the boys proved capable of performing much the same pieces as the men. to 'the children' jonson offered in his comical satire of 'cynthia's revels,' in which he held up to ridicule dekker, marston, and their actor-friends. the play, when acted by 'the children' at the blackfriars theatre, was warmly welcomed by the audience. next year jonson repeated his manoeuvre with greater effect. he learnt that marston and dekker were conspiring with the actors of shakespeare's company to attack him in a piece called 'satiro-mastix, or the untrussing of the humourous poet.' he anticipated their design by producing, again with 'the children of the chapel,' his 'poetaster,' which was throughout a venomous invective against his enemies--dramatists and actors alike. shakespeare's company retorted by producing dekker and marston's 'satiro-mastix' at the globe theatre next year. but jonson's action had given new life to the vogue of the children. playgoers took sides in the struggle, and their attention was for a season riveted, to the exclusion of topics more germane to their province, on the actors' and dramatists' boisterous war of personalities. { } shakespeare's references to the struggle. in his detailed references to the conflict in 'hamlet' shakespeare protested against the abusive comments on the men-actors of 'the common stages' or public theatres which were put into the children's mouths. rosencrantz declared that the children 'so berattle [_i.e._ assail] the common stages--so they call them--that many wearing rapiers are afraid of goose-quills, and dare scarce come thither [_i.e._ to the public theatres].' hamlet in pursuit of the theme pointed out that the writers who encouraged the vogue of the 'child-actors' did them a poor service, because when the boys should reach men's estate they would run the risk, if they continued on the stage, of the same insults and neglect which now threatened their seniors. hamlet. what are they children? who maintains 'em? how are they escoted [_i.e._ paid]? will they pursue the quality [_i.e._ the actor's profession] no longer than they can sing? will they not say afterwards, if they should grow themselves to common players--as it is most like, if their means are no better--their writers do them wrong to make them exclaim against their own succession? rosencrantz. faith, there has been much to do on both sides, and the nation holds it no sin to tarre [_i.e._ incite] them to controversy: there was for a while no money bid for argument, unless the poet and the player went to cuffs in the question. hamlet. is it possible? guildenstern. o, there has been much throwing about of brains! shakespeare clearly favoured the adult actors in their rivalry with the boys, but he wrote more like a disinterested spectator than an active partisan when he made specific reference to the strife between the poet ben jonson and the players. in the prologue to 'troilus and cressida' which he penned in , he warned his hearers, with obvious allusion to ben jonson's battles, that he hesitated to identify himself with either actor or poet. { } passages in ben jonson's 'poetaster,' moreover, pointedly suggest that shakespeare cultivated so assiduously an attitude of neutrality that jonson acknowledged him to be qualified for the role of peacemaker. the gentleness of disposition with which shakespeare was invariably credited by his friends would have well fitted him for such an office. jonson's 'poetaster.' jonson figures personally in the 'poetaster' under the name of horace. episodically horace and his friends, tibullus and gallus, eulogise the work and genius of another character, virgil, in terms so closely resembling those which jonson is known to have applied to shakespeare that they may be regarded as intended to apply to him (act v. sc. i.) jonson points out that virgil, by his penetrating intuition, achieved the great effects which others laboriously sought to reach through rules of art. his learning labours not the school-like gloss that most consists of echoing words and terms . . . nor any long or far-fetched circumstance-- wrapt in the curious generalities of arts-- but a direct and analytic sum of all the worth and first effects of arts. and for his poesy, 'tis so rammed with life that it shall gather strength of life with being, and live hereafter, more admired than now. tibullus gives virgil equal credit for having in his writings touched with telling truth upon every vicissitude of human existence. that which he hath writ is with such judgment laboured and distilled through all the needful uses of our lives that, could a man remember but his lines, he should not touch at any serious point but he might breathe his spirit out of him. finally, virgil in the play is nominated by caesar to act as judge between horace and his libellers, and he advises the administration of purging pills to the offenders. that course of treatment is adopted with satisfactory results. { } shakespeare's alleged partisanship. as against this interpretation, one contemporary witness has been held to testify that shakespeare stemmed the tide of jonson's embittered activity by no peace-making interposition, but by joining his foes, and by administering to him, with their aid, the identical course of medicine which in the 'poetaster' is meted out to his enemies. in the same year ( ) as the 'poetaster' was produced, 'the return from parnassus'--a third piece in a trilogy of plays--was 'acted by the students in st. john's college, cambridge.' in this piece, as in its two predecessors, shakespeare received, both as a playwright and a poet, high commendation, although his poems were judged to reflect somewhat too largely 'love's lazy foolish languishment.' the actor burbage was introduced in his own name instructing an aspirant to the actor's profession in the part of richard the third, and the familiar lines from shakespeare's play-- now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this sun of york-- are recited by the pupil as part of his lesson. subsequently in a prose dialogue between shakespeare's fellow-actors burbage and kempe, kempe remarks of university dramatists, 'why, here's our fellow shakespeare puts them all down; aye, and ben jonson, too. o! that ben jonson is a pestilent fellow. he brought up horace, giving the poets a pill; but our fellow shakespeare hath given him a purge that made him bewray his credit.' burbage adds: 'he is a shrewd fellow indeed.' this perplexing passage has been held to mean that shakespeare took a decisive part against jonson in the controversy with dekker and dekker's actor friends. but such a conclusion is nowhere corroborated, and seems to be confuted by the eulogies of virgil in the 'poetaster' and by the general handling of the theme in 'hamlet.' the words quoted from 'the return from parnassus' hardly admit of a literal interpretation. probably the 'purge' that shakespeare was alleged by the author of 'the return from parnassus' to have given jonson meant no more than that shakespeare had signally outstripped jonson in popular esteem. as the author of 'julius caesar,' he had just proved his command of topics that were peculiarly suited to jonson's vein, { } and had in fact outrun his churlish comrade on his own ground. 'hamlet,' . at any rate, in the tragedy that shakespeare brought out in the year following the production of 'julius caesar,' he finally left jonson and all friends and foes lagging far behind both in achievement and reputation. this new exhibition of the force of his genius re-established, too, the ascendency of the adult actors who interpreted his work, and the boys' supremacy was quickly brought to an end. in shakespeare produced 'hamlet,' 'that piece of his which most kindled english hearts.' the story of the prince of denmark had been popular on the stage as early as in a lost dramatic version by another writer--doubtless thomas kyd, whose tragedies of blood, 'the spanish tragedy' and 'jeronimo,' long held the elizabethan stage. to that lost version of 'hamlet' shakespeare's tragedy certainly owed much. { } the story was also accessible in the 'histoires tragiques' of belleforest, who adapted it from the 'historia danica' of saxo grammaticus. { } no english translation of belleforest's 'hystorie of hamblet' appeared before ; shakespeare doubtless read it in the french. but his authorities give little hint of what was to emerge from his study of them. the problem of its publication. the first quarto, . burbage created the title-part in shakespeare's tragedy, and its success on the stage led to the play's publication immediately afterwards. the bibliography of 'hamlet' offers a puzzling problem. on july , , 'a book called the revenge of hamlet, prince of denmark, as it was lately acted by the lord chamberlain his servants,' was entered on the stationers' company's registers, and it was published in quarto next year by n[icholas] l[ing] and john trundell. the title-page stated that the piece had been 'acted divers times in the city of london, as also in the two universities of cambridge and oxford and elsewhere.' the text here appeared in a rough and imperfect state. in all probability it was a piratical and carelessly transcribed copy of shakespeare's first draft of the play, in which he drew largely on the older piece. the second quarto, . a revised version, printed from a more complete and accurate manuscript, was published in as 'the tragical history of hamlet prince of denmark, by william shakespeare, newly imprinted and enlarged to almost as much again as it was, according to the true and perfect copy.' this was printed by i[ames] r[oberts] for the publisher n[icholas] l[ing]. the concluding words--'according to the true and perfect copy'--of the title-page of the second quarto were intended to stamp its predecessor as surreptitious and unauthentic. but it is clear that the second quarto was not a perfect version of the play. it was itself printed from a copy which had been curtailed for acting purposes. the folio version. a third version (long the _textus receptus_) figured in the folio of . here many passages, not to be found in the quartos, appear for the first time, but a few others that appear in the quartos are omitted. the folio text probably came nearest to the original manuscript; but it, too, followed an acting copy which had been abbreviated somewhat less drastically than the second quarto and in a different fashion. { } theobald in his 'shakespeare restored' ( ) made the first scholarly attempt to form a text from a collation of the first folio with the second quarto, and theobald's text with further embellishments by sir thomas hanmer, edward capell, and the cambridge editors of , is now generally adopted. popularity of 'hamlet.' 'hamlet' was the only drama by shakespeare that was acted in his lifetime at the two universities. it has since attracted more attention from actors, playgoers, and readers of all capacities than any other of shakespeare's plays. its world-wide popularity from its author's day to our own, when it is as warmly welcomed in the theatres of france and germany as in those of england and america, is the most striking of the many testimonies to the eminence of shakespeare's dramatic instinct. at a first glance there seems little in the play to attract the uneducated or the unreflecting. 'hamlet' is mainly a psychological effort, a study of the reflective temperament in excess. the action develops slowly; at times there is no movement at all. the piece is the longest of shakespeare's plays, reaching a total of over , lines. it is thus some nine hundred lines longer than 'antony and cleopatra'--the play by shakespeare that approaches 'hamlet' more closely in numerical strength of lines. at the same time the total length of hamlet's speeches far exceeds that of those allotted by shakespeare to any other of his characters. humorous relief is, it is true, effectively supplied to the tragic theme by polonius and the grave-diggers, and if the topical references to contemporary theatrical history (ii. ii. - ) could only count on an appreciative reception from an elizabethan audience, the pungent censure of actors' perennial defects is calculated to catch the ear of the average playgoer of all ages. but it is not to these subsidiary features that the universality of the play's vogue can be attributed. it is the intensity of interest which shakespeare contrives to excite in the character of the hero that explains the position of the play in popular esteem. the play's unrivalled power of attraction lies in the pathetic fascination exerted on minds of almost every calibre by the central figure--a high-born youth of chivalric instincts and finely developed intellect, who, when stirred to avenge in action a desperate private wrong, is foiled by introspective workings of the brain that paralyse the will. 'troilus and cressida.' although the difficulties of determining the date of 'troilus and cressida' are very great, there are many grounds for assigning its composition to the early days of . in dekker and chettle were engaged by henslowe to prepare for the earl of nottingham's company--a rival of shakespeare's company--a play of 'troilus and cressida,' of which no trace survives. it doubtless suggested the topic to shakespeare. on february , - , james roberts obtained a license for 'the booke of troilus and cresseda as yt is acted by my lord chamberlens men,' _i.e._ shakespeare's company. { a} roberts printed the second quarto of 'hamlet' and others of shakespeare's plays; but his effort to publish 'troilus' proved abortive owing to the interposition of the players. roberts's 'book' was probably shakespeare's play. the metrical characteristics of shakespeare's 'troilus and cressida'--the regularity of the blank verse--powerfully confirm the date of composition which roberts's license suggests. six years later, however, on january , - , a new license for the issue of 'a booke called the history of troylus and cressida' was granted to other publishers, richard bonian and henry walley, { b} and these publishers, more fortunate than roberts soon printed a quarto with shakespeare's full name as author. the text seems fairly authentic, but exceptional obscurity attaches to the circumstances of the publication. some copies of the book bear an ordinary type of title-page stating that the piece was printed 'as it was acted by the king's majesties servants at the globe.' but in other copies, which differ in no way in regard to the text of the play, there was substituted for this title-page a more pretentious announcement running: 'the famous historie of troylus and cresseid, excellently expressing the beginning of their loues with the conceited wooing of pandarus, prince of lacia.' after this pompous title-page there was inserted, for the first and only time in the case of a play by shakespeare that was published in his lifetime, an advertisement or preface. in this interpolated page an anonymous scribe, writing in the name of the publishers, paid bombastic and high-flown compliments to shakespeare as a writer of 'comedies,' and defiantly boasted that the 'grand possessers'--_i.e._ the owners--of the manuscript deprecated its publication. by way of enhancing the value of what were obviously stolen wares, it was falsely added that the piece was new and unacted. this address was possibly the brazen reply of the publishers to a more than usually emphatic protest on the part of players or dramatist against the printing of the piece. the editors of the folio evinced distrust of the quarto edition by printing their text from a different copy showing many deviations, which were not always for the better. treatment of the theme. the work, which in point of construction shows signs of haste, and in style is exceptionally unequal, is the least attractive of the efforts of shakespeare's middle life. the story is based on a romantic legend of the trojan war, which is of mediaeval origin. shakespeare had possibly read chapman's translation of homer's 'iliad,' but he owed his plot to chaucer's 'troilus and cresseid' and lydgate's 'troy book.' in defiance of his authorities he presented cressida as a heartless coquette; the poets who had previously treated her story--boccaccio, chaucer, lydgate, and robert henryson--had imagined her as a tender-hearted, if frail, beauty, with claims on their pity rather than on their scorn. but shakespeare's innovation is dramatically effective, and accords with strictly moral canons. the charge frequently brought against the dramatist that in 'troilus and cressida' he cynically invested the greek heroes of classical antiquity with contemptible characteristics is ill supported by the text of the play. ulysses, nestor, and agamemnon figure in shakespeare's play as brave generals and sagacious statesmen, and in their speeches shakespeare concentrated a marvellous wealth of pithily expressed philosophy, much of which has fortunately obtained proverbial currency. shakespeare's conception of the greeks followed traditional lines except in the case of achilles, whom he transforms into a brutal coward. and that portrait quite legitimately interpreted the selfish, unreasoning, and exorbitant pride with which the warrior was credited by homer, and his imitators. shakespeare's treatment of his theme cannot therefore be fairly construed, as some critics construe it, into a petty-minded protest against the honour paid to the ancient greeks and to the form and sentiment of their literature by more learned dramatists of the day, like ben jonson and chapman. although shakespeare knew the homeric version of the trojan war, he worked in 'troilus and cressida' upon a mediaeval romance, which was practically uninfluenced either for good or evil by the classical spirit. { } queen elizabeth's death, march , . despite the association of shakespeare's company with the rebellion of , and its difficulties with the children of the chapel royal, he and his fellow actors retained their hold on court favour till the close of elizabeth's reign. as late as february , , the company entertained the dying queen at richmond. her death on march , , drew from shakespeare's early eulogist, chettle, a vain appeal to him under the fanciful name of melicert, to drop from his honied muse one sable teare, to mourne her death that graced his desert, and to his laies opened her royal eare. { } but, except on sentimental grounds, the queen's death justified no lamentation on the part of shakespeare. on the withdrawal of one royal patron he and his friends at once found another, who proved far more liberal and appreciative. james i's patronage. on may , , james i, very soon after his accession, extended to shakespeare and other members of the lord chamberlain's company a very marked and valuable recognition. to them he granted under royal letters patent a license 'freely to use and exercise the arte and facultie of playing comedies, tragedies, histories, enterludes, moralls, pastoralles, stage-plaies, and such other like as they have already studied, or hereafter shall use or studie as well for the recreation of our loving subjectes as for our solace and pleasure, when we shall thinke good to see them during our pleasure.' the globe theatre was noted as the customary scene of their labours, but permission was granted to them to perform in the town-hall or moot-hall of any country town. nine actors are named. lawrence fletcher stands first on the list; he had already performed before james in scotland in and . shakespeare comes second and burbage third. the company to which they belonged was thenceforth styled the king's company; its members became 'the king's servants' and they took rank with the grooms of the chamber. { } shakespeare's plays were thenceforth repeatedly performed in james's presence, and oldys related that james wrote shakespeare a letter in his own hand, which was at one time in the possession of sir william d'avenant, and afterwards, according to lintot, in that of john sheffield, first duke of buckingham. in the autumn and winter of the prevalence of the plague led to the closing of the theatres in london. the king's players were compelled to make a prolonged tour in the provinces, which entailed some loss of income. for two months from the third week in october, the court was temporarily installed at wilton, the residence of william herbert, third earl of pembroke, and late in november the company was summoned by the royal officers to perform in the royal presence. the actors travelled from mortlake to salisbury 'unto the courte aforesaide,' and their performance took place at wilton house on december . they received next day 'upon the councells warrant' the large sum of pounds 'by way of his majesties reward.' { a} many other gracious marks of royal favour followed. on march , , shakespeare and eight other actors of the company walked from the tower of london to westminster in the procession which accompanied the king on his formal entry into london. each actor received four and a half yards of scarlet cloth to wear as a cloak on the occasion, and in the document authorising the grant shakespeare's name stands first on the list. { b} the dramatist dekker was author of a somewhat bombastic account of the elaborate ceremonial, which rapidly ran through three editions. on april , , the king gave further proof of his friendly interest in the fortunes of his actors by causing an official letter to be sent to the lord mayor of london and the justices of the peace for middlesex and surrey, bidding them 'permit and suffer' the king's players to 'exercise their playes' at their 'usual house,' the globe. { a} four months later--in august--every member of the company was summoned by the king's order to attend at somerset house during the fortnight's sojourn there of the spanish ambassador extraordinary, juan fernandez de velasco, duke de frias, and constable of castile, who came to london to ratify the treaty of peace between england and spain, and was magnificently entertained by the english court. { b} between all saints' day [november ] and the ensuing shrove tuesday, which fell early in february , shakespeare's company gave no fewer than eleven performances at whitehall in the royal presence. xiv--the highest themes of tragedy 'othello' and 'measure for measure.' under the incentive of such exalted patronage, shakespeare's activity redoubled, but his work shows none of the conventional marks of literature that is produced in the blaze of court favour. the first six years of the new reign saw him absorbed in the highest themes of tragedy, and an unparalleled intensity and energy, which bore few traces of the trammels of a court, thenceforth illumined every scene that he contrived. to the composition of two plays can be confidently assigned, one of which--'othello'--ranks with shakespeare's greatest achievements; while the other--'measure for measure'--although as a whole far inferior to 'othello,' contains one of the finest scenes (between angelo and isabella, ii. ii. sq.) and one of the greatest speeches (claudio on the fear of death, iii. i. - ) in the range of shakespearean drama. 'othello' was doubtless the first new piece by shakespeare that was acted before james. it was produced at whitehall on november . 'measure for measure' followed on december . { } neither was printed in shakespeare's lifetime. the plots of both ultimately come from the same italian collection of novels--giraldi cinthio's 'hecatommithi,' which was first published in . cinthio's painful story of 'othello' (decad. iii. nov. ) is not known to have been translated into english before shakespeare dramatised it. he followed its main drift with fidelity, but he introduced the new characters of roderigo and emilia, and he invested the catastrophe with new and fearful intensity by making iago's cruel treachery known to othello at the last, after iago's perfidy has impelled the noble-hearted moor in his groundless jealousy to murder his gentle and innocent wife desdemona. iago became in shakespeare's hands the subtlest of all studies of intellectual villainy and hypocrisy. the whole tragedy displays to magnificent advantage the dramatist's fully matured powers. an unfaltering equilibrium is maintained in the treatment of plot and characters alike. cinthio made the perilous story of 'measure for measure' the subject not only of a romance, but of a tragedy called 'epitia.' before shakespeare wrote his play, cinthio's romance had been twice rendered into english by george whetstone. whetstone had not only given a somewhat altered version of the italian romance in his unwieldy play of 'promos and cassandra' (in two parts of five acts each, ), but he had also freely translated it in his collection of prose tales, 'heptameron of civil discources' ( ). yet there is every likelihood that shakespeare also knew cinthio's play, which, unlike his romance, was untranslated; the leading character, who is by shakespeare christened angelo, was known by another name to cinthio in his story, but cinthio in his play (and not in his novel) gives the character a sister named angela, which doubtless suggested shakespeare's designation. { } in the hands of shakespeare's predecessors the tale is a sordid record of lust and cruelty. but shakespeare prudently showed scant respect for their handling of the narrative. by diverting the course of the plot at a critical point he not merely proved his artistic ingenuity, but gave dramatic dignity and moral elevation to a degraded and repellent theme. in the old versions isabella yields her virtue as the price of her brother's life. the central fact of shakespeare's play is isabella's inflexible and unconditional chastity. other of shakespeare's alterations, like the duke's abrupt proposal to marry isabella, seem hastily conceived. but his creation of the pathetic character of mariana 'of the moated grange'--the legally affianced bride of angelo, isabella's would-be seducer--skilfully excludes the possibility of a settlement (as in the old stories) between isabella and angelo on terms of marriage. shakespeare's argument is throughout philosophically subtle. the poetic eloquence in which isabella and the duke pay homage to the virtue of chastity, and the many expositions of the corruption with which unchecked sexual passion threatens society, alternate with coarsely comic interludes which suggest the vanity of seeking to efface natural instincts by the coercion of law. there is little in the play that seems designed to recommend it to the court before which it was first performed. but the two emphatic references to a ruler's dislike of mobs, despite his love of his people, were perhaps penned in deferential allusion to james i, whose horror of crowds was notorious. in act i. sc. i. - the duke remarks: i love the people, but do not like to stage me to their eyes. though it do well, i do not relish well their loud applause and aves vehement. nor do i think the man of safe discretion that does affect it. of like tenor is the succeeding speech of angelo (act ii. sc. iv. - ): the general [_i.e._ the public], subject to a well-wish'd king, . . . crowd to his presence, where their untaught love must needs appear offence. 'macbeth.' in 'macbeth,' his 'great epic drama,' which he began in and completed next year, shakespeare employed a setting wholly in harmony with the accession of a scottish king. the story was drawn from holinshed's 'chronicle of scottish history,' with occasional reference, perhaps, to earlier scottish sources. { } the supernatural machinery of the three witches accorded with the king's superstitious faith in demonology; the dramatist lavished his sympathy on banquo, james's ancestor; while macbeth's vision of kings who carry 'twofold balls and treble sceptres' (iv. i. ) plainly adverted to the union of scotland with england and ireland under james's sway. the allusion by the porter (ii. iii. ) to the 'equivocator . . . who committed treason' was perhaps suggested by the notorious defence of the doctrine of equivocation made by the jesuit henry garnett, who was executed early in for his share in the 'gunpowder plot.' the piece was not printed until . it is in its existing shape by far the shortest of all shakespeare's tragedies, ('hamlet' is nearly twice as long) and it is possible that it survives only in an abbreviated acting version. much scenic elaboration characterised the production. dr. simon forman witnessed a performance of the tragedy at the globe in april , and noted that macbeth and banquo entered the stage on horseback, and that banquo's ghost was materially represented (iii. iv. seq.) like 'othello,' the play ranks with the noblest tragedies either of the modern or the ancient world. the characters of hero and heroine--macbeth and his wife--are depicted with the utmost subtlety and insight. in three points 'macbeth' differs somewhat from other of shakespeare's productions in the great class of literature to which it belongs. the interweaving with the tragic story of supernatural interludes in which fate is weirdly personified is not exactly matched in any other of shakespeare's tragedies. in the second place, the action proceeds with a rapidity that is wholly without parallel in the rest of shakespeare's plays. nowhere, moreover, has shakespeare introduced comic relief into a tragedy with bolder effect than in the porter's speech after the murder of duncan (ii. iii. i seq.) the theory that this passage was from another hand does not merit acceptance. { } it cannot, however, be overlooked that the second scene of the first act--duncan's interview with the 'bleeding sergeant'--falls so far below the style of the rest of the play as to suggest that it was an interpolation by a hack of the theatre. the resemblances between thomas middleton's later play of 'the witch' ( ) and portions of 'macbeth' may safely be ascribed to plagiarism on middleton's part. of two songs which, according to the stage directions, were to be sung during the representation of 'macbeth' (iii. v. and iv. i.), only the first line of each is noted there, but songs beginning with the same lines are set out in full in middleton's play; they were probably by middleton, and were interpolated by actors in a stage version of 'macbeth' after its original production. 'king lear.' 'king lear,' in which shakespeare's tragic genius moved without any faltering on titanic heights, was written during , and was produced before the court at whitehall on the night of december of that year. { a} it was entered on the 'stationers' registers' on november , , and two imperfect editions, published by nathaniel butter, appeared in the following year; neither exactly corresponds with the other or with the improved and fairly satisfactory text of the folio. the three versions present three different playhouse transcripts. like its immediate predecessor, 'macbeth,' the tragedy was mainly founded on holinshed's 'chronicle.' the leading theme had been dramatised as early as , but shakespeare's attention was no doubt directed to it by the publication of a crude dramatic adaptation of holinshed's version in under the title of 'the true chronicle history of king leir and his three daughters--gonorill, ragan, and cordella.' shakespeare did not adhere closely to his original. he invested the tale of lear with a hopelessly tragic conclusion, and on it he grafted the equally distressing tale of gloucester and his two sons, which he drew from sidney's 'arcadia.' { b} hints for the speeches of edgar when feigning madness were drawn from harsnet's 'declaration of popish impostures,' . in every act of 'lear' the pity and terror of which tragedy is capable reach their climax. only one who has something of the shakespearean gift of language could adequately characterise the scenes of agony--'the living martyrdom'--to which the fiendish ingratitude of his daughters condemns the abdicated king--'a very foolish, fond old man, fourscore and upward.' the elemental passions burst forth in his utterances with all the vehemence of the volcanic tempest which beats about his defenceless head in the scene on the heath. the brutal blinding of gloucester by cornwall exceeds in horror any other situation that shakespeare created, if we assume that he was not responsible for the like scenes of mutilation in 'titus andronicus.' at no point in 'lear' is there any loosening of the tragic tension. the faithful half-witted lad who serves the king as his fool plays the jesting chorus on his master's fortunes in penetrating earnest and deepens the desolating pathos. 'timon of athens.' although shakespeare's powers showed no sign of exhaustion, he reverted in the year following the colossal effort of 'lear' ( ) to his earlier habit of collaboration, and with another's aid composed two dramas--'timon of athens' and 'pericles.' an extant play on the subject of 'timon of athens' was composed in , { } but there is nothing to show that shakespeare and his coadjutor were acquainted with it. they doubtless derived a part of their story from painter's 'palace of pleasure,' and from a short digression in plutarch's 'life of marc antony,' where antony is described as emulating the life and example of 'timon misanthropos the athenian.' the dramatists may, too, have known a dialogue of lucian entitled 'timon,' which boiardo had previously converted into a comedy under the name of 'il timone.' internal evidence makes it clear that shakespeare's colleague was responsible for nearly the whole of acts iii. and v. but the character of timon himself and all the scenes which he dominates are from shakespeare's pen. timon is cast in the mould of lear. 'pericles.' there seems some ground for the belief that shakespeare's coadjutor in 'timon' was george wilkins, a writer of ill-developed dramatic power, who, in 'the miseries of enforced marriage' ( ), first treated the story that afterwards served for the plot of 'the yorkshire tragedy.' at any rate, wilkins may safely be credited with portions of 'pericles,' a romantic play which can be referred to the same year as 'timon.' shakespeare contributed only acts iii. and v. and parts of iv., which together form a self-contained whole, and do not combine satisfactorily with the remaining scenes. the presence of a third hand, of inferior merit to wilkins, has been suspected, and to this collaborator (perhaps william rowley, a professional reviser of plays who could show capacity on occasion) are best assigned the three scenes of purposeless coarseness which take place in or before a brothel (iv. ii., v. and vi.) from so distributed a responsibility the piece naturally suffers. it lacks homogeneity, and the story is helped out by dumb shows and prologues. but a matured felicity of expression characterises shakespeare's own contributions, narrating the romantic quest of pericles for his daughter marina, who was born and abandoned in a shipwreck. at many points he here anticipated his latest dramatic effects. the shipwreck is depicted (iv. i.) as impressively as in the 'tempest,' and marina and her mother thaisa enjoy many experiences in common with perdita and hermione in the 'winter's tale.' the prologues, which were not by shakespeare, were spoken by an actor representing the mediaeval poet john gower, who in the fourteenth century had versified pericles's story in his 'confessio amantis' under the title of 'apollonius of tyre.' it is also found in a prose translation (from the french), which was printed in lawrence twyne's 'patterne of painfull adventures' in , and again in . after the play was produced, george wilkins, one of the alleged coadjutors, based on it a novel called 'the painful adventures of pericles, prynce of tyre, being the true history of the play of pericles as it was lately presented by the worthy and ancient poet, john gower' ( ). the play was issued as by william shakespeare in a mangled form in , and again in , , , and . it was not included in shakespeare's collected works till . 'antony and cleopatra.' in may edward blount entered in the 'stationers' registers,' by the authority of sir george buc, the licenser of plays, 'a booke called "anthony and cleopatra."' no copy of this date is known, and once again the company probably hindered the publication. the play was first printed in the folio of . the source of the tragedy is the life of antonius in north's 'plutarch.' shakespeare closely followed the historical narrative, and assimilated not merely its temper, but, in the first three acts, much of its phraseology. a few short scenes are original, but there is no detail in such a passage, for example, as enobarbus's gorgeous description of the pageant of cleopatra's voyage up the cydnus to meet antony (ii. ii. seq.), which is not to be matched in plutarch. in the fourth and fifth acts shakespeare's method changes and he expands his material with magnificent freedom. { } the whole theme is in his hands instinct with a dramatic grandeur which lifts into sublimity even cleopatra's moral worthlessness and antony's criminal infatuation. the terse and caustic comments which antony's level-headed friend enobarbus, in the role of chorus, passes on the action accentuate its significance. into the smallest as into the greatest personages shakespeare breathed all his vitalising fire. the 'happy valiancy' of the style, too--to use coleridge's admirable phrase--sets the tragedy very near the zenith of shakespeare's achievement, and while differentiating it from 'macbeth,' 'othello,' and 'lear,' renders it a very formidable rival. 'coriolanus.' 'coriolanus' (first printed from a singularly bad text in ) similarly owes its origin to the biography of the hero in north's 'plutarch,' although shakespeare may have first met the story in painter's 'palace of pleasure' (no. iv.) he again adhered to the text of plutarch with the utmost literalness, and at times--even in the great crises of the action--repeated north's translation word for word. { } but the humorous scenes are wholly of shakespeare's invention, and the course of the narrative was at times slightly changed for purposes of dramatic effect. the metrical characteristics prove the play to have been written about the same period as 'antony and cleopatra,' probably in . in its austere temper it contrasts at all points with its predecessor. the courageous self-reliance of coriolanus's mother, volumnia, is severely contrasted with the submissive gentleness of virgilia, coriolanus's wife. the hero falls a victim to no sensual flaw, but to unchecked pride of caste, and there is a searching irony in the emphasis laid on the ignoble temper of the rabble, who procure his overthrow. by way of foil, the speeches of menenius give dignified expression to the maturest political wisdom. the dramatic interest throughout is as single and as unflaggingly sustained as in 'othello.' xv--the latest plays the latest plays. in 'cymbeline,' 'the winter's tale,' and 'the tempest,' the three latest plays that came from his unaided pen, shakespeare dealt with romantic themes which all end happily, but he instilled into them a pathos which sets them in a category of their own apart alike from comedy and tragedy. the placidity of tone conspicuous in these three plays (none of which was published in his lifetime) has been often contrasted with the storm and stress of the great tragedies that preceded them. but the commonly accepted theory that traces in this change of tone a corresponding development in the author's own emotions ignores the objectivity of shakespeare's dramatic work. all phases of feeling lay within the scope of his intuition, and the successive order in which he approached them bore no explicable relation to substantive incident in his private life or experience. in middle life, his temperament, like that of other men, acquired a larger measure of gravity and his thought took a profounder cast than characterised it in youth. the highest topics of tragedy were naturally more congenial to him, and were certain of a surer handling when he was nearing his fortieth birthday than at an earlier age. the serenity of meditative romance was more in harmony with the fifth decade of his years than with the second or third. but no more direct or definite connection can be discerned between the progressive stages of his work and the progressive stages of his life. to seek in his biography for a chain of events which should be calculated to stir in his own soul all or any of the tempestuous passions that animate his greatest plays is to under-estimate and to misapprehend the resistless might of his creative genius. 'cymbeline.' in 'cymbeline' shakespeare freely adapted a fragment of british history taken from holinshed, interweaving with it a story from boccaccio's 'decameron' (day , novel ix.) ginevra, whose falsely suspected chastity is the theme of the italian novel, corresponds to shakespeare's imogen. her story is also told in the tract called 'westward for smelts,' which had already been laid under contribution by shakespeare in the 'merry wives.' { } the by-plot of the banishment of the lord, belarius, who in revenge for his expatriation kidnapped the king's young sons and brought them up with him in the recesses of the mountains, is shakespeare's invention. although most of the scenes are laid in britain in the first century before the christian era, there is no pretence of historical vraisemblance. with an almost ludicrous inappropriateness the british king's courtiers make merry with technical terms peculiar to calvinistic theology, like 'grace' and 'election.' { } the action, which, owing to the combination of three threads of narrative, is exceptionally varied and intricate, wholly belongs to the region of romance. on imogen, who is the central figure of the play, shakespeare lavished all the fascination of his genius. she is the crown and flower of his conception of tender and artless womanhood. her husband posthumus, her rejected lover cloten, her would-be seducer iachimo are contrasted with her and with each other with consummate ingenuity. the mountainous retreat in which belarius and his fascinating boy-companions play their part has points of resemblance to the forest of arden in 'as you like it;' but life throughout 'cymbeline' is grimly earnest, and the mountains nurture little of the contemplative quiet which characterises existence in the forest of arden. the play contains the splendid lyric 'fear no more the heat of the sun' (iv. ii. seq.) the 'pitiful mummery' of the vision of posthumus (v. iv. seq.) must have been supplied by another hand. dr. forman, the astrologer who kept notes of some of his experiences as a playgoer, saw 'cymbeline' acted either in or . 'a winter's tale.' 'a winter's tale' was seen by dr. forman at the globe on may , , and it appears to have been acted at court on november following. { a} it is based upon greene's popular romance which was called 'pandosto' in the first edition of , and in numerous later editions, but was ultimately in re-christened 'dorastus and fawnia.' shakespeare followed greene, his early foe, in allotting a seashore to bohemia--an error over which ben jonson and many later critics have made merry. { b} a few lines were obviously drawn from that story of boccaccio with which shakespeare had dealt just before in 'cymbeline.' { c} but shakespeare created the high-spirited paulina and the thievish pedlar autolycus, whose seductive roguery has become proverbial, and he invented the reconciliation of leontes, the irrationally jealous husband, with hermione, his wife, whose dignified resignation and forbearance lend the story its intense pathos. in the boy mamilius, the poet depicted childhood in its most attractive guise, while the courtship of florizel and perdita is the perfection of gentle romance. the freshness of the pastoral incident surpasses that of all shakespeare's presentations of country life. 'tempest.' 'the tempest' was probably the latest drama that shakespeare completed. in the summer of a fleet bound for virginia, under the command of sir george somers, was overtaken by a storm off the west indies, and the admiral's ship, the 'sea-venture,' was driven on the coast of the hitherto unknown bermuda isles. there they remained ten months, pleasurably impressed by the mild beauty of the climate, but sorely tried by the hogs which overran the island and by mysterious noises which led them to imagine that spirits and devils had made the island their home. somers and his men were given up for lost, but they escaped from bermuda in two boats of cedar to virginia in may , and the news of their adventures and of their safety was carried to england by some of the seamen in september . the sailors' arrival created vast public excitement in london. at least five accounts were soon published of the shipwreck and of the mysterious island, previously uninhabited by man, which had proved the salvation of the expedition. 'a discovery of the bermudas, otherwise called the ile of divels,' written by sylvester jourdain or jourdan, one of the survivors, appeared as early as october. a second pamphlet describing the disaster was issued by the council of the virginia company in december, and a third by one of the leaders of the expedition, sir thomas gates. shakespeare, who mentions the 'still vexed bermoothes' (i. i. ), incorporated in 'the tempest' many hints from jourdain, gates, and the other pamphleteers. the references to the gentle climate of the island on which prospero is cast away, and to the spirits and devils that infested it, seem to render its identification with the newly discovered bermudas unquestionable. but shakespeare incorporated the result of study of other books of travel. the name of the god setebos whom caliban worships is drawn from eden's translation of magellan's 'voyage to the south pole' (in the 'historie of travell,' ), where the giants of patagonia are described as worshipping a 'great devil they call setebos.' no source for the complete plot has been discovered, but the german writer, jacob ayrer, who died in , dramatised a somewhat similar story in 'die schone sidea,' where the adventures of prospero, ferdinand, ariel, and miranda are roughly anticipated. { a} english actors were performing at nuremberg, where ayrer lived, in and , and may have brought reports of the piece to shakespeare. or perhaps both english and german plays had a common origin in some novel that has not yet been traced. gonzalo's description of an ideal commonwealth (ii. i. seq.) is derived from florio's translation of montaigne's essays ( ), while into prospero's great speech renouncing his practice of magical art (v. i. - ) shakespeare wrought reminiscences of golding's translation of medea's invocation in ovid's 'metamorphoses' (vii. - ). { b} golding's rendering of ovid had been one of shakespeare's best-loved books in youth. a highly ingenious theory, first suggested by tieck, represents 'the tempest' (which, excepting the 'the comedy of errors,' is the shortest of shakespeare's plays) as a masque written to celebrate the marriage of princess elizabeth (like miranda, an island-princess) with the elector frederick. this marriage took place on february , - , and 'the tempest' formed one of a series of nineteen plays which were performed at the nuptial festivities in may . but none of the other plays produced seem to have been new; they were all apparently chosen because they were established favourites at court and on the public stage, and neither in subject-matter nor language bore obviously specific relation to the joyous occasion. but is, in fact, on more substantial ground far too late a date to which to assign the composition of 'the tempest.' according to information which was accessible to malone, the play had 'a being and a name' in the autumn of , and was no doubt written some months before. { } the plot, which revolves about the forcible expulsion of a ruler from his dominions, and his daughter's wooing by the son of the usurper's chief ally, is, moreover, hardly one that a shrewd playwright would deliberately choose as the setting of an official epithalamium in honour of the daughter of a monarch so sensitive about his title to the crown as james i. { a} in the theatre and at court the early representations of 'the tempest' evoked unmeasured applause. the success owed something to the beautiful lyrics which were dispersed through the play and had been set to music by robert johnson, a lutenist in high repute. { b} like its predecessor 'a winter's tale,' 'the tempest' long maintained its first popularity in the theatre, and the vogue of the two pieces drew a passing sneer from ben jonson. in the induction to his 'bartholomew fair,' first acted in , he wrote: 'if there be never a servant-monster in the fair, who can help it he [_i.e._ the author] says? nor a nest of antics. he is loth to make nature afraid in his plays like those that beget tales, tempests, and such like drolleries.' the 'servant-monster' was an obvious allusion to caliban, and 'the nest of antics' was a glance at the satyrs who figure in the sheepshearing feast in 'a winter's tale.' fanciful interpretations of 'the tempest.' nowhere did shakespeare give rein to his imagination with more imposing effect than in 'the tempest.' as in 'midsummer night's dream,' magical or supernatural agencies are the mainsprings of the plot. but the tone is marked at all points by a solemnity and profundity of thought and sentiment which are lacking in the early comedy. the serious atmosphere has led critics, without much reason, to detect in the scheme of 'the tempest' something more than the irresponsible play of poetic fancy. many of the characters have been represented as the outcome of speculation respecting the least soluble problems of human existence. little reliance should be placed on such interpretations. the creation of miranda is the apotheosis in literature of tender, ingenuous girlhood unsophisticated by social intercourse, but shakespeare had already sketched the outlines of the portrait in marina and perdita, the youthful heroines respectively of 'pericles' and 'a winter's tale,' and these two characters were directly developed from romantic stories of girl-princesses, cast by misfortune on the mercies of nature, to which shakespeare had recourse for the plots of the two plays. it is by accident, and not by design, that in ariel appear to be discernible the capabilities of human intellect when detached from physical attributes. ariel belongs to the same world as puck, although he is delineated in the severer colours that were habitual to shakespeare's fully developed art. caliban--ariel's antithesis--did not owe his existence to any conscious endeavour on shakespeare's part to typify human nature before the evolution of moral sentiment. { a} caliban is an imaginary portrait, conceived with matchless vigour and vividness, of the aboriginal savage of the new world, descriptions of whom abounded in contemporary travellers' speech and writings, and universally excited the liveliest curiosity. { b} in prospero, the guiding providence of the romance, who resigns his magic power in the closing scene, traces have been sought of the lineaments of the dramatist himself, who in this play probably bade farewell to the enchanted work of his life. prospero is in the story a scholar-prince of rare intellectual attainments, whose engrossing study of the mysteries of science has given him command of the forces of nature. his magnanimous renunciation of his magical faculty as soon as by its exercise he has restored his shattered fortunes is in perfect accord with the general conception of his just and philosophical temper. any other justification of his final act is superfluous. unfinished plays. the lost play of 'cardenio.' while there is every indication that in shakespeare abandoned dramatic composition, there seems little doubt that he left with the manager of his company unfinished drafts of more than one play which others were summoned at a later date to complete. his place at the head of the active dramatists was at once filled by john fletcher, and fletcher, with some aid possibly from his friend philip massinger, undertook the working up of shakespeare's unfinished sketches. on september , , the publisher humphrey moseley obtained a license for the publication of a play which he described as 'history of cardenio, by fletcher and shakespeare.' this was probably identical with the lost play, 'cardenno,' or 'cardenna,' which was twice acted at court by shakespeare's company in --in may during the princess elizabeth's marriage festivities, and on june before the duke of savoy's ambassador. { a} moseley, whose description may have been fraudulent, { b} failed to publish the piece, and nothing is otherwise known of it with certainty; but it was no doubt a dramatic version of the adventures of the lovelorn cardenio which are related in the first part of 'don quixote' (ch. xxiii.-xxxvii.) cervantes's amorous story, which first appeared in english in thomas shelton's translation in , offers much incident in fletcher's vein. when lewis theobald, the shakespearean critic, brought out his 'double falshood, or the distrest lovers,' in , he mysteriously represented that the play was based on an unfinished and unpublished draft of a play by shakespeare. the story of theobald's piece is the story of cardenio, although the characters are renamed. there is nothing in the play as published by theobald to suggest shakespeare's hand, { a} but theobald doubtless took advantage of a tradition that shakespeare and fletcher had combined to dramatise the cervantic theme. 'two noble kinsmen.' two other pieces, 'the two noble kinsmen' and 'henry viii,' which are attributed to a similar partnership, survive. { b} 'the two noble kinsmen' was first printed in , and was written, according to the title-page, 'by the memorable worthies of their time, mr. john fletcher and mr. william shakespeare, gentlemen.' it was included in the folio of beaumont and fletcher of . on grounds alike of aesthetic criticism and metrical tests, a substantial portion of the play was assigned to shakespeare by charles lamb, coleridge, and dyce. the last included it in his edition of shakespeare. coleridge detected shakespeare's hand in act i., act ii. sc. i., and act iii. sc. i. and ii. in addition to those scenes, act iv. sc. iii. and act v. (except sc. ii.) were subsequently placed to his credit. some recent critics assign much of the alleged shakespearean work to massinger, and they narrow shakespeare's contribution to the first scene (with the opening song, 'roses their sharp spines being gone') and act v. sc. i. and iv. { } an exact partition is impossible, but frequent signs of shakespeare's workmanship are unmistakable. all the passages for which shakespeare can on any showing be held responsible develop the main plot, which is drawn from chaucer's 'knight's tale' of palamon and arcite, and seems to have been twice dramatised previously. a lost play, 'palaemon and arcyte,' by richard edwardes, was acted at court in , and a second piece, called 'palamon and arsett' (also lost), was purchased by henslowe in . the non-shakespearean residue of 'the two noble kinsmen' is disfigured by indecency and triviality, and is of no literary value. 'henry viii.' a like problem is presented by 'henry viii.' the play was nearly associated with the final scene in the history of that theatre which was identified with the triumphs of shakespeare's career. 'henry viii' was in course of performance at the globe theatre on june , , when the firing of some cannon incidental to the performance set fire to the playhouse, which was burned down. the theatre was rebuilt next year, but the new fabric never acquired the fame of the old. sir henry wotton, describing the disaster on july , entitled the piece that was in process of representation at the time as 'all is true representing some principal pieces in the reign of henry viii.' { } the play of 'henry viii' that is commonly allotted to shakespeare is loosely constructed, and the last act ill coheres with its predecessors. the whole resembles an 'historical masque.' it was first printed in the folio of shakespeare's works in , but shows traces of more hands than one. the three chief characters--the king, queen katharine of arragon, and cardinal wolsey--bear clear marks of shakespeare's best workmanship; but only act i. sc. i., act ii. sc. iii. and iv. (katharine's trial), act iii. sc. ii. (except ll. - ), act v. sc. i. can on either aesthetic or metrical grounds be confidently assigned to him. these portions may, according to their metrical characteristics, be dated, like the 'winter's tale,' about . there are good grounds for assigning nearly all the remaining thirteen scenes to the pen of fletcher, with occasional aid from massinger. wolsey's familiar farewell to cromwell (iii. ii. - ) is the only passage the authorship of which excites really grave embarrassment. it recalls at every point the style of fletcher, and nowhere that of shakespeare. but the fletcherian style, as it is here displayed, is invested with a greatness that is not matched elsewhere in fletcher's work. that fletcher should have exhibited such faculty once and once only is barely credible, and we are driven to the alternative conclusion that the noble valediction was by shakespeare, who in it gave proof of his versatility by echoing in a glorified key the habitual strain of fletcher, his colleague and virtual successor. james spedding's theory that fletcher hastily completed shakespeare's unfinished draft for the special purpose of enabling the company to celebrate the marriage of princess elizabeth and the elector palatine, which took place on february , - , seems fanciful. during may , according to an extant list, nineteen plays were produced at court in honour of the event, but 'henry viii' is not among them. { a} the conjecture that massinger and fletcher alone collaborated in 'henry viii' (to the exclusion of shakespeare altogether) does not deserve serious consideration. { b} xvi--the close of life plays at court in . actor-friends. the concluding years of shakespeare's life ( - ) were mainly passed at stratford. it is probable that in he disposed of his shares in the globe and blackfriars theatres. he owned none at the date of his death. but until he paid frequent visits to london, where friends in sympathy with his work were alone to be found. his plays continued to form the staple of court performances. in may , during the princess elizabeth's marriage festivities, heming, shakespeare's former colleague, produced at whitehall no fewer than seven of his plays, viz. 'much ado,' 'tempest,' 'winter's tale,' 'sir john falstaff' (_i.e._ 'merry wives'), 'othello,' 'julius caesar,' 'and hotspur' (doubtless 'henry iv'). { } of his actor-friends, one of the chief, augustine phillips, had died in , leaving by will 'to my fellowe, william shakespeare, a thirty-shillings piece of gold.' with burbage, heming, and condell his relations remained close to the end. burbage, according to a poetic elegy, made his reputation by creating the leading parts in shakespeare's greatest tragedies. hamlet, othello, and lear were roles in which he gained especial renown. but burbage and shakespeare were popularly credited with co-operation in less solemn enterprises. they were reputed to be companions in many sportive adventures. the sole anecdote of shakespeare that is positively known to have been recorded in his lifetime relates that burbage, when playing richard iii, agreed with a lady in the audience to visit her after the performance; shakespeare, overhearing the conversation, anticipated the actor's visit, and met burbage on his arrival with the quip that 'william the conqueror was before richard the third.' { a} such gossip possibly deserves little more acceptance than the later story, in the same key, which credits shakespeare with the paternity of sir william d'avenant. the latter was baptised at oxford on march , , as the son of john d'avenant, the landlord of the crown inn, where shakespeare lodged in his journeys to and from stratford. the story of shakespeare's parental relation to d'avenant was long current in oxford, and was at times complacently accepted by the reputed son. shakespeare is known to have been a welcome guest at john d'avenant's house, and another son, robert, boasted of the kindly notice which the poet took of him as a child. { b} it is safer to adopt the less compromising version which makes shakespeare the godfather of the boy william instead of his father. but the antiquity and persistence of the scandal belie the assumption that shakespeare was known to his contemporaries as a man of scrupulous virtue. ben jonson and drayton--the latter a warwickshire man--seem to have been shakespeare's closest literary friends in his latest years. final settlement at stratford. at stratford, in the words of nicholas rowe, 'the latter part of shakespeare's life was spent, as all men of good sense will wish theirs may be, in ease, retirement, and the conversation of his friends.' as a resident in the town, he took a full share of social and civic responsibilities. on october , , he stood chief godfather to william, son of henry walker, a mercer and alderman. on september , , when he had finally settled in new place, his name appeared in the margin of a folio page of donors (including all the principal inhabitants of stratford) to a fund that was raised 'towards the charge of prosecuting the bill in parliament for the better repair of the highways.' domestic affairs. meanwhile his own domestic affairs engaged some of his attention. of his two surviving children--both daughters--the eldest, susanna, had married, on june , , john hall ( - ), a rising physician of puritan leanings, and in the following february there was born the poet's only granddaughter, elizabeth hall. on september , , the poet's mother was buried in the parish church, and on february , , his third brother richard. on july , , mrs. hall preferred, with her father's assistance, a charge of slander against one lane in the ecclesiastical court at worcester; the defendant, who had apparently charged the lady with illicit relations with one ralph smith, did not appear, and was excommunicated. [picture: signature on purchase-deed] purchase of a house in blackfriars. in the same year ( ), when on a short visit to london, shakespeare invested a small sum of money in a new property. this was his last investment in real estate. he then purchased a house, the ground-floor of which was a haberdasher's shop, with a yard attached. it was situated within six hundred feet of the blackfriars theatre--on the west side of st. andrew's hill, formerly termed puddle hill or puddle dock hill, in the near neighbourhood of what is now known as ireland yard. the former owner, henry walker, a musician, had bought the property for pounds in . shakespeare in agreed to pay him pounds. the deeds of conveyance bear the date of march in that year. { } next day, on march , shakespeare executed another deed (now in the british museum) which stipulated that pounds of the purchase-money was to remain on mortgage until the following michaelmas. the money was unpaid at shakespeare's death. in both purchase-deed and mortgage-deed shakespeare's signature was witnessed by (among others) henry lawrence, 'servant' or clerk to robert andrewes, the scrivener who drew the deeds, and lawrence's seal, bearing his initials 'h. l.,' was stamped in each case on the parchment-tag, across the head of which shakespeare wrote his name. in all three documents--the two indentures and the mortgage-deed--shakespeare is described as 'of stratford-on-avon, in the countie of warwick, gentleman.' there is no reason to suppose that he acquired the house for his own residence. he at once leased the property to john robinson, already a resident in the neighbourhood. [picture: signature on mortgage-deed] attempt to enclose the stratford common fields. with puritans and puritanism shakespeare was not in sympathy, { } and he could hardly have viewed with unvarying composure the steady progress that puritanism was making among his fellow-townsmen. nevertheless a preacher, doubtless of puritan proclivities, was entertained at shakespeare's residence, new place, after delivering a sermon in the spring of . the incident might serve to illustrate shakespeare's characteristic placability, but his son-in-law hall, who avowed sympathy with puritanism, was probably in the main responsible for the civility. { a} in july john combe, a rich inhabitant of stratford, died and left pounds to shakespeare. the legend that shakespeare alienated him by composing some doggerel on his practice of lending money at ten or twelve per cent. seems apocryphal, although it is quoted by aubrey and accepted by rowe. { b} combe's death involved shakespeare more conspicuously than before in civic affairs. combe's heir william no sooner succeeded to his father's lands than he, with a neighbouring owner, arthur mannering, steward of lord-chancellor ellesmere (who was ex-officio lord of the manor), attempted to enclose the common fields, which belonged to the corporation of stratford, about his estate at welcombe. the corporation resolved to offer the scheme a stout resistance. shakespeare had a twofold interest in the matter by virtue of his owning the freehold of acres at welcombe and old stratford, and as joint owner--now with thomas greene, the town clerk--of the tithes of old stratford, welcombe, and bishopton. his interest in his freeholds could not have been prejudicially affected, but his interest in the tithes might be depreciated by the proposed enclosure. shakespeare consequently joined with his fellow-owner greene in obtaining from combe's agent replingham in october a deed indemnifying both against any injury they might suffer from the enclosure. but having thus secured himself against all possible loss, shakespeare threw his influence into combe's scale. in november he was on a last visit to london, and greene, whose official position as town clerk compelled him to support the corporation in defiance of his private interests, visited him there to discuss the position of affairs. on december , , the corporation in formal meeting drew up a letter to shakespeare imploring him to aid them. greene himself sent to the dramatist 'a note of inconveniences [to the corporation that] would happen by the enclosure.' but although an ambiguous entry of a later date (september ) in the few extant pages of greene's ungrammatical diary has been unjustifiably tortured into an expression of disgust on shakespeare's part at combe's conduct, { } it is plain that, in the spirit of his agreement with combe's agent, he continued to lend combe his countenance. happily combe's efforts failed, and the common lands remain unenclosed. death. burial. at the beginning of shakespeare's health was failing. he directed francis collins, a solicitor of warwick, to draft his will, but, though it was prepared for signature on january , it was for the time laid aside. on february , , shakespeare's younger daughter, judith, married, at stratford parish church, thomas quincy, four years her junior, a son of an old friend of the poet. the ceremony took place apparently without public asking of the banns and before a license was procured. the irregularity led to the summons of the bride and bridegroom to the ecclesiastical court at worcester and the imposition of a fine. according to the testimony of john ward, the vicar, shakespeare entertained at new place his two friends, michael drayton and ben jonson, in this same spring of , and 'had a merry meeting,' but 'itt seems drank too hard, for shakespeare died of a feavour there contracted.' a popular local legend, which was not recorded till , { a} credited shakespeare with engaging at an earlier date in a prolonged and violent drinking bout at bidford, a neighbouring village, { b} but his achievements as a hard drinker may be dismissed as unproven. the cause of his death is undetermined, but probably his illness seemed likely to take a fatal turn in march, when he revised and signed the will that had been drafted in the previous january. on tuesday, april , he died at the age of fifty-two. { c} on thursday, april (o.s.), the poet was buried inside stratford church, near the northern wall of the chancel, in which, as part-owner of the tithes, and consequently one of the lay-rectors, he had a right of interment. hard by was the charnel-house, where bones dug up from the churchyard were deposited. over the poet's grave were inscribed the lines: good friend, for jesus' sake forbeare to dig the dust enclosed heare; bleste be the man that spares these stones, and curst be he that moves my bones. according to one william hall, who described a visit to stratford in , { } these verses were penned by shakespeare to suit 'the capacity of clerks and sextons, for the most part a very ignorant set of people.' had this curse not threatened them, hall proceeds, the sexton would not have hesitated in course of time to remove shakespeare's dust to 'the bone-house.' as it was, the grave was made seventeen feet deep, and was never opened, even to receive his wife, although she expressed a desire to be buried with her husband. [picture: signatures from each sheet of the will] the will. bequest to his wife. shakespeare's will, the first draft of which was drawn up before january , , received many interlineations and erasures before it was signed in the ensuing march. francis collins, the solicitor of warwick, and thomas russell, 'esquier,' of stratford, were the overseers; it was proved by john hall, the poet's son-in-law and joint-executor with mrs. hall, in london on june following. the religious exordium is in conventional phraseology, and gives no clue to shakespeare's personal religious opinions. what those opinions were, we have neither the means nor the warrant for discussing. but while it is possible to quote from the plays many contemptuous references to the puritans and their doctrines, we may dismiss as idle gossip davies's irresponsible report that 'he dyed a papist.' the name of shakespeare's wife was omitted from the original draft of the will, but by an interlineation in the final draft she received his second best bed with its furniture. no other bequest was made her. several wills of the period have been discovered in which a bedstead or other article of household furniture formed part of a wife's inheritance, but none except shakespeare's is forthcoming in which a bed forms the sole bequest. at the same time the precision with which shakespeare's will accounts for and assigns to other legatees every known item of his property refutes the conjecture that he had set aside any portion of it under a previous settlement or jointure with a view to making independent provision for his wife. her right to a widow's dower--_i.e._ to a third share for life in freehold estate--was not subject to testamentary disposition, but shakespeare had taken steps to prevent her from benefiting--at any rate to the full extent--by that legal arrangement. he had barred her dower in the case of his latest purchase of freehold estate, viz. the house at blackfriars. { } such procedure is pretty conclusive proof that he had the intention of excluding her from the enjoyment of his possessions after his death. but, however plausible the theory that his relations with her were from first to last wanting in sympathy, it is improbable that either the slender mention of her in the will or the barring of her dower was designed by shakespeare to make public his indifference or dislike. local tradition subsequently credited her with a wish to be buried in his grave; and her epitaph proves that she inspired her daughters with genuine affection. probably her ignorance of affairs and the infirmities of age (she was past sixty) combined to unfit her in the poet's eyes for the control of property, and, as an act of ordinary prudence, he committed her to the care of his elder daughter, who inherited, according to such information as is accessible, some of his own shrewdness, and had a capable adviser in her husband. his heiress. legacies to friends. this elder daughter, susanna hall, was, according to the will, to become mistress of new place, and practically of all the poet's estate. she received (with remainder to her issue in strict entail) new place, all the land, barns, and gardens at and near stratford (except the tenement in chapel lane), and the house in blackfriars, london, while she and her husband were appointed executors and residuary legatees, with full rights over nearly all the poet's household furniture and personal belongings. to their only child and the testator's granddaughter, or 'niece,' elizabeth hall, was bequeathed the poet's plate, with the exception of his broad silver and gilt bowl, which was reserved for his younger daughter, judith. to his younger daughter he also left, with the tenement in chapel lane (in remainder to the elder daughter), pounds in money, of which pounds, her marriage portion, was to be paid within a year, and another pounds to be paid to her if alive three years after the date of the will. { a} to the poet's sister, joan hart, whose husband, william hart, predeceased the testator by only six days, he left, besides a contingent reversionary interest in judith's pecuniary legacy, his wearing apparel, pounds in money, a life interest in the henley street property, with pounds for each of her three sons, william, thomas, and michael. to the poor of stratford he gave pounds, and to mr. thomas combe (apparently a brother of william, of the enclosure controversy) his sword. to each of his stratford friends, hamlett sadler, william reynoldes, anthony nash, and john nash, and to each of his 'fellows' (_i.e._ theatrical colleagues in london), john heming, richard burbage, and henry condell, he left xxvj_s_. viij_d_., with which to buy memorial rings. his godson, william walker, received 'xx' shillings in gold. the tomb. before { b} an elaborate monument, by a london sculptor of dutch birth, gerard johnson, was erected to shakespeare's memory in the chancel of the parish church. { } it includes a half-length bust, depicting the dramatist on the point of writing. the fingers of the right hand are disposed as if holding a pen, and under the left hand lies a quarto sheet of paper. the inscription, which was apparently by a london friend, runs: judicio pylium, genio socratem, arte maronem, terra tegit, populus maeret, olympus habet. stay passenger, why goest thou by so fast? read, if thou canst, whom envious death hath plast within this monument; shakespeare with whome quick nature dide; whose name doth deck ys tombe far more than cost; sith all yt he hath writt leaves living art but page to serve his witt. obiit ano. doi aetatis die ap. personal character. at the opening of shakespeare's career chettle wrote of his 'civil demeanour' and of the reports of 'his uprightness of dealing which argues his honesty.' in --when near the zenith of his fame--he was apostrophised as 'sweet master shakespeare' in the play of 'the return from parnassus,' and that adjective was long after associated with his name. in one anthony scoloker in a poem called 'daiphantus' bestowed on him the epithet 'friendly.' after the close of his career jonson wrote of him: 'i loved the man and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry as much as any. he was, indeed, honest and of an open and free nature.' { a} no other contemporary left on record any definite impression of shakespeare's personal character, and the 'sonnets,' which alone of his literary work can be held to throw any illumination on a personal trait, mainly reveal him in the light of one who was willing to conform to all the conventional methods in vogue for strengthening the bonds between a poet and a great patron. his literary practices and aims were those of contemporary men of letters, and the difference in the quality of his work and theirs was due not to conscious endeavour on his part to act otherwise than they, but to the magic and involuntary working of his genius. he seemed unconscious of his marvellous superiority to his professional comrades. the references in his will to his fellow-actors, and the spirit in which (as they announce in the first folio) they approached the task of collecting his works after his death, corroborate the description of him as a sympathetic friend of gentle, unassuming mien. the later traditions brought together by aubrey depict him as 'very good company, and of a very ready and pleasant smooth wit,' and there is much in other early posthumous references to suggest a genial, if not a convivial, temperament, linked to a quiet turn for good-humoured satire. but bohemian ideals and modes of life had no genuine attraction for shakespeare. his extant work attests his 'copious' and continuous industry, { b} and with his literary power and sociability there clearly went the shrewd capacity of a man of business. pope had just warrant for the surmise that he for gain not glory winged his roving flight, and grew immortal in his own despite. his literary attainments and successes were chiefly valued as serving the prosaic end of providing permanently for himself and his daughters. his highest ambition was to restore among his fellow-townsmen the family repute which his father's misfortunes had imperilled. ideals so homely are reckoned rare among poets, but chaucer and sir walter scott, among writers of exalted genius, vie with shakespeare in the sobriety of their personal aims and in the sanity of their mental attitude towards life's ordinary incidents. xvii--survivors and descendants the survivors. mistress judith quiney. shakespeare's widow died on august , , at the age of sixty-seven, and was buried near her husband inside the chancel two days later. some affectionately phrased latin elegiacs--doubtless from dr. hall's pen--were inscribed on a brass plate fastened to the stone above her grave. { } the younger daughter, judith, resided with her husband, thomas quiney, at the cage, a house which he leased in bridge street from till . there he carried on the trade of a vintner, and took part in municipal affairs, acting as a councillor from and as chamberlain in - and - ; but after his affairs grew embarrassed, and he left stratford late in for london, where he seems to have died a few months later. of his three sons by judith, the eldest, shakespeare (baptised on november , ), was buried in stratford churchyard on may , ; the second son, richard (baptised on february , - ), was buried on january , - ; and the third son, thomas (baptised on january , - ), was buried on february , - . judith survived her husband, sons, and sister, dying at stratford on february , - , in her seventy-seventh year. mistress susannah hall. the poet's elder daughter, mrs. susanna hall, resided at new place till her death. her sister judith alienated to her the chapel place tenement before , but that, with the interest in the stratford tithes, she soon disposed of. her husband, dr. john hall, died on november , . in james cooke, a surgeon in attendance on some royalist troops stationed at stratford, visited mrs. hall and examined manuscripts in her possession, but they were apparently of her husband's, not of her father's, composition. { } from july to , , queen henrietta maria, while journeying from newark to oxford, was billeted on mrs. hall at new place for three days, and was visited there by prince rupert. mrs. hall was buried beside her husband in stratford churchyard on july , , and a rhyming inscription, describing her as 'witty above her sex,' was engraved on her tombstone. the whole inscription ran: 'heere lyeth ye body of svsanna, wife to john hall, gent. ye davghter of william shakespeare, gent. she deceased ye th of jvly, a.d. , aged . 'witty above her sexe, but that's not all, wise to salvation was good mistress hall, something of shakespere was in that, but this wholy of him with whom she's now in blisse. then, passenger, ha'st ne're a teare, to weepe with her that wept with all? that wept, yet set herselfe to chere them up with comforts cordiall. her love shall live, her mercy spread, when thou hast ne're a teare to shed.' the last descendant. mrs. hall's only child, elizabeth, was the last surviving descendant of the poet. in april she married her first husband, thomas nash of stratford (_b._ ), who studied at lincoln's inn, was a man of property, and, dying childless at new place on april , , was buried in stratford church next day. at billesley, a village four miles from stratford, on june , , mrs. nash married, as a second husband, a widower, john bernard or barnard of abington, northamptonshire, who was knighted by charles ii in . about the same date she seems to have abandoned new place for her husband's residence at abington. dying without issue, she was buried there on february , - . her husband survived her four years, and was buried beside her. { } on her mother's death in lady barnard inherited under the poet's will the land near stratford, new place, the house at blackfriars, and (on the death of the poet's sister, joan hart, in ) the houses in henley street, while her father, dr. hall, left her in a house at acton with a meadow. she sold the blackfriars house, and apparently the stratford land, before . by her will, dated january - , and proved in the following march, she left small bequests to the daughters of thomas hathaway, of the family of her grandmother, the poet's wife. the houses in henley street passed to her cousin, thomas hart, the grandson of the poet's sister joan, and they remained in the possession of thomas's direct descendants till (the male line expired on the death of john hart in ). by her will lady barnard also ordered new place to be sold, and it was purchased on may , , by sir edward walker, through whose daughter barbara, wife of sir john clopton, it reverted to the clopton family. sir john rebuilt it in . on the death of his son hugh in , it was bought by the rev. francis gastrell (_d._ ), who demolished the new building in . { } shakespeare's brothers. of shakespeare's three brothers, only one, gilbert, seems to have survived him. edmund, the youngest brother, 'a player,' was buried at st. saviour's church, southwark, 'with a fore-noone knell of the great bell,' on december , ; he was in his twenty-eighth year. richard, john shakespeare's third son, died at stratford in february , aged . 'gilbert shakespeare adolescens,' who was buried at stratford on february , - , was doubtless son of the poet's next brother, gilbert; the latter, having nearly completed his forty-sixth year, could scarcely be described as 'adolescens;' his death is not recorded, but according to oldys he survived to a patriarchal age. xviii--autographs, portraits, and memorials spelling of the poet's surname. autograph signatures. much controversy has arisen over the spelling of the poet's surname. it has been proved capable of four thousand variations. { } the name of the poet's father is entered sixty-six times in the council books of stratford, and is spelt in sixteen ways. the commonest form is 'shaxpeare.' five autographs of the poet of undisputed authenticity are extant: his signature to the indenture relating to the purchase of the property in blackfriars, dated march , - (since in the guildhall library); his signature to the mortgage-deed relating to the same purchase, dated march , - (since in the british museum), and the three signatures on the three sheets of his will, dated march , - (now at somerset house). in all the signatures some of the letters are represented by recognised signs of abbreviation. the signature to the first document is 'william shakspere,' though in all other portions of the deed the name is spelt 'shakespeare.' the signature to the second document has been interpreted both as shakspere and shakspeare. the ink of the first signature in the will has now faded almost beyond decipherment, but that it was 'shakspere' may be inferred from the facsimile made by steevens in . the second and third signatures to the will, which are also somewhat difficult to decipher, have been read both as shakspere and shakspeare; but a close examination suggests that whatever the second signature may be, the third is 'shakespeare.' shakspere is the spelling of the alleged autograph in the british museum copy of florio's 'montaigne,' but the genuineness of that signature is disputable. { } shakespeare was the form adopted in the full signature appended to the dedicatory epistles of the 'venus and adonis' of and the 'lucrece' of , volumes which were produced under the poet's supervision. it is the spelling adopted on the title-pages of the majority of contemporary editions of his works, whether or not produced under his supervision. it is adopted in almost all the published references to the poet during the seventeenth century. it appears in the grant of arms in , in the license to the players of , and in the text of all the legal documents relating to the poet's property. the poet, like most of his contemporaries, acknowledged no finality on the subject. according to the best authority, he spelt his surname in two ways when signing his will. there is consequently no good ground for abandoning the form shakespeare, which is sanctioned by legal and literary custom. { } shakespeare's portraits. the stratford bust. the 'stratford' portrait. aubrey reported that shakespeare was 'a handsome well-shap't man,' but no portrait exists which can be said with absolute certainty to have been executed during his lifetime, although one has recently been discovered with a good claim to that distinction. only two of the extant portraits are positively known to have been produced within a short period after his death. these are the bust in stratford church and the frontispiece to the folio of . each is an inartistic attempt at a posthumous likeness. there is considerable discrepancy between the two; their main points of resemblance are the baldness on the top of the head and the fulness of the hair about the ears. the bust was by gerard johnson or janssen, who was a dutch stonemason or tombmaker settled in southwark. it was set up in the church before , and is a rudely carved specimen of mortuary sculpture. there are marks about the forehead and ears which suggest that the face was fashioned from a death mask, but the workmanship is at all points clumsy. the round face and eyes present a heavy, unintellectual expression. the bust was originally coloured, but in malone caused it to be whitewashed. in the whitewash was removed, and the colours, as far as traceable, restored. the eyes are light hazel, the hair and beard auburn. there have been numberless reproductions, both engraved and photographic. it was first engraved--very imperfectly--for rowe's edition in ; then by vertue for pope's edition of ; and by gravelot for hanmer's edition in . a good engraving by william ward appeared in . a phototype and a chromo-phototype, issued by the new shakspere society, are the best reproductions for the purposes of study. the pretentious painting known as the 'stratford' portrait, and presented in by w. o. hunt, town clerk of stratford, to the birthplace museum, where it is very prominently displayed, was probably painted from the bust late in the eighteenth century; it lacks either historic or artistic interest. droeshout's engraving. the engraved portrait--nearly a half-length--which was printed on the title-page of the folio of , was by martin droeshout. on the opposite page lines by ben jonson congratulate 'the graver' on having satisfactorily 'hit' the poet's 'face.' jonson's testimony does no credit to his artistic discernment; the expression of countenance, which is very crudely rendered, is neither distinctive nor lifelike. the face is long and the forehead high; the top of the head is bald, but the hair falls in abundance over the ears. there is a scanty moustache and a thin tuft under the lower lip. a stiff and wide collar, projecting horizontally, conceals the neck. the coat is closely buttoned and elaborately bordered, especially at the shoulders. the dimensions of the head and face are disproportionately large as compared with those of the body. in the unique proof copy which belonged to halliwell-phillipps (now with his collection in america) the tone is clearer than in the ordinary copies, and the shadows are less darkened by cross-hatching and coarse dotting. the engraver, martin droeshout, belonged to a flemish family of painters and engravers long settled in london, where he was born in . he was thus fifteen years old at the time of shakespeare's death in , and it is consequently improbable that he had any personal knowledge of the dramatist. the engraving was doubtless produced by droeshout very shortly before the publication of the first folio in , when he had completed his twenty-second year. it thus belongs to the outset of the engraver's professional career, in which he never achieved extended practice or reputation. a copy of the droeshout engraving, by william marshall, was prefixed to shakespeare's 'poems' in , and william faithorne made another copy for the frontispiece of the edition of 'the rape of lucrece' published in . the 'droeshout' painting. there is little doubt that young droeshout in fashioning his engraving worked from a painting, and there is a likelihood that the original picture from which the youthful engraver worked has lately come to light. as recently as mr. edgar flower, of stratford-on-avon, discovered in the possession of mr. h. c. clements, a private gentleman with artistic tastes residing at peckham rye, a portrait alleged to represent shakespeare. the picture, which was faded and somewhat worm-eaten, dated beyond all doubt from the early years of the seventeenth century. it was painted on a panel formed of two planks of old elm, and in the upper left-hand corner was the inscription 'willm shakespeare, .' mr. clements purchased the portrait of an obscure dealer about , and knew nothing of its history, beyond what he set down on a slip of paper when he acquired it. the note that he then wrote and pasted on the box in which he preserved the picture, ran as follows: 'the original portrait of shakespeare, from which the now famous droeshout engraving was taken and inserted in the first collected edition of his works, published in , being seven years after his death. the picture was painted nine [_vere_ seven] years before his death, and consequently sixteen [_vere_ fourteen] years before it was published. . . . the picture was publicly exhibited in london seventy years ago, and many thousands went to see it.' in all its details and in its comparative dimensions, especially in the disproportion between the size of the head and that of the body, this picture is identical with the droeshout engraving. though coarsely and stiffly drawn, the face is far more skilfully presented than in the engraving, and the expression of countenance betrays some artistic sentiment which is absent from the print. connoisseurs, including sir edward poynter, mr. sidney colvin, and mr. lionel cust, have almost unreservedly pronounced the picture to be anterior in date to the engraving, and they have reached the conclusion that in all probability martin droeshout directly based his work upon the painting. influences of an early seventeenth-century flemish school are plainly discernible in the picture, and it is just possible that it is the production of an uncle of the young engraver martin droeshout, who bore the same name as his nephew, and was naturalised in this country on january , , when he was described as a 'painter of brabant.' although the history of the portrait rests on critical conjecture and on no external contemporary evidence, there seems good ground for regarding it as a portrait of shakespeare painted in his lifetime--in the forty-fifth year of his age. no other pictorial representation of the poet has equally serious claims to be treated as contemporary with himself, and it therefore presents features of unique interest. on the death of its owner, mr. clements, in , the painting was purchased by mrs. charles flower, and was presented to the memorial picture gallery at stratford, where it now hangs. no attempt at restoration has been made. a photogravure forms the frontispiece to the present volume. { } of the same type as the droeshout engraving, although less closely resembling it than the picture just described, is the 'ely house' portrait (now the property of the birthplace trustees at stratford), which formerly belonged to thomas turton, bishop of ely, and it is inscribed 'ae. x. .' { a} this painting is of high artistic value. the features are of a far more attractive and intellectual cast than in either the droeshout painting or engraving, and the many differences in detail raise doubts as to whether the person represented can have been intended for shakespeare. experts are of opinion that the picture was painted early in the seventeenth century. early in charles ii's reign lord chancellor clarendon added a portrait of shakespeare to his great gallery in his house in st. james's. mention is made of it in a letter from the diarist john evelyn to his friend samuel pepys in , but clarendon's collection was dispersed at the end of the seventeenth century and the picture has not been traced. { b} later portraits. of the numerous extant paintings which have been described as portraits of shakespeare, only the 'droeshout' portrait and the ely house portrait, both of which are at stratford, bear any definable resemblance to the folio engraving or the bust in the church. { c} in spite of their admitted imperfections, those presentments can alone be held indisputably to have been honestly designed to depict the poet's features. they must be treated as the standards of authenticity in judging of the genuineness of other portraits claiming to be of an early date. the 'chandos' portrait. of other alleged portraits which are extant, the most famous and interesting is the 'chandos' portrait, now in the national portrait gallery. its pedigree suggests that it was intended to represent the poet, but numerous and conspicuous divergences from the authenticated likenesses show that it was painted from fanciful descriptions of him some years after his death. the face is bearded, and rings adorn the ears. oldys reported that it was from the brush of burbage, shakespeare's fellow-actor, who had some reputation as a limner, { } and that it had belonged to joseph taylor, an actor contemporary with shakespeare. these rumours are not corroborated; but there is no doubt that it was at one time the property of d'avenant, and that it subsequently belonged successively to the actor betterton and to mrs. barry the actress. in sir godfrey kneller made a copy as a gift for dryden. after mrs barry's death in it was purchased for forty guineas by robert keck, a barrister of the inner temple. at length it reached the hands of one john nichols, whose daughter married james brydges, third duke of chandos. in due time the duke became the owner of the picture, and it subsequently passed, through chandos's daughter, to her husband, the first duke of buckingham and chandos, whose son, the second duke of buckingham and chandos, sold it with the rest of his effects at stowe in , when it was purchased by the earl of ellesmere. the latter presented it to the nation. edward capell many years before presented a copy by ranelagh barret to trinity college, cambridge, and other copies are attributed to sir joshua reynolds and ozias humphrey ( ). it was engraved by george vertue in for pope's edition ( ), and often later, one of the best engravings being by vandergucht. a good lithograph from a tracing by sir george scharf was published by the trustees of the national portrait gallery in . the baroness burdett-coutts purchased in a portrait of similar type, which is said, somewhat doubtfully, to have belonged to john lord lumley, who died in , and to have formed part of a collection of portraits of the great men of his day at his house, lumley castle, durham. its early history is not positively authenticated, and it may well be an early copy of the chandos portrait. the 'lumley' painting was finely chromo-lithographed in by vincent brooks. the 'jansen' portrait. the so-called 'jansen' or janssens portrait, which belongs to lady guendolen ramsden, daughter of the duke of somerset, and is now at her residence at bulstrode, was first doubtfully identified about , when in the possession of charles jennens. janssens did not come to england before shakespeare's death. it is a fine portrait, but is unlike any other that has been associated with the dramatist. an admirable mezzotint by richard earlom was issued in . the 'felton' portrait. the 'felton' portrait, a small head on a panel, with a high and very bald forehead (belonging since to the baroness burdett-coutts), was purchased by s. felton of drayton, shropshire, in of j. wilson, the owner of the shakespeare museum in pall mall; it bears a late inscription, 'gul. shakespear , r. b.' [_i.e._ richard burbage]. it was engraved by josiah boydell for george steevens in , and by james neagle for isaac reed's edition in . fuseli declared it to be the work of a dutch artist, but the painters romney and lawrence regarded it as of english workmanship of the sixteenth century. steevens held that it was the original picture whence both droeshout and marshall made their engravings, but there are practically no points of resemblance between it and the prints. [picture: plaster-cast of bust of william shakespeare] the 'soest' portrait. the 'soest' or 'zoust' portrait--in the possession of sir john lister-kaye of the grange, wakefield--was in the collection of thomas wright, painter, of covent garden in , when john simon engraved it. soest was born twenty-one years after shakespeare's death, and the portrait is only on fanciful grounds identified with the poet. a chalk drawing by john michael wright, obviously inspired by the soest portrait, is the property of sir arthur hodgson of clopton house, and is on loan at the memorial gallery, stratford. miniatures. a well-executed miniature by hilliard, at one time in the possession of william somerville the poet, and now the property of sir stafford northcote, bart., was engraved by agar for vol. ii. of the 'variorum shakespeare' of , and in wivell's 'inquiry,' . it has little claim to attention as a portrait of the dramatist. another miniature (called the 'auriol' portrait), of doubtful authenticity, formerly belonged to mr. lumsden propert, and a third is at warwick castle. the garrick club bust. a bust, said to be of shakespeare, was discovered in bricked up in a wall in spode and copeland's china warehouse in lincoln's inn fields. the warehouse had been erected on the site of the duke's theatre, which was built by d'avenant in . the bust, which is of black terra cotta, and bears traces of italian workmanship, is believed to have adorned the proscenium of the duke's theatre. it was acquired by the surgeon william clift, from whom it passed to clift's son-in-law, richard (afterwards sir richard) owen the naturalist. the latter sold it to the duke of devonshire, who presented it in to the garrick club, after having two copies made in plaster. one of these copies is now in the shakespeare memorial gallery at stratford, and from it an engraving has been made for reproduction in this volume. alleged death-mask. the kesselstadt death-mask was discovered by dr. ludwig becker, librarian at the ducal palace at darmstadt, in a rag-shop at mayence in . the features resemble those of an alleged portrait of shakespeare (dated ) which dr. becker purchased in . this picture had long been in the possession of the family of count francis von kesselstadt of mayence, who died in . dr. becker brought the mask and the picture to england in , and richard owen supported the theory that the mask was taken from shakespeare's face after death, and was the foundation of the bust in stratford church. the mask was for a long time in dr. becker's private apartments at the ducal palace, darmstadt. { a} the features are singularly attractive; but the chain of evidence which would identify them with shakespeare is incomplete. { b} memorials in sculpture. a monument, the expenses of which were defrayed by public subscription, was set up in the poets' corner in westminster abbey in . pope and the earl of burlington were among the promoters. the design was by william kent, and the statue of shakespeare was executed by peter scheemakers. { } another statue was executed by roubiliac for garrick, who bequeathed it to the british museum in . a third statue, freely adapted from the works of scheemakers and roubiliac, was executed for baron albert grant and was set up by him as a gift to the metropolis in leicester square, london, in . a fourth statue (by mr. j. a. q. ward) was placed in in the central park, new york. a fifth in bronze, by m. paul fournier, which was erected in paris in at the expense of an english resident, mr. w. knighton, stands at the point where the avenue de messine meets the boulevard haussmann. a sixth memorial in sculpture, by lord ronald gower, the most elaborate and ambitious of all, stands in the garden of the shakespeare memorial buildings at stratford-on-avon, and was unveiled in ; shakespeare is seated on a high pedestal; below, at each side of the pedestal, stand figures of four of shakespeare's principal characters: lady macbeth, hamlet, prince hal, and sir john falstaff. at stratford, the birthplace, which was acquired by the public in and converted into a museum, is with anne hathaway's cottage (which was acquired by the birthplace trustees in ), a place of pilgrimage for visitors from all parts of the globe. the , persons who visited it in and the , persons who visited it in represented over forty nationalities. the site of the demolished new place, with the gardens, was also purchased by public subscription in , and now forms a public garden. of a new memorial building on the river-bank at stratford, consisting of a theatre, picture-gallery, and library, the foundation-stone was laid on april , . the theatre was opened exactly two years later, when 'much ado about nothing' was performed, with helen faucit (lady martin) as beatrice and barry sullivan as benedick. performances of shakespeare's plays have since been given annually during april. the library and picture-gallery were opened in . { } a memorial shakespeare library was opened at birmingham on april , , to commemorate the tercentenary of , and, although destroyed by fire in , was restored in ; it now possesses nearly ten thousand volumes relating to shakespeare. xix--bibliography quartos of the poems in the poet's lifetime. only two of shakespeare's works--his narrative poems 'venus and adonis' and 'lucrece'--were published with his sanction and co-operation. these poems were the first specimens of his work to appear in print, and they passed in his lifetime through a greater number of editions than any of his plays. at the time of his death in there had been printed in quarto seven editions of his 'venus and adonis' ( , , , , , and two in ), and five editions of his 'lucrece' ( , , , , ). there was only one lifetime edition of the 'sonnets,' thorpe's surreptitious venture of ; { } but three editions were issued of the piratical 'passionate pilgrim,' which was fraudulently assigned to shakespeare by the publisher william jaggard, although it contained only a few occasional poems by him ( , no copy known, and ). posthumous quartos of the poems. of posthumous editions in quarto of the two narrative poems in the seventeenth century, there were two of 'lucrece'--viz. in ('the sixth edition') and in (with john quarles's 'banishment of tarquin')--and there were as many as six editions of 'venus' ( , , , two in , and ), making thirteen editions in all in forty-three years. no later editions of these two poems were issued in the seventeenth century. they were next reprinted together with 'the passionate pilgrim' in , and thenceforth they usually figured, with the addition of the 'sonnets,' in collected editions of shakespeare's works. the 'poems' of . a so-called first collected edition of shakespeare's 'poems' in (london, by t. cotes for i. benson) was mainly a reissue of the 'sonnets,' but it omitted six (nos. xviii., xix., xliii., lvi., lxxv., and lxxvi.) and it included the twenty poems of 'the passionate pilgrim,' with some other pieces by other authors. marshall's copy of the droeshout engraving of formed the frontispiece. there were prefatory poems by leonard digges and john warren, as well as an address 'to the reader' signed with the initials of the publisher. there shakespeare's 'sonnets' were described as 'serene, clear, and elegantly plain; such gentle strains as shall re-create and not perplex your brain. no intricate or cloudy stuff to puzzle intellect. such as will raise your admiration to his praise.' a chief point of interest in the volume of 'poems' of is the fact that the 'sonnets' were printed then in a different order from that which was followed in the volume of . thus the poem numbered lxvii. in the original edition opens the reissue, and what has been regarded as the crucial poem, beginning two loves i have of comfort and despair, which was in numbered cxliv., takes the thirty-second place in . in most cases a more or less fanciful general title is placed in the second edition at the head of each sonnet, but in a few instances a single title serves for short sequences of two or three sonnets which are printed as independent poems continuously without spacing. the poems drawn from 'the passionate pilgrim' are intermingled with the 'sonnets,' together with extracts from thomas heywood's 'general history of women,' although no hint is given that they are not shakespeare's work. the edition concludes with three epitaphs on shakespeare and a short section entitled 'an addition of some excellent poems to those precedent by other gentlemen.' the volume is of great rarity. an exact reprint was published in . quartos of the plays in the poet's lifetime. of shakespeare's plays there were in print in only sixteen (all in quarto), or eighteen if we include the 'contention,' the first draft of ' henry vi' ( and ), and 'the true tragedy,' the first draft of ' henry vi' ( and ). these sixteen quartos were publishers' ventures, and were undertaken without the co-operation of the author. two of the plays, published thus, reached five editions before , viz. 'richard iii' ( , , , , ) and ' henry iv' ( , , , , ). three reached four editions, viz. 'richard ii' ( , , supplying the deposition scene for the first time, ); 'hamlet' ( imperfect, , , ), and 'romeo and juliet' ( imperfect, , two in ). two reached three editions, viz. 'henry v' ( imperfect, , and ) and 'pericles' (two in , ). four reached two editions, viz. 'midsummer night's dream' (both in ); 'merchant of venice' (both in ); 'lear' (both in ); and 'troilus and cressida' (both in ). five achieved only one edition, viz. 'love's labour's lost' ( ), ' henry iv' ( ), 'much ado' ( ), 'titus' ( ), 'merry wives' ( imperfect). posthumous quartos of the plays. three years after shakespeare's death--in --there appeared a second edition of 'merry wives' (again imperfect) and a fourth of 'pericles.' 'othello' was first printed posthumously in ( to), and in the same year sixth editions of 'richard iii' and 'i henry iv' appeared. { } the largest collections of the original quartos--each of which survives in only four, five, or six copies--are in the libraries of the duke of devonshire, the british museum, and trinity college, cambridge, and in the bodleian library. { } all the quartos were issued in shakespeare's day at sixpence each. the first folio. the publishing syndicate. in the first attempt was made to give the world a complete edition of shakespeare's plays. two of the dramatist's intimate friends and fellow-actors, john heming and henry condell, were nominally responsible for the venture, but it seems to have been suggested by a small syndicate of printers and publishers, who undertook all pecuniary responsibility. chief of the syndicate was william jaggard, printer since to the city of london, who was established in business in fleet street at the east end of st. dunstan's church. as the piratical publisher of 'the passionate pilgrim' he had long known the commercial value of shakespeare's work. in he had extended his business by purchasing the stock and rights of a rival pirate, james roberts, who had printed the quarto editions of the 'merchant of venice' and 'midsummer night's dream' in and the complete quarto of 'hamlet' in . roberts had enjoyed for nearly twenty years the right to print 'the players' bills,' or programmes, and he made over that privilege to jaggard with his other literary property. it is to the close personal relations with the playhouse managers into which the acquisition of the right of printing 'the players' bill' brought jaggard after that the inception of the scheme of the 'first folio' may safely be attributed. jaggard associated his son isaac with the enterprise. they alone of the members of the syndicate were printers. their three partners were publishers or booksellers only. two of these, william aspley and john smethwick, had already speculated in plays of shakespeare. aspley had published with another in the 'second part of henry iv' and 'much ado about nothing,' and in half of thorpe's impression of shakespeare's 'sonnets.' smethwick, whose shop was in st. dunstan's churchyard, fleet street, near jaggard's, had published in two late editions of 'romeo and juliet' and one of 'hamlet.' edward blount, the fifth partner, was an interesting figure in the trade, and, unlike his companions, had a true taste in literature. he had been a friend and admirer of christopher marlowe, and had actively engaged in the posthumous publication of two of marlowe's poems. he had published that curious collection of mystical verse entitled 'love's martyr,' one poem in which, 'a poetical essay of the phoenix and the turtle,' was signed 'william shakespeare.' { } the first folio was doubtless printed in jaggard's printing office near st. dunstan's church. upon blount probably fell the chief labour of seeing the work through the press. it was in progress throughout , and had so far advanced by november , , that on that day edward blount and isaac (son of william) jaggard obtained formal license from the stationers' company to publish sixteen of the twenty hitherto unprinted plays that it was intended to include. the pieces, whose approaching publication for the first time was thus announced, were of supreme literary interest. the titles ran: 'the tempest,' 'the two gentlemen,' 'measure for measure,' 'comedy of errors,' 'as you like it,' 'all's well,' 'twelfth night,' 'winter's tale,' ' henry vi,' 'henry viii,' 'coriolanus,' 'timon,' 'julius caesar,' 'macbeth,' 'antony and cleopatra,' and 'cymbeline.' four other hitherto unprinted dramas for which no license was sought figured in the volume, viz. 'king john,' ' and henry vi,' and the 'taming of the shrew;' but each of these plays was based by shakespeare on a play of like title which had been published at an earlier date, and the absence of a license was doubtless due to an ignorant misconception on the past either of the stationers' company's officers or of the editors of the volume as to the true relations subsisting between the old pieces and the new. the only play by shakespeare that had been previously published and was not included in the first folio was 'pericles.' the prefatory matter. thirty-six pieces in all were thus brought together. the volume consisted of nearly one thousand double-column pages and was sold at a pound a copy. steevens estimated that the edition numbered copies. the book was described on the title-page as published by edward blount and isaac jaggard, and in the colophon as printed at the charges of 'w. jaggard, i. smithweeke, and w. aspley,' as well as of blount. { } on the title-page was engraved the droeshout portrait. commendatory verses were supplied by ben jonson, hugh holland, leonard digges, and i. m., perhaps jasper maine. the dedication was addressed to the brothers william herbert, earl of pembroke, the lord chamberlain, and philip herbert, earl of montgomery, and was signed by shakespeare's friends and fellow-actors, heming and condell. the same signatures were appended to a succeeding address 'to the great variety of readers.' in both addresses the two actors made pretension to a larger responsibility for the enterprise than they really incurred, but their motives in identifying themselves with the venture were doubtless irreproachable. they disclaimed (they wrote) 'ambition either of selfe-profit or fame in undertaking the design,' being solely moved by anxiety to 'keepe the memory of so worthy a friend and fellow alive as was our shakespeare.' 'it had bene a thing we confesse worthie to haue bene wished,' they inform the reader, 'that the author himselfe had liued to haue set forth and ouerseen his owne writings. . . .' a list of contents follows the address to the readers. the value of the text. the title-page states that all the plays were printed 'according to the true originall copies.' the dedicators wrote to the same effect. 'as where (before) we were abus'd with diuerse stolne and surreptitious copies, maimed and deformed by the frauds and stealthes of incurious impostors that expos'd them: even those are now offer'd to your view cur'd and perfect in their limbes, and all the rest absolute in their numbers as he conceived them.' there is no doubt that the whole volume was printed from the acting versions in the possession of the manager of the company with which shakespeare had been associated. but it is doubtful if any play were printed exactly as it came from his pen. the first folio text is often markedly inferior to that of the sixteen pre-existent quartos, which, although surreptitiously and imperfectly printed, followed playhouse copies of far earlier date. from the text of the quartos the text of the first folio differs invariably, although in varying degrees. the quarto texts of 'love's labour's lost,' 'midsummer night's dream,' and 'richard ii,' for example, differ very largely and always for the better from the folio texts. on the other hand, the folio repairs the glaring defects of the quarto versions of 'the merry wives of windsor' and of 'henry v.' in the case of twenty of the plays in the first folio no quartos exist for comparison, and of these twenty plays, 'coriolanus,' 'all's well,' and 'macbeth' present a text abounding in corrupt passages. the order of the plays. the plays are arranged under three headings--'comedies,' 'histories,' and 'tragedies'--and each division is separately paged. the arrangement of the plays in each division follows no principle. the comedy section begins with the 'tempest' and ends with the 'winter's tale.' the histories more justifiably begin with 'king john' and end with 'henry viii.' the tragedies begin with 'troilus and cressida' and end with 'cymbeline.' this order has been usually followed in subsequent collective editions. the typography. as a specimen of typography the first folio is not to be commended. there are a great many contemporary folios of larger bulk far more neatly and correctly printed. it looks as though jaggard's printing office were undermanned. the misprints are numerous and are especially conspicuous in the pagination. the sheets seem to have been worked off very slowly, and corrections were made while the press was working, so that the copies struck off later differ occasionally from the earlier copies. one mark of carelessness on the part of the compositor or corrector of the press, which is common to all copies, is that 'troilus and cressida,' though in the body of the book it opens the section of tragedies, is not mentioned at all in the table of contents, and the play is unpaged except on its second and third pages, which bear the numbers and . unique copies. three copies are known which are distinguished by more interesting irregularities, in each case unique. the copy in the lenox library in new york includes a cancel duplicate of a leaf of 'as you like it' (sheet r of the comedies), and the title-page bears the date instead of ; but it is suspected that the figures were tampered with outside the printing office. { } samuel butler, successively headmaster of shrewsbury and bishop of lichfield and coventry, possessed a copy of the first folio in which a proof leaf of 'hamlet' was bound up with the corrected leaf. { a} the sheldon copy. the most interesting irregularity yet noticed appears in one of the two copies of the book belonging to the baroness burdett-coutts. this copy is known as the sheldon folio, having formed in the seventeenth century part of the library of ralph sheldon of weston manor in the parish of long compton, warwickshire. { b} in the sheldon folio the opening page of 'troilus and cressida,' of which the recto or front is occupied by the prologue and the verso or back by the opening lines of the text of the play, is followed by a superfluous leaf. on the recto or front of the unnecessary leaf { c} are printed the concluding lines of 'romeo and juliet' in place of the prologue to 'troilus and cressida.' at the back or verso are the opening lines of 'troilus and cressida' repeated from the preceding page. the presence of a different ornamental headpiece on each page proves that the two are not taken from the same setting of the type. at a later page in the sheldon copy the concluding lines of 'romeo and juliet' are duly reprinted at the close of the play, and on the verso or back of the leaf, which supplies them in their right place, is the opening passage, as in other copies, of 'timon of athens.' these curious confusions attest that while the work was in course of composition the printers or editors of the volume at one time intended to place 'troilus and cressida,' with the prologue omitted, after 'romeo and juliet.' the last page of 'romeo and juliet' is in all copies numbered , an obvious misprint for ; the first leaf of 'troilus' is paged ; the second and third pages of 'troilus' are numbered and . it was doubtless suddenly determined while the volume was in the press to transfer 'troilus and cressida' to the head of the tragedies from a place near the end, but the numbers on the opening pages which indicated its first position were clumsily retained, and to avoid the extensive typographical corrections that were required by the play's change of position, its remaining pages were allowed to go forth unnumbered. { } estimated number of extant copies. it is difficult to estimate how many copies survive of the first folio, which is intrinsically the most valuable volume in the whole range of english literature, and extrinsically is only exceeded in value by some half-dozen volumes of far earlier date and of exceptional typographical interest. it seems that about copies have been traced within the past century. of these fewer than twenty are in a perfect state, that is, with the portrait _printed_ (_not inlaid_) _on_ the title-page, and the flyleaf facing it, with all the pages succeeding it, intact and uninjured. (the flyleaf contains ben jonson's verses attesting the truthfulness of the portrait.) excellent copies in this enviable state are in the grenville library at the british museum, and in the libraries of the duke of devonshire, the earl of crawford, the baroness burdett-coutts, and mr. a. h. huth. of these probably the finest and cleanest is the 'daniel' copy belonging to the baroness burdett-coutts. it measures inches by . , and was purchased by its present owner for pounds s. at the sale of george daniel's library in . some twenty more copies are defective in the preliminary pages, but are unimpaired in other respects. there remain about a hundred copies which have sustained serious damage at various points. reprints of the first folio. a reprint of the first folio unwarrantably purporting to be exact was published in - . { } the best reprint was issued in three parts by lionel booth in , , and . the valuable photo-zincographic reproduction undertaken by sir henry james, under the direction of howard staunton, was issued in sixteen folio parts between february and october . a reduced photographic facsimile, too small to be legible, appeared in , with a preface by halliwell-phillipps. the second folio. the third folio. the fourth folio. the second folio edition was printed in by thomas cotes for robert allot and william aspley, each of whose names figures as publisher on different copies. to allot blount had transferred, on november , , his rights in the sixteen plays which were first licensed for publication in . { a} the second folio was reprinted from the first; a few corrections were made in the text, but most of the changes were arbitrary and needless. charles i's copy is at windsor, and charles ii's at the british museum. the 'perkins folio,' now in the duke of devonshire's possession, in which john payne collier introduced forged emendations, was a copy of that of . { b} the third folio--for the most part a faithful reprint of the second--was first published in by peter chetwynde, who reissued it next year with the addition of seven plays, six of which have no claim to admission among shakespeare's works. 'unto this impression,' runs the title-page of , 'is added seven playes never before printed in folio, viz.: pericles, prince of tyre. the london prodigall. the history of thomas ld. cromwell. sir john oldcastle, lord cobham. the puritan widow. a yorkshire tragedy. the tragedy of locrine.' the six spurious pieces which open the volume were attributed by unprincipled publishers to shakespeare in his lifetime. fewer copies of the third folio are reputed to be extant than of the second or fourth, owing to the destruction of many unsold impressions in the fire of london in . the fourth folio, printed in 'for h. herringman, e. brewster, r. chiswell, and r. bentley,' reprints the folio of without change except in the way of modernising the spelling; it repeats the spurious pieces. eighteenth-century editors. since some two hundred independent editions of the collected works have been published in great britain and ireland, and many thousand editions of separate plays. the eighteenth-century editors of the collected works endeavoured with varying degrees of success to purge the text of the numerous incoherences of the folios, and to restore, where good taste or good sense required it, the lost text of the contemporary quartos. it is largely owing to a due co-ordination of the results of the efforts of the eighteenth-century editors by their successors in the present century that shakespeare's work has become intelligible to general readers unversed in textual criticism, and has won from them the veneration that it merits. { } nicholas rowe, - . nicholas rowe, a popular dramatist of queen anne's reign, and poet laureate to george i., was the first critical editor of shakespeare. he produced an edition of his plays in six octavo volumes in . a new edition in eight volumes followed in , and another hand added a ninth volume which included the poems. rowe prefixed a valuable life of the poet embodying traditions which were in danger of perishing without a record. his text followed that of the fourth folio. the plays were printed in the same order, except that he transferred the spurious pieces from the beginning to the end. rowe did not compare his text with that of the first folio or of the quartos, but in the case of 'romeo and juliet' he met with an early quarto while his edition was passing through the press, and inserted at the end of the play the prologue which is met with only in the quartos. he made a few happy emendations, some of which coincide accidentally with the readings of the first folio; but his text is deformed by many palpable errors. his practical experience as a playwright induced him, however, to prefix for the first time a list of _dramatis personae_ to each play, to divide and number acts and scenes on rational principles, and to mark the entrances and exits of the characters. spelling, punctuation, and grammar he corrected and modernised. alexander pope, - . the poet pope was shakespeare's second editor. his edition in six quarto volumes was completed in . the poems, edited by dr. george sewell, with an essay on the rise and progress of the stage, and a glossary, appeared in a seventh volume. pope had few qualifications for the task, and the venture was a commercial failure. in his preface pope, while he fully recognised shakespeare's native genius, deemed his achievement deficient in artistic quality. pope claimed to have collated the text of the fourth folio with that of all preceding editions, and although his work indicates that he had access to the first folio and some of the quartos, it is clear that his text was based on that of rowe. his innovations are numerous, and are derived from 'his private sense and conjecture,' but they are often plausible and ingenious. he was the first to indicate the place of each new scene, and he improved on rowe's subdivision of the scenes. a second edition of pope's version in ten duodecimo volumes appeared in with sewell's name on the title-page as well as pope's. there were few alterations in the text, though a preliminary table supplied a list of twenty-eight quartos. other editions followed in and . the last was printed at garrick's suggestion at birmingham from baskerville's types. lewis theobald, - . pope found a rigorous critic in lewis theobald, who, although contemptible as a writer of original verse and prose, proved himself the most inspired of all the textual critics of shakespeare. pope savagely avenged himself on his censor by holding him up to ridicule as the hero of the 'dunciad.' theobald first displayed his critical skill in in a volume which deserves to rank as a classic in english literature. the title runs 'shakespeare restored, or a specimen of the many errors as well committed as unamended by mr. pope in his late edition of this poet, designed not only to correct the said edition but to restore the true reading of shakespeare in all the editions ever yet publish'd.' there at page appears theobald's great emendation in shakespeare's account of falstaff's death (henry v, ii. iii. ): 'his nose was as sharp as a pen and a' babbled of green fields,' in place of the reading in the old copies, 'his nose was as sharp as a pen and a table of green fields.' in theobald brought out his edition of shakespeare in seven volumes. in it reached a second issue. a third edition was published in . others are dated and . it is stated that , copies in all were sold. theobald made the first folio the basis of his text, although he failed to adopt all the correct readings of that version, but over corrections or emendations which he made in his edition have become part and parcel of the authorised canon. theobald's principles of textual criticism were as enlightened as his practice was triumphant. 'i ever labour,' he wrote to warburton, 'to make the smallest deviation that i possibly can from the text; never to alter at all where i can by any means explain a passage with sense; nor ever by any emendation to make the author better when it is probable the text came from his own hands.' theobald has every right to the title of the porson of shakespearean criticism. { a} the following are favourable specimens of his insight. in 'macbeth' (i. vii. ) for 'this bank and school of time,' he substituted the familiar 'bank and shoal of time.' in 'antony and cleopatra' the old copies (v. ii. ) made cleopatra say of antony: for his bounty, there was no winter in't; an anthony it was that grew the more by reaping. for the gibberish 'an anthony it was,' theobald read 'an autumn 'twas,' and thus gave the lines true point and poetry. a third notable instance, somewhat more recondite, is found in 'coriolanus' (ii. i. - ) where menenius asks the tribunes in the first folio version 'what harm can your besom conspectuities [_i.e._ vision or eyes] glean out of this character?' theobald replaced the meaningless epithet 'besom' by 'bisson' (_i.e._ purblind), a recognised elizabethan word which shakespeare had already employed in 'hamlet' (ii. ii. ). { b} sir thomas hanmer, - . the fourth editor was sir thomas hammer, a country gentleman without much literary culture, but possessing a large measure of mother wit. he was speaker in the house of commons for a few months in , and retiring soon afterwards from public life devoted his leisure to a thorough-going scrutiny of shakespeare's plays. his edition, which was the earliest to pretend to typographical beauty, was printed at the oxford university press in in six quarto volumes. it contained a number of good engravings by gravelot after designs by francis hayman, and was long highly valued by book collectors. no editor's name was given. in forming his text, hanmer depended exclusively on his own ingenuity. he made no recourse to the old copies. the result was a mass of common-sense emendations, some of which have been permanently accepted. { } hanmer's edition was reprinted in - . bishop warburton, - . in bishop warburton produced a revised version of pope's edition in eight volumes. warburton was hardly better qualified for the task than pope, and such improvements as he introduced are mainly borrowed from theobald and hanmer. on both these critics he arrogantly and unjustly heaped abuse in his preface. the bishop was consequently criticised with appropriate severity for his pretentious incompetence by many writers; among them, by thomas edwards, whose 'supplement to warburton's edition of shakespeare' first appeared in , and, having been renamed 'the canons of criticism' next year in the third edition, passed through as many as seven editions by . dr. johnson, - . dr. johnson, the sixth editor, completed his edition in eight volumes in , and a second issue followed three years later. although he made some independent collation of the quartos, his textual labours were slight, and his verbal notes show little close knowledge of sixteenth and seventeenth century literature. but in his preface and elsewhere he displays a genuine, if occasionally sluggish, sense of shakespeare's greatness, and his massive sagacity enabled him to indicate convincingly shakespeare's triumphs of characterisation. edward capell, - . the seventh editor, edward capell, advanced on his predecessors in many respects. he was a clumsy writer, and johnson declared, with some justice, that he 'gabbled monstrously,' but his collation of the quartos and the first and second folios was conducted on more thorough and scholarly methods than those of any of his predecessors not excepting theobald. his industry was untiring, and he is said to have transcribed the whole of shakespeare ten times. capell's edition appeared in ten small octavo volumes in . he showed himself well versed in elizabethan literature in a volume of notes which appeared in , and in three further volumes, entitled 'notes, various readings, and the school of shakespeare,' which were not published till , two years after his death. the last volume, 'the school of shakespeare,' consisted of 'authentic extracts from divers english books that were in print in that author's time,' to which was appended 'notitia dramatica; or, tables of ancient plays (from their beginning to the restoration of charles ii).' george steevens, - . george steevens, whose saturnine humour involved him in a lifelong series of literary quarrels with rival students of shakespeare, made invaluable contributions to shakespearean study. in he reprinted twenty of the plays from the quartos. soon afterwards he revised johnson's edition without much assistance from the doctor, and his revision, which embodied numerous improvements, appeared in ten volumes in . it was long regarded as the standard version. steevens's antiquarian knowledge alike of elizabethan history and literature was greater than that of any previous editor; his citations of parallel passages from the writings of shakespeare's contemporaries, in elucidation of obscure words and phrases, have not been exceeded in number or excelled in aptness by any of his successors. all commentators of recent times are more deeply indebted in this department of their labours to steevens than to any other critic. but he lacked taste as well as temper, and excluded from his edition shakespeare's sonnets and poems, because, he wrote, 'the strongest act of parliament that could be framed would fail to compel readers into their service.' { } the second edition of johnson and steevens's version appeared in ten volumes in . the third edition, published in ten volumes in , was revised by steevens's friend, isaac reed ( - ), a scholar of his own type. the fourth and last edition, published in steevens's lifetime, was prepared by himself in fifteen volumes in . as he grew older, he made some reckless changes in the text, chiefly with the unhallowed object of mystifying those engaged in the same field. with a malignity that was not without humour, he supplied, too, many obscene notes to coarse expressions, and he pretended that he owed his indecencies to one or other of two highly respectable clergymen, richard amner and john collins, whose surnames were in each instance appended. he had known and quarrelled with both. such proofs of his perversity justified the title which gifford applied to him of 'the puck of commentators.' edmund malone, - . edmund malone, who lacked steevens's quick wit and incisive style, was a laborious and amiable archaeologist, without much ear for poetry or delicate literary taste. he threw abundance of new light on shakespeare's biography, and on the chronology and sources of his works, while his researches into the beginnings of the english stage added a new chapter of first-rate importance to english literary history. to malone is due the first rational 'attempt to ascertain the order in which the plays attributed to shakespeare were written.' his earliest results on the topic were contributed to steevens's edition of . two years later he published, as a supplement to steevens's work, two volumes containing a history of the elizabethan stage, with reprints of arthur brooke's 'romeus and juliet,' shakespeare's poems, and the plays falsely ascribed to him in the third and fourth folios. a quarrel with steevens followed, and was never closed. in malone issued 'a dissertation on the three parts of king henry vi,' tending to show that those plays were not originally written by shakespeare. in appeared his edition of shakespeare in ten volumes, the first in two parts. variorum editions. what is known among booksellers as the 'first variorum' edition of shakespeare was prepared by steevens's friend, isaac reed, after steevens's death. it was based on a copy of steevens's work of , which had been enriched with numerous manuscript additions, and it embodied the published notes and prefaces of preceding editors. it was published in twenty-one volumes in . the 'second variorum' edition, which was mainly a reprint of the first, was published in twenty-one volumes in . the 'third variorum' was prepared for the press by james boswell the younger, the son of dr. johnson's biographer. it was based on malone's edition of , but included massive accumulations of notes left in manuscript by malone at his death. malone had been long engaged on a revision of his edition, but died in , before it was completed. boswell's 'malone,' as the new work is often called, appeared in twenty-one volumes in . it is the most valuable of all collective editions of shakespeare's works, but the three volumes of preliminary essays on shakespeare's biography and writings, and the illustrative notes brought together in the final volume, are confusedly arranged and are unindexed; many of the essays and notes break off abruptly at the point at which they were left at malone's death. a new 'variorum' edition, on an exhaustive scale, was undertaken by mr. h. howard furness of philadelphia, and eleven volumes have appeared since ('romeo and juliet,' 'macbeth,' 'hamlet,' vols., 'king lear,' 'othello,' 'merchant of venice,' 'as you like it,' 'tempest,' 'midsummer night's dream,' and 'winter's tale'). nineteenth-century editors. of nineteenth-century editors who have prepared collective editions of shakespeare's work with original annotations those who have most successfully pursued the great traditions of the eighteenth century are alexander dyce, howard staunton, nikolaus delius, and the cambridge editors william george clark ( - ) and dr. aldis wright. alexander dyce, - . howard staunton, - . the cambridge edition, - . alexander dyce was almost as well read as steevens in elizabethan literature, and especially in the drama of the period, and his edition of shakespeare in nine volumes, which was first published in , has many new and valuable illustrative notes and a few good textual emendations, as well as a useful glossary; but dyce's annotations are not always adequate, and often tantalise the reader by their brevity. howard staunton's edition first appeared in three volumes between and . he also was well read in contemporary literature and was an acute textual critic. his introductions bring together much interesting stage history. nikolaus delius's edition was issued at elberfeld in seven volumes between and . delius's text is formed on sound critical principles and is to be trusted thoroughly. a fifth edition in two volumes appeared in . the cambridge edition, which first appeared in nine volumes between and , exhaustively notes the textual variations of all preceding editions, and supplies the best and fullest _apparatus criticus_. (of new editions, one dated is also in nine volumes, and another, dated , in forty volumes.) other nineteenth-century editions. other editors of the complete works of shakespeare of the nineteenth century whose labours, although of some value, present fewer distinctive characteristics are:--william harness ( , vols.); samuel weller singer ( , vols., printed at the chiswick press for william pickering, illustrated by stothard and others; reissued in with essays by william watkiss lloyd); charles knight, with discursive notes and pictorial illustrations by f. w. fairholt and others ('pictorial edition,' vols., including biography and the doubtful plays, - , often reissued under different designations); bryan waller procter, _i.e._ barry cornwall ( - , vols.); john payne collier ( - , vols.; another edition, vols., privately printed, , to); samuel phelps, the actor ( - , vols.; another edition, - ); j. o. halliwell ( - , vols. folio, with an encyclopaedic collection of annotations of earlier editors and pictorial illustrations); richard grant white (boston, u.s.a., - , vols.); w. j. rolfe (new york, - , vols.); the rev. h. n. hudson (the harvard edition, boston, , vols.) the latest complete annotated editions published in this country are 'the henry irving shakespeare,' edited by f. a. marshall and others--especially useful for notes on stage history ( vols. - )--and 'the temple shakespeare,' concisely edited by mr. israel gollancz ( vols. mo, - ). of one-volume editions of the unannotated text, the best are the globe, edited by w. g. clark and dr. aldis wright ( , and constantly reprinted--since with a new and useful glossary); the leopold ( , from the text of delius, with preface by dr. furnivall); and the oxford, edited by mr. w. j. craig ( ). xx--posthumous reputation shakespeare defied at every stage in his career the laws of the classical drama. he rode roughshod over the unities of time, place, and action. there were critics in his day who zealously championed the ancient rules, and viewed with distrust any infringement of them. but the force of shakespeare's genius--its revelation of new methods of dramatic art--was not lost on the lovers of the ancient ways; and even those who, to assuage their consciences, entered a formal protest against his innovations, soon swelled the chorus of praise with which his work was welcomed by contemporary playgoers, cultured and uncultured alike. the unauthorised publishers of 'troilus and cressida' in faithfully echoed public opinion when they prefaced the work with the note: 'this author's comedies are so framed to the life that they serve for the most common commentaries of all actions of our lives, showing such a dexterity and power of wit that the most displeased with plays are pleased with his comedies. . . . so much and such savoured salt of wit is in his comedies that they seem for their height of pleasure to be born in the sea that brought forth venus.' ben jonson's tribute. anticipating the final verdict, the editors of the first folio wrote, seven years after shakespeare's death: 'these plays have had their trial already and stood out all appeals.' { a} ben jonson, the staunchest champion of classical canons, noted that shakespeare 'wanted art,' but he allowed him, in verses prefixed to the first folio, the first place among all dramatists, including those of greece and rome, and claimed that all europe owed him homage: triumph, my britain, thou hast one to show, to whom all scenes [_i.e._ stages] of europe homage owe. he was not of an age, but for all time. in milton penned in like strains an epitaph on 'the great heir of fame:' what needs my shakespeare for his honoured bones the labour of an age in piled stones? or that his hallowed reliques should be hid under a star-ypointing pyramid? dear son of memory, great heir of fame, what need'st thou such weak witness of thy name? thou in our wonder and astonishment hast built thyself a lifelong monument. a writer of fine insight who veiled himself under the initials i. m. s. { b} contributed to the second folio of a splendid eulogy. the opening lines declare 'shakespeare's freehold' to have been a mind reflecting ages past, whose clear and equal surface can make things appear distant a thousand years, and represent them in their lively colours' just extent. it was his faculty to outrun hasty time, retrieve the fates, roll back the heavens, blow ope the iron gates of death and lethe, where (confused) lie great heaps of ruinous mortality. milton and i. m. s. were followed within ten years by critics of tastes so varied as the dramatist of domesticity thomas heywood, the gallant lyrist sir john suckling, the philosophic and 'ever-memorable' john hales of eton, and the untiring versifier of the stage and court, sir william d'avenant. before hales is said to have triumphantly established, in a public dispute held with men of learning in his rooms at eton, the proposition that 'there was no subject of which any poet ever writ but he could produce it much better done in shakespeare.' { } leonard digges (in the edition of the 'poems') asserted that every revival of shakespeare's plays drew crowds to pit, boxes, and galleries alike. at a little later date, shakespeare's plays were the 'closet companions' of charles i's 'solitudes.' { a} - . dryden's view. after the restoration public taste in england veered towards the french and classical dramatic models. { b} shakespeare's work was subjected to some unfavourable criticism as the product of nature to the exclusion of art, but the eclipse proved more partial and temporary than is commonly admitted. the pedantic censure of thomas rymer on the score of shakespeare's indifference to the classical canons attracted attention, but awoke in england no substantial echo. in his 'short view of tragedy' ( ) rymer mainly concentrated his attention on 'othello,' and reached the eccentric conclusion that it was 'a bloody farce without salt or savour.' in pepys's eyes 'the tempest' had 'no great wit,' and 'midsummer night's dream' was 'the most insipid and ridiculous play;' yet this exacting critic witnessed thirty-six performances of twelve of shakespeare's plays between october , , and february , - , seeing 'hamlet' four times, and 'macbeth,' which he admitted to be 'a most excellent play for variety,' nine times. dryden, the literary dictator of the day, repeatedly complained of shakespeare's inequalities--'he is the very janus of poets.' { a} but in almost the same breath dryden declared that shakespeare was held in as much veneration among englishmen as aeschylus among the athenians, and that 'he was the man who of all modern and perhaps ancient poets had the largest and most comprehensive soul. . . . when he describes anything, you more than see it--you feel it too.' { b} in , when sir godfrey kneller presented dryden with a copy of the chandos portrait of shakespeare, the poet acknowledged the gift thus: to sir godfrey kneller. _shakespear_, thy gift, i place before my sight; with awe, i ask his blessing ere i write; with reverence look on his majestick face; proud to be less, but of his godlike race. his soul inspires me, while thy praise i write, and i, like _teucer_, under _ajax_ fight. writers of charles ii's reign of such opposite temperaments as margaret cavendish, duchess of newcastle, and sir charles sedley vigorously argued for shakespeare's supremacy. as a girl the sober duchess declares she fell in love with shakespeare. in her 'sociable letters,' which were published in , she enthusiastically, if diffusely, described how shakespeare creates the illusion that he had been 'transformed into every one of those persons he hath described,' and suffered all their emotions. when she witnessed one of his tragedies she felt persuaded that she was witnessing an episode in real life. 'indeed,' she concludes, 'shakespeare had a clear judgment, a quick wit, a subtle observation, a deep apprehension, and a most eloquent elocution.' the profligate sedley, in a prologue to the 'wary widdow,' a comedy by one higden, produced in , apostrophised shakespeare thus: shackspear whose fruitfull genius, happy wit was fram'd and finisht at a lucky hit the pride of nature, and the shame of schools, born to create, and not to learn from rules. restoration adaptations. many adaptations of shakespeare's plays were contrived to meet current sentiment of a less admirable type. but they failed efficiently to supersede the originals. dryden and d'avenant converted 'the tempest' into an opera ( ). d'avenant single-handed adapted 'the two noble kinsmen' ( ) and 'macbeth' ( ). dryden dealt similarly with 'troilus' ( ); thomas duffett with 'the tempest' ( ); shadwell with 'timon' ( ); nahum tate with 'richard ii' ( ), 'lear' ( ), and 'coriolanus' ( ); john crowne with 'henry vi' ( ); d'urfey with 'cymbeline' ( ); ravenscroft with 'titus andronicus' ( ); otway with 'romeo and juliet' ( ), and john sheffield, duke of buckingham, with 'julius caesar' ( ). but during the same period the chief actor of the day, thomas betterton, won his spurs as the interpreter of shakespeare's leading parts, often in unrevised versions. hamlet was accounted that actor's masterpiece. { a} 'no succeeding tragedy for several years,' wrote downes, the prompter at betterton's theatre, 'got more reputation or money to the company than this.' from onwards. from the accession of queen anne to the present day the tide of shakespeare's reputation, both on the stage and among critics, has flowed onward almost uninterruptedly. the censorious critic, john dennis, in his 'letters' on shakespeare's 'genius,' gave his work in whole-hearted commendation, and two of the greatest men of letters of the eighteenth century, pope and johnson, although they did not withhold all censure, paid him, as we have seen, the homage of becoming his editor. the school of textual criticism which theobald and capell founded in the middle years of the century has never ceased its activity since their day. { b} edmund malone's devotion at the end of the eighteenth century to the biography of the poet and the contemporary history of the stage, secured for him a vast band of disciples, of whom joseph hunter and john payne collier well deserve mention. but of all malone's successors, james orchard halliwell, afterwards halliwell-phillipps ( - ), has made the most important additions to our knowledge of shakespeare's biography. meanwhile, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, there arose a third school to expound exclusively the aesthetic excellence of the plays. in its inception the aesthetic school owed much to the methods of schlegel and other admiring critics of shakespeare in germany. but coleridge in his 'notes and lectures' { } and hazlitt in his 'characters of shakespeare's plays' ( ) are the best representatives of the aesthetic school in this or any other country. although professor dowden, in his 'shakespeare, his mind and art' ( ), and mr. swinburne in his 'study of shakespeare' ( ), are worthy followers, coleridge and hazlitt remain as aesthetic critics unsurpassed. in the effort to supply a fuller interpretation of shakespeare's works textual, historical, and aesthetic--two publishing societies have done much valuable work. 'the shakespeare society' was founded in by collier, halliwell, and their friends, and published some forty-eight volumes before its dissolution in . the new shakspere society, which was founded by dr. furnivall in , issued during the ensuing twenty years twenty-seven publications, illustrative mainly of the text and of contemporary life and literature. stratford festivals. in shakespeare's 'jubilee' was celebrated for three days (september - ) at stratford, under the direction of garrick, dr. arne, and boswell. the festivities were repeated on a small scale in april and april . 'the shakespeare tercentenary festival,' which was held at stratford from april to may , , claimed to be a national celebration. { } on the english stage. the first appearance of actresses in shakespearean parts. david garrick, - . on the english stage the name of every eminent actor since betterton, the great actor of the period of the restoration, has been identified with shakespearean parts. steele, writing in the 'tatler' (no. ) in reference to betterton's funeral in the cloisters of westminster abbey on may , , instanced his rendering of othello as proof of an unsurpassable talent in realising shakespeare's subtlest conceptions on the stage. one great and welcome innovation in shakespearean acting is closely associated with betterton's first name. he encouraged the substitution, that was inaugurated by killigrew, of women for boys in female parts. the first role that was professionally rendered by a woman in a public theatre was that of desdemona in 'othello,' apparently on december , . { } the actress on that occasion is said to have been mrs. margaret hughes, prince rupert's mistress; but betterton's wife, who was at first known on the stage as mrs. saunderson, was the first actress to present a series of shakespeare's great female characters. mrs. betterton gave her husband powerful support, from onwards, in such roles as ophelia, juliet, queen catherine, and lady macbeth. betterton formed a school of actors who carried on his traditions for many years after his death. robert wilks ( - ) as hamlet, and barton booth ( - ) as henry viii and hotspur, were popularly accounted no unworthy successors. colley cibber ( - ) as actor, theatrical manager, and dramatic critic, was both a loyal disciple of betterton and a lover of shakespeare, though his vanity and his faith in the ideals of the restoration incited him to perpetrate many outrages on shakespeare's text when preparing it for theatrical representation. his notorious adaptation of 'richard iii,' which was first produced in , long held the stage to the exclusion of the original version. but towards the middle of the eighteenth century all earlier efforts to interpret shakespeare in the playhouse were eclipsed in public esteem by the concentrated energy and intelligence of david garrick. garrick's enthusiasm for the poet and his histrionic genius riveted shakespeare's hold on public taste. his claim to have restored to the stage the text of shakespeare--purified of restoration defilements--cannot be allowed without serious qualifications. garrick had no scruple in presenting plays of shakespeare in versions that he or his friends had recklessly garbled. he supplied 'romeo and juliet' with a happy ending; he converted the 'taming of the shrew' into the farce of 'katherine and petruchio,' ; he introduced radical changes in 'antony and cleopatra,' 'two gentlemen of verona,' 'cymbeline,' and 'midsummer night's dream.' nevertheless, no actor has won an equally exalted reputation in so vast and varied a repertory of shakespearean roles. his triumphant debut as richard iii in was followed by equally successful performances of hamlet, lear, macbeth, king john, romeo, henry iv, iago, leontes, benedick, and antony in 'antony and cleopatra.' garrick was not quite undeservedly buried in westminster abbey on february , , at the foot of shakespeare's statue. garrick was ably seconded by mrs. clive ( - ), mrs. cibber ( - ), and mrs. pritchard ( - ). mrs. cibber as constance in 'king john,' and mrs. pritchard in lady macbeth, excited something of the same enthusiasm as garrick in richard iii and lear. there were, too, contemporary critics who judged rival actors to show in certain parts powers equal, if not superior, to those of garrick. charles macklin ( ?- ) for nearly half a century, from to , gave many hundred performances of a masterly rendering of shylock. the character had, for many years previous to macklin's assumption of it, been allotted to comic actors, but macklin effectively concentrated his energy on the tragic significance of the part with an effect that garrick could not surpass. macklin was also reckoned successful in polonius and iago. john henderson, the bath roscius ( - ), who, like garrick, was buried in westminster abbey, derived immense popularity from his representation of falstaff; while in subordinate characters like mercutio, slender, jaques, touchstone, and sir toby belch, john palmer ( ?- ) was held to approach perfection. but garrick was the accredited chief of the theatrical profession until his death. he was then succeeded in his place of predominance by john philip kemble, who derived invaluable support from his association with one abler than himself, his sister, mrs. siddons. john philip kemble, - . mrs. sarah siddons, - . somewhat stilted and declamatory in speech, kemble enacted a wide range of characters of shakespearean tragedy with a dignity that won the admiration of pitt, sir walter scott, charles lamb, and leigh hunt. coriolanus was regarded as his masterpiece, but his renderings of hamlet, king john, wolsey, the duke in 'measure for measure,' leontes, and brutus satisfied the most exacting canons of contemporary theatrical criticism. kemble's sister, mrs. siddons, was the greatest actress that shakespeare's countrymen have known. her noble and awe-inspiring presentation of lady macbeth, her constance, her queen katherine, have, according to the best testimony, not been equalled even by the achievements of the eminent actresses of france. edmund kean, - . during the present century the most conspicuous histrionic successes in shakespearean drama have been won by edmund kean, whose triumphant rendering of shylock on his first appearance at drury lane theatre on january , , is one of the most stirring incidents in the history of the english stage. kean defied the rigid convention of the 'kemble school,' and gave free rein to his impetuous passions. besides shylock, he excelled in richard iii, othello, hamlet, and lear. no less a critic than coleridge declared that to see him act was like 'reading shakespeare by flashes of lightning.' among other shakespearean actors of kean's period a high place was allotted by public esteem to george frederick cooke ( - ), whose richard iii, first given in london at covent garden theatre, october , , was accounted his masterpiece. charles lamb, writing in , declared that of all the actors who flourished in his time, robert bensley 'had most of the swell of soul,' and lamb gave with a fine enthusiasm in his 'essays of elia' an analysis (which has become classical) of bensley's performance of malvolio. but bensley's powers were rated more moderately by more experienced playgoers. { } lamb's praises of mrs. jordan ( - ) in ophelia, helena, and viola in 'twelfth night,' are corroborated by the eulogies of hazlitt and leigh hunt. in the part of rosalind mrs. jordan is reported on all sides to have beaten mrs. siddons out of the field. william charles macready, - . the torch thus lit by garrick, by the kembles, by kean and his contemporaries was worthily kept alive by william charles macready, a cultivated and conscientious actor, who, during a professional career of more than forty years ( - ), assumed every great part in shakespearean tragedy. although macready lacked the classical bearing of kemble or the intense passion of kean, he won as the interpreter of shakespeare the whole-hearted suffrages of the educated public. macready's chief associate in women characters was helen faucit ( - , afterwards lady martin), whose refined impersonations of imogen, beatrice, juliet, and rosalind form an attractive chapter in the history of the stage. recent revivals. the most notable tribute paid to shakespeare by any actor-manager of recent times was paid by samuel phelps ( - ), who gave during his tenure of sadler's wells theatre between and competent representations of all the plays save six; only 'richard ii,' the three parts of 'henry vi,' 'troilus and cressida,' and 'titus andronicus' were omitted. sir henry irving, who since has been ably seconded by miss ellen terry, has revived at the lyceum theatre between and the present time eleven plays ('hamlet,' 'macbeth,' 'othello,' 'richard iii,' 'the merchant of venice,' 'much ado about nothing,' 'twelfth night,' 'romeo and juliet,' 'king lear,' 'henry viii,' and 'cymbeline'), and has given each of them all the advantage they can derive from thoughtful acting as well as from lavish scenic elaboration. { a} but theatrical revivals of plays of shakespeare are in england intermittent, and no theatrical manager since phelps's retirement has sought systematically to illustrate on the stage the full range of shakespearean drama. far more in this direction has been attempted in germany. { b} in one respect the history of recent shakespearean representations can be viewed by the literary student with unqualified satisfaction. although some changes of text or some rearrangement of the scenes are found imperative in all theatrical representations of shakespeare, a growing public sentiment in england and elsewhere has for many years favoured as loyal an adherence to the authorised version of the plays as is practicable on the part of theatrical managers; and the evil traditions of the stage which sanctioned the perversions of the eighteenth century are happily well-nigh extinct. in music and art. music and art in england owe much to shakespeare's influence. from thomas morley, purcell, matthew locke, and arne to william linley, sir henry bishop, and sir arthur sullivan, every distinguished musician has sought to improve on his predecessor's setting of one or more of shakespeare's songs, or has composed concerted music in illustration of some of his dramatic themes. { } in art, the publisher john boydell organised in a scheme for illustrating scenes in shakespeare's work by the greatest living english artists. some fine pictures were the result. a hundred and sixty-eight were painted in all, and the artists, whom boydell employed, included sir joshua reynolds, george romney, thomas stothard, john opie, benjamin west, james barry, and henry fuseli. all the pictures were exhibited from time to time between and at a gallery specially built for the purpose in pall mall, and in boydell published a collection of engravings of the chief pictures. the great series of paintings was dispersed by auction in . few eminent artists of later date, from daniel maclise to sir john millais, have lacked the ambition to interpret some scene or character of shakespearean drama. in america. in america no less enthusiasm for shakespeare has been manifested than in england. editors and critics are hardly less numerous there, and some criticism from american pens, like that of james russell lowell, has reached the highest literary level. nowhere, perhaps, has more labour been devoted to the study of his works than that given by mr. h. h. furness of philadelphia to the preparation of his 'new variorum' edition. the barton collection of shakespeareana in the boston public library is one of the most valuable extant, and the elaborate catalogue ( - ) contains some , entries. first of shakespeare's plays to be represented in america, 'richard iii' was performed in new york in march . more recently edwin forrest, junius brutus booth, edwin booth, charlotte cushman, and miss ada rehan have maintained on the american stage the great traditions of shakespearean acting; while mr. e. a. abbey has devoted high artistic gifts to pictorial representation of scenes from the plays. translations. in germany. german translations. the bible, alone of literary compositions, has been translated more frequently or into a greater number of languages than the works of shakespeare. the progress of his reputation in germany, france, italy, and russia was somewhat slow at the outset. but in germany the poet has received for nearly a century and a half a recognition scarcely less pronounced than that accorded him in america and in his own country. three of shakespeare's plays, now in the zurich library, were brought thither by j. r. hess from england in . as early as 'hamlet,' 'king lear,' and 'romeo and juliet' were acted at dresden, and a version of the 'taming of the shrew' was played there and elsewhere at the end of the seventeenth century. but such mention of shakespeare as is found in german literature between and only indicates a knowledge on the part of german readers either of dryden's criticisms or of the accounts of him printed in english encyclopaedias. { } the earliest sign of a direct acquaintance with the plays is a poor translation of 'julius caesar' into german by baron c. w. von borck, formerly prussian minister in london, which was published at berlin in . a worse rendering of 'romeo and juliet' followed in . meanwhile j. c. gottsched ( - ), an influential man of letters, warmly denounced shakespeare in a review of von borck's effort in 'beitrage zur deutschen sprache' and elsewhere. lessing came without delay to shakespeare's rescue, and set his reputation, in the estimation of the german public, on that exalted pedestal which it has not ceased to occupy. it was in , in a journal entitled 'litteraturbriefe,' that lessing first claimed for shakespeare superiority, not only to the french dramatists racine and corneille, who hitherto had dominated european taste, but to all ancient or modern poets. lessing's doctrine, which he developed in his 'hamburgische dramaturgie' (hamburg, , vols. vo), was at once accepted by the poet johann gottfried herder in the 'blatter von deutschen art and kunst,' . christopher martin wieland ( - ) in began a prose translation which johann joachim eschenburg ( - ) completed (zurich, vols., - ). between and there appeared at intervals the classical german rendering by august wilhelm von schlegel and ludwig tieck, leaders of the romantic school of german literature, whose creed embodied, as one of its first articles, an unwavering veneration for shakespeare. schlegel translated only seventeen plays, and his workmanship excels that of the rest of the translation. tieck's part in the undertaking was mainly confined to editing translations by various hands. many other german translations in verse were undertaken during the same period--by j. h. voss and his sons (leipzig, - ), by j. w. o. benda (leipzig, - ), by j. korner (vienna, ), by a. bottger (leipzig, - ), by e. ortlepp (stuttgart, - ), and by a. keller and m. rapp (stuttgart, - ). the best of more recent german translations is that by a band of poets and eminent men of letters including friedrich von bodenstedt, ferdinand von freiligrath, and paul heyse (leipzig, - , vols.) most of these versions have been many times reissued, but, despite the high merits of von bodenstedt and his companions' performance, schlegel and tieck's achievement still holds the field. schlegel's lectures on 'shakespeare and the drama,' which were delivered at vienna in , and were translated into english in , are worthy of comparison with those of coleridge, who owed much to their influence. wordsworth in declared that schlegel and his disciples first marked out the right road in aesthetic criticism, and enjoyed at the moment superiority over all english aesthetic critics of shakespeare. { } subsequently goethe poured forth, in his voluminous writings, a mass of criticism even more illuminating and appreciative than schlegel's. { } although goethe deemed shakespeare's works unsuited to the stage, he adapted 'romeo and juliet' for the weimar theatre, while schiller prepared 'macbeth' (stuttgart, ). heine published in charming studies of shakespeare's heroines (english translation ), and acknowledged only one defect in shakespeare--that he was an englishman. modern german writers on shakespeare. during the last half-century textual, aesthetic, and biographical criticism has been pursued in germany with unflagging industry and energy; and although laboured and supersubtle theorising characterises much german aesthetic criticism, its mass and variety testify to the impressiveness of the appeal that shakespeare's work has made to the german intellect. the efforts to stem the current of shakespearean worship made by the realistic critic, gustav rumelin, in his 'shakespearestudien' (stuttgart, ), and subsequently by the dramatist, j. r. benedix, in 'die shakespearomanie' (stuttgart, , vo), proved of no effect. in studies of the text and metre nikolaus delius ( - ) should, among recent german writers, be accorded the first place; in studies of the biography and stage history friedrich karl elze ( - ); in aesthetic studies friedrich alexander theodor kreyssig ( - ), author of 'vorlesungen uber shakespeare' (berlin, and ), and 'shakespeare-fragen' (leipzig, ). ulrici's 'shakespeare's dramatic art' (first published at halle in ) and gervinus's commentaries (first published at leipzig in - ), both of which are familiar in english translations, are suggestive but unconvincing aesthetic interpretations. the german shakespeare society, which was founded at weimar in , has published thirty-four year-books (edited successively by von bodenstedt, delius, elze, and f. a. leo); each contains useful contributions to shakespearean study. on the german stage. shakespeare has been no less effectually nationalised on the german stage. the three great actors--frederick ulrich ludwig schroeder ( - ) of hamburg, ludwig devrient ( - ), and his nephew gustav emil devrient ( - )--largely derived their fame from their successful assumptions of shakespearean characters. another of ludwig devrient's nephews, eduard ( - ), also an actor, prepared, with his son otto, an acting german edition (leipzig, and following years). an acting edition by wilhelm oechelhaeuser appeared previously at berlin in . twenty-eight of the thirty-seven plays assigned to shakespeare are now on recognised lists of german acting plays, including all the histories. { a} in as many as performances of twenty-five of shakespeare's plays were given in german theatres. { b} in no fewer than performances were given of twenty-three plays. in performances of twenty-four plays reached a total of --an average of nearly three shakespearean representations a day in the german-speaking districts of europe. { } it is not only in capitals like berlin and vienna that the representations are frequent and popular. in towns like altona, breslau, frankfort-on-the-maine, hamburg, magdeburg, and rostock, shakespeare is acted constantly and the greater number of his dramas is regularly kept in rehearsal. 'othello,' 'hamlet,' 'romeo and juliet,' and 'the taming of the shrew' usually prove most attractive. of the many german musical composers who have worked on shakespearean themes, mendelssohn (in 'midsummer night's dream'), schumann, and franz schubert (in setting separate songs) have achieved the greatest success. in france. voltaire's strictures. in france shakespeare won recognition after a longer struggle than in germany. cyrano de bergerac ( - ) plagiarised 'cymbeline,' 'hamlet,' and 'the merchant of venice' in his 'agrippina.' about nicolas clement, louis xiv's librarian, allowed shakespeare imagination, natural thoughts, and ingenious expression, but deplored his obscenity. { a} half a century elapsed before public attention in france was again directed to shakespeare. { b} the abbe prevost, in his periodical 'le pour et contre' ( et seq.), acknowledged his power. but it is to voltaire that his countrymen owe, as he himself boasted, their first effective introduction to shakespeare. voltaire studied shakespeare thoroughly on his visit to england between and , and his influence is visible in his own dramas. in his 'lettres philosophiques' ( ), afterwards reissued as 'lettres sur les anglais,' (nos. xviii. and xix.), and in his 'lettre sur la tragedie' ( ), he expressed admiration for shakespeare's genius, but attacked his want of taste and art. he described him as 'le corneille de londres, grand fou d'ailleurs mais il a des morceaux admirables.' writing to the abbe des fontaines in november , voltaire admitted many merits in 'julius caesar,' on which he published 'observations' in . johnson replied to voltaire's general criticism in the preface to his edition ( ), and mrs. elizabeth montagu in in a separate volume, which was translated into french in . diderot made, in his 'encylopedie,' the first stand in france against the voltairean position, and increased opportunities of studying shakespeare's works increased the poet's vogue. twelve plays were translated in de la place's 'theatre anglais' ( - ). jean-francois ducis ( - ) adapted without much insight six plays for the french stage, beginning in with 'hamlet,' his version of which was acted with applause. in pierre le tourneur began a bad prose translation (completed in ) of all shakespeare's plays, and declared him to be 'the god of the theatre.' voltaire protested against this estimate in a new remonstrance consisting of two letters, of which the first was read before the french academy on august , . here shakespeare was described as a barbarian, whose works--'a huge dunghill'--concealed some pearls. french critics' gradual emancipation from voltairean influence. although voltaire's censure was rejected by the majority of later french critics, it expressed a sentiment born of the genius of the nation, and made an impression that was only gradually effaced. marmontel, la harpe, marie-joseph chenier, and chateaubriand, in his 'essai sur shakespeare,' , inclined to voltaire's view; but madame de stael wrote effectively on the other side in her 'de la litterature, (i. caps. , , ii. .) 'at this day,' wrote wordsworth in , 'the french critics have abated nothing of their aversion to "this darling of our nation." "the english with their bouffon de shakespeare" is as familiar an expression among them as in the time of voltaire. baron grimm is the only french writer who seems to have perceived his infinite superiority to the first names of the french theatre; an advantage which the parisian critic owed to his german blood and german education.' { a} the revision of le tourneur's translation by francois guizot and a. pichot in gave shakespeare a fresh advantage. paul duport, in 'essais litteraires sur shakespeare' (paris, , vols.), was the last french critic of repute to repeat voltaire's censure unreservedly. guizot, in his discourse 'sur la vie et les oeuvres de shakespeare' (reprinted separately from the translation of ), as well as in his 'shakespeare et son temps' ( ), villemain in a general essay, { b} and barante in a study of 'hamlet,' { c} acknowledge the mightiness of shakespeare's genius with comparatively few qualifications. other complete translations followed--by francisque michel ( ), by benjamin laroche ( ), and by emil montegut ( ), but the best is that in prose by francois victor hugo ( - ), whose father, victor hugo the poet, published a rhapsodical eulogy in . alfred mezieres's 'shakespeare, ses oeuvres et ses critiques' (paris, ), is a saner appreciation. on the french stage. meanwhile 'hamlet' and 'macbeth,' 'othello,' and a few other shakespearean plays, became stock pieces on the french stage. a powerful impetus to theatrical representation of shakespeare in france was given by the performance in paris of the chief plays by a strong company of english actors in the autumn of . 'hamlet' and 'othello' were acted successively by charles kemble and macready; edmund kean appeared as richard iii, othello, and shylock; miss smithson, who became the wife of hector berlioz the musician, filled the _roles_ of ophelia, juliet, desdemona, cordelia, and portia. french critics were divided as to the merits of the performers, but most of them were enthusiastic in their commendations of the plays. { a} alfred de vigny prepared a version of 'othello' for the theatre-francais in with eminent success. an adaptation of 'hamlet' by alexandre dumas was first performed in , and a rendering by the chevalier de chatelain ( ) was often repeated. george sand translated 'as you like it' (paris, ) for representation by the comedie francaise on april , . 'lady macbeth' has been represented in recent years by madame sarah bernhardt, and 'hamlet' by m. mounet sully of the theatre-francais. { b} four french musicians--berlioz in his symphony of 'romeo and juliet,' gounod in his opera of 'romeo and juliet,' ambroise thomas in his opera of 'hamlet,' and saint-saens in his opera of 'henry viii'--have sought with public approval to interpret musically portions of shakespeare's work. in italy. in italy shakespeare was little known before the present century. such references as eighteenth-century italian writers made to him were based on remarks by voltaire. { } the french adaptation of 'hamlet' by ducis was issued in italian blank verse (venice, , vo). complete translations of all the plays made direct from the english were issued by michele leoni in verse at verona in - , and by carlo rusconi in prose at padua in (new edit. turin, - ). 'othello' and 'romeo and juliet' have been very often translated into italian separately. the italian actors, madame ristori (as lady macbeth), salvini (as othello), and rossi rank among shakespeare's most effective interpreters. verdi's operas on macbeth, othello, and falstaff (the last two with libretti by boito), manifest close and appreciative study of shakespeare. in holland. two complete translations have been published in dutch; one in prose by a. s. kok (amsterdam - ), the other in verse by dr. l. a. j. burgersdijk (leyden, - , vols.) in russia. in eastern europe, shakespeare first became known through french and german translations. into russian 'romeo and juliet' was translated in , 'richard iii' in , and 'julius caesar' in . sumarakow translated ducis' version of 'hamlet' in for stage purposes, while the empress catherine ii adapted the 'merry wives' and 'king john.' numerous versions of all the chief plays followed; and in there appeared at st. petersburg the best translation in verse (direct from the english), by nekrasow and gerbel. a prose translation, by n. ketzcher, begun in , was completed in . gerbel issued a russian translation of the 'sonnets' in , and many critical essays in the language, original or translated, have been published. almost every play has been represented in russian on the russian stage. { a} in poland. a polish version of 'hamlet' was acted at lemberg in ; and as many as sixteen plays now hold a recognised place among polish acting plays. the standard polish translation of shakespeare's collected works appeared at warsaw in (edited by the polish poet kraszewski), and is reckoned among the most successful renderings in a foreign tongue. in hungary. in hungary, shakespeare's greatest works have since the beginning of the century been highly appreciated by students and by playgoers. a complete translation into hungarian appeared at kaschau in . at the national theatre at budapest no fewer than twenty-two plays have been of late years included in the actors' repertory. { b} in other countries. other complete translations have been published in bohemian (prague ), in swedish (lund, - ), in danish ( - ), and finnish (helsingfors, - ). in spanish a complete translation is in course of publication (madrid, et seq.), and the eminent spanish critic menendez y pelayo has set shakespeare above calderon. in armenian, although only three plays ('hamlet,' 'romeo and juliet,' and 'as you like it') have been issued, the translation of the whole is ready for the press. separate plays have appeared in welsh, portuguese, friesic, flemish, servian, roumanian, maltese, ukrainian, wallachian, croatian, modern greek, latin, hebrew, and japanese; while a few have been rendered into bengali, hindustani, marathi, { } gujarati, urdu, kanarese, and other languages of india, and have been acted in native theatres. xxi--general estimate general estimate. no estimate of shakespeare's genius can be adequate. in knowledge of human character, in wealth of humour, in depth of passion, in fertility of fancy, and in soundness of judgment, he has no rival. it is true of him, as of no other writer, that his language and versification adapt themselves to every phase of sentiment, and sound every note in the scale of felicity. some defects are to be acknowledged, but they sink into insignificance when measured by the magnitude of his achievement. sudden transitions, elliptical expressions, mixed metaphors, indefensible verbal quibbles, and fantastic conceits at times create an atmosphere of obscurity. the student is perplexed, too, by obsolete words and by some hopelessly corrupt readings. but when the whole of shakespeare's vast work is scrutinised with due attention, the glow of his magination is seen to leave few passages wholly unillumined. some of his plots are hastily constructed and inconsistently developed, but the intensity of the interest with which he contrives to invest the personality of his heroes and heroines triumphs over halting or digressive treatment of the story in which they have their being. although he was versed in the technicalities of stagecraft, he occasionally disregarded its elementary conditions. but the success of his presentments of human life and character depended little on his manipulation of theatrical machinery. his unassailable supremacy springs from the versatile working of his insight and intellect, by virtue of which his pen limned with unerring precision almost every gradation of thought and emotion that animates the living stage of the world. character of shakespeare's achievement. shakespeare's mind, as hazlitt suggested, contained within itself the germs of all faculty and feeling. he knew intuitively how every faculty and feeling would develop in any conceivable change of fortune. men and women--good or bad, old or young, wise or foolish, merry or sad, rich or poor--yielded their secrets to him, and his genius enabled him to give being in his pages to all the shapes of humanity that present themselves on the highway of life. each of his characters gives voice to thought or passion with an individuality and a naturalness that rouse in the intelligent playgoer and reader the illusion that they are overhearing men and women speak unpremeditatingly among themselves, rather than that they are reading written speeches or hearing written speeches recited. the more closely the words are studied, the completer the illusion grows. creatures of the imagination--fairies, ghosts, witches--are delineated with a like potency, and the reader or spectator feels instinctively that these supernatural entities could not speak, feel, or act otherwise than shakespeare represents them. the creative power of poetry was never manifested to such effect as in the corporeal semblances in which shakespeare clad the spirits of the air. its universal recognition. so mighty a faculty sets at naught the common limitations of nationality, and in every quarter of the globe to which civilised life has penetrated shakespeare's power is recognised. all the world over, language is applied to his creations that ordinarily applies to beings of flesh and blood. hamlet and othello, lear and macbeth, falstaff and shylock, brutus and romeo, ariel and caliban are studied in almost every civilised tongue as if they were historic personalities, and the chief of the impressive phrases that fall from their lips are rooted in the speech of civilised humanity. to shakespeare the intellect of the world, speaking in divers accents, applies with one accord his own words: 'how noble in reason! how infinite in faculty! in apprehension how like a god!' appendix i.--the sources of biographical knowledge. contemporary records abundant. the scantiness of contemporary records of shakespeare's career has been much exaggerated. an investigation extending over two centuries has brought together a mass of detail which far exceeds that accessible in the case of any other contemporary professional writer. nevertheless, some important links are missing, and at some critical points appeal to conjecture is inevitable. but the fully ascertained facts are numerous enough to define sharply the general direction that shakespeare's career followed. although the clues are in some places faint, the trail never altogether eludes the patient investigator. first efforts in biography. fuller, in his 'worthies' ( ), attempted the first biographical notice of shakespeare, with poor results. aubrey, in his gossiping 'lives of eminent men,' { } based his ampler information on reports communicated to him by william beeston (_d._ ), an aged actor, whom dryden called 'the chronicle of the stage,' and who was doubtless in the main a trustworthy witness. a few additional details were recorded in the seventeenth century by the rev. john ward ( - ), vicar of stratford-on-avon from to , in a diary and memorandum-book written between and (ed. c. a. severn, ); by the rev. william fulman, whose manuscripts are at corpus christi college, oxford (with valuable interpolations made before by the rev. richard davies, vicar of saperton, gloucestershire); by john dowdall, who recorded his experiences of travel through warwickshire in (london, ); and by william hall, who described a visit to stratford in (london, , from hall's letter among the bodleian mss.) phillips in his 'theatrum poetarum' ( ), and langbaine in his 'english dramatick poets' ( ), confined themselves to elementary criticism. in nicholas rowe prefixed to his edition of the plays a more ambitious memoir than had yet been attempted, and embodied some hitherto unrecorded stratford and london traditions with which the actor thomas betterton supplied him. a little fresh gossip was collected by william oldys, and was printed from his manuscript 'adversaria' (now in the british museum) as an appendix to yeowell's 'memoir of oldys,' . pope, johnson, and steevens, in the biographical prefaces to their editions, mainly repeated the narratives of their predecessor, rowe. biographers of the nineteenth century. stratford topography. in the prolegomena to the variorum editions of , , and especially in that of , there was embodied a mass of fresh information derived by edmund malone from systematic researches among the parochial records of stratford, the manuscripts accumulated by the actor alleyn at dulwich, and official papers of state preserved in the public offices in london (now collected in the public record office). the available knowledge of elizabethan stage history, as well as of shakespeare's biography, was thus greatly extended. john payne collier, in his 'history of english dramatic poetry' ( ), in his 'new facts' about shakespeare ( ), his 'new particulars' ( ), and his 'further particulars' ( ), and in his editions of henslowe's 'diary' and the 'alleyn papers' for the shakespeare society, while occasionally throwing some further light on obscure places, foisted on shakespeare's biography a series of ingeniously forged documents which have greatly perplexed succeeding biographers. { } joseph hunter in 'new illustrations of shakespeare' ( ) and george russell french's 'shakespeareana genealogica' ( ) occasionally supplemented malone's researches. james orchard halliwell (afterwards halliwell-phillipps) printed separately, between and , in various privately issued publications, all the stratford archives and extant legal documents bearing on shakespeare's career, many of them for the first time. in halliwell-phillipps began the collective publication of materials for a full biography in his 'outlines of the life of shakespeare;' this work was generously enlarged in successive editions until it acquired massive proportions; in the seventh and last edition of it numbered near , pages. mr. frederick gard fleay, in his 'shakespeare manual' ( ), in his 'life of shakespeare' ( ), in his 'history of the stage' ( ), and his 'biographical chronicle of the english drama' ( ), adds much useful information respecting stage history and shakespeare's relations with his fellow-dramatists, mainly derived from a study of the original editions of the plays of shakespeare and of his contemporaries; but unfortunately many of mr. fleay's statements and conjectures are unauthenticated. for notices of stratford, r. b. wheler's 'history and antiquities' ( ), john r. wise's 'shakespere, his birthplace and its neighbourhood' ( ), the present writer's 'stratford-on-avon to the death of shakespeare' ( ), and mrs. c. c. stopes's 'shakespeare's warwickshire contemporaries' ( ), may be consulted. wise appends to his volume a tentative 'glossary of words still used in warwickshire to be found in shakspere.' the parish registers of stratford have been edited by mr. richard savage for the parish registers society ( - ). nathan drake's 'shakespeare and his times' ( ) and g. w. thornbury's 'shakespeare's england' ( ) collect much material respecting shakespeare's social environment. specialised studies in biography. useful epitomes. the chief monographs on special points in shakespeare's biography are dr. richard farmer's 'essay on the learning of shakespeare' ( ), reprinted in the variorum editions; octavius gilchrist's 'examination of the charges . . . . of ben jonson's enmity towards shakespeare' ( ); w. j. thoms's 'was shakespeare ever a soldier?' ( ), a study based on an erroneous identification of the poet with another william shakespeare; lord campbell's 'shakespeare's legal acquirements considered' ( ); john charles bucknill's 'medical knowledge of shakespeare' ( ); c. f. green's' 'shakespeare's crab-tree, with its legend' ( ); c. h. bracebridge's 'shakespeare no deer-stealer' ( ); william blades's 'shakspere and typography' ( ); and d. h. madden's 'diary of master william silence (shakespeare and sport),' . a full epitome of the biographical information accessible at the date of publication is supplied in karl elze's 'life of shakespeare' (halle, ; english translation, ), with which elze's 'essays' from the publications of the german shakespeare society (english translation, ) are worth studying. a less ambitious effort of the same kind by samuel neil ( ) is seriously injured by the writer's acceptance of collier's forgeries. professor dowden's 'shakspere primer' ( ) and his 'introduction to shakspere' ( ), and dr. furnivall's 'introduction to the leopold shakspere,' are all useful summaries of leading facts. aids to study of plots and text. concordances. bibliographies. francis douce's 'illustrations of shakespeare' ( , new edit. ), 'shakespeare's library' (ed. j. p. collier and w. c. hazlitt, ), 'shakespeare's plutarch' (ed. skeat, ), and 'shakespeare's holinshed' (ed. w. g. boswell-stone, ) are of service in tracing the sources of shakespeare's plots. alexander schmidt's 'shakespeare lexicon' ( ) and dr. e. a. abbott's 'shakespearian grammar' ( , new edit. ) are valuable aids to a study of the text. useful concordances to the plays have been prepared by mrs. cowden-clarke ( ), to the poems by mrs. h. h. furness (philadelphia, ), and to plays and poems, in one volume, with references to numbered lines, by john bartlett (london and new york, ). { } a 'handbook index' by j. o. halliwell (privately printed ) gives lists of obsolete words and phrases, songs, proverbs, and plants mentioned in the works of shakespeare. an unprinted glossary prepared by richard warner between and is at the british museum (addit. mss. - ). extensive bibliographies are given in lowndes's 'library manual' (ed. bohn); in franz thimm's 'shakespeariana' ( and ); in the 'encyclopaedia britannica,' th edit. (skilfully classified by mr. h. r. tedder); and in the 'british museum catalogue' (the shakespearean entries in which, comprising , titles, were separately published in ). critical studies. the valuable publications of the shakespeare society, the new shakspere society, and of the deutsche shakespeare-gesellschaft, comprising contributions alike to the aesthetic, textual, historical, and biographical study of shakespeare, are noticed above (see pp. - , ). to the critical studies, on which comment has already been made (see p. )--viz. coleridge's 'notes and lectures,' , hazlitt's 'characters of shakespeare's plays,' , professor dowden's 'shakspere: his mind and art,' , and mr. a. c. swinburne's 'a study of shakespeare,' --there may be added the essays on shakespeare's heroines respectively by mrs. jameson in and lady martin in ; dr. ward's 'english dramatic literature' ( , new edit. ); richard g. moulton's 'shakespeare as a dramatic artist' ( ); 'shakespeare studies' by thomas spencer baynes ( ); f. s. boas's 'shakspere and his predecessors', ( ), and georg brandes's 'william shakespeare'--an elaborately critical but somewhat fanciful study--in danish (copenhagen, , vo), in german (leipzig, ), and in english (london, , vols. vo). shakespearean forgeries. the intense interest which shakespeare's life and work have long universally excited has tempted unprincipled or sportively mischievous writers from time to time to deceive the public by the forgery of documents purporting to supply new information. the forgers were especially active at the end of last century and during the middle years of the present century, and their frauds have caused students so much perplexity that it may be useful to warn them against those shakespearean forgeries which have obtained the widest currency. john jordan, - . the earliest forger to obtain notoriety was john jordan ( - ), a resident at stratford-on-avon, whose most important achievement was the forgery of the will of shakespeare's father; but many other papers in jordan's 'original collections on shakespeare and stratford-on-avon' ( ), and 'original memoirs and historical accounts of the families of shakespeare and hart,' are open to the gravest suspicion. { a} the ireland forgeries, . the best known shakespearean forger of the eighteenth century was william henry ireland ( - ), a barrister's clerk, who, with the aid of his father, samuel ireland ( ?- ), an author and engraver of some repute, produced in a volume of forged papers claiming to relate to shakespeare's career. the title ran: 'miscellaneous papers and legal instruments under the hand and seal of william shakespeare, including the tragedy of "king lear" and a small fragment of "hamlet" from the original mss. in the possession of samuel ireland.' on april , sheridan and kemble produced at drury lane theatre a bombastic tragedy in blank verse entitled 'vortigern' under the pretence that it was by shakespeare, and had been recently found among the manuscripts of the dramatist that had fallen into the hands of the irelands. the piece, which was published, was the invention of young ireland. the fraud of the irelands, which for some time deceived a section of the literary public, was finally exposed by malone in his valuable 'inquiry into the authenticity of the ireland mss.' ( ). young ireland afterwards published his 'confessions' ( ). he had acquired much skill in copying shakespeare's genuine signature from the facsimile in steevens's edition of shakespeare's works of the mortgage-deed of the blackfriars house of - , { b} and, besides conforming to that style of handwriting in his forged deeds and literary compositions, he inserted copies of the signature on the title-pages of many sixteenth-century books, and often added notes in the same feigned hand on their margins. numerous sixteenth-century volumes embellished by ireland in this manner are extant, and his forged signatures and marginalia have been frequently mistaken for genuine autographs of shakespeare. forgeries promulgated by collier and others, - . but ireland's and jordan's frauds are clumsy compared with those that belong to the present century. most of the works relating to the biography of shakespeare or the history of the elizabethan stage produced by john payne collier, or under his supervision, between and are honeycombed with forged references to shakespeare, and many of the forgeries have been admitted unsuspectingly into literary history. the chief of these forged papers i arrange below in the order of the dates that have been allotted to them by their manufacturers. { a} (november). appeal from the blackfriars players ( in number) to the privy council for favour. shakespeare's name stands twelfth. from the manuscripts at bridgewater house, belonging to the earl of ellesmere. first printed in collier's 'new facts regarding the life of shakespeare,' . (july). list of inhabitants of the liberty of southwark, shakespeare's name appearing in the sixth place. first printed in collier's 'life of shakespeare,' , p. . . petition of the owners and players of the blackfriars theatre to the privy council in reply to an alleged petition of the inhabitants requesting the closing of the playhouse. shakespeare's name is fifth on the list of petitioners. this forged paper is in the public record office, and was first printed in collier's 'history of english dramatic poetry' ( ), vol. i. p. , and has been constantly reprinted as if it were genuine. { b} (_circa_). a letter signed h. s.(_i.e._ henry, earl of southampton), addressed to sir thomas egerton, praying protection for the players of the blackfriars theatre, and mentioning burbage and shakespeare by name. first printed in collier's 'new facts.' (_circa_). a list of sharers in the blackfriars theatre, with the valuation of their property, in which shakespeare is credited with four shares, worth pounds s. d. this was first printed in collier's 'new facts,' , p. , from the egerton mss. at bridgewater house. (august ). notice of the performance of 'othello' by burbage's 'players' before queen elizabeth when on a visit to sir thomas egerton, the lord-keeper, at harefield, in a forged account of disbursements by egerton's steward, arthur mainwaringe, from the manuscripts at bridgewater house, belonging to the earl of ellesmere. printed in collier's 'new particulars regarding the works of shakespeare,' , and again in collier's edition of the 'egerton papers,' (camden society)) pp. - . (october ). mention of 'mr. shakespeare of the globe' in a letter at dulwich from mrs. alleyn to her husband; part of the letter is genuine. first published in collier's memoirs of edward alleyn,' , p. . { } list of the names of eleven players (april ). of the king's company fraudulently appended to a genuine letter at dulwich college from the privy council bidding the lord mayor permit performances by the king's players. printed in collier's 'memoirs of edward alleyn,' , p. . { b} (november-december). forged entries in master of the revels' account-books (now at the public record office) of performances at whitehall by the king's players of the 'moor of venice'--_i.e._ 'othello'--on november , and of 'measure for measure' on december . printed in peter cunningham's 'extracts from the accounts of the revels at court' (pp. - ), published by the shakespeare society in . doubtless based on malone's trustworthy memoranda (now in the bodleian library) of researches among genuine papers formerly at the audit office at somerset house. { a} . notes of performances of 'hamlet' and 'richard ii' by the crews of the vessels of the east india company's fleet off sierra leone. first printed in 'narratives of voyages towards the north-west, - ,' edited by thomas rundall for the hakluyt society, , p. , from what purported to be an exact transcript 'in the india office' of the 'journal of william keeling,' captain of one of the vessels in the expedition. keeling's manuscript journal is still at the india office, but the leaves that should contain these entries are now, and have long been, missing from it. (january ). a warrant appointing robert daborne, william shakespeare, and others instructors of the children of the revels. from the bridgewater house mss. first printed in collier's 'new facts,' . list of persons assessed for poor (april ). rate in southwark, april , , in which shakespeare's name appears. first printed in collier's 'memoirs of edward alleyn,' , p. . the forged paper is at dulwich. { b} (november). forged entries in master of the revels' account-books (now at the public record office) of performances at whitehall by the king's players of the 'tempest' on november , and of the 'winter's tale' on november . printed in peter cunningham's 'extracts from the revels accounts,' p. . doubtless based on malone's trustworthy memoranda of researches among genuine papers formerly at the audit office at somerset house. { c} ii.--the bacon-shakespeare controversy. its source. toby matthew's letter. the apparent contrast between the homeliness of shakespeare's stratford career and the breadth of observation and knowledge displayed in his literary work has evoked the fantastic theory that shakespeare was not the author of the literature that passes under his name, and perverse attempts have been made to assign his works to his great contemporary, francis bacon ( - ), the great contemporary prose-writer, philosopher, and lawyer. it is argued that shakespeare's plays embody a general omniscience (especially a knowledge of law) which was possessed by no contemporary except bacon; that there are many close parallelisms between passages in shakespeare's and passages in bacon's works, { } and that bacon makes enigmatic references in his correspondence to secret 'recreations' and 'alphabets' and concealed poems for which his alleged employment as a concealed dramatist can alone account. toby matthew wrote to bacon (as viscount st. albans) at an uncertain date after january : 'the most prodigious wit that ever i knew of my nation and of this side of the sea is of your lordship's name, though he be known by another.' { } this unpretending sentence is distorted into conclusive evidence that bacon wrote works of commanding excellence under another's name, and among them probably shakespeare's plays. according to the only sane interpretation of matthew's words, his 'most prodigious wit' was some englishman named bacon whom he met abroad--probably a pseudonymous jesuit like most of matthew's friends. (the real surname of father thomas southwell, who was a learned jesuit domiciled chiefly in the low countries, was bacon. he was born in at sculthorpe, near walsingham, norfolk, being son of thomas bacon of that place, and he died at watten in .) chief exponents. its vogue in america. joseph c. hart (u.s. consul at santa cruz, _d._ ), in his 'romance of yachting' ( ), first raised doubts of shakespeare's authorship. there followed in a like temper 'who wrote shakespeare?' in 'chambers's journal,' august , , and an article by miss delia bacon in 'putnams' monthly,' january, . on the latter was based 'the philosophy of the plays of shakespeare unfolded by delia bacon,' with a neutral preface by nathaniel hawthorne, london and boston, . miss delia bacon, who was the first to spread abroad a spirit of scepticism respecting the established facts of shakespeare's career, died insane on september , . { } mr. william henry smith, a resident in london, seems first to have suggested the baconian hypothesis in 'was lord bacon the author of shakespeare's plays?--a letter to lord ellesmere' ( ), which was republished as 'bacon and shakespeare' ( ). the most learned exponent of this strange theory was nathaniel holmes, an american lawyer, who published at new york in 'the authorship of the plays attributed to shakespeare,' a monument of misapplied ingenuity ( th edit. , vols.) bacon's 'promus of formularies and elegancies,' a commonplace book in bacon's handwriting in the british museum (london, ), was first edited by mrs. henry pott, a voluminous advocate of the baconian theory; it contained many words and phrases common to the works of bacon and shakespeare, and mrs. pott pressed the argument from parallelisms of expression to its extremest limits. the baconian theory has found its widest acceptance in america. there it achieved its wildest manifestation in the book called 'the great cryptogram: francis bacon's cypher in the so-called shakespeare plays' (chicago and london, , vols.), which was the work of mr. ignatius donnelly of hastings, minnesota. the author pretended to have discovered among bacon's papers a numerical cypher which enabled him to pick out letters appearing at certain intervals in the pages of shakespeare's first folio, and the selected letters formed words and sentences categorically stating that bacon was author of the plays. many refutations have been published of mr. donnelly's arbitrary and baseless contention. extent of the literature. a bacon society was founded in london in to develop and promulgate the unintelligible theory, and it inaugurated a magazine (named since may 'baconiana'). a quarterly periodical also called 'baconiana,' and issued in the same interest, was established at chicago in . 'the bibliography of the shakespeare-bacon controversy' by w. h. wyman, cincinnati, , gives the titles of two hundred and fifty-five books or pamphlets on both sides of the subject, published since ; the list was continued during in 'shakespeariana,' a monthly journal published at philadelphia, and might now be extended to fully twice its original number. the abundance of the contemporary evidence attesting shakespeare's responsibility for the works published under his name gives the baconian theory no rational right to a hearing while such authentic examples of bacon's effort to write verse as survive prove beyond all possibility of contradiction that, great as he was as a prose writer and a philosopher, he was incapable of penning any of the poetry assigned to shakespeare. defective knowledge and illogical or casuistical argument alone render any other conclusion possible. iii.--the youthful career of the earl of southampton. southampton and shakespeare. from the dedicatory epistles addressed by shakespeare to the earl of southampton in the opening pages of his two narrative poems, 'venus and adonis' ( ) and 'lucrece' ( ), { a} from the account given by sir william d'avenant, and recorded by nicholas rowe, of the earl's liberal bounty to the poet, { b} and from the language of the sonnets, it is abundantly clear that shakespeare enjoyed very friendly relations with southampton from the time when his genius was nearing its maturity. no contemporary document or tradition gives the faintest suggestion that shakespeare was the friend or _protege_ of any man of rank other than southampton; and the student of shakespeare's biography has reason to ask for some information respecting him who enjoyed the exclusive distinction of serving shakespeare as his patron. parentage. birth on oct. , . southampton was a patron worth cultivating. both his parents came of the new nobility, and enjoyed vast wealth. his father's father was lord chancellor under henry viii, and when the monasteries were dissolved, although he was faithful to the old religion, he was granted rich estates in hampshire, including the abbeys of titchfield and beaulieu in the new forest. he was created earl of southampton early in edward vi's reign, and, dying shortly afterwards, was succeeded by his only son, the father of shakespeare's friend. the second earl loved magnificence in his household. 'he was highly reverenced and favoured of all that were of his own rank, and bravely attended and served by the best gentlemen of those counties wherein he lived. his muster-roll never consisted of four lacqueys and a coachman, but of a whole troop of at least a hundred well-mounted gentlemen and yeomen.' { a} the second earl remained a catholic, like his father, and a chivalrous avowal of sympathy with mary queen of scots procured him a term of imprisonment in the year preceding his distinguished son's birth. at a youthful age he married a lady of fortune, mary browne, daughter of the first viscount montague, also a catholic. her portrait, now at welbeck, was painted in her early married days, and shows regularly formed features beneath bright auburn hair. two sons and a daughter were the issue of the union. shakespeare's friend, the second son, was born at her father's residence, cowdray house, near midhurst, on october , . he was thus shakespeare's junior by nine years and a half. 'a goodly boy, god bless him!' exclaimed the gratified father, writing of his birth to a friend. { b} but the father barely survived the boy's infancy. he died at the early age of thirty-five--two days before the child's eighth birthday. the elder son was already dead. thus, on october , , the second and only surviving son became third earl of southampton, and entered on his great inheritance. { c} education. as was customary in the case of an infant peer, the little earl became a royal ward--'a child of state'--and lord burghley, the prime minister, acted as the boy's guardian in the queen's behalf. burghley had good reason to be satisfied with his ward's intellectual promise. 'he spent,' wrote a contemporary, 'his childhood and other younger terms in the study of good letters.' at the age of twelve, in the autumn of , he was admitted to st. john's college, cambridge, 'the sweetest nurse of knowledge in all the university.' southampton breathed easily the cultured atmosphere. next summer he sent his guardian, burghley, an essay in ciceronian latin on the somewhat cynical text that 'all men are moved to the pursuit of virtue by the hope of reward.' the argument, if unconvincing, is precocious. 'every man,' the boy tells us, 'no matter how well or how ill endowed with the graces of humanity, whether in the enjoyment of great honour or condemned to obscurity, experiences that yearning for glory which alone begets virtuous endeavour.' the paper, still preserved at hatfield, is a model of calligraphy; every letter is shaped with delicate regularity, and betrays a refinement most uncommon in boys of thirteen. { a} southampton remained at the university for some two years, graduating m.a. at sixteen in . throughout his after life he cherished for his college 'great love and affection.' before leaving cambridge, southampton entered his name at gray's inn. some knowledge of law was deemed needful in one who was to control a landed property that was not only large already but likely to grow. { b} meanwhile he was sedulously cultivating his literary tastes. he took into his 'pay and patronage' john florio, the well-known author and italian tutor, and was soon, according to florio's testimony, as thoroughly versed in italian as 'teaching or learning' could make him. 'when he was young,' wrote a later admirer, 'no ornament of youth was wanting in him;' and it was naturally to the court that his friends sent him at an early age to display his varied graces. he can hardly have been more than seventeen when he was presented to his sovereign. she showed him kindly notice, and the earl of essex, her brilliant favourite, acknowledged his fascination. thenceforth essex displayed in his welfare a brotherly interest which proved in course of time a very doubtful blessing. recognition of southampton's youthful beauty. while still a boy, southampton entered with as much zest into the sports and dissipations of his fellow courtiers as into their literary and artistic pursuits. at tennis, in jousts and tournaments, he achieved distinction; nor was he a stranger to the delights of gambling at primero. in , when he was in his eighteenth year, he was recognised as the most handsome and accomplished of all the young lords who frequented the royal presence. in the autumn of that year elizabeth paid oxford a visit in state. southampton was in the throng of noblemen who bore her company. in a latin poem describing the brilliant ceremonial, which was published at the time at the university press, eulogy was lavished without stint on all the queen's attendants; but the academic poet declared that southampton's personal attractions exceeded those of any other in the royal train. 'no other youth who was present,' he wrote, 'was more beautiful than this prince of hampshire (_quo non formosior alter affuit_), nor more distinguished in the arts of learning, although as yet tender down scarce bloomed on his cheek.' the last words testify to southampton's boyish appearance. { a} next year it was rumoured, that his 'external grace' was to receive signal recognition by his admission, despite his juvenility, to the order of the garter. 'there be no knights of the garter new chosen as yet,' wrote a well-informed courtier on may , , 'but there were four nominated.' { b} three were eminent public servants, but first on the list stood the name of young southampton. the purpose did not take effect, but the compliment of nomination was, at his age, without precedent outside the circle of the sovereign's kinsmen. on november , , he appeared in the lists set up in the queen's presence in honour of the thirty-seventh anniversary of her accession. the poet george peele pictured in blank verse the gorgeous scene, and likened the earl of southampton to that ancient type of chivalry, bevis of southampton, so 'valiant in arms,' so 'gentle and debonair,' did he appear to all beholders. { } reluctance to marry. but clouds were rising on this sunlit horizon. southampton, a wealthy peer without brothers or uncles, was the only male representative of his house. a lawful heir was essential to the entail of his great possessions. early marriages--child-marriages--were in vogue in all ranks of society, and southampton's mother and guardian regarded matrimony at a tender age as especially incumbent on him in view of his rich heritage. when he was seventeen burghley accordingly offered him a wife in the person of his granddaughter, lady elizabeth vere, eldest daughter of his daughter anne and of the earl of oxford. the countess of southampton approved the match, and told burghley that her son was not averse from it. her wish was father to the thought. southampton declined to marry to order, and, to the confusion of his friends, was still a bachelor when he came of age in . nor even then did there seem much prospect of his changing his condition. he was in some ways as young for his years in inward disposition as in outward appearance. although gentle and amiable in most relations of life, he could be childishly self-willed and impulsive, and outbursts of anger involved him, at court and elsewhere, in many petty quarrels which were with difficulty settled without bloodshed. despite his rank and wealth, he was consequently accounted by many ladies of far too uncertain a temper to sustain marital responsibilities with credit. lady bridget manners, sister of his friend the earl of rutland, was in looking to matrimony for means of release from the servitude of a lady-in-waiting to the queen. her guardian suggested that southampton or the earl of bedford, who was intimate with southampton and exactly of his age, would be an eligible suitor. lady bridget dissented. southampton and his friend were, she objected, 'so young,' 'fantastical,' and volatile ('so easily carried away'), that should ill fortune befall her mother, who was 'her only stay,' she 'doubted their carriage of themselves.' she spoke, she said, from observation. { } intrigue with elizabeth vernon. in , at two-and-twenty, southampton justified lady bridget's censure by a public proof of his fallibility. the fair mistress vernon (first cousin of the earl of essex), a passionate beauty of the court, cast her spell on him. her virtue was none too stable, and in september the scandal spread that southampton was courting her 'with too much familiarity.' marriage in . the entanglement with 'his fair mistress' opened a new chapter in southampton's career, and life's tempests began in earnest. either to free himself from his mistress's toils, or to divert attention from his intrigue, he in withdrew from court and sought sterner occupation. despite his mistress's lamentations, which the court gossips duly chronicled, he played a part with his friend essex in the military and naval expedition to cadiz in , and in that to the azores in . he developed a martial ardour which brought him renown, and mars (his admirers said) vied with mercury for his allegiance. he travelled on the continent, and finally, in , he accepted a subordinate place in the suite of the queen's secretary, sir robert cecil, who was going on an embassy to paris. but mistress vernon was still fated to be his evil genius, and southampton learnt while in paris that her condition rendered marriage essential to her decaying reputation. he hurried to london and, yielding his own scruples to her entreaties, secretly made her his wife during the few days he stayed in this country. the step was full of peril. to marry a lady of the court without the queen's consent infringed a prerogative of the crown by which elizabeth set exaggerated store. imprisonment, - . the story of southampton's marriage was soon public property. his wife quickly became a mother, and when he crossed the channel a few weeks later to revisit her he was received by pursuivants, who had the queen's orders to carry him to the fleet prison. for the time his career was ruined. although he was soon released from gaol, all avenues to the queen's favour were closed to him. he sought employment in the wars in ireland, but high command was denied him. helpless and hopeless, he late in joined essex, another fallen favourite, in fomenting a rebellion in london, in order to regain by force the positions each had forfeited. the attempt at insurrection failed, and the conspirators stood their trial on a capital charge of treason on february , - . southampton was condemned to die, but the queen's secretary pleaded with her that 'the poor young earl, merely for the love of essex, had been drawn into this action,' and his punishment was commuted to imprisonment for life. further mitigation was not to be looked for while the queen lived. but essex, southampton's friend, had been james's sworn ally. the first act of james i as monarch of england was to set southampton free (april , ). after a confinement of more than two years, southampton resumed, under happier auspices, his place at court. later career. death on nov. , . southampton's later career does not directly concern the student of shakespeare's biography. after shakespeare had congratulated southampton on his liberty in his sonnet cvii., there is no trace of further relations between them, although there is no reason to doubt that they remained friends to the end. southampton on his release from prison was immediately installed a knight of the garter, and was appointed governor of the isle of wight, while an act of parliament relieved him of all the disabilities incident to his conviction of treason. he was thenceforth a prominent figure in court festivities. he twice danced a correnta with the queen at the magnificent entertainment given at whitehall on august , , in honour of the constable of castile, the special ambassador of spain, who had come to sign a treaty of peace between his sovereign and james i. { } but home politics proved no congenial field for the exercise of southampton's energies. quarrels with fellow-courtiers continued to jeopardise his fortunes. with sir robert cecil, with philip herbert, earl of montgomery, and with the duke of buckingham he had violent disputes. it was in the schemes for colonising the new world that southampton found an outlet for his impulsive activity. he helped to equip expeditions to virginia, and acted as treasurer of the virginia company. the map of the country commemorates his labours as a colonial pioneer. in his honour were named southampton hundred, hampton river, and hampton roads in virginia. finally, in the summer of , at the age of fifty-one, southampton, with characteristic spirit, took command of a troop of english volunteers which was raised to aid the elector palatine, husband of james i's daughter elizabeth, in his struggle with the emperor and the catholics of central europe. with him went his eldest son, lord wriothesley. both on landing in the low countries were attacked by fever. the younger man succumbed at once. the earl regained sufficient strength to accompany his son's body to bergen-op-zoom, but there, on november , he himself died of a lethargy. father and son were both buried in the chancel of the church of titchfield, hampshire, on december . southampton thus outlived shakespeare by more than eight years. iv.--the earl of southampton as a literary patron. southampton's collection of books. southampton's close relations with men of letters of his time give powerful corroboration of the theory that he was the patron whom shakespeare commemorated in the sonnets. from earliest to latest manhood--throughout the dissipations of court life, amid the torments that his intrigue cost him, in the distractions of war and travel--the earl never ceased to cherish the passion for literature which was implanted in him in boyhood. his devotion to his old college, st. john's, is characteristic. when a new library was in course of construction there during the closing years of his life, southampton collected books to the value of pounds wherewith to furnish it. this 'monument of love,' as the college authorities described the benefaction, may still be seen on the shelves of the college library. the gift largely consisted of illuminated manuscripts--books of hours, legends of the saints, and mediaeval chronicles. southampton caused his son to be educated at st. john's, and his wife expressed to the tutors the hope that the boy would 'imitate' his father 'in his love to learning and to them.' references in his letters to poems and plays. even the state papers and business correspondence in which southampton's career is traced are enlivened by references to his literary interests. especially refreshing are the active signs vouchsafed there of his sympathy with the great birth of english drama. it was with plays that he joined other noblemen in in entertaining his chief, sir robert cecil, on the eve of the departure for paris of that embassy in which southampton served cecil as a secretary. in july following southampton contrived to enclose in an official despatch from paris 'certain songs' which he was anxious that sir robert sidney, a friend of literary tastes, should share his delight in reading. twelve months later, while southampton was in ireland, a letter to him from the countess attested that current literature was an everyday topic of their private talk. 'all the news i can send you,' she wrote to her husband, 'that i think will make you merry, is that i read in a letter from london that sir john falstaff is, by his mistress dame pintpot, made father of a goodly miller's thumb--a boy that's all head and very little body; but this is a secret.' { a} this cryptic sentence proves on the part of both earl and countess familiarity with falstaff's adventures in shakespeare's 'henry iv,' where the fat knight apostrophised mrs. quickly as 'good pint pot' (pt. i. ii. iv. ). who the acquaintances were about whom the countess jested thus lightly does not appear, but that sir john, the father of 'the boy that was all head and very little body,' was a playful allusion to sir john's creator is by no means beyond the bounds of possibility. in the letters of sir toby matthew, many of which were written very early in the seventeenth century (although first published in ), the sobriquet of sir john falstaff seems to have been bestowed on shakespeare: 'as that excellent author sir john falstaff sayes, "what for your businesse, news, device, foolerie, and libertie, i never dealt better since i was a man."' { b} his love of the theatre. when, after leaving ireland, southampton spent the autumn of in london, it was recorded that he and his friend lord rutland 'come not to court' but 'pass away the time merely in going to plays every day.' { c} it seems that the fascination that the drama had for southampton and his friends led them to exaggerate the influence that it was capable of exerting on the emotions of the multitude. southampton and essex in february requisitioned and paid for the revival of shakespeare's 'richard ii' at the globe theatre on the day preceding that fixed for their insurrection, in the hope that the play-scene of the deposition of a king might excite the citizens of london to countenance their rebellious design. { d} imprisonment sharpened southampton's zest for the theatre. within a year of his release from the tower in he entertained queen anne of denmark at his house in the strand, and burbage and his fellow players, one of whom was shakespeare, were bidden to present the 'old' play of 'love's labour's lost,' whose 'wit and mirth' were calculated 'to please her majesty exceedingly.' poetic adulation. barnabe barnes's sonnet, . but these are merely accidental testimonies to southampton's literary predilections. it is in literature itself, not in the prosaic records of his political or domestic life, that the amplest proofs survive of his devotion to letters. from the hour that, as a handsome and accomplished lad, he joined the court and made london his chief home, authors acknowledged his appreciation of literary effort of almost every quality and form. he had in his italian tutor florio, whose circle of acquaintance included all men of literary reputation, a mentor who allowed no work of promise to escape his observation. every note in the scale of adulation was sounded in southampton's honour in contemporary prose and verse. soon after the publication, in april , of shakespeare's 'venus and adonis,' with its salutation of southampton, a more youthful apprentice to the poet's craft, barnabe barnes, confided to a published sonnet of unrestrained fervour his conviction that southampton's eyes--'those heavenly lamps'--were the only sources of true poetic inspiration. the sonnet, which is superscribed 'to the right noble and virtuous lord, henry, earl of southampton,' runs: receive, sweet lord, with thy thrice sacred hand (which sacred muses make their instrument) these worthless leaves, which i to thee present, (sprung from a rude and unmanured land) that with your countenance graced, they may withstand hundred-eyed envy's rough encounterment, whose patronage can give encouragement to scorn back-wounding zoilus his band. vouchsafe, right virtuous lord, with gracious eyes-- those heavenly lamps which give the muses light, which give and take in course that holy fire-- to view my muse with your judicial sight: whom, when time shall have taught, by flight, to rise shall to thy virtues, of much worth, aspire. tom nash's addresses. next year a writer of greater power, tom nash, betrayed little less enthusiasm when dedicating to the earl his masterly essay in romance, 'the life of jack wilton.' he describes southampton, who was then scarcely of age, as 'a dear lover and cherisher as well of the lovers of poets as of the poets themselves.' 'a new brain,' he exclaims, 'a new wit, a new style, a new soul, will i get me, to canonise your name to posterity, if in this my first attempt i am not taxed of presumption.' { a} although 'jack wilton' was the first book nash formally dedicated to southampton, it is probable that nash had made an earlier bid for the earl's patronage. in a digression at the close of his 'pierce pennilesse' he grows eloquent in praise of one whom he entitles 'the matchless image of honour and magnificent rewarder of vertue, jove's eagle-borne ganimede, thrice noble amintas.' in a sonnet addressed to 'this renowned lord,' who 'draws all hearts to his love,' nash expresses regret that the great poet, edmund spenser, had omitted to celebrate 'so special a pillar of nobility' in the series of adulatory sonnets prefixed to the 'faerie queene;' and in the last lines of his sonnet nash suggests that spenser suppressed the nobleman's name because few words might not comprise thy fame. { b} southampton was beyond doubt the nobleman in question. it is certain, too, that the earl of southampton was among the young men for whom nash, in hope of gain, as he admitted, penned 'amorous villanellos and qui passas.' one of the least reputable of these efforts of nash survives in an obscene love-poem entitled 'the choosing of valentines,' which may be dated in . not only was this dedicated to southampton in a prefatory sonnet, but in an epilogue, again in the form of a sonnet, nash addressed his young patron as his 'friend.' { } markham's sonnet, . florio's address, . meanwhile, in , the versatile gervase markham inscribed to southampton, in a sonnet, his patriotic poem on sir richard grenville's glorious fight off the azores. markham was not content to acknowledge with barnes the inspiriting force of his patron's eyes, but with blasphemous temerity asserted that the sweetness of his lips, which stilled the music of the spheres, delighted the ear of almighty god. markham's sonnet runs somewhat haltingly thus: thou glorious laurel of the muses' hill, whose eyes doth crown the most victorious pen, bright lamp of virtue, in whose sacred skill lives all the bliss of ear-enchanting men, from graver subjects of thy grave assays, bend thy courageous thoughts unto these lines-- the grave from whence my humble muse doth raise true honour's spirit in her rough designs-- and when the stubborn stroke of my harsh song shall seasonless glide through almighty ears vouchsafe to sweet it with thy blessed tongue whose well-tuned sound stills music in the spheres; so shall my tragic lays be blest by thee and from thy lips suck their eternity. subsequently florio, in associating the earl's name with his great italian-english dictionary--the 'worlde of wordes'--more soberly defined the earl's place in the republic of letters when he wrote: 'as to me and many more the glorious and gracious sunshine of your honour hath infused light and life.' the congratulations of the poets in . the most notable contribution to this chorus of praise is to be found, as i have already shown, in shakespeare's 'sonnets.' the same note of eulogy was sounded by men of letters until southampton's death. when he was released from prison on james i's accession in april , his praises in poets' mouths were especially abundant. not only was that grateful incident celebrated by shakespeare in what is probably the latest of his sonnets (no. cvii.), but samuel daniel and john davies of hereford offered the earl congratulation in more prolonged strains. daniel addressed to southampton many lines like these: the world had never taken so full note of what thou art, hadst thou not been undone: and only thy affliction hath begot more fame than thy best fortunes could have won; for ever by adversity are wrought the greatest works of admiration; and all the fair examples of renown out of distress and misery are grown . . . only the best-compos'd and worthiest hearts god sets to act the hard'st and constanst'st parts. { a} davies was more jubilant: now wisest men with mirth do seem stark mad, and cannot choose--their hearts are all so glad. then let's be merry in our god and king, that made us merry, being ill bestead. southampton, up thy cap to heaven fling, and on the viol there sweet praises sing, for he is come that grace to all doth bring. { b} many like praises, some of later date, by henry locke (or lok), george chapman, joshua sylvester, richard brathwaite, george wither, sir john beaumont, and others could be quoted. beaumont, on southampton's death, wrote an elegy which panegyrises him in the varied capacities of warrior, councillor, courtier, father, and husband. but it is as a literary patron that beaumont insists that he chiefly deserves remembrance: i keep that glory last which is the best, the love of learning which he oft expressed in conversation, and respect to those who had a name in arts, in verse or prose. elegies on southampton. to the same effect are some twenty poems which were published in , just after southampton's death, in a volume entitled 'teares of the isle of wight, shed on the tombe of their most noble valorous and loving captaine and governour, the right honorable henrie, earl of southampton.' the keynote is struck in the opening stanza of the first poem by one francis beale: ye famous poets of the southern isle, strain forth the raptures of your tragic muse, and with your laureate pens come and compile the praises due to this great lord: peruse his globe of worth, and eke his virtues brave, like learned maroes at mecaenas' grave. v.--the true history of thomas thorpe and 'mr. w. h.' the publication of the sonnets in . in francis meres enumerated among shakespeare's best known works his 'sugar'd sonnets among his private friends.' none of shakespeare's sonnets are known to have been in print when meres wrote, but they were doubtless in circulation in manuscript. in two of them were printed for the first time by the piratical publisher, william jaggard, in the opening pages of the first edition of 'the passionate pilgrim.' on january , - , eleazar edgar, a publisher of small account, obtained a license for the publication of a work bearing the title, 'a booke called amours by j. d., with certein other sonnetes by w. s.' no book answering this description is extant. in any case it is doubtful if edgar's venture concerned shakespeare's 'sonnets.' it is more probable that his 'w. s.' was william smith, who had published a collection of sonnets entitled 'chloris' in . { } on may , , a license for the publication of shakespeare's 'sonnets' was granted by the stationers' company to a publisher named thomas thorpe, and shortly afterwards the complete collection as they have reached us was published by thorpe for the first time. to the volume thorpe prefixed a dedication in the following terms: to the onlie begetter of these insuing sonnets mr. w. h., all happinesse and that eternitie promised by our ever-living poet wisheth the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth t. t. the words are fantastically arranged. in ordinary grammatical order they would run: 'the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth [_i.e._ the publisher] t[homas] t[horpe] wisheth mr. w. h., the only begetter of these ensuing sonnets, all happiness and that eternity promised by our ever-living poet.' publishers' dedication. few books of the sixteenth or seventeenth century were ushered into the world without a dedication. in most cases it was the work of the author, but numerous volumes, besides shakespeare's 'sonnets,' are extant in which the publisher (and not the author) fills the role of dedicator. the cause of the substitution is not far to seek. the signing of the dedication was an assertion of full and responsible ownership in the publication, and the publisher in shakespeare's lifetime was the full and responsible owner of a publication quite as often as the author. the modern conception of copyright had not yet been evolved. whoever in the sixteenth or early seventeenth century was in actual possession of a manuscript was for practical purposes its full and responsible owner. literary work largely circulated in manuscript. { } scriveners made a precarious livelihood by multiplying written copies, and an enterprising publisher had many opportunities of becoming the owner of a popular book without the author's sanction or knowledge. when a volume in the reign of elizabeth or james i was published independently of the author, the publisher exercised unchallenged all the owner's rights, not the least valued of which was that of choosing the patron of the enterprise, and of penning the dedicatory compliment above his signature. occasionally circumstances might speciously justify the publisher's appearance in the guise of a dedicator. in the case of a posthumous book it sometimes happened that the author's friends renounced ownership or neglected to assert it. in other instances, the absence of an author from london while his work was passing through the press might throw on the publisher the task of supplying the dedication without exposing him to any charge of sharp practice. but as a rule one of only two inferences is possible when a publisher's name figured at the foot of a dedicatory epistle: either the author was ignorant of the publisher's design, or he had refused to countenance it, and was openly defied. in the case of shakespeare's 'sonnets' it may safely be assumed that shakespeare received no notice of thorpe's intention of publishing the work, and that it was owing to the author's ignorance of the design that the dedication was composed and signed by the 'well-wishing adventurer in setting forth.' but whether author or publisher chose the patron of his wares, the choice was determined by much the same considerations. self-interest was the principle underlying transactions between literary patron and _protege_. publisher, like author, commonly chose as patron a man or woman of wealth and social influence who might be expected to acknowledge the compliment either by pecuniary reward or by friendly advertisement of the volume in their own social circle. at times the publisher, slightly extending the field of choice, selected a personal friend or mercantile acquaintance who had rendered him some service in trade or private life, and was likely to appreciate such general expressions of good will as were the accepted topic of dedications. nothing that was fantastic or mysterious entered into the elizabethan or the jacobean publishers' shrewd schemes of business, and it may be asserted with confidence that it was under the everyday prosaic conditions of current literary traffic that the publisher thorpe selected 'mr. w. h.' as the patron of the original edition of shakespeare's 'sonnets.' thorpe's early life. a study of thorpe's character and career clears the point of doubt. thorpe has been described as a native of warwickshire, shakespeare's county, and a man eminent in his profession. he was neither of these things. he was a native of barnet in middlesex, where his father kept an inn, and he himself through thirty years' experience of the book trade held his own with difficulty in its humblest ranks. he enjoyed the customary preliminary training. { a} at midsummer he was apprenticed for nine years to a reputable printer and stationer, richard watkins. { b} nearly ten years later he took up the freedom of the stationers' company, and was thereby qualified to set up as a publisher on his own account. { c} he was not destitute of a taste for literature; he knew scraps of latin, and recognised a good manuscript when he saw one. but the ranks of london publishers were overcrowded, and such accomplishments as thorpe possessed were poor compensation for a lack of capital or of family connections among those already established in the trade. { d} for many years he contented himself with an obscure situation as assistant or clerk to a stationer more favourably placed. his ownership of the manuscript of marlowe's 'lucan.' his dedicatory address to edward blount in . it was as the self-appointed procurer and owner of an unprinted manuscript--a recognised role for novices to fill in the book trade of the period--that thorpe made his first distinguishable appearance on the stage of literary history. in there fell into his hands in an unexplained manner a written copy of marlowe's unprinted translation of the first book of 'lucan.' thorpe confided his good fortune to edward blount, then a stationer's assistant like himself, but with better prospects. blount had already achieved a modest success in the same capacity of procurer or picker-up of neglected 'copy.' { e} in he became proprietor of marlowe's unfinished and unpublished 'hero and leander,' and found among better-equipped friends in the trade both a printer and a publisher for his treasure-trove. blount good-naturedly interested himself in thorpe's 'find,' and it was through blount's good offices that peter short undertook to print thorpe's manuscript of marlowe's 'lucan,' and walter burre agreed to sell it at his shop in st. paul's churchyard. as owner of the manuscript thorpe exerted the right of choosing a patron for the venture and of supplying the dedicatory epistle. the patron of his choice was his friend blount, and he made the dedication the vehicle of his gratitude for the assistance he had just received. the style of the dedication was somewhat bombastic, but thorpe showed a literary sense when he designated marlowe 'that pure elemental wit,' and a good deal of dry humour in offering to 'his kind and true friend' blount 'some few instructions' whereby he might accommodate himself to the unaccustomed _role_ of patron. { a} for the conventional type of patron thorpe disavowed respect. he preferred to place himself under the protection of a friend in the trade whose goodwill had already stood him in good stead, and was capable of benefiting him hereafter. this venture laid the foundation of thorpe's fortunes. three years later he was able to place his own name on the title-page of two humbler literary prizes--each an insignificant pamphlet on current events. { b} thenceforth for a dozen years his name reappeared annually on one, two, or three volumes. after his operations were few and far between, and they ceased altogether in . he seems to have ended his days in poverty, and has been identified with the thomas thorpe who was granted an alms-room in the hospital of ewelme, oxfordshire, on december , . { a} character of his business. thorpe was associated with the publication of twenty-nine volumes in all, { b} including marlowe's 'lucan;' but in almost all his operations his personal energies were confined, as in his initial enterprise, to procuring the manuscript. for a short period in he occupied a shop, the tiger's head, in st. paul's churchyard, and the fact was duly announced on the title-pages of three publications which he issued in that year. { c} but his other undertakings were described on their title-pages as printed for him by one stationer and sold for him by another; and when any address found mention at all, it was the shopkeeper's address, and not his own. he never enjoyed in permanence the profits or dignity of printing his 'copy' at a press of his own, or selling books on premises of his own, and he can claim the distinction of having pursued in this homeless fashion the well-defined profession of procurer of manuscripts for a longer period than any other known member of the stationers' company. though many others began their career in that capacity, all except thorpe, as far as they can be traced, either developed into printers or booksellers, or, failing in that, betook themselves to other trades. very few of his wares does thorpe appear to have procured direct from the authors. it is true that between and there were issued under his auspices some eight volumes of genuine literary value, including, besides shakespeare's 'sonnets,' three plays by chapman, { d} four works of ben jonson, and coryat's 'odcombian banquet.' but the taint of mysterious origin attached to most of his literary properties. he doubtless owed them to the exchange of a few pence or shillings with a scrivener's hireling; and the transaction was not one of which the author had cognisance. shakespeare's sufferings at publishers' hands. it is quite plain that no negotiation with the author preceded the formation of thorpe's resolve to publish for the first time shakespeare's 'sonnets' in . had shakespeare associated himself with the enterprise, the world would fortunately have been spared thorpe's dedication to 'mr. w. h.' t. t.'s' place would have been filled by 'w. s.' the whole transaction was in thorpe's vein. shakespeare's 'sonnets' had been already circulating in manuscript for eleven years; only two had as yet been printed, and those were issued by the pirate publisher, william jaggard, in the fraudulently christened volume, 'the passionate pilgrim, by william shakespeare,' in . shakespeare, except in the case of his two narrative poems, showed utter indifference to all questions touching the publication of his works. of the sixteen plays of his that were published in his lifetime, not one was printed with his sanction. he made no audible protest when seven contemptible dramas in which he had no hand were published with his name or initials on the title-page while his fame was at its height. with only one publisher of his time, richard field, his fellow-townsman, who was responsible for the issue of 'venus' and 'lucrece,' is it likely that he came into personal relations, and there is nothing to show that he maintained relations with field after the publication of 'lucrece' in . in fitting accord with the circumstance that the publication of the 'sonnets' was a tradesman's venture which ignored the author's feelings and rights, thorpe in both the entry of the book in the 'stationers' registers' and on its title-page brusquely designated it 'shakespeares sonnets,' instead of following the more urbane collocation of words invariably adopted by living authors, viz. 'sonnets by william shakespeare.' the use of initials in dedications of elizabethan and jacobean books. in framing the dedication thorpe followed established precedent. initials run riot over elizabethan and jacobean books. printers and publishers, authors and contributors of prefatory commendations were all in the habit of masking themselves behind such symbols. patrons figured under initials in dedications somewhat less frequently than other sharers in the book's production. but the conditions determining the employment of initials in that relation were well defined. the employment of initials in a dedication was a recognised mark of a close friendship or intimacy between patron and dedicator. it was a sign that the patron's fame was limited to a small circle, and that the revelation of his full name was not a matter of interest to a wide public. such are the dominant notes of almost all the extant dedications in which the patron is addressed by his initials. in samuel rowlands addressed the dedication of his 'betraying of christ' to his 'deare affected _friend_ maister h. w., gentleman.' an edition of robert southwell's 'short rule of life' which appeared in the same year bore a dedication addressed 'to my deare affected _friend_ m. [_i.e._ mr.] d. s., gentleman.' the poet richard barnfield also in the same year dedicated the opening sonnet in his 'poems in divers humours' to his '_friend_ maister r. l.' in dunstan gale dedicated a poem, 'pyramus and thisbe,' to the 'worshipfull his verie _friend_ d. [_i.e._ dr.] b. h. { } frequency of wishes for 'happiness' and 'eternity' in dedicatory greetings. there was nothing exceptional in the words of greeting which thorpe addressed to his patron 'mr. w. h.' they followed a widely adopted formula. dedications of the time usually consisted of two distinct parts. there was a dedicatory epistle, which might touch at any length, in either verse or prose, on the subject of the book and the writer's relations with his patron. but there was usually, in addition, a preliminary salutation confined to such a single sentence as thorpe displayed on the first page of his edition of shakespeare's sonnets. in that preliminary sentence the dedicator habitually 'wisheth' his patron one or more of such blessings as health, long life, happiness, and eternity. 'al perseverance with soules happiness' thomas powell 'wisheth' the countess of kildare on the first page of his 'passionate poet' in . 'all happines' is the greeting of thomas watson, the sonnetteer, to his patron, the earl of oxford, on the threshold of watson's 'passionate century of love.' there is hardly a book published by robert greene between and that does not open with an adjuration before the dedicatory epistle in the form: 'to --- --- robert greene wisheth increase of honour with the full fruition of perfect felicity.' thorpe in shakespeare's sonnets left the salutation to stand alone, and omitted the supplement of a dedicatory epistle; but this, too, was not unusual. there exists an abundance of contemporary examples of the dedicatory salutation without the sequel of the dedicatory epistle. edmund spenser's dedication of the 'faerie queene' to elizabeth consists solely of the salutation in the form of an assurance that the writer 'consecrates these his labours to live with the eternitie of her fame.' michael drayton both in his 'idea, the shepheard's garland' ( ), and in his 'poemes lyrick and pastorall' ( ), confined his address to his patron to a single sentence of salutation. { } richard brathwaite in exclusively saluted the patron of his 'golden fleece' with 'the continuance of god's temporall blessings in this life, with the crowne of immortalitie in the world to come;' while in like manner he greeted the patron of his 'sonnets and madrigals' in the same year with 'the prosperitie of times successe in this life, with the reward of eternitie in the world to come.' it is 'happiness' and 'eternity,' or an equivalent paraphrase, that had the widest vogue among the good wishes with which the dedicator in the early years of the seventeenth century besought his patron's favour on the first page of his book. but thorpe was too self-assertive to be a slavish imitator. his addiction to bombast and his elementary appreciation of literature recommended to him the practice of incorporating in his dedicatory salutation some high-sounding embellishments of the accepted formula suggested by his author's writing. { a} in his dedication of the 'sonnets' to 'mr. w. h.' he grafted on the common formula a reference to the immortality which shakespeare, after the habit of contemporary sonnetteers, promised the hero of his sonnets in the pages that succeeded. with characteristic magniloquence, thorpe added the decorative and supererogatory phrase, 'promised by our ever-living poet,' to the conventional dedicatory wish for his patron's 'all happiness' and 'eternitie.' { b} five dedications by thorpe. thorpe, as far as is known, penned only one dedication before that to shakespeare's 'sonnets.' his dedicatory experience was previously limited to the inscription of marlowe's 'lucan' in to blount, his friend in the trade. three dedications by thorpe survive of a date subsequent to the issue of the 'sonnets.' one of these is addressed to john florio, and the other two to the earl of pembroke. { a} but these three dedications all prefaced volumes of translations by one john healey, whose manuscripts had become thorpe's prey after the author had emigrated to virginia, where he died shortly after landing. thorpe chose, he tells us, florio and the earl of pembroke as patrons of healey's unprinted manuscripts because they had been patrons of healey before his expatriation and death. there is evidence to prove that in choosing a patron for the 'sonnets,' and penning a dedication for the second time, he pursued the exact procedure that he had followed--deliberately and for reasons that he fully stated--in his first and only preceding dedicatory venture. he chose his patron from the circle of his trade associates, and it must have been because his patron was a personal friend that he addressed him by his initials, 'w. h.' 'w. h.' signs dedication of southwell's poems in . shakespeare's 'sonnets' is not the only volume of the period in the introductory pages of which the initials 'w. h.' play a prominent part. in one who concealed himself under the same letters performed for 'a foure-fould meditation' (a collection of pious poems which the jesuit robert southwell left in manuscript at his death) the identical service that thorpe performed for marlowe's 'lucan' in , and for shakespeare's 'sonnets' in . in southwell's manuscript fell into the hands of this 'w. h.,' and he published it through the agency of the printer, george eld, and of an insignificant bookseller, francis burton. { b} 'w. h.,' in his capacity of owner, supplied the dedication with his own pen under his initials. of the jesuit's newly recovered poems 'w. h.' wrote, 'long have they lien hidden in obscuritie, and haply had never scene the light, had not a meere accident conveyed them to my hands. but, having seriously perused them, loath i was that any who are religiously affected, should be deprived of so great a comfort, as the due consideration thereof may bring unto them.' 'w. h.' chose as patron of his venture one mathew saunders, esq., and to the dedicatory epistle prefixed a conventional salutation wishing saunders long life and prosperity. the greeting was printed in large and bold type thus:-- to the right worfhipfull and vertuous gentleman, mathew saunders, efquire w.h. wifheth, with long life, a profperous achieuement of his good defires. there follows in small type, regularly printed across the page, a dedicatory letter--the frequent sequel of the dedicatory salutation--in which the writer, 'w.h.,' commends the religious temper of 'these meditations' and deprecates the coldness and sterility of his own 'conceits.' the dedicator signs himself at the bottom of the page 'your worships unfained affectionate, w.h.' { } the two books--southwell's 'foure-fould meditation' of , and shakespeare's 'sonnets' of --have more in common than the appearance on the preliminary pages of the initials 'w. h.' in a prominent place, and of the common form of dedicatory salutation. both volumes, it was announced on the title-pages, came from the same press--the press of george eld. eld for many years co-operated with thorpe in business. in he printed for thorpe ben jonson's 'sejanus,' and in each of the years , , , and at least one of his ventures was publicly declared to be a specimen of eld's typography. many of thorpe's books came forth without any mention of the printer; but eld's name figures more frequently upon them than that of any other printer. between and it is likely that eld printed all thorpe's 'copy' as matter of course and that he was in constant relations with him. 'w. h.' and mr. william hall. there is little doubt that the 'w. h.' of the southwell volume was mr. william hall, who, when he procured that manuscript for publication, was an humble auxiliary in the publishing army. hall flits rapidly across the stage of literary history. he served an apprenticeship to the printer and stationer john allde from to , and was admitted to the freedom of the stationers' company in the latter year. for the long period of twenty-two years after his release from his indentures he was connected with the trade in a dependent capacity, doubtless as assistant to a master-stationer. when in the manuscript of southwell's poems was conveyed to his hands and he adopted the recognised role of procurer of their publication, he had not set up in business for himself. it was only later in the same year ( ) that he obtained the license of the stationers' company to inaugurate a press in his own name, and two years passed before he began business. in he obtained for publication a theological manuscript which appeared next year with his name on the title-page for the first time. this volume constituted the earliest credential of his independence. it entitled him to the prefix 'mr.' in all social relations. between and he printed some twenty volumes, most of them sermons and almost all devotional in tone. the most important of his secular undertaking was guillim's far-famed 'display of heraldrie,' a folio issued in . in hall printed an account of the conviction and execution of a noted pickpocket, john selman, who had been arrested while professionally engaged in the royal chapel at whitehall. on the title-page hall gave his own name by his initials only. the book was described in bold type as 'printed by w. h.' and as on sale at the shop of thomas archer in st. paul's churchyard. hall was a careful printer with a healthy dread of misprints, but his business dwindled after , and, soon disposing of it to one john beale, he disappeared into private life. 'w. h.' are no uncommon initials, and there is more interest attaching to the discovery of 'mr. w. h.'s' position in life and his function in relation to the scheme of the publication of the 'sonnets' than in establishing his full name. but there is every probability that william hall, the 'w. h.' of the southwell dedication, was one and the same person with the 'mr. w. h.' of thorpe's dedication of the 'sonnets.' no other inhabitant of london was habitually known to mask himself under those letters. william hall was the only man bearing those initials who there is reason to suppose was on familiar terms with thorpe. { a} both were engaged at much the same period in london in the same occupation of procuring manuscripts for publication; both inscribed their literary treasure-trove in the common formula to patrons for whom they claimed no high rank or distinction, and both engaged the same printer to print their most valuable prize. 'the onlie begetter' means 'only procurer'. no condition of the problem of the identity of thorpe's friend 'mr. w. h' seems ignored by the adoption of the interpretation that he was the future master-printer william hall. the objection that 'mr. w. h.' could not have been thorpe's friend in trade, because while wishing him all happiness and eternity thorpe dubs him 'the onlie begetter of these insuing sonnets,' is not formidable. thorpe rarely used words with much exactness. { b} it is obvious that he did not employ 'begetter' in the ordinary sense. 'begetter,' when literally interpreted as applied to a literary work, means father, author, producer, and it cannot be seriously urged that thorpe intended to describe 'mr. w. h.' as the author of the 'sonnets.' 'begetter' has been used in the figurative sense of inspirer, and it is often assumed that by 'onlie begetter' thorpe meant 'sole inspirer,' and that by the use of those words he intended to hint at the close relations subsisting between 'w. h.' and shakespeare in the dramatist's early life; but that interpretation presents numberless difficulties. it was contrary to thorpe's aims in business to invest a dedication with any cryptic significance, and thus mystify his customers. moreover, his career and the circumstances under which he became the publisher of the sonnets confute the assumption that he was in such relations with shakespeare or with shakespeare's associates as would give him any knowledge of shakespeare's early career that was not public property. all that thorpe--the struggling pirate-publisher, 'the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth' wares mysteriously come by--knew or probably cared to know of shakespeare was that he was the most popular and honoured of the literary producers of the day. when thorpe had the luck to acquire surreptitiously an unprinted manuscript by 'our ever-living poet,' it was not in the great man's circle of friends or patrons, to which hitherto he had had no access, that he was likely to seek his own patron. elementary considerations of prudence impelled him to publish his treasure-trove with all expedition, and not disclose his design prematurely to one who might possibly take steps to hinder its fulfilment. but that thorpe had no 'inspirer' of the 'sonnets' in his mind when he addressed himself to 'mr. w. h.' is finally proved by the circumstance that the only identifiable male 'inspirer' of the poems was the earl of southampton, to whom the initials 'w. h.' do not apply. of the figurative meanings set in elizabethan english on the word 'begetter,' that of 'inspirer' is by no means the only one or the most common. 'beget' was not infrequently employed in the attenuated sense of 'get,' 'procure,' or 'obtain,' a sense which is easily deducible from the original one of 'bring into being.' hamlet, when addressing the players, bids them 'in the very whirlwind of passion acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness.' 'i have some cousins german at court,' wrote dekker in , in his 'satiro-mastix,' '[that] shall beget you the reversion of the master of the king's revels.' 'mr. w. h.,' whom thorpe described as 'the onlie begetter of these insuing sonnets,' was in all probability the acquirer or procurer of the manuscript, who, figuratively speaking, brought the book into being either by first placing the manuscript in thorpe's hands or by pointing out the means by which a copy might be acquired. to assign such significance to the word 'begetter' was entirely in thorpe's vein. { } thorpe described his _role_ in the piratical enterprise of the 'sonnets' as that of 'the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth,' _i.e._ the hopeful speculator in the scheme. 'mr. w. h.' doubtless played the almost equally important part--one as well known then as now in commercial operations--of the 'vendor' of the property to be exploited. vi.--'mr. william herbert.' origin of the notion that 'mr. w. h.' stands for 'mr. william herbert.' for fully sixty years it has been very generally assumed that shakespeare addressed the bulk of his sonnets to the young earl of pembroke. this theory owes its origin to a speciously lucky guess which was first disclosed to the public in , and won for a time almost universal acceptance. { } thorpe's form of address was held to justify the mistaken inference that, whoever 'mr. w. h.' may have been, he and no other was the hero of the alleged story of the poems; and the cornerstone of the pembroke theory was the assumption that the letters 'mr. w. h.' in the dedication did duty for the words 'mr. william herbert,' by which name the (third) earl of pembroke was represented as having been known in youth. the originators of the theory claimed to discover in the earl of pembroke the only young man of rank and wealth to whom the initials 'w. h' applied at the needful dates. in thus interpreting the initials, the pembroke theorists made a blunder that proves on examination to be fatal to their whole contention. the earl of pembroke known only as lord herbert in youth. the nobleman under consideration succeeded to the earldom of pembroke on his father's death on january , (n. s.), when he was twenty years and nine months old, and from that date it is unquestioned that he was always known by his lawful title. but it has been overlooked that the designation 'mr. william herbert,' for which the initials 'mr. w. h.' have been long held to stand, could never in the mind of thomas thorpe or any other contemporary have denominated the earl at any moment of his career. when he came into the world on april , , his father had been (the second) earl of pembroke for ten years, and he, as the eldest son, was from the hour of his birth known in all relations of life--even in the baptismal entry in the parish register--by the title of lord herbert, and by no other. during the lifetime of his father and his own minority several references were made to him in the extant correspondence of friends of varying degrees of intimacy. he is called by them, without exception, 'my lord herbert,' 'the lord herbert,' or 'lord herbert.' { } it is true that as the eldest son of an earl he held the title by courtesy, but for all practical purposes it was as well recognised in common speech as if he had been a peer in his own right. no one nowadays would address in current parlance, or even entertain the conception of, viscount cranborne, the heir of the present prime minister, as 'mr. j. c.' or 'mr. james cecil.' it is no more legitimate to assert that it would have occurred to an elizabethan--least of all to a personal acquaintance or to a publisher who stood toward his patron in the relation of a personal dependent--to describe 'young lord herbert,' of elizabeth's reign, as 'mr. william herbert.' a lawyer, who in the way of business might have to mention the young lord's name in a legal document, would have entered it as 'william herbert, commonly called lord herbert.' the appellation 'mr.' was not used loosely then as now, but indicated a precise social grade. thorpe's employment of the prefix 'mr.' without qualification is in itself fatal to the pretension that any lord, whether by right or courtesy, was intended. { } thorpe's mode of addressing the earl of pembroke. proof is at hand to establish that thorpe was under no misapprehension as to the proper appellation of the earl of pembroke, and was incapable of venturing on the meaningless misnomer of 'mr. w. h.' insignificant publisher though he was, and sceptical as he was of the merits of noble patrons, he was not proof against the temptation, when an opportunity was directly offered him, of adorning the prefatory pages of a publication with the name of a nobleman, who enjoyed the high official station, the literary culture, and the social influence of the third earl of pembroke. in --a year after he published the 'sonnets'--there came into his hands the manuscripts of john healey, that humble literary aspirant who had a few months before emigrated to virginia, and had, it would seem, died there. healey, before leaving england, had secured through the good offices of john florio (a man of influence in both fashionable and literary circles) the patronage of the earl of pembroke for a translation of bishop hall's fanciful satire, 'mundus alter et idem.' calling his book 'the discoverie of a new world,' healey had prefixed to it, in , an epistle inscribed in garish terms of flattery to the 'truest mirrour of truest honor, william earl of pembroke.' { } when thorpe subsequently made up his mind to publish, on his own account, other translations by the same hand, he found it desirable to seek the same patron. accordingly, in , he prefixed in his own name, to an edition of healey's translation of st. augustine's 'citie of god,' a dedicatory address 'to the honorablest patron of the muses and good mindes, lord william, earle of pembroke, knight of the honourable order (of the garter), &c.' in involved sentences thorpe tells the 'right gracious and gracefule lord' how the author left the work at death to be a 'testimonie of gratitude, observance, and heart's honor to your honour.' 'wherefore,' he explains, 'his legacie, laide at your honour's feete, is rather here delivered to your honour's humbly thrise-kissed hands by his poore delegate. your lordship's true devoted, th. th.' again, in , when thorpe procured the issue of a second edition of another of healey's translations, 'epictetus manuall. cebes table. theoprastus characters,' he supplied more conspicuous evidence of the servility with which he deemed it incumbent on him to approach a potent patron. as this address by thorpe to pembroke is difficult of access, i give it _in extenso_: 'to the right honourable, william earle of pembroke, lord chamberlaine to his majestie, one of his most honorable privie counsell, and knight of the most noble order of the garter, &c. 'right honorable.--it may worthily seeme strange unto your lordship, out of what frenzy one of my meanenesse hath presumed to commit this sacriledge, in the straightnesse of your lordship's leisure, to present a peece, for matter and model so unworthy, and in this scribbling age, wherein great persons are so pestered dayly with dedications. all i can alledge in extenuation of so many incongruities, is the bequest of a deceased man; who (in his lifetime) having offered some translations of his unto your lordship, ever wisht if _these ensuing_ were published they might onely bee addressed unto your lordship, as the last testimony of his dutifull affection (to use his own termes) _the true and reall upholder of learned endeavors_. this, therefore, beeing left unto mee, as a legacie unto your lordship (pardon my presumption, great lord, from so meane a man to so great a person) i could not without some impiety present it to any other; such a sad priviledge have the bequests of the _dead_, and so obligatory they are, more than the requests of the _living_. in the hope of this honourable acceptance i will ever rest, 'your lordship's humble devoted, 't. th.' with such obeisances did publishers then habitually creep into the presence of the nobility. in fact, the law which rigorously maintained the privileges of peers left them no option. the alleged erroneous form of address in the dedication of shakespeare's 'sonnets'--'mr. w. h.' for lord herbert or the earl of pembroke--would have amounted to the offence of defamation. and for that misdemeanour the star chamber, always active in protecting the dignity of peers, would have promptly called thorpe to account. { } of the earl of pembroke, and of his brother the earl of montgomery, it was stated a few years later, 'from just observation,' on very pertinent authority, that 'no men came near their lordships [in their capacity of literary patrons], but with a kind of religious address.' these words figure in the prefatory epistle which two actor-friends of shakespeare addressed to the two earls in the posthumously issued first folio of the dramatist's works. thorpe's 'kind of religious address' on seeking lord pembroke's patronage for healey's books was somewhat more unctuous than was customary or needful. but of erring conspicuously in an opposite direction he may, without misgiving, be pronounced innocent. vii.--shakespeare and the earl of pembroke. with the disposal of the allegation that 'mr. w. h.' represented the earl of pembroke's youthful name, the whole theory of that earl's identity with shakespeare's friend collapses. outside thorpe's dedicatory words, only two scraps of evidence with any title to consideration have been adduced to show that shakespeare was at any time or in any way associated with pembroke. shakespeare with the acting company at wilton in . in the late autumn of james i and his court were installed at the earl of pembroke's house at wilton for a period of two months, owing to the prevalence of the plague in london. by order of the officers of the royal household, the king's company of players, of which shakespeare was a member, gave a performance before the king at wilton house on december . the actors travelled from mortlake for the purpose, and were paid in the ordinary manner by the treasurer of the royal household out of the public funds. there is no positive evidence that shakespeare attended at wilton with the company, but assuming, as is probable, that he did, the earl of pembroke can be held no more responsible for his presence than for his repeated presence under the same conditions at whitehall. the visit of the king's players to wilton in has no bearing on the earl of pembroke's alleged relations with shakespeare. { } the dedication of the first folio. the second instance of the association in the seventeenth century of shakespeare's name with pembroke's tells wholly against the conjectured intimacy. seven years after the dramatist's death, two of his friends and fellow-actors prepared the collective edition of his plays known as the first folio, and they dedicated the volume, in the conventional language of eulogy, 'to the most noble and incomparable paire of brethren, william earl of pembroke, &c., lord chamberlaine to the king's most excellent majesty, and philip, earl of montgomery, &c., gentleman of his majesties bedchamber. both knights of the most noble order of the garter and our singular good lords.' the choice of such patrons, whom, as the dedication intimated, 'no one came near but with a kind of religious address,' proves no private sort of friendship between them and the dead author. to the two earls in partnership nearly every work of any literary pretension was dedicated at the period. moreover, the third earl of pembroke was lord chamberlain in , and exercised supreme authority in theatrical affairs. that his patronage should be sought for a collective edition of the works of the acknowledged master of the contemporary stage was a matter of course. it is only surprising that the editors should have yielded to the passing vogue of soliciting the patronage of the lord chamberlain's brother in conjunction with the lord chamberlain. the sole passage in the editors' dedication that can be held to bear on the question of shakespeare's alleged intimacy with pembroke is to be found in their remarks: 'but since your lordships have beene pleas'd to thinke these trifles something, heretofore; and have prosequuted both them, and their authour living, with so much favour: we hope that (they outliving him, and he not having the fate, common with some, to be exequutor to his owne writings) you will use the like indulgence toward them you have done unto their parent. there is a great difference, whether any booke choose his patrones, or find them: this hath done both. for, so much were your lordships' likings of the severall parts, when they were acted, as, before they were published, the volume ask'd to be yours.' there is nothing whatever in these sentences that does more than justify the inference that the brothers shared the enthusiastic esteem which james i and all the noblemen of his court extended to shakespeare and his plays in the dramatist's lifetime. apart from his work as a dramatist, shakespeare, in his capacity of one of 'the king's servants' or company of players, was personally known to all the officers of the royal household who collectively controlled theatrical representations at court. throughout james i's reign his plays were repeatedly performed in the royal presence, and when the dedicators of the first folio, at the conclusion of their address to lords pembroke and montgomery, describe the dramatist's works as 'these remaines of your _servant_ shakespeare,' they make it quite plain that it was in the capacity of 'king's servant' or player that they knew him to have been the object of their noble patrons' favour. no suggestion in the sonnets of the youth's identity with pembroke. the sonnets offer no internal indication that the earl of pembroke and shakespeare ever saw each other. nothing at all is deducible from the vague parallelisms that have been adduced between the earl's character and position in life and those with which the poet credited the youth of the sonnets. it may be granted that both had a mother (sonnet iii.), that both enjoyed wealth and rank, that both were regarded by admirers as cultivated, that both were self-indulgent in their relations with women, and that both in early manhood were indisposed to marry, owing to habits of gallantry. of one alleged point of resemblance there is no evidence. the loveliness assigned to shakespeare's youth was not, as far as we can learn, definitely set to pembroke's account. francis davison, when dedicating his 'poetical rhapsody' to the earl in in a very eulogistic sonnet, makes a cautiously qualified reference to the attractiveness of his person in the lines: [his] outward shape, though it most lovely be, doth in fair robes a fairer soul attire. the only portraits of him that survive represent him in middle age, { } and seem to confute the suggestion that he was reckoned handsome at any time of life; at most they confirm anthony wood's description of him as in person 'rather majestic than elegant.' but the point is not one of moment, and the argument neither gains nor loses, if we allow that pembroke may, at any rate in the sight of a poetical panegyrist, have at one period reflected, like shakespeare's youth, 'the lovely april of his mother's prime.' but when we have reckoned up the traits that can, on any showing, be admitted to be common to both pembroke and shakespeare's alleged friend, they all prove to be equally indistinctive. all could be matched without difficulty in a score of youthful noblemen and gentlemen of elizabeth's court. direct external evidence of shakespeare's friendly intercourse with one or other of elizabeth's young courtiers must be produced before the sonnets' general references to the youth's beauty and grace can render the remotest assistance in establishing his identity. aubrey's ignorance of any relation between shakespeare and pembroke. although it may be reckoned superfluous to adduce more arguments, negative or positive, against the theory that the earl of pembroke was a youthful friend of shakespeare, it is worth noting that john aubrey, the wiltshire antiquary, and the biographer of most englishmen of distinction of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was zealously researching from onwards into the careers alike of shakespeare and of various members of the earl of pembroke's family--one of the chief in wiltshire. aubrey rescued from oblivion many anecdotes--scandalous and otherwise--both about the third earl of pembroke and about shakespeare. of the former he wrote in his 'natural history of wiltshire' (ed. britton, ), recalling the earl's relations with massinger and many other men of letters. of shakespeare, aubrey narrated much lively gossip in his 'lives of eminent persons.' but neither in his account of pembroke nor in his account of shakespeare does he give any hint that they were at any time or in any manner acquainted or associated with one another. had close relations existed between them, it is impossible that all trace of them would have faded from the traditions that were current in aubrey's time and were embodied in his writings. { } viii.--the 'will' sonnets. no one has had the hardihood to assert that the text of the sonnets gives internally any indication that the youth's name took the hapless form of 'william herbert;' but many commentators argue that in three or four sonnets shakespeare admits in so many words that the youth bore his own christian name of will, and even that the disdainful lady had among her admirers other gentlemen entitled in familiar intercourse to similar designation. these are fantastic assumptions which rest on a misconception of shakespeare's phraseology and of the character of the conceits of the sonnets, and are solely attributable to the fanatical anxiety of the supporters of the pembroke theory to extort, at all hazards, some sort of evidence in their favour from shakespeare's text. { } elizabethan meanings of 'will.' in two sonnets (cxxxv.-vi.)--the most artificial and 'conceited' in the collection--the poet plays somewhat enigmatically on his christian name of 'will,' and a similar pun has been doubtfully detected in sonnets cxxxiv. and cxlvii. the groundwork of the pleasantry is the identity in form of the proper name with the common noun 'will.' this word connoted in elizabethan english a generous variety of conceptions, of most of which it has long since been deprived. then, as now, it was employed in the general psychological sense of volition; but it was more often specifically applied to two limited manifestations of the volition. it was the commonest of synonyms alike for 'self will' or 'stubbornness'--in which sense it still survives in 'wilful'--and for 'lust,' or 'sensual passion.' it also did occasional duty for its own diminutive 'wish,' for 'caprice,' for 'good-will,' and for 'free consent' (as nowadays in 'willing,' or 'willingly'). shakespeare's uses of the word. shakespeare constantly used 'will' in all these significations. iago recognised its general psychological value when he said, 'our bodies are our gardens, to the which our wills are gardeners.' the conduct of the 'will' is discussed after the manner of philosophy in 'troilus and cressida' (ii. ii. - ). in another of iago's sentences, 'love is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will,' light is shed on the process by which the word came to be specifically applied to sensual desire. the last is a favourite sense with shakespeare and his contemporaries. angelo and isabella, in 'measure for measure,' are at one in attributing their conflict to the former's 'will.' the self-indulgent bertram, in 'all's well,' 'fleshes his "will" in the spoil of a gentlewoman's honour.' in 'lear' (iv. vi. ) regan's heartless plot to seduce her brother-in-law is assigned to 'the undistinguished space'--the boundless range--'of woman's will.' similarly, sir philip sidney apostrophised lust as 'thou web of will.' thomas lodge, in 'phillis' (sonnet xi.), warns lovers of the ruin that menaces all who 'guide their course by will.' nicholas breton's fantastic romance of , entitled 'the will of wit, wit's will or will's wit, chuse you whether,' is especially rich in like illustrations. breton brings into marked prominence the antithesis which was familiar in his day between 'will' in its sensual meaning, and 'wit,' the elizabethan synonym for reason or cognition. 'a song between wit and will' opens thus: _wit_: what art thou, will? _will_: a babe of nature's brood, _wit_: who was thy sire? _will_: sweet lust, as lovers say. _wit_: thy mother who? _will_: wild lusty wanton blood. _wit_: when wast thou born? _will_: in merry month of may. _wit_: and where brought up? _will_: in school of little skill. _wit_: what learn'dst thou there? _will_: love is my lesson still. of the use of the word in the sense of stubbornness or self-will roger ascham gives a good instance in his 'scholemaster,' ( ), where he recommends that such a vice in children as 'will,' which he places in the category of lying, sloth, and disobedience, should be 'with sharp chastisement daily cut away.' { a} 'a woman will have her will' was, among elizabethan wags, an exceptionally popular proverbial phrase, the point of which revolved about the equivocal meaning of the last word. the phrase supplied the title of 'a pleasant comedy,' by william haughton, which--from onwards--held the stage for the unusually prolonged period of forty years. 'women, because they cannot have their wills when they dye, they will have their wills while they live,' was a current witticism which the barrister manningham deemed worthy of record in his 'diary' in . { b} shakespeare's puns on the word. it was not only in the sonnets that shakespeare--almost invariably with a glance at its sensual significance--rang the changes on this many-faced verbal token. in his earliest play, 'love's labour's lost' (ii. i. - ), after the princess has tauntingly assured the king of navarre that he will break his vow to avoid women's society, the king replies, 'not for the world, fair madam, by my _will_' (_i.e._ willingly). the princess retorts 'why _will_ (_i.e._ sensual desire) shall break it (_i.e._ the vow), _will_ and nothing else.' in 'much ado' (v. iv. seq.), when benedick, anxious to marry beatrice, is asked by the lady's uncle 'what's your will?' he playfully lingers on the word in his answer. as for his 'will,' his 'will' is that the uncle's 'goodwill may stand with his' and beatrice's 'will'--in other words that the uncle may consent to their union. slender and anne page vary the tame sport when the former misinterprets the young lady's 'what is your will?' into an inquiry into the testamentary disposition of his property. to what depth of vapidity shakespeare and contemporary punsters could sink is nowhere better illustrated than in the favour they bestowed on efforts to extract amusement from the parities and disparities of form and meaning subsisting between the words 'will' and 'wish,' the latter being in vernacular use as a diminutive of the former. twice in the 'two gentlemen of verona' (i. iii. and iv. ii. ) shakespeare almost strives to invest with the flavour of epigram the unpretending announcement that one interlocutor's 'wish' is in harmony with another interlocutor's 'will.' it is in this vein of pleasantry--'will' and 'wish' are identically contrasted in sonnet cxxxv.--that shakespeare, to the confusion of modern readers, makes play with the word 'will' in the sonnets, and especially in the two sonnets (cxxxv.-vi.) which alone speciously justify the delusion that the lady is courted by two, or more than two, lovers of the name of will. arbitrary and irregular use of italics by elizabethan and jacobean printers. one of the chief arguments advanced in favour of this interpretation is that the word 'will' in these sonnets is frequently italicised in the original edition. but this has little or no bearing on the argument. the corrector of the press recognised that sonnets cxxxv. and cxxxvi. largely turned upon a simple pun between the writer's name of 'will' and the lady's 'will.' that fact, and no other, he indicated very roughly by occasionally italicising the crucial word. typography at the time followed no firmly fixed rules, and, although 'will' figures in a more or less punning sense nineteen times in these sonnets, the printer bestowed on the word the distinction of italics in only ten instances, and those were selected arbitrarily. the italics indicate the obvious equivoque, and indicate it imperfectly. that is the utmost that can be laid to their credit. they give no hint of the far more complicated punning that is alleged by those who believe that 'will' is used now as the name of the writer, and now as that of one or more of the rival suitors. in each of the two remaining sonnets that have been forced into the service of the theory, nos. cxxxiv. and cxliii., 'will' occurs once only; it alone is italicised in the second sonnet in the original edition, and there, in my opinion, arbitrarily and without just cause. { } the conceits of sonnets cxxxv-vi. interpreted. the general intention of the complex conceits of sonnets cxxxv. and cxxxvi. becomes obvious when we bear in mind that in them shakespeare exploits to the uttermost the verbal coincidences which are inherent in the elizabethan word 'will.' 'will' is the christian name of the enslaved writer; 'will' is the sentiment with which the lady inspires her worshippers; and 'will' designates stubbornness as well as sensual desire. these two characteristics, according to the poet's reiterated testimony, are the distinguishing marks of the lady's disposition. he often dwells elsewhere on her 'proud heart' or 'foul pride,' and her sensuality or 'foul faults.' these are her 'wills,' and they make up her being. in crediting the lady with such constitution shakespeare was not recording any definite observation or experience of his own, but was following, as was his custom, the conventional descriptions of the disdainful mistress common to all contemporary collections of sonnets. barnabe barnes asks the lady celebrated in his sonnets, from whose 'proud disdainfulness' he suffered, why dost thou my delights delay, and with thy cross unkindness kills (_sic_) mine heart, bound martyr to thy wills? barnes answers his question in the next lines: but women will have their own wills, since what she lists her heart fulfils. { } similar passages abound in elizabethan sonnets, but certain verbal similarities give good ground for regarding shakespeare's 'will' sonnets as deliberate adaptations--doubtless with satiric purpose--of barnes's stereotyped reflections on women's obduracy. the form and the constant repetition of the word 'will' in these two sonnets of shakespeare also seem to imitate derisively the same rival's sonnets lxxii. and lxxiii. in which barnes puts the words 'grace' and 'graces' through much the same evolutions as shakespeare puts the words 'will' and 'wills' in the sonnets cxxxv. and cxxxvi. { a} shakespeare's 'sonnet' cxxxv. runs: whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy will, and will to boot, and will in over-plus; more than enough am i that vex thee still, to thy sweet will making addition thus. wilt thou, whose will is large and spacious, { b} not once vouchsafe to hide my will in thine? shall will in others seem right gracious, and in my will no fair acceptance shine? the sea, all water, yet receives rain still, and in abundance addeth to his store; so thou, being rich in will, add to thy will one will of mine, to make thy large will more. let no unkind no fair beseechers kill; think all but one, and me in that one--will. sonnet cxxxv. in the opening words, 'whoever hath her wish,' the poet prepares the reader for the punning encounter by a slight variation on the current catch-phrase 'a woman will have her will.' at the next moment we are in the thick of the wordy fray. the lady has not only her lover named will, but untold stores of 'will'--in the sense alike of stubbornness and of lust--to which it seems supererogatory to make addition. { c} to the lady's 'over-plus' of 'will' is punningly attributed her defiance of the 'will' of her suitor will to enjoy her favours. at the same time 'will' in others proves to her 'right gracious,' { a} although in him it is unacceptable. all this, the poet hazily argues, should be otherwise; for as the sea, although rich in water, does not refuse the falling rain, but freely adds it to its abundant store, so she, 'rich in will,' should accept her lover will's 'will' and 'make her large will more.' the poet sums up his ambition in the final couplet: let no unkind no fair beseechers kill; think all but one, and me in that one--will. this is as much as to say, 'let not my mistress in her unkindness kill any of her fair-spoken adorers. rather let her think all who beseech her favours incorporate in one alone of her lovers--and that one the writer whose name of "will" is a synonym for the passions that dominate her.' the thought is wiredrawn to inanity, but the words make it perfectly clear that the poet was the only one of the lady's lovers--to the definite exclusion of all others--whose name justified the quibbling pretence of identity with the 'will' which controls her being. sonnet cxxxvi. the same equivocating conceit of the poet will's title to identity with the lady's 'will' in all senses is pursued in sonnet cxxxvi. the sonnet opens: if thy soul check thee that i come so near, swear to thy blind soul that i was thy will, { b} and will thy soul knows is admitted there. here shakespeare adapts to his punning purpose the familiar philosophic commonplace respecting the soul's domination by 'will' or volition, which was more clearly expressed by his contemporary, sir john davies, in the philosophic poem, 'nosce teipsum:' will holds the royal sceptre in the soul, and on the passions of the heart doth reign. whether shakespeare's lines be considered with their context or without it, the tenor of their thought and language positively refutes the commentators' notion that the 'will' admitted to the lady's soul is a rival lover named will. the succeeding lines run: thus far for love, my love-suit, sweet, fulfil. { a} will will fulfil the treasure of thy love; ay, fill it full with wills, and my will one. in things of great receipt with ease we prove among a number one is reckon'd none: then in the number let me pass untold, though in thy stores' account, i one must be; for nothing hold me, so it please thee hold that nothing me, a something sweet to thee. here the poet will continues to claim, in punning right of his christian name, a place, however small and inconspicuous, among the 'wills,' the varied forms of will (_i.e._ lust, stubbornness, and willingness to accept others' attentions), which are the constituent elements of the lady's being. the plural 'wills' is twice used in identical sense by barnabe barnes in the lines already quoted: mine heart, bound martyr to thy _wills_. but women will have their own _wills_. impulsively shakespeare brings his fantastic pretension to a somewhat more practical issue in the concluding apostrophe: make but my name thy love, and love that still, and then thou lovest me--for my name is will. { b} that is equivalent to saying 'make "will"' (_i.e._ that which is yourself) 'your love, and then you love me, because will is my name.' the couplet proves even more convincingly than the one which clinches the preceding sonnet that none of the rivals whom the poet sought to displace in the lady's affections could by any chance have been, like himself, called will. the writer could not appeal to a mistress to concentrate her love on his name of will, because it was the emphatic sign of identity between her being and him, if that name were common to him and one or more rivals, and lacked exclusive reference to himself. loosely as shakespeare's sonnets were constructed, the couplet at the conclusion of each poem invariably summarises the general intention of the preceding twelve lines. the concluding couplets of these two sonnets cxxxv.-vi., in which shakespeare has been alleged to acknowledge a rival of his own name in his suit for a lady's favour, are consequently the touchstone by which the theory of 'more wills than one' must be tested. as we have just seen, the situation is summarily embodied in the first couplet thus: let no unkind no fair beseechers kill; think all but one, and me in that one--will. it is re-embodied in the second couplet thus: make but my name thy love, and love that still, and then thou lovest me--for my name is will. the whole significance of both couplets resides in the twice-repeated fact that one, and only one, of the lady's lovers is named will, and that that one is the writer. to assume that the poet had a rival of his own name is to denude both couplets of all point. 'will,' we have learned from the earlier lines of both sonnets, is the lady's ruling passion. punning mock-logic brings the poet in either sonnet to the ultimate conclusion that one of her lovers may, above all others, reasonably claim her love on the ground that his name of will is the name of her ruling passion. thus his pretension to her affections rests, he punningly assures her, on a strictly logical basis. sonnet cxxxiv. meaning of sonnet cxliii. unreasonable as any other interpretation of these sonnets (cxxxv.-vi.) seems to be, i believe it far more fatuous to seek in the single and isolated use of the word 'will' in each of the sonnets cxxxiv. and cxliii. any confirmation of the theory of a rival suitor named will. sonnet cxxxiv. runs: so now i have confess'd that he is thine, and i myself am mortgaged to thy will. { } myself i'll forfeit, so that other mine thou wilt restore, to be my comfort still. but thou wilt not, nor he will not be free, for thou art covetous and he is kind. he learn'd but surety-like to write for me, under that bond that him as fast doth bind. the statute of thy beauty thou wilt take, thou usurer, that putt'st forth all to use, and sue a friend came debtor for my sake; so him i lose through my unkind abuse. him have i lost; thou hast both him and me; he pays the whole, and yet am i not free. here the poet describes himself as 'mortgaged to the lady's will' (_i.e._ to her personality, in which 'will,' in the double sense of stubbornness and sensual passion, is the strongest element). he deplores that the lady has captivated not merely himself, but also his friend, who made vicarious advances to her. sonnet cxliii. runs: lo, as a careful housewife runs to catch one of her feathered creatures broke away, sets down her babe, and makes all swift despatch in pursuit of the thing she would have stay; whilst her neglected child holds her in chase, cries to catch her whose busy care is bent to follow that which flies before her face, not prizing her poor infant's discontent: so runn'st thou after that which flies from thee, whilst i, thy babe, chase thee afar behind; but if thou catch thy hope turn back to me, and play the mother's part, kiss me, be kind: so will i pray that thou mayst have thy will, { } if thou turn back and my loud crying still. in this sonnet--which presents a very clear-cut picture, although its moral is somewhat equivocal--the poet represents the lady as a country housewife and himself as her babe; while an acquaintance, who attracts the lady but is not attracted by her, is figured as a 'feathered creature' in the housewife's poultry-yard. the fowl takes to flight; the housewife sets down her infant and pursues 'the thing.' the poet, believing apparently that he has little to fear from the harmless creature, lightly makes play with the current catch-phrase ('a woman will have her will'), and amiably wishes his mistress success in her chase, on condition that, having recaptured the truant bird, she turn back and treat him, her babe, with kindness. in praying that the lady may have her 'will' the poet is clearly appropriating the current catch-phrase, and no pun on a man's name of 'will' can be fairly wrested from the context. ix.--the vogue of the elizabethan sonnet, - . the sonnetteering vogue, as i have already pointed out, { a} reached its full height between and , and when at its briskest in it drew shakespeare into its current. an enumeration of volumes containing sonnet-sequences or detached sonnets that were in circulation during the period best illustrates the overwhelming force of the sonnetteering rage of those years, and, with that end in view, i give here a bibliographical account, with a few critical notes, of the chief efforts of shakespeare's rival sonnetteers. { b} wyatt's and surrey's sonnets, published in . watson's 'centurie of love,' . the earliest collections of sonnets to be published in england were those by the earl of surrey and sir thomas wyatt, which first appeared in the publisher tottel's poetical miscellany called 'songes and sonnetes' in . this volume included sixteen sonnets by surrey and twenty by wyatt. many of them were translated directly from petrarch, and most of them treated conventionally of the torments of an unrequited love. surrey included, however, three sonnets on the death of his friend wyatt, and a fourth on the death of one clere, a faithful follower. tottel's volume was seven times reprinted by . but no sustained endeavour was made to emulate the example of surrey and wyatt till thomas watson about circulated in manuscript his 'booke of passionate sonnetes,' which he wrote for his patron, the earl of oxford. the volume was printed in , under the title of '[greek text], or passionate centurie of loue. divided into two parts: whereof the first expresseth the authours sufferance on loue: the latter his long farewell to loue and all his tyrannie. composed by thomas watson, and published at the request of certaine gentlemen his very frendes.' watson's work, which he called 'a toy,' is a curious literary mosaic. he supplied to each poem a prose commentary, in which he not only admitted that every conceit was borrowed, but quoted chapter and verse for its origin from classical literature or from the work of french or italian sonnetteers. { a} two regular quatorzains are prefixed, but to each of the 'passions' there is appended a four-line stanza which gives each poem eighteen instead of the regular fourteen lines. watson's efforts were so well received, however, that he applied himself to the composition of a second series of sonnets in strict metre. this collection, entitled 'the teares of fancie,' only circulated in manuscript in his lifetime. { b} sidney's 'astrophel and stella,' . meanwhile a greater poet, sir philip sidney, who died in , had written and circulated among his friends a more ambitious collection of a hundred and eight sonnets. most of sidney's sonnets were addressed by him under the name of astrophel to a beautiful woman poetically designated stella. sidney had in real life courted assiduously the favour of a married lady, penelope, lady rich, and a few of the sonnets are commonly held to reflect the heat of passion which the genuine intrigue developed. but petrarch, ronsard, and desportes inspired the majority of sidney's efforts, and his addresses to abstractions like sleep, the moon, his muse, grief, or lust, are almost verbatim translations from the french. sidney's sonnets were first published surreptitiously, under the title of 'astrophel and stella,' by a publishing adventurer named thomas newman, and in his first issue newman added an appendix of 'sundry other rare sonnets by divers noblemen and gentlemen.' twenty-eight sonnets by daniel were printed in the appendix anonymously and without the author's knowledge. two other editions of sidney's 'astrophel and stella' without the appendix were issued in the same year. eight other of sidney's sonnets, which still circulated only in manuscript, were first printed anonymously in with the sonnets of henry constable, and these were appended with some additions to the authentic edition of sidney's 'arcadia' and other works that appeared in . sidney enjoyed in the decade that followed his death the reputation of a demi-god, and the wide dissemination in print of his numerous sonnets in spurred nearly every living poet in england to emulate his achievement. { a} in order to facilitate a comparison of shakespeare's sonnets with those of his contemporaries it will be best to classify the sonnetteering efforts that immediately succeeded sidney's under the three headings of ( ) sonnets of more or less feigned love, addressed to a more or less fictitious mistress; ( ) sonnets of adulation, addressed to patrons; and ( ) sonnets invoking metaphysical abstractions or treating impersonally of religion or philosophy. { b} ( ) collected sonnets of feigned love. daniel's 'delia,' . in february samuel daniel published a collection of fifty-five sonnets, with a dedicatory sonnet addressed to his patroness, sidney's sister, the countess of pembroke. as in many french volumes, the collection concluded with an 'ode.' { c} at every point daniel betrayed his indebtedness to french sonnetteers, even when apologising for his inferiority to petrarch (no. xxxviii.) his title he borrowed from the collection of maurice seve, whose assemblage of dixains called 'delie, objet de plus haute vertu' (lyon, ), was the pattern of all sonnet-sequences on love, and was a constant theme of commendation among the later french sonnetteers. but it is to desportes that daniel owes most, and his methods of handling his material may be judged by a comparison of his sonnet xxvi. with sonnet lxiii. in desportes' collection, 'cleonice: dernieres amours,' which was issued at paris in . desportes' sonnet runs: je verray par les ans vengeurs de mon martyre que l'or de vos cheveux argente deviendra, que de vos deux soleils la splendeur s'esteindra, et qu'il faudra qu'amour tout confus s'en retire. la beaute qui si douce a present vous inspire, cedant aux lois du temps ses faveurs reprendra, l'hiver de vostre teint les fleurettes perdra, et ne laissera rien des thresors que i'admire. cest orgueil desdaigneux qui vous fait ne m'aimer, en regret et chagrin se verra transformer, avec le changement d'une image si belle: et peut estre qu'alors vous n'aurez desplaisir de revivre en mes vers chauds d'amoureux desir, ainsi que le phenix au feu se renouvelle. this is daniel's version, which he sent forth as an original production: i once may see, when years may wreck my wrong, and golden hairs may change to silver wire; and those bright rays (that kindle all this fire) shall fail in force, their power not so strong, her beauty, now the burden of my song, whose glorious blaze the world's eye doth admire, must yield her praise to tyrant time's desire; then fades the flower, which fed her pride so long, when if she grieve to gaze her in her glass, which then presents her winter-withered hue: go you my verse! go tell her what she was! for what she was, she best may find in you. your fiery heat lets not her glory pass, but phoenix-like to make her live anew. in daniel's beautiful sonnet (xlix.) beginning, care-charmer sleep, son of the sable night, brother to death, in silent darkness born, he has borrowed much from de baif and pierre de brach, sonnetteers with whom it was a convention to invocate 'o sommeil chasse-soin.' but again he chiefly relies on desportes, whose words he adapts with very slight variations. sonnet lxxiii. of desportes' 'amours d'hippolyte' opens thus: sommeil, paisible fils de la nuict solitaire . . . o frere de la mort, que tu m'es ennemi! fame of daniel's sonnets. daniel's sonnets were enthusiastically received. with some additions they were republished in with his narrative poem, 'the complaint of rosamund.' the volume was called 'delia and rosamund augmented.' spenser, in his 'colin clouts come home againe,' lauded the 'well-tuned song' of daniel's sonnets, and shakespeare has some claim to be classed among daniel's many sonnetteering disciples. the anonymous author of 'zepheria' ( ) declared that the 'sweet tuned accents' of 'delian sonnetry' rang throughout england; while bartholomew griffin, in his 'fidessa' ( ), openly plagiarised daniel, invoking in his sonnet xv. 'care-charmer sleep, . . . brother of quiet death.' constable's 'diana,' . in september of the same year ( ) that saw the first complete version of daniel's 'delia,' henry constable published 'diana: the praises of his mistres in certaine sweete sonnets.' like the title, the general tone was drawn from desportes' 'amours de diane.' twenty-one poems were included, all in the french vein. the collection was reissued, with very numerous additions, in under the title 'diana; or, the excellent conceitful sonnets of h. c. augmented with divers quatorzains of honourable and learned personages.' this volume is a typical venture of the booksellers. { } the printer, james roberts, and the publisher, richard smith, supplied dedications respectively to the reader and to queen elizabeth's ladies-in-waiting. they had swept together sonnets in manuscript from all quarters and presented their customers with a disordered miscellany of what they called 'orphan poems.' besides the twenty sonnets by constable, eight were claimed for sir philip sidney, and the remaining forty-seven are by various hands which have not as yet been identified. barnes' sonnets, . in the legion of sonnetteers received notable reinforcements. in may came out barnabe barnes's interesting volume, 'parthenophil and parthenophe: sonnets, madrigals, elegies, and odes. to the right noble and virtuous gentleman, m. william percy, esq., his dearest friend.' { a} the contents of the volume and their arrangement closely resemble the sonnet-collections of petrarch or the 'amours' of ronsard. there are a hundred and five sonnets altogether, interspersed with twenty-six madrigals, five sestines, twenty-one elegies, three 'canzons,' and twenty 'odes,' one in sonnet form. there is, moreover, included what purports to be a translation of 'moschus' first eidillion describing love,' but is clearly a rendering of a french poem by amadis jamin, entitled 'amour fuitif, du grec de moschus,' in his 'oeuvres poetiques,' paris, . { b} at the end of barnes's volume there also figure six dedicatory sonnets. in sonnet xcv. barnes pays a compliment to sir philip sidney, 'the arcadian shepherd, astrophel,' but he did not draw so largely on sidney's work as on that of ronsard, desportes, de baif, and du bellay. legal metaphors abound in barnes's poems, but amid many crudities, he reaches a high level of beauty in sonnet lxvi., which runs: ah, sweet content! where is thy mild abode? is it with shepherds, and light-hearted swains, which sing upon the downs, and pipe abroad, tending their flocks and cattle on the plains? ah, sweet content! where dost thou safely rest in heaven, with angels? which the praises sing of him that made, and rules at his behest, the minds and hearts of every living thing. ah, sweet content! where doth thine harbour hold? is it in churches, with religious men, which please the gods with prayers manifold; and in their studies meditate it then? whether thou dost in heaven, or earth appear; be where thou wilt! thou wilt not harbour here! { a} watson's 'tears of fancie,' . in august there appeared a posthumous collection of sixty-one sonnets by thomas watson, entitled 'the tears of fancie, or love disdained.' they are throughout the imitative type of his previously published 'centurie of love.' many of them sound the same note as shakespeare's sonnets to the 'dark lady.' fletcher's 'licia,' . in september followed giles fletcher's 'licia, or poems of love in honour of the admirable and singular virtues of his lady.' this collection of fifty-three sonnets is dedicated to the wife of sir richard mollineux. fletcher makes no concealment that his sonnets are literary exercises. 'for this kind of poetry,' he tells the reader, 'i did it to try my humour;' and on the title-page he notes that the work was written 'to the imitation of the best latin poets and others.' { b} lodge's 'phillis,' . the most notable contribution to the sonnet-literature of was thomas lodge's 'phillis honoured with pastoral sonnets, elegies, and amorous delights.' { c} besides forty sonnets, some of which exceed fourteen lines in length and others are shorter, there are included three elegies and an ode. desportes is lodge's chief master, but he had recourse to ronsard and other french contemporaries. how servile he could be may be learnt from a comparison of his sonnet xxxvi. with desportes's sonnet from 'les amours de diane,' livre ii. sonnet iii. thomas lodge's sonnet xxxvi. runs thus: if so i seek the shades, i presently do see the god of love forsake his bow and sit me by; if that i think to write, his muses pliant be; if so i plain my grief, the wanton boy will cry. if i lament his pride, he doth increase my pain if tears my cheeks attaint, his cheeks are moist with moan if i disclose the wounds the which my heart hath slain, he takes his fascia off, and wipes them dry anon. if so i walk the woods, the woods are his delight; if i myself torment, he bathes him in my blood; he will my soldier be if once i wend to fight, if seas delight, he steers my bark amidst the flood. in brief, the cruel god doth never from me go, but makes my lasting love eternal with my woe. desportes wrote in 'les amours de diane,' book ii. sonnet iii.: si ie me sies l'ombre, aussi soudainement amour, laissant son arc, s'assiet et se repose: si ie pense a des vers, ie le voy qu'il compose: si ie plains mes douleurs, il se plaint hautement. si ie me plains du mal, il accroist mon tourment: si ie respan des pleurs, son visage il arrose: si ie monstre la playe en ma poitrine enclose, il defait son bandeau l'essuyant doucement. si ie vay par les bois, aux bois il m'accompagne: si ie me suis cruel, dans mon sang il se bagne: si ie vais a la guerre, it deuient mon soldart: si ie passe la mer, il conduit ma nacelle: bref, iamais l'inhumain de moy ne se depart, pour rendre mon amour et ma peine eternelle. drayton's 'idea', . three new volumes in , together with the reissue of daniel's 'delia' and of constable's 'diana' (in a piratical miscellany of sonnets from many pens), prove the steady growth of the sonnetteering vogue. michael drayton in june produced his 'ideas mirrour, amours in quatorzains,' containing fifty-one 'amours' and a sonnet addressed to 'his ever kind mecaenas, anthony cooke.' drayton acknowledged his devotion to 'divine sir philip,' but by his choice of title, style, and phraseology, the english sonnetteer once more betrayed his indebtedness to desportes and his compeers. 'l'idee' was the name of a collection of sonnets by claude de pontoux in . many additions were made by drayton to the sonnets that he published in , and many were subtracted before , when there appeared the last edition that was prepared in drayton's lifetime. a comparison of the various editions ( , , , and ) shows that drayton published a hundred sonnets, but the majority were apparently circulated by him in early life. { a} percy's 'coelia,' . william percy, the 'dearest friend' of barnabe barnes, published in , in emulation of barnes, a collection of twenty 'sonnets to the fairest coelia.' { b} he explains, in an address to the reader, that out of courtesy he had lent the sonnets to friends, who had secretly committed them to the press. making a virtue of necessity, he had accepted the situation, but begged the reader to treat them as 'toys and amorous devices.' zepheria, . a collection of forty sonnets or 'canzons,' as the anonymous author calls them, also appeared in with the title 'zepheria.' { c} in some prefatory verses addressed 'alli veri figlioli delle muse' laudatory reference was made to the sonnets of petrarch, daniel, and sidney. several of the sonnets labour at conceits drawn from the technicalities of the law, and sir john davies parodied these efforts in the eighth of his 'gulling sonnets' beginning, 'my case is this, i love zepheria bright.' barnfield's sonnets to ganymede, . four interesting ventures belong to . in january, appended to richard barnfield's poem of 'cynthia,' a panegyric on queen elizabeth, was a series of twenty sonnets extolling the personal charms of a young man in emulation of virgil's eclogue ii., in which the shepherd corydon addressed the shepherd-boy alexis. { d} in sonnet xx. the author expressed regret that the task of celebrating his young friend's praises had not fallen to the more capable hand of spenser ('great colin, chief of shepherds all') or drayton ('gentle rowland, my professed friend'). barnfield at times imitated shakespeare. spenser's 'amoretti', . almost at the same date as barnfield's 'cynthia' made its appearance there was published the more notable collection by edmund spenser of eighty-eight sonnets, which in reference to their italian origin he entitled 'amoretti.' { e} spenser had already translated many sonnets on philosophic topics of petrarch and joachim du bellay. some of the 'amoretti' were doubtless addressed by spenser in to the lady who became his wife a year later. but the sentiment was largely ideal, and, as he says in sonnet lxxxvii., he wrote, like drayton, with his eyes fixed on 'idaea.' 'emaricdulfe,' . an unidentified 'e.c., esq.,' produced also in , under the title of 'emaricdulfe,' { a} a collection of forty sonnets, echoing english and french models. in the dedication to his 'two very good friends, john zouch and edward fitton esquiers,' the author tells them that an ague confined him to his chamber, 'and to abandon idleness he completed an idle work that he had already begun at the command and service of a fair dame.' sir john davies's 'gullinge sonnets,' . to may best be referred the series of nine 'gullinge sonnets,' or parodies, which sir john davies wrote and circulated in manuscript, in order to put to shame what he regarded as 'the bastard sonnets' in vogue. he addressed his collection to sir anthony cooke, whom drayton had already celebrated as the mecaenas of his sonnetteering efforts. { b} davies seems to have aimed at shakespeare as well as at insignificant rhymers like the author of 'zepheria.' { c} no. viii. of davies's 'gullinge sonnets,' which ridicules the legal metaphors of the sonnetteers, may be easily matched in the collections of barnabe barnes or of the author of 'zepheria,' but davies's phraseology suggests that he also was glancing at shakespeare's legal sonnets lxxxvii. and cxxxiv. davies's sonnet runs: my case is this. i love zepheria bright, of her i hold my heart by fealty: which i discharge to her perpetually, yet she thereof will never me acquit[e]. for, now supposing i withhold her right, she hath distrained my heart to satisfy the duty which i never did deny, and far away impounds it with despite. i labour therefore justly to repleave [_i.e._ recover] my heart which she unjustly doth impound. but quick conceit which now is love's high shreive returns it as esloyned [_i.e._ absconded], not to be found. then what the law affords i only crave, her heart for mine, in wit her name to have (_sic_). linche's 'diella,' . 'r. l., gentleman,' probably richard linche, published in thirty-nine sonnets under the title 'diella.' { a} the effort is thoroughly conventional. in an obsequious address by the publisher, henry olney, to anne, wife of sir henry glenham, linche's sonnets are described as 'passionate' and as 'conceived in the brain of a gallant gentleman.' griffin's 'fidessa,' . thomas campion, . to the same year belongs bartholomew griffin's 'fidessa,' sixty-two sonnets inscribed to 'william essex, esq.' griffin designates his sonnets as 'the first fruits of a young beginner.' he is a shameless plagiarist. daniel is his chief model, but he also imitated sidney, watson, constable, and drayton. sonnet iii., beginning 'venus and young adonis sitting by her,' is almost identical with the fourth poem--a sonnet beginning 'sweet cytheraea, sitting by a brook'--in jaggard's piratical miscellany, 'the passionate pilgrim,' which bore shakespeare's name on the title-page. { b} jaggard doubtless stole the poem from griffin, although it may be in its essentials the property of some other poet. three beautiful love-sonnets by thomas campion, which are found in the harleian ms. , are there dated . { c} william smith's 'chloris,' . william smith was the author of 'chloris,' a third collection of sonnets appearing in . { d} the volume contains forty-eight sonnets of love of the ordinary type, with three adulating spenser; of these, two open the volume and one concludes it. smith says that his sonnets were 'the budding springs of his study.' in a license was issued by the stationers' company for the issue of 'amours' by w. s. this no doubt refers to a second collection of sonnets by william smith. the projected volume is not extant. { a} robert tofte's 'laura,' . in there came out a similar volume by robert tofte, entitled 'laura, the joys of a traveller, or the feast of fancy.' the book is divided into three parts, each consisting of forty 'sonnets' in irregular metres. there is a prose dedication to lucy, sister of henry, ninth earl of northumberland. tofte tells his patroness that most of his 'toys' 'were conceived in italy.' as its name implies, his work is a pale reflection of petrarch. a postscript by a friend--'r. b.'--complains that a publisher had intermingled with tofte's genuine efforts 'more than thirty sonnets not his.' but the style is throughout so uniformly tame that it is not possible to distinguish the work of a second hand. sir william alexander's 'aurora.' to the same era belongs sir william alexander's 'aurora,' a collection of a hundred and six sonnets, with a few songs and elegies interspersed on french patterns. sir william describes the work as 'the first fancies of his youth,' and formally inscribes it to agnes, countess of argyle. it was not published till . { b} sir fulke greville's 'caelica.' sir fulke greville, afterwards lord brooke, the intimate friend of sir philip sidney, was author of a like collection of sonnets called 'caelica.' the poems number a hundred and nine, but few are in strict sonnet metre. only a small proportion profess to be addressed to the poet's fictitious mistress, caelica. many celebrate the charms of another beauty named myra, and others invoke queen elizabeth under her poetic name of cynthia (cf. sonnet xvii.) there are also many addresses to cupid and meditations on more or less metaphysical themes, but the tone is never very serious. greville doubtless wrote the majority of his 'sonnets' during the period under survey, though they were not published until their author's works appeared in folio for the first time in , five years after his death. estimate of number of love-sonnets issued between and . with tofte's volume in the publication of collections of love-sonnets practically ceased. only two collections on a voluminous scale seem to have been written in the early years of the seventeenth century. about william drummond of hawthornden penned a series of sixty-eight interspersed with songs, madrigals, and sextains, nearly all of which were translated or adapted from modern italian sonnetteers. { a} about john davies of hereford published his 'wittes pilgrimage . . . through a world of amorous sonnets.' of more than two hundred separate poems in this volume, only the hundred and four sonnets in the opening section make any claim to answer the description on the title-page, and the majority of those are metaphysical meditations on love which are not addressed to any definite person. some years later william browne penned a sequence of fourteen love-sonnets entitled 'caelia' and a few detached sonnets of the same type. { b} the dates of production of drummond's, davies's, and browne's sonnets exclude them from the present field of view. omitting them, we find that between and there had been printed nearly twelve hundred sonnets of the amorous kind. if to these we add shakespeare's poems, and make allowance for others which, only circulating in manuscript, have not reached us, it is seen that more than two hundred love-sonnets were produced in each of the six years under survey. france and italy directed their literary energies in like direction during nearly the whole of the century, but at no other period and in no other country did the love-sonnet dominate literature to a greater extent than in england between and . of sonnets to patrons between and , of which detached specimens may be found in nearly every published book of the period, the chief collections were: ii. sonnets to patrons, - . a long series of sonnets prefixed to 'poetical exercises of a vacant hour' by king james vi of scotland, ; twenty-three sonnets in gabriel harvey's 'four letters and certain sonnets touching robert greene' ( ), including edmund spenser's fine sonnet of compliment addressed to harvey; a series of sonnets to noble patronesses by constable circulated in manuscript about (first printed in 'harleian miscellany,' , ix. ); six adulatory sonnets appended by barnabe barnes to his 'parthenophil' in may ; four sonnets to 'sir philip sidney's soul,' prefixed to the first edition of sidney's 'apologie for poetrie' ( ); seventeen sonnets which were originally prefixed to the first edition of spenser's 'faerie queene,' bk. i.-iii., in , and were reprinted in the edition of ; { } sixty sonnets to peers, peeresses, and officers of state, appended to henry locke's (or lok's) 'ecclesiasticus' ( ); forty sonnets by joshua sylvester addressed to henry iv of france 'upon the late miraculous peace in fraunce' ( ); sir john davies's series of twenty-six octosyllabic sonnets, which he entitled 'hymnes of astraea,' all extravagantly eulogising queen elizabeth ( ). iii. sonnets on philosophy and religion. the collected sonnets on religion and philosophy that appeared in the period - include sixteen 'spirituall sonnettes to the honour of god and hys saynts,' written by constable about , and circulated only in manuscript; these were first printed from a manuscript in the harleian collection ( ) by thomas park in 'heliconia,' , vol. ii. in barnabe barnes published a 'divine centurie of spirituall sonnets,' and, in dedicating the collection to toby matthew, bishop of durham, mentions that they were written a year before, while travelling in france. they are closely modelled on the two series of 'sonnets spirituels' which the abbe jacques de billy published in paris in and respectively. a long series of 'sonnets spirituels' written by anne de marquets, a sister of the dominican order, who died at poissy in , was first published in paris in . in george chapman published ten sonnets in praise of philosophy, which he entitled 'a coronet for his mistress philosophy.' in the opening poem he states that his aim was to dissuade poets from singing in sonnets 'love's sensual empery.' in henry locke (or lok) appended to his verse-rendering of ecclesiastes { a} a collection of 'sundrie sonets of christian passions, with other affectionate sonets of a feeling conscience.' lok had in obtained a license to publish 'a hundred sonnets on meditation, humiliation, and prayer,' but that work is not extant. in the volume of his sonnets on religious or philosophical themes number no fewer than three hundred and twenty-eight. { b} thus in the total of sonnets published between and must be included at least five hundred sonnets addressed to patrons, and as many on philosophy and religion. the aggregate far exceeds two thousand. x.--bibliographical note on the sonnet in france, - . ronsard ( - ) and 'la pleiade.' desportes ( - ). in the earlier years of the sixteenth century melin de saint-gelais ( - ) and clement marot ( - ) made a few scattered efforts at sonnetteering in france; and maurice seve laid down the lines of all sonnet-sequences on themes of love in his dixains entitled 'delie' ( ). but it was ronsard ( - ), in the second half of the century, who first gave the sonnet a pronounced vogue in france. the sonnet was handled with the utmost assiduity not only by ronsard, but by all the literary comrades whom he gathered round him, and on whom he bestowed the title of 'la pleiade.' the leading aim that united ronsard and his friends was the re-formation of the french language and literature on classical models. but they assimilated and naturalised in france not only much that was admirable in latin and greek poetry, { a} but all that was best in the recent italian literature. { b} although they were learned poets, ronsard and the majority of his associates had a natural lyric vein, which gave their poetry the charms of freshness and spontaneity. the true members of 'la pleiade,' according to ronsard's own statement, were, besides himself, joachim du bellay ( - ); estienne jodelle ( - ); remy belleau ( - ); jean dinemandy, usually known as daurat or dorat ( - ), ronsard's classical teacher in early life; jean-antoine de baif ( - ); and ponthus de thyard ( - ). others of ronsard's literary allies are often loosely reckoned among the 'pleiade.' these writers include jean de la peruse ( - ), olivier de magny ( - ), amadis jamyn ( ?- ), jean passerat ( - ), philippe desportes ( - ), estienne pasquier ( - ), scevole de sainte-marthe ( - ), and jean bertaut ( - ). these subordinate members of the 'pleiade' were no less devoted to sonnetteering than the original members. of those in this second rank, desportes was most popular in france as well as in england. although many of desportes's sonnets are graceful in thought and melodious in rhythm, most of them abound in overstrained conceits. not only was desportes a more slavish imitator of petrarch than the members of the 'pleiade,' but he encouraged numerous disciples to practise 'petrarchism,' as the imitation of petrarch was called, beyond healthful limits. under the influence of desportes the french sonnet became, during the latest years of the sixteenth century, little more than an empty and fantastic echo of the italian. chief collections of french sonnets published between and . the following statistics will enable the reader to realise how closely the sonnetteering movement in france adumbrated that in england. the collective edition in of the works of ronsard, the master of the 'pleiade,' contains more than nine hundred separate sonnets arranged under such titles as 'amours de cassandre,' 'amours de marie,' 'amours pour astree,' 'amours pour helene;' besides 'amours divers' and 'sonnets divers,' complimentary addresses to friends and patrons. du bellay's 'olive,' a collection of love sonnets, first published in , reached a total of a hundred and fifteen. 'les regrets,' du bellay's sonnets on general topics, some of which edmund spenser first translated into english, numbered in the edition of a hundred and eighty-three. de baif published two long series of sonnets, entitled respectively 'les amours de meline' ( ) and 'les amours de francine' ( ). amadis jamyn was responsible for 'les amours d'oriane,' 'les amours de calliree,' and 'les amours d'artemis' ( ). desportes's 'premieres oeuvres' ( ), a very popular book in england, included more than three hundred sonnets--a hundred and fifty being addressed to diane, eighty-six to hippolyte, and ninety-one to cleonice. ponthus de thyard produced between and three series of his 'erreurs amoureuses,' sonnets addressed to pasithee, and belleau brought out a volume of 'amours' in . minor collections of french sonnets published between and . among other collections of sonnets published by less known writers of the period, and arranged here according to date of first publication, were those of guillaume des autels, 'amoureux repos' ( ); olivier de magny, 'amours, soupirs,' &c. ( , ); louise labe, 'oeuvres' ( ); jacques tahureau, 'odes, sonnets,' &c. ( , ); claude de billet, 'amalthee,' a hundred and twenty-eight love sonnets ( ); vauquelin de la fresnaye, 'foresteries' ( et annis seq.); jacques grevin, 'olympe' ( ); nicolas ellain, 'sonnets' ( ); scevole de sainte-marthe, 'oeuvres francaises' ( , ); estienne de la boetie, 'oeuvres' ( ), and twenty-nine sonnets published with montaigne's 'essais' ( ); jean et jacques de la taille, 'oeuvres' ( ); jacques de billy, 'sonnets spirituels' (first series , second series ); estienne jodelle 'oeuvres poetiques' ( ); claude de pontoux, 'sonnets de l'idee' ( ); les dames des roches, 'oeuvres' ( , ); pierre de brach, 'amours d'aymee' (_circa_ ); gilles durant, 'poesies'--sonnets to charlotte and camille ( , ); jean passerat, 'vers . . . d'amours' ( ); and anne de marquet, who died in , 'sonnets spirituels' ( ). { } index. a abbey, mr. e. a., abbott, dr. e. a., actor, shakespeare as an, - _see also_ roles, shakespeare's actors: entertained for the first time at stratford-on-avon, return of the two chief companies to london in , the players' licensing act of queen elizabeth, companies of boy actors, companies of adult actors in , the patronage of the company which was joined by shakespeare, women's parts played by men or boys, and _n_ tours in the provinces, - foreign tours, shakespeare's alleged scorn of their calling, 'advice' to actors in _hamlet_, their incomes, and _n_ , the strife between adult actors and boy actors, - patronage of actors by king james, and _n_ substitution of women for boys in female parts, adam, in _as you like it_, played by shakespeare, adaptations by shakespeare of old plays, adaptations of shakespeare's plays at the restoration, adulation, extravagance of, in the days of queen elizabeth, and _n_ aeschylus, hamlet's 'sea of troubles' paralleled in the _persae_ of, _n_ resemblance between lady macbeth and clytemnestra in the _agamemnon_ of, _n_ aesthetic school of shakespearean criticism, alexander, sir william, sonnets by, alleyn, edward, manages the amalgamated companies of the admiral and lord strange, pays fivepence for the pirated sonnets, _n_ his large savings, allot, robert, _all's well that ends well_: the sonnet form of a letter of helen, probable date of production, plot drawn from painter's 'palace of pleasure,' probably identical with _love's labour's won_, chief characters, its resemblance to the _two gentlemen of verona_, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - america, enthusiasm for shakespeare in, copies of the first folio in, _n_ amner, rev. richard, 'amoretti,' spenser's, and _n_ , 'amours' by 'j. d.,' and _n_ _amphitruo_ of plautus, the, and a scene in _the comedy of errors_, 'amyntas,' complimentary title of, _n_ angelo, michael, 'dedicatory' sonnets of, _n_ 'anthia and abrocomas,' by xenophon ephesius, and the story of romeo and juliet, _n_ _antony and cleopatra_: allusion to the part of cleopatra being played by a boy, _n_ the youthfulness of octavius caesar, _n_ the longest of the poet's plays, date of entry in the 'stationers' registers,' date of publication, the story derived from plutarch, the 'happy valiancy' of the style, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _apollonius and silla_, _historie of_, 'apologie for poetrie,' sidney's, allusion to the conceit of the immortalising power of verse in, on the adulation of patrons, 'apology for actors,' heywood's, apsley, william, bookseller, 'arcadia,' sidney's, _n_, and _n_ , arden family, of warwickshire, arden family, of alvanley, arden, alice, arden, edward, executed for complicity in a popish plot, arden, joan, arden, mary. see shakespeare, mary arden, robert ( ), sheriff of warwickshire and leicestershire in , arden, robert ( ), landlord at snitterfield of richard shakespeare, marriage of his daughter mary to john shakespeare, his family and second marriage, his property and will, arden, thomas, grandfather of shakespeare's mother, _arden of feversham_, a play of uncertain authorship, ariel, character of, _ariodante and ginevra_, _historie of_, ariosto, _i suppositi_ of, _orlando furioso_ of, and _much ado about nothing_, aristotle, quotation from, made by both shakespeare and bacon _n_ armado, in _love's labour's lost_ _n_, armenian language, translation of shakespeare in the, arms, coat of, shakespeare's, arms, college of, applications of the poet's father to, _n_, - arne, dr., arnold, matthew, _n_ art in england, its indebtedness to shakespeare, _as you like it_: allusion to the part of rosalind being played by a boy, _n_ ridicule of foreign travel, _n_ acknowledgments to marlowe (iii. v. ), adapted from lodge's 'rosalynde,' addition of three new characters, hints taken from 'saviolo's practise,' its pastoral character, said to have been performed before king james at wilton, _n_ _n_. _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - asbies, the chief property of robert arden at wilmcote, bequeathed to shakespeare's mother, mortgaged to edmund lambert, proposal to confer on john lambert an absolute title to the property, shakespeare's endeavour to recover, ashbee, mr. e. w., _n_ assimilation, literary, shakespeare's power of, _seq._ aston cantlowe, place of the marriage of shakespeare's parents, 'astrophel,' apostrophe to sidney in spenser's, _n_ 'astrophel and stella,' the metre of, _n_ address to cupid, _n_ the praise of 'blackness' in, and _n_ _n_ editions of, aubrey, john, the poet's early biographer, on john shakespeare's trade, on the poet's knowledge of latin, on john shakespeare's relations with the trade of butcher, on the poet at grendon, lines quoted by him on john combe, _n_ on shakespeare's genial disposition, value of his biography of the poet, his ignorance of any relation between shakespeare and the earl of pembroke, 'aurora,' title of sir w. alexander's collection of sonnets, autobiographical features of shakespeare's plays, - of shakespeare's sonnets, the question of, autographs of the poet, - 'avisa,' heroine of willobie's poem, _seq_ ayrer, jacob, his _die schone sidea_, and _n_ ayscough, samuel, _n_ b bacon, miss delia, bacon society, bacon-shakespeare controversy, (appendix ii.), - baddesley clinton, the shakespeares of, baif, de, plagiarised indirectly by shakespeare, and _n_ indebtedness of daniel and others to, one of 'la pleiade,' bandello, the story of romeo and juliet by, _n_ the story of hero and claudio by, the story of twelfth night by, barante, recognition of the greatness of shakespeare by, barnard, sir john, second husband of the poet's granddaughter elizabeth, barnes, barnabe, legal terminology in his sonnets, _n_ and (appendix ix.) use of the word 'wire,' _n_ his sonnets of vituperation, the probable rival of shakespeare for southampton's favour, _n_ his sonnets, called 'petrarch's scholar' by churchyard, expressions in his sonnet (xlix.) adopted by shakespeare, _n_ sonnet to lady bridget manners, _n_ sonnet to southampton's eyes, compliment to sidney in sonnet xcv. sonnet lxvi. ('ah, sweet content') _quoted_, his sonnets to patrons, his religious sonnets, barnfield, richard, feigning old age in his 'affectionate shepherd,' _n_ his adulation of queen elizabeth in 'cynthia,' _n_, sonnets addressed to 'ganymede,' _n_ , predicts immortality for shakespeare, chief author of the 'passionate pilgrim,' and _n_ _bartholomew fair_, bartlett, john, barton collection of shakespeareana at boston, mass., barton-on-the-heath, identical with the 'burton' in the _taming of the shrew_, bathurst, charles, on shakespeare's versification, _n_ baynes, thomas spencer, beale, francis, 'bear garden in southwark, the,' the poet's lodgings near, bearley, beaumont, francis, on 'things done at the mermaid,' beaumont, sir john, bedford, edward russell, third earl of: his marriage to lucy harington, bedford, lucy, countess of, _n_ , beeston, william (a seventeenth-century actor), on the report that shakespeare was a schoolmaster, on the poet's acting, bellay, joachim du, spenser's translations of some of his sonnets, _n_, belleau, remy, poems and sonnets by, _n_ , _n_ belleforest (francois de), shakespeare's indebtedness to the 'histoires tragiques' of, _n_ , benda, j. w. ., german translation of shakespeare by, benedick and his 'halting sonnet,' benedix, j. r., opposition to shakespearean worship by, bentley, r., berlioz, hector, bermudas, the, and _the tempest_, berners, lord, translation of 'huon of bordeaux' by, bernhardt, madame sarah, bertaut, jean, betterton, mrs., betterton, thomas, bianca and her lovers, story of, partly drawn from the 'supposes' of george gascoigne, bible, the, shakespeare and, and _n_ bibliography of shakespeare, - bensley, robert, actor, bidford, near stratford, legend of a drinking bout at, biography of the poet, sources of (appendix i.), - birmingham, memorial shakespeare library at, biron, in _love's labour's lost_, and _n_ _birth of merlin_, birthplace, shakespeare's, 'bisson,' use of the word, blackfriars shakespeare's purchase of property in, blackfriars theatre, built by james burbage ( ), leased to 'the queen's children of the chapel,' occupied by shakespeare's company, litigation of burbage's heirs, shakespeare's interest in, shareholders in, shakespeare's disposal of his shares in, 'blackness,' shakespeare's praise of, - cf. blades, william, _blind beggar of alexandria_, chapman's, _n_ blount, edward, publisher, _n_, and _n_ boaistuau de launay (pierre) translates bandello's story of _romeo and juliet_, _n_ boaden, james, _n_ boar's head tavern, boas, mr. f. s., boccaccio, shakespeare's indebtedness to, and _n_ bodenstedt, friedrich von, german translator of shakespeare, bohemia, allotted a seashore in _winter's tale_, translations of shakespeare in, boiardo, bond against impediments respecting shakespeare's marriage, bonian, richard, printer, booth, barton, actor, booth, edwin, booth, junius brutus, booth, lionel, borck, baron c. w. von, translation of _julius caesar_ into german by, boswell, james, boswell, james (the younger), _n_ boswell-stone, mr. w. g. bottger, a., german translation of shakespeare by, boy-actors, the strife between adult actors and, - boydell, john, his scheme for illustrating the work of the poet, bracebridge, c. h., brach, pierre de, his sonnet on sleep echoed in daniel's sonnet xlix., and _n_ _n_ brandes, mr. georg, brassington, mr. w. salt, _n_ brathwaite, richard, _n_ , breton, nicholas, homage paid to the countess of pembroke in his poems, _n_ his play on the words 'wit' and 'will,' brewster, e., bridgeman, mr. c. ., _n_ bright, james heywood, _n_ _broken heart_, ford's, similarity of theme of shakespeare's sonnet cxxvi. to that of a song in, _n_ brooke or broke, arthur, his translation of the story of romeo and juliet, brooke, ralph, complains about shakespeare's coat-of-arms, brown, c. armitage, _n_ brown, john, obtains a writ of distraint against shakespeare's father, browne, william, love-sonnets by, and _n_ buc, sir george, buckingham, john sheffield, first duke of, a letter from king james to the poet said to have been in his possession, bucknill, dr. john charles, on the poet's medical knowledge, burbage, cuthbert, burbage, james, owner of the theatre and keeper of a livery stable, erects the blackfriars theatre, burbage, richard, erroneously assumed to have been a native of stratford, _n_ a lifelong friend of shakespeare's, demolishes the theatre and builds the globe theatre, performs, with shakespeare and kemp, before queen elizabeth at greenwich palace, his impersonation of the king in _richard iii_, litigation of his heirs respecting the globe and the blackfriars theatres, his income, creates the title-part in hamlet, his reputation made by creating the leading parts in the poet's greatest tragedies, anecdote of, the poet's bequest to, as a painter, burgersdijk, dr. l. a. j., translation in dutch by, burghley, lord, burton, francis, bookseller, _n_ , butter, nathaniel, c 'c., e.,' sonnet by, on lust, _n_ his collection of sonnets, 'emaricdulfe,' caliban, the character of, and _notes_ cambridge, _hamlet_ acted at, cambridge edition of shakespeare, camden, william, campbell, lord, on the poet's legal acquirements, campion, thomas, his opinion of barnes's verse, his sonnet to lord walden, sonnets in harleian ms., and _n_ capell, edward, reprint of _edward iii_ in his 'prolusions,' his edition of shakespeare, his works on the poet, _cardenio_, the lost play of, carter, rev. thomas, on the alleged puritan sympathies of shakespeare's father, _n_ _casteliones y montisis_, lope de vega's, _n_ castille, constable of, entertainments in his honour at whitehall, castle, william, parish clerk of stratford, catherine ii of russia, adaptations of the _merry wives_ and _king john_ by, cawood, gabriel, publisher of 'mary magdalene's funeral tears,' _n_ cecil, sir robert, and the earl of southampton, 'centurie of spiritual sonnets, a,' barnes's, 'certain sonnets,' sidney's, _n_ cervantes, his 'don quixote,' foundation of lost play of _cardenio_, death of, _n_ chamberlain, the lord, his company of players. _see_ hunsdon, first lord and second lord chamberlain, john, _n_ chapman, george, plays on biron's career by, _n_, _n_ his _an humourous day's mirth_, _n_ his _blind beggar of alexandria_, _n_ his censure of sonnetteermg, his alleged rivalry with shakespeare for southampton's favour, _n_, his translation of the 'iliad,' his sonnets to patrons, _n_ sonnets in praise of philosophy, charlecote park, probably the scene of the poaching episode, charles i and the poet's plays, his copy of the second folio, charles ii, his copy of the second folio, chateaubriand, chatelain, chevalier de, rendering of _hamlet_ by, chaucer, the story of 'lucrece' in his 'legend of good women,' hints in his 'knight's tale' for _midsummer night's dream_, the plot of _troilus and cressida_ taken from his 'troilus and cresseid,' plot of _the two noble kinsmen_ drawn from his 'knight's tale,' chenier, marie-joseph, sides with voltaire in the shakespearean controversy in france, chester, robert, his 'love's martyr,' _n_ chettle, henry, the publisher, his description of shakespeare as an actor, _n_ his apology for greene's attack on shakespeare, appeals to shakespeare to write an elegy on queen elizabeth, chetwynde, peter, publisher, chiswell, r., 'chloris,' title of william smith's collection of sonnets, and _n_ chronology of shakespeare's plays - - partly determined by subject-matter and metre, - _seq._, _seq._, _seq._, _seq._ churchyard, thomas, his _fantasticall monarcho's epitaph_, _n_ calls barnes 'petrarch's scholar,' cibber, colley, cibber, mrs., cibber, theophilus, the reputed compiler of 'lives of the poets,' and _n_ , cinthio, the 'hecatommithi' of, shakespeare's indebtedness to, his tragedy, _epitia_, clark, mr. w. g., clement, nicolas, criticism of the poet by, cleopatra: the poet's allusion to her part being played by a boy, _n_ compared with the 'dark lady' of the sonnets her character, clive, mrs., clopton, sir hugh, the former owner of new place, clopton, sir john, clytemnestra, resemblance between the characters of lady macbeth and, _n_ cobham, henry brooke, eighth lord, 'coelia,' love-sonnets by william browne entitled, and _n_ 'coelia,' title of percy's collection of sonnets, 'coelica,' title of fulke greville's collection of poems, _n_ cokain, sir aston, lines on shakespeare and wincot ale by, coleridge, s. t., on the style of _antony and cleopatra_, on _the two noble kinsmen_, representative of the aesthetic school, on edmund kean, collier, john payne, includes _mucedorus_ in his edition of shakespeare, his reprint of drayton's sonnets, _n_ his forgeries in the 'perkins folio,' and _n_ , _n_ his other forgeries (appendix i.), - collins, mr. churton, _n_ collins, francis, shakespeare's solicitor, collins, rev. john, colte, sir henry, _n_ combe, john, bequest left to the poet by, lines written upon his money-lending, _n_ combe, thomas, legacy of the poet to, combe, william, his attempt to enclose common land at stratford, _comedy of errors_: the plot drawn from plautus, date of publication, allusion to the civil war in france, possibly founded on _the historie of error_, performed in the hall of gray's inn , _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - 'complainte of rosamond,' daniel's, parallelisms in _romeo and juliet_ with, its topic and metre reflected in 'lucrece,' and _n_ concordances to shakespeare, and _n_ condell, henry, actor and a lifelong friend of shakespeare, the poet's bequest to him, signs dedication of first folio, _confessio amantis_, gower's, _conspiracie of duke biron_, _the_, _n_ constable, henry, piratical publication of the sonnets of, _n_ followed desportes in naming his collection of sonnets 'diana,' dedicatory sonnets, religious sonnets, _contention betwixt the two famous houses of yorke and lancaster_, _first part of the_, 'contr amours,' jodelle's, parody of the vituperative sonnet in, and _n_ cooke, sir anthony, cooke, george frederick, actor, coral, comparison of lips with, and _n_ _coriolanus_: date of first publication, derived from north's 'plutarch,' literal reproduction of the text of plutarch, and _n_ originality of the humorous scenes, date of composition, general characteristics, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - 'coronet for his mistress philosophy, a,' by chapman, coryat, 'odcombian banquet' by, cotes, thomas, printer, cotswolds, the, shakespeare's allusion to, court, the, shakespeare's relations with, - cf. _n_, _n_, _n_ , cowden-clarke, mrs., cowley, actor, 'crabbed age and youth,' etc. craig, mr. w. j., creede, thomas, draft of the _merry wives of windsor_ printed by, draft of _henry v_ printed by, fraudulently assigns plays to shakespeare, cromwell, history of thomas, lord, 'cryptogram, the great,' cupid, shakespeare's addresses to, compared with the invocations of sidney, drayton, lyly, and others, _n_ curtain theatre, moorfields, one of the only two theatres existing in london at the period of shakespeare's arrival, the scene of some of the poet's performances, closed at the period of the civil war, _n_ cushman, charlotte, cust, mr. lionel, _n_ _cymbeline_: sources of plot, introduction of calvinistic terms, and _n_ imogen, comparison with _as you like it_, dr. forman's note on its performance, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography) - 'cynthia,' barnfield's, adulation of queen elizabeth in, _n_, 'cynthia,' ralegh's, extravagant apostrophe to queen elizabeth in, _n_ _cynthia's revels_, performed at blackfriars theatre, cyrano de bergerac, plagiarisms of shakespeare by, d 'daiphantus,' allusion to the poet in scoloker's, daniel, samuel, parallelisms in _romeo and juliet_ with his 'complainte of rosamond,' the topic and metre of the 'complainte of rosamond' reflected in 'lucrece,' and _n_ feigning old age, _n_ his sonnet (xlix.) on sleep, admits plagiarism of petrarch in his 'delia,' _n_ followed maurice seve in naming his collection of sonnets, claims immortality for his sonnets, his prefatory sonnet in 'delia,' celebrates in verse southampton's release from prison, his indebtedness to desportes, and to de balt and pierre de brach, popularity of his sonnets, danish, translations of shakespeare in, danter, john, prints surreptitiously _romeo and juliet_, _titus andronicus_ entered at stationers' hall by, daurat (formerly dinemandy), jean, one of 'la pleiade,' d'avenant, john, keeps the crown inn, oxford, d'avenant, sir william, relates the story of shakespeare holding horses outside playhouses, on the story of southampton's gift to shakespeare, a letter of king james to the poet once in his possession, shakespeare's alleged paternity of, davies, archdeacon, vicar of saperton, on shakespeare's 'unluckiness' in poaching, on 'justice clodpate' (justice shallow), davies, john, of hereford, his allusion to the parts played by shakespeare, celebrates in verse southampton's release from prison, his 'wittes pilgrimage,' sonnets to patrons, _n_ davies, sir john: his 'gulling sonnets,' a satire on conventional sonnetteering, and _n_ _n_, his apostrophe to queen elizabeth, _n_ davison, francis, his translation of petrarch's sonnet, _n_ dedication of his 'poetical rhapsody' to the earl of pembroke, death-mask, the kesselstadt, and _n_ 'decameron,' the, indebtedness of shakespeare to, and n dedications, - 'dedicatory' sonnets, of shakespeare, _seq._ of other elizabethan poets, _n_ _defence of cony-catching_, _n_ dekker, thomas, _n_ the quarrel with ben jonson, - _n_ on king james's entry into london, his song 'oh, sweet content' an echo of barnes's 'ah, sweet content,' _n_ 'delia,' title of daniel's collection of sonnets, _n_ , _see also under_ daniel, samuel 'delie,' sonnets by seve entitled, delius, nikolaus, edition of shakespeare by, studies of the text and metre of the poet by, dennis, john, on the _merry wives of windsor_, his tribute to the poet, derby, ferdinando stanley, earl of, his patronage of actors, performances by his company, spenser's bestowal of the title of 'amyntas' on, _n_ derby, william stanley, earl of, desmond, earl of, ben jonson's apostrophe to the, desportes, philippe, his sonnet on sleep, and plagiarised by drayton and others, and _n_ , _seq._ plagiarised indirectly by shakespeare, his claim for the immortality of verse, and _n_ daniel's indebtedness to him, _n_ deutsche shakespeare-gesellschaft, devrient family, the, stage representation of shakespeare by, _diana_, george de montemayor's, and _two gentlemen of verona_, translations of, 'diana' the title of constable's collection of sonnets, _n_ _n_ diderot, opposition to voltaire's strictures by, 'diella,' sonnets by 'r. l.' [richard linche], digges, leonard, on the superior popularity of _julius caesar_ to jonson's _catiline_, _n_ commendatory verses on the poet, _n_ on the poet's popularity, 'don quixote' and the lost play _cardenio_, doncaster, the name of shakespeare at, donne dr. john, his poetic addresses to the countess of bedford, _n_ expression of 'love' in his 'verse letters,' his anecdote about shakespeare and jonson, donnelly, mr. ignatius, dorell, hadrian, writer of the preface to the story of 'avisa,' _double falsehood_, _or the distrest lovers_, and _n_ douce, francis, dowdall, john, dowden, professor, _n_ drake, nathan, drayton, michael, feigning old age in his sonnets, _n_ his invocations to cupid, _n_ plagiarisms in his sonnets, and _n_ follows claude de pontoux in naming his heroine 'idea,' _n_ his admission of insincerity in his sonnets, shakespeare's indebtedness to his sonnets, _n_ claims immortality for his sonnets, use of the word 'love,' _n_ title of 'hymn' given to some of his poems, _n_ identified by some as the 'rival poet,' adulation in his sonnets, _n_ shakespeare's sonnet cxliv. adapted from, _n_ entertained by shakespeare at new place, stratford, _n_ greetings to his patron in his works, droeshout, martin, engraver of the portrait in the first folio, - his uncle of the same name, a painter, droitwich, native place of john heming, one of shakespeare's actor-friends, _n_ drummond, william, of hawthornden, his translations of petrarch's sonnets, _n_ _n_ italian origin of many of his love-sonnets, and _n_ translation of a vituperative sonnet from marino, _n_ translation of a sonnet by tasso, _n_ two self-reproachful sonnets by him, _n_ _see also_ (appendix) and _n_ dryden, a criticism of the poet's work by, presented with a copy of the chandos portrait of the poet, ducis, jean-francois, adaptations of the poet for the french stage dugdale, gilbert, _n_ dulwich, manor of, purchased by edward alleyn, _n_ dumain, lord, in _love's labour's lost_, _n_ dumas, alexandre, adaptation of _hamlet_ by, duport, paul, repeats voltaire's censure, dyce, alexander, _n_ on _the two noble kinsmen_, his edition of shakespeare, e ecclesiastes, book of, poetical versions of, and _n_ eden, translation of magellan's 'voyage to the south pole' by, edgar, eleazar, publisher, editions of shakespeare's works. _see under_ quarto and folio editors of shakespeare, in the eighteenth century, - in the nineteenth century, - of variorum editions, education of shakespeare: the poet's masters at stratford grammar school, his instruction in latin, no proof that he studied the greek tragedians, _n_ alleged knowledge of the classics and of italian and french literature, study of the bible in his schooldays, and _n_ removal from school, _edward ii_, marlowe's, _richard ii_ suggested by, _edward iii_, a play of uncertain authorship, quotation from one of shakespeare's sonnets, and _n_ edwardes, richard, author of the lost play _palaemon and arcyte_, edwards, thomas, 'canons of criticism' of, eld, george, printer, _n_ elizabeth, princess, marriage of, performance of _the tempest_, etc. at, elizabeth, queen: her visit to kenilworth, shakespeare and other actors play before her, shows the poet special favour, her enthusiasm for falstaff, extravagant compliments to her, called 'cynthia' by the poets, elegies on her, compliment to her in _midsummer night's dream_, her objections to _richard ii_, death, her imprisonment of southampton, elizabethan stage society, _n_ _n_ elton, mr. charles, q.c., on the dower of the poet's widow, _n_ elze, friedrich karl, 'life of shakespeare' by, shakespeare studies of, 'emaricdulfe,' sonnets by 'e.c.,' _n_ _endymion_, lyly's, and _love's labour's lost_, eschenburg, johann joachim, completes wieland's german prose translation of shakespeare, _error_, _historie of_, and _comedy of errors_, essex, robert devereux, second earl of, company of actors under the patronage of, an enthusiastic reception predicted for him in london in _henry v_, trial and execution, his relations with the earl of southampton, _euphues_, lyly's, polonius's advice to laertes borrowed from, _n_ euripides, _andromache_ of, _n_ evans, sir hugh, quotes latin phrases, sings snatches of marlowe's 'come live with me and be my love,' evelyn, john, on the change of taste regarding the drama, _n_ _every man in his humour_, shakespeare takes a part in the performance of, prohibition on its publication, f _faire em_, a play of doubtful authorship, falstaff, queen elizabeth's enthusiasm for, named originally 'sir john oldcastle,' objections raised to the name, the attraction of his personality, his last moments, letter from the countess of southampton on, and _n_ farmer, dr. richard, on shakespeare's education, farmer, mr. john s., _n_ 'farmer ms., the dr.,' davies's 'gulling sonnets' in, _n_ fastolf, sir john, faucit, helen. _see_ martin, lady _felix and philomena_, _history of_, 'fidessa,' griffin's, _n_ field, henry, father of the london printer, field, richard, a friend of shakespeare, apprenticed to the london printer, thomas vautrollier, his association with the poet, publishes 'venus and adonis,' and 'lucrece,' finnish, translations of shakespeare in, fisher, mr. clement, fitton, mary, and the 'dark lady,' _n_ _n_ _n_ fleay, mr. f. g., metrical tables by, _n_ on shakespeare's and drayton's sonnets, _n_ fletcher, giles, on time, _n_ his 'imitation' of other poets, admits insincerity in his sonnets, his 'licia,' fletcher, john, collaborates with shakespeare in _the two noble kinsmen_ and _henry viii_, fletcher, lawrence, actor, takes a theatrical company to scotland, and _n_ florio, john, and holofernes, _n_ _n_ the sonnet prefixed to his 'second frutes,' and _n_ southampton's _protege_, _n_ his translation of montaigne's 'essays,' _n_ his 'worlde of wordes,' _n_ his praise of southampton, (and appendix iv.) southampton's italian tutor, folio, the first, : editor's note as to the ease with which the poet wrote, the syndicate for its production, its contents, prefatory matter, value of the text, order of the plays, the typography, unique copies, - the sheldon copy, and _n_ number of extant copies, reprints, the 'daniel' copy, dedicated to the earl of pembroke, folio, the second, folio, the third, folio, the fourth, ford, john, similarity of theme between a song in his _broken heart_ and shakespeare's sonnet cxxvi., _n_ forgeries in the 'perkins' folio, and _n_ forgeries, shakespearean (appendix i.), - of john jordan, of the irelands, promulgated by john payne collier and others, - forman, dr. simon, forrest, edwin, american actor, fortune theatre, _n_ france, versions and criticisms of shakespeare in, - stage representation of the poet in, bibliographical note on the sonnet in ( - ) (appendix x.), - fraunce, abraham, _n_ freiligrath, ferdinand von, german translation of shakespeare by, french, the poet's acquaintance with, french, george russell, 'freyndon' (or frittenden), friendship, sonnets of, shakespeare's, - frittenden, kent. _see_ freyndon fulbroke park and the poaching episode, fuller, thomas, allusion in his 'worthies' to sir john fastolf, on the 'wit combats' between shakespeare and jonson, the first biographer of the poet, fulman, rev. w., furness, mr. h. h., his 'new variorum' edition of shakespeare, furness, mrs. h. h., furnivall, dr. f. j., _n_ _n_ g gale, dunstan, ganymede, barnfield's sonnets to, and _n_ garnett, henry, the jesuit, probably alluded to in _macbeth_, garrick, david, - gascoigne, george, his definition of a sonnet, _n_ his _supposes_, gastrell, rev, francis, gates, sir thomas, germany, shakespearean representations in, translations of the poet's works and criticisms in, - shakespeare society in, gervinus, 'commentaries' by, _n_ 'gesta romanorum' and the _merchant of venice_, ghost in _hamlet_, the, played by shakespeare, gilchrist, octavius, gildon, charles, on the rapid production of the _merry wives of windsor_, on the dispute at eton as to the supremacy of shakespeare as a poet, _n_ giovanni (fiorentino), ser, shakespeare's indebtedness to his 'il pecorone,' _giuletta_, _la_, by luigi da porto, _n_ 'globe' edition of shakespeare, globe theatre: built in , described by shakespeare, cf. mainly occupied by the poet's company after , profits shared by shakespeare, the leading london theatre, revival of _richard ii_ at, litigation of burbage's heirs, prices of admission, annual receipts, performance of _a winter's tale_, its destruction by fire, _n_ the new building, shakespeare's disposal of his shares, goethe, criticism and adaptation of shakespeare by, golding, arthur, his english version of the 'metamorphoses,' _n_ gollancz, mr. israel, _n_ googe, barnabe, his use of the word 'sonnet,' _n_ gosson, stephen, his 'schoole of abuse,' gottsched, j. c., denunciation of shakespeare by, gounod, opera of _romeo and juliet_ by, gower, john, represented by the speaker of the prologues in _pericles_, his 'confessio amantis,' gower, lord ronald, grammaticus, saxo, grave, shakespeare's, gray's inn hall, performance of _the comedy of errors_ in, and _n_ greek, shakespeare's alleged acquaintance with, and _n_ green, c. f., greene, robert, charged with selling the same play to two companies, _n_ his attack on shakespeare, his publisher's apology, his share in the original draft of _henry vi_, his influence on shakespeare, describes a meeting with a player, _a winter's tale_ founded on his _pandosto_, dedicatory greetings in his works, greene, thomas, actor at the red bull theatre, _n_ greene, thomas ('_alias_ shakespeare'), a tenant of new place, and shakespeare's legal adviser, and _n_ greenwich palace, shakespeare and other actors play before queen elizabeth at, _n_ greet, hamlet in gloucestershire, identical with the 'greece' in the _taming of the shrew_, grendon, near oxford, shakespeare's alleged sojourn there, greville, sir fulke, complains of the circulation of uncorrected manuscript copies of the 'arcadia,' _n_ invocations to cupid in his collection, 'coelica,' _n_ his 'sonnets,' griffin, bartholomew, _n_ plagiarises daniel, griggs, mr. w., _n_ grimm, baron, recognition of shakespeare's greatness by, _n_ 'groats-worth of wit,' greene's pamphlet containing his attack on shakespeare, guizot, francois, revision of le tourneur's translation by, 'gulling sonnets,' sir john davies's, shakespeare's sonnet xxvi. parodied in, _n_ h 'h., mr. w.,' 'patron' of thorpe's pirated issue of the sonnets, identified with william hall, his publication of southwell's 'a foure-fould meditation,' erroneously said to indicate the earl of pembroke, - improbability of the suggestion that a william hughes was indicated, _n_ 'w. h.'s' true relations with thomas thorpe, - hacket, marian and cicely, in the _taming of the shrew_, - hal, prince, hales, john (of eton), on the superiority of shakespeare to all other poets, and _n_ hall, elizabeth, the poet's granddaughter, her first marriage to thomas nash, and her second marriage to john barnard (or bernard), her death and will, hall, dr. john, the poet's son-in-law, hall, mrs. susanna, the poet's elder daughter, inherits the chief part of the poet's estate, her death, her 'witty' disposition, hall, william ( ), on the inscription over the poet's grave, and _n_ hall, william ( ), see 'h., mr. w.' halliwell-phillipps, james orchard, the indenture of the poet's property in blackfriars in the collection of, _n_ his edition of shakespeare, his great labours on shakespeare's biography, _hamlet_: parallelisms in the _electra_ of sophocles, the _andromache_ of euripides, and the _persae_ of aeschylus, _n_ polonius's advice to laertes borrowed from lyly's _euphues_, _n_ allusion to boy-actors, _n_ and _n_ date of production, previous popularity of the story on the stage, and _n_ sources drawn upon by the poet, - success of burbage in the title-part, the problem of its publication, - the three versions, - theobald's emendations, its world-wide popularity, the longest of all the poet's plays, the humorous element, its central interest, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - hanmer, sir thomas, his edition of shakespeare, harington, sir john, translates ariosto, harington, lucy, her marriage to the third earl of bedford, harness, william, harrison, john, publisher of 'lucrece,' harsnet, 'declaration of popish impostures' by, hart family, the, and the poet's reputed birthplace, hart, joan, shakespeare's sister, his bequest to her, her three sons, hart, john, hart, joseph. c., harvey, gabriel, bestows on spenser the title of 'an english petrarch,' justifies the imitation of petrarch, _n_ his parody of sonnetteering, and _n_ his advice to barnes, his 'four letters and certain sonnets,' hathaway, anne. see shakespeare, anne hathaway, catherine, sister of anne hathaway, hathaway, joan, mother of anne hathaway, hathaway, richard, marriage of his daughter anne (or agnes) to the poet, - his position as a yeoman, his will, haughton, william, _n_ hawthorne, nathaniel, hazlitt, william, and shakespearean criticism, healey, john, _n_ 'hecatommithi,' cinthio's, shakespeare's indebtedness to, heine, studies of shakespeare's heroines by, helena in _all's well that ends well_, heming, john (actor-friend of shakespeare), wrongly claimed as a native of stratford, _n_ the poet's bequest to, signs dedication of first folio, henderson, john, actor, heneage, sir thomas, _n_ henley-in-arden, henrietta maria, queen, billeted on mrs. hall (the poet's daughter) at stratford, _henry iv_ (parts i. and ii.): passage ridiculing the affectations of _euphues_, _n_ sources drawn upon, justice shallow, references to persons and districts familiar to the poet, the characters, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _henry v_, _the famous victories of_, the groundwork of _henry v_ and of _henry v_, _henry v_: french dialogues, disdainful allusion to sonnetteering, date of production imperfect drafts of the play, first folio version of , the comic characters, the victory of agincourt, the poet's final experiment in the dramatisation of english history, the allusions to the earl of essex, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _henry vi_ (pt. i.): performed at the rose theatre in , nash's remarks on, first publication, contains only a slight impress of the poet's style, performed by lord strange's men, _henry vi_ (pt. ii.): parallel in the _oedipus coloneus_ of sophocles with a passage in, _n_ publication of a first draft with the title of _the first part of the contention betwixt the two famous houses of yorke and lancaster_, performed by lord strange's men, revision of the play, the poet's coadjutors in the revision, _henry vi_ (pt. iii.): performed by a company other than the poet's own, performed in the autumn of , publication of a first draft of the play under the title of _the true tragedie of richard_, _duke of yorke_, _&c._, performed by lord pembroke's men, partly remodelled, the poet's coadjutors in the revision, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _henry viii_, attributed to shakespeare and fletcher, noticed by sir henry wotton, first publication, the portions that can confidently be assigned to shakespeare, uncertain authorship of wolsey's farewell to cromwell, fletcher's share, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - henryson, robert, henslowe, philip, erects the rose theatre, bribes a publisher to abandon the publication of _patient grissell_, _n_ _n_ 'heptameron of civil discources,' whetstone's, 'herbert, mr. william,' his alleged identity with 'mr. w. h.' (appendix vi.), - herder, johann gottfried, 'hero and leander,' marlowe's, quotation in _as you like it_, from, herringman, h., hervey, sir william, _n_ hess, j. r., heyse, paul, german translation of shakespeare by, heywood, thomas, his allusion to the dislike of actors to the publication of plays, _n_ his poems pirated in the 'passionate pilgrim,' hill, john, marriage of his widow, agnes or anne, to robert arden, holinshed's 'chronicles,' materials taken by shakespeare from, holland, translations of shakespeare in, holland, hugh, holmes, nathaniel, holmes, william, bookseller, _n_ holofernes, quotes latin phrases from lily's grammar, groundless assumption that he is a caricature of florio, _n_ _n_ horace, his claim for the immortality of verse, and _n_ _n_ hotspur, howard of effingham, the lord admiral, charles, lord, his company of actors, its short alliance with shakespeare's company, spenser's sonnet to, hudson, rev. h. n., hughes, mrs. margaret, plays female parts in the place of boys, hughes, william, and 'mr. w. h.,' _n_ hugo, francois victor, translation of shakespeare by, hugo, victor, _humourous day's mirth_, _an_, _n_ hungary, translations and performances of shakespeare in, hunsdon (lord chamberlain), george carey, second lord, his company of players, promotion of the company to be the king's players on the accession of king james, hunsdon (lord chamberlain), henry carey, first lord, his company of players, shakespeare a member of this company, hunt, thomas, master of stratford grammar school, hunter, rev. joseph, 'huon of bordeaux,' hints for the story of oberon from, 'hymn,' use of the word as the title of poems, _n_ 'hymnes of astraea,' sir john davies's, i 'idea',' title of drayton's collection of sonnets, 'ignoto,' immortality of verse, claimed by shakespeare for his sonnets, and _n_ a common theme with classical and french writers, and _n_ treated by drayton and daniel, imogen, the character of, income, shakespeare's, - incomes of actors, and _n_ india, translations and representations of shakespeare in, _ingannati_, (_gl'_), its resemblance to _twelfth night_, ingram, dr., on the 'weak endings' in shakespeare, _n_ ireland forgeries, the (appendix .), ireland, samuel, on the poaching episode, irishman, the only, in shakespeare's _dramatis personae_, irving, sir henry, italian, the poet's acquaintance with, - cf. _n_ italy, shakespeare's knowledge of, translations and performances of shakespeare in, the original home of the sonnet, _n_ list of sonnetteers of the sixteenth century in, _n_ itinerary of shakespeare's company in the provinces between and , and _n_ j jaggard, isaac, jaggard, william, piratically inserts two of shakespeare's sonnets in his 'passionate pilgrim,' prints the first folio, james vi of scotland and i of england, his favour bestowed on actors, _n_ sonnets to, his appreciation of shakespeare, his accession to the english throne, grants a license to the poet and his company, his patronage of shakespeare and his company - performances of _a winter's tale_ and _the tempest_ before him, and _n_ _n_ james, sir henry, jameson, mrs., jamyn, amadis, _n_ jansen, cornelius, alleged portrait of shakespeare by, jansen or janssen, gerard, _jeronimo_, resemblance between the stories of _hamlet_ and, _n_ _jew of malta_, marlowe's, _jew . . . showne at the bull_, a lost play, jodelle, estienne, resemblances in 'venus and adonis' to a poem by, _n_ his parody of the vituperative sonnet, and _n_ and 'la pleiade,' john, king, old play on, attributed to the poet, _john_, _king_, shakespeare's play of, printed in , the originality and strength of the three chief characters in, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography) - johnson, dr., his story of shakespeare, his edition of shakespeare, his reply to voltaire, johnson, gerard, his monument to the poet in stratford church, johnson, robert, lyrics set to music by, and _n_ jones, inigo, designs scenic decoration for masques, _n_ jonson, ben, on shakespeare's lack of exact scholarship, shakespeare takes part in the performance of _every man in his humour_ and in _sejanus_, on _titus andronicus_, on the appreciation of shakespeare shown by elizabeth and james i, on metrical artifice in sonnets, _n_ use of the word 'lover,' _n_ identified by some as the 'rival poet,' his 'dedicatory' sonnets, _n_ his apostrophe of the earl of desmond, relations with shakespeare, gift of shakespeare to his son, share in the appendix to 'love's' martyr,' quarrel with marston and dekker, - his 'poetaster,' and _n_ allusions to him in the _return from parnassus_, his scornful criticism of _julius caesar_, _n_ satiric allusion to _a winters tale_, his sneering reference to _the tempest_ in _bartholomew fair_, entertained by shakespeare at new place, stratford, testimony to shakespeare's character, his tribute to shakespeare in the first folio, his _hue and cry after cupid_, _n_ thorpe's publication of some of his works, _n_ jordan, john, forgeries of (appendix .), jordan, mrs., jordan, thomas, his lines on men playing female parts, _n_ jourdain, sylvester, 'jubilee,' shakespeare's, _julius caesar_: use of the word 'lovers,' _n_ plot drawn from plutarch, date of production, a play of the same title acted in , general features of the play jonson's hostile criticism, _n_ _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - jusserand, m. j. j., _n_ _n_ _n_ k kean, edmund, keller, a., german translation of shakespeare by, kemble, charles, kemble, john philip, kemp, william, comedian, plays at greenwich palace, kenilworth, elizabeth's visit to, cf. ketzcher, n., translation into russian by, killigrew, thomas, and the substitution of women for boys in female parts, king's players, the company of, shakespeare one of its members, the poet's plays performed almost exclusively by, theatres at which it performed, provincial towns which it visited between and , and _n_ king james's license to, kirkland, the name of shakespeare at, kirkman, francis, publisher, knight, charles, knollys, sir william, _n_ kok, a. s., translation in dutch by, korner, j., german translation of shakespeare by, kraszewski, polish translation edited by, kreyssig, friedrich a. t., studies of the poet by, kyd, thomas, influence of, on shakespeare, _n_ and _titus andronicus_, his _spanish tragedy_, and the story of hamlet, and _n_ shakespeare's acquaintance with his work, _n_ l 'l., h.,' initials on seal attesting shakespeare's autograph. _see_ lawrence, henry la harpe and the shakespearean controversy in france, labe, louise, _n_ lamb, charles, lambarde, william, lambert, edmund, mortgagee of the asbies property, lambert, john, proposal to confer upon him an absolute title to the asbies property, john shakespeare's lawsuit against, lane, nicholas, a creditor of john shakespeare, langbaine, gerard, laroche, benjamin, translation by, latin, the poet's acquaintance with, 'latten,' use of the word in shakespeare, _n_ 'laura,' shakespeare's allusion to her as petrarch's heroine, title of tofte's collection of sonnets, law, the poet's knowledge of, and cf. _n_ and lawrence, henry, his seal beneath shakespeare's autograph, _lear_, _king_: date of composition, produced at whitehall, butter's imperfect editions, sources of story, the character of the king, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography) - legal terminology in plays and poems of the shakespearean period, _n_ cf. legge, dr. thomas, a latin piece on richard iii by, leicester, earl of, his entertainment of queen elizabeth at kenilworth, his regiment of warwickshire youths for service in the low countries, his company of players, leo, f. a. leoni, michele, italian translation of the poet issued by, 'leopold' shakspere, the, lessing, defence of shakespeare by, l'estrange, sir nicholas, le tourneur, pierre, french prose translation of shakespeare by, 'licia,' fletcher's collection of sonnets called, _n_ _n_ linche, richard, his sonnets entitled 'diella,' lintot, bernard, locke (or lok), henry, sonnets by, _locrine_, _tragedie of_, lodge, thomas, his 'scillaes metamorphosis' drawn upon by shakespeare for 'venus and adonis,' and _n_ his plagiarisms, and _n_ comparison of lips with coral in 'phillis,' _n_ his 'rosalynde' the foundation of _as you like it_, his 'phillis,' _london prodigall_, lope de vega dramatises the story of romeo and juliet, _n_ lopez, roderigo, jewish physician, and _n_ lorkin, rev. thomas, on the burning of the globe theatre, _n_ love, treatment of, in shakespeare's sonnets, and _n_ and _n_ in the sonnets of other writers, - _n_ 'lover' and 'love' synonymous with 'friend' and 'friendship' in elizabethan english, _n_ 'lover's complaint, a,' possibly written by shakespeare, _love's labour's lost_: latin phrases in, probably the poet's first dramatic production, its plot not borrowed, its characters, and _n_ its revision in , date of publication, influence of lyly, performed at whitehall, examples of the poet's first attempts at sonnetteering, scornful allusion to sonnetteering, the praise of 'blackness,' and _n_ performed before anne of denmark at southampton's house in the strand, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _love's labour's won_, attributed by meres to shakespeare, see _all's well_ 'love's martyr, or rosalin's complaint,' _n_ lowell, james russell, _n_ lucian, the _timon_ of, 'lucrece:' published in , daniel's 'complainte of rosamond' reflected, and _n_ the passage on time elaborated from watson, and _n_ dedicated to the earl of southampton, enthusiastic reception of, - quarto editions in the poet's lifetime, posthumous editions, lucy, sir thomas, his prosecution of shakespeare for poaching, caricatured in justice shallow, luddington, lydgate, 'troy book' of, drawn upon for _troilus and cressida_, lyly, john, followed by shakespeare in his comedies, his addresses to cupid, _n_ his influence on _midsummer night's dream_, lyrics in shakespeare's plays, and _n_ m 'm. i.' _see also_ 's., i. m.' macbeth: references to the climate of inverness, _n_ date of composition, the story drawn from holinshed, points of difference from other plays of the same class, middleton's plagiarisms, not printed until , the shortest of the poet's tragedies, performance at the globe, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - macbeth, lady, and aeschylus's clytemnestra, _n_ mackay, mr. herbert, on the dower of the poet's widow, macklin, charles, macready, william charles, madden, rt. hon. d. h., on shakespeare's knowledge of sport, _n_ magellan, 'voyage to the south pole' by, magny, olivier de, malone, edmund, on shakespeare's first employment in the theatre, on the poet's residence, on the date of _the tempest_, his writings on the poet, malvolio, manners, lady bridget, and _n_ manningham, john (diarist), a description of _twelfth night_ by, manuscript, circulation of sonnets in, and _n_ (appendix ix.), marino, vituperative sonnet by, _n_ _n_ markham, gervase, his adulation of southampton in his sonnets, marlowe, christopher, his share in the revision of _henry vi_, his influence on shakespeare, - shakespeare's acknowledgments, his translation of lucan, marmontel and the shakespearean controversy in france, marot, clement, marriage, treatment of, in the sonnets, marshall, mr. f. a., marston, john, identified by some as the 'rival poet,' his quarrel with jonson, - martin, one of the english actors who played in scotland, and _n_ martin, lady, masks worn by men playing women's parts, _n_ massey, mr. gerald, on the sonnets, _n_ massinger, philip, portions of _the two noble kinsmen_ assigned to, and _henry viii_, and _n_ 'mastic,' use of the word, _n_ masuccio, the story of romeo and juliet told in his _novellino_, matthew, sir toby, _measure for measure_: the offence of claudio, _n_ date of composition, produced at whitehall, not printed in the poet's lifetime, source of plot, deviations from the old story, creation of the character of mariana, the philosophic subtlety of the poet's argument, references to a ruler's dislike of mobs, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - melin de saint-gelais, memorials in sculpture to the poet, _menaechmi_ of plautus, mendelssohn, setting of shakespearean songs by, _merchant of venice_: the influence of marlowe, sources of the plot, the last act, date of, use of the word 'lover,' _n_ _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - meres, francis, recommends shakespeare's 'sugred' sonnets, his quotations from horace and ovid on the immortalising power of verse, _n_ attributes _love's labour's won_ to shakespeare, testimony to the poet's reputation, mermaid tavern, _merry devill of edmonton_, _n_ _merry wives of windsor_: latin phrases put into the mouth of sir hugh evans, sir thomas lucy caricatured in justice shallow, lines from marlowe sung by sir hugh evans, period of production, publication of, source of the plot, chief characteristics, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - metre of shakespeare's plays a rough guide to the chronology, - of shakespeare's poems, - of shakespeare's sonnets, and _n_ mezieres, alfred, michel, francisque, translation by, middle temple hall, performance of _twelfth night_ at, middleton, thomas, his allusion to le motte in _blurt_, _master constable_, _n_ his plagiarisms of _macbeth_ in _the witch_, _midsummer night's dream_: references to the pageants at kenilworth park, reference to spenser's 'teares of the muses,' date of production, sources of the story, the final scheme, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - milton, applies the epithet 'sweetest' to shakespeare, _n_ his epitaph on shakespeare, minto, professor, claims chapman as shakespeare's 'rival' poet, _n_ miranda, character of, 'mirror of martyrs,' _miseries of enforced marriage_, 'monarcho, fantasticall,' _n_ money, its purchasing power in the sixteenth century, _n_ _n_ montagu, mrs. elizabeth, montaigne, 'essays' of, _n_ _n_ montegut, emile, translation by, montemayor, george de, montgomery, philip herbert, earl of, monument to shakespeare in stratford church, morley, lord, _n_ moseley, humphrey, publisher, moth, in _love's labour's lost_, _n_ moulton, dr. richard g. _mucedorus_, a play by an unknown author, _much ado about nothing_: a jesting allusion to sonnetteering, its publication, date of composition, the comic characters, italian origin of hero and claudio, parts taken by william kemp and cowley, quotation from the _spanish tragedy_, _n_ _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - mulberry-tree at new place, the, and _n_ music at stage performances in shakespeare's day, _n_ its indebtedness to the poet, n nash, anthony, the poet's legacy to, nash, john, the poet's legacy to, nash, thomas ( ), marries elizabeth hall, shakespeare's granddaughter, nash, thomas ( ), on the performance of _henry vi_. piracy of his 'terrors of the night,' _n_ on the immortalising power of verse, use of the word 'lover,' _n_ his appeals to southampton, _n_ _n_ _n_ his preface to 'astrophel and stella,' _n_ navarre, king of, in _love's labour's lost_, _n_ neil, samuel, nekrasow and gerbel, translation into russian by, new place, stratford, shakespeare's purchase of, entertainment of jonson and drayton at, the poet's death at, sold on the death of lady barnard (the poet's granddaughter) to sir edward walker, pulled down, newcastle, margaret cavendish, duchess of, criticism of the poet by, newdegate, lady, _n_ newington butts theatre, newman, thomas, piratical publication of sir philip sidney's sonnets by, _n_ and _n_ nicolson, george, english agent in scotland, _n_ nottingham, earl of, his company of players, taken into the patronage of henry, prince of wales, _n_ o oberon, vision of, in 'huon of bordeaux,' oechelhaeuser, w., acting edition of the poet by, oldcastle, sir john, play on his history, 'oldcastle, sir john,' the original name of falstaff in _henry iv_, oldys, william, olney, henry, publisher, _orlando furioso_, _n_ ortlepp, e., german translation of shakespeare by, _othello_: date of composition, not printed in the poet's lifetime, plot drawn from cinthio's 'hecatommithi,' new characters and features introduced into the story, exhibits the poet's fully matured powers, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - ovid, influence on shakespeare of his 'metamorphoses,' and _n_ claims immortality for his verse, and _n_ _n_ the poet's alleged signature on the title-page of a copy of the 'metamorphoses' in the bodleian library, oxford, the poet's visits to, _hamlet_ acted at, oxford, earl of, his company of actors, 'oxford' edition of shakespeare, the, p painter, william, his 'palace of pleasure' and _romeo and juliet_, _all's well that ends well_, _timon of athens_, and _coriolanus_, _palaemon and arcyte_, a lost play, _palamon and arsett_, a lost play, palmer, john, actor, 'palladis tamia,' eulogy on the poet in, 'pandora,' soothern's collection of love-sonnets, _n_ _pandosto_ (afterwards called _dorastus and fawnia_), shakespeare's indebtedness to, parodies on sonnetteering, - and _n_ 'parthenophil and parthenophe,' barnes's, pasquier, estienne, passerat, jean, 'passionate centurie of love,' watson's, the passage on time in, plagiarisation of petrarch in, _n_ _n_ 'passionate pilgrim,' piratical insertion of two sonnets in, the contents of, _n_ printed with shakespeare's poems, patrons of companies of players, adulation offered to, and _n_ and _n_ pavier, thomas, printer, 'pecorone, il,' by ser giovanni fiorentino, shakespeare's indebtedness to, and _n_ w. g. waters's translation of, _n_ peele, george, his share in the original draft of _henry vi_, pembroke, countess of, dedication of daniel's 'delia' to, homage paid to, by nicholas breton, _n_ pembroke, henry, second earl of, his company of players, perform _henry vi_ (part iii.), and _titus andronicus_, pembroke, william, third earl of, the question of the identification of 'mr. w. h.' with, - performance at his wilton residence, _n_ dedication of the first folio to, his alleged relations with shakespeare, - the identification of the 'dark lady' with his mistress, mary fitton, _n_ the mistaken notion that shakespeare was his _protege_, _n_ dedications by thorpe to, and _n_ _n_ penrith, shakespeares at, pepys, his criticisms of _the tempest_ and _midsummer night's dream_, percy, william, his sonnets, entitled 'coelia,' perez, antonio, and antonio in _the merchant of venice_, _n_ _pericles_: date of composition, a work of collaboration, the poet's contributions, dates of the various editions, not included in the first folio, included in third folio, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - perkes (clement), in _henry iv._, member of a family at stinchcombe hill in the sixteenth century, 'perkins folio,' forgeries in the, _n_ and _n_ personalities on the stage, _n_ peruse, jean de la, petowe, henry, elegy on queen elizabeth by, petrarch, emulated by elizabethan sonnetteers, _n_ feigns old age in his sonnets, _n_ his metre, spenser's translations from, imitation of his sonnets justified by gabriel harvey, _n_ plagiarisms of, admitted by sonnetteers, _n_ wyatt's translations of two of his sonnets, _n_ plagiarised indirectly by shakespeare, and _n_ _n_ the melancholy of his sonnets, _n_ imitated in france, phelps, samuel, phillips, augustine, actor, friend of shakespeare, induced to revive _richard ii_ at the globe in , his death, phillips, edward (milton's nephew), criticism of the poet by, editor of drummond's sonnets, _n_ 'phillis,' lodge's, _n_ and _n_ philosophy, chapman's sonnets in praise of, 'phoenix and the turtle, the,' pichot, a., 'pierce pennilesse.' see nash, thomas ( ) 'pierces supererogation,' by gabriel harvey, _n_ pindar, his claim for the immortality of verse, and _n_ plague, the, in stratford-on-avon, in london, plautus, the plot of the _comedy of errors_ drawn from, translation of, plays, sale of, and _n_ revision of, their publication deprecated by playhouse authorities, _n_ only a small proportion printed, _n_ prices paid for, _n_ 'pleiade, la,' title of the literary comrades of ronsard, list of, 'plutarch,' north's translation of, shakespeare's indebtedness and _n_ and _n_ poaching episode, the, 'poetaster,' jonson's, and _n_ poland, translations and performances of shakespeare in, pontoux, claude de, name of his heroine copied by drayton, pope, alexander, edition of shakespeare by, porto, luigi da, adapts the story of romeo and juliet, _n_ portraits of the poet, - _n_ the 'stratford' portrait, droeshout's engraving, the 'droeshout' painting, - portrait in the clarendon gallery, 'ely house' portrait, chandos portrait, 'jansen' portrait, 'felton' and 'soest' portraits, miniatures, pott, mrs. henry, prevost, abbe, pritchard, mrs., procter, bryan waller (barry cornwall), _promos and cassandra_, prospero, character of, provinces, the, practice of theatrical touring in, - publication of dramas: deprecated by playhouse authorities, _n_ only a small proportion of the dramas of the period printed, _n_ sixteen of shakespeare's plays published in his lifetime, punning, _n_ _puritaine_, _or the widdow of watling-streete_, _the_, puritanism, alleged prevalence in stratford-on-avon of, _n_ _n_ its hostility to dramatic representations, _n_ _n_ the poet's references to, _n_ 'pyramus and thisbe,' q quarles, john, 'banishment of tarquin' of, quarto editions of the plays, in the poet's lifetime, posthumous, of the poems in the poet's lifetime, posthumous, 'quatorzain,' term applied to the sonnet, _n_ cf. _n_ 'queen's children of the chapel,' the, - queen's company of actors, the, welcomed to stratford-on-avon by john shakespeare, its return to london, _n_ quiney, thomas, marries judith shakespeare, his residence and trade in stratford, his children, quinton, baptism of one of the hacket family at, r rapp, m., german translation of shakespeare by, ralegh, sir walter, extravagant apostrophe to queen elizabeth by, _n_ _n_ 'ratseis ghost,' and ratsey's address to the players, ravenscroft, edward, on _titus andronicus_, reed, isaac, reformation, the, at stratford-on-avon, _n_ rehan, miss ada, religion and philosophy, sonnets on, _return from parnassus_, _the_, _n_ - revision of plays, the poet's, reynoldes, william, the poet's legacy to, rich, barnabe, story of 'apollonius and silla' by, rich, penelope, lady, sidney's passion for, _richard ii_: the influence of marlowe, published anonymously, the deposition scene, the facts drawn from holinshed, its revival on the eve of the rising of the earl of essex, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _richard iii_: the influence of marlowe, materials drawn from holinshed, mr. swinburne's criticism, burbage's impersonation of the hero, published anonymously, colley cibber's adaptation, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - richardson, john, one of the sureties for the bond against impediments respecting shakespeare's marriage, richmond palace, performances at, ristori, madame, roberts, james, printer, robinson, clement, use of the word 'sonnet' by, _n_ roche, walter, master of stratford grammar school, _roles_, shakespeare's: at greenwich palace, _n_ in _every man in his humour_, in _sejanus_, the ghost in _hamlet_, 'played some kingly parts in sport,' adam in _as you like it_, rolfe, mr. w. j, _romeo and juliet_, plot drawn from the italian, date of composition, first printed, authentic and revised version of , two choruses in the sonnet form, satirical allusion to sonnetteering, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _romeus and juliet_, arthur brooke's, ronsard, plagiarised by english sonnetteers, _n_ _seq._ by shakespeare, and _n_ his claim for the immortality of verse, and _n_ _n_ his sonnets of vituperation, first gave the sonnet a literary vogue in france, and 'la pleiade,' modern reprint of his works, _n_ rosalind, played by a boy, _n_ rosaline, praised for her 'blackness,' 'rosalynde, euphues golden legacie,' lodge's, rose theatre, bankside: erected by philip henslowe, opened by lord strange's company, the scene of the poet's first successes, performance of _henry vi_, production of the _venesyon comedy_, rossi, representation of shakespeare by, roussillon, countess of, rowe, nicholas, on the parentage of shakespeare's wife, on shakespeare's poaching escapade, on shakespeare's performance of the ghost in _hamlet_, on the story of southampton's gift to shakespeare, on queen elizabeth's enthusiasm for the character of falstaff, on the poet's last years at stratford, on john combe's epitaph, _n_ his edition of the poet's plays, rowington, the richard and william shakespeares of, rowlands, samuel, rowley, william, roydon, matthew, poem on sir philip sidney, _n_ rumelin, gustav, rupert, prince, at stratford-on-avon, rusconi, carlo, italian prose version of shakespeare issued by, russia, translations and performances of shakespeare in, rymer, thomas, his censure of the poet, s s., m. i., tribute to the poet thus headed, and _n_ s., w., initials in willobie's book, commonness of the initials, _n_ use of the initials on works fraudulently attributed to the poet, sackville, thomas, _n_ sadler, hamlett, the poet's legacy to, saint-saens, m., opera of _henry viii_ by, st. helen's, bishopsgate, a william shakespeare in living in, and _n_ sainte-marthe, scevole de, salvini, representation of _othello_ by, sand, george, translation of _as you like it_ by, sandells, fulk, one of the sureties for the bond against impediments with respect to shakespeare's marriage, supervisor of richard hathaway's will, saperton, 'sapho and phao,' address to cupid in, _n_ _satiro-mastix_, a retort to jonson's _cynthia's revels_, savage, mr. richard, _n_ 'saviolo's practise,' scenery unknown in shakespeare's day, and _n_ designed by inigo jones for masques, _n_ sir philip sidney on difficulties arising from its absence, _n_ schiller, adaptation of _macbeth_ for the stage by, schlegel, a. w. von, german translation of shakespeare by, lectures on shakespeare by, schmidt, alexander, 'schoole of abuse,' schroeder, f. u. l., german actor of shakespeare, schubert, franz, setting of shakepearean songs by, schumann, setting of shakespearean songs by, 'scillaes metamorphosis,' lodge's, drawn upon by shakespeare for 'venus and adonis,' and _n_ scoloker, anthony, in 'daiphantus,' scotland, shakespeare's alleged travels in, - visits of actors to, scott, reginald, allusion to monarcho in 'the discoverie of witchcraft' of, _n_ scott, sir walter, at charlecote, _scourge of folly_, _n_ sedley, sir charles, apostrophe to the poet, _sejanus_, shakespeare takes part in the performance of, _selimus_, serafino dell' aquila, watson's indebtedness to, _n_ _n_ _n_ seve, maurice, and _n_ _n_ sewell, dr. george, 'shadow of the night, the,' chapman's, _n_ shakespeare, the surname of, cf. _n_ shakespeare, adam, shakespeare, ann, a sister of the poet, shakespeare, anne (or agnes): her parentage, her marriage to the poet, - assumed identification of her with anne whateley, and _n_ her debt, her husband's bequest to her, her widow's dower barred, and _n_ her wish to be buried in her husband's grave, committed by her husband to the care of the elder daughter, her death, and _n_ shakespeare, edmund, a brother of the poet, is 'a player,' death, shakespeare, gilbert, a brother of the poet, witnesses his brother's performance of adam in _as you like it_, apparently had a son named gilbert, his death not recorded, shakespeare, hamnet, son of the poet, shakespeare, henry, one of the poet's uncles, shakespeare, joan ( ), shakespeare, joan ( ), see hart, joan shakespeare, john ( ), the first recorded holder of this surname (thirteenth century), shakespeare, john ( ), the poet's father, administrator of richard shakespeare's estate, claims that his grandfather received a grant of land from henry vii, leaves snitterfield for stratford-on-avon, his business, his property in stratford and his municipal offices, marries mary arden, his children, his house in henley street, stratford, appointed alderman and bailiff, welcomes actors at stratford, his alleged sympathies with puritanism, _n_ his application for a grant of arms, _n_ - his financial difficulties, his younger children, writ of distraint issued against him, deprived of his alderman's gown, his trade of butcher, increase of pecuniary difficulties, relieved by the poet, his death, shakespeare or shakspere, john (a shoemaker), another resident at stratford, _n_ shakespeare, judith, the poet's second daughter, her marriage to thomas quiney, her father's bequest to her, her children, her death, shakespeare, margaret, shakespeare, mary, the poet's mother: her marriage, her ancestry and parentage, her property, her title to bear the arms of the arden family, her death, shakespeare, richard, a brother of the poet, his death, shakespeare, richard, of rowington, shakespeare, richard, of snitterfield, probably the poet's grandfather, his family, letters of administration of his estate, and _n_ shakespeare, richard, of wroxhall, shakespeare, susanna, a daughter of the poet, _see also_ hall, mrs. susanna shakespeare, thomas, probably one of the poet's uncles, shakespeare, william: parentage and birthplace, - childhood, education, and marriage, - (_see also_ education of shakespeare; poaching; shakespeare, anne) departure from stratford, - theatrical employment, - joins the lord chamberlain's company, his _roles_, his first plays, - publication of his poems, _seq._ his sonnets, - - patronage of the earl of southampton, - plays composed between and , - his popularity and influence, - returns to stratford, buys new place, financial position before , _seq._ financial position after , _seq._ formation of his estate at stratford, _seq._ plays written between and , - the latest plays, _seq._ performance of his plays at court, (_see also_ court; whitehall; elizabeth, queen; james i) final settlement in stratford ( ), _seq._ death ( ), his will, _seq._ monument at stratford, personal character, - his survivors and descendants, _seq._ autographs, portraits, and memorials, - bibliography, - his posthumous reputation in england and abroad, - general estimate of his work, - biographical sources, - alleged relation between him and the earl of pembroke, - shakespeare gallery in pall mall, 'shakespeare society,' the, shallow, justice, sir thomas lucy caricatured as, his house in gloucestershire, sheldon copy of the first folio, the, shelton, thomas, translator of 'don quixote,' shiels, robert, compiler of 'lives of the poets,' _n_ shottery, anne hathaway's cottage at, shylock, sources of the portrait of, and _n_ siddons, mrs. sarah, sidney, sir philip: on the absence of scenery in a theatre, _n_ translation of verses from 'diana,' shakespeare's indebtedness to him, addressed as 'willy' by some of his eulogists, his 'astrophel and stella,' brings the sonnet into vogue, piracy of his sonnets, _n_ circulation of manuscript copies of his 'arcadia,' _n_ his addresses to cupid in his 'astrophel,' _n_ warns the public against the insincerity of sonnetteers, on the conceit of the immortalising power of verse, his praise of 'blackness,' and _n_ sonnet on 'desire,' use of the word 'will,' editions of 'astrophel and stella,' popularity of his works, sidney, sir robert, singer, samuel weller, sly, christopher, probably drawn from life, _n_ smethwick, john, bookseller, smith, richard, publisher, smith, wentworth, _n_ plays produced by, _n_ smith, william, sonnets of, _n_ _n_ smith, mr. w. h., and the baconian hypothesis, smithson, miss, actress, snitterfield, richard shakespeare rents land of robert arden at, departure of john shakespeare, the poet's father, from, the arden property at, sale of mary shakespeare's property at, and _n_ snodham, thomas, printer, somers, sir george, wrecked off the bermudas, somerset house, shakespeare and his company at, and _n_ sonnet in france ( - ), the, bibliographical note on (appendix x.), - sonnets, shakespeare's: the poet's first attempts, the majority probably composed in , a few written between and (e.g. cvii.) their literary value, circulation in manuscript, commended by meres, their piratical publication in , - their form, want of continuity, the two 'groups,' main topics of the first 'group,' main topics of the second 'group,' rearrangement in the edition of , autobiographical only in a limited sense, censure of them by sir john davies, their borrowed conceits, - indebtedness to drayton, petrarch, ronsard, de baif, desportes, and others, - the poet's claim of immortality for his sonnets, - cf. _n_ the 'will sonnets,' (and appendix viii) praise of 'blackness,' vituperation, - 'dedicatory' sonnets, _seq._ the 'rival poet,' - sonnets of friendship, - the supposed story of intrigue - summary of conclusions respecting the sonnets, - edition of , sonnets, quoted with explanatory comments: xx. _n_ : xxvi. _n_ : xxxii. _n_ : xxxvii. xxxviii. : xxxix. : xlvi.-xlvii. _n_ lv. : lxxiv. (_quot._) : lxxviii. lxxx. : lxxxv. : lxxxvi. : lxxxviii. lxxxix. : xciv. : c. ciii. : cvii. _n_ cviii. : cx. : cxi. : cxix. and _n_ cxxiv. : cxxvi. and _n_ : cxxvii. cxxix. and _n_ : cxxxii. cxxxv.-cxxxvi. - : cxxxviii. cxliii. _n_ and _n_ : cxliv. cliii.-cliv. and _n_ the vogue of the elizabethan: english sonnettering inaugurated by wyatt and surrey, followed by thomas watson, sidney's 'astrophel and stella,' and _n_ poets celebrate patrons' virtues in sonnets, conventional device of sonnetteers of feigning old age, _n_ lack of genuine sentiment, french and italian models, and _n_ - appendices ix. and x. translations from du bellay, desportes, and petrarch, and _n_ admissions of insincerity, censure of false sentiment in sonnets, shakespeare's scornful allusions to sonnets in his plays, vituperative sonnets, - the word 'sonnet' often used for 'song' or 'poem,' _n_ i. collected sonnets of feigned love, - , - ii. sonnets to patrons, iii. sonnets on philosophy and religion, number of sonnets published between and , - various poems in other stanzas practically belonging to the sonnet category, _n_ soothern, john, sonnets to the earl of oxford, _n_ sophocles, parallelisms with the works of shakespeare, _n_ southampton, henry wriothesley, third earl of, the dedications to him of 'venus and adonis' and 'lucrece,' his patronage of florio, _n_ his patronage of shakespeare, - his gift to the poet, his youthful appearance, his identity with the youth of shakespeare's sonnets of 'friendship' evidenced by his portraits, and _n_ imprisonment, his long hair, _n_ his beauty, his youthful career, - as a literary patron, - southwell, robert, circulation of incorrect copies of 'mary magdalene's tears' by, _n_ publication of "a foure-fould meditation' by, and _n_ _n_ dedication of his 'short rule of life,' southwell, father thomas, spanish, translation of shakespeare's plays into, _spanish tragedy_, kyd's, popularity of, quoted in the _taming of the shrew_, _n_ spedding, james, spelling of the poet's name, - spenser, edmund: probably attracted to shakespeare by the poems 'venus and adonis' and 'lucrece,' his description of shakespeare in 'colin clouts come home againe,' shakespeare's reference to spenser's work in _midsummer night's dream_, spenser's allusion to 'our pleasant willy' not a reference to the poet, and _n_ his description of the 'gentle spirit' no description of shakespeare, and _n_ translation of sonnets from du bellay and petrarch, called by gabriel harvey 'an english petrarch,' and cf. _n_ on the immortalising power of verse, his apostrophe to admiral lord charles howard, his 'amoretti,' and _n_ dedication of his 'faerie queene,' 'spirituall sonnettes' by constable, sport, shakespeare's knowledge of, and _n_ stael, madame de, stafford, lord, his company of actors, stage, conditions of, in shakespeare's day: absence of scenery and scenic costume, and _n_ the performance of female parts by men or boys, and _n_ the curtain and balcony of the stage, _n_ stanhope of harrington, lord, _n_ 'staple of news, the,' jonson's quotations from _julius caesar_ in, _n_ staunton, howard, his edition of the poet, steele, richard, on betterton's rendering of othello, steevens, george: his edition of shakespeare, his revision of johnson's edition, his criticisms, the 'puck of commentators,' stinchcombe hill referred to as 'the hill' in _henry iv_, stopes, mrs. c. c., strange, lord. _see_ derby, earl of straparola, 'notti' of, and the _merry wives of windsor_, stratford-on-avon, settlement of john shakespeare, the poet's father, at, property owned by john shakespeare in, the poet's birthplace at, the shakespeare museum at, the plague in at, actors for the first time at, and the reformation, _n_ the shoemakers' company and its master, _n_ the grammar school, shakespeare's departure from, native place of richard field, allusions in the _taming of the shrew_ to, the poet's return in to, the poet's purchase of new place, appeals from townsmen to the poet for aid, the poet's purchase of land at, - the poet's last years at, attempt to enclose common lands and shakespeare's interest in it, the poet's death and burial at, shakespeare memorial building at, the 'jubilee' and the tercentenary, suckling, sir john, 'sugred,' an epithet applied to the poet's work, and _n_ sullivan, barry, sully, m. mounet, and _n_ sumarakow, translation into russian by, _supposes_, the, of george gascoigne, surrey, earl of, sonnets of, _n_ sussex, earl of, his company of actors, _titus andronicus_ performed by, swedish, translations of shakespeare in, 'sweet,' epithet applied to shakespeare, swinburne, mr. a. c., _n_ sylvester, joshua, sonnets to patrons by, and _n_ t taille, jean de la, _n_ _tamburlaine_, marlowe's, _taming of a shrew_, _taming of the shrew_: probable period of production, identical with _love's labour's won_, and _the taming of a shrew_, the story of bianca and her lovers and the _supposes_ of george gascoigne, biographical bearing of the induction, quotation from the _spanish tragedy_, _n_ _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - tarleton, richard, his 'newes out of purgatorie' and the _merry wives of windsor_, tasso, similarity of sentiment with that of shakespeare's sonnets, _n_ 'teares of fancy,' watson's, 'teares of the isle of wight,' elegies on southampton, 'teares of the muses,' spenser's, referred to in _midsummer night's dream_, _tempest_, _the_: traces of the influence of ovid, _n_ the shipwreck akin to a similar scene in _pericles_, probably the latest drama completed by the poet, and the shipwreck of sir george somers's fleet on the bermudas, the source for the plot, performed at the princess elizabeth's nuptial festivities, the date of composition, and _n_ its performance at whitehall in , _n_ its lyrics, and _n_ ben jonson's scornful allusion to, reflects the poet's highest imaginative powers, fanciful interpretations of, chief characters of, and _notes_ and . _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - temple grafton, and _n_ 'temple shakespeare, the,' tercentenary festival, the shakespeare, 'terrors of the night,' piracy of, _n_ nocturnal habits of 'familiars' described in, _n_ terry, miss ellen, theatre, the, at shoreditch, owned by james burbage, shakespeare at, between and , demolished, and the globe theatre built with the materials, theatres in london: blackfriars (_q.v._) curtain (_q.v._) duke's, fortune, _n_ globe (_q.v._) newington butts, red bull, _n_ rose (_q.v._) swan, _n_ the theatre, shoreditch (_q.v._) theobald, lewis, his emendations of _hamlet_, publishes a play alleged to be by shakespeare, his criticism of pope, his edition of the poet's works, thomas, ambroise, opera of _hamlet_ by, thoms, w. j., thornbury, g. w., thorpe, thomas, the piratical publisher of shakespeare's sonnets, - his relations with marlowe, _n_ adds 'a lover's complaint' to the collection of sonnets, his bombastic dedication to 'mr. w. h.', - the true history of 'mr. w. h.' and, (appendix v.) - _three ladies of london_, _the_, some of the scenes in the _merchant of venice_ anticipated in, thyard, ponthus de, a member of 'la pleiade' tieck, ludwig, theory respecting _the tempest_ of, tilney, edmund, master of the revels, _n_ _timon of athens_: date of composition, written in collaboration, a previous play on the same subject, its sources, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _timon_, lucian's, _titus andronicus_: one of the only two plays of the poet's performed by a company other than his own, doubts of its authenticity, internal evidence of kyd's authorship, suggested by _titus and vespasian_, played by various companies, entered on the 'stationers' register' in , _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _titus and vespasian_, _titus andronicus_ suggested by, tofte, robert, sonnets by, and _n_ topics of the day, shakespeare's treatment of, _n_, tottel's 'miscellany,' tours of english actors: in foreign countries between and , and _see_ _n_ in provincial towns, - itinerary from to , _n_ translations of the poet's works, _seq._ travel, foreign, shakespeare's ridicule of, and _n_ 'troilus and cresseid,' _troilus and cressida_: allusion to the strife between adult and boy actors, date of production, the quarto and folio editions, treatment of the theme, the endeavour to treat the play as the poet's contribution to controversy between jonson and marston and dekker, _n_ plot drawn from chaucer's 'troilus and cresseid and lydgate's 'troy book,' _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - 'troy book,' lydgate's, _true tragedie of richard iii_, _the_, an anonymous play, _true tragedie of richard_, _duke of yorke_, _and the death of good king henry the sixt_, _as it was sundrie times acted by the earl of pembroke his servants_, _the_, turbervile, george, use of the word 'sonnet' by, _n_ _twelfth night_: description of a betrothal, _n_ indebtedness to the story of 'apollonius and silla,' date of production, allusion to the 'new map,' _n_ produced at middle temple hall, manningham's description of, probable source of the story, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - twiss, f., _n_ _two gentlemen of verona_: allusion to valentine travelling from verona to milan by sea, date of production, probably an adaptation, source of the story, farcical drollery, first publication, influence of lyly, satirical allusion to sonnetteering, resemblance of it to _all's well that ends well_, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - _two noble kinsmen_, _the_: attributed to fletcher and shakespeare, and _n_ massinger's alleged share in its production, plot drawn from chaucer's 'knight's tale,' twyne, lawrence, the story of pericles in the 'patterne of painfull adventures' by, tyler, mr. thomas, on the sonnets, _n_ _n_ _n_ u ulrici, 'shakespeare's dramatic art' by, v variorum editions of shakespeare, vautrollier, thomas, the london printer, _venesyon comedy_, _the_, produced by henslowe at the rose, 'venus and adonis:' published in , dedicated to the earl of southampton, its imagery and general tone, the influence of ovid, and of lodges 'scillaes metamorphosis,' and _n_ the motto, and _n_ eulogies bestowed upon it, early editions, verdi, operas by, vere, lady elizabeth, vernon, mistress elizabeth, versification, shakespeare's, and _n_ vigny, alfred de, version of _othello_ by, villemain, recognition of the poet's greatness by, virginia company, visor, william, in _henry iv_, member of a family at woodmancote, voltaire, strictures on the poet by, voss, j. h., german translation of shakespeare by, w walden, lord, campion's sonnet to, wales, henry, prince of, the earl of nottingham's company of players taken into the patronage of, _n_ walker, william, the poet's godson, walker, w. sidney, on shakespeare's versification, _n_ walley, henry, printer, warburton, bishop, revised version of pope's edition of shakespeare by, ward, dr. a. w., ward, rev. john, on the poet's annual expenditure, on the visits of drayton and jonson to new place before the poet's death, his account of the poet, warner, richard, warner, william, the probable translator of the _menaechmi_, warren, john, warwickshire: prevalence of the surname shakespeare, a position of the arden family, queen elizabeth's progress on the way to kenilworth, watchmen in the poet's plays, watkins, richard, printer, watson, thomas, the passage on time in his 'passionate centurie of love' elaborated in 'venus and adonis,' and _n_ his sonnets, _n_ plagiarisation of petrarch, _n_ foreign origin of his sonnets, _n_ his 'tears of fancie,' _n_ 'weak endings' in shakespeare, _n_ webbe, alexander, makes john shakespeare overseer of his will, webbe, robert, buys the snitterfield property from shakespeare's mother, and _n_ webster, john, alludes in the _white divel_ to shakespeare's industry, _n_ weelkes, thomas, _n_ weever, thomas: his eulogy of the poet, _n_ allusion in his 'mirror of martyrs' to antony's speech at caesar's funeral, welcombe, enclosure of common fields at, and _n_ 'westward for smelts' and the _merry wives of windsor_, and _n_ story of ginevra in, whateley, anne, the assumed identification of her with anne hathaway, and _n_ wheler, r. b., whetstone, george, his _promos and cassandra_, white, mr. richard grant, whitehall, performances at, and _n_ _n_ wieland, christopher martin: his translation of shakespeare, wilkins, george, his collaboration with shakespeare in _timon of athens_ and _pericles_, his novel founded on the play of _pericles_, wilks, robert, actor, will, shakespeare's, - 'will' sonnets, the, elizabethan meanings of 'will,' shakespeare's uses of the word, the poet's puns on the word, play upon 'wish' and 'will,' interpretation of the word in sonnets cxxiv.-vi. and cxliii., - 'willobie his avisa,' - wilmcote, house of shakespeare's mother, bequest to mary arden of the asbies property at, mortgage of the asbies property at, and 'wincot' in _the taming of the shrew_, wilnecote. _see under_ wincot wilson, robert, author of _the three ladies of london_, wilson, thomas, his manuscript version of 'diana,' wilton, shakespeare and his company at, and _n_ 'wilton, life of jack,' by nash, and _n_ wincot (in _the taming of the shrew_), its identification, 'windsucker,' chapman's, _n_ _winter's tale_, _a_: at the globe in , acted at court, and _n_ based on greene's _pandosto_, a few lines taken from the 'decameron,' and _n_ the presentation of country life, _for_ editions _see_ section xix. (bibliography), - 'wire,' use of the word, for women's hair, and _n_ wise, j. r., wither, george, _n_ 'wittes pilgrimage,' davies's, _n_ women, excluded from elizabethan stage, and _n_ in masques at court, _n_ on the restoration stage, women, addresses to, in sonnets, - _n_ woncot in _henry iv_ identical with woodmancote, wood, anthony a, on the earl of pembroke, woodmancote. _see_ woncot worcester, earl of, his company of actors at stratford, under the patronage of queen anne of denmark, _n_ worcester, registry of the diocese of, wordsworth, bishop charles, on shakespeare and the bible, _n_ wordsworth, william, the poet, on german and french aesthetic criticism, wotton, sir henry, on the burning of the globe theatre, _n_ wright, dr. aldis, _n_ wright, john, bookseller, wriothesley, lord, wroxhall, the shakespeares of, wyatt, sir thomas, sonnetteering of, _n_ his translations of petrarch's sonnets, _n_ wyman, w. h., wyndham, mr. george, on the sonnets, _n_ _n_ on _antony and cleopatra_, _n_ on jacobean typography, _n_ y yonge, bartholomew, translation of 'diana' by, _yorkshire tragedy_, _the_, z zepheria, a collection of sonnets called, legal terminology in, _n_ the praise of daniel's 'delia' in, footnotes. {vii} arnold wrote 'spiritual,' but the change of epithet is needful to render the dictum thoroughly pertinent to the topic under consideration. {ix} i have already published portions of the papers on shakespeare's relations with the earls of pembroke and southampton in the _fortnightly review_ (for february of this year) and in the _cornhill magazine_ (for april of this year), and i have to thank the proprietors of those periodicals for permission to reproduce my material in this volume. {x} for an account of its history see p. . {xi} see pp. and . { a} camden, _remaines_, ed. , p. iii; verstegan, _restitution_, . { b} _plac. cor._ edw. i, kanc.; cf. _notes and queries_, st ser. xi. . { c} cf. the _register of the guild of st. anne at knowle_, ed. bickley, . { } see p. . { a} cf. _times_, october , ; _notes and queries_, th ser. viii. ; articles by mrs. stopes in _genealogical magazine_, . { b} cf. halliwell-phillipps, _outlines of the life of shakespeare_, , ii. . { c} the purchasing power of money was then eight times what it is now, and this and other sums mentioned should be multiplied by eight in comparing them with modern currency (see p. _n_). the letters of administration in regard to richard shakespeare's estate are in the district registry of the probate court at worcester, and were printed in full by mr. halliwell-phillipps in his _shakespeare's tours_ (privately issued ), pp. - . they do not appear in any edition of mr. halliwell-phillipps's _outlines_. certified extracts appeared in _notes and queries_, th ser. xii. - . { } french, _genealogica shakespeareana_, pp. seq.; cf. p. _infra_. { } halliwell-phillipps, ii. . { } cf. halliwell-phillipps, letter to elze, . { } cf. documents and sketches in halliwell-phillipps, i. - . { } the rev. thomas carter, in _shakespeare_, _puritan and recusant_, , has endeavoured to show that john shakespeare was a puritan in religious matters, inclining to nonconformity. he deduces this inference from the fact that, at the period of his prominent association with the municipal government of stratford, the corporation ordered images to be defaced ( - ) and ecclesiastical vestments to be sold ( ). these entries merely prove that the aldermen and councillors of stratford strictly conformed to the new religion as by law established in the first years of elizabeth's reign. nothing can be deduced from them in regard to the private religious opinions of john shakespeare. the circumstance that he was the first bailiff to encourage actors to visit stratford is, on the other hand, conclusive proof that his religion was not that of the contemporary puritan, whose hostility to all forms of dramatic representations was one of his most persistent characteristics. the elizabethan puritans, too, according to guillim's _display of heraldrie_ ( ), regarded coat-armour with abhorrence, yet john shakespeare with his son made persistent application to the college of arms for a grant of arms. (cf. _infra_, p. seq.) { a} the sum is stated to be pounds in one document (halliwell-phillipps, ii. ) and pounds in another (_ib._ p. ); the latter is more likely to be correct. { b} _ib._ ii. . { c} efforts recently made to assign the embarrassments of shakespeare's father to another john shakespeare of stratford deserve little attention. the second john shakespeare or shakspere (as his name is usually spelt) came to stratford as a young man in , and was for ten years a well-to-do shoemaker in bridge street, filling the office of master of the shoemakers' company in --a certain sign of pecuniary stability. he left stratford in (cf. halliwell-phillipps, - ). { } james russell lowell, who noticed some close parallels between expressions of shakespeare and those of the greek tragedians, hazarded the suggestion that shakespeare may have studied the ancient drama in a _grace et latine_ edition. i believe lowell's parallelisms to be no more than curious accidents--proofs of consanguinity of spirit, not of any indebtedness on shakespeare's part. in the _electra_ of sophocles, which is akin in its leading motive to _hamlet_, the chorus consoles electra for the supposed death of orestes with the same commonplace argument as that with which hamlet's mother and uncle seek to console him. in _electra_, are the lines - : [greek text] (_i.e._ 'remember, electra, your father whence you sprang is mortal. mortal, too, is orestes. wherefore grieve not overmuch, for by all of us has this debt of suffering to be paid'). in _hamlet_ (i. ii. sq.) are the familiar sentences: thou know'st 'tis common; all that live must die. but you must know, your father lost a father; that father lost, lost his . . . but to persever in obstinate condolement is a course of impious stubbornness. cf. sophocles's _oedipus coloneus_, : [greek text] ('in a just cause the weak vanquishes the strong,' jebb), and _henry vi_, iii. , 'thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just.' shakespeare's 'prophetic soul' in _hamlet_ (i. v. ) and the _sonnets_ (cvii. i) may be matched by the [greek text] of euripides's _andromache_, ; and hamlet's 'sea of troubles' (iii. i. ) by the [greek text] of aeschylus's _persae_, . among all the creations of shakespearean and greek drama, lady macbeth and aeschylus's clytemnestra, who 'in man's counsels bore no woman's heart' ([greek text], _agamemnon_, ii), most closely resemble each other. but a study of the points of resemblance attests no knowledge of aeschylus on shakespeare's part, but merely the close community of tragic genius that subsisted between the two poets. { } macray, _annals of the bodleian library_, , pp. seq. { } cf. spencer baynes, 'what shakespeare learnt at school,' in _shakespeare studies_, , pp. seq. { a} bishop charles wordsworth, in his _shakespeare's knowledge and use of the bible_ ( th edit. ), gives a long list of passages for which shakespeare may have been indebted to the bible. but the bishop's deductions as to the strength of shakespeare's piety are strained. { b} see p. _infra_. { } notes of john dowdall, a tourist in warwickshire in (published in ). { } these conclusions are drawn from an examination of like documents in the worcester diocesan registry. many formal declarations of consent on the part of parents to their children's marriages are also extant there among the sixteenth-century archives. { } _twelfth night_, act v. sc. i. ll. - : a contract of eternal bond of love, confirm'd by mutual joinder of your hands, attested by the holy close of lips, strengthen'd by interchangement of your rings; and all the ceremony of this compact seal'd in my [_i.e._ the priest's] function by my testimony. in _measure for measure_ claudio's offence is intimacy with the lady julia after the contract of betrothal and before the formality of marriage (cf. act i. sc. ii. l. , act iv. sc. i. l. ). { } no marriage registers of the period are extant at temple grafton to inform us whether anne whately actually married _her_ william shakespeare or who precisely the parties were. a whateley family resided in stratford, but there is nothing to show that anne of temple grafton was connected with it. the chief argument against the conclusion that the marriage license and the marriage bond concerned different couples lies in the apparent improbability that two persons, both named william shakespeare, should on two successive days not only be arranging with the bishop of worcester's official to marry, but should be involving themselves, whether on their own initiative or on that of their friends, in more elaborate and expensive forms of procedure than were habitual to the humbler ranks of contemporary society. but the worcester diocese covered a very wide area, and was honeycombed with shakespeare families of all degrees of gentility. the william shakespeare whom anne whately was licensed to marry may have been of a superior station, to which marriage by license was deemed appropriate. on the unwarranted assumption of the identity of the william shakespeare of the marriage bond with the william shakespeare of the marriage license, a romantic theory has been based to the effect that 'anne whateley of temple grafton,' believing herself to have a just claim to the poet's hand, secured the license on hearing of the proposed action of anne hathaway's friends, and hoped, by moving in the matter a day before the shottery husbandmen, to insure shakespeare's fidelity to his alleged pledges. { a} _twelfth night_, act ii. sc. iv. l. : let still the woman take an elder than herself; so wears she to him, so sways she level in her husband's heart. { b} tempest, act iv. sc. i. ll. - : if thou dost break her virgin knot before all sanctimonious ceremonies may with full and holy rite be minister'd, no sweet aspersion shall the heavens let fall to make this contract grow; but barren hate, sour-ey'd disdain, and discord, shall bestrew the union of your bed with weeds so loathly that you shall hate it both. { } halliwell-phillipps, ii. - . { } cf. ellacombe, _shakespeare as an angler_, ; j. e. harting, _ornithology of shakespeare_, . the best account of shakespeare's knowledge of sport is given by the right hon. d. h. madden in his entertaining and at the same time scholarly _diary of master william silence_: _a study of shakespeare and elizabethan sport_, . { } cf. c. holte bracebridge, _shakespeare no deerstealer_, ; lockhart, _life of scott_, vii. . { } cf. w. j. thoms, _three notelets on shakespeare_, , pp. seq. { a} cf. hales, _notes on shakespeare_, , pp. - . { b} the common assumption that richard burbage, the chief actor with whom shakespeare was associated, was a native of stratford is wholly erroneous. richard was born in shoreditch, and his father came from hertfordshire. john heming, another of shakespeare's actor-friends who has also been claimed as a native of stratford, was beyond reasonable doubt born at droitwich in worcestershire. thomas greene, a popular comic actor at the red bull theatre early in the seventeenth century, is conjectured to have belonged to stratford on no grounds that deserve attention; shakespeare was in no way associated with him. { a} blades, _shakspere and typography_, . { b} cf. lord campbell, _shakespeare's legal acquirements_, . legal terminology abounded in all plays and poems of the period, e.g. barnabe barnes's _sonnets_, , and _zepheria_, (see appendix ix.) { c} commonly assigned to theophilus cibber, but written by robert shiels and other hack-writers under cibber's editorship. { a} the site of the blackfriars theatre is now occupied by the offices of the 'times' newspaper in queen victoria street, e.c. { b} cf. _exchequer lay subsidies city of london_, / , public record office; _notes and queries_, th ser. viii. . { c} shakespeare alludes to the appearance of men or boys in women's parts when he makes rosalind say laughingly to the men of the audience in the epilogue to _as you like it_, '_if i were a woman_, i would kiss as many,' etc. similarly, cleopatra on her downfall in _antony and cleopatra_, v. ii. seq., laments: the quick comedians extemporally will stage us . . . and i shall see some squeaking cleopatra boy my greatness. men taking women's parts seem to have worn masks. flute is bidden by quince play thisbe 'in a mask' in _midsummer night's dream_ (i. ii. ). in french and italian theatres of the time women seem to have acted publicly, but until the restoration public opinion in england deemed the appearance of a woman on a public stage to be an act of shamelessness on which the most disreputable of her sex would hardly venture. with a curious inconsistency ladies of rank were encouraged at queen elizabeth's court, and still more frequently at the courts of james i and charles i, to take part in private and amateur representations of masques and short dramatic pageants. during the reign of james i scenic decoration, usually designed by inigo jones, accompanied the production of masques in the royal palaces, but until the restoration the public stages were bare of any scenic contrivance except a front curtain opening in the middle and a balcony or upper platform resting on pillars at the back of the stage, from which portions of the dialogue were sometimes spoken, although occasionally the balcony seems to have been occupied by spectators (cf. a sketch made by a dutch visitor to london in of the stage of the swan theatre in _zur kenntniss der altenglischen buhne von karl theodor gaedertz_. _mit der ersten authentischen innern ansicht der schwans theater in london_, bremen, ). sir philip sidney humorously described the spectator's difficulties in an elizabethan playhouse, where, owing to the absence of stage scenery, he had to imagine the bare boards to present in rapid succession a garden, a rocky coast, a cave, and a battlefield (_apologie for poetrie_, p. ). three flourishes on a trumpet announced the beginning of the performance, but a band of fiddlers played music between the acts. the scenes of each act were played without interruption. { a} cf. halliwell-phillipps's _visits of shakespeare's company of actors to the provincial cities and towns of england_ (privately printed, ). from the information there given, occasionally supplemented from other sources, the following imperfect itinerary is deduced: . bristol and shrewsbury. . marlborough. . faversham, bath, rye, bristol, dover and marlborough. . richmond (surrey), bath, coventry, shrewsbury, mortlake, wilton house. . oxford. . barnstaple and oxford. . leicester, saffron walden, marlborough, oxford, dover and maidstone. . oxford. . coventry and marlborough. . hythe, new romney and shrewsbury. . dover, oxford and shrewsbury. . new romney. . folkestone, oxford and shrewsbury. . coventry. { b} cf. knight's _life of shakespeare_ ( ), p. ; fleay, _stage_, pp. - . { a} the favour bestowed by james vi on these english actors was so marked as to excite the resentment of the leaders of the kirk. the english agent, george nicolson, in a (hitherto unpublished) despatch dated from edinburgh on november , , wrote: 'the four sessions of this town (without touch by name of our english players, fletcher and mertyn [_i.e._ martyn], with their company), and not knowing the king's ordinances for them to play and be heard, enacted [that] their flocks [were] to forbear and not to come to or haunt profane games, sports, or plays.' thereupon the king summoned the sessions before him in council and threatened them with the full rigour of the law. obdurate at first, the ministers subsequently agreed to moderate their hostile references to the actors. finally, nicolson adds, 'the king this day by proclamation with sound of trumpet hath commanded the players liberty to play, and forbidden their hinder or impeachment therein.' _ms. state papers_, dom. scotland, p. r. o. vol. lxv. no. . { b} fleay, _stage_, pp. - . { c} cf. duncan's speech (on arriving at macbeth's castle of inverness): this castle hath a pleasant seat; the air nimbly and sweetly recommends itself unto our gentle senses. _banquo_. this guest of summer, the temple-haunting martlet, does approve, by his lov'd mansionry, that the heaven's breath smells wooingly here. (_macbeth_, . vi. - ). { a} cf. cohn, _shakespeare in germany_, ; meissner, _die englischen comodianten zur zeit shakespeare's in oesterreich_, vienna, ; jon stefansson on 'shakespeare at elsinore' in _contemporary review_, january ; _notes and queries_, th ser. ix. , and xi. ; and m. jusserand's article in the _nineteenth century_, april , on english actors in france. { b} cf. _as you like it_, iv. i. - . { a} cf. elze, _essays_, , pp. seq. { b} 'quality' in elizabethan english was the technical term for the 'actor's profession.' { c} aubrey's _lives_, ed. andrew clark, ii. . { a} halliwell-phillipps, i. ; mrs. stopes in _jahrbuck der deutschen shakespeare-gesellschaft_, , xxxii. seq. { b} _scourge of folly_, , epigr. . { } one of the many crimes laid to the charge of the dramatist robert greene was that of fraudulently disposing of the same play to two companies. 'ask the queen's players,' his accuser bade him in cuthbert cony-catcher's _defence of cony-catching_, , 'if you sold them not _orlando furioso_ for twenty nobles [_i.e._ about pounds], and when they were in the country sold the same play to the lord admiral's men for as many more.' { } the playhouse authorities deprecated the publishing of plays in the belief that their dissemination in print was injurious to the receipts of the theatre. a very small proportion of plays acted in elizabeth's and james i's reign consequently reached the printing press, and most of them are now lost. but in the absence of any law of copyright publishers often defied the wishes of the owner of manuscripts. many copies of a popular play were made for the actors, and if one of these copies chanced to fall into a publisher's hands, it was habitually issued without any endeavour to obtain either author's or manager's sanction. in march the theatrical manager philip henslowe endeavoured to induce a publisher who had secured a playhouse copy of the comedy of _patient grissell_ by dekker, chettle, and haughton to abandon the publication of it by offering him a bribe of pounds. the publication was suspended till (cf. henslowe's _diary_, p. ). as late as thomas heywood wrote of 'some actors who think it against their peculiar profit to have them [_i.e._ plays] come into print.' (_english traveller_, pref.) { } w. s. walker in his _shakespeare's versification_, , and charles bathurst in his _difference in shakespeare's versification at different periods of his life_, , were the first to point out the general facts. dr. ingram's paper on 'the weak endings' in _new shakspere society's transactions_ ( ), vol. i., is of great value. mr. fleay's metrical tables, which first appeared in the same society's _transactions_ ( ), and have been reissued by dr. furnivall in a somewhat revised form in his introduction to gervinus's _commentaries_ and in his _leopold shakspere_, give all the information possible. { } the hero is the king of navarre, in whose dominions the scene is laid. the two chief lords in attendance on him in the play, biron and longaville, bear the actual names of the two most strenuous supporters of the real king of navarre (biron's later career subsequently formed the subject of two plays by chapman, _the conspiracie of duke biron_ and _the tragedy of biron_, which were both produced in ). the name of the lord dumain in _love's labour's lost_ is a common anglicised version of that duc de maine or mayenne whose name was so frequently mentioned in popular accounts of french affairs in connection with navarre's movements that shakespeare was led to number him also among his supporters. mothe or la mothe, the name of the pretty, ingenious page, was that of a french ambassador who was long popular in london; and, though he left england in , he lived in the memory of playgoers and playwrights long after _love's labour's lost_ was written. in chapman's _an humourous day's mirth_, , m. le mot, a sprightly courtier in attendance on the king of france, is drawn from the same original, and his name, as in shakespeare's play, suggests much punning on the word 'mote.' as late as middleton, in his _blurt_, _master constable_, act ii. scene ii. line , wrote: ho god! ho god! thus did i revel it when monsieur motte lay here ambassador. armado, 'the fantastical spaniard' who haunts navarre's court, and is dubbed by another courtier 'a phantasm, a monarcho,' is a caricature of a half-crazed spaniard known as 'fantastical monarcho' who for many years hung about elizabeth's court, and was under the delusion that he owned the ships arriving in the port of london. on his death thomas churchyard wrote a poem called _fantasticall monarcho's epitaph_, and mention is made of him in reginald scott's _discoverie of witchcraft_, , p. . the name armado was doubtless suggested by the expedition of . braggardino in chapman's _blind beggar of alexandria_, , is drawn on the same lines. the scene (_love's labour's lost_, v. ii. sqq.) in which the princess's lovers press their suit in the disguise of russians follows a description of the reception by ladies of elizabeth's court in of russian ambassadors who came to london to seek a wife among the ladies of the english nobility for the tsar (cf. horsey's _travels_, ed. e. a. bond, hakluyt soc.) for further indications of topics of the day treated in the play, see a new study of "love's labour's lost,"' by the present writer, in _gent. mag_, oct. ; and _transactions of the new shakspere society_, pt. iii. p. *. the attempt to detect in the schoolmaster holofernes a caricature of the italian teacher and lexicographer, john florio, seems unjustified (see p. n). { } cf. fleay, _life_, pp. seq. { a} the story, which has been traced back to the greek romance _anthia and abrocomas_ by xenophon ephesius, a writer of the second century, seems to have been first told in modern europe about by masuccio in his _novellino_ (no. xxxiii.: cf. mr. waters's translation, ii. - ). it was adapted from masuccio by luigi da porto in his novel, _la giulietta_, , and by bandello in his _novelle_, , pt. ii., no. ix. bandello's version became classical; it was translated in the _histoires tragiques_ of francoisde belleforest (paris, ) by pierre boaistuau de launay, an occasional collaborator with belleforest. at the same time as shakespeare was writing _romeo and juliet_, lope de vega was dramatising the tale in his spanish play called _castelvines y monteses_ (_i.e._ capulets and montagus). for an analysis of lope's play, which ends happily, see _variorum shakespeare_, , xxi. - . { b} cf. _originals and analogues_, pt. i. ed. p. a. daniel, new shakspere society. { } cf. _parallel texts_, ed. p. a. daniel, new shakspere society; fleay, _life_, pp. seq. { } cf. fleay, _life_, pp. seq.; _trans. new shakspere soc_., , pt. ii. by miss jane lee; swinburne, _study_, pp. seq. { } in later life shakespeare, in _hamlet_, borrows from lyly's _euphues_ polonius's advice to laertes; but, however he may have regarded the moral sentiment of that didactic romance, he had no respect for the affectations of its prose style, which he ridiculed in a familiar passage in i _henry iv_, ii. iv. : 'for though the camomile, the more it is trodden on, the faster it grows, yet youth the more it is wasted, the sooner it wears.' { } henslowe, p. . { a} cf. cohn, _shakespeare in germany_, pp. et seq. { b} arber, ii. . { c} cf. w. g. waters's translation of _il pecorone_, pp. - (fourth day, novel ). the collection was not published till , and the story followed by shakespeare was not accessible in his day in any language but the original italian. { } lopez was the earl of leicester's physician before , and the queen's chief physician from that date. an accomplished linguist, with friends in all parts of europe, he acted in , at the request of the earl of essex, as interpreter to antonio perez, a victim of philip ii's persecution, whom essex and his associates brought to england in order to stimulate the hostility of the english public to spain. don antonio (as the refugee was popularly called) proved querulous and exacting. a quarrel between lopez and essex followed. spanish agents in london offered lopez a bribe to poison antonio and the queen. the evidence that he assented to the murderous proposal is incomplete, but he was convicted of treason, and, although the queen long delayed signing his death-warrant, he was hanged at tyburn on june , . his trial and execution evoked a marked display of anti-semitism on the part of the london populace. very few jews were domiciled in england at the time. that a christian named antonio should be the cause of the ruin alike of the greatest jew in elizabethan england and of the greatest jew of the elizabethan drama is a curious confirmation of the theory that lopez was the begetter of shylock. cf. the article on roderigo lopez in the _dictionary of national biography_; 'the original of shylock,' by the present writer, in _gent. mag._ february ; dr. h. graetz, _shylock in den sagen_, _in den dramen and in der geschichte_, krotoschin, ; _new shakspere soc. trans._ - , pt. ii. pp. - ; 'the conspiracy of dr. lopez,' by the rev. arthur dimock, in _english historical review_ ( ), ix. seq. { } _gesta grayorum_, printed in from a contemporary manuscript. a second performance of the _comedy of errors_ was given at gray's inn hall by the elizabethan stage society on dec. , . { a} cf. swinburne, _study of shakspere_, pp. - . { b} see p. . { } cf. dodsley's _old plays_, ed. w. c. hazlitt, , vii. - . { } see appendix, sections iii. and iv. { a} see ovid's _amores_, liber i. elegy xv. ll. - . ovid's _amores_, or elegies of love, were translated by marlowe about , and were first printed without a date on the title-page, probably about . marlowe's version had probably been accessible in manuscript in the eight years' interval. marlowe rendered the lines quoted by shakespeare thus: let base conceited wits admire vile things, fair phoebus lead me to the muses' springs! { b} _shakespeare's venus and adonis and lodge's scillaes metamorphosis_, by james p. reardon, in 'shakespeare society's papers,' iii. - . cf. lodge's description of venus's discovery of the wounded adonis: her daintie hand addrest to dawe her deere, her roseall lip alied to his pale cheeke, her sighs and then her lookes and heavie cheere, her bitter threates, and then her passions meeke; how on his senseles corpse she lay a-crying, as if the boy were then but new a-dying. in the minute description in shakespeare's poem of the chase of the hare (ll. - ) there are curious resemblances to the _ode de la chasse_ (on a stag hunt) by the french dramatist, estienne jodelle, in his _oeuvres et meslanges poetiques_, . { a} rosamond, in daniel's poem, muses thus when king henry challenges her honour: but what? he is my king and may constraine me; whether i yeeld or not, i live defamed. the world will thinke authoritie did gaine me, i shall be judg'd his love and so be shamed; we see the faire condemn'd that never gamed, and if i yeeld, 'tis honourable shame. if not, i live disgrac'd, yet thought the same. { b} watson makes this comment on his poem or passion on time, (no. lxxvii.): 'the chiefe contentes of this passion are taken out of seraphine [_i.e._ serafino], sonnet : col tempo passa[n] gli anni, i mesi, e l'hore, col tempo le richeze, imperio, e regno, col tempo fama, honor, fortezza, e ingegno, col tempo giouentu, con belta more, &c.' watson adds that he has inverted serafino's order for 'rimes sake,' or 'upon some other more allowable consideration.' shakespeare was also doubtless acquainted with giles fletcher's similar handling of the theme in sonnet xxviii. of his collection of sonnets called _licia_ ( ). { } 'excellencie of the english tongue' in camden's _remaines_, p. . { } all these and all that els the comick stage with seasoned wit and goodly pleasance graced, by which mans life in his likest image was limned forth, are wholly now defaced . . . and he, the man whom nature selfe had made to mock her selfe and truth to imitate, with kindly counter under mimick shade, our pleasant willy, ah! is dead of late; with whom all joy and jolly meriment is also deaded and in dolour drent.--(ll. - ). { a} a note to this effect, in a genuine early seventeenth-century hand, was discovered by halliwell-phillipps in a copy of the edition of spenser's _works_ (cf. _outlines_, ii. - ). { b} but that same gentle spirit, from whose pen large streames of bonnie and sweete nectar flowe, scorning the boldnes of such base-borne men which dare their follies forth so rashlie throwe, doth rather choose to sit in idle cell than so himselfe to mockerie to sell (ll. - ). { } section ix. of the appendix to this volume gives a sketch of each of the numerous collections of sonnets which bore witness to the unexampled vogue of the elizabethan sonnet between and . { } minto, _characteristics of english poetry_, , pp. , . the sonnet, headed 'phaeton to his friend florio,' runs: sweet friend whose name agrees with thy increase how fit arrival art thou of the spring! for when each branch hath left his flourishing, and green-locked summer's shady pleasures cease: she makes the winter's storms repose in peace, and spends her franchise on each living thing: the daisies sprout, the little birds do sing, herbs, gums, and plants do vaunt of their release. so when that all our english wits lay dead, (except the laurel that is ever green) thou with thy fruit our barrenness o'erspread, and set thy flowery pleasance to be seen. such fruits, such flow'rets of morality, were ne'er before brought out of italy. cf. shakespeare's sonnet xcviii. beginning: when proud-pied april, dress'd in all his trim, hath put a spirit of youth in everything. but like descriptions of spring and summer formed a topic that was common to all the sonnets of the period. much has been written of shakespeare's alleged acquaintance with florio. farmer and warburton argue that shakespeare ridiculed florio in holofernes in _love's labour's lost_. they chiefly rely on florio's bombastic prefaces to his _worlde of wordes_ and his translation of montaigne's _essays_ ( ). there is nothing there to justify the suggestion. florio writes more in the vein of armado than of holofernes, and, beyond the fact that he was a teacher of languages to noblemen, he bears no resemblance to holofernes, a village schoolmaster. shakespeare doubtless knew florio as southampton's _protege_, and read his fine translation of montaigne's _essays_ with delight. he quotes from it in _the tempest_: see p. . { } shakespeare writes in his sonnets: my glass shall not persuade me i am old (xxii. .). but when my glass shows me myself indeed, beated and chopp'd with tann'd antiquity (lxii. - ). that time of year thou mayst in me behold when yellow leaves, or none, or few do hang (lxxiii. - ). my days are past the best (cxxxviii. ). daniel in _delia_ (xxiii.) in , when twenty-nine years old, exclaimed: my years draw on my everlasting night, . . . my days are done. richard barnfield, at the age of twenty, bade the boy ganymede, to whom he addressed his _affectionate shepherd_ and a sequence of sonnets in (ed. arber, p. ): behold my gray head, full of silver hairs, my wrinkled skin, deep furrows in my face. similarly drayton in a sonnet (_idea_, xiv.) published in , when he was barely thirty-one, wrote: looking into the glass of my youth's miseries, i see the ugly face of my deformed cares with withered brows all wrinkled with despairs; and a little later (no. xliii. of the edition) he repeated how age rules my lines with wrinkles in my face. all these lines are echoes of petrarch, and shakespeare and drayton followed the italian master's words more closely than their contemporaries. cf. petrarch's sonnet cxliii. (to laura alive), or sonnet lxxxi. (to laura after death); the latter begins: dicemi spesso il mio fidato speglio, l'animo stanco e la cangiata scorza e la scemata mia destrezza e forza: non ti nasconder piu: tu se' pur veglio. (_i.e._ 'my faithful glass, my weary spirit and my wrinkled skin, and my decaying wit and strength repeatedly tell me: "it cannot longer be hidden from you, you are old."') { } the sonnets of sidney, watson, daniel, and constable long circulated in manuscript, and suffered much the same fate as shakespeare's at the hands of piratical publishers. after circulating many years in manuscript, sidney's sonnets were published in by an irresponsible trader, thomas newman, who in his self-advertising dedication wrote of the collection that it had been widely 'spread abroad in written copies,' and had 'gathered much corruption by ill writers' [i.e. copyists]. constable produced in a collection of twenty sonnets in a volume which he entitled 'diana.' this was an authorised publication. but in a printer and a publisher, without constable's knowledge or sanction, reprinted these sonnets and scattered them through a volume of nearly eighty miscellaneous sonnets by sidney and many other hands; the adventurous publishers bestowed on their medley the title of 'diana,' which constable had distinctively attached to his own collection. daniel suffered in much the same way. see appendix ix. for further notes on the subject. proofs of the commonness of the habit of circulating literature in manuscript abound. fulke greville, writing to sidney's father-in-law, sir francis walsingham, in , expressed regret that uncorrected manuscript copies of the then unprinted _arcadia_ were 'so common.' in gabriel cawood, the publisher of robert southwell's _mary magdalen's funeral tears_, wrote that manuscript copies of the work had long flown about 'fast and false.' nash, in the preface to his _terrors of the night_, , described how a copy of that essay, which a friend had 'wrested' from him, had 'progressed [without his authority] from one scrivener's shop to another, and at length grew so common that it was ready to be hung out for one of their figures [_i.e._ shop-signs], like a pair of indentures.' { a} cf. sonnet lxix. : to thy fair flower add the rank smell of weeds. { b} for other instances of the application of this epithet to shakespeare's work, see p. , note . { } the actor alleyn paid fivepence for a copy in that month (cf. warner's _dulwich mss._ p. ). { } the chief editions of the sonnets that have appeared, with critical apparatus, of late years are those of professor dowden ( , reissued ), mr. thomas tyler ( ), and mr. george wyndham, m.p. ( ). mr. gerald massey's _secret drama of shakespeare's sonnets_--the text of the poems with a full discussion--appeared in a second revised edition in . i regret to find myself in more or less complete disagreement with all these writers, although i am at one with mr. massey in identifying the young man to whom many of the sonnets were addressed with the earl of southampton. a short bibliography of the works advocating the theory that the sonnets were addressed to william, third earl of pembroke, is given in appendix vi., 'mr. william herbert,' note . { } it has been wrongly inferred that shakespeare asserts in sonnets cxxxv-vi. and cxliii. that the young friend to whom he addressed some of the sonnets bore his own christian name of will (see for a full examination of these sonnets appendix viii.) further, it has been fantastically suggested that the line (xx. ) describing the youth as 'a man in hue, all hues in his controlling' (_i.e._ a man in colour or complexion whose charms are so varied as to appear to give his countenance control of, or enable it to assume, all manner of fascinating hues or complexions), and other applications to the youth of the ordinary word 'hue,' imply that his surname was hughes. there is no other pretence of argument for the conclusion, which a few critics have hazarded in all seriousness, that the friend's name was william hughes. there was a contemporary musician called william hughes, but no known contemporary of the name, either in age or position in life, bears any resemblance to the young man who is addressed by shakespeare in his sonnets. { } see appendix vi., 'mr. william herbert;' and vii., 'shakespeare and the earl of pembroke.' { a} the full results of my researches into thorpe's history, his methods of business, and the significance of his dedicatory addresses, of which four are extant besides that prefixed to the volume of shakespeare's sonnets in , are given in appendix v., 'the true history of thomas thorpe and "mr. w. h."' { b} the form of fourteen-line stanza adopted by shakespeare is in no way peculiar to himself. it is the type recognised by elizabethan writers on metre as correct and customary in england long before he wrote. george gascoigne, in his _certayne notes of instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in english_ (published in gascoigne's _posies_, ), defined sonnets thus: 'fouretene lynes, every lyne conteyning tenne syllables. the first twelve to ryme in staves of foure lynes by cross metre and the last two ryming togither, do conclude the whole.' in twenty-one of the sonnets of which sidney's collection entitled _astrophel and stella_ consists, the rhymes are on the foreign model and the final couplet is avoided. but these are exceptional. as is not uncommon in elizabethan sonnet-collections, one of shakespeare's sonnets (xcix.) has fifteen lines; another (cxxvi.) has only twelve lines, and those in rhymed couplets (cf. lodge's _phillis_, nos. viii. and xxvi.) and a third (cxlv.) is in octosyllabics. but it is very doubtful whether the second and third of these sonnets rightly belong to shakespeare's collection. they were probably written as independent lyrics: see p. , note . { } if the critical ingenuity which has detected a continuous thread of narrative in the order that thorpe printed shakespeare's sonnets were applied to the booksellers' miscellany of sonnets called _diana_ ( ), that volume, which rakes together sonnets on all kinds of amorous subjects from all quarters and numbers them consecutively, could be made to reveal the sequence of an individual lover's moods quite as readily, and, if no external evidence were admitted, quite as convincingly, as thorpe's collection of shakespeare's sonnets. almost all elizabethan sonnets are not merely in the like metre, but are pitched in what sounds superficially to be the same key of pleading or yearning. thus almost every collection gives at a first perusal a specious and delusive impression of homogeneity. { } shakespeare merely warns his 'lovely boy' that, though he be now the 'minion' of nature's 'pleasure,' he will not succeed in defying time's inexorable law. sidney addresses in a lighter vein cupid--'blind hitting boy,' he calls him--in his _astrophel_ (no. xlvi.) cupid is similarly invoked in three of drayton's sonnets (no. xxvi. in the edition of , and nos. xxxiii. and xxxiv. in that of ), and in six in fulke greville's collection entitled _coelica_ (cf. lxxxiv., beginning 'farewell, sweet boy, complain not of my truth'). lyly, in his _sapho and phao_, , and in his _mother bombie_, , has songs of like temper addressed in the one case to 'o cruel love!' and in the other to 'o cupid! monarch over kings.' a similar theme to that of shakespeare's sonnet cxxvi. is treated by john ford in the song, 'love is ever dying,' in his tragedy of the _broken heart_, . { } see p. , note . { a} - . cf. de brach, _oeuvres poetiques_, edited by reinhold dezeimeris, , i. pp. - . { b} see appendix ix. { c} section x. of the appendix to this volume supplies a bibliographical note on the sonnet in france between and , with a list of the sixteenth-century sonnetteers of italy. { d} gabriel harvey, in his _pierces supererogation_ ( , p. ), after enthusiastic commendation of petrarch's sonnets ('petrarch's invention is pure love itself; petrarch's elocution pure beauty itself'), justifies the common english practice of imitating them on the ground that 'all the noblest italian, french, and spanish poets have in their several veins petrarchized; and it is no dishonour for the daintiest or divinest muse to be his scholar, whom the amiablest invention and beautifullest elocution acknowledge their master.' both french and english sonnetteers habitually admit that they are open to the charge of plagiarising petrarch's sonnets to laura (cf. du bellay's _les amours_, ed. becq de fouquieres, , p. , and daniel's _delia_, sonnet xxxviii.) the dependent relations in which both english and french sonnetteers stood to petrarch may be best realised by comparing such a popular sonnet of the italian master as no. ciii. (or in some editions lxxxviii.) in _sonetti in vita di m. laura_, beginning 's' amor non e, che dunque e quel ch' i' sento?' with a rendering of it into french like that of de baif in his _amours de francine_ (ed. becq de fouquieres, p. ), beginning, 'si ce n'est pas amour, que sent donques mon coeur?' or with a rendering of the same sonnet into english like that by watson in his _passionate century_, no. v., beginning, 'if 't bee not love i feele, what is it then?' imitation of petrarch is a constant characteristic of the english sonnet throughout the sixteenth century from the date of the earliest efforts of surrey and wyatt. it is interesting to compare the skill of the early and late sonnetteers in rendering the italian master. petrarch's sonnet _in vita di m. laura_ (no. lxxx. or lxxxi., beginning 'cesare, poi che 'l traditor d' egitto') was independently translated both by sir thomas wyatt, about (ed. bell, p. ), and by francis davison in his _poetical rhapsody_ ( , ed. bullen, i. ). petrarch's sonnet (no. xcv. or cxiii.) was also rendered independently both by wyatt (cf. puttenham's _arte of english poesie_, ed. arber, p. ) and by drummond of hawthornden (ed. ward, i. , ). { a} eight of watson's sonnets are, according to his own account, renderings from petrarch; twelve are from serafino dell' aquila ( - ); four each come from strozza, an italian poet, and from ronsard; three from the italian poet agnolo firenzuola ( - ); two each from the french poet, etienne forcadel, known as forcatulus ( ?- ), the italian girolamo parabosco (_fl._ ), and aeneas sylvius; while many are based on passages from such authors as (among the greeks) sophocles, theocritus, apollonius of rhodes (author of the epic 'argonautica'); or (among the latins) virgil, tibullus, ovid, horace, propertius, seneca, pliny, lucan, martial, and valerius flaccus; or (among other modern italians) angelo poliziano ( - ) and baptista mantuanus ( - ); or (among other modern frenchmen) gervasius sepinus of saumur, writer of eclogues after the manner of virgil and mantuanus. { b} no importance can be attached to drayton's pretensions to greater originality than his neighbours. the very line in which he makes the claim ('i am no pick-purse of another's wit') is a verbatim theft from a sonnet of sir philip sidney. { c} lodge's _margarite_, p. . see appendix ix. for the text of desportes's sonnet (_diane_, livre ii. no. iii.) and lodge's translation in _phillis_. lodge gave two other translations of the same sonnet of desportes--in his romance of _rosalind_ (hunterian society's reprint, p. ), and in his volume of poems called _scillaes metamorphosis_ (p. ). sonnet xxxiii. of lodge's _phillis_ is rendered with equal literalness from ronsard. but desportes was lodge's special master, { a} see drummond's _poems_, ed. w. c. ward, in muses' library, , i. seq. { b} seve's _delie_ was first published at lyons in . { c} - . { } in two of his century of sonnets (nos. xiii. and xxiv. in edition, renumbered xxxii. and liii. in edition) drayton hints that his 'fair idea' embodied traits of an identifiable lady of his acquaintance, and he repeats the hint in two other short poems; but the fundamental principles of his sonnetteering exploits are defined explicitly in sonnet xviii. in edition. some, when in rhyme, they of their loves do tell, . . . only i call [_i.e._ i call only] on my divine idea. joachim du bellay, one of the french poets who anticipated drayton in addressing sonnets to 'l'idee,' left the reader in no doubt of his intent by concluding one poem thus: la, o mon ame, au plus hault ciel guidee, tu y pourras recognoistre l'idee de la beaute qu'en ce monde j'adore. (du bellay's _olive_, no. cxiii., published in .) { a} ben jonson pointedly noticed the artifice inherent in the metrical principles of the sonnet when he told drummond of hawthornden that 'he cursed petrarch for redacting verses to sonnets which he said were like that tyrant's bed, where some who were too short were racked, others too long cut short.' (jonson's _conversation_, p. ). { b} see p. _infra_. { a} they were first printed by dr. grosart for the chetham society in in his edition of 'the dr. farmer ms.,' a sixteenth and seventeenth century commonplace book preserved in the chetham library at manchester, pt. i. pp. - . dr. grosart also included the poems in his edition of sir john davies's _works_, , ii. - . { b} davies's sonnet viii. is printed in appendix ix. { c} see p. _infra_. { } _romeo and juliet_, ii. iv. - . { } mr. fleay in his _biographical chronicle of the english stage_, ii. seq., gives a striking list of parallels between shakespeare's and drayton's sonnets which any reader of the two collections in conjunction could easily increase. mr. wyndham in his valuable edition of shakespeare's _sonnets_, p. , argues that drayton was the plagiarist of shakespeare, chiefly on bibliographical grounds, which he does not state quite accurately. one hundred sonnets belonging to drayton's _idea_ series are extant, but they were not all published by him at one time. fifty-three were alone included in his first and only separate edition of ; six more appeared in a reprint of _idea_ appended to the _heroical epistles_ in ; twenty-four of these were gradually dropped and thirty-four new ones substituted in reissues appended to volumes of his writings issued respectively in , , , and . to the collection thus re-formed a further addition of twelve sonnets and a withdrawal of some twelve old sonnets were made in the final edition of drayton's works in . there the sonnets number sixty-three. mr. wyndham insists that drayton's latest published sonnets have alone an obvious resemblance to shakespeare's sonnets, and that they all more or less reflect shakespeare's sonnets as printed by thorpe in . but the whole of drayton's century of sonnets except twelve were in print long before , and it could easily be shown that the earliest fifty-three published in supply as close parallels with shakespeare's sonnets as any of the forty-seven published subsequently. internal evidence suggests that all but one or two of drayton's sonnets were written by him in , in the full tide of the sonnetteering craze. almost all were doubtless in circulation in manuscript then, although only fifty-three were published in . shakespeare would have had ready means of access to drayton's manuscript collection. mr. collier reprinted all the sonnets that drayton published between and in his edition of drayton's poems for the roxburghe club, . other editions of drayton's sonnets of this and the last century reprint exclusively the collection of sixty-three appended to the edition of his works in . { } almost all sixteenth-century sonnets on spring in the absence of the poet's love (cf. shakespeare's sonnets xcviii., xcix.) are variations on the sentiment and phraseology of petrarch's well-known sonnet xlii., 'in morte di m. laura,' beginning: zefiro torna e 'l bel tempo rimena, e i fiori e l'erbe, sua dolce famiglia, e garrir progne e pianger filomena, e primavera candida e vermiglia. ridono i prati, e 'l ciel si rasserena; giove s'allegra di mirar sua figlia; l'aria e l'acqua e la terra e d'amor piena; ogni animal d'amar si riconsiglia, ma per me, lasso, tornano i piu gravi sospiri, che del cor profondo tragge, &c. see a translation by william drummond of hawthornden in sonnets, pt. ii. no. ix. similar sonnets and odes on april, spring, and summer abound in french and english (cf. becq de fouquiere's _oeuvres choisies de j.-a. de baif_, passim, and _oeuvres choisies des contemporains de ronsard_, p. (by remy belleau), p. (by amadis jamyn) et passim). for descriptions of night and sleep see especially ronsard's _amours_ (livre i. clxxxvi., livre ii. xxii.; _odes_, livre iv. no. iv., and his _odes retranchees_ in _oeuvres_, edited by blanchemain, ii. - .) cf. barnes's _parthenophe and parthenophil_, lxxxiii. cv. { a} cf. ronsard's _amours_, livre iv. clxxviii.; _amours pour astree_, vi. the latter opens: il ne falloit, maistresse, autres tablettes pour vous graver que celles de mon coeur ou de sa main amour, nostre vainqueur, vous a gravee et vos graces parfaites. { b} cf. spenser, lv.; barnes's _parthenophe and parthenophil_, no. lxxvii.; fulke greville's _coelica_, no. vii. { a} a similar conceit is the topic of shakespeare's sonnet xxiv. ronsard's ode (livre iv. no. xx.) consists of a like dialogue between the heart and the eye. the conceit is traceable to petrarch, whose sonnet lv. or lxiii. ('occhi, piangete, accompagnate il core') is a dialogue between the poet and his eyes, while his sonnet xcix. or cxvii. is a companion dialogue between the poet and his heart. cf. watson's _tears of fancie_, xix. xx. (a pair of sonnets on the theme which closely resemble shakespeare's pair); drayton's _idea_, xxxiii.; barnes's _parthenophe and parthenophil_, xx., and constable's _diana_, vi. . { b} the greek epigram is in _palatine anthology_, ix. , and is translated into latin in _selecta epigrammata_, basel, . the greek lines relate, as in shakespeare's sonnets, how a nymph who sought to quench love's torch in a fountain only succeeded in heating the water. an added detail shakespeare borrowed from a very recent adaptation of the epigram in giles fletcher's _licia_, (sonnet xxvii.), where the poet's love bathes in the fountain, with the result not only that 'she touched the water and it burnt with love,' but also now by her means it purchased hath that bliss which all diseases quickly can remove. similarly shakespeare in sonnet cliv. not merely states that the 'cool well' into which cupid's torch had fallen 'from love's fire took heat perpetual,' but also that it grew 'a bath and healthful remedy for men diseased.' { a} in greek poetry the topic is treated in pindar's _olympic odes_, xi., and in a fragment by sappho, no. in bergk's _poetae lyrici graeci_. in latin poetry the topic is treated in ennius as quoted in cicero, _de senectute_, c. ; in horace's _odes_, iii. ; in virgil's _georgics_, iii. ; in propertius, iii. ; in ovid's _metamorphoses_, xv. seq.; and in martial, x. seq. among french sonnetteers ronsard attacked the theme most boldly. his odes and sonnets promise immortality to the persons to whom they are addressed with an extravagant and a monotonous liberality. the following lines from ronsard's ode (livre i. no. vii.) 'au seigneur carnavalet,' illustrate his habitual treatment of the theme:-- c'est un travail de bon-heur chanter les hommes louables, et leur bastir un honneur seul vainqueur des ans muables. le marbre ou l'airain vestu d'un labeur vif par l'enclume n'animent tant la vertu que les muses par la plume. . . les neuf divines pucelles gardent ta gloire chez elles; et mon luth, qu'ell'ont fait estre de leurs secrets le grand prestre, par cest hymne solennel respandra dessus ta race je ne scay quoy de sa grace qui te doit faire eternel. (_oeuvres de ronsard_, ed. blanchemain, ii. , .) i quote two other instances from ronsard on p. , note . desportes was also prone to indulge in the same conceit; cf. his _cleonice_, sonnet , which daniel appropriated bodily in his _delia_ sonnet xxvi.) desportes warns his mistress that she will live in his verse like the phoenix in fire. { b} ed. shuckburgh, p. . { c} shakespeare soc. p. { } other references to the topic appear in sonnets xix., liv., lxiii., lxv., lxxxi. and cvii. { } see the quotation from ronsard on p. , note . this sonnet is also very like ronsard's ode (livre v. no. xxxii.) 'a sa muse,' which opens: plus dur que fer j'ay fini mon ouvrage, que 'an, dispos a demener les pas, que l'eau, le vent ou le brulant orage, l'injuriant, ne ru'ront point a bas. quand ce viendra que le dernier trespas m'assoupira d'un somme dur, a l'heure, sous le tombeau tout ronsard n'ira pas, restant de luy la part meilleure. . . sus donque, muse, emporte au ciel la gloire que j'ay gaignee, annoncant la victoire dont a bon droit je me voy jouissant. . . cf. also ronsard's sonnet lxxii. in _amours_ (livre i.), where he declares that his mistress's name victorieux des peuples et des rois s'en voleroit sus l'aile de ma ryme. but shakespeare, like ronsard, knew horace's far-famed ode (bk. iii. ) exegi monumentum aere perennius regalique situ pyramidum altius, quod non imber edax, non aquilo impotens possit diruere, aut innumerabilis annorum series, et fuga temporum. nor can there be any doubt that shakespeare wrote with a direct reference to the concluding nine lines of ovid's _metamorphoses_ (xv. - ): jamque opus exegi, quod nec jovis ira nec ignes, nec poterit ferrum, nec edax abolere vetustas. cum volet illa dies, quae nil nisi corporis hujus jus habet, incerti spatium mihi finiat aevi; parte tamen meliore mei super alta perennis astra ferar nomenque erit indelebile nostrum. this passage was familiar to shakespeare in one of his favourite books--golding's translation of the _metamorphoses_. golding's rendering opens: now have i brought a worke to end which neither jove's fierce wrath nor sword nor fire nor fretting age, with all the force it hath are able to abolish quite, &c. meres, after his mention of shakespeare's sonnets in his _palladis tamia_ ( ), quotes parts of both passages from horace and ovid, and gives a latin paraphrase of his own, which, he says, would fit the lips of our contemporary poets besides shakespeare. the introduction of the name mars into meres's paraphrase as well as into line of shakespeare's sonnet lv. led mr. tyler (on what are in any case very trivial grounds) to the assumption that shakespeare was borrowing from his admiring critic, and was therefore writing after , when meres's book was published. in golding's translation reference is made to mars by name (the latin here calls the god gradivus) a few lines above the passage already quoted, and the word caught shakespeare's eye there. shakespeare owed nothing to meres's paraphrase, but meres probably owed much to passages in shakespeare's sonnets. { a} see appendix viii., 'the will sonnets,' for the interpretation of shakespeare's conceit and like efforts of barnes. { b} wires in the sense of hair was peculiarly distinctive of the sonnetteers' affected vocabulary. cf. daniel's _delia_, , no. xxvi., 'and golden hair may change to silver _wire_;' lodge's _phillis_, , 'made blush the beauties of her curled _wire_;' barnes's _parthenophil_, sonnet xlviii., 'her hairs no grace of golden _wires_ want.' the comparison of lips with coral is not uncommon outside the elizabethan sonnet, but it was universal there. cf. 'coral-coloured lips' (_zepheria_, , no. xxiii.); 'no coral is her lip' (lodge's _phillis_, , no. viii.) 'ce beau coral' are the opening words of ronsard's _amours_, livre i. no. xxiii., where a list is given of stones and metals comparable with women's features. { a} shakespeare adopted this phraseology of sidney literally in both the play and the sonnet; while sidney's further conceit that the lady's eyes are in 'this mourning weed' in order 'to honour all their deaths who for her bleed' is reproduced in shakespeare's sonnet cxxxii.--one of the two under consideration--where he tells his mistress that her eyes 'have put on black' to become 'loving mourners' of him who is denied her love. { b} o paradox! black is the badge of hell, the hue of dungeons and the scowl of night. (_love's labour's lost_, iv. iii. - ). to look like her are chimney-sweepers black, and since her time are colliers counted bright, and ethiops of their sweet complexion crack. dark needs no candle now, for dark is light (_ib._ - ). { } the parody, which is not in sonnet form, is printed in harvey's _letter-book_ (camden soc. pp. - ). { } no. vii. of jodelle's _contr' amours_ runs thus: combien de fois mes vers ont-ils dore ces cheueux noirs dignes d'vne meduse? combien de fois ce teint noir qui m'amuse, ay-ie de lis et roses colore? combien ce front de rides laboure ay-ie applani? et quel a fait ma muse le gros sourcil, ou folle elle s'abuse, ayant sur luy l'arc d'amour figure? quel ay-ie fait son oeil se renfoncant? quel ay-ie fait son grand nez rougissant? quelle sa bouche et ses noires dents quelles quel ay-ie fait le reste de ce corps? qui, me sentant endurer mille morts, viuoit heureux de mes peines mortelles. (jodelle's _oeuvres_, , pp. - .) with this should be compared shakespeare's sonnets cxxxvii., cxlviii., and cl. jodelle's feigned remorse for having lauded the _black_ hair and complexion of his mistress is one of the most singular of several strange coincidences. in no. vi. of his _contr' amours_ jodelle, after reproaching his 'traitres vers' with having untruthfully described his siren as a beauty, concludes: 'ja si long temps faisant d'un diable vn ange vous m'ouurez l'oeil en l'iniuste louange, et m'aueuglez en l'iniuste tourment. with this should be compared shakespeare's sonnet cxliv., lines - . and whether that my angel be turn'd fiend suspect i may, yet not directly tell. a conventional sonnet or extravagant vituperation, which drummond of hawthornden translated from marino (_rime_, , pt. i. p. ), is introduced with grotesque inappropriateness into drummond's collection of 'sugared' sonnets (see pt. i. no. xxxv: drummond's _poems_, ed. w. c. ward, i. , ). { } the theories that all the sonnets addressed to a woman were addressed to the 'dark lady,' and that the 'dark lady' is identifiable with mary fitton, a mistress of the earl of pembroke, are baseless conjectures. the extant portraits of mary fitton prove her to be fair. the introduction of her name into the discussion is solely due to the mistaken notion that shakespeare was the _protege_ of pembroke, that most of the sonnets were addressed to him, and that the poet was probably acquainted with his patron's mistress. see appendix vii. the expressions in two of the vituperative sonnets to the effect that the disdainful mistress had 'robb'd others' beds' revenues of their rents' (cxlii. ) and 'in act her bed-vow broke' (clii. ) have been held to imply that the woman denounced by shakespeare was married. the first quotation can only mean that she was unfaithful with married men, but both quotations seem to be general phrases of abuse, the meaning of which should not be pressed closely. { } 'lover' and 'love' in elizabethan english were ordinary synonyms for 'friend' and 'friendship.' brutus opens his address to the citizens of rome with the words, 'romans, countrymen, and _lovers_,' and subsequently describes julius caesar as 'my best _lover_' (_julius caesar_, iii. ii. - ). portia, when referring to antonio, the bosom friend of her husband bassanio, calls him 'the bosom _lover_ of my lord' (_merchant of venice_, iii. iv. ). ben jonson in his letters to donne commonly described himself as his correspondent's 'ever true _lover_;' and drayton, writing to william drummond of hawthornden, informed him that an admirer of his literary work was in love with him. the word 'love' was habitually applied to the sentiment subsisting between an author and his patron. nash, when dedicating _jack wilton_ in to southampton, calls him 'a dear _lover_ . . . of the _lovers_ of poets as of the poets themselves.' { } there is little doubt that this sonnet was parodied by sir john davies in the ninth and last of his 'gulling' sonnets, in which he ridicules the notion that a man of wit should put his wit in vassalage to any one. to love my lord i do knight's service owe, and therefore now he hath my wit in ward; but while it [_i.e._ the poet's wit] is in his tuition so methinks he doth intreat [_i.e._ treat] it passing hard . . . but why should love after minority (when i have passed the one and twentieth year) preclude my wit of his sweet liberty, and make it still the yoke of wardship bear? i fear he [_i.e._ my lord] hath another title [_i.e._ right to my wit] got and holds my wit now for an idiot. { } mr. tyler assigns this sonnet to the year or later, on the fallacious ground that this line was probably imitated from an expression in marston's _pigmalion's image_, published in , where 'stanzas' are said to 'march rich bedight in warlike equipage.' the suggestion of plagiarism is quite gratuitous. the phrase was common in elizabethan literature long before marston employed it. nash, in his preface to green's _menaphon_, which was published in , wrote that the works of the poet watson 'march in equipage of honour with any of your ancient poets.' { a} see appendix iv. for a full account of southampton's relations with nash and other men of letters. { b} see p. , note. { a} cf. _parthenophil_, madrigal i. line ; sonnet xvii. line . { b} _parthenophil_, sonnet xci. { } much irrelevance has been introduced into the discussion of chapman's claim to be the rival poet. prof. minto in his _characteristics of english poets_, p. , argued that chapman was the man mainly because shakespeare declared his competitor to be taught to write by 'spirits'--'his compeers by night'--as well as by 'an affable familiar ghost' which gulled him with intelligence at night (lxxxvi. seq.) professor minto saw in these phrases allusions to some remarks by chapman in his _shadows of night_ ( ), a poem on night. there chapman warned authors in one passage that the spirit of literature will often withhold itself from them unless it have 'drops of their blood like a heavenly familiar,' and in another place sportively invited 'nimble and aspiring wits' to join him in consecrating their endeavours to 'sacred night.' there is really no connection between shakespeare's theory of the supernatural and nocturnal sources of his rival's influence and chapman's trite allusion to the current faith in the power of 'nightly familiars' over men's minds and lives, or chapman's invitation to his literary comrades to honour night with him. it is supererogatory to assume that shakespeare had chapman's phrases in his mind when alluding to superstitions which were universally acknowledged. it could be as easily argued on like grounds that shakespeare was drawing on other authors. nash in his prose tract called independently _the terrors of the night_, which was also printed in , described the nocturnal habits of 'familiars' more explicitly than chapman. the publisher thomas thorpe, in dedicating in marlowe's translation of lucan (bk. i.) to his friend edward blount, humorously referred to the same topic when he reminded blount that 'this spirit [_i.e._ marlowe], whose ghost or genius is to be seen walk the churchyard [of st. paul's] in at the least three or four sheets . . . was sometime a _familiar_ of your own.' on the strength of these quotations, and accepting professor minto's line of argument, nash, thorpe, or blount, whose 'familiar' is declared to have been no less a personage than marlowe, has as good a claim as chapman to be the rival poet of shakespeare's sonnets. a second and equally impotent argument in chapman's favour has been suggested. chapman in the preface to his translation of the _iliads_ ( ) denounces without mentioning any name 'a certain envious windsucker that hovers up and down, laboriously engrossing all the air with his luxurious ambition, and buzzing into every ear my detraction.' it is suggested that chapman here retaliated on shakespeare for his references to him as his rival in the sonnets; but it is out of the question that chapman, were he the rival, should have termed those high compliments 'detraction.' there is no ground for identifying chapman's 'windsucker' with shakespeare (cf. wyndham, p. ). the strongest point in favour of the theory of chapman's identity with the rival poet lies in the fact that each of the two sections of his poem _the shadow of the night_ ( ) is styled a 'hymn,' and shakespeare in sonnet lxxxv. - credits his rival with writing 'hymns.' but drayton, in his _harmonie of the church_, , and barnes, as we have just seen, both wrote 'hymns.' the word was not loosely used in elizabethan english, as in sixteenth-century french, in the general sense of 'poem.' { } see p. , note i. { } sir walter ralegh was wont to apostrophise his aged sovereign thus: oh, hopeful love, my object and invention, oh, true desire, the spur of my conceit, oh, worthiest spirit, my mind's impulsion, oh, eyes transparent, my affection's bait; oh, princely form, my fancy's adamant, divine conceit, my pain's acceptance, oh, all in one! oh, heaven on earth transparent! the seat of joy and love's abundance! (cf. _cynthia_, a fragment in _poems of raleigh_, ed. hannah, p. .) when ralegh leaves elizabeth's presence he tell us his 'forsaken heart' and his 'withered mind' were 'widowed of all the joys' they 'once possessed.' only some lines (the twenty-first book and a fragment of another book) survive of ralegh's poem _cynthia_, the whole of which was designed to prove his loyalty to the queen, and all the extant lines are in the same vein as those i quote. the complete poem extended to twenty-two books, and the lines exceeded , , or five times as many as in shakespeare's sonnets. richard barnfield in his like-named poem of _cynthia_, , and fulke greville in sonnets addressed to cynthia, also extravagantly described the queen's beauty and graces. in sir john davies, poet and lawyer, apostrophised elizabeth, who was then sixty-six years old, thus: fair soul, since to the fairest body knit you give such lively life, such quickening power, such sweet celestial influences to it as keeps it still in youth's immortal flower . . . o many, many years may you remain a happy angel to this happy land (_nosce teipsum_, dedication). davies published in the same year twenty-six 'hymnes of astrea' on elizabeth's beauty and graces; each poem forms an acrostic on the words 'elizabetha regina,' and the language of love is simulated on almost every page. { a} _apologie for poetrie_ ( ), ed. shuckburgh, p. . { b} adulatory sonnets to patrons are met with in the preliminary or concluding pages of numerous sixteenth and seventeenth century books (_e.g._ the collection of sonnets addressed to james vi of scotland in his _essayes of a prentise_, , and the sonnets to noblemen before spenser's _faerie queene_, at the end of chapman's _iliad_, and at the end of john davies's _microcosmos_, ). other sonnets to patrons are scattered through collections of occasional poems, such as ben jonson's _forest_ and _underwoods_ and donne's _poems_. sonnets addressed to men are not only found in the preliminary pages, but are occasionally interpolated in sonnet-sequences of fictitious love. sonnet xi. in drayton's sonnet-fiction called 'idea' (in edition) seems addressed to a man, in much the same manner as shakespeare often addressed his hero; and a few others of drayton's sonnets are ambiguous as to the sex of their subject. john soothern's eccentric collection of love-sonnets, _pandora_ ( ), has sonnets dedicatory to the earl of oxford; and william smith in his _chloris_ ( ) (a sonnet-fiction of the conventional kind) in two prefatory sonnets and in no. xlix. of the substantive collection invokes the affectionate notice of edmund spenser. throughout europe 'dedicatory' sonnets or poems to women betray identical characteristics to those that were addressed to men. the poetic addresses to the countess of bedford and other noble patronesses of donne, ben jonson, and their colleagues are always affectionate, often amorous, in their phraseology, and akin in temper to shakespeare's sonnets of friendship. nicholas breton, in his poem _the pilgrimage to paradise coyned with the countess of pembroke's love_, , and another work of his, _the countess of pembroke's passion_ (first printed from manuscript in ), pays the countess, who was merely his literary patroness, a homage which is indistinguishable from the ecstatic utterances of a genuine and overmastering passion. the difference in the sex of the persons addressed by breton and by shakespeare seems to place their poems in different categories, but they both really belonged to the same class. they both merely display a _protege's_ loyalty to his patron, couched, according to current convention, in the strongest possible terms of personal affection. in italy and france exactly the same vocabulary of adoration was applied by authors indifferently to patrons and patronesses. it is known that one series of michael angelo's impassioned sonnets was addressed to a young nobleman tommaso dei cavalieri, and another series to a noble patroness vittoria colonna, but the tone is the same in both, and internal evidence fails to enable the critic to distinguish between the two series. only one english contemporary of shakespeare published a long series of sonnets addressed to a man who does not prove on investigation to have been a professional patron. in richard barnfield appended to his poem _cynthia_ a set of twenty sonnets, in which he feignedly avowed affection for a youth called ganymede. these poems do not belong to the same category as shakespeare's, but to the category of sonnet-sequences of love in which it was customary to invoke a fictitious mistress. barnfield explained that in his sonnets he attempted a variation on the conventional practice by fancifully adapting to the sonnet-form the second of virgil's _eclogues_, in which the shepherd corydon apostrophises the shepherd-boy alexis. { a} cf. sonnet lix. show me your image in some antique book . . . oh sure i am the wits of former days to subjects worse have given admiring praise. { b} campion's _poems_, ed. bullen, pp. seq. cf. shakespeare's sonnets: o how i faint when i of you do write.--(lxxx. .) finding thy worth a limit past my praise.--(lxxxii. .) { } donne's _poems_ (in muses' library), ii. . see also donne's sonnets and verse-letters to mr. rowland woodward and mr. i. w. { } see p. note . { a} three years was the conventional period which sonnetteers allotted to the development of their passion. cf. ronsard, _sonnets pour helene_ (no. xiv.), beginning: 'trois ans sont ja passez que ton oeil me tient pris.' { b} octavius caesar at thirty-two is described by mark antony after the battle of actium as the 'boy caesar' who 'wears the rose of youth' (_antony and cleopatra_, iii. ii. seq.) spenser in his _astrophel_ apostrophises sir philip sidney on his death near the close of his thirty-second year as 'oh wretched boy' (l. ) and 'luckless boy' (l. ). conversely it was a recognised convention among sonnetteers to exaggerate their own age. see p. , note. { } two portraits, representing the earl in early manhood, are at welbeck abbey, and are described above. of the remaining seven paintings, two are assigned to van somer, and represent the earl in early middle age; one, a half-length, a very charming picture, now belongs to james knowles, esq., of queen anne's lodge; the other, a full-length in drab doublet and hose, is in the shakespeare memorial gallery at stratford-on-avon. mireveldt twice painted the earl at a later period of his career; one of the pictures is now at woburn abbey, the property of the duke of bedford, the other is at the national portrait gallery. a fifth picture, assigned to mytens, belongs to viscount powerscourt; a sixth, by an unknown artist, belongs to mr. wingfield digby, and the seventh (in armour) is in the master's lodge at st. john's college, cambridge, where southampton was educated. the miniature by isaac oliver, which also represents southampton in late life, was formerly in dr. lumsden propert's collection. it now belongs to a collector at hamburg. the two miniatures assigned to peter oliver belong respectively to mr. jeffery whitehead and sir francis cook, bart. (cf. catalogue of exhibition of portrait miniatures at the burlington fine arts club, london, , pp. , , .) in all the best preserved of these portraits the eyes are blue and the hair a dark shade of auburn. among the middle-life portraits southampton appears to best advantage in the one by van somer belonging to mr. james knowles. { } i describe these pictures from a personal inspection of them which the duke kindly permitted me to make. { a} cf. shakespeare's sonnet iii.: thou art thy mother's glass, and she in thee calls back the lovely april of her prime. { b} southampton's singularly long hair procured him at times unwelcome attentions. when, in january , he struck ambrose willoughby, an esquire of the body, for asking him to break off owing to the lateness of the hour, a game of primero that he was playing in the royal chamber at whitehall, the esquire willoughby is stated to have retaliated by 'pulling off some of the earl's locks.' on the incident being reported to the queen, she 'gave willoughby, in the presence, thanks for what he did' (_sydney papers_, ii. ). { a} these quotations are from _sorrowes joy_, a collection of elegies on queen elizabeth by cambridge writers (cambridge, ), and from chettle's _england's mourning garment_, london, ). { b} gervase markham's _honour in her perfection_, . { a} manningham's _diary_, camden soc., p. . { b} _court and times of james i_, i. i. . { c} see appendix iv. { } the fine exordium of sonnet cxix.: what potions have i drunk of siren tears, distill'd from limbecks foul as hell within, adopts expressions in barnes's vituperative sonnet (no xlix.), where, after denouncing his mistress as a 'siren,' the poet incoherently ejaculates: from my love's limbeck [_sc._ have i] still [di]stilled tears! almost every note in the scale of sadness or self-reproach is sounded from time to time in petrarch's sonnets. tasso in _scelta delle rime_, , p. ii. p. , has a sonnet (beginning 'vinca fortuna homai, se sotto il peso') which adumbrates shakespeare's sonnets xxix. ('when in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes') and lxvi. ('tired with all these, for restful death i cry'). drummond of hawthornden translated tasso's sonnet in his sonnet (part i. no. xxxiii.); while drummond's sonnets xxv. ('what cruel star into this world was brought') and xxxii. ('if crost with all mishaps be my poor life') are pitched in the identical key. { a} sidney's _certain sonnets_ (no. xiii.) appended to _astrophel and stella_ in the edition of . in _emaricdulfe_: _sonnets written by e. c._, , sonnet xxxvii. beginning 'o lust, of sacred love the foul corrupter,' even more closely resembles shakespeare's sonnet in both phraseology and sentiment. e. c.'s rare volume is reprinted in the _lamport garland_ (roxburghe club), . { b} even this sonnet is adapted from drayton. see sonnet xxii. in edition: an evil spirit your beauty haunts me still . . . thus am i still provoked to every evil by this good-wicked spirit, sweet angel-devil. but shakespeare entirely alters the point of the lines by contrasting the influence exerted on him by the woman with that exerted on him by a man. { } the work was reprinted by dr. grosart in his _occasional issues_, , and extracts from it appear in the new shakspere society's 'allusion books,' i. seq. { } w. s. are common initials, and at least two authors bearing them made some reputation in shakespeare's day. there was a dramatist named wentworth smith (see p. _infra_), and there was a william smith who published a volume of lovelorn sonnets called _chloris_ in . a specious argument might possibly be devised in favour of the latter's identity with willobie's counsellor. but shakespeare, of the two, has the better claim. { } no edition appeared before , and then two were published. { } _oberon's vision_, by the rev. w. j. halpin (shakespeare society), . two accounts of the kenilworth _fetes_, by george gascoigne and robert laneham respectively, were published in . { } reprinted by the shakespeare society in . { } all these details are of shakespeare's invention, and do not figure in the old play. but in the crude induction in the old play the nondescript drunkard is named without prefix 'slie.' that surname, although it was very common at stratford and in the neighbourhood, was borne by residents in many other parts of the country, and its appearance in the old play is not in itself, as has been suggested, sufficient to prove that the old play was written by a warwickshire man. there are no other names or references in the old play that can be associated with warwickshire. { } mr. richard savage, the secretary and librarian of the birthplace trustees at stratford, has generously placed at my disposal this interesting fact, which he lately discovered. { } it was licensed for publication in , and published in . { a} the quarto of reads woncote: all the folios read woncot. yet malone in the variorum of introduced the new and unwarranted reading of wincot, which has been unwisely adopted by succeeding editors. { b} these references are convincingly explained by mr. justice madden in his _diary of master silence_, pp. seq., - . cf. blunt's _dursley and its neighbourhood_, huntley's _glossary of the cotswold dialect_, and marshall's _rural economy of cotswold_ ( ). { } first adopted by theobald in ; cf. halliwell-phillipps, ii. . { a} _remarks_, p. . { b} cf. shakespeare society's reprint, , ed. halliwell. { c} this collection of stories is said by both malone and steevens to have been published in , although no edition earlier than is now known. the edition of _westward for smelts_, _written by kinde kit of kingston_, was reprinted by the percy society in . cf. _shakespeare's library_, ed. hazlitt, i. ii. - . { } _diary_, p. ; see p. . { } nichols, _progresses of elizabeth_, iii. . { a} cf. domestic mss. (elizabeth) in public record office, vol. cclxxviii. nos. and ; and calendar of domestic state papers, - , pp. - . { b} cf. gilchrist, _examination of the charges_ . . . _of jonson's enmity towards shakspeare_, . { } latten is a mixed metal resembling brass. pistol in _merry wives of windsor_ (i. i. ) likens slender to a 'latten bilbo,' that is, a sword made of the mixed metal. cf. _anecdotes and traditions_, edited from l'estrange's mss. by w. j. thoms for the camden society, p. . { } this, or some synonym, is the conventional epithet applied at the date to shakespeare and his work. weever credited such characters of shakespeare as tarquin, romeo, and richard iii with 'sugred tongues' in his _epigrams_ of . in the _return from parnassus_ ( ?) shakespeare is apostrophised as 'sweet master shakespeare.' milton did homage to the tradition by writing of 'sweetest shakespeare' in _l'allegro_. { } a hack-writer, wentworth smith, took a hand in producing thirteen plays, none of which are extant, for the theatrical manager, philip henslowe, between and . _the hector of germanie_, an extant play 'made by w. smith' and published 'with new additions' in , was doubtless by wentworth smith, and is the only dramatic work by him that has survived. neither internal nor external evidence confirms the theory that the above-mentioned six plays, which have been wrongly claimed for shakespeare, were really by wentworth smith. the use of the initials 'w.s.' was not due to the publishers' belief that wentworth smith was the author, but to their endeavour to delude their customers into a belief that the plays were by shakespeare. { } cf. p. infra. { } there were twenty pieces in all. the five by shakespeare are placed in the order i. ii. iii. v. xvi. of the remainder, two--'if music and sweet poetry agree' (no. viii.) and 'as it fell upon a day' (no. xx.)--were borrowed from barnfield's _poems in divers humours_ ( ). 'venus with adonis sitting by her' (no. xi.) is from bartholomew griffin's _fidessa_ ( ); 'my flocks feed not' (no. xvii.) is adapted from thomas weelkes's _madrigals_ ( ); 'live with me and be my love' is by marlowe; and the appended stanza, entitled 'love's answer,' by sir walter ralegh (no. xix.); 'crabbed age and youth cannot live together' (no. xii.) is a popular song often quoted by the elizabethan dramatists. nothing has been ascertained of the origin and history of the remaining nine poems (iv. vi. vii. ix. x. xiii. xiv. xviii.) { } a unique copy of chester's _love's martyr_ is in mr. christie-miller's library at britwell. of a reissue of the original edition in with a new title, _the annals of great brittaine_, a copy (also unique) is in the british museum. a reprint of the original edition was prepared for private circulation by dr. grosart in , in his series of 'occasional issues.' it was also printed in the same year as one of the publications of the new shakspere society. matthew roydon in his elegy on sir philip sidney, appended to spenser's _colin clouts come home againe_, , describes the part figuratively played in sidney's obsequies by the turtle-dove, swan, phoenix, and eagle, in verses that very closely resemble shakespeare's account of the funereal functions fulfilled by the same four birds in his contribution to chester's volume. this resemblance suggests that shakespeare's poem may be a fanciful adaptation of roydon's elegiac conceits without ulterior significance. shakespeare's concluding 'threnos' is imitated in metre and phraseology by fletcher in his _mad lover_ in the song 'the lover's legacy to his cruel mistress.' { } halliwell-phillipps, ii. . { a} there is an admirable discussion of the question involved in the poet's heraldry in _herald and genealogist_, i. . facsimiles of all the documents preserved in the college of arms are given in _miscellanea genealogica et heraldica_, nd ser. , i. . halliwell-phillipps prints imperfectly one of the draft-grants, and that of (_outlines_, ii. , ), but does not distinguish the character of the negotiation of the earlier year from that of the negotiation of the later year. { b} it is still customary at the college of arms to inform an applicant for a coat-of-arms who has a father alive that the application should be made in the father's name, and the transaction conducted as if the father were the principal. it was doubtless on advice of this kind that shakespeare was acting in the negotiations that are described below. { } in a manuscript in the british museum (_harl. ms._ , f. ) is a copy of the tricking of the arms of william 'shakspere,' which is described 'as a pattent per will'm dethike garter, principale king of armes;' this is figured in french's _shakespeareana genealogica_, p. . { } these memoranda, which were as follows, were first written without the words here enclosed in brackets; those words were afterwards interlineated in the manuscript in a hand similar to that of the original sentences: '[this john shoeth] a patierne therof under clarent cookes hand in paper. xx. years past. [the q. officer and cheffe of the towne] [a justice of peace] and was a baylife of stratford uppo avon xv. or xvj. years past. that he hathe lands and tenements of good wealth and substance [ li.] that he mar[ried a daughter and heyre of arden, a gent. of worship.]' { } 'an exemplification' was invariably secured more easily than a new grant of arms. the heralds might, if they chose, tacitly accept, without examination, the applicant's statement that his family had borne arms long ago, and they thereby regarded themselves as relieved of the obligation of close inquiry into his present status. { a} on the gravestone of john hall, shakespeare's elder son-in-law, the shakespeare arms are similarly impaled with those of hall. { b} french, _genealogica shakespeareana_, p. . { } the details of brooke's accusation are not extant, and are only to be deduced from the answer of garter and clarenceux to brooke's complaint, two copies of which are accessible: one is in the vol. w-z at the heralds' college, f. ; and the other, slightly differing, is in ashmole ms. , ix. f. . both are printed in the _herald and genealogist_, i. . { a} _notes and queries_, th ser. v. . { b} the tradition that shakespeare planted the mulberry tree was not put on record till it was cut down in . in mention is made of it in a letter of thanks in the corporation's archives from the steward of the court of record to the corporation of stratford for presenting him with a standish made from the wood. but, according to the testimony of old inhabitants confided to malone (cf. his _life of shakespeare_, , p. ), the legend had been orally current in stratford since shakespeare's lifetime. the tree was perhaps planted in , when a frenchman named veron distributed a number of young mulberry trees through the midland counties by order of james i, who desired to encourage the culture of silkworms (cf. halliwell-phillipps, i. , - ). { a} i do not think we shall over-estimate the present value of shakespeare's income if we multiply each of its items by eight, but it is difficult to state authoritatively the ratio between the value of money in shakespeare's time and in our own. the money value of corn then and now is nearly identical; but other necessaries of life--meat, milk, eggs, wool, building materials, and the like--were by comparison ludicrously cheap in shakespeare's day. if we strike the average between the low price of these commodities and the comparatively high price of corn, the average price of necessaries will be found to be in shakespeare's day about an eighth of what it is now. the cost of luxuries is also now about eight times the price that it was in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. sixpence was the usual price of a new quarto or octavo book such as would now be sold at prices ranging between three shillings and sixpence and six shillings. half a crown was charged for the best-placed seats in the best theatres. the purchasing power of one elizabethan pound might be generally defined in regard to both necessaries and luxuries as equivalent to that of eight pounds of the present currency. { b} cf. henslowe's _diary_, ed. collier, pp. xxviii seq. after the restoration the receipts at the third performance were given for the author's 'benefit.' { a} _return from parnassus_, v. i. - . { b} cf. h[enry] p[arrot]'s _laquei ridiculosi or springes for woodcocks_, , epigram no. , headed 'theatrum licencia:' cotta's become a player most men know, and will no longer take such toyling paines; for here's the spring (saith he) whence pleasures flow and brings them damnable excessive gaines: that now are cedars growne from shrubs and sprigs, since greene's _tu quoque_ and those garlicke jigs. greens _tu quoque_ was a popular comedy that had once been performed at court by the queen's players, and 'garlicke jigs' alluded derisively to drolling entertainments, interspersed with dances, which won much esteem from patrons of the smaller playhouses. { } the documents which are now in the public record office among the papers relating to the lord chamberlain's office, were printed in full by halliwell-phillipps, i. - . { } in robert daborne, a playwright of insignificant reputation, charged for a drama as much as pounds. _alleyn papers_, ed. collier, p. . { } ten pounds was the ordinary fee paid to actors for a performance at the court of james i. shakespeare's company appeared annually twenty times and more at whitehall during the early years of james i's reign, and shakespeare, as being both author and actor, doubtless received a larger share of the receipts than his colleagues. { a} cf. halliwell-phillipps, i. - ; fleay, _stage_, pp. - { b} halliwell-phillipps, ii. - . { a} see p. . { b} halliwell-phillipps, ii. - . { } _accounts of the revels_, ed. peter cunningham (shakespeare society), p. ; _variorum shakespeare_, , iii. . { a} it was reproduced by the hakluyt society to accompany _the voyages and workes of john davis the navigator_, ed. captain a. h. markham, . cf. mr. coote's note on the _new map_, lxxxv-xcv. a paper on the subject by mr. coote also appears in _new shakspere society's transactions_, - , pt. i. - . { b} _diary_, camden soc. p. ; the elizabethan stage society repeated the play on the same stage on february , and , . { c} bandello's _novelle_, ii. . { a} first published in ; nd edit. . { b} _hamlet_, iii. ii. - . { a} on december , , the lords of the council sent letters to the lord mayor of london and to the magistrates of surrey and middlesex expressing their surprise that no steps had yet been taken to limit the number of playhouses in accordance with 'our order set down and prescribed about a year and a half since.' but nothing followed, and no more was heard officially of the council's order until , when the corporation of london remarked on its practical abrogation at the same time as they directed the suppression (which was not carried out) of the blackfriars theatre. all the documents on this subject are printed from the privy council register by halliwell-phillipps, - . { b} the passage, act ii. sc. ii. - , which deals in ample detail with the subject, only appears in the folio version of . in the first quarto a very curt reference is made to the misfortunes of the 'tragedians of the city:' 'y' faith, my lord, noveltie carries it away, for the principal publike audience that came to them are turned to private playes and to the humours of children.' 'private playes' were plays acted by amateurs, with whom the 'children' might well be classed. { a} all recent commentators follow steevens in interpreting the 'late innovation' as the order of the privy council of june , restricting the number of the london playhouses to two; but that order, which was never put in force, in no way affected the actors' fortunes. the first quarto's reference to the perils attaching to the 'noveltie' of the boys' performances indicates the true meaning. { b} _hamlet_, ii. ii. - . { } at the moment offensive personalities seemed to have infected all the london theatres. on may , , the privy council called the attention of the middlesex magistrates to the abuse covertly levelled by the actors of the 'curtain' at gentlemen 'of good desert and quality,' and directed the magistrates to examine all plays before they were produced (_privy council register_). jonson subsequently issued an 'apologetical dialogue' (appended to printed copies of the _poetaster_), in which he somewhat truculently qualified his hostility to the players: 'now for the players 'tis true i tax'd them and yet but some, and those so sparingly as all the rest might have sat still unquestioned, had they but had the wit or conscience to think well of themselves. but impotent they thought each man's vice belonged to their whole tribe; and much good do it them. what they have done against me i am not moved with, if it gave them meat or got them clothes, 'tis well; that was their end, only amongst them i am sorry for some better natures by the rest so drawn to run in that vile line.' { } see p. , note i, _ad fin_. { } the proposed identification of virgil in the 'poetaster' with chapman has little to recommend it. chapman's literary work did not justify the commendations which were bestowed on virgil in the play. { } the most scornful criticism that jonson is known to have passed on any composition by shakespeare was aimed at a passage in _julius caesar_, and as jonson's attack is barely justifiable on literary grounds, it is fair to assume that the play was distasteful to him from other considerations. 'many times,' jonson wrote of shakespeare in his _timber_, 'hee fell into those things [which] could not escape laughter: as when hee said in the person of _caesar_, one speaking to him [_i.e._ caesar]; _caesar_, _thou dost me wrong_. hee [_i.e._ caesar] replyed: _caesar did never wrong_, _butt with just cause_: and such like, which were ridiculous.' jonson derisively quoted the same passage in the induction to _the staple of news_ ( ): 'cry you mercy, you did not wrong but with just cause.' possibly the words that were ascribed by jonson to shakespeare's character of _caesar_ appeared in the original version of the play, but owing perhaps to jonson's captious criticism they do not figure in the folio version, the sole version that has reached us. the only words there that correspond with jonson's quotation are caesar's remark: know, caesar doth not wrong, nor without cause will he be satisfied (iii. i. - ). the rhythm and sense seem to require the reinsertion after the word 'wrong' of the phrase 'but with just cause,' which jonson needlessly reprobated. leonard digges ( - ), one of shakespeare's admiring critics, emphasises the superior popularity of shakespeare's _julius caesar_ in the theatre to ben jonson's roman play of _catiline_, in his eulogistic lines on shakespeare (published after digges's death in the edition of shakespeare's _poems_): so have i seen when caesar would appear, and on the stage at half-sword parley were brutus and cassius--oh, how the audience were ravish'd, with what wonder they went thence when some new day they would not brook a line of tedious, though well laboured, catiline. { } i wrote on this point in the article on thomas kyd in the _dictionary of national biography_ (vol. xxxi.): 'the argument in favour of kyd's authorship of a pre-shakespearean play (now lost) on the subject of hamlet deserves attention. nash in , when describing [in his preface to _menaphon_] the typical literary hack, who at almost every point suggests kyd, notices that in addition to his other accomplishments "he will afford you whole hamlets, i should say handfuls of tragical speeches." other references in popular tracts and plays of like date prove that in an early tragedy concerning hamlet there was a ghost who cried repeatedly, "hamlet, revenge!" and that this expression took rank in elizabethan slang beside the vernacular quotations from [kyd's sanguinary tragedy of] _jeronimo_, such as "what outcry calls me from my naked bed," and "beware, hieronimo, go by, go by." the resemblance between the stories of _hamlet_ and _jeronimo_ suggests that the former would have supplied kyd with a congenial plot. in _jeronimo_ a father seeks to avenge his son's murder; in _hamlet_ the theme is the same with the position of father and son reversed. in _jeronimo_ the avenging father resolves to reach his end by arranging for the performance of a play in the presence of those whom he suspects of the murder of his son, and there is good ground for crediting the lost tragedy of _hamlet_ with a similar play-scene. shakespeare's debt to the lost tragedy is a matter of conjecture, but the stilted speeches of the play-scene in his _hamlet_ read like intentional parodies of kyd's bombastic efforts in _the spanish tragedy_, and it is quite possible that they were directly suggested by an almost identical episode in a lost _hamlet_ by the same author.' shakespeare elsewhere shows acquaintance with kyd's work. he places in the mouth of kit sly in the _taming of the shrew_ the current phrase 'go by, jeronimy,' from _the spanish tragedy_. shakespeare quotes verbatim a line from the same piece in _much ado about nothing_ (i. i. ): 'in time the savage bull doth bear the yoke;' but kyd practically borrowed that line from watson's _passionate centurie_ (no. xlvii.), where shakespeare may have met it. { } cf. gericke and max moltke, _hamlet-quellen_, leipzig, . the story was absorbed into scandinavian mythology: cf. _ambales-saga_, edited by mr. israel gollancz, . { } cf. _hamlet_--parallel texts of the first and second quarto, and first folio--ed. wilhelm vietor, marburg, ; _the devonshire hamlets_, , parallel texts of the two quartos edited by mr. sam timmins; _hamlet_, ed. george macdonald, , a study with the text of the folio. { a} arber's _transcript of the stationers' registers_, iii. . { b} _ib._ iii. . { } less satisfactory is the endeavour that has been made by mr. f. g. fleay and mr. george wyndham to treat _troilus and cressida_ as shakespeare's contribution to the embittered controversy of - , between jonson on the one hand and marston and dekker and their actor friends on the other hand, and to represent the play as a pronouncement against jonson. according to this fanciful view, shakespeare held up jonson to savage ridicule in ajax, while in thersites he denounced marston, despite marston's intermittent antagonism to jonson, which entitled him to freedom from attack by jonson's foes. the appearance of the word 'mastic' in the line ( . iii. ) 'when rank thersites opes his mastic jaws' is treated as proof of shakespeare's identification of thersites with marston, who used the pseudonym 'therio-mastix' in his _scourge of villainy_. it would be as reasonable to identify him with dekker, who wrote the greater part of _satiro-mastix_. 'mastic' is doubtless an adjective formed without recondite significance from the substantive 'mastic,' _i.e._ the gum commonly used at the time for stopping decayed teeth. no hypothesis of a polemical intention is needed to account for shakespeare's conception of ajax or thersites. there is no trait in either character as depicted by shakespeare which a reading of chapman's _homer_ would fail to suggest. the controversial interpretation of the play is in conflict with chronology (for _troilus_ cannot, on any showing, be assigned to the period of the war between jonson and dekker, in - ), and it seems confuted by the facts and arguments already adduced in the discussion of the theatrical conflict (see pp. - ). if more direct disproof be needed, it may be found in shakespeare's prologue to _troilus_, where there is a good-humoured and expressly pacific allusion to the polemical aims of jonson's _poetaster_. jonson had introduced into his play 'an _armed_ prologue' on account, he asserted, of his enemies' menaces. shakespeare, after describing in his prologue to _troilus_ the progress of the trojan war before his story opened, added that his 'prologue' presented itself '_arm'd_,' not to champion 'author's pen or actor's voice,' but simply to announce in a guise befitting the warlike subject-matter that the play began in the middle of the conflict between greek and trojan, and not at the beginning. these words of shakespeare put out of court any interpretation of shakespeare's play that would represent it as a contribution to the theatrical controversy. { } _england's mourning garment_, , sign. d. . { } at the same time the earl of worcester's company was taken into the queen's patronage, and its members were known as 'the queen's servants,' while the earl of nottingham's company was taken into the patronage of the prince of wales, and its members were known as the prince's servants. this extended patronage of actors by the royal family was noticed as especially honourable to the king by one of his contemporary panegyrists, gilbert dugdale, in his _time triumphant_, , sig. b. { a} the entry, which appears in the accounts of the treasurer of the chamber, was first printed in in cunningham's _extracts from the accounts of the revels at court_, p. xxxiv. a comparison of cunningham's transcript with the original in the public record office (_audit office_--_declared accounts_--treasurer of the chamber, bundle , roll ) shows that it is accurate. the earl of pembroke was in no way responsible for the performance at wilton house. at the time, the court was formally installed in his house (cf. _cal. state papers_, dom. - ) pp. - ), and the court officers commissioned the players to perform there, and paid all their expenses. the alleged tradition, recently promulgated for the first time by the owners of wilton, that _as you like it_ was performed on the occasion, is unsupported by contemporary evidence. { b} the grant is transcribed in the new shakspere society's _transactions_, - , appendix ii., from the lord chamberlain's papers in the public record office, where it is now numbered . the number allotted it in the _transactions_ is obsolete. { a} a contemporary copy of this letter, which declared the queen's players acting at the fortune and the prince's players at the curtain to be entitled to the same privileges as the king's players, is at dulwich college (cf. g. f. warner's _catalogue of the dulwich manuscripts_, pp. - ). collier printed it in his _new facts_ with fraudulent additions, in which the names of shakespeare and other actors figured. { b} mr. halliwell-phillipps in his _outlines_, i. , cites a royal order to this effect, but gives no authority, and i have sought in vain for the document at the public record office, at the british museum, and elsewhere. but there is no reason to doubt the fact that shakespeare and his fellow-actors took, as grooms of the chamber, part in the ceremonies attending the constable's visit to london. in the unprinted accounts of edmund tilney, master of the revels, for the year october to october , charge is made for his three days' attendance with four men to direct the entertainments 'at the receaving of the constable of spayne' (public record office, _declared accounts_, pipe office roll ). the magnificent festivities culminated in a splendid banquet given in the constable's honour by james i at whitehall on sunday, august / --the day on which the treaty was signed. in the morning all the members of the royal household accompanied the constable in formal procession from somerset house. after the banquet, at which the earls of pembroke and southampton acted as stewards, there was a ball, and the king's guests subsequently witnessed exhibitions of bear baiting, bull baiting, rope dancing, and feats of horsemanship. (cf. stow's _chronicle_, , pp. - , and a spanish pamphlet, _relacion de la jornada del exc__mo__ condestabile de castilla_, etc., antwerp, , to, which was summarised in ellis's _original letters_, nd series, vol. iii. pp. - , and was partly translated in mr. w. b. rye's _england as seen by foreigners_, pp. - ). { } at the bodleian library (ms. rawlinson, a ) are the original accounts of lord stanhope of harrington, treasurer of the chamber for various (detached) years in the early part of james i's reign. these documents show that shakespeare's company acted at court on november and , december and , , and on january and , february and , and the evenings of the following shrove sunday, shrove monday, and shrove tuesday, . { } these dates are drawn from a memorandum of plays performed at court in and which is among malone's manuscripts in the bodleian library, and was obviously derived by malone from authentic documents that were in his day preserved at the audit office in somerset house. the document cannot now be traced at the public record office, whither the audit office papers have been removed since malone's death. peter cunningham professed to print the original document in his accounts of the revels at court (shakespeare society, , pp. _et seq._), but there is no doubt that he forged his so-called transcript, and that the additions which he made to malone's memorandum were the outcome of his fancy. collier's assertion in his _new particulars_, p. , that _othello_ was first acted at sir thomas egerton's residence at harefield on august , , was based solely on a document among the earl of ellesmere's mss. at bridgwater house, which purported to be a contemporary account by the clerk, sir arthur maynwaring, of sir thomas egerton's household expenses. this document, which collier reprinted in his _egerton papers_ (camden soc.), p. , was authoritatively pronounced by experts in to be 'a shameful forgery' (cf. ingleby's _complete view of the shakspere controversy_, , pp. - ). { } dr. garnett's _italian literature_, , p. . { } cf. letter by mrs. stopes in _athenaeum_, july , . { } cf. _macbeth_, ed. clark and wright, clarendon press series. { a} this fact is stated on the title-page of the quartos. { b} sidney tells the story in a chapter entitled 'the pitiful state and story of the paphlagonian unkind king and his blind son; first related by the son, then by his blind father' (bk. ii. chap. , ed. to; pp. - , ed. , fol.) { } it was edited for the shakespeare society in by dyce, who owned the manuscript. { } mr. george wyndham in his introduction to his edition of north's _plutarch_, i. pp. xciii-c, gives an excellent criticism of the relations of shakespeare's play to plutarch's life of antonius. { } see the whole of coriolanus's great speech on offering his services to aufidius, the volscian general, iv. v. - : my name is caius marcius, who hath done to thee particularly and to all the volsces, great hurt and mischief; thereto witness may my surname, coriolanus . . . to do thee service. north's translation of plutarch gives in almost the same terms coriolanus's speech on the occasion. it opens: 'i am caius martius, who hath done to thyself particularly, and to all the volsces generally, great hurt and mischief, which i cannot deny for my surname of coriolanus that i bear.' similarly volumnia's stirring appeal to her son and her son's proffer of submission, in act v. sc. iii. - , reproduce with equal literalness north's rendering of plutarch. 'if we held our peace, my son,' volumnia begins in north, 'the state of our raiment would easily betray to thee what life we have led at home since thy exile and abode abroad; but think now with thyself,' and so on. the first sentence of shakespeare's speech runs: should we be silent and not speak, our raiment and state of bodies would bewray what life we have led since thy exile. think with thyself . . . { } see p. and note . { } in i. i. - imogen is described as 'past grace' in the theological sense. in i. ii. - the second lord remarks: 'if it be a sin to make a true election, she is damned.' { a} see p. , note i. camillo's reflections (i. ii. ) on the ruin that attends those who 'struck anointed kings' have been regarded, not quite conclusively, as specially designed to gratify james i. { b} _conversations with drummond_, p. . { c} in _winter's tale_ (iv. iv. et seq.) autolycus threatens that the clown's son 'shall be flayed alive; then 'nointed over with honey, set on the head of a wasp's nest,' &c. in boccaccio's story the villain ambrogiuolo (shakespeare's iachimo), after 'being bounden to the stake and anointed with honey,' was 'to his exceeding torment not only slain but devoured of the flies and wasps and gadflies wherewith that country abounded' (cf. _decameron_, translated by john payne, , i. ). { a} printed in cohn's _shakespeare in germany_. { b} golding's translation of ovid's _metamorphoses_, edit. , p. _b_. the passage begins: ye ayres and windes, ye elves of hills, ye brookes and woods alone. { } _variorum shakespeare_, , xv. . in the early weeks of shakespeare's company presented no fewer than fifteen plays at court. payment of pounds was made to the actors for their services on february , - . the council's warrant is extant in the _bodleian library ms._ rawl. a (f. ). the plays performed were not specified by name, but some by shakespeare were beyond doubt amongst them, and possibly 'the tempest.' a forged page which was inserted in a detached account-book of the master of the court-revels for the years and at the public record office, and was printed as genuine in peter cunningham's _extracts from the revels' accounts_, p. , supplies among other entries two to the effect that 'the tempest' was performed at whitehall at hallowmas (_i.e._ november ) and that 'a winter's tale' followed four days later, on november . though these entries are fictitious, the information they offer may be true. malone doubtless based his positive statement respecting the date of the composition of 'the tempest' in on memoranda made from papers then accessible at the audit office, but now, since the removal of those archives to the public record office, mislaid. all the forgeries introduced into the revels' accounts are well considered and show expert knowledge (see p. , note i). the forger of the entries probably worked either on the published statement of malone, or on fuller memoranda left by him among his voluminous manuscripts. { a} cf. _universal review_, april , article by dr. richard garnett. { b} harmonised scores of johnson's airs for the songs 'full fathom five' and 'where the bee sucks,' are preserved in wilson's _cheerful ayres or ballads set for three voices_, . { a} cf. browning, _caliban upon setebos_; daniel wilson, _caliban_, _or the missing link_ ( ); and renan, _caliban_ ( ), a drama continuing shakespeare's play. { b} when shakespeare wrote _troilus and cressida_ he had formed some conception of a character of the caliban type. thersites say of ajax (iii. iii. ), 'he's grown a very land-fish, languageless, a monster.' { a} treasurer's accounts in rawl. ms. a , leaf (in the bodleian), printed in new shakspere society's _transactions_, - , part ii. p. . { b} _the merry devill of edmonton_, a comedy which was first published in , was also re-entered by moseley for publication on september , , as the work of shakespeare (see p. _supra_). { a} dyce thought he detected traces of shirley's workmanship, but it was possibly theobald's unaided invention. { b} the quarto of the play was carefully edited for the new shakspere society by mr. harold littledale in . see also spalding, _shakespeare's authorship of_ '_two noble kinsmen_,' , reprinted by new shakspere society, ; article by spalding in _edinburgh review_, ; _transactions_, new shakspere society, . { } cf. mr. robert boyle in _transactions_ of the new shakspere society, . { } _reliquiae wottonianae_, , pp. - . wotton adds 'that the piece was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and majesty, even to the matting of the stage; the knights of the order, with their georges and garters, the guards with their embroidered coats, and the like: sufficient in truth within a while to make greatness very familiar, if not ridiculous. now king _henry_ making a masque at the cardinal _wolsey's_ house, and certain canons being shot off at his entry, some of the paper or other stuff wherewith one of them was stopped, did light on the thatch, where being thought at first but an idle smoak, and their eyes more attentive to the show, it kindled inwardly, and ran round like a train, consuming within less than an hour the whole house to the very grounds. this was the fatal period of that vertuous fabrique; wherein yet nothing did perish, but wood and straw and a few forsaken cloaks; only one man had his breeches set on fire, that would perhaps have broyled him, if he had not by the benefit of a provident wit put it out with bottle[d] ale.' john chamberlain writing to sir ralph winwood on july , , briefly mentions that the theatre was burnt to the ground in less than two hours owing to the accidental ignition of the thatch roof through the firing of cannon 'to be used in the play.' the audience escaped unhurt though they had 'but two narrow doors to get out' (winwood's _memorials_, iii. p. ). a similar account was sent by the rev. thomas lorkin to sir thomas puckering, bart., from london, june , . 'the fire broke out,' lorkin wrote, 'no longer since than yesterday, while burbage's company were acting at the globe the play of _henry viii_' (_court and times of james i_, , vol. i. p. ). a contemporary sonnet on 'the pittifull burning of the globe playhouse in london,' first printed by haslewood 'from an old manuscript volume of poems' in the _gentleman's magazine_ for , was again printed by halliwell-phillipps (i. pp. , ) from an authentic manuscript in the library of sir matthew wilson, bart., of eshton hall, yorkshire. { a} _bodl. ms._ rawl. a ; cf. spedding in _gentleman's magazine_, , reprinted in new shakspere society's _transactions_, . { b} cf. mr. robert boyle in new shakspere society's _transactions_, . { } halliwell-phillipps, ii. . { a} manningham, _diary_, march , , camd. soc. p. . { b} cf. aubrey, _lives_; halliwell-phillipps, ii. ; and art. sir william d'avenant in the _dictionary of national biography_. { } the indenture prepared for the purchaser is in the halliwell-phillipps collection, which was sold to mr. marsden j. perry of providence, rhode island, u.s.a., in january . that held by the vendor is in the guildhall library. { } shakespeare's references to puritans in the plays of his middle and late life are so uniformly discourteous that they must be judged to reflect his personal feeling. the discussion between maria and sir andrew aguecheek regarding malvolio's character in _twelfth night_ (ii. iii. et seq.) runs: maria. marry, sir, sometimes he is a kind of puritan. sir andrew. o! if i thought that, i'd beat him like a dog. sir toby. what, for being a puritan? thy exquisite reason, dear knight. sir andrew. i have no exquisite reason for 't, but i have reason good enough. in _winter's tale_ (iv. iii. ) the clown, after making contemptuous references to the character of the shearers, remarks that there is 'but one puritan amongst them, and he sings psalms to hornpipes.' cf. the allusions to 'grace' and 'election' in cymbeline, p. , note . { a} the town council of stratford-on-avon, whose meeting-chamber almost overlooked shakespeare's residence of new place, gave curious proof of their puritanic suspicion of the drama on february , , when they passed a resolution that plays were unlawful and 'the sufferance of them against the orders heretofore made and against the example of other well-governed cities and boroughs,' and the council was therefore 'content,' the resolution ran, that 'the penalty of xs. imposed [on players heretofore] be x_li_. henceforward.' ten years later the king's players were bribed by the council to leave the city without playing. (see the present writer's _stratford-on-avon_, p. .) { b} the lines as quoted by aubrey (_lives_, ed. clark, ii. ) run: ten-in-the-hundred the devil allows, but combe will have twelve he sweares and he vowes; if any man ask, who lies in this tomb? oh! ho! quoth the devil, 'tis my john-a-combe. rowe's version opens somewhat differently: ten-in-the-hundred lies here ingrav'd. 'tis a hundred to ten, his soul is not sav'd. the lines, in one form or another, seem to have been widely familiar in shakespeare's lifetime, but were not ascribed to him. the first two in rowe's version were printed in the epigrams by h[enry] p[arrot], , and again in camden's _remaines_, . the whole first appeared in richard brathwaite's _remains_ in under the heading: 'upon one john combe of stratford upon aven, a notable usurer, fastened upon a tombe that he had caused to be built in his life time.' { } the clumsy entry runs: 'sept. mr. shakespeare tellyng j. greene that i was not able to beare the encloseing of welcombe.' j. greene is to be distinguished from thomas greene, the writer of the diary. the entry therefore implies that shakespeare told j. greene that the writer of the diary, thomas greene, was not able to bear the enclosure. those who represent shakespeare as a champion of popular rights have to read the 'i' in 'i was not able' as 'he.' were that the correct reading, shakespeare would be rightly credited with telling j. greene that he disliked the enclosure; but palaeographers only recognise the reading 'i.' cf. _shakespeare and the enclosure of common fields at welcombe_, a facsimile of greene's diary, now at the birthplace, stratford, with a transcript by mr. e. j. l. scott, edited by dr. c. m. inglehy, . { a} _british magazine_, june . { b} cf. malone, _shakespeare_, , ii. - ; ireland, _confessions_, , p. ; green, _legend of the crab tree_, . { c} the date is in the old style, and is equivalent to may in the new; cervantes, whose death is often described as simultaneous, died at madrid ten days earlier--on april , in the old style, or april , , in the new. { } hall's letter was published as a quarto pamphlet at london in , from the original, now in the bodleian library oxford. { } mr. charles elton, q.c., has been kind enough to give me a legal opinion on this point. he wrote to me on december , : 'i have looked to the authorities with my friend mr. herbert mackay, and there is no doubt that shakespeare barred the dower.' mr. mackay's opinion is couched in the following terms: 'the conveyance of the blackfriars estate to william shakespeare in shows that the estate was conveyed to shakespeare, johnson, jackson, and hemming as joint tenants, and therefore the dower of shakespeare's wife would be barred unless he were the survivor of the four bargainees.' that was a remote contingency, which did not arise, and shakespeare always retained the power of making 'another settlement when the trustees were shrinking.' thus the bar was for practical purposes perpetual, and disposes of mr. halliwell-phillipps's assertion that shakespeare's wife was entitled to dower in one form or another from all his real estate. cf. _davidson on conveyancing_; littleton, sect. ; _coke upon littleton_, ed. hargrave, p. _b_, note i. { a} a hundred and fifty pounds is described as a substantial jointure in _merry wives_, iii. iii. . { b} leonard digges, in commendatory verses before the first folio of , wrote that shakespeare's works would be alive [when] time dissolves thy stratford monument. { } cf. dugdale, _diary_, , p. ; see under article on bernard janssen in the _dictionary of national biography_. { a} 'timber,' in _works_, . { b} john webster, the dramatist, made vague reference in the address before his 'white divel' in to 'the right happy and copious industry of m. shakespeare, m. decker, and m. heywood.' { } the words run: 'heere lyeth interred the bodye of anne, wife of mr. william shakespeare, who depted. this life the th day of august, , being of the age of yeares. 'vbera, tu, mater, tu lac vitamq. dedisti, vae mihi; pro tanto munere saxa dabo! quam mallem, amoueat lapidem bonus angel[us] ore, exeat ut christi corpus, imago tua. sed nil vota valent; venias cito, christe; resurget, clausa licet tumulo, mater, et astra petet.' { } cf. hall, _select observations_, ed. cooke, . { } baker, _northamptonshire_, i. ; _new shaksp. soc. trans._ - , pt. ii. pp. -- . { } halliwell-phillipps, _hist. of new place_, , fol. { } wise, _autograph of william shakespeare_ . . . _together with_ , _ways of spelling the name_, philadelphia, . { } see the article on john florio in the _dictionary of national biography_, and sir frederick madden's _observations on an autograph of shakspere_, . { } cf. halliwell-phillipps, _new lamps or old_, ; malone, _inquiry_, . { } mr. lionel cust, director of the national portrait gallery, who has ittle doubt of the genuineness of the picture, gave an interesting account of it at a meeting of the society of antiquaries on december , . mr. cust's paper is printed in the society's _proceedings_, second series, vol. xvi. p. . mr. salt brassington, the librarian of the shakespeare memorial library, has given a careful description of it in the _illustrated catalogue of the pictures in the memorial gallery_, , pp. - . { a} _harper's magazine_, may . { b} cf. evelyn's _diary and correspondence_, iii. . { c} numberless portraits have been falsely identified with shakespeare, and it would be futile to attempt to make the record of the pretended portraits complete. upwards of sixty have been offered for sale to the national portrait gallery since its foundation in , and not one of these has proved to possess the remotest claim to authenticity. the following are some of the wholly unauthentic portraits that have attracted public attention: three portraits assigned to zucchero, who left england in , and cannot have had any relations with shakespeare--one in the art museum, boston, u.s.a.; another, formerly the property of richard cosway, r.a., and afterwards of mr. j. a. langford of birmingham (engraved in mezzotint by h. green); and a third belonging to the baroness burdett-coutts, who purchased it in . at hampton court is a wholly unauthentic portrait of the chandos type, which was at one time at penshurst; it bears the legend 'aetatis suae ' (cf. law's _cat. of hampton court_, p. ). a portrait inscribed 'aetatis suae , ,' belonging to clement kingston of ashbourne, derbyshire, was engraved in mezzotint by g. f. storm in . { } in the picture-gallery at dulwich is 'a woman's head on a boord done by mr. burbidge, ye actor'--a well-authenticated example of the actor's art. { a} it is now the property of frau oberst becker, the discoverer's daughter-in-law, darmstadt, heidelbergerstrasse . { b} some account of shakespeare's portraits will be found in the following works: james boaden, _inquiry into various pictures and prints of shakespeare_, ; abraham wivell, _inquiry into shakespeare's portraits_, , with engravings by b. and w. holl; george scharf, _principal portraits of shakespeare_, ; j. hain friswell, _life-portraits of shakespeare_, ; william page, _study of shakespeare's portraits_, ; ingleby, _man and book_, , pp. seq.; j. parker norris, _portraits of shakespeare_, philadelphia, , with numerous plates; _illustrated cat. of portraits in shakespeare's memorial at stratford_, . in mr. walter rogers furness issued, at philadelphia, a volume of composite portraits, combining the droeshout engraving and the stratford bust with the chandos, jansen, felton, and stratford portraits. { } cf. _gentleman's magazine_, , p. . { } _a history of the shakespeare memorial_, _stratford-on-avon_, ; _illustrated catalogue of pictures in the shakespeare memorial_, . { } this was facsimiled in , and again by mr. griggs in . { } lithographed facsimiles of most of these volumes, with some of the quarto editions of the poems (forty-eight volumes in all), were prepared by mr. e. w. ashbee, and issued to subscribers by halliwell-phillipps between and . a cheaper set of quarto facsimiles, undertaken by mr. w. griggs, and issued under the supervision of dr. f. j. furnivall, appeared in forty-three volumes between and . { } perfect copies range in price, according to their rarity, from to pounds. in , at the sale of george daniel's library, quarto copies of 'love's labour's lost' and of 'merry wives' (first edition) each fetched pounds s. on may , , a copy of the quarto of 'the merchant of venice' (printed by james roberts in ) was sold at sotheby's for pounds. { } see p. . { } cf. _bibliographica_, i. seq. { } this copy was described in the _variorum shakespeare_ of (xxi. ) as in the possession of messrs. j. and a. arch, booksellers, of cornhill. it was subsequently sold at sotheby's in for pounds s. { a} i cannot trace the present whereabouts of this copy, but it is described in the _variorum shakespeare_ of , xxi. - . { b} the copy seems to have been purchased by a member of the sheldon family in , five years after publication. there is a note in a contemporary hand which says it was bought for pounds s., a somewhat extravagant price. the entry further says that it cost three score pounds of silver, words that i cannot explain. the sheldon family arms are on the sides of the volume, and there are many manuscript notes in the margin, interpreting difficult words, correcting misprints, or suggesting new readings. { c} it has been mutilated by a former owner, and the signature of the leaf is missing, but it was presumably g g . { } correspondents inform me that two copies of the first folio, one formerly belonging to leonard hartley and the other to bishop virtue of portsmouth, showed a somewhat similar irregularity. both copies were bought by american booksellers, and i have not been able to trace them. { } cf. _notes and queries_, st ser., vii. . { a} arber, _stationers' registers_, iii. - . { b} on january , , collier announced in the _athenaeum_, that this copy, which had been purchased by him for thirty shillings, and bore on the outer cover the words '_tho. perkins his booke_,' was annotated throughout by a former owner in the middle of the seventeenth century. shortly afterwards collier published all the 'essential' manuscript readings in a volume entitled _notes and emendations to the plays of shakespeare_. next year he presented the folio to the duke of devonshire. a warm controversy as to the date and genuineness of the corrections followed, but in all doubt as to their origin was set at rest by mr. n. e. s. a. hamilton of the manuscript department of the british museum, who in letters to the _times_ of july and pronounced all the manuscript notes to be recent fabrications in a simulated seventeenth-century hand. { } the best account of eighteenth-century criticism of shakespeare is to be found in the preface to the cambridge edition by mr. aldis wright. the memoirs of the various editors in the _dictionary of national biography_ supply useful information. i have made liberal use of these sources in the sketch given in the following pages. { a} mr. churton collins's admirable essay on theobald's textua criticism of shakespeare, entitled 'the porson of shakespearean critics,' is reprinted from the _quarterly review_ in his _essays and studies_, , pp. et seq. { b} collier doubtless followed theobald's hint when he pretended to have found in his 'perkins folio' the extremely happy emendation (now generally adopted) of 'bisson multitude' for 'bosom multiplied' in coriolanus's speech: how shall this bisson multitude digest the senate's courtesy?--(_coriolanus_, iii. i. - .) { } a happy example of his shrewdness may be quoted from _king lear_, iii. vi. , where in all previous editions edgar's enumeration of various kinds of dogs included the line 'hound or spaniel, brach or hym [or him].' for the last word hanmer substituted 'lym,' which was the elizabethan synonym for bloodhound. { } edition of , vol. i. p. . { a} cf. the opening line of matthew arnold's sonnet on shakespeare: others abide our question. thou art free. { b} these letters have been interpreted as standing for the inscription 'in memoriam scriptoris' as well as for the name of the writer. in the latter connection, they have been variously and inconclusively read as jasper mayne (student), a young oxford writer; as john marston (student or satirist); and as john milton (senior or student). { } charles gildon in , in 'some reflections on mr. rymer's short view of tragedy' which he addressed to dryden, gives the classical version of this incident. 'to give the world,' gildon informs dryden, 'some satisfaction that shakespear has had as great a veneration paid his excellence by men of unquestion'd parts as this i now express of him, i shall give some account of what i have heard from your mouth, sir, about the noble triumph he gain'd over all the ancients by the judgment of the ablest critics of that time. the matter of fact (if my memory fail me not) was this. mr. _hales_ of eaton affirm'd that he wou'd shew all the poets of antiquity outdone by shakespear, in all the topics, and common places made use of in poetry. the enemies of shakespear wou'd by no means yield him so much excellence: so that it came to a resolution of a trial of skill upon that subject; the place agreed on for the dispute was mr. hales's chamber at eaton; a great many books were sent down by the enemies of this poet, and on the appointed day my lord falkland, sir john suckling, and all the persons of quality that had wit and learning, and interested themselves in the quarrel, met there, and upon a thorough disquisition of the point, the judges chose by agreement out of this learned and ingenious assembly unanimously gave the preference to shakespear. and the greek and roman poets were adjudg'd to vail at least their glory in that of the english hero.' { a} milton, _iconoclastes_, , pp. - . { b} cf. evelyn's _diary_, november , : 'i saw hamlet, prince of denmark, played, but now the old plays began to disgust the refined age, since his majesty's being so long abroad.' { a} _conquest of granada_, . { b} _essay on dramatic poesie_, . some interesting, if more qualified, criticism by dryden also appears in his preface to an adaptation of 'troilus and cressida' in . in the prologue to his and d'avenant's adaptation of 'the tempest' in , he wrote: but shakespeare's magic could not copied be; within that circle none durst walk but he. { a} cf. _shakspere's century of praise_, - , new shakspere soc., ed. ingleby and toulmin smith, ; and _fresh allusions_, ed. furnivall, . { b} cf. w. sidney walker, _critical examination of the text of shakespeare_, . { } see _notes and lectures on shakespeare and other poets by s. t. coleridge_, _now first collected by t. ashe_, . coleridge hotly resented the remark, which he attributed to wordsworth, that a german critic first taught us to think correctly concerning shakespeare. (coleridge to mudford, ; cf. dykes campbell's memoir of coleridge, p. cv.) but there is much to be said for wordsworth's general view (see p. , note ). { } r. e. hunter, _shakespeare and the tercentenary celebration_, . { } thomas jordan, a very humble poet, wrote a prologue to notify the new procedure, and referred to the absurdity of the old custom: for to speak truth, men act, that are between forty and fifty, wenches of fifteen with bone so large and nerve so uncompliant, when you call desdemona, enter giant. { } _essays of elia_, ed. canon ainger, pp. et seq. { a} _hamlet_ in - and _macbeth_ in - were each performed by sir henry irving for nights in uninterrupted succession; these are the longest continuous runs that any of shakespeare's plays are known to have enjoyed. { b} see p. . { } cf. alfred roffe, _shakspere music_, ; _songs in shakspere_ . . . _set to music_, , new shakspere soc. { } cf. d. g. morhoff, _unterricht von der teutschen sprache und poesie_, kiel, , p. . { } in his 'essay supplementary to the preface' in the edition of his _poems_ of wordsworth wrote: 'the germans, only of foreign nations, are approaching towards a knowledge of what he [_i.e._ shakespeare] is. in some respects they have acquired a superiority over the fellow-countrymen of the poet; for among us, it is a common--i might say an established--opinion that shakespeare is justly praised when he is pronounced to be "a wild irregular genius in whom great faults are compensated by great beauties." how long may it be before this misconception passes away and it becomes universally acknowledged that the judgment of shakespeare . . . is not less admirable than his imagination? . . .' { } cf. _wilhelm meister_. { a} cf. _jahrbuch der deutsche shakespeare-gesellschaft_ for . { b} _ibid._ , p. . { } the exact statistics for and were: 'othello,' acted and times for the respective years; 'hamlet,' and ; 'romeo and juliet,' and ; 'taming of the shrew,' and ; 'the merchant of venice,' and ; 'a midsummer night's dream,' and ; 'a winter's tale,' and ; 'much ado about nothing,' and ; 'lear,' and ; 'as you like it,' and ; 'comedy of errors,' and ; 'julius caesar,' and ; 'macbeth,' and ; 'timon of athens,' and ; 'the tempest,' and ; 'antony and cleopatra,' and ; 'coriolanus,' and ; 'cymbeline,' and ; 'richard ii,' and ; 'henry iv,' part i, and , part ii, and ; 'henry v,' and ; 'henry vi,' part i, and , part ii, and ; 'richard iii,' and (_jahrbuch der deutsche shakespeare-gesellschaft_ for , pp. seq., and for , pp. seq.) { a} jusserand, _a french ambassador_, p. . { b} cf. al. schmidt, _voltaire's verdienst von der einfuhrung shakespeare's in frankreich_, konigsberg, . { a} frederic melchior, baron grimm ( - ), for some years a friend of rousseau and the correspondent of diderot and the _encyclopedistes_, scattered many appreciative references to shakespeare in his voluminous _correspondance litteraire philosophique et critique_, extending over the period - , the greater part of which was published in vols. - . { b} _melanges historiques_, ?, iii. - . { c} _ibid._ , iii. - . { a} very interesting comments on these performances appeared day by day in the paris newspaper _le globe_. they were by charles magnin, who reprinted them in his _causeries et meditations historiques et litteraires_ (paris, , ii. et seq.) { b} cf. lacroix, _histoire de l'influence de shakespeare sur le theatre francais_, ; _edinburgh review_; , pp. - ; elze, _essays_, pp. seq.; m. jusserand, _shakespeare en france sous l'ancien regime_, paris, . { } cf. giovanni andres, _dell' origine_, _progressi e stato attuale d' ogni letteratura_, . { a} cf. _new shaksp. soc. trans._ - , pt. ii. seq. { b} cf. _ungarische revue_ (budapest) jan. , pp. - ; and august greguss's shakspere . . . elso kotet: shakspere palyaja budapest, (an account in hungarian of shakespeare's life and works). { } cf. _macmillan's magazine_, may . { } compiled between and ; first printed in _letters from the bodleian library_, , and admirably re-edited for the clarendon press during the present year by the rev. andrew clark ( vols.) { } see pp. - . { } the earliest attempts at a concordance were _a complete verbal index to the plays_, by f. twiss ( ), and _an index to the remarkable passages and words_ by samuel ayscough ( ), but these are now superseded. { a} jordan's _collections_, including this fraudulent will of shakespeare's father, was printed privately by j. o. halliwell-phillipps in . { b} see p. . { a} reference has already been made to the character of the manuscript corrections made by collier in a copy of the second folio of , known as the perkins folio. see p. , note . the chief authorities on the subject of the collier forgeries are: _an inquiry into the genuineness of the manuscript corrections in mr. j. payne collier's annotated shakspere folio_, _ _, _and of certain shaksperian documents likewise published by mr. collier_, by n. e. s. a. hamilton, london, ; _a complete view of the shakespeare controversy concerning the authenticity and genuineness of manuscript matter affecting the works and biography of shakspere_, _published by j. payne collier as the fruits of his researches_, by c. m. ingleby, ll.d. of trinity college, cambridge, london, ; _catalogue of the manuscripts and muniments of alleyn's college of god's gift at dulwich_, by george f. warner, m.a., ; _notes on the life of james payne collier_, _with a complete list of his works and an account of such shakespeare documents as are believed to be spurious_, by henry b. wheatley, london, . { b} see _calendar of state papers_, domestic, - , p. . { a} see warners _catalogue of dulwich mss._ pp. - . { b} cf. _ibid._ pp. - . { a} see p. , note i. { b} cf. warner's _dulwich mss._ pp. - . { c} see p. , note i. { } most of those that are commonly quoted are phrases in ordinary use by all writers of the day. the only point of any interest raised in the argument from parallelisms of expression centres about a quotation from aristotle which bacon and shakespeare not merely both make, but make in what looks at a first glance to be the same erroneous form. aristotle wrote in his _nicomachean ethics_, i. , that young men were unfitted for the study of _political_ philosophy. bacon, in the _advancement of learning_ ( ), wrote: 'is not the opinion of aristotle worthy to be regarded wherein he saith that young men are not fit auditors of _moral_ philosophy?' (bk. ii. p. , ed. kitchin). shakespeare, about , in _troilus and cressida_, ii. ii. , wrote of 'young men whom aristotle thought unfit to hear _moral_ philosophy.' but the alleged error of substituting _moral_ for _political_ philosophy in aristotle's text is more apparent than real. by 'political' philosophy aristotle, as his context amply shows, meant the ethics of civil society, which are hardly distinguishable from what is commonly called 'morals.' in the summary paraphrase of aristotle's _ethics_ which was translated into english from the italian, and published in , the passage to which both shakespeare and bacon refer is not rendered literally, but its general drift is given as a warning that moral philosophy is not a fit subject for study by youths who are naturally passionate and headstrong. such an interpretation of aristotle's language is common among sixteenth and seventeenth century writers. erasmus, in the epistle at the close of his popular _colloquia_ (florence, , sig. q q), wrote of his endeavour to insinuate serious precepts 'into the minds of young men whom aristotle rightly described as unfit auditors of moral philosophy' ('in animos adolescentium, quos recte scripsit aristoteles inidoneos auditores ethicae philosophiae'). in a french translation of the _ethics_ by the comte de plessis, published at paris in , the passage is rendered 'parquoy le ieune enfant n'est suffisant auditeur de la science civile;' and an english commentator (in a manuscript note written about in a copy of the book in the british museum) turned the sentence into english thus: 'whether a young man may bee a fitte scholler of _morall_ philosophie.' in an italian essayist, virgilio malvezzi, in his preface to his _discorsi sopra cornelio tacito_, has the remark, 'e non e discordante da questa mia opinione aristotele, it qual dice, che i giovani non sono buoni ascultatori delle _morali_' (cf. spedding, _works of bacon_, i. , iii. ). { } cf. birch, _letters of bacon_, , p. . a foolish suggestion has been made that matthew was referring to francis bacon's brother anthony, who died in ; matthew was writing of a man who was alive more than twenty years later. { } cf. _life_ by theodore bacon, london, . { a} see pp. , , . { b} see p. . { a} gervase markham, _honour in his perfection_, . { b} _loseley mss._ ed. a. j. kempe, p. . { c} his mother, after thirteen years of widowhood, married in sir thomas heneage, vice chamberlain of queen elizabeth's household; but he died within a year, and in she took a third husband, sir william hervey, who distinguished himself in military service in ireland and was created a peer as lord hervey by james i. { a} by kind permission of the marquis of salisbury i lately copied out this essay at hatfield. { b} in his brother-in-law, thomas arundel, afterwards first lord arundel of wardour (husband of his only sister, mary), petitioned lord burghley to grant him an additional tract of the new forest about his house at beaulieu. although in his 'nonage,' arundel wrote, the earl was by no means 'of the smallest hope.' arundel, with almost prophetic insight, added that the earl of pembroke was southampton's 'most feared rival' in the competition for the land in question. arundel was referring to the father of that third earl of pembroke who, despite the absence of evidence, has been described as shakespeare's friend of the sonnets (cf. _calendar of hatfield mss._ iii. ). { a} cf. _apollinis et musarum [greek text]_, oxford, , reprinted in _elizabethan oxford_ (oxford historical society), edited by charles plummer, xxix. : _comes_ post hunc (_i.e._ earl of essex) _south-_ insequitur clara de stirpe dynasta _hamp-_ iure suo diues quem south-hamptonia _toniae_. magnum vendicat heroem; quo non formosior alter affuit, ant docta iuuenis praestantior arte; ora licet tenera vix dum lanugine vernent. { b} historical mss. commission, th report (appendix) p. b. { } peele's _anglorum feriae_. { } _cal. of the duke of rutland's mss._ i. . barnabe barnes, who was one of southampton's poetic admirers, addressed a crude sonnet to 'the beautiful lady, the lady bridget manners,' in , at the same time as he addressed one to southampton. both are appended to barnes's collection of sonnets and other poems entitled _parthenophe and parthenophil_ (cf. arber's _garner_, v. ). barnes apostrophises lady bridget as 'fairest and sweetest' of all those sweet and fair flowers, the pride of chaste cynthia's [_i.e._ queen elizabeth's] rich crown. { } see p. , note . { a} the original letter is at hatfield. the whole is printed in historical manuscripts commission, rd rep. p. . { b} the quotation is a confused reminiscence of falstaff's remarks in i _henry iv_. ii. iv. the last nine words are an exact quotation of lines - . { c} _sidney papers_, ii. . { d} see p. . { a} see nash's _works_, ed. grosart, v. . the whole passage runs: 'how wel or ill i haue done in it i am ignorant: (the eye that sees round about it selfe sees not into it selfe): only your honours applauding encouragement hath power to make me arrogant. incomprehensible is the height of your spirit both in heroical resolution and matters of conceit. vnrepriuebly perisheth that booke whatsoeuer to wast paper, which on the diamond rocke of your judgement disasterly chanceth to be shipwrackt. a dere louer and cherisher you are, as well of the louers of poets, as of poets them selues. amongst their sacred number i dare not ascribe my selfe, though now and then i speak english: that smal braine i haue, to no further vse i conuert saue to be kinde to my frends, and fatall to my enemies. a new brain, a new wit, a new stile, a new soule will i get mee to canonize your name to posteritie, if in this my first attempt i am not taxed of presumption. of your gracious fauer i despaire not, for i am not altogether fames out-cast . . . your lordship is the large spreading branch of renown, from whence these my idle leaues seeke to deriue their whole nourishing.' { b} the complimentary title of 'amyntas,' which was naturalised in english literature by abraham fraunce's two renderings of tasso's _aminta_--one direct from the italian and the other from the latin version of thomas watson--was apparently bestowed by spenser on the earl of derby in his _colin clouts come home againe_ ( ); and some critics assume that nash referred in _pierce pennilesse_ to that nobleman rather than to southampton. but nash's comparison of his paragon to ganymede suggests extreme youth, and southampton was nineteen in while derby was thirty-three. 'amyntas' as a complimentary designation was widely used by the poets, and was not applied exclusively to any one patron of letters. it was bestowed on the poet watson by richard barnfield and by other of watson's panegyrists. { } two manuscript copies of the poem, which has not been printed, are extant--one among the rawlinson poetical manuscripts in the bodleian library, and the other among the manuscripts in the inner temple library (no. ). mr. john s. farmer has kindly sent me transcripts of the opening and concluding dedicatory sonnets. the first, which is inscribed 'to the right honorable the lord s[outhampton]' runs: pardon, sweete flower of matchles poetrye, and fairest bud the red rose euer bare, although my muse, devorst from deeper care, presents thee with a wanton elegie. ne blame my verse of loose unchastitye for painting forth the things that hidden are, since all men act what i in speeche declare, onlie induced with varietie. complaints and praises, every one can write, and passion out their pangs in statlie rimes; but of loues pleasures none did euer write, that have succeeded in theis latter times. accept of it, deare lord, in gentle parte, and better lines, ere long shall honor thee. the poem follows in about three hundred lines, and the manuscript ends with a second sonnet addressed by nash to his patron: thus hath my penne presum'd to please my friend. oh mightst thou lykewise please apollo's eye. no, honor brookes no such impietie, yet ovid's wanton muse did not offend. he is the fountaine whence my streames do flowe-- forgive me if i speak as i was taught; alike to women, utter all i knowe, as longing to unlade so bad a fraught. my mynde once purg'd of such lascivious witt, with purified words and hallowed verse, thy praises in large volumes shall rehearse. that better maie thy grauer view befitt. meanwhile ytt rests, you smile at what i write or for attempting banish me your sight. tho. nash. { a} daniel's _certaine epistles_, : see daniel's _works_, ed. grosart, i. seq. { b} see preface to davies's _microcosmos_, (davies's _works_, ed. grosart, i. ). at the end of davies's _microcosmos_ there is also a congratulatory sonnet addressed to southampton on his liberation (_ib._ p. ), beginning: welcome to shore, unhappy-happy lord, from the deep seas of danger and distress. there like thou wast to be thrown overboard in every storm of discontentedness. { } 'amours of j. d.' were doubtless sonnets by sir john davies, of which only a few have reached us. there is no ground for j. p. collier's suggestion that j. d. was a misprint for m. d., _i.e._ michael drayton, who gave the first edition of his sonnets in the title of _amours_. that word was in france the common designation of collections of sonnets (cf. drayton's _poems_, ed. collier, roxburghe club, p. xxv). { } see note to p. _supra_. { a} the details of his career are drawn from mr. arber's _transcript of the registers of the stationers' company_. { b} arber, ii. . { c} _ib._ ii. . { d} a younger brother, richard, was apprenticed to a stationer, martin ensor, for seven years from august , , but he disappeared before gaining the freedom of the company, either dying young or seeking another occupation (cf. arber's _transcript_, ii. ). { e} cf. _bibliographica_, i. - , where i have given an account of blount's professional career in a paper called 'an elizabethan bookseller.' { a} thorpe gives a sarcastic description of a typical patron, and amply attests the purely commercial relations ordinarily subsisting between dedicator and dedicatee. 'when i bring you the book,' he advises blount, 'take physic and keep state. assign me a time by your man to come again. . . . censure scornfully enough and somewhat like a traveller. commend nothing lest you discredit your (that which you would seem to have) judgment. . . . one special virtue in our patrons of these days i have promised myself you shall fit excellently, which is to give nothing.' finally thorpe, changing his tone, challenges his patron's love 'both in this and, i hope, many more succeeding offices.' { b} one gave an account of the east india company's fleet; the other reported a speech delivered by richard martin, m.p., to james i at stamford hill during the royal progress to london. { a} _calendar of state papers_, domestic series, , p. . { b} two bore his name on the title-page in ; one in ; two in ; two in ; two in ; three in ; one in (_i.e._ the _sonnets_); three in (_i.e._ _histrio-mastix_, _or the playwright_, as well as healey's translations); two in ; one in ; three in ; two in ; two in ; one in ; and finally one in . the last was a new edition of george chapman's _conspiracie and tragedie of charles duke of byron_, which thorpe first published in . { c} they were _wits a.b.c. or a centurie of epigrams_ (anon.), by r. west of magdalen college, oxford (a copy is in the bodleian library); chapman's _byron_, and jonson's _masques of blackness and beauty_. { d} chapman and jonson were very voluminous authors, and their works were sought after by almost all the publishers of london, many of whom were successful in launching one or two with or without the author's sanction. thorpe seems to have taken particular care with jonson's books, but none of jonson's works fell into thorpe's hands before or after , a minute fraction of jonson's literary life. it is significant that the author's dedication--the one certain mark of publication with the author's sanction--appears in only one of the three plays by chapman that thorpe issued, viz. in _byron_. one or two copies of thorpe's impression of _all fools_ have a dedication by the author, but it is absent from most of them. no known copy of thorpe's edition of chapman's _gentleman usher_ has any dedication. { } many other instances of initials figuring in dedications under slightly different circumstances will occur to bibliographers, but all, on examination, point to the existence of a close intimacy between dedicator and dedicatee. r. s.'s [_i.e._ possibly richard stafford's] 'epistle dedicatorie' before his _heraclitus_ (oxford, ) was inscribed 'to his much honoured father s. f. s.' _an apologie for women_, _or an opposition to mr. d. g. his assertion_ . . . _by w. h. of ex. in ox._ (oxford, ), was dedicated to 'the honourable and right vertuous ladie, the ladie m. h.' this volume, published in the same year as shakespeare's _sonnets_, offers a pertinent example of the generous freedom with which initials were scattered over the preliminary pages of books of the day. { } in the volume of the words run: 'to the noble and valorous gentleman master robert dudley, enriched with all vertues of the minde and worthy of all honorable desert. your most affectionate and devoted michael drayton.' { a} in , in dedicating _st. augustine_, _of the citie of god_ to the earl of pembroke, thorpe awkwardly describes the subject-matter as 'a desired citie sure in heaven,' and assigns to 'st. augustine and his commentator vives' a 'savour of the secular.' in the same year, in dedicating _epictetus his manuall_ to florio, he bombastically pronounces the book to be 'the hand to philosophy; the instrument of instruments; as nature greatest in the least; as homer's _ilias_ in a nutshell; in lesse compasse more cunning.' for other examples of thorpe's pretentious, half-educated and ungrammatical style, see p. , note . { b} the suggestion is often made that the only parallel to thorpe's salutation of happiness is met with in george wither's _abuses whipt and stript_ (london, ). there the dedicatory epistle is prefaced by the ironical salutation 'to himselfe g. w. wisheth all happinesse.' it is further asserted that wither had probably thorpe's dedication to 'mr. w. h.' in view when he wrote that satirical sentence. it will now be recognised that wither aimed very gently at no identifiable book, but at a feature common to scores of books. since his _abuses_ was printed by george eld and sold by francis burton--the printer and publisher concerned in in the publication of 'w. h.'s' southwell manuscript--there is a bare chance that wither had in mind 'w. h.'s' greeting of mathew saunders, but fifty recently published volumes would have supplied him with similar hints. { a} thorpe dedicated to florio _epictetus his manuall_, _and cebes his table_, _out of greek originall by io. healey_, . he dedicated to the earl of pembroke _st. augustine_, _of the citie of god_ . . . _englished by i. h._, , and a second edition of healey's _epictetus_, . { b} southwell's _foure-fould meditation_ of is a book of excessive rarity, only one complete printed copy having been met with in our time. a fragment of the only other printed copy known is now in the british museum. the work was reprinted in , chiefly from an early copy in manuscript, by mr. charles edmonds, the accomplished bibliographer, who in a letter to the _athenaeum_, on november , , suggested for the first time the identity of 'w. h.,' the dedicator of southwell's poem, with thorpe's 'mr. w. h.' { } a manuscript volume at oscott college contains a contemporary copy of those poems by southwell which 'unfained affectionate w.h.' first gave to the printing press. the owner of the oscott volume, peter mowle or moulde (as he indifferently spells his name), entered on the first page of the manuscript in his own handwriting an 'epistel dedicatorie' which he confined to the conventional greeting of happiness here and hereafter. the words ran: 'to the right worshipfull mr. thomas knevett esquire, peter mowle wisheth the perpetuytie of true felysitie, the health of bodie and soule with continwance of worshipp in this worlde. and after death the participation of heavenlie happiness dewringe all worldes for ever.' { a} a bookseller (not a printer), william holmes, who was in business for himself between and , was the only other member of the stationers' company bearing at the required dates the initials of 'w. h.' but he was ordinarily known by his full name, and there is no indication that he had either professional or private relations with thorpe. { b} most of his dedications are penned in a loose diction of pretentious bombast which it is difficult to interpret exactly. when dedicating in --the year after the issue of the _sonnets_--healey's _epictetus his manuall_ 'to a true fauorer of forward spirits, maister john florio,' thorpe writes of epictetus's work: 'in all languages, ages, by all persons high prized, imbraced, yea inbosomed. it filles not the hand with leaues, but fills ye head with lessons: nor would bee held in hand but had by harte to boote. he is more senceless than a stocke that hath no good sence of this stoick.' in the same year, when dedicating healey's translation of st. augustine's _citie of god_ to the earl of pembroke, thorpe clumsily refers to pembroke's patronage of healey's earlier efforts in translation thus: 'he that against detraction beyond expectation, then found your sweete patronage in a matter of small moment without distrust or disturbance, in this work of more weight, as he approoued his more abilitie, so would not but expect your honours more acceptance.' { } this is the sense allotted to the word in the great variorum edition of by malone's disciple, james boswell the younger, who, like his master, was a bibliographical expert of the highest authority. the fact that the eighteenth-century commentators--men like malone and steevens--who were thoroughly well versed in the literary history of the sixteenth century, should have failed to recognise any connection between 'mr. w. h.' and shakespeare's personal history is in itself a very strong argument against the interpretation foisted on the dedication during the present century by writers who have no pretensions to be reckoned the equals of malone and steevens as literary archaeologists. { } james boaden, a journalist and the biographer of kemble and mrs. siddons, was the first to suggest the pembroke theory in a letter to the _gentleman's magazine_ in . a few months later mr. james heywood bright wrote to the magazine claiming to have reached the same conclusion as early as , although he had not published it. boaden re-stated the pembroke theory in a volume on _shakespeare's sonnets_ which he published in . c. armitage brown adopted it in in his _shakespeare's autobiographical poems_. the rev. joseph hunter, who accepted the theory without qualification, significantly pointed out in his _new illustrations of shakespeare_ in (ii. ) that it had not occurred to any of the writers in the great variorum editions of shakespeare, nor to critics so acute in matters of literary history as malone or george chalmers. the theory is treated as proved fact in many recent literary manuals. of its supporters at the date of writing the most ardent is mr. thomas tyler, who published an edition of the sonnets in , and there further advanced a claim to identify the 'dark lady' of the sonnets with mary fitton, a lady of the court and the earl of pembroke's mistress. mr. tyler has endeavoured to substantiate both the pembroke and the fitton theories, by merely repeating his original arguments, in a pamphlet which appeared in april of this year under the title of _the herbert-fitton theory_: _a reply_ [_i.e._ to criticisms of the theories by lady newdegate and by myself]. the pembroke theory, whose adherents have dwindled of late, will henceforth be relegated, i trust, to the category of popular delusions. { } cf. _sydney papers_, ed. collins, i. . 'my lord (of pembroke) himself with _my lord harbert_ (is) come up to see the queen' (rowland whyte to sir robert sydney, october , ), and again p. (november , ); and p. (december , ). john chamberlain wrote to sir dudley carleton on august , , '_young lord harbert_, sir henrie carie, and sir william woodhouse, are all in election at court, who shall set the best legge foremost.' _chamberlain's letters_ (camden soc.), p. { } thomas sackville, the author of the _induction_ to_ the mirror for magistrates_ and other poetical pieces, and part author of _gorboduc_, was born plain 'thomas sackville,' and was ordinarily addressed in youth as 'mr. sackville.' he wrote all his literary work while he bore that and no other designation. he subsequently abandoned literature for politics, and was knighted and created lord buckhurst. very late in life, in --at the age of sixty-eight--he became earl of dorset. a few of his youthful effusions, which bore his early signature, 'm. [_i.e._ mr.] sackville,' were reprinted with that signature unaltered in an encyclopaedic anthology, _england's parnassus_, which was published, wholly independently of him, in , after he had become baron buckhurst. about the same date he was similarly designated thomas or mr. sackville in a reprint, unauthorised by him, of his _induction_ to _the mirror for magistrates_, which was in the original text ascribed, with perfect correctness, to thomas or mr. sackville. there is clearly no sort of parallel (as has been urged) between such an explicable, and not unwarrantable, metachronism and the misnaming of the earl of pembroke 'mr. w. h.' as might be anticipated, persistent research affords no parallel for the latter irregularity. { } an examination of a copy of the book in the bodleian--none is in the british museum--shows that the dedication is signed j. h., and not, as mr. fleay infers, by thorpe. thorpe had no concern in this volume. { } on january , - , one sir henry colte was indicted for slander in the star chamber for addressing a peer, lord morley, as 'goodman morley.' a technical defect--the omission of the precise date of the alleged offence--in the bill of indictment led to a dismissal of the cause. see _les reportes del cases in camera stellata_, to , edited from the manuscript of henry hawarde by w. p. baildon, f.s.a. (privately printed for alfred morrison), p. . { } see pp. , - . a tradition has lately sprung up at wilton to the effect that a letter once existed there in which the countess of pembroke bade her son the earl while he was in attendance on james i at salisbury bring the king to wilton to witness a performance of _as you like it_. the countess is said to have added, 'we have the man shakespeare with us.' no tangible evidence of the existence of the letter is forthcoming, and its tenor stamps it, if it exists, as an ignorant invention. the circumstances under which both king and players visited wilton in are completely misrepresented. the court temporarily occupied wilton house, and shakespeare and his comrades were ordered by the officers of the royal household to give a performance there in the same way as they would have been summoned to play before the king had he been at whitehall. it is hardly necessary to add that the countess of pembroke's mode of referring to literary men is well known: she treated them on terms of equality, and could not in any aberration of mind or temper have referred to shakespeare as 'the man shakespeare.' similarly, the present earl of pembroke purchased of a london picture-dealer last year what purported to be a portrait of the third earl of pembroke, and on the back was pasted a paper, that was represented to date from the seventeenth century, containing some lines from shakespeare's sonnet lxxxi. ( - ), subscribed with the words 'shakespeare unto the earl of pembroke, ' the ink and handwriting are quite modern, and hardly make pretence to be of old date in the eyes of any one accustomed to study manuscripts. on may of this year some persons interested in the matter, including myself, examined the portrait and the inscription, on the kind invitation of the present earl, and the inscription was unanimously declared by palmographical experts to be a clumsy forgery unworthy of serious notice. { } cf. the engravings of simon pass, stent, and vandervoerst, after the portrait by mytens. { } it is unnecessary, after what has been said above (p. ), to consider seriously the suggestion that the 'dark lady' of the sonnets was mary fitton, maid of honour to queen elizabeth. this frolicsome lady, who was at one time pembroke's mistress and bore him a child, has been introduced into a discussion of the sonnets only on the assumption that her lover, pembroke, was the youth to whom the sonnets were addressed. lady newdegate's recently published _gossip from a muniment room_, which furnishes for the first time a connected biography of pembroke's mistress, adequately disposes of any lingering hope that shakespeare may have commemorated her in his black-complexioned heroine. lady newdegate states that two well-preserved portraits of mary fitton remain at arbury, and that they reveal a lady of fair complexion with brown hair and grey eyes. family history places the authenticity of the portraits beyond doubt, and the endeavour lately made by mr. tyler, the chief champion of the hopeless fitton theory, to dispute their authenticity is satisfactorily met by mr. c. o. bridgeman in an appendix to the second edition of lady newdegate's book. we also learn from lady newdegate's volume that miss fitton, during her girlhood, was pestered by the attentions of a middle-aged admirer, a married friend of the family, sir william knollys. it has been lamely suggested by some of the supporters of the pembroke theory that sir william knollys was one of the persons named will who are alleged to be noticed as competitors with shakespeare and the supposititious 'will herbert' for 'the dark lady's' favours in the sonnets (cxxxv., cxxxvi., and perhaps clxiii.) but that is a shot wholly out of range. the wording of those sonnets, when it is thoroughly tested, proves beyond reasonable doubt that the poet was the only lover named will who is represented as courting the disdainful lady of the sonnets, and that no reference whatever is made there to any other person of that christian name. { } professor dowden (_sonnets_, p. xxxv) writes: 'it appears from the punning sonnets (cxxxv. and cxliii.) that the christian name of shakspere's friend was the same as his own, _will_,' and thence is deduced the argument that the friend could only be identical with one who, like william earl of pembroke, bore that christian name. { a} ed. mayor, p. . { b} manningham's _diary_, p. ; cf. barnabe barnes's _odes pastoral_ sestine : 'but women will have their own wills, alas, why then should i complain?' { } besides punning words, printers of poetry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries made an effort to italicise proper names, unfamiliar words, and words deemed worthy of special emphasis. but they did not strictly adhere to these rules, and, while they often failed to italicise the words that deserved italicisation, they freely italicised others that did not merit it. capital initial letters were employed with like irregularity. mr. wyndham in his careful note on the typography of the quarto of (pp. seq.) suggests that elizabethan printers were not erratic in their uses of italics or capital letters, but an examination of a very large number of elizabethan and jacobean books has brought me to an exactly opposite conclusion. { } barnes's _parthenophil_ in arber's _garner_, v. . { a} after quibbling in sonnet lxxii. on the resemblance between the _graces_ of his cruel mistress's face and the _graces_ of classical mythology, barnes develops the topic in the next sonnet after this manner (the italics are my own): why did rich nature _graces_ grant to thee, since thou art such a niggard of thy _grace_? o how can _graces_ in thy body be? where neither they nor pity find a place! . . . grant me some _grace_! for thou with _grace_ art wealthy and kindly may'st afford some _gracious_ thing. { b} cf. _lear_, iv. vi. , 'o undistinguish'd space of woman's will;' _i.e._ 'o boundless range of woman's lust.' { c} professor dowden says 'will to boot' is a reference to the christian name of shakespeare's friend, 'william [? mr. w. h.]' (_sonnets_, p. ); but in my view the poet, in the second line of the sonnet, only seeks emphasis by repetition in accordance with no uncommon practice of his. the line 'and will to boot, and will in over-plus,' is paralleled in its general form and intention in such lines of other sonnets as kind is my love to-day, to-morrow kind (cv. ). beyond all date, even to eternity (cxxii. ). who art as black as hell, as dark as night (cxlvii. ). in all these instances the second half of the line merely repeats the first half with a slight intensification. { a} cf. barnes's sonnet lxxiii.: all her looks _gracious_, yet no _grace_ do bring to me, poor wretch! yet be the _graces_ there. { b} shakespeare refers to the blindness, the 'sightless view' of the soul, in sonnet xxvii., and apostrophises the soul as the 'centre of his sinful earth' in sonnet cxlvi. { a} the use of the word 'fulfil' in this and the next line should be compared with barnes's introduction of the word in a like context in the passage given above: since what she lists her heart _fulfils_. { b} mr. tyler paraphrases these lines thus: 'you love your other admirer named will. love the name alone, and then you love me, for my name is will,' p. . professor dowden, hardly more illuminating, says the lines mean: 'love only my name (something less than loving myself), and then thou lovest me, for my name is will, and i myself am all will, _i.e._ all desire.' { } the word 'will' is not here italicised in the original edition of shakespeare's sonnets, and there is no ground whatever for detecting in it any sort of pun. the line resembles barnes's line quoted above: mine heart bound martyr to thy wills. { } because 'will' by what is almost certainly a typographical accident is here printed _will_ in the first edition of the sonnets, professor dowden is inclined to accept a reference to the supposititious friend will, and to believe the poet to pray that the lady may have her will, _i.e._ the friend 'will [? w. h.]' this interpretation seems to introduce a needless complication. { a} see p. _supra_. { b} the word 'sonnet' was often irregularly used for 'song' or 'poem.' a proper sonnet in clement robinson's poetical anthology, _a handefull of pleasant delites_, , is a lyric in ten four-line alternatively rhymed stanzas. neither barnabe googe's _eglogs_, _epyttaphes_, _and sonnettes_, , nor george turbervile's _epitaphes_, _epigrams_, _songs and sonets_, , contains a single fourteen-lined poem. the french word 'quatorzain' was the term almost as frequently applied as 'sonnet' to the fourteen-line stanza in regular sonnet form, which alone falls within my survey. watson is congratulated on 'scaling the skies in lofty _quatorzains_' in verses before his _passionate centurie_, ; cf. 'crazed quatorzains' in thomas nash's preface to his edition of sidney's _astrophel and stella_, ; and _amours in quatorzains_ on the title-page of the first edition of drayton's _sonnets_, . { a} see p. _supra_. { b} all watson's sonnets are reprinted by mr. arber in watson's _poems_, . { a} in a preface to newman's first edition of _astrophel and stella_ the editor, thomas nash, in a burst of exultation over what he deemed the surpassing merits of sidney's sonnets, exclaimed: 'put out your rushlights, you poets and rhymers! and bequeath your crazed quatorzains to the chandlers! for lo, here he cometh that hath broken your legs.' but the effect of sidney's work was just the opposite to that which nash anticipated. it gave the sonnet in england a vogue that it never enjoyed before or since. { b} with collections of sonnets of the first kind are occasionally interspersed sonnets of the second or third class, but i classify each sonnet-collection according to its predominant characteristic. { c} daniel reprinted all but nine of the sonnets that had been unwarrantably appended to sidney's _astrophel_. these nine he permanently dropped. { } it is reprinted in arber's _garner_, ii. - . { a} arber's _garner_, v. - . { b} ben jonson developed the same conceit in his masque, _the hue and cry after cupid_, . { a} dekker's well-known song, 'oh, sweet content,' in his play of 'patient grisselde' ( ), echoes this sonnet of barnes. { b} arber's _garner_, viii. - . { c} there is a convenient reprint of lodge's _phillis in elizabethan sonnet-cycles_ by martha foote crow, . { a} see p. , note. { b} arber's _garner_, vi. - . { c} _ib._ v. - . { d} reprinted in arber's _english scholars' library_, . { e} it was licensed for the press on november , . { a} reprinted for the roxburghe club in _a lamport garland_, , edited by mr. charles edmonds. { b} sir john davies's _complete poems_, edited by dr. grosart, i. - . { c} see p. , note. { a} arber's _garner_, vii. - . { b} _ib._ v. - . { c} cf. brydges's _excerpta tudoriana_, , i. - . one was printed with some alterations in rosseter's _book of ayres_ ( ), and another in the _third book of ayres_ ( ?); see campion's works, ed. a. h. bullen, pp. - , . { d} arber's _garner_, viii. - . { a} see p. and note. { b} practically to the same category as these collections of sonnets belong the voluminous laments of lovers, in six, eight, or ten lined stanzas, which, though not in strict sonnet form, closely resemble in temper the sonnet-sequences. such are _willobie's avisa_, ; _alcilia_: _philoparthen's loving folly_, by j. c., ; _arbor of amorous deuices_, (containing two regular sonnets), by nicholas breton; _alba_, _the months minde of a melancholy lover_, by robert tofte, ; _daiphantus_, _or the passions of love_, by anthony scoloker, ; breton's _the passionate shepheard_, _or the shepheardes loue_: _set downe in passions to his shepheardesse aglaia_: _with many excellent conceited poems and pleasant sonets fit for young heads to passe away idle houres_, (none of the 'sonets' are in sonnet metre); and john reynolds's _dolarnys primerose_ . . . _wherein is expressed the liuely passions of zeale and loue_, . though george wither's similar productions--his exquisitely fanciful _fidelia_ ( ) and his _faire-virtue_, _the mistresse of phil' arete_ ( )--were published at a later period, they were probably designed in the opening years of the seventeenth century. { a} they were first printed in , seven years after the author's death, in _poems by that famous wit_, _william drummond_, london, fol. the volume was edited by edward phillips, milton's nephew. the best modern edition is that edited by mr w. c. ward in the 'muses' library ( ). { b} cf. william browne's _poems_ in 'muses' library ( ), ii. et seq. { } chapman imitated spenser by appending fourteen like sonnets to his translation of homer in ; they were increased in later issues to twenty-two. very numerous sonnets to patrons were appended by john davies of hereford to his _microcosmos_ ( ) and to his _scourge of folly_ ( ). 'divers sonnets, epistles, &c.' addressed to patrons by joshua sylvester between and his death in were collected in the edition of his _du bartas his divine weekes and workes_. { a} remy belleau in brought out a similar poetical version of the book of ecclesiastes entitled _vanite_. { b} there are forty-eight sonnets on the trinity and similar topics appended to davies's _wittes pilgrimage_ ( ?). { a} graphic illustrations of the attitude of ronsard and his friends to a greek poet like anacreon appear in _anacreon et les poemes anacreontiques_, _texte grec avec les traductions et imitations des poetes du xvie siecle_, par a. delboulle (havre, ). a translation of anacreon by remy belleau appeared in . cf. sainte-beuve's essay, 'anacreon au xvie siecle,' in his _tableau de la poesie francaise au xvie siecle_ ( ), pp. - . in the same connection _recueil des plus beaux epigrammes grecs_, _mis en vers francois_, par pierre tamisier (edit. ), is of interest. { b} italy was the original home of the sonnet, and it was as popular a poetic form with italian writers of the sixteenth century as with those of the three preceding centuries. the italian poets whose sonnets, after those of petrarch, were best known in england and france in the later years of the sixteenth century were serafino dell' aquila ( - ), jacopo sannazzaro ( - ), agnolo firenzuola ( - ), cardinal bembo ( - ), gaspara stampa ( - ), pietro aretino ( - ), bernardo tasso ( - ), luigi tansillo ( - ), gabriello fiamma (_d._ ), torquato tasso ( - ), luigi groto (_fl._ ), giovanni battista guarini ( - ), and giovanni battista marino ( - ) (cf. tiraboschi's _storia della letteratura italiana_, - ; dr. garnett's _history of italian literature_, ; and symonds's _renaissance in italy_, edit. , vols. iv. and vi.) the notes to watson's _passionate centurie of love_, published in (see p. , note), to davison's _poetical rhapsody_, edited by mr. a. h. bullen in , and to the _poems of drummond of hawthornden_, edited by mr. w. c. ward in , give many illustrations of english sonnetteers' indebtedness to serafino, groto, marino, guarini, tasso, and other italian sonnetteers of the sixteenth century. { } there are modern reprints of most of these books, but not of all. there is a good reprint of ronsard's works, edited by m. p. blanchemain, in _la bibliotheque elzevirienne_, vols. ; the _etude sur la vie de ronsard_, in the eighth volume, is useful. the works of remy belleau are issued in the same series. the writings of the seven original members of 'la pleiade' are reprinted in _la pleiade francaise_, edited by marty-laveaux, vols., - . maurice seve's _delie_ was reissued at lyons in . pierre de brach's poems were carefully edited by reinhold dezeimeris ( vols., paris, ). a complete edition of desportes's works, edited by alfred michiels, appeared in . prosper blanchemain edited a reissue of the works of louise labe in . the works of jean de la taille, of amadis jamyn, and of guillaume des autels are reprinted in _tresor des vieux poetes francais_ ( et annis seq.) see sainte-beuve's _tableau historique et critique de la poesie francaise du xvie siecle_ (paris, ); henry francis cary's _early french poets_ (london, ); becq de fouquieres' _oeuvres choisies des poetes francais du xvie siecle contemporains avec ronsard_ ( ), and the same editor's selections from de baif, du bellay, and ronsard; darmesteter et hatzfeld's _le seizieme siecle en france_--_tableau de la litterature et de la langue_ ( th edit., ); and petit de julleville's _histoire de la langue et de la litterature francaise_ ( , iii. - ). carnegie library of pittsburgh debate index second edition pittsburgh carnegie library preface to the second edition this index was begun as a card index to the debaters' manuals in the reference department of this library. the increasing number of such manuals and the frequent requests for material on debates made it seem desirable to combine in one list the indexes to all the manuals, thus bringing references to all the material on one subject together and saving the time required to consult the index of each book. the card index has been so useful here that it has been printed, in the hope that it may also be useful elsewhere. under each subject are given the proposition for debate, page references to the manuals, and a note indicating the material to be found there, whether briefs, references, specimen debates or synopses of debates. the "debates" of this library, included in the list of books indexed, is a loose-leaf book containing briefs and references copied from various sources or supplementing lists to be found elsewhere. the carnegie library "reference lists" referred to are less complete manuscript lists compiled in response to requests. one hundred new references have been added in this edition. twenty-four of these are on new topics and seventy-six are additional references on topics included in the first edition. new cross references have also been included when necessary. the new books indexed are robbins's "high school debate book," the "debaters' handbook series" and the new edition of askew's "pros and cons," also the numbers of the "speaker" and of the "bulletin" of the university of wisconsin issued in the sixteen months since the first edition of this index was published. _november , ._ =debate index= =books indexed= =alden,= raymond macdonald. = . a = *art of debate. . bibliography, p. . _the same._ . =r . a = based largely on material originally prepared for students of argumentation at harvard university and the university of pennsylvania. =askew,= john bertram. =r a = pros and cons; a newspaper reader's and debater's guide to the leading controversies of the day, political, social, religious, etc.; ed. by a.m. hyamson. . _the same;_ rewritten and enlarged by w.t.s. sonnenschein. [ .] =r a a= arranged in dictionary form, giving concisely the opposing arguments on each question. the edition of contains briefs on more than new subjects, while a number of topics no longer of living interest have been dropped. =brookings,= walter dubois, & =ringwalt,= r.c. _ed._ = b = *briefs for debate on current political, economic and social topics. . "bibliography of debating," by a.b. hart, p. - . _the same._ . =r b = =carnegie library of pittsburgh.= debates. v. type-written book of references. =carnegie library of pittsburgh.= reference lists. manuscript lists. =craig,= asa h. = c = *pros and cons; complete debates, important questions fully discussed in the affirmative and the negative, with by-laws and parliamentary rules for conducting debating societies, and with a list of interesting topics for debate. . _the same._ =r c = =debaters'= handbook series. §no. . beman, l.t. comp. selected articles on the compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes. . =r . b = no. . bullock, e.d. comp. selected articles on child labor. . =r . b = no. . bullock, e.d. comp. selected articles on the employment of women. . =r . b = no. . fanning, c.e. comp. selected articles on capital punishment. . =r . f = no. . fanning, c.e. comp. selected articles on direct primaries. . =r f = no. . fanning, c.e. comp. selected articles on the election of united states senators. . =r f s= no. . fanning, c.e. comp. selected articles on the enlargement of the united states navy. . =r f a= no. . morgan, j.e. & bullock, e.d. comp. selected articles on municipal ownership. . =r m = no. . phelps, e.m. comp. selected articles on federal control of interstate corporations. . =r . p = no. . phelps, e.m. comp. selected articles on the income tax. . =r . p = no. . phelps, e.m. comp. selected articles on the initiative and referendum. . =r . p = no. . phelps, e.m. comp. selected articles on the parcels post. . =r p = no. . phelps, e.m. comp. selected articles on woman suffrage. . =r . p = no. . robbins, e.c. comp. selected articles on a central bank of the united states. . =r . r = no. . robbins, e.c. comp. selected articles on the commission plan of municipal government. . =r r = no. . robbins, e.c. comp. selected articles on the open versus closed shop. . =r . r = duplicate copies of this series may be borrowed for home use from the lending department. =denney,= joseph villiers, _and others._ = . d = argumentation and debate. . _the same._ =r . d = presents briefly and clearly the theory of argumentation and furnishes a sufficient number of complete debates for a thorough course in analysis and briefing. the selections are taken from great debates on critical issues of american history, politics and law. =foster,= william trufant. = . f = *argumentation and debating. . _the same._ . =r . f = one of the most satisfactory books in this field. it is not an academic formulation of principles, but an inside view of the art presented by one conversant with all its difficulties and delights. a copious appendix gives specimens of analysis, briefs, material for briefing, a forensic, and a complete specimen debate, a model for instruction to judges and for the formation of a debating league, together with debatable propositions. _condensed from nation, ._ =gibson,= laurence m. =r g = *handbook for literary and debating societies. . _the same._ . =r g a= =matson,= henry. =r m = references for literary workers. . =pattee,= george kynett. = . p = *practical argumentation. . _the same._ =r . p = aims to restore argumentation to its proper rank as a form of english composition. includes a number of suggestions on debating. =pearson,= paul martin, _ed._ = p = *intercollegiate debates; briefs and reports of many intercollegiate debates: harvard-yale-princeton, brown-dartmouth-williams, michigan-northwestern-chicago, indiana-illinois-ohio, and many others, with an introduction. . _the same._ =r p = =ringwalt,= ralph curtis. = r = briefs on public questions, with selected lists of references. . _the same._ . =r r = series of argumentative briefs and lists of references on important public questions of the day, political, sociological and economic. =robbins= edwin clyde, _comp._ = r = high school debate book. . _the same._ . =r r = =rowton,= frederic. =r r = *how to conduct a debate; a series of complete debates, outlines of debates and questions for discussion, with references to the best sources of information on each particular topic; revised by w. taylor. = . s = =speaker= [quarterly]. v. -v. , no. . (whole no. - .) - . =thomas,= ralph wilmer. = . t = *manual of debate. . _the same._ . =r . t = =wisconsin university=--department of debating and =r . w = public discussion. bulletin, march -nov. . - . issued irregularly. included in the bulletins of the university extension division. * contains list of propositions for debate. § these numbers have been assigned arbitrarily for convenience in reference. =topics= =absenteeism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =addison and montaigne.= _see_ =montaigne and addison.= =adult suffrage.= _see_ =suffrage.= =adulteration of food.= _see_ =food adulteration.= =advertising.= public control of advertising. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =advowsons, sale of.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =Æneid and iliad.= _see_ =iliad and Æneid.= =agassiz and darwin.= _see_ =darwin and agassiz.= =age pensions.= _see_ =old age pensions.= =agricultural banks.= _see_ =banks, agricultural.= =agriculture.= agricultural depression; should remedies be sought? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. thorough (or deep) cultivation. askew, , p. : briefs. =alexander the great and cæsar.= was the life of alexander the great more influential on contemporaneous and subsequent history than the life of julius cæsar? matson, p. : briefs and references. =alexander the great and hannibal.= who was the greater general, hannibal or alexander? rowton, p. : references. =alexander the great, cæsar, napoleon.= which was the greatest hero, alexander, cæsar or bonaparte? rowton, p. : references. =alfred the great and washington.= was alfred the great as great and good as washington? matson, p. : briefs and references. =allotments and small holdings extension.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =alsace-lorraine.= should germany cede alsace-lorraine? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =ambition.= is ambition a vice or a virtue? rowton, p. : references. =america.= discovery. has the discovery of america been beneficial to the world? rowton, p. : references. =american protective association.= the principles of the american protective association deserve the support of american citizens. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =the american revolution and the civil war.= was the revolution an event of united states history more important and influential than the civil war? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ lincoln and washington. =amusements and the church.= _see_ =church, the.= =anarchism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =anger.= is anger a vice or a virtue? rowton, p. : references. =anglican church.= _see_ =england, church of.= =anglo-japanese alliance.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =anglo-saxon peoples.= america and england; union of the english-speaking race. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =animals.= are brutes endowed with reason? rowton, p. : briefs and references. have animals intelligence? gibson, p. : briefs and references. rights of animals. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ human mind and brute mind. =anti-trust law, .= _see_ =sherman anti-trust law.= =arbitration, commercial.= askew, , p. : briefs. =arbitration, compulsory industrial.= boards of arbitration with compulsory powers should be established to settle disputes between employers and wage-earners. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. capital and labor should be compelled to settle their disputes in legally established courts of arbitration. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references, and selected articles. compulsory industrial arbitration. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. the government should settle all disputes between capital and labor. craig, p. : outlines. ought arbitration in trade disputes to be enforced by law? gibson, p. : briefs and references. state boards of arbitration with compulsory powers should be established throughout the united states to settle industrial disputes between employers and employees. foster, p. : speech (affirmative). there should be a national board of arbitration for matters in dispute between employers and employees on inter-state railroads, and this board should be given compulsory powers. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =arbitration, international.= could not arbitration be made a substitute for war? rowton, p. : references. international arbitration; is it a substitute for war? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. the united states should form a treaty with great britain and with france agreeing to arbitrate all disputed questions. c. l. of p. reference lists. =arctic exploration.= has arctic exploration been justified in its results? matson, p. : briefs and references. =aristocratic and democratic government.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =aristotle and plato.= _see_ =plato and aristotle.= =armaments.= danger of increased armaments. askew, , p. : briefs and references. reduction of national armaments. askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ disarmament. =armed intervention.= armed intervention for the collection of debts. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs. armed intervention is not justifiable on the part of any nation to collect in behalf of private individuals financial claims against any american nation. pearson, p. : synopses and references. =armenian question.= armenian question and english intervention. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =army= (england). army short service. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. compulsory universal service. askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ conscription. =army= (united states). increase. is it good government for the united states to maintain a standing army greater than is actually necessary to enforce the laws of the country? craig, p. : speeches. the united states army should be increased rather than diminished. c. l. of p. reference lists. the united states army should be increased to one thousand for each million of our population. thomas, p. : briefs. =art.= should not all national works of art be entirely free to the public? rowton, p. : references. =art, british.= is british art declining? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =art and morality.= does art, in its principles and works, imply the moral? is art amenable to an ethical standard? matson, p. : briefs and references. =art and religion.= is the influence of the fine arts favorable to religion? matson, p. : briefs and references. =art and science.= are art and science antagonistic? is the general prevalence of natural science prejudicial to the cultivation of high art? matson, p. : briefs and references. =art unions.= do the associations entitled "art unions" tend to promote the spread of the fine arts? rowton, p. : references. =asset currency.= national banks should be permitted to issue notes based on their general assets. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. national banks should be permitted to issue, subject to tax and government supervision, notes based on their general assets. speaker, v. , p. : brief (affirmative).--c. l. of p. debates: brief (affirmative). a system of asset currency, under federal control, should be established in the united states. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. =astronomy and geology.= does the study of astronomy tend more to expand the mind than the study of geology? is the study of geology of more practical benefit than the study of astronomy? matson, p. : briefs and references. =athanasian creed.= should the rubric requiring its public recitation be removed? askew, , p. : briefs. =atheists.= are there tribes of atheists? matson, p. : briefs and references. =athletics.= intercollegiate athletics promote the best interests of colleges. thomas, p. : briefs. intercollegiate athletics should be abolished. speaker, v. , p. : brief (negative). interscholastic athletic contests are of more value to the participants than literary contests. c. l. of p. reference lists. should not practice in athletic games form a part of every system of education? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ sport. =atomic theory.= does the atomic theory find in science sufficient confirmation to establish its validity? matson, p. : briefs and references. =authority= (in religion). authority as the basis of religious belief. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =authors and publishers.= authors and publishers; are the former inequitably treated? askew, , p. : briefs. =automobile license.= should the federal government license automobile drivers? foster, p. : analysis. =bachelors.= taxation of bachelors. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =bacon,= francis. are the character and career of lord bacon, as a whole, indefensible? was the character of bacon deserving of the approbation of posterity? matson, p. : briefs and references. =bacon and newton.= has the philosophy of bacon contributed more to the progress of physical science than the discoveries of newton? matson, p. : briefs and references. =bacon-shakespeare question.= is it probable that lord bacon is the real author of the plays attributed to shakespeare? matson, p. : briefs and references. =bakehouse, municipal.= _see_ =municipal ownership.= =balance of power.= is the so called balance of power the best practicable arrangement for promoting and preserving just and harmonious relations between the european powers? is the federation of european nations desirable and practicable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =ballot.= abolition of plural voting. askew, , p. : briefs. compulsory voting. askew, , p. : briefs and references. one man one vote. askew, , p. : briefs. second ballots. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =balzac and hugo.= is balzac a greater novelist than hugo? matson, p. : briefs and references. =bank deposits, guarantee of.= the national government should guarantee the repayment of bank deposits in national banks. c. l. of p. debates: references. there should be some legislation providing for the guarantee of bank deposits. pearson, p. : report of speeches, and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =bank holidays.= bank holidays by act of parliament. askew, , p. : briefs. =bank-notes.= bank issues secured by commercial paper are preferable to those secured by bonds. pearson, p. : speeches and references. the government tax on state bank-notes should be repealed. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =bankrupt law.= should there be a national bankrupt law? matson, p. : briefs and references. =banks, agricultural.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =banks, central.= congress should establish a central bank of issue. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. the federal government should establish a central bank of the united states. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. =banks, national.= national banks should be abolished. craig, p. : outlined for points only. =barbarian and civilized man.= which is the more happy, a barbarian or a civilized man? gibson, p. : briefs and references.--rowton, p. : briefs and references. =beecher and spurgeon.= was beecher a greater preacher than spurgeon? matson, p. : briefs and references. =beethoven and mozart.= is beethoven a greater composer than mozart? matson, p. : briefs and references. =betterment tax.= betterment. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =betting.= are betting and gambling immoral? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =bible and geology.= do modern geological discoveries agree with holy writ? rowton, p. : references. =bible in the public schools.= should the bible be read, as a religious exercise, in the public schools? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =bicycle tax.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =bimetallism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. bimetallism and not protection is the secret of future prosperity. craig, p. : outlined for points only. is the maintenance of a double standard of value in exchanges practicable or desirable? is the single gold valuation the true economic policy for nations? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ gold (currency).--silver (currency). =biography and history.= _see_ =history and biography.= =bismarck and gladstone.= is bismarck a greater statesman than gladstone? matson, p. : briefs and references. =blasphemy laws; their abolition.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =bonaparte= napoleon. _see_ =napoleon.= =booth,= william. general booth's employment system as outlined in "darkest england" should be adopted in this country. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =boycotting.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =british art.= _see_ =art, british.= =british empire.= communication. inter-imperial communication. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =british empire.= federation. british imperial federation. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ought our empire to federate? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =brown,= john. was john brown's raid into virginia to rescue slaves unjustifiable? was john brown's execution justifiable? should john brown be regarded as a hero and martyr, or as a fanatic? matson, p. : briefs and references. =browning and tennyson.= is browning a greater poet than tennyson? matson, p. : briefs and references. =browning,= _mrs,_ =and eliot,= george. _see_ =eliot,= george, =and browning,= _mrs._ =brussels sugar convention.= shall the brussels sugar convention be denounced? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =brute mind and human mind.= _see_ =human mind and brute mind.= =brutus and cæsar.= was brutus justified in killing cæsar? rowton, p. : references. =bryant and longfellow.= is bryant a greater poet than longfellow? matson, p. : briefs and references. =buddhism.= has buddhism, in its essential principles and spirit, more of truth and good than of error and evil? is buddhism more unlike than like christianity? matson, p. : briefs and references. =bunyan and thomas à kempis.= has bunyan's "pilgrim's progress" exerted as much influence as kempis's "imitation of christ"? matson, p. : briefs and references. =burial, premature.= premature burial; are preventive means necessary? askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =burns and byron.= _see_ =byron and burns.= =byron.= are lord byron's writings moral in their tendency? rowton, p. : references. =byron and burns.= which was the greater poet, byron or burns? rowton, p. : references. =byron and shelley.= was byron a greater poet than shelley? matson, p. : briefs and references. =byron and wordsworth.= _see_ =wordsworth and byron.= =cabinet government= (england). government by cabinet. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =cabinet ministers= (united states). cabinet ministers ought to have seats and the right to speak in congress. brookings, p. : briefs and references. members of the president's cabinet should have the right to be present and speak in the house of representatives. thomas, p. : briefs and references. should members of the cabinet have seats on the floor of congress, and a voice in its debates? matson, p. : brief and references. =cabinet system and congressional system.= cabinet system of government is preferable to the congressional system. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =cæsar, alexander the great, napoleon.= _see_ =alexander the great, cæsar, napoleon.= =cæsar and alexander the great.= _see_ =alexander the great and cæsar.= =cæsar and brutus.= _see_ =brutus and cæsar.= =calvin and luther.= _see_ =luther and calvin.= =calvin and servetus.= is calvin's part in procuring the condemnation and death of servetus deserving of censure? matson, p. : briefs and references. =calvin and wesley.= has the influence of wesley in the promotion of religious thought and life been greater than that of calvin? matson, p. : briefs and references. =campaign funds.= all contributions of $ and over to political parties should be publicly accounted for by the officers receiving them. thomas, p. : briefs and references. =canada.= annexation to the united states. the annexation of canada by peaceable means would be an economic advantage to the united states. thomas, p. : briefs. canada should be annexed to the united states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. canada; should she join the united states? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. would the political union of canada with the united states be a benefit to both countries? is the commercial union of canada and the united states desirable? does it seem likely to be "the manifest destiny" of canada to become a sovereign and independent republic? matson, p. : briefs and references. =canada.= reciprocity with the united states. _see_ =reciprocity.= united states and canada. =canals.= _see_ =government ownership.= canals.--=nicaragua canal.= =canteen.= abolition of the canteen from the united states army posts was wise. thomas, p. : briefs.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =canvassing at parliamentary elections.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =capital and labor.= _see_ =labor and laboring classes.= =capital punishment.= debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. capital punishment; its abolition. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. capital punishment should be abolished. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--gibson, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references.--thomas, p. : briefs. is capital punishment justifiable? rowton, p. : speeches and references. ought the death penalty to be retained as the punishment for wilful murder? ought capital punishment to be abolished? matson, p. : briefs and references. =card-playing.= _see_ =dancing and card-playing.= =carlyle and emerson.= as a thinker and writer should carlyle outrank emerson? matson, p. : briefs and references. =cathedrals, nationalization of.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =catholic church.= _see_ =roman catholic church.= =caucus.= present system of caucus nomination ought to be abandoned. brookings, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ primaries. =celibacy.= celibacy of roman catholic priests. askew, , p. : briefs. =censorship of fiction.= askew, , p. : briefs. =censorship of the stage.= askew, , p. : briefs. =central america.= antiquities. are there good reasons for supposing that the ruins recently discovered in central america are of very great antiquity? rowton, p. : references. =central banks.= _see_ =banks, central.= =centralization and state rights.= does the successful maintenance of the united states as a nation require that the national government grow in strength? matson, p. : briefs and references. the present distribution of power between the federal and state governments is not adapted to modern conditions and calls for re-adjustment in the direction of further centralization. robbins, p. : briefs and references.--speaker, v. , p. : synopsis of speeches.--c. l. of p. debates: synopsis of speeches, references. =channel tunnel.= _see_ =english channel tunnel.= =character.= are not the rudiments of individual character discernible in childhood? rowton, p. : references. has nature or education the greater influence in the formation of character? rowton, p. : references. =character, national.= does national character descend from age to age? rowton, p. : references. is national character formed more by physical than by moral causes? has climate a preponderating influence in determining the character and history of a nation? matson, p. : briefs and references. =charities.= charitable relief. askew, , p. : briefs. do charity organization societies do good or harm? gibson, p. : briefs and references. free shelters and refuges. askew, , p. : briefs. free soup kitchens, clothing, coals, etc. askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ outdoor relief. =charity organization society; methods and work.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =charlemagne and hildebrand.= did charlemagne have more influence on mediæval history than hildebrand? matson, p. : briefs and references. =charles i.= was the execution of charles i justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references.--rowton, p. : briefs and references. =charles ii and richard iii.= _see_ =richard iii and charles ii.= =charter, federal.= _see_ =federal charter and federal control.= =chatterton and cowper.= which was the greater poet, chatterton or cowper? rowton, p. : references. =chaucer and spenser.= is chaucer a greater poet than spenser? matson, p. : briefs and references. which was the greater poet, chaucer or spenser? rowton, p. : references. =chess.= is not the game of chess a good intellectual and moral exercise? rowton, p. : references. =chicago strike injunctions.= the injunctions issued by the federal judges against the chicago strikers were unjustifiable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =child labor.= debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. child-labour; "half-timers." askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should the half-time system be abolished? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =child marriage.= prohibition of child-marriages in india. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =china-japan war.= the victory of japan over china was for the interest of civilization. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =chinese immigration.= _see_ =immigration, chinese.= =chinese labor.= chinese labour; should it be employed in the transvaal? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =chivalry.= was chivalry in its character and influence more good than evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. =christian socialism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =christian union.= is christian union to become organized? matson, p. : briefs and references. reunion of christendom. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =christianity.= christianity; is dogma a necessity? askew, , p. : briefs and references. _see also_ creeds.--sects. =christianity and modern civilization.= has christianity been the most potent factor in the production of modern civilization? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =christians as soldiers.= _see_ =war.= =church, the.= are social problems within the sphere of the churches? askew, , p. : briefs and references. are the churches on the down grade? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is it part of the duty of a church to provide amusements? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is the christian church to blame for having incurred the alienation of working men? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is the pulpit losing its power? gibson, p. : briefs and references. ought the church to advocate social reform? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =church and state.= is the union of church and state a benefit to any nation? matson, p. : briefs and references. =church of england.= _see_ =england, church of.= =church of scotland.= _see_ =scotland, church of.= =church of wales.= _see_ =wales, church of.= =church property.= taxation. should church property which is used exclusively for public worship be taxed? should church buildings, with their lots and furnishings, be exempt from taxation? matson, p. : briefs and references. =cicero.= are the character and career of cicero deserving of more admiration than censure? matson, p. : briefs and references. =cicero and demosthenes.= _see_ =demosthenes and cicero.= =cities.= are great cities, considered in themselves and in their influence, a greater evil than good? matson, p. : briefs and references. =city and country.= advantages and disadvantages of the city, town and country child. c. l. of p. reference lists. is country life preferable, on the whole, to city life? matson, p. : briefs and references. which is to be preferred, a town or a country life? rowton, p. : references. =civil service.= england. askew. , p. : briefs and references. =civil service.= india. appointment of natives. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =civil service reform.= the civil service act should be extended to all departments of the government service. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =the civil war and the american revolution.= _see_ =the american revolution and the civil war.= =civilization.= civilization (european) in savage lands. askew, , p. : briefs and references. is modern civilization a failure? gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ christianity and modern civilization. =civilized man and barbarian.= _see_ =barbarian and civilized man.= =classical education.= classics _versus_ science as a study in schools. c. l. of p. reference lists. greek compulsory at the universities. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is a classical education essential to an american gentleman? rowton, p. : references. is the study of the greek and latin classics necessary to a liberal education? is the mental discipline and the knowledge gained from the study of the classics superior to that gained from the study of the natural sciences? should the study of greek and latin be considered of greater importance in respect to culture and utility than the study of french and german? does the study of greek occupy a disproportionate place in the ordinary college course? should greek be considered as essential to a liberal education? or, should greek be elective in a college course? matson, p. : briefs and references. =classics and mathematics.= which are of the greater importance in education, the classics or mathematics? rowton, p. : briefs and references. =clay and webster.= _see_ =webster and clay.= =clergy.= _see_ =ministers of the gospel.= =closed shop and open shop.= _see_ =open shop and closed shop.= =coal mines.= government ownership. _see_ =government ownership.= coal mines. =coal mines and gold mines.= _see_ =gold mines and coal mines.= =co-education.= co-education in colleges is desirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. co-education of the sexes. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is the co-education of the sexes in higher institutions desirable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =coleridge and wordsworth.= _see_ =wordsworth and coleridge.= =collectivism.= _see_ =socialism.= =colleges and universities.= are college-bred men, as a class, superior in mental attainments and culture to self-educated men? matson, p. : briefs and references. are state universities superior, in their principle and operation, to colleges? matson, p. : briefs and references. a catholic university for ireland. askew, , p. : briefs and references. the country college and the city college. c. l. of p. reference lists. in a college conducted under christian auspices students should be required to attend church on sunday. thomas, p. : briefs. is a college education the best preparation for practical life? c. l. of p. reference lists. is the _in loco parentis_ system of college government better than the _laissez faire_ system? or, is paternal government the best for college students? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the system of education pursued at our universities in accordance with the requirements of the age? rowton, p. : references. some system ought to be adopted by which the degree of a.b. could be obtained from colleges in three years. brookings, p. : briefs and references. university reform. askew, , p. : briefs. what are the respective advantages of the large and the small college? c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ national university.--student government. =colonial preference= (england). gibson, p. : briefs and references. =columbus and livingstone.= as discoverer and as man, was columbus greater than livingstone? matson, p. : briefs and references. =comic supplement.= the comic supplement of the newspapers is detrimental to children. c. l. of p. debates: references. =commerce, minister of.= should a minister of commerce be established? askew, , p. : briefs. =commerce and manufactures.= has commerce contributed more to the development of modern civilization than manufactures? matson, p. : briefs and references. =commercialism.= the commercial spirit of the age is undermining the moral sense of the nation. c. l. of p. reference lists. =commission form of government.= american cities should adopt a commission form of government. robbins, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs and references. the city of ---- should adopt the commission form of government. wisconsin university, no. : plan, history, arguments, references, the wisconsin act.--wisconsin university, no. : third revision (without wisconsin act). commission plan of municipal government. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles. in the larger new england cities all the powers of the city government should be vested in a commission of not more than nine men elected by the voters at large without the assistance of any other representative body. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references.--speaker, v. , p. : brief (affirmative).--c. l. of p. debates: briefs. =common-lands.= _see_ =land.= =communion service.= use of wine. _see_ =wine in the communion service.= =competition.= is free competition in production and trade necessary for the best interests of all concerned? do the benefits of competition in business outweigh its evils? matson, p. : briefs and references. =congo free state.= the united states government should inaugurate a movement to bring about reforms in the congo free state. foster, p. : specimen debate. =congress.= it would be better for the business interests of the country to elect a congress once in eight years. c. l. of p. reference lists. it would greatly improve public service if members of congress were elected from any district in their own state. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =congressional system and cabinet system.= _see_ =cabinet system and congressional system.= =conscience.= is conscience a true moral guide? can conscience be educated? matson, p. : briefs and references. =conscription.= ought we to have a conscription in great britain? gibson, p. : briefs and references. military conscription for england. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =conservation of natural resources.= forest and mineral lands now belonging to the united states should be retained by the federal government. speaker, v. , p. : speeches and references. the power of the federal government should be paramount to that of the states in the conservation of national resources, limited to forests, water-power and minerals. robbins, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ forest preserves. =conservative and reformer.= _see_ =reformer and conservative.= =consistency.= is consistency a vice or a virtue? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =conventionality.= ought we to obey mrs grundy? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =convents and monasteries.= has monasticism been the cause of more good than evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. ought conventual and monastic institutions to be inspected? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =convict labor.= contract system of employing convict labor ought to be abolished. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. does convict labor interfere with the interests of the free workingman? c. l. of p. reference lists. =coöperation.= co-operation; can it supersede capitalism? askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. co-operation; is it better than state socialism? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is co-operation more adapted to promote the virtue and happiness of mankind than competition? rowton, p. : references. is the principle of industrial co-operation capable of general and successful application? do the experiments thus far in co-operation justify, on the whole, the hope of its ultimate general adoption? is co-operation in business more beneficial than competition? matson, p. : briefs and references. =copyright.= alden, p. : brief of macaulay's speech on copyright. an international copyright law is desirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =corporal punishment.= corporal punishment in schools. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is corporal punishment justifiable? rowton, p. : references. =councilmen.= should councilman of american cities be compensated? c. l. of p. reference lists. =country and city.= _see_ =city and country.= =country schools.= consolidation of rural schools. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. =court of final appeal.= ought we to establish a court of final appeal in capital cases? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =cowper and chatterton.= _see_ =chatterton and cowper.= =creeds.= are church creeds promotive of the interests of christianity? should public assent to a creed be made a condition of church membership? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ athanasian creed. =cremation.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should cremation be substituted for earth burial? matson, p. : briefs and references. =crime.= is ignorance productive of crime? matson, p. : briefs and references. is poverty more an occasion and provocation of crime than wealth? matson, p. : briefs and references. which does the most to produce crime--poverty, wealth, or ignorance? rowton, p. : references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =criminal appeal.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =cromwell,= oliver. is the character of oliver cromwell worthy of our admiration? rowton, p. : speeches and references. was the protectorate of cromwell an unjustifiable usurpation and tyranny? matson, p. : briefs and references. =cromwell and napoleon.= _see_ =napoleon and cromwell.= =crusades.= did the crusades result in greater good than evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. have the crusades been beneficial to mankind? rowton, p. : speeches and references. =cuba.= annexation to the united states. granting the willingness of cuba, the annexation of cuba to the united states would be for the best interests of the united states. foster, p. : brief. should cuba be annexed to the united states? craig, p. : speeches.--c. l. of p. reference lists. the united states should annex cuba. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references.--thomas, p. : briefs. the united states should annex cuba, granting the willingness of cuba. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. =culture and money.= _see_ =money and culture.= =currency.= _see_ =asset currency.--gold.--silver.= =dancing and card-playing.= are such popular amusements as dancing and card-playing harmful in their influence? matson, p. : briefs and references. =dante and milton.= is the "divine comedy" a greater poem than "paradise lost"? matson, p. : briefs and references. =dark races and white races.= are the intellectual faculties of the dark races of mankind essentially inferior to those of the white? rowton, p. : references. =darwin and agassiz.= was darwin a greater scientist than agassiz? matson, p. : briefs and references. =darwin and newton.= did darwin contribute as much to the advancement of science as newton? matson, p. : briefs and references. =david and moses.= _see_ =moses and david.= =daylight saving bill.= askew, , p. : briefs. =death penalty.= _see_ =capital punishment.= =debate.= should not greater freedom of expression be encouraged in debate? rowton, p. : references. =deceased wife's sister.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. marriage with a deceased wife's sister; ought it to be legalized in england? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =deception.= can any circumstances justify a departure from truth? rowton, p. : references. is it ever right to deceive? is falsehood never justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ hypocrite and liar. =decimal system.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =declaration of london.= askew, , p. : briefs. =degeneration.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =democratic and aristocratic government.= _see_ =aristocratic and democratic government.= =democracy.= is representative democracy, in its principles, institutions and operation, the best form of government? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ monarchy and republicanism. =demosthenes and cicero.= was demosthenes a greater orator than cicero? matson, p. : briefs and references. which was the greater orator, demosthenes or cicero? rowton, p. : references. =department stores.= are our large department stores an injury to the country? craig, p. : speeches. =descartes.= has the philosophy of descartes, in its general spirit and main features, entered as a permanent element into modern philosophy? has descartes contributed more to theology than to science? is descartes's proof of the existence of god valid? is descartes's inference of being from thought legitimate? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ kant. =dickens and thackeray.= _see_ =thackeray and dickens.= =direct legislation.= direct legislation by the people would improve political conditions in the united states. thomas, p. : briefs and references. the system of direct legislation by the people should be more generally adopted in the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =direct primaries.= _see_ =primaries.= =disarmament.= disarmament of nations. c. l. of p. debates: references. international disarmament. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =divine comedy and paradise lost.= _see_ =dante and milton.= =division of labor.= _see_ =labor, division of.= =divorce.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. a constitutional amendment should be adopted giving congress exclusive power to regulate marriage and divorce in the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. a constitutional amendment should be secured giving to the federal government exclusive control over divorces. brookings, p. : briefs and references. divorce for women; should the "cruelty" condition be eliminated? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. easier divorce. askew, , p. : briefs. should divorce laws be strict or liberal? should there be a national divorce law instead of state laws? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ marriage laws. =docks, london.= _see_ =municipal ownership.= =dogma.= christianity; is dogma a necessity? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =drama.= should the drama discuss social questions? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =dress.= does modern dress need reform? gibson, p. : briefs and references. fashion in dress; is it an evil? askew, , p. : briefs. =drink and opium.= is drunkenness a greater evil than the excessive use of opium? matson, p. : briefs and references. =dryden and pope.= was dryden a greater poet than pope? matson, p. : briefs and references. which was the greater poet, dryden or pope? rowton, p. : references. =dueling.= askew, , p. : briefs. is dueling justifiable? rowton, p. : briefs. =early closing of shops.= ought the early closing of shops to be enforced by law? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =edison.= is edison the greatest living american inventor? matson, p. : briefs and references. =education.= education as it is now thrust upon the youth of america is dangerous to health and good government. craig, p. : outline (affirmative). should emulation be employed as a motive in education? matson, p. : briefs and references. should emulation be encouraged in education? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ co-education.--colleges and universities.--schools.--women. education. =education.= national aid. is national aid to education necessary and desirable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =education.= state control. it is the right and duty of the state to supervise and control primary and secondary education. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =education, classical.= _see_ =classical education.= =education, compulsory.= should education in the public schools be compulsory? matson, p. : briefs and references. =education, legal.= _see_ =legal education.= =education, national.= is it not the duty of a government to establish a system of national education? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ national university. =education, religious.= _see_ =religious education.= =education acts= (english). should the education acts be amended? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =egypt.= england should permanently retain control of egypt. pattee, p. : brief (negative). =eight-hour day.= an eight-hour working day should be adopted within the united states by law. brookings, p. : briefs and references. in the united states a working day should be eight hours only in length. thomas, p. : briefs. a legal eight hours' day. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should parliament enact an eight hours working day? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =election, presidential.= _see_ =president.= election. =elections.= congress ought to pass an act establishing federal control over national elections. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the english system for the prevention of bribery and corruption at elections ought to be adopted in the united states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. simultaneous elections. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ canvassing at parliamentary elections. =elective system in education.= elective system of studies should be adopted in secondary schools. thomas, p. : briefs. should the elective system be adopted in the public high schools of the united states? foster, p. : article (affirmative). =eliot,= george, =and browning,= _mrs._ does george eliot as a woman of genius surpass mrs browning? matson, p. : briefs and references. =elizabeth, queen.= is the character of queen elizabeth, considered as a whole, deserving of admiration? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the character of queen elizabeth deserving of our admiration? rowton, p. : references. =elizabethan literature.= is the shakspearian the augustan age of english literature? rowton, p. : references. =elizabethan literature and victorian literature.= is the elizabethan literature superior to the victorian? matson, p. : briefs and references. =eloquence.= is eloquence a gift of nature, or may it be acquired? rowton, p. : references. =emerson and carlyle.= _see_ =carlyle and emerson.= =emigration.= is it not to emigration that england must mainly look for the relief of her population? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ immigration. =emigration= _v._ =home colonization.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =employers' liability.= laws should be enacted providing that in case of personal injury to a workman arising out of and in the course of employment, his employer shall be liable for adequate compensation and shall not set up contributory negligence or the negligence of a fellow servant as a defense. speaker, v. , p. : synopsis of speeches (affirmative) and brief (negative).--c. l. of p. debates: synopsis of speeches (affirmative) and brief (negative). =emulation in education.= _see_ =education.= =end and means.= does the end justify the means? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =england.= england; why is she unpopular as a nation? askew, , p. : briefs and references. federal government in great britain and ireland. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is england rising or falling as a nation? rowton, p. : references. is it likely that england will sink into the decay which befell the nations of antiquity? rowton, p. : references. is it not to emigration that england must mainly look for the relief of her population? rowton, p. : references. =england.= constitution. written constitution for england. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =england.= food-supply. food supply in time of war; is there a danger of famine? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =england.= house of lords. _see_ =house of lords.= =england.= imperialism. _see_ =imperialism= (england). =england.= parliament. _see_ =parliament.= =england.= political parties. _see_ =independent labour party.--national party.= =england.= tariff. _see_ =colonial preference.--protection and free trade.= =england, church of.= anglican orders. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. disendowment of the church of england. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. disestablishment of the church of england. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. is the modern anglican church a branch of the catholic church? askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. parochial boards. askew, , p. : briefs and references. shall we disestablish and disendow the church of england? gibson, p. : briefs and references. should the broad-church party leave the church? askew, , p. : briefs. =england, invasion of.= possibility of invasion. askew, , p. : briefs. =england and rome.= has england been as great a power in modern times as rome was in ancient times? matson, p. : briefs and references. =english aristocracy.= has the aristocracy of england been on the whole a benefit to that country? matson, p. : briefs and references. =english channel tunnel.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =english dramatists and greek dramatists.= _see_ =greek dramatists and english dramatists.= =english government and united states government.= is the english government superior, in form and operation, to the government of the united states? matson, p. : briefs and references. =english literature.= _see_ =elizabethan literature.--greek dramatists and english dramatists.= =english rule in india.= _see_ =india.= english rule. =engraving and photography.= _see_ =photography and engraving.= =entail.= abolition of the law of entail. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =equality, social.= _see_ =social equality.= =ethical movement.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =evolution.= has the organic world been developed from primordial germs by natural forces? is the evidence sufficient to prove the origin of species by natural evolution? is the theory of evolution an established truth of science? matson, p. : briefs and references. is man descended, by process of evolution, from some lower animal? matson, p. : briefs and references. =examinations.= are examinations a true test of scholarship and a necessary means of promoting education? matson, p. : briefs and references. =examinations, competitive.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ought competitive examinations to be abolished? gibson, p. . briefs and references. =expansion= (united states). _see_ =imperialism= (united states). =fagging at schools.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =faith.= does faith precede and give rise to knowledge? is faith founded on and commensurate with reason? matson, p. : briefs and references. =falsehood.= _see_ =deception.= =farm colonies for the unemployed.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =fashion in dress; is it an evil?= askew, , p. : briefs. =fasting.= is fasting any use? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =federal charter and federal control.= all corporations carrying on interstate commerce [should] be required to take out a federal charter. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references. all corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be required to take out a federal charter on such terms as congress may by law prescribe, granted that such legislation would be constitutional. speaker, v. , p. : briefs.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs and references. all corporations engaging in interstate commerce should be required to take out a federal charter, granting such legislation would be constitutional. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles. all organizations engaged in interstate commerce should be licensed and supervised by the federal government. thomas, p. : briefs. all railroads engaged in interstate commerce should be operated by companies incorporated by the federal government. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references. corporations doing an interstate business should be required to take out a federal charter. foster, p. : speech (affirmative). the federal government should have exclusive control of all corporations doing interstate business, constitutionality granted. c. l. of p. debates: briefs and references. the government should accept the principle of monopoly control of industry and regulate the prices in all cases brought about by the operation of economic law. speaker, v. , p. : synopses of speeches, and references. it is desirable that the regulating power of congress should be extended to all corporations whose capitalization exceeds $ , , . foster, p. : speech (negative). _see also_ water-power. =federal government and state government.= _see_ =centralization and state rights.= =feudalism.= has the feudal system been productive of more good than evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. =fiction.= has novel-reading a moral tendency? rowton, p. : references has the prevalence of fiction in modern literature been on the whole a good rather than an evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. novel reading is detrimental. c. l. of p. reference lists. sex in fiction. askew, , p. : briefs and references. _see also_ censorship of fiction.--poetry and prose fiction. =fifteenth amendment.= _see_ =negro suffrage.= =fine arts.= _see_ =art.--art unions.= =food adulteration.= adulteration acts. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =foot-ball.= intercollegiate foot-ball promotes the best interests of colleges. brookings, p. : brief and references. =forest preserves.= the federal government is justified in entering upon a general policy of establishing forest preserves. thomas, p. : briefs. =franchise.= _see_ =negro suffrage.--suffrage.--woman suffrage.= =franklin.= should franklin be regarded as the greatest american? matson, p. : briefs and references. =franklin and washington.= which was the greater man, franklin or washington? rowton, p. : references. =fraternities.= _see_ =secret societies.= =frederick the great and peter the great.= was frederick the great a greater man and sovereign than peter the great? matson, p. : briefs and references. =free institutions.= free institutions in the united states are now in danger. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =free meals at elementary schools.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =free ships.= foreign-built ships should be admitted to american registry free of duty. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =free text-books.= _see_ =text-books.= =free trade and protection.= _see_ =protection and free trade.= =free trade and reciprocity.= _see_ =reciprocity and free trade.= =free will.= is the human will free? is the power of contrary choice a necessary element in the freedom of the will? does edwards's "inquiry respecting the freedom of the will" lead to conclusions false and untenable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =french revolution.= did circumstances justify the first french revolution? rowton, p. : references. was there in the french revolution more of good than evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. which did the most to produce the french revolution, the tyranny of the government, the excesses of the higher orders, or the writings of voltaire, montesquieu, and rousseau? rowton, p. : references. =galileo.= is galileo deserving of strong condemnation for abjuring what he knew to be truth? matson, p. : briefs and references. =gambling.= are betting and gambling immoral? gibson, p. : briefs and references. legal suppression of gambling. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. morality of gambling. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =gambling in commerce, suppression of.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =game laws= (england). abolition of game laws. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =garrison, w.l.= has garrison's part in the antislavery movement been overrated? matson, p. : briefs and references. =gas supply.= municipal ownership. _see_ =municipal ownership.= =genius.= is genius an innate capacity? rowton, p. : references. is genius hereditary? matson, p. : briefs and references. =geology and astronomy.= _see_ =astronomy and geology.= =geology and the bible.= _see_ =bible and geology.= =george, henry.= _see_ =single tax.= =ghosts.= are ghosts real or imaginary? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =gladstone and bismarck.= _see_ =bismarck and gladstone.= =goethe and milton.= is goethe's mephistopheles a better conception of the prince of darkness than milton's satan? matson, p. : briefs and references. =goethe and schiller.= was goethe a greater poet than schiller? matson, p. : briefs and references. =goethe and shakespeare.= _see_ =shakespeare and goethe.= =gold= (currency). all nations should unite in adopting the same monetary system and that system should be gold. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the single gold standard is for the best interests of the country. craig, p. : speeches. _see also_ bimetallism. =gold and iron.= which is the more valuable metal, gold or iron? rowton, p. : references. =gold mines and coal mines.= have the gold mines of spain or the coal mines of england been more beneficial to the world? rowton, p. : references. =gothenburg system.= the gothenburg system of eliminating private profits offers the best solution of the liquor question. brookings, p. : briefs and references. should england adopt the gothenburg system? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =government by commission.= _see_ =commission form of government.= =government ownership.= ought the state to own all railways, mines, canals, etc.? gibson, p. : briefs and references. the state ought to organize and conduct manufactories and commerce. brookings, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ municipal ownership. =government ownership.= canals. nationalization of canals. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =government ownership.= coal mines. it is for the best interests of all the people for the government to own and control coal mines. craig, p. : outline. the united states ought to own and control the coal mines of the country. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. =government ownership.= railroads. the federal government should own and operate the railroads in the united states. thomas, p. : briefs. the railroads in the united states should be owned and operated by the federal government. brookings, p. : briefs and references. railway nationalization. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. the railways of the united states should be owned and operated by the government. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. should the government of the united states own and control the railroads? craig, p. : speeches. should the government own and operate the railroads? matson, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. =government ownership.= telegraphs, telephones. all telegraph lines in the united states should be owned and controlled by the government. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the government of the united states should own and control the telephone and telegraph systems. craig, p. : speeches. =greece and rome.= has greece contributed more to the civilization of the world than rome? has rome been really a greater power in the world than greece? matson, p. : briefs and references. =greek, study of.= _see_ =classical education.= =greek art and renaissance art.= is greek art surpassed by renaissance art? matson, p. : briefs and references. =greek dramatists and english dramatists.= are the greek dramatic writers superior to the english? matson, p. : briefs and references. =greek letter fraternities.= _see_ =secret societies.= =greenbacks.= should greenbacks be retired and the government go out of its present system of banking? craig, p. : speeches. =gregory vii and charlemagne.= _see_ =charlemagne and hildebrand.= =guarantee of bank deposits.= _see_ =bank deposits, guarantee of.= =gunpowder.= has the invention of gunpowder been of benefit to mankind? rowton, p. : references. =hamilton and jefferson.= was hamilton a greater statesman than jefferson? matson, p. : briefs and references. =hamlet.= was the apparent madness of hamlet altogether feigned? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =hannibal and alexander the great.= _see_ =alexander the great and hannibal.= =hannibal and napoleon.= _see_ =napoleon and hannibal.= =happiness and misery.= does happiness or misery preponderate in life? rowton, p. : references. =hastings,= warren. was warren hastings, in view of his career as a whole, deserving of impeachment? matson, p. : briefs and references. =hawaii.= annexation to the united states. hawaii should be speedily annexed to the united states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. ought the united states to have annexed hawaii? craig, p. : briefs. =hawthorne and irving.= should hawthorne be ranked higher among american authors than irving? matson, p. : briefs and references. =hemans,= _mrs,_ and =howitt,= _mrs._ which is the greater poet, mrs howitt or mrs hemans? rowton, p. : references. =heredity and environment.= is heredity more influential in the development of man, intellectually and morally, than his environment? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =high schools.= high schools should not be supported by taxation. thomas, p. : briefs. =hildebrand and charlemagne.= _see_ =charlemagne and hildebrand.= =history.= can history be reduced to a science? matson, p. : briefs and references. should not the study of history be more encouraged than it is? rowton, p. : references. =history and biography.= is the reading of history more beneficial to the individual mind than the reading of biography? matson, p. : briefs and references. =home labor.= prohibition of home work. askew, , p. : briefs. =home rule.= india. _see_ =india.= home rule. =home rule.= ireland. _see_ =ireland.= home rule. =homer.= _see_ =iliad and Æneid.--iliad and odyssey.= =homer and milton.= _see_ =milton and homer.= =honor system in colleges.= the honor system should be adopted in all colleges and universities. c. l. of p. reference lists. =hope and memory.= which produce the greater happiness, the pleasures of hope or of memory? rowton, p. : references. =hospitals.= nationalization of hospitals. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should hospitals be maintained and managed by the state? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =hours of labor.= _see_ =early closing of shops.--eight-hour day.= =house of lords.= abolition of house of lords; single-chamber government. askew, , p. : briefs. exclusion of bishops from house of lords. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. limitation of the veto of the house of lords. askew, , p. : briefs. reform of house of lords. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should the english house of lords be abolished? should the english house of lords be reformed? matson, p. : briefs and references. =housing problem.= the housing of the poor should be improved by municipalities. brookings, p. : briefs and references. municipal dwellings for the poor. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =howard and wilberforce.= was howard a greater philanthropist than wilberforce? matson, p. : briefs and references. =howard, napoleon, watt.= _see_ =napoleon, howard, watt.= =howitt,= _mrs,_ and =hemans,= _mrs._ _see_ =hemans,= _mrs,_ =and howitt,= _mrs._ =hugo and balzac.= _see_ =balzac and hugo.= =human mind and brute mind.= is the human mind different from the brute mind in kind and not merely in degree? matson, p. : briefs and references. =human race.= _see_ =man.= =humor.= has not the faculty of humor been of essential service to civilization? rowton, p. : references. =husband and wife as witnesses.= askew, , p. : briefs. =hypocrite and liar.= the hypocrite is a more despicable character than the liar. craig, p. : speeches. which is the more despicable character, the hypocrite or the liar? rowton, p. : references. =ignorance and crime.= _see_ =crime.= =iliad and Æneid.= is the iliad a greater epic than the Æneid? matson, p. : briefs and references. =iliad and odyssey.= does the iliad afford conclusive evidence of various authorship? is the authorship of the iliad and of the odyssey identical? matson, p. : briefs and references. =illiteracy and pauperism.= _see_ =pauperism and illiteracy.= =imagination.= is a rude or a refined age the more favorable to the production of works of imagination? rowton, p. : references. =imagination and reason.= is the imagination more potent in its influence than the reason? are men in general as much influenced by reason as by imagination? matson, p. : briefs and references. =immigration.= do the benefits of foreign immigration outweigh its evils? should foreign immigration to this country be restricted? matson, p. : briefs and references. foreign immigration to the united states should be further restricted by the imposition of an educational test. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. a high tax should be laid on all immigrants to the united states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. immigration should be further restricted by an illiteracy test. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. immigration should be further restricted by law. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. immigration to the united states should be further restricted by an educational test. pattee, p. : brief (affirmative). is immigration detrimental to the united states? craig, p. : speeches. our present immigration laws should be amended so as to debar all immigrants over sixteen years of age and unable to read and write; provided that this amendment shall not debar dependents upon qualified immigrants or residents of the united states. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. restriction of immigration of aliens. askew, , p. : briefs and references. should immigration be restricted? pattee, p. : brief, and speech for negative by s.g. croswell, from north american review, may . strengthening of laws regulating the immigration of aliens. askew, , p. : briefs. the united states should further restrict immigration by an illiteracy test. thomas, p. : briefs. the united states should still further restrict immigration. thomas, p. : briefs. _see also_ emigration. =immigration, chinese.= exclusion of chinese (united states and australia). askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. has chinese immigration thus far been on the whole rather a benefit than an injury to the country? should it be the policy of the national government to impose stringent restrictions on chinese immigration? matson, p. : briefs and references. the policy excluding chinese laborers from the united states should be maintained and rigorously enforced. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the policy of the united states with respect to chinese immigration should be continued. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. should chinese immigration be restricted? c. l. of p. reference lists. the time has come when the united states should modify its present policy of excluding chinese immigration. thomas, p. : briefs. =immigration, german.= the germans are the most desirable present day immigrants. c. l. of p. reference lists. =immorality.= should immorality be a bar to public life? askew, , p. : briefs and references. _see also_ morality. =immortality.= can the immortality of the human soul be established from the light of nature? matson, p. : briefs and references. immortality of the individual; its value. askew, , p. : briefs. =imperialism.= are colonies advantageous to the mother country? rowton, p. : references. =imperialism= (england). askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =imperialism= (united states). american imperialism. speaker, v. , p. : references. imperialistic policy of the united states. c. l. of p. reference lists. the interests of the united states are opposed to the permanent acquisition of territory in the eastern hemisphere except so much as may be needed for naval stations. alden, p. : speech (affirmative). _see also_ cuba. annexation to the united states.--hawaii. annexation to the united states.--philippine islands. =in camera proceedings.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =income tax.= denney, p. : speeches. can an income tax be framed which shall be equitable in principle and efficient in administration? is a graduated income tax just or expedient? matson, p. : briefs and references. the constitution should be so amended as to vest in congress the power to impose a general income tax in the united states. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs and references. the federal government should adopt a graduated income tax, constitutionality granted. robbins, p. : briefs and references. the federal government should have the power to impose an income tax, not apportioned among the states according to population. speaker, v. , p. : speeches and references. federal income tax. pearson, p. : summing up of arguments, and references. a graduated income tax is a desirable feature of a taxation system. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. in the united states an income tax is practicable and desirable. thomas, p. : briefs.--c. l. of p. reference lists. an income tax is a desirable part of a scheme of taxation. brookings, p. : briefs and references. income tax, with special reference to graduation and exemption. debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. progressive income tax. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =independent labour party and liberal party.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =indeterminate sentence.= indeterminate sentences for the professional criminal. askew, , p. : briefs. =india.= civil service. _see_ =civil service.= india. =india.= english rule. indian defence--a forward policy. askew, , p. : briefs and references. is english rule in india, considered as to its character and results, capable of vindication? has english rule been a benefit to india? matson, p. : briefs and references. ought we to govern india solely for its natives? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =india.= home rule. india; home rule. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =indians of north america.= should the government make the education of the indian compulsory? c. l. of p. reference lists. =individual and state.= _see_ =state and individual.= =individualism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =inductive reasoning.= is inductive reasoning the best method of arriving at truth? has the relative importance of inductive reasoning as a method of arriving at truth been overrated in modern times? matson, p. : briefs and references. =inheritance tax.= death duties (english), graduated. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. a progressive inheritance tax should be levied by the federal government, constitutionality conceded. pearson, p. : briefs and references.--speaker, v. , p. : briefs.--wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =initiative and referendum.= _see_ =referendum.= =injunctions.= the attitude of the federal courts toward the use of the writ of injunction, as indicated by the bucks stove & range company decision, is conducive to the best interests of the people of the united states (all question of constitutionality eliminated). pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. federal courts should be prohibited from issuing injunctions in controversies between labor and capital. thomas, p. : briefs. issuing of injunctions by federal courts in labor disputes should be forbidden by congress. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. _see also_ chicago strike injunctions. =insane asylums.= ought private asylums to be permitted? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =insanity and responsibility.= does insanity always preclude all moral responsibility? is insanity ever consistent with amenability to punishment? matson, p. : briefs and references. =insurance.= resolved that all insurance should be made a federal monopoly. c. l. of p. reference lists. =insurance, life.= insurance of children. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is life assurance at present conducted on safe and equitable principles? rowton, p. : references. =intelligence and morality.= does the diffusion of intelligence promote general morality? is ignorance productive of crime? matson, p. : briefs and references. =intemperance.= _see_ =drink and opium.--liquor question.= =intemperance and slavery.= _see_ =slavery and intemperance.= =international copyright.= _see_ =copyright.= =internationalism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =intestacy.= abolition of the law of intestacy. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =invasion of england.= _see_ =england, invasion of.= =ireland.= abolition of the lord lieutenancy of ireland. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. federal government in great britain and ireland. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ireland; is she overtaxed? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. irish members; their exclusion from imperial parliament in the event of the grant of home rule. askew, , p. ; briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is devolution in irish affairs desirable? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is ireland's want of prosperity to be attributed chiefly to english misrule? matson, p. : briefs and references. =ireland.= home rule. home rule should be granted to ireland. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. ireland; home rule. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ought england to concede the irish demand for home rule? matson, p. : briefs and references. =ireland.= universities. _see_ =colleges and universities.= =iron and gold.= _see_ =gold and iron.= =irrigation works.= the government ought to construct an extensive system of irrigation works. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =irving and hawthorne.= _see_ =hawthorne and irving.= =japan.= anglo-japanese alliance. _see_ =anglo-japanese alliance.= =japan-china war.= _see_ =china-japan war.= =japanese as american citizens.= should the japanese be eligible to american citizenship? c. l. of p. reference lists. =jefferson and hamilton.= _see_ =hamilton and jefferson.= =jesuits.= has jesuitism been a greater evil than good? matson, p. : briefs and references. =jews.= anti-semitism in russia. askew, , p. : briefs and references. is the creation of a jewish state desirable and practicable? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =john and paul.= _see_ =paul and john.= =journalism.= journalism; are signed articles desirable? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =judges.= the judges of the superior courts and the judges of the courts of appellate jurisdiction of the states should gain office by appointment of the state executive. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. =judges, recall of.= _see_ =recall of judges.= =jury system.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. do the advantages of the jury system outweigh its evils? is the jury system worthy of being retained? should a three-fourths majority be sufficient for a decision by the jury? matson, p. : briefs and references. in the state of (new york) a unanimous verdict should no longer be required in jury trials. thomas, p. : briefs. is the unanimity required from juries conducive to the attainment of the ends of justice? rowton, p. : references. jury system should be abolished. brookings, p. : briefs and references. less than the whole number of the jury should be competent to render a verdict. c. l. of p. reference lists. should we abolish trial by jury? gibson, p. : briefs and references. trial by jury. c. l. of p. reference lists. =juvenile court.= c. l. of p. reference lists (affirmative). children's courts. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =kant.= does kant's "critique of pure reason" give a true account of the origin and limitations of knowledge in the human mind? do kant's writings, taken together, afford a self-consistent and positive philosophical system? was kant a greater philosopher than descartes? matson, p. : briefs and references. =kempis, thomas à, and bunyan.= _see_ =bunyan and thomas à kempis.= =kindergarten system.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =labor, division of.= does the division of labor, as it now exists, tend rather to hinder than to help individual development? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the division of labour now carried to hurtful excess? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =labor and laboring classes.= labor is more to blame for hard times than capitalists are. c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ child labor.--chinese labor.--home labor.--machinery. =labor party.= the best interests of the laboring classes would be advanced by the formation of a separate labor party. brookings, p. : briefs and references. organized labor should form a political party and actively enter politics. thomas, p. : briefs. =labor unions.= _see_ =trade unions.= =laissez faire and state intervention.= is the laissez faire, or let alone theory of government, the true one? is the paternal theory of government the true one? should state intervention be extended? matson, p. : briefs and references. =land.= enclosure of common-lands. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. peasant proprietorship. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. vacant land; its rating. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =land nationalization.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =land values.= _see_ =single tax.= =landed gentry.= are the landed gentry worth preserving? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =language.= is language of merely human origin? matson, p. : briefs and references. =language, universal.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =language and thought.= _see_ =thought and language.= =latin, study of.= _see_ =classical education.= =law.= codification of the law [english]. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ legal education.--legal ethics. =leasehold enfranchisement.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =legal education.= reform of legal education. askew, , p. : briefs. =legal ethics.= is a counsel justified in defending a prisoner of whose guilt he is cognizant? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is an advocate justified in defending a man whom he knows to be guilty of the crime with which he is charged? rowton, p. : references. a lawyer is justified in pleading for the acquittal of a man whom he knows to be guilty. c. l. of p. reference lists. =legal tender.= congress should take immediate steps towards the retirement of all the legal-tender notes. alden, p. , : speech and brief (negative). =legislation, direct.= _see_ =direct legislation.= =liar and hypocrite.= _see_ =hypocrite and liar.= =liberal party and independent labour party.= _see_ =independent labour party and liberal party.= =liberty of the press.= should the liberty of the press be left by the government unrestricted? matson, p. : briefs and references. should the press be totally free? rowton, p. : references. =libraries.= free libraries. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =license.= _see_ =liquor question.= =life.= is life worth living? askew, , p. : briefs and references. is the average duration of human life increasing or diminishing? rowton, p. : references. =life insurance.= _see_ =insurance, life.= =lincoln and washington.= can lincoln justly be called as great a benefactor to his country as washington? matson, p. : briefs and references. =liquor question.= abolition of tied houses. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. as society is constituted at present the liquor saloon performs desirable social functions. robbins, p. : briefs and references. compensation to publicans. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. free trade in drink. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. high license is the best means of checking intemperance. craig, p. : speeches. is not intemperance the chief source of crime? rowton, p. : references. is the legal prohibition of the manufacture and sale of spirituous liquors as a beverage right in principle and efficient in practice? matson, p. : briefs and references. should the drink traffic be nationalized? gibson, p. : briefs and references. should the licensing act ( ) be amended? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. state prohibition is preferable to high license as a method of dealing with intemperance. brookings, p. : briefs and references. sunday closing of public houses. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. total abstinence. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ gothenburg system.--local option. =literary contests and athletics.= _see_ =athletics.= =literature.= is the cheap literature of the age, on the whole, beneficial to general morality? rowton, p. : references. =literature and science.= which has done more for the world, literature or science? c. l. of p. reference lists. =liturgies.= should nonconformists adopt liturgies? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =livingstone and columbus.= _see_ =columbus and livingstone.= =local option.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs.--c. l. of p. reference lists. local option is the most satisfactory method of dealing with the liquor problem. thomas, p. : briefs. local veto. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs.--gibson, p. : briefs and references. =locke.= has the influence of locke's philosophy been greater than its intrinsic worth? does the practical merit of locke's philosophy atone for its want of breadth and comprehension? matson, p. : briefs and references. =london livery companies.= livery companies (london); their abolition. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =longfellow and bryant.= _see_ =bryant and longfellow.= =lords, house of.= _see_ =house of lords.= =louis xiv.= was louis xiv a great man? rowton, p. : references. =louis xvi.= was the deposition of louis xvi justifiable? rowton, p. : references. =loyola and luther.= _see_ =luther and loyola.= =luther and calvin.= did luther contribute more to the promotion of the reformation than calvin? matson, p. : briefs and references. =luther and loyola.= which character is the more to be admired, that of loyola or luther? rowton, p. : references. =luxury.= the expensive social entertainments of the wealthy are of more benefit than injury to the country. craig, p. : speeches. should parliament restrain excessive luxury? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =lying.= _see_ =deception.--hypocrite and liar.= =macedonia.= should europe interfere in macedonia? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =machinery.= has the introduction of machinery been generally beneficial to mankind? rowton, p. : references. has the introduction of machinery done more harm than good? gibson, p. : briefs and references. has the use of machinery been, on the whole, beneficial to the laboring class? matson, p. : briefs and references. =magistrates, stipendiary.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =man.= have the races of men a specific unity and a common origin? are the races of men of diverse origin? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the evidence sufficient to prove the great antiquity of the human race? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the savage state the primitive and natural condition of man? is savagism a degenerate condition of human nature? matson, p. : briefs and references. is there any ground for believing in the ultimate perfection and universal happiness of the human race? rowton, p. : references. =man and animals.= _see_ =human mind and brute mind.= =man's intellect and woman's.= _see_ =woman's intellect and man's.= =manufactures and commerce.= _see_ =commerce and manufactures.= =marathon and waterloo.= was the battle of marathon more important in its results than the battle of waterloo? matson, p. : briefs and references. =markets= (london). municipal ownership. _see_ =municipal ownership.= =marriage laws.= a constitutional amendment should be adopted giving congress exclusive power to regulate marriage and divorce in the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. reform of marriage laws. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ deceased wife's sister. =mary,= _queen of scots._ do the facts show the complicity of mary, queen of scots, in darnley's assassination? matson, p. : briefs and references. was the execution of mary, queen of scots, justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references.--rowton, p. : references. =mathematics and philosophy.= _see_ =philosophy and mathematics.= =mathematics and the classics.= _see_ =classics and mathematics.= =maurice and newman.= _see_ =newman and maurice.= =mayors.= all executive duties in american cities should be concentrated in the hands of the mayor and his appointments should not require confirmation. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =mechanic and poet.= _see_ =poet and mechanic.= =mechanics.= do the mechanicians of modern equal those of ancient times? rowton, p. : references. =mechanics' institutions.= have mechanics' institutions answered the expectations of their founders? rowton, p. : references. =medical education for women.= askew, , p. : briefs. =memory and hope.= _see_ =hope and memory.= =men.= american men of the present day are lacking in chivalrous respect for women. c. l. of p. reference lists. =mexico.= annexation to the united states. should mexico be annexed to the united states? c. l. of p. reference lists. =michael angelo and raphael.= is michael angelo a greater artist than raphael? matson, p. : briefs and references. =microscope and telescope.= _see_ =telescope and microscope.= =middle ages.= are there good grounds for applying the term "dark" to the middle ages? rowton, p. : references. =middleman, elimination of.= askew, , p. : briefs. =military renown.= is military renown a fit object of ambition? rowton, p. : references. =military service.= _see_ =army.= =milton and dante.= _see_ =dante and milton.= =milton and goethe.= _see_ =goethe and milton.= =milton and homer.= which was the greater poet, milton or homer? rowton, p. : references. =milton and shakespeare.= _see_ =shakespeare and milton.= =mind force and physical force.= is all the force manifested in the material universe to be attributed to the immediate volition of god? is mind the only real force and the first cause of all motion? matson, p. : briefs and references. =ministers= (of state). should ministers hold directorships? askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =ministers of the gospel.= may a christian minister do as much good in pastoral work as by preaching? matson, p. : briefs and references. should clergymen be politicians? matson, p. : briefs and references. =minorities, rights of.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =miser and spendthrift.= which does the greater injury to society, the miser or the spendthrift? rowton, p. : briefs and references. =misery and happiness.= _see_ =happiness and misery.= =missions.= are modern christian missions a failure? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =mohammedanism.= has the influence of mohammedanism been more evil than good? matson, p. : briefs and references. =monarchy.= is a limited monarchy, like that of england, the best form of government? rowton, p. : references. =monarchy and republicanism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =monasteries.= _see_ =convents and monasteries.= =money.= international money. askew, , p. : briefs and references. _see also_ bimetallism.--gold.--silver.--tainted money. =money and culture.= do birth, breeding and culture count in society to-day when weighed against the power of money? c. l. of p. reference lists. =mongolian race.= _see_ =yellow peril.= =monopolies.= _see_ =federal charter and federal control.--trusts.= =monroe doctrine.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. the monroe doctrine has been and will continue to be beneficial to the western hemisphere. c. l. of p. reference lists. the monroe doctrine should be continued as a part of the permanent foreign policy of the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--thomas, p. : briefs. the united states should resist by force if need be the colonization of south america by any european nation. thomas, p. : briefs. =montaigne and addison.= is montaigne a better essayist than addison? matson, p. : briefs and references. =morality.= does morality increase with civilization? rowton, p. : speeches and references. is not private virtue essentially requisite to greatness of public character? rowton, p. : reference. _see also_ immorality. =morality and art.= _see_ =art and morality.= =morality and intelligence.= _see_ =intelligence and morality.= =moses and david.= was moses greater than david? matson, p. : briefs and references. =mozart and beethoven.= _see_ =beethoven and mozart.= =mrs grundy.= ought we to obey mrs grundy? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =municipal dwellings for the poor.= _see_ =housing problem.= =municipal ownership.= cities of the united states should own their street railways. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs and references. cities should own and control all the public franchises now conferred upon corporations. craig, p. : outlines. municipal gas supply. gibson, p. : briefs and references. municipal trading; shall it be restrained? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. municipal tramways. gibson, p. : briefs and references. municipalities in the united states should own and operate plants for supplying light, water, and surface transportation. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. municipalities in the united states should own and operate plants for supplying light, water and transportation. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles. municipalization of bakehouses. askew, , p. : briefs and references. municipalization of docks (london). askew, , p. : briefs and references. municipalization of gas supply. askew, , p. : briefs and references. municipalization of london markets. askew, , p. : briefs and references. street railways should be owned and operated by municipalities. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =music in streets.= _see_ =street music.= =mysticism.= has mysticism a rightful place in philosophic and religious thought? has christian mysticism exerted, on the whole, a favorable influence in the promotion of true piety? matson, p. : briefs and references. =napoleon.= did the career of napoleon bonaparte make for human progress? c. l. of p. reference lists. is the career of napoleon indefensible? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the character of napoleon bonaparte to be admired? rowton, p. : briefs and references. was the banishment of napoleon to st. helena justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references.--rowton, p. : references. =napoleon and cromwell.= which was the greater man, oliver cromwell or napoleon bonaparte? rowton, p. : references. =napoleon and hannibal.= did napoleon exhibit as great military genius as hannibal? matson, p. : briefs and references. =napoleon, cæsar, alexander the great.= _see_ =alexander the great, cæsar, napoleon.= =napoleon, howard, watt.= which was the greatest man, bonaparte, watt, or howard? rowton, p. : briefs and references. =national banks.= _see_ =banks, national.= =national character.= _see_ =character, national.= =national education.= _see_ =education, national.= =national party in politics.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =national theatre.= _see_ =theatre, national.= =national university.= is the establishment of a national university by the general government desirable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =naturalization.= naturalization laws of the united states should be made more stringent. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. statute requirements for naturalization in the united states should be increased. thomas, p. : briefs. =naval adviser.= is a naval adviser necessary? askew, , p. : briefs. =navigation and railroads.= the world owes more to navigation than to railroads. craig, p. : speeches. =navy= (united states). increase. the american navy should be substantially enlarged. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. congress should immediately provide for the further strengthening of the navy. pearson, p. : report of speeches, and references. congress should provide for a large increase in the strength of the navy. c. l. of p. reference lists. enlargement of the united states navy. debaters' handbook ser., no. : selected articles. it is for the best interest of the united states to build and maintain a large navy. brookings, p. : briefs and references. united states should maintain a large navy. thomas, p. : briefs. =nebular hypothesis.= does the nebular hypothesis furnish the best natural solution of the origin of the planetary and stellar worlds? is the nebular hypothesis likely to win an established place in science? matson, p. : briefs and references. =negro suffrage.= c. l. of p. debates: references. fifteenth amendment. speaker, v. , p. : references. fifteenth amendment to the constitution should be repealed. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. the methods by which the negroes in the southern states are excluded from the franchise are justifiable. thomas, p. : briefs and references. ought the negro to have been enfranchised? matson, p. : briefs and references. the suffrage should be taken from the negroes in the southern states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. united states government ought to interfere to protect the southern negro in the exercise of the suffrage. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =newman and maurice.= was j.h. newman superior in ability, character and influence to f.d. maurice? matson, p. : briefs and references. =newspapers.= comic supplement. _see_ =comic supplement.= =newton and bacon.= _see_ =bacon and newton.= =newton and darwin.= _see_ =darwin and newton.= =nicaragua canal.= united states ought to construct and operate the nicaragua canal. brookings, p. : briefs and references. united states should build and control the nicaragua canal. craig, p. : speeches. =nihilism.= the efforts of the russian nihilists are entitled to the sympathy of a free people. brookings, p. : briefs and references. is russian nihilism, considered as a political movement, justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =novels and novel-reading.= _see_ =fiction.= =oaths.= is the administering of the oath a necessary and efficient means of securing the truth from witnesses or the faithful discharge of official duty? should all civil and judicial oaths be abolished? is the oath as required by human law in accordance with scripture? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the use of oaths for civil purposes expedient? rowton, p. : references. =observation and reading.= _see_ =reading and observation.= =odyssey.= _see_ =iliad and odyssey.= =old age pensions.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. old age pensions would benefit society. c. l. of p. debates: references. state old-age pensions. gibson, p. : briefs and references. a system of old age pensions should be adopted by the united states government. robbins, p. : briefs and references.--thomas, p. : briefs. =oleomargarine.= each state has the right to prohibit the sale of oleomargarine within its limits. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =open shop and closed shop.= employers of labor are justified in insisting on the "open" shop. thomas, p. : briefs. the general welfare of the american people demands the open shop principle in our industries. speaker, v. , p. : report of speeches.--c. l. of p. debates: references. in labor disputes workmen are justified in demanding as a condition of settlement that their employers agree to employ only members of trade unions. pearson, p. : speeches and references. the movement of organized labor for the closed shop should receive the support of public opinion. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles.--wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. =opium habit.= _see_ =drink and opium.= =opium trade.= suppression of the opium trade in the east. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =opportunities for success.= _see_ =success.= =optimism and pessimism.= is the world growing better? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is there more ground for the philosophy of optimism than for the philosophy of pessimism? matson, p. : briefs and references. =oratory.= is ancient oratory superior to modern? matson, p. : briefs and references. is modern equal to ancient oratory? rowton, p. : briefs and references. which does the most to make the orator, knowledge, nature or art? rowton, p. : speeches and references. =osborne judgment.= osborne judgment; should the law be altered? askew, , p. : briefs. =outdoor relief.= should outdoor relief be encouraged? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should we abolish outdoor relief? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =painting, schools of.= impressionism in art _versus_ the preraphaelite school. c. l. of p. reference lists. =papacy.= _see_ =roman catholic church.= papacy. =paradise lost and divine comedy.= _see_ =dante and milton.= =parcels post.= the federal government should establish a parcels post. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles.--thomas, p. : briefs. the parcels post system advocated by postmaster general george von l. meyer should be established. wisconsin university, no. : references.--wisconsin university, no. : rev. ed. history, arguments, references. the united states should establish a parcels post. c. l. of p. debates: references. =parliament.= ought official parliamentary expenses to be a local charge? askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. payment of members' and returning officers' expenses. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. redistribution. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. shorter parliaments. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should members of parliament be delegates instead of representatives? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ house of lords. =parliamentary system and presidential system.= _see_ =presidential system and parliamentary system.= =parnell.= the memory of charles stewart parnell deserves the gratitude of the irish people. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =parties, political.= _see_ =political parties.= =party allegiance.= every citizen should give allegiance to some organized political party. thomas, p. : briefs and references. it is for the interests of good government that the citizen acts with his party in municipal elections. brookings, p. : briefs and references. party allegiance is preferable to independent action in politics. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =party government.= _see_ =political parties.= =passive resistance.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is passive resistance justifiable? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =patents.= should all patents be abolished? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =paul and john.= has paul been more influential, by his labors and writings, in the development and promotion of christianity than john? matson, p. : briefs and references. =pauper children.= boarding out of pauper children. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ought we to board out our pauper children? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =pauperism and illiteracy.= is pauperism as great an evil to society as illiteracy? matson, p. : briefs and references. =peace.= is universal peace probable? rowton, p. : briefs and references. =peasant proprietorship.= _see_ =land.= =the pen and the sword.= the pen is mightier than the sword. c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ warrior and statesman. =penny postage.= _see_ =postal rates.= =pensions.= is it the duty of a government to make ampler provision for the literary writers of the nation? rowton, p. : references. the pension policy of the republican party has been wise. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =pensions, old age.= _see_ =old age pensions.= =periodicals.= have we too many periodicals? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =pessimism and optimism.= _see_ =optimism and pessimism.= =peter the great and frederick the great.= _see_ =frederick the great and peter the great.= =philippine islands.= denney, p. : beveridge-hoar debate on the philippine question. the united states should permanently retain the philippine islands. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. the united states should pledge to grant independence to the philippine islands on or before . wisconsin university, no. : references. would it be advisable for our government to grant absolute independence to the people of the philippine islands? craig, p. : speeches. =philosophy and mathematics.= does the study of philosophy afford a better mental discipline than the study of mathematics? has mathematics a greater utility than philosophy? matson, p. : briefs and references. =philosophy and poetry.= which has done the greater service to truth, philosophy or poetry? rowton, p. : references. =photography and engraving.= has photography done more to popularize art than engraving? is photography of greater importance than engraving? matson, p. : briefs and references. =physical force and mind force.= _see_ =mind force and physical force.= =planets.= is it probable that the planets or other heavenly bodies are inhabited? matson, p. : briefs and references. =plato and aristotle.= is plato a greater philosopher than aristotle? is the philosophy of plato, on the whole, superior to that of aristotle? matson, p. : briefs and references. =plato and socrates.= is philosophy as much indebted to socrates as to plato? should socrates be held in as high estimation as plato? matson, p. : briefs and references. =plural voting.= _see_ =ballot.= =plurality of worlds.= is there a plurality of worlds? matson, p. : briefs and references. =poet and mechanic.= which is the more valuable member of society, a great mechanician or a great poet? rowton, p. : references. =poet and statesman.= _see_ =statesman and poet.= =poet, statesman, warrior.= _see_ =warrior, statesman, poet.= =poetry.= is the present a poetical age? rowton, p. : references. =poetry and philosophy.= _see_ =philosophy and poetry.= =poetry and prose fiction.= poetry is a more important element in literature than prose fiction. wisconsin university, no. : briefs. =poetry and science.= does the prevalence of natural science tend to check the poetic spirit? matson, p. : briefs and references. =police.= police; metropolitan and popular control. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =political parties.= are the benefits of party government greater than its evils? is the existence of parties necessary in a free government? is party spirit productive of more evil than good? matson, p. : briefs and references. is the existence of parties in a state favorable to the public welfare? rowton, p. : references. party government. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. party government; is it a useful or mischievous system? gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ independent labour party.--labor party.--national party.--party allegiance.--populist party.--republican party. =pooling.= the interstate commerce act should be so amended as to allow pooling. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the united states should continue its present policy of opposing the combination of railroads. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs. =poor, housing of the.= _see_ =housing problem.= =pope.= ought pope to rank in the first class of poets? rowton, p. : references. =pope and dryden.= _see_ =dryden and pope.= =pope= (roman catholic church). _see_ =roman catholic church.= papacy. =population.= the growth of population is advancing more rapidly than the resources for its comfortable maintenance permit. c. l. of p. reference lists. limited population. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =populist party.= supporters of the populist party have substantial grievances which their movement is likely to relieve. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =postal rates.= united states should adopt penny postage. craig, p. : speeches. =postal savings banks.= the federal government should establish a system of postal savings banks. thomas, p. : briefs. it is not good policy for the government of the united states to establish a system of postal savings. craig, p. : speeches. the postal savings bank scheme as advocated by postmaster general meyer should be put into operation in the united states. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references. a system of postal savings banks should be established in the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--wisconsin university, no. : references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =postal telegraph.= the government should maintain and operate a telegraph system in connection with the post-office. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. should our national government establish postal telegraphy? matson, p. : briefs and references. =poverty and wealth.= it is better to be born to poverty than to wealth. c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ crime. =preaching.= should all preaching be extempore? should the written sermon be permitted to hold the place it has gained in general preaching? matson, p. : briefs and references. should political subjects be introduced into the pulpit? matson, p. : briefs and references. would not pulpit oratory become more effective if the clergy were to preach extemporaneously? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ pulpit and press. =premature burial.= _see_ =burial, premature.= =president.= election. the president of the united states should be elected by direct popular vote. pattee, p. : brief (affirmative). presidential electors should be chosen by districts instead of on a general ticket. brookings, p. : briefs and references. should the present method of electing the president be superseded by some other method? should electors for president and vice-president be elected by the vote of the congressional districts, with two at large for each state, instead of upon general ticket? should the president be elected by a direct popular vote, counted by federal numbers? or should the president be elected by a majority of the nation's voters, voting directly? matson, p. : briefs and references. should the president and the senate of the united states be elected by a direct vote of the people? craig, p. : speeches. =president.= term of office. the presidential term should consist of six years without subsequent re-election, instead of the present term of four years. c. l. of p. debates: references. =presidential system and parliamentary system.= for the united states the presidential system is a better form of government than the parliamentary system. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references.--speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references. =press, liberty of.= _see_ =liberty of the press.= =press and pulpit.= _see_ =pulpit and press.= =primaries.= nomination of officers by caucuses, or primaries, should be abandoned. thomas, p. : briefs. state, county and city officers should be nominated by conventions rather than by direct primaries. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references. state, district, county and city officers should be nominated by direct primaries held under state regulation rather than by delegate convention. robbins, p. : briefs and references. the system of direct primary nominations is preferable to that of nomination by caucus and convention. debaters' handbook ser., no. : briefs, references and selected articles. =primitive man.= _see_ =man.= =primitive religion.= _see_ =religion.= =primogeniture.= abolition of the law of primogeniture. askew, , p. : briefs. =printing-press and steam-engine.= which has done the greater service to mankind, the printing press or the steam engine? rowton, p. : speeches and references. =prison labor.= _see_ =convict labor.= =prisons.= prison reform. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should our prisons be reformed? gibson, p. : briefs and references. should the chief purpose of a prison be to punish or to reform? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ indeterminate sentence.--punishment. =private property at sea.= private property at sea; should it be exempt from capture? askew, , p. : briefs. =probation after death.= is the hypothesis of a probation after death rational and probable? does human probation terminate at death? matson, p. : briefs and references. =professionalism in foot-ball and in cricket.= askew, , p. : briefs. =profit-sharing.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is profit-sharing the cure for labour-troubles? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =prohibition.= _see_ =liquor question.= =proportional representation.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. legislative bodies should be chosen by a system of proportional representation. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. members of the legislature of the state of wisconsin should be chosen by a system of proportional representation. wisconsin university, no. : references. state legislatures should be elected by a system of proportional representation. thomas, p. : briefs and references. =protection and free trade.= a high protective tariff raises wages. brookings, p. : briefs and references. imperial preferential tariffs. askew, , p. : briefs and references. our legislation should be shaped toward the abandonment of the protective tariff. pearson, p. : synopsis of debate, and references. protection is preferable to free trade as a commercial policy for the united states. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. a protective tariff is a commercial and economic advantage to the united states. thomas, p. : briefs and references. shall we go back to protection? gibson, p. : briefs and references. tariff for revenue only is of greater benefit to the people of the united states than a protective tariff. craig, p. : speeches. tariff reform. askew, , p. : briefs. the tariff should be for revenue only. foster, p. : speech of f.h. hurd (affirmative). the time has now come when the policy of protection should be abandoned by the united states. brookings, p. : briefs and references. which is the true economic policy for nations, protection or free trade? is protection or free trade the wiser policy for the united states? should a tariff be levied exclusively for revenue? does protection protect? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ steel.--sugar.--wool. =psychical research.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =public trustees.= askew, , p. : briefs. =publishers and authors.= _see_ =authors and publishers.= =pulpit and press.= is the pulpit more influential than the press? matson, p. : briefs and references. which exerts the greater influence, the pulpit or the press? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =pulpit oratory.= _see_ =preaching.= =punishment.= should not all punishment be reformatory? rowton, p. : references. =punishment, capital.= _see_ =capital punishment.= =punishment, corporal.= _see_ =corporal punishment.= =punishment and reward.= the fear of punishment has a greater influence on human conduct than the hope of reward. craig, p. : speeches. has the fear of punishment, or the hope of reward, the greater influence on human conduct? rowton, p. : references. =puritan revolution.= was the puritan revolution justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =puritans.= have the new england puritans been censured too severely for their treatment of the quakers and the so called witches? matson, p. : briefs and references. =quarantine.= a national quarantine act is desirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =quorum.= the principle of a present quorum as laid down in reed's rules is sound. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =railroad pooling.= _see_ =pooling.= =railroad rates.= the cost of the service rendered by a railroad company should be made the basis for the regulation of its rates. c. l. of p. reference lists. =railroads.= government ownership. _see_ =government ownership.= railroads. =railroads and navigation.= _see_ =navigation and railroads.= =raphael and michael angelo.= _see_ =michael angelo and raphael.= =reading and observation.= from which does the mind gain the more knowledge, reading or observation? rowton, p. : references. =reading and travel.= _see_ =travel and reading.= =reason and imagination.= _see_ =imagination and reason.= =reasoning, inductive.= _see_ =inductive reasoning.= =recall.= the recall should be adopted in the united states as a measure of control by the people. c. l. of p. debates: references. the system of recall in use in los angeles, california, would be beneficial to the city of ----. wisconsin university, no. : references. =recall of judges.= all judges other than federal should be subject to the popular recall. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references. the recall of judges is constitutional and will further the best interests of the people of the united states. c. l. of p. debates: references. =reciprocity.= the policy of concluding reciprocal commercial treaties with other nations is a wise one. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =reciprocity.= united states and canada. commercial reciprocity between the united states and canada is desirable. thomas, p. : briefs. it would be advantageous to the united states to admit canadian coal and lumber free of duty. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs. it would be to the advantage of the united states to establish complete commercial reciprocity between the united states and canada. brookings, p. : briefs and references. a reciprocal commercial treaty should be concluded between the united states and canada. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ retaliation. =reciprocity and free trade.= fair trade (reciprocity) _v._ free trade. askew, , p. : briefs and references. =referendum.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. for and against the initiative and referendum for new york state. speaker, v. , p. : speeches and references. initiative and referendum. debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. initiative and referendum should be made a part of the legislative system of ohio. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. initiative and referendum systems of enacting legislation should be adopted by pennsylvania. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: briefs. is the adoption of the initiative and referendum practicable in this country? craig, p. : speeches. optional initiative and optional referendum should be adopted in state legislation. robbins, p. : briefs and references. should the referendum be introduced into english politics? gibson, p. : briefs and references. the system of direct legislation by the people should be more generally adopted in the united states. wisconsin university, no. : references. =reformation and renaissance.= has the reformation exerted more influence on modern civilization than the renaissance? matson, p. : briefs and references. =reformer and conservative.= is the reformer of greater importance to society than the conservative? matson, p. : briefs and references. =registration of title to land.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =relief, outdoor.= _see_ =outdoor relief.= =religion.= should theological difficulties be freely discussed? gibson, p. : briefs and references. was monotheism the primitive religion? was polytheism the primitive religion? was fetichism the primitive religion? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ authority (in religion). =religion and art.= _see_ =art and religion.= =religion in the public schools.= secular education. askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ bible in the public schools. =religious disability.= a man's religion should not affect his eligibility for public office. c. l. of p. debates: references. ought persons to be excluded from the civil offices on account of their religious opinions? rowton, p. : references. =religious education.= must religious education be dogmatic? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =religious equality.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =renaissance and reformation.= _see_ =reformation and renaissance.= =renaissance art and greek art.= _see_ =greek art and renaissance art.= =rent.= abolition of law of distress for rent. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =representation, proportional.= _see_ =proportional representation.= =republican party.= the republican party is entitled to popular support. thomas, p. : briefs and references. the republican party is entitled to the suffrages of intelligent citizens. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =republicanism and monarchy.= _see_ =monarchy and republicanism.= =research, scientific.= _see_ =scientific research.= =responsibility and insanity.= _see_ =insanity and responsibility.= =retaliation.= gibson, p. : briefs and references. =reversionists, rating of.= askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =revivals.= are the growth and prosperity of the christian church best promoted by revivals of religion? matson, p. : briefs and references. =reward and punishment.= _see_ =punishment and reward.= =richard iii.= is there reasonable ground for believing that the character of richard the third was not so atrocious as is generally supposed? rowton, p. : references. shakespeare's richard iii is not the true one. c. l. of p. reference lists. =richard iii and charles ii.= which was the worse monarch, richard the third or charles the second? rowton, p. : references. =richelieu.= were the results of richelieu's policy beneficial to france? matson, p. : briefs and references. =right to work bill.= askew, , p. : briefs. =ritualism, suppression of.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =roads.= should the united states government build good roads? craig, p. : speeches. =roman catholic church.= has the roman catholic church been, on the whole, a blessing to the world? matson, p. : briefs and references. =roman catholic church.= papacy. papal infallibility. askew, , p. : briefs and references. was the papacy during the middle ages a beneficent power in european affairs? matson, p. : briefs and references. =rome and england.= _see_ =england and rome.= =rome and greece.= _see_ =greece and rome.= =rousseau.= has rousseau's influence on modern thought been, on the whole, beneficial? matson, p. : briefs and references. =rural schools.= _see_ =country schools.= =saloons.= _see_ =liquor question.= =salvation army.= is the salvation army calculated by its organization and methods to promote true christianity among the lower classes? is the salvation army entitled to the approval, encouragement and support of the christian church? matson, p. : briefs and references. =san domingo treaty.= the policy embodied in the pending treaty with santo domingo is a desirable departure in american diplomacy. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references. =satire.= is not satire highly useful as a moral agent? rowton, p. : references. =scepticism.= _see_ =skepticism.= =schiller and goethe.= _see_ =goethe and schiller.= =school curriculum.= should the curriculum of the public schools be changed? c. l. of p. reference lists. =schools.= are public or private schools to be preferred? rowton, p. : references. popular control of state-supported schools. gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ bible in the public schools.--country schools.--religion in the public schools. =science and art.= _see_ =art and science.= =science and literature.= _see_ =literature and science.= =science and poetry.= _see_ =poetry and science.= =science and the classics.= _see_ =classical education.= =scientific research.= state endowment of scientific research. askew, , p. : briefs. =scotland, church of.= disestablishment of the church of scotland. askew, , p. ; askew, , p. : briefs. =scott,= _sir_ walter. is the enduring fame of scott dependent more on his novels than on his poems? matson, p. : briefs and references. =secession.= the southern states were justified in seceding. c. l. of p. debates: references. =second ballot.= _see_ =ballot.= =secret societies.= fraternities should be abolished in the high school. c. l. of p. reference lists. greek letter fraternities as existing at present in undergraduate colleges are detrimental to the best interests of the academic world. speaker, v. , p. : briefs and references. secret societies should not be permitted in secondary schools. thomas, p. : briefs. =sects.= does sectarianism spoil christianity? gibson, p. : briefs and references. has the division of protestant christians into sects been, on the whole, injurious to the interests of true religion? matson, p. : briefs and references. =senate rules.= the rules of the senate ought to be so amended that general debate may be limited. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =senators.= election. a constitutional amendment should be adopted providing that united states senators be elected by direct vote of the people. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. a constitutional amendment should be secured by which senators shall be elected by direct vote of the people. brookings, p. : briefs and references. election of united states senators. debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. popular election of senators. c. l. of p. debates: references. should the president and the senate of the united states be elected by a direct vote of the people? craig, p. : speeches. united states senators should be elected by direct popular vote. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. united states senators should be elected by direct vote of the people. thomas, p. : briefs and references. =servetus and calvin.= _see_ =calvin and servetus.= =shakespeare.= is it possible that the world will ever again possess a writer as great as shakspeare? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ hamlet.--richard iii.--taming of the shrew. =shakespeare and bacon.= _see_ =bacon-shakespeare question.= =shakespeare and goethe.= was shakespeare a greater genius than goethe? matson, p. : briefs and references. =shakespeare and milton.= which was the greater poet, shakespeare or milton? rowton, p. : speeches and references. =shelley and byron.= _see_ =byron and shelley.= =sherman anti-trust law.= sherman anti-trust law is hostile to the economic interests of the united states. thomas, p. : briefs. =ship subsidies.= the federal government should grant financial aid to ships engaged in our foreign trade and owned by citizens of the united states. pearson, p. : synopses of speeches, and references. the united states government should extend its system of ship subsidies. thomas, p. : briefs. the united states should establish a more extensive system of shipping subsidies. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. the united states should establish a system of shipping subsidies. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--robbins, p. : briefs and references. =ships, free.= _see_ =free ships.= =silver= (currency). any further coinage of silver by the united states is undesirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ bimetallism. =simplified spelling.= _see_ =spelling reform.= =single tax.= is the economic system of henry george sound in its general principles and conclusions? does poverty increase with progress? is the private ownership of land wrong and productive of evil? should there be a single tax levied on land values? matson, p. : briefs and references. a single tax on land values is desirable. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. a single tax on land would be better than the present system of taxation. brookings, p. : briefs and references. taxation of ground values. askew, , p. : briefs and references. taxation of land values. askew, , p. : briefs. taxation of land values only forms the proper basis of taxation for the purpose of local government in the united states and canada. speaker, v. , p. : synopsis of speeches, and references. =skepticism and progress.= has scepticism aided more than it has retarded the progress of truth? matson, p. : briefs and references. =skepticism and superstition.= which is the more baneful, skepticism or superstition? rowton, p. : references. =slavery.= is the decline of slavery in europe attributable to moral or to economical influences? rowton, p. : references. was the overthrow of slavery in the united states effected more by the influence of moral than of political forces? matson, p. : briefs and references. =slavery and intemperance.= has slavery been a greater curse to mankind than intemperance? matson, p. : briefs and references. =small holdings.= _see_ =allotments and small holdings extension.= =social equality.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =social reform and the church.= _see_ =church, the.= =socialism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs.--gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ coöperation. =societies, secret.= _see_ =secret societies.= =society and solitude.= _see_ =solitude and society.= =socrates.= ought socrates to have saved his life by a different defence or by escaping from prison? matson, p. : briefs and references. =socrates and plato.= _see_ =plato and socrates.= =solitude and society.= is solitude more favorable to mental and moral improvement than society? matson, p. : briefs and references. =sophists.= have the greek sophists been unduly depreciated? are the opinions and practices of the greek sophists incapable of vindication? matson, p. : briefs and references. =south africa.= should natives be compelled to work? askew, , p. : briefs and references. =southern states.= _see_ =secession.= =spelling reform.= english spelling reform. askew, , p. : briefs and references. is the radical change of english orthography to phonetic spelling desirable or practicable? matson, p. : briefs and references. the simplified forms in the "three hundred simplified spelling list" printed by the simplified spelling board should be adopted by the people of the united states. wisconsin university, no. : references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. =spendthrift and miser.= _see_ =miser and spendthrift.= =spenser and chaucer.= _see_ =chaucer and spenser.= =sport.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. are we too fond of sport? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is sporting justifiable? rowton, p. : references. _see also_ athletics.--foot-ball. =spurgeon and beecher.= _see_ =beecher and spurgeon.= =stage.= _see_ =theatre.= =state and church.= _see_ =church and state.= =state and individual.= the less the state meddles with the individual the better. gibson, p. : briefs and references. =state intervention and laissez faire.= _see_ =laissez faire and state intervention.= =state ownership.= _see_ =government ownership.= =state rights.= _see_ =centralization and state rights.= =statesman and poet.= which is the greater civilizer, the statesman or the poet? rowton, p. : references. =statesman, warrior, poet.= _see_ =warrior, statesman, poet.= =steam-engine and printing-press.= _see_ =printing-press and steam-engine.= =steel.= present tariff on trust-made steel articles should be abolished. wisconsin university, no. : references. =stoicism.= has the influence of stoicism been on the whole beneficial? did stoicism as modified by its roman teachers show a real approximation to christianity? matson, p. : briefs and references. =street music, legislation against.= askew, , p. : briefs. =street railways.= municipal ownership. _see_ =municipal ownership.= =strikes.= are strikes right? are strikes a benefit, on the whole, to the laboring class? matson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ chicago strike injunctions. =student government.= is a system of self-government by students in colleges desirable? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =success.= the average young man of to-day has greater opportunities to make life a success financially than his forefathers. craig, p. : speeches. is success in life attained more by will than by good fortune? matson, p. : briefs and references. =suffrage.= adult suffrage. askew, , p. : briefs. disfranchisement of illiterate voters. askew, , p. : briefs. if it were possible, a reasonable property qualification for the exercise of the municipal franchise in the united states would be desirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. if it were possible, would a property qualification for the exercise of the municipal franchise be desirable? foster, p. : brief and speech (negative). is universal manhood suffrage true in theory and best in practice for a representative government? should an educational qualification be made a condition of enjoying the right of suffrage? should a property qualification be made a condition of enjoying the right of suffrage? is suffrage a natural right or a political privilege? matson, p. : briefs and references. manhood suffrage. askew, , p. : briefs.--gibson, p. : briefs. suffrage in the united states should be restricted by an educational qualification. thomas, p. : briefs. suffrage should be restricted by an educational qualification. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. tennessee should adopt an amendment to her constitution requiring an educational qualification for suffrage. pearson, p. : report of speeches, and references. there should be a property qualification for the franchise in cities. thomas, p. : briefs. =suffrage, negro.= _see_ =negro suffrage.= =suffrage, woman.= _see_ =woman suffrage.= =sugar.= is it good policy for the government of the united states to place a tariff on sugar? gibson, p. : speeches. sugar should be admitted free of duty. brookings, p. : briefs and references. a system of sugar bounties is contrary to good public policy. brookings, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ brussels sugar convention. =suicide.= is suicide ever justifiable? gibson, p. : briefs and references. is suicide immoral? askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should there be legal enactments for the prevention of suicide? matson, p. : briefs and references. =sunday.= is our sunday being spoiled? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =sunday closing of public houses.= _see_ =liquor question.= =sunday opening of museums.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =sunday-schools.= are the results of sunday schools satisfactory? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =superstition and skepticism.= _see_ =skepticism and superstition.= =the sword and the pen.= _see_ =the pen and the sword.= =tacitus and thucydides.= _see_ =thucydides and tacitus.= =tainted money.= money acquired by doubtful means should not be used for philanthropic purposes. c. l. of p. reference lists. =taming of the shrew.= did petruchio adopt the best method of taming a shrew? c. l. of p. reference lists. =tariff.= _see_ =protection and free trade.= =taste= (æsthetics). is there any standard of taste? rowton, p. : references. =taxation.= abolition of indirect taxation. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. our present system of taxation is the best that can be devised. craig, p. : speeches. rates; their division between owner and occupier. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. special assessment of land and buildings values. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. undeveloped land tax. askew, , p. : briefs. voluntary taxation. askew, , p. : briefs and references. _see also_ bachelors.--church property. taxation.--income tax.--inheritance tax.--single tax. =telegraph.= government ownership. _see_ =government ownership.= telegraphs, telephones. =telegraph and telephone.= is the telegraph more useful than the telephone? matson, p. : briefs and references. =telephone.= government ownership. _see_ =government ownership.= telegraphs, telephones. =telephone and telegraph.= _see_ =telegraph and telephone.= =telescope and microscope.= are the revelations of the telescope more wonderful than the revelations of the microscope? matson, p. : briefs and references. =temperance.= _see_ =drink and opium.--liquor question.= =tennyson and browning.= _see_ =browning and tennyson.= =territorial expansion= (united states). _see_ =imperialism= (united states). =text-books.= the city should furnish free text-books to high-school students. c. l. of p. reference lists. the free text-book system should be adopted. wisconsin university, no. : arguments and references. =thackeray and dickens.= is thackeray a greater novelist than dickens? matson, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. reference lists. =theatre.= has the stage a moral tendency? rowton, p. : speeches and references. is the theatre in its character and influence, as shown in the past and the present, more evil than good? can the theatre be reformed? should christians never attend the theatre? matson, p. : briefs and references. ought christians to attend the theatre? gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ censorship of the stage.--drama. =theatre, national.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =thomas à kempis and bunyan.= _see_ =bunyan and thomas à kempis.= =thought and language.= is thought possible without language? is language identical with thought? matson, p. : briefs and references. =thucydides and tacitus.= was thucydides a greater historian than tacitus? matson, p. : briefs and references. =titles of honor.= do titles operate beneficially in a community? rowton, p. : references. =total abstinence.= _see_ =liquor question.= =trade unions.= are trade unions a benefit to the laboring class? matson, p. : briefs and references. are trades unions, on the whole, mischievous or beneficial? gibson, p. : briefs and references. labor organizations promote the best interests of workingmen. brookings, p. : briefs and references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. labor unions. c. l. of p. reference lists. labor unions are advantageous to workingmen. thomas, p. : briefs. labor unions are beneficial to this country. c. l. of p. reference lists. labor unions as they now exist are, on the whole, beneficial to society in the united states. pearson, p. : report of debate, and references. reform of trade union law. askew, , p. : briefs and references. trade unionism. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ open shop and closed shop.--osborne judgment. =travel and reading.= which is the better means of culture, travel or reading? c. l. of p. reference lists. =trial by jury.= _see_ =jury system.= =trusts.= all trusts and combinations intended to monopolize industries should be prohibited. brookings, p. : briefs and references. the anti-trust laws should be amended to permit fair and reasonable combinations and monopolies. c. l. of p. reference lists. are monopolies, on the whole, more a good than an evil to the public? is the present general tendency to minimize competition by the formation of monopolies an evil? matson, p. : briefs and references. are private monopolies public evils? gibson, p. : briefs and references. are the so called trusts, in their working and influence, a benefit to the public? do trusts threaten our institutions so as to warrant adverse legislation? are trusts, in their tendency, subversive of industrial liberty? matson, p. : briefs and references. the formation of trusts should be opposed by legislation. alden, p. : brief (negative). further federal legislation in respect to trusts and industrial combinations is desirable. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references. is a well-managed trust beneficial to the general public? craig, p. : speeches. present tariff on trust-made steel articles should be abolished. wisconsin university, no. : references. trusts and monopolies are a positive injury to the people financially. craig, p. : outlines. _see also_ federal charter and federal control.--sherman anti-trust law. =turkey.= would the subversion of the turkish empire be a gain to its subjects and to europe as a whole? matson, p. : briefs and references. =unemployed.= cities should employ labor when the private demand for it is largely inadequate. thomas, p. : briefs. general booth's employment system as outlined in "darkest england" should be adopted in this country. brookings, p. : briefs and references. in times of depression municipalities should give work to the unemployed. brookings, p. : briefs and references. state intervention for the unemployed. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ farm colonies. =unions.= _see_ =trade unions.= =unitarianism.= has the influence of american unitarianism been favorable to christianity? matson, p. : briefs and references. =united states.= are the conservative forces in our nation sufficient to insure its perpetuity? matson, p. : briefs and references. is it probable that america will hereafter become the greatest of nations? rowton, p. : references. =united states.= army. increase. _see_ =army= (united states). increase. =united states.= imperialism. _see_ =imperialism= (united states). =united states.= navy. increase. _see_ =navy= (united states). increase. =united states.= territorial expansion. _see_ =imperialism= (united states). =united states government and english government.= _see_ =english government and united states government.= =universities.= _see_ =colleges and universities.= =university, national.= _see_ =national university.= =university extension.= askew, , p. : briefs and references. =usury.= should usury laws be repealed? matson, p. : briefs and references. =utility.= is the principle of utility a safe moral guide? rowton, p. : references. =vaccination.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. should vaccination be enforced by law? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =vegetarianism.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =venezuela.= resolved that we endorse president cleveland's message relating to the venezuelan boundary. alden, p. : speech (affirmative). =vice and virtue.= does not virtue necessarily produce happiness and does not vice necessarily produce misery in this life? rowton, p. : references. =victorian literature and elizabethan literature.= _see_ =elizabethan literature and victorian literature.= =virgil.= _see_ =iliad and Æneid.= =virtue and vice.= _see_ =vice and virtue.= =vivisection.= askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. is the practice of vivisection for scientific purposes justifiable? is vivisection cruel and unnecessary? matson, p. : briefs and references. should we prohibit vivisection? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =voltaire.= has the influence of voltaire, through his writings, been on the whole beneficent? matson, p. : briefs and references. =voting.= _see_ =ballot.= =wages.= fair wages clause in public contracts. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. for work the same in kind, quantity and quality, should woman receive the same wages as man? should woman receive the same wages as man for work or service of equal value? matson, p. : briefs and references. wages boards. askew, , p. : briefs. =wagner.= has wagner made an important improvement in musical theory and practice? is wagner's musical drama likely to be the music of the future? should wagner be ranked with the great masters in music? matson, p. : briefs and references. =wales, church of.= disestablishment of the church in wales. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =war.= have the necessary evils of war, in the history of the world, outweighed the good results it has produced? matson, p. : briefs and references. is war in any case justifiable? rowton, p. : references. ought christians to be soldiers? gibson, p. : briefs and references. _see also_ arbitration, international.--armaments.--disarmament. =warrior and statesman.= the warrior does more good for his country than the statesman. c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ the pen and the sword. =warrior, statesman, poet.= which is of the greatest benefit to his country, the warrior, the statesman or the poet? rowton, p. : speeches and references. =washington and alfred the great.= _see_ =alfred the great and washington.= =washington and franklin.= _see_ =franklin and washington.= =washington and lincoln.= _see_ =lincoln and washington.= =water-power.= congress should provide for the regulation of all water power, constitutionality conceded. c. l. of p. debates: references. =waterloo and marathon.= _see_ =marathon and waterloo.= =watt, howard, napoleon.= _see_ =napoleon, howard, watt.= =wealth.= can a man get rich honestly? gibson, p. : briefs and references. the state should limit by law the amount of wealth to be accumulated by any one person. c. l. of p. reference lists. _see also_ luxury. =wealth and poverty.= _see_ =poverty and wealth.= =webster and clay.= were the public services of webster more valuable to the country than the public services of clay? matson, p. : briefs and references. =wesley and calvin.= _see_ =calvin and wesley.= =white races and dark races.= _see_ =dark races and white races.= =wilberforce and howard.= _see_ =howard and wilberforce.= =will, freedom of.= _see_ =free will.= =williams, roger.= was the banishment of roger williams justifiable? matson, p. : briefs and references. =wine in the communion service.= should unfermented wine be used at the communion table? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =witches.= have the new england puritans been censured too severely for their treatment of the quakers and the so called witches? matson, p. : briefs and references. =woman suffrage.= debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. in the united states the right of suffrage should be granted to women. robbins, p. : briefs and references.--thomas, p. : briefs. should the suffrage be extended to woman? matson, p. : briefs and references. should women have the parliamentary franchise? gibson, p. : briefs and references. suffrage should be given to women. ringwalt, p. : briefs and references.--wisconsin university, no. : references.--c. l. of p. debates: references. woman suffrage is desirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. woman suffrage should be adopted by an amendment to the constitution of the united states. craig, p. : speeches. women suffrage. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. =woman's intellect and man's.= are the mental capacities of the sexes equal? rowton, p. : speeches and references. is the intellect of woman essentially inferior to that of man? matson, p. : briefs and references. which exercises the greater influence on the civilization and happiness of the human race, the male or the female mind? rowton, p. : references. =woman's wages.= _see_ =wages.= =women.= american men of the present day are lacking in chivalrous respect for women. c. l. of p. reference lists. =women.= education. does the education of girls tend toward a better home life? c. l. of p. reference lists. higher education of women. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. women and university degrees. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. _see also_ medical education for women. =women.= employment. employment of women. debaters' handbook ser., no. : references and selected articles. married women as workers. askew, , p. : briefs and references.--askew, , p. : briefs. ought we to let women work for their own living? gibson, p. : briefs and references. =wool.= a system of duties on wool and woollens is undesirable. brookings, p. : briefs and references. =wordsworth and byron.= which was the greater poet, wordsworth or byron? rowton, p. : references. =wordsworth and coleridge.= was wordsworth a greater poet than coleridge? matson, p. : briefs and references. =workingmen and the church.= _see_ =church, the.= =world growing better?= _see_ =optimism and pessimism.= =yellow peril.= the rapid awakening of the mongolian race is perilous to the caucasian supremacy of the world. robbins, p. : briefs and references. =publications of the library now in print= _in 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§=story hour courses for children from greek myths, the iliad and the odyssey.= . pp. cents, postpaid. §*=list of good games,= with references to books telling how to play them. pp. cents, postpaid. in the _monthly bulletin,_ april . transcriber's notes: § replaces dagger symbol in text version. transcribed by from the w. heffer & sons edition by david price, email ccx @pglaf.org {samuel butler about : p .jpg} the samuel butler collection at saint john's college cambridge a catalogue and a commentary by henry festing jones and a. t. bartholomew cambridge w. heffer & sons ltd. it seems to me, the more i think of it, that the true life of anyone is not the one they live in themselves, and of which they are themselves conscious, but the life they live in the hearts of others. our bodies and brains are but the tools with which we work to make our true life, which is not in the tool-box and tools we ignorantly mistake for ourselves, but in the work we do with them; and this work, if it be truly done, lives more in others than in ourselves. s. butler, . [this edition is limited to copies] preface the butler collection was not all given to st. john's at once. i sent up some pictures and some books in ; and at intervals i have sent more, always keeping a list of what has gone. now that i have no more to send seems the proper time for a catalogue to be issued, and it is made from the lists which i kept, and which were in part printed in _the eagle_, put in order by a. t. bartholomew and annotated by myself. i am responsible for the notes and am the person intended when "i" and "me" occur. bartholomew is responsible for the classification, for verifying, for checking, and for the bibliographical part. in time the collection will no doubt increase as new editions or translations of butler's books appear and as further books are published referring to him. all such i intend to include in the collection; and i hope that other butlerians will see fit to make additions to it. i think that the notes give all necessary explanations; but i may perhaps say here that many of the pictures were made before butler contemplated writing such a book as _alps and sanctuaries_. when he was preparing that book he went to the places therein described and made on the spot many black and white drawings for reproduction; but he found that this method would take too long, so he made others of the black and white drawings from oil and water-colour sketches which he had done previously, and this is why some of the pictures are dated many years before the book was published. among the books, under _alps and sanctuaries_ (p. ), is streatfeild's copy of that work; and under _the way of all flesh_ (p. ) is his copy of that book. both these copies are said to have been "purchased." i bought them from the dealer to whom streatfeild sold them when his health broke down and he moved from his rooms. i have no doubt that he would have given them to me if i had asked for them, but he was not in a condition to be troubled about business. st. john's college has contributed pounds towards the expenses of printing and publishing this catalogue. i offer them my most cordial thanks for their generosity. i am also deeply indebted to them for finding space in which to house the collection. i shrank from the responsibility of keeping it myself. i remembered also that an individual dies; even a family may become extinct; but st. john's college, we hope, will enjoy as near an approach to immortality as can be attained on this transient globe. i am sure that butler would be pleased if he could know that during that period this collection will be preserved and will be accessible to all who wish to visit it. h. f. j. , maida vale, w. , _december_, . contents i. pictures, sketches and drawings by or relating to samuel butler . . . ii. books and music written by butler . . . iii. books, etc., about butler . . . iv. books, etc., relating to butler and his subjects . . . v. books, formerly the property of samuel butler . . . vi. atlases and maps, formerly the property of samuel butler . . . vii. music, formerly the property of samuel butler . . . viii. miscellaneous papers, formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler . . . ix. prints and photographs, formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler . . . x. portraits, formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler . . . xi. effects, formerly the personal property of samuel butler . . . illustrations samuel butler. about . . . _frontispiece_ from a photograph taken by his sister, mrs. bridges, in the garden at langar soon after his return from new zealand. facsimile of post-card from s. butler to h. f. jones, florence, sept. , . . . _face p._ butler was staying in florence on his way home from his first visit to sicily. the old greek painting referred to is reproduced as the frontispiece to _the authoress of the odyssey_ ( ). mlle. v. is mlle. vaillant, as to whom see _the memoir_. the "nose" belonged to the editor of a swiss paper whom i had met at fusio. samuel butler when an undergraduate at cambridge. about . . . _face p._ this is taken from a photographic group of butler and three friends. the friends are omitted, as i have failed to identify them. i. pictures, sketches and drawings by or relating to samuel butler by his will butler bequeathed his pictures, sketches, and studies to his executors to be destroyed or otherwise disposed of as they might think best, the proceeds (if any) to fall into residue. they were not sold: some were given to shrewsbury school; some to the british museum; one, an unfinished sketch of the back of the house in which keats died on the piazza di spagna, rome, to the keats and shelley memorial there; many were distributed among his friends, alfred cathie taking fifteen and i taking all that were left over. alfred lives in canal road, mile end, and, this being on the route of the german air-raids, he was anxious to put his pictures in a place of safety. accordingly it was arranged between us in that i should buy them from him. when he heard that i was giving them to st. john's, he desired that i should not buy all, because he wished to give two of them himself to the college. accordingly, i bought only thirteen, and the remaining two, viz. no. , leatherhead church, and no. , chiavenna, , were given to st. john's college by alfred. there are but few sketches or pictures by butler between and . this is because his sketching was interrupted by his having to take up photography for the preparation of _ex voto_. almost before this book was published ( ) he had plunged into _the life and letters of dr. butler_, and in he added to his absorbing occupations the problem of the _odyssey_. thus he had little leisure or energy for the labour of painting; and this labour was always great. he could not leave his outline until he had got it right, and there was a perpetual chase after the changing shadows. and when he had got the outline it was so constantly disappearing under the colour that he took to making "a careful outline on a separate sheet of paper"; this was to be kept, after he had traced the drawing on to the paper which was to receive the colour, and to be referred to continually while he proceeded. when he met with the camera lucida, which he bought in paris, and which is among the objects given to st. john's, he thought his difficulties were solved and wrote to miss savage, october, : "i have got a new toy, a camera lucida, which does all the drawing for me, and am so pleased with it that i am wanting to use it continually." to which in he added this note: "what a lot of time i wasted over that camera lucida, to be sure!" it did all the drawing for him, but it distorted the perspective so that the outlines of the many sketches which he produced with its help were a disappointment. the camera lucida having failed, his hopes were next fixed upon photography, which, by rapidly and correctly recording anything he felt a desire to sketch, was to give him something from which he could afterwards construct a picture. so he took an immense number of snap- shots, of which many are at st. john's, but he never did anything with them. nos. and , which were done by sadler from butler's photographs, show how he would have proceeded if he had not had too many other things to do. it was not until , when _the life of dr. butler_ appeared, that he was able to return seriously to sketching, and by that time he was over sixty and too old to be burdened with the paraphernalia necessary for oils; he therefore confined himself to water-colours. some of the pictures in this list were included in the list in _the eagle_, vol. xxxix., no. , march , and the remainder in the succeeding number, june . in making the present catalogue i have corrected such errors and misprints as i noticed in _the eagle_, and i have re-arranged and renumbered the items so as to make them run in chronological order. i have also amplified some of the notes. i have placed the sketches and drawings in order of date because to examine them in that order helps the spectator to realise the progress made by butler in his artistic studies. samuel butler . black and white outline sketch: civita vecchia, . butler went abroad with his family, his second visit to italy, for the winter of - . they travelled through switzerland to rome and naples, starting in august , and butler thus missed the half-year at school. i am sorry that i have not found any more finished drawing made by him on this occasion. douglas yeoman blakiston . pencil drawing: samuel butler, . reproduced in the _memoir_, ch. iii. on the back of this drawing is the beginning of a water-colour sketch. it was in a book with others mentioned in the _memoir_ as having been given to shrewsbury school (i. ). i have no doubt that the sketch on the back is by butler, and represents part of the rectory house at langar. the rev. d. y. blakiston was born in . he studied art at the royal academy schools especially under w. dobson, r.a. from about to he painted in london and at st. leonard's, and exhibited at the royal academy. about he entered at downing college, took orders in , and was presented to the living of east grinstead in , which he held till his retirement soon after . he died in . throughout his life he made a practise of sketching his friends. i suppose he must have met and sketched butler on some occasion when butler was in london staying with his cousins the worsleys. the artist's son, the rev. h. e. d. blakiston, when president of trinity college, oxford, gave me a cutting from _the east grinstead observer_ containing a full obituary of him. it is among the papers at st. john's college, and is referred to in the postscript to the preface to my _memoir_ of butler. henry festing jones . my first attempt at a drawing in pencil and ink of butler's homestead, mesopotamia, new zealand. i did it in or thereabouts from a faded photograph taken about and lent to butler by j. d. enys. _also_ emery walker's reproduction of my first attempt which was not used in the _memoir_. . my second attempt, which was reproduced in the _memoir_. samuel butler . water-colour: a view in cambridge. probably done when butler was an undergraduate, and given to st. john's some years ago. i found it in the book wherein i found blakiston's drawing (no. ). . oil painting: family prayers. on the ceiling he wrote "i did this in , and if i had gone on doing things out of my own head instead of making studies i should have been all right." (_memoir_, i. .) reproduced in the _memoir_, ch. xxiv., and referred to, ch. viii. . oil painting: his own head. "he painted at home as well as at heatherley's, and by way of a cheap model hung up a looking-glass near the window of his painting room and made many studies of his own head. he gave some of them away and destroyed and painted over others, but after his death we found a number in his rooms--some of the earlier ones very curious" (_memoir_, ch. viii.). this is one of the earlier ones. it is inscribed, "s.b., feb. , ." we found also a still more curious one which was given to gogin, who was interested in it as being the work of an untaught student. see also no. . john leech . five pencil drawings on one card. john leech died in , the year in which butler returned from new zealand. there was a sale of his drawings by his sisters, and i remember going to see them as a boy, but i do not remember when; it was, no doubt, soon after the artist's death. the house was in radnor place, bayswater. his sisters afterwards kept a small girls' school, and my sister lilian went there. i have placed these leech drawings here in order of date on the assumption that butler bought them at the sale. he had another drawing by leech, which used to hang in his chambers, and was given to his cousin, reginald worsley. samuel butler . oil painting: interior of butler's sitting-room, , clifford's inn. there is something written in pencil on the panelling in the left-hand bottom corner. i believe the words to be "corner of my room, augt. , s.b." reproduced in the _memoir_, ch. xv. here are shown butler's books, including bradshaw's guide and whitaker's almanack, of which he speaks somewhere as being indispensable. i admit that i cannot identify them, but he used to keep them among the books in these shelves. i do not think he ever possessed that equally indispensable book the post office directory. but he had more books than those shown in this painting. between his sitting-room and his painting- room was a short passage in which was a cupboard, and this contained the rest. i do not remember how many there were, but not enough to invalidate the statement he made to robert bridges (_memoir_ ii. ), "i have, i verily believe, the smallest library of any man in london who is by way of being literary." . water-colour: dieppe, the castle, . butler was at dieppe with pauli in . (_memoir_, ch. viii.) . small water-colour drawing: dieppe, . this is in the portfolio of miscellaneous drawings, etc., by butler, gogin, and sadler, no. . . oil painting: two heads done as a study at heatherley's. i showed this to gaetano meo, and he remembered that the man was calorossi, a model, whose brother went to paris and became known as the proprietor of a studio there. the woman, he said, was maria, another model. the background is dieppe. i suppose that butler did this study in the autumn of , using nos. and , the water-colours of dieppe, or some other sketch made on the spot, for the background. the idea was to make portraits of two heads with a landscape background in the manner of giovanni bellini. . drawing of a cast of the antinous as hermes. inscribed "samuel butler for probationership, december th ." done, i suppose, at south kensington. . drawing of a hand and foot. probably also done at south kensington. . black and white drawing of a fir tree. this, i suspect, was made while butler was under the influence of ruskin's _elements of drawing_--say about . he threw off that influence later. . four water-colour notes in one frame. one is inscribed "s.b." and another "kingston, near lewes." i suppose that they are all on the south downs, and they are all early--say . james ferguson . crayon drawing: butler playing handel, (?). reproduced in the _memoir_ (i. ix.). ferguson was a fellow art-student with butler. samuel butler . oil painting: the valle di sambucco, above fusio. the sambucco or sambuco is the elder tree. butler, writing of this valley (_alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xxvi.; new ed. ch. xxv.), says: "here, even in summer, the evening air will be crisp, and the dew will form as soon as the sun goes off; but the mountains at one end of it will keep the last rays of the sun. it is then the valley is at its best, especially if the goats and cattle are coming together to be milked." . water-colour: the rocca borromeo, angera, lago maggiore. entrance to the castle. . the birthplace of s. carlo borromeo. it was over this gateway as well as over the gateway of fenis (no. ), that he told me there ought to be a fresco of fortune with her wheel (_memoir_, ch. xx.) the rocca borromeo, angera, and arona are mentioned in _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xxiv. (new edn., ch. xxiii.), and several times in the _memoir_, _e.g._ ch. ix., xvi. . water-colour: the rocca borromeo. a room in the castle. . i am not sure whether or not this is the room in which s. carlo borromeo was born. one view of that room is in _alps and sanctuaries_ ch. xxiv. (new edition, ch. xxiii). this may be the same room looking towards the left and showing a piece of window-seat and shutter. . water-colour: amsteg. . . water-colour: fobello. a christening. . this was to have been a picture for the academy, but he did not finish it. here are shown women with short skirts and leggings. they dress like this so that they can climb into the ash trees and pull off the leaves which they throw down upon the grass to be mixed up with the hay. (_memoir_, ch. ix.) . oil painting: varallo-sesia. the washing place. . "butler made three oil sketches at varallo all the same size, about x . one is the washing place outside the town." (_diary of a journey_, p. ). the other two were both done in the piazza on the sacro monte. one was given to the municipio of varallo-sesia; the other to the avvocato francesco negri of casale-monferrato. . oil painting: monte bisbino, near como. . _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xxi. the white sanctuary on the summit shines like a diamond in some lights. . oil painting: from s. nicolao, mendrisio. . _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xxi. george mcculloch . two lots of studies of women, about . mcculloch was a friend and fellow art-student of butler's, and is mentioned in the _memoir_, "an admirable draughtsman." samuel butler . oil sketch: low wall and grass in front, snowy mountains behind. it must be a view in the leventina valley. . water-colour inscribed "s.b.": leatherhead church. butler was particularly pleased with the dormer windows, an unusual feature in a church roof. this must have been done somewhere about , but there is no evidence. this is one of the pictures given by alfred. . oil painting: montreal, canada, from the mountain, about . . oil painting: calpiogna, val leventina. . evening, looking down the valley. . oil painting: three sketches on one panel, scenes in the val leventina. they are near faido, but i cannot further identify them. . oil painting: calonico. _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. v. . oil painting: tengia. _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. iv. . oil painting: prato. other views of prato appear in _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. iii. . oil painting: lago tom, piora, val leventina. . ch. vi. in _alps and sanctuaries_ is headed "piora." "piora in fact is a fine breezy upland valley of singular beauty, and with a sweet atmosphere of cow about it." butler thought he knew what went on in piora and, as he proceeds through the valley, he says: "here i heard that there were people, and the people were not so much asleep as the simple peasantry of these upland valleys are expected to be by nine o'clock in the evening. for now was the time when they had moved up from ronco, altanca, and other villages in some numbers to cut the hay, and were living for a fortnight or three weeks in the chalets upon the lago di cadagna. as i have said, there is a chapel, but i doubt whether it is attended during this season with the regularity with which the parish churches of ronco, altanca, etc., are attended during the rest of the year. the young people, i am sure, like these annual visits to the high places, and will be hardly weaned from them. happily the hay will always be there, and will have to be cut by someone, and the old people will send the young ones." the foregoing passage throws light upon that other passage in _life and habit_, ch. ii., about s. paul, which concludes thus: "but the true grace, with her groves and high places, and troops of young men and maidens crowned with flowers, and singing of love and youth and wine--the true grace he drove out into the wilderness--high up, it may be, into piora, and into such-like places. happy they who harboured her in her ill report." after ernest has received alethea's money, and while he and edward overton are returning from christina's funeral, in ch. lxxxiv. of _the way of all flesh_, he tells his godfather his plans for spending the next year or two. he has formed a general impression that the most vigorous and amiable of known nations--the modern italians, the old greeks and romans, and the south sea islanders--have not been purists. he wants to find out what such people do; they are the practical authorities on the question--what is best for man? "let us," he says, "settle the fact first and fight about the moral tendencies afterwards." "in fact," said i laughingly, "you mean to have high old times." "neither higher nor lower," was the answer, "than those people whom i can find to have been the best in all ages." accordingly ernest left england and visited "almost all parts of the world, but only staying in those places where he found the inhabitants unusually good-looking and agreeable." "at last in the spring of he returned, his luggage stained with the variation of each hotel advertisement 'twixt here and japan. he looked very brown and strong, and so well-favoured that it almost seemed as if he must have caught some good looks from the people among whom he had been staying." we are not told what particular countries ernest went to; japan is mentioned, but less because ernest went there than because the name of a distant place was wanted to justify and complete the echo of the description of sir walter blunt in i. _hen. iv._ i. : stained with the variation of each soil betwixt that holmedon and this seat of ours. butler confided to me verbally that ernest visited, among other places, piora, and that he stayed there "when the mowing grass was about." { } . oil painting: inscribed, "s. butler. sketch of his own head. april ." this is one of the series of portraits of himself referred to in the note to no. . another of these later portraits was given after his death to christchurch, new zealand; and another to the schools, shrewsbury. this one was given by butler to me soon after it was painted, and it remained in my possession till , when i gave it to st. john's college. it is reproduced as the frontispiece to vol. i. of the _memoir_. . oil sketch: calonico. _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. v. on a panel with no. , rossura, on the other side. . oil sketch: rossura. the altar by the porch of the church. . on a panel with no. , calonico, on the other side. . oil sketch on a panel: rossura, from inside the porch looking out. "i know few things more touching in their way than the porch of rossura church." (_alps and sanctuaries_, ch. iv.) "the church is built on a slope, and the porch, whose entrance is on a lower level than that of the floor of the church, contains a flight of steps leading up to the church door. the porch is there to shelter the steps, on and around which the people congregate and gossip before and after service, especially in bad weather. they also sometimes overflow picturesquely, and kneel praying on the steps while service is going on inside." (_memoir_, i. - .) in _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. iv., is an illustration showing the people kneeling on the steps while "there came a sound of music through the open door--the people lifting up their voices and singing, as near as i can remember, something which on the piano would come thus:" and then follow a few bars of chords. in the list which appeared in _the eagle_, vol. xxxix., no. , march , writing of no. : "rossura: the altar by the porch of the church, ," i said that it had been removed. on reconsideration, i am not sure that it has been removed; but i have not been to rossura for thirty years or more and cannot now say for certain. i believe, however, that it is still there, and that when i said it had been removed i was thinking of the alteration of an opening which there was formerly in the west wall of the porch, under the portrait of s. carlo borromeo, which hangs between the two windows. this opening is mentioned in ch. iv. of _alps and sanctuaries_, and butler says that it had to be closed because the wind blew through it and made the church too cold. it is shown with the portrait and the two windows in another illustration in ch. iv. the first illustration in ch. iv. of _alps and sanctuaries_ shows how the chapel with the altar in it (no. ) is placed in relation to the porch. this is the chapel he was thinking of when he wrote: "the church has been a good deal restored during the last few years, and an interesting old chapel--with an altar in it--at which mass was said during a time of plague, while the people stood some way off in a meadow, has just been entirely renovated; but, as with some english churches, the more closely a piece of old work is copied, the more palpably does the modern spirit show through it, so here the opposite occurs, for the old-worldliness of the place has not been impaired by much renovation, though the intention has been to make everything as modern as possible." in , the first time i was with butler in italy and in the canton ticino, he talked a great deal about the porch of rossura; there is a passage in ch. xvi. of the _memoir_ about it. for him it was the work of a man who did it because he sincerely wanted to do it, and who learnt how to do by doing; it was not the work of one who first attended lectures by a professor in an academy, learnt the usual tricks in an art school, and then, not wanting to do, gloried in the display of his technical skill. that is to say, it was done in the right spirit. the result of doing things in this way will sometimes appear incompetent; this never embarrassed butler, provided that he could detect the sincerity; for where sincerity is incompetence may be forgiven; but the incompetence must not be so great as to obscure the artist's meaning. at rossura the sincerity is obvious, and the building is so perfect an adaptation of the means to the end that there is no suggestion of incompetence. rossura porch was thus an illustration of what he says in _alps and sanctuaries_ in the chapter "considerations on the decline of italian art." it was more than merely a piece of architecture. when butler contemplated it he saw also the chapel with its altar and the people standing in the meadow during the plague; he saw the same people, after the pestilence had been stayed, kneeling on the steps in the dimness, the sky bright through the arch beyond them and the distant mountains blue and snowy, while the music floated out through the open church door; he saw through the windows the gleaming slopes about cornone and dalpe, and, hanging on the wall between them, the picture of austere old s. carlo with his hands joined in prayer. all these things could be written about in _alps and sanctuaries_, but they could not be brought into the illustrations apart from the text; and anyone who looks at butler's sketches of rossura may be disappointed. if he does not bear these things in mind he will not understand what butler meant by saying that he knew of few things more touching in their way than the porch of rossura church. he will be like a man listening to programme-music and knowing nothing of the programme. . pencil sketch inscribed: "handel when a boy. pencil sketch from an old picture sold at puttick and simpson's and sketched by me while on view. dec. th, . s.b." on the same mount with the sketch-portrait of robert doncaster, no. . . water-colour: otford, kent; from inside the church looking out through the porch. . . drawing in pencil and ink: edgeware. . . oil painting: rimella, val mastallone; up the valley from varallo- sesia. . oil painting: eynsford, kent. . oil painting: on the s. bernardino pass. . oil painting: bellinzona, the castle. in the same frame with no. . . oil painting: mesocco, the castle. _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xix. butler always had this and no. in the same frame. . oil painting: bellinzona, the castle. he made many sketches of the castle at bellinzona, this and no. are the only two i have found; none was quite satisfactory because there was no point of view from which the towers composed well behind a good foreground. . drawing in pencil and ink: the sacro monte, varese, from the seventh or flagellation chapel. he intended to paint a picture this size, and started by making this drawing, which is an enlargement of the drawing reproduced in _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. xxiii. ( ), but he did not proceed with the painting. . drawing in pencil and ink: boulogne-sur-mer, la porte gayole. this was a favourite view which he often sketched; but i have only found this example. samuel butler and others . all (except a few which are lost) the original drawings for _alps and sanctuaries_. placed here in order of date because the book was published in . some of the drawings are by charles gogin, who did the frontispiece and the madonna della neve on the title page, and who also introduced the figures into those of butler's drawings which have figures; and a few are by me. there are among this lot also several sketches, etc., by various persons which butler collected as illustrating his "considerations on the decline of italian art." some are published in the chapter so headed in the book, but others were not published. samuel butler . oil painting: portrait of henry festing jones. . . oil painting: castello fenis, val d'aosta. . it was over one of the gateways of this castle that fortune with her wheel was to appear in a fresco. see no. . henry festing jones . oil painting: view from butler's room in clifford's inn showing the tower of the law courts. . drawn with the camera lucida. reproduced in the _memoir_, ch. xx. . oil painting: unfinished sketch-portrait of butler. drawn with the camera lucida. referred to in the _memoir_, i. - , in letters from which extracts are given below. _miss savage to butler_. _st_ _october_, : i went to the fisheries exhibition last week and spent a rather pleasant day. i was by myself for one thing, and, for another, took great delight in gazing at a life-size model of a sea-captain clad in yellow oil-skins and a sou'wester. it was executed in that style of art that you so greatly admire in the italian churches, and was so good a likeness of _you_ that i think you must have sat for it. the serious occupations of my day were having dinner and tea, and the relaxations, buying shrimps in the fish-market and then giving them to the sea-gulls and cormorants. my most exalted pleasure was to look at your effigy, which i should like to be able to buy, though, as i have not a private chapel in my castle, i hardly know where i could put it if i had it. upon the whole i enjoyed myself, but i am glad to hear that the exhibition is to be closed to- day, so that i cannot by any possibility go there again. _butler to miss savage_. _th_ _november_, : i believe i am very like a sea-captain. jones began a likeness of me not long since, which i will show you next time you come and see me, which is also very like a portrait of a sea-captain. . sketch-portrait of robert doncaster. on the same mount with no. . a tracing is among the miscellaneous papers given to st. john's. this sketch of robert was done, i suspect, with the camera lucida, and if so its date must be about - . robert doncaster was the husband of mrs. corrie; that is to say mrs. corrie, who was butler's laundress in clifford's inn, "lost" her husband. after a suitable interval it was assumed that he was dead and she married robert doncaster and was known as mrs. doncaster. robert, who was a half-witted old man, used to hang about the place, do odd jobs, and make himself fairly useful. he died in . . water-colour: pinner. . samuel butler . oil painting: edward james jones. inscribed thus: "portrait of e. j. jones, esq., of the indian geological survey, aet. suae , painted by s. butler, november, ." the date is not clearly written, but it must be , because my brother edward, born th september, , was twenty-four in , and in november he went to calcutta, having obtained an appointment on the geological survey. butler painted the portrait just before he started. . oil painting: chiavenna. . it looks in some lights like , but in other lights , and it must be . butler did not go abroad in and he was at chiavenna in . this is one of the pictures given by alfred. thomas sadler . black and white drawing: butler and scotto in . sadler made this for the _pall mall gazette_ from the photograph which is reproduced in _ex voto_; the drawing was reproduced in an article, and a cutting from the _pall mall_ with the reproduction is with the papers given to st. john's. samuel butler . oil painting: wembley, middlesex. sketch of the back of the green man public-house, since burnt down. butler intended to finish this, and send it to the royal academy, but he got tired of it and turned it up. thomas sadler . water-colour drawing of the vecchietto in the deposition chapel at varallo-sesia. . water-colour drawing in black and white of a boy with a basket at varallo. sadler made these two drawings about from photographs taken by butler in . samuel butler . water-colour: copy of a landscape behind a small madonna and child by bartolomeo veneto, signed and dated . i forget the precise date, but i think it was about , when butler was searching in real landscape for the original of the castle which appears in the background of one of the giovanni bellini pictures of the madonna and child in the national gallery, the one with the bird on the tree and the man ploughing. it may now be attributed to some other venetian painter. he would have been pleased if he could have found the original of the background of any picture by one of his favourite painters. this copy was made to fix in his mind the castle on the hill, which he hoped afterwards to identify with some real place. but he never succeeded. henry festing jones . water-colour: jones's chambers in staple inn, holborn. . . water-colour: another view in the same room. . in these rooms butler nearly always spent his evenings from , when i moved into them, until the end of his life. the frames of these pictures are veneered with oak from the hall of staple inn, and into each are inserted two buttons showing the wool-pack, the badge of the inn, which is said to be named from the wool-staplers. when butler and i were on the rigi-scheidegg with hans faesch in i had these two sketches with me, and was showing them to the landlord, who spoke english. he looked at them and considered them carefully for some moments. then he said gravely "ah i see; much things. that means dustings; and then breakings; and then hangriness." samuel butler . water-colour: meien near wassen on the s. gottardo. . we went often to meien to sketch when we were staying at wassen on the s. gottardo. we took our lunch with us, and ate it at the fountain in the village. "the old priest also came to the fountain to wash his shutters, which had been taken down for the summer, and it was now time to bring them out again and replace them for the winter" (_memoir_, ii. ). the house on the left is the priest's house, and the shutters are already up at one of his windows. . pen and ink sketch: trapani and the islands from mount eryx about . this sketch is reproduced in _the authoress of the odyssey_, ch. ix. he did it to show the situation of trapani and the islands with marettimo "all highest up in the sea." in the odyssey ithaca is "all highest up in the sea," and butler supposed that the authoress in so describing it was thinking of marettimo. . wash drawing: trapani and the islands from mount eryx about . he wished to make a more complete version of no. , but this was as far as he could get; there was not enough time and there were too many interruptions. . pencil sketch inscribed, "calatafimi, sund. may th, . hours. eleven a.m. is the best light." i added "s. butler." he could not continue because there came on a terrific scirocco which lasted two or three days. . water-colour: taormina, the theatre and etna. . this shows the fragments of the stones that are strewn about in the orchestra which butler said were like the fragments of my duty towards my neighbour that lay strewn about in his memory. it would take a lot of work to put them all back into their places and reconstruct the original. (_memoir_, ii. .) . water-colour: siena. . . water-colour: pisa, inside the top of the leaning tower. . . water-colour: wassen. . . water-colour: wassen. . . water-colour: trapani, s. liberale and lo scoglio di mal consiglio. . see _the authoress of the odyssey_. the scoglio is the ship of ulysses which neptune turned into a rock as she was on her way home to scheria. . rough sketch by butler of the islands marettimo, levanzo, and favignana. two views showing how marettimo is hidden by levanzo when you are below and comes out over levanzo when you are up mount eryx. henry festing jones . my first attempt in colour to draw the islands from mount eryx. i saw i should not have time to finish it, and, instead, did no. . . a volume of thirty-four leaves of drawings in pencil and ink. i did all these under butler's auspices, and often he was sitting near doing another sketch of much the same view. it may be said that they are the work of his pupil. . drawing in pencil and ink: trapani and the islands from mount eryx. . reproduced in the _memoir_, ch. xxxii. samuel butler and others . a portfolio of miscellaneous drawings, prints, etchings, photographs, etc., by butler, gogin, and sadler. this is the portfolio containing the small water-colour of dieppe, . i have given that the prominence of a place (no. ) because it is interesting to compare it with the more finished dieppe, no. . possibly the portfolio contains others (_e.g._ dinant), which it will be thought proper to take out and have mounted and framed. ii. books and music written by butler: and books, magazines, &c., containing contributions by him for fuller particulars as to butler's books see the bibliography prefixed to vol. i. of the _memoir_ by h. f. jones ( ). the eagle . vol. i., no. , lent term, containing "on english composition," by cellarius, _i.e._ samuel butler. . vol. i., no. , easter term, containing "our tour," by cellarius, _i.e._ s. butler. (these two bound together.) . vol. ii., containing "our emigrant" in two contributions (p. and p. ), by samuel butler; used by him in writing _a first year in canterbury settlement_, and referred to in the preface to that book. . vol. xviii., no. (march). "a translation (into greek from _martin chuzzlewit_) attempted in consequence of a challenge." . vol. xxiv., no. (december). "the shield of achilles."--"napoleon at st. helena." _also_ "samuel butler, b.a." (obituary by h. f. jones.) . vol. xxxii., no. (december). "mr. festing jones on samuel butler." (report by d. s. fraser of h. f. jones's paper on samuel butler, read nov.) . vol. xxxiv., no. (march). "samuel butler and his note-books." by j. f. h[arris]. . vol. xxxiv., no. (june). "prospectus of the great split society."--"a skit on examinations." _also_ "two letters of samuel butler" (to w. e. heitland: with note by w. e. heitland). . vol. xxxvi., no. (december). "samuel butler's early years." (review of new edition of _a first year in canterbury settlement_, by j. f. harris.) . vol. xxxviii., no. (december). "a 'few earnest words' on samuel butler." (review of j. f. harris's "samuel butler: the man and his work" ( ), by w. e. heitland.) a first year in canterbury settlement . original cloth, purchased. . new edition with other early essays. presentation copy from r. a. streatfeild, with two letters inserted. the evidence for the resurrection . one complete copy containing pencil marks made by butler. cloth, original wrappers bound in. . two mutilated copies used by butler in making the ms. of _the fair haven_. these were given to st. john's some years ago. erewhon . first edition, purchased. . second edition, purchased. this contains pencil notes by butler. . ergindwon. (german translation.) . new and revised edition. proofs, with corrections by butler. . new and revised edition--inscribed "h. festing jones, with all best wishes from the author, oct. , . first copy issued." . colonial issue. . reprint of new and revised edition. . american edition. with introduction by francis hackett. . erewhon in french. with an introduction by the translator, m. valery larbaud. _also_ the typescript and proofs, both with manuscript corrections by the translator. the fair haven . first edition, purchased. the first edition contained an errata slip, which this copy has not got. longman's re-issue. . second edition, purchased. original cloth. longman's re-issue. . second edition. this copy contains the errata slip. it is a special copy cut down and bound as an experiment. given by butler to h. f. jones. . new edition with introduction by r. a. streatfeild. presentation copy from r. a. streatfeild. (oct.). letter to h. f. jones from alfred marks (a brother of henry stacy marks, r.a.), enclosing copy of remarks on _the fair haven_, made by some friend of alfred marks. ( june). a letter from james w. clark, with separate copy of the prefatory matter to the second edition enclosed, given to him by butler. clark was at trinity hall with me, later fellow of the college, and afterwards k.c. and counsel to the board of agriculture and fisheries. the canada tanning extract co., ltd. - . extracts from letters sent by mr. foley to the foreman of the works of the company, and other extracts and letters. inscribed "copy of laflamme's copy with notes," in butler's writing. i believe the marginal notes to have been butler's originally, and then copied by a clerk into this copy of the pamphlet. _also_ another copy, with ms. notes by butler. life and habit . first edition. presentation copy from butler, inscribed "h. f. jones. s.b." . second edition. given to h. f. jones by a. t. bartholomew. . a copy of longman's issue, with ms. corrections by butler. cf. streatfeild's introduction to new edition ( ). . new edition with author's addenda and preface by r. a. streatfeild, and letter from r. a. streatfeild to h. f. jones, nov. . evolution old and new . "first copy issued." . "second copy issued," with ms. note by butler. presentation copy. . second edition with an appendix and note, given to h. f. jones by butler, but not inscribed. . new edition (the third) with author's revisions, appendix, and index; also note by r. a. streatfeild. unconscious memory . first edition, given to h. f. jones by butler, but not inscribed. . butler's copy, with pressed flowers mounted on the fly-leaves, and the names of the donors added. also a few notes. . new edition, with introduction by marcus hartog. . a separate copy of hartog's introduction. inscribed "h. festing jones from his brother in ydgrun m.h." . third edition. alps and sanctuaries . the manuscript, together with the original drawings (cf. p. ). . first edition (bogue). presentation copy from butler. _also_ bogue's prospectus. . second edition, purchased. . second edition, with index in ms. by butler. . streatfeild's copy with longman's title-page, purchased, and a few spare copies of longman's title-page. no date. a copy with fifield's title-page. . new edition with author's revisions and index, and an introduction by r. a. streatfeild. gavottes, minuets, fugues by samuel butler and henry festing jones . the manuscript. . the published work. selections from previous works . presentation copy with inscription: "first copy of the book to leave the binder's, march , . s.b." holbein [ ]. holbein's "la danse." a note on a drawing in the museum at basel. printed on a card. _also_ another edition [ ]. luck or cunning? . revises, unbound, with corrections by butler. . "first copy issued. s.b." . butler's copy, with notes, pressed flowers, and numerous additions to the index, mostly in alfred's handwriting. [ ]. re-issue (fifield). . second edition, corrected. narcissus: a cantata by s. butler and h. f. jones . a copy inscribed by both authors and composers. ex voto . " nd copy issued, s.b." with pp. "additions and corrections" loose. . in italian, translated by angelo rizzetti. inscribed, in butler's writing, "h. f. jones. omaggio dell' autore." [ ]. re-issue (fifield). * * * * * universal review articles - . butler's set of them, complete with illustrations and bound together. table of contents in alfred cathie's writing and a few accompanying photographs loose. essays on life, art, and science . edited by r. a. streatfeild. presentation copy with letter from r. a. streatfeild. this contains most of the "universal review" articles reprinted, and two lectures. . a copy of the colonial issue. . re-issue (fifield). the humour of homer and other essays . a new edition of the _essays_, with additions and biographical sketch of butler by h. f. jones. [ ]. sketch of the life of samuel butler, being a volume of ms. and typewritten documents showing how the biographical sketch mentioned in the preceding item grew out of the obituary notice which originally appeared in _the eagle_, december . * * * * * italian pamphlets (bound together) . three numbers of "il lambruschini," containing papers on butler's odyssey theories. . l'origine siciliana dell' odissea. (estratto dalla rassegna della letteratura siciliana.) . ancora sull' origine siciliana dell' odissea. (estratto dalla rassegna della letteratura siciliana.) * * * * * english pamphlets, etc. (bound together) . the humour of homer. . on the trapanese origin of the odyssey. no date. sample passages from a new translation of the odyssey. . a translation into homeric verse of a passage from _martin chuzzlewit_: attempted in consequence of a challenge. from _the eagle_. no date. prospectus of _the life and letters of dr. samuel butler_. ( june). words of the choruses from "narcissus," for performance at mrs. thomas layton's. ( dec.). programme of shrewsbury school concert, at which some of butler's music was performed. * * * * * . the humour of homer. butler's own copy. - . butler's own copies of his odyssey pamphlets (see above), with ms. notes. sets. * * * * * {facsimile of post-card from s. butler to h. f. jones: p .jpg} the life and letters of dr. samuel butler vols. . butler's own copy. . a copy, inscribed, in butler's writing, "h. f. jones from s. b. oct. , ." the authoress of the odyssey . inscribed, in butler's writing, "h. f. jones, with the author's best thanks (first copy issued). nov. , ." [ ]. re-issue (fifield). the iliad rendered into english prose . the manuscript. this was given to st. john's some years ago by butler's literary executor, mr. r. a. streatfeild. . proofs. . first edition. inscribed, in butler's writing, "h. f. jones, with the author's best love. oct. , ." . new impression (fifield). shakespeare's sonnets reconsidered . inscribed, "h. f. jones, esq. (the first copy issued). oct. , . s. b." the odyssey rendered into english prose [ ]. manuscript of books i-xii. only, on letter paper. the complete ms. is at aci reale. . proofs. . inscribed, "h. festing jones. oct. , (first copy issued). s. b." quo vadis? - . copies of four issues of the periodical bound together. with contributions by and about butler. together with a ms. italian translation by capitano giuseppe messina manzo entitled, "la nuova quistione omerica," and other matter relating to the odyssey question. erewhon revisited . proofs, with corrections by butler. copies. . first edition. inscribed, in butler's writing, "h. festing jones. with the author's best thanks for much invaluable assistance. oct. , . second copy issued." . a copy of the edition intended for the colonies, not sold in england. . reprint (fifield). . the american edition. with introduction by moreby acklom. the way of all flesh . first edition, given by r. a. streatfeild to h. f. jones. . streatfeild's copy, with his alterations to make the second edition ( ). purchased. . a copy of the colonial edition. . second edition (fifield). . a copy of the american edition. introduction by wm. lyon phelps. with letter from r. a. streatfeild to h. f. jones. seven sonnets and a psalm of montreal, and other pieces (bound together) . streatfeild's raccolta of necrologies of butler. . diary of a journey through north italy to sicily, by h. f. jones. . autograph letter from cavaliere biagio ingroja of calatafimi to h. f. jones. . seven sonnets and a psalm of montreal. . translations into italian of butler's "seven sonnets" (except nos. i. and v.), by ingroja. in manuscript. his translation of sonnet i. is printed with the "seven sonnets." he could not manage sonnet v. i think the repetitions of "pull" puzzled him. . translation of sonnet i. into italian by de nobili. in manuscript. * * * * * . seven sonnets. proof, and corrected copy, formerly the property of r. a. streatfeild. ulysses: an oratorio by samuel butler and henry festing jones . the work as published. h. f. jones's original copy, with notes. god the known and god the unknown . the work as published. ed. by r. a. streatfeild. these articles first appeared in _the examiner_ in . the notebooks of samuel butler - . all the numbers of the "new quarterly," a review which appeared during these years and which contained extracts from butler's ms. notebooks, bound into vols. - . the extracts from butler's notes as they appeared in the "new quarterly" bound together. - . the first ms. of the published _notebooks_, vols. - . the second ms. from which the first edition of the published _notebooks_ was printed, vols. . proofs. . revises. . first impression, with ms. notes by h. f. jones. . second impression. . third and popular impression. . american edition, with introduction by francis hackett. charles darwin and samuel butler . charles darwin and samuel butler. a step towards reconciliation. by h. f. jones. samuel butler: a memoir by henry festing jones - . first manuscript. second manuscript. third manuscript. - . proofs. . revises. . advance copy, without illustrations. - . manuscript, proofs, and revises of additional matter for first impression. . manuscript, proofs, and revises of additional matter for second impression. . second impression. iii. books about butler: and books, magazines, &c., containing chapters or articles about butler or prominent allusions to him accademia dafnica di scienze, lettere, e delle arti in acireale: atti e rendiconti. vol. ix. anno . accademia di scienze, lettere, ed arti de' zelanti di acireale: rendiconti e memorie. . pp. , , , refer to butler. acklom, moreby. the constructive quarterly, march , containing "samuel butler the third," by moreby acklom. barry, canon william. the dublin review, oct. , with article "samuel butler of erewhon." blum, jean. mercure de france, juillet , with article on samuel butler by jean blum. bodleian quarterly record. vol. ii., nos. , . . includes a note on butler's use of frost's "lives of eminent christians" (see "quis desiderio . . . ?" in his _essays_); and on dr. john frost. book monthly for february , with notice of the _note-books of samuel butler_, reproducing the portrait. booth, robert b. five years in new zealand ( to ). by robert b. booth, m.inst.c.e. printed for private circulation. . referred to in my _memoir_ of butler. with three letters from mr. booth and three other documents. mr. booth was with butler on his run at mesopotamia, n.z. bridges, horace j. samuel butler's erewhon and erewhon revisited. by horace j. bridges. . burdett, osbert. songs of exuberance, together with the trenches. by osbert burdett. op. i. london, a. c. fifield, . this contains, among sonnets on people and places, (i.) samuel butler; (ii.) samuel butler. cambridge readings in english literature. ed. by george sampson. book iii. cambridge, . pp. - are occupied with an extract from _erewhon_. cannan, gilbert. samuel butler: a critical study. by gilbert cannan. london, martin seeker, . clutton-brock, a. essays on books. london, . containing reprints of articles on the _note-books_ and the _memoir_. constructive quarterly, the. see acklom, m. contemporary review, the, june , containing review of the _note-books of s. butler_. darbishire, a. d. an introduction to a biology. by a. d. darbishire. london, cassell, . with autograph letter to h. f. jones from the author's sister, helen darbishire. darwin, sir francis. rustic sounds. by sir francis darwin. london, john murray, . reproducing "the movements of plants," a lecture delivered by him at the glasgow meeting of the british association, sept. , . this lecture is referred to in the _memoir_ of butler; it quotes a passage from butler's translation of hering in _unconscious memory_. de la mare, walter. the edinburgh review, jan. , containing a notice of the _note-books of samuel butler_ in "current literature." by walter de la mare. dublin review, the. see barry, canon. duffin, h. c. the quintessence of bernard shaw. with "prologue: of samuel butler." london, allen and unwin, . edinburgh review, the. see de la mare, walter. firth, j. b. highways and byways in nottinghamshire. by j. b. firth. with illustrations by frederick l. griggs. london, . see pp. - for langar. hardwick, j. c. the modern churchman, march , containing "a modern ishmael," by j. c. hardwick. harris, john f. samuel butler, author of "erewhon: the man and his work." by john f. harris. london, grant richards, . inscribed "h. festing jones, with best wishes and very many thanks from john f. harris, july , ," with a few newspaper notices, loose. hartog, marcus. problems of life and reproduction. by marcus hartog. london, murray, . with letter from the author to h. f. jones. hartog, marcus. the fundamental principles of biology. by marcus hartog. reprinted from "natural science," vol. xi., nos. and , oct. and nov. . hartog, marcus. samuel butler and recent mnemic biological theories. extract from "scientia," jan. . hewlett, m. in a green shade. london, . containing an article on the _memoir_. independent review, the. see maccarthy, desmond. jackson, holbrook. samuel butler. "t.p.'s weekly," july . "to-day," dec. and jan. . jones, henry festing. samuel butler as musical critic. "the chesterian." n.s. no. . london, may . larbaud, v. samuel butler. in "la nouvelle revue francaise," jan. . _also_ specimens of his translation of _erewhon_, etc., in other numbers of the same periodical, and notices of it. larbaud, v. l'enfance et la jeunesse de samuel butler. in "les ecrits nouveaux," april . maccarthy, desmond. the independent review, sept. , with article "the author of erewhon," by desmond maccarthy. maccarthy, desmond. the quarterly review, jan. , containing "the author of erewhon," by desmond maccarthy. maccarthy, desmond. remnants. by desmond maccarthy. london, . being essays and articles reprinted from various periodicals and including "samuel butler: an impression." mais, s. p. b. from shakespeare to o. henry. by s. p. b. mais. london, g. richards, . containing a chapter on butler. mercure de france. see blum, jean. mind. see rattray, robert. monthly review, the. see streatfeild, r. a. national gallery of british art. catalogue of the national gallery of british art, th ed., . see pp. - for butler's picture, "mr. heatherley's holiday." negri, francesco. il santuario di crea in monferrato. by francesco negri (_i.e._ butler's friend the avvocato negri of casale-monferrato). alessandria, . two of the illustrations are as in _ex voto_, butler having lent his photographs to the avvocato. nuova antologia, luglio , with necrology of s. butler under "tra libri e riviste." pestalozzi, g. samuel butler der jungere, - . inaugural-dissertation. zurich, . quarterly review, the. see maccarthy, desmond. quilter, harry. what's what. by harry quilter. . with ms. note by h. f. jones. pp. - are about butler, who possessed a copy of the book, given him, i suppose, by quilter; but he passed it on to alfred. rattray, robert f. extract from "mind," july , containing "the philosophy of samuel butler." by robert f. rattray. salter, w. h. essays on two moderns: euripides and samuel butler. by w. h. salter. london, sidgwick and jackson, . sampson, george. the bookman, aug. , containing illustrated article by george sampson. sella, attilio. un' inglese fervido amico dell' italia, samuel butler. by attilio sella. . given to h. f. jones by the author. sinclair, may. a defence of idealism. by may sinclair. london, macmillan, . containing "the pan-psychism of samuel butler." streatfeild, r. a. the monthly review, sept. , with article, "samuel butler." by r. a. streatfeild. wall, arnold. a century of new zealand praise. by arnold wall. christchurch, . sonnet xc. is about butler. williams, orlo. the essay. by orlo williams. london secker [ ]. yeats, john butler. essays, irish and american. by john butler yeats. with an appreciation by a. e. dublin, . the first essay is "recollections of samuel butler." zangwill, israel. italian fantasies. by israel zangwill. london, heinemann, . contains "sicily and the albergo samuele butler." iv. books, etc., relating to butler and his subjects adams, c. warren. a spring in the canterbury settlement. by c. warren adams. london, . barker, lady. station life in new zealand. by lady barker. london, . with ms. note by h. f. jones, referred to in the _memoir_ of butler. f. napier broome and his wife, then lady barker, had a run near butler's in new zealand. basler jahrbuch. see faesch, hans rudolf. bateson, wm. biological fact and the structure of society: the herbert spencer lecture (p. ). oxford, . bateson, wm. problems of genetics (silliman lectures). by wm. bateson, f.r.s. new haven, . butler, james. copies of letters by ensign james butler (an uncle of dr. butler) sent from deal, funchal, and calcutta, - ; with introduction by h. f. jones, all in typewriting and ms. james butler and these letters are referred to in the _life of dr. butler_, and also in the _memoir_ of butler. butler gave to the british museum an incomplete copy of the letters and kept another incomplete copy which i gave to the british museum. each of the incomplete copies contained matter not in the other. i had this volume (now at st john's) made up from the two incomplete copies. butler, henry thomas, and another. auction bridge in a nutshell. by butler and brevitas--the butler being henry thomas butler, nephew of samuel butler. [ ]. butler, mary. a kalendar for lads. . compiled by butler's sister, mary butler, and dedicated to her great-nephew, patrick henry cecil butler (son of her nephew, henry thomas butler). referred to in the _memoir_ of s. butler. given to me by miss butler. butler, samuel, d.d. a sketch of modern and ancient geography for the use of schools. by samuel butler, d.d. a new edition revised by the rev. thomas butler, m.a., f.r.g.s. london, . referred to in butler's _life of dr. butler_ and also in the _memoir_ of butler. butler, rev. thomas. see butler, samuel, d.d. clarke, charles. the beauclercs, father and son. by charles clarke. vols. london, . referred to in butler's _life of dr. butler_, also in the _memoir_ of butler, who saw the book in the british museum. i bought this copy second-hand on an open-air bookstall in paris. drew, mary. catherine gladstone. by her daughter, mary drew. london, . with letter from the authoress to h. f. jones, jan. . dudgeon, robert ellis. colymbia. london, trubner, . no author's name is given, but the author was dr. robert ellis dudgeon, the well-known homoeopathic doctor and friend of butler. referred to in the _memoir_ of butler. faesch, hans rudolf. the easier jahrbuch, . containing letters from the east by hans rudolf faesch, who is referred to in _the note-books of samuel butter_ and also in the _memoir_. fighting man in fiction, the. woodville, n.z. ( ?) a new zealand pamphlet with letter from and photo of e. c. chudleigh, who sent it to me and who knew butler in new zealand. francatelli, c. e. the cook's guide. by charles elme francatelli. london, . "i believe you could read francatelli right through from beginning to end without being moved in the smallest degree." miss savage to butler ( ). _memoir_ i. . galloni, pietro. sacro monte di varallo. atti di fondazione. by pietro galloni. varallo, . with two post cards from galloni to h. f. jones. galloni, pietro. sacro monte di varallo. origine e svolgimento. by pietro galloni. varallo, . with two letters from galloni and one from r. a. streatfeild to h. f. jones. grosvenor, the hon. mrs. richard cecil. physical exercises for women and girls. by the hon. mrs. richard cecil grosvenor. additional exercises, loose, accompanying. . she was formerly mrs. alfred bovill, daughter of charles clarke, the author of _the beauclercs_, _father and son_ (see above). she is mentioned in butler's _life of dr. butler_ and in the _memoir_ of butler. helps, arthur. see victoria, queen. hering, ewald. memory. lecture on the specific energies of the nervous system, by professor ewald hering, university of leipzig. english translation. the open court publishing co., chicago and london, . inscribed "h. festing jones, with best wishes from john f. harris, august , ." cf. butler's translation of the lecture on memory in _unconscious memory_. hutton, frederick wollaston. the lesson of evolution. by frederick wollaston hutton, f.r.s. nd ed. . king, rev. s. w. the italian valleys of the pennine alps. by the rev. s. w. king. london, . referred to in _ex voto_. near the beginning of this book mr. king speaks of varallo-sesia. larken, edmund paul. the pall mall magazine, may , with "the priest's bargain," a story by e. p. larken. butler gave larken the plot for this story. see _the note-books of samuel butler_, pp. - . le dantec, felix. lamarckiens et darwiniens. par felix le dantec. e ed. paris, . lytton, edward, lord. the coming race. london, . referred to in the _memoir_ of butler. notes and queries, april . containing article, "took's court and its neighbourhood," with plans and illustrations, including clifford's inn, barnard's inn, and staple inn. pall mall magazine, the. see larken, e. p. six "red rose" pamphlets. - . reinheimer, hermann. symbiogenesis, the universal law of progressive evolution. by hermann reinheimer. london, . see, especially, chap. vii.--psychogenesis. russell, e. s. form and function. london, . ch. xix--"samuel butler and the memory theories of heredity." salt, h. s. animal rights. london, . with ms. note by h. f. jones. sladen, douglas. selinunte and the west of sicily. by douglas sladen. london, . smythe, william henry. memoir descriptive of the resources, inhabitants, and hydrography of sicily and its islands. by captain william henry smythe, r.n., k.s.f. london, murray, . smythe, william henry. the mediterranean. by rear-admiral wm. henry smythe, k.s.f., d.c.l. london, parker, . these two books by admiral smythe were wanted for _the authoress of the odyssey_. butler saw them in the british museum; i bought these copies. tripp, ellen s. my early days. by ellen shephard tripp. timaru, n.z., joyce, . with letter to h. f. jones from leonard o. h. tripp, of new zealand. victoria, h.m. queen. leaves from the journal of our life in the highlands. edited by arthur helps. london, smith, elder and co., . victoria, h.m. queen. more leaves from the journal of a life in the highlands. london, smith, elder and co., . "visit to inveraray . . . and after lunch we went into the large drawing- room next door to where we had lunched in , when lorne was only two years old. and now i return, alas! without my beloved husband, to find lorne my son-in-law!" this passage, which occurs on page , is referred to, with a comment, by miss savage in a letter to butler, th nov. . (_memoir_ i. .) ward, james. heredity and memory. by james ward. cambridge, . v. books formerly the property of samuel butler butler wrote to robert bridges, feb. , "i have, i verily believe, the smallest library of any man in london who is by way of being literary." (_memoir_, ii., .) cf. no. in section i. pictures, "interior of butler's sitting-room," where part of his library is shown. the rest of his books were in a cupboard between his sitting-room and his painting-room. they all passed under the residuary bequest in his will to his nephew, henry thomas butler, who gave them to me. some were taken by streatfeild, his literary executor, and some few were lost in transitu; the remainder are here. agar, t. l. emendationes homericae. [ -] with notes by butler. allen, grant. charles darwin. by grant allen. (english worthies.) london, . butler was asked to review this, but declined on the ground that there was too strong a personal hostility between both darwin and grant allen and himself to make it possible for him to review the book without a bias against it. (_memoir_, ii. .) anderson, w. c. f. see engelman, r. bettany, g. t. the life of charles darwin. (great writers.) london, . bible, the holy. oxford, . inscribed "samuel butler, from his affectionate godmother and aunt anna worsley, september th, ." so that he was not christened till he was more than nine months old, and he used to say that this delay was a risky business, because during all those months the devil had the run of him. he imitated the inscription in this bible for the inscription in the christening bible which ernest spurns from him when he is about to undertake the conversion of miss maitland in chapter lx. of _the way of all flesh_. but he imitated it too closely for he wrote, "it was the bible given him at his christening by his affectionate godmother and aunt, elizabeth allaby." whereas ernest only had one godmother, and she was alethea, the sister of theobald. anna worsley was a sister of butler's mother, and elizabeth allaby was a sister of ernest's mother. bible. new testament in greek. oxford, . two copies, with very numerous ms. notes by butler. given to st. john's college some years ago. bordiga, gaudenzio. notizie intorno alle opere di gaudenzio ferrari. milano, . used by butler in writing _ex voto_. boswell, james. croker's boswell's johnson. new edition. london, . pencil marks by butler. bridges, robert. poetical works of robert bridges. vols. london, . butler and bridges corresponded about the sonnets of shakespeare and the odyssey and exchanged examples of their published works. (see the _memoir_.) buckley, theodore alois. the iliad of homer and the odyssey of homer. translated by theodore alois buckley. (bonn's classical library.) vols. - . burke, edmund. reflections on the revolution in france. by edmund burke. london, daly [ --]. candler, c. the prevention of consumption. by c. candler. london, . inscribed "samuel butler, esq., with the author's compliments." carlyle, thomas. oliver cromwell's letters and speeches. by thomas carlyle. vols. london, . colborne-veel, mary. the fairest of the angels and other verse. by mary colborne-veel. london, . given to butler by the authoress, who is the daughter of j. colborne-veel, formerly editor of _the press_, christchurch, new zealand. miss colborne-veel found butler's "philosophic dialogue" in _the press_ of dec. . (see the _memoir_, i. .) creighton, charles. illustrations of unconscious memory in disease. by charles creighton. london, . inscribed "to samuel butler from the author, february, ." cruveilhier, j. c. atlas of the descriptive anatomy of the human body. by j. c. cruveilhier. london, . dallas, w. s. see darwin, charles. daly, ch. see shakespeare. daniel, p. a. notes and conjectural emendations of certain doubtful passages in shakespeare's plays. by p. a. daniel. london, . inscribed "s. butler from his friend the author." darwin, charles. the origin of species. by charles darwin. first edition. london, . "from the author." with ms. notes and marks by samuel butler. darwin, charles. the origin of species. by charles darwin sixth edition ( th thousand), with additions and corrections to . london, . with ms. notes and marks by samuel butler. butler bought this in order to compare it with the original edition. darwin, charles. the expression of the emotions in man and animals. by charles darwin. london, . inscribed "from the author." butler procured for mr. darwin the two illustrations by mr. a. may, pp. - . (see the _memoir_.) darwin, charles. the variation of animals and plants under domestication. by charles darwin. second edition. vols. london, . darwin, charles. erasmus darwin. by ernst krause. translated from the german by w. s. dallas, with a preliminary notice by charles darwin. first edition. london, . this book is referred to in chapter iv. of _unconscious memory_; also in my pamphlet, "charles darwin and samuel butler: a step towards reconciliation"; also in the _memoir_. darwin, charles. the life of erasmus darwin. by charles darwin. being an introduction to an essay on his scientific works by ernst krause, translated from the german by w. s. dallas. second edition. london, . pencil note by butler, p. . "second edition" means second edition of the preceding book which is called "erasmus darwin," that is, the title was altered. in the first book precedence is given to krause's life of erasmus darwin, in the second precedence is given to charles darwin's introduction. davies, john llewelyn. see plato. dictys cretensis. (teubner classics.) leipzig. dudgeon, robert ellis. the prolongation of life. by r. e. dudgeon, m.d. second edition. london, . given by dr. dudgeon either to butler or to me after butler's death, i forget which. duncan, w. stewart. conscious matter. by w. stewart duncan. london, . elements, the, of social science; or, physical, sexual, and natural religion. by a graduate of medicine. third edition. london, . i have no doubt that butler was directed to this book by dr. dudgeon. emslie, john philipps. new canterbury tales. by john philipps emslie. london [ ]. engelman and anderson. pictorial atlas to homer's iliad and odyssey. london, . thirty-six plates by r. engelman and w. c. f. anderson. epicorum graecorum fragmenta. (teubner classics.) leipzig. garnett, richard. poems. by richard garnett. london, . inscribed "samuel butler, with r. garnett's very kind regards. december, ." garnett, richard. edward gibbon wakefield. by r. garnett, c.b., ll.d. london, . inscribed "from the author." garnett, richard. the life of thomas carlyle. by richard garnett. london, . inscribed "samuel butler from richard garnett." garnett, richard. dante, petrarch, camoens. cxxiv. sonnets translated by richard garnett, ll.d. london, . inscribed "samuel butler, from r. garnett." goethe. wilhelm meister's apprenticeship. translated. vols. leipzig, . hesiod. (teubner classics.) leipzig. homer. iliad and odyssey. vols. london, pickering, . with numerous ms. notes by butler. given to st. john's college some years ago. homer. iliad and odyssey. vols. [ --] interleaved and profusely adnotated by butler. homer. iliad, odyssey, and hymns. (teubner classics.) leipzig. homer. see buckley, theodore alois. jebb, sir r. c. introduction to homer. third edition. london, . _also_ a copy with a few ms. notes by butler. jesus of history, the. london, . used by butler in preparing _the fair haven_. krause, ernst. see darwin, charles. lamarck. philosophie zoologique. nouvelle edition par ch. martins. vols. paris, . used by butler in preparing _evolution old and new_. laurentius. the miocene men of the bible. by laurentius. london, . locke, john. an essay concerning human understanding. by john locke. vols. london, . malone, e. see shakespeare. mendelssohn-bartholdy, felix. letters from italy and switzerland. by felix mendelssohn-bartholdy. translated by lady wallace. london, . see p. about mendelssohn's staying such a long while before things in _alps and sanctuaries_, ch. ii. milton, john. the prose works of john milton. only vol. iii., containing "the doctrine and discipline of divorce." (bohn.) london, . referred to in _the way of all flesh_, when theobald and christina drive away together after their marriage. and cf. _life and habit_, ch. ii., where, after quoting from a journal an extract about lycurgus, butler proceeds: "yet this truly comic paper does not probably know that it is comic, any more than the kleptomaniac knows that he steals, or than john milton knew that he was a humorist when he wrote a hymn upon the circumcision and spent his honeymoon in composing a treatise on divorce." mivart, st. george. on the genesis of species. by st. george mivart. second edition. london, . used by butler in preparing his books on evolution. paley, william. natural theology or evidences of the existence and attributes of the deity. by william paley, d.d. new edition. london, . paley, william. a view of the evidences of christianity. by william paley, d.d. new edition by t. r. birks. london [ --]. piers ploughman. the vision and creed of piers ploughman. edited by thomas wright. vols. london, . butler bought this to help him to make up his mind as to the limits of permissible archaism in translating the odyssey and the iliad. pilkington, matthew. a general dictionary of painters. by matthew pilkington. vols. london, . plato. the republic of plato. translated by john llewelyn davies and david james vaughan. cambridge, . h. f. jones to butler from the hotel dell'angelo, faido, in : "the signora has given me no. , the room into which you came one morning, more than five years ago, and said, 'oh, you've been reading that damned republic again!'" _memoir_, i. . rigaud, john francis. see vinci, leonardo da. rockstro, w. s. the rules of counterpoint. by w. s. rockstro. london [ ]. out of which butler used to do his counterpoint exercises. rossetti, william michael. see webster, augusta. schoelcher, victor. the life of handel. by victor schoelcher. london, . referred to in the _memoir_ of butler. shakespeare, william. the poems of william shakespeare. london, daly [ --]. shakespeare, william. shakespeare's poems. malone. . this is part of vol. i. of malone's "supplement to the edition of shakespeare's plays published in by samuel johnson and george steevens." i do not know where butler got it; he wanted malone's comments on the sonnets and he may have bought this second-hand or it may have been given to him. it was probably in a bad state, for he had it bound; there is an entry to that effect in his account book, th march, . skertchly, sydney b. j. see tylor, alfred. stanley, arthur penrhyn. the life and correspondence of thomas arnold, d.d. by arthur penrhyn stanley. seventh edition. london, . butler bought this when he was writing the life of his grandfather, because he was told that it was a model biography of a great schoolmaster. strauss, friedrich. a new life of jesus. by friedrich strauss. authorised translation. vols. london, . used by butler in preparing _the fair haven_. swift, jonathan. the works of jonathan swift. vols. london, . with pencil marks by butler. tylor, alfred. colouration in plants and animals. by alfred tylor. edited by sydney b. j. skertchly. london, . alfred tylor was a friend of butler, and is referred to in my _memoir_. tylor, alfred. on the growth of trees and protoplasmic continuity. by alfred tylor. london, . this was originally a lecture read by skertchly to the linnean society, mr. tylor being too ill to attend. butler was present and spoke. referred to in the _memoir_. vaughan, david james. see plato. vinci, leonardo da. a treatise on painting. by leonardo da vinci. translated by john francis rigaud. london, . webster, augusta. mother and daughter. by the late augusta webster. london, . with an introductory note by wm. michael rossetti. inscribed, "samuel butler, with kind regards from thomas webster." augusta webster is referred to in the _memoir_. white, william. the story of a great delusion. by william white. london, . wilberforce, samuel. agathos and other sunday stories. by samuel wilberforce, m.a., archdeacon of surrey. nineteenth edition. london, . wright, thomas. see piers ploughman. vi. atlases and maps formerly the property of samuel butler some of the maps are marked with red lines showing, in the words of another illustrious johnian, "fields invested with purpureal gleams." these red lines, specially noticeable in butler's ordnance maps of the neighbourhood within thirty miles round london, denote his country walks, and are referred to in his introduction to _alps and sanctuaries_. butler, samuel, d.d. an atlas of modern geography for the use of young persons and junior classes in schools. selected from dr. butler's "modern atlas," by the author's son, the rev. t. butler, rector of langar. london, . _also_ an edition inscribed, "samuel butler, october th, "; and an edition of dr. butler's "atlas of antient geography." environs of london, north side (eastern half missing). environs of london, south side--sevenoaks, tonbridge, maidstone. there is something wrong; one piece is much dirtier than the other; the two do not belong to one another. the dirty one is inscribed, almost illegibly, thus: "s. butler, , clifford's inn, fleet street, london, e.g. please return to the above address. the finder, if poor, will be rewarded; if rich, thanked." may be he did lose one half, and it was not returned, and he bought another. environs of london (surrey). environs of london (sussex). brighton and environs (reduced ordnance). chatham (near) to romney marsh (in two parts). france (part of) and channel islands. boulogne } dieppe } dieppe } mounted, and all in one envelope. canton uri } tuscany } canton ticino. provincia di torino. the val leventina, . trapani, monte s. giuliano and neighbourhood, in two sheets. trapani (ordnance). ithaca and corfu (three sheets). an envelope containing maps and plans relating to butler's run, mesopotamia, new zealand. vii. music formerly the property of samuel butler these volumes contain many pencil notes, exclamations, and marks by butler. xxx means very great admiration; xx moderate admiration; x slight admiration. handel's oratorios in novello's octavo edition:-- acis and galatea. alceste. alexander balus. athaliah. belshazzar. chandos te deum and st. cecilia's day. deborah. dettingen te deum. israel in egypt. jephtha. joshua. miscellaneous. occasional oratorio. the passion. samson. selections. semele. solomon. susanna. theodora. time and truth. handel's suites, trois lecons, chaconne, sept pieces, six grandes fugues (p. . note in butler's writing at no. , "this is the 'old man' fugue"; cf. the _memoir_ of butler), and six petites fugues. twelve grand concertos. by g. f. handel. pencil marks by butler, _e.g._ p. , "xxx the whole of this concerto"; and by butler and jones, _e.g._ p. , "cf. sarabande suite, xvi. (set , no. )" (so far by jones and the rest is by butler), "cf. 'when myra sings,' clarke's 'beauties of purcell,' pp. - ." a volume containing concertos by handel and hasse and six overtures by handel. two papers pasted in; one printed with verses, the other ms. with "upbraid me not, capricious fair." this was set to music by h. f. jones, and at that time we were told, through _notes and queries_, that the words were by alexander brome. a volume inscribed " , clifford's inn, fleet street, e.g." containing arrangements of handel, by wm. hutchins callcott; handel's hautboy concertos, nos. , and ; eight of his suites; his concertante; his six organ concertos; a fantasia; his water music, and two minuets by geminiani. a volume containing handel's coronation anthem; acis and galatea; an oratorio with no title or composer's name, the first song being "tune your harps to chearful strain"; the overture, songs, duets and trio in "comus" by dr. arne; and the blackbirds, a cantata by m. isaac. a volume with "miss e. parkes" on a label outside; inscribed, "samuel butler, with the love of his aunt, ellen worsley, january nd, "; containing corelli's sonatas and concertos, "thorough-bass," by m. p. king, and a few of handel's overtures. pencil marks by butler. a volume containing l'indispensable (a manual for performers on the pianoforte); melodies of all nations, english airs, and various pieces by handel, bach and others. two portfolios containing unbound music by handel and others, including the six fugues, of which no. in c minor is the "old man" fugue. the handel album for the pianoforte. arranged by william hutchins callcott. handel's concertos and roseingrave's suites. walsh's edition. inscribed, "to s. butler, with kind regards from julian marshall, june , ." the fitzwilliam virginal book. ed. by fuller maitland and barclay squire. butler subscribed for this at the instigation of fuller maitland. he had the parts bound and gave the volumes to me. the beauties of purcell (john clarke), inscribed "s. butler." the well-tempered clavichord. by john sebastian bach. (czerny). vierstimmige choralgesange von johann sebastian bach. lieder ohne worte. books, by mendelssohn. a musical ms. scrap-book, containing notes of rockstro's lessons; also pieces copied by butler, including some composed by him for alfred to learn. viii. miscellaneous papers formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler thomas harris, of shrewsbury. butler when a boy was amused by the advertisement put up over his shop by this man, who was a baker. he copied or invented the two pictures showing harris ( ) making bride cakes, ( ) making funeral cakes, and composed the music. miss butler showed it to me at shrewsbury in june or july, , and i copied it. ms. copies of "the new scriptures," according to darwin, tyndall, huxley and spencer. the first twenty-four verses of this appeared in an american paper (the _index_, if i remember right) many years ago. they were given to me by herbert phipson; i showed them to butler; he copied them and composed verses to . testimonials by eyre crowe, a.r.a.; g. k. fortescue; r. garnett, ll.d.; a. c. gow, a.r.a.; t. heatherley; the rev. b. h. kennedy, d.d.; henry stacy marks, r.a.; and w. t. marriott, m.p., submitted by butler in when a candidate for the slade professorship of fine art at cambridge. two numbers of the parish magazine of st. augustine's, kilburn, mar. and april . between pp. and of the march number are unsuitable advertisements of pears' soap involving the bishop q of wangaloo and lillie langtry. their appearance drew from the editor, pp. and of the april number, an expression of regret, distress, and surprise, and a statement that precautions had been taken against any occurrence of a similar nature in future. if i remember right miss savage sent these to butler and they are referred to in their correspondence, but perhaps not in any of the letters included in the _memoir_. review of "luck or cunning?" written by george bernard shaw, which appeared in the _pall mall gazette_, st may, . this was given to me by dan rider, who told me that bernard shaw's original review, which he wrote off his own bat, was very much more laudatory and much longer, but the editor of the _pall mall gazette_ cut it down in length and took out some of the praise because he was afraid of offending the darwins and their friends. a collection of butler's letters to the _athenaeum_ and the _academy_ and other contributions to the press. see the _memoir_. marzo . nomination of butler as socio corrispondente of the accademia di scienze, lettere, ed arti de'zelanti di aci-reale. luglio . nomination of butler as socio corrispondente of the accademia dafnica di scienze, lettere, ed arti in aci-reale. an envelope containing papers relating to dr. butler and to butler's _life_ of him, which appeared in . statement as to the position of the violinist mademoiselle gabrielle vaillant, may . she occurs in the _memoir_. she broke down, and a few hundred pounds were raised to help her. a collection of obituary notices of butler. . two collections of notices of butler's books, one made by butler, the other by streatfeild. particulars and conditions of sale of such of butler's houses near london as were sold after his death, oct. . a parcel of newspapers, mostly _the press_ and _the weekly press_ of new zealand, referring to butler and to his contributions to the new zealand press. some of his early contributions are reprinted. see _a first year in canterbury settlement_ ( ), introduction. a collection of letters and papers relating to the erewhon dinners. an envelope containing _pieces justificatives_ in connection with the "diary of a journey," by h. f. jones. . _the cambridge magazine_ for march , containing "samuel butler and the simeonites," by a. t. bartholomew. see _a first year in canterbury settlement_ ( ), pp. - . catalogue of the butler collection at st. john's college, cambridge. pts. - . extracted from _the eagle_ for march and june and for june . (no more published in this form.) menu of dinner given to henry festing jones on the completion of the _memoir_ of butler, the hosts being mansfield duval forbes and a. t. bartholomew, th nov. , in forbes's rooms, clare college, cambridge. each course is illustrated by an appropriate quotation from the _memoir_. menu of dinner given to henry festing jones on the publication of his _memoir_ of butler by a. t. bartholomew at the university arms hotel, cambridge, nov. . a collection of _pieces justificatives_, permissions to print letters in the _memoir_ of butler, and the original mss. of reminiscences of butler therein included by miss aldrich, rev. cuthbert creighton, the hon. mrs. richard cecil grosvenor, h. r. robertson. a collection of newspaper cuttings, being reviews and notices of the _memoir_. a collection of letters received by h. f. jones on the publication of the _memoir_. ix. prints and photographs formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler an engraving of "the fortune teller," by sir joshua reynolds. an engraving of "the woodman," by gainsborough. a print of a view of "clifford's inn hall from the garden." . a paper about clifford's inn, extracted from "picturesque views and an historical account of the inns of court," by samuel ireland, published in the year . an envelope containing prints of the photograph of butler's fireplace, clifford's inn. six boxes of photographic negatives. portraits and italian works of art. five volumes of prints of snap-shots by butler. photographs illustrating butler's notions about the portraits of gentile and giovanni bellini as to which he wrote to the _athenaeum_, feb. . (_memoir_, ch. xxv.) photographs to illustrate his notions about the holbein drawing, "la danse," dealt with in the article in the _universal review_, "l'affaire holbein-rippel." together with various papers relating to the same matter. this article was not reproduced in _essays on life_, _art and science_ (afterwards _the humour of homer_) because of the trouble of reproducing the illustrations, but it is among the _universal review_ articles bound together and included in this catalogue (p. ). a print of the great statue of s. carlo borromeo, near arona, called "s. carlone." a collection of photographs of italian pictures, unmounted. three large cards with photographs of the fresco by gaudenzio ferrari which is in s. maria delle grazie at varallo-sesia. it is in twenty-one compartments. two cards, not so large, with photographs of pictures and frescoes by gaudenzio. one of these reproduces frescoes and pictures in the crucifixion chapel at varallo. in the left-hand bottom corner is the whole of the fresco in s. maria delle grazie showing how the twenty-one compartments are placed. the other card contains gaudenzio's frescoes in the church of s. cristoforo at vercelli. a card with five photographs, two of the frescoes at busto arsizio near varese--at least, i think that is where they are. one is "st. john baptist's head in a charger," the other "the baptism in the jordan." butler particularly liked the scratchings of names and dates on the former. the other three photographs are of pictures. the foregoing six cards (three, two and one) used to hang framed in butler's chambers. a woman in a black dress from lima. used by butler to make female heads for sale, but he was not successful. _the weekly press_, n.z., st mar. . page contains views of butler's homestead at mesopotamia. two views of butler's homestead, mesopotamia, new zealand, extracted from the _press_. a view of the ruins of hagiar chem (haggiar kim in malta). a card with five photographic views. two are the garden at langar. one is at langar, mrs. barratt. cf. snapshot album, , p . the remaining two are huts or whares in new zealand, one being "whare at mount peel station, oct. ." x. portraits formerly the property of or relating to samuel butler {samuel butler when an undergraduate about : p .jpg} butler's photograph album. i have written the names against those portraits of whose identity i am certain. the cabinet photograph of canon butler resembles the father in "family prayers"; but butler cannot have used this photograph, which was done when canon butler was an old man, for a picture painted in . photographs of s. butler: ( ) soon after his return from new zealand. ( ) . ( ) taken by mrs. bridges in the garden at langar about . ( ) his identification photograph at the paris exhibition, . copies. ( ) at milan about . ( ) at clifford's inn, by alfred, about . ( ) at clifford's inn, by alfred, about . ( ) taken at the long house, leatherhead, by mr. pidgeon, about . ( ) taken by russell in . given by butler to streatfeild. the rev. t. butler, of wilderhope house, shrewsbury, butler's father. mrs. butler, butler's mother. tom butler, butler's brother. miss eliza mary anne savage. three photographs of charles paine pauli, two on cards and one on glass. butler kept the glass one on his mantelpiece until pauli's death in . then he removed it. he would have removed it earlier, but pauli came to his rooms to lunch three times a week, and would have noticed its absence. for pauli see the _memoir_. hans rudolf faesch as a boy. hans rudolf faesch, taken by butler in . cavaliere biagio ingroja of calatafimi. professore alberto giacalone-patti of trapani. william smith rockstro, who used to teach butler counterpoint. see the _memoir_. taken by butler at clifford's inn, oct. . charles gogin } joseph benwell clark } all taken by butler at clifford's inn. edward james jones } an engraving of g. a. paley and letter from mr. barton hill (on behalf of henry graves and co.) to h. f. jones identifying the portrait. a card with photographs of twelve of butler's college friends. xi. effects formerly the personal property of samuel butler one mahogany table with two flaps. butler used this table for his meals, for his writing, and for all purposes to which a table can be put. a corner of it covered with a red cloth is seen in the picture of the interior of his room. see p. , no. . sandwich case. this he took with him on his sunday walks and sketching excursions. passport. pocket magnifying glass. address book. homeopathic medicine case. he always took this with him on his travels. two account books, - and - . butler destroyed his early account books when he made the skeleton diary of his life which is in vol. iii. of his ms. note-books. after his death the remaining account books were destroyed except these two. books in which butler used to keep his accounts by double entry. the handwriting during the early years is butler's, afterwards it is alfred's. journal, - ; cash book, - ; cash book, - ; union bank book, - ; ledger. a set of books containing accounts for his published works. two of the small note-books which after april butler always carried in his pocket and in which he made the notes afterwards copied into his full-size ms. note-books. before he used some other kind of pocket note-book. the first one he had of this kind was sent to him by miss savage in a letter of th april, , from which the following is an extract; the words in square brackets are a note by butler on miss savage's letter. "i send you a little present; the leaves tear out, so that when you leave your note-book at the "food of health" [i don't remember ever going to the "food of health." i do not know the place. s. b.] or elsewhere, as you sometimes have done, you will not lose so much, and then you can put the torn leaves into one of the little drawers in your cabinet which is just made for such documents." (_memoir_, i. .) the cabinet she refers to was one of the two japanese cabinets, the next items, which he had bought at neighbour's grocery and tea-shop in oxford street, and which she had seen in his rooms. he used to keep stamps in them. one small japanese cabinet. one larger japanese cabinet. two pen trays. one camera lucida with table (see the _memoir_). one round wood-carving: a female bust. two large dishes, german or swiss, which stood on his table. one tin case holding pencils and brushes for water-colour sketching. one tin water-bottle for sketching. one sketching camp-stool. one sketching portfolio. one water-colour paint-box. one sloping desk. "i shoud explain that i cannot write unless i have a sloping desk." see "quis desiderio--" (_the humour of homer_). this is the sloping desk on which he wrote in clifford's inn. one pair of chamois horns given him by dionigi negri at varallo sesia. one handle and webbing in which he carried his books to and from the british museum. a photograph showing one wall of butler's chambers in clifford's inn with the fireplace and accompanying sketch plan. some of the pictures mentioned in section i. of this catalogue can be identified, and also the following nine items, which are on the mantelpiece or on the wall. the two dolls (no. ) were destroyed by butler about ; the other eight objects are included in this collection at st. john's. one pair of pewter candlesticks ( ). one bust of handel ( ). one plate, which he called "three acres and a cow," because it seems to be decorated in illustration of that catch-word ( ). two crockery holy water holders; only one is shown in the photograph ( ). three medallions under glass, representing, in some kind of plaster, the madonna di oropa ( ). three crockery examples of "the virgin with child" ( ). one only is shown in the photo. one of these is from oropa where the virgin and child are both black, see "a medieval girl-school" in _the humour of homer_. these holy water holders and madonnas are some of the cheap religious knick-knacks which are sold at most italian sanctuaries. we often brought back a few and gave them away to gogin, alfred, clark, and other friends. bag for pennies ( ). miss savage's kettle-holder ( ). in oct. (see the _memoir_), about four months before her death, miss savage sent butler a present of a pair of socks which she had knitted herself, and she promised to make him some more. butler gratefully accepted her gift, but "as for doing me any more, i flatly forbid it. i believe you don't like my books, and want to make me say i won't give you any more if you make me any more socks; and then you will make me some more in order not to get the books. no, i will let you read my stupid books in manuscript and help me that way. if you like to make me a kettle- holder, you may, for i only have one just now, and i like to have two because i always mislay one; but i won't have people working their fingers out to knit me stockings." _miss savage to butler_, _th_ _oct._ : "here is a kettle-holder. and i can only say that a man who is equal to the control of two kettle- holders fills me with awe, and i shall begin to be afraid of you. . . . the kettle-holder is very clumsy and ugly, but please to remember that i am not a many-sided genius, and to expect me to excel in kettle-holders _and_ stockings is unreasonable. i take credit to myself, however, for affixing a fetter to it, so that you may chain it up if it is too much disposed to wander. my expectation is that it is too thick for you to grasp the kettle with, and the kettle will slip out of your hand and scald you frightfully. i shall be sorry for you but you would have it, so upon your own head be it." _butler to miss savage_, _th_ _oct._ : "the kettle-holder is beautiful; it is like a filleted sole, and i am very fond of filleted sole. it is not at all too thick, and fits my kettle to perfection." the subject is developed antiphonally between miss savage and butler throughout several letters, and near the close comes this note made by butler when "editing his remains" at the end of his life: "i need hardly say that the kettle-holder hangs by its fetter on the wall beside my fire, and is not allowed to be used by anyone but myself. s.b. january st, ." two small dutch dolls ( ) mr. charles archer cook was at trinity hall with me. he is mentioned in the _memoir_ as having edited _the athenaeum_ in october, , during the absence of maccoll, the editor. butler and i sometimes dined with him and met his brother, mr. (afterwards sir) edward t. cook and his wife. mr. and mrs. e. t. cook came to tea with butler, and alfred was showing them round the sitting room, while butler was in his painting room, where he had gone to look for something. "these are the pictures which the governor does when he is away," said alfred, "and these are the photographs which he brings back with him and the plates and images." "and please, alfred, what are these two little dolls among the pictures?" "oh, those, ma'am! those are ---." "alfred!" exclaimed the reproving voice of butler, who although in the next room, had overheard. "well, sir," replied alfred, "that's what we always call them." alfred was referring to a recent divorce case in which the names of two ladies had been brought prominently before the public, but butler did not approve of the names being blurted out in the presence of visitors. a brass bowl which my brother edward brought from india. it always stood on my table in staple inn, and butler used it as an ash- tray and played with it and liked the sound it made when he struck it. he also liked its shape, and was pleased with it for not being "spoilt by any silly ornament." it is mentioned in the _memoir_ (ii. xliii.) when miss butler comes to my rooms after butler's death. a leather (or sham leather) cigarette case from palermo (but, i am afraid, made in germany). it contains a fragment of a greek vase picked up on mount eryx and given to butler by bruno flury. he was one of the young men who came about him in when he broke his foot on the mountain; he afterwards settled in pisa, where i saw him in . two of the blue and white wine cups mentioned in _alps and sanctuaries_ (ch. xxii.; new ed., ch. xxiii.), "a day at the cantine." "these little cups are common crockery, but at the bottom there is written viva bacco, viva l'italia, viva la gioia, viva venere or other such matter; they are to be had in every crockery shop throughout the mendrisiotto, and they are very pretty." the viva is not written in full; it is represented by a double v, which overlaps, so that it looks like w, but the letter w is not used by the italians, so there is no chance of its being mistaken by them for anything but the symbol meaning viva. a small horn and tortoiseshell snuff-box from palermo. it contains three coins wrapped in paper and a piece of the pilgrim's cross at varello-sesia. the cross is mentioned somewhere in butler's books as being of very hard wood, so hard that the pilgrims have great difficulty in cutting pieces off it. so had i in cutting off this bit. the day after butler's death alfred came to me with the coins and said: "i took these out of his pockets, sir; i thought you ought to have them." butler's watch and chain. butler used to possess his grandfather's gold watch and chain. he was robbed of the watch in hyde park one night just before starting on one of his journeys to canada; he then bought this silver watch at benson's, and, if i remember right, wore it with the gold chain. he was robbed of the chain in fetter lane, oct. (_memoir_, ii. ). he then bought a silver chain, which, with the silver watch, passed under his will to alfred. alfred wore them until , when the watch was declared by an expert to be beyond repair. i took it from him, giving him in exchange the watch of my brother charlie, who had recently died. the matchbox which alfred gave to butler. when alfred knew that i was handing butler's watch and chain on to st. john's college, he said: "and then, sir, they had better have this matchbox which i gave him." i looked at it and said, "well, but alfred, how can that be? it is dated , and he gave your matchbox to the turk in ." "i know he did, sir; and when he told me i was very angry and went out into holborn and bought this one and had it engraved same as the other." "with the old date?" "yes, sir, just the same as the one he gave to the turk." see the _note- books_, p. . works by samuel butler. london: a. c. fifield, , clifford's inn, e.c. . a first year in canterbury settlement. new edition, with other early essays. s. net. erewhon. th impression of tenth edition. s. net. the fair haven. new edition. s. net. life and habit. third edition, with addenda. s. net. evolution old and new. third edition, with addenda. s. net. unconscious memory. third edition, with introduction by marcus hartog. s. d. net. alps and sanctuaries. new and enlarged edition. illustrated. s. d. net. luck or cunning? second edition, corrected. s. d. net. the authoress of the odyssey. illustrated. reprinting. the iliad rendered into english prose. s. net. shakespeare's sonnets reconsidered. s. d. net. the odyssey rendered into english prose. illustrated. s. d. net. erewhon revisited. th impression. s. net. the way of all flesh. th impression of second edition. s. net. the humour of homer and other essays. with portrait and biographical sketch of the author by h. f. jones. s. net. god the known and god the unknown. s. d. net. the notebooks of samuel butler. with portrait. ed. by h. f. jones. th impression. s. net. ex voto. illustrated. _to be reprinted_. selections. arranged by s. butler. _out of print_. the life and letters of dr. samuel butler. vols. illustrated. _out of print_. works by henry festing jones. london: a. c. fifield. diversions in sicily. s. net. castellinaria and other sicilian diversions. s. net. charles darwin and samuel butler. a step towards reconciliation. s. net. london: macmillan & co. samuel butler, author of "erewhon." a memoir. vols. illustrated. s. net. printed by w. heffer & sons ltd., cambridge. england. footnotes: { } joanna mills in _the life and letters of dr. samuel butler_, i. . prose and verse of george henry borrow*** transcribed from the richard clay and sons edition by david price, email ccx @pglaf.org [picture: manuscript of lord's prayer in romany] a bibliography of the writings in prose and verse of george henry borrow by thomas j. wise london: printed for private circulation only by richard clay & sons, ltd. of this book one hundred copies only have been printed. preface the object of the present bibliography is to give a concise account, accompanied by accurate collations, of the original editions of the books and pamphlets of george borrow, together with a list of his many contributions to magazines and other publications. it will doubtless be observed that no inconsiderable portion of the bibliography deals with the attractive series of pamphlets containing ballads, poems, and other works by borrow which were printed for private circulation during the course of last year. some account of the origin of these pamphlets, and some information regarding the material of which they are composed, may not be considered as inopportune or inappropriate. as a writer of english prose borrow long since achieved the position which was his due; as a writer of english verse he has yet to come by his own. the neglect from which borrow's poetical compositions (by far the larger proportion of which are translations from the danish and other tongues) have suffered has arisen from one cause, and from one cause alone,--the fact that up to the present moment only his earliest and, in the majority of cases, his least successful efforts have been available to students of his work. in , when borrow passed his _romantic ballads_ through the press, he had already acquired a working knowledge of numerous languages and dialects, but of his native tongue he had still to become a master. in his appreciation of the requirements of english prosody was of a vague description, his sense of the rhythm of verse was crude, and the attention he paid to the exigencies of rhyme was inadequate. hence the majority of his ballads, beyond the fact that they were faithful reproductions of the originals from which they had been laboriously translated, were of no particular value. but to borrow himself they were objects of a regard which amounted to affection, and there can be no question that throughout a considerable portion of his adventurous life he looked to his ballads to win for him whatever measure of literary fame it might eventually be his fortune to gain. in _lavengro_, and other of his prose works, he repeatedly referred to his "bundle of ballads"; and i doubt whether he ever really relinquished all hope of placing them before the public until the last decade of his life had well advanced. that the ballad poetry of the old northern races should have held a strong attraction for borrow is not to be wondered at. his restless nature and his roving habits were well in tune with the spirit of the old heroic ballads; whilst his taste for all that was mythical or vagabond (vagabond in the literal, and not in the conventional, sense of the word) would prompt him to welcome with no common eagerness the old poems dealing with matters supernatural and legendary. has he not himself recorded how, when fatigued upon a tiring march, he roused his flagging spirits by shouting the refrain "_look out_, _look out_, _svend vonved_!"? in , three years after the _romantic ballads_ had struggled into existence, borrow made an effort to place them before a larger public in a more complete and imposing form. in collaboration with dr. (afterwards sir john) bowring he projected a work which should contain the best of his old ballads, together with many new ones, the whole to be supported by the addition of others from the pen of dr. bowring. { a} a prospectus was drawn up and issued in december, , and at least two examples of this prospectus have survived. the brochure consists of two octavo pages of letterpress, with the following heading:-- prospectus. _it is proposed to publish_, _in two volumes octavo_, price to subscribers pound _s._, to non-subscribers pound _s._, the songs of scandinavia, translated by dr. bowring and mr. borrow. dedicated to the king of denmark, by permission of his majesty. then came a brief synopsis of the contents of the volumes, followed by a short address on "the debt of justice due from england to scandinavia." two additional pages were headed _list of subscribers_, and were left blank for the reception of names which, alas! were recorded in no sufficient number. the scheme lapsed, borrow found his mission in other fields of labour, and not until did he again attempt to revive it. but in borrow made one more very serious effort to give his ballads life. in that year he again took them in hand, subjected many of them to revision of the most drastic nature, and proceeded to prepare them finally for press. advertisements which he drew up are still extant in his handwriting, and reduced facsimiles of two of these may be seen upon the opposite page. but again fate was against him, and neither _koempe viser_ nor _songs of europe_ ever saw the light. { b} [picture: manuscript of the koempe viser and songs of europe advertisement] after the death of borrow his manuscripts passed into the possession of his step-daughter, mrs. macoubrey, from whom the greater part were purchased by mr. webber, a bookseller of ipswich, who resold them to dr. william knapp. these manuscripts are now in the hands of the hispanic society, of new york, and will doubtless remain for ever the property of the american people. fortunately, when disposing of the bulk of her step-father's books and papers to mr. webber, mrs. macoubrey retained the manuscripts of the ballads, together with certain other documents of interest and importance. it was from these manuscripts that i was afforded the opportunity of preparing the series of pamphlets printed last year. the manuscripts themselves are of four descriptions. firstly, the manuscripts of certain of the new ballads prepared for the _songs of scandinavia_ in , untouched, and as originally written; { c} secondly, other of these new ballads, heavily corrected by borrow in a later handwriting; thirdly, fresh transcripts, with the revised texts, made in or about , of ballads written in ; and lastly some of the more important ballads originally published in , entirely re-written in , and the text thoroughly revised. as will be seen from the few examples i have given in the following pages, or better still from a perusal of the pamphlets, the value as literature of borrow's ballads as we now know them is immeasurably higher than that hitherto placed upon them by critics who had no material upon which to form their judgment beyond the _romantic ballads_, _targum_, and _the talisman_, together with the sets of minor verses included in his other books. borrow himself regarded his work in this field as superior to that of lockhart, and indeed seems to have believed that one cause at least of his inability to obtain a hearing was lockhart's jealousy for his own _spanish ballads_. be that as it may--and lockhart was certainly sufficiently small-minded to render such a suspicion by no means ridiculous or absurd--i feel assured that borrow's metrical work will in future receive a far more cordial welcome from his readers, and will meet with a fuller appreciation from his critics, than that which until now it has been its fortune to secure. despite the unctuous phrases which, in obedience to the promptings of the secretaries of the british and foreign bible society { d} whose interests he forwarded with so much enterprise and vigor, he was at times constrained to introduce into his official letters, borrow was at heart a pagan. the memory of his father that he cherished most warmly was that of the latter's fight, actual or mythical, with 'big ben brain,' the bruiser; whilst the sword his father had used in action was one of his best-regarded possessions. to that sword he addressed the following youthful stanzas, which until now have remained un-printed: the sword _full twenty fights my father saw_, _and died with twenty red wounds gored_; _i heir'd what he so loved to draw_, _his ancient silver-handled sword_. _it is a sword of weight and length_, _of jags and blood-specks nobly full_; _well wielded by his cornish strength_ _it clove the gaulman's helm and scull_. _hurrah_! _thou silver-handled blade_, _though thou'st but little of the air_ _of swords by cornets worn on p'rade_, _to battle thee i vow to bear_. _thou'st decked old chiefs of cornwall's land_, _to face the fiend with thee they dared_; _thou prov'dst a tirfing in their hand_ _which victory gave whene'er_ '_twas bared_. _though cornwall's moors_ '_twas ne'er my lot_ _to view_, _in eastern anglia born_, _yet i her son's rude strength have got_, _and feel of death their fearless scorn_. _and when the foe we have in ken_, _and with my troop i seek the fray_, _thou'lt find the youth who wields thee then_ _will ne'er the part of horace play_. _meanwhile above my bed's head hang_, _may no vile rust thy sides bestain_; _and soon_, _full soon_, _the war-trump's clang_ _call me and thee to glory's plain_. these stanzas are interesting in a way which compels one to welcome them, despite the poverty of the verse. the little poem is a fragment of autobiographical _juvenilia_, and moreover it is an original composition, and not a translation, as is the greater part of borrow's poetical work. up to the present date no complete collected edition of borrow's works has been published, either in this country or in america. there is, however, good reason for hoping that this omission will soon be remedied, for such an edition is now in contemplation, to be produced under the agreeable editorship of mr. clement shorter. it is, i presume, hardly necessary to note that every book, pamphlet, and magazine dealt with in the following pages has been described _de visu_. t. j. w. contents part i.--editiones principes page _preface_ ix celebrated trials, faustus, romantic ballads, : _first issue_ _second issue_ _third issue_ targum, the talisman, the gospel of st. luke, the zincali, the bible in spain, review of ford's "hand-book for travellers in spain," a supplementary chapter to "the bible in spain," lavengro, the romany rye, the sleeping bard, wild wales, romano lavo-lil, the turkish jester, the death of balder, letters to the british and foreign bible society, letters to his wife, mary borrow, marsk stig, a ballad, the serpent knight, and other ballads, the king's wake, and other ballads, the dalby bear, and other ballads, the mermaid's prophecy, and other songs relating to queen dagmar, hafbur and signe, a ballad, the story of yvashka with the bear's ear, the verner raven, the count of vendel's daughter, and other ballads, the return of the dead, and other ballads, axel thordson and fair valborg, king hacon's death, and bran and the black dog, marsk stig's daughters, and other songs and ballads, the tale of brynild, and king valdemar and his sister, proud signild, and other ballads, ulf van yern, and other ballads, ellen of villenskov, and other ballads, the songs of ranild, niels ebbesen and germand gladenswayne, child maidelvold, and other ballads, ermeline, a ballad, the giant of bern and orm ungerswayne, little engel, a ballad, alf the freebooter, little danneved and swayne trost, and other ballads, king diderik and the fight between the lion and dragon, and other ballads, the nightingale, the valkyrie and raven, and other ballads, grimmer and kamper, the end of sivard snarenswayne, and other ballads, the fountain of maribo, and other ballads, queen berngerd, the bard and the dreams, and other ballads, finnish arts, or, sir thor and damsel thure, brown william, the power of the harp, and other ballads, the song of deirdra, king byrge and his brothers, and other ballads, signelil, a tale from the cornish, and other ballads, young swaigder or the force of runes, and other ballads, emelian the fool, the story of tim, mollie charane, and other ballads, grimhild's vengeance, three ballads, letters to his mother, ann borrow, the brother avenged, and other ballads, the gold horns, tord of hafsborough, and other ballads, the expedition to birting's land, and other ballads, part ii. contributions to periodical literature, etc. part iii. borroviana: complete volumes of biography and criticism part i. editiones principes, etc. ( ) [celebrated trials: ] celebrated trials, / and / remarkable cases / of / criminal jurisprudence, / from / the earliest records / to / the year . / [_thirteen-line quotation from burke_] / in six volumes. / vol. i. [_vol. ii_, _&c._] / london: / printed for knight and lacey, / paternoster-row. / . / price pounds _s._ in boards. collation:--demy octavo. vol. i. pp. xiii + v + , with nine engraved plates. vol. ii. ,, vi + , with seven engraved plates. [p. is misnumbered .] vol. iii. ,, vi + , with three engraved plates. vol. iv. ,, vi + , with five engraved plates. vol. v. ,, vi + , with five engraved plates. vol. vi. ,, viii + + an _index_ of pages, together with six engraved plates. issued in drab paper boards, with white paper back-labels. the leaves measure . x inches. it is evident that no fewer than five different printing houses were employed simultaneously in the production of this work. the preliminary matter of all six volumes was printed together, and the reverse of each title-page carries at foot the following imprint: "_london_: / _shackell and arrowsmith_, _johnson's-court_, _fleet-street_." the same firm also worked the whole of the second volume, and their imprint is repeated at the foot of p. [misnumbered ]. vol. i bears, at the foot of p. , the following imprint: "_printed by w. lewis_, , _finch-lane_, _cornhill_." vol. iii bears, at the foot of p. , the following imprint: "_j. and c. adlard_, _printers_, / _bartholomew close_." vols. iv and vi bear, at the foot of pages and respectively, the following imprint: "_d. sidney & co._, _printers_ / _northumberland-street_, _strand_." vol. v bears, at the foot of p. , the following imprint: "_whiting and branston_, / _beaufort house_, _strand_." both dr. knapp and mr. clement shorter have recorded full particulars of the genesis of the _celebrated trials_. mr. shorter devotes a considerable portion of chapter xi of _george borrow and his circle_ to the subject, and furnishes an analysis of the contents of each of the six volumes. _celebrated trials_ is, of course, the _newgate lives and trials_ of _lavengro_, in which book borrow contrived to make a considerable amount of entertaining narrative out of his early struggles and failures. there is a copy of the first edition of _celebrated trials_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is .g. . ( ) [faustus: ] faustus: / his / life, death, / and / descent into hell. / translated from the german. / _speed thee_, _speed thee_, / _liberty lead thee_, / _many this night shall harken and heed thee_. / _far abroad_, / _demi-god_, / _who shall appal thee_! / _javal_, _or devil_, _or what else we call thee_. / hymn to the devil. / london: / w. simpkin and r. marshall. / . [picture: title page of fautus, ] collation:--foolscap octavo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_printed by_ / _j. and c. adlard_, _bartholomew close_" at the foot of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; preface (headed _the translator to the public_) pp. v-viii; table of _contents_ pp. ix-xii; and text pp. - . the reverse of p. is occupied by advertisements of horace welby's _signs before death_, and john timbs's _picturesque promenade round dorking_. the headline is _faustus_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. at the foot of the reverse of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_j. and c. adlard_, _bartholomew close_." the signatures are a ( leaves), b to q ( sheets, each leaves), plus r ( leaves). issued (in _april_, ) in bright claret-coloured linen boards, with white paper back-label. the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._ _d._ the volume has as _frontispiece_ a coloured plate, engraved upon copper, representing the supper of the sheep-headed magistrates, described on pp. - . the incident selected for illustration is the moment when the wine 'issued in blue flames from the flasks,' and 'the whole assembly sat like so many ridiculous characters in a mad masquerade.' this illustration was not new to borrow's book. it had appeared both in the german original, and in the french translation of . in the original work the persons so bitterly satirized were the individuals composing the corporation of frankfort. in 'remainder' copies of the first edition of _faustus_ were issued with a new title-page, pasted upon a stub, carrying at foot the following publishers' imprint, "_london_: / _simpkin_, _marshall & co._ / ." they were made up in bright claret-coloured linen boards, uniform with the original issue, with a white paper back-label. the published price was again _s._ _d._ _faustus_ was translated by borrow from the german of friedrich maximilian von klinger. mr. shorter suggests, with much reason, that borrow did not make his translation from the original german edition of , but from a french translation published in amsterdam in . the reception accorded to _faustus_ was the reverse of favourable. _the literary gazette_ said (_july_ _th_, ):-- "this is another work to which no respectable publisher ought to have allowed his name to be put. the political allusion and metaphysics, which may have made it popular among a low class in germany, do not sufficiently season its lewd scenes and coarse descriptions for british palates. we have occasionally publications for the fireside,--these are only fit for the fire." borrow's translation of klinger's novel was reprinted in , without any acknowledgment of the name of the translator. only a few stray words in the text were altered. but five passages were deleted from the preface, which, not being otherwise modified or supplemented, gave--as was no doubt the intention of the publishers--the work the appearance of a new translation specially prepared. this unhallowed edition bears the following title-page: _faustus_: / _his_ / _life_, _death_, _and doom_. / _a romance in prose_. / _translated from the german_. / [quotation as in the original edition, followed by a printer's ornament.] / _london_: / _w. kent and co._, _paternoster row_. / .--crown vo, pp. viii + . "there is no reason to suppose," remarks mr. shorter (_george borrow and his circle_, p. ) "that the individual, whoever he may have been, who prepared the edition of _faustus_ for the press, had ever seen either the german original or the french translation of klinger's book." there is a copy of the first edition of _faustus_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is n. . [picture: title page of romantic ballads] ( ) [romantic ballads: ] romantic ballads, / translated from the danish; / and / miscellaneous pieces; / by / george borrow. / _through gloomy paths unknown_-- / _paths which untrodden be_, / _from rock to rock i roam_ / _along the dashing sea_. / bowring. / norwich: / printed and published by s. wilkin, upper haymarket. / . collation:--demy octavo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_norwich_: / _printed by s. wilkin_, _upper haymarket_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; table of _contents_ (with blank reverse) pp. v-vi; _preface_ pp. vii-viii; prefatory poem _from allan cunningham to george borrow_ pp. ix-xi, p. xii is blank; text of the _ballads_ pp. - ; and list of subscribers pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the ballad occupying it. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. . the signatures are a (a half-sheet of leaves), b (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b to m (eleven sheets, each leaves), and n (a half-sheet of leaves), followed by an unsigned quarter-sheet of leaves carrying the list of subscribers. { } sigs. g and h (pp. - and - ) are cancel-leaves, mounted on stubs, in every copy i have met with. issued (in _may_ ) in dark greenish-grey paper boards, with white paper back-label, lettered "_romantic_ / _ballads_ / _from the_ / _danish by_ / _g. borrow_ / _price_ / _net_." the leaves measure x . inches. the volume of _romantic ballads_ was printed at norwich during the early months of . the edition consisted of five hundred copies, but only two hundred of these were furnished with the title-page transcribed above. these were duly distributed to the subscribers. the remaining three hundred copies were forwarded to london, where they were supplied with the two successive title-pages described below, and published in the ordinary manner. "_i had an idea that_, _provided i could persuade any spirited publisher to give these translations to the world_, _i should acquire both considerable fame and profit_;_ not perhaps a world-embracing fame such as byron's_, _but a fame not to be sneered at_, _which would last me a considerable time_, _and would keep my heart from breaking_;--_profit_, _not equal to that which scott had made by his wondrous novels_, _but which would prevent me from starving_, _and enable me to achieve some other literary enterprise_. _i read and re-read my ballads_, _and the more i read them the more i was convinced that the public_, _in the event of their being published_, _would freely purchase_, _and hail them with merited applause_"--["george borrow and his circle," , p. .] allan cunningham's appreciation of the manner in which borrow had succeeded in his effort to introduce the danish ballads to english readers is well expressed in the following letter: , _lower belgrave place_, _london_. _th_ _may_, . _my dear sir_, _i like your danish ballads much_, _and though oehlenslaeger seems a capital poet_, _i love the old rhymes best_. _there is more truth and simplicity in them_;_ and certainly we have nothing in our language to compare with them_. . . . '_sir john_' _is a capital fellow_, _and reminds one of burns'_ '_findlay_.' '_sir middel_' _is very natural and affecting_, _and exceedingly well rendered_,--_so is_ '_the spectre of hydebee_.' _in this you have kept up the true tone of the northern ballad_. '_svend vonved_' _is wild and poetical_, _and it is my favourite_. _you must not think me insensible to the merits of the incomparable_ '_skimming_.' _i think i hear his neigh_, _and see him crush the ribs of the jute_. _get out of bed_, _therefore_, _george borrow_, _and be sick or sleepy no longer_. _a fellow who can give us such exquisite danish ballads has no right to repose_. . . . _i remain_, _your very faithful friend_, _allan cunningham_. _contents_. page. introductory verses. by allan cunningham. [_sing_, ix _sing_, _my friend_; _breathe life again_] the death-raven. [_the silken sail_, _which caught the summer breeze_] i give herewith a reduced facsimile of the first page of the original manuscript of this ballad. no other ms. of it is known to be extant. fridleif and helga. [_the woods were in leaf_, _and they cast a sweet shade_] sir middel. [_so tightly was swanelil lacing her vest_] previously printed (under the title _skion middel_, the first line reading, "_the maiden was lacing so tightly her vest_,") in _the monthly magazine_, _november_ , p. . apart from the opening line, the text of the two versions (with the exception of a few trifling verbal changes) is identical. another, but widely different, version of this ballad is printed in _child maidelvold and other ballads_, , pp. - . in this latter version the name of the heroine is sidselil in place of swanelil, and that of the hero is child maidelvold in place of sir middel. elvir-shades. [_a sultry eve pursu'd a sultry day_] considerable differences are to be observed between the text of the manuscript of _elvir-shades_ and that of the printed version. for example, as printed the second stanza reads: _i spurr'd my courser_, _and more swiftly rode_, _in moody silence_, _through the forests green_, _where doves and linnets had their lone abode_. in the manuscript it reads: _immers'd in pleasing pensiveness i rode_ _down vistas dim_, _and glades of forest green_, _where doves and nightingales had their abode_. the heddybee-spectre. [_i clomb in haste my dappled steed_] in borrow discarded his original ( ) version of _the heddybee-spectre_, and made an entirely new translation. this was written in couplets, with a refrain repeated after each. in the latter version was revised, and represents the final text. it commences thus: _at evening fall i chanced to ride_, _my courser to a tree i tied_. _so wide thereof the story goes_. _against a stump my head i laid_, _and then to slumber i essay'd_ _so wide thereof the story goes_. from the manuscript of the ballad was printed (under the amended title _the heddeby spectre_) in _signelil_, _a tale from the cornish_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . borrow afterwards described the present early version as 'a paraphrase.' sir john. [_sir lave to the island stray'd_] there is extant a manuscript of _sir john_ which apparently belongs to an earlier date than . the text differs considerably from that of the _romantic ballads_. i give a few stanzas of each. . _the servants led her then to bed_, _but could not loose her girdle red_! "_i can_, _perhaps_," _said john_. _he shut the door with all his might_; _he lock'd it fast_, _and quench'd the light_: "_i shall sleep here_," _said john_. _a servant to sir lave hied_:-- "_sir john is sleeping with the bride_:" "_aye_, _that i am_," _said john_. _sir lave to the chamber flew_: "_arise_, _and straight the door undo_!" "_a likely thing_!" _said john_. _he struck with shield_, _he struck with spear_-- "_come out_, _thou dog_, _and fight me here_!" "_another time_," _said john_. _early ms._ _they carried the bride to the bridal bed_, _but to loose her girdle ne'er entered their head_-- "_be that my care_," _said john_. _sir john locked the door as fast as he might_: "_i wish sir lave a very good night_, _i shall sleep here_," _said john_. _a messenger to sir lave hied_: "_sir john is sleeping with thy young bride_!" "_aye_, _that i am_!" _said john_. _on the door sir lave struck with his glove_: "_arise_, _sir john_, _let me in to my love_!" "_stand out_, _you dog_!" _said john_. _he struck on the door with shield and spear_: "_come out_, _sir john_, _and fight me here_!" "_see if i do_!" _said john_. may asda. [_may asda is gone to the merry green wood_] aager and eliza. [_have ye heard of bold sir aager_] saint oluf. [_st. oluf was a mighty king_] _of saint oluf_ there are three mss. extant, the first written in , the second in , and the third in . in the two later mss. the title given to the ballad is _saint oluf and the trolds_. as the latest ms. affords the final text of the poem, i give a few of the variants between it and the printed version of . _st. oluf built a lofty ship_, _with sails of silk so fair_; "_to hornelummer i must go_, _and see what's passing there_." "_o do not go_," _the seamen said_, "_to yonder fatal ground_, _where savage jutts_, _and wicked elves_, _and demon sprites_, _abound_." _st. oluf climb'd the vessel's side_; _his courage nought could tame_! "_heave up_, _heave up the anchor straight_; _let's go in jesu's name_. "_the cross shall be my faulchion now_-- _the book of god my shield_; _and_, _arm'd with them_, _i hope and trust_ _to make the demons yield_!" _and swift_, _as eagle cleaves the sky_, _the gallant vessel flew_, _direct for hornelummer's rock_, _through ocean's wavy blue_. '_twas early in the morning tide_ _when she cast anchor there_; _and_, _lo_! _the jutt stood on the cliff_, _to breathe the morning air_: _his eyes were like the burning beal_-- _his mouth was all awry_; _the truth i tell_, _and say he stood_ _full twenty cubits high_. * * * * * "_be still_, _be still_, _thou noisy guest_-- _be still for evermore_; _become a rock and beetle there_, _above the billows hoar_." _up started then_, _from out the hill_, _the demon's hoary wife_; _she curs'd the king a thousand times_, _and brandish'd high her knife_. _sore wonder'd then the little elves_, _who sat within the hill_, _to see their mother_, _all at once_, _stand likewise stiff and still_. . _saint oluf caused a ship be built_, _at marsirand so fair_; _to hornelummer he'll away_, _and see what's passing there_. _then answer made the steersman old_, _beside the helm who stood_: "_at hornelummer swarm the trolas_, _it is no haven good_." _the king replied in gallant guise_, _and sprang upon the prow_: "_upon the ox { } the cable cast_, _in jesu's name let go_!" _the ox he pants_, _the ox he snorts_, _and bravely cuts the swell_-- _to hornelummer in they sail_ _the ugly trolds to quell_. _the jutt was standing on the cliff_, _which raises high its brow_; _and thence he saw saint oluf_, _and_ _the ox beneath him go_. _his eyes were like a burning beal_, _his mouth was all awry_, _the nails which feve'd his fingers' ends_ _stuck out so wondrously_. "_now hold thy peace_, _thou foulest fiend_, _and changed be to stone_; _do thou stand there_ '_till day of doom_, _and injury do to none_." _then out came running from the hill_ _the carline old and grey_; _she cursed the king a thousand times_, _and bade him sail away_. _then wondered much the little trolds_, _who sat within the hill_, _to see their mother all at once_ _stand likewise stiff and still_. the entire ballad should be compared with _king oluf the saint_, printed in _queen berngerd_, _the bard and the dreams_, _and other ballads_, , pp - . the heroes of dovrefeld. [_on dovrefeld_, _in norway_] another version of _the heroes of dovrefeld_, written in , is extant in manuscript. unlike that of , which was in four line stanzas, this later version is arranged in couplets, with a refrain repeated after each. it commences as follows: _on dovrefeld in norroway_ _free from care the warriors lay_. _who knows like us to rhyme and rune_? _twelve bold warriors there were seen_, _brothers of ingeborg the queen_. _who knows like us to rhyme and rune_? _the first the rushing storm could turn_, _the second could still the running burn_. _who knows like us to rhyme and rune_? svend vonved. [_svend vonved sits in his lonely bower_] in a manuscript of the name employed is _swayne vonved_. there is no manuscript of this ballad. the tournament. [_six score there were_, _six score and ten_] _the tournament_ was one of the ballads entirely rewritten by borrow in for inclusion in the then projected _koempe viser_. the text of the later version differed greatly from that of , as the following extracts will show: . _six score there were_, _six score and ten_, _from hald that rode that day_; _and when they came to brattingsborg_ _they pitch'd their pavilion gay_. _king nilaus stood on the turrets top_, _had all around in sight_: "_why hold those heroes their lives so cheap_, _that it lists them here to fight_? "_now_, _hear me_, _sivard snaresvend_; _far hast thou rov'd_, _and wide_, _those warriors' weapons thou shalt prove_, _to their tent thou must straightway ride_." * * * * * _there shine upon the eighteenth shield_ _a man_, _and a fierce wild boar_, _are borne by the count of lidebierg_; _his blows fall heavy and sore_. _there shines upon the twentieth shield_, _among branches_, _a rose_, _so gay_; _wherever sir nordman comes in war_, _he bears bright honour away_. _there shines on the one-and-twentieth shield_ _a vase_, _and of copper_ '_tis made_; _that's borne by mogan sir olgerson_: _he wins broad lands with his blade_. _and now comes forth the next good shield_, _with a sun dispelling the mirk_; _and that by asbiorn milde is borne_; _he sets the knights' backs at work_. _now comes the four-and-twentieth shield_, _and a bright sword there you see_; _and that by humble sir jerfing is borne_; _full worthy of that is he_. * * * * * _sir humble struck his hand on the board_; _no longer he lists to play_: _i tell you_, _forsooth_, _that the rosy hue_ _from his cheek fast faded away_. "_now_, _hear me_, _vidrik verlandson_; _thou art so free a man_; _do lend me skimming_, _thy horse_, _this day_; _i'll pledge for him what i can_." * * * * * _in came humble_, _with boot and spur_, _he cast on the table his sword_: "_sivard stands in the green wood bound_, _he speaks not a single word_. "_o_, _i have been to the wild forest_, _and have seiz'd the warrior stark_; _sivard there was taken by me_, _and tied to the oak's rough bark_." * * * * * _the queen she sat in the high_, _high loft_, _and thence look'd far and wide_: "_o there comes sward snaresvend_, _with a stately oak at his side_." _then loud laugh'd fair queen gloriant_, _as she looked on sivard full_: "_thou wert_, _no doubt_, _in great_, _great need_, _when thou such flowers didst pull_." . _there were seven and seven times twenty_ _away from hald that went_; _and when they came to brattingsborg_ _there pitch'd they up their tent_. _king nilaus stood on the turret's top_, _had all around in sight_: "_if yonder host comes here to joust_ _they hold their lives but light_. "_now_, _hear me_, _sivard snarenswayne_, _one thing i crave of thee_; _to meet them go_, _for i would know_ _their arms_, _and who they be_." * * * * * _there shine upon the eighteenth shield_ _a giant and a sow_; _who deals worse blows amidst his foes_, _count lideberg_, _than thou_? _wherever sir nordman comes in war_ _he winneth fame in field_; _yon blooming rose and verdant boughs_ _adorn the twentieth shield_. _a copper kettle_, _fairly wrought_, _upon the next you see_; '_tis borne by one who realms has won_, _sir mogan good_, _by thee_! _forth comes the two-and-twentieth shield_, _a sun mid mist and smoke_; _of wrestler line full many a spine_ _has asborn milday broke_. _a glittering faulchion shines upon_ _the four-and-twentieth shield_; _and that doth bear sir jerfing's heir_, _he's worthy it to wield_. * * * * * _young humble struck his hand on the board_, _no longer he lists to play_; _i tell to you that the rosy hue_ _from his cheek fast fled away_. "_now hear me_, _vidrik verlandson_, _thou art a man so free_; _lend me thy horse to ride this course_, _grey skimming lend to me_." * * * * * _in came humble_, _with boot and spur_, _on the table cast his sword_: "_'neath the green-wood bough stands sivard now_, _he speaketh not a word_. "_o_, _i have been to the forest wild_, _and have seiz'd the warrior good_: _these hands did chain the snarenswayne_ _to the oak's bark in the wood_." * * * * * _the queen she sat in the chamber high_, _and thence look'd far and wide_: "_across the plain comes the snarenswayne_, _with an oak-tree at his side_." _then loud laughed fair queen ellinore_, _as she looked on sivard full_: "_thou wast_, _i guess_, _in sore distress_ _when thou such flowers didst pull_!" a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of the version of _the tournament_ will be found herewith, facing page . vidrik verlandson. [_king diderik sits in the halls of bern_] _vidrik verlandson_ was another of the ballads entirely re-written by borrow in for the proposed _koempe viser_. the text of the later version differed extremely from that of , as the following examples will shew: . "_a handsome smith my father was_, _and verland hight was he_: _bodild they call'd my mother fair_; _queen over countries three_: "_skimming i call my noble steed_, _begot from the wild sea-mare_: _blank do i call my haughty helm_, _because it glitters so fair_: "_skrepping i call my good thick shield_; _steel shafts have furrow'd it o'er_: _mimmering have i nam'd my sword_; '_tis hardened in heroes' gore_: "_and i am vidrik verlandson_: _for clothes bright iron i wear_: _stand'st thou not up on thy long_, _long legs_, _i'll pin thee down to thy lair_: "_do thou stand up on thy long_, _long legs_, _nor look so dogged and grim_; _the king holds out before the wood_; _thou shall yield thy treasure to him_." "_all_, _all the gold that i possess_, _i will keep with great renown_; _i'll yield it at no little horse-boy's word_, _to the best king wearing a crown_." "_so young and little as here i seem_, _thou shalt find me prompt in a fray_; _i'll hew the head from thy shoulders off_, _and thy much gold bear away_." * * * * * _it was langben the lofty jutt_, _he wav'd his steel mace round_; _he sent a blow after vidrik_; _but the mace struck deep in the ground_. _it was langben the lofty jutt_, _who had thought his foeman to slay_, _but the blow fell short of vidrik_; _for the good horse bore him away_. _it was langben the lofty jutt_, _that shouted in wild despair_: "_now lies my mace in the hillock fast_, _as though_ '_twere hammered in there_!" * * * * * "_accursed be thou_, _young vidrik_! _and accursed thy piercing steel_! _thou hast given me_, _see_, _a wound in my breast_, _whence rise the pains i feel_." * * * * * "_now hear_, _now hear_, _thou warrior youth_, _thou canst wheel thy courser about_; _but in every feat of manly strength_ _i could beat thee out and out_." . "_my father was a smith by trade_, _and verland smith he hight_; _bodild they call'd my mother dear_, _a monarch's daughter bright_. "_blank do i call my helm_, _thereon_ _full many a sword has snapped_; _skrepping i call my shield_, _thereon_ _full many a shaft has rapped_. "_skimming i call my steed_, _begot_ _from the wild mare of the wood_; _mimmering have i named my sword_, '_tis hardened in heroes' blood_. "_and i am viderik verlandson_, _bright steel for clothes i wear_; _stand up on thy long legs_, _or i_ _will pin thee to thy lair_! "_stand up on thy long legs_, _nor look_ _so dogged and so grim_; _the king doth hold before the wood_, _thy treasure yield to him_!" "_whatever gold i here possess_ _i'll keep_, _like a kemp of worth_; _i'll yield it at no horseboy's word_ _to any king on earth_!" "_so young and little as i seem_ _i'm active in a fray_; _i'll hew thy head_, _thou lubbard_, _off_, _and bear thy gold away_!" * * * * * _it was langben the giant waved_ _his steely mace around_; _he sent a blow at vidrik_, _but_ _the mace struck deep in the ground_. _it was langben_, _the lofty jutt_, _had thought his foe to slay_; _but the blow fell short_, _for the speedy horse_ _his master bore away_. _it was langben_, _the lofty jutt_, _he bellow'd to the heaven_: "_my mace is tight within the height_, _as though by a hammer driven_!" * * * * * _accurs'd be thou_, _young vidrik_! _accursed be thy steel_! _thou'st given me a mighty wound_, _and mighty pain i feel_. * * * * * "_now hear_, _now hear_, _thou warrior youth_, _thou well canst wheel thy steed_; _but i could beat thee out and out_ _in every manly deed_." in _romantic ballads_, and also in the manuscript of , this ballad is entitled _vidrik verlandson_. in the manuscript of it is entitled _vidrik verlandson's conflict with the giant langben_. the text of this manuscript is intermediate between that of the other two versions. a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of the version of _vidrik verlandson_ is given herewith, facing p. . elvir hill. [_i rested my head upon elvir hill's side_, _and my eyes were beginning to slumber_] in the manuscript of this ballad is entitled _elfin hill_, and the text differs considerably from that printed in . i give the opening stanzas of each version. . _i rested my head upon elvir hill's side_, _and my eyes were beginning to slumber_; _that moment there rose up before me two maids_, _whose charms would take ages to number_. _one patted my face_, _and the other exclaim'd_, _while loading my cheek with her kisses_, "_rise_, _rise_, _for to dance with you here we have sped from the undermost caves and abysses_. "_rise_, _fair-haired swain_, _and refuse not to dance_;_ and i and my sister will sing thee_ _the loveliest ditties that ever were heard_, _and the prettiest presents will bring thee_." _then both of them sang so delightful a song_, _that the boisterous river before us_ _stood suddenly quiet and placid_, _as though_ '_twere afraid to disturb the sweet chorus_. . _i rested my head upon elfin hill_, _on mine eyes was slumber descending_; _that moment there rose up before me two maids_, _with me to discourse intending_. _the one kissed me on my cheek so white_, _the other she whispered mine ear in_: "_arise_, _arise_, _thou beautiful swain_! _for thou our dance must share in_. "_wake up_, _wake up_, _thou beautiful swain_! _rise and dance_ '_mongst the verdant grasses_; _and to sing thee the sweetest of their songs i'll bid my elfin lasses_." _to sing a song then one began_, _in voice so sweet and mellow_, _the boisterous stream was still'd thereby_, _that before was wont to bellow_. waldemar's chase. [_late at eve they were toiling on harribee bank_] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, _august_ , p. . the merman. [_do thou_, _dear mother_, _contrive amain_] a later, and greatly improved, version of this ballad was included, under the title _the treacherous merman_, in _the serpent knight and other ballads_, , pp. - . an early draft of this later version bears the title _marsk stig's daughter_. the deceived merman. [_fair agnes alone on the sea-shore stood_] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, _march_ , pp. - . cantata. [_this is denmark's holyday_] the hail-storm. [_when from our ships we bounded_] _the hail storm_ was reprinted in _targum_, , pp. - , and again in _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_, , pp. - . in each instance very considerable variations were introduced into the text. the elder-witch. [_though tall the oak_, _and firm its stem_] ode. from the gaelic. [_oh restless_, _to night_, _are my slumbers_] bear song. [_the squirrel that's sporting_] previously printed, with some trifling differences in the text, in _the monthly magazine_, _december_, , p. . national song. [_king christian stood beside the mast_] previously printed (under the title "_sea song_; _from the danish of evald_") in _the monthly magazine_, _december_, , p. . the old oak. [_here have i stood_, _the pride of the park_] lines to six-foot three. [_a lad_, _who twenty tongues can talk_] nature's temperaments: . sadness. [_lo_, _a pallid fleecy vapour_] . glee. [_roseate colours on heaven's high arch_] . madness. [_what darkens_, _what darkens_?--'_tis heaven's high roof_] in a revised manuscript of uncertain date, but _c_ - , this poem is entitled _hecla and etna_, the first line reading: "_what darkens_? _it is the wide arch of the sky_." the violet-gatherer. [_pale the moon her light was shedding_] ode to a mountain-torrent. [_how lovely art thou in thy tresses of foam_] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, _october_, , p. . in _the monthly magazine_ the eighth stanza reads: _o pause for a time_,--_for a short moment stay_; _still art thou streaming_,--_my words are in vain_; _oft-changing winds_, _with tyrannical sway_, _lord there below on the time-serving main_! in romantic ballads it reads: _abandon_, _abandon_, _thy headlong career_-- _but downward thou rushest_--_my words are in vain_, _bethink thee that oft-changing winds domineer_ _on the billowy breast of the time-serving main_. runic verses. [_o the force of runic verses_] thoughts on death. [_perhaps_ '_tis folly_, _but still i feel_] previously printed (under the tentative title _death_, and with some small textual variations) in _the monthly magazine_, _october_, , p. . birds of passage. [_so hot shines the sun upon nile's yellow stream_] the broken harp. [_o thou_, _who_, '_mid the forest trees_] scenes. [_observe ye not yon high cliff's brow_] the suicide's grave. [_the evening shadows fall upon the grave_] note.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is at present no copy of the first issue of the first edition of _romantic ballads_, with the original title-page, in the library of the british museum. [picture: manuscript of the death raven] [picture: manuscript of sir john] [picture: manuscript of saint oluf and the trolds] [picture: manuscript of svend vonved-- ] [picture: manuscript of the tournament, ] [picture: manuscript of vidrik verlandson-- ] [picture: manuscript of elvir hill] [picture: manuscript of marsk stig's daughter] second issue: romantic ballads, / translated from the danish; / and / miscellaneous pieces; / by / george borrow. / _through gloomy paths unknown_--/ _paths which untrodden be_, / _from rock to rock i roam_ / _along the dashing sea_. / bowring. / london: / john taylor, waterloo place, pall mall, / . collation:--demy octavo, pp. xii + . the details of the collation follow those of the first issue described above in every particular, save that, naturally, the volume lacks the two concluding leaves carrying the list of subscribers. issued in drab paper boards, with white paper back-label. the published price was seven shillings. "_taylor will undertake to publish the remaining copies_. _his advice is to make the price seven shillings_, _and to print a new title-page_, _and then he will be able to sell some for you i advise the same_," _etc._--[allan cunningham to george borrow.] there is a copy of the second issue of the first edition of _romantic ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . cc. . _third issue_: romantic ballads, / translated from the danish; / and / miscellaneous pieces; / by / george borrow. / _through gloomy paths unknown_--/ _paths which untrodden be_, / _from rock to rock i roam_ / _along the dashing sea_. / bowring. / london: / published by wightman and cramp, / paternoster row. / . collation:--demy octavo, pp. xii + . the details of the collation follow those of the second issue described above in every particular. issued in drab paper boards, with white paper back-label. the price was again seven shillings. in a type-facsimile reprint of the original edition of _romantic ballads_ was published by messrs. jarrold and sons of norwich. three hundred copies were printed. ( ) [targum: ] targum. / or / metrical translations / from thirty languages / and / dialects. / by / george borrow. / "_the raven has ascended to the nest of the nightingale_." / persian poem. / st. petersburg. / printed by schulz and beneze. / . collation:--demy octavo, printed in half-sheets, pp. viii + ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with a russian quotation upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; _preface_ pp. iii-v; table of _contents_ pp. vi-viii, with a single _erratum_ at the foot of p. viii; and text of the _translations_ pp. - . there are no head-lines, the pages being numbered centrally in arabic numerals. beyond that upon the foot of the title-page, there is no imprint. the signatures are given in large arabic numerals, each pair of half-sheets dividing one number between them; thus the first half-sheet is signed , the second *, the third , the fourth *, &c. the register is therefore to (thirteen half-sheets, each leaves), followed by a single unsigned leaf (pp. - ), the whole preceded by an unsigned half-sheet carrying the title-page, preface, and table of contents. the book was issued without any half-title. issued in plain paper wrappers of a bright green colour, lined with white, and without either lettering or label. the leaves measure / x . inches. borrow was happy in the title he selected for his book. _targum_, as mr. gosse has pointed out, is a chaldee word meaning an interpretation. the word is said to be the root of 'dragoman.' _targum_ was written by borrow during his two years' residence at st. petersburg (august, , to august, ), and was published in june of the latter year. one hundred copies only were printed. as might naturally be expected the book has now become of very considerable rarity, but a small proportion of the original hundred copies being traceable to-day. a reduced facsimile of the title-page is given herewith. "just before completing this great work, the _manchu new testament_, mr. borrow published a small volume in the english language, entitled _targum_, _or metrical translations from thirty languages and dialects_. the exquisite delicacy with which he has caught and rendered the beauties of his well-chosen originals, is a proof of his learning and genius. the work is a pearl in literature, and, like pearls, it derives value from its scarcity, for the whole edition was limited to about a hundred copies."--[_john p. hasfeld_, _in the athenaeum_, _march_ _th_, .] "some days ago i was at kirtof's bookshop on the gaternaya ulitza. i wanted to buy a _bible in spain_ to send to simbirsk (on the volga), where they torment me for it every post-day. the stock was all sold out in a few days after its arrival last autumn. the bookseller asked me if i knew a book by borrow called _targum_, which was understood to have been written by him and printed at st. petersburg, but he had never been able to light upon it; and the surprising thing was that the trade abroad and even in england did him the honour to order it. i consoled him by saying that he could hardly hope to see a copy in his shop or to get a peep at it. 'i have a copy,' continued i, 'but if you will offer me a thousand roubles for the bare reading of it i cannot do you the favour.' the man opened his eyes in astonishment. 'it must be a wonderful book,' said he. 'yes, in that you are right, my good friend,' i replied."--[_john p. hasfeld_.] "after he became famous the russian government was desirous of procuring a copy of this rare book, _targum_, for the imperial library, and sent an envoy to england for the purpose. but the envoy was refused what he sought, and told that as the book was not worth notice when the author's name was obscure and they had the opportunity of obtaining it themselves, they should not have it now."--[_a. egmont hake_, _in the athenaeum_, _august_ _th_, .] _contents_. page ode to god. [_reign'd the universe's master ere were earthly things begun_] borrow reprinted this _ode_ in _the bible in spain_, , vol. iii, p. . prayer. [_o thou who dost know what the heart fain would hide_] death. [_grim death in his shroud swatheth mortals each hour_] stanzas. on a fountain. [_in the fount fell my tears_, _like rain_] stanzas. the pursued. [_how wretched roams the weary wight_] odes. from the persian: . [_boy_, _hand my friends the cup_, '_tis time of roses now_] . [_if shedding lovers' blood thou deem'st a matter slight_] . [_o thou_, _whose equal mind knows no vexation_] stanzas. from the turkish of fezouli. [_o fezouli_, _the hour is near_] description of paradise. [_eight gennets there be_, _as some relate_] o lord! i nothing crave but thee. [_o thou_, _from whom all love doth flow_] mystical poem. relating to the worship of the great foutsa or buddh. [_should i foutsa's force and glory_] moral metaphors: . [_from out the south the genial breezes sigh_] . [_survey_, _survey gi shoi's murmuring flood_!] the mountain-chase. [_autumn has fled and winter left our bounds_] the glory of the cossacks. [_quiet don_!] the black shawl. [_on the shawl_, _the black shawl with distraction i gaze_] song. from the russian of pushkin. [_hoary man_, _hateful man_!] the cossack. an ancient ballad. [_o'er the field the snow is flying_] the three sons of budrys. [_with his three mighty sons_, _tall as ledwin's were once_] the banning of the pest. [_hie away_, _thou horrid monster_!] woinomoinen. [_then the ancient woinomoinen_] the words of beowulf, son of egtheof. [_every one beneath the heaven_] the lay of biarke. [_the day in east is glowing_] the title of this ballad as it appears in the original ms. is _the biarkemal_. the hail-storm. [_for victory as we bounded_] previously printed (but with very considerable variations in the text, the first line reading "_when from our ships we bounded_") in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . a final version of the ballad, written about , was printed in _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_, , pp. - . the king and crown. [_the king who well crown'd does govern the land_] ode to a mountain torrent. [_o stripling immortal thou forth dost career_] previously printed (but with an entirely different text, the first line reading "_how lovely art thou in thy tresses of foam_") in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi., , p. . also printed in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . the first stanza of the _ode_ as printed in _targum_ does not figure in the version given in _romantic ballads_, whilst the third stanza of the _romantic ballads_ version is not to be found in _targum_. chloe. [_o we have a sister on earthly dominions_!] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, , p. . national song. from the danish of evald. [_king christian stood beside the mast_] previously printed (under the title _sea song_; _from the danish of evald_) in _the monthly magazine_, _december_, , p. . also printed in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - ; and again in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, _june_, , p. . the four versions of this _song_, as printed in _the monthly magazine_, in _romantic ballads_, in _the foreign quarterly review_, and in _targum_, are utterly different, the opening line being the only one which has approximately the same reading in all. sir sinclair. [_sir sinclair sail'd from the scottish ground_] previously printed in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, _june_, , p. . hvidfeld. [_our native land has ever teem'd_] birting. a fragment. [_it was late at evening tide_] this "fragment" consists of fifteen stanzas from the ballad _the giant of berne and orm ungerswayne_, which was printed complete, for private circulation, in . [_see post_, no. .] ingeborg's lamentation. [_autumn winds howl_] the delights of finn mac coul. [_finn mac coul_ '_mongst his joys did number_] carolan's lament. [_the arts of greece_, _rome and of eirin's fair earth_] to icolmcill. [_on icolmcill may blessings pour_] the dying bard. [_o for to hear the hunter's tread_] in the original manuscript of this poem the title reads _the wish of the bard_; the text also differs considerably from that which appears in _targum_. the prophecy of taliesin. [_within my mind_] the history of taliesin. [_the head bard's place i hold_] the original manuscript of _the history of taliesin_ possesses many points of interest. in the first place, in addition to sundry variations of text, it enables us to fill up the words in the last line of stanza , and the fourth line of stanza , which in the pages of _targum_ are replaced by asterisks. the full lines read: _where died the almighty's son_, and _have seen the trinity_. in the second place the manuscript contains a stanza, following upon the first, which does not occur in the printed text. this stanza reads as follows: _i with my lord and god_ _on the highest places trod_, _when lucifer down fell_ _with his army into hell_. _i know each little star_ _which twinkles near and far_; _and i know the milky way_ _where i tarried many a day_. a reduced facsimile of the third page of this manuscript will be found herewith, facing page . epigram. on a miser who had built a stately mansion. [_of every pleasure is thy mansion void_] the invitation. [_parry_, _of all my friends the best_] the rising of achilles. [_straightway achilles arose_, _the belov'd of jove_, _round his shoulders_] the meeting of odysses and achilles. [_tow'rds me came the shade of peleidean achilles_] hymn to thetis and neoptolemus. [_of thetis i sing with her locks of gold-shine_] the grave of demos. [_thus old demos spoke_, _as sinking sought the sun the western wave_] the sorceries of canidia. [_father of gods_, _who rul'st the sky_] the french cavalier. [_the french cavalier shall have my praise_] address to sleep. [_sweet death of sense_, _oblivion of ill_] the moormen's march from granada. [_reduan_, _i but lately heard_] the forsaken. [_up i rose_, _o mother_, _early_] stanzas. from the portuguese. [_a fool is he who in the lap_] my eighteenth year. [_where is my eighteenth year_? _far back_] song. from the rommany. [_the strength of the ox_] another version of this _song_, bearing the title "_our heart is heavy_, _brother_," is printed in _marsk stig's daughters and other songs and ballads_, , pp. - . note.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. in _targum_ was reprinted, together with _the talisman_, by messrs. jarrold & sons, of norwich, in an edition of copies. there is a copy of the first edition of _targum_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. .i. . [picture: title page of targum, ] [picture: manuscript of the miarkemal] [picture: manuscript of the history of taliesin] ( ) [the talisman: ] the / talisman. / from the russian / of / alexander pushkin. / with other pieces. / st. petersburg. / printed by schulz and beneze, / . collation:--royal octavo, pp. ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with a russian quotation upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of _the talisman_ and other poems pp. - . there are no head-lines, the pages being numbered centrally in arabic numerals. beyond that upon the title-page there is no imprint. there are also no signatures, the pamphlet being composed of a single sheet, folded to form sixteen pages. the last leaf is a blank. the book was issued without any half-title. issued stitched, and without wrappers. the leaves measure . x . inches. one hundred copies only were printed. a reduced facsimile of the title-page of _the talisman_ is given herewith. it will be observed that the heavy letterpress upon the reverse of the title shows through the paper, and is reproduced in the photograph. _contents_. page the talisman. [_where fierce the surge with awful bellow_] the mermaid. [_close by a lake_, _begirt with forest_] ancient russian songs: . [_the windel-straw nor grass so shook and trembled_] . [_o rustle not_, _ye verdant oaken branches_!] . [_o thou field of my delight so fair and verdant_!] ancient ballad. [_from the wood a sound is gliding_] the renegade. [_now pay ye the heed that is fitting_] note.--the whole of the poems printed in _the talisman_ appeared there for the first time. in messrs. jarrold & sons published page for page reprints of _targum_ and _the talisman_. they were issued together in one volume, bound in light drab-coloured paper boards, with white paper back-label, and were accompanied by the following collective title-page: _targum_: / _or_, / _metrical translations from thirty languages_ / _and dialects_. / _and_ / _the talisman_, / _from the russian of alexander pushkin_. / _with other pieces_. / _by_ / _george borrow_. / _author of_ "_the bible in spain_" _&c._ / _london_: / _jarrold & sons_, , _paternoster buildings_. in a small 'remainder' of _the talisman_ came to light. the 'find' consisted of about five copies, which were sold in the first instance for an equal number of pence. the buyer appears to have resold them at progressive prices, commencing at four pounds and concluding at ten guineas. there is a copy of the first edition of _the talisman_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. .e. . [picture: title page of the talisman, ] ( ) [the gospel of st. luke: ] embeo / e majaro lucas. / brotoboro / randado andre la chipe griega, acana / chibado andre o romano, o chipe es / zincales de sese. / el evangelio segun s. lucas, / traducido al romani, / o dialecto de los gitanos de espana. / . collation:--foolscap octavo, pp. , consisting of: title-page, as above (with borrow's colophon upon the reverse, followed by a quotation from the _epistle to the romans_, chap. xv. v. xxiv.) pp. - ; and text of the gospel pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. there are no head-lines, the pages being numbered centrally in arabic numerals. there is no printer's imprint. the signatures are a to l ( sheets, each leaves), plus l repeated (two leaves, the second a blank). the book was issued without any half-title. i have never seen a copy of the first edition of borrow's translation into the dialect of the spanish gypsies of the gospel of st. luke in the original binding. no doubt the book (which was printed in madrid) was put up in paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, in accordance with the usual continental custom. most of the copies now extant are either in a modern binding, or in contemporary brown calf, with marbled edges and endpapers. the latter are doubtless the copies sent home by borrow, and bound in leather for that purpose. the leaves of these measure x inches. as will be seen from the following extracts, it is probable that the first edition consisted of copies, and that of these were forwarded to london: "in response to borrow's letter of february th, the committee resolved 'to authorise mr. borrow to print copies of the gospel of st. luke, without the vocabulary, in the rummanee dialect, and to engage the services of a competent person to translate the gospel of st. luke by way of trial in the dialect of the spanish basque.'"--[_letters of george borrow to the british and foreign bible society_, , pp. - .] "a small impression of the gospel of st. luke, in the rommany, or gitano, or gipsy language, has been printed at madrid, under the superintendence of this same gentleman, who himself made the translation for the benefit of the interesting, singular, degraded race of people whose name it bears, and who are very numerous in some parts of spain. he has likewise taken charge of the printing of the gospel of st. luke, in the cantabrian, or spanish basque language, a translation of which had fallen into his hands."--[_thirty-fourth annual report of the british and foreign bible society_, , p. xliii.] "all the testaments were stopped at the custom house, they were contained in two large chests. . . . the chests, therefore, with the hundred gospels in gitano and basque [probably copies of each] for the library of the bible society are at present at san lucar in the custom house, from which i expect to receive to-morrow the receipt which the authorities here demand."--[_borrow's letter to the rev. a. brandram_, _seville_, _may_ _nd_, .] a second edition of the gospel was printed in london in . the collation is duodecimo, pp. . this was followed by a third edition, london, , the collation of which is also duodecimo, pp. . both bear the same imprint: "_london_: / _printed by william clowes and sons_, _stamford street_, / _and charing cross_." for these london editions the text was considerably revised. the gospel of st. luke in the basque dialect, referred to in the above paragraphs, is a small octavo volume bearing the following title-page: _evangelioa_ / _san lucasen guissan_ / _el evangelio segun s. lucas_. / _traducido al vascuence_. / _madrid_: / _imprenta de la campania tipografica_ / . the translation was the work of a basque physician named oteiza, and borrow did little more than see it through the press. the book has, therefore, no claim to rank as a borrow _princeps_. the measure of success which attended his efforts to reproduce the gospel of st. luke in these two dialects is best told in borrow's own words: "i subsequently published the gospel of st. luke in the rommany and biscayan languages. with respect to the first, i beg leave to observe that no work printed in spain ever caused so great and so general a sensation, not so much amongst the gypsies, for whom it was intended, as amongst the spaniards themselves, who, though they look upon the roma with some degree of contempt, nevertheless take a strange interest in all that concerns them. . . . respecting the gospel in basque i have less to say. it was originally translated into the dialect of guipuscoa by dr. oteiza, and subsequently received corrections and alterations from myself. it can scarcely be said to have been published, it having been prohibited and copies of it seized on the second day of its appearance. but it is in my power to state that it is anxiously expected in the basque provinces, where books in the aboriginal tongue are both scarce and dear."--[_borrow's survey of his last two years in spain_, _printed in his letters to the bible society_, , pp. - .] there is a copy of the first edition of _the gospel of st. luke in the dialect of the spanish gypsies_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. .aa. . the museum also possesses a copy of the gospel in the basque dialect; the pressmark is c. .aa. . [picture: title page of embeo e majaro lucas] ( ) [the zincali: ] the zincali; / or, / an account / of the / gypsies of spain. / with / an original collection of their / songs and poetry, / and / a copious dictionary of their language. / by / george borrow, / late agent of the british and foreign bible society / in spain. / "_for that_, _which is unclean by nature_, _thou canst entertain no hope_: _no_ / _washing will turn the gypsy white_."--ferdousi. / in two volumes. / vol. i. [_vol. ii_] / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . _vol. i_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xvi + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_g. woodfall and son_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; dedication _to the right honourable the earl of clarendon_, _g.c.b._ (with blank reverse) pp. v-vi; _preface_ pp. vii-xii; table of _contents_ pp. xiii-xvi; and text pp. - , including a separate fly-title (with blank reverse) to _the zincali_, _part ii_. there are headlines throughout, each verso being headed _the zincali_, whilst each recto carries at its head a note of the particular subject occupying it. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. . the signatures are a (six leaves), b (two leaves), b to q ( sheets, each leaves), plus r (two leaves). sig. r is a blank. _vol. ii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. vi + + vi + * ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_g. woodfall and son_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; table of _contents_ pp. v-vi; fly-title to _the zincali_, _part iii_ (with blank reverse) pp. - ; text of _part iii_ (including separate fly-titles, each with blank reverse, to _the praise of buddh_, _on the language of the gitanos_, and _robber language_) pp. - ; fly-title (with blank reverse) to _the zincali_. _vocabulary of their language_ pp. i-ii; _advertisement to the vocabulary_ pp. iii-v; p. vi is blank; text of the _vocabulary_ pp. * -* ; p. * is blank; fly-title (with blank reverse) to _miscellanies in the gitano language_ pp. * -* ; _advertisement_ to the _miscellanies_ p. * ; and text of the _miscellanies_ pp. * -* . the reverse of p. * is blank. there are head-lines throughout, each verso being headed _the zincali_, whilst each recto carries at its head a note of the particular subject occupying it. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. * . the signatures are a ( leaves), b (one leaf), b to g ( sheets, each leaves), h ( leaves), a ( leaves), b to e ( sheets, each leaves), f ( leaves), and g ( leaves). b , b , and b are cancel-leaves. the last leaf of sig. g is occupied by a series of advertisements of _works just published_ by john murray. issued (in _april_, ) in dark blue cloth boards, with white paper back-label, lettered "_borrow's_ / _gypsies_ / _of_ / _spain_. / _two volumes_. / _vol. i_. [vol. ii.]." the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._ of the first edition of _the zincali_ seven hundred and fifty copies only were printed. a second edition, to which a new preface was added, was published in _march_, , and a third in _september_, , each of which was restricted to the same number of copies. the fourth edition appeared in , the fifth in , the sixth in , the seventh in , and the eighth in . the book has since been included in various popular editions, and translated into several foreign languages. examples of _the zincali_ may sometimes be met with bearing dates other than those noted above. these are merely copies of the editions specified, furnished with new title-pages. included in the second volume of _the zincali_ is a considerable amount of verse, as follows: page rhymes of the gitanos. [_unto a refuge me they led_] the deluge. part i. [_i with fear and terror quake_] the deluge. part ii. [_when i last did bid farewell_] the pestilence. [_i'm resolved now to tell_] the whole of the above pieces are accompanied on the opposite pages by the original texts from which borrow translated them. poem, relating to the worship of the great foutsa or buddh. [_should i foutsa's force and glory_] previously printed in _targum_, , p. . there is a copy of the first edition of _the zincali_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is .g. . ( ) [the bible in spain: .] the / bible in spain; / or, the / journeys, adventures, and imprisonments / of an englishman, / in / an attempt to circulate the scriptures / in / the peninsula. / by george borrow, / author of "the gypsies of spain." / in three volumes. / vol. i. [vol. ii, etc.] / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . _vol. i_. collation:--large duodecimo pp. xxiv + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_g. woodfall and son_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; _contents of vol. i_ pp. v-viii; _preface_ pp. ix-xxiv; and text pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each verso being headed _the bible in spain_ together with the number of the chapter, whilst each recto carries at its head a note of the particular subject occupying it, with the chapter number repeated. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. . the signatures are a to q (sixteen sheets, each leaves), plus r (a half-sheet of leaves). the last leaf of sig. r carries a series of advertisements of books published by john murray. _vol. ii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. viii + ; consisting of half-title (with imprint "_g. woodfall and son_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; _contents of vol. ii._ pp. v-viii; and _text_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, as in the first volume. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. . the signatures are a (four leaves), b to r (sixteen sheets, each leaves), plus s ( leaves). the last leaf of sig. r carries a series of advertisements of books published by john murray. _vol. iii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. viii + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_g. woodfall and son_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; _contents of vol iii_ pp. v-viii; and text pp. - . there are headlines throughout, as in the two preceding volumes. the reverse of p. is occupied by advertisements of _romantic ballads_, _targum_, and _the zincali_. the imprint is repeated at the foot of p. . the signatures are a ( leaves), b ( leaves), b to r (sixteen sheets, each leaves), plus s ( leaves). issued (in _december_, ) in deep claret-coloured cloth boards, with white paper back-label, lettered "_the_ | _bible_ | _in_ | _spain_ | _vol. i_. [_vol. ii_, &c.]." the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._ although the title page of the first edition of _the bible in spain_ is dated , there can be no doubt that the book was ready early in the preceding december. i have in my own library a copy, still in the original cloth boards, with the following inscription in borrow's handwriting upon the flyleaf: [picture: borrow's inscription] autographed presentation copies of borrow's books are remarkably few in number, i only know of four, in addition to the above. one of these is preserved in the borrow museum, at norwich. of the first edition of _the bible in spain_ one thousand copies were printed. the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions were all published in . by eighteen authorised editions had made their appearance. since that date the book has been re-issued in numberless popular editions, and has been translated into various foreign languages. the following verses made their first appearance in _the bible in spain_: vol. i., page fragment of a spanish hymn. [_once of old upon a mountain_, _shepherds overcome with sleep_] lines from an eastern poet. [_i'll weary myself each night and each day_] a gachapla. [_i stole a plump and bonny fowl_] vol. ii., page fragment of a patriotic song. [_don carlos is a hoary churl_] saint james. [_thou shield of that faith which in spain we revere_] a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _saint james_ will be found facing the present page. lines. [_may the lord god preserve us from evil birds three_] lines. [_a handless man a letter did write_] there is a copy of the first edition of _the bible in spain_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is .f . [picture: manuscript of the hymn to st. james] ( ) [review of ford's "hand-book for travellers in spain": ] art.--hand-book for travellers in spain. london: vols. / post vo. . collation:--folio, pp. . there is no title-page proper, the title, as above, being imposed upon the upper portion of the first page, after the manner of a 'dropped head.' the head-line is _spanish hand-book_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. there is no printer's imprint. there are also no signatures; but the pamphlet is composed of three sheets, each two leaves, making twelve pages in all. issued stitched, and without wrappers. the leaves measure . x . inches. the pamphlet is undated. it was printed in . this _review_ is unquestionably the rarest of the first editions of borrow's works. no more than two copies would appear to have been struck off, and both are fortunately extant to-day. one of these was formerly in the possession of dr. william i. knapp, and is now the property of the hispanic society, of new york. the second example is in my own library. this was borrow's own copy, and is freely corrected in his characteristic handwriting. a greatly reduced facsimile of the last page of the pamphlet is given herewith. in richard ford published his _hand-book for travellers in spain and readers at home_ [ vols. vo.], a work, the compilation of which is said to have occupied its author for more than sixteen years. in conformity with the wish of ford (who had himself favourably reviewed _the bible in spain_) borrow undertook to produce a study of the _hand-book_ for _the quarterly review_. the above essay was the result. but the essay, brilliant though it is, was not a 'review.' not until page is the _hand-book_ even mentioned, and but little concerning it appears thereafter. lockhart, then editing the _quarterly_, proposed to render it more suitable for the purpose for which it had been intended by himself interpolating a series of extracts from ford's volumes. but borrow would tolerate no interference with his work, and promptly withdrew the essay, which had meanwhile been set up in type. the following letter, addressed by lockhart to ford, sufficiently explains the position: _london_, _june_ _th_, . _dear ford_, '_el gitano_' _sent me a paper on the_ "_hand-book_" _which i read with delight_. _it seemed just another capital chapter of his_ "_bible in spain_" _and i thought_, _as there was hardly a word of_ '_review_,' _and no extract giving the least notion of the peculiar merits and style of the_ "_hand-book_," _that i could easily_ (_as is my constant custom_) _supply the humbler part myself_, _and so present at once a fair review of the work_, _and a lively specimen of our friend's vein of eloquence in exordio_. _but_, _behold_! _he will not allow any tampering_ . . . . _i now write to condole with you_; _for i am very sensible_, _after all_, _that you run a great risk in having your book committed to hands far less competent for treating it or any other book of spanish interest than borrow's would have been_ . . ._ and i consider that_, _after all_, _in the case of a new author_, _it is the first duty of the_ "_quarterly review_" _to introduce that author fully and fairly to the public_. _ever yours truly_, _j. g. lockhart_. "our author pictures gibraltar as a human entity thus addressing spain: _accursed land_! _i hate thee_, _and far from being a defence_, _will invariably prove a thorn in thy side_. and so on through many sentences of excited rhetoric. borrow forgot while he wrote that he had a book to review--a book, moreover, issued by the publishing house which issued the periodical in which his review was to appear."--[_george borrow and his circle_, , p. ]. in borrow's _review_ was reprinted in the following pamphlet: _a_ / _supplementary chapter_ / _to_ / _the bible in spain_ / _inspired by_ / _ford's_ "_handbook for travellers in spain_." / _by_ / _george borrow_ / _london_: / _printed for private circulation_ / .--square demy vo, pp. . [see _post_, no. .] [picture: printed extract from the review with hand-written notes] [picture: title page of supplementary chapter to the bible in spain, ] ( ) [a supplementary chapter to "the bible in spain": ] a / supplementary chapter / to / the bible in spain / inspired by / ford's "handbook for travellers in spain." / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; frontispiece (with blank recto) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; _prefatory note_ (signed '_t. j. w._') pp. - ; and text of the _chapter pp._ - . there are head-lines throughout, each verso being headed _a supplementary chapter_, and each recto _to the bible in spain_. following p. is a leaf, with blank recto, and with the following imprint upon the reverse, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n. w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a to c ( sheets, each leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. the frontispiece consists of a greatly reduced facsimile of the last page, bearing borrow's corrections, of the original edition of his _review of ford's_ '_hand-book_.' this _supplementary chapter to_ "_the bible in spain_" is a reprint of the review of ford's _hand-book for travellers in spain_ written by borrow in for insertion in _the quarterly review_, but withdrawn by him in consequence of the proposal made by the editor, john gibson lockhart, that he should himself introduce into borrow's essay a series of extracts from the _handbook_. [see _ante_, no. .] included in the _prefatory note_ is the following amusing squib, written by borrow in , but never printed by him. i chanced to light upon the manuscript in a packet of his still unpublished verse: _would it not be more dignified_ _to run up debts on every side_, _and then to pay your debts refuse_, _than write for rascally reviews_? _and lectures give to great and small_, _in pot-house_, _theatre_, _and town-hall_, _wearing your brains by night and day_ _to win the means to pay your way_? _i vow by him who reigns in_ [_hell_], _it would be more respectable_! there is a copy of _a supplementary chapter to_ "_the bible in spain_" in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. ( ). [picture: manuscript of verse on reviewing] ( ) [lavengro: ] lavengro; / the scholar--the gypsy--the priest. / by george borrow, / author of "the bible in spain," and "the gypsies of spain" / in three volumes.--vol. i. [_vol. ii._, _&c._] / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . _vol. i_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xviii { } + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_london_: / _george woodfall and son_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse). pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with advertisements of _the bible in spain_ and _the zincali_ upon the reverse) pp. iii-iv; _preface_ pp. v-xii; and text pp. - . at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_g. woodfall and son_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the number of the chapter, together with the title of the individual subject occupying it. the signatures are a (nine leaves, a single leaf being inserted between a and a ), and b to q (fifteen sheets, each leaves). a portrait of borrow, engraved by w. holl from a painting by h. w. phillips, serves as frontispiece. _vol. ii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_london_: / _george woodfall and son_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with advertisements of _the bible in spain_ and _the zincali_ upon the reverse) pp. iii-iv; _contents_ of vol. ii pp. v-xi; p. xii is blank; and text pp. - . at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_g. woodfall and son_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." there are head-lines throughout, as in the first volume. the signatures are _a_ ( leaves), _b_ ( leaves), b to q (fifteen sheets, each leaves), plus r ( leaves). _vol. iii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with imprint "_london_: / _george woodfall and son_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with advertisements of _the bible in spain_ and _the zincali_ upon the reverse) pp. iii-iv; _contents_ of vol. iii pp. v-xi; p. xii is blank; and text pp. - . at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_g. woodfall and son_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." there are head-lines throughout, as in the first volume. the signatures are _a_ ( leaves), _b_ ( leaves), b to s (seventeen sheets, each leaves), t ( leaves), and u ( leaves). issued in dark blue cloth boards, with white paper back-labels, lettered "_lavengro_; / _the_ / _scholar_, / _the gypsy_, / _and_ / _the priest_. / _by george borrow_ / _vol. i_. [_vol. ii_., _&c._]" the leaves measure . x . inches. the edition consisted of , copies. the published price was _s._ a second edition (miscalled _third edition_) was issued in ; a third (miscalled _fourth_) in ; and a fourth (miscalled _fifth_) in . to the edition of was prefixed a new _preface_, in which borrow replied to his critics in a somewhat angry and irritable manner. copies of the first edition of _lavengro_ are to be met with, the three volumes bound in one, in original publishers' cloth, bearing the name of the firm of chapman and hall upon the back. these copies are 'remainders.' they were made up in . it is by no means unlikely that in some confusion prevailed as to the nature of this subsidiary issue, and that it was mistaken for a second edition of the book. if so the incorrect numbering of the edition of that date, the actual second edition, may be readily accounted for. an important edition of _lavengro_ is: _lavengro_ / _by george borrow_ / _a new edition_ / _containing the unaltered text of the original issue_; / _some suppressed passages now printed for the_ / _first time_; _ms. variorum_, _vocabulary and notes_ / _by the author of_ / _the life of george borrow_ / _london_ / _john murray_, _albemarle street_ / .--crown vo, pp. xxviii + . the book was reprinted in . the editor was dr. william knapp. an edition of _lavengro_, with a valuable introduction by mr. theodore watts-dunton, was published by messrs. ward, lock & co., in . the work is also included in _everyman's library_, and in other series of popular reprints. when put to press in february, , the first volume of _lavengro_ was set up with the title-page reading as follows:-- _life_, _a drama_. / _by_ / _george borrow_, _esq._, / _author of_ "_the bible in spain_," _etc._ / _in three volumes_. / _vol. i_. / _london_: / _john murray_, _albemarle street_. / . only two examples of the volume with this interesting early title-page are known to have survived. one of these is now in the possession of the hispanic society, of new york. the other is the property of mr. otto kyllmann. later in the same year murray advertised the work under the following title:-- _lavengro_, _an autobiography_. _by george borrow_, _esq._, _&c._ the same title was employed in the advertisements of . mr. clement shorter possesses the original draft of the first portion of _lavengro_. in this draft the title-page appears in its earliest form, and describes the book as _some account of the life_, _pursuits_, _and adventures of a norfolk man_. a facsimile of this tentative title was given by mr. shorter in _george borrow and his circle_, , p. . "borrow took many years to write _lavengro_. 'i am writing the work,' he told dawson turner, 'in precisely the same manner as _the bible in spain_, viz. on blank sheets of old account-books, backs of letters,' &c., and he recalls mahomet writing the koran on mutton bones as an analogy to his own 'slovenliness of manuscript.' i have had plenty of opportunity of testing this slovenliness in the collection of manuscripts of portions of _lavengro_ that have come into my possession. these are written upon pieces of paper of all shapes and sizes, although at least a third of the book in borrow's very neat handwriting is contained in a leather notebook. the title-page demonstrates the earliest form of borrow's conception. not only did he then contemplate an undisguised autobiography, but even described himself as 'a norfolk man.' before the book was finished, however, he repudiated the autobiographical note, and we find him fiercely denouncing his critics for coming to such a conclusion. 'the writer,' he declares, 'never said it was an autobiography; never authorised any person to say it was one.' which was doubtless true, in a measure."--[_george borrow and his circle_, , pp. - ]. there is a copy of the first edition of _lavengro_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . f. . ( .) [the romany rye: ] the / romany rye; / a sequel to "lavengro." / by george borrow, / author of / "the bible in spain," "the gypsies of spain," etc. / "_fear god_, _and take your own part_." / in two volumes.--vol. i. [_vol. ii._] / london: john murray, albemarle street. / . / [the right of translation is reserved.] _vol. i_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: _woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" at the foot of the reverse) pp. iii-iv; preface (styled _advertisement_) pp. v-vi; table of _contents_ pp. vii-xi; extract from _pleasantries of the cogia nasr eddin efendi_ p. xii; and text pp. - . the head-line is _the romany rye_ throughout, upon both sides of the page; each page also bears at its head the number of the particular chapter occupying it. at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of leaves), b to q ( sheets, each leaves), plus r (a half-sheet of leaves). _vol. ii_. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. viii + + ix; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: _woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" at the foot of the reverse) pp. iii-iv; table of _contents_ pp. v-vii; p. viii is blank; and text pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. the volume is completed by eight unnumbered pages of advertisements of _works by the author of_ "_the bible in spain_" _ready for the press_. there are head-lines throughout; up to, and including, p. the head-line is _the romany rye_, together with the numbers of the chapters, pp. - are headed _appendix_, accompanied by the numbers of the chapters. at the foot of the last of the eight unnumbered pages carrying the advertisements (sig. r verso) the imprint is repeated thus, "_woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." the signatures are a (four leaves), plus b to r ( sheets, each leaves). issued (on _april_ _th_, ) in dark blue cloth boards, with white paper back-labels, lettered "_the_ / _romany rye_. / _by_ / _george borrow_. / _vol. i_. [_vol. ii_.]" the leaves measure . x inches. of the first edition of _the romany rye_ one thousand copies were printed. the published price was _s._ a second edition was published in , a third in , a fourth in , and a fifth in . the book is included in _everyman's library_, and in other series of popular reprints. the series of advertisements of _works_ by borrow, announced as "ready for the press," which occupy the last eight pages of the second volume of _the romany rye_ are of especial interest. no less than twelve distinct works are included in these advertisements. of these twelve _the bible in spain_ was already in the hands of the public, _wild wales_ duly appeared in , and _the sleeping bard_ in . these three were all that borrow lived to see in print. two others, _the turkish jester_ and _the death of balder_, were published posthumously in and respectively; but the remaining seven, _celtic bards_, _chiefs_, _and kings_, _songs of europe_, _koempe viser_, _penquite and pentyre_, _russian popular tales_, _northern skalds_, _kings_, _and earls_, and _bayr jairgey and glion doo_: _the red path and the black valley_, were never destined to see the light. however, practically the whole of the verse prepared for them was included in the series of pamphlets which have been printed for private circulation during the past twelve months. as was the case with _lavengro_, borrow delayed the completion of _the romany rye_ to an extent that much disconcerted his publisher, john murray. the correspondence which passed between author and publisher is given at some length by dr. knapp, in whose pages the whole question is fully discussed. mr. shorter presents the matter clearly and fairly in the paragraphs he devotes to the subject: "the most distinctly english book--at least in a certain absence of cosmopolitanism--that victorian literature produced was to a great extent written on scraps of paper during a prolonged continental tour which included constantinople and budapest. in _lavengro_ we have only half a book, the whole work, which included what came to be published as _the romany rye_, having been intended to appear in four volumes. the first volume was written in , the second in , and the third volume in the years between and . then in borrow wrote out an advertisement of a fourth volume, which runs as follows: _shortly will be published in one volume_. _price_ _s._ _the rommany rye_, _being the fourth volume of lavengro_. _by george borrow_, _author of the bible in spain_. but this volume did not make an appearance 'shortly.' its author was far too much offended with the critics, too disheartened it may be, to care to offer himself again for their gibes. the years rolled on, and not until did _the romany rye_ appear. the book was now in two volumes, and we see that the word _romany_ had dropped an _m_. . . . the incidents of _lavengro_ are supposed to have taken place between the _th_ of _may_ , and the _th of july_ of that year. in _the romany rye_ the incidents apparently occur between the _th_ of _july_ and the _rd_ of _august_ . in the opinion of mr. john sampson, the whole of the episodes in the five volumes occurred in seventy-two days."--[_george borrow and his circle_, , pp. - .] a useful edition of _the romany rye_ is: _the romany rye_ / _a sequel to_ "_lavengro_" / _by george borrow_ / _a new edition_ / _containing the unaltered text of the original_ / _issue_, _with notes_, _etc._, _by the author of_ / "_the life of george borrow_" / _london_ / _john murray_, _albemarle street_ / .--crown vo. pp. xvi + . the book was edited by dr. william knapp. there is a copy of the first edition of _the romany rye_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . f. . ( ) [the sleeping bard: ] the sleeping bard; / or / visions of the world, death, and hell, / by / elis wyn. / translated from the cambrian british / by / george borrow, / author of/ "the bible in spain," "the gypsies of spain," etc. / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. x + ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. i-ii; _preface_ pp. iii-vii; p. viii is blank; fly-title to _a vision of the course of the world_ (with blank reverse) pp. ix-x; and text of the three _visions_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each double-page being headed with the title of the particular _vision_ occupying it. _a vision of hell_ is preceded by a separate fly-title (pp. - ) with blank reverse. at the foot of p. is the following imprint, "_james m. denew_, _printer_, , _hall plain_, _great yarmouth_." the sheets carry no register. the book was issued without any half-title. in some copies the christian name of the printer is misprinted _jamms_. issued (in _june_, ) in magenta coloured cloth boards, lettered in gold along the back, "_the sleeping bard_," and "_london_ / _john murray_" across the foot. the published price was _s._; copies were printed. murray's connection with the work was nominal. the book was actually issued at yarmouth by j. m. denew, the printer by whom it was produced. the cost was borne by the author himself, to whom the majority of the copies were ultimately delivered. some few copies of _the sleeping bard_ would appear to have been put up in yellowish-brown plain paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges. one such example is in the possession of mr. paul lemperley, of cleveland, ohio; a second is in the library of mr. clement shorter. the leaves of both these copies measure . x . inches. the leaves of ordinary copies in cloth measure . x . inches. the translation was made in . the text of _the sleeping bard_ is divided into three sections. each of these sections closes with a poem of some length, as follows:-- page . the perishing world. [_o man_, _upon this building gaze_] . death the great. [_leave land and house we must some day_] in the printed text the seventh stanza of _death the great_ reads thus: _the song and dance afford_, _i ween_, _relief from spleen_, _and sorrows grave_; _how very strange there is no dance_, _nor tune of france_, _from death can save_! about the year borrow re-wrote this stanza, as follows: _the song and dance can drive_, _they say_, _the spleen away_, _and humour's grave_; _why hast thou not devised_, _o france_! _some tune and dance_, _from death to save_? as was invariably the case with borrow, his revision was a vast improvement upon the original version. . the heavy heart. [_heavy's the heart with wandering below_] the manuscript of _the sleeping bard_ was formerly in the possession of dr. knapp. it is now the property of the hispanic society, of new york. it extends to pages to. there is a copy of the first edition of _the sleeping bard_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . c. . ( ) [wild wales: ] wild wales: / its people, language, and scenery. / by george borrow, / author of "the bible in spain," etc. / "_their lord they shall praise_, / _their language they shall keep_, / _their land they shall lose_, / _except wild wales_." / taliesin: destiny of the britons. / in three volumes.--vol. i. [_vol. ii_, _&c._] / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . / the right of translation is reserved. vol. i. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. xii + ; consisting of: half-title (with advertisements of five of borrow's _works_ upon the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: / _printed by woodfall and kinder_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. iii-iv; notice regarding the previous appearance of a portion of the work in _the quarterly review_ (with blank reverse) pp. v-vi; _contents of vol. i_ pp. vii-xi; p. xii is blank; and text pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each verso being headed _wild wales_, whilst each recto is headed with the title of the particular subject occupying it. at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus: "_woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of leaves), b to s ( sheets, each leaves), plus t ( leaves). the second leaf of sig. t is a blank. vol. ii. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. viii + ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: / _printed by woodfall and kinder_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; _contents of vol. ii_ pp. v-vii; p. viii is blank; and text pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. there are head-lines throughout, as in the first volume. at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." the signatures are a ( leaves), b to s ( sheets, each leaves), plus t ( leaves). the last leaf of sig. t is a blank. the volume was issued without any half-title. vol. iii. collation:--large duodecimo, pp. viii + ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: / _printed by woodfall and kinder_, / _angel court_, _skinner street_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; _contents of vol. iii_ pp. iii-viii; and text pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, as in the first volume. at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_woodfall and kinder_, _printers_, _angel court_, _skinner street_, _london_." the signatures are a ( leaves), b to u ( sheets, each leaves), plus x ( leaves). the last leaf of sig. h is a blank. the volume was issued without any half-title. issued (in _december_, ) in dark green cloth boards, with white paper back-label, lettered "_wild wales_. / _by_ / _george borrow_. / _vol. i_ [vol. ii, &c.]." the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._; , copies were printed. a second edition of _wild wales_ was issued in , a third edition in , and a fourth edition in . the book has since been included in divers series of non-copyright works. the following poems made their first appearance in the pages of _wild wales_: vol. i page chester ale. [_chester ale_, _chester ale_! _i could ne'er get it down_] another, widely different, version of these lines exist in manuscript. it reads as follows: _on the ale of chester_. _of chester the ale has but sorry renown_, '_tis made of ground-ivy_, _of dust_, _and of bran_; '_tis as thick as a river belough a hugh town_, '_tis not lap for a dog_, _far less drink for a man_. saxons and britons. [_a serpent which coils_] previously printed in _the quarterly review_, _january_ , p. . translation of a welsh englyn upon dinas bran. [_gone_, _gone are thy gates_, _dinas bran on the height_!] lines found on the tomb of madoc. [_here after sailing far i madoc lie_] the lassies of county merion. [_full fair the gleisiad in the flood_] this was one stanza only, the fifth, of the complete poem _the cookoo's song in merion_, which borrow translated some years later, and which was first printed in _ermeline_, , pp. - . the text of the two versions of this stanza differ considerably. stanza on the stone of jane williams. [_though thou art gone to dwelling cold_] the mist. [_o ho_! _thou villain mist_, _o ho_!] although borrow translated the whole poem, he omitted lines (the opening and closing lines) when printing it in _wild wales_. here are the missing lines, which i give from the original manuscript: _a tryste with morfydd true i made_, '_twas not the first_,_ in greenwood glade_, _in hope to make her flee with me_; _but useless all_, _as you will see_. _i went betimes_, _lest she should grieve_, _then came a mist at close of eve_; _wide o'er the path by which i passed_, _its mantle dim and murk it cast_. _that mist ascending met the sky_, _forcing the daylight from my eye_. _i scarce had strayed a furlong's space_ _when of all things i lost the trace_. _where was the grove and waving grain_? _where was the mountain hill and main_? * * * * * _before me all affright and fear_, _above me darkness dense and drear_, _my way at length i weary found_, _into a swaggy willow ground_, _where staring in each nook there stood_ _of wry mouthed elves a wrathful brood_. _full oft i sank in that false soil_, _my legs were lamed with length of toil_. _however hard the case may be_ _no meetings more in mist for me_. two of the above lines, somewhat differently worded, were given in _wild wales_, vol. i, p. . lines descriptive of the eagerness of a soul to reach paradise. [_now to my rest i hurry away_] filicaia's sonnet on italy. [_o italy_! _on whom dark destiny_] translation of an englyn foretelling travelling by steam. [_i got up in mona_, _as soon as_ '_twas light_] translation of a welsh stanza about snowdon. [_easy to say_ '_behold eryri_'] stanzas on the snow of snowdon. [_cold is the snow on snowdon's brow_] vol. ii lines from black robin's ode in praise of anglesey. [_twelve sober men the muses woo_] lines on a spring. [_the wild wine of nature_] things written in a garden. [_in a garden the first of our race was deceived_] el punto de la vana. [_never trust the sample when you go your cloth to buy_] llangollen's ale. [_llangollen's brown ale is with malt and hop rife_] poverty and riches. an interlude. [_o riches_, _thy figure is charming and bright_] a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of this _interlude_ is given herewith, facing page . an ode to sychark. by iolo goch. [_twice have i pledged my word to thee_] vol. iii translation of a welsh englyn on the rhyadr. [_foaming and frothing from mountainous height_] ode to owen glendower. [_here's the life i've sigh'd for long_] ode to a yew tree. [_thou noble tree_; _who shelt'rest kind_] lines. [_from high plynlimmon's shaggy side_] ode to a yew tree. [_o tree of yew_, _which here i spy_] this is another, and extended, version of the _ode_ printed on p. of _wild wales_. yet another version, differing from both, is printed in _alf the freebooter and other ballads_, , p. . lines from ode to the ploughman, by iolo goch. [_the mighty hu who lives for ever_] previously printed, with some verbal differences, in _the quarterly review_, _january_ , p. . lines on a tomb-stone. [_thou earth from earth reflect with anxious mind_] ode to griffith ap nicholas. [_griffith ap nicholas_, _who like thee_] the first six lines of this ode had previously appeared in _the quarterly review_, _january_ , p. . god's better than all. [_god's better than heaven or aught therein_] a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _god's better than all_ will be found facing the present page. ab gwilym's ode to the sun and glamorgan. [_each morn_, _benign of countenance_] there is a copy of the first edition of _wild wales_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . e. . [picture: manuscript of poverty and riches] [picture: manuscript of god's better than all] ( ) [romano lavo-lil: ] romano lavo-lil: / word-book of the romany; / or, / english gypsy language. / with many pieces in gypsy, illustrative of the way of / speaking and thinking of the english gypsies; / with specimens of their poetry, and an account of certain gypsyries / or places inhabited by them, and of various things / relating to gypsy life in england. / by george borrow, / author of "lavengro," "the romany rye," "the gypsies of spain," / "the bible in spain," etc. / "_can you rokra romany_? / _can you play the bosh_? / _can you jal adrey the staripen_? / _can you chin the cost_?" / "_can you speak the roman tongue_? / _can you play the fiddle_? / _can you eat the prison-loaf_? / _can you cut and whittle_? / london: / john murray, albemarle street. / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. viii + ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with imprint "_london_: / _printed by william clowes and sons_, / _stamford street and charing cross_" upon the centre of the reverse) pp. iii-iv; prefatory note regarding the _vocabulary_ p. v; advertisements of five _works of george borrow_ p. vi; table of _contents_ pp. vii-viii; and text pp. - , including fly-titles (each with blank reverse) to each section of the book. the reverse of p. is blank. at the foot of p. the imprint is repeated thus, "_london_: _printed by wm. clowes and sons_, _stamford street_ / _and charing cross_." there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular subject occupying it. the signatures, are a (a half-sheet of leaves), b to x ( sheets, each leaves), y (a half-sheet of leaves), and z (a quarter-sheet of leaves). issued in dark blue cloth boards, with white paper back-label, lettered "_romano lavo-lil_; / _word-book_ / _of_ / _the romany_. / _by_ / _george borrow_." the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._ _d._ one thousand copies were printed. the book was set up in type towards the end of , and published early in . proof-sheets still exist bearing the earlier date upon the title-page. a considerable amount of verse by borrow made its first appearance in the pages of _romano lavo-lil_, as detailed in the following list: _contents_ page little sayings: . [ _whatever ignorance men may show_] . [_what must i do_, _mother_, _to make you well_?] . [_i would rather hear him speak than hear lally sing_] english gypsy songs: . the gypsy meeting. [_who's your mother_, _who's your father_?] . making a fortune ( ). [_come along_, _my little gypsy girl_] . making a fortune ( ). [_come along_, _my little gypsy girl_] the two gypsies. [_two gypsy lads were transported_] my roman lass. [_as i to the town was going one day_] this is the first stanza only of _the english gypsy_. the complete song will be found in _marsk stig's daughters and other_ _songs and ballads_, , pp. - . here is the concluding stanza, omitted in _romano lavo-lil_: _as i to the town was going one day_, _i met a young roman upon the way_. _said he_, "_young maid will you share my lot_?" _said i_, "_another wife you've got_." "_no_, _no_!" _the handsome young roman cried_, "_no wife have i in the world so wide_; _and you my wedded wife shall be_, _if you will share my lot with me_." yes, my girl. [_if to me you prove untrue_] the youthful earl. [_said the youthful earl to the gypsy girl_] love song. [_i'd choose as pillows for my head_] woe is me. [_i'm sailing across the water_] the squire and lady. [_the squire he roams the good greenwood_] gypsy lullaby. [_sleep thee_, _little tawny boy_!] our blessed queen. [_coaches fine in london_] run for it. [_up_, _up_, _brothers_!] this is the first stanza only of the _gypsy song_, printed complete in _marsk stig's daughters and other songs and ballads_, , p. . the romany songstress. [_her temples they are aching_] the friar. [_a friar was preaching once with zeal and with fire_] the manuscript of these amusing verses, which were translated by borrow from the dialect of the spanish gypsies, affords some curious variants from the published text. here are the lines as they stand in the ms.: _a friar_ _was preaching once with zeal and with fire_; _and a butcher of the plain_ _had lost a bonny swine_; _and the friar did opine_ _that the gypsies it had ta'en_. _so_, _breaking off_, _he shouted_, "_gypsy ho_! _hie home_, _and from the pot_ _take the butcher's porker out_, _the porker good and fat_, _and in its place throw_ _a clout_, _a dingy clout_ _of thy brat_, _of thy brat_; _a clout_, _a dingy clout_, _of thy brat_." malbrouk. from the spanish gypsy version. [_malbrouk is gone to the wars_] sorrowful years. [_the wit and the skill_] fortune-telling. [_late rather one morning_] the fortune-teller's song. [_britannia is my name_] gypsy stanza. [_can you speak the roman tongue_?] charlotte cooper. [_old charlotte i am called_] epigram. [_a beautiful face and a black wicked mind_] lines. [_mickie_, _huwie and larry bold_] lines. [_what care we_, _though we be so small_?] ryley bosvil. [_the gorgios seek to hang me_] ryley and the gypsy. [_methinks i see a brother_] to yocky shuri. [_beneath the bright sun_, _there is none_, _there is none_] lines. [_roman lads before the door_] upon page of _romano lavo-lil_, is printed a version of _the lord's prayer_ cast into romany by borrow. the original manuscript of this translation has survived, and its text presents some curious variations from the published version. a reduced facsimile of this manuscript serves as frontispiece to the present bibliography. accompanying the manuscript of _the lord's prayer_ in romany, is the manuscript of a translation made by borrow into the dialect of the english gypsies. this translation has never, so far as i am aware, appeared in print. it is an interesting document, and well worthy of preservation. a reduced facsimile of it will be found facing the present page. [picture: manuscript of the lord's prayer] a second edition of _romano lavo-lil_ was issued by the same publisher, john murray, in , and a third in . there is a copy of the first edition of _romano lavo-lil_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . c. . ( ) [the turkish jester: ] the turkish jester; / or, / the pleasantries / of / cogia nasr eddin effendi. / translated from the turkish / by / george borrow. / ipswich: / w. webber, dial lane. / . collation:--crown octavo, printed in half-sheets, pp. ii + ; consisting of: title-page, as above (with certificate of issue upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; and text pp. - . there are no head-lines, the pages being numbered centrally. the book is made up in a somewhat unusual manner, each half-sheet having a separately printed quarter-sheet of two leaves imposed within it. the register is therefore b to e (four sections, each leaves), plus f ( leaves), the whole preceded by two leaves, one of which is blank, whilst the other carries the title-page. there is no printer's imprint. the book was issued without any half-title. the title is enclosed within a single rectangular ruled frame. issued in cream-coloured paper wrappers, with the title-page reproduced upon the front, but reset in types of different character, and without the ruled frame, and with the imprint reading _high street_ in place of _dial lane_. inside the front cover the certificate of issue is repeated. the leaves measure . x inches. the edition consisted of one hundred and fifty copies. the published price was _s._ _d._ the manuscript of _the turkish jester_ was formerly owned by dr. knapp, and is now the property of the hispanic society, of new york. it extends to pages to. the translation was probably made about , at the time when borrow was at work upon his _songs of europe_. in , the book was included among the advertisements appended to the second volume of _the romany rye_. there is a copy of the first edition of _the turkish jester_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . b. . ( ) [the death of balder: ] the / death of balder / from the danish / of / johannes ewald / ( ) / translated by / george borrow / author of "bible in spain," "lavengro," "wild wales," etc. / london / jarrold & sons, paternoster buildings, e.c. / / all rights reserved. collation:--crown octavo, pp. viii + ; consisting of: half-title (with certificate of issue upon the centre of the reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; _preface_ and list of _the persons_ (each with blank reverse) pp. v-viii; and text pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. the head-line is _death of balder_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. at the foot of p. is the following imprint, "_printed by ballantyne_, _hanson & co._ / _london and edinburgh_." the signatures are a ( leaves), and b to f ( sheets, each leaves). sig. f is a blank. issued in dark brown 'diced' cloth boards, with white paper back-label. the leaves measure . x inches. two hundred and fifty copies were printed. the published price was _s._ _d._ _the death of balder_ was written in , the year during which borrow produced so many of his ballad translations, the year in which he made his fruitless effort to obtain subscribers for his _songs of scandinavia_. on _december_ _th_ of that year he wrote to dr. [afterwards sir] john bowring: "i wish to shew you my translation of _the death of balder_, ewald's most celebrated production, which, if you approve of, you will perhaps render me some assistance in bringing forth, for i don't know many publishers. i think this will be a proper time to introduce it to the british public, as your account of danish literature will doubtless cause a sensation." evidently no publisher was forthcoming, for the work remained in manuscript until , when, eight years after borrow's death, messrs. jarrold & sons gave it to the world. in borrow included the tragedy among the series of works advertised as "ready for the press" at the end of the second volume of _the romany rye_. it was there described as "_a heroic play_." although published only in , _the death of balder_ was actually set up in type three years earlier. it had been intended that the book should have been issued in london by messrs. reeves & turner, and proof-sheets exist carrying upon the title-page the name of that firm as publishers, and bearing the date . it would appear that mr. w. webber, a bookseller of ipswich, who then owned the manuscript, had at first contemplated issuing the book through messrs. reeves & turner. but at this juncture he entered into the employment of messrs. jarrold & sons, and consequently the books was finally brought out by that firm. the types were not reset, but were kept standing during the interval. another version of the song of the three valkyrier, which appears in _the death of balder_, pp. - , was printed in _marsk stig's daughters and other songs and ballads_, , pp. - . the text of the two versions differs entirely, in addition to which the version forms one complete single song, whilst in that of the lines are divided up between the several characters. the manuscript of _the death of balder_, referred to above, passed into the hands of dr. knapp, and is now in the possession of the hispanic society, of new york. it consists of pages to. a transcript in the handwriting of mrs. borrow is also the property of the society. there is a copy of the first edition of _the death of balder_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is . f . ( ) [letters to the bible society: ] letters of / george borrow / to the british and foreign / bible society / published by direction of the committee / edited by / t. h. darlow / hodder and stoughton / london new york toronto / . collation:--octavo, pp. xviii + ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. i-ii; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. iii-iv; dedication _to williamson lamplough_ (with blank reverse) pp. v-vi; preface vii-xi; note regarding "the officials of the bible society with whom borrow came into close relationship" pp. xi-xii; _list of borrow's letters_, _etc._, _printed in this volume_ pp. xiii-xvii; chronological _outline of borrow's career_ p. xviii; and text of the _letters_, &c., pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each verso being headed _george borrow's letters_, and each recto _to the bible society_. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint "_printed by t. and a. constable_, _printers to his majesty_ / _at the edinburgh university press_." the signatures are _a_ (one sheet of leaves), _b_ (a quarter-sheet of leaves), a to f ( sheets, each leaves) plus g (a half-sheet of leaves). sig. _a_ is a blank. a facsimile of one of the letters included in the volume is inserted as frontispiece. issued in dark crimson buckram, with paper sides, lettered in gold across the back, "_letters of_ / _george_ / _borrow_ / _to the_ / _bible society_ / _edited by_ / _t. h. darlow_ / _hodder &_ / _stoughton_." the leaves measure . x . inches. the published price was _s._ _d._ "when borrow set about preparing _the bible in spain_, he obtained from the committee of the bible society the loan of the letters which are here published, and introduced considerable portions of them into that most picturesque and popular of his works. perhaps one-third of the contents of the present volume was utilised in this way, being more or less altered and edited by borrow for the purpose."--[_preface_, pp. ix-x]. the holographs of the complete series of letters included in this volume are preserved in the archives of the british and foreign bible society. there is a copy of _letters of george borrow to the british and foreign bible society_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is .e. . ( ) [letters to mary borrow: ] letters / to his wife / mary borrow / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse), pp. - ; and text of the _letters_ pp. - . the head-line is _letters to his wife_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. following p. is a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half sheet of leaves), plus b and c ( sheets, each leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. holograph letters by borrow are extremely uncommon, the number known to be extant being far less than one might have supposed would be the case, considering the good age to which borrow attained. his correspondents were few, and, save to the officials of the bible society, he was not a diligent letter-writer. the holographs of this series of letters addressed to his wife are in my own collection of borroviana. the majority of the letters included in this volume were reprinted in _george borrow and his circle_. _by clement king shorter_, vo, . there is a copy of _letters to his wife_, _mary borrow_, in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [marsk stig: ] marsk stig / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballad_ pp. - . the head-line is _marsk stig_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. at the foot of p. is the following imprint, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of leaves), plus b and c ( sheets, each leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _marsk stig_ consists of four separate ballads, or _songs_ as borrow styled them, the whole forming one complete and connected story. the plot is an old danish legend of the same character as the history of david and bathsheba, marsk stig himself being the counterpart of uriah the hittite. the four _songs_ commence as follows:-- page . _marsk stig he out of the country rode_ _to win him fame with his good bright sword_ . _marsk stig he woke at black midnight_, _and loudly cried to his lady dear_ . _there's many i ween in denmark green_ _who all to be masters now desire_ . _there were seven and seven times twenty_ _that met upon the verdant wold_ _marsk stig_ was one of the ballads prepared by borrow for _the songs of scandinavia_ in , and revised for the _koempe viser_ in . both manuscripts are extant, and i give reproductions of a page of each. it will be observed that upon the margins of the earlier manuscript borrow wrote his revisions, so that this manuscript practically carries in itself both versions of the ballad. the manuscript of is in the possession of mr. j. h. spoor, of chicago. the manuscript of is in my own library. as a specimen of _marsk stig_ i quote the following stanzas: _it was the young and bold marsk stig_ _came riding into the castle yard_, _abroad did stand the king of the land_ _so fair array'd in sable and mard_. "_now lend an ear_, _young marshal stig_, _i have for thee a fair emprise_, _ride thou this year to the war and bear_ _my flag amongst my enemies_." "_and if i shall fare to the war this year_, _and risk my life among thy foes_, _do thou take care of my lady dear_, _of ingeborg_, _that beauteous rose_." _then answer'd erik_, _the youthful king_, _with a laugh in his sleeve thus answered he_: "_no more i swear has thy lady to fear_ _than if my sister dear were she_." _it was then the bold sir marshal stig_, _from out of the country he did depart_, _in her castle sate his lonely mate_, _fair ingeborg_, _with grief at heart_. "_now saddle my steed_," _cried eric the king_, "_now saddle my steed_," _king eric cried_, "_to visit the dame of beauteous fame_ _your king will into the country ride_." * * * * * "_now list_, _now list_, _dame ingeborg_, _thou art_, _i swear_, _a beauteous star_, _live thou with me in love and glee_, _whilst marshal stig is engag'd in war_." _then up and spake dame ingeborg_, _for nought was she but a virtuous wife_: "_rather_, _i say_, _than stig betray_, _sir king_, _i'd gladly lose my life_." "_give ear_, _thou proud dame ingeborg_, _if thou my leman and love will be_, _each finger fair of thy hand shall bear_ _a ring of gold so red of blee_." "_marsk stig has given gold rings to me_, _and pearls around my neck to string_; _by the saints above i never will prove_ _untrue to the marshal's couch_, _sir king_." * * * * * _it was erik the danish king_, _a damnable deed the king he wrought_; _he forc'd with might that lady bright_, _whilst her good lord his battles fought_. * * * * * _it was the young sir marshal stig_ _stepp'd proudly in at the lofty door_; _and bold knights then_, _and bold knight's men_, _stood up the marshal stig before_. _so up to the king of the land he goes_, _and straight to make his plaint began_; _then murmured loud the assembled crowd_, _and clench'd his fist each honest man_. "_ye good men hear a tale of fear_, _a tale of horror_, _a tale of hell_-- &c., &c. there is a copy of _marsk stig a ballad_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of marsk stig, ] [picture: manuscript of marsk stig-- ] [picture: manuscript of marsk stig-- ] ( ) [the serpent knight: ] the serpent knight / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; table of _contents_ (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), plus b & c (two sheets, each eight leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the serpent knight. [_signelil sits in her bower alone_] the only extant ms. of this ballad originally bore the title _the transformed knight_, but the word _transformed_ is struck out and replaced by _serpent_, in borrow's handwriting. sir olaf. [_sir olaf rides on his courser tall_] _sir olaf_ is one of borrow's most successful ballads. the only extant manuscript is written upon paper water-marked with the date , and was prepared for the projected _koempe viser_. the treacherous merman. ["_now rede me mother_," _the merman cried_] this ballad is a later, and greatly improved, version of one which appeared under the title _the merman_ only, in the _romantic ballads_ of . the introduction of the incident of the changing by magic of the horse into a boat, furnishes a reason for the catastrophe which was lacking in the earlier version. in its final shape _the treacherous merman_ is another of borrow's most successful ballads, and it is evident that he bestowed upon it an infinite amount of care and labour. an early draft of the final version [a reduced facsimile of its first page will be found _ante_, facing p. ] bears the tentative title _marsk stig's daughter_. besides the two printed versions borrow certainly composed a third, for a fragment exists of a third ms., the text of which differs considerably from that of both the others. the knight in the deer's shape. [_it was the knight sir peter_] facing the present page is a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _the knight in the deer's shape_. the stalwart monk. [_above the wood a cloister towers_] _the stalwart monk_ was composed by borrow about the year . whether he had worked upon the ballad in earlier years cannot be ascertained, as no other manuscript besides that from which it was printed in the present volume is known to exist. the cruel step-dame. [_my father up of the country rode_] the cuckoo. [_yonder the cuckoo flutters_] the complete manuscript of _the serpent knight and other ballads_ is in my own collection of borroviana. there is a copy of _the serpent knight and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of the serpent king] [picture: manuscript of the knight in the deer's shape] ( ) [the king's wake: ] the king's wake / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), with b (a full sheet of eight leaves) inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the king's wake. [_to-night is the night that the wake they hold_] an early draft of this ballad has the title _the watchnight_. swayne felding. [_swayne felding sits at helsingborg_] of _swayne felding_ two manuscripts are extant. one, originally destined for _the songs of scandinavia_, is written upon white paper water-marked with the date . the other, written upon blue paper, was prepared for the _koempe viser_ of . in the earlier ms. the ballad bears the title _swayne felding's combat with the giant_; the later ms. is entitled _swayne felding_ only. the texts of the two mss. differ widely. innocence defamed. [_misfortune comes to every door_] the heroic ballads included in these collections are all far too long to admit of any one of them being given in full. as an example of the shorter ballads i quote the title-poem of the present pamphlet, _the king's wake_: _the king's wake_ { } _to-night is the night that the wake they hold_, _to the wake repair both young and old_. _proud signelil she her mother address'd_: "_may i go watch along with the rest_?" "_o what at the wake wouldst do my dear_? _thou'st neither sister nor brother there_. "_nor brother-in-law to protect thy youth_, _to the wake thou must not go forsooth_. "_there be the king and his warriors gay_, _if me thou list thou at home wilt stay_." "_but the queen will be there and her maiden crew_, _pray let me go_, _mother_, _the dance to view_." _so long_, _so long begged the maiden young_, _that at length from her mother consent she wrung_. "_then go_, _my child_, _if thou needs must go_, _but thy mother ne'er went to the wake i trow_." _then through the thick forest the maiden went_, _to reach the wake her mind was bent_. _when o'er the green meadows she had won_, _the queen and her maidens to bed were gone_. _and when she came to the castle gate_ _they were plying the dance at a furious rate_. _there danced full many a mail-clad man_, _and the youthful king he led the van_. _he stretched forth his hand with an air so free_: "_wilt dance_, _thou pretty maid_, _with me_?" "_o_, _sir_, _i've come across the wold_ _that i with the queen discourse might hold_." "_come dance_," _said the king with a courteous smile_, "_the queen will be here in a little while_." _then forward she stepped like a blushing rose_, _she takes his hand and to dance she goes_. "_hear signelil what i say to thee_, _a ditty of love sing thou to me_." "_a ditty of love i will not_, _sir king_, _but as well as i can another i'll sing_." _proud signil began_, _a ditty she sang_, _to the ears of the queen in her bed it rang_. _says the queen in her chamber as she lay_: "_o which of my maidens doth sing so gay_? "_o which of my maidens doth sing so late_, _to bed why followed they me not straight_?" _then answered the queen the little foot page_: "'_tis none of thy maidens i'll engage_. "'_tis none i'll engage of the maiden band_, '_tis signil proud from the islet's strand_." "_o bring my red mantle hither to me_, _for i'll go down this maid to see_." _and when they came down to the castle gate_ _the dance it moved at so brave a rate_. _about and around they danced with glee_, _there stood the queen and the whole did see_. _the queen she felt so sore aggrieved_ _when the king with signil she perceived_. _sophia the queen to her maid did sign_: "_go fetch me hither a horn of wine_." _his hand the king stretched forth so free_: "_wilt thou sophia my partner be_?" "_o i'll not dance with thee_, _i vow_, _unless proud signil pledge me now_." _the horn she raised to her lips_, _athirst_, _the innocent heart in her bosom burst_. _there stood king valdemar pale as clay_, _stone dead at his feet the maiden lay_. "_a fairer maid since i first drew breath_ _ne'er came more guiltless to her death_." _for her wept woman and maid so sore_, _to the church her beauteous corse they bore_. _but better with her it would have sped_, _had she but heard what her mother said_. there is a copy of _the king's wake and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of the king's wake] [picture: manuscript of the king's wake] ( ) [the dalby bear: ] the dalby bear / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_ / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), with b (a full sheet of leaves) inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the dalby bear. [_there goes a bear on dalby moors_] tygge hermandsen. [_down o'er the isle in torrents fell_] the ballad was printed from a manuscript written in . i give a reduced facsimile of a page of an earlier manuscript written in . the wicked stepmother. [_sir ove he has no daughter but one_] this ballad should be read in conjunction with _the wicked stepmother_, _no. ii_, printed in _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_, , pp. - . the complete manuscript of _the dalby bear and other ballads_ is in the library of mr. clement shorter. there is a copy of _the dalby bear and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of tygge hermandsen] ( .) [the mermaid's prophecy: ] the / mermaid's prophecy / and other / songs relating to queen dagmar / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _songs_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _song_ occupying it. following p. is a leaf, with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page songs relating to queen dagmar: i. king valdemar's wooing. [_valdemar king and sir strange bold_] ii. queen dagmar's arrival in denmark. [_it was bohemia's queen began_] iii. the mermaid's prophecy. [_the king he has caught the fair mermaid_, _and deep_] rosmer. [_buckshank bold and elfinstone_] this ballad should be read in conjunction with _rosmer mereman_, printed in _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_, , pp. - . of _the mermaid's prophecy_ there are two manuscripts extant. in the earlier of these, written in , the poem is entitled _the mermaid's prophecy_. in the later manuscript, written apparently about the year , it is entitled _the mermaid_ only. from this later manuscript the poem was printed in the present volume. unlike the majority of borrow's manuscripts, which usually exhibit extreme differences of text when two holographs exist of the same poem, the texts of the two versions of _the mermaid's prophecy_ are practically identical, the opening stanza alone presenting any important variation. here are the two versions of this stanza: the dane king had the mermaiden caught by his swains, _the mermaid dances the floor upon_-- and her in the tower had loaded with chains, because his will she had not done. the king he has caught the fair mermaid, and deep (_the mermaid dances the floor upon_) in the dungeon has placed her, to pine and to weep, because his will she had not done. there is a copy of _the mermaid's prophecy and other songs relating to queen dagmar_ in the library of the british museum. the press mark is c. . d. . ( .) [hafbur and signe: ] hafbur and signe / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballad_ pp. - . the head-line is _hafbur and signe_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), with b (a full sheet of eight leaves) inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page hafbur and signe. [_young hafbur king and sivard king they lived in bitter enmity_] of _hafbur and signe_ two manuscripts are extant. the first of these was doubtless written in the early summer of , for on _june_ _st_ of that year borrow wrote to dr. bowring: _i send you_ "_hafbur and signe_" _to deposit in the scandinavian treasury_ [i.e. among the _songs of scandinavia_]. the later manuscript was written in or about the year . the earlier of these two manuscripts is in the collection of mr. herbert t. butler. the later manuscript is in my own library. as is usually the case when two manuscripts of one of borrow's ballads are available, the difference in poetical value of the two versions of _hafbur and signe_ is considerably. few examples could exhibit more distinctly the advance made by borrow in the art of poetical composition during the interval. here are some stanzas from the version of . _so late it was at nightly tide_, _down fell the dew o'er hill and mead_; _then lists it her proud signild fair_ _with all the rest to bed to speed_. "_o where shall i a bed procure_?" _said hafbur then_, _the king's good son_. "_o thou shalt rest in chamber best_ _with me the bolsters blue upon_." _proud signild foremost went_, _and stepped_ _the threshold of her chamber o'er_; _with secret glee came hafbur_, _he_ _had never been so glad before_. _then lighted they the waxen lights_, _so fairly twisted were the same_. _behind_, _behind_, _with ill at mind_, _the wicked servant maiden came_ the following are the parallel stanzas from the version of _so late it was in the nightly tide_, _dew fell o'er hill and mead_; _then listed her proud signild fair_ _with the rest to bed to speed_. "_o where shall i a bed procure_?" _said hafbour the king's good son_. "_in the chamber best with me thou shalt rest_, _the bolsters blue upon_." _proud signild foremost went and stepp'd_ _the high chamber's threshold o'er_, _prince hafbour came after with secret laughter_, _he'd ne'er been delighted more_ _then lighted they the waxen lights_, _fair twisted were the same_. _behind_, _behind with ill in her mind_ _the wicked servant came_. i give herewith a reduced facsimile of the last page of each manuscript. [picture: hafbur and signe-- ] [picture: hafbur and signe-- ] there is a copy of _hafbur and signe a ballad_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of hafbur and signe] ( ) [the story of yvashka: ] the story / of / yvashka with the bear's ear / translated from the russian / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; frontispiece (with blank recto) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; _introduction_ (by borrow) pp. - ; and text of the _story_ pp. - . the head-line is _yvashka with the bears ear_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n. w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half sheet of leaves), and b (a full sheet of leaves), the one inset within the other. the frontispiece consists of a reduced facsimile of the first page of the original manuscript in borrow's handwriting. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _the story of yvashka_ was the second of three _russian popular tales_, which were contributed by borrow to the pages of _once a week_ during . _the story of yvashka_ appeared in the number for _may_ _th_, , vol. vi, pp. - . the _story_ was reprinted in _the sphere_, _feb._ _st_, , p. . the text of _yvashka_ as printed in _once a week_ differs appreciably from that printed in _the sphere_, and in the private pamphlet of , both of which are identical. the manuscript from which the two latter versions were taken was the original translation. the version which appeared in _once a week_ was printed from a fresh manuscript (which fills quarto pages) prepared in . a reduced facsimile of the first page of the earlier manuscript (which extends to . quarto pages) will be found reproduced upon the opposite page. in this manuscript the story is entitled _the history of jack with the bear's ear_. judging from the appearance of this ms., both paper and handwriting, together with that of fragments which remain of the original mss. of the other two published _tales_, it seems probable that the whole were produced by borrow during his residence in st. petersburg. should such surmise be correct, the _tales_ are contemporary with _targum_. the _once a week_ version of _the story of yvashka_ was reprinted in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . there is a copy of _the story of yvashka_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of history of jack with the bear's ear] ( ) [the verner raven: ] the verner raven / the count of vendel's / daughter / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - , and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_ / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b (a half sheet of leaves), and c (a full sheet of leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the verner raven. [_the raven he flies in the evening tide_] the count of vendel's daughter. [_within a bower the womb i left_] previously printed in _once a week_, vol. viii, _january_ _rd_, , pp. - . the cruel mother-in-law. [_from his home and his country sir volmor should fare_] the faithful king of thule. [_a king so true and steady_] the fairies' song. [_balmy the evening air_] note.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. the manuscript of _the count of vendel's daughter_ is included in the extensive collection of borroviana belonging to mr. f. j. farrell, of great yarmouth. there is a copy of _the verner raven_, _the count of vendel's daughter_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [the return of the dead: ] the / return of the dead / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. following p. is a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), with b (a full sheet of eight leaves), inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the return of the dead. [_swayne dyring o'er to the island strayed_] the transformed damsel. [_i take my axe upon my back_] the forced consent. [_within her own fair castelaye_] ingeborg's disguise. [_such handsome court clothes the proud ingeborg buys_] song. [_i've pleasure not a little_] as a further example of borrow's shorter ballads, i give _ingeborg's disguise_ in full. the entire series included in _the return of the dead and other ballads_ ranks among the most uniformly successful of borrow's achievements in this particular branch of literature:-- _ingeborg's disguise_ { } _such handsome court clothes the proud ingeborg buys_, _says she_, "_i'll myself as a courtier disguise_." _proud ingeborg hastens her steed to bestride_, _says she_, "_i'll away with the king to reside_." "_thou gallant young king to my speech lend an ear_, _hast thou any need of my services here_?" "_o yes_, _my sweet lad_, _of a horseboy i've need_, _if there were but stable room here for his steed_. "_but thy steed in the stall with my own can be tied_, _and thou_ '_neath the linen shalt sleep by my side_." _three years in the palate good service she wrought_ _that she was a woman no one ever thought_. _she filled for three years of a horse-boy the place_, _and the steeds of the monarch she drove out to graze_. _she led for three years the king's steeds to the brook_, _for else than a youth no one ingeborg took_. _proud ingeborg knows how to make the dames gay_, _she also can sing in such ravishing way_. _the hair on her head is like yellow spun gold_, _to her beauty the heart of the prince was not cold_. _but at length up and down in the palace she strayed_, _her colour and hair began swiftly to fade_. _what eye has seen ever so wondrous a case_? _the boy his own spurs to his heel cannot brace_. _the horse-boy is brought to so wondrous a plight_, _to draw his own weapon he has not the might_. _the son of the king to five damsels now sends_, _and ingeborg fair to their care he commends_. _proud ingeborg took they and wrapped in their weed_, _and to the stone chamber with her they proceed_. _upon the blue cushions they ingeborg laid_, _where light of two beautiful sons she is made_. _then in came the prince_, _smiled the babies to view_: "'_tis not every horse-boy can bear such a two_." _he patted her soft on her cheek sleek and fair_: "_forget my heart's dearest all sorrow and care_." _he placed the gold crown on her temples i ween_: "_with me shalt thou live as my wife and my queen_." the complete manuscript of _the return of the dead and other ballads_ is in my own library. there is a copy of _the return of the dead and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. .d. . [picture: title page of the return of the dead] [picture: manuscript of ingeborg's disguise] ( ) [axel thordson: ] axel thordson / and fair valborg / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of _the ballad_ pp. - . the head-line is _axel thordson and fair valborg_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a to c (three sheets, each eight leaves) inset within each other. the last leaf of sig. c is a blank. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page axel thordson and fair valborg. [_at the wide board at tables play_] in some respects _axel thordson and fair valborg_ is the most ambitious of borrow's ballads. it is considerably the longest, unless we regard the four "_songs_" of which _marsk stig_ is comprised as forming one complete poem. but it is by no means the most successful; indeed it is invariably in his shorter ballads that we find borrow obtaining the happiest result. two manuscripts of _axel thordson and fair valborg_ are available. the first was prepared in for the _songs of scandinavia_. the second was revised in for the _koempe viser_. this later manuscript is in my own possession. i give herewith a reduced facsimile of one of its pages. there is a copy of _axel thordson and fair valborg_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. .d. . [picture: axel thordson and fair valborg-- ] ( ) [king hacon's death: ] king hacon's death / and / bran and the black dog / two ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _two ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. following p. is a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." there are no signatures, the pamphlet being composed of a single sheet, folded to form sixteen pages. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page king hacon's death. ["_and now has happened in our day_"] bran and the black dog. ["_the day we went to the hills to chase_"] i venture to regard this ballad of the fight between bran and the black dog as one of borrow's happiest efforts. here are some of its vigorous stanzas: _the valiant finn arose next day_, _just as the sun rose above the foam_; _and he beheld up the lairgo way_, _a man clad in red with a black dog come_. _he came up with a lofty gait_, _said not for shelter he sought our doors_; _and wanted neither drink nor meat_, _but would match his dog_ '_gainst the best of ours_. * * * * * "_a strange fight this_," _the great finn said_, _as he turn'd his face towards his clan_; _then his face with rage grew fiery red_, _and he struck with his fist his good dog bran_. "_take off from his neck the collar of gold_, _not right for him now such a thing to bear_; _and a free good fight we shall behold_ _betwixt my dog and his black compeer_." _the dogs their noses together placed_, _then their blood was scatter'd on every side_; _desperate the fight_, _and the fight did last_ '_till the brave black dog in bran's grip died_. * * * * * _we went to the dwelling of high mac cuol_, _with the king to drink_, _and dice_, _and throw_; _the king was joyous_, _his hall was full_, _though empty and dark this night i trow_. there is a copy of _king hacon's death and bran and the black dog_ in the library of the british museum. the pressmark is c. . d. . ( ) [marsk stig's daughters: ] marsk stig's / daughters / and other / songs and ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse), pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse), pp. - ; table of _contents_, pp. - ; and text of the _songs and ballads_, pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. the head-line is _songs and ballads_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. the pamphlet concludes with a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." there are no signatures, but the pamphlet consists of a half-sheet (of four leaves), with a full sheet (of eight leaves) inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page marsk stig's daughters. [_two daughters fair the marshal had_] the three expectants. [_there are three for my death that now pine_] translation. [_one summer morn_, _as i was seeking_] the english gipsy: he. [_as i to the town was going one day_ _my roman lass i met by the way_] she. [_as i to the town was going one day_ _i met a young roman upon the way_] the first of these two stanzas had been printed previously in _romano lavo-lil_, , p. . gipsy song. [_up_, _up_, _brothers_] the first stanza of this _song_ was printed previously (under the title _run for it_!) in _romano lavo-lil_, , p. . our heart is heavy, brother. [_the strength of the ox_] another version of this poem was printed previously (under the title _sorrowful tears_, and with an entirely different text) in _romano lavo-lil_, , p. . in order to give some clear idea of the difference between the two versions, i quote the opening stanza of each: . _the wit and the skill_ _of the father of ill_, _who's clever indeed_, _if they would hope_ _with their foes to cope_ _the romany need_. . _the strength of the ox_, _the wit of the fox_, _and the leveret's speed_; _all_, _all to oppose_ _their numerous foes_ _the romany need_. song. [_nastrond's blazes_] another version of this _song_ was printed previously (divided up, and with many textual variations) in _the death of balder_, , pp. - . lines. [_to read the great mysterious past_] as a specimen of borrow's lighter lyrical verse, as distinguished from his ballads, i give the text of the _translation_ noted above, accompanied by a facsimile of the first page of the ms.: translation. one summer morn, as i was seeking my ponies in their green retreat, i heard a lady sing a ditty to me which sounded strangely sweet: _i am the ladye_, _i am the ladye_, _i am the ladye loving the knight_; _i in the green wood_, '_neath the green branches_, _in the night season sleep with the knight_. since yonder summer morn of beauty i've seen full many a gloomy year; but in my mind still lives the ditty that in the green wood met my ear: _i am the ladye_, _i am the ladye_, _i am the ladye loving the knight_; _i in the green wood_, '_neath the green branches_, _in the night season sleep with the knight_. a second manuscript of this _translation_ has the 'ditty' arranged in eight lines, instead of in four. in this ms. the word _ladye_ is spelled in the conventional manner: _i am the lady_, _i am the lady_, _i am the lady_ _loving the knight_; _i in the greenwood_, '_neath the green branches_, _through the night season_ _sleep with the knight_. _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _marsk stig's daughters and other songs and ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of marsk stig's daughters] [picture: manuscript 'one summer morn'] ( ) [the tale of brynild: ] the tale of brynild / and / king valdemar and his sister / two ballads / by / george borrow / london: printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), and b and c (two sheets, each eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the tale of brynild. [_sivard he a colt has got_] of _the tale of brynild_, two manuscripts are extant, written in and respectively. the text of the latter, from which the ballad was printed in the present pamphlet, is immeasurably the superior. king valdemar and his sister. [_see_, _see_, _with queen sophy sits valdemar bold_] mirror of cintra. [_tiny fields in charming order_] the harp. [_the harp to everyone is dear_] there can be little doubt that the series of poems included in this volume present borrow at his best as a writer of ballads. there is a copy of _the tale of brynild and king valdemar and his sister_ in the library of the british museum. the pressmark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of the tale of brynild] ( ) [proud signild: ] proud signild / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation: square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (six leaves), and b (a full sheet of eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page proud signild. [_proud signild's bold brothers have taken her hand_] the damsel of the wood. [_the knight takes hawk_, _and the man takes hound_] damsel mettie. [_knights peter and olaf they sat o'er the board_] as is the case with quite a number of borrow's ballads, two manuscripts of _damsel mettie_ have been preserved. the earlier, composed not later than , is written upon paper water marked with the date ; the later is written upon paper water-marked . the earlier version has a refrain, "'_neath the linden tree watches the lord of my heart_," which is wanting in the later. otherwise the text of both mss. is identical, the differences to be observed between them being merely verbal. for example, the seventh couplet in the earlier reads: _i'll gage my war courser_, _the steady and tried_, _that thou canst not obtain the fair mettie_, _my bride_. in the later ms. this couplet reads: _i'll gage my war courser_, _the steady and tried_, _thou never canst lure the fair mettie_, _my bride_. there is a copy of _proud signild and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [ulf van yern: ] ulf van yern / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page ulf van yern. [_it was youthful ulf van yern_] this ballad was here printed from the manuscript prepared for the projected _koempe viser_ of . in the ms of the ballad is entitled _ulf van yern and vidrik verlandson_. the texts of the two versions differ widely in almost every stanza. the chosen knight. [_sir oluf rode forth over hill and lea_] sir swerkel. [_there's a dance in the hall of sir swerkel the childe_] finn and the damsel, or the trial of wits. ["_what's rifer than leaves_?" _finn cried_] epigrams by carolan: . on friars. [_would'st thou on good terms with friars live_] . on a surly butler, who had refused him admission to the cellar. [_o dermod flynn it grieveth me_] lines. [_how deadly the blow i received_] the last four lines of this poem had already served (but with a widely different text) as the last four lines of the _ode from the gaelic_, printed in _romantic ballads_, , pp - . there is a copy of _ulf van yern and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of damsel mattie] [picture: manuscript of sir swerkel] ( ) [ellen of villenskov: ] ellen of villenskov / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. following p. is a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), with b (a full sheet of eight leaves) inset within it. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page ellen of villenskov. [_there lies a wold in vester haf_] uranienborg. [_thou who the strand dost wander_] previously printed, with an earlier and far inferior text, under the title _the ruins of uranienborg_, in _the foreign quarterly review_. _june_, , pp. - . the ready answer. [_the brother to his dear sister spake_] epigrams: . _there's no living_, _my boy_, _without plenty of gold_ . _o think not you'll change what on high is designed_ . _load not thyself with gold_, _o mortal man_, _for know_ note.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. the manuscripts of the poems included in _ellen of villenskov and other ballads_ are in the library of mr. clement k. shorter. there is a copy of _ellen of villenskov and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [the songs of ranild: ] the songs of ranild / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the poems pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular poem occupying it. following p. is a leaf, with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (six leaves), and b (a full sheet of eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the songs of ranild: song the first. [_up riber's street the dance they ply_] song the second. [_to saddle his courser ranild cried_] song the third. [_so wide around the tidings bound_] child stig and child findal. [_child stig and child findal two brothers were they_] _the songs of ranild_ were first written in , and were finally prepared for press in . i give herewith, facing p. , a facsimile, the exact size of the original, of the first page of the first draft of _song the third_. the complete ms. from which these four ballads were printed is in the library of mr. j. a. spoor, of chicago. there is a copy of _the songs of ranild_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of songs relating to marsk stig] ( ) [niels ebbesen: ] niels ebbesen / and / germand gladenswayne / two ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page as above (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page niels ebbesen. [_all his men the count collects_] germand gladenswayne. [_our king and queen sat o'er the board_] there is a copy of _niels ebbesen and germand gladenswayne_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of niels ebbesen] ( ) [child maidelvold: ] child maidelvold / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page child maidelvold. [_the fair sidselil_, _of all maidens the flower_] another, but widely different and altogether inferior, version of this beautiful and pathetic ballad--one of borrow's best--was printed (under the title _skion middel_) in _the monthly magazine_, _november_, , p. ; and again (under the amended title _sir middel_, and with a slightly revised text) in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . in these earlier versions the name of the heroine is swanelil in place of sidselil, and that of the hero is sir middel in place of child maidelvold. sir peter. [_sir peter and kirstin they sat by the board_] ingefred and gudrune. [_ingefred and gudrune they sate in their bower_] sir ribolt. [_ribolt the son of a count was he_] as a further example of these ballads i give _ingefred and gudrune_ in full. _ingefred and gudrune_ { } _ingefred and gudrune they sate in their bower_, _each bloomed a beauteous fragrant flower_-- _so sweet it is in summer tide_! _a working the gold fair ingefred kept_, _still sate gudrune_, _and bitterly wept_. "_dear sister gudrune so fain i'd know_ _why down thy cheek the salt tears flow_?" "_cause enough have i to be thus forlorn_, _with a load of sorrow my heart is worn_. "_hear_, _ingefred_, _hear what i say to thee_, _wilt thou to-night stand bride for me_? "_if bride for me thou wilt stand to-night_, _i'll give thee my bridal clothes thee to requite_. "_and more_, _much more to thee i'll give_, _all my bride jewels thou shalt receive_." "_o_, _i will not stand for bride in thy room_, _save i also obtain thy merry bridegroom_." "_betide me whatever the lord ordain_, _from me my bridegroom thou never shalt gain_." _in silks so costly the bride they arrayed_, _and unto the kirk the bride they conveyed_. _in golden cloth weed the holy priest stands_, _he joins of gudrune and samsing the hands_. _o'er the downs and green grass meadows they sped_, _where the herdsman watched his herd as it fed_. "_of thy beauteous self_, _dear damsel_, _take heed_, _ne'er enter the house of sir samsing_, _i rede_. "_sir samsing possesses two nightingales_ _who tell of the ladies such wondrous tales_. "_with their voices of harmony they can declare_ _whether maiden or none has fallen to his share_." _the chariot they stopped in the green wood shade_, _an exchange_ '_twixt them of their clothes they made_. _they change of their dress whatever they please_, _their faces they cannot exchange with ease_. _to sir samsung's house the bride they conveyed_, _of the ruddy gold no spare was made_. _on the bridal throne the bride they plac'd_, _they skinked the mead for the bride to taste_. _then said from his place the court buffoon_: "_methinks thou art ingefred_, _not gudrune_." _from off her hand a gold ring she took_, _which she gave the buffoon with entreating look_. _said he_: "_i'm an oaf_, _and have drunk too hard_, _to words of mine pay no regard_." '_twas deep at night_, _and down fell the mist_, _to her bed the young bride they assist_. _sir samsing spoke to his nightingales twain_: "_before my young bride sing now a strain_. "_a song now sing which shall avouch_ _whether i've a maiden or none in my couch_." "_a maid's in the bed_, _that's certain and sure_, _gudrune is standing yet on the floor_." "_proud ingefred_, _straight from my couch retire_! _gudrune come hither_, _or dread my ire_! "_now tell me_, _gudrune_, _with open heart_, _what made thee from thy bed depart_?" "_my father_, _alas_! _dwelt near the strand_, _when war and bloodshed filled the land_. "_full eight there were broke into my bower_, _one only ravished my virgin flower_." _upon her fair cheek he gave a kiss_: "_my dearest_, _my dearest_, _all sorrow dismiss_; "_my swains they were that broke into thy bower_, '_twas i that gathered thy virgin flower_." _fair ingefred gained_, _because bride she had been_, _one of the king's knights of handsome mien_. there is a copy of _child maidelvold and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of child maidelvold] [picture: manuscript of ingefred and gudrune] ( ) [ermeline: ] ermeline / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the poems pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular poem occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_ / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), and b (a full sheet of eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page ermeline. [_with lance upraised so haughtily_] the paper upon which the manuscript of _ermeline_ is written is water-marked with the date . no other ms. is forthcoming. the cuckoo's song in merion. [_though it has been my fate to see_] the fifth stanza of this _song_ was printed by borrow in _wild wales_, , vol. i, p. . the two versions of this stanza offer some interesting variations of text; i give them both: _full fair the gleisiad in the flood_, _which sparkles_ '_neath the summer's sun_, _and fair the thrush in green abode_ _spreading his wings in sportive fun_, _but fairer look if truth be spoke_, _the maids of county merion_. _o fair the salmon in the flood_, _that over golden sands doth run_; _and fair the thrush in his abode_, _that spreads his wings in gladsome fun_; _more beauteous look_, _if truth be spoke_, _the maids of county merion_. there is a copy of _ermeline a ballad_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page for giant of bern] ( ) [the giant of bern: ] the giant of bern / and orm ungerswayne / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballad_ pp. - . the head-line is _the giant of bern_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." there are no signatures, the pamphlet being composed of a single sheet, folded to form sixteen pages. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the giant of bern and orme ungerswayne. [_it was the lofty jutt of bern_, _o'er all the walls he grew_] fifteen stanzas, descriptive of the incident of orm's obtaining his father's sword from the dead man's grave, were printed in _targum_, , pp. - , under the title _birting_. _a fragment_. the text differs greatly in the two versions, that of the later (which, though not printed until , was written about ) is much the superior. as an example i give the first two stanzas of each version: _it was late at evening tide_, _sinks the day-star in the wave_, _when alone orm ungarswayne_ _rode to seek his father's grave_. _late it was at evening hour_, _when the steeds to streams are led_; _let me now_, _said orm the young_, _wake my father from the dead_. _it was so late at evening tide_, _the sun had reached the wave_, _when orm the youthful swain set out_ _to seek his father's grave_. _it was the hour when grooms do ride_ _the coursers to the rill_, _that orm set out resolved to wake_ _the dead man in the hill_. there is a copy of _the giant of bern and orm ungerswayne_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [little engel: ] little engel / a ballad / with a series of / epigrams from the persian / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballad_ and _epigrams_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular poem occupying it--save for pp. - , which are headed _epigrams_. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (six leaves), and b (a full sheet of eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page little engel. [_it was the little engel_, _he_] an elegy. [_where shall i rest my hapless head_] epigrams. from the persian: . [_hear what once the pigmy clever_] . [_the man who of his words is sparing_] . [_if thou would'st ruin_ '_scape_, _and blackest woe_] . [_sit down with your friends in delightful repose_] . [_the hungry hound upon the bone will pounce_] . [_great aaroun is dead_, _and is nothing_, _the man_] . [_though god provides our daily bread_] . the king and his followers. [_if in the boor's garden the king eats a pear_] . the devout man and the tyrant. [_if the half of a loaf the devout man receives_] . the cat and the beggar. [_if a cat could the power of flying enjoy_] . the king and taylor. [_the taylor who travels in far foreign lands_] . gold coin and stamped leather. [_of the children of wisdom how like is the face_] . [_so much like a friend with your foe ever deal_] the manuscript of these _epigrams_ bears instructive evidence of the immense amount of care and labour expended by borrow upon his metrical compositions. reduced facsimiles of two of the pages of this manuscript are given herewith. it will be observed that a full page and a half are occupied by the thirteenth _epigram_, at which borrow made no fewer than seven attempts before he succeeded in producing a version which satisfied him. the completed _epigram_ is as follows:-- _so much like a friend with your foe ever deal_, _that you never need dread the least scratch from his steel_; _but ne'er with your friend deal so much like a foe_, _that you ever must dread from his faulchion a blow_. the original manuscript of _little engel_, written in , is in the library of mr. edmund gosse. the manuscript of , from which the ballad was printed, is in my own library. there is a copy of _little engel_, _a ballad_, &c., in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of little engel] ( ) [alf the freebooter: ] alf the freebooter / little danneved and / swayne trost / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b (a half-sheet of leaves), and _c_ (a full sheet of leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page sir alf the freebooter. [_sir alf he is an atheling_.] little danneved and swayne trost. ["_o what shall i in denmark do_?"] sir pall, sir bear, and sir liden. [_liden he rode to the ting_, _and shewed_] belardo's wedding. [_from the banks_, _in mornings beam_] the yew tree. [_o tree of yew_, _which here i spy_] two earlier versions of this ode were printed by borrow in _wild wales_, vol. iii, pp. and . the texts of all three versions differ very considerably. there is a copy of _alf the freebooter and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of epigrams] [picture: manuscript of epigrams] ( ) [king diderik: ] king diderik / and the fight between the / lion and dragon / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint, "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b (a half-sheet of leaves), and c (a full sheet of leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page king diderik and the lion's fight with the dragon. [_from bern rode forth king diderik_] there exists a single leaf of an early draft of another, entirely different, version of this ballad. upon the opposite page is a facsimile, the exact size of the original, of this fragment. diderik and olger the dane. [_with his eighteen brothers diderik stark_] olger the dane and burman. [_burman in the mountain holds_] the complete manuscript of _king diderik_, _&c._, _and other ballads_, as prepared for the _songs of scandinavia_ of , is preserved in the british museum. there is a copy of _king diderik and the fight between the lion and dragon_, _&c._ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: king diderik--early draft] ( ) [the nightingale: ] the nightingale / the valkyrie and raven / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n. w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b (a half-sheet of leaves), and c (a full sheet of leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the nightingale, or the transformed damsel. [_i know where stands a castellaye_] the valkyrie and raven. [_ye men wearing bracelets_] previously printed in _once a week_, _august_ _nd_, , pp. - , where the ballad was accompanied by a full-page illustration engraved upon wood. [_see post_, pp. - .] erik emun and sir plog. [_early at morn the lark sang gay_] the elves. [_take heed_, _good people_, _of yourselves_] there are two manuscripts of _the elves_ available. so far as the body of the poem is concerned the texts of these are identical, the fifth line alone differing materially in each. this line, as printed, reads: _the lass he woo' d_, _her promise won_. in the earlier of the two mss. it reads: _inflamed with passion her he woo'd_. a cancelled reading of the same ms. runs: _whom when he saw the peasant woo'd_. but the ballad is furnished with a repeated refrain. this refrain in the printed version reads: _take heed_, _good people_, _of yourselves_; _and oh_! _beware ye of the elves_. in the earlier ms. the refrain employed is: '_tis wonderful the lord can brook_ _the insolence of the fairy folk_! a reduced facsimile of the first page of the later ms. will be found facing the present page. the entire poem should be compared with _the elf bride_, printed in _the brother avenged and other ballads_, , pp. - . feridun. [_no face of an angel could feridun claim_] epigrams: . [_a worthless thing is song_, _i trow_] . [_though pedants have essayed to hammer_] . [_when of yourself you have cause to speak_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _the nightingale_, _the valkyrie and raven_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of the elves] ( ) [grimmer and kamper: ] grimmer and kamper / the end of sivard snarenswayne / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n. w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of leaves), b (a half-sheet of leaves), and c (a full-sheet of leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page grimmer and kamper. [_grimmer walks upon the floor_] mimmering tan. [_the smallest man was mimmering_] the end of sivard snarenswayne. [_young sivard he his step-sire slew_] the two manuscripts, belonging to the years and respectively, of this ballad exhibit very numerous differences of text. as a brief, but sufficient, example i give the second stanza as it occurs in each: _it was sivard snareswayne_ [sic] _to his mother's presence hied_: "_say_, _shall i go from thee on foot_, _or_, _tell me_, _shall i ride_?" _it was sivard snarenswayne_ _to his mother's presence strode_: "_say_, _shall i ride from hence_?" _he cried_, "_or wend on foot my road_?" sir guncelin's wedding. [_it was the count sir guncelin_] epigrams: honesty. [_no wonder honesty's a lasting article_] a politician. [_he served his god in such a fashion_] the candle. [_for foolish pastimes oft_, _full oft_, _they thee ignite_] epigram on himself. by wessel [_he ate_, _and drank_, _and slip-shod went_] there is a copy of _grimmer and kamper_, _the end of sivard snarenswayne_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of sir guncelin's wedding] ( ) [the fountain of maribo: ] the / fountain of maribo / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; frontispiece (with blank recto) pp. - ; title-page (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. the frontispiece is a reduced facsimile of the first page of the original manuscript of _ramund_. _contents_. page the fountain of maribo, or the queen and the algreve. [_the algreve he his bugle wound_] of _the fountain of maribo_ there are two manuscripts available, one written in and the other in . the text of these differs appreciably, that of the second being as usual the superior. here are some stanzas from each version: the algreve he his bugle wound, _the longest night_. the queen in her bower heard the sound _love me doth thrall_. the queen her little foot boy address'd: _the longest night_. "go, come to me hither the algreve request." _love me doth thrall_. in came the algrave, 'fore the board stood he: "what wilt thou my queen that thou'st sent for me?" "if i survive when my lord is dead, thou shall rule o'er my gold so red." the algreve he his bugle wound _the long night all_-- the queen in bower heard the sound, _i'm passion's thrall_. the queen her little page address'd, _the long night all_-- "to come to me the greve request," _i'm passion's thrall_. he came, before the board stood he, _the long night all_-- "wherefore, o queen, hast sent for me?" _i'm passion's thrall_, "as soon as e'er my lord is dead, _the long night all_-- thou shall rule o'er my gold so red," _i'm passion's thrall_. ramund. [_ramund thought he should a better man be_] a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _ramund_ faces the present page. alf of odderskier. [_alf he dwells at odderskier_] there is a copy of _the fountain of maribo and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of ramund] ( ) [queen berngerd: ] queen berngerd / the bard and the dreams / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; frontispiece (with blank recto) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. the frontispiece consists of a reduced facsimile of the original manuscript, in borrow's handwriting, of _the bard and the dreams_. _contents_. page queen berngerd. [_long ere the sun the heaven arrayed_] dame martha's fountain. [_dame martha dwelt at karisegaard_] previously printed (with some small differences of text) in _the foreign quarterly review_, june , p. . the bard and the dreams. [_o'er the sweet smelling meads with his lyre in his hand_] king oluf the saint. [_king oluf and his brother bold_] previously printed (with some slight differences of text) in _the foreign quarterly review_, _june_ , pp. - . to scribblers. [_would it not be more dignified_] this delightful squib, here first printed, was written by borrow upon the refusal by lockhart to insert in _the quarterly review_ borrow's essay suggested by ford's _handbook for travellers in spain_, , in the unmutilated and unamended form in which the author had written it.--[see _ante_, no. .] to a conceited woman. [_be still_, _be still_, _and speak not back again_] _note_.--each poem, to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _queen berngerd_, _the bard and the dreams_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of the bard and the dreams] [picture: title page of finnish arts] ( ) [finnish arts: ] finnish arts / or / sir thor and damsel thure / a ballad / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; frontispiece (with blank recto), pp. - ; title-page, as above (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. the frontispiece is a reduced facsimile of the first page of the original manuscript of _finnish arts_, _or sir thor and damsel thure_. _contents_. page finnish arts, or, sir thor and damsel thure. [_sir thor was a knight of prowess tried_] a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _finnish arts_ will be found facing the present page. a new song to an old tune. [_who starves his wife_] ode from anacreon. [_the earth to drink does not disdain_] lines from the italian. ["_repent_, _o repent_!" _said a friar one day_] a drinking song. [_o how my breast is glowing_] there is a copy of _finnish arts_, _or sir thor and damsel thure_ in the library of the british museum. the pressmark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of finnish arts] ( ) [brown william: ] brown william / the power of the harp / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_ / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page brown william. [_let no one in greatness too confident be_] previously printed in _once a week_, _january_ _th_, , pp. - . the power of the harp. [_sir peter would forth from the castle ride_] a reduced facsimile of one of the pages of the manuscript of _the power of the harp_ will be found facing herewith. the unfortunate marriage. [_hildebrand gave his sister away_] the wrestling-match. [_as one day i wandered lonely_, _in extreme distress of mind_] the warrior. from the arabic. [_thou lov'st to look on myrtles green_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _brown william_, _the power of the harp_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of the power of the harp] ( ) [the song of deirdra: ] the song of deirdra / king byrge and his brothers / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular ballad occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the song of deirdra. [_farewell_, _grey albyn_, _much loved land_] the diver. [_where is the man who will dive for his king_] previously printed in _the new monthly magazine_, vol. vii., , pp. - . king byrge and his brothers. [_dame ingeborg three brave brothers could boast_] turkish hymn to mahomet. [_o envoy of allah_, _to thee be salaam_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _the song of deirdra_, _king byrge and his brothers_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: title page of king byrge] ( ) [signelil: ] signelil / a tale from the cornish / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), all inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page signelil. [_the lady her handmaid to questioning took_] a tale from the cornish. [_in lavan's parish once of yore_] previously printed, with some trifling inaccuracies, in knapp's _life_, _writings_, _and correspondence of george borrow_, , vol. ii, pp. - . sir verner and dame ingeborg. [_in linholm's house_ _the swains they were drinking and making carouse_] the heddeby spectre. [_at evening fall i chanced to ride_] an earlier, and utterly different, version of this ballad was printed (under the tentative title _the heddybee-spectre_) in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . borrow afterwards described this earlier version as "a paraphrase." from goudeli. [_yestere'en when the bat_, _and the owl_, _and his mate_] peasant songs of spain: . [ _when jesu our redeemer_] . [_there stands a stone_, _a rounded stone_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _signelil_, _a tale from the cornish_, _and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of signelil] ( ) [young swaigder: ] young swaigder / or / the force of runes / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page young swaigder, or the force of runes. [_it was the young swaigder_] the hail storm. [_as in horunga haven_] previously printed in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . again printed in _targum_, , pp. - . in each instance the text varied very considerably. the present version was written about , and represents the text as borrow finally left it. i quote the first stanza of each version. it will be seen that the revision was progressive. _when from our ships we bounded_, _i heard_, _with fear astounded_, _the storm of thorgerd's waking_; _with flinty masses blended_, _gigantic hail descended_, _and thick and fiercely rattled_ _against us there embattled_. _for victory as we bounded_, _i heard_, _with fear astounded_, _the storm_, _of thorgerd's waking_, _from northern vapours breaking_. _sent by the fiend in anger_, _with din and stunning clangour_, _to crush our might intended_, _gigantic hail descended_. _as in horunga haven_ _we fed the crow and raven_, _i heard the tempest breaking_, _of demon thorgerd's waking_; _sent by the fiend in anger_, _with din and stunning clangor_, _to crush our might intended_, _gigantic hail descended_. another translation of the same ballad, extending to lines, was printed in _once a week_, , vol. viii, p. , under the title _the hail-storm_; _or_, _the death of bui_. rosmer mereman. [_in denmark once a lady dwelt_] this ballad should be read in conjunction with _rosmer_, printed in _the mermaid's prophecy_, _and other songs relating to queen dagmar_, , pp. - . the wicked stepmother. no. ii. [_sir peter o'er to the island strayed_--] this ballad should be compared with _the wicked stepmother_, printed in _the dalby bear and other ballads_, , pp. - . _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [emelian the fool: ] emelian the fool / a tale / translated from the russian / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; _introduction_ pp. - ; and text of the _tale_ pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. the head-line is _emelian the fool_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. the pamphlet is concluded by a leaf, with blank reverse, carrying the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of leaves), plus b and c ( sheets, each leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _emelian the fool_ first appeared in _once a week_, vol. vi, _march_ _th_, , pp. - , where it formed the first of a series of three _russian popular tales_, in prose, translated by george borrow. the _tale_ was also included in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . there is a copy of _emelian the fool_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . e. ( ). ( ) [the story of tim: ] the story of tim / translated from the russian / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page as above (with blank reverse) pp. - ; _introduction_ p. ; and text of the _story_ pp. - . the head-line is _the story of tim_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. _the story of tim_ first appeared in _once a week_, vol. vii, _october_ _th_, , pp. - , where it formed the third of a series of _russian popular tales_, in prose, translated by george borrow. the _story_ was also included in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . there is a copy of _the story of tim_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . e. ( ). [picture: title page of the story of tim] ( ) [mollie charane: ] mollie charane / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are headlines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), b (a half-sheet of four leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page mollie charane. [_o_, _mollie charane_, _where got you your gold_?] previously printed in _once a week_, vol. vi, , pp. - . the danes of yore. [_well we know from saga_] a survey of death. [_my blood is freezing_, _my senses reel_] another version of this poem was printed in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, , p. ; and reprinted (with some small textual variations) in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . as the poem is a short one, and as the two versions afford a happy example of the drastic changes borrow introduced into his text when revising his ballads, i give them both in full: _perhaps_ '_tis folly_, _but still i feel_ _my heart-strings quiver_, _my senses reel_, _thinking how like a fast stream we range_, _nearer and nearer to life's dread change_, _when soul and spirit filter away_, _and leave nothing better than senseless clay_. _yield_, _beauty_, _yield_, _for the grave does gape_, _and_, _horribly alter'd_, _reflects thy shape_; _for_, _oh_! _think not those childish charms_ _will rest unrifled in his cold arms_; _and think not there_, _that the rose of love_ _will bloom on thy features as here above_. _let him who roams at vanity fair_ _in robes that rival the tulip's glare_, _think on the chaplet of leaves which round_ _his fading forehead will soon be bound_, _and on each dirge the priests will say_ _when his cold corse is borne away_, _let him who seeketh for wealth_, _uncheck'd_ _by fear of labour_, _let him reflect_ _that yonder gold will brightly shine_ _when he has perish'd_, _with all his line_; _tho' man may rave_, _and vainly boast_, _we are but ashes when at the most_. _my blood is freezing_, _my senses reel_, _so horror stricken at heart i feel_; _thinking how like a fast stream we range_ _nearer and nearer to that dread change_, _when the body becomes so stark and cold_, _and man doth crumble away to mould_. _boast not_, _proud maid_, _for the grave doth gape_, _and strangely altered reflects thy shape_; _no dainty charms it doth disclose_, _death will ravish thy beauty's rose_; _and all the rest will leave to thee_ _when dug thy chilly grave shall be_. _o_, _ye who are tripping the floor so light_, _in delicate robes as the lily white_, _think of the fading funeral wreath_, _the dying struggle_, _the sweat of death_-- _think on the dismal death array_, _when the pallid corse is consigned to clay_! _o_, _ye who in quest of riches roam_, _reflect that ashes ye must become_; _and the wealth ye win will brightly shine_ _when burried are ye and all your line_; _for your many chests of much loved gold_ _you'll nothing obtain but a little mould_. desiderabilia vitae. [_give me the haunch of a buck to eat_] previously printed, with a slightly different text, and arranged in six lines instead of in three four-line stanzas, in _lavengro_, , vol. i, p. . saint jacob. [_saint jacob he takes our blest lord by the hand_] the renegade. [_now pay ye the heed that is fitting_] previously printed, with some small differences of text, in _the talisman_, , pp. - . an impromptu. [_and darest thou thyself compare_] a hymn. [_o jesus_, _thou fountain of solace and gladness_] the transformed damsel. [_my father up of the country rode_] this ballad should be compared with _the cruel step-dame_, printed in _the serpent knight and other ballade_, , pp. - . also with _the transformed damsel_, printed in _the return of the dead and other ballads_, , pp. - . the actions described in the earlier stanzas follow closely those of the opening stanzas of _the cruel step-dame_; whilst the incident of the lover cutting a piece of flesh from his own breast to serve as bait to attract his mistress, who, in the form of a bird, is perched upon a branch of the tree above him, is common to both the _transformed damsel_ ballads. _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _mollie charane and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of the danes of yore] ( ) [grimhild's vengeance: ] grimhild's vengeance / three ballads / by / george borrow / edited / with an introduction / by / edmund gosse, c. b. / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; _introduction_ pp. - ; and text of the three _ballads_ pp. - . the head-line is _grimhild's vengeance_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), and b and c (two sheets, each eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page grimhild's vengeance. song the first. [_it was the proud dame grimhild prepares the mead and beer_] a reduced facsimile of page of the manuscript of this _song_ faces the present page. grimhild's vengeance. song the second. [_it was the proud dame grimhild the wine with spices blends_] grimhild's vengeance. song the third. [_o_, _where will ye find kempions so bold and strong of hand_] the introduction furnished by mr. edmund gosse to _grimhild's vengeance_ is undoubtedly by far the most illuminating and important contribution yet made to the critical study of borrow's ballads, a study which has hitherto been both meagre and inadequate. not only does mr. gosse handle the three _songs_ particularly before him, and make clear the relationship they bear to each other, but he deals with the whole subject of the origin of borrow's scandinavian ballads, and traces fully and precisely the immediate source from which their author derived them. one of borrow's most vivid records mr. gosse calls into question, and proves indisputably that it must henceforth be regarded, if not as a fiction, at least as one more result of borrow's inveterate habit of "drawing the long bow,"--to wit the passages in _lavengro_ wherein borrow recounts his acquisition of the "strange and uncouth-looking volume" at the price of a kiss from the yeoman's wife, and the purpose which that volume served him. of the first and second of the three ballads included in _grimhild's vengeance_ two manuscripts are available. the first of these was written in , and was intended to find a place in the _songs of scandinavia_ advertised at the close of that year. the second manuscript was written in , and was prepared for the projected volumes of _koempe viser_ of that date. of the third ballad there exists only a single manuscript, namely that produced in . apparently in borrow had relinquished all hope of publishing the _koempe viser_ before he had commenced work upon the third ballad. in the present volume the first two _songs_ were printed from the manuscripts of ; the third _song_ from the manuscript of . there is a copy of _grimhild's vengeance_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of grimhild's vengeance: song the first-- ] ( ) [letters to ann borrow: ] letters / to his mother / ann borrow / and other correspondents / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. ; consisting of half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a notice regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _letters_ pp. - . the head-line is _letters to his mother_ throughout, upon both sides of the page. following p. is a leaf, with blank recto, and with the following imprint upon the reverse: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), plus b and c (two sheets, each eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x inches. thirty copies only were printed. the series of letters contained in this volume were reprinted in _george borrow and his circle_. _by clement king shorter_, vo, . the whole of the holographs are in mr. shorter's possession. there is a copy of _letters to his mother_, _ann borrow_, in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . e. . ( ) [the brother avenged: ] the brother avenged / and / other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular ballad occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed _contents_. page the brother avenged. [_i stood before my master's board_] previously printed (with some textual variations) in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, _june_ , pp - . the eyes. { } [_to kiss a pair of red lips small_] harmodius and aristogiton. [_with the leaves of the myrtle i'll cover my brand_] my dainty dame. [_my dainty dame_, _my heart's delight_] grasach abo or the cause of grace. [_o_, _baillie na cortie_! _thy turrets are tall_] dagmar. [_sick in ribe dagmar's lying_] the elf bride. [_there was a youthful swain one day_] these stanzas should be compared with _the elves_, printed in _the nightingale_, _the valkyrie and raven_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . the treasure digger. [_o_, _would that with last and shoe i had stay'd_] the fisher. [_the fisherman saddleth his good winged horse_] the cuckoo. [_abiding an appointment made_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _the brother avenged and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of grasach abo] ( ) [the gold horns: ] the gold horns / translated by / george borrow / from the danish of / adam gottlob oehlenschlager / edited / with an introduction by / edmund gosse, c.b. / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; _introduction_ pp. - ; and text of _the gold horns_, the danish and english texts facing each other upon opposite pages, pp. - . the reverse of p. is blank. there are head-lines throughout, each recto being headed _the gold horns_, and each verso _guldhornene_. the book is completed by a leaf, with blank reverse, and with the following imprint upon its recto: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), b (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), each inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. although the poem was not printed until , it is quite evident that the translation was made by borrow in or about the year . the paper upon which the manuscript is written is watermarked with the date , whilst the handwriting coincides with that of several of the pieces included in the _romantic ballads of_ . "there can be little doubt," writes mr. gosse, "that borrow intended _the gold horns_ for that volume, and rejected it at last. he was conscious, perhaps, that his hand had lacked the skill needful to reproduce a lyric the melody of which would have taxed the powers of coleridge or of shelley." "_the gold horns_ marks one of the most important stages in the history of scandinavian literature. it is the earliest, and the freshest, specimen of the romantic revival in its definite form. in this way, it takes in danish poetry a place analogous to that taken by _the ancient mariner_ in english poetry. . . . "oehlenschlager has explained what it was that suggested to him the leading idea of his poem. two antique horns of gold, discovered some time before in the bogs of slesvig, had been recently stolen from the national collection at rosenberg, and the thieves had melted down the inestimable treasures. oehlenschlager treats these horns as the reward for genuine antiquarian enthusiasm, shown in a sincere and tender passion for the ancient relics of scandinavian history. from a generation unworthy to appreciate them, the _horns_ had been withdrawn, to be mysteriously restored at the due romantic hour."--[_from the introduction by edmund gosse_.] there is a copy of _the gold horns_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [tord of hafsborough: ] tord of hafsborough / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. at the foot of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a and b (two sheets, each eight leaves), the one inset within the other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page tord of hafsborough. [_it was tord of hafsborough_] from the arabic. [_o thou who fain would'st wisdom gain_] thorvald. [_swayne tveskieg did a man possess_] previously printed in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, , p. . peter colbiornsen. ['_fore fredereksteen king carl he lay_] previously printed in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, , pp. - . kragelill. ['_twas noised about_, '_twas noised about_] allegast. [_the count such a store of gold had got_] epigrams: . [_assume a friend's face when a foeman you spy_] . [_the lion in woods finds prey of noble kind_] . [_though god provides our daily bread_] . [_to trust a man i never feel inclined_] . [_a hunter who was always seeking game_] . [_the plans of men of shrewdest wit_] . [_well was it said_, _long years ago_] . [_who roams the world by many wants beset_] it is probable that the whole of these eight _epigrams_ were derived by borrow from persian sources. on a young man with red hair. [_he is a lad of sober mind_] _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _tord of hafsborough and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . ( ) [the expedition to birting's land: ] the expedition to / birting's land / and other ballads / by / george borrow / london: / printed for private circulation / . collation:--square demy octavo, pp. ; consisting of: half-title (with blank reverse) pp. - ; title-page, as above (with a note regarding the american copyright upon the centre of the reverse) pp. - ; and text of the _ballads_ pp. - . there are head-lines throughout, each page being headed with the title of the particular _ballad_ occupying it. upon the reverse of p. is the following imprint: "_london_: / _printed for thomas j. wise_, _hampstead_, _n.w._ / _edition limited to thirty copies_." the signatures are a (a half-sheet of four leaves), b (a quarter-sheet of two leaves), and c (a full sheet of eight leaves), inset within each other. issued in bright green paper wrappers, with untrimmed edges, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. the leaves measure . x . inches. thirty copies only were printed. _contents_. page the expedition to birting's land. [_the king he o'er the castle rules_] of _the expedition to birting's land_ no less than three manuscripts are extant. the first was composed in , and was originally destined for inclusion in the _romantic ballads_ of that date. it is numbered to come between _the tournament_ and _vidrik verlandson_. the second was written in , and was intended to find a place in _the songs of scandinavia_. the third was prepared in , with a view to its appearance in the _koempe viser_. in the two earlier versions the ballad bears the tentative title _the expedition of king diderik's warriors to birting's land_. the texts of all three differ very considerably, the final version being that from which the ballad was here printed. the singing mariner. [_who will ever have again_] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, , p. . there exists an early manuscript of this charming lyric, differing entirely from the text as printed. this early version is written in couplets, instead of in four-line stanzas. here is the first stanza, followed by the equivalent couplet from the ms.: printed text. _who will ever have again_, _on the land or on the main_, _such a chance as happen'd to_ _count arnaldos long ago_. ms. _who had e'er such an adventure the ocean's waves upon_, _as had the count arnaldos the morning of st. john_. upon the opposite page i give a facsimile of this early manuscript, the exact size of the original. the tiny waif affords a delightful specimen of borrow's extremely beautiful and graceful minute handwriting, of which one or two other examples exist. the paper upon which the lines are written is evidently a leaf torn from a small note-book. youth's song in spring. [_o_, _scarcely is spring a time of pure bliss_] the nightingale. [_in midnight's calm hour the nightingale sings_] previously printed in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, , p. . lines. [_say from what mine took love the yellow gold_] morning song. [_from eastern quarters now_] previously printed in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, , p. . from the french. [_this world by fools is occupied_] the morning walk. [_to the beech grove with so sweet an air_] previously printed in _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, , pp. - . _note_.--each poem to which no reference is attached, appeared for the first time in this volume. there is a copy of _the expedition to birting's land and other ballads_ in the library of the british museum. the press-mark is c. . d. . [picture: manuscript of singing mariner] _part ii_. contributions to periodical literature, etc. ( ) _the new monthly magazine_, vol. vii, . pp. - . the diver, a ballad translated from the german. [_where is the man who will dive for his king_?] reprinted in the song of deirdra and other ballads, , pp. - . ( ) _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, . p. . ode to a mountain torrent. [_how lovely thou art in thy tresses of foam_] reprinted, with the text substantially revised, in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . again reprinted in _targum_, , pp. - . the majority of borrow's contributions to _the monthly magazine_ appeared under the signature '_george olaus borrow_.' dr. knapp has recorded that he found in the corporation library at norwich a book on ancient danish literature, by olaus wormius, carrying several marginal notes in borrow's handwriting. the suggestion that it was from this book that borrow derived the pseudonymous second christian name which he employed in _the monthly magazine_ is not an unreasonable one. p. . death. [_perhaps_ '_tis folly_, _but still i feel_] reprinted (under the amended title _thoughts on death_, and with some small textual variations) in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . another version of the same poem was printed (under the title _a survey of death_, the first line reading _my blood is freezing_, _my senses reel_) in _mollie charane and other ballads_, , pp. - . p. . mountain song. [_that pathway before ye_, _so narrow and gray_] pp. - . danish poetry and ballad writing. a prose essay, including, _inter alia_, the following ballad: skion middel. [_the maiden was lacing so tightly her vest_] reprinted, under the amended title _sir middel_, the first line reading "_so tightly was swanelil lacing her vest_," in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . another, but widely different, version of this ballad is printed in _child maidelvold and other ballads_, , pp. - . in this latter version the name of the heroine is sidselil in place of swanelil, and that of the hero is child maidelvold in place of sir middel. pp. - . lenora. [_when morning's gleam was on the hill_] p. . chloe. [_oh_! _we have a sister on earthly dominions_] reprinted in _targum_, , pp. - . when gathering _chloe_ into the pages of _targum_ borrow very considerably revised the text. here is the concluding stanza of each of the two versions:-- _but god shook his sceptre_, _and thunder'd appalling_, _while winds swept the branches with turbulent sigh_; _then trembled the host_, _but they heeded his calling_, _and bore the sweet maiden_, _yet praying_, _on high_. "_ah_, _we had a sister on earthly dominions_!" _all sung_, _as thro' heaven they joyously trod_, _and bore_, _with flush'd faces_, _and fluttering pinions_, _the yet-praying maid to the throne of her god_. _then frown'd the dread father_;_ his thunders appalling_ _to rattle began_, _and his whirlwinds to roar_; _then trembled the host_, _but they heeded his calling_, _and chloe up-snatching_, _to heaven they soar_. _o we had a sister on earthly dominions_! _they sang as through heaven triumphant they stray'd_, _and bore with flush'd faces and fluttering pinions_ _to god's throne of brightness the yet praying maid_. p. . sea-song. [_king christian stood beside the mast_] in and the title was changed to _national song_. borrow published no less than four versions of this _national song_: . in _the monthly magazine_, , p. , . in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - , . in the foreign quarterly review, , pp. - , . in _targum_, , pp. - . upon each occasion he practically rewrote the _song_, so that all four versions differ completely. as an illustration of these differences i give the first stanza of each version: . _king christian stood beside the mast_, _in smoke and flame_; _his heavy cannon rattled fast_ _against the gothmen_, _as they pass'd_: _then sunk each hostile sail and mast_ _in smoke and flame_. "_fly_, (_said the foe_,) _fly_, _all that can_, _for who with denmark's christian_ _will ply the bloody game_?" . _king christian stood beside the mast_ _smoke_, _mixt with flame_, _hung o'er his guns_, _that rattled fast_ _against the gothmen_, _as they passed_: _then sunk each hostile sail and mast_ _in smoke and flame_. "_fly_!"_ said the foe_: "_fly_! _all that can_, _nor wage_, _with denmark's christian_, _the dread_, _unequal game_." . _king christian by the main-mast stood_ _in smoke and mist_! _so pour'd his guns their fiery flood_ _that gothmen's heads and helmets bow'd_; _their sterns_, _their masts fell crashing loud_ _in smoke and mist_. "_fly_," _cried they_, "_let him fly who can_, _for who shall denmark's christian_ _resist_?" . _king christian stood beside the mast_ _in smoke and mist_. _his weapons_, _hammering hard and fast_, _through helms and brains of gothmen pass'd_. _then sank each hostile sail and mast_ _in smoke and mist_. "_fly_," _said the foe_, "_fly all that can_, _for who can denmark's christian_ _resist_?" p. . the erl king. [_who is it that gallops so lat on the wild_!] ( ) _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvii, . p. . bernard's address to his army. [_freshly blew the morning breeze_] p. . the singing mariner. [_who will ever have again_] reprinted in _the expedition to birting's land and other ballads_, , pp. - . p. . the french princess. [_towards france a maiden went_] p. . the nightingale. [_in midnight's calm hour the nightingale sings_] reprinted in _the expedition to birting's land and other ballads_, , pp. - . ( ) _the universal review_, vol. i, . p. . a review of _fortsetzung des faust von goethe_. _von c. c. l. schone_. (_berlin_.) p. . a review of _oelenschlager's samlede digte_. (_copenhagen_.) pp. - . a review of _narrative of a pedestrian journey through russia and siberian tartary_, _from the frontiers of china to the frozen sea_. _by capt. john dundas_, _r.n._ (_london_, .) ( ) _the monthly magazine_, vol. lviii, - . pp. - . danish traditions and superstitions. a prose essay. _part i_. including _inter alia_ the following ballad: waldemar's chase. [_late at eve they were toiling on harribee bank_] reprinted in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . p. . war-song; written when the french first invaded spain. [_arise_, _ye sons of injur'd spain_] p. . danish songs and ballads. no. , bear song. [_the squirrel that's sporting_] reprinted in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . pp. - . danish traditions and superstitions. a prose essay. _part ii_. ( ) _the monthly magazine_, vol. lix, . pp. - and - . danish traditions and superstitions. a prose essay. _parts iii and iv_. pp. - . the deceived merman. [_fair agnes left her mother's door_] reprinted (with very considerable changes in the text, the first line reading "_fair agnes alone on the sea-shore stood_") in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . in borrow rewrote this ballad, and furnished it with a new title _agnes and the merman_. the following stanzas taken from each, will serve to show the difference between the two versions:-- . _the merman up to the church door came_; _his eyes they shone like a yellow flame_; _his face was white_, _and his beard was green_-- _a fairer demon was never seen_. "_now_, _agnes_, _agnes_, _list to me_, _thy babes are longing so after thee_." "_i cannot come yet_, _here must i stay_ _until the priest shall have said his say_." . _in at the door the merman treads_-- _away the images turned their heads_. _his face was white_, _his beard was green_, _his eyes were full of love_, _i ween_. "_hear_, _agnes_, _hear_! _'tis time for thee_ _to come to thy home below the sea_." "_i cannot come yet_, _i here must stay_, _until the priest has said his say_." pp. , , and . danish traditions and superstitions. a prose essay. _parts v_, _vi_, _and vii_. ( ) _the monthly magazine_, vol. lx, . pp. - { } and - . danish traditions and superstitions. a prose essay. _parts viii and ix_. ( ) _the universal review_, vol. ii, . pp. - . a review of _the devil's elixir_; _from the german of hoffman_. (_london_, _cadell_, _vols_.) pp. - . a review of _danske folkesagn_, _samlede af j. m. thiele_. (_copenhagen_, - .) ( ) _the foreign quarterly review_, vol. vi, no. xi, _june_, , pp. - . a review of _dansk-norsk litteraturlexicon_, , and _den danske digtekunsts middelalder fra arrebo til tullin fremstillet i academiske foreloesinger holdne i aarene_, - . a long critical prose article by john bowring, including, _inter alia_, the following ballads by george borrow:-- . king oluf the saint. [_king oluf and his brother bold_] reprinted in _queen berngerd_, _the bard and the dreams_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . this is an entirely different ballad from that which had appeared, under the title _saint oluf_, in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . . the brother avenged. [_i stood before my master's board_] reprinted, with some textual variations, in _the brother avenged and other ballads_, , pp. - . . aager and eliza. ['_twas the valiant knight_, _sir aager_] previously printed, but with endless variations in the text, in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - , where the first line reads, "_have ye heard of bold sir aager_." as an example of the differences of text to be observed in the two versions, i give three stanzas of each: . _up his mighty limbs he gather'd_, _took the coffin on his back_; _and to fair eliza's bower_ _hasten'd_, _by the well-known track_. _on her chamber's lowly portal_, _with his fingers long and thin_, _thrice he tapp'd_, _and bade eliza_ _straightway let her bridegroom in_! _straightway answer'd fair eliza_, "_i will not undo my door_ _till i hear thee name sweet jesus_, _as thou oft hast done before_." . _up sir aager rose_, _his coffin_ _bore he on his bended back_. _tow'ds the bower of sweet eliza_ _was his sad and silent track_. _he the door tapp'd with his coffin_, _for his fingers had no skin_; "_rise_, _o rise_, _my sweet eliza_! _rise_, _and let thy bridegroom in_." _straightway answer'd fair eliza_: "_i will not undo my door_ '_till thou name the name of jesus_, _even as thou could'st before_." . morning song. [from eastern quarters now] reprinted in _the expedition to birting's land_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . . danish national song. [_king christian by the main-mast stood_] previously printed: . in _the monthly magazine_, vol. lvi, , p. . . in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - . afterwards reprinted in _targum_, , pp. - . . the seaman. [_a seaman with a bosom light_] . sir sinclair. [_sir sinclair sail'd from the scottish ground_] reprinted in _targum_, , pp. - . . thorvald. [_swayne tveskieg did a man possess_] reprinted in _tord of hafsborough and other ballads_, , pp. - . . when i was little. [_there was a time when i was very tiny_] . birth of christ. [_each spring_,--_when the mists have abandon'd the earth_] . time's perspective. [_through the city sped a youth_] . the morning walk. [_to the beach grove with so sweet an air_] reprinted in _the expedition to birting's land and other ballads_, , pp. - . . the aspen. [_what whispers so strange at the hour of midnight_] . dame martha's fountain. [_dame martha dwelt at karisegaard_] reprinted in _queen berngerd_, _the bard and the dreams_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . . peter colbiornsen. ['_fore fredereksteen king carl he lay_] reprinted in _tord of hafsborough and other ballads_, , pp. - . . the ruins of uranienborg. [_thou by the strand dost wander_] reprinted, but with much textual variation, in _ellen of villenskov and other ballads_, , pp. - . ( .) _the norfolk chronicle_, august _th_, . a note on "the origin of the word 'tory'." a short prose article, signed "_george borrow_," and dated "_norwich_, _august_ ." ( ) _the athenaeum_, _august_ , , pp. - . the gypsies in russia and in spain. two letters from borrow, giving an account of his experiences of the gypsies in russia and in spain. "all the episodes that he relates he incorporated in _the bible in spain_. the two letters plainly indicate that all the time borrow was in spain his mind was more filled with the subject of the gypsies than with any other question. he did his work well for the bible society no doubt . . . but there is a humourous note in the fact that borrow should have utilised his position as a missionary--for so we must count him--to make himself thoroughly acquainted with gypsy folklore, and gypsy songs and dances."--[shorter, _george borrow and his circle_, p. .] ( ) _the illustrated london news_, _december_ _th_, , p. . ancient runic stone, recently found in the isle of man. reprinted in _george borrow and his circle_, by clement king shorter, , pp. - . ( .) _a practical grammar of the antient gaelic_. by the rev. john kelly, ll.d. edited by the rev. william gill, vo, . p. xi. translation from the manx. [_and what is glory_, _but the radiance of a name_,--] borrow's statement in the closing paragraph (printed _post_, p. ) of his essay on _the welsh and their literature_ renders it possible to place this translation to his credit. p. xix. a letter from borrow to the editor, regarding manx ballads. ( ) _ the quarterly review_, _january_, , pp. - . the welsh and their literature. a prose essay. this essay was in fact a review, by borrow himself, of his own work _the sleeping bard_. "in the autumn [of ] borrow determined to call attention to it [_the sleeping bard_] himself. he revamped an old article he had written in , entitled _the welsh and their literature_, and sent it to mr. murray for _the quarterly review_. . . . the modern literature and things of wales were not introduced into the article . . . and it appeared anonymously in _the quarterly review_ for january, . it is in fact borrow's own (and the only) review of _the sleeping bard_, which, however, had the decisive result of selling off the whole edition in a month."--[knapp's _life and correspondence of george borrow_, , vol. ii, pp. - .] the manuscript of this essay, or review, is not at present forthcoming. but, fortunately, the ms. of certain paragraphs with which borrow brought the essay to a conclusion, and which the editor in the exercise of his editorial function quite properly struck out, have been preserved. the barefaced manner in which borrow anonymously praised and advertised his own work fully justified the editor's action. i print these paragraphs below. my principal reason for doing so is this, that the closing lines afford evidence of borrow's authorship of other portions of gill's introduction to his edition of _kelly's manx grammar_, , beyond those which until now have been attributed to his pen: "our having mentioned _the romany rye_ gives us an opportunity of saying a few words concerning that work, to the merits of which, and likewise to those of _lavengro_, of which it is the sequel, adequate justice has never been awarded. it is a truly remarkable book, abounding not only with strange and amusing adventure, but with deep learning communicated in a highly agreeable form. we owe it an _amende honorable_ for not having in our recent essay on buddhism quoted from it some remarkable passages on that superstition, which are to be found in a conversation between the hero of the tale and the man in black. never was the subject of buddhism treated in a manner so masterly and original. but the book exhibits what is infinitely more precious than the deepest learning, more desirable than the most amusing treasury of adventure, a fearless, honest spirit, a resolution to tell the truth however strange the truth may appear to the world. "a remarkable proof of this is to be found in what is said in it respecting the italians. it is all very well at the present day, after the miracles lately performed in italy by her sons, to say that italy is the land to which we must look for great men; that it is not merely the country of singers, fiddlers, _improvisatori_, and linguists, but of men, of beings who may emphatically be called men. but who, three or four years ago, would have ventured to say as much? why there was one and only one who ventured to say so, and that was george borrow in his work entitled _the romany rye_. many other things equally bold and true he has said in that work, and also in its predecessor _lavengro_. "in conclusion we wish to give mr. borrow a piece of advice, namely, that with all convenient speed he publish whatever works he has written and has not yet committed to the press. life is very precarious, and when an author dies, his unpublished writings are too frequently either lost to the world, or presented in a shape which all but stultifies them. of mr. borrow's unpublished writings there is a catalogue at the end of _the romany rye_, and a most remarkable catalogue it is, comprising works on all kinds of interesting subjects. of these, the one which we are most eager to see is that which is called _wild wales_, which we have no doubt whenever it appears will be welcomed as heartily as _the bible in spain_ was seventeen years ago, a book which first laid open the mysterious peninsula to the eyes of the world, and that the book on wales will be followed by the one which is called _wanderings in quest of manx literature_. now the title alone of that book is worth a library of commonplace works, for it gives the world an inkling of a thing it never before dreamed of, namely, that the little celtic isle of man has a vernacular literature. what a pity if the book itself should be eventually lost! here some person will doubtless exclaim, 'perhaps the title is all book, and there is no book behind it; what can mr. borrow know of manx literature?' stay, friend, stay! a manx grammar has just appeared, edited by a learned and highly respectable manx clergyman, in the preface to which are some beautiful and highly curious notices of manx vernacular gallic literature, which are, however, confessedly not written by the learned manx clergyman, nor by any other learned manxman, but by george borrow, an englishman, the author of _the bible in spain_ and _the romany rye_." a number of translations from welsh poetry were introduced by borrow into this essay. they were all, as he explained in a footnote, derived from his projected _songs of europe_. with the exception of an occasional stray couplet, or single line, the following list includes them all:-- . from iolo goch's "ode to the plough man." [_the mighty hu with mead would pay_] reprinted, with several changes in the text, in _wild wales_, , vol. iii, pp. - . a further extract from the same _ode_, "_if with small things we hu compare_" etc., is given in a footnote on p. . . saxons and britons. [_a serpent that coils_] reprinted (the first line reading _a serpent which coils_) in _wild wales_, , vol. i, p. . . the destiny of the britons. [_their lord they shall praise_] these lines were employed by borrow in the following year as a motto for the title-pages of _wild wales_. . from an ode on llywelyn, by dafydd benfras. [_llywelyn of the potent hand oft wroght_] . from an ode on the mansion of owen glendower, by iolo goch. [_its likeness now i'll limn you out_] . epigram on the rising of owen glendower. [_one thousand four hundred_, _no less and no more_] . from an ode to griffith ap nicholas, by gwilym ap ieuan hen. [_griffith ap nicholas_! _who like thee_] reprinted in _wild wales_, , vol. iii, p. . . epigram on a spider. [_from out its womb it weaves with care_] ( ) _once a week_, vol. vi, _january_ _th_, , pp. - . ballads of the isle of man. translated from the manx. by george borrow: . brown william. [_let no one in greatness too confident be_] reprinted in _mona miscellany_, , pp. - . again reprinted (with the prose introduction considerably curtailed) in _brown william_, _the power of the harp_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . . mollie charane. [_o_, _mollie charane_, _where got you your gold_?] reprinted in _mollie charane and other ballads_, , pp. - . ( ) _once a week_, vol. vi, _march_ _th_, , pp. - . emelian the fool. the first of a series of three _russian popular tales_, in prose, translated by george borrow. also printed privately in pamphlet form, as follows:-- _emelian the fool_ / _a tale_ / _translated from the russian_ / _by_ / _george borrow_ / _london_: / _printed for private circulation_ / .--crown octavo, pp. . [see _ante_, part i, no. .] the _tale_ was included in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . borrow had projected a volume to contain a series of twelve _russian popular tales_, and this was included among the works advertised as "ready for the press" at the end of _the romany rye_. unfortunately the project failed to meet with success, and these three _tales_ were all that finally appeared. ( ) _once a week_, vol. vi, _may_ _th_, , pp. - . the story of yvashka with the bear's ear. the second of a series of _russian popular tales_, in prose, translated by george borrow. reprinted in _the sphere_, _february_ _st_, , p. . also printed privately in pamphlet form as follows:-- _the story_ / _of_ / _yvashka with the bear's ear_ / _translated from the russian_ / _by_ / _george borrow_ / _london_: / _printed for private circulation_ / . square demy octavo, pp. . [see _ante_, part i, no. .] the _story_ was also included in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . ( ) _once a week_, vol. vii, _august_ _nd_, , pp. - . harald harfagr. a discourse between a valkyrie and a raven, &c. [_ye men wearing bracelets_] reprinted (under the amended title _the valkyrie and raven_) in _the nightingale_, _the valkyrie and raven_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . a prose introduction, which preceded the ballad in _once a week_, was not reprinted in _the nightingale_, _the valkyrie and raven_, _and other ballads_. a facsimile (actual size) of a page of the original manuscript is given herewith. in _once a week_ this ballad was accompanied by an illustration, engraved upon wood, representing the valkyrie discoursing with the raven. [picture: manuscript of harold harfagr = the valkyrie and raven] ( ) _once a week_, vol. vii, _october_ _th_, , pp. - . the story of tim. the third (and last) of a series of _russian popular tales_, in prose, translated by george borrow. also printed privately in pamphlet form, as follows:-- _the story of tim_ / _translated from the russian_ / _by_ / _george borrow_ / _london_: / _printed for private circulation_ / -crown octavo, p. . [see _ante_, part i, no. .] the _story_ was also included in _the avon booklet_, vol. ii, , pp. - . ( ) _once a week_, vol. viii, _january_ _rd_, , pp. - . the count of vendel's daughter. [_within a bower the womb i left_] reprinted in _the verner raven_, _the count of vendel's daughter_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . ( ) _once a week_, vol. viii, _december_ _th_, , p. . the hail-storm; or, the death of bui. [_all eager to sail_] this ballad differs entirely from those which appeared, under the title _the hail-storm_ only, in _romantic ballads_, , pp. - , in _targum_, , pp. - , and in _young swaigder or the force of runes and other ballads_, , pp. - . each of these three versions consists of four eight-line stanzas; the present ballad extends to lines, arranged in irregular stanzas. ( ) _benjamin robert haydon_: _correspondence and table talk_. by frederic wordsworth haydon, , vol. i, pp. - . a letter from borrow to b. r. haydon. reprinted in _george borrow and his circle_. by clement king shorter, , p. . ( ) _life_, _writings_, _and correspondence of george borrow_. by william i. knapp, vols, : vol. ii, pp. - . tale from the cornish. [_in lavan's parish once of yore_] reprinted (with some small textual revisions) in _signelil_, _a tale from the cornish_, _and other ballads_, , pp. - . vol. ii, p. . hungarian gypsy song. [_to the mountain the fowler has taken his way_] the two volumes contain, in addition, a considerable number of letters and other documents published therein for the first time. ( ) _george borrow_: _the man and his work_. by r. a. j. walling, vo, . several letters by borrow, addressed to dr. [afterwards sir john] bowring, were printed for the first time in this volume. ( ) _the life of george borrow_. by herbert jenkins, vo, . several letters, and portions of letters, by borrow, were printed for the first time in this volume. ( ) _the fortnightly review_, _april_, , pp. - . nine letters from borrow to his wife. the letters form a portion of an article by mr. clement shorter, entitled _george borrow in scotland_. eight of these letters had been printed previously in _letters to his wife mary borrow_, [see _ante_, part i, no. ]. the remaining letter was afterwards included in _letters to his mother ann borrow and other correspondents_, [see _ante_, part i, no. ]. ( ) _george borrow and his circle_. by clement king shorter, vo, . many letters by borrow, together with a considerable number of other important documents, were first printed in this volume. _note_. the various poems and prose articles included in the above list, to which no reference is appended, have not yet been reprinted in any shape or form. _query_. there exists a galley-proof of a ballad by borrow entitled _the father's return_. _from the polish of mickiewicz_. the ballad consists of twenty-one four-line stanzas, and commences "_take children your way_, _for the last time to-day_." this proof is set up in small type, and was evidently prepared for insertion in some provincial newspaper. this paper i have not been able to trace. should its identity be known to any reader of the present bibliography i should be grateful for a note of it. * * * * * *** in _the tatler_ for _november_ , , appeared a short story entitled _the potato patch_. _by g. borrow_. this story was not by the author of _targum_. '_borrow_' was a mis-print; the name should have read '_g. barrow_.' _part iii_. borroviana: complete volumes of biography and criticism. ( ) george borrow in / east anglia / by / william a. dutt / [_quotation from emerson_] / london / david nutt, - , strand / . collation:--crown octavo, pp. . issued in paper boards backed with cloth, with the title-page, slightly abbreviated, reproduced upon the front cover. some copies are in cream-coloured paper wrappers. ( ) life, writings, / and correspondence of / george borrow / derived from official and other / authentic sources / by william i. knapp, ph.d., ll.d. / author and editor of french and spanish text-books / editor of "las obras de boscan," "diego de mendoza," etc. / and late of yale and chicago universities / with portrait and illustrations / in two volumes / vol. i. [vol. ii.] / london / john murray, albemarle street / new york: g. p. putnam's sons / . collation:--demy octavo: vol. i. pp. xx + . vol. ii. pp. x + , with an inserted slip carrying a list of _errata_ for both volumes. issued in dull green cloth boards, gilt lettered. ( ) george borrow / the man and his work / by / r. a. j. walling / author of "a sea dog of devon" / cassell and company, limited / london, paris, new york, toronto and melbourne / mcmviii. collation:--crown octavo, pp. xii + . issued in dull red cloth boards, gilt lettered. several letters from borrow to dr. [afterwards sir john] bowring were first printed in this volume. ( ) george borrow / von / dr. bernhard blaesing. / berlin / emil ebering / . collation:--royal octavo, pp. . issued in mottled-grey paper wrappers, with the title-page reproduced upon the front. ( ) cymmrodorion / society's / publications. / george borrow's second / tour in wales. / by / t. c. cantrill, b.sc., / and / j. pringle. / from "y cymmrodor," vol. xxii. { } / london: issued by the society, / new stone buildings, , chancery lane. collation:--demy octavo, pp. , without title-page, the title, as above, appearing upon the front wrapper only. issued (in _april_, ) in bright green paper wrappers, with the title in full upon the front. ( ) george borrow / the man and his books / by / edward thomas / author of / "the life of richard jefferies," "light and / twilight," "rest and unrest," "maurice / maeterlinck," etc. / with portraits and illustrations / london / chapman & hall, ltd. / . collation:--demy octavo, pp. xii + + viii. issued in deep mauve coloured cloth boards, gilt lettered. ( ) the life of / george borrow / compiled from unpublished / official documents, his / works, correspondence, etc. / by herbert jenkins / with a frontispiece in photogravure, and / twelve other illustrations / london / john murray, albemarle street, w. / . collation:--demy octavo, pp. xxvi [misnumbered xxviii] + . issued in bright green cloth boards, gilt lettered. a _second edition_ appeared in . ( ) george / borrow / a sermon preached in / norwich cathedral on / july , / by / h. c. beeching, d.d., d.litt. / dean of norwich / london / jarrold & sons / publishers. collation:--crown octavo, pp. . issued in drab paper wrappers, with the title-page reproduced upon the front, the words _threepence net_ being added at foot. ( ) souvenir / of the / george borrow / celebration / norwich, july th, / by / james hooper / prepared and published for / the committee / jarrold & sons / publishers / london and norwich. collation:--royal octavo, pp. , with a portrait-frontispiece, and twenty-four illustrations and portraits. issued in white pictorial paper wrappers, with trimmed edges. ( ) catalogue of the exhibition / commemorative of george borrow / author of "lavengro" etc. held / at the norwich castle museum. / july, . / price _d._ collation:--post octavo, pp. . issued wire-stitched, without wrappers, and with trimmed edges. ( ) george borrow / and his circle / wherein may be found many / hitherto unpublished letters / of borrow and his friends / by / clement king shorter / hodder and stoughton / london new york toronto / . collation:--square octavo, printed in half-sheets, pp. xix + ; with a portrait of borrow as frontispiece, and numerous other illustrations. issued in dark crimson paper boards, backed with buckram, gilt lettered. there are several variations in this edition as compared with one published simultaneously in america by messrs. houghton, mifflin & co. of cambridge, mass. these variations are connected with borrow's attitude towards the british and foreign bible society, mr. shorter having taken occasion to pass some severe strictures upon the obvious cant which characterised the bible society in its relations with borrow. these strictures, although supported by ample quotations from unpublished documents, the london publishers, being a semi-religious house, persuaded the author to cancel. ( ) a / bibliography / of / the writings in prose and verse / of / george henry borrow / by / thomas j. wise / london: / printed for private circulation only / by richard clay & sons, ltd. / . collation:--foolscap quarto, pp. xxii + , with sixty-nine facsimiles of title-pages and manuscripts. issued in bright green paper boards, lettered across the back, and with the title-page reproduced upon the front. one hundred copies only were printed. london: printed for private circulation only by richard clay & sons, ltd. . footnotes: { a} the majority of the manuscripts of ballads written in or about are upon paper watermarked with the date . the majority of the manuscripts of ballads written in or about are upon paper watermarked with the date . { b} among the advertisements at the end of _the romany rye_, , three works ( ) _celtic bards_, _chiefs_, _and kings_, ( ) _songs of europe_, and ( ) _koempe viser_, were announced as 'ready for the press'; whilst a fourth, _northern skalds_, _kings_, _and earls_, was noted as 'unfinished.' { c} no doubt a considerable number of the ballads prepared for the _songs of scandinavia_ in , and surviving in the manuscripts of that date, were actually composed during the three previous years. the production of the complete series must have formed a substantial part of borrow's occupation during that "veiled period," the mists surrounding which mr. shorter has so effectually dissipated. { d} "what you have written has given me great pleasure, as it holds out hope that i may be employed usefully to the deity, to man, and to myself."--[_from borrow's letter to the rev. j. jowett_.] "our committee stumbled at an expression in your letter of yesterday . . . at which a humble christian might not unreasonably take umbrage. it is where you speak of becoming '_useful to the deity_, _to man_, _and to yourself_.' doubtless you meant _the prospect of glorifying god_."--[_from the rev. j. jowett's reply_.] "the courier and myself came all the way without the slightest accident, my usual wonderful good fortune accompanying us."--[_from borrow's letter to the rev. a. brandram_.] "you narrate your perilous journey to seville, and say at the beginning of the description '_my usual wonderful good fortune accompanying us_.' this is a mode of speaking to which we are not accustomed, it savours of the profane."--[_from the rev. a. brandram's reply_.] { } in the majority of the extant copies of the book this list is not present. { } the name of the ship. { } these preliminary pages are misnumbered viii-xx, instead of vi-xviii. { } a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _the king's wake_ will be found facing page . { } facing the following page will be found a reduced facsimile of the first page of the manuscript of _ingeborg's disguise_. { } a reduced facsimile of the first page of the original manuscript of _ingefred and gudrune_ will be found facing page . { } the manuscript of this poem is in the possession of mr. j. a. spoor, of chicago, to whose courtesy i was indebted for the loan of it when editing the present pamphlet. { } pages and are misnumbered and . { } _y cymmrodor_, vol. xxii, , pp. - . notes on the project gutenberg transcription in the original book the facsimiles occupy a full page and do not carry a page number. in each the verso of the page is blank. in both cases the page counts towards the page number, which is why there are gaps in the page numbering. the inset nature of the facsimiles also means that in the book they break the flow of the text and are sometimes not even in the section to which they belong. in the transcription they have usually been moved to the end of the section to which they belong. their original page position is given by their filename (e.g. p .jpg was originally on page ). on page in the paragraph starting "_targum_ was written by borrow", the "but a small proportion" is as in the book, but should probably be "but only", or "with". on page the book has "one of these is now, in the possession . . ." on page the book has no full-stop at the end of "_to the ears of the queen in her bed it rang_". on page "edition limited to thirty copies" has no closing quote. on page "edition limited to thirty copies" has no closing quote. on page the full-stop is missing after "reproduced upon the front." on page for "freshly blew" the book has "freshl blew". the original book also had an errata which has been applied. the original errors were: on page the paragraph beginning "issued in dark blue cloth boards..." originally read: issued in dark blue cloth boards, with white paper back-labels, lettered "_borrow's_ / _gypsies_ / _of_ / _spain_. / _two volumes_. / _vol. i_. [_vol. ii_.]." the leaves measure . x . inches. the edition consisted of , copies. the published price was _s._ on page the book read "which lockhart in the exercise of his editorial", "fully justified lockhart's action". the whitman bibliography _this edition of the whitman bibliography is limited to five hundred numbered copies, of which this is no. _ [illustration: walt whitman] the bibliography of walt whitman by frank shay new york friedmans' copyright, , by friedmans'. to the memory of horace traubel - poet, philosopher, comrade foreword "_camerado, this is no book; who touches this touches a man._" walt whitman's relation to his work was more personal than that of most poets. he was, in a larger sense, a man of one book, and this book, issued and reissued at various periods of the poet's life, was, at each issuance, the latest expression of his development. the infinite care he gave to his work; the continual study of each poem resulted in changes in each edition. the book literally grew with the man and in the present authorized edition of today we have his final and complete utterance. whitman's early fugitive work presents to the student a curious anomaly. it gives no intimation of the great nature that later produced leaves of grass and democratic vistas. in quality it was beneath the standards of the nickle-dreadfuls of yesterday. bearing such titles as "one wicked impulse"; "revenge and requital, tale of a murderer escaped"; "the angel of tears"; (many of them are in the prose works) they appealed to a class to whom thought was anathema and reading solely a pastime. they are didactic to the extreme, presenting the horrible results of sin and the corresponding rewards of virtue. their value as literature, however, does not come within the province of the bibliographer. the care whitman bestowed upon his writings was carried to the mechanical production of his books. each edition was manufactured under his supervision and when completed represented the latest and highest achievements in commercial bookmaking. further, he took such an intense personal interest in the sale of his books that he invariably knew at all times the number of copies sold and the number on hand. the first edition comprised three distinct variations. the first of these, in paper wrappers, are undoubtedly the result of whitman's impatience at the delays of the binder. considering that he had a press at his disposal, it is not assuming too much to suggest that while awaiting deliveries from the binder he printed the jackets himself for immediate use. this is the only way to account for the existence of the paper copies. further proof that this contention is correct is that each copy bears an inscription in whitman's holograph. though whitman insisted that "the entire edition sold readily" there is little doubt he meant circulated. in fact, they were circulated so rapidly a new edition was required within ten months. this second edition was a dumpy sexto-decimo of nearly four hundred pages. twenty new poems were added, one of the earlier poems was dropped and all were retouched. this edition did sell rapidly and only fear of public criticism prevented the publishers from reissuing the book. the failure to find a firm to stand sponsor for his book discouraged whitman to the extent of planning to go west and pioneer. his plans for this venture were completed when thayer and eldridge opened negotiations for the book's republication with any new material available. this offer took the poet to boston to oversee the work and in may, , a substantial volume, with many new poems came from the press. the book went through two editions, a total of between thirty-five hundred and four thousand copies when the publishers failed. the plates were sold at auction and went to a notorious pirate, who, within the next ten years, published and sold over ten thousand copies. whitman had no control over these crimped editions and forever after they were a torment to him. it was not until after the civil war that a new authentic edition was published--again without a publisher. in later issues of this edition whitman bound in the sheets of "drum-taps" and "when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd," and in still later issues, "songs before parting." the total number of copies issued is not known but must have been quite small owing to the effect of the lower priced pirated edition. the fifth edition was published in washington and attracted little or no attention save in england where the demand for complete and unabridged copies was fostered by rossetti's emasculated edition. the english demand was so great that whitman was compelled to reprint one or two new editions. he got around the expense of new plates by inserting "intercallations"--poems printed on separate slips of paper and tipped in. in , the next boston edition was issued. with a recognized publisher of osgood's standing there should have been no question of the final success of "leaves of grass." osgood published all the work of the new englanders; longfellow, lowell, emerson and whittier. whitman was in good company save that the society for the suppression of vice considered "leaves of grass" to be bad company and through district attorney stevens secured its suppression. osgood promptly withdrew the book and gladly turned over to the author all unsold and unbound copies and the plates. the plates went to rees, welsh and company, of philadelphia, who brought out an edition and then dropped from sight. david mckay published an edition from the same plates. during this time certain "special" and "author's" editions were published by whitman as his own publisher. after whitman's death small, maynard & company, of boston, became the authorized publishers. they were followed in turn by d. appleton and company, and mitchell kennerley. at this writing messrs. doubleday, page & co. are the authorized publishers of "leaves of grass," and the "prose works." any bibliography of whitman's works can be called but an attempt. his temperamental handling of the plates of the various editions of "leaves of grass" resulted in many curious imprints. there may be omissions, i grant, but not serious ones. the work i undertook was a clearing up of the fog which hung about the various boston editions and setting cataloguers right on the first edition. i must, at this point, thank anne montgomerie traubel, of camden, mr. walter bartley quinlan and mr. alfred f. goldsmith, of new york, and mr. henry s. saunders, of toronto, canada, for valuable suggestions and comparison of notes, and mr. m. m. breslow for permission to use his very excellent collection of whitmaniana as a basis for this bibliography. frank shay. new york city july, . note the arrangement is chronological, the only practicable method. in listing titles and imprints i have sought to follow the typography and punctuation of the originals. where this was not practicable i have inserted punctuation marks to give the matter coherence. where i have interpolated remarks or descriptions within the titles i have enclosed them in brackets to distinguish them from whitman's parenthesis. the new world. extra series. number . new york, november, . original temperance novel. franklin evans; or the inebriate. a tale of the times. by walter whitman. royal octavo, pp. , uncut. published as an extra to "_the new world_." the last page ( ) contains advertisement: "new works in press." written during whitman's bohemian days it was advertised as a thrilling romance by one of the best novelists in this country and had a sale of between , and , copies, which netted the author about $ . references to the work in later years irritated whitman and he refused to discuss it. the work is extremely scarce considering the great number that were published. leaves of grass. brooklyn, new york. . first edition. twelve poems. imperial octavo, pink paper wrappers. "leaves of grass" printed in block letters across front wrapper, end wrapper blank. steel engraved portrait, title, uncaptioned preface, xii, leaves of grass, pp. , end blank. the author's name appears only in the copyright notice, and in the first poem: "walt whitman, an american, one of the roughs, a kosmos." the poems, twelve in number, are without titles. in the present authorized edition they appear under the following titles: song of myself. a song for occupations. to think of time. the sleepers. i sing the body electric. faces. song of the answer (part one). europe. a boston ballad. there was a child went forth. who learns my lesson complete. great are the myths. the preface was later worked into three poems: by blue ontario's shore. song of prudence. to a foil'd european revolutionaire. there are three variations of the first edition. the one noted above in pink wrappers is unquestionably the first issue. the second issue is bound in green cloth, gilt edges, and with the title stamped in rustic letters in gilt on the front cover. the last issue of this edition has all the points of the second issue with eight pages of press notices bound in at the front. less than nine hundred copies were printed in july, , in the printshop of andrew h. rome, cranberry street, brooklyn, the author assisting in the type composition and presswork. the volume was placed on sale at fowler & wells, broadway, new york, and at swaynes, in fulton street, brooklyn, at two dollars, but was later reduced to one dollar. very few copies were sold; whitman giving almost the entire edition to critics and friends. catalogued from the maier copy. a reprint of this edition was issued in january, , by mr. thomas b. mosher, portland, maine. leaves of grass. brooklyn, new york. . second edition. thirty-two poems. thick mo, green drab cloth, sprinkled edges. title stamped in gilt on face of binding; on back title and quotation from emerson's letter "i greet you at the beginning of a great career, r. w. emerson," portrait, same as in the first edition, title, contents, iv, leaves of grass, pp. ( )- , leaves droppings (reprint of emerson's letter; whitman's letter to emerson and press notices), pp. - , advertisement. owing to the storm of criticism which arose against the book, fowler & wells, the new york publishers, refused to put their name on the title page, and though they attended to all the details of presswork and distribution, the volume was issued from brooklyn, without imprint. it is said that there are copies in existence bearing fowler & wells imprint, but this is doubtful as such copies are unknown to whitman collectors. in this edition the prose preface of the first edition is worked into four poems: by blue ontario's shore; song of the answerer, part two; to a foil'd european revolutionaire, and song of prudence; the balance being reprinted in specimen days and collect, . owing to the refusal of fowler & wells to stand sponsor to the volume, only , copies were printed and the book was out of print - . leaves of grass imprints. american and european criticisms of "leaves of grass." boston: thayer and eldridge, . mo, printed wrappers, pp. . a reprint of current criticisms of the first and second editions. pp. , , , contain articles written and contributed anonymously by whitman to various new york papers. they were later reprinted in the fellowship papers and in in re walt whitman, . it is exceedingly rare. leaves of grass. boston: thayer and eldridge, year ' of the states. ( - .) third edition. poems. duodecimo, brown cloth, heavily blind embossed. portrait, at the age of forty, engraved by schoff, after the painting by charles hine, in , on an irregular tinted background, title, contents, pp. iv- . issued may, . the author went to boston to superintend the printing and binding. the publishers failed during the period of financial depression at the beginning of the civil war and the plates were sold at auction to r. worthington, who surreptitiously used them with the original imprint. there are, for this reason, four or more editions bearing the original thayer and eldridge imprint. the first issue is distinguished by the engraved portrait which is on an irregular tinted background and by the gilt embossed butterfly on the backbone of the binding. on the verso of the title is the inscription "electrotyped at the boston stereotype foundry. printed by george c. rand & avery." the second issue has the portrait on white paper and lacks the gilt butterfly. the third issue, or the first pirated issue, lacks the printer's inscription and is bound in cheap cloth. early issues, all spurious, contain catalogues of worthington's publications bound in at the end. the plates were purchased by whitman's literary executors after his death. in this edition the author abandons calling the months by their common names and adopts the quaker style: that of calling september the ninthmonth, etc. copies of the first issue with the tinted portrait are extremely scarce. the various editions have heretofore remained undistinguished. walt whitman's drum-taps. new york, . duodecimo, brown cloth, title (drum-taps) stamped on gold ground on front cover, title, contents, iv, pp. - . but few copies had been issued when the death of president lincoln occurred and the author withheld the balance until a few weeks later when he added "when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd and other pieces," with pagination distinct from that of drum-taps, as a sequel. this and the "sequel" formed the first and second annexes to the fourth edition, , of leaves of grass, and were later incorporated in the washington, edition under the title of drum-taps. copies without the "sequel" are exceedingly scarce. sequel to drum-taps (since the preceding came from the press). when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd. and other pieces. washington, d. c., - . duodecimo, pp. . it is doubtful if any copies reached the market other than those issued as a part of drum-taps. the remaining copies were bound up with second issue of the edition. leaves of grass. new york, . fourth edition. duodecimo, walnut half-morocco, title, contents, iv, pp. ( )- . there is also a cloth bound issue that differs in no manner from the above. both have "ed'n " stamped in gilt on back. later issues of this edition have added, under separate pagination, drum-taps, pp. iv- ; sequel to drum-taps, pp. ; songs before parting, pp. . a blank leaf separates each section. in this edition the author changes the writing of the past participle to 'd. the verses and sections are numbered. poems by walt whitman. selected and edited by william michael rossetti [quotation from michelangelo]. london: john camden hotten, piccadilly, . "rossetti" edition. duodecimo, blue cloth, uncut; half-title, portrait with facsimile signature, title, page of quotations from swedenborg, carlyle, and robespierre, note on portrait, dedication (by w. m. r.) to william bell scott, contents, prefatory notices, preface to leaves of grass, pp. ; half-title, pp. , postscript. eight pages of advertisements in front, and sixteen pages in back. the first english, or "rossetti's edition." w. d. o'connor writing to an european friend called it "a fairly representative, but nevertheless, castrated edition." a second edition from new type was issued in by chatto & windus, london. third edition, . leaves of grass. washington, d. c., . [pointing hand] see advertisement at end of this volume. fifth edition. duodecimo, light green paper wrappers, uncut; title, contents, pp. vi- . copyright notice dated ; later issues were bound in cloth. memoranda. democratic vistas. washington, d. c., . [pointing hand] see advertisement at end of this volume. duodecimo, light green paper wrappers, uncut; title, contents, pp. . copyright notice dated . leaves of grass. passage to india. (five line poem beginning, "gliding o'er all.") washington, d. c., . [pointing hand] see advertisement at end of this volume. duodecimo, light green paper wrappers, uncut; title, contents, pp. iv- . copyright notice dated . after all, not to create only. recited by walt whitman on invitation of managers american institute, on opening their th annual exhibition, new york, noon, september , (device). boston: roberts brothers, . duodecimo, beveled cloth boards, half-title, title, note, vii; pp. , notes. there is also a limp cloth issue which is quite common, that was issued to be sold at the exhibition. the poem was later published in the transactions of the american institute, - . albany, . leaves of grass. washington, d. c., . second issue of the fifth edition. duodecimo, green cloth, uncut; title, contents, vi, pp. . passage to india, pp. . printed from the plates of the washington, editions of leaves of grass and passage to india. later issues have after all, not to create only, pp. bound in. leaves of grass. as a strong bird on pinions free. and other poems. washington, d. c., . duodecimo, green cloth, uncut; title, contents, preface, x; one song, america, before i go, one page; souvenirs of democracy, facsimile signature, one page; pp. ; virginia--the west; by broad potomac's shore, one page, unnumbered; eight pages advertisements. memoranda during the war. by walt whitman. author's publication. camden, new jersey, - . octavo, maroon cloth, title stamped in gold on cover; page, "remembrance copy;" portrait, title, pp. , advertisement. leaves of grass. [nine-line poem beginning "come, said my soul," signed walt whitman in the author's autograph.] author's edition, with portraits from life. camden, new jersey, . sixth edition. octavo, half-calf, leather label, title, contents, vi; pp. , advertisement. portrait same as in the first edition facing page ; woodcut portrait by w. j. linton facing page . leaves of grass. [nine-line poem in author's holograph, signed walt whitman.] author's edition. with portraits and intercallations. camden, new jersey, . octavo, half calf, leather label, uncut. the same in every detail except for a new title. at the end of the table of contents a slip is tipped in: intercallations page as in a swoon the beauty of the ship when the full-grown poet came after an interval on each page indicated will be found a poem, tipped in. there is a variation in the intercallations: a few contain "a death sonnet for custer." two rivulets including democratic vistas, centennial songs, and passage to india. author's edition. camden, new jersey, . octavo, half-calf, leather label; portrait, "photo'd from life, sept., ' , brooklyn, n. y., by g. f. pearsall, fulton st." signed "walt whitman, born may , "; title, pp. , blank leaf; democratic vistas, pp. ; blank page; centennial songs, , pp. - ; blank page; as a strong bird on pinions free, preface, pp. x, pp. , blank page; passage to india, pp. ; blank page, advertisement. the above and leaves of grass, , were uniform in binding and comprised whitman's complete works to date. leaves of grass [device]. boston: james r. osgood & company, - . seventh edition. duodecimo, yellow cloth, facsimile signature stamped in gilt on front cover; title, contents, pp. . this edition was suppressed by district attorney stevens on complaint of the society for the suppression of vice. the unbound copies were claimed by the author who inserted a new title-page. the plates were turned over to rees, welsh and company. later they were given to david mckay, who issued several editions bearing the dates of , , . there is also an edition from these plates with mckay's imprint and putnam's name on the binding. leaves of grass. by walt whitman, author's copyright edition [device]. london: david bogue, st. martin's place, trafalgar square, w. c., . (all rights reserved.) octavo, olive cloth, uncut; title, contents, pp. . the collation being the same as that of the boston, edition it is possible that bogue purchased the sheets from osgood or whitman and bound the book to his own tastes. there was another issue, same collation, in . leaves of grass by walt whitman: preface to the original edition, [device]. london: trübner & co., . octavo, blue wrappers, uncut, title, pp. , advertisements. only copies were printed. an edition on large paper, bound in light blue wrappers and limited to twenty-five copies was issued at the same time. specimen days and collect. by walt whitman, author of "leaves of grass." philadelphia: rees, welsh & co., no. south ninth street, - . duodecimo, paper wrappers, uncut; portrait, title, contents, pp. ; advertisement. very few copies were issued in wrappers, the larger number being bound in yellow cloth and with the imprint of david mckay. the edition with the imprint of wilson and mccormick, glasgow, , was printed from the same plates. leaves of grass. the poems of walt whitman (selected), with introduction by ernest rhys. mo, blue cloth, paper label, uncut; portrait, title, contents, introduction, xxxix, pp. ; advertisements. the canterbury poet series. specimen days in america. by walt whitman. newly revised by the author, with fresh preface and additional note. london: walter scott, warwick lane, paternoster row, . mo, blue cloth, paper label, uncut; half-title, title, contents, preface, pp. ; advertisements. the camelot series. later published by routledge in the new universal library. november boughs. by walt whitman. philadelphia: david mckay, south ninth street, . octavo maroon cloth, uncut; title stamped in gilt on front cover; portrait, the th year, title, contents, ( )- ; advertisement. complete (portrait) poems and prose of walt whitman, - . authenticated and personal book (handled by w. w.). portraits from life. autograph. eighth edition, leaves of grass; third edition of prose works. octavo, half cloth, uncut. leaves of grass, pp. ; specimen days, pp. ; november boughs, pp. . portraits face pp. and . copies. democratic vistas, and other papers. by walt whitman. published by arrangement with the author. london: walter scott, warwick lane, paternoster row, . mo, cloth, paper label, uncut; title, contents, preface, pp. ; advertisements. leaves of grass with sands at seventy and a backward glance o'er travel'd roads. to-day, after finishing my th year, the fancy comes for celebrating it by a special, complete, final utterance, in one handy volume, of l. of g., with their annex, and backward glance--and for stamping and sprinkling all with portraits and facial photos, such as they actually were, taken from life, different stages. doubtless, anyhow, the volume is more a _person_ than a book. and for testimony to all (and for good measure) i here with pen and ink append my name: walt whitman. portraits from life; autograph; special edition. ( copies only printed--$ each.) the "pocketbook" leaves of grass. duodecimo, black morocco, with and without flaps, gilt edges. portrait, title, contents, pp. - ; sands at seventy, pp. - ; a backward glance o'er travel'd roads, separate pagination, pp. - . portraits face pp. , , , , . gems from walt whitman. selected by elizabeth porter gould. philadelphia: david mckay, publisher, south ninth street, . oblong duodecimo, maroon cloth; title, contents, poem to w. w., pp. . good-bye my fancy, d annex to leaves of grass. philadelphia: david mckay, publisher, south ninth street, . octavo, green or maroon cloth, uncut, gilt top; title stamped in gilt on front cover; portrait, title, contents, pp. ( )- . leaves of grass. including sands at seventy. st annex, good-bye my fancy; d annex, a backward glance o'er travel'd roads, and portrait from life. [nine-line poem, facsimile signature of the author.] philadelphia: david mckay, publisher, south ninth street, - . ninth edition. octavo, paper wrappers, paper label, uncut; title, contents, pp. . later issues were bound in cloth and have the publisher's address at market street. complete prose works. walt whitman. philadelphia: david mckay, publisher, south ninth street, . octavo, green cloth, uncut, gilt top; title, contents, viii, pp. . selected poems. by walt whitman. new york: charles l. webster & co., . mo, grey cloth; half-title, portrait, editor's note, pp. ; advertisements. in the fiction, fact, and fancy series. edited by arthur stedman. autobiographia, or the story of a life. by walt whitman. selected from his writings. new york: charles l. webster & co., . mo, grey cloth; half-title, photo of mickle street, camden house, title, editor's note, w. w. by e. c. s., pp. ; advertisements. the publisher failed and very few copies reached the market. in the fiction, fact, and fancy series edited by arthur stedman. there is an issue in blue cloth from the same plates, uncut, bearing the imprint of g. p. putnam's sons, london, , and some bearing the mckay imprint. _in re_ walt whitman. edited by his literary executors, horace l. traubel, richard maurice bucke, thomas b. harned [quotation from lucretius]. published by the editors through david mckay, south ninth street, philadelphia, . octavo, cloth, uncut; half-title, title, a first and last word, contents, x, pp. ; advertisements. but , copies were published. each copy was to be numbered consecutively, though many are found without the number. most copies have the signatures of one or all the executors. the volume contains the following by walt whitman: walt whitman and his poems, pp. - . leaves of grass: a volume of poems just published, pp. - . an english and an american poet, pp. - . letters in sickness: washington, , pp. - . the first three articles were written by whitman during - and sent to the newspapers anonymously. he insisted that considering the misunderstanding and abuse accorded to leaves of grass, he was compelled to resort to these methods to defend his work in columns that would have been otherwise closed to him. the latter was a series of letters to his mother. [*] the masterpiece library. xxvii. poems by walt whitman [quotation]. london: "review of reviews," office price one penny. duodecimo, orange wrappers, pp. ; advertisements. no. of the penny poets. quite scarce. [*date registered british copyright office.] leaves of grass including sands at seventy, good-bye my fancy, old age echoes, and a backward glance o'er traveled roads. by walt whitman [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, . octavo, green cloth, uncut; portrait, title, poem, author's note, no pagination, pp. . later editions from the same plates: d. appleton & company. mitchell kennerley. doubleday, page & company. calamus. a series of letters written during the years - . by walt whitman to a young friend [peter doyle]. edited with an introduction by richard maurice bucke, m. d., one of whitman's literary executors. [quotation from p. , "leaves of grass," edition of .] published by laurens maynard at congress street in boston, mdcccxcvii. duodecimo, boards, cloth back, paper label; zinc etching of whitman and peter doyle reproduced from a photograph by rice, washington, d. c., ; title, pp. quotations, chronological notes of walt whitman's life, introduction, pp. . the first issue was limited to numbered copies. a regular edition was published at the same time. complete prose works. specimen days and collect, november boughs and good-bye my fancy. by walt whitman [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, . octavo, cloth, uncut; half-title, portrait, title, contents, list of illustrations, pp. . later editions from the same plates: a. appleton & company. mitchell kennerley. doubleday, page & company. the wound dresser. a series of letters written from the hospitals in washington during the war of the rebellion. by walt whitman. edited by richard maurice bucke, m. d., one of whitman's literary executors [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, . octavo, red buckram, uncut; title, portrait, contents, pp. . the edition was limited to copies signed by the editor; the earliest of these copies have the publisher's device slightly out of the center. selections from the prose and poetry of walt whitman. edited with an introduction by oscar lovell triggs, ph.d. (the university of chicago) [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, . octavo, buckram, uncut; half-title, portrait, title, dedication, preface, contents, introduction xliii, half-title, pp. . selected bibliography ( )- . "walt whitman at home." by himself. critic pamphlet no. . new york: the critic co., . duodecimo, sewn, uncut; title, portrait, pp. . facsimiles of walt whitman's manuscript on pp. and . notes and fragments. left by walt whitman and now edited by dr. richard maurice bucke, one of his literary executors. "waifs from the deep cast high and dry," leaves of grass, pp. . printed for private distribution only, . small quarto, pebbled cloth, uncut; half-title, title, preface, pp. . copies. leaves of grass. by walt whitman. including a facsimile autobiography, variorum readings of the poems and a department of gathered leaves [device]. philadelphia: david mckay, market st. vo, green cloth; g.t., uncut; portrait, title, preface by david mckay, contents, x, facsimile of whitman's autobiography, pp. , alphabetical index of titles, ( )- . there are portraits facing pp. , , of the text. leaves of grass [device]. walt whitman. new york and boston: h. m. caldwell co. mo, pictorial board on cloths, uncut, portrait, title, pp. ; advertisements. when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd. essex house press, london: . mo. vellum, uncut. copies on vellum. the complete writings of walt whitman. issued under the editorial supervision of his literary executors, richard maurice bucke, thomas b. harned, and horace l. traubel. with additional bibliographical and critical material by oscar lovell triggs, ph.d. g. p. putnam's sons. new york and london: the knickerbocker press. ten volumes, various bindings, uncut. every scrap of paper and memoranda of whitman's is here collected and edited by his literary executors. leaves of grass takes up three volumes; the prose works seven. vol. . introduction. leaves of grass. vol. . leaves of grass. vol. . leaves of grass, variorum readings, index. vol. . specimen days. vol. . specimen days; collect. vol. . collect, november boughs, good-bye my fancy. vol. . good-bye my fancy, the wound dresser. vol. . calamus, chapters by t. b. harned. vol. . notes and fragments. vol. . notes and fragments, the growth of leaves of grass, bibliography, by o. l. triggs. there are several editions; three of which were published simultaneously. autograph edition, with ms. inserted sets. paumanok edition, coloured plates sets. camden edition sets. the lamb publishing company later published from the same plates: national edition , copies. walt whitman's diary in canada with extracts from other of his diaries and literary note-books. edited by william sloane kennedy [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, mcmiv. octavo, grey boards, parchment back and corners, uncut; half-title, portrait, title, editor's preface, pp. . the edition was limited to copies of which few were sold, the balance being bound up in light blue cloth, some without portrait. an american primer. by walt whitman, with facsimiles of the original manuscript. edited by horace traubel [device]. boston: small, maynard & company, mcmiv. vo, grey boards, vellum back and corners, uncut; half-title, portrait, title, foreword, half-title, pp. facsimiles, pp. . the edition was limited to copies of which few were sold, the balance being bound up in light blue cloth, some without portrait. leaves of grass [selected]. with a prefactory note by harry roberts. london: anthony treherne & co., ltd., . duodecimo, cloth, title, preface, pp. . vol. i of the vagabonds library. selected poems of walt whitman. edited with introduction and notes by julian w. abernethy, ph.d. [device]. new york: charles e. merrill co. mo, brown wrappers, title, introduction, critical opinions, bibliography, pp. . in maynard's english classic series, no. . song of myself. i, walt whitman, now thirty-seven years old, in perfect health, begin, hoping to cease not till death. i will make the poems of materials, for i think they are the most spiritual poems, and i will make the poems of my body and mortality. done into print by the roycrofters at their shop which is in east aurora, new york, a.d. mdcccciv. small quarto, various bindings, uncut; half title, portrait, title, pp. . lafayette in brooklyn. by walt whitman, with an introduction by john burroughs. new york: george d. smith, . octavo, grey boards, paper labels, uncut; half-title, publisher's note and autograph signature portrait on japan paper, title, contents, list of plates, note, half-title, facsimile of manuscript on japan paper, note, lafayette in brooklyn, notes. no pagination. there is a portrait of lafayette in the text. the issue was limited to copies, of which were on imperial japanese vellum, the balance on hand-made paper. the book of heavenly death by walt whitman, compiled from leaves of grass by horace traubel [device]. portland, maine: thomas b. mosher, mdccccv. duodecimo, light blue boards, paper label, uncut; note, facsimile, note, portrait (lear) title, contents, preface, pp. including index. copies from type. collated from late edition. memories of president lincoln and other lyrics of the war. by walt whitman [device]. portland, maine: thomas b. mosher, mdccccvi. mo, grey boards, paper labels, uncut; half-title, title, contents, foreword, pp. ( ). copies from type. memories of president lincoln, and other lyrics of the war. by walt whitman [device]. portland, maine: thomas b. mosher, mdccccvi. duodecimo, boards, paper label, uncut; half-title, title, contents, foreword by horace traubel and t. b. m., note by john burroughs, pp. . walt whitman. a little book of nature thoughts. selected by anne montgomerie traubel [device]. portland, maine: thomas b. mosher, mdccccvi. narrow mo, blue wrappers, uncut; half-title, title, preface, pp. , index. the wisdom of walt whitman. selected and edited, with introduction by laurens maynard. new york: brentano's fifth avenue, mcmvii. mo, limp morocco; half-title, title, contents, introduction, pp. ; index, pp. - . leaves of grass. by walt whitman. london, new york, toronto and melbourne: cassell and company, ltd. mcmix. duodecimo, cloth or leather, pp. . the peoples library. memories of president lincoln. when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd; o captain! my captain; hush'd be the camps to-day; this dust was once the man [device]. portland, maine: published by thomas b. mosher at xlv exchange street, mdccccxii. imperial octavo, grey boards, uncut; part of lincoln, title, lincoln's gettysburg address, note by william marion reedy, contents, half-title, foreword by horace traubel and t. b. m., half-title, pp. , printed on front of each page, bibliographical notes, ( ) note. copies on hand made paper. copies of japanese vellum. leaves of grass ( ), and democratic vistas. by walt whitman. london: published by j. m. dent & sons, ltd., and in new york by e. p. dutton & co. duodecimo, cloth and leather, pp. . everyman's library; introduction by horace traubel. the rolling earth. outdoor scenes and thoughts from the writings of walt whitman. compiled by waldo r. browne, with an introduction by john burroughs [quotation]. boston and new york: houghton mifflin company. the riverside press, cambridge, . mo, cloth; half-title, portrait, title, dedication, pp. ( ). poems from leaves of grass. by walt whitman. the colored illustrations by margaret c. cook. london: j. m. dent & sons, ltd. new york: e. p. dutton & co., . octavo, cloth, gilt, uncut; half-title, title, contents, list of illustrations, pp. . twenty-four colored plates mounted on oxford brown paper. from the text of the edition. criticism, an essay. by walt whitman for members. newark: carteret book club: . duodecimo, boards, uncut. edition limited to one hundred copies. leaves of grass (selected). by walt whitman [quotation from dubury]. london: charles h. kelly. duodecimo, crimson cloth; decorated title and frontispiece, pp. . edited by john telford. "special care has been taken in this edition to omit everything that would offend the reader's taste." from the editor's preface. memories of president lincoln. by walt whitman [device]. little leather library corporation, . sexto-decimo, limp calf, pp. . n. d. sea drift. by walt whitman [device]. london: jarrold & sons. sexto-decimo, polished levant, uncut. printed on one side of the page, pp. ( ). +------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: the advertisement pages at the | | end of the book were not available for inclusion | | in this e-book. | +------------------------------------------------------+ none none none proofreading team a handbook to the works of robert browning by mrs. sutherland orr "no pause i' the leading and the light!" _the ring and the book_, vol. ix. p. . london g. bell and sons, ltd. _first published may ._ _second edition, ._ _third edition, ._ _fourth edition, ._ _fifth edition, ._ _sixth edition, ._ _reprinted , , , , , , , ._ printed in great britain by purnell and sons paulton, somerset, england preface to the first edition. this book was written at the request of some of the members of the browning society, and was originally intended to be a primer. it bears the marks of this intention in its general scheme, and in the almost abrupt brevity which the desired limits of space seemed to impose on its earlier part. but i felt from the first that the spirit of mr. browning's work could neither be compressed within the limits, nor adapted to the uses, of a primer, as generally understood; and the book has naturally shaped itself into a kind of descriptive index, based partly on the historical order and partly or the natural classification of the various poems. no other plan suggested itself, at the time, for bringing the whole series of these poems at once under the reader's eye: since a description which throughout followed the historical order would have involved both lengthiness and repetition; while, as i have tried to show, there exists no scheme of natural classification into which the whole series could have been forced. i realize, only now that it is too late, that the arrangement is clumsy and confusing: or at least has become so by the manner in which i have carried it out; and that even if it justify itself to the mind of my readers, it can never be helpful or attractive to their eye, which had the first right to be considered. that i should have failed in a first attempt, however earnest, to meet the difficulties of such a task, is so natural as to be almost beyond regret, where my credit only is concerned; but i shall be very sorry if this result of my inexperience detracts from any usefulness which the handbook might otherwise possess as a guide to mr. browning's works. i note also, and with real vexation, some blunders of a more mechanical kind, which i might have been expected to avoid. i have been indebted for valuable advice to mr. furnivall; and for fruitful suggestion to mr. nettleship, whose proposed scheme of classification i have in some degree followed. a. orr. _march nd, ._ preface to the second edition. in preparing the handbook for its second edition, my first endeavour has been to correct, as far as possible, the faults which i acknowledged in my preface to the first. but even before the time for doing so had arrived, i had convinced myself that where construction or arrangement was concerned, these faults could not be corrected: that i, at least, could discover no more artistic method of compressing into a small space, and to any practical purpose, an even relatively just view of mr. browning's work. the altered page-headings will, where they occur, soften away the harshness of the classification, while they remove a distinct anomaly: the discussion of such a poem as "pauline" under its own title, such a one as "aristophanes' apology," under that of a group; but even this slight improvement rather detracts from than increases what little symmetry my scheme possessed. the other changes which, on my own account, i have been able to make, include the re-writing of some passages in which the needful condensation had unnecessarily mutilated the author's sense; the completing of quotation references which through an unforeseen accident had been printed off in an unfinished state; and the addition of a few bibliographical facts. by mr. browning's desire, i have corrected two mistakes: the misreading, on my part, of an historical allusion in "the statue and the bust," and of a poetical sentiment expressed in "pictor ignotus"--and, by the insertion of a word or sentence in the notice of each, expanded or emphasized the meaning of several of the minor poems. i should have stated in my first preface, had not the fact appeared to me self-evident, that i owe to mr. browning's kindness all the additional matter which my own reading could not supply: such as the index to the greek names in "aristophanes' apology," and the persian in "ferishtah's fancies;" the notes to "transcendentalism," and "pietro of abano;" and that he has allowed me to study in the original documents the story of "the ring and the book." the two signed notes by which he has enriched the present edition have grown out of recent circumstances. a. orr. _january th, ._ preface to the third edition. the present edition of the handbook includes a summary of mr. browning's "parleyings," which from the contents of this volume, as well as from its recent appearance, finds its natural place in a supplement. i have added an index to the six volumes of the "works," which has been desired for greater facility of reference. various corrections and improvements of the nature indicated in the preface to my second edition have been also made in the book. a. orr. _june th, ._ preface to the fifth edition. the deeply painful circumstances in which the handbook re-appears have compelled me to defer the fulfilment of mr. browning's wish, that its quotation references should be adapted to the use of readers of his new edition. they also leave it the poorer by some interesting notes which he more than once promised me for my next reprint; i had never the heart to say to him: "is it not safer to give them now?" the correction, p. , of the note referring to p. of "aristophanes' apology," was lately made by mr. browning in the handbook, pending the time when he could repeat it in his own work. the cancelled footnote on my rd page means that he did remove the contradiction of which i spoke. an open discussion on "numpholeptos," which took place some months ago, made me aware that my little abstract was less helpful even than its brevity allowed, because i had emphasized the imagery of the poem where it most obscured--or least distinctly illustrated--its idea; and i re-wrote a few sentences which i now offer in their amended form. a phrase or two in "one word more" has been altered for the sake of more literal accuracy. no other correction worth specifying has been made in the book. a. orr. _january th, ._ preface to the sixth edition. the changes made in the present edition have been almost entirely bibliographical. their chief object was that indicated in an earlier preface, of bringing the handbook into correspondence with the latest issue of mr. browning's works. i felt reluctant when making them, to entirely sacrifice the convenience of those students of browning who from necessity, or, as in my own case, from affection, still cling to the earlier editions; and would gladly have retained the old references while inserting the new. all however that seemed practical in this direction was to combine the index of with that of in so far as they run parallel with each other. a long felt want has been supplied by the addition to the handbook of a bibliography of mr. browning's works, based on that of dr. furnivall, and thoroughly revised by mr. dykes campbell. the bibliographical details scattered throughout the work have also been made more complete. the time and trouble required for the altered quotation references have been reduced to a minimum by the thoughtful kindness of my friend miss fanny carey of trent leigh, nottingham; who voluntarily, many months ago, prepared for me a list of the new page numbers, leaving them only to be transcribed when the time came. i have also to thank mr. g. m. smith for a copy of his general index to the works. a. orr. _dec. st, ._ table of contents. page preface to the first edition v preface to second edition vi preface to third edition vii preface to fifth edition viii preface to sixth edition ix general characteristics. the nature of mr. browning's genius. his choice and treatment of subject. versification. continuous character of his work. introductory group. "pauline." "paracelsus." "sordello" non-classified poems. dramas. "strafford." "pippa passes." "king victor and king charles." "the return of the druses." "a blot in the 'scutcheon." "colombe's birthday." "a soul's tragedy." "luria." "in a balcony" (a fragment) "the ring and the book" transcripts from the greek, with "artemis prologizes" classified groups. argumentative poems. special pleadings. "aristophanes' apology," with "balaustion's adventure." "fifine at the fair." "prince hohenstiel-schwangau, saviour of society." "bishop blougram's apology." "mr. sludge, 'the medium'" argumentative poems continued. reflections. "christmas-eve and easter-day." "la saiziaz." "cleon." "an epistle containing the strange medical experience of karshish, the arab physician." "caliban upon setebos; or, natural theology in the island" didactic poems. "a death in the desert." "rabbi ben ezra." "deaf and dumb: a group by woolner." "the statue and the bust" critical poems. "old pictures in florence." "respectability." "popularity." "master hugues of saxe-gotha." "a light woman." "transcendentalism." "how it strikes a contemporary." "dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours." "at the 'mermaid.'" "house." "shop." "pisgah-sights" i. "pisgah-sights," ii. "bifurcation." "epilogue" "pacchiarotto and other poems" emotional poems. love. lyrical love poems. "one word more. to e. b. b." "prospice." "numpholeptos." "prologue" (to "pacchiarotto and other poems."). "natural magic." "magical nature." introductory poem to "the two poets of croisic." concluding poem to "the two poets of croisic" (a tale). dramatic love poems. "cristina." "evelyn hope." "love among the ruins." "a lovers' quarrel." "by the fireside." "any wife to any husband." "two in the campagna." "love in a life." "life in a love." "the lost mistress." "a woman's last word." "a serenade at the villa." "one way of love." "rudel to the lady of tripoli." "in three days." "in a gondola." "porphyria's lover." "james lee's wife." "the worst of it." "too late." emotional poems continued. religious, artistic, and expressive of the fiercer emotions. "saul." "epilogue to dramatis personæ." "fears and scruples." "fra lippo lippi." "abt vogler." "pictor ignotus." "the bishop orders his tomb at saint praxed's church." "a toccata of galuppi's." "the guardian-angel: a picture at fano." "eurydice to orpheus: a picture by leighton." "a face." "andrea del sarto." "the laboratory." "my last duchess." "soliloquy of the spanish cloister." "the confessional." "a forgiveness." historical poems, or poems founded on fact. "red cotton night-cap country; or, turf and towers." "cenciaja." "the two poets of croisic." "the inn album." "the heretic's tragedy: a middle-age interlude" romantic poems. "childe roland to the dark tower came." "the flight of the duchess" humorous or satirical poems. "holy-cross day." "pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper." "filippo baldinucci on the privilege of burial." "up at a villa--down in the city." "another way of love." "garden fancies--ii. sibrandus schafnaburgensis" descriptive poems. "de gustibus--." "home-thoughts, from abroad." "the englishman in italy" non-classified poems continued. miscellaneous poems--including songs, legends, dramatic poems, and episodes. "the lost leader." "nationality in drinks." "garden fancies--i. the flower's name." "earth's immortalities." "home-thoughts, from the sea." "my star." "misconceptions." "a pretty woman." "women and roses." "before." "after." "memorabilia." "the last ride together." "a grammarian's funeral." "johannes agricola in meditation." "confessions." "may and death." "youth and art." "a likeness." "appearances." "st. martin's summer." prologue to "la saisiaz." "cavalier tunes." "how they brought the good news from ghent to aix." "song." "incident of the french camp." "count gismond." "the boy and the angel." "the glove." "the twins." "the pied piper of hamelin; a child's story." "gold hair: a story of pornic." "hervé riel." "through the metidja to abd-el-kadr." "meeting at night." "parting at morning." "the patriot: an old story." "instans tyrannus." "mesmerism." "time's revenges." "the italian in england." "protus." "apparent failure." "waring" concluding group. dramatic idyls. jocoseria. dramatic idyls, i. series: "martin relph." "pheidippides." "halbert and hob." "ivàn ivànovitch." "tray." "ned bratts." dramatic idyls, ii. series. "prologue." "echetlos." "clive." "mulèykeh." "pietro of abano." "doctor ----." "pan and luna." "epilogue." "jocoseria." "wanting is--what?" "donald." "solomon and balkis." "cristina and monaldeschi." "mary wollstonecraft and fuseli." "adam, lilith, and eve." "ixion." "jochanan hakkadosh." "never the time and the place." "pambo" supplement. ferishtah's fancies parleyings with certain people of importance in their day: to wit: bernard de mandeville, daniel bartoli, christopher smart, george bubb dodington, francis furini, gerard de lairesse, and charles avison. introduced by a dialogue between apollo and the fates: concluded by another between john fust and his friends. note bibliography alphabetical list of browning's works index to first lines of poems index handbook to browning's works general characteristics. the nature of mr. browning's genius. if we were called upon to describe mr. browning's poetic genius in one phrase, we should say it consisted of an almost unlimited power of imagination exerted upon real things; but we should have to explain that with mr. browning the real includes everything which a human being can think or feel, and that he is realistic only in the sense of being never visionary; he never deals with those vague and incoherent fancies, so attractive to some minds, which we speak of as coming only from the poet's brain. he imagines vividly because he observes keenly and also feels strongly; and this vividness of his nature puts him in equal sympathy with the real and the ideal--with the seen and the unseen. the one is as living to him as the other. his treatment of visible and of invisible realities constitutes him respectively a dramatic and a metaphysical poet; but, as the two kinds of reality are inseparable in human life, so are the corresponding qualities inseparable in mr. browning's work. the dramatic activity of his genius always includes the metaphysical. his genius always shows itself as dramatic and metaphysical at the same time. mr. browning's genius is dramatic because it always expresses itself in the forms of real life, in the supposed experiences of men and women. these men and women are usually in a state of mental disturbance or conflict; indeed, they think much more than they act. but their thinking tends habitually to a practical result; and it keeps up our sense of their reality by clothing itself always in the most practical and picturesque language which thought can assume. it has been urged that he does not sink himself in his characters as a completely dramatic writer should; and this argument must stand for what it is worth. his personality may in some degree be constructed from his works: it is, i think, generally admitted, that that of shakespeare cannot; and in so far as this is the test of a complete dramatist, mr. browning fails of being one. he does not sink himself in his men and women, for his sympathy with them is too active to admit of it. he not only describes their different modes of being, but defends them from their own point of view; and it is natural that he should often select for this treatment characters with which he is already disposed to sympathize. but his women are no less living and no less distinctive than his men; and he sinks his individuality at all times enough to interest us in the characters which are not akin to his own as much as in those which are. even if it were otherwise, if his men and women were all variations of himself, as imagined under differences of sex, of age, of training, or of condition, he would still be dramatic in this essential quality, the only one which bears on our contention: that everything which, as a poet, he thinks or feels, comes from him in a dramatic, that is to say, a completely living form. it is in this way also that his dramatic genius includes the metaphysical. the abstract, no less than the practical questions which shape themselves in his mind, are put before us in the thoughts and words, in the character and conduct of his men and women. this does not mean that human experience solves for him all the questions which it can be made to state, or that everything he believes can be verified by it: for in that case his mode of thought would be scientific, and not metaphysical; it simply means, that so much of abstract truth as cannot be given in a picture of human life, lies outside his philosophy of it. he accepts this residue as the ultimate mystery of what must be called divine thought. thought or spirit is with him the ultimate fact of existence; the one thing about which it is vain to theorize, and which we can never get behind. his gospel would begin, "in the beginning was the thought;" and since he can only conceive this as self-conscious, his "alpha and omega" is a divine intelligence from which all the ideas of the human intellect are derived, and which stamps them as true. these religious conceptions are the meeting-ground of the dramatic and the metaphysical activity of his poetic genius. the two are blended in the vision of a supreme being not to be invested with human emotions, but only to be reached through them. to show that mr. browning is a metaphysical poet, is to show that he is not a metaphysical _thinker_, though he is a thinker whose thought is metaphysical so far as principle goes. a metaphysical thinker is always in some way or other thinking about _thought_; and this is precisely what mr. browning has no occasion to do, because he takes its assumptions upon trust. he is a constant analyst of secondary motives and judgments. no modern freethinker could make a larger allowance for what is incidental, personal, and even material in them: we shall see that all his practical philosophy is bound up with this fact. but he has never questioned the origin of our primary or innate ideas, for he has, as i have said, never questioned their truth. it is essential to bear in mind that mr. browning is a metaphysical poet, and not a metaphysical thinker, to do justice to the depth and originality of his creative power; for his imagination includes everything which at a given moment a human being can think or feel, and often finds itself, therefore, at some point to which other minds have _reasoned_ their way. the coincidence occurs most often with german lines of thought, and it has therefore been concluded that he has studied the works in which they are laid down, or has otherwise moved in the same track; the fact being that he has no bond of union with german philosophers, but the natural tendencies of his own mind. it may be easily ascertained that he did not read their language until late in life; and if what i have said of his mental habits is true, it is equally certain that their methods have been more foreign to him still. he resembles hegel, fichte, or schelling, as the case may be, by the purely creative impulse which has met their thought, and which, if he had lived earlier, might have forestalled it. mr. browning's position is that of a fixed centre of thought and feeling. fifty years ago he was in advance of his age. he stood firm and has allowed the current to overtake him, or even leave him behind. if i may be allowed a comparison: other mental existences suggest the idea of a river, flowing onwards, amidst varying scenes, and in a widening bed, to lose itself in the sea. mr. browning's genius appears the sea itself, with its immensity and its limits, its restlessness and its repose, the constant self-balancing of its ebb and flow. as both dramatic and metaphysical poet, mr. browning is inspired by one central doctrine: that while thought is absolute in itself, it is relative or personal to the mind which thinks it; so that no one man can attain the whole truth of any abstract subject, and no other can convict him of having failed to do so. and he also believes that since intellectual truth is so largely for each of us a matter of personal impression, no language is special enough to convey it. the arguments which he carries on through the mouths of his men and women often represent even moral truth as something too subtle, too complex, and too changing, to be definitely expressed; and if we did not see that he reverences what is good as much as he excuses what is bad, we might imagine that even on this ground he considered no fixed knowledge to be attainable. these opinions are, however, closely bound up with his religious beliefs, and in great measure explained by them. he is convinced that uncertainty is essential to the spiritual life; and his works are saturated by the idea that where uncertainty ceases, stagnation must begin; that our light must be wavering, and our progress tentative, as well as our hopes chequered, and our happiness even devoid of any sense of finality, if the creative intention is not to frustrate itself; we may not see the path of progress and salvation clearly marked out before us. on the other hand, he believes that the circumstances of life are as much adapted to the guidance of each separate soul as if each were the single object of creative care; and that therefore while the individual knows nothing of the divine scheme, he _is_ everything in it. this faith in personality is naturally abstruse on the metaphysical side, but it is always picturesque on the dramatic; for it issues in that love of the unusual which is so striking to every reader of mr. browning's works; and we might characterize these in a few words, by saying that they reflect at once the extent of his general sympathies, and his antagonism to everything which is general. but the "unusual" which attracts him is not the morbid or the monstrous, for these mean defective life. it is every healthy escape from the conventional and the commonplace, which are also defective life; and this is why we find in his men and women those vivid, various, and subtly compounded motives and feelings, which make our contact with them a slight, but continuous electric shock. and since the belief in personality is the belief in human life in its fullest and truest form, it includes the belief in love and self-sacrifice. it may, indeed, be said that while mr. browning's judgments are leavened by the one idea, they are steadily coloured by the other; this again being so evident to his serious renders that i need only indicate it here. but the love of love does more than colour his views of life; it is an essential element in his theology; and it converts what would otherwise be a pure theism into a mystical christianity which again is limited by his rejection of all dogmatic religious truth. i have already alluded to his belief that, though the deity is not to be invested with human emotions, he can only be reached through them. love, according to him, is the necessary channel; since a colourless omnipotence is outside the conception as outside the sympathies of man. christ is a message of divine love, indispensable and therefore true; but he is, as such, a spiritual mystery far more than a definable or dogmatic fact. a definite revelation uttered for all men and for all time is denied by the first principles of mr. browning's religious belief. what christianity means for him, and what it does not, we shall also see in his works. it is almost superfluous to add that mr. browning's dramatic sympathies and metaphysical or religious ideas constitute him an optimist. he believes that no experience is wasted, and that all life is good in its way. we also see that his optimism takes the individual and not the race for its test and starting point; and that he places the tendency to good in a _conscious_ creative power which is outside both, and which deals directly with each separate human soul. but neither must we forget that the creative purpose, as he conceives it, fulfils itself equally through good and evil; so that he does not shrink from the contemplation of evil or by any means always seek to extenuate it. he thinks of it philosophically as a condition of good, or again, as an excess or a distortion of what is good; but he can also think of it, in the natural sense, as a distinct mode of being which a bad man may prefer for its own sake, as a good man prefers its opposite, and may defend accordingly. he would gladly admit that the coarser forms of evil are passing away; and that it is the creative intention that they should do so. evil remains for him nevertheless essential to the variety, and invested with the dignity of human life; and on no point does he detach himself so clearly from the humanitarian optimist who regards evil and its attendant sufferings as a mere disturbance to life. even where suffering is not caused by evil doing, he is helped over it by his individual point of view; because this prevents his ever regarding it as distinct from the personal compensations which it so often brings into play. he cannot think of it in the mass; and here again his theism asserts itself, though in a less obvious manner. so much of mr. browning's moral influence lies in the hopeful religious spirit which his works reveal, that it is important to understand how elastic this is, and what seeming contradictions it is competent to unite. the testimony of one poem might otherwise be set against that of another with confusing results. mr. browning's paternal grandfather was an englishman of a west country stock;[ ] his paternal grandmother a creole. the maternal grandfather was a german from hamburg named wiedemann, an accomplished draughtsman and musician.[ ] the maternal grandmother was completely scotch. this pedigree throws a valuable light on the vigour and variety of mr. browning's genius; for it shows that on the ground of heredity they are, in great measure, accounted for. it contains almost the only facts of a biographical nature which can be fitly introduced into the present work. his choice and treatment of subject. versification. mr. browning's choice of subject is determined by his belief that individual feeling and motive are the only true life: hence the only true material of dramatic art. he rejects no incident which admits of development on the side of feeling and motive. he accepts none which cannot be so developed. his range of subject covers, therefore, a great deal that is painful, but nothing that is simply repulsive: because the poetry of human life, that is of individual experience, is absent from nothing which he portrays. his treatment of his subject is realistic in so far that it is always picturesque. it raises a distinct image of the person or action he intends to describe; but the image is, so to speak, always saturated with thought: and i shall later have occasion to notice the false impression of mr. browning's genius which this circumstance creates. details, which with realists of a narrower kind would give only a physical impression of the scene described, serve in his case to build up its mental impression. they create a mental or emotional atmosphere which makes us vaguely feel the intention of the story as we travel through it, and flashes it upon us as we look back. in "red cotton night-cap country" (as we shall presently see) he dwells so significantly on the peacefulness of the neighbourhood in which the tragedy has occurred, that we feel in it the quiet which precedes the storm, and which in some measure invites it. in one of the idyls, "ivàn ivànovitch," he begins by describing the axe which will strike off the woman's head, and raising a vague idea of its fitness for any possible use. in another of them, "martin relph," the same process is carried on in an opposite manner. we see a mental agony before we know its substantial cause; and we only see the cause as reflected in it "ned bratts," again, conveys in its first lines the sensation of a tremendously hot day in which nature seems to reel in a kind of riotous stupefaction; and the grotesque tragedy on which the idyl turns, becomes a matter of course. it would be easy to multiply examples. mr. browning's verse is also subordinate to this intellectual theory of poetic art. it is uniformly inspired by the principle that sense should not be sacrificed to sound: and this principle constitutes his chief ground of divergence from other poets. it is a case of divergence--nothing more: since he is too deeply a musician to be indifferent to sound in verse, and since no other poet deserving the name would willingly sacrifice sense to it. but while all agree in admitting that sense and sound in poetry are the natural complement of each other, each will be practically more susceptible to one than to the other, and will unconsciously seek it at the expense of the other. with all his love for music, mr. browning is more susceptible to sense than to sound. he values though more than expression; matter, more than form; and, judging him from a strictly poetic point of view, he has lost his balance in this direction, as so many have lost it in the opposite one. he has never ignored beauty, but he has neglected it in the desire for significance. he has never meant to be rugged, but he has become so, in the exercise of strength. he has never intended to be obscure, but he has become so from the condensation of style which was the excess of significance and of strength. habit grows on us by degrees till its slight invisible links form an iron chain, till it overweights its object, and even ends in crushing it out of sight; and mr. browning has illustrated this natural law. the self-enslavement was the more inevitable in his case that he was not only an earnest worker, but a solitary one. his genius[ ] removed him from the first from that sphere of popular sympathy in which the tendency to excess would have been corrected; and the distance, like the mental habit which created it, was self-increasing. it is thus that mr. browning explains the eccentricities of his style; and his friends know that beyond the point of explaining, he does not defend them. he has never blamed his public for accusing him of obscurity or ugliness he has only thought those wrong who taxed him with being wilfully ugly or obscure. he began early to defy public opinion because his best endeavours had failed to conciliate it; and he would never conciliate it at the expense of what he believed to be the true principles of his art. but his first and greatest failure from a popular point of view was the result of his willingness to accept any judgment, however unfavourable, which coincided with this belief. "paracelsus," had recently been published, and declared "unintelligible;" and mr. browning was pondering this fact and concluding that he had failed to be intelligible because he had been too concise, when an extract from a letter of miss caroline fox was forwarded to him by the lady to whom it had been addressed. the writer stated that john sterling had tried to read the poem and been repelled by its _verbosity_; and she ended with this question: "_doth he know that wordsworth will devote a fortnight or more to the discovery of the single word that is the one fit for his sonnet_?" mr. browning was not personally acquainted with either john sterling or caroline fox, and what he knew of the former as a poet did not, to his mind, bear out this marked objection to wordiness. still, he gave the joint criticism all the weight it deserved; and much more than it deserved in the case of miss fox, whom he imagined, from her self-confident manner, to be a woman of a certain age, instead of a girl some years younger than himself; and often, he tells us, during the period immediately following, he contented himself with two words where he would rather have used ten. the harsh and involved passages in "sordello," which add so much to the remoteness of its thought, were the first consequence of this lesson. "pauline" and "paracelsus" had been deeply musical, and the music came back to their author's verse with the dramas, lyrics, and romances by which "sordello" was followed. but the dread of being diffuse had doubly rooted itself in his mind, and was to bear fruit again as soon as the more historical or argumentative mood should prevail. the determination never to sacrifice sense to sound is the secret of whatever repels us in mr. browning's verse, and also of whatever attracts. wherever in it sense keeps company with sound, we have a music far deeper than can arise from mere sound, or even from a flow of real lyric emotion, which has its only counterpart _in_ sound. it is in the idea, and of it. it is the brain picture beating itself into words. the technical rules by which mr. browning works, carry out his principle to the fullest extent. i. he uses the smallest number of words which his meaning allows; is particularly sparing in adjectives. ii. he uses the largest _relative_ number of saxon (therefore picturesque) words.[ ] iii. he uses monosyllabic words wherever this is possible. iv. he farther condenses his style by abbreviations and omissions, of which some are discarded, but all warranted by authority: "in," "on," and "of," for instance, become "i'," "o'," and "o'." pronouns, articles, conjunctions, and prepositions are, on the same principle, occasionally left out. v. he treats consonants as the backbone of the language, and hence, as the essential feature in a rhyme; and never allows the repetition of a consonant in a rhyme to be modified by a change in the preceding vowel, or by the recurrence of the rhyming syllable in a different word--or the repetition of a consonant in blank verse to create a half-consonance resembling a rhyme: though other poets do not shrink from doing so.[ ] vi. he seldom dilutes his emphasis by double rhymes, reserving these--especially when made up of combined words, and producing a grotesque effect--for those cases in which the meaning is given with a modifying colour: a satirical, or self-satirical, intention on the writer's part. strong instances of this occur in "the flight of the duchess," "christmas eve," and "pacchiarotto." vii. he always uses the measure most appropriate to his subject, whether it be the ten-syllabled blank verse which makes up "the ring and the book," the separate dramatic monologues, and nearly all the dramas, or the heroic rhymed verse which occurs in "sordello" and "fifine at the fair;" or one of the lyrical measures, of which his slighter poems contain almost, if not quite, every known form.[ ] viii. he takes no liberties with unusual measures; though he takes any admissible liberty with the usual measures, which will interrupt their monotony, and strengthen their effect. ix. he eschews many vulgarisms or inaccuracies which custom has sanctioned, both in prose and verse, such as, "thou _wert_;" "better than _them_ all;" "he _need_ not;" "he _dare_ not." the universal "i _had_ better;" "i _had_ rather," is abhorrent to him.[ ] x. no prosaic turns or tricks of language are ever associated in his verse with a poetic mood. the continuous character of his work. the writer of a handbook to mr. browning's poetry must contend with exceptional difficulties, growing out of what i have tried to describe as the unity in variety of mr. browning's poetic life. this unity of course impresses itself on his works; and in order to give a systematic survey of them, we must treat as a collection of separate facts what is really a living whole; and seek to give the impression of that whole by a process of classification which cuts it up alive. mr. browning's work is, to all intents and purposes, one group; and though we may divide and subdivide it for purposes of illustration, the division will be always more or less artificial, and, unless explained away, more or less misleading. we cannot even divide it into periods, for if the first three poems represent the author's intellectual youth, the remainder are one long maturity; while even in these the poetic faculty shows itself full-grown. we cannot trace in it the evidence of successive manners like those of raphael, or successive moods like those of shakespeare; or, if we do, this is neutralized by the simple fact that mr. browning's productive career has been infinitely longer than was raphael's, and considerably so than shakespeare's; and that changes which meant the development of a genius in their case, mean the course of a life in his. and this is the central fact of the case. mr. browning's work is himself. his poetic genius was in advance of his general growth, but it has been subject to no other law. "the ring and the book" was written at what may be considered the turning-point of a human life. it was in some degree a turning-point in the author's artistic career: for most of his emotional poems were published before, and most of the argumentative after it; and in this sense his work may be said to divide itself into two. but the division is useless for our purpose. the browning of the second period is the browning of the first, only in a more crystallized form. no true boundary line can be drawn even here. my endeavour will, therefore, be to bring the sense of this real continuity into the divisions which i must impose on mr. browning's work; and thus also to infuse something of his life into the meagre statement of contents to which i am forced to reduce it. the few words of explanation by which i preface each group may assist this end. at the same time i shall resist all temptation to "bring out" what i have indicated as mr. browning's leading ideas by headings, capitals, italics, or any other artificial device whatever; as in so doing i should destroy his emphasis and hinder the right reading, besides effacing the usually dramatic character, of the individual poems. the impressions i have received from the collective work will, i trust, be confirmed by it. footnotes: [footnote : i stated in my first edition that mr. browning was descended from the "captain micaiah browning" who raised the siege of derry in by springing the boom across lough foyle, and perished in the act (the incident being related in macaulay's "history of england," vol. iv., pp. and of the edition of ). i am now told that there is no evidence of this lineal descent, though there are circumstances which point to some kind of relationship. another probable ancestor is captain ---- browning, who commanded the ship "holy ghost," which conveyed henry v. to france before he fought the battle of agincourt; and in return for whose services two waves, said to represent waves of the sea, were added to his coat of arms. the same arms were worn by captain micaiah browning, and are so by the present family.] [footnote : wiedemann is the second baptismal name of mr. browning's son; and, in his infantine mouth, it became (we do not exactly guess how), the "penini," shortened into "pen," which some ingenious interpreters have derived from the word "apennine."] [footnote : and--we are bound to admit--the singular literary obtuseness of the england of fifty years ago.] [footnote : a distinguished american philologist, the late george p. marsh, has declared that he exceeds all other modern english writers in his employment of them.] [footnote : in "in memoriam" we have such rhymes as:-- {now {curse {mourn {good {light {report {low {horse {turn {blood {delight {port in the blank verse of "the princess," and of "enoch arden" such assonances as:-- {sun {lost {whom {wand {noon {burst {seem {hand. {known {clipt {word {down {kept {wood, etc. i take these instances from the works of so acknowledged a master of verse as mr. tennyson, rather than from those of a smaller poet who would be no authority on the subject, because they thus serve to show that the poetic ear may have different kinds as well as degrees of sensibility, and must, in every case, be accepted as, to some extent, a law to itself.] [footnote : "la saisiaz," for instance, is written in the same measure as "locksley hall," fifteen syllables, divided by a pause, into groups of four trochees, and of three and a half--the last syllable forming the rhyme. it is admirably suited to the sustained and incisive manner in which the argument is carried on. "ixion" in "jocoseria," is in alternate hexameter and pentameter, which the author also employs here for the only time; it imitates the turning of the wheel on which ixion is bound. "pheidippides" is in a measure of mr. browning's own, composed of dactyls and spondees, each line ending with a half foot or pause. it gives the impression of firm, continuous, and rhythmic motion, and is generally fitted to convey the exalted sentiment and heroic character of the poem. in his translation of the "agamemnon," mr. browning has used the double ending continuously, so as to reproduce the extended measure of the greek iambic trimeter.] [footnote : as objection has been taken to the opinions conveyed in this paragraph, and mr. browning's authority has been even, in a manner, invoked against them, i subjoin by his desire the accompanying note. the question of what is, or is not, a vicious locution is not essential to the purposes of the book; but it is essential that i should not be supposed to have misstated mr. browning's views on any point on which i could so easily ascertain them. "i make use of 'wast' for the second person of the perfect-indicative, and 'wert' for the present-potential, simply to be understood; as i should hardly be if i substituted the latter for the former, and therewith ended my phrase. 'where wert thou, brother, those three days, had he not raised thee?' means one thing, and 'where wast thou when he did so?' means another. that there is precedent in plenty for this and many similar locutions ambiguous, or archaic, or vicious, i am well aware, and that, on their authority, i _be_ wrong, the illustrious poet _be_ right, and you, our critic, _was_ and shall continue to be my instructor as to 'every thing that pretty _bin_.' as regards my objection to the slovenly 'i had' for 'i'd,' instead of the proper 'i would,' i shall not venture to supplement what landor has magisterially spoken on the subject. an adverb adds to, and does not, by its omission, alter into nonsense the verb it qualifies. 'i would rather speak than be silent, better criticize than learn' are forms structurally regular: what meaning is in 'i had speak, had criticize'? then, i am blamed for preferring the indicative to what i suppose may be the potential mood in the case of 'need' and 'dare'--just that unlucky couple: by all means go on and say 'he need help, he dare me to fight,' and so pair off with 'he need not beg, he dare not reply,' forms which may be expected to pullulate in this morning's newspaper. "venice, oct. , ." "r. b." ] i. introductory group. "pauline," "paracelsus," "sordello." these three poems are mr. browning's first, and they are also, as i have said, the one partial exception to the unity and continuousness of his work; they have, at least, one common characteristic which detaches them from the remainder of it. each is in its different way the study of a human spirit, too ambitious to submit to the limits of human existence, and which learns humility in its unsuccessful conflict with them. this ambition is of its nature poetic, and seems so much in harmony with mr. browning's mind--young and untutored by experience as it then was, full of the consciousness of its own powers as it must have been--that it is difficult not to recognize in it a phase of his own intellectual life. but if it was so, it is one which he had already outgrown, or lived much more in fancy than in fact. his sympathy with the ambition of paracelsus and sordello is steadily counteracted by his judgment of it; and we are only justified in asserting what is beyond dispute: that these poems represent an introductory phase of the author's imagination, one which begins and ends in them. the mind of his men and women will be exercised on many things, but never again so much upon itself. the vivid sense of their personality will be less in their minds than in his own. "pauline." ( .) this poem is, as its title declares, a fragment of a confession. the speaker is a man, probably still young; and pauline, the name of the lady who receives the confession, and is supposed to edit it. it is not, however, "fragmentary" in the sense of revealing only a small part of the speaker's life, or of only recording isolated acts, from which the life may be built up. its fragmentary character lies in this: that, while very explicit as a record of feeling and motive, it is entirely vague in respect to acts. it is an elaborate retrospect of successive mental states, big with the sense of corresponding misdeeds; and pointing among these to some glaring infidelities to pauline, the man's constant love and friend; but on the whole conveying nothing beyond an impression of youthful excesses, and of an extreme and fantastic self-consciousness which has inspired these excesses, and which now magnifies and distorts them. an ultra-consciousness of self is in fact the key-note of the whole mental situation. pauline's lover has been a prey to the spiritual ambition so distinctly illustrated in these three first poems; and, unlike paracelsus and sordello, he has given it no outlet in unselfish aims. his life has not been wholly misspent; he is a poet and a student; he has had dreams of human good; he has reverenced great men: and never quite lost the faith in god, and the sense of nearness to him; and he alleges some of these facts in deprecation of his too harsh verdict upon himself. but his ultimate object has been always the gratification of self--the ministering to its pleasures and to its powers; and this egotism has become narrower and more consuming, till the thirst for even momentary enjoyment has banished the very belief in higher things. the belief returns, and we leave him at the close of his confession exhausted by the mental fever, but released from it--new-born to a better life; though how and why this has happened is again part of the mystery of the case. "pauline" is _the_ one of mr. browning's longer poems of which no intelligible abstract is possible: a circumstance the more striking that it is perfectly transparent, as well as truly poetical, so far as its language is concerned. the defects and difficulties of "pauline" are plainly admitted in an editor's note, written in french, and signed by this name; and which, proceeding as it does from the author himself, supplies a valuable comment on the work. "i much fear that my poor friend will not be always perfectly understood in what remains to be read of this strange fragment, but it is less calculated than any other part to explain what of its nature can never be anything but dream and confusion. i do not know moreover whether in striving at a better connection of certain parts, one would not run the risk of detracting from the only merit to which so singular a production can pretend: that of giving a tolerably precise idea of the manner (_genre_) which it can merely indicate. this unpretending opening, this stir of passion, which first increases, and then gradually subsides, these transports of the soul, this sudden return upon himself, and above all, my friend's quite peculiar turn of mind, have made alterations almost impossible. the reasons which he elsewhere asserts, and others still more cogent have secured my indulgence for this paper, which otherwise i should have advised him to throw into the fire. i believe none the less in the great principle of all composition--in that principle of shakespeare, of raphael, and of beethoven, according to which concentration of ideas is due much more to their conception than to their execution; i have every reason to fear that the first of these qualities is still foreign to my friend, and i much doubt whether redoubled labour would enable him to acquire the second. it would be best to burn this; but what can i do?" * * * * * we might infer from this, as from his subsequent introduction, that mr. browning disclaimed all that is extravagant in the poem, and laid it simply to the charge of the imaginary person it is intended to depict: but that he has also prefaced it with a curious latin quotation which identifies that person with himself.[ ] "pauline" did not take its place among the author's collected works till , when the uniform edition of them appeared; and he then introduced it by a preface (to which i have just alluded) in which he declared his unwillingness to publish such a boyish production, and gave the reasons which induced him to do so. the poem is boyish, or at all events youthful, in point of conception; and we need not wonder that this intellectual crudeness should have outweighed its finished poetic beauties in its author's mind. it contains however one piece of mental portraiture which, with slight modifications, might have stood for mr. browning when he re-edited the work, as it clearly did when he wrote it. it begins thus (vol. i. page ): "i am made up of an intensest life," the tribute at page [ ] to the saving power of imagination is also characteristic of his maturer mind, though expressed in an ambiguous manner. it is interesting to know that in the line (page ), "the king treading the purple calmly to his death," he was thinking of agamemnon: as this shows how early his love of classic literature began. the allusion to plato, at pages , , and , largely confirms this impression. the feeling for music asserts itself also at page , though in a less spiritual form than it assumes in his later works. but the most striking piece of true biography which "pauline" contains, is its evidence of the young writer's affectionate reverence for shelley, whom he idealizes under the name of sun-treader. an invocation to his memory occupies three pages, beginning with the ninth; it is renewed at the end of the poem, and there can be no doubt that the pathetic language in which it is couched came straight from the young poet's own heart. we even fancy that shelley's influence is visible in the poem itself, which contains a profusion of natural imagery, and some touches of naturalistic emotion, not at all in keeping with mr. browning's picturesque, but habitually human genius. the influence, if it existed, passed away with his earliest youth; not so the admiration and sympathy which it implied; and this, considering the wide difference which separated the two minds, is an interesting fact.[ ] "paracelsus." ( .) "paracelsus" is a summary of the life, as mr. browning conceives it, of this well-known physicist of the sixteenth century; and is divided into five scenes, or groups of scenes, each representing a critical moment in his experience, and reviewing in his own words the circumstances by which it has been prepared. the personages whom it includes are, besides the principal one, festus and michal, early friends of paracelsus, and now man and wife; and the italian poet aprile. michal appears only in the first scene; aprile in the second or third; but festus accompanies paracelsus throughout the drama, in the constant character of judicious, if not profound, adviser, and of tender friend. his personality is sufficiently marked to claim the importance of a type; and as such he stands forth, as contrasted with both paracelsus and aprile, and yet a bond of union between them. it is more probable however that he was created for the mere dramatic purpose of giving shape to the confession of paracelsus, and preserving it from monotony. the story is principally told in a dialogue between them. the first scene is entitled "paracelsus aspires;" and takes place at würzburg between himself, festus, and michal, on the eve of his departure from their common home. both friends begin by opposing his aspirations, and thus lead him to expound and defend them. the aim and spirit of these is the distinguishing feature of the poem. paracelsus aspires to knowledge: such knowledge as will benefit his fellow-men. he will seek it in the properties of nature, and, as history tells us, he will succeed. but his _aspirations_ pass over these isolated discoveries, which he has no idea of connecting into scientific truths: and tend ever towards some final revelation of the secret of life, to flash forth from his own brain when the flesh shall have been subdued, and the imprisoned light of intellect set free. and here mr. browning's metaphysical fancy is somewhat at issue with his facts. paracelsus employed nature in the quest of the supernatural or magical; this is shown by the poem, though in it he begins by repudiating, with all other external aids, the help of the black art. he therefore relied on other kinds of knowledge than that which springs direct from the human mind. the inconsistency however disappears in mr. browning's conception of the case, and the metaphysical language which he imputes to paracelsus in the earlier stages of his career, is not felt to be untrue. paracelsus not only aspires to know: he believes it his mission to acquire knowledge; and he believes also that it is only to be acquired through untried methods, through untaught men: most of all through solitary communion with nature, and at the sacrifice of all human joys. festus regards this as a delusion, and combats it, in this first scene, with the arguments of common sense; overshooting the mark just enough to leave his friend the victory. paracelsus has declared that he appreciates all he is renouncing, but that he has no choice. he knows that the way on which he is about to enter is "trackless;" but so is the bird's: god will guide him as he guides the bird. and festus replies that the road to knowledge is _not_ trackless. "mighty marchers" have left their footprints upon it. nature has not written her secrets in desert places, but in the souls of great men: the "stagirite,"[ ] and the sages who form a glory round him. he urges paracelsus to learn what they can teach, and then take the torch of wisdom from the exhausted runner's hand, and let his fresh strength continue the race. he warns him against the personal ambition which alloys his unselfish thirst for knowledge; against the presumption which impels him to serve god (and man). "... apart from such appointed channel as he wills shall gather imperfect tributes, for that sole obedience valued perchance...." (vol. ii. p. .) against the dangers of a course which cuts him adrift from human love. but paracelsus has his answer ready. "the wisdom of the past has done nothing for mankind. men have laboured and grown famous: and the evils of life are unabated: the earth still groans in the blind and endless struggle with them. truth comes from within the human intellect. to know is to have opened a way for its escape--not a way for its admission. it has often refused itself to a life of study. it has been born of loitering idleness. the force which inspires him proves his mission to be authentic. his own will could not create such promptings. he dares not set them aside." the depth of his conviction carries the day, and the scene ends with these expressive words:-- "_par._ ... are there not, festus, are there not, dear michal. two points in the adventure of the diver, one--when, a beggar, he prepares to plunge, one--when, a prince, he rises with his pearl? festus, i plunge! _fest._ we wait you when you rise!" (vol. ii. p. .) the next two, or indeed three scenes are united under the title "paracelsus attains;" but the attainment is not at first visible. we find him at constantinople, in the house of the greek conjuror, nine years after his departure from home. he has not discovered the magical secret which he came to seek; and his tone, as he reviews his position, is full of a bitter and almost despairing sense of failure. his desultory course has borne scanty and confused results. his powers have been at once overstrained and frittered away. he is beset by the dread of madness; and by the fear, scarcely less intolerable, of a moral shipwreck in which even the purity of his motives will disappear. his thoughts revert sadly to his youth, and its lost possibilities of love and joy. at this juncture the poet aprile appears, and unconsciously reveals to him the secret of his unsuccess. he has sought knowledge at the sacrifice of love; in so doing he has violated a natural law and is suffering for it. knowledge is inseparable from love in the scheme of life. aprile too has sinned, but in the opposite manner; he has refused to _know_. he has loved blindly and immoderately, and retribution has overtaken him also: for he is dying. if the one existence has lacked sustaining warmth, the other has burned itself away. aprile's "love" is not however restricted to the personal sense of the word; it means the passion for beauty, the impulse to possess and to create it; everything which belongs to the life of art. he represents the æsthetic or emotional in life, as paracelsus represents the intellectual. we see this in the sorrowful confession of paracelsus:-- "i cannot feed on beauty for the sake of beauty only, nor can drink in balm from lovely objects for their loveliness;" (vol. ii. p. .) and, in the words already addressed to aprile (page ):-- "are we not halves of one dissevered world," aprile acknowledges his own mistake, in a passage which fully completes the moral of the story, and begins thus (page ):-- "knowing ourselves, our world, our task so great, our time so brief,...." paracelsus never sees him again, and will speak of him on a subsequent occasion as a madman; but he evidently accepts him as a messenger of the truth; and the message sinks into his soul. in what is called the third scene, five years more have elapsed; and paracelsus is at bâle, again opening his heart to his old friend. he is professor at the university. his fame extends far beyond it. outwardly he has "attained." but the sense of a wasted life, and above all, of moral deterioration, is stronger on him than ever, and the tone in which he expresses it is only calmer than in the previous soliloquy, because it is more hopeless. he has failed in his highest aims--and failed doubly: because he has learned to content himself with low ones. he believes that he is teaching useful, although fragmentary truths; that these may lead to more; that those who follow him may stand on his shoulders and be considered great. but the crowning truth is as far from him as ever; and the mass of those who crowd his lecture-room do not even come for what they can learn, but for the vulgar pleasure of seeing old beliefs subverted, and old methods exposed. he is humiliated at having declined on to what seems to him a lower range of knowledge; still more by the kind of men with whom it has brought him into contact; and he sees himself sinking into a lower depth, in which such praise as they can give will repay him. his contempt for himself and them is making him reckless of consequences, and preparing the way for his disgrace. in spite however of his failure paracelsus has done so much, that festus is converted; and ready to justify both his early belief in his own mission, and the abnormal means by which he has chosen to carry it out. their positions are reversed, and he combats his friend's self-abasement as he once combated his too great confidence in himself. he grieves over what seems to him the depression of an over-wrought mind, and what he will not regard as due to any deeper cause. but paracelsus will take no comfort; and when, finally, he denounces the folly of intellectual pretensions, and ends with the pathetic words--in part the echo of festus' own:-- "... no, no: love, hope, fear, faith--these make humanity; these are its sign and note and character. and these i have lost!..." (vol. ii. p. .) festus has no answer to give. he parts from paracelsus perplexed and saddened rather than convinced, but with a dawning consciousness of depths in life, to which his strong but simple soul has no key. in the fourth scene these depths are more fully and more perplexingly revealed. two years more have elapsed. paracelsus has escaped from bâle, and is at colmar, once more confessing himself to festus, and once more said to "aspire." but his aspirations are less easy to understand than formerly, because their aim is less single. the sense of wasted life, aprile's warnings, some natural rebound against the continued intellectual strain have determined him to strive for a fuller existence, and neglect no opportunity of usefulness or enjoyment. a serious and commendable change would seem to be denoted by the words, "i have tried each way singly: now for both!" (page ); and again at page , where a new-born softness asserts itself. his language has, however, a vein of bitterness, sometimes even of cynicism, which belies the idea of any sustained impulse to good. he is worn in body, weary in mind, fitful and wayward in mood, and just in the condition in which men half impose on others, and half on themselves. he alludes to the habit of drinking as one which he has now contracted; and he is clearly entering on the period of his greatest excesses, perhaps also of his most strenuous exertions in the cause of knowledge. but his energy is reckless and irregular, and the spirit of the gambler rather than that of the student is in it. he works all night to forget himself by day, gathering up his diminished strength for, a lavish expenditure; and a new misgiving as to the wisdom of his "aspirations" pierces through the assertion that even sickness may lend an aid; since "... mind is nothing but disease, and natural health is ignorance." (vol. ii. p. .) we feel that henceforward his path will be all downhill. in the fifth and closing scene, thirteen years later, paracelsus "attains" again, and for the last time. he is dying. festus watches by him in his hospital cell with a very touching tenderness; and as paracelsus awakes from a period of lethargy to a delirious remembrance of his past life, he soothes and guides him to an inspired calm in which its true meaning is revealed to him. the half prophetic death-bed vision includes everything which experience had taught him; and a great deal which we cannot help thinking only a more modern experience could have taught. it disclaims all striving after absolute knowledge, and asserts the value of limitation in every energy of life. the passage in which he describes the faculties of man, and which begins "power--neither put forth blindly, nor controlled calmly by perfect knowledge;" (vol. ii. p. .) contains the natural lesson of the speaker's career, supposing him in a condition to receive it. but it also reflects mr. browning's constant ideal of a fruitful and progressive existence; and the very beautiful monologue of which it forms part is, so far as it goes, his actual confession of faith. the scientific idea of evolution is here distinctly foreshadowed: though it begins and ends, in mr. browning's mind, in the large theism which was and is the basis of his religious belief. the poem is followed by an historical appendix, which enables the reader to verify its facts, and judge mr. browning's interpretation of them. "sordello." ( .) "sordello" is, like "paracelsus," the imaginary reconstruction of a real life, in connection with contemporary facts; but its six "books" present a much more complicated structure. the historical part of "paracelsus" is all contained in the one life. in "sordello" it forms a large and moving background, which often disputes our attention with the central figure, and sometimes even absorbs it: projecting itself as it were in an artistic middle distance, in which fact and fancy are blended; while the mental world through which the hero moves, is in its way, as restless and as crowded as the material. it may save time and trouble to readers of the poem to know something of its historical foundation and poetic motive, before making any great effort to disentangle its various threads; but it will always be best to read it once without this key: since the story, involved as it is, has a sustained dramatic interest which is destroyed by anticipating its course. the historical personages who take part in it directly and indirectly, are ghibellines. guelphs. eccelino da romano ii., azzo, lord of este surnamed the monk: (father and son). married, first to agnes este; secondly to adelaide, richard, count of san a tuscan. bonifacio (father and son). taurello salinguerra, a soldier, married, first to retrude, of the family of the german emperor frederick the second; and secondly, in advanced life, to sofia, fifth daughter of eccelino the monk. adelaide, second wife of eccelino da romano. palma (properly cunizza), eccelino's daughter by agnes este. the poet sordello. _historical basis of the story._ a mantuan poet of the name of sordello is mentioned by dante in the "purgatorio," where he is supposed to be recognized as a fellow-townsman by virgil. "surse ver lui del luogo ove pria stava, dicendo, o mantovan, io son sordello della tua terra: e l' un l' altro abbracciava."[ ] and also in his treatise "de vulgare eloquentiâ," where he speaks of him as having created the italian language. these facts are related by sismondi in his "italian republics," vol. ii., page ; and the writer refers us for more particulars to his work on the "literature of southern europe." he seems, however, to exhaust the subject when he tells us that the nobility of sordello's birth, and his intrigue or marriage with cunizza are attested by contemporaries; that a "mysterious obscurity" shrouds his life; and that his violent death is obscurely indicated by dante, whose mention of him is now his only title to immortality. according to one tradition he was the son of an archer named elcorte. another seems to point to him when it imputes a son to salinguerra as the only offspring of his first marriage, and having died before himself. mr. browning accepts the latter hypothesis, whilst he employs both. the birth of his sordello, as probably of the real one, coincides with the close of the twelfth century; and with an active condition of the family feuds which were just merging in the conflict of guelphs and ghibellines. the "biographie universelle" says: "the first encounter between the two parties took place at vicenza towards . eccelino the second, who allied himself with the republics of verona and padua, was exiled from vicenza himself his whole family and his faction, by a podesta, his enemy. before submitting to this sentence, he undertook to defend himself by setting fire to the neighbouring houses; a great part of the town was burned during the conflict, in which eccelino was beaten. these were the first scenes of confusion and massacre, which met the eyes of the son of the lord of romano, the ferocious eccelino the third, born th of april, ." in mr. browning's version, adelaide, wife of eccelino ii., is saved with her infant son--this eccelino the third--by the devotion of an archer, elcorte, who perishes in the act. retrude, wife of salinguerra, and also present on this occasion, only lives to be conveyed to adelaide's castle at goito; but her new-born child survives; and adelaide, dreading his future rivalry with her own, allows his father to think him dead, and brings him up, under the name of sordello, as her page, declaring him to be elcorte's son adopted out of gratitude. the "intrigue" between him and palma (cunizza) appears in due time as a poetical affinity, strongest on her side, and which determines her to see him restored to his rightful place. palma's subsequent marriage with richard, count of san bonifacio, serves to justify the idea of an engagement to him, ratified by her father before his retirement from the world, and which she and salinguerra conspire to break, the one from love of sordello, the other in the interests of her house. eccelino's real assumption of the monastic habit after adelaide's death is represented as in part caused by remorse--for salinguerra is his old and faithful ally, and he has connived at the wrong done to him in the concealment of his son; and his return to the guelph connexion from which his daughter has sprung, as a general disclaimer of his second wife's views. the lombard league also figures in the story, as the consequence of salinguerra's and palma's conspiracy against san bonifacio; though it also appears as brought about by the historic course of events. salinguerra, under cover of military reprisals, has entrapped the count into ferrara, and detained him there, at the moment when he was expected to meet his lady-love in his own city of verona. verona prepares to resent this outrage on its prince, and with it, the other states which represent the guelph cause; and when palma--seizing her opportunity--summons sordello thither in his character of her minstrel, and reveals to him her projects for him and for herself, their interview is woven into the historical picture of a great mediæval city suddenly called to arms. what sordello sees when he goes with palma to ferrara, belongs to the history of all mediæval warfare; and his sudden and premature death revives the historical tradition though in a new form. the intermediate details of his minstrel's career are of course imaginary; but his struggle to increase the expressiveness of his mother tongue again records a fact. i have mentioned such accessible authorities as sismondi and the "biographie universelle," because they _are_ accessible: not from any idea that they give the measure of mr. browning's knowledge of his subject. he prepared himself for writing "sordello" by studying all the chronicles of that period of italian history which the british museum supplied; and we may be sure that every event he alludes to as historical, is so in spirit, if not in the letter; while such details as come under the head of historical curiosities are absolutely true. he also supplemented his reading by a visit to the places in which the scenes of the story are laid. _its dramatic idea._ the dramatic idea of "sordello" is that of an imaginative nature, nourished by its own creations, and also consumed by them; and breaking down in consequence under the first strain of real conflict and passion. the mysterious italian poet,--scarcely known but as a voice, a mere phantom among living men--was well fitted to illustrate such an idea; he might also perhaps have suggested it. but we know that it was already growing in mr. browning's mind; for sordello had been foreshadowed in aprile, though the two are as different as their common poetic quality allows. aprile is consumed by a creative passion, which is always akin to love; sordello by an imaginative fever which has no love in it; and in this respect he presents a stronger contrast to aprile than paracelsus himself. as a poet he may be said to contain both the artist and the thinker, and therefore to transcend both; and his craving is for neither love nor knowledge, as the foregoing poem represents them, but for that magnitude of poetic existence, which means all love and all knowledge, as all beauty and all power in itself. but he makes the same mistake as aprile, or at least as paracelsus, and makes it in a greater degree; for he rejects all the human conditions of the poetic life: and strives to live it, not in experience or in sympathy, but by a pure act of imagination, or as he calls it, of _will_; and he wears himself out body and soul by a mental strain which proves as barren as it is continuous. the true joy of living comes home to him at last, and with it the first challenge to self-sacrifice. duty prevails; but he dies in the conflict, or rather of it. the intended lesson of the story is distinctly enforced in its last scene, but is patent almost from the first--that the mind must not disclaim the body, nor imagination divorce itself from reality: that the spiritual is bound up with the material in our earthly life. all mr. browning's practical philosophy is summed up in this truth, and much of his religion; for it points to the necessity of a human manifestation of the divine being; and though sordello's story contains no explicit reference to christian doctrine, an unmistakeable christian sentiment pervades its close. that restless and ambitious spirit had missed its only possible anchorage: the ideal of an intellectual existence at once guided and set free by love. mr. browning has indeed prefaced the poem by saying that in writing it he has laid his chief stress _on the incidents in the development of a soul_. it must be read with reference to this idea; and i should be bound to give precedence to it over the poetic inspiration of the story if mr. browning had practically done so. this is not, however, the case. sordello's poetic individuality overshadows the moral, and for a time conceals it altogether. the close of his story is distinctly the emerging of a soul from the mists of poetic egotism by which it has been obscured; and mr. browning has meant us from the first to see it struggling through them. but in so doing he has judged sordello's poetic life as a blind aspiration after the spiritual, while the egotism which he represents as the keynote of his poetic being was in fact the negation of it. the idea was just: that the greatest poet must have in him the making of the largest man. his sordello is imperial among men for the one moment in which his song is in sympathy with human life; and mr. browning would have made it more consistently so, had he worked out his idea at a later time. but the poem was written at a period in which his artistic judgment was yet inferior to his poetic powers, and the need of ordering his vast material from the reader's, as well as the writer's, point of view--though he states it by implication at the end of the third book--had not thoroughly penetrated his mind. i venture on this criticism, though it is no part of my task to criticize, because "sordello" is the one of mr. browning's works which still remains to be read; and even a mistaken criticism may sometimes afford a clue. "sordello" is not only harder to read than "paracelsus," but harder than any other of mr. browning's works; its complications of structure being interwoven with difficulties of a deeper kind which again react upon them. enough has been said to show that the conception of the character is very abstruse on the intellectual and poetic side; that it presents us with states of thought and feeling, remote from common experience, and which no language could make entirely clear; and unfortunately the style is sometimes in itself so obscure that we cannot judge whether it is the expression or the idea which we fail to grasp. the poem was written under the dread of diffuseness which had just then taken possession of mr. browning's mind, and we have sometimes to struggle through a group of sentences out of which he has so laboured to squeeze every unnecessary word, that their grammatical connection is broken up, and they present a compact mass of meaning which without previous knowledge it is almost impossible to construe. we are also puzzled by an abridged, interjectional, way of carrying on the historical part of the narrative; by the author's habit of alluding to imaginary or typical personages in the same tone as to real ones; and by misprints, including errors in punctuation, which will be easily corrected in a later edition, but which mar the present one. it is only fair to add that he would deprecate the idea of any excessive labour as bestowed on this, to his mind, immature performance. it is for us, not for him, to do justice to it. with all its faults and obscurities, "sordello" is a great work; full moreover of pregnant and beautiful passages which are not affected by them. when mr. browning re-edited "sordello" in , he considered the possibility of re-writing it in a more transparent manner; but he concluded that the labour would be disproportionate to the result, and contented himself with summarizing the contents of each "book" in a continuous heading, which represents the main thread of the story. it will be useful to read this carefully. book the first. the story opens at verona, at the moment of the formation of the lombard league--a well-known union of guelph cities against the ghibellines in northern italy. mr. browning, addressing himself to an imaginary audience composed of living and dead, describes the city as it hastens to arms, and the chain of circumstances through which she has been called upon to do so; and draws a curious picture of two political ideals which he considers respectively those of ghibelline and guelph: the one symbolized by isolated heights, the other by a continuous level growth; those again suggesting the violent disruptions which create imperial power; these the peaceful organic processes of democratic life. the poet shelley is desired to withdraw his "pure face" from among the spectators of this chequered scene; and dante is invoked in the name of him whose fame preceded his, and has been absorbed by it. a secret chamber in count richard's palace shows palma and sordello in earnest conference with each other. then the curtain falls; and we are carried back thirty years, and to goito castle. sordello is there: a refined and beautiful boy; framed for all spiritual delights. as his life is described, it has neither duties nor occupations; no concern with the outer world; no contact even with that of adelaide, his supposed protectress. he is dreaming away his childhood in the silent gloom of the castle, or the sunny outdoor life of the hills and woods. he lives in imagination, blends the idea of his own being with everything he sees; and for years is happy in the bare fact of existence. but the germ of a fatal spiritual ambition is lurking within him; and as he grows into a youth, he hankers after something which he calls sympathy, but which is really applause. he therefore makes a human crowd for himself out of carved and tapestried figures, and the few names which penetrate into his solitude, and fancies himself always the greatest personage amongst them. he simulates all manner of heroic performances and of luxurious rest. he is eccelino, the emperor's vicar; he is the emperor himself. he becomes more than this; for his fancy has soared upwards to the power which includes all empire in one--the spiritual power of song. apollo is its representative. sordello is he. he has had one glimpse of palma; she becomes his daphne; the dream life is at its height. and now sordello is a man. he begins to sicken for reality. vanity and ambition are ripe in him. his egotisms are innocent, but they are absorbing. the soul is as yet dormant.[ ] book the second. the dream-life becomes a partial reality. sordello's wanderings carry him one day to the walls of mantua, outside which palma is holding a "court of love." eglamor sings. his song is incomplete. sordello feels what is wanting; catches up the thread of the story; and sings it to its proper close.[ ] his triumph is absolute. he is installed as palma's minstrel in eglamor's place. eglamor accepts his defeat with touching gentleness, and lies down to die. this poet is meant to embody the limited art, which is an end in itself, and one with the artist's life. sordello, on the other hand, represents the boundless aspirations which art may subserve, but which must always leave it behind. the parallel will be stated more distinctly later on. sordello's first wish is fulfilled. he has found a career which will reconcile his splendid dreams with his real obscurity, and set him, by right of imagination--the true apolloship--apart from other men. but his true difficulties have yet to begin. it is not enough that he feels himself a transcendent personage. he must make others believe that he is so. every act of imagination is with him an act of existence, or as mr. browning calls it of will; but this self-asserting was much easier with the imaginary crowd than it can be with the real one. sordello is soon at cross-purposes with his hearers: for when he sings of human passion, or human prowess, they never dream of identifying him with it; and when he sings of mere abstract modes of being, they do not understand. the love of abstract conception is indeed the rock on which he splits. the feelings which are real to us are unreal to him, because they are accidental. what is real to him is the underlying consciousness which according to his view is permanent: the "intensest" self described in "pauline"--the mind which is spoken of in the fifth "book" of "sordello" (vol. i. page ) as nearest to god when emptied of even thought; and his aim is to put forth all the _qualities_ which this absolute existence can assume, and yet be reflected in other men's minds as independent of them. this lands him in struggles not only with his hearers but with himself--for he is unused to expressing what he feels; and with a language which at best could convey "whole perceptions" like his, in a very meagre form, or a fragmentary one. he still retains the love of real life and adventure which inspired his boyish dreams. there is nothing, as i have said, that he does not wish to _be_; and now, amidst commonplace human beings, his human desires often take a more simple and natural form. but the poet in him pushes the man aside, and bids him, at all events, wait. he does not know that he is failing through the hopeless disunion of the two. he silences his better humanity, and retains the worst; for he is more and more determined to succeed at whatever cost. yet failure meets him on every side. he is too large for his public, but he is also too small for it. every question raised even in talk carries him into the infinite. every man of his audience has a practical answer ready before he has. naddo plies him with common sense. "he is to speak to the human heart--he is not to be so philosophical--he is not to seem so clever." shallow judges pull him to pieces. shallow rivals strive to sing him down.[ ] he loses his grasp of the ideal. he cannot clutch the real. his imagination dries up. meanwhile adelaide has died. salinguerra, who had joined the emperor at naples, is brought back in hot haste by the news that eccelino has retired to a monastery, has disclaimed the policy of his house; and is sealing his peace with the guelph princes by the promised marriage of his sons eccelino and alberic with the sisters of este; and of his daughter palma with count richard of san bonifacio himself. he is coming to mantua. sordello must greet him with his best art. but sordello shrinks from the trial, and escapes back to goito, whence palma has just departed. what his mantuan life has taught him is thus expressed (vol. i. page ):-- "the body, the machine for acting will, had been at the commencement proved unfit; that for demonstrating, reflecting it, mankind--no fitter: was the will itself in fault?" he is wiser than he was, but his objects remain the same. the sympathies--the moral sense--the soul--are still asleep. book the third. sordello buries himself once more in the contemplation of nature; but finds in it only a short-lived peace. the marshy country about mantua is suddenly converted into water; and with the shock of this catastrophe comes also the feeling: nature can do and undo; her opportunities are endless. with man "...youth once gone is gone: deeds let escape are never to be done." (vol. i. p. .) he has dreamed of love, of revel, and of adventure; but he has let pass the time when such dreams could be realized; and worst of all, the sacrifice has been useless. he has sacrificed the man in him to the poet; and his poetic existence has been impoverished by the act. he has rejected experience that he might _be_ his fullest self before living it; and only _living_, in other words, experience, could have made that self complete. his later years have been paving the way for this discovery; it bursts on him all at once. he has been under a long strain. the reaction at length has come. he yearns helplessly for the "blisses strong and soft" which he has known he was passing by, but of which the full meaning never reached him until now. he must live yet. the question is, "in what way." and this is unexpectedly answered. palma sends for him to verona: tells him of her step-mother's death--of strange secrets revealed to herself--of the secret influence sordello has exercised over her life--of a great future awaiting his own, and connecting it with the emperor's cause. she summons him to accompany her to ferrara, and hear from salinguerra's lips what that future is to be. sordello has entered on a new phase of existence. he feels that henceforward he is not to _act men_, but to _make them act_; this is how his being is to be fulfilled. it is a first step in the direction of unselfishness, but not yet into it. the soul is not yet awake. at this point of his narrative mr. browning makes a halt, and carries us off to venice, where he muses on the various questions involved in sordello's story. the very act of digression leads back to the comparison between eglamor and sordello: between the artist who is one with his work, and him who is outside and beyond it--between the completeness of execution which comes of a limited ideal, and the true greatness of those performances which "can never be more than dreamed." and the case of the true poet is farther illustrated by that of the weather-bound sailor, who seems to have settled down for life with the fruits of his adventures, but waits only the faintest sign of a favourable wind to cut his moorings and be off. then comes a vision of humanity, also in harmony with the purpose of the poem. it takes the form of some frail and suffering woman, and is addressed by the author with a tenderness in which we recognize one of his constant ideals of love: the impulse not to worship or to enjoy, but to comfort and to protect. he next considers the problem of human sorrow and sin, and deprecates the absolute condemnation of the sinner, in language which anticipates that of "fifine at the fair." "every life has its own law. the 'losel,' the moral outcast, keeps his own conceit of truth though through a maze of lies. good labours to exist through evil, by means of the very ignorance which sets each man to tackle it for himself, believing that he alone can."[ ] mr. browning rejects at least the _show_ of knowledge which gives you a name for what you die of; and that deepening of ignorance which comes of the perpetual insisting that fountains of knowledge spring everywhere for those who choose to dispense it. "what science teaches is made useless by the shortness of human existence; it absorbs all our energy in building up a machine which we shall have no time to work. all direct truth comes to us from the poet: whether he be of the smaller kind who only see, or the greater, who can tell what they have seen, or the greatest who can make others see it." corresponding instances follow.[ ] mr. browning is aware that one is a poet at his own risk; and that the poetic chaplet may also prove a sacrificial one. he will still wear it, however, because in his case it means the suffrage of a "patron friend"[ ] "whose great verse blares unintermittent on like your own trumpeter at marathon,--" (vol. i. p. .) he recalls his readers to the "business" of the poem: "the fate of such as find our common nature--overmuch despised because restricted and unfit to bear the burthen they impose on it-- cling when they would discard it; craving strength to leap from the allotted world, at length they do leap,--flounder on without a term, each a god's germ, doomed to remain a germ in unexpanded infancy, unless...." (pp. , .) admits that the story sounds dull; but suggests the possibility of its containing an agreeable surprise. an amusing anecdote to this effect concludes the chapter.[ ] book the fourth. we are now introduced to taurello salinguerra: a fine soldier-like figure; the type of elastic strength in both body and mind. we are told that he possesses the courage of the fighter, the astuteness of the politician, the knowledge and graces of the man of leisure. he has shown himself capable of controlling an emperor, and of giving precedence to a woman. he is young at sixty, while the son who is half his age, is "lean, outworn and really old." and the crowning difference between him and sordello is this: that while sordello only draws out other men as a means of displaying himself, he only displays himself sufficiently to draw out other men. "his choicest instruments" have "surmised him shallow." he is in his palace at ferrara, musing over the past--that past which held the turning-point of his career; which began the feud between himself and the now guelph princes, and which naturally merged him in the ghibelline cause. he remembers how the fathers of the present este and san bonifacio combined to cheat him out of the modenese heiress who was to be his bride--how he retired to sicily, to return with a wife of the emperor's own house--how his enemies surprised him at vicenza. he sees his old comrade eccelino, so passive now, so brave and vigorous then. he sees the town as they fire it together: the rush for the gates: the slashing, the hewing, the blood hissing and frying on the iron gloves. his spirit leaps in the returning frenzy of that struggle and flight. it sinks again as he thinks of elcorte--adelaide's escape--her rescued child; his own doom in the wife and child who were not rescued. "and now! he has effaced himself in the interests of the romano house. its life has grafted itself on his own; and to what end? the emperor is coming. his badge and seal, already in salinguerra's hands, bestow the title of imperial prefect on whosoever assumes the headship of the ghibellines in the north of italy; and eccelino, its proper chief, recoils; withdraws even his name from the cause. who shall wear the badge? none so fitly as himself, who holds san bonifacio captive--who has dislocated if not yet broken the guelph right arm. yet, is it worth his while? shall he fret his remaining years? shall he rob his old comrade's son?" he laughs the idea to scorn.... sordello has come with palma to ferrara. he came to find the men who were to be the body to his spirit, the instrument to his will. but he came, expecting that these would be great. and now he discovers that very few are great; while behind and beneath, and among them, extends something which has never yet entered his field of thought: the mass of mankind. the more he looks the more it grows upon him: this people with the "... mouths and eyes, petty enjoyments and huge miseries,--" (vol. i. p. .) and the more he feels that the few are great because the many are in them--because they are types and representatives of these. hitherto he has striven to impose himself on mankind. he now awakes to the joy and duty of serving it. it is the magnified body which his spirit needs. and in the new-found knowledge, the new-found sympathy, his soul springs full-grown into life. but another check is in store for him. he has taken for granted that the cause in which he is to be enlisted is the people's cause. the new soul in him can conceive nothing less. a first interview with salinguerra dispels this dream, and dispels it in such a manner that he leaves the presence of his unknown father years older and wearier than when he entered it. he wanders through the city, mangled by civil war. the effects of ghibelline vengeance meet him on every side. is the guelph more humane? he discusses the case with palma. they weigh deeds with deeds. "guelph and ghibelline are alike unjust and cruel, alike inveterate enemies of their fellow-men." who then represents the people's cause? a sudden answer comes. a bystander recognizing his minstrel's attire begs sordello to sing, and suggests the roman tribune crescentius as his theme. rome rises before his mind--the mother of cities--the great constructive power which weaves the past into the future; which represents the continuity of human life. _the reintegration of rome must typify the triumph of mankind._ but rome is now the church; she is one with the guelph cause. the guelph cause is therefore in some sense the true one. sordello's new-found spiritual and his worldly interests thus range themselves on opposite sides. book the fifth. the day draws to its close. sordello has seen more of the suffering human beings whom he wishes to serve, and the ideal rome has collapsed in his imagination like a mocking dream. nothing can be effected at once. no deed can bridge over the lapse of time which divides the first stage of a great social structure from its completion. each life may give its touch; it can give no more; through the endless generations. the vision of a regenerate humanity, "his last and loveliest," must depart like the rest. then suddenly a voice, "... sordello, wake! god has conceded two sights to a man-- one, of men's whole work, time's completed plan, the other, of the minute's work, man's first step to the plan's completeness: what's dispersed save hope of that supreme step which, descried earliest, was meant still to remain untried only to give you heart to take your own step, and there stay--leaving the rest alone?" (vol. i. p. .) the facts restate themselves, but from an opposite point of view. no man can give more than his single touch. the whole could not dispense with one of them. the work is infinite, but it is continuous. the later poet weaves into his own song the echoes of the first. "the last of each series of workmen sums up in himself all predecessors," whether he be the type of strength like charlemagne, or of knowledge like hildebrand. strength comes first in the scheme of life; it is the joyousness of childhood. step by step strength works knowledge with its groans and tears. and then, in its turn, knowledge works strength, knowledge controls strength, knowledge supersedes strength. it is knowledge which must prevail now. may it not be he who at this moment resumes its whole inheritance--its accumulated opportunities, in himself? he could stand still and dream while he fancied he stood alone; but he knows now that he is part of humanity, and it of him. goito is left behind; ferrara is reached; he must do the one thing that is within his grasp. he must influence salinguerra. he must interest him in the cause of knowledge; which is the people's cause. with this determination, he proceeds once more to the appointed presence. his minstrelsy is at first a failure. he is, as usual, outside his song. he is trying to guide it; it is not carrying him away. he is paralysed by the very consciousness that he is urging the head of the ghibellines to become a guelph. salinguerra's habitual tact and good-nature cannot conceal his own sense of the absurdity of the proposal. sordello sees in "a flash of bitter truth: so fantasies could break and fritter youth that he had long ago lost earnestness, lost will to work, lost power to even express the need of working!" (vol. i. p. .) but he will not be beaten. he tries once more. we see the blood leap to his brain, the heart into his purpose, as he challenges salinguerra to bow before the royalty of song. he owns himself its unworthy representative: for he has frittered away his powers. he has identified himself with existing forms of being, instead of proving his kingship by a new spiritual birth--by a supreme, as yet unknown revelation of the power of human will. he has resigned his function. he is a self-deposed king. he acknowledges the man before him as fitter to help the world than he is. but this is shame enough. he will not see its now elected champion scorn the post he renounces on his behalf. and his art is still royal though he is not. it is the utterance of the spiritual life: of the informing thought--which was in the world before deeds began--which brought order out of chaos--which guided deeds in their due gradation till itself emerged as song: to react in deed; but to need no help of it; to be (so we complete the meaning) as the knowledge which controls strength, which supersedes strength.[ ] the walls of the presence-chamber have fallen away. imaginary faces are crowding around him. he turns to these. he shows them human life as the poet's mirror reflects it: in its varied masquerade, in its mingled good and evil, in its steady advance; in the rainbow brightness of its obstructed lights; the deceptive gloom of its merely repeated shadows. he enforces in every tone that continuity of the plan of creation to which the poet alone holds the clue. finally, in the name of the unlimited truth, the limited opportunity, the one duty which confronts him now, the people whose support, in his performance of it, he may claim for the first time, he forbids the emperor's coming, and invokes salinguerra's protection for the guelph cause. salinguerra is moved at last, though not in the intended way. he does not yield to sordello's enthusiasm, but he sees that it is worth employing. there is no question of his becoming a guelph, but why should not sordello turn ghibelline? the cause requires a youth to "stalk, and bustle, and attitudinize;" and he clearly thinks this is all the youth before him wants to do, whether conscious of the fact or not. he thinks the thought aloud. "palma loves her minstrel; it is written in her eyes; let her marry him. were she romano's son instead of his daughter, she could wear the emperor's badge. himself fate has doomed to a secondary position. to contend against it is useless." before he knows what he has done, without really meaning to do it, he has thrown the badge across sordello's neck, and thus created him eccelino's successor. it was a prophetic act. at the moment of its performance "... each looked on each: up in the midst a truth grew, without speech." (vol. i. p. .) palma's moment is come, and she relates the story, as she received it from adelaide, of sordello's birth. with blanched lips, and sweat-drops on his face, the old soldier takes the hand of his poet-son, and lays its consecrating touch on his own face and brow. then, recovering himself, with his mailed arms on sordello's shoulders, he launches forth in an eager survey of the situation as it may shape itself for both. palma at last draws him away, and sordello, exhausted and speechless, is left alone. the two are in a small stone chamber, below the one they have left. half-drunk with his new emotions, salinguerra paces the narrow floor. his eyes burn; his tread strikes sparks from the stone. the future glows before him. he and sordello combined will break up hildebrand. they will rebuild charlemagne; not in the brute force of earlier days; but as strength adorned with knowledge, as empire imposing law. palma listens in satisfied repose; her task is done. a stamp is heard overhead. book the sixth. sordello is alone--face to face with his memory, with his conscience, and, as we presently find out, with the greatest temptation he has ever known. the moon is slowly rising; and just so the light of truth is overflowing his past life, and laying bare its every recess. he sees no fault in this past, except the want of a uniform purpose in which its various moods could have coalesced, the all-embracing sense of existence been translated into fact; but he unconsciously confesses its selfishness, in deciding that this purpose should have been outside him--a remote and uplifting, though sympathetic influence, such as the moon is to the sea. smaller lives than his have attained a higher completeness, because they have worked for an ideal: because they have had their moon. "where then is _his_ moon? what the love, the fear, the motive, in short, that could match the strength, could sway the full tide, of a nature like his?" he doubts its existence. and if, after all, he has been destined to be a law to himself, must he not in some sense apply this relative standard to the rest of life; and may not the outward motive be at all times the embodiment of an inner want or law, which only the stronger nature can realize as such? he has found his purpose. that purpose is the people. "but the people is himself. the desire to help it comes from within. will he fulfil this the better for regarding its suffering part as an outward motive, as something alien to himself, and for which self must be forsaken?" in plain words: would he not serve it as well by serving his own interests as by forsaking them? this sophistry is so patent that it startles even him; but it is only silenced to reassert itself in another form. "the guelph rule would doubtless be the best. but what can he do to promote it? attest his belief by refusing the emperor's badge? that would be something in the end. but meanwhile, how many sympathies to be broken, how many aversions defied, before the one ideal can be made to prevail. is not the proceeding too arbitrary? would it be justified by the result? the question is only one of ideas. if the men who supported each opposite cause were wholly good or bad, his course would be clear. but such divisions do not exist. all men are composite. all nature is a blending of good and evil, in which the one is often but a different form of the other. evil is in fact indispensable; for it is not only the ground of sympathy, but the active principle of life. joy means the triumph over obstruction. the suspended effort is death, so far as it goes. obstruction and effort must begin again and again. the sphere grows larger. it can never be more complete (more satisfying to those who are imprisoned within it). the only gain of existence is to be extracted from its hindrances, by each individual and for himself." the last plea for self-sacrifice is thus removed. these arguments are often just, even profound; they might also have been sincere in this special case; for there was something to be said in favour of accepting the opportunities which offered themselves, and of guiding the course of events, instead of engaging in a probably fruitless opposition to it. but they are not sincere. sordello is at best deceiving himself, and mr. browning intends us to to see this. he is struggling, if unconsciously, to evade the very trials which he thinks so good for other men. his true object soon stands revealed in a first and last effort at compromise. "the people's good is in the future. his is in the present. can he not speed the one, and yet enjoy the other?" ... the present rises up, in its new-found richness, in its undisguised temptation. the joys which lure him become gigantic; the price of renunciation shrinks to nothing; and at last, the pent up passion breaks forth--that passion for life, for sheer life, which inspired his imagination as a boy, which nerved his ambition as a man; to which his late-found humanities have given voice and shape; which now gathers itself to a supreme utterance in the grasp of death. "the earthly existence now: the transcendent hereafter, if fate will. a man's opportunities--a man's powers--a man's self-consciousness of joy and conflict--these things he craves while he may yet possess them." then a sudden revulsion. "he would drink the very dregs of life! how many have sacrificed it whilst its cup was full, because a better still seemed behind it." "... the death i fly, revealed so oft a better life this life concealed, and which sage, champion, martyr, through each path have hunted fearlessly--...." (vol. i. p. .) "but they had a belief which he has not. they knew what 'masters life.' for him the paramount fact is that of his own being...." this is the last protest of the flesh within him. sordello is dying, and probably feels that he is so; and he lapses into a calm contemplation, which reveals to him the last secret of his mistaken career. he already knew that he had ignored the bodily to the detriment of his spiritual existence. he now feels that he has destroyed his body by forcing on it the exigencies of the spirit. he has striven to obtain infinite consciousness, infinite enjoyment, from finite powers. he has broken the law of life. he has missed (so we interpret mr. browning's conclusion) the ideal of that divine and human love which would have given the freest range to his spirit and yet accepted that law. eglamor began with love. will sordello find it, meeting that gentle spirit on his course? we know at least that the soul in him has conquered. his stamp upon the floor has brought palma and salinguerra to him in anxious haste. they find him dead: "under his foot the badge: still, palma said, a triumph lingering in the wide eyes, wider than some spent swimmer's if he spies help from above in his extreme despair,...." (vol. i. p. .) sordello is buried at goito castle, in an old font-tomb in which his mother lies, and beside whose sculptured female forms the child-poet had dreamed his earliest dreams of life and of love. salinguerra makes peace with the guelphs, marries a daughter of eccelino the monk, and effaces himself once for all in the romano house, leaving its sons eccelino and alberic to plague the world at their pleasure, and meet the fate they have deserved. he himself, after varied fortunes, dwindles into a "showy, turbulent soldier," less "astute" than people profess to think: whose qualities even foes admire; and whose aggressions they punish, but do not much resent. we see him for the last time at the age of eighty, a nominal prisoner in venice. the drama is played out. its actors have vanished from the stage. one only lives on in mr. browning's fancy, in the pathos of his modest hopes, and acknowledged, yet scarcely comprehended failure--more human, and therefore more undying than naddo himself: the poet eglamor. sordello he recalls only to dismiss him with less sympathy than we should expect: as ending the ambition for what he could not become, by the well-meant renunciation of what he was born to be; made a hero of by legends which credited him with doing what his conscience had forbidden him to do; leaving the world to suffer by his self-sacrifice; a type of failure more rare and more brilliant than that of eglamor, yet more full of the irony of life. in one sense, however, he had lived for a _better thing_, and we are bidden look back, through the feverish years, on a bare-footed rosy child running "higher and higher" up a wintry hillside still crisp with the morning frost, "... singing all the while some unintelligible words to beat the lark, god's poet, swooning at his feet, so worsted is he...." (vol. i. p. - ) the poet in him had failed with the man, but less completely. footnotes: [footnote : the quoted passage is from the works of cornelius agrippa, a well-known professor of occult philosophy, and is indeed introductory to a treatise upon it. the writer is quite aware that his work may be scandalizing, hurtful, and even poisonous to narrow minds, but is sure that readers of a superior understanding will get no little good, and plenty of pleasure from it; and he concludes by claiming indulgence on the score of his youth, in case he should have given even the better judges any cause for offence. for those who read this preface with any previous knowledge of mr. browning's life and character, there will be an obvious inference to his own youthfulness in the exaggerated estimate thus implied of his imaginative sins; for the tendency of "pauline" is both religious and moral; and no man has been more innocent than its author, from boyhood up, of tampering with any belief in the black art. his hatred for that "spiritualism," which is its modern equivalent, is indeed matter of history. but the trick he has here played himself may confuse the mind of those who only know him from his works, and for whom his vivid belief in the supernatural may point to a different kind of mysticism.] [footnote : vol. i. of the new uniform edition of - . this will be the one always referred to.] [footnote : the "andromeda," described as "with" the speaker at pages and , is that of polidoro di caravaggio, of which mr. browning possesses an engraving, which was always before his eyes as he wrote his earlier poems. the original was painted on the wall of a garden attached to the palazzo bufalo--or del bufalo--in rome. the wall has been pulled down since mr. browning was last there.] [footnote : aristotle.] [footnote : he rose to meet him from the place at which he stood, saying, "oh mantuan, i am sordello of thy land!" and they embraced each other.] [footnote : the name of naddo occurs in this book, and will often reappear in the course of the story. this personage is the typical philistine--the italian brown, jones, or robinson--and will represent genuine common-sense, or mere popular judgment, as the case may be.] [footnote : elys, the subject of this song, is any woman of the then prevailing type of italian beauty: having fair hair, and a "pear-shaped" face.] [footnote : bocafoli and plara, mannerists: one of the sensuous school, the other of the pompously pure; imaginary personages, but to whom we may give real names.] [footnote : the belief in personal experience is very strong here.] [footnote : the third of these, vol. i. p. , is very characteristic of the state of sordello's, and therefore, at that moment, of his author's mind. the poet who _makes others see_ is he who deals with abstractions: who makes the mood do duty for the man.] [footnote : walter savage landor.] [footnote : the word "eyebright" at page stands for euphrasia its greek equivalent, and refers to one of mr. browning's oldest friends.] [footnote : here, as elsewhere, i give the spirit rather than the letter, or even the exact order of sordello's words. the necessary condensation requires this.] ii. non-classified poems. dramas. our attention is next attracted to mr. browning's dramas; for his first tragedy, "strafford," was published before "sordello," having been written in an interval of its composition, and his first drama, "pippa passes," immediately afterwards. they were published, with the exception of "strafford," and "in a balcony," in the "bells and pomegranates" series, - , together with the "dramatic lyrics," and "dramatic romances," which will be found distributed under various headings in the course of this volume. the dramas are:-- "strafford." . "pippa passes." . "king victor and king charles." . "the return of the druses." . "a blot in the 'scutcheon." . "colombe's birthday." . "a soul's tragedy." . "luria." . "in a balcony." (a fragment.) . the five-act tragedy of "strafford" turns on the impeachment and condemnation of the man whose name it bears. its keynote is strafford's devotion to the king, which mr. browning has represented as the constant motive of his life, and also the cause of his death. when the action opens, england is without a parliament. the question of ship-money is "burning." the scotch parliament has just been dissolved, and charles is determined to subdue the scots by force. wentworth has been summoned from ireland to assist in doing so. he is worn and weary, but the king needs him, and he comes. he accepts the scotch war against his better judgment: and next finds himself entrapped by the king's duplicity and selfishness, not only into the command of the expedition to scotland, but into the appearance of having advised it. pym has vainly tried to win him back to the popular cause. lady carlisle vainly warns him of his danger in subserving the king's designs. no danger can shake his allegiance. he leads the army to the north; is beaten; discovers that the popular party is in league with the scotch; returns home to impeach it, and finds himself impeached. a bill of attainder is passed against him; and charles, who might prove by one word his innocence of the charges conveyed in it, promises to do so, evades his promise, and finally signs the warrant for strafford's death. pym, who loved him best, who trusted him longest, is he who demands the signature. lady carlisle forms a plan for strafford's escape from the tower; but it fails at the last moment, and we see him led away to execution. true to the end, he has no thought but for the master who has betrayed him--whose terrible weakness must betray himself--whose fate he sees foreshadowed in his own. he kneels to pym for the king's life; and, seeing him inexorable, _thanks god that he dies first_. pym's last speech is a tender farewell to the friend whom he has sacrificed to his country's cause, but whom he trusts soon to meet in the better land, where they will walk together as of old, all sin and all error purged away. we are told in the preface to the first edition of strafford that the portraits are, so the author thinks, faithful: his "carlisle," only, being imaginary; and we may add that he regards his conception of her as, in the main, confirmed by a very recent historian of the reign of charles i. the tragedy was performed in , at covent garden theatre, under the direction of macready, by whose desire it had been written, and who sustained the principal part. the appearance of "strafford" coincides so closely with at least the conception of "sordello" as to afford a strong proof of the variety of the author's genius. the evidence is still stronger in "pippa passes," in which he leaps directly from his most abstract mode of conception to his most picturesque; and, from the prolonged strain of a single inward experience, to a quick succession of pictures, in which life is given from a general and external point of view. the humour which found little place in the earlier work has abundant scope here; and the descriptive power which was so vividly apparent in all of them, here shows itself for the first time in those touches of local colour which paint without describing. mr. browning is now fully developed, on the artistic and on the practical side of his genius. mr. browning was walking alone, in a wood near dulwich, when the image flashed upon him of some one walking thus alone through life; one apparently too obscure to leave a trace of his or her passage, yet exercising a lasting though unconscious influence at every step of it; and the image shaped itself into the little silk-winder of asolo, felippa, or pippa. "pippa passes" represents the course of one day--pippa's yearly holiday; and is divided into what is virtually four acts, being the occurrences of "morning," "noon," "evening," and "night." pippa rises with the sun, determined to make the best of the bright hours before her; and she spends them in wandering through the town, singing as she goes, and all the while thinking of its happiest men and women, and fancying herself they. these happy ones are four, each the object of a different love. ottima, whose aged husband is the owner of the silk mills, has a lover in sebald. phene, betrothed to the french sculptor jules, will be led this morning to her husband's home. luigi (a conspiring patriot) meets his mother at eve in the turret. the bishop, blessed by god, will sleep at asolo to-night. which love would she choose? the lover's? it gives cause for scandal. the husband's? it may not last. the parent's? it alone will guard us to the end of life. god's love? that is best of all. it is monsignore she decides to be. ottima and her lover have murdered her husband at his villa on the hillside. she is the more reckless of the two, and she is striving by the exercise of her attractions to silence sebald's remorse. she has succeeded for the moment, when pippa passes--singing. something in her song strikes his conscience like a thunderbolt, and its reviving force awakens ottima's also. both are spiritually saved. jules has brought home his bride, and is discovering that some students who owed him a grudge have practised a cruel cheat upon him; and that the refined woman by whom he fancied himself loved is but an ignorant girl of the lowest class, of whom also his enemies have made a tool. her remorse at seeing what man she has deceived disarms his anger, and marks the dawning of a moral sense in her; and he is dismissing her gently, with all the money he can spare, when pippa passes--singing.[ ] something in her song awakens his truer manhood. why should he dismiss his wife? why cast away a soul which needs him, and which he himself has called into existence? he does not cast phene away. her salvation and his happiness are secured. luigi and his mother are in the turret on the hillside above asolo. he believes it his mission to kill the austrian emperor. she entreats him to desist; and has nearly conquered his resolution by the mention of the girl he loves, when pippa passes--singing. something in her song revives his flagging patriotism. he rushes from the tower, thus escaping the police, who were on his track; and the virtuous, though mistaken motive, secures his liberty, and perhaps his life. monsignore and his "intendant" are conferring in the palace by the duomo; and the irony of the situation is now at its height. pippa's fancy has been aspiring to three separate existences, which would each in its own way have been wrecked without her. the divinely-guarded one which she especially covets is at this moment bent on her destruction. for she is the child of the brother at whose death the bishop has connived, and whose wealth he is enjoying. she is still in his way, and he is listening to a plan for removing her also, when pippa passes--singing. something in her song stings his conscience or his humanity to life. he starts up, summons his attendants, has his former accomplice bound hand and foot, and the sequel may be guessed. the scene is varied by groups of students, of poor girls, and of austrian policemen, all joking and chatting in characteristic fashion, and all playing their part in the story; and also by the appearance of bluphocks, an english adventurer and spy, who is in league with the police for the detection of luigi, and with the intendant for pippa's ruin; and the saving effect of pippa's songs is the more dramatic that it becomes on one occasion the means of betraying herself. she goes home at sunset, unconscious of all she has effected and escaped, and wondering how near she may ever come to touching for good or evil the lives with which her fancy has been identifying her. "so far, perhaps," she says to herself, "that the silk she will wind to-morrow may some day serve to border ottima's cloak. and if it be only this!" "all service ranks the same with god-- with god, whose puppets, best and worst, are we: there is no last nor first." (vol. iii. p. .) these are her last words as she lies down to sleep. pippa's songs are not impressive in themselves. they are made so in every case by the condition of her hearer's mind; and the idea of the story is obvious, besides being partly stated in the heroine's own words. no man is "great" or "small" in the sight of god--each life being in its own way the centre of creation. nothing should be "great" or "small" in the sight of man; since it depends on personal feeling, or individual circumstance, whether a given thing will prove one or the other. "king victor and king charles" is an historical tragedy in two divisions and four parts, of which the time is and , and the place the castle of rivoli near turin. the episode which it records may be read in any chronicle of the period; and mr. browning adds a preface, in which he justifies his own view of the characters and motives involved in it. king victor ii. (first king of sardinia) was sixty-four years old, and had been nominally a ruler from the age of ten, when suddenly ( ) he abdicated in favour of his son charles. the queen was dead, and he had privately married a lady of the court, to whom he had been long attached; and the desire to acknowledge this union, combined with what seems to have been a premature old age, might sufficiently have explained the abdication; but mr. browning adopts the idea, which for a time found favour, that it had a deeper cause: that the king's intriguing ambition had involved him in many difficulties, and he had devised this plan for eluding them. charles has become his father's heir through the death of an older and better loved son. he has been thrust into the shade by the favourite, now victor's wife, and by the minister d'ormea; his sensitive nature crushed into weakness, his loftiness of purpose never called into play. he seems precisely the person of whom to make at once a screen and a tool. but he has scarcely been crowned when it is evident that he will be neither. he assumes the character of king at the same time as the function; and by his honesty, courage, and humanity, restores the prosperity of his country, and the honour of his house. he secures even the devotion, interested though it be, of the unscrupulous d'ormea himself. victor, however, is restless in his obscurity; and by the end of the year is scheming for the recovery of his crown. he presents himself before his son, and demands that it be restored to him; denouncing what he considers the weakness of king charles' rule. charles refuses, gently but firmly, to abandon what has become for him the post of duty; and king victor departs, to conspire openly against him. d'ormea is active in detecting the conspiracy and unveiling it; and victor is brought back to the palace, this time a prisoner. but charles does not receive him as such. his filial piety is outraged by the unnatural conflict; and his wife polixena has vainly tried to convince him that there is a higher because less obvious virtue in resisting than in giving way. he once more acknowledges his father as king. and both he and his wife are soon aware that in doing so, he is only humouring the caprice of a dying man. "_i have no friend in the wide world_ is the old king's cry. give me what i have no power to take from you." "so few years give it quietly, my son! it will drop from me. see you not? a crown's unlike a sword to give away-- that, let a strong hand to a weak hand give! but crowns should slip from palsied brows to heads young as this head:...." (vol. iii. p. - .) charles places the crown on his father's head. a strange conflict of gratified ambition, of remorseful tenderness, of dreamy regret, stirs the failing spirit. but command and defiance flash out in the old king's last words. this death on the stage is the only point on which mr. browning diverges from historical truth. king victor lived a year longer, in a modified captivity to which his son had most unwillingly consigned him; and he is made to suggest this story in the half-insanity of his last moments as one which may be told to the world; and will give his son the appearance of reigning, while he remains, in secret, king. "the return of the druses" is a tragedy in five acts, fictitious in plot, but historical in character. the druses of lebanon are a compound of several warlike eastern tribes, owing their religious system to a caliph of egypt, hakeem biamr allah; and probably their name to his confessor darazi, who first attempted to promulgate his doctrine among them; some also impute to the druse nation a dash of the blood of the crusaders. one of their chief religious doctrines was that of divine incarnations. it seems to have originated in the pretension of hakeem to be himself one; and as organized by the persian mystic hamzi, his vizier and disciple, it included ten manifestations of this kind, of which hakeem must have formed the last. mr. browning has assumed that in any great national emergency, the miracle would be expected to recur; and he has here conceived an emergency sufficiently great to call it forth. the druses, according to him, have colonized a small island belonging to the knights of rhodes, and become subject to a prefect appointed by the order. this prefect has almost extirpated the druse sheikhs, and made the remainder of the tribe victims of his cruelty and lust. the cry for rescue and retribution, if not loud, is deep. it finds a passionate response in the soul of djabal, a son of the last emir, who escaped as a child from the massacre of his family, and took refuge in europe; and who now returns, with a matured purpose of patriotic and personal revenge. he has secured an ally in the young lois de dreux--an intended knight of the order, and son of a breton count, whose hospitality he has enjoyed--and induced him to accompany him to the islet, and pass his probation there. this, he considers, will facilitate the murder of the prefect, which is an essential part of his plan; and he has obtained the promise of the venetians, who are hostile to the knights, to lend their ships for his countrymen's escape as soon as the death of the tyrant shall have set them free. so far his course is straight. but he has scarcely returned home, when he falls in love with anael, a druse girl, whose devotion to her tribe is a religion, and who is determined to marry none but the man who will deliver it; and he is then seized by an impulse to heighten the act of deliverance by a semblance of more than human power. he declares himself hakeem, the divine founder of the sect, again present in human form, and who will again be transformed, or "exalted," so soon as by the slaughter of their tyrant he has set the druses free. his bride will be exalted with him. the imposture succeeds only too well. "mystic" as well as "schemer," djabal, for a moment, deceives even himself; and when the crisis is at hand, and reason and conscience reassert themselves, the enthusiasm which he has kindled still forces him on. his only refuge is in flight; and even this proves impossible. he nerves himself, before escaping, to the prefect's murder; and is confronted on the threshold of the prefect's chamber, by his promised wife, who has herself done the deed. anael has loved djabal, believing him divine, with what seemed to her too human a love. she felt unworthy to share his exaltation. she has done that which her humanity disclaimed that she might no longer be so. a few moments more, and they both know that the crime has been superfluous. lois, who also loves anael, and hopes to win her, has procured from the chapter of his order the removal of the tyrant, and been appointed by it in his place; the day of druse oppression was already over. but djabal and anael are inseparably united. the scorn with which she received his now inevitable confession was intense but momentary. the woman's heart in her revels in its new freedom to cherish and to protect; and she embraces her lover's shame with a far greater joy than their common triumph could have aroused in her. she is brought forward as the prefect's murderer in presence of all the personages of the drama; and falls dead with a cry of "hakeem" on her lips. djabal stabs himself on her body, thus "exalting" himself to her. but he has first committed his druses to the care of lois, to be led back to their mountain home. he remains hakeem for them, though branded as an impostor by the rest of the world. directly, or indirectly, he has done the work of the deliverer. "a blot in the 'scutcheon" is a tragedy in three acts, less intricate as well as shorter than those which precede it; and historical only in the simple motive, the uncompromising action, and the mediæval code of honour, which in some degree fix its date. mr. browning places this somewhere in the eighteenth century. lord henry mertoun has fallen in love with mildred tresham. his estates adjoin those of earl tresham, her brother and guardian. he inherits a noble name, and an unsullied reputation; and need only offer himself to be accepted. but the youthful reverence which he entertains for lord tresham makes him shrink from preferring his suit; and he allows himself and mildred to drift into a secret intimacy, which begins in all innocence, but does not end so. then his shyness vanishes. he seeks an interview with the earl, and obtains his joyful consent to the union. all seems to be going well. but mildred's awakened womanhood takes the form of an overpowering remorse and shame; and these become the indirect cause of the catastrophe. gerard, an old retainer of the family, has witnessed lord mertoun's nightly visits to the castle; and, amidst a bitter conflict of feeling, he tells the earl what he has seen. tresham summons his sister. he is writhing under the sense of outraged family honour; but a still stronger fraternal affection commends the culprit to his mercy. he assists her confession with touching delicacy and tenderness; shows himself prepared to share her shame, to help her to live it through--to marry her to the man she loves. he insists only upon this, that mertoun shall not be deceived: and that she shall cancel the promise of an interview which she has given him for the following day. mildred tacitly owns her guilt, and invokes any punishment her brother may adjudge to it; but she will not betray her lover by confessing his name, and she will not forbid mertoun to come. the earl's mind does not connect the two. no extenuating circumstance suggests itself. he has loved his young sister with a chivalrous admiration and trust; and he is one of those men to whom a blot in the 'scutcheon is only less terrible than the knowledge that such trust has been misplaced. he is stung to madness by what seems this crowning proof of his sister's depravity; and by the thought of him who has thus corrupted her. he surprises mertoun on the way to the last stolen visit to his love; and, before there has been time for an explanation, challenges and kills him. the reaction of feeling begins when he perceives that mertoun has allowed himself to be killed. remorse and sorrow deepen into despair as the dying youth gasps out the story of his constant love, of his boyish error--of his manly desire of reparation; above all, as he reminds his hearer of the sister whose happiness he has slain; and asks if he has done right to set his "thoughtless foot" upon them both, and say as they perish-- "... had i thought, 'all had gone otherwise'...." (vol iv. p. .) mildred is waiting for her lover. the usual signal has been made: the lighted purple pane of a painted window sends forth its beckoning gleam. but mertoun does not appear; and as the moments pass, a despairing apathy steals over her, which is only the completed certainty of her doom. she has never believed in the promised happiness. in a strange process of self-consciousness she has realized at once the moral and the natural consequences of her transgression; the lost peace of conscience, the lost morning of her love. her paramount desire has been for expiation and rest. in one more pang they are coming. lord tresham breaks in on her solitude. his empty scabbard shows what he has done. but she soon sees that reproach is unnecessary, and that mertoun's death is avenged. it is best so. the cloud has lifted. the friend and the brother are one in heart again. she dies because her own heart is broken, but forgiving her brother, and blessing him. he has taken poison, and survives her by a few minutes only. mildred has a firm friend in her cousin gwendolen: a quick-witted, true-hearted woman, the betrothed of austin tresham, who is next heir to the earldom. she alone has guessed the true state of the case, and, with the help of austin, would have averted the tragedy, if lord tresham's precipitate passion had not rendered this impossible. these two are in no need of their dying kinsman's warning, to remember, if a blot should again come in the 'scutcheon, that "vengeance is god's, not man's." this tragedy was performed in , at drury lane theatre, during the ownership of macready; in , at "sadlers wells," under the direction of mr. phelps, who had played the part of lord tresham in the drury lane performance. colombe's birthday is a play in five acts, of which the scene is the palace at juliers, the time --. colombe of ravestein is ostensibly duchess of juliers and cleves; but her title is neutralized by the salic law under which the duchy is held; and though the duke, her late father, has wished to evade it in her behalf, those about her are aware that he had no power to do so, and that the legal claimant, her cousin, may at any moment assert his rights. this happens on the first anniversary of her accession, which is also her birthday. prince berthold is to arrive in a few hours. he has sent a letter before him from which colombe will learn her fate; and the handful of courtiers who have stayed to see the drama out are disputing as to who shall deliver it. valence, an advocate of cleves, arrives at this juncture, with a petition from his townspeople who are starving; and is allowed to place it in the duchess's hands, on condition of presenting the prince's letter at the same time. he does this in ignorance of its contents; he is very indignant when he knows them; and the incident naturally constitutes him colombe's adviser and friend; while the reverence with which he owns himself her subject, also determines her if possible to remain his sovereign. prince berthold arrives unprepared for any show of resistance; and is a little startled to find that colombe defies him, and that one of her courtiers (not choosing to be outdone by valence) has the courage to tell him so; but he treats the duchess and her adviser with all the courtesy of a man whose right is secure; and valence, to whom he entrusts his credentials, is soon convinced that it is so. but he has a far-sighted ambition which keeps him alive to all possible risks: and it occurs to him as wiser to secure the little sovereignty by marrying its heiress than by dispossessing her. he desires valence to convey to the young duchess the offer of his hand. the offer is worth considering, since as he asserts, it may mean the empire: to which the duchy is, in his case, but a necessary stepping-stone; and valence, who has loved colombe since his first glimpse of her at cleves, a year ago; who has begun to hope that his affection is returned; and who knows that the prince's message is not only a test of her higher nature, but a snare to it, feels nevertheless bound to leave her choice free. this choice lies clearly between love and power; for berthold parades a cynicism half affected, half real; and on being questioned as to his feeling for the lady, has dismissed the question as irrelevant. valence is, throughout the play, an advocate in the best sense of the word. as he has pleaded the wrongs of an oppressed people, he sets forth the happiness of a successful prince--the happiness which the young duchess is invited to share; and he departs from all the conventionalities of fiction, by showing her the true poetry, not the artificial splendours, of worldly success. colombe is almost as grateful as the young prince could desire, for she assumes that he has fallen in love with her, whether he says so or not; and here, too, valence must speak the truth. "the prince does not love her." "how does he know this?" "he knows it by the insight of one who does love." astonished, vaguely pained, colombe questions him as to the object of his attachment, and, in probably real ignorance of who it can be, draws him on to a confession. for a moment she is disenchanted. "so much unselfish devotion to turn out merely love! she will at all events see valence's rival." in the last act she discusses the prince's proposal with himself. he frankly rests it on its advantages for both. he has much to say in favour of such an understanding, and reminds his listener as she questions and temporizes, that if he gives no heart he also asks none. the courtiers now see their opportunity. they inform the prince that by her late father's will the duchess forfeits her rights in the event of marrying a subject. they point to such a marriage as a natural result of the loving service which valence has this day rendered to her, and the love which is its only fitting reward. and colombe, listening to the just if treacherous praises of this man, feels no longer "sure" that she does "not love him." valence is summoned; requested to assert his claim or to deny it; given to understand that the lady's interests demand the latter course. the manly dignity and exalted tenderness with which he resigns her convert, as it seems, the doubt into certainty; and colombe takes him on this her birthday at the sacrifice of "juliers and the world." berthold has a confidant, melchior, a learned and thoughtful man, who is affectionately attached to the young prince, and who views with regret the easy worldly successes which neutralize his higher gifts. melchior has also appreciated the genuineness of colombe's nature, and conducted the last interview with valence as one who desired that loyalty should be attested and love triumph. he now turns to berthold with what seems an appeal to his generosity. but berthold cannot afford to be generous. as he reminds the happy bride before him he wants her duchy much more than she does. he is, however, the sadder, and perhaps the wiser, for having found this out. "colombe's birthday" was performed in , at the haymarket theatre; in or ' , in the united states, at boston. the part of colombe was taken, as had been those of mildred tresham and lady carlisle, by miss helen faucit, now lady martin. "a soul's tragedy" brings us near to the period of the "men and women;" and displays, for the first time in mr. browning's work, a situation quite dramatic in itself, but which is nevertheless made by the characters, and imagined for them. it is a story of moral retrogression; but, setting aside its very humorous treatment, it is no "tragedy" for the reader, because he has never believed in that particular "soul," though its proprietor and his friends are justly supposed to do so. the drama is divided into two acts, of which the first represents the "poetry," the second the prose, of a certain chiappino's life. the scene is faenza; the time --. chiappino is best understood by comparison with luitolfo, his fellow-townsman and friend. luitolfo has a gentle, genial nature; chiappino, if we may judge him by his mood at the time of the action, an ill-conditioned one. luitolfo's gentleness is allied to physical timidity, but his moral courage is always equal to the occasion. chiappino is a man more of words than of deeds, and wants both the courage and the rectitude which ill-conditioned people often possess. faenza is governed by a provost from ravenna. the present provost is a tyrant; and chiappino has been agitating in a somewhat purposeless manner against him. he has been fined for this several times, and is now sentenced to exile, and confiscation of all his goods. luitolfo has helped him until now by paying his fines; but this is an additional grievance to him, for he is in love with eulalia, the woman whom his friend is going to marry, and declares that he has only refrained from urging his own suit, because he was bound by this pecuniary obligation not to do so. he is not too delicate, however, to depreciate luitolfo's generosity, and generally run him down with the woman who is to be his wife; and this is what he is doing in the first scene, under cover of taking leave of her, and while her intended husband is interceding with the provost in his behalf. a hurried knock, which they recognise as luitolfo's, gives a fresh impulse to his spite; and he begins sneering at the milk-and-watery manner in which luitolfo has probably been pleading his cause, and the awful fright in which he has run home, on seeing that the provost "shrugged his shoulders" at the intercession. luitolfo _is_ frightened, for his friendship for chiappino has been carrying him away; and on finding that entreaties were of no use, he has struck at the provost, and, as he thinks, killed him. a crowd which he imagines to be composed of the provost's attendants has followed him from the palace. torture stares him in the face; and his physical sensitiveness has the upper hand again. for a moment chiappino becomes a hero; he is shamed into nobleness. he flings his own cloak over luitolfo, gives him his passport, hurries him from the house, assumes his friend's blood-stained garment, and claims his deed. but he has scarcely done so when he perceives their mistake. luitolfo's fears have distorted a friendly crowd into a hostile one; and the throng which chiappino has nerved himself to defy is the populace of faenza applauding him as its saviour. he postpones the duty of undeceiving it under pretence of the danger being not yet over. the next step will be to refuse to do so. his moral collapse, the "tragedy" of his "soul," has begun. in the second act, a month later, this is complete. the papal legate, ogniben, has ridden on his mule in to faenza to find out what was wanted. "he has not come to punish; there is no harm done: for the provost was not killed after all. he has known twenty-three leaders of revolts," and therefore, so we understand, is not disposed to take such persons too seriously. he has made friends with chiappino, accepting him in this character, and lured him on with the hope of becoming provost himself; and chiappino again rising--or falling--to the situation, has discovered patriotic reasons for accepting the post. he has outgrown his love, as well as modified his ideas of civic duty; and he disposes of the obligations of friendship, by declaring (to eulalia) that the blow imputed to him was virtually his, because luitolfo would fain have avoided striking it, while he would have struck it if he could. the legate draws him out in a humorous dialogue; satirizes his flimsy sophistries under cover of endorsing them, and leads him up to a final self-exposure. this occurs when he reminds chiappino in the hearing of the crowd of the private agreement they have come to: that he is to have the title and privileges of provost on the one hand, and pay implicit obedience to rome, in the person of her legate, on the other; but with the now added condition, that if the actual assailant of the late provost is discovered, he shall be dealt with as he deserves. at which new view of the situation chiappino is silent; and luitolfo, who had missed all the reward of his deed, characteristically comes forward to receive its punishment. the legate orders him to his own house; advises chiappino, with a little more joking at his expense, to leave the town for a short time; takes possession of the key of the provost's palace, to which he does _not_ intend to give a new inmate; bids a cheery goodbye to every one, and rides away as he came. he has "known _four_ and twenty leaders of revolts." (vol. iii. p. .) the tragedy of "luria" is supposed to be enacted at some period of the fifteenth century; being an episode in the historical struggle between florence and pisa. it occupies one day; and the five acts correspond respectively to its "morning," "noon," "afternoon," "evening," and "night." the day is that of a long-expected encounter which is to end the war. the florentine troops are commanded by the moorish mercenary luria. he is encamped between the two cities; and with, or near him, are his moorish friend and confidant husain; puccio--the officer whom he has superseded; braccio--commissary of the republic; his secretary jacopo, or lapo; and a noble florentine lady, domizia. luria is a consummate general, a brave fighter, and a humane man. every soldier of the army is devoted to him, and the triumph of the republic seems secured. but the men who trust him to win the victory cannot trust him not to misuse it. they are afraid that his strength will be turned against themselves so soon as it has disposed of their foreign foe: and braccio is on the spot, in order to watch his movements, to register every deed that can give the slightest hold for an accusation--in short, to supply the signoria with the materials for a trial, which is proceeding step by step with luria's successful campaign, and is to crush him the moment this is completed. everyone but husain is more or less his enemy. for lapo is almost blindly devoted to his chief. puccio is jealous of the stranger for whom he has been set aside. domizia is making him an instrument of revenge. her brothers have been faithful as he is, and condemned as he is to be. they accepted their sentence because it was the mother-city who passed it. she encourages luria to encounter the same ingratitude, because she believes he will resist and punish it. he is not unwarned of his danger. the pisan general, tiburzio, has discovered the conspiracy against him, and brings him, shortly before the battle, an intercepted letter from braccio to the signoria, in which he is convinced that he may read his fate. he urges him to open it; to desert the perfidious city, and to adopt pisa's cause. but luria's loyalty is unshaken. he tears up the letter in the presence of braccio, puccio, and domizia: and only when the battle has been fought and won demands the secret of its contents. at the word "trial" he is carried away by a momentary indignation; but this subsides into a tender regret that "his florentines" should have so misjudged him; that he should have given them cause to do it. he has laboured for their city, not only with the obedience of a son, but with the devotion of a lover. his eastern fancy has been enslaved by her art, her intellect: by the life of educated thought which so far removed her from the blind unrest, and the animal strength of his savage world; domizia's attractions have added to the spell. he has never guarded his love for florence against doubt, for he never dreamed that it could be doubted. he cannot find it in his heart to chastise her now. temptation besets him on every side; for the armies of both florence and pisa are at his command. husain and domizia urge him on to revenge. tiburzio entreats him to give to pisa the head with which florence will only decorate a gateway. him he thanks and dismisses. to the others he prepares his answer. alone for the last time; with eyes fixed on the setting sun--his "own orb" so much nearer to him in his eastern home, and which will shine for him there no more--he drains a phial of poison: the one thing he has brought from his own land to help him in the possible adversity. death was to be his refuge in defeat. he will die on his triumph-day instead. they all gather round him once more: puccio grateful and devoted; for he has seen that though discredited by florence, luria was still working for her success--tiburzio, who returns from florence, where he has tendered his submission to luria's arms, and borne his heartfelt testimony to luria's honour--domizia, who has learned from luria that there are nobler things than retaliation: and now entreats him to forego his vengeance against her city, as she foregoes her own--braccio, repentant for the wrong done, and beseeching that luria will not "punish florence." but they cannot avert the one punishment which that gentle spirit could inflict. he lies dead before them. "in a balcony" is a dramatic fragment, equivalent to the third or fourth act, of what might prove a tragedy or a drama, as the author designed. the personages are "norbert" and "constance," a young man and woman; and the "queen," a woman of a certain age. constance is a relation and protégée of the queen--as we imagine, a poor one. she is loved by norbert; and he has entered the queen's service, for the opportunity of wooing and winning her. his diplomatic exertions have been strenuous. they have secured to his royal mistress the possession of a double crown. the "balcony" echoes with the sound of festivities which are intended to mark the event. constance returns norbert's affection. he thinks the moment come for pleading his and her cause with their sovereign. but constance entreats him to temporize: either to defer the proposal for her hand, or to make it in so indirect a manner, that the queen may only see in it a tribute to herself. he has allowed her to think that he served her for her own sake; she must not be undeceived too roughly. her heart has starved amidst the show of devotion: its hunger must not be roused by the touch of a living love in which she has no part. a shock of this kind would be painful to her--dangerous to themselves. norbert is an honest man, possessed of all the courage of his love: and he finds it hard to believe that the straightforward course would not be the best; but he yields to the dictates of feminine wisdom; and having consented to play a part, plays it with fatal success. the queen is a more unselfish woman than her young cousin suspects. she has guessed norbert's love for constance, and is prepared to sanction it; but her own nature is still only too capable of responding to the faintest touch of affection: and at the seeming declaration that that love is her's, her joy carries all before it. she is married; but as she declares she will dissolve her marriage, merely formal as it has always been; she will cast convention to the winds, and become norbert's wife. she opens her heart to constance; tells her how she has yearned for love, and how she will repay it. constance knows, as she never knew, what a mystery of pain and passion has been that outwardly frozen life; and in a sudden impulse of pity and compunction, she determines that if possible its new happiness shall be permanent--its delusions converted into truth. she meets norbert again; makes him talk of his future; discovers that he only dreams of it as bound up with the political career he has already entered upon; and though she sees that every vision of this future begins and ends in her, she sees, as justly, that its making or marring is in the queen's hands. here is a second motive for self-sacrifice. norbert has no suspicion of what he has done. the queen appears before constance has had time to inform him of it; and the latter has now no choice but to let him learn it from the queen's own lips. she draws her on, accordingly, under plea of norbert's diffidence, to speak of what she believes him to have asked of her, and what she knows to be already granted. she tries to prompt his reply. but norbert will not be prompted. he is slow to understand what is expected of him, very indignant when he does so; and in terror lest he should still be misunderstood--in unconsciousness of the torture he is inflicting--he asserts and re-asserts his respect for the one woman, his absorbing passion for the other. the queen goes out. her looks and silence have been ominous. the shadow of a great dread falls upon the scene. the dance-music stops. heavy footsteps are heard approaching. norbert and constance stand awaiting their doom. but they are united as they have never yet been, and they can defy it; for her love has shown itself as capable of all sacrifice--his as above temptation. various theories have been formed as to the kind of woman mr. browning meant constance to be; but a careful and unbiassed reading of the poem can leave no doubt on the subject. he has given her, not the courage of an exclusively moral nature, but all the self-denial of a devoted one, growing with the demands which are made upon it. how single-hearted is her attempt to sacrifice norbert's love, is sufficiently shown by one sentence, addressed to him after his interview with the queen: "you were mine. now i give myself to you." (vol. vii. p. .) "the ring and the book." - . from the dramas, we pass naturally to the dramatic monologues; poems embodying a lengthened argument or soliloquy, and to which there is already an approach in the tragedies themselves. the dramatic monologue repeats itself in the finest poems of the "men and women," and "dramatis personæ;" and mr. browning's constructive power thus remains, as it were, diffused, till it culminates again in "the ring and the book:" at once his greatest constructive achievement, and the triumph of the monologue form. from this time onwards, the monologue will be his prevailing mode of expression, but each will often form an independent work. "the ring and the book" is thus our next object of interest. mr. browning was strolling one day through a square in florence, the piazza san lorenzo, which is a standing market for old clothes, old furniture, and old curiosities of every kind, when a parchment-covered book attracted his eye, from amidst the artistic or nondescript rubbish of one of the stalls. it was the record of a murder which had taken place in rome, and bore inside it an inscription which mr. browning thus transcribes:-- "... a roman murder-case: position of the entire criminal cause of guido franceschini, nobleman, with certain four the cut-throats in his pay, tried, all five, and found guilty and put to death by heading or hanging as befitted ranks, at rome on february twenty-two, since our salvation sixteen ninety-eight: wherein it is disputed if, and when, husbands may kill adulterous wives, yet 'scape the customary forfeit." (vol. viii. p. .) the book proved, on examination, to contain the whole history of the case, as carried on in writing, after the fashion of those days: pleadings and counter-pleadings, the depositions of defendants and witnesses; manuscript letters announcing the execution of the murderer; and the "instrument of the definitive sentence" which established the perfect innocence of the murdered wife: these various documents having been collected and bound together by some person interested in the trial, possibly the very cencini, friend of the franceschini family, to whom the manuscript letters are addressed. mr. browning bought the whole for the value of eightpence, and it became the raw material of what appeared four years later as "the ring and the book." this name is explained as follows:--the story of the franceschini case, as mr. browning relates it, forms a circle of evidence to its one central truth; and this circle was constructed in the manner in which the worker in etruscan gold prepares the ornamental circlet which will be worn as a ring. the pure metal is too soft to bear hammer or file; it must be mixed with alloy to gain the necessary power of resistance. the ring once formed and embossed, the alloy is disengaged, and a pure gold ornament remains. mr. browning's material was also inadequate to his purpose, though from a different cause. it was too _hard_. it was "pure crude fact," secreted from the fluid being of the men and women whose experience it had formed. in its existing state it would have broken up under the artistic attempt to weld and round it. he supplied an alloy, the alloy of fancy, or--as he also calls it--of one fact more: this fact being the echo of those past existences awakened within his own. he breathed into the dead record the breath of his own life; and when his ring of evidence had re-formed, first in elastic then in solid strength, here delicately incised, there broadly stamped with human thought and passion, he could cast fancy aside, and bid his readers recognize in what he set before them unadulterated human truth. all this was not effected at once. the separate scenes of the franceschini tragedy sprang to life in mr. browning's imagination within a few hours of his reading the book. he saw them re-enacted from his terrace at casa guidi on a sultry summer night--every place and person projected, as it seemed, against the thundery sky--but his mind did not yet weave them into a whole. the drama lay by him and in him till the unconscious inspiration was complete; and then, one day in london, he felt what he thus describes:-- "a spirit laughs and leaps through every limb, and lights my eye, and lifts me by the hair, letting me have my will again with these...." (vol. viii. p. .) and "the ring and the book" was born. all this is told in an introductory chapter, which bears the title of the whole work; and here also mr. browning reviews those broad facts of the franceschini case which are beyond dispute, and which constitute, so far as they go, the crude metal of his ring. he has worked into this almost every incident which the chronicle supplies and his book requires no supplement. but the fragmentary view of its contents, which i am reduced to giving, can only be held together by a previous outline of the story. there lived in rome in pietro and violante comparini, an elderly couple of the middle class, fond of show and good living, and who in spite of a fair income had run considerably into debt. they were, indeed at the period in question, in receipt of a papal bounty, employed in the relief of the needy who did not like to beg. creditors were pressing, and only one expedient suggested itself: they must have a child; and thus enable themselves to draw on their capital, now tied up for the benefit of an unknown heir-at-law. the wife conceived this plan, and also carried it out, without taking her husband into her confidence. she secured beforehand the infant of a poor and not very reputable woman, announced her expectation, half miraculous at her past fifty years, and became, to all appearance, the mother of a girl, the francesca pompilia of the story. when pompilia had reached the age of thirteen, there was also in rome count guido franceschini, an impoverished nobleman of arezzo, and the elder of three brothers, of whom the second, abate paolo, and the third, canon girolamo also play some part in the story. count guido himself belonged to the minor ranks of the priesthood, and had spent his best years in seeking preferment in it. preferment had not come, and the only means of building up the family fortunes in his own person, was now a moneyed wife. he was poor, fifty years old, and personally unattractive. a contemporary chronicle describes him as short, thin, and pale, and with a projecting nose. he had nothing to offer but his rank; but in the case of a very obscure heiress, this might suffice, and such a one seemed to present herself in pompilia comparini. he heard of her at the local centre of gossip, the barber's shop; received an exaggerated estimate of her dowry; and made proposals for her hand; being supported in his suit by the abate paul. they did not, on their side, understate the advantages of the connection. they are, indeed, said to have given as their yearly income, a sum exceeding their capital, and violante was soon dazzled into consenting to it. old pietro was more wary. he made inquiries as to the state of the count's fortune, and declined, under plea of his daughter's extreme youth, to think of him as a son-in-law. violante pretended submission, secretly led pompilia to a church, the very church of san lorenzo in lucina, where four years later the murdered bodies of all three were to be displayed, and brought her back as count guido's wife. pietro could only accept the accomplished fact; and he so far resigned himself to it, that he paid down an instalment of his daughter's dowry, and made up the deficiency by transferring to the newly-married couple all that he actually possessed. this left him no choice but to live under their roof, and the four removed together to the franceschini abode at arezzo. the arrangement proved disastrous; and at the end of a few months pietro and violante were glad to return to rome, though with empty pockets, and on money lent them for the journey by their son-in-law. we have conflicting testimony as to the cause of this rupture. the governor of arezzo, writing to the abate paul in rome, lays all the blame of it on the comparini, whom he taxes with vulgar and aggressive behaviour; and mr. browning readily admits that at the beginning there may have been faults on their side. but popular judgment, as well as the balance of evidence, were in favour of the opposite view; and curious details are given by pompilia and by a servant of the family, a sworn witness on pompilia's trial, of the petty cruelties and privations to which both parents and child were subjected. so much, at all events, was clear; violante's sin had overtaken her; and it now occurred to her, apparently for the first time, to cast off its burden by confession. the moment was propitious, for the pope had proclaimed a jubilee in honour of his eightieth year, and absolution was to be had for the asking. but the church in this case made conditions. absolution must be preceded by atonement. violante must restore to her legal heirs that of which her pretended motherhood had defrauded them. the first step towards this was to reveal the fraud to her husband; and pietro lost no time in making use of the revelation. he repudiated pompilia, and with her all claims on her husband's part. the case was carried into court. the court decreed a compromise. pietro appealed from the decree, and the question remained unsettled. the chief sufferer by these proceedings was pompilia herself. she already had reason to dread her husband as a tyrant--he to dislike her as a victim; and his discovery of her base birth, with the threatened loss of the greater part of her dowry, could only result, with such a man, in increased aversion towards her. from this moment his one aim seems to have been to get rid of his wife, but in such a manner as not to forfeit any pecuniary advantage he might still derive from their union. this could only be done by convicting her of infielity; and he attacked her so furiously, and so persistently, on the subject of a certain canon giuseppe caponsacchi, whom she barely knew, but whose attentions he declared her to have challenged, that at last she fled from arezzo, with this very man. she had appealed for protection against her husband's violence to the archbishop and to the governor. she had striven to enlist the aid of his brother-in-law, conti. she had implored a priest in confession to write for her to her parents, and induce them to fetch her away. but the whole town was in the interest of the franceschini, or in dread of them. her prayers were useless, and caponsacchi, whom she had heard of as a "resolute man," appeared her last resource. he was, as she knew, contemplating a journey to rome; an opportunity presented itself for speaking to him from her window, or her balcony; and she persuaded him, though not without difficulty, to assist her escape, and conduct her to her old home. on a given night she slipped away from her husband's side, and joined the canon where he awaited her with a carriage. they travelled day and night till they reached castelnuovo, a village within four hours of the journey's end. there they were compelled to rest, and there also the husband overtook them. they were not together at the moment; but the fact of the elopement was patent; and if franceschini had killed his wife there, in the supposed excitement of the discovery, the law might have dealt leniently with him. but it suited him best for the time being to let her live. he procured the arrest of the fugitives, and after a short confinement on the spot, they were conveyed to the new prisons in rome (carceri nuove) and tried on the charge of adultery. it is impossible not to believe that count guido had been working towards this end. pompilia's verbal communications with caponsacchi had been supplemented by letters, now brought to him in her name, now thrown or let down from her window as he passed the house. they were written, as he said, on the subject of the flight, and as he also said, he burned them as soon as read, not doubting their authenticity. but pompilia declared, on examination, that she could neither write nor read; and setting aside all presumption of her veracity, this was more than probable. the writer of the letters must therefore, have been the count, or some one employed by him for the purpose. he now completed the intrigue by producing eighteen or twenty more of a very incriminating character, which he declared to have been left by the prisoners at castelnuovo; and these were not only disclaimed with every appearance of sincerity by both the persons accused, but bore the marks of forgery within themselves. pompilia and caponsacchi answered all the questions addressed to them simply and firmly; and though their statements did not always coincide, these were calculated on the whole to create a moral conviction of their innocence; the facts on which they disagreed being of little weight. but moral conviction was not legal proof; the question of false testimony does not seem to have been even raised; and the court found itself in a dilemma, which it acknowledged in the following way: it was decreed that for his complicity in "the flight and deviation of francesca comparini," and too great intimacy with her, caponsacchi should be banished for three years to civita vecchia; and that pompilia, on her side, should be relegated, for the time being, to a convent. that is to say: the prisoners were pronounced guilty; and a merely nominal punishment was inflicted upon them. the records of this trial contain almost everything of biographical or even dramatic interest in the original book. they are, so far as they go, the complete history of the case; and the result of the trial, ambiguous as it was, supplied the only argument on which an even formal defence of the subsequent murder could be based. the substance of these records appears in full in mr. browning's work; and his readers can judge for themselves whether the letters which were intended to substantiate pompilia's guilt, could, even if she had possessed the power of writing, have been written by a woman so young and so uncultured as herself. they will also see that the count's plot against his wife was still more deeply laid than the above-mentioned circumstances attest. count guido was of course not satisfied. he wanted a divorce; and he continued to sue for it by means of his brother, the abate paul, then residing in rome; but before long he received news which was destined to change his plans. pompilia was about to become a mother; and in consideration of her state, she had been removed from the convent to her paternal home, where she was still to be ostensibly a prisoner. the comparini then occupied a small villa outside one of the city gates. a few months later, in this secluded spot, the countess franceschini gave birth to a son, whom her parents lost no time in conveying to a place of concealment and safety. the murder took place a fortnight after this event. i give the rest of the story in an almost literal translation from a contemporary narrative, which was published, immediately after the count's execution, in the form of a pamphlet[ ]--the then current substitute for a newspaper. "being oppressed by various feelings, and stimulated to revenge, now by honour, now by self-interest, yielding to his wicked thoughts, he (count guido) devised a plan for killing his wife and her nominal parents; and having enlisted in his enterprise four other ruffians,"--labourers on his property, "started with them from arezzo, and on christmas-eve arrived in rome, and took up his abode at ponte milvio, where there was a villa belonging to his brother, and where he concealed himself with his followers till the fitting moment for the execution of his design had arrived. having therefore watched from thence all the movements of the comparini family, he proceeded on thursday, the nd of january, at one o'clock of the night,[ ] with his companions to the comparini's house; and having left biagio agostinelli and domenico gambasini at the gate, he instructed one of the others to knock at the house-door, which was opened to him on his declaring that he brought a letter from canon caponsacchi at civita vecchia. the wicked franceschini, supported by two other of his assassins, instantly threw himself on violante comparini, who had opened the door, and flung her dead upon the ground. pompilia, in this extremity, extinguished the light, thinking thus to elude her assassins, and made for the door of a neighbouring blacksmith, crying for help. seeing franceschini provided with a lantern, she ran and hid herself under the bed, but being dragged from under it, the unhappy woman was barbarously put to death by twenty-two wounds from the hand of her husband, who, not content with this, dragged her to the feet of comparini, who, being similarly wounded by another of the assassins, was crying, '_confession_.'" "at the noise of this horrible massacre people rushed to the spot; but the villains succeeded in flying, leaving behind, however, in their haste, one his cloak, and franceschini his cap, which was the means of betraying them. the unfortunate francesca pompilia, in spite of all the wounds with which she had been mangled, having implored of the holy virgin the grace of being allowed to confess, obtained it, since she was able to survive for a short time and describe the horrible attack. she also related that after the deed, her husband asked the assassin who had helped him to murder her _if she were really dead_; and being assured that she was, quickly rejoined, _let us lose no time, but return to the vineyard_;[ ] and so they escaped. meanwhile the police (forza) having been called, it arrived with its chief officer (bargello), and a confessor was soon procured, together with a surgeon, who devoted himself to the treatment of the unfortunate girl." "monsignore, the governor, being informed of the event, immediately despatched captain patrizj to arrest the culprits; but on reaching the vineyard the police officers discovered that they were no longer there, but had gone towards the high road an hour before. patrizj pursued his journey without rest, and having arrived at the inn, was told by the landlord that franceschini had insisted upon obtaining horses, which were refused to him because he was not supplied with the necessary order; and had proceeded therefore on foot with his companions towards baccano. continuing his march, and taking the necessary precautions, he arrived at the merluzza inn, and there discovered the assassins, who were speedily arrested; their knives still stained with blood, a hundred and fifty scudi in coin being also found on franceschini's person. the arrest, however, cost patrizj his life, for he had heated himself too much, and having received a slight wound, died in a few days." "the knife of franceschini was on the genoese pattern, and triangular; and was notched at the edge, so that it could not be withdrawn from the wounded flesh without lacerating it in such a manner as to render the wound incurable." "the criminals being taken to ponte milvio, they went through a first examination at the inn there at the hands of the notaries and judges sent thither for the purpose, and the chief points of a confession were obtained from them." "when the capture of the delinquents was known in rome, a multitude of the people hastened to see them as they were conveyed bound on horses into the city. it is related that franceschini having asked one of the police officers in the course of the journey _how ever the crime had been discovered_, and being told _that it had been revealed by his wife, whom they had found still living_, was almost stupefied by the intelligence. towards twenty-three o'clock (the last hour before sunset) they arrived at the prisons. a certain francesco pasquini, of città di castello, and allessandro baldeschi, of the same town, both twenty-two years of age, were the assistants of guido franceschini in the murder of the comparini; and gambasini and agostinelli were those who stood on guard at the gate." "meanwhile the corpses of the assassinated comparini were exposed at san lorenzo, in lucina, but so disfigured, and especially franceschini's wife, by their wounds in the face, that they were no longer recognizable. the unhappy francesca, after taking the sacrament, forgiving her murderers, under seventeen years of age, and after having made her will, died on the sixth day of the month, which was that of the epiphany; and was able to clear herself of all the calumnies which her husband had brought against her. the surprise of the people in seeing these corpses was great, from the atrocity of the deed, which made one really shudder, seeing two septuagenarians and a girl of seventeen so miserably put to death." "the trial proceeding meanwhile, many papers were drawn up on the subject, bringing forward all the most incriminating circumstances of this horrible massacre; and others also were written for the defence with much erudition, especially by the advocate of the poor, a certain monsignor spreti, which had the effect of postponing the sentence; also because baldeschi persisted in denial, though he was tortured with the rope, and twice fainted under it. at last he confessed, and so did the others, who also revealed the fact that they had intended in due time to murder franceschini himself, and take his money, because he had not kept his promise of paying them the moment they should have left rome." "on the twenty-second of february there appeared on the piazza del popolo a large platform with a guillotine and two gibbets, on which the culprits were to be executed. many stands were constructed for the convenience of those who were curious to witness such a terrible act of justice; and the concourse was so great that some windows fetched as much as six dollars each. at eight o'clock franceschini and his companions were summoned to their death, and having been placed in the consorteria, and there assisted by the abate panciatici and the cardinal acciajuoli, forthwith disposed themselves to die well. at twenty o'clock the company of death and the misericordia reached the dungeons, and the condemned were let down, placed on separate carts, and conveyed to the place of execution." it is farther stated that franceschini showed the most intrepidity and cold blood of them all, and that he died with the name of jesus on his lips. he wore the same clothes in which he had committed the crime: a close-fitting garment (_juste-au-corps_) of grey cloth, a loose black shirt (_camiciuola_), a goat's hair cloak, a white hat, and a cotton cap. the attempt made by him to defraud his accomplices, poor and helpless as they were, has been accepted by mr. browning as an indication of character which forbade any lenient interpretation of his previous acts. pompilia, on the other hand, is absolved, by all the circumstances of her protracted death, from any doubt of her innocence which previous evidence might have raised. ten different persons attest, not only her denial of any offence against her husband, but, what is of far more value, her christian gentleness, and absolute maiden modesty, under the sufferings of her last days, and the medical treatment to which they subjected her. among the witnesses are a doctor of theology (abate liberate barberito), the apothecary and his assistant, and a number of monks or priests; the first and most circumstantial deposition being that of an augustine, frà celestino angelo di sant' anna, and concluding with these words: "i do not say more, for fear of being taxed with partiality. i know well that god alone can examine the heart. but i know also that from the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks; and that my great st. augustine says: 'as the life was, so is its end.'" it needed all the evidence in pompilia's favour to secure the full punishment of her murderer, strengthened, as he was, by social and ecclesiastical position, and by the acknowledged rights of marital jealousy. we find curious proof of the sympathies which might have prejudiced his wife's cause, in the marginal notes appended to her depositions, and which repeatedly introduce them as lies. "f. _lie concerning the arrival at castelnuovo._" "h. _new lies to the effect that she did not receive the lover's letters, and does not know how to write_," &c., &c.[ ] the significant question, "whether and when a husband may kill his unfaithful wife," was in the present case not thought to be finally answered, till an appeal had been made from the ecclesiastical tribunal to the pope himself. it was innocent xii. who virtually sentenced count franceschini and his four accomplices to death. when mr. browning wrote "the ring and the book," his mind was made up on the merits of the franceschini case; and the unity of purpose which has impressed itself upon his work contributes largely to its power. but he also knew that contemporary opinion would be divided upon it; and he has given the divergent views it was certain to create, as constituting a part of its history. he reminds us that two sets of persons equally acquainted with the facts, equally free from any wish to distort them, might be led into opposite judgments through the mere action of some impalpable bias in one direction or the other, which third, more critical or more indifferent, would adopt a compromise between the two; and he closes his introductory chapter with a tribute to that mystery of human motive and character which so often renders more conclusive judgments impossible. "action now shrouds, now shows the informing thought: man, like a glass ball with a spark a-top, out of the magic fire that lurks inside, shows one tint at a time to take the eye which, let a finger touch the silent sleep, shifted a hair's-breadth shoots you dark for bright, suffuses bright with dark, and baffles so your sentence absolute for shine or shade." (vol. viii. p. .) the three forms of opinion here indicated appear in the three following chapters as the respective utterance of "half-rome," "the other half-rome," and "tertium quid." half-rome has an instinctive sympathy with the husband who has been made ridiculous, and the nobleman who is threatened with an ignominious death; and is disposed throughout to regard him as more sinned against than sinning. "count guido has been unfortunate in everything. he is one of those proud and sensitive men who make few friends, and who meet reverses half-way. he has waited thirty years for advancement in the church, is sick of hope deferred, and is on the point of returning home to end his days, as he thinks, in frugality and peace, when a pretty girl is thrown in his way. visions of domestic cheerfulness and comfort rise up before him. he is entrapped into marriage before he has had time to consider what he is doing, and discovers when it is too late that the parents reputed wealthy have little left but debts; and that in exchange for their daughter's dowry, present and prospective, he must virtually maintain them as well as her." "he is far from rich, but he makes the best of a bad bargain--takes the three with him to arezzo, and lodges them with his mother and his youngest brother, in the old family house. he is repaid with howls of disappointment. pietro and violante want splendour and good-living. they haven't married their daughter to a nobleman and gone to live in his palace, to be duller than they were at home, and have less to eat and drink. they abuse the mother, who won't give up her place in the household, and try to sneer the young brother-priest out of his respect for old-fashioned ways. they go back to rome, trumpeting their wrongs: and, once there, spring a mine upon the luckless count. they refuse to pay the remainder of pompilia's dowry, on the ground that she is not their child. violante comparini has cheated her husband into accepting a base-born girl as his own, and a well-born gentleman into marrying her, but was ready to have qualms of conscience as soon as it should be convenient to tell the truth; and now the moment has come." "count guido, left alone with his nameless and penniless wife, still hopes for the best. pompilia is not guilty of her mock parents' sins. she has been honest enough to take part against them when writing to her brother-in-law in rome.[ ] he and she may still live in peace together. but now the old story begins again--that of the elderly husband and the young wife. canon caponsacchi throws comfits at pompilia in the theatre; brushes against her in the street; has constantly occasion to pass under her window, or to talk to some one opposite to it. he, of course, looks up; pompilia looks down; the neighbours say, 'what of that?' the count is uncomfortable, but he is only laughed at for his pains; the fox prowls round the hen-roost undisturbed. he wakes one morning, after a drugged sleep, to find the house ransacked, and pompilia gone, and everyone able to inform him that she has gone with caponsacchi, and to rome. he pursues them, and overtakes them where they have spent the night together. she brazens the matter out, covers her husband with invective, and threatens him with his own sword. he gives both in charge, and follows them to rome, where he seeks redress from the law. but he does not obtain redress, though the couple's guilt is made as clear as day by a packet of love letters which they had left behind them. they swear that they did not write the letters, and the court believes them. 'they have done wrong, of course, but there is no proof of crime;' and they are let off with a mere show of punishment." "the count returns to arezzo to find the whole story known, and himself the laughing-stock of everybody. he is complimented on his patience under his wife's attack--congratulated on having come out of it with a whole skin. he pushes his claim for a divorce on the obvious ground of infidelity! is met by a counter-claim on the ground of--cruelty! one exasperating circumstance fellows another. at last he hears of the birth of a child, which will be falsely represented as his heir; and then the pent-up passion breaks forth, and in one great avenging wave it washes his name clear." "yet he gives the guilty one a last chance. he utters the name of caponsacchi at her door. if she regrets her offence, that name will bar it. it proves a talisman at which the door flies open. the count and his assistants must be tried for form's sake. but if they are condemned, there is no justice left in rome. if he had taken his wife's life at the moment of provocation, he would have been praised for the act. but he called in the law to do what he was bound to do for himself; and the law has assessed his honour at what seemed to be his own price. the vengeance, too long delayed, has been excessive in consequence. it was clumsy into the bargain, since the canon has escaped alive. well, if harm comes, husbands who are disposed to take the new way instead of the old will have had a lesson; and the count has only himself to thank." the other half-rome is chiefly impressed by the spectacle of a young wife and mother butchered by her husband in cold blood: and can only think of her as having been throughout a victim. it does not absolve violante, but it allows something for honest parental feeling in the old couple's desire for a child; and something for the good done to this human waif by its adoption into a decent home. according to this version, it is the count and his brother who lay the matrimonial trap, and the comparini parents and child who fall into it. "the grim guido is at first kept in the background. abate paolo makes the proposal. he is oily and deferential, and flatters poor foolish violante, and dazzles her at the same time. 'his elder brother,' he says, 'is longing to escape from rome and its pomps and glare. he wants his empty old palace at arezzo, and his breezy villa among the vines,'--and here the emptiness of both is described so as to sound like wealth. 'poor guido! he is always harping upon his home. but he wants a wife to take there--a wife not quite empty-handed, since he is not rich for his rank--but above all, with a true tender heart and an innocent soul--one who will be a child to his mother, and fall into his own ways. many a parent would be glad to welcome him as a son-in-law, but report tells him that violante's daughter is just the girl he wants.'" "the marriage takes place. foolish pietro is talked over and strips himself of everything he has. he and his wife have no choice but to go and live with their son-in-law and his mother and brother. they meet with nothing under his roof but starvation, insult, and cruelty, and return home after a few months, duped and beggared, to ask hospitality of those whom they had once entertained. violante, overwhelmed by these misfortunes, confesses that pompilia is not her child, and pietro proclaims the fact; not that he wishes to leave pompilia in the lurch, but because he thinks this a sure way of getting her back.--count guido is clearly not the man to wish to retain as his wife a base-born girl without a dowry, and whom he has never loved.--but the case must be settled by law, the law pronounces in count guido's favour so far as the actual marriage portion is concerned; and count guido clearly lays his plans so as to half-drive and half-tempt his wife into the kind of misconduct which will rid him of her without prejudicing his right to what she has brought him." this half of rome accepts pompilia's story of all that led to her flight, and caponsacchi's statement that he assisted in it simply to save her life. it thinks the husband's intrigues sufficiently proved by the fact that the canon owns to having received letters which the wife denies having written, and which must, therefore, have been forged. count guido, it declares, has had no wrongs to avenge, and supposing he had wrongs, he has adopted too convenient a mode of avenging them. "he demands protection from the law, and the moment its balance trembles against him he flies out of court, declaring that wounded honour can only be cured by the sword. at all events he has given the law plenty to do: three courts at work for him, and an appeal to the pope besides. if any law is binding on mankind it is that such as he shall be made an end of. he is the common enemy of his fellow-men." tertium quid sees no reason for assuming that the wrong is altogether on either side, and reviews the circumstances in such a manner as to show that there is probably right on both. he lays stress on the expediency of judging the comparini by the morals of their class, and count guido by the peculiarities of his own nature; admits the punishment of the wife and parents to have been excessive, and cannot admit it to have been unprovoked; does not pretend to decide between the conflicting statements, and does not consider that pompilia's dying confession throws much light upon them; seeing that it may be equally true, or false, or neutralized by another reserved for the priest's ear. does not regard putting the count to the torture as the right mode of eliciting the truth: because he may be innocent. but declares that if _he_ does not deserve to undergo the torture, no one ever did or will. tertium quid is sometimes flippant in tone, and his neutral attitude seems chiefly the result of indifference or of caution. he is addressing himself to a highness and an excellency, and is careful not to shock the prejudices of either. still, his statement is the nearest approach to a judicial summing up of which the nature of the work admits. mr. browning now enters on the constructive part of his work. he puts the personages of the drama themselves before us, allowing each to plead his or her own cause. the imaginary occasion is that of count guido's trial; and all the depositions which were made on the previous one are transferred to this. the author has been obliged in every case to build up the character from the evidence, and to re-mould and expand the evidence in conformity with the character. the motive, feeling, and circumstance set forth by each separate speaker are thus in some degree fictitious; but they are always founded upon fact; and the literal truth of a vast number of details is self-evident. we first hear: count guido franceschini. he has been caught red-handed from the murder of his wife. his crime is patent. he has himself confessed it under torture. his only hope of reprieve lies in the colour which he may be able to impart to it; and his speech is cunningly adapted to the nature of the court, and to the moral and mental constitution of those of whom it is composed. his judges are churchmen: neutral on the subject of marriage; rather coarsely masculine in their idea of the destiny of women. he does not profess to have entertained any affection for his wife. he derides the idea of having ill-used her, and thinks she might have liked him better if he had done so, instead of threatening her into good behaviour like a naughty child, with hair powder for poison, and a wooden toy for a sword; has no doubt that, if she had cared to warm his heart, some smouldering embers within it might still have burst into flame; but admits once for all that there was no question of feeling in the case; it was a bargain on both sides, and a fair one as far as he was concerned. paternity, however, is a condition with which his hearers may be supposed to sympathize; and he is absolutely eloquent, when he describes the desire he has cherished for a son, and the burning pain which filled him when he knew that it had been defrauded. he tells the story of his wife's intrigue and flight, much as the opinion of half-rome has reflected it; but he laces the question of his child's legitimacy in such a manner as to extract an equal advantage from either view. in either case it was pompilia's crowning iniquity that she gave birth to a child, and placed it beyond his reach; and in either case it was the outraged paternal feeling which inspired his act. the whole monologue is leavened by a spirit of mock deference for religion, for the church, and for the law which represents the church. count guido is led in from the torture, a mass of mock-patient suffering: wincing as he speaks, but quite in spite of himself--grateful that his pains are not worse--begging his judges not to be too much concerned about him; "since, thanks to his age and shaken health, a fainting fit soon came to his relief--indeed, torture itself is a kind of relief from the moral agonies he has undergone." he reminds his judges that the church was his only mistress for thirty years. he would have served her, he declares, to the end of his life, but that his fidelity had been so long ignored. he trusted to the law--in other words to the church--to avenge his honour when he ought to have done so himself. she deceived his trust, and still he hoped and endured. when he came to rome, in his last frenzy of just revenge, he still stayed his hand, because the feast of the nativity had begun: it was the period at which the church enjoins peace and good-will towards men. the face of the heavenly infant looked down upon him; he prayed that he might not enter into temptation. but the days went by, and the face withered and waned, and the cross alone confronted him. then he felt that the hour had come, and he found his way to his wife's retreat. the door opened to the name of caponsacchi. his worst fears were thus confirmed. even so, had he been admitted by pompilia, weak from her recent sufferings, he might have paused in pity--by pietro, he might have paused in contempt; but it was the hag violante who opened to him: the cheat, the mock-mother, the source of all his wrongs. the impulse to stamp out that one detested life involved all three. and now he triumphs in the deed. he has cast a foul burden from his life. he can look his fellow-men in the face again. far from admitting that he deserves punishment, he claims the sympathy and the approval of those who have met to judge him: for he has done their work--the work of divine justice and of natural law. in a final burst of rhetoric he challenges his judges to restore to him his life, his name, his civil rights, and best of all, his son; and together, he declares, they will rebuild the family honour, and revive the old forgotten tradition of domestic purity and peace. and if one day the son, about to kiss his hand, starts at the marks of violence upon it, he will smile and say, "it was only an accident-- "... just a trip o' the torture-irons in their search for truth,-- hardly misfortune, and no fault at all." (vol. ix. p. .) giuseppe caponsacchi next tells his story. it includes some details of his earlier life, which throw light on what will follow. he is not a priest from choice. he had interest in the church, and grew up in the expectation of entering it. but when the time came for taking his vows, he recoiled from the sacrifice which they involved, and yielded only to the bishop's assurance that he need make no sacrifice; there were two ways of interpreting such vows, and he need not select the harder; a man of polish and accomplishments was as valuable to the church as a scholar or an ascetic. her structure stood firm, and no one need now-a-days break his back in the effort to hold her up. let him write his madrigals (he had a turn for verse-making) and not become a fixture in his seat in the choir through too close an attendance there. the terms were easy, and caponsacchi became a priest, no worse and no better than he was expected to be; but with the feelings and purposes of a truer manhood lying dormant within him. these pompilia was destined to arouse. he relates that he first saw her at the theatre. his attention was attracted by her strange sad beauty: and a friend who sat by him, and was a connection of the husband's, threw comfits at her to make her return his gaze, warning him at the same time to do nothing which could compromise her. he accepted the warning, but could not forget the face. he felt a sudden disgust for the light women and the light pleasures which were alone within his reach, and determined to change his mode of life, and leave arezzo for rome. at this juncture a love-letter was brought to him. it purported to come from the lady at whom he had flung the comfits;[ ] offered him her heart, and begged an interview with him. the bearer was a masked woman, who owned to an equivocal position in count guido's household. caponsacchi saw through the trick, declined the proposed interview on the ground of his priesthood, and completed his answer with an allusion to the husband, which would punish him in the probable case of its passing directly into his hands. the next day the same messenger appeared with a second letter, reproaching him for his cruelty; he answered in the same strain. but the letters continued, now dropped into his prayer-book, now flung down to him from a window. at length they changed their tone. he had been begged to come: he was now entreated to stay away. the husband, before absent, had returned: indifferent, had become jealous. his vengeance was aroused; and the sooner caponsacchi escaped to rome, the better. this challenge to his courage had the intended effect. he wrote word that the street was public if the house was not, and he would be under the lady's window that evening. he went. she was standing there, lamp in hand, like our lady of sorrows on her altar. she vanished, reappeared on a terrace close above his head, and spoke to him. he had sent her letters, she said, which she could not read; but she had been told that they spoke of love. she thought at first that he must be wicked, and then she felt that he could not be so wicked as to have meant what that woman said; and now that she saw his face she knew he did not write it. still, he meant her well when no one else did. her need was sore; he alone in the world could help her; she had determined to call to him. if he had some feverish fancy for what was not her's to give, he would be cured of it so soon as he knew all. she told him her story, and entreated him to take her to rome, and consign her to her parents' care. he promised, and then his heart misgave him. would it be right in him? would it be good for her? he passed two days in a ceaseless internal conflict, and then determined to see her once more, but only to comfort and advise. she stood again awaiting him at her window. again she spoke, reproaching him for the suspense she had undergone. her manner dispelled all doubt, and he did for her what she desired. the journey, which he describes in detail, was to him one spontaneous and continued revelation of her purity and truth. then came the trial and his banishment. he was compelled to leave her to the protection of the law; to the good offices of the court which confronts him now--of the men who, as he reminds them, laughed in their sleeve at the young priest's escapade, and at the transparent excuses with which he had taxed their credulity,--of the men who, in consideration for his youth, merely sent him to disport himself elsewhere, leaving the woman he had striven to protect, to the husband who was to murder her. the news which summons him from civita vecchia has fallen on him like a thunderbolt. his being is shaken to its foundations. he strives to contain himself in outward deference to the court, but a storm of suppressed sorrow and indignation rages beneath all his words: now uttering itself in pitying tender reverence for pompilia's memory; now in scorn of those who would defame her; now in anger at himself, who is casting suspicion on her innocence by the very passion with which he defends it, now in defiance of those who choose to call the passion by the vulgar name of love. he tears up the flimsy calumnies which have been launched against her and himself; flinging them back in short, contemptuous utterances in the teeth of whosoever may believe them; begs his judges to forget his violence; and makes a last attempt to convince himself and them that no selfish desire underlies it. pompilia is dying: he too is dead--to the world. what can she be to him but a dream--a thinker's dream--of a life not consecrated to the church, but spent, as with her, in one constant domestic revelation of the eternal goodness and truth--a dream from which he will pass content.... and here the whole edifice of self-control and self-deception breaks down, and the agonized heart sends forth its cry:-- "o great, just, good god! miserable me!" (vol. ix. p. .) the third speaker is pompilia. her evidence is the story of her life. it is given from her deathbed; and its half-dreamy reminiscences are uttered with the childlike simplicity with which she may have opened her heart to her priest. she is full of strange pathetic wonder at the mystery of existence; at the manner in which the thing we seem to grasp eludes us, and the seemingly impossible comes to pass. "husbands are supposed to love their wives and guard them. see how it has been with her! that other man--that friend--they say _he_ loves her; his kindness was all love! she is a wife and he a priest, and yet they go on saying it! her boy, she imagined, would be hers for life: and he is taken from her. he, too, becomes a dream; and in that dream she sees him grown tall and strong, and tutoring his mother as an imprudent child, for venturing out of the safe street into the lonely house where no help could reach her. it all reminds her of the day when she and a child-friend played at finding each other out in the figures on the tapestry; and tisbe recognized her in a tree with a rough trunk for body, and her five fingers blossoming into leaves. things are, and are not at the same time." one thing, however, is real amidst the unreality: her joy and pride in finding herself a mother. the event proved that when she left arezzo the hope of maternity was already dawning upon her; and mr. browning has combined this fact with the latent maternal sentiment of all true women, and read it into every impulse of her remaining life. she was wretched. she had vainly sought for help. she had resigned herself to the inevitable. she had lain down at night with the old thought-- "... 'done, another day! how good to sleep and so get nearer death!'-- when, what, first thing at day-break, pierced the sleep with a summons to me? up i sprang alive, light in me, light without me, everywhere change!" (vol. ix. p. .) from this moment, as she tells us, everything was transformed. for days, for weeks, caponsacchi's name had been ringing in her ears: in jealous explosions on her husband's part; in corrupting advice on the part of the waiting-woman who brought letters supposed to be sent to her by him; in declarations of love which her first glance at his face told her he could not have written. this, too, has all seemed a grotesquely painful dream. but when she awoke on the april morning in that bounding of the spirit towards an unknown joy, the name assumed a new meaning for her, and she said, "let caponsacchi come." she remembers little after that, but the enfolding tenderness which secured the fulfilment of her hope. she describes nothing after the "tap" at the door, which was the beginning of the end. she has attained the crown of her woman's existence, and she can bear no resentment towards him whose cruelty embittered, and whose vengeance has cut it short. the motherly heart in her goes out to the wicked husband who was also once a child, and strives to palliate what he has done. "he was sinned against as well as sinning. her poor parents were blind and unjust in their mode of retaliating upon him. she was blind and foolish in doing nothing to heal the breach. her earthly goods have been a snare to guido; she herself was an importunate presence to him. by god's grace he will be the better for having swept her from his path. she thanks him for destroying in her that bodily life which was his to pollute, and for leaving her soul free. her infant shall have been born of no earthly father. it is the child of its mother's love." and this love for her child overflows in gratitude to him who saved her for it--a gratitude which is also something more. she has recoiled from the idea of being united to a priest by any bond of earthly affection; but the knowledge is growing upon her that her bond to caponsacchi _is_ love, though it assumes an ideal character in her innocence, her ignorance, and the exaltation of feeling which denotes her approaching death. she has recalled the incidents of her flight, but only to bear witness to caponsacchi's virtues: his watchful kindness, his chivalrous courage, the unselfishness which could risk life and honour without thought of reward, the priestly dignity which he never set aside. her last words contain an invocation to himself which has all the passion of earthly tenderness, and all the solemnity of a prayer. she addresses him as her soldier-saint--as the friend "her only, all her own," who is closest to her now on her final journey; whose love shall sustain, whose strong hand shall guide her, on the unknown path she is about to tread. she thinks he would not marry if he could. true marriage is in heaven, where there is no making of contracts, with gold on one side, power or youth or beauty on the other, but one is "man and wife at once when the true time is." would either of them wish the past undone? her soul says "no." "so, let him wait god's instant men call years; meantime hold hard by truth and his great soul, do out the duty! through such souls alone god stooping shows sufficient of his light for us i' the dark to rise by. and i rise." (vol. ix. p. .) we have now the written pleadings of two advocates who figure largely in the records of the case; the one enlisted on the count's side, the other on pompilia's they are dominus hyacinthus de archangelis (procurator of the poor) juris doctor johannes baptista bottinius (fisc, or public prosecutor). the subject of these pleadings is the possible justification of the crime for which count franceschini is on trial, but not otherwise the crime itself; for he has owned to its commission; and though the avowal has been drawn from him by torture, it is justly accepted as decisive. all the arguments for and against him hinge therefore on the evidence of pompilia's guilt or innocence as established by the previous enquiry; and as we have seen, the _formal_ result of this enquiry was unfavourable to her. the count obtained his verdict, though the subsequent treatment of the offenders made it almost nugatory; and de archangelis rings the changes on the stock arguments of his client's outraged honour, and his natural if not legal right to avenge it. bottinius, on the other hand, does not admit that the husband's honour has been attacked; but he defends the wife's conduct, more by extenuating the acts of which she is accused, than by denying them. his denials are generally parenthetic: and imply that the whether she did certain things is much less important than the why and the how; and though he professes to present her as a pearl of purity, he shows his standard of female purity to be very low. mr. browning might easily have composed a more genuine defence from the known facts of the case; but he represents these quibblings and counter-quibblings as equally beside the mark. the question of the murderer's guilt was being judged on broader grounds; and the supposed talkers on either side are aware of this. de archangelis and bottinius both know that their cleverness will benefit no one but themselves, and for this reason they are as much concerned to show how good a case they can make out of a doubtful one, as to prove that their case is in itself good. each is thinking of his opponent, and how best to parry his attack; and their arguments are relieved by a brisk exchange of personalities, in which "de archangelis" includes his subordinate "spreti"--"advocate of the poor"--whose learned contribution to this paper warfare has probably aroused his jealousy. mr. browning has also displayed the hollowness of the proceedings by making "de archangelis" the very opposite of his saturnine and blood-thirsty client: the last person we could think of as in sympathy with him. he is a coarse good-natured paterfamilias, whose ambitions are all centred on an eight-year-old son, whose birthday it is; and his defence of the murder is concocted under frequent interruptions, from the thought of cinuncino (little giacinto, or hyacinth), and the fried liver and herbs which are to form part of his birthday feast. bottinius is a vain man, occupied only with himself, and regretting nothing so much as that he may not display his rhetorical powers, by delivering his speech instead of writing it. count guido, with his accomplices, has been condemned to death. his friends have appealed from the verdict, on the ground of his being, though in a minor degree, a priest. the answer to this appeal rests with the head of the church. the next monologue is therefore that of the pope. the reflections here imagined grow out of a double fact. innocent the twelfth refused to shelter count franceschini with his accomplices from the judgment of the law, and thus assumed the responsibility of his death. he had reached an age at which so heavy a responsibility could not be otherwise than painful. as mr. browning depicts him, his decision is made. from dawn to dark he has been studying the case, piecing together its fragmentary truths, trying its merits with "true sweat of soul." there is no doubt in his mind that guido deserves to die. but he has to nerve himself afresh before he gives the one stroke of his pen, the one touch to his bell, which shall send this soul into eternity; and that is what we see him doing. as he says to himself, he is weighed down by years. he lifts the cares of the whole world on a "loaded branch" for which a bird's nest were a "superfluous burthen." yet this strong man cries to him for life: and he alone has the power to grant it. how easy to reprieve! how hard to deny to this trembling sinner the moment's respite which may save his soul. he wants precedent for such a deed; and he seeks it in the records of the papacy. it is from the popes his predecessors that he must learn how to dare, to suffer, and--to judge. but these records tell him how stephen cursed formosus; how romanus and theodore reinstated the sanctity of formosus and cursed stephen; and how john reinstated stephen and cursed formosus. they could not all be right. there is no guarantee for infallibility--no test of justice--to be found here. how, then, would he defend his condemnation of guido if he himself were now summoned to the judgment-seat? the question is self-answered: no defence would be needed; for god sees into the heart. he appraises the seed of act, which is its motive; not "leafage and branchage, vulgar eyes admire." the pope knows that his motives will stand the scrutiny of god. how, finally, could he plead his cause with a man like himself: with the man antonio pignatelli, his very self? he must, once for all, marshal the facts, and let them plead for him. next follows the pope's version of the story, which differs from those preceding it, in being the summing up of a spiritual judge, who deals not only with facts but with conditions, and who looks at the thing done, in its special reference to the person who did it. as seen in this light, the blacks of the picture are blacker, the whites, whiter, than they appear from the ordinary point of view. guido has been doubly wicked because his birth, his breeding, and his connection with the church, had surrounded him with incitements to good, and with opportunities for it. pompilia is doubly virtuous because she is a mere "chance-sown," "cleft-nurtured" human weed, owing all her goodness to herself. with guido, the bad end is secured by the worst means. not satisfied to murder his wife, he must use a jagged instrument with which to torture her flesh. not satisfied to torment her in the body, he must imperil her soul by placing desperate temptation in her way. with pompilia the right virtue is always employed for the good end. she is submissive where only her own life is at stake; brave, when a life within her own calls on her for protection. guido's accomplices: his brothers, his mother, the four youths who helped him to kill his wife: the governor, and the archbishop, who abetted his ill-treatment of her, have alike sinned against their age, their character, or their associations. caponsacchi has not been faultless. he has failed somewhat in the dignity of his office, somewhat in its decorum; his mode of rescuing the oppressed has had too much the character of an escapade. but the more disciplined soldier of the church would have erred in the opposite direction. the ear which listens only for the voice of authority becomes obtuse to the cry of suffering. the spirit which only moves to command becomes unfit for spontaneous work. caponsacchi, standing aloof like a man of pleasure, has proved himself the very champion of god, ready to spring into the arena, at the first thud of the false knight's glove upon the ground. he has shown himself possessed of the true courage which does not shrink from temptation, and does not succumb to it. such transgressions as his reflect rather on the limits imposed than on the impatience which transgressed them. he must submit to a slight punishment. he must work--be unhappy--bear life. but he ranks next in grace to pompilia--the "rose" which the old pope "gathers for the breast of god." of count guido's other victims, pietro and violante, the worst that can be said is this: they have halted between good and evil; and, as the way of the world is, suffered through both. the balance of justice once more confirms the pope's decree. yet at this very moment his will relaxes. a sudden dread is upon him--a chill such as comes with the sudden clouding of a long clear sky. the ordeal of a deeper and stranger doubt is yet to be faced. he has judged, as he believed, by the light of divine truth. has he been mistaken? step by step he tests and reconstructs his belief, tracing it back to its beginning. god, the infinite, exists. man, the atom, comprehends him as the conditions of his intelligence permit, but so far truly. man's mind, like a convex glass, reflects him, in an image, smaller or less small, adequate so far as it goes. as revealed in the order of nature, god is perfect in intelligence and in power; but not so in love; and there has come into the mouths and hearts of men, a tale and miracle of divine love which makes the evidence of his perfection complete. the pope believes that tale, whether true in itself, or like man's conception of the infinite, true only for the human mind. he accepts its enigmas as a test of faith: as a sign that life is meant for a training and a passage: as a guarantee of our moral growth, and of the good which evil may produce. christianity stands firm. and yet his heart misgives him; for it is not justified by its results. it is not that the sceptical deny its value: that those bent on earthly good reject it with open eyes. the surprise and terror is this: that those who have found the pearl of price--who have named and known it--will still grovel after the lower gain. such the aretine bishop who sent pompilia back to her tormentor; the friar who refused to save her because he feared the world; the nuns who at first testified to her purity, and were ready to prove her one of dishonest life, when they learned that she possessed riches which by so doing they might confiscate to themselves. nor is the fault in humanity at large: for love and faith have leapt forth profusely in the olden time, at the summons of "unacknowledged," "uncommissioned" powers of good. caponsacchi has shown that they do so still. before paul had spoken and felix heard, euripides had pronounced virtue the law of life, and, in his doctrine of hidden forces, foreshadowed the one god. euripides felt his way in the darkness. he, the pope, walking in the glare of noon, might ask support of him. where does the fault lie? it lies in the excess of certainty--in the too great familiarity with the truth--in that encroachment of earthly natives on the heavenly, which is begotten by the security of belief. between night and noonday there has been the dawn, with its searching illumination, its thrill of faith, the rapture of self-sacrifice in which anchorite and martyr foretasted the joys of heaven. now christianity is hard because it has become too easy; because of the "ignoble confidence," which will enjoy this world and yet count upon the next: the "shallow cowardice," which renders the old heroism impossible. the pope is discursive, as is the manner of his age; and his reflections have been, hitherto, rather suggested by the case before him than directly related to it. but he grasps it again in a burst of prophetic insight which these very reflections have produced. heroism has become impossible, "unless ... what whispers me of times to come? what if it be the mission of that age my death will usher into life, to shake this torpor of assurance from our creed?" (vol. x. p. .) what if earthquake be about to try the towers which lions dare no longer attack: if man be destined to live once more, in the new-born readiness for death? is the time at hand, when the new faith shall be broken up as the old has been; when reported truth shall once more be compared with the actual truth--the portrait of the divine with its reality? is not perhaps the molinist[ ] himself thus striving after the higher light? the pope's fancy conjures up the vision of that coming time. he sees the motley pageant of the age of reason pushing the churchly "masque" aside, impatient of the slowly-trailing garments, in which he, the last actor in it, is passing off the scene. he beholds the trials of that transition stage; the many whose crumbling faith will land them on the lower platform of the material life; the few, who from habit, will preserve the christian level; the fewer still, who, like pompilia, will do so in the inspired conviction of the truth. he sees two men, or rather types of men, both priests, frankly making the new experiment, and adopting nature as their law. under her guidance, one, like caponsacchi acts, in the main, well; the other, like guido franceschini, wallows in every crime.... the "first effects" of the "new cause" are apparent in those murdering five, and in their victims. but the old law is not yet extinct. he (the church) still occupies the stage, though his departure be close at hand: so, in a last act of allegiance to him who placed him there, he _smites with his whole strength once more_, "ending, so far as man may, this offence." (vol. x. p. .) yet again his arm is stayed. voices, whether of friend or foe, are sounding in his ear. they reiterate the sophistries which have been enlisted in the count's defence: the credit of the church, the proprieties of the domestic hearth; the educated sense of honour which is stronger than the moral law; the general relief which will greet the act of mercy. the pope listens. for one moment we may fancy that he yields. "pronounce then," the imaginary speakers have said. a swift answer follows: "i will, sirs: but a voice other than your's quickens my spirit...." (vol. x. p. .) and the death-warrant goes out. a favourite theory of mr. browning's appears in this soliloquy, for the first time since he stated it in "sordello," and in a somewhat different form: that of the inadequacy of words to convey the truth. the pope declares (p. ) that we need "expect nor question nor reply at what we figure as god's judgment-bar! none of this vile way by the barren words which, more than any deed, characterize man as made subject to a curse." and again (p. ) that "... these filthy rags of speech, this coil of statement, comment, query and response, tatters all too contaminate for use, have no renewing: he, the truth, is, too, the word." the scene changes to the prison-cell where count guido has received his final sentence of death. two former friends and fellow-tuscans, cardinal acciajuoli and abate panciatichi, have come to prepare him for execution; but the one is listening awe-struck to the only kind of confession which they can obtain from him, while the other plies his beads in a desperate endeavour to exorcise the spiritual enemy, "ban" the diabolical influences, it is conjuring up. the speaker is no longer count guido franceschini, but guido. he is indeed another man than he was in his first monologue, for he has thrown off the mask. his tone is at first conciliatory, even entreating: for his hearers are men of his own class, and he hopes to persuade them to one more intercession in his behalf. but it changes to one of scorn and defiance, as the hopelessness of his case lays hold of him, and rises, at the end, to a climax of ferocity which is all but grand. "repentance! if he repent for twelve hours, will he die the less on the thirteenth? he has broken the social law, and is about to pay for it. what has he to repent of but that he has made a mistake? religion! who of them all believes in it? not the pope himself; for religion enjoins mercy; it is meant to temper the harshness of the law: and he destroys the life which the law has given over to him to save. what man of them all shows by his acts that he believes; or would be treated otherwise than as a lunatic if he did? let those who will, halt between belief and unbelief. it has not been in him to do so. give him the certainty of another world, and he would have lived for it. owning no such certainty, he has lived for this one; he has sought its pleasures and avoided its pains. only he has carried the thing too far. the world has decreed limits to every man's pleasure; it limits this for the good of all; and it has made unlawful the excess of pleasure which turns to someone else's pain. he has exceeded the lawful amount of pleasure, and he pays for it by an extra dose of pain." "there the matter ends. but his judges want more--a few edifying lies wherewith to show that he did not die impenitent, and stop the mouth of anyone who may hint, the day after the execution, that old men are too fond of putting younger ones out of the way. they shall have his confession; but it must be the truth." "he killed his wife because he hated her; because, whether it were her fault or not, she was a stumbling-block in his path. he had been outraged by her aversion, exasperated by her patience, maddened by her never putting herself in the wrong. while her parents were with her, she resisted and clamoured, and then her presence could be endured; but they were left alone together, and then everything was changed. day by day, and all day, he was confronted by her automatic obedience, by her dumb despair. she rose up and lay down--she spoke or was silent at his bidding; neither a loosened hair, nor a crumple in the dress, giving token of resistance; he might have strangled her without her making a sign. she eloped from him, yet he could not surprise her in the commission of a sin: and he returned from his pursuit of her, ridiculous when he should have been triumphant. he took his revenge at last. and now that he might tell his story and find no one to controvert it--how he came to claim his wife and child, and found no child, but the lover by the wife's side; was attacked, defended himself, struck right and left, and thus did the deed--she survives, by miracle, to confute him, to condemn him, and worst of all, to forgive him." "he has been ensnared by his opportunities from first to last. he failed to save himself from retribution, only because he was drunk with the sudden freedom from this hateful load. and pompilia haunts him still. her stupid purity will freeze him even in death. it will rob him of his hell--where the fiend in him would burn up in fiery rapture--where some lucrezia might meet him as his fitting bride--where the wolf-nature frankly glutted would perhaps leave room for some return to human form. for she cannot hate. it would grieve her to know him there; and--if there be a hell--it will be barred to him in consideration for her." "the cardinal, the abate, they too are petrifactions in their way! he may rave another twelve hours, and it will be useless." yet he makes one more effort to move them. he reminds the cardinal of the crimes he has committed--of the help he will need when a new pope is to be elected; of the possible supporter who may then be in his grave. then fiercely turning on them both; "the cardinal have a chance indeed, when there is an albano in the case! the abate be alive a year hence, with that burning hollow cheek and that hacking cough!--well, _he_ will die bold and honest as he has lived." at this juncture he becomes aware that the fatal moment has arrived. steps and lights are on the stairs. the defiant spirit is quenched. "he has laughed and mocked and said no word of all he had to say." in wild terror he pleads for life--bare life. a final vindication of his wife's goodness bursts from him in the words, "abate,--cardinal,--christ,--maria,--god,-- pompilia, will you let them murder me?" (vol. x. p. .) the concluding part of the work reverses the idea of the first, and is entitled the book and the ring. it completes the record of the franceschini case, and gives the concluding touches to the circle of evidence which now assumes its final dramatic form. we have first an account of the execution, conveyed in a gossiping letter from a venetian gentleman on a visit to rome, and who reports it as the last news of the week, and the occasion of his having lost a bet. the writer also discusses the pope's health, the relative merits of his present physician and a former one; the relative chances of various candidates for the papacy; and the pope's possible motives for setting aside "justice, prudence, and esprit de corps," in the manner testified by his recent condemnation of a man of rank. his political likes and dislikes are thrown into the scale, but his predilection for the mob is considered to have turned it. "he allows the people to question him when he takes his walks; and it is said that some of them asked him, on the occasion of his last, whether the privilege of murder was altogether reserved for noblemen." "the austrian ambassador had done his best to avert bloodshed, and pleaded hard for the life of one whom, as he urged, he 'may have dined at table with!' and felt so aggrieved by the pope's answer, that he all but refused to come to the execution, and would barely look at it when he came." various details follow, some of which my readers already know. mr. browning next speaks of the three manuscript letters bound into the original book; selects one of these, written by the count's advocate, de archangelis, and gives it, first, in its actual contents, and next, in an imaginary postscript which we are to think of as destined for the recipient's private ear. the letter itself is written for the count's family and friends; and states, in a tone of solemn regret, that the justifications brought forward by his correspondent arrived too late; that the pope thought it inexpedient to postpone the execution, or to accept the plea of youth urged in favour of the four accomplices; and that they all died that day. it declares that the count suffered in an exemplary manner, amidst the commiseration and respect of all rome, and that the honour of his house will lose nothing through the catastrophe. the supplement is conceived in a very different spirit. the writer laughs at their "pleas" and "proofs," coming, like pisan help, when the man is already dead--"not that twenty such vindications would have done any good-- "when somebody's thick head-piece once was bent on seeing guido's drop into the bag." (vol. x. p. .) well, people enjoyed the show, but saw through it all the same; and meanwhile his (the writer's) superb defence goes for nothing; and though argument is solid and subsists "while obstinacy and ineptitude accompany the owner to his tomb;" (vol. x. p. .) his hands and his pockets are empty. ah well! little cino will gain by it in the long run. he had been promised that if papa couldn't save the count's head, he should go and see it chopped off: and when a patroness of his joked the child on his defeat, and on bottini's ruling the roast, the clever rogue retorted that papa knew better than to baulk the pope of his grudge, and could have argued bottini's nose off if he had chosen. doesn't the fop see that he (de archangelis) can drive right and left horses with one hand? the gomez case shall make it up to him." the two other letters are in the same strain as the first. both are written on the day of the execution. both announce it in a condoling manner. both allude to the justifications which arrived too late: and in one or both, the criminal is spoken of as "poor" signor guido. mr. browning has preferred, however, representing the other side; and the next which he gives is, like don hyacinth's supplement, only such as might have been written. it is supposed to be from pompilia's advocate bottinius (or bottini), and is in keeping with the spirit of his defence. he is clearly jealous of not having had a worse case to plead. "he has won," he says. "how could he do otherwise? with the plain truth on his side, and the pope ready to steady it on his legs again if he let it drop asleep. arcangeli may crow over him, as it is, for having been kept by him a month at bay--though even this much was not his doing; the little dandiprat spreti was the real man." and this is not all. "of course rome must have its joke at the advocate with the case that proved itself: but here is a piece of impertinence he was not prepared for. the barefoot augustinian, whose report of pompilia's dying words took all the freshness out of the best points of his defence, has been preaching on the subject; and the sermon is flying about rome in print." next follows an extract from it. the friar warns his hearers not to trust to human powers of discovering the truth. "it is not the long trial which has revealed pompilia's innocence; god from time to time puts forth his hand, and he has done so here. but earth is not heaven, nor all truth intended to prevail. one dove returned to the ark. how many were lost in the wave? one woman's purity has been rescued from the world. 'how many chaste and noble sister-fames' have lacked 'the extricating hand?' and we must wait god's time for such truth as is destined to appear. when christians worshipped in the catacomb, one man, no worse than the rest, though no less foolish, will have pointed to its mouth, and said, 'obscene rites are practised in that darkness. the devotees of an execrable creed skulk there out of sight.' not till the time was ripe, did lightning split the face of the rock, and lay bare a nook-- "narrow and short, a corpse's length, no more: and by it, in the due receptacle, the little rude brown lamp of earthenware, the cruse, was meant for flowers, but held the blood, the rough-scratched palm-branch, and the legend left _pro christo_." (vol. x. p. ) "and how does human law, in its 'inadequacy' and 'ineptitude' defend the just? how has it attempted to clear pompilia's fame? by submitting, as its best resource, that wickedness was bred in her flesh and bone. for himself he cannot judge, unless by the assurance of christ, if he have not lost much by renouncing the world: for he has lost love, and knowledge, and perhaps the means of bringing goodness from its ideal conception into the actual life of man. but the bubble, fame--worldly praise and appreciation--he has done well to set these aside." "and what is all this preaching," resumes bottinius, "but a way of courting fame? the inflation of it! and the spite! and the molinism! as its first pleasant consequence, gomez, who had intended to appeal from the absurd decision of the court, declines to ask the lawyers for farther help.[ ] there is an end of that job and its fee. nevertheless, his 'blatant brother' shall soon see if law is as inadequate, and advocacy as impotent, as he fancies. providence is this time in their favour. pompilia was consigned to the 'convertite' (converted ones). she was therefore a sinner. guido has been judged guilty: but there was no word as to the innocence of his wife. the sisterhood claims, therefore, the property which accrued to her through her parents' death, and which she has left in trust for her son. who but himself--the fisc--shall support the claim, and show the foul-mouthed friar that his dove was a raven after all." (he too can drive left and right horses on occasion.) this he actually did. but once more the pope intervened: and mr. browning proceeds to give the literal substance of the "instrument" of justification as it lies before him. in this, pompilia's "perfect fame" is restored, and her representative, domenico tighetti, secured against all molestations of her heir and his ward, which the most venerable convent, etc. etc., may commit or threaten. what became of that child, gaetano, as he was called after the new-made saint? did he live a true scion of the paternal stock, whose heraldic symbols mr. browning has described by count guido's mouth?-- "or did he love his mother, the base-born, and fight i' the ranks, unnoticed by the world?" (vol. x. p. .) this question mr. browning asks himself, but is unable to answer. he concludes his book by telling us its intended lesson, and explaining why he has chosen to present it in this artistic form. the lesson is that which we have already learned from his pope's thoughts:-- "... our human speech is naught, our human testimony false, our fame and human estimation words and wind." (vol. x. p. .) art, with its indirect processes, can alone raise up a living image of that truth which words distort in the stating. and, lastly, he dedicates the completed work to the "lyric love," whose blessing on its performance he has invoked in a memorable passage at the close of his introductory chapter. transcripts from the greek, with "artemis prologizes." another group of works detaches itself from any possible scheme of classification: these are mr. browning's transcripts from the greek. the "alkestis" of euripides, imbedded in the dramatic romance called "balaustion's adventure." . the "herakles" of euripides, introduced into "aristophanes' apology." . the "agamemnon" of Æschylus, published by itself. . they are even outside my subject because they are literal; and therefore show mr. browning as a scholar, but not otherwise as a poet than in the technical power and indirect poetic judgments involved in the work. all i need say about this is, that its literalness detracts in no way from the beauty and transparency of "alkestis" or "herakles," while it makes "agamemnon" very hard to read; and that mr. browning has probably intended his readers to draw their own conclusion, which is so far his, as to the relative quality of the two great classics. some critics contend that a less literal translation of the "agamemnon" would have been not only more pleasing, but more true; but mr. browning clearly thought otherwise. had he not, he would certainly have given his author the benefit of the larger interpretation; and his principal motive for this indirect defence of euripides would have disappeared. mr. browning has also given us an original fragment in the classic manner:-- "artemis prologizes." ("men and women,"[ ] published in "dramatic lyrics," in .) this was suggested by the "hippolytos" of euripides; and destined to become part of a larger poem, which should continue its story. for, according to the legend, hippolytos having perished through the anger of aphrodité (venus), was revived by artemis (diana), though only to disappoint her affection by falling in love with one of her nymphs, aricia. mr. browning imagines that she has removed him in secret to her own forest retreat, and is nursing him back to life by the help of asclepios; and the poem is a monologue in which she describes what has passed, from phaedra's self-betrayal to the present time. hippolytos still lies unconscious; but the power of the great healer has been brought to bear upon him, and the unconsciousness seems only that of sleep. artemis is _awaiting the event_. the ensuing chorus of nymphs, the awakening of hippolytos, and with it the stir of the new passion within him, had already taken shape in mr. browning's mind. unfortunately, something put the inspiration to flight, and it did not return.[ ] footnotes: [footnote : the song professedly refers to catherine cornaro, the venetian queen of cyprus, and is the only one in the poem that is based on any fact at all.] [footnote : this pamphlet has supplied mr. browning with some of his most curious facts. it fell into his hands in london.] [footnote : the first hour after sunset.] [footnote : "villa" is often called "vineyard" or "vigna," on account of the vineyard attached to it.] [footnote : it is difficult to reconcile this explicit denial of pompilia's statements with the belief in her implied in her merely nominal punishment: unless we look on it as part of the formal condemnation which circumstances seemed to exact.] [footnote : a letter written in this strain was also produced on the trial; and pompilia owned to having written it, but only in the sense of writing over in ink what her husband had traced in pencil--being totally ignorant of its contents.] [footnote : count guido thought, or affected to think, that these had been thrown by caponsacchi.] [footnote : the disciple of michael de molinos, not to be confounded with louis molina, who is especially known by his attempt to reconcile the theory of grace with that of free will. molinos was the founder of an exaggerated quietism. he held that the soul could detach itself from the body so as to become indifferent to its action, and therefore non-responsible for it; and it was natural that all who defied the received laws of conduct, or were suspected of doing so, should be stigmatized as his followers. molinism was a favourite bugbear among the orthodox romanists of innocent the twelfth's day.] [footnote : a passing allusion is made to this gomez case in one of the manuscript letters, the writer of which begs cencini (clearly also an advocate), to send him the papers concerning it. the place it occupies in the thoughts of the two lawyers, as mr. browning depicts them, is very characteristic of the manner in which his imagination has embraced and vivified every detail of the situation.] [footnote : the poems to which i refer as now included in "men and women" will be found so in the editions of and - ; though the redistribution made in has much curtailed their number.] [footnote : it was in this poem that mr. browning first adopted the plan of spelling greek names in the greek manner. he did so, as he tells us in the preface to his "agamemnon," "innocently enough;" because the change commended itself to his own eye and ear. he has even assured his friends that if the innovation had been rationally opposed, or simply not accepted, he would probably himself have abandoned it. but when, years later, in "balaustion's adventure," the new spelling became the subject of attacks which all but ignored the existence of the work from any other point of view, the thought of yielding was no longer admissible. the majority of our best scholars now follow mr. browning's example.] classified groups. argumentative poems. special pleadings. the isolated monologues have a special significance, which is almost implied in their form, but is also distinct from it. mr. browning has made them the vehicle for most of the reasonings and reflections which make up so large a part of his imaginative life: whether presented in his own person, or, as is most often the case, in that of his men and women. as such, they are among those of his works which lend themselves to a rough kind of classification; and may be called "argumentative." they divide themselves into two classes: those in which the speaker is defending a preconceived judgment, and an antagonist is implied; and those in which he is trying to form a judgment or to accept one: and the supposed listener, if there be such, is only a confidant. the first kind of argument or discussion is carried on--apparently--as much for victory as for truth; and employs the weapons of satire, or the tactics of special-pleading, as the case demands. the second is an often pathetic and always single-minded endeavour to get at the truth. those monologues in which the human spirit is represented as communing with itself, contain some of mr. browning's noblest dramatic work; but those in which the militant attitude is more pronounced throw the strongest light on what i have indicated as his distinctive intellectual quality: the rejection of all general and dogmatic points of view. his casuistic utterances are often only a vindication of the personal, and therefore indefinite quality of human truth; and their apparent trifling with it is often only the seeking after a larger truth, in which all seeming contradictions are resolved. it was inevitable, however, that this mental quality should play into the hands of his dramatic imagination, and be sometimes carried away by it; so that when he means to tell us what a given person under given circumstances would be justified in saying, he sometimes finds himself including in the statement something which the given person so situated would be only likely to say. the first of these classes, or groups, which we may distinguish as special pleadings, contains poems very different in length, and in literary character; and to avoid the appearance of confusion, i shall reverse the order of their publication, and place the most important first:-- "aristophanes' apology;[ ] or the last adventure of balaustion." ( .) "fifine at the fair." ( .) "prince hohenstiel-schwangau, saviour of society." ( .) "bishop blougram's apology" (men and women). ( .) "mr. sludge, the medium." (dramatis personæ.) ( .) "aristophanes' apology" is, as its second title shows, a sequel to "balaustion's adventure" ( ). both turn on the historical fact that euripides was reverenced far more by the non-athenian greeks than by the athenians; and both contain a transcript from him. but the interest of "aristophanes' apology" is independent of its "herakles," while that of "balaustion's adventure" is altogether bound up with its alkestis; and in so far as the "adventure" places balaustion herself before us, it will be best treated as an introduction to her appearance in the later and more important work. balaustion is a rhodian girl, brought up in a worship for euripides, which does not, however, exclude the appreciation of other great greek poets. the peloponnesian war has entered on its second stage. the athenian fleet has been defeated at syracuse. and rhodes, resenting this disgrace, has determined to take part against athens, and join the peloponnesian league. but balaustion will not forsake the mother-city, the life and light of her whole known world; and she persuades her kinsmen to migrate with her to it, and, with her, to share its fate. they accordingly take ship at kaunus, a carian sea-port belonging to rhodes. but the wind turns them from their course, and when it abates, they find themselves in strange waters, pursued by a pirate bark. they fly before it towards what they hope will prove a friendly shore--balaustion heartening the rowers by a song from Æschylus, which was sung at the battle of salamis--and run straight into the hostile harbour of syracuse, where shelter is denied them. the captain pleads in vain that they are kaunians, subjects of rhodes, and that rhodes is henceforward on sparta's side. "kaunian the ship may be: but athenians are on board. all athens echoed in that song from Æschylus which has been ringing across the sea. the voyagers may retire unhurt. but if ten pirate ships were pursuing them, they should not bring those memories of salamis to the athenian captives whom the defeat of nicias has left in syracusan hands." the case is desperate. the rhodians turn to go. suddenly a voice cries, "wait. do they know any verses from euripides?" "more than that, they answer, balaustion can recite a whole play--that strangest, saddest, sweetest song--the 'alkestis.' it does honour to herakles, their god. let them place her on the steps of their temple of herakles, and she will recite it there." the rhodians are brought in, amidst joyous loving laughter, among shouts of "herakles" and "euripides." the recital takes place;[ ] it is repeated a second day and a third; and balaustion and her kinsmen are dismissed with good words and wishes, for, as she declares: "... greeks are greeks, and hearts are hearts, and poetry is power,...." (vol. xi. p. .) the story of alkestis scarcely needs repeating. apollo had incurred the anger of jupiter by avenging the death of his son Æsculapius on the cyclops whose thunder-bolt had slain him; and been condemned to play the part of a common mortal, and serve admetus, king of thessaly, as herdsman. the kind treatment of admetus had made him his friend: and apollo had deceived the fate sisters into promising that whenever the king's life should become their due, they would renounce it on condition of some other person dying in his stead. when the play opens, the fatal moment has come. alkestis, wife of admetus, has offered herself to save him; and admetus, though he does so with a heavy heart, has been weak enough to accept the sacrifice. death enters the palace, from which even apollo can no longer turn him away. but just as alkestis has breathed her last, herakles appears; and his great cheery voice is heard on the threshold of the house of mourning, inquiring if the master be within. admetus suppresses all signs of emotion, that he may receive him as hospitality demands; and herakles, hearing what has happened from a servant of the house, is moved to gratitude and pity. he wrestles with death; conquers him; and brings back alkestis into her husband's presence, veiled, and in the guise of a second companion. admetus will at first neither touch nor look at her. he has promised his dying wife to give her no successor; and her memory is even dearer to him than she herself has been. the god however reasons, persuades, and insists; and at length, very reluctantly, admetus gives his hand to the stranger, whom he is then told to unveil. herakles has delayed the recognition, that alkestis might be enabled to probe her husband's fidelity, and convince herself that sorrow had made him worthier of her. balaustion half recites the play, half describes it, "as she has seen it at kameiros this very year," occasionally compressing an unimportant scene, but always closely adhering to the original. she knows that she is open to the reproach of describing more than the masked faces of the actors could allow her to see; but she meets it in these words:-- "what's poetry except a power that makes? and, speaking to one sense, inspires the rest, pressing them all into its service:" (vol. xi. pp. , .) the whole work is a vindication of the power of poetry, as exerted in itself, and as reproduced in those who have received its fruits (pages , ); and balaustion herself displays it in this secondary form, by suggesting a version of the story of alkestis, more subtly, if less simply, beautiful than the original. she makes _love_ the conqueror of death. according to her, the music made by apollo among admetus's flocks has tamed every selfish passion in the king's soul; and when the time comes for his wife to die, he refuses the sacrifice. "zeus has decreed that their two lives shall be one; and if they must be severed, he must go who was the body, not she, who was the soul, of their joint existence." but alkestis declares that the reality of that existence lies not in her but in him, and she bids him look at her once more before his decision is made. in this look, her soul enters into his; and, thus subduing him, she expires. but when she reaches the nether world she is rejected as a deceiver. "the death she brings to it is a mockery, since it doubles the life she has left behind." proserpine sends her back to her husband's side; and the "lost eyes" re-open beneath his gaze, while it still embraces her. apollo smiles sadly at the ingenuousness of mortals, who thus imagine that the chain of eternal circumstance could snap in one human life; at their blindness to those seeds of pity and tenderness which the crushed promise of human happiness sets free. yet he seems to think they lose nothing by either. "they do well to value their little hour. they do well to treasure the warm heart's blood, of which no outpouring could tinge the paleness or fill the blank of eternity, the power of love which transforms their earthly homes, their ... hopes and fears, so blind and yet so sweet with death about them." (p. .) "balaustion" means wild pomegranate flower; and the girl has been so called on account of her lyric gifts. she recalls the pomegranate tree, because its leaves are cooling to the brow, its seed and blossom grateful to the sense, and because the nightingale is never distant from it. she will keep the name for life--so she tells her friends--and with it a better thing which her songs have gained her. one youth came daily to the temple-steps at syracuse to hear her. he was at her side at athens when she landed. they will be married at this next full moon. "alkestis" failed "to get the prize" when its author was competing with sophocles. "but euripides has had his reward: in the sympathies which he has stirred; in the genius which he has inspired. his crown came direct from zeus." we need not name the poetess whom mr. browning quotes at the close of this poem. the painter so generously eulogized is f. leighton. when we meet balaustion again, in "aristophanes' apology," many things have happened. she has seen her poet in his retirement (this was mentioned in her "adventure"), kissed his hand, and received from it, together with other gifts, his tragedy of herakles. euripides has died; athens has fallen; and balaustion, with her memories in her heart, and her husband, euthykles, by her side, is speeding back towards rhodes. she is deeply shocked by the fate of her adoptive city, to which her fancy pays a tribute of impassioned reverence, too poetic to be given in any but mr. browning's words. yet she has a growing belief that that fate was just. sea and air and the blue expanse of heaven are full of suggestion of that spirit-life, with its larger struggles or its universal peace, which is above the world's crowd and noise. and she determines that sorrow for what is fleeting shall not gnaw at her heart. but in order to overcome the sorrow, she must loosen it from her. the tragedy she has witnessed must enact itself once more for euthykles and her, he writing as she dictates. it will have for prologue a second adventure of her own, which he also has witnessed; and this adventure will constitute the book. it is prefaced in its turn by a backward glance at the circumstances, (so different from the present) in which she related the first. it was the night on which athens received the news that euripides was dead: euthykles had brought this home to her from the theatre. they were pondering it gravely, but not sadly, for their poet was now at rest, in the companionship of Æschylus, safe from the petty spites which had frothed and fretted about his life. he had lived and worked, to the end, true to his own standard of right, heedless of the reproach that he was a man-hater and a recluse, without regard for civic duty, and with no object but his art. he had left it to sophocles to play poet and commander at the same time, and be laughed at for the result. he had first taken the prize of "contemplation" in his all but a hundred plays; then, grasping the one hand offered him which held a heart, had shown at the court of archelaus of macedon whether or not the power of active usefulness was in him. his last notes of music had also been struck for that one friend. even athens did him justice now. the reaction had set in; one would have his statue erected in the theatre; another would have him buried in the piræus; etc. etc. not so euthykles and balaustion. his statue was in their hearts. their concern was not with his mortal vesture, but with the liberated soul, which now watched over their world. they would hail this, they said, in the words of his own song, his "herakles." the reading was about to begin, when suddenly there was torch-light--a burst of comic singing--and a knocking at the door; bacchus bade them open; they delayed. then a name was uttered, of "authoritative" sound, of "immense significance;" and the door was opened to--aristophanes. he was returning from the performance of his "thesmophoriazusae,"[ ] last year a failure, but this time, thanks to some new and audacious touches, a brilliant success. his chorus trooped before him--himself no more sober than was his wont--crowned, triumphant, and drunk; a group of flute-boys and dancing-girls making up the scene. all these, however, slunk away before balaustion's glance, aristophanes alone confronting her. and, as she declares, it was "no ignoble presence." for the broad brow, the flushed cheek, the commanding features, the defiant attitude, all betokened a mind, wantoning among the lower passions, but yet master of them. he addresses balaustion in a tone of mock deference; banters her on her poetic name, her dignified mien, and the manner in which she has scared his chorus and its followers away; "not indeed that that matters, since the archon's economy and the world's squeamishness will soon abolish it altogether."[ ] then struck by a passing thought, he stands grave, silent--another man in short--awaiting what she has to say. in this sober moment, balaustion welcomes him to her house. she welcomes him as the good genius: as genius of the kindly, though purifying humour, which, like summer lighting, illumines, but does not destroy. she knows and implies that he is not only this. but she greets the light, no matter to what darkness it be allied. she reverences the god who forms one half of him, so long as the monster which constitutes the other, remains out of sight; a poetic myth is made to illustrate this feeling. the gravity, however, is short-lived. the lower self in aristophanes springs up again, and his "apology" begins. "aristophanes' apology" is a defence of comedy, as understood and practised by himself: that is, as a broad expression of the natural life, and a broad satire upon those who directly or indirectly condemn it. it is addressed to euripides in the person of his disciple. it is at the same time an attack upon him; and in either capacity it covers a great deal of ground. for the dispute does not lie simply between comedy and tragedy--which latter, with the old tragedians, was often only the naturalism of comedy on a larger scale--but between naturalism and humanity, as more advanced thinkers understood it; between the old ideas of human and divine conveyed by tragedy and comedy alike, and the new ones which euripides, the friend of socrates, had imported into them; and the question at issue involved, therefore, not only art and morals, but the entire philosophy of life. the "apology" derives farther interest and significance from the varied emotions by which it is inspired. the speaker (as is the case in "fifine at the fair") is answering not only his opponent, but his own conscience. how the conscience of aristophanes has been aroused he presently tells: first struggling a little with the false shame which the experience has left behind. this is the scene which he describes. a festive supper had followed the successful play. jollity was at its height. the cup was being crowned to aristophanes as the "triumphant," when a knock came to the door: and there entered no "asker of questions," no casual passer-by, but the pale, majestic, heavily-draped figure of sophocles himself. slowly, solemnly, and with bent head, he passed up the hall, between two ranks of spectators as silent as himself; raised his eyes as he confronted the priest,[ ] and announced to him, that since euripides was "dead to-day," and as a fitting spectacle for the god, his chorus would appear at the greater feast, next month, clothed in black and ungarlanded. then silently, and amidst silence, he passed out again. this, then, was the purport of the important news which was known to have arrived in port, but which every one had interpreted in his own way. euripides was no more! but neither the news nor he who brought it could create more than a momentary stupor; and the tipsy fun soon renewed itself, at the expense of the living tragedian and the dead. aristophanes alone remained grave. the value of the man whom he had aspersed and ridiculed stood out before him summed up by the hand of death. he recalled the failure which had marked the now hopeless limitation of his own genius, and those last words addressed to him by euripides which brought home its lesson.[ ] the archon, "master of the feast," judging that its "glow" was "extinct," had risen to conclude it by crowning the parting cup. he had crowned it with judicious reserve to the "good genius;" and strattis (the comic poet) had burst forth in an eulogium of the comic muse which claimed the title of good genius for her--when yielding to this new and over-mastering impulse, he (aristophanes) checked the coming applause, and demanded that the tragic muse and her ministrant euripides should receive the libation instead; justifying the demand by a noble and pathetic tribute to the memory of the dead poet, and to the great humanities which only the _tragic_ poet can represent. but he found no response. the listeners mistook his seriousness for satire, and broke out afresh at the excellence of such a joke; and recovering his presence of mind as quickly as he had lost it, he changed his tone, thanked those alike who had laughed with him, and who had wept with the "lord of tears;" and desired that the cup be consecrated to that genius of complex poetry which is tragedy and comedy in one. it was sacrilege, he declared, to part these two; for to do so was to hack at the hermai[ ]--to outrage the ideal union of the intellectual and the sensuous life in man. and from this new vantage-ground he launched another bolt at euripides, whose coldness, he asserted, had belied this union, and made him guilty of a crime inexpiable in the sight of the gods. yet he could not dismiss him from his thoughts. he wanted to go over the old ground with him, and put himself in the right. balaustion and her husband were in a manner representatives of the dead tragedian. that was why he had come. he was not sure that he expressed, or at the moment even felt, all that he had just repeated. "drunk he was with the good thasian, and drunk he probably had been." nevertheless, the impulse he had thus obeyed sprang perhaps from some real, if hitherto undiscovered depths in his soul. up to this moment his defence has been carried on in a disjointed manner, and consists rather in defying attack than in resisting it: the defiant mood being only another aspect of the perturbed condition which has brought him to balaustion's door. it finds its natural starting-point in the coarse treatment of things and persons which his "thesmophoriazusae," with its "monkeying" of euripides,[ ] has so recently displayed. but he reminds balaustion that the art of comedy is young. it is only three generations since susarion gave it birth. (he explains this more fully later on.) it began when he and his companions daubed their faces with wine lees, mounted a cart, and drove by night through the villages: crying from house to house, how this man starved his labourers, that other kissed his neighbour's wife, and so on. the first comedian battered with big stones. he, aristophanes, is at the stage of the wooden club which he has taken pains to plane smooth, and inlay with shining studs. the mere polished steel will be for his successors. "and is he approaching the age of steel?" balaustion asks, well knowing that he is not. "his play failed last year. was his triumph to-night due to a gentler tone? is he teaching mankind that brute blows are not human fighting, still less the expression of godlike power; and that ignorance and folly are convicted by their opposites, not by themselves?" "not he, indeed," he replies; "he improves on his art: he does not turn it topsy-turvy. _he_ does not work on abstractions. _his_ power is not that of the recluse. he wants human beings with their approbation and their sympathy, and his athens, to be pleased in her own way. he leaves the rest to euripides. real life is the grist to _his_ mill. it is clear enough, however, that the times are against him. every year more restrictions; euripides with his priggishness; socrates with his books and his moonshine, and his supercilious ways: never resenting his (aristophanes') fun, nor seeming even to notice it[ ], not condescending to take exception to any but the 'tragedians;' as if he, the author of the 'birds,' was a mere comic poet!" then follows a tirade on the variety of his subjects; their depth, their significance, and the mawkishness and pedantry which they are intended to confute. "drunk! yes, he owns that he is." this in answer to a look from balaustion, which has rebuked a too hazardous joke--"drink is the proper inspiration. how else was he beaten in the 'clouds,' his masterpiece, but that his opponent had inspired himself with drink, and he this time had not?[ ] purity! he has learned what that is worth"--with more in the same strain. now, however, that his adventure is told, the tumult of feeling in some degree subsides, and the more serious aspects of the apology will come into play. balaustion and her husband, seeing the sober mood return, once more welcome "the glory of aristophanes" to their house, and bid him on his side share in their solemnity, and commemorate euripides with them. this calls his attention to the portrait of the dead poet; those implements of his work which were his tokens of friendship to balaustion; the papyrus leaf inscribed with the herakles itself; and he cannot resist a sneer at this again unsuccessful play. his hostess rebukes him grandly for completing the long outrage on the living man by this petty attack on his "supreme calm;" and as supreme calmness means death, he begins musing on the immunities which death confers, and their injustice. "give him only time and he will pulverize his opponents; _he_ will show them whether this work of his is unintelligible, or that other will not live. but let them die; and they slink out of his reach with their malice, stupidity, and ignorance, while survivors croak 'respect the dead' over the hole in which they are laid. at all events, he retorts on them when he can--unwisely perhaps, since those he flings mud at are only immortalized by the process. euripides knew better than to follow his example." again balaustion has her answer. "he has volleyed mud at euripides himself while pretending to defend the same cause: the cause of art, of knowledge, of justice, and of truth;" and she makes his cheek burn by reminding him of what petty and what ignoble witticisms that mud was made up. at last he begins in real earnest. "balaustion, he understands, condemns comedy both in theory and in practice, from the calm and rational heights to which she, with her tragic friend, has attained. here are his arguments in its favour." "it claims respect as an institution, because as such it is coeval with liberty--born of the feast of bacchus, and therefore of the good gifts of the earth--a mode of telling truth without punishment, and of chastising without doing harm. it claims respect by its advance from simple objects to more composite, from plain thumping to more searching modes of attack. the men who once exposed wrong-doing by shouting it before the wrong-doer's door, now expose it by representing its various forms. the comic poets denounce not only the thief, the fool, the miser, but the advocates of war, the flatterers of the populace, the sophists who set up whirligig[ ] in the place of zeus, the thin-blooded tragedian in league with the sophists, who preaches against the flesh. where facts are insufficient he has recourse to fancy, and exaggerates the wronged truth the more strongly to enforce it (here follows a characteristic illustration.) to those who call saperdion the empousa, he shows her in a kimberic robe;[ ] in other words, he exposes her charms more fully than she does it herself, the better to convict those who malign them." and here lies his grudge against euripides. euripides is one of those who call saperdion a monster--who slander the world of sense with its beauties and its enjoyments, or who contemptuously set it aside. "born on the day of salamis--when heroes walked the earth; and gods were reverenced and not discussed--when greeks guarded their home with its abundant joys, and left barbarian lands to their own starvation--he has lived to belie every tradition of that triumphant time. he has joined himself with a band of starved teachers and reformers to cut its very foundations away. he exalts death over life, misery over happiness; or, if he admits happiness, it is as an empty name." "moreover, he reasons away the gods; for they are, according to him, only forms of nature. zeus _is_ the atmosphere. poseidon _is_ the sea. necessity rules the universe. duty, once the will of the gods, is now a voice within ourselves bidding us renounce pleasure, and giving us no inducement to do so." "he reasons away morality, for he shows there is neither right nor wrong, neither 'yours' nor 'mine,' nor natural privilege, nor natural subjection, that may not be argued equally for or against. why be in such a hurry to pay one's debt, to attend one's mother, to bring a given sacrifice?" "he reasons away social order, for he declares the slave as good as his master, woman equal to man, and even the people competent to govern itself. 'why should not the tanner, the lampseller, or the mealman, who knows his own business so well, know that of the state too?'" "he ignores the function of poetry, which is to see beauty, and to create it: for he places utility above grace, truth above all beauty. he drags human squalor on to the scene because he recognizes its existence. the world of the poet's fancy, that world into which he was born, does not exist for him. he spoils his art as well as his life, carving back to bull what another had carved into a sphinx." "how are such proceedings to be dealt with? they appeal to the mob. the mob is not to be swayed by polished arguments or incidental hints. we don't scare sparrows with a zeus' head, though the eagle may recognize it as his lord's. a big priapus is the figure required." "and this," so aristophanes resumes his defence, "comedy supplies. comedy is the fit instrument of popular conviction: and the wilder, the more effective: since it is the worship of life, of the originative power of nature; and since that power has lawlessness for its apparent law. even euripides, with his shirkings and his superiority, has been obliged to pay tribute to the real. he could not shake it off all at once. he tacked a satyric play to some five of his fifty trilogies: and if this was grim enough at first, he threw off the mask in alkestis, showing how one could be indecent in a decent way."[ ] for the reasons above given, which he farther expands and illustrates, aristophanes chooses the "meaner muse" for his exponent. "and who, after all, is the worse for it? does he strangle the enemies of the truth? no. he simply doses them with comedy, _i.e._ with words. those who offend in words he pays back in them, exaggerating a little, but only so as to emphasize what he means; just as love and hate use each other's terms, because those proper to themselves have grown unmeaning from constant use. and what is the ground of difference between balaustion and himself? slender enough, in all probability, as he could show her, if they were discussing the question for themselves alone. as it is, euripides has attacked him in the sight of the mob. his defence is addressed to it: he uses the arguments it can understand. it does not follow that they convey a literal statement of his own views. euripides is not the only man who is free from superstition. he too on occasion can show up the gods;" and he describes the manner in which he will do this in his next play. all that is serious in the apology is given in the concluding passage. "whomever else he is hard upon, he will level nothing worse than a harmless parody at sophocles, for he has no grudge against him:-- 'he founds no anti-school, upsets no faith, but, living, lets live,' (vol. xiii. p. .) and all his, aristophanes', teaching is this:-- '... accept the old, contest the strange! acknowledge work that's done, misdoubt men who have still their work to do!' (p. .) he has summed up his case. euripides must own himself beaten. if balaustion will not admit the defeat, let her summon her rosy strength, and do her worst against his opponent." balaustion pauses for a moment before relating her answer to this challenge: and gives us to understand that, in thus relieving her memory, she is reproducing not only this special experience, but a great deal of what she habitually thinks and feels; thus silencing any sense of the improbable, which so lengthened an argument accurately remembered, might create in the reader's mind. her tone is at first deprecating. "it is not for her, a mere mouse, to argue on a footing of equality with a forest monarch like himself. it is not for her to criticize the means by which his genius may attain its ends. she does not forget that the poet-class is that essentially which labours in the cause of human good. she does not forget that she is a woman, who may recoil from methods which a man is justified in employing. lastly, she is a foreigner, and as such may blame many things simply because she does not understand them. she may yet have to learn that the tree stands firm at root, though its boughs dip and dance before the wind. she may yet have to learn that those who witness his plays have been previously braced to receive the good and reject the evil in them, like the freshly-bathed hand which passes unhurt through flame. she may judge falsely from what she sees." "but," she continues,[ ] "let us imagine a remote future, and a far-away place--say the cassiterides[ ]--and men and women, lonely and ignorant--strangers in very deed--but with feelings similar to our own. let us suppose that some work of zeuxis or pheidias has been transported to their shores, and that they are compelled to acknowledge its excellence from its own point of view--its colouring true to nature, though not to their own type--its unveiled forms decorous, though not conforming to their own standard of decorum. might they not still, and justly, tax it on its own ground with some flaw or incongruity, which proved the artist to have been human? and may not a stranger, judging you in the same way, recognize in you one part of peccant humanity, poet 'three parts divine' though you be?" "you declare comedy to be a prescriptive rite, coeval in its birth with liberty. but the great days of greek national life had been reached when comedy began. you declare also that you have refined on the early practice, and imported poetry into it. comedy is therefore, as you defend it, not only a new invention, but your own. and, finally, you declare your practice of it inspired by a fixed purpose. you must stand or fall by the degree in which this purpose has been attained." "you would, by means of comedy, discredit war. do you stand alone in this endeavour?" and she quotes a beautiful passage from 'cresphontes,' a play written by euripides for the same end. "and how, respectively, have you sought your end? euripides, by appealing to the nobler feelings which are outraged by war; you, by expatiating on the animal enjoyments which accompany peace. the 'lysistrata' is your equivalent for 'cresphontes.' do you imagine that its obscene allurements will promote the cause of peace? not till heroes have become mean voluptuaries, and cleonymos,[ ] whom you yourself have derided, becomes their type." "you would discredit vice and error, hypocrisy, sophistry and untruth. you expose the one in all its seductions, and the other in grotesque exaggerations, which are themselves a lie; showing yourself the worst of sophists--one who plays false to his own soul." "you would improve on former methods of comedy. you have returned to its lowest form. for you profess to strike at folly, not at him who commits it: yet your tactics are precisely to belabour every act or opinion of which you disapprove, in the form of some one man. you pride yourself, in fact, on giving personal blows, instead of general and theoretical admonitions; and even here you seem incapable of hitting fair; you libel where you cannot honestly convict, and do not care how ignoble or how irrelevant the libel may be. does the poet deserve criticism as such? does he write bad verse, does he inculcate foul deeds? the cry is, 'he cannot read or write;' 'he is extravagant in buying fish;' 'he allows someone to help him with his verse, and make love to his wife in return;' 'his uncle deals in crockery;' 'his mother sold herbs' (one of his pet taunts against euripides); 'he is a housebreaker, a footpad, or, worst of all, a stranger;'"--a term of contempt which, as balaustion reminds him has been repeatedly bestowed upon himself. "what have you done," she continues, "beyond devoting the gold of your genius to work, which dross, in the person of a dozen predecessors or contemporaries, has produced as well. pun and parody, satire and invective, quaintness of fancy, and elegance, have each had its representative as successful as you. your life-work, until this moment, has been the record of a genius increasingly untrue to its better self. such satire as yours, however well intended, could advance no honest cause. its exaggerations make it useless for either praise or blame. its uselessness is proved by the result: your jokes have recoiled upon yourself. the statues still stand which your mud has stained; the lightning flash of truth can alone destroy them. war still continues, in spite of the seductions with which you have invested peace. such improvements as are in progress take an opposite direction to that which you prescribe. public sense and decency are only bent on cleansing your sty." and now her tone changes. "has euripides succeeded any better? none can say; for he spoke to a dim future above and beyond the crowd. if he fail, you two will be fellows in adversity; and, meanwhile, i am convinced that your wish unites with his to waft the white sail on its way.[ ] your nature, too, is kingly." she concludes with a tribute to the "poet's power," which is one with creative law, above and behind all potencies of heaven and earth; and to that inherent royalty of truth, in which alone she could venture to approach one so great as he. he too, as poet, must reign by truth, if he assert his proper sway. "nor, even so, had boldness nerved my tongue, but that the other king stands suddenly in all the grand investiture of death, bowing your knee beside my lowly head-- equals one moment!" (vol. xiii. p. .) then she bids him "arise and go." both have done homage to euripides. "not so," he replies; "their discussion is not at an end. she has defended euripides obliquely by attacking himself. let her do it in a more direct fashion." this leads up to what seems to her the best defence possible: that reading of the "herakles" which the entrance of aristophanes had suspended. its closing lines set aristophanes musing. the chorus has said: "the greatest of all our friends of yore, we have lost for evermore!" (p. .) "who," he asks, "has been athens' best friend? he who attracted her by the charm of his art, or he who repelled her by its severity?" he answers this by describing the relative positions of himself and euripides in an image suggested by the popular game of cottabos.[ ] "the one was fixed within his 'globe;' the other adapted himself to its rotations. euripides received his views of life through a single aperture, the one channel of 'high' and 'right.' aristophanes has welcomed also the opposite impressions of 'low' and 'wrong,' and reproduced all in their turn. some poet of the future, born perhaps in those cassiterides, may defy the mechanics of the case, and place himself in such a position as to see high and low at once--be tragic and comic at the same time. but he meanwhile has been athens' best friend--her wisest also--since he has not challenged failure by attempting what he could not perform. he has not risked the fate of thamyris, who was punished for having striven with the higher powers, as if his vision had been equal to their own."[ ] and he recites a fragment of song, which mr. browning unfortunately has not completed, describing the fiery rapture in which that poet marched, all unconscious, to his doom. some laughing promise and prophecy ensues, and aristophanes departs, in the 'rose-streaked morning grey,' bidding the couple farewell till the coming year. that year has come and gone. sophocles has died: and aristophanes has attained his final triumph in the "frogs"--a play flashing with every variety of his genius--as softly musical in the mystics' chorus as croaking in that of the frogs--in which bacchus himself is ridiculed, and euripides is more coarsely handled than ever. and once more the voice of euripides has interposed between the athenians and their doom.[ ] when Ægos potamos had been fought, and athens was in spartan hands, euthykles flung the "choric flower" of the "electra" in the face of the foe, and "... because greeks are greeks, though sparté's brood, and hearts are hearts, though in lusandros' breast, and poetry is power,...." (p. .) the city itself was spared. but when tragedy ceased, comedy was allowed its work, and it danced away the piræan bulwarks, which were demolished, by lysander's command, to the sound of the flute. and now euthykles and balaustion are nearing rhodes. their master lies buried in the land to which they have bidden farewell; but the winds and waves of their island home bear witness to his immortality: for theirs seems the voice of nature, re-echoing the cry, "there are no gods, no gods!" his prophetic, if unconscious, tribute to the one god, "who saves" him. balaustion has no genuine historic personality. she is simply what mr. browning's purpose required: a large-souled woman, who could be supposed to echo his appreciation of these two opposite forms of genius, and express his judgments upon them. but the euripides she depicts is entirely constructed from his works; while her portrait of aristophanes shows him not only as his works reflect, but as contemporary criticism represented him; he is one of the most vivid of mr. browning's characters. the two transcripts from euripides seem enough to prove that that poet was far more human than aristophanes professed to think; but the belief of aristophanes in the practical asceticism of his rival was in some degree justified by popular opinion, if not in itself just; and we can understand his feeling at once rebuked and irritated by a contempt for the natural life which carried with it so much religious and social change. aristophanes was a believer in the value of conservative ideas, though not himself a slave to them. he was also a great poet, though often very false to his poetic self. such a man might easily fancy that one like euripides was untrue to the poetry, because untrue to the joyousness of existence; and that he shook even the foundations of morality by reasoning away the religious conceptions which were bound up with natural joys. the impression we receive from aristophanes' apology is that he is defending something which he believes to be true, though conscious of defending it by sophistical arguments, and of having enforced it by very doubtful deeds; and we also feel that from his point of view, and saving his apparent inconsistencies, mr. browning is in sympathy with him. at the same time, balaustion's rejoinder is unanswerable, as it is meant to be; and the double monologue distinguishes itself from others of the same group, by being not only more dramatic and more emotional, but also more conclusive; it is the only one of them in which the question raised is not, in some degree, left open. the poem bristles with local allusions and illustrations which puzzle the non-classical reader. i add an explanatory index to some names of things and persons which have not occurred in my brief outline of it. vol. xiii. p. . _koré._ (virgin.) name given to persephoneé. in latin, proserpina. p. . _dikast_ and _heliast._ dicast=judge, heliast=juryman, in athens. p. . . _kordax-step._ . _propulaia._ (propylaia.) . an indecent dance. . gateway of the acropolis. . _pnux._ (pnyx.) . _bema._ . place for the popular assembly. . place whence speeches were made. p. _makaria._ heroine in a play of euripides, who killed herself for her country's sake. p. . . _milesian smart-place._ . _phrunikos._ (phrynicus.) . the painful remembrance of the capture of miletus. . a dramatic poet, who made this capture the subject of a tragedy, "which, when performed ( ), so painfully wrung the feelings of the athenian audience that they burst into tears in the theatre, and the poet was condemned to pay a fine of , drachmai, as having recalled to them their own misfortunes."[ ] he is derided by aristophanes in the "frogs" for his method of introducing his characters. p. . _amphitheos, deity, and dung._ a character in the acharnians of aristophanes--"not a god, and yet immortal." p. . . _diaulos._ . _stade._ . a double line of the race-course. . the _stadium_, on reaching which, the runner went back again. p. . _city of gapers._ nickname of athens, from the curiosity of its inhabitants. p. . _koppa-marked._ race-horses of the best breed were marked with the old letter koppa. p. . _comic platon._ the comic writer of that name: author of plays and poems, _not_ the plato. p. . _salabaccho._ name of a courtesan. p. . _cheek-band._ band worn by trumpeters to support the cheeks. _cuckoo-apple._ fruit so-called=fool-making food. _threttanelo_, _neblaretai_. imitative sounds: . of a harp-string. . of any joyous cry. _three-days' salt-fish slice._ allowance of a soldier on an expedition. (it was supposed that at the end of this time he could forage for himself.) p. . _goat's breakfast and other abuse._ indecent allusions, to be fancied, not explained. p. . _sham ambassadors._ characters in the acharnians. _kudathenian._ famous athenian. _pandionid._ descendant of pandion, king of athens. _goat-song._ tragoedia--tradegy. it was called goat-song because a goat-skin, probably filled with wine, was once given as a prize for it. the expression occurs in shelley. p. . _willow-wicker flask._ nickname of the poet it is applied to, a toper. p. . _lyric shell or tragic barbiton._ lesser and larger lyre. p. . _sousarion._ susarion of megara, inventor of attic comedy. _chionides._ his successor. p. . _little-in-the-fields._ the dionysian feast; a lesser one than the city dionysia. p. . _ameipsias._ a comic poet, contemporary with aristophanes, whose two best plays he beat. p. . _iostephanos._ "violet-crowned," name of athens. _kleophon._ a demagogue of bad character, attacked by aristophanes as profligate, and an enemy of peace. _kleonumos._ a similar character; also a big fellow, and great coward. p. . _telekleides._ old comic poet, on the same side as aristophanes. _mullos and euetes._ comic poets who revived the art of comedy in athens after susarion. p. . _morucheides._ son of morychus--like his father, a comic poet and a glutton. _sourakosios._ another comic poet. p. . _trilophos._ wearer of three crests on his helmet. p. . _ruppapai._ word used by the crew in rowing--hence, the crew itself. p. . _free dinner in the prutaneion._ (prytaneion.) such was accorded to certain privileged persons. _ariphrades._ a man of infamous character, singer to the harp: persistently attacked by aristophanes. _karkinos._ comic actor: had famous dancing sons. p. . _exomis._ a woman's garment. _parachoregema._ subordinate chorus, which sings in the absence of the principal one. _aristullos._ bad character satirized by aristophanes, and used in one of his plays as a travesty of plato. this incident, and plato's amused indifference, are mentioned at p. of the apology. p. . _murrhine_, _akalantis_. female names in the thesmophoriazusae. _new kalligeneia._ name given to ceres, meaning, "bearer of lovely children." _the toxotes._ a syrian archer in the "thesmophoriazusae." _the great king's eye._ mock name given to an ambassador from persia in the acharnians. _kompolakuthes._ bully-boaster: with a play on the name of lamachus. p. . _silphion._ a plant used as a relish. _kleon-clapper._ corrector of kleon. p. . _trugaios._ epithet of bacchus, "vintager;" here name of a person in the comedy of "peace." _story of simonides._ simonides, the lyric poet, sang an ode to his patron, scopas, at a feast; and as he had introduced into it the praises of castor and pollux, scopas declared that he would only pay his own half-share of the ode, and the demi-gods might pay the remainder. presently it was announced to simonides that two youths desired to see him outside the palace; on going there he found nobody, but meanwhile the palace fell in, killing his patron. thus was he _paid_. p. . _maketis._ capital of macedonia. p. . _lamachos._ general who fell at the siege of syracuse; satirized by aristophanes as a brave, but boastful man. p. . _sophroniskos' son._ socrates. p. . _kephisophon._ actor, and friend of euripides; enviously reported to help him in writing his plays. p. . _palaistra._ a wrestling-school, or place of exercise. p. . _san._ letter distinguishing race-horses. _thearion's meal-tub politics._ politics of thearion the baker. _pisthetarios._ character in the "birds," alias "mr. persuasive." _strephsiades._ character in the "clouds." p. . _rocky ones._ epithet given to the athenians. p. . _promachos._ champion. p. . _the boulé._ state council. _prodikos._ prodicus. a sophist, satirized in the "birds" and "clouds." p. . _choes._ festival at athens. "the pitchers." p. . _plataian help._ the platæans sent a thousand well appointed warriors to help at marathon. the term stands for _timely_ help. p. . _plethron square._ feet square. p. . _palaistra tool._ tool used at the palaistra, or wrestling school: in this case the strigil. p. . _phales._ _iacchos._ two epithets of bacchus--the former indecent. p. . _kinesias._ according to aristophanes, a bad profligate lyric poet, notable for his leanness. p. . _rattei._ like "neblaretai," an imitative or gibberish word expressing joyous excitement. _aristonumos._ _sannurion._ two comic poets, the latter ridiculed by aristophanes for his leanness. p. . _parabasis._ movement of the chorus, wherein the coryphoeus came forward and spoke in the poet's name. p. . _skiadeion._ sunshade. parasol. p. . _theoria._ _opora._ characters in the eirené or "peace:" the first personifying games, spectacles, sights; the second, plenty, fruitful autumn, and so on. p. . _philokleon._ lover of kleon. (cleon.) _bdelukleon._ reviler of kleon. p. . _logeion._ front of the stage occupied by the actors. p. . _kukloboros-roaring._ roaring like the torrent cycloborus (in attica). p. . _konnos._ the play by ameipsias which beat the "clouds." _euthumenes._ one who refused the pay of the comic writers, while he tripled that of those who attended at the assembly. _argurrhios._ as before. _kinesias._ as before. p. . _triballos._ a supposed _country_ and clownish god. p. . _propula._ (propyla.) gateway to the acropolis. p. . _elaphebolion month._ the "stag-striking" month. p. . _bakis prophecy._ foolish prophecies attributed to one bacis, rife at that time; a collective name for all such. p. . _kommos._ general weeping--by the chorus and an actor. "fifine at the fair." "fifine at the fair" is a defence of inconstancy, or of the right of experiment in love; and is addressed by a husband to his wife, whose supposed and very natural comments the monologue reflects. the speaker's implied name of don juan sufficiently tells us what we are meant to think of his arguments; and they also convict themselves by landing him in an act of immorality, which brings its own punishment. this character is nevertheless a standing puzzle to mr. browning's readers, because that which he condemns in it, and that which he does not, are not to be distinguished from each other. it is impossible to see where mr. browning ends and where don juan begins. the reasoning is scarcely ever that of a heartless or profligate person, though it very often betrays an unconsciously selfish one. it treats love as an education still more than as a pleasure; and if it lowers the standard of love, or defends too free an indulgence in it, it does so by asserting what is true for imaginative persons, though not for the commonplace: that whatever stirs even a sensuous admiration appeals also to the artistic, the moral, and even the religious nature. its obvious sophistries are mixed up with the profoundest truths, and the speaker's tone has often the tenderness of one who, with all his inconstancy, has loved deeply and long. we can only solve the problem by referring to the circumstances in which the idea of the poem arose. mr. browning was, with his family, at pornic many years ago, and there saw the gipsy who is the original of fifine. his fancy was evidently sent roaming, by her audacity, her strength--the contrast which she presented to the more spiritual types of womanhood; and this contrast eventually found expression in a poetic theory of life, in which these opposite types and their corresponding modes of attraction became the necessary complement of each other. as he laid down the theory, mr. browning would be speaking in his own person. but he would turn into someone else in the act of working it out--for it insensibly carried with it a plea for yielding to those opposite attractions, not only successively, but at the same time; and a modified don juan would grow up under his pen, thinking in some degree his thoughts, using in some degree his language, and only standing out as a distinctive character at the end of the poem. the higher type of womanhood must appear in the story, at the same time as the lower which is represented by fifine; and mr. browning would instinctively clothe it in the form which first suggested or emphasized the contrast. he would soon, however, feel that the vision was desecrated by the part it was called upon to play. he would disguise or ward it off when possible: now addressing elvire by her husband's mouth, in the terms of an ideal companionship, now again reducing her to the level of an every-day injured wife; and when the dramatic don juan was about to throw off the mask, the flickering wifely personality would be extinguished altogether, and the unfaithful husband left face to face with the mere phantom of conscience which, in one sense, elvire is always felt to be. this is what actually occurs; and only from this point of view can we account for the perpetual encroaching of the imaginary on the real, the real on the imaginary, which characterizes the work. a fanciful prologue, "amphibian," strikes its key-note. the writer imagines himself floating on the sea, pleasantly conscious of his bodily existence, yet feeling unfettered by it. a strange beautiful butterfly floats past him in the air; her radiant wings can be only those of a soul; and it strikes him that while the waves are his property, and the air is hers, hers is true freedom, his only the mimicry of it. he sees little to regret in this, since imagination is as good as reality; and heaven itself can only be made up of such things as poets dream. yet he knows that his swimming seems but a foolish compromise between the flight to which he cannot attain, and the more grovelling mode of being which he has no real wish to renounce; and he wonders whether she, the already released, who is upborne by those sunlit wings, does not look down with pity and wonder upon him. so also will elvire, though less dispassionately, watch the intellectual vagaries of her don juan, which embrace the heavens, but are always centred in earth. this prologue is preceded by a quotation from molière's "don juan," in which elvire satirically prescribes to her lover the kind of self-defence--or something not unlike it--which mr. browning's hero will adopt. don juan invites his wife to walk with him through the fair: and as he points out its sights to her, he expatiates on the pleasures of vagrancy, and declares that the red pennon waving on the top of the principal booth sends an answering thrill of restlessness through his own frame. he then passes to a glowing eulogium on the charms of the dark-skinned rope-dancer, fifine, who forms part of the itinerant show. elvire gives tokens of perturbation, and her husband frankly owns that as far as fifine is concerned, he cannot defend his taste: he can scarcely account for it. "beautiful she is, in her feminine grace and strength, set forth by her boyish dress; but with probably no more feeling than a sprite, and no more conscience than a flower. it is likely enough that her antecedents have been execrable, and that her life is in harmony with them." still, he does not wish it supposed that he admires a body without a soul: and he tries to convince himself that fifine, after all, is not quite without one. "there is no grain of sand on the sea-shore which may not, once in a century, be the first to flash back the rising sun; there can be no human spirit which does not in the course of its existence greet the divine light with one answering ray." but no heavenly spark can be detected in fifine; and he is reduced to seeking a virtue for her, a justification for himself, in that very fact. if she has no virtue, she also pretends to none. if she gives nothing to society, she asks nothing of it. his fancy raises up a procession of such women as the world has crowned: a helen, a cleopatra, some christian saint; he bids elvire see herself as part of it--as the true helen, who, according to the legend, never quitted greece, contemplated her own phantom within the walls of troy--and be satisfied that she is "best" of all. "all alike are wanting in one grace which fifine possesses: that of self-effacement. helen and cleopatra demand unquestioning homage for their own mental as well as bodily charms; the saint demands it for the principle she sets forth. his love demands that he shall see into her heart; his wife that he shall believe the impossible as regards her own powers of devotion. fifine says,'you come to look at my outside, my foreign face and figure my outlandish limbs. pay for the sight if it has pleased you, and give me credit for nothing beyond what you see.' so simply honest an appeal must touch his heart." don juan well knows what his wife thinks of all this, and he says it for her. "fifine attracts him for no such out of the way reason. her charm is that she is something new, and something which does not belong to him. he is the soul of inconstancy; and if he had the sun for his own, he would hanker after other light, were it that of a tallow-candle or a squib." but he assures her that this reasoning is unsound, and his amusing himself with a lower thing does not prove that he has become indifferent to the higher. he shows this by reminding her of a picture of raphael's, which he was mad to possess; which now that he possesses it, he often neglects for a picture-book of doré's; but which, if threatened with destruction, he would save at the sacrifice of a million dorés, perhaps of his own life. and now he turns back to her phantom self, as present in his own mind; describes it in terms of exquisite grace and purity; and declares hers the one face which fits into his heart, and makes whole what would be half without it. elvire is conciliated; but her husband will not leave well alone. he has established her full claim to his admiration: but he is going to prove that so far as her physical charms are concerned, she owes it to his very attachment: "for those charms are not attested by her looking-glass. he discovers them by the eye of love--in other words--by the artist soul within him." all beauty, don juan farther explains, is in the imagination of him who feels it, be he lover or artist; be the beauty he descries the attribute of a living face, of a portrait, or of some special arrangement of sound. the feeling is inspired by its outward objects, but it cannot be retraced to them. it is a fancy created by fact, as flame by fuel; no more identical with it. the fancy is not on that account a delusion. it is the vision of ideal truth: the recognition by an inner sense of that which does not exist for the outer. that is why hearts choose each other by help of the face, and why they choose so diversely. the eye of love, which again is the eye of art, reads soul into the features, however incomplete their expression of it may be. it reconstructs the ideal type which nature has failed to carry out. he illustrates this by means of three faces roughly sketched in the sand. at first sight they are grotesque and unmeaning. yet a few more strokes of the broken pipe which is serving him as a pencil, will give to two of these a predominating expression; convert the third into a likeness of elvire. "these completing touches represent the artist's action upon life. by this method don juan has been enabled on a former occasion, to complete a work of high art. a block of marble had come into his possession, half shaped by the hand of michael angelo. "... one hand,--the master's,--smoothed and scraped that mass, he hammered on and hewed at, till he hurled life out of death, and left a challenge: for the world, death still,--...." (vol. xi. p. .) not death to him: for as he gazed on the rough-hewn block, a form emerged upon his mental sight--a form which he interpreted as that of the goddess eidotheé.[ ] and as his soul received it from that of the dead master, his hand carried it out." mr. browning's whole theory of artistic perception is contained in the foregoing lines; but he proceeds to enforce it in another way. "the life thus evoked from death, the beauty from ugliness, is the gain of each special soul--its permanent conquest over matter. the mode of effecting this is the special secret of every soul; and this don juan defines as its chemic secret, the law of its affinities, the law of its actions and reactions. where one, he says, lights force, another draws forth pity; where one finds food for self-indulgence, another acquires strength for self-sacrifice. one blows life's ashes into rose-coloured flame, another into less heavenly hues. love will have reached its height when the secret of each soul has become the knowledge of all; and the many-coloured rays of individual experience are fused in the white light of universal truth." here again don juan imagines a retort. elvire makes short work of his poetic theories, and declares that this professed interest in souls is a mere pretext for the gratification of sense. "whom in heaven's name is he trying to take in?" he entreats music to take his part. "it alone can pierce the mists of falsehood which intervene between the soul and truth. and now, as they stroll homewards in the light of the setting sun, all things seem charged with those deeper harmonies--with those vital truths of existence which words are powerless to convey. elvire, however, has no soul for music, and her husband must have recourse to words." the case between them may, he thinks, be stated in this question, "how do we rise from falseness into truth?" "we do so after the fashion of the swimmer who brings his nostrils to the level of the upper air, but leaves the rest of his body under water--by the act of self-immersion in the very element from which we wish to escape. truth is to the aspiring soul as the upper air to the swimmer: the breath of life. but if the swimmer attempts to free his head and arms, he goes under more completely than before. if the soul strives to escape from the grosser atmosphere into the higher, she shares the same fate. her truthward yearnings plunge her only deeper into falsehood. body and soul must alike surrender themselves to an element in which they cannot breathe, for this element can alone sustain them. but through the act of plunging we float up again, with a deeper disgust at the briny taste we have brought back; with a deeper faith in the life above, and a deeper confidence in ourselves, whom the coarser element has proved unable to submerge." "suppose again, that as we paddle with our hands under water, we grasp at something which seems a soul. the piece of falsity slips through our fingers, but by the mechanical reaction just described, it sends us upwards into the realm of truth. this is precisely what fifine has done. of the earth earthy as she is, she has driven you and me into the realms of abstract truth. we have thus no right to despise her" this discourse is interrupted by a contemptuous allusion to a passage in "childe harold," (fourth canto), in which the human intelligence is challenged to humble itself before the ocean. elvire is still dissatisfied. the suspicious fact remains, that whatever experience her husband desires to gain, it is always a woman who must supply it. this he frankly admits; and he gives his reason. "women lend themselves to experiment; men do not. men are egotists, and absorb whatever comes in their way. women, whether fifines or elvires, allow themselves to be absorbed. you master men only by reducing yourself to their level. you captivate women by showing yourself at your best. their power of hero-worship is illustrated by the act of the dolphin, 'true woman creature,' which bore the ship-wrecked arion to the corinthian coast. men are not only wanting in true love: their best powers are called forth by hate. they resemble the vine, first 'stung' into 'fertility' by the browsing goat, which nibbled away its tendrils, and gained the 'indignant wine' by the process. in their feminine characteristics elvire stands far higher than fifine; but fifine is for that very reason more useful as a means of education; for elvire may be trusted implicitly; fifine teaches one to take care of himself. they are to each other as the strong ship and the little rotten bark." this comparison is suggested by a boatman whom they lately saw adventurously pushing his way through shoal and sandbank because he would not wait for the tide. don juan begs leave to speak one word more in defence of fifine and her masquerading tribe; it will recall his early eulogium on her frankness. "all men are actors: but these alone do not deceive. all you are expected to applaud in them is the excellence of the avowed sham." don juan has thus developed his theory that soul is attainable through flesh, truth through falsehood, the real through what only seems; and, as he thinks, justified the conclusion that a man's spiritual life is advanced by every experience, moral or immoral, which comes in his way. he now relates a dream by which, as he says, those abstract reflections have been in part inspired; in reality, it continues, and in some degree refutes them. the dream came to him this morning when he had played himself to sleep with schumann's carnival; having chosen this piece because his brain was burdened with many thoughts and fancies which, better than any other, it would enable him to work off; and as he tells this, he enlarges on the faculty of music to register, as well as express, every passing emotion of the human soul. he notes also the constant recurrence of the same old themes, and the caprice of taste which strives as constantly to convert them into something new. the dream carries him to venice, and he awakes, in fancy, on some pinnacle above st. mark's square, overlooking the carnival. here his power of artistic divination--alias of human sympathy, is called into play; for the men and women below him all wear the semblance of some human deformity, of some animal type, or of some grotesque embodiment of human feeling or passion. he throws himself into their midst, and these monstrosities disappear. the human asserts itself; the brute-like becomes softened away; what imperfection remains creates pity rather than disgust. he finds that by shifting his point of view, he can see even necessary qualities in what otherwise struck him as faults. another change takes place: one felt more easily than defined; and he becomes aware that he is looking not on venice, but on the world, and that what seemed her carnival is in reality the masquerade of life. the change goes on. halls and temples are transformed beneath his gaze. the systems which they represent: religions, philosophies, moralities, and theories of art, collapse before him, re-form and collapse again. he sees that the deepest truth can only build on sand, though itself is stationed on a rock; and can only assert its substance in the often changing forms of error. the vision seems to declare that change is the law of life. "not so," it was about to say. "that law is permanence." the scene has resembled the forming and reforming, the blending and melting asunder of a pile of sunset clouds. like these, when the sun has set, it is subsiding into a fixed repose, a stern and colourless uniformity. temple, tower, and dwelling-house assume the form of one solitary granite pile, a druid monument. this monument, as mr. browning describes it,[ ] consists really of two, so standing or lying as to form part of each other. the one cross-shaped is supposed to have been sepulchral, or in some other way sacred to death. the latter, on which he mainly dwells, was, until lately, the centre of a rude nature-worship, and is therefore consecrated to life. it symbolizes life in its most active and most perennial form. it means the force which aspires to heaven, and the strength which is rooted in the earth. it means that impulse of all being towards something outside itself, which is constant amidst all change, uniform amidst all variety. it means the last word of the scheme of creation, and therefore also the first. it repeats and concludes the utterance already sounding in the spectator's ear:-- "... 'all's change, but permanence as well.' --grave note whence--list aloft!--harmonics sound, that mean: truth inside, and outside, truth also; and between each, falsehood that is change, as truth is permanence. the individual soul works through the shows of sense, (which, ever proving false, still promise to be true) up to an outer soul as individual too; and, through the fleeting, lives to die into the fixed, and reach at length 'god, man, or both together mixed,'"[ ] (p. .) the condition of this monument, its history, the conjectures to which it has given rise, are described in a humorous spirit which belies its mystic significance; but that significance is imbedded in the very conception of the poem, and distinctly expressed in the author's subsequent words. the words which i have just quoted contain the whole philosophy of "fifine at the fair" as viewed on its metaphysical side. they declare the changing relations of the soul to some fixed eternal truth foreshadowed in the impulses of sense. they are the burden of don juan's argument even when he is defending what is wrong. they are the constantly recurring keynote of what the author has meant to say. don juan draws also a new and more moral lesson from this final vision of his dream. "inconstancy is not justified by natural law, for it means unripeness of soul. the ripe soul evolves the infinite from a fixed point. it finds the many in the one. elvire is the _one_ who includes the _many_. elvire is the ocean: while fifine is but the foam-flake which the ocean can multiply at pleasure. elvire shall henceforth suffice to him." but here, as elsewhere, he makes a great mistake: that of confusing nature with the individual man. her instability supplied him with no excuse for being inconstant, and her permanence gives him no motive for constancy; and he proves this in another moment by breaking bounds no longer in word only, but in deed. it turns out that he had put gold as well as silver into fifine's tambourine. the result, intended or not, has been a letter slipped into his hand. he claims five minutes to go and "clear the matter up;" exceeds the time, and on returning finds his punishment in an empty home. this at least, we seem intended to infer. for elvire has already startled him by assuming the likeness of a phantom, and he gives her leave, in case he breaks his word, to vanish away altogether. the story ends here; but its epilogue "the householder" depicts a widowed husband, grotesquely miserable, fetched home by his departed wife; and his identity with don juan seems unmistakable. this scene is more humorous than pathetic, as befits the dramatic spirit of the poem; but the most serious purport and most comprehensive meaning of "fifine at the fair" are summed up in its closing words. the "householder" is composing his epitaph, and his wife thus concludes it: "love is all, and death is nought." "prince hohenstiel-schwangau, saviour of society." "prince hohenstiel-schwangau" is a defence of the doctrine of expediency: and the monologue is supposed to be carried on by the late emperor of the french, under this feigned name. louis napoleon is musing over past and present, and blending them with each other in a waking dream. he seems in exile again. but the events of his reign are all, or for the most part behind him, and they have earned for him the title of "inscrutable." a young lady of an adventurous type has crossed his path, in the appropriate region of leicester square. some adroit flattery on her side has disposed him to confidence, and he is proving to her, over tea and cigars, that he is not so "inscrutable" after all; or, if he be, that the key to the enigma is a simple one. "this wearer of crinoline seems destined to play oedipus to the sphinx he is supposed to be;" or better still, as he gallantly adds, the "lais" for whose sake he will unveil the mystery unasked. the situation he thus assumes is not dignified; but as mr. browning probably felt, his choice of a _confidante_ suits the nature of what he has to tell, as well as the circumstances in which he tells it. politically, he has lived from hand to mouth. so in a different way has she. a very trifling incident enables him to illustrate his confession, which will proceed without interruption on the listener's part. they are sitting at a table with writing materials upon it. among these lies a piece of waste-paper. prince hohenstiel descries upon it two blots, takes up a pen, and draws a line from one to the other. this simple, half-mechanical act is, as he declares, a type of his whole life; it contains the word of the enigma. his constant principle has been: not to strive at creating anything new; not to risk marring what already existed; but to adapt what he found half made and to continue it. in other words, he has been a sustainer or "saviour," not a reformer of society. many pages are devoted to the statement and vindication of this fact, and they contain everything that can be said, from a religious or practical point of view, in favour of taking the world as we find it. prince hohenstiel's first argument is: that he has not the genius of a reformer, and it is a man's first duty to his creator to do that only which he can do best; his second: that sweeping reforms are in themselves opposed to the creative plan, because they sacrifice everything to one leading idea, and aim at reducing to one pattern those human activities which god has intended to be multiform; the third and strongest: that the scheme of existence with all its apparent evils is god's work, and no man can improve upon it. there have been, he admits, revolutions in the moral as well as the physical world; and inspired reformers, who were born to carry them on; but these men are rare and portentous as the physical agencies to which they correspond, and whether "dervish (desert-spectre), swordsman, saint, lawgiver," or "lyrist," appear only when the time is ripe for them. meanwhile, the great machine advances by means of the minute springs, the revolving wheel-work, of individual lives. let each of these be content with its limited sphere. god is with each and all. and prince hohenstiel has another and still stronger reason for not desiring to tamper with the existing order of things. he finds it good. he loves existence as he knows it, with its mysteries and its beauties; its complex causes and incalculable effects; the good it extracts from evil; the virtue it evolves from suffering. he reveres that temple of god's own building, from which deploys the ever varying procession of human life. if the temple be intricate in its internal construction, if its architectural fancies impede our passage; if they make us stumble or even fall; his invariable advice is this: "throw light on the stumbling-blocks; fix your torch above them at such points as the architect approves. but do not burn them away." he considers himself therefore, not a very great man, but a useful one: one possessing on a small scale the patience of an atlas, if not the showy courage of a hercules: one whose small achievements pave the way for the great ones. thus far the imaginary speaker so resembles mr. browning himself, that we forget for the moment that we are not dealing with him; and his vicarious testimony to the value of human life lands him, at page , in a personal protest against the folly which under cover of poetry seeks to run it down. he lashes out against the "bard" who can rave about inanimate nature as something greater than man; and who talks of the "unutterable" impressions conveyed by the ocean, as greater than the intelligence and sympathy, the definite thoughts and feelings which _can_ be uttered. the lines from "childe harold" which will be satirized in "fifine at the fair" are clearly haunting him here. but we shall now pass on to more historic ground. it is a natural result of these opinions that prince hohenstiel-schwangau regards life as the one boon which contains every other; and that the material prosperity of his people has been the first object by which his "sustaining" policy was inspired. he does not deny that even within the limits thus imposed, some choice of cause or system seemed open to him. "it seemed open to him to choose between religion and free-thought, between monarchy and government by the people: and to throw his energies entirely into one scale or the other, instead of weighting one and the other by turns. it could justly have been urged that the simpler aim is included in the more complex, and that he would promote the interests of his subjects by serving them from the wider, rather than from the narrower point of view." "but what is true in theory is not always so in practice. he has loved a cause, and believed in it--the cause of united italy; and so long as he was free to express sympathy with this--so long, his critics say, as he was a mere voice, with air to float in, and no obstacle to bar his way--he expressed it from the bottom of his soul. but with the power to act--with the firm ground wheron to act--came also the responsibilities of action: the circumstance by which it must be controlled. he saw the wants of his people; the eyes which craved light alone, and the mouths which craved only bread. he felt that the ideal must yield to the real, the remote to what was near; and the work of italian deliverance remained incomplete. it was his very devotion to the one principle which brought the reproach of vacillation upon him." "he broke faith with his people too"--so his critics continue--"for he supplied food to their bodies; but withheld the promised liberties of speech and writing which would have brought nourishment to their souls." and again he answers that he gave them what they wanted most. he gave them that which would enable them to acquire freedom of soul, and without which such freedom would have been useless. he concedes something, however, to reformers by declaring, as his final excuse, that he would not have thus yielded to circumstances if the average life of man were a hundred years instead of twenty; for, given sufficient time, all adverse circumstance may be overcome. "the body dies if it be thwarted. mind--in other words, intellectual truth--triumphs through opposition. envy, hatred, and stupidity, are to it as the rocks which obstruct the descending stream, and toss it in jewelled spray above the chasm by which it is confined. abstract thinkers have therefore their rights also; and it is well that those, in some respects, greater and better men than he, who are engaged in the improvement of the world, should find success enough to justify their hopes; failure enough to impose caution on their endeavours." the prince confesses once for all, that since improvement is so necessarily limited; since the higher life is incompatible with life in the flesh: he is content to wait for the higher life and make the best he can of the lower. but if anyone declares that this quiescent attitude means indolence or sleep, his judgment is on a par with that which was once passed on the famous statue of the laocoon. some artist had covered the accessories of the group, and left only the contorted central figure, with nothing to explain its contortions. one man said as he looked upon it, "... i think the gesture strives against some obstacle we cannot see." (p. .) every other spectator pronounced the "gesture" a yawn. prince hohenstiel gives us a second proof that he is not without belief in the ideal. he accepts the doctrine of evolution: though not in its scientific sense. he likes the idea of having felt his way up to humanity (as he now feels his way in it) through progressive forms of existence; he being always himself, and nowise the thing he dwelt in. he likes to account in this manner for the feeling of kinship which attracts him to all created things. it also completes his vision of mankind as fining off at the summit into isolated peaks, but held together at the base by its common natural life; and thus confirms him in the impression that the personal needs and mutual obligations of the natural life are paramount. as he concludes this part of his harangue, an amused consciousness steals over him that he has been washing himself very white; and that his self-defence has been principally self-praise--at least, to his listener's ears. so he proceeds to show that his arguments were just, by showing how easily, being blamed for the one course of action, he might have been no less censured for the opposite. he imagines that his life has been written by some romancing historian of the thiers and victor hugo type; and that in this version, practical wisdom, or sagacity, is made to suggest everything which he has really done, while he unwisely obeys the dictates of ideal virtue and does everything which he did not. hohenstiel-schwangau (france) had made him her head-servant: president of the assembly which she had elected to serve her; and he knew that his fellow-servants were working for their own ends, while he alone was faithful to his bond. he, doubtless, had his dreams, conjured up by sagacity, of pouncing upon the unfaithful ones, denouncing them to his mistress, the state, and begging her to allow him to do their work as well as his own, till such time as the danger was past, and her desire for a more popular government could be fulfilled. but in so doing he would have deceived her, and he chose the truth. he knew that he had no right to substitute himself for the multitude, his knowledge for their ignorance, his will for theirs; since wise and foolish were alike of god's creating, and each had his own place and purpose in the general scheme. (here and through the following pages, - , the real and the imaginary prince appear merged into each other.) he performed his strict duty, and left things to their natural course. his position grew worse and worse. his fellow-servants made no secret of their plans--to be carried into execution when his time of service should have expired, and his controlling hand been removed from them. each had his own mine of tyranny--whether popedom, socialism, or other--which he meant to spring on the people fancying itself free. the head servant was silent. they took fright at his silence. "it meant mischief." "it meant counterplot." "it meant some stroke of state." "he must be braved and bullied. his re-election must be prevented; the sword of office must be wrested from his grasp." at length his time expired, and _then_ he acted and spoke. he made no "stroke of state." he stepped down from his eminence; laid his authority in the people's hand; proved to it its danger, and proposed that hohenstiel-schwangau should give him the needful authority for protecting her. the proposal was unanimously accepted; and he justified his own judgment and that of his country by chastising every disturber of the public peace, and reducing alike knaves and fools to silence and submission. but now sagacity found fault: "he had not taken the evil in time; he might have nipped it in the bud, and saved life and liberty by so doing: he had waited till it was full grown, and the cost in life and liberty had been enormous." he replied that he had been checked by his allegiance to the law; and that rather than strain the law, however slightly, he was bound to see it broken. and so, the record continues, he worked and acted to the end. he had received his authority from the people; he governed first for them. (here again, and at the following page , we seem to recognize the real hohenstiel or louis napoleon, rather than the imaginary.) he walked reverently--superstitiously, if spectators will--in the path marked out for him, ever fearing to imperil what was good in the existing order of things; but casting all fear aside when an obvious evil cried out for correction. hohenstiel-schwangau--herself a republic--had attacked the liberties of rome, and destroyed them with siege and slaughter. on his accession to power, he found this "infamy triumphant." sagacity suggested that he should leave it untouched. "it was no work of his; he was not answerable for its existence. it had its political advantages for his own country." but he would not hear of such a course. there was a canker in the body politic, requiring to be cut out; and he cut it out: though the patient roared, the wound bled, and the operator was abused by friend and foe. "why so rough and precipitate?" again sagacity interposed, "though the right were on your side? why not temporize, persuade, even threaten, before coming to blows?" "yes," was the reply, "and see the evil strengthen while you look on." sagacity defended her advice on larger grounds; and here too he was at issue with her. hohenstiel-schwangau had a passion for fighting. she would fight for anything, or for nothing, merely to show that she knew how. give her a year's peace after any war, and she was once more ready for the fray. prince hohenstiel and sagacity both agreed that this evil temper must be destroyed; but sagacity advised him to undermine--prince hohenstiel chose to combat it. sagacity said, "here is an interval of peace. prolong it, make it delightful; but do so under cover of intending to cut it short. if you would induce a fierce mountain tribe to come down from its fortress and settle in the plain, you do not bid it destroy the fortress. you bid it enjoy life in the city, and remember that it runs no risk in doing so, because it has its fortress to fall back upon at the first hint of danger. and the time will come when it can hear with equanimity that the fortress has gone to ruin, and that fighting is no longer in fashion. the mountain tribe will have learned to love the fatness of the valley, while thinking of those mother ribs of its mountain fastness which are ever waiting to prop up its life. just so put a wooden sword into the hand of the hohenstieler, and let him brag of war, learning meanwhile the value of peace." "not so," the prince replied; "my people shall not be cheated into virtue. truth is the one good thing. i will tell them the truth. i will tell them that war, for war's sake, is damnable; that glory at its best is shame, since its image is a gilded bubble which a resolute hand might prick, but the breath of a foolish multitude buoys up beyond its reach." "and what," he asked, "is the glory, what the greatness, which this foolish nation seeks? that of making every other small; not that of holding its place among others which are themselves great. shall such a thing be possible as that the nation which earth loves best--a people so aspiring, so endowed; so magnetic in its attraction for its fellow-men--shall think its primacy endangered because another selects a ruler it has not patronized, or chooses to sell steel untaxed?" "but this does not mean that hohenstiel is to relinquish the power of war. the aggressiveness which is damnable in herself is to be condemned in others, and to be punished in them. therefore, for the sake of austria who sins, of italy who suffers, of hohenstiel-schwangau who has a duty to perform, the war which sagacity deprecates must be waged, and austria smitten till italy is free." "at least," rejoins sagacity, "you secure some reward from the country you have freed; say, the cession of nice and savoy; something to satisfy those at home who doubt the market-value of right and truth." "no," is the reply, "you may preach that to metternich and remain with him." and so the prince worked on; determined that neither fear, nor treachery, nor much less blundering, on his part, should imperil the precarious balance of the world's life. once more, and for the last time, sagacity lifts up her voice. "you were the fittest man to rule. give solidity to your life's work by leaving a fit successor to carry it on. secure yourself this successor in a son. the world is open to you for the choice of your bride." and again the ideal prince retorts on the suggestion. "the fit successor is not secured in this way. all experience proves it. the spark of genius is dropped where god will. it may find hereditary (hence accumulated) faculties ready to be ignited. it may fire the barren rock." and, changing the metaphor, "... the seed o' the apple-tree brings forth another tree which bears a crab: 'tis the great gardener grafts the excellence on wildings where he will." (p. .) he ends by calling up the vision of an italian wayside temple, in which, as the legend declares, succession was carried on after a very different principle. each successive high priest has become so by murdering his predecessor, his qualification being found in that simple fact; or in the qualities of cunning or courage of which it has been the test.[ ] and now the dream is lived through, and prince hohenstiel-schwangau awakens in his own palace: not much better pleased with his own plain speaking than with the imaginary heroics of messrs. hugo and thiers. "one's case is so much stronger before it is put into words. motives which seem sufficient in the semi-darkness of one's own consciousness, are so feeble in the light of day. when we reason with ourselves, we subordinate outward claims without appearing to do so: since the necessity of making the best of life for our own sake supplies unconsciously to ourselves the point of view from which all our reasonings proceed. when forced to think aloud, we stoop to what is probably an untruth. we say that our motives were--what they should have been; what perhaps we have fancied them to be." these closing pages convey the author's comment on prince hohenstiel's defence. they present it, in his well-known manner, as what such a man might be tempted to say; rather than what this particular man was justified in saying. but he takes the prince's part in the lines beginning, "alack, one lies oneself even in the stating that one's end was truth," (p. .) for they farther declare that though we aim at truth, our words cannot always be trusted to hit it. the best cannon ever rifled will sometimes deflect. words do this also. we recognize the conviction of the inadequacy of language which was so forcibly expressed in the pope's soliloquy in "the ring and the book," but in what seems a more defined form. "bishop blougram's apology." "bishop blougram's apology" is a defence of religious conformity in those cases in which the doctrines to which we conform exceed our powers of belief, but ate not throughout opposed to them; its point of view being that of a roman catholic churchman, who has secured his preferment by this kind of compromise. it is addressed to a semi-freethinker, who is supposed to have declared that a man who could thus identify himself with romish superstitions must be despised as either knave or fool; and bishop blougram has undertaken to prove that he is not to be thus despised; and least of all by the person before him. the argument is therefore special-pleading in the full sense of the word; and it is clear from a kind of editor's note with which the poem concludes, that we are meant to take it as such. but it is supposed to lie in the nature of the man who utters, as also in the circumstance in which it is uttered: for bishop blougram was suggested by cardinal wiseman;[ ] and the literary hack, gigadibs, is the kind of critic by whom a cardinal wiseman is most likely to be assailed: a man young, shallow, and untried; unused to any but paper warfare; blind to the deeper issues of both conformity and dissent, and as much alive to the distinction of dining in a bishop's palace as bishop blougram himself. the monologue is spoken on such an occasion, and includes everything which mr. gigadibs says, or might say, on his own side of the question. we must therefore treat it as a conversation. mr. gigadibs' reasoning resolves itself into this: "_he_ does not believe in dogmas, and he says so. the bishop cannot believe in them, but does not say so. he is true to his own convictions: the bishop is not true to his." and the bishop's defence is as follows. "mr. gigadibs aims at living his own life: in other words, the ideal life. and this means that he is living no life at all. for a man, in order to live, must make the best of the world he is born in; he must adapt himself to its capabilities as a cabin-passenger to those of his cabin. he must not load himself with moral and intellectual fittings which the ship cannot carry, and which will therefore have to be thrown overboard. he (the bishop) has chosen to live a real life; and has equipped himself accordingly." "and, supposing he displays what mr. gigadibs considers the courage of his convictions, and flings his dogmas overboard,--what will he have gained? simply that his uncertainty has changed sides. believing, he had shocks of unbelief. disbelieving, he will have shocks of belief (note a fine passage, vol. iv. p. ): since no certainty in these matters is possible." "but," says gigadibs; "on that principle, your belief is worth no more than my unbelief." "yes," replies the bishop, "it is worth much more in practice, if no more in theory. life cannot be carried on by negations. least of all will religious negations be tolerated by those we live with. and the more definite the religion affirmed, the better will the purposes of life be advanced by it." "not those of a noble life," argues gigadibs, "nor in the judgment of the best men. you are debasing your standard by living for the many fools who cannot see through you, instead of the wiser few who can." to which the bishop replies that he lives according to the nature which god has given him, and which is not so ignoble after all; and that he succeeds with wise men as well as with fools, because they do not see through him either: because their judgment is kept in constant suspension as to whether he can believe what he professes or cannot; whether, in short, he is a knave or a fool. the proposition is vividly illustrated; and a few more obvious sophistries complete this portion of the argument. gigadibs still harps upon the fact that conformity cannot do the work of belief; and the bishop now changes his ground. "he conforms to christianity in the _wish_ that it may be true; and he thinks that this wish has all the value of belief, and brings him as near to it as the creator intends. the human mind cannot bear the full light of truth; and it is only in the struggle with doubt and error that its spiritual powers can be developed." he concedes, in short, that he is much more in earnest than he appeared; and the concession is confirmed when he goes on to declare that we live by our instincts and not by our beliefs. this is proved--he alleges--by such a man as gigadibs, who has no warrant in his belief for living a moral life, and does so because his instincts compel it. just so the bishop's instincts compel a believing life. they demand for him a living, self-proving god (here the doctrine of expediency re-asserts itself), and they tell him that the good things which his position confers are the gift of that god, and intended by him for his enjoyment. "you," he adds, "who live for something which never is, but always is _to be_, are like a traveller, who casts off, in every country he passes through, the covering that will be too warm for him in the next; and is comfortable nowhen and nowhere." one of his latest arguments is the best. gigadibs has said: "if you must hold a dogmatic faith, at all events reform it. prune its excrescences away." "and where," he retorts, "am i to stop, when once that process has begun? i put my knife to the _liquefaction_,[ ] and end, like fichte, by slashing at god himself. and meanwhile, we have to control a mass of ignorant persons whose obedience is linked to the farthest end of the chain (to the first superstition which i am called upon to lop off). we have here again a question of making the best of our cabin-fittings, the best of the opportunities which life places to our hand." in conclusion, he draws a contemptuous picture of the obscure and inconsequent existence which gigadibs accepts, as the apostle without genius and without enthusiasm, of what is, if it be one at all, a _non-working_ truth. gigadibs is silenced, and, as it proves, impressed; but the bishop is too clever to be very proud of his victory; for he knows it has been a personal, much more than a real one. his strength has lain chiefly in the assumption (which only the entire monologue can justify or even convey) that his opponent would change places with him if he could; and he knows that in arguing from this point of view he has been only half sincere. his reasonings have been good enough for the occasion. that is the best he can say for them. mr. sludge, the medium. "sludge, the medium," is intended to show that even so ignoble a person as a sham medium may have something to say in his own defence; and so far as argument goes, sludge defends himself successfully on two separate lines. but in the one case he excuses his imposture: in the other, he in great measure disproves it. and this second part of the monologue has been construed by some readers into a genuine plea for the theory and practice of "spiritualism." nothing, however, could be more opposed to the general tenour of mr. browning's work. he is simply showing us what such a man might say in his own behalf, supposing that the credulity of others had tempted him into a cheat, or that his own credulity had made him a self-deceiver; or, what was equally possible, in even the present case, that both processes had gone on at the same time. the amount of abstract truth which the monologue is intended to convey is in itself small, and more diluted with exaggeration and falsehood than in any other poem of this group. sludge has been found cheating in the house of his principal patron and dupe. the raps indicating the presence of a departed mother have been distinctly traced to the medium's toes. there is no lying himself out of it this time, so he offers to confess, on condition that the means of leaving the country are secured to him. there is a little bargaining on this subject, and he then begins:-- "he never meant to cheat. it is the gentlefolk who have teased him into doing it; they _would_ be taken in. if a poor boy like him tells a lie about money, or anything else in which they are 'up,' they are ready enough to thrash it out of him; but when it is something out of their way, like saying: he has had a vision--he has seen a ghost--it's 'oh, how curious! tell us all about it. sit down, my boy. don't be frightened, &c. &c.;' and so they lead him on. presently he is obliged to invent. they have found out he is a medium. a medium he has got to be. 'couldn't you hear this? didn't you see that? try again. other mediums have done it, perhaps you may.' and, of course, the next night he sees and hears what is expected of him." "he gets well into his work. he sees visions; peeps into the glass ball; makes spirits write and rap, and the rest of it. there is nothing to stop him. if he mixes up bacon and cromwell, it only proves that they are both trying to speak through him at once. if he makes locke talk gibberish, and beethoven play the shakers' hymn, and a dozen other such things: 'oh! the spirits are using him and suiting themselves out of his stock.' when he guesses right, it shows his truth. when he doesn't, it shows his honesty. a hit is good and a miss is better. when he boggles outright, 'he is confused with the phenomena.' and when this has gone on for weeks, and he has been clothed and cosseted, and his patrons have staked their penetration upon him; how is he to turn round and say he has been cheating all the time? 'i should like to see you do it!' it isn't that he wouldn't often have liked to be in the gutter again!" this amusing account is diversified with expressions of sludge's hearty contempt for all the men and women he has imposed upon: above all, for their absurd fancy that any scrap of unexpected information must have come to him in a supernatural way. "as if a man could hold his nose out of doors, and one smut out of the millions not stick to it; sit still for a whole day, and one atom of news not drift into his ear!" this idea recurs in various forms. well! he owns that he has cheated; and now that he has done so, he is not at all sure that it _was_ all cheating, that there wasn't something real in it after all. "we are all taught to believe that there is another world; and the bible shows that men have had dealings with it. we are told this can't happen now, because we are under another law. but i don't believe we are under another law. some men 'see' and others don't, that's the only difference. i see a sign and a message in everything that happens to me; but i take a small message where you want a big one. i am the servant who comes at a tap of his master's knuckle on the wall; you are the servant who only comes when the bell rings. of course i mistake the sign sometimes. but what does that matter if i sometimes don't mistake? you say: one fact doesn't establish a system. you are like the indian who picked up a scrap of gold, and never dug for more. you pick up one sparkling fact, and let it go again. i pick up one such, then another and another, and let go the dirt which makes up the rest of life." sludge combats the probable objection that the heavenly powers are too great, and he is too small for the kind of services he expects of them. everything, he delares, serves a small purpose as well as a great one. moreover, nothing nowadays _is_ small. it is at all events the lesser things and not the greater which are spoken of with awe. the simple creature which is only a sac is the nearest to the creative power; and since also man's filial relation to the creator is that most insisted on, the more familiar and confiding attitude is the right one. he lastly declares and illustrates his view that many a truth may stagnate for want of a lie to set it going, and thinks it likely enough that god allows him to imagine he is wielding a sham power, because he would die of fright if he knew it was a real one. he adds one or two somewhat irrelevant items to his defence; then finding his patron unconvinced, discharges on him a volley of abuse, and decides to try his luck elsewhere. "there must be plenty more fools in other parts of the world." argumentative poems continued. (reflections.) to the second class of these poems, which are of the nature of reflections, belong--taking them in the order of their importance:-- "christmas-eve and easter-day." ( .) "la saisiaz." ( .) "cleon." ("men and women.") ( .) "an epistle containing the strange medical experience of karshish, the arab physician." ("men and women.") ( .) "caliban upon setebos; or natural theology in the island." (dramatis personæ.) ( .) christmas-eve and easter-day are two distinct poems, printed under this one head: and each describing a spiritual experience appropriate to the day, and lived through in a vision of christ. this vision presents itself to the reader as a probable or obvious hallucination, or even a simple dream; but its utterances are more or less dogmatic; they contain much which is in harmony with mr. browning's known views; and it is difficult at first sight to regard them in either case as proceeding from an imaginary person who is only feeling his way to the truth. this, however, they prove themselves to be. the first poem is a narrative. its various scenes are enacted on a stormy christmas eve; and it opens with a humorous description of a little dissenting chapel, supposed to stand at the edge of a common; and of the various types of squalid but self-satisfied humanity which find their spiritual pasture within its walls. the narrator has just "burst out" of it. he never meant to go in. but the rain had forced him to take shelter in its porch, as evening service was about to begin: and the defiant looks of the elect as they pushed past him one by one, had impelled him to assert his rights as a christian, and push in too. the stupid ranting irreverence of the pastor, and the snuffling satisfaction of the flock, were soon, however, too much for him, and in a very short time he was again--where we find him--out in the fresh night air. free from the constraint of the chapel, he takes a more tolerant view of what he has seen and heard there. he gives the preacher credit for having said a great deal that was true, and in the manner most convincing to the already convinced who were assembled to hear him. for his own part, he declares, nature is his church, as she has been his teacher; and he surrenders himself with a joyful sense of relief to the religious influences of the solitude and the night: his heart glowing with the consciousness of the unseen love which everywhere appeals to him in the visible power of the creator. suddenly a mighty spectacle unfolds itself. the rain and wind have ceased. the barricade of cloud which veiled the moon's passage up the western sky has sunk riven at her feet. she herself shines forth in unbroken radiance, and a double lunar rainbow, in all its spectral grandeur, spans the vault of heaven. there is a sense as of a heavenly presence about to emerge upon the arc. then the rapture overflows the spectator's brain, and the master, arrayed in a serpentining garment, appears in the path before him. but the face is averted. "has he despised the friends of christ? and is this his punishment?" he prostrates himself before him; grasps the hem of the garment; entreats forgiveness for what was only due to the reverence of his love, to his desire that his lord should be worshipped in all spiritual beauty and truth. the face turns towards him in a flood of light. the vesture encloses him in its folds, and he is borne onwards till he finds himself at rome, and in front of st. peter's church. he sees the interior without entering. it swarms with worshippers, packed into it as in the hollow of a hive. all there is breathless expectation, ecstatic awe; for the mystery of the mass is in process of consummation, and in another moment the tinkling of the silver bell will announce to the prostrate crowd the actual presence of their lord; will open to them the vision of the coming heavenly day. here, too, is faith, though obscured in a different manner. here, too, is _love_: the love which in bygone days hurled intellect from its throne, and trampled on the glories of ancient art--which instructed its votaries to feel blindly for its new and all-sufficient life, as does the babe for its mother's breast--which consecrates even now the deepest workings of the heart and mind to the service of god. and christ enters the basilica, into which, after a momentary doubt, he himself follows him. they float onwards again, and again he is left alone but for the hem of the garment; for christ has entered the lecture-hall of a rationalistic german professor, and into this he will not bid his disciple follow him; but the interior of the building is open, as before, to the disciple's mental sight. the lecturer is refreshing his hearers' convictions by an inquiry into the origin of the christian myth and the foundation of fact on which it rests; and he arrives at the conclusion that christ was a man, but whose work proved him all but divine; his gospel quite other than those who heard it believed, but in value nearly the same. the spectator begins musing on the anomalies of this view. "christ, only a man, is to be reverenced as something more. on what ground?--the ground of intellect?--yet he teaches us only what a hundred others have taught, without claiming to be worshipped on account of it--the ground of goodness?--but goodness is due from each man to his fellows; it is no title to sovereignty over them." and he thus sums up his own conviction. "he may be called a _saint_ who best teaches us to keep our lives pure; he a _poet_ whose insight dims that of his fellow-men. he is no less than this, though guided by an instinct no higher than that of the bat; no more, though inspired by god. all gifts are from god, and no multiplying of gifts can convert the creature into the creator. between him who created goodness, and made it binding on the conscience of man: and him who reduces it to a system, of which the merits may be judged by man: lies the interval which separates nature, who decrees the circulation of the blood, from the observer harvey, who discovered it. one man is christ, another pilate; beyond their dust is the divinity of god." "and the 'god-function' with regard to virtue was first to impress its truths on every human breast; and secondly, to give a motive for carrying them out; and this motive could be given only by one, who, being life's lord, died for the sake of men. whoever conceives this love, and takes this proof to his heart, has found a new motive, and has also gained a truth." but christ lingers within the hall "is there something after all in that lecture which finds an echo in the christian soul? yes, even there. there is the ghost of love, if nothing more, in the utterance of that virgin-minded man, with the 'wan, pure look,' and the frail life burning itself away in the striving after truth. for his critical tests have reduced the pearl of price to ashes, and yet left it, in his judgment, a pearl; and he bids his followers gather up their faith as an almost perfect whole; go home and venerate the myth on which he has experimented, adore the man whom he has proved to be one. and if his learning itself be loveless, it may claim our respect when a tricksy demon has let it loose on the epistles of st. paul, as it claims our gratitude when expended on secular things. it is at least better than the ignorance which hates the word of god, if it cannot wholly accept it; while these, his disciples, who renounce the earth, and chain up the natural man on a warrant no more divine than this, are by so much better than he who at this moment judges them. let them carry the doctrine by which they think themselves carried, as does the child his toy-horse. he will not deride nor disturb them." the subject of these experiences has reached a state of restful indifference. "he will adhere to his own belief, and be tolerant towards his neighbour's: since the two only differ as do two different refractions of a single ray of light. he will study, instead of criticizing, the different creeds which are fused into one before the universal father's throne." but this is not the lesson he has been intended to learn. the storm, breaking out afresh, catches up and dashes him to the ground, while the vesture, which he had let slip during his last musings, recedes swiftly from his sight. then he knows that there is one "way," and he knows also that he may find it; and in this new conviction he regains his hold of the garment, and at one bound has reentered the little chapel, which he seems never indeed to have left. the sermon is ending, and he has heard it all. he still appreciates its faults of matter and manner; but he no longer rejects the draught of living water, because it comes to him with some taste of earth. what the draught can do is evidenced by those wrecks of humanity which are finding renewal there. there his choice shall rest; for, nowhere else, so he seems to conclude, is the message of love so simply and so directly conveyed. a great part of the narrative is written in a humorous tone, which shows itself, not only in thought and word, but in a jolting measure, and even grotesque rhymes. the speaker desires it to be understood that he is not the less in earnest for this apparent "levity;" and the levity is quite consistent with religious seriousness in such a person as the poem depicts. but, as i have shown, it is alone enough to prove that the author is not depicting himself. the poem reflects him more or less truly in the doctrine of divine love, the belief in personal guidance, and the half-contemptuous admiration with which the speaker regards those who will mortify the flesh in obedience to a christ-_man_. but it belies the evidence of his whole work when, as in section xvii., it represents moral truth as either innate to the human spirit, or directly revealed to it; and we shall presently notice a still greater discrepancy which it shares with its companion poem.[ ] "_easter-day_"[ ] deals with the deeper issues of scepticism and faith; and opens with a dialogue in which the two opposite positions are maintained. both speakers start from the belief in god, and the understanding that christianity is unproved; but the one accepts it in faith: the other regards it as, for the time being, negatived. the man of faith begins by exclaiming, how hard it is to be (practically) a christian; and how disproportionate to our endeavour is our success in becoming so. the sceptic replies that to his mind the only difficulty is belief. "let the least of god's commands be proved authentic: and only an idiot would shrink from martyrdom itself, with the certain bliss that would reward it." the man of faith, who is clearly the greater pessimist of the two, thinks the world too full of suffering to be placed, by any knowledge, beyond the reach of faith--beyond the necessity of being taken upon trust. and his adversary concedes that absolute knowledge would--where it was applicable--destroy its own end. in social life, for instance, it would do away with all those acts of faith, those instinctive judgments and feelings, which are the essence _of_ life. but he thinks one may fairly desire a better touchstone for the purposes of god than human judgment or feeling; and that, if we cannot know them with scientific certainty, one must wish the balance of probability to lie clearly on one side. the man of faith is of opinion that this much of proof exists for everyone who chooses to seek it. "the burning question is how we are to shape our lives. for himself he is impelled to follow the christian precept, and renounce the world." the sceptic denies that god demands such a sacrifice, and sees only man's ingratitude in the impression that he does so. the man of faith admits that it would be hard to have made the sacrifice, and be rewarded only by death; while the many unbelievers who have virtually made it for one or other of the hobbies which he describes, have at least its success to repay them. but even so, he continues, he would have chosen the better part; for he would have chosen hope,--the hope which aspires to a loftier end. "his opponent, it is true, hopes also; but _his_ hopes are blind. they are not those of st. paul, but those which, according to Æschylus, the titan gave to men, to spice therewith the meal of life, and prevent their devouring it in too bitter haste; and if hope--or faith--is meant to be something more than a relish...!" the opponent protests against this attack upon the "trusting ease" of his existence, and declares that his interlocutor is not doing as he would be done by. whereupon the first speaker relates something which befell him on the easter-eve of three years ago, and which startled him out of precisely such a condition. he was crossing the common, lately spoken of by their friend, and musing on life and the last judgment: when the following question occured to him: what would be his case if he died and were judged at that very moment? "from childhood," he continues, "i have always insisted on knowing the worst; and i now plunged straight into the recesses of my conscience, prepared for what spectre might be hidden there. but all i encountered was _common sense_, which did its best to assure me that i had nothing to fear: that, considering all the difficulties of life, i had kept my course through it as straight, and advanced as rapidly as could be expected." (more reflections, half serious half playful ensue.) "suddenly i threw back my head, and saw the midnight sky on fire. it was a _sea_ of fire, now writhing and surging; now sucked back into the darkness, now overflowing it till its rays poured downwards on to the earth. i felt that the judgment day had come. i felt also, in that supreme moment of consciousness, that i had chosen the world, and must take my stand upon the choice. i defended it with the courage of despair. 'god had framed me to appreciate the beauties of life; i could not put the cup untasted aside; he had not plainly commanded me to do so; he knew how i had struggled to resign myself to leaving it half full; hell could be no just punishment for such a mood as that.'" "another burst of fire. a brief ecstasy which confounded earth and heaven. then ashes everywhere. and amid the wreck--like the smoke pillared over sodom--mantled in darkness as in a magnific pall which turned to grey the blackness of the night--pity mingled with judgment in the intense meditation in which his gaze was fixed--he stood before me. i fell helpless at his feet. he spoke: 'the judgment is past; dispensed to every man as though he alone were its object. _thy_ sin has been the love of earth. thou hast preferred the finite to the infinite--the fleshly joys to the spiritual. be this choice thy punishment. thou art shut out from the heaven of spirit. the earth is thine for ever.'" "my first impulse was one of delighted gratitude. 'all the wonders--the treasures of the natural world, are _mine_?'" "'thine,' the vision replied,'if such shows suffice thee; if thou wilt exchange eternity for the equivalent of a single rose, flung to thee over the barrier of that eden from which thou art for ever excluded.'" "'not so,' i answered. 'if the beauties of nature are thus deceptive, my choice shall be with art--art which imparts to nature the value of human life. i will seek man's impress in statuary, in painting....'" "'obtain that,' the vision again rebuked me, 'the one form with its single act, the one face with its single look: the failure and the shame of all true artists who felt the whole while they could only reproduce the part.'" and again the vision expatiates on the limited nature of the earthly existence--the limited horizon which reduces man to the condition of the lizard pent up in a chamber in the rock--the destined shattering of the prison wall which will quicken the stagnant sense to the impressions of a hitherto unknown world--the spiritual hunger with which the saints, content in their earthly prison, still hail the certainty of deliverance. "'let me grasp at mind,' i then entreated,--'whirl enraptured through its various spheres. yet no. i know what thou wilt say. mind, too, is of the earth; and all its higher inspirations proceed from another world--are recognized as doing so by those who receive them. i will catch no more at broken reeds. i will relinquish the world, and take love for my portion. i will love on, though love too may deceive me, remembering its consolations in the past, struggling for its rewards in the future.'" "'at last,' the vision exclaimed, 'thou choosest love. and hast thou not seen that the mightiness of love was curled inextricably about the power and the beauty which attached thee to the world--that through them it has vainly striven to clasp thee? abide by thy choice. take the show for the name's sake. reject the reality as manifested in him who created, and then died for thee. reject that tale, as more fitly invented by the sons of cain--as proving too much love on the part of god.'" "terrified and despairing, i cowered before him, imploring the remission of the sentence, praying that the old life might be restored to me, with its trials, its limitations; but with their accompanying hope that it might lead to the life everlasting." "when i 'lived' again, the plain was silvered over with dew; the dawn had broken." looking back on this experience, the narrator is disposed to regard it as having been a dream. it has nevertheless been a turning-point in his existence; for it has taught him to hear in every blessing which attaches him to the earth, a voice which bids him renounce it. and though he still finds it hard to be a christian, and is often discouraged by the fact, he welcomes his consciousness of this: since it proves that he is not spiritually stagnating--not cut off from the hope of heaven. mr. browning is, for the time being, outside the discussion. his own feelings might equally have dictated some of the arguments on either side; and although he silences the second speaker, he does not mean to prove him in the wrong. he is at one with the first speaker, when he suggests that certainty in matters of belief is no more to be desired than to be attained; but that personage regards uncertainty as justifying presumptions of a dogmatic kind; while its value to mr. browning lies precisely in its right to exclude them. and, again; while the value of spiritual conflict is largely emphasized in his works, he disagrees with the man of faith in "easter-day" as with the dogmatic believer in "christmas-eve," as to the manner in which it is to be carried on. according to these the spirit fights against life: according to him it fights in, and by means of, its opportunities. from his point of view human experience is an education: from theirs it is a snare. so much of personal truth as these poems contain will be found re-stated in "la saisiaz," written twenty-eight years later, and which impresses on it the seal of maturer thought and more direct expression. "la saisiaz" (savoyard for "the sun") is the name of a villa among the mountains near geneva, where mr. browning, with his sister and a friend of many years standing, spent part of the summer of . the poem so christened is addressed to this friend, and was inspired by her death: which took place with appalling suddenness while they were there together. the shock of the event re-opened the great questions which had long before been solved by mr. browning's mind: and within sight of the new-made grave, he re-laid the foundations of his faith, that there is another life for the soul. the argument is marked by a strong sense of the personal and therefore relative character of human experience and knowledge. it accepts the "subjective synthesis" of some non-theistic thinkers, though excluding, of course, the negations on which this rests; and its greater maturity is shown by the philosophic form in which the author's old religious doctrine of personal (or subjective) truth has been re-cast. he assumes here, it is true, that god and the soul exist. he considers their existence as given, in the double fact that there is something in us which thinks or perceives,[ ] and something outside and beyond us, which is perceived by it; and this subject and object, which he names the soul and god, are to him beyond the necessity of farther proof, because beyond the reach of it. he might therefore challenge for his conclusions something more than an optional belief. he guards himself, nevertheless, against imposing the verdict of his own experience on any other man: and both the question and the answer into which the poem resolves itself begin for his own spirit and end so. mr. browning knows himself a single point in the creative series of effect and cause: at the same moment one and the other: all behind and before him a blank. or, more helpless still, he is the rush, floated by a current, of which the whence and whither are independent of it, and which may land it to strike root again, or cast it ashore a wreck. he asks himself, as he is whirled on his "brief, blind voyage" down the stream of life, which of these fates it has in store for him. knowing this, that god and the soul exist--no less than this, and no more--he asks himself whether he is justified in believing that, because his present existence is beyond a doubt, its renewal is beyond doubt also: that the current, which has brought him thus far, will land him, not in destruction, but in another life. "everything," he declares, "in my experience--and i speak only of my own--testifies to the incompleteness of life, nay, even to its preponderating unhappiness. the strong body is found allied to a stunted soul. the soaring soul is chained by bodily weakness to the ground. help turns to hindrance, or discloses itself too late in what we have taken for such. every sweet brings its bitter, every light its shade; love is cut short by death:"-- "i must say--or choke in silence--'howsoever came my fate, sorrow did and joy did nowise,--life well-weighed,--preponderate.' by necessity ordained thus? i shall bear as best i can; by a cause all-good, all-wise, all-potent? no, as i am man! such were god: and was it goodness that the good within my range or had evil in admixture or grew evil's self by change? wisdom--that becoming wise meant making slow and sure advance from a knowledge proved in error to acknowledged ignorance? power? 'tis just the main assumption reason most revolts at! power unavailing for bestowment on its creature of an hour, man, of so much proper action rightly aimed and reaching aim, so much passion,--no defect there, no excess, but still the same,-- as what constitutes existence, pure perfection bright as brief for yon worm, man's fellow-creature, on yon happier world--its leaf! no, as i am man, i mourn the poverty i must impute: goodness, wisdom, power, all bounded, each a human attribute!" (vol. xiv. p. .) "if we regard this life as final, we must relinquish our conception of the power of god: for his work is then open to human judgment, in the light of which it yields only imperfect results." "but let us once assume that our present state is one of probation, intended by god as such: and every difficulty is solved. evil is no longer a mark of failure in the execution of the divine scheme: it becomes essential to it; my experience indeed represents it as such. i cannot conceive evil as abolished without abrogation of the laws of life. for it is not only bound up with all the good of life; it is often its vehicle. gain is enhanced by recent loss. ignorance places us nearest to knowledge. beauty is most precious, truth most potent, where ugliness and falsehood prevail; and what but the loss of love teaches us what its true value has been?" "may i then accept the conclusion that this life will be supplemented by a better one?" mr. browning initiates his final inquiry by declaring that he will accept only the testimony of fact. he rejects surmise, he seeks no answer in the beauties or in the voices of nature; none in the minds of his fellow-men; none even in the depths of his sentient self with its "aspiration" and "reminiscence:" its plausible assurances that god would be "unjust," and man "wronged," if a second life were not granted to us. and here he seems for a moment to deny, what he has elsewhere stated, and everywhere implied, in the poem: that his own spirit must be to him, despite its isolation and weakness, the one messenger of divine truth. but he is only saying the same thing in a different way. he rejects the spontaneous utterance of his own spirit; but relies on its conclusions. he rejects it as pleader; but constitutes it judge. and this distinction is carried out in a dialogue, in which fancy speaks for the spontaneous self; reason for the judicial--the one making its _thrusts_, and the other _parrying_ them. the question at issue has, however, slightly shifted its ground; and we find ourselves asking: not, "is the soul immortal?" but "what would be the consequence to life of its being proved so?" fancy. "the soul exists after death. i accept the surmise as certainty: and would see it put to use during life." reason. "the 'use' of it will be that the wise man will die at once: since death, in the absence of any supernatural law to the contrary, must be clear gain. the soul must fare better when it has ceased to be thwarted by the body; and we have no reason to suppose that the obstructions which have their purpose in this life would be renewed in a future one. are we happy? death rescues our happiness from its otherwise certain decay. are we sad? death cures the sadness. is life simply for us a weary compromise between hope and fear, between failure and attainment? death is still the deliverer. it must come some day. why not invoke it in a painless form when the first cloud appears upon our sky?" fancy. "then i concede this much: the certainty of the future life shall be saddled with the injunction to live out the present, or accept a proportionate penalty." reason. "in that case the wise man will live. but whether the part he chooses in it be that of actor or of looker-on, he will endure his life with indifference. relying on the promises of the future, he will take success or failure as it comes, and accept ignorance as a matter of course." fancy. "i concede more still. man shall not only be compelled to live: he shall know the value of life. he shall know that every moment he spends in it is gain or loss for the life to come--that every act he performs involves reward or punishment in it." reason. "then you abolish good and evil in their relation to man; for you abolish freedom of choice. no man is good because he obeys a law so obvious and so stringent as to leave him no choice; and such would be the moral law, if punishment were _demonstrated_ as following upon the breach of it; reward on its fulfilment. man is free, in his present state, to choose between good and evil--free therefore to be good; because he may believe, but has no demonstrated _certainty_, that his future welfare depends on it." it is thus made clear that only in man's present state of limited knowledge is a life of probation conceivable; while only on the hypothesis that this life is one of probation, can that of a future existence be maintained. mr. browning ends where he began, with a _hope_, which is practically a _belief_, because to his mind the only thinkable approach to it. a vivid description of the scenes amidst which the tragedy took place accompanies this discussion. "cleon" is a protest against the inadequacy of the earthly life; and the writer is supposed to be one of those greek poets or thinkers to whom st. paul alludes, in a line quoted from aratus in the acts, and which stands at the head of the poem. cleon believes in zeus under the attributes of the one god; but he sees nothing in his belief to warrant the hope of immortality; and his love of life is so intense and so untiring that this fact is very grievous to him. he is stating his case to an imaginary king--protus--his patron and friend; whose convictions are much the same as his own, but who thinks him in some degree removed from the common lot: since his achievements in philosophy and in art must procure him not only a more perfect existence, but in one sense a more lasting one. cleon protests against this idea. "he has," he admits, "done all which the king imputes to him. if he has not been a homer, a pheidias, or a terpander, his creative sympathies have united all three; and in thus passing from the simple to the complex, he has obeyed the law of progress, though at the risk perhaps of appearing a smaller man." "but his life has not been the more perfect on that account. perfection exists only in those more mechanical grades of being, in which joy is unconscious, but also self-sufficing. to grow in consciousness is to grow in the capability and in the desire for joy; to decline rather than advance, in the physical power of attaining it. man's soul expands; his 'physical recipiency' remains for ever bounded." "nor are his works a source of life to him either now or for the future. the conception of youth and strength and wisdom is not its reality: the knowing (and depicting) what joy is, is not the possession of it. and the surviving of his work, when he himself is dead, is but a mockery the more." it is all so horrible that he sometimes imagines another life, as unlimited in capability, as this in the desire, for joy, and dreams that zeus has revealed it. "but he has not revealed it, and therefore it will not be." st. paul is preaching at this very time, and protus sends a letter to be forwarded to him; but cleon does not admit that knowledge can reside in a "barbarian jew;" and gently rebukes his royal friend for inclining to such doctrine, which, as he has gathered from one who heard it, "can be held by no sane man." cleon constantly uses the word soul as antithesis to body: but he uses it in its ancient rather than its modern sense, as expressing the sentient life, not the spiritual; and this perhaps explains the anomaly of his believing that it is independent of the lower physical powers, and yet not destined to survive them. the epistle of karshish is addressed to a certain abib, the writer's master in the science of medicine. it is written from bethany; and the "strange medical experience" of which it treats, is the _case_ of lazarus, whom karshish has seen there. lazarus, as he relates, has been the subject of a prolonged epileptic trance, and his reason impaired by a too sudden awakening from it. he labours under the fixed idea that he was raised from the dead; and that the nazarene physician at whose command he rose (and who has since perished in a popular tumult) was no other than god: who for love's sake had taken human form, and worked and died for men. karshish regards the madness of this idea as beyond rational doubt: but he is perplexed and haunted by its consistency: by the manner in which this supposed vision of the heavenly life has transformed, even inverted the man's judgment of earthly things. he combats the impression as best he can: recounts his scientific discoveries--the new plants, minerals, sicknesses, or cures to which his travels in judea have introduced him; half apologizes for his digression from these more important matters; tries to excuse the hold which lazarus has taken upon him by the circumstances in which they met; and breaks out at last in this agitated appeal to abib and the truth:-- "the very god! think, abib; dost thou think so, the all-great, were the all-loving too-- * * * * * the madman saith he said so: it is strange." (vol. iv. p. .) the solitary sage alluded to is of course imaginary. like the doubtful messenger to whom the letter will be entrusted, he helps to mark the incidental character with which karshish strives to invest his "experience." "caliban upon setebos" carries us into an opposite sphere of thought. it has for its text these words from psalm : _thou thoughtest that i was altogether such an one as thyself_: and is the picture of an acute but half savage mind, building up the deity on its own pattern. caliban is much exercised by the government of the world, and by the probable nature of its ruler; and he has niched an hour from his tasks, on a summer noon, when prospero and miranda are taking his diligence upon trust, to go and sprawl full length in the mud of some cave, and talk the problem out. the attitude is described, as his reflections are carried on, in his own words; but he speaks as children do, in the third person. caliban worships setebos, god of the patagonians, as did his mother before him; but her creed was the higher of the two, because it included what his does not: the idea of a future life. he differs from her also in a more original way. for she held that a greater power than setebos had made the world, leaving setebos merely to "vex" it; while he contends that whoever made the world and its weakness, did so for the pleasure of vexing it himself; and that this greater power, the "quiet," if it really exists, is above pain or pleasure, and had no motive for such a proceeding. setebos is thus, according to caliban, a secondary divinity. he may have been created by the quiet, or may have driven it off the field; but in either case his position is the same. he is one step nearer to the human nature which he cannot assume. he lives in the moon, caliban thinks, and dislikes its "cold," while he cannot escape from it. to relieve his discomfort, half in impatience half in sport, he has made human beings; thus giving himself the pleasure of seeing others do what he cannot, and of mocking them as his playthings at the same time. this theory of creation is derived from caliban's own experience. in like manner, when he has got drunk on fermented fruits, and feels he would like to fly, he pinches up a clay bird, and sends it into the air; and if its leg snaps off, and it entreats him to stop the smarting, or make the leg grow again, he may give it two more, or he may break off the remaining one; just to show the thing that he can do with it what he likes. he also presumes that setebos is envious, because _he_ is so; as for instance: if he made a pipe to catch birds with, and the pipe boasted: "_i_ catch the birds. _i_ make a cry which my maker can't make unless he blows through me," he would smash it on the spot. for the rest he imagines that setebos, like himself, is neither kind nor cruel, but simply acts on all possible occasions as his fancy prompts him. the one thing which would arouse his own hostility, and therefore that of setebos, would be that any creature should think he is ever prompted by anything else; or that his adopting a certain course one day would be a reason for following it on the next. guided by these analogies--which he illustrates with much quaintness and variety--caliban humours setebos, always pretending to be envious of him, and never allowing himself to seem too happy. he moans in the sunlight, gets under holes to laugh, and only ventures to think aloud, when out of sight and hearing, as he is at the present moment. thus sheltered, however, he makes too free with his tongue. he risks the expression of a hope that old age, or the quiet, will some day make an end of his creator, whom he loves none the better for being so like himself. and in another moment he is crouching in abject fear: for an awful thunderstorm has broken out. "that raven scudding away 'has told him all.'" "lo! 'lieth flat and loveth setebos!" (vol. vii. p. .) and will do anything to please him so that he escape this time. the most impressive of the dramatic monologues, "a death in the desert," detaches itself from this double group. it is contemplative in tone, but inspired by a formed conviction, and, dramatically at least, by an instructive purpose; and thus becomes the centre of another small division of mr. browning's poems, which for want of a less ugly and hackneyed word we may call "didactic." didactic poems. the poems contained in this group are, taking them in the order of their importance, "a death in the desert." dramatis personæ. . "rabbi ben ezra." dramatis personæ. . "deaf and dumb: a group by woolner." dramatis personæ. . "the statue and the bust." dramatic romances. published in "men and women." . "a death in the desert" is the record of an imaginary last scene in the life of st. john. it is conceived in perfect harmony with the facts of the case: the great age which the evangelist attained: the mystery which shrouded his death: the persecutions which had overtaken the church: the heresies which already threatened to disturb it; but mr. browning has given to st. john a foreknowledge of that age of philosophic doubt in which its very foundations would be shaken; and has made him the exponent of his own belief--already hinted in "easter eve" and "bishop blougram:" to be fully set forth in "the ring and the book" and "la saisiaz"--that such doubt is ordained for the maturer mind, as the test of faith, and its preserver. the supposed last words of the evangelist, and the circumstances in which they were spoken, are reported by loving simplicity as by one who heard them, and who puts forward this evidence of st. john's death against the current belief that he lingers yet upon earth. the account, first spoken, then written, has passed apparently from hand to hand, as one disciple after the other died the martyr's death; and we find the ms. in the possession of an unnamed person, and prefaced by him with a descriptive note, in which religious reverence and bibliographical interest are touchingly blended with each other. st. john is dying in the desert, concealed in an inmost chamber of the rock. four grown disciples and a boy are with him. he lies as if in sleep. but, as the end approaches, faint signs of consciousness appear about the mouth and eyes, and the patient and loving ministrations of those about him nurse the flickering vital spark into a flame. st. john returns to life, feeling, as it were, the retreating soul forced back upon the ashes of his brain, and taxing the flesh to one supreme exertion. but he lives again in a far off time when "john" is dead, and there is no one left who _saw_. and he lives in a sense as of decrepit age, seeking a "foot-hold through a blank profound;" grasping at facts which snap beneath his touch; in strange lands, and among people yet unborn, who ask, "was john at all, and did he say he saw?" (vol vii. p. .) and will believe nothing till the proof be proved. this prophetic self-consciousness does not, however, displace the memory of his former self. john knows himself the man who _heard_ and _saw_--receiving the words of christ from his own mouth, and enduring those glories of apocalyptic vision which he marvels that he could bear, and live; seeing truths already plain grow of their own strength: and those he guessed as points expanding into stars. and the life-long faith regains its active power as the doubting future takes shape before him; as he sees its children "... stand conversing, each new face either in fields, of yellow summer eves, on islets yet unnamed amid the sea; or pace for shelter 'neath a portico out of the crowd in some enormous town where now the larks sing in a solitude: or muse upon blank heaps of stone and sand idly conjectured to be ephesus:...." (vol. vii. p. .) and he hears them questioning truths of deeper import than those of his own life and work. the subsequent monologue is an earnest endeavour to answer those questionings, which he sets forth, in order that he may do so; his eloquence being perhaps the more pathetic, that in the depth of his own conviction--in his loving desire to impart it--he assumes a great deal of what he tries to prove. "he has _seen_ it all--the miracle of that life and death; the need, and yet the transiency, of death and sin; the constant presence of the divine love; those things which not only _were_ to him, but _are_. and he is called upon to prove it to those who _cannot see_: whose spirit is darkened by the veil of fleshly strength, while his own lies all but bare to the contact of the heavenly light. he must needs be as an optic-glass, bringing those things before them, not in confusing nearness, but at the right historic distance from the eye." "life," he admits, "is given to us that we may learn the truth. but the soul does not learn from it as the flesh does. for the flesh has little time to stay, and must gain its lesson once and for all. man needs no second proof of the worth of fire: once found, he would not part with it for gold. but the highest spiritual certainty is not like our conviction of a bodily fact; and though we know the worth of christ as we know the preciousness of fire, we may not in like manner grasp this truth, acknowledging it in our lives. he--john--in whose sight his lord had been transfigured, had walked upon the waters, and raised the dead to life: _he, too_, forsook him when the 'noise' and 'torchlight,' and the 'sudden roman faces,' and the 'violent hands' were upon them...." the doubter, he imagines, will argue thus, taking "john's" gospel for his starting-point:-- (_a_) "your story is proved inaccurate, if not untrue. the doctrine which rests upon it is therefore unproved, except in so far as it is attested by the human heart. and this proof again is invalid. for the doctrine is that of divine love; and we, who believe in love, because we ourselves possess it, may read it into a record in which it has no place. man, in his mental infancy, read his own emotions and his own will into the forces of nature, as he clothed their supposed personal existence in his own face and form. but his growing understanding discarded the idea of these material gods. it now replaces the idea of the one divine intelligence by that of universal law. god is proved to us as law--'named,' but 'not known.' a divinity, which we can recognize by like attributes to our own, is disproved by them." (_b_) "and granting that there is truth in your teaching: why is this allowed to mislead us? why are we left to hit or miss the truth, according as our insight is weak or strong, instead of being plainly told this thing _was_, or it _was not_? does 'john' proceed with us as did the heathen bard, who drew a fictitious picture of the manner in which fire had been given to man; and left his readers to discover that the fact was not the fable itself, but only contained in it?" and john replies: (_a_) "man is made for progress, and receives therefore, step by step, such spiritual assistance as is proportionate to his strength. the testimony of miracles is granted when it is needed to assist faith. it is withdrawn so soon as it would compel it. he who rejects god's love in christ because _he_ has learned the need of love, is as the lamp which overswims with oil, the stomach which flags from excess of food: his mind is being starved by the very abundance of what was meant to nourish it. man was spiritually living, when he shrank appalled from the spectacle of nature, and needed to be assured that there was a might beyond _its_ might. but when he says, 'since might is everywhere, there is no need of will;' though he knows from his own experience how might may combine with will, then is he spiritually dead. and man is spiritually living, when he asks if there be love "behind the will and might, as real as they?" (vol. vii. p. .) but when he reasons: since love is everywhere, and we love and would be loved, we make the love which we recognize as christ: and christ was _not_; then is he spiritually dead. for the loss which comes through gain is death, and the sole death." (_b_) the second objection he answers by reverting to his first statement. "man is made for progress. he could not progress if his doubtings were at once changed to certainties, and all he struggles for at once found. he must yearn for truth, and grasp at error as a 'midway help' to it. he must learn and unlearn. he must creep from fancies on to fact; and correct to-day's facts by the light of to-morrow's knowledge. he must be as the sculptor, who evokes a life-like form from a lump of clay, ever seeing the reality in a series of false presentments; attaining it through them, god alone makes the live shape at a jet." the tenderness which has underlain even john's remonstrances culminates in his closing words. "if there be a greater woe than this (the doubt) which he has lived to see, may he," he says, "be 'absent,' though it were for another hundred years, plucking the blind ones from the abyss." "but he was dead." (vol. vii. p. .) the record has a postscript, written not by the same person, but in his name, confronting the opinions of st. john with those of cerinthus, his noted opponent in belief, into whose hands the ms. is also supposed to have fallen. it is chiefly interesting as heightening the historical effect of the poem.[ ] "rabbi ben ezra" is the expression of a religious philosophy which, being, from another point of view, mr. browning's own, has much in common with that which he has imputed to st. john; and, as "a death in the desert" only gave the words which the evangelist might have spoken, so is "rabbi ben ezra" only the possible utterance of that pious and learned jew. but the christian doctrine of the one poem brings into strong relief the pure theism of the other; and the religious imagination in "rabbi ben ezra" is strongly touched with the gorgeous and solemn realism which distinguishes the old testament from the new. the most striking feature of rabbi ben ezra's philosophy is his estimate of age. according to him the soul is eternal, but it completes the first stage of its experience in the earthly life; and the climax of the earthly life is attained, not in the middle of it, but at its close. age is therefore a period, not only of rest, but of fruition. "spiritual conflict is appropriate to youth. it is well that youth should sigh for the impossible, and, if needs be, blunder in the endeavour to improve what is. he would be a brute whose body could keep pace with his soul. the highest test of man's bodily powers is the distance to which they can project the soul on the way which it must travel alone." "but life in the flesh is good, showering gifts alike on sense and brain. it is right that at some period of its existence man's heart should beat in unison with it; that having seen god's power in the scheme of creation, he should also see the perfectness of his love; that he should thank him for his manhood, for the power conferred on him to live and learn. and this boon must be granted by age, which gathers in the inheritance of youth." "the inheritance is not one of earthly wisdom. man learns to know the right and the good, but he does not learn how outwardly to apply the knowledge; for human judgments are formed to differ, and there is no one who can arbitrate between them. man's failure or success must be sought in the unseen life--not in that which he has done, but in that which he has aspired to do." "nothing dies or changes which has truly been. the flight of time is but the spinning of the potter's wheel to which we are as clay. this fleeing circumstance is but the machinery which stamps the soul (that vessel moulded for the great master's hand). and its latest impress is the best: though the base of the cup be adorned with laughing loves, while skull-like images constitute its rim." "look not thou down but up! to uses of a cup, the festal board, lamp's flash and trumpet's-peal, the new wine's foaming flow, the master's lips a-glow! thou, heaven's consummate cup, what needst thou with earth's wheel?" (vol. vii. p. ) "deaf and dumb" conveys, in a single stanza, the crowning lesson of the life of paracelsus, and indeed of every human life: for the sculptured figures to which it refers have supplied the poet with an example of the "glory" which may "arise" from "defect," the power from limitation. it needs, he says, the obstructing prism to set free the rainbow hues of the sunbeam. only dumbness can give to love the full eloquence of the eyes; only deafness can impress love's yearnings on the movements of neck and face. "the statue and the bust" is a warning against infirmity of purpose. its lesson is embodied in a picturesque story, in which fact and fiction are combined. in the piazza of the ss. annunziata at florence is an equestrian statue of the grand duke ferdinand the first, representing him as riding away from the church, and with his head turned in the direction of the once riccardi palace, which occupies a corner of the square. tradition asserts that he loved a lady whom her husband's jealousy kept a prisoner there, and whom he could only see at her window; and that he avenged his love by placing himself in effigy where his glance could always dwell upon her. in mr. browning's expanded version, the love is returned, and the lovers determine to fly together. but each day brings fresh motives for postponing the flight, and each day they exchange glances with each other--he passing by on his horse, she looking down from her window--and comfort themselves with the thought of the morrow. and as the days slip by, their love grows cooler, and they learn to be content with expectation. they realize at last that the love has been a dream, and that they have spent their youth in dreaming it; and in order that the dream may continue, and the memory of their lost youth be preserved, they cause, he his statue to be cast, she her bust to be moulded, and each placed in the attitude in which they have daily looked upon each other. they feel the irony of the proceeding, though they find satisfaction in it. their image will do all that the reality has done. mr. browning blames these lovers for not carrying out their intention, whether or not it could be pronounced a good one. "man should carry his best energies into the game of life, whether the stake he is playing for be good or bad--a reality or a sham. as a test of energy, the one has no value above the other." he leaves the "bust" in the region of fancy, by stating that it no longer exists. but he tells us that it was executed in "della robbia" ware, specimens of which, still, at the time he wrote, adorned the outer cornice of the palace. the statue is one of the finest works of john of bologna. the partial darkening of the via larga by the over-hanging mass of the riccardi (formerly medici) palace[ ] is figuratively connected in the poem with the "crime" of two of its inmates: the "murder," by cosimo dei medici and his (grand) son lorenzo, of the liberties of the florentine republic. the smallness of this group, and its chiefly dramatic character, show how little direct teaching mr. browning's works contain. there is, however, direct instructiveness in another and larger group, which has too much in common with all three foregoing to be included in either, and will be best indicated by the term "critical." in certain respects, indeed, this applies to several, perhaps to most, of those which i have placed under other heads; and i use it rather to denote a lighter tone and more incidental treatment, than any radical difference of subject or intention. critical poems. "old pictures in florence." } dramatic lyrics. "respectability." } published in "men "popularity." } and women." "master hugues of saxe-gotha." } . "a light woman." dramatic romances. published in "men and women." . "transcendentalism." ("men and women.") . "how it strikes a contemporary." ("men and women.") . "dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours." ("dramatis personæ.") . "at the mermaid." } "house." } "shop." } "pacchiarotto, and other "pisgah sights," i. and ii. } poems." . "bifurcation." } "epilogue." } the first and fourth of these are significant from the insight they give into mr. browning's conception of art. we must allow, in reading them, for the dramatic and therefore temporary mood in which they were written, and deduct certain utterances which seem inconsistent with the breadth of the author's views. but they reflect him truly in this essential fact, that he considers art as subordinate to life, and only valuable in so far as it expresses it. this means, not that his standard is realistic: but that it is entirely human; it could scarcely be otherwise in a mind so devoted to the study of human life; but these very poems display also, on mr. browning's part, a loving familiarity with the works of painters, sculptors, and musicians, and a practical understanding of them, which might easily have resulted in a partial acceptance of artistic standards as such, and of the policy of art for art; and it is only through the breadth and strength of his dramatic genius, that artistic sympathies in themselves so strong could be subjected to it. in music, this position appears at first sight to be reversed; for mr. browning rejects the dramatic theory which would convert it into a direct expression of human thought. here, however, the poet in him comes into play. he leaves the plastic arts to express what may be both felt and thought; and calls on music to express what may be felt but not thought. in this sense he accepts it as an independent science subject to its own ideals and to its own laws. but this only means that, in his opinion, the relation of music to human life is different from that of plastic art: the one revealing the unknown, while the other embodies what is known. "old pictures in florence" is a fanciful monologue, spoken as by one who is looking down upon florence, through her magical atmosphere, from a villa on the neighbouring heights. the sight of her campanile brings giotto to his mind; and with giotto comes a vision of all the dead old masters who mingle in spirit with her living men. he sees them each haunting the scene of his former labours in church or chapter-room, cloister or crypt; and he sees them grieving over the decay of their works, as these fade and moulder under the hand of time. he is also conscious that they do not grieve for themselves. earthly praise or neglect cannot touch them more. but they have had a lesson to teach; and so long as the world has not learnt the lesson, their souls may not rest in heaven. "greek art had _its_ lesson to teach, and it taught it. it reasserted the dignity of the human form. it re-stated _the truth_ of the soul which informs the body, and the body which expresses it. men saw in its creations their own qualities carried to perfection, and were content to know that such perfection was possible, and to renounce the hope of attaining it. in this experience the first stage was progress; the second was stagnation. progress began again, when men looked on these images of themselves and said: "we are not inferior to these. we are greater than they. for what has come to perfection perishes, and we are imperfect because eternity is before us; because we were made to _grow_." the soul which has eternity within its grasp cannot express itself in a single glance; nor can its consciousness be petrified into an unchanging sorrow or joy. the painters who set aside greek art undertook to vindicate the activity of the soul. they made its hopes and fears shine through the flesh, though the flesh they shone through were frayed and torn by the process. this was the work which they had to do; and which remains undone, while men speak of them as "old master" this, and "early" the other, and do not dream that "old" and "new" are fellows: "that all are links in the chain of the one progressive art life; the one spiritual revelation." the speaker now relapses into the playful mood which his more serious reflections have scarcely interrupted. he thinks of the removable paintings which lie hidden in cloister or church, and which a sympathizing purchaser might rescue from decay; and he reproaches those melancholy ghosts for not guiding such purchasers to them. he, for instance, does not aspire to the works of the very great; but a number of lesser lights, whose name and quality he recites, might, he thinks, have lent themselves to the fulfilment of his artistic desires;[ ] and he declares himself particularly hurt by the conduct of his old friend giotto, who has allowed some picture he had been hunting through every church in florence to fall into other hands. he concludes with an invocation to a future time when the grand duke will have been pitched across the alps, when art and the republic will revive together, and when giotto's campanile will be completed--which glorious consummation, though he may not live to see, he considers himself the first to predict. mr. browning alludes, in the course of this monologue, to the two opposite theories of human probation: one confining it to this life, the other extending it through a series of future existences; and without pronouncing on their relative truth, he owns himself in sympathy with the former. he is tired and likes to think of rest. the sentiment is, however, not in harmony with his general views, and belongs to the dramatic aspect of the poem.[ ] master hugues of saxe gotha, also a monologue, is christened after an imaginary composer; and consists of a running comment on one of his fugues, as performed by the organist of some unnamed church. the latter has just played it through: the scored brow and deep-set eyes of master hugues fixed on him, as he fancied, from the shade; and he now imagines he hears him say, "you have done justice to the notes of my piece, but you must grasp its meaning to understand where my merit lies;" so he plays the fugue again, listening for the meaning, and reading it as out of a book. from this literary or dramatic point of view, the impression received is as follows. some one lays down a proposition, unimportant in itself, and not justly open to either praise or blame. nevertheless a second person retorts on it, a third interposes, a fourth rejoins, and a fifth thrusts his nose into the matter. the five are fully launched into a quarrel. the quarrel grows broader and deeper. number one restates his case somewhat differently. number two takes it up on its new ground. argument is followed by vociferation and abuse; a momentary self-restraint by a fresh outbreak of self-assertion. all tempers come into play, all modes of attack are employed, from pounding with a crowbar to pricking with a pin. and where all this time is music? where is the gold of truth? spun over and blackened by the tissue of jangling sounds, as is the ceiling of the old church by cobwebs. "is it your moral of life? such a web, simple and subtle, weave we on earth here in impotent strife, backward and forward each throwing his shuttle, death ending all with a knife?" (vol. vi. p. ) the organist admires master hugues, and approaches his creations with an open mind; but he cannot help feeling that this mode of composition represents the tortuousness of existence, and that its "truth" spreads golden above and about us, whether we accept her or not. he ends by bidding master hugues and the five speakers clear the arena; and leave him to "unstop the full organ," and "blare out," in the "mode palestrina," what another musician has had to say. this scene in an organ loft has many humorous touches which would in any case forbid our taking it too seriously; and we must no more think of mr. browning as indifferent to the possible merits of a fugue than as indifferent to the beauties of a greek statue. but the dramatic situation has in this, as in the foregoing case, a strong basis of personal truth. two more of these poems show the irony of circumstance as embodied in popular opinion. "popularity" is an expression of admiring tenderness for some person whom the supposed speaker knows and loves as a poet, though it is the coming, not the present age, which will bow to him as such. but the main idea of the poem is set forth in a comparison. the speaker "sees" his friend in the character of an ancient fisherman landing the murex-fish on the tyrian shore. "the 'murex' contains a dye of miraculous beauty; and this once extracted and bottled, hobbs, nobbs, and co. may trade in it and feast; but the poet who (figuratively) brought the murex to land, and created its value, may, as keats probably did, eat porridge all his life." "how it strikes a contemporary" describes a poet whose personality was not ignored, but mistaken; and the irony of circumstance is displayed both in the extent of this mistake, and the colour which circumstance has given to it. this poet is a mysterious personage, who constantly wanders through the city, seeing everything without appearing to use his eyes. his clothing, though old and worn, has been of the fashion of the court. he writes long letters, which are obviously addressed to "our lord the king," and "which, no doubt, have had to do with the disappearance of a., and the fate of b." he can be, people think, no other than a _spy_. a spy, we must admit, might proceed in much the same manner. mr. browning does, however, full justice to the excesses of popular imagination, once directed into a given channel, in the parallel touches which depict the portentous luxury in which the spy is supposed to live: the poor though decent garret in which the poet dies. "transcendentalism" is addressed to a young poet, who is accused of presenting his ideas "naked," instead of draping them, in poetic fashion, in sights and sounds: in other words, of talking across his harp instead of singing to it. he acts on the supposition that, if the young want imagery, older men want rational thoughts. and his critic is declaring this a mistake. "youth, indeed, would be wasted in studying the transcendental jacob boehme for the deeper meaning of things which life gives it to see and feel; but when youth is past, we need all the more to be made to see and feel. it is not a thinker like boehme who will compensate us for the lost summer of our life; but a magician like john of halberstadt, who can, at any moment, conjure roses up."[ ] there is a strong vein of humour in the argument, which gives the impression of being consciously overstated. it is neverthess a genuine piece of criticism. "at the mermaid" and the "epilogue" deal with public opinion in its general estimate of poets and poetry; and they expose its fallacies in a combative spirit, which would exclude them from a more rigorous definition of the term "critical." in the first of these mr. browning speaks under the mask of shakespeare, and gives vent to the natural irritation of any great dramatist who sees his various characters identified with himself. he repudiates the idea that the writings of a dramatic poet reveal him as a man, however voluminous they may be; and on this ground he even rejects the transcendent title to fame which his contemporaries have adjudged to him. they know him in his work. they cannot, he says, know him in his _life_. he has never given them the opportunity of doing so. he has allowed no one to slip inside his soul, and "label" and "catalogue" what he found there. this is truer for shakespeare than for mr. browning, who has often addressed his public with comparative directness, and would be grieved to have it thought that in the long course of his writings he has never spoken from his heart. he would also be the first to admit that, in the course of his writings, the poet must, indirectly, reveal the man. but he has too often had to defend himself against the impression that whatever he wrote as a poet must directly reflect him as a man. he has too often had to repeat, that poetry is an art which "_makes_" not one which merely _records_; and that the feelings it conveys are no more necessarily supplied by direct experience than are its facts by the cyclopædia. and with the usual deduction for the dramatic mood, we may accept the retort as genuine. i have departed in the case of this poem from the mere statement of contents, which is all that my plan admits of, or my readers usually can desire: because it expresses an indifference to general sympathy which belies the author's feeling in the matter. mr. browning speaks equally for himself and shakespeare, when he derides another idea which he considers to be popular: that the fit condition of the poet is melancholy. "i," he declares, "have found life joyous, and i speak of it as such. let those do otherwise who have wasted its opportunities, or been less richly endowed with them." the "epilogue" is a criticism on critics, and is spoken distinctly by mr. browning himself. he takes for his text a line from mrs. browning:[ ] "the poets pour us wine," and denounces those consumers of the wine of poetry, who expect it to combine strength and sweetness in an impossible degree. body and bouquet, he affirms, may be found on the label of a bottle, but not in the vat from which the bottle was filled. "mighty" and "mellow" may be born at once; but the one is for now, the other only for after-time. the earth, he declares, is his vineyard; his grape, the loves, the hates, and the thoughts of man; his wine, what these have made it. bouquet may, he admits, be artificially given. flowers grow everywhere which will supplement the flavour of the grape; and his life holds flowers of memory, which blossom with every spring. but he denies that his brew would be the more popular if he stripped his meadow to make it so. how much do his public drink of that which they profess to approve? they declare shakespeare and milton fit beverage for man and boy. "look into their cellars, and see how many barrels are unbroached of the one brand, what drippings content them of the other. he will be true to his task, and to him who set it." "wine, pulse in might from me! it may never emerge in must from vat, never fill cask nor furnish can, never end sweet, which strong began-- god's gift to gladden the heart of man; but spirit's at proof, i promise that! no sparing of juice spoils what should be fit brewage--mine for me." (vol. xiv. p. ) at the th stanza the figure is changed, and mr. browning speaks of his work (by implication) as a stretch of country which is moor above and mine below; and in which men will find--what they dig for. "house" is written in much the same spirit as "at the mermaid." it reminds us that the whole front of a dwelling must come down before the life within it can be gauged by the vulgar eye; however we may fancy that this or that poetic utterance has unlocked the door--that it opens to a "sonnet-key."[ ] "shop" is a criticism on those writers, poets or otherwise, who are so disproportionately absorbed by the material cares of existence as to place the good of literature in its money-making power; and depicts such in the character of the shopman who makes the shop his home, instead of leaving it for some mansion or villa as soon as business hours are past. "the flesh must live, but why should not the spirit have its dues also?" "respectability" is a comment on the price paid for social position. a pair of lovers have been enjoying a harmless escapade; and one remarks to the other that, if their relation had been recognized by the world, they might have wasted their youth in the midst of proprieties which they would never have learned the danger and the pleasure of infringing. the situation is barely sketched in; but the sentiment of the poem is well marked, and connects it with the foregoing group. "a light woman," "dÎs aliter visum," and "bifurcation" raise questions of conduct. a man desires to extricate his friend from the toils of "a light woman;" and to this end he courts her himself. he is older and more renowned than her present victim, and trusts to her vanity to ensure his success. but his attentions arouse in her something more. he discovers too late that he has won her heart. he can only cast it away, and a question therefore arises: he knows how he appears to his friend; he knows how he will appear to the woman whom his friend loved; "how does he appear to himself?" in other words, did the end for which he has acted justify the means employed? he doubts it. "dÎs aliter visum" records the verdict of later days on a decision which recommended itself at the time: that is, to the person who formed it. a man and woman are attracted towards each other, though she is young and unformed; he, old in years and in experience; and he is, or seems to be, on the point of offering her his hand. but caution checks the impulse. they drift asunder. he forms a connection with an opera-dancer. she makes a loveless marriage. ten years later they meet again; and she reminds him of what passed between them, and taxes him with the ruin of four souls. he has thought only of the drawbacks to _present_ enjoyment, which the unequal union would have involved; he never thought or cared how its bitter-sweetness might quicken the striving for eternity. this criticism reflects the woman's point of view, and was probably intended to justify it. it does not follow that the author would not, in another dramatic mood, have justified the man, in his more practical estimate of the situation. mr. browning's poetic self is, however, expressed in the woman's belief: that everything which disturbs the equal balance of human life gives a vital impulse to the soul. the stereotyped completeness of the lower existences supplies him here also with a warning. the title of "bifurcation" refers to two paths in life, followed respectively by two lovers whom circumstances divide. the case is not unusual. the woman sacrifices love to duty, and expects her lover to content himself with her choice. why not, she thinks? she will be constant to him; they will be united in the life to come. and meanwhile, she is choosing what for her is the smoother and safer path, while for him it is full of stumbling-blocks. love's guidance is refused him, and he falls. which of these two has been the sinner: he who sinned unwillingly, or she who caused the sin? we feel that mr. browning condemns the apparent saint. "pisgah sights. i." depicts life as it may _seem_ to one who is leaving it; who is, as it were, "looking over the ball." as seen from this position, good and evil are reconciled, and even prove themselves indispensable to each other. the seer becomes aware that it is unwise to strive against the mixed nature of existence; vain to speculate on its cause. but the knowledge is bittersweet, for it comes too late. "pisgah sights. ii." is a view of life as it _might_ be, if the knowledge just described did not come too late; and shows that according to mr. browning's philosophy it would be no life at all. the speaker declares that if he had to live again, he would take everything as he found it. he would neither dive nor soar; he would strive neither to teach nor to reform. he would keep to the soft and shady paths; learn by quiet observation; and allow men of all kinds to pass him by, while he remained a fixture. he would gain the benefit of the distance with those below and above him, since he would be magnified for the one class, while seen from a softening point of view by the other. and so also he would admire the distant brightness, "the mightiness yonder," the more for keeping his own place. if seen too closely, _the star might prove a glow-worm_. emotional poems. love. those of mr. browning's poems which are directly prompted by thought have their counterpart in a large number which are specially inspired by emotion; and must be noticed as such. but this group will perhaps be the most artificial of all; for while thought is with him often uncoloured by feeling, he seldom expresses feeling as detached from thought. the majority, for instance, of his love poems are introduced by the title "dramatic," and describe love as bound up with such varieties of life and character, that questions of life and character are necessarily raised by them; the emotion thus conveyed being really more intense, because more individual, than could be given in any purely lyric effusion not warmed by the poet's own life. some few, however, are genuine lyrics, whether regarded as personal utterances or not; and in the case of two or three of these, the personal utterance is unmistakable. under the head of lyrical love poems must be placed "one word more," to e. b. b. ("men and women." .) "prospice." ("dramatis personæ." .) "numpholeptos." } "prologue." } "pacchiarotto and other poems." "natural magic." } . "magical nature." } "introduction." } "the two poets of croisic." "a tale." } . "one word more" is a message of love, as direct as it is beautiful; but as such it also expresses an idea which makes it a fitting object of study. most men and women lay their highest gift at the feet of him or of her they love, and with it such honour as the world may render it. they value both, as making them more worthy of those they love, and for their sake rejoice in the possession. mr. browning feels otherwise. according to him the gifts by which we are known to the world have lost graciousness through its contact. their exercise is marred by its remembered churlishness and ingratitude. every artist, he declares, longs "once" and for "one only," to utter himself in a language distinct from his art; to "gain" in this manner, "the man's joy," while escaping "the artist's sorrow." so raphael, the painter, wrote a volume of sonnets to be seen only by one. dante, poet of the "inferno," drew an angel in memory of the one (of beatrice). he--mr. browning--has only his verse to offer. but as the fresco painter steals a camel's hair brush to paint flowerets on his lady's missal--as he who blows through bronze may also breathe through silver for the purpose of a serenade, so may _he_ lend his talent to a different use. he has completed his volume of "men" and "women." he dedicates it to her to whom this poem is addressed. but his special offering to her is not the book itself, in which he speaks with the mouth of fifty other persons, but the word of dedication--the "one word more"--in which he speaks to her from his own. the dramatic turns lyric poet for the _one only_. and what he says of himself, he in some degree thinks of her. the moon, he reminds her, presents always the same surface to the world: whether new-born, waxing, or waning; whether, as they late saw her, radiant above the hills of florence; or, as she now appears to them, palely hurrying to her death over london house-tops. but for the "moonstruck mortal" she holds another side, glorious or terrible as the case may be--unknown alike to herdsman and huntsman, philosopher and poet, among the rest of mankind. so she, who is his moon of poets, has also her world's side, which he can see and praise with the rest; "but the best is when i glide from out them, cross a step or two of dubious twilight, come out on the other side, the novel silent silver lights and darks undreamed of, where i hush and bless myself with silence." (vol. iv. p. .) "prospice" (look forward) is a challenge to spiritual conflict, exultant with the certainty of victory, glowing with the prospective joy of re-union with one whom death has sent before. we cannot doubt that this poem, like the preceding, came from the depths of the poet's own heart. "numpholeptos" (caught by a nymph) is passionately earnest in tone, and must rank as lyrical in spite of the dramatic, at least fantastic, circumstance in which the feeling is clothed. it is the almost despairing cry of a human love, devoted to a being of superhuman purity; and who does not reject the love, but accepts it on an impossible condition: that the lover shall complete himself as a man by acquiring the fullest knowledge of life, and shall emerge unsullied from its experiences. this woman, more or less than mortal, belongs rather to the "fairyland of science" than to the realm of mythology. she stands, in passionless repose, at the starting-point of the various paths of earthly existence. these radiate from her, many-hued with passion and adventure, as light rays scattered by a prism; and, in the mocking hopes with which she invests their course, she seems herself the cold white light, of which their glow is born, and into which it will also die. she bids her worshipper travel down each red and yellow ray, bathe in its hues, and return to her "jewelled," but not smirched; and each time he returns, not jewelled, but smirched; always to appear monstrous in her sight; always to be dismissed with the same sad smile: so pitying that it promises love, so fixed that it bars its possibility. he rebels at last, but the rebellion is momentary. he renews his hopeless quest. "prologue" is a fanciful expression of the ideas of impediment visible and invisible, which may be raised by the aspect of a brick wall; such a one, perhaps, as projects at a right angle to the window of mr. browning's study, and was before him when he wrote. "natural magic" attests the power of love to bring, as by enchantment, summer with its warmth and blossoms, into a barren life. "magical nature" is a tribute to the beauty of countenance which proceeds from the soul, and has therefore a charmed existence defying the hand of time. the introduction to the "two poets of croisic," (reprinted under the title of "apparitions,") recalls the sentiment of "natural magic." the "tale" with which it concludes is inspired by the same feeling. its circumstance is ancient, and the reader is allowed to imagine that it exists in latin or greek; but it is simply a poetic and profound illustration of what love can do always and everywhere. a famous poet was singing to his lyre. one of its strings snapped. the melody would have been lost, had not a cricket (properly, cicada) flown on to the lyre and chirped the missing note. the note, thus sounded, was more beautiful than as produced by the instrument itself, and, to the song's end, the cricket remained to do the work of the broken string. the poet, in his gratitude, had a statue of himself made with the lyre in his hand, and the cricket perched on the point of it. they were thus immortalized together: she, whom he had enthroned, he, whom she had crowned. love is the cricket which repairs the broken harmonies of life. the dramatic setting of the majority of the love poems serves, as i have said, to bring out the vitality of mr. browning's conception of love; and though anything like labelling a poet's work brings with it a sense of anomaly, we shall only carry out the spirit of this particular group by connecting each member of it with the condition of thought or feeling it is made to illustrate. it will be seen that the dramatic lyrics and dramatic romances, which supply so many of the poems of the following and other groups, had been largely recruited from the first collection of "men and women;" having first, in several instances, contributed to that work. dramatic love poems. "cristina." (love as the special gain of life.) "dramatic lyrics." . "evelyn hope." (love as conquering time.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "love among the ruins." (love as the one lasting reality.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "a lover's quarrel." (love as the great harmony which triumphs over smaller discords.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "by the fireside." (love in its ideal maturity.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "any wife to any husband." (love in its ideal of constancy.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "two in the campagna." (love as an unsatisfied yearning.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "love in a life." (love as indomitable purpose.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "life in a love." (love as indomitable purpose.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "the lost mistress." (love as the completeness of self-surrender.) "dramatic lyrics." . "a woman's last word." (love as the completeness of self-surrender.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "a serenade at the villa." (love as the completeness of self-surrender.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "one way of love." (love as the completeness of self-surrender.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "rudel to the lady of tripoli." (love as the completeness of self-surrender.) "men and women." published in "dramatic lyrics." . "in three days." (love as the intensity of expectant hope.) "dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." . "in a gondola." (love as the intensity of a precarious joy.) "dramatic romances." published in "dramatic lyrics." . "porphyria's lover." (love as the tyranny of spiritual appropriation.) "dramatic romances." published in "dramatic lyrics." . "james lee's wife." (love as saddened by the presentiment and the consciousness of change.) "dramatis personæ." "the worst of it." (love as the completeness of self-effacement.) "dramatis personnæ." . "too late." (love as the sense of a loss which death has rendered irrevocable.) "dramatis personæ." . the two first of these are inspired by the belief in the distinctness and continuity of the soul's life; and represent love as a condition of the soul with which positive experience has very little to do; but in all the others it is treated as part of this experience, and subject for the time being to its laws. the situation sketched--for it is nothing more--in "cristina" is that of a man and woman whom a glance has united, and who both have recognized in this union the predestined object of their life. the knowledge has only flashed on the woman's mind, to be extinguished by worldly ambitions and worldly honours; and for her, therefore, the union remains barren. but the existence of the man is enriched and perfected by it. she has spiritually lost him, but _he_ has gained _her_; for though she has drifted away from him, he retains her soul. (this poetical paradox is the strong point of the poem.) it is henceforth his mission to test their blended powers; and when that has been accomplished, he will have done, he says, with this world. "evelyn hope" is the utterance of a love which has missed its fruition in this life, but confidently anticipates it for a life to come. the beloved is a young girl. the lover is three times her age, and was a stranger to her; she is lying dead. but god, he is convinced, creates love to reward love: and no matter what worlds must be traversed, what lives lived, what knowledge gained or lost, before that moment is reached, evelyn hope will, in the end, be given to him. "love among the ruins" depicts a pastoral solitude in which are buried the remains of an ancient city, fabulous in magnificence and in strength. a ruined turret marks the site of a mighty tower, from which the king of that city overlooked his domains, or, with his court, watched the racing chariots as they encircled it in their course. in that turret, in the evening grey, amidst the tinkling of the sheep, a yellow-haired maiden is waiting for him she loves; and as they bury sight and speech in each other's arms, he bids the human heart shut in the centuries, with their triumphs and their follies, their glories and their sins, for "love is best." "a lover's quarrel" describes, not the quarrel itself, but the impression it leaves on him who has unwittingly provoked it: one of amazement as well as sorrow, that such a thing could have occurred. the speaker, apostrophizing his absent love, reminds her how happy they have been together, with no society but their own; no pleasures but those of sympathy; no amusements but those which their common fancy supplied; and he asks her if it be possible that so perfect a union can be destroyed by a hasty word with which his deeper self has had nothing to do. he believes this so little that he is sure she will, in some way, come back to him; and then they will part no more. a vein of playfulness runs through this monologue, which represents the lovers before their quarrel as more like children enjoying a long holiday, than a man and a woman sharing the responsibilities of life. it conveys, nevertheless, a truth deeply rooted in the author's mind: that the foundation of a real love can never be shaken. "by the fireside" is a retrospect, in which the speaker is carried from middle-age to youth, and from his, probably english, fireside to the little alpine gorge in which he confessed his love; and he summons the wife who received and sanctioned the avowal to share with him the joy of its remembrance. he describes the scene of his declaration, the conflict of feeling which its risks involved, the generous frankness with which she cut the conflict short. he dwells on the blessings which their union has brought to him, and which make his youth seem barren by the richness of his maturer years; and he asks her if there exist another woman, with whom he could thus have retraced the descending path of life, and found nothing to regret in what he had left behind. he declares that their mutual love has been for him that crisis in the life of the soul to which all experience tends--the predestined test of its quality. it is his title to honour as well as his guarantee of everlasting joy. the subtler realities of life and love are reflected throughout the poem in picturesque impressions often no less subtle, and the whole is dramatic, i.e., imaginary, as far as conception goes; but the obvious genuineness of the sentiment is confirmed by the allusion to the "perfect wife" who, "reading by firelight, that great brow and the spirit-small hand propping it," (vol. vi. p. .) is known to all of us. "any wife to any husband" might be the lament of any woman about to die, who believes that her husband will remain true to her in heart, but will lack courage to be so in his life. she anticipates the excuses he will offer for seeking temporary solace in the society of other women; but these all, to her mind, resolve themselves into a confession of weakness; and it grieves her that such a confession should proceed from one, in all other respects, so much stronger than she. "were she the survivor, it would be so easy to her to be faithful to the end!" her grief is unselfish. the wrong she apprehends will be done to his spiritual dignity far more than to his love for her, though with a touch of feminine inconsistency she identifies the two; and she cannot resign herself to the idea that he whose earthly trial is "three parts" overcome will break down under this final test. she accepts it, however, as the inevitable. "two in the campagna." the sentiment of this poem can only be rendered in its concluding words: "infinite passion, and the pain of finite hearts that yearn." (vol. vi. p. .) for its pain is that of a heart both restless and weary: ever seeking to grasp the infinite in the finite, and ever eluded by it. the sufferer is a man. he longs to rest in the affection of a woman who loves him, and whom he also loves; but whenever their union seems complete, his soul is spirited away, and he is adrift again. he asks the meaning of it all--where the fault lies, if fault there be; he begs her to help him to discover it. the campagna is around them, with its "endless fleece of feathery grasses," its "everlasting wash of air;" its wide suggestions of passion and of peace. the clue to the enigma seems to glance across him, in the form of a gossamer thread. he traces it from point to point, by the objects on which it rests. but just as he calls his love to help him to hold it fast, it breaks off, and floats into the invisible. his doom is endless change. the tired, tantalized spirit must accept it. "love in a life" represents the lover as inhabiting the same house with his unseen love; and pursuing her in it ceaselessly from room to room, always catching the flutter of her retreating presence, always sure that the next moment he will overtake her. "life in a love" might be the utterance of the same person, when he has grasped the fact that the loved one is determined to elude him. she may baffle his pursuit, but he will never desist from it, though it absorb his whole life. "the lost mistress" is the farewell expression of a discarded love which has accepted the conditions of friendship. its tone is full of manly self-restraint and of patient sadness. "a woman's last word" is one of moral and intellectual self-surrender. she has been contending with her husband, and been silenced by the feeling, not that the truth is on his side, but that it was not worth the pain of such a contention. what, she seems to ask herself, is the value of truth, when it is false to her divinity; or knowledge, when it costs her her eden? she begs him whom she worships as well as loves, to mould her to himself; but she begs also the privilege of a few tears--a last tribute, perhaps, to her sacrificed conscience, and her lost liberty. "a serenade at the villa" has a tinge of melancholy humour, which makes it the more pathetic. a lover has been serenading the lady of his affections through a sultry night, in which earth seemed to turn painfully in her sleep, and the silent darkness was unbroken, except by an occasional flash of lightning, and a few drops of thundery rain. he wishes his music may have told her that whenever life is dark or difficult there will be one near to help and guide her: one whose patience will never tire, and who will serve her best when there are none to witness his devotion. but her villa looks very dark; its closed windows are very obdurate. the gate ground its teeth as it let him pass. and he fears she only said to herself, that if the silence of a thundery night was oppressive, such noise was a worse infliction. "one way of love." this lover has strewn the roses of a month's gathering on his lady's path, only for the chance of her seeing them: as he has conquered the difficulties of the lute, only for the chance of her liking its sound; thrown his whole life into a love, which is hers to accept or reject. she cares for none of these things. so the roses may lie, the lute-string break. the lover can still say, "blest is he who wins her." "rudel to the lady of tripoli" is a pathetic declaration, in which the lover compares himself to a sunflower, and proclaims it as his badge. the french poet rudel loves the "lady of tripoli;"[ ] and she is dear to him as is the sun to that foolish flower, which by constant contemplation has grown into its very resemblance. and he bids a pilgrim tell her that, as bees bask on the sunflower, men are attracted by his song; but, as the sunflower looks ever towards the sun, so does he, disregarding men's applause, look towards the east, and her. "in three days" is a note of joyful expectation, and doubtless a pure lyric, though classed as dramatic-lyrical. the lover will see his love in three days; and his complex sense of the delay, as meaning both _all_ this time, and _only_ this, is leavened by the joyful consciousness that the reunion will be as absolute as the union has been. he knows that life is full of chance and change. the possibilities of three days are a great deal to encounter, very little to have escaped. unsuspected dangers may lurk in the coming year. but--he will see her in three days; and in that thought he can laugh all misgiving and all fear to scorn. "in a gondola" is a love scene, beginning with a serenade from a gondola, and continued by the two lovers in it, after the venetian fashion of the olden time. they are escaping, as they think, the vigilance of a certain "three"--one of whom we may conjecture to be the lady's husband or father--and have already regained her home, and fixed the signal for to-morrow's meeting, when the lover is surprised and stabbed. as they glide through the canals of the city, by its dark or illuminated palaces, each concealing perhaps some drama of love or crime--the sense of danger never absent from them,--the tense emotion relieves itself in playful though impassioned fancies, in which the man and the woman vie with each other. but when the blow has fallen, the light tone gives way, on the lover's side, to one of solemn joy in the happiness which has been realized. "... the three, i do not scorn to death, because they never lived: but i have lived indeed, and so--(yet one more kiss)--can die!" (vol. v. p. .) "porphyria's lover" is an episode which, with one of the poems of "men and women," "johannes agricola in meditation," first appeared under the head of "madhouse cells."[ ] porphyria is deeply attached to her "lover," but has not courage to break the ties of an artificial world, and give herself to him; and when one night love prevails, and she proves it by a voluntary act of devotion, he murders her in the act, that her nobler and purer self may be preserved. such a crime might be committed in a momentary aberration, or even intense excitement, of feeling. it is characterized here by a matter-of-fact simplicity, which is its sign of madness. the distinction, however, is subtle; and we can easily guess why this and its companion poem did not retain their title. a madness which is fit for dramatic treatment is not sufficiently removed from sanity. "james lee's wife" is the study of a female character developed by circumstances, and also impressing itself on them; the circumstances being those of an unfortunate marriage, in which the love has been mutual, but the constancy is all on the woman's side. "james lee" is (as we understand) a man of shallow nature, whose wife's earnestness repels him when its novelty has ceased to charm. the "wife" is keenly alive to his change of feeling towards her: and even anticipates it, in melancholy forebodings which probably hasten its course. i. james lee's wife speaks at the window. love carries already the seed of doubt. the wife addresses her husband, who is approaching from outside, in words of anxious tenderness. the season is changing; coming winter is in the air. will his love change too? ii. by the fireside. the note of apprehension deepens. the fire they are sitting by is supplied by ship-wood. it suggests the dangers of the sea, the sailor's longing for land and home. "but the life in port has its dangers too. there are worms which gnaw the ship in harbour, as the heart in sleep. did some woman before her, in this very house perhaps, begin love's voyage full sail, and then suddenly see the ship's planks start, and hell open beneath the man she loves?" iii. in the doorway. she remonstrates with her fear. winter is drawing nearer: nature becoming cold and bare. but they two have all the necessaries of life, and love besides. the human spirit (the spirit of love) was meant by god to resist change, to put its life into the darkness and the cold. it should fear neither. iv. along the beach. the fear has become a certainty. the wife reasons with her husband as they walk together. "he wanted her love, and she gave it to him. he has it, and yet is not content. why so? she is not blind to his faults, but she does not love him the less for them. she has taken him as he was, with the good seed in him and the bad, waiting patiently for the good to bring its harvest; enduring patiently when the harvest failed. whether praiseworthy or blameworthy, he has been her world!" "that is what condemns her in his eyes: she loves too well; she watches too patiently. his nature is impatient of bondage. such devotion as hers is a bond." v. on the cliff. she reflects on the power of love. a cricket and a butterfly settle down before her: one on a piece of burnt-up turf, one on the dark flat surface of a rock which the receding tide has left bare. the barren surfaces are transfigured by their brightness. just so will love settle on the low or barren in life, and transform it. vi. reading a book under the cliff. she has reached the transition stage between struggle and resignation. she accepts change and its disappointments as the law of life. we discover this in her comment on the book in question, from which some verses are introduced.[ ] the author apostrophizes a moaning wind which appeals to him as a voice of woe more eloquent than any which is given to animal or man: and asks it what form of suffering, mental or bodily, its sighs are trying to convey. james lee's wife regards the mood here expressed as characteristic of a youthful spirit, disposed to enlarge upon the evils of existence by its over-weening consciousness of power to understand, strength to escape or overcome them. such a one, she says, can only learn by sad experience what the wind in its moaning means: that subtle change which arrests the course of happiness, as the same wind, stirring however softly in a summer dawn, may annul the promise of its beauty. "nothing can be as it has been before; better, so call it, only not the same. to draw one beauty into our hearts' core, and keep it changeless! such our claim; so answered,--never more!" she who has learnt it, can only ask herself if this old world-sorrow be cause for rejoicing through the onward impulse ever forced upon the soul; if it be sent to us in probation. she cannot answer. god alone knows. the fully realized significance of such death in life gives an unutterable pathos to her concluding words. vii. among the rocks. she accepts disappointment as also a purifier of love. a sunny autumn morning is exercising its genial influence, and the courage of self-effacement awakens in her. as earth blesses her smallest creatures with her smile, so should love devote itself to those less worthy beings who may be ennobled by it. its rewards must be sought in heaven. viii. beside the drawing-board. she accepts the duties of life as an equivalent for its happiness, i.e., for the happiness of love. she has been drawing from the cast of a hand--enraptured with its delicate beauty--thinking how the rapture must have risen into love in the artist who saw it living; when the coarse (laborious) hand of a little peasant girl reminds her that life, whether beautiful or not, is the artist's noblest study; and that, as the uses of a hand are independent of its beauty and will survive it, life with its obligations will survive love. "she has been a fool to think she must be loved or die." ix. on deck. she makes the final sacrifice to her husband's happiness, and leaves him. but in so doing she pays a last tribute to the omnipotence of love. she knows there is nothing in her that will claim a place in his remembrance. she knows also that if he had loved her, it might be otherwise. love could have transformed her in his sight as it has transfigured him in hers. their positions might even have been reversed. if one touch of such a love as hers could ever come to her in a thought of his, he might turn into a being as ill-favoured as herself. she would neither know nor care, since joy would have killed her. we learn from the two last monologues, especially the last, that james lee's wife was a plain woman. this may throw some light on the situation. "the worst of it" is the cry of anguish of a man whose wife has been false to him, and who sees in her transgression only the injury she has inflicted on herself, and his own indirect part in its infliction. the strain of suppressed personal suffering betrays itself in his very endeavour to prove that he has not been wronged: that it was his fault, not hers, if his love maddened her, and the vows by which he had bound her were such as she could not keep. but the burden of his lament--"the worst of it" all--is, that her purity was once his salvation, her past kindness has for ever glorified his life; that she is dishonoured, and through him, and that no gratitude of his, no power of his, can rescue her from that dishonour. in his passionate tenderness he strives to pacify her conscience, and again, as earnestly to arouse it. "her account is not with him who absolves her, but with the world which does not; with her endangered womanhood, her jeopardized hope of heaven." he implores her for her own sake to return to virtue though not to him. for himself he renounces her even in paradise. he "will pass nor turn" his "face" if they meet there. the pathos of "too late" is all conveyed in its title. the loved woman is dead. she was the wife of another man than he who mourns for her. but so long as there was life there was hope. the lover might, he feels, have learned to compromise with the obstacles to his happiness. some shock of circumstance might have rolled them away. if the loved one spurned him once, he had of late been earning her friendship. she might in time have discovered that the so-called poet whom she had preferred to him was a mere lay-figure whom her fancy had draped. but all this is at an end. hope and opportunity are alike gone. he remains to condemn his own quiescence in what was perhaps not inevitable; in what proved no more for her happiness than for his. the husband is probably writing her epitaph. "too late" expresses an attachment as individual as it is complete. "edith" was not considered a beauty. she was not one even in her lover's eyes. this fact, and the manner in which he shows it, give a characteristic force to the situation. footnotes: [footnote : the classification of this poem is open to the obvious objection that it is not a monologue; but a dialogue or alternation of monologues, in which the second speaker, balaustion (who is also the narrator), is, for the time being, as real as the first. its conception is, however, expressed in the first title; and the arguments and descriptions which balaustion supplies only contribute to the vividness with which aristophanes and his defence are brought before us. "aristophanes' apology" is identical in spirit with the other poems of this group.] [footnote : this incident is founded on fact. it is related in plutarch's lives, that after the defeat of nicias, all those of the captives who could recite something from euripides were kindly treated by the syracusans.] [footnote : the name signifies celebration of the festival of the thesmophoria. this was held by women only, in honour of ceres and proserpine.] [footnote : the chorus of each new play was supplied to its author by the government, when considered worth the outlay. sketches of this and other plays alluded to in the course of the work may be read in the first volume of mahaffy's "history of classical greek literature."] [footnote : the plays were performed at the lesser and greater festivals of bacchus; this, the lenaia, being the smaller one. hence, the presence of priest as well as archon at the ensuing banquet] [footnote : the failure here alluded to is his ploutos or plutus--an inoffensive but tame comedy written when aristophanes was advanced in years, and of which the ill-success has been imputed to this fact. mr. browning, however, treats it as a proof that the author's ingrained habit of coarse fun had unfitted him for the more serious treatment of human life.] [footnote : figures placed above the entrance of athenian houses, and symbolizing the double life. it was held as sacrilege to deface them, as had been recently and mysteriously done.] [footnote : introducing him into the play, as in the disguise of a disreputable woman.] [footnote : aristophanes' comedy of the "clouds" was written especially at socrates, who stood up unconcernedly in the theatre that the many strangers present might understand what was intended.] [footnote : mr. mahaffy's description of the "clouds" contains an account of this defeat, which sets forth the amusing conceit and sophistry of aristophanes' explanation of it. he alludes here to the prevailing custom of several dramatic writers competing for a prize.] [footnote : whirligig is a parody of the word "vortex." vortex itself is used in derision of socrates, who is represented in the "clouds" as setting up this non-rational force in the place of zeus--the clouds themselves being subordinate divinities.] [footnote : saperdion was a famous hetaira, the empousa, a mythological monster. kimberic or cimberic means transparent.] [footnote : a pure libel on this play, which is noted for its novel and successful attempt to represent humour without indecency. aristophanes here alludes to the prevailing custom of concluding every group of three tragedies with a play in which the chorus consisted of satyrs: a custom which euripides broke through.] [footnote : the inverted commas include here, as elsewhere in the apology, only the very condensed substance of mr. browning's words.] [footnote : tin-islands. scilly islands, loosely speaking, great britain.] [footnote : a demagogue of bad character attacked by aristophanes: a big fellow and great coward.] [footnote : white was the greek colour of victory. this passage, not easily paraphrased, is a poetic recognition of the latent sympathy of aristophanes with the good cause.] [footnote : a game said to be of sicilian origin and played in many ways. details of it may be found in becker's "charikles," vol. ii.] [footnote : thamyris of thrace, said to have been blinded by the muses for contending with them in song. the incident is given in the "iliad," and was treated again by sophocles, as aristophanes also relates.] [footnote : this also is historical.] [footnote : grote's "history of greece," vol. iii. p. .] [footnote : eidotheé or eidothea, is the daughter of proteus--the old man of the sea. a legend concerning her is found in the th book of the odyssey.] [footnote : there is such a monument at pornic.] [footnote : these words are taken from a line in the prometheus of Æschylus.] [footnote : mr. browning desires me to say that he has been wrong in associating this custom with the little temple by the river clitumnus which he describes from personal knowledge. that to which the tradition refers stood by the lake of nemi.] [footnote : the cardinal himself reviewed this poem, not disapprovingly, in a catholic publication of the time] [footnote : this refers to the popular neapolitan belief that a crystallized drop of the blood of the patron saint, januarius, is miraculously liquefied on given occasions.] [footnote : the "iketides" (suppliants), mentioned in section xviii., is a tragedy by Æschylus, the earliest extant: and of which the text is especially incomplete: hence, halting, and "maimed."] [footnote : this poem, like "aristophanes' apology," belongs in spirit more than in form to its particular group. each contains a dialogue, and in the present case we have a defence, though not a specious one of the judgment attained] [footnote : we recognize the _cogito ergo sum_ of descartes.] [footnote : the narrator, in a parenthetic statement, imputes a doctrine to st. john, which is an unconscious approach on mr. browning's part to the "animism" of some ancient and mediæval philosophies. it carries the idea of the trinity into the individual life, by subjecting this to three souls, the lowest of which reigns over the body, and is that which "does:" the second and third being respectively that which "knows" and "is." the reference to the "glossa of theotypas" is part of the fiction.] [footnote : the present riccardi palace in the via larga was built by cosmo dei medici in ; and remained in the possession of the medici till , when it was sold to marchese riccardi. the original riccardi palace in the piazza s. s. annunziata is now (since ) palazzo antinori. in my first edition, the "crime" is wrongly interpreted as the murder of alexander, duke of florence, in ; and the confusion, i regret to find, increased by a wrong figure ( for ), which has slipped into the date.] [footnote : mr. browning possesses or possessed pictures by all the artists mentioned in this connection.] [footnote : (verses , , .) "bigordi" is the family name of domenico called "ghirlandajo," from the family trade of wreath-making. "sandro" stands for alessandro botticelli. "lippino" was son of fra lippo lippi. mr. browning alludes to him as "wronged," because others were credited with some of his best work. "lorenzo monaco" (the monk) was a contemporary, or nearly so, of fra angelico, but more severe in manner. "pollajolo" was both painter and sculptor. "margheritone of arezzo" was one of the earlier old masters, and died, as vasari states, "infastidito" (deeply annoyed), by the success of giotto and the "new school." hence the funeral garb in which mr. browning depicts him.] [footnote : the "magic" symbolized is that of genuine poetry; but the magician, or "mage," is an historical person; and the special feat imputed to him was recorded of other magicians in the middle ages, if not of himself. "johannes teutonicus, a canon of halberstadt in germany, after he had performed a number of prestigious feats almost incredible, was transported by the devil in the likeness of a black horse, and was both seen and heard upon one and the same christmas day to say mass in halberstadt, in mayntz, and in cologne" ("heywood's hierarchy," bk. iv., p. ). the "prestigious feat" of causing flowers to appear in winter was a common one. "in the year , the emperor lewis then reigning, there was one zedechias, by religion a jew, by profession a physician, but indeed a magician. in the midst of winter, in the emperor's palace, he suddenly caused a most pleasant and delightful garden to appear, with all sorts of trees, plants, herbs, and flowers, together with the singing of all sorts of birds, to be seen and heard." (delrio, "disquisitio magicæ," bk. i., chap, iv., and elsewhere; and many other authorities.)] [footnote : "wine of cyprus." the quotation heading the poem qualifies it as 'wine for the superiors in age and station.'] [footnote : such as wordsworth assumed to have been in use with shakespeare.] [footnote : this is told in the tales of the troubadours.] [footnote : published, simultaneously, in mr. fox's "monthly repository." the song in "pippa passes" beginning "a king lived long ago," and the verses introduced in "james lee's wife," were also first published in this magazine, edited by the generous and very earliest encourager of mr. browning's boyish attempts at poetry.] [footnote : these verses were written when mr. browning was twenty-three.] emotional poems (continued). religious, artistic, and expressive of the fiercer emotions. the emotions which, after that of love, are most strongly represented in mr. browning's works are the religious and the artistic: emotions closely allied in every nature in which they happen to co-exist, and which are so in their proper degree in mr. browning's; the proof of this being that two poems which i have placed in the artistic group almost equally fit into the religious. but the religious poems impress us more by their beauty than by their number, if we limit it to those which are directly inspired by this particular emotion. religious questions have occupied, as we have seen, some of mr. browning's most important reflective poems. religious belief forms the undercurrent of many of the emotional poems. and it was natural therefore, that religious feeling should not often lay hold of him in a more exclusive form. it does so only in three cases; those of "saul." ("dramatic lyrics." published in part in "dramatic romances and lyrics," ; wholly, in "men and women," .) "epilogue." ("dramatis personæ." .) "fears and scruples." ("pacchiarotto and other poems." .) the religious sentiment in "saul" anticipates christianity. it begins with the expression of an exalted human tenderness, and ends in a prophetic vision of divine love, as manifested in christ. the speaker is david. he has been sent into the presence of saul to sing and play to him; for saul is in the agony of that recurring spiritual conflict from which only david's song can deliver him; and when the boy-shepherd has crept his way into the darkness of the tent, he sees the monarch with arms outstretched against its poles, dumb, sightless, and stark, like the serpent in the solitude of the forest awaiting its transformation. david tells his story, re-enacting the scene which it describes, in strong, simple, picturesque words which rise naturally into the language of prophecy. he tells how first he tried the influence of pastoral tunes: those which call the sheep back to the pen, and stir the sense of insect and bird; how he passed to the song of the reapers--their challenge to mutual help and fellowship; to the warrior's march; the burial and marriage chants; the chorus of the levites advancing towards the altar; and how at this moment saul sent forth a groan, though the lights which leapt from the jewels of his turban were his only sign of motion. then--the tale continues--david changes his theme. he sings of the goodness of human life, as attested by the joyousness of youth, the gratitude of old age. he sings of labour and success, of hope and fulfilment, of high ambitions and of great deeds; of the great king in whom are centred all the gifts and the powers of human nature--of saul himself. and at these words the tense body relaxes, the arms cross themselves on the breast. but the eyes of saul still gaze vacantly before him, without consciousness of life, without desire for it. david's song has poured forth the full cup of material existence; he has yet to infuse into it that draught of "soul wine" which shall make it desirable. in a fresh burst of inspiration, he challenges his hearer to follow him beyond the grave. "the tree is known by its fruits; life by its results. life, like the palm fruit, must be crushed before its wine can flow. saul will die. but his passion and his power will thrill the generations to come. his achievements will live in the hearts of his people; for whom their record, though covering the whole face of a rock, will still seem incomplete." and as the "soul wine" works, as the vision of this earthly immortality unfolds itself before the sufferer's sight, he becomes a king again. the old attitude and expression assert themselves. the hand is gently laid on the young singer's forehead; the eyes fix themselves in grave scrutiny upon him. then the heart of david goes out to the suffering monarch in filial, pitying tenderness; and he yearns to give him more than this present life--a new life equal to it in goodness, and which shall be everlasting. and the yearning converts itself into prophecy. what he, as man, can desire for his fellow-man, god will surely give. what he would suffer for those he loves, surely god would suffer. human nature in its power of love would otherwise outstrip the divine. he cries for the weakness to be engrafted upon strength, the human to be manifested in the divine. and exulting in the consciousness that his cry is answered, he hails the advent of christ. he bids saul "see" that a face like his who now speaks to him awaits him at the threshold of an eternal life; that a hand like his hand opens to him its gates. david's prophecy has rung through the universe; and as he seeks his home in the darkness, unseen "cohorts" press everywhere upon him. a tumultuous expectation is filling earth and hell and heaven. the hand guides him through the tumult. he sees it die out in the birth of the young day. but the hushed voices of nature attest the new dispensation. the seal of the new promise is on the face of the earth. the epilogue is spoken by three different persons, and embodies as many phases of the religious life. the "first speaker, _as david_," represents the old testament theism, with its solemn celebrations, its pompous worship, and the strong material faith which bowed down the thousands as one man, before the visible glory of the lord. the "second speaker, _as renan_" represents nineteenth-century scepticism, and the longing of the heart for the old belief which scientific reason has dispelled. this belief is symbolized by a "face" which once looked down from heights of glory upon men; by a star which shone down upon them in responsive life and love. the face has vanished into darkness. the star, gradually receding, has lost itself in the multitude of the lesser lights of heaven. and centuries roll past while the forsaken watchers vainly question the heavenly vault for the sign of love no longer visible there. this lament assumes that theism, having grown into christianity, must disappear with it; and the pathetic sense of bereavement gives way to shuddering awe, as the farther significance of the sceptical position reveals itself. _man_ becomes the summit of creation; the sole successor to the vacant throne of god. the "third speaker," mr. browning himself, corrects both the material faith of the old testament, and the scientific doubt of the nineteenth century, by the idea of a more mystical and individual intercourse between god and man. observers have noted in the arctic seas that the whole field of waters seem constantly hastening towards some central point of rock, to envelope it in their playfulness and their force; in the blackness they have borrowed from the nether world, or the radiance they have caught from heaven; then tearing it up by the roots, to sweep onwards towards another peak, and make _it_ their centre for the time being. so do the forces of life and nature circle round the individual man, doing in each the work of experience, reproducing for each the divine face which is inspired by the spirit of creation. and, as the speaker declares, he needs no "temple," because the world is that. nor, as he implies, needs he look beyond the range of his own being for the lost divinity. "that one face, far from vanish, rather grows, or decomposes but to recompose, become my universe that feels and knows!" (vol. vii. p. .) "fears and scruples" illustrates this personal religion in an opposite manner. it is the expression of a tender and very simple religious feeling, saddened by the obscurity which surrounds its object, and still more by the impossibility of proving to other minds that this object is a real one. it is described as the devotion to an unseen friend, known only by his letters and reported deeds, but whom one loves as by instinct, believes in without testimony, and trusts to as accepting the allegiance of the smaller being, and sure sooner or later to acknowledge it in the present case the days are going by. no sign of acknowledgment has been given. sceptics assure the believer that his faith rests on letters which were forged, on actions which others equally have performed; he can only yearn for some word or token which would enable him to shut their mouth. but when some one hints that the friend is only concealing himself to test his power of vision, and will punish him if he does not see; and another objects that this would prove the friend a monster; he crushes the objector with a word: "and what if the friend be god?" the next group is fuller and still more characteristic: for it displays the love of art in its special conditions, and, at the same time, in its union with all the general human instincts in which artistic emotion can be merged. we find it in its relation to the general love of life in "fra lippo lippi." ("men and women." .) in its relation to the spiritual sense of existence in "abt vogler." ("dramatis personæ." .) as a transformation of human tenderness in "pictor ignotus." ("men and women." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) in its directly sensuous effects in "the bishop orders his tomb at saint praxed's church." ("men and women." published as "the tomb at saint praxed's" in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .)[ ] in its associative power in "a toccata of galuppi's." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) in its representative power in "the guardian-angel: a picture at fano." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "eurydice to orpheus: a picture by leighton." ("dramatis personæ." .) "a face." ("dramatis personæ." .) "fra lippo lippi" is a lively monologue, supposed to be uttered by that friar himself, on the occasion of a night frolic in which he has been surprised. cosmo dei medici had locked him up in one room of the palace till some pictures he was painting for him should be finished;[ ] and on this particular night he has found the confinement intolerable. he has whipped his bed clothes into a rope, scrambled down from his window, and run after a girlish face which laughingly invited him from the street; and was about to return from the equivocal neighbourhood into which the fun had led him, when his monkish dress caught the attention of the guard, and he was captured and called to account. he proceeds to give a sketch of his life and opinions, which supplies a fair excuse for the escapade. the facts he relates are, including this one, historical. fra lippo lippi had no vocation for the priesthood. he was enticed into a carmelite convent when a half-starved orphan of eight years old, ready to subscribe to any arrangement which promised him enough to eat. there he developed an extraordinary talent for drawing; and the prior, glad to turn it to account, gave him the cloisters and the church to paint. but the rising artist had received his earliest inspirations in the streets. his first practice had been gained in scrawling faces in his copybooks, and expanding the notes of his musical texts into figures with arms and legs. his conceptions were not sufficiently spiritual to satisfy the prior's ideal of christian art. the men and women he painted were all true to life. the simpler brethren were delighted as they recognized each familar type. but the authorities looked grave at so much obtruding of the flesh; and the prior clearly laid down his theory that painting was meant to inspire religious thoughts, and not to stifle them; and must therefore show no more of the human body than was needed to image forth the soul. fra lippo lippi comments freely and quaintly on the absurdity of showing soul by means of bodies so ill-painted that no one can bear to dwell upon them, as on the fallacy involved in all contempt for the earthly life. "he will never believe that the world, with all its life and beauty, is an unmeaning blank. he is sure, 'it means intensely and means good.' he is sure, too, that to reproduce what is beautiful in it is the mission of art. if anyone objects, that the world being god's work, art cannot improve on it, and the painter will best leave it alone: he answers that some things are the better for being painted; because, as we are made, we love them best when we see them so. the artist has lent his mind for us to see with. that is what art means; what god wills in giving it to us." nevertheless (he continues) he rubbed out his men and women; and though now, with a medici for his patron, he may paint as he likes, the old schooling sticks to him.[ ] and he works away at his saints, till something comes to remind him that life is not a dream, and he kicks the traces, as he has done now. he ends with a half-joking promise to make the church a gainer through his misconduct (supposing that the secret has been kept from her), by a beautiful picture which he will paint by way of atonement. this picture, which he describes very humorously, is that of the coronation of the virgin, now in the "belle arti" at florence.[ ] abt vogler is depicted at the moment when this composer of the last century has "been extemporizing on the musical instrument of his invention." his emotion has not yet subsided; and it is that of the inspired musician, to whom harmonized sound is as the opening of a heavenly world. his touch upon the keys has been as potent to charm, as the utterance of that name which summoned into solomon's presence the creatures of earth, heaven, and hell, and made them subservient to his will. and the "slaves of the sound," whom he has conjured up, have built him a palace more evanescent than solomon's, but, as he describes it, far more beautiful. they have laid its foundations below the earth. they have carried its transparent walls up to the sky. they have tipped each summit with meteoric fire. as earth strove upwards towards heaven, heaven, in this enchanted structure, has yearned downwards towards the earth. the great dead came back; and those conceived for a happier future walked before their time. new births of life and splendour united far and near; the past, the present, and the to-come. the vision has disappeared with the sounds which called it forth, and the musician feels sorrowfully that it cannot be recalled: for the effect was incommensurate with the cause; they had nothing in common with each other. we can trace the processes of painting and verse; we can explain their results. art, however triumphant, is subject to natural laws. but that which frames out of three notes of music "not a fourth sound, but a star" is the will, which is above law. and, therefore, so abt vogler consoles himself, the music persists, though it has passed from the sense of him who called it forth: for it is an echo of the eternal life; a pledge of the reality of every imagined good--of the continuance of whatever good has existed. human passion and aspiration are music sent up to heaven, to be continued and completed there. the secret of the scheme of creation is in the musician's hands. having recognized this, abt vogler can subside, proudly and patiently, on the common chord--the commonplace realities, of life. "pictor ignotus" (florence, --), is the answer of an unknown painter to the praise which he hears lavished on another man. he admits its justice, but declares that he too could have deserved it; and his words have all the bitterness of a suppressed longing which an unexpected touch has set free. he, too, has dreamed of fame; and felt no limits to his power of attaining it. but he saw, by some flash of intuition, that it must be bought by the dishonour of his works; that, in order to bring him fame, they must descend into the market, they must pass from hand to hand; they must endure the shallowness of their purchasers' comments, share in the pettiness of their lives. he has remained obscure, that his creations might be guarded against this sacrilege. "he paints madonnas and saints in the twilight stillness of the cloister and the aisle; and if his heart saddens at the endless repetition of the one heavenward gaze, at least no merchant traffics in what he loves. there, where his pictures have been born, mouldering in the dampness of the wall, blackening in the smoke of the altar, amidst a silence broken only by prayer, they may 'gently' and 'surely' die." he asks himself, as he again subsides into mournful resignation, whether the applause of men may not be neutralized at its best by the ignoble circumstances which it entails. "the bishop orders his tomb at saint praxed's church" (rome, --) displays the artistic emotion in its least moral form: the love of the merely beautiful as such; and it shows also how this may be degraded: by connecting it in the mind of the given person, with the passion for luxury, and the pride and jealousies of possession. the bishop is at the point of death. his sons (nominally nephews) are about him; and he is urging on them anxious and minute directions for the tomb they are to place for him in st. praxed's church. this tomb, as the bishop has planned it, is a miracle of costliness and beauty; for it is to secure him a double end: the indulgence of his own tastes, and the humiliation of a former rival who lies modestly buried in the same church. in the delirium of his weakness, these motives, which we imagine always prominent, assume the strength of mania. his limbs are already stiff; he feels himself growing into his own monument; and his fancy revels in the sensations which will combine the calm of death with the consciousness of sepulchral magnificence. he pleads, as for dear life, with those who are to inherit his wealth, and who may at their pleasure fulfil his last wishes or disregard them: that he may have jasper for his tomb--basalt (black antique) for its slab--the rosiest marble for its columns--the richest design for its bronze frieze! a certain ball of lapis-lazuli (such as never yet was seen) is to "poise" between his knees; and he gasps forth the secret of how he saved this from the burning of his church, and buried it out of sight in a vineyard, as if he were staking his very life on the revelation. but in his heart he knows that his entreaties are useless: that his sons will keep all they can; and the tone of entreaty is dashed with all the petulance of foreseen disappointment. weakness prevails at last. he resigns himself to the inevitable; blesses his undutiful sons; and dismisses them. other strongly dramatic details complete the picture.[ ] "a toccata of galuppi's" is a fantastic little vision of bygone venice, evoked by the music of an old venetian master, and filling us with the sense of a joyous ephemeral existence, in which the glow of life is already struck by the shuddering chill of annihilation. this sense is created by the sounds, as mr. browning describes them: and their directly expressive power must stand for what it is worth. still, the supposed effect is mainly that of association; and the listener's fancy the medium through which it acts. "a face" describes a beautiful head and throat in its pictorial details--those which painting might reproduce. "the guardian-angel" and "eurydice to orpheus" describe each an actual picture in the emotions it expresses or conveys. the former represents an angel, standing with outstretched wings by a little child. the child is half kneeling on a kind of pedestal, while the angel joins its hands in prayer: its gaze directed upward towards the sky, from which cherubs are looking down. the picture was painted by guercino, and is now in the church of st. augustine, at fano, on the italian coast. mr. browning relates to an absent friend (who appears in the "dramatic romances" as waring) how he saw it in the company of his own "angel;" and how it occurred to him to develop into a poem one of the thoughts which the picture had "struck out." the thought resolves itself into a feeling: the yearning for guidance and protection. the poet dreams himself in the place of that praying child. the angel wings cover his head: the angel hands upon his eyes press back the excess of thought which has made his brain too big. he feels how thankfully those eyes would rest on the "gracious face" instead of looking to the opening sky beyond it; and how purely beautiful the world would seem when that healing touch had been upon them. the second was painted by f. leighton. it represents orpheus leading eurydice away from the infernal regions, but with an implied variation on the story of her subsequent return to them. she was restored to orpheus on the condition of his not looking at her till they had reached the upper world; and, as the legend goes, the condition proved too hard for him to fulfil. but the face of leighton's eurydice wears an intensity of longing which seems to challenge the forbidden look, and make her responsible for it. the poem thus interprets the expression, and translates it into words. "andrea del sarto" ("men and women," ) lays down the principle, asserted by mr. browning as far back as in "sordello," that the soul of the true artist must exceed his technical powers; that in art, as in all else, "a man's reach should exceed his grasp." and on this ground the poem might be classed as critical. but it is still more an expression of feeling; the lament of an artist who has fallen short of his ideal--of a man who feels himself the slave of circumstance--of a lover who is sacrificing his moral, and in some degree his artistic, conscience to a woman who does not return his love. it is the harmonious utterance of a many-sided sadness which has become identified with even the pleasures of the man's life; and is hopeless, because he is resigned to it. andrea del sarto was called the "faultless painter." his execution was as easy as it was perfect; and michael angelo is reported to have said to raphael, of the insignificant little personage andrea then was: that he would bring the sweat to his (raphael's) brow, if urged on in like manner by popes and kings. but he lacked strength and loftiness of purpose; and as mr. browning depicts him, is painfully conscious of these deficiencies. he feels that even an ill-drawn picture of raphael's--and he has such a one before him--has qualities of strength and inspiration which he cannot attain. his wife might have incited him to nobler work; but lucrezia is not the woman from whom such incentives proceed; she values her husband's art for what it brings her. remorse has added itself in his soul to the sense of artistic failure. he has not only abandoned the french court, and, for lucrezia's sake, broken his promise to return to it; he has cheated his kind friend and patron, francis i., of the money with which he was entrusted by him for the purchase of works of art. he has allowed his parents to die of want. all this, and more, reflects itself in the monologue he is addressing to his wife, but no conscious reproach is conveyed by it. she has consented to sit by him at their window, with her hand in his, while he drinks in her beauty, and finds in it rest and inspiration at the same time. she will leave him presently for one she cares for more; but the spell is deepening upon him. the fiesole hills are melting away in the twilight; the evening stillness is invading his whole soul. he scarcely even desires to fight against the inevitable. yet there might be despair in his concluding words: "another chance may be given to him in heaven, with leonardo, michael angelo, and raphael. but he will still have lucrezia, and therefore they will still conquer him." the facts adduced are all matter of history; though a later chronicle than that which mr. browning has used, is more favourable in its verdict on andrea's wife. the fiercer emotions also play a part, though seldom an exclusive one, in mr. browning's work. jealousy forms the subject of "the laboratory." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .)[ ] "my last duchess." ("dramatic romances." published as "italy" in "dramatic lyrics." .) the first of these shows the passion as distorted love: the frenzy of a woman who has been supplanted. the jealous wife (if wife she is) has come to the laboratory to obtain a dose of poison, which she means to administer to her rival; and she watches its preparation with an eager, ferocious joy, dashed only by the fear of its being inadequate. the quantity is minute; and it is (as we guess) the "magnificent" strength of that other one which has won _him_ away. in the second we find a jealousy which has no love in it; which means the exactingness of self-love, and the tyranny of possession. a widowed duke of ferrara is exhibiting the portrait of his former wife, to the envoy of some nobleman whose daughter he proposes to marry; and his comments on the countenance of his last duchess plainly state what he will expect of her successor. "that earnest, impassioned, and yet smiling glance went alike to everyone. she who sent it, knew no distinction of things or persons. everything pleased her: everyone could arouse her gratitude. and it seemed to her husband, from her manner of showing it, that she ranked his gift, the 'gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name,' with that of everyone else. it was below his dignity to complain of this state of things, so he put an end to it. he: 'gave commands;' and the smiles, too evenly dispensed, stopped all together." he does not fear to admit, as he does parenthetically, that there may have been some right on her side. this was below his concern. the duke touches, in conclusion, on the dowry which he will expect with his second wife; and, with a suggestive carelessness, bids his guest remark--as they are about to descend the staircase--a rare work in bronze, which a noted sculptor has cast for him. hatred, born of jealousy, has its fullest expression in the "soliloquy of the spanish cloister" ("dramatic lyrics." published in "bells and pomegranates." to ): a venomous outbreak of jealous hatred, directed by one monk against another whom he is watching at some innocent occupation. the speaker has no ground of complaint against brother lawrence, except that his life _is_ innocent: that he is orderly and clean, that he loves his garden, is free from debasing superstitions, and keeps his passions, if he has any, in check. but that, precisely, is a rebuke and an exasperation to the fierce, coarse nature of this other man; and he declares to himself, that if hate could kill, brother lawrence would not live long. meanwhile, as we also hear, he spites him when he can, and fondly dreams of tripping him up somewhere, or somehow, on his way to the better world. he is turning over some pithy expedients, when the vesper bell cuts short his meditations. wrath, as inspired by a desperate sense of wrong, finds utterance in "the confessional." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "bells and pomegranates." to .) a loved and loving girl has been made the instrument of her lover's destruction. he held a treasonable secret, which the church was anxious to possess; and her priest has assured her that if this is fully revealed to him, he will, by prayer and fasting, purge its guilt from the young man's soul. she obtains the desired knowledge, reveals it, and joyfully anticipates the result. when next she sees her lover, he is on the scaffold. they have stifled her denunciations in a prison-cell. her body is wrenched with torture, as her soul with anguish. she is scarcely human any more. but she hurls at them unceasingly a cry which will yet reach the world. "their pope and their saints, their heaven and their hell, their--everything they teach, and everything they say, is lies, and again lies." "a forgiveness" ("pacchiarotto, and other poems," ) might serve equally as a study for jealousy, self-reproach, contempt, and revenge; the love which is made to underlie these feelings, and the forgiveness with which it will be crowned. it is a story told in confession. he who tells it had once a wife, who was dearer to him than anything else in the world. he had also public duties, which he discharged with diligence and with success; but it was the thought of the wife's love which nerved him to the fulfilment of these duties, and which rewarded it. one day he discovered that she was unfaithful to him. a man (whose face was but imperfectly concealed) was stealing away from his house as he returned to it; and the wife, confronting him at the same moment, bade him kill her, but spare the man she loved. he did not kill her--then: for she had turned his love into contempt. he despised her too much to inflict even a lesser punishment, which should compromise the dignity, or disturb the outward calmness, of his life. but from that moment their union was a form; and while he worked as those do who have something to forget, and she shared the position which his labours procured for him, an impassable, if unseen, gulf lay between them. three years had passed, when suddenly, one night, the wife begged to speak with her husband alone. her request was granted; and then the truth broke forth. she loved--had loved--no one but him; but she was jealous of his devotion to the state. she imagined herself second to it in his affections; and it was the jealousy in her which had made her strive to arouse it in him. that other man had been nothing to her but a tool. her secret, she now knew, was killing her. conscience forbade her to elude her punishment by death. she therefore spoke. "would she write this?" he asked; and he dictated to her the confession she had just made, in the terms most humiliating to him who was intended to hear it. "could she but write it in her blood!" this, too, was possible. he put into her hand a dainty eastern weapon, one prick of which, he said, would draw so much blood as was required. it did more than this, for it was poisoned. but, before she died, she knew that her explanation had raised her husband's contempt into hatred, and that the revenge of which she was now found worthy had quenched the hatred in forgiveness. "she lies as erst beloved" (the narrative concludes) "in the church of him who hears this confession; whom his grate conceals as little as that cloak once did--whom vengeance overtakes at last." the poisoned dagger, which was the instrument of revenge--the pledge of forgiveness--is spoken of as part of a collection preserved in the so-called study, which was the scene of the interview; and the speaker dwells at some length on the impression of deadly purpose combined with loving artistic care, which their varied form and fantastic richness convey. this collection is actually in mr. browning's possession; and he values it, perhaps, for the reason he imputes to its imagined owner: that those who are accustomed to the slower processes of thought, like to play with the suggestions of prompt (if murderous) action; as the soldier, tired of wielding the sword, will play with paper and pen. historical poems, or poems founded on fact. many of mr. browning's poems are founded on fact, whether historical, or merely of known occurrence; but few of them can be classed by their historic quality, because it is seldom their most important. in "prince hohenstiel-schwangau," for instance, we have a chapter in recent history: but we only read it as an abstract discussion, to which a chapter in history has given rise; and in "pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper," and "filippo baldinucci on the privilege of burial" (published in the same volume), we find two incidents, each of them true, and each full of historic significance; but which owe all their vitality to the critical and humorous spirit, in which mr. browning has described them. the small list of poems which are historical more than anything else, might be recruited from the dramatic idyls; but, for various reasons, this publication must stand alone; and even here, it is often difficult to disengage the actual fact, from the imaginary conditions in which it appears. our present group is therefore reduced to-- "red cotton night-cap country; or, turf and towers." ( .) "the inn album." ( .) "the two poets of croisic." ( .) "cenciaja." ("pacchiarotto, and other poems." .) we may also place here, as it is historical in character, "the heretic's tragedy; a middle age interlude" ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) the real-life drama which mr. browning has reproduced under the title of "red cotton night-cap country," was enacted partly in paris, partly in a retired corner of normandy, where he spent the late summer of ; and ended in a trial which had been only a fortnight closed, when he supposes himself to be relating it. his whole story is true, except that in it which reality itself must have left to the imagination. only the names of persons and places are fictitious.[ ] the principal actor in this drama, léonce miranda, was son and heir to a wealthy spanish jeweller in the place vendôme. he was southern by temperament as by descent; but a dash of the more mercantile parisian spirit had come to him from his french mother; and while keenly susceptible to the incitements of both religious and earthly passion, he began life with the deliberate purpose of striking a compromise between them. at an early age he determined to live for this world now, and for the other when he was older; and in the meantime to be moderate in his enjoyments. in conformity with this plan he ran riot on sunday; but worked diligently during the rest of the week. he bestowed his fancy on five women at once; but represented himself, when in their company, as a poor artist or musician, and wasted no money upon them. one day, however, he fell in love. the object of his affections, clara mulhausen, or, as she first calls herself, "de millefleurs," was an adventuress; but she did not at first allow him to find this out; and when he did so, her hold upon him had become too strong to be affected by the discovery. a succession of circumstances, which mr. browning describes, first cemented the bond, then destroyed its secrecy; and since clara had a husband, and the position could not be legalized, léonce miranda had no choice but to accept the social interdict, and with her retire from paris. he placed a substitute in the business, which had devolved on him through his father's death; and the pair took up their abode at clairvaux, an ancient priory, which the father had bought. here miranda built and improved; indulged his amateur propensities for painting and music; remained devoted to his love, and was rewarded by her devotion. for five years they were very happy. the first interruption to their happiness was a summons to miranda, from his mother in paris, to come and answer for his excessive expenditure. the immorality of his life she had condoned (a curious proof of this is given), for she hoped it would be its own cure. but "his architectural freaks, above all, a belvedere which he had constructed in his grounds, were a reckless waste of substance which she could not witness without displeasure." she had immense influence with her son; and he took her rebuke so much to heart, that he only left her to fling himself into the seine. he was brought out alive; but lay for a month at death's door, and made no progress towards recovery till he had been restored to clara's care; and clara was painfully winning him back to health, when the telegraphic wires flashed a second summons upon him. his presence was again demanded in the maternal home. "the business was urgent. its nature he would learn on arrival." he hastened to his mother's house, to find her a corpse--laid out with all the ghastly ceremonial which catholic fancy could devise--and to be told that his misconduct had killed her. the tribe of cousins, who had planned the _coup de théâtre_, were there to enjoy its result. this did not fail them. miranda fainted away. as soon as consciousness returned, he made his act of atonement. he foreswore the illegal bond. he willed away his fortune to his kinsfolk; and would retain of it, from that moment, only a pittance for himself, and the means of honourable subsistence for clara. they were to meet in the same house a week later, to arrange in what manner that sinful woman should be acquainted with the facts. the day came. the cousins arrived. miranda did not appear. he had broken down at the funeral in a fresh outburst of frenzied grief; but from this he had had time to recover. someone peeped into his room. there he stood, by a blazing fire, a small empty coffer by his side, engaged in reading some letters which he had taken from it. whose they were, and what the reading had told him, was quickly shown. he replaced them in the box, plunged this in the fire; and reiterating the words, "burn, burn and purify my past!" held it there till both his hands had been consumed; no sign of pain escaping him. he was dragged away by main force, protesting against this hindrance to his salvation. "he was not yet purified. she was not yet burned out of him." in his bed he raved and struggled against the image which again rose before his eyes, which again grew and formed itself in his flesh. the delirium was followed by three months of exhaustion. the moment the sick man could "totter" out of his room, he found his way to her whom he had abjured, and who was in paris calmly awaiting his return to her. she came back with him. he introduced her to his kinsmen. "it was all right," he said; "clara would henceforth be--his brother; he would still fulfil his bond." from this, however, he departed, in so far as not to content himself with a pittance. he sold his business to the "cousinry," and, as they considered, on hard terms. he and clara then returned to clairvaux. and now, as mr. browning interprets the situation, his experience had entered on a new phase. he had tested the equal strength of the earthly and the heavenly powers, and he knew that he could elude neither, and that neither could be postponed to the other. he no longer strove to compromise between these opposing realities, but threw his whole being into the struggle to unite them. he adhered to his unlawful love. his acts of piety and charity became grotesque in their excessiveness. (of these again particulars are given.) two years went by; and then, one april morning, miranda climbed his belvedere, and was found, soon after, dead, on the turf below. there seemed no question of accident. the third attempt at suicide had succeeded. on this fact, however, mr. browning puts a construction of his own. he asserts the poet's privilege of seeing into the man's mind; and makes him think before us in a long and impassioned soliloquy, which sets forth the hidden motive of his deed. as mr. browning conceives him, he did not mean to kill himself. he did so in a final, irresistible impulse to manifest his faith, and to test the foundations of it. it has had for its object, not the spiritual truths of christianity, but its miraculous powers; and these powers have of late been symbolized to his mind by the virgin of the ravissante.[ ] the conflict of despotisms has thus been waged between the natural woman and the supernatural: each a monarch in her way. as he looks from his tower towards the church of the ravissante, he apostrophizes her who is enthroned there. he imagines her to have reproached him for his divided allegiance; and asserts, in answer, that he has been subject to her all his life. "he could not part with his soul's treasure. but he has, for her sake, lavished his earthly goods, burned away his flesh. if his sacrifice has been incomplete, it was because another power, mysterious and unnamed, but yet as absolute as she, had cast its spells about him. he would have resisted the enchantress, if she, the despot, had made a sign. but what token has he ever received, of her acceptance, her approbation? she exacts from her servants the surrender of both body and soul; the least deficiency in the offering neutralizes its sum. and what does she give in exchange for body and soul? promises? is a man to starve while the life-apple is withheld from him, if even husks are within his reach? miracles? will she make a finger grow on his maimed hand? would he not be called a madman if he expected it?" and yet he believes. he summons her to justify his belief. he claims of her a genuine miracle--a miracle of power, which will silence scepticism, and re-establish the royalty of the church--a miracle of mercy, which will wipe away the past; reconcile duty and love; give clara into his hands as his pure and lawful wife. "she is to carry him through the air to the space before her church as she was herself conveyed there...." then come the leap and the catastrophe. he had by a second will bequeathed all his possessions to the church, reserving in them a life-interest for his virtual wife; and when the cousinry swooped down on what they thought their prey, madame mulhausen could receive them and their condolences with the indignant scorn which their greed and cruelty deserved. they disputed the will on the alleged plea of the testator's insanity. the trial was interrupted by the events of , but finally settled in the lady's favour; the verdict being uncompromising as to her moral, as well as legal claim to the inheritance. mr. browning had lately stood outside the grounds of clairvaux, and seen its lady pass. she was insignificant in face and expression; and he was reduced to accounting for the power she had exercised, by that very fact. she seemed a blank surface, on which a man could inscribe, or fancy he was inscribing, himself; and it is a matter of fact that, whether from strength of will, or from the absence of it, she presented such a surface to her lover's hand. she humoured his every inclination, complied with his every wish. and because she did no more than this, and also no less, mr. browning pronounces her far from the best of women, but by no means one of the worst. the two had, after all, up to a certain point, redeemed each other. the title of the book arose as follows. the narrative is addressed (as the volume is dedicated) to miss annie thackeray; and its supposed occasion is that of a meeting which took place at st. rambert--actually st. aubin--between her and mr. browning, in the summer of . she had laughingly called the district "white cotton night-cap country," from its sleepy appearance, and the universal white cap of even its male inhabitants. mr. browning, being acquainted with the tragedy of clairvaux, thought "_red_ cotton night-cap country" would be a more appropriate name; and adopted it for his story, as miss thackeray had adopted hers for one which she promised to write. but he represents himself as playing at first with the idea; and as leading the listener's mind, from the suggestions of white night-caps to those of the red one: and null the outward calmness of the neighbouring country, to the tragic possibilities which that calmness conceals. the supplementary heading, "turf and towers," must have been inspired by the literal facts of the case; but it supplies an analogy for the contrasted influences which fought for miranda's soul. the "tower" represents the militant or religious life. the "turf," the self-indulgent; and the figure appears and reappears at every stage of the man's career. the attempt at compromise is symbolized by a pavilion: a structure aping solidity, but only planted on the turf. the final attempt at union is spoken of as an underground passage connecting the two, and by which the fortress may be entered instead of scaled. the difficulty of making one's way through life amidst the ruins of old beliefs and the fanciful overgrowth in which time has clothed them; the equal danger of destroying too much and clearing away too little; also find their place in the allegory. the possible friend and adviser, to whom miranda is referred at vol. xii. p. , was m. joseph milsand, who always at that time passed the bathing season at st. aubin.[ ] "the inn album" is a tragedy in eight parts or scenes: the dialogue interspersed with description; and carried on by four persons not named. it is chiefly enacted in the parlour of a country inn; and the inn "album," in spite of its grotesque or prosaic character, becomes an important instrument in it. four years before the tragedy occurred--so we learn from the dialogue--a gentlemanly adventurer of uncertain age had won and abused the affections of a motherless girl, whom he thought too simple to resent the treachery. he was mistaken in this; for her nature was as proud as it was confiding; and her indignation when she learned that he had not intended marriage was such as to surprise him into offering it. she rejected the offer with contempt. he went his way, mortified and embittered. a month later she had buried herself in a secluded and squalid village, as wife of the old, poor, overworked, and hopelessly narrow-minded clergyman, whose cure it was. she abstained, however, for his own sake, from making any painful disclosures to her husband; and the daily and hourly expiation brought no peace with it; for she remained in her deceiver's power. three years went by. the elderly adventurer then fell in with a young, wealthy, and inexperienced man, who had loved the same woman, and whose honourable addresses had been declined for his sake; and he acquired over this youth an influence almost as strong as that which he had exercised over the young girl. he found him grieving over his disappointment, and undertook to teach him how to forget it; became his master in the art of dissipation; helped to empty his pockets while he filled his own; and finally induced him to form a mercenary engagement to a cousin whom he did not love. when the story opens, the young man has come to visit his bride-elect in her country home; and his mephistopheles has followed him, under a transparent pretext, to secure a last chance of winning money from him at cards. the presence of the latter is to be a secret, because he is too ill-famed a personage to be admitted into the lady's house; so they have arrived on the eve of the appointed day, and put up at a village inn on the outskirts of the cousin's estate. there they have spent the night in play. there also the luck has turned; and the usual winner has lost ten thousand pounds. his friend insists on cancelling the debt. he affects to scout the idea. "the money shall, by some means or other, be paid." the discussion is renewed with the same result, as they loiter near the station, at which the younger will presently make a feint of arriving; and for the first time he asks the elder why, with such abilities as his, he has made no mark in life. the latter replies that he found and lost his opportunity four years ago, in a woman, who, he feels more and more, would have quickened his energies to better ends. he then, with tolerable frankness, relates his story. the younger follows with his own. but, for a reason which explains itself at the time, the connection between the two escapes them. the woman herself next appears on the scene, and with her, the girl cousin. they are friends of old; and the married one has emerged from her seclusion at the entreaty of the betrothed, to pass judgment on her intended husband. the young girl is not satisfied with her own feeling towards him whom she has promised to marry; though she has no misgiving as to his sentiments towards her. she is to bring him for inspection to the inn. and the friend, entering its parlour alone, is confronted by her former lover, who has temporarily returned there. a stormy dialogue ensues. she denounces him as the destroyer, ever lying in wait for her soul. he taunts her with the malignant hatred with which for years past from the height of her own prosperity she has been weighing down his. she retorts in a powerful description of the love with which he once inspired her, of the living death in which she has been expiating her mistake. and as he listens, the old feeling in him revives, and he kneels to her, imploring that she will break her bonds, and secure their joint happiness by flying with him. she sees nothing, however, in this, but a second attempt to ensnare her; and is repulsing the entreaty with the scorn which she believes it to deserve, when the younger man bursts merrily into the room. a wave of angry pain passes over him as he recognizes the heroine of his own romance, and hastily infers from the circumstances in which he finds her, that he has been the victim of a double deception. the truth gradually shapes itself in his mind; but meanwhile the older man has grasped the situation, and determined to make capital of it--to avenge his rebuff and to rid himself of his debt at the same time. he begs the lady to leave the room for a few moments, handing her, for her entertainment, the inn "album," over which he and his friend were exchanging jokes a few hours ago; and in which he has, at this moment, inscribed some lines. the purport of these is that this young man loves her; and that unless she responds to his advances, the secret of her past life shall be revealed to her husband. alone with the younger man, he exhausts himself in coarse libels against the woman, of whom that morning only he was speaking, as the lost opportunity of his life; bids him ask of her what he desires, and have it; and calls on him to admit, that in preserving him from marrying her, and placing her nevertheless at his disposal, he will have earned his gratitude, and paid the value of the ten thousand pounds. when the woman returns, the album in her hand, the calm of death is upon her. she has lived prepared for this emergency, provided also with the means of escaping from it. but she will not die without entreating her young admirer to shake off, before it is too late, the evil influence to which both, though in different ways, have succumbed; and her dignity, her kindness, the instinctive reverence, and now chivalrous pity, with which she has inspired him carry all before them. he renews his declaration; implores her to accept him as her husband, if she is free--her friend if she is not; her husband even if the relation she is living in be something less than marriage; to exact any delay, to impose any probation, so that in the end she accepts him. she replies by putting her hand into his, _to remain there_, as she says, _till death shall part them_. the older man, who has just re-entered the room, congratulates them on having arrived at so sensible an understanding. the woman, now very pale, contrives to point to the fatal entry in the album which she still grasps; and asks her friend--after quoting the writer's words--how, but in her own way, the mouth of such a one could have been stopped. "so," exclaims the youth. and he flies at the man's throat, and strangles him. she has only time to thank her deliverer; to tell him why his devotion is unavailing--to provide for his safety by writing in the album from which he has torn the fatal page, that he has slain a man who would have outraged her: and that her last breath is spent in blessing him. a merry voice is heard; and the young, light-hearted girl comes all unconscious to the scene of the tragedy. the curtain falls before she has entered upon it. the betrayal of the lady, the transaction of which she becomes the subject, and her consequent suicide, are taken from an episode in english high life, which occurred in the present century. "the two poets of croisic" is an extract from the history of two writers of verse, whose respective works obtained from circumstances a brilliant but short-lived renown. it forms part of a reminiscence, supposed to be conjured up by a wood fire near which the narrator, with his wife, is sitting. the fire, as he describes it, is made of ship-wood: for it burns in all the beautiful colours which denote the presence of metallic substances and salts; and as his fancy reconstructs the ship, it also raises the vision of a distant coast well known to his companion and to himself. he sees le croisic--the little town it is--the poor village it was[ ]--with its storm-tossed sea--its sandy strip of land, good only for the production of salt--its solitary menhir, which recalls, and in some degree perpetuates, the wild life and the barbarous druid worship of old breton times.[ ] and in the bright-hued flames, which leap up and vanish before his bodily eyes, he sees also the two ephemeral reputations which flashed forth and expired there. rené gentilhomme, born , was a rhymer, as his father had been before him. he became page to the prince of condé, and occupied his spare time by writing complimentary verse. one day, as he was hammering at an ode, a violent storm broke out; and the lightning shattered a ducal crown in marble which stood on a pedestal in the room in which he sat. condé was regarded as future king of france: for louis xiii. was childless, and his brother gaston believed to be so; in consideration of this fact, men called him "duke." rené took the incident as an omen, and turned his ode into a prophecy which he delivered to his master as the utterance of god. "the prince's hopes were at an end: a dauphin would be born in the ensuing year." a dauphin was born; and rené, who had at first been terrified at his own boldness, received the title of royal poet, and the honours due to a seer. but he wrote little or no more; and he and the tiny volume which composed his works soon disappeared from sight. the narrator, however, judges that this oblivion may not have been unsought, since one who had believed himself the object of a direct message from god, would have little taste for intercourse with his fellow men; and he suspends his story for a moment to ask himself how such a one would bear the weight of his experience; and how far the knowledge conveyed by it might be true. he decides (as we should expect) that a direct revelation is forbidden by the laws of life; but that life is full of indirect messages from the unseen world; that all our "simulated thunder-claps," all our "counterfeited truths," all those glimpses of beauty which startle while they elude the soul, are messages of this kind: darts shot from the spirit world, which rebound as they touch, yet sting us to the consciousness of its existence. and so rené gentilhomme had had a true revelation, in what reminded him that there are things higher than rhyming and its rewards. paul desforges maillard was born nearly a century later, and wrote society verses till the age of thirty, when the desire for wider fame took possession of him. he competed for a prize which the academy had offered to the poet who should best commemorate the progress made by the art of navigation during the last reign. his poem was returned. it was offered, through the agency of a friend, to a paper called "the mercury." the editor, la roque, praised the work in florid terms, but said he dared not offend the academy; he, too, returned the ms. paul, mistaking the polite fiction for truth, wrote back an angry tirade against the editor's cowardice; and the latter, retorting in as frank a fashion, told the writer that his poem was execrable, and that it was only consideration for his feelings which had hitherto prevented his hearing so. at this juncture paul's sister interposed. he was wrong, she declared, to proceed in such a point-blank manner. in cases like these, it was only wile which conquered. he must resume his incognito, and try, this time, the effect of a feminine disguise. she picked out and copied the feeblest of his songs or sonnets, and sent it to la roque, as from a girl-novice who humbly sued for his literary protection. she was known by another name than her brother's (mr. browning explains why); the travesty was therefore complete. the poem was accepted; then another and another. the lady's fame grew. la roque made her, by letter, a declaration of love. voltaire also placed himself at her feet. paul now refused to efface himself any longer. the clever sister urged in vain that it was her petticoats which had conquered, and not his verse. he went to paris to claim his honours, and introduce himself as the admired poetess to la roque and voltaire. voltaire bitterly resented the joke; la roque affected to enjoy it; but nevertheless advised its perpetrator to get out of paris as fast as possible. the trick had answered for once. it would not be wise to repeat it. again paul disregarded his sister's advice, and reprinted the poems in his own name. "they had been praised and more than praised. the world could not eat its own printed words!" he discovered, however, that the world _could_ eat its words; or, at least, forget them. the only fame--the speaker adds--which a great man cannot destroy, is that which he has had no hand in making. paul's light, with his sister's, went out as did that of his predecessor. mr. browning gives, in conclusion, a test by which the relative merit of any two real poets may be gauged. _the greater is he who leads the happier life_. to be a poet is to see and feel. to see and feel is to suffer. his is the truest poetic existence who enslaves his sufferings, and makes their strength his own. he who yokes them to his chariot shall win the race.[ ] "cenciaja" signifies matter relating to the "cenci;"[ ] and the poem describes an incident extraneous to the "cenci" tragedy, but which strongly influenced its course. this incident was the murder of the widowed marchesa dell' oriolo, by her younger son, paolo santa croce, who thus avenged her refusal to invest him with his elder brother's rights. he escaped the hands of justice, though only to perish in some other disastrous way. but the matricide had been committed on the very day which closed the trial of the cenci family for the assassination of its head; and it sealed beatrice's fate. her sentence seemed about to be remitted. the pope now declared that she must die. ... "paolo santo croce murdered his mother also yestereve, and he is fled: she shall not flee at least!" (vol. xiv. p. .) the elder son of the marchesa, onofrio marchese dell' oriolo, was arrested on the strength of an ambiguous scrap of writing, which appeared to implicate him in his brother's guilt; and subjected in prison to such a daily and day-long examination on the subject of this letter, that his mind gave way, and the desired avowal was extracted from him. he confessed to having implied, under reserves and conditions which practically neutralized the confession, his assent to his mother's death. he was beheaded accordingly; and the governor of rome, taverna, who had conducted the inquisition, was rewarded by a cardinal's hat. other motives were, however, involved in the proceeding than the pope's quickened zeal for justice. he had entrusted the case to his nephew, cardinal aldobrandini; and it was known that the cardinal and the marchese had courted the same lady, and the latter unwisely flaunted the possession of a ring which was his pledge of victory. this story, with other details which i have not space to give, was taken from a contemporary italian chronicle, of which some lines are literally transcribed. the heretic of "the heretic's tragedy" was jacques du bourg-molay, last grand master of the order of knights templars, and against whom preposterous accusations had been brought. this "jacques," whom the speaker erroneously calls "john," and who might stand for any victim of middle-age fanaticism, was burned in paris in ; and the "interlude," we are told, "would seem to be a reminiscence of this event, as distorted by two centuries of refraction from flemish brain to brain." the scene is carried on by one singer, in a succession of verses, and by a chorus which takes up the last and most significant words of each verse; the organ accompanying in a plagal cadence,[ ] which completes its effect. the chant is preceded by an admonition from the abbot, which lays down its text: that god is unchanging, and his justice as infinite as his mercy; and singer and chorus both denounce the impious heresy of "john:" who admitted only the love, and sinned the "unknown sin," in his confidence in it. how the logs are fired; how the victim roasts; amidst what hideous and fantastic torments the damned soul "flares forth into the dark" is quaintly and powerfully described. romantic poems. the prevalence of thought in mr. browning's poetry has created in many minds an impression that he is more a thinker than a poet: that his poems not only are each inspired by some leading idea, but have grown up in subservience to it; and those who hold this view both do him injustice as a poet, and underrate, however unconsciously, the intellectual value of what his work conveys. for in a poet's imagination, the thought and the thing--the idea and its image--grow up at the same time; each being a different aspect of the other.[ ] he sees, therefore, the truths of nature, as nature herself gives them; while the thinker, who conceives an idea first, and finds an illustration for it afterwards, gives truth only as it presents itself to the human mind--in a more definite, but much narrower form. mr. browning often _treats_ his subject as a pure thinker might, but he has always _conceived_ it as a poet; he has always seen in one flash, everything, whether moral or physical, visible or invisible, which the given situation could contain.[ ] this fact may be recognized in many of the smaller poems, which, for that reason, i shall find it impossible to class; but it is best displayed in a couple of longer ones, which i have placed under the head "romantic." they are distinct from the majority of the "dramatic romances," although included in them. for with these the word "romantic" denotes an imaginary experience, which may be frankly supernatural, as in "the boy and the angel;" or only improbable, as in "mesmerism;" or semi-historical and local, as in "in a gondola;" or simply human, and possible anywhere and anywhen, as in "the last ride together;" or in "dîs aliter visum," and "james lee's wife," which might be classed with them. i am now using it to mark certain cases, in which the author's imagination has not brought itself to the test of _any_ consistent experience, but simply presents us with certain groups of material and mental--of real and ideal possibilities, which we may each interpret for ourselves. they occur in "childe roland to the dark tower came." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "the flight of the duchess." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .)[ ] the first of these has been taken by some intelligent critics to be a moralizing allegory; the second, a moralizing fairy-tale. they are, therefore, a useful type both of mr. browning's poetic genius, and of the misunderstanding, to which its constantly intellectual employment has exposed him. "childe roland to the dark tower came," describes a brave knight performing a pilgrimage, in which hitherto all who attempted it have failed. the way through which he struggles is unknown to him; its features are hideous; a deadly sense of difficulty and danger hangs over every step; and though childe roland's courage is pledged to the undertaking, the thought of failure at last comes to him as a relief. he reaches the goal just as failure appears inevitable. the plain has suddenly closed in; weird and unsightly eminences encompass him on every side. in one flash he perceives that he is in a trap; in another, that the tower stands before him; while round it, against the hill-sides, are ranged the "lost adventurers" who have preceded him--their names and story clanging loudly and more loudly in his ears--their forms revealed with ghastly clearness in the last fires of the setting sun. so far the picture is consistent; but if we look below its surface discrepancies appear. the tower is much nearer and more accessible than childe roland has thought; a sinister-looking man, of whom he asked the way, and who, as he believed, was deceiving him, has really put him on the right track; and as he describes the country through which he passes, it becomes clear that half its horrors are created by his own heated imagination, or by some undefined influence in the place itself. we are left in doubt whether those who have found failure in this quest, have not done so through the very act of attainment in it; and when, dauntless, childe roland sounds his slughorn and announces that he has come, we should not know, but that he lives to tell the tale, whether in doing this he incurs, or is escaping, the general doom. we can connect no idea of definite pursuit or attainment with a series of facts so dreamlike and so disjointed: still less extract from it a definite moral; and we are reduced to taking the poem as a simple work of fancy, built up of picturesque impressions which have, separately or collectively, produced themselves in the author's mind.[ ] but these picturesque impressions had, also, their ideal side, which mr. browning as spontaneously reproduced; and we may all recognize under the semblance of the enchanted country and the adventurous knight, a poetic vision of life: with its conflicts, contradictions, and mockeries; its difficulties which give way when they seem most insuperable; its successes which look like failures, and its failures which look like success. the thing we may not do is to imagine that an intended lesson is conveyed by it. "the flight of the duchess" is the adventure of a young girl, who was brought out of a convent to marry a certain duke. the duke was narrow-hearted, pompous, and self-sufficient; the mother who shared his home, a sickly woman, as ungenial as himself. the young wife, on the other hand, was a bright, stirring creature, who would have been the sunshine of a labourer's home. she pined amidst the dreariness and the formality of her conjugal existence, and seized the first opportunity of escape from it. a retainer of the duke's, whose chivalry her position had aroused, connived at her escape, and tells the story of it. the duke had decreed a hunt. custom prescribed that his wife should attend it. she had excused herself on the plea of her ill-health; and he was riding forth in no amiable mood, when an old gipsy woman, well known in the neighbourhood, accosted him with the usual prayer for alms. he was curtly dismissing her, when she mentioned her desire to pay her respects to the young duchess. it then occurred to him that the sight of this ragged crone, and the chronicle of her woes, might be an excellent medicine for his "froward," ungrateful wife, and teach her to know when she was well off; and after speaking in confidence with the old woman, he bade him who recounts the adventure escort her into the lady's presence. the interview took place. the duchess accompanied her visitor to the castle gate, ordered her palfrey to be saddled, mounted it with the gipsy behind her, and bounded away, never to return. the attendant had watched and obeyed her as in a dream. she left in his hand, in gratitude for what she knew he felt for her, a little plait of hair. these are the real facts of the story. but we have also its ideal possibilities, as reflected by the imagination of the narrator. he had seen the gipsy metamorphosed as she received the duke's command, from a ragged, decrepit crone into a stately woman, whose clothing bore the appearance of wealth; and as he mounted guard on the balcony which commanded the duchess's room, he saw the wonder grow. a sound as of music first attracted his attention; and as he looked in at the window he saw the duchess sitting at the feet of a real gipsy-queen: her head upturned--her whole being expanding--as the gipsy's hands waved over her, and the gipsy's eyes, preternaturally dilated, poured their floods of life into her own. then the music broke up into words, and he knew what hope and promise that fainting spirit was drinking in: for he heard what the gipsy said. she was telling the young duchess that she was one of themselves--that she bore their mystic mark in the two veins which met and parted on her brow--that after fiery trial she should return to her tribe, and be shielded by their devotion for evermore. she was telling her how good a thing is love--how strong and beautiful the double existence of those whom love has welded together--how full of restful memories the old age of those who have lived in and for it--how sure and gentle their awakening into the better world.... here the words again lost themselves in music, and he understood no more. when the two appeared at the castle gate, the gipsy had shrunk back into her original character; but the duchess remained transformed. she had become, in her turn, a queen. the suggestion of her gipsy origin forms a connecting link between the real and the ideal aspects of the duchess's flight. we might imagine her fervid nature as being affected by the message of deliverance precisely in the manner described: while the beautified image of her deliverer transferred itself through some magnetic influence to the spectator's mind from her own. he does not, however, present himself as a probable subject for such impressions. he is a jovial, matter-of-fact person, in spite of the vein of sentiment which runs through him; and the imaginative part of his narrative was more probably the result of a huntsman's breakfast which had found its way into his brain. as in the case of childe roland, the poetic truth of the duchess's romance is incompatible with rational explanation, and independent of it. various dramatic details complete the story. satirical or humorous poems. humour is a constant characteristic of mr. browning's work,[ ] and it sometimes takes the form of direct and intentional satire; but his sympathy with human beings and his hopeful view of their future destiny, are opposed to any development of the satirical mood. the impression of sympathy will even neutralize the satire, in poems in which the latter is directly and conciously conveyed: as, for instance, in "caliban upon setebos," and "the bishop orders his tomb at saint praxed's church." of grim or serious satire, there is, i think, only one specimen among his works: the first part of "holy-cross day." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women," .) we may class as playful satires (which i give in the order of their importance): "pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper." ( .) "filippo baldinucci on the privilege of burial." ("pacchiarotto, and other poems." .) "up at a villa--down in the city." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "another way of love." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) we have a purely humorous picture in "garden fancies, ii. sibrandus schafnaburgensis." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "holy-cross day" was the occasion of an "annual christian sermon," which the jews in rome were forced to attend; and the poem which bears this title is prefaced by an extract from an imaginary "diary by a bishop's secretary," dated ; and expatiating on the merciful purpose, and regenerating effect of this sermon. what the assembled jews may have really felt about it, mr. browning sets forth in the words of one of the congregation. this man describes the hustling and bustling, the crowding and packing--the suppressed stir as of human vermin imprisoned in a small space; the sham groans, and sham conversions which follow in their due course; and as he thus dwells on his national and personal degradation, his tone has the bitter irony of one who has both realized and accepted it. but the irony recoils on those who have inflicted the degradation--on the so-called christians who would throttle the jew's creed while they "gut" his purse, and make him the instrument of their own sins; and is soon lost in the emotion of a pathetic and solemn prayer; the supposed death-bed utterance of rabbi ben ezra. the prayer is an invocation to the justice, and to the sympathy of christ. it claims his help against the enemies who are also his own. it concedes, as possible, that he was in truth the messiah, crucified by the nation of which he claimed a crown. but it points to his christian followers as inflicting on him a still deeper outrage: a belief which the lips profess, and which the life derides and discredits. it urges, in the jew's behalf, the ignorance, the fear, in which the deed was done; the bitter sufferings by which it has been expiated. it pleads his long endurance, as testimony to the fact, that he withstands barabbas now, as he withstood christ "then;" that he strives to wrest christ's name from the "devil's crew," though the shadow of his face be upon him. the invocation concludes with an expression of joyful confidence in god and the future. (giacomo) "pacchiarotto" was a painter of siena.[ ] his story is told in the "commentary on the life of sodoma" by the editors of vasari; florence, ; and this contains all, or nearly all, the incidents of mr. browning's "pacchiarotto," as well as others of a similar kind but of later occurrence, which are not mentioned in it. this painter was a restless, aggressive personage, with a craze for reform; and a conspicuous member of the "bardotti:" a society of uncommissioned reformers, whose occupation was to cry down abuses, and prescribe wholesale theoretical measures for removing them. (hence their title; which signifies "spare" horses or "freed" ones: they walk by the side of the waggon while others drudge at, and drag it along). but he discovered that men would not be reformed; and bethought himself, after a time, of a new manner of testifying to the truth. he selected a room in his own house, whitewashed it (we conclude); and, working in "distemper" or fresco, painted it with men and women of every condition and kind. he then harangued these on their various shortcomings. they answered him, as he imagined, in a humble and apologetic manner; and he then proceeded to denounce their excuses, and strip the mask from their sophistries and hypocrisies--doing so with every appearance of success. but he presumed too much on his victory. a famine had broken out in siena. the magistrates were, of course, held responsible for it. the bardotti assembled, and prescribed the fitting remedies. everything would come right if only the existing social order was turned topsy-turvy, and men were released from every tie. pacchiarotto was conspicuous by his eloquence. but when he denounced the chief of the municipal force, and hinted that if the right man were in the right place, that officer would be he, all the other "spare horses" rushed upon him and he was obliged to run for his life. the first hiding-place which presented itself was a sepulchre, in which a corpse had just been laid. he squeezed himself into this, and crawled forth from it at at the end of two days, starving, covered with vermin, and thoroughly converted to the policy of living and letting live. the authentic part of the narrative concludes with his admission into a neighbouring convent (the osservanza) where he was cleansed and fed. but mr. browning allows fancy the just employment of telling how the superior improved the occasion, and how his lesson was received. "it is a great mistake," this reverend person assures his guest--though one from which his own youth has not been free--"to imagine that any one man can preach another out of his folly. if such endeavours could succeed, heaven would have begun on earth. whereas, every man's task is to leaven earth with heaven, by working towards the end to which his master points, without dreaming that he can ever attain it. man, in short, is to be not the 'spare horse,' but the 'mill-horse' plodding patiently round and round on the same spot." and pacchiarotto replies that his monitor's arguments are, by his own account, doomed to be ineffectual: but that he is addressing himself to one already convinced. he (pacchiarotto) never was so by living man; but he has been convinced by a dead one. that corpse has seemed to ask him by its grin, why he should join it before his time because men are not all made on the same pattern: "because, above, one's jack and one--john." and the same grin has reminded him that this life is the rehearsal, not the real performance: just an hour's trial of who is fit, and who isn't, to play his part; that the parts are distributed by the author, whose purpose will be explained in proper time; and that when his brother has been cast for a fool's part, he is no sage who would persuade him to give it up. he is now going back to his paint-pot, and will mind his own business in future. by an easy transition, mr. browning turns the laugh against his own critics, whom he professes to recognize on this may morning, as flocking into his garden in the guise of sweeps. he does not, he says, grudge them their fun or their one holiday of the year, the less so that their rattling and drumming may give him some inkling how music sounds; and he flings them, by way of a gift, the story he has just told, bidding them dance, and "dust" his "jacket" for a little while. but that done, he bids them clear off, lest his housemaid should compel them to do so. he has her authority for suspecting that in their professional character they bring more dirt into the house than they remove from it[ ]. "filippo baldinucci" was the author of a history of art ("notizie dei professori del disegno da cimabue in qua"); and the incident which mr. browning relates as "a reminiscence of a.d. ," appears there in a notice of the life of the painter buti. (vol. iii. p. .) the jewish burial ground in florence was a small field at the foot of the monte oliveto. a path ascending the hill skirted its upper end, and at an angle of this stood a shrine with one side blank, the other adorned by a painting of the virgin mary. the painting was intended to catch the eye of all believers who approached from the neighbouring city-gate (porta san friano or frediano); and was therefore so turned that it overlooked the jewish cemetery at the same time. the jews, objecting to this, negotiated for its removal with the owner of the ground; and his steward, acting in his name, received a hundred ducats as the price of his promise that the virgin should be transferred to the opposite side of the shrine. the task was undertaken by buti, but carried on in the privacy of a curtained scaffolding; and when the curtains were withdrawn, it was seen that the picture _had_ been transferred; but that a painting of the crucifixion occupied its original place. four rabbis, the "sourest and ugliest" of the lot, were deputed to remonstrate with the steward; but this person coolly replied that they had no ground of complaint whatever. "his master had amply fulfilled his bond. did they fancy their 'sordid' money had bought his freedom to do afterwards what he thought fit?" and he advised them to remove themselves before worse befell them. the jews retired discomfited; and, as the writer hopes, took warning by what had happened, never again to tempt with their ill-earned wealth "the religious piety of good christians." mr. browning gives this story, with unimportant variations, in the manner of baldinucci himself; and does full justice to the hostile and contemptuous spirit in which the attitude of the jews is described by him. but he also heightens the unconscious self-satire of the narrative by infusing into this attitude a genuine dignity and pathos. he enlists all our sympathy by the chief rabbi's prayer that his people, so sorely tried in life, may be allowed rest from persecution in their graves; and he concludes with an imaginary incident which leaves them masters of the situation. on the day after what the historian calls this "pleasing occurrence," the son of the high priest presented himself at buti's shop, where he and the so-called "farmer" were still laughing over the event; and in tones of ominous mildness begged to purchase that pretty thing--the picture in oils, from which the fresco painting of the virgin had been made. he was a herculean young man, and buti, who white and trembling had tried to slip out of his way, was so bewildered by the offer, that he asked only the proper price for his work. the farmer, however, broke forth in expressions of pious delight, "mary had surely wrought a miracle, and _converted_ the jew!" the jew turned like a trodden worm. "truly," he replied, "a miracle has been wrought, by a power which no canvas yet possessed, in that i have resisted the desire to throttle you. but my purchase of your picture is not due to a miracle. it means simply that i have been cured of my prejudices in respect to art. christians hang up pictures of heathen gods. their 'titians' paint them. a cardinal will value his leda or his ganymede beyond everything else which he possesses. if i express wonder at this sacrifice of the truth, i am told that the truth of a picture is in its drawing and painting, and that these are valued precisely because they _are_ true. why then should not your mary take her place among my ledas and the rest; be judged as a picture, and, since--as i fear--master buti is not a titian, laughed at accordingly?" "so now," the speaker concludes, "jews buy what pictures they like, and hang them up where they please, and,"--with an inward groan--"no, boy, you must not pelt them." this warning, which is supposed to be addressed by the historian in his old age to a nephew with a turn for throwing stones, reveals the motive of the story: a sudden remembrance of the good old pious time, when jews _might_ be pelted. "up at a villa--down in the city" is a lively description of the amusements of the city, and the dulness of villa life, as contrasted by an italian of quality, who is bored to death in his country residence, but cannot afford the town. his account of the former gives a genuine impression of dreariness and monotony, for the villa is stuck on a mountain edge, where the summer is scorching and the winter bleak, where a "lean cypress" is the most conspicuous object in the foreground, and hills "smoked over" with "faint grey olive trees" fill in the back; where on hot days the silence is only broken by the shrill chirp of the cicala, and the whining of bees around some adjacent firs. but the other side of the picture, though sympathetically drawn, is a perfect parody of what it is meant to convey. for the speaker's ideal "city" might be a big village, with its primitive customs, and its life all concentrated in the market-place or square; and it is precisely in the square that he is ambitious to live. there the church-bells sound, and the diligence rattles in, and the travelling doctor draws teeth or gives pills; there the punch-show or the church procession displays itself, and the last proclamation of duke or archbishop is posted up. it is never too hot, because of the fountain always plashing in the centre; and the bright white houses, and green blinds, and painted shop-signs are a perpetual diversion to the eye.... but alas! the price of food is prohibitive; and a man must live where he can. "another way of love" is the complement to "one way of love," and displays the opposite mood. the one lover patiently gathers june roses in case they may catch his lady's eye. the other grows tired of such patience even when devoted to himself; he tires of june roses, which are always red and sweet. his lady-love is bantering him on this frame of mind. it is true, she says, that such monotony is trying to a man's temper: there is no comfort in anything that can't be quarrelled with; and the person she addresses is free to "go." she reminds him, however, that june may repair her bower which his hand has rifled, and the next time "consider" which of two courses she prefers: to bestow her flowers on one who will accept their sweetness, or use her lightnings to kill the spider who is weaving his films about them. "sibrandus schafnaburgensis" is apparently the name of an old pedant who has written a tiresome book; and the adventures of this book form the subject of the poem. some wag relates how he read it a month ago, having come into the garden for that purpose; and then revenged himself by dropping it through a crevice in a tree, and enjoying a picnic lunch and a chapter of "rabelais" on the grass close by. to-day, in a fit of compunction, he has raked the "treatise" out; but meanwhile it has blistered in the sun, and run all colours in the rain. toadstools have grown in it; and all the creatures that creep have towzed it and browsed on it, and devoted bits of it to their different domestic use. it is altogether a melancholy sight. so the wag thinks his victim has sufficiently suffered, and carries it back to his book-shelf, to "dry-rot" there in all the comfort it deserves. descriptive poems. mr. browning's poems abound in descriptive passages, and his power of word-painting is very vivid, as well as frequently employed. but we have here another instance of a quality diffused throughout his work, yet scarcely ever asserting itself in a distinct form. the reason is, that he deals with men and women first--with nature afterwards; and that the details of a landscape have little meaning for him, except in reference to the mental or dramatic situation of which they form a part. this is very apparent in such lyrics or romances as: "by the fire-side," "in a gondola," and "childe roland to the dark tower came." we find three poems only which might have been written for the sake of the picturesque impressions which they convey: "de gustibus--" ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "home-thoughts, from abroad." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "the englishman in italy." ("dramatic romances." published as "england in italy" in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) and even here we receive the picture with a lyric and dramatic colouring, which makes it much less one of facts than of associations. it is also to be remarked that, in these poems, the associations are of two opposite kinds, and mr. browning is in equal sympathy with both. he feels english scenery as an englishman does: italian, as an italian might be supposed to, feel it. "de gustibus--" illustrates the difference of tastes by the respective attractions of these two kinds of scenery, and of the ideas and images connected with them. some one is apostrophizing a friend, whose ghost he is convinced will be found haunting an english lane, with its adjoining corn-field and hazel coppice: where in the early summer the blackbird sings, and the bean-flower scents the air. and he declares at the same time that italy is the land of his own love, whether his home there be a castle in the apennine, or some house on its southern shore; among "wind-grieved" heights, or on the edge of an opaque blue sea: amidst a drought and stillness in which the very cicala dies, and the cypress seems to rust; and scorpions drop and crawl from the peeling walls ... and where "a bare-footed girl tumbles green melons on to the ground before you, as she gives news of the last attack on the bourbon king." "home-thoughts, from abroad" is a longing reminiscence of an english april and may, with their young leaves and their blossoms, their sunshine and their dew, their song of the chaffinch and their rapturous music of the thrush. appreciation is heightened by contrast; and the buttercup--england's gift to her little children--is pronounced far brighter than the "gaudy melon-flower" which the exiled englishman has at this moment before him. "the englishman in italy" is a vivid picture of italian peasant-life on the plain of sorrento: the occasion being an outbreak of the well-known hot wind--the "scirocco"--which, in this case, has brought with it a storm of rain. a little frightened peasant girl has taken refuge by the side of the englishman, who is apparently lodging in her mother's cottage. and he is diverting her attention by describing his impressions of the last twenty-four hours: how everything looked before the rain; how he knew while yet in bed that the rain had come, by the rattling down of the quail-nets,[ ] which were to be tugged into shelter, while girls ran on to the housetops to fetch the drying figs; how the black churning waters forbade the fishermen to go to sea (what strange creatures they bring home when they do go, and how the brown naked children, who look like so many shrimps, cling screaming about them at the sight); how all hands are now employed at the wine-making, and her brother is at this moment dancing bare-legged in a vat half as high as the house; how the bigger girls bring baskets of grapes, with eyes closed to keep out the rain; and how the smaller ones gather snails in the wet grass, which will appear with fried pumpkin at the labourer's supper; how, yesterday, he climbed mount calvano--that very brother of hers for his guide--his mule carrying him with dainty steps through the plain--past the woods--up a path ever wilder and stonier, where sorb and myrtle fall away, but lentisk and rosemary still cling to the face of the rock--the head and shoulders of some new mountain ever coming into view; how he emerged, at last, where there were mountains all around; below, the green sea; above, the crystal solitudes of heaven; and, down in that green sea, the slumbering siren islands: the three which stand together, and the one which swam to meet them, but has always remained half-way. these, and other reminiscences, beguile the time till the storm has passed, and the sun breaks over the great mountain which the englishman has just described. he and little "fortú" can now go into the village, and see the preparations being made for to-morrow's feast--that of the virgin of the rosary--which primitive solemnity he also (by anticipation) describes. he concludes with a brief allusion to the political scirocco which is blackening the english sky, and will not vanish so quickly as this has done; and thus hints at a reason, if the reader desires one, for his temporary rustication in a foreign land. footnotes: [footnote : first in "hood's magazine."] [footnote : two of these are now in the national gallery; one presented to it by sir charles eastlake, the other after his death by lady eastlake.] [footnote : mr. browning thus skilfully accounts for the discrepancy between the coarseness of his life and the refined beauty of much of his work.] [footnote : the painter spoken of as "hulking tom" is the celebrated one known as "masaccio" (tommasaccio), who learned in the convent from lippo lippi, and has been wrongly supposed to be his teacher. he is also one of those who were credited with the work of lippino, lippo lippi's son.] [footnote : the bishop's tomb is entirely fictitious; but something which is made to stand for it is now shown to credulous sight-seers in st. praxed's church.] [footnote : first in "hood's magazine."] [footnote : these were correctly given in the ms., and appeared so in the first proofs of the book; but were changed from considerations of prudence.] [footnote : a feigned name for one of the three wonder working images which are worshipped in france.] [footnote : mr. browning allows me to give the true names of the persons and places concerned in the story. vol. xii. page . the firm miranda--mellerio, brothers. " " . st rambert--st. aubin. " " . joyeux, joyous-gard--lion, lionesse. " " . vire-caen. " " . st. rambertese--st. aubinese " " . londres--douvres. " " . london--dover. " " . la roche--courcelle. " " . monlieu--bernières. " " . villeneuve--langrune. " " . pons--luc. " " . la ravissante--la délivrande. " " . raimbaux--bayeux. " " . morillon--hugonin. " " . mirecourt--bonnechose. " " . miranda--mellerio. " " . new york--madrid. " " . clairvaux--tailleville. " " . gonthier--bény. " " . rousseau--voltaire. " " . léonce--antoine. " " . of "firm miranda, london and new york"--"mellerio brothers"--meller, people say. " " . rare vissante--dell yvrande. " " . aldabert--regnobert. " " . eldebert--ragnebert. " " . mailleville--beaudoin. " " . chaumont--quelen. " " . vertgalant--talleyrand. " " . ravissantish--delivrandish. " " . clara de millefleurs--anna de beaupré. " " . coliseum street--miromesnil street. " " . sterner--mayer. " " . commercy--larocy. " " . sierck--metz. " " . muhlhausen--debacker. " " . carlino centofanti--miranda di mongino. " " . portugal--italy. " " . vaillant-mériel. " " . thirty-three--twenty-five. " " . beaumont--pasquier. " " . sceaux--garges. " " . luc de la maison rouge--jean de la becquetière. " " . claise--vire. " " . maude--anne. " " . dionysius--eliezer. " " . scolastica--elizabeth. " " . twentieth--thirteenth. " " . fricquot--picot. ] [footnote : le croisic is in the loire inférieure, at the south-east corner of brittany. it has now a good bathing establishment, and is much frequented by french people; but sardine-fishing and the crystallizing of sea-salt are still its standing occupations.] [footnote : the details of this worship as carried on in the island opposite le croisic, and which mr. browning describes, are mentioned by strabo.] [footnote : the story of paul desforges maillard forms the subject of a famous play, piron's "métromanie."] [footnote : it is also, and perhaps chiefly, in this case, a pun on the meaning of the plural noun "cenci," "rags," or "old rags." the cry of this, frequent in rome, was at first mistaken by shelley for a voice urging him to go on with his play. mr. browning has used it to indicate the comparative unimportance of his contribution to the cenci story. the quoted italian proverb means something to the same effect: that every trifle will press in for notice among worthier matters.] [footnote : that of the gregorian chant: a cadence concluding on the dominant instead of the key-note.] [footnote : we have a conspicuous instance of this in "pippa passes."] [footnote : this spontaneous mode of conception may seem incompatible with the systematic adherence to a fixed class of subjects referred to in an earlier chapter. but it by no means is so. with mr. browning the spontaneous creative impulse conforms to the fixed rule. the present remarks properly belong to that earlier chapter. but it was difficult to divide them from their illustrations.] [footnote : first in "hood's magazine."] [footnote : i may venture to state that these picturesque materials included a tower which mr. browning once saw in the carrara mountains, a painting which caught his eye years later in paris; and the figure of a horse in the tapestry in his own drawing-room--welded together in the remembrance of the line from "king lear" which forms the heading of the poem.] [footnote : instances of it occur in the "dramatic idyls" and "jocoseria;" and will be noticed later.] [footnote : generally confounded with his contemporary and fellow-citizen, girolamo del pacchia.] [footnote : the (baron) kirkup mentioned at vol. xiv. page was a florence friend of mr. browning's, and a connoisseur in literature and art. he was ennobled by the king of italy for his liberal views and for his services to italian literature. it was he who discovered the portrait of dante in the bargello at florence.] [footnote : nets spread to catch quails as they fly to or from the other side of the mediterranean. they are slung by rings on to poles, and stand sufficiently high for the quails to fly into them. this, and every other detail of the poem, are given from personal observation.] non-classified poems (continued). miscellaneous poems. even so imperfect, not to say arbitrary, a classification as i have been able to attempt, excludes a number of mr. browning's minor poems; for its necessary condition was the presence of some distinctive mood of thought or feeling by which the poem could be classed; and in many, even of the most striking and most characteristic, this condition does not exist. in one group, for instance, the prevailing mood is either too slightly indicated, or too fugitive, or too complex, or even too fantastic, to be designated by any term but "poetic." others, again, such as songs and legends, depict human emotion in too simple or too general a form, to be thought of as anything but "popular;" and a third group may be formed of dramatic pictures or episodes, which unite the qualities of the other two. in the first of these groups we must place-- "the lost leader." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "nationality in drinks." ("dramatic lyrics." published as "claret and tokay," without rd part, in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "garden fancies. i. the flower's name." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .)[ ] "earth's immortalities." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "home-thoughts, from the sea." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "bells and pomegranates." or .) "my star." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "misconceptions." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "a pretty woman." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "in a year." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "women and roses." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "before." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "after." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "memorabilia." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "men and women." .) "the last ride together." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "a grammarian's funeral." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "johannes agricola in meditation." ("men and women." published in "dramatic lyrics." .) "confessions." ("dramatis personæ." .) "may and death." ("dramatis personæ." .) "youth and art." ("dramatis personæ." .) "a likeness." ("dramatis personæ." .) "appearances." ("pacchiarotto, and other poems." .) "st. martin's summer." ("pacchiarotto, and other poems." .) "prologue to 'la saisiaz.'" . in the second group:-- "cavalier tunes." ("dramatic lyrics." .) "how they brought the good news from ghent to aix." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "song." ("dramatic lyrics." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "incident of the french camp." ("dramatic romances." published as first part of "camp and cloister," in "dramatic lyrics." .) "count gismond." ("dramatic romances." published as "france" in "dramatic lyrics." .) "the boy and the angel." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .)[ ] "the glove." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "the twins." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "the pied piper of hamelin; a child's story." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic lyrics." .) "gold hair: a story of pornic." ("dramatis personæ." .) "hervé riel." ("pacchiarotto, and other poems," written at croisic, . published in the "cornhill magazine." .) in the third group:-- "through the metidja to abd-el-kadr." ("dramatic lyrics." .) "meeting at night." ("dramatic lyrics." published as "night" in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "parting at morning." ("dramatic lyrics." published as "morning" in "dramatic romances and lyrics.") "the patriot. an old story." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "instans tyrannus." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "mesmerism." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "time's revenges." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "the italian in england." ("dramatic romances." published as "italy in england" in "dramatic romances and lyrics." .) "protus." ("dramatic romances." published in "men and women." .) "apparent failure." ("dramatis personæ." .) "waring." ("dramatic romances." published in "dramatic lyrics." .) this poem is a personal effusion of feeling and reminiscence, which can stand for nothing but itself. _first group._ "the lost leader" is a lament over the defection of a loved and honoured chief. it breathes a tender regret for the moral injury he has inflicted on himself; and a high courage, saddened by the thought of lost support and lost illusions, but not shaken by it. the language of the poem shows the lost "leader" to have been a poet. it was suggested by wordsworth, in his abandonment (with southey and others) of the liberal cause. "nationality in drinks." a fantastic little comment on the distinctive national drinks--claret, tokay, and beer. the beer is being drunk off cape trafalgar to the health of nelson, and introduces an authentic and appropriate anecdote of him. but the laughing little claret flask, which the speaker has on another occasion seen plunged for cooling into a black-faced pond, suggests to him the image of a "gay french lady," dropped, with straightened limbs, into the silent ocean of death; while the hungarian tokay (tokayer ausbruch), in its concentrated strength, seems to jump on to the table as a stout pigmy castle-warder, strutting and swaggering in his historic costume, and ready to defy twenty men at once if the occasion requires. "the flower's name. garden fancies," i. a lover's reminiscence of a garden in which he and his lady-love have walked together, and of a flower which she has consecrated by her touch and voice: its dreamy spanish name, which she has breathed upon it, becoming part of the charm. "earth's immortalities." a sad and subtle little satire on the vaunted permanence of love and fame. the poet's grave falls to pieces. the words: "love me for ever," appeal to us from a tombstone which records how spring garlands are severed by the hand of june, and june's fever is quenched in winter's snow. "home-thoughts, from the sea." an utterance of patriotic pride and gratitude, aroused in the mind of an englishman, by the sudden appearance of trafalgar in the blood-red glow of the southern setting sun. "my star" may be taken as a tribute to the personal element in love: the bright peculiar light in which the sympathetic soul reveals itself to the object of its sympathy. "misconceptions" illustrates the false hopes which may be aroused in the breast of any devoted creature by an incidental and momentary acceptance of its devotion. "a pretty woman" is the picture of a simple, compliant, exquisitely pretty, and hopelessly shallow woman: incapable of love, though a mere nothing will win her liking. and the question is raised, whether such a creature is not perfect in itself, and would not be marred by any attempt to improve it, or extract from it a different use. the author decides in the affirmative. a rose is best "graced," not by reproducing its petals in precious stones for a king to preserve; not by plucking it to "smell, kiss, wear," and throw away; but by simply leaving it where it grows. a "pretty" woman is most appropriately treated when nothing is asked of her, but to be so. "in a year" is a wondering and sorrowful little comment on a man's shallowness and inconstancy. "women and roses" is the impression of a dream, and both vague and vivid, as such impressions are. the author _dreams_ of a "red rose-tree," with three roses upon it: one withered, the second full-blown, the third still in the bud; and, floating round each, a generation of women: those famed in the past; the loved and loving of the present; the "beauties yet unborn." he casts his passion at the feet of the dead; but they float past him unmoved. he enfolds in it the glowing forms of the living; but these also elude him. he pours it into the budding life, which may thus respond to his own; but the procession of maidens drifts past him too. they all circle unceasingly round their own rose. "before" and "after" are companion poems, which show how differently an act may present itself in prospect and in remembrance, whether regarded in its abstract justification, or in its actual results. the question is that of a duel; and "before" is the utterance of a third person to whom the propriety of fighting it seems beyond a doubt. "a great wrong has been done. the wronged man, who is also the better one, is bound to assert himself in defence of the right. if he is killed, he will have gained his heaven. for his slayer, hell will have begun: for he will feel the impending judgment, in the earth which still offers its fruits; in the sky, which makes no sign; in the leopard-like conscience[ ] which leers in mock obeisance at his side, ready to spring on him whenever the moment comes. there has been enough of delay and extenuation. let the culprit acknowledge his guilt, or take its final consequences." the duel is fought, but it is the guilty one who falls; and "after" gives the words of his adversary--his boyhood's friend--struck with bitter remorse for what he has done. as the man who wronged him lies wrapped in the majesty of death, his offence dwindles into insignificance; and the survivor can only feel how disproportionate has been the punishment, and above all, how unavailing. "would," he exclaims, "that the past could be recalled, and they were boys again together! it would be so easy then to endure!" "memorabilia" shows the perspective of memory in a tribute to the poet shelley. his fugitive contact with a commonplace life, like the trace of an eagle's passage across the moor, leaves an illumined spot amidst blankness. "the last ride together" depicts the emotions of a ride, which a finally dismissed lover has been allowed to take with his beloved. he has vainly passed his youth in loving her. but as this boon is granted, she lies for a moment on his breast. "she might have loved him more; she might also have liked him less." as they ride away side by side, a sense of resignation comes over him. his life is not alone in its failure. every one strives. few or none succeed. the best success proves itself to be shallow. and if it were otherwise--if the goal could be reached on earth--what care would one take for heaven? then the peace which is in him absorbs the consciousness of reality. he fancies himself riding with the loved one till the end of time; and he asks himself if his destined heaven may not prove to be this. "a grammarian's funeral" describes the rendering of the last honours to one whose life has consumed itself in the pursuit of knowledge. the knowledge pursued has been pedantic and minute, but for him it represented a mighty truth; and he has refused to live, in the world's sense, till he had mastered that truth, co-extensive, as he believed it, with life everlasting. like sordello, though in a different way, he would know before he allowed himself to be. he would realize the whole; he would not discount it. his disciples are bearing him to a mountain-top, that the loftiness of his endeavour may be symbolized by his last resting-place. he is to lie "where meteors shoot, clouds form, lightnings are loosened." (vol. v. p. .) where the new morning for which he waited will figuratively first break upon him. "johannes agricola in meditation" is a glowing and fantastic description of the privileges of the "elect," cast in the form of a monologue, and illustrated in the person of the speaker. johannes agricola was a german reformer of the sixteenth century, and alleged founder of the sect of the antinomians: a class of christians who extended the low church doctrine of the insufficiency of good works, and declared the children of god to be exempt from the necessity of performing them; absolved from doing right, because unable to do wrong; because no sin would be accounted to them as such. some authorities contend that he personally rejected only the mosaic, not the moral law; but mr. browning has credited him with the full measure of antinomian belief, and makes him specially exult in the divine assurance that the concentrated venom of the worst committed sins can only work in him for salvation. he also comments wonderingly on the state of the virtuous man and woman, and of the blameless child, "undone," as he was saved, before the world began; whose very striving is turned to sin; whose life-long prayer and sacrifice can only end in damnation. but, as he declares, he praises god the more that he cannot understand him; that his ways are inscrutable, that his love may not be bought. "confessions" is the answer of a dying man to the clergyman's question: does he "view the world as a vale of tears?" his fancy is living through a romance of past days, of which the scene comes back to him in the arrangement of physic-bottles on a table beside him, while the curtain, which may be green, but to his dying eyes is blue, makes the june weather about it all. he is seeing the girl he loved, as watching for him from a terrace near the stopper of that last and tallest bottle in the row; and he is retracing the path by which he could creep, unseen by any eyes but hers, to the "rose-wreathed" gate which was their trysting-place. "no, reverend sir," is the first and last word of his reply, "the world has been no vale of tears to me." "may and death" expresses a mourner's wish, so natural to the egotism of a deep sorrow, that the season which robbed him of his friend's life should bury all its sweetness with him. the speaker retracts this wish, in justice to the many pairs of friends who have each their right to happiness. but there is, he says, one red-streaked plant which their may might spare, since one wood alone would miss it. for its leaf is dashed as with the blood of spring; and whenever henceforth it grows in that same place, the drop will have been drawn from his heart.[ ] "youth and art" is a humorous, but regretful reminiscence of "bohemian" days, addressed by a great singer to a sculptor, also famous, who once worked in a garret opposite to her own. they were young then, as well as poor and obscure; and they watched and coquetted with each other, though they neither spoke nor met; and perhaps played with the idea of a more serious courtship. caution and ambition, however, prevailed; and they have reached the summit of their respective professions, and accepted the social honours which the position insures. but she thinks of all that might have been, if they had listened to nature, and cast in their lot with each other; of the sighs and the laughter, the starvation and the feasting, the despairs and the joys of the struggling artist's career; and she feels that in its fullest and freest sense, their artist life has remained incomplete. "a likeness" describes the feelings which are inspired by the familiar or indifferent handling of any object sacred to our own mind. they are illustrated by the idea of a print or picture, bought for the sake of a resemblance; and which may be hanging against a wall, or stowed away in a portfolio: and, in either case, provoke comment, contemptuous or admiring, which will cause a secret and angry pain to its possessor. "appearances," a little poem in two stanzas, illustrates the power of association. its contents can only be given in its own words. "st. martin's summer" represents a lover, with his beloved, striving to elude the memory of a former attachment, and finding himself cheated by it. as the fires of a departed summer will glow once more, in the countenance of the wintry year, so also has his past life projected itself into the present, assuming its features as a mask. and when the ghosts, from whom, figuratively, the young pair are hiding, rise from their moss-grown graves; and the lover would disregard their remonstrant procession as only "faint march-music in the air": he becomes suddenly conscious that the past has withdrawn its gifts, and that the mere mask of love remains to him. the poem would seem intended to deny that a second love can be genuine: were not its light tone and fantastic circumstance incompatible with serious intention. prologue to "la saisiaz," reprinted as "pisgah-sights," iii., is a fantastic little vision of the body and the soul, as disengaged from each other by death: the soul wandering at will through the realms of air; the body consigned to the "ferns of all feather, mosses and heather," (vol. xiv. p. .) of its native earth. _second group._ "cavalier tunes" consists of three songs, with chorus, full of rousing enthusiasm for the cause of king charles, and of contemptuous defiance for the roundheads who are opposing him: i. "marching along." ii. "give a rouse." iii. "boot and saddle." "how they brought the good news from ghent to aix" is an imaginary picture, which would gain nothing in force by being true. it is that of three horsemen galloping to save the life of their town; galloping without rest, from moonset to sunrise, from sunrise into the blaze of noon; one horse dropping dead on the way, the second, within sight of the goal; and the third, roland, urged on by frantic exertions on his rider's part--the blood filling his nostrils, and starting in red circles round his eyes--galloping into the market-place of aix; to rest there with his head between his master's knees: while the last measure of wine which the city contains is being poured down his throat. "song" is a lover's assertion of his lady's transcendent charms, which he challenges those even to deny who do not love her. "incident of the french camp." a boy soldier of the army of napoleon has received his death wound in planting the imperial flag within the walls of ratisbon. he contrives by a supreme effort to gallop out to the emperor--who has watched the storming of the city from a mound a mile or two away--fling himself from the horse, and, holding himself erect by its mane, announce the victory. no sign of pain escapes him. but when napoleon suddenly exclaims: "you are wounded," the soldier's pride in him is touched. "i am killed, sire," he replies; and, smiling, falls dead at the emperor's feet. the story is true; but its actual hero was a man. "count gismond" is an imaginary episode of the days of chivalry. it relates how a young girl had been chosen queen of a tournament; and how a false knight, instigated by two cousins who were jealous of her beauty, accused her, in the open field, of being unfit to bestow a crown; how a true knight who loved her, killed the lie by a blow struck at the liar's mouth; and then, mortally wounding him in single combat, dragged him to retract it at the lady's feet; how he laid his protecting arm around her, and led her away to the southern home where she is now his proud and happy wife, with sons growing up to resemble him. the fearless confidence with which she has awaited the result of the duel, as bearing god's testimony to the truth, is very characteristic of the time. "the boy and the angel" is an imaginary legend which presents one of mr. browning's deepest convictions in a popular form. theocrite was a poor boy, who worked diligently at his craft, and praised god as he did so. he dearly wished to become pope, that he might praise him better, and god granted the wish. theocrite sickened and seemed to die. and he awoke to find himself a priest, and also, in due time, pope. but god missed the praise, which had gone up to him from the boy craftsman's cell; and the angel gabriel came down to earth, and took theocrite's former place. and god was again not satisfied; for the angelic praise could not replace for him the human. "the silencing of that one weak voice had stopped the chorus of creation." so theocrite returned to his old self; and the angel gabriel became pope instead of him. "the glove" is the well-known story[ ] of a lady of the court of francis i., who, in order to test the courage of her suitor, threw her glove into the enclosure in which a captive lion stood; and describes the suitor--one de lorge--as calmly rescuing the glove, but only to fling it in the lady's face; this protest against her heartlessness and vanity being endorsed by both the king and court. but at this point mr. browning departs from the usual version: for he takes the woman's part. the supposed witness and narrator of the incident, the poet ronsard, sees a look in her face which seems to say that the experiment, if painful, has been worth making; and he gives her the opportunity of declaring so. she had too long, she explains, been expected to take words for deeds, and to believe on his mere assertion, that her admirer was prepared to die for her; and when the sight of this lion brought before her the men who had risked their lives in capturing it, without royal applause to sustain them, the moment seemed opportune for discovering what this one's courage was worth. she marries a youth, so the poet continues, whose love reveals itself at this moment of her disgrace; and (he is disposed to believe) will live happily, though away from the court. de lorge, rendered famous by the incident, woos and wins a beauty who is admired by the king, and acquires practice in seeking her gloves--where he is not meant to find them--at the moments in which his presence is superfluous. "the twins" is a parable told by luther in his "table talk," to show that charity and prosperity go hand in hand: and that to those who cease to give it will no longer be given. "dabitur" only flourishes where "date" is well-fed. "the pied piper of hamelin" (hameln)[ ] is the story of a mysterious piper who is said to have appeared at hameln in the fourteenth century, at a moment when the city was infested by rats. according to the legend, he freed it from this nuisance, by shrill notes of his pipe which lured the rats after him to the edge of the river weser, where they plunged in and were drowned; and then, to punish the corporation, which had refused him the promised pay, enticed away all its children, by sweet notes from his pipe; and disappeared with them into the koppelberg, a neighbouring mountain, which opened and then closed on them for ever. the legend also asserts that these facts (to which mr. browning has made some imaginative additions), were recorded on a church window, and in the name of a street. but the assertion no longer finds belief. "gold hair" is a true "story of pornic," which may be read in guide-books to the place. a young girl of good family died there in odour of sanctity; she seemed too pure and fragile for earth. but she had one earthly charm, that of glorious golden hair; and one earthly feeling, which was her apparent pride in it. as she lay on her deathbed, she entreated that it might not be disturbed; and she was buried near the high altar of the church of st. gilles[ ] with the golden tresses closely swathed about her. years afterwards, the church needed repair. part of the pavement was taken up. a loose coin drew attention to the spot in which the coffin lay. its boards had burst, and scattered about, lay thirty double louis, which had been hidden in the golden hair. so the saint-like maiden was a miser. "hervÉ riel" commemorates the skill, courage, and singleness of heart of a breton sailor, who saved the french squadron when beaten at cape la hogue and flying before the english to st. malo, by guiding it through the shallows of the river rance, in a manner declared impracticable by the maloese themselves; being all the while so unconscious of the service he was rendering, that, when desired to name his reward, he begged for a _whole day's holiday_, to run home and see his wife. his home was le croisic. _third group._ "through the metidja to abd-el-kadr" represents a follower of abd-el-kadr hastening through the desert to join his chief. mystic fancies crowd upon him as he "rides" and "rides": his pulses quickened by the end in view, and by the swift unresting motion of a horse which never needs the spur; and as he describes his experience in his own excited words, we receive not only the mental picture, but the physical impression of it. this poem is a strong instance of mr. browning's power of conveying sense by sound, when he sees occasion for doing so. "meeting at night" is a glimpse of moonlight and repose; and of the appropriate seclusion in the company of the one woman loved. "parting at morning" asserts the need of "men" and their "world," which is born again with the sunshine. "the patriot" tells, as its second title informs us, "an old story." only this day year, the "patriot" entered the city as its hero, amidst a frenzy of gratitude and joy. to-day he passes out of it through comparatively silent streets; for those for whom he has laboured last as first, are waiting for him at the foot of the scaffold. no infliction of physical pain or moral outrage is spared him as he goes. he is "safer so," he declares. the reward men have withheld awaits him at the hand of god. "instans tyrannus"[ ] is the confession of a king, who has been possessed by an unreasoning and uncontrolled hatred for one man. this man was his subject, but so friendless and obscure that no hatred could touch, so stupid or so upright that no temptation could lure him into his enemy's power. the king became exasperated by the very smallness of the creature which thus kept him at bay; drew the line of persecution closer and closer; and at last ran his victim to earth. but, at the critical moment, the man so long passive and cowering threw himself on the protection of god. the king saw, in a sudden revulsion of feeling, an arm thrown out from the sky, and the "wretch" he had striven to crush, safely enfolded in it then he in his turn--was "afraid." "mesmerism" is a fanciful but vivid description of an act of mesmeric power, which draws a woman, alone, in the darkness, and through every natural obstacle, to the presence of the man who loves her. "time's revenges" is also a confession made in the form of a soliloquy. the speaker has a friend whose devotion is equal to any test, and whose love he barely repays with liking; and he has a lady-love by whom this friend is avenged; for he has given up to his passion for her his body and his soul, his peace and his renown, every laudable ambition, every rational aim; and he knows she would let him roast by a slow fire if this would procure her an invitation to a certain ball. "the italian in england" is the supposed adventure of a leading italian patriot, told by himself in later years. he tells how he was hiding from the austrians, who had put a price upon his head, and were scouring the country in pursuit of him; how, impelled by hunger, he disclosed his place of concealment to a peasant girl--the last of a troop of villagers who were passing by; and how she saved his life at the risk of her own, and when she would have been paid in gold for betraying him. he relates also that his first thought was to guard himself against betrayal by not telling her who he was; but that her loyal eyes, her dignified form and carriage (perhaps too, the consummate tact with which she had responded to his signal) in another moment had put the thought to flight, and he fearlessly placed his own, and his country's destiny in her hands. he is an exile in england now. friends and brothers have made terms with the oppressor, and his home is no longer theirs. but among the wishes which still draw him to his native land, is one, less acknowledged than the rest and which perhaps lies deeper, that he may see that noble woman once more; talk to her of the husband who was then her lover, of her children, and her home; and, once more, as he did in parting from her, kiss her hand in gratitude, and lay his own in blessing on her head.[ ] "protus" is a fragment of an imaginary chronicle: recording in the same page and under the head of the same year, how the child-emperor, protus, descended from a god, was growing in beauty and in grace, worshipped by the four quarters of the known world; and how john, the pannonian blacksmith's bastard, came and took the empire; but, as "some think," let protus live--to be heard of later as dependent in a foreign court; or perhaps to become the monk, whom rumour speaks of as bearing his name, and who died at an advanced age in thrace. a fit comment on this empire lost and won, is supplied by two busts, also imaginary, one showing a "rough hammered" coarse-jawed head; the other, a baby face, crowned with a wreath of violets. "apparent failure" is mr. browning's verdict on three drowned men, whose bodies he saw exposed at the morgue[ ] in paris, in the summer of . he justly assumes that the death was suicide; and as he reads in each face its special story of struggle and disappointment, "poor men, god made, and all for that!" (vol. vii. p. ) the conviction lays hold of him that their doom is not final, that the life god blessed in the beginning cannot end accursed of him; that even a despair and a death like these, record only a seeming failure. the poem was professedly written to save the memory of the morgue, then about to be destroyed. the friend, to whom "waring" refers, is a restless, aspiring, sensitive person, who has planned great works, though he has completed none: who feels his powers always in excess of his performance, and who is hurt if those he loves refuse them credit for being so. he is gone now, no one knows whither; and the speaker, who is conscious that his own friendship has often seemed critical or cold, vainly wishes that he could recall him. his fancy travels longingly to those distant lands, in one of which waring may be playing some new and romantic part; and back again to england, where he tries to think that he is lying concealed, while preparing to surprise the world with some great achievement in literature or art. then someone solves the problem by saying that he has seen him--for one moment--on the illyrian coast; seated in a light bark, just bounding away into the sunset. and the speaker rejoins "oh, never star was lost here but it rose afar!" (vol. v. p. .) and, we conclude, takes comfort from the thought. footnotes: [footnote : both of these first in "hood's magazine."] [footnote : first in "hood's magazine."] [footnote : i here use the word "conscience" in its intellectual rather than its moral sense; as signifying that _consciousness_ of a wrong done, which may, for a time, be evaded or pushed aside.] [footnote : this poem was a personal utterance, provoked by the death of a relative whom mr. browning dearly loved.] [footnote : told by schiller and leigh hunt.] [footnote : written for and inscribed to a little son of the actor, william macready.] [footnote : a picturesque old church which has since been destroyed.] [footnote : the "threatening tyrant." suggested by some words in horace: th ode, ii. book.] [footnote : mr. browning is proud to remember that mazzini informed him he had read this poem to certain of his fellow-exiles in england to show how an englishman could sympathize with them.] [footnote : a small, square building on one of the quays, in which the bodies of drowned persons were placed for identification.] concluding group. "dramatic idyls." "jocoseria." "dramatic idyls." the dramatic idyls form, like the dramas, a natural group; and though, unlike these, they might be distributed under various heads, it would not be desirable to thus disconnect them; for their appearing together at this late period of mr. browning's career, constitutes them a landmark in it. they each consist of a nucleus of fact--supplied by history or by romance, as the case may be--and of material, and in most cases, mental circumstance, which mr. browning's fancy has engrafted on it; and in both their material and their mental aspect they display a concentrated power, which clearly indicates what i have spoken of as the "crystallizing" process mr. browning's genius has undergone. a comparison of these poems with "pauline," "paracelsus," or even "pippa passes," will be found to justify this assertion. the idyls consist of two series, occupying each a volume. the first, published , contains:-- "martin relph." "pheidippides." "halbert and hob." "ivàn ivànovitch." "tray." "ned bratts." the hero of "martin relph" is an old man, whose life is haunted by something which happened to him when little more than a boy. a girl of his own village had been falsely convicted of treason, and the guns were already levelled for her execution, when martin relph, who had stolen round on to some rising ground behind the soldiers and villagers who witnessed the scene, saw what no one else could see: a man, about a quarter of mile distant, rushing onwards in staggering haste, and waving a white object over his head. he knew this was vincent parkes, rosamond page's lover, bearing the expected proofs of her innocence. he knew also that by a shout he might avert her doom. but something paralyzed his tongue, and the girl fell. the man who would have rescued her but for delays and obstacles, which no power of his could overcome, was found dead where martin relph had seen him. the remembrance of these two deaths leaves martin relph no rest; for conscience tells him that his part in them was far worse than it appeared. it tells him that what struck him dumb at that awful moment was not, as others said, the simple cowardice of a boy: he loved in secret the girl whom vincent parkes was coming to save; and if _he_ had saved her, it would have been for that other man. but that thought could only flash on him in one second of fiery consciousness; he had no time to recognize it as a motive; and he clings madly to the hope that his conscience is mistaken, and it was not that which silenced him. every year, at the same spot, he re-enacts the scene, striving to convince himself--with those who hear him--that he has been a coward, but not a murderer; and in the moral and physical reaction from the renewed agony, half-succeeds in doing so. the story, thus told in martin relph's words, is supposed to have been repeated to the present narrator by a grandfather, who heard them. it embodies a vague remembrance of something read by mr. browning when he was himself a boy. the facts related in "pheidippides" belong to greek legendary history, and are told by herodotus and other writers. when athens was threatened by the invading persians, she sent a running messenger to sparta, to demand help against the foreign foe. the mission was unsuccessful. but the "runner," pheidippides, fell in on his return, with the god pan; and though alone among greeks the athenians had refused to honour him, he promised to fight with them in the coming battle. pheidippides was present, when this battle--that of marathon--was fought and won. he "ran" once more, to announce the victory at athens; and fell, dead, with the words, "rejoice, we conquer!" on his lips. this death followed naturally on the excessive physical strain; but mr. browning has used it as a connecting link between the historic and the imaginary parts of the idyl. according to this, pheidippides himself tells his first adventure, to the assembled rulers of athens: depicting, in vivid words, the emotions which winged his course, and bore him onwards over mountains and through valleys, with the smooth swiftness of running fire; and he also relates that pan promised him a personal reward for his "toil," which was to consist in release from it. this release he interprets as freedom to return home, and to marry the girl he loves. it meant a termination to his labours, more tragic, but far more glorious: to die, proclaiming the victory which they had helped to secure. pan is also made to present him with a sprig of fennel--symbol of marathon, or the "fennel-field"--as pledge of his promised assistance. "halbert and hob" is the story of a fierce father and son who lived together in solitude, shunned by their fellow-men. one christmas night they drifted into a quarrel, in the course of which the son seized his father, and was about to turn him out of doors: when the latter, with unaccustomed mildness, bade him stay his hand. just so, he said, in his youth, had he proceeded against his own father; and at just this stage of the proceeding had a voice in his heart bidden him desist.... and the son thus appealed to desisted also. this fact is told by aristotle[ ] as an instance of the hereditary nature of anger. but mr. browning sees more in it than that. if, he declares, nature creates hard hearts, it is a power beyond hers which softens them; and in his version of "halbert and hob" this supernatural power completes the work it has begun. the two return in silence to their fireside. the next morning the father is found dead. the son has become a harmless idiot, to remain so till the end of his life. "ivan ivanovitch" is the reproduction, with fictitious names and imaginary circumstances, of a popular russian story, known as "the judgment of god." a young woman travelling through the forest on a winter's night, is attacked by wolves, and saves her own life by throwing her children to them. but when she reaches her village, and either confesses the deed or stands convicted of it, one of its inhabitants, by trade a carpenter and the ivàn ivànovitch of the idyl, lifts the axe which he is plying, and strikes off her head: this informal retribution being accepted, by those present, as in conformity with the higher law. mr. browning has raised the mother's act out of the sphere of vulgar crime, by the characteristic method of making her tell her story: and show herself, as she may easily have been, not altogether bad; though a woman of weak maternal instincts, and one whose nature was powerless against the fear of pain, and the impulse to self-preservation. she describes with appalling vividness the experiences of the night: the moonlit forest--the snow-covered ground--the wolves approaching with a whispering tread, which seems at first but the soughing of a gentle wind--the wedge-like, ever-widening mass, which emerges from the trees; then the flight, and the pursuit: the latter arrested for one moment by the sacrifice of each victim; to be renewed the next, till none is left to sacrifice: one child dragged from the mother's arms; another shielded by her whole body, till the wolf's teeth have fastened in her flesh; and though she betrays, in the very effort to conceal it, how little she has done to protect her children's lives, we realize the horror of her situation, and pity even while we condemn, her. but some words of selfish rejoicing at her own deliverance precede the fatal stroke, and in some degree challenge it. and mr. browning farther preserves the spirit of the tradition, by giving to her sentence the sanction of the village priest or "pope," into whose presence the decapitated body has been conveyed. the secular authorities are also on the spot, and condemn the murder as contrary both to justice and to law. but the pope declares that the act of ivàn ivànovitch has been one of the higher justice which is above law. he himself is an aged man--so aged, he says, that he has passed through the clouds of human convention, and stands on the firm basis of eternal truth. looking down upon the world from this vantage-ground, he sees that no gift of god is equal to that of life; no privilege so high as that of reproducing its "miracle;" and that the mother who has cast away her maternal crown, and given over to destruction the creatures which she has borne, has sinned an "unexampled sin," for which a "novel punishment" was required. no otherwise than did moses of old, has ivàn ivànovitch interpreted the will--shown himself the servant--of god. how mr. browning's ivàn ivànovitch himself judges the case, is evidenced by this fact, that after wiping the blood from his axe, he betakes himself to playing with his children; and that when the lord of the village has--reluctantly--sent a deputation to inform him that he is free, the words, "how otherwise?" are his only answer. "tray" describes an instance of animal courage and devotion which a friend of mr. browning's actually witnessed in paris. a little girl had fallen into the river. none of the bystanders attempted to rescue her. but a dog, bouncing over the balustrade, brought the child to land; dived again, no one could guess why; and after battling with a dangerous current, emerged with the child's doll; then trotted away as if nothing had occurred. this "tray" is made to illustrate mr. browning's ideal of a hero, in opposition to certain showy and conventional human types; and the little narrative contains some scathing reflections on those who talk of such a creature as merely led by instinct, or would dissect its brain alive to discover how the "soul" is secreted there. "ned bratts" was suggested by the remembrance of a passage in john bunyan's "life and death of mr. badman." bunyan relates there that some twenty years ago, "at a summer assizes holden at hertford, while the judge was sitting on the bench," a certain old tod came into the court, and declared himself "the veriest rogue that breathes upon the earth"--a thief from childhood, &c., &c.; that the judge first thought him mad, but after conferring with some of the justices, agreed to indict him "of several felonious actions;" and that as he heartily confessed to all of these, he was hanged, with his wife, at the same time. mr. browning has turned hertford into bedford; made the time of the occurrence coincide with that of bunyan's imprisonment; and supposed the evident conversion of this man and woman to be among the many which he effected there. the blind daughter of bunyan, who plays an important part in "ned bratts," is affectingly spoken of in her father's work; and the tag-laces, which have subserved the criminal purposes of bratts and his wife, represent an industry by which he is known to have supported himself in prison. mr. browning, finally, has used the indications bunyan gives, of the incident taking place on a very hot day, so as to combine the sense of spiritual stirring with one of unwholesome and grotesque physical excitement; and this, as he describes it, is the genuine key-note of the situation. the character of ned bratts is made a perfect vehicle for these impressions. his "tab" (tabitha) has had an interview with john bunyan, and been really moved by his majestic presence, and warning, yet hope-inspiring words. but he himself has been principally worked upon by the reading of the "pilgrim's progress;" and we see in him throughout, an unregenerate ruffian, whose carnal energies have merely transferred themselves to another field; and whose blood is fired to this act of martyrdom both by yesterday's potations, and to-day's virtuously endured thirst. "a mug," he cries, in the midst of his confessions; or, "no (addressing his wife), a prayer!" "dip for one out of the book!..." (vol. xv. p. .) the precarious nature of his conversion is, indeed, vividly present to his own mind. it is borne in upon him that he is "christmas," and must escape from the city of destruction. he would like nothing better, in his present mood, than to undertake the whole pilgrimage, and, as it were, cudgel his way through; and since it is late in the day for this, he chooses the short cut by the gallows, as the next best thing. but he is, above all, desirous to be taken while the penitent fit is on him: and urgently sets forth those past misdeeds, which constitute his and his wife's claim to a speedy despatch, such as will place them beyond the danger of backsliding. already, he declares, satan is whispering to him of the pleasures he is leaving behind; and the seductions of to-morrow's brawl and bear-baiting are threatening to turn the scale. another moment, and instead of going up to heaven, like faithful, in a chariot and pair, he will be the lost man in the iron cage! when the two have had their wish, and been hanged "out of hand," the bystanders are edified to tears. but the loyalty of the chief justice forbids any imputing of the act of grace to the influence of john bunyan. its cause lies rather, he asserts, in the twelve years' pious reign of the restored charles. the second series of the "dramatic idyls" was published in , and contains:-- "echetlos." "clive." "muléykeh." "pietro of abano." "doctor ----" "pan and luna." it has also a little prologue and epilogue: the former satirizing the pretension to understand the soul, which we cannot see, while we are baffled by the workings of the bodily organs, which we can see; the latter directed against the popular idea that the more impressible and more quickly responsive natures are the soil of which "song" is born. the true poet, it declares, is as the pine tree which has grown out of a rock. "echetlos" (holder of the ploughshare) is another legend of the battle of marathon. it tells, in mr. browning's words, how one with the goat-skin garment, and the broad bare limbs of a "clown," was seen on the battle-field ploughing down the enemy's ranks: the ploughshare flashing now here, now there, wherever the grecian lines needed strengthening; how he vanished when the battle was won; and how the oracle, of which his name was asked, bade the inquirers not care for it: "say but just this: we praise one helpful whom we call the holder of the ploughshare. the great deed ne'er grows small." (vol. xv. p. .) miltiades and themistocles had shown that a great name could do so.[ ] the anecdote which forms the basis of "clive," was told to mr. browning in by mrs. jameson, who had shortly before heard it at lansdowne house, from macaulay. it is cursorily mentioned in macaulay's "essays." when robert clive was first in india, a boy of fifteen, clerk in a merchant's office at st. david's, he accused an officer with whom he was playing, of cheating at cards, and was challenged by him in consequence. clive fired, as it seems, prematurely, and missed his aim. the officer, at whose mercy he had thus placed himself, advanced to within arm's length, held the muzzle of his pistol to the youth's forehead, and summoned him to repeat his accusation. clive did repeat it, and with such defiant courage that his adversary was unnerved. he threw down the weapon, confessed that he had cheated, and rushed out of the room. a chorus of indignation then broke forth among those who had witnessed the scene. they declared that the "wronged civilian" should be righted; and that he who had thus disgraced her majesty's service should be drummed--if needs be, kicked--out of the regiment. but here clive interposed. not one, he said, of the eleven, whom he addressed by name and title, had raised a finger to save his life. he would clear scores with any or all among them who breathed a word against the man who had spared it. nor, as the narrative continues, and as the event proved, was such a word ever spoken. clive is supposed to relate this experience, a week before his self-inflicted death, to a friend who is dining with him; and who, struck by his depressed mental state, strives to arouse him from it by the question: which of his past achievements constitutes, in his own judgment, the greatest proof of courage. he gives the moment in which the pistol was levelled at his head, as that in which he felt, not most courage, but most fear. but, as he explains to his astonished listener, it was not the almost certainty of death, which, for one awful minute, made a coward of him; it was the bare possibility of a reprieve, which would have left no appeal from its dishonour. his opponent refused to fire. he might have done so with words like these: "keep your life, calumniator!--worthless life i freely spare: mine you freely would have taken--murdered me and my good fame both at once--and all the better! go, and thank your own bad aim which permits me to forgive you!..." (vol. xv. p. .) what course would have remained to him but to seize the pistol, and himself send the bullet into his brain? this tremendous mental situation is, we need hardly say, mr. browning's addition to the episode. the poem contains also some striking reflections on the risks and responsibilities of power; and concludes with an expression of reverent pity for the "great unhappy hero" for whom they proved too great. "mulÉykeh" is an old arabian story. the name which heads it is that of a swift, beautiful mare, who was hóseyn--her owner's, "pearl." he loved her so dearly, that, though a very poor man, no price would tempt him to sell her; and in his fear of her being stolen, he slept always with her head-stall thrice wound round his wrist: and buhéyseh, her sister, saddled for instantaneous pursuit. one night she was stolen; and duhl, the thief, galloped away on her and felt himself secure: for the pearl's speed was such that even her sister had never overtaken her. she chafed, however, under the strange rider, and slackened her pace. buhéyseh, bearing hóseyn, gained fast upon them; the two mares were already "neck by croup." then the thought of his darling's humiliation flashed on hóseyn's mind. he shouted angrily to duhl in what manner he ought to urge her. and the pearl, obeying her master's voice, no less than the familiar signal prescribed by him, bounded forward, and was lost to him forever. hóseyn returned home, weeping sorely, and the neighbours told him he had been a fool. why not have kept silence and got his treasure back? "'and--beaten in speed!' wept hóseyn: 'you never have loved my pearl.'" (vol. xv. p. .) the man who gives his name to "pietro of abano" was the greatest italian philosopher and physician of the thirteenth century.[ ] he was also an astrologer, pretending to magical knowledge, and persecuted, as mr. browning relates. but the special story he tells of him has been told of others also. pietro of abano had the reputation of being a wizard; and though his skill in curing sickness, as in building, star-reading, and yet other things, conferred invaluable services on his fellow-men, he received only kicks and curses for his reward. his power seemed, nevertheless, so enviable, that he was one day, in the archway of his door, accosted by a young greek, who humbly and earnestly entreated that the secret of that power might be revealed to him. he promised to repay his master with loving gratitude; and hinted that the bargain might be worth the latter's consideration, since nature, in all else his slave, forbade his drinking milk (this is told of the true pietro): in other words, denied him the affection which softens and sweetens the dry bread of human life. pietro pretended to consent, and began, to utter, by way of preface, the word "benedicite." the young greek lost consciousness at its second syllable; and awoke to find himself alone, and with a first instalment of peter's secret in his mind. "good is product of evil, and to be effected through it." acting upon this doctrine, he traded on the weaknesses of his fellow-creatures wherever the opportunity occurred; and attained by this means, first, wealth; next temporal, and then spiritual, power; rising finally to the dignity of pope. at each stage of this progress, peter came to him in apparent destitution, and claimed the promised gratitude in an urgent, but very modest prayer for assistance. and each time peter's presence infused into him a fresh power of unscrupulousness, and sent him a step farther on his way. but each time also the pupil postponed his obligation, till he at last disclaimed it; and--enthroned in the lateran--was dismissing his benefactor with insult: when the closing syllables--"dicite"--sounded in his ear; and he became conscious of peter's countenance smiling back at him over his shoulder, and peter's door being banged in his face. and he then knew that he had lived a lifetime in the fraction of a minute, and that the magician, by means of whom he had done so, justly declined to trust him. mr. browning, however, bids the young greek persevere; since he might ransack peter's books, without discovering a better secret for gaining power over the masses, than the "cleverness uncurbed by conscience," which he perhaps already possesses.[ ] "doctor ----" is an old hebrew legend, founded upon the saying that a bad wife is stronger than death. satan complains, in his character of death, that man has the advantage of him: since he may baffle him, whenever he will, by the aid of a bad woman; and he undertakes to show this in his own person. he comes to earth, marries, and has a son, who in due time must be supplied with a profession. this son is too cowardly to be a soldier, and too lazy to be a lawyer; divinity is his father's sphere. so satan decides that he shall be a doctor; and endows him with a faculty which will enable him to practise medicine, without any knowledge of it at all. the moment he enters a sick room, he will see his father spiritually present there; and unless he finds him seated at the sick's man's head, that man is not yet doomed. thus endowed, doctor ----can cure a patient who was despaired of, with a dose of penny-royal, and justly predict death for one whose only ailment is a pimple. his success carries all before it. one day, however, he is summoned to the emperor, who lies sick; and the emperor offers gold, and power, and, lastly, his daughter's hand, as the price of his recovery. but this time satan sits at the head of the bed, and not even such an appeal to his pride and greed will induce him to grant the patient even a temporary reprieve. the son, thus driven to bay, pretends to be struck by a sudden thought. "he will try the efficacy of the mystic jacob's staff." he whispers to an attendant to bid his mother bring it; and as satan's bad wife enters the room, satan vanishes through the ceiling, leaving a smell of sulphur behind him. the emperor gets well; but doctor ----renounces the promised gold: for it was to be the princess's dowry; and he is too wise to accept it on the condition of saddling himself with a wife. "pan and luna" describes a mythical adventure of luna--the moon, given by virgil in the georgics; and has for its text a line from them (iii. ): "si credere dignum est."[ ] according to the legend, luna was one night entrapped by pan who lay in wait for her in the form of a cloud, soft and snowy as the fleece of a certain breed of sheep; and, virgil continues, followed him to the woodland, "by no means spurning him." but mr. browning tells the story in a manner more consonant with the traditional modesty of the "girl-moon." she was, he says, distressed by the exposure of her full-orbed charms, as she flew bare through the vault of heaven: the protecting darkness ever vanishing before her; and she took refuge for concealment in the cloud of which the fleecy billows were to close and contract about her, in the limbs of the goat-god. how little she accepted this her first eclipse, may be shown, he thinks, by the fact that she never now lingers within a cloud longer than is necessary to "rip" it through. "jocoseria." the volume so christened (grave and gay), published , shows a greater variety of subject and treatment than do the dramatic idyls, and its contents might be still more easily broken up; but they are also best given in their original form. they are-- "wanting is--what?" "donald." "solomon and balkis." "cristina and monaldeschi." "mary wollstonecraft and fuseli." "adam, lilith, and eve." "ixion." "jochanan hakkadosh." "never the time and the place." "pambo." "wanting is--what?" is an invocation to love, as the necessary supplement to whatever is beautiful in life. it may equally be addressed to the spirit of love, or to its realization in the form of a beloved person. "donald" is a true story, repeated to mr. browning by one who had heard it from its hero the so-called donald, himself. this man, a fearless sportsman in the flush of youth and strength, found himself one day on a narrow mountain ledge--a wall of rock above, a precipice below, and the way barred by a magnificent stag approaching from the opposite side. neither could retrace his steps. there was not space enough for them to pass each other. one expedient alone presented itself: that the man should lie flat, and the stag (if it would) step over him. and so it might have been. donald slipped sideways on to his back. the stag, gently, cautiously, not grazing him with the tip of a hoof, commenced the difficult transit; the feat was already half accomplished. but the lifted hind legs laid bare the stomach of the stag; and donald, who was sportsman first, and man long afterwards, raised himself on his elbow, and stabbed it. the two rolled over into the abyss. the stag, for the second time, saved its murderer's life; for it broke his fall. he came out of the hospital into which he had been carried, a crippled, patched-up wretch, but able to crawl on hands and knees to wherever his "pluck" might be appreciated, and earn a beggar's livelihood by telling how it was last displayed. these facts are supposed to be related in a scotch bothie, to a group of young men already fired by the attractions of sport; and are the narrator's comment on the theory, that moral soundness as well as physical strength, is promoted by it. "solomon and balkis" is the talmudic version[ ] of the dialogue, which took place between solomon and the queen of sheba, on the occasion of her visit to the wise king. they begin by talking for effect: and when questioned by each other as to the kind of persons they most readily admit to their respective courts, solomon answers that he welcomes the wise, whatever be their social condition; and balkis declares that her sympathies are all with the good. but a chance (?) movement on her part jostles the hand of solomon; and the ring it bears slips round, so that the truth-compelling name is turned outwards instead of in. then he confesses that he loves the wise just so long as he is the object of their appreciation; she that she loves the good so long as they bear the form of young and handsome men. he acknowledges, with a sigh, that the soul, which will soar in heaven, must crawl while confined to earth; she owns, with a laugh and a blush, that she has not travelled thus far to hold mental communion with him.[ ] "cristina[ ] and monaldeschi" gives the closing scene of the life of monaldeschi, in what might be cristina's own words. she is addressing the man whom she has convicted of betraying her, and at whose murder she is about to assist; and the monologue reflects the outward circumstance of this murder, as well as the queen's deliberate cruelty, and her victim's cowardice. they are in the palace of fontainebleau. its internal decorations record the loves of diane de poitiers and the french king, in their frequent repetition of the crescent and the salamander,[ ] and of the accompanying motto, "quis separabit;" and cristina, with ghastly irony, calls her listener's attention to the appropriateness of these emblems to their own case. then she plays with the idea that his symbol is the changing moon, hers the fire-fed salamander, dangerous to those only who come too close. changing the metaphor, she speaks of herself as a peak, which monaldeschi has chosen to scale, and which he wrongly hoped to descend when he should be weary of the position, by the same ladder by which he climbed; and her half-playful words assume a still more sinister import, as she depicts the whirling waters, the frightful rocky abyss, into which a moment's giddiness on his part, a touch from her, might precipitate him. she bids him cure the dizziness, ward off the danger, by kneeling, even crouching, at her feet; act the lover, though he no longer is one. and all the while she is drawing him towards the door of that "gallery of the deer," where the priest who is to confess, the soldiers who are to slay, are waiting for him. cristina's last words are addressed, in vindication of her deed, to the priest (lebel), who is aghast at its ferocity. he, she says, has received the culprit's confession, and would not divulge it for a crown. the church at avon[ ] must tell how _her_ secrets have been guarded by him to whom she had entrusted them. "mary wollstonecraft and fuseli" is the mournful yet impassioned expression of an unrequited love. "adam, lilith, and eve" illustrates the manner in which the typical man and woman will proceed towards each other: the latter committing herself by imprudent disclosures when under the influence of fear, and turning them into a joke as soon as the fear is past; the former pretending that he never regarded them as serious. "ixion" is an imaginary protest of this victim of the anger of zeus, wrung from him by his torments, as he whirls on the fiery wheel.[ ] he has been sentenced to this punishment for presuming on the privileges which zeus had conferred upon him, and striving to win heré's[ ] love; and he declares that the punishment is undeserved: "he was encouraged to claim the love of heré, together with the friendship of zeus; he has erred only in his trust in their professions. and granting that it were otherwise--that he had sinned in arrogance--that, befriended by the gods, he had wrongly fancied himself their equal: one touch from them of pitying power would have sufficed to dispel the delusion, born of the false testimony of the flesh!" he asks, with indignant scorn, what need there is of accumulated torment, to prove to one who has recovered his sight, that he was once blind; and in this scorn and indignation he denounces the gods, whose futile vindictiveness would shame the very nature of man; he denounces them as hollow imitations of him whom they are supposed to create: as mere phantoms to which he imparts the light and warmth of his own life. then rising from denunciation to prophecy, he bids his fellow-men take heart. "let them struggle and fall! let them press on the limits of their own existence, to find only human passions and human pettiness in the sphere beyond; let them expiate their striving in hell! the end is not yet come. of his vapourized flesh, of the 'tears, sweat, and blood' of his agony, is born a rainbow of hope; of the whirling wreck of his existence, the pale light of a coming joy. beyond the weakness of the god his tormenter he descries a power, unobstructed, all-pure. "thither i rise, whilst thou--zeus, keep the godship and sink!" if any doubt were still possible as to mr. browning's attitude towards the doctrine of eternal punishment, this poem must dispel it. "jochanan hakkadosh" relates how a certain rabbi was enabled to extend his life for a year and three months beyond its appointed term, and what knowledge came to him through the extension. mr. browning professes to rest his narrative on a rabbinical work, of which the title, given by him in hebrew, means "collection of many lies;" and he adds, by way of supplement, three sonnets, supposed to fantastically illustrate the old hebrew proverb, "from moses to moses[ ] never was one like moses," and embodying as many fables of wildly increasing audacity. the main story is nevertheless justified by traditional jewish belief; and mr. browning has made it the vehicle of some poetical imagery and much serious thought. jochanan hakkadosh was at the point of death. he had completed his seventy-ninth year. but his faculties were unimpaired; and his pupils had gathered round him to receive the last lessons of his experience; and to know with what feelings he regarded the impending change. jochanan hakkadosh had but one answer to give: his life had been a failure. he had loved, learned, and fought; and in every case his object had been ill-chosen, his energies ill-bestowed. he had shared the common lot, which gives power into the hand of folly, and places wisdom in command when no power is left to be commanded. with this desponding utterance he bade his "children" farewell. but here a hubbub of protestation arose. "this must not be the rabbi's last word. it need not be so;" for, as tsaddik, one of the disciples, reminded his fellows, there existed a resource against such a case. their "targums" (commentaries) assured them that when one thus combining the nine points of perfection was overtaken by years before the fruits of his knowledge had been matured, respite might be gained for him by a gift from another man's life: the giver being rewarded for the wisdom to which he ministered by a corresponding remission of ill-spent time. the sacrifice was small, viewed side by side with the martyrdoms endured in rome for the glory of the jewish race.[ ] "who of those present was willing to make it?" again a hubbub arose. the disciples within, the mixed crowd without, all clamoured for the privilege of lengthening the rabbi's life from their own. tsaddik deprecated so extensive a gift. "their teacher's patience should not be overtaxed, like that of perida (whose story he tells), by too long a spell of existence." he accepted from the general bounty exactly one year, to be recruited in equal portions from a married lover, a warrior, a poet, and a statesman; and, the matter thus settled, jochanan hakkadosh fell asleep. four times the rabbi awoke, in renewed health and strength: and four times again he fell asleep: and at the close of each waking term tsaddik revisited him as he sat in his garden--amidst the bloom or the languors, the threatenings or the chill, of the special period of the year--and questioned him of what he had learned. and each time the record was like that of the previous seventy-nine years, one of disappointment and failure. for the gift had been drawn in every case from a young life, and been neutralized by its contact with the old. as a lover, the rabbi declares, he has dreamed young dreams, and his older self has seen through them. he has known beforehand that the special charms of his chosen one would prove transitory, and that the general attraction of her womanhood belonged to her sex and not to her. as a warrior, he has experienced the same process of disenchantment. for the young believe that the surest way to the right and good, is that, always, which is cut by the sword: and that the exercise of the sword is the surest training for those self-devoting impulses which mark the moral nature of man. the old have learned that the most just war involves, in its penalties, the innocent no less than the guilty; that violence rights no wrong which time and patience would not right more fully; and that for the purposes of self devotion, unassisted love is more effective than hate. (picturesque illustrations are made to support this view.) as poet, he has recalled the glow of youthful fancy to feel it quenched by the experience of age: to see those soaring existences whose vital atmosphere is the future, frozen by their contact with a dead past. as statesman, he has looked out upon the forest of life, again seeing the noble trees by which the young trace their future path. and, seeing these, he has known, that the way leads, not by them, but among the brushwood and briars which fill the intervening space; that the statist's work is among the mindless many who will obstruct him at every step, not among the intellectual few by whom his progress would be assisted. as he completes his testimony another change comes over him; and tsaddik, kissing the closing eyelids, leaves his master to die. the rumour of a persecution scatters the jewish inhabitants of the city. not till three months have expired do they venture to return to it; and when tsaddik and the other disciples seek the cave where their master lies, they find him, to their astonishment, alive. then tsaddik remembers that even children urged their offering upon him, and concludes that some urchin or other contrived to make it "stick;" and he anxiously disclaims any share in the "foisting" this crude fragment of existence on the course of so great a life. hereupon the rabbi opens his eyes, and turns upon the bystanders a look of such absolute relief, such utter happiness, that, as tsaddik declares, only a second miracle can explain it. it is a case of the three days' survival of the "ruach" or spirit, conceded to those departed saints whose earthly life has anticipated the heavenly; who have died, as it were, half in the better world.[ ] tsaddik has, however, missed the right solution of the problem. jochanan hakkadosh can only define his state as one of _ignorance confirmed by knowledge_; but he makes it very clear that it is precisely the gift of the child's consciousness, which has produced this ecstatic calm. the child's soul in him has reconciled the differing testimony of youth and manhood: solving their contradictions in its unquestioning faith and hope. it has lifted him into that region of harmonized good and evil, where bliss is greater than the human brain can bear. and this is how he feels himself to be dying; bearing with him a secret of perfect happiness, which he vainly wishes he could impart.[ ] "never the time and the place" is a fanciful expression of love and longing, provoked by the opposition of circumstances. the name of "pambo" or "pambus" is known to literature,[ ] as that of a foolish person, who spent months--mr. browning says years--in pondering a simple passage from psalm xxxix.; and remained baffled by the difficulty of its application. the passage is an injunction that man look to his ways, so that he do not offend with his tongue. and pambo finds it easy to practise the first part of this precept, but not at all so the second. mr. browning declares himself in the same case. "he also looks to his ways, and is guided along them by the critic's torch. but he offends with his tongue, notwithstanding." footnotes: [footnote : ethics, vii. vi. .] [footnote : the story is told in pausanias. a painting of echetlos was to be seen in the poecile at athens.] [footnote : petrus aponensis: author of a work quoted in the idyl: conciliator differentiarum. abano is a village near padua.] [footnote : some expressions in this idyl may require explaining. "salomo si nôsset" (novisset) (p. ). "had solomon but known this." "teneo, vix" (p. ). "i scarcely contain myself." "hact[=e]nus" (p. ). the "e" is purposely made long. "hitherto." "peason" (p. ). the old english plural of "pea." "pou sto" (p. ). "where i may stand:" the alleged saying of archimedes--"i could move the world had i a place for my _fulcrum_--'where i might stand' to move it." "tithon" (p. ). tithonus--aurora's lover: for whom she procured the gift of eternal life. "apage, sathanas!" (p. ). "depart satan." customary adjuration. the term "venus," as employed in the postscript to the idyl, signified in roman phraseology, the highest throw of the dice. it signified, therefore the highest promise to him, who, in obedience to the oracle, had tested his fortunes at the fount at abano, by throwing golden dice into it. the "crystal," to which mr. browning refers, is the water of the well or fount, at the bottom of which, as suetonius declared, the dice thrown by tiberius, and their numbers, were still visible. the little air which concludes the post-script reflects the careless or "lilting" mood in which mr. browning had thrown the "fancy dice" which cast themselves into the form of the poem.] [footnote : "if it is proper to be credited."] [footnote : this version is more crudely reproduced by the persian poet jami.] [footnote : the word "conster," which rhymes in the poem with "monster," is old english for "construe."] [footnote : daughter of gustavus adolphus, and queen of sweden.] [footnote : some confusion has here arisen between francis i., whose emblem was the salamander, and henry ii., the historic lover of diane de poitiers. but francis was also said to have been, for a short time, attached to her; and the poetic contrast of the frigid moon and the fiery salamander was perhaps worth the dramatic sacrifice of cristina's accuracy.] [footnote : a village close to fontainebleau, in the church of which monaldeschi was buried.] [footnote : "winged" or "fiery:" fiery from the rapidity of its motion.] [footnote : juno.] [footnote : that is, to moses maimonides.] [footnote : the names and instances given are, as well as the main fact, historical.] [footnote : a talmudic doctrine still held among the jews. the "halaphta," with whom mr. browning connects it, was a noted rabbi.] [footnote : the "bier" and the "three daughters" was a received jewish name for the constellation of the great bear. hence the simile derived from this (vol. xv. pp. - ). the "salem," mentioned at p. , is the mystical new jerusalem to be built of the spirits of the great and good.] [footnote : "chetw. hist. collect.," cent. i., p. . quoted by nath. wanley, "wonders of the little world," p. .] supplement. "ferishtah's fancies." the idea of "ferishtah's fancies" grew out of a fable by pilpay, which mr. browning read when a boy. he lately put this into verse; and it then occurred to him to make the poem the beginning of a series, in which the dervish, who is first introduced as a learner, should reappear in the character of a teacher. ferishtah's "fancies" are the familiar illustrations, by which his teachings are enforced. each fancy or fable, with its accompanying dialogue, is followed by a lyric, in which the same or cognate ideas are expressed in an emotional form; and the effect produced by this combination of moods is itself illustrated in a prologue by the blended flavours of a favourite italian dish, which is fully described there. an introductory passage from "king lear" seems to tell us what we soon find out for ourselves, that ferishtah's opinions are in the main mr. browning's own. fancy . "the eagle," contains the lesson which determined ferishtah, not yet a dervish, to become one. he has learned from the experience which it describes, that it is man's mission to feed those hungry ones who are unable to feed themselves. "the soul often starves as well as the body. he will minister to the hunger of the soul. and to this end he will leave the solitude of the woods in which the lesson came to him, and seek the haunts of men." the lyric deprecates the solitude which united souls may enjoy, by a selfish or fastidious seclusion from the haunts of men. . "the melon-seller," records an incident referred to in a letter from the "times'" correspondent, written many years ago. it illustrates the text--given by mr. browning in hebrew--"shall we receive good at the hands of god, and shall we not receive evil?" and marks the second stage in ferishtah's progress towards dervish-hood. the lyric bids the loved one be unjust for once if she will. "the lover's heart preserves so many looks and words, in which she gave him more than justice." . "shah abbas" shows ferishtah, now full dervish, expounding the relative character of belief. "we wrongly give the name of belief to the easy acquiescence in those reported facts, to the truth of which we are indifferent; or the name of unbelief to that doubting attitude towards reported facts, which is born of our anxious desire that they may be true. it is the assent of the heart, not that of the head, which is valued by the creator." lyric. love will guide us smoothly through the recesses of another's heart. without it, as in a darkened room, we stumble at every step, wrongly fancying the objects misplaced, against which we are stumbling. . "the family" again defends the heart against the head. it defends the impulse to pray for the health and safety of those we love, though such prayer may imply rebellion to the will of god. "he, in whom anxiety for those he loves cannot for the moment sweep all before it, will sometimes be more than man, but will much more often be less." lyric. "let me love, as man may, content with such perfection as may fill a human heart; not looking beyond it for that which only an angel's sense can apprehend." . "the sun" justifies the tendency to think of god as in human form. life moves us to many feelings of love and praise. these embrace in an ascending scale all its beneficent agencies, unconscious and conscious, and cannot stop short of the first and greatest of all. this first cause must be thought of as competent to appreciate our praise and love, and as moved by a beneficent purpose to the acts which have inspired them. the sun is a symbol of this creative power--by many even imagined to be its reality. but that mighty orb is unconscious of the feelings it may inspire; and the divine omnipotence, which it symbolizes, must be no less incompetent to earn them. for purpose is the negation of power, implying something which power has not attained; and would imply deficiency in an existence which presents itself to our intelligence as complete. reason therefore tells us that god can have no resemblance with man; but it tells us, as plainly, that, without a fiction of resemblance, the proper relation between creator and creature, between god and man, is unattainable.[ ] if one exists, for whom the fiction or fancy has been converted into fact--for whom the unknowable has proved itself to contain the knowable: the ball of fire to hold within it an earthly substance unconsumed; he deserves credit for the magnitude, not scorn for the extravagance, of his conception. lyric. "fire has been cradled in the flint, though its ethereal splendours may disclaim the association." . "mihrab shah" vindicates the existence of physical suffering as necessary to the consciousness of well-being; and also, and most especially, as neutralizing the differences, and thus creating the one complete bond of sympathy, between man and man. lyric. "your soul is weighed down by a feeble body. in me a strong body is allied to a sluggish soul. you would fitly leave me behind. impeded as you also are, i may yet overtake you." . "a camel-driver" declares the injustice of punishment, in regard to all cases in which the offence has been committed in ignorance; and shows also that, while a timely warning would always have obviated such an offence, it is often sufficiently punished by the culprit's too tardy recognition of it. "god's justice distinguishes itself from that of man in the acknowledgment of this fact." the lyric deals specially with the imperfections of human judgment. "you have overrated my small faults, you have failed to detect the greater ones." . "two camels" is directed against asceticism. "an ill-fed animal breaks down in the fulfilment of its task. a man who deprives himself of natural joys, not for the sake of his fellow-men, but for his own, is also unfitted for the obligations of life. for he cannot instruct others in its use and abuse. nor, being thus ignorant of earth, can he conceive of heaven." the lyric shows how the finite may prefigure the infinite, by illustrations derived from science and from love. . "cherries" illustrates the axiom that a gift must be measured, not by itself, but by the faculty of the giver, and by the amount of loving care which he has bestowed upon it. man's general performance is to be judged from the same point of view. the lyric connects itself with the argument less closely and less seriously in this case than in the foregoing ones. the speaker has striven to master the art of poetry, and found life too short for it. "he contents himself with doing little, only because doing nothing is worse. but when he turns from verse-making to making love, or, as the sense implies, seeks to express in love what he has failed to express in poetry, all limitations of time and power are suspended; every moment's realization is absolute and lasting." . "plot-culture" is a distinct statement of the belief in a purely personal relation between god and man. it justifies every experience which bears moral fruit, however immoral from human points of view; and refers both the individual and his critic to the final harvest, on which alone the divine judgment will be passed. the lyric repeats the image in which this idea is clothed, more directly than the idea itself. a lover pleads permission to love with his whole being--with sense as well as with soul. . "a pillar at sebzevar" lays down the proposition that the pursuit of knowledge is invariably disappointing: while love is always, and in itself, a gain. the lyric modifies this idea into the advocacy of a silent love: one which reveals itself without declaration. . "a bean-stripe: also apple-eating" is a summary of mr. browning's religious and practical beliefs. we cannot, it says, determine the prevailing colour of any human life, though we have before us a balanced record of its bright and dark days. for light or darkness is only absolute in so far as the human spirit can isolate or, as it were, stand still within, it. every living experience, actual or remembered, takes something of its hue from those which precede or follow it: now catching the reflection of the adjoining lights and shades; now brighter or darker by contrast with them. the act of living fuses black and white into grey; and as we grasp the melting whole in one backward glance, its blackness strikes most on the sense of one man, its whiteness on that of another. ferishtah admits that there are lives which seem to be, perhaps are, stained with a black so deep that no intervening whiteness can affect it; and he declares that this possibility of absolute human suffering is a constant chastener to his own joys. but when called upon to reconcile the avowed optimism of his views with the actual as well as sympathetic experience of such suffering, he shows that he does not really believe in it. one race, he argues, will flourish under conditions which another would regard as incompatible with life; and the philosophers who most cry down the value of life are sometimes the least willing to renounce it. he cannot resist the conviction that the same compensating laws are at work everywhere. in explanation of the fact, that nothing given in our experience affords a stable truth--that the black or white of one moment is always the darker or lighter grey of another--ferishtah refers his disciples to the will of god. our very scheme of goodness is a fiction, which man the impotent cannot, god the all-powerful does not, convert into reality. but it is a fiction created by god within the human mind, that it may work for truth there; so also is it with the fictitious conceptions which blend the qualities of man with those of god. to the objection "a power, confessed past knowledge, nay, past thought, --thus thought and known!" (vol. xvi. p. .) ferishtah replies that to know the power by its operation, is all we _need_ in the case of a human benefactor or lord: all we _can_ in the case of those natural forces which we recognize in every act of our life. and when reminded that the sense of indebtedness implies a debtor--one ready to receive his due: and that we need look no farther for the recipient than the great men who have benefited our race: his answer is, that such gratitude to his fellow-men would be gratitude to himself, in whose perception half their greatness lies. "he might as well thank the starlight for the impressions of colour, which have been supplied by his own brain." the lyric disclaims, in the name of one of the world's workers, all excessive--_i.e._, loving recognition of his work. the speaker has not striven for the world's sake, nor sought his ideals there. "those who have done so may claim its love. for himself he asks only a just judgment on what he has achieved." mr. browning here expresses for the first time his feeling towards the "religion of humanity;" and though this was more or less to be inferred from his general religious views, it affords, as now stated, a new, as well as valuable, illustration of them. the theistic philosophy which makes the individual the centre of the universe, is, perhaps, nowhere in his works, so distinctly set forth as in this latest of them. but nowhere either has he more distinctly declared that the fullest realization of the individual life is self-sacrifice. "renounce joy for my fellows sake? that's joy beyond joy;" (_two camels_, vol. xvi p. .) the lyrical supplement to fancy somewhat obscures the idea on which it turns, by presenting it from a different point of view. but here, as in the remainder of the book, we must regard the lyric as suggested by the argument, not necessarily as part of it. the epilogue is a vision of present and future, in which the woe and conflict of our mortal existence are absorbed in the widening glory of an eternal day. the vision comes to one cradled in the happiness of love; and he is startled from it by a presentiment that it has been an illusion created by his happiness. but we know that from mr. browning's point of view, love, even in its illusions, may be accepted as a messenger of truth. index to names and titles in "ferishtah's fancies;"-- p. . "shah abbas." an historical personage used fictitiously. p. . "story of tahmasp." fictitious. p. . "ishak son of absal." fictitious. p. . "the householder of shiraz." fictitious. p. . "mihrab shah." fictitious. p. . "simorgh." a fabulous creature in persian mythology. p. . the "pilgrim's soldier-guide." fictitious. p. . "raksh." rustum's horse in the "shah nemeh." (firdausi's "epic of kings.") p. . (_anglicé_), "does job serve god for nought?" hebrew word at p. , line , "m[=e] el[=o]h[=i]m": "from god." p. . "mushtari." the planet jupiter. p. . "hudhud." fabulous bird of solomon. p. . "sitara." persian for "a star." p. . "shalim shah." persian for "king of kings." p. . "rustem," "gew," "gudarz," "sindokht," "sulayman," "kawah." heroes in the "shah nemeh." p. . the "seven thrones." ursa major. "zurah." venus. "parwin." the pleiades. "mubid." a kind of mage. p. . "zerdusht." "zoroaster." "parleyings with certain people of importance in their day." this volume occupies, even more than its predecessor, a distinctive position in mr. browning's work. it does not discard his old dramatic methods, but in a manner it inverts them; mr. browning has summoned his group of men not for the sake of drawing their portraits, but that they might help him to draw his own. it seems as if the accumulated convictions which find vent in the "parleyings" could no longer endure even the form of dramatic disguise; and they appear in them in all the force of direct reiterated statement, and all the freshness of novel points of view. and the portrait is in some degree a biography; it is full of reminiscences. the "people" with whom mr. browning parleys, important in their day, virtually unknown in ours, are with one exception his old familiar friends: men whose works connect themselves with the intellectual sympathies and the imaginative pleasures of his very earliest youth. the parleyings are: i. "with bernard de mandeville." ii. "with daniel bartoli." iii. "with christopher smart." iv. "with george bubb dodington." v. "with francis furini." vi. "with gerard de lairesse." vii. "with charles avison." they are enclosed between a prologue and an epilogue both dramatic and fanciful, but scarcely less expressive of the author's mental personality than the body of the work. "apollo and the fates." "fust and his friends." in "apollo and the fates" the fanciful, or rather fantastic element preponderates. it represents apollo as descending into the realms of darkness and pleading with the fate sisters for the life of admetus, the thread of which atropos is about to clip; and shows how he obtained for him a conditional reprieve by intoxicating the sisters with wine. the sequel to this incident has been given in mr. browning's transcript from "alkestis"; and the present poem is introduced by references to that work of euripides, to the "eumenides" of Æschylus and to homer's "hymn to mercury": the general sense of the passages indicated being this:-- euripides.--"admetus--whom, cheating the fates, i saved from death." Æschylus (to apollo).--"aye, such were your feats in the house of pheres, where you persuaded the fates to make a mortal immortal: you it was destroyed the ancient arrangement and deceived the goddesses with wine." homer.--"the fates are three virgin sisters,--winged and white-haired,--dwelling below parnassus: they feed on honey, and so get drunk, and readily tell the truth. if deprived of it they delude." mr. browning, however, varies the legend, first by making the fates find truth in the fumes of wine; and, secondly, by assuming that they never knew an inspiring drunkenness until they tasted it: profoundly intoxicating as their (fermented) honey must have been. apollo urges his request that admetus, now threatened with premature death, may live out the appointed seventy years. the fates retort on him by exclamations on the worthlessness of such a boon. they enumerate the follies and miseries which beset the successive stages of man's earthly career, and maintain that its only brightness lies in the delusive sunshine, the glamour of hope, with which he (apollo) gilds it. apollo owns that human happiness may rest upon illusion, but undertakes to show that man holds the magic within himself; and to that end persuades the sisters to drain a bowl of wine which he has brought with him. in the moment's intoxication the scales fall from their eyes, and they see that life is good. they see that if its earlier course means conflict, old age is its recorded victory. they see it enriched by the joys which are only remembered as by the good which only might have been. they praise the actual and still more the potential--the infinite possibilities to which man is born and which imagination alone can anticipate; and joining hands with apollo in a delirious dance, proclaim the discovery of the lost secret: _fancy compounded with fact._ this philosophy is, however, ill-suited to the dark ministers of fate; and an oracular explosion from the earth's depths startles them back into sobriety; in which condition they repudiate the new knowledge which has been born of them, flinging it back on their accomplice with various expressions of disgust. they admit, nevertheless, that the web of human destiny often defeats their spinning; its intended good and evil change places with each other; the true significance of life is only revealed by death; and though they still refuse to yield to apollo's demand, they compromise with it: admetus shall live, if someone else will voluntarily die for him. it is true they neutralize their concession by deriding the idea of such a devoted person being found; and apollo also shows himself a stranger to the decrees of the higher powers by making wrong guesses as to the event; but the whole episode is conceived in a humorous and very human spirit which especially reveals itself in the attitude of the contending parties towards each other. the fates display throughout a proper contempt for what they regard as the showy but unsubstantial personality of the young god; and the natural antagonism of light and darkness, hope and despair, is as amusingly parodied in the mock deference and ill-disguised aversion with which he approaches them. apollo finally vindicates mr. browning's optimistic theism by claiming the gifts of bacchus, youngest of the gods, for the beneficent purpose and anterior wisdom of zeus. the one serious idea which runs through the poem is conveyed in its tribute to the power of wine: in other words, to the value of imagination as supplement to and interpreter of fact. its partial, tentative, and yet efficient illumining of the dark places of life is vividly illustrated by apollo: and he only changes his imagery when he speaks of reason as doing the same work. it is the imaginative, not the scientific "reason" which mr. browning invokes as help in the perplexities of experience;[ ] as it is the spiritual, and not scientific "experience" on which, in the subsequent discussions, he will so emphatically take his stand.[ ] in the first "parleying" mr. browning invokes the wisdom of bernard de mandeville on certain problems of life: mainly those of the existence of evil and the limitations of human knowledge; and the optimistic views in which he believes dr. mandeville to concur with him are brought to bear on the more gloomy philosophy of carlyle, some well-known utterances of whom are brought forward for confutation. the chief points of the argument are as follows:-- carlyle complains that god never intervenes to check the tyranny of evil, so that it not only prevails in the present life, but for any sure indications which exist to the contrary may still do so in the life to come. it would be something, he thinks, if even triumphant wrong were checked, although (here we must read between the lines) this would be tantamount to the condoning of evil in all its less developed forms; better still if he who has the power to do so habitually crushed it at the birth. mr. browning (alias mandeville) replies by the parable of a garden in which beneficent and noxious plants grow side by side. "you must either," he declares, "admit--which you do not--that both good and evil were chance sown, or refer their joint presence to some necessary or pre-ordained connection between them. in the latter case you may use your judgment in pruning away the too great exuberance of the noxious plant, but if you destroy it once for all, you have frustrated the intentions of him who placed it there." carlyle reminds his opponent of that other parable, according to which it was an enemy who surreptitiously sowed the tares of evil, and these grow because no one can pull them out. divine power and foresight are, in his opinion, incompatible with either theory, and both of these mistaken efforts on man's part to "cram" the infinite within the limits of his own mind and understand what passes understanding. he deprecates the folly of linking divine and human together on the strength of the short space which they may tread side by side, and the anthropomorphic spirit which subjects the one to the other by presenting the illimitable in human form. mr. browning defends his position by an illustration of the use (as also abuse) of symbols spiritual and material; carlyle retorts somewhat impatiently that in thinking of god we have no need of symbolism; we know him as immensity, eternity, and other abstract qualities, and to fancy him under human attributes is superfluous; and mr. browning dismisses this theology, with the intellectual curiosities and intellectual discontents which he knows in the present case to have accompanied it, in a modification of the promethean myth--such a one as the more "human" euripides might have imagined. "when the sun's light first broke upon the earth, and everywhere in and on this there was life, man was the only creature which did not rejoice: for he said, i alone am incomplete in my completeness; i am subject to a power which i alone have the intellect to recognize, hence the desire to grasp. i do not aspire to penetrate the hidden essence, the underlying mystery of the sun's force; but i crave possession of one beam of its light wherewith to render palpable to myself its unseen action in the universe. and prometheus then revealed to him the 'artifice' of the burning-glass, through which henceforward he might enslave the sun's rays to his service while disrobing them of the essential brilliancy which no human sight could endure." in the material uses of the burning-glass we have a parallel for the value of an intellectual or religious symbol. this too is a gathering point for impressions otherwise too diffuse; or, inversely conceived, a sign guiding the mental vision through spaces which would otherwise be blank. its reduced or microcosmic presentment of facts too large for man's mental grasp suggests also an answer to those who bemoan the limitations of human knowledge. characteristic remarks on this subject occur at the beginning of the poem. bernard de mandeville figures throughout the "parleying" as author of "the fable of the bees"; and it is in this work that mr. browning discovers their special ground of sympathy. "the fable of the bees," also entitled "private vices public benefits," and again "the grumbling hive, or knaves turned honest," is meant to show that self-indulgence and self-seeking carried even to the extent of vice are required to stimulate the activities and secure the material well-being of a community. the doctrine, as originally set forth, had at least an appearance of cynicism, and is throughout not free from conscious or unconscious sophistry; and though the theological condemnation evoked by it was nothing short of insane, we cannot wonder that the morality of the author's purpose was impugned. he defends this, however, in successive additions to the work, asserting and re-asserting, by statement and illustration, that his object has been to expose the vices inherent to human society--in no sense to justify them; and mr. browning fully accepts the vindication and even regards it as superfluous. he sees nothing, either in the fable itself or the commentary first attached to it, which may not equally be covered by the christian doctrine of original sin, or the philosophic acceptance of evil as a necessary concomitant, or condition, of good: and finds fresh guarantees for a sound moral intention in the bright humour and sound practical sense in which the book abounds. this judgment was formed (as i have already implied) very early in mr. browning's life, even before the appearance of "pauline," and supplies a curious comment on any impression of mental immaturity which his own work of that period may have produced. bernard de mandeville was a dutch physician, born at dort in the second half of the last century, but who settled in england after taking his degree. he published, besides "the fable of the bees," some works of a more professional kind. his name, as we know it, must have been anglicized. daniel bartoli was a jesuit and historian of his order. mr. browning characterizes him in a footnote as "a learned and ingenious writer," and while acknowledging his blindness in matters of faith would gladly testify to his penetration in those of knowledge;[ ] but the don's editor, angelo cerutti, declares in the same note that his historical work so overflows with superstition and is so crammed with accounts of prodigious miracles as to make the reading it an infliction; and the saint-worship involved in this kind of narrative is the supposed text of the "parleying." mr. browning claims don bartoli's allegiance for a secular saint: a woman more divine in her non-miraculous virtues than some at least of those whom the church has canonized, and whose existence has the merit of not being legendary. the saint in question was marianne pajot, daughter of the apothecary of gaston duke of orleans; and her story, as mr. browning relates it, a well-known episode in the lives of charles iv., duke of lorraine, and the marquis de lassay. charles of lorraine fell violently in love with marianne pajot, whom he met at the "luxembourg" when visiting madame d'orleans, his sister. she was "so fair, so modest, so virtuous, and so witty" that he did not hesitate to offer her his hand; and they were man and wife so far as legal formalities could make them when the monarch (louis xiv.) intervened. charles had by a recent treaty made louis his heir. this threatened no obstacle to his union, since a clause in the marriage contract barred all claims to succession on the part of the children who might be born of it. but "madame" resented the mésalliance; she joined her persuasions with those of the minister le tellier; and the latter persuaded the young king, not absolutely to prevent the marriage, but to turn it to account. a paper was drawn up pledging the duke to fresh concessions, and the bride was challenged in the king's name to obtain his signature to it. on this condition she was to be recognized as duchess with all the honours due to her rank; failing this, she was to be banished to a convent. the alternative was offered to her at the nuptial banquet, at which le tellier had appeared--a carriage and military escort awaiting him outside. she emphatically declined taking part in so disgraceful a compact:[ ] and after doing her best to allay the duke's wrath (which was for the moment terrible), calmly allowed the minister to lead her away, leaving all the bystanders in tears. a few days later marianne returned the jewels which charles had given her, saying, it was not suitable that she should keep them "since she had not the honour of being his wife." he seems to have resigned her without farther protest. de lassay was much impressed by this occurrence, though at the time only ten years old. he too conceived an attachment for marianne pajot, and married her, being already a widower, at the age of twenty-three. their union, dissolved a few years later by her death, was one of unclouded happiness on his part, of unmixed devotion on hers; and the moral dignity by which she had subjugated this somewhat weak and excitable nature was equally attested by the intensity of her husband's sorrow and by its transitoriness. the military and still more amorous adventures of the marquis de lassay make him a conspicuous figure in the annals of french court life. he is indirectly connected with our own through a somewhat pale and artificial passion for sophia dorothea, the young princess of hanover, whose husband became ultimately george i. mr. browning indicates the later as well as earlier stages of de lassay's career; he only follows that of the duke of lorraine into an imaginary though not impossible development. charles had shown himself a being of smaller spiritual stature than his intended wife; and it was only too likely, mr. browning thinks, that the diamonds which should have graced her neck soon sparkled on that of some venal beauty whose challenge to his admiration proceeded from the opposite pole of womanhood. nevertheless he feels kindly towards him. the nobler love was not dishonoured by the more ignoble fancy, since it could not be touched by it. duke charles was still faithful as a man may be. with christopher smart is an interrogative comment on the strange mental vicissitudes of this mediocre poet, whose one inspired work, "a song to david," was produced in a mad-house[ ]. of this "song" rossetti has said (i quote the "athenæum" of feb. , ) in a published letter to mr. caine, "this wonderful poem of smart's is the only great _accomplished_ poem of the last century. the _un_accomplished ones are chatterton's--of course i mean earlier than blake or coleridge, and without reckoning so exceptional a genius as burns. a masterpiece of rich imagery, exhaustive resources, and reverberant sound." how mr. browning was impressed by such a work of genius, springing up from the dead level of the author's own and his contemporary life, he describes in a simile. he is exploring a large house. he goes from room to room, finding everywhere evidence of decent taste and sufficient, but moderate, expenditure: nothing to repel and nothing to attract him in what he sees. he suddenly enters the chapel; and here all richness is massed, all fancy is embodied, art of all styles and periods is blended to one perfection. he passes from it into another suite of rooms, half fearful of fresh surprise; and decent mediocrity, respectable commonplace again meet him on every side. thus, it seems to him, was the imagination of christopher smart for one moment transfigured by the flames of madness to resume for ever afterwards the prosaic character of its sanity; and he now asks the author of "a song to david" how one who had thus touched the absolute in art could so decline from it. he assumes that the madness had but revealed the poet: whether or not the fiery outbreak was due to force suppressed or to particles of brain substance disturbed. why was he after as before silent? it might be urged in answer that the full glory of that vision did not return--that the strength and beauty of the universe never came to him again with so direct a message for the eye and ear of his fellow men. but, mr. browning continues, impressions of strength and beauty are only the materials of knowledge. they contain the lesson of life. and that lesson is not given in the reiterated vision of what is beautiful, but in the patient conversion into knowledge and motive of such impressions of beauty--in other words, of strength or power--as man's natural existence affords. the poet's privilege, as the poet's duty, is not merely to impart the pleasure, but to aid the process of instruction. he only suggests the explanation to disclaim it in smart's name. these arguments are very typical of mr. browning's philosophy of art: of his conviction that art has no mission, its intuitions have no authority, distinct from moral and intellectual truth. he concludes the little sermon by denouncing that impatience of fancy which would grasp the end of things before the beginning, and scale the heights of knowledge, while rejecting experience, through which, as by a ladder, we scale them step by step. the lines in "paracelsus," vol. ii., p. , which are in this view so appropriate to the case of christopher smart, bore reference to him. the main facts of his life may be found in any biographical dictionary. with george bubb dodington is a lesson in the philosophy of intrigue, or the art of imposing on our fellow men. it is addressed to bubb dodington[ ] as to an ambitious, obsequious, unscrupulous, and only partially successful courtier; and undertakes to show that, being (more or less) a knave, his conduct also proclaimed him a fool, and lost him the rewards of knavery. mr. browning does not concern himself with the moralities of the case; these, for the time being, are put out of court. he assumes, for the purposes of the discussion, that everyone is selfish and no one need be sincere, and that "george" was justified in labouring for his own advancement and cheating others, if possible, into subservience to it; but he argues that the aim being right, the means employed were wrong, and could only result in failure. the argument begins and ends in the proposition, in itself a truism but which receives here a novel significance, that nothing in creation obeys its like, and that he who would mount by the backs of his fellow men must show some reason why they should lend them. in the olden time, we are reminded, such reasons were supplied by physical force; later, force was superseded by intelligence, _i.e._, wit or cunning; and this must now be supplemented by something deeper, because it has become the property of so many persons as to place no one person at an advantage. bubb dodington's methods have been those of simple cunning, and therefore they have not availed him. the multitude whom he cajoled have seen through his cajoleries, and have resented in these both the attempt to deceive them and the pretension--unfounded as it proved--to exalt himself at their expense. how then can the multitude be deceived into subservience?--by the pretence of indifference to them. an impostor is always supposed to be in earnest. the commonplace impostor is so: he has staked everything on the appearance of being sincere. he, on the other hand, who is reckless in mendacity, who cheats with a laughing eye; who, while silently strenuous in a given cause, appears to take seriously neither it, himself, nor those on whom both depend, irresistibly strikes the vulgar as moved by something greater than himself or they. a "quack" he may be, but like the spiritualistic quack, he invokes the belief in the supernatural, and perhaps shares it. he has the secret which bubb dodington had not. it may be wondered why mr. browning treats the shallower political cunning as merely a foil to the deeper, instead of opposing to it something better than both: but he finds the natural contrast to the half-successful schemer in the wholly triumphant one: and the second picture, like the first, has been drawn from life. it is that of the late lord beaconsfield--as mr. browning sees him. with francis furini is a defence of the study of the nude, based on the life and work of this florentine painter (born ), who at the age of forty also became a priest. according to his biographer, filippo baldinucci,[ ] furini was not only a skilful artist, but a conscientious priest, and a good man. no reproach attached to him but that he attained a special charm of colouring through the practice of painting very young women undraped; and we may infer that he repented this from the current report that when he felt himself dying he entreated those about him to have his pictures burnt. but baldinucci also relates that he had a specious answer ready for whoever remonstrated with him on thus endangering his soul. the answer, which he frankly quotes, is by no means "specious" in the sense in which it is made; and mr. browning cannot believe that a man so inspired by the true artistic passion as those words imply, could in any circumstances become ashamed of the acts to which they refer. "if," furini says, "those scrupulous persons only knew what is the agony of endeavour with which the artist strives at faithfully imitating what he sees, they would also know how little room this leaves in him for the intrusion of alien" (immoral) "thoughts." mr. browning goes farther still. he asserts not only the innocence, but the religiousness, of the painter's art when directed towards the marvels of the female form. he declares its exercise, so directed, to be a subject, not of shame in the sight of the creator, but of thanksgiving to him, and also the best form in which human thanks can be conveyed; and he employs all the vividness of his illustration and all the force of his invective against the so-called artist who sees in the divineness of female beauty only incitement to low desires; in the art which seeks to reproduce it only a cloak for their indulgence. his argument is very strong, and would be unanswerable, but for the touch of speciousness which baldinucci by anticipation detects in it: mr. browning--as did furini--regards the breach of formal chastity exclusively from the artist's point of view. but he may also argue that this will in the long run determine that of the spectator and that the model herself is from the first amenable to it. mr. browning lays stress upon the technical skill which results from the close copying of nature, and by virtue of which furini must be styled a good painter, whether or not a great one: and though he has never underrated the positive value of technical skill, we do not feel that in this third page of the "parleyings" he gives to the inspiring thought as high a relative place as in his earlier works. the old convictions reappear at pages - of vol. xvi., when he asserts the danger in which the skilled hand may involve the artistic soul, by stifling its insight into the spiritual essence of fleshly things or silencing its testimony to it; when, too, he admits that not the least worthy of the "sacred" ones have been thus betrayed. he still, however, maintains that the true offender against art will ever be the mock artist--the philistine--who sees cause of offence in it. after proclaiming the religiousness of art, furini is called upon to unfold his theology: and he then passes to a confession of faith in which mr. browning's known personal theism is contrasted with the scientific doctrines of evolution. the scientist and the believer would as he distinguishes them join issue on the value of the artistic study of man, since man is for both of them the one essential object of knowledge; but the study (artistic or scientific) is, mr. browning considers, unrepaying in the one case, while it yields all necessary results in the other. according to the scientist, man reigns supreme by his intelligence; according to the believer, he is subject to all the helplessness of his ignorance. in reasoning, therefore, each from his own consciousness, the one finds his starting point at the summit of creation, the other virtually at the bottom of it. the scientist acknowledges no mind beyond that of man; he seeks the impulse to life within itself, and can therefore only track it through the descending scale of being into the region of inorganic atoms and blind force. the _believer_ refers that impulse to a conscious external first cause, and is content to live surrounded by its mystery, entrenched within the facts of his own existence, guided (i.e., drawn upwards) by the progressive revelations which these convey to him. it is so that furini has lived and learned. he has found his lesson in the study of the human frame. there, as on a rock of experience, he has planted his foot, finding confusion and instability wherever he projected this beyond it; striking out sparks of knowledge at every stamp on the firm ground. he has learned that the cause of life is external, because he has seen how the soul permeates and impels the body, how it makes it an instrument of its own raptures and a sharer in them; and he believes that that which caused the soul and thus gifted it will ultimately silence the spiritual conflict with evil and perfect its own creation. he believes this because evil has revealed itself to him as the necessary complement of good--the antitype through which alone the type defines itself; as a condition of knowledge; as a test of what is right; as a motive to life and virtue so indispensable that it must exist as illusion if it did not exist as fact; because, therefore, its existence cannot detract from the goodness of the first cause or the promise which that contains. this constant assertion of the necessity of evil would land mr. browning in a dilemma, if the axiom were presented by him in any character of dogmatic truth: since it claims priority for certain laws of thought over a being which, if omnipotent, must have created them. but the anomaly disappears in the more floating outlines of a poetic personal experience; and mr. browning (alias furini) once more assures us that what he "knows" of the nature and mode of action of the first cause he knows for himself only. how it operates for others is of the essence of the mystery which enfolds him. whether even the means of his own instruction is reality or illusion, fiction or fact, is beyond his ken; he is satisfied that it should be so. mr. browning reverts to his defence of the nude in the description of a picture--exhibited last year at the grosvenor gallery--the subject of which he offers to furini for treatment in the manner described.[ ] with gerard de lairesse is a critical reminiscence of the unreal and mythological in art, and its immediate subject a belgian painter, born at liege, but who nourished at amsterdam in the second half of the seventeenth century. de lairesse was a man of varied artistic culture as well as versatile skill; but he was saturated with the pseudo-classical spirit of the later period of the renaissance; and landscape itself scarcely existed for him but as a setting for mythological incident or a subject for embellishment by it. this is curiously apparent in a treatise on the art of painting, which he composed, and, by a form of dictation, also illustrated, when at the age of fifty he had lost his sight. an english version of this fell into mr. browning's hands while he was yet a child, and the deep and, at the time, delightful impression which it made upon him is the motive of the present poem. foremost in his memory is an imaginary "walk,"[ ] in which the exercise of fancy which the author practises and, mr. browning tells us, enjoins, is strikingly displayed by his "conjecturing" phaeton's tomb from the evidence of a carved thunderbolt in an empty sepulchre, and the remains of the "chariot of the sun" from a piece of broken wheel and some similar fragment buried in the adjoining ground. the remembrance converts itself into a question: the poet's fancy no longer peoples the earth with gods and goddesses; has his insight become less vivid? has the poetic spirit gone back? the answer is unwavering; retrogression is not in the creative plan. the poet does not go back. he is still as of yore a seer; he has only changed in this, that his chosen visions are of the soul; their objects are no longer visible unrealities, but the realities which are unseen. he can still, if he pleases, evoke those as these, and mr. browning proceeds to show it by calling up a series of dissolving views representing another "walk." a majestic and varied landscape unfolds before us in the changing lights of a long summer's day; and at each appropriate artistic moment becomes the background of a mythological, idyllic, or semi-mythical scene. in the early dawn we see prometheus amidst departing thunders chained to his rock:[ ] the glutted, yet still hungering vulture cowering beside him; in the dews of morning, artemis triumphant in her double character of huntress-queen and goddess of sudden death; in the heats of noon, lyda and the satyr, enacting the pathetic story of his passion and her indifference;[ ] in the lengthening shadows, the approaching shock of the armies of darius and alexander;[ ]--in the falling night, a dim, silent, deprecating figure: in other words, a ghost. and here mr. browning bids the "fooling" stop; for he has touched the point of extreme divergence between the classic spirit and his own. the pallid vision which he repels speaks dumbly of pagan regret for what is past, of pagan hopelessness of the to-come. _his_ religion, as we are again reminded, is one of hope. let us, he says, do and not dream, look forward and not back; ascend the tree of existence into its ripening glory, not hastening over leaf or blossom, not dallying with them; leave greek lore buried in its own ashes, and accept the evidence of life itself that extinction is impossible; that death--mystery though it is, calamity though it may be--ends nothing which has once begun. we may then greet the spring which we do not live to see in other words than those of the greek bard; and the words suggested are those of a dainty lyric, in which the note of gladness seems to break with a little sob, and rings, perhaps, on that account the truer.[ ] with charles avison might be called a reverie on music and musicians, but for the extraordinary vividness of the images and emotions which it conveys. it was induced, mr. browning tells us, by a picturesque little incident which set his thoughts vibrating to the impressions of the word "march": and supplies a parable for their instinctive flight into a discredited and forgotten past. they have been feeling for a piece of march-music; they have bridged the gulf which separates the school of wagner and brahms from that of handel or buononcini; they alight on charles avison's "grand march."[ ] it is a simple continuous air, such as hearts could beat to in the olden time, though flat and somewhat thin, and unrelieved by those caprices of modulation which are essential to modern ears; and as it repeats itself in mr. browning's brain, the persistent melody gains force from its very persistence: till it fills with the sound, as it were glows with the aerial clashings, of many martial instruments, till it strides in the lengthening, drum-accentuated motion of many marching feet. he ponders the fact that such melody has lost its power, and asks himself why this must be: since the once perfected can never be surpassed, and the music of charles avison was in its own day as inspiring and inspired--in other words, as perfect--as that for which it has been cast aside. he finds his answer in the special relation of this art to the life of man. music resembles painting and poetry in the essential characteristic that her province is not mind but soul--the swaying sea of emotion which underlies the firm ground of attainable, if often recondite, fact. all three have this in common with the activities of mind that they strive for the same result; they aim at recording feeling as science registers facts. the two latter in some measure attain this end, because they deal with those definite moments of the soul's experience which share the nature of fact. but music dredges deeper in the emotional sea. she draws forth and embodies the more mysterious, more evanescent, more fluid realities of the soul's life; and so, effecting more than the sister arts, she yet succeeds less. her forms remain; the spirit ebbs away from them. as, however, mr. browning's own experience has shown, the departed spirit may return-- "... off they steal-- how gently, dawn-doomed phantoms! back come they full-blooded with new crimson of broad day-- passion made palpable once more." (p. .) the revived passion may breathe under the name of another man; it may stir again in the utterance of one dead and forgotten; and mr. browning, borrowing the language of chemistry, invokes the reactive processes through which its many-coloured flamelets may spring to life.[ ] he then passes by an insensible--because to him very natural--transition from the realities of feeling to those of thought, and to the underlying truth from which both series derive: and combats the idea that in thought, any more than in feeling, the present can disprove the past, the once true reveal itself as delusion. time--otherwise growth--widens the range as it complicates the necessities of musical, _i.e._ emotional expression. it destroys the enfolding fictions which shield without concealing the earlier stages of intellectual truth. but the emotions were in existence before music began; and truth was potentially "at full" within us when as it were reborn to grow and bud and blossom for the mind of man.[ ] therefore, he has said, addressing avison's march, "blare it forth, bold c major!" and "therefore," he continues, in a swift return of fancy:-- "... bang the drums, blow the trumps, avison! march-motive? that's truth which endures resetting. sharps and flats, lavish at need, shall dance athwart thy score when ophicleide and bombardon's uproar mate the approaching trample, even now big in the distance--or my ears deceive-- of federated england, fitly weave march-music for the future!" (p. .) the musical transformation is for a moment followed back to the days of elizabethan plain-song, and then arrested at those of avison, where he may be imagined as joining chorus with bach in celebrating the struggle for english liberty. the closing stanzas are written to the music of avison's march, which is also given[ ] at the end of the poem, and throws a helpful light on its more technical parts. fust and his friends is based on a version of the faust legend which identifies the inventor of printing with dr. faust, and contains allusions to some of the incidents of goethe's double poem: the magical drinking bout of the first part, and the appearance of the grecian helen in the second; but whereas the popular tradition makes fust's great discovery the fruit of his alliance with the powers of evil, mr. browning represents it as an act of atonement for the figurative devil-worship which was involved in a disorderly and ostentatious life. fust has by his own admission sinned to this extent.[ ] he has obeyed the father of lies. he has also accepted with thankfulness the chance of redeeming his soul by a signal service rendered to the cause of truth. the process of engraving on gold, furtively witnessed in a tuscan workshop, has suggested to him the manufacture of metallic types, and he has been for years secluded with the conception of his printing-press, and glowing visions of that winged word which should one day fly forth at his command. complacent ignorance and stupidity have buzzed freely about him as he sat unaided and alone in what mr. browning poetically depicts as the prolonged travail of a portentous mental birth; and, as we are led to imagine, much well-meant remonstrance and advice rebounded from his closed door. but at the moment in question the door is open, for the work of fust is complete. seven "friends" present themselves prepared to lecture him for his good and for that of their city (mayence) which is endangered by his compact with the devil; and the ensuing intensely humorous colloquy supplies him with the fitting occasion for distributing specimens of his new art and displaying the mechanism through which its apparent magic is achieved. he then pours forth his soul in an impassioned utterance, half soliloquy, half prayer, in which gratitude for his own redemption tempers the sense of triumph in the world-wide intellectual deliverance he has been privileged to effect, and becomes a tribute of adoration to that absolute of creative knowledge, the law of which he has obeyed; which stirs in the unconsciousness of the ore and plant, and impels man to its realization step by step in the ever-receding, ever-present vision of his own ignorance. he owns, however, when the talk is resumed, that his happiness is not free from cloud: since the wings which he has given to truth will also aid the diffusion of falsehood; and the note of humour returns to the situation when this contingency asserts itself in the mind of some of the "friends." these worthies have passed through the descending scale of feeling proper to such persons on such an occasion. they have received fust's invention as diabolical--as wonderful--as very simple after all; and now the fact stares them in the face that, printing being so simple, the hussite may publish his heresies as well as the churchman his truth, and the old sure remedy of burning him and his talk together will no longer avail. one of the two divines on whom this impresses itself had indeed "been struck by it from the first." the poem concludes with a joke on the name of huss, which (i am told) is the bohemian equivalent for "goose," and his reported prophecy of the advent and the triumph of luther: which prophecy fust re-echoes.[ ] footnotes: [footnote : we must remark that these arguments are not directed against atheism and its naturalistic philosophy, which supplies, in mr. browning's judgment, a consistent, if erroneous, solution of the problem. they only attack the position of those who would retain the belief in a personal god, and yet divest him of every quality which makes such a being thinkable.] [footnote : it has been wrongly inferred from the passage in question that mr. browning admits the pretensions of science to solve the problems of the universe.] [footnote : the "goddess-sent plague" woven by lachesis into the destiny of admetus was a vengeance of artemis which befell him on the day of his marriage. he had slighted her by omitting the usual sacrifice, and in punishment of this she sent a crowd of serpents to meet him in the nuptial chamber; but apollo effected a reconciliation between them.] [footnote : he had, as a young man, so great an admiration for one of bartoli's works, "de' simboli trasportati al morale," that when he travelled he always carried it with him.] [footnote : her reply was that if she possessed any influence over m. de lorraine she would never use it to make him do anything so contrary to his honour and to his interests; she already sufficiently reproached herself for the marriage to which his friendship for her had impelled him; and would rather be "marianne" to the end of her days than become duchess on such conditions the reply has been necessarily modified in mr. browning's more poetic rendering of the scene] [footnote : indented,--for want of writing materials,--with a key on the wainscot of his cell.] [footnote : created lord melcombe a year before his death: sufficiently known by his diary from march, , to feb., . see its character in the preface to the original edition by his relation, henry penruddocke wyndham, . other notices will be found in "edgeworth on education," belsham's "george ii.," and hawkins' "life of johnson."] [footnote : furini is also honourably mentioned in pilkington's "dictionary of painters," revised by fuseli, and till the middle of the present century the authoritative work on the subject. it is stated in the edition of that "many of his paintings are in florence, which are deemed to add honour to the valuable collections of the nobility of that city."] [footnote : the allusion in vol. xvi. p. , to the old artificer who could make men "believe" instead of merely "fancy" that what he presented to them was real, refers especially to the greek painter zeuxis; but it is suggested by the generally realistic character of greek art.] [footnote : described at p. and onwards under the heading "painter-like beauty in the open air."] [footnote : the last line and a half of the eighth stanza was directly suggested by the tragedy of Æschylus; the thunderstorm by another version of the promethean myth.] [footnote : see shelley's translation from moschus.] [footnote : battle of arbela.] [footnote : these lines were published in in the little volume entitled "the new amphion."] [footnote : organist of newcastle about ; author of "an essay on musical expression" and other works.] [footnote : the "relfe" spoken of in this connection was mr. browning's music-master: a learned contrapuntist.] [footnote : in interpreting this passage i have somewhat exceeded the letter, but only to emphasize the spirit of mr. browning's words.] [footnote : from an ms. copy formerly in the possession of mr. browning's father.] [footnote : the wealth to which he alludes was justly imputed to him, as the real fust was a goldsmith's son.] [footnote : the relation of john fust to the popular legend is pleasantly set forth in mr. sutherland edwards' little book, "the faust legend: its origin and development."] note. the following note shows mr. browning in a more pronounced attitude towards the opponents of the new greek spelling than does that which, by his desire, i inserted in my first edition; but the last mood was in this case only a natural development of the first:-- "i have just noticed in this month's 'nineteenth century' that it is inquired by a humorous objector to the practice of spelling (under exceptional conditions) greek proper names as they are spelt in greek literature, why the same principle should not be adopted by 'Ægyptologists, hebraists, sanscrittists, accadians, moabites, hittites, and cuneiformists?' adopt it, by all means, whenever the particular language enjoyed by any fortunate possessor of these shall, like greek, have been for about three hundred years insisted upon in england as an acquisition of paramount importance, at school and college, for every aspirant to distinction in learning, even at the cost of six or seven years' study--a sacrifice considered well worth making for even an imperfect acquaintance with 'the most perfect language in the world.' further, it will be adopted whenever the letters substituted for those in ordinary english use shall do no more than represent to the unscholarly what the scholar accepts without scruple when, for the hundredth time, he reads the word which, for once, he has occasion to write in english, and which he concludes must be as euphonic as the rest of a language renowned for euphony. and, finally, the practice will be adopted whenever the substituted letters effect no sort of organic change so as to jostle the word from its pride of place in english verse or prose. 'themistokles' fits in quietly everywhere, with or without the _k_: but in a certain poetical translation i remember, by a young friend, of the anabasis, beginning thus felicitously, '_cyrus the great and artaxerxes (whose temper bloodier than a turk's is) were children both of the mild, pious, and happy monarch, king darius_,'--who fails to see that, although a correct 'kuraush' may pass, yet 'darayavush' disturbs the metre as well as the rhyme? it seems, however, that 'themistokles' may be winked at: not so the 'harsh and subversive kirke.' but let the objector ask somebody with no knowledge to subvert, how he supposes 'circe' is spelt in greek, and the answer will be 'with a soft _c_.' inform him that no such letter exists, and he guesses, 'then with _s_, if there be anything like it' tell him that, to eye and ear equally, his own _k_ answers the purpose, and you have, at all events, taught him that much, if little enough--and why does he live unless to learn a little?" "r. b." _jan. , ._ a chronological bibliography of browning's works. . pauline; a fragment of a confession. vo. saunders and otley, . dated at the end "richmond, oct. , ." reprinted in the six vol. editions of the _poetical works_, , and later. also reprinted from the original edition and edited by t. j. wise, . . sonnet, "eyes calm beside thee (lady couldst thou know!") dated aug. , , and signed "z." _monthly repository_, vol. viii., n.s., , p. . not reprinted by mr. browning. . paracelsus. by robert browning. vo. effingham wilson, . reprinted in _poems_, vols. , and in _poetical works_ later, but without preface, dated th march, . . the king. "a king lived long ago." lines signed "z," in the _monthly repository_, vol. ix., n.s., , pp. - . afterwards given in _pippa passes_ (sc. i, act iii.) with six additional lines. . porphyria. "the rain set early in to-night." sixty lines signed "z," in _monthly repository_, vol. x., n.s., , pp. - . afterwards appeared in _bells and pomegranates_ under the heading "madhouse cells ii." was called "porphyria's lover" in the _works_, and after. . johannes agricola. "there's heaven above; and night by night." sixty lines signed "z," in _monthly repository_, vol. x., n.s., , pp. - . reprinted in _bells and pomegranates_ under the heading "madhouse cells i." . lines. "still ailing, wind? wilt be appeased or no?" six stanzas signed "z," in the _monthly repository_, vol. x., n.s., , pp. - . reappeared in _dramatis personæ_ ( ) as the first six stanzas of section vi. of "james lee." . strafford: an historical tragedy. by robert browning. vo. longmans, . acted at covent garden theatre, may , . reprinted without preface in _poetical works_, , and later. acting edition, for the north london collegiate school for girls, , vo. an edition (including preface of ) with notes and preface by miss e. h. hickey, and introduction by s. r. gardiner, ll.d., , vo. . sordello. by robert browning. vo. e. moxon, . revised edition with prefatory letter to j. milsand, in _poetical works_, vols. , and later. - . bells and pomegranates. eight numbers in wrappers, rl. vo., - , as follows:-- . no. . pippa passes. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . . no. . king victor and king charles. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . . no. . dramatic lyrics. by robert browning, london, e. moxon, . contents: _cavalier times._ i. _marching along_, p. .--ii. _give a rouse_, p. .--iii. _my wife gertrude_, p. . [iii. afterwards "boot and saddle."] _italy and france._ i. _italy_ ["my last duchess."]--ii. _france_ ["count gismond"], p. . _camp and cloister._ i. _camp_ (_french_), p. .--ii. _cloister (spanish)_, p. . _in a gondola_, p. . _artemis prologuizes_, p. . _waring._ i. "what's becomes of waring?"--ii. "when i last saw waring," p. . _queen worship._ i. _rudel and the lady of tripoli._--ii. _cristina_, p. . _madhouse cells._ i. _johannes agricola_ [of .] ii. _porphyria_ [of ], p. . _through the metidja to abd-el-kadr_, p. . _the pied piper of hamelin_, p. . . no. . the return of the druses. a tragedy in five acts. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . . no. . a blot in the 'scutcheon. a tragedy in three acts. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . acted at drury lane theatre, feb. , . . no. . colombe's birthday; a play in five acts. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . acted at the haymarket, april , . . no. . dramatic romances and lyrics by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . contents: _how they brought the good news from ghent to aix_, p. . _pictor ignotus._ _florence_, --, p. . _italy in england._ [called "the italian in england" in the _poems_, ], p. . _england in italy._ [called "the englishman in italy" in _poems_, ], p. . _the lost leader_, p. . _the lost mistress_, p. . _home thoughts from abroad._ i. "oh, to be in england."--ii. "here's to nelson's memory." [put after _claret and tokay_, in _poet. works_, , under "nationality in drinks."]--iii. "nobly, nobly cape st. vincent," p. . ["home thoughts from the sea."] _the tomb at st. praxed's_, p. . _garden fancies._ i. _the flower's name._--ii. _sibrandus schafnaburgensis_, p. . _france and spain._ i. _the laboratory_ (_ancien régime_).--ii. _the confessional_, p. . _the flight of the duchess_, p. . _earth's immortalities._ i. "see, as the prettiest graves."--ii. "so the year's done with," p. . _song._ "nay, but you, who do not love her," p. . _the boy and the angel._ [a fresh couplet added on republication in _poet. works_, ,] p. . _night and morning._ i. _night._--ii. _morning._ [called "meeting at night" and "parting at morning" in ], p. . _claret and tokay._ i. "my heart sunk with our claret-flask." ii. "up jumped tokay on our table." [these grouped together, with "here's to nelson's memory," as "nationality in drinks," no. in _poet. works_, ,] p. . _saul_ [part the first, only; completed in _men and women_, ,] p. . _time's revenges_, p. . _the glove._ (peter ronsard _loquitur_), p . . no. , and last. luria; and a soul's tragedy. by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . _luria._ a tragedy in five acts, p. . _a soul's tragedy._ part first, being what was called the poetry of chiappino's life; and part second, its prose. [with preface to _a soul's tragedy_ not reprinted], p. . . the laboratory (ancien régime). by robert browning, in _hood's magazine_, vol. i., , pp. - . reprinted in _dramatic romances and lyrics_ (_bells and pomegranates_, no. ), , as the first of two poems called _france and spain_. . claret and tokay. by robert browning. ["my heart sunk with our claret-flask," and "up jumped tokay on our table"], in _hood's magazine_, vol. i., , p. . reprinted in _dramatic romances and lyrics_ (_bells and pomegranates_, no. ), . . garden fancies. by robert browning. i. _the flower's name._--ii. _sibrandus schafnaburgensis._ in _hood's magazine_, vol. ii., pp. - , . revised and enlarged in _dramatic romances and lyrics_ (_bells and pom._, no. ), . . the boy and the angel. by robert browning. in _hood's magazine_, vol. ii., pp. - . enlarged in _dramatic romances and lyrics_ (_bells and pomegranates_, no. ), . . the tomb at st. praxed's (rome --). by robert browning. in _hood's magazine_, vol. iii., pp. - , . enlarged in _dramatic romances and lyrics_ (_bells and pomegranates_, no. ) in same year. reappeared in _works_, , and after, with the title "the bishop orders his tomb in st. praxed's church." . the flight of the duchess. by robert browning. part the first, in _hood's magazine_, vol. iii., pp. - , . part ii. appeared when the first part was reprinted in _bells and pomegranates_, no. , in the same year, _dramatic romances and lyrics_. . poems by robert browning. a new edition [but the first collection under a collective title]. vols., vo. chapman and hall, . _contents_: vol. i. paracelsus, p. . pippa passes, a drama, p. . king victor and king charles, a tragedy, p. . colombe's birthday, a play, p. . vol. ii. a blot in the 'scutcheon, a tragedy, p. . the return of the druses, a tragedy, p. . luria, a tragedy, p. . a soul's tragedy, p. . dramatic romances and lyrics, p. ; of the pieces in _bells and pomegranates_, nos. and , the three omitted being _claret_, _tokay_, and _here's to nelson's memory_. . christmas-eve and easter-day. a poem. by robert browning. vo. chapman and hall, . reprinted in _works_, , and after. . letters of percy bysshe shelley. with an introductory essay by robert browning. london, e. moxon, . vo. [the essay is on shelley--not on the "letters," which were afterwards discovered to be spurious, with one exception.] the essay was reprinted in the _browning society's papers_, part i., . edited by dr. f. j. furnivall. another reprint, edited by w tyas harden, appeared in , vo. . two poems. by elizabeth barrett and robert browning. vo. london, chapman and hall, . price sixpence. the poem by robert browning here is "the twins," and is dated "rome, march th, ." reprinted in _men and women_, , and in _works_, and after. the "two poems" were printed by miss arabella barrett for sale at a bazaar in aid of a "refuge for young destitute girls." mrs. browning's contribution was "a plea for the ragged schools of london." . men and women. by robert browning. in two vols. vo. london, chapman and hall. contents: vol. i.-- _love among the ruins_, p. . _a lover's quarrel_, p. . _evelyn hope_, p. . _up at a villa--down in the city_, p. . _a woman's last word_, p. . _fra lippo lippi_, p. . _a toccata of galuppi's_, p. . _by the fire-side_, p. . _any wife to any husband_, p. . _an epistle concerning the strange medical experience of karshish the arab physician_, p. . _mesmerism_, p. . _a serenade at the villa_, p. . _my star_, p. . _instans tyrannus_, p. . _a pretty woman_, p. . "_childe roland to the dark tower came_," p. . _respectability_, p. . _a light woman_, p. . _the statue and the bust_, p. . _love in a life_, p. _life in a love_, p. . _how it strikes a contemporary_, p. _the last ride together_, p. . _the patriot._ an old story, p. . _master hugues of saxe-gotha_, p. . _bishop blougram's apology_, p. . _memorabilia_, p. . contents of vol. ii.: _andrea del sarto_, p. . _before_, p. . _after_, p. . _in three days_, p. . _in a year_, p. . _old pictures in florence_, p. . _in a balcony_, p. . _saul_, p. . "_de gustibus_," p. . _women and roses_, p. . _protus_, p. . _holy-cross day_, p. . _the guardian angel_, p . _cleon_, p. . _the twins_, p. . _popularity_, p. . _the heretic's tragedy_, p. . _two in the campagna_, p. . _a grammarian's funeral_, p. . _one way of love_, p. . _another way of love_, p. . "_transcendentalism_" p. . _misconceptions_, p. . _one word more._ _to e. b. b._, p. . . ben karshook's wisdom. by robert browning. twenty lines in _the keepsake_ for , edited by miss power. never reprinted by mr. browning. the poem seems to be alluded to in "one word more." . may and death. by robert browning. in _the keepsake_ for . reprinted in _dramatis personæ_, , and in _works_ , and after. . the poetical works of robert browning. third edition. three vols., vo. london, chapman and hall, . no new poems in this collection. it was re-issued as "fourth edition" in . contents: vol. i. lyrics. _cavalier times_:-- i. _marching along_, p. . ii. _give a rouse_, p. . iii. _boot and saddle_, p. . _the lost leader_, p. . _how they brought the good news from ghent to aix_, p. . _through the metidja to abd-el-kader,_ p. . _nationality in drinks_:-- i. _claret_, p. . ii. _tokay_, p. . iii. _beer_ (_nelson_), p. . _garden fancies_:-- i. _the flower's name_, p. . ii. _sibrandus schafnaburgensis_, p. . iii. _soliloquy of the spanish cloister_, p. . _the laboratory_, p. . _the confessional_, p. . _cristina_, p. . _the lost mistress_, p. _earth's immortalities_, p. . _meeting at night_, p. . _parting at morning_, p. . _song_ ("_nay but you_"), p. . _a woman's last word_, p. . _evelyn hope_, p. . _love among the ruins_, p. . _a lover's quarrel_, p. . _up at a villa--down in the city_, p. _a toccata of galuppi's_, p. . _old pictures in florence_, p. . "_de gustibus_ ----" p. . _home thoughts, from abroad_, p. . _home thoughts, from the sea_, p. . _saul_, p. . _my star_, p. . _by the fireside_, p. . _any wife to any husband_, p. . _two in the campagna_, p. . _misconceptions_, p. . _a serenade at the villa_, p. . _one way of love_, p. . _another way of love_, p. . _a pretty woman_, p. . _respectability_, p. . _love in a life_, p. . _life in a love_, p. . _in three days_, p. . _in a year_, p. . _women and roses_, p. . _before_, p. . _after_, p. . _the guardian angel_--a picture at fano, p. . _memorabilia_, p. . _popularity_, p. . _master hugues of saxe-gotha_, p. . romances. _incident of the french camp_, p. _the patriot._ an old story, p. . _my last duchess._ ferrara, p. . _count gismond._ aix in provence, p. . _the boy and the angel_, p. . _instans tyrannus_, p. . _mesmerism_, p. . _the glove_, p. . _time's revenge_, p. . _the italian in england_, p. . _the englishman in italy_--piano di sorrento, p. . _in a gondola_, p. . _waring_, p. . _the twins_, p. . _a light woman_, p. . _the last ride together_, p. . _the pied piper of hamelin; a child's story_, p. . _the flight of the duchess_, . _a grammarian's funeral_, p. . _johannes agricola in meditation_, p. . _the heretic's tragedy_--a middle-age interlude, p. . _holy-cross day_, p. . _protus_, p. . _the statue and the bust_, p. . _porphyria's lover_, p. . "_child roland to the dark tower came_," p. . contents of vol. ii. tragedies and other plays. _pippa passes--a drama_, p. . _king victor and king charles--a tragedy_, p. . _the return of the druses--a tragedy_, p. . _a blot in the 'scutcheon--a tragedy_, p. . _colombe's birthday--a play_, p. . _luria--a tragedy_, p. . _a soul's tragedy_, p. . _in a balcony--a scene_, p. . _strafford--a tragedy_, p. . contents of vol. iii. _paracelsus_, p. . _christmas-eve and easter-day_, p. . _sordello_, p. . . selections from the poetical works of robert browning. vo. london, chapman and hall, . the editors of this first selection were john foster and b. w. procter ("barry cornwall"). the volume was re-issued in with the imprint of smith, elder & co. . dramatis personÆ. by robert browning. vo. london, chapman and hall, . second edition published same year. contents. _james lee_, p. . [this appears as "james lee's wife" in the _poetical works_, and after.] _gold hair: a legend of pornic_, p. . _the worst of it_, p. . _dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours_, p. . _too late_, p. . _abt vogler_, p. . _rabbi ben ezra_, p. . _death in the desert_, p. . _caliban upon setebos; or, natural theology in the island_, p. . _confessions_, p. . _may and death_, p. . _prospice_, p. . _youth and art_, p. . _a face_, p. . _a likeness_, p. . _mr. sludge_, "_the medium_," p. . _apparent failure_, p. . _epilogue_, p. . three of the above poems were reprinted from advance sheets in the _atlantic monthly_ (boston, u. s.), vol. xiii., , viz., _gold hair_, may, pp. - ; _prospice_, may, p. ; _under the cliff_ (part of _james lee_), may, pp. - . . orpheus and eurydice. eight lines in the royal academy catalogue for , in f. leighton's (now p.r.a.) picture so named. first collected in _poetical works_, , under the title of "eurydice to orpheus, a picture by fred leighton, a.r.a." . poetical works of robert browning. fourth edition. a reprint of the third edition (which see under " "). . a selection from the works of robert browning. square post vo. "moxon's miniature poets," e. moxon & co., . with dedication to alfred tennyson; and a photographic portrait of robert browning. . a selection from the poetry of elizabeth barrett browning. vo. london, chapman and hall, . edited by robert browning, and has a preface signed "r. b.," and dated "london, november, ." . last poems by elizabeth barrett browning. vo. london, chapman & hall, . the dedication ("to grateful florence," etc.), and "advertisement" (dated "london, february, "), written by robert browning. see _browning soc. papers_ [additions to bibliography], parts i. and ii., , pp. , . . the poetical works of robert browning. six vols. london, smith, elder and co., . there is only one new piece in this collection, viz., _deaf and dumb_; written for a marble group of two children by t. woolner in the international exhibition of . contents of vol. i. _pauline_, p. . _paracelsus_, p. . _strafford_, p. . contents of vol. ii. _sordello_, p. . _pippa passes_, p. . contents of vol. iii. _king victor and king charles_, p. . _dramatic lyrics_:-- _cavalier tunes,_ p. . _the lost leader_, p. . _how they brought the good news from ghent to aix_, p. . _through the metidja to abd-el-kadr_, p. . _nationality in drinks_, p. . _garden fancies_, p. . _soliloquy of the spanish cloister_, p. . _the laboratory_, p. . _the confessional_, p. . _cristina_, p. . _the lost mistress_, p. . _earth's immortalities_, p. . _meeting at night_, p, . _parting at morning_, p. . _song_ ("nay but you "), p. . _a woman's last word_, p. . _evelyn hope_, p. . _love among the ruins_, p. . _a lovers' quarrel_, . _up at a villa-down in the city_, p. . _a toccata of galuppi's_, p. . _old pictures in florence_, p. . "_de gustibus_ ----" p. . _home thoughts from abroad_, p. . _home thoughts from the sea_, p. . _saul_, p. . _my star_, p. . _by the fire-side_, p. . _any wife to any husband_, p. _two in the campagna_, p. . _misconceptions_, p. . _a serenade at the villa_, p. . _one way of love_, p. . _another way of love_, p. . _a pretty woman_, p. . _respectability_, p. . _love in a life_, p. . _life in a love_, p. . _in three days_, p. . _in a year_, p. . _women and roses_, p. . _before_, p. . _after_, p. . _the guardian angel_, p. . _memorabilia_, p. . _popularity_, p. . _master hugues of saxe-gotha_, p. . _the return of the druses_, p. . contents of vol. iv. _a blot in the 'scutcheon_, . _colombe's birthday_, p. . _dramatic romances_:-- _incident of the french camp_, p. . _the patriot_, p. . _my last duchess_, p. . _count gismond_, p. . _the boy and the angel_, p. . _instans tyrannus_, p. . _mesmerism_, p. . _the glove_, p. . _time's revenges_, p. . _the italian in england_, p. . _the englishman in italy_, p. . _in a gondola_, p. . _waring_, p. . _the twins_, p. . _a light woman_, p. . _the last ride together_, p. . _the pied piper of hamelin_, p. . _the flight of the duchess_, . _a grammarian's funeral_, p. . _the heretic's tragedy_, p. . _holy-cross day_, p. . _protus_, p. . _the statue and the bust_, p. . _porphyria's lover_, p. . "_childe roland to the dark tower came_," p. . contents of vol. v. _a soul's tragedy_, p. . _luria_, p. . _christmas-eve and easter-day_, p. . _men and women:-- "transcendentalism; a poem in twelve books_," p. . _how it strikes a contemporary_, p. . _artemis prologizes_, p. . _an epistle (karshish)_, p. . _johannes agricola in meditation_, p. . _pictor ignotus_, p. . _fra lippo lippi_, p. . _andrea del sarto_, p. . _the bishop orders his tomb at st. praxed's church_, p. . _bishop blougram's apology_, p. . _cleon_, p. . _rudel to the lady of tripoli_, p. . _one word more_, p. . contents of vol. vi. _in a balcony_, p. . _dramatis personæ_:-- _james lee's wife_, p. . _gold hair; a story of pornic_, p. . _the worst of it_, p. . _dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours_, p. . _too late_, p. . _abt vogler_, p. . _rabbi ben ezra_, p. . _a death in the desert_, p. . _caliban upon setebos_, p. . _confessions_, p. . _may and death_, p. . _deaf and dumb: a group by woolner_, p. _prospice_, p. . _eurydice to orpheus; a picture by leighton_, p. . _youth and art_, p. . _a face_, p. . _a likeness_, p. . _mr. sludge_, "_the medium_," p. . _apparent failure_, p. . _epilogue_ (three speakers) p. . - . the ring and the book. by robert browning. in four vols., vo. london, smith, elder & co., vols. i., ii., ; vols. iii., iv., . the volumes were issued one by one, between november and february . a "second edition," four volumes, appeared . . hervÉ riel. in the _cornhill magazine_, march, , pp. - . is dated "croisic, sept. th, ." reprinted in _pacchiarotto_, &c., . . balaustion's adventure: including a transcript from euripides. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . with dedication to the countess cowper dated july , . a third edition appeared in . _the last adventure of balaustion_, in _aristophanes' apology_, &c., , in a sequel to this work. . prince hohenstiel-schwangau: saviour of society. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . . fifine at the fair. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co. . . selections from the poetical works of robert browning. london, smith, elder & co., . with a preface dated "london, may th, ." "dedicated to alfred tennyson." . the poetical works of robert browning. (the tauchnitz selection). two vols., vo. leipzig; "collection of british authors." as this is a "copyright edition," the selection must have been either made or sanctioned by mr. browning. - . complete works of robert browning. a reprint from the latest english edition. vo. chicago. nos. - of the "official guide of the chicago and alton r.r. and monthly reprint and advertiser." edited by the manager of the railway, mr. james charlton. a copy is in the british museum. . red cotton night-cap country, or turf and towers. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . dated at the end "january , ." dedicated "to miss thackeray." . aristophanes' apology, including a transcript from euripides, being the last adventure of balaustion. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . the "transcript" is "herakles." . the inn album. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . a translation of this work into german by e. leo: "das fremdenbuch," hamburg, . . pacchiarotto and how he worked in distemper: with other poems. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . contents. _prologue._ ("o the old wall here.") [called "a wall" in the selection of ], p. . _of pacchiarotto and how he worked in distemper_, p. . _at the_ "_mermaid_," p. . _house_, p. . _shop_, p. . _pisgah-sights_, i., p. . _pisgah-sights_, ii., p. . _fears and scruples_, p. . _natural magic_, p. . _magical nature_, p. . _bifurcation_, p. . _numpholeptos_, p. . _appearances_, p. . _st. martin's summer_, p. _hervé riel_, p. . _a forgiveness_, p. . _cenciaja_, p. . _filippo baldinucci on the privilege of burial_, p. _epilogue_ ["'the poets pour us wine,'"] p. . . the agamemnon of Æschylus, transcribed by robert browning. vo., smith, elder & co., , with preface dated london, october st, . . favourite poems. by robert browning. [a selection]. illustrated, pp. , mo. boston, james r. osgood & co., . [the vest-pocket series of standard and popular authors]. . la saisiaz: the two poets of croisic. by robert browning. vo. smith, elder & co., . "dedicated to mrs. sutherland orr." _la saisiaz_ is dated "november th, ," and _the two poets of croisic_, "january th, ." the proem to the _two poets of croisic_ was named "apparitions" in the _selections_ of . . "oh love, love." _two stanzas--eighteen lines translated from the hippolytus of euripides_, contributed to mr. j. p. mahaffy's _euripides_, p. , macmillan, . not included in any collection of robert browning's poems. reprinted in _browning soc. (bibliography) papers_, pt. , , p. . . dramatic idyls. by robert browning. post vo. london, smith, elder & co., . contents. _martin relph_, p. . _pheidippides_, p. . _halbert and hob_, p. . _ivàn ivànovitch_, p. . _tray_, p. . _ned bratts_, p. . . "the blind man to the maiden said." poem, twenty lines, in "the hour will come," by wilhelmine von hillern, translated from the german by mrs. clara bell (vol. ii., p. ). london, vo. quoted in _whitehall review_, march , , with statement that the english version of the poem is by mr. browning. reprinted with some particulars in the _browning society's papers_, pt. ii., p. , . . dramatic idyls. second series. by robert browning. post vo. london, smith, elder & co., . contents. [_proem_] ("you are sick, that's sure"), p. vii. _echetlos_, p. . _clive_, p. . _muléykeh_, p. . _pietro of abano_, p. . _doctor_ ----, p. . _pan and luna_, p. . [_epilogue_], ("touch him ne'er so lightly"), p. . ten additional lines to this epilogue have been published--"thus i wrote in london, musing," &c. these lines appeared in the _century magazine_ (scribner's), vol. , , pp. , , and were there said to have been written in an autograph album, october th, . they were reprinted in the _browning society's papers_, pt. iii., p. *, november, , but have been withdrawn from the society's later issues. . selections from the poetical works of robert browning. second series. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . the first series appeared in . both were reprinted in . . a selection from the works of robert browning. with a memoir of the author, and explanatory notes, by f. h. ahn, vo. berlin, . this is vol. viii. of ahn's _collection of british and american standard authors_. . jocoseria. by robert browning. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . contents. _wanting is--what?_ p. . _donald_, p. . _solomon and balkis_, p. . _cristina and monaldeschi_, p. . _mary wollstonecraft and fuseli_, p. . _adam, lilith, and eve_, p. . _ixion_, p. . _jochanan hakkadosh_, p. . _never the time and the place_, p. . _pambo_, p. . . lyrical and dramatic poems selected from the works of robert browning. edited by e. t. mason. vo. new york, . [ .] selections from the poetry of robert browning. with an introduction by r. g. white, vo. new york. . sonnet on goldoni. dated "venice, nov. , ," and written for the album of the committee of the goldoni monument at venice, where it appears upon the first page. printed in the _pall mall gazette_, dec. , , and in the _browning society's papers_, pt. v., p. *, . . paraphrase from horace. (on singers). [horace's "_omnibus hoc vitium est cantoribus_," etc.] four lines written impromptu for mr. felix moscheles. published in the _pall mall gazette_, dec. , , and in the _browning society's papers_, pt. v. p. *, . . sonnet on rawdon brown. dated nov. . , and published in the. _century magazine_, vol. , feb. , p. . reprinted in the _browning society's papers_, pt. v., p. *, . . the founder of the feast.--a sonnet. inscribed by mr. browning in the album presented to mr. arthur chappell, director of the st. james's hall popular concerts, etc. (_the world_, april , ). reprinted in the _browning society's papers_, pt. vii., p. *, . the sonnet is dated "april th, ." . the names. sonnet on shakspeare. on page of the "shaksperian show book" of the shaksperian show held at the albert hall, may - , . the poem is dated "march , ' ," and was published in the _pall mall gazette_, may , , and in the _browning society's papers_, pt. v., p. *. . "the divine order, and other sermons and addresses. by the late thomas jones." edited by brynmor jones; with a short introduction by robert browning. london, , vo. . ferishtah's fancies. by robert browning vo. smith, elder & co., . contents: _prologue_ ("pray reader"), p . . _the eagle_, p. . . _the melon-seller_, p. . . _shah abbas_, p . . _the family_, p. . . _the sun_, p. . . _mihrab shah_, p. . . _a camel-driver_, p. , . _two camels_, p. . . _cherries_, p. . . _plot-culture_, p. . . _a pillar at sebzevah_, p. . . _a bean-stripe_; _also apple-eating_, p. . _epilogue_ ["oh, love--no love!"] p. . . selections from the poetical works of robert browning. two series. vols. vo. london, smith, elder & co., . a reprint of the two series, which appeared respectively in and . . the pied piper of hamelin. by robert browning. london, robert dunthorne, . small to. not published for sale, but printed by mr. browning's permission "to accompany mr. macbeth's etchings, after the late g. j. pinwell's drawings illustrating its subject." . pomegranates from an english garden: a selection from the poems of robert browning. with introduction and notes by john munro gibson. new york, , vo. . why i am a liberal. sonnet contributed to "why i am a liberal," edited by andrew reid. london, cassell & co., n.d. [ ]. not collected by mr. browning, but reprinted in _browning society's papers_, october, , p. *, and in "sonnets of the century," edited by w. sharp, . . spring song ("dance, yellows and whites and reds!") contributed to _the new amphion: being the book of the_ edinburgh university union _fancy fair_. edinburgh university press, , p. . (reappeared in _lairesse_ in _parleyings_, &c., p. ). . select poems of robert browning, with notes by w. j. rolfe and h. e. mersey. new york, , vo. . parleyings with certain people of importance in their day; to wit: _bernard de mandeville_, _daniel bartoli_, _christopher smart_, _george bubb dodington_, _francis furini_, _gerard de lairesse_, and _charles avison_. introduced by _a dialogue between apollo and the fates_; concluded by another between _john fust and his friends_. by robert browning. london, smith, elder & co., , vo. dedicated "in memoriam j. milsand, obit. iv. sept. mdccclxxxvi. _absens absentem auditque videtque._" - . the poetical works of robert browning. sixteen vols. vo. smith, elder & co., - . all the works collected by the author, excepting only _asolando_. contents. _pauline_, vol. i., p. . _sordello_, vol. i., p. . _paracelsus_, vol. ii., p. . _strafford_, vol. ii., p. . _pippa passes_, vol. iii., p. _king victor and king charles_, vol. iii., p. . _return of the druses_, vol. iii., p. . _a soul's tragedy_, vol. iii., p. . _a blot in the 'scutcheon_, vol. iv., p. . _colombe's birthday_, vol. iv., p. . _men and women_, vol. iv., p. . _dramatic romances_, vol. v., p. . _christmas-eve and easter-day_, vol. v., p. . _dramatic lyrics_, vol. vi., p. . _luria_, vol. vi., p. . _in a balcony_, vol. vii., p. . _dramatis personæ_, vol. vii., p. . _the ring and the book._ books to , vol. viii., p. . " " books to , vol. ix., p. . " " books to , vol. x., p. . _balaustion's adventure_, vol xi., p. . _prince hohenstiel-schwangau,_ vol. xi., p. . _fifine at the fair_, vol. xi., p. . _red cotton night-cap country_, vol. xii., p. . _the inn album_, vol. xii., p. . _aristophanes' apology_, including a transcript from euripides, being the _last adventure of balaustion_, vol. xiii., p. . _the agamemnon of Æschylus_, vol. xiii., p. . _pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper_; with other poems, vol. xiv., p. . _la saisiaz_: and _the two poets of croisic_, vol. xiv., p. . _dramatic idyls._ first series, vol. xv., p. . " " second series, vol. xv., p. . _jocoseria_, vol. xv., p. . _ferishtah's fancies_, vol. xvi., p. . _parleyings with certain people of importance in their day_, vol. xvi., p. . [ ]. the pied piper of hamelin. by robert browning. with illustrations by kate greenaway. pp. , routledge & sons, to. . five lines (beginning "wind wafted from the sunset"), on a picture by mr. felix moscheles, "the isle's enchantress." printed in the _pall mall gazette_ for march , . - . the poetical works of elizabeth barrett browning. in six volumes. london, smith, elder & co., - . vo. vol. i. contains a prefatory note signed "r. b.," and dated " , de vere gardens, w., december , " [" " must be a misprint for , as the "prefatory note" mentions a memoir of e. b. browning by john h. ingram, which was published in september, ]. . asolando: fancies and facts. by robert browning. vo. smith, elder & co., . with dedication "to mrs. arthur bronson." now ( ) in its eighth edition. the dedication is dated "asolo, october , ." the volume was published on the day of the poet's death, december , . contents. _prologue_ ("the poet's age is sad; for why?") p. . _rosny_, p. . _dubiety_, p. . _now_, p. . _humility_, p. . _poetics_, p. . _summum bonum_, p. . _a pearl, a girl_, p. . _speculative_, p. . _white witchcraft_, p. . _bad dreams_, i., ii., iii., iv., p. . _inapprehensiveness_, p. . _which?_ p. . _the cardinal and the dog_, p. . _the pope and the net_, p. _the bean-feast_, p. . _muckle-mouth meg_, p. . _arcades ambo_, p. . _the lady and the painter_, p. . _ponte dell' angelo_, _venice_, p. . _beatrice signorini_, p. . _flute music, with an accompaniment_, p. . "_imperante augusto natus est_ ----," p. . _development_, p. . _rephan_, p. . _reverie_, p. . _epilogue_ ("at the midnight, in the silence of the sleep-time"), p. . . poems by elizabeth barrett browning. with prefatory note by r. b. mo. london, smith, elder & co., . . pocket volume of selections from the poetical works of robert browning. london, smith, elder & co., , mo. *** in the "bibliography" attached to mr. william sharp's "life of robert browning" (london, w. scott, ), under section ii., "single works," appear the following entries:-- ( ) "cleon. moxon: london, . vo. reprinted in _men and women_." ( ) "gold hair: a legend of pornic. [london], . vo. reprinted in _dramatis personæ_." ( ) "the statue and the bust. moxon: london, . vo. reprinted in _men and women_." ( ) mr. sharp also (p. ) mentions a leaflet containing "prospice." pamphlets bearing the titles of the first and third certainly exist, and this may also be the case with regard to the second and fourth; but as nothing is known of the history of any one of the four, all are excluded from the foregoing bibliography. an alphabetical list of robert browning's works, being an index to the foregoing bibliography and to the collected editions of and - . page of in vols. in vols. bibliography. title. date. edit. edit. - vol. & page. vol. & page. abd-el-kadr, through the metidja to iii. vi. abt vogler vi. vii. adam, lilith, and eve xv. Æschylus, the agamemnon of xiii. after iii. vi. agamemnon of Æschylus, the xiii. ahn, f. h., selections by aix in provence. _see_ count gismond iv. v. alkestis, euripides', a translation from. _see_ balaustion's adventure xi. amphibian (prol. to _fifine_) xi. amphion, the new contribution to, "spring song" xvi. andrea del sarto v. iv. another way of love iii. vi. any wife to any husband iii. vi. apollo and the fates, dialogue between xvi. apparent failure vi. vii. apparitions (proem, _two poets of croisic_) xiv. appearances xiv. apple-eating xvi. arcades ambo aristophanes' apology xiii. artemis prologuizes v. iv. _atlantic monthly_, _see_ "dramatis personæ" asolando: fancies and facts at the "mermaid" xiv. avison, charles, parleying with xvi. "at the midnight" (epilogue to asolando) b., e. b. (mrs. browning), to ["one word more"] v. iv. bad dreams balaustion, the last adventure of. _see_ aristophanes' apology. xiii. balaustion's adventure xi. bartoli, daniel, parleying with xvi. bean-feast, the bean-stripe, a xvi. beatrice signorini beer, nationality in drinks iii. vi. before iii. vi. bells and pomegranates - ben karshook's wisdom bifurcation xiv. bishop blougram's apology v. iv. bishop (the) orders his tomb at st. praxed's v. iv. "blind man (the) to the maiden said" (translation) blot (a) in the scutcheon iv. iv. boot and saddle ["my wife," etc.] iii. vi. boy and the angel, the iv. v. brown, rawdon, sonnet on b[rowning], e. b., to v. iv. browning, mrs. selection from her poetry. edited by r. b. ---- last poems. edited by r. b. ---- edition of the poems of ( vols.) - burial, the privilege of. _see_ filippo baldinucci xiv. by the fire-side iii. vi. byron (le) de nos jours vi. vii. caliban upon setebos vi. vii. camel-driver, a xvi. camp and cloister iv. v. cardinal (the) and the dog cavalier tunes iii. vi. cenciaja xiv. chappell, (arthur,) sonnet to cherries xvi. "childe roland to the dark tower came" iv. v. christmas-eve and easter-day v. v. claret and tokay iii. vi. cleon v. iv. clive xv. cloister (spanish) iii. vi. colombe's birthday iv. iv. confessional, the iii. vi. confessions vi. vii. count gismond, aix in provence iv. v. cristina iii. vi. cristina and monaldeschi xv. croisic, the two poets of xiv. _cornhill magazine_, contribution to. _see_ hervé riel david, etc. (epil. to _dram. personæ_) vi. vii. deaf and dumb vi. vii. death in the desert, a vi. vii. "de gustibus ----" iii. vi. development dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours vi. vii. "divine order," introduction to doctor ---- xv. dodington, george bubb, parleying with xvi. donald xv. dramatic idyls [first series] xv. ---- second series xv. dramatic lyrics iii. vi. dramatic romances and lyrics { iii. v. { iv. vi. dramatis personæ vi. vii. drinks, nationality in iii. vi. dubiety duchess, flight of the iv. v. eagle, the xv. earth's immortalities iii. vi. echetlos xv. england in italy iv. v. "england, oh to be in," iii. vi. englishman in italy, the iv. v. epilogue ("_dram. personæ_") vi. vii. ---- (_pacchiarotto_) xiv. ---- (_la saisiaz_) xiv. ---- (_dramatic idyls ii._) xv. ---- (_ferishtah's fancies_) xvi. ---- (_parleyings_, _etc._) xvi. ---- (_asolando_) epistle (an) concerning the strange medical experience of karshish, etc. v. iv. eurydice to orpheus vi. vii. euripides, a transcript from (alkestis). _see_ balaustion's adventure xi. ---- a transcript from (herakles mainomenos) xiii. ---- two stanzas from hippolytus evelyn hope iii. vi. "eyes calm beside thee" (sonnet) face, a vi. vii. fame and love. _see_ earth's immortalities iii. vi. family, the xvi. fears and scruples xiv. ferishtah's fancies xvi. fifine at the fair xi. filippo baldinucci xiv. fireside, by the iii. vi. flight of the duchess, the iv. v. flower's name, the iii. vi. flute-music, with an accompaniment forgiveness, a xiv. founder of the feast, the fra lippo lippi v. iv. france [italy and france] iv. v. france and spain. _see_ "confessional" and "laboratory" french camp, incident of the iv. v. furini (francis), parleying with xvi. furnivall, dr. f. j., his edition of browning's essay on shelley fuseli, m. wollstonecraft and xv. fust and his friends, dialogue between xvi. gardiner, s. r., and miss e. h. hickey, edition of _strafford_ by garden fancies iii. vi. ghent to aix, how they brought the good news from iii. vi. gibson, j. m., selection by give a rouse iii. vi. glove, the iv. v. gold hair: a legend of pornic vi. vii. goldoni, sonnet on gondola, in a iv. v. "good to forgive" (prol. to _la saisiaz_) xiv. grammarian's funeral, a iv. v. greenaway, miss kate, illustrated edition of the pied piper [ ] guardian-angel, the iii. vi. halbert and hob xv. herakles. _see_ aristophanes' apology xiii. "here's to nelson's memory" iii. vi. heretic's tragedy, the iv. v. hersey, h. e., and rolfe, w .j., selection by hervé riel xiv. hickey, miss e. h., and gardiner, s. r., edit. of _strafford_ by hohenstiel-schwangau (prince) xi. holy-cross day iv. v. home-thoughts, from abroad iii. vi. home thoughts, from the sea iii. vi. _hood's magazine_, contributions to ---- (_the laboratory_) iii. vi. ---- (_claret, etc._) iii. vi. ---- (_garden fancies_) iii. vi. ---- (_boy and the angel_) iv. v. ---- (_tomb at st. praxed's_) v. iv. ---- (_flight of the duchess_) iv. v. horace, paraphrase from "hour will come, the," translation in house xiv. householder, the (epil. to _fifine_) xi. how it strikes a contemporary v. iv. "how they brought the good news from ghent to aix" iii. vi. hugues (master) of saxe-gotha iii. vi. humility hippolytus, two stanzas from introduction [on shelley] introduction to the "divine order" "imperante augusto natus est--" in a balcony vi. vii. in a gondola iv. v. in a year iii. vi. in three days iii. vi. inapprehensiveness incident in the french camp iv. v. inn album, the xii. ---- translation of, by leo instans tyrannus iv. v. italian in england, the iv. v. italy [italy and france] iv. v. italy in england iv. v. ivàn ivànovitch xv. ixion xv. james lee [james lee's wife] vi. vii. jochanan hakkadosh xv. johannes agricola v. iv. jocoseria xv. jones's "divine order." introduction to karshish, the arab physician v. iv. karshook's (ben) wisdom _keepsake, the_, contribution to ---- ---- vi. vii. "kentish sir byng." ["marching along"] iii. vi. king, the (_pippa passes_) ii. iii. king victor and king charles iii. iii. "king charles, and who'll do him right now?" ["give a rouse"] iii. vi. la saisiaz xiv. laboratory, the iii. vi. lady (the) and the painter "lady, could'st thou know!" lairesse, gerard de, ("parleying") xvi. last ride together, the iv. v. leighton, a picture by fred. _see_ orpheus and eurydice vi. vii. leo, e., translation of the _inn album_ life in a love iii. vi. light woman, a iv. v. likeness, a vi. vii. lost leader, the iii. vi. lost mistress, the iii. vi. love, another way of iii. vi. love and fame. _see_ earth's immortalities iii. vi. love among the ruins iii. vi. love in a life iii. vi. love, one way of iii. vi. lovers' quarrel, a iii. vi. luria v. vi. macbeth's etchings, _pied piper_ madhouse cells v. iv. magical nature xiv. mandeville, bernard de, parleying with xvi. marching along iii. vi. martin relph xv. mason, e. t., selection by master hugues of saxe-gotha iii. vi. may and death vi. vii. meeting at night iii. vi. melon-seller, the xvi. memorabilia iii. vi. men and women v. iv. "mermaid," at the xi. mesmerism iv. v. mihrab shah xvi. misconceptions iii. vi. morning [night and morning] iii. vi. moscheles, f., lines on a picture by mr. sludge, the "medium" vi. vii. _monthly repository_, poem in ---- _see_ "a king lived long ago" (in _pippa passes_) ii. iii. ----- "porphyria" iv. v. ----- "_johannes agricola_" v. iv. ----- "still ailing, wind?" _see_ james lee vi. vii. muckle-mouth meg muléykeh xv. my last duchess iv. v. my star iii. vi. "my wife gertrude" (afterwards _boot and saddle_) iii. vi. names, the (sonnet) nationality in drinks iii. vi. natural magic xiv. natural theology (_caliban upon setebos_) vi. xiv. "nay, but you who do not love her" iii. vi. ned bratts xv. "nelson's memory, here's to" iii. vi. never the time and the place xv. night [night and morning] iii. vi. "nobly cape st. vincent" iii. vi. now numpholeptos xiv. "oh love, love" "oh, love--no, love!" xvi. "oh to be in england" iii. vi. old pictures in florence iii. vi. one way of love iii. vi. one word more v. iv. orpheus and eurydice vi. vii. "o the old wall here" xiv. pacchiarotto xiv. pambo xv. pan and luna xv. paracelsus i. ii. parleyings with certain people of importance xvi. parting at morning iii. vi. patriot, the iv. v. pauline i. i. pearl (a), a girl pheidippides xv. pictor ignotus v. iv. pied piper of hamelin iv. v. ---- (separate reprint) ---- (with illustrations) pietro of abano xv. pillar (a) at sebzevah vi. pinwell and macbeth's illustrations to _pied piper_ pippa passes ii. iii. pisgah-sights, i. and ii. xiv. plot-culture xvi. poems and poetical works. _see under_ "works," also "selections" poetics "poets, (the), pour us wine" xiv. pomegranates (selections by gibson) ponte dell' angelo, venice popularity iii. vi. pope (the) and the net pornic. gold hair, a legend of vi. vii. porphyria ["porphyria's lover"] iv. v. pretty woman, a iii. vi. prince hohenstiel-schwangau xi. "pray, reader, have you eaten ortolans?" (prologue) xvi. prologue (_fifine at the fair_) xi. ---- (_pacchiarotto_) xiv. ---- (_la saisiaz_) xiv. ---- (_two poets_) xiv. ---- (_dramatic idyls ii._) xv. ---- (_jocoseria_) xv. ---- (_ferishtah's fancies_) xvi. ---- (_parleyings_, _etc._) xvi. ---- (_asolando_) prospice vi. vii. protus iv. v. queen worship [rudel, etc.] v. iv. rabbi ben-ezra vi. vii. red cotton night-cap country xii. rephan respectability iii. vi. return of the druses, the iii. iii. reverie ring and the book, the - viii. ix. x. rolfe, w. j., and hersey, h. e., selections by rosny rudel and the lady of tripoli v. iv. st. martin's summer xiv. st. praxed's, the tomb at v. iv. "st. vincent, nobly cape" iii. vi. saisiaz, la xiv. saul, part i. iii. vi. ---- part ii. iii. vi. selections from browning's works ---- (moxon's) ---- (tauchnitz, leipzig) ---- [first series] and ---- (boston, u. s.) ---- second series and ---- by f. h. ahn ---- by e. t. mason ---- by r. g. white ---- by j. m. gibson ---- by rolfe and hersey ---- pocket volume serenade (a) at the villa iii. vi. shah abbas xvi. shakespeare, sonnet on shelley, essay on shop xiv. sibrandus schafnaburgensis iii. vi. sludge, mr., the "medium" vi. vii. smart, christopher, parleying with xvi. solomon and balkis xv. soliloquy of the spanish cloister iii. vi. song, "nay but," etc iii. vi. sonnet ("eyes calm besides thee") sordello ii. i. soul's tragedy, a v. iii. speculative spring song xvi. statue and the bust, the iv. v. "still ailing, wind?" (_james lee_) vi. vii. strafford i. ii. "such a starved bank of moss" [proem to _two poets of croisic_] xiv. summum bonum sun, the xvi. "the poet's age is sad" through the metidja to abd-el-kadr iii. vi. time's revenges iv. v. toccata (a) of galuppi's iii. vi. tokay, claret and iii. vi. tomb (the) at saint praxed's v. iv. too late vi. vii. "touch him ne'er so lightly" xv. "transcendentalism" v. iv. tray xv. twins, the iv. v. two camels xvi. two in the campagna iii. vi. two poems. _see_ "the twins" two poets of croisic xiv. up at a villa--down in the city iii. vi. wall, a. (prologue) xiv. wanting is--what? xv. waring iv. v. "what a pretty tale you told me" [epil. to _two poets of croisic_] xiv. which? white, r. g., selections by white witchcraft why i am a liberal "wind wafted from the sunset" wise, t. j., edition of _pauline_ woman, a pretty iii. vi. woman's last word, a iii. vi. women and roses iii. vi. wollstonecraft (mary) and fuseli xv. woolner, a group by. _see_ deaf and dumb vi. vii. works (collective editions), vols ---- vols ---- vols ---- vols ---- (chicago) - ---- vols - ---- _see also_ selections. worst of it, the vi. vi. "you are sick" (prologue) xv. youth and art vi. vii. "z," poems so signed. _see_ "monthly repository," index to first lines of shorter poems. new uniform edition. a certain neighbour lying sick to death xvi. a rabbi told me: on the day allowed xv. ah, but how each loved each, marquis! xv. ah, did you once see shelley plain vi. ah, love, but a day vii. all i believed is true! v. all i can say is--i saw it! xiv. all june i bound the rose in sheaves vi. all's over, then: does truth sound bitter vi. all that i know vi. among these latter busts we count by scores v. and so you found that poor room dull xiv. "and what might that bold man's announcement be" xvi. anyhow, once full dervish, youngsters came xvi. as i ride, as i ride vi. "as like as a hand to another hand!" vii. "ay, but, ferishtah,"--a disciple smirked xvi. beautiful evelyn hope is dead! vi. boot, saddle, to horse, and away! vi. but do not let us quarrel any more iv. but give them me, the mouth, the eyes, the brow! vii. christ god who savest man, save most v. cleon the poet (from the sprinkled isles) iv. could i but live again xiv. dear and great angel, wouldst thou only leave vi. dear, had the world in its caprice vi. dervish--(though yet un-dervished, call him so xvi. escape me? vi. fear death?--to feel the fog in my throat vii. fee, faw, fum! bubble and squeak! v. first i salute this soil of the blessed, river and rock! xv. flower--i never fancied, jewel--i profess you! xiv. fortù, fortù, my beloved one v. going his rounds one day in ispahan xvi. grand rough old martin luther v. grow old along with me! vii. gr-r-r--there go, my heart's abhorrence! vi. had i but plenty of money, money enough and to spare vi. hamelin town's in brunswick v. "heigho!" yawned one day king francis v. here is a story shall stir you! stand up, greeks dead and gone xv. here is a thing that happened. like wild beasts whelped, for den xv. here's my case. of old i used to love him xiv. here's the garden she walked across vi. here was i with my arm and heart vii. high in the dome, suspended, of hell, sad triumph, behold us! xv. hist, but a word, fair and soft! vi. how of his fate, the pilgrims' soldier-guide xvi. how very hard it is to be v. how well i know what i mean to do vi. i and clive were friends--and why not? friends! i think you laugh, my lad xv. i am a goddess of the ambrosial courts iv. i am indeed the personage you know xiv. i am poor brother lippo, by your leave! iv. i could have painted pictures like that youth's iv. i dream of a red-rose tree vi. i know a mount, the gracious sun perceives iv. i leaned on the turf vii. i--"next poet?" no, my hearties xiv. i only knew one poet in my life iv. i said--then, dearest, since 't is so v. i send my heart up to thee, all my heart v. i sprang to the stirrup, and joris, and he vi. i've a friend, over the sea v. i will be quiet and talk with you vii. i wish that when you died last may vii. i wonder do you feel to-day vi. if a stranger passed the tent of hóseyn, he cried "a churl's!" xv. if one could have that little head of hers vii. is all our fire of shipwreck wood vii. it is a lie--their priests, their pope vi. it once might have been, once only vii. it was roses, roses, all the way v. june was not over vi. just for a handful of silver he left us vi. karshish, the picker up of learning's crumbs iv. kentish sir byng stood for his king vi. king charles, and who'll do him right now? vi. "knowledged deposed, then!"--groaned whom that most grieved xvi. let them fight it out, friend! things have gone too far vi. let's contend no more, love vi. let us begin and carry up this corps v. "look, i strew beans" xvi. may i print, shelley, how it came to pass xiv. morning, evening, noon and night v. moses the meek was thirty cubits high xv. my first thought was, he lied in every word v. my grandfather says he remembers he saw, when a youngster long ago xv. my heart sank with our claret-flask vi. my love, this is the bitterest, that thou vi. nay but you, who do not love her vi. never any more vi. never the time and the place xv. nobly, nobly cape saint vincent to the north-west died away vi. "no boy, we must not"--so began xiv. no, for i'll save it! seven years since vii. no more wine? then we'll push back chairs and talk iv. no protesting, dearest! xiv. now, don't, sir! don't expose me! just this once! vii. now that i, tying thy glass mask tightly vi. o the old wall here! how i could pass xiv. o worthy of belief i hold it was xv. of the million or two, more or less v. oh but is it not hard, dear? xv. oh galuppi, baldassaro, this is very sad to find! vi. oh, good gigantic smile o' the brown old earth vii. oh, love--no, love! all the noise below, love xvi. oh, the beautiful girl, too white vii. oh, to be in england vi. oh, what a dawn of day! vi. on the first of the feast of feasts vii. on the sea and at the hogue, sixteen hundred ninety two xiv. one day it thundered and lightened xv. only the prism's obstruction shows aright vii. out of the little chapel i burst v. over the ball of it xiv. _petrus aponensis_--there was a magician! xv. plague take all your pedants, say i! vi. pray, reader, have you eaten ortolans xvi. query: was ever a quainter xiv. quoth an inquirer, "praise the merciful!" xvi. quoth one: "sir, solve a scruple! no true sage xvi. room after room vi. round the cape of a sudden came the sea vi. said abner, "at last that art come! ere i tell, ere thou speak vi. see, as the prettiest graves will do in time vi. shall i sonnet-sing you about myself? xiv. she should never have looked at me vi. sing me a hero! quench my thirst xv. so far as our story approaches the end v. so, friend, your shop was all your house! xiv. so, i shall see her in three days vi. solomon king of the jews and the queen of sheba balkis xv. some people hang portraits up vii. stand still, true poet that you are! vi. still ailing, wind? wilt be appeased or no? vii. still you stand, still you listen, still you smile! xiv. stop, let me have the truth of that! vii. stop playing, poet! may a brother speak? iv. suppose that we part (work done, comes play) xv. [supposed of pamphylax the antiochene vii. take the cloak from his face, and at first vi. that fawn-skin-dappled hair of hers vi. that second time they hunted me v. that's my last duchess painted on the wall v. that was i, you heard last night vi. the grey sea and the long black land vi. the lord, we look to once for all v. the morn when first it thunders in march vi. "the poets pour us wine--" xiv. the rain set early in to-night v. the swallow has set her six young on the rail vii. there is nothing to remember in me vii. there's a palace in florence, the world knows well v. there's heaven above, and night by night iv. there they are, my fifty men and women iv. "they tell me, your carpenters," quoth i to my friend the russ xv. this is a spray the bird clung to vi. this now, this other story makes amends xv. touch him ne'er so lightly, into song he broke xv. 'twas bedford special assize, one daft midsummer's day xv. vanity, saith the preacher, vanity! iv. wanting is--what? xv. we were two lovers; let me lie by her xiv. what, i disturb thee at thy morning-meal xvi. what is he buzzing in my ears? vii. what's become of waring v. where the quiet-coloured end of evening smiles vi. 'will sprawl, now that the heat of day is best vii. will you hear my story also xv. would it were i had been false, not you! vii. would that the structure brave, the manifold music i build vii. "you are sick, that's sure"--they say xv. you know, we french stormed ratisbon v. your ghost will walk, you lover of trees vi. you're my friend v. index. abt vogler, . adam, lilith and eve, . after, - . andrea del sarto, . another way of love, . any wife to any husband, . apparent failure, . appearances, . aristophanes' apology; or, the last adventure of balaustion, with the "herakles," - . artemis prologizes, . at the "mermaid," . balaustion's adventure, with the "alkestis," . before, . bifurcation, . bishop blougram's apology, . bishop orders his tomb at saint praxed's church, the, . blot in the 'scutcheon a, . boy and the angel, the, . by the fireside, . caliban upon setebos; or, natural theology in the island, . cavalier tunes, . cenciaja, . "childe roland to the dark tower came, . christmas eve and easter-day, . cleon, . clive, . colombe's birthday, . confessional, the, . confessions, . count gismond, . cristina, . cristina and monaldeschi, . deaf and dumb: a group by woolner, . death in the desert, a, . "de gustibus ----" . dîs aliter visum; or, le byron de nos jours, . doctor ----, . donald, . earth's immortalities, . echetlos, . englishman in italy, the, . epilogue to "dramatic idyls," nd series, . epilogue to "dramatis personæ," . epilogue to "pacchiarotto and other poems," , . epilogue to "the two poets of croisic" (a tale), . epistle, an, . eurydice to orpheus: a picture by leighton, . evelyn hope, . face, a, . fears and scruples, . ferishtah's fancies, . fifine at the fair, . filippo baldinucci on the privilege of burial, . flight of the duchess, the, . flower's name, the, (garden fancies, i.), . forgiveness, a, . fra lippo lippi, . glove, the, . gold hair: a story of pornic, . grammarian's funeral, a, . guardian-angel, the: a picture at fano, halbert and hob, . heretic's tragedy, the; a middle-age interlude, . hervé kiel, . holy-cross day, . home-thoughts, from abroad, . home-thoughts, from the sea, . house, . how it strikes a contemporary, . "how they brought the good news from ghent to aix," . in a balcony, . in a gondola, . incident of the french camp, . inn album, the, . instans tyrannus, . in three days, . introduction to "the two poets of croisic" (apparitions), . italian in england, the, . ivàn ivànovitch, . ixion, . james lee's wife, . jochanan hakkadosh, . johannes agricola in meditation, . king victor and king charles, . laboratory, the, . la saisiaz, . last ride together, the, . life in a love, . light woman, a, . likeness, a, . lost leader, the, . lost mistress, the, . love among the ruins, . love in a life, . love, one way of, . lover's quarrel, a, . luria, . magical nature, . martin relph, . mary wollstonecraft and fuseli, . master hugues of saxe-gotha, . may and death, . meeting at night, . memorabilia, . mesmerism, . misconceptions, . mr. sludge, "the medium," . muléykeh, . my last duchess, . my star, . nationality in drinks, . natural magic, . ned bratts, . never the time and the place, . numpholeptos, . old pictures in florence, . one word more. to e. b. b., . pacchiarotto, and how he worked in distemper, . pambo, . pan and luna, . paracelsus, . parleyings with certain people of importance in their day, . parting at morning, . patriot, the; an old story, . pauline, . pheidippides, . pictor ignotus, . pied piper of hamelin, the; a child's story, . pietro of abano, . pippa passes, . pisgah-sights, i., . pisgah-sights, ii., . popularity, . porphyria's lover, . pretty woman, a, . prince hohenstiel-schwangau, saviour of society, . prologue to "dramatic idyls," nd series, . prologue to "pacchiarotto and other poems," . prologue to "la saisiaz" (pisgah-sights, iii.), . prospice, . protus, . rabbi ben ezra, . red cotton night-cap country; or, turf and towers, . respectability, . return of the druses, the, . ring and the book, the, . rudel to the lady of tripoli, . saul, . serenade at the villa, a, . shop, . sibrandus schafnaburgens's (garden fancies, ii.), . soliloquy of the spanish cloister, . solomon and balkis, . song, . sordello, . soul's tragedy, a, . statue and the bust, the, . st. martin's summer, . strafford, . through the metidja to abd-el-kadr, . time's revenges, . toccata of galuppi's, a, . too late, . "transcendentalism: a poem in twelve books," . transcripts from the greek, . tray, . twins, the, . two in the campagna, . two poets of croisic, the, . up at a villa--down in the city, . wanting is--what? . waring, . woman's last word, a, . women and roses, . worst of it, the, . year, in a, . youth and art, . transcriber's note: a number of typographical errors have been corrected. details are given at the end of the file. except for these errata, all material in brackets [] is from the original text. words or phrases enclosed by + signs are in bold face (+bold+). practical bibliographies henrik ibsen a bibliography of criticism and biography with an index to characters compiled by ina ten eyck firkins reference librarian of the university of minnesota new york the h. w. wilson company london: grafton & company published april, introduction the following bibliography has been compiled to meet a general rather than a scholarly need. it is for this reason that the subject index has been expanded beyond the limits required by the ibsen specialist. while it is hoped that the bibliography will not be despised by the expert, it has been the convenience of the library assistant, the college student and the ubiquitous club woman that the compiler has had in mind throughout its preparation. no attempt has been made to compile a complete list of ibsen's writings. the work of dr. j. b. halvorsen has rendered that service unnecessary. therefore a brief list of the best norwegian and english editions is all that has been included. the attempt has been made to provide a list of the best available critical and biographical material relating to henrik ibsen, and to present it in such a form as will meet satisfactorily the constant demand for information about special phases of the great dramatist's work. the bibliography has been compiled through examination of the books in local collections, in the library of congress, in columbia university library, and in the new york public library. the american, english, french, italian, german and scandinavian national bibliographies, the general and special indexes to periodicals and all available reference lists have been consulted. the bibliography is arranged in three lists, an author index, a subject index, and an index to characters. in the author list full information about the book or article is given; in the subject list, the author and title only of books are given, with page references; full information is to be obtained by referring to the author index. magazine references are given in full. the index to characters contains an alphabetical list of all the characters in the plays, and the title of the play in which each character may be found. ina ten eyck firkins. september , . contents abbreviations editions author index subject index index to characters abbreviations +acad.+ academy +amer.+ american (phila.) +ath.+ athenaeum (lond.) +atlan.+ atlantic monthly +bib. d'art de la critique+ +blackw.+ blackwood's magazine +bk. buyer+ book-buyer +bookm.+ bookman +calif. m.+ californian illustrated magazine +canad. m.+ canadian magazine +cath. w.+ catholic world +cent.+ century magazine +chaut.+ chautauquan +class. j.+ classical journal +contemp.+ contemporary review +cosmop.+ cosmopolitan +cur. lit.+ current literature +deut. med. presse+ deutsche medizinische presse +dram. mir.+ dramatic mirror +dub. r.+ dublin review +eclectic m.+ eclectic magazine +econ. r.+ economic review +every sat.+ every saturday +fortn.+ fortnightly review +freie bühne+ freie bühne für modernes leben +gent. m.+ gentleman's magazine +green bk. album.+ green book album +hampton.+ hampton magazine +harp. b.+ harper's bazar +harp. w.+ harper's weekly +harv. m.+ harvard monthly +hist. polit. blätter f. d. kath. deutschland+ historisich-politische blätter für das katholische deutschland +il. lond. news+ illustrated london news +indep.+ independent +internat. m.+ international monthly +internat. q.+ international quarterly +jour. of eng. and germ. phil.+ journal of english and germanic philology +lippinc.+ lippincott's magazine +lit. digest+ literary digest +lit. w.+ (bost.) literary world (boston) +liv. age+ living age +lond. q.+ london quarterly +metrop.+ metropolitan +mod. lang. r.+ modern language review +monthly r.+ monthly review +munsey.+ munsey's magazine +nat'l. m. (bost.)+ national magazine +national r.+ national review +nebraska univ. studies+ nebraska university studies +new century r.+ new century review +new eng. and yale r.+ new england and yale review +new eng. m.+ new england magazine +new r.+ new review +n.y. dram.+ new york dramatist + cent.+ nineteenth century +no. amer. r.+ north american review +outl.+ outlook +pop. sci.+ m. popular science monthly +pub. soc. adv. of scand. study+ publications of the society for the advancement of scandinavian study +putnam's.+ putnam's magazine +quar. r.+ quarterly review +r. of rs.+ review of reviews +rev. germ.+ revue germanique +st. james.+ st. james's magazine +sat. r.+ saturday review +scrib. m.+ scribner's magazine +spec.+ spectator (london) +temp. bar+ temple bar +univ. m.+ (montreal). university magazine. (montreal) +werner's m.+ werner's magazine +westm.+ westminster review +zeitschrift für philos. u. philos. kritik+ zeitschrift für philosophie und philosophische kritik abbreviations used in index to characters +brand+ brand +catilina+ catilina +doll's house+ doll's house +emp. and gal. & .+ emperor and galilean . caesar's apostasy . the emperor julian +en. of peop.+ enemy of the people +feast at sol.+ feast at solhaug +fjeld.+ fjeldfuglen. +ghosts+ ghosts +hed. gab.+ hedda gabler +j. g. borkm.+ john gabriel borkman +kæmp.+ kæmpehøjen +lady fr. sea+ lady from the sea +lady inger+ lady inger paa Östrat +l. of youth+ league of youth +lit. eyolf+ little eyolf +love's com.+ love's comedy +mast. build.+ master builder +olaf. lil.+ olaf liljenkrans +peer gynt+ peer gynt +pil. of soc.+ pillars of society +pretend.+ pretenders +rosm.+ rosmersholm +rypen.+ rypen i justedal +sankt.+ sankthansnatten. +svan.+ svanhild. +vik. of helg.+ vikings of helgeland +when we dead+ when we dead awaken +w.+ workshop +w. duck+ wild duck editions +breve fra henrik ibsen;+ udgivne med indledning og oplysninger af halvdan koht og julius elias, - . kjøbenhavn. . v. +efterladte skrifter;+ udgivne of halvdan koht og julius elias-- kristiania og kjøbenhavn. gyldendalske boghandel. nordisk forlag. . v. +henrik ibsens sämtliche werke in deutscher sprache.+ durchgesehen und eingeleitet von georg brandes. julius elias, paul schlenther. von dichter authorisiert. berlin. s. fischer. - . v. +henrik ibsens sämtliche werke in deutscher sprache.+ zweite reihe: nachgelassene schriften. hrsg. von julius elias and halvdan koht. berlin. s. fischer. . v, facs. +ibsen: lyrics and poems.+ trans. by f. e. garrett. n.y. dutton. . +ibsen's lyrical poems.+ selected and translated by r. a. streatfield. london. . [vigo cabinet series no. ] +ibsen's prose dramas.+ (authorized english edition. edited by william archer. new york. scribner & welford. .) london. heinemann. v. front. (port.) [each volume has special title-page.] +letters of henrik ibsen.+ trans. by j. n. laurvik, and m. morison. n.y. duffield. . introduction. p. +on the heights+ (paa vidderne); a tragedy in lyrical ballads by henrik ibsen; english version in the form of the original by william norman guthrie. sewanee, tenn. printed for the university extension department of the university of the south. ( ) p. +the richard mansfield acting-version of peer gynt+ by henrik ibsen. chicago. the reilly & britton company. . p. front. +samlede digtervaerker.+ standardutgave ved didrik arup seip. kristiania. . vs. +samlede værker+ ... københavn. gyldendal, - . v. front. (port.), facsm. each volume preceded by "bibliografiske oplysninger" (v. - by j. b. halvorsen; v. - "paa grundlag af j. b. halvorsen's samlinger"; v. by halvdan koht). +speeches and new letters (of) henrik ibsen.+ tr. by arne kildal, with an introduction by dr. lee m. hollander ... and a bibliographical appendix. boston. r. g. badger. . p. front. (port.) _same._ london. f. palmer. . p. +the works of henrik ibsen.+ the viking edition. new york. c. scribner's sons. . v. plates, ports. [each volume has special title page.] henrik ibsen: a bibliography of criticism and biography author index +aall, anathon von.+ ibsen og nietzsche. samtiden : - , - . . ---- henrik ibsen als dichter und denker. halle. . p. _same._ review. nation : - . july , . +aberg, lawrence h.+ betraktelser öfver ibsens gengangere. stockholm. . p. ---- i äktenskapsfrågen; betraktelser med anledn. af ibsens familjedramer. stockholm. . p. ---- några ord om henrik ibsens et dukkehjem. stockholm. . p. +achorn, edgar o.+ ibsen at home. new engl. m. n.s. : - . feb. . +adams, w. d.+ sarcey on ibsen. theatre (lond.) : . . +adlersparre, s. l.+ ibsens gengangere ur etisk synpunkt. stockholm. . p. +albrecht, hanns.+ frauen charaktere in ibsens dramen. leipzig. . p. +allen, b. s.+ recurrent elements in ibsen's art. jour. of eng. and germ. phil. : - . . +anderson, a. r.+ ibsen and the classic world. class. jour. : - . . +anderson, r. b.+ henrik ibsen. american (phila.) : . . +andreas-salomé, _frau_ l.+ henrik ibsens frauengestalten nach seinen sechs familiendramen. berlin. . p.; . p. ---- henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. autoriseret oversættelse ved hulda garborg. med et forord af arne garborg. kristiania. . p. +andrews, a. ler.+ ibsen's peer gynt and goethe's faust. jour. of eng. and germ. phil. : - . . +anstey, f.+ pseud. _see_ guthrie, t. a. +archer, mathias.+ ibsens drittes reich. wien. g. . p. +archer, william.+ breaking a butterfly. theatre (lond.) n.s. : - . . ---- craftsmanship of ibsen. fortn. : - . . _same._ liv. age. : - . . ---- doll's house. _in_ archer, w. theatrical world [london. -' . vs.] : - , - ; : - . ---- enemy of the people. _in_ archer, w. theatrical world : - . ---- from ibsen's workshop: the genesis of the dramas. fortn. : - . . _same._ forum : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. st. james. : , . . ---- henrik ibsen: an appreciation. critic. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen: philosopher or poet? cosmop. : - . . ---- humor of the wild duck. _in_ archer, w. theatrical world : - . ---- ibsen and english criticism. fortn. : - . . ---- ibsen as he is translated. time (lond.) : . . ---- ibsen as i knew him. monthly r. , no. : . . _same._ reader : - . . ---- ibsen as seen in his letters. fortn. : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . . ---- ibsen's apprenticeship. fortn. : - . . ---- ibsen's imperialism. cent. : - . . ---- master builder _in_ archer, w. theatrical world . p - . ---- mausoleum of ibsen. fortn. : - . . _same._ das ibsenmausoleum. die zukunft : - . . ---- nora. theatre (lond.) n.s. : - . . ---- quintessence of ibsenism. new r. : . . ---- real ibsen. internat. m. : - . . ---- two dramas of ibsen (en folkefiende and nora) acad. (lond.) : - . jan. , . ---- wild duck: a study in illusions. _in_ archer, w. theatrical world . - . ---- editor. introduction doll's house. scott . ---- ---- ghosts. scott . ---- ---- john gabriel borkman. duffield . ---- ---- league of youth. scott . ---- ---- master builder. heineman . ---- ---- pillars of society. scott . ---- ---- wild duck. scott . +armstrong, r. a.+ ibsen's brand. westm. : - . . +arnold, robert f.+ das moderne drama. strassburg. . p. +aronsohn, oskar.+ erläuterungen zu ibsens pathologischen gestalten. halle. . oswald alving. eine pathologische studie. . p. . das problem im baumeister solness. . p. +arnstein, ph.+ ibsens frauengestalten. die frau : - . . +aveling, e.+ nora. to-day : - . +bab, j.+ ibsens unsterblichkeit. schaubühne : - . . +bahr, herman.+ henrik ibsen. wien. . p. +bang, herman.+ erinnerungen an henrik ibsen. die neue rundschau. jahrg. : - . . ---- et dukkehjem. _in_ bang, h. kritiske studier og udkast. kjøbn. . p. - . ---- etwas von jungen ibsen ... beilage zur allgemeine zeitung. . nr. . +basch, v.+ ibsen et g. sand. cosmopolis : - . . +baussan, c.+ moral ideas of ibsen. cath. w. : - . . +bayet, jean.+ henrik ibsen. la nouvelle revue n.s. : - . . +beerbohm, max.+ dr. brandes on ibsen. sat. r. : . . ---- ibsen. sat. r. : - . . ---- ibsen after all. sat. r. : - . . ---- pillars of society. sat. r. : - . . ---- vikings at helgeland. sat. r. : - . . +bekker, p.+ die musik in ibsens dichtung. neue musik-zeitung : - . . +bellaigue, c.+ hedda gabler. revue des deux mondes : - . jan. . +bennett, l.+ ibsen as a pioneer of the woman movement. westm. : - . . +benoist-hannapier, l.+ la théorie du mensonge dans ibsen. revue franco-allemande : - . . +berg, leo.+ heine-nietzsche-ibsen. berlin. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsen; studien. köln. . p. ---- henrick ibsen. _in_ berg, l. zwischen zwei jahrhunderten. p. - . ---- henrik ibsen und das germanenthum in der modernen litteratur. berlin. [ ]. p. (litterärische volkshefte. nr. ). ---- hebbel und ibsen. eine parallele. _in_ berg, l. zwischen zwei jahrhundert, frankfurt. . p. - . +bergengren, r.+ doll's house as played by mrs. fiske. nat'l. m. (bost.) : . . +berger, alfred.+ henrik ibsen; ibsens rosmersholm. _in_ berger, a. studien und kritiker. wien. . p. - . +bergsøe, vilhelm.+ henrik ibsen paa ischia og "fra piazza del popolo"; erindringer fra aarene - . kjøbenhavn. . p. +bergwitz, j. k.+ henrik ibsen. i sin avstamning norsk eller fremmed? kristiania. . p. ---- henrik ibsens ophold i grimstad - . _in_ bergwitz, j. k. grimstad - som type paa norsk smaaby. kristiania. . +bernardini, l.+ [henrik ibsen] in la littérature scandinave. paris. . p. - . +berndtson, fredrika.+ samfundets støtter. _in_ berndtson, f. dramatiska studier och kritiker. helsingfors. . p. - . +bienenstock, m.+ henrik ibsens kunstanschauungen. leipzig. . p. [teil i. bienenstock, m. zur théorie des modernen dramas.] +berteval, w.+ le théâtre d'ibsen. paris. . +bijvanck, w. g. c.+ ibsen. _in_ bijvanck, w. g. c. poezie en leven in de de eeuw. haarlem . p. - . +bing, just j.+ henrik ibsen. kjøbenhavn. . p. (mennesker; litteraturens, kunstens, politikens og videnskabens tjeneste. bd. .) ---- henrik ibsen. _in_ bing, j. j. norske digte og digtere. kristiana. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsens ungdomsdigtning. tilskueren. : - . . ---- norsk litteratur-historie. kristiania. . p. ff. +birkenbihl, michael.+ ibsen. nord und süd. (breslau) : - . . +bistram, ottilie von.+ ibsens nora und die wahre emanzipation der frau. wiesbaden. . p. +björkman, edwin.+ ibsen as he should be read. n.y. . ---- ibsen myth. forum : - . . ---- optimism of ibsen. contemp. : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . . +blanc, tharald.+ henrik ibsen og christiania theater, - . et bidrag til den ibsenske digtnings scenehistorie. kristiania. . p. +blangstrup, c.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ salmonsens store illustrerede konversationslexikon : - . . +boccardi, a.+ la donna nell' opera di henrik ibsen. trieste. . p. +boettcher, friederike.+ la femme dans le théâtre d'ibsen. paris. . p. +bøgh, e.+ dit og dat fra . kristiania. . p. - . +bom, e. de.+ ibsen en zijn werk. gent. . p. +bonus, a.+ ibsen und die islandergeschichte. preussische jahrbücher : - . . +bordeaux, henri.+ réalisme et symbolisme. mercure de france : - . . +boyesen, h. h.+ commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. london. . p. reviews. spec. : - . . sat. r. : - . . ---- doll's house. cosmop. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. cent. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen's greatest work. chaut. : - . . ---- ibsen's poems. cosmop. : - . . ---- ibsen's treatment of self-illusion. (wild duck). dial : - . . ---- peer gynt. chaut. : - . . +brachvogel, wolfgang.+ hedda gabler in münchen. freie bühne : - . . +brahm, alcanter de.+ critiques d'lbsen. bib. d'art de la critique paris. . +brahm, o.+ ibsenforschung. neue rundschau : - . . ----der volksfeind auf der volksbühne. freie bühne : . . ----henrik ibsen. deutsche rundschau : - . . ----henrik ibsen; ein essay. berlin. . p. ----hedda gabler. freie bühne : - . . +brandes, edward.+ le drama d'ibsen. revue d'art dramatique n.s. : - , - . . +brandes, georg.+ appreciation. indep. : - . ; dial : - . . ----et dukkehjem i berlin. _in_ brandes, g. samlede skrifter. kristiania. . v. : - . ----henrik ibsen. kjøbn. . p. illustreret undgave. . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. aesthetische studier. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. eminent authors of the th century. n.y. . p. - . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. de moderne gjennembruds mænd. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. fugleperspektiv. kjøbn. . p. - . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. moderne geister. frankfort. . ----henrik ibsen. _in_ brandes, g. samlede skrifter, kristiana. . v. : - ; v. : - . ----henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson; critical studies. n.y. . p. _reviews._ acad. : - . july ; ath. : - . ; dial : - , ; nation : - , nov. , ; sat. r. : . ; sat. r. : - . ; spec. : . . ----henrik ibsen: de unges forbund. _in_ brandes, g. samlede skrifter. kristiana. . v. ; - . _same._ brandes, g. kritiker og portræter. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ----henrik ibsen; mit zwölf briefen henrik ibsens, siebzehn vollbildern und vier faksimiles. berlin. [ ]. p. ----henrik ibsen intime. mercure de france (paris) : - . . ----henrik ibsen og grimstad. _in_ brandes, g. fugleperspektiv. kjøbn. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsen und sein schule in deutschland. _in_ brandes, g. deutsche persönlichkeiten. münchen. . p. - . ---- ibsen en france. cosmopolis : - . . ---- ibsen und nietzsche. die zukunft (berlin) : - . . ---- personal reminiscences and remarks on ibsen's plays. cent. : - . . +brausewetter, e.+ ibsen zu hause. freie bühne : - . . +breinholm, a.+ [mark, pseud.] något on ibsen och brand. götenberg. . +brinton, c.+ ecce ibsen! critic : - . . +broch, olaf.+ lidt om ibsen i og fra rusland. samtiden : - . . +bröchner, jessie.+ henrik ibsen: a biographical sketch. book-lover (n.y.) : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. bookm. : - . . +brünnings, emil.+ ibsen drama; die frau darin. leipzig. . +bulthaupt, h. a.+ ibsen, wildenbruch, sudermann, hauptmann. (bulthaupt, h. a. dramaturgie des schauspiels. v. .) oldenburg. , . p. +burchardt, carl.+ ibsen og det moderne engelske drama. litteraturen. kjøbn. . : - . +butler, a. m.+ view of ibsen. contemp. (amer. ed.) : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . _same._ eclectic m. (bost.) n.s. : - . +c. r. n.+ samfundets stötter. nordisk tidsskrift. : - . +caffin, charles h.+ hedda gabler. _in_ caffin, c. h. appreciation of the drama. n.y. . ch. - , p. - . +canudo, ricciotto.+ la représentation féministe et sociale d'lbsen, grande revue. (n.s. .) - . paris . +carpenter, g. r.+ henrik ibsen. scrib. m. : - . . +carpenter, w. h.+ bibliography of ibsen. bookm : - . . ---- ibsen as a dramatist. _in_ warner classics. doubleday, v. , p. - . _same._ warner: library of world's best literature v. . p. - . +carruth, w. h.+ henrik ibsen (review of jaeger's ibsen). dial : - . . +cary, e. l.+ two impersonations of peer gynt. putnam's : - . . +chandler, f. w.+ drama of ideas. ibsen. _in_ chandler, f. w. aspects of modern drama. n.y. . p. - . +channing, g. e.+ henrik ibsen. overland n.s. : - , . +cheney, e. j.+ dramatic poem by ibsen. open court : ff. . +clark, barrett h.+ ibsen. _in_ clark, b. h. continental drama of to-day. n.y. . p. - . +clarke, h. a.+ _joint author._ _see_ porter, charlotte. +clutton-brock, a.+ genius of ibsen. liv. age : - . . +colbron, g. i.+ ibsen and the stage system. critic : - . . +colby, f. m.+ hedda gabler; analogies of a disagreeable heroine. bookm. : - . . +colleville, vicomte de and zepelin, f. de.+ le maître du drame moderne, ibsen; l'homme et l'oeuvre. paris. . p. +collin, chr.+ henrik ibsen fremtidsdrøm. samtiden : - , - . . ---- henrik ibsen; sein werk, seine weltanschauung, sein leben. heidelberg. . p. ---- henrik ibsens selv portræt i peer gynt. memnon-støttens sang og oprindelsen til peer gynt. _in_ collin, c. det geniale menneske. kristiania. . p. ---- kampen om kjærlighed og kunst i naturalismus tidsalder. kristiania. . p. - . +collin, joseph.+ henrik ibsen, gedächtnisrede, geh. bei der trauerfeier des gieszener theatervereins am nov. . gieszen. . p. ---- henrik ibsen; sein werk, seine weltanschauung, sein leben. heidelburg. . p. +colline, gustave.+ ist henrik ibsen ein dichter? nord und süd, breslau. : - . . +coleman, a. i. du p.+ seventy years of ibsen. critic : - . . +courtney, w. l.+ social dramas of ibsen. _in_ courtney, w. l. studies at leisure. london. . ch. . ---- note on little eyolf. fortn. : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . . +crawford, oswald.+ ibsen question. fortn. : - . . +cross, w. l.+ ibsen's brand. arena : - . . +crowell, ella.+ shakespeare's katharine and nora. poet-lore : - . . +daly, _father_.+ ibsen in the class-room. america. aug. , . +dario, ruben.+ ibsen jugé par un poète de l'amerique latine. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +darthèze, a.+ ibsen et les acteurs français. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +davies, trevor h.+ "peer gynt"--the ignominy of half-heartedness. _in_ davies, t. h. spiritual voices in modern literature. n.y. . p. - . +davignon, henri.+ ibsen, poète et auteur dramatique. la revue générale (bruxelles) : - . . +destrez, félix.+ ibsen et la critique française. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +dickinson, g. l.+ shakespeare, ibsen and bernard shaw. liv. age : - . . +dickmar, helene.+ henrik ibsen: bygmester solness. _in_ dickmar, h. to literære studier. kristiania. . p. +diefke, m.+ was muss mann von ibsen und seinen dramen wissen? berlin. . p. +dodge, daniel k.+ language of ibsen. critic : . feb. . ---- some of ibsen's women. new eng. and yale rev. : - . . +doumic, rené.+ de scribe à ibsen: causeries sur le théâtre contemporain. paris. . p. ---- le théâtre d'ibsen. revue des deux mondes : - . . +dowden, edward.+ henrik ibsen. contemp. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. _in_ gosse, e. life of henrik ibsen. (v. of ibsen's works. scribner. . p. - .) ---- men and women of ibsen. contemp. : - . . ---- study of ibsen's work. _in_ dowden, e. essays modern and elizabethan. n.y. . p. - . +dresdner, a.+ ibsen als norweger und europäer. jena. . p. +dressler, max.+ was ist leben nach ibsens dramatischen epilog? preussische jahrbücher (berlin) : - . . +due, c. l.+ ibsen's early youth. critic. : - . . +e. g. r.+ et dukkehjem. nysvensk tidskrift . p. - . +eaton, w. p.+ harps in the air (nazimova in the master-builder). _in_ eaton, w. p. american stage of to-day. boston. . p. - . +ehrenfels, christian von.+ die wertschätzung der kunst bei wagner, ibsen und tolstoi. prag. . p. +ehrhard, a.+ henrik ibsen et le théâtre contemporain. paris. . p. +eitrem, h.+ henrik ibsen's stellanea. edda : - . . +eketrae, p.+ le génie et le bonheur dans l'oeuvre d'ibsen. mercure de france : - . . +eller, william h.+ ibsen in germany, - . boston. badger [c. .] p. +elliott, agnes m.+ ibsen. contemporary bibliography. carnegie library pittsburg. . +ellis, havelock.+ ibsen. _in_ ellis, h. new spirit. london. . p. - . +ende, a. von.+ henrik ibsen and the women of his dramas. theatre (n.y.) : - ff. aug. . ---- henrik ibsen: poet, philosopher, dramatist and revolutionist. craftsman : - . . +ernst, p.+ henrik ibsen. (die dichtung bd. . berlin. .) p. +evans, edward p.+ henrik ibsen: his early career as poet and playwright. atlan. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen: his life abroad and later dramas. atlan. : - . . ---- ibsen's home and working habits. critic : . . +faguet, e.+ symbolism in ibsen's dramas. internat. : - . . +farinelli, a.+ la tragedia di ibsen. nuova antologia (roma), ser. . : - ; : - . . +farquhar, e. f.+ recruiting ibsen for the allies. drama : - . . +felden, emil.+ alles oder nichts! kanzelreden über henrik ibsens schauspiele. leipzig. . +feldman, wilhelm.+ henrik ibsen. feldman. warsaw. . p. +findlater, jane l.+ ibsen the reformer. national r. (lond.) : - . . +finnegan, j.+ ibsen girl; poem. harp. w. : . . +firkins, oscar w.+ hedda gabler [neighborhood playhouse, n.y.]. review : - . . ---- when we dead awaken [neighborhood playhouse, n.y.]. review : . . +fiske, minnie maddern.+ on ibsen the unpopular. _in_ mrs. fiske: her views on actors, acting, and the problems of production, recorded by alexander woollcott. new york. . p. - . _same._ century : - . +fitzgerald, percy.+ ibsen. new century rev. : - . . +flower, b. o.+ review of henderson's interpreters of the modern spirit. twentieth century : - . . +ford, j. l.+ ibsen performance in new york. munsey : - . . +forsyth, p. t.+ ibsen's treatment of guilt. hibbert journal : - . . +franc, miriam.+ ibsen in england. boston. . p. +france, w. o.+ ibsen's letters. nation : - . . +franklin, f.+ ibsenism and truth. _in_ franklin, f. people and problems. n.y. p. - . +franz, rudolf.+ der monolog und ibsen. halle. . p. +fulda, ludwig.+ nordische heerfahrt. freie bühne : - . . +fuller, edward.+ ibsen's social dramas. new eng. m. n.s. : - . . +garborg, arne.+ henrik ibsens en folkefiende. nyt tidsskrift. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsens "kejser og galilaeer"; en kritisk studie. christiania . p. +garde, axel.+ der grundgedanke in henrik ibsens dichtung. Übertrag. aus. d. dän. v. carl küchler. leipzig . p. +garland, hamlin.+ ibsen as a dramatist. arena : - . . ---- influence of ibsen. _in_ garland, h. crumbling idols. chicago. . p. +geiger, a.+ der pfarrer in ibsens dramen. beilage zur allgemeine zeitung. . nr. - . +genung, c. h.+ ibsen's spectres. nation : - . . +gerfault, m.+ ibsen. revue socialiste : - . . +gejerstam, g. af.+ ibsen der mensch. schaubühne : - . . +gietmann, gerhard.+ henrik ibsen. frankfürter zeitgemässe broschüren bd. , hft. : - . p. . +giglio-tos, efisio.+ la morale nel teatro d'lbsen. torino. . p. +gilliland, m. s.+ ibsen's women. london. . p. +gizycki, lily von. (braun).+ die neue frau in der dichtung. stuttgart. . p. +gnad, e.+ literarische essays. neue folge. wien. . p. - . +goldman, emma.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ social significance of modern drama. boston. . p - . +goldschmidt, k. w.+ henrik ibsen. berlin. . p. +goodman, e. j.+ ibsen at christiana. theatre (london) : . . +gosse, edmund.+ estimate of ibsen. atlan. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. n.y. . p. reviews ath. : . ; atlan. : . ; dial : . ; indep. : . ; nation : . ; putnam's : . ; sat. r. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen, the norwegian satirist. _in_ gosse, e. studies in the literature of northern europe, london. . p. - . reprinted in gosse, e. northern studies. london. ; _same._ fortn. : - . ; every sat. : . . ---- ibsen. london. . p. (literary lives series). ---- ibsen's new drama [hedda gabler]. fortn. : - . . ---- ibsen's new poems. _review._ spec. : - . . ---- ibsen's social dramas. fortn. : - . . ---- introduction. _in_ lady from the sea. tr. by e. m. aveling. london. . ---- social dramas of ibsen. fortn. : - . . liv. age : - . . ---- to henrik ibsen: poem. ath. : . . ---- visit to the friends of ibsen. mod. lang. r. : - . . +gran, gerhard.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ gran., g. _ed._ nordmænd i det de. aarhundrede. kristiania. . v. , p. - . ---- _ed._ henrik ibsen; festkrift i anledning af hans de fødselsdag, udgivet af "samtiden." bergen. . p. +groddeck, georg.+ tragödie oder komödie? eine frage an die ibsenleser. leipzig. . p. +grotthus, j. e. von.+ probleme und charakteristiken. stuttgart. . p. - . +grummann, paul henry.+ ibsen in his maturity. poet lore : - ; - . . ---- ibsen's symbolism in "the master builder" and "when we dead awaken." nebraska univ. studies. lincoln, neb. : - . . +gumpertz, k.+ ibsens vererbungstheorie. deutsche medizinische presse : ff. . +guthrie, thomas anstey+ [anstey f. pseud.] mr. punch's pocket ibsen. n.y. . p. +h. a. n.+ Ännu en gång några ord on ibsens gengangere. nysvensk tidsskrift. . p. - . +hackett, f.+ john gabriel borkman. new republic : . . +halbert, a.+ henrik ibsen und l. tolstoi. die dichtung. v. , no. . . ---- henrik ibsen und leo tolstoi. eine vergleichende studie über ihre künstlerischen und kulturellen einflüsse. münchen. . p. +halvorsen, jens b.+ bibliografiske oplysninger til henrik ibsens samlede værker. kjøbenhavn. . p. ---- bibliographical information concerning ibsen's works. review. nation : . . ---- henrik ibsens liv og forfattervirksomhed aktmæssig fremstillet. _in_ norsk forfatterlexikon. kristiania. . +hamilton, clayton.+ ibsen once again. bookm. : - . . ---- pillars of society and little eyolf. _review._ bookm. : - . . ---- theory of the theatre. n.y. . +hamilton, g. k.+ brand. nordisk tidsskrift. : - . +hans, wilhelm.+ die presse in ibsens dramen. zeits. für den deutschen unterricht : - . . ---- ibsens selbstporträt in seinen dramen. münchen. . p. ---- ibsens stellung zur socialismus. die hilfe. (berlin). nr. , . ---- schicksal und wille: ein versuch über henrik ibsens weltanschauung. münchen. . p. +hanssen, l. marholm.+ _see_ marholm, laura. +hansson, ola.+ die "gespenster" in paris. freie bühne : - . . +hanstein, a. von.+ ibsen als idealist. vorträge über henrik ibsen's dramen, geh. an d. humboldt-akademie zu berlin. leipzig. . p. +hapgood, norman.+ ghosts. _review._ bookm. : . . ---- reaction against ibsen. harv. m. : . . ---- ibsen. _in_ hapgood, n. stage in america. - ; n.y. . p. - . +harden, maximilian.+ ibsen. _in_ köpfe (berlin) . : - . +harding, edward j.+ henrik ibsen, iconoclast. critic : - . mar. , . ---- is ibsen a reformer? critic : . mar. , . +harford, c. h.+ ibsen in london. acad : . . +harnack, otto.+ ueber ibsens sociale dramen. _in_ harnack, o. essais und studien zur literaturgeschichte. braunschweig. . +harrison, r. c.+ ibsen; individualism in his plays. harv. m. : . . +hart, h.+ ibsen und die deutsche literatur. _in_. hart, h. gesammelte werke. berlin. . v. : - . +hawkins, c. j.+ ibsen's ethics of marriage. _in_ hawkins, c. j. will the home survive? n.y. . +hedén, e.+ ibsens senare diktning. stockholm. . p. +hegermann-lindenkrone, l. de.+ sunny side of diplomatic life. n.y. . p. - . +heiberg, gunnar e. r.+ ibsen og bjørnson paa scenen. krist. . p. +heimann, moritz.+ ibsen--immer wieder. neue rundschau (berlin) : - . . +heller, otto.+ henrik ibsen. poet-lore : - . . ---- henrik ibsen; his plays and our problems. boston. . p. ---- henrik ibsen; study course. drama league monthly. (mount morris, ill.) : - . . +hellman, a.+ hedda gabler. poet-lore : - . . +helveg, fr.+ bjørnson og ibsen i deres to seneste værker. kjøbenhavn. . +henderson, a.+ henrik ibsen and social progress. arena : - . . ---- henrik ibsen: . the evolution of his mind and art. . ibsen; the genesis of his dramas. _in_ henderson, a., interpreters of life and the modern spirit. n.y. kennerley. . p. - . _same revised._ _in_ henderson, a. european dramatists. cincinnatti. . p. : . ---- how ibsen made his plays. bookm. : - . . ---- ibsen harvest. atlan. : - . . +herford, c. h.+ earlier work of ibsen. lippinc. : . . ---- ibsen in london. acad. : . . ---- ibsen again. acad. : - . . ---- wickstead, p. h. four lectures on ibsen. _review._ acad. (london) : - . . ---- scene from love's comedy. fortn. - - . . +herrmann, oscar.+ living dramatists: pinero, ibsen, d'annunzio. n.y. . p. +hertzberg, j.+ henrik ibsen som tragiker. nordisk tidsskrift. : - . +hertzberg, n.+ er ibsens kvinde-typer norske? kristiania. . p. +hervey, r. k.+ the pillars of society. theatre (london) : . . +herzfeld, marie.+ die skandinavische literatur und ihre tendenzen. berlin. . p. - . +hickson, j. w. a.+ biographical sketch of ibsen. univ. m. (montreal) : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. univ. m. (montreal). : - . . +hjelmstad, j. h.+ ibsen's social dramas. master's thesis, university of minnesota. . p. (not in print). +hollander, lee m.+ (introduction to) ibsen's speeches and new letters. tr. by arne kildal. boston. . +holm, erich, pseud.+ [mathilde prager.] henrik ibsens politisches vermächtnis. wien. . p. +holm, olaf.+ christus oder ibsen? alte oder neue weltanschauung? autorisier uebersetzung aus dem norwegien von h. hansen. hamburg. . p. ---- kristus eller ibsen? kristiania. . p. +høst, s.+ henrik ibsen, drøm og daad. edda : - . . +howells, w. d.+ appreciation. no. amer. r. : - . . ---- ibsen seen in his letters. harper : - . . +huch, r.+ eine krisis. münchen. . p. - . +huneker, j. g.+ hated artist and his work. scrib. m. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. _in_ huneker, j. g. iconoclasts. n.y. . p. - . ---- hedda. forum : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. _in_ gosse, e. life of henrik ibsen. v. of ibsen's works. scribner: . p. - . ---- ibsen. _in_ huneker, j. g. egoists. n.y. . p. - . +jacobs, monty.+ ibsens unsichtbare. deutsche rundschau (berlin) : - . . +jaeger, h. b.+ fra henrik ibsens rusaar. _in_ jaeger, h. b. norske forfattere. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsen. _in_ jaeger, h. b. illustreret norsk ---- literatur historie. krist. v. : - . ---- henrik ibsen - ; et literært livsbillede. københavn. . p. ---- henrik ibsen, a critical biography ... from the norwegian by william morton payne. nd. ed. with supplementary chapter by the translator. chicago. . p. review by w. e. simonds. dial : - . . ---- henrik ibsen. ein litterar lebensbild ... aus d. norweg übertr. erweit u. selbständig fortges. von h. zchaig. dresden. . p. ---- henrik ibsen og hans værker. en fremstilling i grundrids. kristiania. . p. ---- henrik ibsens barndomsliv og ungdomsdigtning. nyt tidsskrift . p. - . ---- henrik ibsens olaf liljekrans. nyt tidsskrift . p. - . +james, henry.+ hedda gabler. new r. (lond.) : . . ---- hendrik ibsen. _in_ james, h. essays in london. n.y. . p. - ---- master builder. _in_ james, h. essays in london. p. - . +jeanroy-felix, v.+ ibsen. _in_ jeanroy-felix, v. Études de littérature étrangére. paris. . +jenkins, w. e.+ before and after ibsen. drama league of america. . p. +jentsch, c.+ nietzsche und ibsen. _in_ jentsch, c. wandlugen. leipzig. . pt. . p. - . +johnson, r. b.+ books about ibsen. acad. : - . . +josephson, ludwig.+ ett och annat on henrik ibsen och kristiania teater. stockholm. . p. +joyce, j. a.+ ibsen's new drama (when we dead awaken). acad. : - . . fortn. : - . . +kahle, bernhard.+ henrik ibsen, björnstjerne björnson und ihre zeitgenossen. leipzig. . p. ---- ibsen, björnson und ihre zeitgenossen. jahrbuch de freien deutschen hochstifts. . p. - . +kalthoff, a.+ ibsens religion. _in_ kalthoff, a. die religionen der modernen. jena. . p. - . +keddell, e. a. and standing, p. c.+ gleanings from ibsen. preface on "ibsenism." stockholm. . p. +kehler, h.+ studier i det ibsenske drama. edda : - . . +kerr, a.+ hebbel und ibsen. neue deutsche rundschau : - . . ---- das neue drama. berlin. fischer. . p. - . +key, ellen k. s.+ the torpedo under the ark "ibsen and women." _tr._ by m. b. borthwick. chicago. . p. ---- die wenigen und die vielen. uebers. von f. maro. berlin. . +kjær, n.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ kjær, n. bøger og billeder. kristiania. . +klavenæs, thoralf.+ little eyolf. et foredrag. samtiden : - . . +knorr, helena.+ ibsen and the ethical drama of the nineteenth century. poet-lore : - . jan.-mar. . ---- master builder, played in new york. poet-lore : - . nov. . +knudsen, d. f.+ utvalg av norsk litteratur. henrik ibsen. kristiania. . p. +koht, h.+ ibsen as a norwegian. cent. : - . . +krebs, robert.+ moderne realistische-naturalistische drama im lichte d. christentums: ibsen, hauptmann, sudermann. erfurt. . p. +kretschmer, ella.+ ibsens frauengestalten. stuttgart. . p. +kristensen-randers, j. p.+ hos bjørnson og ibsen. tilskueren. kjøb. . pt. p. - . +kronberg, pauline.+ un poète du nord. nouvelle revue : - . . +la chesnais, p. g.+ henrik ibsen. mercure de france : - . . ---- henrik ibsen et le mouvement ouvrier norwegien. la grande revue (paris) : - . . +lambek, c.+ bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. kjøbenhavn. . p. +landquist, john.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ filosofiska essayer. stockholm. . p. - . +landsberg, hans.+ ibsen. berlin. . p. ---- das ibsenbuch. ibsen in seinen werker, briefen, reden und aufsätzen. berlin. . p. +larroumet, gustave.+ ibsen et l'ibsenisme. _in_ larroumet, g. nouvelles études de litterature et d'art. paris. . p. - . +larsen, karl.+ henrik ibsens episke brand. kjøbenhavn. . introduction p. - . criticism p. - . +larsen, t.+ sketch of ibsen. canad. m. : - . . +lasius, theodore. henrik ibsen.+ Étude des prémisses psychologiques et religieuses de son oeuvre. (thèse). cahors. . +laurvik, j. n. and morison, m.+ trans. letters of henrik ibsen. n.y. . introduction. p. +leach, h. g.+ bjørnson and ibsen. _in_ leach, h. g. scandinavia and the scandinavians. new york. . p. - . +leighton, w.+ peer gynt. arena : - . . +lee, jeannette b.+ the ibsen secret: a key to the prose dramas of henrik ibsen. new york. . _same._ putnam's :nov. -mar. . _reviews._ atlan. : . ; indep. : , ; nation : . . +lemaître, jules.+ brand. journal des débats. july . ---- impressions de théâtre. paris. - . série p. - ghosts " " p. - doll's house " p. - wild duck " " p. - hedda gabler " p. - lady from the sea " p. - master-builder " p. - little eyolf " p. - peer gynt ---- influence récent de litteratures du nord. _in_ lemaitre, j. les contemporains. paris. . sér. . p. - . _same._ revue des deux mondes : - . . +leneveu, g.+ ibsen et maeterlinck. paris. . p. +lescofier, j.+ la nuit de la saint jean. rev. germ. : - . +lichtenberger, henri.+ le pessimisme d'ibsen. revue de paris : - . . +lie, erik.+ björnson og ibseniana. samtiden : - . . +lienhard, f.+ tolstoi und ibsen. _in_ lienhard, f. neue ideale. berlin. . p. - . +lindau, p.+ ibsens arbeitsart. _in_ lindau, p. eine yachtfahrt nach norwegen. breslau. . +linderfelt, k. a.+ ancestry of ibsen. critic : - . . +lindgren, hellen.+ henrik ibsen i hans lifskamp och verk. stockholm. . p. +littell, p.+ father daly on ibsen. new republic : . . +little, c. j.+ henrik ibsen; women of ibsen; ibsen compared with sophocles and shakespeare. _in_ little, c. j. biographical and literary studies. new york. . +litzmann, berthold.+ das deutsche drama in den literärischen bewegungen der gegenwart. hamburg. . p. ---- ibsens dramen, - . ein beitrag zur geschichte des deutschen dramas in jahrhundert. hamburg. . p. +logeman, henri.+ another three notes on peer gynt. soc. for the advancement of scandinavian study, publications, urbana. : - . . ---- commentary, critical and explanatory, on the norwegian text of henrik ibsen's peer gynt; its language, literary associations and folklore. hague. . p. ---- tilbake til ibsen. edda : - . . +løchen, a.+ ibsens moralske grundanskuelse i dens utvikling. _in_ løchen, a. digtning og videnskap. kristiania. . p. - . +lollis, cesare de.+ il nuovo dramma d'ibsen. quando noi, morti, ci destiano. nuova antologia : - . . +lombroso, c.+ ibsens gespenster und die psychiatrie. die zukunft : - . sept. , . ---- ibsens gjengangere og psykiatrien. samtiden : - . . +longo, m.+ schiller-ibsen: studj di psicologia penale. torino. . p. +lord, walter f.+ works of ibsen. cent. : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . . +lothar, r.+ das deutsche drama der gegenwart. münchen . ch. . ---- henrik ibsen. leipzig. . p. (lothar, r. ed. dichter und darsteller. v. ). +lourié, ossip.+ ibsen. la vie d'ibsen, l'oeuvre et l'ibsenism. paris. . ---- la philosophie sociale dans le théâtre d'ibsen. paris. . +lugné-poé, alexandre.+ ibsen et son public. revue bleue, ser. . v. : - , - . . ---- le théâtre d'ibsen en france. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +luther, berhard.+ ilsens beruf. halle. . p. +lynner, f. g.+ hærmændene paa helgeland. henrik ibsens forhold til kilderne i den norrøne literatur. kristiania. . p. (smaaskrifter for der litteratur historiske seminar, v. ). +m. h.+ ibsens beichte. die zukunft : - . . ---- ibsens fahne. die zukunft : - . . +macfall, haladane.+ ibsen, the man, his art and his significance. new york. . p. _reviews._ dial : . ; nation : - . ; putnam's : . . +mclay, h. s. w.+ russell and standing on ibsen. citizen : . . +mcneill, r.+ (joint author). _see_ traill, h. d. +maguire, h.+ how to give the peer gynt music with the poem. musician : - . . +mailly, w.+ ibsen's master-builder. arena : - . . +marholm, laura, pseud.+ [laura m. hansson.] the author in the cul-de-sac. p. _in_ marholm, l. we women and our authors. london. . ---- blindgaderner digter. _in_ marholm, m. vi kvinder og vore digtere. kristiania. . p. - . ---- die frauen in der skandinavischen dichtung. freie bühne : ff. . ---- ibsen als frauenschilderer. nord und süd april . +mark, pseud.+ _see_ breinholm, alma +markowitz, alfred.+ die weltanschauung henrik ibsens. leipzig. . +matthews, brander.+ ibsen the playwright. _in_ matthews, b. inquiries and opinions. new york. . _same._ bookm. : - , : - . . +mauerhof, e.+ ibsen der romantiker des verstandes. halle. . p. +maurice, c. e.+ henrik ibsen. econ. r. : - . . +maxwell, p.+ real ibsen. bk. buyer (n.y.) : . . +mayrhofer, johannes.+ henrik ibsen, der prophet des realismus. hist. polit. blätter f. d. kath. deutschland. : - , - , - . . ---- henrik ibsen. ein literärischer charakterbild. berlin. p. ---- henrik ibsen in seinen briefen. hist. polit. blätter f. d. kath. deutschland : - , - , - . münchen. . +meerkerk, j. g.+ orm det derde rijk; eene studie over henrik ibsen ... rotterdam. . p. +melin, k. a.+ on ibsen's individualism, med särskild hänsyn till "brand." stockholm. . +mencken, h. l.+ history of a doll's house. theatre (n.y.) : - . aug. . ---- _tr._ a doll's house; ... with introduction and notes. boston. . ---- _tr._ little eyolf; with introduction and notes. boston. . (player's ibsen.). p. +merejkowski, dimitri.+ life work of hendrik ibsen. from the russian by g. a. mounsey. london. . p. +metcalfe, j. s.+ failure of "the lady from the sea" in n.y. city. life : . . ---- little eyolf; production at nazimova theatre, n.y. city. life : . ; n.y. dram. : . ; theatre (n.y.) : . . ---- production of pillars of society at lyceum theatre, n.y. mar. . life : - . . ---- production of wild duck at plymouth theatre. n.y. city. life : - . . +meyer, a. n.+ ibsen's attitude toward women. critic : - . mar. , . +meyer, annie n.+ bare bones of ibsen. drama : - . . +molbech, christian.+ league of youth. _in_ molbech, c. fra danaidernes kar. kjøbenhavn. . +møller, niels.+ ibsen og udlandet. tilskueren. . v. : - . +monkhouse, allan.+ ibsen's social dramas. _in_ monkhouse, a. books and plays. london. . +monrad, m. j.+ nissen. riimbrev til henrik ibsen. kristiania. . p. +monroe, w. s.+ norse letters and henrik ibsen. _in_ monroe, w. s. in viking land. boston. . p. - . +montague, charles e.+ some points of ibsen. _in_ montague, c. e. dramatic values. n.y. . p. - . +moore, emily g.+ ibsen's "emperor and galilean" and hauptman's "kaiser karl's geisel." nebraska univ. studies, lincoln, neb. v. : - . . +morelli, v.+ ibsen. nuova antologia : - . . +moritzen, j.+ henrik ibsen, his aim and influence. twentieth century mag. (boston) : - . mar. , . and following issues. +moses, montrose j.+ henrik ibsen: the man and his plays. london. . p. _reviews._ dial : . ; ind. : . ; nation : . ; no. amer. r. : - . ; outl. : . . +münz, b.+ ibsen als erzieher. leipzig. . p. +mulliken, c. a.+ _see_ norton, c. a. (mulliken) +muret m.+ un précurseur de h. ibsen, s. kierkegaard. revue de paris : - . . +n. n.+ ibsen's rosmersholm. nation : - . . +nansen, peter.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ nansen, p. portrætter. kjøbn. . p. - . +nazimova, a.+ ibsen's women. ind. : - . . +nordau, max.+ ibsenism. _in_ nordau, m. degeneration. n.y. . p. [answer to nordau in "regeneration." london . real ibsen. p.] +norton, c. a.+ [ibsen] reading list on modern drama and opera. boston. . p. - . +normann, e.+ henrik ibsen in seinen gedanken und gestalten. berlin. . p. +nouhuys, w. g. van.+ ibsene vrouwefiguren. _in_ nouhuys, w. g. van. letterkundige opstellen. amsterdam. . p. - . +nyblom, helena.+ vildanden. ny svensk tidsskrift. . p. - . +nyhuus, o.+ henrik ibsens keiser og galilæer. et indledende foredrag ved en diskussion i de norske studentersamfund. kristiania. . p. +odinga, t. von.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ kleine studien, herausg. von a. schupp. erfurt. . v. . p. +olson, j. e.+ brand; et dramatisk digt; ed. with introduction and notes. n.y. . +orton, w. a.+ ethics of ibsen. westm. : - . . +paasche, fredrik.+ gildet paa solhaug. ibsens nationalromantiske digtning. kristiania. . p. +palmer, a. h.+ henrik ibsen's brand. new eng. : - . . +parker, j. m.+ prose dramas of ibsen. amer. (phila.) : . . +passarge, louis.+ henrik ibsen. leipzig. . p. +pastor, wilhelm.+ der junge ibsen. deutsche rundschau : - . april . +paulsen. john o.+ erinnerungen an henrik ibsen. berechtigte übersetz. aus dem norwegien von hermann kiy. berlin. . p. _review._ nation : - . . ---- ibseniana. _in_ paulsen, j. reisen til monaco og andre erindringer. kristiania. . p. - . ---- laura gundersen og henrik ibsen. _in_ paulsen, j. o. erindringer. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ---- mit fröste mode med ibsen. mit andet möde med ibsen. _in_ paulsen, j. o. mine erindringer. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . ---- samliv med ibsen. _in_ paulsen, j. o. nye erindringer og skitser. kjøbenhavn. anden samling. . p. ---- siste möde med ibsen. _in_ paulsen, j. o. nye erindringer. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . +payne, w. m.+ brand. dial : - . . ---- brandes on ibsen and björnson. dial : - . . ---- bygmester solness. dial : - . . ---- estimate of ibsen. outl. : - . . ---- letters. dial : - . . ---- little eyolf. dial : - . . ---- john gabriel borkman. dial : - . . ---- message of ibsen. harp. w. : . . ---- when we dead awaken. dial : - . . +pennell, e. r.+ ibsen in england. nation : - . . +petersen, johannes.+ faust und brand; zwei vorträge. gotha. . p. +petsch, robert.+ ibsen's "brand." eine erklärung des werkes zugleich ein einführung in die weltanschlaug des dichters. würzburg. . p. ---- sigurd in ibsen's nordischer heerfahrt. zeitschrift für vergleichende litteraturgeschichte. n.s. v. : - . berlin. . +pick, r.+ ibsen zeit-u. streitdramen. _in_ fragen der öffentliche lebens. herausg. von karl schneidt und rich. wrede. berlin. . jahrg. ii, v. . p. +pineau. léon.+ ibsen d'après sa correspondance. revue germanique. paris. anneé : - . . +platzhoff-lejeune, e.+ ibsen als denker. kunstwart : - , . +plechanow, g.+ henrik ibsen. stuttgart. . +polonsky, georg.+ gewissen, ehre und verantwortung. literarisch-psychologische. studien. münchen. . p. +porter, charlotte.+ john gabriel borkman. poet-lore : - . . +porter, charlotte, and clarke, helena.+ fatherhood in john gabriel borkman. poet-lore : . . +prager, mathilde.+ _see_ holm, erich, pseud. +price, t. r.+ solness. sewanee r. : . . +prozor, comte de.+ une drame de henrik ibsen: brand, drame philosophique. revue des deux mondes : - . . ---- le peer gynt d'ibsen. paris. mercure de france. . +quiller-couch, a. t.+ ibsen's peer gynt. p. _in_ quiller-gouch, a. t. adventures in criticism. n.y. . +radiguet.+ points de vue ibséniens. Étude sur ibsen et ses oeuvres. paris. . +ramsden, hermione.+ new mysticism in scandinavia. th cent. : - . [london.] . +rassow, marie.+ camilla collets romane und ihr einfluss auf ibsen und ellen key. die frau : - . - . +recolin, c.+ ibsen. _in_ recolin, c. l'anarchie littéraire. paris, . p. - . +reich, emil.+ henrik ibsens dramen: zwanzig vorlesungen gehalten an den universität wien. dresden. . p. ----ibsen und das recht der frau. jahresbericht der vereines für erweiterte frauenbildung in wien. beilage. märz , . +rémusat, martine.+ lettres de henrik ibsen à une jeune fille. la revue (revue des revues) [paris] ser , v. : - . . +rency, g. pseud.+ m. stassart. physionomies littéraires. bruxelles. assoc. des ecrivains belges. . +rivas, jose pablo.+ ibsen y sus obras. estudio. (madrid.) . : - . +roberts, richard e.+ henrik ibsen; a critical study. london. . p. +rod, edouard.+ la mort d'ibsen. correspondant (paris) (n.s. ): - . . +rogers, j. m.+ ibsen and his ism. lippinc. : - . . +rose. h.+ henrik ibsen, poet, mystic and moralist. n.y. . p. ----ibsen as a religious teacher. contemp. : - . . +ruggieri, cristofero.+ enrico ibsen e gli spettri. palermo. . p. +ruhe, algot.+ le jubilé d'ibsen en scandinave. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +russell, sir e. r. and standing, p. c.+ ibsen on his merits. london. . p. ----ibsen, a lecture at university college. liverpool. . +ruud, m. b.+ story of the publication of ibsen's brand. scandinavian studies and notes. (menasha.) . : - . +saintsbury, g. h.+ literary prophets of the later th century. indep. : - . . +sarcey, f.+ henrik ibsen. cosmopolis : - . . +sarolea, charles.+ henrik ibsen. Étude sur sa vie et son oeuvre. paris. . +scalinger, g. m.+ ibsen: studio critico. napoli. . p. +schack, a.+ en efterskrift om henrik ibsen digtning. kjøbenhavn. . p. ----om udviklingsgangen i henrik ibsens digtning. kjøbenhavn. . p. +schaefer-ditmar, w.+ nora; eine lebensgeschichte. leipzig. . p. (kleine-studien. hft. .) +schenström, rolf.+ max nordau, henrik ibsen och kvinnofragen. stockholm. . p. +schiff, emil.+ die medizin bei ibsen. _in_ schiff, e. aus dem naturwissenschaftlichen jahrhundert. berlin. . p. - . +schirmir, t.+ den norske kulturaand. maalbevægelsens nationale betydning set gjennem personlighederne wergeland, bjørnson, ibsen. kristiania. . p. +schøtt, mathilde.+ efter læsningen af "bygmester solness." en samtale. kristiania. . p. +schlenther, paul.+ kronprätendenten auf der berliner hofbühne. freie bühne : - . . +schmidt, f. g. g.+ ibsen's influence on german literature. poet-lore , no. : - . . +schmidt, rudolf.+ [ibsen's poems.] _in_ schmidt, r. ad egne veje. kjøbenhavn. . p. - . +schmidt, wilhelm.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ schmidt, w. der kampf um den sinn des lebens von dante bis ibsen. berlin. . v. . p. - . +schmitt, eugen h.+ ibsen als prophet: grundgedanken zu einer neuen aesthetik. leipzig. . p. ----ibsen als psychologischen sophist. berlin. . p. +schönback, anton e.+ ibsen. _in_ schönback, a. e. ueber lesen und bildung. graz. . p. - . +schofield, w. h.+ personal impressions of björnson and henrik ibsen. atlan. : - . april . +schovelin, t. a.+ henrik ibsen. scandinavia. : . . . +schultze, karl.+ glück und recht in ibsens dichtung. preussische jahrbücher. (berlin) - - . . +schuré, edouard.+ ibsen et le théâtre de combat. _in_ schuré, e. précurseurs et révoltés. paris. . p. - . ----le secret d'ibsen. revue d'art dramatique (paris) : - . . +schweltzer, philipp.+ geschichte der skandinavischen litteratur im . jahrhundert. _in_ geschichte der weltlitteratur in einzeldarstellungen. leipzig. . bd. . +segur, nicholas.+ le théâtre d'henrik ibsen. la revue (revue des revues) paris ser. . v. : - . . +seidl, arthur.+ zum problem henrik ibsen. _in_ seidl, a. kunst und kultur. berlin. . p. - . +seip, d. a.+ henrik ibsen og k. knudsen; det sproglige gjennembrud hos ibsen. edda : - . . +sharp, r. f.+ introductions to the doll's house, the wild duck, and the lady from the sea. everyman's library. . +shaw, charles gray.+ ibsen's indignation. meth. rev. (n.y.) : - . . +shaw, george bernard.+ the doll's house as played in . sat. r. : - . . ---- ghosts at the jubilee. sat. r. : - . . ---- ibsenism. _in_ shaw, g. b. sanity of art. new york. . p. - . ---- john gabriel borkman. sat. r. : - . . ---- john gabriel borkman as performed in london. sat. r. : - . . ---- little eyolf. sat. r. : - . ; - , . ---- peer gynt. sat. r. : - . . ---- peter the great [and doll's house]. sat. r. : . . ---- the quintessence of ibsenism. new york. . p. +sierke, e.+ samfundets støtter. _in_ sierke, e. kritische streifzüge. braunschweig. . p. - . +simonds, w. e.+ ibsen's doll's house. dial (chic.) : - . . ---- jaeger's life of ibsen. dial : - . . +simons, l.+ ibsen as an artist. westm. : - . . +sinding-larsen, alfred.+ om ibsen: fruen fra havet og personene deri. kristiania. . p. +singer, kurt.+ st ibsen theatralisch. ein studie. dresden. . p. +slataper, scipio.+ ibsen; con un cenno su scipio slataper di arturo farinelli. torino. . p. +slosson, e. e.+ interpreter of american life. indep. : - . . +smedley, c.+ hedda gabler to-day. fortn. : - . . ---- in defense of hedda gabler. fortn. : - . . +smith, l. w.+ ibsen, emerson and nietzsche, the individualists. pop. sci. m. : - . . +snoilsky, carl+, greve. minnesteckningar och andra uppsatser. stockholm. . p. +sokolowsky, rudolf.+ henrik ibsens römerdramen. euphorion (leipzig) : - . . ---- ein neuer tragischer held; ein beitrag zur kenntnis der weltanschauung henrik ibsens. zeitschrift f. philosophie und philosoph. kritik (leipzig) : - . . +solberg, t.+ ibsen and his translators. nation : - . . +sondresen, s.+ norwegian of ibsen. critc, : - . . +sontum, bolette.+ personal recollections of ibsen, bookman (n.y.) : - . . +spender, a. s.+ little eyolf; a plea for reticence. dub. r. : . . +stampenbourg, baron de.+ passing of ibsen. indep. : - . . +standing, p. c.+ _see_ keddell, e. a. and russell, e. r. +steevens, g. w.+ new ibsen. new r. (lond.) : . . +steiger, e.+ henrik ibsen und die dramatische gesellschaftskritik. p. _in_ steiger, e. das werden des neuen dramas. berlin. . th. . +stein, bernhard.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ stein, b. neuere dichter im lichte des christentums. ravensburg. . p. - . +stein, ph.+ henrik ibsen. zur bühnengeschichte seiner dichtungen. berlin. . p. +stern, a.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ stern, a. studien zur litteratur der gegenwart. dresden, . p. - . +stobart, m. a.+ new light on brand. fortn. : - . . +stone, jane d.+ an interpretation of ibsen's brand. poet-lore , no. : - . . +strodtmann, a.+ das geistige leben in dänemark. berlin. . p. - . +strunsky, s.+ dougherty on ibsen. bookm. : - . . +stuart, r. m.+ browsing about the ibsen country. harp. b. : - . . +stümcke, heinrich.+ die vierte wand. leipzig. . p. - . ---- zwichen den garben. leipzig. . p. - . +sturtevant, albert morey.+ ibsen's peer gynt and paa vidderne. jour. of eng. and germ. phil. : - . . ---- ibsen's sankthansnatten. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . ---- kjæmpehøien and its relation to ibsen's romantic works. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . ---- some phases of ibsen's symbolism. society for the advancement of scandinavian study. (urbana, ill.) v. , no. . oct. . p. - . +suarès, andré.+ i. la morale de l'anarchie. revue des deux mondes : - . . ii. sur les glaciers de l'intelligence. revue des deux mondes : - . . ---- trois hommes, pascal, ibsen, dostoïevski. paris. . p. +symons, arthur.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ symons, a. figures of several centuries. n.y. n.d. p. - . _same._ quar. r. : - . . ---- henrik, ibsen. univ. r. : . . +synnesvedt, magnus.+ ibsen et la femme scandinave. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +tailhade, laurent.+ l'ennemi du peuple, conference. societe libre d'edition des gens de lettres. paris. . +terwey, t.+ henrik ibsen, - . amsterdam. . +thaarup, h.+ henrik ibsen set under en ny synsvinkel. københavn. . p. +thomas, c.+ sketch of ibsen. nation : - . . +thompson, t. b.+ when we dead awaken. poet lore : - . . +thompson, v.+ john gabriel borkman. natl. m. (bost.) : . . +tissot, ernest.+ le drame norvégien. henrik ibsen. björnstjerne björnson. paris. . p. - . ---- ibsen's three philosophical poems. chaut. : - . . +traill, h. d. and mcneill, r.+ ibsenism. national r. (lond.) : . . _same._ liv. age. : - . . +tridon, a.+ symbolism in peer gynt. theatre (n.y.) : - . . +tweedie, ethel b.+ henrik ibsen and b. björnson. temp. bar. : . . ---- ibsen's home. _in_ tweedie, e. b. a winter jaunt to norway. london . +vasenius, v.+ henrik ibsen--ett skalde porträtt. stockholm. . p. ---- henrik ibsens dramatiska digtning i dess förste skede. helsingfors. . p. ---- henrik ibsens tragedi "et dukkehjem" belyst. helsingfors. . p. +vaughan, c. e.+ types of tragic drama. london. . p. - . +vedel, valdemar.+ ibsens nye skuespil. tilskueren. . v. : - . ---- john gabriel borkman. tilskueren. . p. - . ---- taler til og for henrik ibsen. tilskueren. . v. : - . +vincent, e.+ ibsen en allemagne. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +viollat, g.+ hedda gabler. revue bleue. : - . . +vogt, nils.+ paa reise med henrik ibsen. samtiden : - . . +volger, f.+ ibsens drama "nordische heerfahrt" und die altnordische sagen. vortrag gehört in den litterarischen vereinig. zu altenburg. altenburg. . p. +waage, c. m.+ notes about ibsen. calif. m. : . . +wagner, albert.+ henrik ibsen. leipzig. . p. +walkley, a. b.+ ibsen's life; rosmersholm; hedda gabler; lady from the sea. _in_ walkeley, a. b. playhouse impressions. london. . ---- master builder. fortn. : - . . ---- plays of ibsen in england. acad. : - . _same._ liv. age. : - . . +walsh, j. j.+ medical aspects of ibsen. indep. : - . . +walzel, oskar f.+ neues von und über ibsen. neue jahrbücher für das klassisische. altertum geschichte und deutsche litteratur und für pädagogik. leipzig. . jahrg. . abt. , p. - . +warfelmann, fritz.+ das sigurd-problem in ibsen's "nordische heerfahrt". zeitschrift für den deutschen unterricht : - . +waring, h.+ ibsen in london. theatre (london) : . . +watson, w.+ ibsen's prose dramas. _in_ watson, w. excursions in criticism. n.y. . p. - . +weinel, h.+ ibsen, björnson, nietzsche. individualismus und christentum. tübingen. . p. +weininger, otto.+ "peer gynt" und ibsen. _in_ weininger, o. uber die letzen dinge. wien. . p. - . +wergeland, agnes mathilde.+ ibsen and the norwegians. _in_ wergeland, a. m. leaders in norway, and other essays .... edited and arranged by katharine merrill. menasha, wis. . ---- interpretations of ibsen. dial : . . +weygandt, w.+ die abnormen charaktere bei ibsen. wiesbaden. . p. ---- ibsen. _in_ weygandt, w. abnormen charaktere in der dramatischen literatur. leipzig. . +whitcomb, s. l.+ work and influence of ibsen. r. of r. : - . . +who+ killed ibsen? literary digest : - . . +wicksteed, philip h.+ four lectures on henrik ibsen dealing chiefly with his metrical works. london. . p. _review._ acad. : - . . ---- henrik ibsen's poems. contemp. : - . . ---- peer gynt. contemp. : - . . +wiehr, josef.+ hebbel und ibsen in ihren auschauungen vergleichen. stuttgart. . p. thesis. university of pennsylvania. +wilhelmi, kurt.+ ibsens zukunftsreich. magdeburg. . p. +windscheid, k.+ dem gedächtnis henrik ibsens; vortrag gehalten in frauenklub. leipzig. . +winter, wm.+ little eyolf, an estimate. harp. w. : . may , . ---- the ibsen drama. _in_ winter, w. shadows of the stage. new york. . ser. . p. - . ---- ibsenites and ibsenism. harp. w. : , . may , . +winterfeld, a. von.+ henrik ibsen. berlin. . p. ---- ibsen als erwecker. leipzig. . p. +wirsen, carl d.+ henrik ibsen. _in_ wirsen, c. d. kritiker. stockholm. . +woerner, roman.+ henrik ibsen. münchen. - . v. ---- henrik ibsens jugenddramen. münchen. . p. ---- ibsen und sophocles. die zukunft : - . . +wolff e.+ sardou, ibsen und die zukunft des deutschen dramas. kiel. . p. +wolff gustav.+ psychiatric und dichtkunst. ein vortrag. wiesbaden. . p. +woodbridge, h. e.+ fruit of the tree and rosmersholm. nation. : . . ---- winterfeast and the vikings of helgeland. nation : . . +woolcott, alexander.+ mrs. fiske "on ibsen the unpopular." century : - . . (ch. of mrs. fiske "on ibsen the unpopular"). _see_ fiske, mrs. +wülffen, erich.+ ibsens "nora" vor dem strafrichter und psychiater halle. . +zabel, eugen.+ studien zur modernen dramaturgie. oldenburg. - . bd. & . ---- das letze drama henrik ibsens. _in_ zabel, e. zur modernen dramaturgie, v. . p. - . . +zanoni.+ henrik ibsen and the drama. london. . +zepelin, f. de.+ joint author. _see_ colleville, vicomte de +ziegler, g.+ ibsens jugendwerke. gesellschaft (dresden) : - . . subject index +abnormal characters.+ _see also_ pathology. weygandt, w. die abnormen charaktere bei ibsen. +anecdotes.+ outlook : - . june , . critic : - . july, . +ancestry.+ linderfelt, k. a. critic : - . feb. , . +art.+ _see also_ technique of ibsen. allen, b. s. recurrent elements of ibsen's art. _in_ jour. of eng. and germ. phil. : - . . archer, w. craftsmanship. fortn. : - . july . _same._ liv. age : - . sept. , . bienenstock, m. henrik ibsens kunstanschauungen. ehrenfels, c. von. die weltschätzung der kunst bei wagner, ibsen und tolstoi. halbert, a. henrik ibsen und leo tolstoi. eine vergleichende studie über ihre künstlerischen und kulturellen einflüsse. henderson, a. evolution of ibsen's mind and art. _in_ henderson, a. interpreters of life. p. - . henrik ibsen the artist moralist. chaut. : - . july . huneker, j. hated artist and his work. scrib. m. : - . sept. . ibsen's art. indep. : - . aug. , . lindau, p. ibsens arbeitsart. _in_ lindau, p. eine yachtfahrt nach norwegen. simons, l. ibsen as an artist. westm. : - . nov. . +auf den höhen.+ _see_ on the heights. +bibliography.+ bibliographical appendix. _in_ ibsen, h. speeches and new letters. boston. badger. . carpenter, w. h. bibliography of ibsen. bookm. : - . may . chandler, f. w. aspects of modern drama, p. - . elliott, a. m. ibsen: contemporary bibliography. halvorsen, j. b. bibliografiske oplysninger til henrik ibsens samlede værker. _review._ nation : . jan. , . johnson, r. b. books about ibsen. acad. : - . april , . norton, c. a. m. modern drama and opera. boston book co. . p. - . _same._ (less additions) bul. bibliography : - july . norton, c. a. m. modern drama and opera. boston book co. . v. , p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . +birthday.+ _see_ seventieth birthday +bjørnson and ibsen+ heiberg, g. e. r. ibsen og bjørnson paa scenen. helweg, f. bjørnson og ibsen i deres to seneste værker. ibsen og bjørnson. book buyer : - . . kable, b. ibsen, bjørnson, und ihre zeitgenossen. ---- ibsen, bjørnson, und ihre zeitgenossen. jahrb. d. freien deutsch. hochstifts. . p. - . kristensen-randers, j. p. hos bjørnson og ibsen. tilskueren . pt. : - . leach, h. g. bjørnson and ibsen. _in_ leach, h. g. scandinavia and the scandinavians. lie, e. bjørnson og ibsen. samtiden : - . . lothar, r. henrik ibsen. luther, b. auf den hohen. zeitschrift für d. deutschen unterricht. : - . schofield, w. h. personal impressions of bjørnson and henrik ibsen. atlan. : - . . tweedie, e. b. henrik ibsen and bjørnstjerne bjørnson. temple bar : . . +brand.+ berg, l. henrik ibsen: studien, p. - . bernardini, l. la littérature scandinave. p. - . bom, e. de. ibsen en zijn werk. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . ---- henrik ibsen's greatest work. chaut. : - . nov. . brahm, o. henrik ibsen: ein essay. brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . breinhohn, a. något on ibsen og brand. cross, w. l. ibsen's brand. arena : - . dec. . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. felden, e. brand: das christentum: der staat: die kirche. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . garde, a. der grundgedanke in ibsens dichtung. p. . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hamilton, g. k. brand. nordisk tidsskrift : - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . helweg, f. bjørnson og ibsen. ... p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . larsen, k. henrik ibsens episke brand. lemaitre, j. brand. journal des debats. july . macfall, h. ibsen the man. ... p. - . melin, k. a. om ibsens individualism ... p. . norwegian drama. lit. w. (bost.) : - . oct. , . olsen, j. e. brand; et dramatisk digt. palmer, a. h. henrik ibsen's brand. new eng. m. : - . oct. . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . payne, w. m. brand. dial : - . apr. , . petersen, j. faust und brand. petsch, r. ibsens "brand". p. reich, e. henrik ibsen's dramen. p. - . prozor, comte de. brand, drame philosophique. revue des deux mondes : - . nov. , . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . ruud, m. b. story of the publication of ibsen's brand. scandinavian studies and notes. menasha. : - . . sarolea, ch. henrik ibsen. p. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . stobart, m. a. new light on brand. fortn. : - . aug. . stone, j. d. an interpretation of ibsen's brand. poet lore , no : - . . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. p. - . wicksteed, p. h. four lectures on henrik ibsen. p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . +bygmester solness.+ _see_ master builder. +le canard sauvage.+ _see_ wild duck. +catilina+ boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . catilina. euphorion : - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen, p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (kjøbn. ). p. - . (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. ff. knudsen, d. f. utvalg af norsk literatur. henrik ibsen. p. - , - . macfall, h. ibsen the man. p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . ---- ibsens dramatiske digtning i dess förste skede. p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. p. - . ---- henrik ibsens jugendramen. p. - . +character of ibsen+ gosse, e. intellectual characteristics. _in_ gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . ---- personal characteristics. _in_ gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . ibsen the man. acad. : - . july , . ibsen the master builder. cur. lit. : - . may . new light on ibsen's character. cur. lit. : - . oct. . paulsen, j. ibseniana. _in_ paulsen, j. reisen til mónaco og andre erindringer, p. - . schofield, w. h. personal impressions of bjørnson and henrik ibsen. atlan. : - . april . sontum, b. personal recollections of ibsen. bookm. : - . +christus oder ibsen.+ holm, o. +comedy of love.+ (kjærlighedens komedie). boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brahm, o. henrik ibsen: ein essay. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. p. - . garde, a. der grundgedanke in ibsens dichtung. p. ff. gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . herford, c. h. scene from love's comedy. fortn. : - . feb. . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . love's comedy. ath. : - . june , . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . scalinger, g. n. ibsen. p. scene from love's comedy. acad. : . june , . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als prophet, p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . +danish+ interpretation of ibsen's development. r. of r. : - . may . +dante.+ schmidt, w. henrik ibsen. _in_ schmidt, w. der kampf um den sinn des lebens von dante bis ibsen, v. . p. - . +derogatory+ opinion of ibsen. cur. lit. : . nov. . +doll's house.+ (et dukkehjem). Åberg, l. h. i äktenskapsfrågen. ---- några ord on henrik ibsens et dukkehjem. p. archer, w. breaking a butterfly. theatre (lond.) n.s. : - . april, . ---- doll's house. theatrical world. . p. - . - ; . p. - . ---- two dramas of ibsen [en folkefiende and nora]. acad. : - . jan. , . aveling, e. nora. to-day : . . bang, h. kritiske studier og udkast. p. - . bergengren, r. doll's house as played by mrs. fiske. nat'l. m. (bost.) : . . bistram, o. von. ibsens nora und die wahre emanzipation der frau. boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, g. et dukkehjem i berlin. _in_ brandes, g. samlede skrifter v. : - . crowell, e. shakespeare's katharine and nora. poet lore : - . . doll's house in moving pictures. dramatist : - . . e. g. r. et dukkehjem. nysvensk tidsskrift. . p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen, p. - . felden, e. nora: pflichten gegen uns selbst. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . grumann, p. h. ibsen in his maturity. poet lore . - . . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . hertzberg, n. er ibsens kvinde-typer norske? jaeger, h. henrik ibsen (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lee, j. b. ibsen secret, p. - . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. e ser. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen the man. ... p. - . mencken, h. l. doll's house; with notes and introduction. ---- history of a doll's house. theatre (n.y.) : - . aug. . nazimova. doll's house. dram. mir. : . ; theatre (n.y.) : . . passarge. l. henrik ibsen, p. - . production of a doll's house at court theatre, london. acad. : . mar. , . production of a doll's house at kingsway theatre, london. acad. : . may , . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i henrik ibsens digtning. p. - . schäfer-dittmar, w. nora. eine lebensgeschichte. p. schenstrøm, r. max nordau, henrik ibsen och kvinnfrågen. schmitt, e. ibsen als prophet. p. - . sharp, r. f. doll's house, the wild duck, and the lady from the sea. introduction. shaw, g. b. doll's house as played in . sat. r. : - . may , . ---- peter the great [and doll's house]. sat. r. : . jan. , . ---- quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . simonds, w. e. ibsen's doll's house. dial (chic.) : - . mar. . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . ---- henrik ibsens tragedi et dukkehjem belyst. p. woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . wulffen, e. ibsens "nora" vor dem strafrichter und psychiater. +dostoïevski.+ suarès, a. trois hommes, pascal, ibsen, dostoïevski. +duse als nora.+ deutsche rundschau. : - . jan. . +emerson.+ smith, l. w. ibsen. emerson and nietzsche, the individualists. pop. sci. m. : - . . +emperor and galilean.+ (kejser og galilæer). boyesen, h. h. commentary on the work of henrik ibsen. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. p. - . garborg, a. henrik ibsens "kejser og galilæer"; en kritisk studie. p. gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . kaiser und galilæer. deutche rundschau : . mai. . macfall, h. ibsen, the man ... p. - . moore, e. g. ibsen's "emperor and galilean," and hauptmann's "kaiser karls geisel." nebraska univ. studies. : - . july . nyhuus, o. henrik ibsens kejser og galilæer. p. ehrhard, a. henrik ibsens. ... p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . sokolowsky, r. ein neuer tragischer held; zeitschrift f. philos, u. philos. kritik : - . . ---- henrik ibsens römerdramen. euphorion (leipzig) : - . . tissot, e. le drame norvégien. p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . +enemy of the people+ (en folkefiende). archer, w. theatrical world. . p. - . ---- two dramas of ibsen [en folkefiende and nora]. acad. : - . jan. , . berg, l. henrik ibsen; studien, p. - . bom, e. de. ibsen en zijn werk. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of ibsen. p. - - . brahm, o. henrik ibsen; ein essay. p. - . ---- der volksfeind auf der volksbunde. freie bühne : . . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . ein volksfeind; production at irving place theatre, n.y. dram. mir. : . . enemy of the people. production at his majesty's theatre, london. il. lond. news. : . may , . enemy of the people. _review._ ath. : . april . . felden, e. ein volksfeind. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . garborg, a. henrik ibsens en folkefiende. ny tidsskrift . p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . grumann, p. h. ibsen in his maturity. poet lore : - . . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. b. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lambek, c. bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. - . p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . sarolea, c. henrik ibsen, p. - . scalinger, g. m. ibsen: studio critico. p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . +ethics.+ _see also_ moral ideas; philosophy; religion. adlersparre, s. l. ibsens gengangere ur etisk synpunkt. p. giglio-tos, e. la morale nei teatro d'ibsen. p. hawkins, c. j. ibsen's ethics of marriage. _in_ hawkins, c. j. will the home survive? knorr, h. ibsen and the ethical drama of the nineteenth century. poet lore : - . . orton, w. a. ethics of ibsen. westm. : - . aug. . +feast at solhaug+ (gildet paa solhaug). boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson, p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. b. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . ---- henrik ibsens dramatiske digtning. p. - . ---- henrik ibsen. v. , p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsens jugenddramen. p. - . +feminism.+ _see_ women. +fiske, mrs.+ doll's house as played by mrs. fiske. bergengren, r. nat'l. m. (bost.) : . . +folly of ibsenism.+ blackw. : - . july . +die frau+ vom meere. _see_ lady from the sea +fruen+ fra havet. _see_ lady from the sea +dem gedächtnis+ henrik ibsens; vortrag gehalten in frauenklub. leipzig. . +genesis of ibsen's dramas+ archer, w. from ibsen's workshop; the genesis of his dramas. fortn. : - . dec. . henderson, a. ibsen; the genesis of his dramas. _in_ henderson, a. interpreters of life. p. - . +genius of ibsen.+ clutton-brock, a. liv. age : - . june , . +german+ literature, ibsen's influence on. schmidt, f. g. g. poet lore : - . . +ghosts (gengangere)+ Äberg, l. h. betraktelser öfver ibsens gengangere p. adlersparre, s. l. ibsens gengangere ur etisk synpunkt. p. after the play. (ibsen's ghosts given by the washington square players). new republic : . . andreas-salomé, l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen, p. - . brahm, o. henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . felden, e. gespenster: das ehreproblem. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . genung, c. h. ibsens spectres. nation : - . feb. , . ghosts, art and moral of. poet lore : - . nos. - , . ---- production at ibsen club, london. acad. : . may , . ---- review. ath. : . apr. , . gosse, e. ibsen, p. - . grumann, p. h. ibsen in his maturity. poet lore : - . . h. a. n. Ännu en gång några ord om ibsens gengangere. nysvensk tidsskrift . p. - . hansson, o. die "gespenster" in paris. frei bühne : - . . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . hapgood, n. ghosts. review. bookm. : . april, . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. ser. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . lombroso, c. ibsens gespenster und die psychiatrie. die zukunft : - . sept. , . ---- ibsens gjengangere og psychiatrien. samtiden : - . . macfall, h. ibsen. p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . ruggieri, c. enrico ibsen e gli spettri. p. scalinger, g. m. ibsen: studio critico. p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i henrik ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, g. b. ghosts at the jubilee. sat. r. : - . july , . ---- quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen, p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . +goethe.+ andrews, a. ler. ibsen's peer gynt and goethe's faust. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . petersen, j. faust und brand. +guilt.+ forsyth, p. t. ibsen's treatment of guilt. hibbert j. : - . oct. . +gundersen, laura.+ _in_ paulson, j. o. erindringer, p. - . +hauptman.+ moore, e. g. ibsen's "emperor and galilean" and hauptman's "kaiser karl's geisel." nebraska univ. studies : - . . +hebbel.+ kerr, a. hebbel und ibsen. neue deutsche rundschau : - . . +hedda gabler.+ andreas-salomé, l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . bellaigue, c. hedda gabler. revue des deux mondes : - . jan. . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen, p. - . brachvögel, w. hedda gabler in münchen. freie bühne : - . jan. . brahm, o. hedda gabler. freie bühne : - . . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . caffin, c. h. appreciation of the drama. ch. , , . p. - . colby, f. m. hedda gabler. analogies of a disagreeable heroine. bookm. : - . july . doumic, r. de scribe à ibsen. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . felden, e. hedda gabler: mut zur eigenen lebensführung. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . firkins, o. w. hedda gabler [neighborhood playhouse]. review : - . . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . har henrik ibsen i hedda gabler skildret virkelige kvinder? kristiania. . p. hedda gabler; production at kingsway theatre, london. acad. : - . june , ; il. lond. news : . june , . hedda gabler: story of its production and actresses who have played the title role. green book album : - . dec. . hellman, a. hedda gabler. poet lore : - . . huneker, j. g. hedda. forum : - . nov. . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ----ibsen og hans værker. p. - . james, h. hedda gabler. new r. (lond.) : . . lambek, c. bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. p. - . lee, j. b. ibsen secret. p. - . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. ser. . nr. : p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . nazimova in hedda gabler. new republic : . . origin of hedda gabler and the master builder. nation : . aug. , . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . scalinger, g. m. ibsen; studio critico. p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . smedley, c. hedda gabler to-day. fortn. : - . july, . ----in defence of hedda gabler. fortn. : - . mar. . tissot. g. le drame norvégien. p. ff. viollat, g. un nouveau drame d'ibsen. revue bleue : - . feb. , . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. : - . +heredity.+ _see also_ pathology. gumpertz, k. ibsens vererbungstheorie. deut. med. presse. : ff. . +historical plays.+ _see also_ emperor and galilean; feast at solhaug; lady inger of ostraat; pretenders; vikings of helgeland. gosse, e. studies in northern literature. roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen, ch. . +home life+ achorn, e. o. ibsen at home. new eng. m. n.s. : - . feb. . brausewetter, e. ibsen zu hause. freie bühne : - . . evans, e. p. ibsen's home and working habits. critic : . mar. , . tweedie, e. b. ibsen's home. _in_ tweedie, e. b. a winter jaunt to norway. +hünnegrab.+ _see_ kæmpehøjen. +ibsen.+ acad. : . may , ; ath. , : - . may , ; book news : - . may, ; can. m. : . nov. ; can. m. : . sept. ; dial : - . june, ; harp. w. : , - . mar. , ; mercure de france : - . . werner's m. : - . ; die zukunft, : - . june , . +ibsen+ and the morbid taint. belgravia : . . +ibsen+ and the students of christiania. scand. : . . +ibsen+ as a world-force from many points of view. r. of r. : - . july, . +ibsen+ auf der bühne, - . deutsche rundschau : . may, . +[ibsen].+ authors of the nineteenth century. werner's mag. : - . n.y. . +ibsen country+ ibsen as seen in his own country. r. of r. : - . mar. . stuart, r. m. browsing about the ibsen country. harp. b. : - . july, . +ibsen;+ collin, j. gedächtnisrede gehalten bei der trauerfeier des giessener theatervereins an nov. . giessen. . p. +ibsen in england+ archer, w. ibsen and english criticism. fortn. : - . . burchardt, c. ibsen og det modernen engelske drama. litteraturen : - . . franc, m. ibsen in england. ibsen à londres. le drame de demain. rev. des deux mondes : - . . harford, c. h. ibsen in london. acad. : . . ibsen on the english stage. amer. : . . pennell, e. r. ibsen in england. nation : - . . walkley, a. b. plays of ibsen in england. acad. : - . . _same._ liv. age : - . . waring, h. ibsen in london. theatre (london) : . . +ibsen in france+ brandes, g. ibsen en france. cosmopolis : - . . darthèze, alberic. ibsen et les acteurs français. revue d'art dramatique : - . . destrez, f. ibsen et la critique française. revue d'art dramatique : - . . hansson, ola. die "gespenster" in paris. freie bühne : - . . lugné-poé, a. le théâtre d'ibsen en france. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +ibsen in germany+ brandes, g. henrik ibsen und sein schule in deutschland. _in_ brandes, g. deutsche persönlichkeiten. p. - . eller, w. h. ibsen in germany. - . vincent, e. ibsen en allemagne. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +ibsen in japan.+ cur. lit. : - . april, . +ibsen in new york+ ford, j. l. ibsen performance in new york. munsey : - . jan. . +ibsen in norway.+ _see also_ home life achorn, e. o. ibsen at home. new eng. m. n.s. : - . . blanc, t. henrik ibsen og christiania theatre. goodman, e. f. ibsen at christiania. theatre (london) : . . ibsen and the students of christiania. scandinavia : . ibsen as seen in his own country. r. of r. : - . mar. . wergeland, a. m. ibsen and the norwegians. _in_ wergeland, a. m. leaders in norway. +ibsen in rome.+ _in_ hegermann-lindenkrone, l. de. sunny side of diplomatic life. new york. . p. - . +ibsen in russia+ broch, o. lidt on ibsen i og fra rusland. samtiden : - . . +ibsen+ _intime_. dial : - . june , . +ibsen myth+ björkman, e. ibsen myth. forum : - . may . ibsen legend. dial : - . may , . ibsen myth analysed. r. of r. : - . june, . +ibsen+ the unpopular. fiske, m. m. _in_ woollcott, a. mrs. fiske. +ibsen+ to-day. outlook : - . june , . +ibsenheft.+ bühne und welt. . nr. . +ibsenism+ folly of ibsenism. blackw. : - . july, . franklin, f. ibsenism and truth. _in_ franklin, f. people and problems, p. - . ibsenism. lond. q. : . . ibsen's beichte. m. h. die zukunft : - . jan. , . keddell, e. a. and standing, p. c. gleanings from ibsen. preface. larroumet, g. ibsen et l'ibsenisme. p. - . lourié, ossip. ibsen. la vie d'ibsen, l'oeuvre et l'ibsenism. shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. ---- sanity of art. p. - . shaw on ibsenism. sat. r. : . . traill, h. d. and mcneill, r. ibsenism. national r. (lond.) : . . _same._ liv. age : - . jan. , . winter. w. ibsenites and ibsenism. harp. w. : - . may , . +ibsen's+ "balloon letter"-- . tr. by a. r. anderson. english review : - . nov. . +ibsen's+ career. outl. : - . june , . +ibsen's+ voice from the grave. cur. lit. : - . mar. . +iconoclast+ harding, e. j. henrik ibsen, iconoclast. critic : - . mar. , . huneker, j. g. iconoclasts, p. - . +idealism+ hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist. shaw, g. b. ideals and idealists. _in_ shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . +influence+ commanding influence of ibsen. cur. lit. : - . july, . franc, m. influence in english drama. _in_ franc, m. ibsen in england. garland, h. influence of ibsen. _in_ garland, h. crumbling idols. p. lemaître, j. influence récent de littérature du nord. _in_ lemaître, j. les contemporains. v. . p. - . _same._ revue des deux mondes : - . dec. . moritzen, j. henrik ibsen, his aim and influence. twentieth cent m. (bost.) : - . mar. , . schmidt, f. g. g. ibsen's influence on german literature. poet lore. : - . . +individualism+ harrison, r. c. ibsen; individualism in his plays. harv. m. : . . maurice, c. e. henrik ibsen. econ. r. : - . july . individualismus. henrik ibsen. deutsche rundschau : . june, . +john gabriel borkman+ archer, w. introduction. john gabriel borkman. duffield. . felden, e. john gabriel borkman. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. ibsen. p. - . hackett, f. john gabriel borkman. new republic : . april , . holm, e. john gabriel borkman. in holm, e. henrik ibsens politisches vermachtniss. p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . john gabriel borkman. deutsche rundschau : . . april ; sat. r. : - . dec. , . john gabriel borkman; production in london. il. lond. news p. - . oct. , . john gabriel borkman; scene from japanese play (picture). il. lond. news : . jan. , . lambek, c. bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man ... p. - . payne, w. m. john gabriel borkman. dial (chic.) : - . jan. , . porter, c. john gabriel borkman. poet lore : - . . porter, c. and clark, h. a. fatherhood in john gabriel borkman. poet lore : . . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . russell, sir e. r. and standing, p. c. ibsen on his merits, p. - . schack, a. en efterskrift om henrik ibsens digtning. schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . seidl, a. john gabriel borkman. _in_ seidl, a. kunst und kultur, p. - . shaw, g. b. john gabriel borkman. sat. r. : - . jan. , ; sat. r. : - . may , . thompson. v. john gabriel borkman. nat'l. m. (bost.) : . . vedel, v. john gabriel borkman. tilskueren. . p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +julian the apostate.+ _see_ emperor and galilean +kaiser und galilæer.+ _see_ emperor and galilean +key, ellen+ ellen key's masterly interpretation of ibsen's women. cur. lit. : - . april, . +kæmpehøjen+ (warrior's tomb) jaeger, h. henrik ibsen (chicago ). p. - . sturtevant, a. m. kjæmpehøien and its relation to ibsen's romantic works. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. : - . +knudsen, k.+ seip, d. a. henrik ibsen og k. knudsen. edda : - . . +kristus+ oder ibsen? holm, o. +labor+ la chesnais, p. g. henrik ibsen et la mouvement ouvrier norvégien, - . grande revue (paris) : - . . +lady from the sea+ (fruen fra havet) die frau vom meere, schauspiel. deutsche rundschau : - . juin . doumic, a. de scribe à ibsen. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . felden, e. die frau vom meere: freiheit und verantwörtlichket. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . grumann, p. h. ibsen in his maturity. poet lore : - . . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ----ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lady from the sea; production at lyric theatre, new york, by drama players. bookm. : , - . dec. ; n.y. dram. : . nov. , ; theatre (n.y.) : . dec. . lady from the sea. review westm. : . july . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. ser. . p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . metcalfe, j. s. failure of "the lady from the sea" in new york. life : . nov. , . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . simons, l. ibsen as an artist. westm. : - . nov. . sinding-larsen, a. om ibsen; fruen fra havet ... p. woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +lady inger of ostraat+ (fru inger til Østråt) boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. ... gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . heller, o. henrik ibsen; his plays and problems. p. - . ---- henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen og hans værker. p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . macfall, h. henrik ibsen, the man. ... p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . schack, a. om utviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. ff. schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . ---- henrik ibsen. ... p. - . vasenius, v. ibsens dramatiska diktning, p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . ---- henrik ibsens jugenddramen. p. - . +league of youth+ (de unges forbund) boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, e. dansk skuespilkunst portrætstudíer. p. ff. brandes, g. de unges forbund. _in_ brandes, g. samlede skrifter, v. : - . _same._ brandes, g. kritiker og portræter. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen. p. - . gosse, e. ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. ibsen og hans værker. p. - . ----henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . molbech, c. fra danaidernes kar. p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. ... p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +letters+ archer, w. ibsen as seen in his letters. fortn. : - . mar. . _same._ liv. age : - . april , . breve fra henrik ibsen til teaterchef schrøder. edda : - . . france, w. o. ibsen's letters. nation : - . mar. , . ibsen as revealed in his letters. cur. lit. : - . sept. . koht, h. and elias, j. eds. breve fra henrik ibsen udgivne med indledning og oplysninger. laurvik, j. n. and morison, m. introduction. _in_ letters of henrik ibsen, trans. by j. n. laurvik and m. morison. letters of henrik ibsen. internat. q. : - . jan. . letters of henrik ibsen to george brandes. trans. by j. n. laurvik. critic : - . feb. . letters, reviews. dial : - . dec. , ; outl. : - . feb. ; critic : - . mar. ; nation : - . mar. , ; bookm. : - . jan. . mayrhofer, j. henrik ibsen in seinen briefen. hist. polit. blätter f. d. kath. deutschland : - . - , - . . remúsat, m. letters de henrik ibsen à une jeune fille. la revue ser. , v. : - . . +literary+ remains. nation : - . feb. , . +little eyolf+ (lille eyolf) archer, w. theatrical world. . p. - . courtney, w. l. note on little eyolf. fortn. : - . feb. . felden, e. kleine eyolf, _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, g. henrik ibsen. p. - . hamilton, c. pillars of society and little eyolf; review. bookm. : - . june . hanstein, a. von. ibsen as idealist, p. - . holm, e. little eyolf. _in_ holm, e. henrik ibsens politisches vermächtniss. p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. .) p. - . klavenæs, t. little eyolf. samtiden : - . . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. ser. p. - . little eyolf. acad. : , nov. , ; collier's : . may , ; hampton : . june ; metrop. : - . july ; poet lore no. : . . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . m. h. ibsens fahne. die zukunft : - . mar. , . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . mencken, h. l. introduction and notes. little eyolf. metcalfe, j. s. little eyolf; production at nazimova theatre, n.y. city. life : april , ; n.y. dram. : , april , ; theatre (n.y.) : . june, . payne, w. m. little eyolf. dial : - . jan. , . reich, e. ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . russell, sir e. r. and standing, p. c. ibsen on his merits, p. - , - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . seidl, a. little eyolf. _in_ seidl, a. kunst und kultur. p. - . shaw, g. b. little eyolf. sat. r. : - . nov. ; - . dec. , . spender, a. s. little eyolf; a plea for reticence. dub. r. : . . winter, w. little eyolf; an estimate. harp. w. : . may , . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . +love's comedy.+ _see_ comedy of love. +maeterlinck+ lenevue, g. ibsen et maeterlinck. +mansfield's+ peer gynt. dial : - . nov. , . +marriage+ hawkins. c. j. ibsen's ethics of marriage. _in_ hawkins, c. j. will the home survive? lothar, r. henrik ibsen. +master builder+ (bygmester solness) andreas, salome, l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . archer, w. master builder. theatrical world . p. - . boccardi, a. la donna nell' opera di henrik ibsen, p. - . bom, e. de. ibsen en zijn werk. p. - . boyesen. h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen, p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . description of the master builder. graphic : . april , . dickmar, h. to literære studier, p. - . felden, e. baumeister solness. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gladstone and the master builder. sat. r. : . july . . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . hertzberg, j. er ibsens kvinde-typer norske? p. - . holm, e. baumeister solness. _in_ holm, e. henrik ibsens politisches vermächtniss. p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . james, h. essays in london, p. - . knorr, h. master builder, played in new york. poet lore : - . . lambek, c. bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. p. - . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. série. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . mailly, w. ibsen's master builder. arena : - . feb. . master builder. sat. r. : . mar. , . master builder. production at the bijou theatre, n.y. city. theatre (n.y.) : - . nov. . master builder. production at hammersmith theatre, london. il. lond. n. : . april , . master builder. production at little theatre, london. acad. : - . apr. , ; il. lond. n. : . apr. . nazimova in the master builder. harp. w. : - . oct. , . nazimova in the master builder. _in_ eaton, w. p. american stage of to-day. origins of hedda gabler and the master builder. nation : . aug. , . payne, w. m. bygmester solness. dial : - . feb. , . price, t. r. solness. sewanee r. : . . reich, e. henrik ibsen's dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen, ch. . scalinger, g. m. ibsen: studio critico. p. - . schack, a. von. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schjøtt, m. efter læsningen af "bygmester solness". p. schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . simons, l. ibsen as an artist. westm. : - . nov. . walkley, a. b. master builder. fortn. : - . apr. . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . +medical aspects.+ _see_ heredity; pathology. +memory;+ poem by ibsen. cur. lit. : . dec. . +men+ and women of ibsen. westm. : - . june, . +men+ and women of ibsen. dowden, e. contemp. : - . nov. , . +moral ideas.+ _see also_ ethics; philosophy; religion. baussan, c. moral ideas of ibsen. cath. w. : - . sept. , . ehrhard, a. les idées morales d'ibsen. _in_ ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . heller, o. henrik ibsen, ch. . henrik ibsen, the artist moralist. chaut. : - . july . løchen, a. ibsens moralske grundanskuelse i dens utvikling. _in_ løchen, a. digtning og videnskap. p. - . rose, h. henrik ibsen, poet, mystic and moralist. schultze, k. glück und recht in ibsens dichtung. preussische jahrbücher : - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . suarès, a. ibsen. la morale de l'anarchie. revue des deux mondes : - . aug. , . +morbid+ taint in ibsen. belgravia : . . +moving pictures+ doll's house in moving pictures. dramatist : - . . +music+ bekker, p. die musik in ibsens dichtung. neue musik-zeitung : - . . maguire, h. how to give the peer gynt music with the poem. musician : - . nov. . +mysticism+ ramsden, h. new mysticism in scandinavia. cent. : - . . rose, h. henrik ibsen, poet, mystic and moralist. +naturalism+ collin, c. kampen om kjærlighed og kunst i naturalismens tidsalder, p. - . +nazimova+ criticism of hedda gabler and mme. nazimova. new rep. : . . doll's house. production at plymouth theatre, n.y. dram. mir. : . ; theatre (n.y.) : . . eaton, w. p. harps in the air (nazimova in the master builder). _in_ eaton, w. p. american stage of to-day. p. - . hedda gabler, production at plymouth theatre, n.y. city. dram. mir. : . ; theatre (n.y.) : . . nazimova in the master builder. harp. w. : - . . wild duck. new rep. : . . ---- production at plymouth theatre, n.y. city. dram. mir. : . ; life : - ; theatre (n.y.) : . . +nietzsche and ibsen+ aall, a. ibsen og nietzsche. samtiden : - , - . . brandes, g. ibsen und nietzsche. die zukunft (berlin). : - . . jentsch, c. nietzsche und ibsen. _in_ jentsch, c. wandlungen. pt. . p - . smith, l. w. ibsen, emerson and nietzsche; the individualists. pop. sci. m. : - . feb. . weinel, h. ibsen, bjørnson, nietzsche. +nora.+ _see_ doll's house. +nordau, max+, henrik ibsen och kvinnofragen. schenström, r. +nordische heerfahrt.+ _see_ vikings of helgeland. +norma+; or a politician's love, (unpublished). jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ) p. . +norwegian+ of ibsen. sondresen, s. critic : - . nov. , . +olaf liljekrans+ brandes. g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- henrik ibsens olaf liljekrans. nyt tidsskrift . p. - . olaf liljekrans: production at the rehearsal theatre, london. acad. : . june , . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +on the heights+ luther. b. "auf den höhen," ein beitrag zum verständnis ibsens. zeits. für d. deut. unterricht : - . +optimism+ bjørkman, e. optimism of ibsen. contemp. r. : - . april . _same._ liv. age : - june , . +parodies+ guthrie, t. a. mr. punch's pocket ibsen. franc, m. ibsen, in england, p. - . +pascal+ suarès, a. trois hommes, pascal, ibsen, dostoievski. +pathology+ _see also_ heredity. aronsohn, o. oswald alving; eine pathologische studie. gumpertz, k. ibsens vererbungstheorie. deut. med. presse : ff. . ---- ibsens gespenster und die psychiatrie. die zukunft : - . . lombroso, c. ibsens gjengangere og psychiatrien. samtiden : - . . longo, m. schiller-ibsen; studj di psicologia penale. schiff, e. die medizin bei ibsen. _in_ schiff, e. aus dem naturwissenschaftlichen jahrhundert. walsh. j. j. medical aspects of ibsen. indep. : - . nov. , . wolff, g. psychiatrie und dichtkunst. wülffen, e. ibsens nora vor dem strafrichter und psychiater. +peeps+ into ibsen's brain. cur. lit. : - . feb. . +peer gynt.+ _see also_ poems. andrews, a. la r. ibsen's peer gynt and goethe's faust. jour. eng. & germ. phil. : - . . berg, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . bom, e. de. ibsen en zijn werk. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . ---- peer gynt. chaut. : - . june . brahm, o. henrik ibsen; ein essay. p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen; bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . cary, e. l. two impersonations of peer gynt. putnams : - . may . collin, c. henrik ibsens selv portræt i peer gynt. memnon-støttens sang og oprindelsen til peer gynt. _in_ collin, c. det geniale menneske. ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . felden, e. peer gynt. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . garde, a. der grundgedanke in henrik ibsens dichtung. p. - . gosse, f. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- henrik ibsen og hans værker. p. - . leighton, w. peer gynt. arena : - . jan. . lemaître, j. impressions de théâtre. sér. . p. - . logeman, h. another three notes on peer gynt. soc. for the advancement of scandinavian study publications : - . ---- commentary, critical and explanatory, on the norwegian text of henrik ibsen's peer gynt. macfall, h. ibsen, the man.... p. - . maguire, h. how to give the peer gynt music with the poem. musician : - . nov. . mansfield in peer gynt. dial : - . nov. , . passarge, l. henrik ibsen, p. - . peer gynt. sat. r. : . . peer gynt and other ibsen plays. theatre (n.y.) : - . nov. . peer gynt; production at new amsterdam theatre, n.y. city. theatre (n.y.) : - . april . peer gynt; production at the rehearsal theatre, london. acad. : . mar. , . quiller-couch, a. t. adventures in criticism. p. . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen, ch. . sarolea, c. henrik ibsen. p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet. p. - . shaw, g. b. peer gynt. sat. r. : - . nov. , . ---- quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . sturtevant, a. m. ibsen's peer gynt and paa vidderne. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . tridon, a. symbolism of peer gynt. theatre (n.y.) : - . feb. . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen.... p. - . wicksteed, p. h. four lectures, p. - . _same._ contemp. : - . aug. . weininger, o. ueber die letzen dinge. p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . ch. . +pessimisme+ d'ibsen. lichtenberger, h. revue de paris. . v. : - . +philosophy+ archer, w. ibsen, philosopher or poet? cosmop. : - . feb. . ende, a. von. poet, philosopher, dramatist and revolutionist. craftsman : - . july . ibsen; his plays and his philosophy. theatre (n.y.) : . july . lasius, t. henrik ibsen. Étude des premisses psychologiques et religieuses de son oeuvre. lourié, ossip. la philosophie sociale dans le théâtre d'ibsen. prozor, comte de. une drame de henrik ibsen: brand, drame philosophique. revue des deux mondes : - . nov. , . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als psychologischen sophist. smith, l. w. ibsen, emerson and nietzsche, the individualists. pop. sci. m. : - . feb. . tissot, e. ibsen's three philosophical poems. chaut. : - . oct. . +pillars of society+ (samfundets støtter) beerbohm, m. pillars of society. sat. r. : - . may , . berndtson, f. dramatiska studier, p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen, p. - . c. r. n. samfundets støtter. nordisk tidsskrift, p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen, p. - . felden, e. die stützen der gesellschaft. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hamilton, c. pillars of society; review. bookm. : - . june . hervey, r. k. pillars of society. theatre (lond.) : . . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man.... p. - . metcalfe, j. s. production of pillars of society at lyceum theatre, n.y. city. mar. . life : - . april , . mrs. fiske's revival of pillars of society. everybody's : - . june . passarge, l. henrik ibsen, p. - . pillars of society; production at the lyceum theatre, n.y. city. mar. . n.y. dram. : . april , ; theatre (n.y.) : - , . may . pillars of society; synopsis. green bk. album : - . june . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen, ch. . schmitt, e. r. ibsens als prophet, p. - . sierke, e. kritische streifzüge. p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . stützen der gesellschaft. deutsche rundschau : - . mar. . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen.... p. - . +poetry+ aall, a. von. henrik ibsen als dichter und denker. boyesen, h. h. commentary on the writings of henrik ibsen, p. - . ---- ibsen's poems. cosmop. : - . may . colline, g. st henrik ibsen ein dichter? nord und süd : - . davignon, h. ibsen, poète et auteur dramatique. la revue générale : - . ende, a. von. henrik ibsen; the poet, philosopher, dramatist and revolutionist. craftsman : - . . garde, a. der grundgedanke in henrik ibsens dichtung. jaeger, h. ibsen og hans værker. p. - , - . lothar, r. henrik ibsen. roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. en efterskrift om henrik ibsens digtning. p. ---- om udviklingsgangen i henrik ibsens digtning. schmidt, r. ad egne veje. p. - . tissot, e. ibsen's three philosophical poems. chaut. : - . oct. . wicksteed, p. h. four lectures on henrik ibsen, dealing chiefly with the metrical works, p. - . ---- henrik ibsen's poems. contemp. : - . sept. . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . ch. . +politics+ holm, e. henrik ibsens politisches vermächtniss. +pretenders+ (kongs-emnerne) brahm, o. henrik ibsen; ein essay, p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . garde, a. grundgedanke in ibsens dichtung. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- ibsen og hans værker. p. - . kronprätendenten. deutsche rundschau : . july . knudsen, d. f. utvalg av norsk litteratur. henrik ibsen. p. - . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . schlenther, p. kronprätendenten auf der berliner hofbühne. freie bühne : - . . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsens dramatiske diktning, p. - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . +press+ hans, w. die presse in ibsens dramen. zeits. für den deutschen unterricht : - . . +priest+ geiger, a. der pfarrer in ibsens dramen. beilage zur allgemeine zeitung . nr. - . +prophet+ saintsbury, g. literary prophets of the later th century. indep. : - . dec. , . schmitt, e. h. ibsen als prophet. +prose dramas+ prose dramas. sat. r. : , . . parker, j. m. prose dramas of ibsen. amer. (phila.) : . . +real+ meaning of ibsen. cur. lit. : - . june . +realism+ bordeaux, h. realisme et symbolisme. mercure de france : - . . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . krebs, r. moderne realistische-naturalistische drama im lichte der christentums. mayrhofer, j. henrik ibsen, der prophet des realismus. hist. polit. blätter für d. kath. deutschland. : - . - , - . . wahrheitsproblem im volksfeind. deutsche rundschau : - . nov. . +reformer+ findlater, j. h. ibsen the reformer. national r. (lond.) : - . dec. . harding, e. j. ibsen as a reformer. critic : mar. , . ibsen the reformer and the critics. literature (lond.) : - . . +réjane+ als nora. deutsche rundschau : . dec. . +religion.+ _see also_ ethics, moral ideas, philosophy kalthoff, a. die religionen der modernen. p. - . lasius, t. henrik ibsen. Étude des premisses psychologiques et religieuses de son oeuvre. rose, h. ibsen as a religious teacher. contemp. : - . june . +roman plays.+ _see also_ catilina, emperor and galilean sokolowsky, r. henrik ibsens romerdramen. _in_ euphorion : - . . +rosmersholm+ andreas-salomé, frau l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. p. - . brandes, g. henrik ibsen. bjørnstjerne bjørnson. p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . felden, e. rosmersholm. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger. h. henrik ibsen og hans værker. p. - . ---- henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . lambek, c. bidrag til ibsen-kritiken. p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . n. n. ibsen's rosmersholm. nation : - . mar. , . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . rosmersholm. nation : - . mar. , ; sat. r. : , ; theatre (lond.) : . . rosmersholm, production at lyric theatre, n.y.city. theatre (n.y.) : - . feb. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . seidl, a. rosmersholm. _in_ seidl, a. kunst und kultur. p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . simons, l. ibsen as an artist. westm. : - . nov. . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . woodbridge, h. e. fruit of the tree and rosmersholm. nation. : . dec. , . +russell+ and standing on ibsen. mclay, h s. w. citizen. : . . +saga plays+ macfall, h. ibsen, the man. ... p. - . +samfundets støtter.+ _see_ pillars of society +sankthansnatten+ (st. john's night) jaeger, h. henrik ibsen, (chic. ). p. - . lescofier, j. la nuit de la saint jean. rev. germ. : - . paasche, f. gildet paa solhaug, p. ff. seip, d. a. henrik ibsen og k. knudsen. edda : - . . sturtevant, a. m. ibsens sankthansnatten. jour. eng. and germ. phil. : - . . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +st. john's night.+ _see_ sankthansnatten +sand, georg.+ _see_ basch, v. ibsen et g. sand +sarcey+ on ibsen. adams, w. d. theatre (lond.) : . . +sardou.+ _see_ wolff, e. sardou, ibsen, etc. +satire+ gosse, e. henrik ibsen, the norwegian satirist. _in_ gosse, e. studies in the literature of northern europe. ---- henrik ibsen. p. - . +satirist+ gosse, e. ibsen the norwegian satirist. _in_ gosse, e. studies in the literature of northern europe; _same._ gosse, e. northern studies. fortn. : - . jan. ; every sat. : . . ---- henrik ibsen. p. - . +self-portraiture+ collin, c. henrik ibsens selv portræt i peer gynt _in_ collin, c. det geniale menneske. hans, w. ibsens selbsporträt in seinen dramen. +self-illusion+ ibsen's treatment of [wild duck]. dial : - . sept. , . +seventieth birthday+ +seventieth birthday+ henrik ibsen. festskrift i anledning af hans de fødselsdag. udg. af "samtiden" red. af gerhard gran. bergen. grieg. . p. henrik ibsen. la revue d'art dramatique. numero consacré à henrik ibsen, (à l'occasion de sa e année). paris. . n.s. : - . ibsen. die zukunft. : - . mar. , . ruhe, a. le jubilé d'ibsen en scandinave. revue d'art dramatique : - . . seventieth birthday, a diary of progress. acad. : - . mar. , . seventy years of ibsen. coleman, a. i. du p. critic : - . jan. . +shakespeare+ crowell, e. shakespeare's katherine and nora. poet lore : - . . dickinson, g. l. shakespeare, ibsen and bernard shaw. liv. age : - . aug. , . little, c. j. ibsen compared with sophocles and shakespeare. _in_ little, c. j. biographical and literary studies. +shaw, g. b.+ shaw on ibsenism. sat. r. : . . shaw's quintessence of ibsenism. nation : . oct. , . shakespeare, ibsen and bernard shaw. dickinson, g. l. liv. age : - . aug. , . +social dramas.+ _see also_ doll's house, enemy of the people, ghosts, lady from the sea, league of youth, pillars of society, rosmersholm, wild duck canudo, r. la répresentation feministe et sociale d'ibsen. grande revue (n.s. ): - . . courtney, w. l. studies at leisure, ch. . fuller, e. ibsen's social dramas. new eng. m. n.s. : - . july . gosse, e. social dramas of ibsen. fortn. : - . jan. . _same._ liv. age : - . feb. , . harnack, otto. ueber ibsen's sociale dramen. _in_ harnack, o. essais und studien zur literatürgeschichte. henderson, a. henrik ibsen and social progress. arena. : - . jan. . hjelmstad, j. h. ibsen's social dramas. monkhouse, a. ibsen's social dramas. _in_ monkhouse, a. books and plays. social dramas. quar. : - . april . wicksteed, p. h. four lectures on henrik ibsen, p. - . +socialism+ goldman, emma. social significance of modern drama. hans, w. ibsens stellung zur sozialismus. die hilfe (berlin). . nr. . gerfault, m. ibsen. revue socialiste : - . july +solness.+ _see_ master builder. +sophocles+ little, c. j. ibsen compared with sophocles and shakespeare. _in_ little, c. j. biographical and literary studies. woerner, r. ibsen and sophocles. +spectres.+ _see_ ghosts +spectacular+ in ibsen. cur. lit. : . dec. . +study course.+ heller, o. henrik ibsen; study course. drama league monthly no. : - jenkins, w. e. before and after ibsen; a course comparing and contrasting the old and new technique. +stützen der gesellschaft.+ _see_ pillars of society +swedenborgian influence+ rose, h. ibsen as a religious teacher. contemp. : - . june . +symbolism.+ _see also_ brand, lady of the sea, little eyolf, master builder, peer gynt, when we dead awaken, wild duck. bordeaux, h. realisme et symbolisme. mercure de france. : - . . ehrhard, a. le symbolisme d'ibsen. _in_ ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . faguet, e. symbolism in ibsen's dramas. internat. : - . dec. . grummann, p. h. ibsen's symbolism in the master builder, and when we dead awaken. nebraska univ. studies : - . . lee, j. ibsen secret. sturtevant, a. m. some phases of ibsen's symbolism. pub. soc. adv. of scand. study v. . no. . p. - . oct. . tridon. a. symbolism of peer gynt. theatre (n.y.) : - . feb. . +technique.+ _see also_ art colbron, g. t. ibsen and the stage system. critic : - . july . hamilton, c. theory of the theatre. n.y. . p. seq. henderson, a. how ibsen made his plays. bookm. : - . july . ibsen's technique. new republic : . feb. , . lindau, p. ibsen's arbeitsart. lothar, r. henrik ibsen. matthews, b. ibsen the playwright. _in_ matthews, b. inquiries and opinions. _same._ bookm. : - , : - . feb.-mar. . +terje vigen+ (poem). gosse, e. henrik ibsen, p. - . +to henrik ibsen;+ poem. gosse, e. ath. , : . mar. , +tolstoï+ ehrenfels, christian von. die wertschätzung der kunst bei wagner, ibsen und tolstoi. halbert, a. henrik ibsen und l. tolstoi. die dichtung : no. , . ---- henrik ibsen und leo tolstoï. eine vergleichende studie über ihre künstlerischen und kulturellen einflüsse. ibsen and tolstoy. r. of r. : - . april . lienhard, f. tolstoi und ibsen. _in_ lienhard, f. neue ideale. +tragödie+ oder komödie? eine frage an die ibsenleser. leipzig. hirzel. . p. +translators+ archer, w. ibsen as he is translated time : . . franc, m. english translations. _in_ franc, m. ibsen in england, p. - , - . ibsen and his translators. nation : - . jan. , . +tree, beerbohm+ beerbohm tree on ibsen. gent. m. : . jan. . +vikings of helgeland+ (hærmændene på helgeland). beerbohm. m. vikings at helgeland. sat. r. : - . april , . fulda, l. nordische heerfahrt. freie bühne : - . jan. . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- henrik ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lynner, f. g. hærmændene paa helgeland. p. nordische heerfahrt. deutsche rundschau : - . juin . passarge, l. henrik ibsen. p. - . petsch, r. sigurd in ibsen's nordischer heerfahrt. zeitschrift für vergleichende litteratürgeschichte (berlin), n.s. : - . . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . vasenius, v. henrik ibsen. p. - . ---- henrik ibsens dramatiske digtning. p. - . vikings of helgeland. review ath. , : . apr. , . volger, f. ibsens drama "nordische heerfahrt." p. warfelmann, f. das sigurd-problem in ibsens "nordische heerfahrt." zeits. für den deutschen unterricht : - . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . woodbridge, h. f. winterfeast and vikings of helgeland. nation : . oct. . . +volksfeind.+ _see_ enemy of the people. +warrior's tomb.+ _see_ kæmpehøjen. +wharton, edith+ woodbridge, h. e. fruit of the tree and rosmersholm. nation : . dec. , . +when we dead awaken+ (naar vi döde vaagner) archer, w. (tr.) when we dead awaken. introduction. felden, e. when we dead awaken. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . firkins, o. w. when we dead awaken [neighborhood playhouse]. review : . . gosse, e. ibsen, p. - . holm, e. when we dead awaken. _in_ holm, e. henrik ibsens politisches vermächtniss. p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . joyce, j. ibsen's new drama (when we dead awaken). acad. : - , april , ; fortn. : - . april . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen, p. - . lollis, c. de. il nuovo dramma d'ibsen. nuova antologia : - . macfall, h. ibsen, the man.... p. - . payne, w. m. when we dead awaken. dial : - . feb. , . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen, ch. . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet, p. - . thompson, t. b. when we dead awaken. poet lore : - . . when we dead awaken. reviews. ath. . : - . april ; bookm. : - . may ; deutsche rundschau : - ; nation : . feb. . ---- excerpt. cur. lit. : - . july . woerner, r. henrik ibsen, v. . p. - . where ibsen failed. cur. lit. : - . july . +wild duck (vildanden).+ andreas-salomé. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . archer, w. humour of the wild duck. theatrical world. . p. - . ---- wild duck: a study in illusions. theatrical world, . p. - . bom, e. de. ibsen en zijn werk. p. - . boyesen, h. h. commentary on ibsen, p. - . ---- ibsen's treatment of self-illusion. dial : - . sept. , . doumic, r. de scribe à ibsen, p. - . ehrhard, a. henrik ibsen.... p. - . felden, e. wildente. _in_ felden, e. alles oder nichts! p. - . gosse, e. henrik ibsen. p. - . hanstein, a. von. ibsen als idealist, p. - . jaeger, h. henrik ibsen. (chic. ). p. - . ---- henrik ibsen og hans værker. p. - . lemaitre, j. impressions de théâtre. sér. . p. - . litzmann, b. ibsens dramen. p. - . macfall, h. ibsen. p. - . nazimova. wild duck. new republic. : . . nyblom, h. vildanden. ny svensk tidsskrift . p. - . production at plymouth theatre (n.y. city). dram. mir. : . ; life : - . ; theatre : . . reich, e. henrik ibsens dramen. p. - . roberts, r. e. henrik ibsen. ch. . schack, a. om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning. p. - . schmitt, e. r. ibsen als prophet. p. - . shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . wild duck. new republic. : . jan. , . wildente. deutsche rundschau : - . juin . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . p. - . +wildente.+ _see_ wild duck +woman suffrage+ un épisode de la vie d'ibsen. revue bleue, sér. . v. : - . +women+ albrecht, h. frauen-charaktere in ibsens dramen. andreas-salomé, l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. archer, w. nora. theatre (lond.) n.s. : - . april . arnstein, p. ibsens frauengestalten. die frau : - . . aveling, e. nora. to-day : . bennett, l. ibsen as a pioneer of the woman movement. westm. : - . mar. . bistram, o. von. ibsens nora und die wahre emanzipation der frau. boccardi, a. la donna nell' opera di henrik ibsen. boettcher, f. la femme dans la théâtre d'ibsen. brünnings, e. ibsen drama; die frau darin. caffin, c. h. hedda gabler. _in_ caffin, c. h. appreciation of the drama. ch. - . canudo, r. la répresentation féministe et sociale d'lbsen. grande revue (paris) (n.s. ): - . . colby, f. m. hedda gabler; analogies of a disagreeable heroine. bookm. : - . july . crowell, e. shakespeare's katharine and nora. poet lore : - . . dodge, d. k. some of ibsen's women. new eng. and yale r. : - . feb. . dowden, e. men and women of ibsen. contemp . - . nov. . ellen key's masterly interpretation of ibsen's women. cur. lit. : - . april . ende, a. von. henrik ibsen and the women of his dramas. theatre (n.y.) : - ff. aug. . finnegan, j. ibsen girl; poem. harp. w. : , sept. , . gilliland, m. s. ibsen's women. gizycki, l. von. die neue frau in der dichtung. har hendrik ibsen i hedda gabler skildret virkelige kvinder? kristiania. . p. hertzberg, n. e. ibsen's koindetype norske, p. - . hertzberg, n. e. er ibsen's kvinde-typeé norske p. - . ibsen und das recht der frau. jahrsbericht des vereines für erweiterte frauenbildung in wien. beilage marz, . james, h. hedda gabler. new r. [lond.] : . . little, c. j. _in_ little, c. j. biographical and literary studies. key, ellen k. s. torpedo under the ark "ibsen and women". p. kretschmer, e. ibsens frauengestalten. marholm, l. author in the cul-de-sac. _in_ marholm, l. we women and our authors. ---- die frauen in der skandinavischen dichtung. freie bühne : ff. . ---- ibsen als frauenschilderer. nord und süd april . men and women of ibsen. westm. : - . june . meyer, a. n. ibsen's attitude toward women. critic. : - . mar. , . nazimova, a. ibsen's women. indep. : - . oct. , . nouhuys, w. g. van. letter-kundige opstellen. p. - . schäfer-ditmar, w. nora; eine lebensgeschichte. p. schenström, r. max nordau, henrik ibsen och kvinnofragen. shaw, g. b. quintessence of ibsenism. p. - . synnestvedt, m. ibsen et la femme scandinave. revue d'art dramatique : - . . +young men's union.+ _see_ league of youth. +youth of ibsen+ bang, h. etwas von jungen ibsen. erinnerungen einer freundin. beilage zur allgemeine zeitung. . nr. . due, c. l. ibsen's early youth. critic : - . july . evans, e. p. henrik ibsen, his early career as poet and playwright. atlan. : - . oct. . herford, c. h. earlier work of ibsen. lippinc. : ff. . henrik ibsens ungdomsdigtning. tilskueren : - . . ibsen in youth. lit. digest : . mar. , . jaeger, h. henrik ibsens barndomsliv og ungdomsdigtning. nysvensk tidsskrift. . p. - . lothar, r. henrik ibsen. ch. . macfall, h. ibsen, the man.... p. - . pastor, w. der junge ibsen. deutsche rundschau : - . juin . woerner, r. henrik ibsen. v. . ch. . ---- henrik ibsens jugenddramen. index to characters +adalgisa.+ norma. +agathon.+ emp. and gal. +agnes.+ brand +alfer, haugfolk.+ sankt. +alfhild.+ fjeld. +alfhild.+ olaf lil. +alfhild.+ rypen. +alfson, gudmund.+ feast at solh. +aline solness.+ mast. build. +allmers, alfred.+ lit. eyolf +---- asta.+ lit. eyolf +---- rita.+ lit. eyolf +alving, mrs. helen.+ ghosts +---- oswald.+ ghosts +ambiorix.+ catilina +ammian.+ emp. and gal. +anatolus.+ emp. and gal. +anders lundestad.+ _see_ lundestad, anders. +anitra.+ peer g. +anna.+ doll's house +anna.+ love's com. +anne.+ sankt. +apollinaris.+ emp. and gal. and +ariovist.+ sankt. +arne of guldnik.+ olaf lil. +arnesson, nicolas.+ pretend. +arnholm.+ lady fr. sea +Åse.+ peer g. +asgaut.+ kæmpehøjen +aslaksen.+ en. of peop. +aslaksen, a printer.+ l. of youth +asta allmers.+ _see_ allmers, asta +aune.+ pil. of soc. +aurelia.+ catilina +ballested.+ lady fr. sea +ballon, monsieur.+ peer g. +barbara.+ emp. and gal. +bård bratte.+ _see_ bratte, bård +basil of caesarea.+ emp. and gal. +bastian monsen.+ _see_ monsen, bastian +begriffenfeld, prof.+ peer g. +bengt gauteson.+ _see_ gauteson, bengt +bengt af bjerkehoug.+ rypen. +berg.+ sankt. +berg, fru.+ sankt. +bernick, consul.+ pil. of soc. +---- martha.+ pil. of soc. +---- mrs.+ pil. of soc. +---- olaf.+ pil. of soc. +berta.+ hed. gab. +bielke, jens.+ lady inger +billing.+ en. of peop. +biörn.+ lady inger +birk, johannes.+ sankt. +bjorn.+ rypen. +blanka.+ kæmpehøjen +blind beggar.+ emp. and gal. +bodde, ivar.+ pretend. +boletta.+ lady fr. sea +borgheim, engineer.+ lit. eyolf +borkman, erhart.+ j. g. bork. +borkman, john gabriel.+ j. g. bork. +---- mrs. gunhild.+ j. g. bork. +brack, judge.+ hed. gab. +brand.+ brand +bratsberg, chamberlain.+ l. of youth +---- erik.+ l. of youth +---- selma.+ l. of youth +---- thora.+ l. of youth +bratte, bård.+ pretend. +brendel, ulric.+ rosm. +brovik, knut.+ mast. build. +---- ragnar.+ mast. build. +caesarius of nazianzus.+ emp. and gal. +captain of the watch.+ emp. and gal. +catilina, lucius.+ catilina +cethegus.+ catilina +chor af bryllupgjaester.+ fjeld. +chor af druider.+ norma. +chor af druidinder.+ norma. +chor af hougfolk.+ fjeld. +coeparius.+ catilina +constantius, emperor.+ emp. and gal. +consul bernick.+ _see_ bernick, consul +cotton, master.+ peer g. +curius.+ catilina +cyrillus.+ emp. and gal. +dagfinn the peasant.+ pretend. +dagny.+ vik of helg. +daniel heire.+ l. of youth +dean.+ brand +decentius.+ emp. and gal. +dina dorf.+ _see_ dorf, dina +doctor.+ brand +dorf, dina.+ pil. of soc. +dovrë, old man of the.+ peer g. +earl skule.+ _see_ skule, earl +eberkopf, herren von.+ peer g. +egil.+ vik of helg. +eilert lörborg.+ hed. gab. +eilif.+ en. of peop. +einar.+ brand +einar.+ rypen. +einar huk.+ _see_ huk, einar +ekdal, gina.+ w. duck +---- hjalmar.+ w. duck +---- old.+ w. duck +elina gyldenlöve.+ _see_ gyldenlöve, elina +ellen.+ doll's house +ellida wangel.+ _see_ wangel, ellida +elvsted, mrs.+ hed. gab. +engstrand, jacob.+ ghosts +---- regina.+ ghosts +erik bratsberg.+ _see_ bratsberg, erik +erik of hegge.+ feast at solh. +eunapius.+ emp. and gal. and +eusebia, empress.+ emp and gal. +eutherius.+ emp. and gal. and +eyolf.+ lit. eyolf +falk.+ love's com. +falk.+ svan. +fieldbo, dr.+ l. of youth +finn.+ lady inger +flabby gentleman.+ w. duck +fladland.+ svan. +flida, paul.+ pretend. +florentius.+ emp. and gal. . +foldal, frida.+ j. g. bork. +---- vilhelm.+ j. g. bork. +fosli, kaia.+ mast. build. +frida foldal.+ _see_ foldal, frida +fromentinus.+ emp. and gal. +fruitseller.+ emp. and gal. +furia.+ catilina +gabinius.+ catilina +gabler, hedda.+ hedda gabler +gallus, prince.+ emp. and gal. +gandalf.+ kæmpehøjen +gauteson, bengt.+ feast at solh. +gerd.+ brand +gesling, knut.+ feast at solh. +gladiators and soldiers.+ catilina +gråsberg.+ w. duck +green-clad woman.+ peer g. +gregers werle.+ w. duck +gregorius jonsson.+ _see_ jonsson, gregorius +gregory of nazianzus.+ emp. and gal. and +gudmund alfson.+ _see_ alfson, gudmund +guldstad.+ love's com. +guldstad.+ svan. +gunnar, headman.+ vik. of helg. +gunnar herse.+ _see_ gunnar, headman +guthorm ingesson.+ _see_ ingesson, guthorm +gyldenlöve, elina.+ lady inger +haakonsson, haakon.+ pretend. +halm, fru.+ svan. +halm, mrs.+ love's com. +halvard solness.+ _see_ solness, halvard +harald.+ rypen. +hedda gabler.+ hed. gab. +hedvig.+ w. duck +heire, daniel.+ l. of youth +hekebolius.+ emp. and gal. and +helena, princess.+ emp. and gal. +helga, little.+ peer g. +helle.+ l. of youth +helmer, torvald.+ doll's house +helseth, madam.+ rosm. +hemming.+ kæmpehøjen +----.+ olaf lil. +heraclius.+ emp. and gal. +herdal, dr.+ mast. build. +hessel, lona.+ pil. of soc. +hilarion.+ emp. and gal. +hilda.+ lady fr. sea +hilda wangel.+ _see_ wangel, hilda +hilmar tönnesen.+ _see_ tönnesen, hilmar +hiördis.+ vik. of helg. +holt, miss.+ pil. of soc. +---- mrs. postmaster.+ pil. of soc. +hormisdas, prince.+ emp. and gal. +horstad.+ en. of peop. +horster.+ en. of peop. +hvolloug.+ kæmpehøjen +huhu.+ peer g. +huk, einar.+ lady inger +inga of varteig.+ pretend. +ingeborg.+ fjeld. +ingeborg.+ olaf lil. +----+ pretend. +ingeborg.+ rypen. +inger, lady.+ lady inger +ingesson, guthorm.+ pretend. +ingrid.+ peer g. +inspector of the baths.+ when we dead +invisible choir.+ brand +ivar.+ fjeld. +ivar bodde.+ _see_ bodde, ivar +jatgeir skald.+ pretend. +jay, miss.+ love's com. +jens bielke.+ _see_ bielke, jens +jensen.+ w. duck +johan.+ svan. +johan tönnesen.+ _see_ tönnesen, johan +john gabriel borkman.+ _see_ borkman, j. g. +jonsson, gregorius.+ pretend. +jørgen kvist.+ _see_ kvist, jørgen +jostejn.+ kæmpehøjen +jovian.+ emp. and gal. +julian, emperor.+ emp. and gal. +---- prince.+ emp. and gal. +juliane.+ sankt. +kaia fosli.+ _see_ fosli, kaia +kåre the peasant.+ vik. of helg. +kari.+ peer g. +kirsten liljekrans.+ olaf lil. +knud.+ rypen. +knut brovik.+ _see_ brovik, knut +knut gesling.+ _see_ gesling, knut +krap.+ pil. of soc. +krogstad, nils.+ doll's house +kroll, rector.+ rosm. +kvist, jørgen.+ sankt. +kytron.+ emp. and gal. +laerke, frøken.+ svan. +laipso.+ emp. and gal. +lentulus.+ catilina +leontes.+ emp. and gal. +libanius.+ emp. and gal. and +liljekrans, olaf.+ olaf lil. +---- kirsten.+ olaf lil. +lind.+ love's com. +linden, mrs.+ doll's house +lona hessel.+ _see_ hessel, lona +lörborg, eilert.+ hed. gab. +lundestad, anders.+ l. of youth +lykke, nils.+ lady inger +lynge, mrs. doctor.+ pil of soc. +lyngstrand.+ lady fr. sea +madmen.+ peer g. +maid-servant at the chamberlain's.+ l. of youth +maia rubek.+ _see_ rubek, maia +makrina.+ emp. and gal. +malchus.+ emp. and gal. +mamertinus.+ emp. and gal. +manders, pastor.+ ghosts +manlius.+ catilina +margit.+ feast at sol. +margrete.+ pretend. +maris.+ emp. and gal. +martha bernick.+ _see_ bernick, m. +maurus.+ emp. and gal. +maximus the mystic.+ emp. and gal. and +mayor.+ brand +medon.+ emp. and gal. +memnon, an ethiopian.+ emp. and gal. +memnon,+ statue. peer g. +mereta.+ rypen. +mogens.+ rypen. +molvik.+ w. duck +monsen, mons.+ l. of youth +---- bastian.+ l. of youth +---- ragna.+ l. of youth +morten.+ en. of peop. +mortensgård, peter.+ rosm. +myrrha.+ emp. and gal. +nevita.+ emp. and gal. +nicolas arnesson.+ _see_ arnesson, nicholas +nils krogstad.+ _see_ krogstad, nils +nils lykke.+ _see_ lykke, nils +nils stensson.+ _see_ stensson, nils +en nisse.+ sankt. +nora.+ doll's house +norma.+ norma. +numa.+ emp. and gal. +olaf bernick.+ _see_ bernick, olaf +olaf liljekrans.+ _see_ liljekrans, olaf +olaf skaktavl.+ _see_ skaktavl, olaf +old man.+ catilina +ollovico.+ catilina +oribases.+ emp. and gal. +ornulf of the fiords.+ vik. of helg. +oswald alving.+ _see_ alving, oswald +paal.+ rypen. +painted woman.+ emp. and gal. +paralytic man.+ emp. and gal. +pasok.+ svan. +paul flida.+ _see_ flida, paul +paulsen, julian.+ sankt. +peer gynt.+ peer g. +peter.+ pretend. +petra.+ en. of peop. +pettersen.+ w. duck +phocian.+ emp. and gal. and +potamon.+ emp. and gal. and +priests and servants.+ catilina +priscus.+ emp. and gal. +publia, a woman of antioch.+ emp. and gal. +ragna monsen.+ _see_ monsen, ragna +ragnar brovik.+ _see_ brovik, ragnar +ragnhild, lady.+ pretend. +rank, dr.+ doll's house +rat-wife.+ lit. eyolf +rebecca west.+ _see_ west, rebecca +receiver.+ peer g. +regina engstrand.+ _see_ engstrand, regina +relatives of arne of guldvik.+ olaf. lil. +relling.+ w. duck +rentheim.+ j. g. bork. +ribbing, sigurd.+ pretend. +ringdal.+ l. of youth +rita allmers.+ _see_ allmers, rita +roderik.+ kæmpehøjen +rörlund, dr.+ a schoolmaster (rector) pil. of soc. +rosmer, johannes.+ rosm. +rubek, arnold.+ when we dead +---- maia.+ when we dead +rummel, a merchant.+ pil. of soc. +---- miss.+ pil. of soc. +---- mrs.+ pil. of soc. +rundholmen, madam.+ l. of youth +sæter-girls.+ peer g. +sallust of perusia.+ emp. and gal. +sandstad, a merchant.+ pil. of soc. +schoolmaster.+ brand +selma bratsberg.+ _see_ bratsberg, selma +severus.+ emp. and gal. +severus.+ norma. +sexton.+ brand +shipbuilder aune.+ pil. of soc. +short-sighted gentleman.+ w. duck +sigard of brabant.+ pretend. +signë.+ feast at sol. +sigrid.+ pretend. +sigurd ribbing.+ _see_ ribbing, sigurd +sigurd the strong.+ vik. of helg. +sintula.+ emp. and gal. +sira viliam.+ pretend. +sister of mercy.+ when we dead +skaktavl, olaf.+ lady inger +skule, earl.+ pretend. +skytte knut.+ fjeld. +sofie.+ svan. +solness, aline.+ mast. build. +---- halvard.+ mast. build. +solveig.+ peer g. +sörby, mrs.+ w. duck +sphinx at gizeh.+ peer g. +straamand.+ svan. +straamand, fru.+ svan. +statilius.+ catilina +stensgård.+ l. of youth +stensson, nils.+ lady inger +styver.+ love's com. +stockmann, dr. thomas.+ en. of peop. +---- mrs.+ en. of peop. +---- peter.+ en. of peop. +stranger.+ lady fr. sea +stranger lady.+ when we dead +strawman.+ love's com. +---- mrs.+ love's com. +svanhild.+ love's com. +svanhild.+ svan. +sven.+ svan. +tempter in the desert.+ brand +tesman, george.+ hed. gab. +themistius.+ emp. and gal. +thief.+ peer g. +thin-haired gentleman.+ w. duck +thora bratsberg.+ _see_ bratsberg, thora +thorgejr.+ fjeld. +thorgejr.+ olaf lil. +thoralf.+ vik. of helg. +tönnesen, hilmar.+ pil. of soc. +---- johan.+ pil. of soc. +troll-courtier.+ peer g. +troll-maidens.+ peer g. +troll-urchins.+ peer g. +trumpeterstråle.+ peer g. +ugly brat.+ peer g. +ulfheim.+ when we dead +ulric brendel.+ _see_ brendel, ulric +ursulas.+ emp. and gal. +væradal, vegand.+ pretend. +varg, miss.+ +workshop+ lit. eyolf +varro.+ emp. and gal. +vigeland, a merchant.+ pil. of soc. +vikings.+ kæmpehøjen +voice.+ brand +waiter.+ l. of youth +waitress at madam rundholmen's.+ l. of youth +wangel, dr.+ lady fr. sea +---- ellida.+ lady fr. sea +---- hilda.+ mast. build. +wedding guests.+ olaf lil. +werle.+ w. duck +werle, gregers.+ w. duck +west, rebecca.+ rosm. +wilton, mrs. fanny.+ j. g. bork. * * * * * transcriber's notes: errors and inconsistencies: spelling and punctuation: all variation between ae and æ, ö and ø, or å and aa is as in the original. some final periods (full stops) have been regularized for consistency. although the spelling "kjæmpehøjen" (or -öj- or -øi-) is as correct as "kæmpehøjen", it has been regularized in subject headers to simplify text searching. "abbreviations": +fjeld.+ fjeldfuglen. [fjeldfugeln] +kæmp.+ kæmpehøjen [kæmpehojen] "editions": ... durchgesehen und eingeleitet von georg brandes. julius elias, paul schlenther. von dichter authorisiert. [durchgeschen ... authoriesiert] ... v. - "paa grundlag af j. b. halvorsen's samlinger" [of j. b. halvorsen's samlinger _missing close quote_] "authors": +andreas-salomé, frau l.+ henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. [kvindeskikelser] +berg, leo+ henrick ibsen. _in_ berg, l. ... [_"henrick" in original_] ---- eine parallele. _in_ berg, l. zwischen zwei jahrhundert [swei jahrdundert] +bergwitz, j. k.+ grimstad - som type paa norsk smaaby [... som type pad ...] +boyesen, h. h.+ commentary on the works of henrik ibsen. london... reviews... [review] +brandes, georg.+ henrik ibsen und sein schule in deutschland. _in_ brandes, g. deutsche persönlichkeiten. münchen. . p. - . [_"sein" in original_] [personlichkeiten] +collin, chr.+ henrik ibsens selv portræt i peer gynt. memnon-støttens sang og ... [henrik ibsen; ... memnon--støttens og ...] +darthèze, a.+ ibsen et les acteurs français. [francais] +holm, olaf.+ ...autorisier uebersetzung... [_"autorisier" in original_] +james, henry.+ hendrik ibsen. [_"hendrik" in original_] +lollis, cesare de.+ ...quando noi, morti... [nol] +longo, m.+ ...studj di psicologia penale [_"studj" in original_] +nyhuus, o.+ henrik ibsens keiser og galilæer. ... kristiania. [galilær ... kritsiania] +schjøtt, mathilde.+ [schøtt] efter læsningen af "bygmester solness." [iæsningen] +thaarup, h.+ henrik ibsen set under en ny synsvinkel. københavn. [synsvinke. køpenhavn.] "subjects": +bjørnson and ibsen+ helweg, f. bjørnson og ibsen i deres to seneste værker. [senete] +catilina+ woerner, r. henrik ibsens jugenddramen. [jugendramen] +hedda gabler+ andreas-salomé, l. henrik ibsens kvindeskikkelser. p. - . [kvindekikkelser] +historical plays+ ... lady inger of ostraat [lady inga] +hünnegrab+ _see_ kæmpehøjen. [kjæmpehojen] +kæmpehøjen+ (warrior's tomb) [kjæmphöjen] +lady from the sea+ ...freiheit und verantwörtlichket. [freheit] +master builder+ om udviklingsgangen i ibsens digtning [il ibsens] +moral ideas.+ løchen, a. ibsens moralske grundanskuelse [grundankskuelse] +pathology.+ gumpertz, k. ibsens vererbungstheorie. [verebung...] longo, m. ...studj di psicologia penale [_"studj" in original_] +peer gynt.+ memnon-støttens sang [memnon-støtters] +politics+ henrik ibsens politisches vermächtniss. [vermächtiniss] +pretenders+ knudsen, d. f. utvalg av norsk litteratur. [_text reads "ar"; original may be either "av" or "af"_] +realism+ wahrheitsproblem im volksfeind [volksfeid] +seventieth birthday+ henrik ibsen. festskrift i anledning af hans de fødselsdag. [_text reads "fødsedsdag"_] +warrior's tomb.+ _see_ kæmpehøjen. [kjæmpehøjen] +women+ har hendrik ibsen i hedda gabler ... [_"hendrik" in original_] hertzberg, n. e. ibsen's koindetype norske, p. - . hertzberg, n. e. er ibsen's kvinde-typeé norske p. - . [_duplicate in original; should read "er ibsen's kvinde-typer norske?"_] key, ellen k. s. torpedo under the ark "ibsen and women". p. [_close quote missing in original_] "characters": all inconsistencies in cross-references and in the method of listing repeated names are as in the original. +agathon.+ emp. and gal. [_should read_ "emp. and gal. and "] +bengt gauteson.+ _see_ gauteson, bengt ["b e n g t, g a u t e s o n"] [_no other name is printed in this form_] +curius.+ catilina [curias] +dovrë, old man of the.+ peer g. [_"-ë" in original_] +elina gyldenlöve.+ _see_ gyldenlöve, elina [_"-a" in original_] +gauteson, bengt.+ feast at solh. [benght] +guldstad.+ svan. [gulstad] +gyldenlöve, elina.+ lady inger [_"-a" in original_] +haakonsson, haakon.+ pretend. [hakonsson, hakon] +hilmar tönnesen.+ _see_ tönnesen, hilmar [_"ö" printed as "o"_] +jørgen kvist.+ _see_ kvist, jørgen [_"ø" printed as "o"_] +kvist, jørgen.+ sankt. [_"ø" printed as "o"_] +maid-servant at the chamberlain's.+ l. of youth [of youth] +oribases.+ emp. and gal. [_should read_ "emp. and gal. and "] +signë.+ feast at sol. [_"-ë" in original_] +straamand.+ svan. +straamand, fru.+ svan. [staamand] +styver.+ love's com. [stiver] +thorgejr.+ olaf lil. [thorgjerd] (+tönnesen+) +---- johan.+ pil. of soc. [johann] transcribed from the edition by david price, email ccx @coventry.ac.uk miscellanies by oscar wilde dedication: to walter ledger since these volumes are sure of a place in your marvellous library i trust that with your unrivalled knowledge of the various editions of wilde you may not detect any grievous error whether of taste or type, of omission or commission. but should you do so you must blame the editor, and not those who so patiently assisted him, the proof readers, the printers, or the publishers. some day, however, i look forward to your bibliography of the author, in which you will be at liberty to criticise my capacity for anything except regard and friendship for yourself.--sincerely yours, robert ross may , . introduction the concluding volume of any collected edition is unavoidably fragmentary and desultory. and if this particular volume is no exception to a general tendency, it presents points of view in the author's literary career which may have escaped his greatest admirers and detractors. the wide range of his knowledge and interests is more apparent than in some of his finished work. what i believed to be only the fragment of an essay on historical criticism was already in the press, when accidentally i came across the remaining portions, in wilde's own handwriting; it is now complete though unhappily divided in this edition. { a} any doubt as to its authenticity, quite apart from the calligraphy, would vanish on reading such a characteristic passage as the following:--' . . . for, it was in vain that the middle ages strove to guard the buried spirit of progress. when the dawn of the greek spirit arose, the sepulchre was empty, the grave clothes laid aside. humanity had risen from the dead.' it was only wilde who could contrive a literary conceit of that description; but readers will observe with different feelings, according to their temperament, that he never followed up the particular trend of thought developed in the essay. it is indeed more the work of the berkeley gold medallist at dublin, or the brilliant young magdalen demy than of the dramatist who was to write salome. the composition belongs to his oxford days when he was the unsuccessful competitor for the chancellor's english essay prize. perhaps magdalen, which has never forgiven herself for nurturing the author of ravenna, may be felicitated on having escaped the further intolerable honour that she might have suffered by seeing crowned again with paltry academic parsley the most highly gifted of all her children in the last century. compared with the crude criticism on the grosvenor gallery (one of the earliest of wilde's published prose writings), historical criticism is singularly advanced and mature. apart from his mere scholarship wilde developed his literary and dramatic talent slowly. he told me that he was never regarded as a particularly precocious or clever youth. indeed many old family friends and contemporary journalists maintain sturdily that the talent of his elder brother william was much more remarkable. in this opinion they are fortified, appropriately enough, by the late clement scott. i record this interesting view because it symbolises the familiar phenomenon that those nearest the mountain cannot appreciate its height. the exiguous fragment of la sainte courtisane is the next unpublished work of importance. at the time of wilde's trial the nearly completed drama was entrusted to mrs. leverson, who in went to paris on purpose to restore it to the author. wilde immediately left the manuscript in a cab. a few days later he laughingly informed me of the loss, and added that a cab was a very proper place for it. i have explained elsewhere that he looked on his plays with disdain in his last years, though he was always full of schemes for writing others. all my attempts to recover the lost work failed. the passages here reprinted are from some odd leaves of a first draft. the play is of course not unlike salome, though it was written in english. it expanded wilde's favourite theory that when you convert some one to an idea, you lose your faith in it; the same motive runs through mr. w. h. honorius the hermit, so far as i recollect the story, falls in love with the courtesan who has come to tempt him, and he reveals to her the secret of the love of god. she immediately becomes a christian, and is murdered by robbers; honorius the hermit goes back to alexandria to pursue a life of pleasure. two other similar plays wilde invented in prison, ahab and isabel and pharaoh; he would never write them down, though often importuned to do so. pharaoh was intensely dramatic and perhaps more original than any of the group. none of these works must be confused with the manuscripts stolen from tite street in --namely the enlarged version of mr. w. h., the completed form of a florentine tragedy, and the duchess of padua (which existing in a prompt copy was of less importance than the others); nor with the cardinal of arragon, the manuscript of which i never saw. i scarcely think it ever existed, though wilde used to recite proposed passages for it. in regard to printing the lectures i have felt some diffidence: the majority of them were delivered from notes, and the same lectures were repeated in different towns in england and america. the reports of them in the papers are never trustworthy; they are often grotesque travesties, like the reports of after-dinner speeches in the london press of today. i have included only those lectures of which i possess or could obtain manuscript. the aim of this edition has been completeness; and it is complete so far as human effort can make it; but besides the lost manuscripts there must be buried in the contemporary press many anonymous reviews which i have failed to identify. the remaining contents of this book do not call for further comment, other than a reminder that wilde would hardly have consented to their republication. but owing to the number of anonymous works wrongly attributed to him, chiefly in america, and spurious works published in his name, i found it necessary to violate the laws of friendship by rejecting nothing i knew to be authentic. it will be seen on reference to the letters on the ethics of journalism that wilde's name appearing at the end of poems and articles was not always a proof of authenticity even in his lifetime. of the few letters wilde wrote to the press, those addressed to whistler i have included with greater misgiving than anything else in this volume. they do not seem to me more amusing than those to which they were the intended rejoinders. but the dates are significant. wilde was at one time always accused of plagiarising his ideas and his epigrams from whistler, especially those with which he decorated his lectures, the accusation being brought by whistler himself and his various disciples. it should be noted that all the works by which wilde is known throughout europe were written _after_ the two friends quarrelled. that wilde derived a great deal from the older man goes without saying, just as he derived much in a greater degree from pater, ruskin, arnold and burne- jones. yet the tedious attempt to recognise in every jest of his some original by whistler induces the criticism that it seems a pity the great painter did not get them off on the public before he was forestalled. reluctance from an appeal to publicity was never a weakness in either of the men. some of wilde's more frequently quoted sayings were made at the old bailey (though their provenance is often forgotten) or on his death- bed. as a matter of fact, the genius of the two men was entirely different. wilde was a humourist and a humanist before everything; and his wittiest jests have neither the relentlessness nor the keenness characterising those of the clever american artist. again, whistler could no more have obtained the berkeley gold medal for greek, nor have written the importance of being earnest, nor the soul of man, than wilde, even if equipped as a painter, could ever have evinced that superb restraint distinguishing the portraits of 'miss alexander,' 'carlyle,' and other masterpieces. wilde, though it is not generally known, was something of a draughtsman in his youth. i possess several of his drawings. a complete bibliography including all the foreign translations and american piracies would make a book of itself much larger than the present one. in order that wilde collectors (and there are many, i believe) may know the authorised editions and authentic writings from the spurious, mr. stuart mason, whose work on this edition i have already acknowledged, has supplied a list which contains every _genuine_ and _authorised_ english edition. this of course does not preclude the chance that some of the american editions are authorised, and that some of wilde's genuine works even are included in the pirated editions. i am indebted to the editors and proprietors of the queen for leave to reproduce the article on 'english poetesses'; to the editor and proprietors of the sunday times for the article entitled 'art at willis's rooms'; and to mr. william waldorf astor for those from the pall mall gazette. robert ross the tomb of keats (irish monthly, july .) as one enters rome from the via ostiensis by the porta san paolo, the first object that meets the eye is a marble pyramid which stands close at hand on the left. there are many egyptian obelisks in rome--tall, snakelike spires of red sandstone, mottled with strange writings, which remind us of the pillars of flame which led the children of israel through the desert away from the land of the pharaohs; but more wonderful than these to look upon is this gaunt, wedge-shaped pyramid standing here in this italian city, unshattered amid the ruins and wrecks of time, looking older than the eternal city itself, like terrible impassiveness turned to stone. and so in the middle ages men supposed this to be the sepulchre of remus, who was slain by his own brother at the founding of the city, so ancient and mysterious it appears; but we have now, perhaps unfortunately, more accurate information about it, and know that it is the tomb of one caius cestius, a roman gentleman of small note, who died about b.c. yet though we cannot care much for the dead man who lies in lonely state beneath it, and who is only known to the world through his sepulchre, still this pyramid will be ever dear to the eyes of all english-speaking people, because at evening its shadows fall on the tomb of one who walks with spenser, and shakespeare, and byron, and shelley, and elizabeth barrett browning in the great procession of the sweet singers of england. for at its foot there is a green, sunny slope, known as the old protestant cemetery, and on this a common-looking grave, which bears the following inscription: this grave contains all that was mortal of a young english poet, who on his deathbed, in the bitterness of his heart, desired these words to be engraven on his tombstone: here lies one whose name was writ in water. february , . and the name of the young english poet is john keats. lord houghton calls this cemetery 'one of the most beautiful spots on which the eye and heart of man can rest,' and shelley speaks of it as making one 'in love with death, to think that one should be buried in so sweet a place'; and indeed when i saw the violets and the daisies and the poppies that overgrow the tomb, i remembered how the dead poet had once told his friend that he thought the 'intensest pleasure he had received in life was in watching the growth of flowers,' and how another time, after lying a while quite still, he murmured in some strange prescience of early death, 'i feel the flowers growing over me.' but this time-worn stone and these wildflowers are but poor memorials { } of one so great as keats; most of all, too, in this city of rome, which pays such honour to her dead; where popes, and emperors, and saints, and cardinals lie hidden in 'porphyry wombs,' or couched in baths of jasper and chalcedony and malachite, ablaze with precious stones and metals, and tended with continual service. for very noble is the site, and worthy of a noble monument; behind looms the grey pyramid, symbol of the world's age, and filled with memories of the sphinx, and the lotus leaf, and the glories of old nile; in front is the monte testaccio, built, it is said, with the broken fragments of the vessels in which all the nations of the east and the west brought their tribute to rome; and a little distance off, along the slope of the hill under the aurelian wall, some tall gaunt cypresses rise, like burnt-out funeral torches, to mark the spot where shelley's heart (that 'heart of hearts'!) lies in the earth; and, above all, the soil on which we tread is very rome! as i stood beside the mean grave of this divine boy, i thought of him as of a priest of beauty slain before his time; and the vision of guido's st. sebastian came before my eyes as i saw him at genoa, a lovely brown boy, with crisp, clustering hair and red lips, bound by his evil enemies to a tree, and though pierced by arrows, raising his eyes with divine, impassioned gaze towards the eternal beauty of the opening heavens. and thus my thoughts shaped themselves to rhyme: heu miserande puer rid of the world's injustice and its pain, he rests at last beneath god's veil of blue; taken from life while life and love were new the youngest of the martyrs here is lain, fair as sebastian and as foully slain. no cypress shades his grave, nor funeral yew, but red-lipped daisies, violets drenched with dew, and sleepy poppies, catch the evening rain. o proudest heart that broke for misery! o saddest poet that the world hath seen! o sweetest singer of the english land! thy name was writ in water on the sand, but our tears shall keep thy memory green, and make it flourish like a basil-tree. borne, . note.--a later version of this sonnet, under the title of 'the grave of keats,' is given in the poems, page . the grosvenor gallery, (dublin university magazine, july .) that 'art is long and life is short' is a truth which every one feels, or ought to feel; yet surely those who were in london last may, and had in one week the opportunities of hearing rubenstein play the sonata impassionata, of seeing wagner conduct the spinning-wheel chorus from the flying dutchman, and of studying art at the grosvenor gallery, have very little to complain of as regards human existence and art-pleasures. descriptions of music are generally, perhaps, more or less failures, for music is a matter of individual feeling, and the beauties and lessons that one draws from hearing lovely sounds are mainly personal, and depend to a large extent on one's own state of mind and culture. so leaving rubenstein and wagner to be celebrated by franz huffer, or mr. haweis, or any other of our picturesque writers on music, i will describe some of the pictures now being shown in the grosvenor gallery. the origin of this gallery is as follows: about a year ago the idea occurred to sir coutts lindsay of building a public gallery, in which, untrammelled by the difficulties or meannesses of 'hanging committees,' he could exhibit to the lovers of art the works of certain great living artists side by side: a gallery in which the student would not have to struggle through an endless monotony of mediocre works in order to reach what was worth looking at; one in which the people of england could have the opportunity of judging of the merits of at least one great master of painting, whose pictures had been kept from public exhibition by the jealousy and ignorance of rival artists. accordingly, last may, in new bond street, the grosvenor gallery was opened to the public. as far as the gallery itself is concerned, there are only three rooms, so there is no fear of our getting that terrible weariness of mind and eye which comes on after the 'forced marches' through ordinary picture galleries. the walls are hung with scarlet damask above a dado of dull green and gold; there are luxurious velvet couches, beautiful flowers and plants, tables of gilded and inlaid marbles, covered with japanese china and the latest 'minton,' globes of 'rainbow glass' like large soap-bubbles, and, in fine, everything in decoration that is lovely to look on, and in harmony with the surrounding works of art. burne-jones and holman hunt are probably the greatest masters of colour that we have ever had in england, with the single exception of turner, but their styles differ widely. to draw a rough distinction, holman hunt studies and reproduces the colours of natural objects, and deals with historical subjects, or scenes of real life, mostly from the east, touched occasionally with a certain fancifulness, as in the shadow of the cross. burne-jones, on the contrary, is a dreamer in the land of mythology, a seer of fairy visions, a symbolical painter. he is an imaginative colourist too, knowing that all colour is no mere delightful quality of natural things, but a 'spirit upon them by which they become expressive to the spirit,' as mr. pater says. watts's power, on the other hand, lies in his great originative and imaginative genius, and he reminds us of aeschylus or michael angelo in the startling vividness of his conceptions. although these three painters differ much in aim and in result, they yet are one in their faith, and love, and reverence, the three golden keys to the gate of the house beautiful. on entering the west gallery the first picture that meets the eye is mr. watts's love and death, a large painting, representing a marble doorway, all overgrown with white-starred jasmine and sweet brier-rose. death, a giant form, veiled in grey draperies, is passing in with inevitable and mysterious power, breaking through all the flowers. one foot is already on the threshold, and one relentless hand is extended, while love, a beautiful boy with lithe brown limbs and rainbow-coloured wings, all shrinking like a crumpled leaf, is trying, with vain hands, to bar the entrance. a little dove, undisturbed by the agony of the terrible conflict, waits patiently at the foot of the steps for her playmate; but will wait in vain, for though the face of death is hidden from us, yet we can see from the terror in the boy's eyes and quivering lips, that, medusa-like, this grey phantom turns all it looks upon to stone; and the wings of love are rent and crushed. except on the ceiling of the sistine chapel in rome, there are perhaps few paintings to compare with this in intensity of strength and in marvel of conception. it is worthy to rank with michael angelo's god dividing the light from the darkness. next to it are hung five pictures by millais. three of them are portraits of the three daughters of the duke of westminster, all in white dresses, with white hats and feathers; the delicacy of the colour being rather injured by the red damask background. these pictures do not possess any particular merit beyond that of being extremely good likenesses, especially the one of the marchioness of ormonde. over them is hung a picture of a seamstress, pale and vacant-looking, with eyes red from tears and long watchings in the night, hemming a shirt. it is meant to illustrate hood's familiar poem. as we look on it, a terrible contrast strikes us between this miserable pauper-seamstress and the three beautiful daughters of the richest duke in the world, which breaks through any artistic reveries by its awful vividness. the fifth picture is a profile head of a young man with delicate aquiline nose, thoughtful oval face, and artistic, abstracted air, which will be easily recognised as a portrait of lord ronald gower, who is himself known as an artist and sculptor. but no one would discern in these five pictures the genius that painted the home at bethlehem and the portrait of john ruskin which is at oxford. then come eight pictures by alma tadema, good examples of that accurate drawing of inanimate objects which makes his pictures so real from an antiquarian point of view, and of the sweet subtlety of colouring which gives to them a magic all their own. one represents some roman girls bathing in a marble tank, and the colour of the limbs in the water is very perfect indeed; a dainty attendant is tripping down a flight of steps with a bundle of towels, and in the centre a great green sphinx in bronze throws forth a shower of sparkling water for a very pretty laughing girl, who stoops gleefully beneath it. there is a delightful sense of coolness about the picture, and one can almost imagine that one hears the splash of water, and the girls' chatter. it is wonderful what a world of atmosphere and reality may be condensed into a very small space, for this picture is only about eleven by two and a half inches. the most ambitious of these pictures is one of phidias showing the frieze of the parthenon to his friends. we are supposed to be on a high scaffolding level with the frieze, and the effect of great height produced by glimpses of light between the planking of the floor is very cleverly managed. but there is a want of individuality among the connoisseurs clustered round phidias, and the frieze itself is very inaccurately coloured. the greek boys who are riding and leading the horses are painted egyptian red, and the whole design is done in this red, dark blue, and black. this sombre colouring is un-greek; the figures of these boys were undoubtedly tinted with flesh colour, like the ordinary greek statues, and the whole tone of the colouring of the original frieze was brilliant and light; while one of its chief beauties, the reins and accoutrements of burnished metal, is quite omitted. this painter is more at home in the greco-roman art of the empire and later republic than he is in the art of the periclean age. the most remarkable of mr. richmond's pictures exhibited here is his electra at the tomb of agamemnon--a very magnificent subject, to which, however, justice is not done. electra and her handmaidens are grouped gracefully around the tomb of the murdered king; but there is a want of humanity in the scene: there is no trace of that passionate asiatic mourning for the dead to which the greek women were so prone, and which aeschylus describes with such intensity; nor would greek women have come to pour libations to the dead in such bright-coloured dresses as mr. richmond has given them; clearly this artist has not studied aeschylus' play of the choephori, in which there is an elaborate and pathetic account of this scene. the tall, twisted tree-stems, however, that form the background are fine and original in effect, and mr. richmond has caught exactly that peculiar opal-blue of the sky which is so remarkable in greece; the purple orchids too, and daffodil and narcissi that are in the foreground are all flowers which i have myself seen at argos. sir coutts lindsay sends a life-size portrait of his wife, holding a violin, which has some good points of colour and position, and four other pictures, including an exquisitely simple and quaint little picture of the dower house at balcarres, and a daphne with rather questionable flesh- painting, and in whom we miss the breathlessness of flight. i saw the blush come o'er her like a rose; the half-reluctant crimson comes and goes; her glowing limbs make pause, and she is stayed wondering the issue of the words she prayed. it is a great pity that holman hunt is not represented by any of his really great works, such as the finding of christ in the temple, or isabella mourning over the pot of basil, both of which are fair samples of his powers. four pictures of his are shown here: a little italian child, painted with great love and sweetness, two street scenes in cairo full of rich oriental colouring, and a wonderful work called the afterglow in egypt. it represents a tall swarthy egyptian woman, in a robe of dark and light blue, carrying a green jar on her shoulder, and a sheaf of grain on her head; around her comes fluttering a flock of beautiful doves of all colours, eager to be fed. behind is a wide flat river, and across the river a stretch of ripe corn, through which a gaunt camel is being driven; the sun has set, and from the west comes a great wave of red light like wine poured out on the land, yet not crimson, as we see the afterglow in northern europe, but a rich pink like that of a rose. as a study of colour it is superb, but it is difficult to feel a human interest in this egyptian peasant. mr. albert moore sends some of his usual pictures of women, which as studies of drapery and colour effects are very charming. one of them, a tall maiden, in a robe of light blue clasped at the neck with a glowing sapphire, and with an orange headdress, is a very good example of the highest decorative art, and a perfect delight in colour. mr. spencer stanhope's picture of eve tempted is one of the remarkable pictures of the gallery. eve, a fair woman, of surpassing loveliness, is leaning against a bank of violets, underneath the apple tree; naked, except for the rich thick folds of gilded hair which sweep down from her head like the bright rain in which zeus came to danae. the head is drooped a little forward as a flower droops when the dew has fallen heavily, and her eyes are dimmed with the haze that comes in moments of doubtful thought. one arm falls idly by her side; the other is raised high over her head among the branches, her delicate fingers just meeting round one of the burnished apples that glow amidst the leaves like 'golden lamps in a green night.' an amethyst-coloured serpent, with a devilish human head, is twisting round the trunk of the tree and breathes into the woman's ear a blue flame of evil counsel. at the feet of eve bright flowers are growing, tulips, narcissi, lilies, and anemones, all painted with a loving patience that reminds us of the older florentine masters; after whose example, too, mr. stanhope has used gilding for eve's hair and for the bright fruits. next to it is another picture by the same artist, entitled love and the maiden. a girl has fallen asleep in a wood of olive trees, through whose branches and grey leaves we can see the glimmer of sky and sea, with a little seaport town of white houses shining in the sunlight. the olive wood is ever sacred to the virgin pallas, the goddess of wisdom; and who would have dreamed of finding eros hidden there? but the girl wakes up, as one wakes from sleep one knows not why, to see the face of the boy love, who, with outstretched hands, is leaning towards her from the midst of a rhododendron's crimson blossoms. a rose-garland presses the boy's brown curls, and he is clad in a tunic of oriental colours, and delicately sensuous are his face and his bared limbs. his boyish beauty is of that peculiar type unknown in northern europe, but common in the greek islands, where boys can still be found as beautiful as the charmides of plato. guido's st. sebastian in the palazzo rosso at genoa is one of those boys, and perugino once drew a greek ganymede for his native town, but the painter who most shows the influence of this type is correggio, whose lily-bearer in the cathedral at parma, and whose wild- eyed, open-mouthed st. johns in the 'incoronata madonna' of st. giovanni evangelista, are the best examples in art of the bloom and vitality and radiance of this adolescent beauty. and so there is extreme loveliness in this figure of love by mr. stanhope, and the whole picture is full of grace, though there is, perhaps, too great a luxuriance of colour, and it would have been a relief had the girl been dressed in pure white. mr. frederick burton, of whom all irishmen are so justly proud, is represented by a fine water-colour portrait of mrs. george smith; one would almost believe it to be in oils, so great is the lustre on this lady's raven-black hair, and so rich and broad and vigorous is the painting of a japanese scarf she is wearing. then as we turn to the east wall of the gallery we see the three great pictures of burne-jones, the beguiling of merlin, the days of creation, and the mirror of venus. the version of the legend of merlin's beguiling that mr. burne-jones has followed differs from mr. tennyson's and from the account in the morte d'arthur. it is taken from the romance of merlin, which tells the story in this wise: it fell on a day that they went through the forest of breceliande, and found a bush that was fair and high, of white hawthorn, full of flowers, and there they sat in the shadow. and merlin fell on sleep; and when she felt that he was on sleep she arose softly, and began her enchantments, such as merlin had taught her, and made the ring nine times, and nine times the enchantments. . . . . . and then he looked about him, and him seemed he was in the fairest tower of the world, and the most strong; neither of iron was it fashioned, nor steel, nor timber, nor of stone, but of the air, without any other thing; and in sooth so strong it is that it may never be undone while the world endureth. so runs the chronicle; and thus mr. burne-jones, the 'archimage of the esoteric unreal,' treats the subject. stretched upon a low branch of the tree, and encircled with the glory of the white hawthorn-blossoms, half sits, half lies, the great enchanter. he is not drawn as mr. tennyson has described him, with the 'vast and shaggy mantle of a beard,' which youth gone out had left in ashes; smooth and clear-cut and very pale is his face; time has not seared him with wrinkles or the signs of age; one would hardly know him to be old were it not that he seems very weary of seeking into the mysteries of the world, and that the great sadness that is born of wisdom has cast a shadow on him. but now what availeth him his wisdom or his arts? his eyes, that saw once so clear, are dim and glazed with coming death, and his white and delicate hands that wrought of old such works of marvel, hang listlessly. vivien, a tall, lithe woman, beautiful and subtle to look on, like a snake, stands in front of him, reading the fatal spell from the enchanted book; mocking the utter helplessness of him whom once her lying tongue had called her lord and liege, her seer, her bard, her silver star of eve, her god, her merlin, the one passionate love of her whole life. in her brown crisp hair is the gleam of a golden snake, and she is clad in a silken robe of dark violet that clings tightly to her limbs, more expressing than hiding them; the colour of this dress is like the colour of a purple sea-shell, broken here and there with slight gleams of silver and pink and azure; it has a strange metallic lustre like the iris-neck of the dove. were this mr. burne-jones's only work it would be enough of itself to make him rank as a great painter. the picture is full of magic; and the colour is truly a spirit dwelling on things and making them expressive to the spirit, for the delicate tones of grey, and green, and violet seem to convey to us the idea of languid sleep, and even the hawthorn-blossoms have lost their wonted brightness, and are more like the pale moonlight to which shelley compared them, than the sheet of summer snow we see now in our english fields. the next picture is divided into six compartments, each representing a day in the creation of the world, under the symbol of an angel holding a crystal globe, within which is shown the work of a day. in the first compartment stands the lonely angel of the first day, and within the crystal ball light is being separated from darkness. in the fourth compartment are four angels, and the crystal glows like a heated opal, for within it the creation of the sun, moon, and stars is passing; the number of the angels increases, and the colours grow more vivid till we reach the sixth compartment, which shines afar off like a rainbow. within it are the six angels of the creation, each holding its crystal ball; and within the crystal of the sixth angel one can see adam's strong brown limbs and hero form, and the pale, beautiful body of eve. at the feet also of these six winged messengers of the creator is sitting the angel of the seventh day, who on a harp of gold is singing the glories of that coming day which we have not yet seen. the faces of the angels are pale and oval-shaped, in their eyes is the light of wisdom and love, and their lips seem as if they would speak to us; and strength and beauty are in their wings. they stand with naked feet, some on shell-strewn sands whereon tide has never washed nor storm broken, others it seems on pools of water, others on strange flowers; and their hair is like the bright glory round a saint's head. the scene of the third picture is laid on a long green valley by the sea; eight girls, handmaidens of the goddess of love, are collected by the margin of a long pool of clear water, whose surface no wandering wind or flapping bird has ruffled; but the large flat leaves of the water-lily float on it undisturbed, and clustering forget-me-nots rise here and there like heaps of scattered turquoise. in this mirror of venus each girl is reflected as in a mirror of polished steel. some of them bend over the pool in laughing wonder at their own beauty, others, weary of shadows, are leaning back, and one girl is standing straight up; and nothing of her is reflected in the pool but a glimmer of white feet. this picture, however, has not the intense pathos and tragedy of the beguiling of merlin, nor the mystical and lovely symbolism of the days of the creation. above these three pictures are hung five allegorical studies of figures by the same artist, all worthy of his fame. mr. walter crane, who has illustrated so many fairy tales for children, sends an ambitious work called the renaissance of venus, which in the dull colour of its 'sunless dawn,' and in its general want of all the glow and beauty and passion that one associates with this scene reminds one of botticelli's picture of the same subject. after mr. swinburne's superb description of the sea-birth of the goddess in his hymn to proserpine, it is very strange to find a cultured artist of feeling producing such a vapid venus as this. the best thing in it is the painting of an apple tree: the time of year is spring, and the leaves have not yet come, but the tree is laden with pink and white blossoms, which stand out in beautiful relief against the pale blue of the sky, and are very true to nature. m. alphonse legros sends nine pictures, and there is a natural curiosity to see the work of a gentleman who holds at cambridge the same professorship as mr. ruskin does at oxford. four of these are studies of men's heads, done in two hours each for his pupils at the slade schools. there is a good deal of vigorous, rough execution about them, and they are marvels of rapid work. his portrait of mr. carlyle is unsatisfactory; and even in no. , a picture of two scarlet-robed bishops, surrounded by spanish monks, his colour is very thin and meagre. a good bit of painting is of some metal pots in a picture called le chaudronnier. mr. leslie, unfortunately, is represented only by one small work, called palm-blossom. it is a picture of a perfectly lovely child that reminds one of sir joshua's cherubs in the national gallery, with a mouth like two petals of a rose; the under-lip, as rossetti says quaintly somewhere, 'sucked in, as if it strove to kiss itself.' then we come to the most abused pictures in the whole exhibition--the 'colour symphonies' of the 'great dark master,' mr. whistler, who deserves the name of '[greek] as much as heraclitus ever did. their titles do not convey much information. no. is called nocturne in black and gold, no. a nocturne in blue and silver, and so on. the first of these represents a rocket of golden rain, with green and red fires bursting in a perfectly black sky, two large black smudges on the picture standing, i believe, for a tower which is in 'cremorne gardens' and for a crowd of lookers-on. the other is rather prettier; a rocket is breaking in a pale blue sky over a large dark blue bridge and a blue and silver river. these pictures are certainly worth looking at for about as long as one looks at a real rocket, that is, for somewhat less than a quarter of a minute. no. is called arrangement in black no. , apparently some pseudonym for our greatest living actor, for out of black smudgy clouds comes looming the gaunt figure of mr. henry irving, with the yellow hair and pointed beard, the ruff, short cloak, and tight hose in which he appeared as philip ii. in tennyson's play queen mary. one hand is thrust into his breast, and his legs are stuck wide apart in a queer stiff position that mr. irving often adopts preparatory to one of his long, wolflike strides across the stage. the figure is life-size, and, though apparently one- armed, is so ridiculously like the original that one cannot help almost laughing when one sees it. and we may imagine that any one who had the misfortune to be shut up at night in the grosvenor gallery would hear this arrangement in black no. murmuring in the well-known lyceum accents: by st. james, i do protest, upon the faith and honour of a spaniard, i am vastly grieved to leave your majesty. simon, is supper ready? nos. and are life-size portraits of two young ladies, evidently caught in a black london fog; they look like sisters, but are not related probably, as one is a harmony in amber and black, the other only an arrangement in brown. mr. whistler, however, sends one really good picture to this exhibition, a portrait of mr. carlyle, which is hung in the entrance hall; the expression on the old man's face, the texture and colour of his grey hair, and the general sympathetic treatment, show mr. whistler { } to be an artist of very great power when he likes. there is not so much in the east gallery that calls for notice. mr. leighton is unfortunately represented only by two little heads, one of an italian girl, the other called a study. there is some delicate flesh painting of red and brown in these works that reminds one of a russet apple, but of course they are no samples of this artist's great strength. there are two good portraits--one of mrs. burne-jones, by mr. poynter. this lady has a very delicate, artistic face, reminding us, perhaps, a little of one of the angels her husband has painted. she is represented in a white dress, with a perfectly gigantic old-fashioned watch hung to her waist, drinking tea from an old blue china cup. the other is a head of the duchess of westminster by mr. forbes-robertson, who both as an actor and an artist has shown great cleverness. he has succeeded very well in reproducing the calm, beautiful profile and lustrous golden hair, but the shoulders are ungraceful, and very unlike the original. the figure of a girl leaning against a wonderful screen, looking terribly 'misunderstood,' and surrounded by any amount of artistic china and furniture, by mrs. louise jopling, is worth looking at too. it is called it might have been, and the girl is quite fit to be the heroine of any sentimental novel. the two largest contributors to this gallery are mr. ferdinand heilbuth and mr. james tissot. the first of these two artists sends some delightful pictures from rome, two of which are particularly pleasing. one is of an old cardinal in the imperial scarlet of the caesars meeting a body of young italian boys in purple soutanes, students evidently in some religious college, near the church of st. john lateran. one of the boys is being presented to the cardinal, and looks very nervous under the operation; the rest gaze in wonder at the old man in his beautiful dress. the other picture is a view in the gardens of the villa borghese; a cardinal has sat down on a marble seat in the shade of the trees, and is suspending his meditation for a moment to smile at a pretty child to whom a french bonne is pointing out the gorgeously dressed old gentleman; a flunkey in attendance on the cardinal looks superciliously on. nearly all of mr. tissot's pictures are deficient in feeling and depth; his young ladies are too fashionably over-dressed to interest the artistic eye, and he has a hard unscrupulousness in painting uninteresting objects in an uninteresting way. there is some good colour and drawing, however, in his painting of a withered chestnut tree, with the autumn sun glowing through the yellow leaves, in a picnic scene, no. ; the remainder of the picture being something in the photographic style of frith. what a gap in art there is between such a picture as the banquet of the civic guard in holland, with its beautiful grouping of noble-looking men, its exquisite venetian glass aglow with light and wine, and mr. tissot's over-dressed, common-looking people, and ugly, painfully accurate representation of modern soda-water bottles! mr. tissot's widower, however, shines in qualities which his other pictures lack; it is full of depth and suggestiveness; the grasses and wild, luxuriant growth of the foreground are a revel of natural life. we must notice besides in this gallery mr. watts's two powerful portraits of mr. burne-jones and lady lindsay. to get to the water-colour room we pass through a small sculpture gallery, which contains some busts of interest, and a pretty terra-cotta figure of a young sailor, by count gleichen, entitled cheeky, but it is not remarkable in any way, and contrasts very unfavourably with the exhibition of sculpture at the royal academy, in which are three really fine works of art--mr. leighton's man struggling with a snake, which may be thought worthy of being looked on side by side with the laocoon of the vatican, and lord ronald gower's two statues, one of a dying french guardsman at the battle of waterloo, the other of marie antoinette being led to execution with bound hands, queenlike and noble to the last. the collection of water-colours is mediocre; there is a good effect of mr. poynter's, the east wind seen from a high cliff sweeping down on the sea like the black wings of some god; and some charming pictures of fairy land by mr. richard doyle, which would make good illustrations for one of mr. allingham's fairy-poems, but the tout-ensemble is poor. taking a general view of the works exhibited here, we see that this dull land of england, with its short summer, its dreary rains and fogs, its mining districts and factories, and vile deification of machinery, has yet produced very great masters of art, men with a subtle sense and love of what is beautiful, original, and noble in imagination. nor are the art-treasures of this country at all exhausted by this exhibition; there are very many great pictures by living artists hidden away in different places, which those of us who are yet boys have never seen, and which our elders must wish to see again. holman hunt has done better work than the afterglow in egypt; neither millais, leighton, nor poynter has sent any of the pictures on which his fame rests; neither burne-jones nor watts shows us here all the glories of his art; and the name of that strange genius who wrote the vision of love revealed in sleep, and the names of dante rossetti and of the marchioness of waterford, cannot be found in the catalogue. and so it is to be hoped that this is not the only exhibition of paintings that we shall see in the grosvenor gallery; and sir coutts lindsay, in showing us great works of art, will be most materially aiding that revival of culture and love of beauty which in great part owes its birth to mr. ruskin, and which mr. swinburne, and mr. pater, and mr. symonds, and mr. morris, and many others, are fostering and keeping alive, each in his own peculiar fashion. the grosvenor gallery (saunders' irish daily news, may , .) while the yearly exhibition of the royal academy may be said to present us with the general characteristics of ordinary english art at its most commonplace level, it is at the grosvenor gallery that we are enabled to see the highest development of the modern artistic spirit as well as what one might call its specially accentuated tendencies. foremost among the great works now exhibited at this gallery are mr. burne-jones's annunciation and his four pictures illustrating the greek legend of pygmalion--works of the very highest importance in our aesthetic development as illustrative of some of the more exquisite qualities of modern culture. in the first the virgin mary, a passionless, pale woman, with that mysterious sorrow whose meaning she was so soon to learn mirrored in her wan face, is standing, in grey drapery, by a marble fountain, in what seems the open courtyard of an empty and silent house, while through the branches of a tall olive tree, unseen by the virgin's tear-dimmed eyes, is descending the angel gabriel with his joyful and terrible message, not painted as angelico loved to do, in the varied splendour of peacock-like wings and garments of gold and crimson, but somewhat sombre in colour, set with all the fine grace of nobly-fashioned drapery and exquisitely ordered design. in presence of what may be called the mediaeval spirit may be discerned both the idea and the technique of the work, and even still more so in the four pictures of the story of pygmalion, where the sculptor is represented in dress and in looks rather as a christian st. francis, than as a pure greek artist in the first morning tide of art, creating his own ideal, and worshipping it. for delicacy and melody of colour these pictures are beyond praise, nor can anything exceed the idyllic loveliness of aphrodite waking the statue into sensuous life: the world above her head like a brittle globe of glass, her feet resting on a drift of the blue sky, and a choir of doves fluttering around her like a fall of white snow. following in the same school of ideal and imaginative painting is miss evelyn pickering, whose picture of st. catherine, in the dudley of some years ago, attracted such great attention. to the present gallery she has contributed a large picture of night and sleep, twin brothers floating over the world in indissoluble embrace, the one spreading the cloak of darkness, while from the other's listless hands the leathean poppies fall in a scarlet shower. mr. strudwich sends a picture of isabella, which realises in some measure the pathos of keats's poem, and another of the lover in the lily garden from the song of solomon, both works full of delicacy of design and refinement of detail, yet essentially weak in colour, and in comparison with the splendid giorgione-like work of mr. fairfax murray, are more like the coloured drawings of the modern german school than what we properly call a painting. the last-named artist, while essentially weak in draughtsmanship, yet possesses the higher quality of noble colour in the fullest degree. the draped figures of men and women in his garland makers, and pastoral, some wrought in that single note of colour which the earlier florentines loved, others with all the varied richness and glow of the venetian school, show what great results may be brought about by a youth spent in italian cities. and finally i must notice the works contributed to this gallery by that most powerful of all our english artists, mr. g. f. watts, the extraordinary width and reach of whose genius were never more illustrated than by the various pictures bearing his name which are here exhibited. his paolo and francesca, and his orpheus and eurydice, are creative visions of the very highest order of imaginative painting; marked as it is with all the splendid vigour of nobly ordered design, the last-named picture possesses qualities of colour no less great. the white body of the dying girl, drooping like a pale lily, and the clinging arms of her lover, whose strong brown limbs seem filled with all the sensuous splendour of passionate life, form a melancholy and wonderful note of colour to which the eye continually returns as indicating the motive of the conception. yet here i would dwell rather on two pictures which show the splendid simplicity and directness of his strength, the one a portrait of himself, the other that of a little child called dorothy, who has all that sweet gravity and look of candour which we like to associate with that old-fashioned name: a child with bright rippling hair, tangled like floss silk, open brown eyes and flower-like mouth; dressed in faded claret, with little lace about the neck and throat, toned down to a delicate grey--the hands simply clasped before her. this is the picture; as truthful and lovely as any of those brignoli children which vandyke has painted in genoa. nor is his own picture of himself--styled in the catalogue merely a portrait--less wonderful, especially the luminous treatment of the various shades of black as shown in the hat and cloak. it would be quite impossible, however, to give any adequate account or criticism of the work now exhibited in the grosvenor gallery within the limits of a single notice. richmond's noble picture of sleep and death bearing the slain body of sarpedon, and his bronze statue of the greek athlete, are works of the very highest order of artistic excellence, but i will reserve for another occasion the qualities of his power. mr. whistler, whose wonderful and eccentric genius is better appreciated in france than in england, sends a very wonderful picture entitled the golden girl, a life-size study in amber, yellow and browns, of a child dancing with a skipping-rope, full of birdlike grace and exquisite motion; as well as some delightful specimens of etching (an art of which he is the consummate master), one of which, called the little forge, entirely done with the dry point, possesses extraordinary merit; nor have the philippics of the fors clavigera deterred him from exhibiting some more of his 'arrangements in colour,' one of which, called a harmony in green and gold, i would especially mention as an extremely good example of what ships lying at anchor on a summer evening are from the 'impressionist point of view.' mr. eugene benson, one of the most cultured of those many americans who seem to have found their mecca in modern rome, has sent a picture of narcissus, a work full of the true theocritean sympathy for the natural picturesqueness of shepherd life, and entirely delightful to all who love the peculiar qualities of italian scenery. the shadows of the trees drifting across the grass, the crowding together of the sheep, and the sense of summer air and light which fills the picture, are full of the highest truth and beauty; and mr. forbes-robertson, whose picture of phelps as cardinal wolsey has just been bought by the garrick club, and who is himself so well known as a young actor of the very highest promise, is represented by a portrait of mr. hermann vezin which is extremely clever and certainly very lifelike. nor amongst the minor works must i omit to notice miss stuart-wortley's view on the river cherwell, taken from the walks of magdalen college, oxford,--a little picture marked by great sympathy for the shade and coolness of green places and for the stillness of summer waters; or mrs. valentine bromley's misty day, remarkable for the excellent drawing of a breaking wave, as well as for a great delicacy of tone. besides the marchioness of waterford, whose brilliant treatment of colour is so well known, and mr. richard doyle, whose water-colour drawings of children and of fairy scenes are always so fresh and bright, the qualities of the irish genius in the field of art find an entirely adequate exponent in mr. wills, who as a dramatist and a painter has won himself such an honourable name. three pictures of his are exhibited here: the spirit of the shell, which is perhaps too fanciful and vague in design; the nymph and satyr, where the little goat-footed child has all the sweet mystery and romance of the woodlands about him; and the parting of ophelia and laertes, a work not only full of very strong drawing, especially in the modelling of the male figure, but a very splendid example of the power of subdued and reserved colour, the perfect harmony of tone being made still more subtle by the fitful play of reflected light on the polished armour. i shall reserve for another notice the wonderful landscapes of mr. cecil lawson, who has caught so much of turner's imagination and mode of treatment, as well as a consideration of the works of herkomer, tissot and legros, and others of the modern realistic school. note.--the other notice mentioned above did not appear. l'envoi an introduction to rose leaf and apple leaf by rennell rodd, published by j. m. stoddart and co., philadelphia, . amongst the many young men in england who are seeking along with me to continue and to perfect the english renaissance--jeunes guerriers du drapeau romantique, as gautier would have called us--there is none whose love of art is more flawless and fervent, whose artistic sense of beauty is more subtle and more delicate--none, indeed, who is dearer to myself--than the young poet whose verses i have brought with me to america; verses full of sweet sadness, and yet full of joy; for the most joyous poet is not he who sows the desolate highways of this world with the barren seed of laughter, but he who makes his sorrow most musical, this indeed being the meaning of joy in art--that incommunicable element of artistic delight which, in poetry, for instance, comes from what keats called the 'sensuous life of verse,' the element of song in the singing, made so pleasurable to us by that wonder of motion which often has its origin in mere musical impulse, and in painting is to be sought for, from the subject never, but from the pictorial charm only--the scheme and symphony of the colour, the satisfying beauty of the design: so that the ultimate expression of our artistic movement in painting has been, not in the spiritual visions of the pre-raphaelites, for all their marvel of greek legend and their mystery of italian song, but in the work of such men as whistler and albert moore, who have raised design and colour to the ideal level of poetry and music. for the quality of their exquisite painting comes from the mere inventive and creative handling of line and colour, from a certain form and choice of beautiful workmanship, which, rejecting all literary reminiscence and all metaphysical idea, is in itself entirely satisfying to the aesthetic sense--is, as the greeks would say, an end in itself; the effect of their work being like the effect given to us by music; for music is the art in which form and matter are always one--the art whose subject cannot be separated from the method of its expression; the art which most completely realises for us the artistic ideal, and is the condition to which all the other arts are constantly aspiring. now, this increased sense of the absolutely satisfying value of beautiful workmanship, this recognition of the primary importance of the sensuous element in art, this love of art for art's sake, is the point in which we of the younger school have made a departure from the teaching of mr. ruskin,--a departure definite and different and decisive. master indeed of the knowledge of all noble living and of the wisdom of all spiritual things will he be to us ever, seeing that it was he who by the magic of his presence and the music of his lips taught us at oxford that enthusiasm for beauty which is the secret of hellenism, and that desire for creation which is the secret of life, and filled some of us, at least, with the lofty and passionate ambition to go forth into far and fair lands with some message for the nations and some mission for the world, and yet in his art criticism, his estimate of the joyous element of art, his whole method of approaching art, we are no longer with him; for the keystone to his aesthetic system is ethical always. he would judge of a picture by the amount of noble moral ideas it expresses; but to us the channels by which all noble work in painting can touch, and does touch, the soul are not those of truths of life or metaphysical truths. to him perfection of workmanship seems but the symbol of pride, and incompleteness of technical resource the image of an imagination too limitless to find within the limits of form its complete expression, or of a love too simple not to stammer in its tale. but to us the rule of art is not the rule of morals. in an ethical system, indeed, of any gentle mercy good intentions will, one is fain to fancy, have their recognition; but of those that would enter the serene house of beauty the question that we ask is not what they had ever meant to do, but what they have done. their pathetic intentions are of no value to us, but their realised creations only. pour moi je prefere les poetes qui font des vers, les medecins qui sachent guerir, les peintres qui sachent peindre. nor, in looking at a work of art, should we be dreaming of what it symbolises, but rather loving it for what it is. indeed, the transcendental spirit is alien to the spirit of art. the metaphysical mind of asia may create for itself the monstrous and many-breasted idol, but to the greek, pure artist, that work is most instinct with spiritual life which conforms most closely to the perfect facts of physical life also. nor, in its primary aspect, has a painting, for instance, any more spiritual message or meaning for us than a blue tile from the wall of damascus, or a hitzen vase. it is a beautifully coloured surface, nothing more, and affects us by no suggestion stolen from philosophy, no pathos pilfered from literature, no feeling filched from a poet, but by its own incommunicable artistic essence--by that selection of truth which we call style, and that relation of values which is the draughtsmanship of painting, by the whole quality of the workmanship, the arabesque of the design, the splendour of the colour, for these things are enough to stir the most divine and remote of the chords which make music in our soul, and colour, indeed, is of itself a mystical presence on things, and tone a kind of sentiment. this, then--the new departure of our younger school--is the chief characteristic of mr. rennell rodd's poetry; for, while there is much in his work that may interest the intellect, much that will excite the emotions, and many-cadenced chords of sweet and simple sentiment--for to those who love art for its own sake all other things are added--yet, the effect which they pre-eminently seek to produce is purely an artistic one. such a poem as the sea-king's grave, with all its majesty of melody as sonorous and as strong as the sea by whose pine-fringed shores it was thus nobly conceived and nobly fashioned; or the little poem that follows it, whose cunning workmanship, wrought with such an artistic sense of limitation, one might liken to the rare chasing of the mirror that is its motive; or in a church, pale flower of one of those exquisite moments when all things except the moment itself seem so curiously real, and when the old memories of forgotten days are touched and made tender, and the familiar place grows fervent and solemn suddenly with a vision of the undying beauty of the gods that died; or the scene in chartres cathedral, sombre silence brooding on vault and arch, silent people kneeling on the dust of the desolate pavement as the young priest lifts lord christ's body in a crystal star, and then the sudden beams of scarlet light that break through the blazoned window and smite on the carven screen, and sudden organ peals of mighty music rolling and echoing from choir to canopy, and from spire to shaft, and over all the clear glad voice of a singing boy, affecting one as a thing over-sweet, and striking just the right artistic keynote for one's emotions; or at lanuvium, through the music of whose lines one seems to hear again the murmur of the mantuan bees straying down from their own green valleys and inland streams to find what honeyed amber the sea-flowers might be hiding; or the poem written in the coliseum, which gives one the same artistic joy that one gets watching a handicraftsman at his work, a goldsmith hammering out his gold into those thin plates as delicate as the petals of a yellow rose, or drawing it out into the long wires like tangled sunbeams, so perfect and precious is the mere handling of it; or the little lyric interludes that break in here and there like the singing of a thrush, and are as swift and as sure as the beating of a bird's wing, as light and bright as the apple-blossoms that flutter fitfully down to the orchard grass after a spring shower, and look the lovelier for the rain's tears lying on their dainty veinings of pink and pearl; or the sonnets--for mr. rodd is one of those qui sonnent le sonnet, as the ronsardists used to say--that one called on the border hills, with its fiery wonder of imagination and the strange beauty of its eighth line; or the one which tells of the sorrow of the great king for the little dead child--well, all these poems aim, as i said, at producing a purely artistic effect, and have the rare and exquisite quality that belongs to work of that kind; and i feel that the entire subordination in our aesthetic movement of all merely emotional and intellectual motives to the vital informing poetic principle is the surest sign of our strength. but it is not enough that a work of art should conform to the aesthetic demands of the age: there should be also about it, if it is to give us any permanent delight, the impress of a distinct individuality. whatever work we have in the nineteenth century must rest on the two poles of personality and perfection. and so in this little volume, by separating the earlier and more simple work from the work that is later and stronger and possesses increased technical power and more artistic vision, one might weave these disconnected poems, these stray and scattered threads, into one fiery-coloured strand of life, noting first a boy's mere gladness of being young, with all its simple joy in field and flower, in sunlight and in song, and then the bitterness of sudden sorrow at the ending by death of one of the brief and beautiful friendships of one's youth, with all those unanswered longings and questionings unsatisfied by which we vex, so uselessly, the marble face of death; the artistic contrast between the discontented incompleteness of the spirit and the complete perfection of the style that expresses it forming the chief element of the aesthetic charm of these particular poems;--and then the birth of love, and all the wonder and the fear and the perilous delight of one on whose boyish brows the little wings of love have beaten for the first time; and the love-songs, so dainty and delicate, little swallow- flights of music, and full of such fragrance and freedom that they might all be sung in the open air and across moving water; and then autumn, coming with its choirless woods and odorous decay and ruined loveliness, love lying dead; and the sense of the mere pity of it. one might stop there, for from a young poet one should ask for no deeper chords of life than those that love and friendship make eternal for us; and the best poems in the volume belong clearly to a later time, a time when these real experiences become absorbed and gathered up into a form which seems from such real experiences to be the most alien and the most remote; when the simple expression of joy or sorrow suffices no longer, and lives rather in the stateliness of the cadenced metre, in the music and colour of the linked words, than in any direct utterance; lives, one might say, in the perfection of the form more than in the pathos of the feeling. and yet, after the broken music of love and the burial of love in the autumn woods, we can trace that wandering among strange people, and in lands unknown to us, by which we try so pathetically to heal the hurts of the life we know, and that pure and passionate devotion to art which one gets when the harsh reality of life has too suddenly wounded one, and is with discontent or sorrow marring one's youth, just as often, i think, as one gets it from any natural joy of living; and that curious intensity of vision by which, in moments of overmastering sadness and despair ungovernable, artistic things will live in one's memory with a vivid realism caught from the life which they help one to forget--an old grey tomb in flanders with a strange legend on it, making one think how, perhaps, passion does live on after death; a necklace of blue and amber beads and a broken mirror found in a girl's grave at rome, a marble image of a boy habited like eros, and with the pathetic tradition of a great king's sorrow lingering about it like a purple shadow,--over all these the tired spirit broods with that calm and certain joy that one gets when one has found something that the ages never dull and the world cannot harm; and with it comes that desire of greek things which is often an artistic method of expressing one's desire for perfection; and that longing for the old dead days which is so modern, so incomplete, so touching, being, in a way, the inverted torch of hope, which burns the hand it should guide; and for many things a little sadness, and for all things a great love; and lastly, in the pinewood by the sea, once more the quick and vital pulse of joyous youth leaping and laughing in every line, the frank and fearless freedom of wave and wind waking into fire life's burnt-out ashes and into song the silent lips of pain,--how clearly one seems to see it all, the long colonnade of pines with sea and sky peeping in here and there like a flitting of silver; the open place in the green, deep heart of the wood with the little moss-grown altar to the old italian god in it; and the flowers all about, cyclamen in the shadowy places, and the stars of the white narcissus lying like snow-flakes over the grass, where the quick, bright-eyed lizard starts by the stone, and the snake lies coiled lazily in the sun on the hot sand, and overhead the gossamer floats from the branches like thin, tremulous threads of gold,--the scene is so perfect for its motive, for surely here, if anywhere, the real gladness of life might be revealed to one's youth--the gladness that comes, not from the rejection, but from the absorption, of all passion, and is like that serene calm that dwells in the faces of the greek statues, and which despair and sorrow cannot touch, but intensify only. in some such way as this we could gather up these strewn and scattered petals of song into one perfect rose of life, and yet, perhaps, in so doing, we might be missing the true quality of the poems; one's real life is so often the life that one does not lead; and beautiful poems, like threads of beautiful silks, may be woven into many patterns and to suit many designs, all wonderful and all different: and romantic poetry, too, is essentially the poetry of impressions, being like that latest school of painting, the school of whistler and albert moore, in its choice of situation as opposed to subject; in its dealing with the exceptions rather than with the types of life; in its brief intensity; in what one might call its fiery-coloured momentariness, it being indeed the momentary situations of life, the momentary aspects of nature, which poetry and painting now seek to render for us. sincerity and constancy will the artist, indeed, have always; but sincerity in art is merely that plastic perfection of execution without which a poem or a painting, however noble its sentiment or human its origin, is but wasted and unreal work, and the constancy of the artist cannot be to any definite rule or system of living, but to that principle of beauty only through which the inconstant shadows of his life are in their most fleeting moment arrested and made permanent. he will not, for instance, in intellectual matters acquiesce in that facile orthodoxy of our day which is so reasonable and so artistically uninteresting, nor yet will he desire that fiery faith of the antique time which, while it intensified, yet limited the vision; still less will he allow the calm of his culture to be marred by the discordant despair of doubt or the sadness of a sterile scepticism; for the valley perilous, where ignorant armies clash by night, is no resting- place meet for her to whom the gods have assigned the clear upland, the serene height, and the sunlit air,--rather will he be always curiously testing new forms of belief, tinging his nature with the sentiment that still lingers about some beautiful creeds, and searching for experience itself, and not for the fruits of experience; when he has got its secret, he will leave without regret much that was once very precious to him. 'i am always insincere,' says emerson somewhere, 'as knowing that there are other moods': 'les emotions,' wrote theophile gautier once in a review of arsene houssaye, 'les emotions ne se ressemblent pas, mais etre emu--voila l'important.' now, this is the secret of the art of the modern romantic school, and gives one the right keynote for its apprehension; but the real quality of all work which, like mr. rodd's, aims, as i said, at a purely artistic effect, cannot be described in terms of intellectual criticism; it is too intangible for that. one can perhaps convey it best in terms of the other arts, and by reference to them; and, indeed, some of these poems are as iridescent and as exquisite as a lovely fragment of venetian glass; others as delicate in perfect workmanship and as single in natural motive as an etching by whistler is, or one of those beautiful little greek figures which in the olive woods round tanagra men can still find, with the faint gilding and the fading crimson not yet fled from hair and lips and raiment; and many of them seem like one of corot's twilights just passing into music; for not merely in visible colour, but in sentiment also--which is the colour of poetry--may there be a kind of tone. but i think that the best likeness to the quality of this young poet's work i ever saw was in the landscape by the loire. we were staying once, he and i, at amboise, that little village with its grey slate roofs and steep streets and gaunt, grim gateway, where the quiet cottages nestle like white pigeons into the sombre clefts of the great bastioned rock, and the stately renaissance houses stand silent and apart--very desolate now, but with some memory of the old days still lingering about the delicately-twisted pillars, and the carved doorways, with their grotesque animals, and laughing masks, and quaint heraldic devices, all reminding one of a people who could not think life real till they had made it fantastic. and above the village, and beyond the bend of the river, we used to go in the afternoon, and sketch from one of the big barges that bring the wine in autumn and the wood in winter down to the sea, or lie in the long grass and make plans pour la gloire, et pour ennuyer les philistins, or wander along the low, sedgy banks, 'matching our reeds in sportive rivalry,' as comrades used in the old sicilian days; and the land was an ordinary land enough, and bare, too, when one thought of italy, and how the oleanders were robing the hillsides by genoa in scarlet, and the cyclamen filling with its purple every valley from florence to rome; for there was not much real beauty, perhaps, in it, only long, white dusty roads and straight rows of formal poplars; but, now and then, some little breaking gleam of broken light would lend to the grey field and the silent barn a secret and a mystery that were hardly their own, would transfigure for one exquisite moment the peasants passing down through the vineyard, or the shepherd watching on the hill, would tip the willows with silver and touch the river into gold; and the wonder of the effect, with the strange simplicity of the material, always seemed to me to be a little like the quality of these the verses of my friend. mrs. langtry as hester grazebrook (new york world, november , .) it is only in the best greek gems, on the silver coins of syracuse, or among the marble figures of the parthenon frieze, that one can find the ideal representation of the marvellous beauty of that face which laughed through the leaves last night as hester grazebrook. pure greek it is, with the grave low forehead, the exquisitely arched brow; the noble chiselling of the mouth, shaped as if it were the mouthpiece of an instrument of music; the supreme and splendid curve of the cheek; the augustly pillared throat which bears it all: it is greek, because the lines which compose it are so definite and so strong, and yet so exquisitely harmonised that the effect is one of simple loveliness purely: greek, because its essence and its quality, as is the quality of music and of architecture, is that of beauty based on absolutely mathematical laws. but while art remains dumb and immobile in its passionless serenity, with the beauty of this face it is different: the grey eyes lighten into blue or deepen into violet as fancy succeeds fancy; the lips become flower- like in laughter or, tremulous as a bird's wing, mould themselves at last into the strong and bitter moulds of pain or scorn. and then motion comes, and the statue wakes into life. but the life is not the ordinary life of common days; it is life with a new value given to it, the value of art: and the charm to me of hester grazebrook's acting in the first scene of the play { } last night was that mingling of classic grace with absolute reality which is the secret of all beautiful art, of the plastic work of the greeks and of the pictures of jean francois millet equally. i do not think that the sovereignty and empire of women's beauty has at all passed away, though we may no longer go to war for them as the greeks did for the daughter of leda. the greatest empire still remains for them--the empire of art. and, indeed, this wonderful face, seen last night for the first time in america, has filled and permeated with the pervading image of its type the whole of our modern art in england. last century it was the romantic type which dominated in art, the type loved by reynolds and gainsborough, of wonderful contrasts of colour, of exquisite and varying charm of expression, but without that definite plastic feeling which divides classic from romantic work. this type degenerated into mere facile prettiness in the hands of lesser masters, and, in protest against it, was created by the hands of the pre-raphaelites a new type, with its rare combination of greek form with florentine mysticism. but this mysticism becomes over-strained and a burden, rather than an aid to expression, and a desire for the pure hellenic joy and serenity came in its place; and in all our modern work, in the paintings of such men as albert moore and leighton and whistler, we can trace the influence of this single face giving fresh life and inspiration in the form of a new artistic ideal. as regards hester grazebrook's dresses, the first was a dress whose grace depended entirely on the grace of the person who wore it. it was merely the simple dress of a village girl in england. the second was a lovely combination of blue and creamy lace. but the masterpiece was undoubtedly the last, a symphony in silver-grey and pink, a pure melody of colour which i feel sure whistler would call a scherzo, and take as its visible motive the moonlight wandering in silver mist through a rose-garden; unless indeed he saw this dress, in which case he would paint it and nothing else, for it is a dress such as velasquez only could paint, and whistler very wisely always paints those things which are within reach of velasquez only. the scenery was, of course, prepared in a hurry. still, much of it was very good indeed: the first scene especially, with its graceful trees and open forge and cottage porch, though the roses were dreadfully out of tone and, besides their crudity of colour, were curiously badly grouped. the last scene was exceedingly clever and true to nature as well, being that combination of lovely scenery and execrable architecture which is so specially characteristic of a german spa. as for the drawing-room scene, i cannot regard it as in any way a success. the heavy ebony doors are entirely out of keeping with the satin panels; the silk hangings and festoons of black and yellow are quite meaningless in their position and consequently quite ugly; the carpet is out of all colour relation with the rest of the room, and the table-cover is mauve. still, to have decorated ever so bad a room in six days must, i suppose, be a subject of respectful wonder, though i should have fancied that mr. wallack had many very much better sets in his own stock. but i am beginning to quarrel generally with most modern scene-painting. a scene is primarily a decorative background for the actors, and should always be kept subordinate, first to the players, their dress, gesture, and action; and secondly, to the fundamental principle of decorative art, which is not to imitate but to suggest nature. if the landscape is given its full realistic value, the value of the figures to which it serves as a background is impaired and often lost, and so the painted hangings of the elizabethan age were a far more artistic, and so a far more rational form of scenery than most modern scene-painting is. from the same master- hand which designed the curtain of madison square theatre i should like very much to see a good decorative landscape in scene-painting; for i have seen no open-air scene in any theatre which did not really mar the value of the actors. one must either, like titian, make the landscape subordinate to the figures, or, like claude, the figures subordinate to the landscape; for if we desire realistic acting we cannot have realistic scene-painting. i need not describe, however, how the beauty of hester grazebrook survived the crude roses and the mauve tablecloth triumphantly. that it is a beauty that will be appreciated to the full in america i do not doubt for a moment, for it is only countries which possess great beauty that can appreciate beauty at all. it may also influence the art of america as it has influenced the art of england, for of the rare greek type it is the most absolutely perfect example. the philistine may, of course, object that to be absolutely perfect is impossible. well, that is so: but then it is only the impossible things that are worth doing nowadays! woman's dress (pall mall gazette, october , .) mr. oscar wilde, who asks us to permit him 'that most charming of all pleasures, the pleasure of answering one's critics,' sends us the following remarks:-- the 'girl graduate' must of course have precedence, not merely for her sex but for her sanity: her letter is extremely sensible. she makes two points: that high heels are a necessity for any lady who wishes to keep her dress clean from the stygian mud of our streets, and that without a tight corset 'the ordinary number of petticoats and etceteras' cannot be properly or conveniently held up. now, it is quite true that as long as the lower garments are suspended from the hips a corset is an absolute necessity; the mistake lies in not suspending all apparel from the shoulders. in the latter case a corset becomes useless, the body is left free and unconfined for respiration and motion, there is more health, and consequently more beauty. indeed all the most ungainly and uncomfortable articles of dress that fashion has ever in her folly prescribed, not the tight corset merely, but the farthingale, the vertugadin, the hoop, the crinoline, and that modern monstrosity the so-called 'dress improver' also, all of them have owed their origin to the same error, the error of not seeing that it is from the shoulders, and from the shoulders only, that all garments should be hung. and as regards high heels, i quite admit that some additional height to the shoe or boot is necessary if long gowns are to be worn in the street; but what i object to is that the height should be given to the heel only, and not to the sole of the foot also. the modern high-heeled boot is, in fact, merely the clog of the time of henry vi., with the front prop left out, and its inevitable effect is to throw the body forward, to shorten the steps, and consequently to produce that want of grace which always follows want of freedom. why should clogs be despised? much art has been expended on clogs. they have been made of lovely woods, and delicately inlaid with ivory, and with mother-of-pearl. a clog might be a dream of beauty, and, if not too high or too heavy, most comfortable also. but if there be any who do not like clogs, let them try some adaptation of the trouser of the turkish lady, which is loose round the limb and tight at the ankle. the 'girl graduate,' with a pathos to which i am not insensible, entreats me not to apotheosise 'that awful, befringed, beflounced, and bekilted divided skirt.' well, i will acknowledge that the fringes, the flounces, and the kilting do certainly defeat the whole object of the dress, which is that of ease and liberty; but i regard these things as mere wicked superfluities, tragic proofs that the divided skirt is ashamed of its own division. the principle of the dress is good, and, though it is not by any means perfection, it is a step towards it. here i leave the 'girl graduate,' with much regret, for mr. wentworth huyshe. mr. huyshe makes the old criticism that greek dress is unsuited to our climate, and, to me the somewhat new assertion, that the men's dress of a hundred years ago was preferable to that of the second part of the seventeenth century, which i consider to have been the exquisite period of english costume. now, as regards the first of these two statements, i will say, to begin with, that the warmth of apparel does not depend really on the number of garments worn, but on the material of which they are made. one of the chief faults of modern dress is that it is composed of far too many articles of clothing, most of which are of the wrong substance; but over a substratum of pure wool, such as is supplied by dr. jaeger under the modern german system, some modification of greek costume is perfectly applicable to our climate, our country and our century. this important fact has already been pointed out by mr. e. w. godwin in his excellent, though too brief, handbook on dress, contributed to the health exhibition. i call it an important fact because it makes almost any form of lovely costume perfectly practicable in our cold climate. mr. godwin, it is true, points out that the english ladies of the thirteenth century abandoned after some time the flowing garments of the early renaissance in favour of a tighter mode, such as northern europe seems to demand. this i quite admit, and its significance; but what i contend, and what i am sure mr. godwin would agree with me in, is that the principles, the laws of greek dress may be perfectly realised, even in a moderately tight gown with sleeves: i mean the principle of suspending all apparel from the shoulders, and of relying for beauty of effect not on the stiff ready- made ornaments of the modern milliner--the bows where there should be no bows, and the flounces where there should be no flounces--but on the exquisite play of light and line that one gets from rich and rippling folds. i am not proposing any antiquarian revival of an ancient costume, but trying merely to point out the right laws of dress, laws which are dictated by art and not by archaeology, by science and not by fashion; and just as the best work of art in our days is that which combines classic grace with absolute reality, so from a continuation of the greek principles of beauty with the german principles of health will come, i feel certain, the costume of the future. and now to the question of men's dress, or rather to mr. huyshe's claim of the superiority, in point of costume, of the last quarter of the eighteenth century over the second quarter of the seventeenth. the broad- brimmed hat of kept the rain of winter and the glare of summer from the face; the same cannot be said of the hat of one hundred years ago, which, with its comparatively narrow brim and high crown, was the precursor of the modern 'chimney-pot': a wide turned-down collar is a healthier thing than a strangling stock, and a short cloak much more comfortable than a sleeved overcoat, even though the latter may have had 'three capes'; a cloak is easier to put on and off, lies lightly on the shoulder in summer, and wrapped round one in winter keeps one perfectly warm. a doublet, again, is simpler than a coat and waistcoat; instead of two garments one has one; by not being open also it protects the chest better. short loose trousers are in every way to be preferred to the tight knee- breeches which often impede the proper circulation of the blood; and finally, the soft leather boots which could be worn above or below the knee, are more supple, and give consequently more freedom, than the stiff hessian which mr. huyshe so praises. i say nothing about the question of grace and picturesqueness, for i suppose that no one, not even mr. huyshe, would prefer a maccaroni to a cavalier, a lawrence to a vandyke, or the third george to the first charles; but for ease, warmth and comfort this seventeenth-century dress is infinitely superior to anything that came after it, and i do not think it is excelled by any preceding form of costume. i sincerely trust that we may soon see in england some national revival of it. more radical ideas upon dress reform (pall mall gazette, november , .) i have been much interested at reading the large amount of correspondence that has been called forth by my recent lecture on dress. it shows me that the subject of dress reform is one that is occupying many wise and charming people, who have at heart the principles of health, freedom, and beauty in costume, and i hope that 'h. b. t.' and 'materfamilias' will have all the real influence which their letters--excellent letters both of them--certainly deserve. i turn first to mr. huyshe's second letter, and the drawing that accompanies it; but before entering into any examination of the theory contained in each, i think i should state at once that i have absolutely no idea whether this gentleman wears his hair longer short, or his cuffs back or forward, or indeed what he is like at all. i hope he consults his own comfort and wishes in everything which has to do with his dress, and is allowed to enjoy that individualism in apparel which he so eloquently claims for himself, and so foolishly tries to deny to others; but i really could not take mr. wentworth huyshe's personal appearance as any intellectual basis for an investigation of the principles which should guide the costume of a nation. i am not denying the force, or even the popularity, of the ''eave arf a brick' school of criticism, but i acknowledge it does not interest me. the gamin in the gutter may be a necessity, but the gamin in discussion is a nuisance. so i will proceed at once to the real point at issue, the value of the late eighteenth-century costume over that worn in the second quarter of the seventeenth: the relative merits, that is, of the principles contained in each. now, as regards the eighteenth-century costume, mr. wentworth huyshe acknowledges that he has had no practical experience of it at all; in fact, he makes a pathetic appeal to his friends to corroborate him in his assertion, which i do not question for a moment, that he has never been 'guilty of the eccentricity' of wearing himself the dress which he proposes for general adoption by others. there is something so naive and so amusing about this last passage in mr. huyshe's letter that i am really in doubt whether i am not doing him a wrong in regarding him as having any serious, or sincere, views on the question of a possible reform in dress; still, as irrespective of any attitude of mr. huyshe's in the matter, the subject is in itself an interesting one, i think it is worth continuing, particularly as i have myself worn this late eighteenth- century dress many times, both in public and in private, and so may claim to have a very positive right to speak on its comfort and suitability. the particular form of the dress i wore was very similar to that given in mr. godwin's handbook, from a print of northcote's, and had a certain elegance and grace about it which was very charming; still, i gave it up for these reasons:--after a further consideration of the laws of dress i saw that a doublet is a far simpler and easier garment than a coat and waistcoat, and, if buttoned from the shoulder, far warmer also, and that tails have no place in costume, except on some darwinian theory of heredity; from absolute experience in the matter i found that the excessive tightness of knee-breeches is not really comfortable if one wears them constantly; and, in fact, i satisfied myself that the dress is not one founded on any real principles. the broad-brimmed hat and loose cloak, which, as my object was not, of course, historical accuracy but modern ease, i had always worn with the costume in question, i have still retained, and find them most comfortable. well, although mr. huyshe has no real experience of the dress he proposes, he gives us a drawing of it, which he labels, somewhat prematurely, 'an ideal dress.' an ideal dress of course it is not; 'passably picturesque,' he says i may possibly think it; well, passably picturesque it may be, but not beautiful, certainly, simply because it is not founded on right principles, or, indeed, on any principles at all. picturesqueness one may get in a variety of ways; ugly things that are strange, or unfamiliar to us, for instance, may be picturesque, such as a late sixteenth-century costume, or a georgian house. ruins, again, may be picturesque, but beautiful they never can be, because their lines are meaningless. beauty, in fact, is to be got only from the perfection of principles; and in 'the ideal dress' of mr. huyshe there are no ideas or principles at all, much less the perfection of either. let us examine it, and see its faults; they are obvious to any one who desires more than a 'fancy-dress ball' basis for costume. to begin with, the hat and boots are all wrong. whatever one wears on the extremities, such as the feet and head, should, for the sake of comfort, be made of a soft material, and for the sake of freedom should take its shape from the way one chooses to wear it, and not from any stiff, stereotyped design of hat or boot maker. in a hat made on right principles one should be able to turn the brim up or down according as the day is dark or fair, dry or wet; but the hat brim of mr. huyshe's drawing is perfectly stiff, and does not give much protection to the face, or the possibility of any at all to the back of the head or the ears, in case of a cold east wind; whereas the bycocket, a hat made in accordance with the right laws, can be turned down behind and at the sides, and so give the same warmth as a hood. the crown, again, of mr. huyshe's hat is far too high; a high crown diminishes the stature of a small person, and in the case of any one who is tall is a great inconvenience when one is getting in and out of hansoms and railway carriages, or passing under a street awning: in no case is it of any value whatsoever, and being useless it is of course against the principles of dress. as regards the boots, they are not quite so ugly or so uncomfortable as the hat; still they are evidently made of stiff leather, as otherwise they would fall down to the ankle, whereas the boot should be made of soft leather always, and if worn high at all must be either laced up the front or carried well over the knee: in the latter case one combines perfect freedom for walking together with perfect protection against rain, neither of which advantages a short stiff boot will ever give one, and when one is resting in the house the long soft boot can be turned down as the boot of was. then there is the overcoat: now, what are the right principles of an overcoat? to begin with, it should be capable of being easily put on or off, and worn over any kind of dress; consequently it should never have narrow sleeves, such as are shown in mr. huyshe's drawing. if an opening or slit for the arm is required it should be made quite wide, and may be protected by a flap, as in that excellent overall the modern inverness cape; secondly, it should not be too tight, as otherwise all freedom of walking is impeded. if the young gentleman in the drawing buttons his overcoat he may succeed in being statuesque, though that i doubt very strongly, but he will never succeed in being swift; his super-totus is made for him on no principle whatsoever; a super-totus, or overall, should be capable of being worn long or short, quite loose or moderately tight, just as the wearer wishes; he should be able to have one arm free and one arm covered, or both arms free or both arms covered, just as he chooses for his convenience in riding, walking, or driving; an overall again should never be heavy, and should always be warm: lastly, it should be capable of being easily carried if one wants to take it off; in fact, its principles are those of freedom and comfort, and a cloak realises them all, just as much as an overcoat of the pattern suggested by mr. huyshe violates them. the knee-breeches are of course far too tight; any one who has worn them for any length of time--any one, in fact, whose views on the subject are not purely theoretical--will agree with me there; like everything else in the dress, they are a great mistake. the substitution of the jacket for the coat and waistcoat of the period is a step in the right direction, which i am glad to see; it is, however, far too tight over the hips for any possible comfort. whenever a jacket or doublet comes below the waist it should be slit at each side. in the seventeenth century the skirt of the jacket was sometimes laced on by points and tags, so that it could be removed at will, sometimes it was merely left open at the sides: in each case it exemplified what are always the true principles of dress, i mean freedom and adaptability to circumstances. finally, as regards drawings of this kind, i would point out that there is absolutely no limit at all to the amount of 'passably picturesque' costumes which can be either revived or invented for us; but that unless a costume is founded on principles and exemplified laws, it never can be of any real value to us in the reform of dress. this particular drawing of mr. huyshe's, for instance, proves absolutely nothing, except that our grandfathers did not understand the proper laws of dress. there is not a single rule of right costume which is not violated in it, for it gives us stiffness, tightness and discomfort instead of comfort, freedom and ease. now here, on the other hand, is a dress which, being founded on principles, can serve us as an excellent guide and model; it has been drawn for me, most kindly, by mr. godwin from the duke of newcastle's delightful book on horsemanship, a book which is one of our best authorities on our best era of costume. i do not of course propose it necessarily for absolute imitation; that is not the way in which one should regard it; it is not, i mean, a revival of a dead costume, but a realisation of living laws. i give it as an example of a particular application of principles which are universally right. this rationally dressed young man can turn his hat brim down if it rains, and his loose trousers and boots down if he is tired--that is, he can adapt his costume to circumstances; then he enjoys perfect freedom, the arms and legs are not made awkward or uncomfortable by the excessive tightness of narrow sleeves and knee-breeches, and the hips are left quite untrammelled, always an important point; and as regards comfort, his jacket is not too loose for warmth, nor too close for respiration; his neck is well protected without being strangled, and even his ostrich feathers, if any philistine should object to them, are not merely dandyism, but fan him very pleasantly, i am sure, in summer, and when the weather is bad they are no doubt left at home, and his cloak taken out. _the value of the dress is simply that every separate article of it expresses a law_. my young man is consequently apparelled with ideas, while mr. huyshe's young man is stiffened with facts; the latter teaches one nothing; from the former one learns everything. i need hardly say that this dress is good, not because it is seventeenth century, but because it is constructed on the true principles of costume, just as a square lintel or a pointed arch is good, not because one may be greek and the other gothic, but because each of them is the best method of spanning a certain-sized opening, or resisting a certain weight. the fact, however, that this dress was generally worn in england two centuries and a half ago shows at least this, that the right laws of dress have been understood and realised in our country, and so in our country may be realised and understood again. as regards the absolute beauty of this dress and its meaning, i should like to say a few words more. mr. wentworth huyshe solemnly announces that 'he and those who think with him' cannot permit this question of beauty to be imported into the question of dress; that he and those who think with him take 'practical views on the subject,' and so on. well, i will not enter here into a discussion as to how far any one who does not take beauty and the value of beauty into account can claim to be practical at all. the word practical is nearly always the last refuge of the uncivilised. of all misused words it is the most evilly treated. but what i want to point out is that beauty is essentially organic; that is, it comes, not from without, but from within, not from any added prettiness, but from the perfection of its own being; and that consequently, as the body is beautiful, so all apparel that rightly clothes it must be beautiful also in its construction and in its lines. i have no more desire to define ugliness than i have daring to define beauty; but still i would like to remind those who mock at beauty as being an unpractical thing of this fact, that an ugly thing is merely a thing that is badly made, or a thing that does not serve its purpose; that ugliness is want of fitness; that ugliness is failure; that ugliness is uselessness, such as ornament in the wrong place, while beauty, as some one finely said, is the purgation of all superfluities. there is a divine economy about beauty; it gives us just what is needful and no more, whereas ugliness is always extravagant; ugliness is a spendthrift and wastes its material; in fine, ugliness--and i would commend this remark to mr. wentworth huyshe--ugliness, as much in costume as in anything else, is always the sign that somebody has been unpractical. so the costume of the future in england, if it is founded on the true laws of freedom, comfort, and adaptability to circumstances, cannot fail to be most beautiful also, because beauty is the sign always of the rightness of principles, the mystical seal that is set upon what is perfect, and upon what is perfect only. as for your other correspondent, the first principle of dress that all garments should be hung from the shoulders and not from the waist seems to me to be generally approved of, although an 'old sailor' declares that no sailors or athletes ever suspend their clothes from the shoulders, but always from the hips. my own recollection of the river and running ground at oxford--those two homes of hellenism in our little gothic town--is that the best runners and rowers (and my own college turned out many) wore always a tight jersey, with short drawers attached to it, the whole costume being woven in one piece. as for sailors it is true, i admit, and the bad custom seems to involve that constant 'hitching up' of the lower garments which, however popular in transpontine dramas, cannot, i think, but be considered an extremely awkward habit; and as all awkwardness comes from discomfort of some kind, i trust that this point in our sailor's dress will be looked to in the coming reform of our navy, for, in spite of all protests, i hope we are about to reform everything, from torpedoes to top-hats, and from crinolettes to cruises. then as regards clogs, my suggestion of them seems to have aroused a great deal of terror. fashion in her high-heeled boots has screamed, and the dreadful word 'anachronism' has been used. now, whatever is useful cannot be an anachronism. such a word is applicable only to the revival of some folly; and, besides, in the england of our own day clogs are still worn in many of our manufacturing towns, such as oldham. i fear that in oldham they may not be dreams of beauty; in oldham the art of inlaying them with ivory and with pearl may possibly be unknown; yet in oldham they serve their purpose. nor is it so long since they were worn by the upper classes of this country generally. only a few days ago i had the pleasure of talking to a lady who remembered with affectionate regret the clogs of her girlhood; they were, according to her, not too high nor too heavy, and were provided, besides, with some kind of spring in the sole so as to make them the more supple for the foot in walking. personally, i object to all additional height being given to a boot or shoe; it is really against the proper principles of dress, although, if any such height is to be given it should be by means of two props, not one; but what i should prefer to see is some adaptation of the divided skirt or long and moderately loose knickerbockers. if, however, the divided skirt is to be of any positive value, it must give up all idea of 'being identical in appearance with an ordinary skirt'; it must diminish the moderate width of each of its divisions, and sacrifice its foolish frills and flounces; the moment it imitates a dress it is lost; but let it visibly announce itself as what it actually is, and it will go far towards solving a real difficulty. i feel sure that there will be found many graceful and charming girls ready to adopt a costume founded on these principles, in spite of mr. wentworth huyshe's terrible threat that he will not propose to them as long as they wear it, for all charges of a want of womanly character in these forms of dress are really meaningless; every right article of apparel belongs equally to both sexes, and there is absolutely no such thing as a definitely feminine garment. one word of warning i should like to be allowed to give: the over-tunic should be made full and moderately loose; it may, if desired, be shaped more or less to the figure, but in no case should it be confined at the waist by any straight band or belt; on the contrary, it should fall from the shoulder to the knee, or below it, in fine curves and vertical lines, giving more freedom and consequently more grace. few garments are so absolutely unbecoming as a belted tunic that reaches to the knees, a fact which i wish some of our rosalinds would consider when they don doublet and hose; indeed, to the disregard of this artistic principle is due the ugliness, the want of proportion, in the bloomer costume, a costume which in other respects is sensible. mr. whistler's ten o'clock (pall mall gazette, february , .) last night, at prince's hall, mr. whistler made his first public appearance as a lecturer on art, and spoke for more than an hour with really marvellous eloquence on the absolute uselessness of all lectures of the kind. mr. whistler began his lecture with a very pretty aria on prehistoric history, describing how in earlier times hunter and warrior would go forth to chase and foray, while the artist sat at home making cup and bowl for their service. rude imitations of nature they were first, like the gourd bottle, till the sense of beauty and form developed and, in all its exquisite proportions, the first vase was fashioned. then came a higher civilisation of architecture and armchairs, and with exquisite design, and dainty diaper, the useful things of life were made lovely; and the hunter and the warrior lay on the couch when they were tired, and, when they were thirsty, drank from the bowl, and never cared to lose the exquisite proportion of the one, or the delightful ornament of the other; and this attitude of the primitive anthropophagous philistine formed the text of the lecture and was the attitude which mr. whistler entreated his audience to adopt towards art. remembering, no doubt, many charming invitations to wonderful private views, this fashionable assemblage seemed somewhat aghast, and not a little amused, at being told that the slightest appearance among a civilised people of any joy in beautiful things is a grave impertinence to all painters; but mr. whistler was relentless, and, with charming ease and much grace of manner, explained to the public that the only thing they should cultivate was ugliness, and that on their permanent stupidity rested all the hopes of art in the future. the scene was in every way delightful; he stood there, a miniature mephistopheles, mocking the majority! he was like a brilliant surgeon lecturing to a class composed of subjects destined ultimately for dissection, and solemnly assuring them how valuable to science their maladies were, and how absolutely uninteresting the slightest symptoms of health on their part would be. in fairness to the audience, however, i must say that they seemed extremely gratified at being rid of the dreadful responsibility of admiring anything, and nothing could have exceeded their enthusiasm when they were told by mr. whistler that no matter how vulgar their dresses were, or how hideous their surroundings at home, still it was possible that a great painter, if there was such a thing, could, by contemplating them in the twilight and half closing his eyes, see them under really picturesque conditions, and produce a picture which they were not to attempt to understand, much less dare to enjoy. then there were some arrows, barbed and brilliant, shot off, with all the speed and splendour of fireworks, and the archaeologists, who spend their lives in verifying the birthplaces of nobodies, and estimate the value of a work of art by its date or its decay; at the art critics who always treat a picture as if it were a novel, and try and find out the plot; at dilettanti in general and amateurs in particular; and (o mea culpa!) at dress reformers most of all. 'did not velasquez paint crinolines? what more do you want?' having thus made a holocaust of humanity, mr. whistler turned to nature, and in a few moments convicted her of the crystal palace, bank holidays, and a general overcrowding of detail, both in omnibuses and in landscapes, and then, in a passage of singular beauty, not unlike one that occurs in corot's letters, spoke of the artistic value of dim dawns and dusks, when the mean facts of life are lost in exquisite and evanescent effects, when common things are touched with mystery and transfigured with beauty, when the warehouses become as palaces and the tall chimneys of the factory seem like campaniles in the silver air. finally, after making a strong protest against anybody but a painter judging of painting, and a pathetic appeal to the audience not to be lured by the aesthetic movement into having beautiful things about them, mr. whistler concluded his lecture with a pretty passage about fusiyama on a fan, and made his bow to an audience which he had succeeded in completely fascinating by his wit, his brilliant paradoxes, and, at times, his real eloquence. of course, with regard to the value of beautiful surroundings i differ entirely from mr. whistler. an artist is not an isolated fact; he is the resultant of a certain milieu and a certain entourage, and can no more be born of a nation that is devoid of any sense of beauty than a fig can grow from a thorn or a rose blossom from a thistle. that an artist will find beauty in ugliness, le beau dans l'horrible, is now a commonplace of the schools, the argot of the atelier, but i strongly deny that charming people should be condemned to live with magenta ottomans and albert-blue curtains in their rooms in order that some painter may observe the side-lights on the one and the values of the other. nor do i accept the dictum that only a painter is a judge of painting. i say that only an artist is a judge of art; there is a wide difference. as long as a painter is a painter merely, he should not be allowed to talk of anything but mediums and megilp, and on those subjects should be compelled to hold his tongue; it is only when he becomes an artist that the secret laws of artistic creation are revealed to him. for there are not many arts, but one art merely--poem, picture and parthenon, sonnet and statue--all are in their essence the same, and he who knows one knows all. but the poet is the supreme artist, for he is the master of colour and of form, and the real musician besides, and is lord over all life and all arts; and so to the poet beyond all others are these mysteries known; to edgar allan poe and to baudelaire, not to benjamin west and paul delaroche. however, i should not enjoy anybody else's lectures unless in a few points i disagreed with them, and mr. whistler's lecture last night was, like everything that he does, a masterpiece. not merely for its clever satire and amusing jests will it be remembered, but for the pure and perfect beauty of many of its passages--passages delivered with an earnestness which seemed to amaze those who had looked on mr. whistler as a master of persiflage merely, and had not known him as we do, as a master of painting also. for that he is indeed one of the very greatest masters of painting is my opinion. and i may add that in this opinion mr. whistler himself entirely concurs. the relation of dress to art: a note in black and white on mr. whistler's lecture (pall mall gazette, february , .) 'how can you possibly paint these ugly three-cornered hats?' asked a reckless art critic once of sir joshua reynolds. 'i see light and shade in them,' answered the artist. 'les grands coloristes,' says baudelaire, in a charming article on the artistic value of frock coats, 'les grands coloristes savent faire de la couleur avec un habit noir, une cravate blanche, et un fond gris.' 'art seeks and finds the beautiful in all times, as did her high priest rembrandt, when he saw the picturesque grandeur of the jews' quarter of amsterdam, and lamented not that its inhabitants were not greeks,' were the fine and simple words used by mr. whistler in one of the most valuable passages of his lecture. the most valuable, that is, to the painter: for there is nothing of which the ordinary english painter needs more to be reminded than that the true artist does not wait for life to be made picturesque for him, but sees life under picturesque conditions always--under conditions, that is to say, which are at once new and delightful. but between the attitude of the painter towards the public and the attitude of a people towards art, there is a wide difference. that, under certain conditions of light and shade, what is ugly in fact may in its effect become beautiful, is true; and this, indeed, is the real modernite of art: but these conditions are exactly what we cannot be always sure of, as we stroll down piccadilly in the glaring vulgarity of the noonday, or lounge in the park with a foolish sunset as a background. were we able to carry our chiaroscuro about with us, as we do our umbrellas, all would be well; but this being impossible, i hardly think that pretty and delightful people will continue to wear a style of dress as ugly as it is useless and as meaningless as it is monstrous, even on the chance of such a master as mr. whistler spiritualising them into a symphony or refining them into a mist. for the arts are made for life, and not life for the arts. nor do i feel quite sure that mr. whistler has been himself always true to the dogma he seems to lay down, that a painter should paint only the dress of his age and of his actual surroundings: far be it from me to burden a butterfly with the heavy responsibility of its past: i have always been of opinion that consistency is the last refuge of the unimaginative: but have we not all seen, and most of us admired, a picture from his hand of exquisite english girls strolling by an opal sea in the fantastic dresses of japan? has not tite street been thrilled with the tidings that the models of chelsea were posing to the master, in peplums, for pastels? whatever comes from mr whistler's brush is far too perfect in its loveliness to stand or fall by any intellectual dogmas on art, even by his own: for beauty is justified of all her children, and cares nothing for explanations: but it is impossible to look through any collection of modern pictures in london, from burlington house to the grosvenor gallery, without feeling that the professional model is ruining painting and reducing it to a condition of mere pose and pastiche. are we not all weary of him, that venerable impostor fresh from the steps of the piazza di spagna, who, in the leisure moments that he can spare from his customary organ, makes the round of the studios and is waited for in holland park? do we not all recognise him, when, with the gay insouciance of his nation, he reappears on the walls of our summer exhibitions as everything that he is not, and as nothing that he is, glaring at us here as a patriarch of canaan, here beaming as a brigand from the abruzzi? popular is he, this poor peripatetic professor of posing, with those whose joy it is to paint the posthumous portrait of the last philanthropist who in his lifetime had neglected to be photographed,--yet he is the sign of the decadence, the symbol of decay. for all costumes are caricatures. the basis of art is not the fancy ball. where there is loveliness of dress, there is no dressing up. and so, were our national attire delightful in colour, and in construction simple and sincere; were dress the expression of the loveliness that it shields and of the swiftness and motion that it does not impede; did its lines break from the shoulder instead of bulging from the waist; did the inverted wineglass cease to be the ideal of form; were these things brought about, as brought about they will be, then would painting be no longer an artificial reaction against the ugliness of life, but become, as it should be, the natural expression of life's beauty. nor would painting merely, but all the other arts also, be the gainers by a change such as that which i propose; the gainers, i mean, through the increased atmosphere of beauty by which the artists would be surrounded and in which they would grow up. for art is not to be taught in academies. it is what one looks at, not what one listens to, that makes the artist. the real schools should be the streets. there is not, for instance, a single delicate line, or delightful proportion, in the dress of the greeks, which is not echoed exquisitely in their architecture. a nation arrayed in stove-pipe hats and dress-improvers might have built the pantechnichon possibly, but the parthenon never. and finally, there is this to be said: art, it is true, can never have any other claim but her own perfection, and it may be that the artist, desiring merely to contemplate and to create, is wise in not busying himself about change in others: yet wisdom is not always the best; there are times when she sinks to the level of common-sense; and from the passionate folly of those--and there are many--who desire that beauty shall be confined no longer to the bric- a-brac of the collector and the dust of the museum, but shall be, as it should be, the natural and national inheritance of all,--from this noble unwisdom, i say, who knows what new loveliness shall be given to life, and, under these more exquisite conditions, what perfect artist born? le milieu se renouvelant, l'art se renouvelle. speaking, however, from his own passionless pedestal, mr. whistler, in pointing out that the power of the painter is to be found in his power of vision, not in his cleverness of hand, has expressed a truth which needed expression, and which, coming from the lord of form and colour, cannot fail to have its influence. his lecture, the apocrypha though it be for the people, yet remains from this time as the bible for the painter, the masterpiece of masterpieces, the song of songs. it is true he has pronounced the panegyric of the philistine, but i fancy ariel praising caliban for a jest: and, in that he has read the commination service over the critics, let all men thank him, the critics themselves, indeed, most of all, for he has now relieved them from the necessity of a tedious existence. considered, again, merely as an orator, mr. whistler seems to me to stand almost alone. indeed, among all our public speakers i know but few who can combine so felicitously as he does the mirth and malice of puck with the style of the minor prophets. keats's sonnet on blue (century guild hobby horse, july .) during my tour in america i happened one evening to find myself in louisville, kentucky. the subject i had selected to speak on was the mission of art in the nineteenth century, and in the course of my lecture i had occasion to quote keats's sonnet on blue as an example of the poet's delicate sense of colour-harmonies. when my lecture was concluded there came round to see me a lady of middle age, with a sweet gentle manner and a most musical voice. she introduced herself to me as mrs. speed, the daughter of george keats, and invited me to come and examine the keats manuscripts in her possession. i spent most of the next day with her, reading the letters of keats to her father, some of which were at that time unpublished, poring over torn yellow leaves and faded scraps of paper, and wondering at the little dante in which keats had written those marvellous notes on milton. some months afterwards, when i was in california, i received a letter from mrs. speed asking my acceptance of the original manuscript of the sonnet which i had quoted in my lecture. this manuscript i have had reproduced here, as it seems to me to possess much psychological interest. it shows us the conditions that preceded the perfected form, the gradual growth, not of the conception but of the expression, and the workings of that spirit of selection which is the secret of style. in the case of poetry, as in the case of the other arts, what may appear to be simply technicalities of method are in their essence spiritual, not mechanical, and although, in all lovely work, what concerns us is the ultimate form, not the conditions that necessitate that form, yet the preference that precedes perfection, the evolution of the beauty, and the mere making of the music, have, if not their artistic value, at least their value to the artist. it will be remembered that this sonnet was first published in by lord houghton in his life, letters, and literary remains of john keats. lord houghton does not definitely state where he found it, but it was probably among the keats manuscripts belonging to mr. charles brown. it is evidently taken from a version later than that in my possession, as it accepts all the corrections, and makes three variations. as in my manuscript the first line is torn away, i give the sonnet here as it appears in lord houghton's edition. answer to a sonnet ending thus: dark eyes are dearer far than those that make the hyacinthine bell. { } by j. h. reynolds. blue! 'tis the life of heaven,--the domain of cynthia,--the wide palace of the sun,-- the tent of hesperus and all his train,-- the bosomer of clouds, gold, grey and dun. blue! 'tis the life of waters--ocean and all its vassal streams: pools numberless may rage, and foam, and fret, but never can subside if not to dark-blue nativeness. blue! gentle cousin of the forest green, married to green in all the sweetest flowers, forget-me-not,--the blue-bell,--and, that queen of secrecy, the violet: what strange powers hast thou, as a mere shadow! but how great, when in an eye thou art alive with fate! feb. . in the athenaeum of the rd of june , appeared a letter from mr. a. j. horwood, stating that he had in his possession a copy of the garden of florence in which this sonnet was transcribed. mr. horwood, who was unaware that the sonnet had been already published by lord houghton, gives the transcript at length. his version reads hue for life in the first line, and bright for wide in the second, and gives the sixth line thus: with all his tributary streams, pools numberless, a foot too long: it also reads to for of in the ninth line. mr. buxton forman is of opinion that these variations are decidedly genuine, but indicative of an earlier state of the poem than that adopted in lord houghton's edition. however, now that we have before us keats's first draft of his sonnet, it is difficult to believe that the sixth line in mr. horwood's version is really a genuine variation. keats may have written, ocean his tributary streams, pools numberless, and the transcript may have been carelessly made, but having got his line right in his first draft, keats probably did not spoil it in his second. the athenaeum version inserts a comma after art in the last line, which seems to me a decided improvement, and eminently characteristic of keats's method. i am glad to see that mr. buxton forman has adopted it. as for the corrections that lord houghton's version shows keats to have made in the eighth and ninth lines of this sonnet, it is evident that they sprang from keats's reluctance to repeat the same word in consecutive lines, except in cases where a word's music or meaning was to be emphasised. the substitution of 'its' for 'his' in the sixth line is more difficult of explanation. it was due probably to a desire on keats's part not to mar by any echo the fine personification of hesperus. it may be noticed that keats's own eyes were brown, and not blue, as stated by mrs. proctor to lord houghton. mrs. speed showed me a note to that effect written by mrs. george keats on the margin of the page in lord houghton's life (p. , vol. i.), where mrs. proctor's description is given. cowden clarke made a similar correction in his recollections, and in some of the later editions of lord houghton's book the word 'blue' is struck out. in severn's portraits of keats also the eyes are given as brown. the exquisite sense of colour expressed in the ninth and tenth lines may be paralleled by the ocean with its vastness, its blue green, of the sonnet to george keats. the american invasion (court and society review, march , .) a terrible danger is hanging over the americans in london. their future and their reputation this season depend entirely on the success of buffalo bill and mrs. brown-potter. the former is certain to draw; for english people are far more interested in american barbarism than they are in american civilisation. when they sight sandy hook they look to their rifles and ammunition; and, after dining once at delmonico's, start off for colorado or california, for montana or the yellow stone park. rocky mountains charm them more than riotous millionaires; they have been known to prefer buffaloes to boston. why should they not? the cities of america are inexpressibly tedious. the bostonians take their learning too sadly; culture with them is an accomplishment rather than an atmosphere; their 'hub,' as they call it, is the paradise of prigs. chicago is a sort of monster-shop, full of bustle and bores. political life at washington is like political life in a suburban vestry. baltimore is amusing for a week, but philadelphia is dreadfully provincial; and though one can dine in new york one could not dwell there. better the far west with its grizzly bears and its untamed cow-boys, its free open- air life and its free open-air manners, its boundless prairie and its boundless mendacity! this is what buffalo bill is going to bring to london; and we have no doubt that london will fully appreciate his show. with regard to mrs. brown-potter, as acting is no longer considered absolutely essential for success on the english stage, there is really no reason why the pretty bright-eyed lady who charmed us all last june by her merry laugh and her nonchalant ways, should not--to borrow an expression from her native language--make a big boom and paint the town red. we sincerely hope she will; for, on the whole, the american invasion has done english society a great deal of good. american women are bright, clever, and wonderfully cosmopolitan. their patriotic feelings are limited to an admiration for niagara and a regret for the elevated railway; and, unlike the men, they never bore us with bunkers hill. they take their dresses from paris and their manners from piccadilly, and wear both charmingly. they have a quaint pertness, a delightful conceit, a native self-assertion. they insist on being paid compliments and have almost succeeded in making englishmen eloquent. for our aristocracy they have an ardent admiration; they adore titles and are a permanent blow to republican principles. in the art of amusing men they are adepts, both by nature and education, and can actually tell a story without forgetting the point--an accomplishment that is extremely rare among the women of other countries. it is true that they lack repose and that their voices are somewhat harsh and strident when they land first at liverpool; but after a time one gets to love these pretty whirlwinds in petticoats that sweep so recklessly through society and are so agitating to all duchesses who have daughters. there is something fascinating in their funny, exaggerated gestures and their petulant way of tossing the head. their eyes have no magic nor mystery in them, but they challenge us for combat; and when we engage we are always worsted. their lips seem made for laughter and yet they never grimace. as for their voices, they soon get them into tune. some of them have been known to acquire a fashionable drawl in two seasons; and after they have been presented to royalty they all roll their r's as vigorously as a young equerry or an old lady-in-waiting. still, they never really lose their accent; it keeps peeping out here and there, and when they chatter together they are like a bevy of peacocks. nothing is more amusing than to watch two american girls greeting each other in a drawing-room or in the row. they are like children with their shrill staccato cries of wonder, their odd little exclamations. their conversation sounds like a series of exploding crackers; they are exquisitely incoherent and use a sort of primitive, emotional language. after five minutes they are left beautifully breathless and look at each other half in amusement and half in affection. if a stolid young englishman is fortunate enough to be introduced to them he is amazed at their extraordinary vivacity, their electric quickness of repartee, their inexhaustible store of curious catchwords. he never really understands them, for their thoughts flutter about with the sweet irresponsibility of butterflies; but he is pleased and amused and feels as if he were in an aviary. on the whole, american girls have a wonderful charm and, perhaps, the chief secret of their charm is that they never talk seriously except about amusements. they have, however, one grave fault--their mothers. dreary as were those old pilgrim fathers who left our shores more than two centuries ago to found a new england beyond seas, the pilgrim mothers who have returned to us in the nineteenth century are drearier still. here and there, of course, there are exceptions, but as a class they are either dull, dowdy or dyspeptic. it is only fair to the rising generation of america to state that they are not to blame for this. indeed, they spare no pains at all to bring up their parents properly and to give them a suitable, if somewhat late, education. from its earliest years every american child spends most of its time in correcting the faults of its father and mother; and no one who has had the opportunity of watching an american family on the deck of an atlantic steamer, or in the refined seclusion of a new york boarding-house, can fail to have been struck by this characteristic of their civilisation. in america the young are always ready to give to those who are older than themselves the full benefits of their inexperience. a boy of only eleven or twelve years of age will firmly but kindly point out to his father his defects of manner or temper; will never weary of warning him against extravagance, idleness, late hours, unpunctuality, and the other temptations to which the aged are so particularly exposed; and sometimes, should he fancy that he is monopolising too much of the conversation at dinner, will remind him, across the table, of the new child's adage, 'parents should be seen, not heard.' nor does any mistaken idea of kindness prevent the little american girl from censuring her mother whenever it is necessary. often, indeed, feeling that a rebuke conveyed in the presence of others is more truly efficacious than one merely whispered in the quiet of the nursery, she will call the attention of perfect strangers to her mother's general untidiness, her want of intellectual boston conversation, immoderate love of iced water and green corn, stinginess in the matter of candy, ignorance of the usages of the best baltimore society, bodily ailments and the like. in fact, it may be truly said that no american child is ever blind to the deficiencies of its parents, no matter how much it may love them. yet, somehow, this educational system has not been so successful as it deserved. in many cases, no doubt, the material with which the children had to deal was crude and incapable of real development; but the fact remains that the american mother is a tedious person. the american father is better, for he is never seen in london. he passes his life entirely in wall street and communicates with his family once a month by means of a telegram in cipher. the mother, however, is always with us, and, lacking the quick imitative faculty of the younger generation, remains uninteresting and provincial to the last. in spite of her, however, the american girl is always welcome. she brightens our dull dinner parties for us and makes life go pleasantly by for a season. in the race for coronets she often carries off the prize; but, once she has gained the victory, she is generous and forgives her english rivals everything, even their beauty. warned by the example of her mother that american women do not grow old gracefully, she tries not to grow old at all and often succeeds. she has exquisite feet and hands, is always bien chaussee et bien gantee and can talk brilliantly upon any subject, provided that she knows nothing about it. her sense of humour keeps her from the tragedy of a grande passion, and, as there is neither romance nor humility in her love, she makes an excellent wife. what her ultimate influence on english life will be it is difficult to estimate at present; but there can be no doubt that, of all the factors that have contributed to the social revolution of london, there are few more important, and none more delightful, than the american invasion. sermons in stones at bloomsbury: the new sculpture room at the british museum (pall mall gazette, october , .) through the exertions of sir charles newton, to whom every student of classic art should be grateful, some of the wonderful treasures so long immured in the grimy vaults of the british museum have at last been brought to light, and the new sculpture room now opened to the public will amply repay the trouble of a visit, even from those to whom art is a stumbling-block and a rock of offence. for setting aside the mere beauty of form, outline and mass, the grace and loveliness of design and the delicacy of technical treatment, here we have shown to us what the greeks and romans thought about death; and the philosopher, the preacher, the practical man of the world, and even the philistine himself, cannot fail to be touched by these 'sermons in stones,' with their deep significance, their fertile suggestion, their plain humanity. common tombstones they are, most of them, the work not of famous artists but of simple handicraftsmen, only they were wrought in days when every handicraft was an art. the finest specimens, from the purely artistic point of view, are undoubtedly the two stelai found at athens. they are both the tombstones of young greek athletes. in one the athlete is represented handing his strigil to his slave, in the other the athlete stands alone, strigil in hand. they do not belong to the greatest period of greek art, they have not the grand style of the phidian age, but they are beautiful for all that, and it is impossible not to be fascinated by their exquisite grace and by the treatment which is so simple in its means, so subtle in its effect. all the tombstones, however, are full of interest. here is one of two ladies of smyrna who were so remarkable in their day that the city voted them honorary crowns; here is a greek doctor examining a little boy who is suffering from indigestion; here is the memorial of xanthippus who, probably, was a martyr to gout, as he is holding in his hand the model of a foot, intended, no doubt, as a votive offering to some god. a lovely stele from rhodes gives us a family group. the husband is on horseback and is bidding farewell to his wife, who seems as if she would follow him but is being held back by a little child. the pathos of parting from those we love is the central motive of greek funeral art. it is repeated in every possible form, and each mute marble stone seems to murmur [greek]. roman art is different. it introduces vigorous and realistic portraiture and deals with pure family life far more frequently than greek art does. they are very ugly, those stern-looking roman men and women whose portraits are exhibited on their tombs, but they seem to have been loved and respected by their children and their servants. here is the monument of aphrodisius and atilia, a roman gentleman and his wife, who died in britain many centuries ago, and whose tombstone was found in the thames; and close by it stands a stele from rome with the busts of an old married couple who are certainly marvellously ill-favoured. the contrast between the abstract greek treatment of the idea of death and the roman concrete realisation of the individuals who have died is extremely curious. besides the tombstones, the new sculpture room contains some most fascinating examples of roman decorative art under the emperors. the most wonderful of all, and this alone is worth a trip to bloomsbury, is a bas-relief representing a marriage scene. juno pronuba is joining the hands of a handsome young noble and a very stately lady. there is all the grace of perugino in this marble, all the grace of raphael even. the date of it is uncertain, but the particular cut of the bridegroom's beard seems to point to the time of the emperor hadrian. it is clearly the work of greek artists and is one of the most beautiful bas-reliefs in the whole museum. there is something in it which reminds one of the music and the sweetness of propertian verse. then we have delightful friezes of children. one representing children playing on musical instruments might have suggested much of the plastic art of florence. indeed, as we view these marbles it is not difficult to see whence the renaissance sprang and to what we owe the various forms of renaissance art. the frieze of the muses, each of whom wears in her hair a feather plucked from the wings of the vanquished sirens, is extremely fine; there is a lovely little bas-relief of two cupids racing in chariots; and the frieze of recumbent amazons has some splendid qualities of design. a frieze of children playing with the armour of the god mars should also be mentioned. it is full of fancy and delicate humour. on the whole, sir charles newton and mr. murray are warmly to be congratulated on the success of the new room. we hope, however, that some more of the hidden treasures will shortly be catalogued and shown. in the vaults at present there is a very remarkable bas-relief of the marriage of cupid and psyche, and another representing the professional mourners weeping over the body of the dead. the fine cast of the lion of chaeronea should also be brought up, and so should the stele with the marvellous portrait of the roman slave. economy is an excellent public virtue, but the parsimony that allows valuable works of art to remain in the grime and gloom of a damp cellar is little short of a detestable public vice. the unity of the arts: a lecture and a five o'clock (pall mall gazette, december , .) last saturday afternoon, at willis's rooms, mr. selwyn image delivered the first of a series of four lectures on modern art before a select and distinguished audience. the chief point on which he dwelt was the absolute unity of all the arts and, in order to convey this idea, he framed a definition wide enough to include shakespeare's king lear and michael angelo's creation, paul veronese's picture of alexander and darius, and gibbon's description of the entry of heliogabalus into rome. all these he regarded as so many expressions of man's thoughts and emotions on fine things, conveyed through visible or audible modes; and starting from this point he approached the question of the true relation of literature to painting, always keeping in view the central motive of his creed, credo in unam artem multipartitam, indivisibilem, and dwelling on resemblances rather than differences. the result at which he ultimately arrived was this: the impressionists, with their frank artistic acceptance of form and colour as things absolutely satisfying in themselves, have produced very beautiful work, but painting has something more to give us than the mere visible aspect of things. the lofty spiritual visions of william blake, and the marvellous romance of dante gabriel rossetti, can find their perfect expression in painting; every mood has its colour and every dream has its form. the chief quality of mr. image's lecture was its absolute fairness, but this was, to a certain portion of the audience, its chief defect. 'sweet reasonableness,' said one, 'is always admirable in a spectator, but from a leader we want something more.' 'it is only an auctioneer who should admire all schools of art,' said another; while a third sighed over what he called 'the fatal sterility of the judicial mind,' and expressed a perfectly groundless fear that the century guild was becoming rational. for, with a courtesy and a generosity that we strongly recommend to other lecturers, mr. image provided refreshments for his audience after his address was over, and it was extremely interesting to listen to the various opinions expressed by the great five-o'clock-tea school of criticism which was largely represented. for our own part, we found mr. image's lecture extremely suggestive. it was sometimes difficult to understand in what exact sense he was using the word 'literary,' and we do not think that a course of drawing from the plaster cast of the dying gaul would in the slightest degree improve the ordinary art critic. the true unity of the arts is to be found, not in any resemblance of one art to another, but in the fact that to the really artistic nature all the arts have the same message and speak the same language though with different tongues. no amount of daubing on a cellar wall will make a man understand the mystery of michael angelo's sybils, nor is it necessary to write a blank verse drama before one can appreciate the beauty of hamlet. it is essential that an art critic should have a nature receptive of beautiful impressions, and sufficient intuition to recognise style when he meets with it, and truth when it is shown to him; but, if he does not possess these qualities, a reckless career of water-colour painting will not give them to him, for, if from the incompetent critic all things be hidden, to the bad painter nothing shall be revealed. art at willis's rooms (sunday times, december , .) accepting a suggestion made by a friendly critic last week, mr. selwyn image began his second lecture by explaining more fully what he meant by literary art, and pointed out the difference between an ordinary illustration to a book and such creative and original works as michael angelo's fresco of the expulsion from eden and rossetti's beata beatrix. in the latter case the artist treats literature as if it were life itself, and gives a new and delightful form to what seer or singer has shown us; in the former we have merely a translation which misses the music and adds no marvel. as for subject, mr. image protested against the studio-slang that no subject is necessary, defining subject as the thought, emotion or impression which a man desires to embody in form and colour, and admitting mr. whistler's fireworks as readily as giotto's angels, and van huysum's roses no less than mantegna's gods. here, we think that mr. image might have pointed out more clearly the contrast between the purely pictorial subject and the subject that includes among its elements such things as historical associations or poetic memories; the contrast, in fact, between impressive art and the art that is expressive also. however, the topics he had to deal with were so varied that it was, no doubt, difficult for him to do more than suggest. from subject he passed to style, which he described as 'that masterful but restrained individuality of manner by which one artist is differentiated from another.' the true qualities of style he found in restraint which is submission to law; simplicity which is unity of vision; and severity, for le beau est toujours severe. the realist he defined as one who aims at reproducing the external phenomena of nature, while the idealist is the man who 'imagines things of fine interest.' yet, while he defined them he would not separate them. the true artist is a realist, for he recognises an external world of truth; an idealist, for he has selection, abstraction and the power of individualisation. to stand apart from the world of nature is fatal, but it is no less fatal merely to reproduce facts. art, in a word, must not content itself simply with holding the mirror up to nature, for it is a re-creation more than a reflection, and not a repetition but rather a new song. as for finish, it must not be confused with elaboration. a picture, said mr. image, is finished when the means of form and colour employed by the artist are adequate to convey the artist's intention; and, with this definition and a peroration suitable to the season, he concluded his interesting and intellectual lecture. light refreshments were then served to the audience, and the five-o'clock- tea school of criticism came very much to the front. mr. image's entire freedom from dogmatism and self-assertion was in some quarters rather severely commented on, and one young gentleman declared that such virtuous modesty as the lecturer's might easily become a most vicious mannerism. everybody, however, was extremely pleased to learn that it is no longer the duty of art to hold the mirror up to nature, and the few philistines who dissented from this view received that most terrible of all punishments--the contempt of the highly cultured. mr. image's third lecture will be delivered on january and will, no doubt, be largely attended, as the subjects advertised are full of interest, and though 'sweet reasonableness' may not convert, it always charms. mr. morris on tapestry (pall mall gazette, november , .) yesterday evening mr. william morris delivered a most interesting and fascinating lecture on carpet and tapestry weaving at the arts and crafts exhibition now held at the new gallery. mr. morris had small practical models of the two looms used, the carpet loom where the weaver sits in front of his work; the more elaborate tapestry loom where the weaver sits behind, at the back of the stuff, has his design outlined on the upright threads and sees in a mirror the shadow of the pattern and picture as it grows gradually to perfection. he spoke at much length on the question of dyes--praising madder and kermes for reds, precipitate of iron or ochre for yellows, and for blue either indigo or woad. at the back of the platform hung a lovely flemish tapestry of the fourteenth century, and a superb persian carpet about two hundred and fifty years old. mr. morris pointed out the loveliness of the carpet--its delicate suggestion of hawthorn blossom, iris and rose, its rejection of imitation and shading; and showed how it combined the great quality of decorative design--being at once clear and well defined in form: each outline exquisitely traced, each line deliberate in its intention and its beauty, and the whole effect being one of unity, of harmony, almost of mystery, the colours being so perfectly harmonised together and the little bright notes of colour being so cunningly placed either for tone or brilliancy. tapestries, he said, were to the north of europe what fresco was to the south--our climate, amongst other reasons, guiding us in our choice of material for wall-covering. england, france, and flanders were the three great tapestry countries--flanders with its great wool trade being the first in splendid colours and superb gothic design. the keynote of tapestry, the secret of its loveliness, was, he told the audience, the complete filling up of every corner and square inch of surface with lovely and fanciful and suggestive design. hence the wonder of those great gothic tapestries where the forest trees rise in different places, one over the other, each leaf perfect in its shape and colour and decorative value, while in simple raiment of beautiful design knights and ladies wandered in rich flower gardens, and rode with hawk on wrist through long green arcades, and sat listening to lute and viol in blossom- starred bowers or by cool gracious water springs. upon the other hand, when the gothic feeling died away, and boucher and others began to design, they gave us wide expanses of waste sky, elaborate perspective, posing nymphs and shallow artificial treatment. indeed, boucher met with scant mercy at mr. morris's vigorous hands and was roundly abused, and modern gobelins, with m. bougereau's cartoons, fared no better. mr. morris told some delightful stories about old tapestry work from the days when in the egyptian tombs the dead were laid wrapped in picture cloths, some of which are now in the south kensington museum, to the time of the great turk bajazet who, having captured some christian knights, would accept nothing for their ransom but the 'storied tapestries of france' and gerfalcons. as regards the use of tapestry in modern days, he pointed out that we were richer than the middle ages, and so should be better able to afford this form of lovely wall-covering, which for artistic tone is absolutely without rival. he said that the very limitation of material and form forced the imaginative designer into giving us something really beautiful and decorative. 'what is the use of setting an artist in a twelve-acre field and telling him to design a house? give him a limited space and he is forced by its limitation to concentrate, and to fill with pure loveliness the narrow surface at his disposal.' the worker also gives to the original design a very perfect richness of detail, and the threads with their varying colours and delicate reflections convey into the work a new source of delight. here, he said, we found perfect unity between the imaginative artist and the handicraftsman. the one was not too free, the other was not a slave. the eye of the artist saw, his brain conceived, his imagination created, but the hand of the weaver had also its opportunity for wonderful work, and did not copy what was already made, but re-created and put into a new and delightful form a design that for its perfection needed the loom to aid, and had to pass into a fresh and marvellous material before its beauty came to its real flower and blossom of absolutely right expression and artistic effect. but, said mr. morris in conclusion, to have great work we must be worthy of it. commercialism, with its vile god cheapness, its callous indifference to the worker, its innate vulgarity of temper, is our enemy. to gain anything good we must sacrifice something of our luxury--must think more of others, more of the state, the commonweal: 'we cannot have riches and wealth both,' he said; we must choose between them. the lecture was listened to with great attention by a very large and distinguished audience, and mr. morris was loudly applauded. the next lecture will be on sculpture by mr. george simonds, and if it is half so good as mr. morris it will well repay a visit to the lecture-room. mr. crane deserves great credit for his exertions in making this exhibition what it should be, and there is no doubt but that it will exercise an important and a good influence on all the handicrafts of our country. sculpture at the arts and crafts (pall mall gazette, november , .) the most satisfactory thing in mr. simonds' lecture last night was the peroration, in which he told the audience that 'an artist cannot be made.' but for this well-timed warning some deluded people might have gone away under the impression that sculpture was a sort of mechanical process within the reach of the meanest capabilities. for it must be confessed that mr. simonds' lecture was at once too elementary and too elaborately technical. the ordinary art student, even the ordinary studio-loafer, could not have learned anything from it, while the 'cultured person,' of whom there were many specimens present, could not but have felt a little bored at the careful and painfully clear descriptions given by the lecturer of very well-known and uninteresting methods of work. however, mr. simonds did his best. he described modelling in clay and wax; casting in plaster and in metal; how to enlarge and how to diminish to scale; bas-reliefs and working in the round; the various kinds of marble, their qualities and characteristics; how to reproduce in marble the plaster or clay bust; how to use the point, the drill, the wire and the chisel; and the various difficulties attending each process. he exhibited a clay bust of mr. walter crane on which he did some elementary work; a bust of mr. parsons; a small statuette; several moulds, and an interesting diagram of the furnace used by balthasar keller for casting a great equestrian statue of louis xiv. in - . what his lecture lacked were ideas. of the artistic value of each material; of the correspondence between material or method and the imaginative faculty seeking to find expression; of the capacities for realism and idealism that reside in each material; of the historical and human side of the art--he said nothing. he showed the various instruments and how they are used, but he treated them entirely as instruments for the hand. he never once brought his subject into any relation either with art or with life. he explained forms of labour and forms of saving labour. he showed the various methods as they might be used by an artisan. mr. morris, last week, while explaining the technical processes of weaving, never forgot that he was lecturing on an art. he not merely taught his audience, but he charmed them. however, the audience gathered together last night at the arts and crafts exhibition seemed very much interested; at least, they were very attentive; and mr. walter crane made a short speech at the conclusion, in which he expressed his satisfaction that in spite of modern machinery sculpture had hardly altered one of its tools. for our own part we cannot help regretting the extremely commonplace character of the lecture. if a man lectures on poets he should not confine his remarks purely to grammar. next week mr. emery walker lectures on printing. we hope--indeed we are sure, that he will not forget that it is an art, or rather it was an art once, and can be made so again. printing and printers (pall mall gazette, november , .) nothing could have been better than mr. emery walker's lecture on letterpress printing and illustration, delivered last night at the arts and crafts. a series of most interesting specimens of old printed books and manuscripts was displayed on the screen by means of the magic-lantern, and mr. walker's explanations were as clear and simple as his suggestions were admirable. he began by explaining the different kinds of type and how they are made, and showed specimens of the old block-printing which preceded the movable type and is still used in china. he pointed out the intimate connection between printing and handwriting--as long as the latter was good the printers had a living model to go by, but when it decayed printing decayed also. he showed on the screen a page from gutenberg's bible (the first printed book, date about - ) and a manuscript of columella; a printed livy of , with the abbreviations of handwriting, and a manuscript of the history of pompeius by justin of . the latter he regarded as an example of the beginning of the roman type. the resemblance between the manuscripts and the printed books was most curious and suggestive. he then showed a page out of john of spier's edition of cicero's letters, the first book printed at venice, an edition of the same book by nicholas jansen in , and a wonderful manuscript petrarch of the sixteenth century. he told the audience about aldus, who was the first publisher to start cheap books, who dropped abbreviations and had his type cut by francia pictor et aurifex, who was said to have taken it from petrarch's handwriting. he exhibited a page of the copy-book of vicentino, the great venetian writing-master, which was greeted with a spontaneous round of applause, and made some excellent suggestions about improving modern copy-books and avoiding slanting writing. a superb plautus printed at florence in for lorenzo di medici, polydore virgil's history with the fine holbein designs, printed at basle in , and other interesting books, were also exhibited on the screen, the size, of course, being very much enlarged. he spoke of elzevir in the seventeenth century when handwriting began to fall off, and of the english printer caslon, and of baskerville whose type was possibly designed by hogarth, but is not very good. latin, he remarked, was a better language to print than english, as the tails of the letters did not so often fall below the line. the wide spacing between lines, occasioned by the use of a lead, he pointed out, left the page in stripes and made the blanks as important as the lines. margins should, of course, be wide except the inner margins, and the headlines often robbed the page of its beauty of design. the type used by the pall mall was, we are glad to say, rightly approved of. with regard to illustration, the essential thing, mr. walker said, is to have harmony between the type and the decoration. he pleaded for true book ornament as opposed to the silly habit of putting pictures where they are not wanted, and pointed out that mechanical harmony and artistic harmony went hand in hand. no ornament or illustration should be used in a book which cannot be printed in the same way as the type. for his warnings he produced rogers's italy with a steel-plate engraving, and a page from an american magazine which being florid, pictorial and bad, was greeted with some laughter. for examples we had a lovely boccaccio printed at ulm, and a page out of la mer des histoires printed in . blake and bewick were also shown, and a page of music designed by mr. horne. the lecture was listened to with great attention by a large audience, and was certainly most attractive. mr. walker has the keen artistic instinct that comes out of actually working in the art of which he spoke. his remarks about the pictorial character of modern illustration were well timed, and we hope that some of the publishers in the audience will take them to heart. next thursday mr. cobden-sanderson lectures on bookbinding, a subject on which few men in england have higher qualifications for speaking. we are glad to see these lectures are so well attended. the beauties of bookbinding (pall mall gazette, november , .) 'the beginning of art,' said mr. cobden-sanderson last night in his charming lecture on bookbinding, 'is man thinking about the universe.' he desires to give expression to the joy and wonder that he feels at the marvels that surround him, and invents a form of beauty through which he utters the thought or feeling that is in him. and bookbinding ranks amongst the arts: 'through it a man expresses himself.' this elegant and pleasantly exaggerated exordium preceded some very practical demonstrations. 'the apron is the banner of the future!' exclaimed the lecturer, and he took his coat off and put his apron on. he spoke a little about old bindings for the papyrus roll, about the ivory or cedar cylinders round which old manuscripts were wound, about the stained covers and the elaborate strings, till binding in the modern sense began with literature in a folded form, with literature in pages. a binding, he pointed out, consists of two boards, originally of wood, now of mill-board, covered with leather, silk or velvet. the use of these boards is to protect the 'world's written wealth.' the best material is leather, decorated with gold. the old binders used to be given forests that they might always have a supply of the skins of wild animals; the modern binder has to content himself with importing morocco, which is far the best leather there is, and is very much to be preferred to calf. mr. sanderson mentioned by name a few of the great binders such as le gascon, and some of the patrons of bookbinding like the medicis, grolier, and the wonderful women who so loved books that they lent them some of the perfume and grace of their own strange lives. however, the historical part of the lecture was very inadequate, possibly necessarily so through the limitations of time. the really elaborate part of the lecture was the practical exposition. mr. sanderson described and illustrated the various processes of smoothing, pressing, cutting, paring, and the like. he divided bindings into two classes, the useful and the beautiful. among the former he reckoned paper covers such as the french use, paper boards and cloth boards, and half leather or calf bindings. cloth he disliked as a poor material, the gold on which soon fades away. as for beautiful bindings, in them 'decoration rises into enthusiasm.' a beautiful binding is 'a homage to genius.' it has its ethical value, its spiritual effect. 'by doing good work we raise life to a higher plane,' said the lecturer, and he dwelt with loving sympathy on the fact that a book is 'sensitive by nature,' that it is made by a human being for a human being, that the design must 'come from the man himself, and express the moods of his imagination, the joy of his soul.' there must, consequently, be no division of labour. 'i make my own paste and enjoy doing it,' said mr. sanderson as he spoke of the necessity for the artist doing the whole work with his own hands. but before we have really good bookbinding we must have a social revolution. as things are now, the worker diminished to a machine is the slave of the employer, and the employer bloated into a millionaire is the slave of the public, and the public is the slave of its pet god, cheapness. the bookbinder of the future is to be an educated man who appreciates literature and has freedom for his fancy and leisure for his thought. all this is very good and sound. but in treating bookbinding as an imaginative, expressive human art we must confess that we think that mr. sanderson made something of an error. bookbinding is essentially decorative, and good decoration is far more often suggested by material and mode of work than by any desire on the part of the designer to tell us of his joy in the world. hence it comes that good decoration is always traditional. where it is the expression of the individual it is usually either false or capricious. these handicrafts are not primarily expressive arts; they are impressive arts. if a man has any message for the world he will not deliver it in a material that always suggests and always conditions its own decoration. the beauty of bookbinding is abstract decorative beauty. it is not, in the first instance, a mode of expression for a man's soul. indeed, the danger of all these lofty claims for handicraft is simply that they show a desire to give crafts the province and motive of arts such as poetry, painting and sculpture. such province and such motive they have not got. their aim is different. between the arts that aim at annihilating their material and the arts that aim at glorifying it there is a wide gulf. however, it was quite right of mr. cobden-sanderson to extol his own art, and though he seemed often to confuse expressive and impressive modes of beauty, he always spoke with great sincerity. next week mr. crane delivers the final lecture of this admirable 'arts and crafts' series and, no doubt, he will have much to say on a subject to which he has devoted the whole of his fine artistic life. for ourselves, we cannot help feeling that in bookbinding art expresses primarily not the feeling of the worker but simply itself, its own beauty, its own wonder. the close of the arts and crafts (pall mall gazette, november , .) mr. walter crane, the president of the society of arts and crafts, was greeted last night by such an enormous audience that at one time the honorary secretary became alarmed for the safety of the cartoons, and many people were unable to gain admission at all. however, order was soon established, and mr. cobden-sanderson stepped up on to the platform and in a few pleasantly sententious phrases introduced mr. crane as one who had always been 'the advocate of great and unpopular causes,' and the aim of whose art was 'joy in widest commonalty spread.' mr. crane began his lecture by pointing out that art had two fields, aspect and adaptation, and that it was primarily with the latter that the designer was concerned, his object being not literal fact but ideal beauty. with the unstudied and accidental effects of nature the designer had nothing to do. he sought for principles and proceeded by geometric plan and abstract line and colour. pictorial art is isolated and unrelated, and the frame is the last relic of the old connection between painting and architecture. but the designer does not desire primarily to produce a picture. he aims at making a pattern and proceeds by selection; he rejects the 'hole in the wall' idea, and will have nothing to do with the 'false windows of a picture.' three things differentiate designs. first, the spirit of the artist, that mode and manner by which durer is separated from flaxman, by which we recognise the soul of a man expressing itself in the form proper to it. next comes the constructive idea, the filling of spaces with lovely work. last is the material which, be it leather or clay, ivory or wood, often suggests and always controls the pattern. as for naturalism, we must remember that we see not with our eyes alone but with our whole faculties. feeling and thought are part of sight. mr. crane then drew on a blackboard the naturalistic oak-tree of the landscape painter and the decorative oak-tree of the designer. he showed that each artist is looking for different things, and that the designer always makes appearance subordinate to decorative motive. he showed also the field daisy as it is in nature and the same flower treated for panel decoration. the designer systematises and emphasises, chooses and rejects, and decorative work bears the same relation to naturalistic presentation that the imaginative language of the poetic drama bears to the language of real life. the decorative capabilities of the square and the circle were then shown on the board, and much was said about symmetry, alternation and radiation, which last principle mr. crane described as 'the home rule of design, the perfection of local self-government,' and which, he pointed out, was essentially organic, manifesting itself in the bird's wing as well as in the tudor vaulting of gothic architecture. mr. crane then passed to the human figure, 'that expressive unit of design,' which contains all the principles of decoration, and exhibited a design of a nude figure with an axe couched in an architectural spandrel, a figure which he was careful to explain was, in spite of the axe, not that of mr. gladstone. the designer then leaving chiaroscuro, shading and other 'superficial facts of life' to take care of themselves, and keeping the idea of space limitation always before him, then proceeds to emphasise the beauty of his material, be it metal with its 'agreeable bossiness,' as ruskin calls it, or leaded glass with its fine dark lines, or mosaic with its jewelled tesserae, or the loom with its crossed threads, or wood with its pleasant crispness. much bad art comes from one art trying to borrow from another. we have sculptors who try to be pictorial, painters who aim at stage effects, weavers who seek for pictorial motives, carvers who make life and not art their aim, cotton printers 'who tie up bunches of artificial flowers with streamers of artificial ribbons' and fling them on the unfortunate textile. then came the little bit of socialism, very sensible and very quietly put. 'how can we have fine art when the worker is condemned to monotonous and mechanical labour in the midst of dull or hideous surroundings, when cities and nature are sacrificed to commercial greed, when cheapness is the god of life?' in old days the craftsman was a designer; he had his 'prentice days of quiet study; and even the painter began by grinding colours. some little old ornament still lingers, here and there, on the brass rosettes of cart-horses, in the common milk-cans of antwerp, in the water-vessels of italy. but even this is disappearing. 'the tourist passes by' and creates a demand that commerce satisfies in an unsatisfactory manner. we have not yet arrived at a healthy state of things. there is still the tottenham court road and a threatened revival of louis seize furniture, and the 'popular pictorial print struggles through the meshes of the antimacassar.' art depends on life. we cannot get it from machines. and yet machines are bad only when they are our masters. the printing press is a machine that art values because it obeys her. true art must have the vital energy of life itself, must take its colours from life's good or evil, must follow angels of light or angels of darkness. the art of the past is not to be copied in a servile spirit. for a new age we require a new form. mr. crane's lecture was most interesting and instructive. on one point only we would differ from him. like mr. morris he quite underrates the art of japan, and looks on the japanese as naturalists and not as decorative artists. it is true that they are often pictorial, but by the exquisite finesse of their touch, the brilliancy and beauty of their colour, their perfect knowledge of how to make a space decorative without decorating it (a point on which mr. crane said nothing, though it is one of the most important things in decoration), and by their keen instinct of where to place a thing, the japanese are decorative artists of a high order. next year somebody must lecture the arts and crafts on japanese art. in the meantime, we congratulate mr. crane and mr. cobden-sanderson on the admirable series of lectures that has been delivered at this exhibition. their influence for good can hardly be over-estimated. the exhibition, we are glad to hear, has been a financial success. it closes tomorrow, but is to be only the first of many to come. english poetesses (queen, december , .) england has given to the world one great poetess, elizabeth barrett browning. by her side mr. swinburne would place miss christina rossetti, whose new year hymn he describes as so much the noblest of sacred poems in our language, that there is none which comes near it enough to stand second. 'it is a hymn,' he tells us, 'touched as with the fire, and bathed as in the light of sunbeams, tuned as to chords and cadences of refluent sea-music beyond reach of harp and organ, large echoes of the serene and sonorous tides of heaven.' much as i admire miss rossetti's work, her subtle choice of words, her rich imagery, her artistic naivete, wherein curious notes of strangeness and simplicity are fantastically blended together, i cannot but think that mr. swinburne has, with noble and natural loyalty, placed her on too lofty a pedestal. to me, she is simply a very delightful artist in poetry. this is indeed something so rare that when we meet it we cannot fail to love it, but it is not everything. beyond it and above it are higher and more sunlit heights of song, a larger vision, and an ampler air, a music at once more passionate and more profound, a creative energy that is born of the spirit, a winged rapture that is born of the soul, a force and fervour of mere utterance that has all the wonder of the prophet, and not a little of the consecration of the priest. mrs. browning is unapproachable by any woman who has ever touched lyre or blown through reed since the days of the great aeolian poetess. but sappho, who, to the antique world was a pillar of flame, is to us but a pillar of shadow. of her poems, burnt with other most precious work by byzantine emperor and by roman pope, only a few fragments remain. possibly they lie mouldering in the scented darkness of an egyptian tomb, clasped in the withered hands of some long-dead lover. some greek monk at athos may even now be poring over an ancient manuscript, whose crabbed characters conceal lyric or ode by her whom the greeks spoke of as 'the poetess' just as they termed homer 'the poet,' who was to them the tenth muse, the flower of the graces, the child of eros, and the pride of hellas--sappho, with the sweet voice, the bright, beautiful eyes, the dark hyacinth-coloured hair. but, practically, the work of the marvellous singer of lesbos is entirely lost to us. we have a few rose-leaves out of her garden, that is all. literature nowadays survives marble and bronze, but in old days, in spite of the roman poet's noble boast, it was not so. the fragile clay vases of the greeks still keep for us pictures of sappho, delicately painted in black and red and white; but of her song we have only the echo of an echo. of all the women of history, mrs. browning is the only one that we could name in any possible or remote conjunction with sappho. sappho was undoubtedly a far more flawless and perfect artist. she stirred the whole antique world more than mrs. browning ever stirred our modern age. never had love such a singer. even in the few lines that remain to us the passion seems to scorch and burn. but, as unjust time, who has crowned her with the barren laurels of fame, has twined with them the dull poppies of oblivion, let us turn from the mere memory of a poetess to one whose song still remains to us as an imperishable glory to our literature; to her who heard the cry of the children from dark mine and crowded factory, and made england weep over its little ones; who, in the feigned sonnets from the portuguese, sang of the spiritual mystery of love, and of the intellectual gifts that love brings to the soul; who had faith in all that is worthy, and enthusiasm for all that is great, and pity for all that suffers; who wrote the vision of poets and casa guidi windows and aurora leigh. as one, to whom i owe my love of poetry no less than my love of country, has said of her: still on our ears the clear 'excelsior' from a woman's lip rings out across the apennines, although the woman's brow lies pale and cold in death with all the mighty marble dead in florence. for while great songs can stir the hearts of men, spreading their full vibrations through the world in ever-widening circles till they reach the throne of god, and song becomes a prayer, and prayer brings down the liberating strength that kindles nations to heroic deeds, she lives--the great-souled poetess who saw from casa guidi windows freedom dawn on italy, and gave the glory back in sunrise hymns to all humanity! she lives indeed, and not alone in the heart of shakespeare's england, but in the heart of dante's italy also. to greek literature she owed her scholarly culture, but modern italy created her human passion for liberty. when she crossed the alps she became filled with a new ardour, and from that fine, eloquent mouth, that we can still see in her portraits, broke forth such a noble and majestic outburst of lyrical song as had not been heard from woman's lips for more than two thousand years. it is pleasant to think that an english poetess was to a certain extent a real factor in bringing about that unity of italy that was dante's dream, and if florence drove her great singer into exile, she at least welcomed within her walls the later singer that england had sent to her. if one were asked the chief qualities of mrs. browning's work, one would say, as mr. swinburne said of byron's, its sincerity and its strength. faults it, of course, possesses. 'she would rhyme moon to table,' used to be said of her in jest; and certainly no more monstrous rhymes are to be found in all literature than some of those we come across in mrs. browning's poems. but her ruggedness was never the result of carelessness. it was deliberate, as her letters to mr. horne show very clearly. she refused to sandpaper her muse. she disliked facile smoothness and artificial polish. in her very rejection of art she was an artist. she intended to produce a certain effect by certain means, and she succeeded; and her indifference to complete assonance in rhyme often gives a splendid richness to her verse, and brings into it a pleasurable element of surprise. in philosophy she was a platonist, in politics an opportunist. she attached herself to no particular party. she loved the people when they were king-like, and kings when they showed themselves to be men. of the real value and motive of poetry she had a most exalted idea. 'poetry,' she says, in the preface of one of her volumes, 'has been as serious a thing to me as life itself; and life has been a very serious thing. there has been no playing at skittles for me in either. i never mistook pleasure for the final cause of poetry, nor leisure for the hour of the poet. i have done my work so far, not as mere hand and head work apart from the personal being, but as the completest expression of that being to which i could attain.' it certainly is her completest expression, and through it she realises her fullest perfection. 'the poet,' she says elsewhere, 'is at once richer and poorer than he used to be; he wears better broadcloth, but speaks no more oracles.' these words give us the keynote to her view of the poet's mission. he was to utter divine oracles, to be at once inspired prophet and holy priest; and as such we may, i think, without exaggeration, conceive her. she was a sibyl delivering a message to the world, sometimes through stammering lips, and once at least with blinded eyes, yet always with the true fire and fervour of lofty and unshaken faith, always with the great raptures of a spiritual nature, the high ardours of an impassioned soul. as we read her best poems we feel that, though apollo's shrine be empty and the bronze tripod overthrown, and the vale of delphi desolate, still the pythia is not dead. in our own age she has sung for us, and this land gave her new birth. indeed, mrs. browning is the wisest of the sibyls, wiser even than that mighty figure whom michael angelo has painted on the roof of the sistine chapel at rome, poring over the scroll of mystery, and trying to decipher the secrets of fate; for she realised that, while knowledge is power, suffering is part of knowledge. to her influence, almost as much as to the higher education of women, i would be inclined to attribute the really remarkable awakening of woman's song that characterises the latter half of our century in england. no country has ever had so many poetesses at once. indeed, when one remembers that the greeks had only nine muses, one is sometimes apt to fancy that we have too many. and yet the work done by women in the sphere of poetry is really of a very high standard of excellence. in england we have always been prone to underrate the value of tradition in literature. in our eagerness to find a new voice and a fresh mode of music, we have forgotten how beautiful echo may be. we look first for individuality and personality, and these are, indeed, the chief characteristics of the masterpieces of our literature, either in prose or verse; but deliberate culture and a study of the best models, if united to an artistic temperament and a nature susceptible of exquisite impressions, may produce much that is admirable, much that is worthy of praise. it would be quite impossible to give a complete catalogue of all the women who since mrs. browning's day have tried lute and lyre. mrs. pfeiffer, mrs. hamilton king, mrs. augusta webster, graham tomson, miss mary robinson, jean ingelow, miss may kendall, miss nesbit, miss may probyn, mrs. craik, mrs. meynell, miss chapman, and many others have done really good work in poetry, either in the grave dorian mode of thoughtful and intellectual verse, or in the light and graceful forms of old french song, or in the romantic manner of antique ballad, or in that 'moment's monument,' as rossetti called it, the intense and concentrated sonnet. occasionally one is tempted to wish that the quick, artistic faculty that women undoubtedly possess developed itself somewhat more in prose and somewhat less in verse. poetry is for our highest moods, when we wish to be with the gods, and in our poetry nothing but the very best should satisfy us; but prose is for our daily bread, and the lack of good prose is one of the chief blots on our culture. french prose, even in the hands of the most ordinary writers, is always readable, but english prose is detestable. we have a few, a very few, masters, such as they are. we have carlyle, who should not be imitated; and mr. pater, who, through the subtle perfection of his form, is inimitable absolutely; and mr. froude, who is useful; and matthew arnold, who is a model; and mr. george meredith, who is a warning; and mr. lang, who is the divine amateur; and mr. stevenson, who is the humane artist; and mr. ruskin, whose rhythm and colour and fine rhetoric and marvellous music of words are entirely unattainable. but the general prose that one reads in magazines and in newspapers is terribly dull and cumbrous, heavy in movement and uncouth or exaggerated in expression. possibly some day our women of letters will apply themselves more definitely to prose. their light touch, and exquisite ear, and delicate sense of balance and proportion would be of no small service to us. i can fancy women bringing a new manner into our literature. however, we have to deal here with women as poetesses, and it is interesting to note that, though mrs. browning's influence undoubtedly contributed very largely to the development of this new song-movement, if i may so term it, still there seems to have been never a time during the last three hundred years when the women of this kingdom did not cultivate, if not the art, at least the habit, of writing poetry. who the first english poetess was i cannot say. i believe it was the abbess juliana berners, who lived in the fifteenth century; but i have no doubt that mr. freeman would be able at a moment's notice to produce some wonderful saxon or norman poetess, whose works cannot be read without a glossary, and even with its aid are completely unintelligible. for my own part, i am content with the abbess juliana, who wrote enthusiastically about hawking; and after her i would mention anne askew, who in prison and on the eve of her fiery martyrdom wrote a ballad that has, at any rate, a pathetic and historical interest. queen elizabeth's 'most sweet and sententious ditty' on mary stuart is highly praised by puttenham, a contemporary critic, as an example of 'exargasia, or the gorgeous in literature,' which somehow seems a very suitable epithet for such a great queen's poems. the term she applies to the unfortunate queen of scots, 'the daughter of debate,' has, of course, long since passed into literature. the countess of pembroke, sir philip sidney's sister, was much admired as a poetess in her day. in the 'learned, virtuous, and truly noble ladie,' elizabeth carew, published a tragedie of marian, the faire queene of jewry, and a few years later the 'noble ladie diana primrose' wrote a chain of pearl, which is a panegyric on the 'peerless graces' of gloriana. mary morpeth, the friend and admirer of drummond of hawthornden; lady mary wroth, to whom ben jonson dedicated the alchemist; and the princess elizabeth, the sister of charles i., should also be mentioned. after the restoration women applied themselves with still greater ardour to the study of literature and the practice of poetry. margaret, duchess of newcastle, was a true woman of letters, and some of her verses are extremely pretty and graceful. mrs. aphra behn was the first englishwoman who adopted literature as a regular profession. mrs. katharine philips, according to mr. gosse, invented sentimentality. as she was praised by dryden, and mourned by cowley, let us hope she may be forgiven. keats came across her poems at oxford when he was writing endymion, and found in one of them 'a most delicate fancy of the fletcher kind'; but i fear nobody reads the matchless orinda now. of lady winchelsea's nocturnal reverie wordsworth said that, with the exception of pope's windsor forest, it was the only poem of the period intervening between paradise lost and thomson's seasons that contained a single new image of external nature. lady rachel russell, who may be said to have inaugurated the letter-writing literature of england; eliza haywood, who is immortalised by the badness of her work, and has a niche in the dunciad; and the marchioness of wharton, whose poems waller said he admired, are very remarkable types, the finest of them being, of course, the first named, who was a woman of heroic mould and of a most noble dignity of nature. indeed, though the english poetesses up to the time of mrs. browning cannot be said to have produced any work of absolute genius, they are certainly interesting figures, fascinating subjects for study. amongst them we find lady mary wortley montague, who had all the caprice of cleopatra, and whose letters are delightful reading; mrs. centlivre, who wrote one brilliant comedy; lady anne barnard, whose auld robin gray was described by sir walter scott as 'worth all the dialogues corydon and phillis have together spoken from the days of theocritus downwards,' and is certainly a very beautiful and touching poem; esther vanhomrigh and hester johnson, the vanessa and the stella of dean swift's life; mrs. thrale, the friend of the great lexicographer; the worthy mrs. barbauld; the excellent mrs. hannah more; the industrious joanna baillie; the admirable mrs. chapone, whose ode to solitude always fills me with the wildest passion for society, and who will at least be remembered as the patroness of the establishment at which becky sharp was educated; miss anna seward, who was called 'the swan of lichfield'; poor l. e. l., whom disraeli described in one of his clever letters to his sister as 'the personification of brompton--pink satin dress, white satin shoes, red cheeks, snub nose, and her hair a la sappho'; mrs. ratcliffe, who introduced the romantic novel, and has consequently much to answer for; the beautiful duchess of devonshire, of whom gibbon said that she was 'made for something better than a duchess'; the two wonderful sisters, lady dufferin and mrs. norton; mrs. tighe, whose psyche keats read with pleasure; constantia grierson, a marvellous blue-stocking in her time; mrs. hemans; pretty, charming 'perdita,' who flirted alternately with poetry and the prince regent, played divinely in the winter's tale, was brutally attacked by gifford, and has left us a pathetic little poem on the snowdrop; and emily bronte, whose poems are instinct with tragic power, and seem often on the verge of being great. old fashions in literature are not so pleasant as old fashions in dress. i like the costume of the age of powder better than the poetry of the age of pope. but if one adopts the historical standpoint--and this is, indeed, the only standpoint from which we can ever form a fair estimate of work that is not absolutely of the highest order--we cannot fail to see that many of the english poetesses who preceded mrs. browning were women of no ordinary talent, and that if the majority of them looked upon poetry simply as a department of belles lettres, so in most cases did their contemporaries. since mrs. browning's day our woods have become full of singing birds, and if i venture to ask them to apply themselves more to prose and less to song, it is not that i like poetical prose, but that i love the prose of poets. london models (english illustrated magazine, january .) professional models are a purely modern invention. to the greeks, for instance, they were quite unknown. mr. mahaffy, it is true, tells us that pericles used to present peacocks to the great ladies of athenian society in order to induce them to sit to his friend phidias, and we know that polygnotus introduced into his picture of the trojan women the face of elpinice, the celebrated sister of the great conservative leader of the day, but these grandes dames clearly do not come under our category. as for the old masters, they undoubtedly made constant studies from their pupils and apprentices, and even their religious pictures are full of the portraits of their friends and relations, but they do not seem to have had the inestimable advantage of the existence of a class of people whose sole profession is to pose. in fact the model, in our sense of the word, is the direct creation of academic schools. every country now has its own models, except america. in new york, and even in boston, a good model is so great a rarity that most of the artists are reduced to painting niagara and millionaires. in europe, however, it is different. here we have plenty of models, and of every nationality. the italian models are the best. the natural grace of their attitudes, as well as the wonderful picturesqueness of their colouring, makes them facile--often too facile--subjects for the painter's brush. the french models, though not so beautiful as the italian, possess a quickness of intellectual sympathy, a capacity, in fact, of understanding the artist, which is quite remarkable. they have also a great command over the varieties of facial expression, are peculiarly dramatic, and can chatter the argot of the atelier as cleverly as the critic of the gil bias. the english models form a class entirely by themselves. they are not so picturesque as the italian, nor so clever as the french, and they have absolutely no tradition, so to speak, of their order. now and then some old veteran knocks at a studio door, and proposes to sit as ajax defying the lightning, or as king lear upon the blasted heath. one of them some time ago called on a popular painter who, happening at the moment to require his services, engaged him, and told him to begin by kneeling down in the attitude of prayer. 'shall i be biblical or shakespearean, sir?' asked the veteran. 'well--shakespearean,' answered the artist, wondering by what subtle nuance of expression the model would convey the difference. 'all right, sir,' said the professor of posing, and he solemnly knelt down and began to wink with his left eye! this class, however, is dying out. as a rule the model, nowadays, is a pretty girl, from about twelve to twenty-five years of age, who knows nothing about art, cares less, and is merely anxious to earn seven or eight shillings a day without much trouble. english models rarely look at a picture, and never venture on any aesthetic theories. in fact, they realise very completely mr. whistler's idea of the function of an art critic, for they pass no criticisms at all. they accept all schools of art with the grand catholicity of the auctioneer, and sit to a fantastic young impressionist as readily as to a learned and laborious academician. they are neither for the whistlerites nor against them; the quarrel between the school of facts and the school of effects touches them not; idealistic and naturalistic are words that convey no meaning to their ears; they merely desire that the studio shall be warm, and the lunch hot, for all charming artists give their models lunch. as to what they are asked to do they are equally indifferent. on monday they will don the rags of a beggar-girl for mr. pumper, whose pathetic pictures of modern life draw such tears from the public, and on tuesday they will pose in a peplum for mr. phoebus, who thinks that all really artistic subjects are necessarily b.c. they career gaily through all centuries and through all costumes, and, like actors, are interesting only when they are not themselves. they are extremely good-natured, and very accommodating. 'what do you sit for?' said a young artist to a model who had sent him in her card (all models, by the way, have cards and a small black bag). 'oh, for anything you like, sir,' said the girl, 'landscape if necessary!' intellectually, it must be acknowledged, they are philistines, but physically they are perfect--at least some are. though none of them can talk greek, many can look greek, which to a nineteenth-century painter is naturally of great importance. if they are allowed, they chatter a great deal, but they never say anything. their observations are the only banalites heard in bohemia. however, though they cannot appreciate the artist as artist, they are quite ready to appreciate the artist as a man. they are very sensitive to kindness, respect and generosity. a beautiful model who had sat for two years to one of our most distinguished english painters, got engaged to a street vendor of penny ices. on her marriage the painter sent her a pretty wedding present, and received in return a nice letter of thanks with the following remarkable postscript: 'never eat the green ices!' when they are tired a wise artist gives them a rest. then they sit in a chair and read penny dreadfuls, till they are roused from the tragedy of literature to take their place again in the tragedy of art. a few of them smoke cigarettes. this, however, is regarded by the other models as showing a want of seriousness, and is not generally approved of. they are engaged by the day and by the half-day. the tariff is a shilling an hour, to which great artists usually add an omnibus fare. the two best things about them are their extraordinary prettiness, and their extreme respectability. as a class they are very well behaved, particularly those who sit for the figure, a fact which is curious or natural according to the view one takes of human nature. they usually marry well, and sometimes they marry the artist. for an artist to marry his model is as fatal as for a gourmet to marry his cook: the one gets no sittings, and the other gets no dinners. on the whole the english female models are very naive, very natural, and very good-humoured. the virtues which the artist values most in them are prettiness and punctuality. every sensible model consequently keeps a diary of her engagements, and dresses neatly. the bad season is, of course, the summer, when the artists are out of town. however, of late years some artists have engaged their models to follow them, and the wife of one of our most charming painters has often had three or four models under her charge in the country, so that the work of her husband and his friends should not be interrupted. in france the models migrate en masse to the little seaport villages or forest hamlets where the painters congregate. the english models, however, wait patiently in london, as a rule, till the artists come back. nearly all of them live with their parents, and help to support the house. they have every qualification for being immortalised in art except that of beautiful hands. the hands of the english model are nearly always coarse and red. as for the male models, there is the veteran whom we have mentioned above. he has all the traditions of the grand style, and is rapidly disappearing with the school he represents. an old man who talks about fuseli is, of course, unendurable, and, besides, patriarchs have ceased to be fashionable subjects. then there is the true academy model. he is usually a man of thirty, rarely good-looking, but a perfect miracle of muscles. in fact he is the apotheosis of anatomy, and is so conscious of his own splendour that he tells you of his tibia and his thorax, as if no one else had anything of the kind. then come the oriental models. the supply of these is limited, but there are always about a dozen in london. they are very much sought after as they can remain immobile for hours, and generally possess lovely costumes. however, they have a very poor opinion of english art, which they regard as something between a vulgar personality and a commonplace photograph. next we have the italian youth who has come over specially to be a model, or takes to it when his organ is out of repair. he is often quite charming with his large melancholy eyes, his crisp hair, and his slim brown figure. it is true he eats garlic, but then he can stand like a faun and couch like a leopard, so he is forgiven. he is always full of pretty compliments, and has been known to have kind words of encouragement for even our greatest artists. as for the english lad of the same age, he never sits at all. apparently he does not regard the career of a model as a serious profession. in any case he is rarely, if ever, to be got hold of. english boys, too, are difficult to find. sometimes an ex-model who has a son will curl his hair, and wash his face, and bring him the round of the studios, all soap and shininess. the young school don't like him, but the older school do, and when he appears on the walls of the royal academy he is called the infant samuel. occasionally also an artist catches a couple of gamins in the gutter and asks them to come to his studio. the first time they always appear, but after that they don't keep their appointments. they dislike sitting still, and have a strong and perhaps natural objection to looking pathetic. besides, they are always under the impression that the artist is laughing at them. it is a sad fact, but there is no doubt that the poor are completely unconscious of their own picturesqueness. those of them who can be induced to sit do so with the idea that the artist is merely a benevolent philanthropist who has chosen an eccentric method of distributing alms to the undeserving. perhaps the school board will teach the london gamin his own artistic value, and then they will be better models than they are now. one remarkable privilege belongs to the academy model, that of extorting a sovereign from any newly elected associate or r.a. they wait at burlington house till the announcement is made, and then race to the hapless artist's house. the one who arrives first receives the money. they have of late been much troubled at the long distances they have had to run, and they look with disfavour on the election of artists who live at hampstead or at bedford park, for it is considered a point of honour not to employ the underground railway, omnibuses, or any artificial means of locomotion. the race is to the swift. besides the professional posers of the studio there are posers of the row, the posers at afternoon teas, the posers in politics and the circus posers. all four classes are delightful, but only the last class is ever really decorative. acrobats and gymnasts can give the young painter infinite suggestions, for they bring into their art an element of swiftness of motion and of constant change that the studio model necessary lacks. what is interesting in these 'slaves of the ring' is that with them beauty is an unconscious result not a conscious aim, the result in fact of the mathematical calculation of curves and distances, of absolute precision of eye, of the scientific knowledge of the equilibrium of forces, and of perfect physical training. a good acrobat is always graceful, though grace is never his object; he is graceful because he does what he has to do in the best way in which it can be done--graceful because he is natural. if an ancient greek were to come to life now, which considering the probable severity of his criticisms would be rather trying to our conceit, he would be found far oftener at the circus than at the theatre. a good circus is an oasis of hellenism in a world that reads too much to be wise, and thinks too much to be beautiful. if it were not for the running-ground at eton, the towing- path at oxford, the thames swimming-baths, and the yearly circuses, humanity would forget the plastic perfection of its own form, and degenerate into a race of short-sighted professors and spectacled precieuses. not that the circus proprietors are, as a rule, conscious of their high mission. do they not bore us with the haute ecole, and weary us with shakespearean clowns?--still, at least, they give us acrobats, and the acrobat is an artist. the mere fact that he never speaks to the audience shows how well he appreciates the great truth that the aim of art is not to reveal personality but to please. the clown may be blatant, but the acrobat is always beautiful. he is an interesting combination of the spirit of greek sculpture with the spangles of the modern costumier. he has even had his niche in the novels of our age, and if manette salomon be the unmasking of the model, les freres zemganno is the apotheosis of the acrobat. as regards the influence of the ordinary model on our english school of painting, it cannot be said that it is altogether good. it is, of course, an advantage for the young artist sitting in his studio to be able to isolate 'a little corner of life,' as the french say, from disturbing surroundings, and to study it under certain effects of light and shade. but this very isolation leads often to mere mannerism in the painter, and robs him of that broad acceptance of the general facts of life which is the very essence of art. model-painting, in a word, while it may be the condition of art, is not by any means its aim. it is simply practice, not perfection. its use trains the eye and the hand of the painter, its abuse produces in his work an effect of mere posing and prettiness. it is the secret of much of the artificiality of modern art, this constant posing of pretty people, and when art becomes artificial it becomes monotonous. outside the little world of the studio, with its draperies and its bric-a-brac, lies the world of life with its infinite, its shakespearean variety. we must, however, distinguish between the two kinds of models, those who sit for the figure and those who sit for the costume. the study of the first is always excellent, but the costume- model is becoming rather wearisome in modern pictures. it is really of very little use to dress up a london girl in greek draperies and to paint her as a goddess. the robe may be the robe of athens, but the face is usually the face of brompton. now and then, it is true, one comes across a model whose face is an exquisite anachronism, and who looks lovely and natural in the dress of any century but her own. this, however, is rather rare. as a rule models are absolutely de notre siecle, and should be painted as such. unfortunately they are not, and, as a consequence, we are shown every year a series of scenes from fancy dress balls which are called historical pictures, but are little more than mediocre representations of modern people masquerading. in france they are wiser. the french painter uses the model simply for study; for the finished picture he goes direct to life. however, we must not blame the sitters for the shortcomings of the artists. the english models are a well-behaved and hard-working class, and if they are more interested in artists than in art, a large section of the public is in the same condition, and most of our modern exhibitions seem to justify its choice. letter to joaquin miller written to mr. joaquin miller in reply to a letter, dated february , , in reference to the behaviour of a section of the audience at wilde's lecture on the english renaissance at the grand opera house, rochester, new york state, on february . it was first published in a volume called decorative art in america, containing unauthorised reprints of certain reviews and letters contributed by wilde to english newspapers. (new york: brentano's, .) st. louis, february , . my dear joaquin miller,--i thank you for your chivalrous and courteous letter. believe me, i would as lief judge of the strength and splendour of sun and sea by the dust that dances in the beam and the bubble that breaks on the wave, as take the petty and profitless vulgarity of one or two insignificant towns as any test or standard of the real spirit of a sane, strong and simple people, or allow it to affect my respect for the many noble men or women whom it has been my privilege in this great country to know. for myself and the cause which i represent i have no fears as regards the future. slander and folly have their way for a season, but for a season only; while, as touching the few provincial newspapers which have so vainly assailed me, or that ignorant and itinerant libeller of new england who goes lecturing from village to village in such open and ostentatious isolation, be sure i have no time to waste on them. youth being so glorious, art so godlike, and the very world about us so full of beautiful things, and things worthy of reverence, and things honourable, how should one stop to listen to the lucubrations of a literary gamin, to the brawling and mouthing of a man whose praise would be as insolent as his slander is impotent, or to the irresponsible and irrepressible chatter of the professionally unproductive? it is a great advantage, i admit, to have done nothing, but one must not abuse even that advantage. who, after all, that i should write of him, is this scribbling anonymuncule in grand old massachusetts who scrawls and screams so glibly about what he cannot understand? this apostle of inhospitality, who delights to defile, to desecrate, and to defame the gracious courtesies he is unworthy to enjoy? who are these scribes who, passing with purposeless alacrity from the police news to the parthenon, and from crime to criticism, sway with such serene incapacity the office which they so lately swept? 'narcissuses of imbecility,' what should they see in the clear waters of beauty and in the well undefiled of truth but the shifting and shadowy image of their own substantial stupidity? secure of that oblivion for which they toil so laboriously and, i must acknowledge, with such success, let them peer at us through their telescopes and report what they like of us. but, my dear joaquin, should we put them under the microscope there would be really nothing to be seen. i look forward to passing another delightful evening with you on my return to new york, and i need not tell you that whenever you visit england you will be received with that courtesy with which it is our pleasure to welcome all americans, and that honour with which it is our privilege to greet all poets.--most sincerely and affectionately yours, oscar wilde. notes on whistler i. (world, november , .) from oscar wilde, exeter, to j. m'neill whistler, tite street.--punch too ridiculous--when you and i are together we never talk about anything except ourselves. ii. (world, february , .) dear butterfly,--by the aid of a biographical dictionary i made the discovery that there were once two painters, called benjamin west and paul delaroche, who rashly lectured upon art. as of their works nothing at all remains, i conclude that they explained themselves away. be warned in time, james; and remain, as i do, incomprehensible. to be great is to be misunderstood.--tout a vous, oscar wilde. iii. (world, november , .) atlas,--this is very sad! with our james vulgarity begins at home, and should be allowed to stay there.--a vous, oscar wilde. reply to whistler (truth, january , .) to the editor of truth. sir,--i can hardly imagine that the public is in the very smallest degree interested in the shrill shrieks of 'plagiarism' that proceed from time to time out of the lips of silly vanity or incompetent mediocrity. however, as mr. james whistler has had the impertinence to attack me with both venom and vulgarity in your columns, i hope you will allow me to state that the assertions contained in his letter are as deliberately untrue as they are deliberately offensive. the definition of a disciple as one who has the courage of the opinions of his master is really too old even for mr. whistler to be allowed to claim it, and as for borrowing mr. whistler's ideas about art, the only thoroughly original ideas i have ever heard him express have had reference to his own superiority as a painter over painters greater than himself. it is a trouble for any gentleman to have to notice the lucubrations of so ill-bred and ignorant a person as mr. whistler, but your publication of his insolent letter left me no option in the matter.--i remain, sir, faithfully yours, oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, s. w. letters on dorian gray i. mr. wilde's bad case (st. james's gazette, june , .) to the editor of the st. james's gazette. sir,--i have read your criticism of my story, the picture of dorian gray; and i need hardly say that i do not propose to discuss its merits or demerits, its personalities or its lack of personality. england is a free country, and ordinary english criticism is perfectly free and easy. besides, i must admit that, either from temperament or taste, or from both, i am quite incapable of understanding how any work of art can be criticised from a moral standpoint. the sphere of art and the sphere of ethics are absolutely distinct and separate; and it is to the confusion between the two that we owe the appearance of mrs. grundy, that amusing old lady who represents the only original form of humour that the middle classes of this country have been able to produce. what i do object to most strongly is that you should have placarded the town with posters on which was printed in large letters:-- mr. oscar wilde's latest advertisement: a bad case. whether the expression 'a bad case' refers to my book or to the present position of the government, i cannot tell. what was silly and unnecessary was the use of the term 'advertisement.' i think i may say without vanity--though i do not wish to appear to run vanity down--that of all men in england i am the one who requires least advertisement. i am tired to death of being advertised--i feel no thrill when i see my name in a paper. the chronicle does not interest me any more. i wrote this book entirely for my own pleasure, and it gave me very great pleasure to write it. whether it becomes popular or not is a matter of absolute indifference to me. i am afraid, sir, that the real advertisement is your cleverly written article. the english public, as a mass, takes no interest in a work of art until it is told that the work in question is immoral, and your reclame will, i have no doubt, largely increase the sale of the magazine; in which sale i may mention with some regret, i have no pecuniary interest.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, june . ii. mr. oscar wilde again (st. james's gazette, june , .) sir,--in your issue of today you state that my brief letter published in your columns is the 'best reply' i can make to your article upon dorian gray. this is not so. i do not propose to discuss fully the matter here, but i feel bound to say that your article contains the most unjustifiable attack that has been made upon any man of letters for many years. the writer of it, who is quite incapable of concealing his personal malice, and so in some measure destroys the effect he wishes to produce, seems not to have the slightest idea of the temper in which a work of art should be approached. to say that such a book as mine should be 'chucked into the fire' is silly. that is what one does with newspapers. of the value of pseudo-ethical criticism in dealing with artistic work i have spoken already. but as your writer has ventured into the perilous grounds of literary criticism i ask you to allow me, in fairness not merely to myself but to all men to whom literature is a fine art, to say a few words about his critical method. he begins by assailing me with much ridiculous virulence because the chief personages in my story are puppies. they _are_ puppies. does he think that literature went to the dogs when thackeray wrote about puppydom? i think that puppies are extremely interesting from an artistic as well as from a psychological point of view. they seem to me to be certainly far more interesting than prigs; and i am of opinion that lord henry wotton is an excellent corrective of the tedious ideal shadowed forth in the semi-theological novels of our age. he then makes vague and fearful insinuations about my grammar and my erudition. now, as regards grammar, i hold that, in prose at any rate, correctness should always be subordinate to artistic effect and musical cadence; and any peculiarities of syntax that may occur in dorian gray are deliberately intended, and are introduced to show the value of the artistic theory in question. your writer gives no instance of any such peculiarity. this i regret, because i do not think that any such instances occur. as regards erudition, it is always difficult, even for the most modest of us, to remember that other people do not know quite as much as one does one's self. i myself frankly admit i cannot imagine how a casual reference to suetonius and petronius arbiter can be construed into evidence of a desire to impress an unoffending and ill-educated public by an assumption of superior knowledge. i should fancy that the most ordinary of scholars is perfectly well acquainted with the lives of the caesars and with the satyricon. the lives of the caesars, at any rate, forms part of the curriculum at oxford for those who take the honour school of literae humaniores; and as for the satyricon it is popular even among pass-men, though i suppose they are obliged to read it in translations. the writer of the article then suggests that i, in common with that great and noble artist count tolstoi, take pleasure in a subject because it is dangerous. about such a suggestion there is this to be said. romantic art deals with the exception and with the individual. good people, belonging as they do to the normal, and so, commonplace, type, are artistically uninteresting. bad people are, from the point of view of art, fascinating studies. they represent colour, variety and strangeness. good people exasperate one's reason; bad people stir one's imagination. your critic, if i must give him so honourable a title, states that the people in my story have no counterpart in life; that they are, to use his vigorous if somewhat vulgar phrase, 'mere catchpenny revelations of the non-existent.' quite so. if they existed they would not be worth writing about. the function of the artist is to invent, not to chronicle. there are no such people. if there were i would not write about them. life by its realism is always spoiling the subject-matter of art. the superior pleasure in literature is to realise the non-existent. and finally, let me say this. you have reproduced, in a journalistic form, the comedy of much ado about nothing and have, of course, spoilt it in your reproduction. the poor public, hearing, from an authority so high as your own, that this is a wicked book that should be coerced and suppressed by a tory government, will, no doubt, rush to it and read it. but, alas! they will find that it is a story with a moral. and the moral is this: all excess, as well as all renunciation, brings its own punishment. the painter, basil hallward, worshipping physical beauty far too much, as most painters do, dies by the hand of one in whose soul he has created a monstrous and absurd vanity. dorian gray, having led a life of mere sensation and pleasure, tries to kill conscience, and at that moment kills himself. lord henry wotton seeks to be merely the spectator of life. he finds that those who reject the battle are more deeply wounded than those who take part in it. yes, there is a terrible moral in dorian gray--a moral which the prurient will not be able to find in it, but it will be revealed to all whose minds are healthy. is this an artistic error? i fear it is. it is the only error in the book.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, june . iii. mr. oscar wilde's defence (st. james's gazette, june , .) to the editor of the st. james's gazette. sir,--as you still keep up, though in a somewhat milder form than before, your attacks on me and my book, you not only confer on me the right, but you impose upon me the duty of reply. you state, in your issue of today, that i misrepresented you when i said that you suggested that a book so wicked as mine should be 'suppressed and coerced by a tory government.' now, you did not propose this, but you did suggest it. when you declare that you do not know whether or not the government will take action about my book, and remark that the authors of books much less wicked have been proceeded against in law, the suggestion is quite obvious. in your complaint of misrepresentation you seem to me, sir, to have been not quite candid. however, as far as i am concerned, this suggestion is of no importance. what is of importance is that the editor of a paper like yours should appear to countenance the monstrous theory that the government of a country should exercise a censorship over imaginative literature. this is a theory against which i, and all men of letters of my acquaintance, protest most strongly; and any critic who admits the reasonableness of such a theory shows at once that he is quite incapable of understanding what literature is, and what are the rights that literature possesses. a government might just as well try to teach painters how to paint, or sculptors how to model, as attempt to interfere with the style, treatment and subject-matter of the literary artist, and no writer, however eminent or obscure, should ever give his sanction to a theory that would degrade literature far more than any didactic or so-called immoral book could possibly do. you then express your surprise that 'so experienced a literary gentleman' as myself should imagine that your critic was animated by any feeling of personal malice towards him. the phrase 'literary gentleman' is a vile phrase, but let that pass. i accept quite readily your assurance that your critic was simply criticising a work of art in the best way that he could, but i feel that i was fully justified in forming the opinion of him that i did. he opened his article by a gross personal attack on myself. this, i need hardly say, was an absolutely unpardonable error of critical taste. there is no excuse for it except personal malice; and you, sir, should not have sanctioned it. a critic should be taught to criticise a work of art without making any reference to the personality of the author. this, in fact, is the beginning of criticism. however, it was not merely his personal attack on me that made me imagine that he was actuated by malice. what really confirmed me in my first impression was his reiterated assertion that my book was tedious and dull. now, if i were criticising my book, which i have some thoughts of doing, i think i would consider it my duty to point out that it is far too crowded with sensational incident, and far too paradoxical in style, as far, at any rate, as the dialogue goes. i feel that from a standpoint of art these are true defects in the book. but tedious and dull the book is not. your critic has cleared himself of the charge of personal malice, his denial and yours being quite sufficient in the matter; but he has done so only by a tacit admission that he has really no critical instinct about literature and literary work, which, in one who writes about literature, is, i need hardly say, a much graver fault than malice of any kind. finally, sir, allow me to say this. such an article as you have published really makes me despair of the possibility of any general culture in england. were i a french author, and my book brought out in paris, there is not a single literary critic in france on any paper of high standing who would think for a moment of criticising it from an ethical standpoint. if he did so he would stultify himself, not merely in the eyes of all men of letters, but in the eyes of the majority of the public. you have yourself often spoken against puritanism. believe me, sir, puritanism is never so offensive and destructive as when it deals with art matters. it is there that it is radically wrong. it is this puritanism, to which your critic has given expression, that is always marring the artistic instinct of the english. so far from encouraging it, you should set yourself against it, and should try to teach your critics to recognise the essential difference between art and life. the gentleman who criticised my book is in a perfectly hopeless confusion about it, and your attempt to help him out by proposing that the subject- matter of art should be limited does not mend matters. it is proper that limitation should be placed on action. it is not proper that limitation should be placed on art. to art belong all things that are and all things that are not, and even the editor of a london paper has no right to restrain the freedom of art in the selection of subject-matter. i now trust, sir, that these attacks on me and on my book will cease. there are forms of advertisement that are unwarranted and unwarrantable.--i am, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, s. w., june . iv. (st. james's gazette, june , .) to the editor of the st. james's gazette. sir,--in your issue of this evening you publish a letter from 'a london editor' which clearly insinuates in the last paragraph that i have in some way sanctioned the circulation of an expression of opinion, on the part of the proprietors of lippincott's magazine, of the literary and artistic value of my story of the picture of dorian gray. allow me, sir, to state that there are no grounds for this insinuation. i was not aware that any such document was being circulated; and i have written to the agents, messrs. ward and lock--who cannot, i feel sure, be primarily responsible for its appearance--to ask them to withdraw it at once. no publisher should ever express an opinion of the value of what he publishes. that is a matter entirely for the literary critic to decide. i must admit, as one to whom contemporary literature is constantly submitted for criticism, that the only thing that ever prejudices me against a book is the lack of literary style; but i can quite understand how any ordinary critic would be strongly prejudiced against a work that was accompanied by a premature and unnecessary panegyric from the publisher. a publisher is simply a useful middleman. it is not for him to anticipate the verdict of criticism. i may, however, while expressing my thanks to the 'london editor' for drawing my attention to this, i trust, purely american method of procedure, venture to differ from him in one of his criticisms. he states that he regards the expression 'complete' as applied to a story, as a specimen of the 'adjectival exuberance of the puffer.' here, it seems to me, he sadly exaggerates. what my story is is an interesting problem. what my story is not is a 'novelette'--a term which you have more than once applied to it. there is no such word in the english language as novelette. it should not be used. it is merely part of the slang of fleet street. in another part of your paper, sir, you state that i received your assurance of the lack of malice in your critic 'somewhat grudgingly.' this is not so. i frankly said that i accepted that assurance 'quite readily,' and that your own denial and that of your own critic were 'sufficient.' nothing more generous could have been said. what i did feel was that you saved your critic from the charge of malice by convicting him of the unpardonable crime of lack of literary instinct. i still feel that. to call my book an ineffective attempt at allegory, that in the hands of mr. anstey might have been made striking, is absurd. mr. anstey's sphere in literature and my sphere are different. you then gravely ask me what rights i imagine literature possesses. that is really an extraordinary question for the editor of a newspaper such as yours to ask. the rights of literature, sir, are the rights of intellect. i remember once hearing m. renan say that he would sooner live under a military despotism than under the despotism of the church, because the former merely limited the freedom of action, while the latter limited the freedom of mind. you say that a work of art is a form of action. it is not. it is the highest mode of thought. in conclusion, sir, let me ask you not to force on me this continued correspondence by daily attacks. it is a trouble and a nuisance. as you assailed me first, i have a right to the last word. let that last word be the present letter, and leave my book, i beg you, to the immortality that it deserves.--i am, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, s.w., june . v. 'dorian gray' (daily chronicle, july , .) to the editor of the daily chronicle. sir,--will you allow me to correct some errors into which your critic has fallen in his review of my story, the picture of dorian gray, published in today's issue of your paper? your critic states, to begin with, that i make desperate attempts to 'vamp up' a moral in my story. now, i must candidly confess that i do not know what 'vamping' is. i see, from time to time, mysterious advertisements in the newspapers about 'how to vamp,' but what vamping really means remains a mystery to me--a mystery that, like all other mysteries, i hope some day to explore. however, i do not propose to discuss the absurd terms used by modern journalism. what i want to say is that, so far from wishing to emphasise any moral in my story, the real trouble i experienced in writing the story was that of keeping the extremely obvious moral subordinate to the artistic and dramatic effect. when i first conceived the idea of a young man selling his soul in exchange for eternal youth--an idea that is old in the history of literature, but to which i have given new form--i felt that, from an aesthetic point of view, it would be difficult to keep the moral in its proper secondary place; and even now i do not feel quite sure that i have been able to do so. i think the moral too apparent. when the book is published in a volume i hope to correct this defect. as for what the moral is, your critic states that it is this--that when a man feels himself becoming 'too angelic' he should rush out and make a 'beast of himself.' i cannot say that i consider this a moral. the real moral of the story is that all excess, as well as all renunciation, brings its punishment, and this moral is so far artistically and deliberately suppressed that it does not enunciate its law as a general principle, but realises itself purely in the lives of individuals, and so becomes simply a dramatic element in a work of art, and not the object of the work of art itself. your critic also falls into error when he says that dorian gray, having a 'cool, calculating, conscienceless character,' was inconsistent when he destroyed the picture of his own soul, on the ground that the picture did not become less hideous after he had done what, in his vanity, he had considered his first good action. dorian gray has not got a cool, calculating, conscienceless character at all. on the contrary, he is extremely impulsive, absurdly romantic, and is haunted all through his life by an exaggerated sense of conscience which mars his pleasures for him and warns him that youth and enjoyment are not everything in the world. it is finally to get rid of the conscience that had dogged his steps from year to year that he destroys the picture; and thus in his attempt to kill conscience dorian gray kills himself. your critic then talks about 'obtrusively cheap scholarship.' now, whatever a scholar writes is sure to display scholarship in the distinction of style and the fine use of language; but my story contains no learned or pseudo-learned discussions, and the only literary books that it alludes to are books that any fairly educated reader may be supposed to be acquainted with, such as the satyricon of petronius arbiter, or gautier's emaux et camees. such books as le conso's clericalis disciplina belong not to culture, but to curiosity. anybody may be excused for not knowing them. finally, let me say this--the aesthetic movement produced certain curious colours, subtle in their loveliness and fascinating in their almost mystical tone. they were, and are, our reaction against the crude primaries of a doubtless more respectable but certainly less cultivated age. my story is an essay on decorative art. it reacts against the crude brutality of plain realism. it is poisonous if you like, but you cannot deny that it is also perfect, and perfection is what we artists aim at.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, june . vi. mr. wilde's rejoinder (scots observer, july , .) to the editor of the scots observer. sir,--you have published a review of my story, the picture of dorian gray. as this review is grossly unjust to me as an artist, i ask you to allow me to exercise in your columns my right of reply. your reviewer, sir, while admitting that the story in question is 'plainly the work of a man of letters,' the work of one who has 'brains, and art, and style,' yet suggests, and apparently in all seriousness, that i have written it in order that it should be read by the most depraved members of the criminal and illiterate classes. now, sir, i do not suppose that the criminal and illiterate classes ever read anything except newspapers. they are certainly not likely to be able to understand anything of mine. so let them pass, and on the broad question of why a man of letters writes at all let me say this. the pleasure that one has in creating a work of art is a purely personal pleasure, and it is for the sake of this pleasure that one creates. the artist works with his eye on the object. nothing else interests him. what people are likely to say does not even occur to him. he is fascinated by what he has in hand. he is indifferent to others. i write because it gives me the greatest possible artistic pleasure to write. if my work pleases the few i am gratified. if it does not, it causes me no pain. as for the mob, i have no desire to be a popular novelist. it is far too easy. your critic then, sir, commits the absolutely unpardonable crime of trying to confuse the artist with his subject-matter. for this, sir, there is no excuse at all. of one who is the greatest figure in the world's literature since greek days, keats remarked that he had as much pleasure in conceiving the evil as he had in conceiving the good. let your reviewer, sir, consider the bearings of keats's fine criticism, for it is under these conditions that every artist works. one stands remote from one's subject-matter. one creates it and one contemplates it. the further away the subject-matter is, the more freely can the artist work. your reviewer suggests that i do not make it sufficiently clear whether i prefer virtue to wickedness or wickedness to virtue. an artist, sir, has no ethical sympathies at all. virtue and wickedness are to him simply what the colours on his palette are to the painter. they are no more and they are no less. he sees that by their means a certain artistic effect can be produced and he produces it. iago may be morally horrible and imogen stainlessly pure. shakespeare, as keats said, had as much delight in creating the one as he had in creating the other. it was necessary, sir, for the dramatic development of this story to surround dorian gray with an atmosphere of moral corruption. otherwise the story would have had no meaning and the plot no issue. to keep this atmosphere vague and indeterminate and wonderful was the aim of the artist who wrote the story. i claim, sir, that he has succeeded. each man sees his own sin in dorian gray. what dorian gray's sins are no one knows. he who finds them has brought them. in conclusion, sir, let me say how really deeply i regret that you should have permitted such a notice as the one i feel constrained to write on to have appeared in your paper. that the editor of the st. james's gazette should have employed caliban as his art-critic was possibly natural. the editor of the scots observer should not have allowed thersites to make mows in his review. it is unworthy of so distinguished a man of letters.--i am, etc., oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, july . vii. art and morality (scots observer, august , .) to the editor of the scots observer. sir,--in a letter dealing with the relations of art to morals recently published in your columns--a letter which i may say seems to me in many respects admirable, especially in its insistence on the right of the artist to select his own subject-matter--mr. charles whibley suggests that it must be peculiarly painful for me to find that the ethical import of dorian gray has been so strongly recognised by the foremost christian papers of england and america that i have been greeted by more than one of them as a moral reformer. allow me, sir, to reassure, on this point, not merely mr. charles whibley himself but also your, no doubt, anxious readers. i have no hesitation in saying that i regard such criticisms as a very gratifying tribute to my story. for if a work of art is rich, and vital and complete, those who have artistic instincts will see its beauty, and those to whom ethics appeal more strongly than aesthetics will see its moral lesson. it will fill the cowardly with terror, and the unclean will see in it their own shame. it will be to each man what he is himself. it is the spectator, and not life, that art really mirrors. and so in the case of dorian gray the purely literary critic, as in the speaker and elsewhere, regards it as a 'serious' and 'fascinating' work of art: the critic who deals with art in its relation to conduct, as the christian leader and the christian world, regards it as an ethical parable: light, which i am told is the organ of the english mystics, regards it as a work of high spiritual import; the st. james's gazette, which is seeking apparently to be the organ of the prurient, sees or pretends to see in it all kinds of dreadful things, and hints at treasury prosecutions; and your mr. charles whibley genially says that he discovers in it 'lots of morality.' it is quite true that he goes on to say that he detects no art in it. but i do not think that it is fair to expect a critic to be able to see a work of art from every point of view. even gautier had his limitations just as much as diderot had, and in modern england goethes are rare. i can only assure mr. charles whibley that no moral apotheosis to which he has added the most modest contribution could possibly be a source of unhappiness to an artist.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, july . viii. (scots observer, august , .) to the editor of the scots observer. sir,--i am afraid i cannot enter into any newspaper discussion on the subject of art with mr. whibley, partly because the writing of letters is always a trouble to me, and partly because i regret to say that i do not know what qualifications mr. whibley possesses for the discussion of so important a topic. i merely noticed his letter because, i am sure without in any way intending it, he made a suggestion about myself personally that was quite inaccurate. his suggestion was that it must have been painful to me to find that a certain section of the public, as represented by himself and the critics of some religious publications, had insisted on finding what he calls 'lots of morality' in my story of the picture of dorian gray. being naturally desirous of setting your readers right on a question of such vital interest to the historian, i took the opportunity of pointing out in your columns that i regarded all such criticisms as a very gratifying tribute to the ethical beauty of the story, and i added that i was quite ready to recognise that it was not really fair to ask of any ordinary critic that he should be able to appreciate a work of art from every point of view. i still hold this opinion. if a man sees the artistic beauty of a thing, he will probably care very little for its ethical import. if his temperament is more susceptible to ethical than to aesthetic influences, he will be blind to questions of style, treatment and the like. it takes a goethe to see a work of art fully, completely and perfectly, and i thoroughly agree with mr. whibley when he says that it is a pity that goethe never had an opportunity of reading dorian gray. i feel quite certain that he would have been delighted by it, and i only hope that some ghostly publisher is even now distributing shadowy copies in the elysian fields, and that the cover of gautier's copy is powdered with gilt asphodels. you may ask me, sir, why i should care to have the ethical beauty of my story recognised. i answer, simply because it exists, because the thing is there. the chief merit of madame bovary is not the moral lesson that can be found in it, any more than the chief merit of salammbo is its archaeology; but flaubert was perfectly right in exposing the ignorance of those who called the one immoral and the other inaccurate; and not merely was he right in the ordinary sense of the word, but he was artistically right, which is everything. the critic has to educate the public; the artist has to educate the critic. allow me to make one more correction, sir, and i will have done with mr. whibley. he ends his letter with the statement that i have been indefatigable in my public appreciation of my own work. i have no doubt that in saying this he means to pay me a compliment, but he really overrates my capacity, as well as my inclination for work. i must frankly confess that, by nature and by choice, i am extremely indolent. cultivated idleness seems to me to be the proper occupation for man. i dislike newspaper controversies of any kind, and of the two hundred and sixteen criticisms of dorian gray that have passed from my library table into the wastepaper basket i have taken public notice of only three. one was that which appeared in the scots observer. i noticed it because it made a suggestion, about the intention of the author in writing the book, which needed correction. the second was an article in the st. james's gazette. it was offensively and vulgarly written, and seemed to me to require immediate and caustic censure. the tone of the article was an impertinence to any man of letters. the third was a meek attack in a paper called the daily chronicle. i think my writing to the daily chronicle was an act of pure wilfulness. in fact, i feel sure it was. i quite forget what they said. i believe they said that dorian gray was poisonous, and i thought that, on alliterative grounds, it would be kind to remind them that, however that may be, it is at any rate perfect. that was all. of the other two hundred and thirteen criticisms i have taken no notice. indeed, i have not read more than half of them. it is a sad thing, but one wearies even of praise. as regards mr. brown's letter, it is interesting only in so far as it exemplifies the truth of what i have said above on the question of the two obvious schools of critics. mr. brown says frankly that he considers morality to be the 'strong point' of my story. mr. brown means well, and has got hold of a half truth, but when he proceeds to deal with the book from the artistic standpoint he, of course, goes sadly astray. to class dorian gray with m. zola's la terre is as silly as if one were to class musset's fortunio with one of the adelphi melodramas. mr. brown should be content with ethical appreciation. there he is impregnable. mr. cobban opens badly by describing my letter, setting mr. whibley right on a matter of fact, as an 'impudent paradox.' the term 'impudent' is meaningless, and the word 'paradox' is misplaced. i am afraid that writing to newspapers has a deteriorating influence on style. people get violent and abusive and lose all sense of proportion, when they enter that curious journalistic arena in which the race is always to the noisiest. 'impudent paradox' is neither violent nor abusive, but it is not an expression that should have been used about my letter. however, mr. cobban makes full atonement afterwards for what was, no doubt, a mere error of manner, by adopting the impudent paradox in question as his own, and pointing out that, as i had previously said, the artist will always look at the work of art from the standpoint of beauty of style and beauty of treatment, and that those who have not got the sense of beauty, or whose sense of beauty is dominated by ethical considerations, will always turn their attention to the subject-matter and make its moral import the test and touchstone of the poem or novel or picture that is presented to them, while the newspaper critic will sometimes take one side and sometimes the other, according as he is cultured or uncultured. in fact, mr. cobban converts the impudent paradox into a tedious truism, and, i dare say, in doing so does good service. the english public likes tediousness, and likes things to be explained to it in a tedious way. mr. cobban has, i have no doubt, already repented of the unfortunate expression with which he has made his debut, so i will say no more about it. as far as i am concerned he is quite forgiven. and finally, sir, in taking leave of the scots observer i feel bound to make a candid confession to you. it has been suggested to me by a great friend of mine, who is a charming and distinguished man of letters, and not unknown to you personally, that there have been really only two people engaged in this terrible controversy, and that those two people are the editor of the scots observer and the author of dorian gray. at dinner this evening, over some excellent chianti, my friend insisted that under assumed and mysterious names you had simply given dramatic expression to the views of some of the semi-educated classes of our community, and that the letters signed 'h.' were your own skilful, if somewhat bitter, caricature of the philistine as drawn by himself. i admit that something of the kind had occurred to me when i read 'h.'s' first letter--the one in which he proposes that the test of art should be the political opinions of the artist, and that if one differed from the artist on the question of the best way of misgoverning ireland, one should always abuse his work. still, there are such infinite varieties of philistines, and north britain is so renowned for seriousness, that i dismissed the idea as one unworthy of the editor of a scotch paper. i now fear that i was wrong, and that you have been amusing yourself all the time by inventing little puppets and teaching them how to use big words. well, sir, if it be so--and my friend is strong upon the point--allow me to congratulate you most sincerely on the cleverness with which you have reproduced that lack of literary style which is, i am told, essential for any dramatic and lifelike characterisation. i confess that i was completely taken in; but i bear no malice; and as you have, no doubt, been laughing at me up your sleeve, let me now join openly in the laugh, though it be a little against myself. a comedy ends when the secret is out. drop your curtain and put your dolls to bed. i love don quixote, but i do not wish to fight any longer with marionettes, however cunning may be the master-hand that works their wires. let them go, sir, on the shelf. the shelf is the proper place for them. on some future occasion you can re-label them and bring them out for our amusement. they are an excellent company, and go well through their tricks, and if they are a little unreal, i am not the one to object to unreality in art. the jest was really a good one. the only thing that i cannot understand is why you gave your marionettes such extraordinary and improbable names.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. tite street, chelsea, august . an anglo-indian's complaint (times, september , .) to the editor of the times. sir,--the writer of a letter signed 'an indian civilian' that appears in your issue of today makes a statement about me which i beg you to allow me to correct at once. he says i have described the anglo-indians as being vulgar. this is not the case. indeed, i have never met a vulgar anglo-indian. there may be many, but those whom i have had the pleasure of meeting here have been chiefly scholars, men interested in art and thought, men of cultivation; nearly all of them have been exceedingly brilliant talkers; some of them have been exceedingly brilliant writers. what i did say--i believe in the pages of the nineteenth century { }--was that vulgarity is the distinguishing note of those anglo-indians whom mr. rudyard kipling loves to write about, and writes about so cleverly. this is quite true, and there is no reason why mr. rudyard kipling should not select vulgarity as his subject-matter, or as part of it. for a realistic artist, certainly, vulgarity is a most admirable subject. how far mr. kipling's stories really mirror anglo- indian society i have no idea at all, nor, indeed, am i ever much interested in any correspondence between art and nature. it seems to me a matter of entirely secondary importance. i do not wish, however, that it should be supposed that i was passing a harsh and saugrenu judgment on an important and in many ways distinguished class, when i was merely pointing out the characteristic qualities of some puppets in a prose-play.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. september . a house of pomegranates i. (speaker, december , .) sir.--i have just purchased, at a price that for any other english sixpenny paper i would have considered exorbitant, a copy of the speaker at one of the charming kiosks that decorate paris; institutions, by the way, that i think we should at once introduce into london. the kiosk is a delightful object, and, when illuminated at night from within, as lovely as a fantastic chinese lantern, especially when the transparent advertisements are from the clever pencil of m. cheret. in london we have merely the ill-clad newsvendor, whose voice, in spite of the admirable efforts of the royal college of music to make england a really musical nation, is always out of tune, and whose rags, badly designed and badly worn, merely emphasise a painful note of uncomely misery, without conveying that impression of picturesqueness which is the only thing that makes the poverty of others at all bearable. it is not, however, about the establishment of kiosks in london that i wish to write to you, though i am of opinion that it is a thing that the county council should at once take in hand. the object of my letter is to correct a statement made in a paragraph of your interesting paper. the writer of the paragraph in question states that the decorative designs that make lovely my book, a house of pomegranates, are by the hand of mr. shannon, while the delicate dreams that separate and herald each story are by mr. ricketts. the contrary is the case. mr. shannon is the drawer of the dreams, and mr. ricketts is the subtle and fantastic decorator. indeed, it is to mr. ricketts that the entire decorative design of the book is due, from the selection of the type and the placing of the ornamentation, to the completely beautiful cover that encloses the whole. the writer of the paragraph goes on to state that he does not 'like the cover.' this is, no doubt, to be regretted, though it is not a matter of much importance, as there are only two people in the world whom it is absolutely necessary that the cover should please. one is mr. ricketts, who designed it, the other is myself, whose book it binds. we both admire it immensely! the reason, however, that your critic gives for his failure to gain from the cover any impression of beauty seems to me to show a lack of artistic instinct on his part, which i beg you will allow me to try to correct. he complains that a portion of the design on the left-hand side of the cover reminds him of an indian club with a house-painter's brush on top of it, while a portion of the design on the right-hand side suggests to him the idea of 'a chimney-pot hat with a sponge in it.' now, i do not for a moment dispute that these are the real impressions your critic received. it is the spectator, and the mind of the spectator, as i pointed out in the preface to the picture of dorian gray, that art really mirrors. what i want to indicate is this: the artistic beauty of the cover of my book resides in the delicate tracing, arabesques, and massing of many coral-red lines on a ground of white ivory, the colour effect culminating in certain high gilt notes, and being made still more pleasurable by the overlapping band of moss-green cloth that holds the book together. what the gilt notes suggest, what imitative parallel may be found to them in that chaos that is termed nature, is a matter of no importance. they may suggest, as they do sometimes to me, peacocks and pomegranates and splashing fountains of gold water, or, as they do to your critic, sponges and indian clubs and chimney-pot hats. such suggestions and evocations have nothing whatsoever to do with the aesthetic quality and value of the design. a thing in nature becomes much lovelier if it reminds us of a thing in art, but a thing in art gains no real beauty through reminding us of a thing in nature. the primary aesthetic impression of a work of art borrows nothing from recognition or resemblance. these belong to a later and less perfect stage of apprehension. properly speaking, they are no part of a real aesthetic impression at all, and the constant preoccupation with subject-matter that characterises nearly all our english art-criticism, is what makes our art- criticisms, especially as regards literature, so sterile, so profitless, so much beside the mark, and of such curiously little account.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. boulevard des capucines, paris. ii. (pall mall gazette, december , .) to the editor of the pall mall gazette. sir,--i have just had sent to me from london a copy of the pall mall gazette, containing a review of my book a house of pomegranates. { } the writer of this review makes a certain suggestion which i beg you will allow me to correct at once. he starts by asking an extremely silly question, and that is, whether or not i have written this book for the purpose of giving pleasure to the british child. having expressed grave doubts on this subject, a subject on which i cannot conceive any fairly educated person having any doubts at all, he proceeds, apparently quite seriously, to make the extremely limited vocabulary at the disposal of the british child the standard by which the prose of an artist is to be judged! now, in building this house of pomegranates, i had about as much intention of pleasing the british child as i had of pleasing the british public. mamilius is as entirely delightful as caliban is entirely detestable, but neither the standard of mamilius nor the standard of caliban is my standard. no artist recognises any standard of beauty but that which is suggested by his own temperament. the artist seeks to realise, in a certain material, his immaterial idea of beauty, and thus to transform an idea into an ideal. that is the way an artist makes things. that is why an artist makes things. the artist has no other object in making things. does your reviewer imagine that mr. shannon, for instance, whose delicate and lovely illustrations he confesses himself quite unable to see, draws for the purpose of giving information to the blind?--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. boulevard des capucines, paris. puppets and actors (daily telegraph, february , .) to the editor of the daily telegraph. sir,--i have just been sent an article that seems to have appeared in your paper some days ago, { } in which it is stated that, in the course of some remarks addressed to the playgoers' club on the occasion of my taking the chair at their last meeting, i laid it down as an axiom that the stage is only 'a frame furnished with a set of puppets.' now, it is quite true that i hold that the stage is to a play no more than a picture-frame is to a painting, and that the actable value of a play has nothing whatsoever to do with its value as a work of art. in this century, in england, to take an obvious example, we have had only two great plays--one is shelley's cenci, the other mr. swinburne's atalanta in calydon, and neither of them is in any sense of the word an actable play. indeed, the mere suggestion that stage representation is any test of a work of art is quite ridiculous. in the production of browning's plays, for instance, in london and at oxford, what was being tested was obviously the capacity of the modern stage to represent, in any adequate measure or degree, works of introspective method and strange or sterile psychology. but the artistic value of strqfford or in a balcony was settled when robert browning wrote their last lines. it is not, sir, by the mimes that the muses are to be judged. so far, the writer of the article in question is right. where he goes wrong is in saying that i describe this frame--the stage--as being furnished with a set of puppets. he admits that he speaks only by report, but he should have remembered, sir, that report is not merely a lying jade, which, personally, i would willingly forgive her, but a jade who lies without lovely invention is a thing that i, at any rate, can forgive her, never. what i really said was that the frame we call the stage was 'peopled with either living actors or moving puppets,' and i pointed out briefly, of necessity, that the personality of the actor is often a source of danger in the perfect presentation of a work of art. it may distort. it may lead astray. it may be a discord in the tone or symphony. for anybody can act. most people in england do nothing else. to be conventional is to be a comedian. to act a particular part, however, is a very different thing, and a very difficult thing as well. the actor's aim is, or should be, to convert his own accidental personality into the real and essential personality of the character he is called upon to personate, whatever that character may be; or perhaps i should say that there are two schools of action--the school of those who attain their effect by exaggeration of personality, and the school of those who attain it by suppression. it would be too long to discuss these schools, or to decide which of them the dramatist loves best. let me note the danger of personality, and pass to my puppets. there are many advantages in puppets. they never argue. they have no crude views about art. they have no private lives. we are never bothered by accounts of their virtues, or bored by recitals of their vices; and when they are out of an engagement they never do good in public or save people from drowning, nor do they speak more than is set down for them. they recognise the presiding intellect of the dramatist, and have never been known to ask for their parts to be written up. they are admirably docile, and have no personalities at all. i saw lately, in paris, a performance by certain puppets of shakespeare's tempest, in m. maurice boucher's translation. miranda was the mirage of miranda, because an artist has so fashioned her; and ariel was true ariel, because so had she been made. their gestures were quite sufficient, and the words that seemed to come from their little lips were spoken by poets who had beautiful voices. it was a delightful performance, and i remember it still with delight, though miranda took no notice of the flowers i sent her after the curtain fell. for modern plays, however, perhaps we had better have living players, for in modern plays actuality is everything. the charm--the ineffable charm--of the unreal is here denied us, and rightly. suffer me one more correction. your writer describes the author of the brilliant fantastic lecture on 'the modern actor' as a protege of mine. allow me to state that my acquaintance with mr. john gray is, i regret to say, extremely recent, and that i sought it because he had already a perfected mode of expression both in prose and verse. all artists in this vulgar age need protection certainly. perhaps they have always needed it. but the nineteenth-century artist finds it not in prince, or pope, or patron, but in high indifference of temper, in the pleasure of the creation of beautiful things, and the long contemplation of them, in disdain of what in life is common and ignoble and in such felicitous sense of humour as enables one to see how vain and foolish is all popular opinion, and popular judgment, upon the wonderful things of art. these qualities mr. john gray possesses in a marked degree. he needs no other protection, nor, indeed, would he accept it.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. lady windermere's fan: an explanation (st. james's gazette, february , .) to the editor of the st. james's gazette. sir,--allow me to correct a statement put forward in your issue of this evening to the effect that i have made a certain alteration in my play in consequence of the criticism of some journalists who write very recklessly and very foolishly in the papers about dramatic art. this statement is entirely untrue and grossly ridiculous. the facts are as follows. on last saturday night, after the play was over, and the author, cigarette in hand, had delivered a delightful and immortal speech, i had the pleasure of entertaining at supper a small number of personal friends; and as none of them was older than myself i, naturally, listened to their artistic views with attention and pleasure. the opinions of the old on matters of art are, of course, of no value whatsoever. the artistic instincts of the young are invariably fascinating; and i am bound to state that all my friends, without exception, were of opinion that the psychological interest of the second act would be greatly increased by the disclosure of the actual relationship existing between lady windermere and mrs. erlynne--an opinion, i may add, that had previously been strongly held and urged by mr. alexander. as to those of us who do not look on a play as a mere question of pantomime and clowning psychological interest is everything, i determined, consequently, to make a change in the precise moment of revelation. this determination, however, was entered into long before i had the opportunity of studying the culture, courtesy, and critical faculty displayed in such papers as the referee, reynolds', and the sunday sun. when criticism becomes in england a real art, as it should be, and when none but those of artistic instinct and artistic cultivation is allowed to write about works of art, artists will, no doubt, read criticisms with a certain amount of intellectual interest. as things are at present, the criticisms of ordinary newspapers are of no interest whatsoever, except in so far as they display, in its crudest form, the boeotianism of a country that has produced some athenians, and in which some athenians have come to dwell.--i am, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. february . salome (times, march , .) to the editor of the times. sir,--my attention has been drawn to a review of salome which was published in your columns last week. { } the opinions of english critics on a french work of mine have, of course, little, if any, interest for me. i write simply to ask you to allow me to correct a misstatement that appears in the review in question. the fact that the greatest tragic actress of any stage now living saw in my play such beauty that she was anxious to produce it, to take herself the part of the heroine, to lend to the entire poem the glamour of her personality, and to my prose the music of her flute-like voice--this was naturally, and always will be, a source of pride and pleasure to me, and i look forward with delight to seeing mme. bernhardt present my play in paris, that vivid centre of art, where religious dramas are often performed. but my play was in no sense of the words written for this great actress. i have never written a play for any actor or actress, nor shall i ever do so. such work is for the artisan in literature--not for the artist.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. the thirteen club (times, january , .) at a dinner of the thirteen club held at the holborn restaurant on january , , the chairman (mr. harry furniss) announced that from mr. oscar wilde the following letter had been received:-- i have to thank the members of your club for their kind invitation, for which convey to them, i beg you, my sincere thanks. but i love superstitions. they are the colour element of thought and imagination. they are the opponents of common sense. common sense is the enemy of romance. the aim of your society seems to be dreadful. leave us some unreality. do not make us too offensively sane. i love dining out, but with a society with so wicked an object as yours i cannot dine. i regret it. i am sure you will all be charming, but i could not come, though is a lucky number. the ethics of journalism i. (pall mall gazette, september , .) to the editor of the pall mall gazette. sir,--will you allow me to draw your attention to a very interesting example of the ethics of modern journalism, a quality of which we have all heard so much and seen so little? about a month ago mr. t. p. o'connor published in the sunday sun some doggerel verses entitled 'the shamrock,' and had the amusing impertinence to append my name to them as their author. as for some years past all kinds of scurrilous personal attacks had been made on me in mr. o'connor's newspapers, i determined to take no notice at all of the incident. enraged, however, by my courteous silence, mr. o'connor returns to the charge this week. he now solemnly accuses me of plagiarising the poem he had the vulgarity to attribute to me. { } this seems to me to pass beyond even those bounds of coarse humour and coarser malice that are, by the contempt of all, conceded to the ordinary journalist, and it is really very distressing to find so low a standard of ethics in a sunday newspaper.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. september . ii. (pall mall gazette, september , .) to the editor of the pall mall gazette. sir,--the assistant editor of the sunday sun, on whom seems to devolve the arduous duty of writing mr. t. p. o'connor's apologies for him, does not, i observe with regret, place that gentleman's conduct in any more attractive or more honourable light by the attempted explanation that appears in the letter published in your issue of today. for the future it would be much better if mr. o'connor would always write his own apologies. that he can do so exceedingly well no one is more ready to admit than myself. i happen to possess one from him. the assistant editor's explanation, stripped of its unnecessary verbiage, amounts to this: it is now stated that some months ago, somebody, whose name, observe, is not given, forwarded to the office of the sunday sun a manuscript in his own handwriting, containing some fifth-rate verses with my name appended to them as their author. the assistant editor frankly admits that they had grave doubts about my being capable of such an astounding production. to me, i must candidly say, it seems more probable that they never for a single moment believed that the verses were really from my pen. literary instinct is, of course, a very rare thing, and it would be too much to expect any true literary instinct to be found among the members of the staff of an ordinary newspaper; but had mr. o'connor really thought that the production, such as it is, was mine, he would naturally have asked my permission before publishing it. great licence of comment and attack of every kind is allowed nowadays to newspapers, but no respectable editor would dream of printing and publishing a man's work without first obtaining his consent. mr. o'connor's subsequent conduct in accusing me of plagiarism, when it was proved to him on unimpeachable authority that the verses he had vulgarly attributed to me were not by me at all, i have already commented on. it is perhaps best left to the laughter of the gods and the sorrow of men. i would like, however, to point out that when mr. o'connor, with the kind help of his assistant editor, states, as a possible excuse for his original sin, that he and the members of his staff 'took refuge' in the belief that the verses in question might conceivably be some very early and useful work of mine, he and the members of his staff showed a lamentable ignorance of the nature of the artistic temperament. only mediocrities progress. an artist revolves in a cycle of masterpieces, the first of which is no less perfect than the last. in conclusion, allow me to thank you for your courtesy in opening to me the columns of your valuable paper, and also to express the hope that the painful expose of mr. o'connor's conduct that i have been forced to make will have the good result of improving the standard of journalistic ethics in england.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. worthing, september . the green carnation (pall mall gazette, october , .) to the editor of the pall mall gazette. sir,--kindly allow me to contradict, in the most emphatic manner, the suggestion, made in your issue of thursday last, and since then copied into many other newspapers, that i am the author of the green carnation. i invented that magnificent flower. but with the middle-class and mediocre book that usurps its strangely beautiful name i have, i need hardly say, nothing whatsoever to do. the flower is a work of art. the book is not.--i remain, sir, your obedient servant, oscar wilde. worthing, october . phrases and philosophies for the use of the young (chameleon, december ) the first duty in life is to be as artificial as possible. what the second duty is no one has as yet discovered. wickedness is a myth invented by good people to account for the curious attractiveness of others. if the poor only had profiles there would be no difficulty in solving the problem of poverty. those who see any difference between soul and body have neither. a really well-made buttonhole is the only link between art and nature. religions die when they are proved to be true. science is the record of dead religions. the well-bred contradict other people. the wise contradict themselves. nothing that actually occurs is of the smallest importance. dulness is the coming of age of seriousness. in all unimportant matters, style, not sincerity, is the essential. in all important matters, style, not sincerity, is the essential. if one tells the truth one is sure, sooner or later, to be found out. pleasure is the only thing one should live for. nothing ages like happiness. it is only by not paying one's bills that one can hope to live in the memory of the commercial classes. no crime is vulgar, but all vulgarity is crime. vulgarity is the conduct of others. only the shallow know themselves. time is waste of money. one should always be a little improbable. there is a fatality about all good resolutions. they are invariably made too soon. the only way to atone for being occasionally a little overdressed is by being always absolutely over-educated. to be premature is to be perfect. any preoccupation with ideas of what is right or wrong in conduct shows an arrested intellectual development. ambition is the last refuge of the failure. a truth ceases to be true when more than one person believes in it. in examinations the foolish ask questions that the wise cannot answer. greek dress was in its essence inartistic. nothing should reveal the body but the body. one should either be a work of art, or wear a work of art. it is only the superficial qualities that last. man's deeper nature is soon found out. industry is the root of all ugliness. the ages live in history through their anachronisms. it is only the gods who taste of death. apollo has passed away, but hyacinth, whom men say he slew, lives on. nero and narcissus are always with us. the old believe everything: the middle-aged suspect everything: the young know everything. the condition of perfection is idleness: the aim of perfection is youth. only the great masters of style ever succeed in being obscure. there is something tragic about the enormous number of young men there are in england at the present moment who start life with perfect profiles, and end by adopting some useful profession. to love oneself is the beginning of a life-long romance. the rise of historical criticism the first portion of this essay is given at the end of the volume containing lord arthur savile's crime and other prose pieces. recently the remainder of the original manuscript has been discovered, and is here published for the first time. it was written for the chancellor's english essay prize at oxford in , the subject being 'historical criticism among the ancients.' the prize was not awarded. to professor j. w. mackail thanks are due for revising the proofs. iv. it is evident that here thucydides is ready to admit the variety of manifestations which external causes bring about in their workings on the uniform character of the nature of man. yet, after all is said, these are perhaps but very general statements: the ordinary effects of peace and war are dwelt on, but there is no real analysis of the immediate causes and general laws of the phenomena of life, nor does thucydides seem to recognise the truth that if humanity proceeds in circles, the circles are always widening. perhaps we may say that with him the philosophy of history is partly in the metaphysical stage, and see, in the progress of this idea from herodotus to polybius, the exemplification of the comtian law of the three stages of thought, the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific: for truly out of the vagueness of theological mysticism this conception which we call the philosophy of history was raised to a scientific principle, according to which the past was explained and the future predicted by reference to general laws. now, just as the earliest account of the nature of the progress of humanity is to be found in plato, so in him we find the first explicit attempt to found a universal philosophy of history upon wide rational grounds. having created an ideally perfect state, the philosopher proceeds to give an elaborate theory of the complex causes which produce revolutions of the moral effects of various forms of government and education, of the rise of the criminal classes and their connection with pauperism, and, in a word, to create history by the deductive method and to proceed from a priori psychological principles to discover the governing laws of the apparent chaos of political life. there have been many attempts since plato to deduce from a single philosophical principle all the phenomena which experience subsequently verifies for us. fichte thought he could predict the world-plan from the idea of universal time. hegel dreamed he had found the key to the mysteries of life in the development of freedom, and krause in the categories of being. but the one scientific basis on which the true philosophy of history must rest is the complete knowledge of the laws of human nature in all its wants, its aspirations, its powers and its tendencies: and this great truth, which thucydides may be said in some measure to have apprehended, was given to us first by plato. now, it cannot be accurately said of this philosopher that either his philosophy or his history is entirely and simply a priori. on est de son siecle meme quand on y proteste, and so we find in him continual references to the spartan mode of life, the pythagorean system, the general characteristics of greek tyrannies and greek democracies. for while, in his account of the method of forming an ideal state, he says that the political artist is indeed to fix his gaze on the sun of abstract truth in the heavens of the pure reason, but is sometimes to turn to the realisation of the ideals on earth: yet, after all, the general character of the platonic method, which is what we are specially concerned with, is essentially deductive and a priori. and he himself, in the building up of his nephelococcygia, certainly starts with a [greek], making a clean sweep of all history and all experience; and it was essentially as an a priori theorist that he is criticised by aristotle, as we shall see later. to proceed to closer details regarding the actual scheme of the laws of political revolutions as drawn out by plato, we must first note that the primary cause of the decay of the ideal state is the general principle, common to the vegetable and animal worlds as well as to the world of history, that all created things are fated to decay--a principle which, though expressed in the terms of a mere metaphysical abstraction, is yet perhaps in its essence scientific. for we too must hold that a continuous redistribution of matter and motion is the inevitable result of the normal persistence of force, and that perfect equilibrium is as impossible in politics as it certainly is in physics. the secondary causes which mar the perfection of the platonic 'city of the sun' are to be found in the intellectual decay of the race consequent on injudicious marriages and in the philistine elevation of physical achievements over mental culture; while the hierarchical succession of timocracy and oligarchy, democracy and tyranny, is dwelt on at great length and its causes analysed in a very dramatic and psychological manner, if not in that sanctioned by the actual order of history. and indeed it is apparent at first sight that the platonic succession of states represents rather the succession of ideas in the philosophic mind than any historical succession of time. aristotle meets the whole simply by an appeal to facts. if the theory of the periodic decay of all created things, he urges, be scientific, it must be universal, and so true of all the other states as well as of the ideal. besides, a state usually changes into its contrary and not to the form next to it; so the ideal state would not change into timocracy; while oligarchy, more often than tyranny, succeeds democracy. plato, besides, says nothing of what a tyranny would change to. according to the cycle theory it ought to pass into the ideal state again, but as a fact one tyranny is changed into another as at sicyon, or into a democracy as at syracuse, or into an aristocracy as at carthage. the example of sicily, too, shows that an oligarchy is often followed by a tyranny, as at leontini and gela. besides, it is absurd to represent greed as the chief motive of decay, or to talk of avarice as the root of oligarchy, when in nearly all true oligarchies money-making is forbidden by law. and finally the platonic theory neglects the different kinds of democracies and of tyrannies. now nothing can be more important than this passage in aristotle's politics (v. .), which may be said to mark an era in the evolution of historical criticism. for there is nothing on which aristotle insists so strongly as that the generalisations from facts ought to be added to the data of the a priori method--a principle which we know to be true not merely of deductive speculative politics but of physics also: for are not the residual phenomena of chemists a valuable source of improvement in theory? his own method is essentially historical though by no means empirical. on the contrary, this far-seeing thinker, rightly styled il maestro di color che sanno, may be said to have apprehended clearly that the true method is neither exclusively empirical nor exclusively speculative, but rather a union of both in the process called analysis or the interpretation of facts, which has been defined as the application to facts of such general conceptions as may fix the important characteristics of the phenomena, and present them permanently in their true relations. he too was the first to point out, what even in our own day is incompletely appreciated, that nature, including the development of man, is not full of incoherent episodes like a bad tragedy, that inconsistency and anomaly are as impossible in the moral as they are in the physical world, and that where the superficial observer thinks he sees a revolution the philosophical critic discerns merely the gradual and rational evolution of the inevitable results of certain antecedents. and while admitting the necessity of a psychological basis for the philosophy of history, he added to it the important truth that man, to be apprehended in his proper position in the universe as well as in his natural powers, must be studied from below in the hierarchical progression of higher function from the lower forms of life. the important maxim, that to obtain a clear conception of anything we must 'study it in its growth from the very beginning' is formally set down in the opening of the politics, where, indeed, we shall find the other characteristic features of the modern evolutionary theory, such as the 'differentiation of function' and the 'survival of the fittest' explicitly set forth. what a valuable step this was in the improvement of the method of historical criticism it is needless to point out. by it, one may say, the true thread was given to guide one's steps through the bewildering labyrinth of facts. for history (to use terms with which aristotle has made us familiar) may be looked at from two essentially different standpoints; either as a work of art whose [greek] or final cause is external to it and imposed on it from without; or as an organism containing the law of its own development in itself, and working out its perfection merely by the fact of being what it is. now, if we adopt the former, which we may style the theological view, we shall be in continual danger of tripping into the pitfall of some a priori conclusion--that bourne from which, it has been truly said, no traveller ever returns. the latter is the only scientific theory and was apprehended in its fulness by aristotle, whose application of the inductive method to history, and whose employment of the evolutionary theory of humanity, show that he was conscious that the philosophy of history is nothing separate from the facts of history but is contained in them, and that the rational law of the complex phenomena of life, like the ideal in the world of thought, is to be reached through the facts, not superimposed on them-- [greek] not [greek]. and finally, in estimating the enormous debt which the science of historical criticism owes to aristotle, we must not pass over his attitude towards those two great difficulties in the formation of a philosophy of history on which i have touched above. i mean the assertion of extra-natural interference with the normal development of the world and of the incalculable influence exercised by the power of free will. now, as regards the former, he may be said to have neglected it entirely. the special acts of providence proceeding from god's immediate government of the world, which herodotus saw as mighty landmarks in history, would have been to him essentially disturbing elements in that universal reign of law, the extent of whose limitless empire he of all the great thinkers of antiquity was the first explicitly to recognise. standing aloof from the popular religion as well as from the deeper conceptions of herodotus and the tragic school, he no longer thought of god as of one with fair limbs and treacherous face haunting wood and glade, nor would he see in him a jealous judge continually interfering in the world's history to bring the wicked to punishment and the proud to a fall. god to him was the incarnation of the pure intellect, a being whose activity was the contemplation of his own perfection, one whom philosophy might imitate but whom prayers could never move, to the sublime indifference of whose passionless wisdom what were the sons of men, their desires or their sins? while, as regards the other difficulty and the formation of a philosophy of history, the conflict of free will with general laws appears first in greek thought in the usual theological form in which all great ideas seem to be cradled at their birth. it was such legends as those of oedipus and adrastus, exemplifying the struggles of individual humanity against the overpowering force of circumstances and necessity, which gave to the early greeks those same lessons which we of modern days draw, in somewhat less artistic fashion, from the study of statistics and the laws of physiology. in aristotle, of course, there is no trace of supernatural influence. the furies, which drive their victim into sin first and then punishment, are no longer 'viper-tressed goddesses with eyes and mouth aflame,' but those evil thoughts which harbour within the impure soul. in this, as in all other points, to arrive at aristotle is to reach the pure atmosphere of scientific and modern thought. but while he rejected pure necessitarianism in its crude form as essentially a reductio ad absurdum of life, he was fully conscious of the fact that the will is not a mysterious and ultimate unit of force beyond which we cannot go and whose special characteristic is inconsistency, but a certain creative attitude of the mind which is, from the first, continually influenced by habits, education and circumstance; so absolutely modifiable, in a word, that the good and the bad man alike seem to lose the power of free will; for the one is morally unable to sin, the other physically incapacitated for reformation. and of the influence of climate and temperature in forming the nature of man (a conception perhaps pressed too far in modern days when the 'race theory' is supposed to be a sufficient explanation of the hindoo, and the latitude and longitude of a country the best guide to its morals { }) aristotle is completely unaware. i do not allude to such smaller points as the oligarchical tendencies of a horse-breeding country and the democratic influence of the proximity of the sea (important though they are for the consideration of greek history), but rather to those wider views in the seventh book of his politics, where he attributes the happy union in the greek character of intellectual attainments with the spirit of progress to the temperate climate they enjoyed, and points out how the extreme cold of the north dulls the mental faculties of its inhabitants and renders them incapable of social organisation or extended empire; while to the enervating heat of eastern countries was due that want of spirit and bravery which then, as now, was the characteristic of the population in that quarter of the globe. thucydides has shown the causal connection between political revolutions and the fertility of the soil, but goes a step farther and points out the psychological influences on a people's character exercised by the various extremes of climate--in both cases the first appearance of a most valuable form of historical criticism. to the development of dialectic, as to god, intervals of time are of no account. from plato and aristotle we pass direct to polybius. the progress of thought from the philosopher of the academe to the arcadian historian may be best illustrated by a comparison of the method by which each of the three writers, whom i have selected as the highest expressions of the rationalism of his respective age, attained to his ideal state: for the latter conception may be in a measure regarded as representing the most spiritual principle which they could discern in history. now, plato created his on a priori principles: aristotle formed his by an analysis of existing constitutions; polybius found his realised for him in the actual world of fact. aristotle criticised the deductive speculations of plato by means of inductive negative instances, but polybius will not take the 'cloud city' of the republic into account at all. he compares it to an athlete who has never run on 'constitution hill,' to a statue so beautiful that it is entirely removed from the ordinary conditions of humanity, and consequently from the canons of criticism. the roman state had attained in his eyes, by means of the mutual counteraction of three opposing forces, { } that stable equilibrium in politics which was the ideal of all the theoretical writers of antiquity. and in connection with this point it will be convenient to notice here how much truth there is contained in the accusation so often brought against the ancients that they knew nothing of the idea of progress, for the meaning of many of their speculations will be hidden from us if we do not try and comprehend first what their aim was, and secondly why it was so. now, like all wide generalities, this statement is at least inaccurate. the prayer of plato's ideal city--[greek], might be written as a text over the door of the last temple to humanity raised by the disciples of fourier and saint simon, but it is certainly true that their ideal principle was order and permanence, not indefinite progress. for, setting aside the artistic prejudices which would have led the greeks to reject this idea of unlimited improvement, we may note that the modern conception of progress rests partly on the new enthusiasm and worship of humanity, partly on the splendid hopes of material improvements in civilisation which applied science has held out to us, two influences from which ancient greek thought seems to have been strangely free. for the greeks marred the perfect humanism of the great men whom they worshipped, by imputing to them divinity and its supernatural powers; while their science was eminently speculative and often almost mystic in its character, aiming at culture and not utility, at higher spirituality and more intense reverence for law, rather than at the increased facilities of locomotion and the cheap production of common things about which our modern scientific school ceases not to boast. and lastly, and perhaps chiefly, we must remember that the 'plague spot of all greek states,' as one of their own writers has called it, was the terrible insecurity to life and property which resulted from the factions and revolutions which ceased not to trouble greece at all times, raising a spirit of fanaticism such as religion raised in the middle ages of europe. these considerations, then, will enable us to understand first how it was that, radical and unscrupulous reformers as the greek political theorists were, yet, their end once attained, no modern conservatives raised such outcry against the slightest innovation. even acknowledged improvements in such things as the games of children or the modes of music were regarded by them with feelings of extreme apprehension as the herald of the drapeau rouge of reform. and secondly, it will show us how it was that polybius found his ideal in the commonwealth of rome, and aristotle, like mr. bright, in the middle classes. polybius, however, is not content merely with pointing out his ideal state, but enters at considerable length into the question of those general laws whose consideration forms the chief essential of the philosophy of history. he starts by accepting the general principle that all things are fated to decay (which i noticed in the case of plato), and that 'as iron produces rust and as wood breeds the animals that destroy it, so every state has in it the seeds of its own corruption.' he is not, however, content to rest there, but proceeds to deal with the more immediate causes of revolutions, which he says are twofold in nature, either external or internal. now, the former, depending as they do on the synchronous conjunction of other events outside the sphere of scientific estimation, are from their very character incalculable; but the latter, though assuming many forms, always result from the over-great preponderance of any single element to the detriment of the others, the rational law lying at the base of all varieties of political changes being that stability can result only from the statical equilibrium produced by the counteraction of opposing parts, since the more simple a constitution is the more it is insecure. plato had pointed out before how the extreme liberty of a democracy always resulted in despotism, but polybius analyses the law and shows the scientific principles on which it rests. the doctrine of the instability of pure constitutions forms an important era in the philosophy of history. its special applicability to the politics of our own day has been illustrated in the rise of the great napoleon, when the french state had lost those divisions of caste and prejudice, of landed aristocracy and moneyed interest, institutions in which the vulgar see only barriers to liberty but which are indeed the only possible defences against the coming of that periodic sirius of politics, the [greek] there is a principle which tocqueville never wearies of explaining, and which has been subsumed by mr. herbert spencer under that general law common to all organic bodies which we call the instability of the homogeneous. the various manifestations of this law, as shown in the normal, regular revolutions and evolutions of the different forms of government, { a} are expounded with great clearness by polybius, who claimed for his theory in the thucydidean spirit, that it is a [greek], not a mere [greek], and that a knowledge of it will enable the impartial observer { b} to discover at any time what period of its constitutional evolution any particular state has already reached and into what form it will be next differentiated, though possibly the exact time of the changes may be more or less uncertain. { c} now in this necessarily incomplete account of the laws of political revolutions as expounded by polybius enough perhaps has been said to show what is his true position in the rational development of the 'idea' which i have called the philosophy of history, because it is the unifying of history. seen darkly as it is through the glass of religion in the pages of herodotus, more metaphysical than scientific with thucydides, plato strove to seize it by the eagle-flight of speculation, to reach it with the eager grasp of a soul impatient of those slower and surer inductive methods which aristotle, in his trenchant criticism of his great master, showed were more brilliant than any vague theory, if the test of brilliancy is truth. what then is the position of polybius? does any new method remain for him? polybius was one of those many men who are born too late to be original. to thucydides belongs the honour of being the first in the history of greek thought to discern the supreme calm of law and order underlying the fitful storms of life, and plato and aristotle each represents a great new principle. to polybius belongs the office--how noble an office he made it his writings show--of making more explicit the ideas which were implicit in his predecessors, of showing that they were of wider applicability and perhaps of deeper meaning than they had seemed before, of examining with more minuteness the laws which they had discovered, and finally of pointing out more clearly than any one had done the range of science and the means it offered for analysing the present and predicting what was to come. his office thus was to gather up what they had left, to give their principles new life by a wider application. polybius ends this great diapason of greek thought. when the philosophy of history appears next, as in plutarch's tract on 'why god's anger is delayed,' the pendulum of thought had swung back to where it began. his theory was introduced to the romans under the cultured style of cicero, and was welcomed by them as the philosophical panegyric of their state. the last notice of it in latin literature is in the pages of tacitus, who alludes to the stable polity formed out of these elements as a constitution easier to commend than to produce and in no case lasting. yet polybius had seen the future with no uncertain eye, and had prophesied the rise of the empire from the unbalanced power of the ochlocracy fifty years and more before there was joy in the julian household over the birth of that boy who, borne to power as the champion of the people, died wearing the purple of a king. no attitude of historical criticism is more important than the means by which the ancients attained to the philosophy of history. the principle of heredity can be exemplified in literature as well as in organic life: aristotle, plato and polybius are the lineal ancestors of fichte and hegel, of vico and cousin, of montesquieu and tocqueville. as my aim is not to give an account of historians but to point out those great thinkers whose methods have furthered the advance of this spirit of historical criticism, i shall pass over those annalists and chroniclers who intervened between thucydides and polybius. yet perhaps it may serve to throw new light on the real nature of this spirit and its intimate connection with all other forms of advanced thought if i give some estimate of the character and rise of those many influences prejudicial to the scientific study of history which cause such a wide gap between these two historians. foremost among these is the growing influence of rhetoric and the isocratean school, which seems to have regarded history as an arena for the display of either pathos or paradoxes, not a scientific investigation into laws. the new age is the age of style. the same spirit of exclusive attention to form which made euripides often, like swinburne, prefer music to meaning and melody to morality, which gave to the later greek statues that refined effeminacy, that overstrained gracefulness of attitude, was felt in the sphere of history. the rules laid down for historical composition are those relating to the aesthetic value of digressions, the legality of employing more than one metaphor in the same sentence, and the like; and historians are ranked not by their power of estimating evidence but by the goodness of the greek they write. i must note also the important influence on literature exercised by alexander the great; for while his travels encouraged the more accurate research of geography, the very splendour of his achievements seems to have brought history again into the sphere of romance. the appearance of all great men in the world is followed invariably by the rise of that mythopoeic spirit and that tendency to look for the marvellous, which is so fatal to true historical criticism. an alexander, a napoleon, a francis of assisi and a mahomet are thought to be outside the limiting conditions of rational law, just as comets were supposed to be not very long ago. while the founding of that city of alexandria, in which western and eastern thought met with such strange result to both, diverted the critical tendencies of the greek spirit into questions of grammar, philology and the like, the narrow, artificial atmosphere of that university town (as we may call it) was fatal to the development of that independent and speculative spirit of research which strikes out new methods of inquiry, of which historical criticism is one. the alexandrines combined a great love of learning with an ignorance of the true principles of research, an enthusiastic spirit for accumulating materials with a wonderful incapacity to use them. not among the hot sands of egypt, or the sophists of athens, but from the very heart of greece rises the man of genius on whose influence in the evolution of the philosophy of history i have a short time ago dwelt. born in the serene and pure air of the clear uplands of arcadia, polybius may be said to reproduce in his work the character of the place which gave him birth. for, of all the historians--i do not say of antiquity but of all time--none is more rationalistic than he, none more free from any belief in the 'visions and omens, the monstrous legends, the grovelling superstitions and unmanly craving for the supernatural' ([greek] { a}) which he is compelled to notice himself as the characteristics of some of the historians who preceded him. fortunate in the land which bore him, he was no less blessed in the wondrous time of his birth. for, representing in himself the spiritual supremacy of the greek intellect and allied in bonds of chivalrous friendship to the world-conqueror of his day, he seems led as it were by the hand of fate 'to comprehend,' as has been said, 'more clearly than the romans themselves the historical position of rome,' and to discern with greater insight than all other men could those two great resultants of ancient civilisation, the material empire of the city of the seven hills, and the intellectual sovereignty of hellas. before his own day, he says, { b} the events of the world were unconnected and separate and the histories confined to particular countries. now, for the first time the universal empire of the romans rendered a universal history possible. { a} this, then, is the august motive of his work: to trace the gradual rise of this italian city from the day when the first legion crossed the narrow strait of messina and landed on the fertile fields of sicily to the time when corinth in the east and carthage in the west fell before the resistless wave of empire and the eagles of rome passed on the wings of universal victory from calpe and the pillars of hercules to syria and the nile. at the same time he recognised that the scheme of rome's empire was worked out under the aegis of god's will. { b} for, as one of the middle age scribes most truly says, the [greek] of polybius is that power which we christians call god; the second aim, as one may call it, of his history is to point out the rational and human and natural causes which brought this result, distinguishing, as we should say, between god's mediate and immediate government of the world. with any direct intervention of god in the normal development of man, he will have nothing to do: still less with any idea of chance as a factor in the phenomena of life. chance and miracles, he says, are mere expressions for our ignorance of rational causes. the spirit of rationalism which we recognised in herodotus as a vague uncertain attitude and which appears in thucydides as a consistent attitude of mind never argued about or even explained, is by polybius analysed and formulated as the great instrument of historical research. herodotus, while believing on principle in the supernatural, yet was sceptical at times. thucydides simply ignored the supernatural. he did not discuss it, but he annihilated it by explaining history without it. polybius enters at length into the whole question and explains its origin and the method of treating it. herodotus would have believed in scipio's dream. thucydides would have ignored it entirely. polybius explains it. he is the culmination of the rational progression of dialectic. 'nothing,' he says, 'shows a foolish mind more than the attempt to account for any phenomena on the principle of chance or supernatural intervention. history is a search for rational causes, and there is nothing in the world--even those phenomena which seem to us the most remote from law and improbable--which is not the logical and inevitable result of certain rational antecedents.' some things, of course, are to be rejected a priori without entering into the subject: 'as regards such miracles,' he says, { } 'as that on a certain statue of artemis rain or snow never falls though the statue stands in the open air, or that those who enter god's shrine in arcadia lose their natural shadows, i cannot really be expected to argue upon the subject. for these things are not only utterly improbable but absolutely impossible.' 'for us to argue reasonably on an acknowledged absurdity is as vain a task as trying to catch water in a sieve; it is really to admit the possibility of the supernatural, which is the very point at issue.' what polybius felt was that to admit the possibility of a miracle is to annihilate the possibility of history: for just as scientific and chemical experiments would be either impossible or useless if exposed to the chance of continued interference on the part of some foreign body, so the laws and principles which govern history, the causes of phenomena, the evolution of progress, the whole science, in a word, of man's dealings with his own race and with nature, will remain a sealed book to him who admits the possibility of extra-natural interference. the stories of miracles, then, are to be rejected on a priori rational grounds, but in the case of events which we know to have happened the scientific historian will not rest till he has discovered their natural causes which, for instance, in the case of the wonderful rise of the roman empire--the most marvellous thing, polybius says, which god ever brought about { a}--are to be found in the excellence of their constitution ([greek]), the wisdom of their advisers, their splendid military arrangements, and their superstition ([greek]). for while polybius regarded the revealed religion as, of course, objective reality of truth, { b} he laid great stress on its moral subjective influence, going, in one passage on the subject, even so far as almost to excuse the introduction of the supernatural in very small quantities into history on account of the extremely good effect it would have on pious people. but perhaps there is no passage in the whole of ancient and modern history which breathes such a manly and splendid spirit of rationalism as one preserved to us in the vatican--strange resting-place for it!--in which he treats of the terrible decay of population which had fallen on his native land in his own day, and which by the general orthodox public was regarded as a special judgment of god, sending childlessness on women as a punishment for the sins of the people. for it was a disaster quite without parallel in the history of the land, and entirely unforeseen by any of its political-economy writers who, on the contrary, were always anticipating that danger would arise from an excess of population overrunning its means of subsistence, and becoming unmanageable through its size. polybius, however, will have nothing to do with either priest or worker of miracles in this matter. he will not even seek that 'sacred heart of greece,' delphi, apollo's shrine, whose inspiration even thucydides admitted and before whose wisdom socrates bowed. how foolish, he says, were the man who on this matter would pray to god. we must search for the rational causes, and the causes are seen to be clear, and the method of prevention also. he then proceeds to notice how all this arose from the general reluctance to marriage and to bearing the expense of educating a large family which resulted from the carelessness and avarice of the men of his day, and he explains on entirely rational principles the whole of this apparently supernatural judgment. now, it is to be borne in mind that while his rejection of miracles as violation of inviolable laws is entirely a priori--for, discussion of such a matter is, of course, impossible for a rational thinker--yet his rejection of supernatural intervention rests entirely on the scientific grounds of the necessity of looking for natural causes. and he is quite logical in maintaining his position on these principles. for, where it is either difficult or impossible to assign any rational cause for phenomena, or to discover their laws, he acquiesces reluctantly in the alternative of admitting some extra-natural interference which his essentially scientific method of treating the matter has logically forced on him, approving, for instance, of prayers for rain, on the express ground that the laws of meteorology had not yet been ascertained. he would, of course, have been the first to welcome our modern discoveries in the matter. the passage in question is in every way one of the most interesting in his whole work, not, of course, as signifying any inclination on his part to acquiesce in the supernatural, but because it shows how essentially logical and rational his method of argument was, and how candid and fair his mind. having now examined polybius's attitude towards the supernatural and the general ideas which guided his research, i will proceed to examine the method he pursued in his scientific investigation of the complex phenomena of life. for, as i have said before in the course of this essay, what is important in all great writers is not so much the results they arrive at as the methods they pursue. the increased knowledge of facts may alter any conclusion in history as in physical science, and the canons of speculative historical credibility must be acknowledged to appeal rather to that subjective attitude of mind which we call the historic sense than to any formulated objective rules. but a scientific method is a gain for all time, and the true if not the only progress of historical criticism consists in the improvement of the instruments of research. now first, as regards his conception of history, i have already pointed out that it was to him essentially a search for causes, a problem to be solved, not a picture to be painted, a scientific investigation into laws and tendencies, not a mere romantic account of startling incident and wondrous adventure. thucydides, in the opening of his great work, had sounded the first note of the scientific conception of history. 'the absence of romance in my pages,' he says, 'will, i fear, detract somewhat from its value, but i have written my work not to be the exploit of a passing hour but as the possession of all time.' { } polybius follows with words almost entirely similar. if, he says, we banish from history the consideration of causes, methods and motives ([greek]), and refuse to consider how far the result of anything is its rational consequent, what is left is a mere [greek], not a [greek], an oratorical essay which may give pleasure for the moment, but which is entirely without any scientific value for the explanation of the future. elsewhere he says that 'history robbed of the exposition of its causes and laws is a profitless thing, though it may allure a fool.' and all through his history the same point is put forward and exemplified in every fashion. so far for the conception of history. now for the groundwork. as regards the character of the phenomena to be selected by the scientific investigator, aristotle had laid down the general formula that nature should be studied in her normal manifestations. polybius, true to his character of applying explicitly the principles implicit in the work of others, follows out the doctrine of aristotle, and lays particular stress on the rational and undisturbed character of the development of the roman constitution as affording special facilities for the discovery of the laws of its progress. political revolutions result from causes either external or internal. the former are mere disturbing forces which lie outside the sphere of scientific calculation. it is the latter which are important for the establishing of principles and the elucidation of the sequences of rational evolution. he thus may be said to have anticipated one of the most important truths of the modern methods of investigation: i mean that principle which lays down that just as the study of physiology should precede the study of pathology, just as the laws of disease are best discovered by the phenomena presented in health, so the method of arriving at all great social and political truths is by the investigation of those cases where development has been normal, rational and undisturbed. the critical canon that the more a people has been interfered with, the more difficult it becomes to generalise the laws of its progress and to analyse the separate forces of its civilisation, is one the validity of which is now generally recognised by those who pretend to a scientific treatment of all history: and while we have seen that aristotle anticipated it in a general formula, to polybius belongs the honour of being the first to apply it explicitly in the sphere of history. i have shown how to this great scientific historian the motive of his work was essentially the search for causes; and true to his analytical spirit he is careful to examine what a cause really is and in what part of the antecedents of any consequent it is to be looked for. to give an illustration: as regards the origin of the war with perseus, some assigned as causes the expulsion of abrupolis by perseus, the expedition of the latter to delphi, the plot against eumenes and the seizure of the ambassadors in boeotia; of these incidents the two former, polybius points out, were merely the pretexts, the two latter merely the occasions of the war. the war was really a legacy left to perseus by his father, who was determined to fight it out with rome. { } here as elsewhere he is not originating any new idea. thucydides had pointed out the difference between the real and the alleged cause, and the aristotelian dictum about revolutions, [greek], draws the distinction between cause and occasion with the brilliancy of an epigram. but the explicit and rational investigation of the difference between [greek] and [greek] was reserved for polybius. no canon of historical criticism can be said to be of more real value than that involved in this distinction, and the overlooking of it has filled our histories with the contemptible accounts of the intrigues of courtiers and of kings and the petty plottings of backstairs influence--particulars interesting, no doubt, to those who would ascribe the reformation to anne boleyn's pretty face, the persian war to the influence of a doctor or a curtain-lecture from atossa, or the french revolution to madame de maintenon, but without any value for those who aim at any scientific treatment of history. but the question of method, to which i am compelled always to return, is not yet exhausted. there is another aspect in which it may be regarded, and i shall now proceed to treat of it. one of the greatest difficulties with which the modern historian has to contend is the enormous complexity of the facts which come under his notice: d'alembert's suggestion that at the end of every century a selection of facts should be made and the rest burned (if it was really intended seriously) could not, of course, be entertained for a moment. a problem loses all its value when it becomes simplified, and the world would be all the poorer if the sybil of history burned her volumes. besides, as gibbon pointed out, 'a montesquieu will detect in the most insignificant fact relations which the vulgar overlook.' nor can the scientific investigator of history isolate the particular elements, which he desires to examine, from disturbing and extraneous causes, as the experimental chemist can do (though sometimes, as in the case of lunatic asylums and prisons, he is enabled to observe phenomena in a certain degree of isolation). so he is compelled either to use the deductive mode of arguing from general laws or to employ the method of abstraction which gives a fictitious isolation to phenomena never so isolated in actual existence. and this is exactly what polybius has done as well as thucydides. for, as has been well remarked, there is in the works of these two writers a certain plastic unity of type and motive; whatever they write is penetrated through and through with a specific quality, a singleness and concentration of purpose, which we may contrast with the more comprehensive width as manifested not merely in the modern mind, but also in herodotus. thucydides, regarding society as influenced entirely by political motives, took no account of forces of a different nature, and consequently his results, like those of most modern political economists, have to be modified largely { } before they come to correspond with what we know was the actual state of fact. similarly, polybius will deal only with those forces which tended to bring the civilised world under the dominion of rome (ix. ), and in the thucydidean spirit points out the want of picturesqueness and romance in his pages which is the result of the abstract method ([greek]), being careful also to tell us that his rejection of all other forces is essentially deliberate and the result of a preconceived theory and by no means due to carelessness of any kind. now, of the general value of the abstract method and the legality of its employment in the sphere of history, this is perhaps not the suitable occasion for any discussion. it is, however, in all ways worthy of note that polybius is not merely conscious of, but dwells with particular weight on, the fact which is usually urged as the strongest objection to the employment of the abstract method--i mean the conception of a society as a sort of human organism whose parts are indissolubly connected with one another and all affected when one member is in any way agitated. this conception of the organic nature of society appears first in plato and aristotle, who apply it to cities. polybius, as his wont is, expands it to be a general characteristic of all history. it is an idea of the very highest importance, especially to a man like polybius whose thoughts are continually turned towards the essential unity of history and the impossibility of isolation. farther, as regards the particular method of investigating that group of phenomena obtained for him by the abstract method, he will adopt, he tells us, neither the purely deductive nor the purely inductive mode but the union of both. in other words, he formally adopts that method of analysis upon the importance of which i have dwelt before. and lastly, while, without doubt, enormous simplicity in the elements under consideration is the result of the employment of the abstract method, even within the limit thus obtained a certain selection must be made, and a selection involves a theory. for the facts of life cannot be tabulated with as great an ease as the colours of birds and insects can be tabulated. now, polybius points out that those phenomena particularly are to be dwelt on which may serve as a [greek] or sample, and show the character of the tendencies of the age as clearly as 'a single drop from a full cask will be enough to disclose the nature of the whole contents.' this recognition of the importance of single facts, not in themselves but because of the spirit they represent, is extremely scientific; for we know that from the single bone, or tooth even, the anatomist can recreate entirely the skeleton of the primeval horse, and the botanist tell the character of the flora and fauna of a district from a single specimen. regarding truth as 'the most divine thing in nature,' the very 'eye and light of history without which it moves a blind thing,' polybius spared no pains in the acquisition of historical materials or in the study of the sciences of politics and war, which he considered were so essential to the training of the scientific historian, and the labour he took is mirrored in the many ways in which he criticises other authorities. there is something, as a rule, slightly contemptible about ancient criticism. the modern idea of the critic as the interpreter, the expounder of the beauty and excellence of the work he selects, seems quite unknown. nothing can be more captious or unfair, for instance, than the method by which aristotle criticised the ideal state of plato in his ethical works, and the passages quoted by polybius from timaeus show that the latter historian fully deserved the punning name given to him. but in polybius there is, i think, little of that bitterness and pettiness of spirit which characterises most other writers, and an incidental story he tells of his relations with one of the historians whom he criticised shows that he was a man of great courtesy and refinement of taste--as, indeed, befitted one who had lived always in the society of those who were of great and noble birth. now, as regards the character of the canons by which he criticises the works of other authors, in the majority of cases he employs simply his own geographical and military knowledge, showing, for instance, the impossibility in the accounts given of nabis's march from sparta simply by his acquaintance with the spots in question; or the inconsistency of those of the battle of issus; or of the accounts given by ephorus of the battles of leuctra and mantinea. in the latter case he says, if any one will take the trouble to measure out the ground of the site of the battle and then test the manoeuvres given, he will find how inaccurate the accounts are. in other cases he appeals to public documents, the importance of which he was always foremost in recognising; showing, for instance, by a document in the public archives of rhodes how inaccurate were the accounts given of the battle of lade by zeno and antisthenes. or he appeals to psychological probability, rejecting, for instance, the scandalous stories told of philip of macedon, simply from the king's general greatness of character, and arguing that a boy so well educated and so respectably connected as demochares (xii. ) could never have been guilty of that of which evil rumour accused him. but the chief object of his literary censure is timaeus, who had been so unsparing of his strictures on others. the general point which he makes against him, impugning his accuracy as a historian, is that he derived his knowledge of history not from the dangerous perils of a life of action but in the secure indolence of a narrow scholastic life. there is, indeed, no point on which he is so vehement as this. 'a history,' he says, 'written in a library gives as lifeless and as inaccurate a picture of history as a painting which is copied not from a living animal but from a stuffed one.' there is more difference, he says in another place, between the history of an eye-witness and that of one whose knowledge comes from books, than there is between the scenes of real life and the fictitious landscapes of theatrical scenery. besides this, he enters into somewhat elaborate detailed criticism of passages where he thought timaeus was following a wrong method and perverting truth, passages which it will be worth while to examine in detail. timaeus, from the fact of there being a roman custom to shoot a war-horse on a stated day, argued back to the trojan origin of that people. polybius, on the other hand, points out that the inference is quite unwarrantable, because horse-sacrifices are ordinary institutions common to all barbarous tribes. timaeus here, as was so common with greek writers, is arguing back from some custom of the present to an historical event in the past. polybius really is employing the comparative method, showing how the custom was an ordinary step in the civilisation of every early people. in another place, { } he shows how illogical is the scepticism of timaeus as regards the existence of the bull of phalaris simply by appealing to the statue of the bull, which was still to be seen in carthage; pointing out how impossible it was, on any other theory except that it belonged to phalaris, to account for the presence in carthage of a bull of this peculiar character with a door between his shoulders. but one of the great points which he uses against this sicilian historian is in reference to the question of the origin of the locrian colony. in accordance with the received tradition on the subject, aristotle had represented the locrian colony as founded by some parthenidae or slaves' children, as they were called, a statement which seems to have roused the indignation of timaeus, who went to a good deal of trouble to confute this theory. he does so on the following grounds:-- first of all, he points out that in the ancient days the greeks had no slaves at all, so the mention of them in the matter is an anachronism; and next he declares that he was shown in the greek city of locris certain ancient inscriptions in which their relation to the italian city was expressed in terms of the position between parent and child, which showed also that mutual rights of citizenship were accorded to each city. besides this, he appeals to various questions of improbability as regards their international relationship, on which polybius takes diametrically opposite grounds which hardly call for discussion. and in favour of his own view he urges two points more: first, that the lacedaemonians being allowed furlough for the purpose of seeing their wives at home, it was unlikely that the locrians should not have had the same privilege; and next, that the italian locrians knew nothing of the aristotelian version and had, on the contrary, very severe laws against adulterers, runaway slaves and the like. now, most of these questions rest on mere probability, which is always such a subjective canon that an appeal to it is rarely conclusive. i would note, however, as regards the inscriptions which, if genuine, would of course have settled the matter, that polybius looks on them as a mere invention on the part of timaeus, who, he remarks, gives no details about them, though, as a rule, he is so over- anxious to give chapter and verse for everything. a somewhat more interesting point is that where he attacks timaeus for the introduction of fictitious speeches into his narrative; for on this point polybius seems to be far in advance of the opinions held by literary men on the subject not merely in his own day, but for centuries after. herodotus had introduced speeches avowedly dramatic and fictitious. thucydides states clearly that, where he was unable to find out what people really said, he put down what they ought to have said. sallust alludes, it is true, to the fact of the speech he puts into the mouth of the tribune memmius being essentially genuine, but the speeches given in the senate on the occasion of the catilinarian conspiracy are very different from the same orations as they appear in cicero. livy makes his ancient romans wrangle and chop logic with all the subtlety of a hortensius or a scaevola. and even in later days, when shorthand reporters attended the debates of the senate and a daily news was published in rome, we find that one of the most celebrated speeches in tacitus (that in which the emperor claudius gives the gauls their freedom) is shown, by an inscription discovered recently at lugdunum, to be entirely fabulous. upon the other hand, it must be borne in mind that these speeches were not intended to deceive; they were regarded merely as a certain dramatic element which it was allowable to introduce into history for the purpose of giving more life and reality to the narration, and were to be criticised, not as we should, by arguing how in an age before shorthand was known such a report was possible or how, in the failure of written documents, tradition could bring down such an accurate verbal account, but by the higher test of their psychological probability as regards the persons in whose mouths they are placed. an ancient historian in answer to modern criticism would say, probably, that these fictitious speeches were in reality more truthful than the actual ones, just as aristotle claimed for poetry a higher degree of truth in comparison to history. the whole point is interesting as showing how far in advance of his age polybius may be said to have been. the last scientific historian, it is possible to gather from his writings what he considered were the characteristics of the ideal writer of history; and no small light will be thrown on the progress of historical criticism if we strive to collect and analyse what in polybius are more or less scattered expressions. the ideal historian must be contemporary with the events he describes, or removed from them by one generation only. where it is possible, he is to be an eye-witness of what he writes of; where that is out of his power he is to test all traditions and stories carefully and not to be ready to accept what is plausible in place of what is true. he is to be no bookworm living aloof from the experiences of the world in the artificial isolation of a university town, but a politician, a soldier, and a traveller, a man not merely of thought but of action, one who can do great things as well as write of them, who in the sphere of history could be what byron and aeschylus were in the sphere of poetry, at once le chantre et le heros. he is to keep before his eyes the fact that chance is merely a synonym for our ignorance; that the reign of law pervades the domain of history as much as it does that of political science. he is to accustom himself to look on all occasions for rational and natural causes. and while he is to recognise the practical utility of the supernatural, in an educational point of view, he is not himself to indulge in such intellectual beating of the air as to admit the possibility of the violation of inviolable laws, or to argue in a sphere wherein argument is a priori annihilated. he is to be free from all bias towards friend and country; he is to be courteous and gentle in criticism; he is not to regard history as a mere opportunity for splendid and tragic writing; nor is he to falsify truth for the sake of a paradox or an epigram. while acknowledging the importance of particular facts as samples of higher truths, he is to take a broad and general view of humanity. he is to deal with the whole race and with the world, not with particular tribes or separate countries. he is to bear in mind that the world is really an organism wherein no one part can be moved without the others being affected also. he is to distinguish between cause and occasion, between the influence of general laws and particular fancies, and he is to remember that the greatest lessons of the world are contained in history and that it is the historian's duty to manifest them so as to save nations from following those unwise policies which always lead to dishonour and ruin, and to teach individuals to apprehend by the intellectual culture of history those truths which else they would have to learn in the bitter school of experience. now, as regards his theory of the necessity of the historian's being contemporary with the events he describes, so far as the historian is a mere narrator the remark is undoubtedly true. but to appreciate the harmony and rational position of the facts of a great epoch, to discover its laws, the causes which produced it and the effects which it generates, the scene must be viewed from a certain height and distance to be completely apprehended. a thoroughly contemporary historian such as lord clarendon or thucydides is in reality part of the history he criticises; and, in the case of such contemporary historians as fabius and philistus, polybius is compelled to acknowledge that they are misled by patriotic and other considerations. against polybius himself no such accusation can be made. he indeed of all men is able, as from some lofty tower, to discern the whole tendency of the ancient world, the triumph of roman institutions and of greek thought which is the last message of the old world and, in a more spiritual sense, has become the gospel of the new. one thing indeed he did not see, or if he saw it, he thought but little of it--how from the east there was spreading over the world, as a wave spreads, a spiritual inroad of new religions from the time when the pessinuntine mother of the gods, a shapeless mass of stone, was brought to the eternal city by her holiest citizen, to the day when the ship castor and pollux stood in at puteoli, and st. paul turned his face towards martyrdom and victory at rome. polybius was able to predict, from his knowledge of the causes of revolutions and the tendencies of the various forms of governments, the uprising of that democratic tone of thought which, as soon as a seed is sown in the murder of the gracchi and the exile of marius, culminated as all democratic movements do culminate, in the supreme authority of one man, the lordship of the world under the world's rightful lord, caius julius caesar. this, indeed, he saw in no uncertain way. but the turning of all men's hearts to the east, the first glimmering of that splendid dawn which broke over the hills of galilee and flooded the earth like wine, was hidden from his eyes. there are many points in the description of the ideal historian which one may compare to the picture which plato has given us of the ideal philosopher. they are both 'spectators of all time and all existence.' nothing is contemptible in their eyes, for all things have a meaning, and they both walk in august reasonableness before all men, conscious of the workings of god yet free from all terror of mendicant priest or vagrant miracle-worker. but the parallel ends here. for the one stands aloof from the world-storm of sleet and hail, his eyes fixed on distant and sunlit heights, loving knowledge for the sake of knowledge and wisdom for the joy of wisdom, while the other is an eager actor in the world ever seeking to apply his knowledge to useful things. both equally desire truth, but the one because of its utility, the other for its beauty. the historian regards it as the rational principle of all true history, and no more. to the other it comes as an all-pervading and mystic enthusiasm, 'like the desire of strong wine, the craving of ambition, the passionate love of what is beautiful.' still, though we miss in the historian those higher and more spiritual qualities which the philosopher of the academe alone of all men possessed, we must not blind ourselves to the merits of that great rationalist who seems to have anticipated the very latest words of modern science. nor yet is he to be regarded merely in the narrow light in which he is estimated by most modern critics, as the explicit champion of rationalism and nothing more. for he is connected with another idea, the course of which is as the course of that great river of his native arcadia which, springing from some arid and sun-bleached rock, gathers strength and beauty as it flows till it reaches the asphodel meadows of olympia and the light and laughter of ionian waters. for in him we can discern the first notes of that great cult of the seven- hilled city which made virgil write his epic and livy his history, which found in dante its highest exponent, which dreamed of an empire where the emperor would care for the bodies and the pope for the souls of men, and so has passed into the conception of god's spiritual empire and the universal brotherhood of man and widened into the huge ocean of universal thought as the peneus loses itself in the sea. polybius is the last scientific historian of greece. the writer who seems fittingly to complete the progress of thought is a writer of biographies only. i will not here touch on plutarch's employment of the inductive method as shown in his constant use of inscription and statue, of public document and building and the like, because they involve no new method. it is his attitude towards miracles of which i desire to treat. plutarch is philosophic enough to see that in the sense of a violation of the laws of nature a miracle is impossible. it is absurd, he says, to imagine that the statue of a saint can speak, and that an inanimate object not possessing the vocal organs should be able to utter an articulate sound. upon the other hand, he protests against science imagining that, by explaining the natural causes of things, it has explained away their transcendental meaning. 'when the tears on the cheek of some holy statue have been analysed into the moisture which certain temperatures produce on wood and marble, it yet by no means follows that they were not a sign of grief and mourning set there by god himself.' when lampon saw in the prodigy of the one-horned ram the omen of the supreme rule of pericles, and when anaxagoras showed that the abnormal development was the rational resultant of the peculiar formation of the skull, the dreamer and the man of science were both right; it was the business of the latter to consider how the prodigy came about, of the former to show why it was so formed and what it so portended. the progression of thought is exemplified in all particulars. herodotus had a glimmering sense of the impossibility of a violation of nature. thucydides ignored the supernatural. polybius rationalised it. plutarch raises it to its mystical heights again, though he bases it on law. in a word, plutarch felt that while science brings the supernatural down to the natural, yet ultimately all that is natural is really supernatural. to him, as to many of our own day, religion was that transcendental attitude of the mind which, contemplating a world resting on inviolable law, is yet comforted and seeks to worship god not in the violation but in the fulfilment of nature. it may seem paradoxical to quote in connection with the priest of chaeronea such a pure rationalist as mr. herbert spencer; yet when we read as the last message of modern science that 'when the equation of life has been reduced to its lowest terms the symbols are symbols still,' mere signs, that is, of that unknown reality which underlies all matter and all spirit, we may feel how over the wide strait of centuries thought calls to thought and how plutarch has a higher position than is usually claimed for him in the progress of the greek intellect. and, indeed, it seems that not merely the importance of plutarch himself but also that of the land of his birth in the evolution of greek civilisation has been passed over by modern critics. to us, indeed, the bare rock to which the parthenon serves as a crown, and which lies between colonus and attica's violet hills, will always be the holiest spot in the land of greece: and delphi will come next, and then the meadows of eurotas where that noble people lived who represented in hellenic thought the reaction of the law of duty against the law of beauty, the opposition of conduct to culture. yet, as one stands on the [greek] of cithaeron and looks out on the great double plain of boeotia, the enormous importance of the division of hellas comes to one's mind with great force. to the north is orchomenus and the minyan treasure house, seat of those merchant princes of phoenicia who brought to greece the knowledge of letters and the art of working in gold. thebes is at our feet with the gloom of the terrible legends of greek tragedy still lingering about it, the birthplace of pindar, the nurse of epaminondas and the sacred band. and from out of the plain where 'mars loved to dance,' rises the muses' haunt, helicon, by whose silver streams corinna and hesiod sang. while far away under the white aegis of those snow-capped mountains lies chaeronea and the lion plain where with vain chivalry the greeks strove to check macedon first and afterwards rome; chaeronea, where in the martinmas summer of greek civilisation plutarch rose from the drear waste of a dying religion as the aftermath rises when the mowers think they have left the field bare. greek philosophy began and ended in scepticism: the first and the last word of greek history was faith. splendid thus in its death, like winter sunsets, the greek religion passed away into the horror of night. for the cimmerian darkness was at hand, and when the schools of athens were closed and the statue of athena broken, the greek spirit passed from the gods and the history of its own land to the subtleties of defining the doctrine of the trinity and the mystical attempts to bring plato into harmony with christ and to reconcile gethsemane and the sermon on the mount with the athenian prison and the discussion in the woods of colonus. the greek spirit slept for wellnigh a thousand years. when it woke again, like antaeus it had gathered strength from the earth where it lay, like apollo it had lost none of its divinity through its long servitude. in the history of roman thought we nowhere find any of those characteristics of the greek illumination which i have pointed out are the necessary concomitants of the rise of historical criticism. the conservative respect for tradition which made the roman people delight in the ritual and formulas of law, and is as apparent in their politics as in their religion, was fatal to any rise of that spirit of revolt against authority the importance of which, as a factor in intellectual progress, we have already seen. the whitened tables of the pontifices preserved carefully the records of the eclipses and other atmospherical phenomena, and what we call the art of verifying dates was known to them at an early time; but there was no spontaneous rise of physical science to suggest by its analogies of law and order a new method of research, nor any natural springing up of the questioning spirit of philosophy with its unification of all phenomena and all knowledge. at the very time when the whole tide of eastern superstition was sweeping into the heart of the capitol the senate banished the greek philosophers from rome. and of the three systems which did at length take some root in the city those of zeno and epicurus were merely used as the rule for the ordering of life, while the dogmatic scepticism of carneades, by its very principles, annihilated the possibility of argument and encouraged a perfect indifference to research. nor were the romans ever fortunate enough like the greeks to have to face the incubus of any dogmatic system of legends and myths, the immoralities and absurdities of which might excite a revolutionary outbreak of sceptical criticism. for the roman religion became as it were crystallised and isolated from progress at an early period of its evolution. their gods remained mere abstractions of commonplace virtues or uninteresting personifications of the useful things of life. the old primitive creed was indeed always upheld as a state institution on account of the enormous facilities it offered for cheating in politics, but as a spiritual system of belief it was unanimously rejected at a very early period both by the common people and the educated classes, for the sensible reason that it was so extremely dull. the former took refuge in the mystic sensualities of the worship of isis, the latter in the stoical rules of life. the romans classified their gods carefully in their order of precedence, analysed their genealogies in the laborious spirit of modern heraldry, fenced them round with a ritual as intricate as their law, but never quite cared enough about them to believe in them. so it was of no account with them when the philosophers announced that minerva was merely memory. she had never been much else. nor did they protest when lucretius dared to say of ceres and of liber that they were only the corn of the field and the fruit of the vine. for they had never mourned for the daughter of demeter in the asphodel meadows of sicily, nor traversed the glades of cithaeron with fawn-skin and with spear. this brief sketch of the condition of roman thought will serve to prepare us for the almost total want of scientific historical criticism which we shall discern in their literature, and has, besides, afforded fresh corroborations of the conditions essential to the rise of this spirit, and of the modes of thought which it reflects and in which it is always to be found. roman historical composition had its origin in the pontifical college of ecclesiastical lawyers, and preserved to its close the uncritical spirit which characterised its fountain-head. it possessed from the outset a most voluminous collection of the materials of history, which, however, produced merely antiquarians, not historians. it is so hard to use facts, so easy to accumulate them. wearied of the dull monotony of the pontifical annals, which dwelt on little else but the rise and fall in provisions and the eclipses of the sun, cato wrote out a history with his own hand for the instruction of his child, to which he gave the name of origines, and before his time some aristocratic families had written histories in greek much in the same spirit in which the germans of the eighteenth century used french as the literary language. but the first regular roman historian is sallust. between the extravagant eulogies passed on this author by the french (such as de closset), and dr. mommsen's view of him as merely a political pamphleteer, it is perhaps difficult to reach the via media of unbiassed appreciation. he has, at any rate, the credit of being a purely rationalistic historian, perhaps the only one in roman literature. cicero had a good many qualifications for a scientific historian, and (as he usually did) thought very highly of his own powers. on passages of ancient legend, however, he is rather unsatisfactory, for while he is too sensible to believe them he is too patriotic to reject them. and this is really the attitude of livy, who claims for early roman legend a certain uncritical homage from the rest of the subject world. his view in his history is that it is not worth while to examine the truth of these stories. in his hands the history of rome unrolls before our eyes like some gorgeous tapestry, where victory succeeds victory, where triumph treads on the heels of triumph, and the line of heroes seems never to end. it is not till we pass behind the canvas and see the slight means by which the effect is produced that we apprehend the fact that like most picturesque writers livy is an indifferent critic. as regards his attitude towards the credibility of early roman history he is quite as conscious as we are of its mythical and unsound nature. he will not, for instance, decide whether the horatii were albans or romans; who was the first dictator; how many tribunes there were, and the like. his method, as a rule, is merely to mention all the accounts and sometimes to decide in favour of the most probable, but usually not to decide at all. no canons of historical criticism will ever discover whether the roman women interviewed the mother of coriolanus of their own accord or at the suggestion of the senate; whether remus was killed for jumping over his brother's wall or because they quarrelled about birds; whether the ambassadors found cincinnatus ploughing or only mending a hedge. livy suspends his judgment over these important facts and history when questioned on their truth is dumb. if he does select between two historians he chooses the one who is nearer to the facts he describes. but he is no critic, only a conscientious writer. it is mere vain waste to dwell on his critical powers, for they do not exist. * * * * * in the case of tacitus imagination has taken the place of history. the past lives again in his pages, but through no laborious criticism; rather through a dramatic and psychological faculty which he specially possessed. in the philosophy of history he has no belief. he can never make up his mind what to believe as regards god's government of the world. there is no method in him and none elsewhere in roman literature. nations may not have missions but they certainly have functions. and the function of ancient italy was not merely to give us what is statical in our institutions and rational in our law, but to blend into one elemental creed the spiritual aspirations of aryan and of semite. italy was not a pioneer in intellectual progress, nor a motive power in the evolution of thought. the owl of the goddess of wisdom traversed over the whole land and found nowhere a resting-place. the dove, which is the bird of christ, flew straight to the city of rome and the new reign began. it was the fashion of early italian painters to represent in mediaeval costume the soldiers who watched over the tomb of christ, and this, which was the result of the frank anachronism of all true art, may serve to us as an allegory. for it was in vain that the middle ages strove to guard the buried spirit of progress. when the dawn of the greek spirit arose, the sepulchre was empty, the grave-clothes laid aside. humanity had risen from the dead. the study of greek, it has been well said, implies the birth of criticism, comparison and research. at the opening of that education of modern by ancient thought which we call the renaissance, it was the words of aristotle which sent columbus sailing to the new world, while a fragment of pythagorean astronomy set copernicus thinking on that train of reasoning which has revolutionised the whole position of our planet in the universe. then it was seen that the only meaning of progress is a return to greek modes of thought. the monkish hymns which obscured the pages of greek manuscripts were blotted out, the splendours of a new method were unfolded to the world, and out of the melancholy sea of mediaevalism rose the free spirit of man in all that splendour of glad adolescence, when the bodily powers seem quickened by a new vitality, when the eye sees more clearly than its wont and the mind apprehends what was beforetime hidden from it. to herald the opening of the sixteenth century, from the little venetian printing press came forth all the great authors of antiquity, each bearing on the title-page the words [greek] words which may serve to remind us with what wondrous prescience polybius saw the world's fate when he foretold the material sovereignty of roman institutions and exemplified in himself the intellectual empire of greece. the course of the study of the spirit of historical criticism has not been a profitless investigation into modes and forms of thought now antiquated and of no account. the only spirit which is entirely removed from us is the mediaeval; the greek spirit is essentially modern. the introduction of the comparative method of research which has forced history to disclose its secrets belongs in a measure to us. ours, too, is a more scientific knowledge of philology and the method of survival. nor did the ancients know anything of the doctrine of averages or of crucial instances, both of which methods have proved of such importance in modern criticism, the one adding a most important proof of the statical elements of history, and exemplifying the influences of all physical surroundings on the life of man; the other, as in the single instance of the moulin quignon skull, serving to create a whole new science of prehistoric archaeology and to bring us back to a time when man was coeval with the stone age, the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. but, except these, we have added no new canon or method to the science of historical criticism. across the drear waste of a thousand years the greek and the modern spirit join hands. in the torch race which the greek boys ran from the cerameician field of death to the home of the goddess of wisdom, not merely he who first reached the goal but he also who first started with the torch aflame received a prize. in the lampadephoria of civilisation and free thought let us not forget to render due meed of honour to those who first lit that sacred flame, the increasing splendour of which lights our footsteps to the far-off divine event of the attainment of perfect truth. la sainte courtisane; or, the woman covered with jewels the scene represents a corner of a valley in the thebaid. on the right hand of the stage is a cavern. in front of the cavern stands a great crucifix. on the left [sand dunes]. the sky is blue like the inside of a cup of lapis lazuli. the hills are of red sand. here and there on the hills there are clumps of thorns. first man. who is she? she makes me afraid. she has a purple cloak and her hair is like threads of gold. i think she must be the daughter of the emperor. i have heard the boatmen say that the emperor has a daughter who wears a cloak of purple. second man. she has birds' wings upon her sandals, and her tunic is of the colour of green corn. it is like corn in spring when she stands still. it is like young corn troubled by the shadows of hawks when she moves. the pearls on her tunic are like many moons. first man. they are like the moons one sees in the water when the wind blows from the hills. second man. i think she is one of the gods. i think she comes from nubia. first man. i am sure she is the daughter of the emperor. her nails are stained with henna. they are like the petals of a rose. she has come here to weep for adonis. second man. she is one of the gods. i do not know why she has left her temple. the gods should not leave their temples. if she speaks to us let us not answer and she will pass by. first man. she will not speak to us. she is the daughter of the emperor. myrrhina. dwells he not here, the beautiful young hermit, he who will not look on the face of woman? first man. of a truth it is here the hermit dwells. myrrhina. why will he not look on the face of woman? second man. we do not know. myrrhina. why do ye yourselves not look at me? first man. you are covered with bright stones, and you dazzle our eyes. second man. he who looks at the sun becomes blind. you are too bright to look at. it is not wise to look at things that are very bright. many of the priests in the temples are blind, and have slaves to lead them. myrrhina. where does he dwell, the beautiful young hermit who will not look on the face of woman? has he a house of reeds or a house of burnt clay or does he lie on the hillside? or does he make his bed in the rushes? first man. he dwells in that cavern yonder. myrrhina. what a curious place to dwell in. first man. of old a centaur lived there. when the hermit came the centaur gave a shrill cry, wept and lamented, and galloped away. second man. no. it was a white unicorn who lived in the cave. when it saw the hermit coming the unicorn knelt down and worshipped him. many people saw it worshipping him. first man. i have talked with people who saw it. . . . . . second man. some say he was a hewer of wood and worked for hire. but that may not be true. . . . . . myrrhina. what gods then do ye worship? or do ye worship any gods? there are those who have no gods to worship. the philosophers who wear long beards and brown cloaks have no gods to worship. they wrangle with each other in the porticoes. the [ ] laugh at them. first man. we worship seven gods. we may not tell their names. it is a very dangerous thing to tell the names of the gods. no one should ever tell the name of his god. even the priests who praise the gods all day long, and eat of their food with them, do not call them by their right names. myrrhina. where are these gods ye worship? first man. we hide them in the folds of our tunics. we do not show them to any one. if we showed them to any one they might leave us. myrrhina. where did ye meet with them? first man. they were given to us by an embalmer of the dead who had found them in a tomb. we served him for seven years. myrrhina. the dead are terrible. i am afraid of death. first man. death is not a god. he is only the servant of the gods. myrrhina. he is the only god i am afraid of. ye have seen many of the gods? first man. we have seen many of them. one sees them chiefly at night time. they pass one by very swiftly. once we saw some of the gods at daybreak. they were walking across a plain. myrrhina. once as i was passing through the market place i heard a sophist from cilicia say that there is only one god. he said it before many people. first man. that cannot be true. we have ourselves seen many, though we are but common men and of no account. when i saw them i hid myself in a bush. they did me no harm. myrrhina. tell me more about the beautiful young hermit. talk to me about the beautiful young hermit who will not look on the face of woman. what is the story of his days? what mode of life has he? first man. we do not understand you. myrrhina. what does he do, the beautiful young hermit? does he sow or reap? does he plant a garden or catch fish in a net? does he weave linen on a loom? does he set his hand to the wooden plough and walk behind the oxen? second man. he being a very holy man does nothing. we are common men and of no account. we toil all day long in the sun. sometimes the ground is very hard. myrrhina. do the birds of the air feed him? do the jackals share their booty with him? first man. every evening we bring him food. we do not think that the birds of the air feed him. myrrhina. why do ye feed him? what profit have ye in so doing? second man. he is a very holy man. one of the gods whom he has offended has made him mad. we think he has offended the moon. myrrhina. go and tell him that one who has come from alexandria desires to speak with him. first man. we dare not tell him. this hour he is praying to his god. we pray thee to pardon us for not doing thy bidding. myrrhina. are ye afraid of him? first man. we are afraid of him. myrrhina. why are ye afraid of him? first man. we do not know. myrrhina. what is his name? first man. the voice that speaks to him at night time in the cavern calls to him by the name of honorius. it was also by the name of honorius that the three lepers who passed by once called to him. we think that his name is honorius. myrrhina. why did the three lepers call to him? first man. that he might heal them. myrrhina. did he heal them? second man. no. they had committed some sin: it was for that reason they were lepers. their hands and faces were like salt. one of them wore a mask of linen. he was a king's son. myrrhina. what is the voice that speaks to him at night time in his cave? first man. we do not know whose voice it is. we think it is the voice of his god. for we have seen no man enter his cavern nor any come forth from it. myrrhina. honorius. honorius (from within). who calls honorius? . . . . . myrrhina. come forth, honorius. . . . . . my chamber is ceiled with cedar and odorous with myrrh. the pillars of my bed are of cedar and the hangings are of purple. my bed is strewn with purple and the steps are of silver. the hangings are sewn with silver pomegranates and the steps that are of silver are strewn with saffron and with myrrh. my lovers hang garlands round the pillars of my house. at night time they come with the flute players and the players of the harp. they woo me with apples and on the pavement of my courtyard they write my name in wine. from the uttermost parts of the world my lovers come to me. the kings of the earth come to me and bring me presents. when the emperor of byzantium heard of me he left his porphyry chamber and set sail in his galleys. his slaves bare no torches that none might know of his coming. when the king of cyprus heard of me he sent me ambassadors. the two kings of libya who are brothers brought me gifts of amber. i took the minion of caesar from caesar and made him my playfellow. he came to me at night in a litter. he was pale as a narcissus, and his body was like honey. the son of the praefect slew himself in my honour, and the tetrarch of cilicia scourged himself for my pleasure before my slaves. the king of hierapolis who is a priest and a robber set carpets for me to walk on. sometimes i sit in the circus and the gladiators fight beneath me. once a thracian who was my lover was caught in the net. i gave the signal for him to die and the whole theatre applauded. sometimes i pass through the gymnasium and watch the young men wrestling or in the race. their bodies are bright with oil and their brows are wreathed with willow sprays and with myrtle. they stamp their feet on the sand when they wrestle and when they run the sand follows them like a little cloud. he at whom i smile leaves his companions and follows me to my home. at other times i go down to the harbour and watch the merchants unloading their vessels. those that come from tyre have cloaks of silk and earrings of emerald. those that come from massilia have cloaks of fine wool and earrings of brass. when they see me coming they stand on the prows of their ships and call to me, but i do not answer them. i go to the little taverns where the sailors lie all day long drinking black wine and playing with dice and i sit down with them. i made the prince my slave, and his slave who was a tyrian i made my lord for the space of a moon. i put a figured ring on his finger and brought him to my house. i have wonderful things in my house. the dust of the desert lies on your hair and your feet are scratched with thorns and your body is scorched by the sun. come with me, honorius, and i will clothe you in a tunic of silk. i will smear your body with myrrh and pour spikenard on your hair. i will clothe you in hyacinth and put honey in your mouth. love-- honorius. there is no love but the love of god. myrrhina. who is he whose love is greater than that of mortal men? honorius. it is he whom thou seest on the cross, myrrhina. he is the son of god and was born of a virgin. three wise men who were kings brought him offerings, and the shepherds who were lying on the hills were wakened by a great light. the sibyls knew of his coming. the groves and the oracles spake of him. david and the prophets announced him. there is no love like the love of god nor any love that can be compared to it. the body is vile, myrrhina. god will raise thee up with a new body which will not know corruption, and thou wilt dwell in the courts of the lord and see him whose hair is like fine wool and whose feet are of brass. myrrhina. the beauty . . . honorius. the beauty of the soul increases till it can see god. therefore, myrrhina, repent of thy sins. the robber who was crucified beside him he brought into paradise. [exit. myrrhina. how strangely he spake to me. and with what scorn did he regard me. i wonder why he spake to me so strangely. . . . . . honorius. myrrhina, the scales have fallen from my eyes and i see now clearly what i did not see before. take me to alexandria and let me taste of the seven sins. myrrhina. do not mock me, honorius, nor speak to me with such bitter words. for i have repented of my sins and i am seeking a cavern in this desert where i too may dwell so that my soul may become worthy to see god. honorius. the sun is setting, myrrhina. come with me to alexandria. myrrhina. i will not go to alexandria. honorius. farewell, myrrhina. myrrhina. honorius, farewell. no, no, do not go. . . . . . i have cursed my beauty for what it has done, and cursed the wonder of my body for the evil that it has brought upon you. lord, this man brought me to thy feet. he told me of thy coming upon earth, and of the wonder of thy birth, and the great wonder of thy death also. by him, o lord, thou wast revealed to me. honorius. you talk as a child, myrrhina, and without knowledge. loosen your hands. why didst thou come to this valley in thy beauty? myrrhina. the god whom thou worshippest led me here that i might repent of my iniquities and know him as the lord. honorius. why didst thou tempt me with words? myrrhina. that thou shouldst see sin in its painted mask and look on death in its robe of shame. the english renaissance of art 'the english renaissance of art' was delivered as a lecture for the first time in the chickering hall, new york, on january , . a portion of it was reported in the new york tribune on the following day and in other american papers subsequently. since then this portion has been reprinted, more or less accurately, from time to time, in unauthorised editions, but not more than one quarter of the lecture has ever been published. there are in existence no less than four copies of the lecture, the earliest of which is entirely in the author's handwriting. the others are type-written and contain many corrections and additions made by the author in manuscript. these have all been collated and the text here given contains, as nearly as possible, the lecture in its original form as delivered by the author during his tour in the united states. among the many debts which we owe to the supreme aesthetic faculty of goethe is that he was the first to teach us to define beauty in terms the most concrete possible, to realise it, i mean, always in its special manifestations. so, in the lecture which i have the honour to deliver before you, i will not try to give you any abstract definition of beauty--any such universal formula for it as was sought for by the philosophy of the eighteenth century--still less to communicate to you that which in its essence is incommunicable, the virtue by which a particular picture or poem affects us with a unique and special joy; but rather to point out to you the general ideas which characterise the great english renaissance of art in this century, to discover their source, as far as that is possible, and to estimate their future as far as that is possible. i call it our english renaissance because it is indeed a sort of new birth of the spirit of man, like the great italian renaissance of the fifteenth century, in its desire for a more gracious and comely way of life, its passion for physical beauty, its exclusive attention to form, its seeking for new subjects for poetry, new forms of art, new intellectual and imaginative enjoyments: and i call it our romantic movement because it is our most recent expression of beauty. it has been described as a mere revival of greek modes of thought, and again as a mere revival of mediaeval feeling. rather i would say that to these forms of the human spirit it has added whatever of artistic value the intricacy and complexity and experience of modern life can give: taking from the one its clearness of vision and its sustained calm, from the other its variety of expression and the mystery of its vision. for what, as goethe said, is the study of the ancients but a return to the real world (for that is what they did); and what, said mazzini, is mediaevalism but individuality? it is really from the union of hellenism, in its breadth, its sanity of purpose, its calm possession of beauty, with the adventive, the intensified individualism, the passionate colour of the romantic spirit, that springs the art of the nineteenth century in england, as from the marriage of faust and helen of troy sprang the beautiful boy euphorion. such expressions as 'classical' and 'romantic' are, it is true, often apt to become the mere catchwords of schools. we must always remember that art has only one sentence to utter: there is for her only one high law, the law of form or harmony--yet between the classical and romantic spirit we may say that there lies this difference at least, that the one deals with the type and the other with the exception. in the work produced under the modern romantic spirit it is no longer the permanent, the essential truths of life that are treated of; it is the momentary situation of the one, the momentary aspect of the other that art seeks to render. in sculpture, which is the type of one spirit, the subject predominates over the situation; in painting, which is the type of the other, the situation predominates over the subject. there are two spirits, then: the hellenic spirit and the spirit of romance may be taken as forming the essential elements of our conscious intellectual tradition, of our permanent standard of taste. as regards their origin, in art as in politics there is but one origin for all revolutions, a desire on the part of man for a nobler form of life, for a freer method and opportunity of expression. yet, i think that in estimating the sensuous and intellectual spirit which presides over our english renaissance, any attempt to isolate it in any way from the progress and movement and social life of the age that has produced it would be to rob it of its true vitality, possibly to mistake its true meaning. and in disengaging from the pursuits and passions of this crowded modern world those passions and pursuits which have to do with art and the love of art, we must take into account many great events of history which seem to be the most opposed to any such artistic feeling. alien then from any wild, political passion, or from the harsh voice of a rude people in revolt, as our english renaissance must seem, in its passionate cult of pure beauty, its flawless devotion to form, its exclusive and sensitive nature, it is to the french revolution that we must look for the most primary factor of its production, the first condition of its birth: that great revolution of which we are all the children, though the voices of some of us be often loud against it; that revolution to which at a time when even such spirits as coleridge and wordsworth lost heart in england, noble messages of love blown across seas came from your young republic. it is true that our modern sense of the continuity of history has shown us that neither in politics nor in nature are there revolutions ever but evolutions only, and that the prelude to that wild storm which swept over france in ' and made every king in europe tremble for his throne, was first sounded in literature years before the bastille fell and the palace was taken. the way for those red scenes by seine and loire was paved by that critical spirit of germany and england which accustomed men to bring all things to the test of reason or utility or both, while the discontent of the people in the streets of paris was the echo that followed the life of emile and of werther. for rousseau, by silent lake and mountain, had called humanity back to the golden age that still lies before us and preached a return to nature, in passionate eloquence whose music still lingers about our keen northern air. and goethe and scott had brought romance back again from the prison she had lain in for so many centuries--and what is romance but humanity? yet in the womb of the revolution itself, and in the storm and terror of that wild time, tendencies were hidden away that the artistic renaissance bent to her own service when the time came--a scientific tendency first, which has borne in our own day a brood of somewhat noisy titans, yet in the sphere of poetry has not been unproductive of good. i do not mean merely in its adding to enthusiasm that intellectual basis which is its strength, or that more obvious influence about which wordsworth was thinking when he said very nobly that poetry was merely the impassioned expression in the face of science, and that when science would put on a form of flesh and blood the poet would lend his divine spirit to aid the transfiguration. nor do i dwell much on the great cosmical emotion and deep pantheism of science to which shelley has given its first and swinburne its latest glory of song, but rather on its influence on the artistic spirit in preserving that close observation and the sense of limitation as well as of clearness of vision which are the characteristics of the real artist. the great and golden rule of art as well as of life, wrote william blake, is that the more distinct, sharp and defined the boundary line, the more perfect is the work of art; and the less keen and sharp the greater is the evidence of weak imitation, plagiarism and bungling. 'great inventors in all ages knew this--michael angelo and albert durer are known by this and by this alone'; and another time he wrote, with all the simple directness of nineteenth-century prose, 'to generalise is to be an idiot.' and this love of definite conception, this clearness of vision, this artistic sense of limit, is the characteristic of all great work and poetry; of the vision of homer as of the vision of dante, of keats and william morris as of chaucer and theocritus. it lies at the base of all noble, realistic and romantic work as opposed to colourless and empty abstractions of our own eighteenth-century poets and of the classical dramatists of france, or of the vague spiritualities of the german sentimental school: opposed, too, to that spirit of transcendentalism which also was root and flower itself of the great revolution, underlying the impassioned contemplation of wordsworth and giving wings and fire to the eagle-like flight of shelley, and which in the sphere of philosophy, though displaced by the materialism and positiveness of our day, bequeathed two great schools of thought, the school of newman to oxford, the school of emerson to america. yet is this spirit of transcendentalism alien to the spirit of art. for the artist can accept no sphere of life in exchange for life itself. for him there is no escape from the bondage of the earth: there is not even the desire of escape. he is indeed the only true realist: symbolism, which is the essence of the transcendental spirit, is alien to him. the metaphysical mind of asia will create for itself the monstrous, many-breasted idol of ephesus, but to the greek, pure artist, that work is most instinct with spiritual life which conforms most clearly to the perfect facts of physical life. 'the storm of revolution,' as andre chenier said, 'blows out the torch of poetry.' it is not for some little time that the real influence of such a wild cataclysm of things is felt: at first the desire for equality seems to have produced personalities of more giant and titan stature than the world had ever known before. men heard the lyre of byron and the legions of napoleon; it was a period of measureless passions and of measureless despair; ambition, discontent, were the chords of life and art; the age was an age of revolt: a phase through which the human spirit must pass but one in which it cannot rest. for the aim of culture is not rebellion but peace, the valley perilous where ignorant armies clash by night being no dwelling-place meet for her to whom the gods have assigned the fresh uplands and sunny heights and clear, untroubled air. and soon that desire for perfection, which lay at the base of the revolution, found in a young english poet its most complete and flawless realisation. phidias and the achievements of greek art are foreshadowed in homer: dante prefigures for us the passion and colour and intensity of italian painting: the modern love of landscape dates from rousseau, and it is in keats that one discerns the beginning of the artistic renaissance of england. byron was a rebel and shelley a dreamer; but in the calmness and clearness of his vision, his perfect self-control, his unerring sense of beauty and his recognition of a separate realm for the imagination, keats was the pure and serene artist, the forerunner of the pre-raphaelite school, and so of the great romantic movement of which i am to speak. blake had indeed, before him, claimed for art a lofty, spiritual mission, and had striven to raise design to the ideal level of poetry and music, but the remoteness of his vision both in painting and poetry and the incompleteness of his technical powers had been adverse to any real influence. it is in keats that the artistic spirit of this century first found its absolute incarnation. and these pre-raphaelites, what were they? if you ask nine-tenths of the british public what is the meaning of the word aesthetics, they will tell you it is the french for affectation or the german for a dado; and if you inquire about the pre-raphaelites you will hear something about an eccentric lot of young men to whom a sort of divine crookedness and holy awkwardness in drawing were the chief objects of art. to know nothing about their great men is one of the necessary elements of english education. as regards the pre-raphaelites the story is simple enough. in the year a number of young men in london, poets and painters, passionate admirers of keats all of them, formed the habit of meeting together for discussions on art, the result of such discussions being that the english philistine public was roused suddenly from its ordinary apathy by hearing that there was in its midst a body of young men who had determined to revolutionise english painting and poetry. they called themselves the pre-raphaelite brotherhood. in england, then as now, it was enough for a man to try and produce any serious beautiful work to lose all his rights as a citizen; and besides this, the pre-raphaelite brotherhood--among whom the names of dante rossetti, holman hunt and millais will be familiar to you--had on their side three things that the english public never forgives: youth, power and enthusiasm. satire, always as sterile as it is shameful and as impotent as it is insolent, paid them that usual homage which mediocrity pays to genius--doing, here as always, infinite harm to the public, blinding them to what is beautiful, teaching them that irreverence which is the source of all vileness and narrowness of life, but harming the artist not at all, rather confirming him in the perfect rightness of his work and ambition. for to disagree with three-fourths of the british public on all points is one of the first elements of sanity, one of the deepest consolations in all moments of spiritual doubt. as regards the ideas these young men brought to the regeneration of english art, we may see at the base of their artistic creations a desire for a deeper spiritual value to be given to art as well as a more decorative value. pre-raphaelites they called themselves; not that they imitated the early italian masters at all, but that in their work, as opposed to the facile abstractions of raphael, they found a stronger realism of imagination, a more careful realism of technique, a vision at once more fervent and more vivid, an individuality more intimate and more intense. for it is not enough that a work of art should conform to the aesthetic demands of its age: there must be also about it, if it is to affect us with any permanent delight, the impress of a distinct individuality, an individuality remote from that of ordinary men, and coming near to us only by virtue of a certain newness and wonder in the work, and through channels whose very strangeness makes us more ready to give them welcome. la personalite, said one of the greatest of modern french critics, voila ce qui nous sauvera. but above all things was it a return to nature--that formula which seems to suit so many and such diverse movements: they would draw and paint nothing but what they saw, they would try and imagine things as they really happened. later there came to the old house by blackfriars bridge, where this young brotherhood used to meet and work, two young men from oxford, edward burne-jones and william morris--the latter substituting for the simpler realism of the early days a more exquisite spirit of choice, a more faultless devotion to beauty, a more intense seeking for perfection: a master of all exquisite design and of all spiritual vision. it is of the school of florence rather than of that of venice that he is kinsman, feeling that the close imitation of nature is a disturbing element in imaginative art. the visible aspect of modern life disturbs him not; rather is it for him to render eternal all that is beautiful in greek, italian, and celtic legend. to morris we owe poetry whose perfect precision and clearness of word and vision has not been excelled in the literature of our country, and by the revival of the decorative arts he has given to our individualised romantic movement the social idea and the social factor also. but the revolution accomplished by this clique of young men, with ruskin's faultless and fervent eloquence to help them, was not one of ideas merely but of execution, not one of conceptions but of creations. for the great eras in the history of the development of all the arts have been eras not of increased feeling or enthusiasm in feeling for art, but of new technical improvements primarily and specially. the discovery of marble quarries in the purple ravines of pentelicus and on the little low- lying hills of the island of paros gave to the greeks the opportunity for that intensified vitality of action, that more sensuous and simple humanism, to which the egyptian sculptor working laboriously in the hard porphyry and rose-coloured granite of the desert could not attain. the splendour of the venetian school began with the introduction of the new oil medium for painting. the progress in modern music has been due to the invention of new instruments entirely, and in no way to an increased consciousness on the part of the musician of any wider social aim. the critic may try and trace the deferred resolutions of beethoven { } to some sense of the incompleteness of the modern intellectual spirit, but the artist would have answered, as one of them did afterwards, 'let them pick out the fifths and leave us at peace.' and so it is in poetry also: all this love of curious french metres like the ballade, the villanelle, the rondel; all this increased value laid on elaborate alliterations, and on curious words and refrains, such as you will find in dante rossetti and swinburne, is merely the attempt to perfect flute and viol and trumpet through which the spirit of the age and the lips of the poet may blow the music of their many messages. and so it has been with this romantic movement of ours: it is a reaction against the empty conventional workmanship, the lax execution of previous poetry and painting, showing itself in the work of such men as rossetti and burne-jones by a far greater splendour of colour, a far more intricate wonder of design than english imaginative art has shown before. in rossetti's poetry and the poetry of morris, swinburne and tennyson a perfect precision and choice of language, a style flawless and fearless, a seeking for all sweet and precious melodies and a sustaining consciousness of the musical value of each word are opposed to that value which is merely intellectual. in this respect they are one with the romantic movement of france of which not the least characteristic note was struck by theophile gautier's advice to the young poet to read his dictionary every day, as being the only book worth a poet's reading. while, then, the material of workmanship is being thus elaborated and discovered to have in itself incommunicable and eternal qualities of its own, qualities entirely satisfying to the poetic sense and not needing for their aesthetic effect any lofty intellectual vision, any deep criticism of life or even any passionate human emotion at all, the spirit and the method of the poet's working--what people call his inspiration--have not escaped the controlling influence of the artistic spirit. not that the imagination has lost its wings, but we have accustomed ourselves to count their innumerable pulsations, to estimate their limitless strength, to govern their ungovernable freedom. to the greeks this problem of the conditions of poetic production, and the places occupied by either spontaneity or self-consciousness in any artistic work, had a peculiar fascination. we find it in the mysticism of plato and in the rationalism of aristotle. we find it later in the italian renaissance agitating the minds of such men as leonardo da vinci. schiller tried to adjust the balance between form and feeling, and goethe to estimate the position of self-consciousness in art. wordsworth's definition of poetry as 'emotion remembered in tranquillity' may be taken as an analysis of one of the stages through which all imaginative work has to pass; and in keats's longing to be 'able to compose without this fever' (i quote from one of his letters), his desire to substitute for poetic ardour 'a more thoughtful and quiet power,' we may discern the most important moment in the evolution of that artistic life. the question made an early and strange appearance in your literature too; and i need not remind you how deeply the young poets of the french romantic movement were excited and stirred by edgar allan poe's analysis of the workings of his own imagination in the creating of that supreme imaginative work which we know by the name of the raven. in the last century, when the intellectual and didactic element had intruded to such an extent into the kingdom which belongs to poetry, it was against the claims of the understanding that an artist like goethe had to protest. 'the more incomprehensible to the understanding a poem is the better for it,' he said once, asserting the complete supremacy of the imagination in poetry as of reason in prose. but in this century it is rather against the claims of the emotional faculties, the claims of mere sentiment and feeling, that the artist must react. the simple utterance of joy is not poetry any more than a mere personal cry of pain, and the real experiences of the artist are always those which do not find their direct expression but are gathered up and absorbed into some artistic form which seems, from such real experiences, to be the farthest removed and the most alien. 'the heart contains passion but the imagination alone contains poetry,' says charles baudelaire. this too was the lesson that theophile gautier, most subtle of all modern critics, most fascinating of all modern poets, was never tired of teaching--'everybody is affected by a sunrise or a sunset.' the absolute distinction of the artist is not his capacity to feel nature so much as his power of rendering it. the entire subordination of all intellectual and emotional faculties to the vital and informing poetic principle is the surest sign of the strength of our renaissance. we have seen the artistic spirit working, first in the delightful and technical sphere of language, the sphere of expression as opposed to subject, then controlling the imagination of the poet in dealing with his subject. and now i would point out to you its operation in the choice of subject. the recognition of a separate realm for the artist, a consciousness of the absolute difference between the world of art and the world of real fact, between classic grace and absolute reality, forms not merely the essential element of any aesthetic charm but is the characteristic of all great imaginative work and of all great eras of artistic creation--of the age of phidias as of the age of michael angelo, of the age of sophocles as of the age of goethe. art never harms itself by keeping aloof from the social problems of the day: rather, by so doing, it more completely realises for us that which we desire. for to most of us the real life is the life we do not lead, and thus, remaining more true to the essence of its own perfection, more jealous of its own unattainable beauty, is less likely to forget form in feeling or to accept the passion of creation as any substitute for the beauty of the created thing. the artist is indeed the child of his own age, but the present will not be to him a whit more real than the past; for, like the philosopher of the platonic vision, the poet is the spectator of all time and of all existence. for him no form is obsolete, no subject out of date; rather, whatever of life and passion the world has known, in desert of judaea or in arcadian valley, by the rivers of troy or the rivers of damascus, in the crowded and hideous streets of a modern city or by the pleasant ways of camelot--all lies before him like an open scroll, all is still instinct with beautiful life. he will take of it what is salutary for his own spirit, no more; choosing some facts and rejecting others with the calm artistic control of one who is in possession of the secret of beauty. there is indeed a poetical attitude to be adopted towards all things, but all things are not fit subjects for poetry. into the secure and sacred house of beauty the true artist will admit nothing that is harsh or disturbing, nothing that gives pain, nothing that is debatable, nothing about which men argue. he can steep himself, if he wishes, in the discussion of all the social problems of his day, poor-laws and local taxation, free trade and bimetallic currency, and the like; but when he writes on these subjects it will be, as milton nobly expressed it, with his left hand, in prose and not in verse, in a pamphlet and not in a lyric. this exquisite spirit of artistic choice was not in byron: wordsworth had it not. in the work of both these men there is much that we have to reject, much that does not give us that sense of calm and perfect repose which should be the effect of all fine, imaginative work. but in keats it seemed to have been incarnate, and in his lovely ode on a grecian urn it found its most secure and faultless expression; in the pageant of the earthly paradise and the knights and ladies of burne-jones it is the one dominant note. it is to no avail that the muse of poetry be called, even by such a clarion note as whitman's, to migrate from greece and ionia and to placard removed and to let on the rocks of the snowy parnassus. calliope's call is not yet closed, nor are the epics of asia ended; the sphinx is not yet silent, nor the fountain of castaly dry. for art is very life itself and knows nothing of death; she is absolute truth and takes no care of fact; she sees (as i remember mr. swinburne insisting on at dinner) that achilles is even now more actual and real than wellington, not merely more noble and interesting as a type and figure but more positive and real. literature must rest always on a principle, and temporal considerations are no principle at all. for to the poet all times and places are one; the stuff he deals with is eternal and eternally the same: no theme is inept, no past or present preferable. the steam whistle will not affright him nor the flutes of arcadia weary him: for him there is but one time, the artistic moment; but one law, the law of form; but one land, the land of beauty--a land removed indeed from the real world and yet more sensuous because more enduring; calm, yet with that calm which dwells in the faces of the greek statues, the calm which comes not from the rejection but from the absorption of passion, the calm which despair and sorrow cannot disturb but intensify only. and so it comes that he who seems to stand most remote from his age is he who mirrors it best, because he has stripped life of what is accidental and transitory, stripped it of that 'mist of familiarity which makes life obscure to us.' those strange, wild-eyed sibyls fixed eternally in the whirlwind of ecstasy, those mighty-limbed and titan prophets, labouring with the secret of the earth and the burden of mystery, that guard and glorify the chapel of pope sixtus at rome--do they not tell us more of the real spirit of the italian renaissance, of the dream of savonarola and of the sin of borgia, than all the brawling boors and cooking women of dutch art can teach us of the real spirit of the history of holland? and so in our own day, also, the two most vital tendencies of the nineteenth century--the democratic and pantheistic tendency and the tendency to value life for the sake of art--found their most complete and perfect utterance in the poetry of shelley and keats who, to the blind eyes of their own time, seemed to be as wanderers in the wilderness, preachers of vague or unreal things. and i remember once, in talking to mr. burne-jones about modern science, his saying to me, 'the more materialistic science becomes, the more angels shall i paint: their wings are my protest in favour of the immortality of the soul.' but these are the intellectual speculations that underlie art. where in the arts themselves are we to find that breadth of human sympathy which is the condition of all noble work; where in the arts are we to look for what mazzini would call the social ideas as opposed to the merely personal ideas? by virtue of what claim do i demand for the artist the love and loyalty of the men and women of the world? i think i can answer that. whatever spiritual message an artist brings to his aid is a matter for his own soul. he may bring judgment like michael angelo or peace like angelico; he may come with mourning like the great athenian or with mirth like the singer of sicily; nor is it for us to do aught but accept his teaching, knowing that we cannot smite the bitter lips of leopardi into laughter or burden with our discontent goethe's serene calm. but for warrant of its truth such message must have the flame of eloquence in the lips that speak it, splendour and glory in the vision that is its witness, being justified by one thing only--the flawless beauty and perfect form of its expression: this indeed being the social idea, being the meaning of joy in art. not laughter where none should laugh, nor the calling of peace where there is no peace; not in painting the subject ever, but the pictorial charm only, the wonder of its colour, the satisfying beauty of its design. you have most of you seen, probably, that great masterpiece of rubens which hangs in the gallery of brussels, that swift and wonderful pageant of horse and rider arrested in its most exquisite and fiery moment when the winds are caught in crimson banner and the air lit by the gleam of armour and the flash of plume. well, that is joy in art, though that golden hillside be trodden by the wounded feet of christ and it is for the death of the son of man that that gorgeous cavalcade is passing. but this restless modern intellectual spirit of ours is not receptive enough of the sensuous element of art; and so the real influence of the arts is hidden from many of us: only a few, escaping from the tyranny of the soul, have learned the secret of those high hours when thought is not. and this indeed is the reason of the influence which eastern art is having on us in europe, and of the fascination of all japanese work. while the western world has been laying on art the intolerable burden of its own intellectual doubts and the spiritual tragedy of its own sorrows, the east has always kept true to art's primary and pictorial conditions. in judging of a beautiful statue the aesthetic faculty is absolutely and completely gratified by the splendid curves of those marble lips that are dumb to our complaint, the noble modelling of those limbs that are powerless to help us. in its primary aspect a painting has no more spiritual message or meaning than an exquisite fragment of venetian glass or a blue tile from the wall of damascus: it is a beautifully coloured surface, nothing more. the channels by which all noble imaginative work in painting should touch, and do touch the soul, are not those of the truths of life, nor metaphysical truths. but that pictorial charm which does not depend on any literary reminiscence for its effect on the one hand, nor is yet a mere result of communicable technical skill on the other, comes of a certain inventive and creative handling of colour. nearly always in dutch painting and often in the works of giorgione or titian, it is entirely independent of anything definitely poetical in the subject, a kind of form and choice in workmanship which is itself entirely satisfying, and is (as the greeks would say) an end in itself. and so in poetry too, the real poetical quality, the joy of poetry, comes never from the subject but from an inventive handling of rhythmical language, from what keats called the 'sensuous life of verse.' the element of song in the singing accompanied by the profound joy of motion, is so sweet that, while the incomplete lives of ordinary men bring no healing power with them, the thorn-crown of the poet will blossom into roses for our pleasure; for our delight his despair will gild its own thorns, and his pain, like adonis, be beautiful in its agony; and when the poet's heart breaks it will break in music. and health in art--what is that? it has nothing to do with a sane criticism of life. there is more health in baudelaire than there is in [kingsley]. health is the artist's recognition of the limitations of the form in which he works. it is the honour and the homage which he gives to the material he uses--whether it be language with its glories, or marble or pigment with their glories--knowing that the true brotherhood of the arts consists not in their borrowing one another's method, but in their producing, each of them by its own individual means, each of them by keeping its objective limits, the same unique artistic delight. the delight is like that given to us by music--for music is the art in which form and matter are always one, the art whose subject cannot be separated from the method of its expression, the art which most completely realises the artistic ideal, and is the condition to which all the other arts are constantly aspiring. and criticism--what place is that to have in our culture? well, i think that the first duty of an art critic is to hold his tongue at all times, and upon all subjects: c'est une grande avantage de n'avoir rien fait, mais il ne faut pas en abuser. it is only through the mystery of creation that one can gain any knowledge of the quality of created things. you have listened to patience for a hundred nights and you have heard me only for one. it will make, no doubt, that satire more piquant by knowing something about the subject of it, but you must not judge of aestheticism by the satire of mr. gilbert. as little should you judge of the strength and splendour of sun or sea by the dust that dances in the beam, or the bubble that breaks on the wave, as take your critic for any sane test of art. for the artists, like the greek gods, are revealed only to one another, as emerson says somewhere; their real value and place time only can show. in this respect also omnipotence is with the ages. the true critic addresses not the artist ever but the public only. his work lies with them. art can never have any other claim but her own perfection: it is for the critic to create for art the social aim, too, by teaching the people the spirit in which they are to approach all artistic work, the love they are to give it, the lesson they are to draw from it. all these appeals to art to set herself more in harmony with modern progress and civilisation, and to make herself the mouthpiece for the voice of humanity, these appeals to art 'to have a mission,' are appeals which should be made to the public. the art which has fulfilled the conditions of beauty has fulfilled all conditions: it is for the critic to teach the people how to find in the calm of such art the highest expression of their own most stormy passions. 'i have no reverence,' said keats, 'for the public, nor for anything in existence but the eternal being, the memory of great men and the principle of beauty.' such then is the principle which i believe to be guiding and underlying our english renaissance, a renaissance many-sided and wonderful, productive of strong ambitions and lofty personalities, yet for all its splendid achievements in poetry and in the decorative arts and in painting, for all the increased comeliness and grace of dress, and the furniture of houses and the like, not complete. for there can be no great sculpture without a beautiful national life, and the commercial spirit of england has killed that; no great drama without a noble national life, and the commercial spirit of england has killed that too. it is not that the flawless serenity of marble cannot bear the burden of the modern intellectual spirit, or become instinct with the fire of romantic passion--the tomb of duke lorenzo and the chapel of the medici show us that--but it is that, as theophile gautier used to say, the visible world is dead, le monde visible a disparu. nor is it again that the novel has killed the play, as some critics would persuade us--the romantic movement of france shows us that. the work of balzac and of hugo grew up side by side together; nay, more, were complementary to each other, though neither of them saw it. while all other forms of poetry may flourish in an ignoble age, the splendid individualism of the lyrist, fed by its own passion, and lit by its own power, may pass as a pillar of fire as well across the desert as across places that are pleasant. it is none the less glorious though no man follow it--nay, by the greater sublimity of its loneliness it may be quickened into loftier utterance and intensified into clearer song. from the mean squalor of the sordid life that limits him, the dreamer or the idyllist may soar on poesy's viewless wings, may traverse with fawn-skin and spear the moonlit heights of cithaeron though faun and bassarid dance there no more. like keats he may wander through the old-world forests of latmos, or stand like morris on the galley's deck with the viking when king and galley have long since passed away. but the drama is the meeting-place of art and life; it deals, as mazzini said, not merely with man, but with social man, with man in his relation to god and to humanity. it is the product of a period of great national united energy; it is impossible without a noble public, and belongs to such ages as the age of elizabeth in london and of pericles at athens; it is part of such lofty moral and spiritual ardour as came to greek after the defeat of the persian fleet, and to englishman after the wreck of the armada of spain. shelley felt how incomplete our movement was in this respect, and has shown in one great tragedy by what terror and pity he would have purified our age; but in spite of the cenci the drama is one of the artistic forms through which the genius of the england of this century seeks in vain to find outlet and expression. he has had no worthy imitators. it is rather, perhaps, to you that we should turn to complete and perfect this great movement of ours, for there is something hellenic in your air and world, something that has a quicker breath of the joy and power of elizabeth's england about it than our ancient civilisation can give us. for you, at least, are young; 'no hungry generations tread you down,' and the past does not weary you with the intolerable burden of its memories nor mock you with the ruins of a beauty, the secret of whose creation you have lost. that very absence of tradition, which mr. ruskin thought would rob your rivers of their laughter and your flowers of their light, may be rather the source of your freedom and your strength. to speak in literature with the perfect rectitude and insouciance of the movements of animals, and the unimpeachableness of the sentiment of trees in the woods and grass by the roadside, has been defined by one of your poets as a flawless triumph of art. it is a triumph which you above all nations may be destined to achieve. for the voices that have their dwelling in sea and mountain are not the chosen music of liberty only; other messages are there in the wonder of wind-swept height and the majesty of silent deep--messages that, if you will but listen to them, may yield you the splendour of some new imagination, the marvel of some new beauty. 'i foresee,' said goethe, 'the dawn of a new literature which all people may claim as their own, for all have contributed to its foundation.' if, then, this is so, and if the materials for a civilisation as great as that of europe lie all around you, what profit, you will ask me, will all this study of our poets and painters be to you? i might answer that the intellect can be engaged without direct didactic object on an artistic and historical problem; that the demand of the intellect is merely to feel itself alive; that nothing which has ever interested men or women can cease to be a fit subject for culture. i might remind you of what all europe owes to the sorrow of a single florentine in exile at verona, or to the love of petrarch by that little well in southern france; nay, more, how even in this dull, materialistic age the simple expression of an old man's simple life, passed away from the clamour of great cities amid the lakes and misty hills of cumberland, has opened out for england treasures of new joy compared with which the treasures of her luxury are as barren as the sea which she has made her highway, and as bitter as the fire which she would make her slave. but i think it will bring you something besides this, something that is the knowledge of real strength in art: not that you should imitate the works of these men; but their artistic spirit, their artistic attitude, i think you should absorb that. for in nations, as in individuals, if the passion for creation be not accompanied by the critical, the aesthetic faculty also, it will be sure to waste its strength aimlessly, failing perhaps in the artistic spirit of choice, or in the mistaking of feeling for form, or in the following of false ideals. for the various spiritual forms of the imagination have a natural affinity with certain sensuous forms of art--and to discern the qualities of each art, to intensify as well its limitations as its powers of expression, is one of the aims that culture sets before us. it is not an increased moral sense, an increased moral supervision that your literature needs. indeed, one should never talk of a moral or an immoral poem--poems are either well written or badly written, that is all. and, indeed, any element of morals or implied reference to a standard of good or evil in art is often a sign of a certain incompleteness of vision, often a note of discord in the harmony of an imaginative creation; for all good work aims at a purely artistic effect. 'we must be careful,' said goethe, 'not to be always looking for culture merely in what is obviously moral. everything that is great promotes civilisation as soon as we are aware of it.' but, as in your cities so in your literature, it is a permanent canon and standard of taste, an increased sensibility to beauty (if i may say so) that is lacking. all noble work is not national merely, but universal. the political independence of a nation must not be confused with any intellectual isolation. the spiritual freedom, indeed, your own generous lives and liberal air will give you. from us you will learn the classical restraint of form. for all great art is delicate art, roughness having very little to do with strength, and harshness very little to do with power. 'the artist,' as mr. swinburne says, 'must be perfectly articulate.' this limitation is for the artist perfect freedom: it is at once the origin and the sign of his strength. so that all the supreme masters of style--dante, sophocles, shakespeare--are the supreme masters of spiritual and intellectual vision also. love art for its own sake, and then all things that you need will be added to you. this devotion to beauty and to the creation of beautiful things is the test of all great civilised nations. philosophy may teach us to bear with equanimity the misfortunes of our neighbours, and science resolve the moral sense into a secretion of sugar, but art is what makes the life of each citizen a sacrament and not a speculation, art is what makes the life of the whole race immortal. for beauty is the only thing that time cannot harm. philosophies fall away like sand, and creeds follow one another like the withered leaves of autumn; but what is beautiful is a joy for all seasons and a possession for all eternity. wars and the clash of armies and the meeting of men in battle by trampled field or leagured city, and the rising of nations there must always be. but i think that art, by creating a common intellectual atmosphere between all countries, might--if it could not overshadow the world with the silver wings of peace--at least make men such brothers that they would not go out to slay one another for the whim or folly of some king or minister, as they do in europe. fraternity would come no more with the hands of cain, nor liberty betray freedom with the kiss of anarchy; for national hatreds are always strongest where culture is lowest. 'how could i?' said goethe, when reproached for not writing like korner against the french. 'how could i, to whom barbarism and culture alone are of importance, hate a nation which is among the most cultivated of the earth, a nation to which i owe a great part of my own cultivation?' mighty empires, too, there must always be as long as personal ambition and the spirit of the age are one, but art at least is the only empire which a nation's enemies cannot take from her by conquest, but which is taken by submission only. the sovereignty of greece and rome is not yet passed away, though the gods of the one be dead and the eagles of the other tired. and we in our renaissance are seeking to create a sovereignty that will still be england's when her yellow leopards have grown weary of wars and the rose of her shield is crimsoned no more with the blood of battle; and you, too, absorbing into the generous heart of a great people this pervading artistic spirit, will create for yourselves such riches as you have never yet created, though your land be a network of railways and your cities the harbours for the galleys of the world. i know, indeed, that the divine natural prescience of beauty which is the inalienable inheritance of greek and italian is not our inheritance. for such an informing and presiding spirit of art to shield us from all harsh and alien influences, we of the northern races must turn rather to that strained self-consciousness of our age which, as it is the key-note of all our romantic art, must be the source of all or nearly all our culture. i mean that intellectual curiosity of the nineteenth century which is always looking for the secret of the life that still lingers round old and bygone forms of culture. it takes from each what is serviceable for the modern spirit--from athens its wonder without its worship, from venice its splendour without its sin. the same spirit is always analysing its own strength and its own weakness, counting what it owes to east and to west, to the olive-trees of colonus and to the palm- trees of lebanon, to gethsemane and to the garden of proserpine. and yet the truths of art cannot be taught: they are revealed only, revealed to natures which have made themselves receptive of all beautiful impressions by the study and worship of all beautiful things. and hence the enormous importance given to the decorative arts in our english renaissance; hence all that marvel of design that comes from the hand of edward burne-jones, all that weaving of tapestry and staining of glass, that beautiful working in clay and metal and wood which we owe to william morris, the greatest handicraftsman we have had in england since the fourteenth century. so, in years to come there will be nothing in any man's house which has not given delight to its maker and does not give delight to its user. the children, like the children of plato's perfect city, will grow up 'in a simple atmosphere of all fair things'--i quote from the passage in the republic--'a simple atmosphere of all fair things, where beauty, which is the spirit of art, will come on eye and ear like a fresh breath of wind that brings health from a clear upland, and insensibly and gradually draw the child's soul into harmony with all knowledge and all wisdom, so that he will love what is beautiful and good, and hate what is evil and ugly (for they always go together) long before he knows the reason why; and then when reason comes will kiss her on the cheek as a friend.' that is what plato thought decorative art could do for a nation, feeling that the secret not of philosophy merely but of all gracious existence might be externally hidden from any one whose youth had been passed in uncomely and vulgar surroundings, and that the beauty of form and colour even, as he says, in the meanest vessels of the house, will find its way into the inmost places of the soul and lead the boy naturally to look for that divine harmony of spiritual life of which art was to him the material symbol and warrant. prelude indeed to all knowledge and all wisdom will this love of beautiful things be for us; yet there are times when wisdom becomes a burden and knowledge is one with sorrow: for as every body has its shadow so every soul has its scepticism. in such dread moments of discord and despair where should we, of this torn and troubled age, turn our steps if not to that secure house of beauty where there is always a little forgetfulness, always a great joy; to that citta divina, as the old italian heresy called it, the divine city where one can stand, though only for a brief moment, apart from the division and terror of the world and the choice of the world too? this is that consolation des arts which is the keynote of gautier's poetry, the secret of modern life foreshadowed--as indeed what in our century is not?--by goethe. you remember what he said to the german people: 'only have the courage,' he said, 'to give yourselves up to your impressions, allow yourselves to be delighted, moved, elevated, nay instructed, inspired for something great.' the courage to give yourselves up to your impressions: yes, that is the secret of the artistic life--for while art has been defined as an escape from the tyranny of the senses, it is an escape rather from the tyranny of the soul. but only to those who worship her above all things does she ever reveal her true treasure: else will she be as powerless to aid you as the mutilated venus of the louvre was before the romantic but sceptical nature of heine. and indeed i think it would be impossible to overrate the gain that might follow if we had about us only what gave pleasure to the maker of it and gives pleasure to its user, that being the simplest of all rules about decoration. one thing, at least, i think it would do for us: there is no surer test of a great country than how near it stands to its own poets; but between the singers of our day and the workers to whom they would sing there seems to be an ever-widening and dividing chasm, a chasm which slander and mockery cannot traverse, but which is spanned by the luminous wings of love. and of such love i think that the abiding presence in our houses of noble imaginative work would be the surest seed and preparation. i do not mean merely as regards that direct literary expression of art by which, from the little red-and-black cruse of oil or wine, a greek boy could learn of the lionlike splendour of achilles, of the strength of hector and the beauty of paris and the wonder of helen, long before he stood and listened in crowded market-place or in theatre of marble; or by which an italian child of the fifteenth century could know of the chastity of lucrece and the death of camilla from carven doorway and from painted chest. for the good we get from art is not what we learn from it; it is what we become through it. its real influence will be in giving the mind that enthusiasm which is the secret of hellenism, accustoming it to demand from art all that art can do in rearranging the facts of common life for us--whether it be by giving the most spiritual interpretation of one's own moments of highest passion or the most sensuous expression of those thoughts that are the farthest removed from sense; in accustoming it to love the things of the imagination for their own sake, and to desire beauty and grace in all things. for he who does not love art in all things does not love it at all, and he who does not need art in all things does not need it at all. i will not dwell here on what i am sure has delighted you all in our great gothic cathedrals. i mean how the artist of that time, handicraftsman himself in stone or glass, found the best motives for his art, always ready for his hand and always beautiful, in the daily work of the artificers he saw around him--as in those lovely windows of chartres--where the dyer dips in the vat and the potter sits at the wheel, and the weaver stands at the loom: real manufacturers these, workers with the hand, and entirely delightful to look at, not like the smug and vapid shopman of our time, who knows nothing of the web or vase he sells, except that he is charging you double its value and thinking you a fool for buying it. nor can i but just note, in passing, the immense influence the decorative work of greece and italy had on its artists, the one teaching the sculptor that restraining influence of design which is the glory of the parthenon, the other keeping painting always true to its primary, pictorial condition of noble colour which is the secret of the school of venice; for i wish rather, in this lecture at least, to dwell on the effect that decorative art has on human life--on its social not its purely artistic effect. there are two kinds of men in the world, two great creeds, two different forms of natures: men to whom the end of life is action, and men to whom the end of life is thought. as regards the latter, who seek for experience itself and not for the fruits of experience, who must burn always with one of the passions of this fiery-coloured world, who find life interesting not for its secret but for its situations, for its pulsations and not for its purpose; the passion for beauty engendered by the decorative arts will be to them more satisfying than any political or religious enthusiasm, any enthusiasm for humanity, any ecstasy or sorrow for love. for art comes to one professing primarily to give nothing but the highest quality to one's moments, and for those moments' sake. so far for those to whom the end of life is thought. as regards the others, who hold that life is inseparable from labour, to them should this movement be specially dear: for, if our days are barren without industry, industry without art is barbarism. hewers of wood and drawers of water there must be always indeed among us. our modern machinery has not much lightened the labour of man after all: but at least let the pitcher that stands by the well be beautiful and surely the labour of the day will be lightened: let the wood be made receptive of some lovely form, some gracious design, and there will come no longer discontent but joy to the toiler. for what is decoration but the worker's expression of joy in his work? and not joy merely--that is a great thing yet not enough--but that opportunity of expressing his own individuality which, as it is the essence of all life, is the source of all art. 'i have tried,' i remember william morris saying to me once, 'i have tried to make each of my workers an artist, and when i say an artist i mean a man.' for the worker then, handicraftsman of whatever kind he is, art is no longer to be a purple robe woven by a slave and thrown over the whitened body of a leprous king to hide and to adorn the sin of his luxury, but rather the beautiful and noble expression of a life that has in it something beautiful and noble. and so you must seek out your workman and give him, as far as possible, the right surroundings, for remember that the real test and virtue of a workman is not his earnestness nor his industry even, but his power of design merely; and that 'design is not the offspring of idle fancy: it is the studied result of accumulative observation and delightful habit.' all the teaching in the world is of no avail if you do not surround your workman with happy influences and with beautiful things. it is impossible for him to have right ideas about colour unless he sees the lovely colours of nature unspoiled; impossible for him to supply beautiful incident and action unless he sees beautiful incident and action in the world about him. for to cultivate sympathy you must be among living things and thinking about them, and to cultivate admiration you must be among beautiful things and looking at them. 'the steel of toledo and the silk of genoa did but give strength to oppression and lustre to pride,' as mr. ruskin says; let it be for you to create an art that is made by the hands of the people for the joy of the people, to please the hearts of the people, too; an art that will be your expression of your delight in life. there is nothing 'in common life too mean, in common things too trivial to be ennobled by your touch'; nothing in life that art cannot sanctify. you have heard, i think, a few of you, of two flowers connected with the aesthetic movement in england, and said (i assure you, erroneously) to be the food of some aesthetic young men. well, let me tell you that the reason we love the lily and the sunflower, in spite of what mr. gilbert may tell you, is not for any vegetable fashion at all. it is because these two lovely flowers are in england the two most perfect models of design, the most naturally adapted for decorative art--the gaudy leonine beauty of the one and the precious loveliness of the other giving to the artist the most entire and perfect joy. and so with you: let there be no flower in your meadows that does not wreathe its tendrils around your pillows, no little leaf in your titan forests that does not lend its form to design, no curving spray of wild rose or brier that does not live for ever in carven arch or window or marble, no bird in your air that is not giving the iridescent wonder of its colour, the exquisite curves of its wings in flight, to make more precious the preciousness of simple adornment. for the voices that have their dwelling in sea and mountain are not the chosen music of liberty only. other messages are there in the wonder of wind-swept heights and the majesty of silent deep--messages that, if you will listen to them, will give you the wonder of all new imagination, the treasure of all new beauty. we spend our days, each one of us, in looking for the secret of life. well, the secret of life is in art. house decoration a lecture delivered in america during wilde's tour in . it was announced as a lecture on 'the practical application of the principles of the aesthetic theory to exterior and interior house decoration, with observations upon dress and personal ornaments.' the earliest date on which it is known to have been given is may , . in my last lecture i gave you something of the history of art in england. i sought to trace the influence of the french revolution upon its development. i said something of the song of keats and the school of the pre-raphaelites. but i do not want to shelter the movement, which i have called the english renaissance, under any palladium however noble, or any name however revered. the roots of it have, indeed, to be sought for in things that have long passed away, and not, as some suppose, in the fancy of a few young men--although i am not altogether sure that there is anything much better than the fancy of a few young men. when i appeared before you on a previous occasion, i had seen nothing of american art save the doric columns and corinthian chimney-pots visible on your broadway and fifth avenue. since then, i have been through your country to some fifty or sixty different cities, i think. i find that what your people need is not so much high imaginative art but that which hallows the vessels of everyday use. i suppose that the poet will sing and the artist will paint regardless whether the world praises or blames. he has his own world and is independent of his fellow-men. but the handicraftsman is dependent on your pleasure and opinion. he needs your encouragement and he must have beautiful surroundings. your people love art but do not sufficiently honour the handicraftsman. of course, those millionaires who can pillage europe for their pleasure need have no care to encourage such; but i speak for those whose desire for beautiful things is larger than their means. i find that one great trouble all over is that your workmen are not given to noble designs. you cannot be indifferent to this, because art is not something which you can take or leave. it is a necessity of human life. and what is the meaning of this beautiful decoration which we call art? in the first place, it means value to the workman and it means the pleasure which he must necessarily take in making a beautiful thing. the mark of all good art is not that the thing done is done exactly or finely, for machinery may do as much, but that it is worked out with the head and the workman's heart. i cannot impress the point too frequently that beautiful and rational designs are necessary in all work. i did not imagine, until i went into some of your simpler cities, that there was so much bad work done. i found, where i went, bad wall-papers horribly designed, and coloured carpets, and that old offender the horse-hair sofa, whose stolid look of indifference is always so depressing. i found meaningless chandeliers and machine-made furniture, generally of rosewood, which creaked dismally under the weight of the ubiquitous interviewer. i came across the small iron stove which they always persist in decorating with machine-made ornaments, and which is as great a bore as a wet day or any other particularly dreadful institution. when unusual extravagance was indulged in, it was garnished with two funeral urns. it must always be remembered that what is well and carefully made by an honest workman, after a rational design, increases in beauty and value as the years go on. the old furniture brought over by the pilgrims, two hundred years ago, which i saw in new england, is just as good and as beautiful today as it was when it first came here. now, what you must do is to bring artists and handicraftsmen together. handicraftsmen cannot live, certainly cannot thrive, without such companionship. separate these two and you rob art of all spiritual motive. having done this, you must place your workman in the midst of beautiful surroundings. the artist is not dependent on the visible and the tangible. he has his visions and his dreams to feed on. but the workman must see lovely forms as he goes to his work in the morning and returns at eventide. and, in connection with this, i want to assure you that noble and beautiful designs are never the result of idle fancy or purposeless day-dreaming. they come only as the accumulation of habits of long and delightful observation. and yet such things may not be taught. right ideas concerning them can certainly be obtained only by those who have been accustomed to rooms that are beautiful and colours that are satisfying. perhaps one of the most difficult things for us to do is to choose a notable and joyous dress for men. there would be more joy in life if we were to accustom ourselves to use all the beautiful colours we can in fashioning our own clothes. the dress of the future, i think, will use drapery to a great extent and will abound with joyous colour. at present we have lost all nobility of dress and, in doing so, have almost annihilated the modern sculptor. and, in looking around at the figures which adorn our parks, one could almost wish that we had completely killed the noble art. to see the frockcoat of the drawing-room done in bronze, or the double waistcoat perpetuated in marble, adds a new horror to death. but indeed, in looking through the history of costume, seeking an answer to the questions we have propounded, there is little that is either beautiful or appropriate. one of the earliest forms is the greek drapery which is so exquisite for young girls. and then, i think we may be pardoned a little enthusiasm over the dress of the time of charles i., so beautiful indeed, that in spite of its invention being with the cavaliers it was copied by the puritans. and the dress for the children of that time must not be passed over. it was a very golden age of the little ones. i do not think that they have ever looked so lovely as they do in the pictures of that time. the dress of the last century in england is also peculiarly gracious and graceful. there is nothing bizarre or strange about it, but it is full of harmony and beauty. in these days, when we have suffered so dreadfully from the incursions of the modern milliner, we hear ladies boast that they do not wear a dress more than once. in the old days, when the dresses were decorated with beautiful designs and worked with exquisite embroidery, ladies rather took a pride in bringing out the garment and wearing it many times and handing it down to their daughters--a process that would, i think, be quite appreciated by a modern husband when called upon to settle his wife's bills. and how shall men dress? men say that they do not particularly care how they dress, and that it is little matter. i am bound to reply that i do not think that you do. in all my journeys through the country, the only well-dressed men that i saw--and in saying this i earnestly deprecate the polished indignation of your fifth avenue dandies--were the western miners. their wide-brimmed hats, which shaded their faces from the sun and protected them from the rain, and the cloak, which is by far the most beautiful piece of drapery ever invented, may well be dwelt on with admiration. their high boots, too, were sensible and practical. they wore only what was comfortable, and therefore beautiful. as i looked at them i could not help thinking with regret of the time when these picturesque miners would have made their fortunes and would go east to assume again all the abominations of modern fashionable attire. indeed, so concerned was i that i made some of them promise that when they again appeared in the more crowded scenes of eastern civilisation they would still continue to wear their lovely costume. but i do not believe they will. now, what america wants today is a school of rational art. bad art is a great deal worse than no art at all. you must show your workmen specimens of good work so that they come to know what is simple and true and beautiful. to that end i would have you have a museum attached to these schools--not one of those dreadful modern institutions where there is a stuffed and very dusty giraffe, and a case or two of fossils, but a place where there are gathered examples of art decoration from various periods and countries. such a place is the south kensington museum in london whereon we build greater hopes for the future than on any other one thing. there i go every saturday night, when the museum is open later than usual, to see the handicraftsman, the wood-worker, the glass- blower and the worker in metals. and it is here that the man of refinement and culture comes face to face with the workman who ministers to his joy. he comes to know more of the nobility of the workman, and the workman, feeling the appreciation, comes to know more of the nobility of his work. you have too many white walls. more colour is wanted. you should have such men as whistler among you to teach you the beauty and joy of colour. take mr. whistler's 'symphony in white,' which you no doubt have imagined to be something quite bizarre. it is nothing of the sort. think of a cool grey sky flecked here and there with white clouds, a grey ocean and three wonderfully beautiful figures robed in white, leaning over the water and dropping white flowers from their fingers. here is no extensive intellectual scheme to trouble you, and no metaphysics of which we have had quite enough in art. but if the simple and unaided colour strike the right keynote, the whole conception is made clear. i regard mr. whistler's famous peacock room as the finest thing in colour and art decoration which the world has known since correggio painted that wonderful room in italy where the little children are dancing on the walls. mr. whistler finished another room just before i came away--a breakfast room in blue and yellow. the ceiling was a light blue, the cabinet-work and the furniture were of a yellow wood, the curtains at the windows were white and worked in yellow, and when the table was set for breakfast with dainty blue china nothing can be conceived at once so simple and so joyous. the fault which i have observed in most of your rooms is that there is apparent no definite scheme of colour. everything is not attuned to a key-note as it should be. the apartments are crowded with pretty things which have no relation to one another. again, your artists must decorate what is more simply useful. in your art schools i found no attempt to decorate such things as the vessels for water. i know of nothing uglier than the ordinary jug or pitcher. a museum could be filled with the different kinds of water vessels which are used in hot countries. yet we continue to submit to the depressing jug with the handle all on one side. i do not see the wisdom of decorating dinner-plates with sunsets and soup- plates with moonlight scenes. i do not think it adds anything to the pleasure of the canvas-back duck to take it out of such glories. besides, we do not want a soup-plate whose bottom seems to vanish in the distance. one feels neither safe nor comfortable under such conditions. in fact, i did not find in the art schools of the country that the difference was explained between decorative and imaginative art. the conditions of art should be simple. a great deal more depends upon the heart than upon the head. appreciation of art is not secured by any elaborate scheme of learning. art requires a good healthy atmosphere. the motives for art are still around about us as they were round about the ancients. and the subjects are also easily found by the earnest sculptor and the painter. nothing is more picturesque and graceful than a man at work. the artist who goes to the children's playground, watches them at their sport and sees the boy stop to tie his shoe, will find the same themes that engaged the attention of the ancient greeks, and such observation and the illustrations which follow will do much to correct that foolish impression that mental and physical beauty are always divorced. to you, more than perhaps to any other country, has nature been generous in furnishing material for art workers to work in. you have marble quarries where the stone is more beautiful in colour than any the greeks ever had for their beautiful work, and yet day after day i am confronted with the great building of some stupid man who has used the beautiful material as if it were not precious almost beyond speech. marble should not be used save by noble workmen. there is nothing which gave me a greater sense of barrenness in travelling through the country than the entire absence of wood carving on your houses. wood carving is the simplest of the decorative arts. in switzerland the little barefooted boy beautifies the porch of his father's house with examples of skill in this direction. why should not american boys do a great deal more and better than swiss boys? there is nothing to my mind more coarse in conception and more vulgar in execution than modern jewellery. this is something that can easily be corrected. something better should be made out of the beautiful gold which is stored up in your mountain hollows and strewn along your river beds. when i was at leadville and reflected that all the shining silver that i saw coming from the mines would be made into ugly dollars, it made me sad. it should be made into something more permanent. the golden gates at florence are as beautiful today as when michael angelo saw them. we should see more of the workman than we do. we should not be content to have the salesman stand between us--the salesman who knows nothing of what he is selling save that he is charging a great deal too much for it. and watching the workman will teach that most important lesson--the nobility of all rational workmanship. i said in my last lecture that art would create a new brotherhood among men by furnishing a universal language. i said that under its beneficent influences war might pass away. thinking this, what place can i ascribe to art in our education? if children grow up among all fair and lovely things, they will grow to love beauty and detest ugliness before they know the reason why. if you go into a house where everything is coarse, you find things chipped and broken and unsightly. nobody exercises any care. if everything is dainty and delicate, gentleness and refinement of manner are unconsciously acquired. when i was in san francisco i used to visit the chinese quarter frequently. there i used to watch a great hulking chinese workman at his task of digging, and used to see him every day drink his tea from a little cup as delicate in texture as the petal of a flower, whereas in all the grand hotels of the land, where thousands of dollars have been lavished on great gilt mirrors and gaudy columns, i have been given my coffee or my chocolate in cups an inch and a quarter thick. i think i have deserved something nicer. the art systems of the past have been devised by philosophers who looked upon human beings as obstructions. they have tried to educate boys' minds before they had any. how much better it would be in these early years to teach children to use their hands in the rational service of mankind. i would have a workshop attached to every school, and one hour a day given up to the teaching of simple decorative arts. it would be a golden hour to the children. and you would soon raise up a race of handicraftsmen who would transform the face of your country. i have seen only one such school in the united states, and this was in philadelphia and was founded by my friend mr. leyland. i stopped there yesterday and have brought some of the work here this afternoon to show you. here are two discs of beaten brass: the designs on them are beautiful, the workmanship is simple, and the entire result is satisfactory. the work was done by a little boy twelve years old. this is a wooden bowl decorated by a little girl of thirteen. the design is lovely and the colouring delicate and pretty. here you see a piece of beautiful wood carving accomplished by a little boy of nine. in such work as this, children learn sincerity in art. they learn to abhor the liar in art--the man who paints wood to look like iron, or iron to look like stone. it is a practical school of morals. no better way is there to learn to love nature than to understand art. it dignifies every flower of the field. and, the boy who sees the thing of beauty which a bird on the wing becomes when transferred to wood or canvas will probably not throw the customary stone. what we want is something spiritual added to life. nothing is so ignoble that art cannot sanctify it. art and the handicraftsman the fragments of which this lecture is composed are taken entirely from the original manuscripts which have but recently been discovered. it is not certain that they all belong to the same lecture, nor that all were written at the same period. some portions were written in philadelphia in . people often talk as if there was an opposition between what is beautiful and what is useful. there is no opposition to beauty except ugliness: all things are either beautiful or ugly, and utility will be always on the side of the beautiful thing, because beautiful decoration is always on the side of the beautiful thing, because beautiful decoration is always an expression of the use you put a thing to and the value placed on it. no workman will beautifully decorate bad work, nor can you possibly get good handicraftsmen or workmen without having beautiful designs. you should be quite sure of that. if you have poor and worthless designs in any craft or trade you will get poor and worthless workmen only, but the minute you have noble and beautiful designs, then you get men of power and intellect and feeling to work for you. by having good designs you have workmen who work not merely with their hands but with their hearts and heads too; otherwise you will get merely the fool or the loafer to work for you. that the beauty of life is a thing of no moment, i suppose few people would venture to assert. and yet most civilised people act as if it were of none, and in so doing are wronging both themselves and those that are to come after them. for that beauty which is meant by art is no mere accident of human life which people can take or leave, but a positive necessity of life if we are to live as nature meant us to, that is to say unless we are content to be less than men. do not think that the commercial spirit which is the basis of your life and cities here is opposed to art. who built the beautiful cities of the world but commercial men and commercial men only? genoa built by its traders, florence by its bankers, and venice, most lovely of all, by its noble and honest merchants. i do not wish you, remember, 'to build a new pisa,' nor to bring 'the life or the decorations of the thirteenth century back again.' 'the circumstances with which you must surround your workmen are those' of modern american life, 'because the designs you have now to ask for from your workmen are such as will make modern' american 'life beautiful.' the art we want is the art based on all the inventions of modern civilisation, and to suit all the needs of nineteenth century life. do you think, for instance, that we object to machinery? i tell you we reverence it; we reverence it when it does its proper work, when it relieves man from ignoble and soulless labour, not when it seeks to do that which is valuable only when wrought by the hands and hearts of men. let us have no machine-made ornament at all; it is all bad and worthless and ugly. and let us not mistake the means of civilisation for the end of civilisation; steam-engine, telephone and the like, are all wonderful, but remember that their value depends entirely on the noble uses we make of them, on the noble spirit in which we employ them, not on the things themselves. it is, no doubt, a great advantage to talk to a man at the antipodes through a telephone; its advantage depends entirely on the value of what the two men have to say to one another. if one merely shrieks slander through a tube and the other whispers folly into a wire, do not think that anybody is very much benefited by the invention. the train that whirls an ordinary englishman through italy at the rate of forty miles an hour and finally sends him home without any memory of that lovely country but that he was cheated by a courier at rome, or that he got a bad dinner at verona, does not do him or civilisation much good. but that swift legion of fiery-footed engines that bore to the burning ruins of chicago the loving help and generous treasure of the world was as noble and as beautiful as any golden troop of angels that ever fed the hungry and clothed the naked in the antique times. as beautiful, yes; all machinery may be beautiful when it is undecorated even. do not seek to decorate it. we cannot but think all good machinery is graceful, also, the line of strength and the line of beauty being one. give then, as i said, to your workmen of today the bright and noble surroundings that you can yourself create. stately and simple architecture for your cities, bright and simple dress for your men and women; those are the conditions of a real artistic movement. for the artist is not concerned primarily with any theory of life but with life itself, with the joy and loveliness that should come daily on eye and ear for a beautiful external world. but the simplicity must not be barrenness nor the bright colour gaudy. for all beautiful colours are graduated colours, the colours that seem about to pass into one another's realm--colour without tone being like music without harmony, mere discord. barren architecture, the vulgar and glaring advertisements that desecrate not merely your cities but every rock and river that i have seen yet in america--all this is not enough. a school of design we must have too in each city. it should be a stately and noble building, full of the best examples of the best art of the world. furthermore, do not put your designers in a barren whitewashed room and bid them work in that depressing and colourless atmosphere as i have seen many of the american schools of design, but give them beautiful surroundings. because you want to produce a permanent canon and standard of taste in your workman, he must have always by him and before him specimens of the best decorative art of the world, so that you can say to him: 'this is good work. greek or italian or japanese wrought it so many years ago, but it is eternally young because eternally beautiful.' work in this spirit and you will be sure to be right. do not copy it, but work with the same love, the same reverence, the same freedom of imagination. you must teach him colour and design, how all beautiful colours are graduated colours and glaring colours the essence of vulgarity. show him the quality of any beautiful work of nature like the rose, or any beautiful work of art like an eastern carpet--being merely the exquisite graduation of colour, one tone answering another like the answering chords of a symphony. teach him how the true designer is not he who makes the design and then colours it, but he who designs in colour, creates in colour, thinks in colour too. show him how the most gorgeous stained glass windows of europe are filled with white glass, and the most gorgeous eastern tapestry with toned colours--the primary colours in both places being set in the white glass, and the tone colours like brilliant jewels set in dusky gold. and then as regards design, show him how the real designer will take first any given limited space, little disk of silver, it may be, like a greek coin, or wide expanse of fretted ceiling or lordly wall as tintoret chose at venice (it does not matter which), and to this limited space--the first condition of decoration being the limitation of the size of the material used--he will give the effect of its being filled with beautiful decoration, filled with it as a golden cup will be filled with wine, so complete that you should not be able to take away anything from it or add anything to it. for from a good piece of design you can take away nothing, nor can you add anything to it, each little bit of design being as absolutely necessary and as vitally important to the whole effect as a note or chord of music is for a sonata of beethoven. but i said the effect of its being so filled, because this, again, is of the essence of good design. with a simple spray of leaves and a bird in flight a japanese artist will give you the impression that he has completely covered with lovely design the reed fan or lacquer cabinet at which he is working, merely because he knows the exact spot in which to place them. all good design depends on the texture of the utensil used and the use you wish to put it to. one of the first things i saw in an american school of design was a young lady painting a romantic moonlight landscape on a large round dish, and another young lady covering a set of dinner plates with a series of sunsets of the most remarkable colours. let your ladies paint moonlight landscapes and sunsets, but do not let them paint them on dinner plates or dishes. let them take canvas or paper for such work, but not clay or china. they are merely painting the wrong subjects on the wrong material, that is all. they have not been taught that every material and texture has certain qualities of its own. the design suitable for one is quite wrong for the other, just as the design which you should work on a flat table-cover ought to be quite different from the design you would work on a curtain, for the one will always be straight, the other broken into folds; and the use too one puts the object to should guide one in the choice of design. one does not want to eat one's terrapins off a romantic moonlight nor one's clams off a harrowing sunset. glory of sun and moon, let them be wrought for us by our landscape artist and be on the walls of the rooms we sit in to remind us of the undying beauty of the sunsets that fade and die, but do not let us eat our soup off them and send them down to the kitchen twice a day to be washed and scrubbed by the handmaid. all these things are simple enough, yet nearly always forgotten. your school of design here will teach your girls and your boys, your handicraftsmen of the future (for all your schools of art should be local schools, the schools of particular cities). we talk of the italian school of painting, but there is no italian school; there were the schools of each city. every town in italy, from venice itself, queen of the sea, to the little hill fortress of perugia, each had its own school of art, each different and all beautiful. so do not mind what art philadelphia or new york is having, but make by the hands of your own citizens beautiful art for the joy of your own citizens, for you have here the primary elements of a great artistic movement. for, believe me, the conditions of art are much simpler than people imagine. for the noblest art one requires a clear healthy atmosphere, not polluted as the air of our english cities is by the smoke and grime and horridness which comes from open furnace and from factory chimney. you must have strong, sane, healthy physique among your men and women. sickly or idle or melancholy people do not do much in art. and lastly, you require a sense of individualism about each man and woman, for this is the essence of art--a desire on the part of man to express himself in the noblest way possible. and this is the reason that the grandest art of the world always came from a republic, athens, venice, and florence--there were no kings there and so their art was as noble and simple as sincere. but if you want to know what kind of art the folly of kings will impose on a country look at the decorative art of france under the grand monarch, under louis the fourteenth; the gaudy gilt furniture writhing under a sense of its own horror and ugliness, with a nymph smirking at every angle and a dragon mouthing on every claw. unreal and monstrous art this, and fit only for such periwigged pomposities as the nobility of france at that time, but not at all fit for you or me. we do not want the rich to possess more beautiful things but the poor to create more beautiful things; for every man is poor who cannot create. nor shall the art which you and i need be merely a purple robe woven by a slave and thrown over the whitened body of some leprous king to adorn or to conceal the sin of his luxury, but rather shall it be the noble and beautiful expression of a people's noble and beautiful life. art shall be again the most glorious of all the chords through which the spirit of a great nation finds its noblest utterance. all around you, i said, lie the conditions for a great artistic movement for every great art. let us think of one of them; a sculptor, for instance. if a modern sculptor were to come and say, 'very well, but where can one find subjects for sculpture out of men who wear frock-coats and chimney- pot hats?' i would tell him to go to the docks of a great city and watch the men loading or unloading the stately ships, working at wheel or windlass, hauling at rope or gangway. i have never watched a man do anything useful who has not been graceful at some moment of his labour; it is only the loafer and the idle saunterer who is as useless and uninteresting to the artist as he is to himself. i would ask the sculptor to go with me to any of your schools or universities, to the running ground and gymnasium, to watch the young men start for a race, hurling quoit or club, kneeling to tie their shoes before leaping, stepping from the boat or bending to the oar, and to carve them; and when he was weary of cities i would ask him to come to your fields and meadows to watch the reaper with his sickle and the cattle driver with lifted lasso. for if a man cannot find the noblest motives for his art in such simple daily things as a woman drawing water from the well or a man leaning with his scythe, he will not find them anywhere at all. gods and goddesses the greek carved because he loved them; saint and king the goth because he believed in them. but you, you do not care much for greek gods and goddesses, and you are perfectly and entirely right; and you do not think much of kings either, and you are quite right. but what you do love are your own men and women, your own flowers and fields, your own hills and mountains, and these are what your art should represent to you. ours has been the first movement which has brought the handicraftsman and the artist together, for remember that by separating the one from the other you do ruin to both; you rob the one of all spiritual motive and all imaginative joy, you isolate the other from all real technical perfection. the two greatest schools of art in the world, the sculptor at athens and the school of painting at venice, had their origin entirely in a long succession of simple and earnest handicraftsmen. it was the greek potter who taught the sculptor that restraining influence of design which was the glory of the parthenon; it was the italian decorator of chests and household goods who kept venetian painting always true to its primary pictorial condition of noble colour. for we should remember that all the arts are fine arts and all the arts decorative arts. the greatest triumph of italian painting was the decoration of a pope's chapel in rome and the wall of a room in venice. michael angelo wrought the one, and tintoret, the dyer's son, the other. and the little 'dutch landscape, which you put over your sideboard today, and between the windows tomorrow, is' no less a glorious 'piece of work than the extents of field and forest with which benozzo has made green and beautiful the once melancholy arcade of the campo santo at pisa,' as ruskin says. do not imitate the works of a nation, greek or japanese, italian or english; but their artistic spirit of design and their artistic attitude today, their own world, you should absorb but imitate never, copy never. unless you can make as beautiful a design in painted china or embroidered screen or beaten brass out of your american turkey as the japanese does out of his grey silver-winged stork, you will never do anything. let the greek carve his lions and the goth his dragons: buffalo and wild deer are the animals for you. golden rod and aster and rose and all the flowers that cover your valleys in the spring and your hills in the autumn: let them be the flowers for your art. not merely has nature given you the noblest motives for a new school of decoration, but to you above all other countries has she given the utensils to work in. you have quarries of marble richer than pantelicus, more varied than paros, but do not build a great white square house of marble and think that it is beautiful, or that you are using marble nobly. if you build in marble you must either carve it into joyous decoration, like the lives of dancing children that adorn the marble castles of the loire, or fill it with beautiful sculpture, frieze and pediment, as the greeks did, or inlay it with other coloured marbles as they did in venice. otherwise you had better build in simple red brick as your puritan fathers, with no pretence and with some beauty. do not treat your marble as if it was ordinary stone and build a house of mere blocks of it. for it is indeed a precious stone, this marble of yours, and only workmen of nobility of invention and delicacy of hand should be allowed to touch it at all, carving it into noble statues or into beautiful decoration, or inlaying it with other coloured marbles: for the true colours of architecture are those of natural stone, and i would fain see them taken advantage of to the full. every variety is here, from pale yellow to purple passing through orange, red and brown, entirely at your command; nearly every kind of green and grey also is attainable, and with these and with pure white what harmony might you not achieve. of stained and variegated stone the quantity is unlimited, the kinds innumerable. were brighter colours required, let glass, and gold protected by glass, be used in mosaic, a kind of work as durable as the solid stone and incapable of losing its lustre by time. and let the painter's work be reserved for the shadowed loggia and inner chamber. this is the true and faithful way of building. where this cannot be, the device of external colouring may indeed be employed without dishonour--but it must be with the warning reflection that a time will come when such aids will pass away and when the building will be judged in its lifelessness, dying the death of the dolphin. better the less bright, more enduring fabric. the transparent alabasters of san miniato and the mosaics of saint mark's are more warmly filled and more brightly touched by every return of morning and evening rays, while the hues of the gothic cathedrals have died like the iris out of the cloud, and the temples, whose azure and purple once flamed above the grecian promontory, stand in their faded whiteness like snows which the sunset has left cold. * * * * * i do not know anything so perfectly commonplace in design as most modern jewellery. how easy for you to change that and to produce goldsmiths' work that would be a joy to all of us. the gold is ready for you in unexhausted treasure, stored up in the mountain hollow or strewn on the river sand, and was not given to you merely for barren speculation. there should be some better record of it left in your history than the merchant's panic and the ruined home. we do not remember often enough how constantly the history of a great nation will live in and by its art. only a few thin wreaths of beaten gold remain to tell us of the stately empire of etruria; and, while from the streets of florence the noble knight and haughty duke have long since passed away, the gates which the simple goldsmith gheberti made for their pleasure still guard their lovely house of baptism, worthy still of the praise of michael angelo who called them worthy to be the gates of paradise. have then your school of design, search out your workmen and, when you find one who has delicacy of hand and that wonder of invention necessary for goldsmiths' work, do not leave him to toil in obscurity and dishonour and have a great glaring shop and two great glaring shop-boys in it (not to take your orders: they never do that; but to force you to buy something you do not want at all). when you want a thing wrought in gold, goblet or shield for the feast, necklace or wreath for the women, tell him what you like most in decoration, flower or wreath, bird in flight or hound in the chase, image of the woman you love or the friend you honour. watch him as he beats out the gold into those thin plates delicate as the petals of a yellow rose, or draws it into the long wires like tangled sunbeams at dawn. whoever that workman be help him, cherish him, and you will have such lovely work from his hand as will be a joy to you for all time. this is the spirit of our movement in england, and this is the spirit in which we would wish you to work, making eternal by your art all that is noble in your men and women, stately in your lakes and mountains, beautiful in your own flowers and natural life. we want to see that you have nothing in your houses that has not been a joy to the man who made it, and is not a joy to those that use it. we want to see you create an art made by the hands of the people to please the hearts of the people too. do you like this spirit or not? do you think it simple and strong, noble in its aim, and beautiful in its result? i know you do. folly and slander have their own way for a little time, but for a little time only. you now know what we mean: you will be able to estimate what is said of us--its value and its motive. there should be a law that no ordinary newspaper should be allowed to write about art. the harm they do by their foolish and random writing it would be impossible to overestimate--not to the artist but to the public, blinding them to all, but harming the artist not at all. without them we would judge a man simply by his work; but at present the newspapers are trying hard to induce the public to judge a sculptor, for instance, never by his statues but by the way he treats his wife; a painter by the amount of his income and a poet by the colour of his necktie. i said there should be a law, but there is really no necessity for a new law: nothing could be easier than to bring the ordinary critic under the head of the criminal classes. but let us leave such an inartistic subject and return to beautiful and comely things, remembering that the art which would represent the spirit of modern newspapers would be exactly the art which you and i want to avoid--grotesque art, malice mocking you from every gateway, slander sneering at you from every corner. perhaps you may be surprised at my talking of labour and the workman. you have heard of me, i fear, through the medium of your somewhat imaginative newspapers as, if not a 'japanese young man,' at least a young man to whom the rush and clamour and reality of the modern world were distasteful, and whose greatest difficulty in life was the difficulty of living up to the level of his blue china--a paradox from which england has not yet recovered. well, let me tell you how it first came to me at all to create an artistic movement in england, a movement to show the rich what beautiful things they might enjoy and the poor what beautiful things they might create. one summer afternoon in oxford--'that sweet city with her dreaming spires,' lovely as venice in its splendour, noble in its learning as rome, down the long high street that winds from tower to tower, past silent cloister and stately gateway, till it reaches that long, grey seven-arched bridge which saint mary used to guard (used to, i say, because they are now pulling it down to build a tramway and a light cast- iron bridge in its place, desecrating the loveliest city in england)--well, we were coming down the street--a troop of young men, some of them like myself only nineteen, going to river or tennis-court or cricket-field--when ruskin going up to lecture in cap and gown met us. he seemed troubled and prayed us to go back with him to his lecture, which a few of us did, and there he spoke to us not on art this time but on life, saying that it seemed to him to be wrong that all the best physique and strength of the young men in england should be spent aimlessly on cricket- ground or river, without any result at all except that if one rowed well one got a pewter-pot, and if one made a good score, a cane-handled bat. he thought, he said, that we should be working at something that would do good to other people, at something by which we might show that in all labour there was something noble. well, we were a good deal moved, and said we would do anything he wished. so he went out round oxford and found two villages, upper and lower hinksey, and between them there lay a great swamp, so that the villagers could not pass from one to the other without many miles of a round. and when we came back in winter he asked us to help him to make a road across this morass for these village people to use. so out we went, day after day, and learned how to lay levels and to break stones, and to wheel barrows along a plank--a very difficult thing to do. and ruskin worked with us in the mist and rain and mud of an oxford winter, and our friends and our enemies came out and mocked us from the bank. we did not mind it much then, and we did not mind it afterwards at all, but worked away for two months at our road. and what became of the road? well, like a bad lecture it ended abruptly--in the middle of the swamp. ruskin going away to venice, when we came back for the next term there was no leader, and the 'diggers,' as they called us, fell asunder. and i felt that if there was enough spirit amongst the young men to go out to such work as road-making for the sake of a noble ideal of life, i could from them create an artistic movement that might change, as it has changed, the face of england. so i sought them out--leader they would call me--but there was no leader: we were all searchers only and we were bound to each other by noble friendship and by noble art. there was none of us idle: poets most of us, so ambitious were we: painters some of us, or workers in metal or modellers, determined that we would try and create for ourselves beautiful work: for the handicraftsman beautiful work, for those who love us poems and pictures, for those who love us not epigrams and paradoxes and scorn. well, we have done something in england and we will do something more. now, i do not want you, believe me, to ask your brilliant young men, your beautiful young girls, to go out and make a road on a swamp for any village in america, but i think you might each of you have some art to practise. * * * * * we must have, as emerson said, a mechanical craft for our culture, a basis for our higher accomplishments in the work of our hands--the uselessness of most people's hands seems to me one of the most unpractical things. 'no separation from labour can be without some loss of power or truth to the seer,' says emerson again. the heroism which would make on us the impression of epaminondas must be that of a domestic conqueror. the hero of the future is he who shall bravely and gracefully subdue this gorgon of fashion and of convention. when you have chosen your own part, abide by it, and do not weakly try and reconcile yourself with the world. the heroic cannot be the common nor the common the heroic. congratulate yourself if you have done something strange and extravagant and broken the monotony of a decorous age. and lastly, let us remember that art is the one thing which death cannot harm. the little house at concord may be desolate, but the wisdom of new england's plato is not silenced nor the brilliancy of that attic genius dimmed: the lips of longfellow are still musical for us though his dust be turning into the flowers which he loved: and as it is with the greater artists, poet and philosopher and songbird, so let it be with you. lecture to art students delivered to the art students of the royal academy at their club in golden square, westminster, on june , . the text is taken from the original manuscript. in the lecture which it is my privilege to deliver before you to-night i do not desire to give you any abstract definition of beauty at all. for, we who are working in art cannot accept any theory of beauty in exchange for beauty itself, and, so far from desiring to isolate it in a formula appealing to the intellect, we, on the contrary, seek to materialise it in a form that gives joy to the soul through the senses. we want to create it, not to define it. the definition should follow the work: the work should not adapt itself to the definition. nothing, indeed, is more dangerous to the young artist than any conception of ideal beauty: he is constantly led by it either into weak prettiness or lifeless abstraction: whereas to touch the ideal at all you must not strip it of vitality. you must find it in life and re-create it in art. while, then, on the one hand i do not desire to give you any philosophy of beauty--for, what i want to-night is to investigate how we can create art, not how we can talk of it--on the other hand, i do not wish to deal with anything like a history of english art. to begin with, such an expression as english art is a meaningless expression. one might just as well talk of english mathematics. art is the science of beauty, and mathematics the science of truth: there is no national school of either. indeed, a national school is a provincial school, merely. nor is there any such thing as a school of art even. there are merely artists, that is all. and as regards histories of art, they are quite valueless to you unless you are seeking the ostentatious oblivion of an art professorship. it is of no use to you to know the date of perugino or the birthplace of salvator rosa: all that you should learn about art is to know a good picture when you see it, and a bad picture when you see it. as regards the date of the artist, all good work looks perfectly modern: a piece of greek sculpture, a portrait of velasquez--they are always modern, always of our time. and as regards the nationality of the artist, art is not national but universal. as regards archaeology, then, avoid it altogether: archaeology is merely the science of making excuses for bad art; it is the rock on which many a young artist founders and shipwrecks; it is the abyss from which no artist, old or young, ever returns. or, if he does return, he is so covered with the dust of ages and the mildew of time, that he is quite unrecognisable as an artist, and has to conceal himself for the rest of his days under the cap of a professor, or as a mere illustrator of ancient history. how worthless archaeology is in art you can estimate by the fact of its being so popular. popularity is the crown of laurel which the world puts on bad art. whatever is popular is wrong. as i am not going to talk to you, then, about the philosophy of the beautiful, or the history of art, you will ask me what i am going to talk about. the subject of my lecture to-night is what makes an artist and what does the artist make; what are the relations of the artist to his surroundings, what is the education the artist should get, and what is the quality of a good work of art. now, as regards the relations of the artist to his surroundings, by which i mean the age and country in which he is born. all good art, as i said before, has nothing to do with any particular century; but this universality is the quality of the work of art; the conditions that produce that quality are different. and what, i think, you should do is to realise completely your age in order completely to abstract yourself from it; remembering that if you are an artist at all, you will be not the mouthpiece of a century, but the master of eternity; that all art rests on a principle, and that mere temporal considerations are no principle at all; and that those who advise you to make your art representative of the nineteenth century are advising you to produce an art which your children, when you have them, will think old-fashioned. but you will tell me this is an inartistic age, and we are an inartistic people, and the artist suffers much in this nineteenth century of ours. of course he does. i, of all men, am not going to deny that. but remember that there never has been an artistic age, or an artistic people, since the beginning of the world. the artist has always been, and will always be, an exquisite exception. there is no golden age of art; only artists who have produced what is more golden than gold. _what_, you will say to me, the greeks? were not they an artistic people? well, the greeks certainly not, but, perhaps, you mean the athenians, the citizens of one out of a thousand cities. do you think that they were an artistic people? take them even at the time of their highest artistic development, the latter part of the fifth century before christ, when they had the greatest poets and the greatest artists of the antique world, when the parthenon rose in loveliness at the bidding of a phidias, and the philosopher spake of wisdom in the shadow of the painted portico, and tragedy swept in the perfection of pageant and pathos across the marble of the stage. were they an artistic people then? not a bit of it. what is an artistic people but a people who love their artists and understand their art? the athenians could do neither. how did they treat phidias? to phidias we owe the great era, not merely in greek, but in all art--i mean of the introduction of the use of the living model. and what would you say if all the english bishops, backed by the english people, came down from exeter hall to the royal academy one day and took off sir frederick leighton in a prison van to newgate on the charge of having allowed you to make use of the living model in your designs for sacred pictures? would you not cry out against the barbarism and the puritanism of such an idea? would you not explain to them that the worst way to honour god is to dishonour man who is made in his image, and is the work of his hands; and, that if one wants to paint christ one must take the most christlike person one can find, and if one wants to paint the madonna, the purest girl one knows? would you not rush off and burn down newgate, if necessary, and say that such a thing was without parallel in history? without parallel? well, that is exactly what the athenians did. in the room of the parthenon marbles, in the british museum, you will see a marble shield on the wall. on it there are two figures; one of a man whose face is half hidden, the other of a man with the godlike lineaments of pericles. for having done this, for having introduced into a bas relief, taken from greek sacred history, the image of the great statesman who was ruling athens at the time, phidias was flung into prison and there, in the common gaol of athens, died, the supreme artist of the old world. and do you think that this was an exceptional case? the sign of a philistine age is the cry of immorality against art, and this cry was raised by the athenian people against every great poet and thinker of their day--aeschylus, euripides, socrates. it was the same with florence in the thirteenth century. good handicrafts are due to guilds not to the people. the moment the guilds lost their power and the people rushed in, beauty and honesty of work died. and so, never talk of an artistic people; there never has been such a thing. but, perhaps, you will tell me that the external beauty of the world has almost entirely passed away from us, that the artist dwells no longer in the midst of the lovely surroundings which, in ages past, were the natural inheritance of every one, and that art is very difficult in this unlovely town of ours, where, as you go to your work in the morning, or return from it at eventide, you have to pass through street after street of the most foolish and stupid architecture that the world has ever seen; architecture, where every lovely greek form is desecrated and defiled, and every lovely gothic form defiled and desecrated, reducing three-fourths of the london houses to being, merely, like square boxes of the vilest proportions, as gaunt as they are grimy, and as poor as they are pretentious--the hall door always of the wrong colour, and the windows of the wrong size, and where, even when wearied of the houses you turn to contemplate the street itself, you have nothing to look at but chimney-pot hats, men with sandwich boards, vermilion letterboxes, and do that even at the risk of being run over by an emerald-green omnibus. is not art difficult, you will say to me, in such surroundings as these? of course it is difficult, but then art was never easy; you yourselves would not wish it to be easy; and, besides, nothing is worth doing except what the world says is impossible. still, you do not care to be answered merely by a paradox. what are the relations of the artist to the external world, and what is the result of the loss of beautiful surroundings to you, is one of the most important questions of modern art; and there is no point on which mr. ruskin so insists as that the decadence of art has come from the decadence of beautiful things; and that when the artist can not feed his eye on beauty, beauty goes from his work. i remember in one of his lectures, after describing the sordid aspect of a great english city, he draws for us a picture of what were the artistic surroundings long ago. think, he says, in words of perfect and picturesque imagery, whose beauty i can but feebly echo, think of what was the scene which presented itself, in his afternoon walk, to a designer of the gothic school of pisa--nino pisano or any of his men { }: on each side of a bright river he saw rise a line of brighter palaces, arched and pillared, and inlaid with deep red porphyry, and with serpentine; along the quays before their gates were riding troops of knights, noble in face and form, dazzling in crest and shield; horse and man one labyrinth of quaint colour and gleaming light--the purple, and silver, and scarlet fringes flowing over the strong limbs and clashing mail, like sea-waves over rocks at sunset. opening on each side from the river were gardens, courts, and cloisters; long successions of white pillars among wreaths of vine; leaping of fountains through buds of pomegranate and orange: and still along the garden-paths, and under and through the crimson of the pomegranate shadows, moving slowly, groups of the fairest women that italy ever saw--fairest, because purest and thoughtfullest; trained in all high knowledge, as in all courteous art--in dance, in song, in sweet wit, in lofty learning, in loftier courage, in loftiest love--able alike to cheer, to enchant, or save, the souls of men. above all this scenery of perfect human life, rose dome and bell-tower, burning with white alabaster and gold: beyond dome and bell-tower the slopes of mighty hills, hoary with olive; far in the north, above a purple sea of peaks of solemn apennine, the clear, sharp-cloven carrara mountains sent up their steadfast flames of marble summit into amber sky; the great sea itself, scorching with expanse of light, stretching from their feet to the gorgonian isles; and over all these, ever present, near or far--seen through the leaves of vine, or imaged with all its march of clouds in the arno's stream, or set with its depth of blue close against the golden hair and burning cheek of lady and knight,--that untroubled and sacred sky, which was to all men, in those days of innocent faith, indeed the unquestioned abode of spirits, as the earth was of men; and which opened straight through its gates of cloud and veils of dew into the awfulness of the eternal world;--a heaven in which every cloud that passed was literally the chariot of an angel, and every ray of its evening and morning streamed from the throne of god. what think you of that for a school of design? and then look at the depressing, monotonous appearance of any modern city, the sombre dress of men and women, the meaningless and barren architecture, the colourless and dreadful surroundings. without a beautiful national life, not sculpture merely, but all the arts will die. well, as regards the religious feeling of the close of the passage, i do not think i need speak about that. religion springs from religious feeling, art from artistic feeling: you never get one from the other; unless you have the right root you will not get the right flower; and, if a man sees in a cloud the chariot of an angel, he will probably paint it very unlike a cloud. but, as regards the general idea of the early part of that lovely bit of prose, is it really true that beautiful surroundings are necessary for the artist? i think not; i am sure not. indeed, to me the most inartistic thing in this age of ours is not the indifference of the public to beautiful things, but the indifference of the artist to the things that are called ugly. for, to the real artist, nothing is beautiful or ugly in itself at all. with the facts of the object he has nothing to do, but with its appearance only, and appearance is a matter of light and shade, of masses, of position, and of value. appearance is, in fact, a matter of effect merely, and it is with the effects of nature that you have to deal, not with the real condition of the object. what you, as painters, have to paint is not things as they are but things as they seem to be, not things as they are but things as they are not. no object is so ugly that, under certain conditions of light and shade, or proximity to other things, it will not look beautiful; no object is so beautiful that, under certain conditions, it will not look ugly. i believe that in every twenty-four hours what is beautiful looks ugly, and what is ugly looks beautiful, once. and, the commonplace character of so much of our english painting seems to me due to the fact that so many of our young artists look merely at what we may call 'ready-made beauty,' whereas you exist as artists not to copy beauty but to create it in your art, to wait and watch for it in nature. what would you say of a dramatist who would take nobody but virtuous people as characters in his play? would you not say he was missing half of life? well, of the young artist who paints nothing but beautiful things, i say he misses one half of the world. do not wait for life to be picturesque, but try and see life under picturesque conditions. these conditions you can create for yourself in your studio, for they are merely conditions of light. in nature, you must wait for them, watch for them, choose them; and, if you wait and watch, come they will. in gower street at night you may see a letterbox that is picturesque; on the thames embankment you may see picturesque policemen. even venice is not always beautiful, nor france. to paint what you see is a good rule in art, but to see what is worth painting is better. see life under pictorial conditions. it is better to live in a city of changeable weather than in a city of lovely surroundings. now, having seen what makes the artist, and what the artist makes, who is the artist? there is a man living amongst us who unites in himself all the qualities of the noblest art, whose work is a joy for all time, who is, himself, a master of all time. that man is mr. whistler. but, you will say, modern dress, that is bad. if you cannot paint black cloth you could not have painted silken doublet. ugly dress is better for art--facts of vision, not of the object. what is a picture? primarily, a picture is a beautifully coloured surface, merely, with no more spiritual message or meaning for you than an exquisite fragment of venetian glass or a blue tile from the wall of damascus. it is, primarily, a purely decorative thing, a delight to look at. all archaeological pictures that make you say 'how curious!' all sentimental pictures that make you say 'how sad!' all historical pictures that make you say 'how interesting!' all pictures that do not immediately give you such artistic joy as to make you say 'how beautiful!' are bad pictures. * * * * * we never know what an artist is going to do. of course not. the artist is not a specialist. all such divisions as animal painters, landscape painters, painters of scotch cattle in an english mist, painters of english cattle in a scotch mist, racehorse painters, bull-terrier painters, all are shallow. if a man is an artist he can paint everything. the object of art is to stir the most divine and remote of the chords which make music in our soul; and colour is, indeed, of itself a mystical presence on things, and tone a kind of sentinel. am i pleading, then, for mere technique? no. as long as there are any signs of technique at all, the picture is unfinished. what is finish? a picture is finished when all traces of work, and of the means employed to bring about the result, have disappeared. in the case of handicraftsmen--the weaver, the potter, the smith--on their work are the traces of their hand. but it is not so with the painter; it is not so with the artist. art should have no sentiment about it but its beauty, no technique except what you cannot observe. one should be able to say of a picture not that it is 'well painted,' but that it is 'not painted.' what is the difference between absolutely decorative art and a painting? decorative art emphasises its material: imaginative art annihilates it. tapestry shows its threads as part of its beauty: a picture annihilates its canvas; it shows nothing of it. porcelain emphasises its glaze: water-colours reject the paper. a picture has no meaning but its beauty, no message but its joy. that is the first truth about art that you must never lose sight of. a picture is a purely decorative thing. bibliography by stuart mason note part i. includes all the authorised editions published in england, and the two french editions of salome published in paris. authorised editions of some of the works were issued in the united states of america simultaneously with the english publication. part ii. contains the only two 'privately printed' editions which are authorised. part iii. is a chronological list of all contributions (so far as at present known) to magazines, periodicals, etc., the date given being that of the first publication only. those marked with an asterisk (*) were published anonymously. many of the poems have been included in anthologies of modern verse, but no attempt has been made to give particulars of such reprints in this bibliography. i.--authorised english editions newdigate prize poem. ravenna. recited in the theatre, oxford, june , . by oscar wilde, magdalen college. oxford: thos. shrimpton and son, . poems. london: david bogue, (june ). second and third editions, . fourth and fifth editions [revised], . copies ( for sale) of the fifth edition, with a new title-page and cover designed by charles ricketts. london: elkin mathews and john lane, (may ). the happy prince and other tales. ('the happy prince,' 'the nightingale and the rose,' 'the selfish giant,' 'the devoted friend,' 'the remarkable rocket.') illustrated by walter crane and jacomb hood. london: david nutt, (may). also copies ( for sale) on large paper, with the plates in two states. second edition, january . third edition, february . fourth impression, september . fifth impression, february . intentions. ('the decay of lying,' 'pen, pencil, and poison,' 'the critic as artist,' 'the truth of masks.') london: james r. osgood, mcilvaine and co., (may). new edition, . edition for continental circulation only. the english library, no. . leipzig: heinemann and balestier, . frequently reprinted. the picture of dorian gray. london: ward, lock and co. [ (july ).] also copies on large paper. dated . [note.--july is the official date of publication, but presentation copies signed by the author and dated may are known.] new edition [ (october ).] london: ward, lock and bowden. reprinted. paris: charles carrington, , , (january). edition for continental circulation only. leipzig: bernhard tauchnitz, vol. . (july). lord arthur savile's crime and other stories. ('lord arthur savile's crime,' 'the sphinx without a secret,' 'the canterville ghost,' 'the model millionaire.') london: james r. osgood, mcilvaine and co., (july). a house of pomegranates. ('the young king,' 'the birthday of the infanta,' 'the fisherman and his soul,' 'the star child.') with designs and decorations by charles ricketts and c. h. shannon. london: james r. osgood, mcilvaine and co., (november). salome. drame en un acte. paris: librairie de l'art independant. londres: elkin mathews et john lane, (february ). copies ( for sale) and on large paper. new edition. with sixteen illustrations by aubrey beardsley. paris: edition a petit nombre imprimee pour les souscripteurs. . copies. [note.--several editions, containing only a portion of the text, have been issued for the performance of the opera by richard strauss. london: methuen and co.; berlin: adolph furstner. ] lady windermere's fan. a play about a good woman. london: elkin mathews and john lane, (november ). copies and on large paper. acting edition. london: samuel french. (text incomplete.) salome. a tragedy in one act. translated from the french [by lord alfred bruce douglas.] pictured by aubrey beardsley. london: elkin mathews and john lane, (february ). copies and on large paper. with the two suppressed plates and extra title-page. preface by robert ross. london: john lane, (september ). new edition (without illustrations). london: john lane, (june), . the sphinx. with decorations by charles ricketts. london: elkin mathews and john lane, (july). copies and on large paper. a woman of no importance. london: john lane, (october ). copies and on large paper. the soul of man. london: privately printed, . [reprinted from the fortnightly review (february ), by permission of the proprietors, and published by a. l. humphreys.] new edition. london: arthur l. humphreys, . reprinted in sebastian melmoth. london: arthur l. humphreys, , . the ballad of reading gaol. by c. . . london: leonard smithers, (february ). copies and on japanese vellum. second edition, march . third edition, . copies only, signed by the author. fourth, fifth and sixth editions, . seventh edition, . { a} [note.--the above are printed at the chiswick press on handmade paper. all reprints on ordinary paper are unauthorised.] the importance of being earnest. a trivial comedy for serious people. by the author of lady windermere's fan. london: leonard smithers and co., (february). copies. also copies on large paper, and on japanese vellum. acting edition. london: samuel french. (text incomplete.) an ideal husband. by the author of lady windermere's fan. london: leonard smithers and co., (july). copies. also copies on large paper, and on japanese vellum. de profundis. london: methuen and co., (february ). also copies on large paper, and on japanese vellum. second edition, march . third edition, march . fourth edition, april . fifth edition, september . sixth edition, march . seventh edition, january . eighth edition, april . ninth edition, july . tenth edition, october . eleventh edition, january . { b} the works of oscar wilde. london: methuen and co., (february ). in thirteen volumes. copies on handmade paper and on japanese vellum. the duchess of padua. a play. salome. a florentine tragedy. vera. lady windermere's fan. a play about a good woman. a woman of no importance. a play. an ideal husband. a play. the importance of being earnest. a trivial comedy for serious people. lord arthur savile's crime and other prose pieces. intentions and the soul of man. the poems. a house of pomegranates, the happy prince and other tales. de profundis. reviews. miscellanies. uniform with the above. paris: charles carrington, (april ). the picture of dorian gray. ii.--editions privately printed for the author vera; or, the nihilists. a drama in a prologue and four acts. [new york] . the duchess of padua: a tragedy of the xvi century written in paris in the xix century. privately printed as manuscript. [new york, (march ).] iii.--miscellaneous contributions to magazines, periodicals, etc. november. chorus of cloud maidens ([greek], - and - ). dublin university magazine, vol. lxxxvi. no. , page . january. from spring days to winter. (for music.) dublin university magazine, vol. lxxxvii. no. , page . march. graffiti d'italia. i. san miniato. (june .) dublin university magazine, vol. lxxxvii. no. , page . june. the dole of the king's daughter. dublin university magazine, vol. lxxxvii. no. , page . trinity term. [greek]. (the rose of love, and with a rose's thorns.) kottabos, vol. ii. no. , page . september. [greek]. dublin university magazine, vol. lxxxviii. no. , page . september. the true knowledge. irish monthly, vol. iv. no. , page . september. graffiti d'italia. (arona. lago maggiore.) month and catholic review, vol. xxviii. no. , page . michaelmas term. [greek]. kottabos, vol. ii. no. , page . february. lotus leaves. irish monthly, vol. v. no. , page . hilary term. a fragment from the agamemnon of aeschylos. kottabos, vol. ii. no. , page . hilary term. a night vision. kottabos, vol. ii. no. , page . june. salve saturnia tellus. irish monthly, vol. v. no. , page . june. urbs sacra aeterna. illustrated monitor, vol. iv. no. , page . july. the tomb of keats. irish monthly, vol. v. no. , page . july. sonnet written during holy week. illustrated monitor, vol. iv. no. , page . july. the grosvenor gallery. dublin university magazine, vol. xc. no. , page . michaelmas term. wasted days. (from a picture painted by miss v. t.) kottabos, vol. iii. no. , page . december. [greek]. irish monthly, vol. v. no. , page . april. magdalen walks. irish monthly, vol. vi. no. , page . hilary term. 'la belle marguerite.' ballade du moyen age. kottabos, vol. iii. no. , page . april. the conqueror of time. time, vol. i. no. , page . may . grosvenor gallery (first notice.) saunders' irish daily news, vol. cxc. no. , , page . june. easter day. waifs and strays, vol. i. no. , page . june . to sarah bernhardt. world, no. , page . july. the new helen. time, vol. i. no. , page . july . queen henrietta maria. (charles i,, act iii.) world, no. , page . michaelmas term. ave! maria. kottabos, vol. iii. no. , page . january . portia. world, no. , page . march. impression de voyage. waifs and strays, vol. i. no. , page . august . ave imperatrix! a poem on england. world, no. , page . november . libertatis sacra fames. world, no. , page . december. sen artysty; or, the artist's dream. translated from the polish of madame helena modjeska. routledge's christmas annual: the green room, page . january. the grave of keats. burlington, vol. i. no. , page . march . impression de matin. world, no. , page . february . impressions: i. le jardin. ii. la mer. our continent (philadelphia), vol. i. no. , page . november . mrs. langtry as hester grazebrook. new york world, page . l'envoi, an introduction to rose leaf and apple leaf, by rennell rodd, page . philadelphia: j. m. stoddart and co. [besides the ordinary edition a limited number of an edition de luxe was issued printed in brown ink on one side only of a thin transparent handmade parchment paper, the whole book being interleaved with green tissue.] november . telegram to whistler. world, no. , page . may . under the balcony. shaksperean show-book, page . (set to music by lawrence kellie as oh! beautiful star. serenade. london: robert cocks and co., .) october . mr. oscar wilde on woman's dress. pall mall gazette, vol. xl. no. , page . november . more radical ideas upon dress reform. (with two illustrations.) pall mall gazette, vol. xl. no. , page . february . mr. whistler's ten o'clock. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . february . tenderness in tite street. world, no. , page . february . the relation of dress to art. a note in black and white on mr. whistler's lecture. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . march . *dinners and dishes. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . march . *a modern epic. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . march . shakespeare on scenery. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . march . *a bevy of poets. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . april . *parnassus versus philology. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . april . the harlot's house. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . may. shakespeare and stage costume. nineteenth century, vol. xvii. no. , page . may . hamlet at the lyceum. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . may . *two new novels. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . may . henry the fourth at oxford. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . may . *modern greek poetry. pall mall gazette, vol. xli. no. , page . may . olivia at the lyceum. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . june. le jardin des tuileries. (with an illustration by l. troubridge.) in a good cause, page . london: wells gardner, darton and co. june . as you like it at coombe house. dramatic review, vol. i. no. , page . july. roses and rue. midsummer dreams, summer number of society. (no copy of this is known to exist.) november . *a handbook to marriage. pall mall gazette, vol. xlii. no. , page . january . *half-hours with the worst authors. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . january . sonnet. on the recent sale by auction of keats' love letters. dramatic review, vol. ii. no. , page . february . *one of mr. conway's remainders. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . february . to read or not to read. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . february . twelfth night at oxford. dramatic review, vol. iii. no. , page . march . *the letters of a great woman. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . april . *news from parnassus. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . april . *some novels. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . april . *a literary pilgrim. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . april . *beranger in england. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . may . *the poetry of the people. pall mall gazette, vol. xliii. no. , page . may . the cenci. dramatic review, vol. iii. no. , page . may . helena in troas. dramatic review, vol. iii. no. , page . july. keats' sonnet on blue. (with facsimile of original manuscript.) century guild hobby horse, vol. i. no. , page . august . *pleasing and prattling. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . september . *balzac in english. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . september . *two new novels. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . september . *ben jonson. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . september . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . october . *a ride through morocco. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . october . *the children of the poets. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . october . *new novels. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . november . *a politician's poetry. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . november . *mr. symonds' history of the renaissance. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . november . *a 'jolly' art critic. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . november . note on whistler. world, no. , page . december . *a 'sentimental journey' through literature. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . december . *two biographies of sir philip sidney. pall mall gazette, vol. xliv. no. , page . january . *common sense in art. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . february . *miner and minor poets. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . february . *a new calendar. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . february . the canterville ghost--i. illustrated by f. h. townsend. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . march . the canterville ghost--ii. illustrated by f. h. townsend. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . march . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . march . *the american invasion. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . march . *great writers by little men. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . march . *a new book on dickens. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . april . *our book shelf. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . april . *a cheap edition of a great man. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . april . *mr. morris's odyssey. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . may . *a batch of novels. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . may . *some novels. saturday review, vol. lxiii. no. , page . may . lord arthur savile's crime. a story of cheiromancy.--i. ii. illustrated by f. h. townsend. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . may . lord arthur savile's crime. a story of cheiromancy.--iii. iv. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . may . lord arthur savile's crime. a story of cheiromancy.--v. vi. illustrated by f. h. townsend. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . may . lady alroy. world, no. , page . may . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . june . *mr. pater's imaginary portraits. pall mall gazette, vol. xlv. no. , page . june . the model millionaire. world, no. , page . august . *a good historical novel. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . august . *new novels. saturday review, vol. lxiv. no. , page . september . *two biographies of keats. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . october . *sermons in stones at bloomsbury. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . october . *a scotchman on scottish poetry. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . november. literary and other notes. woman's world, vol. i. no. , page . november . *mr. mahaffy's new book. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . november . *mr. morris's completion of the odyssey. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . november . *sir charles bowen's virgil. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . december. literary and other notes. woman's world, vol. i. no. , page . december . *the unity of the arts. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . december . un amant de nos jours. court and society review, vol. iv. no. , page . december . *aristotle at afternoon tea. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . december . *early christian art in ireland. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvi. no. , page . december . *art at willis's rooms. sunday times, no. , page . december . fantaisies decoratives. i. le panneau. ii. les ballons. illustrated by bernard partridge. lady's pictorial christmas number, pages , . january. literary and other notes. woman's world, vol. i. no. , page . january . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvii. no. , page . february. literary and other notes. woman's world, vol. i. no. , page . february . the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvii. no. , page . february . *venus or victory. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvii. no. , page . march. literary and other notes. woman's world, vol. i. no. , page . april. canzonet. art and letters, vol. ii. no. , page . april . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvii. no. , page . april . *m. caro on george sand. pall mall gazette, vol. xlvii. no. , page . october . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november. a fascinating book. a note by the editor. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . november . *mr. morris on tapestry. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november . *sculpture at the 'arts and crafts.' pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november . *printing and printers. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november . *the beauties of bookbinding. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . november . *the close of the 'arts and crafts.' pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . december. a note on some modern poets. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . december . english poetesses. queen, vol. lxxxiv. no. , page . december . *sir edwin arnold's last volume. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . december . *australian poets. pall mall gazette, vol. xlviii. no. , page . december. the young king. illustrated by bernard partridge. lady's pictorial christmas number, page . january. the decay of lying: a dialogue. nineteenth century, vol. xxv. no. , page . january. pen, pencil, and poison: a study. fortnightly review, vol. xlv. no. , page . january. london models. illustrated by harper pennington. english illustrated magazine, vol. vi. no. , page . january. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . january . *poetry and prison. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . january . *the gospel according to walt whitman. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . january . *the new president. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . february. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . february. symphony in yellow. centennial magazine (sydney), vol. ii. no. , page . february . *one of the bibles of the world. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . february . *poetical socialists. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . february . *mr. brander matthews' essays. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . march. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. iii. no. , page . march . *mr. william morris's last book. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . march . *adam lindsay gordon. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . march . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . april. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . april . mr. froude's blue-book. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . may. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . may . *ouida's new novel. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . june. some literary notes. woman's world, vol. ii. no. , page . june . *a thought-reader's novel. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . june . *the poets' corner. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . june . *mr. swinburne's last volume. pall mall gazette, vol. xlix. no. , page . july. the portrait of mr. w. h. blackwood's edinburgh magazine, vol. cxlvi. no. , page . july . *three new poets. pall mall gazette, vol. i. no. , page . december. in the forest. illustrated by bernard partridge. lady's pictorial christmas number, page . (set to music by edwin tilden and published by miles and thompson, boston, u.s.a., .) january . reply to mr. whistler. truth, vol. xxvii. no. , page . february . a chinese sage. speaker, vol. i. no. , page . march . mr. pater's last volume. speaker, vol. i. no. , page . may . *primavera. pall mall gazette, vol. li. no. , page . june . the picture of dorian gray. lippincott's monthly magazine (july), vol. xlvi. no. , page . (containing thirteen chapters only.) june . mr. wilde's bad case. st. james's gazette, vol. xx. no. , page . june . mr. oscar wilde again. st. james's gazette, vol. xx. no. , page . june . mr. oscar wilde's defence. st. james's gazette, vol. xx. no. , page . june . mr. oscar wilde's defence. st. james's gazette, vol. xx. no. , page . july. the true function and value of criticism; with some remarks on the importance of doing nothing: a dialogue. nineteenth century, vol. xxviii. no. , page . july . 'dorian gray.' daily chronicle and clerkenwell news, no. , page . july . mr. wilde's rejoinder. scots observer, vol. iv. no. , page . august . art and morality. scots observer, vol. iv. no. , page . august . art and morality. scots observer, vol. iv. no. , page . september. the true function and value of criticism; with some remarks on the importance of doing nothing: a dialogue (concluded). nineteenth century, vol. xxviii. no. , page . february. the soul of man under socialism. fortnightly review, vol. xlix. no. , page . march. a preface to 'dorian gray.' fortnightly review, vol. xlix. no. , page . september . an anglo-indian's complaint. times, no. , , page . december . 'a house of pomegranates.' speaker, vol. iv. no. , page . december . mr. oscar wilde's 'house of pomegranates.' pall mall gazette, vol. liii. no. , page . february . puppets and actors. daily telegraph, no. , , page . february . mr. oscar wilde explains. st. james's gazette, vol. xxiv. no. , page . december . the new remorse. spirit lamp, vol. ii. no. , page . february . the house of judgment. spirit lamp, vol. iii. no. , page . march . mr. oscar wilde on 'salome.' times, no. , , page . june . the disciple. spirit lamp, vol. iv. no. , page . to my wife: with a copy of my poems; and with a copy of 'the house of pomegranates.' book-song, an anthology of poems of books and bookmen from modern authors. edited by gleeson white, pages , . london: elliot stock. [this was the first publication of these two poems. anthologies containing reprints are not included in this list.] january . letter to the president of the thirteen club. times, no. , , page . july. poems in prose. ('the artist,' 'the doer of good,' 'the disciple,' 'the master,' 'the house of judgment.') fortnightly review, vol. liv. no. , page . september . the ethics of journalism. pall mall gazette, vol. lix. no. , page . september . the ethics of journalism. pall mall gazette, vol. lix. no. , page . october . 'the green carnation.' pall mall gazette, vol. lix. no. , page . december. phrases and philosophies for the use of the young. chameleon, vol. i. no. , page . april . letter on the queensberry case. evening news, no. , page . may . the case of warder martin. some cruelties of prison life. daily chronicle, no. , , page . march . letter on prison reform. daily chronicle, no. , , page . footnotes. { a} see lord arthur savile's crime and other prose pieces in this edition, page . { } reverently some well-meaning persons have placed a marble slab on the wall of the cemetery with a medallion-profile of keats on it and some mediocre lines of poetry. the face is ugly, and rather hatchet-shaped, with thick sensual lips, and is utterly unlike the poet himself, who was very beautiful to look upon. 'his countenance,' says a lady who saw him at one of hazlitt's lectures, 'lives in my mind as one of singular beauty and brightness; it had the expression as if he had been looking on some glorious sight.' and this is the idea which severn's picture of him gives. even haydon's rough pen-and-ink sketch of him is better than this 'marble libel,' which i hope will soon be taken down. i think the best representation of the poet would be a coloured bust, like that of the young rajah of koolapoor at florence, which is a lovely and lifelike work of art. { } it is perhaps not generally known that there is another and older peacock ceiling in the world besides the one mr. whistler has done at kensington. i was surprised lately at ravenna to come across a mosaic ceiling done in the keynote of a peacock's tail--blue, green, purple, and gold--and with four peacocks in the four spandrils. mr. whistler was unaware of the existence of this ceiling at the time he did his own. { } an unequal match, by tom taylor, at wallack's theatre, new york, november , . { } 'make' is of course a mere printer's error for 'mock,' and was subsequently corrected by lord houghton. the sonnet as given in the garden of florence reads 'orbs' for 'those.' { } september . see intentions, page . { } november , . { } february , . { } february , . { } the verses called 'the shamrock' were printed in the sunday sun, august , , and the charge of plagiarism was made in the issue dated september , . { } cousin errs a good deal in this respect. to say, as he did, 'give me the latitude and the longitude of a country, its rivers and its mountains, and i will deduce the race,' is surely a glaring exaggeration. { } the monarchical, aristocratical, and democratic elements of the roman constitution are referred to. { a} polybius, vi. . [greek]. { b} [greek]. { c} the various stages are [greek]. { a} polybius, xii. . { b} polybius, i. , viii. , specially; and really passim. { a} he makes one exception. { b} polybius, viii. . { } polybius, xvi. . { a} polybius, viii. : [greek]. { b} polybius resembled gibbon in many respects. like him he held that all religions were to the philosopher equally false, to the vulgar equally true, to the statesman equally useful. { } cf. polybius, xii. , [greek]. { } polybius, xxii. . { } i mean particularly as regards his sweeping denunciation of the complete moral decadence of greek society during the peloponnesian war which, from what remains to us of athenian literature, we know must have been completely exaggerated. or, rather, he is looking at men merely in their political dealings: and in politics the man who is personally honourable and refined will not scruple to do anything for his party. { } polybius, xii. . { } as an instance of the inaccuracy of published reports of this lecture, it may be mentioned that all previous versions give this passage as the artist may trace the depressed revolution of bunthorne simply to the lack of technical means! { } the two paths, lect. iii. p. ( ed.). { a} edition for continental circulation only. leipzig: bernhard tauchnitz, vol. . (august). { b} edition for continental circulation only. leipzig: bernhard tauchnitz, vol. . (august). transcriber's note a number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of this book. they have been marked with a [tn-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the end of the text. a record of study in aboriginal american languages by daniel g. brinton, a.m., m.d., ll.d., sc.d., _professor of american archæology and linguistics in the university of pennsylvania_ printed for private distribution media, pa., press of the new era printing company, lancaster, pa. prefatory. if this review of my own work in the field of american linguistics requires an apology, i may say that the preparation of it was suggested to me by my late friend, mr. james constantine pilling, whose admirable volumes on the bibliography of american aboriginal languages are familiar to all students. he had experienced the difficulty of cataloguing the articles of writers whose contributions extend over many years, and have been published in different journals, proceedings of societies and volumes, and was impressed with the advantage of an analytical list composed by the author himself. with this in view, i have arranged the present survey of my writings in this branch of science, extending over a period of two score years. they are grouped geographically, and sufficient reference to their contents subjoined to indicate their aims and conclusions. d. g. brinton. media, penna., november, . i. general articles and works. . the philosophic grammar of american languages as set forth by wilhelm von humboldt; with the translation of an unpublished memoir by him on the american verb. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on polysynthesis and incorporation as characteristics of american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . characteristics of american languages. _american antiquarian_, january, . . on certain morphologic traits in american languages. _american antiquarian_, october, . . on various supposed relations between the american and asiatic races. _memoirs_ of the international congress of anthropology, . . the present status of american linguistics. _memoirs_ of the international congress of anthropology, . . american languages and why we should study them. an address delivered before the pennsylvania historical society. pp. . in _pennsylvania magazine of history and biography_, . . the rate of change in american languages. in _science_, vol. x., . . traits of primitive speech, illustrated from american languages. in _proceedings_ of the american association for the advancement of science, august, . . the language of palæolithic man. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the american race: a linguistic classification and ethnographic description of the native tribes of north and south america. pp. . new york, . . the standard dictionary (indian words in). new york, . . aboriginal american authors and their productions, especially those in the native languages. pp. . philadelphia, . . american aboriginal poetry. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, . . the conception of love in some american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . the earlier numbers, ( - ,) in the above list are occupied with the inquiry whether the native american languages, as a group, have peculiar morphological traits, which justify their classification as one of the great divisions of human speech. in this question, i have been a disciple of wilhelm von humboldt and professor h. steinthal, and have argued that the phenomenon of incorporation, in some of its forms, is markedly present in the vast majority, if not in all, american tongues. that which has been called "polysynthesis" is one of these forms. this is nothing more than a familiar, nigh universal, grammatic process carried to an extreme degree. it is the _dvanda_ of the sanscrit grammarians, an excellent study of which has recently appeared from the pen of dr. h. c. müller.[ - ] in its higher forms incorporation subordinates the nominal concepts of the phrase to those of time and relation, which are essentially verbal, and this often where the true verbal concept, that of abstract action, is lacking, and the verb itself is in reality a noun in the possessive relation.[ - ][tn- ] even extremely simple american languages, such as the zoque, display the tendency to energetic synthesis;[ - ] while many of them carry the incorporative quality to such a degree that the sentence becomes one word, a good example of which is the micmac.[ - ] some american and french writers have misunderstood the nature of this trait, and have denied it; but the student who acquaints himself thoroughly with the authors above mentioned, will not be misled.[ - ] the ms. of the memoir by w. von humboldt i obtained from the berlin library. even professor steinthal, in his edition of humboldt's linguistic works, had overlooked it. it is a highly philosophic analysis of the verb, as it occurs in the languages of the following tribes: abipones, achaguas, betoyas, caribs, huastecas, lules, maipures, mayas, mbayas, mexicans (nahuas), mixtecas, mocovis, omaguas, otomis, tamanacas, totonacos, tupis, yaruros. in ( ) i have examined the various alleged affiliations between american and asiatic tongues, and showed they are wholly unfounded. in ( ) i have entered a plea for more attention to american languages. not only for ethnographic purposes are they useful, but their primitive aspects and methods of presenting ideas enable us to solve psychological and grammatic problems more completely than other tongues. in support of this, in ( ) and ( ), i endeavor to outline what must have been the morphology of the language which man spoke when in the very beginning of his existence as man; a speech of marvelous simplicity, but adapted to his wants. the volume, of nearly four hundred pages, entitled _the american race_ (no. ) was the first attempt at a systematic classification of all the tribes of america, north, central and south, on the basis of language. it defines seventy-nine linguistic stocks in north america and sixty-one in south america. the number of tribes named and referred to these stocks is nearly sixteen hundred. several of these stocks are defined for the first time, such as the tequistlatecan of mexico, the matagalpan of central america, and in south america the timote, the paniquita, the cocanuca, the mocoa, the betoya, the lamuca, etc. in the article ( ) i show that, contrary to an oft expressed opinion, the rate of change in these unwritten tongues is remarkably slow, not greater than in cultivated languages. when the publishers of the _standard dictionary_ (new york, ) were preparing that well-known work, they placed in my hands all the words in the english language derived from the native tongues of america. although the etymology of some of them remains obscure, i believe the derivation of all positively traced will be found presented. i early became convinced that the translations of books of devotion, etc., into the native tongues gave no correct impression of those tongues. the ideas conveyed were foreign to the primitive mind, and the translations were generally by foreigners who had not completely mastered the idioms. hence, the only true reflex of a language is in the words and thoughts of the natives themselves, in their indigenous literature. this led me to project the publication of a series of volumes containing writings, preferably on secular subjects, by natives in their own languages. that there is such a literature i undertook to show in ( ) and ( ). the former was the expansion of a paper presented to the international congress of americanists at copenhagen. it contains a list of native american authors and notices of a number of their works composed in their own tongues. that on "aboriginal poetry" vindicates for native american bards a respectable position among lyric and dramatic composers. that some of the central subjects of poetic literature--the emotions of love and friendship--exist, and often in no low form of sentiment, among these natives, i have undertaken to show by an analysis of a number of terms expressing these feelings in five leading american linguistic stocks, the algonkin, nahuatl, maya, quechua and tupi (no. ). following out this plan, i began in the publication of "the library of aboriginal american literature." each volume was to contain a work composed in a native tongue by a native; but those based upon foreign inspiration, such as sermons, etc., were to be excluded. each was to be translated and edited with sufficient completeness to make it available for the general student. of this "library" eight volumes were issued, the first in , the eighth in , when i ceased the publication, not from lack of material, but because i had retired in from my connection with the publishing business and became more engaged in general anthropological pursuits. the "library," as issued, contains the following numbers: no. i. the chronicles of the mayas. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . this volume contains five brief chronicles in the maya language, written shortly after the conquest, and carrying the history of that people back many centuries. to these is added a history of the conquest, written in his native tongue, by a maya chief, in . this interesting account has been published separately, with an excellent grammatical and lexical analysis by the count de charencey, under the title _chrestomathie maya, d'après la chronique de chac-xulub-chen_ (paris, ). the texts are preceded by an introduction on the history of the mayas, their language, calendar, numerical system, etc.; and a vocabulary is added at the close. no. ii. the iroquois book of rites. edited by horatio hale. pages. . this work contains, in the mohawk and onondaga languages, the speeches, songs and rituals with which a deceased chief was lamented and his successor installed in office. the introduction treats of the ethnology and history of the huron-iroquois. a map, notes and glossary complete the work. no. iii. the comedy-ballet of güegüence. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . a curious and unique specimen of the native comic dances, with dialogues, called _bailes_, formerly common in central america. it is in the mixed nahuatl-spanish jargon of nicaragua, and shows distinctive features of native authorship. the introduction treats of the ethnology of nicaragua, and the local dialects, musical instruments and dramatic representations. a map and a number of illustrations are added. no. iv. a migration legend of the creek indians. edited by a. s. gatschet. pages. . offers a survey of the ethnology of the native tribes of the gulf states. the legend told to governor oglethorpe, in , by the creeks, is given in the original. no. v. the lenâpé and their legends. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . contains the complete text and symbols, in number, of the "walum olum," or "red score," of the delaware indians, with the full original text, and a new translation, notes and vocabulary. a lengthy introduction treats of the lenâpé or delawares, their history, customs, myths, language, etc., with numerous references to other tribes of the great algonkin stock. no. vi. the annals of the cakchiquels. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . the original text, written about , by a member of the reigning family, with a translation, introduction, notes and vocabulary. this may be considered one of the most important historical documents relating to the pre-columbian period. no. vii. ancient nahuatl poetry. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . in this volume twenty-seven songs in the original nahuatl are presented, with translation, notes, vocabulary, etc. many of them date from before the conquest and none later than the sixteenth century. the introduction describes the ancient poetry of the nahuas in all its bearings. no. viii. rig veda americanus. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . presents the original text with a gloss in nahuatl of twenty sacred chants of the ancient mexicans. they are preserved in the madrid mss. of father sahagun, and date anterior to the conquest. a paraphrase, notes and a vocabulary are added, and a number of curious illustrations are reproduced from the original. the edition of each of these was about copies, except no. ii., of which were printed. a complete set is now difficult to obtain. ii. north american languages north of mexico. . lenâpé-english dictionary. from an anonymous ms. in the archives of the moravian church at bethlehem, pa., with additions, by daniel g. brinton and rev. albert seqaqkind anthony, to, pp. . philadelphia, . published by the historical society of pennsylvania. . the lenâpé and their legends; with the complete text and symbols of the walum olum, a new translation and an inquiry into its authenticity. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . lenâpé conversations. in _american journal of folk-lore_, vol. i. . the shawnees and their migrations. in _american historical magazine_, january, . . the chief god of the algonkins, in his character as a cheat and liar. in the _american antiquarian_, may, . . on certain supposed nanticoke words shown to be of african origin. _american antiquarian_, . . vocabulary of the nanticoke dialect. proceedings of the _american philosophical society_, november, . . the natchez of louisiana, an offshoot of the civilized nations of central america. in the _historical magazine_ (new york), for january, . . on the language of the natchez. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . grammar of the choctaw language. by the rev. cyrus byington. edited from the original ms. by d. g. brinton. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . contributions to a grammer[tn- ] of the muskokee language. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, march, . . the floridian peninsula, its literary history, indian tribes, and antiquities. vo, cloth, pp. . philadelphia, . . the taensa grammar and dictionary. a deception exposed. in _american antiquarian_, march, . . the taensa grammar and dictionary. a reply to m. lucien adam. in _american antiquarian_, september, . within the area of the united states, my articles have been confined practically to two groups, the algonkian dialects and those spoken in florida and the gulf states. the delaware indians or lenni lenâpé, who occupied the valley of the delaware river and the land east of it to the ocean, although long in peaceful association with the white settlers, were never studied, linguistically, except by the moravian missionaries, in the latter half of the eighteenth century. in examining the mss. in the moravian church at bethlehem, pa., i discovered a ms. dictionary of their tongue, containing about , words. this i had carefully copied, and induced a native delaware, an educated clergyman of the english church, the rev. albert seqaqkind anthony, to pass a fortnight at my house, going over it with me, word by word. the ms. thus revised, was published by the historical society of pennsylvania as the first number of its "student series." various interesting items illustrating the beliefs and customs of the delawares of the present day, communicated to me by mr. anthony, i collected into the article ( ), "lenâpé conversations." a few years previous i had succeeded in obtaining the singular ms. referred to by c. s. rafinesque, in , as the "painted record" of the delaware indians, the _walum olum,_ properly, "painted" or "red" "score." this i reproduced in no. , with the accessories mentioned above (p. ). there is no doubt of the general authenticity of this record. a corroboration of it was sent me in march of this year ( ) by dr. a. s. gatschet, of the u. s. bureau of american ethnology. he writes: "when the delaware delegate, johnnycake, was here for the last time, he told mr. j. b. n. hewitt (also attached to the bureau) that some of the lenâpé indians, near nowata, cherokee nation, had seen your publication on the _walum olum_. they belong to the oldest men of that tribe, and stated that the text was all right, and that they remembered the songs from their youth. they could give many additions, and said that a few passages were in the wrong order and had to be placed elsewhere to give them the full meaning they were intended to convey." this was cheering confirmation to me that my labor had not been expended on a fantastic composition of rafinesque's, as some have been inclined to think. some years ago i contemplated the publication of a work through the american folklore society on algonquian mythology. various reasons led me to lay it aside. part of the material was introduced into my works on the general mythology of the american tribes,[ - ] and one fragment appeared in ( ) in which i offered a psychological explanation of the character of the hero god gluscap, so prominent in the legends of the micmacs and abenakis. at that time i was not acquainted with the ingenious suggestions on the etymology of the name subsequently advocated by the native author, joseph nicolar.[ - ] the nanticokes lived on the eastern shore of chesapeake bay. in collecting their vocabularies i found one alleged to have been obtained from them, but differing completely from the algonquian dialects. it had been partly printed by dr. benjamin smith barton,[ - ] but remained a puzzle. my article ( ) proves that it belongs to the mandingo language of western africa. it was doubtless obtained from some negro slave. the nanticoke vocabulary ( ) was secured in for mr. thomas jefferson. i give the related terms in the other dialects of the stock. the natchez are an interesting people of whose rites we have strange accounts from the early french explorers. their language is a small stock by itself. at one time i thought it related to the maya ( ); but this is probably an error. in ( ) i printed a vocabulary of words obtained for me from a native, together with some slight grammatical material. the taensas were a branch of the natchez, speaking the same tongue; but in , j. parisot presented an article of half a dozen pages to the international congress of americanists on what he called the "hastri or taensa language," totally different from the natchez.[ - ] subsequently this was expanded to a volume, and appeared as tome ix. of the _bibliothêque linguistique américaine_ (maisonneuve et cie, paris) introduced by the well-known scholars lucien adam and albert s. gatschet. it passed unchallenged until , when i proved conclusively that the whole was a forgery of some young seminarists, and had been palmed off on these unsuspecting scientists out of a pleasure in mystification ( ). as i have given the details elsewhere, i shall not repeat them.[ - ] the works of pareja in the timuquana tongue of florida were unknown to linguists when, in , i published the little volume ( ). in it, however, i called attention to them, and from the scanty references in hervas expressed the opinion that it might be related to the carib. this was an error, as no such affinity appears on the fuller examination of the tongue now possible, since pareja's grammar has been republished,[ - ] and texts of the timuquana have been reproduced by buckingham smith.[ - ] the language stands alone, an independent stock. iii. mexican and central american languages. . the native calendar of central america and mexico. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . the lineal measures of the semi-civilized nations of mexico and central america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, january, . . on the chontallis and popolucas. in the compte rendu du congrés des américanistes, . . the study of the nahuatl language. in the _american antiquarian_, january, . . the written language of the ancient mexicans. in _transactions_ of the american philosophical society, . . the ancient phonetic alphabet of yucatan. in _american historical magazine_, . . the graphic system and ancient records of the mayas. in _contributions to american ethnology_, vol. v., washington, . . the phonetic elements in the graphic systems of the mayas and mexicans. in _american antiquarian_, november, . . on the "ikonomatic" method of phonetic writing. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . a primer of mayan hieroglyphics. pp. . boston, . . what the mayan inscriptions tell about. in _american archæologist_, . . on the "stone of the giants" near orizaba, mexico. in _proceedings_ of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, . . on the nahuatl version of sahagun's historia de la nueva españa, at madrid. in the _compte rendu_ of the congrés international des americanistes, ^eme session. . on the words "anahuac" and "nahuatl." in _american antiquarian_, november, . . on the so-called alagüilac language of guatemala. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . the güegüence; a comedy ballet in the nahuatl-spanish dialect of nicaragua. pp . philadelphia, . . ancient nahuatl poetry; containing the nahuatl text of twenty-seven ancient mexican poems; with translation, introduction, notes and vocabulary. pp. . . . rig veda americanus. sacred songs of the ancient mexicans, with a gloss in nahuatl. with paraphrase, notes and vocabulary. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . a notice of some manuscripts of central american languages. in the _american journal of science and arts_ (new haven), march, . . the maya chronicles. pp. . philadelphia, . . the books of chilan balam, the prophetic and historic records of the mayas of yucatan. in the _penn monthly_, march, . . the names of the gods in the kiche myths. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on the chane-abal (four-language) tribe and dialect of chiapas. in the _american anthropologist_, january, . . a grammar of the cakchiquel language of guatemala. translated from an ancient spanish ms., with an introduction and numerous additions. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . the annals of the cakchiquels. the original text, with a translation, notes and introduction. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . on some affinities of the otomi and tinné stocks. international congress of americanists, . . observations on the chinantec language of mexico and the mazatec language and its affinities. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . notes on the mangue dialect. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . on the xinca indians of guatemala. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the ethnic affinities of the guetares of costa rica. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . on the matagalpan linguistic stock of central america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . some vocabularies from the mosquito coast. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, march, . the _popol vuh_, or "sacred book" of the quiches of guatemala was published by the abbé brasseur in . the study ( ) is an effort to analyze the names of the gods which it contains and to extract their symbolic significance. the chane-abal dialect of chiapas ( ) is a mixed jargon, the component elements of which i have endeavored to set forth from ms. material collected by dr. berendt. another language of chiapas is the "chapanecan." in ( ) and also in the introduction to ( ) i have shown, from unpublished sources, its close relationship to the mangue of nicaragua. the mazatec language of oaxaca, is examined for the first time in ( ) from material supplied me by mr. a. pinart. it is shown to have relations with the chapanecan and others with costa rican tongues. the article on the chinantec, ( ) a little-known tongue of oaxaca, is an analysis of its forms and a vocabulary from the _doctrina_ of father barreda and notes of dr. berendt. the cakchiquels occupied most of the soil of guatemala at the period of the conquest, and their tongue was that chosen to be the "metropolitan" language of the diocess. in ( ) i gave a translation of an unpublished grammar of it, the ms. being one in the archives of the american philosophical society. in some respects it is superior to the grammar of flores. the higher culture of the tribes of central america and mexico gives a special interest to the study of their languages, oral and written; for with some of them we find moderately well-developed methods of recording ideas. much of this culture was intimately connected with their astrological methods and these with their calendar. this remarkable artificial computation of time, based on the relations of the numerals and applied to various periods, was practically the same among the mayas, nahuas, zapotecs, mixtecs, chapanecs, otomis and tarascos--seven different linguistic stocks--and unknown elsewhere on the globe. the study of it ( ) is exclusively from its linguistic and symbolic side. it is strange that nowhere in north america was any measure of weight known to the natives. their lineal measures were drawn chiefly from the proportions of the human body. they are investigated in ( ). under the names _chontalli_ and _popoluca_, both nahuatl words indicating "foreigners," ethnographers have included tribes of wholly diverse lineage. in ( ) i have shown that some are tzentals, others tequistlatecas, ulvas, mixes, zapotecs, nahuas, lencas and cakchiquels, thus doing away with the confusion introduced by these inappropriate ethnic terms. no. ( ) is an article for the use of students of the nahuatl language, mentioning the principal grammars, dictionaries and text-books which are available. the numbers ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ), are devoted to the methods of writing invented by the cultured natives of mexico and central america in order to preserve their literature, such as it was. the methods are various, that of the nahuas not being identical with that of the mayas. the former is largely phonetic, but in a peculiar manner, for which i have proposed the term of "ikonomatic," the principle being that of the rebus. that this method can be successfully applied to the decipherment of inscriptions i demonstrated in the translation of one which is quite celebrated, the "stone of the giants" at orizaba, mexico ( ). the translation i proposed has been fully accepted.[ - ] the "primer of mayan hieroglyphics" ( ) was intended as a summary of what had been achieved up to that time ( ) by students in this branch. it endeavored, moreover, to render to each student the credit of his independent work; and as, unfortunately, some, notably in germany, had put forward as their own what belonged to others of earlier date, the book naturally was not very well treated by such reviewers. its aim, however, to present a concise and fair statement of what had been accomplished in its field up to the date of its publication was generally conceded to have been attained. much of the considerable manuscript material which i have accumulated on the languages of this section of the continent was obtained from the collections of the late dr. carl hermann berendt and the abbé e. c. brasseur (de bourbourg). when in spain, in , i found in the royal library the ms. of the earlier portion of sahagun's "history of new spain" in nahuatl. i described it in ( ). the term "anahuac" has long been applied to the territory of mexico. dr. e. seler, of berlin, published an article asserting that this was an error, and devoid of native authority. in ( ) i pointed out that in this he was wrong, as early nahuatl records use it in this sense. the alaguilac language of guatemala, long a puzzle to linguistics, is shown in ( ) to be an isolated dialect of the nahuatl. nos. ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ), have been already mentioned. the term _chilan balam_, which may be freely rendered "the inspired speaker," was the title of certain priests of the native mayas. many records in the maya tongue, written after the conquests, go by the name of "the books of chilan balam." they have never been published, but copies of them, made by dr. berendt, are in my possession. their purpose and contents were described in ( ). there are reasons for believing that previous to the arrival of the cakchiquels in guatemala its area was largely peopled by xincas. of this little-known stock i present in ( ) three extended vocabularies, from unpublished sources, with comments on the "culture-words." some apparent but no decisive affinities between the otomi of mexico and the tinné or athapascan dialects are shown in ( ); and in ( ) the ancient guetares of costa rica are proved, on linguistic evidence, to have been members of the talamancan linguistic stock. the matagalpan is an interesting family, first defined in _the american race_, and in ( ) more fully discussed, as they survive in san salvador. in ( ) some unpublished vocabularies from the tribe of the ramas, on the mosquito coast, place them as members of the changuina stock, most of whom dwelt on the isthmus of panama. iv. south american and antillean languages. . remarks on the ms. arawack vocabulary of schultz. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . the arawack language of guiana in its linguistic and ethnological relations. in _transactions_ of the american philosophical society, . . studies in south american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . some words from the andagueda dialect of the choco stock. in _proceedings_ of american philosophical society, november, . . vocabulary of the noanama dialect of the choco stock. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . note on the puquina language of peru. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . further notes on the betoya dialects. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the linguistic cartography of the chaco region. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . further notes on fuegian languages. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on two recent, unclassified vocabularies from south america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . the library of the american philosophical society contains a ms. copy of the arawack vocabulary of the missionary schultz, the same work, apparently, which was edited from another copy by m. lucien adam in . a study of this ms. led me to discover the identity of the so-called "lucayan" of the bahamas, the language of cuba, fragments of which have been presented, and the "taino" of haiti, with the arawack. they had previously been considered either of mayan or caribbean affinities. the results are presented in ( ). the "studies" in ( ) are ten in number. no. i. is on the tacana language and its dialects, and is the only attempt, up to the present time, to determine the boundaries and character of this tongue. texts and a vocabulary in five of its dialects are given. no. ii. is on the jivaro or xebero tongue, and is entirely from unpublished sources. a grammatical sketch, texts and a vocabulary give a moderately complete material for comparison. no. iii. presents the first printed account of the cholona language on the river huallaga, drawn from mss. in the british museum. in no. iv. is a discussion of the relations of the leca language spoken on the rio mapiri. no. v. contains a text of some length in the manao dialect of the arawack stock, the original ms. being in the british museum. the bonaris are an extinct tribe of the carib stock. no. vi. contains the only vocabulary which has been preserved of their dialect. on a loose sheet in the british museum, among papers on patagonia, i found a short vocabulary in a tongue called "hongote," which i could not locate and hence published it in no. vii. it subsequently proved to be one of the north pacific coast languages. the same "study" presents a comparative vocabulary in fourteen patagonian dialects, with notes (tsoneca, tehuelche, puelche, tekennika (yahgan), alikuluf, etc.). in study no. viii. are discussed the various dialects of the kechua or quichua tongue of peru, with an unpublished text from the pacasa dialect. no. ix. examines the affinities which have been noted between the languages of north and south america, especially in the mazatec and costa rican dialects of the northern continent. finally, no. x. aims to define for the first time the linguistic stock to which belong the dialects of the betoyas, tucanos, zeonas and other tribes on the rivers napo, meta, apure and their confluents. further information on this stock is given in ( ). the choco stock extends widely over the northwest angle of the southern continent. in ( ) and ( ) i have printed short vocabularies of some of its dialects secured for me from living natives by mr. henry g. granger. the puquina language of peru was quite unknown to linguists when, in , i published the article ( ) containing material in it from the extremely rare work of geronimo de ore, entitled _rituale peruanum_ (naples, ). since then an extended essay upon it has been written by m. de la grasserie. in the "further notes on the fuegian languages" ( ), i have printed an alikuluf vocabulary of , with comparisons, and given a vocabulary of the idiom of the onas, pointing out some affinities with the yahgan. few linguistic areas on the continent have been more obscure than that called "el gran chaco," in northern argentina and southern bolivia. in ( ) i have mapped the area from ° to ° south latitude and ° to ° west longitude, defining the boundaries of each of the seven linguistic stocks which occupied it, to wit, the ennima, guaycuru, lule, mataco, quechua, samucu and tupi, with discussions of some uncertain dialects, as the calchaqui, lengua, querandi, charua, payagua. in ( ) recent vocabularies of the andoa and cataquina tongues are examined and their linguistic relations discussed. many of the above articles, written previous to , were collected by me in that year and published in a volume entitled "essays of an americanist" (pp. . philadelphia). for the convenience of those who may wish to refer to them i add here a complete list of the essays which it contains. part i.--ethnologic and archÆologic.--a review of the data for the study of the prehistoric chronology of america. on palæoliths, american and others. on the alleged mongolian affinities of the american race. the probable nationality of the mound-builders of the ohio valley. the toltecs of mexico and their fabulous empire. part ii.--mythology and folk-lore.--the sacred names in the mythology of the quiches of guatemala. the hero-god of the algonkins as a cheat and liar. the journey of the soul in egyptian, aryan and american mythology. the sacred symbols of the cross, the svastika and the triqetrum in america. the modern folk-lore of the natives of yucatan. the folk-lore of the modern lênapé indians. part iii.--graphic systems and literature.--the phonetic elements in the hieroglyphs of the mayas and mexicans. the ikonomatic method of phonetic writing used by the ancient mexicans. the writings and records of the ancient mayas of yucatan. the books of chilan balam, the sacred volume of the modern mayas. translation of the inscription on "the stone of the giants" at orizaba, mexico. the poetry of the american indians, with numerous examples. part iv.--linguistic.--american aboriginal languages, and why we should study them. wilhelm von humboldt's researches in american languages. some characteristics of american languages. the earliest form of human speech, as revealed by american languages. the conception of love, as expressed in some american languages. the lineal measures of the semi-civilized nations of mexico and central america. the curious hoax about the taensa language. footnotes: [ - ] _beiträge zur lehre der wortzusammensetzung._ leiden. . [ - ] in this connection i would refer students to an instructive passage of heinrich wrinkler on "die hauptformen in den amerikanischen sprachen," in his work _zur sprachgeschichte_ (berlin, ) and to his essay on the pokonchi language in his _weiteres zur sprachgeschichte_, (berlin, ). [ - ] see my remarks on this tongue in the _american anthropologist_, august, , p. . [ - ] interesting examples in the preface to s. t. rand's _micmac dictionary_ (halifax, ). [ - ] notably with steinthal's _charakteristik des hauptsächlichsten typen des sprachbaues._ [ - ] _the myths of the new world_ (third edition, ); _american hero myths_ ( ). [ - ] _life and traditions of the red man_ (bangor, ). [ - ] _new views of the origin of the tribes of america_ (philadelphia, ). [ - ] _actas del congreso internacional de americanistas_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ - ] see the article "the curious hoax of the taensa language," in my _essays of an americanist_, pp. - . (philadelphia, .) [ - ] in tome xi., of the _bibliothêque linguistique américaine_. [ - ] privately printed, . [ - ] see garrick mallery in _ th annual report of the bureau of ethnology_, pp. , sqq. (washington, ). index. abenakis, abipones, achaguas, adam, l., , alaguilac language, algonkin, , algonquian mythology, alikuluf, , american authors, aboriginal, american languages, american race, the, americanists, congress of, "anahuac", andagueda, andoa, anthony, a. s., antillean languages, arawack, , asiatic analogies, _bailes_, barton, b. s., berendt, c. h., , betoya, , , bonaris, brasseur, e. c., , byington, c., cakchiquels, , calchaqui, calendar, native, carib, , , cataquina, chaco, el gran, chane-abal language, changuina, chapanecs, charua, chiapas, chilan balam, chinantec, choco, choctaw grammar, cholona, chontallis, cocanuca, costa rica, , creeks, cuba, language of, delaware, , _dvanda_, the, ennima, floridian peninsula, fuegian languages, gatschet, a. s., , , gluscap, gods, names of, granger, h. g., grasserie, r., guatemala, , guaycuru, güegüence, guetares, haiti, language of, hale, h., "hastri" language, hongote, huasteca, humboldt, w. von, huron, "ikonomatic" method, the, incorporation, iroquois, johnnycake, jefferson, t., jivaro, kechua, kiche myths, leca, lenâpé, , lenâpé dictionary, lenâpé conversations, lencas, lengua, library of aborig. literature, lineal measures, love, conception of, lucayan, lule, , maipure, manao, mandingo language, mangue, mata co, matagalpan, maya, , , mayan hieroglyphics, mayan inscriptions, mazatec, mbaya, measures, lineal, mexican, micmacs, mixes, mixteca, , mocoa, mocovi, mohawk, morphology of amer. langs., mosquito coast[tn- ] muller,[tn- ] h. c., muskokee, mythology, american, myths of new world, nahuatl, , , nahuatl-spanish jargon, nanticoke, natchez, nicaragua, nicolar, j., noanama, omagua, onas, onondaga, ore, g. de, otomi, .[tn- ] , pacasa, paniquita, pareja, f., payagua, pilling, j. c., pinart, a., poetry, aboriginal, polysynthesis, popolucas, primitive speech, puelche, puquina, querandi, quiche, quechua, , , rafinesque, c. s., ramas, rand, s. f., rate of change, rebus writing, red score, the, , rig veda americanus, sahagun, , samucu, schultz, rev., shawnees, smith, b., standard dictionary, the, steinthal, h., "stone of the giants", svastika, the, tacana, taensa, taino, tamanaca, tarascos, tehuelche, teknnika, tequistlatecan, timote., timuquana, tinné, toltecs, the, totonaco, triquetrum, the, tsoneca, tucanos, tupi, , , tzental, ulvas, verb, the american, walum-olum, , winkler, h., written language, xebero, xinca, yahgan, , yaruro, yucatan, zapotecs, zeonas, zoque, the, transcriber's note the following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. page error tn- the marker for footnote - was not printed and has been inserted based on context. tn- grammer should read grammar tn- mosquito coast should read mosquito coast, , tn- muller, should read müller tn- otomi, . should read otomi, , the _annual catalogue:_ or, a new and compleat list of all the new books, new editions of books, pamphlets, &c. publish'd in history, divinity, law, poetry, plays, novels, painting, architecture, and all other sciences; from _january_ the first, , to _january_ the first, . giving an account of the prices they sell for, and whom printed by. useful to all who delight in reading, but more especially to gentlemen, ladies, and booksellers in the country; not only to let them know what books are published, but their exact prices. london: printed for j. worrall, at the _dove_ in _bell-yard_, near _lincoln's-inn_, and w. warner, at _dryden's-head_, next the _rose tavern_, without _temple-bar_, . [_price six-pence._] the preface. _as all lovers of literature, are pleased to know what works are published; the following list was principally intended, for those gentlemen, ladies, &c. who live remote from london, or seldom see the multitude of news-papers, wherein books are advertised; that they might for a small expence see what books have been publish'd in the preceeding year . and what makes this tract farther useful, is, i have printed the titles of the books alphabetically, and distinguished the booksellers name in_ italic, _each book is printed for, and its price._ _therefore 'tis hoped the variety this tract affords, will yield something to please every reader, which will be grateful to_ the editor. * * * * * [_just publish'd._] _printed for_ j. worrall, _and_ w. warner. gallick reports: or, a collection of criminal cases adjudg'd in the courts of judicature in france. in which is comprized, an account of arnold du tilh, an impostor, who deceived a man's wife and relations, and puzzled, for a long time, the parliament of france. memoirs of the famous madam de brinvilliers, who poisoned her father, and two brothers, and attempted the life of her sister, &c. the misfortunes of the sieur d' anglade, condemn'd (tho' innocent) to the gallies, and who died before his innocence was discovered. the intrigues of cardinal richlieu for the destruction of urban grandier, a priest, whom he caused to be burnt for sorcery. the case of madam tiquet, beheaded in the late reign, for attempting the life of her husband. to which is prefixed a copious preface, in relation to the laws and constitution of france. * * * * * abrabanal's (sol.) complaint of the children of israel, representing their grievance under the penal-laws, and praying, that if the tests are repealed, the jews may have the benefit of this indulgence, &c. _ d._ abridgement (a new) of the law, vols. sold by _h. lintot_, _ l. s._ abridgement of the statutes from the th to the th years of king _george_ iid, inclusive, being vol. the th, _r. gosling_, _ s. d._ abstracts of the act for building the bridge at westminster. to which are added, terms of insurance, &c. _j. millan_, _ s._ abstracts of the acts of the th year of k. george iid, _j. baskett_, _ s. d._ acis and galatea; a pastoral opera, _j. osborne_, _ d._ addison's dissertation on the most celebrated roman poets, _j. wilford_, _ s._ address to the people; occasioned by an insult upon some late acts of parliament, _j. roberts_, _ d._ adventures of eovaai, princess of ijavio, a pre-adamitical history, &c. _s. baker_, _ s. d._ advice of a mother to her son and daughter, d edit. _t. owen_, _ s._ advice to a friend on his marriage, _t. cooper_, _ s._ advice of a mother to her son and daughter, publish'd in france and holland, with great applause, _t. worrall_, _ s._ ainsworth's (rob.) thesaurus linguæ latinæ, compendiarius: or, a compendious dictionary of the latin tongue, mess. _knapton_, &c. _ s._ ainsworth's natural and easy way of institution, by making a domestic education less chargeable to parents, &c. _j. wilford_, _ s._ alberoni's (card.) scheme for reducing the turkish empire to the obedience of christian princes, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ allen's (william) ways and means to raise the value of land: or, the landlord's companion, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ alliance (the) between church and state: or, the necessity of an establish'd religion, &c. _f. gyles_, _ s._ alzire: or, les americains, tragedie a paris, , _j. nourse_, _ s. d._ alzira, a tragedy from the fr. _j. osborne_, _ s. d._ anacreon's works, greek and english, with notes, _j. osborne_, _ s._ anderson's (jam.) royal genealogical tables of emperors, kings and princes, from adam to these times, &c. _c. davis_, _ l. s._ answer to the country parson's plea, against the quakers tythe-bill, _j. roberts_, _ s._ answer to a pamphlet entituled, an apologetical defence of a book entituled, a plain account of the lord's supper, _j. roberts_, _ d._ answer (an) to a late pamphlet, entituled, an examination of the scheme of church power, laid down in the codex juris ecclesiastici, anglicana, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ vid. notes on an answer, post. antiquities explained: being a collection of figured gems from the classicks, mess. _knapton_, _ s._ apology (an) for the ministers of state; or, the rudiments of modern patriotism, _ d._ arbiter's (petronius) works, translated into english, by mr addison, _j. osborne_, _ s._ ariosto's (lud.) satires and poems, with the author's effigie, _o. payne_, _ s. d._ art (the) of pleasing in conversation, french and english, vols. _w. feales_, _c. corbett_, &c. _ s._ ascough's (sir fran.) sermon preached before the hon. house of commons at westminster, jan. , , _t. osborne_, _ s._ athanasian forgeries, &c. collected chiefly out of mr whiston's writings, by a lover of truth; narratives of mr jackson's being refus'd the sacrament at bath, _j. noon_, _ d._ atkins's navy surgeon, d edit. mess. _ward_ and _chandler_, _ s._ atkins's (john) voyage to guinea, brasil, &c. _c. ward_, _r. chandler_, _ s._ atkins's (john) vertues and uses of cold and hot mineral springs in general, particularly those of scarborough, _a. dodd_, _ s._ atkinson's (t.) conference between a painter and an engraver, containing instructions for young artists, _ d._ attorney and pleader's treasury: containing the forms of the most useful pleas in abatement, and in bar, &c. vols. _r. gosling_, _ s._ augustini's (m.) sure method to bring sight to the eyes, to those who never had it; and to restore it to those who by any accident have lost it, &c. sold next door to john's coffee-house, st martin's lane. b. bacon's (ld.) law tracts: containing his elements, read. on the stat. uses, &c. _r. gosling_, _ s._ bailey's dictionarium britannicum: or, a more compleat english dictionary than any yet extant, with cuts, d edit. _t. cox_, _ l. s._ bailey's (n.) dictionarium domesticum: being a new and compleat household dictionary, _c. hitch_, _ s._ bailey's Æsopian fables of phædrus augustus, cæsar's freedmen, _d. browne_, _ s._ ball's remarks on a new way of preaching, _a. dodd_, _ d._ barton's (phil.) sermon preached before the sons of the clergy at st paul's, feb. , _t. wotton_, _ d._ barwick's (dr john) life, with his effigies, written by his brother, dr pet. barwick, _c. davis_, _ s._ batrachomuomachia: or, the battle of the frogs and mice, from homer, _j. wilford_, _ d._ bayle's (mons.) historical and critical dictionary, no. to no. , each _ s._ beau's miscellany: a collection of amorous tales, poems, songs, &c. parts, _j. worrall_, each _ s._ beau (the) philosopher, a poem by a gentleman of cambridge, _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ beggar's (the) pantomine: or, the contending colombines, _c. corbett_, _w. warner_, _ d._ bennet's (tho.) dis. of schism, th ed. _w. innys_, _ s._ benson's (g.) history of the first planting of the christian religion, taken from the acts of the apostles, &c. vols. _r. ford_, _ s._ bernard's (tho.) sermon at felsted in essex, aug. , before the gentlemen educated at the two schools there, _b. motte_, _ d._ bird's modern conveyancer, approved by the most eminent council, viz. sir edw. northey, mr webb, mr pigott, &c. _j. worrall_, _ l._ bishop's (tho.) plain exposition of the catechism of the church of england, _m. downing_, _t. longman_, _ s._ blackerby's (nath.) justice's companion, vols. th edit. _t. osborne_, _ s._ bland's (jam.) charms of women: or, a mirror for the ladies, _e. curl_, _ s._ blythe's (f.) advice to a friend on his marriage, a poem, _t. cooper_, _ s._ boerhaave's (her.) elements of chymistry, translated by tim. dallow, _j. pemberton_, _ l. s._ boileau's (mons.) works made english, from the last par. ed. with cuts, vols, _e. littleton_, _ s._ bolde's (sam.) help in devotion: or, the new test. considered, _r. hett_, _ s. d._ boston's (tho.) view of the covenant of grace, from the sacred rec. &c. _j. davidson_, _ s. d._ bounce to fop, an heroic epistle from a dog at twitenham to a dog at court, by dr sw--ft, _ d._ bowyer's (tho.) true account of the sacrament, in answer to a plain account, &c. _c. rivington_, _ s. d._ boyer's (a.) history of q. anne, civil and military, with curious cuts and plans, _t. woodward_, _ l. s._ bradley's country housewife, and ladies monthly director in the management of a house, and the delights and profits of a farm, &c. pts. _d. browne_, each stitch'd _ s. d._ bradley's riches of a hop garden explained, d edit. _d. browne_, _ s. d._ brett's (tho.) true scripture account and benefits of the eucharist, _j. roberts_, _ s._ brief (a) enquiry how far every government has a right to defend itself, _t. cooper_, _ d._ brief (a) representation of the faith once delivered to the saints, made to a dissenting congregation, _h. whitridge_, _a. cruden_, _ d._ brine's (john) remarks on a pamphlet entituled, some doctrines in the superlapsarian scheme examined by the word of god, _a. ward_, _ d._ british representative: or, a general list of the parliaments of great britain: which are eight in number, _t. astley_, _ s._ british theatre: a collection of plays, vols. _w. feales_, _ l. s._ brome's (edm.) christian devotion, recommended, _e. wicksteed_, _ s._ browne's (sir tho.) religio medici, _j. torbuck_, _c. corbett_, &c. _ s. d._ browning's (j.) compend. system of natural philosophy, part , _s. harding_, _ s. d._ bunyan's (john) works, upon various divine subjects, _a. ward_, _ l._ burnet (tho.) archæologiæ philosophicæ: or, the antient doctrine concern. the original of things, _j. fisher_, _ s._ burrough's (jos.) view of popery, &c. _j. gray_, _ s._ butler's (jos.) analogy of religion, natural and revealed, &c. d edit. mess. _knapton_, _ s._ burt's (job.) beauties and excell. of holy baptism display'd, in ans. to the quakers, _j. noon_, _ s. d._ c. cambray's (bp.) tales and fables, copper plates, _j. osborne_, _ s._ candidates (the) guide: or, the elector's right decided, by the hon. house of commons in all controverted elections in the counties of south-britain, _j. stagg_, _j. brindley_, _ s._ carey's honest yorkshire man, a ballad opera, _l. gilliver_, _ d._ carmen seculare for the year , to the king on his going to hanover, _j. roberts_, _ s._ carter's (cha.) compleat city and country cook, illustrated with copper-plates, _a. bettesworth_, _ s._ cartrou and rouille's roman history, with copper plates, vol. th, translated by rich. bundy, d.d. _a. bettesworth_, _ l. s._ cases in law and equity, chiefly during the time the ld. macclesfield presided in those courts, _t. ward_, _e. wicksteed_, _ l. s. d._ caveat (a) against the dissenters, _j. roberts_, _ s._ celinia: or, the history of hyempsal k. of numidia, vols. _e. davis_, _ s._ chamberlayne's state of great britain, d edit. _b. motte_, &c. _ s._ chamberlayne's (john) arguments of the old and new test. vols. d edit. _m. downing_, _ s._ chandler's (s.) hist. of prosecut. among the heathens, christian emperors, inquisitions and protestants, _j. gray_, _ s._ chandler's (mrs mary) description of bath, a poem, d edit. _j. leak._ [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] chapelle's (vinc.) modern cook, with several curious cuts, vols. _t. osborne_, _ s._ chapman's (edm.) treatise on the improvement of midwifry, d edit. enlarged, _c. corbett_, _ s._ character of john sheffield duke of buckinghamshire, with his grace's last will, _j. stagg_, _ s._ character of a freeman, a poem, _j. crichly_, _ d._ child (sir jos.) on trade, th edition, _c. corbett_, _ s. d._ christian exceptions to the plain account of the sacrament, _j. nourse_, _ s._ chubb's (tho.) two letters, . an enquiry concerning church discipline, . covenant, _ s. d._ cibber's (col.) dramatick works, vols. _w. feales_, _ s._ claims of the clergy to a divine right of maintenance, &c. _t. cooper_, _ d._ clarendon's (ld.) vindication of the conduct of james duke of ormond, _j. wilford_, _ s._ clarke (dr) sermons on several important subjects vols. mess. _knapton_, _ l. s._ clark's (j.) ovid's metamorphoses, lat. and eng. the english translation as literal as possible for the attainment of the sense, and the elegency of this great poet, _a. bettesworth_ and _c. hitch_, _ s._ clarke's (geo.) last will and testament, _j. roberts_, _ s._ clayton's (john) sermon before baron carter at lancaster assizes, _c. rivington_, _ d._ clergyman's (the) petition for a repeal of the test acts, _j. roberts_, _ d._ cleveland's (e.) history of the noble family of courtnay, vols. _s. birt_, _ s._ clifford's (m.) treatise of human reason, d edit. _j. stone_, _ s._ clutton's (jos.) short and certain method for curing continued feavers, by the assistance of a new febrifuge, &c. _j. huggenson_, _ s._ clutton's good and bad effects of joshua ward's pill and drop, in cases, _j. wilford_, _ d._ cobden's (edw.) sermon preached to the society for reformation of manners at st mary le bow, _m. downing_, _ d._ cockburn's sea diseases, d edit. _g. strahan_, _ s. d._ cockburn's ghonorrhea, _g. strahan_, _ s. d._ colbatch's (sir john) dissertation on c. misletoe, _d. browne_, _ s._ coles's dictionary, english-latin, latin-english, th edit. _j. walthoe_, _ s._ collection (a) of english and scotch songs, no. i, ii, iii, _t. boreman_, each _ d._ collection of merry poems, tales, epigrams, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s. d._ collection (a) of above ballads, adorned with above cop. plates, vols. _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ collection of epigrams, vols. _j. walthoe_, _ s._ colliber's (sam.) impartial enquiry into the existance and nature of god, with remarks on dr clarke on the attributes, _r. robinson_, _p. knapton_, _ s._ collier's (jer.) manual of epictetus the philosopher, _o. payne_, _ s. d._ collins's (arth.) peerage of england, now existing either by tenure, summons, creation, vols. with curious copper plates, _r. gosling_, _ l. s._ collins's proceedings, precedents and arguments on claims and controversies concern. baronies by writ, and other honours, _t. wotton_, _ l. s._ compleat arbitrator: or, law of awards, and arbitraments in all its branches, by an eminent hand, _j. worrall_, _ s. d._ compleat housewife, being a collection of above receipts in cookery, &c. _j. pemberton_, _ s._ compleat (the) family piece, and country gentlemen and farmers best guide, in parts, _j. roberts_, _ s._ coney's (dr) narrative of the case of mr jackson's being refused the sacrament at bath, _j. noon_, _ d._ congratulatory (a) poem on the prospect of peace, _j. roberts_, _ d._ congress: (the) or, grimace on all sides, a poem, _ s._ conjugal duty: or, wedding sermons, pt. st, d, _j. watson_, each, _ s. d._ connoisseur: or, every man in his folly, _r. wellington_, _ s. d._ considerations upon too much indulgence to foreigners, _t. boreman_, _ s._ constable's (john) reflections upon the accuracy of style, _j. osborne_, _ s._ cornthwaite's (rob.) seventh day sabbath farther vindicated, _j. noon_, _ s._ cornthwait's, [transcriber's note: so in original] second defence of some reflections on dr wright's treatise of the lord's day, _j. noon_, _ d._ corporation and test acts no importance to the church of england, _j. roberts_, _ s._ country (the) builder's estimates: or, architect's companion, &c. _j. hodges_, _ s. d._ court kalendar for the year , _j. watson_, _ d._ cowper's (wm.) charges at the quarter-sessions for the liberty of westminster, relating to spirituous liquors, _j. stagg._ _ s._ craft's (the) of the craftsman; or, a detection of the design of the coalition, _j. roberts_, _ d._ crawford's (geo.) lives and characters of the officers of the crown and state in _scotland_, _t. woodman_, _ s._ criterion (the) of christianity: being the queries proposed by the late mr john gonston, a romish priest, to dr knight, _j. wilford_, _ s._ cupid: or, a collection of beautiful love songs, with prints of the variety of lovers, _a. bettesworth_, _j. osborne_, _ s. d._ cure of deism: or, the mediatial scheme by jesus christ, the only true religion, &c. vols. _wm. innys_, _ s._ customs and privileges of the manors of stepney and hackney in middlesex. of tenant's neglect, admission, &c. by laws, claim, &c. _j. worrall_, _c. corbett_, _ s. d._ d. daniel's history of france, with the heads of several kings, vols. _d. browne_, _ l. s._ d'anvers's (knightly) abridgment of the law, vols. _s. austen_, _ l. s._ davenport's (steph.) description of a new invented table air-pump, _wright_, _ s._ davys's (mrs) reformed coquet, _j. stephens_, _ s. d._ dawkes's (t.) midwife rightly instructed, address'd to the married ladies, _j. oswald_, _ s._ defence of baptism with water, &c. _w. innys_, _ d._ de la gard's (martin) essay on real felicity, a poem, _c. corbett_, _ s._ demonstratio medico practica prognosticorum hippocratis, &c. _t. longman_, _ s._ denne's (john) sermon at st sepulchres, of may, , _m. downing_, _ d._ design (a) of the bridge at new palace yard, westminster, by which an expence , _l._ is saved, _a. millar_, _ s._ description (a) of a great variety of animals and vegetables, &c. (being a supplement to a description of animals), _t. boreman_, _ s._ description of animals, &c. _r. ware_, _ s. d._ desolation: or, the fall of gin, a poem, _j. roberts_, _ d._ dialogue (a) between a gentleman and a banker concern. funds, _t. cooper_, _ d._ dictionarium polygraphicum: or, the whole body of arts with sculptures, vols. _c. hitch_, _s. austen_, _ s._ directions for a holy life, by the bp. of cambray, _j. roberts_, _ d._ directory (the) containing an alphabetical list of the places of abode of merchants and eminent traders, &c. in london and westminster, and kent, _ d._ discontent: or, an essay on faction, a satire, _t. cooper_, _ d._ discourse (a) on witchcraft, occasioned by a bill now depending in parliament to repeal the statute anno, james i. _j. read_, _ s._ discourse (a) concern. the law of inheritance, in fee, &c. _f. gyles_, _ s. d._ discourse (a) of free-thinking, _ s. d._ dispute (the) better adjusted about the proper time for applying for a repeal of the test act, _j. gray_, _ d._ dissertat. on the gravel and stone, _j. isted_, _ s. d._ dissuasive from party and religious animosities, _j. roberts_, _ d._ dissuasive from entering into holy orders, by a clergyman, _a. dodd_, _ d._ distill'd spirituous liquors, the bane of the nation, offer'd to the h. of com. _j. roberts_, _ s._ divine recreations with easy tunes, pt. , to be continued quarterly, _c. rivington_, _ d._ divine wisdom and providence, an essay occasion'd by the essay on man, _j. roberts_, _ s._ dixon's (hen.) english instructor: or, spelling improved, &c. _j. hazard_, _ s._ doctor (the) and bess. a satire, _j. roberts_, _ d._ doderidge's (p.) ten sermons on the power and grace of christ, _r. hett_, _ s. d._ drake's (fr.) eboracum: or, history and antiquities of the city of york, copper plates, printed for the author, _ l. s. d._ in sheets. drummond's (may) internal revelation, the source of saving knowledge, &c. _j. roberts_, _ d._ duck's (steph.) poems on several occasions, _w. bickerton_, _ s. d._ duddel's (bened.) supplement to the treatise of the diseases of the cornea and cartaract of the eye, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ dudley's (j.) charge to the clergy of bedford; a sermon at a visitation held at ampthill, th of april, , _t. osborne_, _ s._ duglas's (john) short account of the state of midwifry, sold by the author in lad lane, _ s._ duppa's (bryan) holy rules and helps to devotion, _j. fox_, _ s._ dyche's guide to the english tongue, st edit. _r. ware_, _ s._ e. easter still recoverable: or, a method proposed for rectifying that great and fundamental solemnity on which all the rest depend, &c. _j. wilford_, _ d._ elegy on the lamentable death of the truly beloved lady, madam geneva, _t. cooper_, _ d._ ellis's (will.) new experiments in husbandry for the month of april, mess. _fox_, _meadows_, _astley_, _ s._ elwall's (e.) grand question in religion considered, whether we shall obey god or man, christ or his apostles, &c. _j. noon_, _ d._ emblems for the entertainment of youth, copper plates, _r. ware_, _ s. d._ england's doom, a poem, _r. amey_, _ d._ english presbyterian eloquence, by an admirer of episcopy, _j. roberts_, _ d._ enquiry (an) into the life and writings of homer, d. edit. with copper plates, _j. oswald_, _ s._ epistle (an) to a young nobleman from his preceptor, _l. gilliver_, _ s._ epistle (an) to his grace the d. of grafton, on the marriage of the prince of wales, with the princess of saxa gotha, _a. dodd_, _ s._ epistle (an) to the quakers upon the losing their tythe-bill, _j. roberts_, _ d._ erasmus moriæ encomium: or, the praise of folly, transl. by bp. kennet, th edit. _j. wilford_, _ s. d._ essay on the sinking fund, &c. _j. peele_, _ s._ every man his own lawyer: or, a summary of the laws of england in a new method so plainly treated of, that all persons may be acquainted with our laws, _j. hazard_, _s. birt_, _c. corbett_, _ s._ examination (an) of mr samuel chandler's history of persecution, _j. roberts_, _ s._ expostulatory (an) letter from one of the people called quakers to the craftsman, _t. cooper_, _ d._ f. fall of bob, a tragedy, _j. purser_, _ d._ fatal conveyances of ministerial influence, &c. _a. dodd_, _ s._ father francis and sister constance, a poem from a story in the spectator, &c. _l. gilliver_, _ s._ father's advice to his son, to fix his mind on matters of importance, _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ favourite songs in the new opera adriano, _j. walsh_, _ s. d._ female (the) rake: or, modern fine lady, a ballad comedy, mrs _coke_, _ s._ fenwick's (geo.) sermon at leicester, july , , at the triennial visitation of the bp. of lincoln, _t. longman_, _ d._ fielding's (hen.) pasquin, a drammatic satire on the times, _j. watts_, (vid. _k._) _ s. d._ first (the) book for children: being an attempt to make the art of reading english easy and pleasant, _a. cruden_, _ d._ fleming's (cal.) plain account of the law of the sabbath, _d. farmer_, _ s._ fleurey's (card.) new ecclesiastical history translated into english by mr jefferies, _e. curl_, _ s._ foedera conventiones, literæ & cujuscunque generis acta publica, &c. vol. , _j. tonson_, _ l. s._ fontine's (m. des) history of the revolutions of poland, &c. _t. woodward_, _ s._ foquet's councels of wisdom, &c. translated into english, _c. rivington_, _ s._ forbes's (dr) view of the public transactions in the reign of q. eliz. vols. in sheets _ l. s._ foster's (jam.) second letter to dr stebbing on the subject of heresy, _j. noon_, _ s._ four satires on national vices, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s._ fourth (the) commandment abrogated from the gospel, _j. roberts_, _ d._ frankz's (tho.) philosoph. dissertation on the doctrine of eclipses, &c. _j. wilford_, _ d._ frederick and augusta: an ode, by a quaker, _j. roberts_, _ d._ free parliaments: or, an argument on the constitution, &c. _d. browne_, _ s._ free thinkers, vols. d edit. _o. payne_, _ s._ friendly (a) admonition to the drinkers of brandy, &c. _m. downing_, _ d._ friendship in death. to which is added letters moral and entertaining in prose and verse, pts by the same author, _t. worrall_, _ s._ g. gallantries (the) of the spaw in germany, from the french, vols. _ s._ gallick reports: or, a collection of criminal cases adjudged in france: containing an account of arnold du tilh, an imposter, who deceived a man's wife and relations, and puzzled the parliament of france. memoirs of madam brinvillers, who poisoned her father and two brothers, &c. the case of madam tiquet, beheaded for attempting the life of her husband, &c. _j. worrall_, _ s._ gardener's (wm.) weeks conversation on the plurality of worlds, _a. bettesworth_, _ s. d._ garth's ovid's metamorphosis, vols. cuts, _j. tonson_, _ s._ gartshere's (geo.) wisdom of the apostles preaching; in a sermon preached at wigton before the synod of galloway, _a. cruden_, _ d._ gee's trade and navagat. of great brit. &c. _cons._ general dict. no. , to , _j. shugburgh_, each, _ s._ general (the) history of china, &c. translated from the work of pere du halde, by robert brookes, m.a. vols. _j. watts_, _ l. s._ gentleman's companion, and tradesman's delight, shewing the manner of dying, colouring, painting, &c. _c. corbett_, _ s. d._ geoffroy's (geo.) treatise of the fossil, vegetable and animal substances used in physick, &c. _j. innys_, &c. _ s._ georgia, a poem, tomo chachi, an ode on mr oglethorpe's second voyage to georgia, _j. roberts_, _ s._ gibbs's rules for drawing the several parts of architecture. sold by the author in henrietta-street, marybone fields, in sheets, _ l. s. d._ gibbs's (phil.) improvement of short hand, _t. cox_, _r. hett_, _ s. d._ gill's (john) cause of god and truth: being a vindication of the principal passages in scripture, &c. parts, _a. ward_, _ s. d._ glocester's (bp.) sermon before the lord mayor at st bridget's, monday in easter week, , _j. pemberton_, _ d._ golden (the) fleece: or, the trade of great britain considered, _t. cooper_, _ s._ gratulatio academiæ cantabrigiensis ausp. frederici walliæ principis & augustæ princip. saxo gothæ nuptias celebrantis, _j. crownfield_, _t. longman_, _ s._ gratulatio academiæ oxoniensis in nuptias auspicatissim illustratissimorum princepum frederici divino, walliæ, &c. _t. longman_, _ s._ gravesend's (wm. james) philosophy of sir isaac newton, explained, _j. innys_, _r. manby_, _ s._ grey's (rich.) system of english ecclesiastical law from the codex, _j. stagg_, _ s._ grey's examination of the th chapter of sir isaac newton's observation on the prophecies of daniel, _j. roberts_, _ s._ grey's spirit of infidelity detected; in answer to a pamphlet entituled, the spirit of ecclesiasticks, _j. clark_, _ s._ grey's (zac.) impartial examination of the second vol. of mr dan. neal's history of the puritans, _r. gosling_, _ s._ grey's (rich.) sermon at towcester visitation, july, , _j. stagg_, _ d._ grove's (hen.) discourse concerning saving faith, _r. ford_, _ s. d._ grundy's (john) philosophical and mathematical reasons offered to the publick, relating to the river dee, _j. roberts_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] grundy's examination and refutation of mr badeslate's new cut canal, &c. _j. roberts_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] guarini's (bapt.) pastor fido, a pastoral tragi-comedy, italian and english, _r. montagu_, _j. torbuck_, _c. corbett_, _ s._ together, or _ s._ each. guyse's (john) sermon at the ordination of the rev. mr william johnson, at rygate in surrey, _j. oswald_, _ s._ h. hale (sir mat.) historia placitorum coronæ: or, the history of the pleas of the crown, vols. _f. gyles_, _t. woodward_, _c. davis_, _ l. s._ hammond's practical surveyor, d edit. with great additions, _t. heath_, _ s._ handel's most celebrated airs in alcina and all the late operas, _j. walsh_, _ s._ happy (the) lovers: or, the beau metamorphosed, an opera, _s. slow_, _ s._ harcourt's (jam.) sermon at crukerne visitation, aug. , , _w. innys_, _ d._ hare (fran.) psalmorum liber in versiculas metrice divisus, &c. _t. longman_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] harris's (john) lexicon technicum, vols. in one alphabet, th edit. very much enlarged, _j. walthoe_, mess. _knapton_, &c. _ l. s._ harris's funeral discourses, parts, _j. noon_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] hawkins's pleas of the crown, parts, d edit. corrected, _j. worrall_, _ l. s._ hawkins's abridgment of the first part of the ld. coke's institutes, th edit. _t. osborne_, _ s._ hawksmoor's (nic.) historical account of london bridge, with a proposition for a new bridge at westminster, with designs on copper, _j. wilcox_, _ s._ henry's (mat.) exposition on the old and new testament, from no. , to no. . mess. _knapton_, &c. each no. _ s._ hewitt's (john) corn dealers assistant, consisting of tables ready calculated to shew at one view the amount of any quantity of grain, &c. _a. bettesworth_, _j. clark_, _ s. d._ hewitt's tables of simple interest from one penny to , l. &c. _a. bettesworth_, &c. _ s. d._ higgon's (bevill) historical works, vols. vol. , containing a view of history, vol. , remarks on bishop burnet's history of his own time, _p. meighan_, _ s._ hill's (hen.) first six books of euclid's elements, in a new method, _j. bonwicke_, &c. _ s. d._ historical registers, published by the sun fire office, for , four numbers, _e. nutt_, each _ s._ historical (an) and law treatise against jews and judaism, &c. _t. boreman_, _ d._ history of antoninis, a young nobleman, left alone in his infancy upon a desolate island, where he lived years, _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ history of charles the xiith king of sweden from voltaire, th edit. _c. davis_, vo. _ s._ mo. _ s._ history of prince titi, translated by the hon. mrs stanley, _e. curl_, _ s._ history of the ottoman empire, from the first foundation to the present times, &c. with heads of the turkish emperors, mess. _knapton_, _ l. s._ history of england by way of question and answer, french and english, _t. vaillant_, _ s. d._ history of the marshal turenne, translated from the french, vols. _t. woodward_, _ s. d._ hodgson's (jam.) doctrine of fluxions, founded on sir isaac newton's method, mess. _innys_, _motte_, &c. _ s._ hooke's (a.) essay on physick, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s. d._ hoppus's (e.) practical measuring, made easy to the meanest capacity, &c. _e. wicksteed_, _ s._ horace's satires, epistles, &c. done into english by s. dunstar, _d. brown_, _ s._ horsley (tho.) horationa prosodia sive de metris, horatianis, tractatus, aldi manutis expositio, _j. wilford_, _ d._ howard's (j.) sermon at st peter, westminster, on the th of aug. , on the late tumults, _j. roberts_, _ d._ humphries's (sam.) old and new testament, recited at large, with notes and cuts, no. , to . i. j. jacob's (hileb.) five first books of brutus the trojan, an epic poem, _w. lewis_, _ s._ jacob's (giles) accomplished conveyance, vols. d edit. corrected, _h. lintott_, _ s._ jacob's (g.) law dictionary, d edit. enlarged, mess. _knapton_, &c. _ l. s._ jacomb's (w.) two sermons at marden in kent, _j. gray_, _ d._ jenkins's (judge) eight centuries: or, eight hundred cases, translated into english, with the addition of a new table and many references, _j. worrall_, _ s._ jephson's (alex.) discourse concerning the lord's day, in two parts, _c. jephson_, _ s._ jephson's reality of our blessed saviour's miracles defended, _c. jephson_, _ s. d._ jewish superstition inconsistent with christian liberty, &c. _t. cooper_, _ d._ ignorami lamentatio super legis communis translationem ex latino in anglicum, &c. _ s._ vendit hunc librum gilliverus cujus insigne est homerus. impartial (an) enquiry into the motives of the opposition to the ministry, _j. roberts_, _ s._ impartial (an) enquiry into the british distillery, demonstrating the evil consequences of imposing any additional duties, in answer to a pamphlet intituled, distilled liquors the bane of the british nation, _j. roberts_, _ s._ impartial (an) review of the present state of affairs in europe, _t. cooper_, _ d._ infant's church membership and baptism, proved to be god's ordinance, _t. cooper_, _ d._ information (the) for his majesty's advocate against capt. porteous's. also capt. porteous's answer, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s._ instructions for planting and managing hops, _d. brown_, _ s._ interest of scotland considered, with regard to employing the poor, &c. _t. woodward_, _ s. d._ introduction (an) to the doctrine of fluxions and defence of the mathematicians &c. _j. noon_, _ s._ johnson's (capt.) lives of the higwayman, pyrates, &c. large copper plates. _o. payne_, _ s._ joseph, a poem, by the author of friendship in death, _t. worrall_, _ s. d._ josephus's (flav.) works with cuts and maps. to which is added, explanatory notes by h. jackson, gent, _j. worrall_, _ l. s._ journey from aleppo to damascus, with the surprizing and tragical end of mustafa, a turk; done from the french, by j. green, _j. stone_, &c. _ s. d._ irish (the) miscellany by d---- sw----t, _a. dodd_, _ s._ iscariot (dr) to dr codex, on the great care of tithes, &c. _ s._ isidora to casimir, an epistle, _j. roberts_, _ d._ ismenia and the prince: or, the royal marriage, a novel, _e. curl_, _ s._ juxon's (jos.) sermon upon witchcraft, july , . occasioned by a late illegal attempt to discover witches by swimming, _j. roberts_, _ d._ k. kelly's (george) speech at the bar of the house of lords, may , in his defence, _t. cooper_, _ d._ kelly's (john) french idioms, with the english adapted; designed for the use of those, who would speak or translate that language with propriety, _j. batley_, _ s. d._ kennet's lives of the græcian poets; with their heads on copper plates, d. edit. _s. austen_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] kenwrick's (g.) religious man's companion, _j. brindley_, and _r. ryal_, _ d._ key to pasquin, a dramatic satire, _ d._ king's (jam.) sacramental devotions, th. edit. _j. hazard_, _ s. d._ knight's (dr) discourse on the conflragation [transcriber's note: so in original] and renovation of the world, &c. _t. cox_, _ s._ l. la belle assemblée: a curious collection of remarkable incidents, which happened to the quality in france, vols. th. edit. _t. astley_, _ s. d._ langford's (william) sermon at little st helen's, aug. _r. ford_, _ d._ lansdown (ld.) works in prose and verse, vols. mess. _tonson_, _gilliver_, and _j. clarke_, _ s. d._ latham's (j.) view of the difficulties attending those who enter into holy orders, _w. parker_, _ s._ law quibbles: or, a treatise of the tricks, turns, and evasions in the law, to the prejudice of the client, th edit. with the addition of a second part; containing precedents of conveyances in extraordinary cases, _a. bettesworth_, _j. worrall_, _c. corbett_, _r. wellington_, _ s. d._ law visions, or, pills for posterity, _j. crichley_, _ s._ le brun's (mr) travels into muscovy, persia, &c. translated from the french, vols. _a. bettesworth_, _s. birt_, _ l. s. d._ lee (mat.) oratio anniversaria in theatrio collegii, regalis medicorum londinentium, ex harvæi instituto, &c. _j. innys_, _ s._ lediard's (tho.) life of john, duke of marlborough, &c. with cuts, vols. _j. wilcox_, _ s._ les amusemens de spa: or, the gallantries of the spaw in germany, vols. _ward_ and _chandler_, _ s._ letter (a) to the people of england: occasioned by the falling away of the clergy from the doctrines of the reformation, _a. cruden_, _ d._ letter (a) to a member of the h. commons, occasioned by a petition from the quakers, d. edit. _t. cooper_, _ d._ letter (a) on the nature and state of curiosity, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ letter (a) to the hon. society of lincoln's inn: containing a defense of the doxology to be used at the reading the holy gospels, _f. gyles_, _ d._ letter (a) to sir wm. w----m, upon the intended application to parliament for repealing the corporation and test acts, _a. dodd_, _ d._ letter (a) on the origin of the degrees of doctor more; particularly in physic, conferred in the universities, _j. roberts_, _ d._ letter (a) from mr forman to a member of parliament, _j. torbuck_, _ s._ letter (a) from a quaker to tho. bradbury, a dealer of many words, _j. wildbore_, _ d._ letter (a) to tho. burnet, esq; shewing that he hath used the same fidelity in printing a letter of dr beach's, as the editors of bp. burnett's history of his own times have exemplified, _r. reily_, _ s._ letter (a) from a member of parl. to his friend in the country, against the late act for retailing spirituous liquors, _h. haines_, _ d._ letter (a) to the president, &c. of sion college; upon occasion of the addresses lately presented to the bp. of london, _j. roberts_, _ d._ letters to a friend in the country, published in the old whig, _j. roberts_, _ s._ letters from a moor at london, to his friend at tunis. containing an account of his journey through england, observing of their laws, customs, &c. _j. batley_, &c. _ s. d._ letters written by mr pope and lord bolingbroke to d. swift, in , with his lordship's effigies and character, _e. curl_, _ s. d._ lewis's (j.) philosopher's stone; discovering the right way to be happy, _j. lewis_, _ s._ lewis's history and antiquities of the isle of tenet, in kent, _j. osborne_, _ s._ leybourn's traders sure guide: tables ready cast up, for the use of merchants, mercers, bankers, &c. th edit. _g. conyers_, &c. _ s. d._ life of mr john gay, author of the beggar's opera, _e. curl_, _ s. d._ life of mother gin, her conduct and politicks, _w. webb_, _ d._ life of william rydock, alias wreathocke, who was condemned for robbing dr lancaster, june , , _j. wilford_, _ s._ life of osman, the great emperor of the turks, vols. _c. ward_, _ s._ literary (the) magazines published monthly, _j. wilford_, each _ d._ littleton's (edw.) sermons on several practical subjects, vols. d edit. _e. littleton_, _ s._ locke's miscellany of the mathematicks, in parts, _j. roberts_, _ s._ lockman's (j.) ode to the memory of the late duke of buckinghamshire, _r. dodsley_, _ d._ london and country brewer, part d, _ s. d._ london magazine, published monthly, for , _t. astley_, each _ d._ london's wonder: or, the chaste old batchelor: being the life of mr samuel wright, late of stoke newington, _e. curl_, _ s._ lord's prayer in above languages, _b. motte_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] lord's protest. to which is added, the state of the national debts &c. _ d._ love letters between a nobleman and his sister, parts, vols. _j. tonson_, &c. _ s. d._ luck's miscellany poems, _e. cave_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] luxury, pride and vanity, the bane of the british nation, _j. roberts_, _ s._ luxury, with respect to apparel, discourses on timothy, . . by a country clergyman, _t. green_, _ s. d._ lynch's (dr) sermon before the society for propagation of the gospel in foreign parts, at st mary le bow, _j. pemberton_, _ d._ m. macky's journey thro' england and scotland, in familiar letters, from a gentleman here to his friend abroad, vols. _r. gosling_, _ s._ mackewen's (rob.) funeral sermon on the death of the late ld visc. barrington, _j. gray_, _ d._ macsturdy's (herc.) trip to vaux-hall, a satire on the times, _ s._ maddox's (dr) vindication of the government, and worship of the church of england, in the reign of q. eliz. _a. bettesworth_, _ s. d._ maddox's (tho.) baronia anglica: an history of land honours and baronies, and of tenure and capite verified by records &c. _r. gosling_, _ l. s._ maffei (scip.) il primo canto dell' iliade d'omero aradatta in versi italiani, _j. brindley_, _ s._ mallory's (john) quare impedit; in two parts, with tables, _t. astley_, _j. shugburgh_, _ s._ maurice's (matt.) sermon at the opening the new meeting at rowel, nov. , _j. oswald_, _a. cruden_, _ d._ mariveaux's life of marianne: or, the adventures of the cfs. * * * translated into english, _c. davis_, _ s. d._ markham's introduction to spelling, th edit. _j. hodges_, _ s._ markland's art of shooting flying, a poem, d ed. _t. astley_, _ d._ marsh's (cha.) poem on christmas day, _j. roberts_, _ d._ martin's (benj.) young trigonometer's guide, vols. _j. noon_, _ s. d._ mason's (john) select remains of the rev. mr john mason, m.a. _r. ford_, _ s. d._ massey's (edm.) sermon before the lord mayor, may, , _b. motte_, _ d._ mauriceau's (fran.) diseases of women with child; translated by h. chamberlane, th edition, _j. clark_, _ s._ maynard's (edw.) sermons preached at oxford, and at lincoln's inn, vols. d edit. _a. bettesworth_, _ s._ memoirs of the ancestors of her royal highness augusta, princess of wales, &c. _j. oswald_, _ s._ memoirs of the life, travels, &c. of the rev. mr george kelly, _e. curl_, _ s._ memoirs of prince titi, part , , _a. dodd_, each, _ s._ memoirs of the life of barton booth. esq; that excellent comedian, _j. osborne_, _ s._ merlin, a poem, _t. cooper_, _ d._ merlin, a poem, also the hermitage, with a curious frontispiece, _a. cruden_, _ d._ mesnager's (mons.) negotiations at the court of england, done from the french, _j. roberts_, _ s._ military history of prince eugene of savoy, the duke of marlborough, each no. _ s._ miller's (phil.) gardener's dictionary, d edit. _c. rivington_, _ l. s._ minute mathematician; or, the free thinker no just thinker, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s. d._ miserable (the) state of religion in england, upon the downfal of church establish. _j. stagg_, _ s. d._ mitchell's gratulatory verses upon the happy marriage of the prince of wales with the princess of saxe gotha, _t. cooper_, _ d._ modern cook, vid. chapelle. modern matrimony, a satire, _t. cooper_, _ d._ modest defence of the opposition lately given to the quaker's bill, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] montfaucon's antiquity explained and represented in near sculptures, translated into english by david humphreys, parts, vols. large pap. nine guineas, common paper seven guineas, _j. osborne_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] moral reflections on select passages of the new testament, vols. _w. bickerton_, _ s._ morris's lecture on architecture, part d, _ s._ morris's (g.) tables for renewing and purchasing leases and lives, &c. _j. brotherton_, _ s. d._ moss's (rob.) practical sermons, vols. _r. williamson_, _ l. s._ motto's of the spectators, tatlers and guardians, _r. wellington_, _ s. d._ motto's of the nobility, &c. _r. wellington_, _ s. d._ muller's (john) system of conic sections, with the doctrine of fluxions, fluents, &c. _w. innys_, _ s._ myonoatt's (john) nature of religious liberty, a sermon at st paul's th of november, , _r. ford_, _ d._ n. nalson's (val.) sermons on several subjects, mess. _knapton_, &c. _ s._ natural history of chocolate, vertues of it, &c. d edit. _d. browne_, _ s. d._ natural history of bugs: of their breeding, food, and climate, &c. _a. cruden_, _ d._ national (the) merchant: being an essay for improving the trade and plantations, _t. osborne_, _j. walthoe_, _ s._ nature will prevail: an apology for a darling passion, &c. _t. cooper_, _ d._ necessity (the) of distinguishing public spirit, from party, _t. cooper_, _ d._ needler's (hen.) works, d edit. _j. osborne_, _ s._ nelson (wm.) office of a justice of peace, vols. brought down to this present year, , th edit. _r. gosling_, _ s. d._ nelson's (wm.) laws of england. of hunting, fowling, fishing, &c. d edition enlarged, _e. withers_, _ s._ nesbitt's (rob.) human osteogeny, explained, in two lectures at surgeons hall, _w. innys_, _c. davis_, _ s._ neve's (rich.) city and country purchaser and builders dictionary, d edit. much enlarged, _s. birt_, &c. _ s._ new (a) roman history by way of question and answer, for the use of schools, _t. astley_, _ s._ new (a) scheme for reducing the laws, relating to the poor, into one act, &c. _t. cooper_, _ d._ new week's preparation for the sacrament, _j. wicksteed_, _ s._ new (a) general english dictionary, begun by thomas dyche, finished by will. pardon, d edit. _r. ware_, _ s._ new abridgment of the law, vid. abridgment. new description of all the counties in england and wales, &c. _j. hodges_, _ s. d._ new (the) astronomer: or, astronomy made easy by instruments, by w.r. _j. roberts_, _ d._ new (the) year's gift in parts, composed of meditations and prayers, &c. _s. birt_, _ s. d._ part the first sold alone, _ d._ new (the) atalantis, with a key at the bottom of every page, vols. _j. watson_, _ s._ newlin's (tho.) sermon at the funeral of the rev. mr john hart, _w. parker_, _ d._ newton's philosophy explained to the youth at the university at leyden, &c. _w. innys_, _ s._ newton's (sir isaac) real or intrinsic par or exchange between london and other cities, of the several foreign, silver and gold coins, _r. willock_, _ s._ newton's tables for renewing and purchasing of cathedral churches and college leases, &c. th ed. _t. astley_, _ s._ newton's method of fluxions and infinite series, &c. _j. nourse_, _ s. d._ newton's method of fluxions, english, _j. millan_, _t. woodman_, _ s._ nicholl's (fran.) compendium anatomico oeconomicum, &c. d edit. _j. clarke_, _ s._ nicholson's english, scotch, and irish historical libraries, d edit. _t. osborne_, _ l. s._ no reason for applying for the repeal of the test act, with remarks on the dispute better adjusted, _j. roberts_, _ d._ norwich's (bp.) charge to the clergy of his diocese in the year , _f. gyles_, _ d._ notes on an answer to a late pamphlet, entituled, an examinat. of the scheme of the church power, laid down in the codex, &c. _j. worrall_, _ d._ nouveau theatre de la grande bretagne: or, views in perspective views, of noblemens and gentlemen's seats in england and wales, copper plates, vols. royal paper, _j. brindley_, _c. corbett_, &c. in sheets, _ l. s._ numerus infaustus: a short view of the unfortunate reigns of k. william d, henry d, edward d, richard d, charles d, james d, the d edit. with notes, _j. roberts_, _ s._ nunnery tales from the french manuscript, d ed. _m. lovemore_, _ s._ o. observations on the report of the committee for building a mansion house for the ld mayor of london, _ d._ occasional remarks upon the act for laying a duty on the retailers of spiritous liquors, &c. _a. dodd_, _ d._ odell's ode, sacred to the nuptials of their r. highnesses, the prince and princess of wales, _ d._ oeconomy (the) of love, a poetical essay, _t. cooper_, _ s._ ogilby and morgan's pocket book of roads, in england and wales, th edition, _l. gilliver_, _ s. d._ oration (an) made upon nov. , , to a friendly society of military members, _e. davis_, _ d._ orders and resolutions of the hon. h. of com. on controverted elections, _j. stagg,_ _ s._ ordinary of newgate's account of the behaviour, and dying words of thomas reynolds, executed at tyburn, july , for cutting down ledbury turnpike, _j. applebee_, _ d._ origin (the) of the bath. to which is added the wrinkle, a burlesque, _t. cooper_, _ d._ ovid's epistles and amours translated into english verse, by mr dryden, &c. with cuts, _j. tonson_, _ s._ owen's britannia depicta: or, ogilby improved, printed from copper plates, _t. bowles_, _ s._ ozinde's practical french grammar, in a new method, _t. vaillant_ &c. _ s._ p. palladio londinensis, vid. salmon. papers relating to the quakers tythe bill: with the country parson's plea against it, &c. _ d._ parricide, (the) a tragedy, _j. walthoe_, _ s. d._ pardie's (j.) essay on the german texts and old-print alphabets, useful for engravers, &c. _ s._ pasquin, a drammatick satire on the times, _ s. d._ passeran's (count) twelve discourses, moral, historical, and political, for which the author was burnt, _j. wilford_, stitch'd, _ s._ passeran's comical and true account of the modern canibals religion, _j. wilford_, _ s._ pathetick (a) address to the dissenting laity, in relation to the test-act, _ d._ patriot: (the) being a dramatick history of the life and death of the first prince of orange, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ pausanias and aurora: being the conclusion of pr. titi's history, _e. curl_, _ s._ perzonei's (vin.) vindication of mr lock, from scepticism, _j. knapton_, _ s. d._ persian letters, translated from the french, by mr ozell, vols. _j. tonson_, _ s. d._ petronius arbiter, in prose and verse, by mr addison, _j. osborne_, _ s._ philemon to hydaspes, a conversation upon the subject of false religion, _j. roberts_, _ s._ philomelia: or, poems by mrs eliz. singer, (now rowe) _e. curl_, _ s._ philosophical transactions, no. , to , inclusive, _w. innys_, each _ s._ philosophical transactions abridged, from the year , to , by john eames and john martyn, _j. brotherton_, _w. meadows_, &c. _ l. s._ pickworth's (hen.) true relation of false prophecies, and pretended divine revelations of the pleople [transcriber's note: so in original] called quakers, of a most seditious nature, _j. wilford_, _ s. d._ pilulæ wardeanæ, dissectio & examinatio: ward's pill dissected and examined, &c. _ d._ pipe (a) of tobacco, in imitation of six several authors, a poem, _l. gilliver_, _ d._ place's (cony.) remarks on a treatise, entituled, a plain account of the lord's supper, _j. roberts_, _ s._ plain account of the sacrament, compared with the account given by dr lancelot andrews, _j. roberts_, _ d._ plain dealer: being a select essay on curious subjects, vols. _j. osborne_, _ s._ plain man's instructor in the common prayer of the church of england, _t. wotton_, _ d._ plea (a) for the sacramental test, as a just security to the established church, _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ pleasures of conjugal love explained, _j. torbuck_, _ s. d._ polite (the) philosopher, which makes a man happy in himself and agreeable to others, d ed. _e. nutt_, _ s._ political dialogues, between the celebrated statues of pasquin and murforio at rome, _t. bereman_, _ s._ political justice, a poem, _j. walthoe_, _ s._ political states for , published monthly, _t. cooper_, each _ s. d._ pomet's hist. of drugs, translated from the fr. _s. birt_, _e. wickstead_, _ l._ pope's (alex.) works, with notes and additions, vols. _l. gilliver_, _h. lintott_, &c. _ s._ pope's literary correspondence, vol. th, vo, _ s._ mo _ s. d._ stitch'd, _e. curl_. pope's letters from to , _j. torbuck_, _ s._ popery confuted by papists: or, the protestant doctrine confirmed, _c. ward_, _ s._ popple's double deceit: or, a cure for jealousy, a comedy, _t. cooper_, _ s. d._ power, (of) a moral poem, _h. lintott_, _ s._ precedents of examination, warrants, bonds, &c. relating to bastardy, _h. lintott_, _ s._ present (the) state of the church of scotland, with respect to patronages, &c. _j. roberts_, _ d._ present state of the republick of letters for , _w. innys_, each no. _ s._ prideaux's (humph.) original right of tithes, d edit. _r. knaplock_, _j. tonson_, _ s._ present (the) necessity of distinguishing publick spirit from party, _t. cooper_, _ d._ private letters adapted to publick use, _a. cruden_, _ d._ privileges of an englishman in the kingdom of portugal, at the portugal coffee-house, _ s. d._ prognostick signs of acute diseases, _g. strahan_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] proper (a) reply to a pamphlet, entituled, the trial of the spirits, _j. roberts_, _ d._ proposal for enabling the clergy to accept advanc'd rents, in lieu of fines, defended, _a. dodd_, _ d._ q. quakers (the) reply to the country parson's plea against the quakers bill for tythes, _t. cooper_, _ d._ quarles (fra.) emblems, divine and moral, cuts, _j. clark_, _ s. d._ quincy's (john) lexicon physico medicum: or, a new medicinal dictionary, th edit. _t. longman_, _ s._ r. raleigh's (sir walter) history of the world, with cuts, vols. mess. _knapton_, &c. _ l._ rapin's history of england, continued no. , mess. _knapton_, _ d._ rapin continued, _mitchell_, _ s._ reading's (dan.) english clerk's instructor in the k.b. and c.b. in filling up writs of the first process, in drawing declarations, &c. vols. _j. worrall_, _ s._ reading's (wm.) sermons out of the first lessons at morning and evening prayer, for all the sundays in the year, vols. _j. watts_, _ l. s._ reading's history of our lord and saviour jesus christ, &c. th edit. _j. osborne_, _ s._ reasonableness of applying for the repeal of the test act, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ redeemer and sanctifier: or, the sacrifice of christ, &c. vindicated, _j. oswald_, _ s. d._ religion (the) of satan: or, antichrist delineated, by j.h. _a. dodd_, _ s._ religious ceremonies, du bosc, each no. _ s._ remarks upon a late discourse on free thinking; by phil. lipsiensis, th edit. with additions, _w. thurlburne_, _ s. d._ remarks of a persian traveller on the principal courts of europe, &c. _p. vaillant_, _ s._ remarks on a late political farce, entituled, observations on the pres. plan of peace, _t. cooper_, _ d._ remarks on the present crisis, humbly offered to the present parliament, _ s._ remarks on dr warren's answer to a book, entituled, a plain account, &c. _j. roberts_, _ d._ reports in chancery, in the reigns of k. cha. i, and ii, k. jam. ii, k. will. iii, q. anne, d edit. _t. osborne_, _ l. s._ reynell. (a' rich.) de catelepsi schediasma; una cum historia mulieris catalepticæ, _c. davis_, _ s._ ridley's four sermons on the doctrine of the lord's supper, _j. clark_, _ s._ rinology: or, a description of the nose, particularly the bridge, _w. webb_, _ d._ robins's (n.) abridgment of all the irish statutes, to the th year of k. geo. iid inclusive, mess. _knapton_, _ l. s._ robinson's (w.) proportional architecture, d ed. _c. corbett_, _ s. d._ robinson's (nic.) treatise of the venereal disease, mess. _knapton_, &c. _ s._ rogerson's (jos.) sermon on the death of the rev. mr john platts, _r. hett_, _ d._ rollin's (m.) history of the Ægyptians, carthegenians, &c. vols. mess. _knapton_, _ l. s._ royal (the) marriage, an opera, _j. leake_, _ d._ s. sacchia ludus: or, the game of chess, a poem, translat. into eng. by w.e. _a. millar_, _ s. d._ sackville's (ld.) antient tragedy of gorboduc; being the first regular play in english, _r. dodsley_, _ s._ sacrament (the) of the lord's supper, considered, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ sacrament of the lord's supper explained, by the pres. bp. of lond. _m. downing_, _ s. d._ salkeld's reports in the k.b. can. c.p. and exch. vols. d edit. _s. austen_, _ l. s._ salmon's (will) palladio londinensis: or, the london art of building, in parts, mess. _ward_ and _wickstead_, &c. _ s._ salmon's builders guide, and gentlemen and traders assistant: or, a magazine of tables, _j. hodges_, _ s._ salmon's (tho.) modern history of america, each no. _ s._ salmon's (n.) antiquities of surrey, sold by the author in durham-yard, _ s._ sannazarius on the birth of our saviour, done into english verse, _w. lewis_, _ s._ scamozzi's mirror of architecture, or rules of building, _b. sprint_, _ s. d._ scripture guide to communicants: being the substance of a plain account, &c. _t. cooper_, _ s._ seasonable (the) reproof, a satire, in the manner of horace, _l. gilliver_, _ s._ second (a) letter to tho. burnet, esq; _r. reily_, _ s._ sedition, a poem inscrib'd to sir robert walpole, _a. dodd_, _ s._ select and curious cases of polygamy, concubinage, adultery, &c. _o. payne_, _ s._ serces's (jam.) popery an enemy of scripture, &c. _j. watts_, _ s. d._ sermon in snow field meeting house, aug. , , _j. roberts_, _ d._ sermon (a) in the cathedral of winchester, before the governors of the county hospital, _j. pemberton_, _ s._ sessions papers, _j. roberts_, each, _ d._ sharpe's (bp.) sermons and discourses, vols. _w. parker_, _ l. s. d._ shaw's (pet.) practice of physick, th edit. vols. _t. longman_, _ s._ shaw's (jos.) practical justice, vols. d edit. _t. ward_, _e. wickstead_, _ s. d._ short instructions for them that are preparing for confirmation, &c. _c. rivington_, _ d._ short and easy method with the deists, with a letter from the author to a deist on his conversion, _g. strahan_, _ s._ sidney's (sir phil.) works, vols. th edition, _r. gosling_, _ s._ skelton's pithy, pleasant and profitable works, _c. davis_, _ s._ sketch (a) of the situation of a palace at whitehall, &c. _ d._ sloss's (jam.) doctrine of the trinity explained and confirmed in several sermons at nottingham, _j. davidson_, _ s._ smith's (w.) free mason's pocket companion, _j. torbuck_, _ s._ smith's (jam.) specimen of antient carpentry, &c. _h. lintott_, _ s._ soame's (dav.) sermon on the death of the rev. mr tho. saunders at ketering, _r. hett_, _ d._ some doctrines in the superlapsarian scheme examined by the word of god, _s. cruden_, _ s. d._ some observations on the case of the dissenters, with reference to the corporation and test acts, _t. cooper_, _ d._ some observations on the present plan of peace, _r. haynes_, _ d._ some proposals for the revival of christianity, _t. cooper_, _ d._ some remarks on a letter to tho. burnet, esq; said to be written by a son of dr beach, _t. cooper_, _ d._ some seasonable considerations on the state of the nation, _t. cooper_, _ d._ some plain reasons offered against the bill now depending in parliament, to restrain the dispos. land, _j. roberts_, _ d._ some remarks on the tragedy of hamlet, _t. cooper_, _ s._ somervile's chace, a poem, _g. hawkins_, _ s. d._ spectacle de la nature: or, nature display'd; illustrated with near copper plates, vols. _j. pemberton_, &c. _ s._ speech (the) of mr john talbot campbell, a free christian negroe, to his countrymen in the mountains of jamaica, _j. roberts_, _ d._ spiritual (the) crisis: or, the religion of salvation delineated, _j. roberts_, _ s._ sportsman's (the) dictionary in hawking, hunting, fowling, &c. vols. with cuts, _c. hitch_, &c. _ s._ stackhouse's life of the late bp. atterbury, _j. osborne_, _ s. d._ stanoe's (tho.) seven discourses on prov. xxii, , _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ state trials for high treason, &c. vol. th and th, to compleat the six vols. formerly published, _t. wotton_, _ l. s._ statutes at large, vol. th, to compleat the statutes at large volumes formerly published, _r. gosling_, _ l. s. d._ statutes concerning elections, _r. stagg_, _ s._ statutes concern. poor, _r. gosling_, _ s. d._ statutes relating to bankrupts, _r. gosling_, _ s. d._ statutes for preserv. of the game, _r. gosling_, _ s._ stebbing's (dr) state of the controversy with mr foster on the subject of heresy, _j. pemberton_, _ s._ stephens's (huster.) italian book-keeping reduced into art, _w. mears_, _ s._ [transcriber's note: author's first name is "hustcraft."] steukeley's (w.) palæographa sacra: or, discourses on monuments of antiquity, no. , _ s. d._ stillingfleet's (dr) life; his controversies, &c. _j. torbuck_, _ s._ stirling's corderii coloquicorum centura pelecta [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] stirling's (j.) satires of persius flacus, for the use of schools, _t. astley_, _ s._ stirling's pub. ovidii nasonis tristia, _t. astley_, _ s. d._ stirling's eutropij historia romanæ breviarium, _t. astley_, _ s. d._ stirling's system of rhetorick, _t. astley_, _ d._ stirling's paracide, a tragedy, _ s._ stonecastle's universal spectator, vols. _j. pemberton_, _t. worrall_, &c. _ s._ strong's (nath.) england's perfect school-master: or, directions for exact spelling, &c. _e. parker_, _ s._ summary (a) of natural religion; containing a proof of the being and attributes of god, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ summary (a) view of westminster hall, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] supplement (a) to the sermons at salters-hall against popery: containing remarks on a great corruption therein omitted, _j. noon_, _ s._ supplement to the impartial enquiry into the british distillery, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] swift's and pope's miscellanies, vols. _b. motte_, _ s._ symbola heroica; or, the mottoes of the nobility and baronets of great britain, _j. stephens_, _ s. d._ sylverler's (tip.) critical dissertation on tit. iii. , _t. cooper_, _ s._ syren (the) a collection of the most celebrated english songs, _j. osborne_, _ s._ t. tale of a tub bottled off and moralized, _j. roberts_, _ d._ tendon's new french grammar, teaching without a master, _j. millan_, _j. fox_, _ s._ terentij (pub.) afri comædia ad editionem & harii & bentleij. _b. barker_, _ s._ testimony (a) of antiquity concerning the sacramental body and blood of christ, &c. _j. roberts_, _ s._ theory (the) and practice of gardening. of pleasure gardens, &c. done from the french of alexander blond, by j. james, d edit. _j. osborne_, _ s._ thomas's (wm.) survey of the cathedral church of worcester, _j. clark_, duck lane. [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] thompson's britain: or, fourth part of liberty, a poem, _a. millar_, _ s. d._ thompson's prospect: or, fifth part of liberty, a poem, _millar_, _ s._ toleration disapproved and condemned by a letter of the presbyterian ministers in london; presented to the assembly of divines at westminster, , _j. stagg_, _ s._ tottie's view of reason, a sermon at st paul's, _c. rivington_, _ d._ treatise of the gout, in pts, _a. cruden_, _ s. d._ treatise (a) on virtue and happiness, d edit. _j. batley_, _ s._ trial (the) of mauritius vale, esq; in jamaica, for the murder of mr john stevens, merchant, _t. cooper_, _ d._ trial of rob. nixon, a nonjuring clergyman; for a high crime, &c. _e. cook_, _ d._ trial of capt. john porteous, for wounding and killing several persons at a late execution, at edinburgh, _t. cooper_, _ d._ trial of old father christmass, for encouraging his majesty's subjects in idleness, drunkenness, &c. _t. cooper_, _ d._ true (a) account of the doctrine of christ, and the primitive church, with respect to the eucharist, shewing the inconsistency of a late sacramental piece, called a plain account, _f. gyles_, _ s. d._ true (the) secret history of the kings and queens of england, vols. _d. browne_, _ s._ true (the) picture of quakerism; in a view of the blasphemies, heresies, &c. of the quakers of old, _j. roberts_, _ s._ true state of england; containing the duty, business and salary of every officer, civil and military, _j. fox_, _ s._ truth (the) and importance of the doctrine of the trinity, &c. demonstrated, _j. noon_, _ s._ truth and reason displayed to british subjects, in a view of the past and present state, _t. cooper_, _ s._ turner's (dan.) art of surgery, vols. th edit. _j. clark_, _ s._ turner's diseases of the skin, th edit. _ s._ turner on the veneral disease, th edit. _ s._ turner (dan.) aphrodisiacus, containing a summary of the antient writers on the venereal disease, _j. clark_, _ s._ twells's (leon.) second vindication of st. matthew's gospel, _r. gosling_, _ s._ two conferences between mr john gonston, commonly called dr sharp, a romish priest, lately deceased, and william gunbie, a layman of the church of england, on transubstantiation, _e. withers_, _ d._ u. v. varenius's (bern) geography; explaining the nature and properties of the earth, &c. translated into english by mr dugdale, vols. d edit. _s. austen_, _ s._ vaughan's (wm. owen gwyn) voyages, travels, and adventures, &c. vols. _j. osborne_, _ s._ vindication (a) of the bp. of winchester, against those who ascribe the book, entituled, a plain account, &c. to his lordship, _t. cooper_, _ s._ vindication of the assemblies shorter catechism; revised, &c. _r. ford_, _j. gray_, _ s._ vindication of the history of the septuagint, &c. _t. woodward_, _ s._ universal beauty, part th, which compleats the whole, _j. wilcox_, _ s._ universal history from the earliest account of time to the present, &c. vol. , in parts, in sheets, _ l. s. d._ no. , , , , , , of vol. d, _j. batley_, &c. each, _ s. d._ vocal miscellany: containing above songs, d edit. vols. _c. corbett_, _c. ward_, &c. _ s._ voiture's (mons.) works in prose and verse, vols. _j. pemberton_, _ s._ voyage (a) from the east indies, _t. cooper_, _ s._ upton's (jam.) sermon on the nature and grounds of anger, _s. birt_, _ d._ w. warning-piece to english protestants, on the growth of popery, _r. montagu_, _ s._ warren's first answer, to a book, intituled, a plain account of the sacrament, &c. _c. rivington_, _ s._ warren's second answer [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] warren's third answer, _ s._ waterland's (dan.) charge to the middlesex clergy, th of may, , _j. crownfield_, _ d._ watson's (wm.) rules and orders of the com. pleas, from , to mich. , _j. fox_, _ s._ watts's (j.) redeemer and sanctifier; or, the sacrifice of christ, and the operation of the spirit vindicated, _j. oswald_, _ s. d._ way (the) to be wise and wealthy: or, frugality recommended, _j. roberts_, _ d._ webster's duty of keeping the whole law, _j. roberts_, _ d._ webster's (will.) arithmetick in epitome and essay on book-keeping, vols. _a. bettesworth_, &c. each, _ s. d._ wells's (dr edw.) paraphrase on the old and new testament, with tables, &c. vols. to _ l. s._ wells's historical geography of the old and new testament, with cuts and maps, vols. vo _ l._ wells's help for right understanding the several divine laws and covenants, &c. _ s. d._ wells's controversial treatises against the dissenters, &c. _ s. d._ wells's exposition of the church catechism, _ d._ wells's young gentleman's course of mathematicks, with copper plates, vols. mess. _knapton_, _ s._ welstead's scheme and conduct or providence, from the creation to the coming of the messiah, _j. walthoe_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] welwood's (jam.) memoirs for the last years preceeding the revolution, _d. browne_, _c. corbett_, _ s._ westley's (s.) poems on several occasions, &c. _c. rivington_, and _s. birt_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] weston's (tho.) new treatise of arithmetick, mess. _ward_ and _chandler_, _ s._ wharton's (duke of) life and writings, vols. _j. osborne_, _ s._ wharton's (duke of) poetical works, vols. _w. warner_, _ s._ whiston's mosis chornensis historiæ armeniacæ libri iii. _j. whiston_, _ s._ whiston's (wm.) enquiry into the evidence of a. bp. cranmer's recantation, _j. whiston_, _ d._ whiston's doctrine of the two first centuries concerning the lord's supper, _j. whiston_, _ s. d._ whiston's new theory of the earth, th edit. _j. whiston_, _ s._ whiston's extract out of josephus's exhortation to the greeks, concerning the state of departed souls, _ d._ wilkinson's (john) sermon before the religious societies, mess. _pemberton_, _ d._ willis's (browne) survey of the cathedrals of york, durham, carlisle, &c. vols. _r. gosling_, _ l. s._ willis's parochale anglicanum: or, the names of all the churches, &c. _r. gosling_, _ s._ wilson's (sam.) sermon on popular tumults, preached in goodman's fields, aug. , _j. wilson_, _ d._ wilson's (george) compleat course of chymistry, _j. osborne_, _ s._ wilson's (hen.) navigation new modell'd, &c. _w. mount_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] wisdom from above, d edit. _m. downing_, [transcriber's note: price missing in original.] woman's prerogative, a poem, _s. slow_, _ d._ worrall's (j.) bibliotheca legum: or, a new list of all the law books extant, to the present year; giving an account of their several editions, dates and prices, and wherein they differ, d edition enlarged. to which is now added a table of the cotemporary reporters, from their first publication, to this time. worrall's bibliotheca topographica anglicana: or, a new and compleat catalogue of all the books extant, relating to the antiquity, description, and natural history of england, the counties thereof, &c. in the same method, _j. worrall_, one shilling each, or two shillings bound together. worsley's (j.) tables of the greek, latin, english and french verbs, &c. _a. ward_, _ s. d._ y. yarico to inkle, an epistle dedicated to miss santloe, _l. gilliver_, _ s._ yelverton's reports, with the judges approbation, translated into english, d edition, with many additional references, _j. worrall_, _ s._ young clerk's assistant: or, penmanship made easy, copper plates, _r. ware_, _ s. d._ young's (dr) true estimate of human life, _t. worrall_, _ s._ youth's monitor. in six annual sermons preached to young people in broad-street, _j. oswald_, _ s. d._ z. zara, a tragedy, from the french of voltaire, _j. roberts_, _ s. d._ * * * * * _plays beautifully printed, with red titles and frontispieces; publish'd at d. each, sold by_ w. feales, _&c._ wife's relief ignoramus richard d d. of guise refusal alban and alban. artful husband cæsar in Ægypt d. sabastian country wit cleomenes lawyers fortune love triumphant jane shore d. carlos she wou'd and wou'd not friendship in fashion love in a riddle titus and berenice turnbridge walks biter ladies last stake jane grey oroonoko non juror tender husb. timon what d'ye call it gamester cruel gift double gallant cæsar borgia apparition xerxes sophonisba woman's wit rival fools venus and adonis island princess mithridates * * * * * _plays at d. each, sold by_ j. osborne. twelves. wife's excuse country wife wife to be lett country wit don sebastian scipio africanus clouds britannicus and al. plutus litigants tottenham court she gallants country-house perkin warbeck electra oedipus love in tears quaker's wedding dr faustus humours of purgatory northern lass scotch vagaries merry milk maids octavo. euridice imperial captives antiochus cæsar in Ægypt spartan dame two harlequins thomson's sophonisba roman actor three hours after marriage alexis's paradise usurper love in a forest lottery sultaness edwin mad lovers wedding bays's opera female fop female parson fall of saguntum henry v. penelope non-juror rival modes philotas footman lady's philosophy fatal love medea briton themstocles [transcriber's note: so in original] heroic love she gallants amelia acis and galatea quarto. scornful lady valentinian wife for a month wit at several weapons woman hater humourous lieutenant love bleeding spanish curate chances custom of the country coxcomb bonduca bloody brothers maid's tragedy double marriage island princess loyal subject love's cure prophetess pilgrim maid in the mill _the above twenty one are all written by beaumont and fletcher._ thomson's sophonisba artful husband jane grey perfidious brother hecuba solon persian princess scowerers ulysses, an opera false count spanish friar * * * * * _law books just published; sold by_ j. worrall. folio. reports of cases adjudged in the time of q. anne, . treatise of equity, . octavo. attorney's english practice in the k. bench and c. pleas, vols. . history and practice of the court of common pleas, . _finis._ literary taste: how to form it with detailed instructions for collecting a complete library of english literature by arnold bennett contents chapter i the aim chapter ii your particular case chapter iii why a classic is a classic chapter iv where to begin chapter v how to read a classic chapter vi the question of style chapter vii wrestling with an author chapter viii system in reading chapter ix verse chapter x broad counsels chapter xi an english library: period i chapter xii an english library: period ii chapter xiii an english library: period iii chapter xiv mental stocktaking chapter i the aim at the beginning a misconception must be removed from the path. many people, if not most, look on literary taste as an elegant accomplishment, by acquiring which they will complete themselves, and make themselves finally fit as members of a correct society. they are secretly ashamed of their ignorance of literature, in the same way as they would be ashamed of their ignorance of etiquette at a high entertainment, or of their inability to ride a horse if suddenly called upon to do so. there are certain things that a man ought to know, or to know about, and literature is one of them: such is their idea. they have learnt to dress themselves with propriety, and to behave with propriety on all occasions; they are fairly "up" in the questions of the day; by industry and enterprise they are succeeding in their vocations; it behoves them, then, not to forget that an acquaintance with literature is an indispensable part of a self-respecting man's personal baggage. painting doesn't matter; music doesn't matter very much. but "everyone is supposed to know" about literature. then, literature is such a charming distraction! literary taste thus serves two purposes: as a certificate of correct culture and as a private pastime. a young professor of mathematics, immense at mathematics and games, dangerous at chess, capable of haydn on the violin, once said to me, after listening to some chat on books, "yes, i must take up literature." as though saying: "i was rather forgetting literature. however, i've polished off all these other things. i'll have a shy at literature now." this attitude, or any attitude which resembles it, is wrong. to him who really comprehends what literature is, and what the function of literature is, this attitude is simply ludicrous. it is also fatal to the formation of literary taste. people who regard literary taste simply as an accomplishment, and literature simply as a distraction, will never truly succeed either in acquiring the accomplishment or in using it half-acquired as a distraction; though the one is the most perfect of distractions, and though the other is unsurpassed by any other accomplishment in elegance or in power to impress the universal snobbery of civilised mankind. literature, instead of being an accessory, is the fundamental _sine qua non_ of complete living. i am extremely anxious to avoid rhetorical exaggerations. i do not think i am guilty of one in asserting that he who has not been "presented to the freedom" of literature has not wakened up out of his prenatal sleep. he is merely not born. he can't see; he can't hear; he can't feel, in any full sense. he can only eat his dinner. what more than anything else annoys people who know the true function of literature, and have profited thereby, is the spectacle of so many thousands of individuals going about under the delusion that they are alive, when, as a fact, they are no nearer being alive than a bear in winter. i will tell you what literature is! no--i only wish i could. but i can't. no one can. gleams can be thrown on the secret, inklings given, but no more. i will try to give you an inkling. and, to do so, i will take you back into your own history, or forward into it. that evening when you went for a walk with your faithful friend, the friend from whom you hid nothing--or almost nothing ...! you were, in truth, somewhat inclined to hide from him the particular matter which monopolised your mind that evening, but somehow you contrived to get on to it, drawn by an overpowering fascination. and as your faithful friend was sympathetic and discreet, and flattered you by a respectful curiosity, you proceeded further and further into the said matter, growing more and more confidential, until at last you cried out, in a terrific whisper: "my boy, she is simply miraculous!" at that moment you were in the domain of literature. let me explain. of course, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, she was not miraculous. your faithful friend had never noticed that she was miraculous, nor had about forty thousand other fairly keen observers. she was just a girl. troy had not been burnt for her. a girl cannot be called a miracle. if a girl is to be called a miracle, then you might call pretty nearly anything a miracle.... that is just it: you might. you can. you ought. amid all the miracles of the universe you had just wakened up to one. you were full of your discovery. you were under a divine impulsion to impart that discovery. you had a strong sense of the marvellous beauty of something, and you had to share it. you were in a passion about something, and you had to vent yourself on somebody. you were drawn towards the whole of the rest of the human race. mark the effect of your mood and utterance on your faithful friend. he knew that she was not a miracle. no other person could have made him believe that she was a miracle. but you, by the force and sincerity of your own vision of her, and by the fervour of your desire to make him participate in your vision, did for quite a long time cause him to feel that he had been blind to the miracle of that girl. you were producing literature. you were alive. your eyes were unlidded, your ears were unstopped, to some part of the beauty and the strangeness of the world; and a strong instinct within you forced you to tell someone. it was not enough for you that you saw and heard. others had to see and hear. others had to be wakened up. and they were! it is quite possible--i am not quite sure--that your faithful friend the very next day, or the next month, looked at some other girl, and suddenly saw that she, too, was miraculous! the influence of literature! the makers of literature are those who have seen and felt the miraculous interestingness of the universe. and the greatest makers of literature are those whose vision has been the widest, and whose feeling has been the most intense. your own fragment of insight was accidental, and perhaps temporary. _their_ lives are one long ecstasy of denying that the world is a dull place. is it nothing to you to learn to understand that the world is not a dull place? is it nothing to you to be led out of the tunnel on to the hillside, to have all your senses quickened, to be invigorated by the true savour of life, to feel your heart beating under that correct necktie of yours? these makers of literature render you their equals. the aim of literary study is not to amuse the hours of leisure; it is to awake oneself, it is to be alive, to intensify one's capacity for pleasure, for sympathy, and for comprehension. it is not to affect one hour, but twenty-four hours. it is to change utterly one's relations with the world. an understanding appreciation of literature means an understanding appreciation of the world, and it means nothing else. not isolated and unconnected parts of life, but all of life, brought together and correlated in a synthetic map! the spirit of literature is unifying; it joins the candle and the star, and by the magic of an image shows that the beauty of the greater is in the less. and, not content with the disclosure of beauty and the bringing together of all things whatever within its focus, it enforces a moral wisdom by the tracing everywhere of cause and effect. it consoles doubly--by the revelation of unsuspected loveliness, and by the proof that our lot is the common lot. it is the supreme cry of the discoverer, offering sympathy and asking for it in a single gesture. in attending a university extension lecture on the sources of shakespeare's plots, or in studying the researches of george saintsbury into the origins of english prosody, or in weighing the evidence for and against the assertion that rousseau was a scoundrel, one is apt to forget what literature really is and is for. it is well to remind ourselves that literature is first and last a means of life, and that the enterprise of forming one's literary taste is an enterprise of learning how best to use this means of life. people who don't want to live, people who would sooner hibernate than feel intensely, will be wise to eschew literature. they had better, to quote from the finest passage in a fine poem, "sit around and eat blackberries." the sight of a "common bush afire with god" might upset their nerves. chapter ii your particular case the attitude of the average decent person towards the classics of his own tongue is one of distrust--i had almost said, of fear. i will not take the case of shakespeare, for shakespeare is "taught" in schools; that is to say, the board of education and all authorities pedagogic bind themselves together in a determined effort to make every boy in the land a lifelong enemy of shakespeare. (it is a mercy they don't "teach" blake.) i will take, for an example, sir thomas browne, as to whom the average person has no offensive juvenile memories. he is bound to have read somewhere that the style of sir thomas browne is unsurpassed by anything in english literature. one day he sees the _religio medici_ in a shop-window (or, rather, outside a shop-window, for he would hesitate about entering a bookshop), and he buys it, by way of a mild experiment. he does not expect to be enchanted by it; a profound instinct tells him that sir thomas browne is "not in his line"; and in the result he is even less enchanted than he expected to be. he reads the introduction, and he glances at the first page or two of the work. he sees nothing but words. the work makes no appeal to him whatever. he is surrounded by trees, and cannot perceive the forest. he puts the book away. if sir thomas browne is mentioned, he will say, "yes, very fine!" with a feeling of pride that he has at any rate bought and inspected sir thomas browne. deep in his heart is a suspicion that people who get enthusiastic about sir thomas browne are vain and conceited _poseurs_. after a year or so, when he has recovered from the discouragement caused by sir thomas browne, he may, if he is young and hopeful, repeat the experiment with congreve or addison. same sequel! and so on for perhaps a decade, until his commerce with the classics finally expires! that, magazines and newish fiction apart, is the literary history of the average decent person. and even your case, though you are genuinely preoccupied with thoughts of literature, bears certain disturbing resemblances to the drab case of the average person. you do not approach the classics with gusto--anyhow, not with the same gusto as you would approach a new novel by a modern author who had taken your fancy. you never murmured to yourself, when reading gibbon's _decline and fall_ in bed: "well, i really must read one more chapter before i go to sleep!" speaking generally, the classics do not afford you a pleasure commensurate with their renown. you peruse them with a sense of duty, a sense of doing the right thing, a sense of "improving yourself," rather than with a sense of gladness. you do not smack your lips; you say: "that is good for me." you make little plans for reading, and then you invent excuses for breaking the plans. something new, something which is not a classic, will surely draw you away from a classic. it is all very well for you to pretend to agree with the verdict of the elect that _clarissa harlowe_ is one of the greatest novels in the world--a new kipling, or even a new number of a magazine, will cause you to neglect _clarissa harlowe_, just as though kipling, etc., could not be kept for a few days without turning sour! so that you have to ordain rules for yourself, as: "i will not read anything else until i have read richardson, or gibbon, for an hour each day." thus proving that you regard a classic as a pill, the swallowing of which merits jam! and the more modern a classic is, the more it resembles the stuff of the year and the less it resembles the classics of the centuries, the more easy and enticing do you find that classic. hence you are glad that george eliot, the brontës, thackeray, are considered as classics, because you really _do_ enjoy them. your sentiments concerning them approach your sentiments concerning a "rattling good story" in a magazine. i may have exaggerated--or, on the other hand, i may have understated--the unsatisfactory characteristics of your particular case, but it is probable that in the mirror i hold up you recognise the rough outlines of your likeness. you do not care to admit it; but it is so. you are not content with yourself. the desire to be more truly literary persists in you. you feel that there is something wrong in you, but you cannot put your finger on the spot. further, you feel that you are a bit of a sham. something within you continually forces you to exhibit for the classics an enthusiasm which you do not sincerely feel. you even try to persuade yourself that you are enjoying a book, when the next moment you drop it in the middle and forget to resume it. you occasionally buy classical works, and do not read them at all; you practically decide that it is enough to possess them, and that the mere possession of them gives you a _cachet_. the truth is, you are a sham. and your soul is a sea of uneasy remorse. you reflect: "according to what matthew arnold says, i ought to be perfectly mad about wordsworth's _prelude_. and i am not. why am i not? have i got to be learned, to undertake a vast course of study, in order to be perfectly mad about wordsworth's _prelude_? or am i born without the faculty of pure taste in literature, despite my vague longings? i do wish i could smack my lips over wordsworth's _prelude_ as i did over that splendid story by h.g. wells, _the country of the blind_, in the _strand magazine_!".... yes, i am convinced that in your dissatisfied, your diviner moments, you address yourself in these terms. i am convinced that i have diagnosed your symptoms. now the enterprise of forming one's literary taste is an agreeable one; if it is not agreeable it cannot succeed. but this does not imply that it is an easy or a brief one. the enterprise of beating colonel bogey at golf is an agreeable one, but it means honest and regular work. a fact to be borne in mind always! you are certainly not going to realise your ambition--and so great, so influential an ambition!--by spasmodic and half-hearted effort. you must begin by making up your mind adequately. you must rise to the height of the affair. you must approach a grand undertaking in the grand manner. you ought to mark the day in the calendar as a solemnity. human nature is weak, and has need of tricky aids, even in the pursuit of happiness. time will be necessary to you, and time regularly and sacredly set apart. many people affirm that they cannot be regular, that regularity numbs them. i think this is true of a very few people, and that in the rest the objection to regularity is merely an attempt to excuse idleness. i am inclined to think that you personally are capable of regularity. and i am sure that if you firmly and constantly devote certain specific hours on certain specific days of the week to this business of forming your literary taste, you will arrive at the goal much sooner. the simple act of resolution will help you. this is the first preliminary. the second preliminary is to surround yourself with books, to create for yourself a bookish atmosphere. the merely physical side of books is important--more important than it may seem to the inexperienced. theoretically (save for works of reference), a student has need for but one book at a time. theoretically, an amateur of literature might develop his taste by expending sixpence a week, or a penny a day, in one sixpenny edition of a classic after another sixpenny edition of a classic, and he might store his library in a hat-box or a biscuit-tin. but in practice he would have to be a monster of resolution to succeed in such conditions. the eye must be flattered; the hand must be flattered; the sense of owning must be flattered. sacrifices must be made for the acquisition of literature. that which has cost a sacrifice is always endeared. a detailed scheme of buying books will come later, in the light of further knowledge. for the present, buy--buy whatever has received the _imprimatur_ of critical authority. buy without any immediate reference to what you will read. buy! surround yourself with volumes, as handsome as you can afford. and for reading, all that i will now particularly enjoin is a general and inclusive tasting, in order to attain a sort of familiarity with the look of "literature in all its branches." a turning over of the pages of a volume of chambers's _cyclopædia of english literature_, the third for preference, may be suggested as an admirable and a diverting exercise. you might mark the authors that flash an appeal to you. chapter iii why a classic is a classic the large majority of our fellow-citizens care as much about literature as they care about aeroplanes or the programme of the legislature. they do not ignore it; they are not quite indifferent to it. but their interest in it is faint and perfunctory; or, if their interest happens to be violent, it is spasmodic. ask the two hundred thousand persons whose enthusiasm made the vogue of a popular novel ten years ago what they think of that novel now, and you will gather that they have utterly forgotten it, and that they would no more dream of reading it again than of reading bishop stubbs's _select charters_. probably if they did read it again they would not enjoy it--not because the said novel is a whit worse now than it was ten years ago; not because their taste has improved--but because they have not had sufficient practice to be able to rely on their taste as a means of permanent pleasure. they simply don't know from one day to the next what will please them. in the face of this one may ask: why does the great and universal fame of classical authors continue? the answer is that the fame of classical authors is entirely independent of the majority. do you suppose that if the fame of shakespeare depended on the man in the street it would survive a fortnight? the fame of classical authors is originally made, and it is maintained, by a passionate few. even when a first-class author has enjoyed immense success during his lifetime, the majority have never appreciated him so sincerely as they have appreciated second-rate men. he has always been reinforced by the ardour of the passionate few. and in the case of an author who has emerged into glory after his death the happy sequel has been due solely to the obstinate perseverance of the few. they could not leave him alone; they would not. they kept on savouring him, and talking about him, and buying him, and they generally behaved with such eager zeal, and they were so authoritative and sure of themselves, that at last the majority grew accustomed to the sound of his name and placidly agreed to the proposition that he was a genius; the majority really did not care very much either way. and it is by the passionate few that the renown of genius is kept alive from one generation to another. these few are always at work. they are always rediscovering genius. their curiosity and enthusiasm are exhaustless, so that there is little chance of genius being ignored. and, moreover, they are always working either for or against the verdicts of the majority. the majority can make a reputation, but it is too careless to maintain it. if, by accident, the passionate few agree with the majority in a particular instance, they will frequently remind the majority that such and such a reputation has been made, and the majority will idly concur: "ah, yes. by the way, we must not forget that such and such a reputation exists." without that persistent memory-jogging the reputation would quickly fall into the oblivion which is death. the passionate few only have their way by reason of the fact that they are genuinely interested in literature, that literature matters to them. they conquer by their obstinacy alone, by their eternal repetition of the same statements. do you suppose they could prove to the man in the street that shakespeare was a great artist? the said man would not even understand the terms they employed. but when he is told ten thousand times, and generation after generation, that shakespeare was a great artist, the said man believes--not by reason, but by faith. and he too repeats that shakespeare was a great artist, and he buys the complete works of shakespeare and puts them on his shelves, and he goes to see the marvellous stage-effects which accompany _king lear_ or _hamlet_, and comes back religiously convinced that shakespeare was a great artist. all because the passionate few could not keep their admiration of shakespeare to themselves. this is not cynicism; but truth. and it is important that those who wish to form their literary taste should grasp it. what causes the passionate few to make such a fuss about literature? there can be only one reply. they find a keen and lasting pleasure in literature. they enjoy literature as some men enjoy beer. the recurrence of this pleasure naturally keeps their interest in literature very much alive. they are for ever making new researches, for ever practising on themselves. they learn to understand themselves. they learn to know what they want. their taste becomes surer and surer as their experience lengthens. they do not enjoy to-day what will seem tedious to them to-morrow. when they find a book tedious, no amount of popular clatter will persuade them that it is pleasurable; and when they find it pleasurable no chill silence of the street-crowds will affect their conviction that the book is good and permanent. they have faith in themselves. what are the qualities in a book which give keen and lasting pleasure to the passionate few? this is a question so difficult that it has never yet been completely answered. you may talk lightly about truth, insight, knowledge, wisdom, humour, and beauty. but these comfortable words do not really carry you very far, for each of them has to be defined, especially the first and last. it is all very well for keats in his airy manner to assert that beauty is truth, truth beauty, and that that is all he knows or needs to know. i, for one, need to know a lot more. and i never shall know. nobody, not even hazlitt nor sainte-beuve, has ever finally explained why he thought a book beautiful. i take the first fine lines that come to hand-- the woods of arcady are dead, and over is their antique joy-- and i say that those lines are beautiful, because they give me pleasure. but why? no answer! i only know that the passionate few will, broadly, agree with me in deriving this mysterious pleasure from those lines. i am only convinced that the liveliness of our pleasure in those and many other lines by the same author will ultimately cause the majority to believe, by faith, that w.b. yeats is a genius. the one reassuring aspect of the literary affair is that the passionate few are passionate about the same things. a continuance of interest does, in actual practice, lead ultimately to the same judgments. there is only the difference in width of interest. some of the passionate few lack catholicity, or, rather, the whole of their interest is confined to one narrow channel; they have none left over. these men help specially to vitalise the reputations of the narrower geniuses: such as crashaw. but their active predilections never contradict the general verdict of the passionate few; rather they reinforce it. a classic is a work which gives pleasure to the minority which is intensely and permanently interested in literature. it lives on because the minority, eager to renew the sensation of pleasure, is eternally curious and is therefore engaged in an eternal process of rediscovery. a classic does not survive for any ethical reason. it does not survive because it conforms to certain canons, or because neglect would not kill it. it survives because it is a source of pleasure, and because the passionate few can no more neglect it than a bee can neglect a flower. the passionate few do not read "the right things" because they are right. that is to put the cart before the horse. "the right things" are the right things solely because the passionate few _like_ reading them. hence--and i now arrive at my point--the one primary essential to literary taste is a hot interest in literature. if you have that, all the rest will come. it matters nothing that at present you fail to find pleasure in certain classics. the driving impulse of your interest will force you to acquire experience, and experience will teach you the use of the means of pleasure. you do not know the secret ways of yourself: that is all. a continuance of interest must inevitably bring you to the keenest joys. but, of course, experience may be acquired judiciously or injudiciously, just as putney may be reached _via_ walham green or _via_ st. petersburg. chapter iv where to begin i wish particularly that my readers should not be intimidated by the apparent vastness and complexity of this enterprise of forming the literary taste. it is not so vast nor so complex as it looks. there is no need whatever for the inexperienced enthusiast to confuse and frighten himself with thoughts of "literature in all its branches." experts and pedagogues (chiefly pedagogues) have, for the purpose of convenience, split literature up into divisions and sub-divisions--such as prose and poetry; or imaginative, philosophic, historical; or elegiac, heroic, lyric; or religious and profane, etc., _ad infinitum_. but the greater truth is that literature is all one--and indivisible. the idea of the unity of literature should be well planted and fostered in the head. all literature is the expression of feeling, of passion, of emotion, caused by a sensation of the interestingness of life. what drives a historian to write history? nothing but the overwhelming impression made upon him by the survey of past times. he is forced into an attempt to reconstitute the picture for others. if hitherto you have failed to perceive that a historian is a being in strong emotion, trying to convey his emotion to others, read the passage in the _memoirs_ of gibbon, in which he describes how he finished the _decline and fall_. you will probably never again look upon the _decline and fall_ as a "dry" work. what applies to history applies to the other "dry" branches. even johnson's dictionary is packed with emotion. read the last paragraph of the preface to it: "in this work, when it shall be found that much is omitted, let it not be forgotten that much likewise is performed.... it may repress the triumph of malignant criticism to observe that if our language is not here fully displayed, i have only failed in an attempt which no human powers have hitherto completed...." and so on to the close: "i have protracted my work till most of those whom i wish to please have sunk into the grave, and success and miscarriage are empty sounds: i therefore dismiss it with frigid tranquillity, having little to fear or hope from censure or from praise." yes, tranquillity; but not frigid! the whole passage, one of the finest in english prose, is marked by the heat of emotion. you may discover the same quality in such books as spencer's _first principles_. you may discover it everywhere in literature, from the cold fire of pope's irony to the blasting temperatures of swinburne. literature does not begin till emotion has begun. there is even no essential, definable difference between those two great branches, prose and poetry. for prose may have rhythm. all that can be said is that verse will scan, while prose will not. the difference is purely formal. very few poets have succeeded in being so poetical as isaiah, sir thomas browne, and ruskin have been in prose. it can only be stated that, as a rule, writers have shown an instinctive tendency to choose verse for the expression of the very highest emotion. the supreme literature is in verse, but the finest achievements in prose approach so nearly to the finest achievements in verse that it is ill work deciding between them. in the sense in which poetry is best understood, all literature is poetry--or is, at any rate, poetical in quality. macaulay's ill-informed and unjust denunciations live because his genuine emotion made them into poetry, while his _lays of ancient rome_ are dead because they are not the expression of a genuine emotion. as the literary taste develops, this quality of emotion, restrained or loosed, will be more and more widely perceived at large in literature. it is the quality that must be looked for. it is the quality that unifies literature (and all the arts). it is not merely useless, it is harmful, for you to map out literature into divisions and branches, with different laws, rules, or canons. the first thing is to obtain some possession of literature. when you have actually felt some of the emotion which great writers have striven to impart to you, and when your emotions become so numerous and puzzling that you feel the need of arranging them and calling them by names, then--and not before--you can begin to study what has been attempted in the way of classifying and ticketing literature. manuals and treatises are excellent things in their kind, but they are simply dead weight at the start. you can only acquire really useful general ideas by first acquiring particular ideas, and putting those particular ideas together. you cannot make bricks without straw. do not worry about literature in the abstract, about theories as to literature. get at it. get hold of literature in the concrete as a dog gets hold of a bone. if you ask me where you ought to begin, i shall gaze at you as i might gaze at the faithful animal if he inquired which end of the bone he ought to attack. it doesn't matter in the slightest degree where you begin. begin wherever the fancy takes you to begin. literature is a whole. there is only one restriction for you. you must begin with an acknowledged classic; you must eschew modern works. the reason for this does not imply any depreciation of the present age at the expense of past ages. indeed, it is important, if you wish ultimately to have a wide, catholic taste, to guard against the too common assumption that nothing modern will stand comparison with the classics. in every age there have been people to sigh: "ah, yes. fifty years ago we had a few great writers. but they are all dead, and no young ones are arising to take their place." this attitude of mind is deplorable, if not silly, and is a certain proof of narrow taste. it is a surety that in gloomy and egregious persons will be saying: "ah, yes. at the beginning of the century there were great poets like swinburne, meredith, francis thompson, and yeats. great novelists like hardy and conrad. great historians like stubbs and maitland, etc., etc. but they are all dead now, and whom have we to take their place?" it is not until an age has receded into history, and all its mediocrity has dropped away from it, that we can see it as it is--as a group of men of genius. we forget the immense amount of twaddle that the great epochs produced. the total amount of fine literature created in a given period of time differs from epoch to epoch, but it does not differ much. and we may be perfectly sure that our own age will make a favourable impression upon that excellent judge, posterity. therefore, beware of disparaging the present in your own mind. while temporarily ignoring it, dwell upon the idea that its chaff contains about as much wheat as any similar quantity of chaff has contained wheat. the reason why you must avoid modern works at the beginning is simply that you are not in a position to choose among modern works. nobody at all is quite in a position to choose with certainty among modern works. to sift the wheat from the chaff is a process that takes an exceedingly long time. modern works have to pass before the bar of the taste of successive generations. whereas, with classics, which have been through the ordeal, almost the reverse is the case. _your taste has to pass before the bar of the classics_. that is the point. if you differ with a classic, it is you who are wrong, and not the book. if you differ with a modern work, you may be wrong or you may be right, but no judge is authoritative enough to decide. your taste is unformed. it needs guidance, and it needs authoritative guidance. into the business of forming literary taste faith enters. you probably will not specially care for a particular classic at first. if you did care for it at first, your taste, so far as that classic is concerned, would be formed, and our hypothesis is that your taste is not formed. how are you to arrive at the stage of caring for it? chiefly, of course, by examining it and honestly trying to understand it. but this process is materially helped by an act of faith, by the frame of mind which says: "i know on the highest authority that this thing is fine, that it is capable of giving me pleasure. hence i am determined to find pleasure in it." believe me that faith counts enormously in the development of that wide taste which is the instrument of wide pleasures. but it must be faith founded on unassailable authority. chapter v how to read a classic let us begin experimental reading with charles lamb. i choose lamb for various reasons: he is a great writer, wide in his appeal, of a highly sympathetic temperament; and his finest achievements are simple and very short. moreover, he may usefully lead to other and more complex matters, as will appear later. now, your natural tendency will be to think of charles lamb as a book, because he has arrived at the stage of being a classic. charles lamb was a man, not a book. it is extremely important that the beginner in literary study should always form an idea of the man behind the book. the book is nothing but the expression of the man. the book is nothing but the man trying to talk to you, trying to impart to you some of his feelings. an experienced student will divine the man from the book, will understand the man by the book, as is, of course, logically proper. but the beginner will do well to aid himself in understanding the book by means of independent information about the man. he will thus at once relate the book to something human, and strengthen in his mind the essential notion of the connection between literature and life. the earliest literature was delivered orally direct by the artist to the recipient. in some respects this arrangement was ideal. changes in the constitution of society have rendered it impossible. nevertheless, we can still, by the exercise of the imagination, hear mentally the accents of the artist speaking to us. we must so exercise our imagination as to feel the man behind the book. some biographical information about lamb should be acquired. there are excellent short biographies of him by canon ainger in the _dictionary of national biography_, in chambers's _encyclopædia_, and in chambers's _cyclopædia of english literature_. if you have none of these (but you ought to have the last), there are mr. e.v. lucas's exhaustive _life_ (methuen, s. d.), and, cheaper, mr. walter jerrold's _lamb_ (bell and sons, s.); also introductory studies prefixed to various editions of lamb's works. indeed, the facilities for collecting materials for a picture of charles lamb as a human being are prodigious. when you have made for yourself such a picture, read the _essays of elia_ the light of it. i will choose one of the most celebrated, _dream children: a reverie_. at this point, kindly put my book down, and read _dream children_. do not say to yourself that you will read it later, but read it now. when you have read it, you may proceed to my next paragraph. you are to consider _dream children_ as a human document. lamb was nearing fifty when he wrote it. you can see, especially from the last line, that the death of his elder brother, john lamb, was fresh and heavy on his mind. you will recollect that in youth he had had a disappointing love-affair with a girl named ann simmons, who afterwards married a man named bartrum. you will know that one of the influences of his childhood was his grandmother field, housekeeper of blakesware house, in hertfordshire, at which mansion he sometimes spent his holidays. you will know that he was a bachelor, living with his sister mary, who was subject to homicidal mania. and you will see in this essay, primarily, a supreme expression of the increasing loneliness of his life. he constructed all that preliminary tableau of paternal pleasure in order to bring home to you in the most poignant way his feeling of the solitude of his existence, his sense of all that he had missed and lost in the world. the key of the essay is one of profound sadness. but note that he makes his sadness beautiful; or, rather, he shows the beauty that resides in sadness. you watch him sitting there in his "bachelor arm-chair," and you say to yourself: "yes, it was sad, but it was somehow beautiful." when you have said that to yourself, charles lamb, so far as you are concerned, has accomplished his chief aim in writing the essay. how exactly he produces his effect can never be fully explained. but one reason of his success is certainly his regard for truth. he does not falsely idealise his brother, nor the relations between them. he does not say, as a sentimentalist would have said, "not the slightest cloud ever darkened our relations;" nor does he exaggerate his solitude. being a sane man, he has too much common-sense to assemble all his woes at once. he might have told you that bridget was a homicidal maniac; what he does tell you is that she was faithful. another reason of his success is his continual regard for beautiful things and fine actions, as illustrated in the major characteristics of his grandmother and his brother, and in the detailed description of blakesware house and the gardens thereof. then, subordinate to the main purpose, part of the machinery of the main purpose, is the picture of the children--real children until the moment when they fade away. the traits of childhood are accurately and humorously put in again and again: "here john smiled, as much as to say, 'that would be foolish indeed.'" "here little alice spread her hands." "here alice's little right foot played an involuntary movement, till, upon my looking grave, it desisted." "here john expanded all his eyebrows, and tried to look courageous." "here john slily deposited back upon the plate a bunch of grapes." "here the children fell a-crying ... and prayed me to tell them some stories about their pretty dead mother." and the exquisite: "here alice put out one of her dear mother's looks, too tender to be upbraiding." incidentally, while preparing his ultimate solemn effect, lamb has inspired you with a new, intensified vision of the wistful beauty of children--their imitativeness, their facile and generous emotions, their anxiety to be correct, their ingenuous haste to escape from grief into joy. you can see these children almost as clearly and as tenderly as lamb saw them. for days afterwards you will not be able to look upon a child without recalling lamb's portrayal of the grace of childhood. he will have shared with you his perception of beauty. if you possess children, he will have renewed for you the charm which custom does very decidedly stale. it is further to be noticed that the measure of his success in picturing the children is the measure of his success in his main effect. the more real they seem, the more touching is the revelation of the fact that they do not exist, and never have existed. and if you were moved by the reference to their "pretty dead mother," you will be still more moved when you learn that the girl who would have been their mother is not dead and is not lamb's. as, having read the essay, you reflect upon it, you will see how its emotional power over you has sprung from the sincere and unexaggerated expression of actual emotions exactly remembered by someone who had an eye always open for beauty, who was, indeed, obsessed by beauty. the beauty of old houses and gardens and aged virtuous characters, the beauty of children, the beauty of companionships, the softening beauty of dreams in an arm-chair--all these are brought together and mingled with the grief and regret which were the origin of the mood. why is _dream children_ a classic? it is a classic because it transmits to you, as to generations before you, distinguished emotion, because it makes you respond to the throb of life more intensely, more justly, and more nobly. and it is capable of doing this because charles lamb had a very distinguished, a very sensitive, and a very honest mind. his emotions were noble. he felt so keenly that he was obliged to find relief in imparting his emotions. and his mental processes were so sincere that he could neither exaggerate nor diminish the truth. if he had lacked any one of these three qualities, his appeal would have been narrowed and weakened, and he would not have become a classic. either his feelings would have been deficient in supreme beauty, and therefore less worthy to be imparted, or he would not have had sufficient force to impart them; or his honesty would not have been equal to the strain of imparting them accurately. in any case, he would not have set up in you that vibration which we call pleasure, and which is super-eminently caused by vitalising participation in high emotion. as lamb sat in his bachelor arm-chair, with his brother in the grave, and the faithful homicidal maniac by his side, he really did think to himself, "this is beautiful. sorrow is beautiful. disappointment is beautiful. life is beautiful. _i must tell them_. i must make them understand." because he still makes you understand he is a classic. and now i seem to hear you say, "but what about lamb's famous literary style? where does that come in?" chapter vi the question of style in discussing the value of particular books, i have heard people say--people who were timid about expressing their views of literature in the presence of literary men: "it may be bad from a literary point of view, but there are very good things in it." or: "i dare say the style is very bad, but really the book is very interesting and suggestive." or: "i'm not an expert, and so i never bother my head about good style. all i ask for is good matter. and when i have got it, critics may say what they like about the book." and many other similar remarks, all showing that in the minds of the speakers there existed a notion that style is something supplementary to, and distinguishable from, matter; a sort of notion that a writer who wanted to be classical had first to find and arrange his matter, and then dress it up elegantly in a costume of style, in order to please beings called literary critics. this is a misapprehension. style cannot be distinguished from matter. when a writer conceives an idea he conceives it in a form of words. that form of words constitutes his style, and it is absolutely governed by the idea. the idea can only exist in words, and it can only exist in one form of words. you cannot say exactly the same thing in two different ways. slightly alter the expression, and you slightly alter the idea. surely it is obvious that the expression cannot be altered without altering the thing expressed! a writer, having conceived and expressed an idea, may, and probably will, "polish it up." but what does he polish up? to say that he polishes up his style is merely to say that he is polishing up his idea, that he has discovered faults or imperfections in his idea, and is perfecting it. an idea exists in proportion as it is expressed; it exists when it is expressed, and not before. it expresses itself. a clear idea is expressed clearly, and a vague idea vaguely. you need but take your own case and your own speech. for just as science is the development of common-sense, so is literature the development of common daily speech. the difference between science and common-sense is simply one of degree; similarly with speech and literature. well, when you "know what you think," you succeed in saying what you think, in making yourself understood. when you "don't know what to think," your expressive tongue halts. and note how in daily life the characteristics of your style follow your mood; how tender it is when you are tender, how violent when you are violent. you have said to yourself in moments of emotion: "if only i could write--," etc. you were wrong. you ought to have said: "if only i could _think_--on this high plane." when you have thought clearly you have never had any difficulty in saying what you thought, though you may occasionally have had some difficulty in keeping it to yourself. and when you cannot express yourself, depend upon it that you have nothing precise to express, and that what incommodes you is not the vain desire to express, but the vain desire to _think_ more clearly. all this just to illustrate how style and matter are co-existent, and inseparable, and alike. you cannot have good matter with bad style. examine the point more closely. a man wishes to convey a fine idea to you. he employs a form of words. that form of words is his style. having read, you say: "yes, this idea is fine." the writer has therefore achieved his end. but in what imaginable circumstances can you say: "yes, this idea is fine, but the style is not fine"? the sole medium of communication between you and the author has been the form of words. the fine idea has reached you. how? in the words, by the words. hence the fineness must be in the words. you may say, superiorly: "he has expressed himself clumsily, but i can _see_ what he means." by what light? by something in the words, in the style. that something is fine. moreover, if the style is clumsy, are you sure that you can see what he means? you cannot be quite sure. and at any rate, you cannot see distinctly. the "matter" is what actually reaches you, and it must necessarily be affected by the style. still further to comprehend what style is, let me ask you to think of a writer's style exactly as you would think of the gestures and manners of an acquaintance. you know the man whose demeanour is "always calm," but whose passions are strong. how do you know that his passions are strong? because he "gives them away" by some small, but important, part of his demeanour, such as the twitching of a lip or the whitening of the knuckles caused by clenching the hand. in other words, his demeanour, fundamentally, is not calm. you know the man who is always "smoothly polite and agreeable," but who affects you unpleasantly. why does he affect you unpleasantly? because he is tedious, and therefore disagreeable, and because his politeness is not real politeness. you know the man who is awkward, shy, clumsy, but who, nevertheless, impresses you with a sense of dignity and force. why? because mingled with that awkwardness and so forth _is_ dignity. you know the blunt, rough fellow whom you instinctively guess to be affectionate--because there is "something in his tone" or "something in his eyes." in every instance the demeanour, while perhaps seeming to be contrary to the character, is really in accord with it. the demeanour never contradicts the character. it is one part of the character that contradicts another part of the character. for, after all, the blunt man _is_ blunt, and the awkward man _is_ awkward, and these characteristics are defects. the demeanour merely expresses them. the two men would be better if, while conserving their good qualities, they had the superficial attributes of smoothness and agreeableness possessed by the gentleman who is unpleasant to you. and as regards this latter, it is not his superficial attributes which are unpleasant to you; but his other qualities. in the end the character is shown in the demeanour; and the demeanour is a consequence of the character and resembles the character. so with style and matter. you may argue that the blunt, rough man's demeanour is unfair to his tenderness. i do not think so. for his churlishness is really very trying and painful, even to the man's wife, though a moment's tenderness will make her and you forget it. the man really is churlish, and much more often than he is tender. his demeanour is merely just to his character. so, when a writer annoys you for ten pages and then enchants you for ten lines, you must not explode against his style. you must not say that his style won't let his matter "come out." you must remember the churlish, tender man. the more you reflect, the more clearly you will see that faults and excellences of style are faults and excellences of matter itself. one of the most striking illustrations of this neglected truth is thomas carlyle. how often has it been said that carlyle's matter is marred by the harshness and the eccentricities of his style? but carlyle's matter is harsh and eccentric to precisely the same degree as his style is harsh and eccentric. carlyle was harsh and eccentric. his behaviour was frequently ridiculous, if it were not abominable. his judgments were often extremely bizarre. when you read one of carlyle's fierce diatribes, you say to yourself: "this is splendid. the man's enthusiasm for justice and truth is glorious." but you also say: "he is a little unjust and a little untruthful. he goes too far. he lashes too hard." these things are not the style; they are the matter. and when, as in his greatest moments, he is emotional and restrained at once, you say: "this is the real carlyle." kindly notice how perfect the style has become! no harshnesses or eccentricities now! and if that particular matter is the "real" carlyle, then that particular style is carlyle's "real" style. but when you say "real" you would more properly say "best." "this is the best carlyle." if carlyle had always been at his best he would have counted among the supreme geniuses of the world. but he was a mixture. his style is the expression of the mixture. the faults are only in the style because they are in the matter. you will find that, in classical literature, the style always follows the mood of the matter. thus, charles lamb's essay on _dream children_ begins quite simply, in a calm, narrative manner, enlivened by a certain quippishness concerning the children. the style is grave when great-grandmother field is the subject, and when the author passes to a rather elaborate impression of the picturesque old mansion it becomes as it were consciously beautiful. this beauty is intensified in the description of the still more beautiful garden. but the real dividing point of the essay occurs when lamb approaches his elder brother. he unmistakably marks the point with the phrase: "_then, in somewhat a more heightened tone_, i told how," etc. henceforward the style increases in fervour and in solemnity until the culmination of the essay is reached: "and while i stood gazing, both the children gradually grew fainter to my view, receding and still receding till nothing at last but two mournful features were seen in the uttermost distance, which, without speech, strangely impressed upon me the effects of speech...." throughout, the style is governed by the matter. "well," you say, "of course it is. it couldn't be otherwise. if it were otherwise it would be ridiculous. a man who made love as though he were preaching a sermon, or a man who preached a sermon as though he were teasing schoolboys, or a man who described a death as though he were describing a practical joke, must necessarily be either an ass or a lunatic." just so. you have put it in a nutshell. you have disposed of the problem of style so far as it can be disposed of. but what do those people mean who say: "i read such and such an author for the beauty of his style alone"? personally, i do not clearly know what they mean (and i have never been able to get them to explain), unless they mean that they read for the beauty of sound alone. when you read a book there are only three things of which you may be conscious: ( ) the significance of the words, which is inseparably bound up with the thought. ( ) the look of the printed words on the page--i do not suppose that anybody reads any author for the visual beauty of the words on the page. ( ) the sound of the words, either actually uttered or imagined by the brain to be uttered. now it is indubitable that words differ in beauty of sound. to my mind one of the most beautiful words in the english language is "pavement." enunciate it, study its sound, and see what you think. it is also indubitable that certain combinations of words have a more beautiful sound than certain other combinations. thus tennyson held that the most beautiful line he ever wrote was: the mellow ouzel fluting in the elm. perhaps, as sound, it was. assuredly it makes a beautiful succession of sounds, and recalls the bird-sounds which it is intended to describe. but does it live in the memory as one of the rare great tennysonian lines? it does not. it has charm, but the charm is merely curious or pretty. a whole poem composed of lines with no better recommendation than that line has would remain merely curious or pretty. it would not permanently interest. it would be as insipid as a pretty woman who had nothing behind her prettiness. it would not live. one may remark in this connection how the merely verbal felicities of tennyson have lost our esteem. who will now proclaim the _idylls of the king_ as a masterpiece? of the thousands of lines written by him which please the ear, only those survive of which the matter is charged with emotion. no! as regards the man who professes to read an author "for his style alone," i am inclined to think either that he will soon get sick of that author, or that he is deceiving himself and means the author's general temperament--not the author's verbal style, but a peculiar quality which runs through all the matter written by the author. just as one may like a man for something which is always coming out of him, which one cannot define, and which is of the very essence of the man. in judging the style of an author, you must employ the same canons as you use in judging men. if you do this you will not be tempted to attach importance to trifles that are negligible. there can be no lasting friendship without respect. if an author's style is such that you cannot _respect_ it, then you may be sure that, despite any present pleasure which you may obtain from that author, there is something wrong with his matter, and that the pleasure will soon cloy. you must examine your sentiments towards an author. if when you have read an author you are pleased, without being conscious of aught but his mellifluousness, just conceive what your feelings would be after spending a month's holiday with a merely mellifluous man. if an author's style has pleased you, but done nothing except make you giggle, then reflect upon the ultimate tediousness of the man who can do nothing but jest. on the other hand, if you are impressed by what an author has said to you, but are aware of verbal clumsinesses in his work, you need worry about his "bad style" exactly as much and exactly as little as you would worry about the manners of a kindhearted, keen-brained friend who was dangerous to carpets with a tea-cup in his hand. the friend's antics in a drawing-room are somewhat regrettable, but you would not say of him that his manners were bad. again, if an author's style dazzles you instantly and blinds you to everything except its brilliant self, ask your soul, before you begin to admire his matter, what would be your final opinion of a man who at the first meeting fired his personality into you like a broadside. reflect that, as a rule, the people whom you have come to esteem communicated themselves to you gradually, that they did not begin the entertainment with fireworks. in short, look at literature as you would look at life, and you cannot fail to perceive that, essentially, the style is the man. decidedly you will never assert that you care nothing for style, that your enjoyment of an author's matter is unaffected by his style. and you will never assert, either, that style alone suffices for you. if you are undecided upon a question of style, whether leaning to the favourable or to the unfavourable, the most prudent course is to forget that literary style exists. for, indeed, as style is understood by most people who have not analysed their impressions under the influence of literature, there _is_ no such thing as literary style. you cannot divide literature into two elements and say: this is matter and that style. further, the significance and the worth of literature are to be comprehended and assessed in the same way as the significance and the worth of any other phenomenon: by the exercise of common-sense. common-sense will tell you that nobody, not even a genius, can be simultaneously vulgar and distinguished, or beautiful and ugly, or precise and vague, or tender and harsh. and common-sense will therefore tell you that to try to set up vital contradictions between matter and style is absurd. when there is a superficial contradiction, one of the two mutually-contradicting qualities is of far less importance than the other. if you refer literature to the standards of life, common-sense will at once decide which quality should count heaviest in your esteem. you will be in no danger of weighing a mere maladroitness of manner against a fine trait of character, or of letting a graceful deportment blind you to a fundamental vacuity. when in doubt, ignore style, and think of the matter as you would think of an individual. chapter vii wrestling with an author having disposed, so far as is possible and necessary, of that formidable question of style, let us now return to charles lamb, whose essay on _dream children_ was the originating cause of our inquiry into style. as we have made a beginning of lamb, it will be well to make an end of him. in the preliminary stages of literary culture, nothing is more helpful, in the way of kindling an interest and keeping it well alight, than to specialise for a time on one author, and particularly on an author so frankly and curiously "human" as lamb is. i do not mean that you should imprison yourself with lamb's complete works for three months, and read nothing else. i mean that you should regularly devote a proportion of your learned leisure to the study of lamb until you are acquainted with all that is important in his work and about his work. (you may buy the complete works in prose and verse of charles and mary lamb, edited by that unsurpassed expert mr. thomas hutchison, and published by the oxford university press, in two volumes for four shillings the pair!) there is no reason why you should not become a modest specialist in lamb. he is the very man for you; neither voluminous, nor difficult, nor uncomfortably lofty; always either amusing or touching; and--most important--himself passionately addicted to literature. you cannot like lamb without liking literature in general. and you cannot read lamb without learning about literature in general; for books were his hobby, and he was a critic of the first rank. his letters are full of literariness. you will naturally read his letters; you should not only be infinitely diverted by them (there are no better epistles), but you should receive from them much light on the works. it is a course of study that i am suggesting to you. it means a certain amount of sustained effort. it means slightly more resolution, more pertinacity, and more expenditure of brain-tissue than are required for reading a newspaper. it means, in fact, "work." perhaps you did not bargain for work when you joined me. but i do not think that the literary taste can be satisfactorily formed unless one is prepared to put one's back into the affair. and i may prophesy to you, by way of encouragement, that, in addition to the advantages of familiarity with masterpieces, of increased literary knowledge, and of a wide introduction to the true bookish atmosphere and "feel" of things, which you will derive from a comprehensive study of charles lamb, you will also be conscious of a moral advantage--the very important and very inspiring advantage of really "knowing something about something." you will have achieved a definite step; you will be proudly aware that you have put yourself in a position to judge as an expert whatever you may hear or read in the future concerning charles lamb. this legitimate pride and sense of accomplishment will stimulate you to go on further; it will generate steam. i consider that this indirect moral advantage even outweighs, for the moment, the direct literary advantages. now, i shall not shut my eyes to a possible result of your diligent intercourse with charles lamb. it is possible that you may be disappointed with him. it is--shall i say?--almost probable that you will be disappointed with him, at any rate partially. you will have expected more joy in him than you have received. i have referred in a previous chapter to the feeling of disappointment which often comes from first contacts with the classics. the neophyte is apt to find them--i may as well out with the word--dull. you may have found lamb less diverting, less interesting, than you hoped. you may have had to whip yourself up again and again to the effort of reading him. in brief, lamb has not, for you, justified his terrific reputation. if a classic is a classic because it gives _pleasure_ to succeeding generations of the people who are most keenly interested in literature, and if lamb frequently strikes you as dull, then evidently there is something wrong. the difficulty must be fairly fronted, and the fronting of it brings us to the very core of the business of actually forming the taste. if your taste were classical you would discover in lamb a continual fascination; whereas what you in fact do discover in lamb is a not unpleasant flatness, enlivened by a vague humour and an occasional pathos. you ought, according to theory, to be enthusiastic; but you are apathetic, or, at best, half-hearted. there is a gulf. how to cross it? to cross it needs time and needs trouble. the following considerations may aid. in the first place, we have to remember that, in coming into the society of the classics in general and of charles lamb in particular, we are coming into the society of a mental superior. what happens usually in such a case? we can judge by recalling what happens when we are in the society of a mental inferior. we say things of which he misses the import; we joke, and he does not smile; what makes him laugh loudly seems to us horseplay or childish; he is blind to beauties which ravish us; he is ecstatic over what strikes us as crude; and his profound truths are for us trite commonplaces. his perceptions are relatively coarse; our perceptions are relatively subtle. we try to make him understand, to make him see, and if he is aware of his inferiority we may have some success. but if he is not aware of his inferiority, we soon hold our tongues and leave him alone in his self-satisfaction, convinced that there is nothing to be done with him. every one of us has been through this experience with a mental inferior, for there is always a mental inferior handy, just as there is always a being more unhappy than we are. in approaching a classic, the true wisdom is to place ourselves in the position of the mental inferior, aware of mental inferiority, humbly stripping off all conceit, anxious to rise out of that inferiority. recollect that we always regard as quite hopeless the mental inferior who does not suspect his own inferiority. our attitude towards lamb must be: "charles lamb was a greater man than i am, cleverer, sharper, subtler, finer, intellectually more powerful, and with keener eyes for beauty. i must brace myself to follow his lead." our attitude must resemble that of one who cocks his ear and listens with all his soul for a distant sound. to catch the sound we really must listen. that is to say, we must read carefully, with our faculties on the watch. we must read slowly and perseveringly. a classic has to be wooed and is worth the wooing. further, we must disdain no assistance. i am not in favour of studying criticism of classics before the classics themselves. my notion is to study the work and the biography of a classical writer together, and then to read criticism afterwards. i think that in reprints of the classics the customary "critical introduction" ought to be put at the end, and not at the beginning, of the book. the classic should be allowed to make his own impression, however faint, on the virginal mind of the reader. but afterwards let explanatory criticism be read as much as you please. explanatory criticism is very useful; nearly as useful as pondering for oneself on what one has read! explanatory criticism may throw one single gleam that lights up the entire subject. my second consideration (in aid of crossing the gulf) touches the quality of the pleasure to be derived from a classic. it is never a violent pleasure. it is subtle, and it will wax in intensity, but the idea of violence is foreign to it. the artistic pleasures of an uncultivated mind are generally violent. they proceed from exaggeration in treatment, from a lack of balance, from attaching too great an importance to one aspect (usually superficial), while quite ignoring another. they are gross, like the joy of worcester sauce on the palate. now, if there is one point common to all classics, it is the absence of exaggeration. the balanced sanity of a great mind makes impossible exaggeration, and, therefore, distortion. the beauty of a classic is not at all apt to knock you down. it will steal over you, rather. many serious students are, i am convinced, discouraged in the early stages because they are expecting a wrong kind of pleasure. they have abandoned worcester sauce, and they miss it. they miss the coarse _tang_. they must realise that indulgence in the _tang_ means the sure and total loss of sensitiveness--sensitiveness even to the _tang_ itself. they cannot have crudeness and fineness together. they must choose, remembering that while crudeness kills pleasure, fineness ever intensifies it. chapter viii system in heading you have now definitely set sail on the sea of literature. you are afloat, and your anchor is up. i think i have given adequate warning of the dangers and disappointments which await the unwary and the sanguine. the enterprise in which you are engaged is not facile, nor is it short. i think i have sufficiently predicted that you will have your hours of woe, during which you may be inclined to send to perdition all writers, together with the inventor of printing. but if you have become really friendly with lamb; if you know lamb, or even half of him; if you have formed an image of him in your mind, and can, as it were, hear him brilliantly stuttering while you read his essays or letters, then certainly you are in a fit condition to proceed and you want to know in which direction you are to proceed. yes, i have caught your terrified and protesting whisper: "i hope to heaven he isn't going to prescribe a course of english literature, because i feel i shall never be able to do it!" i am not. if your object in life was to be a university extension lecturer in english literature, then i should prescribe something drastic and desolating. but as your object, so far as i am concerned, is simply to obtain the highest and most tonic form of artistic pleasure of which you are capable, i shall not prescribe any regular course. nay, i shall venture to dissuade you from any regular course. no man, and assuredly no beginner, can possibly pursue a historical course of literature without wasting a lot of weary time in acquiring mere knowledge which will yield neither pleasure nor advantage. in the choice of reading the individual must count; caprice must count, for caprice is often the truest index to the individuality. stand defiantly on your own feet, and do not excuse yourself to yourself. you do not exist in order to honour literature by becoming an encyclopædia of literature. literature exists for your service. wherever you happen to be, that, for you, is the centre of literature. still, for your own sake you must confine yourself for a long time to recognised classics, for reasons already explained. and though you should not follow a course, you must have a system or principle. your native sagacity will tell you that caprice, left quite unfettered, will end by being quite ridiculous. the system which i recommend is embodied in this counsel: let one thing lead to another. in the sea of literature every part communicates with every other part; there are no land-locked lakes. it was with an eye to this system that i originally recommended you to start with lamb. lamb, if you are his intimate, has already brought you into relations with a number of other prominent writers with whom you can in turn be intimate, and who will be particularly useful to you. among these are wordsworth, coleridge, southey, hazlitt, and leigh hunt. you cannot know lamb without knowing these men, and some of them are of the highest importance. from the circle of lamb's own work you may go off at a tangent at various points, according to your inclination. if, for instance, you are drawn towards poetry, you cannot, in all english literature, make a better start than with wordsworth. and wordsworth will send you backwards to a comprehension of the poets against whose influence wordsworth fought. when you have understood wordsworth's and coleridge's _lyrical ballads_, and wordsworth's defence of them, you will be in a position to judge poetry in general. if, again, your mind hankers after an earlier and more romantic literature, lamb's _specimens of english dramatic poets contemporary with shakspere_ has already, in an enchanting fashion, piloted you into a vast gulf of "the sea which is shakspere." again, in hazlitt and leigh hunt you will discover essayists inferior only to lamb himself, and critics perhaps not inferior. hazlitt is unsurpassed as a critic. his judgments are convincing and his enthusiasm of the most catching nature. having arrived at hazlitt or leigh hunt, you can branch off once more at any one of ten thousand points into still wider circles. and thus you may continue up and down the centuries as far as you like, yea, even to chaucer. if you chance to read hazlitt on _chaucer and spenser_, you will probably put your hat on instantly and go out and buy these authors; such is his communicating fire! i need not particularise further. commencing with lamb, and allowing one thing to lead to another, you cannot fail to be more and more impressed by the peculiar suitability to your needs of the lamb entourage and the lamb period. for lamb lived in a time of universal rebirth in english literature. wordsworth and coleridge were re-creating poetry; scott was re-creating the novel; lamb was re-creating the human document; and hazlitt, coleridge, leigh hunt, and others were re-creating criticism. sparks are flying all about the place, and it will be not less than a miracle if something combustible and indestructible in you does not take fire. i have only one cautionary word to utter. you may be saying to yourself: "so long as i stick to classics i cannot go wrong." you can go wrong. you can, while reading naught but very fine stuff, commit the grave error of reading too much of one kind of stuff. now there are two kinds, and only two kinds. these two kinds are not prose and poetry, nor are they divided the one from the other by any differences of form or of subject. they are the inspiring kind and the informing kind. no other genuine division exists in literature. emerson, i think, first clearly stated it. his terms were the literature of "power" and the literature of "knowledge." in nearly all great literature the two qualities are to be found in company, but one usually predominates over the other. an example of the exclusively inspiring kind is coleridge's _kubla khan_. i cannot recall any first-class example of the purely informing kind. the nearest approach to it that i can name is spencer's _first principles_, which, however, is at least once highly inspiring. an example in which the inspiring quality predominates is _ivanhoe_; and an example in which the informing quality predominates is hazlitt's essays on shakespeare's characters. you must avoid giving undue preference to the kind in which the inspiring quality predominates or to the kind in which the informing quality predominates. too much of the one is enervating; too much of the other is desiccating. if you stick exclusively to the one you may become a mere debauchee of the emotions; if you stick exclusively to the other you may cease to live in any full sense. i do not say that you should hold the balance exactly even between the two kinds. your taste will come into the scale. what i say is that neither kind must be neglected. lamb is an instance of a great writer whom anybody can understand and whom a majority of those who interest themselves in literature can more or less appreciate. he makes no excessive demand either on the intellect or on the faculty of sympathetic emotion. on both sides of lamb, however, there lie literatures more difficult, more recondite. the "knowledge" side need not detain us here; it can be mastered by concentration and perseverance. but the "power" side, which comprises the supreme productions of genius, demands special consideration. you may have arrived at the point of keenly enjoying lamb and yet be entirely unable to "see anything in" such writings as _kubla khan_ or milton's _comus_; and as for _hamlet_ you may see nothing in it but a sanguinary tale "full of quotations." nevertheless it is the supreme productions which are capable of yielding the supreme pleasures, and which _will_ yield the supreme pleasures when the pass-key to them has been acquired. this pass-key is a comprehension of the nature of poetry. chapter ix verse there is a word, a "name of fear," which rouses terror in the heart of the vast educated majority of the english-speaking race. the most valiant will fly at the mere utterance of that word. the most broad-minded will put their backs up against it. the most rash will not dare to affront it. i myself have seen it empty buildings that had been full; and i know that it will scatter a crowd more quickly than a hose-pipe, hornets, or the rumour of plague. even to murmur it is to incur solitude, probably disdain, and possibly starvation, as historical examples show. that word is "poetry." the profound objection of the average man to poetry can scarcely be exaggerated. and when i say the average man, i do not mean the "average sensual man"--any man who gets on to the top of the omnibus; i mean the average lettered man, the average man who does care a little for books and enjoys reading, and knows the classics by name and the popular writers by having read them. i am convinced that not one man in ten who reads, reads poetry--at any rate, knowingly. i am convinced, further, that not one man in ten who goes so far as knowingly to _buy_ poetry ever reads it. you will find everywhere men who read very widely in prose, but who will say quite callously, "no, i never read poetry." if the sales of modern poetry, distinctly labelled as such, were to cease entirely to-morrow not a publisher would fail; scarcely a publisher would be affected; and not a poet would die--for i do not believe that a single modern english poet is living to-day on the current proceeds of his verse. for a country which possesses the greatest poetical literature in the world this condition of affairs is at least odd. what makes it odder is that, occasionally, very occasionally, the average lettered man will have a fit of idolatry for a fine poet, buying his books in tens of thousands, and bestowing upon him immense riches. as with tennyson. and what makes it odder still is that, after all, the average lettered man does not truly dislike poetry; he only dislikes it when it takes a certain form. he will read poetry and enjoy it, provided he is not aware that it is poetry. poetry can exist authentically either in prose or in verse. give him poetry concealed in prose and there is a chance that, taken off his guard, he will appreciate it. but show him a page of verse, and he will be ready to send for a policeman. the reason of this is that, though poetry may come to pass either in prose or in verse, it does actually happen far more frequently in verse than in prose; nearly all the very greatest poetry is in verse; verse is identified with the very greatest poetry, and the very greatest poetry can only be understood and savoured by people who have put themselves through a considerable mental discipline. to others it is an exasperating weariness. hence chiefly the fearful prejudice of the average lettered man against the mere form of verse. the formation of literary taste cannot be completed until that prejudice has been conquered. my very difficult task is to suggest a method of conquering it. i address myself exclusively to the large class of people who, if they are honest, will declare that, while they enjoy novels, essays, and history, they cannot "stand" verse. the case is extremely delicate, like all nervous cases. it is useless to employ the arts of reasoning, for the matter has got beyond logic; it is instinctive. perfectly futile to assure you that verse will yield a higher percentage of pleasure than prose! you will reply: "we believe you, but that doesn't help us." therefore i shall not argue. i shall venture to prescribe a curative treatment (doctors do not argue); and i beg you to follow it exactly, keeping your nerve and your calm. loss of self-control might lead to panic, and panic would be fatal. first: forget as completely as you can all your present notions about the nature of verse and poetry. take a sponge and wipe the slate of your mind. in particular, do not harass yourself by thoughts of metre and verse forms. second: read william hazlitt's essay "on poetry in general." this essay is the first in the book entitled _lectures on the english poets_. it can be bought in various forms. i think the cheapest satisfactory edition is in routledge's "new universal library" (price s. net). i might have composed an essay of my own on the real harmless nature of poetry in general, but it could only have been an echo and a deterioration of hazlitt's. he has put the truth about poetry in a way as interesting, clear, and reassuring as anyone is ever likely to put it. i do not expect, however, that you will instantly gather the full message and enthusiasm of the essay. it will probably seem to you not to "hang together." still, it will leave bright bits of ideas in your mind. third: after a week's interval read the essay again. on a second perusal it will appear more persuasive to you. fourth: open the bible and read the fortieth chapter of isaiah. it is the chapter which begins, "comfort ye, comfort ye, my people," and ends, "they shall run and not be weary, and they shall walk and not faint." this chapter will doubtless be more or less familiar to you. it cannot fail (whatever your particular _ism_) to impress you, to generate in your mind sensations which you recognise to be of a lofty and unusual order, and which you will admit to be pleasurable. you will probably agree that the result of reading this chapter (even if your particular _ism_ is opposed to its authority) is finer than the result of reading a short story in a magazine or even an essay by charles lamb. now the pleasurable sensations induced by the fortieth chapter of isaiah are among the sensations usually induced by high-class poetry. the writer of it was a very great poet, and what he wrote is a very great poem. fifth: after having read it, go back to hazlitt, and see if you can find anything in hazlitt's lecture which throws light on the psychology of your own emotions upon reading isaiah. sixth: the next step is into unmistakable verse. it is to read one of wordsworth's short narrative poems, _the brothers_. there are editions of wordsworth at a shilling, but i should advise the "golden treasury" wordsworth ( s. d. net), because it contains the famous essay by matthew arnold, who made the selection. i want you to read this poem aloud. you will probably have to hide yourself somewhere in order to do so, for, of course, you would not, as yet, care to be overheard spouting poetry. be good enough to forget that _the brothers_ is poetry. _the brothers_ is a short story, with a plain, clear plot. read it as such. read it simply for the story. it is very important at this critical stage that you should not embarrass your mind with preoccupations as to the _form_ in which wordsworth has told his story. wordsworth's object was to tell a story as well as he could: just that. in reading aloud do not pay any more attention to the metre than you feel naturally inclined to pay. after a few lines the metre will present itself to you. do not worry as to what kind of metre it is. when you have finished the perusal, examine your sensations.... your sensations after reading this poem, and perhaps one or two other narrative poems of wordsworth, such as _michael_, will be different from the sensations produced in you by reading an ordinary, or even a very extraordinary, short story in prose. they may not be so sharp, so clear and piquant, but they will probably be, in their mysteriousness and their vagueness, more impressive. i do not say that they will be diverting. i do not go so far as to say that they will strike you as pleasing sensations. (be it remembered that i am addressing myself to an imaginary tyro in poetry.) i would qualify them as being "disturbing." well, to disturb the spirit is one of the greatest aims of art. and a disturbance of spirit is one of the finest pleasures that a highly-organised man can enjoy. but this truth can only be really learnt by the repetitions of experience. as an aid to the more exhaustive examination of your feelings under wordsworth, in order that you may better understand what he was trying to effect in you, and the means which he employed, i must direct you to wordsworth himself. wordsworth, in addition to being a poet, was unsurpassed as a critic of poetry. what hazlitt does for poetry in the way of creating enthusiasm wordsworth does in the way of philosophic explanation. and wordsworth's explanations of the theory and practice of poetry are written for the plain man. they pass the comprehension of nobody, and their direct, unassuming, and calm simplicity is extremely persuasive. wordsworth's chief essays in throwing light on himself are the "advertisement," "preface," and "appendix" to _lyrical ballads_; the letters to lady beaumont and "the friend" and the "preface" to the poems dated . all this matter is strangely interesting and of immense educational value. it is the first-class expert talking at ease about his subject. the essays relating to _lyrical ballads_ will be the most useful for you. you will discover these precious documents in a volume entitled _wordsworth's literary criticism_ (published by henry frowde, s. d.), edited by that distinguished wordsworthian mr. nowell c. smith. it is essential that the student of poetry should become possessed, honestly or dishonestly, either of this volume or of the matter which it contains. there is, by the way, a volume of wordsworth's prose in the scott library ( s.). those who have not read wordsworth on poetry can have no idea of the naïve charm and the helpful radiance of his expounding. i feel that i cannot too strongly press wordsworth's criticism upon you. between wordsworth and hazlitt you will learn all that it behoves you to know of the nature, the aims, and the results of poetry. it is no part of my scheme to dot the "i's" and cross the "t's" of wordsworth and hazlitt. i best fulfil my purpose in urgently referring you to them. i have only a single point of my own to make--a psychological detail. one of the main obstacles to the cultivation of poetry in the average sensible man is an absurdly inflated notion of the ridiculous. at the bottom of that man's mind is the idea that poetry is "silly." he also finds it exaggerated and artificial; but these two accusations against poetry can be satisfactorily answered. the charge of silliness, of being ridiculous, however, cannot be refuted by argument. there is no logical answer to a guffaw. this sense of the ridiculous is merely a bad, infantile habit, in itself grotesquely ridiculous. you may see it particularly in the theatre. not the greatest dramatist, not the greatest composer, not the greatest actor can prevent an audience from laughing uproariously at a tragic moment if a cat walks across the stage. but why ruin the scene by laughter? simply because the majority of any audience is artistically childish. this sense of the ridiculous can only be crushed by the exercise of moral force. it can only be cowed. if you are inclined to laugh when a poet expresses himself more powerfully than you express yourself, when a poet talks about feelings which are not usually mentioned in daily papers, when a poet uses words and images which lie outside your vocabulary and range of thought, then you had better take yourself in hand. you have to decide whether you will be on the side of the angels or on the side of the nincompoops. there is no surer sign of imperfect development than the impulse to snigger at what is unusual, naïve, or exuberant. and if you choose to do so, you can detect the cat walking across the stage in the sublimest passages of literature. but more advanced souls will grieve for you. the study of wordsworth's criticism makes the seventh step in my course of treatment. the eighth is to return to those poems of wordsworth's which you have already perused, and read them again in the full light of the author's defence and explanation. read as much wordsworth as you find you can assimilate, but do not attempt either of his long poems. the time, however, is now come for a long poem. i began by advising narrative poetry for the neophyte, and i shall persevere with the prescription. i mean narrative poetry in the restricted sense; for epic poetry is narrative. _paradise lost_ is narrative; so is _the prelude_. i suggest neither of these great works. my choice falls on elizabeth browning's _aurora leigh_. if you once work yourself "into" this poem, interesting yourself primarily (as with wordsworth) in the events of the story, and not allowing yourself to be obsessed by the fact that what you are reading is "poetry"--if you do this, you are not likely to leave it unfinished. and before you reach the end you will have encountered _en route_ pretty nearly all the moods of poetry that exist: tragic, humorous, ironic, elegiac, lyric--everything. you will have a comprehensive acquaintance with a poet's mind. i guarantee that you will come safely through if you treat the work as a novel. for a novel it effectively is, and a better one than any written by charlotte brontë or george eliot. in reading, it would be well to mark, or take note of, the passages which give you the most pleasure, and then to compare these passages with the passages selected for praise by some authoritative critic. _aurora leigh_ can be got in the "temple classics" ( s. d.), or in the "canterbury poets" ( s.). the indispensable biographical information about mrs. browning can be obtained from mr. j.h. ingram's short life of her in the "eminent women" series ( s. d.), or from _robert browning_, by william sharp ("great writers" series, s.). this accomplished, you may begin to choose your poets. going back to hazlitt, you will see that he deals with, among others, chaucer, spenser, shakespeare, milton, dryden, pope, chatterton, burns, and the lake school. you might select one of these, and read under his guidance. said wordsworth: "i was impressed by the conviction that there were four english poets whom i must have continually before me as examples--chaucer, shakespeare, spenser, and milton." (a word to the wise!) wordsworth makes a fifth to these four. concurrently with the careful, enthusiastic study of one of the undisputed classics, modern verse should be read. (i beg you to accept the following statement: that if the study of classical poetry inspires you with a distaste for modern poetry, then there is something seriously wrong in the method of your development.) you may at this stage (and not before) commence an inquiry into questions of rhythm, verse-structure, and rhyme. there is, i believe, no good, concise, cheap handbook to english prosody; yet such a manual is greatly needed. the only one with which i am acquainted is tom hood the younger's _rules of rhyme: a guide to english versification_. again, the introduction to walker's _rhyming dictionary_ gives a fairly clear elementary account of the subject. ruskin also has written an excellent essay on verse-rhythms. with a manual in front of you, you can acquire in a couple of hours a knowledge of the formal principles in which the music of english verse is rooted. the business is trifling. but the business of appreciating the inmost spirit of the greatest verse is tremendous and lifelong. it is not something that can be "got up." chapter x broad counsels i have now set down what appear to me to be the necessary considerations, recommendations, exhortations, and dehortations in aid of this delicate and arduous enterprise of forming the literary taste. i have dealt with the theory of literature, with the psychology of the author, and--quite as important--with the psychology of the reader. i have tried to explain the author to the reader and the reader to himself. to go into further detail would be to exceed my original intention, with no hope of ever bringing the constantly-enlarging scheme to a logical conclusion. my aim is not to provide a map, but a compass--two very different instruments. in the way of general advice it remains for me only to put before you three counsels which apply more broadly than any i have yet offered to the business of reading. you have within yourself a touchstone by which finally you can, and you must, test every book that your brain is capable of comprehending. does the book seem to you to be sincere and true? if it does, then you need not worry about your immediate feelings, or the possible future consequences of the book. you will ultimately like the book, and you will be justified in liking it. honesty, in literature as in life, is the quality that counts first and counts last. but beware of your immediate feelings. truth is not always pleasant. the first glimpse of truth is, indeed, usually so disconcerting as to be positively unpleasant, and our impulse is to tell it to go away, for we will have no truck with it. if a book arouses your genuine contempt, you may dismiss it from your mind. take heed, however, lest you confuse contempt with anger. if a book really moves you to anger, the chances are that it is a good book. most good books have begun by causing anger which disguised itself as contempt. demanding honesty from your authors, you must see that you render it yourself. and to be honest with oneself is not so simple as it appears. one's sensations and one's sentiments must be examined with detachment. when you have violently flung down a book, listen whether you can hear a faint voice saying within you: "it's true, though!" and if you catch the whisper, better yield to it as quickly as you can. for sooner or later the voice will win. similarly, when you are hugging a book, keep your ear cocked for the secret warning: "yes, but it isn't true." for bad books, by flattering you, by caressing, by appealing to the weak or the base in you, will often persuade you what fine and splendid books they are. (of course, i use the word "true" in a wide and essential significance. i do not necessarily mean true to literal fact; i mean true to the plane of experience in which the book moves. the truthfulness of _ivanhoe_, for example, cannot be estimated by the same standards as the truthfulness of stubbs's _constitutional history_.) in reading a book, a sincere questioning of oneself, "is it true?" and a loyal abiding by the answer, will help more surely than any other process of ratiocination to form the taste. i will not assert that this question and answer are all-sufficient. a true book is not always great. but a great book is never untrue. my second counsel is: in your reading you must have in view some definite aim--some aim other than the wish to derive pleasure. i conceive that to give pleasure is the highest end of any work of art, because the pleasure procured from any art is tonic, and transforms the life into which it enters. but the maximum of pleasure can only be obtained by regular effort, and regular effort implies the organisation of that effort. open-air walking is a glorious exercise; it is the walking itself which is glorious. nevertheless, when setting out for walking exercise, the sane man generally has a subsidiary aim in view. he says to himself either that he will reach a given point, or that he will progress at a given speed for a given distance, or that he will remain on his feet for a given time. he organises his effort, partly in order that he may combine some other advantage with the advantage of walking, but principally in order to be sure that the effort shall be an adequate effort. the same with reading. your paramount aim in poring over literature is to enjoy, but you will not fully achieve that aim unless you have also a subsidiary aim which necessitates the measurement of your energy. your subsidiary aim may be æsthetic, moral, political, religious, scientific, erudite; you may devote yourself to a man, a topic, an epoch, a nation, a branch of literature, an idea--you have the widest latitude in the choice of an objective; but a definite objective you must have. in my earlier remarks as to method in reading, i advocated, without insisting on, regular hours for study. but i both advocate and insist on the fixing of a date for the accomplishment of an allotted task. as an instance, it is not enough to say: "i will inform myself completely as to the lake school." it is necessary to say: "i will inform myself completely as to the lake school before i am a year older." without this precautionary steeling of the resolution the risk of a humiliating collapse into futility is enormously magnified. my third counsel is: buy a library. it is obvious that you cannot read unless you have books. i began by urging the constant purchase of books--any books of approved quality, without reference to their immediate bearing upon your particular case. the moment has now come to inform you plainly that a bookman is, amongst other things, a man who possesses many books. a man who does not possess many books is not a bookman. for years literary authorities have been favouring the literary public with wondrously selected lists of "the best books"--the best novels, the best histories, the best poems, the best works of philosophy--or the hundred best or the fifty best of all sorts. the fatal disadvantage of such lists is that they leave out large quantities of literature which is admittedly first-class. the bookman cannot content himself with a selected library. he wants, as a minimum, a library reasonably complete in all departments. with such a basis acquired, he can afterwards wander into those special byways of book-buying which happen to suit his special predilections. every englishman who is interested in any branch of his native literature, and who respects himself, ought to own a comprehensive and inclusive library of english literature, in comely and adequate editions. you may suppose that this counsel is a counsel of perfection. it is not. mark pattison laid down a rule that he who desired the name of book-lover must spend five per cent. of his income on books. the proposal does not seem extravagant, but even on a smaller percentage than five the average reader of these pages may become the owner, in a comparatively short space of time, of a reasonably complete english library, by which i mean a library containing the complete works of the supreme geniuses, representative important works of all the first-class men in all departments, and specimen works of all the men of the second rank whose reputation is really a living reputation to-day. the scheme for a library, which i now present, begins before chaucer and ends with george gissing, and i am fairly sure that the majority of people will be startled at the total inexpensiveness of it. so far as i am aware, no such scheme has ever been printed before. chapter xi an english library: period i [for much counsel and correction in the matter of editions and prices i am indebted to my old and valued friend, charles young, head of the firm of lamley & co., booksellers, south kensington.] for the purposes of book-buying, i divide english literature, not strictly into historical epochs, but into three periods which, while scarcely arbitrary from the historical point of view, have nevertheless been calculated according to the space which they will occupy on the shelves and to the demands which they will make on the purse: i. from the beginning to john dryden, or roughly, to the end of the seventeenth century. ii. from william congreve to jane austen, or roughly, the eighteenth century. iii. from sir walter scott to the last deceased author who is recognised as a classic, or roughly, the nineteenth century. period iii. will bulk the largest and cost the most; not necessarily because it contains more absolutely great books than the other periods (though in my opinion it _does_), but because it is nearest to us, and therefore fullest of interest for us. i have not confined my choice to books of purely literary interest--that is to say, to works which are primarily works of literary art. literature is the vehicle of philosophy, science, morals, religion, and history; and a library which aspires to be complete must comprise, in addition to imaginative works, all these branches of intellectual activity. comprising all these branches, it cannot avoid comprising works of which the purely literary interest is almost nil. on the other hand, i have excluded from consideration:-- i. works whose sole importance is that they form a link in the chain of development. for example, nearly all the productions of authors between chaucer and the beginning of the elizabethan period, such as gower, hoccleve, and skelton, whose works, for sufficient reason, are read only by professors and students who mean to be professors. ii. works not originally written in english, such as the works of that very great philosopher roger bacon, of whom this isle ought to be prouder than it is. to this rule, however, i have been constrained to make a few exceptions. sir thomas more's _utopia_ was written in latin, but one does not easily conceive a library to be complete without it. and could one exclude sir isaac newton's _principia_, the masterpiece of the greatest physicist that the world has ever seen? the law of gravity ought to have, and does have, a powerful sentimental interest for us. iii. translations from foreign literature into english. here, then, are the lists for the first period: prose writers £ s. d. bede, _ecclesiastical history_: temple classics. sir thomas malory, _morte d'arthur_: everyman's library ( vols.) sir thomas more, _utopia_: scott library george cavendish, _life of cardinal wolsey_: new universal library. richard hakluyt, _voyages_: everyman's library ( vols.) richard hooker, _ecclesiastical polity_: everyman's library ( vols.) francis bacon, _works_: newnes's thinpaper classics. thomas dekker, _gull's horn-book_: king's classics. lord herbert of cherbury, _autobiography_: scott library. john selden, _table-talk_: new universal library. thomas hobbes, _leviathan_: new universal library. james howell, _familiar letters_: temple classics ( vols.) sir thomas browne, _religio medici_, etc.: everyman's library. jeremy taylor, _holy living and holy dying_: temple classics ( vols.) izaak walton, _compleat angler_: everyman's library. john bunyan, _pilgrim's progress_: world's classics. sir william temple, _essay on gardens of epicurus_: king's classics. john evelyn, _diary_: everyman's library ( vols.) samuel pepys, _diary_: everyman's library ( vols.) _________ £ the principal omission from the above list is _the paston letters_, which i should probably have included had the enterprise of publishers been sufficient to put an edition on the market at a cheap price. other omissions include the works of caxton and wyclif, and such books as camden's _britannia_, ascham's _schoolmaster_, and fuller's _worthies_, whose lack of first-rate value as literature is not adequately compensated by their historical interest. as to the bible, in the first place it is a translation, and in the second i assume that you already possess a copy. poets £ s. d. _beowulf_, routledge's london library geoffrey chaucer, _works_: globe edition nicolas udall, _ralph roister-doister_: temple dramatists edmund spenser, _works_: globe edition thomas lodge, _rosalynde_: caxton series robert greene, _tragical reign of selimus_: temple dramatists michael drayton, _poems_: newnes's pocket classics christopher marlowe, _works_: new universal library william shakespeare, _works_: globe edition thomas campion, _poems_: muses' library ben jonson, _plays_: canterbury poets john donne, _poems_: muses' library ( vols.) john webster, cyril tourneur, _plays_: mermaid series philip massinger, _plays_: cunningham edition beaumont and fletcher, _plays_: a selection canterbury poets john ford, _plays_: mermaid series george herbert, _the temple_: everyman's library robert herrick, _poems_: muses' library ( vols.) edmund waller, _poems_: muses' library ( vols.) sir john suckling, _poems_: muses' library abraham cowley, _english poems_: cambridge university press richard crashaw, _poems_: muses' library henry vaughan, _poems_: methuen's little library samuel butler, _hudibras_: cambridge university press john milton, _poetical works_: oxford cheap edition john milton, _select prose works_: scott library andrew marvell, _poems_: methuen's little library john dryden, _poetical works_: globe edition [thomas percy], _reliques of ancient english poetry_: everyman's library ( vols.) arber's _"spenser" anthology_: oxford university press arber's _"jonson" anthology_: oxford university press arber's _"shakspere" anthology_: oxford university press _________ £ there were a number of brilliant minor writers in the seventeenth century whose best work, often trifling in bulk, either scarcely merits the acquisition of a separate volume for each author, or cannot be obtained at all in a modern edition. such authors, however, may not be utterly neglected in the formation of a library. it is to meet this difficulty that i have included the last three volumes on the above list. professor arber's anthologies are full of rare pieces, and comprise admirable specimens of the verse of samuel daniel, giles fletcher, countess of pembroke, james i., george peele, sir walter raleigh, thomas sackville, sir philip sidney, drummond of hawthornden, thomas heywood, george wither, sir henry wotton, sir william davenant, thomas randolph, frances quarles, james shirley, and other greater and lesser poets. i have included all the important elizabethan dramatists except john marston, all the editions of whose works, according to my researches, are out of print. in the elizabethan and jacobean periods talent was so extraordinarily plentiful that the standard of excellence is quite properly raised, and certain authors are thus relegated to the third, or excluded, class who in a less fertile period would have counted as at least second-class. summary of the first period. £ s. d. prose authors in volumes costing poets in " " __ __ _________ £ in addition, scores of authors of genuine interest are represented in the anthologies. the prices given are gross, and in many instances there is a per cent. discount to come off. all the volumes can be procured immediately at any bookseller's. chapter xii an english library: period ii after dealing with the formation of a library of authors up to john dryden, i must logically arrange next a scheme for the period covered roughly by the eighteenth century. there is, however, no reason why the student in quest of a library should follow the chronological order. indeed, i should advise him to attack the nineteenth century before the eighteenth, for the reason that, unless his taste happens to be peculiarly "augustan," he will obtain a more immediate satisfaction and profit from his acquisitions in the nineteenth century than in the eighteenth. there is in eighteenth-century literature a considerable proportion of what i may term "unattractive excellence," which one must have for the purposes of completeness, but which may await actual perusal until more pressing and more human books have been read. i have particularly in mind the philosophical authors of the century. prose writers. £ s. d. john locke, _philosophical works_: bohn's edition ( vols.) sir isaac newton, _principia_ (sections , , and ): macmillans gilbert burnet, _history of his own time_: everyman's library william wycherley, _best plays_: mermaid series william congreve, _best plays_: mermaid series jonathan swift, _tale of a tub_: scott library jonathan swift, _gulliver's travels_: temple classics daniel defoe, _robinson crusoe_: world's classics daniel defoe, _journal of the plague year_: everyman's library joseph addison, sir richard steele, _essays_: scott library william law, _serious call_: everyman's library lady mary w. montagu, _letters_: everyman's library george berkeley, _principles of human knowledge_: new universal library samuel richardson, _clarissa_ (abridged): routledge's edition john wesley, _journal_: everyman's library ( vols.) henry fielding, _tom jones_: routledge's edition henry fielding, _amelia_: routledge's edition henry fielding, _joseph andrews_: routledge's edition david hume, _essays_: world's classics laurence sterne, _tristram shandy_: world's classics laurence sterne, _sentimental journey_: new universal library horace walpole, _castle of otranto_: king's classics tobias smollett, _humphrey clinker_: routledge's edition tobias smollett, _travels through france and italy_: world's classics adam smith, _wealth of nations_: world's classics ( vols.) samuel johnson, _lives of the poets_: world's classics ( vols.) samuel johnson, _rasselas_: new universal library james boswell, _life of johnson_: everyman's library ( vols.) oliver goldsmith, _works_: globe edition henry mackenzie, _the man of feeling_: cassell's national library sir joshua reynolds, _discourses on art_: scott library edmund burke, _reflections on the french revolution_: scott library edmund burke, _thoughts on the present discontents_: new universal library edward gibbon, _decline and fall of the roman empire_: world's classics ( vols.) thomas paine, _rights of man_: watts and co.'s edition richard brinsley sheridan, _plays_: world's classics fanny burney, _evelina_: everyman's library gilbert white, _natural history of selborne_: everyman's library arthur young, _travels in france_: york library mungo park, _travels_: everyman's library jeremy bentham, _introduction to the principles of morals_: clarendon press thomas robert malthus, _essay on the principle of population_: ward, lock's edition william godwin, _caleb williams_: newnes's edition maria edgeworth, _helen_: macmillan's illustrated edition jane austen, _novels_: nelson's new century library ( vols.) james morier, _hadji baba_: macmillan's illustrated novels __________ £ the principal omissions here are jeremy collier, whose outcry against the immorality of the stage is his slender title to remembrance; richard bentley, whose scholarship principally died with him, and whose chief works are no longer current; and "junius," who would have been deservedly forgotten long ago had there been a contemporaneous sherlock holmes to ferret out his identity. poets. £ s. d. thomas otway, _venice preserved_: temple dramatists matthew prior, _poems on several occasions_: cambridge english classics john gay, _poems_: muses' library ( vols.) alexander pope, _works_: globe edition isaac watts, _hymns_: any hymn-book james thomson, _the seasons_: muses' library charles wesley, _hymns_: any hymn-book thomas gray, samuel johnson, william collins, _poems_: muses' library james macpherson (ossian), _poems_: canterbury poets thomas chatterton, _poems_: muses' library ( vols.) william cowper, _poems_: canterbury poets william cowper, _letters_: world's classics george crabbe, _poems_: methuen's little library william blake, _poems_: muses' library william lisle bowles, hartley coleridge, _poems_: canterbury poets robert burns, _works_: globe edition __________ £ summary of the period. prose writers in volumes, costing £ poets " " " __ __ __________ £ chapter xiii an english library: period iii the catalogue of necessary authors of this third and last period being so long, it is convenient to divide the prose writers into imaginative and non-imaginative. in the latter half of the period the question of copyright affects our scheme to a certain extent, because it affects prices. fortunately it is the fact that no single book of recognised first-rate general importance is conspicuously dear. nevertheless, i have encountered difficulties in the second rank; i have dealt with them in a spirit of compromise. i think i may say that, though i should have included a few more authors had their books been obtainable at a reasonable price, i have omitted none that i consider indispensable to a thoroughly representative collection. no living author is included. where i do not specify the edition of a book the original copyright edition is meant. prose writers: imaginative. £ s. d. sir walter scott, _waverley, heart of midlothian, quentin durward, red-gauntlet, ivanhoe_: everyman's library ( vols.) sir walter scott, _marmion_, etc.: canterbury poets charles lamb, _works in prose and verse_: clarendon press ( vols.) charles lamb, _letters_: newnes's thin paper classics walter savage landor, _imaginary conversations_: scott library walter savage landor, _poems_: canterbury poets leigh hunt, _essays and sketches_: world's classics thomas love peacock, _principal novels_: new universal library ( vols.) mary russell mitford, _our village_: scott library michael scott, _tom cringle's log_: macmillan's illustrated novels frederick marryat, _mr. midshipman easy_: everyman's library john galt, _annals of the parish_: everyman's library susan ferrier, _marriage_: routledge's edition douglas jerrold, _mrs. caudle's curtain lectures_: world's classics lord lytton, _last days of pompeii_: everyman's library william carleton, _stories_: scott library charles james lever, _harry lorrequer_: everyman's library harrison ainsworth, _the tower of london_: new universal library george henry borrow, _bible in spain, lavengro_: new universal library ( vols.) lord beaconsfield, _sybil, coningsby_: lane's new pocket library ( vols.) w.m. thackeray, _vanity fair, esmond_: everyman's library ( vols.) w.m. thackeray, _barry lyndon_, and _roundabout papers_, etc.: nelson's new century library charles dickens, _works_: everyman's library ( vols.) charles reade, _the cloister and the hearth_: everyman's library anthony trollope, _barchester towers, framley parsonage_: lane's new pocket library ( vols.) charles kingsley, _westward ho!_: everyman's library henry kingsley, _ravenshoe_: everyman's library charlotte brontë, _jane eyre, shirley, villette, professor, and poems_: world's classics ( vols.) emily brontë, _wuthering heights_: world's classics elizabeth gaskell, _cranford_: world's classics elizabeth gaskell, _life of charlotte brontë_ george eliot, _adam bede, silas marner, the mill on the floss_: everyman's library ( vols.) g.j. whyte-melville, _the gladiators_: new universal library alexander smith, _dreamthorpe_: new universal library george macdonald, _malcolm_ walter pater, _imaginary portraits_ wilkie collins, _the woman in white_ r.d. blackmore, _lorna doone_: everyman's library samuel butler, _erewhon_: fifield's edition laurence oliphant, _altiora peto_ margaret oliphant, _salem chapel_: everyman's library richard jefferies, _story of my heart_ lewis carroll, _alice in wonderland_: macmillan's cheap edition john henry shorthouse, _john inglesant_: macmillan's pocket classics r.l. stevenson, _master of ballantrae, virginibus puerisque_: pocket edition ( vols.) george gissing, _the odd women_: popular edition (bound) __________ £ names such as those of charlotte yonge and dinah craik are omitted intentionally. prose writers: non-imaginative. £ s. d. william hazlitt, _spirit of the age_: world's classics william hazlitt, _english poets and comic writers_: bohn's library francis jeffrey, _essays from edinburgh review_: new universal library thomas de quincey, _confessions of an english opium-eater_, etc.: scott library sydney smith, _selected papers_: scott library george finlay, _byzantine empire_: everyman's library john g. lockhart, _life of scott_: everyman's library agnes strickland, _life of queen elizabeth_: everyman's library hugh miller, _old red sandstone_: everyman's library j.h. newman, _apologia pro vita sua_: new universal library lord macaulay, _history of england_, ( ), _essays_ ( ): everyman's library ( vols.) a.p. stanley, _memorials of canterbury_: everyman's library thomas carlyle, _french revolution_ ( ), _cromwell_ ( ), _sartor resartus and heroes and hero-worship_ ( ): everyman's library ( vols.) thomas carlyle, _latter-day pamphlets_: chapman and hall's edition charles darwin, _origin of species_: murray's edition charles darwin, _voyage of the beagle_: everyman's library a.w. kinglake, _eothen_: new universal library john stuart mill, _auguste comte and positivism_: new universal library john brown, _horæ subsecivæ_: world's classics john brown, _rab and his friends_: everyman's library sir arthur helps, _friends in council_: new universal library mark pattison, _life of milton_: english men of letters series f.w. robertson, _on religion and life_: everyman's library benjamin jowett, _interpretation of scripture_: routledge's london library george henry lewes, _principles of success in literature_: scott library alexander bain, _mind and body_ james anthony froude, _dissolution of the monasteries_, etc.: new universal library mary wollstonecraft, _vindication of the rights of women_: scott library john tyndall, _glaciers of the alps_: everyman's library sir henry maine, _ancient law_: new universal library john ruskin, _seven lamps_ ( ), _sesame and lilies_ ( ), _stones of venice_ ( ): george allen's cheap edition ( vols.) herbert spencer, _first principles_ ( vols.) herbert spencer, _education_ sir richard burton, _narrative of a pilgrimage to mecca_: bohn's edition ( vols.) j.s. speke, _sources of the nile_: everyman's library thomas henry huxley, _essays_: everyman's library e.a. freeman, _europe_: macmillan's primers william stubbs, _early plantagenets_ walter bagehot, _lombard street_ richard holt hutton, _cardinal newman_ sir john seeley, _ecce homo_: new universal library david masson, _thomas de quincey_: english men of letters series john richard green, _short history of the english people_ sir leslie stephen, _pope_: english men of letters series lord acton, _on the study of history_ mandell creighton, _the age of elizabeth_ f.w.h. myers, _wordsworth_: english men of letters series __________ £ the following authors are omitted, i think justifiably:--hallam, whewell, grote, faraday, herschell, hamilton, john wilson, richard owen, stirling maxwell, buckle, oscar wilde, p.g. hamerton, f.d. maurice, henry sidgwick, and richard jebb. lastly, here is the list of poets. in the matter of price per volume it is the most expensive of all the lists. this is due to the fact that it contains a larger proportion of copyright works. where i do not specify the edition of a book, the original copyright edition is meant: poets. £ s. d. william wordsworth, _poetical works_: oxford edition william wordsworth, _literary criticism_: nowell smith's edition robert southey, _poems_: canterbury poets robert southey, _life of nelson_: everyman's library s.t. coleridge, _poetical works_: newnes's thin paper classics s.t. coleridge, _biographia literaria_: everyman's library s.t. coleridge, _lectures on shakspere_: everyman's library john keats, _poetical works_: oxford edition percy bysshe shelley, _poetical works_: oxford edition lord byron, _poems_: e. hartley coleridge's edition lord byron, _letters_: scott library thomas hood, _poems_: world's classics james and horace smith, _rejected addresses_: new universal library john keble, _the christian year_: canterbury poets george darley, _poems_: muses' library t.l. beddoes, _poems_: muses' library thomas moore, _selected poems_: canterbury poets james clarence mangan, _poems_: d.j. o'donoghue's edition w. mackworth praed, _poems_: canterbury poets r.s. hawker, _cornish ballads_: c.e. byles's edition edward fitzgerald, _omar khayyam_: golden treasury series p.j. bailey, _festus_: routledge's edition arthur hugh clough, _poems_: muses' library lord tennyson, _poetical works_: globe edition robert browning, _poetical works_: world's classics ( vols.) elizabeth browning, _aurora leigh_: temple classics elizabeth browning, _shorter poems_: canterbury poets p.b. marston, _song-tide_: canterbury poets aubrey de vere, _legends of st. patrick_: cassell's national library matthew arnold, _poems_: golden treasury series matthew arnold, _essays_: everyman's library coventry patmore, _poems_: muses' library sydney dobell, _poems_: canterbury poets eric mackay, _love-letters of a violinist_: canterbury poets t.e. brown, _poems_ c.s. calverley, _verses and translations_ d.g. rossetti, _poetical works_ christina rossetti, _selected poems_: golden treasury series james thomson, _city of dreadful night_ jean ingelow, _poems_: red letter library william morris, _the earthly paradise_ william morris, _early romances_: everyman's library augusta webster, _selected poems_ w.e. henley, _poetical works_ francis thompson, _selected poems_ __________ £ poets whom i have omitted after hesitation are: ebenezer elliott, thomas woolner, william barnes, gerald massey, and charles jeremiah wells. on the other hand, i have had no hesitation about omitting david moir, felicia hemans, aytoun, sir edwin arnold, and sir lewis morris. i have included john keble in deference to much enlightened opinion, but against my inclination. there are two names in the list which may be somewhat unfamiliar to many readers. james clarence mangan is the author of _my dark rosaleen_, an acknowledged masterpiece, which every library must contain. t.e. brown is a great poet, recognised as such by a few hundred people, and assuredly destined to a far wider fame. i have included fitzgerald because _omar khayyam_ is much less a translation than an original work. summary of the nineteenth century. prose-writers, in volumes, costing £ poets " " " __ ___ __________ £ grand summary of complete library. authors. volumes. price. . to dryden £ . eighteenth century . nineteenth century ___ ___ ________ £ i think it will be agreed that the total cost of this library is surprisingly small. by laying out the sum of sixpence a day for three years you may become the possessor of a collection of books which, for range and completeness in all branches of literature, will bear comparison with libraries far more imposing, more numerous, and more expensive. i have mentioned the question of discount. the discount which you will obtain (even from a bookseller in a small town) will be more than sufficient to pay for chambers's _cyclopædia of english literature_, three volumes, price s. net. this work is indispensable to a bookman. personally, i owe it much. when you have read, wholly or in part, a majority of these three hundred and thirty-five volumes, _with enjoyment_, you may begin to whisper to yourself that your literary taste is formed; and you may pronounce judgment on modern works which come before the bar of your opinion in the calm assurance that, though to err is human, you do at any rate know what you are talking about. chapter xiv mental stocktaking great books do not spring from something accidental in the great men who wrote them. they are the effluence of their very core, the expression of the life itself of the authors. and literature cannot be said to have served its true purpose until it has been translated into the actual life of him who reads. it does not succeed until it becomes the vehicle of the vital. progress is the gradual result of the unending battle between human reason and human instinct, in which the former slowly but surely wins. the most powerful engine in this battle is literature. it is the vast reservoir of true ideas and high emotions--and life is constituted of ideas and emotions. in a world deprived of literature, the intellectual and emotional activity of all but a few exceptionally gifted men would quickly sink and retract to a narrow circle. the broad, the noble, the generous would tend to disappear for want of accessible storage. and life would be correspondingly degraded, because the fallacious idea and the petty emotion would never feel the upward pull of the ideas and emotions of genius. only by conceiving a society without literature can it be clearly realised that the function of literature is to raise the plain towards the top level of the peaks. literature exists so that where one man has lived finely ten thousand may afterwards live finely. it is a means of life; it concerns the living essence. of course, literature has a minor function, that of passing the time in an agreeable and harmless fashion, by giving momentary faint pleasure. vast multitudes of people (among whom may be numbered not a few habitual readers) utilise only this minor function of literature; by implication they class it with golf, bridge, or soporifics. literary genius, however, had no intention of competing with these devices for fleeting the empty hours; and all such use of literature may be left out of account. you, o serious student of many volumes, believe that you have a sincere passion for reading. you hold literature in honour, and your last wish would be to debase it to a paltry end. you are not of those who read because the clock has just struck nine and one can't go to bed till eleven. you are animated by a real desire to get out of literature all that literature will give. and in that aim you keep on reading, year after year, and the grey hairs come. but amid all this steady tapping of the reservoir, do you ever take stock of what you have acquired? do you ever pause to make a valuation, in terms of your own life, of that which you are daily absorbing, or imagine you are absorbing? do you ever satisfy yourself by proof that you are absorbing anything at all, that the living waters, instead of vitalising you, are not running off you as though you were a duck in a storm? because, if you omit this mere business precaution, it may well be that you, too, without knowing it, are little by little joining the triflers who read only because eternity is so long. it may well be that even your alleged sacred passion is, after all, simply a sort of drug-habit. the suggestion disturbs and worries you. you dismiss it impatiently; but it returns. how (you ask, unwillingly) can a man perform a mental stocktaking? how can he put a value on what he gets from books? how can he effectively test, in cold blood, whether he is receiving from literature all that literature has to give him? the test is not so vague, nor so difficult, as might appear. if a man is not thrilled by intimate contact with nature: with the sun, with the earth, which is his origin and the arouser of his acutest emotions-- if he is not troubled by the sight of beauty in many forms-- if he is devoid of curiosity concerning his fellow-men and his fellow-animals-- if he does not have glimpses of the nuity of all things in an orderly progress-- if he is chronically "querulous, dejected, and envious"-- if he is pessimistic-- if he is of those who talk about "this age of shams," "this age without ideals," "this hysterical age," and this heaven-knows-what-age-- then that man, though he reads undisputed classics for twenty hours a day, though he has a memory of steel, though he rivals porson in scholarship and sainte beuve in judgment, is not receiving from literature what literature has to give. indeed, he is chiefly wasting his time. unless he can read differently, it were better for him if he sold all his books, gave to the poor, and played croquet. he fails because he has not assimilated into his existence the vital essences which genius put into the books that have merely passed before his eyes; because genius has offered him faith, courage, vision, noble passion, curiosity, love, a thirst for beauty, and he has not taken the gift; because genius has offered him the chance of living fully, and he is only half alive, for it is only in the stress of fine ideas and emotions that a man may be truly said to live. this is not a moral invention, but a simple fact, which will be attested by all who know what that stress is. what! you talk learnedly about shakespeare's sonnets! have you heard shakespeare's terrific shout: full many a glorious morning have i seen flatter the mountain-tops with sovereign eye, kissing with golden face the meadows green, gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy. and yet, can you see the sun over the viaduct at loughborough junction of a morning, and catch its rays in the thames off dewar's whisky monument, and not shake with the joy of life? if so, you and shakespeare are not yet in communication. what! you pride yourself on your beautiful edition of casaubon's translation of _marcus aurelius_, and you savour the cadences of the famous: this day i shall have to do with an idle, curious man, with an unthankful man, a railer, a crafty, false, or an envious man. all these ill qualities have happened unto him, through ignorance of that which is truly good and truly bad. but i that understand the nature of that which is good, that it only is to be desired, and of that which is bad, that it only is truly odious and shameful: who know, moreover, that this transgressor, whosoever he be, is my kinsman, not by the same blood and seed, but by participation of the same reason and of the same divine particle--how can i be hurt?... and with these cadences in your ears you go and quarrel with a cabman! you would be ashamed of your literary self to be caught in ignorance of whitman, who wrote: now understand me well--it is provided in the essence of things that from any fruition of success, no matter what, shall come forth something to make a greater struggle necessary. and yet, having achieved a motor-car, you lose your temper when it breaks down half-way up a hill! you know your wordsworth, who has been trying to teach you about: the upholder of the tranquil soul that tolerates the indignities of time and, from the centre of eternity all finite motions over-ruling, lives in glory immutable. but you are capable of being seriously unhappy when your suburban train selects a tunnel for its repose! and the a.v. of the bible, which you now read, not as your forefathers read it, but with an æsthetic delight, especially in the apocrypha! you remember: whatsoever is brought upon thee, take cheerfully, and be patient when thou art changed to a low estate. for gold is tried in the fire and acceptable men in the furnace of adversity. and yet you are ready to lie down and die because a woman has scorned you! go to! you think some of my instances approach the ludicrous? they do. they are meant to do so. but they are no more ludicrous than life itself. and they illustrate in the most workaday fashion how you can test whether your literature fulfils its function of informing and transforming your existence. i say that if daily events and scenes do not constantly recall and utilise the ideas and emotions contained in the books which you have read or are reading; if the memory of these books does not quicken the perception of beauty, wherever you happen to be, does not help you to correlate the particular trifle with the universal, does not smooth out irritation and give dignity to sorrow--then you are, consciously or not, unworthy of your high vocation as a bookman. you may say that i am preaching a sermon. the fact is, i am. my mood is a severely moral mood. for when i reflect upon the difference between what books have to offer and what even relatively earnest readers take the trouble to accept from them, i am appalled (or should be appalled, did i not know that the world is moving) by the sheer inefficiency, the bland, complacent failure of the earnest reader. i am like yourself, the spectacle of inefficiency rouses my holy ire. before you begin upon another masterpiece, set out in a row the masterpieces which you are proud of having read during the past year. take the first on the list, that book which you perused in all the zeal of your new year resolutions for systematic study. examine the compartments of your mind. search for the ideas and emotions which you have garnered from that book. think, and recollect when last something from that book recurred to your memory apropos of your own daily commerce with humanity. is it history--when did it throw a light for you on modern politics? is it science--when did it show you order in apparent disorder, and help you to put two and two together into an inseparable four? is it ethics--when did it influence your conduct in a twopenny-halfpenny affair between man and man? is it a novel--when did it help you to "understand all and forgive all"? is it poetry--when was it a magnifying glass to disclose beauty to you, or a fire to warm your cooling faith? if you can answer these questions satisfactorily, your stocktaking as regards the fruit of your traffic with that book may be reckoned satisfactory. if you cannot answer them satisfactorily, then either you chose the book badly or your impression that you _read_ it is a mistaken one. when the result of this stocktaking forces you to the conclusion that your riches are not so vast as you thought them to be, it is necessary to look about for the causes of the misfortune. the causes may be several. you may have been reading worthless books. this, however, i should say at once, is extremely unlikely. habitual and confirmed readers, unless they happen to be reviewers, seldom read worthless books. in the first place, they are so busy with books of proved value that they have only a small margin of leisure left for very modern works, and generally, before they can catch up with the age, time or the critic has definitely threshed for them the wheat from the chaff. no! mediocrity has not much chance of hood-winking the serious student. it is less improbable that the serious student has been choosing his books badly. he may do this in two ways--absolutely and relatively. every reader of long standing has been through the singular experience of suddenly _seeing_ a book with which his eyes have been familiar for years. he reads a book with a reputation and thinks: "yes, this is a good book. this book gives me pleasure." and then after an interval, perhaps after half a lifetime, something mysterious happens to his mental sight. he picks up the book again, and sees a new and profound significance in every sentence, and he says: "i was perfectly blind to this book before." yet he is no cleverer than he used to be. only something has happened to him. let a gold watch be discovered by a supposititious man who has never heard of watches. he has a sense of beauty. he admires the watch, and takes pleasure in it. he says: "this is a beautiful piece of bric-à-brac; i fully appreciate this delightful trinket." then imagine his feelings when someone comes along with the key; imagine the light flooding his brain. similar incidents occur in the eventful life of the constant reader. he has no key, and never suspects that there exists such a thing as a key. that is what i call a choice absolutely bad. the choice is relatively bad when, spreading over a number of books, it pursues no order, and thus results in a muddle of faint impressions each blurring the rest. books must be allowed to help one another; they must be skilfully called in to each other's aid. and that this may be accomplished some guiding principle is necessary. "and what," you demand, "should that guiding principle be?" how do i know? nobody, fortunately, can make your principles for you. you have to make them for yourself. but i will venture upon this general observation: that in the mental world what counts is not numbers but co-ordination. as regards facts and ideas, the great mistake made by the average well-intentioned reader is that he is content with the names of things instead of occupying himself with the causes of things. he seeks answers to the question what? instead of to the question why? he studies history, and never guesses that all history is caused by the facts of geography. he is a botanical expert, and can take you to where the _sibthorpia europæa_ grows, and never troubles to wonder what the earth would be without its cloak of plants. he wanders forth of starlit evenings and will name you with unction all the constellations from andromeda to the scorpion; but if you ask him why venus can never be seen at midnight, he will tell you that he has not bothered with the scientific details. he has not learned that names are nothing, and the satisfaction of the lust of the eye a trifle compared to the imaginative vision of which scientific "details" are the indispensable basis. most reading, i am convinced, is unphilosophical; that is to say, it lacks the element which more than anything else quickens the poetry of life. unless and until a man has formed a scheme of knowledge, be it a mere skeleton, his reading must necessarily be unphilosophical. he must have attained to some notion of the inter-relations of the various branches of knowledge before he can properly comprehend the branch in which he specialises. if he has not drawn an outline map upon which he can fill in whatever knowledge comes to him, as it comes, and on which he can trace the affinity of every part with every other part, he is assuredly frittering away a large percentage of his efforts. there are certain philosophical works which, once they are mastered, seem to have performed an operation for cataract, so that he who was blind, having read them, henceforward sees cause and effect working in and out everywhere. to use another figure, they leave stamped on the brain a chart of the entire province of knowledge. such a work is spencer's _first principles_. i know that it is nearly useless to advise people to read _first principles_. they are intimidated by the sound of it; and it costs as much as a dress-circle seat at the theatre. but if they would, what brilliant stocktakings there might be in a few years! why, if they would only read such detached essays as that on "manners and fashion," or "the genesis of science" (in a sixpenny volume of spencer's _essays_, published by watts and co.), the magic illumination, the necessary power of "synthetising" things, might be vouch-safed to them. in any case, the lack of some such disciplinary, co-ordinating measure will amply explain many disastrous stocktakings. the manner in which one single ray of light, one single precious hint, will clarify and energise the whole mental life of him who receives it, is among the most wonderful and heavenly of intellectual phenomena. some men search for that light and never find it. but most men never search for it. the superlative cause of disastrous stocktakings remains, and it is much more simple than the one with which i have just dealt. it consists in the absence of meditation. people read, and read, and read, blandly unconscious of their effrontery in assuming that they can assimilate without any further effort the vital essence which the author has breathed into them. they cannot. and the proof that they do not is shown all the time in their lives. i say that if a man does not spend at least as much time in actively and definitely thinking about what he has read as he has spent in reading, he is simply insulting his author. if he does not submit himself to intellectual and emotional fatigue in classifying the communicated ideas, and in emphasising on his spirit the imprint of the communicated emotions--then reading with him is a pleasant pastime and nothing else. this is a distressing fact. but it is a fact. it is distressing, for the reason that meditation is not a popular exercise. if a friend asks you what you did last night, you may answer, "i was reading," and he will be impressed and you will be proud. but if you answer, "i was meditating," he will have a tendency to smile and you will have a tendency to blush. i know this. i feel it myself. (i cannot offer any explanation.) but it does not shake my conviction that the absence of meditation is the main origin of disappointing stocktakings. by the same author novels a man from the north anna of the five towns leonora a great man sacred and profane love whom god hath joined buried alive the old wives' tale the glimpse helen with the high hand clayhanger the card fantasias the grand babylon hotel the gates of wrath teresa of watling street the loot of cities hugo the ghost the city of pleasure short stories tales of the five towns the grim smile of the five towns belles-lettres journalism for women fame and fiction how to become an author the truth about an author the reasonable life how to live on twenty-four hours a day the human machine literary taste mental efficiency drama polite farces cupid and commonsense what the public wants (in collaboration with eden phillpotts) the sinews of war: a romance the statue: a romance none this etext was created by doug levy, _literra scripta manet_. art of the story-teller, by marie l. shedlock preface. some day we shall have a science of education comparable to the science of medicine; but even when that day arrives the art of education will still remain the inspiration and the guide of all wise teachers. the laws that regulate our physical and mental development will be reduced to order; but the impulses which lead each new generation to play its way into possession of all that is best in life will still have to be interpreted for us by the artists who, with the wisdom of years, have not lost the direct vision of children. some years ago i heard miss shedlock tell stories in england. her fine sense of literary and dramatic values, her power in sympathetic interpretation, always restrained within the limits of the art she was using, and her understanding of educational values, based on a wide experience of teaching, all marked her as an artist in story-telling. she was equally at home in interpreting the subtle blending of wit and wisdom in daudet, the folk lore philosophy of grimm, or the deeper world philosophy and poignant human appeal of hans christian andersen. then she came to america and for two or three years she taught us the difference between the nightingale that sings in the tree tops and the artificial bird that goes with a spring. cities like new york, boston, pittsburgh and chicago listened and heard, if sometimes indistinctly, the notes of universal appeal, and children saw the arabian nights come true. yielding to the appeals of her friends in america and england, miss shedlock has put together in this little book such observations and suggestions on story-telling as can be put in words. those who have the artist's spirit will find their sense of values quickened by her words, and they will be led to escape some of the errors into which even the greatest artists fall. and even those who tell stories with their minds will find in these papers wise generalizations and suggestions born of wide experience and extended study which well go far towards making even an artificial nightingale's song less mechanical. to those who know, the book is a revelation of the intimate relation between a child's instincts and the finished art of dramatic presentation. to those who do not know it will bring echoes of reality. earl barnes. contents. part i. the art of story-telling. chapter. i. the difficulties of the story. ii. the essentials of the story. iii. the artifices of story-telling. iv. elements to avoid in selection of material. v. elements to seek in the choice of material. vi. how to obtain and maintain the effect of the story. vii. questions asked by teachers. part ii. the stories. sturla, the historian. a saga. the legend of st. christopher. arthur in the cave. hafiz, the stone-cutter. to your good health. the proud cock. snegourka. the water nixie. the blue rose. the two frogs. the wise old shepherd. the folly of panic. the true spirit of a festival day. filial piety. three stories from hans christian andersen. the swineherd. the nightingale. the princess and the pea. part iii. list of stories. books suggested to the story-teller and books referred to in the list of stories. introduction. story-telling is almost the oldest art in the world--the first conscious form of literary communication. in the east it still survives, and it is not an uncommon thing to see a crowd at a street corner held by the simple narration of a story. there are signs in the west of a growing interest in this ancient art, and we may yet live to see the renaissance of the troubadours and the minstrels whose appeal will then rival that of the mob orator or itinerant politician. one of the surest signs of a belief in the educational power of the story is its introduction into the curriculum of the training-college and the classes of the elementary and secondary schools. it is just at the time when the imagination is most keen, the mind being unhampered by accumulation of facts, that stories appeal most vividly and are retained for all time. it is to be hoped that some day stories will be told to school groups only by experts who have devoted special time and preparation to the art of telling them. it is a great fallacy to suppose that the systematic study of story-telling destroys the spontaneity of narrative. after a long experience, i find the exact converse to be true, namely, that it is only when one has overcome the mechanical difficulties that one can "let one's self go" in the dramatic interest of the story. by the expert story-teller i do not mean the professional elocutionist. the name, wrongly enough, has become associated in the mind of the public with persons who beat their breast, tear their hair, and declaim blood-curdling episodes. a decade or more ago, the drawing-room reciter was of this type, and was rapidly becoming the bugbear of social gatherings. the difference between the stilted reciter and the simple story-teller is perhaps best illustrated by an episode in hans christian andersen's immortal "story of the nightingale." the real nightingale and the artificial nightingale have been bidden by the emperor to unite their forces and to sing a duet at a court function. the duet turns out most disastrously, and while the artificial nightingale is singing his one solo for the thirty-third time, the real nightingale flies out of the window back to the green wood--a true artist, instinctively choosing his right atmosphere. but the bandmaster--symbol of the pompous pedagogue--in trying to soothe the outraged feelings of the courtiers, says, "because, you see, ladies and gentlemen, and above all, your imperial majesty, with the real nightingale you never can tell what you will hear, but in the artificial nightingale everything is decided beforehand. so it is, and so it must remain. it cannot be otherwise." and as in the case of the two nightingales, so it is with the stilted reciter and the simple narrator: one is busy displaying the machinery, showing "how the tunes go"; the other is anxious to conceal the art. simplicity should be the keynote of story-telling, but (and her the comparison with the nightingale breaks down) it is a simplicity which comes after much training in self-control, and much hard work in overcoming the difficulties which beset the presentation. i do not mean that there are not born story-tellers who _could_ hold an audience without preparation, but they are so rare in number that we can afford to neglect them in our general consideration, for this work is dedicated to the average story-tellers anxious to make the best use of their dramatic ability, and it is to them that i present my plea for special study and preparation before telling a story to a group of children--that is, if they wish for the far-reaching effects i shall speak of later on. only the preparation must be of a much less stereotyped nature than that by which the ordinary reciters are trained for their career. some years ago, when i was in america, i was asked to put into the form of lectures my views as to the educational value of telling stories. a sudden inspiration seized me. i began to cherish a dream of long hours to be spent in the british museum, the congressional library in washington and the public library in boston--and this is the only portion of the dream which has been realized. i planned an elaborate scheme of research work which was to result in a magnificent (if musty) philological treatise. i thought of trying to discover by long and patient researches what species of lullaby were crooned by egyptian mothers to their babes, and what were the elementary dramatic poems in vogue among assyrian nursemaids which were the prototypes of "little jack horner," "dickory, dickory dock" and other nursery classics. i intended to follow up the study of these ancient documents by making an appendix of modern variants, showing what progress we had made--if any--among modern nations. but there came to me suddenly one day the remembrance of a scene from racine's "plaideurs," in which the counsel for the defence, eager to show how fundamental his knowledge, begins his speech: "before the creation of the world"--and the judge (with a touch of weariness tempered by humor) suggests: "let us pass on to the deluge." and thus i, too, have passed on to the deluge. i have abandoned an account of the origin and past of stories which at best would only have displayed a little recently acquired book knowledge. when i thought of the number of scholars who could treat this part of the question infinitely better than myself, i realized how much wiser it would be--though the task is more humdrum--to deal with the present possibilities of story-telling for our generation of parents and teachers. my objects in urging the use of stories in the education of children are at least fivefold: first, to give them dramatic joy, for which they have a natural craving; to develop a sense of humor, which is really a sense of proportion; to correct certain tendencies by showing the consequences in the career of the hero in the story [of this motive the children must be quite unconscious and there should be no didactic emphasis]; to present by means of example, not precept, such ideals as will sooner or later be translated into action; and finally, to develop the imagination, which really includes all the other points. but the art of story-telling appeals not only to the educational world and to parents as parents, but also to a wider public interested in the subject from a purely human point of view. in contrast to the lofty scheme i had originally proposed to myself, i now simply place before all those who are interested in the art of story-telling in any form the practical experiences i have had in my travels in america and england. i hope that my readers may profit by my errors, improve on my methods, and thus help to bring about the revival of an almost lost art. in sir philip sydney's "defence of poesie: we find these words: "forsooth he cometh to you with a tale, which holdeth children from play, and old men from the chimney-corner, and pretending no more, doth intend the winning of the mind from wickedness to virtue even as the child is often brought to take most wholesome things by hiding them in such other as have a pleasant taste." marie l. shedlock, london. part i. the art of the story-teller. chapter i. the difficulties of the story. i propose to deal in this chapter with the difficulties or dangers which beset the path of the story-teller, because, until we have overcome these, we cannot hope to bring out the full value of the story. the difficulties are many, and yet they ought not to discourage the would-be narrators, but only show them how all-important is the preparation for the story, if it is to have the desired effect. i propose to illustrate by concrete examples, thereby serving a twofold purpose: one to fix the subject more clearly in the mind of the student, the other to use the art of story-telling to explain itself. i have chosen one or two instances from my own personal experience. the grave mistakes made in my own case may serve as a warning to others who will find, however, that experience is the best teacher. for positive work, in the long run, we generally find out our own method. on the negative side, however, it is useful to have certain pitfalls pointed out to us, in order that we may save time by avoiding them. it is for this reason that i sound a note of warning. . there is _the danger of side issues_. an inexperienced story-teller is exposed to the temptation of breaking off from the main dramatic interest in a short exciting story in order to introduce a side issue which is often interesting and helpful but which must be left for a longer and less dramatic story. if the interest turns on some dramatic moment, the action must be quick and uninterrupted, or it will lose half its effect. i had been telling a class of young children the story of polyphemus and ulysses, and just at the most dramatic moment in the story some impulse for which i cannot account prompted me to go off on a side issue to describe the personal appearance of ulysses. the children were visibly bored, but with polite indifference they listened to my elaborate description of the hero. if i had given them an actual description from homer, i believe that the strength of the language would have appealed to their imagination (all the more strongly because the might not have understood the individual words) and have lessened their disappointment at the dramatic issue being postponed; but i trusted to my own lame verbal efforts, and signally failed. attention flagged, fidgeting began, the atmosphere was rapidly becoming spoiled in spit of the patience and toleration still shown by the children. at last, however, one little girl in the front row, as spokeswoman for the class, suddenly said: "if you please, before you go on any further, do you mind telling us whether, after all, that poly . . . [slight pause] . . . that . . . [final attempt] . . . _polyanthus_ died?" now, the remembrance of this question has been of extreme use to me in my career as a story-teller. i have realized that in a short dramatic story the mind of the listeners must be set at ease with regard to the ultimate fate of the special polyanthus who takes the center of the stage. i remember, too, the despair of a little boy at a dramatic representation of "little red riding-hood," when that little person delayed the thrilling catastrophe with the wolf, by singing a pleasant song on her way through the wood. "oh, why," said the little boy, "does she not get on?" and i quite shared his impatience. this warning is necessary only in connection with the short dramatic narrative. there are occasions when we can well afford to offer short descriptions for the sake of literary style, and for the purpose of enlarging the vocabulary of the child. i have found, however, in these cases, it is well to take the children into your confidence, warning them that they are to expect nothing particularly exciting in the way of dramatic event. they will then settle down with a freer mind (though the mood may include a touch of resignation) to the description you are about to offer them. . _altering the story to suit special occasions_ is done sometimes from extreme conscientiousness, sometimes from sheer ignorance of the ways of children. it is the desire to protect them from knowledge which they already possess and with which they, equally conscientious, are apt to "turn and rend" the narrator. i remember once when i was telling the story of the siege of troy to very young children, i suddenly felt anxious lest there should be anything in the story of the rape of helen not altogether suitable for the average age of the class, namely, nine years. i threw, therefore, a domestic coloring over the whole subject and presented an imaginary conversation between paris and helen, in which paris tried to persuade helen that she was strong-minded woman thrown away on a limited society in sparta, and that she should come away and visit some of the institutions of the world with him, which would doubtless prove a mutually instructive journey.[ ] i then gave the children the view taken by herodotus that helen never went to troy, but was detained in egypt. the children were much thrilled by the story, and responded most eagerly when, in my inexperience, i invited them to reproduce in writing for the next day the story i had just told them. a small child presented _me_, as you will see, with the ethical problem from which i had so laboriously protected _her_. the essay ran: once upon a time the king of troy's son was called paris. and he went over to _greace_ to see what it was like. and here he saw the beautiful helen_er,_ and likewise her husband menela_yus_. and one day, menelayus went out hunting, and left paris and helener alone, and paris said: "do you not feel _dul_ in this _palis_?"_[ ] and helener said: "i feel very dull in this _pallice_," and paris said: "come away and see the world with me." so they _sliped_ off together, and they came to the king of egypt, and _he_ said: "who _is_ the young lady"? so paris told him. "but," said the king, "it is not _propper_ for you to go off with other people's _wifes_. so helener shall stop here." paris stamped his foot. when menelayus got home, _he_ stamped his foot. and he called round him all his soldiers, and they stood round troy for eleven years. at last they thought it was no use _standing_ any longer, so they built a wooden horse in memory of helener and the trojans and it was taken into the town. now, the mistake i made in my presentation was to lay any particular stress on the reason for elopement by my careful readjustment, which really called more attention to the episode than was necessary for the age of my audience; and evidently caused confusion in the minds of some of the children who knew the story in its more accurate original form. while traveling in america, i was provided with a delightful appendix to this story. i had been telling miss longfellow and her sister the little girl's version of the siege of troy, and mrs. thorpe made the following comment, with the american humor the dryness of which adds so much to its value: "i never realized before," she said, "how glad the greeks must have been to sit down even inside a horse, when they had been standing for eleven years." . _the danger of introducing unfamiliar words_ is the very opposite danger of the one to which i have just alluded; it is the taking for granted that children are acquainted with the meaning of certain words upon which turns some important point in the story. we must not introduce, without at least a passing explanation, words which, if not rightly understood, would entirely alter the picture we wish to present. i had once promised to tell stories to an audience of irish peasants, and i should like to state here that, though my travels have brought me in touch with almost every kind of audience, i have never found one where the atmosphere is so "self-prepared" as in that of a group of irish peasants. to speak to them, especially on the subject of fairy- tales, is like playing on a delicate harp: the response is so quick and the sympathy so keen. of course, the subject of fairy-tales is one which is completely familiar to them and comes into their everyday life. they have a feeling of awe with regard to fairies, which is very deep in some parts of ireland. on this particular occasion i had been warned by an artist friend who had kindly promised to sing songs between the stories, that my audience would be of varying age and almost entirely illiterate. many of the older men and women, who could neither read nor write, had never been beyond their native village. i was warned to be very simple in my language and to explain any difficult words which might occur in the particular indian story i had chosen for that night, namely, "the tiger, the jackal and the brahman."[ ]--at a proper distance, however, lest the audience should class him with the wild animals. i then went on with my story, in the course of which i mentioned a buffalo. in spite of the warning i had received, i found it impossible not to believe that the name of this animal would be familiar to any audience. i, therefore, went on with the sentence containing this word, and ended it thus: "and then the brahman went a little further and met an old buffalo turning a wheel." the next day, while walking down the village street, i entered into conversation with a thirteen-year-old girl who had been in my audience the night before and who began at once to repeat in her own words the indian story in questions. when she came to the particular sentence i have just quoted, i was greatly startled to hear _her_ version, which ran thus: "and the priest went on a little further, and he met another old gentleman pushing a wheelbarrow." i stopped her at once, and not being able to identify the sentence as part of the story i had told, i questioned her a little more closely. i found that the word "buffalo," had evidently conveyed to her mind an old "buffer" whose name was "lo," probably taken to be an indian form of appellation, to be treated with tolerance though it might not be irish in sound. then, not knowing of any wheel more familiarly than that attached to a barrow, the young narrator completed the picture in her own mind--but which, one must admit, had lost something of the indian atmosphere which i had intended to gather about. . _the danger of claiming cooperation of the class by means of questions_ is more serious for the teacher than the child, who rather enjoys the process and displays a fatal readiness to give any sort of answer if only he can play a part in the conversation. if we could in any way depend on the children giving the kind of answer we expect, all might go well and the danger would be lessened; but children have a perpetual way of frustrating our hopes in this direction, and of landing us in unexpected bypaths from which it is not always easy to return to the main road without a very violent reaction. as illustrative of this, i quote from the "the madness of philip," by josephine daskam bacon, a truly delightful essay on child psychology in the guise of the lightest of stories. the scene takes place in a kindergarten, where a bold and fearless visitor has undertaken to tell a story on the spur of the moment to a group of restless children. she opens thus: "yesterday, children, as i came out of my yard, what do you think i saw?" the elaborately concealed surprise in store was so obvious that marantha rose to the occasion and suggested, "an el'phunt." "why, no. why should i see an elephant in my yard? it was not _nearly_ so big as that--it was a little thing." "a fish," ventured eddy brown, whose eye fell upon the aquarium in the corner. the raconteuse smiled patiently. "now, how could a fish, a live fish, get into my front yard?" "a dead fish," says eddy. he had never been known to relinquish voluntarily an idea. "no; it was a little kitten," said the story-teller decidedly. "a little white kitten. she was standing right near a big puddle of water. now, what else do you think i saw?" "another kitten," suggests marantha, conservatively. "no; it was a big newfoundland dog. he saw the little kitten near the water. now, cats don't like water, do they? what do they like?" "mice," said joseph zukoffsky abruptly. "well, yes, they do; but there were no mice in my yard. i'm sure you know what i mean. if they don't like _water_, _what_ do they like?" "milk," cried sarah fuller confidently. "they like a dry place," said mrs. r. b. smith. "now, what do you suppose the dog did?" it may be that successive failures had disheartened the listeners. itmay be that the very range of choice presented to them and the dog alike dazzled their imagination. at all events, they made no answer. "nobody knows what the dog did?" repeated the story-teller encouragingly. "what would you do if you saw a little kitten like that?" and philip remarked gloomily: "i'd pull its tail." "and what do the rest of you think? i hope you are not as cruel as that little boy." a jealous desire to share philip's success prompted the quick response: "i'd pull it too." now, the reason of the total failure of this story was the inability to draw any real response from the children, partly because of the hopeless vagueness of the questions, partly because, there being no time for reflection, children say the first thing that comes into their heads without any reference to their real thoughts on the subject. i cannot imagine anything less like the enlightened methods of the best kindergarten teaching. had mrs. r. b. smith been a real, and not a fictional, person, it would certainly have been her last appearance as a raconteuse in this educational institution. . _the difficulty of gauging the effect of a story upon the audience_ rises from lack of observation and experience; it is the want of these qualities which leads to the adoption of such a method as i have just presented. we learn in time that want of expression on the faces of the audience and want of any kind of external response do not always mean either lack of interest or attention. there is often real interest deep down, but no power, or perhaps no wish, to display that interest, which is deliberately concealed at times so as to protect oneself from questions which may be put. . _the danger of overillustration_. after long experience, and after considering the effect produced on children when pictures are shown to them during the narration, i have come to the conclusion that the appeal to the eye and the ear at the same time is of doubtful value, and has, generally speaking, a distracting effect: the concentration on one channel of communication attracts and holds the attention more completely. i was confirmed in this theory when i addressed an audience of blind people[ ] for the first time, and noticed how closely they attended, and how much easier it seemed to them because they were so completely "undistracted by the sights around them." i have often suggested to young teachers two experiments in support of this theory. they are not practical experiments, nor could they be repeated often with the same audience, but they are intensely interesting, and they serve to show the _actual_ effect of appealing to one sense at a time. the first of these experiments is to take a small group of children and suggest that they should close their eyes while you tell them a story. you will then notice how much more attention is given to the intonation and inflection of the voice. the reason is obvious. with nothing to distract the attention, it is concentrated on the only thing offered the listeners, that is, sound, to enable them to seize the dramatic interest of the story. we find an example of the dramatic power of the voice in its appeal to the imagination in one of the tributes brought by an old pupil to thomas edward brown, master at clifton college: "my earliest recollection is that his was the most vivid teaching i ever received; great width of view and poetical, almost passionate, power of presentment. we were reading froude's history, and i shall never forget how it was brown's words, brown's voice, not the historian's, that made me feel the great democratic function which the monasteries performed in england; the view became alive in his mouth." and in another passage: "all set forth with such dramatic force and aided by such a splendid voice, left an indelible impression on my mind."[ ] a second experiment, and a much more subtle and difficult one, is to take the same group of children on another occasion, telling them a story in pantomime form, giving them first the briefest outline of the story. in this case it must be of the simplest construction, until the children are able, if you continue the experiment, to look for something more subtle. i have never forgotten the marvelous performance of a play given in london many years ago entirely in pantomime form. the play was called "l'enfant prodigue," and was presented by a company of french artists. it would be almost impossible to exaggerate the strength of that "silent appeal" to the public. one was so unaccustomed to reading meaning and development of character into gesture and facial expression that it was really a revelation to most of those present--certainly to all anglo-saxons. i cannot touch on this subject without admitting the enormous dramatic value connected with the cinematograph. though it can never take the place of an actual performance, whether in story form or on the stage, it has a real educational value in its possibilities of representation which it is difficult to overestimate, and i believe that its introduction into the school curriculum, under the strictest supervision, will be of extraordinary benefit. the movement, in its present chaotic condition, and in the hands of commercial management, is more likely to stifle than to awaken or stimulate the imagination, but the educational world is fully alive to the danger, and i am convinced that in the future of the movement good will predominate. the real value of the cinematograph in connection with stories is that it provides the background that is wanting to the inner vision of the average child, and does not prevent its imagination from filling in the details later. for instance, it would be quite impossible for the average child to get an idea from mere word-painting of the atmosphere of the polar regions as represented lately on the film in connection with captain scott's expedition, but any stories told later on about these regions would have an infinitely greater interest. there is, however, a real danger in using pictures to illustrate the story, especially if it be one which contains a direct appeal to the imagination of the child and one quite distinct from the stories which deal with facts, namely, that you force the whole audience of children to see the same picture, instead of giving each individual child the chance of making his own mental picture. that is of far greater joy, and of much great educational value, since by this process the child cooperates with you instead of having all the work done for him. queyrat, in his works on "la logique chez l'enfant," quotes madame necker de saussure:[ ] "to children and animals actual objects present themselves, not the terms of their manifestations. for them thinking is seeing over again, it is going through the sensations that the real object would have produced. everything which goes on within them is in the form of pictures, or rather, inanimate scenes in which life is partially reproduced. . . . since the child has, as yet, no capacity for abstraction, he finds a stimulating power in words and a suggestive inspiration which holds him enchanted. they awaken vividly colored images, pictures far more brilliant than would be called into being by the objects themselves." surely, if this be true, we are taking from children that rare power of mental visualization by offering to their outward vision an _actual_ picture. i was struck with the following note by a critic of the _outlook_, referring to a japanese play but which bears quite directly on the subject in hand. "first, we should be inclined to put insistence upon appeal by _imagination_. nothing is built up by lath and canvas; everything has to be created by the poet's speech." he alludes to the decoration of one of the scenes which consists of three pines, showing what can be conjured up in the mind of the spectator. ah, yes. unfolding now before my eyes the views i know: the forest, river, sea and mist--the scenes of ono now expand. i have often heard objections raised to this theory by teachers dealing with children whose knowledge of objects outside their own circle is so scanty that words we use without a suspicion that they are unfamiliar are really foreign expressions to them. such words as sea, woods, fields, mountains, would mean nothing to them, unless some explanation were offered. to these objections i have replied that where we are dealing with objects that can actually be seen with the bodily eyes, then it is quite legitimate to show pictures before you begin the story, so that the distraction between the actual and mental presentation may not cause confusion; but, as the foregoing example shows, we should endeavor to accustom the children to seeing much more than mere objects themselves, and in dealing with abstract qualities we must rely solely on the power and choice of words and dramatic qualities of presentation, and we need not feel anxious if the response is not immediate, nor even if it is not quick and eager.[ ] . _the danger of obscuring the point of the story with too many details_ is not peculiar to teachers, nor is it shown only in the narrative form. i have often heard really brilliant after-dinner stories marred by this defect. one remembers the attempt made by sancho panza to tell a story to don quixote. i have always felt a keen sympathy with the latter in his impatience over the recital. "in a village of estramadura there was a shepherd--no, i mean a goatherd--which shepherd or goatherd as my story says, was called lope ruiz--and this lope ruiz was in love with a shepherdess called torralva, who was daughter to a rich herdsman, and this rich herdsman---" "if this be thy story, sancho," said don quixote, "thou wilt not have done these two days. tell it concisely, like a man of sense, or else say no more." "i tell it in the manner they tell all stories in my country," answered sancho, "and i cannot tell it otherwise, nor ought your worship to require me to make new customs." "tell it as thou wilt, then," said don quixote, "since it is the will of fate that i should here it, go on." sancho continued: "he looked about him until he espied a fisherman with a boat near him, but so small that it could only hold one person and one goat. the fisherman got into the boat and carried over on goat; he returned and carried another; he came back again and carried another. pray, sir, keep an account of the goats which the fisherman is carrying over, for if you lose count of a single one, the story ends, and it will be impossible to tell a word more. . . . i go on, then. . . . he returned for another goat, and another, and another and another---" "_suppose_ them all carried over," said don quixote, "or thou wilt not have finished carrying them this twelve months!" "tell me, how many have passed already?" said sancho. "how should i know?" answered don quixote. "see there, now! did i not tell thee to keep an exact account? there is an end of the story. i can go no further." "how can this be?" said don quixote. "is it so essential to the story to know the exact number of goats that passed over, that if one error be made the story can proceed no further?" "even so," said sancho panza. . _the danger of overexplanation_ is fatal to the artistic success of any story, but it is even more serious in connection with stories told from an educational point of view, because it hampers the imagination of the listener, and since the development of that faculty is one of our chief aims in telling these stories, we must leave free play, we must not test the effect, as i have said before, by the material method of asking questions. my own experience is that the fewer explanations you offer, provided you have been careful with the choice of your material and artistic in the presentation, the more the child will supplement by his own thinking power what is necessary for the understanding of the story. queyrat says: "a child has no need of seizing on the exact meaning of words; on the contrary, a certain lack of precision seems to stimulate his imagination only the more vigorously, since it gives him a broader liberty and firmer independence."[ ] . _the danger of lowering the standard_ of the story in order to appeal to the undeveloped taste of the child is a special one. i am alluding here only to the story which is presented from the educational point of view. there are moments of relaxation in a child's life, as in that of an adult, when a lighter taste can be gratified. i allude now to the standard of story for school purposes. there is one development of story-telling which seems to have been very little considered, either in america or in our own country, namely, the telling of stories to _old_ people, and that not only in institutions or in quiet country villages, but in the heart of the busy cities and in the homes of these old people. how often, when the young people are able to enjoy outside amusements, the old people, necessarily confined to the chimney-corner and many unable to read much for themselves, might return to the joy of their childhood by hearing some of the old stories told them in dramatic form. here is a delightful occupation for those of the leisured class who have the gift, and a much more effective way of reading aloud. lady gregory, in talking to the workhouse folk in ireland, was moved by the strange contrast between the poverty of the tellers and the splendors of the tale. she says: "the stories they love are of quite visionary things; of swans that turn into kings' daughters, and of castles with crowns over the doors, and of lovers' flights on the backs of eagles, and music-loving witches, and journeys to the other world, and sleeps that last for seven hundred years." i fear it is only the celtic imagination that will glory in such romantic material; but i am sure the men and women of the poorhouse are much more interested than we are apt to think in stories outside the small circle of their lives. chapter ii. the essentials of the story. it would be a truism to suggest that dramatic instinct and dramatic power of expression are naturally the first essentials for success in the art of story-telling, and that, without these, no story-teller would go very far; but i maintain that, even with these gifts, no high standard of performance will be reached without certain other qualities, among the first of which i place _apparent_ simplicity, which is really the _art_ of concealing_ the art. i am speaking here of the public story-teller, or of the teacher with a group of children, not the spontaneous (and most rare) power of telling stories such as beranger gives us in his poem, "souvenirs du peuple": mes enfants, dans ce village, suivi de rois, il passa; voila; bien longtemps de cela! je venais d'entrer en menage, a pied grimpant le coteau, ou pour voir je m'tais mise. il avait petit chapeau et redingote grise. il me dit: bon jour, ma chere. il vous a parle, grand mere? il vous a parle? i am skeptical enough to think that it is not the spontaneity of the grandmother but the art of beranger which enhances the effect of the story told in the poem. this intimate form of narration, which is delightful in its special surroundings, would fail to _reach_, much less _hold_, a large audience, not because of its simplicity, but often because of the want of skill in arranging material and of the artistic sense of selection which brings the interest to a focus and arranges the side lights. in short, the simplicity we need for the ordinary purpose is that which comes from ease and produces a sense of being able to let ourselves go, because we have thought out our effects. it is when we translate our instinct into art that the story becomes finished and complete. i find it necessary to emphasize this point because people are apt to confuse simplicity of delivery with carelessness of utterance, loose stringing of sentences of which the only connections seem to be the ever-recurring use of "and" and "so," and "er . . .," this latter inarticulate sound having done more to ruin a story and distract the audience than many more glaring errors of dramatic form. real simplicity holds the audience because the lack of apparent effort in the artist has the most comforting effect upon the listener. it is like turning from the whirring machinery of process to the finished article, which bears no traces of the making except the harmony and beauty of the whole, which make one realize that the individual parts have received all proper attention. what really brings about this apparent simplicity which insures the success of the story? it has been admirably expressed in a passage from henry james' lecture on balzac: "the fault in the artist which amounts most completely to a failure of dignity is the absence of _saturation with his idea_. when saturation fails, no other real presence avails, as when, on the other hand, it operates, no failure of method fatally interferes." i now offer two illustrations of the effect of this saturation, one to show that the failure of method does not prevent successful effect, the other to show that when it is combined with the necessary secondary qualities the perfection of the art is reached. in illustration of the first point, i recall an experience in the north of england when the head mistress of an elementary school asked me to hear a young inexperienced girl tell a story to a group of very small children. when she began, i felt somewhat hopeless, because of the complete failure of method. she seemed to have all the faults most damaging to the success of a speaker. her voice was harsh, her gestures awkward, her manner was restless and melodramatic; but, as she went on i soon began to discount all these faults and, in truth, i soon forgot about them, for so absorbed was she in her story, so saturated with her subject, that she quickly communicated her own interest to her audience, and the children were absolutely spellbound. the other illustration is connected with a memorable peep behind the stage, when the late m. coquelin had invited me to see him in the greenroom between the first and second acts of "l'abbe constantin," one of the plays given during his last season in london, the year before his death. the last time i had met m. coquelin was at a dinner party, where i had been dazzled by the brilliant conversation of this great artist in the role of a man of the world. but on this occasion i met the simple, kindly priest, so absorbed in his role that he inspired me with the wish to offer a donation for his poor, and, on taking leave, to ask for his blessing for myself. while talking to him, i had felt puzzled. it was only when i had left him that i realized what had happened, namely, that he was too thoroughly saturated with his subject to be able to drop his role during the interval, in order to assume the more ordinary one of host and man of the world. now, it is this spirit i would wish to inculcate into the would-be story-tellers. if they would apply themselves in this manner to their work, it would bring about a revolution in the art of presentation, that is, in the art of teaching. the difficulty of the practical application of this theory is the constant plea, on the part of teachers, that there is not the time to work for such a standard in an art which is so apparently simple that the work expended on it would never be appreciated. my answer to this objection is that, though the counsel of perfection would be to devote a great deal of time to the story, so as to prepare the atmosphere quite as much as the mere action of the little drama (just as photographers use time exposure to obtain sky effects, as well as the more definite objects in the picture), yet it is not so much a question of time as concentration on the subject, which is one of the chief factors in the preparation of the story. so many story-tellers are satisfied with cheap results, and most audiences are not critical enough to encourage a high standard.[ ] the method of "showing the machinery" has more immediate results, and it is easy to become discouraged over the drudgery which is not necessary to secure the approbation of the largest number. but, since i am dealing with the essentials of really good story-telling, i may be pardoned for suggesting the highest standard and the means for reaching it. therefore, i maintain that capacity for work, and even drudgery, is among the essentials of story-telling. personally, i know of nothing more interesting than watching the story grow gradually from mere outline into a dramatic whole. it is the same pleasure, i imagine, which is felt over the gradual development of a beautiful design on a loom. i do not mean machine-made work, which has to be done under adverse conditions in a certain time and which is similar to thousands of other pieces of work; but that work, upon which we can bestow unlimited time and concentrated thought. the special joy in the slowly-prepared story comes in the exciting moment when the persons, or even the inanimate objects, become alive and move as of themselves. i remember spending two or three discouraging weeks with andersen's story of the "adventures of a beetle." i passed through times of great depression, because all the little creatures, beetles, ear-wigs, frogs, etc., behaved in such a conventional way, instead of displaying the strong individuality which andersen had bestowed upon them that i began to despair of presenting a live company at all. but one day, the _beetle_, so to speak, "took the stage," and at once there was life and animation among the minor characters. then the main work was done, and there remained only the comparatively easy task of guiding the movement of the little drama, suggesting side issues and polishing the details, always keeping a careful eye on the beetle, that he might "gang his ain gait" and preserve to the full his own individuality. there is a tendency in preparing stories to begin with detail work, often a gesture or side issue which one has remembered from hearing a story told, but if this is done before the contemplative period, only scrappy, jerky and ineffective results are obtained, on which one cannot count for dramatic effects. this kind of preparation reminds one of a young peasant woman who was taken to see a performance of "wilhelm tell," and when questioned as to the plot could only sum it up saying, "i know some fruit was shot at."[ ] i realize the extreme difficulty teachers have to devote the necessary time to perfecting the stories they tell in school, because this is only one of the subjects they have to teach in an already over-crowded curriculum. to them i would offer this practical advice: do not be afraid to repeat your stories.[ ] if you do not undertake more than seven stories a year, chosen with infinite care, and if you repeated these stories six times during the year of forty-two weeks, you would be able to do artistic and, therefore, lasting work; you would also be able to avoid the direct moral application, for each time a child hears a story artistically told, a little more of the meaning underlying the simple story will come to him without any explanation on your part. the habit of doing one's best instead of one's second- best means, in the long run, that one has no interest except in the preparation of the best, and the stories, few in number, polished and finished in style, will have an effect of which one can scarcely overstate the importance. in the story of the "swineherd," hans andersen says: "on the grave of the prince's father there grew a rose-tree. it only bloomed once in five years, and only bore one rose. but what a rose! its perfume was so exquisite that whoever smelt it forgot at once all his cares and sorrows." lafcadio hearn says: "time weeds out the errors and stupidities of cheap success, and presents the truth. it takes, like the aloe, a long time to flower, but the blossom is all the more precious when it appears." chapter iii. the artifices of story-telling. by this term i do not mean anything against the gospel of simplicity which i am so constantly preaching, but, for want of a better term, i use the word "artifice" to express the mechanical devices by which we endeavor to attract and hold the attention of the audience. the art of telling stories is, in truth, much more difficult than acting a part on the stage: first, because the narrator is responsible for the whole drama and the whole atmosphere which surrounds it. he has to live the life of each character and understand the relation which each bears to the whole. secondly, because the stage is a miniature one, gestures and movements must all be so adjusted as not to destroy the sense of proportion. i have often noticed that actors, accustomed to the more roomy public stage, are apt to be too broad in their gestures and movements when they tell a story. the special training for the story-teller should consist not only in the training of the voice and in choice of language, but above all in power of delicate suggestion, which cannot always be used on the stage because this is hampered by the presence of actual things. the story-teller has to present these things to the more delicate organism of the "inward eye." so deeply convinced am i of the miniature character of the story- telling art that i believe one never gets a perfectly artistic presentation of this kind in a very large hall or before a very large audience. i have made experiments along this line, having twice told a story to an audience in america[ ] exceeding five thousand, but on both occasions, though the dramatic reaction upon oneself from the response of so large an audience was both gratifying and stimulating, i was forced to sacrifice the delicacy of the story and to take from its artistic value by the necessity of emphasis, in order to be heard by all present. emphasis is the bane of all story-telling, for it destroys the delicacy, and the whole performance suggests a struggle in conveying the message. the indecision of the victory leaves the audience restless and unsatisfied. then, again, as compared with acting on the stage, in telling a story one misses the help of effective entrances and exits, the footlights, the costume, the facial expression of your fellow-actor which interprets so much of what you yourself say without further elaboration on your part; for, in the story, in case of a dialogue which necessitates great subtlety and quickness in facial expression and gesture, one has to be both speaker and listener. now, of what artifices can we make use to take the place of all the extraneous help offered to actors on the stage? first and foremost, as a means of suddenly pulling up the attention of the audience, is the judicious art of pausing. for those who have not actually had experience in the matter, this advice will seem trite and unnecessary, but those who have even a little experience will realize with me the extraordinary efficacy of this very simple means. it is really what coquelin spoke of as a "high light," where the interest is focused, as it were, to a point. i have tried this simple art of _pausing_ with every kind of audience, and i have rarely know it to fail. it is very difficult to offer a concrete example of this, unless one is giving a "live" representation, but i shall make an attempt, and at least i shall hope to make myself understood by those who have heard me tell stories. in hans andersen's "princess and the pea," the king goes down to open the door himself. now, one may make this point in two ways. one may either say: "and then the king went to the door, and at the door there stood a real princess," or, "and then the king went to the door, and at the door there stood--(pause)--a real princess." it is difficult to exaggerate the difference of effect produced by so slight a pause.[ ] with children it means an unconscious curiosity which expresses itself in a sudden muscular tension. there is just time during that instant's pause to _feel_, though not to _formulate, the question: "what is standing at the door?" by this means, half your work of holding the attention is accomplished. it is not necessary for me to enter into the psychological reason of this, but i strongly recommend those who are interested in the question to read the chapter in ribot's work on this subject, "essai sur l'imagination creatrice," as well as mr. keatinge's work on "suggestion." i would advise all teachers to revise their stories with a view to introducing the judicious pause, and to vary its use according to the age, the number, and, above all, the mood of the audience. experience alone can insure success in this matter. it has taken me many years to realize the importance of this artifice. among other means for holding the attention of the audience and helping to bring out the points of the story is the use of gesture. i consider, however, that it must be a sparing use, and not of a broad or definite character. we shall never improve on the advice given by hamlet to the actors on this subject: "see that ye o'erstep not the modesty of nature." and yet, perhaps it is not necessary to warn story-tellers against abuse of gesture. it is more helpful to encourage them in the use of it, especially in anglo-saxon countries, where we are fearful of expressing ourselves in this way, and when we do the gesture often lacks subtlety. the anglo-saxon, when he does move at all, moves in solid blocks--a whole arm, a whole leg, the whole body but if one watches a frenchman or an italian in conversation, one suddenly realizes how varied and subtle are the things which can be suggested by the mere turn of the wrist or the movement of a finger. the power of the hand has been so wonderfully summed up in a passage from quintillian that i am justified in offering it to all those who wish to realize what can be done by a gesture: "as to the hands, without the aid of which all delivery would be deficient and weak, it can scarcely be told of what a variety of motions they are susceptible, since they almost equal in expression the power of language itself. for other parts of the body assist the speaker, but these, i may almost say, speak themselves. with our hands we ask, promise, call persons to us and send them away, threaten, supplicate, intimate dislike or fear; with out hands we signify joy, grief, doubt, acknowledgement, penitence, and indicate measure, quantity, number and time. have not our hands the power of inciting, of restraining, or beseeching, of testifying approbation? . . . so that amidst the great diversity of tongues pervading all nations and people, the language of the hands appears to be a language common to all men."[ ] one of the most effective of artifices in telling stories to young children is the use of mimicry--the imitation of animals' voices and sound in general is of never-ending joy to the listeners. however, i should wish to introduce a note of grave warning in connection with this subject. this special artifice can only be used by such narrators as have special aptitude and gifts in this direction. there are many people with good imaginative power but who are wholly lacking in the power of mimicry, and their efforts in this direction, however painstaking, remain grotesque and therefore ineffective. when listening to such performances, of which children are strangely critical, one is reminded of the french story in which the amateur animal painter is showing her picture to an undiscriminating friend: "ah!" says the friend, "this is surely meant for a lion?" "no," says the artist (?), with some slight show of temper, "it is my little lap-dog." another artifice which is particularly successful with very small children is to insure their attention by inviting their cooperation before one actually begins the story. the following has proved quite effective as a short introduction to my stories when i was addressing large audiences of children: "do you know that last night i had a very strange dream, which i am going to tell you before i begin the stories? i dreamed that i was walking along the streets of---[here would follow the town in which i happened to be speaking], with a large bundle on my shoulders, and this bundle was full of stories which i had been collecting all over the world in different countries; and i was shouting at the top of my voice: 'stories! stories! stories! who will listen to my stories?' and the children came flocking round me in my dream, saying: 'tell _us_ your stories. _we_ will listen to your stories.' so i pulled out a story from my big bundle and i began in a most excited way, "once upon a time there lived a king and a queen who had no children, and they---' here a little boy, _very_ much like that little boy i see sitting in the front row, stopped me, saying: 'oh, i know _that_ old story: it's sleeping beauty.' "so i pulled out a second story, and began: 'once upon a time there was a little girl who was sent by her mother to visit her grandmother ---' then a little girl, _so_ much like the one sitting at the end of the second row, said: 'oh! everybody knows that story! it's---'" here i would like to make a judicious pause, and then the children in the audience would shout in chorus, with joyful superiority: "little red riding-hood!" before i had time to explain that the children in my dream had done the same. this method i repeated two or three times, being careful to choose very well-known stories. by this time the children were all encouraged and stimulated. i usually finished with congratulations on the number of stories they knew, expressing a hope that some of those i was going to tell that afternoon would be new to them. i have rarely found this plan to fail to establish a friendly relation between oneself and the juvenile audience. it is often a matter of great difficulty, not to _win_ the attention of an audience but to _keep_ it, and one of the most subtle artifices is to let the audience down (without their perceiving it) after a dramatic situation, so that the reaction may prepare them for the interest of the next situation. an excellent instance of this is to be found in rudyard kipling's story of "the cat that walked . . ." where the repetition of words acts as a sort of sedative until one realizes the beginning of a fresh situation. the great point is never to let the audience quite down, that is, in stories which depend on dramatic situations. it is just a question of shade and color in the language. if you are telling a story in sections, and one spread over two or three occasions, you should always stop at an exciting moment. it encourages speculation in the children's minds, which increases their interest when the story is taken up again. another very necessary quality in the mere artifice of story-telling is to watch your audience, so as to be able to know whether its mood is for action or reaction, and to alter your story accordingly. the moods of reaction are rarer, and you must use them for presenting a different kind of material. here is your opportunity for introducing a piece of poetic description, given in beautiful language, to which the children cannot listen when they are eager for action and dramatic excitement. perhaps one of the greatest artifices is to take a quick hold of your audience by a striking beginning which will enlist their attention from the start. you can then relax somewhat, but you must be careful also of the end because that is what remains most vivid to the children. if you question them as to which story they like best in a program, you will constantly find it to be the last one you have told, which has for the moment blurred out the others. here are a few specimens of beginnings which seldom fail to arrest the attention of the child: "there was once a giant ogre, and he lived in a cave by himself." from "the giant and jack-straws," david starr jordan. "there were once twenty-five tin soldiers, who were all brothers, for they had been made out of the same old tin spoon." from "the tin soldier," hans christian andersen. "there was once an emperor who had a horse shod with gold." from "the beetle," hans christian andersen. "there was once a merchant who was so rich that he could have paved the whole street with gold, and even then he would have had enough for a small alley." from the "the flying trunk," hans christian andersen. "there was once a shilling which came forth from the mint springing and shouting, 'hurrah! now i am going out into the wide world.'" from "the silver shilling," hans christian andersen. "in the high and far off times the elephant, o best beloved, had no trunk." from "the elephant's child": "just so stories," rudyard kipling. "not always was the kangaroo as now we behold him, but a different animal with four short legs." from "old man kangaroo": "just so stories," rudyard kipling. "whichever way i turn," said the weather-cock on a high steeple, "no one is satisfied." from "fire-side fables," edwin barrow. "a set of chessmen, left standing on their board, resolved to alter the rules of the game." from the same source. "the pink parasol had tender whalebone ribs and a slender stick of cherry-wood." from "very short stories," mrs. w. k. clifford. "there was once a poor little donkey on wheels: it had never wagged its tail, or tossed its head, or said 'hee-haw,' or tasted a tender thistle." from the same source. now, some of these beginnings are, of course, for very young children, but they all have the same advantage, that of plunging _in medias res_, and, therefore, arrest attention at once, contrary to the stories which open on a leisurely note of description. in the same way we must be careful about the endings of stories. they must impress themselves either in a very dramatic climax to which the whole story has worked up, as in the following: "then he goes out the wet wild woods, or up the wet wild trees, or on the wet wild roofs, waving his wild tail, and walking by his wild lone." from "just so stories," rudyard kipling. or by an anti-climax for effect: "we have all this straight from the alderman's newspaper, but it is not to be depended on." from "jack the dullard," hans christian andersen. or by evading the point: "whoever does not believe this must buy shares in the tanner's yard." from "a great grief," hans christian andersen. or by some striking general comment: "he has never caught up with the three days he missed at the beginning of the world, and he has never learnt how to behave." from "how the camel got his hump": "just so stories," rudyard kipling. i have only suggested in this chapter a few of the artifices which i have found useful in my own experience, but i am sure that many more might be added. chapter iv. elements to avoid in the selection of material. i am confronted in this portion of my work with a great difficulty, because i cannot afford to be as catholic as i could wish (this rejection or selection of material being primarily intended for those story-tellers dealing with normal children); but i do wish from the outset to distinguish between a story told to an individual child in the home circle or by a personal friend, and a story told to a group of children as part of the school curriculum. and if i seem to reiterate this difference, it is because i wish to show very clearly that the recital of parents and friends may be quite separate in content and manner from that offered by the teaching world. in the former case, almost any subject can be treated, because, knowing the individual temperament of the child, a wise parent or friend knows also what can be presented or not presented to the child; but in dealing with a group of normal children in school much has to be eliminated that could be given fearlessly to the abnormal child; i mean the child who, by circumstances or temperament, is developed beyond his years. i shall now mention some of the elements which experience has shown me to be unsuitable for class stories. i. _stories dealing with analysis of motive and feeling_. this warning is specially necessary today, because this is, above all, an age of introspection and analysis. we have only to glance at the principal novels and plays during the last quarter of a century, more especially during the last ten years, to see how this spirit has crept into our literature and life. now, this tendency to analyze is obviously more dangerous for children than for adults, because, from lack of experience and knowledge of psychology, the child's analysis is incomplete. it cannot see all the causes of the action, nor can it make that philosophical allowance for mood which brings the adult to truer conclusions. therefore, we should discourage the child who shows a tendency to analyze too closely the motives of its action, and refrain from presenting to them in our stories any example which might encourage them to persist in this course. i remember, on one occasion, when i went to say good night to a little girl of my acquaintance, i found her sitting up in bed, very wide- awake. her eyes were shining, her cheeks were flushed, and when i asked her what had excited her so much, she said: "i _know_ i have done something wrong today, but i cannot quite remember what it was." i said: "but, phyllis, if you put your hand, which is really quite small, in front of your eyes, you could not see the shape of anything else, however large it might be. now, what you have done today appears very large because it is so close, but when it is a little further off, you will be able to see better and know more about it. so let us wait till tomorrow morning." i am happy to say that she took my advice. she was soon fast asleep, and the next morning she had forgotten the wrong over which she had been unhealthily brooding the night before. . _stories dealing too much with sarcasm and satire_. these are weapons which are too sharply polished, and therefore too dangerous, to place in the hands of children. for here again, as in the case of analysis, they can only have a very incomplete conception of the case. they do not know the real cause which produces the apparently ridiculous appearance, and it is only the abnormally gifted child or grown-up person who discovers this by instinct. it takes a lifetime to arrive at the position described in sterne's words: "i would not have let fallen an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of misery to be entitled to all the with which rabelais has ever scattered." i will hasten to add that i should not wish children to have their sympathy too much drawn out, of their emotions kindled too much to pity, because this would be neither healthy nor helpful to themselves or others. i only want to protect children from the dangerous critical attitude induced by the use of satire which sacrifices too much of the atmosphere of trust and belief in human beings which ought to be an essential of child life. by indulging in satire, the sense of kindness in children would become perverted, their sympathy cramped, and they themselves would be old before their time. we have an excellent example of this in hans christian andersen's "snow queen." when kay gets the piece of broken mirror into his eye, he no longer sees the world from the normal child's point of view; he can no longer see anything but the foibles of those about him, a condition usually reached by a course of pessimistic experience. andersen sums up the unnatural point of view in these words: "when kay tried to repeat the lord's prayer, he could only remember the multiplication table." now, without taking these words in any literal sense, we can admit that they represent the development of the head at the expense of the heart. an example of this kind of story to avoid is andersen's "story of the butterfly." the bitterness of the anemones, the sentimentality of the violets, the schoolgirlishness of the snowdrops, the domesticity of the sweetpeas--all this tickles the palate of the adult, but does not belong to the place of the normal child. again, i repeat, that the unusual child may take all this in and even preserve his kindly attitude towards the world, but it is dangerous atmosphere for the ordinary child. . _stories of a sentimental character_. strange to say, this element of sentimentality appeals more to the young teachers than to the children themselves. it is difficult to define the difference between real sentiment and sentimentality, but the healthy normal boy or girl of, let us say, ten or eleven years old, seems to feel it unconsciously, though the distinction is not so clear a few years later. mrs. elisabeth mccracken contributed an excellent article some years ago to the _outlook_ on the subject of literature for the young, in which we find a good illustration of this power of discrimination on the part of a child. a young teacher was telling her pupils the story of the emotional lady who, to put her lover to the test, bade him pick up the glove which she had thrown down into the arena between the tiger and the lion. the lover does her bidding in order to vindicate his character as a brave knight. one boy after hearing the story at once states his contempt for the knight's acquiescence, which he declares to be unworthy. "but," says the teacher, "you see he really did it to show the lady how foolish she was." the answer of the boy sums up what i have been trying to show: "there was no sense in _his_ being sillier than _she_ was, to show her _she_ was silly." if the boy had stopped there, we might have concluded that he was lacking in imagination or romance, but his next remark proves what a balanced and discriminating person he was, for he added: "now, if _she_ had fallen in, and he had leapt after her to rescue her, that would have been splendid and of some use." given the character of the lady, we might, as adults, question the last part of the boy's statement, but this is pure cynicism and fortunately does not enter into the child's calculations. in my own personal experience, and i have told this story often in the german ballad form to girls of ten and twelve in the high schools in england, i have never found one girl who sympathized with the lady or who failed to appreciate the poetic justice meted out to her in the end by the dignified renunciation of the knight. chesterton defines sentimentality as "a tame, cold, or small and inadequate manner of speaking about certain matters which demand very large and beautiful expression." i would strongly urge upon young teachers to revise, by this definition, some of the stories they have included in their repertories, and see whether they would stand the test or not. . _stories containing strong sensational episodes_. the danger of this kind of story is all the greater because many children delight in it and some crave for it in the abstract, but fear it in the concrete.[ ] an affectionate aunt, on one occasion, anxious to curry favor with a four-year-old nephew, was taxing her imagination to find a story suitable for his tender years. she was greatly startled when he suddenly said, in a most imperative tone: "tell me the story of a bear eating a small boy." this was so remote from her own choice of subject that she hesitated at first, but coming to the conclusion that as the child had chosen the situation he would feel no terror in the working up of its details, she a most thrilling and blood-curdling story, leading up to the final catastrophe. but just as she reached the great dramatic moment, the child raised his hands in terror and said: "oh! auntie, don't let the bear really eat the boy!" "don't you know," said an impatient boy who had been listening to a mild adventure story considered suitable to his years, "that i don't take any interest in the story until the decks are dripping with gore?" here we have no opportunity of deciding whether or not the actual description demanded would be more alarming than the listener had realized. here is a poem of james stephens, showing a child's taste for sensational things: a man was sitting underneath a tree outside the village, and he asked me what name was upon this place, and said he was never here before. he told a lot of stories to me too. his nose was flat. i asked him how it happened, and he said, the first mate of the _mary ann_ done that with a marling-spike one day, but he was dead, and a jolly job too, but he'd have gone a long way to have killed him. a gold ring in one ear, and the other was bit off by a crocodile, bedad, that's what he said: he taught me how to chew. he was a real nice man. he liked me too. the taste that is fed by the sensational contents of the newspapers and the dramatic excitement of street life, and some of the lurid representations of the cinematograph, is so much stimulated that the interest in normal stories is difficult to rouse. i will not here dwell on the deleterious effects of over-dramatic stimulation, which has been known to lead to crime, since i am keener to prevent the telling of too many sensational stories than to suggest a cure when the mischief is done. kate douglas wiggin has said: "let us be realistic, by all means, but beware, o story-teller, of being too realistic. avoid the shuddering tale of 'the wicked boy who stoned the birds,' lest some hearer should be inspired to try the dreadful experiment and see if it really does kill." i must emphasize the fact, however, that it is only the excess of this dramatic element which i deplore. a certain amount of excitement is necessary, but this question belongs to the positive side of the subject, and i shall deal with it later on. . _stories presenting matters quite outside the plane of a child's interests, unless they are wrapped in mystery_. experience with children ought to teach us to avoid stories which contain too much _allusion_ to matters of which the hearers are entirely ignorant. but judging from the written stories of today, supposed to be for children, it is still a matter of difficulty to realize that this form of allusion to "foreign" matters, or making a joke, the appreciation of which depends solely on a special and "inside" knowledge, is always bewildering and fatal to sustained dramatic interest. it is a matter of intense regret that so very few people have sufficiently clear remembrance of their own childhood to help them to understand the taste and point of view of the _normal_ child. there is a passage in the "brownies," by mrs. ewing, which illustrates the confusion created in the child mind by a facetious allusion in a dramatic moment which needed a more direct treatment. when the nursery toys have all gone astray, one little child exclaims joyfully: "why, the old rocking-horse's nose has turned up in the oven!" "it couldn't," remarks a tiresome, facetious doctor, far more anxious to be funny than to sympathized with the child, "it was the purest grecian, modeled from the elgin marbles." now, for grownup people this is an excellent joke, but for a child has not yet become acquainted with these grecian masterpieces, the whole remark is pointless and hampering.[ ] . _stories which appeal to fear or priggishness_. this is a class of story which scarcely counts today and against which the teacher does not need a warning, but i wish to make a passing allusion to these stories, partly to round off my subject and partly to show that we have made some improvement in choice of subject. when i study the evolution of the story from the crude recitals offered to our children within the last hundred years, i feel that, though our progress may be slow, it is real and sure. one has only to take some examples from the chaps books of the beginning of last century to realize the difference of appeal. everything offered then was either an appeal to fear or to priggishness, and one wonders how it is that our grandparents and their parents every recovered from the effects of such stories as were offered to them. but there is the consoling thought that no lasting impression was made upon them, such as i believe _may_ be possible by the right kind of story. i offer a few examples of the old type of story: here is an encouraging address offered to children by a certain mr. janeway about the year : "dare you do anything which your parents forbid you, and neglect to do what they command? dare you to run up and down on the lord's day, or do you keep in to read your book, and learn what your good parents command?" such an address would have almost tempted children to envy the lot of orphans, except that the guardians and less close relations might have been equally, if not more, severe. from "the curious girl," published about : "oh! papa, i hope you will have no reason to be dissatisfied with me, for i love my studies very much, and i am never so happy at my play as when i have been assiduous at my lessons all day." "adolphus: how strange it is, papa, you should believe it possible for me to act so like a child, now that i am twelve years old!" here is a specimen taken from a chap book about : edward refuses hot bread at breakfast. his hostess asks whether he likes it. "yes, i am extremely fond of it." "why did you refuse it?" "because i know that my papa does not approve of my eating it. am i to disobey a father and mother i love so well, and forget my duty, because they are a long way off? i would not touch the cake, were i sure nobody would see me. i myself should know it, and that would be sufficient. "nobly replied!" exclaimed mrs. c. "act always thus, and you must be happy, for although the whole world should refuse the praise that is due, you must enjoy the approbation of your conscience, which is beyond anything else." here is a quotation of the same kind from mrs. sherwood: tender-souled little creatures, desolated by a sense of sin, if they did but eat a spoonful of cupboard jam without mamma's express permission. . . . would a modern lucy, jealous of her sister emily's doll, break out thus easily into tearful apology for her guilt: 'i know it is wicked in me to be sorry that emily is happy, but i feel that i cannot help it'? and would a modern mother retort with heartfelt joy: 'my dear child, i am glad you have confessed. now i shall tell you why you feel this wicked sorrow'?--proceeding to an account of the depravity of human nature so unredeemed by comfort for a childish mind of common intelligence that one can scarcely imagine the interview ending in anything less tragic than a fit of juvenile hysteria. description of a good boy: a good boy is dutiful to his father and mother, obedient to his master and loving to his playfellows. he is diligent in learning his book and takes a pleasure in improving himself in everything that is worthy of praise. he rises early in the morning, makes himself clean and decent, and says his prayers. he loves to hear good advice, is thankful to those who give it and always follows it. he never swears[ ] or calls names or uses ill words to companions. he is never peevish and fretful, always cheerful and good-tempered. . _stories of exaggerated and coarse fun_. in the chapter on the positive side of this subject i shall speak more in detail of the educational value of robust and virile representation of fun and of sheer nonsense, but as a preparation to these statements, i should like to strike a note of warning against the element of exaggerated and coarse fun being encouraged in our school stories, partly, because of the lack of humor in such presentations (a natural product of stifling imagination) and partly, because the strain of the abnormal has the same effect as the too frequent use of the melodramatic. in an article in _macmillans's magazine_, december, , miss yonge writes: "a taste for buffoonery is much to be discouraged, an exclusive taste for extravagance most unwholesome and even perverting. it becomes destructive of reverence and soon degenerates into coarseness. it permits nothing poetical or imaginative, nothing sweet or pathetic to exist, and there is a certain self-satisfaction and superiority in making game of what others regard with enthusiasm and sentiment which absolutely bars the way against a higher or softer tone." although these words were written nearly half a century ago, they are so specially applicable today that they seem quite "up-to-date." indeed, i think they will hold equally good fifty years hence. in spite of a strong taste on the part of children for what is ugly and brutal, i am sure that we ought to eliminate this element as far as possible from the school stories, especially among poor children. not because i think children should be protected from all knowledge of evil, but because so much of this knowledge comes into their life outside school that we can well afford to ignore it during school hours. at the same time, however, as i shall show by example when i come to the positive side, it would be well to show children by story illustration the difference between brutal ugliness without anything to redeem it and surface ugliness, which may be only a veil over the beauty that lies underneath. it might be possible, for instance, to show children the difference between the real ugliness in the priest's face of the "laocoon" group, because of the motive of courage and endurance behind the suffering. many stories in everyday life could be found to illustrate this. . _stories of infant piety and death-bed scenes_. the stories for children forty years ago contained much of this element, and the following examples will illustrate this point: notes from poems written by a child between six and eight years of age, by name philip freeman, afterwards archdeacon of exeter: poor robin, thou canst fly no more, thy joys and sorrows all are o'er. through life's tempestuous storms thou'st trod, but now art sunk beneath the sod. here lost and gone poor robin lies, he trembles, lingers, falls and dies. he's gone, he's gone, forever lost, no more of him they now can boast. poor robin's dangers all are past, he struggled to the very last. perhaps he spent a happy life, without much struggle and much strife.[ ] the prolonged gloom of the main theme is somewhat lightened by the speculative optimism of the last verse. life, transient life, is but a dream, like sleep which short doth lengthened seem till dawn of day, when the bird's lay doth charm the soul's first peeping gleam. then farewell to the parting year, another's come to nature dear. in every place, thy brightening face does welcome winter's snowy drear. alas! our time is much mis-spent. then we must haste and now repent. we have a book in which to look, for we on wisdom should be bent. should god, the almighty, king of all, before his judgment-seat now call us to that place of joy and grace prepared for us since adam's fall. i think there is no doubt that we have made considerable progress in this matter. not only do we refrain from telling these highly moral (_sic_) stories but we have reached the point of parodying them, in sign of ridicule, as, for instance, in such writing as belloc's "cautionary tales." these would be a trifle too grim for a timid child, but excellent fun for adults. it should be our study today to prove to children that the immediate importance to them is not to think of dying and going to heaven, but of living and--shall we say?--of going to college, which is a far better preparation for the life to come than the morbid dwelling upon the possibility of an early death. in an article signed "muriel harris," i think, from a copy of the _tribune_, appeared a delightful article on sunday books, from which i quote the following: "all very good little children died young in the storybooks, so that unusual goodness must have been the source of considerable anxiety to affectionate parents. i came across a little old book the other day called 'examples for youth.' on the yellow fly-leaf was written, in childish, carefully-sloping hand: 'presented to mary palmer junior, by her sister, to be read on sundays,' and was dated . the accounts are taken from a work on "piety promoted," and all of them begin with unusual piety in early youth and end with the death-bed of the little paragon, and his or her dying words." . _stories containing a mixture of fairy tale and science_. by this combination one loses what is essential to each, namely, the fantastic on the one side, and accuracy on the other. the true fairy tale should be unhampered by any compromise of probability even; the scientific representation should be sufficiently marvelous along its own lines to need no supernatural aid. both appeal to the imagination in different ways. as an exception to this kind of mixture, i should quote "the honey bee, and other stories," translated from the danish of evald by c. g. moore smith. there is a certain robustness in these stories dealing with the inexorable laws of nature. some of them will appear hard to the child but they will be of interest to all teachers. perhaps the worst element in the choice of stories is that which insists upon the moral detaching itself and explaining the story. in "alice in wonderland" the duchess says, "'and the moral of _that_ is: take care of the sense and the sounds will take care of themselves.' "how fond she is of finding morals in things," thought alice to herself." (this gives the point of view of the child.) the following is a case in point, found in a rare old print in the british museum: jane s. came home with her clothes soiled and hands badly torn. "where have you been?" asked her mother. "i fell down the bank near the mill," said jane, "and i should have been drowned, if mr. m. had not seen me and pulled me out." "why did you go so near the edge of the brink?" "there was a pretty flower there that i wanted, and i only meant to take one step, but i slipped and fell down." _moral_: young people often take but one step in sinful indulgence [poor jane!], but they fall into soul-destroying sins. they can do it by a single act of sin. [the heinous act of picking a flower!] they do it; but the act leads to another, and they fall into the gulf of perdition, unless god interposes. now, quite apart from the folly of this story we must condemn it on moral grounds. could we imagine a lower standard of a deity than that presented here to the child? today the teacher would commend jane for a laudable interest in botany, but might add a word of caution about choosing inclined planes in the close neighborhood of a body of running water as a hunting ground for specimens and a popular, lucid explanation of the inexorable law of gravity. here we have an instance of applying a moral when we have finished our story, but there are many stories where nothing is left to chance in this matter and where there is no means for the child to use ingenuity or imagination in making out the meaning for himself. henry morley has condemned the use of this method as applied to fairy stories. he says: "moralizing in a fairy story is like the snoring of _bottom_ in _titania's_ lap." but i think this applies to all stories, and most especially to those by which we do wish to teach something. john burroughs says in his article, "thou shalt not preach":[ ] "didactic fiction can never rank high. thou shalt not preach or teach; thou shalt portray and create, and have ends as universal as nature. . . . what art demands is that the artist's personal convictions and notions, his likes and dislikes, do not obtrude themselves at all; that good and evil stand judged in his work by the logic of events, as they do in nature, and not by any special pleading on his part. he does non hold a brief for either side; he exemplifies the working of the creative energy. . . . the great artist works in and _through_ and _from_ moral ideas; his works are indirectly a criticism of life. he is moral without having a moral. the moment a moral obtrudes itself, that moment he begins to fall from grace as an artist. . . . the great distinction of art is that it aims to see life steadily and to see it whole. . . . it affords the one point of view whence the world appears harmonious and complete." it would seem, then, from this passage, that it is of _moral_ importance to put things dramatically. in froebel's "mother play" he demonstrates the educational value of stories, emphasizing that their highest use consists in their ability to enable the child, through _suggestion_, to form a pure and noble idea of what a man may be or do. the sensitiveness of a child's mind is offended if the moral is forced upon him, but if he absorbs it unconsciously, he has received its influence for all time. to me the idea of pointing out the moral of the story has always seemed as futile as tying a flower on a stalk instead of letting the flower grow out of the stalk, as nature has intended. in the first case, the flower, showy and bright for the moment, soon fades away. in the second instance, it develops slowly, coming to perfection in fullness of time because of the life within. lastly, the element to avoid is that which rouses emotions which cannot be translated into action. mr. earl barnes, to whom all teachers owe a debt of gratitude for the inspiration of his educational views, insists strongly on this point. the sole effect of such stories is to produce a form of hysteria, fortunately short-lived, but a waste of force which might be directed into a better channel.[ ] such stories are so easy to recognize that it would be useless to make a formal list, but i make further allusion to them, in dealing with stories from the lives of the saints. these, then, are the main elements to avoid in the selection of material suitable for normal children. much might be added in the way of detail, and the special tendency of the day may make it necessary to avoid one class of story more than another, but this care belongs to another generation of teachers and parents. chapter v. elements to seek in choice of material. in his "choice of books," frederic harrison has said: "the most useful help to reading is to know what we shall _not_ read, what we shall keep from that small, cleared spot in the overgrown jungle of information which we can call our ordered patch of fruit-bearing knowledge." now, the same statement applies to our stories, and, having busied myself during the last chapter with "clearing my small spot" by cutting away a mass of unfruitful growth, i am no going to suggest what would be the best kind of seed to sow in the patch which i have "reclaimed from the jungle." again, i repeat, i have no wish to be dogmatic and in offering suggestions as to the stories to be told, i am catering only for a group of normal school children. my list of subjects does not pretend to cover the whole ground of children's needs, and just as i exclude the abnormal or unusual child from the scope of my warning in subjects to avoid, so do i also exclude that child from the limitation in choice of subjects to be sought, because you can offer almost any subject to the unusual child, especially if you stand in close relation to him and know his powers of apprehension. in this matter, age has very little to say; it is a question of the stage of development. experience has taught me that for the group of normal children, irrespective of age, the first kind of story suitable for them will contain an appeal to conditions to which the child is accustomed. the reason for this is obvious: the child, having limited experience, can only be reached by this experience, until his imagination is awakened and he is enabled to grasp through this faculty what he has not actually passed through. before this awakening has taken place he enters the realm of fiction, represented in the story, by comparison with his personal experience. every story and every point in the story mean more as that experience widens, and the interest varies, of course, with temperament, quickness of perception, power of visualizing and of concentration. in "the marsh king's daughter," hans christian andersen says: "the storks have a great many stories which they tell their little ones, all about the bogs and marshes. they suit them to their age and capacity. the young ones are quite satisfied with _kribble, krabble_, or some such nonsense, and find it charming; but the elder ones want something with more meaning." one of the most interesting experiments to be made in connection with this subject is to tell the same story at intervals of a year or six months to an individual child.[ ] the different incidents in the story which appeal to him (and one must watch it closely, to be sure the interest is real and not artificially stimulated by any suggestion on one's own part) will mark his mental development and the gradual awakening of his imagination. this experiment is a very delicate one and will not be infallible, because children are secretive and the appreciation is often simulated (unconsciously) or concealed through shyness or want of articulation. but it is, in spite of this, a deeply interesting and helpful experiment. to take a concrete example: let us suppose the story andersen's "tin soldier" told to a child of five or six years. at the first recital, the point which will interest the child most will be the setting up of the tin soldiers on the table, because he can understand this by means of his own experience, in his own nursery. it is an appeal to conditions to which he is accustomed and for which no exercise of the imagination is needed, unless we take the effect of memory to be, according to queyrat, retrospective imagination. the next incident that appeals is the unfamiliar behavior of the toys, but still in familiar surroundings; that is to say, the _unusual_ activities are carried on in the safe precincts of the nursery--the _usual_ atmosphere of the child. i quote from the text: late in the evening the other soldiers were put in their box, and the people of the house went to bed. now was the time for the toys to play; they amused themselves with paying visits, fighting battles and giving balls. the tin soldiers rustled about in their box, for they wanted to join the games, but they could not get the lid off. the nut-crackers turned somersaults, and the pencil scribbled nonsense on the slate. now, from this point onwards in the story, the events will be quite outside the personal experience of the child and there will have to be a real stretch of imagination to appreciate the thrilling and blood- curdling adventures of the tin soldier, namely, the terrible sailing down the gutter under the bridge, the meeting with the fierce rat who demands the soldier's passport, the horrible sensation in the fish's body, etc. last of all, perhaps, will come the appreciation of the best qualities of the hero: his modesty, his dignity, his reticence, his courage and his constancy. he seems to combine all the qualities of the best soldier with those of the best civilian, without the more obvious qualities which generally attract first. as for the love story, we must _expect_ any child to see its tenderness and beauty, though the individual child may intuitively appreciate these qualities, but it is not what we wish for or work for at this period of child life. this method could be applied to various stories. i have chosen the "tin soldier" because of its dramatic qualities and because it is marked off, probably quite unconsciously on the part of andersen, into periods which correspond to the child's development. in eugene field's exquisite little poem of "the dinkey bird," we find the objects familiar to the child in _unusual_ places, so that some imagination is needed to realize that "big red sugar-plums are clinging to the cliffs beside the sea"; but the introduction of the fantastic bird and the soothing sound of amfalula tree are new and delightful sensations, quite out of the child's personal experience. another such instance is to be found in mrs. w. k. clifford's story of "master willie." the abnormal behavior of familiar objects, such as a doll, leads from the ordinary routine to the paths of adventure. this story is to be found in a little book called "very short stories," a most interesting collection for teachers and children. we now come to the second element we should seek in material, namely, the element of the unusual, which we have already anticipated in the story of the "tin soldier." this element is necessary in response to the demand of the child who expressed the needs of his fellow-playmates when he said: "i want to go to the place where the shadows are real." this is the true definition of "faerie" lands and is the first sign of real mental development in the child when he is no longer content with the stories of his own little deeds and experiences, when his ear begins to appreciate sounds different from the words in his own everyday language, and when he begins to separate his own personality from the action of the story. george goschen says: "what i want for the young are books and stories which do not simply deal with our daily life. i like the fancy even of little children to have some larger food than images of their own little lives, and i confess i am sorry for the children whose imaginations are not sometimes stimulated by beautiful fairy tales which carry them to worlds different from those in which their future will be passed. . . . i hold that what removes them more or less from their daily life is better than what reminds them of it at every step."[ ] it is because of the great value of leading children to something beyond the limited circle of their own lives that i deplore the twaddling boarding-school stories written for girls and the artificially prepared public school stories for boys. why not give them the dramatic interest of a larger stage? no account of a cricket match or a football triumph could present a finer appeal to boys and girls than the description of the peacestead in the "heroes of asgaard": "this was the playground of the aesir, where they practiced trials of skill one with another and held tournaments and sham fights. these last were always conducted in the gentlest and most honorable manner; for the strongest law of the peacestead was that no angry blow should be struck or spiteful word spoken upon the sacred field." for my part, i would unhesitatingly give to boys and girls an element of strong romance in the stories which are told them even before they are twelve. miss sewell says: "the system that keeps girls in the schoolroom reading simple stories, without reading scott and shakespeare and spenser, and then hands them over to the unexplored recesses of the circulating library, has been shown to be the most frivolizing that can be devised." she sets forth as the result of her experience that a good novel, especially a romantic one, read at twelve or fourteen, is really a beneficial thing. at present, so many of the children from the elementary schools get their first idea of love, if one can give it such a name from vulgar pictures displayed in the shop windows or jokes on marriage, culled from the lowest type of paper, or the proceedings of a divorce court. what an antidote to such representation might be found in the stories of hector and andromache, siegfried and brunnehilde, dido and aeneas, orpheus and eurydice, st. francis and st. clare! one of the strongest elements we should introduce into our stories for children of all ages is that which calls forth love of beauty. and the beauty should stand out, not only in the delineation of noble qualities in our heroes and heroines, but in the beauty and strength of language and form. in this latter respect, the bible stories are of such inestimable value; all the greater because a child is familiar with the subject and the stories gain fresh significance from the spoken or winged word as compared with the mere reading. as to whether we should keep to the actual text is a matter of individual experience. professor r. g. moulton, whose interpretations of the bible stories are so well known both in england and america, does not always confine himself to the actual text, but draws the dramatic elements together, rejecting what seems to him to break the narrative, but introducing the actual language where it is the most effective. those who have heard him will realize the success of his method. there is one bible story which can be told with scarcely any deviation from the text, if only a few hints are given beforehand, and that is the story of nebuchadnezzar and the golden image. thus, i think it wise, if the children are to succeed in partially visualizing the story, that they should have some idea of the dimensions of the golden image as it would stand out in a vast plain. it might be well to compare those dimension with some building with which the child is familiar. in london, the matter is easy as the height will compare, roughly speaking, with westminster abbey. the only change in text i should adopt is to avoid the constant enumeration of the list of rulers and the musical instruments. in doing this, i am aware that i am sacrificing something of beauty in the rhythm, but, on the other hand, for narrative purpose the interest is not broken. the first time the announcement is made, that is, by the herald, it should be in a perfectly loud, clear and toneless voice, such as you would naturally use when shouting through a trumpet to a vast concourse of people scattered over a wide plain, reserving all the dramatic tone of voice for the passage where nebuchadnezzar is making the announcement to the three men by themselves. i can remember professor moulton saying that all the dramatic interest of the story is summed up in the words "but if not . . ." this suggestion is a very helpful one, for it enables us to work up gradually to this point, and then, as it were, _unwind_, until we reach the words of nebuchadnezzar's dramatic recantation. in this connection, it is a good plan occasionally during the story hour to introduce really good poetry, which delivered in a dramatic manner (far removed, of course, from the melodramatic), might give children their first love of beautiful form in verse. and i do not think it necessary to wait for this. even the normal child of seven, though there is nothing arbitrary in the suggestion of this age, will appreciate the effect, if only on the ear, of beautiful lines well spoken. mahomet has said, in his teaching advice: "teach your children poetry: it opens the mind, lends grace to wisdom and makes heroic virtues hereditary." to begin with the youngest children of all, here is a poem which contains a thread of story, just enough to give a human interest: milking-time when the cows come home, the milk is coming; honey's made when the bees are humming. duck, drake on the rushy lake, and the deer live safe in the breezy brake, and timid, funny, pert little bunny winks his nose, and sits all sunny. christina rossetti. now, in comparing this poem with some of the doggerel verse offered to small children, one is struck with the literary superiority in the choice of words. here, in spite of the simplicity of the poem, there is not the ordinary limited vocabulary, nor the forced rhyme, nor the application of a moral, by which the artist falls from grace. again, eugene field's "hushaby lady," of which the language is most simple, yet the child is carried away by the beauty of the sound. i remember hearing some poetry repeated by the children in one of the elementary schools in sheffield which made me feel that they had realized romantic possibilities which would prevent their lives from ever becoming quite prosaic again, and i wish that this practice were more usual. there is little difficulty with the children. i can remember, in my own experience as a teacher in london, making the experiment of reading or repeating passages from milton and shakespeare to children from nine to eleven years of age, and the enthusiastic way they responded by learning those passages by heart. i have taken with several sets of children such passages from milton as the "echo song," "sabrina," "by the rushy-fringed bank," "back, shepherds, back," from "comus"; "may morning," "ode to shakespeare," "samson," "on his blindness," etc. i even ventured on several passage from "paradise lost," and found "now came still evening on" a particular favorite with the children. it seemed even easier to interest them in shakespeare, and they learned quite readily and easily many passages from "as you like it," "the merchant of venice," "julius caesar," "richard ii," "henry iv," and "henry v." the method i should recommend in the introduction of both poets occasionally into the story-hour would be threefold. first, to choose passages which appeal for beauty of sound or beauty of mental vision called up by those sounds; such as "tell me where is fancy bred," "titania's lullaby," "how sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank." secondly, passages for sheer interest of content, such as the trial scene from "the merchant of venice," or the forest scene in "as you like it." thirdly, for dramatic and historical interest, such as, "men at some time are masters of their fates," the whole of mark antony's speech, and the scene with imogen and her foster brothers in the forest. it may not be wholly out of place to add here that the children learned and repeated these passages themselves, and that i offered them the same advice as i do to all story-tellers. i discussed quite openly with them the method i considered best, trying to make them see that simplicity of delivery was not only the most beautiful but the most effective means to use and, by the end of a few months, when they had been allowed to experiment and express themselves, they began to see that mere ranting was not force and that a sense of reserve power is infinitely more impressive and inspiring than mere external presentation. i encouraged them to criticize each other for the common good, and sometimes i read a few lines with overemphasis and too much gesture, which they were at liberty to point out that they might avoid the same error. excellent collections of poems for this purpose of narrative are: mrs. p. a. barnett's series of "song and story," published by adam black, and "the posy ring," chosen and classified by kate douglas wiggin and nora archibald smith, published by doubleday. for older children, "the call of the homeland," selected and arranged by dr. r. p. scott and katharine t. wallas, published by houghton, mifflin, and "golden numbers," chosen and classified by kate douglas wiggin and nora archibald smith, published by doubleday. i think it is well to have a goodly number of stories illustrating the importance of common-sense and resourcefulness. for this reason, i consider the stories treating of the ultimate success of the youngest son[ ] very admirable for the purpose, because the youngest child who begins by being considered inferior to the older ones triumphs in the end, either from resourcefulness or from common-sense or from some higher quality, such as kindness to animals, courage in overcoming difficulties, etc.[ ] thus, we have the story of cinderella. the cynic might imagine that it was the diminutive size of her foot that insured her success. the child does not realize any advantage in this, but, though the matter need not be pressed, the story leaves us with the impression that cinderella had been patient and industrious, and forbearing with her sisters. we know that she was strictly obedient to her godmother, and in order to be this she makes her dramatic exit from the ball which is the beginning of her triumph. there are many who might say that these qualities do not meet with reward in life and that they end in establishing a habit of drudgery, but, after all, we must have poetic justice in a fairy story, occasionally, at any rate, even if the child is confused by the apparent contradiction. such a story is "jesper and the hares." here, however, it is not at first resourcefulness that helps the hero, but sheer kindness of heart, which prompts him first to help the ants, and then to show civility to the old woman, without for a moment expecting any material benefit from such actions. at the end, he does win on his own ingenuity and resourcefulness, and if we regret that his trickery has such wonderful results, we must remember the aim was to win the princess for herself, and that there was little choice left him. i consider that the end of this story is one of the most remarkable i have found in my long years of browsing among fairy tales. i should suggest stopping at the words: "the tub is full," as any addition seems to destroy the subtlety of the story.[ ] another story of this kind, admirable for children from six years and upwards, is, "what the old man does is always right." here, perhaps, the entire lack of common-sense on the part of the hero would serve rather as a warning than a stimulating example, but the conduct of the wife in excusing the errors of her foolish husband is a model of resourcefulness. in the story of "hereafter-this,"[ ] we have just the converse: a perfectly foolish wife shielded by a most patient and forbearing husband, whose tolerance and common-sense save the situation. one of the most important elements to seek in our choice of stories is that which tends to develop, eventually, a fine sense of humor in a child. i purposely use the word, "eventually," because i realize, first, that humor has various stages, and that seldom, if ever, can one expect an appreciation of fine humor from a normal child, that is, from an elemental mind. it seems as if the rough-and-tumble element were almost a necessary stage through which children must pass, and which is a normal and healthy stage; but up to now we have quite unnecessarily extended the period of elephantine fun, and, though we cannot control the manner in which children are catered to along this line in their homes, we can restrict the folly of appealing too strongly or too long to this elemental faculty in our schools. of course, the temptation is strong because the appeal is so easy, but there is a tacit recognition that horseplay and practical jokes are no longer considered as an essential part of a child's education. we note this in the changed attitude in the schools, taken by more advanced educators, towards bullying, fagging, hazing, etc. as a reaction, then, from more obvious fun, there should be a certain number of stories which make appeal to a more subtle element, and in the chapter on the questions put to me by teachers on various occasions i speak more in detail as to the educational value of a finer humor in our stories. at some period there ought to be presented in our stories the superstitions connected with the primitive history of the race, dealing with the fairy proper, giants, dwarfs, gnomes, nixies, brownies and other elemental beings. andrew lang says: "without our savage ancestors we should have had no poetry. conceive the human race born into the world in its present advanced condition, weighing, analyzing, examining everything. such a race would have been destitute of poetry and flattened by common-sense. barbarians did the _dreaming_ of the world." but it is a question of much debate among educators as to what should be the period of the child's life in which these stories are to be presented. i, myself, was formerly of the opinion that they belonged to the very primitive age of the individual, just as they belong to the primitive age of the race, but experience in telling stories has taught me to compromise. some people maintain that little children, who take things with brutal logic, ought not to be allowed the fairy tale in its more limited form of the supernatural; whereas, if presented to older children, this material can be criticized, catalogued and (alas!) rejected as worthless, or retained with flippant toleration. while realizing a certain value in this point of view, i am bound to admit that if we regulate our stories entirely on this basis, we lose the real value of the fairy tale element. it is the one element which causes little children to _wonder_, simply because no scientific analysis of the story can be presented to them. it is somewhat heartrending to feel that "jack and the bean stalk" and stories of that ilk are to be handed over to the critical youth who will condemn the quick growth of the tree as being contrary to the order of nature, and wonder why _jack_ was not playing football on the school team instead of climbing trees in search of imaginary adventures. a wonderful plea for the telling of early superstitions to children is to be found in an old indian allegory called, "the blazing mansion." an old man owned a large rambling mansion. the pillars were rotten, the galleries tumbling down, the thatch dry and combustible, and there was only one door. suddenly, one day, there was a smell of fire: the old man rushed out. to his horror he saw that the thatch was aflame, the rotten pillars were catching fire one by one, and the rafters were burning like tinder. but, inside, the children went on amusing themselves quite happily. the distracted father said: "i will run in and save my children. i will seize them in my strong arms, i will bear them harmless through the falling rafters and the blazing beams." then the sad thought came to him that the children were romping and ignorant. "if i say the house is on fire, they will not understand me. if i try to seize them, they will romp about and try to escape. alas! not a moment to be lost!" suddenly a bright thought flashed across the old man's mind. "my children are ignorant," he said; "they love toys and glittering playthings. i will promise them playthings of unheard-of beauty. then they will listen." so the old man shouted: "children, come out of the house and see these beautiful toys! chariots with white oxen, all gold and tinsel. see these exquisite little antelopes. whoever saw such goats as these? children, children come quickly, or they will all be gone!" forth from the blazing ruin the children came in hot haste. the word, "plaything," was almost the only word they could understand. then the father, rejoiced that his offspring were freed from peril, procured for them one of the most beautiful chariots ever seen. the chariot had a canopy like a pagoda; it had tiny rails and balustrades and rows of jingling bells. milk-white oxen drew the chariot. the children were astonished when they were placed inside.[ ] perhaps, as a compromise, one might give the gentler superstitions to very small children, and leave such a blood-curdling story as "bluebeard" to a more robust age. there is one modern method which has always seemed to me much to be condemned, and that is the habit of changing the end of a story, for fear of alarming the child. this is quite indefensible. in doing this we are tampering with folklore and confusing stages of development. now, i know that there are individual children that, at a tender age, might be alarmed at such a story, for instance, as "little red riding- hood"; in which case, it is better to sacrifice the "wonder stage" and present the story later on. i live in dread of finding one day a bowdlerized form of "bluebeard," prepared for a junior standard, in which, to produce a satisfactory finale, all the wives come to life again, and "live happily ever after" with bluebeard and each other! and from this point it seems an easy transition to the subject of legends of different kinds. some of the old country legends in connection with flowers are very charming for children, and so long as we do not tread on the sacred ground of the nature students, we may indulge in a moderate use of such stories, of which a few will be found in the list of stories, given later. with regard to the introduction of legends connected with saints into the school curriculum, my chief plea is the element of the unusual which they contain and an appeal to a sense of mysticism and wonder which is a wise antidote to the prosaic and commercial tendencies of today. though many of the actions of the saints may be the result of a morbid strain of self-sacrifice, at least none of them was engaged in the sole occupation of becoming rich: their ideals were often lofty and unselfish; their courage high, and their deeds noble. we must be careful, in the choice of our legends, to show up the virile qualities rather than to dwell on the elements of horror in details of martyrdom, or on the too-constantly recurring miracles, lest we should defeat our own ends. for the children might think lightly of the dangers to which the saints were exposed if they found them too often preserved at the last moment from the punishment they were brave enough to undergo. for one or another of these reasons, i should avoid the detailed history of st. juliana, st. vincent, st. quintin, st. eustace, st. winifred, st. theodore, st. james the more, st. katharine, st. cuthbert, st. alphage, st. peter of milan, st. quirine and juliet, st. alban and others. the danger of telling stories connected with sudden conversions is that they are apt to place too much emphasis on the process, rather than on the goal to be reached. we should always insist on the splendid deeds performed after a real conversion, not the details of the conversion itself; as, for instance, the beautiful and poetical work done by st. christopher when he realized what work he could do most effectively. on the other hand, there are many stories of the saints dealing with actions and motives which would appeal to the imagination and are not only worthy of imitation, but are not wholly outside the life and experience even of the child.[ ] having protested against the elephantine joke and the too-frequent use of exaggerated fun, i now endeavor to restore the balance by suggesting the introduction into the school curriculum of a few purely grotesque stories which serve as an antidote to sentimentality or utilitarianism. but they must be presented as nonsense, so that the children may use them for what they are intended as--pure relaxation. such a story is that of "the wolf and the kids," which i present in my own version at the end of the book. i have had serious objections offered to this story by several educational people, because of the revenge taken by the goat on the wolf, but i am inclined to think that if the story is to be taken as anything but sheer nonsense, it is surely sentimental to extend our sympathy toward a caller who has devoured six of his hostess' children. with regard to the wolf being cut open, there is not the slightest need to accentuate the physical side. children accept the deed as they accept the cutting off of a giant's head, because they do not associate it with pain, especially if the deed is presented half humorously. the moment in the story where their sympathy is aroused is the swallowing of the kids, because the children do realize the possibility of being disposed of in the mother's absence. (needless to say, i never point out the moral of the kids' disobedience to the mother in opening the door.) i have always noticed a moment of breathlessness even in a grown-up audience when the wolf swallows the kids, and that the recovery of them "all safe and sound, all huddled together" is quite as much appreciated by the adult audience as by the children, and is worth the tremor caused by the wolf's summary action. i have not always been able to impress upon the teachers the fact that this story _must_ be taken lightly. a very earnest young student came to me once after the telling of this story and said in an awe- struck voice: "do you cor-relate?" having recovered from the effect of this word, which she carefully explained, i said that, as a rule, i preferred to keep the story quite apart from the other lessons, just an undivided whole, because it had effects of its own which were best brought about by not being connected with other lessons. she frowned her disapproval and said: "i am sorry, because i thought i would take the goat for my nature study lesson and then tell your story at the end." i thought of the terrible struggle in the child's mind between his conscientious wish to be accurate and his dramatic enjoyment of the abnormal habits of a goat who went out with scissors, needle and thread; but i have been most careful since to repudiate any connection with nature study in this and a few other stories in my repertoire. one might occasionally introduce one of edward lear's "nonsense rhymes." for instance: there was an old man of cape horn who wished he had never been born. so he sat in a chair till he died of despair, that dolorous old man of cape horn. now, except in case of very young children, this could not possibly be taken seriously. the least observant normal boy or girl would recognize the hollowness of the pessimism that prevents an old man from at least an attempt to rise from his chair. the following i have chosen as repeated with intense appreciation and much dramatic vigor by a little boy just five years old: there was an old man who said: "hush! i perceive a young bird in that bush." when they said: "is it small?" he replied, "not at all. it is four times as large as the bush."[ ] one of the most desirable of all elements to introduce into our stories is that which encourages kinship with animals. with very young children this is easy, because during those early years when the mind is not clogged with knowledge, the sympathetic imagination enables them to enter into the feeling of animals. andersen has an illustration of this point in his "ice maiden": "children who cannot talk yet can understand the language of fowls and ducks quite well, and cats and dogs speak to them quite as plainly as father and mother; but that is only when the children are very small, and then even grandpapa's stick will become a perfect horse to them that can neigh and, in their eyes, is furnished with legs and a tail. with some children this period ends later than with others, and of such we are accustomed to say that they are very backward, and that they have remained children for a long time. people are in the habit of saying strange things." felix adler says: "perhaps the chief attraction of fairy tales is due to their representing the child as living in brotherly friendship with nature and all creatures. trees, flowers, animals, wild and tame, even the stars are represented as comrades of children. that animals are only human beings in disguise is an axiom in the fairy tales. animals are humanized, that is, the kinship between animal and human life is still keenly felt, and this reminds us of those early animistic interpretations of nature which subsequently led to doctrines of metempsychosis."[ ] i think that beyond question the finest animal stories are to be found in the indian collections, of which i furnish a list in the last chapter. with regard to the development of the love of nature through the telling of stories, we are confronted with a great difficulty in the elementary schools because so many of the children have never been out of the towns, have never seen a daisy, a blade of grass and scarcely a tree, so that in giving, in the form of a story, a beautiful description of scenery, you can make no appeal to the retrospective imagination, and only the rarely gifted child well be able to make pictures while listening to a style which is beyond his everyday use. nevertheless, once in a while, when the children are in a quiet mood, not eager for action but able to give themselves up to the pure joy of sound, then it is possible to give them a beautiful piece of writing in praise of nature, such as the following, taken from "the divine adventure," by fiona macleod: then he remembered the ancient wisdom of the gael and came out of the forest chapel and went into the woods. he put his lip to the earth, and lifted a green leaf to his brow, and held a branch to his ear; and because he was no longer heavy with the sweet clay of mortality, though yet of human clan, he heard that which we do not hear, and saw that which we do not see, and knew that which we do not know. all the green life was his. in that new world he saw the lives of trees, now pale green, now of woodsmoke blue, now of amethyst; the gray lives of stone; breaths of the grass and reed, creatures of the air, delicate and wild as fawns, or swift and fierce and terrible tigers of that undiscovered wilderness, with birds almost invisible but for their luminous wings, and opalescent crests. the value of this particular passage is the mystery pervading the whole picture, which forms so beautiful an antidote to the eternal explaining of things. i think it of the highest importance for the children to realize that the best and most beautiful things cannot be expressed in everyday language and that they must content themselves with a flash here and there of the beauty which may come later. one does not enhance the beauty of the mountain by pulling to pieces some of the earthy clogs; one does not increase the impression of a vast ocean by analyzing the single drops of water. but at a reverent distance one gets a clear impression of the whole, and can afford to leave the details in the shadow. in presenting such passages (and it must be done very sparingly), experience has taught me that we should take the children into our confidence by telling them frankly that nothing exciting is going to happen, so that they well be free to listen to the mere words. a very interesting experiment might occasionally be made by asking the children some weeks afterwards to tell you in their own words what pictures were made on their minds. this is a very different thing from allowing the children to reproduce the passage at once, the danger of which proceeding i speak of later in detail.[ ] we now come to the question as to what proportion of _dramatic excitement_ we should present in the stories for a normal group of children. personally, i should like, while the child is very young, i mean in main, not in years, to exclude the element of dramatic excitement, but though this may be possible for the individual child, it is quite utopian to hope that we can keep the average child free from what is in the atmosphere. children crave for excitement, and unless we give it to them in legitimate form, they will take it in any riotous form it presents itself, and if from our experience we can control their mental digestion by a moderate supply of what they demand, we may save them from devouring too eagerly the raw material they can so easily find for themselves. there is a humorous passage bearing on this question in the story of the small scotch boy, when he asks leave of his parents to present the pious little book--a gift to himself from an aunt to a little sick friend, hoping probably that the friend's chastened condition will make him more lenient towards this mawkish form of literature. the parents expostulate, pointing out to their son how ungrateful he is, and how ungracious it would be to part with his aunt's gift. then the boy can contain himself no longer. he bursts out, unconsciously expressing the normal attitude of children at a certain stage of development: "it's a _daft_ book ony way: there's naebody gets kilt ent. i like stories about folk gettin' their heids cut off, or there's nae wile beasts. i i like stories about black men gettin' ate up, an' white men killin' lions and tigers an' bears an'---" then, again, we have the passage from george eliot's "mill on the floss": "oh, dear! i wish they would not fight at your school, tom. didn't it hurt you?" "hurt me? no," said tom, putting up the hooks again, taking out a large pocketknife, and slowly opening the largest blade, which he looked at meditatively as he rubbed his finger along it. then he added: "i gave spooner a black eye--that's what he got for wanting to leather me. i wasn't going to go halves because anybody leathered me." "oh! how brave you are, tom. i think you are like samson. if there came a lion roaring at men, i think you'd fight him, wouldn't you, tom?" "how can a lion come roaring at you, you silly thing? there's no lions only in the shows." "no, but if we were in the lion countries--i mean in africa where it's very hot, the lions eat people there. i can show it you in the book where i read it." "well, i should get a gun and shoot him." "but if you hadn't a gun?--we might have gone out, you know, not thinking, just as we go out fishing, and then a great lion might come towards us roaring, and we could not get away from him. what should you do, tom?" tom paused, and at last turned away contemptuously, saying: "but the lion _isn't_ coming. what's the use of talking?" this passage illustrates also the difference between the highly- developed imagination of the one and the stodgy prosaical temperament of the other. tom could enter into the elementary question of giving his schoolfellow a black eye, but could not possibly enter into the drama of the imaginary arrival of a lion. he was sorely in need of fairy stories. it is to this element we have to cater, and we cannot shirk our responsibilities. william james says: "living things, moving things or things that savor of danger or blood, that have a dramatic quality, these are the things natively interesting to childhood, to the exclusion of almost everything else, and the teacher of young children, until more artificial interests have grown up, will keep in touch with his pupils by constant appeal to such matters as these."[ ] of course the savor of danger and blood is only _one_ of the things to which we should appeal, but i give the whole passage to make the point clearer. this is one of the most difficult parts of our selection, namely, how to present enough excitement for the child and yet include enough constructive element which will satisfy him when the thirst for "blugginess" is slaked. and here i should like to say that, while wishing to encourage in children great admiration and reverence for the courage and other fine qualities which have been displayed in times of war and which have mitigated its horrors, i think we should show that some of the finest moments in these heroes' lives had nothing to do with their profession as soldiers. thus, we have the well-known story of sir philip sydney and the soldier; the wonderful scene where roland drags the bodies of his dead friends to receive the blessing of the archbishop after the battle of roncesvall;[ ] and of napoleon sending the sailor back to england. there is a moment in the story of gunnar when he pauses in the midst of the slaughter of his enemies, and says, "i wonder if i am less base than others, because i kill men less willingly than they." and in the "burning of njal,"[ ] we have the words of the boy, thord, when his grandmother, bergthora, urges him to go out of the burning house. "'you promised me when i was little, grandmother, that i should never go from you till i wished it of myself. and i would rather die with you than live after you.'" here the moral courage is so splendidly shown: none of these heroes feared to die in battle or in open single fight; but to face death by fire for higher considerations is a point of view worth presenting to the child. in spite of all the dramatic excitement roused by the conduct of our soldiers and sailors, should we not try to offer also in our stories the romance and excitement of saving as well as taking life? i would have quite a collection dealing with the thrilling adventures of the lifeboat and the fire brigade, of which i shall present examples in the final story list. finally, we ought to include a certain number of stories dealing with death, especially with children who are of an age to realize that it must come to all, and that this is not a calamity but a perfectly natural and simple thing. at present the child in the street invariably connects death with sordid accidents. i think they should have stories of death coming in heroic form, as when a man or woman dies for a great cause, in which he has opportunity of admiring courage, devotion and unselfishness; or of death coming as a result of treachery, such as we find in the death of baldur, the death of siegfried, and others, so that children may learn to abhor such deeds; but also a fair proportion of stories dealing with death that comes naturally, when our work is done, and our strength gone, which has no more tragedy than the falling of a leaf from the tree. in this way, we can give children the first idea that the individual is so much less than the whole. little children often take death very naturally. a boy of five met two of his older companions at the school door. they said sadly and solemnly: "we have just seen a dead man!" "well," said the little philosopher, "that's all right. we've _all_ got to die when our work is done." in one of the buddha stories which i reproduce at the end of this book, the little hare (who is, i think, a symbol of nervous individualism) constantly says: "suppose the earth were to fall in, what would become of me?" as an antidote to the ordinary attitude towards death, i commend an episode from a german folklore story which is called "unlucky john," and which is included in the list of stories recommended at the end of this book. the following sums up in poetic form some of the material necessary for the wants of a child. the child the little new soul has come to earth, he has taken his staff for the pilgrim's way. his sandals are girt on his tender feet, and he carries his scrip for what gifts he may. what will you give to him, fate divine? what for his scrip on the winding road? a crown for his head, or a laurel wreath? a sword to wield, or is gold his load? what will you give him for weal or woe? what for the journey through day and night? give or withhold from him power and fame, but give to him love of the earth's delight. let him be lover of wind and sun and of falling rain; and the friend of trees; with a singing heart for the pride of noon, and a tender heart for what twilight sees. let him be lover of you and yours-- the child and mary; but also pan and the sylvan gods of the woods and hills, and the god that is hid in his fellowman. love and a song and the joy of the earth, these be gifts for his scrip to keep till, the journey ended, he stands at last in the gathering dark, at the gate of sleep. ethel clifford and so our stories should contain all the essentials for the child's scrip on the road of life, providing the essentials and holding or withholding the non-essentials. but, above all, let us fill the scrip with gifts that the child need never reject, even when he passes through to "the gate of sleep." chapter v. how to obtain and maintain the effect of the story. we are now come to the most important part of the question of story- telling, to which all the foregoing remarks have been gradually leading, and that is the effect of these stories upon the child, quite apart from the dramatic joy he experiences in listening to them, which would in itself be quite enough to justify us in the telling. but, since i have urged the extreme importance of giving so much time to the manner of telling and of bestowing so much care in the selection of the material, it is right that we should expect some permanent results or else those who are not satisfied with the mere enjoyment of the children will seek other methods of appeal--it is to them that i most specially dedicate this chapter. i think we are of the threshold of the re-discovery of an old truth, that _dramatic presentation_ is the quickest and the surest method of appeal, because it is the only one with which memory plays no tricks. if a thing has appeared before us in a vital form nothing can really destroy it; it is because things are often given in a blurred, faint light that they gradually fade out of our memory. a very keen scientist was deploring to me, on one occasion, the fact that stories were told so much in the schools, to the detriment of science, for which he claimed the same indestructible element that i recognize in the best-told stories. being very much interested in her point of view, i asked her to tell me, looking back on her school days, what she could remember as standing out from other less clear information. after thinking some little time over the matter, she said with some embarrassment, but with candor that did her much honor: "well, now i come to think of it, it was the story of cinderella." now, i am not holding any brief for this story in particular. i think the reason it was remembered was because of the dramatic form in which it was presented to her, which fired her imagination and kept the memory alight. i quite realize that a scientific fact might also have been easily remembered if it had been presented in the form of a successful chemical experiment; but this also has something of the dramatic appeal and will be remembered on that account. sully says: "we cannot understand the fascination of a story for children save in remembering that for their young minds, quick to imagine, and unversed in abstract reflection, words are not dead things but _winged_, as the old greeks called them."[ ] the _red queen_, in "alice through the looking-glass," was more psychological than she was aware of when she made the memorable statement: "when once you've _said_ a thing, that _fixes_ it, and you must take the consequences." in curtin's "introduction to myths and folk tales of the russians", he says: "i remember well the feeling roused in my mind at the mention or sight of the name _lucifer_ during the early years of my life. it stood for me as the name of a being stupendous, dreadful in moral deformity, lurid, hideous and mighty. i remember the surprise with which, when i had grown somewhat older and began to study latin, i came upon the name in virgil where it means _light-bringer_--the herald of the sun." plato has said that "the end of education should be the training by suitable habits of the instincts of virtue in the child." about two thousand years later, sir philip sydney, in his "defence of poesy," says: "the final end of learning is to draw and lead us to so high a perfection as our degenerate souls, made worse by their clay lodgings, can be capable of." and yet it is neither the greek philosopher nor the elizabethan poet that makes the everyday application of these principles; but we have a hint of this application from the pueblo tribe of indians, of whom lummis tells us the following: "there is no duty to which a pueblo child is trained in which he has to be content with a bare command: do this. for each, he learns a fairy-tale designed to explain how children first came to know that it was right to 'do this,' and detailing the sad results that befall those who did otherwise. some tribes have regular story-tellers, men who have devoted a great deal of time to learning the myths and stories of their people and who possess, in addition to good memory, a vivid imagination. the mother sends for one of these, and having prepared a feast for him, she and her little brood, who are curled up near her, await the fairy stories of the dreamer who after his feast and smoke entertains the company for hours." in modern times, the nurse, who is now receiving such complete training for her duties with children, should be ready to imitate the "dreamer" of the indian tribe. i rejoice to find that regular instruction in story-telling is being given in many of the institutions where the nurses are trained. some years ago there appeared a book by dion calthrop called "king peter," which illustrates very fully the effect of story-telling. it is the account of the education of a young prince which is carried on at first by means of stories, and later he is taken out into the arena of life to show what is happening there--the dramatic appeal being always the means used to awaken his imagination. the fact that only _one_ story a year is told him prevents our seeing the effect from day to day, but the time matters little. we only need faith to believe that the growth, though slow, was sure. there is something of the same idea in the "adventures of telemachus," written by fenelon for his royal pupil, the young duke of burgundy, but whereas calthrop trusts to the results of indirect teaching by means of dramatic stories, fenelon, on the contrary, makes use of the somewhat heavy, didactic method, so that one would think the attention of the young prince must have wandered at times; and i imagine telemachus was in the same condition when he was addressed at such length by mentor, who, being minerva, though in disguise, should occasionally have displayed that sense of humor which must always temper true wisdom. take, for instance the heavy reproof conveyed in the following passage: "death and shipwreck are less dreadful than the pleasures that attack virtue. . . . youth is full of presumption and arrogance, though nothing in the world is so frail: it fears nothing, and vainly relies utmost levity and without any precaution." and on another occasion, when calypso hospitably provides clothes for the shipwrecked men, and telemachus is handling a tunic of the finest wool and white as snow, with a vest of purple embroidered with gold, and displaying much pleasure in the magnificence of the clothes, mentor addresses him in a severe voice, saying: "are these, o telemachus, the thoughts that ought to occupy the heart of the son of ulysses? a young man who loves to dress vainly, as a woman does, is unworthy of wisdom or glory." i remember, as a school girl of thirteen, having to commit to memory several books of these adventures, so as to become familiar with the style. far from being impressed by the wisdom of mentor, i was simply bored, and wondered why telemachus did not escape from him. the only part in the book that really interested me was calypso's unrequited love for telemachus, but this was always the point where we ceased to learn by heart, which surprised me greatly, for it was here that the real human interest seemed to begin. of all the effects which i hope for from the telling of stories in the schools, i, personally, place first the dramatic joy we bring to the children and to ourselves. but there are many who would consider this result as fantastic, if not frivolous, and not to be classed among the educational values connected with the introduction of stories into the school curriculum. i, therefore, propose to speak of other effects of story-telling which may seem of more practical value. the first, which is of a purely negative character, is that through means of a dramatic story we may counteract some of the sights and sounds of the street which appeal to the melodramatic instinct in children. i am sure that all teachers whose work lies in crowded cities must have realized the effect produced on children by what they see and hear on their way to and from school. if we merely consider the bill boards with their realistic representations, quite apart from the actual dramatic happenings in the street, we at once perceive that the ordinary school interests pale before such lurid appeals as these. how can we expect the child who has stood openmouthed before a poster representing a woman chloroformed by a burglar (while that hero escapes in safety with jewels) to display any interest in the arid monotony of the multiplication table? the illegitimate excitement created by the sight of the depraved burglar can only be counteracted by something equally exciting along the realistic but legitimate side of appeal; and this is where the story of the right kind becomes so valuable, and why the teacher who is artistic enough to undertake the task can find the short path to results which theorists seek for so long in vain. it is not even necessary to have an exceedingly exciting story; sometimes one which will bring about pure reaction may be just as suitable. i remember in my personal experience an instance of this kind. i had been reading with some children of about ten years old the story from "cymbeline" of _imogen_ in the forest scene, when the brothers strew flowers upon her, and sing the funeral dirge, fear no more the heat of the sun. just as we had all taken on this tender, gentle mood, the door opened and one of the prefects announced in a loud voice the news of the relief of mafeking. the children were on their feet at once, cheering lustily, and for the moment the joy over the relief of the brave garrison was the predominant feeling. then, i took advantage of a momentary reaction and said: "now, children, don't you think we can pay england the tribute of going back to england's greatest poet?" in a few minutes we were back in the heart of the forest, and i can still hear the delightful intonation of those subdued voices repeating, golden lads and girls all must like chimney-sweepers come to dust. it is interesting to note that the same problem that is exercising us today was a source of difficulty to people in remote times. the following is taken from an old chinese document, and has particular interest for us at this time: "the philosopher, mentius (born b. c.), was left fatherless at a very tender age and brought up by his mother, changsi. the care of this prudent and attentive mother has been cited as a model for all virtuous parents. the house she occupied was near that of a butcher; she observed at the first cry of the animals that were being slaughtered, the little mentius ran to be present at the sight, and that, on his return, he sought to imitate what he had seen. fearful lest his heart might become hardened, and accustomed to the sights of blood, she removed to another house which was in the neighborhood of a cemetery. the relations of those who were buried there came often to weep upon their graves, and make their customary libations. the lad soon took pleasure in their ceremonies and amused himself by imitating them. this was a new subject of uneasiness to his mother: she feared her son might come to consider as a jest what is of all things the most serious, and that he might acquire a habit of performing with levity, and as a matter of routine merely, ceremonies which demand the most exact attention and respect. again, therefore, she anxiously changed the dwelling, and went to live in the city, opposite a school, where her son found examples the most worthy of imitation, and began to profit by them. this anecdote has become incorporated by the chinese into a proverb, which they constantly quote: the mother of mentius seeks a neighborhood." another influence we have to counteract is that of newspaper headings and placards which catch the eye of children in the streets and appeal so powerfully to their imagination. shakespeare has said: tell me where is fancy bred, or in the heart, or in the head? how begot, how nourished? it is engendered in the eyes with gazing fed, and fancy dies in the cradle where it lies. let us all ring fancy's knell. i'll begin it--ding, dong, bell. "merchant of venice." if this be true, it is of importance to decide what our children shall look upon as far as we can control the vision, so that we can form some idea of the effect upon their imagination. having alluded to the dangerous influence of the street, i should hasten to say that this influence is very far from being altogether bad. there are possibilities of romance in street life which may have just the same kind of effect on children as the telling of exciting stories. i am indebted to mrs. arnold glover, honorary secretary of the national organization of girls' clubs,[ ] one of the most widely informed people on this subject, for the two following experiences gathered from the streets and which bear indirectly on the subject of story-telling: mrs. glover was visiting a sick woman in a very poor neighborhood, and found, sitting on the door-step of the house, two little children, holding something tightly grasped in their little hands, and gazing with much expectancy towards the top of the street. she longed to know what they were doing, but not being one of those unimaginative and tactless folk who rush headlong into the mysteries of children's doings, she passed them at first in silence. it was only when she found them still in the same silent and expectant posture half an hour later that she said tentatively: "i wonder whether you would tell me what you are doing here?" after some hesitation, one of them said, in a shy voice: "we're waitin' for the barrer." it then transpired that, once a week, a vegetable-and-flower-cart was driven through this particular street, on its way to a more prosperous neighborhood, and on a few red-letter days, a flower, or a sprig, or even a root sometimes fell out of the back of the cart; and these two little children were sitting there in hope, with their hands full of soil, ready to plant anything which might by some golden chance fall that way, in their secret garden of oyster shells. this seems to me as charming a fairy tale as any that our books can supply. on another occasion, mrs. glover was collecting the pennies for the holiday fund savings bank from the children who came weekly to her house. she noticed on three consecutive mondays that one little lad deliberately helped himself to a new envelope from her table. not wishing to frighten or startle him, she allowed this to continue for some weeks, and then one day, having dismissed the other children, she asked him quite quietly why he was taking the envelopes. at first he was very sulky, and said: "i need them more than you do." she quite agreed this might be, but reminded him that, after all, they belonged to her. she promised, however, that if he would tell her for what purpose he wanted the envelopes, she would endeavor to help him in the matter. then came the astonishing announcement: "i am building a navy." after a little more gradual questioning, mrs. glover drew from the boy the information that the borough water carts passed through the side street once a week, flushing the gutter; that then the envelope ships were made to sail on the water and pass under the covered ways which formed bridges for wayfarers and tunnels for the "navy." great was the excitement when the ships passed out of sight and were recognized as they arrived safely at the other end. of course, the expenses in raw material were greatly diminished by the illicit acquisition of mrs. glover's property, and in this way she had unconsciously provided the neighborhood with a navy and a commander. her first instinct, after becoming acquainted with the whole story, was to present the boy with a real boat, but on second thought she collected and gave him a number of old envelopes with names and addresses upon them, which added greatly to the excitement of the sailing, because they could be more easily identified as they came out of the other end of the tunnel, and had their respective reputations as to speed. here is indeed food for romance, and i give both instances to prove that the advantages of street life are to be taken into consideration as well as the disadvantages, though i think we are bound to admit that the latter outweigh the former. one of the immediate results of dramatic stories is the escape from the commonplace, to which i have already alluded in quoting mr. goschen's words. the desire for this escape is a healthy one, common to adults and children. when we wish to get away from our own surroundings and interests, we do for ourselves what i maintain we ought to do for children: we step into the land of fiction. it has always been a source of astonishment to me that, in trying to escape from our own everyday surroundings, we do not step more boldly into the land of pure romance, which would form a real contrast to our everyday life, but, in nine cases out of ten, the fiction which is sought after deals with the subjects of our ordinary existence, namely, frenzied finance, sordid poverty, political corruption, fast society, and religious doubts. there is the same danger in the selection of fiction for children: namely, a tendency to choose very utilitarian stories, both in form and substance, so that we do not lift the children out of the commonplace. i remember once seeing the titles of two little books, the contents of which were being read or told to children; one was called, "tom the bootblack"; the other, "dan the newsboy." my chief objection to these stories was the fact that neither of the heroes rejoiced in his work for the work's sake. had _tom_ even invented a new kind of blacking, or if _dan_ had started a newspaper, it might have been encouraging for those among the listeners who were thinking of engaging in similar professions. it is true, both gentlemen amassed large fortunes, but surely the school age is not to be limited to such dreams and aspirations as these! one wearies of the tales of boys who arrive in a town with one cent in their pocket and leave it as millionaires, with the added importance of a mayoralty. it is undoubtedly true that the romantic prototype of these worthy youths is _dick whittingon_, for whom we unconsciously cherish the affection which we often bestow on a far-off personage. perhaps--who can say?--it is the picturesque adjunct of the cat, lacking to modern millionaires. i do not think it utopian to present to children a fair share of stories which deal with the importance of things "untouched by hand." they, too, can learn at an early age that "the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are unseen are spiritual." to those who wish to try the effect of such stories on children, i present for their encouragement the following lines from james whitcomb riley: the treasure of the wise man[ ] oh, the night was dark and the night was late, when the robbers came to rob him; and they picked the lock of his palace-gate, the robbers who came to rob him--; they picked the lock of the palace-gate, seized his jewels and gems of state, his coffers of gold and his priceless plate,-- the robbers that came to rob him. but loud laughed he in the morning red!-- for of what had the robbers robbed him? ho! hidden safe, as he slept in bed, when the robbers came to rob him,-- they robbed him not of a golden shred of the childish dreams in his wise old head- "and they're welcome to all things else," he said, when the robbers came to rob him. there is a great deal of this romantic spirit, combined with a delightful sense of irresponsibility, which i claim above all things for small children, to be found in our old nursery rhymes. i quote from the following article written by the rev. r. l. gales for the _nation_. after speaking on the subject of fairy stories being eliminated from the school curriculum, the writer adds: "this would be lessening the joy of the world and taking from generations yet unborn the capacity for wonder, the power to take a large unselfish interest in the spectacle of things, and putting them forever at the mercy of small private cares. "a nursery rhyme is the most sane, the most unselfish thing in the world. it calls up some delightful image--a little nut-tree with a silver walnut and a golden pear; some romantic adventure only for the child's delight and liberation from the bondage of unseeing dullness: it brings before the mind the quintessence of some good thing: "'the little dog laughed to see such sport'--there is the soul of good humor, of sanity, of health in the laughter of that innocently wicked little dog. it is the laughter of pure frolic without unkindness. to have laughed with the little dog as a child is the best preservative against mirthless laughter in later years--the horse laughter of brutality, the ugly laughter of spite, the acrid laughter of fanaticism. the world of nursery rhymes, the old world of mrs. slipper-slopper, is the world of natural things, of quick, healthy motion, of the joy of living. "in nursery rhymes the child is entertained with all the pageant of the world. it walks in fairy gardens, and for it the singing birds pass. all the king's horses and all the king's men pass before it in their glorious array. craftsmen of all sorts, bakers, confectioners, silversmiths, blacksmiths are busy for it with all their arts and mysteries, as at the court of an eastern king." in insisting upon the value of this escape from the commonplace, i cannot prove the importance of it more clearly than by showing what may happen to a child who is deprived of his birthright by having none of the fairy tale element presented to him. in "father and son," mr. edmund gosse says: "meanwhile, capable as i was of reading, i found my greatest pleasure in the pages of books. the range of these was limited, for storybooks of every description were sternly excluded. no fiction of any kind, religious or secular, was admitted into the house. in this it was to my mother, not to my father, that the prohibition was due. she had a remarkable, i confess, to me somewhat unaccountable impression that to 'tell a story,' that is, to compose fictitious narrative of any king, was a sin. . . . nor would she read the chivalrous tales in the verse of sir walter scott, obstinately alleging that they were not true. she would nothing but lyrical and subjective poetry. as a child, however, she had possessed a passion for making up stories, and so considerable a skill in it, that she was constantly being begged to indulge others with its exercise. . . . 'when i was a very little child,' she says, 'i used to amuse myself and my brothers with inventing stories such as i had read. having, i suppose, a naturally restless mind and busy imagination, this soon became the chief pleasure of my life. unfortunately, my brothers were always fond of encouraging this propensity, and i found in taylor, my maid, a still greater tempter. i had not known there was any harm in it, until miss shore, a calvinistic governess, finding it out, lectured me severely and told me it was wicked. from that time forth, i considered that to invent a story of any kind was a sin. . . . but the longing to do so grew with violence. . . . the simplicity of truth was not enough for me. i must needs embroider imagination upon it, and the vanity and wickedness which disgraced my heart are more than i am able to express.' this [the author, her son, adds] is surely a very painful instance of the repression of an instinct." in contrast to the stifling of the imagination, it is good to recall the story of the great hermite who, having listened to the discussion of the monday sitting at the academie des sciences (insitut de france) as to the best way to teach the "young idea how to shoot" in the direction of mathematical genius, said: "_cultivez l'imagination, messieurs. tout est la. si vous voulez des mathematiciens, donnez a vos enfants a; lire--des contes de fees._" another important effect of the story is to develop at an early age sympathy for children of other countries where conditions are different from our own. i have so constantly to deal with the question of confusion between truth and fiction in the minds of children that it might be useful to offer here an example of the way they make the distinction for themselves. mrs. ewing says on this subject: "if there are young intellects so imperfect as to be incapable of distinguishing between fancy and falsehood, it is most desirable to develop in them the power to do so, but, as a rule, in childhood, we appreciate the distinction with a vivacity which as elders our care- clogged memories fail to recall." mr. p. a. barnett, in his book on the "common-sense of education," says, alluding to fairy-tales: "children will _act_ them but not act _upon_ them, and they will not accept the incidents as part of their effectual belief. they will imagine, to be sure, grotesque worlds, full of admirable and interesting personages to whom strange things might have happened. so much the better: this largeness of imagination is one of the possessions that distinguish the better nurtured child from others less fortunate." the following passage from stevenson's essay on _"child play"_[ ] will furnish an instance of children's aptitude for creating their own dramatic atmosphere: "when my cousin and i took our porridge of a morning, we had a device to enliven the course of a meal. he ate his with sugar, and explained it to be a country continually buried under snow. i took mine with milk, and explained it to be country suffering gradual inundation. you can imagine us exchanging bulletins; how here was an island still unsubmerged, here a valley not yet covered with snow; what inventions were made; how his population lived in cabins on perches and traveled on stilts, and how mine was always in boats; how the interest grew furious as the last corner of safe ground was cut off on all sides and grew smaller every moment; and how, in fine, the food was of altogether secondary importance, and might even have been nauseous, so long as we seasoned it with these dreams. but perhaps the most exciting moments i ever had over a meal were in the case of calf's foot jelly. it was hardly possible not to believe--and you may be quite sure, so far from trying, i did all i could to favor the illusion--that some part of it was hollow and that sooner or later my spoon would lay open the secret tabernacle of the golden rock. there, might some _red-beard_ await his hour; there might one find the treasures of the forty thieves. and so i quarried on slowly, with bated breath, savoring the interest. believe me, i had little palate left for the jelly; and though i preferred the taste when i tool cream with it, i used often to go without because the cream dimmed the transparent fractures." in his work on "imagination," ribot says: "the free initiative of children is always superior to the imitations we pretend to make for them." the passage from robert louis stevenson becomes more clear from a scientific point of view when taken in connection with one from karl groos' book on the "psychology of animal play": "the child is wholly absorbed in his play, and yet under the ebb and flow of thought and feeling like still water under wind-swept waves, he has the knowledge that it is pretense after all. behind the sham 'i' that takes part in the game, stands the unchanged 'i' which regards the sham 'i' with quiet superiority." queyrat speaks of play as one of the distinct phases of a child's imagination; it is "essentially a metamorphosis of reality, a transformation of places and things." now to return to the point which mrs. ewing makes, namely, that we should develop in normal children the power of distinguishing between truth and falsehood. i should suggest including two or three stories which would test that power in children, and if they fail to realize the difference between romancing and telling lies, then it is evident that they need special attention and help along this line. i give the titles of two stories of this kind in the collection at the end of the book.[ ] thus far we have dealt only with the negative results of stories, but there are more important effects, and i am persuaded that if we are careful in our choice of stories, and artistic in our presentation, so that the truth is framed, so to speak, in the memory, we can unconsciously correct evil tendencies in children which they recognize in themselves only when they have already criticized them in the characters of the story. i have sometimes been misunderstood on this point, and, therefore, i should like to make it quite clear. i do _not_ mean that stories should take the place entirely of moral or direct teaching, but that on many occasions they could supplement and strengthen moral teaching, because the dramatic appeal to the imagination is quicker than the moral appeal to the conscience. a child will often resist the latter lest it should make him uncomfortable or appeal to his personal sense of responsibility: it is often not in his power to resist the former, because it has taken possession of him before he is aware of it. as a concrete example, i offer three verses from a poem entitled, "a ballad for a boy," written some twelve years ago by w. cory, an eton master. the whole poem is to be found in a book of poems known as "ionica."[ ] the poem describes a fight between two ships, the french ship, _temeraire_, and the english ship, _quebec_. the english ship was destroyed by fire; farmer, the captain, was killed, and the officers take prisoners: they dealt with us as brethren, they mourned for farmer dead, and as the wounded captives passed each breton bowed the head. then spoke the french lieutenant: "'twas the fire that won, not we. you never struck your flag to _us_; you'll go to england free."[ ] 'twas the sixth day of october, seventeen hundred seventy-nine, a year when nations ventured against us to combine, _quebec_ was burned and farmer slain, by us remembered not; but thanks be to the french book wherein they're not forgot. and you, if you've got to fight the french, my youngster, bear in mind those seamen of king louis so chivalrous and kind; think of the breton gentlemen who took our lads to brest, and treat some rescued breton as a comrade and a guest. but in all our stories, in order to produce desired effects we must refrain from holding, as burroughs says, "a brief for either side," and we must let the people in the story be judged by their deeds and leave the decision of the children free in this matter.[ ] in a review of ladd's "psychology" in the _academy_, we find a passage which refers as much to the story as to the novel: "the psychological novelist girds up his loins and sets himself to write little essays on each of his characters. if he have the gift of the thing he may analyze motives with a subtlety which is more than their desert, and exhibit simple folk passing through the most dazzling rotations. if he be a novice, he is reduced to mere crude invention--the result in both cases is quite beyond the true purpose of art. art--when all is said and done--a suggestion, and it refuses to be explained. make it obvious, unfold it in detail, and you reduce it to a dead letter." again, there is a sentence by schopenhauer applied to novels which would apply equally well to stories: "skill consists in setting the inner life in motion with the smallest possible array of circumstances, for it is this inner life that excites our interest." in order to produce an encouraging and lasting effect by means of our stories, we should be careful to introduce a certain number from fiction where virtue is rewarded and vice punished, because to appreciate the fact that "virtue is its own reward" it takes a developed and philosophic mind, or a born saint, of whom there will not, i think, be many among normal children: a comforting fact, on the whole, as the normal teacher is apt to confuse them with prigs. a grande dame visiting an elementary school listened to the telling of an exciting story from fiction, and was impressed by the thrill of delight which passed through the children. but when the story was finished, she said: "but _oh!_ what a pity the story was not taken from actual history!" now, not only was this comment quite beside the mark, but the lady in question did not realize that pure fiction has one quality which history cannot have. the historian, bound by fact and accuracy, must often let his hero come to grief. the poet (or, in this case we may call him, in the greek sense, the "maker" of stories) strives to show _ideal_ justice. what encouragement to virtue, except for the abnormal child, can be offered by the stories of good men coming to grief, such as we find miltiades, phocion, socrates, severus, cicero, cato and caesar? sir philip sydney says in his "defence of poesy": "only the poet declining to be held by the limitations of the lawyer, the _historian_, the grammarian, the rhetorician, the logician, the physician, the metaphysician is lifted up with the vigor of his own imagination; doth grow in effect into another nature in making things either better than nature bringeth forth or quite anew, as the heroes, demi-gods, cyclops, furies and such like so as he goeth hand- in-hand with nature, not inclosed in the narrow range of her gifts but freely ranging within the zodiac of his own art--_her_ world is brazen; the poet only delivers a golden one." the effect of the story need not stop at the negative task of correcting evil tendencies. there is the positive effect of translating the abstract ideal of the story into concrete action. i was told by lady henry somerset that when the first set of children came down from london for a fortnight's holiday in the country, she was much startled and shocked by the obscenity of the games they played amongst themselves. being a sound psychologist, lady henry wisely refrained from appearing surprised or from attempting any direct method of reproof. "i saw," she said, "that the 'goody' element would have no effect, so i changed the whole atmosphere by reading to them or telling them the most thrilling medieval tales without any commentary. by the end of the fortnight the activities had all changed. the boys were performing astonishing deeds of prowess, and the girls were allowing themselves to be rescued from burning towers and fetid dungeons." now, if these deeds of chivalry appear somewhat stilted to us, we can at least realize that, having changed the whole atmosphere of the filthy games, it is easier to translate the deeds into something a little more in accordance with the spirit of the age, and boys will more readily wish later on to save their sisters from dangers more sordid and commonplace than fiery towers and dark dungeons, if they have once performed the deeds in which they had to court danger and self-sacrifice for themselves. and now we come to the question as to how these effects are to be maintained. in what has already been stated as to the danger of introducing the dogmatic and direct appeal into the story, it is evident that the avoidance of this element is the first means of preserving the story in all its artistic force in the memory of the child. we must be careful, as i point out in the chapter on questions, not to interfere by comment or question with the atmosphere we have made round the story, or else, in the future, that story will become blurred and overlaid with the remembrance, not of the artistic whole, as presented by the teller of the story, but by some unimportant small side issue raised by an irrelevant question or a superfluous comment. many people think that the dramatization of the story by the children themselves helps to maintain the effect produced. personally, i fear there is the same danger as in the immediate reproduction of the story, but by some unimportant small side issue raised by an irrelevant question or a superfluous comment. many people think that the dramatization of the story by the children themselves helps to maintain the effect produced. personally, i fear there is the same danger as in the immediate reproduction of the story, namely, that the general dramatic effect may be weakened. if, however, there is to be dramatization (and i do not wish to dogmatize on the subject), i think it should be confined to facts and not fancies, and this is why i realize the futility of the dramatization of fairy tales. horace e. scudder says on this subject: "nothing has done more to vulgarize the fairy than its introduction on the stage. the charm of the fairy tale is its divorce from human experience: the charm of the stage is its realization in miniature of human life. if a frog is heard to speak, if a dog is changed before our eyes into a prince by having cold water dashed over it, the charm of the fairy tale has fled, and, in its place, we have the perplexing pleasure of _legerdemain_. since the real life of a fairy is in the imagination, a wrong is committed when it is dragged from its shadowy hiding-place and made to turn into ashes under the calcium light of the understanding."[ ] i am bound to admit that the teachers have a case when they plead for this reproducing of the story, and there are three arguments they use the validity of which i admit, but which have nevertheless not converted me, because the loss, to my mind, would exceed the gain. the first argument they put forward is that the reproduction of the story enables the child to enlarge and improve his vocabulary. now i greatly sympathize with this point of view, but, as i regard the story hour as a very precious and special one, which i think may have a lasting effect on the character of a child, i do not think it important that, during this hour, a child should be called upon to improve his vocabulary at the expense of the dramatic whole, and at the expense of the literary form in which the story has been presented. it would be like using the bible for parsing or paraphrase or pronunciation. so far, i believe, the line has been drawn here, though there are blasphemers who have laid impious hands on milton or shakespeare for this purpose. there are surely other lessons, as i have already said in dealing with the reproduction of the story quite apart from the dramatization, lessons more utilitarian in character, which can be used for this purpose: the facts of history (i mean the mere facts as compared with the deep truths), and those of geography. above all, the grammar lessons are those in which the vocabulary can be enlarged and improved. but i am anxious to keep the story hour apart as dedicated to something higher than these excellent but utilitarian considerations. the second argument used by the teachers is the joy felt by the children in being allowed to dramatize the stories. this, too, appeals very strongly to me, but there is a means of satisfying their desire and yet protecting the dramatic whole, and that is occasionally to allow children to act out their own dramatic inventions; this, to my mind, has great educational significance: it is original and creative work and, apart from the joy of the immediate performance, there is the interesting process of comparison which can be presented to the children, showing them the difference between their elementary attempts and the finished product of the experienced artist. this difference they can be led to recognize by their own powers of observation if the teachers are not in too great a hurry to point it out themselves. here is a short original story, quoted by the french psychologist, queyrat, in his "jeux de l'enfance," written by a child of five: "one day i went to sea in a life-boat--all at once i saw an enormous whale, and i jumped out of the boat to catch him, but he was so big that i climbed on his back and rode astride, and all the little fishes laughed to see." here is a complete and exciting drama, making a wonderful picture and teeming with adventure. we could scarcely offer anything to so small a child for reproduction that would be a greater stimulus to the imagination. here is another, offered by loti, but the age of the child is not given: "once upon a time a little girl out in the colonies cut open a huge melon, and out popped a green beast and stung her, and the little child died." loti adds: "the phrases 'out in the colonies' and 'a huge melon' were enough to plunge me suddenly into a dream. as by an apparition, i beheld tropical trees, forests alive with marvelous birds. oh! the simple magic of the words 'the colonies'! in my childhood they stood for a multitude of distant sun-scorched countries, with their palm-trees, their enormous flowers, their black natives, their wild beasts, their endless possibilities of adventure." i quote this in full because it shows so clearly the magic force of words to evoke pictures, without any material representation. it is just the opposite effect of the pictures presented to the bodily eye without the splendid educational opportunity for the child to form his own mental image. i am more and more convinced that the rare power of visualization is accounted for by the lack of mental practice afforded along these lines. the third argument used by teachers in favor of the dramatization of the stories is that it is a means of discovering how much the child has really learned from the story. now this argument makes absolutely no appeal to me. my experience, in the first place, has taught me that a child very seldom gives out any account of a deep impression made upon him: it is too sacred and personal. but he very soon learns to know what is expected of him, and he keeps a set of stock sentences which he has found out are acceptable to the teacher. how can we possibly gauge the deep effects of a story in this way, or how can a child, by acting out a story, describe the subtle elements which one has tried to introduce? one might as well try to show with a pint measure how the sun and rain have affected a plant, instead of rejoicing in the beauty of the sure, if slow, growth. then, again, why are we in such a hurry to find out what effects have been produced by our stories? does it matter whether we know today or tomorrow how much a child has understood? for my part, so sure do i feel of the effect that i am willing to wait indefinitely. only, i must make sure that the first presentation is truly dramatic and artistic. the teachers of general subjects have a much easier and more simple task. those who teach science, mathematics, even, to a certain extent, history and literature, are able to gauge with a fair amount of accuracy by means of examination what their pupils have learned. the teaching carried on by means of stories can never be gauged in the same manner. carlyle has said: "of this thing be certain: wouldst thou plant for eternity, then plant into the deep infinite faculties of man, his fantasy and heart. wouldst thou plant for year and day, then plant into his shallow superficial faculties, his self-love and arithmetical understanding, what will grow there."[ ] if we use this marvelous art of story-telling in the way i have tried to show, then the children who have been confided to our care will one day be able to bring _us_ the tribute which bjornson brought to hans christian andersen: wings you gave to my imagination, me uplifting to the strange and great; gave my heart the poet's revelation, glorifying things of low estate. when my child-soul hungered all-unknowing, with great truths its need you satisfied: now, a world-worn man, to you is owing that the child in me has never died. translated from the danish by emilie poulson. chapter vii. questions asked by teachers. the following questions have been put to me so often by teachers, in my own country and in america, that i have thought it might be useful to give in my book some of the attempts i have made to answer them; and i wish to record here an expression of gratitude to the teachers who have asked these questions at the close of my lectures. it has enabled me to formulate my views on the subject and to clear up, by means of research and thought, the reason for certain things which i had more or less taken for granted. it has also constantly modified my own point of view, and has prevented me from becoming too dogmatic in dealing with other people's methods. question i: _why do i consider it necessary to spend so many years on the art of story-telling, which takes in, after all, such a restricted portion of literature?_ just in the same way that an actor thinks it worth while to go through so many years' training to fit him for the stage, although dramatic literature is also only one branch of general literature. the region of storyland is the legitimate stage for children. they crave drama as we do, and because there are comparatively few good story-tellers, children do not have their dramatic needs satisfied. what is the result? we either take them to dramatic performances for grown-up people, or we have children's theaters where the pieces, charming as they may be, are of necessity deprived of the essential elements which constitute a drama--or they are shriveled up to suit the capacity of the child. therefore, it would seem wiser, while the children are quite young, to keep them to the simple presentation of stories, because with their imagination keener at that period, they have the delight of the inner vision and they do not need, as we do, the artificial stimulus provided by the machinery of the stage. question ii: _what is to be done if a child asks you: "is the story true?"_ i hope i shall be considered utopian in my ideas if a say that it is quite easy, even with small children, to teach them that the seeing of truth is a relative matter which depends on the eyes of the seer. if we were not afraid to tell our children that all through life there are grown-up people who do not see things that others see, their own difficulties would be helped. in his "imagination creatrice," queyrat says: "to get down into the recesses of a child's mind, one would have to become even as he is; we are reduced to interpreting that child in the terms of an adult. the children we observe live and grow in a civilized community, and the result of this is that the development of their imagination is rarely free or complete, for as soon as it rises beyond the average level, the rationalistic education of parents and schoolmasters at once endeavors to curb it. it is restrained in its flight by an antagonistic power which treats it as a kind of incipient madness." it is quite easy to show children that if one keeps things where they belong, they are true with regard to each other, but that if one drags these things out of the shadowy atmosphere of the "make-believe," and forces them into the land of actual facts, the whole thing is out of gear. to take a concrete example: the arrival of the coach made from a pumpkin and driven by mice is entirely in harmony with the _cinderella_ surroundings, and i have never heard one child raise any question of the difficulty of traveling in such a coach or of the uncertainty of mice in drawing it. but, suggest to the child that this diminutive vehicle could be driven among the cars of broadway, or amongst the motor omnibuses in the strand, and you would bring confusion at once into his mind. having once grasped this, the children will lose the idea that fairy stories are just for them, and not for their elders, and from this they will go on to see that it is the child-like mind of the poet and seer that continues to appreciate these things; that it is the dull, heavy person whose eyes so soon become dim and unable to see any more the visions which were once his own. in his essay on "poetry and life" (glasgow, ), professor bradley says: "it is the effect of poetry, not only by expressing emotion but in other ways also, to bring life into the dead mass of our experience, and to make the world significant." this applies to children as well as to adults. there may come to the child in the story hour, by some stirring poem or dramatic narration, a sudden flash of the possibilities of life which he had not hitherto realized in the even course of school experience. "poetry," says professor bradley, "is a way of representing truth; but there is in it, as its detractors have always insisted, a certain untruth or illusion. we need not deny this, so long as we remember that the illusion is conscious, that no one wishes to deceive, and that no one is deceived. but it would be better to say that poetry is false to literal fact for the sake of obtaining a higher truth. first, in order to represent the connection between a more significant part of experience and a less significant, poetry, instead of linking them together by a chain which touches one by one the intermediate objects that connect them, leaps from one to the other. it thus falls at once into conflict with common-sense." now, the whole of this passage bears as much on the question of the truth embodied in a fairy tale as a poem, and it would be interesting to take some of these tales and try to discover where they are false to actual fact for the sake of a higher truth. let us take, for instance, the story of cinderella: the coach and pumpkins to which i have alluded and all the magic part of the story, are false to actual facts as we meet them in our every life; but is it not a higher truth that _cinderella_ could escape from her chimney corner by thinking of the brightness outside? in this sense we all travel in pumpkin coaches. take the story of psyche, in any one of the many forms it is presented to us in folk-story. the magic transformation of the lover is false to actual fact; but is it not a higher truth that we are often transformed by circumstance, and that love and courage can overcome most difficulties? take the story of the three bears. it is not in accordance with established fact that bears should extend hospitality to children who invade their territory. is it not true in a higher sense that fearlessness often lessens or averts danger? take the story of jack and the bean stalk. the rapid growth of the bean stalk and the encounter with the giant are false to literal fact; but is it not a higher truth that the spirit of courage and high adventure leads us straight out of the commonplace and often sordid facts of life? now, all these considerations are too subtle for the child, and, if offered in explanation, would destroy the excitement and interest of the story; but they are good for those of us who are presenting such stories: they provide not only an argument against the objection raised by unimaginative people as to the futility, if not immorality, of presenting these primitive tales, but clear up our own doubt and justify us in the use of them, if we need such justification. for myself, i am perfectly satisfied that, being part of the history of primitive people, it would be foolish to ignore them from an evolutionary point of view, which constitutes their chief importance; and it is only from the point of view of expediency that i mention the potential truths they contain. question iii: _what are you to do if a child says he does not like fairy tales_? this is not an uncommon case. what we have first to determine, under these circumstances, is whether this dislike springs from a stolid, prosaic nature, whether it springs from a real inability to visualize such pictures as the fairy or marvelous element in the story present, or whether (and this is often the real reason) it is from a fear of being asked to believe what his judgment resents as untrue, or whether he thinks it is "grown-up" to reject such pleasure as unworthy of his years. in the first case, it is wise to persevere, in hopes of developing the dormant imagination. if the child resents the apparent want of truth we can teach him how many-sided truth is, as i suggested in my answer to the first question. in the other cases, we must try to make it clear that the delight he may venture to take now will increase, not decrease, with years; that the more one brings _to_ a thing, in the way of experience and knowledge, the more one will draw _out_ of it. let us take as a concrete example the question of santa claus. this joy has almost disappeared, for we have torn away the last shred of mystery about the personage by allowing him to be materialized in the christmas shops and bazaars. but the original myth need never have disappeared; the link could easily have been kept by gradually telling the child that the santa claus they worshiped as a mysterious and invisible power is nothing but the spirit of charity and kindness that makes us remember others, and that this spirit often takes the form of material gifts. we can also lead them a step higher and show them that this spirit of kindness can do more than provide material things; so that the old nursery tale has laid a beautiful foundation which need never be pulled up: we can build upon it and add to it all through our lives. is not _one_ of the reasons that children reject fairy tales this, that such very _poor_ material is offered them? there is a dreary flatness about all except the very best which revolts the child of literary appreciation and would fail to strike a spark in the more prosaic. question iv: _do i recommend learning a story by heart, or telling it in one's own words_? this would largely depend on the kind of story. if the style is classic or if the interest of the story is closely connected with the style, as in andersen, kipling or stevenson, then it is better to commit it absolutely to memory. but if this process should take too long (i mean for those who cannot afford the time to specialize), or if it produces a stilted effect, then it is wiser to read the story many times over, let it soak in, taking notes of certain passages which would add to the dramatic interest of the story, and not trouble about the word accuracy of the whole. for instance, for very young children the story of _pandora_, as told in the "wonder-book" could be shortened so as to leave principally the dramatic dialogue between the two children, which could be easily committed to memory by the narrator and would appeal most directly to the children. or for older children: in taking a beautiful medieval story such as "our lady's tumbler," retold by wickstead, the original text could hardly be presented so as to hold an audience; but while giving up a great deal of the elaborate material, we should try to present many of the characteristic passages which seem to sum up the situation. for instance, before his performance, the _tumbler_ cries: "what am i doing? for there is none here so caitiff but who vies with all the rest in serving god after his trade." and after his act of devotion: "lady, this is a choice performance. i do it for no other but for you; so aid me god, i do not--for you and for your son. and this i dare avouch and boast, that for me it is no play-work. but i am serving you, and that pays me." on the other hand, there are some very gifted narrators who can only tell the story in their own words. i consider that both methods are necessary to the all-round story-teller. question v: _how do i set about preparing a story_? here again the preparation depends a great deal on the kind of story: whether it has to be committed to memory or rearranged to suit a certain age of child, or told entirely in one's own words. but there is one kind of preparation which is the same for any story, that is, living with it for a long time, until one has really obtained the right atmosphere, especially in the case of inanimate objects. this is where hans christian andersen reigns supreme. horace scudder says of him: "by some transmigration, souls have passed into tin soldiers, balls, tops, money-pigs, coins, shoes and even such attenuated things as darning-needles, and when, informing these apparent dead and stupid bodies, they begin to make manifestations, it is always in perfect consistency with the ordinary conditions of the bodies they occupy, though the several objects become, by the endowment of souls, suddenly expanded in their capacity."[ ] now, my test of being ready with such stories is whether i have ceased to look upon such objects _as_ inanimate. let us take some of those quoted from andersen. first, the _tin soldier_. to me, since i have lived in the story, he is a real live hero, holding his own with some of the bravest fighting heroes in history or fiction. as for his being merely of tin, i entirely forget it, except when i realize against what odds he fights, or when i stop to admire the wonderful way andersen carries out his simile of the old tin spoon--the stiffness of the musket, and the tears of tin. take the _top_ and the _ball_, and, except for the delightful way they discuss the respective merits of cork and mahogany in their ancestors, you would completely forget that they are not real human beings with the live passions and frailties common to youth. as for the _beetle_--who ever thinks of him as a mere entomological specimen? is he not the symbol of the self-satisfied traveler who learns nothing en route but the importance of his own personality? and the _darning-needle_? it is impossible to divorce human interest from the ambition of this little piece of steel. and this same method applied to the preparation of any shows that one can sometimes rise from the role of mere interpreter to that of creator--that is to say, the objects live afresh for you in response to the appeal you make in recognizing their possibilities of vitality. as a mere practical suggestion, i would advise that, as soon as one has overcome the difficulties of the text (if actually learning by heart, there is nothing but the drudgery of constant repetition), and as one begins to work the story into true dramatic form, always say the words aloud, and many times aloud, before trying them even on one person. more suggestions come to one in the way of effects from hearing the sounds of the words, and more complete mental pictures, in this way than any other--it is a sort of testing period, the results of which may or may not have to be modified when produced in public. in case of committing to memory, i advise word perfection first, not trying dramatic effects before this is reached; but, on the other hand, if you are using your own words, you can think out the effects as you go along--i mean, during the preparation. gestures, pauses, facial expression often help to fix the choice of words one decides to use, though here again the public performance will often modify the result. i strongly advise that all gestures be studied before the glass, because this most faithfully recording friend, whose sincerity we dare not question, will prevent glaring errors, and also help by the correction of these to more satisfactory results along positive lines. if your gesture does not satisfy you (and practice will make one more and more critical), it is generally because you have not made sufficient allowance for the power of imagination in your audience. emphasis in gesture is just as inartistic--and therefore ineffective--as emphasis in tone or language. before deciding, however, either on the facial expression or gesture, we must consider the chief characters in the story, and study how we can best--_not_ present them, but allow them to present themselves, which is a very different thing. the greatest tribute which can be paid to a story-teller, as to an actor, is that his own personality is temporarily forgotten, because he has so completely identified himself with his role. when we have decided what the chief characters really mean to do, we can let ourselves go in the impersonation. i shall now take a story as a concrete example, namely, the buddhist legend of the "lion and the hare."[ ] we have here the _lion_ and the _hare_ as types--the other animals are less individual and therefore display less salient qualities. the little hare's chief characteristics are nervousness, fussiness, and misdirected imagination. we must bear this all in mind when she appears on the stage--fortunately these characteristics lend themselves easily to dramatic representation. the _lion_ is not only large-hearted but broad-minded. it is good to have an opportunity of presenting to the children a lion who has other qualities than physical beauty or extraordinary strength (here again there will lurk the danger of alarming the nature students). he is even more interesting than the magnanimous lion whom we have sometimes been privileged to meet in fiction. of course we grown-up people know that the _lion_ is the buddha in disguise. children will not be able to realize this, nor is it the least necessary that they should do so; but they will grasp the idea that he is a very unusual lion, not to be met with in paul du chaillu's adventures, still less in the quasi-domestic atmosphere of the zoological gardens. if our presentation is life-like and sincere, we shall convey all we intend to the child. this is part of what i call the atmosphere of the story, which, as in a photograph, can only be obtained by long exposure, that is to say, in the case of preparation we must bestow much reflection and sympathy. because these two animals are the chief characters, they must be painted in fainter colors--they should be suggested rather than presented in detail. it might be well to give a definite gesture to the _elephant_--say, a characteristic movement with his trunk--a scowl to the _tiger_, a supercilious and enigmatic smile to the _camel_ (suggested by kipling's wonderful creation). but if a gesture were given to each of the animals, the effect would become monotonous, and the minor characters would crowd the foreground of the picture, impeding the action and leaving little to the imagination of the audience. i personally have found it effective to repeat the gestures of these animals as they are leaving the stage, but less markedly, as it is only a form of reminder. now, what is the impression we wish to leave on the mind of the child, apart from the dramatic joy and interest we have endeavored to provide? surely it is that he may realize the danger of a panic. one method of doing this (alas! a favorite one still) is to say at the end of the story: "now, children, what do we learn from this?" of this method lord morley has said: "it is a commonplace to the wise, and an everlasting puzzle to the foolish, that direct inculcation of morals should invariably prove so powerless an instrument, so futile a method." if this direct method were really effective, we might as well put the little drama aside, and say plainly: "it is foolish to be nervous; it is dangerous to make loose statements. large-minded people understand things better than those who are narrow-minded." all these abstract statements would be as true and as tiresome as the multiplication table. the child might or might not fix them in his mind, but he would not act upon them. but, put all the artistic warmth of which you are capable into the presentation of the story, and, without one word of comment from you, the children will feel the dramatic intensity of that vast concourse of animals brought together by the feeble utterance of one irresponsible little hare. let them feel the dignity and calm of the _lion_, which accounts for his authority; his tender but firm treatment of the foolish little _hare_; and listen to the glorious finale when all the animals retire convinced of their folly; and you will find that you have adopted the same method as the _lion_ (who must have been an unconscious follower of froebel), and that there is nothing to add to the picture. question vi: _is it wise to talk over a story with children and to encourage them in the habit of asking questions about it_? at the time, no! the effect produced is to be by dramatic means, and this would be destroyed any attempt at analysis by means of questions. the medium that has been used in the telling of the story is (or ought to be) a purely artistic one which will reach the child through the medium of the emotions: the appeal to the intellect or the reason is a different method, which must be used at a different time. when you are enjoying the fragrance of a flower or the beauty of its color, it is not the moment to be reminded of its botanical classification, just as in the botany lesson it would be somewhat irrelevant to talk of the part that flowers play in the happiness of life. from a practical point of view, it is not wise to encourage questions on the part of the children, because they are apt to disturb the atmosphere by bringing in entirely irrelevant matter, so that in looking back on the telling of the story, the child often remembers the irrelevant conversation to the exclusion of the dramatic interest of the story itself.[ ] i remember once making what i considered at the time a most effective appeal to some children who had been listening to the story of the little tin soldier, and, unable to refrain from the cheap method of questioning, of which i have now recognized the futility, i asked: "don't you think it was nice of the little dancer to rush down into the fire to join the brave little soldier?" "well," said a prosaic little lad of six: "_i_ thought the draught carried her down." question vii: _is it wise to call upon children to repeat the story as soon as it has been told_? my answer here is decidedly in the negative. while fully appreciating the modern idea of children expressing themselves, i very much deprecate this so-called self-expression taking the form of mere reproduction. i have dealt with this matter in detail in another portion of my book. this is one of the occasions when children should be taking in, not giving out (even the most fanatic of moderns must agree that there _are_ such moments). when, after much careful preparation, an expert has told a story to the best of his ability, to encourage the children to reproduce this story with their imperfect vocabulary and with no special gift of speech (i am always alluding to the normal group of children) is as futile as if, after the performance of a musical piece by a great artist, some individual member of the audience were to be called upon to give _his_ rendering of the original rendering. the result would be that the musical joy of the audience would be completely destroyed and the performer himself would share in the loss.[ ] i have always maintained that five minutes of complete silence after the story would do more to fix the impression on the mind of the child than any amount of attempt at reproducing it. the general statement made in dr. montessor's wonderful chapter on "silence" would seem to me of special application to the moments following on the telling of a story. question viii: _should children be encouraged to illustrate the stories which they have heard_? as a dramatic interest to the teachers and the children, i think it is a very praiseworthy experiment, if used somewhat sparingly. but i seriously doubt whether these illustrations in any way indicate the impression made on the mind of the child. it is the same question that arises when that child is called upon, or expresses a wish, to reproduce the story in his own words: the unfamiliar medium in both instances makes it almost impossible for the child to convey his meaning, unless he is an artist in the one case or he has real literary power of expression in the other. my own impression, confirmed by many teachers who have made the experiment, is that a certain amount of disappointment is mixed up with the daring joy in the attempt, simply because the children can get nowhere near the ideal which has presented itself to the "inner eye." i remember a kindergarten teacher saying that on one occasion, when she had told to the class a thrilling story of a knight, one of the children immediately asked for permission to draw a picture of him on the blackboard. so spontaneous a request could not, of course, be refused, and, full of assurance, the would-be artist began to give his impression of the knight's appearance. when the picture was finished, the child stood back for a moment to judge for himself of the result. he put down the chalk and said sadly: "and i _thought_ he was so handsome." nevertheless, except for the drawback of the other children seeing a picture which might be inferior to their own mental vision, i should quite approve of such experiments, as long as they are not taken as literal data of what the children have really received. it would, however, be better not to have the picture drawn on a blackboard but at the child's private desk, to be seen by the teacher and not, unless the picture were exceptionally good, to be shown to the other children. one of the best effects of such an experiment would be to show a child how difficult it is to give the impression one wishes to record, and which would enable him later on to appreciate the beauty of such work in the hands of a finished artist. i can anticipate the jeers with which such remarks would be received by the futurist school, but, according to their own theory, i ought to be allowed to express the matter _as i see it_, however faulty the vision may appear to them.[ ] question ix: _in what way can the dramatic method of story-telling be used in ordinary class teaching_? this is too large a question to answer fully in so general a survey as this work, but i should like to give one or two examples as to how the element of story-telling could be introduced. i have always thought that the only way in which we could make either a history or literature lesson live, so as to take a real hold on the mind of the pupil at any age, would be that, instead of offering lists of events, crowded into the fictitious area of one reign, one should take a single event, say in one lesson out of five, and give it in the most splendid language and in the most dramatic manner. to come to a concrete example: supposing that one is talking to the class of greece, either in connection with its history, its geography or its literature, could any mere accumulation of facts give a clearer idea of the life of the people than a dramatically told story from homer, aeschylus, sophocles or euripides? what in the history of iceland could give any more graphic idea of the whole character of the life and customs of the inhabitants than one of the famous sagas, such as "the burning of njal" or "the death of gunnar"? in teaching the history of spain, what could make the pupils understand better the spirit of knight-errantry, its faults and its qualities, than a recital from "don quixote" or from the tale of "the cid"? in a word, the stories must appeal so vividly to the imagination that they will light up the whole period of history which we wish them to illustrate and keep it alive in the memory for all time. but quite apart from the dramatic presentation of history, there are very great possibilities for the short story introduced into the portrait of some great personage, insignificant in itself, but which throws a sudden sidelight on his character, showing the mind behind the actual deeds; this is what i mean by using the dramatic method. to take a concrete example: suppose, in giving an account of the life of napoleon, after enlarging upon his campaigns, his european policy, his indomitable will, one were suddenly to give an idea of his many- sidedness by relating how he actually found time to compile a catechism which was used for some years in the elementary schools of france. what sidelights might be thrown in this way on such characters as nero, caesar, henry viii, luther, goethe! to take one example from these: instead of making the whole career of henry viii center round the fact that he was a much-married man, could we not present his artistic side and speak of his charming contributions to music? so much for the history lessons. but could not the dramatic form and interest be introduced into our geography lessons? think of the romance of the panama canal, the position of constantinople, as affecting the history of europe, the shape of greece, england as an island, the position of thibet, the interior of africa--to what wonderful story-telling would these themes lend themselves! question x: _which should predominate in the story--the dramatic or the poetic element_? this is a much debated point. from experience i have come to the conclusion that, though both should be found in the whole range of stories, the dramatic element should prevail from the very nature of the presentation, and also because it reaches the larger number of children, at least of normal children. almost every child is dramatic, in the sense that it loves action (not necessarily an action in which it has to bear a part). it is the exceptional child who is reached by the poetic side, and just as on the stage the action must be quicker and more concentrated than in a poem--than even a dramatic poem--the poetical side, which must be painted in more delicate colors or presented in less obvious form, often escapes them. of course, the very reason why we must include the poetical element is that it is an unexpressed need of most children. their need of the dramatic is more loudly proclaimed and more easily satisfied. question xi: _what is the educational value of humor in the stories told to our children_? my answer to this is that humor means so much more than is usually understood by this term. so many people seem to think that to have a sense of humor is merely to be tickled by a funny element in a story. it surely means something much more subtle than this. it is thackeray who says: "if humor only meant laughter, but the humorist profess to awaken and direct your love, your pity, your kindness, your scorn for untruth and pretension, your tenderness for the weak, the poor, the oppressed, the unhappy." so that, in our stories, the introduction of humor should not merely depend on the doubtful amusement that follows on a sense of incongruity. it should inculcate a sense of proportion brought about by an effort of imagination; it shows a child its real position in the universe and prevents hasty conclusions. it shortens the period of joy in horse-play and practical jokes. it brings about a clearer perception of all situations, enabling the child to get the point of view of another person. it is the first instilling of philosophy into the mind of a child and prevents much suffering later on when the blows of life fall upon him; for a sense of humor teaches us at an early age not to expect too much: and this philosophy can be developed with cynicism or pessimism, without even destroying the _joie de vivre_. one cannot, however, sufficiently emphasize the fact that these far- reaching results can be brought about only by humor quite distinct from the broader fun and hilarity which have also their use in an educational scheme. from my own experience, i have learned that development of humor is with most children extremely slow. it _is_ quite natural and quite right that at first pure fun, obvious situations and elementary jokes should please them, but we can very gradually appeal to something more subtle, and if i were asked what story would educate our children most thoroughly in appreciation of humor, i should say that "alice in wonderland" was the most effective. what better object lesson could be given in humorous form of taking somebody else's point of view than that given to _alice_ by the _mock turtle_ in speaking of the _whiting_-- "you know what they're like?" "i believe so," said alice. "they have their tails in their mouths-- and they're all over crumbs." "you're wrong about the crumbs," said the mock turtle. "crumbs would all wash off in the sea." or when _alice_ is speaking to the _mouse_ of her cat, and says: "she is such a dear quiet thing--and a capital one for catching mice---" and then suddenly realizes the point of view of the _mouse_, who was "trembling down to the end of its tail." then, as an instance of how a lack of humor leads to illogical conclusions (a condition common to most children), we have the conversation between _alice_ and the _pigeon_: alice: "but little girls eat quite as much as serpents, you know." pigeon: "i don't believe it. but if they do, why then they're a kind of serpent, that's all i can say." then, as an instance of how a sense of humor would prevent too much self-importance: "i have a right to think," said alice sharply. "just about as much right," said the duchess, "as pigs have to fly." part ii. the stories. the following stories do not form a comprehensive selection; this i have endeavored to give in the list of stories. the stories given are chiefly taken from my own repertoire, and have been so constantly asked by teachers that i am glad of an opportunity of presenting them in full. i regret that i have been unable to furnish many of the stories i consider good for narration, but the difficulty of obtaining permission has deterred me from further efforts in this direction. sturla, the historian.[ ] then sturla got ready to sail away with the king, and his name was put on the list. he went on board before many men had come; he had a sleeping bag and a travelling chest, and took his place on the foredeck. a little later the king came on to the quay, and a company of men with him. sturla rose and bowed, and bade the king "hail," but the king answered nothing, and went aft along the ship to the quarter-deck. they sailed that day to go south along the coast. but in the evening when men unpacked their provisions sturla sat still, and no one invited him to mess. then a servant of the king's came and asked sturla if he had any meat and drink. sturla said "no." then the king's servant went to the king and spoke with him, out of hearing, and then went forward to sturla and said: "you shall go to mess with thorir mouth and erlend maw." they took him into their mess, but rather stiffly. when men were turning in to sleep, a sailor of the king's asked who should tell them stories. there was little answer. then said he: "sturla the icelander, will you tell stories?" "as you will," said sturla. so he told them the story of huld, better and fuller than any one there had ever heard it told before. then many men pushed forward to the fore-deck, wanting to hear as clearly as might be, and there was a great crowd. the queen asked: "what is that crowd on deck there?" a man answered: "the men are listening to the story that the icelander tells." "what story is that?" said she. he answers: "it is about a great troll-wife, and it is a good story and well told." the king bade her pay no heed to that, and go to sleep. she says: "i think this icelander must be a good fellow, and less to blame than he is reported." the king was silent. so the night passed, and the next morning there was no wind for them, and the king's ship lay in the same place. later in the day, when men sat at their drink, the king sent dishes from his table to sturla. sturla's messmates were pleased with this: "you bring better luck than we thought, if this sort of thing goes on." after dinner the queen sent for sturla and asked him to come to her and bring the troll-wife story along with him. so sturla went aft to the quarter- deck, and greeted the king and queen. the king answered little, the queen well and cheerfully. she asked him to tell the same story he had told overnight. he did so, for a great part of the day. when he finished, the queen thanked him, and many others besides, and made him out in their minds to be a learned man and sensible. but the king said nothing; only he smiled a little. sturla thought he saw that the king's whole frame of mind was brighter than the day before. so he said to the king that he had made a poem about him, and another about his father: "i would gladly get a hearing for them." the queen said: "let him recite his poem; i am told that he is the best of poets, and his poem will be excellent." the king bade him say on, if he would, and repeat the poem he professed to have made about him. sturla chanted it to the end. the queen said: "to my mind that is a good poem." the king said to her: "can you follow the poem so clearly?" "i would be fain to have you think so, sir," said the queen. the king said: "i have learned that sturla is good at verses." sturla took his leave of the king and queen and went to his place. there was no sailing for the king all that day. in the evening before he went to bed he sent for sturla. and when he came he greeted the king and said: "what will you have me to do, sir?" the king called for a silver goblet full of wine, and drank some and gave it to sturla and said: "a health to a friend in wine!" (_vin skal til vinar drekka_). sturla said: "god be praised for it!" "even so," says the king, "and now i wish you to say the poem you have made about my father." sturla repeated it: and when it was finished men praised it much and most of all the queen. the king said: "to my thinking, you are a better reciter than the pope." sturlunga saga, vol.ii, p. . a saga. in the grey beginnings of the world, or ever the flower of justice had rooted in the heart, there lived among the daughters of men two children, sisters, of one house. in childhood did they leap and climb and swim with the men children of their race, and were nurtured on the same stories of gods and heroes. in maidenhood they could do all that a maiden might and more--delve could they no less than spin, hunt no less than weave, brew pottage and helm ships, wake the harp and tell the stars, face all danger and laugh at all pain. joyous in toil-time and rest-time were they as the days and years of their youth came and went. death had spared their house, and unhappiness knew they none. yet often as at falling day they sat before sleep round the hearth of red fire, listening with the household to the brave songs of gods and heroes, there would surely creep into their hearts a shadow--the thought that whatever the years of their lives, and whatever the generous deeds, there would for them, as women, be no escape at the last from the dire mists of hela, the fogland beyond the grave for all such as die not in battle; no escape for them from hela, and no place for ever for them or for their kind among the glory-crowned, sword-shriven heroes of echoing valhalla. that shadow had first fallen in their lusty childhood, had slowly gathered darkness through the overflowing days of maidenhood, and now, in the strong tide of full womanhood, often lay upon their future as the moon odin's wrath lies upon the sun. but stout were they to face danger and laugh at pain, and for all the shadow upon their hope they lived brave and songful days--the one a homekeeper and in her turn a mother of men: the other unhusbanded, but gentle to ignorance and sickness and sorrow through the width and length of the land. and thus, facing life fearlessly and ever with a smile, those two women lived even unto extreme old age, unto the one's children's children's children, labouring truly unto the end and keeping strong hearts against the dread day of hela, and the fate-locked gates of valhalla. but at the end a wonder. as these sisters looked their last upon the sun, the one in the ancestral homestead under the eyes of love, the other in a distant land among strange faces, behold the wind of thor, and out of the deep of heaven the white horses of odin, all-father, bearing valkyrie, shining messengers of valhalla. and those two world-worn women, faithful in all their lives, were caught up in death in divine arms and borne far from the fogs of hela to golden thrones among the battle heroes, upon which the nornir, sitting at the loom of life, had from all eternity graven their names. and from that hour have the gates of valhalla been thrown wide to all faithful endeavour whether of man or woman. john russell headmaster of the king alfred school. the legend of st. christopher. christopher was of the lineage of the canaaneans and he was of a right great stature, and had a terrible and fearful cheer and countenance. and he was twelve cubits of length. and, as it is read in some histories, when he served and dwelled with the king of canaaneans, it came in his mind that he would seek the greatest prince that was in the world and him he would serve and obey. and so far he went that he came to a right great king, of whom the renown generally was that he was the greatest of the world. and when the king saw him received him into his service and made him to dwell in his court. upon a time a minstrel sung tofore him a song in which he named oft the devil. and the king which was a christian man, when he heard him name the devil, made anon the sign of the cross in his visage. and when christopher saw that, he had great marvel what sign it was and wherefore the king made it. and he demanded it of him. and because the king would not say, he said, "if thou tell me not, i shall no longer dwell with thee." and then the king told to him saying, "alway when i hear the devil named, i fear that he should have power over me, and i garnish me with this sign that he grieve not nor annoy me." then christopher said to him, "thou doubtest the devil that he hurt thee not? then is the devil more mighty and greater than thou art. i am then deceived of my hope and purpose; for i supposed that i had found the most mighty and the most greatest lord of the world. but i commend thee to god, for i will go seek him to be my lord and i his servant." and then he departed from this king and hasted him to seek the devil. and as he went by a great desert he saw a great company of knights. of which a knight cruel and horrible came to him and demanded whither he went. and christopher answered to him and said, "i go to seek the devil for to be my master." and he said, "i am he that thou seekest." and then christopher was glad and bound himself to be his servant perpetual, and took him for his master and lord. and as they went together by a common way, they found there a cross erect and standing. and anon as the devil saw the cross, he was afeard and fled, and left the right way and brought christopher about by a sharp desert, and after, when they were past the cross, he brought him to the highway that they had left. and when christopher saw that, he marvelled and demanded whereof he doubted that he had left high and fair way and had gone so far about by so hard desert. and the devil would not tell him in no wise. then christopher said to him, "if thou wilt not tell me i shall anon depart from thee and shall serve thee no more." therefore the devil was constrained to tell him, and said "there was a man called christ which was hanged on the cross, and when i see his sign, i am sore afeard and flee from it wheresomever i find it." to whom christopher said, "then he is greater and more mightier than thou, when thou art afraid of his sign. and i see well that i have laboured in vain since i have not founden the greatest lord of all the earth. and i will serve thee no longer. go thy way then: for i will go seek jesus christ." and when he had long sought and demanded where he should find christ, at last he came into a great desert to an hermit that dwelled there. and this hermit preached to him of jesus christ and informed him in the faith diligently. and he said to him, "this king whom thou desirest to serve, requireth this service that thou must oft fast." and christopher said to him, "require of me some other thing and i shall do it. for that which thou requirest i may not do." and the hermit said, "thou must then wake and make many prayers." and christopher said to him, "i wot not what it is. i may do no such thing." and then the hermit said unto him, "knowest thou such a river in which many be perished and lost?" to whom christopher said, "i know it well." then said the hermit, "because thou art noble and high of stature and strong in thy members, thou shalt be resident by that river and shalt bear over all them that shall pass there. which shall be a thing right convenable to our lord jesus christ, whom thou desirest to serve, and i hope he shall shew himself to thee." then said christopher, "certes, this service may i well do, and i promise to him for to do it." then went christopher to this river, and made there his habitation for him. and he bare a great pole in his hand instead of a staff, by which he sustained him in the water; and bare over all manner of people without ceasing. and there he abode, thus doing, many days. and on a time, as he slept in his lodge, he heard the voice of a child which called him and said, "christopher, come out and bear me over." then he awoke and went out; but he found no man. and when he was again in his house, he heard the same voice, and he ran out and found no body. the third time he was called, and came thither, and found a child beside the rivage of the river: which prayed him goodly to bear him over the water. and then christopher lift up the child on his shoulders and took his staff and entered in to the river for to pass. and the water of the river arose and swelled more and more. and the child was heavy as lead. and always as he went further the water increased and grew more, and the child more and more waxed heavy: in so much that christopher had great anguish and feared to be drowned. and when he was escaped with great pain and passed the water, and set the child aground, he said to the child, "child, thou hast put me in great peril. thou weighest almost as i had had all the world upon me. i might bear no greater burden." and the child answered, "christopher, marvel thou no thing. for thou hast not only borne all the world upon thee; but thou hast borne him that created and made the world upon thy shoulders. i am jesus christ, the king to whom thou servest in this work. and that thou mayest know that i say to thee truth, set thy staff in the earth by the house, and thou shalt see to-morrow that it shall bear flowers and fruit." and anon he vanished from his eyes. and then christopher set his staff in the earth and when he arose on the morrow, he found his staff like a palm-tree bearing flowers, leaves and dates. from the legenda aurea temple classics. arthur in the cave. once upon a time a welshman was walking on london bridge, staring at the traffic and wondering why there were so many kites hovering about. he had come to london, after many adventures with thieves and highwaymen, which need not be related here, in charge of a herd of black welsh cattle. he had sold them with much profit, and with jingling gold in his pocket he was going about to see the sights of the city. he was carrying a hazel staff in his hand, for you must know that a good staff is as necessary to a drover as teeth are to his dogs. he stood still to gaze at some wares in a shop (for at that time london bridge was shops from beginning to end), when he noticed that a man was looking at his stick with a long fixed look. the man after a while came to him and asked him where he came from. "i come from my own country," said the welshman, rather surlily, for he could not see what business the man had to ask such a question. "do not take it amiss," said the stranger: "if you will only answer my questions, and take my advice, it will be of greater benefit to you than you imagine. do you remember where you cut that stick?" the welshman was still suspicious, and said: "what does it matter where i cut it?" "it matters," said the questioner, "because there is a treasure hidden near the spot where you cut that stick. if you can remember the place and conduct me to it, i will put you in possession of great riches." the welshman now understood he had to deal with a sorcerer, and he was greatly perplexed as to what to do. on the one hand, he was tempted by the prospect of wealth; on the other hand, he knew that the sorcerer must have derived his knowledge from devils, and he feared to have anything to do with the powers of darkness. the cunning man strove hard to persuade him, and at length made him promise to shew the place where he cut his hazel staff. the welshman and the magician journeyed together to wales. they went to craig y dinas, the rock of the fortress, at the head of the neath valley, near pont nedd fechan, and the welshman, pointing to the stock or root of an old hazel, said: "this is where i cut my stick." "let us dig," said the sorcerer. they digged until they came to a broad, flat stone. prying this up, they found some steps leading downwards. they went down the steps and along a narrow passage until they came to a door. "are you brave?" asked the sorcerer; "will you come in with me?" "i will," said the welshman, his curiosity getting the better of his fear. they opened the door, and a great cave opened out before them. there was a faint red light in the cave, and they could see everything. the first thing they came to was a bell. "do not touch that bell," said the sorcerer, "or it will be all over with us both." as they went further in, the welshman saw that the place was not empty. there were soldiers lying down asleep, thousands of them, as far as ever the eye could see. each one was clad in bright armour, the steel helmet of each was on his head, the shining shield of each was on his arm, the sword of each was near his hand, each had his spear stuck in the ground near him, and each and all were asleep. in the midst of the cave was a great round table at which sat warriors whose noble features and richly-dight armour proclaimed that they were not as the roll of common men. each of these, too, had his head bent down in sleep. on a golden throne on the further side of the round table was a king of gigantic stature and august presence. in his hand, held below the hilt, was a mighty sword with scabbard and haft of gold studded with gleaming gems; on his head was a crown set with precious stones which flashed and glinted like so many points of fire. sleep had set its seal on his eyelids also. "are they asleep?" asked the welshman, hardly believing his own eyes. "yes, each and all of them," answered the sorcerer. "but, if you touch yonder bell, they will all awake." "how long have they been asleep?" "for over a thousand years." "who are they?" "arthur's warriors, waiting for the time to come when they shall destroy all the enemy of the cymry and re-possess the strand of britain, establishing their own king once more at caer lleon." "who are these sitting at the round table?" "these are arthur's knights--owain, the son of urien; cai, the son of cynyr; gnalchmai, the son of gwyar; peredir, the son of efrawe; geraint, the son of erbin; ciernay, the son of celhddon; edeyrn, the son of nudd; cymri, the son of clydno." "and on the golden throne?" broke in the welshman. "is arthur himself, with his sword excalibur in his hand," replied the sorcerer. impatient by this time at the welshman's questions, the sorcerer hastened to a great heap of yellow gold on the floor of the cave. he took up as much as he could carry, and bade his companion do the same. "it is time for us to go," he then said, and he led the way towards the door by which they had entered. but the welshman was fascinated by the sight of the countless soldiers in their glittering arms--all asleep. "how i should like to see them all awaking!" he said to himself. "i will touch the bell--i _must_ see them all arising from their sleep." when they came to the bell, he struck it until it rang through the whole place. as soon as it rang, lo! the thousands of warriors leapt to their feet and the ground beneath them shook with the sound of the steel arms. and a great voice came from their midst: "who rang the bell? has the day come?" the sorcerer was so much frightened that he shook like an aspen leaf. he shouted in answer: "no, the day has not come. sleep on." the mighty host was all in motion, and the welshman's eyes were dazzled as he looked at the bright steel arms which illumined the cave as with the light of myriad flames of fire. "arthur," said the voice again, "awake; the bell has rung, the day is breaking. awake, arthur the great." "no," shouted the sorcerer, "it is still night. sleep on, arthur the great." a sound came from the throne. arthur was standing, and the jewels in his crown shone like bright stars above the countless throng. his voice was strong and sweet like the sound of many waters, and he said: "my warriors, the day has not come when the black eagle and the golden eagle shall go to war. it is only a seeker after gold who has rung the bell. sleep on, my warriors; the morn of wales has not yet dawned." a peaceful sound like the distant sigh of the sea came over the cave, and in a trice the soldiers were all asleep again. the sorcerer hurried the welshman out of the cave, moved the stone back to its place and vanished. many a time did the welshman try to find his way into the cave again, but though he dug over every inch of the hill, he has never again found the entrance to arthur's cave. from "the welsh fairy book," by w. jenkyn thomas. published by fisher unwin. hafiz, the stone-cutter. there was once a stone-cutter whose name was hafiz, and all day long he chipped, chipped, chipped at his block. and often he grew very weary of his task and he would say to himself impatiently, "why should i not have pleasure and amusement as other folk have?" one day, when the sun was very hot and when he felt specially weary, he suddenly heard the sound of many feet, and, looking up from his work, he saw a great procession coming his way. it was the king, mounted on a splendid charger, all his soldiers to the right, in their shining armour, and the servants to the left, dressed in gorgeous clothing, ready to do his behests. and hafiz said: "how splendid to be a king! if only i could be a king, if only for ten minutes, so that i might know what it feels like!" and then, even as he spoke, he seemed to be dreaming, and in his dream he sang this little song: "ah me! ah me! if hafiz only the king could be!"[ ] and then a voice from the air around seemed to answer him and to say: "be thou the king." and hafiz became the king, and he it was that sat on the splendid charger, and they were his soldiers to the right and his servants to the left. and hafiz said: "i am king, and there is no one stronger in the whole world than i." but soon, in spite of the golden canopy over his head, hafiz began to feel the terrible heat of the rays of the sun, and soon he noticed that the soldiers and servants were weary, that his horse drooped, and that he, hafiz, was overcome, and he said angrily: "what! is there something stronger in the world than a king?" and, almost without knowing it, he again sang his song more boldly than the first time: "ah me! ah me! if hafiz only the sun could be!" and the voice answered: "be thou the sun." and hafiz became the sun, and shone down upon the earth, but, because he did not know how to shine very wisely, he shone very fiercely, so that the crops dried up, and folk grew sick and died. and then there arose from the east a little cloud which slipped between hafiz and the earth, so that he could no longer shine down upon it, and he said: "is there something stronger in the world than the sun?" "ah me! ah me! if hafiz only the cloud could be!" "be thou the cloud. and hafiz became the cloud, and rained down water upon the earth, but, because he did not know how to do so wisely, there fell so much rain that all the little rivulets became great rivers, and all the great rivers overflowed their banks, and carried everything before them in swift torrent--all except one great rock which stood unmoved. and hafiz said: "is there something stronger than the cloud?" "ah me! ah me! if hafiz only the rock could be!" and the voice said: "be thou the rock." and hafiz became the rock, and the cloud disappeared and the waters went down. and hafiz the rock, saw coming towards him a man--he could not see the face. as the man approached he suddenly raised a hammer and struck hafiz, so that he felt it through all his stony body. and hafiz said: "is there something stronger in the world than the rock? "ah me! ah me! if hafiz only that man might be!" and the voice said: "be thou---thyself." and hafiz seized the hammer and said: "the sun was stronger than the king, the cloud was stronger than the sun, the rock was stronger then the cloud, but i, hafiz, was stronger than all." adapted and arranged by the author. to your good health. (from the russian) long long ago there lived a king who was such a mighty monarch that whenever he sneezed everyone in the whole country had to say, "to your good health!" everyone said it except the shepherd with the bright blue eyes, and he would not say it. the king heard of this and was very angry, and sent for the shepherd to appear before him. the shepherd came and stood before the throne, where the king sat looking very grand and powerful. but however grand or powerful he might be, the shepherd did not feel a bit afraid of him. "say at once 'to my good health'!" cried the king. "to my good health," replied the shepherd. "to mine--to _mine_, you rascal, you vagabond!" stormed the king. "to mine, to mine, your majesty," was the answer. "but to _mine_--to my own!" roared the king, and beat on his breast in a rage. "well, yes; to mine, of course, to my own," cried the shepherd, and gently tapped his breast. the king was beside himself with fury and did not know what to do, when the lord chamberlain interfered: "say at once--say this very moment, 'to your health, your majesty,' for if you don't say it you will lose your life," he whispered. "no, i won't say it tell i get the princess for my wife," was the shepherd's answer. now the princess was sitting on a little throne beside the king, her father, and she look as sweet and lovely as a little golden dove. when she heard what the shepherd said, she could not help laughing, for there is no denying the fact that this young shepherd with the blue eyes pleased her very much; indeed, he pleased her better than any king's son she had yet seen. but the king was not as pleasant as his daughter, and gave orders to throw the shepherd into the white bear's pit. the guards led him away and thrust him into the pit with the white bear, who had had nothing to eat for two days and was very hungry. the door of the pit was hardly closed when the bear rushed at the shepherd; but when it saw his eyes it was so frightened that it was ready to eat itself. it shrank away into a corner and gazed at him from there, and in spite of being so famished, did not dare to touch him, but sucked its own paws from sheer hunger. the shepherd felt that if he once removed his eyes off the beast he was a dead man, and in order to keep himself awake he made songs and sang them, and so the night went by. next morning the lord chamberlain came to see the shepherd's bones, and was amazed to find him alive and well. he led him to the king, who fell into a furious passion, and said: "well, you have learned what it is to be very near death, and now will you say, 'to my very good health'?" but the shepherd answered: "i am not afraid of ten deaths! i will only say it if i may have the princess for my wife." "then go to your death," cried the king, and ordered him to be thrown into the den with the wild boars. the wild boars had not been fed for a week, and when the shepherd was thrust into their den they rushed at him to tear him to pieces. but the shepherd took a little flute out of the sleeve of his jacket, and began to play a merry tune, on which the wild boars first of all shrank shyly away, and then got up on their hind legs and danced gaily. the shepherd would have given anything to be able to laugh, they looked so funny; but he dared not stop playing, for he knew well enough that the moment he stopped they would fall upon him and tear him to pieces. his eyes were of no use to him here, for he could not have stared ten wild boars in the face at once; so he kept playing, and the wild boars danced very slowly, as if in a minuet; then by degrees he played faster and faster, till they could hardly twist and turn quickly enough, and ended by all falling over each other in a heap, quite exhausted and out of breath. then the shepherd ventured to laugh at last; and he laughed so long and so loud that when the lord chamberlain came early in the morning, expecting to find only his bones, the tears were still running down his cheeks from laughter. as soon as the king was dressed the shepherd was again brought before him; but he was more angry than ever to think the wild boars had not torn the man to bits, and he said: "well, you have learned what it feels to be near ten deaths, _now_ say 'to my good health'!" but the shepherd broke in with: "i do not fear a hundred deaths; and i will only say it if i may have the princess for my wife." "then go to a hundred deaths!" roared the king, and ordered the shepherd to be thrown down the deep vault of scythes. the guards dragged him away to a dark dungeon, in the middle of which was a deep well with sharp scythes all round it. at the bottom of the well was a little light by which one could see, if anyone was thrown in, whether he had fallen to the bottom. when the shepherd was dragged to the dungeon he begged the guards to leave him alone a little while that he might look down into the pit of scythes; perhaps he might after all make up his mind to say, "to your good health" to the king. so the guards left him alone, and he stuck up his long stick near the wall, hung his cloak round the stick and put his hat on the top. he also hung his knapsack up beside the cloak, so that it might seem to have some body within it. when this was done, he called out to the guards and said that he had considered the matter, but after all he could not make up his mind to say what the king wished. the guards came in, threw the hat and cloak, knapsack and stick all down in the well together, watched to see how they put out the light at the bottom, and came away, thinking that now there was really an end to the shepherd. but he had hidden in a dark corner, and was now laughing to himself all the time. quite early next morning came the lord chamberlain with a lamp, and he nearly fell backwards with surprise when he saw the shepherd alive and well. he brought him to the king, whose fury was greater than ever, but who cried: "well, now you have been near a hundred deaths; will you say, 'to your good health'?" but the shepherd only gave the answer: "i won't say it till the princess is my wife." "perhaps, after all, you may do it for less," said the king, who saw that there was no chance of making away with the shepherd; and he ordered the state coach to be got ready; then he made the shepherd get in with him and sit beside him, and ordered the coachman to drive to the silver wood. when they reached it, he said: "do you see this silver wood? well, if you will say 'to your good health,' i will give it to you." the shepherd turned hot and cold by turns, but he still persisted: "i will not say it till the princess is my wife." the king was much vexed; he drove further on till they came to a splendid castle, all of gold, and then he said: "do you see this golden castle? well, i will give you that too, the silver wood and the gold castle, if only you will say one thing to me: 'to your good health.'" the shepherd gaped and wondered, and was quite dazzled but he still said: "no, i will not say it till i have the princess for my wife." this time the king was overwhelmed with grief, and gave orders to drive on to the diamond pond and there he tried once more: "you shall have the all--all, if you will but say 'to your good health.'" the shepherd had to shut his staring eyes tight not to be dazzled with the brilliant pond, but still he said: "no, no; i will not say it till i have the princess for my wife." then the king saw that all his efforts were useless, and that he might as well give in; so he said: "well, well, it is all the same to me--i will give you my daughter to wife; but then you really must say to me, 'to your good health.'" "of course i'll say it; why should i not say it? it stands to reason that i shall say it then." at this the king was more delighted than anyone could have believed. he made it known all through the country that there were going to be great rejoicings, as the princess was going to be married. and everyone rejoiced to think that the princess who had refused so many royal suitors, should have ended by falling in love with the staring- eyed shepherd. there was such a wedding as had never been seen. everyone ate and drank and danced. even the sick were feasted, and quite tiny new-born children had presents given them. but the greatest merrymaking was in the king's palace; there the best bands played and the best food was cooked. a crowd of people sat down to table, and all was fun and merrymaking. and when the groomsman, according to custom, brought in the great boar's head on a big dish and placed it before the king, so that he might carve it and give everyone a share, the savoury smell was so strong that the king began to sneeze with all his might. "to your very good health!" cried the shepherd before anyone else, and the king was so delighted that he did not regret having given him his daughter. in time, when the old king died, the shepherd succeeded him. he made a very good king, and never expected his people to wish him well against their wills: but, all the same, everyone did wish him well, because they loved him. the proud cock. there was once a cock who grew so dreadfully proud that he would have nothing to say to anybody. he left his house, it being far beneath his dignity to have any trammel of that sort in his life, and as for his former acquaintance, he cut them all. one day, whilst walking about, he came to a few little sparks of fire which were nearly dead. they cried out to him: "please fan us with your wings, and we shall come to the full vigour of life again." but he did not deign to answer, and as he was going away one of the sparks said; "ah well! we shall die, but our big brother, the fire will pay you out for this one day." on another day he was airing himself in a meadow, showing himself off in a very superb set of clothes. a voice calling from somewhere said: "please be so good as to drop us into the water again." he looked about and saw a few drops of water: they had got separated from their friends in the river, and were pining away with grief. "oh! please be so good as to drop us into the water again," they said; but, without any answer, he drank up the drops. he was too proud and a great deal too big to talk to a poor little puddle of water; but the drops said: "our big brother, the water, will one day take you in hand, you proud and senseless creature." some days afterwards, during a great storm of rain, thunder and lightning, the cock took shelter in a little empty cottage, and shut to the door; and he thought: "i am clever; i am in comfort. what fools people are to top out in a storm like this! what's that?" thought he. "i never heard a sound like that before." in a little while it grew much louder, and when a few minutes had passed, it was a perfect howl. "oh!" thought he, "this will never do. i must stop it somehow. but what is it i have to stop?" he soon found it was the wind, shouting through the keyhole, so he plugged up the keyhole with a bit of clay, and then the wind was able to rest. he was very tired with whistling so long through the keyhole, and he said: "now, if ever i have at any time a chance of doing a good turn to that princely domestic fowl, i well do it." weeks afterwards, the cock looked in at a house door: he seldom went there, because the miser to whom the house belonged almost starved himself, and so, of course, there was nothing over for anybody else. to his amazement the cock saw the miser bending over a pot on the fire. at last the old fellow turned round to get a spoon with which to stir his pot, and then the cock, waking up, looked in and saw that the miser was making oyster-soup, for he had found some oyster-shells in an ash-pit, and to give the mixture a colour he had put in a few halfpence in the pot. the miser chanced to turn quickly round, while the cock was peering into the saucepan, and, chuckling to himself, he said: "i shall have chicken broth after all." he tripped up the cock into the pot and shut the lid on. the bird, feeling warm, said: "water, water, don't boil!" but the water only said: "you drank up my young brothers once: don't ask a favour of _me_." then he called out to the fire: "oh! kind fire, don't boil the water." but the fire replied: "you once let my young sisters die: you cannot expect any mercy from me." so he flared up and boiled the water all the faster. at last, when the cock got unpleasantly warm, he thought of the wind, and called out: "oh, wind, come to my help!" and the wind said: "why, there is that noble domestic bird in trouble. i will help him." so he came down the chimney, blew out the fire, blew the lid off the pot, and blew the cock far away into the air, and at last settled him on a steeple, where the cock remained ever since. and people say that the halfpence which were in the pot when it was boiling have given him the queer brown colour he still wears. from the spanish. snegourka. there lived once, in russia, a peasant and his wife who would have been as happy as the day is long, if only god had given them a little child. one day, as they were watching the children playing in the snow, the man said to the woman: "wife, shall we go out and help the children make a snowball?" but the wife answered, smiling: "nay, husband, but since god has given us no little child, let us go and fashion one from the snow." and she put on her long blue cloak, and he put on his long brown coat, and they went out onto the crisp snow, and began to fashion the little child. first, they made the feet and the legs and the little body, and then they took a ball of snow for the head. and at that moment a stranger in a long cloak, with his hat well drawn over his face, passed that way, and said: "heaven help your undertaking!" and the peasants crossed themselves and said: "it is well to ask help from heaven in all we do." then they went on fashioning the little child. and they made two holes for the eyes and formed the nose and the mouth. and then-- wonder of wonders--the little child came alive, and breath came from its nostrils and parted lips. and the man was feared, and said to his wife: "what have we done?" and the wife said: "this is the little girl child god has sent us." and she gathered it into her arms, and the loose snow fell away from the little creature. her hair became golden and her eyes were as blue as forget-me-nots--but there was no colour in her cheeks, because there was no blood in her veins. in a few days she was like a child of three or four, and in a few weeks she seemed to be the age of nine or ten, and ran about gaily and prattled with the other children, who loved her so dearly, though she was so different from them. only, happy as she was, and dearly as her parents loved her, there was one terror in her life, and that was the sun. and during the day she would run and hide herself in cool, damp places away from the sunshine, and this the other children could not understand. as the spring advanced and the days grew longer and warmed, little snegourka (for this was the name by which she was known) grew paler and thinner, and her mother would often ask her: "what ails you, my darling?" and snegourka would say: "nothing, mother but i wish the sun were not so bright." one day, on st. john's day, the children of the village came to fetch her for a day in the woods, and they gathered flowers for her and did all they to make her happy, but it was only when the great red sun went down that snegourka drew a deep breath of relief and spread her little hands out to the cool evening air. and the boys, glad at her gladness, said: "let us do something for snegourka. let us light a bonfire." and snegourka not knowing what a bonfire was, she clapped her hands and was as merry and eager as they. and she helped them gather the sticks, and then they all stood round the pile and the boys set fire to the wood. snegourka stood watching the flames and listening to the crackle of the wood: and then suddenly they heard a tiny sound and looking at the place where snegourka had been standing, they saw nothing but a little snow-drift fast melting. and they called and called, "snegourka! snegourka!" thinking she had run into the forest. but there was no answer. snegourka had disappeared from this life as mysteriously as she had come into it. adapted by the author. the water nixie. the river was so clear because it was the home of a very beautiful water nixie who lived in it, and who sometimes could emerge from her home and sit in woman's form upon the bank. she had a dark green smock upon her, the colour of the water-weed that waves as the water wills it, deep, deep down. and in her long wet hair were the white flowers of the water-violet, and she held a reed mace in her hand. her face was very sad because she had lived a long life, and known so many adventures, ever since she was a baby, which was nearly a hundred years ago. for creatures of the streams and trees live a long, long time, and when they die they lose themselves in nature. that means that they are forever clouds, or trees, or rivers, and never have the form of men and women again. all water creatures would live, if they might choose it, in the sea, where they are born. it is in the sea they float hand-in-hand upon the crested billows, and sink deep in the great troughs of the strong waves, that are as green as jade. they follow the foam and lose themselves in the wide ocean-- "where great whales come sailing by, sail and sail with unshut eye;" and they store in the sea king's palace the golden phosphor of the sea. but this water nixie had lost her happiness through not being good. she had forgotten many things that had been told her, and she had done many things that grieved others. she had stolen somebody else's property--quite a large bundle of happiness--which belonged elsewhere and not to her. happiness is generally made to fit the person who owns it, just as do your shoes, or clothes; so that when you take someone else's it's very little good to you, for it fits badly, and you can never forget it isn't yours. so what with one thing and another, this water nixie had to be punished, and the queen of the sea had banished her from the waves.[ ] "you shall live for a long time in little places where you will weary of yourself. you will learn to know yourself so well that everything you want will seem too good for you, and you will cease to claim it. and so, in time, you shall get free." then the nixie had to rise up and go away, and be shut into the fastness of a very small space, according to the words of the queen. and this small space was--a tear. at first she could hardly express her misery, and by thinking so continuously of the wideness and savour of the sea, she brought a dash of the brine with her, that makes the saltness of our tears. she became many times smaller than her own stature; even then, by standing upright and spreading wide her arms, she touched with her finger-tips the walls of her tiny crystal home. how she longed that this tear might be wept, and the walls of her prison shattered! but the owner of this tear was of a very proud nature, and she was so sad that tears seemed to her in no wise to express her grief. she was a princess who lived in a country that was not her home. what were tears to her? if she could have stood on the top of the very highest hill and with both hands caught the great winds of heaven, strong as they, and striven with them, perhaps she might have felt as if she expressed all she knew. or, if she could have torn down the stars from the heavens, or cast her mantle over the sun. but tears! would they have helped to tell her sorrow? you cry if you soil your copybook, don't you? or pinch your hand? so you may imagine the nixie's home was a safe one, and she turned round and round in the captivity of that tear. for twenty years she dwelt in that strong heart, till she grew to be accustomed to her cell. at last, in this wise came her release. an old gipsy came one morning to the castle and begged to see the princess. she must see her, she cried. and the princess came down the steps to meet her, and the gipsy gave her a small roll of paper, but in the midst of the page was a picture, small as the picture reflected in the iris of an eye. the picture shewed a hill, with one tree on the sky-line, and a long road wound round the hill. and suddenly in the princess' memory a voice spoke to her. many sounds she heard, gathered up into one great silence, like the quiet there is in forest spaces, when it is summer and the green is deep:-- "blessed are they that have the home longing, for they shall go home." then the princess gave the gipsy two golden pieces, and went up to her chamber, and long that night she sat, looking out upon the sky. she had no need to look upon the honeyed scroll, though she held it closely. clearly before her did she see that small picture: the hill, and the tree, and the winding road, imaged as if mirrored in the iris of an eye. and in her memory she was upon that road, and the hill rose beside her, and the little tree was outlined, every twig of it, against the sky. and as she saw all this, an overwhelming love of the place arose in her, a love of that certain bit of country that was so sharp and strong, that it stung and swayed her, as she leaned on the window-sill. and because the love of a country is one of the deepest loves you may feel, the band of her control was loosened, and the tears came welling to her eyes. up they brimmed and over in salty rush and follow, dimming her eyes, magnifying everything, speared for a moment on her eyelashes, then shimmering to their fall. and at last came the tear that held the disobedient nixie. splish! it fell. and she was free. if you could have seen how pretty she looked standing there, about the height of a grass-blade, wringing out her long wet hair. every bit of moisture she wrung out of it, she was so glad to be quit of that tear. then she raised her two arms above her in one delicious stretch, and if you had been the size of a mustard-seed perhaps you might have heard her laughing. then she grew a little, and grew and grew, till she was about the height of a bluebell, and as slender to see. she stood looking at the splash on the window-sill that had been her prison so long, and then with three steps of her bare feet, she reached the jessamine that was growing by the window, and by this she swung herself to the ground. away she sped over the dew-drenched meadows till she came to the running brook, and with all her longing in her outstretched hands, she kneeled down by the crooked willows among all the comfry and the loosestrife, and the yellow irises and the reeds. then she slid into the wide, cool stream. from "the children and the pictures." pamela tennant (lady glenconner). the blue rose. there lived once upon a time in china a wise emperor who had one daughter. his daughter was remarkable for her perfect beauty. her feet were the smallest in the world; her eyes were long and slanting and bright as brown onyxes, and when you heard her laugh it was like the listening to a tinkling stream or to the chimes of a silver bell. moreover, the emperor's daughter was as wise as she was beautiful, and she chanted the verse of the great poets better than anyone in the land. the emperor was old in years; his son was married and had begotten a son; he was, therefore, quite happy with regard to the succession to the throne, but he wished before he died to see his daughter wedded to someone who should be worthy of her. many suitors presented themselves to the palace as soon as it became know that the emperor desired a son-in-law, but when they reached the palace they were met by the lord chamberlain, who told them that the emperor had decided that only the man who found and brought back the blue rose should marry his daughter. the suitors were much puzzled by this order. what was the blue rose and where was it to be found? in all, a hundred and fifty at once put away from them all thought of winning the hand of the emperor's daughter, since they considered the condition imposed to be absurd. the other hundred set about trying to find the blue rose. one of them-- his name was ti-fun-ti--he was a merchant and was immensely rich, at once went to the largest shop in the town and said to the shopkeeper, "i want a blue rose, the best you have." the shopkeeper, with many apologies, explained that he did not stock blue roses. he had red roses in profusion, white, pink and yellow roses, but no blue roses. there had hitherto been no demand for the article. "well," said ti-fun-ti, "you must get one for me. i do not mind how much money it costs, but i must have a blue rose." the shopkeeper said he would do his best, but he feared it would be an expensive article and difficult to procure. another of the suitors, whose name i have forgotten, was a warrior, and extremely brave; he mounted his horse, and taking with him a hundred archers and a thousand horsemen, he marched into the territory of the king of the five rivers, whom he knew to be the richest king in the world and the possessor of the rarest treasures, and demanded of him the blue rose, threatening him with a terrible doom should he be reluctant to give it up. the king of the five rivers, who disliked soldiers, and had a horror of noise, physical violence, and every kind of fuss (his bodyguard was armed solely with fans and sunshades), rose from the cushions on which he was lying when the demand was made, and, tinkling a small bell, said to the servant who straightway appeared, "fetch me the blue rose." the servant retired and returned presently bearing on a silken cushion a large sapphire which was carved so as to imitate a full-blown rose with all its petals. "this," said the king of the five rivers, "is the blue rose. you are welcome to it." the warrior took it, and after making brief, soldier-like thanks, he went straight back to the emperor's palace, saying that he had lost no time in finding the blue rose. he was ushered into the presence of the emperor, who as soon as he heard the warrior's story and saw the blue rose which had been brought sent for his daughter and said to her: "this intrepid warrior has brought you what he claims to be the blue rose. has he accomplished the quest?" the princess took the precious object in her hands, and after examining it for a moment, said: "this is not a rose at all. it is a sapphire; i have no need of precious stones." and the warrior went away in discomfiture. the merchant, hearing of the warrior's failure, was all the more anxious to win the prize. he sought the shopkeeper and said to him: "have you got me the blue rose?" i trust you have; because, if not, i shall most assuredly be the means of your death. my brother-in-law is chief magistrate, and i am allied by marriage to all the chief officials in the kingdom." the shopkeeper turned pale and said: "sir, give me three days and i will procure you the rose without fail." the merchant granted him the three days and went away. now the shopkeeper was at his wit's end as to what to do, for he knew well there was no such thing as a blue rose. for two days he did nothing but moan and wring his hands, and on the third day he went to his wife and said, "wife, we are ruined." but his wife, who was a sensible woman, said: "nonsense. if there is no such thing as a blue rose we must make one. go to the chemist and ask him for a strong dye which well change a white rose into a blue one." so the shopkeeper went to the chemist and asked him for a dye, and the chemist gave him a bottle of red liquid, telling him to pick a white rose and to dip its stalk into the liquid and the rose would turn blue. the shopkeeper did as he was told; the rose turned into a beautiful blue and the shopkeeper took it to the merchant, who at once went with it to the palace saying that he had found the blue rose. he was ushered into the presence of the emperor, who as soon as he saw the blue rose sent for his daughter and said to her: "this wealthy merchant has brought you what he claims to be the blue rose. has he accomplished the quest?" the princess took the flower in her hands and after examining it for a moment said: "this is a white rose, its stalk has been dipped in a poisonous dye and it has turned blue. were a butterfly to settle upon it it would die of the potent fume. take it back. i have no need of a dyed rose." and she returned it to the merchant with many elegantly expressed thanks. the other ninety-eight suitors all sought in various ways for the blue rose. some of them traveled all over the world seeking it; some of them sought the aid of wizards and astrologers, and one did not hesitate to invoke the help of the dwarfs that live underground; but all of them, whether they traveled in far countries or took counsel with wizards and demons or sat pondering in lonely places, failed to find the blue rose. at last they all abandoned the quest except the lord chief justice, who was the most skillful lawyer and statesman in the country. after thinking over the matter for several months he sent for the most famous artist in the country and said to him: "make me a china cup. let it be milk-white in colour and perfect in shape, and paint on it a rose, a blue rose." the artist made obeisance and withdrew, and worked for two months at the lord chief justice's cup. in two months' time it was finished, and the world has never seen such a beautiful cup, so perfect in symmetry, so delicate in texture, and the rose on it, the blue rose, was a living flower, picked in fairyland and floating on the rare milky surface of the porcelain. when the lord chief justice saw it he gasped with surprise and pleasure, for he was a great lover of porcelain, and never in his life had he seen such a piece. he said to himself, "without doubt the blue rose is here on this cup and nowhere else." so, after handsomely rewarding the artist, he went to the emperor's palace and said that he had brought the blue rose. he was ushered into the emperor's presence, who as he saw the cup sent for his daughter and said to her: "this eminent lawyer has brought you what he claims to be the blue rose. has he accomplished the quest?" the princess took the bowl in her hands, and after examining it for a moment said: "this bowl is the most beautiful piece of china i have ever seen. if you are kind enough to let me keep it i will put it aside until i receive the blue rose. for so beautiful is it that no other flower is worthy to be put in it except the blue rose." the lord chief justice thanked the princess for accepting the bowl with many elegantly turned phrases, and he went away in discomfiture. after this there was no one in the whole country who ventured on the quest of the blue rose. it happened that not long after the lord chief justice's attempt a strolling minstrel visited the kingdom of the emperor. one evening he was playing his one-stringed instrument outside a dark wall. it was a summer's evening, and the sun had sunk in a glory of dusty gold, and in the violet twilight one or two stars were twinkling like spearheads. there was an incessant noise made by the croaking of frogs and the chatter of grasshoppers. the minstrel was singing a short song over and over again to a monotonous tune. the sense of it was something like this: i watched beside the willow trees the river, as the evening fell, the twilight came and brought no breeze, nor dew, nor water for the well. when from the tangled banks of grass a bird across the water flew, and in the river's hard grey glass i saw a flash of azure blue. as he sang he heard a rustle on the wall, and looking up he saw a slight figure white against the twilight, beckoning him. he walked along under the wall until he came to a gate, and there someone was waiting for him, and he was gently led into the shadow of a dark cedar tree. in the dim twilight he saw two bright eyes looking at him, and he understood their message. in the twilight a thousand meaningless nothings were whispered in the light of the stars, and the hours fled swiftly. when the east began to grow light, the princess (for it was she) said it was time to go. "but," said the minstrel, "to-morrow i shall come to the palace and ask for your hand." "alas!" said the princess, "i would that were possible, but my father has made a foolish condition that only he may wed me who finds the blue rose." "that is simple," said the minstrel. "i will find it." and they said good night to each other. the next morning the minstrel went to the palace, and on his way he picked a common white rose from a wayside garden. he was ushered into the emperor's presence, who sent for his daughter and said to her: "this penniless minstrel has brought you what he claims to be the blue rose. has he accomplished the quest?" the princess took the rose in her hands and said: "yes, this is without doubt the blue rose." but the lord chief justice and all who were present respectfully pointed out that the rose was a common white rose and not a blue one, and the objection was with many forms and phrases conveyed to the princess. "i think the rose is blue," said the princess. "perhaps you are all colour blind." the emperor, with whom the decision rested, decided that if the princess thought the rose was blue it was blue, for it was well known that her perception was more acute than that of any one else in the kingdom. so the minstrel married the princess, and they settled on the sea coast in a little seen house with a garden full of white roses, and they lived happily ever afterwards. and the emperor, knowing that his daughter had made a good match, died in peace. maurice baring. the two frogs. once upon a time in the country of japan there lived two frogs, one of whom made his home in a ditch near the town of osaka, on the sea coast, while the other dwelt in a clear little stream which ran through the city of kioto. at such a great distance apart, they had never even heard of each other; but, funnily enough, the idea came into both their heads at once that they should like to see a little of the world, and the frog who lived at kioto wanted to visit osaka, and the frog who lived at osaka wished to go to kioto, where the great mikado had his palace. so one fine morning in the spring, they both set out along the road that led from kioto to osaka, one from one end and the other from the other. the journey was more tiring than they expected, for they did not know much about travelling, and half-way between the two towns there rose a mountain which had to be climbed. it took them a long time and a great many hops to reach the top, but there they were at last, and what was the surprise of each to see another frog before him! they looked at each other for a moment without speaking, and then fell into conversation, and explained the cause of their meeting so far from their homes. it was delightful to find that they both felt the same wish--to learn a little more of their native country--and as there was no sort of hurry they stretched themselves out in a cool, damp place, and agreed that they would have a good rest before they parted to go their ways. "what a pity we are not bigger," said the osaka frog, "and then we could see both towns from here and tell if it worth our while going on." "oh, that is easily manage," returned the kioto frog. "we have only got to stand up on our hind legs, and hold on to each other, and then we can each look at the town he is travelling to." this idea pleased the osaka frog so much that he at once jumped up and put his front paws on the shoulder of his friend, who had risen also. there they both stood, stretching themselves as high as they could, and holding each other tightly, so that they might not fall down. the kioto frog turned his nose towards osaka, and the osaka frog turned his nose toward kioto; but the foolish thing forgot that when the stood up their great eyes lay in the backs of their heads, and that though their noses might point to the places to which they wanted to go, their eyes beheld the places from which they had come. "dear me!" cried the osaka frog; "kioto is exactly like osaka. it is certainly not worth such a long journey. i shall go home." "if i had had any idea that osaka was only a copy of kioto i should never have travelled all this way," exclaimed the frog from kioto, and as he spoke, he took his hands from his friend's shoulders and they both fell down to the grass. then they took a polite farewell of each other, and set off for home, again, and to the end of their lives they believed that osaka and kioto, which are as different to look at as two towns can be, were as like as two peas. the violet loving book. the wise old shepherd. once upon a time a snake went out of his hole to take an airing. he crawled about, greatly enjoying the scenery and the fresh whiff of the breeze, until, seeing an open door, he went in. now this door was the door of the palace of the king, and inside was the king himself, with all his courtiers. imagine their horror at seeing a huge snake crawling in at the door. they all ran away except the king, who felt that his rank forbade him to be a coward, and the king's son. the king called out for somebody to come and kill the snake; but this horrified them still more, because in that country the people believed it to be wicked to kill any living thing, even snakes and scorpion and wasps. so the courtiers did nothing, but the young prince obeyed his father, and killed the snake with his stick. after a while the snake's wife became anxious and set out in search of her husband. she too saw the open door of the palace, and in she went. o horror! there on the floor lay the body of her husband all covered with blood and quite dead. no one saw the snake's wife crawl in; she inquired of a white ant what had happened, and when she found that the young prince had killed her husband, she made a vow that, as he had made her a widow, so she would make his wife a widow. that night, when all the world was asleep, the snake crept into the prince's bedroom, and coiled round his neck. the prince slept on, and when he awoke in the morning, he was surprised to find his neck encircled with the coils of a snake. he was afraid to stir, so there he remained, until the prince's mother became anxious and went to see what was the matter. when she entered his room, and saw him in this plight, she gave a loud shriek, and ran off to tell the king. "call the archers," said the king. the archers came in a row, fitted the arrows to the bows, the bows were raised and ready to shoot, when, on a sudden, from the snake there issued a voice which spoke as follows: "o archers, wait, wait and hear me before you shoot. it is not fair to carry out the sentence before you have heard the case. is not this a good law: an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth? is it not so, o king?" "yes," replied the king, "that is our law." "then," said the snake, "i plead the law. your son has made me a widow, so it is fair and right that i should make his wife a widow." "that sounds right enough," said the king, "but right and law are not always the same thing. we had better ask somebody who knows." they asked all the judges, but none of them could tell the law of the matter. they shook their heads, and said they would look up all their law-books, and see whether anything of the sort had ever happened before, and if so, how it had been decided. that is the way judges used to decide cases in that country, though i dare say it sounds to you a very funny way. it looked as if they had not much sense in their own heads, and perhaps that was true. the upshot of it all was that not a judge would give an opinion; so the king sent messengers all over the countryside, to see if they could find somebody somewhere who knew something. one of these messengers found a party of five shepherds, who were sitting upon a hill and trying to decide a quarrel of their own. they gave their opinions so freely, and in language so very strong, that the king's messenger said to himself, "here are the men for us. here are five men, each with an opinion of his own, and all different." posthaste he scurried back to the king, and told him that he had found at last some one ready to judge the knotty point. so the king and the queen, and the prince and princess, and all the courtiers, got on horseback, and away they galloped to the hill whereupon the five shepherds were sitting, and the snake too went with them, coiled around the neck of the prince. when they got to the shepherds' hill, the shepherds were dreadfully frightened. at first they thought the strangers were a gang of robbers, and when they saw it was the king their next thought was that one of their misdeeds had been found out; and each of them began thinking what was the last thing he had done, and wondering, was it that? but the king and the courtiers got off their horses, and said good day, in the most civil way. so the shepherds felt their minds set at ease again. then the king said: "worthy shepherds, we have a question to put to you, which not all the judges in all the courts of my city have been able to solve. here is my son, and here, as you see, is a snake coiled round his neck. now, the husband of this snake came creeping into my palace hall, and my son the prince killed him; so this snake, who is the wife of the other, says that, as my son has made her a widow, so she has a right to widow my son's wife. what do you think about it?" the first shepherd said: "i think she is quite right, my lord the king. if anyone made my wife a widow, i would pretty soon do the same to him." this was brave language, and the other shepherds shook their heads and looked fierce. but the king was puzzled, and could not quite understand it. you see, in the first place, if the man's wife were a widow, the man would be dead; and then it is hard to see that he could do anything. so to make sure, the king asked the second shepherd whether that was his opinion too. "yes," said the second shepherd; "now the prince has killed the snake, the snake has a right to kill the prince if he can." but that was not of much use either, as the snake was as dead as a doornail. so the king passed on to the third. "i agree with my mates," said the third shepherd. "because, you see, a prince is a prince, but then a snake is a snake." that was quite true, they all admitted, but it did not seem to help the matter much. then the king asked the fourth shepherd to say what he thought. the fourth shepherd said: "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth; so i think a widow should be a widow, if so be she don't marry again." by this time the poor king was so puzzled that he hardly knew whether he stood on his head or his heels. but there was still the fifth shepherd left; the oldest and wisest of them all; and the fifth shepherd said: "king, i should like to ask two questions." "ask twenty, if you like," said the king. he did not promise to answer them, so he could afford to be generous. "first. i ask the princess how many sons she has." "four," said the princess. "and how many sons has mistress snake here?" seven," said the snake. "then," said the old shepherd, "it will be quite fair for mistress snake to kill his highness the prince when her highness the princess has had three sons more." "i never thought of that," said the snake. "good-bye, king, and all you good people. send a message when the princess has had three more sons, and you may count upon me--i will not fail you." so saying, she uncoiled from the prince's neck and slid away among the grass. the king and the prince and everybody shook hands with the wise old shepherd, and went home again. and the princess never had any more sons at all. she and the prince lived happily for many years; and if they are not dead they are living still. from "the talking thrush." the folly of panic. and it came to pass that the buddha (to be) was born again as a lion. just as he had helped his fellow-men, he now began to help his fellow- animals, and there was a great deal to be done. for instance, there was a little nervous hare who was always afraid that something dreadful was going to happen to her. she was always saying: "suppose the earth were to fall in, what would happen to me?" and she said this so often that at last she thought it really was about to happen. one day, when she had been saying over and over again, "suppose the earth were to fall in, what would happen to me?" she heard a slight noise: it really was only a heavy fruit which had fallen upon a rustling leaf, but the little hare was so nervous she was ready to believe anything, and she said in a frightened tone: "the earth is falling in." she ran away as fast as she could go, and presently she met an old brother hare, who said: "where are you running to mistress hare?" and the little hare said: "i have no time to stop and tell you anything. the earth is falling in, and i am running away." "the earth is falling in, is it?" said the old brother hare, in a tone of much astonishment; and he repeated this to _his_ brother hare, and _he_ to _his_ brother hare, and he to his brother hare, until at last there were a hundred thousand brother hares, all shouting: "the earth is falling in." now presently the bigger animals began to take the cry up. first the deer, and then the sheep, and then the wild boar, and then the buffalo, and then the camel, and then the tiger, and then the elephant. now the wise lion heard all this noise and wondered at it. "there are no signs," he said, "of the earth falling in. they must have heard something." and then he stopped them all short and said: "what is this you are saying?" and the elephant said: "i remarked that the earth was falling in." "how do you know this?" asked the lion. "why, now i come to think of it, it was the tiger that remarked it to me." and the tiger said: "i had it from the camel," and the camel said: "i had it from the buffalo." and the buffalo from the wild boar, and the wild boar from the sheep, and the sheep from the deer, and the deer from the hares, and the hares said: "oh! _we_ heard it from _that_ little hare." and the lion said: "little hare, _what_ made you say that the earth was falling in?" and the little hare said: "i _saw_ it." "you saw it?" said the lion. "where?" "yonder, by that tree." "well," said the lion, "come with me and i will show you how---" "no, no," said the hare, "i would not go near that tree for anything, i'm _so_ nervous." "but," said the lion, "i am going to take you on my back." and he took her on his back, and begged the animals to stay where they were until they returned. then he showed the little hare how the fruit had fallen upon the leaf, making the noise that had frightened her, and she said: "yes, i see--the earth is _not_ falling in." and the lion said: "shall we go back and tell the other animals?" and they went back. the little hare stood before the animals and said: "the earth is _not_ falling in." and all the animals began to repeat this to one another, and they dispersed gradually, and you heard the words more and more softly: "the earth is _not_ falling in," etc., etc., etc., until the sound died away altogether. from "eastern stories and legends." [note:--this story i have told in my own words, using the language i have found most effective for very young children.] the true spirit of a festival day. and it came to pass that the buddha was born a hare and lived in a wood; on one side was the foot of a mountain, on another a river, on the third side a border village. and with him lived three friends: a monkey, a jackal and an otter; each of these creatures got food on his own hunting ground. in the evening they met together, and the hare taught his companions many wise things: that the moral law should be observed, that alms should be given to the poor, and that holy days should be kept. one day the buddha said: "to-morrow is a fast day. feed any beggars that come to you by giving food from your own table." they all consented. the next day the otter went down to the bank of the ganges to seek his prey. now a fisherman had landed seven red fish and had buried them in the sand on the river's bank while he went down the stream catching more fish. the otter scented the buried fish, dug up the sand till he came upon them, and he called aloud: "does any one own these fish?" and, not seeing the owner, he laid the fish in the jungle where he dwelt, intending to eat them at a fitting time. then he lay down, thinking how virtuous he was. the jackal also went off in search of food, and found in the hut of a field watcher a lizard, two spits, and a pot of milk-curd. and, after thrice crying aloud, "to whom do these belong?" and not finding an owner, he put on his neck the rope for lifting the pot, and grasping the spits and lizard with his teeth, he laid them in his own lair, thinking, "in due season i will devour them," and then he lay down, thinking how virtuous he had been. but the hare (who was the buddha-to-be) in due time came out, thinking to lie (in contemplation) on the kuca grass. "it is impossible for me to offer _grass_ to any beggars who may chance to come by, and i have no oil or rice or fish. if any beggar comes to me, i will give him (of) my own flesh to eat." now when sakka, the king of the gods, heard this thing, he determined to put the royal hare to the test. so he came in disguise of a brahmin to the otter and said: "wise sir, if i could get something to eat, i would perform _all_ my priestly duties." the otter said: "i will give you food. seven red fish have i safely brought to land from the sacred river of the ganges. eat thy fill, o brahmin, and stay in this wood." and the brahmin said: "let it be until to-morrow, and i will see to it then." then he went to the jackal, who confessed that he had stolen the food, but he begged the brahmin to accept it and remain in the wood: but the brahmin said: "let it be until the morrow, and then i well see to it." then the brahmin went to the wise hare, and the hare said: "behold, i will give you of my flesh to eat. but you must not take life on this holy day. when you have piled up the logs i will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of the flames, and when my body is roasted you shall eat my flesh and perform all your priestly duties." now when sakka heard these words he caused a heap of burning coals to appear, and the wisdom being, rising from the grass, came to the place, but before casting himself into the flames he shook himself, lest perchance there should be any insects in his coat who might suffer death. then, offering his body as a free gift, he sprang up, and like a royal swan, lighting on a bed of lotus in an ecstasy of joy, he fell on the heap of live coals. but the flame failed even to heat the pores or the hair on the body of the wisdom being, and it was as if he had entered a region of frost. then he addressed the brahmin in these words: "brahmin, the fire that you have kindled is icy cold; it fails to heat the pores of the hair on my body. what is the meaning of this?" "o most wise hare! i am sakka, and have come to put your virtue to the test." and the buddha in a sweet voice said: "no god or man could find in me an unwillingness to die." then sakka said: "o wise hare, be thy virtue known to all the ages to come." and seizing the mountain he squeezed out the juice and daubed on the moon the signs of the young hare. then he placed him back on the grass that he might continue his sabbath meditation, and returned to heaven. and the four creatures lived together and kept the moral law. from "eastern stories and legends." filial piety now it came to pass that the buddha was reborn in the shape of a parrot, and he greatly excelled all other parrots in his strength and beauty. and when he was full grown his father, who had long been the leader of the flock in their flights to other climes, said to him: "my son, behold, thou shalt rest. i will lead the birds." and the parrots rejoiced in the strength of their new leader, and willingly did they follow him. now from that day on, the buddha undertook to feed his parents, and would not consent that they should do any more work. each day he led his flock to the himalaya hills, and when he had eaten his fill of the clumps of rice that grew there, he filled his beak with food for the dear parents who were waiting his return. now there was a man appointed to watch the rice-fields, and he did his best to drive the parrots away, but there seemed to be some secret power in the leader of this flock which the keeper could not overcome. he noticed that the parrots ate their fill and then flew away, but that the parrot-king not only satisfied his hunger, but carried away rice in his beak. now he feared there would be no rice left, and he went to his master, the brahmin, to tell him what had happened; and even as the master listened there came to him the thought that the parrot-king was something higher than he seemed, and he loved him even before he saw him. but he said nothing of this, and only warned the keeper that he should set a snare and catch the dangerous bird. so the man did as he was bidden: he made a small cage and set the snare, and sat down in his hut waiting for the birds to come. and soon he saw the parrot-king amidst his flock, who, because he had no greed, sought no richer spot, but flew down to the same place in which he had fed the day before. now, no sooner had he touched the ground than he felt his feet caught in the noose. then fear crept into his bird heart, but a stronger feeling was there to crush it down, for he thought: "if i cry out the cry of the captured, my kinsfolk will be terrified, and they will fly away foodless. but if i lie still, then their hunger will be satisfied, and may they safely come to my aid." thus, was the parrot both brave and prudent. but alas! he did not know that his kinsfolk had nought of his brave spirit. when _they_ had eaten their fill, though they heard the thrice-uttered cry of the captured, they flew away, nor heed the sad plight of their leader. then was the heart of the parrot-king sore within him, and he said: "all these my kith and kin, and not one to look back on me. alas! what sin have i done?" the watchman now heard the cry if the parrot-king, and the sound of the other parrots flying through the air. "what is that?" he cried, and leaving his hut he came to the place where he had laid the snare. there he found the captive parrot; he tied his feet together and brought him to the brahmin, his master. now, when the brahmin saw the parrot-king, he felt his strong power, and his heart was full of love to him, but he hid his feelings, and said in a voice of anger: "is thy greed greater than that of all other birds? they eat their fill, but thou canst takest away each day more food than thou canst eat. doest thou this out of hatred for me, or dost thou store up the food in same granary for selfish greed?" and the great being made answer in a sweet human voice: "i hate thee not, o brahmin. nor do i store the rice in a granary for selfish greed. but this thing i do. each day i pay a debt which is due--each day i grant a loan, and each day i store up a treasure." now the brahmin could not understand the words of the buddha (because true wisdom had not entered his heart) and he said: "i pray thee, o wondrous bird, to make these words clear unto me." and then the parrot-king made answer: "i carry food to my ancient parents who can no longer seek that food for themselves: thus i pay my daily debt. i carry food to my callow chicks whose wings are yet ungrown. when i am old they will care for me--this my loan to them. and for other birds, weak and helpless of wing, who need the aid of the strong, for them i lay up a store; to these i give in charity." then was the brahmin much moved and showed the love that was in his heart. "eat thy fill, o righteous bird, and let thy kinsfolk eat, too, for thy sake." and he wished to bestow a thousand acres of land upon him, but the great being would only take a tiny portion round which were set boundary stores. and the parrot returned with a head of rice, and said: "arise, dear parents, that i may take you to a place of plenty." and he told them the story of his deliverance. from "eastern stories and legends." three stories from hans christian andersen.[ ] the swineherd. there was once a poor prince. he owned a kingdom--a very small one, but it was big enough to allow him to marry, and he was determined to marry. now, it was really very bold on his part to say to a king's daughter: "will you marry me?" but he dared to do so, for his name was known far and wide, and there were hundreds of princesses who would willingly have said: "yes, thank you." but, would _she_? we shall hear what happened. on the grave of the prince's father, there grew a rose-tree--such a wonderful rose-tree! it bloomed only once in five years, and then it bore only one rose--but what a rose! its perfume was so sweet that whoever smelt it forgot all his cares and sorrows. the prince had also a nightingale which could sing as if all the delicious melodies in the world were contained in its little throat. the rose and the nightingale were both to be given to the princess, and were therefore placed in two great silver caskets and sent to her. the emperor had them carried before him into the great hall where the princess was playing at "visiting" with her ladies-in-waiting--they had nothing else to do. when she saw the caskets with the presents in them, she clapped her hands with joy. "if it were only a little pussy-cat," she cried. but out came a beautiful rose. "how elegantly it is made," said all the ladies of the court. "it is more than elegant," said the emperor, "it is _neat_. "fie, papa," she said, "it is not made at all; it is a _natural_ rose." "let us see what the other casket contains before we lose our temper," said the emperor, and then out came the little nightingale and sang so sweetly that at first nobody could think of anything to say against it." "_superbe, superbe_," cried the ladies of the court, for they all chattered french, one worse than the other. "how the bird reminds me of the late empress' musical-box!" said an old lord-in-waiting. "ah, me! the same tone, the same execution." "the very same," said the emperor, and he cried like a little child. "i hope it is not a real bird," said the princess. oh, yes! it is a real bird," said those who had brought it. "then let the bird fly away," she said, and she would on no account allow the prince to come in. but he was not to be disheartened; he smeared his face with black and brown, drew his cap over his forehead, and knocked at the palace door. the emperor opened it. "good day, emperor," he said. "could i get work at the palace?" "well, there are so many wanting places," said the emperor; "but let me see!--i need a swineherd. i have a good many pigs to keep." so the prince was made imperial swineherd. he had a wretched little room near the pig-sty and here he was obliged to stay. but the whole day he sat and worked, and by the evening he had made a neat little pipkin, and round it was a set of bells, and as soon as the pot began to boil, the bells fell to jingling most sweetly and played the old melody: "ach du lieber augustin, alles is weg, weg, weg!"[ ] but the most wonderful thing was that when you held your finger in the steam of the pipkin, you could immediately smell what dinner was cooking on every hearth in the town. that was something very different from a rose. the princess was walking out with her ladies-in-waiting, and when she heard the melody, she stopped short, and looked pleased, for she could play "ach du lieber augustin" herself; it was the only tune she knew, and that she played with one finger. "why, that is the tune i play," she said. "what a cultivated swineherd he must be. go down and ask him how much his instrument costs." so one of the ladies-in-waiting was obliged to go down, but she put on pattens first. "how much do you want for your pipkin?" asked the lady-in-waiting. "i will have ten kisses from the princess," said the swineherd. "good gracious!" said the lady-in-waiting. "i will not take less," said the swineherd. "well, what did he say?" asked the princess. "i really cannot tell you," said the lady-in-waiting. "it is too dreadful." "then you must whisper it," said the princess. so she whispered it. "he is very rude," said the princess, and she walked away. but she had gone only a few steps when the bells sounded so sweetly: "ach du lieber augustin alles ist weg, weg, weg!" "listen," said the princess, "ask him whether he will have his kisses from my ladies-in-waiting." "no, thank you," said the swineherd. "i will have ten kisses from the princess, or, i will keep my pipkin." "how tiresome!" said the princess; "but you must stand round me, so that nobody shall see." so the ladies-in-waiting stood round her and they spread out their skirts. the swineherd got the kisses, and she got the pipkin. how delighted she was. all the evening and the whole of the next day, that pot was made to boil. and you might have known what everybody was cooking on every hearth in town, from the chamberlain's to the shoemaker's. the court ladies danced and clapped their hands. "we know who is to have fruit-soup and pancakes, and we know who is going to have porridge, and cutlets. how very interesting it is!" "most interesting, indeed," said the first lady-of-honor. "yes, but hold your tongues, for i am the emperor's daughter." "of course we will," they cried in one breath. the swineherd, or the prince, nobody knew that he was not a real swineherd, did not let the day pass without doing something, and he made a rattle which could play all the waltzes, and the polkas and the hop-dances which had been know since the creation of the world. "but this is _superbe_!" said the princess, who was just passing: "i have never heard more beautiful composition. go and as him what the instrument costs. but i will give no more kisses." "he insists on a hundred kisses from the princess," said the ladies- in-waiting who had been down to ask. "i think he must be quite mad," said the princess, and she walked away. but when she had taken a few steps, she stopped short, and said: "one must encourage the fine arts, and i am the emperor's daughter. tell him he may have ten kisses, as before, and the rest he can take from my ladies-in-waiting." "yes, but we object to that," said the ladies-in-waiting. "that is nonsense," said the princess. "if i can kiss him, surely you can do the same. go down at once. don't i give you board and wages?" so the ladies-in-waiting were obliged to go down to the swineherd again. "a hundred kisses from the princess, or each keeps his own." "stand round me," she said. and all the ladies-in-waiting stood round her, and the swineherd began to kiss her. "what can all the crowd be down by the pig-sty?" said the emperor, stepping out onto the balcony. he rubbed his eyes and put on his spectacles. "it is the court ladies up to some of their tricks. i must go down and look after them." he pulled up his slippers, for they were shoes which he had trodden down at heel. gracious goodness, how he hurried! as soon as he came into the garden, he walked very softly, and the ladies-in-waiting had so much to do counting the kisses, so that everything could be done fairly, and that the swineherd should get neither too many nor too few, that they never noticed the emperor at all. he stood on tip-toe. "what is this all about?" he said, when he saw the kissing that was going on, and he hit them on the head with his slipper, just as the swineherd was getting the eighty-sixth kiss. "heraus!" said the emperor, for he was angry, and both the princess and the swineherd were turned out of his kingdom. the princess wept, the swineherd scolded, and the rain streamed down. "oh! wretched creature that i am," said the princess. "if i had only taken the handsome prince! oh, how unhappy i am!" then the swineherd went behind a tree, washed the black and brown off his face, threw of his ragged clothes, and stood forth in his royal apparel, looking so handsome that she was obliged to curtsey. "i have learned to despise you," he said. "you would not have an honorable prince. you could not appreciate a rose or a nightingale, but for a musical toy, you kissed the swineherd. now you have your reward." so he went into his kingdom, shut the door and bolted it, and she had to stand outside singing: "ach, du lieber augustin, alles is weg, weg, weg!" the nightingale. in china, you must know, the emperor is a chinaman, and all those around him are chinamen, too. it is many years since all this happened, and for that very reason it is worth hearing, before it is forgotten. the emperor's palace was the most beautiful in the world; built all of fine porcelain and very costly, but so fragile that it was very difficult to touch, and you had to be very careful in doing so. the most wonderful flowers were to be seen in the garden, and to the most beautiful silver bells, tinkling bells were tied, for fear people should pass by without noticing them. how well everything had been thought out in the emperor's garden! this was so big, that the gardener himself did not know where it ended. if you walked on and on you came to the most beautiful forest, with tall trees and big lakes. the wood stretched right down to the sea which was blue and deep; great ships could pass underneath the branches, and here a nightingale had made its home, and its singing was so entrancing that the poor fisherman, though he had so many other things to do, would lie still and listen when he was out at night drawing in his nets. "how beautiful it is!" he said; but then he was forced to think about his own affairs, and the nightingale was forgotten. the next day, when it sang again, the fisherman said the same thing: "how beautiful it is!" travellers from all the countries of the world came to the emperor's town, and expressed their admiration of the palace and the garden, but when they heard the nightingale, they all said: "this is the best of all!" now, when these travellers came home, they told of what they had seen. and scholars wrote many books about the town, the palace and the garden, but nobody left out the nightingale; it was always spoken of as the most wonderful of all they had seen. and those who had the gift of the poet, wrote the most delightful poems all about the nightingale in the wood near the deep lake. the books went round the world, and in the course of time some of them reached the emperor. he sat in his golden chair, and read and read, nodding his head every minute; for it pleased him to read the beautiful descriptions of the town, the palace and the garden. "but the nightingale is the best of all," he read. "what is this?" said the emperor. "the nightingale! i now nothing whatever about it. to think of there being such a bird in my kingdom-- nay in my very garden--and i have never heard it. and to think one should learn such a thing for the first time from a book!" then he summoned his lord-in-waiting, who was such a grand personage that if anyone inferior in rank ventured to speak to him, or ask him about anything, he merely answered "p," which meant nothing whatever. "there is said to be a most wonderful bird, called the nightingale," said the emperor; "they say it is the best thing in my great kingdom. why have i been told nothing about it?" "i have never heard it mentioned before," said the lord-in-waiting. "it has certainly never been presented at court." "it is my good pleasure that it shall appear to-night and sing before me!" said the emperor. "the whole world knows what is mine, and i myself do not know it." "i have never heard it mentioned before," said the lord-in-waiting. "i will seek it, and i shall find it." but where was it to be found? the lord-in-waiting ran up and down all the stairs, through halls and passages, but not one of all those whom he met had ever heard a word about the nightingale; so the lord-in- waiting ran back to the emperor and told him that it must certainly be a fable invented by writers of books. "your majesty must not believe all that is written in books. it is pure invention, something which is called the black art." "but," said the emperor, "the book in which i have read this was sent to me by his majesty, the emperor of japan, and therefore this cannot be a falsehood. i will hear the nightingale. it must appear this evening! it has my imperial favor, and if it fails to appear the court shall be trampled upon after the court has supped." "tsing-pe!" said the lord-in-waiting, and again he ran up and down all the stairs, through all the passages, and half the court ran with him, for they had no wish to be trampled upon. and many questions were asked about the wonderful nightingale, of whom all had heard except those who lived at court. at last, they met a poor little girl in the kitchen. she said: "oh, yes! the nightingale! i know it well. how it can sing! every evening i have permission to take the broken pieces from the table to my poor sick mother who lives near the sea-shore, and on my way back, when i feel tired, and rest a while in the wood, then i hear the nightingale sing, and my eyes are filled with tears; it is as if my mother kissed me." "little kitchen-maid," said the lord-in-waiting, "i will get a permanent place for you in the court kitchen and permission to see the emperor dine, if you can lead us to the nightingale; for it has been commanded to appear at court to-night." so they started off all together where the bird used to sing; half the court went, too. they were going along at a good pace, when suddenly they heard a cow lowing. "oh," said a court-page. "there it is! what a wonderful power for so small a creature! i have certainly heard it before." "no, those are the cows lowing," said the little kitchen-maid. "we are a long way from the place yet." then the frogs began to croak in the marsh. "glorious," said the court- preacher. "now, i hear it--it is just like little church-bells." "no, those are the frogs," said the little kitchen-maid. "but now i think we shall soon hear it." and then the nightingale began to sing. "there it is," said the little girl. "listen, listen--there it sits!" and she pointed to a little gray bird in the branches. "is it possible!" said the lord-in-waiting. "i had never supposed it would look like that. how very plain it looks! it has certainly lost its color from seeing so many grand folk here." "little nightingale," called out the little kitchen-maid, "our gracious emperor wishes you to sing for him." "with the greatest pleasure," said the nightingale, and it sang, and it was a joy to hear it. "it sounds like little glass bells," said the lord-in-waiting; "and just look at its little throat, how it moves! it is astonishing to think we have never heard it before! it will have a real _success_ at court." "shall i sing for the emperor again?" asked the nightingale, who thought that the emperor was there in person. "mine excellent little nightingale," said the lord-in-waiting, "i have the great pleasure of bidding you to a court-festival this night, when you will enchant his imperial majesty with your delightful warbling." "my voice sounds better among the green trees," said the nightingale. but it came willingly when it knew the emperor wished it. there was a great deal of furbishing up at the palace. the walls and ceiling which were of porcelain, shone with the light of a thousand golden lamps. the most beautiful flowers of the tinkling kind were placed in the passages. there was a running to and fro and a great draught, but that is just what made the bells ring, and one could not hear oneself speak. in the middle of the great hall where the emperor sat, a golden rod had been set up on which the nightingale was to perch. the whole court was present, and the little kitchen-maid was allowed to stand behind the door, for she had now the actual title of court kitchen-maid. all were there in their smartest clothes, and they all looked toward the little gray bird to which the emperor nodded. and then the nightingale sang, so gloriously that tears sprang into the emperor's eyes and rolled down his cheeks, and the nightingale sang even more sweetly. the song went straight to the heart, and the emperor was so delighted that he declared that the nightingale should have his golden slipper to hang round its neck. but the nightingale declined. it had already had its reward. "i have seen tears in the emperor's eyes. that is my greatest reward. an emperor's tears have a wonderful power. god knows i am sufficiently rewarded," and again its sweet, glorious voice was heard. "that is the most delightful coquetting i have ever known," said the ladies sitting round, and they took water into their mouths, in order to gurgle when anyone spoke to them, and they really thought they were like the nightingale. even the footmen and the chambermaids sent word that they were satisfied, and that means a great deal, for they are always the most difficult people to please. yes, indeed, there was no doubt as to the nightingale's success. it was to stay at court, and have its own cage, with liberty to go out twice in the daytime, and once at night. twelve footmen went out with it, and each held a silk ribbon which was tied to the bird's leg, and which they held very tightly. there was not much pleasure in an outing of that sort. the whole town was talking about the wonderful bird, and when two people met, one said: "nightin--" and the other said "gale," and they sighed and understood one another. eleven cheese-mongers' children were called after the bird, though none of them could sing a note. one day a large parcel came for the emperor. outside was written the word: "nightingale." "here we have a new book about our wonderful bird," said the emperor. but it was not a book; it was a little work of art which lay in a box-- an artificial nightingale, which looked exactly like the real one, but it was studded all over with diamonds, rubies and sapphires. as soon as you wound it up, it could sing one of the songs which the real bird sang, and its tail moved up and down and glittered with silver and gold. round its neck was a ribbon on which was written: "the emperor of japan's nightingale is poor indeed, compared with the emperor of china's." "that is delightful," they all said, and on the messenger who had brought the artificial bird, they bestowed the title of "imperial nightingale-bringer-in-chief." "let them sing together, and _what_ a duet that will be!" and so they had to sing, but the thing would not work, because the real nightingale could only sing in its own way, and the artificial nightingale went by clockwork. "that is not its fault," said the band-master. "time is its strong point and it has quite my method." then the artificial nightingale had to sing alone. it had just as much success as the real bird, and it was so much handsomer to look at; it glittered like bracelets and breast-pins. it sang the same tune three and thirty times, and still it was not tired; the people would willingly listen to the whole performance over again from the start, but the emperor suggested that the real nightingale should sing for a while--where was it? nobody had noticed it had flown out of the open window back to its green woods. "but what is the meaning of all this?" said the emperor. all the courtiers railed at the nightingale and said it was a most ungrateful creature. "we have the better of the two," they said, and the artificial nightingale had to sing again, and this was the thirty-fourth time they had heard the same tune. but they did not know it properly event then because it was so difficult, and the band-master praised the wonderful bird in the highest terms and even asserted that it was superior to the real bird, not only as regarded the outside, with the many lovely diamonds, but the inside as well. "you see, ladies and gentlemen, and above all your imperial majesty, that with the real nightingale, you can never predict what may happen, but with the artificial bird, everything is settled beforehand; so it remains and it cannot be changed. one can account for it. one can rip it open, and show the human ingenuity, explaining how the cylinders lie, how they work, and how one thing is the result of another." "that is just what we think," they all exclaimed, and the bandmaster received permission to exhibit the bird to the people on the following sunday. the emperor said they would hear it sing. they listened and were as much delighted as if they had been drunk with tea, which is chinese, you know, and they all said: "oh!" and stuck their forefingers in the air, and nodded their heads. but the poor fisherman who had heard the real nightingale, said: "it sounds quite well, and a little like it, but there is something wanting, i do not know what." the real nightingale was banished from the kingdom. the artificial bird had its place on a silken cushion close to the emperor's bed. all the presents it had received, the gold and precious stones, lay all round it, and it had been honored with the title of high-imperial-bed-room-singer--in the first rank, on the left side, for even the emperor considered that side the grander on which the heart is placed, and even an emperor has his heart on the left side. the band-master wrote twenty-five volumes about the wonderful artificial bird. the book was very learned and very long, filled with the most difficult words in the chinese language, and everybody said they had read and understood it, for otherwise they would have been considered stupid, and would have been trampled upon. and thus a whole year passed away. the emperor, the court, and all the chinamen knew every little gurgle in the artificial bird's song, and just for this reason, they were all the better pleased with it. they could sing it themselves--which they did. the boys in the street sang "iodizing," and, "cluck, cluck," and even the emperor sang it. yes, it was certainly beautiful! but one evening, while the bird was singing, and the emperor lay in bed listening to it, there was a whirring sound inside the bird, and something whizzed; all the wheels ran round, and the music stopped. the emperor sprang out of bed and sent for the court physician, but what could he do? then they sent for the watch-maker, and after much talk and examination, he patched the bird up, but he said it must be spared as much as possible, because the hammers were so worn out--and he could not put new ones in so that the music could be counted on. this was a great grief. the bird could only be allowed to sing once a year, and even that was risky, but on these occasions, the band-master would make a little speech, full of difficult words, saying the bird was just as good as ever--and that was true. five years passed away, and a great sorrow had come to the country. the people all really cared for their emperor, and now he was ill and it was said he could not live. a new emperor had been chosen, and the people stood about the streets, and questioned the lord-in-waiting about their emperor's condition. "p!" he said, and shook his head. the emperor lay pale and cold on his great, gorgeous bed; the whole court believed that he was dead, and they all hastened to pay homage to the new emperor. the footmen hurried off to discuss matters, and the chambermaids gave a great coffee-party. cloth had been laid down in all the rooms and passages, so that not even a footstep should be heard and it was all so very quiet. but the emperor was not yet dead. he lay stiff and pale in the sumptuous bed, with its long velvet curtains and heavy gold tassels; high above was an open window, and the moon shone in upon the emperor and the artificial bird. the poor emperor could hardly breathe; he felt as if someone were sitting on his chest; he opened his eyes and saw that it was death sitting on his chest, wearing his golden crown, holding in one hand his golden sword, and in the other his splendid banner. and from the folds of the velvet curtains strange faces peered forth; some terrible to look on, others mild and friendly--these were the emperor's good and bad deeds, which gazed upon him now that death sat upon his heart. "do you remember this?" whispered one after the other. "do you remember that?" they told him so much that the sweat poured down his face. "i never knew that," said the emperor. "music! music! beat the great chinese drum!" he called out, "so that i may not hear what they are saying!" but they kept on, and death nodded his head, like a chinaman, at everything they said. "music, music," cried the emperor. "you precious little golden bird! sing to me, ah! sing to me! i have given you gold and costly treasure. i have hung my golden slipper about your neck. sing to me. sing to me!" but the bird was silent; there was no one to wind him up, and therefore he could not sing. death went on, staring at the emperor with his great hollow eyes, and it was terribly still. then suddenly, close to the window, came the sound of a lovely song. it was the little live nightingale perched on a branch outside. it had heard of its emperor's need, and had therefore flown hither to bring him comfort and hope, and as he sang, the faces became paler and the blood coursed more freely through the emperor's veins. even death himself listened and said: "go on, little nightingale. go on." "yes, if you will give me the splendid sword. yes, if you will give me the imperial banner! yes, if you will give me the emperor's crown!" and death gave back all these treasures for a song. and still the nightingale sang on. he sang of the quiet churchyard, where the white roses grow, where the elder flowers bloom, and where the grass is kept moist by the tears of those left behind, and there came to death such a longing to see his garden, that he floated out of the window, like a could white mist. "thank you, thank you," said the emperor. "you heavenly little bird, i know you well! i banished you from the land, and you have charmed away the evil spirits from my bed and you have driven death from my heart. how shall i reward you?" "you have rewarded me," said the nightingale. "i brought tears to your eyes the first time i sang, and i shall never forget that. those are the jewels which touched the heart of the singer; but sleep now, that you may wake fresh and strong. i will sing to you." then it sang again, and the emperor fell into a sweet sleep. the sun shone in upon him through the window, when he woke the next morning feeling strong and well. none of his servants had come back, because they thought he was dead, but the nightingale was still singing. you will always stay with me," said the emperor. "you shall only sing when it pleases you, and i will break the artificial nightingale into a thousand pieces." "do not do that," said the nightingale. "it has done the best it could. keep it with you. i cannot build my nest in a palace, but let me come just as i please. i well sit on the branch near the window, and sing to you that you may both joyful and thoughtful. i will sing to you of the happy folk, and of those that suffer; i will sing of the evil and of the good, which is being hidden from you. the little singing bird flies hither and thither, to the poor fisherman, to the peasant's hut, to many who live far from your court. your heart is dearer to me than your crown, and yet the crown has a breath of sanctity, too. i will come, i will sing to you! but one thing you must promise me!" "all that you ask," said the emperor, and stood there in his imperial robes which he had put on himself, and held the heavy golden sword on his heart. "i beg you, let no one know that you have a little bird who tells you everything. it will be far better so!" then the nightingale flew away. the servants came to look upon their dead emperor. yes, there they stood; and the emperor said: "good morning!" the princess and the pea. there was once a prince who wished to marry a princess, but she must be a _real_ princess. he travelled all over the world to find one, but there was always something wrong. there were plenty of princesses, but whether they were _real_ or not he could not be sure. there was always something that was not quite right. so he came home again, feeling very sad, for he was so anxious to have a real princess. one evening there was a terrible storm; it lightened and thundered, and the rain came down in torrents; it was a fearful night. in the midst of the storm there came a knocking at the town-gate, and the old king himself went down to open it. there, outside stood a princess. but what a state she was in from the rain and the storm! the water was running out of her hair on to her clothes, into he shoes and out at the heels; and yet she said she was a _real_ princess. "we shall soon find out about that," thought the old queen. but she said never a word. she went into the bedroom, took off all the bedclothes and put a pea on the bedstead. then she took twenty mattresses and laid them on the pea and twenty eider-down quilts on the mattresses. and the princess was to sleep on the top of all. in the morning they came to her and asked her how she had slept. "oh! wretchedly," said the princess. "i scarcely closed my eyes the whole night long. heaven knows what could have been in the bed! i have lain upon something hard, so that my whole body is black and blue. it is quite dreadful." they could see now that she was a _real_ princess, because she had felt the pea through twenty mattresses and twenty eider-down quilts. nobody but a real princess could be so sensitive. so the prince married her, for now he knew that he had found a _real_ princess, and the pea was sent to an art museum, where it can still be seen, if nobody has taken it away. now, mark you: this is a true story. part iii. list of stories. books suggested to the story-teller and books referred to in the list of stories. author's note:-- i had intended, in this section, to offer an appendix of titles of stories and books which should cover all the ground of possible narrative in schools; but i have found so many lists containing standard books and stories, that i have decided that this original plan would be a work of supererogation. what is really needed is a supplementary list to those already published--a specialized list which is the result of private research and personal experience. i have for many years spent considerable time in the british museum and some of the principal libraries in america. i now offer the fruit of my labor. list of stories. classical stories. the story of theseus. from kingsley's "heroes." how theseus lifted the stone. how theseus slew the corynetes. how theseus slew sinis. how theseus slew kerkyon and procrustes. how theseus slew the medea and was acknowledged the son of aegeus. how theseus slew the minotaur. to be told in six parts as a series. the story of croesus. the conspiracy of the magi. arion and the dolphin. from "wonder tales from herodotus," by n. barrington d'almeida. these stories are intended for reading, but could be shortened for effective narration. coriolanus. julius caesar. aristides. alexander. from "plutarch's lives for boys and girls," by w. h. weston. these stories must be shortened and adapted for narration. the god of the spears: the story of romulus. his father's crown: the story of alcibiades. from "tales from plutarch," by f. j. rowbotham. these stories may be shortened and told in sections. east indian stories. the wise old shepherd. the religious camel. from "the talking thrush," by w. h. d. rouse. less inequality than men deem. from "old deccan days," by mary frere. the brahman, the tiger and the six judges. this story may be found in "the fairy ring," edited by kate douglas wiggin and nora archibald smith; also in "tales of the punjab," by f. a. steel, under the title of "the tiger, the brahman and the jackal." tit for tat. from "old deccan days," by mary frere. this story may be found in "the fairy ring," edited by kate douglas wiggin and nora archibald smith. "pride goeth before a fall." harisarman. from "indian fairy tales," by joseph jacobs. the bear's bad bargain. little anklebone. peasie and beansie. from "tales of the punjab," by f. a. steel. the weaver and the watermelon. the tiger and the hare. from "indian nights entertainment," by synnerton. the virtuous animals. this story should be abridged for narration. the ass as singer. the wolf and the sheep. from "tibetan tales," by f. a. schiefner. a story about robbers. from "out of the east," by lafcadio hearn. dripping. from "indian fairy tales," by mark thornhill. the buddha as tree-spirit. the buddha as parrot. the buddha as king. from "a collection of eastern stories and legends," by m. l. shedlock. rakshas and bakshas. this story may be found in "tales of laughter," edited by kate douglas wiggin and nora archibald smith, under the title of "the blind man, the deaf man and the donkey." the bread of discontent. from "legendary lore of all nations." a germ destroyer. namgary doola. a good story for boys, to be given in shortened form. from "the kipling reader," by rudyard kipling. a stupid boy. the clever jackal. one of the few stories wherein the jackal shows skill combined with gratitude. from "folk tales of kashmir," by j. h. knowles. why the fish laughed. from "folk tales of kashmir," by j. h. knowles. myths, legends, and fairy tales. how the herring became king. joe moore's story. the mermaid of gob ny ooyl. king magnus barefoot. from "manx tales," by sophia morrison. the greedy man. from "contes populaires malgaches," by gariel ferrand. arbutus. basil. briony. dandelion. from "myths and legends of flowers, trees, fruits, and plants," by c. m. skinner. the magic picture. the stone monkey. stealing peaches. the country of gentlemen. football on a lake. from "chinese fairy tales", by h. a. giles. the lime tree. intelligence and luck. the frost, the sun and wind. from "sixty folk tales from slavonic sources," by o. h. wratislaw. the boy who slept. the gods know. from "chinese fairy stories," by n. a. pitnam. this story must be shortened and adapted for narration. the imp tree. the pixy flower. tom tit tot. the princess of colchester. from "fairy gold," by ernest rhys. the origin of the mole. from "cossack fairy tales," by r. n. bain. dolls and butterflies. from "myths and legends of japan," by f. h. davis. the child of the forest. the sparrow's wedding. the moon maiden. from "old world japan," by frank rinder. the story of merlin. from "stories of early british heroes," by c. g. hartley. the isle of the mystic lake. from "the voyage of maildun," in "old celtic romances," by p. w. joyce. the story of baldur. from "heroes of asgard," by m. r. earle. in three parts for young children. adalhero. from "evenings with the old story tellers." martin the peasant's son. from "russian wonder tales," by post wheeler. this is more suitable for reading. the legend of rip van winkle. from "rip van winkle," by washington irving. urashima. from "myths and legends of japan," by f. h. davis. the monk and the bird. from "the book of legends told over again," by h. e. scudder. carob. from "myths and legends of flowers, trees, fruit and plants," by c. m. skinner. a talmud legend. the land of eternal youth. from "child-lore." catskin. guy of gisborne. king henry and the miller. from "a book of ballad stories," by mary macleod. the legend of the black prince. why the wolves no longer devour the lambs of christmas night. from "au pays des legendes," by eugene herepin. the coyote and the locust. the coyote and the ravens who raced their eyes. from "zuni folk tales," by f. h. cushing. the peacemaker. from "legends of the iroquois," by w. v. canfield. the story of the great chief of the animals. the story of lion and little jackal. from "kaffir folk tales," by g. m. theal. the legend of the great st. nicholas. the three counsels. from "bulletin de folk lore, liege." the tale of the peasant demyar. the monkey and the pomegranate tree. the ant and the snow. the value of an egg. the padre and the negro. papranka. from "tales of old lusitania," by coelho. kojata. the lost spear. (to be shortened.) the hermit. (by voltaire.) the blue cat. (from the french.) the silver penny. the three sisters. the slippers of abou-karem. from "the golden fairy book." the fairy baby. from "uncle remus in hansaland," by mary and newman tremearne. why the sole of a man's foot is uneven. the wonderful hair. the emperor trojan's goat ears. the language of animals. handicraft above everything. just earnings are never lost. the maiden who was swifter than a horse. from "servian stories and legends." the couple silencieux. le mort parlant. la sotte fiancee. le cornacon. persin au pot. from "contes populaires du pays wallon," by august gittee. the rat and the cat. the two thieves. the two rats. the dog and the rat. from "contes populaires malgaches," by gabriel ferrand. rua and toka. from "the maori tales," by baroness orczy and montagu marstow. this story is given for the same purpose as "a long bow story" from andrew lang's "olive fairy book." lady clare. the wolf-child. from "tales from the land of grapes and nuts," by charles sellers. the ungrateful man. the faithful servant. (in part.) jovinian, the proud emperor. the knight and the king of hungary. the wicked priest. the emperor and conrad and the count's son. from the "gesta romanorum." virgil, the emperor and the truffles. from "unpublished legends of virgil," collected by c. g. leland. seeing that all was right. (a good story for boys.) la fortuna. the lanterns of the stozzi palace. from "legends of florence," by c. g. leland. the three kingdoms. yelena the wise. seven simeons. ivan, the bird and the wolf. the pig, the deer and the steed. waters of youth. the useless wagoner. from "myths and folk tales of the russians, western slavs and magyars," by jeremiah curtin. these stories need shortening and adapting. the comical history of the king and the cobbler. this story should be shortened to add to the dramatic power. [from a chap book.] the fisherman and his wife. from "fairy tales," by hans christian andersen. hereafter this. from "more english fairy tales," by joseph jacobs. this story and "the fisherman and his wife" are great favorites and could be told one after the other, one to illustrate the patient life, and the other the patient husband. how a man found his wife in the land of the dead. this is a very dramatic and pagan story, to be used with discretion. the man without hands and feet. the cockerel. from "papuan fairy tales." by annie ker. the story of sir tristram and la belle iseult. from "cornwall's wonderland," by mabel quiller-couch. to be told in shortened form. the cat that went to the doctor. the wood anemone. sweeter than sugar. the raspberry caterpillar. from "fairy tales from finland," by zachris topelius. dinevan, the emu. goomble gubbon, the bustard. from "australian legendary tales," by mrs. k. l. parker. the tulip bed. from "the english fairy book," by ernest rhys. i have been asked so often for this particular story i am glad to be able to provide it in very poetical language. stories from grimm and andersen. the fisherman and his wife. the wolf and the kids. the adventures of chanticleer and partlet. the old man and his grandson. rumpelstiltskin. the queen bee. the wolf and the man. the golden goose. from grimm's fairy tales, edited by mrs. edgar lucas. ole-luk-oie. series of seven stories. what the old man does is always right. the princess and the pea. thumbelina. for younger children. from andersen's fairy tales. it's quite true. five out of one pod. great claus and little claus. jack the dullard. the buckwheat. the fir-tree. the little tin soldier. the nightingale. the ugly duckling. the swineherd. the sea serpent. the little match girl. the gardener and his family. for older children. from andersen's fairy tales. the two best editions of hans christian andersen's fairy tales are the translation by mrs. edgar lucas and the only complete english edition by w. a. and j. k. craigie. stories from the fairy book series. edited by andrew lang. the serpent's gifts. unlucky john. from "all sorts of stories book," by mrs. l. b. lang. makoma. from "the orange fairy book." a story for boys. the lady of solace. how the ass became a man again. amys and amile. the burning of njal. ogier the dane. from "the red romance book." the heart of a donkey. the wonderful tune. a french puck. a fish story. from "the lilac fairy book." east of the sun and west of the moon. as a preparation for cupid and psyche. from "the blue fairy book." the half chick. the story of hok lee and the dwarfs. from "the green fairy book". how to find a true friend. from "the crimson fairy book." to be given in shorter form. a long-bow story. from "the olive fairy book." this story makes children learn to distinguish between falsehood and romance. kanny, the kangaroo. the story of tom the bear. from "the animal story book." the story of the fisherman. aladdin and the lamp. this story should be divided and told in two sections. the story of ali cogia. from "the arabian nights entertainment," edited by andrew lang. stories illustrating common-sense resourcefulness and humor. the thief and the cocoanut tree. the woman and the lizard. sada sada. the shop-keeper and the robber. the reciter. rich man's potsherd. the singer and the donkey. child and milk. rich man giving a feast. king solomon and the mosquitoes. the king who promised to look after tennal ranan's family. vikadakavi. horse and complainant. the woman and the stolen fruit. from "an indian tale or two," by william swinton. stories dealing with the success of the younger child. [this is sometimes due to a kind action shown to some humble person or to an animal.] the three sons. from "the kiltartan wonder book," by lady gregory. the flying ship. from "russian fairy tales," by f. b. bain. how jesper herded the hares. from "the violet fairy book," by andrew lang. youth, life and death. from "myths and folk tales of the russians, western slavs and magyars," by jeremiah curtin. jack the dullard. from "fairy tales," by hans christian andersen. the enchanted whistle. from "the golden fairy book." the king's three sons. hunchback and brothers. from "legends of the french provinces." the little humpbacked horse. from "russian wonder tales," by post wheeler. this story is more suitable for reading than telling. the queen bee. from grimm's fairy tales, edited by mrs. edgar lucas. the wonderful bird. from "roumanian fairy tales," by j. m. percival. stories from the lives of the saints. the story of saint brandons. vol. , page . the story of saint francis. vol. , page . the story of santa clara and the roses. saint elizabeth of hungary. vol. , page . saint martin and the cloak. vol. , page . from the "legenda aurea." the legend of saint marjory. from "tales facetiae." melangell's lambs. from "the welsh fairy book," by w. j. thomas. our lady's tumbler. twelfth century legend done out of old french into english, by j. h. wickstead. this story may be shortened and adapted without sacrificing too much of the beauty of the style. the song of the minister. from "a child's book of saints," by william canton. this should be shortened and somewhat simplified for narration, especially in the technical, ecclesiastical terms. the story of saint kenelm, the little king. the story of king alfred and saint cuthbert. the story if aedburg, the daughter of edward. the story of king harold's sickness and recovery. from "old english history for children," by e. a. freeman. i commend all those who tell these stories to read the comments made on them by e. a. freeman himself. modern stories. the summer princess. from "the enchanted garden," by mrs. m. l. molesworth. this may be shortened and arranged for narration. thomas and the princess. from "twenty-six ideal stories for girls," by helena m. conrad. a fairy tale for grown-ups, for pure relaxation. the truce of god. from "all-fellows seven legends of lower redemption," by laurence housman. the selfish giant. from "fairy tales," by oscar wilde. the ligend of the tortoise. from "windlestraw, legends in rhyme of plants and animals," by pamela glenconner. from the provencal. fairy grumblesnooks. a bit of laughter's smile. from "tales for little people," nos. and , by maud symonds. the fairy who judged her neighbors. from "the little wonder box," in "stories told to a child," by jean ingelow. le courage. le'ecole. le jour de catherine. jacqueline et mirant. from "nos enfants," by anatole france. the giant and the jackstraw. from "the book of knight and barbara," by david starr jordan. for very small children. the musician. the legend of the christmas rose. from "the girl from the marshcroft," by selma lagerlof. both stories should be shortened and adapted for narration. i trust that the grouping of my stories in this section may not be misleading. under "myths, legends and fairy tales" i have included many stories which contain valuable ethical teaching, deep philosophy and stimulating examples for conduct in life. i regret that i have been unable to find a good collection of stories from history for narrative purposes. i have made a careful and lengthy search, but the stories are all written from the _reading_ point of view rather than the _telling_. books suggested to the story-teller and books referred to in the list of stories. andersen, hans christian fairy tales; translated by mrs. edgar lucas. dutton. fairy tales; edited by w. a. and j. k. craigie. oxford university press. babbitt, e. c. jataka tales. century. bain, r. n. cossack fairy tales. burt. russian fairy tales. burt. briant, egbert history of english balladry. badger. buddha the jataka; or stories of the buddha's former births; translated from the pali by various hands. in six volumes. university press. buckley, e. f. children of the dawn. stokes. bulletin, of folk lore. liege. calthorpe, dion c. king peter. duckworth. canfield, w. w. the legends of the iroquois. wessels. canton, william a child's book of saints. dutton. a child's book of warriors. dutton. child lore. nimmo. chodzko, a. e. b. slav fairy tales; translated by e. j. harding. burt. clark, k. m. maori tales. nutt. coelho, tales of old lusitania. swan sonnenschein. conrad, joseph twenty-six ideal stories for girls. hutchinson. couch, mabel quiller- cornwall's wonderland. dutton. curtin, jeremiah myths and folk tales of the russians, western slavs and magyars. little. cushing, f. h. zuni folk tales. putnam. darton, e. j. h. pilgrim tales; from tales of the canterbury pilgrims. dodge. wonder book of old romance. stokes. dasent, sir, g. w. norse fairy tales. putnam. davids, t. w. rhys buddhist birth stories. trubner. davis, f. h. myths and legends of japan. crowell. earle, m. r. heroes of asgard. macmillan. evenings with the old story tellers. leavitt and allen. ewald, carl the queen bee and other nature tales; translated by c. c. moore-smith. nelson. ferrand, gabriel contes populaires malgaches. leroux. fielde, adele chinese nights' entertainment. putnam france, anatole nos enfants. hachette. freeman, e. a. old english history for children. dutton. frere, mary old deccan days. murray. froissart stories from froissart; edited by henry nebolt. macmillan. gesta romanorum. swan sonnenschein. giles, h. a. chinese fairy tales. gowans. gittee, august contes populaires du pays wallon. vanderpooten. glenconner, lady (pamela tennant) windlestraw, legends in rhyme of plants and animals. chiswick press. golden fairy book. hutchinson. gregory, lady augusta the kiltartan wonder book. dutton. grimm, j. l. k. and w. k. grimm fairy tales; translated by mrs. edgar lucas. leppincott. harris, joel chandler uncle remus; his songs and his sayings. appleton. hartley, c. g. stories of early british heroes. dent. hearn, lafcadio out of the east. houghton. herodotus wonder storied from herodotus; edited by n. barrington d'almeida. harper. herpin, eugene au pays du legendes. calliere. higgins, m. m. stories from the history of ceylon for children. capper. housman, laurence all-fellows seven legends of lower redemption. kegan paul. ingelow, jean the little wonder box. griffeths, farren and company. stories told to a child. little. irving, washington rip van winkle. macmillan. jacobs, joseph indian fairy tales. putnam. more english fairy tales. putnam. jordan, david starr the book of knight and barbara. appleton. joyce, p. w. old celtic romances. longmans. keary, annie and eliza heroes of asgard. macmillan. ker, annie papuan fairy tales. macmillan. kingsley, charles heroes. macmillan. kipling, rudyard the jungle book. macmillan. the kipling reader. appleton. the second jungle book. macmillan. knowles, j. h. folk tales of kashmir. trubner. lagerlof, selma the girl from marshcroft. little. lang, andrew arabian nights' entertainment. longmans. the blue fairy book. longmans. the crimson fairy book longmans. the green fairy book. longmans. the lilac fairy book. longmans. the olive fairy book. longmans. the orange fairy book. longmans. the red fairy book. longmans. the violet fairy book. longmans. lang. l. b. all sorts of stories book. longmans. legenda aurea. leland, c. g. legends of florence. macmillan unpublished legends of virgil. stock. mackenzie indian myths and legends. gresham publishing house. macleod, mary a book of ballad stories. stokes. molesworth, mrs. m. l. the enchanted garden. unwin. moncrieff, a. h. hope classic myths and legends. gresham publishing house. morrison, sophia manx fairy tales. nutt. naake, j. t. slavonic fairy tales. king. noble, m. e. and k. coomaraswamy myths of the hindus and buddhists. holt. orczy, baroness and montagu barstow old hungarian fairy tales. dean. parker, mrs. k. l. australian legendary tales. nutt. pearse, w. g. the children's library of the saints. jackson. percival, j. m. roumanian fairy tales. holt. perrault, charles fairy tales. dutton. pitman, n. h. chinese fairy stories. crowell. plutarch plutarch's lives for boys and girls; retold by w. h. weston. stokes tales from plutarch, by f. j. rowbotham. crowell. ragozin, z. a. tales of the heroic ages; frithjof, viking of norway, and roland, paladin of france. putnam. tales of the heroic ages; siegfried, hero of the north, and beowulf, hero of anglo-saxons. putnam. rattray, r. s. hansa folk lore, customs, proverbs, etc. clarendon press. rhys, ernest the english fairy book. stokes. fairy gold. dutton. the garden of romance. kegan paul. rinder, frank old world japan. allen. robinson, t. h. tales and talks from history. caldwell. rouse, w. h. d. the talking thrush. dutton. schiefner, f. a. tibetan tales. trubner. scudder, h. e. the book of legends told over again. houghton. sellers, charles tales from the land of grapes and nuts. field and tuer. servian stories and legends. shedlock, m. l. a collection of eastern stories and legends. dutton. skinner, c. m. myths and legends of flowers, fruits and plants. lippincott. smith, j. c. and g. soutar book of ballads for boys and girls. oxford university press. steel, mrs. f. a. tales of the punjab. macmillan. strickland, w. w. northwest slav legends and fairy stories. erben. swinton an indian tale or two; reprinted from blackheath local guide. swinton and cathcart legendary lore of all nations. ivison, taylor & company. synnerton indian nights' entertainment. stock. tales facetlae. tennant, pamela (lady glenconner) the children and the pictures. macmillan. theal, g. m. kaffir folk lore. swan sonnenschein. thomas, w. j. the welsh fairy book. stokes. thornhill, mark indian fairy tales. hatchard. topelius, zachris fairy tales from finland. unwin. tremearne, mary and newman uncle remus in hansaland. wheeler, post russian wonder tales. century. wickstead, j. h. our lady's tumbler; twelfth century legend done out of old french into english. mosher. wiggin, kate douglas and nora archibald smith the fairy ring. doubleday. tales of laughter. doubleday. wilde, oscar fairy tales. putnam. wilson, richard the indian story book. macmillan. wratislaw, a. h. sixty folk tales from exclusively slavonic sources. stock. footnotes. . i venture to hope (at this long distance of years) that my language in telling the story was more simple than appears from this account. . this difference of spelling in the same essay will be much appreciated by those who know how gladly children offer an orthographical alternative, in hopes that one if not the other may satisfy the exigency of the situation. . see "list of stories." . at the congressional library in washington. . letters of t. e. brown, page . . page . . in further illustration of this point see "when burbage played," austen dobson, and "in the nursery," hans andersen. . "les jeux des enfants," page . . a noted greek gymnast struck his pupil, though he was applauded by the whole assembly. "you did it clumsily, and not as you ought, for these people would never have praised you for anything really artistic." . for further details on the question of preparation of the story, see chapter on "questions asked by teachers." . sully says that children love exact repetition because of the intense enjoyment bound up with the process of imaginative realization. . at the summer school at chautauqua, new york, and at lincoln park, chicago. . there must be no more emphasis in the second manner than the first. . from "education of an orator," book ii, chapter . . one child's favorite book bore the exciting title of "birth, life and death of crazy jane." . this does not imply that the child would not appreciate in the right context the thrilling and romantic story in connection with the finding of the elgin marbles. . one is almost inclined to prefer marjorie fleming's little innocent oaths. "but she was more than usual calm, she did not give a single dam." . published by john loder, bookseller, woodbridge, in . . from "literary values." . a story is told of confucius, who, having attended a funeral, presented his horse to the chief mourner. when asked why he bestowed this gift, he replied: "i wept with the man, so i felt i ought to _do_ something for him." . this experiment cannot be made with a group of children for obvious reasons. . from an address on "the cultivation of the imagination." . "the house in the wood" (grimm), is another instance of triumph for the youngest child. . see list of stories under this heading. . to be found in andrew lang's "the violet fairy book." . to be found in jacob's "more english fairy tales." . from the "thabagata." . for selection of suitable stories among legends of the saints, see list of stories under the heading, "stories from the lives of the saints." . these words have been set most effectively to music by miss margaret ruthven lang. . from "the use of fairy tales," in "moral instruction of children". . see chapter on questions asked by teachers. . from "talks to teachers," page . . an excellent account of this is to be found in "the song of roland," by arthur way and frederic spender. . njal's burning, from "the red book of romance," by andrew lang. . from "studies of childhood." . england. . from "the lockerbie book," by james whitcomb riley, copyright, . used by special permission of the publishers, the bobbs-merril company. . from "virginibus puerisque." . see "long bow story;" "john and the pig." . published by george allen & co. . this is even a higher spirit than that shown in the advice given in the "agamemnon" (speaking of the victor's attitude after the taking of troy): "yea, let no craving for forbidden gain bid conquerors yield before the darts of greed." . it is curious to find that the story of puss-in-boots in its variants is sometimes presented with a moral, sometimes without. in the valley of the ganges it has _none_. in cashmere it has one moral, in zanzibar another. . from hans christian andersen, in "childhood in literature and art." . "sartor resartus," book iii, page . . from "childhood in literature and art." . see "eastern stories and fables," published by routledge. . see chapter i. . in this matter i have, in england, the support of dr. kimmins, chief inspector of education in the london county council, who is strongly opposed to the immediate reproduction of stories. . these remarks refer only to the illustrations of stories told. whether children should be encouraged to self-expression in drawing (quite apart form reproducing in one medium what has been conveyed to them in another), is too large a question to deal with in this special work on story-telling. . i give the following story, quoted by professor ker in his romanes lecture, , as an encouragement to those who develop the art of story-telling. . the melody to be crooned at first and to grow louder at each incident. . "the punishment that can most affect merfolk is to restrict their freedom. and this is how the queen of the sea punished the nixie of our tale." . the three stories from hans christian andersen have for so long formed part of my repertoire that i have been requested to include them. i am offering a free translation of my own from the danish version. . alas! dear augustin, all is lost, lost! note of acknowledgment my thanks are due to: mrs. josephine dodge daskam bacon, for permission to use an extract from "the madness of philip," and to her publishers. to messrs. houghton mifflin, for permission to use extract from "thou shalt not preach," by mr. john burroughs. to messrs. macmillan and co., for permission to use, "milking time," of miss rossetti. to mrs. william sharp, for permission to use passage from "the divine adventure," by fiona macleod. to miss ethel clifford, for permission to use the poem of "the child." to mr. james whitcomb riley and the bobbs merrill co., for permission to use "the treasure of the wise man." to professor ker, for permission to quote from "sturla the historian." to mr. john russell, for permission to print in full, "a saga." to messrs. longmans, green, and co., for permission to use "the two frogs," from the violate fairy book, and "to your good health," from the crimson fairy book. to mr. heinemann and lady glenconner, for permission to reprint "the water nixie," by pamela tennant, from "the children and the pictures." to mr. maurice baring and the editor of _the morning post_, for permission to reprint "the blue rose" from _the morning post_. to dr. walter rouse and mr. j. m. dent, for permission to reprint from "the talking thrush" the story of "the wise old shepherd." to rev. r. l. gales, for permission to use the article on "nursery rhymes" from the _nation_. to mr. edmund gosse, for permission to use extracts from "father and son." to messrs. chatto & windus, for permission to use "essay on child's play" (from _virginibus puerisque_) and other papers. to mr. george allen & co., for permission to use "ballad for a boy," by w. cory, from "ionica." to professor bradley, for permission to quote from his essay on "poetry and life." to mr. p. a. barnett, for permission to quote from "the commonsense of education." to mr. james stephens, for permission to reprint "the man and the boy." to mr. harold barnes, for permission to use version of the "the proud cock." to mrs. arnold glover, for permission to print two of her stories. to miss emilie poulson, for permission to use her translation of bjornsen's poem. to george routledge & son, for permission to use stories from "eastern stories and fables." to mrs. w. k. clifford, for permission to quote from "very short stories." to mr. w. jenkyn thomas and mr. fisher unwin, for permission to use "arthur in the cave" from the welsh fairy book. none guide to life and literature of the southwest revised and enlarged in both knowledge and wisdom by j. frank dobie dallas. southern methodist university press _not copyright in again not copyright in _ anybody is welcome to help himself to any of it in any way library of congress catalog card number: - s.m.u. press contents a preface with some revised ideas . a declaration . interpreters of the land . general helps . indian culture; pueblos and navajos . apaches, comanches, and other plains indians . spanish-mexican strains . flavor of france . backwoods life and humor . how the early settlers lived . fighting texians . texas rangers . women pioneers . circuit riders and missionaries . lawyers, politicians, j.p.'s . pioneer doctors . mountain men . santa fe and the santa fe trail . stagecoaches, freighting . pony express . surge of life in the west . range life: cowboys, cattle, sheep . cowboy songs and other ballads . horses: mustangs and cow ponies . the bad man tradition . mining and oil . nature; wild life; naturalists . buffaloes and buffalo hunters . bears and bear hunters . coyotes, lobos, and panthers . birds and wild flowers . negro folk songs and tales . fiction-including folk tales . poetry and drama . miscellaneous interpreters and institutions . subjects for themes index to authors and titles illustrations indian head by tom lea, from _a texas cowboy_ by charles a. siringo ( edition) comanche horsemen by george catlin, from _north american indians_ vaquero by tom lea, from _a texas cowboy_ by charles a. siringo ( edition) fray marcos de niza by jose cisneros, from the journey of fray marcos de niza by cleve hallenbeck horse by gutzon borglum, from mustangs and cow horses praxiteles swan, fighting chaplain, by john w. thomason, from his lone star preacher horse's head by william r. leigh, from the western pony longhorn by tom lea, from the longhorns by j. frank dobie cowboy and steer by tom lea, from the longhorns by j. frank dobie illustration by charles m. russell, from the virginian by owen wister ( edition) mustangs by charles banks wilson, from the mustangs by j. frank dobie illustration by charles m. russell, from the untamed by george pattullo pancho villa by tom lea, from southwest review, winter, frontispiece by tom lea, from santa rita by martin w. schwettmann illustration by charles m. russell, from the blazed trail by agnes c. laut buffaloes by harold d. bugbee illustration by charles m. russell, from fifteen thousand miles by stage by carrie adell strahorn coyote head by olaus j. murie, from the voice of the coyote by j. frank dobie paisano a preface with some revised ideas it has been ten years since i wrote the prefatory "declaration" to this now enlarged and altered book. not to my generation alone have many things receded during that decade. to the intelligent young as well as to the intelligent elderly, efforts in the present atmosphere to opiate the public with mere pictures of frontier enterprise have a ghastly unreality. the texas rangers have come to seem as remote as the foreign legion in france fighting against the kaiser. yet this _guide_, extensively added to and revised, is mainly concerned, apart from the land and its native life, with frontier backgrounds. if during a decade a man does not change his mind on some things and develop new points of view, it is a pretty good sign that his mind is petrified and need no longer be accounted among the living. i have an inclination to rewrite the "declaration," but maybe i was just as wise on some matters ten years ago as i am now; so i let it stand. do i contradict myself? very well then i contradict myself. i have heard so much silly bragging by texans that i now think it would be a blessing to themselves--and a relief to others--if the braggers did not know they lived in texas. yet the time is not likely to come when a human being will not be better adapted to his environments by knowing their nature; on the other hand, to study a provincial setting from a provincial point of view is restricting. nobody should specialize on provincial writings before he has the perspective that only a good deal of good literature and wide history can give. i think it more important that a dweller in the southwest read _the trial and death of socrates_ than all the books extant on killings by billy the kid. i think this dweller will fit his land better by understanding thomas jefferson's oath ("i have sworn upon the altar of god eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man") than by reading all the books that have been written on ranch lands and people. for any dweller of the southwest who would have the land soak into him, wordsworth's "tintern abbey," "ode: intimations of immortality," "the solitary reaper," "expostulation and reply," and a few other poems are more conducive to a "wise passiveness" than any native writing. there are no substitutes for nobility, beauty, and wisdom. one of the chief impediments to amplitude and intellectual freedom is provincial inbreeding. i am sorry to see writings of the southwest substituted for noble and beautiful and wise literature to which all people everywhere are inheritors. when i began teaching "life and literature of the southwest" i did not regard these writings as a substitute. to reread most of them would be boresome, though _hamlet_, boswell's _johnson_, lamb's _essays_, and other genuine literature remain as quickening as ever. very likely i shall not teach the course again. i am positive i shall never revise this _guide_ again. it is in nowise a bibliography. i have made more additions to the "range life" chapter than to any other. i am a collector of such books. a collector is a person who gathers unto himself the worthless as well as the worthy. since i did not make a nickel out of the original printing of the _guide_ and hardly expect to make enough to buy a california "ranch" out of the present printing, i have added several items, with accompanying remarks, more for my own pleasure than for benefit to society. were the listings halved, made more selective, the book might serve its purpose better. anybody who wants to can slice it in any manner he pleases. i am as much against forced literary swallowings as i am against prohibitions on free tasting, chewing, and digestion. i rate censors, particularly those of church and state, as low as i rate character assassins; they often run together. i'd like to make a book on _emancipators of the human mind_--emerson, jefferson, thoreau, tom paine, newton, arnold, voltaire, goethe.... when i reflect how few writings connected with the wide open spaces of the west and southwest are wide enough to enter into such a volume, i realize acutely how desirable is perspective in patriotism. hundreds of the books listed in this _guide_ have given me pleasure as well as particles for the mosaic work of my own books; but, with minor exceptions, they increasingly seem to me to explore only the exteriors of life. there is in them much good humor but scant wit. the hunger for something afar is absent or battened down. drought blasts the turf, but its unhealing blast to human hope is glossed over. the body's thirst for water is a recurring theme, but human thirst for love and just thinking is beyond consideration. horses run with their riders to death or victory, but fleeting beauty haunts no soul to the "doorway of the dead." the land is often pictured as lonely, but the lone way of a human being's essential self is not for this extravert world. the banners of individualism are carried high, but the higher individualism that grows out of long looking for meanings in the human drama is negligible. somebody is always riding around or into a "feudal domain." nobody at all penetrates it or penetrates democracy with the wisdom that came to lincoln in his loneliness: "as i would not be a slave, so i would not be a master. this expresses my idea of democracy. whatever differs from this, to the extent of the difference, is no democracy." the mountains, the caves, the forests, the deserts have had no prophets to interpret either their silences or their voices. in short, these books are mostly only the stuff of literature, not literature itself, not the very stuff of life, not the distillations of mankind's "agony and bloody sweat." an ignorant person attaches more importance to the chatter of small voices around him than to the noble language of remote individuals. the more he listens to the small, the smaller he grows. the hope of regional literature lies in out-growing regionalism itself. on november , , i gave a talk to the texas institute of letters that was published in the spring issue of the _southwest review_. the paragraphs that follow are taken therefrom. good writing about any region is good only to the extent that it has universal appeal. texans are the only "race of people" known to anthropologists who do not depend upon breeding for propagation. like princes and lords, they can be made by "breath," plus a big white hat--which comparatively few texans wear. a beef stew by a cook in san antonio, texas, may have a different flavor from that of a beef stew cooked in pittsburgh, pennsylvania, but the essential substances of potatoes and onions, with some suggestion of beef, are about the same, and geography has no effect on their digestibility. a writer--a regional writer, if that term means anything--will whenever he matures exercise the critical faculty. i mean in the matthew arnold sense of appraisal rather than of praise, or, for that matter, of absolute condemnation. understanding and sympathy are not eulogy. mere glorification is on the same intellectual level as silver tongues and juke box music. in using that word intellectual, one lays himself liable to the accusation of having forsaken democracy. for all that, "fundamental brainwork" is behind every respect-worthy piece of writing, whether it be a lightsome lyric that seems as careless as a redbird's flit or a formal epic, an impressionistic essay or a great novel that measures the depth of human destiny. nonintellectual literature is as nonexistent as education without mental discipline, or as "character building" in a school that is slovenly in scholarship. billboards along the highways of texas advertise certain towns and cities as "cultural centers." yet no chamber of commerce would consider advertising an intellectual center. the culture of a nineteenth-century finishing school for young ladies was divorced from intellect; genuine civilization is always informed by intellect. the american populace has been taught to believe that the more intellectual a professor is, the less common sense he has; nevertheless, if american democracy is preserved it will be preserved by thought and not by physics. editors of all but a few magazines of the country and publishers of most of the daily newspapers cry out for brightness and vitality and at the same time shut out critical ideas. they want intellect, but want it petrified. happily, the publishers of books have not yet reached that form of delusion. in an article entitled "what ideas are safe?" in the _saturday review of literature_ for november , , henry steele commager says: if we establish a standard of safe thinking, we will end up with no thinking at all.... we cannot... have thought half slave and half free.... a nation which, in the name of loyalty or of patriotism or of any sincere and high-sounding ideal, discourages criticism and dissent, and puts a premium on acquiescence and conformity, is headed for disaster. unless a writer feels free, things will not come to him, he cannot burgeon on any subject whatsoever. in davy crockett's _autobiography_ was published. it is one of the primary social documents of america. it is as much davy crockett, whether going ahead after bears in a tennessee canebrake or going ahead after general andrew jackson in congress, as the equally plain but also urbane _autobiography_ of franklin is benjamin franklin. it is undiluted regionalism. it is provincial not only in subject but in point of view. no provincial mind of this day could possibly write an autobiography or any other kind of book co-ordinate in value with crockett's "classic in homespun." in his time, crockett could exercise intelligence and still retain his provincial point of view. provincialism was in the air over his land. in these changed times, something in the ambient air prevents any active intelligence from being unconscious of lands, peoples, struggles far beyond any province. not long after the civil war, in harris county, texas, my father heard a bayou-billy yell out: whoopee! raised in a canebrake and suckled by a she-bear! the click of a six-shooter is music to my ear! the further up the creek you go, the worse they git, and i come from the head of it! whoopee! if it were now possible to find some section of country so far up above the forks of the creek that the owls mate there with the chickens, and if this section could send to congress one of its provincials untainted by the outside world, he would, if at all intelligent, soon after arriving on capitol hill become aware of interdependencies between his remote province and the rest of the world. biographies of regional characters, stories turning on local customs, novels based on an isolated society, books of history and fiction going back to provincial simplicity will go on being written and published. but i do not believe it possible that a good one will henceforth come from a mind that does not in outlook transcend the region on which it is focused. that is not to imply that the processes of evolution have brought all parts of the world into such interrelationships that a writer cannot depict the manners and morals of a community up owl hoot creek without enmeshing them with the complexities of the atlantic pact. awareness of other times and other wheres, not insistence on that awareness, is the requisite. james m. barrie said that he could not write a play until he got his people off on a kind of island, but had he not known about the mainland he could never have delighted us with the islanders--islanders, after all, for the night only. patriotism of the right kind is still a fine thing; but, despite all gulfs, canyons, and curtains that separate nations, those nations and their provinces are all increasingly interrelated. no sharp line of time or space, like that separating one century from another or the territory of one nation from that of another, can delimit the boundaries of any region to which any regionalist lays claim. mastery, for instance, of certain locutions peculiar to the southwest will take their user to the aztecs, to spain, and to the border of ballads and sir walter scott's romances. i found that i could not comprehend the coyote as animal hero of pueblo and plains indians apart from the reynard of aesop and chaucer. in a noble opinion respecting censorship and freedom of the press, handed down on march , , judge curtis bok of pennsylvania said: it is no longer possible that free speech be guaranteed federally and denied locally; under modern methods of instantaneous communication such a discrepancy makes no sense.... what is said in pennsylvania may clarify an issue in california, and what is suppressed in california may leave us the worse in pennsylvania. unless a restriction on free speech be of national validity, it can no longer have any local validity whatever. among the qualities that any good regional writer has in common with other good writers of all places and times is intellectual integrity. having it does not obligate him to speak out on all issues or, indeed, on any issue. he alone is to judge whether he will sport with amaryllis in the shade or forsake her to write his own _areopagitica_. intellectual integrity expresses itself in the tune as well as argument, in choice of words--words honest and precise--as well as in ideas, in fidelity to human nature and the flowers of the fields as well as to principles, in facts reported more than in deductions proposed. though a writer write on something as innocuous as the white snails that crawl up broomweed stalks and that roadrunners carry to certain rocks to crack and eat, his intellectual integrity, if he has it, will infuse the subject. nothing is too trivial for art, but good art treats nothing in a trivial way. nothing is too provincial for the regional writer, but he cannot be provincial-minded toward it. being provincial-minded may make him a typical provincial; it will prevent him from being a representative or skilful interpreter. horace greeley said that when the rules of the english language got in his way, they did not stand a chance. we may be sure that if by violating the rules of syntax horace greeley sometimes added forcefulness to his editorials, he violated them deliberately and not in ignorance. luminosity is not stumbled into. the richly savored and deliciously unlettered speech of thomas hardy's rustics was the creation of a master architect who had looked out over the ranges of fated mankind and looked also into hell. thomas hardy's ashes were placed in westminster abbey, but his heart, in accordance with a provision of his will, was buried in the churchyard of his own village. i have never tried to define regionalism. its blanket has been put over a great deal of worthless writing. robert frost has approached a satisfying conception. "the land is always in my bones," he said--the land of rock fences. but, "i am not a regionalist. i am a realmist. i write about realms of democracy and realms of the spirit." those realms include the woodpile, the grindstone, blueberries, birches, and many other features of the land north of boston. to an extent, any writer anywhere must make his own world, no matter whether in fiction or nonfiction, prose or poetry. he must make something out of his subject. what he makes depends upon his creative power, integrated with a sense of form. the popular restriction of creative writing to fiction and verse is illogical. carl sandburg's life of lincoln is immeasurably more creative in form and substance than his fanciful _potato face_. intense exercise of his creative power sets, in a way, the writer apart from the life he is trying to sublimate. becoming a philistine will not enable a man to interpret philistinism, though philistines who own big presses think so. sinclair lewis knew babbitt as babbitt could never know either himself or sinclair lewis. j. f. d. _the time of mexican primroses_ . a declaration in the university of texas i teach a course called "life and literature of the southwest." about i had a brief guide to books concerning the southwest mimeographed; in it was included by john william rogers in a booklet entitled _finding literature on the texas plains_. after that i revised and extended the guide three or four times, during the process distributing several thousand copies of the mimeographed forms. now the guide has grown too long, and i trust that this printing of it will prevent my making further additions--though within a short time new books will come out that should be added. yet the guide is fragmentary, incomplete, and in no sense a bibliography. its emphases vary according to my own indifferences and ignorance as well as according to my own sympathies and knowledge. it is strong on the character and ways of life of the early settlers, on the growth of the soil, and on everything pertaining to the range; it is weak on information concerning politicians and on citations to studies which, in the manner of orthodox ph.d. theses, merely transfer bones from one graveyard to another. it is designed primarily to help people of the southwest see significances in the features of the land to which they belong, to make their environments more interesting to them, their past more alive, to bring them to a realization of the values of their own cultural inheritance, and to stimulate them to observe. it includes most of the books about the southwest that people in general would agree on as making good reading. i have never had any idea of writing or teaching about my own section of the country merely as a patriotic duty. without apologies, i would interpret it because i love it, because it interests me, talks to me, appeals to my imagination, warms my emotions; also because it seems to me that other people living in the southwest will lead fuller and richer lives if they become aware of what it holds. i once thought that, so far as reading goes, i could live forever on the supernal beauty of shelley's "the cloud" and his soaring lines "to a skylark," on the rich melancholy of keats's "ode to a nightingale," on cyrano de bergerac's ideal of a free man, on wordsworth's philosophy of nature--a philosophy that has illuminated for me the mesquite flats and oak-studded hills of texas--on the adventures in robert louis stevenson, the flavor and wit of lamb's essays, the eloquent wisdom of hazlitt, the dark mysteries of conrad, the gaieties of barrie, the melody of sir thomas browne, the urbanity of addison, the dash in kipling, the mobility, the mightiness, the lightness, the humor, the humanity, the everything of shakespeare, and a world of other delicious, high, beautiful, and inspiring things that english literature has bestowed upon us. that literature is still the richest of heritages; but literature is not enough. here i am living on a soil that my people have been living and working and dying on for more than a hundred years--the soil, as it happens, of texas. my roots go down into this soil as deep as mesquite roots go. this soil has nourished me as the banks of the lovely guadalupe river nourish cypress trees, as the brazos bottoms nourish the wild peach, as the gentle slopes of east texas nourish the sweet-smelling pines, as the barren, rocky ridges along the pecos nourish the daggered lechuguilla. i am at home here, and i want not only to know about my home land, i want to live intelligently on it. i want certain data that will enable me to accommodate myself to it. knowledge helps sympathy to achieve harmony. i am made more resolute by arthur hugh clough's picture of the dripping sailor on the reeling mast, "on stormy nights when wild northwesters rave," but the winds that have bit into me have been dry texas northers; and fantastic yarns about them, along with a cowboy's story of a herd of longhorns drifting to death in front of one of them, come home to me and illuminate those northers like forked lightning playing along the top of black clouds in the night. no informed person would hold that the southwest can claim any considerable body of pure literature as its own. at the same time, the region has a distinct cultural inheritance, full of life and drama, told variously in books so numerous that their very existence would surprise many people who depend on the book-of-the-month club for literary guidance. any people have a right to their own cultural inheritance, though sheeplike makers of textbooks and sheeplike pedagogues of american literature have until recently, either wilfully or ignorantly, denied that right to the southwest. tens of thousands of students of the southwest have been assigned endless pages on and listened to dronings over cotton mather, increase mather, jonathan edwards, anne bradstreet, and other dreary creatures of colonial new england who are utterly foreign to the genius of the southwest. if nothing in written form pertaining to the southwest existed at all, it would be more profitable for an inhabitant to go out and listen to coyotes singing at night in the prickly pear than to tolerate the increase mather kind of thing. it is very profitable to listen to coyotes anyhow. i rebelled years ago at having the tradition, the spirit, the meaning of the soil to which i belong utterly disregarded by interpreters of literature and at the same time having the increase mather kind of stuff taught as if it were important to our part of america. happily the disregard is disappearing, and so is increase mather. if they had to be rigorously classified into hard and fast categories, comparatively few of the books in the lists that follow would be rated as pure literature. fewer would be rated as history. a majority of them are the stuff of history. the stuff out of which history is made is generally more vital than formalized history, especially the histories habitually forced on students in public schools, colleges, and universities. there is no essential opposition between history and literature. the attempt to study a people's literature apart from their social and, to a less extent, their political history is as illogical as the lady who said she had read romeo but had not yet got to juliet. nearly any kind of history is more important than formal literary history showing how in a literary way abraham begat isaac and isaac begat jacob. any man of any time who has ever written with vigor has been immeasurably nearer to the dunghill on which he sank his talons while crowing than to all literary ancestors. a great deal of chronicle writing that makes no pretense at being belles-lettres is really superior literature to much that is so classified. i will vote three times a day and all night for john c. duval's _adventures of bigfoot wallace_, charlie siringo's _riata and spurs_, james b. gillett's _six years with the texas rangers_, and dozens of other straightaway chronicles of the southwest in preference to "the culprit fay" and much other watery "literature" with which anthologies representing the earlier stages of american writing are padded. ike fridge's pamphlet story of his ridings for john chisum--chief provider of cattle for billy the kid to steal--has more of the juice of reality in it and, therefore, more of literary virtue than some of james fenimore cooper's novels, and than some of james russell lowell's odes. the one thing essential to writing if it is to be read, to art if it is to be looked at, is vitality. no critic or professor can be hired to pump vitality into any kind of human expression, but professors and critics have taken it out of many a human being who in his attempts to say something decided to be correct at the expense of being himself--being natural, being alive. the priests of literary conformity never had a chance at the homemade chronicles of the southwest. the orderly way in which to study the southwest would be to take up first the land, its flora, fauna, climate, soils, rivers, etc., then the aborigines, next the exploring and settling spaniards, and finally, after a hasty glance at the french, the english-speaking people who brought the southwest to what it is today. we cannot proceed in this way, however. neither the prairies nor the indians who first hunted deer on them have left any records, other than hieroglyphic, as to their lives. some late-coming men have written about them. droughts and rains have had far more influence on all forms of life in the southwest and on all forms of its development culturally and otherwise than all of the coronado expeditions put together. i have emphasized the literature that reveals nature. my method has been to take up types and subjects rather than to follow chronology. chronology is often an impediment to the acquiring of useful knowledge. i am not nearly so much interested in what happened in abilene, kansas, in --the year that the first herds of texas longhorns over the chisholm trail found a market at that place--as i am in picking out of abilene in some thing that reveals the character of the men who went up the trail, some thing that will illuminate certain phenomena along the trail human beings of the southwest are going up today, some thing to awaken observation and to enrich with added meaning this corner of the earth of which we are the temporary inheritors. by "literature of the southwest" i mean writings that interpret the region, whether they have been produced by the southwest or not. many of them have not. what we are interested in is life in the southwest, and any interpreter of that life, foreign or domestic, ancient or modern, is of value. the term southwest is variable because the boundaries of the southwest are themselves fluid, expanding and contracting according to the point of view from which the southwest is viewed and according to whatever common denominator is taken for defining it. the spanish southwest includes california, but california regards itself as more closely akin to the pacific northwest than to texas; california is southwest more in an antiquarian way than other-wise. from the point of view of the most picturesque and imagination-influencing occupation of the southwest, the occupation of ranching, the southwest might be said to run up into montana. certainly one will have to go up the trail to montana to finish out the story of the texas cowboy. early in the nineteenth century the southwest meant tennessee, georgia, and other frontier territory now regarded as strictly south. the men and women who "redeemed texas from the wilderness" came principally from that region. the code of conduct they gave texas was largely the code of the booming west. considering the character of the anglo-american people who took over the southwest, the region is closer to missouri than to kansas, which is not southwest in any sense but which has had a strong influence on oklahoma. chihuahua is more southwestern than large parts of oklahoma. in _our southwest_, erna fergusson has a whole chapter on "what is the southwest?" she finds fort worth to be in the southwest but dallas, thirty miles east, to be facing north and east. the principal areas of the southwest are, to have done with air-minded reservations, arizona, new mexico, most of texas, some of oklahoma, and anything else north, south, east, or west that anybody wants to bring in. the boundaries of cultures and rainfall never follow survey lines. in talking about the southwest i naturally incline to emphasize the texas part of it. life is fluid, and definitions that would apprehend it must also be. yet i will venture one definition--not the only one--of an educated person. an educated person is one who can view with interest and intelligence the phenomena of life about him. like people elsewhere, the people of the southwest find the features of the land on which they live blank or full of pictures according to the amount of interest and intelligence with which they view the features. intelligence cannot be acquired, but interest can; and data for interest and intelligence to act upon are entirely acquirable. "studies perfect nature," bacon said. "nature follows art" to the extent that most of us see principally what our attention has been called to. i might never have noticed rose-purple snow between shadows if i had not seen a picture of that kind of snow. i had thought white the only natural color of snow. i cannot think of yew trees, which i have never seen, without thinking of wordsworth's poem on three yew trees. nobody has written a memorable poem on the mesquite. yet the mesquite has entered into the social, economic, and aesthetic life of the land; it has made history and has been painted by artists. in the homely chronicles of the southwest its thorns stick, its roots burn into bright coals, its trunks make fence posts, its lovely leaves wave. to live beside this beautiful, often pernicious, always interesting and highly characteristic tree--or bush--and to know nothing of its significance is to be cheated out of a part of life. it is but one of a thousand factors peculiar to the southwest and to the land's cultural inheritance. for a long time, as he tells in his _narrative_, cabeza de vaca was a kind of prisoner to coastal indians of texas. annually, during the season when prickly pear apples (_tunas_, or indian figs, as they are called in books) were ripe, these indians would go upland to feed on the fruit. during his sojourn with them cabeza de vaca went along. he describes how the indians would dig a hole in the ground, squeeze the fruit out of _tunas_ into the hole, and then swill up big drinks of it. long ago the indians vanished, but prickly pears still flourish over millions of acres of land. the prickly pear is one of the characteristic growths of the southwest. strangers look at it and regard it as odd. painters look at it in bloom or in fruit and strive to capture the colors. during the droughts ranchmen singe the thorns off its leaves, using a flame-throwing machine, easily portable by a man on foot, fed from a small gasoline tank. from central texas on down into central america prickly pear acts as host for the infinitesimal insect called cochineal, which supplied the famous dyes of aztec civilization. a long essay might be written on prickly pear. it weaves in and out of many chronicles of the southwest. a. j. sowell, one of the best chroniclers of texas pioneer life, tells in his life of bigfoot wallace how that picturesque ranger captain once took one of his wounded men away from an army surgeon because the surgeon would not apply prickly pear poultices to the wound. in _rangers and pioneers of texas_, sowell narrates how rattlesnakes were so large and numerous in a great prickly pear flat out from the nueces river that rangers pursuing bandits had to turn back. nobody has written a better description of a prickly pear flat than o. henry in his story of "the caballero's way." people may look at prickly pear, and it will be just prickly pear and nothing more. or they may look at it and find it full of significances; the mere sight of a prickly pear may call up a chain of incidents, facts, associations. a mind that can thus look out on the common phenomena of life is rich, and all of the years of the person whose mind is thus stored will be more interesting and full. cabeza de vaca's _narrative_, the chronicles of a. j. sowell, and o. henry's story are just three samples of southwestern literature that bring in prickly pear. no active-minded person who reads any one of these three samples will ever again look at prickly pear in the same light that he looked at it before he read. yet prickly pear is just one of hundreds of manifestations of life in the southwest that writers have commented on, told stories about, dignified with significance. cotton no longer has the economic importance to texas that it once had. still, it is mighty important. in the minds of millions of farm people of the south, cotton and the boll weevil are associated. the boll weevil was once a curse; then it came to be somewhat regarded as a disguised blessing--in limiting production. de first time i seen de boll weevil, he was a-settin' on de square. next time i seen him, he had all his family dere-- jest a-lookin' foh a home, jest a-lookin' foh a home. a man dependent on cotton for a living and having that living threatened by the boll weevil will not be much interested in ballads, but for the generality of people this boll weevil ballad--the entirety of which is a kind of life history of the insect--is, while delightful in itself, a veritable story-book on the weevil. without the ballad, the weevil's effect on economic history would be unchanged; but as respects mind and imagination, the ballad gives the weevil all sorts of significances. the ballad is a part of the literature of the southwest. but i am assigning too many motives of self-improvement to reading. people read for fun, for pleasure. the literature of the southwest affords bully reading. "if i had read as much as other men, i would know as little," thomas hobbes is credited with having said. a student in the presence of bishop e. d. mouzon was telling about the scores and scores of books he had read. at a pause the bishop shook his long, wise head and remarked, "my son, when do you get time to think?" two of the best educated men i have ever had the fortune of talking with were neither schooled nor widely read. they were extraordinary observers. one was a plainsman, charles goodnight; the other was a borderer, don alberto guajardo, in part educated by an old lipan indian. but here are the books. i list them not so much to give knowledge as to direct people with intellectual curiosity and with interest in their own land to the sources of knowledge; not to create life directly, but to point out where it has been created or copied. on some of the books i have made brief observations. those observations can never be nearly so important to a reader as the development of his own powers of observation. with something of an apologetic feeling i confess that i have read, in my way, most of the books. i should probably have been a wiser and better informed man had i spent more time out with the grasshoppers, horned toads, and coyotes. november , j. frank dobie . interpreters of the land "he's for a jig or a tale of bawdry, or he sleeps." thought employs ideas, but having an idea is not the same thing as thinking. a rooster in a pen of hens has an idea. thought has never been so popular with mankind as horse opera, horse play, the main idea behind sheep's eyes. far be it from me to feel contempt for people who cannot and do not want to think. the human species has not yet evolved to the stage at which thought is natural. i am far more at ease lying in grass and gazing without thought process at clouds than in sitting in a chair trying to be logical. just the same, free play of mind upon life is the essence of good writing, and intellectual activity is synonymous with critical interpretations. to the constant disregard of thought, americans of the mid-twentieth century have added positive opposition. critical ideas are apt to make any critic suspected of being subversive. the southwest, texas especially, is more articulately aware of its land spaces than of any other feature pertaining to itself. yet in the realm of government, the southwest has not produced a single spacious thinker. so far as the cultural ancestry of the region goes, the south has been arid of thought since the time of thomas jefferson, the much talked-of mind of john c. calhoun being principally casuistic; on another side, derivatives from the spanish inquisition could contribute to thought little more than tribal medicine men have contributed. among historians of the southwest the general rule has been to be careful with facts and equally careful in avoiding thought-provoking interpretations. in the multitudinous studies on spanish-american history all padres are "good" and all conquistadores are "intrepid," and that is about as far as interpretation goes. the one state book of the southwest that does not chloroform ideas is erna fergusson's _new mexico: a pageant of three peoples_ (knopf, new york, ). essayical in form, it treats only of the consequential. it evaluates from the point of view of good taste, good sense, and an urbane comprehension of democracy. the subject is provincial, but the historian transcends all provincialism. her sympathy does not stifle conclusions unusable in church or chamber of commerce propaganda. in brief, a cultivated mind can take pleasure in this interpretation of new mexico--and that marks it as a solitary among the histories of neighboring states. the outstanding historical interpreter of the southwest is walter prescott webb, of the university of texas. _the great plains_ utilizes chronology to explain the presence of man on the plains; it is primarily a study in cause and effect, of water and drought, of adaptations and lack of adaptations, of the land's growth into human imagination as well as economic institutions. webb uses facts to get at meanings. he fulfils emerson's definition of scholar: "man thinking." in _divided we stand_ he goes into machinery, the feudalism of corporation-dominated economy, the economic supremacy of the north over the south and the west. in _the great frontier_ (houghton mifilin, boston, ) he considers the western hemisphere as a frontier for europe--a frontier that brought about the rise of democracy and capitalism and that, now vanished as a frontier, foreshadows the vanishment of democracy and capitalism. in _virgin land: the american west as symbol and a myth_ (harvard university press, cambridge, massachusetts, ) henry nash smith plows deep. but the tools of this humanistic historian are of delicate finish rather than of horsepower. to him, thinking is a joyful process and lucidity out of complexity is natural. he compasses parrington's _main currents in american thought_ and beadle's dime novels along with agriculture and manufacturing. excepting the powerful books by walter prescott webb, not since frederick jackson turner, in , presented his famous thesis on "the significance of the frontier in american history" has such a revealing evaluation of frontier movements appeared as a matter of fact, henry nash smith leaves turner's ideas on the dependence of democracy upon farmers without more than one leg to stand upon. not being a king canute, he does not take sides for or against social evolution. with the clearest eyes imaginable, he looks into it. turner's _the frontier in american history_ ( ) has been a fertile begetter of interpretations of history. instead of being the usual kind of jokesmith book or concatenation of tall tales, _folk laughter on the american frontier_ by mody c. boatright (macmillan, new york, ) goes into the human and social significances of humor. of boastings, anecdotal exaggerations, hide-and-hair metaphors, stump and pulpit parables, tenderfoot baitings, and the like there is plenty, but thought plays upon them and arranges them into patterns of social history. mary austin ( - ) is an interpreter of nature, which for her includes naturally placed human beings as much as naturally placed antelopes and cacti. she wrote _the american rhythm_ on the theory that authentic poetry expresses the rhythms of that patch of earth to which the poet is rooted. rhythm is experience passed into the subconscious and is "distinct from our intellectual perception of it." before they can make true poetry, english-speaking americans will be in accord with "the run of wind in tall grass" as were the pueblo indians when europeans discovered them. but mary austin's primary importance is not as a theorist. her spiritual depth is greater than her intellectual. she is a translator of nature through concrete observations. she interprets through character sketches, folk tales, novels. "anybody can write facts about a country," she said. she infuses fact with understanding and imagination. in _lost borders_, _the land of little rain_, _the land of journey's ending_, and _the flock_ the land itself often seems to speak, but often she gets in its way. she sees "with an eye made quiet by the power of harmony." _earth horizons_, a stubborn book, is mary austin's inner autobiography. _the beloved house_, by t. m. pearce (caxton, caldwell, idaho, ), is an understanding biography. joseph wood krutch of columbia university spent a year in arizona, near tucson. instead of talking about his _the desert year_ (sloane, new york, ), i quote a representative paragraph: in new england the struggle for existence is visibly the struggle of plant with plant, each battling his neighbor for sunlight and for the spot of ground which, so far as moisture and nourishment are concerned, would support them all. here, the contest is not so much of plant against plant as of plant against inanimate nature. the limiting factor is not the neighbor but water; and i wonder if this is, perhaps, one of the things which makes this country seem to enjoy a kind of peace one does not find elsewhere. the struggle of living thing against living thing can be distressing in a way that a mere battle with the elements is not. if some great clump of cactus dies this summer it will be because the cactus has grown beyond the capacity of its roots to get water, not because one green fellow creature has bested it in some limb-to-limb struggle. in my more familiar east the crowding of the countryside seems almost to parallel the crowding of the cities. out here there is, even in nature, no congestion. _southwest_, by laura adams armer (new york, , op) came from long living and brooding in desert land. it says something beautiful. _talking to the moon_, by john joseph mathews (university of chicago press, ) is set in the blackjack country of eastern oklahoma. this oxford scholar of osage blood built his ranch house around a fireplace, flanked by shelves of books. his observations are of the outside, but they are informed by reflections made beside a fire. they are not bookish at all, but the spirits of great writers mingle with echoes of coyote wailing and wood-thrush singing. _sky determines: an interpretation of the southwest_, by ross calvin (new york, ; republished by the university of new mexico press) lives up to its striking title. the introductory words suggest the essence of the book: in new mexico whatever is both old and peculiar appears upon examination to have a connection with the arid climate. peculiarities range from the striking adaptations of the flora onward to those of fauna, and on up to those of the human animal. sky determines. and the writer once having picked up the trail followed it with certainty, and indeed almost inevitably, as it led from ecology to anthropology and economics. cultivated intellect is the highest form of civilization. it is inseparable from the arts, literature, architecture. in any civilized land, birds, trees, flowers, animals, places, human contributors to life out of the past, all are richer and more significant because of representations through literature and art. no literate person can listen to a skylark over an english meadow without hearing in its notes the melodies of chaucer and shelley. as the southwest advances in maturity of mind and civilization, the features of the land take on accretions from varied interpreters. it is not necessary for an interpreter to write a whole book about a feature to bring out its significance. we need more gossipy books--something in the manner of _pinon country_ by haniel long (duell, sloan and pearce, new york, ), in which one can get a swift slant on billy the kid, smell the pinon trees, feel the deeply religious attitude toward his corn patch of a zuni indian. roy bedichek's chapters on the mockingbird, in _adventures with a texas naturalist_, are like rich talk under a tree on a pleasant patch of ground staked out for his claim by an april-voiced mockingbird. in _the voice of the coyote_ i tried to compass the whole animal, and i should think that the "father of song-making" chapter might make coyote music and the night more interesting and beautiful for any listener. intelligent writers often interpret without set purpose, and many books under various categories in this _guide_ are interpretative. . general helps there is no chart to the life and literature of the southwest. an attempt to put it all into an alphabetically arranged encyclopedia would be futile. all guides to knowledge are too long or too short. this one at the outset adds to its length--perhaps to its usefulness--by citing other general reference works and a few anthologies. _books of the southwest: a general bibliography_, by mary tucker, published by j. j. augustin, new york, , is better on indians and the spanish period than on anglo-american culture. _southwest heritage: a literary history with bibliography_, by mabel major, rebecca w. smith, and t. m. pearce, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, , revised , takes up the written material under the time-established heads of fiction, poetry, drama, etc., with due respect to chronological development. _a treasury of southern folklore_, , and _a treasury of western folklore_, , both edited by b. a. botkin and both published by crown, new york, are so liberal in the extensions of folklore and so voluminous that they amount to literary anthologies. of possible use in working out certain phases of life and literature common to the southwest as well as to the west and middle west are the following academic treatises: _the frontier in american literature_, by lucy lockwood hazard, new york, ; _the literature of the middle western frontier_, by ralph leslie rusk, new york, ; _the prairie and the making of middle america_, by dorothy anne dondore, cedar rapids, iowa, ; _the literature of the rocky mountain west - _, by l. j. davidson and p. bostwick, caldwell, idaho, ; and _the rediscovery of the frontier_, by percy h. boynton, chicago, . anyone interested in vitality in any phase of american writing will find vernon l. parrington's _main currents in american thought_ (three vols.), new york, - , an opener-up of avenues. perhaps the best anthology of southwestern narratives is _golden tales of the southwest_, selected by mary l. becker, new york, . two anthologies of southwestern writings are _southwesterners write_, edited by t. m. pearce and a. p. thomason, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, , and _roundup time_, edited by george sessions perry, whittlesey house, new york, . themes common to the southwest are represented in _western prose and poetry_, an anthology put together by rufus a. coleman, new york, , and in _mid country: writings from the heart of america_, edited by lowry c. wimberly, university of nebraska press, lincoln, . for the southern tradition that has flowed into the southwest franklin j. meine's _tall tales of the southwest_, new york, , op, is the best anthology published. it is the best anthology of any kind that i know of. _a southern treasury of life and literature_, selected by stark young, new york, , brings in texas. anthologies of poetry are listed under the heading of "poetry and drama." the outstanding state bibliography of the region is _a bibliography of texas_, by c. w. raines, austin, . since this is half a century behind the times, its usefulness is limited. at that, it is more useful than the shiftless, hit-and-miss, ignorance-revealing _south of forty: from the mississippi to the rio grande: a bibliography_, by jesse l. rader, norman, oklahoma, . henry r. wagner's _the plains and the rockies_, "a contribution to the bibliography of original narratives of travel and adventure, - ," which came out - , was revised and extended by charles l. camp and reprinted in . it is stronger on overland travel than on anything else, only in part covers the southwest, and excludes a greater length of time than raines's _bibliography_. now published by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. mary g. boyer's _arizona in literature_, glendale, california, , is an anthology that runs toward six hundred pages. _texas prose writings_, by sister m. agatha, dallas, , op, is a meaty, critical survey. l. w. payne's handbook-sized _a survey of texas literature_, chicago, , is complemented by a chapter entitled "literature and art in texas" by j. frank dobie in _the book of texas_, new york, . op. _a guide to materials bearing on cultural relations in new mexico_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, , is so logical and liberal-minded that in some respects it amounts to a bibliography of the whole southwest; it recognizes the overriding of political boundaries by ideas, human types, and other forms of culture. the _new mexico quarterly_, published by the university of new mexico, furnishes periodically a bibliographical record of contemporary literature of the southwest. _new mexico's own chronicle_, edited by maurice g. fulton and paul horgan (dallas, , op), is an anthology strong on the historical side. in the lists that follow, the symbol op indicates that the book is out of print. many old books obviously out of print are not so tagged. . indian culture; pueblos and navajos the literature on the subject of indians is so extensive and ubiquitous that, unless a student of americana is pursuing it, he may find it more troublesome to avoid than to get hold of. the average old-timer has for generations regarded indian scares and fights as the most important theme for reminiscences. county-minded historians have taken the same point of view. the bureau of american ethnology of the smithsonian institution has buried records of indian beliefs, ceremonies, mythology, and other folklore in hundreds of tomes; laborious, literal-minded scholars of other institutions have been as assiduous. in all this lore and tabulation of facts, the indian folk themselves have generally been dried out. the anglo-american's policy toward the indian was to kill him and take his land, perhaps make a razor-strop out of his hide. the spaniard's policy was to baptize him, take his land, enslave him, and appropriate his women. any english-speaking frontiersman who took up with the indians was dubbed "squaw man"--a term of sinister connotations. despite pride in descending from pocahontas and in the vaunted indian blood of such individuals as will rogers, crossbreeding between anglo-americans and indians has been restricted, as compared, for instance, with the interdicted crosses between white men and black women. the spaniards, on the other hand, crossed in battalions with the indians, generating _mestizo_ (mixed-blooded) nations, of which mexico is the chief example. as a result, the english-speaking occupiers of the land have in general absorbed directly only a minimum of indian culture--nothing at all comparable to the uncle remus stories and characters and the spiritual songs and the blues music from the negroes. grandpa still tells how his own grandpa saved or lost his scalp during a comanche horse-stealing raid in the light of the moon; boy scouts hunt for indian arrowheads; every section of the country has a bluff called lovers' leap, where, according to legend, a pair of forlorn indian lovers, or perhaps only one of the pair, dived to death; the maps all show caddo lake, kiowa peak, squaw creek, tehuacana hills, nacogdoches town, cherokee county, indian gap, and many another place name derived from indian days. all such contacts with indian life are exterior. three forms of indian culture are, however, weaving into the life patterns of america. ( ) the mexicans have naturally inherited and assimilated indian lore about plants, animals, places, all kinds of human relationships with the land. through the mexican medium, with which he is becoming more sympathetic, the gringo is getting the ages-old indian culture. ( ) the pueblo and navajo indians in particular are impressing their arts, crafts, and ways of life upon special groups of americans living near them, and these special groups are transmitting some of their acquisitions. the special groups incline to be arty and worshipful, but they express a salutary revolt against machined existence and they have done much to revive dignity in indian life. offsetting dilettantism, the museum of new mexico and associated institutions and artists and other individuals have fostered indian pottery, weaving, silversmithing, dancing, painting, and other arts and crafts. superior craftsmanship can now depend upon a fairly reliable market; the taste of american buyers has been somewhat elevated. o mountains, pure and holy, give me a song, a strong and holy song to bless my flock and bring the rain! this is from "navajo holy song," as rendered by edith hart mason. it expresses a spiritual content in indian life far removed from the we and god, incorporated form of religion ordained by the national association of manufacturers. ( ) the wild freedom, mobility, and fierce love of liberty of the mounted indians of the plains will perhaps always stir imaginations--something like the charging cossacks, the camping arabs, and the migrating tartars. there is no romance in indian fights east of the mississippi. the mounted plains indians always made a big hit in buffalo bill's wild west show. little boys still climb into their seats and cry out when red horsemen of the plains ride across the screen. see "apaches, comanches, and other plains indians," "mountain men." applegate, frank g. _indian stories from the pueblos_, philadelphia, . charming. op. astrov, margot (editor), _the winged serpent_, john day, new york, . an anthology of prose and poetry by american indians. here are singular expressions of beauty and dignity. austin, mary. _the trail book_, , op; _one-smoke stories_, , houghton mifflin, boston. delightful folk tales, each leading to a vista. bandelier, a. f. _the delight makers_, , dodd, mead, new york. historical fiction on ancient pueblo life. coolidge, dane and mary. _the navajo indians_, boston, . readable; bibliography. op. coolidge, mary roberts. _the rain-makers_, boston, . op. this thorough treatment of the indians of arizona and new mexico contains an excellent account of the hopi snake ceremony for bringing rain. during any severe drought numbers of christians in the southwest pray without snakes. it always rains eventually--and the prayer-makers naturally take the credit. the hopis put on a more spectacular show. see dr. walter hough's _the hopi indians_, cedar rapids, iowa, . op. cushing, frank hamilton. _zuni folk tales_, ; reprinted, , by knopf, new york. _my adventures in zuni_, santa fe, . _zuni breadstuff_, museum of the american indian, new york, . cushing had rare imagination and sympathy. his retellings of tales are far superior to verbatim recordings. _zuni breadstuff_ reveals more of indian spirituality than any other book i can name. all op. dehuff, elizabeth. _tay tay's tales_, ; _tay tay's memories_, . op. douglas, frederic h., and d harnoncourt, rene. _indian art of the united states_, simon and schuster, new york, . dyk, walter. _son of old man hat_, new york, . op. fergusson, erna. _dancing gods_, knopf, new york, . erna fergusson is always illuminating. foreman, grant. _indians and pioneers_, , and _advancing the frontier_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . grant foreman is prime authority on the so-called "civilized tribes." university of oklahoma press has published a number of excellent volumes in "the civilization of the american indian" series. gillmor, frances, and wetherill, louisa wade. _traders to the navajos_, boston, ; reprinted by university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . an account not only of the trading post wetherills but of the navajos as human beings, with emphasis on their spiritual qualities. goddard, p. e. _indians of the southwest_, new york, . excellent outline of exterior facts. op. hamilton, charles (editor). _cry of the thunderbird_, macmillan, new york, . an anthology of writings by indians containing many interesting leads. hewett, edgar l. _ancient life in the american southwest_, indianapolis, . op. a master work in both archeology and indian nature. (with bertha p. dretton) _the pueblo indian world_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . hodge, f. w. _handbook of american indians north of mexico_, washington, d. c., . indispensable encyclopedia, by a very great scholar and a very fine gentleman. op. labarre, weston. _the peyote cult_, yale university press, new haven, . lafarge, oliver. _laughing boy_, boston, . the navajo in fiction. lummis, c. f. _mesa, canon, and pueblo_, new york, ; _pueblo indian folk tales_, new york, . lummis, though self-vaunting and opinionated, opens windows. matthews, washington. _navajo legends_, boston, ; _navajo myths, prayers and songs_, berkeley, california, . mooney, james. _myths of the cherokees_, in nineteenth annual report of the bureau of ethnology, washington, . outstanding writing. nelson, john louw. _rhythm for rain_, boston, . based on ten years spent with the hopi indians, this study of their life is a moving story of humanity. op. pearce, j. e. _tales that dead men tell_, university of texas press, austin, . eloquent, liberating to the human mind; something rare for texas scholarship. pearce was professor of anthropology at the university of texas, an emancipator from prejudices and ignorance. it is a pity that all the college students who are forced by the bureaucrats of education--education spelled with a capital e--"the unctuous elaboration of the obvious"--do not take anthropology instead. collegians would then stand a chance of becoming educated. petrullo, vicenzo. _the diabolic root: a study of peyotism, the new indian religion, among the delawares_, university of pennsylvania press, philadelphia, . the use of peyote has now spread northwest into canada. see milly peacock stenberg's _the peyote culture among wyoming indians_, university of wyoming publications, laramie, , for bibliography. reichard, gladys a. _spider woman_, , and _dezba woman of the desert_, . both honest, both op. simmons, leo w. (editor). _sun chief: the autobiography of a hopi indian_, yale university press, new haven, . the clearest view into the mind and living ways, including sex life, of an indian that has been published. few autobiographers have been clearer; not one has been franker. a singular human document. {illust} . apaches, comanches, and other plains indians the apaches and the bareback indians of the plains were extraordinary _hombres del campo--_men of the outdoors, plainsmen, woodsmen, trailers, hunters, endurers. they knew some phases of nature with an intimacy that few civilized naturalists ever attain to. it is unfortunate that most of the literature about them is from their enemies. yet an enemy often teaches a man more than his friends and makes him work harder. see "indian culture," "texas rangers." bourke, john g. _on the border with crook_, london, . reprinted by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. a truly great book, on both apaches and arizona frontier. bourke had amplitude, and he knew. buckelew, f. m. _the indian captive_, bandera, texas, . homely and realistic. op. catlin, george. _letters and notes on the manners, customs and conditions of the north american indians, written during eight years' travel, - _, . despite many strictures, catlin's two volumes remain standard. i am pleased to find frank roe, in _the north american buffalo_, standing up for him. in _pursuit of the horizon: a life of george catlin, painter and recorder of the american indian_, new york, , loyd haberly fails in evaluating evidence but brings out the man's career and character. clum, woodworth. _apache agent_, boston, . worthy autobiography of a noble understander of the apache people. op. comfort, will levington. _apache_, dutton, new york, . noble; vivid; semifiction. davis, britton. _the truth about geronimo_, yale university press, new haven, . davis helped run geronimo down. deshields, james t. _cynthia ann parker_, st. louis, ; reprinted . good narrative of noted woman captive. op. dobie, j. frank. _the mustangs_, little, brown, boston, . the opening chapters of this book distil a great deal of research by scholars on plains indian acquisition of horses, riding, and raiding. grinnell, george bird. _the cheyenne indians_, new haven, . this two-volume work supersedes _the fighting cheyennes_, . it is noble, ample, among the most select books on plains indians. _blackfoot lodge tales: the story of a prairie people_, , shows grinnell's skill as storyteller at its best. _pawnee hero stories and folk tales_, , is hardly an equal but it reveals the high values of life held by representatives of the original plainsmen. _the story of the indian_, , is a general survey. all op. grinnell's knowledge and power as a writer on indians and animals has not been sufficiently recognized. he combined in a rare manner scholarship, plainsmanship, and the worldliness of publishing. {illust. caption = george catlin, in _north american indians_ ( )} haley, j. evetts. _fort concho and the texas frontier_, san angelo standard-times, san angelo, texas, . mainly a history of military activities against comanches and other tribes, laced with homilies on the free enterprise virtues of the conquerors. lee, nelson. _three years among the comanches_, . lehman, herman. _nine years with the indians_, bandera, texas, . best captive narrative of the southwest. lockwood, frank c. _the apache indians_, macmillan, new york, . factual history. long lance, chief buffalo child. _long lance_, new york, . op. long lance was a blackfoot only by adoption, but his imagination incorporated him into tribal life more powerfully than blood could have. he is said to have been a north carolina mixture of negro and croatan indian; he was a magnificent specimen of manhood with swart indian complexion. he fought in the canadian army during world war i and thus became acquainted with the blackfeet. no matter what the facts of his life, he wrote a vivid and moving autobiography of a blackfoot indian in whom the spirit of the tribe and the natural life of the plains during buffalo days were incorporated. in in the california home of anita baldwin, daughter of the spectacular "lucky" baldwin, he absented himself from this harsh world by a pistol shot. lowie, robert h. _the crow indians_, new york, . this scholar and anthropologist lived with the crow indians to obtain intimate knowledge and then wrote this authoritative book. op. mcallister, j. gilbert. "kiowa-apache tales," in _the sky is my tipi_, edited by mody c. boatright (texas folklore society publication xxii), southern methodist university press, dallas, . wise in exposition; true-to-humanity and delightful in narrative. mcgillicuddy, julia b. _mcgillicuddy agent_, stanford university press, california, . dr. valentine t. mcgillicuddy, scotch in stubbornness, honesty, efficiency, and individualism, was u.s. indian agent to the sioux and knew them to the bottom. in the end he was defeated by the army mind and the bloodsuckers known as the "indian ring." the elements of nobility that distinguish the man distinguish his wife's biography of him. mclaughlin, james. my _friend the indian_, , . op. mclaughlin was u.s. indian agent and inspector for half a century. despite priggishness, he had genuine sympathy for the indians; he knew the sioux, nez perces, and cheyennes intimately, and few books on indian plainsmen reveal so much as his. marriott, alice. _the ten grandmothers_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . narratives of the kiowas--a complement to james mooney's _calendar history of the kiowa indians_, in seventeenth annual report of the bureau of ethnology, washington, . alice marriott, author of other books on indians, combines ethnological science with the art of writing. mathews, john joseph. _wah'kon-tah: the osage and the white man's road_, university of oklahoma press, . this book of essays on the character of and certain noble characters among the great osages, including their upright agent leban j. miles, has profound spiritual qualities. neihardt, john g. _black elk speaks_, new york, . op. black elk was a holy man of the ogalala sioux. the story of his life as he told it to understanding john g. neihardt is more of mysteries and spiritual matters than of mundane affairs. richardson, r. n. _the comanche barrier to the south plains_, glendale, california, . factual history. rister, carl c. _border captives_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . ruxton, george f. _adventures in mexico and the rocky mountains_, london, . vivid on comanche raids. see ruxton in "surge of life in the west." schultz, j. w. _my life as an indian_, . op. in this autobiographical narrative of the life of a white man with a blackfoot woman, facts have probably been arranged, incidents added. whatever his method, the author achieved a remarkable human document. it is true not only to indian life in general but in particular to the life of a "squaw man" and his loved and loving mate. among other authentic books by schultz is _with the indians of the rockies_, houghton mifflin, boston, . smith, c. l. and j. d. _the boy captives_, bandera, texas, . a kind of classic in homeliness. op. vestal, stanley. _sitting bull_, houghton mifflin, boston, . excellent biography. op. wallace, ernest, and hoebel, e. adamson. _the comanches: lords of the south plains_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . a wide-compassing and interesting book on a powerful and interesting people. wellman, paul i. _death on the prairie_ ( ), _death in the desert_ ( ); both reprinted in _death on horseback_, . all op. graphic history, mostly in narrative, of the struggle of plains and apache indians to hold their homelands against the whites. wilbarger, j. w. _indian depredations in texas_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . its stirring narratives made this a household book among texans of the late nineteenth century. . spanish-mexican strains the mexican revolution that began in resulted in a rich development of the native cultural elements of mexico, the art of diego rivera being one of the highlights of this development. the native culture is closer to the mexican earth and to the indigenes than to spain, notwithstanding modern insistence on the latin in latin-american culture. the spaniards, through mexico, have had an abiding influence on the architecture and language of the southwest. they gave us our most distinctive occupation, ranching on the open range. they influenced mining greatly, and our land titles and irrigation laws still go back to spanish and mexican sources. after more than a hundred years of occupation of texas and almost that length of time in other parts of the southwest, the english-speaking americans still have the rich accumulations of lore pertaining to coyotes, mesquites, prickly pear, and many other plants and animals to learn from the mexicans, who got their lore partly from intimate living with nature but largely through indian ancestry. see "fighting texians," "santa fe and the santa fe trail." aiken, riley. "a pack load of mexican tales," in _puro mexicano_, published by texas folklore society, . now published by southern methodist university press, dallas. delightful. alexander, frances (and others). _mother goose on the rio grande_, banks upshaw, dallas, . charming rhymes in both spanish and english in charming form. applegate, frank g. _native tales of new mexico_, philadelphia, . delicious; the real thing. op. atherton, gertrude. _the splendid idle forties_, new york, . romance of mexican california. austin, mary. _one-smoke stories_, boston, . short tales of spanish-speaking new mexicans, also of indians. bandelier, a. f. _the gilded man_, new york, . the dream of el dorado. barca, madam calderon de la. _life in mexico_, ; reprinted by dutton about . among books on mexican life to be ranked first both in readability and revealing qualities. bell, horace. _on the old west coast_, new york, . a golden treasury of anecdotes. op. bentley, harold w. _a dictionary of spanish terms in english_, new york, . in a special way this book reveals the spanish-mexican influence on life in the southwest; it also guides to books in english that reflect this influence. op. bishop, morris. _the odyssey of cabeza de vaca_, new york, . better written than cabeza de vaca's own narrative. op. blanco, antonio fierro de. _the journey of the flame_, boston, . bully and flavorsome; the californias. op. bolton, herbert e. _spanish exploration in the southwest_, . the cream of explorer narratives, well edited. _coronado on the turquoise trail_ (originally published in new york, , under the title _coronado: knight of pueblos and plains_; now issued by university of new mexico press, albuquerque). by his own work and by directing other scholars, dr. bolton has surpassed all other american historians of his time in output on spanish-american history. _coronado_ is the climax of his many volumes. its fault is being too worshipful of everything spanish and too uncritical. a little essay on coronado in haniel long's _pinon country_ goes a good way to put this belegended figure into proper perspective. brenner, anita. _idols behind altars_, . op. the pagan worship that endures among mexican indians. _the wind that swept mexico: the history of the mexican revolution, - _, , op. _your mexican holiday_, revised . no writer on modern mexico has a clearer eye or clearer intellect than anita brenner; she maintains good humor in her realism and never lapses into phony romance. cabeza de vaca's _narrative_. any translation procurable. one is included in _spanish explorers in the southern united states_, edited by f. w. hodge and t. h. lewis, now published by barnes & noble, new york. the most dramatic and important aftermath of cabeza de vaca's twisted walk across the continent was coronado's search for the seven cities of cibola. coronado's precursor was fray marcos de niza. _the journey of fray marcos de niza_, by cleve hallenbeck, with illustrations and decorations by jose cisneros, is one of the most beautiful books in format published in america. it was designed and printed by carl hertzog of el paso, printer without peer between the atlantic and the pacific, and is issued by southern methodist university press, dallas. castaneda's narrative of coronado's expedition. winship's translation is preferred. it is included in _spanish explorers in the southern united states_, cited above. cather, willa. _death comes for the archbishop_, knopf, new york, . classical historical fiction on new mexico. cumberland, charles c. _mexican revolution: genesis under madero_, university of texas press, austin, . bibliography. to know mexico and mexicans without knowing anything about mexican revolutions is like knowing the united states in ignorance of frontiers, constitutions, and corporations. the madero revolution that began in is still going on. mr. cumberland's solid book, independent in itself, is to be followed by two other volumes. de soto. hernando de soto made his expedition from florida north and west at the time coronado was exploring north and east. _the florida of the inca_, by garcilaso de la vega, translated by john and jeannette varner, university of texas press, austin, , is the first complete publishing in english of this absorbing narrative. diaz, bernal. _history of the conquest_. there are several translations. a book of gusto and humanity as enduring as the results of the conquest itself. dobie, j. frank. _coronado's children_, . legendary tales of the southwest, many of them derived from mexican sources. _tongues of the monte_, . a pattern of the soil of northern mexico and its folk. _apache gold and yaqui silver_, . lost mines and money in mexico and new mexico. last two books published by little, brown, boston. domenech, abbe. _missionary adventures in texas and mexico_, london, . delightful folklore, though domenech would not have so designated his accounts. fergusson, harvey. _blood of the conquerors_, . fiction. op. _rio grande_, knopf, new york, . best interpretations yet written of upper mexican class. flandrau, charles m. _viva mexico!_ new york, ; reissued, . delicious autobiographic narrative of life in mexico. fulton, maurice g., and horgan, paul (editors). _new mexico's own chronicle_, dallas, . op. selections from writers about the new mexico scene. gilpatrick, wallace. _the man who likes mexico_, new york, . op. bully reading. gonzalez, jovita. tales about texas-mexican vaquero folk in _texas and southwestern lore_, in _man, bird, and beast_, and in _mustangs and cow horses_, publications vi, viii, and xvi of texas folklore society. {illust. caption = jose cisneros: fray marcos, in _the journey of fray marcos de niza_ by cleve hallenbeck ( )} graham, r. b. cunninghame. _hernando de soto_, london, . biography. op. harte, bret. _the bell ringer of angels_ and other legendary tales of california. laughlin, ruth. _caballeros_. when the book was published in , the author was named ruth laughlin barker; after she discarded the barker part, it was reissued, in , by caxton, caldwell, idaho. delightful picturings of mexican--or spanish, as many new mexicans prefer--life around santa fe. lea, tom. _the brave bulls_. see under "fiction." lummis, c. f. _flowers of our lost romance_, boston, . humanistic essays on spanish contributions to southwestern civilization. op. _the land of poco tiempo_, new york, (reissued by university of new mexico press, ), in an easier style. _a new mexico david_, , . folk tales and sketches. op. merriam, charles. _machete_, dallas, . plain and true to the _gente_. op. niggli, josephina. _mexican village_, university of north carolina press, chapel hill, . a collection of skilfully told stories that reveal mexican life. o'shaughnessy, edith. _a diplomat s wife in mexico_, new york, ; _diplomatic days_, ; _intimate pages of mexican history_, . books of passion and power and high literary merit, interpretative of revolutionary mexico. op. otero, nina. _old spain in our southwest_, new york, . genuine. op. porter, katherine anne. _flowering judas_. see under "fiction." prescott, william h. _conquest of mexico_. history that is literature. remington, frederic w. _pony tracks_, new york, . includes sketches of mexican ranch life. ross, patricia fent. _made in mexico: the story of a country's arts and crafts_, knopf, new york, . picturesquely and instructively illustrated by carlos merida. tannenbaum, frank. _peace by revolution_, columbia university press, new york, ; _mexico: the struggle for peace and bread_, knopf, new york, . tannenbaum dodges nothing, not even the church. _terry's guide to mexico_. it has everything. texas folklore society. its publications are a storehouse of mexican folklore in the southwest and in mexico also. especially recommended are _texas and southwestern lore_ (vi), _man, bird, and beast_ (viii), _southwestern lore_ (ix), _spur-of-the-cock_ (xi), _puro mexicano_ (xii), _texian stomping grounds_ (xvii), _mexican border ballads and other lore_ (xxi), _the healer of los olmos and other mexican lore_ (xxiv, ). all published by southern methodist university press, dallas. toor, frances. a _treasury of mexican folkways_, crown, new york, . an anthology of life. turner, timothy g._ bullets, bottles and gardenias_, dallas, . obscurely published but one of the best books on mexican life. op. . flavor of france there is little justification for including louisiana as a part of the southwest. despite the fact that the french flag--tied to a pole in louisiana--once waved over texas, french influence on it and other parts of the southwest has been minor. arthur, stanley clisby. _jean laffite, gentleman rover_ ( ) and _audubon: an intimate life of the american woodsman_ ( ), both published by harmanson--publisher and bookseller, royal st., new orleans. cable, george w. _old creole days: strange true stories of louisiana_. chopin, kate. _bayou folk_. fortier, alcee. any of his work on louisiana. hearn, lafcadio. _chita_. a lovely story. joutel. _journal_ of la salle's career in texas. kane, harnett t. _plantation parade: the grand manner in louisiana_ ( ), _natchez on the mississippi_ ( ), _queen new orleans_ ( ), all published by morrow, new york. king, grace. _new orleans: the place and the people; balcony stories._ mcvoy, lizzie carter. _louisiana in the short story_, louisiana state university press, . saxon, lyle. _fabulous new orleans; old louisiana; lafitte the pirate_. . backwoods life and humor the settlers who put their stamp on texas were predominantly from the southern states--and far more of them came to texas to work out of debt than came with riches in the form of slaves. the plantation owner came too, but the go-ahead crockett kind of backwoodsman was typical. the southern type never became so prominent in new mexico, arizona, and california as in texas. nevertheless, the fact glares out that the code of conduct--the riding and shooting tradition, the eagerness to stand up and fight for one's rights, the readiness to back one's judgment with a gun, a bowie knife, money, life itself--that characterized the whole west as well as the southwest was southern, hardly at all new england. the very qualities that made many of the texas pioneers rebels to society and forced not a few of them to quit it between sun and sun without leaving new addresses fitted them to conquer the wilderness--qualities of daring, bravery, reckless abandon, heavy self-assertiveness. a lot of them were hell-raisers, for they had a lust for life and were maddened by tame respectability. nobody but obsequious politicians and priggish "daughters" wants to make them out as models of virtue and conformity. a smooth and settled society--a society shockingly tame--may accept cardinal newman's definition, "a gentleman is one who never gives offense." under this definition a shaded violet, a butterfly, and a floating summer cloud are all gentlemen. "the art of war," said napoleon, "is to make offense." conquering the hostile texas wilderness meant war with nature and against savages as well as against mexicans. go-ahead crockett's ideal of a gentleman was one who looked in another direction while a visitor was pouring himself out a horn of whiskey. laying aside climatic influences on occupations and manners, certain spanish influences, and minor pueblo indian touches, the southwest from the point of view of the bedrock anglo-saxon character that has made it might well include arkansas and missouri. the realism of southern folk and of a very considerable body of indigenous literature representing them has been too much overshadowed by a kind of _so red the rose_ idealization of slave-holding aristocrats. allsopp, fred w. _folklore of romantic arkansas_, vols., grolier society, . allsopp assembled a rich and varied collection of materials in the tone of "the arkansas traveler." op. arrington, alfred w. _the rangers and regulators of the tanaha_, . east texas bloodletting. baldwin, joseph g. _the flush times of alabama and mississippi_, . blair, walter. _horse sense in american humor from benjamin franklin to ogden nash_, . op. _native american humor_, . op. _tall tale america_, coward-mccann, new york, . orderly analyses with many concrete examples. with franklin j. meine as co-author, _mike fink, king of mississippi river keelboatmen_, . biography of a folk type against pioneer and frontier background. op. boatright, mody c. _folk laughter on the american frontier_. see under "interpreters." clark, thomas d. _the rampaging frontier_, . op. historical picturization and analysis, fortified by incidents and tales of "varmints," "liars," "quarter horses," "fiddlin'," "foolin' with the gals," etc. crockett, david. _autobiography_. reprinted many times. scribner's edition in the "modern students' library" includes _colonel crockett's exploits and adventures in_ _texas_. crockett set the backwoods type. see treatment of him in parrington's _main currents in american thought_. richard m. dorson's _davy crockett, american comic legend_, , is a summation of the crockett tradition. featherstonhaugh, g. w. _excursion through the slave states_, london, . refreshing on manners and characters. flack, captain. _the texas ranger, or real life in the backwoods_, london, . gerstaecker, frederick. _wild sports in the far west_. nothing better on backwoods life in the mississippi valley. hammett, samuel adams (who wrote under the name of philip paxton), _piney woods tavern; or sam slick in texas_ and _a stray yankee in texas_. humor on the roughneck element. for treatment of hammett as man and writer see _sam slick in texas_, by w. stanley hoole, naylor, san antonio, . harris, george w. _sut lovingood_, new york, . prerealism. hogue, wayman. _back yonder_. minton, balch, new york, . ozark life. op. hooper, j. j. _adventures of captain simon suggs_, . op. downright realism. like longstreet, hooper in maturity wanted his realism forgotten. an alabama journalist, he got into the camp of respectable slave-holders and spent the later years of his life shouting against the "enemies of the institution of african slavery." his life partly explains the lack of intellectual honesty in most southern spokesmen today. _alias simon suggs: the life and times of johnson jones hooper_, by w. stanley hoole, university of alabama press, , is a careful study of hooper's career. hudson, a. p. _humor of the old deep south_, new york, . an anthology. op. longstreet, a. b. _georgia scenes_, . numerous reprints. realism. masterson, james r. _tall tales of arkansas_, boston, . op. the title belies this excellent social history--by a scholar. it has become quite scarce on account of the fact that it contains unexpurgated versions of the notorious speech on "change the name of arkansas"--which in in officers' barracks at bordeaux, france, i heard a lusty individual recite with as many variations as roxane of _cyrano de bergerac_ wanted in love-making. when fred w. allsopp, newspaper publisher and pillar of arkansas respectability, found that this book of unexpurgations had been dedicated to him by the author--a harvard ph.d. teaching in michigan--he almost "had a colt." meine, franklin j. (editor). _tall tales of the southwest_, knopf, new york, . a superbly edited and superbly selected anthology with appendices affording a guide to the whole field of early southern humor and realism. no cavalier idealism. the "southwest" of this excellent book is south. olmsted, frederick law. _a journey in the seaboard slave states_, . _a journey through texas_, . invaluable books on social history. postl, karl anton (charles sealsfield or francis hardman, pseudonyms). _the cabin book; frontier life_. translations all op. randolph, vance. _we always lie to strangers_, columbia university press, new york, . a collection of tall tales of the adding machine variety. fertile in invention but devoid of any yearning for the beautiful or suggestion that the human spirit hungers for something beyond horse play; in short, typical of american humor. rourke, constance. _american humor_, ; _davy crockett_, ; _roots of american culture and other essays_, , all published by harcourt, brace, new york. thompson, william t. _major jones's courtship_, philadelphia, . realism. thorpe, t. b. _the hive of the bee-hunter_, new york, . this excellent book should be reprinted. watterson, henry. _oddities in southern life and character_, boston, . an anthology with interpretative notes. wilson, charles morrow. _backwoods america_. university of north carolina press, chapel hill, . well ordered survey with excellent samplings. wood, ray. _the american mother goose_, ; _fun in american folk rhymes_, ; both published by lippincott, philadelphia. . how the early settlers lived despite the fact that the tendency of a majority of early day rememberers has been to emphasize indian fights, killings, and other sensational episodes, chronicles rich in the everyday manners and customs of the folk are plentiful. the classic of them all is noah smithwick's _the evolution of a state_, listed below. see also "backwoods life and humor," "pioneer doctors," "women pioneers," "fighting texians." barker, e. c. _the austin papers_. four volumes of sources for any theme in social history connected with colonial texans. bates, ed. f. _history and reminiscences of denton county_, denton, texas, . a sample of much folk life found in county histories. bell, horace. _on the old west coast_, new york, . social history by anecdote. california. op. bracht, viktor. _texas in _, translated from the german by c. f. schmidt, san antonio, . better on natural resources than on human inhabitants. op. carl, prince of solms-braunfels. _texas, - _. translation, houston, . op. cox, c. c. "reminiscences," in vol. vi of _southwestern historical quarterly_. one of the best of many pioneer recollections published by the texas state historical association. crockett, david. anything about him. dick, everett. _the sod house frontier_ ( ) and _vanguards of the frontier_ ( ). both op. life on north-ern plains into rocky mountains, but applicable to life southward. dobie, j. frank. _the flavor of texas_, . op. considerable social history. fenley, florence. _oldtimers: their own stories_, uvalde, texas, . op. faithful reporting of realistic detail. southwest texas, mostly ranch life. frantz, joe b. _gail borden, dairyman to a nation_. university of oklahoma press, norman, . this biography of a newspaperman and inventor brings out sides of pioneer life that emphasis on fighting, farming, and ranching generally overlooks. gerstaecker, frederick. _wild sports in the far west_, . dances are among the sports. harris, mrs. dilue. "reminiscences," edited by mrs. a. b. looscan, in vols. iv and vii of _southwestern historical quarterly_. hart, john a. _history of pioneer days in texas and oklahoma_; no date. extended and republished under the title of _pioneer days in the southwest_, . much on frontier ways of living. hoff, carol _johnny texas_, wilcox and follett, chicago, . juvenile, historical fiction. delightful in both text and illustrations. hogan, william r. _the texas republic: a social and economic history_, university of oklahoma press, . long on facts, short on intellectual activity; that is, on interpretations from the perspective of time and civilization. holden, w. c. _alkali trails_, dallas, . pioneer life in west texas. op. holley, mary austin. _texas... in a series of letters_, baltimore, ; reprinted under the title of _letters of an american traveler_, edited by mattie austin hatcher, dallas, . first good book on texas to be printed. op. _lamar papers_. six volumes of scrappy source material on texas history and life, issued by texas state library, austin. op. lewis, willie newbury. _between sun and sod_, clarendon, texas, . op. again, want of perspective. lubbock, f. r. six _decades in texas_, austin, . mcconnell, h. h. _five years a cavalryman_, jacksboro, texas, . bully. mcdanfield, h. f., and taylor, nathaniel a. _the coming empire, or miles in texas on horseback_, new york, ; privately reprinted, . delightful travel narrative. op. mcneal, t. a. _when kansas was young_, new york, . episodes and characters of plains country. op. olmsted, frederick law. _a journey through texas_, new york, . olmsted journeyed in order to see. he saw. read, opie. _an arkansas planter_, . pleasant fiction. richardson, albert d. _beyond the mississippi_, hartford, . what a traveling journalist saw. rister, carl c. _southern plainsmen_, university of oklahoma press, . though pedestrian in style, good social data. bibliography. roemer, dr. ferdinand. _texas_, translated from the german by oswald mueller, san antonio, . op. roemer, a geologist, rode through texas in the forties and made acute observations on the land, its plants and animals, and the settlers. schmitz, joseph william. _thus they lived_, naylor, san antonio, . this would have been a good social history of texas had the writer devoted ten more years to the subject. unsatisfactory bibliography. shipman, daniel. _frontier life, years in texas_, n.p., . one of the pioneer reminiscences that should be reprinted. smith, henry. "reminiscences," in _southwestern historical quarterly_, vol. xiv. telling details. smithwick, noah. _the evolution of a state_, austin, . reprinted by steck, austin, . best of all books dealing with life in early texas. bully reading. _southwestern historical quarterly_, published since by texas state historical association, austin. a depository of all kinds of history; the first twenty-five or thirty volumes are the more interesting. sweet, alexander e., and knox, j. armoy. _on a mexican mustang through texas_, hartford, . humorous satire, often penetrating and ruddy with actuality. wallis, jonnie lockhart. _sixty years on the brazos: the life and letters of dr. john washington lockhart_, privately printed, los angeles, . in notebook style, but as rare in essence as it is among dealers in out-of-print books. waugh, julia nott. _castroville and henry castro_, san antonio, . op. best-written monograph dealing with any aspect of texas history that i have read. wynn, afton. "pioneer folk ways," in _straight texas_, texas folklore society publication xiii, . . fighting texians the texas people belong to a fighting tradition that the majority of them are proud of. the footholds that the spaniards and mexicans held in texas were maintained by virtue of fighting, irrespective of missionary baptizing. the purpose of the anglo-american colonizer stephen f. austin to "redeem texas from the wilderness" was accomplished only by fighting. the texans bought their liberty with blood and maintained it for nine years as a republic with blood. it was fighting men who pushed back the frontiers and blazed trails. the fighting tradition is now giving way to the oil tradition. the texas myth as imagined by non-texans is coming to embody oil millionaires in airplanes instead of horsemen with six-shooters and rifles. see edna ferber's giant ( novel). nevertheless, many texans who never rode a horse over three miles at a stretch wear cowboy boots, and a lot of texans are under the delusion that bullets and atomic bombs can settle complexities that demand informed intelligence and the power to think. as i have pointed out in _the flavor of texas_, the chronicles of men who fought the mexicans and were prisoners to them comprise a unique unit in the personal narratives and annals of america. many of the books listed under the headings of "texas rangers," "how the early settlers lived," and "range life" specify the fighting tradition. bean, peter ellis. _memoir_, published first in vol. i of yoakum's _history of texas_; in printed as a small book by the book club of texas, dallas, now op. a fascinating narrative. bechdolt, frederick r. _tales of the old timers_, new york, . forceful retelling of the story of the mier expedition and of other activities of the "fighting texans." op. chabot, frederick c. _the perote prisoners_, san antonio, . annotated diaries of texas prisoners in mexico. op. dobie, j. frank. _the flavor of texas_, dallas, . op. chapters on bean, green, duval, kendall, and other representers of the fighting texans. duval, john c. _adventures of bigfoot wallace_, ; _early times in texas_, . both books are kept in print by steck, austin. for biography and critical estimate, see _john c. duval: first texas man of letters_, by j. frank dobie (illustrated by tom lea), dallas, . op. _early times in texas_, called "the _robinson crusoe_ of texas," is duval's story of the goliad massacre and of his escape from it. duval served as a texas ranger with bigfoot wallace, who was in the mier expedition. his narrative of bigfoot's _adventures_ is the rollickiest and the most flavorsome that any american frontiersman has yet inspired. the tiresome thumping on the hero theme present in many biographies of frontiersmen is entirely absent. stanley vestal wrote _bigfoot wallace_ also, boston, . op. erath, major george g. _memoirs_, texas state historical association, austin, . erath understood his fellow texians. op. gillett, james b. _six years with the texas rangers_, . op. green, thomas jefferson. _journal of the texan expedition against mier_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . green was one of the leaders of the mier expedition. he lived in wrath and wrote with fire. for information on green see _recollections and reflections_ by his son, wharton j. green, . op. houston, sam. _the raven_, by marquis james, , is not the only biography of the texan general, but it is the best, and embodies most of what has been written on houston excepting the multivolumed _houston papers_ issued by the university of texas press, austin, under the editorship of e. c. barker. houston was an original character even after he became a respectable baptist. kendall, george w. _narrative of the texan santa fe expedition_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . two volumes. kendall, a new orleans journalist in search of copy, joined the santa fe expedition sent by the republic of texas to annex new mexico. lost on the staked plains and then marched afoot as a prisoner to mexico city, he found plenty of copy and wrote a narrative that if it were not so journalistically verbose might rank alongside dana's _two years before the mast_. fayette copeland's _kendall of the picayune_, but op, is a biography. an interesting parallel to kendall's _narrative is letters and notes on the texan santa fe expedition, - _, by thomas falconer, with notes and introduction by f. w. hodge, new york, . op. the route of the expedition is logged and otherwise illuminated in _the texan santa fe trail_, by h. bailey carroll, panhandle-plains historical society, canyon, texas, . leach, joseph. _the typical texan: biography of an american myth_, southern methodist university press, dallas, . at the time texas was emerging, the three main types of americans were yankees, southern aristocrats, kentucky westerners embodied by daniel boone. texas took over the kentucky tradition. it was enlarged by crockett, who stayed in texas only long enough to get killed, sam houston, and bigfoot wallace. novels, plays, stories, travel books, and the texans themselves have kept the tradition going. this is the main thesis of the book. mr. leach fails to note that the best books concerning texas have done little to keep the typical texan alive and that a great part of the present texas brags spirit is as absurdly unrealistic as mussolini's splurge at making twentieth-century italians imagine themselves a {illust. caption = john w. thomason, in his _lone star preacher_ ( )} reincarnation of caesar's roman legions. mr. leach dissects the myth and then swallows it. linn, john j. _reminiscences of fifty years in texas_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . mixture of personal narrative and historical notes, written with energy and prejudice. maverick, mary a. _memoirs_, . op. mrs. maverick's husband, sam maverick, was among the citizens of san antonio haled off to mexico as prisoners in . morrell, z. n. _fruits and flowers in the wilderness_, . op. morrell, a circuit-riding baptist preacher, fought the indians and the mexicans. see other books of this kind listed under "circuit riders and missionaries." perry, george sessions. texas, a _world in itself_, mcgraw-hill, new york, . especially good chapter on the alamo. smythe, h. _historical sketch of parker county, texas_, . one of various good county histories of texas replete with fighting. for bibliography of this extensive class of literature consult _texas county histories_, by h. bailey carroll, texas state historical association, austin, . op. sonnichsen, c. l. _i'll die before i'll run: the story of the great feuds of texas_--and of some not great. harper, new york, . sowell, a. j. _rangers and pioneers of texas_, ; _life of bigfoot wallace_, ; _early settlers and indian fighters of southwest texas_, . all op; all meaty with the character of ready-to-fight but peace-seeking texas pioneers. sowell will some day be recognized as an extraordinary chronicler. stapp, william p. _the prisoners of perote_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . journal of one of the mier men who drew a white bean. thomason, john w. _lone star preacher_, scribner's, new york, . the cream, the essence, the spirit, and the body of the fighting tradition of texas. historical novel of civil war. webb, walter prescott. _the texas rangers_, houghton mifflin, boston, . see under "texas rangers." wilbarger, j. w. _indian depredations in texas_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . narratives that have for generations been a household heritage among texas families who fought for their land. . texas rangers the texas rangers were never more than a handful in number, but they were picked men who knew how to ride, shoot, and tell the truth. on the mexican border and on the indian frontier, a few rangers time and again proved themselves more effective than battalions of soldiers. oh, pray for the ranger, you kind-hearted stranger, he has roamed over the prairies for many a year; he has kept the comanches from off your ranches, and chased them far over the texas frontier. banta, william. _twenty-seven years on the texas frontier_, ; reprinted, . op. gay, beatrice grady. _into the setting sun_, santa anna, texas, . coleman county scenes and characters, dominated by ranger character. op. gillett, james b. _six years with the texas rangers_, printed for the author at austin, texas, . he paid the printer cash for either one or two thousand copies, as he told me, and sold them personally. edited by milo m. quaife, the book was published by yale university press in . this edition was reprinted, , by the lakeside press, chicago, in its "lakeside classics" series, which are given away by the publishers at christmas annually and are not for sale--except through second-hand dealers. meantime, in , the narrative had appeared under title of _the texas ranger_, "in collaboration with howard r. driggs," a professional neutralizer for school readers of any writing not standardized, published by world book co., yonkers-on-hudson, new york. all editions op. i regard gillett as the strongest and straightest of all ranger narrators. he combined in his nature wild restlessness and loyal gentleness. he wrote in sunlight. greer, james k. _buck barry_, dallas, . op. _colonel jack hays, texas frontier leader and california builder_, dutton, new york, . hays achieved more vividness in reputation than narratives about him have attained to. jennings, n. a. _the texas ranger_, new york, ; reprinted , with foreword by j. frank dobie. op. good narrative. maltby, w. jeff. _captain jeff_, colorado, texas, . amorphous. op. martin, jack. _border boss_, san antonio, . mediocre biography of captain john r. hughes. op. paine, albert bigelow. _captain bill mcdonald_, new york, . paine did not do so well by "captain bill" as he did in his rich biography of mark twain. op. pike, james. _scout and ranger_, , reprinted by princeton university press. pike drew a long bow; interesting. op. raymond, dora neill. _captain lee hall of texas_, norman, oklahoma, . op. reid, samuel c. _scouting expeditions of the texas rangers_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . texas rangers in mexican war. roberts, dan w. _rangers and sovereignty_, . op. roberts was better as ranger than as writer. roberts, mrs. d. w. (wife of captain dan w. roberts). a _woman's reminiscences of six years in camp with the texas rangers_, austin, . op. mrs. roberts was a sensible and charming woman with a seeing eye. sowell, a. j. _rangers and pioneers of texas_, san antonio, . a graphic book down to bedrock. op. webb, walter prescott. _the texas rangers_, houghton mifflin, boston, . the beginning, middle, and end of the subject. bibliography. . women pioneers one reason for the ebullience of life and rollicky carelessness on the frontiers of the west was the lack--temporary--of women. the men, mostly young, had given no hostages to fortune. they were generally as free from family cares as the buccaneers. this was especially true of the first ranches on the great plains, of cattle trails, of mining camps, logging camps, and of trapping expeditions. it was not true of the colonial days in texas, of ranch life in the southern part of texas, of homesteading all over the west, of emigrant trails to california and oregon, of backwoods life. various items listed under "how the early settlers lived" contain material on pioneer women. alderson, nannie t., and smith, helena huntington. a _bride goes west_, new york, . montana in the eighties. op. baker, d. w. c. a _texas scrapbook_, ; reprinted, , by steck, austin. brothers, mary hudson. a _pecos pioneer_, . op. the best part of this book is not about the writer's brother, who cowboyed with chisum's jinglebob outfit and ran into billy the kid, but is mary hudson's own life. only ross santee has equaled her in description of drought and rain. the last chapters reveal a girl's inner life, amid outward experiences, as no other woman's chronicle of ranch ways--sheep ranch here. call, hughie. _golden fleece_, houghton mifflin, boston, . hughie call became wife of a montana sheepman early in this century. op. cleaveland, agnes morley. _no life for a lady_, houghton mifflin, boston, . bright, witty, penetrating; anecdotal. best account of frontier life from woman's point of view yet published. new mexico is the setting, toward turn of the century. people who wished mrs. cleaveland would write another book were disappointed when her _satan's paradise_ appeared in . ellis, anne. _the life of an ordinary woman_, , and _plain anne ellis_, , both op. colorado country and town. books of disillusioned observations, wit, and wisdom by a frank woman. faunce, hilda. _desert wife_, . op. desert loneliness at a navajo trading post. harris, mrs. dilue. reminiscences, in _southwestern historical quarterly_, vols. iv and vii. kleberg, rosa. "early experiences in texas," in _quarterly of the texas state historical association_ (initial title for _southwestern historical quarterly_), vols. i and ii. magoffin, susan shelby. _down the santa fe trail_, . op. she was juicy and a bride, and all life was bright to her. matthews, sallie reynolds. _interwoven_, houston, . ranch life in the texas frontier as a refined and intelligent woman saw it. op. maverick, mary a. _memoirs_, san antonio, . op. essential. pickrell, annie doom. _pioneer women in texas_, austin, . too much lady business but valuable. op. poe, sophie a. _buckboard days_, edited by eugene cunningham, caldwell, idaho, . mrs. poe was there--new mexico. rak, mary kidder. _a cowman's wife_, houghton mifflin, boston, . the external experiences of an ex-teacher on a small arizona ranch. rhodes, may d. _the hired man on horseback_, . biography of eugene manlove rhodes, but also warm-natured autobiography of the woman who ranched with "gene" in new mexico. op. richards, clarice e. _a tenderfoot bride_, garden city, n. y., . op. charming. stewart, elinor p. _letters of a woman homesteader_, boston, . op. white, owen p. _a frontier mother_, new york, . op. overdone, as white overdid every subject he touched. wilbarger, j. w. _indian depredations in texas_, ; reprinted by steck, austin, . a glimpse into the lives led by families that gave many women to savages--for death or for cynthia ann parker captivity. wynn, afton. "pioneer folk ways," in _straight texas_, texas folklore society publication xiii, . excellent. . circuit riders and missionaries notwithstanding both the tradition and the facts of hardshooting, hard-riding cowboys, of bad men, of border lawlessness, of inhabitants who had left some other place under a cloud, of frontier towns "west of god," hard layouts and conscienceless "courthouse crowds"--notwithstanding all this, the southwest has been and is religious-minded. this is not to say that it is spiritual-natured. it belongs to h. l. mencken's "bible belt." "pass-the-biscuits" pappy o'daniel got to be governor of texas and then u.s. senator by advertising his piety. a politician as "ignorant as a mexican hog" on foreign affairs and the complexities of political economy can run in favor of what he and the voters call religion and leave an informed man of intellect and sincerity in the shade. the biggest campmeeting in the southwest, the bloys campmeeting near fort davis, texas, is in the midst of an enormous range country away from all factories and farmers. since about the united states indian service has not only allowed but rather encouraged the indians to revert to their own religious ceremonies. they have always been religious. the spanish colonists of the southwest, as elsewhere, were zealously catholic, and their descendants have generally remained catholic. the first english-speaking settlers of the region--the colonists led by stephen f. austin to texas--were overwhelmingly protestant, though in order to establish mexican citizenship and get titles to homestead land they had, technically, to declare themselves catholics. one of the causes of the texas revolution as set forth by the texans in their declaration of independence was the mexican government's denial of "the right of worshipping the almighty according to the dictates of our own conscience." a history of southwestern society that left out the bible would be as badly gapped as one leaving out the horse or the six-shooter. see chapter entitled "on the lord's side" in dobie's _the flavor of texas_. most of the books listed under "how the early settlers lived" contain information on religion and preachers. church histories are about as numerous as state histories. virtually all county histories take into account church development. the books listed below are strong on personal experiences. asbury, francis. three or more lives have been written of this representative pioneer bishop. bolton, herbert e. _the padre on horseback_, . life of the jesuit missionary kino. op. brownlow, w. g. _portrait and biography of parson brownlow, the tennessee patriot_, . brownlow was a very representative figure. under the title of _william g brownlow, fighting parson of the southern highland_, e. m coulter has brought out a thorough life of him, published by university of north carolina press, chapel hill, . burleson, rufus c. _life and writings_, . op. the autobiographical part of this amorphously arranged volume is a social document of the first rank. cartwright, peter. _autobiography_, . out of kentucky, into indiana and then into illinois, where he ran against lincoln for congress, cartwright rode with saddlebags and bible. sandburg characterizes him as "an enemy of whisky, gambling, jewelry, fine clothes, and higher learning." he seems to me more unlovely in his intolerance and sectarianism than most circuit riders of the southwest, but as a militant, rough-and-ready "soldier of the lord" he represented southwestern frontiers as well as his own. cranfill, j. b. _chronicle, a story of life in texas_, . cranfill was a lot of things besides a baptist preacher--trail driver, fiddler, publisher, always an observer. op. devilbiss, john wesley. _reminiscences and events_ (compiled by h. a. graves), . the very essence of pioneering, domenech, abbe. _missionary adventures in texas and mexico_ (translated from the french), london, . op. the abbe always had eyes open for wonders. he saw them. delicious narrative. evans, will g. _border skylines_, published in dallas, , for bloys campmeeting association, fort davis, texas. chronicles of the men and women--cow people--and cow country responsible for the best known campmeeting, held annually, texas has ever had. op. gravis, peter w. _ years on the outside row of the northwest texas annual conference_, comanche, texas, . another one of those small personal records, privately printed but full of juice. op. lide, anna a. _robert alexander and the early methodist church in texas_, la grange, texas, . op. morrell, z. n. _fruits and flowers in the wilderness_, . though reprinted three times, last in , long op. in many ways the best circuit rider's chronicle of the southwest that has been published. morrell fought indians and mexicans in texas and was rich in other experiences. morris, t. a. _miscellany_, . the "notes of travel"--particularly to texas in --are what makes this book interesting. parisot, p. f. _reminiscences of a texas missionary_, . mostly the texas-mexican border. potter, andrew jackson, commonly called the fighting parson. _life_ of him by h. a. graves, , not nearly so good as potter was himself. thomason, john w. _lone star preacher_, scribner's, new york, . fiction, true to humanity. the moving story of a texas chaplain who carried a bible in one hand and a captain's sword in the other through the civil war. . lawyers, politicians, j. p.'s stephen f. austin wanted to exclude lawyers, along with roving frontiersmen, from his colonies in texas, and hoped thus to promote a utopian society. the lawyers got in, however. their wit, the anecdotes of which they were both subject and author, and the political stories they made traditional from the stump, have not been adequately set down. as criminal lawyers they stood as high in society as corporation lawyers stand now and were a good deal more popular, though less wealthy. the code of independence that fostered personal violence and justified killings--in contradistinction to murders--and that ran to excess in outlaws naturally fostered the criminal lawyer. his type is now virtually obsolete. keen observers, richly stored in experience and delightful in talk, as many lawyers of the southwest have been and are, very few of them have written on other than legal subjects. james d. lynch's _the bench and the bar of texas_ ( ) is confined to the eminence of "eminent jurists" and to the mastery of "masters of jurisprudence." what we want is the flavor of life as represented by such characters as witty three-legged willie (judge r. m. williamson) and mysterious jonas harrison. it takes a self-lover to write good autobiography. lawyers are certainly as good at self-loving as preachers, but we have far better autobiographic records of circuit riders than of early-day lawyers. like them, the pioneer justice of peace resides more in folk anecdotes than in chroniclings. horace bell's expansive _on the old west coast_ so represents him. a continent away, david crockett, in his _autobiography_, confessed, "i was afraid some one would ask me what the judiciary was. if i knowed i wish i may be shot." before this, however, crockett had been a j. p. "i gave my decisions on the principles of common justice and honesty between man and man, and relied on natural born sense, and not on law learning to guide me; for i had never read a page in a law book in all my life." coombes, charles e. _the prairie dog lawyer_, dallas, . op. experiences and anecdotes by a lawyer better read in rough-and-ready humanity than in law. the prairie dogs have all been poisoned out from the west texas country over which he ranged from court to court. hawkins, walace. _the case of john c. watrous, united states judge for texas: a political story of high crimes and misdemeanors_, southern methodist university press, dallas, . more technical than social. kittrell, norman g. _governors who have been and other public men of texas_, houston, . op. best collection of lawyer anecdotes of the southwest. robinson, duncan w. _judge robert mcalpin williamson, texas' three-legged willie_, texas state historical association, austin, . this was the republic of texas judge who laid a colt revolver across a bowie knife and said: "here is the constitution that overrides the law." sonnichsen, c. l. _roy bean, law west of the pecos_, macmillan, new york, . roy bean ( - ), justice of peace at langtry, texas, advertised himself as "law west of the pecos." he was more picaresque than picturesque; folk imagination gave him notoriety. the texas state highway department maintains for popular edification the beer joint wherein he held court. three books have been written about him, besides scores of newspaper and magazine articles. the only biography of validity is sonnichsen's. sloan, richard e. _memories of an arizona judge_, stanford, california, . full of humanity. op. smith, e. f. _a saga of texas law: a factual story of texas law, lawyers, judges and famous lawsuits_, naylor, san antonio, . interesting. . pioneer doctors before the family doctors came, frontiersmen sawed off legs with handsaws, tied up arteries with horsetail hair, cauterized them with branding irons. before homemade surgery with steel tools was practiced, mexican _curanderas_ (herb women) supplied _remedios_, and they still know the medicinal properties of every weed and bush. herb stores in san antonio, brownsville, and el paso do a thriving business. behind the _curanderas_ were the medicine men of the tribes. not all their lore was superstition, as any one who reads the delectable autobiography of gideon lincecum, published by the mississippi historical society in , will agree. lincecum, learned in botany, a sharply-edged individual who later moved to texas, went out to live with a choctaw medicine man and wrote down all his lore about the virtues of native plants. the treatise has never been printed. the extraordinary life of lincecum has, however, been interestingly delineated in samuel wood geiser's _naturalists of the frontier_, southern methodist university press, , , and in pat ireland nixon's _the medical story of early texas_, listed below. no historical novelist could ask for a richer theme than gideon lincecum or edmund montgomery, the subject of i. k. stephens' biography listed below. bush, i. j. _gringo doctor_, caldwell, idaho, . op. dr. bush represented frontier medicine and surgery on both sides of the rio grande. living at el paso, he was for a time with the maderistas in the revolution against diaz. coe, urling c. _frontier doctor_, new york, . op. not of the southwest but representing other frontier doctors. lusty autobiography full of characters and anecdotes. dodson, ruth. "don pedrito jaramillo: the curandero of los olmos," in _the healer of los olmos and other mexican lore_ (publication of the texas folklore society xxiv), edited by wilson m. hudson, southern methodist university press, dallas, . don pedrito was no more of a fraud than many an accredited psychiatrist, and he was the opposite of offensive. nixon, pat ireland. _a century of medicine in san antonio_, published by the author, san antonio, . rich in information, diverting in anecdote, and tonic in philosophy. bibliography. _the medical story of early texas, - _ [san antonio], . lightness of life with scholarly thoroughness; many character sketches. red, mrs. george p. _the medicine man in texas_, houston, . biographical. op. stephens, i. k. _the hermit philosopher of liendo_, southern methodist university press, dallas, . well-conceived and well-written biography of edmund montgomery--illegitimate son of a scottish lord, husband of the sculptress elisabet ney--who, after being educated in germany and becoming a member of the royal college of physicians of london, came to texas with his wife and sons and settled on liendo plantation, near hempstead, once known as sixshooter junction. here, in utter isolation from people of cultivated minds, he conducted scientific experiments in his inadequate laboratory and thought out a philosophy said to be half a century ahead of his time. he died in . his life was the drama of an elevated soul of complexities, far more tragic than any life associated with the lurid "killings" around him. woodhull, frost. "ranch remedios," in _man, bird, and beast_, texas folklore society publication viii, . the richest and most readable collection of pioneer remedies yet published. . mountain men as used here, the term "mountain men" applies to those trappers and traders who went into the rocky mountains before emigrants had even sought a pass through them to the west or cattle had beat out a trail on the plains east of them. beaver fur was the lodestar for the mountain men. their span of activity was brief, their number insignificant. yet hardly any other distinct class of men, irrespective of number or permanence, has called forth so many excellent books as the mountain men. the books are not nearly so numerous as those connected with range life, but when one considers the writings of stanley vestal, sabin, ruxton, fer gusson, chittenden, favour, garrard, inman, irving, reid, and white in this seld, one doubts whether any other form of american life at all has been so well covered in ballad, fiction, biography, history. see james hobbs, james o. pattie, and reuben gold thwaites under "surge of life in the west," also "santa fe and the santa fe trail." alter, j. cecil. _james bridger_, salt lake city, . a hogshead of life. bibliography. op. republished by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. bonner, t. d. _the life and adventures of james p. beckwourth, _; reprinted in , with an illuminating introduction by bernard devoto. op. beckwourth was the champion of all western liars. brewerton, g. d. _overland with kit carson_, new york, . good narrative. op. chittenden, _h. m. the american fur trade of the_ _far west_, new york, . op. basic work. bibliography. cleland, robert glass. _this reckless breed of men: the trappers and fur traders of the southwest_, knopf, new york, . fresh emphasis on the california-arizona-new mexico region by a knowing scholar. economical in style without loss of either humanity or history. bibliography. conrad, howard l. _uncle dick wootton_, . primary source. op. coyner, d. h. _the lost trappers_, . davidson, l. j., and bostwick, p. _the literature of the rocky mountain west - _, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . davidson and forrester blake, editors. _rocky mountain tales_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . devoto, bernard. _across the wide missouri_, houghton mifflin, boston, . superbly illustrated by reproductions of alfred jacob miller. devoto has amplitude and is a master of his subject as well as of the craft of writing. favour, alpheus h. _old bill williams, mountain man_, university of north carolina press, chapel hill, . flavor and facts both. full bibliography. fergusson, harvey. _rio grande_, , republished by tudor, new york. the drama and evolution of human life in new mexico, written out of knowledge and with power. _wolf song_, new york, . op. graphic historical novel of mountain men. it sings with life. garrard, lewis h. _wah-toyah and the taos trail_, . one of the basic works. grant, blanche c. _when old trails were new--the story of taos_, new york, . op. taos was rendezvous town for the free trappers. guthrie, a. b., jr. _the big sky_, sloane, new york, (now published by houghton mifflin, boston). "an unusually original novel, superb as historical fiction."--bernard devoto. i still prefer harvey fergusson's _wolf song_. hamilton, w. t. _my sixty years on the plains_, new york, . now published by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. inman, henry. _the old santa fe trail_, . irving, washington. _the adventures of captain bonneville_ and _astoria_. the latter book was founded on robert stuart's narratives. in these were prepared for the press, with much illuminative material, by philip ashton rollins and issued under the title of _the discovery of the oregon trail_. larpenteur, charles. _forty years a fur trader on the upper missouri_, edited by elliott coues, new york, . as milo milton quaife shows in an edition of the narrative issued by the lakeside press, chicago, , the indefatigable coues just about rewrote the old fur trader's narrative. it is immediate and vigorous. laut, a. c. _the story of the trapper_, new york, . a popular survey, emphasizing types and characters. leonard, zenas. _narrative of the adventures of zenas leonard_, clearfield, pa., . in the leonard trappers reached san francisco bay, boarded a boston ship anchored near shore, and for the first time in two years varied their meat diet by eating bread and drinking "coneac." one of the trappers had a gun named knock-him-stiff. such earthy details abound in this narrative of adventures in a brand new world. lockwood, frank c. _arizona characters_, los angeles, . very readable biographic sketches. op. miller, alfred jacob. _the west of alfred jacob miller_, with an account of the artist by marvin c. ross, university of oklahoma press, norman, . although miller painted the west during - , only now is he being discovered by the public. this is mainly a picture book, in the top rank. pattie, james ohio. _the personal narrative of james o. pattie of kentucky_, cincinnati, . pattie and his small party went west in . for grizzlies, thirst, and other features of primitive adventure the narrative is primary. reid, mayne. _the scalp hunters_. an antiquated novel, but it has some deep-dyed pictures of mountain men. ross, alexander. _adventures of the first settlers on the oregon or columbia river_ ( ) and _the fur hunters of the far west_ ( ). the trappers of the southwest can no more be divorced from the trappers of the hudson's bay company than can texas cowboys from those of montana. russell, osborne. _journal of a trapper_, boise, idaho, . in the winter of , at fort hall on snake river, russell and three other trappers "had some few books to read, such as byron, shakespeare and scott's works, the bible and clark's commentary on it, and some small works on geology, chemistry and philosophy." russell was wont to speculate on life and nature. in perspective he approaches ruxton. ruxton, george f. _life in the far west_, ; reprinted by the university of oklahoma press, norman, , edited by leroy r. hafen. no other contemporary of the mountain men has been so much quoted as ruxton. he remains supremely readable. sabin, edwin l. _kit carson days_, . a work long standard, rich on rendezvous, bears, and many other associated subjects. bibliography. republished in rewritten form, . op. vestal, stanley (pseudonym for walter s. campbell). _kit carson_, . as a clean-running biographic narrative, it is not likely to be superseded. _mountain men_, , op; _the old santa fe trail_, . vestal's "fandango," a tale of the mountain men in taos, is among the most spirited ballads america has produced. it and a few other mountain men ballads are contained in the slight collection, _fandango_, . houghton mifflin, boston, published the aforementioned titles. _james bridger, mountain man_, morrow, new york, , is smoother than j. cecil alter's biography but not so savory. _joe meek, the merry mountain man_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . white, stewart edward. _the long rifle_, , and _ranchero_, , doubleday, doran, garden city, n. y. historical fiction. . santa fe and the santa fe trail there was independence on the missouri river, then eight hundred miles of twisting trail across hills, plains, and mountains, all uninhabited save by a few wandering indians and uncountable buffaloes. then there was santa fe. on west of it lay nearly a thousand miles of wild broken lands before one came to the village of los angeles. but there was no trail to los angeles. at santa fe the trail turned south and after crawling over the jornada del muerto--journey of the dead man--threading the great pass of the north (el paso) and crossing a vast desert, reached chihuahua city. looked at in one way, santa fe was a mud village. in another way, it was the solitary oasis of human picturesqueness in a continent of vacancy. like that of athens, though of an entirely different quality, its fame was out of all proportion to its size. in a strong chapter, entitled "a caravan enters santa fe," r. l. duffus _(the santa fe trail)_ elaborates on how for all travelers the town always had "the lure of adventure." josiah gregg doubted whether "the first sight of the walls of jerusalem were beheld with much more tumultuous and soul-enrapturing joy" than santa fe was by a caravan topping the last rise and, eight hundred miles of solitude behind it, looking down on the town's shining walls and cottonwoods. no other town of its size in america has been the subject of and focus for as much good literature as santa fe. pittsburgh and dozens of other big cities all put together have not inspired one tenth of the imaginative play that santa fe has inspired. some of the transcontinental railroads probably carry as much freight in a day as went over the santa fe trail in all the wagons in all the years they pulled over the santa fe trail. but the santa fe trail is one of the three great trails of america that, though plowed under, fenced across, and cemented over, seem destined for perennial travel--by those happily able to go without tourist guides. to quote robert louis stevenson, "the greatest adventures are not those we go to seek." the other two trails comparable to the santa fe are also of the west--the oregon trail for emigrants and the chisholm trail for cattle. for additional literature see "mountain men," "stagecoaches, freighting," "surge of life in the west." cather, willa. _death comes for the archbishop_, knopf, new york, . historical novel. connelley, w. e. (editor). _donithan's expedition_, . saga of the mexican war. op. davis, w. w. h. _el gringo, or new mexico and her people_, ; reprinted by rydal, santa fe, . op. excellent on manners and customs. duffus, r. l. _the santa fe trail_, new york, . op. bibliography. best book of this century on the subject. dunbar, seymour. _history of travel in america_, ; revised edition issued by tudor, new york, . gregg, josiah. _commerce of the prairies_, two vols., . reprinted, but all op. gregg wrote as a man of experience and not as a professional writer. he wrote not only the classic of the santa fe trade and trail but one of the classics of bedrock americana. it is a commentary on civilization in the southwest that his work is not kept in print. harvey fergusson, in _rio grande_, has written a penetrating criticism of the man and his subject. in and the university of oklahoma press, norman, issued two volumes of the _diary and letters of josiah gregg_, edited by maurice g. fulton with introductions by paul horgan. these volumes, interesting in themselves, are a valuable complement to gregg's major work. inman, henry. _the old santa fe trail_, . a mine of lore. laughlin, ruth (formerly ruth laughlin barker). _caballeros_, new york, ; republished by caxton, caldwell, idaho, . essayical goings into the life of things. especially delightful on burros. a book to be starred. _the wind leaves no shadow_, new york, ; caxton, . a novel around dona tules barcelo, the powerful, beautiful, and silvered mistress of santa fe's gambling _sala_ in the 's and ' 's. magoffin, susan shelby. _down the santa fe trail_, yale university press, new haven, . delectable diary. pillsbury, dorothy l. _no high adobe_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . sketches, pleasant to read, that make the _gente_ very real. ruxton, george frederick. _adventures in mexico and the rocky mountains_, london, . in the second half of this book was reprinted under title of _wild life in the rocky mountains_. in , with additional ruxton writings discovered by clyde and mae reed porter, the book, edited by leroy r. hafen, was reissued under title of _ruxton of the rockies_, university of oklahoma press, norman. santa fe is only one incident in it. ruxton illuminates whatever he touches. he was in love with the wilderness and had a fire in his belly. other writers add details, but ruxton and gregg embodied the whole santa fe world. vestal, stanley. _the old santa fe trail_, houghton mifflin, boston, . . stagecoaches, freighting a good introduction to a treatment of the stagecoach of the west would be thomas de quincey's "the english mail-coach." the proper place to read about the coaches would be in doctor lyon's pony express museum, out from pasadena, california. may it never perish! old monte drives up now and then in alfred henry lewis' _wolfville_ tales, and bret harte made yuba bill crack the whip; but, somehow, considering all the excellent expositions and reminiscing of stage-coaching in western america, the proud, insolent, glorious figure of the driver has not been adequately pictured. literature on "santa fe and the santa fe trail" is pertinent. see also under "pony express." banning, william, and banning, george hugh. _six horses_, new york, . a combination of history and autobiography. routes to and in california; much of texas. enjoyable reading. excellent on drivers, travelers, stations, "pass the mustard, please." bibliography. op. conkling, roscoe p. and margaret b. _the butterfield overland trail, - _, arthur h. clark co., glendage, california. three volumes replete with facts from politics in washington over mail contracts to horsehead crossing on the pecos river. dobbie, j. frank. chapter entitled "pistols, poker and the petit mademoiselle in a stagecoach," in _the flavor of texas_ . op. duffus, r. l. _the santa fe trail_ new york, . swift reading. well selected bibliography. op. frederick, j. v. _ben holladay, the stage coach king_, clark, glendale, california, . bibliography. haley, j. evetts. chapter v, "the stage-coach mail," in _fort concho and the texas frontier_, illustrated by harold bugbee, san angelo standard-times, san angelo, texas, . strong on frontier crossed by stage line. hungerford, edward. _wells fargo: advancing the frontier_, random house, new york, . written without regard for the human beings that the all-swallowing corporation crushed. facts on highwaymen. inman, henry. _the old santa fe trail_, new york, . op. _the great salt lake trail_, . op. many first-hand incidents and characters. majors, alexander. _seventy years on the frontier_, chicago, . reprinted by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. majors was the lead steer of all freighters. ormsby, w. l. _the butterfield overland mail_, edited by lyle h. wright and josephine m. bynum, huntington library, san marino, california, . ormsby rode the stage from st. louis to san francisco in and contributed to the new york _herald_ the lively articles now made into this book. root, frank a., and connelley, w. e. _the overland stage to california_, topeka, kansas, . reprinted by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. a full storehouse. basic. santleben, august. _a texas pioneer_, edited by i. d. affleck, new york, . op. best treatise available on freighting on chihuahua trail. twain, mark. _roughing it_, . mark twain went west by stage. winther, o. o. _express and stagecoach days in california_, stanford university press, . compact, with bibliography. op. . pony express "presently the driver exclaims, `here he comes!' "every neck is stretched and every eye strained. away across the endless dead level of the prairie a black speck appears against the sky. in a second or two it becomes a horse and rider, rising and falling, rising and falling sweeping towards us nearer and nearer--growing more and more distinct, more and more sharply defined--nearer and still nearer, and the flutter of the hoofs comes faintly to the ear--another instant a whoop and a hurrah from our upper deck [of the stagecoach], a wave of the rider's hand, but no reply, and man and horse burst past our excited faces, and go swinging away like a belated fragment of a storm."--mark twain, _roughing it_. a word cannot be defined in its own terms; nor can a region, or a feature of that region. analogy and perspective are necessary for comprehension. the sense of horseback motion has never been better realized than by kipling in "the ballad of east and west." see "horses." bradley, glenn d._ the story of the pony express_, chicago, . nothing extra. op. brewerton, g. d. _overland with kit carson_, new york, . bibliography on west in general. chapman, arthur. _the pony express_, putnam's, new york, . good reading and bibliography. dobie, j. frank. chapter on "rides and riders," in _on the open range_, published in ; reprinted by banks up shaw, dallas. chapter on "under the saddle" in _the mustangs_. hapen, leroy. _the overland mail_, cleveland, . factual, bibliography. op. root, frank a., and connelley, w. e. _the overland stage to california_, topeka, kansas, . reprinted by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. basic work. visscher, frank j. _a thrilling and truthful history of the pony express_, chicago, . op. not excessively "thrilling." . surge of life in the west the wanderings of cabeza de vaca, coronado, de soto, and la salle had long been chronicled, although the chronicles had not been popularized in english, when in captain meriwether lewis and captain william clark set out to explore not only the louisiana territory, which had just been purchased for the united states by president thomas jefferson, but on west to the pacific. their _journals_, published in , initiated a series of chronicles comparable in scope, vitality, and manhood adventure to the great collection known as _hakluyt's voyages_. between and reuben gold thwaites, one of the outstanding editors of the english-speaking world, brought out in thirty-two volumes his epic _early western travels_. this work includes the lewis and clark _journals_, every student of the west, whether northwest or southwest, goes to the collection sooner or later. it is a commentary on the values of life held by big rich boasters of patriotism in the west that virtually all the chronicles in the collection remain out of print. an important addendum to the thwaites collection of _early western travels_ is "the southwest historical series," edited by ralph p. bieber--twelve volumes, published - , by clark, glendale, california. the stampede to california that began in climaxed all migration orgies of the world in its lust for gold; but the lust for gold was merely one manifestation of a mighty population's lust for life. railroads raced each other to cross the continent. ten million longhorns were going up the trails; from texas while the last of a hundred million buffaloes, killed in herds--the greatest slaughter in history--were being skinned. dodge city was the cowboy capital of the world, and chicago was becoming "hog butcher of the world." miller and lux were expanding their ranges so that, as others boasted, their herds could trail from oregon to baja california and bed down every night on miller and lux's own grass. hubert howe bancroft ( - ) was massing in san francisco at his own expense the greatest assemblage of historical documents any one individual ever assembled. while his interviewers and note-takers sorted down tons of manuscript, he was employing a corps of historians to write what, at first designed as a history of the pacific states, grew in twenty-eight volumes to embrace also alaska, british columbia, texas, mexico, and central america, aside from five volumes on the native races and six volumes of essays. meantime he was printing these volumes in sets of thousands and selling them through an army of agents that covered america. collis p. huntington ( - ) was building the southern pacific railroad into a network, interlocked with other systems and steamship lines, not only enveloping california land but also the whole economic and political life of that and other states, with headquarters in the u.s. congress. then his nephew, henry e. huntington ( - ), taking over his wealth and power, was building gardens at san marino, california, collecting art, books, and manuscripts to make, without benefit of any institution of learning and in defiance of all the slow processes of tradition found at oxford and harvard, a huntington library and a huntington art gallery that, set down amid the most costly botanical profusion imaginable, now rival the world's finest. the dreams were of empire. old men and young toiled as "terribly" as mighty raleigh. the "spacious times" of queen elizabeth seemed, indeed, to be translated to another sphere, though here the elements that went into the mixture were less diverse. boom methods of gargantuan scale were applied to cultural factors as well as to the physical. few men stopped to reflect that while objects of art may be bought by the wholesale, the development of genuine culture is too intimately personal and too chemically blended with the spiritual to be bartered for. the huntingtons paid a quarter of a million dollars for gainsborough's "the blue boy." it is very beautiful. meanwhile the mustang grapevine waits for some artist to paint the strong and lovely grace of its drapery and thereby to enrich for land-dwellers every valley where it hangs over elm or oak. most of the books in this section could be placed in other sections. many have been. they represent the vigor, vitality, energy, and daring characteristic of our frontiers. to quote harvey fergusson's phrase, the adventures of mettle have always had "a tension that would not let them rest." barker, eugene c. _the life of stephen f. austin_, dallas, . republished by texas state historical association, austin. iron-wrought biography of the leader in making texas anglo-american. bell, horace. _reminiscences of a ranger, or early times in california_, los angeles, ; reprinted, but op. in this book and in _on the old west coast_, bell caught the lift and spiritedness of life-hungry men. bidwell, john ( - ). _echoes of the past_, chico, california (about ). bidwell got to california several years before gold was discovered. he became foremost citizen and entertained scientists, writers, scholars, and artists at his ranch home. his brief accounts of the trip across the plains and of pioneer society in california are graphic, charming, telling. the book goes in and out of print but is not likely to die. billington, ray allen. _westward expansion: a history of the american frontier_, macmillan, new york, . this alpha to omega treatise concludes with a seventy-five-page, double-column, fine-print bibliography which not only lists but comments upon most books and articles of any consequence that have been published on frontier history. bourke, john g. _on the border with crook_, new york, . now published by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. bourke had an eager, disciplined mind, at once scientific and humanistic; he had imagination and loyalty to truth and justice; he had a strong body and joyed in frontier exploring. he was a captain in the army but had nothing of the littleness of the army mind exhibited by generals nelson miles and o. o. howard in their egocentric reminiscences. i rank his book as the meatiest and richest of all books dealing with campaigns against indians. in its amplitude it includes the whole frontier. general george crook was a wise, generous, and noble man, but his _autobiography_ (edited by martin f. schmitt; university of oklahoma press) lacks that power in writing necessary to turn the best subject on earth into a good book and capable also, as darwin demonstrated, of turning earthworms into a classic. burnham, frederick russell. _scouting on two continents_, new york, ; reprinted, los angeles, . a brave book of enthralling interest. the technique of scouting in the apache country is illuminated by that of south africa in the boer war. hunting for life, major burnham carried it with him. op. devoto, bernard. _the year of decision _, houghton mifflin, boston, . critical interpretation as well as depiction. the mexican war, new mexico, california, mountain men, etc. devoto's _across the wide missouri_ is wider in spirit, less bound to political complexities. see under "mountain men." emory, lieutenant colonel william h. _notes of a military reconnaissance from fort leavenworth, in missouri, to san diego, in california, including part of the arkansas, del norte, and gila rivers_, washington, . emory's own vivid report is only one item in _executive document no. _, th congress, st session, with which it is bound. lieutenant j. w. albert's _journal_ and additional _report on new mexico_, st. george cooke's odyssey of his march from santa fe to san diego, another _journal_ by captain a. r. johnson, the torrey-englemann report on botany, illustrated with engravings, all go to make this one of the meatiest of a number of meaty government publications. the emory part of it has been reprinted by the university of new mexico press, under title of _lieutenant emory reports_, introduction and notes by ross calvin, albuquerque, . emory's great two-volume _report on united states and mexican boundary survey_, washington and , is, aside from descriptions of borderlands and their inhabitants, a veritable encyclopedia, wonderfully illustrated, on western flora and fauna. united states commissioner on this boundary survey (following the mexican war) was john russell bartlett. while exploring from the gulf of mexico to the pacific and far down into mexico, he wrote _personal narrative of explorations and incidents in texas, new mexico, california, sonora and chihuahua_. published in two volumes, new york, . for me very little rewritten history has the freshness and fascination of these strong, firsthand personal narratives, though i recognize many of them as being the stuff of literature rather than literature itself. fowler, jacob. _the journal of jacob fowler, - _, edited by elliott coues, new york, . hardly another chronicle of the west is so defoe-like in homemade realism, whether on indians and indian horses or negro paul's experience with the mexican "lady" at san fernando de taos. should be reprinted. gambrell, herbert. _anson jones: the last president of texas_, garden city, new york, ; now distributed by southern methodist university press, dallas, texas. anson jones was more surged over than surgent. infused with a larger comprehension than that behind many a world figure, this biography of a provincial figure is perhaps the most artfully written that texas has produced. it goes into the soul of the man. hobbs, james. _wild life in the far west_, hartford, . hobbs saw just about all the elephants and heard just about all the owls to be seen and heard in the far west including western mexico. should be reprinted. hulbert, archer butler. _forty-niners: the chronicle of the california trail_, little, brown, boston, . hulbert read exhaustively in the exhausting literature by and about the gold hunters rushing to california. then he wove into a synthetic diary the most interesting and illuminating records on happenings, characters, ambitions, talk, singing, the whole life of the emigrants. irving, washington. irving made his ride into what is now oklahoma in . he had recently returned from a seventeen-year stay in europe and was a mature literary man--as mature as a conforming romanticist could become prairie life refreshed him. a _tour on the prairies_, published in , remains refreshing. it is illuminated by _washington irving on the prairie; or, a narrative of the southwest in the year _, by henry leavitt ellsworth (who accompanied irving), edited by stanley t. williams and barbara d. simison, new york, ; by _the western journals of washington irving_, excellently edited by john francis mcdermott, norman, oklahoma, ; and by charles j. latrobe's _the rambler in north america, - _, new york, . james, marquis. _the raven_, bobbs-merrill, indianapolis, . graphic life of sam houston. kurz, rudolph friederich. _journal of rudolph friederich kurz: ... his experiences among fur traders and american indians on the mississippi and upper missouri rivers, during the years of - _, u.s. bureau of ethnology bulletin , washington, . the public has not had a chance at this book, which was printed rather than published. kurz both saw and recorded with remarkable vitality. he was an artist and the volume contains many reproductions of his paintings and drawings. one of the most readable and illuminating of western journals. lewis, oscar. _the big four_, new york, . railroad magnates. lockwood, frank c. _arizona characters_, los angeles, california, . fresh sketches of representative men. the book deserves to be better known than it is. op. lyman, george d. _john marsh pioneer_, new york, . prime biography and prime romance. laid mostly in california. this book almost heads the list of all biographies of western men. op. parkman, francis. _the oregon trail_, . parkman knew how to write but some other penetrators of the west put down about as much. school assignments have made his book a recognized classic. pattie, james o. _personal narrative_, cincinnati, ; reprinted, but op. positively gripping chronicle of life in new mexico and the californias during mexican days. pike, zebulon m. _the southwestern expedition of zebulon m. pike_, philadelphia, . the edition edited by elliott coues is the most useful to students. no edition is in print. pike's explorations of the southwest ( - ) began while the great lewis and clark expedition ( - ) was ending. his journal is nothing like so informative as theirs but is just as readable. _the lost pathfinder_ is a biography of pike by w. eugene hollon, university of oklahoma press, norman, . twain, mark. _roughing it_, . mark twain was a man who wrote and not merely a writer in man-form. he was frontier american in all his fibers. he was drunk with western life at a time when both he and it were standing on tiptoe watching the sun rise over the misty mountain tops, and he wrote of what he had seen and lived before he became too sober. _roughing it_ comes nearer catching the energy, the youthfulness, the blooming optimism, the recklessness, the lust for the illimitable in western life than any other book. it deals largely with mining life, but the surging vitality of this life as reflected by mark twain has been the chief common denominator of all american frontiers and was as characteristic of texas "cattle kings" when grass was free as of virginia city "nabobs" in bonanza. . range life: cowboys, cattle, sheep the cowboy originated in texas. the texas cowboy, along with the texas cowman, was an evolvement from and a blend of the riding, shooting, frontier-formed southerner, the mexican-indian horseback worker with livestock (the vaquero), and the spanish open-range rancher. the blend was not in blood, but in occupational techniques. i have traced this genesis with more detail in _the longhorns_. compared with evolution in species, evolution in human affairs is meteor-swift. the driving of millions of cattle and horses from texas to stock the whole plains area of north america while, following the civil war, it was being denuded of buffaloes and secured from indian domination, enabled the texas cowboy to set his impress upon the whole ranching industry. the cowboy became the best-known occupational type that america has given the world. he exists still and will long exist, though much changed from the original. his fame derives from the past. romance, both genuine and spurious, has obscured the realities of range and trail. the realities themselves have, however, been such that few riders really belonging to the range wished to lead any other existence. only by force of circumstances have they changed "the grass beneath and the sky above" for a more settled, more confining, and more materially remunerative way of life. some of the old-time cowboys were little more adaptable to change than the plains indians; few were less reluctant to plow or work in houses. heaven in their dreams was a range better watered than the one they knew, with grass never stricken by drought, plenty of fat cattle, the best horses and comrades of their experience, more of women than they talked about in public, and nothing at all of golden streets, golden harps, angel wings, and thrones; it was a mere extension, somewhat improved, of the present. bankers, manufacturers, merchants, and mechanics seldom so idealize their own occupations; they work fifty weeks a year to go free the other two. for every hired man on horseback there have been hundreds of plowmen in america, and tens of millions of acres of rangelands have been plowed under, but who can cite a single autobiography of a laborer in the fields of cotton, of corn, of wheat? or do coal miners, steelmongers, workers in oil refineries, factory hands of any kind of factory, the employees of chain stores and department stores ever write autobiographies? many scores of autobiographies have been written by range men, perhaps half of them by cowboys who never became owners at all. a high percentage of the autobiographies are in pamphlet form; many that were written have not been published. the trail drivers of open range days, nearly all dead now, felt the urge to record experiences more strongly than their successors. they realized that they had been a part of an epic life. the fact that the hired man on horseback has been as good a man as the owner and, on the average, has been a more spirited and eager man than the hand on foot may afford some explanation of the validity and vitality of his chroniclings, no matter how crude they be. on the other hand, the fact that the rich owner and the college-educated aspirant to be a cowboy soon learned, if they stayed on the range, that _a man's a man for a' that_ may to some extent account for a certain generous amplitude of character inherent in their most representative reminiscences. sympathy for the life biases my judgment; that judgment, nevertheless, is that some of the strongest and raciest autobiographic writing produced by america has been by range men. {illust. caption = tom lea, in _the longhorns_ by j. frank dobie ( )} this is not to say that these chronicles are of a high literary order. their writers have generally lacked the maturity of mind, the reflective wisdom, and the power of observation found in personal narratives of the highest order. no man who camped with a chuck wagon has written anything remotely comparable to charles m. doughty's _arabia deserta_, a chronicle at once personal and impersonal, restrainedly subjective and widely objective, of his life with nomadic bedouins. perspective is a concomitant of civilization. the chronicles of the range that show perspective have come mostly from educated new englanders, englishmen, and scots. the great majority of the chronicles are limited in subject matter to physical activities. they make few concessions to "the desire of the moth for the star"; they hardly enter the complexities of life, including those of sex. in one section of the west at one time the outstanding differences among range men were between owners of sheep and owners of cattle, the ambition of both being to hog the whole country. on another area of the range at another time, the outstanding difference was between little ranchers, many of whom were stealing, and big ranchers, plenty of whom had stolen. such differences are not exponents of the kind of individualism that burns itself into great human documents. seldom deeper than the chronicles does range fiction go below physical surface into reflection, broodings, hungers--the smolderings deep down in a cowman oppressed by drought and mortgage sitting in a rocking chair on a ranch gallery looking at the dust devils and hoping for a cloud; the goings-on inside a silent cowboy riding away alone from an empty pen to which he will never return; the streams of consciousness in a silent man and a silent woman bedded together in a wind-lashed frame house away out on the lone prairie. the wide range of human interests leaves ample room for downright, straightaway narratives of the careers of strong men. if the literature of the range ever matures, however, it will include keener searchings for meanings and harder struggles for human truths by writers who strive in "the craft so long to lerne." for three-quarters of a century the output of fiction on the cowboy has been tremendous, and it shows little diminution. mass production inundating the masses of readers has made it difficult for serious fictionists writing about range people to get a hearing. the code of the west was concentrated into the code of the range--and not all of it by any means depended upon the six-shooter. no one can comprehend this code without knowing something about the code of the old south, whence the texas cowboy came. mexican goats make the best eating in mexico and mohair has made good money for many ranchers of the southwest. goats, goat herders, goatskins, and wine in goatskins figure in the literature of spain as prominently as six-shooters in blazing frontier fiction--and far more pleasantly. read george borrow's _the bible in spain_, one of the most delectable of travel books. beyond a few notices of mexican goat herders, there is on the subject of goats next to nothing readable in american writings. where there is no competition, supremacy is small distinction; so i should offend no taste by saying that "the man of goats" in my own _tongues of the monte_ is about the best there is so far as goats go. although sheep are among the most salient facts of range life, they have, as compared with cattle and horses, been a dim item in the range tradition. yet, of less than a dozen books on sheep and sheepmen, more than half of them are better written than hundreds of books concerning cowboy life. mary austin's _the flock_ is subtle and beautiful; archer b. gilfillan's _sheep_ is literature in addition to having much information; hughie call's _golden fleece_ is delightful; winifred kupper's _the golden hoof_ and _texas sheepman_ have charm--a rare quality in most books on cows and cow people. among furnishings in the cabin of robert maudslay, "the texas sheepman," were a set of sir walter scott's works, shakespeare, and a file of the _illustrated london news_. "a man who read shakespeare and the _illustrated london news_ had little to contribute to come a ti yi yoopee ti yi ya!" o. henry's ranch experiences in texas were largely confined to a sheep ranch. the setting of his "last of the troubadours" is a sheep ranch. i nominate it as the best range story in american fiction. "cowboy songs" and "horses" are separate chapters following this. the literature cited in them is mostly range literature, although precious little in all the songs rises to the status of poetry. a considerable part of the literature listed under "texas rangers" and "the bad man tradition" bears on range life. abbott, e. c., and smith, helena huntington. we _pointed them north_, new york, . abbott, better known as teddy blue, used to give his address as three duce ranch, gilt edge, montana. helena huntington smith, who actually wrote and arranged his reminiscences, instead of currying him down and putting a checkrein on him, spurred him in the flanks and told him to swaller his head. he did. this book is franker about the women a rollicky cowboy was likely to meet in town than all the other range books put together. the fact that teddy blue's wife was a half-breed indian, daughter of granville stuart, and that indian women do not object to the truth about sex life may account in part for his frankness. the book is mighty good reading. op. adams, andy. _the log of a cowboy_ ( ). in , at the age of twenty-three, andy adams came to texas from indiana. for about ten years he traded horses and drove them up the trail. he knew cattle people and their ranges from brownsville to caldwell, kansas. after mining for another decade, he began to write. if all other books on trail driving were destroyed, a reader could still get a just and authentic conception of trail men, trail work, range cattle, cow horses, and the cow country in general from _the log of a cowboy_. it is a novel without a plot, a woman, character development, or sustained dramatic incidents; yet it is the classic of the occupation. it is a simple, straightaway narrative that takes a trail herd from the rio grande to the canadian line, the hands talking as naturally as cows chew cuds, every page illuminated by an easy intimacy with the life. adams wrote six other books. _the outlet, a texas matchmaker, cattle brands_, and _reed anthony, cowman_ all make good reading. _wells brothers_ and _the ranch on the beaver_ are stories for boys. i read them with pleasure long after i was grown. all but _the log of a cowboy_ are op, published by houghton mifflin, boston. adams, ramon f. _cowboy lingo_, boston, . a dictionary of cowboy words, figures of speech, picturesque phraseology, slang, etc., with explanations of many factors peculiar to range life. op. _western words_, university of oklahoma press, . a companion book. _come an' get it_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . informal exposition of chuck wagon cooks. aldridge, reginald. _ranch notes_, london, . aldridge, an educated englishman, got into the cattle business before, in the late eighties, it boomed itself flat. his book is not important, but it is maybe a shade better than _ranch life in southern kansas and the indian territory_ by benjamin s. miller, new york, . aldridge and miller were partners, and each writes kindly about the other. allen, john houghton. _southwest_, lippincott, philadelphia, . a chemical compound of highly impressionistic autobiographic nonfiction and highly romantic fiction and folk tales. the setting is a ranch of mexican tradition in the lower border country of texas, also saloons and bawdy houses of border towns. vaqueros and their work in the brush are intensely vivid. the author has a passion for superlatives and for "a joyous cruelty, a good cruelty, a young cruelty." arnold, oren, and hale, j. p. _hot irons_, macmillan, new york, . technique and lore of cattle brands. op. austin, mary. _the flock_, boston, , op. mary austin saw the meanings of things; she was a creator. very quietly she sublimated life into the literature of pictures and emotions. australian ranching is not foreign to american ranching. the best book on the subject that i have found is _pastures new_, by r. v. billis and a. s. kenyon, london, . barnard, evan g. ("parson"). _a rider of the cherokee strip_, houghton mifflin, boston, . savory with little incidents and cowboy humor. op. barnes, will c. _tales from the x-bar horse camp_, chicago, . op. good simple narratives. _apaches and longhorns_, los angeles, . autobiography. op. _western grazing grounds and forest ranges_, chicago, . op. governmentally factual. barnes was in the u.s. forest service and was informed. barrows, john r. _ubet_, caldwell, idaho, . excellent on northwest; autobiographical. op. bechdolt, frederick r. _tales of the old timers_, new york, . vivid, economical stories of "the warriors of the pecos" (billy the kid and the troubles on john chisum's ranch-empire), of butch cassidy and his wild bunch in their wyoming hide-outs, of the way frontier texans fought mexicans and comanches over the open ranges. research clogs the style of many historians; perhaps it is just as well that bechdolt did not search more extensively into the arcana of footnotes. op. boatright, mody c. _tall tales from texas cow camps_, dallas, . the tales are tall all right and true to cows that never saw a milk bucket. op. reprinted by haldeman-julius, girard, kansas. borein, edward. _etchings of the west_, edited by edward s. spaulding, santa barbara, california, . op. a very handsome folio; primarily a reproduction of sketches, many of which are on range subjects. ed borein tells more in them than hundreds of windbags have told in tens of thousands of pages. they are beautiful and authentic, even if they are what post-impressionists call "documentary." believers in the true faith say now that leonardo da vinci is documentary in his painting of the lord's supper. ed borein was a great friend of charlie russell's but not an imitator. _etchings of the west_ will soon be among the rarities of western books. bower, b. m. _chip of the flying u_, new york, . charles russell illustrated this and three other bower novels. contrary to his denial, he is supposed to have been the prototype for chip. a long time ago i read _chit of the flying u_ and _the lure of the dim trails_ and thought them as good as eugene manlove rhodes's stories. that they have faded almost completely out of memory is a commentary on my memory; just the same, a character as well named as chip should, if he have substance beyond his name, leave an impression even on weak memories. b. m. bower was a woman, bower being the name of her first husband. a montana cowpuncher named "fiddle back" sinclair was her second, and robert ellsworth cowan became the third. under the name of bud cowan he published a book of reminiscences entitled _range rider_ (garden city, n. y., ). b. m. bower wrote a slight introduction to it; neither he nor she says anything about being married to the other. in the best of her fiction she is truer to life than he is in a good part of his nonfiction. her chaste english is partly explained in an autobiographic note contributed to _adventure_ magazine, december , . her restless father had moved the family from minnesota to montana. there, she wrote, he "taught me music and how to draw plans of houses (he was an architect among other things) and to read _paradise lost_ and dante and h. rider haggard and the bible and the constitution--and my taste has been extremely catholic ever since." branch, e. douglas. _the cowboy and his interpreters_, new york, . useful bibliography on range matters, and excellent criticism of two kinds of fiction writers. op. bratt, john. _trails of yesterday_, chicago, . john bratt, twenty-two years old, came to america from england in , went west, and by was ranching on the platte. he became a big operator, but his reminiscences, beautifully printed, are stronger on camp cooks and other hired hands than on cattle "kings." nobody ever heard a cowman call himself or another cowman a king. "cattle king" is journalese. brisbin, general james s. _the beef bonanza; or, how to get rich on the plains_, philadelphia, . one of several books of its decade designed to appeal to eastern and european interest in ranching as an investment. figureless and with more human interest is _prairie experiences in handling cattle and sheep_, by major w. shepherd (of england), london? . bronson, edgar beecher. _cowboy life on the western plains_, chicago, . _the red blooded_, chicago, . freewheeling nonfiction. brooks, bryant b. _memoirs_, gardendale, california, . the book never was published; it was merely printed to satisfy the senescent vanity of a property-worshiping, cliche-parroting reactionary who made money ranching before he became governor of wyoming. he tells a few good anecdotes of range days. numerous better books pertaining to the range are not listed here; this mediocrity represents a particular type. brothers, mary hudson. a _pecos pioneer_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . superior to numerous better-known books. see comment under "women pioneers." brown, dee, and schmitt, martin f. _trail driving days_, scribner's, new york, . primarily a pictorial record, more on the side of action than of realism, except for post-trailing period. excellent bibliography. burton, harley true. a _history of the j a ranch_, austin, . facts about one of the greatest ranches of texas and its founder, charles goodnight. op. call, hughie. _golden fleece_, boston, . hughie married a sheepman, and after mothering the range as well as children with him for a quarter of a century, concluded that montana is still rather masculine. especially good on domestic life and on sheepherders. op. canton, frank m. _frontier trails_, edited by e. e. dale, boston, . op. good on tough hombres. clay, john. my _life on the range_, privately printed, chicago, . op. john clay, an educated scot, came to canada in and in time managed some of the largest british-owned ranches of north america. his book is the best of all sources on british-owned ranches. it is just as good on cowboys and sheepherders. clay was a fine gentleman in addition to being a canny businessman in the realm of cattle and land. he appreciated the beautiful and had a sense of style. cleland, robert glass. _the cattle on a thousand hills_, huntington library, san marino, california, (revised, ). scholarly work on spanish-mexican ranching in california. cleaveland, agnes morley. _no life for a lady_, houghton mifflin, boston, . best book on range life from a woman's point of view ever published. the setting is new mexico; humor and humanity prevail. collings, ellsworth. _the ranch_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . the ranch was far more than a ranch; it was a unique institution. the ranch wild west show is emphasized in this book. op. collins, dennis. _the indians' last fight or the dull knife raid_, press of the appeal to reason, girard, kansas, n.d. nearly half of this very scarce book deals autobiographically with frontier range life. realistic, strong, written from the perspective of a man who "wanted something to read" in camp. collins, hubert e. _warpath and cattle trail_, new york, . the pageant of trail life as it passed by a stage stand in oklahoma; autobiographical. beautifully printed and illustrated. far better than numerous other out-of-print books that bring much higher prices in the second-hand market. conn, william (translator). _cow-boys and colonels: narrative of a journey across the prairie and over the black hills of dakota_, london, ; new york ( ?). more of a curiosity than an illuminator, the book is a sparsely annotated translation of _dans les montagnes rocheuses_, by le baron e. de mandat-grancey, paris, october, . (the only copy i have examined is of printing.) it is a gossipy account of an excursion made in - ; cowboys and ranching are viewed pretty much as a sophisticated parisian views a zoo. the author must have felt more at home with the fantastic marquis de mores of medora, north dakota. the book appeared at a time when european capital was being invested in western ranches. it was followed by _la breche aux buffles: un ranch francais dans le dakota_, paris, . not translated so far as i know. cook, james h. _fifty years on the old frontier_, . cook came to texas soon after the close of the civil war and became a brush popper on the frio river. nothing better on cow work in the brush country and trail driving in the seventies has appeared. op. a good deal of the same material was put into cook's _longhorn cowboy_ (putnam's, ), to which the pushing mr. howard r. driggs attached his name. coolidge, dane. _texas cowboys_, . thin, but genuine. _arizona cowboys_, . _old california cowboys_, . all well illustrated by photographs and all op. cox, james. _the cattle industry of texas and adjacent territory_, st. louis, . contains many important biographies and much good history. in i traded a pair of store-bought boots to my uncle neville dobie for his copy of this book. a man would have to throw in a young santa gertrudis bull now to get a copy. craig, john r. _ranching with lords and commons_, toronto, . during the great boom of the early 's in the range business, craig promoted a cattle company in london and then managed a ranch in western canada. his book is good on mismanaged range business and it is good on people, especially lords, and the land. he attributes to de quincey a latin quotation that properly, i think, belongs to thackeray. he quotes hamlin garland: "the trail is poetry; a wagon road is prose; the railroad, arithmetic." he was probably not so good at ranching as at writing. his book supplements _from home to home_, by alex. staveley hill, new york, . hill was a major investor in the oxley ranch, and was, i judge, the pompous cheat and scoundrel that craig said he was. crawford, lewis f. _rekindling camp fires: the exploits of ben arnold (connor)_, bismarck, north dakota, . op. the skill of lewis f. crawford of the north dakota historical society made this a richer autobiography than if arnold had been unaided. he was squaw man, scout, trapper, soldier, deserter, prospector, and actor in other occupations as well as cowboy. he had a fierce sense of justice that extended to indians. his outlook was wider than that of the average ranch hand. _badlands and broncho trails_, bismarck, , is a slight book of simple narratives that catches the tune of the badlands life. op. _ranching days in dakota_, wirth brothers, baltimore, , is good on horse-raising and the terrible winter of - . culley, john. _cattle, horses, and men_, los angeles, . much about the noted bell ranch of new mexico. especially good on horses. culley was educated at oxford. when i visited him in california, he had on his table a presentation copy of a book by walter pater. his book has the luminosity that comes from cultivated intelligence. op. dacy, george f. _four centuries of florida ranching_, st. louis, . op. in _crooked trails_, frederic remington has a chapter (illustrated) on "cracker cowboys of florida," and _lake okeechobee_, by a. j. hanna and kathryn abbey, indianapolis, , treats of modern ranching in florida, but the range people of that state have been too lethargic-minded to write about themselves and no marjorie kinnan rawlings has settled in their midst to interpret them. dale, e. e. _the range cattle industry_, norman, oklahoma, . economic aspects. bibliography. _cow country,_ norman, oklahoma, . bully tales and easy history. both books are op. dana, richard henry. _two years before the mast_, . this transcript of reality has been reprinted many times. it is the classic of the hide and tallow trade of california. david, robert d. _malcolm campbell, sheriff_, casper, wyoming, . much of the "johnson county war" between cowmen and thieving nesters. op. dayton, edson c. _dakota days_. privately printed by the author at clifton springs, new york, --three hundred copies only. dayton was more sheepman than cowman. he had a spiritual content. his very use of the word _intellectual_ on the second page of his book; his estimate of milton and gladstone, adjacent to talk about a frontier saloon; his consciousness of his own inner growth--something no extravert cowboy ever noticed, usually because he did not have it; his quotation to express harmony with nature: i have some kinship to the bee, i am boon brother with the tree; the breathing earth is part of me-- all indicate a refinement that any gambler could safely bet originated in the east and not in texas or the south. dobie, j. frank. _a vaquero of the brush country_, . much on border troubles over cattle, the "skinning war," running wild cattle in the brush, mustanging, trail driving; john young's narrative, told in the first person, against range backgrounds. _the longhorns_, illustrated by tom lea, . history of the longhorn breed, psychology of stampedes; days of maverickers and mavericks; stories of individual lead steers and outlaws of the range; stories about rawhide and many other related subjects. the book attempts to reveal the blend made by man, beast, and range. both books published by little, brown, boston. _the mustangs_, . see under "horses." ford, gus l. _texas cattle brands_, dallas, . a catalogue of brands. op. french, william. _some recollections of a western ranchman_, london, . a civilized englishman remembers. op. gann, walter. _the trail boss_, boston, . faithful fiction, with a steer that charlie russell should have painted. op. gard, wayne. _frontier justice_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . this book could be classified under "the bad man tradition," but it has authentic chapters on fence-cutting, the so-called "johnson county cattlemen's war" of wyoming, and other range "difficulties." clearly written from an equable point of view. useful bibliography of range books. gibson, j. w. (watt). _recollections of a pioneer_, st. joseph, missouri (about ). like many another book concerned only incidentally with range life, this contains essential information on the subject. here it is trailing cattle from missouri to california in the 's and 's. cattle driving from the east to california was not economically important. the outstanding account on the subject is _a log of the texas-california cattle trail, _, by james g. bell, edited by j. evetts haley, published in the _southwestern historical quarterly_, (vols. xxxv and xxxvi). also reprinted as a separate. {illust. caption = tom lea, in _the longhorns_ by j. frank dobie ( )} gilfillan, archer b. _sheep_, boston, . with humor and grace, this sheepherder, who collected books on samuel pepys, tells more about sheep dogs, sheep nature, and sheepherder life than any other writer i know. op. gipson, fred. _fabulous empire_, houghton mifflin, boston, . biography of zack miller of the ranch and wild west show. goodwyn, frank. _life on the king ranch_, crowell, new york, . the author was reared on the king ranch. he is especially refreshing on the vaqueros, their techniques and tales. gray, frank s. _pioneer adventures_, , and _pioneering in southwest texas_, , both printed by the author, copperas cove, texas. these books are listed because the author has the perspective of a civilized gentleman and integrates home life on frontier ranches with range work. greer, james k. _bois d'arc to barbed wire_, dallas, . outstanding horse lore. op. hagedorn, hermann. _roosevelt in the bad lands_, boston, . a better book than roosevelt's own _ranch life and the hunting trail_. op. haley, j. evetts. _the xit ranch of texas_, chicago, . as county and town afford the basis for historical treatment of many areas, ranches have afforded bases for various range country histories. of such this is tops. a lawsuit for libel brought by one or more individuals mentioned in the book put a stop to the selling of copies by the publishers and made it very "rare." _charles goodnight, cowman and plainsman_, boston, , reissued by university of oklahoma press, norman, . goodnight, powerful individual and extraordinary observer, summed up in himself the whole life of range and trail. haley's book, packed with realities of incident and character, paints him against a mighty background. _george w. littlefield, texan_, university of oklahoma presss norman, okla., , is a lesser biography of a lesser man. hamilton, w. h. _autobiography of a cowman_, in _south dakota historical collections_, xix ( ), - . a first-rate narrative of life on the dakota range. hamner, laura v. _short grass and longhorns_, norman, oklahoma, . sketches of panhandle ranches and ranch people. op. harris, frank. _my reminiscences as a cowboy_, . a blatant farrago of lies, included in this list because of its supreme worthlessness. however, some judges might regard the debilitated and puerile lying in _the autobiography of frank tarbeaux_, as told to donald h. clarke, new york, , as equally worthless. hart, john a., and others. _history of pioneer days in texas and oklahoma_. no date or place of publication; no table of contents. this slight book was enlarged into _pioneer days in the southwest from to _, "contributions by charles goodnight, emanuel dubbs, john a. hart and others," guthrie, oklahoma, . good on the way frontier ranch families lived. the writers show no sense of humor and no idea of being literary. hastings, frank s. _a ranchman's recollections_, chicago, . op. hastings was urbane, which means he had perspective; "old gran'pa" is the most pulling cowhorse story i know. henry, o. _heart of the west_. interpretative stories of texas range life, which o. henry for a time lived. his range stories are scattered through several volumes. "the last of the troubadours" is a classic. henry, stuart. _our great american plains_, new york, . op. an unworshipful, anti-philistinic picture of abilene, kansas, when it was at the end of the chisholm trail. while not a primary range book, this is absolutely unique in its analysis of cow-town society, both citizens and drovers. stuart henry came to abilene as a boy in . his brother was the first mayor of the town. after graduating from the university of kansas in , he in time acquired "the habit of authorship." he had written a book on london and _french essays and profiles_ and _hours with famous parisians_ before he returned to kansas for a subject. some of his non-complimentary characterizations of westerners aroused a mighty roar among panegyrists of the west. they did not try to refute his anecdote about the sign of the bull head saloon. this sign showed the whole of a great red bull. the citizens of abilene were used to seeing bulls driven through town and they could go out any day and see bulls with cows on the prairie. nature might be good, but any art suggesting nature's virility was indecent. there was such an uprising of victorian taste that what distinguishes a bull from a cow had to be painted out. a similar artistic operation had to be performed on the bull signifying bull durham tobacco--once the range favorite for making cigarettes. hill, j. l. _the end of the cattle trail_, long beach, california [may, ]. rare and meaty pamphlet. holden, w. c. _rollie burns_, dallas, . biography of a plains cowman. op. _the spur ranch_, boston, . history of a great texas ranch. op. horn, tom. _life of tom horn... written by himself, together with his letters and statements by his friends, a vindication_. published (for john c. coble) by the louthan book company, denver, . who wrote the book has been somewhat in debate. john c. coble's name is signed to the preface attributing full authorship to horn. of pennsylvania background, wealthy and educated, he had employed horn as a stock detective on his wyoming ranch. he had the means and ability to see the book through the press. a letter from his wife to me, from cheyenne, june , , says that horn wrote the book. charles h. coe, who succeeded horn as stock detective in wyoming, says in _juggling a rope_ (pendleton, oregon, , p. ), that horn wrote it. i have a copy, bought from fred rosenstock of the bargain book store in denver, who got it from hattie horner louthan, of denver also. for years she taught english in the university of denver, college of commerce, and is the author of more than one textbook. the louthan book company of denver was owned by her family. this copy of _tom horn_ contains her bookplate. on top of the first page of the preface is written in pencil: "i wrote this--`ghost wrote.' h. h. l." then, penciled at the top of the first page of "closing word," is "i wrote this." glendolene myrtle kimmell was a schoolteacher in the country where tom horn operated. as her picture shows, she was lush and beautiful. pages - print "miss kimmell's statement." she did her best to keep tom horn from hanging. she frankly admired him and, it seems to me, loved him. jay monaghan, _the legend of tom horn, last of the bad men_, indianapolis and new york, , says (p. ), without discussion or proof, that after horn was hanged and buried miss kimmell was "writing a long manuscript about a sir galahad horseman who was `crushed between the grinding stones of two civilizations,' but she never found a publisher who thought her book would sell. it was entitled _the true life of tom horn_." the main debate has been over horn himself. the books about him are not highly important, but they contribute to a spectacular and highly controversial phase of range history, the so-called johnson county war of wyoming. mercer's _banditti of the plains_, mokler's _history of natrona county, wyoming_, canton's _frontier trails_, and david's _malcolm campbell, sheriff_ (all listed in this chapter) are primary sources on the subject. hough, emerson. _the story of the cowboy_, new york, . exposition not nearly so good as philip ashton rollins' _the cowboy. north of _, new york, . historical novel of the chisholm trail. the best character in it is old alamo, lead steer. a young woman owner of the herd trails with it. the success of the romance caused emerson hough to advise his friend andy adams to put a woman in a novel about trail driving--so andy adams told me. adams replied that a woman with a trail herd would be as useless as a fifth wheel on a wagon and that he would not violate reality by having her. for a devastation of hough's use of history in _north of _ see the appendix in stuart henry's _conquering our great american plains_. yet the novel does have the right temper. hoyt, henry f. _a frontier doctor_, boston, . texas panhandle and new mexico during billy the kid days. reminiscences. hunt, frazier. _cat mossman: last of the great cowmen_, illustrated by ross santee, hastings house, new york, . few full-length biographies of big operators among cowmen have been written. this reveals not only cap mossman's operations on enormous ranges, but the man. hunter, j. marvin (compiler). _the trail drivers of texas_, two volumes, bandera, texas, , . reprinted in one volume, . all op. george w. saunders, founder of the old time trail drivers association and for many years president, prevailed on hundreds of old-time range and trail men to write autobiographic sketches. he used to refer to volume ii as the "second edition"; just the same, he was not ignorant, and he had a passion for the history of his people. the chronicles, though chaotic in arrangement, comprise basic source material. an index to the one-volume edition of _the trail drivers of texas_ is printed as an appendix to _the chisholm trail and other routes_, by t. u. taylor, san antonio, --a hodgepodge. james, will. _cowboys north and south_, new york, . _the drifting cowboy_, . _smoky_--a cowhorse story-- . several other books, mostly repetitious. will james knew his frijoles, but burned them up before he died, in . he illustrated all his books. the best one is his first, written before he became sophisticated with life--without becoming in the right way more sophisticated in the arts of drawing and writing. _lone cowboy: my life story_ ( ) is without a date or a geographical location less generalized than the space between canada and mexico. james, w. s. _cowboy life in texas_, chicago, . a genuine cowboy who became a genuine preacher and wrote a book of validity. this is the best of several books of reminiscences by cowboy preachers, some of whom are as lacking in the real thing as certain cowboy artists. next to _cowboy life in texas_, in its genre, might come _from the plains to the pulpit_, by j. w. anderson, houston, . the second edition (reset) has six added chapters. the third, and final, edition, goose creek, texas, , again reset, has another added chapter. j. b. cranfill was a trail driver from a rough range before he became a baptist preacher and publisher. his bulky _chronicle, a story of life in texas_, , is downright and concrete. keleher, william a. _maxwell land grant: a new mexico item_, santa fe, . the maxwell grant of , , acres on the cimarron river was at one time perhaps the most famous tract of land in the west. this history brings in ranching only incidentally; it focuses on the land business, including grabs by catron, dorsey, and other affluent politicians. perhaps stronger on characters involved during long litigation over the land, and containing more documentary evidence, is _the grant that maxwell bought_, by f. stanley, the world press, denver, (a folio of pages in an edition of copies at $ . ). keleher is a lawyer; stanley is a priest. harvey fergusson in his historical novel _grant of kingdom_, new york, , vividly supplements both. keleher's second book, _the fabulous frontier_, rydal, santa fe, , illuminates connections between ranch lands and politicians; principally it sketches the careers of a. b. fall, john chisum, pat garrett, oliver lee, jack thorp, gene rhodes, and other new mexico notables. kent, william. _reminiscences of outdoor life_, san francisco, . op. this is far from being a straight-out range book. it is the easy talk of an urbane man associated with ranches and ranch people who was equally at home in a chicago office and among fellow congressmen. he had a country-going nature and gusto for character. king, frank m. _wranglin' the past_, los angeles, . king went all the way from texas to california, listening and looking. op. his second book, _longhorn trail drivers_ ( ), is worthless. his _pioneer western empire builders_ ( ) and _mavericks_ ( ) are no better. most of the contents of these books appeared in _western livestock journal_, los angeles. kupper, winifred. _the golden hoof_, new york, . story of the sheep and sheep people of the southwest. facts, but, above that, truth that comes only through imagination and sympathy. op. _texas sheepman_, university of texas press, austin, . the edited reminiscences of robert maudslay. he drove sheep all over the west, and lived up to the ideals of an honest englishman in writing as well as in ranching. he had a sense of humor. lampman, clinton parks. _the great western trail_, new york, . op. in the upper bracket of autobiographic chronicles, by a sensitive man who never had the provincial point of view. lampman contemplated as well as observed he felt the pathos of human destiny. lang, lincoln a. _ranching with roosevelt_, philadelphia, . civilized. op. lewis, alfred henry. _wolfville_ ( ) and other wolfville books. all op. sketches and rambling stories faithful to cattle backgrounds; flavor and humanity through fictionized anecdote. "the old cattleman," who tells all the wolfville stories, is a substantial and flavorsome creation. lockwood, frank c. _arizona characters_, los angeles, . skilfully written biographies. op. mccarty, john l. _maverick town_, university of oklahoma press, . tascosa, texas, on the canadian river, with emphasis on the guns. mccauley, james emmit. _a stove-up cowboy's story_, with introduction by john a. lomas and illustrations by tom lea, austin, . op. "my parents be poor like job's turkey," mccauley wrote. he was a common cowhand with uncommon saltiness of speech. he wrote as he talked. "god pity the wight for whom this vivid, honest story has no interest," john lomax pronounced. it is one of several brief books of reminiscences brought out in small editions in the "range life series," under the editorship of j. frank dobie, by the texas folklore society. the two others worth having are _a tenderfoot kid on gyp water_, by carl peters benedict ( ) and _ed nichols rode a horse_, as told to ruby nichols cutbirth ( ). mccoy, joseph g. _historic sketches of the cattle trade of the west and southwest_, kansas city, . in , mccoy established at abilene, kansas, terminus of the chisholm trail, the first market upon which texas drovers could depend. he went broke and thereupon put his sense, information, and vinegar into the first of all range histories. it is a landmark. of the several reprinted editions, the one preferred is that edited by ralph p. bieber, with an information-packed introduction and many illuminating notes, glendale, california, . this is volume viii in the "southwest historical series," edited by bieber, and the index to it is included in the general index to the whole series. available is an edition published by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. about the best of original sources on mccoy is _twenty years of kansas city's live stock and traders_, by cuthbert powell, kansas city, --one of the rarities. mackay, malcolm s. _cow range and hunting trail_, new york, . among the best of civilized range books. fresh observations and something besides ordinary narrative. op. illustrations by russell. mandat-grancey, baron e. de. see conn, william. mercer, a. s. _banditti of the plains, or the cattlemen's invasion of wyoming in _, cheyenne, ; reprinted at chicago in under title of _powder river invasion, war on the rustlers in _, "rewritten by john mercer boots." reprinted , with foreword by james mitchell clarke, by the grabhorn press, san francisco. all editions op. bloody troubles between cowmen and nesters in wyoming, the "johnson county war." for more literature on the subject, consult the entry under tom horn in this chapter. miller, lewis b. _saddles and lariats_, boston, . a fictional chronicle, based almost entirely on facts, of a trail herd that tried to get to california in the fifties. the author was a texan. op. mokler, alfred james. _history of natrona county, wyoming, - _, chicago, . contains some good material on the "johnson county war." this book is listed as an illustration of many county histories of western states containing concrete information on ranching. other examples of such county histories are s. d. butcher's _pioneer history of custer county_ (nebraska), broken bow, nebraska, ; _history of jack county_ (texas), jacksboro, texas (about ); _historical sketch of parker county and weatherford, texas_, st. louis, . mora, jo. _trail dust and saddle leather_, scribner's, new york, . no better exposition anywhere, and here tellingly illustrated, of reatas, spurs, bits, saddles, and other gear. _californios_, doubleday, garden city, n. y., . profusely illustrated. largely on vaquero techniques. jo mora knew the california vaquero, but did not know the range history of other regions and, therefore, judged as unique what was widespread. nimmo, joseph, jr. _the range and ranch cattle traffic in the western states and territories_, executive document no. , house of representatives, th congress, nd session, washington, d. c., . printed also in one or more other government documents. a statistical record concerning grazing lands, trail driving, railroad shipping of cattle, markets, foreign investments in ranches, etc. this document is the outstanding example of factual material to be found in various government publications, volume iii of the _tenth census of the united states_ ( ) being another. _the western range: letter from the secretary of agriculture_, etc (a "letter" pages long), united states government printing office, washington, , lists many government publications both state and national. nordyke, lewis. _cattle empire_, morrow, new york, . history, largely political, of the xit ranch. not so careful in documentation as haley's _xit ranch of texas_, and not so detailed on ranch operations, but thoroughly illuminative on the not-heroic side of big businessmen in big land deals. the two histories complement each other. o'neil, james b. _they die but once_, new york, . the biographical narrative of a tejano who vigorously swings a very big loop; fine illustration of the fact that a man can lie authentically. op. osgood, e. s. _the day of the cattleman_, minneapolis, . excellent history and excellent bibliography. northwest. op. peake, ora brooks. _the colorado range cattle industry_, clark, glendale, california, . dry on facts, but sound in scholarship. bibliography. pelzer, louis. _the cattlemen's frontier_, clark, glendale, california, . economic treatment, faithful but static. bibliography. pender, rose. a _lady's experiences in the wild west in _, london ( ?); second printing with a new preface, . rose pender and two fellow-englishmen went through wyoming ranch country, stopping on ranches, and she, a very intelligent, spirited woman, saw realities that few other chroniclers suggest. this is a valuable bit of social history. perkins, charles e. _the pinto horse_, santa barbara, california, . _the phantom bull_, boston, . fictional narratives of veracity; literature. op. pilgrim, thomas (under pseudonym of arthur morecamp). _live boys; or charley and nasho in texas_, boston, . the chronicle, little fictionized, of a trail drive to kansas. so far as i know, this is the first narrative printed on cattle trailing or cowboy life that is to be accounted authentic. the book is dated from kerrville, texas. ponting, tom candy. _the life of tom candy ponting_, decatur, illinois [ ], reprinted, with notes and introduction by herbert o. brayer, by branding iron press, evanston, illinois, . an account of buying cattle in texas in , driving them to illinois, and later shipping some to new york. accounts of trail driving before about have been few and obscurely printed. the stark diary kept by george c. duffield of a drive from san saba county, texas, to southern iowa in is as realistic--often agonizing--as anything extant on this much romanticized subject. it is published in _annals of iowa_, des moines, iv (april, ), - . potter, jack. born in , son of the noted "fighting parson," andrew jackson potter, jack became a far-known trail boss and ranch manager. his first published piece, "coming down the trail," appeared in _the trail drivers of texas_, compiled by j. marvin hunter, and is about the livest thing in that monumental collection. jack potter wrote for various western magazines and newspapers. he was more interested in cow nature than in gun fights; he had humor and imagination as well as mastery of facts and a tangy language, though small command over form. his privately printed booklets are: _lead steer_ (with introduction by j. frank dobie), clayton, n. m., ; _cattle trails of the old west_ (with map), clayton, n.m., ; _cattle trails of the old west_ (virtually a new booklet), clayton, n. m., . all op. _prose and poetry of the live stock industry of the united states_, denver, . biographies of big cowmen and history based on genuine research. the richest in matter of all the hundred-dollar-and-up rare books in its field. raine, william mcleod, and barnes, will c. _cattle_, garden city, n. y., . a succinct and vivid focusing of much scattered history. op. rak, mary kidder. _a cowman s wife_, houghton mifflin, boston, . unglossed, impersonal realism about life on a small modern arizona ranch. _mountain cattle_, , and op, is an extension of the first book. remington, frederic. _pony tracks_, new york, (now published by long's college book co., columbus, ohio); _crooked trails_, new york, . sketches and pictures. rhodes, eugene manlove. _west is west, once in the saddle, good men and true, stepsons of light_, and other novels. "gene" rhodes had the "right tune." he achieved a style that can be called literary. _the hired man on horseback_, by may d. rhodes, is a biography of the writer. perhaps "paso por aqui" will endure as his masterpiece. rhodes had an intense loyalty to his land and people; he was as gay, gallant, and witty as he was earnest. more than most western writers, rhodes was conscious of art. he had the common touch and also he was a writer for writing men. the elements of simplicity and the right kind of sophistication, always with generosity and with an unflagging zeal for the rights of human beings, were mixed in him. the reach of any ample-natured man exceeds his grasp. rhodes was ample-natured, but he cannot be classed as great because his grasp was too often disproportionately short of the long reach. his fiction becomes increasingly dated. _the best novels and, stories of eugene manlove rhodes_, edited by frank v. dearing, houghton mifflin, boston, , contains an introduction, with plenty of anecdotes and too much enthusiasm, by j. frank dobie. richards, clarice e. a _tenderfoot bride_, garden city, n. y., . the experiences of a ranchman's wife in colorado. the telling has charm, warmth, and flexibility. in the way that art is always truer than a literal report, _a tenderfoot bride_ brings out truths of life that the literalistic _a cowman's wife_ by mary kidder rak misses. richter, conrad. _the sea of grass_, knopf, new york, . a poetic portrait in fiction, with psychological values, of a big cowman and his wife. ricketts, w. p. _ years in the saddle_, sheridan, wyoming, . op. a natural book with much interesting information. it contains the best account of trailing cattle from oregon to wyoming that i have seen. ridings, sam p. _the chisholm trail_, . sam p. ridings, a lawyer, published this book himself from medford, oklahoma. he had gone over the land, lived with range men, studied history. a noble book, rich in anecdote and character. the subtitle reads: "a history of the world's greatest cattle trail, together with a description of the persons, a narrative of the events, and reminiscences associated with the same." op. robinson, frank c. _a ram in a thicket_, abelard press, new york, . robinson is the author of many westerns, none of which i have read. this is an autobiography, here noted because it reveals a maturity of mind and an awareness of political economy and social evolution hardly suggested by other writers of western fiction. rollins, alice wellington. _the story of a ranch_, new york, . philip ashton rollins (no relation that i know of to alice wellington rollins) went into charlie everitt's bookstore in new york one day and said, "i want every book with the word _cowboy_ printed in it." _the story of a ranch_ is listed here to illustrate how titles often have nothing to do with subject. it is without either story or ranch; it is about some dilettanteish people who go out to a kansas sheep farm, talk chopin, and wash their fingers in finger bowls. rollins, philip ashton. _the cowboy_, scribner's, new york, . revised, . a scientific exposition; full. rollins wrote two western novels, not important. a wealthy man with ranch experience, he collected one of the finest libraries of western books ever assembled by any individual and presented it to princeton university. rollinson, john k. _pony trails in wyoming_, caldwell, idaho, . not inspired and not indispensable, but honest autobiography. op. _wyoming cattle trails_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . a more significant book than the autobiography. good on trailing cattle from oregon. roosevelt, theodore. _ranch life and the hunting trail_, new york, . roosevelt understood the west. he became the peg upon which several range books were hung, hagedorn's _roosevelt in the bad lands_ and lang's _ranching with roosevelt_ in particular. a good summing up, with bibliography, is _roosevelt and the stockman's association_, by ray h. mattison, pamphlet issued by the state historical society of north dakota, bismarck, . rush, oscar. _the open range_, salt lake city, . reprinted by caxton, caldwell, idaho. a sensitive range man's response to natural things. the subtitle, _bunk house philosophy_, characterizes the book. russell, charles m. _trails plowed under_, , with introduction by will rogers. russell was the greatest painter that ever painted a range man, a range cow, a range horse or a plains indian. he savvied the cow, the grass, the blizzard, the drought, the wolf, the young puncher in love with his own shadow, the old waddie remembering rides and thirsts of far away and long ago. he was a wonderful storyteller, and most of his pictures tell stories. he never generalized, painting "a man," "a horse," "a buffalo" in the abstract. his subjects are warm with life, whether awake or asleep, at a particular instant, under particular conditions. _trails plowed under_, prodigally illustrated, is a collection of yarns and anecdotes saturated with humor and humanity. it incorporates the materials in two rawhide rawlins pamphlets. _good medicine_, published posthumously, is a collection of russell's letters, illustrations saying more than written words. russell's illustrations have enriched numerous range books, b. m. bower's novels, malcolm s. mackay's _cow range and hunting trail_, and patrick t. tucker's _riding the high country_ being outstanding among them. tucker's book, autobiography, has a bully chapter on charlie russell. _charles m. russell, the cowboy artist: a bibliography_, by karl yost, pasadena, california, , is better composed than its companion biography, _charles m. russell the cowboy artist_, by ramon f. adams and homer e. britzman. (both op.) one of the most concrete pieces of writing on russell is a chapter in _in the land of chinook_, by al. j. noyes, helena, montana, . "memories of charlie russell," in _memories of old montana_, by con price, hollywood, , is also good. all right as far as it goes, about a rock's throw away, is "the conservatism of charles m. russell," by j. frank dobie, in a portfolio reproduction of _seven drawings by charles m. russell, with an additional drawing by tom lea_, printed by carl hertzog, el paso [ ]. santee, ross. _cowboy_, . op. the plotless narrative, reading like autobiography, of a kid who ran away from a farm in east texas to be a cowboy in arizona. his cowpuncher teachers are the kind "who know what a cow is thinking of before she knows herself." passages in _cowboy_ combine reality and elemental melody in a way that almost no other range writer excepting charles m. russell has achieved. santee is a pen-and-ink artist also. among his other books, _men and horses_ is about the best. shaw, james c. _north from texas: incidents in the early life of a range man in texas, dakota and wyoming, - _, edited by herbert o. brayer. branding iron press, evanston, illinois, . edition limited to copies. i first met this honest autobiography by long quotations from it in virginia cole trenholm's _footprints on the frontier_ (douglas, wyoming, ), wherein i learned that shaw's narrative had been privately printed in cheyenne in , in pamphlet form, for gifts to a few friends and members of the author's family. i tried to buy a copy but could find none for sale at any price. this reprint is in a format suitable to the economical prose, replete with telling incidents and homely details. it will soon be only a little less scarce than the original. sheedy, dennis. _the autobiography of dennis sheedy_. privately printed in denver, or . sixty pages bound in leather and as scarce as psalm-singing in "fancy houses." the item is not very important in the realm of range literature but it exemplifies the successful businessman that the judicious cowman of open range days frequently became. sheffy, l. f. _the life and times of timothy dwight hobart, - _, panhandle-plains historical society, canyon, texas, . hobart was manager for the large j a ranch, established by charles goodnight. he had a sense of history. this mature biography treats of important developments pertaining to ranching in the texas panhandle. siringo, charles a. a _texas cowboy, or fifteen years on the hurricane deck of a spanish cow pony_, . the first in time of all cowboy autobiographies and first, also, in plain rollickiness. siringo later told the same story with additions under the titles of _a lone star cowboy, a cowboy detective_, etc., all out of print. finally, there appeared his _riata and spurs_, boston, , a summation and extension of previous autobiographies. because of a threatened lawsuit, half of it had to be cut and additional material provided for a "revised edition." no other cowboy ever talked about himself so much in print; few had more to talk about. i have said my full say on him in an introduction, which includes a bibliography, to _a texas cowboy_, published with tom lea illustrations by sloane, new york, . op. smith, erwin e., and haley, j. evetts. _life on the texas range_, photographs by smith and text by haley, university of texas press, austin, . erwin smith yearned and studied to be a sculptor. early in this century he went with camera to photograph the life of land, cattle, horses, and men on the big ranches of west texas. in him feeling and perspective of artist were fused with technical mastership. "i don't mean," wrote tom lea, "that he made just the best photographs i ever saw on the subject. i mean the best pictures. that includes paintings, drawings, prints." on by pages of -pound antique finish paper, the photographs are superbly reproduced. evetts haley's introduction interprets as well as chronicles the life of a strange and tragic man. the book is easily the finest range book in the realm of the pictorial ever published. smith, wallace. _garden of the sun_, los angeles, . op. despite the banal title, this is a scholarly work with first-rate chapters on california horses and ranching in the san joaquin valley. snyder, a. b., as told to nellie snyder yost. _pinnacle jake_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . the setting is nebraska, wyoming, and montana from the 's on. had pinnacle jake kept a diary, his accounts of range characters, especially camp cooks and range horses, with emphasis on night horses and outlaws, could not have been fresher or more precise in detail. reading this book will not give a new interpretation of open range work with big outfits, but the aliveness of it in both narrative and sketch makes it among the best of old-time cowboy reminiscences. sonnichsen, c. l. _cowboys and cattle kings: life on the range today_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . an interviewer's findings without the historical criticism exemplified by bernard devoto on the subject of federal-owned ranges (in essays in _harper's magazine_ during the late 's). stanley, clark, "better known as the rattlesnake king." _the life and adventures of the american cow-boy_, published by the author at providence, rhode island, . this pamphlet of forty-one pages, plus about twenty pages of snake oil liniment advertisements, is one of the curiosities of cowboy literature. it includes a collection of cowboy songs, the earliest i know of in time of printing, antedating by eleven years jack thorp's booklet of cowboy songs printed at estancia, new mexico, in . clark stanley no doubt used the contents of his pamphlet in medicine show harangues, thus adding to the cowboy myth. as time went on, he added scraps of anecdotes and western history, along with testimonials, to the pamphlet, the latest edition i have seen being about , printed in worcester, massachusetts. steedman, charles j. _bucking the sagebrush_, new york, . op. charming; much of nature. illustrated by russell. {illust. caption = charles m. russell, in _the virginian_ by owen wister} stevens, montague. _meet mr. grizzly_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . stevens, a cambridge englishman, ranched, hunted, and made deductions. see characterization under "bears and bear hunters." streeter, floyd b. _prairie trails and cow towns_, boston, . op. this brings together considerable information on kansas cow towns. primary books on the subject, besides those by stuart henry, mccoy, vestal, and wright herewith listed, are _the oklahoma scout_, by theodore baughman, chicago, ; _midnight and noonday_, by g. d. freeman, caldwell, kansas, ; biographies of wild bill hickok, town marshal; stuart n. lake's biography of wyatt earp, another noted marshal; _hard knocks_, by harry young, chicago, , not too prudish to notice dance hall girls but too victorian to say much. many texas trail drivers had trouble as well as fun in the cow towns. _life and adventures of ben thompson_, by w. m. walton, , reprinted at bandera, texas, , gives samples. thompson was more gambler than cowboy; various other men who rode from cow camps into town and found themselves in their element were gamblers and gunmen first and cowboys only in passing. stuart, granville. _forty years on the frontier_, two volumes, cleveland, . nothing better on the cowboy has ever been written than the chapter entitled "cattle business" in volume ii. a prime work throughout. op. thorp, jack (n. howard) has a secure place in range literature because of his contribution in cowboy songs. (see entry under "cowboy songs and other ballads.") in he had printed at santa fe a paper-backed book of pages entitled _tales of the chuck wagon_, but "didn't sell more than two or three million copies." some of the tales are in his posthumously published reminiscences, _pardner of the wind_ (as told to neil mccullough clark, caxton, caldwell, idaho, ). this book is richest on range horses, and will be found listed in the section on "horses." towne, charles wayland, and wentworth, edward norris. _shepherd's empire_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . not firsthand in the manner of gilfillan's _sheep_, nor charming and light in the manner of kupper's _the golden hoof_, but an essayical history, based on research. the deference paid to mary austin's _the flock_ marks the author as civilized. towne wrote the book; wentworth supplied the information. wentworth's own book, _america's sheep trails_, iowa state college press, ames, , is ponderous, amorphous, and in part, only a eulogistic "mugbook." townshend, r. b. _a tenderfoot in colorado_, london, ; _the tenderfoot in new mexico_, . delightful as well as faithful. literature by an englishman who translated tacitus under the spires of oxford after he retired from the range. treadwell, edward f. _the cattle king_, new york, ; reissued by christopher, boston. a strong biography of a very strong man--henry miller of california. trenholm, virginia cole. _footprints on the frontier_, douglas, wyoming, . op. the best range material in this book is a reprint of parts of james c. shaw's _pioneering in texas and wyoming_, privately printed at cheyenne in . truett, velma stevens. _on the hoof in nevada_, gehrett-truett-hall, los angeles, . a -page album of cattle brands--priced at $ . . the introduction is one of the sparse items on nevada ranching. tucker, patrick t. _riding the high country_, caldwell, idaho, . a brave book with much of charlie russell in it. op. vestal, stanley (pen name for walter s. campbell). _queen of cow towns, dodge city_, harper, new york, . "bibulous babylon," "killing of dora hand," and "marshals for breakfast" are chapter titles suggesting the tenor of the book. _vocabulario y refranero criollo_, text and illustrations by tito saudibet, guillermo kraft ltda., buenos aires, . north american ranges have called forth nothing to compare with this fully illustrated, thorough, magnificent history-dictionary of the gaucho world. it stands out in contrast to american slapdash, puerile-minded pretenses at dictionary treatises on cowboy life. "he who knows only the history of his own country does not know it." the cowboy is not a singular type. he was no better rider than the cossack of asia. his counterpart in south america, developed also from spanish cattle, spanish horses, and spanish techniques, is the gaucho. literature on the gaucho is extensive, some of it of a high order. primary is _martin fierro_, the epic by jose hernandez (published - ). a translation by walter owen was published in the united states in . no combination of knowledge, sympathy, imagination, and craftsmanship has produced stories and sketches about the cowboy equal to those on the gaucho by w. h. hudson, especially in _tales of the pampas_ and _far away and long ago_, and by r. b. cunninghame graham, whose writings are dispersed and difficult to come by. webb, walter prescott. _the great plains_, ginn, boston, . while this landmark in historical interpretation of the west is by no means limited to the subject of grazing, it contains a long and penetrating chapter entitled "the cattle kingdom." the book is an analysis of land, climate, barbed wire, dry farming, wells and windmills, native animal life, etc. no other work on the plains country goes so meatily into causes and effects. wellman, paul i. _the trampling herd_, doubleday, garden city, n. y., ; reissued, . an attempt to sum up the story of the cattle range in america. white, stewart edward. _arizona nights_, . "rawhide," one of the stories in this excellent collection, utilizes folk motifs about rawhide with much skill. williams, j. r. _cowboys out our way_, with an introduction by j. frank dobie, scribner's, new york, . an album reproducing about two hundred of the realistic, humorous, and human j. r. williams syndicated cartoons. this book was preceded by _out our way_, new york, , and includes numerous cartoons therein printed. there was an earlier and less extensive collection. modest jim williams has been progressively dissatisfied with all his cartoon books--and with cartoons not in books. i like them and in my introduction say why. wister, owen. _the virginian_, . wister was an outsider looking in. his hero, "the virginian," is a cowboy without cows--like the cowboys of eugene manlove rhodes; but this hero does not even smell of cows, whereas rhodes's men do. nevertheless, the novel authentically realizes the code of the range, and it makes such absorbing reading that in fifty years ( - ) it sold over , , copies, not counting foreign translations and paper reprints. wister was an urbane harvard man, of clubs and travels. in the university of wyoming celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of _the virginian_. to mark the event, frances k. w. stokes wrote _my father owen wister_, a biographical pamphlet including "ten letters written to his mother during his trip to wyoming in "--a trip that prepared him to write the novel. the pamphlet is published at laramie, wyoming, name of publisher not printed on it. wright, peter. _a three-foot stool_, new york and london, . like several other englishmen who went west, wright had the perspective that enabled him to comprehend some aspects of ranch life more fully than many range men who knew nothing but their own environment and times. he compares the cowboy to the cowherd described by queen elizabeth's spenser. into exposition of ranching on the gila, he interweaves talk on arabian afreets, stevenson's philosophy of adventure, and german imperialism. wright, robert m. _dodge city, cowboy capital_, wichita, kansas, ; reprinted. good on the most cowboyish of all the cow towns. pamphlets pamphlets are an important source of knowledge in all fields. no first-class library is without them. most of them become difficult to obtain, and some bring higher prices than whole sets of books. of numerous pamphlets pertaining to the range, only a few are listed here. _history of the chisum war, or life of ike fridge_, by ike fridge, electra, texas (undated), is as compact as jerked beef and as laconic as conversation in alkali dust. james f. hinkle, in his _early days of a cowboy on the pecos_, roswell, new mexico, , says: "one noticeable characteristic of the cowpunchers was that they did not talk much." some people don't have to talk to say plenty. hinkle was one of them. at a reunion of trail drivers in san antonio in october, , fred s. millard showed me his laboriously written reminiscences. he wanted them printed. i introduced him to j. marvin hunter of bandera, texas, publisher of _frontier times_. i told hunter not to ruin the english by trying to correct it, as he had processed many of the earth-born reminiscences in _the trail drivers of texas_. he printed millard's _a cowpuncher of the pecos_ in pamphlet form shortly thereafter. it begins: "this is a piece i wrote for the trail drivers." they would understand some things on which he was not explicit. about , as he told me, bob beverly of lovington, new mexico, made a contract with the proprietor of the town's weekly newspaper to print his reminiscences. by the time the contractor had set eighty-seven pages of type he saw that he would lose money if he set any more. he gave bob beverly back more manuscript than he had used and stapled a pamphlet entitled _hobo of the rangeland_. the philosophy in it is more interesting to me than the incidents. "the cowboy of the old west worked in a land that seemed to be grieving over something--a kind of sadness, loneliness in a deathly quiet. one not acquainted with the plains could not understand what effect it had on the mind. it produced a heartache and a sense of exile." crudely printed, but printed as the author talked, is _the end of the long horn trail_, by a. p. (ott) black, selfridge, north dakota (august, ). as i know from a letter from his _compadre_, black was blind and sixty-nine years old when he dictated his memoirs to a college graduate who had sense enough to retain the flavor. black's history is badly botched, but reading him is like listening. "it took two coons and an alligator to spend the summer on that cotton plantation.... cowpunchers were superstitious about owls. one who rode into my camp one night had killed a man somewhere and was on the dodge. he was lying down by the side of the campfire when an owl flew over into some hackberry trees close by and started hooting. he got up from there right now, got his horse in, saddled up and rode off into the night." john alley is--or was--a teacher. his _memories of roundup days_, university of oklahoma press, (just twenty small pages), is an appraisal of range men, a criticism of life seldom found in old-timers who look back. on the other hand, some pamphlets prized by collectors had as well not have been written. here is the full title of an example: _an aged wanderer, a life sketch of j. m. parker, a cowboy of the western plains in the early days_. "price cents. headquarters, elkhorn wagon yard, san angelo, texas." it was printed about . when parker wrote it he was senile, and there is no evidence that he was ever possessed of intelligence. the itching to get into print does not guarantee that the itcher has anything worth printing. some of the best reminiscences have been pried out of range men. in the wyoming stock growers association resolved a historical commission into existence. a committee was appointed and, naturally, one man did the work. in a fifty-five-page pamphlet entitled _letters from old friends and members of the wyoming stock growers association_ was printed at cheyenne. it is made up of unusually informing and pungent recollections by intelligent cowmen. . cowboy songs and other ballads {illust. lyrics = kind friends, if you will listen, a story i will tell a-bout a final bust-up, that happened down in dell.} cowboy songs and ballads are generally ranked alongside negro spirituals as being the most important of america's contributions to folk song. as compared with the old english and scottish ballads, the cowboy and all other ballads of the american frontiers generally sound cheap and shoddy. since john a. lomax brought out his collection in , cowboy songs have found their way into scores of songbooks, have been recorded on hundreds of records, and have been popularized, often--and naturally--without any semblance to cowboy style, by thousands of radio singers. two general anthologies are recommended especially for the cowboy songs they contain: _american ballads and folk songs_, by john a. and alan lomax, macmillan, new york, ; _the american songbag_, by carl sandburg, harcourt, brace, new york, . larrin, margaret. _singing cowboy_ (with music), new york, . op. lomax, john a., and lomax, alan. _cowboy songs and other frontier ballads_, macmillan, new york, . this is a much added-to and revised form of lomax's collection, under the same title. it is the most complete of all anthologies. more than any other man, john a. lomax is responsible for having made cowboy songs a part of the common heritage of america. his autobiographic _adventures of a ballad hunter_ (macmillan, ) is in quality far above the jingles that most cowboy songs are. missouri, as no other state, gave to the west and southwest. much of missouri is still more southwestern in character than much of oklahoma. for a full collection, with full treatment, of the ballads and songs, including bad-man and cowboy songs, sung in the southwest there is nothing better than _ozark folksongs_, collected and edited by vance randolph, state historical society of missouri, columbia, - . an unsurpassed work in four handsome volumes. owens, william a. _texas folk songs_, southern methodist university press, dallas, . a miscellany of british ballads, american ballads, "songs of doleful love," etc. collected in texas mostly from country people of anglo-american stock. musical scores for all the songs. the texas folklore society has published many cowboy songs. its publications _texas and southwestern lore_ ( ) and _follow de drinkin' gou'd_ ( ) contain scores, with music and anecdotal interpretations. other volumes contain other kinds of songs, including mexican. thorp, jack (n. howard). _songs of the cowboys_, boston, . op. good, though limited, anthology, without music and with illuminating comments. a pamphlet collection that thorp privately printed at estancia, new mexico, in , was one of the first to be published. thorp had the perspective of both range and civilization. he was a kind of troubadour himself. the opening chapter, "banjo in the cow camps," of his posthumous reminiscences, _pardner of the wind, is_ delicious. . horses: mustangs and cow ponies the west was discovered, battled over, and won by men on horseback. spanish conquistadores saddled their horses in vera cruz and rode until they had mapped the continents from the horn to montana and from the floridas to the harbors of the californias. the padres with them rode on horseback, too, and made every mission a horse ranch. the national dance of mexico, the jarabe, is an interpretation of the clicking of hoofs and the pawing and prancing of spirited horses that the aztecs noted when the spaniards came. likewise, the chief contribution made by white men of america to the folk songs of the world--the cowboy songs--are rhythmed to the walk of horses. astride horses introduced by the conquistadores to the americas, the plains indians became almost a separate race from the foot-moving tribes of the east and the stationary pueblos of the rockies. the men that later conquered and corralled these wild-riding plains indians were plainsmen on horses and cavalrymen. the earliest american explorers and trappers of both plains and rocky mountains went out in the saddle. the first industrial link between the east and the west was a mounted pack train beating out the santa fe trail. on west beyond the end of this trail, in spanish california, even the drivers of oxen rode horseback. the first transcontinental express was the pony express. outlaws and bad men were called "long riders." the texas ranger who followed them was, according to his own proverb, "no better than his horse." booted sheriffs from brownsville on the rio grande to the hole in the wall in the big horn mountains lived in the saddle. climactic of all the riders rode the cowboy, who lived with horse and herd. in the old west the phrase "left afoot" meant nothing short of being left flat on your back. "a man on foot is no man at all," the saying went. if an enemy could not take a man's life, the next best thing was to take his horse. where cow thieves went scot free, horse thieves were hanged, and to say that a man was "as common as a horse thief" was to express the nadir of commonness. the pillow of the frontiersmen who slept with a six-shooter under it was a saddle, and hitched to the horn was the loose end of a stake rope. just as "colonel colt" made all men equal in a fight, the horse made all men equal in swiftness and mobility. the proudest names of civilized languages when literally translated mean "horseman": eques, caballero, chevalier, cavalier. until just yesterday the man on horseback had been for centuries the symbol of power and pride. the advent of the horse, from spanish sources, so changed the ways and psychology of the plains indians that they entered into what historians call the age of horse culture. almost until the automobile came, the whole west and southwest were dominated by a horse culture. material on range horses is scattered through the books listed under "range life," "stagecoaches, freighting," "pony express." no thorough comprehension of the spanish horse of the americas is possible without consideration of this horse's antecedents, and that involves a good deal of the horse history of the world. brown, william robinson. _the horse of the desert_ (no publisher or place on title page), ; reprinted by macmillan, new york. a noble, beautiful, and informing book. cabrera, angel. _caballos de america_, buenos aires, . the authority on argentine horses. carter, william h. _the horses of the world_, national geographic society, washington, d. c., . a concentrated survey. _cattleman_. published at fort worth, this monthly magazine of the texas and southwestern cattle raisers association began in to issue, for september, a horse number. it has published a vast amount of material both scientific and popular on range horses. another monthly magazine worth knowing about is the _western horseman_, colorado springs, colorado. denhardt, robert moorman. _the horse of the americas_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . this historical treatment of the spanish horse could be better ordered; some sections of the book are little more than miscellanies. dobie, j. frank. _the mustangs_, illustrated by charles banks wilson, little, brown, boston, . before this handsome book arrives at the wild horses of north america, a third of it has been spent on the arabian progenitors of the spanish horse, the acquisition of the spanish horse by western indians, and the nature of indian horses. there are many narratives of mustangs and mustangers and of spanish-blooded horses under the saddle. the author has tried to compass the natural history of the animal and to blend vividness with learning. the book incorporates his _tales of the mustang_, a slight volume published in an edition of only three hundred copies in . it also incorporates a large part of _mustangs and cow horses_, edited by dobie, boatright, and ransom, and issued by the texas folklore society, austin, --a volume that went out of print not long after it was published. dodge, theodore a. _riders of many lands_, new york, . illustrations by remington. wide and informed views. graham, r. b. cunninghame. _the horses of the conquest_, london, . graham was both historian and horseman, as much at home on the pampas as in his ancient scottish home. this excellent book on the spanish horses introduced to the western hemisphere is in a pasture to itself. reprinted in by the university of oklahoma press, with introduction and notes by robert moorman denhardt. {illust. caption = charles banks wilson, in _the mustangs_ by j. frank dobie ( )} greer, james k. _bois d'arc to barbed wire_, dallas, . op. hastings, frank. _a ranchman's recollections_, chicago, . "old gran'pa" is close to the best american horse story i have ever read. op. hayes, m. horace. _points of the horse_, london, . this and subsequent editions are superior in treatment and illustrations to earlier editions. hayes was a far traveler and scholar as well as horseman. one of the less than a dozen best books on the horse. james, will. _smoky_, scribner's, new york, . perhaps the best of several books that will james--always with illustrations--has woven around horse heroes. leigh, william r. _the western pony_, new york, . one of the most beautifully printed books on the west; beautiful illustrations; illuminating text. op. muller, dan. _horses_, reilly and lee, chicago, . interesting illustrations. pattullo, george. _the untamed_, new york, . a collection of short stories, among which "corazon" and "neutria" are excellent on horses. op. perkins, charles elliott. _the pinto horse_, santa barbara, california, . a fine narrative, illustrated by edward borein. op. ridgeway, w. _the origin and influence of the thoroughbred horse_, cambridge, england, . a standard work, though many of its conclusions are disputed, especially by lady wentworth in her _thoroughbred racing stock and its ancestors_, london, . santee, ross. _men and horses_, new york, . three chapters of this book, "a fool about a horse," "the horse wrangler," and "the rough string," are especially recommended. _cowboy_, new york, , reveals in a fine way the rapport between the cowboy and his horse. _sleepy black,_ new york, , is a story of a horse designed for younger readers; being good on the subject, it is good for any reader. all op. simpson, george gaylor. _horses: the story of the horse family in the modern world and through sixty million years of history_, oxford university press, new york, . in the realm of paleontology this work supplants all predecessors. bibliography. steele, rufus. _mustangs of the mesas_, hollywood, california, . op. modern mustanging in nevada; excellently written narratives of outstanding mustangs. stong, phil. _horses and americans_, new york, . a survey and a miscellany combined. op. {illust. caption = charles m. russell, in _the untamed_ by george pattullo ( )} thorp, jack (n. howard) as told to neil mccullough clark. _pardner of the wind_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . two chapters in this book make the "spanish thunderbolts," as jack thorp called the mustangs and spanish cow horses, graze, run, pitch, and go gentle ways as free as the wind. "five hundred mile horse race" is a great story. no other range man excepting ross santee has put down so much everyday horse lore in such a fresh way. tweedie, major general w. _the arabian horse: his country and people_, edinburgh and london, . one of the few horse books to be classified as literature. wise in the blend of horse, land, and people. wentworth, lady. _the authentic arabian horse and his descendants_, london, . rich in knowledge and both magnificent and munificent in illustrations. almost immediately after publication, this noble volume entered the rare book class. wyman, walker d. _the wild horse of the west_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . a scholarly sifting of virtually all available material on mustangs. readable. only thorough bibliography on subject so far published. . the bad man tradition plenty of six-shooter play is to be found in most of the books about old-time cowboys; yet hardly one of the professional bad men was a representative cowboy. bad men of the west and cowboys alike wore six-shooters and spurs; they drank each other's coffee; they had a fanatical passion for liberty--for themselves. but the representative cowboy was a reliable hand, hanging through drought, blizzard, and high water to his herd, whereas the bona fide bad man lived on the dodge. between the killer and the cowboy standing up for his rights or merely shooting out the lights for fun, there was as much difference as between adolf hitler and winston churchill. of course, the elements were mixed in the worst of the bad men, as they are in the best of all good men. no matter what deductions analysis may lead to, the fact remains that the western bad men of open range days have become a part of the american tradition. they represent six-shooter culture at its zenith--the wild and woolly side of the west--a stage between receding bowie knife individualism of the backwoods and blackguard, machine-gun gangsterism of the city. the songs about sam bass, jesse james, and billy the kid reflect popular attitude toward the hard-riding outlaws. sam bass, jesse james, billy the kid, the daltons, cole younger, joaquin murrieta, john wesley hardin, al jennings, belle starr, and other "long riders" with their guns in their hands have had their biographies written over and over. they were not nearly as immoral as certain newspaper columnists lying under the cloak of piety. as time goes on, they, like antique robin hood and the late pancho villa, recede from all realistic judgment. if the picture show finds in them models for generosity, gallantry, and fidelity to a code of liberty, and if the public finds them picturesque, then philosophers may well be thankful that they lived, rode, and shot. {illust. caption = tom lea: pancho villa, in _southwest review_ ( )} "the long-tailed heroes of the revolver," to pick a phrase from mark twain's unreverential treatment of them in _roughing it_, often did society a service in shooting each other--aside from providing entertainment to future generations. as "the old cattleman" of alfred henry lewis' _wolfville_ stories says, "a heap of people need a heap of killing." nor can the bad men be logically segregated from the long-haired killers on the side of the law like wild bill hickok and wyatt earp. w. h. hudson once advanced the theory that bloodshed and morality go together. if american civilization proceeds, the rage for collecting books on bad men will probably subside until a copy of miguel antonio otero's _the real billy the kid_ will bring no higher price than a first edition of a. edward newton's _the amenities of book-collecting_. see "fighting texians," "texas rangers," "range life," "cowboy songs and other ballads." aikman, duncan. _calamity jane and the lady wildcats_, . op. patronizing in the h. l. mencken style. billy the kid. we ve got to take him seriously, not so much for what he was-- there are twenty-one men i have put bullets through, and sheriff pat garrett must make twenty-two-- as for his provocations. popular imagination, represented by writers of all degrees, goes on playing on him with cumulative effect. as a figure in literature the kid has come to lead the whole field of western bad men. the _saturday review_, for october , , features a philosophical essay entitled "billy the kid: faust in america--the making of a legend." the growth of this legend is minutely traced through a period of seventy-one years ( - ) by j. c. dykes in _billy the kid: the bibliography of a legend_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, ( pages). it lists titles, including magazine pieces, mimeographed plays, motion pictures, verses, pamphlets, fiction. in a blend of casualness and scholarship, it gives the substance and character of each item. indeed, this bibliography reads like a continued story, with constant references to both antecedent and subsequent action. pat garrett, john chisum, and other related characters weave all through it. a first-class bibliography that is also readable is almost a new genre. pat f. garrett, sheriff of lincoln county, new mexico, killed the kid about midnight, july , . the next spring his _authentic life of billy the kid_ was published at santa fe, at least partly written, according to good evidence, by a newspaperman named ash upton. this biography is one of the rarities in western americana. in it was republished by macmillan, new york, under title of _pat f. garrett's authentic life of billy the kid_, edited by maurice g. fulton. this is now op but remains basic. the most widely circulated biography has been _the saga of billy the kid_ by walter noble burns, new york, . it contains a deal of fictional conversation and it has no doubt contributed to the robin-hoodizing of the lethal character baptized as william h. bonney, who was born in new york in and now lives with undiminished vigor as billy the kid. walter noble burns was not so successful with _the robin hood of el dorado: the saga of joaquin murrieta_ ( ), or, despite hogsheads of blood, with _tombstone_ ( ). canton, frank m. _frontier trails_, boston, . coe, george w. _frontier fighter_, boston, ; reprinted by university of new mexico press, albuquerque. the autobiography of one of billy the kid's men as recorded by nan hillary harrison. coolidge, dane. _fighting men of the west_, new york, . biographical sketches. op. cunningham, eugene. _triggernometry_, ; reprinted by caxton, caldwell, idaho. excellent survey of codes and characters. written by a man of intelligence and knowledge. bibliography. forrest, e. r. _arizona's dark and bloody ground_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . gard, wayne. _sam bass_, boston, . most of the whole truth. op. haley, j. evetts. _jeff milton--a good man with a gun_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . jeff milton the whole man as well as the queller of bad men. hendricks, george. _the bad man of the west_, naylor, san antonio, . analyses and classifications go far toward making this treatment of old subjects original. excellent bibliographical guide. hough, emerson. _the story of the outlaw_, . op. an omnibus carelessly put together with many holes in it. lake, stuart. _wyatt earp_, boston, . best written of all gunmen biographies. earp happened to be on the side of the law. lankford, n. p. _vigilante days and ways_, , . op. full treatment of lawlessness in the northwest. love, robertus. _the rise and fall of jesse james_, new york, . excellently written. op. raine, william mcleod. _famous s and western outlaws_, doubleday, garden city, n. y., . a rogues' gallery. _guns of the frontier_, boston, . another miscellany. op. rascoe, burton. _belle starr_, new york, . op. ripley, thomas. _they died with their boots on_, . mostly about john wesley hardin. op. sabin, edwin l. _wild men of the wild west_, new york, . biographic survey of killers from the mississippi to the pacific. op. wild bill hickok. the subject of various biographies, among them those by frank j. wilstach ( ) and william e. connelley ( ). the _nebraska history magazine_ (volume x) for april-june is devoted to wild bill and contains a "descriptive bibliography" on him by addison e. sheldon. woodhull, frost. folk-lore shooting, in _southwestern lore_, publication ix of the texas folklore society, . rich. humor. . mining and oil during the twentieth century oil has brought so much money to the southwest that the proceeds from cattle have come to look like tips. this statement is not based on statistics, though statistics no doubt exist--even on the cost of catching sun perch. geological, legal, and economic writings on oil are mountainous in quantity, but the human drama of oil yet remains, for the most part, to be written. it is odd to find such a modern book as erna fergusson's _our southwest_ not mentioning oil. it is odd that no book of national reputation comes off the presses about any aspect of oil. the nearest to national notice on oil is the daily report of transactions on the new york stock exchange. oil companies subsidize histories of themselves, endow universities with money to train technicians they want, control state legislatures and senates, and dictate to congress what they want for themselves in income tax laws; but so far they have not been able to hire anybody to write a book about oil that anybody but the hirers themselves wants to read. probably they don't read them. the first thing an oilman does after amassing a few millions is buy a ranch on which he can get away from oil--and on which he can spend some of his oil money. people live a good deal by tradition and fight a good deal by tradition also, voting more by prejudice. when one considers the stream of cow country books and the romance of mining living on in legends of lost mines and, then, the desert of oil books, one realizes that it takes something more than money to make the mare of romance run. geology and economics are beyond the aim of this _guide_, but if oil money keeps on buying up ranch land, the history of modern ranching will be resolved into the biographies of a comparatively few oilmen. boatright, mody c. _gib morgan: minstrel of the oil fields_. texas folklore society, austin, . folk tales about gib rather than minstrelsy. op. boone, lalia phipps. _the petroleum dictionary_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . "more than , entries: definitions of technical terms and everyday expressions, a comprehensive guide to the language of the oil industry." caughey, john walton. _gold is the cornerstone_ ( ). adequate treatment of the discovery of california gold and of the miners. _rushing for gold_ ( ). twelve essays by twelve writers, with emphasis on travel to california. both books published by university of california press, berkeley and los angeles. cendrars, blaise. _sutter's gold_, london, . op. clark, james a., and halbouty, michel t. _spindletop_, random house, new york, . on january , , the spindletop gusher, near beaumont, texas, roared in the oil age. this book, while it presumes to record what pat higgins was thinking as he sat in front of a country store, seems to be "the true story." the bare facts in it make drama. de quille, dan (pseudonym for william wright). _the big bonanza_, hartford, . reprinted, . op. dobie, j. frank. _coronado's children_, dallas, ; reprinted by grosset and dunlap, new york. legendary tales of lost mines and buried treasures of the southwest. _apache gold and yaqui silver_, little, brown, boston, . more of the same thing. emrich, duncan, editor. _comstock bonanza_, vanguard, new york, . a collection of writings, garnered mostly from west coast magazines and newspapers, bearing on mining in nevada during the boom days of mark twain's. {illust. caption = tom lea, in _santa rita_ by martin w. schwettmann ( )} _roughing it_. james g. gally's writing is a major discovery in a minor field. forbes, gerald. _flush production: the epic of oil in the gulf-southwest_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . gillis, william r. _goldrush days with mark twain_, new york, . op. glasscock, lucille. _a texas wildcatter_, naylor, san antonio, . the wildcatter is mrs. glasscock's husband. she chronicles this player's main moves in the game and gives an insight into his energy-driven ambition. house, boyce. _oil boom_, caxton, caldwell, idaho, . with boyce house's earlier _were you in ranger?_, this book gives a contemporary picture of the gushing days of oil, money, and humanity. lyman, george t. _the saga of the comstock lode_, , and _ralston's ring_, . both published by scribner's, new york. mckenna, james _a. black range tales_, new york, . reminiscences of prospecting life. op. mathews, john joseph. _life and death of an oilman: the career of e. w. marland_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . mature in style and in interpretative power, john joseph mathews goes into the very life of an oilman who was something else. rister, c. c. _oil! titan of the southwest_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . facts in factual form. plenty of oil wealth and taxes; nothing on oil government. shinn, charles h. _mining camps_, , reprinted by knopf, new york, . perhaps the most competent analysis extant on the behavior of the gold hunters, with emphasis on their self-government. _the story of the mine as illustrated by the great comstock lode of nevada_, new york, . op. shinn knew and he knew also how to combine into form. stuart, granville. _forty years on the frontier_, cleveland, . superb on california and montana hunger for precious metals. op. tait, samuel w. _wildcatters: an informal history of oil-hunting in america_, princeton university press, . op. twain, mark. _roughing it_. the mining boom itself. . nature; wild life; naturalists "no man," says mary austin, "has ever really entered into the heart of any country until he has adopted or made up myths about its familiar objects." a man might reject the myths but he would have to know many facts about its natural life and have imagination as well as knowledge before entering into a country's heart. the history of any land begins with nature, and all histories must end with nature. "the character of a country is the destiny of its people," wrote harvey fergusson in _rio grande_. ross calvin, also of new mexico, had the same idea in mind when he entitled his book _sky determines_. "culture mocks at the boundaries set up by politics," clark wissler said. "it approaches geographical boundaries with its hat in its hand." the engineering of water across mountains, electric translation of sounds, refrigeration of air and foods, and other technical developments carry human beings a certain distance across some of nature's boundaries, but no cleverness of science can escape nature. the inhabitants of yuma, arizona, are destined forever to face a desert devoid of graciousness. technology does not create matter; it merely uses matter in a skilful way--uses it up. man advances by learning the secrets of nature and taking advantage of his knowledge. he is deeply happy only when in harmony with his work and environments. the backwoodsman, early settler, pioneer plainsman, mountain man were all like some infuriated beast of promethean capabilities tearing at its own vitals. driven by an irrational energy, they seemed intent on destroying not only the growth of the soil but the power of the soil to reproduce. davy crockett, the great bear killer, was "wrathy to kill a bear," and as respects bears and other wild life, one may search the chronicles of his kind in vain for anything beyond the incidents of chase and slaughter. to quote t. b. thorpe's blusterous bear hunter, the whole matter may be summed up in one sentence: "a bear is started and he is killed." for the average american of the soil, whether wearing out a farm, shotgunning with a headlight the last doe of a woodland, shooting the last buffalo on the range, trapping the last howling lobo, winging the last prairie chicken, running down in an automobile the last antelope, making a killer's target of any hooting owl or flying heron that comes within range, poisoning the last eagle to fly over a sheep pasture for him the circumstances of the killing have expressed his chief intellectual interest in nature. a sure sign of advancing civilization has been the rapidly changing popular attitude toward nature during recent years. people are becoming increasingly interested not merely in conserving game for sportsmen to shoot, but in preserving all wild life, in observing animals, in cultivating native flora, in building houses that harmonize with climate and landscape. roger tory peterson's _field guide to the birds_ has become one of the popular standard works of america. the story of the american indian is--despite taboos and squalor--a story of harmonizations with nature. "wolf brother," in _long lance_, by chief buffalo child long lance, is a poetic concretion of this harmony. as much at ease with the wilderness as any blackfoot indian was george frederick ruxton, educated english officer and gentleman, who rode horseback from vera cruz to the missouri river and wrote _adventures in mexico and the rocky mountains_. in this book he tells how a lobo followed him for days from camp to camp, waiting each evening for his share of fresh meat and sometimes coming close to the fire at night. any orthodox american would have shot the lobo at first appearance. ruxton had the civilized perspective on nature represented by thoreau and saint francis of assisi. primitive harmony was run over by frontier wrath to kill, a wrath no less barbaric than primitive superstitions. but the coyote's howl is more tonic than all theories about nature; the buck's whistle more invigorating; the bull's bellow in the canyon more musical; the call of the bobwhite more serene; the rattling of the rattlesnake more logical; the scream of the panther more arousing to the imagination; the odor from the skunk more lingering; the sweep of the buzzard in the air more majestical; the wariness of the wild turkey brighter; the bark of the prairie dog lighter; the guesses of the armadillo more comical; the upward dartings and dippings of the scissortail more lovely; the flight of the sandhill cranes more fraught with mystery. there is an abundance of printed information on the animal life of america, to the west as well as to the east. much of it cannot be segregated; the earthworm, on which darwin wrote a book, knows nothing of regionalism. the best books on nature come from and lead to the grasshopper's library, which is free to all consultants. i advise the consultant to listen to the owl's hoot for wisdom, plant nine bean rows for peace, and, with wordsworth, sit on an old gray stone listening for "authentic tidings of invisible things." studies are only to "perfect nature." in the words of mary austin, "they that make the sun noise shall not fail of the sun's full recompense." like knowledge in any other department of life, that on nature never comes to a stand so long as it has vitality. a continuing interest in natural history is nurtured by _natural history_, published by the american museum of natural history, new york; _nature_, published in washington, d. c.; _the living wilderness_, also from washington; _journal of mammalogy_, a quarterly, baltimore, maryland; _audubon magazine_ (formerly _bird lore_), published by the national audubon society, new york; _american forests_, washington, d. c., and various other publications. in addition to books of natural history interest listed below, others are listed under "buffaloes and buffalo hunters," "bears and bear hunters," "coyotes, lobos, and panthers," "birds and wild flowers," and "interpreters." perhaps a majority of worthy books pertaining to the western half of america look on the outdoors. adams, w. h. davenport (from the french of benedict revoil). _the hunter and the trapper of north america_, london, . a strange book. arnold, oren. _wild life in the southwest_, dallas, . helpful chapters on various characteristic animals and plants. op. bailey, vernon. _mammals of new mexico_, united states department of agriculture, bureau of biological survey, washington, d. c., . _biological survey of texas_, . op. the "north american fauna series," to which these two books belong, contains or points to the basic facts covering most of the mammals of the southwest. baillie-grohman, william a. _camps in the rockies_, . a true sportsman, baillie-grohman was more interested in living animals than in just killing. op. bedichek, roy. _adventures with a texas naturalist_, doubleday, garden city, n. y., . to be personal, roy bedichek has the most richly stored mind i have ever met; it is as active as it is full. liberal in the true sense of the word, it frees other minds. here, using facts as a means, it gives meanings to the hackberry tree, limestone, mockingbird, inca dove, mexican primrose, golden eagle, the davis mountains, cedar cutters, and many another natural phenomenon. _adventures with a texas naturalist_ is regarded by some good judges as the wisest book in the realm of natural history produced in america since thoreau wrote. the title of bedichek's second book, _karankaway country_ (garden city, ), is misleading. the karankawa indians start it off, but it goes to coon inquisitiveness, prairie chicken dances, the extinction of species to which the whooping crane is approaching, browsing goats, dignified skunks, swifts in love flight, a camp in the brush, dust, erosion, silt--always with thinking added to seeing. the foremost naturalist of the southwest, bedichek constantly relates nature to civilization and human values. browning, meshach. _forty-four years of the life of a hunter_, ; reprinted, philadelphia, . prodigal on bear and deer. cahalane, victor h. _mammals of north america_, macmillan, new york, . the author is a scientist with an open mind on the relationships between predators and game animals. his thick, delightfully illustrated book is the best dragnet on american mammals extant. it contains excellent lists of references. caton, judge john dean. _antelope and deer of america_, . standard work. op. dobie, j. frank. _the longhorns_ ( ) and _the mustangs_ ( ), while hardly to be catalogued as natural history books, go farther into natural history than most books on cattle and horses go. _on the open range_ ( ; reprinted by banks upshaw, dallas) contains a number of animal stories more or less true. ben lilly of _the ben lilly legend_ (boston, ) thought that god had called him to hunt. he spent his life, therefore, in hunting. he saw some things in nature beyond targets. dodge, richard i. _the hunting grounds of the great west_, london, . published in new york the same year under title of _the plains of the great west and their inhabitants_. outstanding survey of outstanding wild creatures. dunraven, earl of. _the great divide_, london, ; reprinted under title of _hunting in the yellowstone_, . op. elliott, charles (editor). _fading trails_, new york, . humanistic review of characteristic american wild life. op. flack, captain. _the texas ranger, or real life in the backwoods_, ; another form of _a hunter's experience in the southern states of america_, by captain flack, "the ranger," london, . ganson, eve. _desert mavericks_, santa barbara, california, . illustrated; delightful. op. geiser, samuel wood. _naturalists of the frontier_, southern methodist university press, dallas, ; revised and enlarged edition, . biographies of men who were characters as well as scientists, generally in environments alien to their interests. gerstaecker, frederick. _wild sports in the far west_, . a translation from the german. delightful reading and revealing picture of how backwoodsmen of the mississippi valley "lived off the country." graham, gid. _animal outlaws_, collinsville, oklahoma, . op. a remarkable collection of animal stories. privately printed. grinnell, george bird. between and , grinnell, partly in collaboration with theodore roosevelt, edited five volumes for the boone and crockett club that contain an extraordinary amount of information, written mostly by men of civilized perspective, on bears, deer, mountain sheep, buffaloes, cougars, elk, wolves, moose, mountains, and forests. the series, long out of print, is a storehouse of knowledge not to be overlooked by any student of wild life in the west. the titles are: _american big-game hunting_, ; _hunting in many lands_, ; _trail and camp-fire_, ; _american big game in its haunts_, ; _hunting at high altitudes_, . grinnell, joseph; dixon, joseph s.; and linsdale, jean m. _fur-bearing mammals of california: their natural history, systematic status, and relation to man_, two volumes, university of california press, berkeley, . the king, so far, of all state natural histories. hall, e. raymond. _mammals of nevada_, university of california press, berkeley and los angeles, . so far as my knowledge goes, this is the only respect-worthy book extant pertaining to the state whose economy is based on fees from divorces and gambling and whose best-known citizen is senator pat mccarran. hartman, carl g. _possum_, university of texas press, austin, . this richly illustrated book comprehends everything pertaining to the subject from prehistoric marsupium to baking with sweet potatoes in a negro cabin. it is the outcome of a lifetime's scientific investigation not only of possums but of libraries and popular talk. thus, in addition to its biographical and natural history aspects, it is a study in the evolution of man's knowledge about one of the world's folkiest creatures. {illust. caption = charles m. russell, in _the blazed trail of the old frontier_ by agnes c. laut ( )} hornaday, william t. _camp fires on desert and lava_, london, n.d. op. dr. hornaday, who died in , was the first director of the new york zoological park. he was a great conservationist and an authority on the wild life of america. hudson, w. h. _the naturalist in la plata_, new york, . not about the southwest or even north america, but hudson's chapters on "the puma," "some curious animal weapons," "the mephitic skunk," "humming birds," "the strange instincts of cattle," "horse and man," etc. come home to the southwest. few writers tend to make readers so aware; no other has written so delightfully of the lands of grass. ingersoll, ernest. _wild neighbors_, new york, . op. a superior work. chapter ii, "the father of game," is on the cougar; chapter iv, "the hound of the plains," is on the coyote; there is an excellent essay on the badger. each chapter is provided with a list of books affording more extended treatment of the subject. jaeger, edmund c. _denizens of the desert_, boston, . op. "don coyote," the roadrunner, and other characteristic animals. _our desert neighbors_, stanford university press, california, . locke, lucie h. _naturally yours, texas_, naylor, san antonio, . charm must never be discounted; it is far rarer than facts, and often does more to lead to truth. this slight book is in verse and drawings, type integrated with delectable black-and-white representations of the prairie dog, armadillo, sanderling, mesquite, whirlwind, sand dune, mirage, and dozens of other natural phenomena. the only other book in this list to which it is akin is eve ganson's _desert mavericks_. lumholtz, carl. _unknown mexico_, new york, . nearly anything about animals as well as about indians and mountains of mexico may be found in this extraordinary two-volume work. op. mcilhenny, edward a. _the alligator s life history_, boston, . op. the alligator got farther west than is generally known--at least within reach of laredo and eagle pass on the rio grande. mcilhenny's book treats--engagingly, intimately, and with precision--of the animal in louisiana. hungerers for anatomical biology are referred to _the alligator and its allies_ by a. m. reese, new york, . i have more to say about mcilhenny in chapter . marcy, colonel r. b. _thirty years of army life on the border_, new york, . marcy had a scientific mind and a high sense of values. he knew how to write and what he wrote remains informing and pleasant. martin, horace t. _castorologia, or the history and traditions of the canadian beaver_, london, . op. the beaver is a beaver, whether on hudson's bay or the mexican side of the rio grande. much has been written on this animal, the propeller of the trappers of the west, but this famous book remains the most comprehensive on facts and the amplest in conception. the author was humorist as well as scientist. menger, rudolph. _texas nature observations and reminiscences_, san antonio, . op. being of an educated german family, dr. menger found many things in nature more interesting than two-headed calves. mills, enos. _the rocky mountain wonderland, wild life on the rockies, waiting in the wilderness_, and other books. some naturalists have taken exception to some observations recorded by mills; nevertheless, he enlarges and freshens mountain life. muir, john. _the mountains of california, our national parks_, and other books. muir, a great naturalist, had the power to convey his wise sympathies and brooded-over knowledge. murphy, john mortimer. _sporting adventures in the far west_, london, . one of the earliest roundups of game animals of the west. newsome, william m. _the whitetailed deer_, new york, . op. standard work. palliser, john. _the solitary hunter; or storting adventures in the prairies_, london, . roosevelt, theodore. _outdoor pastimes of an american hunter_, with a chapter entitled "books on big game"; _hunting adventures in the west; the wilderness hunter; ranch life and the hunting trail; a book lover's holiday in the open; the deer family_ (in collaboration). sears, paul b. _deserts on the march_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . dramatic picturization of the forces of nature operating in what droughts of the 's caused to be called "the dust bowl." "drought and wind and man" might be another title. seton, ernest thompson. _wild animals i have known; lives of the hunted_. probably no other writer of america has aroused so many people, young people especially, to an interest in our wild animals. natural history encyclopedias he has authored are _life histories of northern animals_, new york, , and _lives of game animals_, new york, . seton's final testament, _trail of an artist naturalist_ (scribner's, new york, ), has a deal on wild life of the southwest. thorpe, t. b. _the hive of the bee-hunter_, new york, . op. juicy. warren, edward royal. _the mammals of colorado_, university of oklahoma press, norman, . op. . buffaloes and buffalo hunters the literature on the american bison, more popularly called buffalo, is enormous. nearly everything of consequence pertaining to the plains indians touches the animal. the relationship of the indian to the buffalo has nowhere been better stated than in note to the benavides _memorial_, edited by hodge and lummis. "the great buffalo hunt at standing rock," a chapter in _my friend the indian_ by james mclaughlin, sums up the hunting procedure; other outstanding treatments of the buffalo in indian books are to be found in _long lance_ by chief buffalo child long lance; _letters and notes on... the north american indians_ by george catlin; _forty years a fur trader_ by charles larpenteur. floyd b. streeter's chapter on "the buffalo range" in _prairie trails and cow towns_ lists twenty-five sources of information. the bibliography that supersedes all other bibliographies is in the book that supersedes all other books on the subject--frank gilbert roe's _the north american buffalo_. more about it in the list that follows. nearly all men who got out on the plains were "wrathy to kill" buffaloes above all else. the indians killed in great numbers but seldom wastefully. the spaniards were restrained by indian hostility. mountain men, emigrants crossing the plains, santa fe traders, railroad builders, indian fighters, settlers on the edge of the plains, european sportsmen, all slaughtered and slew. some observed, but the average american hunter's observations on game animals are about as illuminating as the trophy-stuffed den of a rich oilman or the lockers of a packing house. lawrence of arabia won his name through knowledge and understanding of arabian life and through power to lead and to write. buffalo bill won his name through power to exterminate buffaloes. he was a buffalo man in the way that hitler was a polish jew man. {illust. caption = harold d. bugbee: buffaloes it is a pleasure to note the writings of sportsmen with inquiring minds and of scientists and artists who hunted. three examples are: _the english sportsman in the western prairies_, by the hon. grantley f. berkeley, london, ; _travels in the interior of north america, - _, by maximilian, prince of wied (original edition, ), included in that "incomparable storehouse of buffalo lore from early eye-witnesses," _early western travels_, edited by reuben gold thwaites; george catlin's _letters and notes on the manners, customs and conditions of the north american indians_, london, . three aspects of the buffalo stand out: the natural history of the great american animal; the interrelationship between indian and buffalo; the white hunter--and exterminator. allen, j. a. _the american bison, living and extinct_, cambridge, mass., . reprinted in th annual report of the united states geological and geographical survey, washington, . basic and rich work, much of it appropriated by hornaday. branch, e. douglas. _the hunting of the buffalo_, new york, . interpretative as well as factual. op. cook, john r. _the border and the buffalo_. topeka, kansas, . personal narrative. dixon, olive. _billy dixon_, guthrie, oklahoma, ; reprinted, dallas, . bully autobiography; excellent on the buffalo hunter as a type. op. dodge, r. i. _the plains of the great west and their inhabitants_, new york, . one of the best chapters of this source book is on the buffalo. garretson, martin s. _the american bison_, new york zoological society, new york, . not thorough, but informing. limited bibliography. op. grinnell, george bird ( - ) may be classed next to j. a. allen and w. t. hornaday as historian of the buffalo. his primary sources were the buffaloed plains and the plains indians, whom he knew intimately. "in buffalo days" is a long and excellent essay by him in _american big-game hunting_, edited by theodore roosevelt and george bird grinnell, new york, . he has another long essay, "the bison," in _musk-ox, bison, sheep and goat_ by caspar whitney, george bird grinnell, and owen wister, new york, . his noble and beautifully simple _when buffalo ran_, new haven, , is specific on work from a buffalo horse. again in his noble two-volume work on _the cheyenne indians_ ( ) grinnell is rich not only on the animal but on the plains indian relationship to it. all op. haley, j. evetts. _charles goodnight, cowman and plainsman_, . goodnight killed and also helped save the buffalo. haley has preserved his observations. hornaday, w. t. _extermination of the american bison_ (smithsonian reports for , published in , part ii). hornaday was a good zoologist but inferior in research. inman, henry. _buffalo jones forty years of adventure_, topeka, kansas, . a book rich in observations as well as experience, though jones was a poser. op. lake, stuart n. _wyatt earp_, boston, . early chapters excellent on buffalo hunting. mccreight, m. i. _buffalo bone days_, sykesville, pa., . op. a pamphlet strong on buffalo bones, for fertilizer. palliser, john (and others). _journals, detailed reports, and observations, relative to palliser's exploration of british north america, - _, london, . according to frank gilbert roe, "a mine of inestimable information" on the buffalo. _panhandle-plains historical review_, canyon, texas. articles and reminiscences, _passim_. parkman, francis. _the oregon trail_, . available in various editions, this book contains superb descriptions of buffaloes and prairies. poe, sophie a. _buckboard days_ (edited by eugene cunningham), caldwell, idaho, . early chapters. op. roe, frank gilbert. _the north american buffalo_, university of toronto press, . a monumental work comprising and critically reviewing virtually all that has been written on the subject and supplanting much of it. no other scholar dealing with the buffalo has gone so fully into the subject or viewed it from so many angles, brought out so many aspects of natural history and human history. in a field where ignorance has often prevailed, roe has to be iconoclastic in order to be constructive. if his words are sometimes sharp, his mind is sharper. the one indispensable book on the subject. rye, edgar. _the quirt and the spur_, chicago, . rye was in the fort griffin, texas, country when buffalo hunters dominated it. op. schultz, james willard. _apauk, caller of buffalo_, new york, . op. whether fiction or nonfiction, as claimed by the author, this book realizes the relationships between plains indian and buffalo. weekes, mary. _the last buffalo hunter_ (as told by norbert welsh), new york, . op. the old days recalled with upspringing sympathy. canada--but buffaloes and buffalo hunters were pretty much the same everywhere. west texas historical association (abilene, texas) _year books_. reminiscences and articles, _passim_. williams, o. w. a privately printed letter of eight unnumbered pages, dated from fort stockton, texas, june , , containing the best description of a buffalo stampede that i have encountered. it is reproduced in dobie's _on the open range_. . bears and bear hunters the bear, whether black or grizzly, is a great american citizen. think of how many children have been put to sleep with bear stories! facts about the animal are fascinating; the effect he has had on the minds of human beings associated with him transcends naturalistic facts. the tree on which daniel boone carved the naked fact that here he "killed a. bar in the year " will never die. davy crockett killed bars in one season, and his reputation as a bar hunter, plus ability to tell about his exploits, sent him to congress. he had no other reason for going. the grizzly was the hero of western tribes of indians from alaska on down into the sierra madre. among western white men who met him, occasionally in death, the grizzly inspired a mighty saga, the cantos of which lie dispersed in homely chronicles and unrecorded memories as well as in certain vivid narratives by ernest thompson seton, hittell's john capen adams, john g. neihardt, and others. for all that, neither the black bear nor the grizzly has been amply conceived of as an american character. the conception must include a vast amount of folklore. in a chapter on "bars and bar hunters" in _on the open range_ and in "juan oso" and "under the sign of ursa major," chapters of _tongues of the monte_, i have indicated the nature of this dispersed epic in folk tales. in many of the books listed under "nature; wild life; naturalists" and "mountain men" the bear "walks like a man." alter, j. cecil. _james bridger_, salt lake city, reprinted by long's college book co., columbus, ohio. contains several versions of the famous hugh glass bear story. hittell, theodore h. _the adventures of john capen adams_, ; reprinted , new york. op. perhaps no man has lived who knew grizzlies better than adams. a rare personal narrative. miller, joaquin. _true bear stories_, chicago, . op. truth questionable in places; interest guaranteed. miller, lewis b. _saddles and lariats_, boston, . op. the chapter "in a grizzly's jaws" is a wonderful bear story. mills, enos a. _the grizzly, our greatest wild animal_, houghton mifflin, boston, . some naturalists have accused mills of having too much imagination. he saw much and wrote vividly. neihardt, john g. _the song of hugh glass_, new york, . an epic in vigorous verse of the west's most famous man-and-bear story. this imagination-rousing story has been told over and over, by j. cecil alter in _james bridger_, by stanley vestal in _mountain men_, and by other writers. roosevelt, theodore. _hunting adventures_ in the {illust. caption = charles m. russell, in _fifteen thousand miles by stage_ by carrie adell strahorn ( ) _west_ ( ) and _the wilderness hunter_ ( )--books reprinted in parts or wholly under varying titles. several narratives of hunts intermixed with baldfaced facts. seton, ernest thompson. _the biography of a grizzly_, ; now published by appleton-century-crofts, new york. _monarch, the big bear of tallac_, . graphic narratives. skinner, m. p. _bears in the yellowstone_, chicago, . op. a naturalist's rounded knowledge, pleasantly told. stevens, montague. _meet mr. grizzly_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . montague stevens graduated from trinity college, cambridge, in and came to new mexico to ranch. as respects deductions on observed data, his book is about the most mature yet published by a ranchman. goodnight experienced more, had a more ample nature, but he lacked the perspective, the mental training, to know what to make of his observations. another english rancher, r. b. townshend, had perspective and charm but was not a scientific observer. so far as sense of smell goes, _meet mr. grizzly_ is as good as w. h. hudson's _a hind in richmond park_. on the nature and habits of grizzly bears, it is better than _the grizzly_ by enos mills. wright, william h. _the grizzly bear: the narrative of a hunter-naturalist, historical, scientific and adventurous_, new york, . op. this is not only the richest and justest book published on the grizzly; it is among the best books of the language on specific mammals. wright had a passion for bears, for their preservation, and for arousing informed sympathy in other people. yet he did not descend to propaganda. _his the black bear_, london, n.d., is good but no peer to his work on the grizzly. also op. . coyotes, lobos, and panthers i separate coyotes, lobos, and panthers from the mass of animals because they, along with bears, have made such an imprint on human imagination. white-tailed deer are far more common and more widely dispersed. men, women also, by the tens of thousands go out with rifles every fall in efforts to get near them; but the night-piercing howl and the cunning ways of the coyote, the panther's track and the rumor of his scream have inspired more folk tales than all the deer. lore and facts about these animals are dispersed in many books not classifiable under natural history. lewis and clark and nearly all the other chroniclers of trans-mississippi america set down much on wild life. james pike's _scout and ranger_ details the manner in which, he says, a panther covered him up alive, duplicating a fanciful and delightful tale in gerstaecker's _wild sports in the far west_. james b. o'neil concludes _they die but once_ with some "bedtime stories" that--almost necessarily--bring in a man-hungry panther. coyotes and lobos the two full-length books on brother coyote listed below specify most of the printed literature on the animal. (he is "brother" in mexican tales and i feel much more brotherly toward him than i feel toward character assassins in political power.) it would require another book to catalogue in detail all the writings that include folk tales about don coyote. ethnologists and scientific folklorists recognize what they call "the coyote circle" in the folklore of many tribes of indians. morris edward opler in _myths and legends of the lipan apache indians_, , and in _myths and tales of the chiricahua apache indians_, (both issued by the american folklore society, new york) treats fully of this cycle. numerous tales that belong to the cycle are included by j. gilbert mcallister, an anthropologist who writes as a humanist, in his extended collection, "kiowa-apache tales," in _the sky is my tipi_, edited by mody c. boatright for the texas folklore society (publication xxii), southern methodist university press, dallas, . literary retellers of indian coyote folk tales have been many. the majority of retellers from western indians include coyote. one of the very best is frank b. linderman, in _indian why stories_ and _indian old-man stories_. these titles are substantive: _old man coyote_ by clara kern bayliss (new york, , op), _coyote stories_ by mourning dove (caldwell, idaho, , op); _don coyote_ by leigh peck (boston, ) gets farther away from the indian, is more juvenile. the _journal of american folklore_ and numerous mexican books have published hundreds of coyote folk tales from mexico. among the most pleasingly told are _picture tales frown mexico_ by dan storm, (lippincott, philadelphia). the first two writers listed below bring in folklore. cushing, frank hamilton. _zuni breadstuff_, museum of the american indian, heye foundation, new york, . this extraordinary book, one of the most extraordinary ever written on a particular people, is not made up of coyote lore alone. in it the coyote becomes a character of dignity and destiny, and the telling is epic in dignity as well as in prolongation. frank hamilton cushing was a genius; his sympathy, insight, knowledge, and mastery of the art of writing enabled him to reveal the spirit of the zuni indians as almost no other writer has revealed the spirit of any other tribe. their attitude toward coyote is beautifully developed. cushing's _zuni folk tales_ (knopf, new york, , ) is climactic on "tellings" about coyote. dobie, j. frank. _the voice of the coyote_, little, brown, boston, . not only the coyote but his effect on human imagination and ecological relationships. natural history and folklore; many tales from factual trappers as well as from mexican and indian folk. this is a strange book in some ways. if the author had quit at the end of the first chapter, which is on coyote voicings and their meaning to varied listeners, he would still have said something. the book includes some, but by no means all, of the material on the subject in _coyote wisdom_ (publication xiv of the texas folklore society, ) edited by j. frank dobie and now distributed by southern methodist university press, dallas. grinnell, george bird. wolves and wolf nature, in _trail and camp-fire_, new york, . this long chapter is richer in facts about the coyote than anything published prior to _the voice of the coyote_, which borrows from it extensively. lofberg, lila, and malcolmson, david. _sierra outpost_, duell, sloan and pearce, new york, . an extraordinary detailment of the friendship between two people, isolated by snow high in the california sierras, and three coyotes. written with fine sympathy, minute in observations. mathews, john joseph. _talking to the moon_, university of chicago press, . a wise and spiritual interpretation of the black-jack country of eastern oklahoma, close to the osages, in which john joseph mathews lives. not primarily about coyotes, the book illuminates them more than numerous books on particular animals illuminate their subjects. murie, adolph. _ecology of the coyote in the yellowstone_, united states government printing office, washington, d. c., . an example of strict science informed by civilized humanity. _the wolves of mount mckinley_, united states government printing of ice, washington, d. c., . murie's combination of prolonged patience, science, and sympathy behind the observations has never been common. his ecological point of view is steady. highly interesting reading. young, stanley paul (with edward a. goldman). _the wolves of north america_, american wildlife institute, washington, d. c., . full information, full bibliography, without narrative power. _sketches of american wildlife_, monumental press, baltimore, . this slight book contains pleasant chapters on the puma, wolf, coyote, antelope and other animals characteristic of the west. (with hartley h. t. jackson) _the clever coyote_, stackpole, harrisburg, pa., and wildlife management institute, washington, d. c., . emphasis upon the economic status and control of the species, an extended classification of subspecies, and a full bibliography make this book and dobie's _the voice of the coyote_ complemental to each other rather than duplicative. panthers anybody who so wishes may call them mountain lions. where there were negro mammies, white children were likely to be haunted in the night by fear of ghosts. otherwise, for some children of the south and west, no imagined terror of the night equaled the panther's scream. the anglo-american lore pertaining to the panther is replete with stories of attacks on human beings. indian and spanish lore, clear down to where w. h. hudson of the pampas heard it, views the animal as _un amigo de los cristianos_--a friend of man. the panther is another animal as interesting for what people associated with him have taken to be facts as for the facts themselves. barker, elliott s. _when the dogs barked `treed'_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . mainly on mountain lions, but firsthand observations on other predatory animals also. before he became state game warden, the author was for years with the united states forest service. hibben, frank c. _hunting american lions_, new york, ; reprinted by university of new mexico press, albuquerque. mr. hibben considers hunting panthers and bears a terribly dangerous business that only intrepid heroes like him-self would undertake. sometimes in this book, but more awesomely in _hunting american bears_, he manages to out-zane zane grey, who had to warn his boy scout readers and puerile-minded readers of added years that _roping lions in the grand canyon_ is true in contrast to the fictional _young lion hunter_, which uses some of the same material. hudson, w. h. _the naturalist in la plata_, new york, . a chapter in this book entitled "the puma, or lion of america" provoked an attack from theodore roosevelt (in _outdoor pastimes of an american hunter_); but it remains the most delightful narrative-essay yet written on the subject. young, stanley paul, and goldman, edward a. _the puma, mysterious american cat_, american wildlife institute, washington, d. c., . scientific, liberal with information of human interest, bibliography. we get an analysis of the panther's scream but it does not curdle the blood. {illust} . birds and wild flowers nearly everybody enjoys to an extent the singing of birds and the colors of flowers; to the majority, however, the enjoyment is casual, generalized, vague, in the same category as that derived from a short spell of prattling by a healthy baby. individuals who study birds and native flora experience an almost daily refreshment of the spirit and growth of the intellect. for them the world is an unending garden of delight and a hundred-yard walk down a creek that runs through town or pasture is an exploration. hardly anything beyond good books, good pictures and music, and good talk is so contributory to the enrichment of life as a sympathetic knowledge of the birds, wild flowers, and other native fauna and flora around us. the books listed are dominantly scientific. some include keys to identification. once a person has learned to use the key for identifying botanical or ornithological species, he can spend the remainder of his life adding to his stature. birds bailey, florence merriam. _birds of new mexico_, . op. said by those who know to be at the top of all state bird books. much on habits. bedichek, roy. _adventures with a texas naturalist_ ( ) and _karankaway country_ ( ), doubleday, garden city, n. y. these are books of essays on various aspects of nature, but nowhere else can one find an equal amount of penetrating observation on chimney swifts, inca doves, swallows, golden eagles, mockingbirds, herons, prairie chickens, whooping cranes, swifts, scissortails, and some other birds. as bedichek writes of them they become integrated with all life. brandt, herbert. _arizona and its bird life_, bird research foundation, cleveland, . this beautiful, richly illustrated volume of pages lives up to its title; the birds belong to the arizona country, and with them we get pines, mesquites, cottonwoods, john slaughter's ranch, the northward-flowing san pedro, and many other features of the land. herbert brandt's _texas bird adventures_, illustrated by george miksch sutton (cleveland, ), is more on the big bend country and ranch country to the north than on birds, though birds are here. dawson, william leon. _the birds of california_, san diego, etc., california, . op. four magnificent volumes, full in illustrations, special observations on birds, and scientific data. dobie, j. frank, who is no more of an ornithologist than he is a geologist, specialized on an especially characteristic bird of the southwest and gathered its history, habits, and folklore into a long article: "the roadrunner in fact and folklore," in _in the shadow of history_, publication xv of the texas folklore society, austin, . op. "bob more: man and bird man," _southwest review_, dallas, vol. xxvii, no. (autumn, ). nice, margaret morse. _the birds of oklahoma_, norman, . op. united states biological survey publication. oberholser, harry church. the birds of texas in manuscript form. "a stupendous work, the greatest of its genre, by the nation's outstanding ornithologist, who has been fifty years making it." the quotation is condensed from an essay by roy bedichek in the _southwest review_, dallas, vol. xxxviii, no. (winter, ). maybe some day some man or woman with means will see the light of civilized patriotism and underwrite the publication of these great volumes. patriotism that does not act to promote the beautiful, the true, and the good had better pipe down. peterson, roger tory. _a field guide to western birds_ ( ) and _a field guide to the birds_ (birds of the eastern united states, revised ), houghton mifflin, boston. these are standard guides for identification. the range, habits, and characteristics of each bird are summarized. simmons, george finley. _birds of the austin region_, university of texas press, austin, . a very thorough work, including migratory as well as nesting species. sutton, george miksch. _mexican birds_, illustrated with water-color and pen-and-ink drawings by the author, university of oklahoma press, norman, . the main part of this handsome book is a personal narrative--pleasant to read even by one who is not a bird man--of discovery in mexico. to it is appended a resume of mexican bird life for the use of other seekers. sutton's _birds in the wilderness: adventures of an ornithologist_ (macmillan, new york, ) contains essays on pet roadrunners, screech owls, and other congenial folk of the big bend of texas. _the birds of brewster county, texas_, in collaboration with josselyn van tyne, is a publication of the museum of zoology, university of michigan, university of michigan press, ann arbor, . _wild turkey_. literature on this national bird is enormous. among books i name first _the wild turkey and its hunting_, by edward a. mcilhenny, new york, . op. mcilhenny was a singular man. his family settled on avery island, louisiana, in ; he made it into a famous refuge for wild fowls. the memories of individuals of a family long established on a country estate go back several lifetimes. in two books of negro folklore and in _the alligator's life history_, mcilhenny wrote as an inheritor. initially, he was a hunter-naturalist, but scientific enough to publish in the _auk_ and the _journal of heredity_. age, desire for knowledge, and practice in the art of living dimmed his lust for hunting and sharpened his interest in natural history. his book on the wild turkey, an extension into publishable form of a manuscript from a civilized alabama hunter, is delightful and illuminative reading. _the wild turkey of virginia_, by henry s. mosby and charles o. handley, published by the commission of game and inland fisheries of virginia, richmond, , is written from the point of view of wild life management. it contains an extensive bibliography. less technical is _the american wild turkey_, by henry e. davis, small arms technical company, georgetown, south carolina, . no strain, or subspecies, of the wild turkey is foreign to any other, but human blends in j. stokley ligon, naturalist, are unique. the title of his much-in-little book is _history and management of merriam's wild turkey_, new mexico game and fish commission, through the university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . wild flowers and grasses the scientific literature on botany of western america is extensive. the list that follows is for laymen as much as for botanists. benson, lyman, and darrow, robert a. _a manual of southwestern desert trees and shrubs_, biological science bulletin no. , university of arizona, tucson, . a thorough work of pages, richly illustrated, with general information added to scientific description. carr, william henry. _desert parade: a guide to southwestern desert plants and wildlife_, viking, new york, . clements, frederic e. and edith s. _rocky mountain flowers_, h. w. wilson, new york, . scientific description, with glossary of terms and key for identification. coulter, john m. _botany of western texas_, united states department of agriculture, washington, - . op. nothing has appeared during the past sixty years to take the place of this master opus. geiser, samuel wood. _horticulture and horticulturists in early texas_, southern methodist university press, dallas, . historical-scientific, more technical than the author's _naturalists of the frontier_. jaeger, edmund c. _desert wild flowers_, stanford university press, california, , revised . scientific but designed for use by any intelligent inquirer. lundell, cyrus l., and collaborators. _flora of texas_, southern methodist university press, dallas, -. a "monumental" work, highly technical, being published part by part. mckelvey, susan delano. _yuccas of the southwestern united states_, harvard university press, cambridge, . definitive work in two volumes. _range plant handbook_, prepared by the forest service of the united states department of agriculture. united states government printing office, washington, . a veritable encyclopedia, illustrated. schulz, ellen d. _texas wild flowers_, chicago, . good as a botanical guide and also for human uses; includes lore on many plants. op. _cactus culture_, orange judd, new york, . now in revised edition. silvius, w. a. _texas grasses_, published by the author, san antonio, . a monument, of illustrated pages, to a lifetime's disinterested following of knowledge "like a star." stevens, william chase. _kansas wild flowers_, university of kansas press, lawrence, . this is more than a state book, and the integration of knowledge, wisdom, and appreciation of flower life with botanical science makes it appeal to layman as well as to botanist. pages, illustrations. applicable to the whole plains area. stockwell, william palmer, and breazeale, lucretia. _arizona cacti_, biological science bulletin no. , university of arizona, tucson, . beautifully illustrated. thornber, john james, and bonker, frances. _the fantastic clan: the cactus family_, new york, . op. thorp, benjamin carroll. _texas range grasses_, university of texas press, austin, . a survey of species of grasses, their adaptability to soils and regions, and their values for grazing. beautifully illustrated and printed, but no index. whitehouse, eula. _texas wild flowers in natural colors_, ; republished in dallas. op. toward flowers are pictured in colors, each in conjunction with descriptive material. the finding lists are designed to enable novices to identify flowers. a charming book. {illust. caption = paisano (roadrunner) means fellow-countryman} . negro folk songs and tales west of a wavering line along the western edge of the central parts of texas and oklahoma the negro is not an important social or cultural element of the southwest, just as the modern indian hardly enters into texas life at all and the mexican recedes to the east. negro folk songs and tales of the southwest have in treatment been blended with those of the south. dorothy scarborough's _on the trail of negro folk-songs_ ( , op) derives mainly from texas, but in making up the body of a negro song, miss scarborough says, "you may find one bone in texas, one in virginia and one in mississippi." leadbelly, a guitar player equally at home in the penitentiaries of texas and louisiana, furnished john a. and alan lomax with _negro folk songs as sung by leadbelly_, new york, (op). the lomax anthologies, _american ballads and folk songs_, , and _our singing country_, (macmillan, new york) and carl sandburg's _american songbag_ (harcourt, brace, new york, ) all give the negro of the southwest full representation. three books of loveliness by r. emmett kennedy, _black cameos_ ( ), _mellows_ ( ), and _more mellows_ ( ) represent louisiana negroes. all are op. an excellent all-american collection is james weldon johnson's _book of american negro spirituals_, viking, new york, . bibliographies and lists of other books will be found in _the negro and his songs_ ( , op) and _negro workaday songs_, by howard w. odum and guy b. johnson, university of north carolina press, chapel hill, , and in _american negro folk-songs_, by newman i. white, cambridge, . a succinct guide to negro lore is _american folk song and folk lore: a regional bibliography_, by alan lomax and sidney r. crowell, new york, . op. narrowing the field down to texas, j. mason brewer's "juneteenth," in _tone the bell easy_, publication x of the texas folklore society, austin, , is outstanding as a collection of tales. in volume after volume the texas folklore society has published collections of negro songs and tales a. w. eddins, martha emmons, gates thomas, and h. b. parks being principal contributors. . fiction--including folk tales from the days of the first innocent sensations in beadle's dime novel series, on through zane grey's mass production and up to any present-day newsstand's crowded shelf of _ace high_ and _flaming guns_ magazines, the southwest, along with all the rest of the west, has been represented in a fictional output quantitatively stupendous. most of it has betrayed rather than revealed life, though not with the contemptible contempt for both audience and subject that characterizes most of hollywood's pictures on the same times, people, and places. certain historical aspects of the fictional betrayal of the west may be found in e. douglas branch's _the cowboy and his interpreters_, in _the house of beadle and adams and its dime and nickel novels_, by albert johannsen in two magnificent volumes, and in jay monaghan's _the great rascal: the life and adventures of ned buntline_ buntline having been perhaps the most prolific of all wild west fictionists. some "westerns" have a kind of validity. if a serious reader went through the hundreds of titles produced by william mcleod raine, dane coolidge, eugene cunningham,. b. m. bower, the late ernest haycox, and other manufacturers of range novels who have known their west at firsthand, he would find, spottedly, a surprising amount of truth about land and men, a fluency in genuine cowboy lingo, and a respect for the code of conduct. yet even these novels have added to the difficulty that serious writing in the western field has in getting a hearing on literary, rather than merely western, grounds. any writer of westerns must, like all other creators, be judged on his own intellectual development. "the western and ernest haycox," by james fargo, in _prairie schooner_, xxvi (summer, ) has something on this subject. actualities in the southwest seem to have stifled fictional creation. no historical novel dealing with texas history has achieved the drama of the fall of the alamo or the drawing of the black beans, has presented a character with half the reality of sam houston, jim bowie, or sallie skull, or has captured the flavor inherent in the talk on many a ranch gallery. historical fiction dealing with early day texas is, however, distinctly maturing. as a dramatization of jim bowie and the bowie knife, _the iron mistress_, by paul wellman (doubleday, garden city, new york, ), is the best novel published so far dealing with a figure of the texas revolution. in _divine average_ (little, brown, boston, ), elithe hamilton kirkland weaves from her seasoned knowledge of life and from "realities of those violent years in texas history between and " a story of human destiny. she reveals the essential nature of range templeton more distinctly, more mordantly, than history has revealed the essential nature of sam houston or any of his contemporaries. the wife and daughter of range templeton are the most plausible women in any historical novel of texas that i have read. the created world here is more real than the actual. among the early tale-tellers of the southwest are jeremiah clemens, who wrote _mustang gray_, mollie e. moore davis, of plantation tradition, mayne reid, who dared convey real information in his romances, charles w. webber, a naturalist, and t. b. thorpe, creator of "the big bear of arkansas." fiction that appeared before world war i can hardly be called modern. no fiction is likely to appear, however, that will do better by certain types of western character and certain stages of development in western society than that produced by bret harte, with his gamblers; stage drivers, and mining camps; o. henry with his "heart of the west" types; alfred henry lewis with his "wolfville" anecdotes and characters; owen wister, whose _virginian_ remains the classic of cowboy novels without cows; and andy adams, whose _log of a cowboy_ will be read as long as people want a narrative of cowboys sweating with herds. the authors listed below are in alphabetical order. those who seem to me to have a chance to survive are not exactly in that order. frank applegate (died ) wrote only two books, _native tales of new mexico_ and _indian stories from the pueblos_, but as a delighted and delightful teller of folk tales his place is secure. mary austin seems to be settling down as primarily an expositor. her novels are no longer read, but the simple tales in _one-smoke stories_ (her last book, ) and in some nonfiction collections, notably _lost borders_ and _the flock_, do not recede with time. while the southwest can hardly claim willa cather, of nebraska, her _death comes for the archbishop_ ( ), which is made out of new mexican life, is not only the best-known novel concerned with the southwest but one of the finest of america. despite the fact that it is not on the literary map, will levington comfort's _apache_ ( ) remains for me the most moving and incisive piece of writing on indians of the southwest that i have found. if a teller of folk tales and plotless narratives belongs in this chapter, then j. frank dobie should be mentioned for the folk tales in _coronado's children, apache gold and yaqui silver_, and _tongues of the monte_, also for some of his animal tales in _the voice of the coyote_, outlaw and maverick narratives in _the longhorns_, and "the pacing white steed of the prairies" and other horse stories in _the mustangs_. the characters in harvey fergusson's _wolf song_ ( ) are the mountain men of kit carson's time, and the city of their soul is rollicky taos. it is a lusty, swift song of the pristine earth. fergusson's _the blood of the conquerors_ ( ) tackles the juxtaposition of spanish-mexican and anglo-american elements in new mexico, of which state he is a native. _grant of kingdom_ ( ) is strong in wisdom life, vitality of character, and historical values. fred gipson's _hound-dog man_ and _the home place_ lack the critical attitude toward life present in great fiction but they are as honest and tonic as creek bottom soil and the people in them are genuine. frank goodwyn's _the magic of limping john_ (new york, , op) is a coherence of mexican characters, folk tales, beliefs, and ways in the ranch country of south texas. there is something of magic in the telling, but frank goodwyn has not achieved objective control over imagination or sufficiently stressed the art of writing. paul horgan of new mexico has in _the return of the weed_ (short stories), _far from cibola_, and other fiction coped with modern life in the past-haunted new mexico. oliver lafarge's _laughing boy_ ( ) grew out of the author's ethnological knowledge of the navajo indians. he achieves character. tom lea's _the brave bulls_ ( ) has, although it is a sublimation of the mexican bullfighting world, death and fear of death for its dominant theme. it may be compared in theme with stephen crane's _the red badge of courage_. it is written with the utmost of economy, and is beautiful in its power. _the wonderful country_ ( ), a historical novel of the frontier, but emphatically not a "western," recognizes more complexities of society. its economy and directness parallel the style of tom lea's drawings and paintings, with which both books are illustrated. _sundown_, by john joseph mathews ( ), goes more profoundly than _laughing boy_ into the soul of a young indian (an osage) and his people. its translation of the "long, long thoughts" of the boy and then of "shades of the prison house" closing down upon him is superb writing. the "shades of the prison house" come from oil, with all of the world's coarse thumbs that go with oil. george sessions perry's _hold autumn in your hand_ ( ) incarnates a texas farm hand too poor "to flag a gut-wagon," but with the good nature, dignity, and independence of the earth itself. _walls rise up_ ( ) is a kind of _crock of gold_, both whimsical and earthy, laid on the brazos river. katherine anne porter is as dedicated to artistic perfection as was a. e. housman. her output has, therefore, been limited: _flowering judas_ ( , enlarged ); _pale horse, pale rider_ ( ), _the leaning tower_ ( ). her stories penetrate psychology, especially the psychology of a mexican hacienda, with rare finesse. her small canvases sublimate the inner realities of men and women. she appeals only to cultivated taste, and to some tastes no other fiction writer in america today is her peer in subtlety. eugene manlove rhodes died in . most of his novels--distinguished by intricate plots and bright dialogue--had appeared in the _saturday evening post_. his finest story is "paso por aqui," published in the volume entitled _once in the saddle_ ( ). gene rhodes, who has a canyon--on which he ranched--named for him in new mexico, was an artist; at the same time, he was a man akin to his land and its men. he is the only writer of the range country who has been accorded a biography--_the hired man on horseback_, by may d. rhodes, his wife. see under "range life." conrad richter's _the sea of grass_ ( ) is a kind of prose poem, beautiful and tragic. lutie, wife of the owner of the grass, is perhaps the most successful creation of a ranch woman that fiction has so far achieved. dorothy scarborough's _the wind_ ( ) excited the wrath of chambers of commerce and other boosters in west texas--a tribute to its realism. _the grapes of wrath_, by john steinbeck ( ), made okies a word in the american language. although dated by the great depression, its humanity and realism are beyond date. it is among the few good novels produced by america in the first half of the twentieth century. john w. thomason, after fighting as a marine in world war i, wrote _fix bayonets_ ( ), followed by _jeb stuart_ ( ). a native texan, he followed the southern tradition rather than the western. _lone star preacher_ ( ) is a strong and sympathetic characterization of confederate fighting men woven into fictional form. in _high john the conqueror_ (macmillan, ) john w. wilson conveys real feeling for the tragic life of negro sharecroppers in the brazos bottoms. he represents the critical awareness of life that has come to modern fiction of the southwest, in contrast to the sterile action, without creation of character, in most older fiction of the region. . poetry and drama "knowledge itself is power," sir francis bacon wrote in classical latin, and in abbreviated form the proverb became a familiar in households and universities alike. but knowledge of what? there is no power in knowledge of mediocre verse. i had rather flunk my wasserman test than read a poem by edgar a. guest. the power of great poetry lies not in knowledge of it but in assimilation of it. most talk about poetry is vacuous. poetry can pass no power into any human being unless it itself has power--power of beauty, truth, wit, humor, pathos, satire, worship, and other attributes, always through form. no poor poetry is worth reading. taste for the best makes the other kind insipid. compared with america's best poetry, most poetry of the southwest is as mediocre as american poetry in the mass is as compared with the great body of english poetry between chaucer and masefield. yet mediocre poetry is not so bad as mediocre sculpture. the mediocre in poetry is merely fatuous; in sculpture, it is ugly. generations to come will have to look at coppini's monstrosity in front of the alamo; it can't rot down or burn up. volumes of worthless verse, most of it printed at the expense of the versifiers, hardly come to sight, and before long they disappear from existence except for copies religiously preserved in public libraries. weak fiction goes the same way. but a good deal of very bad prose in the nonfiction field has some value. in an otherwise dull book there may be a solitary anecdote, an isolated observation on a skunk, a single gesture of some human being otherwise highly unimportant, one salty phrase, a side glimpse into the human comedy. if poetry is not good, it is positively nothing. the earliest poet of historical consequence the only form of his poetical consequence--of the southwest was mirabeau buonaparte lamar. he led the texas cavalry at san jacinto, became president of the republic of texas, organized the futile santa fe expedition, gathered up six volumes of notes and letters for a history of texas that might have been as raw-meat realistic as anything in zola or tolstoy. then as a poet he reached his climax in "the daughter of mendoza"--a graceful but moonshiny imitation of tom moore and lord byron. perhaps it is better for the weak to imitate than to try to be original. it would not take one more than an hour to read aloud all the poetry of the southwest that could stand rereading. at the top of all i should place fay yauger's "planter's charm," published in a volume of the same title. with it belongs "the hired man on horseback," by eugene manlove rhodes, a long poem of passionate fidelity to his own decent kind of men, with power to ennoble the reader, and with the form necessary to all beautiful composition. this is the sole and solitary piece of poetry to be found in all the myriads of rhymes classed as "cowboy poetry." i'd want stanley vestal's "fandango," in a volume of the same title. margaret bell houston's "song from the traffic," which takes one to the feathered mesquites and the bluebonnets, might come next. begging pardon of the perpetually palpitating new mexico lyricists, i would skip most of them, except for bits of mary austin, witter bynner, haniel long, and maybe somebody i don't know, and go to george sterling's "father coyote"--in california. probably i would come back to gallant phil lenoir's "finger of billy the kid," written while he was dying of tuberculosis in new mexico. i wouldn't leave without the swift, brilliantly economical stanzas that open the ballad of "sam bass," and a single line, "he came of a solitary race," in the ballad of "jesse james." several other poets have, of course, achieved something for mortals to enjoy and be lifted by. their work has been sifted into various anthologies. the best one is_ signature of the sun: southwest verse, - _, selected and edited by mabel major and t. m. pearce, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, . two other anthologies are _songs of the cattle trail and cow camp_, by john a. lomax, , reprinted in by duell, sloan and pearce, new york; _the road to texas_, by whitney montgomery, kaleidograph, dallas, . montgomery's kaleidograph press has published many volumes by southwestern poets. somebody who has read them all and has read all the poets represented, without enough of distillation, in _signature of the sun_ could no doubt be juster on the subject than i am. like historical fiction, drama of the southwest has been less dramatic than actuality and less realistic than real characters. lynn riggs of oklahoma, author of _green grow the lilacs_, has so far been the most successful dramatist. . miscellaneous interpreters and institutions artists art may be substantive, but more than being its own excuse for being, it lights up the land it depicts, shows people what is significant, cherishable in their own lives and environments. thus peter hurd of new mexico has revealed windmills, thomas hart benton of missouri has elevated mules. nature may not literally follow art, but human eyes follow art and literature in recognizing nature. the history of art in the southwest, if it is ever rightly written, will not bother with the italian "holy families" imported by agent-guided millionaires trying to buy exclusiveness. it will begin with clay (indian pottery), horse hair (vaquero weaving), hide (vaquero plaiting), and horn (backwoods carving). it will note navajo sand painting and designs in blankets. charles m. russell's art has been characterized in the chapter on "range life." he had to paint, and the old west was his life. more versatile was his contemporary frederic remington, author of _pony tracks, crooked trails_, and other books, and prolific illustrator of owen wister, theodore roosevelt, alfred henry lewis, and numerous other writers of the west. not so well known as these two, but rising in estimation, was charles schreyvogle. he did not write; his best-known pictures are reproduced in a folio entitled _my bunkie and others_. remington, russell, and schreyvogle all did superb sculptoring in bronze. one of the finest pieces of sculpture in the southwest is "the seven mustangs" by a. phimister proctor, in front of the texas memorial museum at austin. among contemporary artists, ross santee and will james (died, ) have illustrated their own cow country books, some of which are listed under "range life" and "horses." william r. leigh, author of _the western pony_, is a significant painter of the range. edward borein of santa barbara, california, has in scores of etchings and a limited amount of book illustrations "documented" many phases of western life. buck dunton of taos illustrated also. his lithographs and paintings of wild animals, trappers, cowboys, and indians seem secure. i cannot name and evaluate modern artists of the southwest. they are many, and the excellence of numbers of them is nationally recognized. many articles have been written about the artists who during this century have lived around taos and painted that region of the southwest. some of the better-known names are ernest l. blumenschein, oscar berninghaus, ward lockwood, b. j. o. nordfeldt, georgia o'keeffe, ila mcafee, barbara latham cook, howard cook. artists thrive in arizona, oklahoma, and texas as well as in new mexico. tom lea, of el paso, may be quitting painting and drawing to spend the remainder of his life in writing. perhaps he himself does not know. jerry bywaters, who is at work on the history of art in the southwest, has about quit producing to direct the dallas museum of fine arts. alexandre hogue gives his strength to teaching art in tulsa university. exhibitions, not commentators, are the revealers of art. a few books, all expensive, reproduce the art of certain depicters of the west and southwest. _etchings of the west_, by edward borein, and _the west of alfred jacob miller_ have been noted in other chapters (consult index). other recent art works are: _peter hurd: portfolio of landscapes and portraits_, university of new mexico press, albuquerque, ; _gallery of western paintings_, edited by raymond carlson, mcgraw-hill, new york, (unsatisfactory reproduction); _frederic remington, artist of the old west_, by harold mccracken, lippincott, philadelphia, (biography and check list with many reproductions); _portrait of the old west_, by harold mccracken, mcgraw-hill, new york, (samplings of numerous artists). in february, , robert taft of the university of kansas began publishing in the _kansas historical quarterly_ chapters, richly illustrated in black and white, in "the pictorial record of the old west." the book to be made from these chapters will have a historical validity missing in most picture books. magazines the leading literary magazine of the region is the _southwest review_, published quarterly at southern methodist university, dallas. the _new mexico quarterly_, published by the university of new mexico at albuquerque, the _arizona quarterly_, published by the university of arizona at tucson the _colorado quarterly_, published by the university of colorado at boulder, and _prairie schooner_, university of nebraska press, lincoln, are excellent exponents of current writing in the southwest and west. all these magazines are liberated from provincialism. historical societies every state in the southwest has a state historical organization that publishes. the oldest and most productive of these, outside of california, is the texas state historical association, with headquarters at austin. histories a majority of the state histories of the southwest have been written with the hope of securing an adoption for school use. it would require a blacksnake whip to make most juve-niles, or adults either, read these productions, as devoid of picturesqueness, life-blood, and intellectual content as so many concrete slabs. no genuinely humanistic history of the southwest has ever been printed. there are good factual histories--and a history not based on facts can't possibly be good--but the lack of synthesis, of intelligent evaluations, of imagination, of the seeing eye and portraying hand is too evident. the stuff out of which history is woven--diaries, personal narratives, county histories, chronicles of ranches and trails, etc.--has been better done than history itself. folklore considered scientifically, folklore belongs to science and not to the humanities. when folk and fun are not scienced out of it, it is song and story and in literature is mingled with other ingredients of life and art, as exampled by the folklore in _hamlet_ and _a midsummer night's dream_. in "indian culture," "spanish-mexican strains," "backwoods life and humor," "cowboy songs," "the bad man tradition," "bears," "coyotes," "negro folk songs and tales," and other chapters of this _guide_ numerous books charged with folklore have been listed. the most active state society of its kind in america has been the texas folklore society, with headquarters at the university of texas, austin. volume xxiv of its publications appeared in , and it has published and distributed other books. its publications are now distributed by southern methodist university press in dallas. j. frank dobie, with constant help, was editor from to , when he resigned. since mody c. boatright has been editor. in the new mexico folklore society began publishing yearly the _new mexico folklore record_. it is printed by the university of new mexico press. the university of arizona, tucson, has published several folklore bulletins. the california folklore society publishes, through the university of california press, berkeley, _western folklore_, a quarterly. in co-operation with the southeastern folklore society, the university of florida, gainesville, publishes the _southern folklore quarterly_. levette j. davidson of the university of denver, author of _a guide to american folklore_, university of denver press, , directs the western folklore conference. the _journal of american folklore_ has published a good deal from the southwest and mexico. the sociedad folklorica de mexico publishes its own _anurio_. between and , b. a. botkin, editor of _a treasury of southern folklore_, , and a _treasury of western folklore_, (crown, new york), brought out four volumes entitled _folk-say_, university of oklahoma press. op. the volumes are significant for literary utilizations of folklore and interpretations of folks. museums museums do not belong to the dar. their perspective on the past is constructive. the growing museums in santa fe, tucson, phoenix, tulsa, oklahoma city, houston, san antonio, dallas, austin, denver, and on west into california represent the art, fauna, flora, geology, archeology, occupations, transportation, architecture, and other phases of the southwest in a way that may be more informing than many printed volumes. . subjects for themes the object of theme-writing is to make a student observe, to become aware, to evaluate, to enrich himself. any phase of life or literature named or suggested in the foregoing chapters could be taken as a subject for an essay. the most immature essay must be more than a summary; a mere summary is never an essay. the writer must synthesize, make his own combination of thoughts, facts, incidents, characteristics, anecdotes, interpretations, illustrations, according to his own pattern. a writer is a weaver, weaving various threads of various hues and textures into a design that is his own. "look into thy heart and write." "write what you know about." all this is good advice in a way--but students have to write themes whether they have anything to write or not. the way to get full of a subject, to generate a conveyable interest, is to fill up on the subject. as clouds are but transient forms of matter that "change but cannot die," so most writing, even the best, is but a variation in form of experiences, ideas, observations, emotions that have been recorded over and over. in general, the materials a student weaves are derived from three sources: what he has read, what he has heard, what he has observed and experienced himself. if he chooses to sketch an interesting character, he will make his sketch richer and more interesting if he reads all he can find that illuminates his subject's background. if he sets out to tell a legend or a series of related folk tales or anecdotes, he will improve his telling by reading what he can on the subjects that his proposed narratives treat of and by reading similar narratives already written by others. if he wishes to tell what he knows about rattlesnakes, buzzards, pet coyotes, brahma cattle, prickly pear, cottonwoods, caddo lake, the brazos river, santa fe adobes, or other features of the land, let him bolster and put into perspective his own knowledge by reading what others have said on the matter. knowledge fosters originality. reading gives ideas. the list of subjects that follows is meant to be suggestive, and must not be regarded as inclusive. the best subject for any writer is one that he is interested in. a single name or category may afford scores of subjects. for example, take andy adams, the writer about cowboys and range life. his campfire yarns, the attitude of his cowboys toward their horses, what he has to say about cows, the metaphor of the range as he has recorded it, the placidity of his cowboys as opposed to zane grey sensationalism, etc., are a few of the subjects to be derived from a study of his books. or take a category like "how the early settlers lived." pioneer food, transportation, sociables, houses, neighborliness, loneliness, living on game meat, etc., make subjects. almost every subject listed below will suggest either variations or associated subjects. the humor of the southwest similes from nature (crockett is rich in them) the code of individualism the code of the range six-shooter ethics the right to kill the tradition of cowboy gallantry (read owen wister's _the virginian_ and _a journey in search of christmas;_ also novels by eugene manlove rhodes) frontier hospitality amusements (shooting matches, tournaments, play parties, dances, poker, horse races, quiltings, house-raisings) the western gambler (bret harte and alfred henry lewis have idealized him in fiction; he might be contrasted with the mississippi river gambler) indian captives the age of horse culture (spanish, indian, anglo-american; the horse was important enough to any one of these classes to warrant extended study) the cowboy's horse the cowboy myth (mody boatright is writing a book on the subject) evolution of the frontier criminal lawyer the frontier intellect in the atomic age british chroniclers of the west civilized perspective in writings on the old west the indian in fiction fictional betrayal of the west the west in reality and the west on the screen around the chuck wagon: cowboy yarns stretching the blanket authentic liars recent fiction of the southwest (any writer worth writing about) literary magazines of the southwest ranch women mexican labor (on ranch, farm, or in town) mexican folk tales backwoods life in frederick gerstaecker "the old catdeman" in alfred henry lewis' _wolfville_ books mayne reid as an exponent of the southwest (see estimate of him in _mesa, canon and pueblo_, by charles f. lummis) the gunman in fiction and reality (o. henry, bret harte, alfred henry lewis; _the saga of billy the kid_, by walter noble burns; gillett's _six years with the texas rangers;_ webb's _the texas rangers;_ lake's _wyatt earp)_ character of the trail drivers cowboy's life as reflected in his songs "wrathy to kill a bear" (the frontiersman as a destroyer of wild life "i thought i might see something to shoot at" anecdotes of the stump speaker exempla of revivalists and campmeeting preachers the campmeeting stagecoaching life on the santa fe trail the rendezvous of the mountain men in the covered wagon squatter life no shade from grass to wheat from wheat to dust brush (a special study of prickly pear, the mesquite, or some other form of flora could be made) cotton (whole books are suggested here, the tenant farmer being one of the subjects) oil booms longhorns coyote stories deer nature, or whitetails and their rattlesnakes, or rattlesnake stories panther stories tarantula lore grasshopper plagues the javelina in fact and in folk tale the roadrunner (paisano) wild turkeys the poisoned-out prairie dog sheep vanishing sheep herders the bee hunter pot hunters buffalo hunters the bar hunter and bar stories indian fighter indian hater scalps squaw men mountain men and grizzlies scouts and guides stage drivers fiddlers and fiddle tunes frontier justices of the peace (roy bean set the example) horse traders horse racers newspapermen frontier schoolteacher circuit rider pony express rider folk tales of my community flavorsome characters of my community stanley vestal harvey fergusson kansas cow towns drought and thirst washington irving on the west witty repartee in eugene manlove rhodes bigfoot wallace's humor charles m. russell as artist of the west (or any other western artist) learning to see life around me features of my own cultural inheritance i heard it back home family traditions my family's interesting character doodlebugs in the sand bobwhites blue quail coachwhips and other good snakes mockingbird habits jack rabbit lore catfish lore herb remedies "criticism of life" in southwestern fiction intellectual integrity in________________ (name of writer or writers or some locally prominent newspaper to be supplied) {pages - are an index -- not included} bulletin of the free library of philadelphia number some notes on the bibliography of the philippines by rev. thomas cooke middleton, d.d., o.s.a. december, copyright, , by the free library of philadelphia. press of edward stern & co., inc. philadelphia preface. so many inquiries have been made in the free library of philadelphia for information concerning the history and literature of the philippines, that an earnest effort was made some time ago to gather together books bearing on these subjects. the fact that a short catalogue of philippine literature, prepared by the bibliographer, w. e. retana, comprises as many as three thousand separate works, is a matter known to comparatively few persons, and it was therefore with considerable interest that the philobiblon club of philadelphia obtained the promise of the rev. thomas cooke middleton that he would read a paper upon the bibliography of the philippines before the club. this bulletin is a copy of that paper, as read in substance, and it would have been published several months since but for the unfortunate loss of the manuscript in the office of the newspaper to which the author had confided it. in answer to the urgent requests of the members of the philobiblon club, father middleton very kindly re-wrote it and consented that it should be printed by the free library of philadelphia for the use of the students and patrons of the library. an evil fate, however, seemed to pursue the manuscript, and within four days after it had been completed for the second time it perished in the great fire which destroyed the printing house of j. b. lippincott co. once more the author took courage, and again wrote out the paper, and these facts are recorded both as a matter of interest, and to explain why this bulletin has been so long delayed. a collection of books on the subject of the philippines is being gradually accumulated, and it seems desirable both to furnish the readers in the library with information upon the subject, and also to take an opportunity to counteract the popular misapprehension as to what has been done by the residents of the philippines in the way of literature. since the collection of works on this subject was commenced the free library has prepared and mimeographed from time to time for the use of its readers "finding lists" of the books on the shelves relating to the philippine islands. the latest of these lists, prepared may , , shows that fifty-four volumes have been collected and also gives references to nearly six hundred magazine articles in the library. possibly one of the most interesting books received in the library is the flora de filipinas, consisting of four folio volumes of text (printed in spanish and latin on the same page) and two of colored lithographed plates. it was published at manila - for the friars of st. augustine under the direction of h. ex. the late sebastiano vidal y soler, assisted scientifically by the able botanists, the rev. fathers fr. andres naves and fr. celestino fernández villar, both of the augustinian order of friars. it was composed from manuscripts of the late father blanco of the same order. the plates were drawn and colored from nature by native artists, and sent to barcelona where they were lithographed, and after six hundred copies were printed off, the stones were destroyed. as will be noticed, in many cases the specimens are given both in fruit and flower, necessitating in most instances a gathering of the specimens at distinct seasons of the year. the book was published as a serial work, two or three parts with four plates each (with corresponding descriptions) appearing monthly. there were several stoppages during the printing of the work, caused by a large fire at one time and an earthquake at another, from both of which the printing establishment at which the book was being published suffered. in this manner the time occupied in the publication was prolonged. the original editor was sr. domingo vidal, who unfortunately, after only two or three parts of the work had been given out, was obliged to leave the islands on account of poor health. several months later he died and his brother, who had assumed the editorship, upon his departure from manila, continued the work until it was finished. the trustees of the free library of philadelphia desire to express their thanks to the rev. dr. middleton for the contribution to bibliography which follows. a short index has been added, which it is believed will fit the paper for general use. many thanks are due to mr. john ashhurst for his assistance in this tedious part of the bulletin. john thomson. introductory. the following pages, embodying a survey (on a broad scale) of the chief characteristics of philippine intellectual energy, in its various lines of art, science, letters, seem an objective worthy of the american scholar, who, to his own large group of aboriginal tongues at home, has now to add to his field of study a similarly far-reaching family of the many-toned dialects of malaysia,--twenty-seven idioms at least in number,--according to retana's tabulation, whereof i give a list drawn from his latest bibliography of the philippines, [ ] where, enumerating the various works published in the several dialects in use in that archipelago, he has summarized them in the following table: bisaya, or visaya, generic name for titles. . cebuano, isle of cebú | . panayano, hiligayno and harayo, isle of panay | . leyte, or leite, and sámar isles | . tagalo, isle of luzon . ilocano, ibid. . bícol, or vícol, ibid. . pangasinán, ibid. . pampango, ibid. . ibanag, ibid. . moro-maguindánao . cuyono . tiruray . bagobo . aeta, or negrito, isle of negros . gaddan, isle of luzon . isinay, ibid. . joloano . manobo, isle of mindanao . tagbanúa, isle of paragua . tino, or zambale, isle of luzon . batanes, or vatanes, isle (of same name) . bilaan . bisaya-montés, isle of mindanao . calamiano . egongot, or ilongote, isle of luzon . samal . tagacaolo this bibliography, which we rightly may term wealthy in its two thousand six hundred and ninety-seven titles [ ] of numbered pieces of literature, besides being based largely on the author's own choice collection of philippina, cites also fourteen other bibliographies of that archipelago. [ ] in his own list of philippine languages, or branch-tongues, of this quarter of malaysia, in all (as he gives them) thirty-seven in number, some are mentioned, that, except in a broad sense, will not easily be recognized as members of the distinctively philippine family; such as sanscrit, chinese, japanese, javanese, nahuatl of central america, along with kanaka or ponapé, [ ] chamorro and malgacho, or malagasy, as we more familiarly style it, three dialects spoken in lands outside of the philippine zone,--of yap, or guap, in the eastern carolines, the marianas, or ladrones, and madagascar respectively. wherefore, subtracting these nine foreign localized idiom-groups along with malay (presumably ancestral tongue of the philippines, as of other western polynesian languages), though herein many scholars hold that aeta, or papuan, is mother, i have reduced the idioms peculiar (in large measure) to that archipelago itself to the number (given ahead)--twenty-seven. on this question of race and idiom unity zúñiga, whom i cite frequently in this sketch, says that the vocabularies of new zealand, new holland, new guinea, and part of new hebrides (gathered by captain cook) were all easily understood by him through his familiarity with philippine dialects; that, moreover, from his knowledge of the racial and linguistic characteristics of nearly all south sea islanders, especially of the peoples from madagascar to easter island, including (he distinctly declares) the natives of the friendly, or society isles, of the sandwich and marquesas groups, he was of opinion that aboriginal stock of all, in tongue and blood, including even the natives of central america, was aeta, or papuan, otherwise styled (in the philippines) negrito. [ ] as far back as the early part of the seventeenth century this same question of race and language identity of the philippine people was treated by the jesuit chirino, of whom we shall say more further on; then later by another jesuit scholar, at one time provincial superior of his society in the philippines, francisco colín, in his lavor evangelica, (madrid, ); and by lorenzo hervás y panduro, a linguist of deserved eminence in the world of letters, formerly jesuit. see his catalogo (in six quarto vols., madrid, - ), and you will learn very much about many strange things, among others, that the theory maintained by the english wallace, the german blumentritt, and later ethnologists, as to the identity of these polynesians--papuans and malays--perhaps the only one now held by scholars--is venerably old, by two centuries and more. but really, in view of the apparently irreconcilable opinions of linguists on this topic, further discussion of it seems unprofitable. as concerns the philippines themselves, neither have their isles all been numbered, nor their sub-races and branch-idioms classified, except in what we may style a generic scheme. back now to our bibliographer. no study in mere humanities, it seems, could be more fascinating to your all-round scholar, and more fruitful especially to anthropologist, than with the guidance of retana and other like gifted students of philippina, to enlarge somewhat on this bibliographical theme, since in letters chiefly do men of upright mind find equipment for meditation of spirit, main source of all healthful, sober, intellectual recreation and work. our list of philippina, as you will notice, although given merely in outline, embraces in its sweep across the literary horizon of that quarter of malaysia many works of recognized merit in the several lines of intellectual energy--of history, archæology, ethnology, philology and natural philosophy; books, all of them, which, if perchance not masterpieces according to the higher standard of caucasian scholarship, will yet be acknowledged of much interest, nay, of great value in the inspiration and development of scientific thought. in this bibliographical skeleton, then, i shall point out those sources of information anent the philippine islands, wherein the scholar can best find a general description or history of them, the most trustworthy works on their very varied and multiform language, as well as other topics cognate with these. hence these sub-sections into which my paper is split: ( ) works of general information; ( ) authorities on philippine dialects; ( ) some literary curios among philippina; ( ) philippine presses; ( ) introduction of printing into the philippines. first, i name the chief works of reference, [ ] of the highest, most authoritative character, bearing on the distinctive peculiarities of the philippines,--works that will be recognized as serviceable to the general reader and scholar, to him that seeks to learn of the history of that archipelago, of its antiquities, and characteristics of the many tribes that people it,--of their customs, religious beliefs, superstitions and rites; of the fauna, flora, geology of those islands; in brief, of whatever refers to this part of malaysia. for no matter how much the malay,--javan, bornese, sumatran, as well as philippinian--has been civilized--christianized, so far (as must be conceded) he has not become caucasian in mind, nor will, nor spirit. he remains as he was, (nor any wonder), wholly asiatic. albeit, for three centuries and upwards, taught, ruled, elevated (at times, too, disedified) by white men, the malay, or brown man, is not, perhaps never will be, employed by europeans, save in very limited sphere, in wholly subordinate trusts, whether in commerce, trade, or whatsoever other field of human activity. i. works of general information. but let us on to our list of works of general reading. sifting the treasure-stores of authorities named in retana and others, i find the following books of most value and service, whereof, though some few among them, and for that matter the highest in their respective classes, are no longer in print, yet these very masterpieces, if not obtainable by purchase, like many another priceless blessing, still are worth knowing by title to book-lover and scholar, who, if perchance he cannot have these repertories of human lore on his shelves, will know at least by what title to seek them on others. of the philippines and their neighboring archipelagos these works rank of the highest worth: the history of mindanao, jolo, and their adjacent islands (madrid, ), written by the jesuit, francisco combés--the most ancient detailed account of that region of polynesia, known as the archipelago del sur, and invaluable beyond other guides to the ethnologist especially. then an account of the establishment of christianity in the marianas islands (madrid, ?) similarly the oldest and at the same time most reliable history of these ladrones, or robber, islands, so styled by early spanish voyagers because of the thievish proclivities of the natives, every one of them in theory and practice an annexationist and protectionist to the back-bone, till the jesuit missionary and scholar, diego luis de sanvitores, author of this history, rechristened them marianas, in honor (according to some chroniclers) of doña mariana of austria, queen of spain, in loving and tenderest-hearted homage (according to others) of the blessed virgin, whose rosary that savant was wont to recite every day. [ ] then the story of the various religious missions in the philippines entrusted to members of his society by another jesuit, pedro murillo velarde (manila, ), a rare and valuable work, whereof an accompanying chart, drawn in , should, strictly speaking, be styled the earliest detailed topographical map of the philippines. from the pen of the same scholar issued, too, an historical geography of that archipelago (madrid, ), of much worth, the same as his chart, for its scientific details--albeit little known, it seems, to philippinologists. then we have the rare and deeply interesting history (madrid, ) of some tribes in luzon, hardest to convert--the igorrotes, tinguianes, apayaos and adanes, four races of indians in the hill-country of ilocos and pangasinán, in spiritual charge of the augustinians, a member of which brotherhood, manuel carillo, is the author. another book, that because of its manifold literary merit, of historical accuracy and statistical detail, is styled by retana "an historical work par excellence," is the general history of the philippines (sampaloc, - ), by the recoleto missionary, juan de la concepción, copious source of varied and valuable information, wherein--albeit somewhat prolix in style, at times, too, rather digressive--the author may fairly be said to be without rival. then comes the descriptive and historical account of the marianas islands (madrid, ), by felipe la corte y ruano calderón, the best work on that little-known archipelago, and a rich source of general information anent these malaysian islands. on the botany of the philippines, a monumental work of the highest character is the philippine flora (classified according to the sexual system of linnæus), by the augustinian, manuel blanco, printed at manila, first in , again in , and finally republished a third time in - , in superb style, in four folio volumes of text in spanish and latin, embellished with two volumes of colored lithographed plates descriptive of the plants, flowers and fruits of those islands. one of the co-laborers on the third edition of this flora was ignacio mercado, a philippine botanist himself, and professed member of the augustinian brotherhood. the same father blanco also translated into tagal the french physician tissot's work on medicine, enriched with his own life-long observations on philippine plant-lore. along with blanco's flora should be named the catalogue of fauna of the philippines (manila, - ), by the dominican zoologist, casto de elera, an expert in that line of biological science,--a work in folio (in three volumes) of two thousand three hundred pages and upwards, termed by retana not only a monumental work--easily to be believed--but one unique of its character. the geology of the islands (madrid, ?), treated by isidro sainz de baranda, government inspector of mines, besides being well worth reading, is the earliest study on this topic made on strictly scientific lines. two works, sole representatives of their kind, are named by retana as of singular value to the physician not only, but to ethnologist and scholar especially,--one the embriologia sagrada (manila, ), by the recoleto missionary gregorio sanz, written in aid of his fellow caretakers of souls, whose services in behalf of suffering humanity in out-of-the-way districts were often called upon by the natives, whose practice of the curing art, based on their own traditional formulas, especially in cases of child-bearing, was, despite the efforts of the missionary to uproot their unnatural and utterly heathen disregard for human life, attended too often with destruction of progeny and mother. the other repository of singular and very curious information is a treatise in visaya-cebuano and spanish by another recoleto evangelist, manuel vilches (manila, ), written similarly in benefit of indian sick, the manual, that is, of the visaya physician, or native doctor--mediquillo, as in the philippines these votaries of hippocrates are styled, a work praised by retana as replete with indian plant-lore. the richest and most valuable collection of statistics relating to the philippines, so at least acknowledged by experts, more reliable too than the spanish government's own work, is the estado general of all the pueblos--christianized settlements--in the islands, drawn up by the dominican archbishop of manila, pedro payo (manila, ), whereof the data were gathered by his vicars-forane and parochial-cures throughout the archipelago. while the most artistic map of luzon, so styled by retana, is the chart of that island (madrid, ), published in four sheets by enrique d'almonte y muriel. with mention of two other authors i close this section of philippina,--one the history of the islands, or rather a detailed account of his travels therein, by the augustinian scholar and voyager joaquín martínez de zúñiga (sampaloc, ), a work known by its spanish title as estadismo de las filipinas o mis viajes, which, translated into english by john maver, was published in london in ; and lately edited by retana himself at madrid in . as will be easily apparent to even the most cursory reader, zúñiga's travels, critical throughout in spirit, display on well nigh every page the results of keen observation of affairs during his wanderings, combined moreover with sober reflections on the character and condition of the various races of people of the chief philippine islands. in acknowledgment of its scientific worth, retana has enriched zúñiga's history (in the edition just noted) with twelve scholarly appendices replete with copious erudition, among other topics on the ethnography and geography of the islands; on animals, plants, and minerals. in these appendices, too, will be found copious bibliographies on special topics, as trade, commerce, the não de acapulco, taxation, finance, and the like. and,--i feel that attention shall be called thereto, first because the subject itself is deeply interesting to lovers especially of folk-lore, then again, because commonly much misunderstood,--in one of his appendices to zúñiga (ii * -* ), retana has reproduced some twenty-five pages of a pangasinán charm book, covered with strange words--jumbles, most of them, of mutilated church latin, with crosses and queer-looking symbols. this charm-book in ms. (as are all its fellows), whereof copies without count are circulated among the lowest, most superstitious classes of islanders--indians and meztizos, that is, spaniard, or chinese, mixed with native,--is wont to be worn around the neck, in the disguise of a catholic scapular, as safeguard to the wearer against perils of any kind, chiefly the knife, or bullet, of his enemy. again,--i am quoting retana, who gives his own personal experiences in luzon,--so jealously and closely (he says) do these indian charm-bearers guard their secret heathenish practice from their missionaries, who, for ages, albeit not always with good result, have been striving to detach their wards from such superstitious usages, that the same scholar and curio-hunter, despite his keenest research in luzon, has never been able to catch even a glimpse but of three of these pagan scapularies, the ones shown to him by a dominican missionary, father casimiro lafuente, for many years cure at the pueblo of santa barbara, in pangasinán, now ( ) a member of the house of his brotherhood at avila, in spain. moreover, it appears, from the same retana, that father lafuente, so many years resident in the islands, had never succeeded in unearthing other scapularies than these self-same three. many other forms of heathenism, some of them not even yet wholly banned from the philippines, the reader will find described in another of retana's works--de aniterías (madrid, ). zúñiga also tells all worth knowing of the abominable rites practised among luzonians,--of their nonos, duendes, the pag-papasipin, tigbalag, patianac, bongsol, and bilao. much of what he says regarding the attachment of these peoples to unclean and impious ceremonies he has gathered from that rarest of books--one copy only believed to be extant, at the colonial museum of the augustinians at valladolid (in spain), the práctica (manila, ), of father tomás ortiz, one-time missionary of that brotherhood in china, then for thirty years resident in luzon, where he died in . better, however, consult zúñiga himself, [ ] and the notes thereon by retana, who singularly has failed to insert ortiz' práctica in his biblioteca, and you will find much of interest;--among other things about tattooing, common practice at one time among all polynesians, the same as among our own aborigines, until taught more refined ways by christian missionaries; and about wakes too,--solemn ceremonials of grief, with banquetting and chants--on the occasion of the death of kindred. [ ] anent these and similar breaches of the divine commands against satanism, it is surprising (i would observe) to reflect how many forms of spirit and idol-worship [ ] are (to their degradation be it said) common with malaysian and caucasian. (see in our own periodicals, published presumably by bright-minded, clean-souled christian philosophers, yes, see in these oracles of our fireside, advertisements of magicians, diviners, fortune-tellers, charm-workers, not to speak of other law breakers, whose mere self-interest seems to have dulled all true intellective sense.) the last authority on general topics i name here as invaluable as well as deeply interesting to the scholar is the encyclopedia (in two volumes) of the augustinian travelers, manuel buzeta and felipe bravo (madrid, )--a work replete with most varied information along with statistics, now, of course, out of date, on the ethnology, geography, topography, dialects, customs and rites of the aborigines in the philippine archipelago. barring, as is only fair, any eulogy on the antiquated features of this encyclopedia, which yet will be recognized of much service to the historian, the writer himself, who herein is supported among others by retana, would style this monument of varied scholarship and research a masterpiece of all-round learning; within its lines an indispensable guide to every philippinologist. such, then, are the books most trustworthy and serviceable in their respective fields of history, antiquities, ethnology, and other sciences relating to philippina. before leaving this subject to dwell on philippinian linguistics, i venture a brief digression on a class of works of general historic character--repertories of all ethnic science, little known, however, albeit to their serious disadvantage, to most students, and prized only by your true-hearted book-lover, who has sense to value what he reads for its own worth mainly, not because stamped with popular approval. these are annals of the religious brotherhoods in the east, to be recognized in retana and other catalogues under the various titles of chronicles--sometimes as conquistas, a by no means unfamiliar term--stories, that is, of the conquest of heathendom, woven oftentimes, no doubt, as recreation by the missionary amid his cares; sometimes as relief from thoughts of his far-away native land--journals, as it were, drawn up by the wanderer, who, besides being traveler, usually was a more or less keen-eyed observer, at home wherever providence sent him; where, too, he studied (for self-interest was also at stake) whatever regarded the natives in his care--the lands they dwelt in, the skies above them, the waters around them. scholars such as these on life-long service in their foreign homes were wont to make themselves conversant with every characteristic of the natives--with the language first of all, then the legends, poetry, chants; with the traditions and customs of the people, the industries and sports of their dusky-hued friends and brothers. as a rule, these plain, simply-told recitals of matters of fact, chronicle among other curios of literature, all kinds of even the most out-of-the-way learning anent the races of men; of plants and animals, of the various oftentimes most singular phenomena of air, earth, and water--subjects, all of them, of eagerest quest on the part of scientist, ethnologist, linguist, philosopher, naturalist. these stories, albeit at times verbose, at others digressive, will be acknowledged by the honest-minded critic as rich, indeed, in many-sided lore, enough to repay amply whatever time or trouble you have spent in their reading. with the exception of one collection of missionary annals--the relations of the jesuits in north america; now being edited by reuben gold thwaites, secretary of the state historical society of wisconsin--i know of no exact counterpart in the field of english literature to these delightful narratives of old-time missionary travelers, maver's translation of zúñiga's estadismo, in , being not only out of print, but i suppose unpurchasable. with the aid of such monuments as these--all original records of old-time conquistadores and their fellow-missionaries in the americas, it has resulted (to the delight and blessing of students) that the cyclopedias of americana (thirty nine volumes of them), wherein you will find enshrined whatever is worthy of preservation in the various chequered cycles of aboriginal and spanish polity and art, massed together by the western historian bancroft, are veritably invaluable to the antiquarian, besides being wholesome and refreshing food for men of intellective genius, as therein, along with abundant matter for romance and epic, you will see unraveled and laid bare many a drama of life. ii. authorities on philippine dialects. now a few words anent the chief authorities on philippine linguistics--treatises, namely, bearing on the various dialects employed in that archipelago, twenty-seven in number, as observed ahead, all, however, akin in their common stock--malay, of which these idioms, or patois, are daughters, yet with countless, sharply-marked differences between one another. a working knowledge of the many fashions of speech so much needed as obvious, nay, indispensable to traveler or missionary, will be gained most quickly and thoroughly, it should be premised, from books of two-fold character,--( ) namely, from grammars and dictionaries of the several idioms, based on scientific rules of philology; then ( ) from devotional works--books of christian piety, very numerous in the philippines, as are religious manuals, prayer-, sermon-, and confession-books, whereof titles abound in retana, all pretty much from the busy pen of missionaries themselves, to whose zeal and ability in the instruction of their brown and black many-tongued wards is due largely, nay, wholly, whatever of humanizing, christian character is found in malaysia, as in fact is true also in other countries now civilized and enlightened, albeit once barbarian. in his latest bibliography, [ ] where the number of published works in each of the twenty-seven dialects of the philippines is set down by retana, you will observe from a study of his lists, that though in many dialects there are no grammars so entitled, or other scientific aids to learning a given idiom, yet there are many works of religious cast printed therein,--hand-books of practical religion, which you will find useful beyond measure to linguists. since from these prayer-books, wherein are set down plainly the simplest and commonest rules of christian ethical conduct, you can easily gather a working knowledge of the language itself, as the missionary who composed them was careful to put matters of every-day interest in the plain, every-day speech of the islanders. before closing this brief digression on manuals of piety, i must observe what will prove very useful, i judge, to the scholar, that with works of the first class, as grammars and dictionaries, is to be associated on shelf and desk a goodly number of works of another class--books and treatises that bear the name arte = aids to learning, whereof you will encounter very many in retana. the arte of a given dialect, as will be found true also in a measure for grammars and other school-manuals, will be recognized as a compendium of not only literary rules, but of many practical maxims of daily life, whereby the pupils are urged not only to correct speech, but to upright conduct as well through sobriety, piety to the supreme being, obedience to rulers, respect for parents and fellows, according to the noblest ideals of refined christian manhood and womanhood. thus, with grammar were taught ethics; with politics, religion. referring here to class-books in the philippines, where from the earliest years of the conquest every pueblo had its school of primary instruction, it will not be irrelevant to point out the fact very stoutly that though education (as admitted by well-nigh every chronicler) was primitive in character,--and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries where was it not? yet the course of instruction given in the common schools of bamboo-thatch was (as results amply testify) deep and solid enough for the intellectual calibre of the people. since, so far as known, malaysia, however saintly, heroic, innocent, the same as our own aborigines, albeit now civilized for three centuries and upwards, has, despite the heartiest aid in teachers and funds, fairly lavished on them by church and state, turned out no man of shining mark, no scholar, no artist, no genius in statecraft or commerce. the first college-institution with pretensions to higher courses of intellectual training was opened (formally at least) by the jesuits in , less than half a century, that is, after the arrival of europeans in luzon. in regard to common indian schools, so zealously guarded by the leyes de las indias, i have picked up here and there from old-time chroniclers scraps of many ordinances passed by the crown relative to their foundation and conduct. among them the following bits of quaint old-fashioned oversight of the dominies in charge. thus, in , i have read that each maestro of a mission-school was to get, in lieu of support, "a peso and one caban--a measure--of rice a month." (a caban was equal to litres, about the same number of quarts, english.) again, every mission-priest was called upon to supply (free to his pupils) "paper and ink." moreover, as early as the beginning of the century just closing, in , it was ordained that boys' schools were to be kept on the ground-floor of the mission-house; while the girls were to be taught at their mistress' home. (malaysia--thus it was ordained--was not to experiment with the "co-educational theory.") now for the promised works of chief authority on philippine linguistics,--monuments of the various dialects of that archipelago, that, along with their purely technical value to the student of idioms, will be acknowledged as useful to scholars in even far different lines of intellectual play. of the best works for the study of visaya, or bisaya, first dialect in the islands acquired by missionary and conquistador, wherein he gives titles (p. xxix), retana has the following: "up to a few years ago the dictionary held in highest repute by linguists was the work of the augustinian scholar alonso de méntrida," a vocabulary of the hiligueina, or hiligayno, and haraya tongues--two of the three chief dialects spoken in panay, not very different from the visaya of cebú, used, however, by the less cultured tribes of hillsmen in that island. this vocabulary, first printed in , and in republished at manila, with diagrams of indian alphabets, enlarged in another edition in , by a brother missionary, julián martín, has now been supplanted by the visaya-spanish dictionary (in two volumes), of another augustinian scholar, juan félix de la encarnación, printed at manila, first, in - , then in and again in . another work deserving of praise is the arte of the visaya idiom in use in the islands of sámar and leite (binondo, ), composed by the franciscan traveler, antonio figuerroa, in which latter language--leite, that with slight changes is similar to cebuano, the first grammar was published by the jesuit missionary, domingo ezquerra, in . helpful, too, as much as the former arte in philology is the christian doctrine translated into visaya-cebuano by the recoleto scholar and orator, tomás de san jerónimo, known to his contemporaries as "the cicero of cebú." his school-book re-issued at binondo in is a reprint of his edition of . of the tagal dialect,--a form of speech so hard to acquire with nicety that, according to a spanish saying, one needs therefor "un año de arte y dos de bahaque," [ ] that is to say, unless i am wrong in my interpretation of the last word--"bahaque" which likely is aeta, the scholar needs "a year of study and two of practice." the earliest tagal arte, so styled in chronicles, for what with the universal destructive touch of time, and in luzon especially, the voracity of that pest of librarians, the anay,--an ant that in a few hours, it is said, will devour a library,--cases as well as books, not a sole copy, apparently, has survived, was composed in by the augustinian voyager and missionary, agustín de albuquerque, fourth superior of his brotherhood in the philippines, and printed at manila in . in tagal the works most highly praised are the following: the critical treatise on tagalisms (mexico, ), by the franciscan linguist, melchior oyanguren, the only work known wherein that tongue is contrasted on scientific lines with the classic latin, greek, and hebrew, and mandarin chinese. the author was moved to prepare his manual for the instruction of his brother missionaries prior to their entrance into their field of work in luzon. the tagal dictionary, by the jesuit missionary, juan de noceda, and others of his society (manila, ), a lexicographical treasure, was reprinted at valladolid in , and (in its most highly-prized form) again, in , at manila, with valuable additions by some augustinian experts. for the scholar unacquainted with latin, the most serviceable work for learning tagal is the essay on tagal grammar (manila, ), composed by the recoleto missionary and linguist, toribio minguella de la merced, whose grammar (in the same language) for the use of children (manila, ) was adopted for schools by the spanish government. while another helpful work for the study of that same dialect is the tagal catechism, by the augustinian, luis de amezquita, a popular booklet, first printed in , and (in its thirteenth edition) in , at manila. a rare and precious treatise, praised for its critical spirit, is the study on tagal poetry--a compendium of that dialect reprinted at sampaloc in , from the first edition of ; and again at manila, in , by another member of the same brotherhood, gaspar de san agustín, author, besides, of one of the most valued conquistas, or histories of the islands. for the study of tagal refrains--for this people is ballad-lover to the core--and similar turns of speech, an excellent work, one unique of its kind, is the colección (guadalupe, ), by two well-known franciscan linguists, gregorio martín and mariano martínez cuadrado. the tagal arte (sampaloc, ), along with a manual (also in tagal) for the administration of the sacraments, composed by the franciscan missionary, sebastián de totanes, "is" (according to our bibliographer) "the best edition of the best grammar" written by missionaries of that order. in ilocano, another of the unnumbered dialects of luzon, there is a good dictionary (manila, ), by the augustinian scholar, andrés carro (aided by others of his brotherhood)--the first work of its kind, reprinted only a few years ago, in . serviceable, too, for the study of the same dialect--ilocano--as doubtless easy to obtain, is the catecismo, by another member of that same order, francisco lópez (manila, ), whereof editions fairly without number have issued. in batanes, or vatanes, a dialect used in the islets north of luzon, mission-field of the dominicans, hard to reach, nor easy at best to live in, is composed the catechism of the christian doctrine (manila, ), by a missionary of that order--the only work, perhaps, printed in that language, wherein retana states he is about to edit a grammar and dictionary. in his biblioteca (p. ) he gives the ave maria in batanes, ibanag and ilocano, in order to show (he says) the diversities between these idioms. the pampanga arte (manila, ), by the augustinian, diego bergaño, an estimable aid to the would-be learner of that language, was reissued at sampaloc in . by the same author is a dictionary of pampanga--the only work of its class, printed at manila, first in , and again in . in the ibanag tongue, otherwise ibanay or cagayan, the dictionary by the dominican linguist, josé bugarín, and companions (manila, ), we have what retana styles a masterpiece of philological craft, "the first and (in fact) only vocabulary of that dialect" whereof of all philippine tongues "the orthography is the most difficult to manage." in another place, however (p. ), he has named another ibanag dictionary (manila, ), constructed from dominican mss., to which similarly (by error i suppose) he has awarded seniority of press. prior to the above date-- --in that vast region of cagayan, where, by the way, is grown the choicest tobacco in the philippines, the missionaries, for generation and generation of island-pupils had relied wholly on ms. copies of padre bugarín's dictionary. in pangasinán, or caboalan, dialect used in the province of the same name in luzon, we have another linguistic treasure--the arte of mariano pellicer, of the same brotherhood, reprinted at manila, in , from the edition of , whereof in the course of time, as writers tell us, it came to pass that up to about the middle of the present century only one copy survived. then re-cast by pellicer, in , it was re-published by him some twenty years later. of the cuyona dialect i note two works of merit,--one (p. ) an explanation of the christian doctrine (manila, ), by the recoleto missionary, pedro gibert de santa eulalia, edited by the dominican mariano cuartero, first bishop of st. isabel, or elizabeth, of jaro, in the island of panay, one of the four suffragans of manila, an industrious scholar, editor of many works in indian dialects, whom the reader, however, is not to confound with another prelate of the same name, recoleto bishop of nueva segovia, in luzon, nephew of the former, who, in this one respect, was like his uncle--author of no book: while the other cuyona treasure, whereof there are very few in that language, ("poquisimos libros," says retana, p. ), seven titles in all comprising the bibliography of that tongue, is the plan of religion (manila, ), by the same industrious and scholarly gibert. in the gaddan idiom, wherein only two books have been printed, both very devotional in character, is a catechism (manila, ), and the pathway to heaven (ib., ), by dominican missionaries in the provinces of nueva vizcaya and isabela, in luzon. in the aeta language of the negritos, or little black men, perhaps the primitive race of the philippines--whose name i have encountered in many forms of spelling, as ata, ataa, aeta, agta, aita, ita, itaa, [ ] there are similarly, only two works known to retana, whose bibliographical notices have been of so much value,--one a report on the philippine islands (paris, ), addressed to the french minister of public instruction by j. montano, a book of over two hundred and nine pages, illumined with numerous phototypes, and, what renders it of exceptional value, enriched with vocabularies, "the first," retana declares, in aeta, bilaan, manobo (of the natives of mindanao), sámal and tagacaolo dialects. as companion volume to the above, though far smaller in bulk, is a little treatise (dresden, ), of double authorship, the german a. b. meyer giving therein a very interesting aeta vocabulary, and his dutch co-laborer, h. kern, a comparative study of the same tongue, which he traces to malay ancestry. for the study of chamorro, idiom of the marianas islands, one will find serviceable the little book of devotions (manila, ), with counsels for the worthy reception of the sacraments of god, (p. )--the only work, in fact, we have in this dialect, by the recoleto linguist and traveler, aniceto ibáñez del carmen. finally, with three other samples of the philippine press as proofs of the variety of its polyglot fonts, and i shall have done with this digression on the many languages used in this part of polynesia,--one a grammar in the dialect of yap or guap (p. ), in the western caroline archipelago (manila, ), composed apparently by the capuchin missionary, ambrosio de valencia; the second (p. ) a hispano-kanaka dictionary (tambóbong, ), by another capuchin wanderer, according to retana, agustín maría de ariñez. while the last, a work, as will readily be acknowledged, of interest as well as importance to ethnologists, linguists, americanists especially, is the list of nahuatlisms of costa rica (san josé de costa rica, ), by juan fernández ferraz, a goodly-sized volume of over two hundred pages, wherein, on purely linguistic grounds, the author has maintained the kinship of our own central americans and the philippinians, from the fact especially that in the respective countries of these two antipodal peoples, abound very many terms of every-day use, with identical spelling and meaning. in his biblioteca (p. ), retana has gathered a few of these homonyms and synonyms. such, then, are the chief authorities on language among our philippina that, while entertaining, nay instructing the philologist, will delight also the general student, the writers whereof, as the reader will not be slow to observe, were in far larger number all churchmen and missionaries. in fact, of the authors, whose works he has enumerated (biblioteca, xxxv-xxxvi), retana states that four hundred and sixty-six are ecclesiastics, that is, ninety-eight secular clergymen and three hundred and sixty-eight members of religious brotherhoods, whereof the augustinians--the writer's own order--numbering one hundred and forty-one authors, inclusive of thirty-seven recoletos--the bare-footed branch of that fraternity--figure highest. next in rank, we have one hundred dominicans, then fifty-seven jesuits, fifty-six franciscans, and fourteen authors of orders not specified. of these brotherhoods, who thus in malaysia, as in other quarters of the globe, brought forth so brilliant an array of scholars and philanthropists, the first-named, the augustinians, with legazpi, crossing two oceans and one continent therefore, found a home in the philippines at the conquest of that archipelago in ; in the first franciscans reached the isles; in , the dominicans, with the first bishop of manila (by actual possession), domingo salazar, member of the same brotherhood, accompanied too by some jesuits, while the recoletos first crossed the pacific in . these churchmen, with very few exceptions spanish, with later on a sprinkling of portuguese, dutchmen, germans, italians and irishmen, scholars, as a rule, of fair repute, some even of european eminence, from their advent into polynesia, besides their care in implanting christian altruism, wherewith only (as history attests) thrive science and art, have toiled ever since to imbue these islanders, whom they found heathen--without letters, laws, or settled abode--with learning, the arts of husbandry, building, carving, painting, weaving, and the like graces of intellectual grandeur--in brief, with whatever of civilization now marks malaysian genius. from manila, as centre of intellectual enlightenment for all eastern asiatic and polynesian lands in the sixteenth century, were transplanted the germs of philanthropy--of wisdom and charity--to borneo, the carolines, moluccas, as well as the mainland of asia, to china and japan, while in india the portuguese, with headquarters at goa, fulfilled the same destiny as their iberian brothers. speaking of the heroism of these self-exiled churchmen and worshipers of the christian minerva in asiatic tropics, i quote the words of the famed french savant, elisée reclus, a witness, by the way, in no measure partial to cloister life. in his universal geography [ ] he declares that "los filipinos son de los pueblos mas civilizados del extremo oriente. los han civilizado los frailes"--that is, "the philippines are one of the most civilized people of the far east. the friars have civilized them." iii. some literary curios among philippina. among the curios of artistic and literary cast, your bright-minded reader, if on the alert to spy anything deserving of notice, will find here and there in retana's pages enshrined many a bit of out-of-the-way information. the following half dozen or so of oddities will probably be acknowledged, not unworthy of mention among these philippina: they are la razon: a plea against certain vexatious encroachments of the crown on mexican and manila trade, by josé nuño de villavicencio (sampaloc, ), which bears on its cover the most tasty design by philippine burin--a plate illustrative of the contents of the plea, engraved by francisco suárez, a tagal artist. el cosmopolita--the cosmopolitan--(manila, - ), the first periodical (p. ), with phototypes, published in the islands. the first almanac and guide-book for strangers and travelers, with a map of the archipelago, was issued at manila for the year . the newspaper--el ilocano--a bi-weekly, published in spanish and ilocano at manila (p. ), from to (?) was the first periodical written in indian dialect. again, another periodical--el hogar (p. ), the fireside--a weekly, of pages, started at manila in , under the direction of madam amparo gómez de la serna, was the first paper devoted to science, letters, beaux-arts, and useful information published almost exclusively in the interests of women, while the revista de filipinas (p. ), a bi-weekly, that, starting at manila in , lived only two years, is the worthiest of philippine periodicals, noticeable chiefly for the deeply scientific cast of its papers. the romancero filipino, a work of fancy (manila, ), by manuel romero aquino, is styled (p. ) by retana the neatest and best piece of work by philippine pen. while the american soldier, a four-page daily newspaper, whereof the opening number is dated manila, september , , is the first periodical, maybe print of any sort, in the english language, published in the islands. with the foregoing extravaganzas of literature we note that the series of philippine periodicals, which in retana's own collection number (he says) one hundred and twelve, in their entirety do not surpass one hundred and sixty. of his own he gives the titles (biblioteca, xxiii-xxviii) from del superior gobierno, the first newspaper issued in the islands, with the imprint of manila, august , , down to the latest--thé kon leche (tea and milk)--a four-page weekly satirical periodical, with illustrations (in two colors), published at manila in . the oldest piece of what we may style distinctively philippine literature, whereof, moreover, only one copy is believed to be extant, albeit printed abroad in europe, is an account of legazpi's expedition from mexico to cebú in , sent from seville to one miguel salvador, of valencia, and printed one year later at barcelona. this copia--thus entitled in retana--heads his list of philippina, a study of which, with the supplement (p. et seq.), discloses the fact that of the books that head his biblioteca, the first nineteen were printed abroad--eighteen in europe; that is, nine in spain, at barcelona, madrid, burgos, valencia and seville; seven in italy, at rome, genoa and venice; one each in france, at paris, and in flanders, at antwerp ("amberes" in the spanish), where a mendoza's history of china was printed in , by bellero; and the nineteenth in mexico. the first fruit itself of the philippine press--thus styled by retana, though mistakenly, we judge--was the spanish-japanese dictionary of , on which i will make some remarks when treating of the early philippine press. moreover, it is noticeable that of these earliest philippina not one of them treats distinctively of religious matters, but--with the exception of two, fragoso's and acosta's botanies, or works on eastern flora--are wholly historical in character, embracing, as they do, along with the copia of , eleven editions of the still estimable history of china and other asiatic lands, by the augustinian traveler, juan gonzález de mendoza, whereof the roman edition (by vincenzo acolti in ) gives plates illustrative of chinese typographical symbols--the first shown to europeans. of this history, it may be observed, thirty-eight editions have appeared in all--in latin, spanish, italian, french, german, dutch, and english. among these early philippina--to continue our analysis--is a history of that archipelago, by the franciscan chronicler, marcelo de ribadeneyra; a report on the same islands, by the jesuit scholar, pedro chirino--the first work of its kind published in europe (rome, ), with diagrams of philippine characters--signs, namely, employed by the natives in writing, whereof, says retana, "a miserable edition" was printed at manila in . then follow other works, among them a story of the conquest of the moluccas, one of the sixteenth century names of the philippines, a work of utmost value to the historical writer, composed by the presbyter, bartolomé leonardo de argensola (madrid, ); then a trustworthy account of the triumph of spanish arms in the philippines, by antonio de morga, auditor-general of the crown in those colonies, printed in mexico in ; and lastly the report of governor francisco guzman de tello, eleventh captain-general of those islands (seville, ?). the two merely scientific works, alluded to ahead, are "discourses on aromatic things--plants, fruit, and the like simple medicines employed in the east indies," composed by juan fragoso, a rare and curious work (madrid, ); and a treatise on the drugs and medicines used in the east indies, with plates representing various plants, by cristóbal acosta, published first in spanish at burgos in ; in latin (in two editions) in and ; in french (also in two editions) in and ; lastly in english in . iv. philippine presses. now for a description of the different printing-presses--or, rather, places--in the philippines, from the earliest named by retana in his biblioteca, in all fourteen distinct localities, where printing was carried on in the three islands of luzon, panay and cebú. .--from an analysis of the titles i find that manila ranks earliest, where (with limitations to be set later) a printing-press was established in , in which year, at the dominican college of st. thomas, a spanish-japanese dictionary, the work of portuguese jesuit missionaries and scholars, now translated into spanish, was printed by tomás pinpin, a native tagal, and jacinto magaurlua. this dictionary (now extremely rare), even though not the first book printed in the islands, as stated by retana, must yet be ranked among the earliest specimens of philippine literature. in his bibliography three different titles (we may observe) bear the imprint of manila, with the name of this city spelled according to the ancient aboriginal form, albeit but slightly varied from the present--"maynila"--otherwise, as i have read it, "mainilla," a variant in orthography one encounters in old chronicles--a tagal word (it seems) signifying a species of shrub or bush, in the spanish rendered arbusto, that in was found to cover the site of the new city projected by the conquistadores, under the leadership of miguel lópez de legazpi. in this same year, it may be added, the site of the future metropolis of malaysia was taken possession of by spanish arms, with due observance of ceremonial, sealed with the three local chieftains, [ ] lacandola, matandá and soliman, by blood-bargain--pacto de sangre. [ ] here, too, at manila, the second church in malaysia devoted to the supreme being, the first having been founded at cebú, was dedicated the same year ( ) to god, under the most fitting title of the conversion of st. paul the apostle, first great missionary to heathendom. at cebú, by agreement with chief tupas, the standard of christian comity--the cross--had been reared in , and its church dedicated in honor of st. michael archangel, name-saint of legazpi, though shortly after rechristened el santo niño--the holy child--its title to-day. the three works then printed at "maynila," or bush town, in luzon, are a manual of devotions to st. roch, translated into tagal by the augustinian missionary, esteban diez, a skilled tagalist, in ; a periodical--the revista católica--whereof the first and only number (p. ) was issued in ; and lastly, a weekly paper (the same as the former) in tagal, published in . .--the second place to witness the establishment of a press was sampaloc, in zambales province, in luzon, where, in , at the franciscan convent of our lady of loreto, was printed the augustinian diego bergaño's arte, in pampanga--first fruit, it seems, of typographical genius in that pueblo. while the last imprint with the name of sampaloc is an almanac, or church calendar, for the year (more probably, however, printed the year ahead), when the old press, founded by franciscan friars a hundred years before, disappears. .--at tayabas, in the province of the same name, in luzon (p. ), was printed a tagal dictionary, by the franciscan, totanes, now supplanted, however, by noceda's far superior work on philological score, especially with the additions made thereto by the augustinians in the manila edition of . this tayabas imprint is the only work i have encountered with the name of that pueblo. .--the first cavite imprint (p. ) dates (it seems) from --a church calendar for the following year; while the last, with the name of this manila suburb written, however, with a k--"kavite"--is an appeal of the revolutionary party in (p. ), under the official seal of the gobierno dictatorial de filipinas. .--binondo is the fifth place, whereof the first work--statistical reports of franciscan missionaries--was printed in ; the last, josé patricio clemente's moral lectures for youth (p. ), in . in regard, however, to this town, it should be observed that in his earlier bibliography (ed. ) retana names a work printed by pinpin in the hospital of st. gabriel, at binondo, in . .--at vigan, the old villa fernandina of the ilocos, known also to spaniards as nueva segovia, a city founded in the sixteenth century by juan salcedo, one of the captains under legazpi, and so christened by him in memory of his native place in spain, but now known as lalo, or lal-lo,--here was started a sunday newspaper, el eco de vigan, published in ilocano in , that died, however, a year after birth. .--in iloilo (on the island of panay) was printed, in , the pastoral letter of alejandro arrué, recoleto bishop of st. isabel, or elizabeth, of jaro. .--then comes guadalupe, eighth place on our list, a sanctuary village on the left bank of the river tasig, a couple of leagues from manila, a shrine founded by augustinians in , in honor of st. nicholas, the wonder-worker of tolentino, a place visited yearly by great numbers of chinese confucians, as well as christians, who hold that saint in highest and most singular veneration. at guadalupe, in , issued two works from the orphanage press--an abridgment of the christian doctrine of pouguet and fleuri, drawn up in bisaya by father mateo pérez, augustinian cure of argao; and lozano's novena to st. thomas of villanova. the last imprint of guadalupe--a tagal catechism, by luis de amezquita, a brother missionary of pérez--bears the date . .--the earliest sample of cebú print--the island where, under legazpi, three centuries earlier, civilization first found a footing in malaysia--is a work that elicits from retana remarkable praise, in view of the difficulties that attended its printing; the paper--such was the dearth in the visayas of proper material for good press-work--being of five or six different qualities in body, make, color. this work, that i think we may style a triumph of adaptive art, is the ensayo para una galería de asturianos ilustres, a genealogical monument (in three volumes), by the augustinian antiquary, fabiáno rodríguez, begun in and completed in . while the last cebú imprint, a government statistical report on crime and the like, is dated . .--tambóbong, a pueblo near the coast, in tondo province, about three miles from manila, comes tenth in our list, where, at the orphan asylum of our lady of consolation, in , was printed a weekly newspaper--the revista católica de filipinas--discontinued in . while the last imprint from this press--an abridgment of the history of spain (of only eight pages)--was issued, presumably, in . .--at nueva caceres, or camarines, in luzon, a town founded in the sixteenth century by governor francisco sande, in memory of his birthplace in estremadura, but now known even officially as naga, the first work bearing the name of that pueblo--a hand-book of devotions--issued from the press of the sagrada familia, in ; and two years later (in ) the last--a life of st. monica and her son, st. augustine--written, the same as the former, in bícol dialect. .--in , we read the earliest printed samples of malabón art--a poetical tribute of gratitude to our lady of welcome--bien-venida, one of the many titles of the mother of god, so dear to philippine soul, by fructuoso arias camisón, from the orphan-press of our lady of consolation (in care of augustinians). only once, it may be noted, is the name of this pueblo--encountered quite frequently in retana, the same (he says) as tambóbong, written "malabóng," a somewhat unusual form of spelling--employed by manuel sastrón, in his description of batangas, printed in . from several specimens of malabón press-work, now before me, i may observe that, for accuracy in composition, neatness--in brief, of general excellence in workmanship--these samples of the orphanage establishment at malabón would not fail to honor even a philadelphia craftsman. two years ago (in ), just prior to the siege of manila, under the care of two fathers and four lay-brothers of the augustinians, resident at this orphan asylum, one hundred and one lads were being taught the following trades: compositors, press-workers, bookbinders, gilders, candlemakers, while other youngsters, too small for hard work, were, the same as their seniors, given food, clothing, and shelter; [ ] while similarly, at mandaloya orphan asylum for girls, conducted by twenty-two sisters (of the same order), a hundred and twenty-two lassies were taught music (piano), painting, drawing, embroidery, flower-, lace- and dress-making, hair-dressing, laundry-work, and sewing. [ ] but alas! it is feared that through the grim fate of war a like disaster, as has wrecked many another fair shrine of learning and art in countries even nearer our own, has befallen our studios and laboratories at malabón and mandaloya, that therefrom their inmates--orphans, instructors and care-takers are now wanderers, with their treasures ravished, their homes destroyed. .--then we meet with a work printed in , at the revolutionary press at imus, in cavite province, in luzon,--a proclamation (in tagal)--the only imprint bearing the name of this pueblo. .--finally, in , at mandaloyon, or mandaloya (named ahead), an old hacienda of the augustinians in tondo province, in luzon, the morning-paper--la república filipina--began publication with the flag of the new-born republic in colors for heading,--the first journal of the tagal insurgents, that had so much to do in bringing about the downfall of spanish rule in the philippines. before concluding this section on early presses, we may add the references made by retana to other philippine prints than the ones given in his biblioteca. in a former work [ ] he states that by certain writers, whom he names, presses were said to have been established on the isle of luzon, viz: at bacolor in ; macabebe in ; and tayabas in . similarly, he cites two works, named by the franciscan antiquarian huerta as having been printed at manila earlier than the bugarín dictionary--the devocion tagalog in ; and a diccionario in , both (according to huerta) from the press of tomás pinpin, the tagal printer. moreover, under the heading of "manila" and "pinpin," retana gives the dates of several still older imprints than the japanese dictionary of , which in his biblioteca has been accorded the honor of senior of the philippine press. the reason for the omission of these titles in retana's later bibliography, that otherwise would seem unaccountable, is perhaps a doubt as to their genuinity. but why he should fail to mention this flaw in their line of ancestral title, is like many another perplexing problem that the scholar is apt to encounter in his wanderings through the shadowy, albeit delightful and fascinating realm of letters. we now pass on to the question of the introduction of the press into the philippines. v. introduction of printing into the philippines. as regards the introduction of printing itself into that archipelago, wherein (as writers agree) the first press was set to work in the opening years of the seventeenth century, yet there is dispute as to two points,--the precise date, namely, when the printing-press was first established there, and the country whence it was carried to those islands. though in his biblioteca retana inferentially states that the spanish-japanese dictionary of was the earliest philippine imprint, yet in another work of a few years ahead, one of his numerous valuable appendices to zúñiga's travels, [ ] the same author has maintained, rightly and soundly enough it would seem, a wholly different opinion. there he reproduces the title-page of a work printed twenty years earlier, in , which he himself saw in the museo biblioteca de ultramar, whereof the title (he declares) is as follows: arte y reglas | de la lengua | tagala. | por el padre. f. fray francisco de. s. joseph de la | orde de. s. domingo predicador general en la prouincia | de. n. señora del rosario de las islas filipinas. | [here the grand seal of the dominican order (in wood) with this legend:] | mihi avtem ab | sit glorianisi incruce dñi Ñri iesvxpiad--| gal. . | | en el partido de bataan | galo, año de . | substantially the aforesaid title means that the book--a tagal grammar--was composed by father francisco de s. joseph (whose family-name (as otherwise known) was blancas), of the dominican order, preacher-general of his province of our lady of the rosary in the philippines, and printed at bataan, a.d. . [ ] in one of his appendices to zúñiga, [ ] retana affirms that the printer of this arte was the tagal tomás pinpin. why, then, with this sample of early philippine typography before his eyes, presumably yet extant on the shelves of the museo de ultramar, retana (whose interesting description of blancas' arte of will shortly follow) should have deemed it right to omit all mention of it in his latest bibliography, wherein, so far as i can read, there is not the slightest reference to it, seems truly a literary conundrum--one that, for me at least, baffles all power of solution. however, accepting facts in the world of letters, as in the objective universe of god's creation, as they stand, as we see them and know them, with the guidance of retana himself, we now proceed (as promised) to a description of this tagal grammar, the earliest specimen of philippine typography known at least to be extant. blancas' arte is a book printed on rice paper--papel de arroz--with a preface of sixteen unnumbered pages and three hundred and eleven (of text) numbered, that is, three hundred and twenty-seven in all, yet in one instance wrongly paged, since the observant eye of our bibliographer has detected that what really is page in the arte has been printed " ," the body of the grammar thus comprising, not pages, as the printer has made it, but in reality . on the verso of the title (that is, page ) are given various licenses to print, issued among other officials by miguel ruiz of binondoc (an old form apparently for the town now known as binondo), this permit being dated february , . then follow the licenses of father blancas' own provincial superior, dated manila, june , and another official's, whose name (retana says) is missing by reason of the page having been torn, dated from quiapo, on (month too wanting) , of the same year-- --with the former. on the third page, with the date july , , we read the names of several manila church-officers, eight in all, licensing father blancas' arte, among them the dean of the cathedral-chapter of manila, the archdeacon arellano, and pedro de rojas, who, as secretary apparently of that body, adds his attestation to the chapter-action above. from pages to part of is a tagal hymn to the holy virgin, mother of our lord; then following the finale of this hymn, a prayer to god, almighty giver of all intellectual light, for power to be granted his servants to learn of his wisdom and ability to tell it to the tagals. then, following some ancient tagal characters, comes the grammar in chief, which has been printed (as is obvious) [ ] from type, bearing distinct marks of use. wherefore, since we have now concluded retana's description of this arte, we, in turn, may observe--the inference seems lawful--that our bataan press of had been at work before that year, and father blancas' arte is not the earliest philippine imprint. a point made by retana with reference to bataan, place of imprint on the title thereof, is to this effect that instead of bataan, name (he says) of a province, and in olden time of a very unimportant pueblo (known, however, more correctly as "batan"), [ ] one should read abucay, capital of the province of bataan, a far likelier place for the establishment of a printing-office. [ ] so much, then, for the still more ancient work than bugarín's dictionary of . but how much earlier than , date of the tagal arte, or in what part of the philippine archipelago, the press was at work, is a puzzle, that relying on the only authorities bearing in any manner on the priority of the press, we shall now seek to unravel. when referring to this question of early typography [ ] retana declares that there are only two authors that treat of the introduction of the press into the philippines,--one the history of his province (of the holy rosary), which with the philippines embraced also china and japan, by the dominican traveler and missionary, father diego aduarte, whose work, published at manila, in , is the second title in our biblioteca, bearing the name of that city as place of imprint, and the only old-time authority (in print) treating of ancient malaysian typography. the other is a history (published a few years ago) entitled la orden de predicadores, of the dominicans (madrid, ), by a member of that brotherhood, father martínez-vigil, at one time resident at manila, where he held a chair in the university of that city, and now ( ) bishop of oviedo in spain. we shall, therefore, summon these two witnesses in the question in point of primeval philippina. aduarte's reference to early typography [ ] contains substantially the following statements: that living with the fathers of his order (at binondo) was a christian chinese, named juan de vera, a most worthy man, printer by trade, who had learned his art at home, and "the first printer" in the philippines; that moreover he was employed by father blancas in getting out divers hand-books of devotion for the indians, as well as for the missionaries themselves; and that as the said juan was a good worker, always busy at his trade, he printed very many books, among them a memorial of the christian life; book on the postrimerias--that is, the four great last truths--death, judgment, heaven, hell; preparation for communion; confession-book; the mysteries of the rosary; an arte for the tagals, or aid to learn spanish, and the like. such are the titles of some of the books printed at binondo by juan de vera. commenting on the above statements of aduarte, our bibliographer, however, makes this very sensible observation,--the omission, namely, of any positive information on two points of utmost importance to the antiquary and historian,--at what time, that is, was de vera's press set up in the philippines; and whence was it brought to those islands? anent the first press it is noteworthy (according to the unanimous opinion of critics) that it certainly was not carried thither from spain, though maybe sent over from mexico, where printing was established in the early years of the sixteenth century, retana, however, maintaining as likelier that the first printing-outfit introduced into the philippines was brought thither from japan, where (as we otherwise know) a book, the sanctos no gosagueo, or compendium of the lives of the saints, was printed at the jesuit college at katsusa, in . in the same kingdom i find printed (at another jesuit college) at "nangasaki," in , the vocabulario de japón, japanese ancestor of the old bugarín dictionary elsewhere referred to (in this paper) as having been published at manila in . [ ] in japan,--the fact is worth noting,--ten different works were printed in roman characters prior to the year . but let us return to luzon. if aduarte is right in his assertion that juan de vera was "the first printer in the philippines," then the press was at work prior to the year , and the tagal arte (just described) is not the forerunner of philippine imprints. so much for one of retana's oracles. now pass we on to consider the second and only other writer that, with original sources at hand, has treated of this bibliographical problem, father martínez-vigil, who, in the story of his order (named ahead) mentions this fact, that when resident at manila he was shown a very rich codex--a ms.--of over six hundred folios, on chinese paper, in perfect condition, for many reasons (all duly set forth) of unassailable authenticity, and albeit (he remarks) somewhat hard to decipher, except to a palæontologist, yet written with marvelous clearness and neatness of penmanship. in this ms., which (the father says) was written during the years - , besides an account of all notable occurrences in the islands from to , with which latter year the story ends, four years earlier, you should observe, than pinpin's arte of , are also to be read these words: "los que primero imprimieron fueron del órden de san agustín el p. fr. juan de villanueva, algunos tratadillos; mas del órden de sto. domingo el p. fr. francisco de san joseph cosas mayores y de mas tomo el primero que escribió en lengua araya fué de la compañia." whereof, the meaning substantially is, that "the first printers (in the philippines) were of the order of st. augustine, among them father juan de villanueva, publisher of some small treatises--tratadillos; then others of the order of st. dominic, of whom father francisco de san joseph printed works of larger bulk, and was the first of his brethren to write in araya (tagal?)." here then, in these quotations from two dominican monuments--aduarte's history and the ms. (quoted by martínez-vigil), the latter ending with events of the year --you have all that antiquity tells of the introduction of the printing-press into the philippines. to the assertion (in the ms.), relative to the augustinian press, may be appended an item or so in regard to the art-establishment of that order at lubao, in pampanga province in luzon, which i have picked up from one of their chroniclers, gaspar de san agustín, a tagal and visaya linguist, who died, some say at tondo, others at manila, in , after nearly fifty years' mission-service in the islands. in his history (madrid, ), are the following words in reference to lubao convent: "se han celebrado en este convento algunos capitulos intermedios y mucho tiempo huvo estudios menores de gramatica y retorica; y teniamos tambien en él una muy buena imprenta, traida del japón, en que se imprimian muchos libros, assi en la lengua española como pampanga y tagala." [ ] in brief, that is, father gaspar says that "in lubao convent, where the order maintained a school of grammar and rhetoric, there was a press (brought from japan), whereon many books were printed in spanish, pampanga, and tagal." may we not, then, be justified in surmising that this lubao press was the one referred to in the ms. adduced by martínez-vigil, that attributes to augustinians the introduction of typography into the philippines? and, moreover, since the said ancient ms. ends with the year , that this lubao press was at work at a still earlier date? but, enough. with no originals at hand, we feel disinclined to pursue this topic further as to the priority of printing in the islands, nor do we care to press the question, whether, namely, the first book of philippine manufacture was bugarín's dictionary of , blancas' arte of , or the lubao tratadillos of . in our own colonies (we may observe) printing was introduced, first at cambridge in massachusetts, in ; while in pennsylvania the first book printed--an almanac--by william bradford, of philadelphia, is dated , a full half century later, that is, than the introduction of this "art preservative of arts" into malaysia. notes [ ] see his catálogo abreviado de la biblioteca filipina (madrid, ), pp. xxix-xxxi. [ ] these figures are given by retana--a faulty enumeration, however, in that they fail to include all the titles in his work. thus (p. ), instead of a series-number we read four ciphers, to be met with elsewhere the same as his bis mark (pp. , , , ). again méntrida's arte and diccionario of , mentioned twice (nos. , ) have not been entered by retana in his lists; neither has the first edition (tayabas, ,) of santos' tagal dictionary, (pp. , .). in reality then, instead of only titles in his biblioteca, one should count, i venture to guess, at least some twenty or thirty more than are given. [ ] biblioteca, vii-xi. [ ] singularly varied are the names given by writers to this dialect of yap, as bonabe, bonibet, bornabi, funopet, panapee, ponapé, puynipet, while to the french the island itself is known as ascension. (art. "caroline islands," encycl. brit.) [ ] read, however, his observations thereon in full in his estadismo, i, - . the same opinion as to aeta being mother-tongue in the philippines is pronounced also by buzeta, ii, . [ ] throughout this sketch, unless otherwise noted, i follow only spanish authorities. [ ] see the augustinian zúñiga's estadismo ii, * , to which further reference will be made. [ ] estadismo, i, - . [ ] for these usages, see zúñiga, estadismo, i, - . [ ] various heathen rites, practised by these islanders, are described in buzeta (i, , etc.), as well as names of deities, and other enormities of man's distortion of truth. [ ] biblioteca, xxix-xxxi. [ ] relative to this term bahaque, which i have met only once, in the historia franciscana, (parte i, lib. i, cap. ,) is the following description of the black men, the aetas, or negroes, of negros, "andan totalmente desnudos," (the author says,) "y solo traen cubiertas las partes verendas con unos como lienzos, tirantes de atrás á adelante, que se llamen bahaques, los quales hacen de cortesas de arboles majadas con gran tiento, de modo que ay algunos, que parecen lienzo fino; y rodeandose por la cintura un bejúco, en el amarran el bahaque por sus dos extremos." see zúñiga, i, , wherefore, perhaps, the significance of bahaque in the proverb. [ ] retana's appendix g, in zúñiga's estadismo, ii, * . [ ] this quotation is from page of apostolado de la prensa, no. (madrid, ), which locates it in tome xiv, p. , of reclus. [ ] in old spanish chronicles it is a common thing to meet such titles of these indian rulers, as ladia, radia, raxa, and rajá. lacandola was rajah of manila. [ ] the augustinian chronicler, grijalva, is one of the earliest writers to describe this rite, which, according to him, is performed as follows: "la cerimonia se haze, sacando delos pechos delos que contraen la amistad una poca de sangre, y mezelando la una, y la otra en un poco de vino, le veuen por iguales partes los contrayentes." (cronaca del orden, from - , mexico (in the augustinian convent), .) quotation from zúñiga, ii, . from buzeta, i, , it appears that blood-bargain was first entered into by legazpi (in ) at bohol, with chief sicatuna. [ ] from the report of the orphanage for - , in estado general, malabón, . [ ] from the report of the orphanage at mandaloya, in estado (as ahead). [ ] see appendix b, in zúñiga's estadismo, ii, * -* , where retana has given, with a list of the early presses in the philippines, the names of the printers. [ ] zúñiga estadismo, ii, . [ ] provinces of the other friars in malaysia (including the philippines) are entitled as follows: augustinians--most holy name of jesus; franciscans--st. gregory the great; hospitallers--st. raphael archangel; recoletos--st. nicholas of tolentino. [ ] zúñiga estadismo, appendice b, ii, * , * , and * . [ ] thus retana, ii, * (as above). [ ] zúñiga estadismo, ii, * . [ ] id., ii, * -* . [ ] id., ii, * -* . [ ] for the original in full (too long to quote here) see retana in estadismo (as above), ii, * -* , where it covers nearly three pages. [ ] the jesuit mission press in japan. - . by ernest mason satow. [privately printed.] , where you will find reproduced in photographic fac-simile the title-page of the above-named books. [ ] zúñiga, estadismo, ii, * -* . note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/ / / / / / -h.zip) the book-lover's library edited by henry b. wheatley, f.s.a. old cookery books and ancient cuisine by w. carew hazlitt london _the book-lovers library_ was first published in the following styles: no. .--printed on antique paper, in cloth bevelled with rough edges, price s. d. no. .--printed on hand-made paper, in roxburgh, half morocco, with gilt top: only are printed, for sale in england, price s. d. no. .--large paper edition, on hand-made paper; of which copies only are printed, and bound in roxburgh, for sale in england, price £ s. there are a few sets left, and can be had on application to the publisher. introductory man has been distinguished from other animals in various ways; but perhaps there is no particular in which he exhibits so marked a difference from the rest of creation--not even in the prehensile faculty resident in his hand--as in the objection to raw food, meat, and vegetables. he approximates to his inferior contemporaries only in the matter of fruit, salads, and oysters, not to mention wild-duck. he entertains no sympathy with the cannibal, who judges the flavour of his enemy improved by temporary commitment to a subterranean larder; yet, to be sure, he keeps his grouse and his venison till it approaches the condition of spoon-meat. it naturally ensues, from the absence or scantiness of explicit or systematic information connected with the opening stages of such inquiries as the present, that the student is compelled to draw his own inferences from indirect or unwitting allusion; but so long as conjecture and hypothesis are not too freely indulged, this class of evidence is, as a rule, tolerably trustworthy, and is, moreover, open to verification. when we pass from an examination of the state of the question as regarded cookery in very early times among us, before an even more valuable art--that of printing--was discovered, we shall find ourselves face to face with a rich and long chronological series of books on the mystery, the titles and fore-fronts of which are often not without a kind of fragrance and _goût_. as the space allotted to me is limited, and as the sketch left by warner of the convivial habits and household arrangements of the saxons or normans in this island, as well as of the monastic institutions, is more copious than any which i could offer, it may be best to refer simply to his elaborate preface. but it may be pointed out generally that the establishment of the norman sway not only purged of some of their anglo-danish barbarism the tables of the nobility and the higher classes, but did much to spread among the poor a thriftier manipulation of the articles of food by a resort to broths, messes, and hot-pots. in the poorer districts, in normandy as well as in brittany, duke william would probably find very little alteration in the mode of preparing victuals from that which was in use in his day, eight hundred years ago, if (like another arthur) he should return among his ancient compatriots; but in his adopted country he would see that there had been a considerable revolt from the common saucepan--not to add from the pseudo-arthurian bag-pudding; and that the english artisan, if he could get a rump-steak or a leg of mutton once a week, was content to starve on the other six days. those who desire to be more amply informed of the domestic economy of the ancient court, and to study the _minutiae_, into which i am precluded from entering, can easily gratify themselves in the pages of "the ordinances and regulations for the government of the royal household," ; "the northumberland household book;" and the various printed volumes of "privy purse expenses" of royal and great personages, including "the household roll of bishop swinfield ( - )." the late mr. green, in his "history of the english people" ( - , vols. vo), does not seem to have concerned himself about the kitchens or gardens of the nation which he undertook to describe. yet, what conspicuous elements these have been in our social and domestic progress, and what civilising factors! to a proper and accurate appreciation of the cookery of ancient times among ourselves, a knowledge of its condition in other more or less neighbouring countries, and of the surrounding influences and conditions which marked the dawn of the art in england, and its slow transition to a luxurious excess, would be in strictness necessary; but i am tempted to refer the reader to an admirable series of papers which appeared on this subject in barker's "domestic architecture," and were collected in , under the title of "our english home: its early history and progress." in this little volume the author, who does not give his name, has drawn together in a succinct compass the collateral information which will help to render the following pages more luminous and interesting. an essay might be written on the appointments of the table only, their introduction, development, and multiplication. the history and antiquities of the culinary art among the greeks are handled with his usual care and skill by m.j.a. st. john in his "manners and customs of ancient greece," ; and in the _biblia_ or hebrew scriptures we get an indirect insight into the method of cooking from the forms of sacrifice. the earliest legend which remains to us of hellenic gastronomy is associated with cannibalism. it is the story of pelops--an episode almost pre-homeric, where a certain rudimentary knowledge of dressing flesh, and even of disguising its real nature, is implied in the tale, as it descends to us; and the next in order of times is perhaps the familiar passage in the _odyssey_, recounting the adventures of odysseus and his companions in the cave of polyphemus. here, again, we are introduced to a rude society of cave-dwellers, who eat human flesh, if not as an habitual diet, yet not only without reluctance, but with relish and enjoyment. the _phagetica_ of ennius, of which fragments remain, seems to be the most ancient treatise of the kind in roman literature. it is supposed to relate an account of edible fishes; but in a complete state the work may very well have amounted to a general manual on the subject. in relation even to homer, the _phagetica_ is comparatively modern, following the _odyssey_ at a distance of some six centuries; and in the interval it is extremely likely that anthropophagy had become rarer among the greeks, and that if they still continued to be cooking animals, they were relinquishing the practice of cooking one another. mr. ferguson, again, has built on athenaeus and other authorities a highly valuable paper on "the formation of the palate," and the late mr. coote, in the forty-first volume of "archaeologia," has a second on the "cuisine bourgeoise" of ancient rome. these two essays, with the "fairfax inventories" communicated to the forty-eighth volume of the "archaeologia" by mr. peacock, cover much of the ground which had been scarcely traversed before by any scientific english inquirer. the importance of an insight into the culinary economy of the romans lies in the obligations under which the more western nations of europe are to it for nearly all that they at first knew upon the subject. the romans, on their part, were borrowers in this, as in other, sciences from greece, where the arts of cookery and medicine were associated, and were studied by physicians of the greatest eminence; and to greece these mysteries found their way from oriental sources. but the school of cookery which the romans introduced into britain was gradually superseded in large measure by one more agreeable to the climate and physical demands of the people; and the free use of animal food, which was probably never a leading feature in the diet of the italians as a community, and may be treated as an incidence of imperial luxury, proved not merely innocuous, but actually beneficial to a more northerly race. so little is to be collected--in the shape of direct testimony, next to nothing--of the domestic life of the britons--that it is only by conjecture that one arrives at the conclusion that the original diet of our countrymen consisted of vegetables, wild fruit, the honey of wild bees--which is still extensively used in this country,--a coarse sort of bread, and milk. the latter was evidently treated as a very precious article of consumption, and its value was enhanced by the absence of oil and the apparent want of butter. mr. ferguson supposes, from some remains of newly-born calves, that our ancestors sacrificed the young of the cow rather than submit to a loss of the milk; but it was, on the contrary, an early superstition, and may be, on obvious grounds, a fact, that the presence of the young increased the yield in the mother, and that the removal of the calf was detrimental. the italian invaders augmented and enriched the fare, without, perhaps, materially altering its character; and the first decided reformation in the mode of living here was doubtless achieved by the saxon and danish settlers; for those in the south, who had migrated hither from the low countries, ate little flesh, and indeed, as to certain animals, cherished, according to caesar, religious scruples against it. it was to the hunting tribes, who came to us from regions even bleaker and more exacting than our own, that the southern counties owed the taste for venison and a call for some nourishment more sustaining than farinaceous substances, green stuff and milk, as well as a gradual dissipation of the prejudice against the hare, the goose, and the hen as articles of food, which the "commentaries" record. it is characteristic of the nature of our nationality, however, that while the anglo-saxons and their successors refused to confine themselves to the fare which was more or less adequate to the purposes of archaic pastoral life in this island, they by no means renounced their partiality for farm and garden produce, but by a fusion of culinary tastes and experiences akin to fusion of race and blood, laid the basis of the splendid _cuisine_ of the plantagenet and tudor periods. our cookery is, like our tongue, an amalgam. but the roman historian saw little or nothing of our country except those portions which lay along or near the southern coast; the rest of his narrative was founded on hearsay; and he admits that the people in the interior--those beyond the range of his personal knowledge, more particularly the northern tribes and the scots--were flesh-eaters, by which he probably intends, not consumers of cattle, but of the venison, game, and fish which abounded in their forests and rivers. the various parts of this country were in caesar's day, and very long after, more distinct from each other for all purposes of communication and intercourse than we are now from spain or from switzerland; and the foreign influences which affected the south britons made no mark on those petty states which lay at a distance, and whose diet was governed by purely local conditions. the dwellers northward were by nature hunters and fishermen, and became only by act of parliament poachers, smugglers, and illicit distillers; the province of the male portion of the family was to find food for the rest; and a pair of spurs laid on an empty trencher was well understood by the goodman as a token that the larder was empty and replenishable. there are new books on all subjects, of which it is comparatively easy within a moderate compass to afford an intelligible, perhaps even a sufficient, account. but there are others which i, for my part, hesitate to touch, and which do not seem to be amenable to the law of selection. "studies in nidderland," by mr. joseph lucas, is one of these. it was a labour of love, and it is full of records of singular survivals to our time of archaisms of all descriptions, culinary and gardening utensils not forgotten. there is one point, which i may perhaps advert to, and it is the square of wood with a handle, which the folk in that part of yorkshire employed, in lieu of the ladle, for stirring, and the stone ovens for baking, which, the author tells us, occur also in a part of surrey. but the volume should be read as a whole. we have of such too few. under the name of a roman epicure, coelius apicius, has come down to us what may be accepted as the most ancient european "book of cookery." i think that the idea widely entertained as to this work having proceeded from the pen of a man, after whom it was christened, has no more substantial basis than a theory would have that the "arabian nights" were composed by haroun al raschid. warner, in the introduction to his "antiquitates culinariae," , adduces as a specimen of the rest two receipts from this collection, shewing how the roman cook of the apician epoch was wont to dress a hog's paunch, and to manufacture sauce for a boiled chicken. of the three persons who bore the name, it seems to be thought most likely that the one who lived under trajan was the true godfather of the culinary manual. one of massinger's characters (holdfast) in the "city madam," , is made to charge the gourmets of his time with all the sins of extravagance perpetrated in their most luxurious and fantastic epoch. the object was to amuse the audience; but in england no "court gluttony," much less country christmas, ever saw buttered eggs which had cost £ , or pies of carps' tongues, or pheasants drenched with ambergris, or sauce for a peacock made of the gravy of three fat wethers, or sucking pigs at twenty marks each. both apicius and our joe miller died within £ , of being beggars--miller something the nigher to that goal; and there was this community of insincerity also, that neither really wrote the books which carry their names. miller could not make a joke or understand one when anybody else made it. his roman foregoer, who would certainly never have gone for his dinner to clare market, relished good dishes, even if he could not cook them. it appears not unlikely that the romish clergy, whose monastic vows committed them to a secluded life, were thus led to seek some compensation for the loss of other worldly pleasures in those of the table; and that, when one considers the luxury of the old abbeys, one ought to recollect at the same time, that it was perhaps in this case as it was in regard to letters and the arts, and that we are under a certain amount of obligation to the monks for modifying the barbarism of the table, and encouraging a study of gastronomy. there are more ways to fame than even horace suspected. the road to immortality is not one but manifold. a man can but do what he can. as the poet writes and the painter fills with his inspiration the mute and void canvas, so doth the cook his part. there was formerly apopular work in france entitled "le cuisinier royal," by mm. viard and fouret, who describe themselves as "hommes de bouche." the twelfth edition lies before me, a thick octavo volume, dated . the title-page is succeeded by an anonymous address to the reader, at the foot of which occurs a peremptory warning to pilferers of dishes or parts thereof; in other words, to piratical invaders of the copyright of monsieur barba. there is a preface equally unclaimed by signatures or initials, but as it is in the singular number the two _hommes de bouche_ can scarcely have written it; perchance it was m. barba aforesaid, lord-proprietor of these not-to-be-touched treasures; but anyhow the writer had a very solemn feeling of the debt which he had conferred on society by making the contents public for the twelfth time, and he concludes with a mixture of sentiments, which it is very difficult to define: "dans la paix de ma conscience, non moins que dans l'orgueil d'avoir si honorablement rempli cette importante mission, je m'ecrierai avec le poete des gourmands et des amoureux: "exegi monumentum aere perennius non omnis moriar." the early englishman and his food. william of malmesbury particularly dwells on the broad line of distinction still existing between the southern english and the folk of the more northerly districts in his day, twelve hundred years after the visit of caesar. he says that they were then (about a.d. ) as different as if they had been different races; and so in fact they were--different in their origin, in their language, and their diet. in his "folk-lore relics of early village life," , mr. gomme devotes a chapter to "early domestic customs," and quotes henry's "history of great britain" for a highly curious clue to the primitive mode of dressing food, and partaking of it, among the britons. among the anglo-saxons the choice of poultry and game was fairly wide. alexander neckani, in his "treatise on utensils (twelfth century)" gives fowls, cocks, peacocks, the cock of the wood (the woodcock, not the capercailzie), thrushes, pheasants, and several more; and pigeons were only too plentiful. the hare and the rabbit were well enough known, and with the leveret form part of an enumeration of wild animals (_animalium ferarum_) in a pictorial vocabulary of the fifteenth century. but in the very early accounts or lists, although they must have soon been brought into requisition, they are not specifically cited as current dishes. how far this is attributable to the alleged repugnance of the britons to use the hare for the table, as caesar apprises us that they kept it only _voluptatis causâ_, it is hard to say; but the way in which the author of the "commentaries" puts it induces the persuasion that by _lepus_ he means not the hare, but the rabbit, as the former would scarcely be domesticated. neckam gives very minute directions for the preparation of pork for the table. he appears to have considered that broiling on the grill was the best way; the gridiron had supplanted the hot stones or bricks in more fashionable households, and he recommends a brisk fire, perhaps with an eye to the skilful development of the crackling. he died without the happiness of bringing his archi-episcopal nostrils in contact with the sage and onions of wiser generations, and thinks that a little salt is enough. but, as we have before explained, neckam prescribed for great folks. these refinements were unknown beyond the precincts of the palace and the castle. in the ancient cookery-book, the "menagier de paris," , which offers numerous points of similarity to our native culinary lore, the resources of the cuisine are represented as amplified by receipts for dressing hedgehogs, squirrels, magpies, and jackdaws--small deer, which the english experts did not affect, although i believe that the hedgehog is frequently used to this day by country folk, both here and abroad, and in india. it has white, rabbit-like flesh. in an eleventh century vocabulary we meet with a tolerably rich variety of fish, of which the consumption was relatively larger in former times. the saxons fished both with the basket and the net. among the fish here enumerated are the whale (which was largely used for food), the dolphin, porpoise, crab, oyster, herring, cockle, smelt, and eel. but in the supplement to alfric's vocabulary, and in another belonging to the same epoch, there are important additions to this list: the salmon, the trout, the lobster, the bleak, with the whelk and other shell-fish. but we do not notice the turbot, sole, and many other varieties, which became familiar in the next generation or so. the turbot and sole are indeed included in the "treatise on utensils" of neckam, as are likewise the lamprey (of which king john is said to have been very fond), bleak, gudgeon, conger, plaice, limpet, ray, and mackerel. the fifteenth century, if i may judge from a vocabulary of that date in wright's collection, acquired a much larger choice of fish, and some of the names approximate more nearly to those in modern use. we meet with the sturgeon, the whiting, the roach, the miller's thumb, the thomback, the codling, the perch, the gudgeon, the turbot, the pike, the tench, and the haddock. it is worth noticing also that a distinction was now drawn between the fisherman and the fishmonger--the man who caught the fish and he who sold it--_piscator_ and _piscarius_; and in the vocabulary itself the leonine line is cited: "piscator prendit, quod piscarius bene vendit." the whale was considerably brought into requisition for gastronomic purposes. it was found on the royal table, as well as on that of the lord mayor of london. the cook either roasted it, and served it up on the spit, or boiled it and sent it in with peas; the tongue and the tail were favourite parts. the porpoise, however, was brought into the hall whole, and was carved or _under-tranched_ by the officer in attendance. it was eaten with mustard. the _pièce de résistance_ at a banquet which wolsey gave to some of his official acquaintances in , was a young porpoise, which had cost eight shillings; it was on the same occasion that his eminence partook of strawberries and cream, perhaps; he is reported to have been the person who made that pleasant combination fashionable. the grampus, or sea-wolf, was another article of food which bears testimony to the coarse palate of the early englishman, and at the same time may afford a clue to the partiality for disguising condiments and spices. but it appears from an entry in his privy purse expenses, under september , , that henry the seventh thought a porpoise a valuable commodity and a fit dish for an ambassador, for on that date twenty-one shillings were paid to cardinal morton's servant, who had procured one for some envoy then in london, perhaps the french representative, who is the recipient of a complimentary gratuity of £ s. on april , , at his departure from england. in the fifteenth century the existing stock of fish for culinary purposes received, if we may trust the vocabularies, a few accessions; as, for instance, the bream, the skate, the flounder, and the bake. in "piers of fulham ( th century)," we hear of the good store of fat eels imported into england from the low countries, and to be had cheap by anyone who watched the tides; but the author reprehends the growing luxury of using the livers of young fish before they were large enough to be brought to the table. the most comprehensive catalogue of fish brought to table in the time of charles i. is in a pamphlet of , inserted among my "fugitive tracts," ; and includes the oyster, which used to be eaten at breakfast with wine, the crab, lobster, sturgeon, salmon, ling, flounder, plaice, whiting, sprat, herring, pike, bream, roach, dace, and eel. the writer states that the sprat and herring were used in lent. the sound of the stock-fish, boiled in wort or thin ale till they were tender, then laid on a cloth and dried, and finally cut into strips, was thought a good receipt for book-glue. an acquaintance is in possession of an old cookery-book which exhibits the gamut of the fish as it lies in the frying-pan, reducing its supposed lament to musical notation. here is an ingenious refinement and a delicate piece of irony, which walton and cotton might have liked to forestall. the th century _nominale_ enriches the catalogue of dishes then in vogue. it specifies almond-milk, rice, gruel, fish-broth or soup, a sort of _fricassee_ of fowl, collops, a pie, a pasty, a tart, a tartlet, a charlet (minced pork), apple-juice, a dish called jussell made of eggs and grated bread with seasoning of sage and saffron, and the three generic heads of sod or boiled, roast, and fried meats. in addition to the fish-soup, they had wine-soup, water-soup, ale-soup; and the flawn is reinforced by the _froise_. instead of one latin equivalent for a pudding, it is of moment to record that there are now three: nor should we overlook the rasher and the sausage. it is the earliest place where we get some of our familiar articles of diet--beef, mutton, pork, veal--under their modern names; and about the same time such terms present themselves as "a broth," "a browis," "a pottage," "a mess." of the dishes which have been specified, the _froise_ corresponded to an _omelette au lard_ of modern french cookery, having strips of bacon in it. the tansy was an omelette of another description, made chiefly with eggs and chopped herbs. as the former was a common dish in the monasteries, it is not improbable that it was one grateful to the palate. in lydgate's "story of thebes," a sort of sequel to the "canterbury tales," the pilgrims invite the poet to join the supper-table, where there were these tasty omelettes: moile, made of marrow and grated bread, and haggis, which is supposed to be identical with the scottish dish so called. lydgate, who belonged to the monastery of bury st. edmunds, doubtless set on the table at canterbury some of the dainties with which he was familiar at home; and this practice, which runs through all romantic and imaginative literature, constitutes, in our appreciation, its principal worth. we love and cherish it for its very sins against chronological and topographical fitness--its contempt of all unities. men transferred local circumstances and a local colouring to their pictures of distant countries and manners. they argued the unknown from what they saw under their own eyes. they portrayed to us what, so far as the scenes and characters of their story went, was undeceivingly false, but what on the contrary, had it not been so, would never have been unveiled respecting themselves and their time. the expenditure on festive occasions seems, from some of the entries in the "northumberland household book," to present a strong contrast to the ordinary dietary allowed to the members of a noble and wealthy household, especially on fish days, in the earlier tudor era ( ). the noontide breakfast provided for the percy establishment was of a very modest character: my lord and my lady had, for example, a loaf of bread, two manchets (loaves of finer bread), a quart of beer and one of wine, two pieces of salt fish, and six baked herrings or a dish of sprats. my lord percy and master thomas percy had half a loaf of household bread, a manchet, a pottle of beer, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish, and a dish of sprats or three white herrings; and the nursery breakfast for my lady margaret and master ingram percy was much the same. but on flesh days my lord and lady fared better, for they had a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer and the same of wine, and half a chine of mutton or boiled beef; while the nursery repast consisted of a manchet, a quart of beer, and three boiled mutton breasts; and so on: whence it is deducible that in the percy family, perhaps in all other great houses, the members and the ladies and gentlemen in waiting partook of their earliest meal apart in their respective chambers, and met only at six to dine or sup. the beer, which was an invariable part of the _menu_, was perhaps brewed from hops which, according to harrison elsewhere quoted, were, after a long discontinuance, again coming into use about this time. but it would be a light-bodied drink which was allotted to the consumption at all events of masters thomas and ingram percy, and even of my lady margaret. it is clearly not irrelevant to my object to correct the general impression that the great families continued throughout the year to support the strain which the system of keeping open house must have involved. for, as warner has stated, there were intervals during which the aristocracy permitted themselves to unbend, and shook off the trammels imposed on them by their social rank and responsibility. this was known as "keeping secret house," or, in other words, my lord became for a season incognito, and retired to one of his remoter properties for relaxation and repose. our kings in some measure did the same; for they held their revels only, as a rule, at stated times and places. william i. is said to have kept his easter at winchester, his whitsuntide at westminster, and his christmas at gloucester. even these antique grandees had to work on some plan. it could not be all mirth and jollity. a recital of some of the articles on sale in a baker's or confectioner's shop in , occurs in newbery's "dives pragmaticus": simnels, buns, cakes, biscuits, comfits, caraways, and cracknels: and this is the first occurrence of the bun that i have hitherto been able to detect. the same tract supplies us with a few other items germane to my subject: figs, almonds, long pepper, dates, prunes, and nutmegs. it is curious to watch how by degrees the kitchen department was furnished with articles which nowadays are viewed as the commonest necessaries of life. in the th century the increased communication with the continent made us by degrees larger partakers of the discoveries of foreign cooks. noblemen and gentlemen travelling abroad brought back with them receipts for making the dishes which they had tasted in the course of their tours. in the "compleat cook," and , the beneficial operation of actual experience of this kind, and of the introduction of such books as the "receipts for dutch victual" and "epulario, or the italian banquet," to english readers and students, is manifest enough; for in the latter volume we get such entries as these: "to make a portugal dish;" "to make a virginia dish;" "a persian dish;" "a spanish olio;" and then there are receipts "to make a posset the earl of arundel's way;" "to make the lady abergavenny's cheese;" "the jacobin's pottage;" "to make mrs. leeds' cheesecakes;" "the lord conway his lordship's receipt for the making of amber puddings;" "the countess of rutland's receipt of making the rare banbury cake, which was so much praised as her daughter's (the right honourable lady chaworth) pudding," and "to make poor knights"--the last a medley in which bread, cream, and eggs were the leading materials. warner, however, in the "additional notes and observations" to his "antiquitates culinariae," , expresses himself adversely to the foreign systems of cookery from an english point of view. "notwithstanding," he remarks, "the partiality of our countrymen to french cookery, yet that mode of disguising meat in this kingdom (except perhaps in the hottest part of the hottest season of the year) is an absurdity. it is _here_ the art of _spoiling good meat_. the same art, indeed, in the south of france; where the climate is much warmer, and the flesh of the animal lean and insipid, is highly valuable; it is the art of making _bad meat eatable_." at the same time, he acknowledges the superior thrift and intelligence of the french cooks, and instances the frog and the horse. "the frog is considered in this country as a disgusting animal, altogether unfit for the purposes of the kitchen; whereas, by the efforts of french cookery, the thighs of this little creature are converted into a delicate and estimable dish." so sings, too (save the mark!), _our_ charles lamb, so far back as , after his visit to paris. it seems that in elizabeth's reign a _powdered_, or pickled horse was considered a suitable dish by a french general entertaining at dinner some english officers. it is difficult to avoid an impression that warner has some reason, when he suggests that the immoderate use of condiments was brought to us by the dwellers under a higher temperature, and was not really demanded in such a climate as that of england, where meat can be kept sweet in ordinary seasons, much longer even than in france or in italy. but let us bear in mind, too, how different from our own the old english _cuisine_ was, and how many strange beasts calling for lubricants it comprehended within its range. an edifying insight into the old scottish _cuisine_ among people of the better sort is afforded by fynes morisoh, in his description of a stay at a knight's house in north britain in . "myself," he says, "was at a knight's house, who had many servants to attend him, that brought in his meat with their heads covered with blue caps, the table being more than half furnished with great platters of porridge, each having a little piece of sodden meat; and when the tables were served, the servants did sit down with us; but the upper mess, instead of porridge, had a pullet with some prunes in the broth. and i observed no art of cookery, or furniture of household stuff, but rather rude neglect of both, though myself and my companion, sent by the governor of berwick upon bordering affairs, were entertained in the best manner. the scots ... vulgarly eat hearth-cakes of oats, but in cities have also wheaten bread, which, for the most part, was bought by courtiers, gentlemen, and the best sort of citizens. when i lived at berwick, the scots weekly upon the market day _obtained leave in writing of the governor_ to buy peas and beans, whereof, as also of wheat, their merchants to this day ( ) send great quantities from london into scotland. they drink pure wine, not with sugar, as the english, yet at feasts they put comfits in the wine, after the french manner: but they had not our vintners' fraud to mix their wines." he proceeds to say that he noticed no regular inns, with signs hanging out, but that private householders would entertain passengers on entreaty, or where acquaintance was claimed. the last statement is interestingly corroborated by the account which taylor the water-poet printed in of his journey to scotland, and which he termed his "penniless pilgrimage or moneyless perambulation," in the course of which he purports to have depended entirely on private hospitality. a friend says: "the scotch were long very poor. only their fish, oatmeal, and whiskey kept them alive. fish was very cheap." this remark sounds the key-note of a great english want--cheaper fish. of meat we already eat enough, or too much; but of fish we might eat more, if it could be brought at a low price to our doors. it is a noteworthy collateral fact that in the lord mayor of london's pageant of there is a representation of the double advantage which would accrue if the unemployed poor were engaged to facilitate and cheapen the supply of fish to the city; and here we are, three centuries forward, with the want still very imperfectly answered. besides the bread and oatmeal above named, the bannock played its part. "the land o' cakes" was more than a trim and pretty phrase: there was in it a deep eloquence; it marked a wide national demand and supply. the "penny magazine" for has a good and suggestive paper on "feasts and entertainments," with extracts from some of the early dramatists and a woodcut of "a new french cook, to devise fine kickshaws and toys." one curious point is brought out here in the phrase "boiled _jiggets_ of mutton," which shews that the french _gigot_ for a leg of mutton was formerly in use here. like many other gallicisms, it lingered in scotland down to our own time. the cut of the french cook above mentioned is a modern composition; and indeed some of the excerpts from ben jonson and other writers are of an extravagant and hyperbolical cast,--better calculated to amuse an audience than to instruct the student. mr. lucas remarks: "it is probable that we are more dependent upon animal food than we used to be. in their early days, the present generation of dalesmen fed almost exclusively upon oatmeal; either as 'hasty-pudding,'--that is, scotch oatmeal which had been _ground over again_, so as to be nearly as fine as flour;... or 'lumpy,'--that is, boiled quickly and not thoroughly stirred; or else in one of the three kinds of cake which they call 'fermented,' viz., 'riddle cake,' 'held-on cake,' or 'turn-down cake,' which is made from oatcake batter poured on the 'bak' ston'' from the ladle, and then spread with the back of the ladle. it does not rise like an oatcake. or of a fourth kind called 'clap cake.' they also made 'tiffany cakes' of wheaten flour, which was separated from the bran by being worked through a hair-sieve _tiffany_, or _temse_:--south of england _tammy_,--with a brush called the _brush shank_." royal feasts and savage pomp. in rose's "school of instructions for the officers of the mouth," , the staff of a great french establishment is described as a master of the household, a master carver, a master butler, a master confectioner, a master cook, and a master pastryman. the author, who was himself one of the cooks in our royal kitchen, tells sir stephen fox, to whom he dedicates his book, that he had entered on it after he had completed one of a very different nature: "the theatre of the world, or a prospect of human misery." at the time that the "school of instructions" was written, the french and ourselves had both progressed very greatly in the art of cookery and in the development of the _menu_. delahay street, westminster, near bird-cage walk, suggests a time when a hedge ran along the western side of it towards the park, in lieu of brick or stone walls; but the fact is that we have here a curious association with the office, just quoted from rose, of master confectioner. for of the plot of ground on which the street, or at any rate a portion of it stands, the old proprieter was peter delahaye, master confectioner of charles ii. at the very period of the publication of rose's book. his name occurs in the title-deeds of one of the houses on the park side, which since his day has had only five owners, and has been, since , the freehold of an old and valued friend of the present writer. it may be worth pointing out, that the confectionery and pastry were two distinct departments, each with its superintendent and staff. the fondness for confections had spread from italy--which itself in turn borrowed the taste from the east--to france and england; and, as we perceive from the descriptions furnished in books, these were often of a very elaborate and costly character. the volume is of the less interest for us, as it is a translation from the french, and consequently does not throw a direct light on our own kitchens at this period. but of course collaterally it presents many features of likeness and analogy, and may be compared with braithwaite's earlier view to which i shall presently advert. the following anecdote is given in the epistle to fox: "many do believe the french way of working is cheapest; but let these examine this book, and then they may see (for their satisfaction) which is the best husbandry, to extract gold out of herbs, or to make a pottage of a stone, by the example of two soldiers, who in their quarters were minded to have a pottage; the first of them coming into a house and asking for all things necessary to the making of one, was as soon told that he could have none of these things there, whereupon he went away, and the other coming in with a stone in his knap-sack, asked only for a pot to boil his stone in, that he might make a dish of broth of it for his supper, which was quickly granted him; and when the stone had boiled a little while, then he asked for a small bit of beef, then for a piece of mutton, and so for veal, bacon, etc., till by little and little he got all things requisite, and he made an excellent pottage of his stone, at as cheap a rate (it may be) as the cook extracted gold from herbs." the kitchen-staff of a noble establishment in the first quarter of the seventeenth century we glean from braithwaite's "rules and orders for the government of the house of an earl," which, if the "m.l." for whom the piece was composed was his future wife, mistress lawson, cannot have seen the light later than , in which year they were married. he specifies--( ) a yeoman and groom for the cellar; ( ) a yeoman and groom for the pantry; ( ) a yeoman and groom for the buttery; ( a) a yeoman for the ewery; ( ) a yeoman purveyor; ( ) a master-cook, under-cooks, and three pastry-men; ( ) a yeoman and groom in the scullery, one to be in the larder and slaughter-house; ( ) an achator or buyer; ( ) three conducts [query, errand-boys] and three kitchen-boys. the writer also admits us to a rather fuller acquaintance with the mode in which the marketing was done. he says that the officers, among other matters, "must be able to judge, not only of the prices, but also of the goodness of all kinds of corn, cattle, and household provisions; and the better to enable themselves thereto, are oftentimes to ride to fairs and great markets, and there to have conference with graziers and purveyors." the higher officers were to see that the master was not deceived by purveyors and buyers, and that other men's cattle did not feed on my lord's pastures; they were to take care that the clerk of the kitchen kept his day-book "in that perfect and good order, that at the end of every week or month it be pied out," and that a true docket of all kinds of provisions be set down. they were to see that the powdered and salted meats in the larder were properly kept; and vigilant supervision was to be exercised over the cellar, buttery, and other departments, even to the prevention of paring the tallow lights. braithwaite dedicates a section to each officer; but i have only space to transcribe, by way of sample, the opening portion of his account of "the officer of the kitchen:" "the master-cook should be a man of years; well-experienced, whereby the younger cooks will be drawn the better to obey his directions. in ancient times noblemen contented themselves to be served with such as had been bred in their own houses, but of late times none could please some but italians and frenchmen, or at best brought up in the court, or under london cooks: nor would the old manner of baking, boiling, and roasting please them, but the boiled meats must be after the french fashion, the dishes garnished about with sugar and preserved plums, the meat covered over with orangeade, preserved lemons, and with divers other preserved and conserved stuff fetched from the confectioner's: more lemons and sugar spent in boiling fish to serve at one meal than might well serve the whole expense of the house in a day." he goes on to describe and ridicule the new fashion of placing arms and crests on the dishes. it seems that all the refuse was the perquisite of the cook and his subordinates in a regulated proportion, and the same in the bakery and other branches; but, as may be supposed, in these matters gross abuses were committed. in the "leisure hour" for was printed a series of papers on "english homes in the olden times." the eleventh deals with service and wages, and is noticed here because it affords a recital of the orders made for his household by john harington the elder in , and renewed by john harington the younger, his son and high sheriff of somersetshire, in . this code of domestic discipline for an elizabethan establishment comprises the observance of decorum and duty at table, and is at least as valuable and curious as those metrical canons and precepts which form the volume (babees' book) edited for the early english text society, etc. there is rather too general a dislike on the part of antiquaries to take cognisance of matter inserted in popular periodicals upon subjects of an archaeological character; but of course the loose and flimsy treatment which this class of topics as a rule receives in the light literature of the day makes it perilous to use information so forthcoming in evidence or quotation. articles must be rendered palatable to the general reader, and thus become worthless for all readers alike. most of the early descriptions and handbooks of instruction turn, naturally enough, on the demands and enjoyments of the great. there is in the treatise of walter de bibblesworth ( th century) a very interesting and edifying account of the arrangement of courses for some important banquet. the boar's head holds the place of honour in the list, and venison follows, and various dishes of roast. among the birds to be served up we see cranes, peacocks, swans, and wild geese; and of the smaller varieties, fieldfares, plovers, and larks. there were wines; but the writer only particularises them as white and red. the haunch of venison was then an ordinary dish, as well as kid. they seem to have sometimes roasted and sometimes boiled them. not only the pheasant and partridge appear, but the quail,--which is at present scarcer in this country, though so plentiful abroad,--the duck, and the mallard. in connection with venison, it is worth while to draw attention to a passage in the "privy purse expenses of henry vii" where, under date of august , , a woman receives s. _d_. for clarifying deer suet for the king. this was not for culinary but for medicinal purposes, as it was then, and much later, employed as an ointment. both william i. and his son the red king maintained, as warner shews us, a splendid table; and we have particulars of the princely scale on which an abbot of canterbury celebrated his installation in . the archbishops of those times, if they exercised inordinate authority, at any rate dispensed in a magnificent manner among the poor and infirm a large portion of their revenues. they stood in the place of corporations and poor law guardians. their very vices were not without a certain fascinating grandeur; and the pleasures of the table in which our plantagenet rulers outstripped even their precursors, the earlier sovereigns of that line, were enhanced and multiplied by the crusades, by the commencing spirit of discovery, and by the foreign intermarriages, which became so frequent. a far more thorough conquest than that which the day of hastings signalised was accomplished by an army of a more pacific kind, which crossed the channel piecemeal, bringing in their hands, not bows and swords, but new dishes and new wines. these invaders of our soil were doubtless welcomed as benefactors by the proud nobles of the courts of edward ii. and richard ii., as well as by royalty itself; and the descriptions which have been preserved of the banquets held on special occasions in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and even of the ordinary style of living of some, make our city feasts of to-day shrink into insignificance. but we must always remember that the extravagant luxury and hospitality of the old time were germane and proper to it, component parts of the social framework. it is to be remarked that some of the most disturbed and disastrous epochs in our annals are those to which we have to go for records of the greatest exploits in gastronomy and lavish expenditure of public money on comparatively unprofitable objects. during the period from the accession of rufus to the death of henry iii., and again under the rule of richard ii., the taste for magnificent parade and sumptuous entertainments almost reached its climax. the notion of improving the condition of the poor had not yet dawned on the mind of the governing class; to make the artizan and the operative self-supporting and self-respectful was a movement not merely unformulated, but a conception beyond the parturient faculty of a member of the jacquerie. the king, prince, bishop, noble, of unawakened england met their constituents at dinner in a fashion once or twice in a lifetime, and when the guests below the salt had seen the ways of greatness, they departed to fulfil their several callings. these were political demonstrations with a clear and (for the age) not irrational object; but for the modern public dinner, over which i should be happy to preach the funeral sermon, there is not often this or any other plea. the redistribution of wealth and its diversion into more fruitful channels has already done something for the people; and in the future that lies before some of us they will do vastly more. all augaea will be flushed out. in some of these superb feasts, such as that at the marriage of henry iv. in , there were two series of courses, three of meat, and three of fish and sweets; in which we see our present fashion to a certain extent reversed. but at the coronation of henry v. in , only three courses were served, and those mixed. the taste for what were termed "subtleties," had come in, and among the dishes at this latter entertainment occur, "a pelican sitting on her nest with her young," and "an image of st. catherine holding a book and disputing with the doctors." these vagaries became so common, that few dinners of importance were accounted complete without one or more. one of the minor "subtleties" was a peacock in full panoply. the bird was first skinned, and the feathers, tail, head and neck having been laid on a table, and sprinkled with cummin, the body was roasted, glazed with raw egg-yolk, and after being left to cool, was sewn back again into the skin and so brought to table as the last course. in , at the enthronement of archbishop nevile, no fewer than peacocks were dressed. the most extraordinary display of fish at table on a single occasion took place at the enthronement feast of archbishop warham in ; it occurred on a fast day; and consequently no meat, poultry or game was included in the _menu_, but ample compensation was found in the lavish assortment of confectionery, spices, beer and wine. of wine of various vintages there were upwards of pipes, and of ale and beer, thirty tuns, including four of london and six of kentish ale. the narratives which have descended to us of the prodigious banquets given on special occasions by our early kings, prelates and nobles, are apt to inspire the general reader with an admiration of the splendid hospitality of bygone times. but, as i have already suggested, these festivities were occasional and at long intervals, and during the intervening space the great ones and the small ones of mediaeval and early england did not indulge in this riotous sort of living, but "kept secret house," as it was called, both after their own fashion. the extremes of prodigality and squalor were more strongly marked among the poorer classes while this country was in a semi-barbarous condition, and even the aristocracy by no means maintained the same domestic state throughout the year as their modern representatives. there are not those ostentatious displays of wealth and generosity, which used to signalise certain political events, such as the coronation of a monarch or the enthronement of a primate; the mode of living has grown more uniform and consistent, since between the vilain and his lord has interposed himself the middle-class englishman, with a hand held out to either. a few may not spend so much, but as a people we spend more on our table. a good dinner to a shepherd or a porter was formerly more than a nine days' wonder; it was like a beacon seen through a mist. but now he is better fed, clothed and housed than the bold baron, whose serf he would have been in the good old days; and the bold baron, on his part, no longer keeps secret house unless he chooses, and observes, if a more monotonous, a more secure and comfortable tenor of life. this change is of course due to a cause which lies very near the surface--to the gradual effacement of the deeply-cut separating lines between the orders of society, and the stealthy uprise of the class, which is fast gathering all power into its own hands. cookery books part . the first attempt to illustrate this branch of the art must have been made by alexander neckam in the twelfth century; at least i am not aware of any older treatise in which the furniture and apparatus of a kitchen are set forth. but it is needless to say that neckam merely dealt with a theme, which had been familiar many centuries before his time, and compiled his treatise, "de utensilibus," as bishop alfric had his earlier "colloquy," with an educational, not a culinary, object, and with a view to facilitate the knowledge of latin among his scholars. it is rather interesting to know that he was a native of st. albans, where he was born in . he died in , so that the composition of this work of his (one of many) may be referred to the close of the twelfth century. its value is, in a certain sense, impaired by the almost complete absence of english terms; latin and (so called) norman-french being the languages almost exclusively employed in it. but we have good reason indeed to be grateful for such a legacy in any shape, and when we consider the tendency of ways of life to pass unchanged from one generation to another, and when we think how many archaic and (to our apprehension) almost barbarous fashions and forms in domestic management lingered within living recollection, it will not be hazarding much after all to presume that the particulars so casually supplied to us by neckam have an application alike before and after. a student should also bear in mind that, from the strong anglo-gallic complexion of our society and manners in early days, the accounts collected by lacroix are largely applicable to this country, and the same facilities for administering to the comfort and luxuries of the table, which he furnishes as illustrative of the gradual outgrowth from the wood fire and the pot-au-feu among his own countrymen, or certain classes of them, may be received as something like counterparts of what we possessed in england at or about the same period. we keep the phrase _pot luck_; but, for most of those who use it, it has parted with all its meaning. this said production of neckam of st. albans purports to be a guide to young housekeepers. it instructs them what they will require, if they desire to see their establishment well-ordered; but we soon perceive that the author has in view the arrangements indispensable for a family of high rank and pretensions; and it may be once for all observed that this kind of literature seldom proves of much service to us in an investigation of the state of the poor, until we come to the fifteenth or even sixteenth century, when the artists of germany and the low countries began to delineate those scenes in industrial and servile life, which time and change have rendered so valuable. where their superiors in rank regarded them as little more than mechanical instruments for carrying on the business of life, the poor have left behind them few records of their mode of sustenance and of the food which enabled them to follow their daily toil. the anecdotes, whatever they may be worth, of alfred and the burnt cakes, and of tom thumb's mamma and her christmas pudding, made in a bowl, of which the principal material was pork, stand almost alone; for we get, wherever we look, nothing but descriptions by learned and educated men of their equals or betters, how they fed and what they ate--their houses, their furniture, their weapons, and their dress. even in the passage of the old fabliau of the "king and the hermit" the latter, instead of admitting us to a cottage interior, has a servant to wait on him, brings out a tablecloth, lights two candles, and lays before his disguised guest venison and wine. in most of our own romances, and in the epics of antiquity, we have to be satisfied with vague and splendid generalisations. we do not learn much of the dishes which were on the tables, how they were cooked, and how [greek: oi polloi] cooked theirs. the _liber_, or rather _codex, princeps_ in the very long and extensive catalogue of works on english cookery, is a vellum roll called the form of cury, and is supposed to have been written about the beginning of the fifteenth century by the master-cook of richard ii who reigned from to , and spent the public money in eating and drinking, instead of wasting it, as his grandfather had done, in foreign wars. this singular relic was once in the harleian collection, but did not pass with the rest of the mss. to the british museum; it is now however, additional ms. , having been presented to the library by mr. gustavus brander. it was edited by dr. pegge in , and included by warner in his "antiquitates culinariae," . the roll comprises receipts, and commences with a sort of preamble and a table of contents. in the former it is worth noting that the enterprise was undertaken "by the assent and avisement of masters of physic and of philosophy, that dwelled in his (richard ii.'s) court," which illustrates the ancient alliance between medicine and cookery, which has not till lately been dissolved. the directions were to enable a man "to make common pottages and common meats for the household, as they should be made, craftily and wholesomely;" so that this body of cookery was not prepared exclusively for the use of the royal kitchen, but for those who had not the taste or wish for what are termed, in contra-distinction, in the next sentence, "curious pottages, and meats, and subtleties." it is to be conjectured that copies of such a ms. were multiplied, and from time to time reproduced with suitable changes; but with the exception of two different, though nearly coeval, collections, embracing and receipts or nyms, and also successively printed by pegge and warner, there is no apparent trace of any systematic compilation of this nature at so remote a date. the "form of cury" was in the eliz., in the possession of the stafford family, and was in that year presented to the queen by edward, lord stafford, as is to be gathered from a latin memorandum at the end, in his lordship's hand, preserved by pegge and warner in their editions. the fellowship between the arts of healing and cooking is brought to our recollection by a leonine verse at the end of one of the shorter separate collections above described:-- "explicit de coquina quae est optima medicina." the "form of cury" will amply remunerate a study. it presents the earliest mention, so far as i can discern, of olive oil, cloves, mace, and gourds. in the receipts for making aigredouce and bardolf, sugar, that indispensable feature in the _cuisine_, makes its appearance; but it does so, i should add, in such a way as to lead to the belief that the use of sugar was at this time becoming more general. the difficulty, at first, seems to have been in refining it. we encounter here, too, onions under the name borrowed from the french instead of the anglo-saxon form "ynne leac"; and the prescriptions for making messes of almonds, pork, peas, and beans are numerous. there is "saracen sauce," moreover, possibly as old as the crusades, and pig with sage stuffing (from which it was but one step to duck). more than one species of "galantine" was already known; and i observe the distinction, in one of the smaller collections printed by warner, between the tartlet formed of meat and the tartlet _de fritures_, of which the latter approaches more nearly our notion. the imperfect comprehension of harmonies, which is illustrated by the prehistoric bag-pudding of king arthur, still continued in the unnatural union of flesh with sweets. it is now confined to the cottage, whence arthur may have himself introduced it at court and to the knights of the round table. in this authority, several of the dishes were to be cooked in _white grease_, which warner interprets into _lard_; others demanded olive oil; but there is no allusion to butter. among the receipts are some for dishes "in gravy"; rabbits and chickens were to be treated similarly; and the gravy appears to have consisted merely of the broth in which they were boiled, and which was flavoured with pounded almonds, powdered ginger, and sugar. the "liber cure cocorum," which is apparently extant only in a fifteenth century ms., is a metrical treatise, instructing its readers how to prepare certain dishes, condiments and accessories; and presents, for the most part, a repetition of what has already occurred in earlier and more comprehensive undertakings. it is a curious aid to our knowledge of the manner in which the table of the well-to-do englishman was furnished in the time of henry vi., and it is so far special, that it deals with the subject more from a middle-class point of view than the "regulations for the royal household," and other similar compilations, which i have to bring under notice. the names, as usual, are often misleading, as in _blanc manger_, which is very different from our _blanc-mange_; and the receipt for "goose in a hog pot" leaves one in doubt as to its adaptability to the modern palate. the poetical ambition of the author has proved a source of embarrassment here and there; and in the receipt "for a service on a fish-day" the practitioner is prayed within four lines to cover his white herring for god's sake, and lay mustard over his red for god's love, because _sake_ and _love_ rhyme with _take_ and _above_. the next collection of receipts, which exists in a complete and homogeneous shape, is the "noble book of cookery," of which an early ms. copy at holkham was edited in by mrs. napier, but which had already been printed by pynson in , and subsequently by his successor, john byddell. this interesting and important volume commences with a series of descriptions of certain royal and noble entertainments given on various occasions from the time of henry iv. to that of edward iv., and then proceeds to furnish a series of directions for the cook of a king's or prince's household; for, although both at the outset and the conclusion we are told that these dishes were calculated for all estates, it is abundantly obvious that they were such as never then, or very long subsequently, reached much lower than the court or the aristocracy. there is a less complete copy here of the feast at the enthronement of archbishop nevile. i regret that neither of the old printed copies is at present accessible. that of was formerly in the library at bulstrode, and i was given by the late mr. bradshaw to understand that the same copy (no other being known) is probably at longleat. by referring to herbert's "typographical antiquities," anyone may see that, if his account (so far as it goes) is to be trusted, the printed copy varies from the holkham ms. in many verbal particulars, and gives the date of nevile's feast as . the compilation usually known as the "book of st. albans," , is, perhaps, next to the "noble book of cookery," the oldest receptacle for information on the subject in hand. the former, however, deals with cookery only in an incidental and special way. like arnold's chronicle, the st. albans volume is a miscellany comprehending nearly all the matters that were apt to interest the few educated persons who were qualified to peruse its pages; and amid a variety of allied topics we come here across a catalogue of terms used in speaking of certain dishes of that day. the reference is to the prevailing methods of dressing and carving. a deer was said to be broken, a cony unlaced, a pheasant, partridge, or quail winged, a pigeon or a woodcock thighed, a plover minced, a mallard unbraced. they spoke of a salmon or a gurnard as chined, a sole as loined, a haddock as sided, an eel as trousoned, a pike as splatted, and a trout as gobbeted. it must, i think, be predicated of tusser's "husbandry," of which the last edition published in the writer's lifetime is that of , that it seems rather to reproduce precepts which occur elsewhere than to supply the reader with the fruits of his own direct observation. but there are certain points in it which are curious and original. he tells the ploughman that, after confession on shrove tuesday, he may go and thresh the fat hen, and if he is blindfold, kill her, and then dine on fritters and pancakes. at other times, seed-cakes, wafers, and other light confections. it appears to have been usual for the farmer at that date to allow his hinds roast meat twice a week, on sundays and on thursday nights; but perhaps this was a generous extreme, as tusser is unusually liberal in his ideas. tobias venner, a somersetshire man, brought out in his "via recta ad vitam longam." he was evidently a very intelligent person, and affords us the result of his professional experience and personal observation. he considered two meals a day sufficient for all ordinary people,--breakfast at eleven and supper at six (as at the universities); but he thought that children and the aged or infirm could not be tied by any rule. he condemns "bull's beef" as rank, unpleasant, and indigestible, and holds it best for the labourer; which seems to indicate more than anything else the low state of knowledge in the grazier, when venner wrote: but there is something beyond friendly counsel where our author dissuades the poor from eating partridges, because they are calculated to promote asthma. "wherefore," he ingenuously says, "when they shall chance to meet with a covey of young partridges, they were much better to bestow them upon such, for whom they are convenient!" salmon, turbot, and sturgeon he also reckoned hard of digestion, and injurious, if taken to excess; nor does he approve of herrings and sprats; and anchovies he characterises as the meat of drunkards. it is the first that we have heard of them. he was not a bad judge of what was palatable, and prescribes as an agreeable and wholesome meal a couple of poached eggs with a little salt and vinegar, and a few corns of pepper, some bread and butter, and a draught of pure claret. he gives a receipt--the earliest i have seen in print--for making metheglin or hydromel. he does not object to furmety or junket, or indeed to custards, if they are eaten at the proper seasons, and in the middle or at the end of meals. but he dislikes mushrooms, and advises you to wash out your mouth, and rub your teeth and gums with a dry cloth, after drinking milk. the potato, however, he praises as nutritious and pleasant to the taste, yet, as gerarde the herbalist also says, flatulent. venner refers to a mode of sopping them in wine as existing in his time. they were sometimes roasted in the embers, and there were other ways of dressing them. john forster, of hanlop, in bucks, wrote a pamphlet in to shew that the more extended cultivation of this root would be a great national benefit. venner, who practised in the spring and autumn at bath as a physician, had no relish for the poorer classes, who did not fare well at the hands of their superiors in any sense in the excellent old days. but he liked the quality, in which he embraced the universities, and he tenders them, among other little hints, the information that green ginger was good for the memory, and conserve of roses (not the salad of roses immortalised by apuleius) was a capital posset against bed-time. "a conserve of rosemary and sage," says he, "to be often used by students, especially mornings fasting, doth greatly delight the brain." the military ascendency of spain did not fail to influence the culinary civilisation of those countries to which it temporarily extended its rule; and in a venetian work entitled "epulario, or the italian banquet," printed in , we recognise the spanish tone which had in the sixteenth century communicated itself to the cookery of the peninsula, shewing that charles v. and his son carried at least one art with them as an indemnity for the havoc which they committed. the nursery rhyme of "sing a song of sixpence" receives a singular and diverting illustration from the pages of this "epulario," where occurs a receipt "to make pies that the birds may be alive in them, and fly out when it is cut up." some of the other more salient beads relate to the mode of dressing sundry dishes in the roman and catalonian fashion, and teach us how to seethe gourds, as they did in spain, and to make mustard after the manner of padua. i propose here to register certain contributions to our acquaintance with early culinary ideas and practices, which i have not specifically described:-- . the book of carving. w. de worde. to, , . reprinted down to . . a proper new book of cookery. mo, . often reprinted. it is a recension of the "book of cookery," . . the treasury of commodious conceits and hidden secrets. by john partridge. mo, , ; and under the title of "treasury of hidden secrets," to, , , , . . a book of cookery. gathered by a.w. mo, , , etc. . the good housewife's jewel. by thomas dawson. in two parts, mo, . a copy of part of this date is in the british museum. . the good housewife's treasury. mo, . . cookery for all manner of dutch victual. licensed in , but not otherwise known. . the good housewife's handmaid for the kitchen. vo, . . the ladies' practice; or, a plain and easy direction for ladies and gentlewomen. by john murrell. licensed in . printed in , and with additions in , , and . . a book of cookery. by george crewe. licensed in , but not known. . a closet for ladies and gentlewomen. mo, . . the ladies' cabinet opened. by patrick, lord ruthven. to, ; vo, . . a curious treasury of twenty rare secrets. published by la fountaine, an expert operator. to, . . a new dispensatory of fourty physical receipts. published by salvatore winter of naples, an expert operator. to, . second edition, enlarged: same date. the three last are rather in the class of miscellanies. . health's improvement; or, rules comprising the discovering the nature, method, and manner of preparing all sorts of food used in this nation. by thomas muffet (or moffat), m.d. corrected and enlarged by christopher bennett, m.d. to, . . the queen's closet opened. incomparable secrets in physick, chirurgery, preserving, candying, and cookery.... transcribed from the true copies of her majesties own receipt books. by w.m., one of her late servants.... london, , vo. the same, corrected and revised, with many new and large additions. vo, . . the perfect cook: being the most exact directions for the making all kinds of pastes, with the perfect way teaching how to raise, season, and make all sorts of pies.... as also the perfect english cook.... to which is added the way of dressing all manner of flesh. by m. marmette. london, , mo. the writer of the "french gardener," of which i have had occasion to say a good deal in my small volume on that subject, also produced, "les délices de la campagne," which evelyn excused himself from translating because, whatever experience he had in the garden, he had none, he says, in the shambles; and it was for those who affected such matters to get it done, but not by him who did the "french cook" [footnote: i have not seen this book, nor is it under that title in the catalogue of the british museum]. he seems to imply that the latter, though an excellent work in its way, had not only been marred in the translation, but was not so practically advantageous to us as it might have been, "for want of skill in the kitchen"--in other words, an evil, which still prevails, was then appreciated by intelligent observers--the english cook did not understand her business, and the english mistress, as a rule, was equally ignorant. one of the engravings in the "french gardener" represents women rolling out paste, preparing vegetables, and boiling conserves. there is a rather quaint and attractive class of miscellaneous receipt-books, not made so on account of any particular merit in their contents, but by reason of their association with some person of quality. ms. sloane , is a narrow octavo volume, for instance, containing "my lady rennelagh's choice receipts: as also some of capt. gvilt's, who valued them above gold." the value for us, however, is solely in the link with a noble family and the little touch about the captain. there are many more such in public and private libraries, and they are often mere transcripts from printed works--select assemblages of directions for dressing food and curing diseases, formed for domestic reference before the advent of dr. buchan, and mrs. glasse, and mrs. rundell. among a valuable and extensive assemblage of english and foreign cookery books in the patent office library, mr. ordish has obligingly pointed out to me a curious to ms., on the cover of which occurs, "mrs. mary dacres her booke, ." even in the latter part of the seventeenth century the old-fashioned dishes, better suited to the country than to the court taste, remained in fashion, and are included in receipt-books, even in that published by joseph cooper, who had been head-cook to charles i, and who styles his volume "the art of cookery refined and augmented." he gives us two varieties of oatmeal pudding, french barley pudding, and hasty pudding in a bag. there is a direction for frying mushrooms, which were growing more into favour at the table than in the days when castelvetri, whom i cite in my monograph on gardening, was among us. another dainty is an ox-palate pie. cooper's preface is quaint, and surely modest enough. "though the cheats," says he, "of some preceding pieces that treated on this subject (whose title-pages, like the contents of a weekly pamphlet, promised much more than the books performed) may have provided this but a cold intertainment at its first coming abroad; yet i know it will not stay long in the world, before every rational reader will clear it of all alliance to those false pretenders. ladies, forgive my confidence, if i tell you, that i know this piece will prove your favourite." yet cooper's performance, in spite of its droll, self-complacent vein in the address to the reader, is a judicious and useful selection, and was, in fact, far more serviceable to the middle-class gentry than some of those which had gone before. it adapted itself to sundry conditions of men; but it kept in view those whose purses were not richly lined enough to pay for dainties and "subtleties." it is pleasant to see that, after the countless centuries which had run out since arthur, the bag-pudding and hot-pot maintained their ground--good, wholesome, country fare. after the fall of the monarchy in , the _chef de cuisine_ probably found his occupation gone, like a greater man before him; and the world may owe to enforced repose this condescension to the pen by the deposed minister of a king. soon after the restoration it was that some royalist brought out a small volume called "the court and kitchen of elizabeth, commonly called joan cromwell, the wife of the late usurper, truly described and represented," mo, . its design was to throw ridicule on the parsimony of the protectoral household. but he recites some excellent dishes which made their appearance at oliver's table: dutch puddings, scotch collops of veal, marrow puddings, sack posset, boiled woodcocks, and warden pies. he seems to have understood that eight stone of beef were cooked every morning for the establishment, and all scraps were diligently collected, and given alternately to the poor of st. margaret's, westminster, and st. martin's-in-the-fields. the writer acquaints us that, when the protector entertained the french ambassador and the parliament, after the sindercome affair, he only spent £ , over the banquet, of which the lady protectress managed to save £ . cromwell and his wife, we are told, did not care for suppers, but contented themselves with eggs and slops. a story is told here of cromwell and his wife sitting down to a loin of veal, and his calling for an orange, which was the sauce he preferred to that joint, and her highness telling him that he could not have one, for they were not to be had under a groat. the mansion house still retains the ancient usage of distributing the relics of a great feast afterwards among the poor, as cromwell is said just above to have made a rule of his household. it was a practice highly essential in the absence of any organised system of relief. the reign of charles ii., which witnessed a relationship with france of a very different character from that which the english maintained during the plantagenet and earlier tudor rule, was favourable to the naturalisation of the parisian school of cookery, and numerous works were published at and about that time, in which the development of knowledge in this direction is shown to have taken place _pari passu_ with the advance in gardening and arboriculture under the auspices of evelyn. in we come to a little volume entitled "the young cook's monitor," by m.h., who made it public for the benefit of his (or her) scholars; a really valuable and comprehensive manual, wherein, without any attempt at arrangement, there is an ample assemblage of directions for preparing for the table all kinds of joints, made dishes, soups and broths, _frigacies_, puddings, pies, tarts, tansies, and jellies. receipts for pickling are included, and two ways are shown how we should treat turnips after this wise. some of the ingredients proposed for sauces seem to our ears rather prodigious. in one place a contemporary peruser has inserted an ironical calculation in ms. to the effect that, whereas a cod's head could be bought for fourpence, the condiments recommended for it were not to be had for less than nine shillings. the book teaches us to make scotch collops, to pickle lemons and quinces, to make french bread, to collar beef, pork, or eels, to make gooseberry fool, to dry beef after the dutch fashion, to make sack posset two ways, to candy flowers (violets, roses, etc.) for salads, to pickle walnuts like mangoes, to make flummery, to make a carp pie, to pickle french beans and cucumbers, to make damson and quince wines, to make a french pudding (called a pomeroy pudding), to make a leg of pork like a westphalia ham, to make mutton as beef, and to pot beef to eat like venison. these and many other precepts has m.h. left behind him; and a sort of companion volume, printed a little before, goes mainly over the same ground, to wit, "rare and excellent receipts experienced and taught by mrs. mary tillinghast, and now printed for the use of her scholars only," . the lady appealed to a limited constituency, like m.h.; but her pages, such as they are (for there are but thirty), are now _publici juris_. the lesson to be drawn from mistress tillinghast's printed labours is that, among our ancestors in , pies and pasties of all sorts, and sweet pastry, were in increased vogue. her slender volume is filled with elucidations on the proper manufacture of paste of various sorts; and in addition to the pies designated by m.h. we encounter a lombard pie, a battalia pie, an artichoke pie, a potato (or secret) pie, a chadron [footnote: a pie chiefly composed of a calf's chadroa] pie, and a herring pie. the fair author takes care to instruct us as to the sauces or dressings which are to accompany certain of her dishes. "the book of cookery," , of which there was a reprint by john byddell about was often republished, with certain modifications, down to , under the titles of "a proper new book of cookery," or "the book of cookery." notwithstanding the presence of many competitors, it continued to be a public favourite, and perhaps answered the wants of those who did not desire to see on their tables the foreign novelties introduced by travellers, or advertised in collections of receipts borrowed from other languages. in fact, the first half of the seventeenth century did not witness many accessions to the store of literature on this subject. but from the time of the commonwealth, the supply of works of reference for the housekeeper and the cook became much more regular and extensive. in , selden's friend, the countess of kent, brought out her "choice manual of physic and chirurgery," annexing to it receipts for preserving and candying; and there were a few others, about the same time, of whose works i shall add here a short list:-- . the accomplished cook. by robert may. vo, . fifth edition, vo, . . the whole body of cookery dissected. by will. rabisha. vo, . . the queen-like closet: a rich cabinet, stored with all manner of rare receipts. by hannah wolley. vo, . . the true way of preserving and candying, and making several sorts of sweetmeats. anon. vo, . . the complete servant-maid. mo, - . . a choice collection of select remedies.... together with excellent directions for cooking, and also for preserving and conserving. by g. hartman [a chemist]. vo, . . a treatise of cleanness in meats and drinks, of the preparation of food, etc. by thomas tryon. to, . . the genteel housekeeper's pastime; or, the mode of carving at the table represented in a pack of playing cards. vo, . . a new art of brewing beer, ale, and other sorts of liquors. by t. tryon. mo, - . . the way to get wealth; or, a new and ready way to make twenty-three sorts of wines, equal to that of france ... also to make cyder.... by the same. mo, . . a treatise of foods in general. by louis lemery. translated into english. vo, . . england's newest way in all sorts of cookery. by henry howard, free cook of london. second edition, vo, . . royal cookery; or, the complete court-cook. by patrick lamb, esq., near years master-cook to their late majesties king charles ii., king james ii., king william, mary, and to her present majesty, queen anne. vo, . third edition, vo, . . the queen's royal cookery. by j. hall, free cook of london. mo, - . . mrs. mary eales' receipts, confectioner to her late majesty, queen anne. vo, . . a collection of three hundred receipts in cookery, physic, and surgery. in two parts, vo, . . the complete city and country cook. by charles carter. vo, . . the complete housewife. seventh edition, vo, . . the complete family piece: a very choice collection of receipts. second edition, vo, . . the modern cook. by vincent la chapelle, cook to the prince of orange. third edition. vo, . . a treatise of all sorts of foods. by l. lemery. translated by d. hay, m.d. vo, . this completes the list of books, so far as they have fallen in my way, or been pointed out by the kindness of friends, down to the middle of the last century. it was probably charles, duke of bolton ( - ), who was at one time lord-lieutenant of ireland, and who in the beginning of his ducal career, at all events, resided in st. james's street, that possessed successively as head-cooks john nott and john middleton. to each of these artists we owe a volume of considerable pretensions, and the "cook's and confectioner's dictionary," , by the former, is positively a very entertaining and cyclopedic publication. nott inscribes his book "to all good housewives," and declares that he placed an introduction before it merely because fashion had made it as strange for a book to appear without one as for a man to be seen in church without a neckcloth or a lady without a hoop-petticoat. he congratulates himself and his readers on living in a land flowing with milk and honey, quotes the saw about god sending meat and somebody else sending cooks, and accounts for his omission of pigments by saying, like a gallant man, that his countrywomen little needed such things. nott opens with _some divertisements in cookery, us'd at festival-times, as twelfth-day, etc._, which are highly curious, and his dictionary itself presents the novelty of being arranged, lexicon-wise, alphabetically. he seems to have been a fairly-read and intelligent man, and cites, in the course of his work, many celebrated names and receipts. thus we have:--to brew ale sir jonas moore's way; to make dr. butler's purging ale; ale of health and strength, by the viscount st. albans; almond butter the cambridge way; to dress a leg of mutton _à la dauphine_; to dress mutton the turkish way; to stew a pike the city way. dr. twin's, dr. blacksmith's, and dr. atkin's almond butter; an amber pudding, according to the lord conway's receipt; the countess of rutland's banbury cake; to make oxford cake; to make portugal cakes; and so on. nott embraces every branch of his subject, and furnishes us with bills of fare for every month of the year, terms and rules of carving, and the manner of setting out a dessert of fruits and sweetmeats. there is a singular process explained for making china broth, into which an ounce of china is to enter. many new ways had been gradually found of utilising the materials for food, and vegetables were growing more plentiful. the carrot was used in soups, puddings, and tarts. asparagus and spinach, which are wanting in all the earlier authorities, were common, and the barberry had come into favour. we now begin to notice more frequent mention of marmalades, blanc-manges, creams, biscuits, and sweet cakes. there is a receipt for a carraway cake, for a cabbage pudding, and for a chocolate tart. the production by his grace of bolton's other _chef_, john middleton, is "five hundred new receipts in cookery, confectionary, pastry, preserving, conserving, pickling," and the date is . middleton doubtless borrowed a good deal from his predecessor; but he also appears to have made some improvements in the science. we have here the methods, to dress pikes _à la sauce robert_, to make blackcaps (apples baked in their skins); to make a wood street cake; to make shrewsbury cakes; to dress a leg of mutton like a gammon of bacon; to dress eggs _à la augemotte_; to make a dish of quaking pudding of several colours; to make an italian pudding, and to make an olio. the eye seems to meet for the first time with hasty pudding, plum-porridge (an experiment toward the solidification of the older plum-broth), rolled beef-steaks, samphire, hedgehog cream (so called from its shape, currants being used for the eyes, and cut almonds for the bristles), cocks'-combs, orange, spinach and bean tarts, custards in cups (the book talks of jellies served on china plates), and lastly, jam--the real jam of these days, made to last, as we are told, the whole year. there is an excellent prescription for making elderberry wine, besides, in which malaga raisins are to be largely used. "in one year," says our _chef_, "it will be as good and as pleasant as french wine." let us extract the way "to make black-caps":--"take a dozen of good pippins, cut them in halves, and take out the cores; then place them on a right mazarine dish with the skins on, the cut side downwards; put to them a very little water, scrape on them some loaf sugar, put them in a hot oven till the skins are burnt black, and your apples tender; serve them on plates strew'd over with sugar." of these books, i select the preface to "the complete housewife," by e. smith, , because it appears to be a somewhat more ambitious endeavour in an introductory way than the authors of such undertakings usually hazard. from the last paragraph we collect that the writer was a woman, and throughout she makes us aware that she was a person of long practical experience. indeed, as the volume comprehends a variety of topics, including medicines, mrs. or miss smith must have been unusually observant, and have had remarkable opportunities of making herself conversant with matters beyond the ordinary range of culinary specialists. i propose presently to print a few samples of her workmanship, and a list of her principal receipts in that section of the book with which i am just now concerned. first of all, here is the preface, which begins, as we see, by a little piece of plagiarism from nott's exordium:-- "_preface._ "it being grown as unfashionable for a book now to appear in publick without a preface, as for a lady to appear at a ball without a hoop-petticoat, i shall conform to custom for fashion-sake, and not through any necessity. the subject being both common and universal, needs no arguments to introduce it, and being so necessary for the gratification of the appetite, stands in need of no encomiums to allure persons to the practice of it; since there are but few now-a-days who love not good eating and drinking. therefore i entirely quit those two topicks; but having three or four pages to be filled up previous to the subject it self, i shall employ them on a subject i think new, and not yet handled by any of the pretenders to the art of cookery; and that is, the antiquity of it; which if it either instruct or divert, i shall be satisfied, if you are so. "cookrey, confectionary, &c., like all other sciences and arts, had their infancy, and did not arrive at a state of maturity but by slow degrees, various experiments, and a long tract of time: for in the infant-age of the world, when the new inhabitants contented themselves with the simple provision of nature, viz. the vegetable diet, the fruits and production of the teeming ground, as they succeeded one another in their several peculiar seasons, the art of cookery was unknown; apples, nuts, and herbs, were both meat and sauce, and mankind stood in no need of any additional sauces, ragoes, &c., but a good appetite; which a healthful and vigorous constitution, a clear, wholesome, odoriferous air, moderate exercise, and an exemption from anxious cares, always supplied them with. "we read of no palled appetites, but such as proceeded from the decays of nature by reason of an advanced old age; but on the contrary a craving stomach, even upon a death-bed, as in isaac: nor no sicknesses but those that were both the first and the last, which proceeded from the struggles of nature, which abhorred the dissolution of soul and body; no physicians to prescribe for the sick, nor no apothecaries to compound medicines for two thousand years and upwards. food and physick were then one and the same thing. "but when men began to pass from a vegetable to an animal diet, and feed on flesh, fowls, and fish, then seasonings grew necessary, both to render it more palatable and savoury, and also to preserve that part which was not immediately spent from stinking and corruption: and probably salt was the first seasoning discover'd; for of salt we read, gen. xiv. "and this seems to be necessary, especially for those who were advanced in age, whose palates, with their bodies, had lost their vigour as to taste, whose digestive faculty grew weak and impotent; and thence proceeded the use of soops and savoury messes; so that cookery then began to become a science, though luxury had not brought it to the height of an art. thus we read, that jacob made such palatable pottage, that esau purchased a mess of it at the extravagant price of his birthright. and isaac, before by his last will and testament he bequeathed his blessing to his son esau, required him to make some savoury meat, such as his soul loved, i.e., such as was relishable to his blunted palate. "so that seasonings of some sort were then in use; though whether they were salt, savoury herbs, or roots only; or spices, the fruits of trees, such as pepper, cloves, nutmeg; bark, as cinnamon; roots, as ginger, &c., i shall not determine. "as for the methods of the cookery of those times, boiling or stewing seems to have been the principal; broiling or roasting the next; besides which, i presume scarce any other were used for two thousand years and more; for i remember no other in the history of genesis. "that esau was the first cook, i shall not presume to assert; for abraham gave order to dress a fatted calf; but esau is the first person mentioned that made any advances beyond plain dressing, as boiling, roasting, &c. for though we find indeed, that rebecca his mother was accomplished with the skill of making savoury meat as well as he, yet whether he learned it from her, or she from him, is a question too knotty for me to determine. "but cookery did not long remain a simple science, or a bare piece of housewifry or family ceconomy, but in process of time, when luxury entered the world, it grew to an art, nay a trade; for in i sam. viii. . when the israelites grew fashionists, and would have a king, that they might be like the rest of their neighbours, we read of cooks, confectioners, &c. "this art being of universal use, and in constant practice, has been ever since upon the improvement; and we may, i think, with good reason believe, is arrived at its greatest height and perfection, if it is not got beyond it, even to its declension; for whatsoever new, upstart, out-of-the-way messes some humourists have invented, such as stuffing a roasted leg of mutton with pickled herring, and the like, are only the sallies of a capricious appetite, and debauching rather than improving the art itself. "the art of cookery, &c., is indeed diversified according to the diversity of nations or countries; and to treat of it in that latitude would fill an unportable volume; and rather confound than improve those that would accomplish themselves with it. i shall therefore confine what i have to communicate within the limits of practicalness and usefulness, and so within the compass of a manual, that shall neither burthen the hands to hold, the eyes in reading, nor the mind in conceiving. "what you will find in the following sheets, are directions generally for dressing after the best, most natural, and wholesome manner, such provisions as are the product of our own country, and in such a manner as is most agreeable to english palates: saving that i have so far temporized, as, since we have to our disgrace so fondly admired the french tongue, french modes, and also french messes, to present you now and then with such receipts of french cookery, as i think may not be disagreeable to english palates. "there are indeed already in the world various books that treat on this subject, and which bear great names, as cooks to kings, princes, and noblemen, and from which one might justly expect something more than many, if not most of these i have read, perform, but found my self deceived in my expectations; for many of them to us are impracticable, others whimsical, others unpalatable, unless to depraved palates; some unwholesome, many things copied from old authors, and recommended without (as i am persuaded) the copiers ever having had any experience of the palatableness, or had any regard to the wholesomness of them; which two things ought to be the standing rules, that no pretenders to cookery ought to deviate from. and i cannot but believe, that those celebrated performers, notwithstanding all their professions of having ingenuously communicated their art, industriously concealed their best receipts from the publick. "but what i here present the world with is the product of my own experience, and that for the space of thirty years and upwards; during which time i have been constantly employed in fashionable and noble families, in which the provisions ordered according to the following directions, have had the general approbation of such as have been at many noble entertainments. "these receipts are all suitable to english constitutions and english palates, wholesome, toothsome, all practicable and easy to be performed. here are those proper for a frugal, and also for a sumptuous table, and if rightly observed, will prevent the spoiling of many a good dish of meat, the waste of many good materials, the vexation that frequently attends such mismanagements, and the curses not unfrequently bestowed on cooks with the usual reflection, that whereas god sends good meat, the devil sends cooks. "as to those parts that treat of confectionary, pickles, cordials, english wines, &c., what i have said in relation to cookery is equally applicable to them also. "it is true, i have not been so numerous in receipts as some who have gone before me, but i think i have made amends in giving none but what are approved and practicable, and fit either for a genteel or a noble table; and altho' i have omitted odd and fantastical messes, yet i have set down a considerable number of receipts. "the treatise is divided into ten parts: cookery contains above an hundred receipts, pickles fifty, puddings above fifty, pastry above forty, cakes forty, creams and jellies above forty, preserving an hundred, made wines forty, cordial waters and powders above seventy, medicines and salves above two hundred; in all near eight hundred. "i have likewise presented you with schemes engraven on copper-plates for the regular disposition or placing the dishes of provision on the table according to the best manner, both for summer and winter, first and second courses, &c. "as for the receipts for medicines, salves, ointments, good in several diseases, wounds, hurts, bruises, aches, pains, &c., which amount to above two hundred, they are generally family receipts, that have never been made publick; excellent in their kind, and approved remedies, which have not been obtained by me without much difficulty; and of such efficacy in distempers, &c., to which they are appropriated, that they have cured when all other means have failed; and a few of them which i have communicated to a friend, have procured a very handsome livelihood. "they are very proper for those generous, charitable, and christian gentlewomen that have a disposition to be serviceable to their poor country neighbours, labouring under any of the afflicted circumstances mentioned; who by making the medicines, and generously contributing as occasions offer, may help the poor in their afflictions, gain their good-will and wishes, entitle themselves to their blessings and prayers, and also have the pleasure of seeing the good they do in this world, and have good reason to hope for a reward (though not by way of merit) in the world to come. "as the whole of this collection has cost me much pains and a thirty years' diligent application, and i have had experience of their use and efficacy, i hope they will be as kindly accepted, as by me they are generously offered to the publick: and if they prove to the advantage of many, the end will be answered that is proposed by her that is ready to serve the publick in what she may." cookery books. part ii. select extracts from an early receipt-book. the earliest school of english cookery, which had such a marked anglo-norman complexion, has been familiarised to us by the publication of warner's _antiquitates culinaricae_, , and more recently by the appearance of the "noble book of cookery" in mrs. napier's edition, not to mention other aids in the same way, which are accessible; and it seemed to be doing a better service, when it became a question of selecting a few specimens of old receipts, to resort to the representative of a type of culinary philosophy and sentiment somewhere midway between those which have been rendered easy of reference and our own. i have therefore given in the few following pages, in a classified shape, some of the highly curious contents of e. smith's "compleat housewife," , which maybe securely taken to exhibit the state of knowledge in england upon this subject in the last quarter of the seventeenth century and first quarter of the succeeding one. in the work itself no attempt at arrangement is offered. i.--meat, poultry, etc. _to make dutch-beef_:--take the lean part of a buttock of beef raw; rub it well with brown sugar all over, and let it lie in a pan or tray two or three hours, turning it three or four times; then salt it well with common salt and salt-petre, and let it lie a fortnight, turning it every day; then roll it very strait in a coarse cloth, and put it in a cheese-press a day and a night, and hang it to dry in a chimney. when you boil it, you must put it in a cloth: when 'tis cold, it will cut out into shivers as dutch-beef. _to dry mutton to cut out in shivers as dutch-beef_:--take a middling leg of mutton, then take half a pound of brown sugar, and rub it hard all over your mutton, and let it lie twenty-four hours; then take an ounce and half of saltpetre, and mix it with a pound of common salt, and rub that all over the mutton every other day, till 'tis all on, and let it lie nine days longer; keep the place free from brine, then hang it up to dry three days, then smoke it in a chimney where wood is burnt; the fire must not be too hot; a fortnight will dry it. boil it like other hams, and when 'tis cold, cut it out in shivers like dutch-beef. _to stuff a shoulder or leg of mutton with oysters_:--take a little grated bread, some beef-suet, yolks of hard eggs, three anchovies, a bit of an onion, salt and pepper, thyme and winter-savoury, twelve oysters, some nutmeg grated; mix all these together, and shred them very fine, and work them up with raw eggs like a paste, and stuff your mutton under the skin in the thickest place, or where you please, and roast it; and for sauce take some of the oyster-liquor, some claret, two or three anchovies, a little nutmeg, a bit of an onion, the rest of the oysters: stew all these together, then take out the onion, and put it under the mutton. _to marinade a leg of lamb_:--take a leg of lamb, cut it in pieces the bigness of a half-crown; hack them with the back of a knife; then take an eschalot, three or four anchovies, some cloves, mace, nutmeg, all beaten; put your meat in a dish, and strew the seasoning over it, and put it in a stew-pan, with as much white-wine as will cover it, and let it be two hours; then put it all together in a frying-pan, and let it be half enough; then take it out and drain it through a colander, saving the liquor, and put to your liquor a little pepper and salt, and half a pint of gravy; dip your meat in yolks of eggs, and fry it brown in butter; thicken up your sauce with yolks of eggs and butter, and pour it in the dish with your meat: lay sweet-breads and forc'd-meat balls over your meat; dip them in eggs, and fry them. garnish with lemon. _a leg of mutton à-la-daube_:--lard your meat with bacon through, but slant-way; half roast it; take it off the spit, and put it in a small pot as will boil it; two quarts of strong broth, a pint of white-wine, some vinegar, whole spice, bay-leaves, green onions, savoury, sweet-marjoram; when 'tis stew'd enough, make sauce of some of the liquor, mushrooms, lemon cut like dice, two or three anchovies: thicken it with browned butter. garnish with lemon. _to fry cucumbers for mutton sauce_:--you must brown some butter in a pan, and cut the cucumbers in thin slices; drain them from the water, then fling them into the pan, and when they are fried brown, put in a little pepper and salt, a bit of an onion and gravy, and let them stew together, and squeeze in some juice of lemon; shake them well, and put them under your mutton. _to make pockets_:--cut three slices out of a leg of veal, the length of a finger, the breadth of three fingers, the thickness of a thumb, with a sharp penknife; give it a slit through the middle, leaving the bottom and each side whole, the thickness of a straw; then lard the top with small fine lards of bacon; then make a forc'd-meat of marrow, sweet-breads, and lamb-stones just boiled, and make it up after 'tis seasoned and beaten together with the yolks of two eggs, and put it into your pockets as if you were filling a pincushion; then sew up the top with fine thread, flour them, and put melted butter on them, and bake them; roast three sweet-breads to put between, and serve them with gravy-sauce. _to make a florendine of veal_:--take the kidney of a loin of veal, fat and all, and mince it very fine; then chop a few herbs, and put to it, and add a few currants; season it with cloves, mace, nutmeg, and a little salt; and put in some yolks of eggs, and a handful of grated bread, a pippin or two chopt, some candied lemon-peel minced small, some sack, sugar, and orange-flower-water. put a sheet of puff-paste at the bottom of your dish; put this in, and cover it with another; close it up, and when 'tis baked, scrape sugar on it; and serve it hot. _to make a tureiner_:--take a china pot or bowl, and fill it as follows: at the bottom lay some fresh butter; then put in three or four beef-steaks larded with bacon; then cut some veal-steaks from the leg; hack them, and wash them over with the yolk of an egg, and afterwards lay it over with forc'd-meat, and roll it up, and lay it in with young chickens, pigeons and rabbets, some in quarters, some in halves; sweet-breads, lamb-stones, cocks-combs, palates after they are boiled, peeled, and cut in slices: tongues, either hogs or calves, sliced, and some larded with bacon: whole yolks of hard eggs, pistachia-nuts peeled, forced balls, some round, some like an olive, lemon sliced, some with the rind on, barberries and oysters: season all these with pepper, salt, nutmeg, and sweet-herbs, mix'd together after they are cut very small, and strew it on every thing as you put it in your pot: then put in a quart of gravy, and some butter on the top, and cover it close with a lid of puff-paste, pretty thick. eight hours will bake it. _to make hams of pork like westphalia_:--to two large hams, or three small ones, take three pounds of common salt, and two pounds and half of brown coarse sugar; mix both together, and rub it well into the hams, and let them lie seven days, turning them every day, and rub the salt in them, when you turn them; then take four ounces of salt-petre beat small, and mix with two handfuls of common salt, and rub that well in your hams, and let them lie a fortnight longer: then hang them up high in a chimney to smoke. _to make a ragoo of pigs-ears_:--take a quantity of pigs-ears, and boil them in one half wine and the other water; cut them in small pieces, then brown a little butter, and put them in, and a pretty deal of gravy, two anchovies, an eschalot or two, a little mustard, and some slices of lemon, some salt, and nutmeg; stew all these together, and shake it up thick. garnish the dish with barberries. _to collar a pig_:--cut off the head of your pig; then cut the body asunder; bone it, and cut two collars off each side; then lay it in water to take out the blood; then take sage and parsley, and shred them very small, and mix them with pepper, salt, and nutmeg, and strew some on every side, or collar, and roll it up, and tye it with coarse tape; so boil them in fair water and salt, till they are very tender: put two or three blades of mace in the kettle, and when they are enough, take them up, and lay them in something to cool; strain out some of the liquor, and add to it some vinegar and salt, a little white-wine, and three or four bay-leaves; give it a boil up, and when 'tis cold put it to the collars, and keep them for use. _a fricasy of double tripe_:--cut your tripe in slices, two inches long, and put it into a stew-pan; put to it a quarter of a pound of capers, as much samphire shred, half a pint of strong broth, as much white-wine, a bunch of sweet-herbs, a lemon shred small; stew all these together till 'tis tender; then take it off the fire, and thicken up the liquor with the yolks of three or four eggs, a little parsley boiled green and chopp'd, some grated nutmeg and salt; shake it well together. serve it on sippets. garnish with lemon. _to pot a swan_:--bone and skin your swan, and beat the flesh in a mortar, taking out the strings as you beat it; then take some clear fat bacon, and beat with the swan, and when 'tis of a light flesh colour, there is bacon enough in it; and when 'tis beaten till 'tis like dough, 'tis enough; then season it with pepper, salt, cloves, mace, and nutmeg, all beaten fine; mix it well with your flesh, and give it a beat or two all together; then put it in an earthen pot, with a little claret and fair water, and at the top two pounds of fresh butter spread over it; cover it with coarse paste, and bake it with bread; then turn it out into a dish, and squeeze it gently to get out the moisture; then put it in a pot fit for it; and when 'tis cold, cover it over with clarified butter, and next day paper it up. in this manner you may do goose, duck, or beef, or hare's flesh. _to make a poloe_:--take a pint of rice, boil it in as much water as will cover it; when your rice is half boiled, put in your fowl, with a small onion, a blade or two of mace, some whole pepper, and some salt; when 'tis enough, put the fowl in the dish, and pour the rice over it. _to make a pulpatoon of pigeons_:--take mushrooms, palates, oysters, sweet-breads, and fry them in butter; then put all these into a strong gravy; give them a heat over the fire, and thicken up with an egg and a bit of butter; then half roast six or eight pigeons, and lay them in a crust of forc'd-meat as follows: scrape a pound of veal, and two pounds of marrow, and beat it together in a stone mortar, after 'tis shred very fine; then season it with salt, pepper, spice, and put in hard eggs, anchovies and oysters; beat all together, and make the lid and sides of your pye of it; first lay a thin crust into your pattipan, then put on your forc'd-meat; then lay an exceeding thin crust over them; then put in your pigeons and other ingredients, with a little butter on the top. bake it two hours. _to keep green peas till christmas_:--shell what quantity you please of young peas; put them in the pot when the water boils; let them have four or five warms; then first pour them into a colander, and then spread a cloth on a table, and put them on that, and dry them well in it: have bottles ready dry'd, and fill them to the necks, and pour over them melted mutton-fat, and cork them down very close, that no air come to them: set them in your cellar, and when you use them, put them into boiling water, with a spoonful of fine sugar, and a good piece of butter: and when they are enough, drain and butter them. ii.--meat pies and puddings. _a battalia pye_:--take four small chickens, four squab pigeons, four sucking rabbets; cut them in pieces, season them with savoury spice, and lay 'em in the pye, with four sweet-breads sliced, and as many sheep's-tongues, two shiver'd palates, two pair of lamb-stones, twenty or thirty coxcombs, with savoury-balls and oysters. lay on butter, and close the pye. a lear. _to make an olio pye_:--make your pye ready; then take the thin collops of the but-end of a leg of veal; as many as you think will fill your pye; hack them with the back of a knife, and season them with pepper, salt, cloves, and mace; wash over your collops with a bunch of feathers dipped in eggs, and have in readiness a good hand-full of sweet-herbs shred small; the herbs must be thyme, parsley, and spinage; and the yolks of eight hard eggs, minced, and a few oysters parboiled and chopt; some beef-suet shred very fine. mix these together, and strew them over your collops, and sprinkle a little orange-flower-water on them, and roll the collops up very close, and lay them in your pye, strewing the seasoning that is left over them; put butter on the top, and close up your pye; when 'tis drawn, put in gravy, and one anchovy dissolved in it, and pour it in very hot: and you may put in artichoke-bottoms and chesnuts, if you please, or sliced lemon, or grapes scalded, or what else is in season; but if you will make it a right savoury pye leave them out. _to make a lumber pye_:--take a pound and a half of veal, parboil it, and when 'tis cold chop it very small, with two pound of beef-suet, and some candied orange-peel; some sweet-herbs, as thyme, sweet-marjoram, and an handful of spinage; mince the herbs small before you put them to the other; so chop all together, and a pippin or two; then add a handful or two of grated bread, a pound and a half of currants, washed and dried; some cloves, mace, nutmeg, a little salt, sugar and sack, and put to all these as many yolks of raw eggs, and whites of two, as will make it a moist forc'd-meat; work it with your hands into a body, and make it into balls as big as a turkey's egg; then having your coffin made put in your balls. take the marrow out of three or four bones as whole as you can: let your marrow lie a little in water, to take out the blood and splinters; then dry it, and dip it in yolk of eggs; season it with a little salt, nutmeg grated, and grated bread; lay it on and between your forc'd-meat balls, and over that sliced citron, candied orange and lemon, eryngo-roots, preserved barberries; then lay on sliced lemon, and thin slices of butter over all; then lid your pye, and bake it; and when 'tis drawn, have in readiness a caudle made of white-wine and sugar, and thicken'd with butter and eggs, and pour it hot into your pye. _very fine hogs puddings_:--shred four pounds of beef-suet very fine, mix with it two pounds of fine sugar powder'd, two grated nutmegs, some mace beat, and a little salt, and three pounds of currants wash'd and pick'd; beat twenty-four yolks, twelve whites of eggs, with a little sack; mix all well together, and fill your guts, being clean and steep'd in orange-flower-water; cut your guts quarter and half long, fill them half full; tye at each end, and again thus oooo. boil them as others, and cut them in balls when sent to the table. _to make plumb-porridge_:--take a leg and shin of beef to ten gallons of water, boil it very tender, and when the broth is strong, strain it out, wipe the pot, and put in the broth again; slice six penny-loaves thin, cutting off the top and bottom; put some of the liquor to it, cover it up, and let it stand a quarter of an hour, and then put it in your pot, let it boil a quarter of an hour, then put in five pounds of currants, let them boil a little, and put in five pounds of raisins, and two pounds of prunes, and let them boil till they swell; then put in three quarters of an ounce of mace, half an ounce of cloves, two nutmegs, all of them beat fine, and mix it with a little liquor cold, and put them in a very little while, and take off the pot, and put in three pounds of sugar, a little salt, a quart of sack, and a quart of claret, the juice of two or three lemons; you may thicken with sagoe instead of bread, if you please; pour them into earthen pans, and keep them for use. iii.--sweet-puddings, pies, etc. _to make new-college puddings_:--grate a penny stale loaf, and put to it a like quantity of beef-suet finely shred, and a nutmeg grated, a little salt, some currants, and then beat some eggs in a little sack, and some sugar, and mix all together, and knead it as stiff as for manchet, and make it up in the form and size of a turkey-egg, but a little flatter; then take a pound of butter, and put it in a dish, and set the dish over a clear fire in a chafing-dish, and rub your butter about the dish till 'tis melted; put your puddings in, and cover the dish, but often turn your puddings, until they are all brown alike, and when they are enough, scrape sugar over them, and serve them up hot for a side dish. you must let the paste lie a quarter of an hour before you make up your puddings. _to make a spread-eagle pudding_:--cut off the crust of three half-penny rolls, then slice them into your pan; then set three pints of milk over the fire, make it scalding hot, but not boil; so pour it over your bread, and cover it close, and let it stand an hour; then put in a good spoonful of sugar, a very little salt, a nutmeg grated, a pound of suet after 'tis shred, half a pound of currants washed and picked, four spoonfuls of cold milk, ten eggs, but five of the whites; and when all is in, stir it, but not till all is in; then mix it well, butter a dish; less than an hour will bake it. _to make a cabbage pudding_:--take two pounds of the lean part of a leg of veal; take of beef-suet the like quantity; chop them together, then beat them together in a stone mortar, adding to it half a little cabbage, scalded, and beat that with your meat; then season it with mace and nutmeg, a little pepper and salt, some green gooseberries, grapes, or barberries in the time of year. in the winter put in a little verjuice; then mix all well together, with the yolks of four or five eggs well beaten; then wrap it up in green cabbage leaves; tye a cloth over it, boil it an hour: melt butter for sauce. _to make a calf's foot pudding_:--take two calf's feet finely shred; then of biskets grated, and stale mackaroons broken small, the quantity of a penny loaf; then add a pound of beef-suet, very finely shred, half a pound of currants, a quarter of a pound of sugar; some cloves, mace and nutmeg, beat fine; a very little salt, some sack and orange-flower-water, some citron and candied orange-peel; work all these well together, with yolks of eggs; if you boil it, put it in the caul of a breast of veal, and tie it over with a cloth; it must boil four hours. for sauce, melt butter, with a little sack and sugar; if you bake it, put some paste in the bottom of the dish, but none on the brim; then melt half a pound of butter, and mix with your stuff, and put it in your dish, and stick lumps of marrow in it; bake it three or four hours; scrape sugar over it, and serve it hot. _to make a chestnut pudding_:--take a dozen and half of chestnuts, put them in a skillet of water, and set them on the fire till they will blanch; then blanch them, and when cold, put them in cold water, then stamp them in a mortar, with orange-flower-water and sack, till they are very small; mix them in two quarts of cream, and eighteen yolks of eggs, the whites of three or four; beat the eggs with sack, rose-water and sugar; put it in a dish with puff-paste; stick in some lumps of marrow or fresh butter, and bake it. _to make a brown-bread pudding_:--take half a pound of brown bread, and double the weight of it in beef-suet; a quarter of a pint of cream, the blood of a fowl, a whole nutmeg, some cinnamon, a spoonful of sugar, six yolks of eggs, three whites: mix it all well together, and boil it in a wooden dish two hours. serve it with sack and sugar, and butter melted. _to make a baked sack pudding_:--take a pint of cream, and turn it to a curd with a sack; then bruise the curd very small with a spoon; then grate in two naples-biskets, or the inside of a stale penny-loaf, and mix it well with the curd, and half a nutmeg grated; some fine sugar, and the yolks of four eggs, the whites of two, beaten with two spoonfuls of sack; then melt half a pound of fresh butter, and stir all together till the oven is hot. butter a dish, and put it in, and sift some sugar over it, just as 'tis going into the oven half an hour will bake it. _to make an orange pudding_:--take two large sevil oranges, and grate off the rind, as far as they are yellow; then put your oranges in fair water, and let them boil till they are tender; shift the water three or four times to take out the bitterness; when they are tender, cut them open, and take away the seeds and strings, and beat the other part in a mortar, with half a pound of sugar, till 'tis a paste; then put in the yolks of six eggs, three or four spoonfuls of thick cream, half a naples-biscuit grated; mix these together, and melt a pound of very good fresh butter, and stir it well in; when 'tis cold, put a bit of fine puff-paste about the brim and bottom of your dish, and put it in and bake it about three quarters of an hour. _another sort of orange pudding_:--take the outside rind of three sevil oranges, boil them in several waters till they are tender; then pound them in a mortar with three quarters of a pound of sugar; then blanch and beat half a pound of almonds very fine, with rose-water to keep them from oiling; then beat sixteen eggs, but six whites, and a pound of fresh butter; beat all these together very well till 'tis light and hollow; then put it in a dish, with a sheet of puff-paste at the bottom, and bake it with tarts; scrape sugar on it, and serve it up hot. _to make a french-barley pudding_:--take a quart of cream, and put to it six eggs well beaten, but three of the whites; then season it with sugar, nutmeg, a little salt, orange-flower-water, and a pound of melted butter; then put to it six handfuls of french-barley that has been boiled tender in milk: butter a dish, and put it in, and bake it. it must stand as long as a venison-pasty, and it will be good. _to make a skirret pye_:--boil your biggest skirrets, and blanch them, and season them with cinamon, nutmeg, and a very little ginger and sugar. your pye being ready, lay in your skirrets; season also the marrow of three or four bones with cinamon, sugar, a little salt and grated bread. lay the marrow in your pye, and the yolks of twelve hard eggs cut in halves, a handful of chesnuts boiled and blanched, and some candied orange-peel in slices. lay butter on the top, and lid your pye. let your caudle be white-wine, verjuice, some sack and sugar; thicken it with the yolks of eggs, and when the pye is baked, pour it in, and serve it hot. scrape sugar on it. _to make a cabbage-lettuce pye_:--take some of the largest and hardest cabbage-lettuce you can get; boil them in salt and water till they are tender; then lay them in a colander to drain dry; then have your paste laid in your pattipan ready, and lay butter on the bottom; then lay in your lettuce and some artichoke-bottoms, and some large pieces of marrow, and the yolks of eight hard eggs, and some scalded sorrel; bake it, and when it comes out of the oven, cut open the lid; and pour in a caudle made with white-wine and sugar, and thicken with eggs; so serve it hot. _potato, or lemon cheesecakes_:--take six ounces of potatoes, four ounces of lemon-peel four ounces of sugar, four ounces of butter; boil the lemon-peel til tender, pare and scrape the potatoes, and boil them tender and bruise them; beat the lemon-peel with the sugar, then beat all together very well, and melt all together very well, and let it lie till cold: put crust in your pattipans, and fill them little more than half full: bake them in a quick oven half an hour, sift some double-refined sugar on them as they go into the oven; this quantity will make a dozen small pattipans. _to make almond cheesecakes_:--take a good handful or more of almonds, blanch them in warm water, and throw them in cold; pound them fine, and in the pounding put a little sack or orange-flower-water to keep them from oiling; then put to your almonds the yolks of two hard eggs, and beat them together: beat the yolks of six eggs, the whites of three, and mix with your almonds, and half a pound of butter melted, and sugar to your taste; mix all well together, and use it as other cheesecake stuff. _to make the light wigs_:--take a pound and half of flour, and half a pint of milk made warm; mix these together, and cover it up, and let it lie by the fire half an hour; then take half a pound of sugar, and half a pound of butter; then work these in the paste, and make it into wigs, with as little flour as possible. let the oven be pretty quick, and they will rise very much. _to make very good wigs_:--take a quarter of a peck of the finest flour, rub into it three quarters of a pound of fresh butter, till 'tis like grated bread, something more than half a pound of sugar, half a nutmeg, and half a race of ginger grated; three eggs, yolks and whites beaten very well, and put to them half a pint of thick ale-yeast, three or four spoonfuls of sack. make a hole in your flour, and pour in your yeast and eggs, and as much milk just warm, as will make it into a light paste. let it stand before the fire to rise half an hour; then make it into a dozen and half of wigs; wash them over with eggs just as they go into the oven; a quick oven, and half an hour will bake them. _to make carrot or parsnip puffs_:--scrape and boil your carrots or parsnips tender; then scrape or mash them very fine, add to a pint of pulp the crumb of a penny-loaf grated, or some stale biscuit, if you have it, some eggs, but four whites, a nutmeg grated, some orange-flower-water, sugar to your taste, a little sack, and mix it up with thick cream. they must be fry'd in rendered suet, the liquor very hot when you put them in; put in a good spoonful in a place. _a tansy_:--boil a quart of cream or milk with a stick of cinamon, quarter'd nutmeg, and large mace; when half cold, mix it with twenty yolks of eggs, and ten whites; strain it, then put to it four grated biskets, half a pound of butter, a pint of spinage-juice, and a little tansy, sack, and orange-flower-water, sugar, and a little salt; then gather it to a body over the fire, and pour it into your dish, being well butter'd. when it is baked, turn it on a pye-plate; squeeze on it an orange, grate on sugar, and garnish it with slic'd orange and a little tansy. made in a dish; cut as you please. _to make sack cream_:--take the yolks of two eggs, and three spoonfuls of fine sugar, and a quarter of a pint of sack: mix them together, and stir them into a pint of cream; then set them over the fire till 'tis scalding hot, but let it not boil. you may toast some thin slices of white bread, and dip them in sack or orange-flower-water, and pour your cream over them. _to make quince cream_:--take quinces, scald them till they are soft; pare them, and mash the clear part of them, and pulp it through a sieve; take an equal weight of quince, and double-refin'd sugar beaten and sifted, and the whites of eggs, and beat it till it is as white as snow, then put it in dishes. _to make pistachia cream_:--peel your pistachias, and beat them very fine, and boil them in cream; if 'tis not green enough, add a little juice of spinage; thicken it with eggs, and sweeten to your taste; pour it in basons, and set it by till 'tis cold. _to make white jelly of quinces_:--pare your quinces, and cut them in halves; then core them and parboil your quinces; when they are soft, take them up, and crush them through a strainer, but not too hard, only the clear juice. take the weight of the juice in fine sugar; boil the sugar candy-height, and put in your juice, and let it scald awhile, but not boil; and if any froth arise, scum it off, and when you take it up, have ready a white preserved quince cut in small slices, and lay them in the bottom of your glasses, and pour your jelly to them, it will candy on the top and keep moist on the bottom a long time. _to make hart's-horn jelly_:--take a large gallipot, and fill it full of hart's-horn, and then fill it full with spring-water, and tie a double paper over the gallipot, and set it in the baker's oven with household bread; in the morning take it out, and run it through a jelly-bag, and season it with juice of lemons, and double-refin'd sugar, and the whites of eight eggs well beaten; let it have a boil, and run it thro' the jelly-bag again into your jelly-glasses; put a bit of lemon-peel in the bag. iv.--cheeses. _the queen's cheese_:--take six quarts of the best stroakings, and let them stand till they are cold; then set two quarts of cream on the fire till 'tis ready to boil; then take it off, and boil a quart of fair water, and take the yolks of two eggs, and one spoonful of sugar, and two spoonfuls of runnet; mingle all these together, and stir it till 'tis blood warm: when the cheese is come, use it as other cheese; set it at night, and the third day lay the leaves of nettles under and over it: it must be turned and wiped, and the nettles shifted every day, and in three weeks it will be fit to eat. this cheese is made between michaelmas and alhallontide. _to make a slip-coat cheese_:--take new milk and runnet, quite cold, and when 'tis come, break it as little as you can in putting it into the cheese-fat, and let it stand and whey itself for some time; then cover it, and set about two pound weight on it, and when it will hold together, turn it out of that cheese-fat, and keep it turning upon clean cheese-fats for two or three days, till it has done wetting, and then lay it on sharp-pointed dock-leaves till 'tis ripe: shift the leaves often. _to make a new-market cheese to cut at two years old_:--any morning in september, take twenty quarts of new milk warm from the cow, and colour it with marigolds: when this is done, and the milk not cold, get ready a quart of cream, and a quart of fair water, which must be kept stirring over the fire till 'tis scalding hot, then stir it well into the milk and runnet, as you do other cheese; when 'tis come, lay cheese-cloths over it, and settle it with your hands; the more hands the better; as the whey rises, take it away, and when 'tis clean gone, put the curd into your fat, breaking it as little as you can; then put it in the press, and press it gently an hour; take it out again, and cut it in thin slices, and lay them singly on a cloth, and wipe them dry; then put it in a tub, and break it with your hands as small as you can, and mix with it a good handful of salt, and a quart of cold cream; put it in the fat, and lay a pound weight on it till next day; then press and order it as others. v.--cakes. _to make shrewsbury cakes_:--take to one pound of sugar, three pounds of the finest flour, a nutmeg grated, some beaten cinamon; the sugar and spice must be sifted into the flour, and wet it with three eggs, and as much melted butter, as will make it of a good thickness to roll into a paste; mould it well and roll it, and cut it into what shape you please. perfume them, and prick them before they go into the oven. _to make whetstone cakes_:--take half a pound of fine flour, and half a pound of loaf sugar searced, a spoonful of carraway-seeds dried, the yolk of one egg, the whites of three, a little rose-water, with ambergrease dissolved in it; mix it together, and roll it out as thin as a wafer; cut them with a glass; lay them on flour'd paper, and bake them in a slow oven. _to make portugal cakes_:--take a pound and a quarter of fine flour well dried, and break a pound of butter into the flour and rub it in, add a pound of loaf-sugar beaten and sifted, a nutmeg grated, four perfumed plums, or some ambergrease; mix these well together, and beat seven eggs, but four whites, with three spoonfuls of orange-flower-water; mix all these together, and beat them up an hour; butter your little pans, and just as they are going into the oven, fill them half full, and searce some fine sugar over them; little more than a quarter of an hour will bake them. you may put a handful of currants into some of them; take them out of the pans as soon as they are drawn, keep them dry, they will keep good three months. _to make jumbals_:--take the whites of three eggs, beat them well, and take off the froth; then take a little milk, and a little flour, near a pound, as much sugar sifted, a few carraway-seeds beaten very fine; work all these in a very stiff paste, and make them into what form you please bake them on white paper. _to make march-pane_:--take a pound of jordan almonds, blanch and beat them in a marble mortar very fine; then put to them three-quarters of a pound of double-refin'd sugar, and beat with them a few drops of orange-flower-water; beat all together till 'tis a very good paste, then roll it into what shape you please; dust a little fine sugar under it as you roll it to keep it from sticking. to ice it, searce double-refined sugar as fine as flour, wet it with rose-water, and mix it well together, and with a brush or bunch of feathers spread it over your march-pane: bake them in an oven that is not too hot: put wafer-paper at the bottom, and white paper under that, so keep them for use. _to make the marlborough cake_:--take eight eggs, yolks and whites, beat and strain them, and put to them a pound of sugar beaten and sifted; beat it three-quarters of an hour together; then put in three-quarters of a pound of flour well dried, and two ounces of carraway-seeds; beat it all well together, and bake it in a quick oven in broad tin-pans. _to make wormwood cakes_:--take one pound of double-refin'd sugar sifted; mix it with the whites of three or four eggs well beat; into this drop as much chymical oil of wormwood as you please. so drop them on paper; you may have some white, and some marble, with specks of colours, with the point of a pin; keep your colours severally in little gallipots. for red, take a dram of cochineel, a little cream of tartar, as much of allum; tye them up severally in little bits of fine cloth, and put them to steep in one glass of water two or three hours. when you use the colour, press the bags in the water, and mix some of it with a little of the white of egg and sugar. saffron colours yellow; and must be tyed in a cloth, as the red, and put in water. powder-blue, mix'd with the saffron-water, makes a green; for blue, mix some dry powder-blue with some water. _a french cake to eat hot_:--take a dozen of eggs, and a quart of cream, and as much flour as will make it into a thick batter; put to it a pound of melted butter, half a pint of sack, one nutmeg grated, mix it well, and let it stand three or four hours; then bake it in a quick oven, and when you take it out, split it in two, and pour a pound of butter on it melted with rose-water; cover it with the other half, and serve it up hot. _to make the thin dutch bisket_:--take five pounds of flour, and two ounces of carraway-seeds, half a pound of sugar, and something more than a pint of milk. warm the milk, and put into it three-quarters of a pound of butter; then make a hole in the middle of your flour, and put in a full pint of good ale-yeast; then pour in the butter and milk, and make these into a paste, and let it stand a quarter of an hour by the fire to rise; then mould it, and roll it into cakes pretty thin; prick them all over pretty much or they will blister; so bake them a quarter of an hour. _to make dutch ginger-bread_:--take four pounds of flour, and mix with it two ounces and a half of beaten ginger; then rub in a quarter of a pound of butter, and add to it two ounces of carraway-seeds, two ounces of orange-peel dried and rubb'd to powder, a few coriander-seeds bruised, two eggs: then mix all up in a stiff paste, with two pounds and a quarter of treacle; beat it very well with a rolling-pin, and make it up into thirty cakes; put in a candied citron; prick them with a fork: butter papers three double, one white, and two brown; wash them over with the white of an egg; put them into an oven not too hot, for three-quarters of an hour. _to make cakes of flowers_:--boil double-refin'd sugar candy-high, and then strew in your flowers, and let them boil once up; then with your hand lightly strew in a little double-refin'd sugar sifted; and then as quick as may be, put it into your little pans, made of card, and pricked full of holes at bottom. you must set the pans on a pillow, or cushion; when they are cold, take them out. vi.--caudles and possets. _to make a posset with ale: king-william's posset_:--take a quart of cream, and mix with it a pint of ale, then beat the yolks of ten eggs, and the whites of four; when they are well beaten, put them to the cream and ale, sweeten it to your taste, and slice some nutmeg in it; set it over the fire, and keep it stirring all the while, and when 'tis thick, and before it boils, take it off, and pour it into the bason you serve it in to the table. _to make the pope's posset_:--blanch and beat three-quarters of a pound of almonds so fine, that they will spread between your fingers like butter, put in water as you beat them to keep them from oiling; then take a pint of sack or sherry, and sweeten it very well with double-refin'd sugar, make it boiling hot, and at the same time put half a pint of water to your almonds, and make them boil; then take both off the fire, and mix them very well together with a spoon; serve it in a china dish. _to make flummery caudle_:--take a pint of fine oatmeal, and put to it two quarts of fair water: let it stand all night, in the morning stir it, and strain it into a skillet, with three or four blades of mace, and a nutmeg quartered; set it on the fire, and keep it stirring, and let it boil a quarter of an hour; if it is too thick, put in more water, and let it boil longer; then add a pint of rhenish or white-wine; three spoonfuls of orange-flower-water, the juice of two lemons and one orange, a bit of butter, and as much fine sugar as will sweeten it; let all these have a warm, and thicken it with the yolks of two or three eggs. drink it hot for a breakfast. _to make tea caudle_:--make a quart of strong green tea, and pour it out into a skillet, and set it over the fire; then beat the yolks of four eggs and mix with them a pint of white-wine, a grated nutmeg, sugar to your taste, and put all together; stir it over the fire till 'tis very hot, then drink it in china dishes as caudle. vii.--conserves, dried and can-died fruits, marmalades, etc. _to dry apricocks like prunella's_:--take a pound of apricocks; being cut in halves or quarters, let them boil till they be very tender in a thin syrup; let them stand a day or two in the stove, then take them out of the syrup, and lay them drying till they be as dry as prunello's, then box them: you may make your syrup red with the juice of red plums; if you please you may pare them. _to candy angelica_:--take angelica that is young, and cut it in fit lengths, and boil it till it is pretty tender, keeping it close covered; then take it up and peel off all the strings; then put it in again, and let it simmer and scald till 'tis very green; then take it up and dry it in a cloth, and weigh it, and to every pound of angelica take a pound of double-refin'd sugar beaten and sifted; put your angelica in an earthen pan, and strew the sugar over it, and let it stand two days; then boil it till it looks very clear, put it in a colander to drain the syrup from it, and take a little double-refin'd sugar and boil it to sugar again; then throw in your angelica, and take it out in a little time, and put it on glass plates. it will dry in your stove, or in an oven after pyes are drawn. _to candy orange-flowers_:--take half a pound of double-refin'd sugar finely beaten, wet it with orange-flower-water, then boil it candy-high, then put in a handful of orange-flowers, keeping it stirring, but let it not boil, and when the sugar candies about them, take it off the fire, drop it on a plate, and set it by till 'tis cold. _to make conserve of red-roses, or any other flowers_:--take rose-buds, and pick them, and cut off the white part from the red, and put the red flowers, and sift them through a sieve to take out the seeds; then weigh them, and to every pound of flowers take two pounds and a half of loaf-sugar, beat the flowers pretty fine in a stone mortar; then by degrees put the sugar to them, and beat it very well till 'tis well incorporated together; then put it into gallipots, and tye it over with paper, and over that leather, and it will keep seven years. _to preserve white pear plumbs_:--take pear plumbs when they are yellow, before they are too ripe; give them a slit in the seam, and prick them behind; make your water almost scalding hot, and put a little sugar to it to sweeten it, and put in your plumbs and cover them close; set them on the fire to coddle, and take them off sometimes a little, and set them on again: take care they do not break; have in readiness as much double-refin'd sugar boiled to a height as will cover them, and when they are coddled pretty tender, take them out of that liquor, and put them into your preserving-pan to your syrup, which must be but blood-warm when your plumbs go in. let them boil till they are clear, scum them and take them off, and let them stand two hours; then set them on again and boil them, and when they are thoroughly preserved, take them up and lay them in glasses; boil your syrup till 'tis thick; and when 'tis cold, put in your plumbs; and a month after, if your syrup grows thin, you must boil it again, or make a fine jelly of pippins, and put on them. this way you may do the pimordian plumb, or any white plumb, and when they are cold, paper them up. _to preserve mulberries whole_:--set some mulberries over the fire in a skillet, and draw from them a pint of juice, when 'tis strained. then take three pounds of sugar, beaten very fine; wet the sugar with the pint of juice; boil up your sugar, and scum it, and put in two pounds of ripe mulberries, and let them stand in the syrup till they are thoroughly warm; then set them on the fire, and let them boil very gently; do them but half enough, so put them by in the syrup till next day; then boil them gently again, and when the syrup is pretty thick, and will stand in a round drop when 'tis cold, they are enough; so put all together in a gallipot for use. _to preserve whole quinces white_:--take the largest quinces of the greenest colour, and scald them till they are pretty soft; then pare them and core them with a scoop; then weigh your quinces against so much double-refin'd sugar, and make a syrup of one half, and put in your quinces, and boil them as fast as you can; then you must have in readiness pippin liquor; let it be very strong of the pippins, and when 'tis strained out, put in the other half of your sugar, and make it a jelly, and when your quinces are clear, put them into the jelly, and let them simmer a little; they will be very white; so glass them up, and when they are cold, paper them and keep them in a stove. _to make white quince marmalade_:--scald your quinces tender, take off the skin and pulp them from the core very fine, and to every pound of quince have a pound and half of double-refin'd sugar in lumps, and half a pint of water; dip your sugar in the water and boil and scum it till 'tis a thick syrup: then put in your quince, boil and scum it on a quick fire a quarter of an hour, so put it in your pots. _to make red quince marmalade_:--pare and core a pound of quince, beat the parings and cores and some of your worst quinces, and strain out the juice; and to every pound of quince take ten or twelve spoonfuls of that juice, and three-quarters of a pound of loaf-sugar; put all into your preserving-pan, cover it close, and let it stew over a gentle fire two hours; when 'tis of an orange-red, uncover and boil it up as fast as you can: when of a good colour, break it as you like it, give it a boil, and pot it up. _to make melon mangoes_:--take small melons, not quite ripe, cut a slip down the side, and take out the inside very clean; beat mustard-seeds, and shred garlick, and mix with the seeds, and put in your mangoes; put the pieces you cut out into their places again, and tye them up, and put them into your pot, and boil some vinegar (as much as you think will cover them) with whole pepper, and some salt, and jamaica pepper, and pour in scalding hot over your mangoes, and cover them close to keep in the steam; and so do every day for nine times together, and when they are cold cover them with leather. _to make conserve of hips_:--gather the hips before they grow soft, cut off the heads and stalks, slit them in halves, and take out all the seed and white that is in them very clean; then put them in an earthen pan, and stir them every day, else they will grow mouldy; let them stand till they are soft enough to rub through a coarse hair-sieve; as the pulp comes, take it off the sieve; they are a dry berry, and will require pains to rub it through; then add its weight in sugar, and mix it well together without boiling; keeping it in deep gallipots for use. _to make clear cakes of gooseberries_:--take your white dutch gooseberries when they are thorough ripe, break them with your fingers and squeeze out all the pulp into a fine piece of cambrick or thick muslin to run thro' clear; then weigh the juice and sugar one against the other; then boil the juice a little while, then put in your sugar and let it dissolve, but not boil; scum it and put it into glasses, and stove it in a warm stove. _to make white quince paste_:--scald the quinces tender to the core, and pare them, and scrape the pulp clean from the core, beat it in a mortar, and pulp it through a colander; take to a pound of pulp a pound and two ounces of sugar, boil the sugar till 'tis candy-high; then put in your pulp, stir it about constantly till you see it come clear from the bottom of the preserving-pan; then take it off, and lay it on plates pretty thin: you may cut it in what shape you please, or make quince chips of it; you must dust it with sugar when you put it into the stove, and turn it on papers in a sieve, and dust the other side; when they are dry, put them in boxes with papers between. you may make red quince paste the same way as this, only colour the quince with cochineel. _to make syrup of any flower_:--clip your flowers, and take their weight in sugar; then take a high gallipot, and a row of flowers, and a strewing of sugar, till the pot is full; then put in two or three spoonfuls of the same syrup or still'd water; tye a cloth on the top of the pot, and put a tile on that, and set your gallipot in a kettle of water over a gentle fire, and let it infuse till the strength is out of the flowers, which will be in four or five hours; then strain it thro' a flannel, and when 'tis cold bottle it up. viii.--pickles. _to pickle nasturtium-buds_:--gather your little knobs quickly after your blossoms are off; put them in cold water and salt for three days, shifting them once a day; then make a pickle (but do not boil it at all) of some white-wine, some white-wine vinegar, eschalot, horse-radish, pepper, salt, cloves, and mace whole, and nutmeg quartered; then put in your seeds and stop them close; they are to be eaten as capers. _to keep quinces in pickle_:--cut five or six quinces all to pieces, and put them in an earthen pot or pan, with a gallon of water and two pounds of honey; mix all these together well, and then put them in a kettle to boil leisurely half an hour, and then strain your liquor into that earthen pot, and when 'tis cold, wipe your quinces clean, and put them into it: they must be covered very close, and they will keep all the year. _to pickle ashen-keys_:--take ashen-keys as young as you can get them, and put them in a pot with salt and water; then take green whey, when 'tis hot, and pour over them; let them stand till they are cold before you cover them, so let them stand; when you use them, boil them in fair water; when they are tender take them out, and put them in salt and water. _to pickle pods of radishes_:--gather the youngest pods, and put them in water and salt twenty-four hours; then make a pickle for them of vinegar, cloves, mace, whole pepper: boil this, and drain the pods from the salt and water, and pour the liquor on them boiling hot: put to them a clove of garlick a little bruised. _to pickle broom-buds_:--put your broom-buds into little linnen-bags, tie them up, and make a pickle of bay-salt and water boiled, and strong enough to bear an egg; put your bags in a pot, and when your pickle is cold, put it to them; keep them close, and let them lie till they turn black; then shift them two or three times, till they change green; then take them out, and boil them as you have occasion for them: when they are boiled, put them out of the bag: in vinegar they will keep a month after they are boiled. _to pickle purslain stalks_:--wash your stalks, and cut them in pieces six inches long; boil them in water and salt a dozen walms; take them up, drain them, and when they cool, make a pickle of stale beer, white-wine vinegar, and salt, put them in, and cover them close. ix.--wines. _to make strong mead_:--take of spring-water what quantity you please, and make it more than blood-warm, and dissolve honey in it till 'tis strong enough to bear an egg, the breadth of a shilling; then boil it gently near an hour, taking off the scum as it rises; then put to about nine or ten gallons, seven or eight large blades of mace, three nutmegs quarter'd, twenty cloves, three or four sticks of cinamon, two or three roots of ginger, and a quarter of an ounce of jamaica pepper; put these spices into the kettle to the honey and water, a whole lemon, with a sprig of sweet-briar, and a sprig of rosemary; tie the briar and rosemary together, and when they have boiled a little while, take them out and throw them away; but let your liquor stand on the spice in a clean earthen pot till the next day; then strain it into a vessel that is fit for it; put the spice in a bag, and hang it in the vessel, stop it, and at three months draw it into bottles. be sure that 'tis fine when 'tis bottled; after 'tis bottled six weeks 'tis fit to drink. _to make small white mead_:--take three gallons of spring-water and make it hot, and dissolve in it three quarts of honey and a pound of loaf sugar; and let it boil about half an hour, and scum it as long as any rises, then pour it out into a tub, and squeeze in the juice of four lemons; put in the rinds of but two; twenty cloves, two races of ginger, a top of sweet-briar, and a top of rosemary. let it stand in a tub till 'tis but blood warm; then make a brown toast and spread it with two or three spoonfuls of ale-yeast, put it into a vessel fit for it; let it stand four or five days, then bottle it out. _to make frontiniac wine_:--take six gallons of water and twelve pounds of white sugar, and six pounds of raisins of the sun cut small; boil these together an hour; then take of the flowers of elder, when they are falling and will shake off, the quantity of half a peck; put them in the liquor when 'tis almost cold, the next day put in six spoonfuls of syrup of lemons, and four spoonfuls of ale-yeast, and two days after put it in a vessel that is fit for it, and when it has stood two months bottle it off. _to make english champagne, or the fine currant wine_:--take to three gallons of water nine pounds of lisbon sugar; boil the water and sugar half an hour, scum it clean, then have one gallon of currants pick'd, but not bruised, pour the liquor boiling-hot over them, and when cold, work it with half a pint of balm two days; then pour it through a flannel or sieve, then put it into a barrel fit for it with half an ounce of ising-glass well bruised; when it has done working, stop it close for a month, then bottle it, and in every bottle put a very small lump of double-refin'd sugar. this is excellent wine, and has a beautiful colour. _to make saragossa wine, or english sack_:--to every quart of water, put a sprig of rue, and to every gallon a handful of fennel-roots, boil these half an hour, then strain it out, and to every gallon of this liquor put three pounds of honey; boil it two hours, and scum it well, and when 'tis cold pour it off and turn it into a vessel, or such cask that is fit for it; keep it a year in the vessel, and then bottle it; 'tis a very good sack. _mountain wine_:--pick out the big stalks of your malaga raisins, then chop them very small, five gallons to every gallon of cold spring-water, let them steep a fortnight or more, squeeze out the liquor and barrel it in a vessel fit for it; first fume the vessel with brimstone; don't stop it up till the hissing is over. _to make quince wine_;--take your quinces when they are thorough ripe, wipe off the fur very clean; then take out the cores and bruise them as you do apples for cyder, and press them, and to every gallon of juice put two pounds and a half of fine sugar, stir it together till 'tis dissolved; then put it in your cask, and when it has done working stop it close; let it stand till march before you bottle it. you may keep it two or three years, it will be better. _to make plumb wine_:--take twenty pounds of malaga raisins, pick, rub, and shred them, and put them into a tub; then take four gallons of fair water and boil it an hour, and let it stand till 'tis blood-warm; then put it to your raisins; let it stand nine or ten days, stirring it once or twice a day, strain out your liquor, and mix with it two quarts of damson juice, put it in a vessel, and when it has done working, stop it close; at four or five months bottle it. _to make birch wine_:--in march bore a hole in a tree, and put in a faucet, and it will run two or three days together without hurting the tree; then put in a pin to stop it, and the next year you may draw as much from the same hole; put to every gallon of the liquor a quart of good honey, and stir it well together, boil it an hour, scum it well, and put in a few cloves, and a piece of lemon-peel; when 'tis almost cold, put to it so much ale-yeast as will make it work like new ale, and when the yeast begins to settle, put it in a runlet that will just hold it: so let it stand six weeks or longer if you please; then bottle it, and in a month you may drink it. it will keep a year or two. you may make it with sugar, two pounds to a gallon, or something more, if you keep it long. this is admirably wholesome as well as pleasant, an opener of obstructions, good against the phthisick, and good against the spleen and scurvy, a remedy for the stone, it will abate heat in a fever or thrush, and has been given with good success. _to make sage wine_:--boil twenty-six quarts of spring-water a quarter of an hour, and when 'tis blood-warm, put twenty-five pounds of malaga raisins pick'd, rubb'd and shred into it, with almost half a bushel of red sage shred, and a porringer of ale-yeast; stir all well together, and let it stand m a tub cover'd warm six or seven days, stirring it once a day; then strain it out, and put it in a runlet. let it work three or four days, stop it up; when it has stood six or seven days put in a quart or two of malaga sack, and when 'tis fine bottle it. _sage wine another way_:--take thirty pounds of malaga raisins pick'd clean, and shred small, and one bushel of green sage shred small, then boil five gallons of water, let the water stand till 'tis luke-warm; then put it in a tub to your sage and raisins; let it stand five or six days, stirring it twice or thrice a day; then strain and press the liquor from the ingredients, put it in a cask, and let it stand six months: then draw it clean off into another vessel; bottle it in two days; in a month or six weeks it will be fit to drink, but best when 'tis a year old. _to make ebulum_:--to a hogshead of strong ale, take a heap'd bushel of elder-berries, and half a pound of juniper-berries beaten; put in all the berries when you put in the hops, and let them boil together till the berries brake in pieces, then work it up as you do ale; when it has done working, add to it half a pound of ginger, half an ounce of cloves, as much mace, an ounce of nutmegs, and as much cinamon grosly beaten, half a pound of citron, as much eringo-root, and likewise of candied orange-peel; let the sweetmeats be cut in pieces very thin, and put with the spice into a bag and hang it in the vessel when you stop it up. so let it stand till 'tis fine, then bottle it up and drink it with lumps of double-refined sugar in the glass. _to make cock ale_:--take ten gallons of ale, and a large cock, the older the better, parboil the cock, flea him, and stamp him in a stone mortar till his bones are broken, (you must craw and gut him when you flea him) put the cock into two quarts of sack, and put to it three pounds of raisins of the sun stoned, some blades of mace, and a few cloves; put all these into a canvas bag, and a little before you find the ale has done working, put the ale and bag together into a vessel; in a week or nine days' time bottle it up, fill the bottles but just above the necks, and leave the same time to ripen as other ale. _to make it elder ale_:--take ten bushels of malt to a hogshead, then put two bushels of elder-berries pickt from the stalks into a pot or earthen pan, and set it in a pot of boiling water till the berries swell, then strain it out and put the juice into the guile-fat, and beat it often in, and so order it as the common way of brewing. _to clear wine_:--take half a pound of hartshorn, and dissolve it in cyder, if it be for cyder, or rhenish-wine for any liquor: this is enough for a hogshead. _to fine wine the lisbon way_:--to every twenty gallons of wine take the whites of ten eggs, and a small handful of salt, beat it together to a froth, and mix it well with a quart or more of the wine, then pour it in the vessel, and in a few days it will be fine. cookery books. part iii. in appeared a thin folio volume, of which i will transcribe the title: "the art of cookery, made plain and easy, which far exceeds every thing of the kind ever yet published ... by a lady. london: printed for the author; and sold at mrs. ashburn's, a china shop, the corner of fleet ditch. mdccxlvii." the lady was no other than mrs. glasse, wife of an attorney residing in carey street; and a very sensible lady she was, and a very sensible and interesting book hers is, with a preface showing that her aim was to put matters as plainly as she could, her intention being to instruct the lower sort. "for example," says she, "when i bid them lard a fowl, if i should bid them lard with large lardoons they would not know what i meant; but when i say they must lard with little pieces of bacon, they know what i mean." i have been greatly charmed with hannah glasse's "art of cookery," , and with her "complete confectioner" likewise in a modified degree. the latter was partly derived, she tells you, from the manuscript of "a very old experienced housekeeper to a family of the first distinction." but, nevertheless, both are very admirable performances; and yet the compiler survives scarcely more than in an anecdote for which i can see no authority. for she does not say, "first catch your hare" [footnote: mrs. glasse's cookery book was reprinted at least as late as ]. mrs. glasse represents that, before she undertook the preparation of the volume on confectionery, there was nothing of the kind for reference and consultation. but we had already a curious work by e. kidder, who was, according to his title-page, a teacher of the art which he expounded eventually in print. the title is sufficiently descriptive: "e. kidder's receipts of pastry and cookery, for the use of his scholars, who teaches at his school in queen street, near st. thomas apostle's, [footnote: in another edition his school is in st. martin's le grand] on mondays, tuesdays and wednesdays, in the afternoon. also on thursdays, fridays and saturdays, in the afternoon, at his school next to furnivalls inn in holborn. ladies may be taught at their own houses." it is a large octavo, consisting of fifty pages of engraved text, and is embellished with a likeness of mr. kidder. for all that mrs. glasse ignores him. i have shown how mrs. glasse might have almost failed to keep a place in the public recollection, had it not been for a remark which that lady did not make. but there is a still more singular circumstance connected with her and her book, and it is this--that in dr. johnson's day, and possibly in her own lifetime, a story was current that the book was really written by dr. hill the physician. that gentleman's claim to the authorship has not, of course, been established, but at a dinner at dilly's the publisher's in , when johnson, miss seward, and others were present, a curious little discussion arose on the subject. boswell thus relates the incident and the conversation:--"the subject of cookery having been very naturally introduced at a table, where johnson, who boasted of the niceness of his palate, avowed that 'he always found a good dinner,' he said, 'i could write a better book about cookery than has ever yet been written; it should be a book upon philosophical principles. pharmacy is now made much more simple. cookery may be so too. a prescription, which is now compounded of five ingredients, had formerly fifty in it. so in cookery. if the nature of the ingredients is well known, much fewer will do. then, as you cannot make bad meat good, i would tell what is the best butcher's meat, the best beef, the best pieces; how to choose young fowls; the proper seasons of different vegetables; and then how to roast, and boil, and compound." dilly:--"mrs. glasse's 'cookery,' which is the best, was written by dr. hill. half the trade know this." johnson:--"well, sir, that shews how much better the subject of cookery may be treated by a philosopher. i doubt if the book be written by dr hill; for in mrs. glasse's cookery, which i have looked into, saltpetre and salt-prunella are spoken of as different substances, whereas salt-prunella is only saltpetre burnt on charcoal; and hill could not be ignorant of this. however, as the greatest part of such a book is made by transcription, this mistake may have been carelessly adopted. but you shall see what a book of cookery i could make. i shall agree with mr. dilly for the copyright." miss seward:--"that would be hercules with the distaff indeed!" johnson:--"no, madam. women can spin very well; but they cannot make a good book of cookery." but the doctor's philosophical cookery book belongs to the voluminous calendar of works which never passed beyond the stage of proposal; he did not, so far as we know, ever draw out a title-page, as coleridge was fond of doing; and perhaps the loss is to be borne with. the doctor would have pitched his discourse in too high a key. among the gastronomical enlargements of our literature in the latter half of the last century, one of the best books in point of classification and range is that by b. clermont, of which the third edition made its appearance in , the first having been anonymous. clermont states that he had been clerk of the kitchen in some of the first families of the kingdom, and lately to the earl of abingdon. but elsewhere we find that he had lived very recently in the establishment of the earl of ashburnham, for he observes in the preface: "i beg the candour of the public will excuse the incorrectness of the language and diction. my situation in life as an actual servant to the earl of ashburnham at the time of the first publication of this book will i trust plead my apology." he informs his readers on the title-page, and repeats in the preface, that a material part of the work consists of a translation of "les soupers de la cour," and he proceeds to say, that he does not pretend to make any further apology for the title of _supper_, than that the french were, in general, more elegant in their suppers than their dinners. in other words, the late dinner was still called supper. the writer had procured the french treatise from paris for his own use, and had found it of much service to him in his capacity as clerk of the kitchen, and he had consequently translated it, under the persuasion that it would prove an assistance to gentlemen, ladies, and others interested in such matters. he specifies three antecedent publications in france, of which his pages might be considered the essence, viz., "la cuisine royale," "le maître d'hôtel cuisinier," and "les dons de comus"; and he expresses to some of his contemporaries, who had helped him in his researches, his obligations in the following terms:--"as every country produces many articles peculiar to itself, and considering the difference of climates, which either forward or retard them, i would not rely on my own knowledge, in regard to such articles; i applied therefore to three tradesmen, all eminent in their profession, one for fish, one for poultry, and one for the productions of the garden, viz., mr. humphrey turner, the manager in st. james's market; mr. andrews, poulterer in ditto; and mr. adam lawson, many years chief gardener to the earl of ashburnham; in this article i was also assisted by mr. rice, green-grocer, in st. albans street." clermont dates his remarks from princes street, cavendish square. while mrs. glasse was still in the middle firmament of public favour, a little book without the writer's name was published as by "a lady." i have not seen the first or second editions; but the third appeared in . it is called "a new system of domestic cookery, formed upon principles of economy, and adapted to the use of private families." the author was helene rundell, of whom i am unable to supply any further particulars at present. mrs. rundell's cookery book, according to the preface, was originally intended for the private instruction of the daughters of the authoress in their married homes, and specially prepared with an eye to housekeepers of moderate incomes. mrs. rundell did not write for professed cooks, or with any idea of emolument; and she declared that had such a work existed when she first set out in life it would have been a great treasure to her. the public shared the writer's estimate of her labours, and called for a succession of impressions of the "new system," till its run was checked by miss acton's still more practical collection. mrs. rundell is little consulted nowadays; but time was when mrs. glasse and herself were the twin stars of the culinary empyrean. coming down to our own times, the names most familiar to our ears are ude, francatelli, and soyer, and they are the names of foreigners [footnote: a fourth work before me has no clue to the author, but it is like the others, of an alien complexion. it is called "french domestic cookery, combining elegance and economy. in twelve hundred receipts, mo, ." soyer's book appeared in the same year. in , an anonymous writer printed a latin poem of his own composition, called "tabella cibaria, a bill of fare, etc., etc., with copious notes," which seem more important than the text]. no english school of cookery can be said ever to have existed in england. we have, and have always had, ample material for making excellent dishes; but if we desire to turn it to proper account, we have to summon men from a distance to our aid, or to accept the probable alternative--failure. the adage, "god sends meat, and the devil sends cooks," must surely be of native parentage, for of no country is it so true as of our own. perhaps, had it not been for the influx among us of french and italian experts, commencing with our anglo-gallic relations under the plantagenets, and the palmy days of the monastic orders, culinary science would not have arrived at the height of development which it has attained in the face of great obstacles. perchance we should not have progressed much beyond the pancake and oatmeal period. but foreign _chefs_ limit their efforts to those who can afford to pay them for their services. the middle classes do not fall within the pale of their beneficence. the poor know them not. so it happens that even as i write, the greater part of the community not only cannot afford professional assistance in the preparation of their meals, which goes without saying, but from ignorance expend on their larder twice as much as a parisian or an italian in the same rank of life, with a very indifferent result. there are handbooks of instruction, it is true, both for the middle and for the lower classes. these books are at everybody's command. but they are either left unread, or if read, they are not understood. i have before me the eleventh edition of esther copley's "cottage comforts," ; it embraces all the points which demand attention from such as desire to render a humble home comfortable and happy. the leaves have never been opened. i will not say, _ex hoc disce omnes_; but it really appears to be the case, that these works are not studied by those for whom they are written--not studied, at all events, to advantage. dr. kitchener augmented this department of our literary stores in with his "cook's oracle," which was very successful, and passed through a series of editions. in the preface to that of , the editor describes the book as greatly enlarged and improved, and claims the "rapid and steady sale which has invariably attended each following edition" as a proof of the excellence of the work. i merely mention this, because in kitchener's own preface to the seventh issue, l mo, , he says: "this last time i have found little to add, and little to alter." such is human fallibility! the "cook's oracle" was heralded by an introduction which very few men could have written, and which represents the doctor's method of letting us know that, if we fancy him an impostor, we are much mistaken. "the following recipes," says he, "are not a mere marrowless collection of shreds and patches, of cuttings and pastings--but a bonâ-fide register of practical facts--accumulated by a perseverance, not to be subdued or evaporated by the igniferous terrors of a roasting fire in the dog-days:--in defiance of the odoriferous and calefaceous repellents of roasting, boiling,--frying, and broiling;--moreover, the author has submitted to a labour no preceding cookery-book-maker, perhaps, ever attempted to encounter,--having eaten each receipt before he set it down in his book." what could critics say, after this? one or two large editions must have been exhausted before they recovered their breath, and could discover how the learned kitchener set down the receipts which he had previously devoured. but the language of the preface helps to console us for the loss of johnson's threatened undertaking in this direction. dr. kitchener proceeded on different lines from an artist who closely followed him in the order of publication; and the two did not probably clash in the slightest degree. the cooking world was large enough to hold kitchener and the _ci-devant chef_ to the most christian king louis xvi. and the right honourable the earl of sefton, louis eustache ude. ude was steward to the united service club, when he printed his "french cook" in . a very satisfactory and amusing account of this volume occurs in the "london magazine" for january . but whatever may be thought of ude nowadays, he not only exerted considerable influence on the higher cookery of his day, but may almost be said to have been the founder of the modern french school in england. ude became _chef_ at crockford's club, which was built in , the year in which his former employer, the duke of york, died. there is a story that, on hearing of the duke's illness, ude exclaimed, "ah, mon pauvre duc, how much you shall miss me where you are gone!" about , mrs. johnstone brought out her well-known contribution to this section of literature under the title of "the cook and housewife's manual," veiling her authorship under the pseudonym of mistress margaret dods, the landlady in scott's tale of "st. ronan's well," which appeared three years before ( vo, ). mrs. johnstone imparted a novel feature to her book by investing it with a fictitious history and origin, which, like most inventions of the kind, is scarcely consistent with the circumstances, however it may tend to enliven the monotony of a professional publication. after three prefaces in the fourth edition before me ( vo, ) we arrive at a heading, "institution of the cleikum club," which narrates how peregrine touchwood, esquire, sought to cure his _ennui_ and hypochondria by studying apician mysteries; and it concludes with the syllabus of a series of thirteen lectures on cookery, which were to be delivered by the said esquire. one then enters on the undertaking itself, which can be readily distinguished from an ordinary manual by a certain literary tone, which certainly betrays a little the hand or influence of scott. but though the present is a scottish production, there is no narrow specialism in its scheme. the title-page gives a london publisher as well as an anglo-athenian one, and mrs. johnstone benevolently adapted her labours to her countrywomen and the unworthier southrons alike. i imagine, however, that of all the latter-day master-cooks, alexis soyer is most remembered. his "gastronomic regenerator," a large and handsome octavo volume of between and pages, published in , lies before me. it has portraits of the compiler and his wife, and many other illustrations, and is dedicated to a royal duke. it was produced under the most influential patronage and pressure, for soyer was overwhelmed with engagements, and had scruples against appearance in print. he tells us that in some library, to which he gained access, he once found among the works of shakespeare and other _chefs_ in a different department, a volume with the words "nineteenth edition" upon it, and when he opened it, he saw to his great horror "a receipt for ox-tail soup!" why this revelation exercised such a terrifying effect he proceeds to explain. it was the incongruity of a cookery book in the temple of the muses. but nevertheless, such is the frailty of our nature, that he gradually, on regaining his composure, and at such leisure intervals as he could command, prepared the "gastronomic regenerator," in which he eschewed all superfluous ornaments of diction, and studied a simplicity of style germane to the subject; perchance he had looked into kitchener's preface. he lets us know that he had made collections of the same kind at an earlier period of his career, but had destroyed them, partly owing to his arduous duties at the reform club, and partly to the depressing influence of the nineteenth edition of somebody else's cookery book--probably, by the way, ude's. the present work occupied some ten months, and was prepared amid the most stupendous interruptions from fair visitors to the club ( , ), dinners for the members and their friends ( , ), dinner parties of importance ( ), and the meals for the staff ( ). he gives a total of , dishes; but it is not entirely clear whether these refer to the dinner parties of importance, or to the , of inferior note, or to both. the feeling of dismay at the nineteenth edition of somebody must have been sincere, for he winds up his preface with an adjuration to his readers (whom, in the "directions for carving," he does not style gentle, or learned, or worshipful, but honourable) not to place his labours on the same shelf with "paradise lost." soyer had also perhaps certain misgivings touching too close an approximation to other _chefs_ besides milton and shakespeare, for he refers to the "profound ideas" of locke, to which he was introduced, to his vast discomfort, "in a most superb library in the midst of a splendid baronial hall." but the library of the reform club probably contained all this heterogeneous learning. does the "gastronomic regenerator," out of respect to the fastidious sentiments of its author, occupy a separate apartment in that institution with a separate curator? it seems only the other day to me, that soyer took gore lodge, and seemed in a fair way to make his removal from the reform club a prosperous venture. but he lost his wife, and was unfortunate in other ways, and the end was very sad indeed. "soyez tranquille," was the epitaph proposed at the time by some unsentimental wagforpoor madame soyer; it soon served for them both. but nearly concurrent with soyer's book appeared one of humble pretensions, yet remarkable for its lucidity and precision, eliza acton's "modern cookery in all its branches reduced to an easy practice," mo, . i have heard this little volume highly commended by competent judges as exactly what it professes to be; and the quantities in the receipts are particularly reliable. the first essay to bring into favourable notice the produce of colonial cattle was, so far as i can collect, a volume published in , and called "receipts for cooking australian meat, with directions for preparing sauces suitable for the same." this still remains a vexed question; but the consumption of the meat is undoubtedly on the increase, and will continue to be, till the population of australasia equalises supply and demand. cookery books. part iv. besides the authorities for this branch of the inquiry already cited, there are a few others, which it may assist the student to set down herewith:-- . a collection of ordinances and regulations for the government of the royal household (edward iii. to william and mary). to, . . the book of nurture. by hugh rhodes, of the king's chapel. printed in the time of henry viii. by john redman. to. . a breviate touching the order and government of the house of a nobleman. . _archaeologia_, xiii. . orders made by henry, prince of wales, respecting his household. . _archaeologia_, xiv. . the school of good manners. by william phiston or fiston. vo, . . the school of virtue, the second part. by richard west. mo, . . the school of grace; or, a book of nurture. by john hart. mo. (about .) . england's newest way in all sorts of cookery. by henry howard, free cook of london. vo, london, . . a collection of above three hundred receipts in cookery, physick and surgery, for the use of all good wives, tender mothers, and careful nurses. by several hands. the second edition, to which is added a second part. vo, london, . fifth edition, vo, london, . . the compleat city and country cook. by charles carter. vo, london, . . the compleat housewife: or, accomplish'd gentlewomans companion: being a collection of upwards of five hundred of the most approved receipts in cookery, pastry, confectionery, preserving, pickles, cakes, creams, jellies, made wines, cordials. with copper plates.... and also bills of fare for every month in the year.... by e. smith. seventh edition, with very large additions, near fifty receipts being communicated just before the author's death. vo, london, . eleventh edition. vo, london, . . the complete family piece: a very choice collection of receipts in... cookery. seventh edition. vo, london, . . the modern cook. by vincent la chapelle, cook to the prince of orange. third edition. vo, london, . . a treatise of all sorts of foods, both animal and vegetable, and also of drinkables, written originally in french by the learned m.l. lemery. translated by d. hay, m.d. vo, london, . . the housekeeper's pocket-book. by sarah harrison. sixth edition, vols. mo, london, . . professed cookery. by ann cook. third edition. vo, london (about ). . the experienced english housekeeper. by elizabeth raffald. second edition. vo, london, . there were an eighth, tenth, and eleventh editions, and two others, described as "new editions," between this date and . the compiler dedicates her book to "the honourable lady elizabeth warburton," in whose service she had been. she mentions that the volume was published by subscription, and that she had obtained eight hundred names. in the preface mrs. raffald begins by observing: "when i reflect upon the number of books already in print upon this subject, and _with what contempt they are read_, i cannot but be apprehensive that this may meet the same fate with some who will censure before they either see it or try its value." she concludes by saying that she had not meddled with physical receipts, "leaving them to the physician's superior judgment, whose proper province they are." the author of the "experienced housekeeper" tells us that she had not only filled that post in noble families during fifteen years, but had travelled with her employers, and so widened her sphere of observation. . the young ladies' guide in the art of cookery. by elizabeth marshall. vo, newcastle, . . english housewifery exhibited in above receipts. by elizabeth moxon. fourth edition. vo, leeds (about ). . the practice of modern cookery. by george dalrymple. vo, edinburgh, . . the ladies' assistant for regulating and supplying the table. by charlotte mason. vo, london, . . the compleat family companion. vo, london, (?). . the honours of the table; or, rules for behaviour during meals, with the whole art of carving.... by the author of "principles of politeness," etc. (trusler). second edition. woodcuts by bewick. mo, london, . . the french family cook: being a complete system of french cookery. from the french. vo, london, . . the british housewife; or, the cook's, housekeeper's, and gardener's companion. by martha bradley. vo. . cookery and pastry. by mrs. macivey. new edition, mo, edinburgh, . . the london art of cookery. by john farley. fourth edition. vo, london, . . the school of good living; or, a literary and historical essay on the european kitchen, beginning with cadmus, the cook and king, and concluding with the union of cookery and chymistry. mo, london, . . _culina famulatur medicina_. receipts in modern cookery, with a medical commentary by ignotus, and revised by a. hunter, m.d., f.a.s.l. and e. fourth edition, mo, york, . . the universal cook. by francis collingwood and t. woollams. fourth edition. vo, london, . . a complete system of cookery. by john simpson, cook. vo, london, . again, vo, london, . . simpson's cookery improved and modernised. by h.w. brand. vo, london, . . the imperial and royal cook. by frederick nutt, esquire, author of the "complete confectioner." vo, london, . . the housekeeper's domestic library. by charles millington. vo, london, . . the housekeeper's instructor; or, universal family book. by w.a. henderson. seventeenth edition. by s.c. schrubbelie, cook to the albany, london. vo, london, . . the art of preserving all kinds of animal and vegetable substances for several years. by m. appert. translated from the french. second edition. vo, london, . with a folding plate. . domestic economy and cookery, for rich and poor. by a lady. vo, london, . in the preface the author apprises us that a long residence abroad had enabled her to become a mistress of the details of foreign european cookery; but she adds: "the mulakatanies and curries of india; the sweet pillaus, yahourt, and cold soups of persia; the cubbubs, sweet yaughs and sherbets of egypt; the cold soups and mixed meats of russia, the cuscussous and honeyed paste of africa, have been inserted with the view of introducing a less expensive and more wholesome and a more delicate mode of cookery." . apician morsels; or, tales of the table, kitchen, and larder. by dick humelbergius secundus. vo, london, . . cottage economy and cookery. vo, london, .[footnote: reprinted from the journal of the agricultural society, , vol. iii, part i]. diet of the yeoman and the poor. the staple food among the lower orders in anglo-saxon and the immediately succeeding times was doubtless bread, butter, and cheese, the aliment which goes so far even yet to support our rural population, with vegetables and fruit, and occasional allowances of salted bacon and pancakes, beef, or fish. the meat was usually boiled in a kettle suspended on a tripod [footnote: the tripod is still employed in many parts of the country for a similar purpose] over a wood-fire, such as is used only now, in an improved shape, for fish and soup. the kettle which is mentioned, as we observe, in the tale of "tom thumb," was the universal vessel for boiling purposes [footnote: an inverted kettle was the earliest type of the diving-bell], and the bacon-house (or larder), so called from the preponderance of that sort of store over the rest, was the warehouse for the winter stock of provisions [footnote: what is called in some places the keeping-room also accommodated flitches on the walls, and hams ranged along the beams overhead; and it served at the same time for a best parlour]. the fondness for condiments, especially garlic and pepper, among the higher orders, possibly served to render the coarser nourishment of the poor more savoury and flavorous. "it is interesting to remark," says mr. wright [footnote: "domestic manners and sentiments," , p. ], "that the articles just mentioned (bread, butter, and cheese) have preserved their anglo-saxon names to the present time, while all kinds of meat--beef, veal, mutton, pork, even bacon--have retained only the names given to them by the normans; which seems to imply that flesh-meat was not in general use for food among the lower classes of society." in malory's compilation on the adventures of king arthur and his knights, contemporary with the "book of st. alban's," we are expressly informed in the sixth chapter, how the king made a great feast at caerleon in wales; but we are left in ignorance of its character. the chief importance of details in this case would have been the excessive probability that malory would have described an entertainment consonant with the usage of his own day, although at no period of early history was there ever so large an assemblage of guests at one time as met, according to the fable, to do honour to arthur. in the tenth century colloquy of archbishop alfric, the boy is made to say that he is too young to eat meat, but subsists on cabbages, eggs, fish, cheese, butter, beans, and other things, according to circumstances; so that a vegetable diet was perhaps commoner in those days even among the middle classes than at present. this youth, when he is asked what he drinks, replies, water, or ale if he can get it. the dish so deftly constructed by king arthur, according to one of his numerous biographers, exhibited that wedlock of fruit with animal matter--fat and plums--which we post-arthurians eye with a certain fastidious repugnance, but which, notwithstanding, lingered on to the elizabethan or jacobaean era--nay, did not make the gorge of our grandsires turn rebellious. it survives among ourselves only in the modified shape of such accessories as currant jelly and apple sauce. but the nursery rhyme about arthur and the bag-pudding of barley meal with raisins and meat has a documentary worth for us beyond the shadowy recital of the banquet at caerleon, for, _mutato nomine_, it is the description of a favourite article of popular diet in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. the narrative of mrs. thumb and her pudding is more circumstantial than that of king alfred and the housewife; and if the tradition is worthless, it serves us so far, that it faithfully portrays a favourite item of rustic consumption in old times. we are told that the pudding was made in a bowl, and that it was chiefly composed of the flesh and blood of a newly-killed hog, laid in batter; and then, when all was ready, the bag with all its savoury burden was put into a kettle. as we are already on the threshold of legend and myth, we may linger there a moment to recall to memory the resemblance between the description of this piece of handiwork and that ascribed to good king arthur, who lived in days when monarchs were their own _chefs_, for the arthurian dish was also prepared in a bag, and consisted, according to the ditty, of barley-meal and fat. soberly speaking, the two accounts belong, maybe, to something like the same epoch in the annals of gastronomy; and a large pudding was, for a vast length of time, no doubt, a prevailing _piece de résistance_ in all frugal british households. it was the culinary forefather of toad-in-the-hole, hot-pot, irish stew, and of that devil-dreaded cornish pasty. the elizabethan transmitters of these two apician nuggets possibly antedated the popular institution of the bag-pudding; but the ancientest gastronomical records testify to the happy introduction of the frying-pan about the era when we were under alfred's fatherly sway. it may have even preceded the grill, just as the fork lagged behind the spoon, from which it is a seeming evolution. that no reader may doubt the fact, that tom's mother made the pudding, and that tom held the candle, we refer to the old edition of this choice piece of chapman's ware, where an accurate drawing of mrs. thumb, and the board, and the bowl, and tom with the candle, may be inspected. the _prima stamina_ of the modern fruit-pudding really appear to be found in the ancient bag-pudding, of which tom thumb had such excellent reason to be acquainted with the contents. the mode of construction was similar, and both were boiled in a cloth. the material and subsidiary treatment of course differed; but it is curious that no other country possesses either the tart or the pudding, as we understand them, and as the latter has perhaps been developed from the dish, of the making of which tom thumb was an eye-witness to his sorrow, so the covered fruit tart may not improbably be an outgrowth from the old coffin pasty of venison or game, with the superaddition of a dish for the safe custody of the juice. another rather prominent factor in the diet of the poor classes, not only in scotland but in the north of england, was oatmeal variously prepared. one very favourable and palatable way was by grinding the meal a second time as fine as flour, boiling it, and then serving it with hot milk or treacle. there is something in the nature of this food so peculiarly satisfying and supporting, that it seems to have been destined to become the staple nourishment of a poor population in a cold and bracing climate. the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries unquestionably saw a great advance in the mystery of cookery and in the diversity of dishes, and the author of "piers of fulham" complains, that men were no longer satisfied with brawn and powdered beef, which he terms "store of house," but would have venison, wild fowl, and heronshaw; and men of simple estate, says he, will have partridges and plovers, when lords lack. he adds quaintly: "a mallard of the dunghill is good enough for me, with pleasant pickle, or it is else poison. pardy." we have for our purpose a very serviceable relic of the old time, called "a merry jest, how the ploughman learned his paternoster." the scene purports to be laid in france, and the general outline may have been taken from the french; but it is substantially english, with allusions to kent, robin hood, and so forth, and it certainly illustrates the theme upon which we are. this ploughman was in fact a farmer or husbandman, and the account of his dwelling and garden-stuff is very interesting. we are told that his hall-roof was full of bacon-flitches, and his store-room of eggs, butter, and cheese. he had plenty of malt to make good ale-- "and martlemas beef to him was not dainty; onions and garlic had he enough, and good cream, and milk of the cow." but in "vox populi vox dei," written about , and therefore apparently not from the pen of skelton, who died in , it is said that the price of an ox had risen to four pounds, and a sheep without the wool to twelve shillings and upwards, so that the poor man could seldom afford to have meat at his table. this evil the writer ascribes to the exactions of the landlord and the lawyer. the former charged too highly for his pastures, and the latter probably advanced money on terms. the old poem depicts in sad colours the condition of the yeoman at the same period, that had had once plenty of cows and cream, butter, eggs, cheese, and honey; all which had gone to enrich upstarts who throve by casting-counters and their pens. the story of the "king and a poor northern man," , also turns upon the tyranny of the lawyers over ignorant clients. the "serving-man's comfort," , draws a somewhat gloomy picture of the times. the prices of all provisions, among other points, had trebled since the good old days, when his father and grandfather kept house. then people could buy an ox for s., a sheep for s., a calf for s., a goose for d., a capon for d., a hen for d., a pig for the same, and all other household provisions at a like rate. the reason given by the farmer was that the landlords had raised their rent. let them have the land on the old terms, and the former prices would pay. this plea and demand have come back home to us in . the tradition is, that when queen elizabeth received the intelligence of the defeat of the armada, she was dining off a goose--doubtless about eleven o'clock in the morning. it was an anxious moment, and perhaps her majesty for the moment had thrown ceremony somewhat aside, and was "keeping secret house." the author of the "serving-man's comfort," , also laments the decay of hospitality. "where," he inquires "are the great chines of stalled beef, the great, black jacks of double beer, the long hall-tables fully furnished with good victuals?" but he seems to have been a stickler for the solid fare most in vogue, according to his complaint, formerly; and he represents to us that in lieu of it one had to put up with goose-giblets, pigs' pettitoes, and so many other boiled meats, forced meats, and made dishes. things were hardly so very bad, however, if, as he states previously, the curtailment of the expenditure on the table still left, as a medium repast, two or three dishes, with fruit and cheese after. the black jack here mentioned was not discarded till comparatively modern days. nares, who published his glossary in , states that he recollects them in use. "a meal's meat twice a week, worth a groat," is mentioned as the farm servant's portion in "civil and uncivil life," . in "a piece of friar bacon's brasen-heads prophesie," a unique poem, , we read that at that time a cheesecake and a pie were held "good country meat." the author adds: "ale and spice, and curdes and creame, would make a scholler make a theame." breton, in his "fantasticks," , observes: "milk, butter and cheese are the labourers dyet; and a pot of good beer quickens his spirits." norfolk dumplings were celebrated in john day the playwright's time. he has put into the mouth of his east-country yeoman's son, tom strowd, in "the blind beggar of bethnal green," written long before it was printed in , the following:--"as god mend me, and ere thou com'st into norfolk, i'll give thee as good a dish of norfolk dumplings as ere thou laydst thy lips to;" and in another passage of the same drama, where swash's shirt has been stolen, while he is in bed, he describes himself "as naked as your norfolk dumplin." in the play just quoted, old strowd, a norfolk yeoman, speaks of his contentment with good beef, norfolk bread, and country home-brewed drink; and in the "city madam," , holdfast tells us that before his master got an estate, "his family fed on roots and livers, and necks of beef on sundays." i cite these as traits of the kind of table kept by the lower grades of english society in the seventeenth century. meats and drinks. slender: you are afraid, if you see the bear loose, are you not? anne: aye, indeed, sir slender: that's meat and drink to me, now. merry wives of windsor, i, . the manufacture of wine and of fruit preserves, and many of the processes of cookery, could have scarcely been accomplished without a large and constant supply of sugar. the exact date of the first introduction of the latter into england continues to be a matter of uncertainty. it was clearly very scarce, and doubtless equally dear, when, in , henry iii. asked the mayor of winchester to procure him three pounds of alexandria sugar, if so much could be got, and also some rose and violet-coloured sugar; nor had it apparently grown much more plentiful when the same prince ordered the sheriffs of london to send him four loaves of sugar to woodstock. but it soon made its way into the english homes, and before the end of the thirteenth century it could be procured even in remote provincial towns. it was sold either by the loaf or the pound. it was still exorbitantly high in price, varying from eighteen pence to three shillings a pound of coeval currency; and it was retailed by the spice-dealers. in russell's "book of nurture," composed about , it occurs as an ingredient in hippocras; and one collects from a letter sent by sir edward wotton to lord cobham from calais in , that at that time the quantities imported were larger, and the price reduced; for wotton advises his correspondent of a consignment of five-and-twenty loaves at six shillings the loaf. one loaf was equal to ten pounds; this brought the commodity down to eight pence a pound of fifteenth century money. the sugar of cyprus was also highly esteemed; that of bezi, in the straits of sunda, was the most plentiful; but the west indian produce, as well as that of mauritius, madeira, and other cane-growing countries, was unknown. of bread, the fifteenth century had several descriptions in use: pain-main or bread of very fine flour, wheat-bread, barley-meal bread, bran-bread, bean-bread, pease-bread, oat-bread or oat-cakes, hard-bread, and unleavened bread. the poor often used a mixture of rye, lentils, and oatmeal, varied according to the season and district. the author of "the serving-man's comfort," , however, seems to say that it was counted by the poorer sort at that time a hardship only to be tolerated in a dear year to mix beans and peas with their corn, and he adds: "so must i yield you a loaf of coarse cockle, having no acquaintance with coin to buy corn." in a _nominale_ of this period mention is made of "oblys," or small round loaves, perhaps like the old-fashioned "turnover"; and we come across the explicit phrase, _a loaf of bread_, for the first time, a pictorial vocabulary of the period even furnishing us with a representation of its usual form. nor were the good folks of those days without their simnels, cracknels, and other sorts of cakes for the table, among which in the _wastel_ we recognise the equivalent of the modern french _gâteau_. besides march-pain or pain-main, and pain-puff, two sorts baked on special occasions, and rather entering into the class of confectionery, our better-to-do ancestors usually employed three descriptions of bread: manchete for the master's table, made of fine boulted flour; chete, of unboulted flour, but not mixed with any coarser ingredient; and brown-bread, composed of flour and rye meal, and known as _maslin_ (mystelon). a bushel of wheat, in a romance of the thirteenth century, is estimated to produce twenty loaves; but the statement is obviously to be taken with allowance. the manchet was sometimes thought to be sufficient without butter, as we now eat a scone. in the "conceits of old hobson," , the worthy haberdasher of the poultry gives some friends what is facetiously described as a "light" banquet--a cup of wine and a manchet of bread on a trencher for each guest, in an apartment illuminated with five hundred candles. there is no pictorial record of the mode in which the early baker worked here, analogous to that which lacroix supplies of his sixteenth century _confrère_. the latter is brought vividly enough before us in a copy of one of jost amman's engravings, and we perceive the bakery and its tenants: one (apparently a female) kneading the dough in a trough at the farther end, a second by a roasting fire, with a long ladle or peel in his hand, putting the loaf on the oven, and a third, who is a woman, leaving the place with two baskets of bread, one on her head and one on her arm; the baker himself is almost naked, like the operatives in a modern iron furnace. the artist has skilfully realised the oppressive and enervating atmosphere; and it was till lately quite usual to see in the side streets of paris in the early morning the _boulanger_ at work precisely in the same informal costume. so tenacious is usage, and so unchanging many of the conditions of life. the anglo-norman used butter where his italian contemporary used oil. but it is doubtful whether before the conquest our ancestors were commonly acquainted with butter. the early cook understood the art of glazing with yolk of egg, and termed it endoring, and not less well that of presenting dishes under names calculated to mislead the intended partaker, as where we find a receipt given for _pome de oringe_, which turns out to be a preparation of liver of pork with herbs and condiments, served up in the form of glazed force-meat balls. venison was salted in troughs. in the tale of "the king and the hermit," the latter exhibits to his unknown visitor his stock of preserved venison from the deer, which he had shot in the forest. the mushroom, of which so many varieties are at present recognised by botanists, seems, from the testimony of an italian, giacomo castelvetri, who was in london in , and to whom i have already referred, to have been scarcely known here at that time. i cannot say, of course, how far castelvetri may have prosecuted his inquiries, though he certainly leaves the impression of having been intelligently observant; or whether he includes in this observation the edible toadstools; but even now much unreasonable prejudice exists as to the latter, and very limited use is made of any but two or three familiar sorts of the mushroom itself. it is a pity that this misconception should not be dissipated. caviary had been brought into england, probably from russia, at the commencement of the seventeenth century, perhaps sooner. in , "the court and country," by breton, seems to represent it as an article of diet which was little known, and not much relished; for a great lady had sent the writer's father a little barrel of it, and it was no sooner opened than it was fastened down again, to be returned to the donor with a respectful message that her servant had black soap enough already. in the time of james i. the ancient bill of fare had been shorn of many of its coarser features, so far as fish was concerned; and the author of "the court and country" tells a story to shew that porpoise-pie was a dish which not even a dog would eat. the times had indeed changed, since a king and a cardinal-archbishop judged this warm-blooded sea-dweller a fit dish for the most select company. it is not a despicable or very ascetic regimen which stevenson lays before us under april in his reproduction of breton's "fantasticks," , under the title of the "twelve months," :--"the wholesome dyet that breeds good sanguine juyce, such as pullets, capons, sucking veal, beef not above three years old, a draught of morning milk fasting from the cow; grapes, raysons, and figs be good before meat; rice with almond milk, birds of the field, peasants and partridges, and fishes of stony rivers, hen eggs potcht, and such like." under may he furnishes us with a second and not less appetising _menu_:-- "butter and sage are now the wholesome breakfast, but fresh cheese and cream are meat for a dainty mouth; the early peascods and strawberries want no price with great bellies; but the chicken and the duck are fatted for the market; the sucking rabbet is frequently taken in the nest, and many a gosling never lives to be a goose." even so late as the succeeding reign, breton speaks of the good cheer at christmas, and of the cook, if he lacks not wit, sweetly licking his fingers. the storage of liquids became a difficult problem where, as among our ancestors, glazed pottery was long unknown; and more especially with regard to the supply of water in dry seasons. but so far as milk was concerned, the daily yield probably seldom exceeded the consumption; and among the inhabitants further north and east, who, as caesar says, partook also of flesh, and did not sow grain--in other words, were less vegetarian in their habits from the more exhausting nature of the climate--the consideration might be less urgent. it is open to doubt if, even in those primitive times, the supply of a national want lagged far behind the demand. the list of wines which the king of hungary proposed to have at the wedding of his daughter, in "the squire of low degree," is worth consulting. harrison, in his "description of england," , speaks of thirty different kinds of superior vintages and fifty-six of commoner or weaker kinds. but the same wine was perhaps known under more than one name. romney or rumney, a hungarian growth, malmsey from the peloponnesus, and hippocras were favourites, and the last-named was kept as late as the last century in the buttery of st. john's college, cambridge, for use during the christmas festivities. but france, spain, greece, almost all countries, contributed to furnish the ancient wine-cellar, and gratify the variety of taste among connoisseurs; and for such as had not the means to purchase foreign productions, the juice of the english grape, either alone or mingled with honey and spice, furnished a not unpalatable and not very potent stimulant. as claret and hock with us, so anciently bastard and piment were understood in a generic sense, the former for any mixed wine, the latter for one seasoned with spice. in "colin blobol's testament," a whimsical production of the fifteenth century, tent and valencia wines are mentioned, with wine of languedoc and orleans. but perhaps it will be best to cite the passage:-- "i trow there shall be an honest fellowship, save first shall they of ale have new backbones. with strong ale brewed in vats and in tuns; ping, drangollie, and the draget fine, mead, mattebru, and the metheling. red wine, the claret and the white, with tent and alicant, in whom i delight. wine of languedoc and of orleans thereto: single beer, and other that is double: spruce beer, and the beer of hamburgh: malmsey, tires, and romany." but some of the varieties are hidden under obscure names. we recognise muscadel, rhine wine, bastard, hippocras, however. on the th of december, , piers barber received six shillings and eight pence, according to the "privy purse expences of henry vii.," "for spice for ypocras." metheglin and beer of some kind appear to be the most ancient liquors of which there are any vestiges among the britons. ferguson, in his essay "on the formation of the palate," states that they are described by a greek traveller, who visited the south of britain in the fourth century b.c. this informant describes metheglin as composed of wheat and honey (of course mixed with water), and the beer as being of sufficient strength to injure the nerves and cause head-ache. worlidge, in his "vinetum britannicum," , gives us receipts for metheglin and birch wine. breton, in his "fantasticks," , under january, recommends a draught of ale and wormwood wine mixed in a morning to comfort the heart, scour the maw, and fulfil other beneficial offices. the english beer of by-gone times underwent many vicissitudes, and it was long before our ancestors conquered their dislike to the bitter hop, after having been accustomed to a thick, sweet liquor of which the modern kentish ale is in some measure a survival. beer was made from a variety of grain; oats were most commonly employed. in france, they resorted even to vetches, lentils, rye, and darnel. but as a rule it was a poor, thin drink which resulted from the operation, and the monks of glastonbury deemed themselves fortunate in being allowed by their abbot to put a load of oats into the vat to improve the quality of the beverage; which may account for peter of blois characterising the ale in use at court in his day (he died about the end of the twelfth century) as potent--it was by contrast so. the first assize of ale seems not to have been enacted till the reign of henry iii. from a glossary of the fourteenth century, inserted in "reliquse antique," , it appears that whey was then used as a drink; it occurs there as "cerum, i, quidam liquor, whey." the kitchen. in direct connection with cookery as with horticulture, are the utensils and appliances which were at the command of those who had to do with these matters in days of yore; and in both cases an inquirer finds that he has to turn from the vain search for actual specimens belonging to remoter antiquity to casual representations or descriptions in mss. and printed books. our own museums appear to be very weakly furnished with examples of the vessels and implements in common use for culinary purposes in ancient times, and, judging from the comparatively limited information which we get upon this subject from the pages of lacroix, the paucity of material is not confined to ourselves. the destruction and disappearance of such humble monuments of the civilisation of the past are easily explained; and the survival of a slender salvage is to be treated as a circumstance not less remarkable than fortunate. it seems that the practice was to cut up, if not to slaughter, the animals used for food in the kitchen, and to prepare the whole carcase, some parts in one way and some in another. we incidentally collect from an ancient tale that the hearts of swine were much prized as dainties. besides a general notion of the appointments of the cooking department, we are enabled to form some conception of the aspect of the early kitchen itself from extant representations in the "archaeological album," the "penny magazine" for , and lacroix [footnote: "moeurs, usages et costumes au moyen age," , pp , , ]. the last-named authority furnishes us with two interesting sixteenth century interiors from jost amman, and (from the same source) a portraiture of the cook of that period. the costume of the subject is not only exhibited, doubtless with the fidelity characteristic of the artist, but is quite equally applicable to france, if not to our own country, and likewise to a much earlier date. the evidences of the same class supplied by the "archaeological album," , are drawn from the ms. in the british museum, formerly belonging to the abbey of st. albans. they consist of two illustrations--one of master robert, cook to the abbey, as elsewhere noticed, accompanied by his wife--unique relic of its kind; the other a view of a small apartment with dressers and shelves, and with plates and accessories hung round, in which a cook, perhaps the identical master robert aforesaid, is plucking a bird. the fireplace is in the background, and the iron vessel which is to receive the fowl, or whatever it may really be, is suspended over the flame by a long chain. the perspective is rather faulty, and the details are not very copious; but for so early a period as the thirteenth or early part of the following century its value is undeniable. the "penny magazine" presents us with a remarkable exterior, that of the venerable kitchen of stanton-harcourt, near oxford, twenty-nine feet square and sixty feet in height. there are two large fireplaces, facing each other, but no chimney, the smoke issuing atthe holes, each about seven inches in diameter, which run round the roof. as lamb said of his essays, that they were all preface, so this kitchen is all chimney. it is stated that the kitchen at glastonbury abbey was constructed on the same model; and both are probably older than the reign of henry iv. the one to which i am more immediately referring, though, at the time ( ) the drawing was taken, in an excellent state of preservation, had evidently undergone repairs and structural changes. it was at stanton-harcourt that pope wrote a portion of his translation of homer, about . a manufactory of brass cooking utensils was established at wandsworth in or before aubrey's time by dutchmen, who kept the art secret. lysons states that the place where the industry was carried on bore the name of the "frying pan houses" [footnote: a "environs of london," st ed., surrey, pp. - ]. in the north of england, the _bake-stone_, originally of the material to which it owed its name, but at a very early date constructed of iron, with the old appellations retained as usual, was the universal machinery for baking, and was placed on the _branderi_, an iron frame which was fixed on the top of the fireplace, and consisted of iron bars, with a sliding or slott bar, to shift according to the circumstances. the tripod which held the cooking-vessel over the wood flame, among the former inhabitants of britain, has not been entirely effaced. it is yet to be seen here and there in out-of-the-way corners and places; and in india they use one constructed of clay, and differently contrived. the most primitive pots for setting over the fire on the tripod were probably of bronze. the tripod seems to be substantially identical with what was known in nidderdale as the kail-pot. "this was formerly in common use," says mr. lucas; "a round iron pan, about ten inches deep and eighteen inches across, with a tight-fitting, convex lid. it was provided with three legs. the kail-pot, as it was called, was used for cooking pies, and was buried bodily in burning peat. as the lower peats became red-hot, they drew them from underneath, and placed them on the top. the kail-pot may still be seen on a few farms." this was about . the writer is doubtless correct in supposing that this utensil was originally employed for cooking kail or cabbage and other green stuff. three rods of iron or hard wood lashed together, with a hook for taking the handle of the kettle, formed, no doubt, the original tripod. but among some of the tribes of the north of europe, and in certain tartar, indian, and other communities, we see no such rudimentary substitute for a grate, but merely two uprights and a horizontal rest, supporting a chain; and in the illustration to the thirteenth or fourteenth century ms., once part of the abbatial library at st. albans, a nearer approach to the modern jack is apparent in the suspension of the vessel over the flame by a chain attached to the centre of a fireplace. not the tripod, therefore, but the other type must be thought to have been the germ of the later-day apparatus, which yielded in its turn to the range. the fireplace with a ring in the middle, from which is suspended the pot, is represented in a french sculpture of the end of the fourteenth century, where two women are seated on either side, engaged in conversation. one holds a ladle, and the other an implement which may be meant for a pair of bellows. in his treatise on kitchen utensils, neckam commences with naming a table, on which the cook may cut up green stuff of various sorts, as onions, peas, beans, lentils, and pulse; and he proceeds to enumerate the tools and implements which are required to carry on the work: pots, tripods for the kettle, trenchers, pestles, mortars, hatchets, hooks, saucepans, cauldrons, pails, gridirons, knives, and so on. the head-cook was to have a little apartment, where he could prepare condiments and dressings; and a sink was to be provided for the viscera and other offal of poultry. fish was cooked in salt water or diluted wine. pepper and salt were freely used, and the former must have been ground as it was wanted, for a pepper-mill is named as a requisite. mustard we do not encounter till the time of johannes de garlandia (early thirteenth century), who states that it grew in his own garden at paris. garlic, or gar-leac (in the same way as the onion is called _yn-leac_), had established itself as a flavouring medium. the nasturtium was also taken into service in the tenth or eleventh century for the same purpose, and is classed with herbs. when the dish was ready, it was served up with green sauce, in which the chief ingredients were sage, parsley, pepper, and oil, with a little salt. green geese were eaten with raisin or crab-apple sauce. poultry was to be well larded or basted while it was before the fire. i may be allowed to refer the reader, for some interesting jottings respecting the first introduction of coal into london, to "our english home," . "the middle classes," says the anonymous writer, "were the first to appreciate its value; but the nobility, whose mansions were in the pleasant suburbs of holborn and the strand, regarded it as a nuisance." this was about the middle of the thirteenth century. it may be a mite contributed to our knowledge of early household economy to mention, by the way, that in the supernatural tale of the "smith and his dame" (sixteenth century) "a quarter of coal" occurs. the smith lays it on the fire all at once; but then it was for his forge. he also poured water on the flames, to make them, by means of his bellows, blaze more fiercely. but the proportion of coal to wood was long probably very small. one of the tenants of the abbey of peterborough, in , was obliged to furnish forty loads of wood, but of coal two only. in the time of charles i., however, coals seem to have been usual in the kitchen, for breton, in this "fantasticks," , says, under january:--"the maid is stirring betimes, and slipping on her shooes and her petticoat, groaps for the tinder box, where after a conflict between the steele and the stone, she begets a spark, at last the candle lights on his match; then upon an old rotten foundation of broaken boards she erects an artificiall fabrick of the black bowels of new-castle soyle, to which she sets fire with as much confidence as the romans to their funerall pyles." under july, in the same work, we hear of "a chafing dish of coals;" and under september, wood and coals are mentioned together. but doubtless the employment of the latter was far less general. in a paper read before the royal society, june , , there is an account of a saucepan discovered in the bed of the river withain, near tattersall ferry, in lincolnshire, in . it was of base metal, and was grooved at the bottom, to allow the contents more readily to come within reach of the fire. the writer of this narrative, which is printed in the "philosophical transactions," considered that the vessel might be of roman workman-ship; as he states that on the handle was stamped a name, c. arat., which he interprets _caius aratus_. "it appears," he adds, "to have been tinned; but almost all the coating had been worn off.... the art of tinning copper was understood and practised by the romans, although it is commonly supposed to be a modern invention." neckam mentions the roasting-spit, elsewhere called the roasting-iron; but i fail to detect skewers, though they can hardly have been wanting. ladles for basting and stirring were familiar. as to the spit itself, it became a showy article of plate, when the fashion arose of serving up the meat upon it in the hall; and the tenure by which finchingfield in essex was held _in capite_ in the reign of edward iii.--that of turning the spit at the coronation--demonstrates that the instrument was of sufficient standing to be taken into service as a memorial formality. the fifteenth century vocabulary notices the salt-cellar, the spoon, the trencher, and the table-cloth. the catalogue comprises _morsus, a bit_, which shows that _bit_ and _bite_ are synonymous, or rather, that the latter is the true word as still used in scotland, yorkshire, and lincolnshire, from the last of which the pilgrims carried it across the atlantic, where it is a current americanism, not for one bite, but as many as you please, which is, in fact, the modern provincial interpretation of the phrase, but not the antique english one. the word _towel_ was indifferently applied, perhaps, for a cloth for use at the table or in the lavatory. yet there was also the _manuturgium_, or hand-cloth, a speciality rendered imperative by the mediaeval fashion of eating. in the inventory of the linen at gilling, in yorkshire, one of the seats of the fairfax family, made in , occur:--"item, napkins vj. dozen. item, new napkins vj. dozen." this entry may or may not warrant a conclusion that the family bought that quantity at a time--not a very excessive store, considering the untidy habits of eating and the difficulty of making new purchases at short notice. another mark of refinement is the resort to the _napron_, corruptly _apron_, to protect the dress during the performance of kitchen work. but the fifteenth century was evidently growing wealthier in its articles of use and luxury; the garden and the kitchen only kept pace with the bed-chamber and the dining-hall, the dairy and the laundry, the stable and the out-buildings. an extensive nomenclature was steadily growing up, and the latin, old french, and saxon terms were giving way on all sides to the english. it has been now for some time an allowed and understood thing that in these domestic backgrounds the growth of our country and the minuter traits of private life are to be studied with most clear and usurious profit. the trencher, at first of bread, then of wood, after a while of pewter, and eventually of pottery, porcelain or china-earth, as it was called, and the precious metals, afforded abundant scope for the fancy of the artist, even in the remote days when the material for it came from the timber-dealer, and sets of twelve were sometimes decorated on the face with subjects taken from real life, and on the back with emblems of the purpose to which they were destined. puttenham, whose "art of english poetry" lay in ms. some years before it was published in , speaks of the posies on trenchers and banqueting dishes. the author of "our english home" alludes to a very curious set, painted in subjects and belonging to the reign of james i., which was exhibited at the society of antiquaries' rooms by colonel sykes. it is to be augured that, with the progress of refinement, the meats were served upon the table on dishes instead of trenchers, and that the latter were reserved for use by the guests of the family. for in the "serving-man's comfort," , one reads:--"even so the gentlemanly serving-man, whose life and manners doth equal his birth and bringing up, scorneth the society of these sots, or to place a dish where they give a trencher"; and speaking of the passion of people for raising themselves above their extraction, the writer, a little farther on, observes: "for the yeoman's son, as i said before, leaving _gee haigh!_ for, _butler, some more fair trenchers to the table!_ bringeth these ensuing ulcers amongst the members of the common body." the employment of trenchers, which originated in the manner which i have shown, introduced the custom of the distribution at table of the two sexes, and the fashion of placing a lady and gentleman alternately. in former days it was frequently usual for a couple thus seated together to eat from one trencher, more particularly if the relations between them were of an intimate nature, or, again, if it were the master and mistress of the establishment. walpole relates that so late as the middle of the last century the old duke and duchess of hamilton occupied the dais at the head of the room, and preserved the traditional manner by sharing the same plate. it was a token of attachment and a tender recollection of unreturnable youth. the prejudice against the fork in england remained very steadfast actual centuries after its first introduction; forks are particularised among the treasures of kings, as if they had been crown jewels, in the same manner as the _iron_ spits, pots, and frying-pans of his majesty edward iii.; and even so late as the seventeeth century, coryat, who employed one after his visit to italy, was nicknamed "furcifer." the two-pronged implement long outlived coryat; and it is to be seen in cutlers' signs even down to our day. the old dessert set, curiously enough, instead of consisting of knives and forks in equal proportions, contained eleven knives and one fork for _ginger_. both the fork and spoon were frequently made with handles of glass or crystal, like those of mother-of-pearl at present in vogue. in a tract coeval with coryat the fork-bearer, breton's "court and country," , there is a passage very relevant to this part of the theme:--"for us in the country," says he, "when we have washed our hands after no foul work, nor handling any unwholesome thing, we need no little forks to make hay with our mouths, to throw our meat into them." forks, though not employed by the community, became part of the effects of royal and great personages, and in the inventory of charles v. of france appear the spoon, knife, and fork. in another of the duke of burgundy, sixty years later ( ), knives and other implements occur, but no fork. the cutlery is described here as of german make. brathwaite, in his "rules for the government of the house of an earl," probably written about , mentions knives and spoons, but not forks. as the fork grew out of the chopstick, the spoon was probably suggested by the ladle, a form of implement employed alike by the baker and the cook; for the early tool which we see in the hands of the operative in the oven more nearly resembles in the bowl a spoon than a shovel. in india nowadays they have ladles, but not spoons. the universality of broths and semi-liquid substances, as well as the commencement of a taste for learned gravies, prompted a recourse to new expedients for communicating between the platter and the mouth; and some person of genius saw how the difficulty might be solved by adapting the ladle to individual service. but every religion has its quota of dissent, and there were, nay, are still, many who professed adherence to the sturdy simplicity of their progenitors, and saw in this daring reform and the fallow blade of the knife a certain effeminate prodigality. it is significant of the drift of recent years toward the monograph, that, in , mr. westman published "the spoon: primitive, egyptian, roman, mediaeval and modern," with one hundred illustrations, in an octavo volume. the luxury of carving-knives was, even in the closing years of the fifteenth century, reserved for royalty and nobility; for in the "privy purse expenses of henry vii.," under , a pair is said to have cost £ s. d. of money of that day. nothing is said of forks. but in the same account, under february st, - , one mistress brent receives s. (and a book, which cost the king s. more) for a silver fork weighing three ounces. in newbery's "dives pragmaticus," , a unique poetical volume in the library at althorpe, there is a catalogue of cooking utensils which, considering its completeness, is worth quotation; the author speaks in the character of a chapman--one forestalling autolycus:-- "i have basins, ewers, of tin, pewter and glass. great vessels of copper, fine latten and brass: both pots, pans and kettles, such as never was. i have platters, dishes, saucers and candle-sticks, chafers, lavers, towels and fine tricks: posnets, frying-pans, and fine puddingpricks ... fine pans for milk, and trim tubs for sowse. i have ladles, scummers, andirons and spits, dripping-pans, pot-hooks.... i have fire-pans, fire-forks, tongs, trivets, and trammels, roast-irons, trays, flaskets, mortars and pestles...." and among other items he adds rollers for paste, moulds for cooks, fine cutting knives, fine wine glasses, soap, fine salt, and candles. the list is the next best thing to an auctioneer's inventory of an elizabethan kitchen, to the fittings of shakespeare's, or rather of his father's. a good idea of the character and resources of a nobleman's or wealthy gentleman's kitchen at the end of the sixteenth and commencement of the seventeenth century may be formed from the fairfax inventories ( - ), lately edited by mr. peacock. i propose to annex a catalogue of the utensils which there present themselves:-- the furnace pan for beef. the beef kettle. great and small kettles. brass kettles, holding from sixteen to twenty gallons each. little kettles with bowed or carved handles. copper pans with ears. great brass pots. dripping-pans. an iron peel or baking shovel. a brazen mortar and a pestle. gridirons. iron ladles. a laten scummer. a grater. a pepper mill. a mustard-quern. boards. a salt-box. an iron range. iron racks. a tin pot. pot hooks. a galley bawk to suspend the kettle or pot over the fire. spits, square and round, and various sizes. bearers. crooks. in the larders (wet and dry) and pastry were:-- moulding boards for pastry. a boulting tub for meal. a little table. a spice cupboard. a chest for oatmeal. a trough. hanging and other shelves. here follows the return of pewter, brass, and other vessels belonging to the kitchen:-- pewter dishes of nine sizes (from newcastle). long dishes for rabbits. } saucers. } chargers. } silver fashioned. pie plates. } voider. } a beef-prick. fire shoves and tongs. a brig (a sort of brandreth). a cullender. a pewter baking-pan. kettles of brass. a skillet. a brandeth. a shredding knife. a chopping knife. an apple cradle. a pair of irons to make wafers with. a brass pot-lid. beef-axes and knives. } slaughter ropes. } for slaughtering. beef stangs. } in the beef-house was an assortment of tubs, casks, and hogsheads. table knives, forks, spoons, and drinking-vessels presumably belonged to another department. the dripping-pan is noticed in breton's "fantasticks," : "dishes and trenchers are necessary servants, and they that have no meat may go scrape; a spit and a dripping-pan would do well, if well furnished." flecknoe, again, in his character of a "miserable old gentlewoman," inserted among his "enigmatical characters," , speaks of her letting her prayer-book fall into the dripping-pan, and the dog and the cat quarrelling over it, and at last agreeing to pray on it! but this is a branch of the subject i cannot afford further to penetrate. yet i must say a word about the polished maple-wood bowl, or _maser_, with its mottoes and quaint devices, which figured on the side-board of the yeoman and the franklin, and which chaucer must have often seen in their homes. like everything else which becomes popular, it was copied in the precious metals, with costly and elaborate goldsmith's work; but its interest for us is local, and does not lend itself to change of material and neighbourhood. the habits of the poor and middle classes are apt to awaken a keener curiosity in our minds from the comparatively slender information which has come to us upon them; and as in the case of the maser, the laver which was employed in humble circles for washing the hands before and after a meal was, not of gold or silver, as in the houses of the nobility, but of brass or laten, nor was it in either instance a ceremonious form, but a necessary process. the modern finger-glass and rose-water dish, which are an incidence of every entertainment of pretension, and in higher society as much a parcel of the dinner-table as knives and forks, are, from a mediaeval standpoint, luxurious anachronisms. in archbishop alfric's "colloquy," originally written in the tenth century, and subsequently augmented and enriched with a saxon gloss by one of his pupils, the cook is one of the persons introduced and interrogated. he is asked what his profession is worth to the community; and he replies that without him people would have to eat their greens and flesh raw; whereupon it is rejoined that they might readily dress them themselves; to which the cook can only answer, that in such case all men would be reduced to the position of servants. the kitchen had its _chef_ or master-cook (archimacherus), under-cooks, a waferer or maker of sweets, a scullion or swiller (who is otherwise described as a _quistron_), and knaves, or boys for preparing the meat; and all these had their special functions and implements. even in the fifteenth century the appliances for cookery were evidently far more numerous than they had been. an illustrated vocabulary portrays, among other items, the dressing-board, the dressing-knife, the roasting-iron, the frying-pan, the spit-turner (in lieu of the old turn-broach), the andiron, the ladle, the slice, the skummer; and the _assitabulum_, or saucer, first presents itself. it seems as if the butler and the pantler had their own separate quarters; and the different species of wine, and the vessels for holding it, are not forgotten. the archaic pantry was dedicated, not to its later objects, but to that which the name strictly signifies; but at the same time the writer warrants us in concluding, that the pantry accommodated certain miscellaneous utensils, as he comprises in its contents a candlestick, a table or board-cloth, a hand-cloth or napkin, a drinking bowl, a saucer, and a spoon. the kitchen, in short, comprised within its boundaries a far larger variety of domestic requisites of all kinds than its modern representative, which deals with an external machinery so totally changed. the ancient court of england was so differently constituted from the present, and so many offices which sprang out of the feudal system have fallen into desuetude, that it requires a considerable effort to imagine a condition of things, where the master-cook of our lord the king was a personage of high rank and extended possessions. how early the functions of cook and the property attached to the position were separated, and the tenure of the land made dependent on a nominal ceremony, is not quite clear. warner thinks that it was in the conqueror's time; but at any rate, in that of henry ii. the husband of the heiress of bartholomew de cheney held his land in addington, surrey, by the serjeantry of finding a cook to dress the victuals at the coronation; the custom was kept up at least so late as the reign of george iii., to whom at his coronation the lord of the manor of addington presented a dish of pottage. the tenure was varied in its details from time to time. but for my purpose it is sufficient that manorial rights were acquired by the _magnus coquus_ or _magister coquorum_ in the same way as by the grand butler and other officers of state; and when so large a share of the splendour of royalty continued for centuries to emanate from the kitchen, it was scarcely inappropriate or unfair to confer on that department of state some titular distinction, and endow the holder with substantial honours. to the grand chamberlain and the grand butler the grand cook was a meet appendage. the primary object of these feudal endowments was the establishment of a cordon round the throne of powerful subjects under conditions and titles which to ourselves may appear incongruous and obscure, but which were in tolerable keeping with the financial and commercial organisation of the period, with a restricted currency, a revenue chiefly payable in kind, scanty facilities for transit, and an absence of trading centres. these steward-ships, butler-ships, and cook-ships, in the hands of the most trusted vassals of the crown, constituted a rudimentary vehicle for in-gathering the dues of all kinds renderable by the king's tenants; and as an administrative scheme gradually unfolded itself, they became titular and honorary, like our own reduced menagerie of nondescripts. but while they lasted in their substance and reality, they answered the wants and notions of a primitive people; nor is it for this practical age to lift up its hands or its voice too high; for mediaeval england is still legible without much excavation in our court, our church, nay, in our laws. there lurk our cunning spoilers! mr. fairholt, in the "archaeological album," , has depicted for our benefit the _chef_ of the abbey of st. albans in the fourteenth century, and his wife helena the representations of these two notable personages occur in a ms. in the british museum, which formerly belonged to the abbey, and contains a list of its benefactors, with their gifts. it does not appear that master robert, cook to abbot thomas, was the donor of any land or money; but, in consideration of his long and faithful services, his soul was to be prayed for with that of his widow, who bestowed s. d. _ad opus hujus libri_, which fairholt supposes to refer to the insertion of her portrait and that of her spouse among the graphic decorations of the volume. they are perhaps in their way unique. behold them opposite! another point in reference to the early economy of the table, which should not be overlooked, is the character of the ancient buttery, and the quick transition which its functionary, the butler, experienced from the performance of special to that of general duties. he at a very remote period acted not merely as the curator of the wine-cellar, but as the domestic steward and storekeeper; and it was his business to provide for the requirements of the kitchen and the pantry, and to see that no opportunity was neglected of supplying, from the nearest port, or market town, or fair, if his employer resided in the country, all the necessaries for the departments under his control. we are apt to regard the modern bearer of the same title as more catholic in his employments than the appellation suggests; but he in fact wields, on the contrary, a very circumscribed authority compared to that of his feudal prototype. one of the menial offices in the kitchen, when the spit came into use, was the broach-turner, lately referred to. he was by no means invariably maintained on the staff, but was hired for the occasion, which may augur the general preference for boiled and fried meats. sometimes it appears that any lad passing by, or in want of temporary employment, was admitted for this purpose, and had a trifling gratuity, or perhaps only his dinner and the privilege of dipping his fingers in the dripping, for his pains. warner cites an entry in some accounts of the hospital of st. bartholomew at sandwich, under :--"for tournynge the spytte, iiijd." and this was when the mayor of the borough dined with the prior. a royal personage gave, of course, more. the play of "gammer gurton's needle," written about , opens with a speech of diccon the bedlam, or poor tom, where he says:-- "many a gossip's cup in my time have i tasted, and many a broach and spit have i both turned and basted." the spit, again, was supplanted by the jack. the "history of friar rush," , opens with a scene in which the hero introduces himself to a monastery, and is sent by the unsuspecting prior to the master-cook, who finds him subordinate employment. meals. it has been noted that for a great length of time two meals were made to suffice the requirements of all classes. our own experience shows how immaterial the names are which people from age to age choose to bestow on their feeding intervals. some call supper _dinner_, and others call dinner _luncheon._ first comes the prevailing mode instituted by fashionable society, and then a foolish subscription to it by a section of the community who are too poor to follow it, and too proud not to seem to do so. formerly it was usual for the great to dine and sup earlier than the little; but now the rule is reversed, and the later a man dines the more distinguished he argues himself. we have multiplied our daily seasons of refreshment, and eat and drink far oftener than our ancestors; but the truly genteel briton never sups; the word is scarcely in his vocabulary,--like beau brummel and the farthing--"fellow, i do not know the coin!" in a glossary of the tenth-eleventh century only two meals are quoted: undermeat = _prandium_, and even-meat = _coena_. that is to say, our saxon precursors were satisfied as a rule with two repasts daily, but to this in more luxurious times were added the supper and even the rear-supper, the latter being, so far as we know, a second course or dessert and the bipartite collation corresponding to the modern late dinner. but it is one of those strange survivals of ancient manners which people practise without any consciousness of the fact, which is at the root of the fashion, which still occasionally prevails, of dividing the chief meal of the day by an interval of repose, and taking the wine and dessert an hour or two after the other courses; and the usage in our colleges and inns of court of retiring to another apartment to "wine" may claim the same origin. it is obvious that the rear-supper was susceptible of becoming the most important and costly part of an entertainment; and that it frequently assumed extravagant proportions, many passages from our early poets might be adduced to prove. in the "book of cookery," , we have the _menu_ at the installation of archbishop nevill in york in ; but the bill of fare of a feast given by him in at oxford, where he is mentioned as master nevill, son of the earl of salisbury, is inserted from the cotton ms. titus, in "reliquiae antiquae," . it consisted of three courses, which seem to have been the customary limit. of course, however, the usage varied, as in the "song of the boar's head," of which there are two or three versions, two courses only are specified in what has the air of having been a rather sumptuous entertainment. the old low-latin term for the noonday meal was _merenda_, which suggests the idea of food to be earned before it was enjoyed. so in "friar bacon's prophesie," , a poem, it is declared that, in the good old days, he that wrought not, till he sweated, was held unworthy of his meat. this reminds one of abernethy's maxim for the preservation of health,--to live on sixpence a day, _and earn it_. the "song of the boar's head," just cited, and printed from the porkington ms. in "reliquiae antiquae" (ii, ), refers to larks for ladies to pick as part of the second course in a banquet. on special occasions, in the middle ages, after the dessert, hippocras was served, as they have liqueurs to this day on the continent both after dinner and after the mid-day breakfast. the writer of "piers of fulham" lived to see this fashion of introducing a third meal, and that again split into two for luxury's sake; for his metrical biographer tells us, that he refused rear-suppers, from a fear of surfeiting. i collect that in the time of henry viii. the supper was a well-established institution, and that the abuse of postponing it to a too advanced hour had crept in; for the writer of a poem of this period especially counsels his readers _not to sup late_. rear-suppers were not only held in private establishments, but in taverns; and in the early interlude of the "four elements," given in my edition of dodsley, and originally published about , a very graphic and edifying scene occurs of a party of roisterers ordering and enjoying an entertainment of this kind. about seventy years later, robert greene, the playwright, fell a victim to a surfeit of pickled herrings and rhenish wine, at some merry gathering of his intimates falling under this denomination. who will venture to deny that the first person who kept unreasonable hours was an author and a poet? even shakespeare is not exempt from the suspicion of having hastened his end by indulgence with one or two friends in a gay carouse of this kind. the author of the "description of england" enlightens us somewhat on the sort of kitchen which the middle class and yeomanry of his time deemed fit and sufficient. the merchant or private gentleman had usually from one to three dishes on the table when there were no visitors, and from four to six when there was company. what the yeoman's every-day diet was harrison does not express; but at christmas he had brawn, pudding and souse, with mustard; beef, mutton, and pork; shred pies, goose, pig, capon, turkey, veal, cheese, apples, etc., with good drink, and a blazing fire in the hall. the farmer's bill of fare varied according to the season: in lent, red herrings and salt fish; at easter, veal and bacon; at martinmas, salted beef; at midsummer, fresh beef, peas, and salad; at michaelmas, fresh herrings and fat mutton; at all saints', pork and peas and fish; and at christmas, the same dainties as our yeoman, with good cheer and pastime. the modern luncheon or nuncheon was the archaic _prandium_, or under-meat, displaced by the breakfast, and modified in its character by the different distribution of the daily repasts, so that, instead of being the earliest regular meal, like the _grand déjeuner_ of the french, or coming, like our luncheon, between breakfast and dinner, it interposed itself between the noontide dinner and the evening supper. now, with an increasing proportion of the community, the universal luncheon, postponed to a later hour, is the actual dinner; and our under-meal is the afternoon tea. in those not-wholly-to-be-discommended days, the residue of the meal was consumed in the servants' hall, and the scraps bestowed on the poor at the gate; and the last part of the business was carried out, not as a matter of chance or caprice, but on as methodical a principle as the payment of a poor-rate. at the servants' table, besides the waiters and other attendants on the principal board, mentioned by harrison, sat the master-cook, the pantler, the steward or major-domo, the butler, the cellarman, the waferer, and others. it was not till comparatively recent times that the _wafery_, a special department of the royal kitchen, where the confectionery and pastry were prepared, was discontinued. there was necessarily a very large section of the community in all the large towns, especially in london, which was destitute of culinary appliances, and at the same time of any charitable or eleemosynary privileges. a multitude of persons, of both sexes and all ages, gradually developed itself, having no feudal ties, but attached to an endless variety of more or less humble employments. how did all these men, women, boys, girls, get their daily food? the answer is, in the public eating-houses. fitzstephen tells us that in the reign of henry ii. ( - ), besides the wine-vaults and the shops which sold liquors, there was on the banks of the river a public eating-house or cook's-shop, where, according to the time of year, you could get every kind of victuals, roasted, boiled, baked, or fried; and even, says he, if a friend should arrive at a citizen's house, and not care to wait, they go to the shop, where there were viands always kept ready to suit every purse and palate, even including venison, sturgeon, and guinea-fowls. for all classes frequented the city; and before bardolph's day noblemen and gentlemen came to smithfield to buy their horses, as they did to the waterside near the tower to embark for a voyage. one of the characters in the "canterbury tales"--the cook of london--was, in fact the keeper of a cook's-shop; and in the prologue to the tale, with which his name is associated, the charming story of "gamelin," the poet makes the reeve charge his companion with not very creditable behaviour towards his customers. so our host trusts that his relation will be entertaining and good:-- "for many a pasty hast thou let blood, and many a jack of dover[ ] hast thou sold, that hath been twice hot and twice cold. of many a pilgrim hast thou christ's curse-- for thy parsley fare they yet the worse: that they have eaten with the stubble goose, for in thy shop is many a fly loose." [footnote : a sole] but these restaurants were not long confined to one locality. from a very early date, owing perhaps to its proximity to the tower and the thames, east cheap was famed for its houses of entertainment. the dagger in cheap is mentioned in "a hundred merry tales," . the boar is historical. it was naturally at the east-end, in london proper, that the flood-tide, as it were, of tavern life set in, among the seafarers, in the heart of industrial activity; and the anecdotes and glimpses which we enjoy show, just what might have been guessed, that these houses often became scenes of riotous excess and debauch. lydgate's ballad of "london lickpenny" helps one to imagine what such resorts must have been in the first part of the fifteenth century. it is almost permissible to infer that the street contained, in addition to the regular inns, an assortment of open counters, where the commodities on sale were cried aloud for the benefit of the passer-by; for he says:-- "when i hied me into east cheap: one cries ribs of beef, and many a pie: pewter pots they clattered on a heap; there was harp, fife, and sautry." the mention of pewter is noteworthy, because the earl of northumberland ate his dinner off wood in . pewter plates had not long been given up when i joined the inner temple in . there is a still more interesting allusion in the interlude of the "world and the child," , where folly is made to say:-- "yea, and we shall be right welcome, i dare well say, in east cheap for to dine; and then we will with lombards at passage play, and at the pope's head sweet wine assay." the places of resort in this rollicking locality could furnish, long before the boar made the acquaintance of falstaff, every species of delicacy and _bonne bouche_ to their constituents, and the revelry was apt sometimes to extend to an unseasonable hour. in an early naval song we meet with the lines: "he that will in east cheap eat a goose so fat, with harp, pipe, and song, must lie in newgate on a mat, be the night never so long." and these establishments infallibly contributed their quota or more to the prisons in the vicinity. houses of refreshment seem, however, to have extended themselves westward, and to have become tolerably numerous, in the earlier society of the sixteenth century, for sir thomas more, in a letter to his friend dean colet, speaking of a late walk in westminster and of the various temptations to expenditure and dissipation which the neighbourhood then afforded, remarks: "whithersoever we cast our eyes, what do we see but victualling-houses, fishmongers, butchers, cooks, pudding-makers, fishers, and fowlers, who minister matter to our bellies?" this was prior to , the date of colet's decease. there were of course periods of scarcity and high prices then as now. it was only a few years later ( ), that robert whittinton, in one of his grammatical tracts (the "vulgaria"), includes among his examples:-- "befe and motton is so dere, that a peny worth of meet wyll scant suffyse a boy at a meale." the term "cook's-shop" occurs in the orders and ordinances devised by the steward, dean, and burgesses of westminster in , for the better municipal government of that borough. the tenth article runs thus:--"item, that no person or persons that keepeth or that hereafter shall keep any cook's-shop, shall also keep a common ale-house (except every such person shall be lawfully licensed thereunto), upon pain to have and receive such punishment, and pay such fine, as by the statute in that case is made and provided." but while the keepers of restaurants were, as a rule, precluded by law from selling ale, the publicans on their side were not supposed to purvey refreshment other than their own special commodities. for the fifteenth proviso of these orders is:-- "item, that no tavern-keeper or inn-keeper shall keep any cook shop upon pain to forfeit and pay for every time offending therein d." the london cooks became famous, and were not only in demand in the city and its immediate outskirts, but were put into requisition when any grand entertainment was given in the country. in the list of expenses incurred at the reception of queen elizabeth in by lord keeper bacon at gorhambury, is an item of £ as wages to the cooks of london. an accredited anecdote makes bacon's father inimical to too lavish an outlay in the kitchen; but a far more profuse housekeeper might have been puzzled to dispense with special help, where the consumption of viands and the consequent culinary labour and skill required, were so unusually great. in the prologue to the "canterbury tales," the cook of london and his qualifications are thus emblazoned:-- "a cook thei hadde with hem for the nones, to boylle chyknes, with the mary bones, and poudre marchaunt tart, and galyngale; wel cowde he knowe a draugte of london ale. he cowde roste, and sethe, and broille, and frie maken mortreux, and wel bake a pie. but gret harm was it, as it thoughte me, that on his schyne a mormal had he: for blankmanger that made he with the beste." this description would be hardly worth quoting, if it were not for the source whence it comes, and the names which it presents in common with the "form of cury" and other ancient relics. chaucer's cook was a personage of unusually wide experience, having, in his capacity as the keeper of an eating-house, to cater for so many customers of varying tastes and resources. in the time of elizabeth, the price at an ordinary for a dinner seems to have been sixpence. it subsequently rose to eightpence; and in the time of george i. the "vade mecum for malt worms ( )" speaks of the landlord of the bell, in carter lane, raising his tariff to tenpence. in comparison with the cost of a similar meal at present, all these quotations strike one as high, when the different value of money is considered. but in , at all events, the customer ate at his own discretion. their vicinity to east cheap, the great centre of early taverns and cook's-shops, obtained for pudding lane and pie corner those savoury designations. paris, like london, had its cook's-shops, where you might eat your dinner on the premises, or have it brought to your lodging in a covered dish by a _porte-chape._ in the old prints of french kitchen interiors, the cook's inseparable companion is his ladle, which he used for stirring and serving, and occasionally for dealing a refractory _garçon de cuisine_ a rap on the head. the dictionary of johannes de garlandia (early thirteenth century) represents the cooks at paris as imposing on the ignorant and inexperienced badly cooked or even tainted meat, which injured their health. these "coquinarii" stood, perhaps, in the same relation to those times as our keepers of restaurants. he mentions in another place that the cooks washed their utensils in hot water, as well as the plates and dishes on which the victuals were served. mr. wright has cited an instance from the romance of "doon de mayence," where the guards of a castle, on a warm summer evening, partook of their meal in a field. refreshment in the open air was also usual in the hunting season, when a party were at a distance from home; and the garden arbour was occasionally converted to this kind of purpose, when it had assumed its more modern phase. but our picnic was unknown. etiquette of the table. paul hentzner, who was in england at the end of the reign of elizabeth, remarks of the people whom he saw that "they are more polite in eating than the french, devouring less bread, but more meat, which they roast in perfection. they put a good deal of sugar in their drink." in his "court and country," , nicholas breton gives an instructive account of the strict rules which were drawn up for observance in great households at that time, and says that the gentlemen who attended on great lords and ladies had enough to do to carry these orders out. not a trencher must be laid or a napkin folded awry; not a dish misplaced; not a capon carved or a rabbit unlaced contrary to the usual practice; not a glass filled or a cup uncovered save at the appointed moment: everybody must stand, speak, and look according to regulation. the books of demeanour which have been collected by mr. furnivall for the early english text society have their incidental value as illustrating the immediate theme, and are curious, from the growth in consecutive compilations of the code of instructions for behaviour at table, as evidences of an increasing cultivation both in manners and the variety of appliances for domestic use, including relays of knives for the successive courses. distinctions were gradually drawn between genteel and vulgar or coarse ways of eating, and facilities were provided for keeping the food from direct contact with the fingers, and other primitive offences against decorum. many of the precepts in the late fifteenth century "babies' book," while they demonstrate the necessity for admonition, speak also to an advance in politeness and delicacy at table. there must be a beginning somewhere; and the authors of these guides to deportment had imbibed the feeling for something higher and better, before they undertook to communicate their views to the young generation. there is no doubt that the "babies' book" and its existing congeners are the successors of anterior and still more imperfect attempts to introduce at table some degree of cleanliness and decency. when the "babies' book" made its appearance, the progress in this direction must have been immense. but the observance of such niceties was of course at first exceptional; and the ideas which we see here embodied were very sparingly carried into practice outside the verge of the court itself and the homes of a few of the aristocracy. there may be an inclination to revolt against the barbarous doggerel in which the instruction is, as a rule, conveyed, and against the tedious process of perusing a series of productions which follow mainly the same lines. but it is to be recollected that these manuals were necessarily renewed in the manuscript form from age to age, with variations and additions, and that the writers resorted to metre as a means of impressing the rules of conduct more forcibly on their pupils. of all the works devoted to the management of the table and kitchen, the "book of nurture," by john russell, usher of the chamber and marshal of the ball to humphrey, duke of gloucester, is perhaps, on the whole, the most elaborate, most trustworthy, and most important. it leaves little connected with the _cuisine_ of a noble establishment of the fifteenth century untouched and unexplained; and although it assumes the metrical form, and in a literary respect is a dreary performance, its value as a guide to almost every branch of the subject is indubitable. it lays bare to our eyes the entire machinery of the household, and we gain a clearer insight from it than from the rest of the group of treatises, not merely into what a great man of those days and his family and retainers ate and drank, and how they used to behave themselves at table, but into the process of making various drinks, the mystery of carving, and the division of duties among the members of the staff. it is, in fact, the earliest comprehensive book in our literature. the functions of the squire at the table of a prince are, to a certain extent, shown in the "squire of low degree," where the hero, having arrayed himself in scarlet, with a chaplet on his head and a belt round his waist, cast a horn about his neck, and went to perform his duty in the hall. he approaches the king, dish in hand, and kneels. when he has served his sovereign, he hands the meats to the others. we see a handsome assortment of victuals on this occasion, chiefly venison and birds, and some of the latter were baked in bread, probably a sort of paste. the majority of the names on the list are familiar, but a few--the teal, the curlew, the crane, the stork, and the snipe--appear to be new. it is, in all these cases, almost impossible to be sure how much we owe to the poet's imagination and how much to his rhythmical poverty. from another passage it is to be inferred that baked venison was a favourite mode of dressing the deer. the precaution of coming to table with clean hands was inculcated perhaps first as a necessity, when neither forks nor knives were used, and subsequently as a mark of breeding. the knife preceded the spoon, and the fork, which had been introduced into italy in the eleventh century, and which strikes one as a fortuitous development of the oriental chopstick, came last. it was not in general use even in the seventeenth century here. coryat the traveller saw it among the italians, and deemed it a luxury and a notable fact. the precepts delivered by lydgate and others for demeanour at table were in advance of the age, and were probably as much honoured in the breach as otherwise. but the common folk did then much as many of them do now, and granted themselves a dispensation both from knife and fork, and soap and water. the country boor still eats his bacon or his herring with his fingers, just as charles xii. of sweden buttered his bread with his royal thumb. a certain cleanliness of person, which, at the outset, was not considerably regarded, became customary, as manners softened and female influence asserted itself; and even lydgate, in his "stans puer ad mensam (an adaptation from sulpitius)," enjoins on his page or serving-boy a resort to the lavatory before he proceeds to discharge his functions at the board-- "pare clean thy nails; thy hands wash also before meat; and when thou dost arise." other precepts follow. he was not to speak with his mouth full. he was to wipe his lips after eating, and his spoon when he had finished, taking care not to leave it in his dish. he was to keep his napkin as clean and neat as possible, and he was not to pick his teeth with his knife. he was not to put too much on his trencher at once. he was not to drop his sauce or soup over his clothes, or to fill his spoon too full, or to bring dirty knives to the table. all these points of conduct are graphic enough; and their trite character is their virtue. boiled, and perhaps fried meats were served on silver; but roasts might be brought to table on the spit, which, after a while, was often of silver, and handed round for each person to cut what he pleased; and this was done not only with ordinary meat, but with game, and even with a delicacy like a roast peacock. of smaller birds, several were broached on one spit. there is a mediaeval story of a husband being asked by his wife to help her to the several parts of a fowl in succession, till nothing was left but the implement on which it had come in, whereupon the man determined she should have that too, and belaboured her soundly with it. at more ceremonious banquets the servants were preceded by music, or their approach from the kitchen to the hall was proclaimed by sound of trumpets. costly plate was gradually introduced, as well as linen and utensils, for the table; but the plate may be conjectured to have been an outcome from the primitive _trencher_, a large slice of bread on which meat was laid for the occupants of the high table, and which was cast aside after use. bread served at table was not to be bitten or broken off the loaf, but to be cut; and the loaf was sometimes divided before the meal, and skilfully pieced together again, so as to be ready for use. index. acton, eliza, addington, surrey, aigredouce, albans, st., abbey of, , - ale, , --cock, --elder, --kentish, alfred and the cakes, al-fresco meals, - alfric, colloquy of, amber puddings, , angelica, anglo-danish barbarism, anglo-celtic influence, anglo-saxon names of meats, animal food, - , anthropophagy, - apicius, c., apuleius, arms and crests on dishes, arnold's chronicle, arthur, , , - ashen-keys, pickled, asparagus, assize of ale, australian meat, babies' book, bacon, lord keeper, bag pudding, - - baker, , - --parisian, - bakestone, , banbury cake, , bannock, banquet, order of a fourteenth century, barba, m., bardolf, a dish, bardolph, bartholomew de cheney, --st., hospital of, at sandwich, battalia pie, beef, powdered, --martlemas, beer, - , - --composition of the ancient, bees, wild, bellows , birch wine, bit and bite, blackcaps, - bolton, charles, duke of, book of st. albans, books of demeanour, branderi, brass cooking vessels, brawn, bread, , - , - , britons, diet of the, -- northern and southern, brittany, broach or spit turner, - broom-buds, pickled, broth, , bun, butler, ancient duties of the, butter, caerleon, caesar, evidence of, - , , cakes, , - calais, calves, newly-born --removal of, from the mother, while in milk, cannibalism, - carps' tongues, carving, terms of, castelvetri, caudles and possets, - caviary, - charlet, chaucer, g. , chaworth's (lady) pudding, cheesecakes, mrs. leed's, etc., , , cheeses, - chimney, kitchen, china broth, china earth, christmas, clare market, cleikirai club, clermont, b., - coals, - cobham, lord, cockle, colet, dean, college wine, colonial cattle, condiments, - , , confectioner, --master, confectionery, conserves, - cook, , - --master, - cookery-books, lists of, - , - --with the names of old owners, cook's-shops. - cooking utensils, great value of, --lists of, - cooper, joseph, - copley, esther, copper, art of tinning, cornish pasty, coryat, thomas, court, the ancient, cows, - crab-apple sauce, creams, - cromwell, oliver, - --his favourite dishes, _ibid._ cuisine bourgeoise of ancient rome, --english, affected by fusions of race, --old french, - cuisinier royal, le, - curds and cream, danish settlers, danish settlers, their influence on our diet, deer-suet, clarified, delahay street, deportment at table, gradual improvement in the, dishes, lists of, - , - --substituted for trenchers, --different sizes and materials of, --mode of serving up, - dods, margaret, dripping-pans, , dumplings, norfolk, earl, rules and orders for the house of an, - east-cheap, - eating-houses, public, - ebulum, edward iii., eggs, --buttered, elizabeth, queen, endoring, english establishment, staff of an, ennius, phagetica of, epulario, etiquette of the table, - fairfax inventories, , falstaff, farm-servants' diet, feasts, marriage and coronation, - finchmgfield, fireplace, , fish, cheaper, demanded, --on fast-days, --considered indigestible, --lists of, - , --musical lament of the dying, fishing, saxon mode of, florendine, flowers, conserve of, forced meat, forks, - foreign cookery, - --warner's strictures on - form of cury, forster, john, of hanlop, fox, sir stephen, francatelli, french establishment, staff of a, french gardener, the, - fricasee, fruit-tart, fruits, dried or preserved, - frying-pan, frying pan houses at wandsworth, furmety, galantine, galingale, game, , - garlic, gilling in yorkshire, gingerbread, ginger-fork, glass and crystal handles to knives and forks, glasse, mrs., - glastonbury abbey, glazing, or endoring, , gomme, g.l., goose, --giblets, grampus, grape, english, used for wine, greece, ancient, greek anthropophagy, - greene, robert, hamilton, duke and duchess of, hare, harington family, hen, threshing the fat, - henry ii., --iii., , --iv., --iv. and v., --vii., , --viii., hill, dr., - hippocras, , holborn and the strand, suburbs of, home-brewed drink, hommes de bouche, hops hospitality, decay of, - inns, want of, in early scotland, - --and taverns in westminster, rules for, italian cookery, , --pudding, italy, the fork brought from, jack, the, jacks, black, - jigget of mutton, joe miller quoted, johannes de garlandia, johnson, dr., - johnstone, mrs., - jumbals, junket, jussel, a dish, kail-pot, kettle, kitchens, --furniture of, - --staff of the, kitchener, dr., - knives, , ladies and gentlemen at table, landlord and lawyer, exactions of, - land o' cakes, laver, leveret, liber cure cocorum, - liqueurs, liquids, storage of, loaf of bread, --sugar, lombards, london cooks famous, lord mayor of london, lord mayor's pageant for , lucas, joseph, his studies in nidderdale, lumber pie, luncheon, luxury, growth of, - , lydgate's story of thebes, --"london lickpenny," malory's king arthur, manuturgium, maple-wood bowls, - marinade, marketing, old, marlborough cake, marmalade, maser, - massinger quoted, master-cook, , , - --ancient privileges of the, - meals, , - --in the percy establishment, meats and drinks, , menagier de paris quoted, merenda, a meal, - metheglin or hydromel, , middleton, john, chef, , - milk, , modern terms for dishes first introduced, more, sir thomas, morsus, morton, cardinal, moryson, fynes, quoted, - mulberries, - mushrooms, music to announce the banquet, mustard, nasturtium-buds, pickled, neckam, alexander, , , , nevill, archbishop, , newcastle coal, new college pudding, nidderdale, , noble book of cookery, - norfolk dumplings, --yeoman, norman cuisine, , - --influence on cookery, normandy, nott, john, chef, oatmeal, oblys, odysseus, odyssey, olio, --pie, omelettes, orders and ordinances of lord burleigh as steward of westminster, ordinaries, london, --parisian, oriental sources of cooking, oxford, oxford cake, parisian cook's-shops, partridges not recommended to the poor, -- passage, a game, pastry, peacocks. , pelops, pepper, peter of blois, peterborough abbey, pewter, utensils of, - phagetica of ennius, pheasants, pickles, _et seq._ piers of fulham, , , pies, , - , pig's pettitoes, ploughman (husbandman), plovers, pockets, poloe, polyphemus, pome de oringe, poor, diet of the, _et seq._ --relief of the, "poor knights," a dish, pope, alex., porcelain, pork, , porpoise, - , porte-chape, potato, pot-au-feu, pot-hook, pot-luck, poudre-marchaunt tart, poultry, , powdered beef, --horse, puddings, , _et seq._ pulpatoon, quinces, - , rabbit, radish-pods, pickled, raisin-sauce, rasher, rear-supper, , receipts of eminent persons, , --early, - religious scruples against certain food, rents, excessive, - roasting-spit or iron, robert, master, and his wife helena, , - romans, culinary economy of, --obligation to greece, roses, conserve of, rundell, mrs., rush, friar, russell's book of nurture, salt, --, fine, --cellar, sandwich, kent, saracen sauce, saucepan, sauces, - , - sausage, saxon influence on diet, scotland, want of inns in, - scots, the, , , --their early food, --their poverty, scott, sir walter, - scottish cookery, early, - secret house, keeping, , , shakespeare, w., shrewsbury cakes, "sing a song of sixpence," smith and his dame, a tale, smith, e., preface to her cookery book, , - --select extracts from the work, - soap, song of the boar's head, soups, soyer, alexis, - spanish influence on cookery, --armada, spice with wine, spinach, spit-turner, spit, turning the, a tenure, spoons, , - spread-eagle pudding, spruce-beer, squire, functions of the, at table "squire of low degree," st. albans abbey, st. john's college, cambridge, stanton-harcourt, "store of house," subtleties, - sugar, - swan, swinfield, bishop, sykes, colonel, syrups from flowers, table-cloth, table-furniture, tansies, tart, fruit, tea caudle, temse, tiffany cakes, tillinghast, mary, tinder-box, tom thumb, , , touchwood, peregrine, esquire towel, trencher, , , - --posies on the, tripe, double, tripod, , - trivet, trumpet, dishes brought into the hall to the sound of, tureiner, tusser, thomas, - ude, louis eustache, utensils, , , , _et seq._, - --treatise on, by alex. neckam, , vegetable diet, venison, - , venner, tobias, - viard et fouret, mm., - village life, early, vocabularies, primary object of, - wafery, wandsworth, warham, archbishop, westminister, - westphalia hams, whale, whetstone cakes, whey, white grease, whittinton, robert, wigs, william i., , --iii., his posset, william of malmesbury, wines, - . - --lists of, - wolsey, cardinal, wood-street cake, wormwood cakes, --wine, wotton, sir edward, yeoman, diet of the, _et seg._,_ --bad state of the, - yorkshire, young cook's monitor, the, by m.h., - the ex-libris series. edited by gleeson white. the decorative illustration of books. by walter crane. [illustration: g bell and sons] of the decorative illustration of books old and new by walter crane [illustration] london: george bell and sons york street, covent garden, w.c. new york: fifth avenue mdcccxcv printed at the chiswick press by charles whittingham & co. tooks court, chancery lane, london, e.c. and first published december, second edition, revised, feb. third edition, revised, jan. preface. this book had its origin in the course of three (cantor) lectures given before the society of arts in ; they have been amplified and added to, and further chapters have been written, treating of the very active period in printing and decorative book-illustration we have seen since that time, as well as some remarks and suggestions touching the general principles and conditions governing the design of book pages and ornaments. it is not nearly so complete or comprehensive as i could have wished, but there are natural limits to the bulk of a volume in the "ex-libris" series, and it has been only possible to carry on such a work in the intervals snatched from the absorbing work of designing. within its own lines, however, i hope that if not exhaustive, the book may be found fairly representative of the chief historical and contemporary types of decorative book-illustration. in the selection of the illustrations, i have endeavoured to draw the line between the purely graphic aim, on the one hand, and the ornamental aim on the other--between what i should term the art of _pictorial statement_ and the art of _decorative treatment_; though there are many cases in which they are combined, as, indeed, in all the most complete book-pictures, they should be. my purpose has been to treat of illustrations which are also book-ornaments, so that purely graphic design, as such, unrelated to the type, and the conditions of the page, does not come within my scope. as book-illustration pure and simple, however, has been treated of in this series by mr. joseph pennell, whose selection is more from the graphic than the decorative point of view, the balance may be said to be adjusted as regards contemporary art. i must offer my best thanks to mr. gleeson white, without whose most valuable help the book might never have been finished. he has allowed me to draw upon his remarkable collection of modern illustrated books for examples, and i am indebted to many artists for permission to use their illustrations, as well as to messrs. george allen, bradbury, agnew and co., j. m. dent and co., edmund evans, geddes and co., hacon and ricketts (the vale press), john lane, lawrence and bullen, sampson low and co., macmillan and co., elkin mathews, kegan paul and co., walter scott, charles scribner's sons, and virtue and co., for their courtesy in giving me, in many cases, the use of the actual blocks. to mr. william morris, who placed his beautiful collection of early printed books at my disposal, from which to choose illustrations; to mr. emery walker for help in many ways; to mr. john calvert for permission to use some of his father's illustrations; and to mr. a. w. pollard who has lent me some of his early italian examples, and has also supervised my bibliographical particulars, i desire to make my cordial acknowledgments. walter crane. kensington: _july th, _. note to third edition. a reprint of this book being called for, i take the opportunity of adding a few notes, chiefly to chapter iv., which will be found further on with the numbers of the pages to which they refer. as touching the general subject of the book one may, perhaps, be allowed to record with some satisfaction that the study of lettering, text-writing, and illumination is now seriously taken up in our craft-schools. the admirable teaching of mr. johnston of the central school of arts and crafts and the royal college of art in this connection cannot be too highly spoken of. we have had, too, admirable work, in each kind, from mr. reuter, mr. mortimer, mr. treglown, mr. alan vigers, mr. graily hewitt, and mr. a. e. r. gill; and mrs. traguair and miss kingsford are remarkable for the beauty, delicacy, and invention of their work as illuminators among the artists who are now pursuing this beautiful branch of art. so that the ancient crafts of the scribe and illuminator may be said to have again come to life, and this, taken in connection with the revival of printing as an art, is an interesting and significant fact. as recent contributions to the study of lettering we have mr. lewis f. day's recent book of alphabets, and mr. g. woolliscroft rhead's sheets for school use. i have to deplore the loss of my former helper in this book, mr. gleeson white, since the work first appeared. his extensive knowledge of, and sympathy with the modern book illustrators of the younger generation was remarkable, and as a designer himself he showed considerable skill and taste in book-decoration, chiefly in the way of covers. as a most estimable and amiable character he will always be remembered by his friends. walter crane. kensington: _june, _. contents. chapter i.--of the evolution of the illustrative and decorative impulse from the earliest times; and of the first period of decoratively illustrated books in the illuminated mss. of the middle ages. . chapter ii.--of the transition, and of the second period of decoratively illustrated books, from the invention of printing in the fifteenth century onwards. . chapter iii.--of the period of the decline of decorative feeling in book design after the sixteenth century, and of the modern revival. . chapter iv.--of recent development of decorative book illustration, and the modern revival of printing as an art. . chapter v.--of general principles in designing book ornaments and illustrations: consideration of arrangement, spacing and treatment. . index. . [illustration] list of illustrations. german school, xvth century. page "leiden christi." (bamberg, ) boccaccio, "de claris mulieribus." (ulm, ) , "buch von den sieben todsünden." (augsburg, ) "speculum humanæ vitæ." (augsburg, _cir._ ) bible. (cologne, ) terrence: "eunuchus." (ulm, ) "chronica hungariæ." (augsburg, ) "hortus sanitatis." (mainz, ) "chroneken der sassen." (mainz, ) bible. (lübeck, ) "Æsop's fables." (ulm, ) flemish and dutch schools, xvth century. "spiegel onser behoudenisse." (kuilenburg, ) "life of christ." (antwerp, ) french school, xvth century. "la mer des histoires." initial. (paris, ) "paris et vienne." (paris, _cir._ ) italian school, xvth century. "de claris mulieribus." (ferrara, ) tuppo's "Æsop." (naples, ) p. cremonese's "dante." (venice, ) "discovery of the indies." (florence, ) "fior di virtù." (florence, ) stephanus caesenas: "expositio beati hieronymi in psalterium." (venice, ) "poliphili hypnerotomachia." (venice, ) , ketham's "fasciculus medicinæ." (venice, ) pomponius mela. (venice, ) italian school, xvith century. artist unknown. bernadino corio. (milan, minuziano, ) school of bellini: "supplementum supplementi chronicarum, etc." (venice, ) "the descent of minerva": from the quatriregio. (florence, ) aulus gellius. (venice, ) quintilian. (venice, ) ottaviano dei petrucci. (fossombrone, ) ambrosius calepinus. (tosculano, ) artist unknown: portrait title: ludovico dolci, . (venice, giolito, ) german school, xvith century. albrecht dürer: "kleine passion." (nuremberg, ) , , albrecht dürer: "plutarchus chaeroneus." (nuremberg, ) albrecht dürer: "plutarchus chaeroneus." (nuremberg, ) hans holbein: "dance of death." (lyons, ) , hans holbein: title-page: gallia. (basel, _cir._ ) hans holbein: bible cuts. (lyons, ) , ambrose holbein: "neues testament." (basel, ) hans burgmair: "der weiss könig." ( - ) hans burgmair: "iornandes de rebus gothorum." (augsburg, ) hans burgmair: "pliny's natural history." (frankfort, ) hans burgmair: "meerfahrt zu viln onerkannten inseln," etc. (augsburg, ) hans baldung grün: "hortulus animæ." (strassburg, ) , , , hans wächtlin: title page. (strassburg, ) hans sebald beham: "das papstthum mit seinen gliedern." (nuremberg, ) reformation der bayrischen landrecht. (munich, ) fuchsius: "de historia stirpium." (basel, ) virgil solis: bible. (frankfort, ) johann otmar: "pomerium de tempore." (augsburg, ) french school, xvith century. oronce finé: "quadrans astrolabicus." (paris, ) modern illustration. william blake: "songs of innocence," william blake: "phillip's pastoral" edward calvert: original woodcuts: "the lady and the rooks," "the return home," "chamber idyll," "the flood," "ideal pastoral life," "the brook," - , dante gabriel rossetti: "tennyson's poems," dante gabriel rossetti: "early italian poets," albert moore: "milton's ode on the nativity," henry holiday: cover for "aglaia," randolph caldecott: headpiece to "bracebridge hall," kate greenaway: title page of "mother goose" arthur hughes: "at the back of the north wind," , arthur hughes: "mercy" ("good words for the young," ) robert bateman: "art in the house," , , , heywood sumner: peard's "stories for children," , charles keene: "a good fight." ("once a week," ) louis davis: "sleep, baby, sleep" ("english illustrated magazine," ) henry ryland: "forget not yet" ("english illustrated magazine," ) frederick sandys: "the old chartist" ("once a week," ) m. j. lawless: "dead love" ("once a week," ) walter crane: grimm's "household stories," walter crane: "princess fiorimonde," walter crane: "the sirens three," selwyn image: "scottish art review," william morris and walter crane: "the glittering plain," , , c. m. gere: "midsummer" ("english illustrated magazine," ) c. m. gere: "the birth of st. george" arthur gaskin: "hans andersen," e. h. new: "bridge street, evesham" inigo thomas: "the formal garden," , henry payne: "a book of carols," f. mason: "huon of bordeaux," gertrude, m. bradley: "the cherry festival," mary newill: porlock celia levetus: a bookplate c. s. ricketts: "hero and leander," c. s. ricketts: "daphnis and chloe," c. h. shannon: "daphnis and chloe," aubrey beardsley: "morte d'arthur," , , edmund j. sullivan: "sartor resartus," patten wilson: a pen drawing laurence housman: "the house of joy," l. fairfax muckley: "frangilla" charles robinson: "a child's garden of verse," , , j. d. batten: "the arabian nights," , r. anning bell: "a midsummer night's dream," r. anning bell: "beauty and the beast," r. spence: a pen drawing a. garth jones: "a tournament of love," william strang: "baron munchausen," , h. granville fell: "cinderella," john duncan: "apollo's schooldays" ("the evergreen," ) john duncan: "pipes of arcady" ("the evergreen," ) robert burns: "the passer-by" ("the evergreen," ) mary sargant florence: "the crystal ball," paul woodroffe: "ye second book of nursery rhymes," paul woodroffe: "ye book of nursery rhymes," m. rijsselberghe: "dietrich's almanack," walter crane: "spenser's faerie queen," , , , howard pyle: "otto of the silver hand" , will. h. bradley: covers for "the inland printer," will. h. bradley: prospectus for "bradley his book," will. h. bradley: design for "the chap book," alan wright: headpieces from "the story of my house," , the untitled tailpieces throughout this volume are from grimm's "household stories," illustrated by walter crane. (macmillan, .) appendix of half-tone blocks. i. book of kells. irish, vith century. ii., iii., iv. arundel psalter. english, xivth century. (arundel mss. b. m.) v. epistle of phillipe de comines to richard ii. french, xivth century. (royal mss. b. vi. b. m.) vi., vii. bedford hours. (mss. , b. m.) viii. romance of the rose. english, late xvth century. (hast. mss. , .) ix. choir book. siena. italian, xvth century. x., xi. hokusai. japanese, xixth century. [illustration] chapter i. of the evolution of the illustrative and decorative impulse from the earliest times; and of the first period of decoratively illustrated books in the illuminated mss. of the middle ages. my subject is a large one, and touches more intimately, perhaps, than other forms of art, both human thought and history, so that it would be extremely difficult to treat it exhaustively upon all its sides. i shall not attempt to deal with it from the historical or antiquarian points of view more than may be necessary to elucidate the artistic side, on which i propose chiefly to approach the question of design as applied to books--or, more strictly, the book page--which i shall hope to illustrate by reproductions of characteristic examples from different ages and countries. i may, at least, claim to have been occupied, in a practical sense, with the subject more or less, as part of my work, both as a decorator and illustrator of books, for the greater part of my life, and such conclusions as i have arrived at are based upon the results of personal thought and experience, if they are also naturally coloured and influenced from the same sources. all forms of art are so closely connected with life and thought, so bound up with human conditions, habits, and customs; so intimately and vividly do they reflect every phase and change of that unceasing movement--the ebb and flow of human progress amid the forces of nature we call history--that it is hardly possible even for the most careless stroller, taking any of the by-paths, not to be led insensibly to speculate on their hidden sources, and an origin perhaps common to them all. the story of man is fossilized for us, as it were, or rather preserved, with all its semblance of life and colour, in art and books. the procession of history reaching far back into the obscurity of the forgotten or inarticulate past, is reflected, with all its movement, gold and colour, in the limpid stream of design, that mirror-like, paints each passing phase for us, and illustrates each act in the drama. in the language of line and of letters, of symbol and picture, each age writes its own story and character, as page after page is turned in the book of time. here and there the continuity of the chapters is broken, a page is missing, a passage is obscure; there are breaks and fragments--heroic torsos and limbs instead of whole figures. but more and more, by patient research, labour, and comparison, the voids are being filled up, until some day perhaps there will be no chasm of conjecture in which to plunge, but the volume of art and human history will be as clear as pen and pencil can make it, and only left for a present to continue, and a future to carry to a completion which is yet never complete. [sidenote: illuminated mss.] if painting is the looking-glass of nations and periods, pictured-books may be called the hand-glass which still more intimately reflects the life of different centuries and peoples, in all their minute and homely detail and quaint domesticity, as well as their playful fancies, their dreams, and aspirations. while the temples and the tombs of ancient times tell us of the pomp and splendour and ambition of kings, and the stories of their conquests and tyrannies, the illuminated mss. of the middle ages show us, as well as these, the more intimate life of the people, their sports and their jests, their whim and fancy, their work and their play, no less than the mystic and religious and ceremonial side of that life, which was, indeed, an inseparable part of it; the whole worked in as with a kind of embroidery of the pen and brush, with the most exquisite sense of decorative beauty. [illustration: german school. xvth century. leiden christi. (bamberg, albrecht pfister, .)] mr. herbert spencer, in the course of his enunciation of the philosophy of evolution, speaks of the book and the newspaper lying on the table of the modern citizen as connected through a long descent with the hieroglyphic inscriptions of the ancient egyptians, and the picture-writing of still earlier times. we might go (who knows how much further?) back into prehistoric obscurity to find the first illustrator, pure and simple, in the hunter of the cave, who recorded the incidents of his sporting life on the bones of his victims. we know that the letters of our alphabet were once pictures, symbols, or abstract signs of entities and actions, and grew more and more abstract until they became arbitrary marks--the familiar characters that we know. letters formed into words; words increased and multiplied with ideas and their interchange; ideas and words growing more and more abstract until the point is reached when the jaded intellect would fain return again to picture-writing, and welcomes the decorator and the illustrator to relieve the desert wastes of words marshalled in interminable columns on the printed page. in a journey through a book it is pleasant to reach the oasis of a picture or an ornament, to sit awhile under the palms, to let our thoughts unburdened stray, to drink of other intellectual waters, and to see the ideas we have been pursuing, perchance, reflected in them. thus we end as we begin, with images. temples and tombs have been man's biggest books, but with the development of individual life (as well as religious ritual, and the necessity of records,) he felt the need of something more familiar, companionable, and portable, and having, in the course of time, invented the stylus, and the pen, and tried his hand upon papyrus, palm leaf, and parchment, he wrote his records or his thoughts, and pictured or symbolized them, at first upon scrolls and rolls and tablets, or, later, enshrined them in bound books, with all the beauty that the art of writing could command, enriched and emphasized with the pictorial and ornamental commentary in colours and gold. as already indicated, it is my purpose to deal with the artistic aspects of the book page, and therefore we are not now concerned with the various forms of the book itself, as such, or with the treatment of its exterior case, cover, or binding. it is the open book i wish to dwell on--the page itself as a field for the designer and illustrator--a space to be made beautiful in design. [illustration: german school. xvth century. from boccaccio, de claris mulieribus. (ulm, johann zainer, .)] [sidenote: the two great divisions.] both decorated and illustrated books may be divided broadly into two great periods: i. the ms., or period before printing. ii. the period of printed books. both illustrate, however, a long course of evolution, and contain in themselves, it might be said, a compendium--or condensation--of the history of contemporary art in its various forms of development. the first impulse in art seems to answer to the primitive imitative impulse in children--the desire to embody the familiar forms about them--to characterize them in line and colour. the salient points of an animal, for instance, being first emphasized--as in the bone scratchings of the cave men--so that children's drawings and drawings of primitive peoples present a certain family likeness, allowing for difference of environment. they are abstract, and often almost symbolic in their characterization of form, and it is not difficult to imagine how letters and written language became naturally evolved through a system of hieroglyphics, starting from the unsystemized but irrepressible tendency of the human to record his linear ideas of rhythm on the one hand, or his impressions of nature on the other. it would seem that the illustrator or picture writer came first in the order of things, and the book afterwards--like the system we have heard of under modern editors of magazines, of the picture being done first and then written up to, or down to, by the author. side by side with the evolution of letters and calligraphic art went on the evolution of the graphic power and the artistic sense, developing on the one hand towards close imitation of nature and dramatic incident, and on the other towards imaginative beauty, and systematic, organic ornament, more or less built upon a geometric basis, but ultimately bursting into a free foliation and flamboyant blossom, akin in inventive richness and variety to a growth of nature herself. the development of these two main directions of artistic energy may be followed throughout the whole world of art, constantly struggling, as it were, for the ascendancy, now one and now the other being paramount; but the history of their course, and the effect of their varying influences is particularly marked in the decoration and illustration of books. although as a rule the decorative sense was dominant throughout the illuminated books of the middle ages, the illustrator, in the form of the miniaturist, is in evidence, and in some, especially in the later mss., finally conquers, or rather absorbs, the decorator. there is a ms. in the egerton collection in the british museum (no. ), "the divina commedia" of dante, with miniatures by italian artists of the fourteenth century, which may be taken as an early instance of the ascendancy of the illustrator, the miniatures being placed somewhat abruptly on the page, and with unusually little framework or associated ornament; and although more or less decorative in the effect of their simple design, and frank and full colour, the main object of their artists was to illustrate rather than to decorate the text. [illustration: german school. xvth century. from boccaccio, de claris mulieribus. (ulm, johann zainer, .)] [sidenote: the book of kells.] the celtic genius, under the influence of christianity, and as representing the art of the early christian western civilization--exemplified in the remarkable designs in the book of kells--was, on the other hand, strictly ornamental in its manifestations, suggesting in its richness, and in the intricacy and ingenuity of its involved patterns, as well as the geometric forms of many of its units, a relation to certain characteristics of eastern as well as primitive greek art. the book of kells derives its name from the columban monastery of kells or kenlis, originally cennanas, a place of ancient importance in the county of meath, ireland, and it is supposed to have been the great gospel brought to the christian settlement by its founder, st. columba, and perhaps written by that saint, who died in the year . the original volume is in the library of trinity college, dublin. in one of the pages of this book is represented the greek monogram of christ, and the whole page is devoted to three words, christi autem generatio. it is a remarkable instance of an ornamental initial spreading over an entire page. the effect of the whole as a decoration is perhaps what might be called heavy, but it is full of marvellous detail and richness, and highly characteristic of celtic forms of ornamental design (_see_ no. , appendix). the work of the scribe, as shown in the form of the ordinary letters of the text, is very fine. they are very firm and strong in character, to balance the closely knit and firmly built ornamentation of the initial letters and other ornaments of the pages. we feel that they have a dignity, a distinction, and a character all their own. there is a page in the same book where the symbols of the evangelists are inclosed in circles, and panelled in a solid framing occupying the whole page, which suggests byzantine feeling in design. the full pages in the earlier illuminated mss. were often panelled out in four or more compartments to hold figures of saints, or emblems, and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries such panels generally had small patterned diapered backgrounds, on dark blue, red, green, or burnished gold. the anglo-saxon mss. show traces of the influence of the traditions of classic art drawn through the byzantine, or from the roman sources, which naturally affected the earliest forms of christian art as we see its relics in the catacombs. these classical traditions are especially noticeable in the treatment of the draperies clinging in linear and elliptical folds to express the limbs. in fact, it might be said that, spread westward and northward by the christian colonies, this classical tradition in figure design lingered on, until its renewal at the dawn of the renaissance itself, and the resurrection of classical art in italy, which, uniting with a new naturalism, grew to that wonderful development which has affected the art of europe ever since. the charter of foundation of newminster, at winchester, by king edgar, a.d. , written in gold, is another very splendid early example of book decoration. it has a full-page miniature of the panelled type above mentioned, and elaborate border in gold and colours by an english artist. it is in the british museum, and may be seen open in case in the king's library. [sidenote: anglo-saxon ms.] "the gospels," in latin. a ms. of the eleventh century, with initials and borders in gold and colours, by english artists, is another fine specimen of the early kind. here the titles of each gospel, boldly inscribed, are inclosed in a massively designed border, making a series of full title pages of a dignified type. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "buch von den sieben todsÜnden und den sieben tugenden." (augsburg, bÄmler, .)] as examples of illustrated books, according to the earlier mediæval ideas, we may look at twelfth and thirteenth century "herbals," wherein different plants, very full and frank in colour and formal in design, are figured strictly with a view to the ornamentation of the page. there is a very fine one, described as written in england in the thirteenth century, in the british museum. decoration and illustration are here one and the same. a magnificent specimen of book decoration of the most splendid kind is the "arundel psalter" (arundel ms. , brit. mus.), given by robert de lyle to his daughter audry, as an inscription in the volume tells us, in . here scribe, illuminator, and miniaturist are all at their best, whether one and the same or different persons. it is, moreover, english work. there is no doubt about the beauty of the designs, and the variety and richness of the decorative effect. like all the psalters, the book commences with a calendar, and full pages follow, panelled out and filled in with subjects from the life of christ. a particularly splendid full-page is that of the virgin and child under a gothic canopy, with gold diapered background. there are also very interestingly designed genealogical trees, and fine arrangements of double columned text-pages with illuminated ornament (_see_ nos. , , and , appendix). [illustration: german school. xvth century. speculum humanÆ vitÆ. (augsburg, gÜnther zainer, _circa_ .) (_size of original, - / in. × - / in._)] [sidenote: xiiith and xivth century mss.] the tenison psalter (addit. ms. ) is a specimen of english thirteenth century work. "probably executed for alphonso, son of edmund i., on his contemplated marriage with margaret daughter of florentius, count of holland, which was frustrated by the prince's death on st august, ." the full-page miniatures arranged in panels--in some instances four on a page, with alternate burnished gold and dark blue diapered backgrounds behind the figures, and in others six on a page, the miniature much smaller, and set in a larger margin of colour, alternate red and blue--are very full, solid, and rich in colour with burnished gold. the book is further interesting, as giving excellent and characteristic instances of another and very different treatment of the page (and one which appears to have been rather peculiarly english in style), in the spiny scrolls which, often springing from a large illuminated initial letter upon the field of the text, spreads upon and down the margin, or above and below, often holding in its branching curves figures and animals, which in this ms. are beautifully and finely drawn. note the one showing a lady of the time in pursuit of some deer. in the thirteenth century books the text is a solid tower or column, from which excursions can be made by the fancy and invention of the designer, up and down and above and beneath, upon the ample vellum margins; in some cases, indeed, additional devices appear to have been added by other and later hands than those of the original scribe or illuminator. there is a very remarkable apocalypse (brit. mus. mss. ; formerly belonging to the carthusian house of vau dieu between liège and aix) by french artists of the early fourteenth century, which has a series of very fine imaginative and weird designs (suggestive of orcagna), highly decorative in treatment, very full and frank in colour, and firm in outline. the designs are in oblong panels, inclosed in linear coloured borders at the head of each page, and occupying about two-thirds of it, the text being written in double columns beneath each miniature, with small illuminated initials. the backgrounds of the designs are diapered on grounds of dark green and red alternately. the imaginative force and expression conveyed by these designs--strictly formal and figurative, and controlled by the ornamental traditions of the time--is very remarkable. the illustrator and decorator are here still one. queen mary's psalter (brit. mus. ms. royal , b. vii.), again, is interesting as giving instances of a very different and lighter treatment of figure designs. we find in this ms., together with illuminations in full colours and burnished gold, a series of pale tinted illustrations in bible history drawn with a delicate pen line. the method of the illuminators and miniaturists seems always to have been to draw their figures and ornaments clearly out first with a pen before colouring. [illustration: german school. xvth century. bible, heinrich quentel. (cologne, .)] in the full-coloured miniatures the pen lines are not visible, but in this ms. they are preserved with the delicate tinted treatment. the designs i speak of are placed two on a page, occupying it entirely. they are inclosed in vermilion borders, terminated at each corner with a leaf. there is a very distinct and graceful feeling about the designs. the same hand appears to have added on the lower margins of the succeeding text pages a series of quaint figures--combats of grotesque animals, hunting, hawking, and fishing scenes, and games and sports, and, finally, biblical subjects. here, again, i think we may detect in the early illustrators a tendency to escape from the limitations of the book page, though only a tendency. a fine ornamental page combining illumination with miniature is given in the "epistle of philippe de comines to richard ii." at the end of the fourteenth century. the figures, interesting historically and as examples of costume, are relieved upon a diapered ground. the text is in double columns, with square initials, and the page is lightened by open foliation branching out upon the margin from the straight spiney border strips, which on the inner side terminate in a dragon. [sidenote: the bedford book of hours.] as a specimen of early fifteenth century work, both for illuminator, scribe, and miniaturist, it would be difficult to find a more exquisite book than the bedford hours (brit. mus. ms. add. ), dated , said to be the work of french artists, though produced in england. the kalendar, which occupies the earlier pages, is remarkable for its small and very brilliant and purely coloured miniatures set like gems in a very fine, delicate, light, open, leafy border, bright with burnished gold trefoil leaves, which are characteristic of french illuminated books of this period (_see_ nos. and , appendix). there is an elaborate full-page miniature containing the creation and fall, which breaks over the margin here and there. the thirteenth and fourteenth century miniaturists frequently allowed their designs to break over the framework of their diapered grounds or panels in an effective way, which pleasantly varied the formality of framed-in subjects upon the page, especially where a flat margin of colour between lines inclosed them; and some parts of the groups broke over the inner line while keeping within the limits of the outer one. very frequently, as in this ms., a general plan is followed throughout in the spacing of the pages, though the borders and miniatures in detail show almost endless variation. in such splendid works as this we get the complete and harmonious co-operation and union between the illustrator and the decorator. the object of each is primarily to beautify his page. the illuminator makes his borders and initial letters branch and bud, and put forth leaves and flowers spreading luxuriantly up and down the margin of his vellum pages (beautiful even as the scribe left them) like a living growth; while the miniaturist makes the letter itself the shrine of some delicate saint, or a vision of some act of mercy or martyrdom; while the careless world plays hide and seek through the labyrinthine borders, as the seasons follow each other through the kalendar, and the peasant ploughs, and sows, and reaps, and threshes out the corn, while gay knights tourney in the lists, or, with ladies in their quaint attire, follow the spotted deer through the greenwood. [sidenote: merry england.] in these beautiful liturgical books of the middle ages, as we see, the ornamental feeling developed with and combined the illustrative function, so that almost any illuminated psalter or book of hours will furnish not only lovely examples of floral decoration in borders and initials of endless fertility of invention, but also give us pictures of the life and manners of the times. in those of our own country we can realize how full of colour, quaint costume, and variety was life when england was indeed merry, in spite of family feuds and tyrannous lords and kings; before her industrial transformation and the dispossession of her people; ere boards of works and poor-law guardians took the place of her monasteries and abbeys; before her streams were fouled with sewage, and her cities blackened with coal smoke--the smoke of the burning sacrificed to commercial competition and wholesale production for profit by means of machine power and machine labour; before she became the workshop and engine-room of the world. [illustration: dutch school. xvth century. spiegel onser behoudenisse, kuilenburg. (jan veldener, .)] these books glowing with gold and colour tell of days when time was no object, and the pious artist and scribe could work quietly and lovingly to make a thing of beauty with no fear of a publisher or a printer before his eyes, or the demands of world market. in the midst of our self-congratulation on the enormous increase of our resources for the rapid and cheap production of books, and the power of the printing press, we should do well not to forget that if books of those benighted centuries of which i have been speaking were few, comparatively, they were fit, though few--they were things of beauty and joys for ever to their possessors. a prayer-book was not only a prayer-book, but a picture-book, a shrine, a little mirror of the world, a sanctuary in a garden of flowers. one can well understand their preciousness apart from their religious use, and many have seen strange eventful histories no doubt. the earl of shrewsbury lost his prayer-book (the talbot prayer-book) and his life together on the battle-field at castillon (about thirty miles from bordeaux) in . this book, as mr. quaritch states, was carried away by a breton soldier, and was only re-discovered in brittany a few years ago. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "deutsche uebersetzung des eunuchus des terentius." (ulm, dinckmut, .)] [sidenote: missals.] it has been suggested that the large coloured and illuminated initial letters in liturgical books had their origin as guides in taking up the different parts of the service; and, as i learn from mr. micklethwaite, in some of the missals, where the crucifixion is painted in an illuminated letter, a simple cross is placed below for the votary to kiss instead of the picture, as it was found in practice, when only the picture was there, the tendency was to obliterate it by the recurrence of this form of devotion. as an example of the influence of naturalism which had begun to make itself felt in art towards the end of the fifteenth century, we may cite the romance of the rose (harl. mss. ), in the british museum, which has two fine full-page miniatures with elaborate borderings, full of detail and colour, and which are also illustrative of costume (_see_ no. , appendix). the text pages show the effect of double columns with small highly-finished miniatures (occupying the width of one column) interspersed. the style of work is akin to that of the celebrated grimani breviary, now in the library of st. mark's, venice, the miniatures of which are said to have been painted by memling. they are wonderfully rich in detail, and fine in workmanship, and are quite in the manner of the flemish pictures of that period. we feel that the pictorial and illustrative power is gaining the ascendancy, and in its borders of highly wrought leaves, flowers, fruit, and insects, given in full relief with their cast shadows--wonderful as they are in themselves as pieces of work--it is evident to me, at least, that whatever graphic strength and richness of chiaroscuro is gained it is at the distinct cost of the beauty of pure decorative effect upon the page. after the delicate arabesques of the earlier time, these borders look a little heavy, and however great their pictorial or imitative merits, they fail to satisfy the conditions of a page decoration so satisfactorily. perhaps the most sumptuous examples of book decoration of this period are to be found in italy, in the celebrated choir books in the cathedral of siena. they show a rare union of imaginative form, pictorial skill, and decorative sense in the miniaturist, united with all the italian richness and grace in the treatment of early renaissance ornament, and in its adaptation to the decoration of the book page (_see_ no. , appendix). these miniatures are the work of girolamo da cremona, and liberale da verona. at least, these two are described as "the most copious and indefatigable of the artists employed on the corali." payments were made to them for the work in , and again in - , which fixes the date. [illustration: flemish school. xvth century. "life of christ." (antwerp, gheraert leeu, .) (_original, - / in. × - / in._)] [sidenote: illuminated mss.] i am not ignoring the possibility of a certain division of labour in the illuminated ms. the work of the scribe, the illuminator, and the miniaturist are distinct enough, while equally important to the result. mr. j. w. bradley, who has compiled a dictionary of miniaturists, speaking of calligrapher, illuminator, and miniaturist, says:--"each of these occupations is at times conjoined with either or both of the others," and when that is so, in giving the craftsman his title, he decides by the period of his work. for instance, from the seventh to the tenth centuries he would call him calligrapher; eleventh to fifteenth centuries, illuminator; fifteenth to sixteenth centuries, miniaturist. transcription he puts in another category as the work of the copyist scribe. but whatever division of labour there may or may not have been, there was no division in the harmony and unity of the effect. if in some cases the more purely ornamental parts, such as the floral borders and initials, were the work of one artist, the text of another, and the miniatures of another, all i can say is, that each worked together as brethren in unity, contributing to the beauty of a harmonious and organic whole; and if such division of labour can be ascertained to have been a fact, it goes to prove the importance of some co-operation in a work of art, and its magnificent possibilities. the illuminated ms. books have this great distinction and advantage in respect of harmony of text and decoration, the text of the calligrapher always harmonizing with the designs of the illuminator, it being in like manner all through the middle ages a thing of growth and development, acquiring new characteristics and undergoing processes of transformation less obvious perhaps, but not less actual, than the changes in the style and characters of the devices and inventions which accompanied it. the mere fact that every part of the work was due to the hand, that manual skill and dexterity alone has produced the whole, gives a distinction and a character to these ms. books which no press could possibly rival. the difficulty which besets the modern book decorator, illustrator, or designer of printers' ornaments, of getting type which will harmonize properly with his designs, did not exist with the mediæval illuminator, who must always have been sure of balancing his designs by a body of text not only beautiful in the form of its individual letters, but beautiful and rich in the effect of its mass on the page, which was only enhanced when the initials were relieved with colour on gold, or beautiful pen work which grew out of them like the mistletoe from the solid oak stem. the very pitch of perfection which penmanship, or the art of the calligrapher had reached in the fifteenth century, the calculated regularity and "purgation of superfluities" in the form of the letters, the squareness of their mass in the words, and approximation in length and height, seem to suggest and naturally lead up to the idea of the movable type and the printed page. before, however, turning the next page of our subject, let us take one more general and rapid glance at the ms. books from the point of view of design. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "chronica hungariÆ." (augsburg, ratdolt, .)] while examples of the two fields into which art may be said to be always more or less divided--the imitative and the inventive, or the illustrative and the decorative--are not altogether absent in the books of the middle ages, the main tendency and prevailing spirit is decidedly on the inventive and decorative side, more especially in the work of the illuminators from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, and yet this inventive and decorative spirit is often allied with a dramatic and poetic feeling, as well as a sense of humour. we see how full of life is the ornament of the illuminator, how figures, birds, animals, and insects fill his arabesques, how he is often decorator, illustrator, and pictorial commentator in one. [illustration: french school. xvth century. initial from "la mer des histoires." (paris, pierre le rouge, .)] [sidenote: the beautiful page.] even apart from his enrichments, it is evident that the page was regarded by the calligrapher as a space to be decorated--that it should at least, regarded solely as a page of text, be a page of beautiful writing, the mass carefully placed upon the vellum, so as to afford convenient and ample margin, especially beneath. the page of a book, in fact, may be regarded as a flat panel which may be variously spaced out. the calligrapher, the illuminator, and the miniaturist are the architects who planned out their vellum grounds and built beautiful structures of line and colour upon them for thought and fancy to dwell in. sometimes the text is arranged in a single column, as generally in the earlier mss.; sometimes in double, as generally in the gothic and later mss., and these square and oblong panels of close text are relieved by large and small initial letters sparkling in gold and colour, inclosed in their own framework, or escaping from it in free and varied branch work and foliation upon the margin, and set with miniatures like gems, as in the bedford hours, the larger initials increasing to such proportions as to inclose a more important miniature--a subject-picture in short--a book illustration in the fullest sense, yet strictly a part of a general scheme of the ornamentation of the page. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "hortus sanitatis." (mainz, jacob meidenbach, .)] [sidenote: the miniaturists.] floral borders, which in some instances spread freely around the text and fill the margins, unconfined though not uninfluenced by rectangular lines or limits from a light and open, yet rich and delicate tracery of leaves and fanciful blossoms (as in the bedford hours); are in others framed in with firm lines (tenison psalter, p. ); and in later fifteenth century mss. with gold lines and mouldings, as the treatment of the page becomes more pictorial and solid in colour and relief. sometimes the borders form a distinct framework, inclosing the text and dividing its columns, as in "the book of hours of rené of anjou" (egerton ms. ), and the same design is sometimes repeated differently coloured. gradually the miniaturist--the picture painter--although at first almost as formally decorative as the illuminator--asserts his independence, and influences the treatment of the border, which becomes a miniature also, as in the grimani breviary, the romance of the rose, and the choir books of siena, until at last the miniature or the picture is in danger of being more thought of than the book, and we get books of framed pictures instead of pictured or decorated books. in the grimani breviary the miniature frequently occupies the whole page with a single subject-picture; or the miniature is superimposed upon a pictured border, which, strengthened by rigid architectural lines and tabernacle work, form a rich frame. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "chroneken der sassen." (mainz, schÖffer, .)] all these varieties we have been examining are, however, interesting and beautiful in their own way in their results. in considering any form of art of a period which shows active traditions, real life and movement, natural growth and development, we are fascinated by its organic quality, and though we may detect the absorption or adaptation of new elements and new influences from time to time leading to changes of style and structure of design, as well as changed temper and feeling, as long as this natural evolution continues, each variety has its own charm and its own compensations; while we may have our preferences as to which approaches most nearly to the ideal of perfect adaptability, and, therefore, of decorative beauty. in the progressive unfolding which characterizes a living style, all its stages must be interesting and possess their own significance, since all fall into their places in the great and golden record of the history of art itself. [illustration] chapter ii. of the transition, and of the second period of decoratively illustrated books, from the invention of printing in the fifteenth century onwards. we have seen to what a pitch of perfection and magnificence the decoration and illustration of books attained during the middle ages, and the splendid results to which art in the three distinct forms--calligraphy, illumination, and miniature--contributed. we have traced a gradual progression and evolution of style through the period of ms. books, both in the development of writing and ornament. we have noted how the former became more and more regular and compact in its mass on the page, and how in the latter the illustrative or pictorial size grew more and more important, until at the close of the fifteenth century we had large and elaborately drawn and naturalistic pictures framed in the initial letters, as in the choir books of siena, or occupying the whole page with a single subject, as in the grimani breviary. the tree of design, springing from small and obscure germs, sends up a strong stem, branches and buds in the favourable sun, and finally breaks into a beautiful free efflorescence and fruitage. then we mark a fresh change. the autumn comes after the summertide, winter follows autumn, till the new life, ever ready to spring from the husk of the old, puts forth its leaves, until by almost imperceptible degrees and changes, and the silent growth of new forces, the face of the world is changed for us. so it was with the change that came upon european art towards the end of the fifteenth century, the result of many causes working together; but as regards art as applied to books, the greatest of these was of course the invention and application of printing. like most great movements in art or life, it had an obscure beginning. its parentage might be sought in the woodcuts of the earlier part of the fifteenth century applied to the printing of cards. the immediate forerunners of printed books were the block books. characteristic specimens of the quaint works may be seen displayed in the king's library, british museum. the art of these block books is quite rude and primitive, and, contrasted with the highly-finished work of the illuminated ms. of the same time, might almost belong to another period. these are the first tottering steps of the infant craft; the first faint utterances, soon to grow into strong, clear, and perfect speech, to rule the world of books and men. [illustration: german school. xvth century. from the lÜbeck bible. (lÜbeck, steffen arndes, .)] [sidenote: the earliest printers.] germany had not taken any especial or distinguished part in the production of mss. remarkable for artistic beauty or original treatment; but her time was to come, and now, in the use of an artistic application of the invention of printing, and the new era of book decoration and illustration, she at once took the lead. seeing that the invention itself is ascribed to one of her own sons, it seems appropriate enough, and natural that printing should grow to quick perfection in the land of its birth; so that we find some of the earliest and greatest triumphs of the press coming from german printers, such as gutenberg, fust, and schoeffer, not to speak yet of the wonderful fertility of decorative invention, graphic force, and dramatic power of german designers, culminating in the supreme genius of albrecht dürer and hans holbein. the prosperous german towns, cologne, mainz, frankfort, strassburg, augsburg, bamberg, halberstadt, nuremberg, and ulm, all became famous in the history of printing, and each had its school of designers in black and white, its distinctive style in book-decoration and printing. italy, france, switzerland, and england, however, all had their share, and a glorious share, in the triumph of printing in its early days. the presses of venice, of florence, and of rome and naples, of paris, and of basel, and of our own william caxton, at westminster, must always be looked upon as in the van of the early progress of the art, and the richness of the decorative invention and beauty, in the case of the woodcut adornments used by the printers of venice and florence especially, gives them in the last years of the fifteenth century and the early years of the sixteenth a particular distinction. appears to be the earliest definite date that can be fixed on to mark the earliest use of printing. in that year, the mainz "indulgences" were in circulation, but the following year is more important, as to it is assigned the issue, from the press of gutenberg and fust at mainz, of the famous mazarin bible, a copy of which is in the british museum. mr. bullen says, "the copy which first attracted notice in modern times was discovered in the library of cardinal mazarin"--hence the name. it is noticeable as showing how transitional was the change in the treatment of the page. the scribe has been supplanted--the marshalled legions of printed letters have invaded his territory and driven him from his occupation; but the margin is still left for the illuminator to spread his coloured borders upon, and the initial letters wait for the touch of colour from his hand. the early printers evidently regarded their art as providing a substitute for the ms. book. they aimed at doing the work of the scribe and doing it better and more expeditiously. no idea of a new departure in effect seems to have been entertained at first, to judge from such specimens as these. [illustration: french school. xvth century. from paris et vienne. (paris, jehan treperel, c. .)] [sidenote: the mainz psalter.] another early printed book is the mainz psalter. it is printed on vellum, and comes from the press of fust and schoeffer in . it is remarkable not only as the first printed psalter and as the first book printed with a date, but also as being the first example of printing in colours. the initial letter b is the result of this method, and it affords a wonderful instance of true register. the blue of the letter fitted cleanly into the red of the surrounding ornament with a precision which puzzles our modern printers, and it is difficult to understand how such perfection could have been attained. mr. emery walker has suggested to me that the blue letter itself might have been cut out, inked, and dropped in from the back of the red block when that was in the press, and so the two colours printed together. if this could be done with sufficient precision, it would certainly account for the exactitude of the register. apart from this interesting technical question, however, the page is a very beautiful one, and the initial, with its solid shape of figured blue, inclosed in the delicate red pen-like tracery climbing up and down the margin, is a charming piece of page decoration. the original may be seen in one of the cases in the king's library, british museum. we have here an instance of the printer aiming at directly imitating and supplanting by his craft the art of the calligrapher and illuminator, and with such a beauty and perfection of workmanship as must have astonished them and given them far more reason to regard the printer as a dangerous rival than had (as it is said) the early wood engravers, who were unwilling to help the printer by their art for fear his craft would injure their own, which seems somewhat extraordinary considering how closely allied both wood engraver and printer have been ever since. the example of the mainz psalter does not seem to have been much followed, and as regards the application of colour, it was as a rule left as a matter of course to be added by the miniaturist, who evidently declined as an artist after he had got into the way of having his designs in outline provided for him ready-made by the printer; or, rather, perhaps the accomplished miniature printer, having carried his art as applied to books about as far as it would go, became absorbed as a painter of independent pictures, and the printing of books fell into inferior hands. there can be no doubt that the devices and decorations of the early printers were intended to be coloured in emulation of illuminated and miniatured mss., and were regarded, in fact, as the pen outlines of the illuminator, only complete when filled in with colours and gold. it appears to have been only by degrees that the rich and vigorous lines of the woodcut, as well as the black and white effect, became admired for their own sake--so slowly moves the world! [sidenote: german illustration.] a good idea of the general character of the development of the wood (and metal) cut in book and illustration and decoration in germany, from (leiden christi, pfister, bamberg, ) to (virgil solis' bible) , may be gained from a study of the series of reproductions given in this and the preceding chapter, in chronological order, with the names, dates, and places, as well as the particular characteristics of the style of the different designers and printers. [illustration: german school. xvth century. "das buch und leben des hochberÜhmten fabeldichters Æsopi." (ulm, .[ ])] [ ] this is the date of the copy from which the illustration is reproduced. the first edition of the book was, however, probably issued about . [sidenote: italian illustrations.] the same may be said in regard to the italian series which follows, and those from basel and paris. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. de claris mulieribus. (ferrara, .)] perhaps the most interesting examples of the use of early printing as a substitute for illumination and miniature are to be found in the books of hours which were produced at paris in the later years of the fifteenth and the early years of the sixteenth centuries ( - about) by vérard, du pré, philip pigouchet, kerver, and hardouyn. specimens of these books may be seen in the british museum, and at the art library at south kensington museum. the originals are mostly printed on vellum. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. tuppo's Æsop. (naples, .)] [sidenote: borders and ornaments.] the effect of the richly designed borders on black dotted grounds is very pleasant, but these books seem to have been intended to be illuminated and coloured. we find in some copies that the full-page printed pictures are coloured, being worked up as miniatures, and the semi-architectural borderings with renaissance mouldings and details are gilded flat, and treated as the frame of the picture. there is one which has the mark of the printer gillet hardouyn (g. h. on the shield), on the front page. in another copy ( ) this is painted and the framework gilded; the subject is nessus the centaur carrying off deianira, the wife of hercules; a sign of the tendency to revive classical mythology which had set in, in this case, in curious association with a christian service-book. it is noticeable how soon the facility for repetition by the press was taken advantage of, and a design, especially if on ornamental borderings of a page, often repeated several times throughout a book. these borderings and ornaments being generally in separate blocks as to headings, side panels, and tail-pieces, could easily be shifted and a certain variety obtained by being differently made up. here we may see commercialism creeping in. considerations of profit and economy no doubt have their effect, and mechanical invention comes in to cheapen not only labour, but artistic invention also. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. p. cremonese's "dante." (venice, november, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvth century. the discovery of the indies. (florence, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvth century. fior di virtÙ. (florence, ?)] [sidenote: the renaissance.] it took some time, however, to turn the printer into the manufacturer or tradesman pure and simple. nothing is more striking than the high artistic character of the early printed books. the invention of printing, coming as it did when the illuminated mss. had reached the period of its greatest glory and perfection, with the artistic traditions of fifteen centuries poured, as it were, into its lap, filling its founts with beautiful lettering, and guiding the pencil of its designers with a still unbroken sense of fitness and perfect adaptability; while as yet the influence of the revival of classic learning and mythology was only felt as the stirring and stimulating breath of new awakening spring--the aroma of spice-laden winds from unknown shores of romance--or as the mystery and wonder of discovery, standing on the brink of a half-disclosed new world, and fired with the thought of its possibilities-- "or like stout cortez when with eagle eyes he stared at the pacific." had the discovery of printing occurred two or three centuries earlier, it would have been curious to see the results. but after all, an invention never lives until the world is ready to adopt it. it is impossible to say how many inventions are new inventions. "ask and ye shall have," or the practical application of it, is the history of civilization. necessity, the stern mother, compels her children to provide for their own physical and intellectual necessities, and in due time the hour and the man (with his invention) arrives. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. stephano caesenate peregrini inventore (s.c. p.i.). (venice, de gregoriis, .)] classical mythology and gothic mysticism and romance met together in the art and books of the early renaissance. ascetic aspiration strives with frank paganism and nature worship. the gods of ancient greece and rome seemed to awake after an enchanted sleep of ages, and reappear again unto men. italy, having hardly herself ever broken with the ancient traditions of classical art and religion, became the focus of the new light, and her independent republics, such as florence and venice, the centres of wealth, culture, refinement, and artistic invention. turkish conquest, too, had its effect on the development of the new movement by driving greek scholars and the knowledge of the classical writers of antiquity westward. these were all materials for an exceptional development of art, and, above all, of the art of the printer, and the decoration and illustration of books. the name of aldus, of venice, is famous among those of the early renaissance printers. perhaps the most remarkable book, from this or any press, for the beauty of its decorative illustration, is the _poliphili hypnerotomachia_--"the dream of poliphilus"--printed in , an allegorical romance of love in the manner of those days. the authorship of the design has been the subject of much speculation. i believe they were attributed at one time to mantegna, and they have also been ascribed to one of the bellini. the style of the designer, the quality of the outline, the simplicity yet richness of the designs, their poetic feeling, the mysticism of some, and frank paganism of others, places the series quite by themselves. the first edition is now very difficult to obtain, and might cost something like guineas. my illustrations are taken from the copy in the art library at south kensington museum, and are from negatives taken by mr. griggs, for the science and art department, who have issued a set of reproductions in photo-lithography, by him, of the whole of the woodcuts in the volume, of the original size, at the price, i believe, of _s._ _d._ here is an instance of what photographic reproduction can do for us--when originals of great works are costly or unattainable we can get reproductions for a few shillings, for all practical purposes as good for study as the originals themselves. if we cannot, in this age, produce great originals, we can at least reproduce them--perhaps the next best thing. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. poliphilus. (venice, aldus, .)] [illustration: italian school. =tertivs= xvth century. poliphilus. (venice, aldus, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. alessandro minuziano. (milan, designer unknown, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. school of giov. bellini. (venice, georgius de rusconibus, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. the descent of minerva, from the quatriregio. (florence, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. aulus gellius, printed by giov. tacuino. (venice, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. quintilian. (venice, georgius de rusconibus, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvith century. ottaviano dei petrucci. (fossombrone, .)] there is a french edition of poliphilus printed at paris, by kerver, in ,[ ] which has a frontispiece designed by jean cousin. the illustrations, too, have all been redrawn, and are treated in quite a different manner from the venetian originals--but they have a character of their own, though of a later, florid, and more self-conscious type, as might be expected from paris in the latter half of the sixteenth century. the initial letters of a series of chapters in the book spell, if read consecutively, francisco columna (f.r.a.n.c.i.s.c.o. c.o.l.v.m.n.a.)--the name of the writer of the romance. [ ] the first french edition is dated . whether such designs as these were intended to be coloured is doubtful. they are very satisfactory as they are in outline, and want nothing else. the book may be considered as an illustrated one, drawings of monuments, fountains, standards, emblems, and devices are placed here and there in the text, but they are so charmingly designed and drawn that the effect is decorative, and being in open line the mechanical conditions are perfectly fulfilled of surface printing with the type. [sidenote: caxton.] after the beautiful productions of the german, italian (of which some reproductions are given here), and french printers, our own william caxton's first books seem rather rough, though not without character, and, at any rate, picturesqueness, if they cannot be quoted as very accomplished examples of the printer's art. the first book printed in england is said to be caxton's "dictes and sayings of the philosophers," printed by him at westminster in . a noticeable characteristic of the early printed books is the development of the title page. whereas the mss. generally did without one, with the advent of printing the title page became more and more important, and even if there were no other illustrations or ornaments in a book, there was often a woodcut title. such examples as some here given convey a good idea of what charming decorative feeling these title page designs sometimes displayed, and those greatest of designers and book decorators and illustrators, albrecht dürer and hans holbein, showed their power and decorative skill, and sense of the resources of the woodcut, in the designs made by them for various title pages. the noble designs of the master craftsman of nuremberg, albrecht dürer, are well known. his extraordinary vigour of drawing, and sense of its resources as applied to the woodcut, made him a great force in the decoration and illustration of books, and many are the splendid designs from his hand. three designs from the fine series of the little passion and two of his title pages are given, which show him on the strictly decorative side. the title dated may be compared with that of oronce finé (paris, ). there appears to have been a return to this convoluted knotted kind of ornament at this period. it appears in italian mss. earlier, and may have been derived from byzantine sources. [illustration: german school. xvith century. albrecht dÜrer, "kleine passion." (nuremberg, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. albrecht dÜrer, "kleine passion." (nuremberg, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. albrecht dÜrer, "kleine passion." (nuremberg, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. albrecht dÜrer. (nuremberg, heinrich steyner, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. designed by albrecht dÜrer. (nuremberg, .)] [sidenote: hans holbein.] there is a fine title page designed by holbein, printed by petri, at basle, in . it was originally designed and used for an edition of the new testament, printed by the same adam petri in . at the four corners are the symbols of the evangelists; the arms of the city of basle are in the centre of the upper border, and the printer's device occupies a corresponding space below. figures of ss. peter and paul are in the niches at each side. but the work always most associated with the name of holbein is the remarkable little book containing the series of designs known as the "dance of death," the first edition of which was printed at lyons in . the two designs here given are printed from the blocks cut by bonner and byfield ( ). these cuts are only about - / by inches, and yet an extraordinary amount of invention, graphic power, dramatic and tragic force, and grim and satiric humour, is compressed into them. they stand quite alone in the history of art, and give a wonderfully interesting and complete series of illustrations of the life of the sixteenth century. holbein is supposed to have painted this "dance of death" in the palace of henry viii., erected by cardinal wolsey at whitehall, life size; but this was destroyed in the fire which consumed nearly the whole of that palace in . [illustration: ger. school. xvith cent. holbein. "dance of death." the nun. (lyons, .)] the bible cuts of hans holbein are also a very fine series, and remarkable for their breadth and simplicity of line, as well as decorative effect on the page. [illustration: ger. school. xvith cent. holbein, "dance of death." the ploughman. (lyons, .)] it is interesting to note that holbein's father and grandfather both practised engraving and painting at augsburg, while his brother ambrose was also a fertile book illustrator. hans holbein the elder married a daughter of the elder burgmair, father of the famous hans burgmair, examples of whose fine and vigorous style of drawing are given. [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans holbein. (basel, adam petri, _circa_ .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans holbein. hist. vet. test. iconibus illustrata.] [sidenote: the german masters.] [sidenote: the german tradition.] albrecht dürer and holbein, indeed, seem to express and to sum up all the vigour and power of design of that very vigorous and fruitful time of the german renaissance. they had able contemporaries, of course, among whom are distinguished, lucas cranach (the elder) born , and hans burgmair, already named, who was associated with dürer in the work of the celebrated series of woodcuts, "the triumphs of maximilian;" one of the fine series of "der weiss könig," a noble title page, and a vigorous drawing of peasants at work in a field, here represent him. other notable designers were hans sebald beham, hans baldung grün, hans wächtlin, jost amman, and others, who carried on the german style or tradition in design to the end of the sixteenth century. this tradition of convention was technically really the mode of expression best fitted to the conditions of the woodcut and the press, under which were evolved the vigorous pen line characteristic of the german masters. it was a living condition in which each could work freely, bringing in his own fresh observation and individual feeling, while remaining in collective harmony. [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans holbein. bible.] [illustration: german school. xvith century. ambrose holbein. "das gantze neue testament," etc. (basel, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans burgmair. "der weiss kÖnig" ( - ).] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans burgmair. (augsburg, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans burgmair. "historia mundi naturalis," pliny. (frankfort, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans burgmair. "die meerfahrt zu viln onerkannten inseln und kunigreichen." (augsburg, .)] [sidenote: printers' marks] [sidenote: emblem books.] the various marks adopted by the printers themselves are often decorative devices of great interest and beauty. the french printers, gillett hardouyn and thielman kerver, for instance, had charming devices with which they generally occupied the front page of their books of hours. others were pictorial puns and embodied the name of the printer under some figure, such as that of petri of basle, who adopted a device of a stone, which the flames and the hammer stroke failed to destroy; or the mark of philip le noir--a black shield with a negro crest and supporter; or the palm tree of palma isingrin. others were purely emblematic and heraldic, such as the dolphin twined round the anchor, of aldus, with the motto "_propera tarde_"--"hasten slowly." this, and another device of a crab holding a butterfly by its wings, with the same signification, are both borrowed from the favourite devices of two of the early emperors of rome--augustus and titus. this symbolic, emblematic, allegorizing tendency which had been more or less characteristic of both art and literature, in various degrees, from the most ancient times, became more systematically cultivated, and collections of emblems began to appear in book form in the sixteenth century. the earliest being that of alciati, the first edition of whose book appeared in , edition after edition following each other from various printers and places from that date to , with ever-increasing additions, and being translated into french, german, and italian. mr. henry green, the author of "shakespeare and the emblem writers" (written to prove shakespeare's acquaintance with the emblem books, and constant allusions to emblems), said of alciati's book that "it established, if it did not introduce, a new style for emblem literature--the classical, in the place of the simply grotesque and humorous, or of the heraldic and mystic." [illustration: hans baldung grÜn. "hortulus animÆ." (strassburg, martin flach, .)] [illustration: hans baldung grÜn. "hortulus animÆ." (strassburg, martin flach, .)] [illustration: hans baldung grÜn. "hortulus animÆ." (strassburg, martin flach, .)] [illustration: hans baldung grÜn. "hortulus animÆ." (strassburg, martin flach, .)] there is an edition of alciati printed at lyons (bonhomme), , a reprint of which was published by the holbein society in . the figure designs and the square woodcut subjects are supposed to be the work of solomon bernard--called the little bernard--born at lyons in . these are surrounded by elaborate and rather heavy decorative borders, in the style of the later renaissance, by another hand, some of them bearing the monogram p.v., which has been explained to mean either pierino del vaga, the painter (a pupil of raphael's), or petro de vingles, a printer of lyons. [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans wÄchtlin. (strassburg, mathias schÜrer, .)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. hans sebald beham. "das papstthum mit seinen gliedern." (nuremberg, hans wandereisen, .)] these borders, as we learn from a preface to one of the editions ("ad lectorem"--roville's latin text of the emblems), were intended as patterns for various craftsmen. "for i say this is their use, that as often as any one may wish to assign fulness to empty things, ornament to base things, speech to dumb things, and reason to senseless things, he may, from a little book of emblems, as from an excellently well-prepared hand-book, have what he may be able to impress on the walls of houses, on windows of glass, on tapestry, on hangings, on tablets, vases, ensigns, seals, garments, the table, the couch, the arms, the sword, and lastly, furniture of every kind." [sidenote: emblems.] an emblem has been defined ("cotgrave's dictionary," art. "emblema") as "a picture and short posie, expressing some particular conceit;" and by francis quarles as "but a silent parable;" and bacon, in his "advancement of learning," says:--"embleme deduceth conceptions intellectuall to images sensible, and that which is sensible more fully strikes the memory, and is more easily imprinted than that which is intellectual." [sidenote: the copper-plate.] all was fish that fell into the net of the emblem writer or deviser; hieroglyphic, heraldry, fable, mythology, the ancient egyptians, homer, ancient greece and rome, christianity, or pagan philosophy, all in their turn served "to point a moral and adorn a tale." as to the artistic quality of the designs which are found in these books, they are of very various quality, those of the earlier sixteenth century with woodcuts being naturally the best and most vigorous, corresponding in character to the qualities of the contemporary design. holbein's "dance of death," or rather "images and storied aspects of death," its true title, might be called an emblem book, but very few can approach it in artistic quality. some of the devices in early editions of the emblem books of giovio, witney, and even the much later quarles have a certain quaintness; but though such books necessarily depended on their illustrations, the moral and philosophic, or epigrammatic burden proved in the end more than the design could carry, when the impulse which characterized the early renaissance had declined, and design, as applied to books, became smothered with classical affectation and pomposity, and the clear and vigorous woodcut was supplanted by the doubtful advantage of the copper-plate. the introduction of the use of the copper-plate marks a new era in book illustration, but as regards their decoration, one of distinct decline. while the surface-printed block, whether woodcut or metal engraving (by which method many of the early book illustrations were rendered) accorded well with the conditions of the letter-press printing, as they were set up with the type and printed by the same pressure in the same press. with copper-plate quite other conditions came in, as the paper has to be pressed into the etched or engraved lines of the plate, instead of being impressed by the lines in relief of the wood or the metal. thus, with the use of copper-plate illustrations in printed books, that mechanical relation which exists between a surface-printed block and the letter-press was at once broken, as a different method of printing had to be used. the apparent, but often specious, refinement of the copper-plate did not necessarily mean extra power or refinement of draughtsmanship or design, but merely thinner lines, and these were often attained at the cost of richness and vigour, as well as decorative effect. [illustration: german school. xvith century. reformation der ba[:y]rischen landrecht. (munich, .)] the first book illustrated with copper-plate engravings, however, bears an early date-- . ["el monte sancto di dio." niccolo di lorenzo, florence]. in this case it was reserved for the full page pictures. the method does not seem to have commended itself much to the book designers, and did not come into general use until the end of the sixteenth century, with the decline of design. the encyclopædic books of this period--the curious compendiums of the knowledge of those days--were full of entertaining woodcuts, diagrams, and devices, and the various treatises on grammar, arithmetic, geometry, physiology, anatomy, astronomy, geography, were made attractive by them, each section preceded perhaps by an allegorical figure of the art or science discoursed of in the costume of a grand dame of the period. the herbals and treatises on animals were often filled with fine floral designs and vigorous, if sometimes half-mythical, representations of animals. [sidenote: fuchsius.] [sidenote: herbals.] there are fine examples of plant drawing in a beautiful herbal ("fuchsius: de historia stirpium"; basle, isingrin, ). they are not only faithful and characteristic as drawings of the plants themselves, but are beautiful as decorative designs, being drawn in a fine free style, and with a delicate sense of line, and well thrown upon the page. at the beginning of the book is a woodcut portrait of the author, leonard fuchs--possibly the fuchsia may have been named after him--and at the end is another woodcut giving the portrait of the artist, the designer of the flowers, and the draughtsman on wood and the formschneider, or engraver on wood, beneath, who appears to be fully conscious of his own importance. the first two are busy at work, and it will be noticed the artist is drawing from the flower itself with the point of a brush, the brush being fixed in a quill in the manner of our water-colour brushes. the draughtsman holds the design or paper while he copies it upon the block. the portraits are vigorously drawn in a style suggestive of hans burgmair. good examples of plant drawing which is united with design are also to be found in matthiolus (venice, ), and in a kreuterbuch (strasburg, ), and in gerard's herbal, of which there are several editions. as examples of design in animals, there are some vigorous woodcuts in a "history of quadrupeds," by conrad gesner, printed by froschover, of zurich, in . the porcupine is as like a porcupine as need be, and there can be no mistake about his quills. the drawings of birds are excellent, and one of a crane (as i ought, perhaps, more particularly to know) is very characteristic. [illustration: italian school. xvith century. (tosculano, alex. paganini, .) (_comp. dürer's title page, nuremberg, ._)] [illustration: german school. xvith century. "fuchsius: de historia stirpium." (basle, isingrin, .)] [sidenote: the new spirit.] but we have passed the rubicon--the middle of the sixteenth century. ripening so rapidly, and blossoming into such excellence and perfection as did the art of the printer, and design as applied to the printed page, through the woodcut and the press, their artistic character and beauty was somewhat short-lived. up to about this date ( was the date of our last example), as we have seen, to judge only from the comparatively few specimens given here, what beautiful books were printed, remarkable both for their decorative and illustrative value, and often uniting these two functions in perfect harmony; but after the middle of the sixteenth century both vigour and beauty in design generally may be said to have declined. whether the world had begun to be interested in other things--and we know the great discovery of columbus had made it practically larger--whether discovery, conquest, and commerce more and more filled the view of foremost spirits, and art was only valued as it illustrated or contributed to the knowledge of or furtherance of these; whether the reformation or the spirit of protestantism, turning men's minds from outward to inward things, and in its revolt against the half paganized catholic church--involving a certain ascetic scorn and contempt for any form of art which did not serve a direct moral purpose, and which appealed to the senses rather than to the emotions or the intellect--practically discouraged it altogether. whether that new impulse given to the imagination by the influence of the revival of classical learning, poetry, and antique art, had become jaded, and, while breaking with the traditions and spirit of gothic or mediæval art, began to put on the fetters of authority and pedantry, and so, gradually overlaid by the forms and cerements of a dead style, lost its vigour and vitality--whether due to one or all of these causes, certain it is that the lamp of design began to fail, and, compared with its earlier radiance, shed but a doubtful flicker upon the page through the succeeding centuries. chapter iii. of the period of the decline of decorative feeling in book design after the sixteenth century, and of the modern revival. as i indicated at the outset of the first chapter, my purpose is not to give a complete historical account of the decoration and illustration of books, but rather to dwell on the artistic treatment of the page from my own point of view as a designer. so far, however, the illustrations i have given, while serving their purpose, also furnished a fair idea of the development of style and variation of treatment of both the ms. and printed book under different influences, from the sixth to the close of the sixteenth century, but now i shall have to put on a pair of seven-league boots, and make some tremendous skips. we have seen how, at the period of the early renaissance, two streams met, as it were, and mingled, with very beautiful results. the freedom, the romance, the naturalism of the later gothic, with the newly awakened classical feeling, with its grace of line and mythological lore. the rich and delicate arabesques in which italian designers delighted, and which so frequently decorated, as we have seen, the borders of the early printer, owe also something to oriental influence, as indeed their name indicates. the decorative beauty of these early renaissance books were really, therefore, the outcome of a very remarkable fusion of ideas and styles. printing, as an art, and book decoration attained a perfection it has not since reached. the genius of the greatest designers of the time was associated with the new invention, and expressed itself with unparalleled vigour in the woodcut; while the type-founder, being still under the influence of a fine traditional style in handwriting, was in perfect harmony with the book decorator or illustrator. even geometric diagrams were given without destroying the unity of the page, as may be seen in early editions of euclid, and we have seen what faithful and characteristic work was done in illustrations of plants and animals, without loss of designing power and ornamental sense. [sidenote: the classical influence.] this happy equilibrium of artistic quality and practical adaptation after the middle of the sixteenth century began to decline. there were designers, like oronce finé and geoffroy tory, at paris, who did much to preserve the traditions in book ornament of the early italian printers, while adding a touch of grace and fancy of their own, but for the most part the taste of book designers ran to seed after this period. the classical influence, which had been only felt as one among other influences, became more and more paramount over the designer, triumphing over the naturalistic feeling, and over the gothic and eastern ornamental feeling; so that it might be said that, whereas mediæval designers sought after colour and decorative beauty, renaissance designers were influenced by considerations of line, form, and relief. this may have been due in a great measure to the fact that the influence of the antique and classical art was a sculpturesque influence, mainly gathered from statues and relievos, gems and medals, and architectural carved ornaments, and more through roman than greek sources. while suggestions from such sources were but sparingly introduced at first, they gradually seemed to outweigh all other motives with the later designers, whose works often suggest that it is impossible to have too much roman costume or too many roman remains, which crowd their bible subjects, and fill their borders with overfed pediments, corpulent scrolls, and volutes, and their interstices with scattered fragments and attitudinizing personifications of classical mythology. the lavish use of such materials were enough to overweight even vigorous designers like virgil solis, who though able, facile, and versatile as he was, seems but a poor substitute for holbein. [illustration: french school. xvith century. designed by oronce finÉ. (paris, simon de colines, .) (_comp. dürer's title to plutarch, , and st. ambrosius, ._)] [sidenote: the renaissance.] what was at first an inspiriting, imaginative, and refining influence in art became finally a destructive force. the youthful spirit of the early renaissance became clouded and oppressed, and finally crushed with a weight of pompous pedantry and affectation. the natural development of a living style in art became arrested, and authority, and an endeavour to imitate the antique, took its place. the introduction of the copper-plate marked a new epoch in book illustration, and wood-engraving declined with its increased adoption, which, in the form it took, as applied to books, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was certainly to the detriment and final extinction of the decorative side. [sidenote: copper-plate.] it has already been pointed out how a copper-plate, requiring a different process of printing, and exhibiting as a necessary consequence such different qualities of line and effect, cannot harmonize with type and the conditions of the surface-printed page, since it is not in any mechanical relation with them. this mechanical relation is really the key to all good and therefore organic design; and therefore it is that design was in sounder condition when mechanical conditions and relations were simpler. a new invention often has a dislocating effect upon design. a new element is introduced, valued for some particular facility or effect, and it is often adopted without considering how--like a new element in a chemical combination--it alters the relations all round. copper-plate engraving was presumably adopted as a method for book-illustration for its greater fineness and precision of line, and its greater command of complexity in detail and chiaroscuro, for its purely pictorial qualities, in short, and its adoption corresponded to the period of the ascendancy of the painter above other kind of artists. [illustration: german school. late xvith century. virgil solis, bible. (frankfort, sigm. feyrabend, .)] [illustration: venetian school. late xvith century. artist unknown. (venice, g. giolito, .)] as regards the books of the seventeenth century, while "of making many books there was no end," and however interesting for other than artistic reasons, but few would concern our immediate purpose. woodcuts, headings, initials, tail-pieces, and printers' ornaments continued to be used, but greatly inferior in design and beauty of effect to those of the sixteenth century. the copper-plates introduced are quite apart from the page ornaments, and can hardly be considered decorative, although in the pompous title-pages of books of this period they are frequently formal and architectural enough, and, as a rule, founded more or less upon the ancient arches of triumph of imperial rome. histories and philosophical works, especially towards the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, were embellished with pompous portraits in frames of more or less classical joinery, with shields of arms, the worse for the decorative decline of heraldry, underneath. the specimen given is a good one of its type from a venetian book of , and gives the earlier form of this kind of treatment. travels and topographical works increased, until by the middle of the eighteenth century we have them on the scale of piranesi's scenic views of the architecture of ancient rome. the love of picturesqueness and natural scenery, or, perhaps, landscape gardening, gradually developing, concentrated interest on qualities the antithesis of constructive and inventive design, and drew the attention more and more away from them, until the painter, pure and simple, took all the artistic honours, and the days of the foundation of academies only confirmed and fixed the idea of art in this restricted sense in the public mind. [sidenote: hogarth.] hogarth, who availed himself of the copper-plate and publication in book form of his pictures, was yet wholly pictorial in his sympathies, and his instincts were dramatic and satiric rather than decorative. able painter and designer as he was in his own way, the interest of his work is entirely on that side, and is rather valuable as illustrating the life and manners of his time than as furnishing examples of book illustration, and his work certainly has no decorative aim, although no doubt quite harmonious in an eighteenth century room. [sidenote: stothard.] chodowiecki, who did a vast quantity of steel frontispieces and illustrations for books on a small scale, with plenty of character, must also be regarded rather as a maker of pictures for books than as a book decorator. he is sometimes mentioned as kindred in style to stothard, but stothard was much more of an idealist, and had, too, a very graceful decorative sense from the classical point of view. his book designs are very numerous, chiefly engraved on steel, and always showing a very graceful sense of line and composition. his designs to rogers' "poems," and "italy," are well-known, and, in their earlier woodcut form, his groups of amorini are very charming. flaxman had a high sense of sculpturesque style and simplicity, and great feeling and grace as a designer, but he can hardly be reckoned as a book decorator. his well-known series to homer, hesiod, Æschylus, and dante are strictly distinct series of illustrative designs, to be taken by themselves without reference to their incorporation in, or relation to, a printed book. their own lettering and explanatory text is engraved on the same plate beneath them, and so far they are consistent, but are not in any sense examples of page treatment or spacing. [illustration: xixth century. william blake. "songs of innocence," .] [sidenote: william blake.] we now come to a designer of a very different type, a type, too, of a new epoch, whatever resemblance in style and method there may be in his work to that of his contemporaries. william blake is distinct, and stands alone. a poet and a seer, as well as a designer, in him seemed to awake something of the spirit of the old illuminator. he was not content to illustrate a book by isolated copper or steel plates apart from the text, although in his craft as engraver he constantly carried out the work of others. when he came to embody his own thoughts and dreams, he recurred quite spontaneously to the methods of the maker of the ms. books. he became his own calligrapher, illuminator and miniaturist, while availing himself of the copper-plate (which he turned into a surface printing block) and the printing press for the reproduction of his designs, and in some cases for producing them in tints. his hand-coloured drawings, the borderings and devices to his own poems, will always be things by themselves. his treatment of the resources of black and white, and sense of page decoration, may be best judged perhaps by a reference to his "book of job," which contains a fine series of suggestive and imaginative designs. we seem to read in blake something of the spirit of the mediæval designers, through the sometimes mannered and semi-classic forms and treatment, according to the taste of his time; while he embodies its more daring aspiring thoughts, and the desire for simpler and more humane conditions of life. a revolutionary fire and fervour constantly breaks out both in his verse and in his designs, which show very various moods and impulses, and comprehend a wide range of power and sympathy. sometimes mystic and prophetic, sometimes tragic, sometimes simple and pastoral. blake, in these mixed elements, and the extraordinary suggestiveness of his work and the freedom of his thought, seems nearer to us than others of his contemporaries. in his sense of the decorative treatment of the page, too, his work bears upon our purpose. in writing with his own hand and in his own character the text of his poems, he gained the great advantage which has been spoken of--of harmony between text and illustration. they become a harmonious whole, in complete relation. his woodcuts to phillip's "pastoral," though perhaps rough in themselves, show what a sense of colour he could convey, and of the effective use of white line. [illustration: william blake. woodcut from phillip's "pastoral."] [sidenote: edward calvert.] among the later friends and disciples of blake, a kindred spirit must have been edward calvert, whose book illustrations are also decorations; the masses of black and white being effectively distributed, and they are full of poetic feeling, imagination, and sense of colour. i am indebted for the first knowledge of them to mr. william blake richmond, whose father, mr. george richmond, was a friend of william blake and calvert, as well as of john linnell and of samuel palmer, who carried on the traditions of this english poetic school to our own times; especially the latter, whose imaginative drawings--glowing sunsets over remote hill-tops, romantic landscapes, and pastoral sentiment--were marked features in the room of the old water colour society, up to his death in . his etched illustrations to his edition of "the eclogues of virgil," are a fine series of beautifully designed and poetically conceived landscapes; but they are strictly a series of pictures printed separately from the text. palmer himself, in the account of the work given by his son, when he was planning the work, wished that william blake had been alive to have designed his woodcut headings to the "eclogues."[ ] [ ] a memoir of edward calvert has since been published by his son, fully illustrated, and giving the little engravings just spoken of. they were engraved by calvert himself, it appears, and i am indebted to his son, mr. john calvert, for permission to print them here. [sidenote: thomas bewick.] to thomas bewick and his school is due the revival of wood-engraving as an art, and its adaptation to book illustration, quite distinct, of course, from the old knife-work on the plank. bewick had none of the imaginative poetry of the designers just named, although plenty of humour and satire, which he compressed into his little tail-pieces. he shows his skill as a craftsman in the treatment of the wood block, in such works as his "british birds;" but here, although the wood-engraving and type may be said to be in mechanical relation, there is no sense of decorative beauty or ornamental spacing whatever, and, as drawings, the engravings have none of the designer's power such as we found in the illustrations of gesner and matthiolus at basle, in the middle of the sixteenth century. there is a very literal and plain presentment of facts as regards the bird and its plumage, but with scarcely more than the taste of the average stuffer and mounter in the composition of the picture, and no regard whatever to the design of the page as a whole. [illustration: xixth century. edward calvert. the return home. the flood. the chamber idyll. from the original blocks designed and engraved on wood by edward calvert. brixton, - - .] [illustration: xixth century. edward calvert. the lady and the rooks. ideal pastoral life. the brook. from the blocks designed and engraved on wood by edward calvert. brixton, - - .] it was, however, a great point to have asserted the claims of wood-engraving, and demonstrated its capabilities as a method of book illustration. [sidenote: the school of bewick.] bewick founded a school of very excellent craftsmen, who carried the art to a wonderful degree of finish. in both his and their hands it became quite distinct from literal translation of the drawing, which, unless in line, was treated by the engraver with a line, touch, and quality all his own, the use of white line,[ ] and the rendering of tone and tint necessitating a certain power of design on his part, and giving him as important a position as the engraver on steel held in regard to the translation of a painted picture. [ ] a striking instance of the use of white line is seen in the title page "pomerium de tempore," printed by johann otmar, augsburg, as early as . it is possible, however, that this is a metal engraving. it is given overleaf. such a book as northcote's "fables," published - , each fable having a head-piece drawn on wood from northcote's design by william harvey--a well-known graceful designer and copious illustrator of books up to comparatively recent times--and with initial letters and tail-pieces of his own, shows the outcome of the bewick school. finally "fineness of line, tone, and finish--a misused word," as mr. w. j. linton says, "was preferred to the simple charm of truth." the wood engravers appeared to be anxious to vie with the steel engravers in the adornment of books, and so far as adaptation was concerned, they had certainly all the advantage on their side. the ornamental sense, however, had everywhere declined; pictorial qualities, fineness of line, and delicacy of tone, were sought after almost exclusively. [sidenote: stothard and turner.] such books as rogers's "poems" and "italy," with vignettes on steel from thomas stothard and j. m. w. turner, are characteristic of the taste of the period, and show about the high-water mark of the skill of the book engravers on steel. stothard's designs are the only ones which have claims to be decorative, and he is always a graceful designer. turner's landscapes, exquisite in themselves, and engraved with marvellous delicacy, do not in any sense decorate the page, and from that point of view are merely shapeless blots of printers' ink of different tones upon it, while the letterpress bears no relation whatever to the picture in method of printing or design, and has no independent beauty of its own. book illustrations of this type--and it was a type which largely prevailed during the second quarter of the century--are simply pictures without frames. [illustration: german school. xvith century. johann otmar. (augsburg, .)] [sidenote: w. j. linton.] no survey of book illustration would be complete which contained no mention of william james linton--whom i have already quoted. i may be allowed to speak of him with a peculiar regard and respect, as i may claim him as a very kind early friend and master. as a boy i was, in fact, apprenticed to him for the space of three years, not indeed with the object of wielding the graver, but rather with that of learning the craft of a draughtsman on wood. this, of course, was before the days of the use of photography, which has since practically revolutionized the system not only of drawing for books but of engraving also. it was then necessary to draw on the block itself, and to thoroughly understand what kind of work could be treated by the engraver. i shall always regard those early years in mr. linton's office as of great value to me, as, despite changes of method and new inventions, it gave me a thorough knowledge of the mechanical conditions of wood-engraving at any rate, and has implanted a sense of necessary relationship between design, material, and method of production--of art and craft, in fact--which cannot be lost, and has had its effect in many ways. mr. linton, too, is himself a notable historic link, carrying on the lamp of the older traditions of wood-engraving to these degenerate days, when whatever wonders of literal translation, and imitation of chalk, charcoal, or palette and brushes, it has exhibited under spell of american enterprise--and i am far from denying its achievements as such--it cannot be said to have preserved the distinction and independence of the engraver as an artist or original designer in any sense. when not extinguished altogether by some form of automatic reproductive process, he is reduced to the office of "process-server"--he becomes the slave of the pictorial artist. the picturesque sketcher loves his "bits" and "effects," which, moreover, however sensational and sparkling they may be in themselves, have no reference as a rule to the decoration of the page, being in this sense no more than more or less adroit splashes of ink upon it, which the text, torn into an irregularly ragged edge, seems instinctively to shrink from touching, squeezing itself together like the passengers in a crowded omnibus might do, reluctantly to admit a chimney-sweep. while, by his early training and practice, he is united with the bewick school, mr. linton--himself a poet, a social and political thinker, a scholar, as well as designer and engraver--having been associated with the best-known engravers and designers for books during the middle of the century, and having had art of such a different temper and tendency as that of rossetti pass through his hands, and seen the effect of many new impulses, is finally face to face with what he himself has called the "american new departure." he is therefore peculiarly and eminently qualified for the work to which he has addressed himself--his great work on "the masters of wood engraving," which appeared in , and is in every way complete as a history, learned in technique, and sumptuous as a book. i have not mentioned gustave doré, who fills so large a space as an illustrator of books, because though possessed of a weird imagination, and a poetic feeling for dramatic landscapes and grotesque characters, as well as extraordinary pictorial invention, the mass of his work is purely scenic, and he never shows the decorative sense, or considers the design in relation to the page. his best and most spirited and sincere work is represented by his designs in the "contes drolatiques." [sidenote: the pre-raphaelites.] the new movement in painting in england, known as the pre-raphaelite movement, which dates from about the middle years of our century, was in every way so remarkable and far-reaching, that it is not surprising that it should leave its mark upon the illustrations of books; particularly upon that form of luxury known as the modern gift-book, which, in the course of the twenty years following , often took the shape of selections from or editions of the poets plentifully sprinkled with little pictorial vignettes engraved on wood. birket foster, john gilbert, and john tenniel were leading contributors to these collections. in appeared an edition of "tennyson's poems" from the house of moxon. this work, while having the general characteristics of the prevailing taste--an accidental collection of designs, the work of designers of varying degrees of substance, temper, and feeling, casually arranged, and without the slightest feeling for page decoration or harmony of text and illustration--yet possessed one remarkable feature which gives it a distinction among other collections, in that it contains certain designs of the chief leaders of the pre-raphaelite movement, d. g. rossetti, millais and holman hunt. [illustration: dante gabriel rossetti. from tennyson's poems. (moxon, .)] i give one of the rossetti designs, "sir galahad"; the "s. cecilia" and the "morte d'arthur" were engraved by the brothers dalziel, the "sir galahad" by mr. w. j. linton. it seems to me that the last gives the spirit and feeling of rossetti, as well as his peculiar touch, far more successfully. these designs, in their poetic imagination, their richness of detail, sense of colour, passionate, mystic, and romantic feeling, and earnestness of expression mark a new epoch. they are decorative in themselves, and, though quite distinct in feeling, and original, they are more akin to the work of the mediæval miniaturist than anything that had been seen since his days. even here, however, there is no attempt to consider the page or to make the type harmonize with the picture, or to connect it by any bordering or device with the book as a whole, and being sandwiched with drawings of a very different tendency, their effect is much spoiled. in one or two other instances where rossetti lent his hand to book illustration, however, he is fully mindful of the decorative effect of the page. i remember a title page to a book of poems by miss christina rossetti, "goblin market," which emphatically showed this. the title-page designed for his "early italian poets" (given here), and his sonnet on the sonnet too, in which the design encloses the text of the poem, written out by himself, are other instances. [illustration: dante gabriel rossetti. design for a title page.] [sidenote: dalziel's bible gallery.] some of the designs made for a later work (dalziel's bible gallery, about - ) also show the effect of the pre-raphaelite influence, as well as, in the case of the designs of sir frederic leighton and mr. poynter, the influence of continental ideas and training. i saw some of these drawings on the wood at the time, i remember. for study and research, and richness of resource in archæological detail, as well as firmness of drawing, i thought mr. poynter's designs were perhaps the most remarkable. a strikingly realized picture, and a bright and successful wood-engraving, is ford madox brown's design of "elijah and the widow's son." there is a dramatic intensity of expression about his other one also, "the death of eglon." still, at best, we find that these are but carefully studied pictures rendered on the wood. the pre-raphaelite designs show the most decorative sense, but they are now issued quite distinct from the page, whatever was the original intention, and while they may, as to scale and treatment, be justly considered as book illustrations, and as examples of our more important efforts in that direction at that time, they are not page decorations. one may speak here of an admirable artist we have lost, mr. albert moore, who so distinguished himself for his refined decorative sense in painting, and the outline group of figures given here shows that he felt the conditions of the book page and the press also. [illustration: albert moore. from milton's ode on christ's nativity. (nisbet, .)] [sidenote: henry holiday.] mr. henry holiday is also a decorative artist of great refinement and facility. he has not done very much in book illustration, but his illustrations to lewis carroll's "hunting of the snark" were admirable. his decorative feeling in black and white, however, is marked, as may be seen in the title to "aglaia." [illustration: henry holiday. cover for a magazine.] [sidenote: toy books.] as, until recently, i suppose i was scarcely known out of the nursery, it is meet that i should offer some remarks upon children's books. here, undoubtedly, there has been a remarkable development and great activity of late years. we all remember the little cuts that adorned the books of our childhood. the ineffaceable quality of these early pictorial and literary impressions afford the strongest plea for good art in the nursery and the schoolroom. every child, one might say every human being, takes in more through his eyes than his ears, and i think much more advantage might be taken of this fact. if i may be personal, let me say that my first efforts in children's books were made in association with mr. edmund evans. here, again, i was fortunate to be in association with the craft of colour-printing, and i got to understand its possibilities. the books for babies, current at that time--about to --of the cheaper sort called toy books were not very inspiriting. these were generally careless and unimaginative woodcuts, very casually coloured by hand, dabs of pink and emerald green being laid on across faces and frocks with a somewhat reckless aim. there was practically no choice between such as these and cheap german highly-coloured lithographs. the only attempt at decoration i remember was a set of coloured designs to nursery rhymes by mr. h. s. marks, which had been originally intended for cabinet panels. bold outlines and flat tints were used. mr. marks has often shown his decorative sense in book illustration and printed designs in colour, but i have not been able to obtain any for this book. it was, however, the influence of some japanese printed pictures given to me by a lieutenant in the navy, who had brought them home from there as curiosities, which i believe, though i drew inspiration from many sources, gave the real impulse to that treatment in strong outlines, and flat tints and solid blacks, which i adopted with variations in books of this kind from that time (about ) onwards. since then i have had many rivals for the favour of the nursery constituency, notably my late friend randolph caldecott, and miss kate greenaway, though in both cases their aim lies more in the direction of character study, and their work is more of a pictorial character than strictly decorative. the little preface heading from his "bracebridge hall" gives a good idea of caldecott's style when his aim was chiefly decorative. miss greenaway is the most distinctly so perhaps in the treatment of some of her calendars. [illustration: randolph caldecott. headpiece to "bracebridge hall." (macmillan, .)] [illustration: kate greenaway. key block of title-page of "mother goose." (routledge, n.d.)] [sidenote: children's books.] children's books and so-called children's books hold a peculiar position. they are attractive to designers of an imaginative tendency, for in a sober and matter-of-fact age they afford perhaps the only outlet for unrestricted flights of fancy open to the modern illustrator, who likes to revolt against "the despotism of facts." while on children's books, the poetic feeling in the designs of e. v. b. may be mentioned, and i mind me of some charming illustrations to a book of mr. george macdonald's, "at the back of the north wind," designed by mr. arthur hughes, who in these and other wood engraved designs shows, no less than in his paintings, how refined and sympathetic an artist he is. mr. robert bateman, too, designed some charming little woodcuts, full of poetic feeling and controlled by unusual taste. they were used in macmillan's "art at home" series, though not, i believe, originally intended for it. [illustration: arthur hughes. from "at the back of the north wind." (strahan, .)] [sidenote: japanese influence.] [sidenote: japanese illustration.] there is no doubt that the opening of japanese ports to western commerce, whatever its after effects--including its effect upon the arts of japan itself--has had an enormous influence on european and american art. japan is, or was, a country very much, as regards its arts and handicrafts with the exception of architecture, in the condition of a european country in the middle ages, with wonderfully skilled artists and craftsmen in all manner of work of the decorative kind, who were under the influence of a free and informal naturalism. here at least was a living art, an art of the people, in which traditions and craftsmanship were unbroken, and the results full of attractive variety, quickness, and naturalistic force. what wonder that it took western artists by storm, and that its effects have become so patent, though not always happy, ever since. we see unmistakable traces of japanese influences, however, almost everywhere--from the parisian impressionist painter to the japanese fan in the corner of trade circulars, which shows it has been adopted as a stock printers' ornament. we see it in the sketchy blots and lines, and vignetted naturalistic flowers which are sometimes offered as page decorations, notably in american magazines and fashionable etchings. we have caught the vices of japanese art certainly, even if we have assimilated some of the virtues. [illustration: arthur hughes. from "at the back of the north wind." (strahan, .)] in the absence of any really noble architecture or substantial constructive sense, the japanese artists are not safe guides as designers. they may be able to throw a spray of leaves or a bird or fish across a blank panel or sheet of paper, drawing them with such consummate skill and certainty that it may delude us into the belief that it is decorative design; but if an artist of less skill essays to do the like the mistake becomes obvious. granted they have a decorative sense--the _finesse_ which goes to the placing of a flower in a pot, of hanging a garland on a wall, or of placing a mat or a fan--taste, in short, that is a different thing from real constructive power of design, and satisfactory filling of spaces. [illustration: robert bateman. from "art in the house." (macmillan, .)] when we come to their books, therefore, marvellous as they are, and full of beauty and suggestion--apart from their naturalism, _grotesquerie_, and humour--they do not furnish fine examples of page decoration as a rule. the fact that their text is written vertically, however, must be allowed for. this, indeed, converts their page into a panel, and their printed books become rather what we should consider sets of designs for decorating light panels, and extremely charming as such. [illustration: robert bateman. from "art in the house." (macmillan, .)] these drawings of hokusai's (_see_ nos. and , appendix), the most vigorous and prolific of the more modern and popular school, are striking enough and fine enough, in their own way, and the decorative sense is never absent; controlled, too, by the dark border-line, they do fill the page, which is not the case always with the flowers and birds. however, i believe these holes, blanks, and spaces to let are only tolerable in a book because the drawing where it does occur is so skilful (except where the effect is intentionally open and light); and from tolerating we grow to like them, i suppose, and take them for signs of mastery and decorative skill. in their smaller applied ornamental designs, however, the japanese often show themselves fully aware of a systematic plan or geometric base: and there is usually some hidden geometric relation of line in some of their apparently accidental compositions. their books of crests and pattern plans show indeed a careful study of geometric shapes, and their controlling influence in designing. [sidenote: japanese printing.] as regards the history and use of printing, the japanese had it from the chinese, who invented the art of printing from wooden blocks in the sixth century. "we have no record," says professor douglas,[ ] "as to the date when metal type was first used in china, but we find korean books printed as early as with movable clay or wooden type, and just a century later we have a record of a fount of metal type being cast to print an 'epitome of the eighteen historical records of china.'" printing is supposed to have been adopted in japan "after the first invasion of the korea by the armies of hideyoshi, in the end of the sixteenth century, when large quantities of movable type books were brought back by one of his generals, which formed the model upon which the japanese worked."[ ] [ ] guide to the chinese and japanese illustrated books in the british museum. [ ] satow. "history of printing in japan." [illustration: robert bateman. from "art in the house." (macmillan, .)] i have mentioned the american development of wood-engraving. its application to magazine illustration seems certainly to have developed or to have occurred with the appearance of very clever draughtsmen from the picturesque and literal point of view. [illustration: robert bateman. from "art in the house." (macmillan, .)] [sidenote: joseph pennell.] the admirable and delicate architectural and landscape drawings of mr. joseph pennell, for instance, are well known, and, as purely illustrative work, fresh, crisp in drawing, and original in treatment, giving essential points of topography and local characteristics (with a happy if often quaint and unexpected selection of point of view, and pictorial limits), it would be difficult to find their match, but very small consideration or consciousness is shown for the page. if he will pardon my saying so, in some instances the illustrations are, or used to be, often daringly driven through the text, scattering it right and left, like the effect of a coach and four upon a flock of sheep. in some of his more recent work, notably in his bolder drawings such as those in the "daily chronicle," he appears to have considered the type relation much more, and shows, especially in some of his skies, a feeling for a radiating arrangement of line. [sidenote: american draughtsmen.] our american cousins have taught us another mode of treatment in magazine pages. it is what i have elsewhere described as the "card-basket style." a number of naturalistic sketches are thrown accidentally together, the upper ones hiding the under ones partly, and to give variety the corner is occasionally turned down. there has been a great run on this idea of late years, but i fancy it is a card trick about "played out." however opinions may vary, i think there cannot be a doubt that in elihu vedder we have an instance of an american artist of great imaginative powers, and undoubtedly a designer of originality and force. this is sufficiently proved from his large work--the illustrations to the "rubaiyat of omar khayyam." although the designs have no persian character about them which one would have thought the poem and its imagery would naturally have suggested, yet they are a fine series, and show much decorative sense and dramatic power, and are quite modern in feeling. his designs for the cover of "the century magazine" show taste and decorative feeling in the combination of figures with lettering. mr. edwin abbey is another able artist, who has shown considerable care for his illustrated page, in some cases supplying his own lettering; though he has been growing more pictorial of late: mr. alfred parsons also, though he too often seems more drawn to the picture than the decoration. mr. heywood sumner shows a charming decorative sense and imaginative feeling, as well as humour. on the purely ornamental side, the accomplished decorations of mr. lewis day exhibit both ornamental range and resource, which, though in general devoted to other objects, are conspicuous enough in certain admirable book and magazine covers he has designed. [illustration: heywood sumner. from "stories for children," by frances m. peard. (allen, .)] [illustration: charles keene. illustration to "the good fight." ("once a week," .) (_by permission of messrs. bradbury, agnew and co._)] [illustration: heywood sumner. from "stories for children," by f. m. peard. (allen, .)] [sidenote: the "english illustrated magazine."] "the english illustrated magazine," under mr. comyns carr's editorship, by its use of both old and modern headings, initials and ornaments, did something towards encouraging the taste for decorative design in books. among the artists who designed pages therein should be named henry ryland and louis davis, both showing graceful ornamental feeling, the children of the latter artist being very charming. [illustration: louis davis. from the "english illustrated magazine" ( ).] [illustration: henry ryland. from the "english illustrated magazine" ( ).] but it would need much more space to attempt to do justice to the ability of my contemporaries, especially in the purely illustrative division, than i am able to give. [sidenote: "once a week."] the able artists of "punch," however, from john leech to linley sambourne, have done much to keep alive a vigorous style of drawing in line, which, in the case of mr. sambourne, is united with great invention, graphic force, and designing power. in speaking of "punch," one ought not to forget either the important part played by "once a week" in introducing many first-rate artists in line. in its early days we had charles keene illustrating charles reade's "good fight," with much feeling for the decorative effect of the old german woodcut. such admirable artists as m. j. lawless and frederick sandys--the latter especially distinguished for his splendid line drawings in "once a week" and "the cornhill;" one of his finest is here given, "the old chartist," which accompanied a poem by mr. george meredith. indeed, it is impossible to speak too highly of mr. sandys' draughtsmanship and power of expression by means of line; he is one of our modern english masters who has never, i think, had justice done to him. [illustration: f. sandys. "the old chartist." ("once a week," .)] [illustration: m. j. lawless. "dead love." ("once a week," .)] i can only just briefly allude to certain powerful and original modern designers of germany, where indeed, the old vigorous traditions of woodcut and illustrative drawing seem to have been kept more unbroken than elsewhere. on the purely character-drawing, pictorial and illustrative side, there is of course menzel, thoroughly modern, realistic, and dramatic. i am thinking more perhaps of such men as alfred rethel, whose designs of "death the friend" and "death the enemy," two large woodcuts, are well known. i remember also a very striking series of designs of his, a kind of modern "dance of death," which appeared about , i think. schwind is another whose designs to folk tales are thoroughly german in spirit and imagination, and style of drawing. oscar pletsch, too, is remarkable for his feeling for village life and children, and many of his illustrations have been reproduced in this country. more recent evidence, and more directly in the decorative direction, of the vigour and ornamental skill of german designers, is to be found in those picturesque calendars, designed by otto hupp, which come from munich, and show something very like the old feeling of burgmair, especially in the treatment of the heraldry. i have ventured to give a page or two here from my own books, "grimm," "the sirens three," and others, which serve at least to show two very different kinds of page treatment. in the "grimm" the picture is inclosed in formal and rectangular lines, with medallions of flowers at the four corners, the title and text being written on scrolls above and below. in "the sirens three" a much freer and more purely ornamental treatment is adopted, and a bolder and more open line. a third, the frontispiece of "the necklace of princess fiorimonde," by miss de morgan, is more of a simple pictorial treatment, though strictly decorative in its scheme of line and mass. [sidenote: the influence of photography.] the facile methods of photographic-automatic reproduction certainly give an opportunity to the designer to write out his own text in the character that pleases him, and that accords with his design, and so make his page a consistent whole from a decorative point of view, and i venture to think when this is done a unity of effect is gained for the page not possible in any other way. indeed, the photograph, with all its allied discoveries and its application to the service of the printing press, may be said to be as important a discovery in its effects on art and books as was the discovery of printing itself. it has already largely transformed the system of the production of illustrations and designs for books, magazines, and newspapers, and has certainly been the means of securing to the artist the advantage of possession of his original, while its fidelity, in the best processes, is, of course, very valuable. its influence, however, on artistic style and treatment has been, to my mind, of more doubtful advantage. the effect on painting is palpable enough, but so far as painting becomes photographic, the advantage is on the side of the photograph. it has led in illustrative work to the method of painting in black and white, which has taken the place very much of the use of line, and through this, and by reason of its having fostered and encouraged a different way of regarding nature--from the point of view of accidental aspect, light and shade, and tone--it has confused and deteriorated, i think, the faculty of inventive design, and the sense of ornament and line; having concentrated artistic interest on the literal realization of certain aspects of superficial facts, and instantaneous impressions instead of ideas, and the abstract treatment of form and line. [illustration: walter crane. from grimm's "household stories." (macmillan, .)] [illustration: walter crane. frontispiece. "princess fiorimonde" (macmillan, ).] [illustration: walter crane. "the sirens three" opening page. (macmillan, .)] [sidenote: a decorative ideal.] this, however, may be as much the tendency of an age as the result of photographic invention, although the influence of the photograph must count as one of the most powerful factors of that tendency. thought and vision divide the world of art between them--our thoughts follow our vision, our vision is influenced by our thoughts. a book may be the home of both thought and vision. speaking figuratively, in regard to book decoration, some are content with a rough shanty in the woods, and care only to get as close to nature in her more superficial aspects as they can. others would surround their house with a garden indeed, but they demand something like an architectural plan. they would look at a frontispiece like a façade; they would take hospitable encouragement from the title-page as from a friendly inscription over the porch; they would hang a votive wreath at the dedication, and so pass on into the hall of welcome, take the author by the hand and be led by him and his artist from room to room, as page after page is turned, fairly decked and adorned with picture, and ornament, and device; and, perhaps, finding it a dwelling after his desire, the guest is content to rest in the ingle nook in the firelight of the spirit of the author or the play of fancy of the artist; and, weaving dreams in the changing lights and shadows, to forget life's rough way and the tempestuous world outside. [illustration] chapter iv. of the recent development of decorative book illustration and the modern revival of printing as an art. since the three cantor lectures, which form the substance of the foregoing chapters, were delivered by me at the rooms of the society of arts, some six or seven years have elapsed, and they have been remarkable for a pronounced revival of activity and interest in the art of the printer and the decorative illustrator, the paper-maker, the binder, and all the crafts connected with the production of tasteful and ornate books. publishers and printers have shown a desire to return to simpler and earlier standards of taste, and in the choice and arrangement of the type to take a leaf out of the book of some of the early professors of the craft. there has been a passion for tall copies and handmade paper; for delicate bindings, and first editions. there has grown up, too, quite a literature about the making of the book beautiful--whereof the ex-libris series alone is witness. we have, besides, the history of early printed books by mr. gordon duff, of early illustrated books by mr. pollard. the book-plate has been looked after by mr. egerton castle, and by a host of eager collectors ever since. mr. pennell is well known as the tutelary genius who takes charge of illustrators, and discourses upon them at large, and mr. strange bids us, none too soon, to become acquainted with our alphabets. i have not yet heard of any specialist taking up his parable upon "end papers," but, altogether, the book has never perhaps had so much writing outside of it, as it were, before. [sidenote: modern typography.] a brilliant band of illustrators and ornamentists have appeared, too, and nearly every month or so we hear of a new genius in black and white, who is to eclipse all others. for all that, even in the dark ages, between the mid-nineteenth century and the early eighties, one or two printers or publishers of taste have from time to time attempted to restrain the wild excesses of the trade-printer, with his terribly monotonous novelties in founts of type, alternately shouting or whispering, anon in the crushing and aggressive heaviness of block capitals, and now in the attenuated droop of italics. sad havoc has been played with the decorative dignity of the page, indeed, as well as with the form and breed of roman and gothic letters: one might have imagined that some mischievous printer's devil had thrown the apple of discord among the letters of the alphabet, so ingeniously ugly were so many modern so-called "fancy" types. we have had good work from the edinburgh houses, from messrs. r. and r. clark, and messrs. constable, and in london from the chiswick press, for instance, ever since the old days of its connection with the tasteful and well printed volumes from the house of pickering. various artists, too, in association with their book designs, from d. g. rossetti onwards, have designed their own lettering to be in decorative harmony with their designs. the century guild, with its "hobby horse" and its artists, like mr. horne and mr. selwyn image, did much to keep alive true taste in printing and book decoration, when they were but little understood.[ ] there have been printers, too, such as mr. daniel at oxford, and de vinne at new york, who have from different points of view brought care and selection to the choice of type and the printing of books, and have adapted or designed type. [ ] and they elicited a response from across the water in the shape of "the knight errant," the work of a band of young enthusiasts at boston, mass., of which mr. lee and mr. goodhue may be named as leading spirits--the latter being the designer of the cover of "the knight errant," and the former the printer. [illustration: selwyn image. from title-page. "the scottish art review" (scott, ).] [sidenote: the kelmscott press.] but the field for extensive artistic experiment in these directions was tolerably clear when mr. william morris turned his attention to printing, and, in , founded the kelmscott press. so far as i am aware, he has been the first to approach the craft of practical printing from the point of view of the artist, and although, no doubt, the fact of being a man of letters as well was an extra advantage, his particular success in the art of printing is due to the former qualification. a long and distinguished practice as a designer in other matters of decorative art brought him to the nice questions of type design, its place upon the page, and its relation to printed ornament and illustration, peculiarly well equipped; while his historic knowledge and discrimination, and the possession of an extraordinarily rich and choice collection of both mediæval mss. and early printed books afforded him an abundant choice of the best models. in the results which have been produced at the kelmscott press we trace the effect of all these influences, acting under the strongest personal predilection, and a mediæval bias (in an artistic sense) which may be said to be almost exclusive. the kelmscott roman type ("golden") perhaps rather suggests that it was designed to anticipate and to provide against the demand of readers or book fanciers who could stand nothing else than roman, while the heart of the printer really hankered after black letter. but compare this "golden" type with most modern lower case founts, up to the date of its use, and its advantages both in form and substance are remarkable. modern type, obeying, i suppose, a resistless law of evolution, had reached, especially with american printers, the last stage of attenuation. the type of the kelmscott press is an emphatic and practical protest against this attenuation; just as its bold black and white ornaments and decorative woodcuts in open line are protests against the undue thinness, atmospheric effect, and diaphanous vignetting by photographic process and tone-block of much modern illustration, which may indeed _illustrate_, but does not _ornament_ a book. the paper, too, hand-made, rough-surfaced, and tough, is in equally strong contrast to the shiny hot-pressed machine-made paper, hitherto so much in vogue for the finer kinds of printing, and by which it alone became possible. the two kinds--the two ideals of printing--are as far apart as the poles. those who like the smooth and thin, will not like the bold and rough; but it looks as if the kelmscott standard had marked the turn of the tide, and that, judging from the signs of its influence upon printers and publishers generally, the feeling is running strongly in that direction. (one would think the human eyesight would benefit also.) this is the more remarkable since the kelmscott books are by no means issued at "popular prices," are limited in number, and for the most part are hardly for the general reader--unless that ubiquitous person is more erudite and omnivorous than is commonly credited. [illustration: william morris & walter crane. a page from "the glittering plain." (kelmscott press, .)] books, however, which may be called monumental in the national and general sense, have been printed at the kelmscott press, such as shakespeare's "poems," more's "utopia"; and mr. morris's _magnum opus_, the folio chaucer, enriched by the designs of burne-jones, has recently been completed.[ ] [ ] completed, indeed, it might almost be said, with the life of the craftsman. it is sad to have to record, while these pages were passing through the press, our master printer--one of the greatest englishmen of our time--is no more. in mr. morris's ornaments and initials, nearly always admirably harmonious in their quantities with the character and mass of the type, we may perhaps trace mixed influences in design. in the rich black and white scroll and floral borders surrounding the title and first pages, we seem to see the love of close-filling and interlacement characteristic of celtic and byzantine work, with a touch of the feeling of the practical textile designer, which comes out again in the up-and-down, detached bold page ornaments, though here combined with suggestions from early english illuminated ms. these influences, however, only add to the distinctive character and richness of the effect, and no attempt is made to get beyond the simple conditions of bold black and white designs for the woodcut and the press. mr. morris adopts the useful canon in printing that the true page is what the open book displays--what is generally termed a double page. he considers them practically as two columns of type, necessarily separate owing to the construction of the book, but together as it lies open, forming a page of type, only divided by the narrow margin where the leaves are inserted in the back of the covers. we thus get the _recto_ and the _verso_ pages or columns, each with their distinctive proportions of margin, as they turn to the right or the left from the centre of the book--the narrowest margins being naturally inwards and at the top, the broadest those outwards and at the foot, which latter should be deepest of all. it may be called _the handle_ of the book, and there is reason in the broad margin, though also gracious to the eye, since the hand may hold the book without covering any of the type. it is really the due consideration of the necessity of these little utilities in the construction and use of a thing which enables the modern designer--separated as he is from the actual maker--to preserve that distinctive and organic character in any work so valuable, and always so fruitful in artistic suggestion, and this i think holds true of all design in association with handicraft. the more immediate and intimate--one might occasionally say imitative--influence of the kelmscott press may be seen in the extremely interesting work of a group of young artists who own their training to the birmingham school of art, as developed under the taste and ability of mr. taylor. three of these, mr. c. m. gere, mr. e. h. new, and mr. gaskin, have designed illustrations for some of mr. morris's kelmscott books, so that the connection of ideas is perfectly sequent and natural, and it is only as might be expected that the school should have the courage of their artistic opinions, and boldly carry into practice the results of their kelmscott inspirations, by printing a journal themselves, "the quest." [illustration: c. m. gere. from the "english illustrated magazine" ( ).] [illustration: (_by permission of the corporation of liverpool._) c. m. gere. from a drawing from his picture "the birth of st. george."] [illustration: arthur gaskin. from "hans andersen." (allen, .)] [illustration: edmund h. new. process block from the original pen drawing.] [sidenote: the birmingham school.] mr. gere, mr. gaskin, and mr. new may be said to be the leaders of the birmingham school. mr. gere has engraved on wood some of his own designs, and he thoroughly realizes the ornamental value of bold and open line drawing in association with lettering, and is a careful and conscientious draughtsman and painter besides. a typical instance of his work is the "finding of st. george." mr. gaskin's christmas book, "king wenceslas," is, perhaps, his best work so far as we have seen. the designs are simple and bold, and in harmony with the subject, and good in decorative character. his illustrations to hans christian andersen's "fairy tales" are full of a naïve romantic feeling, and have much sense of the decorative possibilities of black and white drawing. mrs. gaskin's designs for children's books show a quaint fancy and ornamental feeling characteristic of the school. mr. new's feeling is for quaint streets and old buildings, which he draws with conscientious thoroughness, and attention to characteristic details of construction and local variety, without any reliance on accidental atmospheric effects, but using a firm open line and broad, simple arrangements of light and shade, which give them a decorative look as book illustrations. it is owing to these qualities that they are ornamental, and not to any actual ornament. indeed, in those cases where he has introduced borders to frame his pictures, he does not seem to me to be so successful as an ornamentist pure and simple, though in his latest work, the illustrations to mr. lane's edition of isaac walton's "compleat angler," there are pretty headings and tasteful title scrolls, as well as good drawings of places. [illustration: inigo thomas. from "the formal garden." (macmillan, .)] the question of border is, however, always a most difficult one. one might compare the illustrative drawings of architecture and gardens of mr. inigo thomas in mr. reginald blomfield's work on gardens, with mr. new, as showing, with considerable decorative feeling, and feeling for the subject, a very different method of drawing, one might say more pictorial in a sense, the line being much thinner and closer, and in effect greyer and darker. the introduction of the titles helps the ornamental effect. [illustration: inigo thomas. from "the formal garden." (macmillan, .)] among the leading artists of the birmingham school must be mentioned mr. h. payne, mr. bernard sleigh and mr. mason for their romantic feeling in story illustrations; miss bradley for her inventive treatment of crowds and groups of children; miss winifred smith for her groups of children and quaint feeling; mrs. arthur gaskin also for her pretty quaint fancies in child-life; miss mary newill for her ornamental rendering of natural landscape, as in the charming drawing of porlock; and miss celia levetus for her decorative feeling. it may, at any rate, i think be claimed for it, that both in method, sentiment, and subject, it is peculiarly english, and represents a sincere attempt to apply what may be called traditional principles in decoration to book illustration. among the recent influences tending to foster the feeling for the treatment of black and white design and book illustrations, _primarily from the decorative point of view_, the arts and crafts exhibition society may claim to have had some share, and they have endeavoured, by the tendency of the work selected for exhibition as well as by papers and lectures by various members on this point, to emphasize its importance and to spread clear principles, even at the risk of appearing partial and biased in one direction, and leaving many clever artists in black and white unrepresented. [sidenote: illustration and decoration.] now for graphic ability, originality, and variety, there can be no doubt of the vigour of our modern black and white artists. it is the most vital and really popular form of art at the present day, and it, far more than painting, deals with the actual life of the people; it is, too, thoroughly democratic in its appeal, and, associated with the newspaper and magazine, goes everywhere--at least, as far as there are shillings and pence--and where often no other form of art is accessible. but graphic power and original point of view is not always associated with the decorous ornamental sense. it is, in fact, often its very antithesis, although, on the other hand, good graphic drawing, governed by a sense of style to which economy or simplicity of line often leads, has ornamental quality. i should say at once that sincere graphic or naturalistic drawing, with individual character and style, is always preferable to merely lifeless, purely imitative, and tame repetition in so-called decorative work. [illustration: henry payne. from "a book of carols." (allen, .)] [illustration: f. mason. from "huon of bordeaux." (allen, .)] [illustration: gertrude m. bradley. the cherry festival. (from a pen drawing.)] [illustration: mary newill. porlock. (from a pen drawing.)] [sidenote: decorative principles.] while i claim that certain decorative considerations such as plan, scale balance, proportion, quantity, relation to type, are essential to really beautiful book illustration, i do not in the least wish to ignore the clever work of many contemporary illustrators because they only care to be illustrators pure and simple, and prefer to consider a page of paper, or any part of it unoccupied by type, as a fair field for a graphic sketch, with no more consideration for its relation to the page itself or the rest of the book, than an artist usually feels when he jots down something from life in his sketch-book. [illustration: celia levetus. a bookplate.] i think that book illustration should be something more than a collection of accidental sketches. since one cannot ignore the constructive organic element in the formation--the idea of the book itself--it is so far inartistic to leave it out of account in designing work intended to form an essential or integral part of that book. i do not, however, venture to assert that decorative illustration can only be done in _one_ way--if so, there would be an end in that direction to originality or individual feeling. there is nothing absolute in art, and one cannot dogmatize, but it seems to me that in all designs certain conditions must be acknowledged, and not only acknowledged but accepted freely, just as one would accept the rules of a game before attempting to play it. the rules, the conditions of a sport or game, give it its own peculiar character and charm, and by means of them the greatest amount of pleasure and keenest excitement is obtained in the long run, just as by observing the conditions, the limitations of an art or handicraft, we shall extract the greatest amount of pleasure for the worker and beauty for the beholder. [sidenote: the dial.] many remarkable designers in black and white of individuality and distinction, and with more or less strong feeling for decorative treatment, have arisen during the last few years. among these ought to be named messrs. ricketts and shannon, whose joint work upon "the dial" is sufficiently well known. they, too, have taken up printing as an art, mr. ricketts having designed his own type and engraved his own drawings on wood. they are excellent craftsmen as well as inventive and original artists of remarkable cultivation, imaginative feeling and taste. there is a certain suggestion of inspiration from william blake in mr. shannon sometimes, and of german or italian fifteenth century woodcuts in the work of mr. ricketts. the weird designs of mr. reginald savage should also be noted, as well as the charming woodcuts of mr. sturge moore. [illustration: c s. ricketts. from "hero and leander." (the vale press.)] another very remarkable designer in black and white is mr. aubrey beardsley. his work shows a delicate sense of line, and a bold decorative use of solid blacks, as well as an extraordinarily weird fancy and grotesque imagination, which seems occasionally inclined to run in a morbid direction. although, as in the case of most artists, one can trace certain influences which have helped in the formation of their style, there can be no doubt of his individuality and power. the designs for the work by which mr. beardsley became first known, i believe, the "morte d'arthur," alone are sufficient to show this. there appears to be a strong mediæval decorative feeling, mixed with a curious weird japanese-like spirit of _diablerie_ and grotesque, as of the opium-dream, about his work; but considered as book-decoration, though it is effective, the general abstract treatment of line, and the use of large masses of black and white, rather suggest designs intended to be carried out in some other material, such as inlay or enamel, for instance, in which they would gain the charm of beautiful surface and material, and doubtless look very well. mr. beardsley shows different influences in his later work in the "savoy," some of which suggests a study of eighteenth century designers, such as callot or hogarth, and old english mezzotints. [sidenote: the studio.] [sidenote: contemporary illustrators.] "the studio," which, while under the able and sympathetic editorship of mr. gleeson white, first called attention (by the medium of mr. pennell's pen) to mr. beardsley's work, has done good service in illustrating the progress of decorative art, both at home and abroad, and has from time to time introduced several young artists whose designs have thus become known to the public for the first time, such as mr. patten wilson, mr. laurence housman, mr. fairfax muckley, and mr. charles robinson, who all have their own distinctive feeling: the first for bold line drawings after the old german method with an abundance of detail; the second for remarkable taste in ornament, and a humorous and poetic fancy; the third for a very graceful feeling for line and the decorative use of black and white--especially in the treatment of trees and branch work, leaves and flowers associated with figures. mr. j. d. batten has distinguished himself for some years past as an inventive illustrator of fairy tales. in his designs, perhaps, he shows more of the feeling of the story-teller than the decorator in line, on the whole; his feeling as a painter, perhaps, not making him quite content with simple black and white; and, certainly, his charming tempera picture of the sleeping maid and the dwarfs, and his excellent printed picture of eve and the serpent, printed by mr. fletcher in the japanese method, might well excuse him if that is the case. mr. henry ford is another artist who has devoted himself with much success to fairy tale pictures in black and white, being associated with the fairy books of many different colours issued under the fairy godfather's wand (or pen) of mr. andrew lang. he, too, i think perhaps, cares more for the "epic" than the "ornamental" side of illustration; he generally shows a pretty poetical fancy. at the head, perhaps, of the newer school of decorative illustrators ought to be named mr. robert anning bell, whose taste and feeling for style alone gives him a distinctive place. he has evidently studied the early printers and book-decorators in outline of venice and florence to some purpose; by no means merely imitatively, but with his own type of figure and face, and fresh natural impressions, observes with much taste and feeling for beauty the limitations and decorative suggestions in the relations of line-drawing and typography. many of his designs to "the midsummer night's dream" are delightful both as drawings and as decorative illustrations. [illustration: charles ricketts. from "daphnis and chloe." (the vale press.)] the newest book illustrator is perhaps mr. charles robinson, whose work appears to be full of invention, though i have not yet had sufficient opportunities of doing it justice. he shows quaint and sometimes weird fancy, a love of fantastic architecture, and is not afraid of outline and large white spaces. [illustration: c. h. shannon. from "daphnis and chloe." (the vale press.)] mr. r. spence shows considerable vigour and originality. he distinguished himself first by some pen drawings which won the gold medal at the national competitions at south kensington, in which a romantic feeling and dramatic force was shown in designs of mediæval battles, expressed in forcible way, consistent with good line and effect in black and white. his design of the legend of st. cuthbert in "the quarto" is perhaps the most striking thing he has done. i am enabled to print one of his characteristic designs of battles. [illustration: aubrey beardsley. from the "morte d'arthur." (j. m. dent and co.)] mr. a. jones also distinguished himself about the same time as mr. spence in the national competition, and showed some dramatic and romantic feeling. the design given shows a more ornamental side. [illustration: aubrey beardsley. from the "morte d'arthur." (dent.)] mr. william strang, who has made his mark in etching as a medium for designs full of strong character and weird imagination, also shows in his processed pen drawings vigorous line and perception of decorative value, as in the designs to "munchausen," two of which are here reproduced. [sidenote: the evergreen.] the publication of "the evergreen" by patrick geddes and his colleagues at edinburgh has introduced several black and white designers of force and character--mr. robert burns and mr. john duncan, for instance, more particularly distinguishing themselves for decorative treatment in which one may see the influences of much fresh inspiration from nature. [illustration: aubrey beardsley. from the "morte d'arthur." (dent.)] [sidenote: contemporary illustrators.] miss mary sargant florence shows power and decorative feeling in her outline designs to "the crystal ball." mr. granville fell must be named among the newer school of decorative illustrators; and mr. paul woodroffe, who also shows much facility of design and feeling for old english life in his books of nursery rhymes; his recent work shows much refinement of drawing and feeling. miss alice b. woodward ought also to be named for her clever treatment of mediæval life in black and white. more recently, perhaps the most remarkable work in book illustration has been that of mr. e. j. sullivan, whose powerful designs to carlyle's "sartor resartus" are full of vigour and character. force and character, again, seem the leading qualities in the striking work of another of our recent designers in black and white, mr. nicholson, who also engraves his own work. [illustration: edmund j. sullivan. from "sartor resartus." (bell.)] mr. gordon craig adds printing to the crafts of black and white design and engraving, and has a distinctive feeling of his own. the revival in england of decorative art of all kinds during the last five and twenty years, culminating as it appears to be doing in book-design, has not escaped the eyes of observant and sympathetic artists and writers upon the continent. the work of english artists of this kind has been exhibited in germany, in holland, in belgium and france, and has met with remarkable appreciation and sympathy. [illustration: patten wilson. from the pen drawing.] [illustration: laurence housman. title-page of "the house of joy." (kegan paul, .)] [illustration: l. fairfax muckley. from "frangilla." (elkin mathews.)] [illustration: charles robinson. from "a child's garden of verse." (lane, .)] [illustration: charles robinson. from "a child's garden of verse." (lane, .)] [illustration: charles robinson. from a "child's garden of verse." (lane, .)] [sidenote: belgium.] in belgium, particularly, where there appears to be a somewhat similar movement in art, the work of the newer school of english designers has awakened the greatest interest. the fact that m. oliver georges destrée has made sympathetic literary studies of the english pre-raphaelites and their successors, is an indication of this. the exhibitions of the "xx^e siècle," "la libre Æsthetique," at brussels and liège, are also evidence of the repute in which english designers are held. [illustration: j. d. batten. from "the arabian nights." (j. m. dent and co.)] [sidenote: the continent.] in holland, too, a special collection of the designs of english book illustrators has been exhibited at the hague and other towns under the auspices of m. loffelt. [illustration: j. d. batten. from "the arabian nights." (j. m. dent and co.)] at paris, also, the critics and writers on art have been busy in the various journals giving an account of the arts and crafts movement, the kelmscott press, and the school of english book-decorators in black and white, and the recent exhibitions of "l'art nouveau" and "le livre moderne" at paris are further evidence of the interest taken there in english art. [illustration: r. anning bell. from "a midsummer night's dream." (j. m. dent and co., .)] [illustration: r. anning bell. from "beauty and the beast." (j. m. dent and co., .)] [illustration: r. spence. from a pen drawing.] [illustration: alfred jones. a title-page.] [illustration: william strang. from "baron munchausen." (lawrence and bullen.)] [illustration: william strang. from "munchausen" (lawrence and bullen).] without any vain boasting, it is interesting to note that whereas most artistic movements affecting england are commonly supposed to have been imported from the continent, we are credited at last with a genuine home growth in artistic development. although, regarded in the large sense, country or nationality is nothing to art (being at its best always cosmopolitan and international) yet in the history of design, national and local varieties, racial characteristics and local developments must always have their value and historic interest. [illustration: h. granville fell. from "cinderella." (j. m. dent and co.)] [sidenote: belgium.] we may, perhaps, take it as a sympathetic response to english feeling, the appearance of such books as m. rijsselberghe's almanack, with its charming designs in line, from the house of dietrich at brussels. m. fernand knopff's work, original as it is, shows sympathy with the later english school of poetic and decorative design of which d. g. rossetti may be said to have been the father, though in book-illustration proper i am not aware that he has done much. in holland in black and white design there is m. g. w. dijsselhof and m. r. n. roland holst. [illustration: john duncan. from "the evergreen." (geddes and co., .)] [illustration: john duncan. from "the evergreen." (geddes and co., .)] [illustration: robert burns. from "the evergreen." (geddes and co., .)] [illustration: mary sargant florence. from "the crystal ball." (bell, .)] [illustration: paul woodroffe. from "second book of nursery rhymes." (george allen, .)] [illustration: paul woodroffe. from "nursery rhymes." (bell, .)] [sidenote: germany.] in germany, such original and powerful artists as josef sattler and franz stück; the former seemingly inheriting much of the grim and stern humour of the old german masters, as well as their feeling for character and treatment of line, while his own personality is quite distinct. while sattler is distinctly gothic in sympathy, stück seems more to lean to the pagan or classical side, and his centaurs and graces are drawn with much feeling and character. we have already mentioned the "munich calendar," designed by otto hupp, which is well known for the vigour and spirit with which the artist has worked after the old german manner, with bold treatment of heraldic devices, and has effectively used colour with line work. the name of seitz appears upon some effectively designed allegorical figures, one of gutenberg at his press. [sidenote: "jugend."] "jugend," a copiously illustrated journal published at munich by dr. hirth, shows that there are many clever artists with a more or less decorative aim in illustration, which in others seems rather overgrown with grotesque feeling and morbid extravagance, but there is an abundance of exuberant life, humour, whimsical fancy and spirit characteristic of south germany. [illustration: m. rijsselberghe.] "ver sacrum," the journal of the group of the "secession" artists of vienna, gives evidence of considerable daring and resource in black and white drawing, though mainly of an impressionistic or pictorial aim. m. larisch, of vienna, has distinguished himself by his works upon the artistic treatment and spacing of letters which contain examples of the work of different artists both continental and english. french artists in decoration of all kinds have been so largely influenced or affected by the japanese, and have so generally approached design from the impressionistic, dramatic, or accidental-individualist point of view, that the somewhat severe limits imposed by a careful taste in all art with an ornamental purpose, does not appear to have greatly attracted them. at all times it would seem that the dramatic element is the dominant one in french art, and this, though of course quite reconcilable with the ornament instinct, is seldom found perfectly united with it, and, where present, generally gets the upper hand. the older classical or renaissance ornamental feeling of designers like galland and puvis de chavannes seems to be dying out, and the modern _chic_ and daring of a cheret seems to be more characteristic of the moment. [sidenote: grasset.] yet, on the other hand, among the newer french school, we find an artist of such careful methods and of such strong decorative instinct as grasset, on what i should call the architectural side in contradistinction to the impressionistic. his work, though quite characteristically french in spirit and sentiment, is much more akin in method to our english decorative school. in fact, many of grasset's designs suggest that he has done what our men have done, studied the art of the middle ages from the remains in his own country, and grafted upon this stock the equipment and sentiment of a modern. [sidenote: lettering.] in his book illustrations he seems, however, so far as i know, to lean rather towards illustrations pure and simple, rather than decoration, and exhibits great archæological resource as well as romantic feeling in such designs as those to "les cinq fils d'aymon." the absence of book decoration in the english sense, in france, however, may be due to the want of beauty or artistic feeling in the typographer's part of the work. modern french type has generally assumed elongated and meagre forms which are not suggestive of rich decorative effect, and do not combine with design: nor, so far as i have been able to observe, does there seem to be any feeling amongst the designers for the artistic value of lettering, or any serious attempt to cultivate better forms. the poster-artist, to whom one would think, being essential to his work, the value of lettering in good forms would appeal, generally tears the roman alphabet to tatters, or uses extremely debased and ugly varieties. more recently, however, french designers and printers appear to be giving attention to the subject, and newly designed types are appearing; one firm at paris having issued a fount designed by eugene grasset. the charming designs of boutet de monvel should be named as among the most distinctive of modern french book illustrations, for their careful drawing and decorative effect, although, being in colours, they hardly belong to the same category as the works we have been considering, and the relation of type to pictures leaves something to be desired. a respect for form and style in lettering, is, i take it, one of the most unmistakable indications of a good decorative sense. a true ornamental instinct can produce a fine ornamental effect by means of a mass of good type or ms. lettering alone: and considered as accompaniments or accessories to design they are invaluable, as presenting opportunities of contrast or recurrence in mass or line to other elements in the composition. to the decorative illustrator of books they are the unit or primal element from which he starts. [illustration: walter crane. from spenser's "faerie queene." (george allen, .)] [sidenote: italy.] the publication at venice of "l'arte della stampa nel renascimento italiano venezia," by ferd. ongania--a series of reproductions of woodcuts, ornaments, initials, title-pages, etc., from some of the choicest of the books of the early venetian and florentine printers, may perhaps be taken as a sign of the growth of a similar interest in book decoration in that country, unless, like other works, it is intended chiefly for the foreign visitor. a sumptuously printed quarterly on art, which has of late made its appearance at rome, "il convito," seems to show an interest in the decorative side, and does not confine its note on illustrations to italian work, but gives reproductions from the works of d. g. rossetti, and from elihu vedder's designs to "the rubaiyat of omar khayyam." certainly if the possession of untold treasures of endlessly beautiful invention in decorative art, and the tradition of ancient schools tend to foster and to stimulate original effort, one would think that it should be easier for italian artists than those of other countries to revive something of the former decorative beauty of the work of her printers and designers in the days of aldus and ratdolt, of the bellini and botticelli. it does not appear to be enough, however, to possess the seed merely; or else one might say that where a museum is, there will the creative art spring also; it is necessary to have the soil also; to plough and sow, and then to possess our souls in patience a long while ere the new crop appears, and ere it ripens and falls to our sickle. it is only another way of saying, that art is the outcome of life, not of death. artists may take motives or inspiration from the past, or from the present, it matters not, so long as their work has life and beauty--so long as it is organic, in short. [illustration: howard pyle. from "otto of the silver hand." (scribner.)] [sidenote: howard pyle.] i have already alluded to the movement in boston among a group of cultured young men--mr. lee the printer and his colleagues--more or less inspired by "the hobby horse" and the kelmscott press, which resulted in the printing of "the knight errant." [illustration: howard pyle. from "otto of the silver hand." (scribner.)] some years before, however, mr. howard pyle distinguished himself as a decorative artist in book designs, which showed, among other more modern influences, a considerable study of the method of albert dürer. i give a reproduction which suggests somewhat the effect of the famous copperplate of erasmus. he sometimes uses a lighter method, such as is shown in the drawings to "the one horse shay." of late in his drawings in the magazines, mr. pyle has adopted the modern wash method, or painting in black and white, in which, however able in its own way, it is distinctly at a considerable loss of individuality and decorative interest.[ ] [ ] i am informed that the adoption of the wash method is not recent with mr. pyle, but that he adapts his method to his matter. this does not, however, affect the opinion expressed as to the relative artistic value of wash and line work. [illustration: will. h. bradley. a cover design. (chicago, .)] [illustration: will. h. bradley. prospectus of "bradley his book." (springfield, mass., .)] [illustration: will. h. bradley. design for "the chap-book." (chicago, .)] [sidenote: "the inland printer."] [sidenote: american artists.] another artist of considerable invention and decorative ability has recently appeared in america, mr. will. h. bradley, whose designs for "the inland printer" of chicago are remarkable for careful and delicate line-work, and effective treatment of black and white, and showing the influence of the newer english school with a japanese blend. [illustration] chapter v. of general principles in designing book ornaments and illustrations: considerations of arrangement, spacing, and treatment. it may not be amiss to add a few words as a kind of summary of general principles to which we seem to be naturally led by the line of thought i have been pursuing on this subject of book decoration. as i have said, there is nothing final or absolute in design. it is a matter of continual re-arrangement, re-adjustment, and modification or even transformation of certain elements. a kind of imaginative chemistry of forms, masses, lines, and quantities, continually evolving new combinations. but each artistic problem must be solved on its merits, and as each one varies and presents fresh questions, it follows that no absolute rules or principles can be laid down to fit particular cases, although as the result of, and evolved out of, practice, certain general guiding principles are valuable, as charts and compasses by which the designer can to a certain extent direct his course. to begin with, the enormous variety in style, aim, and size of books, makes the application of definite principles difficult. one must narrow the problem down to a particular book, of a given character and size. apart from the necessarily entirely personal and individual questions of selection of subject, motive, feeling or sentiment, consider the conditions of the book-page. take an octavo page--such as one of those of this volume. although we may take the open book with the double-columns as the page proper, in treating a book for illustration, we shall be called upon sometimes to treat them as single pages. but whether single or double, each has its limits in the mass of type forming the full page or column which gives the dimensions of the designer's panel. the whole or any part of this panel may be occupied by design, and one principle of procedure in the ornamental treatment of a book is to consider any of the territory not occupied by the type as a fair field for accompanying or terminating design--as, for instance, at the ends of chapters, where more or less of the type page is left blank. unless we are designing our own type, or drawing our lettering as a part of the design, the character and form of the type will give us a sort of gauge of degree, or key, to start with, as to the force of the black and white effect of our accompanying designs and ornaments. for instance, one would generally avoid using heavy blacks and thick lines with a light open kind of type, or light open work with very heavy type. (even here one must qualify, however, since light open pen-work has a fine and rich effect with black letters sometimes.) [illustration: walter crane. from spenser's "faerie queene." (george allen, .)] [illustration: walter crane. from spenser's "faerie queene." (george allen, .)] [illustration: walter crane. from spenser's "faerie queene." (george allen, .)] my own feeling--and designing must always finally be a question of individual feeling--is rather to acknowledge the rectangular character of the type page in the shape of the design; even in a vignette, by making certain lines extend to the limits, so as to convey a feeling of rectangular control and compactness, as in the tail-piece given here from "the faerie queene." [sidenote: of end papers.] but first, if one may, paradoxically, begin with "end paper" as it is curiously called, there is the lining of the book. here the problem is to cover two leaves entirely in a suggestive and agreeable, but not obtrusive way. one way is to design a repeating pattern much on the principle of a small printed textile, or miniature wall-paper, in one or more colours. something delicately suggestive of the character and contents of the book is in place here, but nothing that competes with the illustrations proper. it may be considered as a kind of quadrangle, forecourt, or even a garden or grass plot before the door. we are not intended to linger long here, but ought to get some hint or encouragement to go on into the book. the arms of the owner (if he is fond of heraldry, and wants to remind the potential book borrower to piously return) may appear hereon--the book-plate. if we are to be playful and lavish, if the book is for christmastide or for children, we may catch a sort of fleeting butterfly idea on the fly-leaves before we are brought with becoming, though dignified curiosity, to a short pause at the half-title. having read this, we are supposed to pass on with somewhat bated breath until we come to the double doors, and the front and full title are disclosed in all their splendour. [sidenote: of frontispieces and title pages.] even here, though, the whole secret of the book should not be let out, but rather played with or suggested in a symbolic way, especially in any ornament on the title-page, in which the lettering should be the chief ornamental feature. a frontispiece may be more pictorial in treatment if desired, and it is reasonable to occupy the whole of the type page both for the lettering of title and the picture in the front; then, if richness of effect is desired, the margin may be covered also almost to the edge of the paper by inclosing borders, the width of these borders varying according to the varying width of the paper margin, and in the same proportions, _recto_ and _verso_ as the case may be, the broad side turning outwards to the edge of the book each way. this is a plan adopted in the opening of the kelmscott books, of which that of "the glittering plain," given here, may be taken as a type. though mr. morris places his title page on the left to face the opening of first chapter, and does not use a frontispiece, he obtains a remarkably rich and varied effect of black and white in his larger title pages by placing in his centre panel strong black gothic letters; or, as in the case of the kelmscott chaucer, letters in white relief upon a floral arabesque adapted to the space, and filling the field with a lighter floral network in open line, and enclosing this again with the rich black and white marginal border. [illustration: from "the story of the glittering plain."] [illustration: william morris and walter crane. (kelmscott press, .)] if i may refer again to my own work, in the designs to "the faerie queene" the full-page designs are all treated as panels of figure design, or pictures, and are enclosed in fanciful borders, in which subsidiary incidents of characters of the poem are introduced or suggested, somewhat on the plan of mediæval tapestries. a reduction of one of these is given above. [sidenote: of outline and borders.] a full-page design may, thus inclosed and separated from the type pages, bear carrying considerably further, and be more realized and stronger in effect than the ornaments of the type page, just as in the illuminated mss. highly wrought miniatures were worked into inclosing borders on the centres of large initial letters, which formed a broad framework, branching into light floral scroll or leaves upon the margin and uniting with the lettering. much depends upon the decorative scheme. with appropriate type, a charming, simple, and broad effect can be obtained by using outline alone, both for the figure designs or pictures, and the ornament proper. the famous designs of the "hypnerotomachia poliphili," , may be taken as an instance of this treatment; also the "fasciculus medicinæ," , "Æsop's fables," , and other books of the venetian printers of about this date or earlier, which are generally remarkable for fine quality of their outline and the refinement and grace of their ornaments. one of the most effective black and white page borders of a purely ornamental kind is one dated , inclosing a page of roman type, (_see_ illustration, venice, , pomponius mela). a meandering arabesque of a rose-stem leaf and flower, white on a black ground, springing from a circle in the broad margin at the bottom, in which are two shields of arms. a tolerably well known but most valuable example. [sidenote: of designing type.] the opening chapter of a book affords an opportunity to the designer of producing a decorative effect by uniting ornament with type. he can place figure design in a frieze-shaped panel (say of about a fourth of the page) for the heading, and weight it by a bold initial letter designed in a square, from which may spring the stem and leaves of an arabesque throwing the letter into relief, and perhaps climbing up and down the margin, and connecting the heading with the initial. the initialed page from "the faerie queene" is given as an example of such treatment. the title, or any chapter inscription, if embodied in the design of the heading, has a good effect. harmony between type and illustration and ornament can never, of course, be quite so complete as when the lettering is designed and drawn as a part of the whole, unless the type is designed by the artist. it entails an amount of careful and patient labour (unless the inscriptions are very brief) few would be prepared to face, and would mean, practically, a return to the principle of the block book. [illustration: italian school. xvth century. ketham's "fasciculus medicinÆ." (venice, de gregoriis, .)] [illustration: italian school. xvth century. pomponius mela. (venice, ratdolt, .)] even in these days, however, books have been entirely produced by hand, and, for that matter, if beauty were the sole object, we could not do better than follow the methods of the scribe, illuminator, and miniaturist of the middle ages. but the world clamours for many copies (at least in some cases), and the artist must make terms with the printing press if he desires to live. it would be a delightful thing if every book were different--a millennium for collectors! perhaps, too, it might be a wholesome regulation at this stage if authors were to qualify as scribes (in the old sense) and write out their own works in beautiful letters! how it would purify literary style! there is no doubt that great attention has been given to the formation of letters by designers in the past. [sidenote: the dÜrer alphabets.] albrecht dürer, in his "geometrica," for instance, gives an elaborate system for drawing the roman capitals, and certainly produces by its means a fine alphabet in that type of letter, apparently copied from ancient roman inscriptions. he does the same for the black letters also.[ ] [ ] reproduced in "alphabets," by e. f. strange (pp. - ), ex-libris series. bell. for the roman capitals he takes a square, and divides it into four equal parts for the a. the horizontal line across the centre gives the crossbar. the sides of the square are divided into eighths, and one eighth is measured at the top of vertical dividing line, one eighth again from each bottom corner of the square to these points, the limbs of the a, are drawn; the up stroke and cross-bar being one-sixteenth, the down stroke being one-eighth of the square in thickness. circles of one-fourth of the square in diameter are struck at the top of the a where the limbs meet, and at lower corners, to form the outside serifs of the feet, the inside serifs being formed by circles of one-sixteenth diameter; and so the a is complete. various sub-divisions of the square are given as guides in the formation of the other letters less symmetrical, and two or three forms are given of some, such as the o, and the r, q, and s; but the same proportions of thick and thin strokes are adhered to, and the same method of forming the serifs. for the black letter (lower case german) text the proportions are five squares for the short letters i, n, m, u, the space between the strokes of a letter like u being one-third the thickness of the stroke, the top and bottom one being covered with one square, set diamond-wise. eight squares for the long letters l, h, b; the tops cut off diagonally, the feet turned diamond-wise. this is interesting as showing the care and sense of proportion which may be expended upon the formation of lettering. it also gives a definite standard. the division of eighths and fourths in the roman capital is noteworthy, too, in connection with the eight-heads standard of proportion for the human body; and the square basis reminds one of vitruvius, and demonstration of the inclosure of the human figure with limbs in extension by the square and the circle. those interested in the history of the form of lettering cannot do better than consult mr. strange's book on "alphabets" in this series. it might be possible to construct an actual theory of the geometric relation of figure design, ornamental forms, and the forms of lettering, text, or type upon them, but we are more concerned with the free artistic invention for the absence of which no geometric rules can compensate. the invention, the design, comes first in order, the rules and principles are discovered afterwards, to confirm and establish their truth--would that they did not also sometimes crystallize their vitality! i have spoken of the treatment of headings and initials at the opening of a chapter. in deciding upon such an arrangement the designer is more or less committed to carrying it out throughout the book, and would do well to make his ornamental spaces, and the character, treatment, and size of his initials agree in the corresponding places. this would still leave plenty of room for variety of invention in the details. the next variety of shape in which he might indulge would be the half-page, generally an attractive proportion for a figure design, and if repeated on the opposite page or column, the effect of a continuous frieze can be given, which is very useful where a procession of figures is concerned, and the slight break made by the centre margin is not objectionable. the same plan may be adopted when it is desired to carry a full-page design across, or meet it by a corresponding design opposite. [sidenote: of head and tail-pieces.] then we come to the space at the end of the chapter. for my part, i can never resist the opportunity for a tailpiece if it is to be a fully illustrated work, though some would let it severely alone, or be glad of the blank space to rest a bit. i think this lets one down at the end of the chapter too suddenly. the blank, the silence, seems too dead; one would be glad of some lingering echo, some recurring thought suggested by the text; and here is the designer's opportunity. it is a tight place, like the person who is expected to say the exactly fit thing at the right moment. neither too much, or too little. a quick wit and a light hand will serve the artist in good stead here. [sidenote: of tail-pieces.] page-terminations or tailpieces may of course be very various in plan, and their style correspond with or be a variant of the style of the rest of the decorations of the book. certain types are apt to recur, but while the bases may be similar, the superstructure of fancy may vary as much as we like. there is what i should call the mouse-tail termination, formed on a gradually diminishing line, starting the width of the type, and ending in a point. printers have done it with dwindling lines of type, finishing with a single word or an aldine leaf. then there is the plan of boldly shutting the gate, so to speak, by carrying a panel of design right across, or filling the whole of the remaining page. this is more in the nature of additional illustration to carry on the story, and might either be a narrow frieze-like strip, or a half, or three-quarter page design as the space would suggest. there is the inverted triangular plan, and the shield or hatchment form. the garland or the spray, sprig, leaf, or spot, or the pen flourish glorified into an arabesque. the medallion form, or seal shape, too, often lends itself appropriately to end a chapter with, where an inclosed figure or symbol is wanted. one principle in designing isolated ornaments is useful: to arrange the subject so that its edges shall touch a graceful boundary, or inclosing shape, whether the boundary is actually defined by inclosing lines or frame-work or not. floral, leaf, and escutcheon shapes are generally the best, but free, not rigidly geometrical. the value of a certain economy of line can hardly be too much appreciated, and the perception of the necessity of recurrence of line, and a re-echoing in the details of leading motives in line and mass. it is largely upon such small threads that decorative success and harmonious effect depend, and they are particularly closely connected with the harmonious disposition of type and ornamental illustration which we have been considering. [sidenote: the end.] it would be easy to fill volumes with elaborate analysis of existing designs from this point of view, but designs, to those who feel them, ought to speak in their own tongue for themselves more forcibly than any written explanation or commentary; and, though of making of many books there is no end, every book must have its end, even though that end to the writer, at least, may seem to leave one but at the beginning. [illustration] [illustration: arthur hughes. from "good words for the young." (strahan, .)] [sidenote: notes for new edition.] chap. iv. of the recent development, etc., p. . in addition to the names of the modern printers and presses mentioned in this chapter must now be added those of several workers in the field of artistic printing who have distinguished themselves since the kelmscott press. mr. cobden sanderson has turned from the outside adornment of the book to the inside, and, in association with mr. emery walker, whose technical knowledge and taste was so valuable on the kelmscott press, has founded "the doves press" at hammersmith, and has issued books remarkable for the pure severity of their typography, founded mainly upon jenson. mr. st. john hornby also must be named, more particularly for his revival of a very beautiful italian type founded upon the type of sweynheim and pannartz, the first printers in italy. the greek type designed by the late robert proctor, based on the alcala fount used in the new testament of the complutensian polyglot bible of , should be mentioned as the only modern attempt to improve the printing of greek, with the exception of mr. selwyn image's, which perhaps suffered by being cut very small to suit commercial exigences. mr. c. r. ashbee, too, has established a very extensive printery, "the essex house press," which he has since transplanted to chipping camden. he had the assistance of several of the workers from the kelmscott press, and has produced many excellently printed books of late years, such as the benvenuto cellini, and including such elaborate productions as edward vi.'s prayer book, with wood-engravings and initials and ornaments as well as the type of his own design. an interesting series of the english poets, also, with frontispieces by various artists, has been issued from this press. p. . the death of aubrey beardsley since the notice of his work was written must be recorded, and it would seem as if the loss of this extraordinary artist marked the decadence of our modern decadents. a perhaps equally remarkable designer, however, whose work has a certain kinship in some features with beardsley's, is mr. james syme, whose work has not before been noticed in this book. he has a powerful and weird imagination associated with grotesque and satirical design, and considerable skill in the use of line and black and white effect. p. . in writing of book illustrators in france, a leading place should be given to m. boutet de monvel, whose delicate drawing, tasteful colouring, and sense of decorative effect, combined with abundant resource in variety of costume, and skilful treatment of crowds, mediæval battle scenes, and ceremonial groups are seen to full advantage in his recent "ste. jean d'arc," although no particular relationship between illustration and type is attempted. p. . a recent proof of the revival of taste in book-decoration and artistic printing in italy may be referred to here as showing the influence of the english movement. i mean the edition of gabriele d'annunzio's "francesca da rimini" with illustrations or rather decorations by adolphus de karolis, printed by the fratelli treves in . this book shows unmistakable signs of study of recent english work, as well as of the early printers of venice, and it is strange to think how sometimes artists of one country may come back to an appreciation of a particular period of their own historic art by the aid of foreign spectacles. among the original designers of modern italy may be mentioned g. m. mataloni, who shows remarkable powers of draughtsmanship and invention, largely spent upon posters and ex-libris. italy, too, has an able critic and chronicler of the work of book-designers of all countries in sig. vittorio pica of naples, whose "attraverso gli albi e le cartelle" (istituto italiano d'arti grafiche editore bergamo) is very comprehensive. in vienna prof. larisch recently published a book of alphabets designed by various artists of europe; germany, france, italy, and england being represented. the group of viennese artists known as the "secession" have issued "ver sacrum," a monthly journal, or magazine, giving original designs of various artists more or less in the direction of book-decoration. latterly the designs offered seemed to lose themselves either in an affectation of primitiveness and almost infantine simplicity, or the wildest grotesqueness and eccentricity. appendix. [illustration: headpiece by alan wright.] [illustration: i. irish. vith century. book of kells. [_see page ._] [illustration: ii. english. xivth century. arundel psalter, . [_see page ._] [illustration: iii. english. xivth century. arundel psalter, . [_see page ._] [illustration: iv. english. xivth century. arundel psalter, . [_see page ._] [illustration: v. french. xivth century. epistle of philippe de comines to richard ii. [_see page ._] [illustration: vi. french. xvth century. bedford hours, page of calendar, a.d. . [_see page ._] [illustration: vii. french. xvth century. bedford hours, a.d. . [_see page ._] [illustration: viii. english. late xvth century. romance of the rose. [_see page ._] [illustration: ix. italian. xvth century. initial letter, choir book, siena ( ---- - ). [_see page ._] [illustration: x. japanese. xixth century. hokusai. [_see page ._] [illustration: xi. japanese. xixth century. hokusai. [_see page ._] index. abbey, edwin, . _Æsop's fables_ (venice, ), . ---- (ulm, ), . ---- (naples, ), . "aglaia," cover for, , . alciati's emblems, . aldus, , , , . alphabet (dürer's), . _alphabets_ (bell, ), , . amman, jost, . american wood-engraving, , . _andersen's fairy tales_ (allen, ), . anglo-saxon mss., , _et seq._ apocalypse, ms., th cent., . _arabian nights_ (dent, ), , . arndes, steffen, . _art in the house_ (macmillan, ), , - . arts and crafts exhibition society, . arundel psalter, ms., . aulus, gellius (venice, ), . bämler, . bateman, robert, , - . batten, j. d., , , . beardsley, aubrey, , , , , . _beauty and the beast_ (dent, ), . _bedford hours_, ms., , , . beham, hans sebald, , . bell, r. a., , , . bellini, giovanni, , . bernard, solomon, . bewick, thomas, , . bible (cologne, ), . ---- (lübeck, ), . ---- (mainz, ), . ---- (frankfort, ), , . bible cuts (holbein), , , . birmingham school, , , . blake, william, - . block books, . blomfield, reginald, . boccaccio's _de claris mulieribus_ (ulm, ), , ; (ferrara, ), . bonhomme, . _book of carols_ (allen, ), . books of hours, , , , , . borders, , . _bracebridge hall_ (macmillan, ), . bradley, gertrude m., , . ---- will. h., , , , . brown, ford madox, . _buch von den sieben todsünden_ (augsburg, ), . burgmair, hans, , , , , , . burne-jones, sir edward, . burns, robert, , . caesenas, stephanus, . caldecott, randolph, . calepinus, ambrosius, . calvert, edward, - . "card-basket style," the, . carroll, lewis, . castle, egerton, _english book-plates_, . caxton, william, , . _chaucer_ (kelmscott press, ), , . cheret, m., . _child's garden of verse_ (lane, ), , , . children's books, , . china, early printing in, . chiswick press, the, . chodowiecki, d., . _christ, life of_ (antwerp, ), . _chroneken der sassen_ (mainz, ), . _chronica hungariæ_ (augsburg, ), . _cinderella_ (dent, ), . _cinq fils d'aymon, les_, . clark, r. and r., . columna, francisco, . constable, t. and a., . _contes drolatiques_, . "convito," il, . copper-plate engraving, , , . "cornhill," the, . cousin, jean, . craig, gordon, . cranach, lucas, . crane, walter, , , , , , , , , , , , . cremonese, p., . _crystal ball, the_ (bell, ), , . "daily chronicle," illustrations in the, . dalziel brothers, the, . dalziel's _bible gallery_, . _dance of death_ (holbein's, ), , , . daniel, rev. h., of oxford, . dante, _divina commedia_ ms., . dante (venice, ), . _daphnis and chloe_ (vale press, ), , . davis, louis, , . day, lewis, . _de claris mulieribus_ (ulm, ), , ; (ferrara, ), . de colines, simon, . de gregoriis, , . _de historia stirpium_ (basel, ), , . _descent of minerva, the_ ( ), . destrée, oliver georges, . de vinne press, the, . "dial," the, . _dictes and sayings of the philosophers_ ( ), . dijsselhof, g. w., . dinckmut, conrad, . _discovery of the indies, the_ (florence, ), . doré, gustave, . duff, gordon, _early printed books_, . duncan, john, , , . du pré, . dürer, albrecht, , , , , , , , ; his _geometrica_, . _early italian poets_ (smith, elder, ), . edgar, king, newminster charter, . emblem books, , , , . end-papers, . "english illustrated magazine," the, , , , . evans, edmund, . "evergreen," the, , , , . "ex-libris series," the, . finé, oronce, , , . _fasciculus medicinæ_ (venice, ), . fell, h. granville, , . feyrabend, sigm., . _fior di virtù_ (florence, ?), . flach, martin, . flaxman, . flemish school, xvth cent., . florence, mary sargant, , . ford, henry, . _formal garden, the_ (macmillan, ), , . foster, birket, . france, modern illustration in, . _frangilla_ (elkin mathews, ), . french mss., , . french school, xvth cent., , , , . frontispieces, . froschover, . fuchsius, _de historia stirpium_ (basel, ), , . gaskin, arthur, , . ---- mrs., , . georgius de rusconibus, , . gerard's herbal, . gere, c. m., , , . german school, xvth cent., , , , , , , , , , , , , . ---- xvith cent., - , , , . germany, early printing in, , . ---- modern illustration in, , . gesner, conrad, . gilbert, john, . giolito, g., . giovio's emblems, . girolamo da cremona, . _glittering plain, the_ (kelmscott press, ), , , . _goblin market_ (macmillan, ), . "good words for the young," . gospels, the, in latin, ms., . grasset, m., , . greenaway, kate, , . grimani breviary, the, , , . _grimm's household stories_ (macmillan, ), , . grün, hans baldung, , , , , . halberstadt bible, the, , . hardouyn, gillet, , . harvey, william, . herbals, , , . _hero and leander_ (vale press, ), . "hobby horse," the, , . hogarth, . hokusai, . holbein, hans, , , , , , , , . ---- ambrose, , . holiday, henry, , . holland, illustration in, , . holst, r. n. roland, . horne, h. p., . _hortulus animæ_(strassburg, ), , , , . _hortus sanitatis_ (mainz, ), . _house of joy, the_ (kegan paul, ), . housman, laurence, , . hughes, arthur, - , . hunt, holman, . _hunting of the snark, the_, (macmillan, ), . _huon of bordeaux_ (allen, ), . hupp, otto, , . illuminated mss., - _et seq._ image, selwyn, , . _indulgences_ (mainz, ), . "inland printer," the, . isingrin, palma, , , . italian mss., , . italian school, xvth cent., - . ---- ---- xvith cent., - , , . italy, modern illustration in, , . japan, early printing in, , . japanese illustration, - . jones, a. garth, , . "jugend," . keene, charles, , . _kells, the book of_, , . kelmscott press, the, , , , , , , . kerver, thielman, , , . _king wenceslas_, . _kleine passion, die_ ( ), , , , . "knight errant," the (boston), , . knopff, fernand, . kreuterbuch (strasburg, ), . larisch, m., . lawless, m. j., , . leeu, gheraert, . _leiden christi_ (bamberg, ), , . leighton, sir frederic, . lettering, . levetus, celia, , . liberale da verona, . linnell, john, . linton, w. j., - , . lübeck bible, the, . macdonald's _at the back of the north wind_ (strahan, ), - . mainz, early printing at, . ---- indulgences, the, . ---- psalter, the, , . margins, . marks, h. s., . mason, f., , . matthiolus, . mazarine bible, the, . _meerfahrt zu viln onerkannten inseln_ (augsburg, ), . meidenbach, jacob, . menzel, adolf, . _mer des histoires, la_, ms., . _midsummer night's dream, a_ (dent, ), , . millais, sir j. e., . _milton's ode on christ's nativity_ (nisbet, ), . minuziano, alessandro, . missals, . _monte santo di dio, el_ (florence, ), . monvel, boutet de, . moore, albert, , . moore, sturge, . morris, william, , , , , , , . _morte d'arthur_ (dent, ), , , , . _mother goose_ (routledge), . muckley, l. fairfax, , . _munchausen, baron_ (lawrence and bullen, ), , , . neues testament (basel, ), . new, edmund h., , , . newill, mary, , . _newminster, charter of foundation of_, ms., . niccolo di lorenzo, . nicholson, w., . northcote's _fables_, . _nursery rhymes_ (bell, ; allen, ), , , . omar khayyam, . "once a week," , , , . ongania, ferd., . otmar, johann, , . ottaviano dei petrucci, . paganini, alex., . palmer, samuel, . _papstthum mit sienen gliedern_ (nuremberg, ), . _paris et vienne_, , . parsons, alfred, . payne, henry, , . peard's _stories for children_ (allen, ), , . pennell, joseph, , , . petri, adam, , . pfister, albrecht, , . philip le noir, . _philippe de comines, epistle of_, ms., . photography, influence of, , . pierre le rouge, . pigouchet, . pletsch, oscar, . pliny's _natural history_ (frankfort, ), . plutarchus chæroneus ( ), ; ( ), . _poliphili hypnerotomachia_ ( ), , , , . ----, french edition, . pollard, a. w., _early illustrated books_, . _pomerium de tempore_ (augsburg, ), . pomponius mela, , . poynter, e. j., . pre-raphaelites, the, . _princess fiorimonde, necklace of_ (macmillan, ), , . printers' marks, . psalters, mss., , , . psalter (mainz, ), , . "punch," , . pyle, howard, , , . _quadrupeds, history of_ (zurich, ), . quarles' emblems, , . "quarto," the, . quatriregio, . queen mary's psalter, ms., . quentel, heinrich, . "quest," the, . quintilian (venice, ), . ratdolt, erhardt, , . _reformation der bayrischen landrecht_ (_munich_, ), . renaissance, the, . rené of anjou, book of hours of, . rethel, alfred, . ricketts, c. s., , , . rijsselberghe, m., , . robinson, charles, , , , , . rogers' _poems_, , . ---- _italy_, , . _romance of the rose_, ms., , . rossetti, christina, . rossetti, d. g., , . rylands, henry, . sambourne, linley, . sandys, frederick, , . _sartor resartus_ (bell, ), . sattler, josef, . savage, reginald, . "savoy," the, . schöffer, p., , , . schürer, mathias, . schwind, m., . "scottish art review," the, . seitz, professor a., . shannon, c. h., , . siena, choir books of, , , . _sirens three, the_ (macmillan, ), . sleigh, bernard, . smith, winifred, . _songs of innocence_ ( ), . _speculum humanæ vitæ_ (augsburg, ), . spence, r., , . _spenser's faerie queene_ (allen, ), , , , , , . _spiegel onser behoudenisse_ (kuilenburg, ), . steyner, heinrich, . stothard, thomas, , . strang, william, , , . strange, e. f., _alphabets_, , . stück, franz, . "studio," the, . sullivan, e. j., , . sumner, heywood, , , . tacuino, giov., . tail-pieces, . talbot prayer-book, the, . tenison psalter, the, ms., , . tenniel, sir john, . tennyson's _poems_ (moxon, ), , . terence, _eunuchus_, german translation (ulm, ), . thomas, f. inigo, , , . title page, development of the, . tory, geoffroy, . _tournament of love, the_ (paris, ), . treperel, jehan, . _triumphs of maximilian, the_, . tuppo's Æsop, , . turner, j. m. w., . type as affecting design, , , . vedder, elihu, . veldener, jan, . ver sacrum, . vérard, . virgil solis, . wächtlin, hans, , . _walton's "angler"_ (lane, ), . wandereisen, hans, . _weiss könig, der_ ( - ), , . white, gleeson, . wilson, patten, , . witney's emblems, . _wood-engraving, masters of_ ( ), . woodroffe, paul, , , . woodward, alice b., . zainer, johann, , . ---- günther, . [illustration: headpiece by alan wright.] [illustration] transcriber's note illustrations have been moved near the relevant section of the text. i have used "=" to denote bolded text. [:y] is used in the text to represent y with an umlaut above it. page headers varied depending on the subjects under discussion. where the headers did not match the chapter title, i have treated the headers as sidenotes. inconsistencies have been retained in formatting, spelling, hyphenation, punctuation, and grammar, except where indicated in the list below: - right bracket added before "augsburg" on page x - "lubeck" changed to "lübeck" on page x - single quote changed to double quote before"morte" on page xiii - page number changed from " " to " " on page xiii - page number changed from " " and " " to " " and " " on page xiv - "liege" changed to "liège" on page - "chiaro-oscuro" changed to "chiaroscuro" on page - period added after "school" on page - period added after " " on page - period added after "century" on page - period added after "century" on page - "fusch" changed to "fuchs" on page - "fuschia" changed to "fuchsia" on page - "wood-cuts" changed to "woodcuts" on page - "caligrapher" changed to "calligrapher" on page - period added after " - - " on page - period added after "holiday" on page - "head-piece" changed to "headpiece" to match table of contents on page - "see" italicized on page - double quotes changed to single quotes around "epitome of the eighteen historical records of china." followed by a double quote on page - "occured" changed to "occurred" on page - period added after "strang" on page - "opportunites" changed to "opportunities" on page - "see" italicized on page - "mediaeval" changed to "mediæval" on page - "r.a" changed to "r. a." on page - comma added after "ms." on page - "lorenza" changed to "lorenzo" on page - colon changed to semicolon after " " on page - "pomponious" changed to "pomponius" on page - repeated line deleted on page - "vèrard" changed to "vérard" on page transcriber notes: italic type is indicated by the use of underscores (_). other changes are noted at the end of the text. [illustration: c. f. adams. o. c. yocum. j. m. keene. c. h. gove. n. w. durham. w. g. steel. j. m. breck, jr. ] the mountains of oregon by w. g. steel, fellow of the american geographical society. portland, oregon: david steel, successor to himes the printer, - / second street. . copyright, , by w. g. steel. preface. this little volume has not been written with the expectation of accomplishing a mission, or even attracting general attention, but simply to put into permanent form a small portion of information that is constantly appearing in newspaper articles. such information usually comes from abler pens than mine, but it is all the more pity that it is not in proper shape for future use. if it amuses, entertains or instructs those who peruse it, its aim will be accomplished, and its author satisfied. there is, however, a word of explanation due for the manner in which it is arranged. it was not begun with the intention of publishing a book, but in response to numerous requests received for descriptions of crater lake and mt. hood. as it was impossible at the time to answer them satisfactorily, it was decided to print a letter on each subject, and issue as a small pamphlet. before this was accomplished the discovery was made that the space allotted was entirely inadequate, so, acting on the advice of friends, this form was adopted; too late, however, to prevent the present arrangement. w. g. s. contents. page crater lake exploration department, oregon alpine club game protective department, oregon alpine club illumination of mount hood josephine county caves mount rainier night on the summit of mount rainier oregon alpine club oregon alpine club, constitution oregon bibliography our mountains in war photographic department, oregon alpine club preface presidents of the oregon alpine club statement of rev. peter stanup thoughts on the name tacoma topical index what they signify illumination of mount hood. mount hood is located in the cascade range in oregon, twenty-five miles south of the columbia river. it is about twelve thousand feet high, and is visible over a large part of the state. above an elevation of five thousand feet it is covered with perpetual snow. it stands sixty miles east of portland, a monument of beauty, and the pride of oregon. in the spring of the idea originated of illuminating it with red fire. an effort was made to carry this into effect on the following th of july, but failed for the reason that, instead of staying with it over night, a system of clock work and acids was devised, which was perfectly willing to do the work assigned, but an ugly avalanche came along at four o'clock in the afternoon, broke the bottles of acid and set the whole thing ablaze. in , the celebration committee of portland, decided to make the trial, and placed the matter in charge of the writer, who was accompanied by n. w. durham, correspondent of the _oregonian_, o. c. yocum, photographer, dr. j. m. keene, j. m. breck, jr., c. h. gove and chas. f. adams. more agreeable, determined and competent associates i never met. breck was a cripple, finding it necessary at all times to walk with a crutch, yet, a better mountain climber is hard to find. everything being placed in readiness, we left portland at o'clock a.m., friday july st, and reached government camp at o'clock in the afternoon of the second. from this point, the mountain rises to the north in all its beauty and grandeur, with timber line apparently within a few rods, instead of four miles, the actual distance. here the wagons were left, and two horses were packed with blankets and provisions, and our journey was resumed as soon as possible. it was necessary to cross two small streams, over both of which the bridges had fallen, so we were compelled to carry logs and fill in until it was possible to get the horses over. about nine o'clock, finding that we could not reach timber line, it was decided to camp on some friendly rocks near at hand. here we found the trees thickly covered with a long, dry moss, which afforded excitement for the evening, for, no sooner had the inner man's longings been supplied, than lighted matches were applied to the moss, which blazed furiously until it died out in the distance, simply for the want of material. the scene, while it lasted, was indeed brilliant, and accompanied by a roar that seemed but the echo of thunder. already exhausted, after three hours plodding through snow knee deep, we sank to rest and slept soundly until four o'clock. at five we were on our way, somewhat surprised to see that the snow remained as soft as on the evening before. in addition to the difficulty of sinking each step nearly to our knees, each man was loaded with fifty pounds of blankets, provisions or red fire, while three tugged savagely at a heavily loaded toboggan. at noon we lunched at timber line. it was hardly a sumptuous repast, but answered every requirement, there being canned boston brown bread and beef tea, mixed with snow and seasoned with smoke. not a dainty dish, to be sure, but "the best the market afforded." after lunch we dragged our weary way along, among other difficulties encountering a bitter cold wind, blowing directly from the summit with fearful velocity. slower and slower we moved, until three o'clock, when two men fell in their tracks utterly exhausted. here was a "pretty kettle of fish." barely seven thousand feet up, with five thousand feet more above, and only one day in which to climb. it was finally decided to make camp on the nearest rocks, abandon all idea of reaching the summit, then, on the day following, find the best place possible for the illumination. two thousand feet above timber line we camped on rocks, over which the cold wind swept, penetrating to the very marrow. of course it was impossible to have a fire, and at night it was necessary to pile large stones on our blankets to keep them from sailing down the mountain. hats and a few other things were anchored in like manner. the "glorious fourth" was ushered in, clear and cold, while a patriot in the party, not to be outdone by uncle sam, saluted the rising sun with a deafening round of fire cracker artillery. at five o'clock we started on our upward march. every thing was left behind except one hundred pounds of red fire, three overcoats and a few crackers. at : a.m., bare rocks were found to the west of the summit, in what was considered a good location, and at an altitude of about ten thousand feet. here our burdens were cast at the foot of the cliff, and all hands, except keene and myself, returned to government camp. by noon the wind had died down entirely, and the day became very pleasant. while waiting at this lonely station for the appointed hour of illumination, a panorama was spread before us, of a scope and magnificence that cannot be appropriately described, but must be seen to be appreciated. yes, and it remains for those who love the beautiful and grand sufficiently to scale mountains, to toil on day after day, patiently waiting for the time that is sure to come, when the glorious pages of nature will be unrolled before them. then, "it seems by the pain of ascending the height, we had conquered a claim to that wonderful sight." the scene embraces millions of acres of land in eastern oregon, extending from the cascades to the blue mountains, a distance of over one hundred and fifty miles. the entire range of the cascades lies before us, showing the foothills of both eastern and western oregon, and the increase in height toward the center. for miles upon miles to the south, cross ranges, running from east to west seem piled one upon the other, and to their tops is added a covering of snow, changing the solemn, otherwise unbroken, dark green, to a variegated picture, not only of grandeur, but beauty. to the left of the centre stands jefferson, similar to hood as seen from portland. next come the three sisters to the left of jefferson, while still further stands snow butte. almost in front of jefferson is washington, while to the right mclaughlin looms up in southern oregon, two hundred and fifty miles distant. changing the view to western oregon, we see mary's peak over one hundred miles southwest. the willamette valley can be seen through its entire extent of many miles, while here and there we catch glimpses of the river flowing on to the lordly columbia. along the western horizon extends the coast range, while in one little spot the mountains break way and give us a vista of the ocean. in the immediate foreground lies the base of old hood, white with snow for five thousand feet below us. to witness a scene like this many a man would circle the globe;--and yet, imagine a sunset upon it. at : p.m. clouds drifted from the north and hung on the points of the range a mile below. slowly the sun sank to rest, while the clouds hovering over the western horizon became brighter and brighter, until it seemed that the very gates of heaven were thrown wide open, and over a scene of unrivaled grandeur was spread another of marvelous magnificence. as if nature was not even yet satisfied with such dazzling beauty, suddenly the smoke that had gathered far below us, shutting out the great columbia, was drawn aside and the waters of that river seemed, through the thin smoke remaining, like a stream of molten gold, visible in an unbroken line, winding from the mountain to the sea a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. then, too, as we looked, just beneath the setting sun, the pacific ocean came to view, while the sun was setting in the mouth of the columbia, reflecting its ruddy glare in the ocean and river at one and the same time. to the right could be seen cape disappointment, while to the left point adams showed with equal clearness. so closed the day and the night came on. far above the few clouds that lurked beneath us, threatening the success of our experiment, the atmosphere was so perfectly clear that we thought its equal had never been seen. promptly with the departing day the full moon arose in all its beauty, changing the day's brilliance to a subdued halo of glory. about seven o'clock the wind blew furiously, almost carrying us from the rocks to the snow beneath. although clad for a land of wintry blasts, it was necessary to pace back and forth, swinging our arms and jumping to keep warm. at eight o'clock the wind died down, and we became comfortable without exercise. our spirits were low, however, for it seemed that the entire country was covered with a thick veil of smoke, and our labor was to be in vain. suddenly at : we saw a red light in the direction of portland. it was the signal for a complete revolution in our feelings. we danced for joy. yes, we screamed and halloed until we were hoarse. did all sorts of silly things, for now we _knew_ our fire would be seen. following the first light came another, and still others, and in our mad excitement we took a handful of red fire and burned it on a rock. "thereby hangs a tale." the members of our party at government camp were gathered around a cheerful fire telling bear stories and waiting patiently for the appointed time, when they were startled by a brilliant light from the mountain, showing through the trees in front of them. instantly they scattered, every member forgetting his companions in a wild scramble for a good view. in this sudden stampede, one member, who is hard of hearing, climbed a tree, where he remained until the others began to assemble. as one of the drivers, a hardy son of erin, passed the tree and heard a rustling in the branches, he glanced up, saw a large, dark object, took it for a bear and gave the alarm. instantly all hands gathered around the tree, every one armed with a club, which he swung like the arms of a windmill, at the same time shouting for some one else to get a gun. the man up a tree, not understanding why the commotion should extend so long after the burning of red fire, started to go down, but, was met with such a lively rain of clubs that he beat a precipitate retreat. at this point, a gun arrived and every fellow wanted to shoot the bear. bruin, at last comprehending the situation, chimed in with: "you fellows let up with your durned foolishness, will you." soon after the red fire and rockets at portland were noticed, others were seen at prineville, seventy-five miles to the southeast, and also at vancouver, w. t. these were watched with the most intense interest, until the time arrived to make our own novel show. the red fire was placed in a narrow ridge about ten feet long, and at right angles with portland. holding my watch before me, promptly at : we applied the match with the result as shown by the following account in the _oregonian_ of the next day: "the celebration closed with the illumination of mount hood, the grandest and most unique event of the day. precisely at : , the time appointed, just as the fireworks display was over, a bright red light shone away up in the clouds above the eastern horizon, which was greeted with cheers from the thousands congregated on the bridge, wharves, roofs, boats on the river and on the hills back of town, and with vigorous and long-continued whistling from every steamboat on the river. "the mountain had been plainly visible all day, but toward evening a curtain of mist and smoke shut off the view at the base, and as twilight fell, the curtain rose higher till at last only the very peak could be seen, and as night came on, even that disappeared from view. many gave up all hope of seeing any sign from the mountain. but many thought that the obstructions to a view of the summit were very slight, and if the party had reached the peak, the light from one hundred pounds of red fire would be able to pierce through them, and so it proved. it lasted exactly fifty-eight seconds. this was the most novel and the highest illumination ever made, and was seen the farthest and formed a fitting close to the celebration of ." immediately after the illumination we started down the mountain, following our previous trail in the snow. just after midnight, while lunging through the snow, we suddenly lost our footing and were no little astonished to find that we had fallen into a crevasse. it proved narrow and shallow, however, and all things considered, we extricated ourselves with remarkable celerity and passed on down the mountain side, only to get lost in the timber below, and wander around until daylight, when we found camp and soon after were homeward bound. crater lake. one of the world's great natural wonders. a trip to crater lake is, to a lover of the grand and beautiful in nature, an important event, around which will ever cluster memories of unalloyed happiness, thoughts of little adventures and weird experiences that go to make life worth living. it is situated in the northwest portion of klamath county, oregon, twenty-two miles west of north of fort klamath, and about eighty miles northeast of medford, which is the best point to leave the oregon & california railroad. the jacksonville and fort klamath military road passes the lake within three miles, and the road to the very walls of it is an exceptionally good one for a mountainous country, while in near proximity may be found remarkably fine camping grounds. the indians of southern oregon have known of it for ages, but until recently none have seen it, for the reason that a tradition, handed down from generation to generation, described it as the home of myriads of sea-devils, or, as they were called, llaos; and it was considered certain death for any brave even to look upon it. this superstition still haunts the klamaths. while a few of the tribe have visited it, they do so with a sort of mysterious dread of the consequences. it was discovered by a party of twelve prospectors on june th, , among whom were j. w. hillman, george ross, james louden, pat mcmanus, isaac skeeters and a mr. dodd. these had left the main party, and were not looking for gold, but having run short of provisions, were seeking wherewithal to stay the gnawing sensations that had seized upon their stomachs. for a time hunger forsook them, as they stood in silent amazement upon the cliffs, and drank in the awe of the scene stretched before them. after partaking of the inspiration fostered by such weird grandeur, they decided to call it mysterious, or deep blue lake. it was subsequently called lake majesty, and by being constantly referred to as a crater lake, it gradually assumed that name, which is within itself so descriptive. at times when gazing from the surrounding wall, the skies and cliffs are seen perfectly mirrored in the smooth and glassy surface over which the mountain breeze creates scarce a ripple, and it is with great difficulty the eye can distinguish the line dividing the cliffs from their reflected counterfeits. the lake is almost egg-shaped, ranging northeast by southwest and is seven miles long by six in width. the water's surface is six thousand two hundred and fifty-one feet above sea level, and is completely surrounded by cliffs, or walls, from one thousand to over two thousand feet high, which are scantily covered with coniferous trees. to the southwest is wizard island, eight hundred and forty-five feet high, circular in shape, and slightly covered with timber. in the top is a depression, or crater--the witches' cauldron--one hundred feet deep and four hundred and seventy-five feet in diameter. this was evidently the last smoking chimney of a once mighty volcano. the base of the island is covered with very heavy and hard rocks, with sharp and unworn edges, over which scarcely a score of human feet have trod. farther up are deep beds of ashes, and light, spongy rocks and cinders, giving evidence of intense heat. within the crater, as without, the surface is entirely covered with volcanic rocks, but here it forms one of the hottest places on a clear day in august, it has ever been my lot to witness. not a breath of air seems to enter, and the hot sun pours down upon thousands of rocks and stones that reflect his rays with an intensity that seems to multiply beyond conception. here, however, we determined to lunch--and did--but one such experience will last a long time. directly north of the island is llao rock, a grand old sentinel, standing boldly out on the west side of the lake and reaching up over two thousand feet perpendicular. from the top of it you can drop a stone and it will pass down and grow smaller and smaller, until your head begins to swim and you see the stone become a mere speck, and fade entirely from view; and at last, nearly half a mile below, it strikes the unruffled surface of the water and sinks forever from sight in the depth of a bottomless lake. there is probably no point of interest in america that so completely overcomes the ordinary indian with fear as crater lake. from time immemorial, no power has been strong enough to induce him to approach within sight of it. for a paltry sum he will engage to guide you thither, but, before you reach the mountain top, will leave you to proceed alone. to the savage mind it is clothed with a deep veil of mystery, and is the abode of all manner of demons and unshapely monsters. once inhabited by the great spirit, it has now become the sheol of modern times, and it is certain death for any proud savage to behold it. this feeling has, to a certain extent, instilled itself in the mind of such whites as have made it their mecca, until every stray log that floats upon the water is imagined to possess life, and may possibly be a monster. exaggerated accounts of different points have been given and implicitly believed without a question or reflection. it has been claimed that the crater was eight hundred feet deep, while by actual measurement we found it to be scarcely a hundred. the island was said to be fifteen hundred feet high, but an accurate measurement placed it at just eight hundred and forty-five feet. from allen davey, chief of the klamath tribe, i gleaned the following in reference to the discovery of crater lake: a long time ago, long before the white man appeared in this region to vex and drive the proud native out, a band of klamaths, while out hunting, came suddenly upon the lake and were startled by its remarkable walls and awed by its majestic proportions. with spirits subdued and trembling with fear, they silently approached and gazed upon its face; something within told them the great spirit dwelt there, and they dared not remain, but passed silently down the side of the mountain and camped far away. by some unaccountable influence, however, one brave was induced to return. he went up to the very brink of the precipice and started his camp fire. here he laid down to rest; here he slept till morn--slept till the sun was high in air, then arose and joined his tribe far down the mountain. at night he came again; again he slept till morn. each visit bore a charm that drew him back again. each night found him sleeping above the rocks; each night strange voices arose from the waters; mysterious noises filled the air. at last, after a great many moons, he climbed down to the lake and there he bathed and spent the night. often he climbed down in like manner, and frequently saw wonderful animals, similar in all respects to a klamath indian, except that they seemed to exist entirely in the water. he suddenly became hardier and stronger than any indian of his tribe because of his many visits to the mysterious waters. others then began to seek its influence. old warriors sent their sons for strength and courage to meet the conflicts awaiting them. first, they slept on the rocks above, then ventured to the water's edge, but last of all they plunged beneath the flood and the coveted strength was theirs. on one occasion, the brave who first visited the lake, killed a monster, or fish, and was at once set upon by untold numbers of excited llaos (for such they were called), who carried him to the top of the cliffs, cut his throat with a stone knife, then tore his body in small pieces, which were thrown down to the waters far beneath, where he was devoured by the angry llaos--and such shall be the fate of every klamath brave, who, from that day to this, dares to look upon the lake. my first visit to crater lake was in , at which time the thought was suggested by capt. c. e. dutton, of having the lake and environs drawn from the market. promptly acting on the suggestion, my friend, hon. binger hermann, was sought and a movement started looking to the formation of a national park. in response to a petition forwarded to washington and ably advocated by congressman hermann, the united states geological survey, under capt. dutton, was ordered to examine the lake and surroundings during the summer of . in this expedition it was my good fortune to have charge of the sounding, which afforded me a pleasure unsurpassed in all my mountain experience. that an idea may be had of the difficulties to be overcome, suffice it to say, boats had to be built for the purpose in portland, transported to ashland, three hundred and forty-one miles by rail, and carried from there to the lake on wagons, one hundred miles into the mountains, where they were launched over cliffs one thousand feet high. on the first day of july, i boarded the train for ashland, where i met capt. dutton, and we were joined immediately afterward by capt. geo. w. davis, one of the most eminent engineers of america, and ten soldiers. on the th, we started for the lake, preceded by capts. dutton and davis, who were followed by a four mule team, bearing a first-class lap streak boat, which in turn was followed by three double teams, horsemen and pack train. of our largest boat, the cleetwood, we all felt justly proud, as it was certainly a beautiful model, four-oared, twenty-six feet long and competent to ride almost any sea. when passing through phoenix, the typical and irrepressible critic came to the surface, in the shape of a lean, lank, awkward, ignorant country boy of, say, eighteen summers. with hands in his pockets, he aided the single suspender delegated to hold his breeches in place, and when shifting a monstrous chew of tobacco over his tongue, informed his audience (of half a dozen small urchins) that "that 'ere boat won't live in crater lake half an hour if a storm comes up. it ain't shaped right. jist see for yourself how sway-backed it is. it must have been made by some feller as never seed a boat afore." this brings to mind the fact that a critic is a person who finds fault with something of which he is densely ignorant. the entire distance from ashland--ninety-seven miles--was accomplished by slow, easy marches, every precaution being taken to provide against a mishap, and no incident occurred of special importance. soon after reaching the foothills, we encountered sliding places and short turns in the road. as the wagon containing the cleetwood was top heavy and coupled twenty feet long, it was impossible to turn on an ordinary curve, hence it became necessary at times to drive as far as possible, then let ten or fifteen men lift the hind end of the wagon around by main strength. when a sliding place was reached, the men would hang on the upper side, or attach ropes to the top and hold it, thus preventing an upset. on tuesday we succeeded in reaching the foot of the last grade, and on wednesday morning began the ascent. here was the rub. the hill is about a mile and a half long, very steep, sliding, rocky, and filled with roots and stones, added to which were great banks of snow, packed solid by constant thawing. progress was slow and tedious, a roadway having to be cut in places, while men with picks, axes and shovels dug up rocks, cut down trees and shoveled snow, besides building up or cutting down one side of the roadway. at o'clock on wednesday the th, the boats were landed on the walls of the lake, having traveled four hundred and forty miles from portland, with scarcely a scratch to mar the paint. thursday morning the work of launching was commenced by covering the bottom of each skiff with inch boards, firmly secured, as also a shield in front of the bow. they were carried to the lowest place to be found in the cliffs, probably about nine hundred feet, vertical measurement, where a canyon descends at an angle of thirty-five or forty degrees, when a three-quarter inch rope was attached and in turn passed around a tree on the summit, where a man was stationed to manage it, directed by signals below. one was lowered at a time, accompanied by four men to guide and handle it. besides this, men were stationed at different points to signal to the top, and thus regulate the paying out of rope. every effort was made to send all loose stones on ahead, to prevent accident from above, yet, before the first boat had proceeded three hundred feet in its descent, a boulder came rolling from near the summit with increasing velocity, and before any one realized the danger, had struck a rock in near proximity and bounded over the skiff, passed between the men and within an inch of one fellow's head. before the descent was completed, the boards were torn from the first boat; but extra precaution was taken with the second one. about two-thirds of the way down a perfect shower of rocks came tumbling from a cliff to the left, but, strange as it may seem, they either bounded over or around the men and boat, so that no damage resulted. at three o'clock the first skiff reached bottom somewhat scratched, but not injured in any manner. the second one was placed in the lake entirely uninjured at six o'clock p.m. our tents were pitched in a beautiful spot. in the immediate foreground to the north lies the lake with its twenty odd miles of rugged cliffs standing abruptly from the water's edge. to the left is wizard island, on the top of which rests the witch's cauldron, or crater, like a great flat top; beyond stands llao rock, solemn, grim and grand, over two thousand feet perpendicular, while still beyond stands mt. thielsen, the lightning rod of the cascades. just to the east of the lake is mt. scott, partly covered with snow, while close to the camp on the east, is a high cliff known as cathedral rock, running far down to the right and at last disappearing below the tree tops. to the south the scene was varied by a wide range of mountain tops, stretching far away to california, chief among which is snow-capped and beautiful pitt. just to the left the rough mountain view is changed to a charming plain, in the midst of which is a broad expanse of water, which proves to be klamath lake, about thirty miles distant. thursday evening, dark and threatening clouds were suddenly seen to approach from this point, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning and loud peals of thunder. a few large drops of rain had fallen, when there was a sudden outburst of joy in camp, as every one glanced at the sides of cathedral rock, which were suddenly illuminated by a light of deep orange. to the west, the sun was slowly sinking to rest, when a glowing light spread itself over the dark clouds, which became brighter and still brighter. looking beyond a scene of unparalleled magnificence was spread before us. through the center hung long fleecy clouds lighted to a deep orange, while above, like a great curtain, was spread a belt of olive green. here and there were tints of crimson, the delicacy of which no artist could approach. above and parallel with the horizon stretched a long rift, in clouds rendered marvelously rich in gold and garnet, through which the blue sky beyond was visible, slightly obscured by light, fleecy clouds of silver. during all this magnificent sight the electric storm raged in the south with unabated fury, flashes of lightning and peals of thunder adding solemnity to a scene of wonderful brilliance. the th was spent in preparing the cleetwood for her final plunge over the cliffs in search of water. a sled was made of very heavy timbers, on which she was placed, keel up, then lashed and braced in every conceivable manner until, in fact, she seemed a part of the sled itself. guy ropes were placed on each corner to guide it, in connection with a heavy handspike. saturday morning the actual work of launching began, by sliding the boat over a snowdrift in a canyon that slopes to the lake at about an angle of fifty degrees. the cliff is probably one thousand feet high at this point. the sled was attached by block and tackle to a tree on the summit and lowered nearly half way, when the bearing was shifted as far down as possible and a new start taken. leaving the summit at : a.m., it required the most persistent work and constant care of fifteen men eight hours to reach the lake. in the bottom of the canyon flows a stream of water that contributes very materially to the danger of such an undertaking, as constant slides of rocks are thus caused. when the bottom seemed to be reached it was found that there still remained a sort of jump-off, or slide, into the water, perpendicular and about fifteen feet high. the water, at this point is very deep, and the question arose, "how shall we launch the boat now that we have got it here?" it was simply turned right side up again, lashed to the sled and let partially down with the bow thrown out as far as possible. it was held securely in this position while one of the men climbed aboard, cut the lines and she shot forward in fine style, not shipping a gallon of water, although the bow was almost submerged to start with. the moment the launching was complete there was a cry of unrestrained joy sent up from all present, and our shouts were answered from the cliffs by waving of hats and blowing of fog horns. with one impulse the cry was raised, "now for the island!" and in an incredibly short space of time both skiffs and the cleetwood were headed that way. with four men at the oars we soon reached our destination, and then returned to camp, where a bountiful repast awaited us. every precaution was taken to clear the canyon of loose rocks, nevertheless a few rolled down, but were successfully dodged until the boat was actually in the water, immediately after which a small bowlder came down with terrific force. capt. davis stood directly in its course, and not seeing it the other members of the party shouted to him to "lookout." it being impossible for him to run, he jumped under the framework, or sled, hanging where the boat left it, and laid flat on the ground, just as the stone struck a rock and the upper end of the frame. it then struck capt. davis in the back, but its force had been so broken that it did no harm further than to make the spot feel sore. the day after launching the cleetwood, nine members of our party made the circuit of the lake on a sort of casual observation, or tour of inspection. the scenery was grand to a degree far beyond our most sanguine expectations. four strong oarsmen soon brought us to llao rock, and as we gazed in silent wonder at its rugged sides, reaching nearly half a mile above us, for the first time did we realize the immensity of such a spectacle. never before did i fully understand the meaning of figures when they run up into the thousands of feet, vertical measurement. beyond llao rock we found a beautiful little bay, and beyond it a larger one, probably one mile long by a quarter of a mile deep. here we stopped for lunch, and when landing were surprised to find a long line of dead moths, of large variety, washed up by the waves, and in such numbers that the air was laden with an unpleasant odor, apparently about a first cousin to a slaughter house. we also found here a narrow beach of small gravel running almost the entire length of the bay, while further out in the lake, the bottom is composed of sand. as this point had not only never been named, but probably was never before visited by human beings, we decided to christen it cleetwood cove. passing on our journey, it was soon seen that the cliffs on the north side are not so high as those to the south. in several places it appeared that good trails could easily be made to the water's edge, over which a person might almost ride horseback, and in one place, without any grading whatever, a good pack train could descend with comparative ease. about o'clock a thunder shower came suddenly upon us just as two beautiful grottos appeared in view. into one of these the boat was run, where we were entirely beyond the reach of rain. it proved to be about thirty feet deep and twenty wide, with an arched roof probably eight feet above the water, while the rocky bottom could be distinctly seen ten feet below the surface. so perfect was its form that it almost seemed the hand of man had hewn it from the solid rock. beyond it towered an immense cliff, very high, with broken, rugged sides, picturesque and sublime, which i insist on naming dutton cliff, in honor of capt. dutton, who has done and is doing so much to make crater lake justly famous. this point may be known from the fact that it lies directly opposite llao rock, and between the two lowest places in the lake's walls. immediately north of dutton cliff, the elements have worn the sides of the mountain, leaving a harder substance, alternately colored red and yellow, resembling the mansard roof of a cottage, while in one place, tall red chimneys stand aloft, making, all in all, such a scene that cottage rock could scarcely be improved on for a name. lying between the two points above referred to, a break in the wall was found, that is almost perpendicular, but certainly does not exceed five hundred feet in height. this is by far the lowest point in the walls. no time was lost in getting our soundings under way. the first was made about one hundred yards from shore. it was supposed that we might possibly find as much as one hundred feet of water, but, as the lead ran out, our excitement grew with each succeeding hundred feet, until over one thousand two hundred feet were out. at one thousand two hundred feet the machine stopped, and our pent-up feelings exploded in one wild yell of delight. for a number of days the soundings were continued. the greatest depth recorded was one thousand nine hundred and ninety-six feet, which, making allowance for stretch of wire, would give two thousand and eight feet. of the whole number made, eighteen are over one thousand nine hundred, thirteen over one thousand eight hundred, eleven over one thousand seven hundred, fifteen over one thousand six hundred, and nineteen over one thousand five hundred. it was found that at the bottom of the northeastern end lies a plain of several square miles, almost perfectly level, while south of the center is a cliff about nine hundred feet high, and west of the center seems to be cinder cone, nearly one thousand two hundred feet in height, with a crater in the center two hundred and fifty feet deep. its summit is six hundred feet below the surface of the water. on one occasion our party took five pounds of red fire, which we intended to burn on the summit of wizard island, but owing to the fact that the air was so filled with smoke as to destroy the effect, our plan was changed, and we took it to rogue river falls on our return. here we met quite a number of hardy mountaineers, and at o'clock left camp for the falls, about one mile distant. the night was very dark, and a weird sort of a scene it was as we climbed over logs and rocks, lighting our way by tallow candles and a lantern that flickered dimly. at last the bank of the stream was reached, and while the noise of the rushing waters was intense, nothing could be seen but the dim outline of something white far down below us. at this point, the walls are perpendicular, and one hundred and eighty feet high. they are also solid rock from top to bottom. directly opposite where we stood, mill creek falls into rogue river (one hundred and eighty feet), and this is what we came to see. in order to get the benefit of the red light, it was necessary for some one to climb down to the water. this duty fell to a stranger in the party, who made the descent during the day, and myself. he led the way carrying a dim lantern, and i followed as best i could. the rocks are covered with a remarkably thick layer of moss, which is kept very wet by the rising mist. the path, if such it might be termed, led along the sides of the cliff at an angle of about degrees. as we cautiously climbed from rock to rock, it was a sort of feeling of intensified interest that overcame us, when we realized that a single misstep would precipitate us to the rocks below--and, worst of all, possibly we "never would be missed." the bed of the stream was reached at last, and the fire ignited close to the falls. ye gods! what a transformation! suddenly, the canyon, which could not be seen before, was as bright as day, lighted by a fire so brilliant that we could not look upon it. crimson air and crimson water, crimson walls and crimson everywhere. no magician of the arabians ever conjured up by a stroke of his wand a spectacle more sublime. it was one of transcendent beauty, upon which the human eye seldom rests, and when it does its possessor is spellbound by the bewildering vision. one almost loses the power of speech in the desperate struggle to see and comprehend the scene, and before it is realized the light dies away and darkness reigns supreme, rendered ten-fold more dense by the splendor of so magnificent a tableau. near the base of dutton cliff stands a solitary rock, probably one hundred feet high, by two hundred in length and nearly the same breadth, that, while not seen by the present generation of indians, is nevertheless known to them, and is a special object of superstitious dread. they consider it as a peculiarly ferocious monster, but are unable to describe its characteristics. it stands in the lake entirely alone and about fifty yards from shore. standing on the cliffs, five miles to the west and looking across the lake, this strange rock is plainly visible in the sunlight its rugged peaks reaching aloft, giving it the appearance of a full rigged ship at anchor. should a cloud pass before the sun, as the shadow strikes the rock it will pass from view as effectually as though it had ceased to exist. while sounding the lake in , i caused a party of topographical engineers to be landed here for observations, but it was so rugged that the most diligent search failed to reveal a level place large enough to accommodate the tripod attached to their instruments, and we were compelled to resort to a point on shore for the purpose. i have never learned its indian name, but among the whites it is known as the phantom ship. to those who enjoy the noble sport of hunting, the vicinity of crater lake is especially attractive. great numbers of deer, bear and panther roam through the timber in fancied security, inviting the keen eye and steady nerve of the sportsman. although passionately fond of such sport myself, the grandeur and sublimity of the surroundings so overcame me with desire to see and prosecute our explorations, that i forgot my love for a running shot, in an inordinate desire to climb over the cliffs and view the wonderful place from every conceivable point. my companions were no less affected, and the result was that we ran out of meat and applied to a native sheep herder for mutton chops. he scowled upon us for a moment, then informed our spokesman that "when he butchered he never saved the heads." while running a line of soundings from llao rock to vidae cliff across the lake one day, a strong wind sprung up from the south accompanied by black clouds and a storm seemed imminent. we had proceeded about three miles across, when we were suddenly startled by a loud noise, as though a multitude of men were savagely beating tin pans. in a very few minutes the southwestern cliffs became white and we could plainly see the "color line" advancing to the north, until all the cliffs to the west seemed covered with snow. to add to so strange a sight, a good-sized water-fall began pouring over llao rock, and falling to the lake two thousand feet below. within half an hour from the beginning of the storm, the water-fall ceased, the cliffs became dark again, the wind shifted to the northwest and drove millions of hailstones upon us, sufficiently large to make us wince when struck--especially when struck all over with no possible means of escape. the only accident to any of our party during the sojourn, befel a highly respected mule attached to the topographical engineers corps. one day as the party passed along the east side of dutton cliff, progress seemed almost blocked by high precipices. a point was found overlooking a yawning chasm, where a large tree had fallen and lodged. by throwing in stones and brush, a sort of trail was made to terra firma beyond the backbone of the mountain. over this the pack train was passed safely, except a mule that was blind in one eye. he bore a reputation for dignity and sobriety that any well-to-do mule might envy. however, when just at the point which, above all others, should have received his undivided attention, he became gay and festive, and as a consequence, fell part way over the precipice. by dint of hard labor, he was drawn back, but little the worse for wear, his pack was removed and he again started across. again, however, he became frisky, and pitched head-long over a rocky precipice five hundred feet high. as his limbs mixed with those of the trees below, the thoughts of the spectators above were: "there goes all that is mortal of croppy, who climbed to the top of mt. shasta, but died in a lonely canyon, by his own hand in a fit of temporary insanity. let him r.i.p." one day while at work on the lake, my attention was called to what seemed to be a tall, full-bearded man standing on the southern portion of llao rock's summit. one foot was placed a little forward of the other and the knee bent slightly but naturally, while before him stood a gun. his hands were clasped over the muzzle as he gazed intently to the north. just behind him stood a boy, apparently about fifteen years of age. they seemed entirely too natural not to be flesh and blood, and yet, persons at that distance would not be visible to the naked eye, as we were two miles out on the lake. day after day, as our work progressed, their position remained the same, and, in the absence of a better explanation, we decided them to be trees. crater lake is but a striking memento of a dread past. imagine a vast mountain, six by seven miles through, at an elevation of eight thousand feet, with the top removed and the inside hollowed out, then filled with the clearest water in the world, to within two thousand feet of the top, then place a round island in one end eight hundred and forty-five feet high, then dig a circular hole tapering to the center, like a funnel, one hundred feet deep and four hundred and seventy-five feet in diameter, and you have a perfect representation of crater lake. it is hard to comprehend what an immense affair it is. to those living in new york city, i would say, crater lake is large enough to have manhattan, randall's, ward's and blackwell's islands dropped into it, side by side without touching the walls, or, chicago or washington city might do the same. our own fair city of portland with all her suburbs, from the city park to mount tabor, and from albina to sellwood inclusive, could find ample room on the bottom of the lake. on the other hand, if it were possible to place the lake, at its present elevation, above either of these cities, it would be over a mile up to the surface of the water, and a mile and three-quarters to the top of llao rock. of this distance, the ascent would be through water for two thousand feet. to those living in new hampshire, it might be said, the surface of the water is twenty-three feet higher than the summit of mt. washington. [illustration: _ . rogue river falls, feet high._ _ . vidae cliff, crater lake, over , feet high._ _ . a point on vidae cliff._] what an immense affair it must have been, ages upon ages ago, when, long before the hot breath of a volcano soiled its hoary head, standing as a proud monarch, with its feet upon earth and its head in the heavens, it towered far, far above the mountain ranges, aye, looked far down upon the snowy peaks of hood and shasta, and snuffed the air beyond the reach of everest. then streams of fire began to shoot forth, great seas of lava were hurled upon the earth beneath. the elements seemed bent upon establishing hell upon earth and fixing its throne upon this great mountain. at last its foundation gave way and it sank forever from sight. down, down, down deep into the bowels of the earth, leaving a great, black, smoking chasm, which succeeding ages filled with pure, fresh water, giving to our day and generation one of the most beautiful lakes within the vision of man. in conclusion i will say, crater lake is one of the grandest points of interest on earth. here all the ingenuity of nature seems to have been exerted to the fullest capacity, to build one grand, awe-inspiring temple, within which to live and from which to gaze upon the surrounding world and say: "here would i dwell and live forever. here would i make my home from choice; the universe is my kingdom, and this my throne." josephine county caves. on friday evening, august , , s. s. nicolini of ragusa, austria, e. d. dewert of portland, and the writer boarded the south-bound train for grant's pass, intent on a few days' outing. this town of grant's pass was so named for a pass in the mountains several miles south, where, in early days, the silent hero camped for the night. early saturday morning my head was banged up against one end of our sleeping car, an instant after hearing the shrill whistle sounding down brakes. as soon as possible i got on the outside and found the engines standing within a few feet of a yawning chasm where a bridge had been. now, however, seven bents had been burned away and a terrible railroad accident was averted by the quick eye of engineer elliott, who saw the fire as we turned the curve and stopped the train almost instantly. at grant's pass, h. d., m. m. and f. m. harkness joined us, and we started for the josephine county caves, about thirty miles due south, in the siskiyou mountains. for twenty miles the trip was made over a very good road by wagon. at this point it became necessary to pack our things on two horses and walk over a trail into the mountains. on a hot day, this portion of the trip is very laborious, owing to the fact that it is up the steep mountain side about two-thirds of the way, and down an equally steep incline the remainder. we arrived at our destination a little before noon on the th, and found two openings, one above the other, and about one hundred yards apart, on the south side of a deep canyon. when out hunting a few years since, elijah davidson, of williams creek, found a bear and chased it into the lower entrance, thus discovering the caves. each entrance is high enough to admit a person without stooping, and is probably about eight feet wide. at noon we entered the upper cave. for a few feet the floor inclined inward; we then descended a ladder for about six feet, and found ourselves in a passage way eight feet wide by an equal height, which changed, however, at every step. now it would be wider, and now narrower, now higher, and now lower. walls, ceiling and floor were composed of solid rock. to describe them, appropriately would simply be to use a gift made divine by inspiration. no man can behold them, then impart to others an accurate idea of their appearance. soon after entering we were compelled to progress on hands and knees, then stood upright in chambers ten feet high, the walls of which were white. stalactites were first seen here, and involuntarily we cast sly glances around to discover the bodies of kings preserved beneath such droppings in "king solomon's mines." we wandered from place to place, from chamber to chamber, dragging ourselves through passage ways barely large enough to admit a human body, while with toes and fingers we worked along, or stood in the midst of rooms that reached far above us. now we see a beautiful pool of clearest water, surrounded by a delicate crystal formation in the shape of a bowl. in color it is as white as the driven snow, while each crystal is oblong, projecting at right angles with the main portion for about an eighth of an inch. one peculiarity of these crystals that disappointed us was the fact that they change from white to a dull, yellowish color, immediately after being removed from the caves. we were extremely anxious to try a new process for taking photographs in the dark, so dewert took his camera and acted as photographer for the party. owing to the limited space at times and cramped manner of locomotion it required the services of four men to carry the camera and accompanying necessities. having reached a suitable place for a picture, the camera was first put in position, a board was laid on the top of it on which a tin reflector was placed, and a little powder called the lightning flash was then poured on the board in front of the reflector. at this point the order was given, "douse the glim," and all lights were extinguished. the plate was exposed in perfect darkness, the powder was ignited, and instantly there was a flash of the most intense light. this light was so brilliant that, for several minutes, it caused in the eyes a glimmering sensation of light. several photographs were taken in this way, which will doubtless prove excellent examples of what ingenuity can do in the dark. it would require days of constant work to explore all the passages we found, whereas our time was limited to that portion of one day after o'clock noon. for this reason we remained in the caves from noon to midnight, first examining the upper, then the lower one. this difference exists between them: the one above is possessed of fine stalactite formations, while below none appear. instead, however, immense rocks are piled indiscriminately one upon the other, with great cracks between. long ladders were used to climb to the top of the rocks, over the sides of which yawning pits could be seen that seemed to possess no bottom. lack of time alone prevented us from making a thorough investigation, but i could not resist the temptation to climb over the side of one friendly rock for a few feet to see how it looked. down for twenty feet the space remained unchanged, so that i could easily reach from rock to rock. it then widened out and i could proceed no farther without ropes, so i returned to the party. a fine stream of clear cold water flows from this cave and a strong breeze of cool air rushed forth also. at times in both upper and lower cave, the wind blew toward the entrance so that it was impossible to keep the lights burning. no traces of foul air have been found in either cave. before our visit, visions of square chambers filled my mind, only to be dashed aside when real ones presented themselves, the irregular shape of which could not well be surpassed. there are no parallel walls, few straight ones, but corners everywhere. the floor will pitch in all directions, likewise ceiling and walls. beautiful views of stalactites and stalagmites stand out in bold relief against snow white walls. at the farthest extremity of the upper cave in one direction an immense chamber presents itself, and should be known as the devil's banquet hall. it is probably Ã� feet and sixty in height. great blocks of rock hang as by a thread from the ceiling, while on every side rocks of equal size lie in all conceivable shapes. standing at the point of entry one looks at the opposite side and sees great cracks, yawning cavities with open mouths of blackness, dismal shadows, to which flickering lights give a ghoulish, dance-like appearance. yes, the devil seems to be holding high carnival, while his imps would dance the night away. they bob up and down and swing their arms in fiendish glee, while the dance goes on forever. none can look therein without seeing these imps and their antics. the floor recedes rapidly from the entrance, and is composed of great rocks scattered in confusion. we placed a number of lighted candles in different places, then climbed to the opposite side to view them. the shadows had partially disappeared, crevices and holes in the walls not before seen became suddenly black and excited our curiosity, so we climbed over high rocks into unknown passages. in a small chamber on one side we found a beautiful stream of water, falling several feet into a crystal basin. the walls of the chamber are white, and the effect by candle-light is very fine. midnight found us still employed, but we reluctantly ceased our labors and withdrew. without unnecessary ceremony we wrapped our blankets about us, laid down beneath the stars, and slept the sleep of the just until o'clock, when the dulcet notes of a coyote called us to the business of the day. preparations were quickly made for the journey, and at daylight we were on our way to grant's pass, where we arrived at o'clock p.m. our mountains in war. it is a curious fact that the home of liberty has always been in the mountains. the reason for this is, that nature intervenes every barrier to prevent conquests, and shields the native mountaineer from onslaughts of a foreign foe. the ringing words, "make way for liberty," could never have become immortal had it not been for a mountain pass. the memory of william tell would not now be cherished by liberty-loving swiss, were it not for the friendly crags of the alps that sheltered him. here in the northwest we are blessed with a wonderful mountain range, extending from california through oregon and washington to british columbia. for beauty, grandeur and extent it has no superior; while as a field of defense, it simply stands unparalleled, and is rich in minerals, agriculture and commerce. located at from forty to a hundred miles apart are the following mountain peaks, covered with perpetual snow: baker, rainier, adams, st. helens, hood, jefferson, three sisters, pitt and shasta. from each of these, convenient points of prominence are visible in the coast range, one or more of which in turn are visible from every harbor and city as far south as san francisco. in case of a foreign war it is one of the possibilities of the oregon alpine club to organize a sort of signal corps, say five hundred men, each of whom would be thoroughly familiar with every pass, crevasse and crag in the mountains where detailed for service. with a liberal supply of provisions and ammunition on each peak, scarcely anything short of a pestilence could dislodge them. what could a foreign army do around mt. hood, for instance, with fifty resolute men well armed and equipped on the summit. it has been but a few years since the entire force of the united states army was successfully defied by captain jack and a dozen indians in the lava beds; and yet we have here every advantage of the lava beds, to which is added precipices to the north, east and west, while to the south a narrow passage would permit men to ascend, but it is necessary to cut every step in the ice; while directly across the base of this precipitous glacier, a crevasse extends, of unknown depth, which varies in width from three to forty feet, according to the season. it is needless to say that every wounded member of the assaulting party would pay the penalty with his life, for the slightest misstep would hurl him into the crevasse where "moth doth not corrupt and where thieves do not break through and steal." now for the point of this article. give to the corps a liberal supply of heliographs and instruct the men how to use them. in this way a perfect system of communication can be established by which messages can be sent from point to point in an instant. say, for instance, that a hostile fleet was lying at victoria and a descent on san francisco was planned. from a spy within the enemy's lines, the party on mt. baker gathers full particulars, and immediately informs san francisco of the contemplated attack, giving full particulars, including number of ships, men and guns. night on the summit of mount rainier. monday, august , , mr. j. nichols, of tacoma, and the writer, left tacoma for mt. rainier, determined, if possible, to reach its highest point. the provisions, blankets, alpine stocks (a hickory staff seven feet long with a steel point at one end), alpine ax and all that was necessary in making the ascent easy, were taken from tacoma, while pack horses were procured at yelm, a station twenty-five miles south of tacoma, and from which the trail leads eastwardly to mount rainier. it first follows river bottoms, then mountains, ridges and river bottoms again, while an occasional fording of the glacial stream, lends interest to the ever-changing scenes. we aimed at the end of each day to camp where feed could be obtained for hard working horses. darkness coming on as we reached the first ford, left in some doubt the exact location of the crossing, so camp was made on the bank of the river with nothing but oats for our tired horses. daylight found us fording the river, which had risen during the night about ten inches, making it quite exciting as the foaming water splashed the horses' sides, and wet our feet and ankles. stopping at the first place where hay could be had, a stay of nearly two hours was made for breakfast for ourselves and horses. from our last night's experience, we decided to carry hay with us and camp wherever night should overtake us, which was at the foot of a high mountain our trail led over, and on the bank of the river as before. the day was uneventful, if we omit mention of the many hornets' nests we passed through and the four pheasants which fell before the unerring aim of nichol's rifle. the pheasants led us to a fitting close of the day in the shape of pheasants and dumplings, prepared by the writer and pronounced by nichols (who, by the way, is an epicure) to be simply _par excellence_. and here i might add that the writer is a single man. the end of the third day found us at the hotel longmire at hot springs, located on the southwest slope of mt. rainier, at an altitude of three thousand feet, and some five miles from the perpetual snow limit. and no finer people ever lived than mr. and mrs. longmire, who own and preside over the hotel and springs. the hotel material was cut by hand out of the finest grained cedar that ever grew--boards twelve inches wide and fifteen feet long--as perfect as though sawed. as a matter of information for those interested, it might be well to say here that the waters of the springs are positively life-giving. the writer has visited many mineral springs, and has never seen anything that will compare with the stimulating and health-giving qualities of these springs. but, to resume: we left the springs next morning, with a single pack horse, expecting to leave the horse at the top of the ridge (eight thousand feet altitude) overlooking paradise valley, and, with blankets on our backs, to make our way to ewing's camp, ten thousand five hundred feet above sea level. we reached paradise valley, and, finding the same had been so well and truly named, decided to stop till next day and enjoy some of its beauties. accordingly, camp was pitched, fire-wood gathered, and a camp fire built, and a pot of beans placed thereon. after a light lunch we strolled, enjoying the alpine beauties of the valley, well named paradise. during the afternoon the wind changed to the southwest, and clouds gradually spread over the firmament. from our experience a year ago on mount hood in a storm, at no higher altitude than we now were, no thought was given to ascending higher till fair weather and a northwest wind prevailed. morning dawned and no indications of good weather. our spirits were accordingly depressed. observing the barometer, we found it moving quite rapidly in the direction of storm. by noon the sky was heavily overcast, and an hour later undercast as well. by o'clock rain began to fall. the wind had already risen to quite a gale. re-staking our tent, digging a ditch around the head and sides, and piling wood and rocks along the edges to keep out the wind and rain, we crawled into our blankets and awaited developments. soon the storm broke upon us with all its alpine fury, and raged during the entire night. by morning the rain had turned into sleet and snow, the thermometer, at daylight registering degrees. shortly the storm ceased. after some difficulty a fire was started and coffee made. sampling our pot of beans, which had boiled at least four hours, we found them still hard; after an hour more boiling we emptied them on the ground, having learned that beans are hard to cook at an eight thousand foot altitude. our barometer still indicating foul weather, we decided to start at once for a more congenial climate. accordingly our shivering horses (which we had blanketed) were packed and four hours later we were at the springs hotel, in a rather moody frame of mind. tuesday morning all was clear, the barometer indicated fair weather, and we started early, reaching the -foot ridge at p.m. turning our horses loose to feed upon the succulent grass, we bound our blankets upon our backs and started for ewing's camp, altitude , feet. evening coming on, we made camp at , . clearing away the rocks, leaving a sandy bottom, we stretched our light, small tent, banking wet sand around the edges to keep out the piercing wind, which almost invariably blows at high altitudes. placing our oilcloth over the damp, cool sand, we soon had a comfortable bed. for tent poles we used our alpine stocks, one of which was seven and one-half feet long. our bed being satisfactorily arranged, we took notes on the scenery, temperature, etc. a haze hung over the valleys; in fact, it rose to a height of nine thousand feet. the rosy-tinted summits of hood, adams and st. helens towered away above it, however, reflecting the rays of the declining sun. the chilliness of the temperature, degrees, prevented us from remaining long outside our tent. crawling in, we tightly fastened the flaps and really passed a comfortable night. twenty minutes after a.m. found us astir, and at five o'clock we were under way. we had scarcely as yet taken time to admire the beauties of the scene, so intent had we been on getting an early start so as to be able to return before sundown to our blankets and provisions. we soon had an opportunity to admire the beauties around and below us, as climbing above eleven thousand feet altitude is productive of sudden stops for rest and breath. we expected to reach the summit by noon, at latest; but on account of the icy condition of portions of the mountain side, it was necessary to cut steps over quite long stretches. this delayed us more than two hours. twelve o'clock came and went and we were not quite to the top of the "big rock"--a large rock on the south side, the top of which is about two thousand feet below the summit. by o'clock we were past the rock several hundred yards. from here to the summit we crossed eight or nine crevasses. the snow or ice stood in pinnacles often six and seven feet high. three o'clock came and the top was still beyond us. having no blankets or provisions, the question now presented itself: could we make the summit and back over the dangerous points before dark. not much talking was done, however, as breath was too precious; but we still pushed on. at o'clock we held a council of war and decided that since it was already so late we could not return before dark, and we would make for the summit, where steam caverns were said to exist, and where messrs. longmire and van trump stayed over night in ' . they found themselves in the same predicament we were now in, by their determination to reach the summit. this being settled, we pushed on, turned out of our way by first one and then another obstacle, until we found ourselves about one hundred feet, not more, below the summit of the highest western bump or dome. from this we descended about a hundred feet, and thence across a level piece of snow about one-third of a mile, to the foot of the main pinnacle, in which is located the crater. some three hundred feet (in altitude) more climbing, over ashes and fine pumice stone of the outside walls of the crater, and we stood on the apex of one of the highest mountains in the united states. mr. nichols claims the honor of being the first and only tacomaite who has reached the summit. [illustration: _ . snowballing on mt. st. helens, july d, ._ _ . summit of mt. hood, looking west._ _ . illumination rock on mt. hood._] it was now : p.m., the thermometer registering ° above zero; and having no blankets, our first business was to find a warm place in the steam to pass the night. steam could be seen issuing from a dozen different places on the inside rim of the crater, say sixty to seventy feet below the crest. writing our names on a card, with a short account of the climb, we placed it inside of a small box, on which was inscribed, "oregon alpine club, portland." this was left on the top of the ridge. we heaped rocks around it to prevent the wind from blowing it away. we soon found a sort of semi-spherical opening in the rocks, from which the warm steam poured forth. clearing away the rocks, leaving a sandy bottom, we built a wall of rocks two feet in height to break the wind, and then turned our attention to looking for canned corned beef. we were told a can had been left there by prof. ingram's party ten days before. this was soon found, together with a package of french chocolate, a box of sardines and some cheese. we were already the possessors of one lemon. as nothing more was needed we got into our den. taking a cup found lashed to a rock on the crest of the crater and filling it with snow we placed it in our oven and soon had plenty of water. we ate some lunch, but fourteen and fifteen thousand foot altitudes are not productive of strong appetites, so we ate sparingly, and being so completely exhausted soon fell asleep. about o'clock p.m., we were rudely awakened by what appeared to be a dash of ice water in our faces and down our necks. the sky being clear the ice water was explained a few moments later. the wind had arisen and was drifting dry snow--(eight inches of which had fallen sunday)--from a bank about fifteen feet distant, against the sloping roof and walls of our warm den; thus the snow was turned to water by the time it reached our faces. to prevent being so rudely drenched again we removed our coats, which were then wrapped around our heads. the wind having veered to the west, some anxiety was felt that a storm might arise before we could return. however, fortune smiled upon us in our dizzy resting place so far above the clouds, and morning dawned clear, cold and beautiful. upon the first gleams of the sun we made for the ridge for our dry clothes, which were placed there before retiring to our den the night before. we had fortunately worn two suits of heavy underclothes, two pairs of pants and two coats, so we now had dry clothes, and well it was we took the precaution of removing a suit and placing it out of the way of the wet steam. before we could return to our den every vestige of clothing, including a soft hat, was frozen stiff. the cold seemed to strike at once clear through. the agility with which we got into our steam chest would have been amusing to an uninitiated observer. we were soon warm again, and by slight assistance from each other, our dripping clothes were soon changed for dry ones. mounting the ridge of the crater on the highest side, sunrise observations were taken. the sun appearing above the eastern horizon tinted rainier's top with molten silver, while the country beneath was still wrapped in shade. not many moments elapsed till the adjacent mountains, hood, adams and st. helens, one by one in order named, donned their silvery shields like mighty giants in battle attitude, defending themselves against the sun, their common enemy. the effect at this time was grand, indeed, the heavy rains of two days previous having entirely dissipated the smoke. eastward all was clear, while westward, nearly fifteen thousand feet below, the valleys and lowlands were hidden beneath billowy clouds, which, like the mountain tops, soon turned from gray to shining silver. soon sol's rays had reached the western horizon. mountain shadows now appeared reaching westward to the limit of our vision; the jagged edges resting on hills and plains and valleys contributed to a changing scene, the memory of which will last so long as life is given. our selfish aim more than attained, we were satisfied and determined at once to descend to earth, from whence we came. our determination being carried out, we reached hot springs at p.m., and tacoma three days later. chas. h. gove, of oregon alpine club. what they signify. adams, mt.--called by winthrop, tacoma the second ( ). named for president adams. indian name pat-to, signifying high. this name was applied to snow caps generally by the indians. baker, mt.--named for lieut. baker by vancouver, when discovered april , . called by winthrop ( ), kulshan; possibly the indian name. referred to by the spanish as montana del carmelo. called mt. polk by the americans ( ). bitter root range.--same as the coeur d'alene mountains. coffin, mt.--originally used as an indian burying ground and named by lieut. broughton ( ). castle rock.--referred to by lewis and clark as beacon rock ( ). subsequently called castle rock, because of its appearance. cascades.--known as president's range ( ). the mountains were named for the cascades of the columbia river. cape horn.--so named because of the difficulty experienced in doubling it ( .) goat mountain.--called plas (long sound of a) by the indians, meaning white. so called because of the white rocks. mountain goats formerly abounded in that vicinity, hence the present name. hood, mt.--discovered by broughton, october , , and named for lord hood of england. general indian name, pat-to. an active volcano in . same as mt. washington of the americans ( ). jefferson, mt.--discovered by lewis and clark and named for president jefferson, . same as mt. vancouver of the british ( ). mclaughlin, mt.--lat. ° '. named for john mclaughlin who established vancouver, introduced live stock, fruit, vegetables and grain. same as mt. madison of the americans ( ). sometimes called diamond peak. oregon.--first used by capt. jonathan carver in a book published in london ( ). the name appeared in the following statement: "the river bourbon empties itself into hudson's bay; the waters of st. lawrence; the mississippi and the river oregon, or the river of the west, that falls into the pacific ocean at the straits of anian." numerous theories are advanced as to the origin of the name with carver, but nothing conclusive is shown on the subject. the original oregon embraced an uncertain portion of the entire northwest ( ), called by the british new albion. one portion of it was called new georgia ( ), and another ( ), new caledonia by british traders. the spanish government designated the entire country ( ), as "the coast of california, in the south sea." olympus, mt.--was discovered by juan perez, a spanish pilot, and called el cero de la santa rosalia. named olympus by capt. mears, july , . same as mt. van buren ( ). puget sound.--named by vancouver for his lieutenant, peter puget, the discoverer, may th, . known among the indians as whulge, also as k' uk' lults. rainier, mt.--discovered by vancouver in may, , and named for rear admiral rainier of the english navy. sometimes called mt. tacoma. called mt. harrison by the americans ( ). see pages , and . rocky mountains.--named by the verendrye brothers ( ). first called stony mountains. saddle mt.--called by the indians, "swallalahoost." named by wilkes, saddle mountain ( ), on account of its shape. st. helens, mt.--discovered by broughton of vancouver's party, october , , and named in honor of his majesty's ambassador at madrid. known among americans as mt. washington ( ), as also mt. john adams. called by the indians lou-wala-clough, meaning smoking mountain. tillamook head.--( ), originally spelled killamook. lewis and clark refer to it as "clark's point of view." tacoma, mt.--see rainier, also pages , and . mount rainier. u. s. indian service. nisqually and skokomish agency, } tacoma, w. t., dec. , . } w. g. steel, _portland, oregon_: dear sir:--i have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of sept. st, making certain inquiries about the change of the name of mt. rainier to that of tacoma. upon careful and diligent inquiry among the puyallup indians, i find the following to be the true condition of things: there is a general impression that the name tacoma was the original name of the mountain among indians, and that it signified "nourishing mother," and was so named on account of its being the source of a number of rivers which head there and flow into the waters of puget sound. this, i find to be entirely erroneous. the indian word is _ta-ko-bet_ or _ta-ke-man_, the first being the most general pronunciation used among these indians, but both words are used, being the different pronunciation used by the dialects. it means a white mountain, and is a general name for any high, snow-covered, or white, treeless peak. it is applied to this mountain by the indians of this vicinity, because it is the only, or most prominent one of the kind in the vicinity. they use the word as we would speak of "the white mountain," there being but one near us. in the skadgit language, the word is a little different, and is there called _ko-ma_, and is applied by these indians to mt. baker, it being the mountain in that vicinity of the kind. the word _squa-tach_, or _squat-letsh_, is a general name for a range of mountains, while _ta-ko-bet_ or _ta-ko-man_ or _ko-ma_ is the name of the snow covered or white peaks in the range. this information i have gained from inquiry of the indians with whom i have come in contact and who live near here. i inclose a statement written out by rev. peter stanup, an educated indian of the puyallup tribe, and who is unusually well informed on such matters. as to when it was first applied and by whom i am not so well advised; but from what i do know, i understand that it was first applied to the mountains by the whites about twelve years ago, and at the same time that the town of tacoma was laid out and located by the northern pacific railroad company, or some of its attaches. i understand that the attempt was made by the n. p. r. r. co. to have the name changed, and that it still makes strenuous efforts to do so. the people of the town of tacoma, and the members of the tacoma land company as well as the r. r. co., above named, all try hard to have the mountain called by that name; while the residents of the other part of the territory, west of the cascade mountains and especially of seattle, are very much opposed to the change, and continue to call it by its first name. i think that the facts are that the name tacoma is an attempted imitation of an indian term applied to any high, snow-covered peak, but which was supposed to be the special name of this peak, because generally used by the indians of this vicinity, and that it was applied to this mountain at the time the town of tacoma was located and named by the n. p. r. r. co., for the purpose of bringing into note its western terminus. yours respectfully, edwin eells, u. s. indian agent. * * * * * statement of rev. peter stanup. _ta-ko-man_ is a name used by many different indian tribes of this territory, with the same meaning and a slight variation of pronunciation by each different tribe. it is the name or word from which tacoma was derived. it originated among the inland indians. the meaning of _ta-ko-man_ is a high, treeless, white or light colored peak or mound. the name is applicable to any peak or mound as described, but is generally used for one that is distinguished, or highly honored. and _squa-tach_, to climb, and _sba-date_ mountain, are mostly used for all mountains and peaks. the individual name of mt. tacoma is _twhauk_, which was derived from _twheque_, snow, and _swheque ad_. bright, clear, cloudless sky. _ta-ko-man_ is mostly used for the mt. tacoma, as it is held with much respect and esteemed by nearly all the indians of the northwest. the reason for conferring the great honor upon _twhauk_, is that the second syllable _ko_, means water, corresponding with the water, or little lake on top of the mountain, and also in that lake is a great abundance of valuable shells, from which the indians made their nose and ear-rings, and other valuable jewelry. thoughts on the name "tacoma." this beautiful name of the city whose rapid and marvellous growth and development have been unparalleled even in our western civilization, is a pure invention. its very euphony divests it of all claim as the indian nomination of old mount rainier, the name conferred by the illustrious circumnavigator, george vancouver, borne for a century upon the map of the world. tacoma is a word of extremely modern origin, invented, or used first by lieut. theodore winthrop, u. s. army, in his readable book--"canoe and saddle." the writer of these thoughts first heard it late in the "sixties," when capt. d. b. finch, among the pioneers of steam navigation on puget sound, presented a building in olympia to the good templars, and his gift was christened "tacoma hall." contemporaneously tacoma city, now the first ward of tacoma, was thus named by some portland town-builders--gen. mccarver, lewis m. starr and james steel. the then leading hotel of olympia, about the same time, assumed that title and wore it for several years; but a whole decade passed before the attempt was made to obliterate the time-honored name of the great mountain peak of northwest america, conferred at the first visit of white men to commencement bay in . late in , a lithograph map and bird's-eye view of the embryo city of new tacoma was published under the patronage of the tacoma land company, entitled--"new tacoma and mount rainier"--issued in . at that date the name "tacoma" existed, but it was not applied to the mountain; nor was it even dreamed that the town was named from the indian name of the mountain. the fact is that the name, "mount tacoma," has been recently conferred on the mountain by white men. a decade back, the name will not be found on the maps of washington territory, and it is to be hoped that the attempt to obliterate from the map of the world the name conferred by that illustrious contributor to geographic science, captain george vancouver, r. n., will prove unsuccessful. when gen. hazard stevens, and that splendid scholar and writer, p. b. van trump, esq., ascended the grand old mountain, the pronunciation and spelling of the name which gen. stevens, in his narrative, ascribed to the mountain, was still unsettled. he spelt the word te-ho-ma. the "h" being aspirated really represents an indian guttural grunt without beauty or even resolving itself into a well-defined consonant. in the year , the writer was invited to perform the role of orator on independence day at the beautiful settlement called puyallup. the committee coupled with the invitation the expressed desire that the theme should be puget sound reminiscences--the early settlement of pierce county. he adopted as a starting theme the thoughts suggested by the words "tacoma" and "puyallup," or their origin thus euphonized into household words of significance and anglicised beauty, bearing but little resemblance in sound to the half-uttered nasal grunts of the fish-eating natives of puget sound, whose syllables are "without form and void;" their language, if such it be considered, acquiring meaning or intensity of signification when accompanied by pantomimic motion, speaking far more than all their syllabic combinations. through the valued assistance of that veteran indian student and interlocutor, john flett, some twenty aged, prominent indians, who would not deign to talk other than their own dialect, who despised even the chinook jargon, but adhered to the grunts and syllabic utterances and the pantomime of their race for the ages before the advent of the hudson's bay company or american settlers, gathered in the writer's office in new tacoma, as the city of tacoma was then called, and seated on the floor for hours discussed what they called the mountains and mountain range, its surrounding and attributes. about half were of the white river bands, those who originally lived on the sources of the streams issuing from mount rainier. the remainder were puyallups and 'squallys, whose original haunts were near the sound. the form was to put the writer's question or wish for information into chinook jargon, which was then translated into the indian dialect. the old men expressed themselves in their native utterances. it would be the grossest perversion to call their answers "words." they were not so couched--at best, strong syllabic utterances--mere grunts, at times which, with eloquent pantomime, assumed grand and eloquent thought and meaning, when translated, to give just expression arising to poetry of ideas, but as a language, technically so considered, poverty-stricken to the greatest degree, and without its accompanied earnestness of movement, without a single attribute of beauty or euphonism. that interesting study and those comparative views, by old men of the mountain and the sea, extended through hours; and the writer will never forget the eloquence of action required and used by those aged natives, which more than compensated that paucity of syllables or words, which we call language. no such word of beauty as "tacoma" could possibly be coined by them, nor result from any combination of their uttered but significant grunts, their attempted vocalization of thoughts or ideas. true, there were syllabic emissions of sound which might be resolved into words by toning down grunts and inharmonious belchings of thoughts rather than their legitimate utterances. the manner of conducting that "interview" was the assumption that the word "tacoma," or some kindred appropriate word identified the grand old mountain in their language; in other words, their attention was invited to the fact, that our people had been told that "tacoma" was the native name of the mountain. then began the expression by all, in turn, as to the indian method of referring to great landmarks, mountains individual and in range, rivers, etc., when talking with each other. their views on the information communicated found expression in several varied, combined characteristic grunts and shrugs, which were interspersed with some analogous syllables or utterances from which indian philologists have resolved words, some of which have more or less resemblance to some of the syllables embraced in the word tacoma, or that word as spelled by different writers. they then detailed their reasons for so speaking of the mountain or any of its natural surroundings or physical features. in that colloquy, no two of those indians pronounced the same word or used that same guttural utterance or combination of syllables. all were especially interrogated as to the snow-capped mountain. all gave the meaning or idea that they knew as to the cause for a name, by which any other could identify it, and the significance of the utterances by each adopted in referring to it. each band, not to say each individual, had a peculiar reason for his name of it, contingent upon color, shape or function. in that interview, the literal translations of their syllabic combinations appertaining more or less in sound to the syllables constituting the name tacoma--te-ho-ma, ta-ko-ber, tak-o-man, etc., as rendered by the venerable john flett, a truthful, skillful and reliable indian authority was--"a woman's breast that feeds," a "nourishing breast." to one band, the shape of the cone suggested the breast shape for a name; to another, the milky whiteness was a reminder of the source of nourishment; to another, the color of the streams which flow down from the mountain in the annual freshets, gave origin to the idea of the generous fountain of the great milk-white breast-shaped sentinel for ages; while the puyallups and 'squallys, more practical in view, associated the fact that from the mountain rushed the torrents of white water, resembling milk, which fertilized the valleys of puget sound. while such was the conversation and speech of those old patriarchs, several of whom had lived to become octogenarians, communicated as above stated, the writer is well aware that across the mountain chain, residing in the vicinity of the mountain, that several bands of the klickitat nation attach different meanings for synonymous syllabic combinations approximating in sound to the combinations referred to used by western washington bands, with shades of meaning more practical, less figurative, less indian; but the writer has been content to accept as authority, at all events so far as the aborigines of western washington are concerned, the result of the conference of indian patriarchs convened at his instance in . while that conference failed to establish that there was such an indian word as "tacoma," or that these indians had any distinctive indian names for "mount rainier," or that there was any recognized indian name known to the several tribes; yet, the different bands did use such syllabic utterances, by which they referred to the mountain chain, to the leading mountain of the chain. that color, shape, and attributed function, suggested such expression, and that the combination of syllables which have been so euphoniously metamorphosed into the beautiful word "tacoma," when pronounced by them in its native utterances, meant as herein expressed. the writer, however, finds no warrant for adopting tacoma as an indian word, nor does he believe that such word, or its approximate, was a name conferred by indians upon the mountain, or exclusively recognized as the name of the mountain by the original natives of this region. elwood evans. [illustration: presidents of the oregon alpine club.] oregon alpine club. [illustration] the oregon alpine club was organized in , and incorporated october th of that year. it was originally intended merely as an organization among half a dozen friends who were in the habit of seeking adventure and recreation in the mountains. after considering the matter for a time a meeting, was called, and more persons attended than were expected. a committee was appointed on rules, the adoption of which required several meetings, so that when the organization was completed there were over seventy charter members on the roll. the institution grew and its objects increased until a scientific staff was formed and a public museum became an important object. hon. h. w. corbett was elected president, and served until october, , when hon. d. p. thompson was chosen. mr. thompson served until the close of , when a re-organization was effected, as outlined by the subjoined constitutions. mr. geo. b. markle was at this time elected, and is now the very efficient president of the club. the alpine club is a public institution and is deserving of the liberal support of the city and state. the following is a list of officials, as also the constitutions of the club and its various departments: constitution. officers. _president_, geo. b. markle {w. g. steel _vice presidents_, {w. w. bretherton {john gill _secretary_, geo. h. himes _treasurer_, c. m. idleman article i. name. this association shall be known as the oregon alpine club, and its subdivisions as the departments of the same. article ii. object. the object shall be the foundation and maintenance of a public museum, and advancement and encouragement of amateur photography, alpine and aquatic exploration, and the protection of our game, fish, birds and animals. article iii. sections. there shall be four departments, namely, ( ) exploration department; ( ) photographic department; ( ) game protective department; and ( ) museum department. article iv. officers. section . the officers of the club shall be a president, four vice presidents, secretary and treasurer. sec. . the presidents of the various departments shall be _ex-officio_ vice-presidents of the club. article v. elections. section . the officers shall be elected by ballot on the second friday of december in each year, a majority of all votes cast being necessary for election; and shall hold their respective offices until their successors are elected and qualified. sec. . each department shall elect its own officers. article vi. the duties of president, vice-presidents, secretary and treasurer shall be those usual to such officers. article vii. directors. section . the president, vice-presidents and four members shall constitute the board of directors, who will be the managing power of the club. sec. . they shall employ a curator and provide for his compensation. article viii. curator. the curator shall be a taxidermist, and shall have full charge of the museum and other property of the club, under the direction of the board of directors. article ix. membership. section . there shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate and honorary. sec. . an active member is one who has signed the constitution, paid his dues, and been admitted to any of the departments. sec. . an associate member is one who has not been admitted to any of the departments. sec. . any person may become an associate member by signing the constitution and paying his dues. sec. . honorary members shall be entitled to all the privileges of the club except voting. their names shall be proposed at one meeting and voted on at the next, three-fourths of all votes cast being necessary for election. sec. . any member may be expelled by a two thirds vote of the members present: _provided_, that one week's notice has been given at a regular meeting. article x. dues. section . an initiation fee of two dollars shall be charged all persons joining the club. sec. . the dues shall be six dollars a year, payable quarterly, in advance. sec. . any member who shall fail to pay his dues for six consecutive months, shall have his name stricken from the roll, and be considered no longer a member: _provided, always_, one month's notice has been given him in writing by the curator. article xi. all questions in dispute between the departments shall be referred to the directors for final settlement. article xii. the oregon camera club is hereby incorporated as the photographic department of the oregon alpine club. all members of the oregon camera club in good standing, becoming members of the photographic department of the oregon alpine club, on ratification and acceptance of this article by the camera club. article xiii. amendments. the constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present: _provided_, that one month's notice has been given in writing, at a regular meeting, and has also been posted in the club rooms for one month. exploration department. officers. _president_, w. g. steel _vice president_, edward casey _secretary_, m. w. gorman _treasurer_, dr. willis i. cottel constitution. article i name. this body shall be called the exploration department of the oregon alpine club. article ii. object. to encourage the exploration of mountains, lakes and rivers, by either scientists or pleasure seekers, to foster pleasure outings by land or water, to award appropriate prizes for meritorious outfits for journeys and cruises, and for speedy trips on land, and swift cruises by water; and to conserve the handling of gun and sail as an accomplishment, and incidentally to encourage canoeing as a means to reach wide fields for research and pleasure, awarding prizes for the handling of the same. article iii. officers. the officers shall be a president, vice president, secretary and treasurer, whose duties shall be those usual to such offices. article iv. membership. section . no one shall be competent for membership, except members of the oregon alpine club. sec. . it is understood that when the membership of any person ceases in the oregon alpine club, such person shall cease to be a member of this department. sec. . all propositions for membership shall be in writing. sec. . every name submitted for membership, shall be proposed at one meeting, and voted on by ballot at the next, two-thirds of all members present being necessary for election. sec. . any member may be expelled for conduct unbecoming a gentleman, by a two-thirds vote of the members present: _provided_, that one month's notice has been given at a regular meeting. article v. dues. section . an initiation fee of one dollar shall be charged all members, and the monthly dues shall be twenty-five cents each, payable quarterly in advance. sec. . any member who shall fail to pay his regular dues for six consecutive months, shall have his name stricken from the roll, due notice having been given him by the secretary. article vi. meetings. section . regular meetings shall be held on the second monday evening of each month, at such hour as shall be agreed upon from time to time. sec. . special meetings may be called by the president, or by a call signed by five members: _provided_, that such a call shall state the object of the meeting. sec. . an annual meeting shall be held on the second monday in december of each year, for the election of officers, and such other business not provided for herein. article vii. trustees. a board of five trustees shall be chosen at the annual meeting each year, who shall have the general management of all the affairs of the department. article viii. quorum. five members shall constitute a quorum competent to transact business. article ix. amendments. this constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present: _provided_, that one month's notice has been given in writing at a regular meeting, and a copy of said notice posted in the club room for one month. game protective department. [not organized.] photographic department. officers. _president_, w. w. bretherton _vice president_, h. goldsmith _secretary and treasurer_, e. e. norton constitution. article i. name. this association shall be known as the photographic department of the oregon alpine club. article ii. object. its object shall be to encourage and promote practical photography, and to invite and stimulate discussion and investigation of all that pertains to photographic science and art. article iii. membership. the department shall be composed of such members of the oregon alpine club who practice photography as amateurs, as shall be elected there and shall be known as active members, and such honorary and associate members as shall be elected by the department from the members of the oregon alpine club. candidates for election may be proposed for election at one meeting, and voted on at the same meeting. all applications for membership shall be voted on by ballot, and it shall require two-thirds of all votes cast to elect any member. all professional photographers who are members of the oregon alpine club shall be eligible as associate members, and shall enjoy all the privileges of the department except the right of vote or hold office. article iv. officers. the officers of the department shall be a president, vice-president, one or more, a secretary, and a treasurer; the offices of secretary and treasurer being held by one member if so desired by the department. article v. quorum. the attendance of two officers and three or more members shall be necessary to constitute a quorum for the transaction of business, but the constitution or by-laws shall not be changed except at a meeting called for that purpose by the secretary and by a vote of two-thirds of all votes cast. article vi. annual meeting. the annual meeting of the department shall be held on the third friday of january in each year, for the election of officers and such other business as may come before the meeting. article vii. monthly meetings. the monthly meeting of the department shall be held on the third friday of each month. article viii. dues. the dues of the department shall be $ . per year, payable to the treasurer of the department. presidents of the oregon alpine club. henry winslow corbett, the first president of the oregon alpine club was elected immediately after its organization and served until the close of . he was born at westborough, mass., february th, , and came to oregon, via cape horn, with a stock of general merchandise, arriving at portland, march th, . in , he was elected u. s. senator and served six years with credit to himself and honor to his state. he is one of the wealthiest and most influential men in oregon. the following in reference to him is taken from the history of portland: "in person, mr. corbett is six feet high, straight and spare in figure, but symmetrically formed. cautious, cool-headed and decided, he is not an inviting mark for the wiles of the schemer or impostor, but he is thoroughly approachable, respectful and considerate toward those whom he meets, and utterly lacking either in the arrogance of small greatness, or in the still more objectionable truckling and assumed _bonhommie_ of the small politician. he is thoroughly dignified, and yet his manners are so unassumingly easy that one hardly notices them. indeed he is a fine type of that well approved manhood in which courtesy, kindness, dignity, culture, honor and charity are most happily blended. to these excellences can be added unswerving integrity, honesty of purpose, purity of thought and act, and those crowning virtues born of an ever present and controlling moral sentiment. his career shows what can be accomplished by steady and quiet energy, directed by sound judgment and high purpose. his name has been associated with numberless successful enterprises, but not one failure, and he is justly entitled to a foremost place among those who have created, established and maintained the commercial and industrial supremacy of portland." * * * * * "david p. thompson, one of the most widely known men in our state, was born in harrison county, ohio, in . in his nineteenth year he came to oregon, driving sheep across the plains and walking every rod of the way. upon his arrival at oregon city in he took a job of cutting cordwood, which lasted through the winter. soon after he entered upon the profession of a surveyor, which he followed during several years. in pursuance of this business he acquired an unequaled knowledge of the northwestern country, and laid the foundation of his present ample fortune. he lived at oregon city till , when he removed to portland. in , and again in , he was elected mayor, and gave the city a vigorous and efficient administration. mr. thompson, throughout his whole life, has been noted for activity and energy. he is a man of firm and positive character, tenacious of his purposes, active in business and successful in his undertakings. by appointment of president grant he became governor of idaho territory in , but resigned the office in . he is now engaged in the banking business in portland."--(history of portland,--scott.) mr. thompson served as president of the alpine club in . * * * * * mr. george b. markle is at the present time serving as president of the alpine club. he was born in hazleton, lucerne county, pennsylvania, october th, , and came to oregon in . his desire to locate in the west led him to make a tour of inspection, which embraced kansas, nebraska, colorado, utah, california, oregon and washington. a careful examination of all this region convinced him that portland offered the best inducements as a business point, combined with all the advantages of an old settled community, and in the fall of he permanently located in this city. he immediately became a factor in the busy life around him, and displayed a business generalship which marked him as a man of unusual power, and gave him a place among the foremost business men of the city seldom accorded in any community to one of his years. with others he organized the oregon national bank, of which he is vice president; also the ellensburgh national bank, the northwest loan and trust company and the commercial bank of vancouver, being president of the last three corporations named. he was one of the purchasers of the multnomah street railway; reorganized the company and ever since has been its president. he is also president of the portland mining company, owning the sunset group of mines in the famous coeur d'alene district. he was one of the leading spirits in organizing the great enterprise of the north pacific industrial association; purchased the land upon which to erect the necessary buildings and secured a large number of subscriptions to its capital stock. he was one of the leading spirits in the organization of the portland hotel company and is prominently identified with many other enterprises.--(history of portland,--scott.) oregon bibliography. .--adams, mt.--called by winthrop, "tacoma the second,"--(canoe and saddle, page ). .--called by the indians "pat-to," which signifies standing up high. with the indians this was a general term for snow capped mountains. located in latitude ° ' . ", longitude ° ' . ". .--adams point.--discovered by heceta and called cape frondoso (leafy cape). .--capt. gray subsequently entered the river and named it point adams.--(life on puget sound,--leighton, page . pacific states, vol. , page ). .--admiralty inlet.--named by vancouver for the board of admiralty.--(life on puget sound, p. ). - .--alaska.--named by russians.--(willamette valley, page ). the name is derived from a russian corruption of an aleutian word, "alakshak," which signifies continent, or a large country. the russian version of the term was "aliaska," and it applied only to the prominent peninsula jutting out from the continent. made a general term by the united states.--(supplement to encyclopædia britannica, vol. , page ). .--america.--first applied to the new world in a work entitled "cosmographiæ instructio, etc., in super quatuor americi vespucii navigationes," written by marti waldseemuller, under the assumed name of hylacomylus and printed at saint die, in lorraine.--(history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--american fur company organized.--(burrows' oregon, page ). .--applegate, or southern route.--constructed by jesse applegate.--(pacific states, vol , page ). .--astoria founded by john jacob astor, april .--(encyclopædia britannica, vol. , page . history of the willamette valley, page ). .--captured by the english and name changed to st. george.--(burrows' oregon, page ). .--repossessed by the united states.--(burrows' oregon, page ). .--atmospheric river of heat.--general course, effects, etc.--(miners and travelers' guide,--muller, page ). .--baker's bay.--named by broughton for capt. baker, of the brig jenny.--(three years' residence in w. t.,--swan, page ). .--baker, mt.--named for lieut. baker, by vancouver, april .--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--called by winthrop, "kulshan," presumably because of being the indian name.--(canoe and saddle, page ). - .--same as mt. polk.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--the summit is described and illustrated in harper's monthly for november, page , by e. t. coleman. .--called by the spanish, "montana del carmelo."--(life on puget sound,--leighton, page ). - .--barlow road.--see indian trail. .--battle rock at port orford.--first trip from here to the willamette valley (with notes by a participant).--(oregon and washington,--armstrong, page ). .--bellingham's bay.--named by vancouver.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--behring sent out by russia on a voyage of discovery.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--bitter root range.--same as the coeur d'alene mountains.--(miners and travelers' guide,--mullan, page ). .--blanchet, father.--visited by wilkes.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). .--bodega, don juan de la.--sailed north to ° and returning discovered bodega bay in ° '.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). bonneville.--named for b. l. e. bonneville, who explored the rocky mountains in and visited the columbia in .--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--broughton, lieut.--entered the columbia river, october th, and was surprised to find the brig jenny, of bristol, capt. baker, lying there at anchor.--(three years' residence in w. t.,--swan, page ). .--bulfinch's harbor.--discovered by captain gray.--(oregon and its institutions,--hines, page ) see also, gray's harbor. .--cabrillo.--see viscaino. .--cape disappointment.--discovered by heceta, august , and called cape san roque. named disappointment by mears, because of his not being able to make the entrance of the river.--(life on puget sound,--leighton, page ). .--called cape hancock by gray, but afterwards changed upon hearing that mears had already named it.--(three years' residence in w. t.,--swan, page ). .--cape flattery.--named by captain cook.--(three years' residence in w. t.,--swan, page ). .--cape hancock.--see cape disappointment. .--cape horn.--so named because of the difficulty experienced in doubling it.--(the columbia river,--cox, vol. , page ). .--carver, capt. jonathan.--a resident of connecticut and a soldier of the canadian war. left boston, by way of detroit, for the waters of the upper mississippi, and to cross the continent.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). cascade mountains.--named for the cascades of the columbia river.--(american cyclopedia, vol. , page . fremont, page ). - .--same as president's range.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--castle rock, called by lewis and clarke, beacon rock.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--coal discovered near seahome by capt. pattle.--(harpers magazine for november, , page ). .--coffin, mt.--originally used as an indian burying ground, and discovered by lieut. broughton.--(vancouver, vol. , page .--wilkes narrative, vol. , page ). .--columbia river.--first discovered by heceta, august . named by him _ensenada de asuncion_, or assumption inlet. the north point was called cape san roque, and the south, cape frondoso, (leafy cape). in the chart published in mexico soon after the conclusion of the voyage, the entrance is, however, called _ensenada de heceta_, hecta inlet; and _rio de san roque_, river of st. roc. while in command of the sloop washington, in august, capt. gray discovered, and attempted to enter this opening, but the sloop grounded on the bar and came near being lost; and was also attacked by indians, who killed one man and wounded the mate. gray was shortly afterward transferred to the columbia, and on another cruise entered the river; sailed up it about twenty miles, and bestowed the name of his vessel upon it.--(three years' residence in w. t., pages to .--pacific states, vol. , page .--american cyclopædia, vol. , page ). many works published before the discovery refer to a river flowing westward, as "river of the west," "river of aguilar," "river thegays."--(history of oregon and california,--greenhow, pages - ). .--called by the indians "spocatilicum"--friendly water.--(life on puget sound,--leighton, page ). the indians also referred to it as wahn-na, or big river. .--the bar was first surveyed by capt. mcclellan, of the col. allen.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--was considered accessible for vessels only three months in the year.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). .--comcomli.--this indian chief is spoken of by winthrop as one montgomery.--(canoe and saddle, page ). .--commencement bay.--named by wilkes. (wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). .--cook, capt.--sailed along the coast and sighted land at °, march .--(oregon,--moseley, page .--history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--murdered by natives in the sandwich islands february th.--(history of oregon and california, page ). corvallis.--of spanish derivation, and signifies center of the valley. originally, marysville.--(oregon and washington,--armstrong, page ). .--d'aguilar, martin.--see sebastian viscanio. .--des chutes river.--called by lewis, "towahnahiooks," and by gass, "the kimmooenim."--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--disappointment, cape.--see cape disappointment. .--dixon and postlock were sent out by the king georges sound co. of london and arrived at cooks river in july.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--douglas, david.--the botanist who gave his name to the douglas pine (_abies douglasii_), and named over one thousand plants, was sent out by the royal horticultural society of london, and remained ten years.--(pac. states, vol. , pages - ). .--drake, sir francis.--sailed along the coast.--(oregon,--moseley, page . history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). false dungeness, see port angeles. .--furrelo, bartoleme.--sailed with two vessels to ° to °.--(history of oregon,--twiss, pages and . history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--first voyage made from england to seek a northwest passage was made by martin frobisher.--(history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--first trip to the pacific, overland, was made by sir alex. mackenzie, who reached the sea at ° '.--(history of oregon,--twiss, pages and ). .--first civilized post, or settlement, west of the rocky mountains was made by the northwest co., on frazer lake in °.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--first settlement attempted and first house in oregon built by capt. winship forty miles above the sea on the south bank of the columbia.--(pac. states, vol. , page . oregon,--moseley, page ). .--first european woman on the columbia river was miss jane barnes, who arrived at astoria on the isaac todd, april th.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--first fruit tree in oregon was planted at vancouver by john mclaughlin, who also introduced live stock, vegetables and grain.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--first steamer to visit oregon was the beaver, from england--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--florez, antonio.--see sebastian viscanio. .--fraser river.--known among the indians as tacoutche-tesse. .--supposed by sir alex. mackenzie to be the northern source of the columbia.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page . pacific coast, vol. , page ). named for simon fraser, who established a post in that region in .--(history of portland,--scott, page ). .--france secretly conveys to spain all her possessions west of the mississippi river.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--france recovers the western half of louisiana from spain.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--france sells her claims to the united states.--(barrows' oregon, pages and ). .--fremont follows whitman to oregon, arriving october .--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--fur trade opened by british merchants between oregon and china.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). goat, mountain.--known by the indians as plas, (white), because of the white rocks. .--gray, capt.--explored the columbia river twenty-five miles, and named it.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). .--gray's bay.--named by broughton for capt. gray, of the columbia.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--gray's harbor.--first called bulfinch harbor, but changed to gray's harbor may th.--(pacific states vol. , page ). .--gulf of georgia.--called by don francisco elisa, "canal de nuestra senora del rosary," or the channel of our lady of the rosary. .--subsequently named by vancouver in honor of the king.--(vancouver, vol. , page .--life on puget sound, page ). - .--harrison, mt.--see rainier. .--hearne, sam'l.--an employee of the hudson bay co. succeeded in tracing the coppermine river to tide water in °, and his report caused the lords of admiralty to send capt. cook to the northwest coast.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--heceta, bruno.--left san blas for america march th. passed up the entire coast of oregon, discovered the columbia river.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page . oregon,--moseley, page ). .--hood, mt.--discovered by broughton october th, and named for lord hood.--(vancouver, vol. , page .--n. w. coast of america,--franchere, page ). - .--same as mt. washington.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--said to be in a state of eruption.--(oregon and california, vol. , page ). .--belden claimed to have ascended it in october, and reported it as , feet high. he claimed to have ascended as high as possible with snowshoes, then with ice hooks and spikes. when they reached a point some , feet high respiration became very difficult owing to the rarity of the atmosphere. at length the blood began to ooze through the pores of the skin like drops of sweat; their eyes began to bleed, then the blood gushed from their ears. then they commenced their downward march. at the point where they commenced the ascent they had left their pack mules, and two men to guard them. the men went out hunting, and when they returned found that the cougars had killed two of their mules.--(oregon and washington,--armstrong, page ). (lying seemed to have been reduced to an art in those days). .--ascended by rev. h. k. hines and the summit described.--(oregon and its institutions,--hines, page ). known among indians as pat-to, or high mountain. this was a general term for any high snow-capped mountain. located in latitude ° ' . ". longitude ° ' . ". .--hood's canal.--named by vancouver for lord hood.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--hood river.--called by lewis and clarke, la biche.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--hudson bay co.--chartered may th.--(burrows' oregon, page ). - .--indian trail.--the first pass over the cascades used by whites was over the southern flank of mount hood. near it was afterwards made the barlow road, which was named for barlow, of barlow, palmer and rector, who were compelled to abandon their trains at the summit and were rescued by a relief party from the willamette valley.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). - .--jackson, mt.--same as mt. pitt of the english. in lat. ° '.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page .) .--jefferson, mt.--named by lewis and clarke for president jefferson.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). - .--called by the british, mt. vancouver.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). located in latitude ° ' . ". longitude ° ' . ". - .--john day.--a virginian, accompanied the northwest co. to astoria. he was feet, inches in height--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--john day river.--called by lewis and clarke, the lepage.--(pac. states, vol. . page ). .--johnson, lieut.--explores the cascades from puget sound.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , pages and ). .--juan de fuca straits.--discovered by capt. barclay, of the imperial eagle. .--the entrance was explored by capt. meares, in the felice, and named by him.--(history of oregon,--twiss, p. .--pac. states, vol. , page ). .--klickitat river.--called by lewis and clarke, cataract river.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--kelly, hall j.--first called attention to the feasibility of settling the pacific coast by overland emigration. arrived at vancouver this year.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--lava formation limited to ° n.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). .--ledyard leaves paris for america, under the direction of jefferson, to discover the river of the west, but is stopped by the russians.--(miners' and travelers' guide,--mullan, page ). .--lee, rev. jason.--established the first mission in the willamette valley, ten miles below the present salem.--(history of the willamette valley, page ). .--established a methodist mission at the willamette falls.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). - .--lewis and clarke.--spent the winter at the mouth of the columbia.--(oregon,--moseley, page ). lewis river.--the north fork was known among indians as wicht, and was considered the main river. the south fork was known as wa-co-ko, a pike, (fish); also yac-co, for yac-co prairies, near mt. st. helens. .--mackenzie river.--named for alexander mackenzie.--(zell's encyclopedia, vol. , page ). .--mackenzie, sir alex.--reached the pacific overland, july .--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--mckenzie, donald.--explored the willamette valley one hundred miles or more.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--mckenzie established ft. walla walla.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--mclaughlin, john..--established fort vancouver, introduced live stock, fruit, vegetables, grain, etc. took possession of willamette falls.--(pac. states, vol. , pages and ). madison, mt.--is the mt. mclaughlin of the british. lat. ° '.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). mary's river.--named for an indian woman, wife of a white man, who had great trouble in making the crossing. afterwards applied to mary's peak, because the river rises there.--(oregon and its institutions,--hines, page ). .--meares, capt.--reached the mouth of the columbia without discovering it, july th.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--meek, joe.--arrived in the willamette valley.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--modoc lakes.--discovered by jesse applegate.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--monroe doctrine proclaimed.--(burrows' oregon, page ). - .--monroe, mt.--same as mt. shasta--(ore. and cal.,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--nachess pass.-- feet above sea level.--(narrative of ,--stevens, vol. , page ). .--neah bay.--called by vancouver, poverty cove, and by the spaniards, port nunez gaona.--(three years' residence in w. t.,--swan, page ). .--new albion.--named by drake, who was crowned by the natives as their king.--history of oregon and california,--(greenhow, page ; also, page mountains of oregon.) .--new dungeness.--named by vancouver for dungeness, in the british channel, because of the similar appearance.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--nickel deposit in douglas county.--(mineral resources of the u. s.,--williams, page ). .--nootka sound.--discovered by capt. cook, and named king george's sound, then changed by him to nootka.--(voyages of capt. cook, vol. , page .) .--nootka treaty.--formed between spain and england.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--northern boundary of the u. s. located at ° due west to the rocky mountains.--(burrow's oregon, page ). .--nez perces.--pierced nose.--(fremont, page ). .--nuttall and townsend, scientists, arrived at fort vancouver with wyeth.--(pac. states, vol. , page ). .--oak point.--named by broughton because of finding the first oak trees there.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--olympus, mt.--named by capt. meares, july th. discovered by juan perez, a spanish pilot, and called el cero de la santa rosalia.--(narrative of , vol. , page ). .--oregon.--first used by capt. jonathan carver.--(history of the willamette valley, page . see also page , mountains of oregon). .--bounded on the north by the °, on the east by the rocky mountains, on the south by the °, and on the west by the pacific ocean.--(oregon and california,--thornton, page ). .--northern boundary first settled by treaty, july .--(barrows' oregon, page ). - .--northern boundary finally settled by arbitration.--(barrows' oregon, pages and ). .--once inhabited by a great number and variety of pre-adamite beasts.--(the columbia river and puget sound,--nordhoff, harper's magazine for february, page ). .--occupied jointly by the united states and england for ten years.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--admitted to the union with present limits, february th.--(zell's encyclopedia, vol. , page . hill's annotated laws of oregon, vol. , page ). .--orford, cape.--named by vancouver for earl (george) orford.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). - .--pacific fur company.--the plot to rob astor shown up by an englishman.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--pacific ocean.--discovered by vasco nunez de balboa, governor of the spanish colony of darien, and named by fernando magalhaens, or, magellan, a portuguese in the naval service of spain, because of being so little disturbed by storms. spoken of as "mar del sur."--(history of oregon and california,--greenhow, pages and . barrows' oregon, page ). .--parker, rev. samuel.--sent to oregon by the american board of foreign missions.--(oregon and california, vol. , page ). .--parliamentary grant.--£ , voted by the house of commons for the discovery of a northwest passage by a british vessel.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--perez, juan.--anchored in nootka sound.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). - .--pitt, mt.--called at one time mt. jackson. (oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--point adams.--see adams' point. point de los reys.--named by the spaniards.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--port angeles.--named by don francisco elisa, the mexican. called by vancouver false dungeness, because of a similar appearance to new dungeness.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--port discovery.--named by vancouver, for one of his ships.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--port gamble.--named by wilkes for gamble, a u. s. naval officer.--(narrative of , vol. , page ). .--known among indians as teekalet.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--portland.--established by a. l. lovejoy and f. w. pettygrove, and name agreed upon by tossing up a cent.--(portland city directory for , page ). .--portlock, capt.--see dixon and portlock. .--port ludlow.--surveyed by wilkes, and named for ludlow, a u. s. naval officer.--(narrative of , vol. , page ). .--port townsend.--visited by vancouver, may th, and named in honor of the marquis of townshend, who signed vancouver's instructions. the h was subsequently dropped.--(life on puget sound, page . stephens' narrative of , vol. , page . vancouver, vol. , page ). .--known among indians as kahtai.--(canoe and saddle,--winthrop, page ). .--surveyed by the u. s. coast survey.--(stevens' narrative of , vol. , page ). .--possession sound.--so named by vancouver, because he landed there on king george's birthday, and took possession of the country.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page .--vancouver, vol. , page ). .--puget sound.--discovered by vancouver's lieutenant, peter puget, and so named by vancouver may th.--(vancouver, vol. , page .--narrative of , vol. , page ). .--known among indians as whulge.--(canoe and saddle,--winthrop, page ; also among klalams as k'uk'-luts page ). .--protection island.--named by vancouver because of its advantageous location with reference to the harbor.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--queen charlotte islands.--named by dixon.--(encyclopædia britannica, vol. , page ). .--capt. gray sailed round it and named it washington, for his sloop.--(backwoods of canada and oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). .--queen charlotte sound.--named by wedgboro in august.--(vancouver, vol. , page .) .--rainier and st. helens in activity.--(wilkes narrative, vol. , page ). .--rainier, mt.--discovered by vancouver on may th and named for rear admiral rainier of the english navy.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--an active volcano, november .--(fremont, page ). - .--also known as mt. harrison.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page . see pages , and . also tacoma). rock creek, near mt. st. helens, known among indians as "cut-to" (a sort of guttural sound on first syllable), which means "swift stream." - .--rocky mountains.--named by verendrye brothers.--(history of the willamette valley, page ). .--russian american fur co. given exclusive privileges.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russia claims by public decree all of the pacific coast north of latitude °. this claim was disputed by the u. s.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russians established at bodega bay.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russians establish a fort forty miles north of bodega bay.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russian fur companies organized to operate in america.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russia withdraws to ° '.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--russia withdraws from california at the request of the u. s.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--ryswick treaty formed.--(barrows' oregon, page . american cyclopedia, vol. , page ). .--saddle mountain.--called by the indians "swallalahoost." named by wilkes, "saddle mountain."--(oregon and its institutions,--hines, page ). .--sandy river.--called by lewis & clarke, "quicksand river."--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--st. elias, mt.--discovered by behring, july th.--(history of the willamette valley, page ). .--st. helens, mt.--named by vancouver for his majesty's ambassador at madrid, october .--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--in a state of eruption.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--in activity november .--(fremont, page ). .--known among americans as mt. washington.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). .--described when in a state of eruption.--(history of oregon,--wilkes, page ). - .--known also as mt. john adams.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). - .--an active volcano.--(three years' residence in w. t., swan--page . canoe and saddle, page ). known among indians as "lou-wala'-clough," meaning smoking mountain. located in latitude ° ' . ". longitude ° ' ". .--sauvies island.--called by lewis and clarke, wapato island, because of an abundance of wapatos found there. it subsequently acquired its name from jean baptiste sauve, a french canadian, who established a dairy there after the abandonment of ft. william.--(pacific states, vol. , pages and ). seattle.--named for an indian.--(harper's monthly for september, , page ). .--shasta, mt.--called pitt by the english, jackson and monroe by the americans, and shasta by the trappers.--(the oregon territory,--nicolay, page ). (oregon and california,--thornton, vol , page ). .--shoalwater bay.--discovered and named by captain john mears, july th.--(mears' voyages, vol. , page ). .--first surveyed by lieut. com. alden.--(narrative of , vol. , page ). .--skagit head.--named by vancouver.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--slacum, wm. a.--an agent of the state department, in the guise of a private citizen, visited the columbia and willamette rivers.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). spain's first claim to oregon.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--spain withdraws from oregon.--(barrows' oregon, page ). spaniards coveted a position in the east indies, but the bull of pope alexander iii precluded them from sailing eastward, round the cape of good hope, hence their attempts to go by way of the pacific.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--spanish territory west of the mississippi conveyed to france.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--spanish claims conceded to the united states through france and acknowledged by great britain.--(barrows' oregon, page ). spelyah prairie.--an indian name, meaning cayote. spirit lake.--near mt. st. helens. indian name, che-wa-tum, meaning spirit. - .--straits of anian.--supposed to have been discovered by gaspar cortereal, who explored the coasts of labrador, and named by him. the name possibly signifies brother. cortereal had two brothers with him. in the earliest maps the northwest part of america is called ania. ani, in the japanese language, signifies brother.--(history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--purchas claimed in the seventeenth century, in his "pilgrims"--a narrative--that a greek pilot, called juan de fuca, in the service of the spaniards, had informed michael lock, the elder, whilst he was sojourning at venice, that he had discovered ( ) the outlet of the straits of anian, in the pacific ocean, between ° and °, and had sailed through it into the north sea.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page .--history of oregon and california,--greenhow, page ). .--sunken forest in the columbia described.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , page .--burnett's recollections of a pioneer, page .--the oregon territory, nicolay,--page .--fremont, page ). .--survey of puget sound finished.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). tacoma, mt.--ta-ho-ma is the indian name for the great spirit who dwells on the mountains.--(george baily, in the overland monthly for sept., , page ). .--called by the indians, tacoma, a generic term also applied to all snow peaks.--(canoe and saddle,--winthrop, page ). tacoma the second.--see mt. adams. tamanous is the name of the great spirit supposed to dwell on this mountain.--(canoe and saddle, page ). tacoma the less--(canoe and saddle, page ). each fiery tacoma.--(canoe and saddle, page ). the eruptions of the tacomas.--(canoe and saddle, page ). tacoma, the nourishing breast. tahoma, almost to heaven.--(life on puget sound,--leighton, page ). red tamahnous, love.--(life on puget sound,--page ), black tamahnous, hate, anger.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--tenino mounds.--described.--(wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). - .--territorial government.--granted, covering all the original oregon.--(barrow's oregon, page . encyclopædia britannica, vol. , page . general laws of oregon, page ). the dalles.--stone pavement, or trough, or gutter.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--tillamook bay.--known as murderers' harbor and quicksand bay.--(pacific states, vol. , pages and ). .--tillamook, or killamook head.--called by clarke, clarke's point of view.--(pacific states, vol. , page , and vol. , page ). .--tongue point.--named by broughton.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--called by lewis and clarke, william.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--townsend, john k.--a member of the philadelphia academy of natural science, arrived at vancouver with wyeth, sept. th.--(townsend's narrative, page . pacific states, vol. , page ). trout lake.--near mt. st. helens. known among indians as qual-i'-as, meaning trout. .--umatilla river.--called by the indians, "youmalolam."--(pacific states, vol. , page ). named for the umatilla tribe of indians. .--umpqua fort.--built by john mcleod for the hudson's bay co.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--united states' claims to oregon.-- st, right of discovery; d, by the louisiana purchase; d, by prior explorations; th, by prior settlements.--(barrows' oregon, pages , , and ). .--utrecht treaty.--between france and england.--(barrows' oregon, page ). - .--van buren, mt.--same as olympus.--(oregon and california,--thornton, vol. , page ). .--vancouver, fort.--established by john mclaughlin, and .--as a united states military post.--(pacific states, vol. , pages and ). .--vancouver island.--named by vancouver, quadra and vancouver island.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--viscaino, sebastian.--reached a headland at ° to which he gave name of cape sebastian. the smallest of his three vessels, however, conducted by martin d'aguilar and antonio florez, doubled cape mendocino and reached ° where they found the mouth of a .--river which cabrillo has been supposed to have discovered.--(history of oregon,--twiss, page ). .--walla walla, fort.--established by mckenzie.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--wapato island.--see sauvie's island, also--(pacific states, vol. , page ). wasco.--horn basin.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--washington territory formed march d.--(american cyclopedia, vol. , page . zell's encyclopædia, vol. , page ). .--washougal river.--called by lewis and clarke, seal river.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--whidby's island.--named by vancouver for one of his officers who explored it.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). .--white salmon.--called canoe river by lewis and clarke.--(pacific states, vol. . page ). .--whitman, dr. marcus, arrived at vancouver in september.--(history of the willamette valley, page ). .--started on his famous ride to washington, october d, to prevent our government from abandoning oregon.--(barrow's oregon, page ). .--saved by a mule.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--returns from washington, september th, accompanied by wagons and immigrants.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--murdered by the indians in november.--(barrows' oregon, page ). .--wilkes, charles,--drayton, r. r. waldron and two other men visited the willamette valley on a scientific campaign.--(pacific states, vol. , page . wilkes' narrative, vol. , page ). .--willamette falls taken possession of by mclaughlin, and a saw mill established.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--willamette river.--part of it called by the indians multnomah.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--winds, peculiarity of, in the columbia river.--(fremont, page ). .--work, john.--explored the umpqua region.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--wyeth, nathaniel j.--arrives at vancouver. .--arrives there second time, september th. established fort william and a salmon fishery on wapato island on his second trip. .--returns to oregon again and sells forts william and hall to the hudson's bay co.--(pacific states, vol. , pages , , and ). yaquina bay.--probably named for yaquina, a female indian chief.--(life on puget sound, page ). .--young's bay.--called by lewis and clarke, meriwether bay.--(pacific states, vol. , page ). .--young's river.--named by broughton for sir george young of the royal navy.--(vancouver, vol. , page ). topical index. a adams, c. f., . --mt., , , , , . admiralty inlet, . alaska, . --alakshak, . --aliaska, . alden, lieut. com., . america, , . american bd. of frn. msns., . --fur co., . ania, . applegate, jesse, , , --route, . astoria, . astor, john jacob, . atmospheric, river of heat, . b baker, capt., , . --lieut., , . --mt., , , , , . baker's bay, . barclay, capt., . barlow, --palmer and rector, . --road, . barnes, miss jane, . battle rock, . beacon rock, , . beaver, steamer, . behring, , . belden, . bellingham's bay, . bitter root range, , . blanchet, father, . board of admiralty, . bodega, bay, , . --don juan de la, . bonneville, b. l. e., . bourbon river, . breck, j. m. jr., . bretherton, w. w., , . broughton, lieut., , , , , , , , , , , . bulfinch's harbor, , . c cabrillo, , . california, , , , . canal de nuestra del rosary, . cape disappointment, , . cape flattery, . cape frondoso, , . cape hancock, . cape horn, , , . cape mendocino, . cape san roque, , . cape sebastian, . canoe river, . carver, capt. jonathan, , , . cascade range, , , , , , , , . cascades of the columbia, . casey, edw., . castle rock, , . cataract river, . cathedral rock, . clark's point of view, , . cleetwood, , , , , . --cove, . coast of cal. in south sea, . coeur d'alene mts., . coffin, mt., , . coleman, e. t., . columbia river, , , , , , , , , , , , . comcomli, . commencement bay, , . cook, capt., , , , . cooks river, . coppermine river, . corbett, hon. h. w., , . cortereal, gaspar, . corvallis, . cosmographiæ instructio, . cottel, dr. willis i., . crater lake, , , , , , , , , , . cut-to, . d d'aguilar, martin, , . davey, allen, . davidson, elijah, . davis, capt. geo. w., , , . day, john, . --river, . de balboa, vasco nunez, . deep blue lake, . deschutes river, . dewert, e. d., , . diamond peak, . dixon, , , . dodd, mr., . douglas, david, . drake, sir francis, . durham, n. w., . dutton, capt., c. e., , , . --cliff, , , . e eels, edwin, . el cero de la santa rosalia, , . elisa, don francisco, , . ensenada de asuncion, . " " heceta, . evans, elwood, . exploration department, . f false dungeness, , . felice, the, . finch, capt. d. b., . flett, john, , . florez, antonio, , . fraser river, . --simon, . frazer lake, . fremont, . frobisher, martin, . furrelo, bartoleme, . g game protective department, . gill, john, . goat mountain, , . goldsmith, h., . gorman, m. w., . gove, chas. h., , . government camp, , , . grant's pass, , . gray, capt., , , , , , . gray's bay, . --harbor, . gulf of georgia, . h hall, fort, . harkness, h. d., m. m., and f. m., . harrison, mt., , , . hearne, sam'l., . heceta, , , . hermann, hon. binger, . hillman, j. w., . himes, geo. h., . hines, rev. h. k., . hood, lord, , , . --mt., , , , , , , , , , , , . --river, . hood's canal, . hudson's bay, . --co., , , , , . hylacomylus, . i idleman, c. m., . imperial eagle, the, . indian trail, . ingram, prof., . isaac todd, the, . j jack, capt., . jackson, mt., , , . jefferson, . --mt. , , , , . john adams, mt., , . johnson, lieut., . josephine county caves, . juan de fuca, , . k kahtai, . keene, dr. j. m., , . kelly, hall j., . killamook head, , . kimmooenim, . king george's sound, . --co., . klamath, ft., . --indians, , , , . --lake, . klickitat indians, . --river, . ko-ma, . kukluts, . kulshan, . l la riche, . lake majesty, . ledyard, . lee, rev. jason, . lepage, the, . lewis & clarke, , , , , , , , , , , , . lewis river, . llao rock, , , , , , , . lock, michael, . longmire, , . louden, james, . lords of admiralty, . louisiana, . lou-wala-clough, , . lovejoy, a. l., . ludlow, . m mackenzie, sir alex., , . --river, . madison, mt., , . magalhaens, fernando, . mar del sur, . markle, geo. b., , , . mary's peak, , . --river, . marysville, . mccarver, genl., . mcclellan, . mckenzie, . --donald, . mclaughlin, john, , , , , . --mt., , , . mcleod, john, . mcmanus, pat., . meares, capt., , , , , , , . meek, joe, . meriwether bay, . mill creek, . mississippi river, , , . modoc lakes, . monroe doctrine, . --mt. , . montana del carmelo, , . montgomery, . murderer's harbor, . multnomah, . mysterious lake, . n nachess pass, . nea bay, . new albion, , . " caledonia, . " dungeness, , . " georgia, . " tacoma, , . nez perces, . nichols, j., , , . nickel deposit, . nicolini, s. s., . nootka sound, , . --treaty, . northern boundary of u. s., . northwest co., , . --passage, , . norton, e. e., . o oak point, . olympus, mt., , , . oregon, , , , , , , , , , . --alpine club, , , , , , . orford, . p pacific fur co., . --ocean, . paradise valley, . parker, rev. sam'l., . parliamentary grant, . pattle, capt., . pat-to, , , . perez, juan, , , . pettygrove, f. w., . phantom ship, . photographic department, . pitt, mt., , , , , . plas, , . point adams, , , . " de los reys, . polk, mt., , . pope, alexander iii, . port angeles, . " discovery, . " gamble, . portland, , , , , , , , , , , , , . portlock, capt., , . port ludlow, . " nunez gaona, . " townsend, . poverty cove, . possession sound, . president's range, , . protection island, . puget, peter, , . --sound, , , , , , , , . purchas, . puyallup, . --indians, , , , . q quadra and vancouver's island, . qualias, . queen charlotte islands, . --sound, . quicksand bay, . --river, . r rainier, mt., , , , , , , , , , . --rear admiral, , . river aguilar, . " of the west, , , . " thegays, . rio de san roque, . rock creek, . rocky mountains, , , . rogue river, . --falls, . ross, geo., . royal hort. soc. of london, . russian american fur co., . ryswick treaty, . s saddle mountain, , . san blas, . sandy river, . sauvie, jean baptiste, . --island, , . sba-date, . scott, mt., . seahome, . seal river, . seattle, , . shasta, mt., , , , , . shoalwater bay, . siskiyou mountains, . skagit, , . skeeters, isaac, . slacum, wm. a., . spelyah prairie, . spirit lake, . spocatilicum, . squallys, , . squa-tach, , . squat-utsh, . stanup, rev. peter, , . starr, lewis m., . steel, james, . steel, w. g., , , . st. elias, mt., . stevens, gen. hazard, . st. george, . st. helens, mt., , , , , , , . st. lawrence river, . stony mountains, . straights of anian, , . sunken forest, . survey of puget sound, . swallalahoost, , . t tacoma, , , , , , , , , , , , . --the less, . --the second, , , . --mt., , , , , . --land co., , . --ta-ho-ma, . --ta-ke-man, . --ta-ko-ber, . --ta-ko-bet, , . --ta-ko-man, , , , . --tamanous, . --te-ho-ma, , , . --twheque, . --twhauk, , . tacoutche, tesse, . teekalet, . tenino, . the dalles, . thielsen, mt., . thompson, hon. d. p., , . three sisters, , . tillamook head, , . tongue point, . towahnahiooks, . townsend, john k., , . townshend, marquis, . trout lake, . u umatilla river, . umpqua, . --fort, . u. s. claims to oregon, . utrecht treaty, . v van buren, mt., , . vancouver, capt., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . --fort, , , , , , , , . --island, . --mt., , . van trump, p. v., , . verendrye brothers, , . vidae cliff, . viscanio, sebastian, . w wa-co-ko, . wahn-na, . waldseemuller, marti, . waldron, r. r., . walla walla, fort, , . wapato island, , , . wasco, . washington, , , , . --mt., , , , , . --sloop, . washougal river, . wedgboro, . whidby's island, . white river indians, . whitman, , . white salmon, . whulge, , . wicht, . wilkes, , , , , . willamette, , , , , , . william, . --fort, , , . williams creek, . winship, capt., . winthrop, theodore, , , , . witches cauldron, , . wizard island, , , . work, john, . wyeth, nathaniel j., , , . y yac-co, . yaquina bay, . yelm, . yocum, o. c., . youmalolam, . young's bay, . --river, . young, sir george, . * * * * * transcriber notes: punctuation corrected without note. page : "sidling" changed to "sliding" (when a sliding place was reached). page : "sideling" changed to "sliding" (very steep, sliding, rocky). page : "acompanying" changed to "accompanying" (and accompanying necessities). page : "imimmediately" changed to "immediately" (and immediately informs san francisco of the contemplated attack,). page : "decended" changed to "descended" (we descended about). page : "cotemporaneously" changed to "contemporaneously" (contemporaneously tacoma city,). page : "klikitat" changed to "klickitat" (several bands of the klickitat). page : "pages" changed to "page" (page ). page : "portugese" changed to "portuguese" (a portuguese in the naval service of spain). page and : "brittanica" changed to "britannica" (encyclopædia britannica). page : "embassador" changed to "ambassador" (his majesty's ambassador at madrid). page : "dicovered" changed to "discovered" (that he had discovered). page : "nea" changed to "neah" (neah bay). page : "waldscemuller" changed to "waldseemuller" (waldseemuller, marti). proofreading team. talbot mundy biblio materials toward a bibliography of the works of talbot mundy edited by bradford m. day a bit of his life talbot mundy was born in london on april , . he was educated at rugby, and served nearly ten years, beginning in , as a government official in africa and india. while in india, he wandered all over the sub-continent on horseback, and even into tibet. eastern occult lore first attracted, then fascinated, his active and unorthodox mind. mundy absorbed all he could learn of the indian beliefs. government service next brought him to africa where he studied first-hand the nature magic of many of the tribes and cultures of east africa. his quest for more information on this subject impelled him to travel extensively through egypt and the near east and even into parts of arabia. this was truly adventurous at the time, but only in character with the man who killed dozens of lions and successfully hunted for ivory. mundy visited australia, and mexico as far south as yucutan. he first arrived in the united states in , and liked the country so much that he decided to stay and become a citizen. mundy quickly turned his energies to writing, and an article, "pig sticking in india," was accepted and published in the april issue of adventure magazine, itself only a few months old. another article and his first story, "the phantom battery" soon appeared. for years thereafter, adventure had short stories, novelettes, novels, and serials by this master teller of tales in most of the issues that were printed. the motif and locale of the stories and very infrequent articles usually stemmed from the areas, people, and occult knowledge previously mentioned. the manly art of self defense must have occupied some of mundy's attention during his early career. a series of stories about billy blain, pugilist, appeared under the pen-name of walter gait, beginning with the february issue of adventure. two articles were also printed under this pseudonym. scribners of new york produced his first book, "rung ho" in , then apparently forgot him. in , bobbs-merrill of indianapolis published one of his most famous stories, "king--of the khyber rifles," and cassell and company of london brought out "the winds of the world." both were well received, and mundy's career to a moderate renown was on its way. in succeeding years he continued to write for adventure and other magazines, most of the stories being snapped up by various book publishers. many of the books were reprinted in several editions by different companies, and, confusing to a bibliophile, the english publications ware often re-titled. during the 's mundy bought a part of the point loma estate in california, called the cliffs. he settled there for several years and became a member of the theosophical society presided over by katherine tingley. a half-dozen of his books were written there and, "om; the secret of ahbor valley," shows the influence of this occult society. he contributed many articles to tingley's theosophical magazines, her most noted publication being the theosophical path. after her death in , mundy left point loma but always retained his interest in and sympathy with theosophy. mundy continued writing almost to the time of his death on august , . in all, forty-nine books were produced under his name, thirty-nine of which were original works. at least one-hundred and fifty stories and articles appeared in magazines; most of these, perhaps nearly all, are listed in this bibliography. none of the theosophical articles are included here, though, as the intent of this listing is to stress his mastery of the fantasy-high adventure tale. it is still too soon to properly evaluate mundy's importance in the stream of literature. his style of writing, choice of language, is smoothly readable. one "fault," if such it be, is a sometimes too carefully contrived buildup to plot situations. this careful skill did result in glowing word-pictures and living characters. considerable assistance was given on this project by friends and fellow enthusiasts. my grateful thanks to all as they come to mind: dr. j. lloyd eaton--berkeley, california john c. nitka--richmond hill, new york james a. strand--portland, oregon walter a. carrithers, jr.--fresno, california robert resch--reading, pennsylvania richard witter, donald grant, and some others for appreciated words of caution and advice. the following list must not be supposed the final and authoritative word on this subject. a list of his books all four winds: four novels of india hutchinson london king--of the khyber rifles jimgrim om; the secret of ahbor valley black light cover black--yellow letters black light bobbs-merrill indianapolis a.l. burt ("there was no moon yet ...") cover maroon--black letters the bubble reputation (see ibid--her reputation) caesar dies hutchinson london no date ("golden antioch lay like a jewel at a mountain's throat ...") (the falling star--magazine--adventure / / ) cover red the caves of terror hutchinson london no date (pocketbook) doubleday, page new york ("meldrum strange has a way with him ...") (the gray mahatma--magazine--adventure / / famous fantastic mysteries / / ) cover light blue--rose letters c.i.d. century new york hutchinson london ("it was typical south-west monsoon weather ...") (c.i.d.--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure cock o' the north bobbs-merrill indianapolis ("angus, nicknamed "gup" mcleod, six feet two and a half inches of him, came untouched out of the great war ...") (the invisible guns of kabul--magazine--adventure / / ) cover orange--black letters the devil's guard bobbs-merrill indianapolis oriental club wells & shakespeare ("i find myself wondering why i should go to the trouble to write what few men will believe ...") (ramsden--magazine--adventure / / ) cover maroon--green letters diamonds see in the dark hutchinson london no date (see ibid--east and west) cover red east and west appleton-century new york ("moses lafayette o'leary tossed his pith helmet to a coolie ...") cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure the eye of zeitoon bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie[a] a.l. burt ("it is written with authority of tarsus that once it was no mean city ...") (the eye of zeitoon--magazine--romance / / ) cover reddish-brown--brown letters on black background [footnote a: masterpieces of oriental mystery--a set of ten titles] full moon appleton-century new york ("bombay sweltered ...") (full moon--magazine--famous fantastic mysteries / / ) cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure the gunga sahib century new york and london ("birds sang blithely at the forest's edge ...") (when trails were new--magazine--argosy-all-story / / to / / ) cover yellow-black letters guns of the gods bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) ("the why and wherefore of my privilege to write a true account of the princess yasmini's early youth is a story ...") (guns of the gods--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover yellow brown--black letters gup-bahadur hutchinson london no date (see ibid--cock o' the north) cover blue her reputation bobbs-merrill indianapolis a.l. burt ("there is an hour of promise and a zero hour ...") cover red--gold letters (burt edition) hira singh's tale--when india came to fight in flanders bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) a.l. burt ("a sikh who must have stood six feet without his turban ...") (hira singh's tale--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover green with embossed letters the hundred days & the woman ayisha century new york and london ("they kept this out of the papers at the time ...") (the hundred days--magazine--adventure / / ) (the woman ayisha--magazine--adventure / / ) cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure i say sunrise dakers london wells philadelphia ("i know whereof i write and to whom i write ...") (philosophical non-fiction) wells edition cover dark blue--gold figure--gold letters on spine the ivory trail bobbs-merrill indianapolis ill. mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) a.l. burt ("estimates of ease and affluence vary with the point of view.") (on the trail of tipoo tib--magazine--adventure / / (trek east--pocketbook--universal pub. ) to / / ) cover red--red letters on black background jimgrim century new york and london a.l. burt ("it was one of those sun-drunken days in spring ...") (king of the world--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) (jimgrim sahib--pocketbook--universal pub. ) cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure jimgrim and allah's peace appleton-century new york ("there is a beautiful belief that journalists may do as they (the adventure at el-kerak--magazine--please ...") adventure / / ) (under the dome of the rock--magazine--adventure / / ) cover yellow--black letters with red end black oriental figure jungle jest century new york and london ("someone began to pray in a nasal snarl, and a stallion (benefit of doubt--magazine--adventure squealed ...") / / ) cover yellow--black letters the king in check appleton-century new york hutchinson london ("whoever invented chess understood the world's works ...") (the king in check--magazine--adventure / / ) appleton-century edition cover purple--gold letters king--of the khyber rifles bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) readers league of america a.l. burt ("the men who govern india--more power to them and her ...") (king--of the khyber rifles--magazine--everybody's / / ) cover red--red letters on black background cover olive--gold letters variants of same edition? the lion of petra hutchinson london appleton-century a.l. burt ("this isn't an animal story ...") (the lion of petra--magazine--adventure / / ) burt edition cover orange--black letters the lost trooper hutchinson london no date ("how can you begin a tale at the beginning when it has ...") (the lost trooper--magazine--adventure / / ) cover red--gold letters the marriage of meldrum strange hutchinson london no date ("this is an immoral story ...") (the marriage of meldrum strange--magazine--adventure / / ) cover blue the mystery of khufu's tomb appleton-century new york ill. ("we americans are ostriches ...") (khufu's real tomb--magazine--adventure / / ) cover purple--gold letters the nine unknown bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) ("i had this story from a dozen people ...") (the nine unknown--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover blue--yellow letters old ugly face appleton-century new york wells & shakespeare ("things seemed vague that evening ...") cover blue--gold letters om; the secret of ahbor valley bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) hutchinson ("if you want views about the world's news, read what ...") (om; the secret of ahbor valley--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover green--black letters purple pirate appleton-century new york ("hitherto i have found my real goal unattainable ...") (battle stations--magazine--adventure / / cleopatra's promise adventure / / purple pirate adventure / / fleets of fire adventure / / ) cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure queen cleopatra bobbs-merrill indianapolis ("cleopatra yawned ...") cover black--green letters ramsden (see ibid--the devil's guard) the red flame of erinpura hutchinson london no date ("there was a voice outside, and nothing else ...") (the red flame of erinpura--magazine--adventure / / ) cover red romances of india a.l. burt new york and chicago no date king--of the khyber rifles guns of the gods told in the east cover orange--black letters rung ho scribners new york ill. mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) a.l. burt ("that was no time or place for any girl of twenty to ...") (for the peace of india--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover olive--black letters on front, gold on spine the seventeen thieves of el kalil hutchinson london no date ("steam never killed romance ...") (the seventeen thieves of el kalil--magazine--adventure / / ) cover red the soul of a regiment alex dulfer san francisco (see ibid--the valiant view) (see ibid--adventure's best stories-- edited by a.s. hoffman, an anthology published by doran, new york, ) (the soul of a regiment--magazine--adventure / / ) ("so long as its colours remain ...") cover green--white spine there was a door (see ibid--full moon) the thunder dragon gate appleton-century new york and london hutchinson ("it was one of those days when not even cockneys like london.") cover yellow--black letters with red and black oriental figure told in the east bobbs-merrill indianapolis mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) ("a blood red sun rested its huge disc upon a low mud wall ...") (hookum hai--magazine--adventure / / for the salt he had eaten adventure / / machassan ah adventure / / ) cover brown--tan letters with black background tros of samothrace appleton-century new york and london (tros of samothrace--magazine--adventure / / the enemy of rome adventure / / prisoners of war adventure / / admiral of caesar's fleet adventure / / the dancing girls of gades adventure / / a messenger of destiny adventure / / to / / ) cover yellow--black letters the valiant view: a collection of stories hutchinson london ("so long as its colours remain, and there is one man left ...") (the soul of a regiment--magazine--adventure / / the damned old nigger adventure / / the chaplain of the hullingars adventure / / the pillar of light one arabian fight adventure / / machassan ah adventure / / the man from poonch argosy / / the eye-teeth of o'hara adventure / / innocent non-combatant the honorable pig ) cover red w.h. hutchinson london no date ("the manuscript of this story was found in the cellar of ...") (ho for london town--magazine--argosy-all-story / / to (the queen's warrant--pocketbook) / / ) cover orange when trails were new hutchinson london no date (see ibid--the gunga sahib) the winds of the world cassell london and new york bobbs-merrill indianapolis ill. mckinley, stone & mckenzie (masterpieces of oriental mystery) a.l. burt ("a watery july sun was hurrying towards a punjab skyline ...") (the winds of the world--magazine--adventure / / to / / ) cover light gray with turbaned figure the woman ayisha hutchinson london no date (see ibid--the hundred days & the woman ayisha) ("consider the situation for a moment first ...") (the woman ayisha--magazine--adventure / / ) cover red is this an imaginary book? the man from jupiter claims have been advanced that mundy wrote this work of science fiction. doubtlessly most of the imaginative creation connected with this book is in the minds of the gulls who pass the name of this title along. a list of his magazine stories pigsticking in india adventure-- --april article single-handed yachting adventure-- --july article the phantom battery adventure-- --august the blooding of the ninth queen's own adventure-- --december for valour adventure-- --january the soul of a regiment adventure-- --february reprinted: april --november --november (the soul of a regiment--book) (the valiant view--book) (adventure's best stories-- --book) the chaplain of the mullingars adventure-- --march (the valiant view--book) w. mayes--the amazing adventure-- --april article the queen--god bless her adventure-- --may t.c. ansell--adventurer adventure-- --june the cowards adventure-- --july the payment of quinn's debt adventure-- --august in winter quarters adventure-- --september the man who saw adventure-- --october honor adventure-- --november rabbit adventure-- --december three helios adventure-- --january a low-veldt funeral adventure-- --february article for the salt which he had eaten adventure-- --march (told in the east--book) private murdoch's g.c.m. adventure-- --april the guzzler's grand prix adventure-- --may at maneuvers adventure-- --june hookum hai adventure-- --july (told in the east--book) the closed trial of wm. walker adventure-- --august article the letter of his orders adventure-- --september in a righteous cause adventure-- --october an arabian night adventure-- --november (the valiant view--book) the tempering of harry blunt adventure-- --december a soldier and a gentleman adventure-- --january for the peace of india adventure-- --february to april (serial, parts) (rung ho--book) the gentility of ikey blumendall adventure-- --june gulbaz and the game adventure-- --july the sword of iskander adventure-- --august foul of the czar adventure-- --september "go, tell the czar!" adventure-- --october king dick adventure-- --november lancing the whale adventure-- --december disowned! adventure-- --january no name adventure-- --february on terms adventure-- --march machassan ah adventure-- --april (the valiant view--book) (told in the east--book) a temporary trade in titles adventure-- --may the dove with a broken wing adventure-- --june the winds of the world adventure-- --july to september (serial parts) (the winds of the world--book) a drop or two of white tucker's tongue adventure-- --february anecdote the damned old nigger adventure-- --may (the valiant view--book) king--of the khyber rifles everybody's-- --may (king--of the khyber rifles--book) hira singh's tale adventure-- --october to december (serial parts) (hira singh's tale--book) blighty adventure-- --august article oakes respects an adversary adventure-- --december america horns in adventure-- --january jackson tactics adventure-- --february heinie horns into the game adventure-- --march the end of the bad ship bundesrath adventure-- --april on the trail of tipoo tib adventure-- --may to july (serial parts) (the ivory trail--book) the shriek of dum adventure-- --september barabbas island adventure-- --october in aleppo bazaar adventure-- --december the eye of zeitoon romance-- --february (the eye of zeitoon--book) guns of the gods adventure-- --march to may (serial parts) (guns of the gods--book) the adventure at el-kerak adventure-- --november (jimgrim and allah's peace--book) under the dome of the rock adventure-- --december (jimgrim and allah's peace--book) the "iblis" at ludd adventure-- --january the seventeen thieves of el-kalil adventure-- --february (the seventeen thieves of el-kalil--book) the lion of petra adventure-- --march (the lion of petra--book) the hundred days adventure-- --april (the hundred days & the woman ayisha--book) the woman ayisha adventure-- --april (the hundred days & the woman ayisha--book) (the woman ayisha--book) the lost trooper adventure-- --may (the lost trooper--book) the king in check adventure-- --july (the king in check--book) a secret society adventure-- --august moses & mrs. aintree adventure-- --september khufu's real tomb adventure-- --october (the mystery of khufu's tomb--book) the gray mahatma adventure-- --november reprinted: famous fantastic mysteries-- --december (the caves of terror--book) benefit of doubt adventure-- --december (jungle jest--book) treason adventure-- --january the nine unknown adventure-- --march to april (serial parts) (the nine unknown--book) diana against the ephesians adventure-- --august the marriage of meldrum strange adventure-- --october (the marriage of meldrum strange--book) mohanned's tooth adventure-- --december om; the secret of ahbor valley adventure-- --october to november (serial parts) (om; the secret of ahbor valley--book) tros of samothrace adventure-- --february (tros of samothrace--book) the enemy of rome adventure-- --april (tros of samothrace--book) prisoners of war adventure-- --june (tros of samothrace--book) admiral of caesar's fleet adventure-- --october (tros of samothrace--book) the dancing girls of gades adventure-- --december (tros of samothrace--book) the messenger of destiny adventure-- --february , , (serial parts) (tros of samothrace--book) ramsden adventure-- --june to august (serial parts) (the devil's guard--book) (ramsden--book) the falling star adventure-- --october (caesar dies--book) the red flame of erinpura adventure-- --january (the red flame of erinpura--book) when trails were new argosy-all-story-- --october to december (serial parts) (the gunga sahib--book) (when trails were new--book) the wheel of destiny adventure-- --november (the gunga sahib--book) the big league miracle adventure-- --november on the road to allah's heaven adventure-- --december golden river adventure-- --january a tucket of drums adventure-- --february ho for london town argosy-all-story-- --february to february (serial parts) (w.h.--book) (the queen's warrant--pocketbook) in old narada fort adventure-- --february asoka's alibi argosy-all-story--march to march -- (serial parts) by allah who made tigers argosy-all-story-- --april to may (serial parts) flame of cruelty romance-- --august the invisible guns of kabul adventure-- --october to december (serial parts) (cock o' the north--book) consistent anyhow adventure-- --february the affair at kaligaon argosy-- --may to june (serial parts) king of the world adventure-- --november to february , (serial parts) (jimgrim--book) elephant sahib argosy-- --december to january , (serial parts) black flag adventure-- --may the man on the mat adventure-- --august the babu adventure-- --october the eye teeth of o'hara adventure-- --november (the valiant view--book) case adventure-- --january chullunder ghose, the guileless adventure-- --march watu (a reminiscence) adventure-- --april white tigers adventure-- --august to august (serial parts) c.i.d. adventure-- --march to april (serial parts) (c.i.d.--book) the man from poonch argosy-- --june (the valiant view--book) the red sea cargo adventure-- --august milk of the moon argosy-- --september camera argosy-- --january the gods seem contented argosy-- --september bengal rebellion blue book-- --january battle stations adventure-- --may (purple pirate--book) cleopatra's promise adventure-- --june (purple pirate--book) purple pirate adventure-- --august (purple pirate--book) fleets of fire adventure-- --october (purple pirate--book) the wolf of the pass all aces-- --hay the elephant waits short stories-- --february companion in arms adventure-- --november roman holiday golden fleece-- --october the night the clocks stopped adventure-- --march odds on the prophet short stories-- --august full moon famous fantastic mysteries-- --february (full moon--book) (there was a door--book) written under the pen-name of walter galt these tales of billy blain, pugilist--all from adventure magazine the goner --february the second rung --june dorg's luck --august across the color line --october love and war --november the top of the ladder --december one year later --february nothing doing --september the return of billy blain --november billy blain eats biscuits --january billy blain's onions and garlic --february two articles under this pen-name francis bannerman--a man of mystery & history --may elephant hunting for a living --july his sagas; with a story sequence of various characters by dr. j. lloyd eaton talbot mundy was a prolific writer of historical tales and stories of adventure-intrigue, his particular forte being tales of india and the near east. twelve of his novels are listed in the checklist of fantastic literature, with themes of mysticism, black versus white magic, lost-race, and even true science fiction. many others of his stories are borderline fantastics. in the field of fantastic literature his works are highly prized (often highly priced, also) and many such readers find, possibly to their surprise, that they also enjoy his other stories. this may be due in some part to the fact that mundy used the same characters over and over again, in novels in which each played the lead and as sub-characters in other novels. one keeps meeting old friends. this leads to one difficulty in reading mundy, however. if one is going to meet these characters, it is much more enjoyable to watch them develop from birth, so to speak--and not vice versa, like coming into a theatre in the middle of the picture. but, a reading sequence is a real difficulty. each story is complete in itself, but the characters are re-shuffled into various combinations and any one of them may, and does, strike off into a novel of his own, only to reappear at a later date in some combination with other such characters. it is confusing, to say the least. to add to the confusion, all or nearly all of mundy's stories first appeared in magazines, largely in adventure, but later in argosy. as his popularity grew, his older stories were republished in book form, as well as each of his new novels, so that the date of publication of his books means nothing as far as reading chronology is concerned. before going any further, it may be interesting to digress a bit, and consider some of his earlier stories in adventure magazine, and more particularly as they apply to his books. no attempt is being made to give a complete listing of his magazine stories here. adventure magazine began publication in november , but the earliest issue that i have for reference is that of august . this contains a short story by mundy, "the phantom battery." by this time he was publishing five to eight short stories per year. these early stories were mostly about the british army and the most important was his "the soul of a regiment," (february ) a tale of native troops in the ill-fated first expedition against the dervishes in egypt, with a surprise, terrific, ending. this story was published as a book, "the soul of a regiment," (alex dulfer, san francisco, ) and was anthologized by arthur sullivant hoffman in "adventure's beet stories-- " (doran, new york, ). it was reprinted in adventure magazine in april and followed next month be a sequel, "the damned old nigger." three of his early novelettes ( ), "hookum hai," "for the salt he had eaten," and "machassan ah," will be found in the book "told in the east," (bobbs-merrill, indianapolis, ). the first two concern the sepoy revolt and the third is a humorous story of the british navy. all are good tales. the characters in the latter appear also in "an arabian night" (adventure, november ). the first of his indian hillman type stories is probably the short novel "the letter of his orders" (adventure, september ). his first serial, "for the peace of india" (adventure, february to april ) was published in the book "rung ho" (scribners, new york, ) and is another good story of the sepoy rebellion. in january and july , appeared two stories about the princess yasmini, a character that he used extensively in later novels--as the lead, with king, with ranjoor singh, and in the jimgrim-ramsden saga. the first of his sagas (dick anthony of arran) was never published in book form. this series included eight novelettes and short novels, enough to fill four or five books, and appeared in successive issues of adventure magazine, beginning august . these were very good adventure tales of a scotch gentleman fighting for iran against old russia, but are rather dated now. following this, most of his novels appeared first in a magazine and were then immediately published in book form. this brings us to the "jimgrim-ramsden saga," the greatest of them all. if the early (and later) development of the associated characters is added, it continues through twenty-one books (twenty-two novels), and fifteen books (sixteen novels) for the actual jimgrim-ramsden stories. this is not counting some eighteen novelettes and novels found in magazines only. this saga, in the main, is the story of james schuyler grim, (jimgrim) a remarkable characterization, beginning as an american "lawrence in arabia" and evolving into a human but unapproachable high priest of the occult. there is jeff ramsden, the strong man and his closest friend, who with the australian, jeremy ross, make up the triumvirate of grim, ross, and ramsden, with their henchman narayan singh, the indomitable sikh. (who cuts throats with an outward thrust.) later the multimillionaire, meldrum strange, hires them to fight evil. then, athelbert king, a hero of novels in his own right, joins up, making a quartet. other characters from mundy's novels appear--the seductive and dangerous princess yasmini; cotswold ommony, the forester of india; the babu, chullunder ghose; the gunga sahib, and o'hara. his sagas for an interesting reading sequence, the following is suggested. *** means excellent escapist reading--and fantastic (***) means excellent escapist reading--not fantastic numbers indicate a book indented numbers with letter mean magazine only major characters, and their appearances, follow each title (ramsden tells many of the stories and is not listed except as necessary to connect the series.) jimgrim-ramsden, et al, saga (***) . guns of the gods (bobbs-merrill) yasmini . (***) a. a soldier and a gentleman (adventure january ) yasmini . (***) b. gulbaz and the game (adventure july ) yasmini . (***) . the winds of the world (cassell) yasmini . ranjoor singh . (***) . hira singh (bobbs-merrill) ranjoor singh . *** . king--of the khyber rifles (bobbs-merrill) king . yasmini . (***) . jimgrim and allah's peace (appleton-century) jimgrim . (***) a. the "iblis" at ludd (adventure / / ) jimgrim . (***) . tee seventeen thieves of el-kalil (hutchinson) jimgrim . (***) . the lion of petra (appleton-century) jimgrim . (***) . the woman ayisha (see the hundred days--century) jimgrim . (***) . the lost trooper (hutchinson) jimgrim . (***) . the king in check (appleton-century) jimgrim . *** a. a secret society (adventure / / ) strange . jimgrim . *** b. moses and mrs aintree (adventure / / ) strange . jimgrim . *** . the mystery of khufu's tomb (appleton-century) strange . jimgrim . *** . the caves of terror (hutchinson) yasmini . strange . ramsden king . (**) . jungle jest (century) ommony . king . (**) . the marriage of meldrum strange (hutchinson) ramsden strange . ommony . chullunder ghose . ** . om; the secret of ahbor valley (bobbs-merrill) ommony . (***) . the hundred days (century) jimgrim . king . *** . the nine unknown (bobbs-merrill) chullunder ghose . jimgrim . king . *** . the devil's guard (bobbs-merrill) chullunder ghose . jimgrim . *** . jimgrim (century) chullunder ghose . jimgrim . (***) . the gunga sahib (appleton-century) chullunder ghose . quern . (***) a. the wheel of destiny (adventure / / ) (this is roughly the same as the first four chapters of "the gunga sahib" from there on, any relationship between the book and the magazine stories seems to be coincidental.) (***) b. the big league miracle (adventure / / ) quorn . (**) c. on tee road to allah's heaven (adventure / / ) quorn . (**) d. golden river (adventure i/ / ) quorn . (**) e. a tucket of drums (adventure / / ) quorn . (***) f. in old narada fort (adventure / / ) quorn . (***) g. asoka's alibi (argosy, parts / / ) quorn . (***) h. the affair at kaligaon (argosy, parts / / ) quorn . (***) . c.i.d. (century) chullunder ghose . (**) a. the babu (adventure / / ) chullunder ghose . o'hara . (**) b. the eye teeth of o'hara (adventure / / ) o'hara . (***) c. case (adventure i/ / ) o'hara . chullunder ghose . (***) d. chullunder, the guileless (adventure / / ) chullunder ghose . (**) . the red flame of erinpura (hutchinson) chullunder ghose . monte, et al, saga (**) a. cakes respects an adversary (adventure / / ) (***) b. america horn in (adventure / / ) (***) c. jackson tactics (adventure / / ) (***) d. heine horns into the game (adventure / / ) (***) e. the end of the bad ship bundesrath (adventure / / ) (***) . the ivory trail (bobbs-merrill) ** a. the shriek of dum (adventure / / ) *** b. barabbas island (adventure / / ) (**) c. in aleppo bazaar (adventure / / ) (***) . the eye of zeitoon (bobbs-merrill) tros saga *** . tros of samothrace (appleton-century) *** . queen cleopatra (bobbs-merrill) (***) . purple pirate (appleton-century) a final note from the editor. three other books by mundy are classed as fantasy, and, though not connected with the above sagas, are worthy of mention as fantastic. *** . black light (bobbs-merrill) *** . full moon (appleton-century) *** . the thunder dragon gate (appleton-century) good luck and best wishes to anyone so influenced by this listing as to attempt collecting these stories. a full purse will help. finis a very few copies available: a checklist of fantastic magazines photo-offset booklet of dates, volume and number cents an index on the weird & fantastica in magazines mimeographed-- - / " x "-- pages truly excellent coverage of the field dollars past and future & the last generation mimeographed--three stories two are extreme rarities cents the information is here, but apparently not the market we still hope to produce a checklist of imaginative fiction a supplement to "the checklist of fantastic literature" quarterly catalogs issued--sent on request science-fiction--fantasy--weird--reference books--magazines--pocketbooks science-fiction & fantasy publications - ave. s. ozone park , new york public domain works from the university of michigan digital libraries.) transcriber's notes: . greek text has been replaced by a transliteration and indicated by [grk: ...]. in "constantine and arete" the same transliteration scheme has been used for modern greek text as is customary for ancient greek. . footnotes have been relocated following the paragraph or section where the anchor occurs. footnote anchors are in the form [a], [b] etc. . linenotes have been grouped at the end of each ballad. linenote anchors in the form [l##] have been added to the text (they are not in the original but alert the reader to the presence of a note referring to line number ##). ballad line numbers have been regularised to multiples of five and re-positioned or added where necessary. . [z] has been used to represent the yogh character. . italic typeface is represented by _underscores_. . archaic, unusual and inconsistent spelling or punctuation has generally been retained as in the original. where changes have been made to the text these are listed in transcriber's notes at the end of the book. * * * * * english and scottish ballads. edited by francis james child. sum bethe of wer, and sum of wo, sum of joie and mirthe also; and sum of trecherie and of gile, of old aventours that fel while; and sum of bourdes and ribaudy; and many ther beth of fairy; of all thinges that men seth;-- maist o love forsothe thai beth. _lay le freine._ volume i. boston: little, brown and company. m.dccc.lx. * * * * * entered according to act of congress, in the year , by little, brown and company, in the clerk's office of the district court of massachusetts. riverside, cambridge: stereotyped and printed by h.o. houghton and company. contents of volume first. page preface vii list of collections of ballads and songs xiii book i. . the boy and the mantle . the horn of king arthur . the marriage of sir gawaine . king arthur's death . the legend of king arthur . sir lancelot du lake . the legend of sir guy . st. george and the dragon . the seven champions of christendom a. thomas of ersseldoune b. thomas the rhymer . the young tamlane . the wee wee man . the elfin knight a. the broomfield hill b. lord john a. kempion b. kemp owyne . king henry a. cospatrick b. bothwell . willie's ladye . alison gross . the earl of mar's daughter a. young akin b. young hastings the groom . clerk colvill, or, the mermaid a. lady isabel and the elf-knight b. the water o'wearie's well a. the dæmon lover b. james herries . the knight's ghost . the wife of usher's well . the suffolk miracle . sir roland appendix. fragment of the ballad of king arthur and the king of cornwall fragment of child rowland and burd ellen rosmer hafmand, or, the merman rosmer tama-a-line tom linn burd ellen and young tamlane als y yod on ay mounday the elphin knight the laidley worm of spindlestonheugh lord dingwall fragment of hynde etin sir oluf and the elf-king's daughter fragment of the dæmon lover constantine and arete translation of the same the hawthorn tree st. stephen and herod glossary preface. these volumes have been compiled from the numerous collections of ballads printed since the beginning of the last century. they contain all but two or three of the _ancient_ ballads of england and scotland, and nearly all those ballads which, in either country, have been gathered from oral tradition,--whether ancient or not. widely different from the true popular ballads, the spontaneous products of nature, are the works of the professional ballad-maker, which make up the bulk of garlands and broadsides. these, though sometimes not without grace, more frequently not lacking in humor, belong to artificial literature,--of course to an humble department.[a] as many ballads of this second class have been admitted as it was thought might be wished for, perhaps i should say tolerated, by the "benevolent reader." no words could express the dulness and inutility of a collection which should embrace all the roxburghe and pepys broadsides--a scope with which this publication was most undeservedly credited by an english journal. but while the broadside ballads have been and must have been gleaned, the popular ballads demand much more liberal treatment. many of the older ones are mutilated, many more are miserably corrupted, but as long as any traces of their originals are left, they are worthy of attention and have received it. when a ballad is extant in a variety of forms, all the most important versions are given.--less than this would have seemed insufficient for a collection intended as a complement to an extensive series of the british poets. to meet the objections of readers for pleasure, all those pieces which are wanting in general interest are in each volume inserted in an appendix. [a] this distinction is not absolute, for several of the ancient ballads have a sort of literary character, and many broadsides were printed from oral tradition. the only _popular_ ballads excluded from this selection that require mention, are _the bonny hynd_, _the jolly beggar_, _the baffled knight_, _the keach in the creel_, and _the earl of errol_. these ballads, in all their varieties, may be found by referring to the general index at the end of the eighth volume. to extend the utility of this index, references are also given to many other ballads which, though not worth reprinting, may occasionally be inquired for. the ballads are grouped in eight books, nearly corresponding to the division of volumes. the arrangement in the several books may be called chronological, by which is meant, an arrangement according to the probable antiquity of the story, not the age of the actual form or language. exceptions to this rule will be observed, partly the result of oversight, partly of fluctuating views; the most noticeable case is in the first book, where the ballads that stand at the beginning are certainly not so old as some that follow. again, it is very possible that some pieces might with advantage be transferred to different books, but it is believed that the general disposition will be found practically convenient. it is as follows:-- book i. contains ballads involving superstitions of various kinds,--as of fairies, elves, water-spirits, enchantment, and ghostly apparitions; and also some legends of popular heroes. book ii. tragic love-ballads. book iii. other tragic ballads. book iv. love-ballads not tragic. book v. ballads of robin hood, his followers, and compeers. book vi. ballads of other outlaws, especially border outlaws, of border forays, feuds, &c. book vii. historical ballads, or those relating to public characters or events. book viii. miscellaneous ballads, especially humorous, satirical, burlesque; also some specimens of the moral and scriptural, and all such pieces as had been overlooked in arranging the earlier volumes. for the texts, the rule has been to select the most authentic copies, and to reprint them as they stand in the collections, restoring readings that had been changed without grounds, and noting all deviations from the originals, whether those of previous editors or of this edition, in the margin. interpolations acknowledged by the editors have generally been dropped. in two instances only have previously printed texts been superseded or greatly improved: the text of _the horn of king arthur_, in the first volume, was furnished from the manuscript, by j.o. halliwell, esq., and _adam bel_, in the fifth volume, has been amended by a recently discovered fragment of an excellent edition, kindly communicated by j.p. collier, esq. the introductory notices prefixed to the several ballads may seem dry and somewhat meagre. they will be found, it is believed, to comprise what is most essential even for the less cursory reader to know. these prefaces are intended to give an account of all the printed forms of each ballad, and references to the books in which they were first published. in many cases also, the corresponding ballads in other languages, especially in danish, swedish, and german, are briefly pointed out. but these last notices are very imperfect. fascinating as such investigations are, they could not be allowed to interfere with the progress of the series of poets of which this collection of ballads forms a part, nor were the necessary books immediately at hand. at a more favorable time the whole subject may be resumed, unless some person better qualified shall take it up in the interim. while upon this point let me make the warmest acknowledgments for the help received from grundtvig's ancient popular ballads of denmark (_danmarks gamle folkeviser_), a work which has no equal in its line, and which may in every way serve as a model for collections of national ballads. such a work as grundtvig's can only be imitated by an english editor, never equalled, for the material is not at hand. all denmark seems to have combined to help on his labors; schoolmasters and clergymen, in those retired nooks where tradition longest lingers, have been very active in taking down ballads from the mouths of the people, and a large number of old manuscripts have been placed at his disposal.--we have not even the percy manuscript at our command, and must be content to take the ballads as they are printed in the _reliques_, with all the editor's changes. this manuscript is understood to be in the hands of a dealer who is keeping it from the public in order to enhance its value. the greatest service that can now be done to english ballad-literature is to publish this precious document. civilization has made too great strides in the island of great britain for us to expect much more from tradition. certain short romances which formerly stood in the first book, have been dropped from this second edition, in order to give the collection a homogeneous character. one or two ballads have been added, and some of the prefaces considerably enlarged. f.j.c. _may_, . list of the principal collections of english and scottish ballads and songs. [this list does not include (excepting a few reprints) the collections of songs, madrigals, "ballets," &c., published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,--the titles of most of which are to be seen in rimbault's _bibliotheca madrigaliana_. on the other hand, it does include a few useful books connected with ballad-poetry which would not properly come into a list of collections. the relative importance of the works in this list is partially indicated by difference of type. when two or more editions are mentioned, those used in this collection are distinguished by brackets. a few books which we have not succeeded in finding--all of slight or no importance--are marked with a star.] "a choise collection of comic and serious scots poems. both ancient and modern. by several hands. edinburgh. printed by james watson." three parts, , , . [ , , .] "miscellany poems, containing a variety of new translations of the ancient poets, together with several original poems. by the most eminent hands." ed. by dryden. vols. st ed. - . ed. of * contains ballads not in the earlier ones. "wit and mirth: or pills to purge melancholy; being a collection of the best merry ballads and songs, old and new. fitted to all humours, having each their proper tune for either voice or instrument: most of the songs being new set." by thomas d'urfey. vols. london. - . "a collection of old ballads. corrected from the best and most ancient copies extant. with introductions historical, critical, or humorous." vols. london. st and d vol. , d vol. . "the evergreen. being a collection of scots poems, wrote by the ingenious before . published by allan ramsay." vols. edinburgh, . [edinburgh. printed for alex. donaldson, .] "the tea-table miscellany: a collection of choice songs, scots and english." edinburgh. . vols. [glasgow, r. & a. foulis. . vols.] "orpheus caledonius, or a collection of scots songs, set to musick by w. thomson." london, , fol. [ , vols. vo.] "the hive. a collection of the most celebrated songs." in four volumes. th ed. london. . "the british musical miscellany, or the delightful grove, being a collection of celebrated english and scottish songs." london. - . "reliques of ancient english poetry: consisting of old heroic ballads, songs, and other pieces of our earlier poets; together with some few of later date. by thomas percy, lord bishop of dromore." vols. st ed. london, . [ th ed. (improved) .--london, l.a. lewis, .] "ancient and modern scottish songs, heroic ballads, &c." by david herd. vols. edinburgh, . d ed. . [ d ed. printed for lawrie and symington, .] "ancient scottish poems. published from the ms. of george bannatyne, mdlxviii." by sir david dalrymple, lord hailes. edinburgh, . "the choice spirit's chaplet: or a poesy from parnassus, being a select collection of songs from the most approved authors: many of them written and the whole compiled by george alexander slovens, esq." whitehaven, . "a collection of english songs in score for three or four voices. composed about the year . taken from mss. of the same age. revised and digested by john stafford smith." london, . "scottish tragic ballads." john pinkerton. london, . "two ancient scottish poems; the gaberlunzie-man and christ's kirk on the green. with notes and observations. by john callender, esq. of craigforth." edinburgh, . "the charmer: a collection of songs, chiefly such as are eminent for poetical merit; among which are many originals, and others that were never before printed in a songbook." vols. th ed. edinburgh, . "select scottish ballads." vols. john pinkerton. london, . vol. i. tragic ballads, vol. ii. comic ballads. "a select collection of english songs, with their original airs, and an historical essay on the origin and progress of national song." by j. ritson. . d ed. with additional songs and occasional notes, by thomas park. london, . vols. "the poetical museum. containing songs and poems on almost every subject. mostly from periodical publications." george caw. hawick, . "the bishopric garland or durham minstrel." edited by ritson. stockton, . newcastle, . [london, .] see "northern garlands," p. xix. *"the new british songster. a collection of songs, scots and english, with toasts and sentiments for the bottle." falkirk, . "ancient scottish poems, never before in print, but now published from the ms. collections of sir richard maitland," &c. john pinkerton. vols. london, . "the works of james i., king of scotland." to which are added "two ancient scotish poems, commonly ascribed to king james v." (the gaberlunzie-man and the jollie beggar.) morrison's scotish poets. poets. perth, . "the scots musical museum. in six volumes. consisting of six hundred scots songs, with proper basses for the piano forte," &c. by james johnson. edinburgh, - . [ d ed. "with copious notes and illustrations of the lyric poetry and music of scotland, by the late wiliam stenhouse," and "with additional notes and illustrations," by david laing. vols. edinburgh and london, .] "the yorkshire garland." edited by ritson. york, . see "northern garlands," p. xix. *"a select collection of favourite scottish ballads." vols. r. morison & son. perth, . "pieces of ancient popular poetry: from authentic manuscripts and old printed copies. by joseph ritson, esq." london, . [second edition, london, .] "ancient songs and ballads, from the reign of king henry the second to the revolution. collected by joseph ritson, esq." vols. printed , dated , published . [london, .] "scottish poems, reprinted from scarce editions, with three pieces before unpublished." collected by john pinkerton. vols. london, . *"the melodies of scotland, &c. the poetry chiefly by burns. the whole collected by george thomson." lond. & edin. vols. - . see p. xx., last title but one. "the northumberland garland." edited by ritson. newcastle, . [london, .] see "northern garlands," p. xix. "scotish song. in two volumes." joseph ritson. london, . "robin hood: a collection of all the ancient poems, songs and ballads, now extant, relative to that celebrated english outlaw. to which are prefixed historical anecdotes of his life, by joseph ritson. esq." vols. . [second edition, london, .] "a collection of english songs, with an appendix of original pieces." london, . lord hailes. *"an introduction to the history of poetry in scotland, &c., by alexander campbell, to which are subjoined songs of the lowlands of scotland, carefully compared with the original editions." edinburgh, . to. "tales of wonder; written and collected by m.g. lewis, esq., m.p." vols. london, . [new-york, .] "scottish poems of the sixteenth century." ed. by j.g. dalzell. edinburgh, . vols. (contains "ane compendious booke of godly and spirituall songs, collectit out of sundrie partes of the scripture, with sundrie of other ballates, changed out of prophaine sanges for avoyding of sinne and harlotrie, with augmentation of sundrie gude and godly ballates, not contained in the first edition. newlie corrected and amended by the first originall copie. edinburgh, printed by andro hart.") "the complaynt of scotland. written in . with a preliminary dissertation and glossary." by john leyden. edinburgh, . "chronicle of scottish poetry; from the thirteenth century to the union of the crowns." by j. sibbald. vols. edinburgh, . "the north-country chorister." edited by j. ritson. durham, . [london, .] see "northern garlands," p. xix. "minstrelsy of the scottish border: consisting of historical and romantic ballads, collected in the southern counties of scotland; with a few of modern date founded upon local tradition." st and d vols. , d . [poetical works of sir walter scott, vols. - . cadell, edinburgh, .] "the wife of auchtermuchty. an ancient scottish poem, with a translation into latin rhyme." edinburgh, . "a collection of songs, moral, sentimental, instructive, and amusing." by james plumtre. to. cambridge, . london, . vols. "popular ballads and songs, from tradition, manuscripts, and scarce editions; with translations of similar pieces from the ancient danish language, and a few originals by the editor. by robert jamieson." vols. edinburgh, . "ancient (!) historic ballads." newcastle, . "scottish historical and romantic ballads, chiefly ancient." by john finlay. vols. edinburgh . "remains of nithsdale and galloway song," &c. by r.h. cromek. london, . "old ballads, historical and narrative, with some of modern date: collected from rare copies and mss." by thomas evans. vols. . vols. . [new edition, revised and enlarged by r.h. evans. vols. london, .] "select scottish songs, ancient and modern, with critical and biographical notices, by robert burns. edited by r.h. cromek." london. . vols. "essay on song-writing; with a selection of such english songs as are most eminent for poetical merit. by john aiken. a new edition, with additions and corrections, and a supplement by r.h. evans." london, . "northern garlands." london, . (contains the bishopric, yorkshire, and northumberland garlands, and the north-country chorister, before mentioned.) "bibliographical miscellanies, being a collection of curious pieces in verse and prose." by dr. bliss. oxford, . "illustrations of northern antiquities, from the earlier teutonic and scandinavian romances, &c., with translations of metrical tales from the old german, danish, swedish, and icelandic languages." to. by weber, scott, and jamieson. edinburgh, . "pieces of ancient poetry, from unpublished manuscripts and scarce books." fry. bristol, . "a collection of ancient and modern scottish ballads, tales, and songs: with explanatory notes and observations." by john gilchrist. vols. edinburgh, . "heliconia. comprising a selection of the poetry of the elizabethan age, written or published between and ." edited by t. park. vols. london, . *"albyn's anthology." by alexander campbell. edinburgh, . "the pocket encyclopedia of song." vols. glasgow, . "calliope: a selection of ballads, legendary and pathetic." london, . facetiæ. musarum deliciæ ( ), wit restor'd ( ), and wits recreations ( ). vols. london, . "the suffolk garland: or a collection of poems, songs, tales, ballads, sonnets, and elegies, relative to that county." ipswich, . "the jacobite relics of scotland: being the songs, airs, and legends of the adherents to the house of stuart. collected and illustrated by james hogg." vols. edinburgh, and . "the harp of caledonia: a collection of songs, ancient and modern, chiefly scottish," &c. by john struthers. vols. glasgow, . "the new notborune mayd." roxburghe club. london, . "the scottish minstrel, a selection from the vocal melodies of scotland, ancient and modern, arranged for the piano-forte by r.a. smith." vols. - . *"the british minstrel, a selection of ballads, ancient and modern; with notes, biographical and critical. by john struthers." glasgow, . "scarce ancient ballads, many never before published." aberdeen. alex. laing, . "the select melodies of scotland, interspersed with those of ireland and wales," &c. by george thomson. london. vols. - . "select remains of the ancient popular poetry of scotland." by david laing. edinburgh, . "the beauties of english poetry." london, . "the thistle of scotland; a selection of ancient ballads, with notes. by alexander laing." aberdeen, . "some ancient christmas carols, with the tunes to which they were formerly sung in the west of england; together with two ancient ballads, a dialogue, &c. collected by davies gilbert." the second edition. london, . "a collection of curious old ballads and miscellaneous poetry." david webster. edinburgh, . "a ballad book." by charles kirkpatrick sharpe. . ( copies printed.) "a north countrie garland." by james maidment. edinburgh, . ( copies printed.) "the common-place book of ancient and modern ballad and metrical legendary tales. an original selection, including many never before published." edinburgh, . *"the scottish caledonian encyclopædia; or, the original, antiquated, and natural curiosities of the south of scotland, interspersed with scottish poetry." by john mactaggart. london, . "gleanings of scotch, english, and irish scarce old ballads, chiefly tragical and historical." by peter buchan. peterhead, . "the songs of scotland, ancient and modern; with an introduction and notes," &c. by allan cunningham. vols. london, . "early metrical tales." by david laing. edinburgh, . "ancient scottish ballads, recovered from tradition, and never before published: with notes, historical and explanatory, and an appendix, containing the airs of several of the ballads." by george r. kinloch. edinburgh, . "minstrelsy, ancient and modern, with an historical introduction and notes. by william motherwell." glasgow, . "the ballad-book." by george r. kinloch. edinburgh, . ( copies printed.) "ancient ballads and songs, chiefly from tradition, manuscripts, and scarce works," &c. by thomas lyle. london, . "the knightly tale of golagrus and gawane, and other ancient poems. printed at edinburgh, by w. chepman and a. myllar in the year m.d. viii. reprinted md.ccc.xxvii." "ancient ballads and songs of the north of scotland, hitherto unpublished." by peter buchan. vols. edinburgh, . "jacobite minstrelsy, with notes illustrative of the text, and containing historical details in relation to the house of stuart from to ." glasgow, . "the scottish ballads; collected and illustrated by robert chambers." edinburgh, . "the scottish songs; collected and illustrated by robert chambers." vols. edinburgh, . "ancient metrical tales: printed chiefly from original sources." by c.h. hartshorne. london, . "christmas carols, ancient and modern, including the most popular in the west of england, and the airs to which they were sung," &c. by w. sandys. london, . "the bishoprick garland, or a collection of legends, songs, ballads, &c., belonging to the county of durham." by sir cuthbert sharp. london, . "the universal songster, or museum of mirth, forming the most complete, extensive, and valuable collection of ancient and modern songs in the english language." vols. london. . "hugues de lincoln, recueil de ballades, anglo-normande et ecossoises, relatives an meurtre de cet enfant," &c. francisque michel. paris, . "ballads and other fugitive poetical pieces, chiefly scottish; from the collections of sir james balfour." edinburgh, . ed. by james maidment. "lays and legends of varions nations." by w.j. thoms. london, . parts. "the songs of england and scotland." by peter cunningham. vols. london, . "songs and carols. printed from a manuscript in the sloane collection in the british museum." by t. wright. london, . "the nutbrown maid. from the earliest edition of arnold's chronicle." by t. wright, london, . "the turnament of totenham, and the feest. two early ballads, printed from a manuscript preserved in the public library of the university of cambridge." by t. wright. london, . "a little book of ballads." newport, . printed by e.v. utterson for the roxburghe club. "ancient scotish melodies, from a manuscript of the reign of king james vi., with an introductory enquiry illustrative of the history of music in scotland." by william dauncy. edinburgh, . "syr gawayne; a collection of ancient romance-poems, by scotish and english authors, relating to that celebrated knight of the round table, with an introduction, notes, and a glossary." by sir fred. madden. bannatyne club. london, . *"frühlingsgabe für freunde älterer literatur." by th. g. v. karajan. vienna, . (contains english ballads.) "the political songs of england, from the reign of john to that of edward ii. edited and translated by thomas wright." london, . camden society. "a collection of national english airs, consisting of ancient song, ballad, and dance tunes, interspersed with remarks and anecdote, and preceded by an essay on english minstrelsy." by w. chappell. vols. london, - . (see _post_.) "the latin poems commonly attributed to walter mapes, collected and edited by thomas wright." london, . camden society. publications of the percy society, ( - .) vol. i. "old ballads, from early printed copies of the utmost rarity." by j. payne collier. . "a collection of songs and ballads relative to the london prentices and trades, and to the affairs of london generally, during the th, th, and th centuries." by charles mackay. . "the historical songs of ireland: illustrative of the revolutionary struggle between james ii. and william iii. by t. crofton croker. . "the king and a poor northern man. from the edition of ." . vol. ii. "the early naval ballads of england. collected and edited by j.o. halliwell." . "the mad pranks and merry jests of robin goodfellow. reprinted from the edition of ." by j. payne collier. . vol. iii. "political ballads published in england during the commonwealth." by thomas wright. . "strange histories: consisting of ballads and other poems, principally by thomas deloney. from the edition of ." . "the history of patient grisel. two early tracts in black-letter." . vol. iv. "the nursery rhymes of england, collected principally from oral tradition." by j.o. halliwell. . vol. vi. "ancient poetical tracts of the sixteenth century." reprinted from unique copies. by e.f. rimbault . "the crown garland of golden roses: consisting of ballads and songs. by richard johnson." part i. from the edition of . . [part ii., from the edition of , in vol. xv.] vol. ix. "old ballads illustrating the great frost of - , and the fair on the thames." collected and edited by e.f. rimbault. . vol. xiii. "six ballads with burdens." by james goodwin. . "lyrical poems selected from musical publications between the years and ." by j.p. collier. . vol. xv. "the crown garland of golden roses. part ii. from the edition of ." . vol. xvii. "scottish traditional versions of ancient ballads." [from a ms. of buchan's.] edited by james henry dixon. . "ancient poems, ballads, and songs of the peasantry of england, taken down from oral recitation, and transcribed from private manuscripts, rare broadsides, and scarce publications. collected and edited by james henry dixon." . vol. xix. "the civic garland. a collection of songs from london pageants." by f.w. fairholt. . vol. xxi. "popular songs illustrative of the french invasions of ireland." by t. crofton croker. . vol. xxiii. "songs and carols, now first printed from a manuscript of the fifteenth century." by thomas wright, . "festive songs, principally of the th and th centuries: with an introduction." by william sandys. . vol. xxvii. "satirical songs and poems on costume: from the th to the th century." by f.w. fairholt. . vol. xxix. "the loyal garland: a collection of songs of the th century. reprinted from a black-letter copy supposed to be unique." by j.o. halliwell. . "poems and songs relating to george villiers, duke of buckingham, and his assassination by john felton." by f.w. fairholt. vol. xxx. "the garland of goodwill, by thomas deloney." from the edition of . by j.h. dixon. . "popular rhymes, fireside stories, and amusements of scotland." by robert chambers, edinburgh. . [earlier edition in .] "selections from the early ballad poetry of england and scotland. edited by richard john king." london, . "the book of british ballads." by s.c. hall. vols. . . "the book of scottish song: collected and illustrated with historical and critical notices, and an essay on the song-writers of scotland." by alex. whitelaw. . [glasgow, edinburgh and london, .] "a new book of old ballads." by james maidment. edinburgh, . [ copies printed.] *twelve romantic scottish ballads, with music. chambers, . publications of the shakespeare society: "the shakespeare society papers." vol. i. . vol. iv. . "illustrations of the fairy mythology of a midsummer night's dream." by j.o. halliwell. . "the moral play of wit and science, and early poetical miscellanies from an unpublished manuscript." by j.o. halliwell. . "extracts from the registers of the stationers' company, of works entered for publication between the years and . with notes and illustrations by j. payne collier." . vol. ii. [ - .] . "the book of scottish ballads; collected and illustrated with historical and critical notices. by alex. whitelaw." glasgow, edinburgh & london. . "reliquiæ antiquæ." wright & halliwell. vols. london, . "essays on subjects connected with the literature, popular superstitions, and history of england in the middle ages." by thomas wright. vols. london, . "the borderer's table book: or gatherings of the local history and romance of the english and scottish border. by m.a. richardson." vols. newcastle-upon-tyne, . "the ballads and songs of ayrshire," &c. by james paterson and captain charles gray. vols. ayr, - . "the minstrelsy of the english border. being a collection of ballads, ancient, remodelled, and original, founded on well-known border legends. with illustrative notes." by frederick sheldon. london, . "a book of roxburghe ballads. edited by john payne collier." london, . "bibliotheca madrigaliana. a bibliographical account of the musical and poetical works published in england during the th and th centuries, under the titles of madrigals, ballots, ayres, canzonets," &c. by e.f. rimbault. . "a lytell geste of robin hode, with other ancient and modern ballads and songs relating to this celebrated yeoman," &c. by john mathew gutch. vols. london. . "sir hugh of lincoln: or an examination of a curious tradition respecting the jews, with a notice of the popular poetry connected with it. by the rev. abraham hume." london, . "ballads and poems respecting hugh of lincoln." j.o. halliwell. brixton hill, . "the ballad of edwin and emma. by david mallet." with notes and illustrations by frederick t. dinsdale. london, . "musical illustrations of bishop percy's reliques of ancient english poetry. a collection of old ballad tunes, etc. chiefly from rare mss. and early printed books," &c. by edward f. rimbault. london, . "the fairy mythology. illustrative of the romance and superstition of various countries." by thomas keightley. london, . "palatine anthology. a collection of ancient poems and ballads relating to lancashire and cheshire. the palatine garland. being a selection of ballads and fragments supplementary to the palatine anthology." by j.o. halliwell. . [privately printed.] "a new boke about shakespeare and stratford-on-avon." by j.o. halliwell. . [privately printed.] "a little book of songs and ballads, gathered from ancient musick books, ms. and printed." by e.f. rimbault. london, . "the sussex garland. a collection of ballads, sonnets, tales, elegies, songs, epitaphs, &c. illustrative of the county of sussex." by james taylor. newick, . "the yorkshire anthology. a collection of ancient and modern ballads, poems and songs, relating to the county of yorkshire. collected by j.o. halliwell." london, . [privately printed.] "the norfolk anthology. a collection of poems, ballads, and rare tracts, relating to the county of norfolk." collected by j.o. halliwell. . [privately printed.] "the illustrated book of english songs. from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century." illustrated london library. london, (about) . "the illustrated book of scottish songs. from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century." illustrated london library. london, (about) . "the great hero of the ancient minstrelsy of england, robin hood," &c. by joseph hunter. london, . "the literature and romance of northern europe, &c.; with copious specimens of the most celebrated histories, romances, popular legends and tales, old chivalrous ballads," &c. by william & mary howitt. vols. london, . "the pictorial book of ancient ballad poetry of great britain, historical, traditional, and romantic: to which are added a selection of modern imitations, and some translations." by j.s. moore. london, . "the songs of scotland adapted to their appropriate melodies," &c. illustrated with historical, biographical, and critical notices. by george farquhar graham. vols. edinburgh, - . "songs from the dramatists." edited by robert bell. annotated edition of the english poets. london, . "popular music of the olden time; a collection of ancient songs, ballads, and dance tunes, illustrative of the national music of england. with short introductions to the different reigns, and notices of the airs from writers of the th and th centuries. also a short account of the minstrels." by w. chappell. london. begun, . complete in vols. "reliques of ancient poetry, &c. (percy's.) to which is now added a supplement of many curious historical and narrative ballads, reprinted from rare copies." philadelphia, . "early ballads illustrative of history, traditions and customs." by r. bell. annotated edition of the english poets. london, . "ballads and songs. by david mallet. a new edition, with notes and illustrations and a memoir of the author." by frederick dinsdale. london, . "ancient poems, ballads, and songs of the peasantry of england. edited by robert bell." london, . "the ballads of scotland. edited by william edmondstoune aytoun." vols. edinburgh and london, . d ed., . "the romantic scottish ballads: their epoch and authorship. edinburgh papers. by robert chambers." lond. &. ed. . "the romantic scottish ballads and the lady wardlaw heresy. by norval clyne." aberdeen, . "political poems and songs relating to english history, composed during the period from the accession of edward iii. to that of richard iii." by thomas wright. vol. i. london, . (published by the british government.) the ballads and songs of yorkshire. by c.j.d. ingledew. (announced.) the jacobite minstrelsy of scotland. by charles mackay (announced.) the gentleman's magazine, *the scots magazine, the retrospective review, the british bibliographer, censura literara, restituta, notes and queries, &c. the full titles of the principal collections of ballad-poetry in other languages, referred to in these volumes, are as follows:-- "udvalgte danske viser fra middelalderen; efter a.s. vedels og p. syvs trykte udgaver og efter haandskrevne samlinger udgivne paa ny af abrahamson, nyerup, og rahbek." copenhagen, - . vols. danmarks gamle folkeviser, udgivne af svend grundtvig. vols., and the first part of the third. copenhagen, - . "svenska folk-visor fran forntiden, samlade och utgifne af er. gust. geijer och arv. aug. afzelius." stockholm, - . vols. "svenska fornsånger. en samling af kämpavisor, folk-visor, lekar och dansar, samt barn- och vall-sånger. utgifne af adolf iwar arwidsson." stockholm, - . vols. "altdänische heldenlieder, balladen, und mährchen, übersetzt von wilhelm carl grimm." heidelberg, . "des knaben wunderhorn. alte dentsche lieder." arnim & brentano. vols. heidelberg, - . d ed. of first part in . "die volkslieder der deutschen, etc. herausgegeben durch friedrich karl freiherrn von erlach." mannheim, - . vols. "versuch einer geschichtlichen charakteristik der volkslieder germanischer nationen, mit einer uebersicht der lieder aussereuropäischer völkerschaften." von talvj. leipzig, . "schlesische volkslieder mit melodien. aus dem munde des volks gesammelt und herausgegeben von hoffmann von fallersleben und ernst richter." leipzig, . "alte hoch- und niederdeutsche volkslieder, in fünf büchern, herausgegeben von ludwig uhland." vols. stuttgart, - . "deutsther liederhort. auswahl der vorzüglichern deutschen volkslieder aus der vorzeit und der gegenwart mit ihren eigenthümlichen melodien." von ludwig erk. berlin, . "niederländische volkslieder. gesammelt und erläutert von hoffmann von fallersleben." d ed. hannover, . * * * * * book i. the boy and the mantle. no incident is more common in romantic fiction, than the employment of some magical contrivance as a test of conjugal fidelity, or of constancy in love. in some romances of the round table, and tales founded upon them, this experiment is performed by means either of an enchanted horn, of such properties that no dishonoured husband or unfaithful wife can drink from it without spilling, or of a mantle which will fit none but chaste women. the earliest known instances of the use of these ordeals are afforded by the _lai du corn_, by robert bikez, a french minstrel of the twelfth or thirteenth century, and the _fabliau du mantel mautaillé_, which, in the opinion of a competent critic, dates from the second half of the thirteenth century, and is only the older lay worked up into a new shape. (wolf, _ueber die lais_, , sq., , sq.) we are not to suppose, however, that either of these pieces presents us with the primitive form of this humorous invention. robert bikez tells us that he learned his story from an abbot, and that "noble ecclesiast" stood but one further back in a line of tradition which curiosity will never follow to its source. we shall content ourselves with noticing the most remarkable cases of the use of these and similar talismans in imaginative literature. in the _roman de tristan_, a composition of unknown antiquity, the frailty of nearly all the ladies at the court of king marc is exposed by their essaying a draught from the marvellous horn, (see the english _morte arthur_, southey's ed. i. .) in the _roman de perceval_, the knights, as well as the ladies, undergo this probation. from some one of the chivalrous romances ariosto adopted the wonderful vessel into his _orlando_, (xlii. , sq., xliii. , sq.,) and upon his narrative la fontaine founded the tale and the comedy of _la coupe enchantée_. in german, we have two versions of the same story,--one, an episode in the _krone_ of heinrich vom türlein, thought to have been borrowed from the _perceval_ of chrétien de troyes, (_die sage vom zauberbecher_, in wolf, _ueber die lais_, ,) and another, which we have not seen, in bruns, _beiträge zur kritischen bearbeitung alter handschriften_, ii. ; while in english, it is represented by the highly amusing "bowrd," which we are about to print, and which we have called _the horn of king arthur_. the forms of the tale of the mantle are not so numerous. the _fabliau_ already mentioned was reduced to prose in the sixteenth century, and published at lyons, (in ,) as _le manteau mal taillé_, (legrand's _fabliaux_, d ed., i. ,) and under this title, or that of _le court mantel_, is very well known. an old fragment (_der mantel_) is given in haupt and hoffmann's _altdeutsche blätter_, ii. , and the story is also in bruns _beiträge_. lastly, we find the legends of the horn and the mantle united, as in the german ballad _die ausgleichung_, (_des knaben wunderhorn_, i. ,) and in the english ballad of _the boy and the mantle_, where a magical knife is added to the other curiosities. all three of these, by the way, are claimed by the welsh as a part of the _insignia_ of ancient britain, and the special property of tegau eurvron, the wife of caradog with the strong arm. (jones, _bardic museum_, p. .) in other departments of romance, many other objects are endowed with the same or an analogous virtue. in indian and persian story, the test of innocence is a red lotus-flower; in _amadis_, a garland, which fades on the brow of the unfaithful; in _perceforest_, a rose. the _lay of the rose_ in _perceforest_, is the original (according to schmidt) of the much-praised tale of senecé, _camille, ou la manière de filer le parfait amour_, ( ,)--in which a magician presents a jealous husband with a portrait in wax, that will indicate by change of color the infidelity of his wife,--and suggested the same device in the twenty-first novel of bandello, (part first,) on the translation of which in painter's _palace of pleasure_, (vol. ii. no. ,) massinger founded his play of _the picture_. again, in the tale of _zeyn alasman and the king of the genii_, in the _arabian nights_, the means of proof is a mirror, that reflects only the image of a spotless maiden; in that of the carpenter and the king's daughter, in the _gesta romanorum_, (c. ,) a shirt, which remains clean and whole as long as both parties are true; in _palmerin of england_, a cup of tears, which becomes dark in the hands of an inconstant lover; in the _fairy queen_, the famous girdle of florimel; in _horn and rimnild_ (ritson, _metrical romances_, iii. ,) as well as in one or two ballads in this collection, the stone of a ring; in a german ballad, _die krone der königin von afion_, (erlach, _volkslieder der deutschen_, i. ,) a golden crown, that will fit the head of no incontinent husband. without pretending to exhaust the subject, we may add three instances of a different kind: the valley in the romance of _lancelot_, which being entered by a faithless lover would hold him imprisoned forever; the cave in _amadis of gaul_, from which the disloyal were driven by torrents of flame; and the well in _horn and rimnild_, (_ibid._) which was to show the shadow of horn, if he proved false. in conclusion, we will barely allude to the singular anecdote related by herodotus, (ii. ,) of phero, the son of sesostris, in which the experience of king marc and king arthur is so curiously anticipated. in the early ages, as dunlop has remarked, some experiment for ascertaining the fidelity of women, in defect of evidence, seems really to have been resorted to. "by the levitical law," (_numbers_ v. - ,) continues that accurate writer, "there was prescribed a mode of trial, which consisted in the suspected person drinking water in the tabernacle. the mythological fable of the trial by the stygian fountain, which disgraced the guilty by the waters rising so as to cover the laurel wreath of the unchaste female who dared the examination, probably had its origin in some of the early institutions of greece or egypt. hence the notion was adopted in the greek romances, the heroines of which were invariably subjected to a magical test of this nature, which is one of the few particulars in which any similarity of incident can be traced between the greek novels and the romances of chivalry." see dunlop, _history of fiction_, london, , i. , sq.; legrand, _fabliaux_, d ed., i. , sq., ; schmidt, _jahrbücher der literatur_, xxix. ; wolf, _ueber die lais_, - ; and, above all, graesse's _sagenkreise des mittelalters_, , sq. _the boy and the mantle_ was "printed verbatim" from the percy ms., in the _reliques of ancient english poetry_, iii. . in the third day of may, to carleile did come a kind curteous child, that cold much of wisdome. a kirtle and a mantle this child had uppon, with brouches[l ] and ringes full richelye bedone. he had a sute of silke about his middle drawne; without he cold of curtesye, he thought itt much shame. "god speed thee, king arthur, sitting at thy meate: and the goodly queene guénever i cannott her forgett, "i tell you, lords, in this hall, i hett[l ] you all to heede, except you be the more surer, is you for to dread." he plucked out of his poterner,[l ] and longer wold not dwell; he pulled forth a pretty mantle, betweene two nut-shells. "have thou here, king arthur, have thou heere of mee; give itt to thy comely queene, shapen as itt is alreadye. itt shall never become that wiffe, that hath once done amisse:"-- then every knight in the kings court began to care for his[l ]. forth came dame guénever; to the mantle shee her hied[l ]; the ladye shee was newfangle, but yett shee was affrayd. when shee had taken the mantle, she stoode as shee had beene madd: it was from the top to the toe, as sheeres had itt shread. one while was it gule[l ], another while was itt greene; another while was it wadded; ill itt did her beseeme. another while was it blacke, and bore the worst hue: "by my troth," quoth king arthur, "i think thou be not true." she threw down the mantle, that bright was of blee; fast, with a rudd redd, to her chamber can shee flee. she curst the weaver and the walker that clothe that had wrought, and bade a vengeance on his crowne that hither hath itt brought. "i had rather be in a wood, under a greene tree, then in king arthurs court shamed for to bee." kay called forth his ladye, and bade her come neere; saies, "madam, and thou be guiltye, i pray thee hold thee there." forth came his ladye, shortlye and anon; boldlye to the mantle then is shee gone. when she had tane the mantle, and cast it her about, then was shee bare 'before all the rout.' then every knight, that was in the kings court, talked, laughed,[l ] and showted full oft att that sport. shee threw downe the mantle, that bright was of blee; fast, with a red rudd, to her chamber can shee flee. forth came an old knight, pattering ore a creede, and he proferred to this litle boy twenty markes to his meede, and all the time of the christmasse, willinglye to ffeede; for why, this mantle might doe his wiffe some need. when she had tane the mantle, of cloth that was made, shee had no more left on her, but a tassell and a threed: then every knight in the kings court bade evill might shee speed. shee threw downe the mantle, that bright was of blee; and fast, with a redd rudd, to her chamber can shee flee. craddocke called forth his ladye, and bade her come in; saith, "winne this mantle, ladye, with a little dinne. winne this mantle, ladye, and it shal be thine, if thou never did amisse since thou wast mine." forth came craddockes ladye, shortlye and anon; but boldlye to the mantle then is shee gone. when she had tane the mantle, and cast it her about, upp at her great toe it began to crinkle and crowt: shee said, "bowe downe, mantle, and shame me not for nought. once i did amisse, i tell you certainlye, when i kist craddockes mouth under a greene tree; when i kist craddockes mouth before he marryed mee." when shee had her shreeven, and her sines shee had tolde, the mantle stoode about her right as shee wold, seemelye of coulour, glittering like gold: then every knight in arthurs court did her behold. then spake dame guénever to arthur our king; "she hath tane yonder mantle not with right[l ], but with wronge. see you not yonder woman, that maketh her self soe 'cleane'[l ]? i have seene tane out of her bedd of men fiveteene; priests, clarkes, and wedded men from her, bydeene: yett shee taketh the mantle, and maketh her self cleane." then spake the little boy, that kept the mantle in hold; sayes, "king, chasten thy wiffe, of her words shee is to bold: shee is a bitch and a witch, and a whore bold: king, in thine owne hall thou art a cuckold." the little boy stoode looking out a dore; 'and there as he was lookinge he was ware of a wyld bore.' he was ware of a wyld bore, wold have werryed a man: he pulld forth a wood kniffe, fast thither that he ran: he brought in the bores head, and quitted him like a man. he brought in the bores head, and was wonderous bold: he said there was never a cuckolds kniffe carve itt that cold. some rubbed their knives uppon a whetstone: some threw them under the table, and said they had none. king arthur and the child stood looking them upon; all their knives edges turned backe againe. craddocke had a little knive of iron and of steele; he britled[l ] the bores head wonderous weele, that every knight in the kings court had a morssell. the little boy had a horne, of red gold that ronge: he said there was "noe cuckolde shall drinke of my horne, but he shold it sheede, either behind or beforne." some shedd on their shoulder, and some on their knee; he that cold not hitt his mouthe, put it in his eye: and he that was a cuckold every man might him see. craddocke wan the horne, and the bores head: his ladie wan the mantle unto her meede. everye such a lovely ladye god send her well to speede. ms. ver. , branches. v. , heate. v. , poterver. ms. v. , his wiffe. v. , bided. v. , gaule. ms. ver. , lauged. ms. ver. , wright. v. , cleare. ms. v. , or birtled. the horn of king arthur. ms. ashmole, , fol. to . this amusing piece was first published entire in hartshorne's _ancient metrical tales_, p. , but with great inaccuracies. it is there called _the cokwolds daunce_. a few extracts had previously been given from the ms., in the notes to _orfeo and heurodis_, in laing's _early popular poetry of scotland_. mr. wright contributed a corrected edition to karajan's _frühlingsgabe für freunde älterer literatur_. that work not being at the moment obtainable, the editor was saved from the necessity of reprinting or amending a faulty text, by the kindness of j.o. halliwell, esq., who sent him a collation of hartshorne's copy with the oxford manuscript. all that wyll of solas lere, herkyns now, and [z]e schall here, and [z]e kane vnderstond; off a bowrd i wyll [z]ou schew, that ys full gode and trew, that fell some tyme in ynglond. kynge arthour was off grete honour, off castellis and of many a toure, and full wyde iknow; a gode ensample i wyll [z]ou sey, what chanse befell hym one a dey; herkyn to my saw! cokwoldes he louyd, as i [z]ou ply[z]t; he honouryd them, both dey and nyght, in all maner of thyng; and as i rede in story, he was kokwold sykerly; ffor sothê it is no lesyng. herkyne, seres, what i sey; her may [z]e here solas and pley, iff [z]e wyll take gode hede; kyng arthour had a bugyll horn, that ever mour stod hym be forn, were so that ever he [z]ede. ffor when he was at the bord sete, anon the horne schuld be fette[l ], ther off that he myght drynk; ffor myche crafte he couth thereby, and ofte tymes the treuth he sey; non other couth he thynke. iff any cokwold drynke of it, spyll he schuld, withouten lette; therfor thei wer not glade; gret dispyte thei had therby, because it dyde them vilony, and made them oft tymes sade. when the kyng wold hafe solas, the bugyll was fett[l ] into the plas, to make solas and game; and then changyd the cokwoldes chere; the kyng them callyd ferre and nere, lordynges, by ther name. than men myght se game inow[z]e, when every cokwold on other leu[z]e, and [z]it thei schamyd sore: where euer the cokwoldes wer sought, befor the kyng thei were brought, both lesse and more. kyng arthour than, verament, ordeynd, throw hys awne assent, ssoth as i [z]ow sey, the tabull dormounte withouten lette; ther at the cokwoldes wer sette, to have solas and pley. ffor at the bord schuld be non other bot euery cokwold and his brother[l ]; to tell treuth i must nedes; and when the cokwoldes wer sette, garlandes of wylos sculd be fette, and sett vpon ther hedes. off the best mete, withoute lesyng, that stode on bord befor the kyng, both ferr and nere, to the cokwoldes he sente anon, and bad them be glad euerychon, ffor his sake make gode chere. and seyd, "lordyngs, for [z]our lyues, be neuer the wrother with [z]our wyues, ffor no manner of nede: off women com duke and kyng; i [z]ow tell without lesyng, of them com owre manhed. so it befell sertenly, the duke off glosseter com in hy[z]e, to the courte with full gret my[z]ht; he was reseyued at the kyngs palys, with mych honour and grete solas, with lords that were well dyg[z]ht. with the kyng ther dyde he dwell, bot how long i can not tell, therof knaw i non name; off kyng arthour a wonder case, frendes, herkyns how it was, ffor now begynes game. vppon a dey, withouten lette, the duke with the kyng was sette, at mete with mykill pride; he lukyd abowte wonder faste, hys syght on euery syde he caste to them that sate besyde. the kyng aspyed the erle anon, and fast he low[z]he the erle vpon, and bad he schuld be glad; and yet, for all hys grete honour, cokwold was kyng arthour, ne galle non he had. so at the last, the duke he brayd, and to the kyng thes wordes sayd[l ]; he myght no longer forbere; "syr, what hath thes men don, that syche garlondes thei were vpon? that skyll wold i lere." the kyng seyd the erle to, "syr, non hurte they haue do, ffor this was thru[z]h a chans. sertes thei be fre men all, ffor non of them hath no gall; therfor this is ther penans. "ther wyves hath ben merchandabull, and of ther ware compenabull; methinke it is non herme; a man of lufe that wold them craue, hastely he schuld it haue, ffor thei couth not hym wern. "all theyr wyves, sykerlyke, hath vsyd the backefysyke[l ], whyll thes men were oute; and ofte they haue draw that draught, to vse well the lechers craft, with rubyng of ther toute. "syr," he seyd, "now haue i redd; ete we now, and make vs glad, and euery man fle care;" the duke seyd to hym anon, "than be thei cokwoldes, everychon;" the kyng seyd, "hold the there." the kyng than, after the erlys word, send to the cokwolds bord, to make them mery among, all manner of mynstralsy, to glad the cokwolds by and by with herpe, fydell, and song: and bad them take no greffe, bot all with loue and with leffe, euery man ...[l ] with other; ffor after mete, without distans, the cockwolds schuld together danse, euery man with hys brother. than began a nobull game: the cockwolds together came befor the erle and the kyng; in skerlet kyrtells over one, the cokwoldes stodyn euerychon, redy vnto the dansyng. than seyd the kyng in hye, "go fyll my bugyll hastely, and bryng it to my hond. i wyll asey with a gyne all the cokwolds that her is in; to know them wyll i fond." than seyd the erle, "for charyte, in what skyll, tell me, a cokwold may i know?" to the erle the kyng ansuerd, "syr, be myn hore berd, thou schall se within a throw." the bugyll was brought the kyng to hond. then seyd the kyng, "i vnderstond, thys horne that [z]e here se, ther is no cockwold, fer ne nere, here of to drynke hath no power, as wyde as crystiante, "bot he schall spyll on euery syde; ffor any cas that may betyde, schall non therof avanse." and [z]it, for all hys grete honour, hymselfe, noble kyng arthour, hath forteynd syche a chans. "syr erle," he seyd, "take and begyn." he seyd; "nay, be seynt austyn, that wer to me vylony; not for all a reme to wyn, befor you i schuld begyn, ffor honour off my curtassy." kyng arthour ther he toke the horn, and dyde as he was wont beforn, bot ther was [z]it gon a gyle: [l ]he wend to haue dronke of the best, bot sone he spyllyd on hys brest, within a lytell whyle. the cokwoldes lokyd iche on other, and thought the kyng was their own brother, and glad thei wer of that: "he hath vs scornyd many a tyme, and now he is a cokwold fyne, to were a cokwoldes hate." the quene was therof schamyd sore; sche changyd hyr colour lesse and more, and wold haue ben a wey. therwith the kyng gan hyr behold, and seyd he schuld neuer be so bold, the soth agene to sey. "cokwoldes no mour i wyll repreue, ffor i ame ane, and aske no leue, ffor all my rentes and londys. lordyngs, all now may [z]e know that i may dance in the cokwold row, and take [z]ou by the handes." than seyd thei all at a word, that cokwoldes schuld begynne the bord, and sytt hyest in the halle. "go we, lordyngs, all [and] same, and dance to make vs gle and game, ffor cokwolds have no galle." and after that sone anon, the kyng causyd the cokwolds ychon to wesch withouten les; ffor ought that euer may betyde, he sett them by hys awne syde, vp at the hy[z]e dese. the kyng hymselff a gurlond fette; uppon hys hede he it sette, ffor it myght be non other, and seyd, "lordyngs, sykerly, we be all off a freyry; i ame [z]our awne brother. "be jhesu cryst that is aboffe, that man aught me gode loffe that ley by my quene: i wer worthy hym to honour, both in castell and in towre, with rede, skerlet and grene. "ffor him he helpyd, when i was forth, to cher my wyfe and make her myrth; ffor women louys wele pley; and therfor, serys, have [z]e no dowte bot many schall dance in the cokwoldes rowte, both by nyght and dey. "and therefor, lordyngs, take no care; make we mery; for nothing spare; all brether in one rowte." than the cokwoldes wer full blythe, and thankyd god a hundred syth, ffor soth withouten dowte. every cokwold seyd to other, "kyng arthour is our awne brother, therfor we may be blyth:" the erle off glowsytur verament, toke hys leve, and home he wente, and thankyd the kyng fele sythe. kyng arthour lived at karlyon[l ], with hys cokwolds euerychon, and made both gam and gle: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *[l ] a knyght ther was withouten les, that seruyd at the kyngs des, syr corneus hyght he; he made this gest in hys gam, and named it after hys awne name, in herpyng or other gle. and after, nobull kyng arthour lyued and dyed with honour, as many hath don senne, both cokwoldes and other mo: god gyff vs grace that we may go to heuyn! amen, amen. , sette. see , . , sett. , brothers. , spake. , ms. baskefysyke. , word wanting. , bot he. , left at skarlyon. , three lines omitted in ms. fragment of the marriage of sir gawaine. from percys _reliques_, iii. . this is one of the few ballads contained in the percy ms., which we have the pleasure of possessing as it is there written. having first submitted an improved copy, "with large conjectural supplements and corrections," percy added this old fragment at the end of the volume: "literally and exactly printed, with all its defects, inaccuracies, and errata," in order, as he triumphantly remarks, "that such austere antiquaries as complain that the ancient copies have not been always rigidly adhered to, may see how unfit for publication many of the pieces would have been, if all the blunders, corruptions, and nonsense of illiterate reciters and transcribers had been superstitiously retained, without some attempt to correct and amend them." "this ballad," the editor of the _reliques_ goes on to say, "has most unfortunately suffered by having half of every leaf in this part of the ms. torn away; and, as about nine stanzas generally occur in the half-page now remaining, it is concluded that the other half contained nearly the same number of stanzas." the story may be seen, unmutilated and in an older form, in madden's _syr gawayne_, p. , _the weddynge of syr gawen and dame ragnell_. the transformation on which the story turns is found also in chaucer's _wife of bath's tale_, in gower's tale of _florent and the king of sicily's daughter_; (_confessio amantis_, book i.) in the ballad of _king henry_ (page of this volume); and in an icelandic saga of the danish king helgius, quoted by scott in his illustrations to _king henry, minstrelsy_, iii. . voltaire has employed the same idea in his _ce qui plaît aux dames_, but whence he borrowed it we are unable to say. worked over by some ballad-monger of the sixteenth century, and of course reduced to dish-water, this tale has found its way into _the crown garland of golden roses_, part i. p. (percy society, vol. vi.), _of a knight and a faire virgin_. kinge arthur liues in merry carleile, and seemely is to see; and there he hath with him queene genever, that bride so bright of blee. and there he hath with him queene genever, that bride soe bright in bower; and all his barons about him stoode, that were both stiffe and stowre. the king kept a royall christmasse, of mirth & great honor; ... when ... [_about nine stanzas wanting._] "and bring me word what thing it is that women[l ] most desire; this shalbe thy ransome, arthur," he sayes, "for ile haue no other hier." king arthur then held vp his hand, according thene as was the law; he tooke his leaue of the baron there, and homword can he draw. and when he came to merry carlile, to his chamber he is gone; and ther came to him his cozen, sir gawaine, as he did make his mone. and there came to him his cozen, sir gawaine[l ], that was a curteous knight; "why sigh you soe sore, vnckle arthur," he said, "or who hath done thee vnright?" "o peace! o peace! thou gentle gawaine, that faire may thee beffall; for if thou knew my sighing soe deepe, thou wold not meruaile att all. "ffor when i came to tearne-wadling, a bold barron there i fand; with a great club vpon his backe, standing stiffe & strong. "and he asked me wether i wold fight or from him i shold be gone; or else[l ] i must him a ransome pay, and soe depart him from. "to fight with him i saw noe cause, me thought it was not meet; for he was stiffe and strong with all; his strokes were nothing sweete. "therefor this is my ransome, gawaine, i ought to him to pay; i must come againe, as i am sworne, vpon the newyeers day. "and i must bring him word what thing it is [_about nine stanzas wanting._] then king arthur drest him for to ryde, in one soe riche array, towards the foresaid tearne-wadling, that he might keepe his day. and as he rode over a more, hee see a lady, where shee sate, betwixt an oke and a greene hollen; she was clad in red scarlett. then there as shold have stood her mouth, then there was sett her eye; the other was in her forhead fast, the way that she might see. her nose was crooked, & turnd outward, her mouth stood foule a-wry; a worse formed lady then shee was, neuer man saw with his eye. to halch vpon him, king arthur, this lady was full faine; but king arthur had forgott his lesson, what he shold say againe. "what knight art thou," the lady sayd, "that wilt not speake to me? of me [be] thou nothing dismayd, tho i be vgly to see. "for i haue halched you curteouslye, and you will not me againe; yett i may happen, sir knight," shee said, "to ease thee of thy paine." "giue thou ease me, lady," he said, "or helpe me any thing, thou shalt haue gentle gawaine, my cozen, and marry him with a ring." "why if i helpe thee not, thou noble king arthur, of thy owne hearts desiringe, of gentle gawaine.... [_about nine stanzas wanting._] and when he came to the tearne-wadling, the baron there cold he finde[l ]; with a great weapon on his backe, standinge stiffe and stronge. and then he tooke king arthurs letters in his hands, and away he cold them fling; and then he puld out a good browne sword, and cryd himselfe a king. and he sayd, "i haue thee, & thy land, arthur, to doe as it pleaseth me; for this is not thy ransome sure, therfore yeeld thee to me." and then bespoke him noble arthur, and bade him hold his hand[l ]; "and give me leave to speake my mind, in defence of all my land." he said, "as i came over a[l ] more, i see a lady, where shee sate, betweene an oke & a green hollen; shee was clad in red scarlette. "and she says a woman will haue her will, and this is all her cheef desire; doe me right, as thou art a baron of sckill, this is thy ransome, & all thy hyer." he sayes, "an early vengeance light on her! she walkes on yonder more; it was my sister, that told thee this, she is a misshapen hore. "but heer ile make mine avow to god, to do her an euill turne; for an euer i may thate fowle theefe get, in a fyer i will her burne." [_about nine stanzas wanting._] the second part. sir lancelott, & sir steven, bold, they rode with them that day; and the formost of the company, there rode the steward kay. soe did sir banier, & sir bore, sir garrett with them, soe gay; soe did sir tristeram, that gentle knight, to the forrest, fresh & gay. and when he came to the greene forrest, vnderneath a greene holly tree, their sate that lady in red scarlet, that vnseemly was to see. sir kay beheld this ladys face, and looked vppon her suire,-- "whosoeuer kisses this lady," he sayes, "of his kisse he stands in feare!" sir kay beheld the lady againe, and looked vpon her snout; "whosoeuer kisses this lady," he saies, "of his kisse he stands in doubt!" "peace, cozen kay," then said sir gawaine, "amend thee of thy life; for there is a knight amongst us all, that must marry her to his wife." "what! wedd her to wiffe," then said sir kay, "in the diuells name anon, get me a wiffe whereere i may, for i had rather be slaine!" then some[l ] tooke vp their hawkes in hast, and some tooke vp their hounds; and some sware they wold not marry her, for citty nor for towne. and then bespake him noble king arthur, and sware there, "by this day, for a litle foule sight & misliking, [_about nine stanzas wanting._] then shee said, "choose thee, gentle gawaine, truth as i doe say; wether thou wilt haue me in this liknesse, in the night, or else in the day." and then bespake him gentle gawaine, with one soe mild of moode; sayes, "well i know what i wold say, god grant it may be good! "to haue thee fowle in the night, when i with thee shold play-- yet i had rather, if i might, haue thee fowle in the day." "what, when lords goe with ther feires[l ]," shee said, "both to the ale and wine; alas! then i must hyde my selfe, i must not goe withinne." and then bespake him gentle gawaine, said, "lady, thats but a skill; and because thou art my owne lady, thou shall haue all thy will." then she said, "blessed be thou, gentle gawaine, this day that i thee see; for as thou see me att this time, from hencforth i wil be. "my father was an old knight, and yett it chanced soe, that he married a younge lady, that brought me to this woe. "shee witched me, being a faire young lady, to the greene forrest to dwell; and there i must walke in womans liknesse, most like a feeind of hell. "she witched my brother to a carlist b.... [_about nine stanzas wanting._] that looked soe foule, and that was wont on the wild more to goe. "come kisse her, brother kay," then said sir gawaine, "and amend the of thy liffe; i sweare this is the same lady that i marryed to my wiffe." sir kay kissed that lady bright, standing vpon his ffeete; he swore, as he was trew knight, the spice was neuer soe sweete. "well, cozen gawaine," sayes sir kay, "thy chance is fallen arright; for thou hast gotten one of the fairest maids, i euer saw with my sight." "it is my fortune," said sir gawaine; "for my vnckle arthurs sake, i am glad as grasse wold be of raine, great joy that i may take." sir gawaine tooke the lady by the one arme, sir kay tooke her by the tother; they led her straight to king arthur, as they were brother and brother. king arthur welcomed them there all, and soe did lady geneuer, his queene; with all the knights of the round table, most seemly to be seene. king arthur beheld that lady faire, that was soe faire & bright; he thanked christ in trinity for sir gawaine, that gentle knight. soe did the knights, both more and lesse, rejoyced all that day, for the good chance that hapened was to sir gawaine and his lady gay. , y^e a woman. , cawaine. , o else. , srinde. , hands. , the. , soome. , seires. king arthur's death. a fragment. _reliques of english poetry_, iii, . "the subject of this ballad is evidently taken from the old romance _morte arthur_, but with some variations, especially in the concluding stanzas; in which the author seems rather to follow the traditions of the old welsh bards, who 'believed that king arthur was not dead, but conveied awaie by the fairies into some pleasant place, where he should remaine for a time, and then returne againe and reign in as great authority as ever.' (holinshed, b. , c. .) or, as it is expressed in an old chronicle printed at antwerp, , by ger. de leew: 'the bretons supposen, that he [king arthur] shall come yet and conquere all bretaigne, for certes this is the prophicye of merlyn, he sayd, that his deth shall be doubteous; and sayd soth, for men thereof yet have doubte, and shullen for ever more,--for men wyt not whether that he lyveth or is dede.' see more ancient testimonies in selden's notes on polyolbion, song . "this fragment, being very incorrect and imperfect in the original ms., hath received some conjectural emendations, and even a supplement of three or four stanzas composed from the romance of _morte arthur_." percy. * * * * * on trinitye mondaye in the morne, this sore battayle was doom'd to bee, where manye a knighte cry'd, well-awaye! alacke, it was the more pittìe. ere the first crowinge of the cocke, when as the kinge in his bed laye, he thoughte sir gawaine[l ] to him came, and there to him these wordes did saye. "nowe, as you are mine unkle deare, and as you prize your life, this daye o meet not with your foe in fighte; putt off the battayle, if yee maye. "for sir launcelot is nowe in fraunce, and with him many an hardye knighte: who will within this moneth be backe, and will assiste yee in the fighte." the kinge then call'd his nobles all, before the breakinge of the daye; and tolde them howe sir gawaine came, and there to him these wordes did saye. his nobles all this counsayle gave, that earlye in the morning, hee shold send awaye an herauld at armes, to aske a parley faire and free. then twelve good knightes king arthur chose, the best of all that with him were, to parley with the foe in field, and make with him agreement faire. the king he charged all his hoste, in readinesse there for to bee; but noe man sholde noe weapon sturre, unlesse a sword drawne they shold see. and mordred, on the other parte, twelve of his knights did likewise bringe, the beste of all his companye, to holde the parley with the kinge. sir mordred alsoe charged his hoste, in readinesse there for to bee; but noe man sholde noe weapon sturre, but if a sworde drawne they shold see. for he durste not his unkle[l ] truste, nor he his nephewe[l ], sothe to tell; alacke! it was a woefulle case, as ere in christentye befelle. but when they were together mette, and both to faire accordance broughte, and a month's league betweene them sette, before the battayle sholde be foughte, an addere crept forth of a bushe, stunge one o' the king's knightes on the knee; alacke! it was a woefulle chance, as ever was in christentìe. when the knighte found him wounded sore, and sawe the wild-worme hanginge there, his sworde he from his scabberde drewe; a piteous case, as ye shall heare. for when the two hostes sawe the sworde, they joyned battayle instantlye; till of so manye noble knightes, on one side there were left but three. for all were slaine that durst abide, and but some fewe that fled awaye: ah mee! it was a bloodye fielde, as ere was foughte on summer's daye. upon king arthur's own partyè, onlye himselfe escaped there, and lukyn duke of gloster free, and the king's butler bedevere. and when the king beheld his knightes all dead and scattered on the molde, the teares fast trickled downe his face; that manlye face in fight so bolde. "nowe reste yee all, brave knights," he said, "soe true and faithful to your trust: and must yee then, yee valiant hearts, be lefte to moulder into dust! "most loyal have yee been to mee, most true and faithful unto deathe: and, oh! to rayse yee up againe, how freelye could i yield my breathe! "but see, the traitor's yet alive! lo where hee stalkes among the deade! nowe bitterlye he shall abye, and vengeance fall upon his head." "o staye, my liege," then sayd the duke; "o staye for love and charitìe; remember what the vision spake, nor meete your foe, if it may bee." "o staye mee not, thou worthye wight, this debt my loyal knights i owe: betide me life, betide me death, i will avenge them of their foe." then straite he grasp'd his trustye speare, and on his horse then mounted hee: as his butler holpe him to his horse, his bowels gushed to his knee. "alas!" then sayd the noble king, "that i should live this sight to see! to see this good knight here be slaine, all for his love in helping mee!" he put his speare into his reste, and to sir mordred loud gan crye; "nowe sette thyself upon thy guarde, for, traitor, nowe thy death is nye." sir mordred lifted up his sworde, and fierce to meet the king ran hee: the king his speare he through him thrust, a fathom thorow his bodìe. when mordered felt the stroke of death, and found that he was wounded soe, he thruste himselfe upon the speare, and strucke the king a deadlye blowe. then grimmlye dyed sir mordered, presentlye upon that tree: and bloody streames ranne from the kinge, ere to the duke returned hee. sir lukyn then he thus bespake: "sir knighte, thou hast been faithfulle tryde; nowe take my sword excalibar[l ], that hangs so freelye by my syde, "o take my sword excalibar, and there into the river throwe: for here, henceforth, benethe this tree, all use of weapons i foregoe. "and fare thee well, thou trustye sword, a better neer had valiant knighte; with thee full ofte, and many a daye, have i withstood my foe in fighte. "with this good fauchion in my hande, oft have i reapd the bloody feelde: but nowe the fatalle houre is come, that never more i may thee weelde." the duke to the river side he went, and there his owne sword in threwe he; but he kept back excalibar, he kept it back in privitie. for all of coleyne was the blade, and all the hilte of precious stone: "and ever alacke!" then sayd the knighte, "must such a sword awaye be throwne?" then backe he came unto the kinge, who sayd, "sir lukyn, what did yee see?" "nothing, my liege, save that the winde blewe oer the waters faire and free." "o goe againe," then said the kinge, "o good sir lukyn, goe againe: into the rivere throwe my sword, nor keepe me lingering here in paine." the duke then to the river went, and the kings scabbard in threwe hee; but hee kept backe excalibar, and hid it undernethe a tree. then backe he came to tell the kinge, who sayde, "sir lukyn, sawe ye oughte?" "nothinge, my liege, save that the winde nowe with the angrye waters fought." "o lukyn, lukyn," said the kinge, "twice haste thou dealt deceytfullye: alacke, whom may wee ever truste, when suche a knighte soe false can bee! "saye, wouldst thou have thy master dead, all for a sword that wins thine eye? now goe againe, and throwe it in, or here the one of us shall dye." the duke, all shent with this rebuke, no aunswere made unto the kinge; but to the rivere tooke the sworde, and threwe it far as he coulde flinge. a hande and an arme did meete the sworde, and flourishd three times in the air; then sunke benethe the renninge streme, and of the duke was seene noe mair. all sore astonied stood the duke, he stood as still, as still mote bee; then hastend backe to tell the kinge, but he was gone from under the tree. but to what place, he cold not tell, for never after hee did him see; but hee sawe a barge goe from the land, and hee heard ladyes howle and crye. and whether the kinge were there, or not, hee never knewe, nor ever colde; for from that sad and direfulle daye, hee never more was seene on molde. . sir gawaine had been killed at arthur's landing on his return from abroad. see the next ballad, ver. . p. , , the folio ms. reads father ... sonne. . more commonly called _caliburn_. in the folio ms. _escalberd_. p. the legend of king arthur. _reliques of english poetry_, iii. . "we have here a short summary of king arthur's history as given by jeff. of monmouth and the old chronicles, with the addition of a few circumstances from the romance _morte arthur_.--the ancient chronicle of ger. de leew (quoted above in p. ,) seems to have been chiefly followed: upon the authority of which we have restored some of the names which were corrupted in the ms., and have transposed one stanza, which appeared to be misplaced: _viz._, that beginning at v. , which in the ms. followed v. . "printed from the editor's ancient folio ms." percy. of brutus'[l ] blood, in brittaine borne, king arthur i am to name; through christendome and heathynesse well knowne is my worthy fame. in jesus christ i doe beleeve; i am a christyan bore; the father, sone, and holy gost, one god, i doe adore. in the four hundred ninetieth yeere[l ], oer brittaine i did rayne, after my savior christ his byrth, what time i did maintaine the fellowshipp of the table round, soe famous in those dayes; whereatt a hundred noble knights and thirty sat alwayes: who for their deeds and and martiall feates, as bookes done yett record, amongst all other nations wer feared through the world. and in the castle off tyntagill king uther mee begate, of agyana[l ], a bewtyous ladye, and come of 'hie'[l ] estate. and when i was fifteen yeere old, then was i crowned kinge: all brittaine, that was att an upròre, i did to quiett bringe; and drove the saxons from the realme, who had opprest this land; all scotland then, throughe manly feates, i conquered with my hand. ireland, denmarke, norwaye, these countryes wan i all; iseland, gotheland, and swetheland; and made their kings my thrall. i conquered all gallya, that now is called france; and slew the hardye froll in feild[l ], my honor to advance. and the ugly gyant dynabus[l ], soe terrible to vewe, that in saint barnards mount did lye, by force of armes i slew. and lucyus, the emperour of rome, i brought to deadly wracke; and a thousand more of noble knightes for feare did turne their backe. five kinges of pavye i did kill[l ] amidst that bloody strife; besides the grecian emperour, who alsoe lost his liffe. whose carcasse i did send to rome, cladd poorlye on a beere; and afterward i past mount-joye the next approaching yeere. then i came to rome, where i was mett right as a conquerour, and by all the cardinalls solempnelye i was crowned an emperour. one winter there i made abode, then word to mee was brought, howe mordred had oppressed the crowne, what treason he had wrought att home in brittaine with my queene: therfore i came with speede to brittaine backe, with all my power, to quitt that traitorous deede; and soone at sandwiche i arrivde, where mordred me withstoode: but yett at last i landed there, with effusion of much blood. for there my nephew sir gawaine dyed, being wounded in that sore the whiche sir lancelot in fight had given him before. thence chased i mordered away, who fledd to london right, from london to winchester, and to cornewalle tooke his flyght. and still i him pursued with speed, till at last wee mett; wherby an appointed day of fight was there agreed and sett: where we did fight, of mortal life eche other to deprive, till of a hundred thousand men scarce one was left alive. there all the noble chivalrye of brittaine tooke their end: o see how fickle is their state that doe on fates[l ] depend! there all the traiterous men were slaine, not one escapte away; and there dyed all my vallyant knightes alas! that woefull day! two and twenty yeere i ware the crowne in honor and great fame, and thus by death was suddenlye deprived of the same. . ms., bruitehis. , he began his reign a.d. , according to the chronicles. , she is named _igerna_ in the old chronicles. , his, ms. , froland field, ms. froll, according to the chronicles, was a roman knight, governor of gaul. , danibus, ms. , see p. , v. . , feates, ms. sir lancelot du lake. this ballad first occurs in the _garland of good will_, and is attributed to thomas deloney, whose career as a song-writer extends from about to . it is merely a rhymed version of a passage in the _morte d'arthur_, (book vi. ch. , , , of southey's ed.) the first two lines are quoted in the second part of henry iv., a. ii. sc. . the present text is nearly that of the _garland of good will_ (percy society, vol. xxx. p. ), and differs considerably from that of percy, (_reliques_, i. .) the same, with very trifling variations, is found in _old ballads_, ( ,) ii. ; ritson's _ancient songs_, ii. ; evans's _old ballads_, ii. . when arthur first in court began, and was approvèd king, by force of arms great victories won, and conquests home did bring; then into britain straight he came, where fifty good and able knights then repairèd unto him, which were of the round table; and many justs and tournaments before them there were drest, where valiant knights did then excel, and far surmount the rest. but one sir lancelot du lake, who was approvèd well, he in his fights and deeds of arms, all others did excel. when he had rested him a while, to play, to game, and sport, he thought he would go try himself, in some adventurous sort. he armèd rode in forest wide, and met a damsel fair, who told him of adventures great, whereto he gave good ear. "why should i not?" quoth lancelot tho, "for that cause i came hither." "thou seem'st," quoth she, "a goodly knight, and i will bring thee thither "whereas a[l ] mighty knight doth dwell, that now is of great fame; therefore tell me what knight thou art, and then what is your name." "my name is lancelot du lake." quoth she, "it likes me than; here dwells a knight that never was o'ermatch'd[l ] with any man; "who has in prison threescore knights and four, that he has bound; knights of king arthur's court they be, and of his table round." she brought him to a river side, and also to a tree, whereon a copper bason hung, his fellows[l ] shields to see. he struck so hard, the bason broke: when tarquin heard the sound, he drove a horse before him straight, whereon a knight lay bound. "sir knight," then said sir lancelot, "bring me that horse-load hither, and lay him down, and let him rest; we'll try our force together. "and as i understand, thou hast, so far as thou art able, done great despite and shame unto the knights of the round table." "if thou be of the table round" (quoth tarquin, speedilye), "both thee and all thy fellowship i utterly defie." "that's overmuch," quoth lancelot tho; "defend thee by and by." they put their spurs unto their steeds, and each at other fly. they coucht their spears, and horses ran as though there had been thunder; and each struck them amidst the shield, wherewith they broke in sunder. their horses backs brake under them. the knights were both astound; to void their horses they made great haste, to light upon the ground. they took them to their shields full fast, their swords they drew out than; with mighty strokes most eagerly each one at other ran. they wounded were, and bled full sore, for breath they both did stand, and leaning on their swords awhile, quoth tarquin, "hold thy hand, "and tell to me what i shall ask;" "say on," quoth lancelot tho; "thou art," quoth tarquin, "the best knight that ever i did know; "and like a knight that i did hate; so that thou be not he, i will deliver all the rest, and eke accord with thee." "that is well said," quoth lancelot then; "but sith it must be so, what is the knight thou hatest thus?[l ] i pray thee to me show." "his name is lancelot du lake, he slew my brother dear; him i suspect of all the rest; i would i had him here." "thy wish thou hast, but yet unknown; i am lancelot du lake! now knight of arthur's table round, king ban's son of benwake;[l ] "and i desire thee do thy worst." "ho! ho!" quoth tarquin tho, "one of us two shall end our lives, before that we do go. "if thou be lancelot du lake, then welcome shalt thou be; wherefore see thou thyself defend, for now defie i thee." they buckled then together so, like two wild boars rashing, and with their swords and shields they ran at one another slashing.[l ] the ground besprinkled was with blood, tarquin began to faint; for he gave back, and bore his shield so low, he did repent. this soon espied[l ] sir lancelot tho; he leapt upon him then, he pull'd him down upon his knee, and rushed[l ] off his helm. and then he struck his neck in two; and when he had done so, from prison, threescore knights and four lancelot delivered tho. , the. , e'er match'd. , fellow. , so. , kind haud's son of seuwake. , flashing. , 'spied. , rushing. the legend of sir guy. (percy's _reliques_, iii. .) "published from an ancient ms. copy in the editor's old folio volume, collated with two printed ones, one of which is in black-letter in the pepys collection." percy. an inferior copy is printed in ritson's _ancient songs and ballads_, ii. . from an essay on the romance of sir guy, read by mr. wright before the british archæological association during its meeting at warwick, we extract the following remarks in illustration of the history of the present ballad, and other similar popular heroic traditions. "as the teutonic tribes progressed in their migrations, and settled in new lands--and especially when they received a new faith, and made advances in civilization,--the mythic romances of their forefathers underwent remarkable modifications to adapt them to new sentiments and new manners. among people who had forgotten the localities to which they referred, they received a new location and became identified with places and objects with which people were better acquainted, and in this manner they underwent a new historical interpretation. it would be no uninteresting task to point out how many romantic tales that are soberly related of individuals of comparatively modern history, are merely new applications of these early myths. "among the romances of the anglo-danish cycle by no means the least celebrated is that of guy of warwick. it is one, of the few, which has been preserved in its anglo-norman form, since which it has gone through an extraordinary number of versions, and chaucer enumerated it among the _romances of pris_, or those which in the fourteenth century were held in the highest estimation. it is doubtless one of those stories in which an ancient mythic romance has undergone the series of modifications i have been describing; a legend which had become located by popular traditions in the neighbourhood we are now visiting, in which the contests between northern chieftains are changed into tilts and tournaments, but in which the combats with dragons and giants are still preserved. whatever may have been the name of the original hero, that which he now bears, guy, is a french name, and could not have been given till norman times. "from the anglo-norman poem, so great was its popularity, two or three different english metrical versions were made, which are still found in manuscripts, and the earliest of which, that of the well-known auchinlech manuscript, has been printed in a very expensive form by one of the scottish antiquarian clubs. it was next transformed into french prose, and in that form was popular in the fifteenth century, and was printed by some of the earlier printers. it was finally reduced to a popular chap-book in prose and a broadside ballad in verse, and in these forms was hawked about the streets until a very recent period. such has in general been the fate of the romantic literature of the middle ages; a remarkable proof of the tenacity with which it has kept its hold on the popular mind." _gentleman's magazine_, sept. , p. . was ever knight for ladyes sake soe tost in love, as i, sir guy, for phelis fayre, that lady bright as ever man beheld with eye? she gave me leave myself to try, the valiant knight with sheeld and speare, ere that her love she would grant me; which made mee venture far and neare. then proved i a baron bold,[l ] in deeds of armes the doughtyest knight that in those dayes in england was, with sworde and speare in feild to fight. an english man i was by birthe: in faith of christ a christyan true: the wicked lawes of infidells i sought by prowesse to subdue. 'nine' hundred twenty yeere and odde[l ] after our saviour christ his birth, when king athelstone wore the crowne, i lived heere upon the earth. sometime i was of warwicke erle, and, as i sayd, of very truth a ladyes love did me constraine to seeke strange ventures in my youth; to win me fame by feates of armes in strange and sundry heathen lands; where i atchieved for her sake right dangerous conquests with my hands. for first i sayled to normandye, and there i stoutlye wan in fight the emperours daughter of almaine, from manye a vallyant worthye knight. then passed i the seas to greece, to helpe the emperour in his right, against the mightye souldans hoaste of puissant persians for to fight: where i did slay of sarazens, and heathen pagans, manye a man; and slew the souldans cozen deere, who had to name doughtye coldràn. eskeldered, a famous knight, to death likewise i did pursue: and elmayne, king of tyre, alsoe, most terrible in fight to viewe. i went into the souldans hoast, being thither on embassage sent, and brought his head awaye with mee; i having slaine him in his tent. there was a dragon in that land most fiercelye mett me by the waye, as hee a lyon did pursue, which i myself did alsoe slay. then soon i past the seas from greece, and came to pavye land aright; where i the duke of pavye killed, his hainous treason to requite. to england then i came with speede, to wedd faire phelis, lady bright; for love of whome i travelled farr to try my manhood and my might. but when i had espoused her, i stayd with her but fortye dayes, ere that i left this ladye faire, and went, from her beyond the seas. all cladd in gray, in pilgrim sort, my voyage from her i did take unto the blessed holy-land, for jesus christ my saviours sake. where i erle jonas did redeeme, and all his sonnes, which were fifteene, who with the cruell sarazens in prison for long time had beene. i slew the gyant amarant in battel fiercelye hand to hand, and doughty barknard killed i, a treacherous knight of pavye land. then i to england came againe, and here with colbronde fell i fought; an ugly gyant, which the danes had for their champion hither brought. i overcame him in the feild, and slewe him soone right valliantlye; wherebye this land i did redeeme from danish tribute utterlye. and afterwards i offered upp the use of weapons solemnlye at winchester, whereas i fought, in sight of manye farr and nye. 'but first,' neare winsor, i did slaye a bore of passing might and strength; whose like in england never was for hugenesse both in bredth and length. some of his bones in warwicke yett within the castle there doth lye; one of his sheeld-bones to this day hangs in the citye of coventrye. on dunsmore heath i alsoe slewe a monstrous wyld and cruell beast, calld the dun-cow of dunsmore heath; which manye people had opprest. some of her bones in warwicke yett still for a monument doth lye, and there exposed to lookers viewe, as wondrous strange, they may espye. a dragon in northumberland i alsoe did in fight destroye, which did bothe man and beast oppresse, and all the countrye sore annoye. at length to warwicke i did come, like pilgrim poore, and was not knowne; and there i lived a hermitts life a mile and more out of the towne. where with my hands i hewed a house out of a craggy rocke of stone, and lived like a palmer poore within that cave myself alone: and daylye came to begg my bread of phelis att my castle gate; not knowne unto my loved wiffe, who dailye mourned for her mate. till att the last i fell sore sicke, yea, sicke soe sore that i must dye; i sent to her a ring of golde, by which shee knew me presentlye. then shee repairing to the cave, before that i gave up the ghost, herself closd up my dying eyes; my phelis faire, whom i lovd most. thus dreadful death did me arrest, to bring my corpes unto the grave, and like a palmer dyed i, wherby i sought my soule to save. my body that endured this toyle, though now it be consumed to mold, my statue, faire engraven in stone, in warwicke still you may behold. , the proud sir guy, pc. , two hundred, ms. and pc. st. george and the dragon. (from percy's _reliques_, iii. .) the following rhymed legend, which, like several other pieces in this book, can be called a ballad only by an objectionable, though common, extension of the term, was printed by percy (with some alterations) from two "ancient" black-letter copies in the pepys collection. real popular ballads on st. george's victory over the dragon exist in several languages, though not in english.[b] such a ballad is known to have been sung by the swedes at the battle of brunkeberg in , and one is still sung by the people both of denmark and sweden. grundtvig gives three copies of the danish ballad, two of the th and th centuries, and one of the present. four versions of the swedish have been published, of various ages (e.g. _svenska folkvisor_, ii. ). a german ballad is given by meinert, _altdeutsche volkslieder_, p. ; after him by erlach, iv. ; and haupt and schmaler have printed two widely different versions of the ballad in wendish, _volkslieder der wenden_, vol. i. no. , ii. no. . these are all the proper traditional ballads upon this subject which are known to be preserved, unless we include a piece called _jürg drachentödter_ in zuccalmaglio's _deutsche volkslieder_, no. , which is of suspicious authenticity. the piece called _ritter st. georg_, in _des knaben wunderhorn_, i. , is not a proper ballad, but a rhymed legend, like the one here printed, though intended to be sung. [b] what follows is abridged from grundtvig, _danmarks gamle folkeviser_, ii. . the hero of these ballads, st. george of cappadocia, is said to have suffered martyrdom during the persecution in syria, in the year . in the th century he was a recognized saint both in the western and the eastern churches, and his reputation was limited to this character until the th. reinbot von dorn, ( - ,) in his poem _der heilige georg_, (von der hagen and büsching's _deutsche gedichte des mittelalters_,) and vincent de beauvais (died ) in his _speculum historiale_ (xii. - ), content themselves with recounting his martyrdom, and appear to know nothing about his fight with the dragon. the first known writer who attributes this exploit to st. george is jacobus a voragine (died ), in the _golden legend_. of course it does not follow that the story originated there. it is probable that the legend of the dragon arose at the time of the crusades, and indeed was partly occasioned by them, though we ought not hastily to admit, what has been suggested, that it was founded upon some tradition which the crusaders heard in syria. the byzantians had long before ascribed various miracles to st. george, but it was the normans, who, so to say, first pressed him into active military service. it was he that commanded the heavenly host that came to the help of the crusaders against the turks, under the walls of antioch, in the year , on which occasion he was seen on his white horse, bearing the white banner with the red cross. he manifested himself again at the storming of jerusalem in the following year, and a hundred years later was seen to fight in the front rank against the moors in spain, and for frederic barbarossa, in his crusade in . but though he had entered into the service of the german emperor, this did not prevent his aiding the orthodox william of holland in taking aix-la-chapelle from the excommunicated emperor frederic in .--the most various races have contended for his protection. his feast was in ordered to be kept as a holiday throughout all england: from the beginning of the th century, or since the mongol dominion was shaken off, he has been one of the guardian saints of russia: in , the emperor frederic iii. founded the austrian order of st. george for the protection of the empire against the turks, and a few years later, in , at the momentous battle of brunkeberg, his name was the war-cry of both parties, swedes and danes. that the subjugation of the dragon (a symbolical mode of representing the extinction of evil common to all times and peoples) should be attributed to st. george, would seem to be sufficiently explained by his having become the christian hero of the middle ages. a special reason may, however, be alleged for his connection with such a legend. long before the crusades, he was depicted by the artists of the oriental church as the great martyr, with the dragon (anti-christ or the devil) at his feet, and a crowned virgin (the church) at his side. in like manner had constantine the great had himself drawn, and many other saints are represented in the same way, as theodore, victor, and margaret. this symbolic representation would naturally lead to the crusaders making st. george the hero in an achievement which was well known in connection with other names: and it would then not be too much to assume that the normans (who, as already said, were the first to recognize his presence in battle),--the same normans who were properly the creators of the romantic poetry of the middle ages,--were also the first to connect st. george with the conquest of the dragon. but however we may account for st. george's being introduced into such a legend, so much is sure; that from the th century on, the story and the hero have been inseparable: all the legendaries and all the pictures of him exhibit him as the conqueror of the dragon: his martyrdom is nearly lost sight of, and in ballads is entirely forgotten.--as to the place which was the scene of the fight, there are many opinions. some have fixed it in cappadocia, others in lybia, others in syria, and some european nations have assigned the adventure to a locality within their own bounds. thus the wallachians lay the scene at orwoza, one of the wendish ballads at berlin, the germans at leipsic, the dutch at oudenarde, and--the people of the island of funen at svendborg! of hector's deeds did homer sing, and of the sack of stately troy, what griefs fair helena did bring, which was sir paris' only joy: and by my pen i will recite st. george's deeds, an english knight. against the sarazens so rude fought he full long and many a day, where many gyaunts he subdu'd, in honour of the christian way; and after many adventures past, to egypt land he came at last. now, as the story plain doth tell, within that countrey there did rest a dreadful dragon, fierce and fell, whereby they were full sore opprest: who by his poisonous breath each day did many of the city slay. the grief whereof did grow so great throughout the limits of the land, that they their wise men did intreat to shew their cunning out of hand; what way they might this fiend destroy, that did the countrey thus annoy. the wise men all before the king, this answer fram'd incontinent: the dragon none to death might bring by any means they could invent; his skin more hard than brass was found, that sword nor spear could pierce nor wound. when this the people understood, they cryed out most piteouslye, the dragon's breath infects their blood, that every day in heaps they dye; among them such a plague is bred, the living scarce could bury the dead. no means there were, as they could hear, for to appease the dragon's rage, but to present some virgin clear, whose blood his fury might asswage; each day he would a maiden eat, for to allay his hunger great. this thing by art the wise men found, which truly must observed be; wherefore, throughout the city round, a virgin pure of good degree was, by the king's commission, still taken up to serve the dragon's will. thus did the dragon every day untimely crop some virgin flowr, till all the maids were worn away, and none were left him to devour; saving the king's fair daughter bright, her father's only heart's delight. then came the officers to the king, that heavy message to declare, which did his heart with sorrow sting; "she is," quoth he, "my kingdom's heir: o let us all be poisoned here, ere she should die, that is my dear." then rose the people presently, and to the king in rage they went; they said his daughter dear should dye, the dragon's fury to prevent: "our daughters all are dead," quoth they, "and have been made the dragon's prey; "and by their blood we rescued were, and thou hast sav'd thy life thereby; and now in sooth it is but faire, for us thy daughter so should die." "o save my daughter," said the king, "and let me feel the dragon's sting." then fell fair sabra on her knee, and to her father dear did say, "o father, strive not thus for me, but let me be the dragon's prey; it may be, for my sake alone this plague upon the land was thrown. "'tis better i should dye," she said, "than all your subjects perish quite; perhaps the dragon here was laid, for my offence to work his spite, and after he hath suckt my gore, your land shall feel the grief no more." "what hast thou done, my daughter dear, for to deserve this heavy scourge? it is my fault, as may appear, which makes the gods our state to purge; then ought i die, to stint the strife, and to preserve thy happy life." like mad-men, all the people cried, "thy death to us can do no good; our safely only doth abide in making her the dragon's food." "lo! here i am, i come," quoth she, "therefore do what you will with me." "nay stay, dear daughter," quoth the queen, "and as thou art a virgin bright, that hast for vertue famous been, so let me cloath thee all in white; and crown thy head with flowers sweet, an ornament for virgins meet." and when she was attired so, according to her mother's mind, unto the stake then did she go, to which her tender limbs they bind; and being bound to stake a thrall, she bade farewell unto them all. "farewell, my father dear," quoth she, "and my sweet mother, meek and mild; take you no thought nor weep for me, for you may have another child; since for my country's good i dye, death i receive most willinglye." the king and queen and all their train with weeping eyes went then their way, and let their daughter there remain, to be the hungry dragon's prey: but as she did there weeping lye, behold st. george came riding by. and seeing there a lady bright so rudely tyed unto a stake, as well became a valiant knight, he straight to her his way did take: "tell me, sweet maiden," then quoth he, "what caitif thus abuseth thee? "and, lo! by christ his cross i vow, which here is figured on my breast, i will revenge it on his brow, and break my lance upon his chest:" and speaking thus whereas he stood, the dragon issued from the wood. the lady, that did first espy the dreadful dragon coming so, unto st. george aloud did cry, and willed him away to go; "here comes that cursed fiend," quoth she, "that soon will make an end of me." st. george then looking round about, the fiery dragon soon espy'd, and like a knight of courage stout, against him did most fiercely ride; and with such blows he did him greet, he fell beneath his horse's feet. for with his launce, that was so strong, as he came gaping in his face, in at his mouth he thrust along; for he could pierce no other place: and thus within the lady's view this mighty dragon straight he slew. the savour of his poisoned breath could do this holy knight no harm; thus he the lady sav'd from death, and home he led her by the arm; which when king ptolemy did see, there was great mirth and melody. when as that valiant champion there had slain the dragon in the field, to court he brought the lady fair, which to their hearts much joy did yield, he in the court of egypt staid till he most falsely was betray'd. that lady dearly lov'd the knight, he counted her his only joy; but when their love was brought to light, it turn'd unto their great annoy. th' morocco king was in the court, who to the orchard did resort; dayly, to take the pleasant air; for pleasure sake he us'd to walk; under a wall he oft did hear st. george with lady sabra talk; their love he shew'd unto the king, which to st. george great woe did bring. those kings together did devise to make the christian knight away: with letters him in curteous wise they straightway sent to persia, but wrote to the sophy him to kill, and treacherously his blood to spill. thus they for good did him reward with evil, and most subtilly, by such vile meanes, they had regard to work his death most cruelly; who, as through persia land he rode, with zeal destroy'd each idol god. for which offence he straight was thrown into a dungeon dark and deep; where, when he thought his wrongs upon, he bitterly did wail and weep: yet like a knight of courage stout, at length his way he digged out. three grooms of the king of persia by night this valiant champion slew, though he had fasted many a day, and then away from thence he flew on the best steed the sophy had; which when he knew he was full mad. towards christendom he made his flight, but met a gyant by the way, with whom in combat he did fight most valiantly a summer's day: who yet, for all his bats of steel, was forc'd the sting of death to feel. back o'er the seas, with many bands of warlike souldiers soon he past, vowing upon those heathen lands to work revenge; which at the last, ere thrice three years were gone and spent, he wrought unto his heart's content. save onely egypt land he spar'd, for sabra bright her only sake, and, ere for her he had regard, he meant a tryal kind to make: meanwhile the king, o'ercome in field, unto saint george did quickly yield. then straight morocco's king he slew, and took fair sabra to his wife, but meant to try if she were true, ere with her he would lead his life; and, tho' he had her in his train, she did a virgin pure remain. toward england then that lovely dame the brave st. george conducted strait, an eunuch also with them came, who did upon the lady wait. these three from egypt went alone: now mark st. george's valour shown. when as they in a forest were, the lady did desire to rest: meanwhile st. george to kill a deer for their repast did think it best: leaving her with the eunuch there, whilst he did go to kill the deer. but lo! all in his absence came two hungry lyons, fierce and fell, and tore the eunuch on the same in pieces small, the truth to tell; down by the lady then they laid, whereby they shew'd she was a maid. but when he came from hunting back, and did behold this heavy chance, then for his lovely virgin's sake his courage strait he did advance, and came into the lions sight, who ran at him with all their might. their rage did him no whit dismay, who, like a stout and valiant knight, did both the hungry lyons slay within the lady sabra's sight: who all this while, sad and demure, there stood most like a virgin pure. now when st. george did surely know this lady was a virgin true, his heart was glad, that erst was woe, and all his love did soon renew: he set her on a palfrey steed, and towards england came with speed. where being in short space arriv'd unto his native dwelling place, therein with his dear love he liv'd, and fortune did his nuptials grace: they many years of joy did see, and led their lives at coventry. the seven champions of christendom. _the famous historie of the seven champions of christendom_, is the work of richard johnson, a ballad maker of some note at the end of the th and beginning of the th century. all that is known of him may be seen in chappel's introduction to the _crown garland of golden roses_, of which johnson was the compiler or the author. (percy society, vol. vi.) "the story of st. george and the fair sabra," says percy, "is taken almost verbatim from the old poetical legend of sir bevis of hampton." the _seven champions_ is twice entered on the stationers' registers in the year . it is here reprinted from _a collection of old ballads_, , vol. i. . the same copy is in evans's collection, i. . now of the seven champions here my purpose is to write, to show how they with sword and spear put many foes to flight; distressed ladies to release, and captives bound in chains, that christian glory to increase which evermore remains. first, i give you to understand that great saint george by name, was the true champion of our land; and of his birth and fame, and of his noble mother's dream, before that he was born, the which to her did clearly seem her days would be forlorn. this was her dream; that she did bear a dragon in her womb; which griev'd this noble lady fair, 'cause death must be her doom. this sorrow she could not conceal, so dismal was her fear, so that she did the same reveal unto her husband dear; who went for to inquire straight of an enchanteress; when, knocking at her iron gate, her answer it was this: "the lady shall bring forth a son, by whom, in tract of time, great noble actions shall be done; he will to honour climb. "for he shall be in banners wore; this truth i will maintain; your lady, she shall die before you see her face again." his leave he took, and home he went; his wife departed lay; but that which did his grief augment, the child was stole away. then did he travel in despair, where soon with grief he died; while the young child, his son and heir, did constantly abide with the wise lady of the grove, in her enchanted cell; amongst the woods he oft did rove, his beauty pleased her well. blinded with love, she did impart, upon a certain day, to him her cunning magic art, and where six champions lay within a brazen castle strong, by an enchanted sleep, and where they had continued long; she did the castle keep. she taught and show'd him every thing through being free and fond; which did her fatal ruin bring; for with a silver wand he clos'd her up into a rock, by giving one small stroke; so took possession of her stock, and the enchantment broke. those christian champions being freed from their enchanted state, each mounted on his prancing steed, and took to travel straight; where we will leave them to pursue kind fortune's favours still, to treat of our own champion, who did courts with wonders fill. for as he came to understand, at an old hermit's cell, how, in the vast egyptian land, a dragon fierce and fell threatened the ruin of them all, by his devouring jaws, his sword releas'd them from that thrall, and soon remov'd the cause. this dreadful dragon must destroy a virgin every day, or else with stinks he'll them annoy, and many thousands slay. at length the king's own daughter dear, for whom the court did mourn, was brought to be devoured here, for she must take her turn. the king by proclamation said, if any hardy knight could free this fair young royal maid, and slay the dragon quite, then should he have her for his bride, and, after death, likewise his crown and kingdom too beside: saint george he won the prize. when many hardy strokes he'd dealt, and could not pierce his hide, he run his sword up to the hilt in at the dragon's side; by which he did his life destroy, which cheer'd the drooping king; this caused an universal joy, sweet peals of bells did ring. the daughter of a king, for pride transformed into a tree of mulberries, saint denis[l ] spied, and being hungery, of that fair fruit he ate a part, and was transformed likewise into the fashion of a hart, for seven years precise. at which he long bewail'd the loss of manly shape: then goes to him his true and trusty horse, and brings a blushing rose, by which the magic spell was broke, and both were fairly freed from the enchanted heavy yoke: they then in love agreed. now we come to saint james of spain, who slew a mighty boar, in hopes that he might honour gain, but he must die therefore: who was allow'd his death to choose, which was by virgins' darts, but they the same did all refuse, so tender were their hearts. the king's daughter at length, by lot, was doomed to work his woe; from her fair hands a fatal shot, out of a golden bow, must put a period to the strife; at which grief did her seize. she of her father begg'd his life upon her bended knees; saying, "my gracious sovereign lord, and honoured father dear, he well deserves a large reward; then be not so severe. give me his life!" he grants the boon, and then without delay, this spanish champion, ere 'twas noon, rid with her quite away. now come we to saint anthony, a man with valour fraught, the champion of fair italy, who many wonders wrought. first, he a mighty giant slew, the terror of mankind: young ladies fair, pure virgins too, this giant kept confined within his castle walls of stone, and gates of solid brass, where seven ladies made their moan, but out they could not pass. many brave lords, and knights likewise, to free them did engage, who fell a bleeding sacrifice to this fierce giant's rage. fair daughters to a royal king! yet fortune, after all, did our renowned champion bring to free them from their thrall. assisted by the hand of heaven, he ventured life and limb: behold the fairest of the seven, she fell in love with him. that champion good, bold saint andrew, the famous scottish knight, dark gloomy deserts travelled through, where phoebus gave no light. haunted with spirits, for a while his weary course he steers, till fortune blessed him with a smile, and shook off all his fears. this christian champion travell'd long, till at the length he came unto the giant's castle strong, great blanderon by name, where the king's daughters were transform'd into the shape of swans: though them he freed, their father storm'd, but he his malice shuns. for though five hundred armed knights did straight beset him round, our christian champion with them fights, till on the heathen ground most of those pagans bleeding lay; which much perplexed the king; the scottish champion clears the way, which was a glorious thing. saint patrick too, of ireland, that noble knight of fame, he travelled, as we understand, till at the length he came into a grove where satyrs dwelt, where ladies he beheld, who had their raged fury felt, and were with sorrow fill'd. he drew his sword, and did maintain a sharp and bloody fray, till the ring-leader he had slain; the rest soon fled away. this done, he asked the ladies fair, who were in silks array'd, from whence they came, and who they were. they answered him and said: "we are all daughters to a king, whom a brave scottish knight did out of tribulation bring: he having took his flight, now after him we are in quest." saint patrick then replies, "he is my friend, i cannot rest till i find him likewise. "so, ladies, if you do intend to take your lot with me, this sword of mine shall you defend from savage cruelty." the ladies freely gave consent to travel many miles; through shady groves and woods they went, in search of fortune's smiles. the christian champion david, went to the tartarian court, where at their tilt and tournament, and such like royal sport, he overthrew the only son of the count palatine; this noble action being done his fame began to shine. the young count's sad and sudden death turn'd all their joys to grief; he bleeding lay, bereaved of breath, the father's son in chief; but lords and ladies blazed the fame of our brave champion bold; saying, they ought to write his name in characters of gold. here have i writ a fair account of each heroic deed, done by these knights, which will surmount all those that shall succeed. the ancient chronicles of kings, ere since the world begun, can't boast of such renowned things as these brave knights have done. saint george he was for england, saint dennis was for france, saint james for spain, whose valiant hand did christian fame advance: saint anthony for italy, andrew for scots ne'er fails, patrick too stands for ireland, saint david was for wales. thus have you those stout champions names in this renowned song: young captive ladies bound in chains, confined in castles strong, they did by knightly prowess free, true honour to maintain: then let their lasting memory from age to age remain. , which dennis. thomas of ersseldoune. this beautiful tale is transferred to these pages from mr. laing's _select remains of the ancient popular poetry of scotland_. the two "fytts" of prophecies which accompany it in the manuscripts, are omitted here, as being probably the work of another, and an inferior, hand. from the exordium by which the story is introduced, it might be concluded that the author was an englishman. indeed, all the poems and prophecies attributed to thomas the rhimer which remain to us, are preserved in english manuscripts and an english dress; but, in the judgment of mr. jamieson, the internal evidence still almost amounts to proof that the romance itself was of scottish origin, although no indubitably scottish copy is now known to be in existence. the hero of this legend is believed to have lived through nearly the whole of the th century. he derived his territorial appellation from the village of erceldoune, in the county of berwick, lying on the river leader, about two miles above its junction with the tweed. the huntly bank on which the meeting of thomas with the queen of fairy took place, is situated, according to mr. laing, on one of the eldoun hills, but the same distinction is claimed for another place of like name, which, together with an adjoining ravine, called from time immemorial the _rymer's glen_, was included in the domain of abbotsford. (see _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, iv. . v. .) "during the th, th, and th centuries, to get up a prophecy in the name of thomas the rhymer appears to have been found a good stroke of policy on many occasions. thus was his authority employed to countenance the views of edward iii. against scottish independence, to favor the ambitious views of the duke of albany in the minority of james v., and to sustain the spirits of the nation under the harassing invasions of henry viii. a small volume containing a collection of the rhymes thus put into circulation was published by andro hart in edinburgh, in ."--chambers, _pop. rhymes of scotland_, p. . "this poem," says mr. laing, "is preserved in three ancient manuscripts, each of them in a state more or less mutilated, and varying in no inconsiderable degree from the others. a portion of it was first printed in the _border minstrelsy_, [iv. ,] from the fragment in the british museum, among the cotton mss.; and the one which mr. jamieson adopted in his collection of _popular ballads and songs_ [ii. ,] was carefully deciphered from a volume of no ordinary curiosity, in the university library, cambridge, written in a very illegible hand, about the middle of the th century. it is now printed from the other copy, as it occurs in a volume, compiled at a still earlier period, which is preserved in the cathedral library of lincoln. on comparison, it will be readily perceived, that the text is in every respect preferable to that of either of the other manuscripts.... an endeavor has been made to fill up the defective parts from the cambridge copy, though in some instances, as will be seen, without success."--mr. halliwell has republished the cambridge text in his _fairy mythology_, (p. ,) and he cites a fourth manuscript, which, however, appears to be of slight importance. thomas of ersseldoune. lystnys, lordyngs, bothe grete and smale, and takis gude tente what i will say: i sall yow telle als trewe a tale, als euer was herde by nyghte or daye: and the maste meruelle fforowttyn naye, that euer was herde byfore or syen, and therfore pristly i yow praye, that ye will of youre talkyng blyn. it es an harde thyng for to saye, of doghety dedis that hase bene done; of felle feghtyngs and batells sere; and how that knyghtis hase wonne thair schone. bot jhesu christ, that syttis in trone, safe ynglysche men bothe ferre and nere; and i sall telle yow tyte and sone, of battells done sythen many a yere; and of batells that done sall bee; in whate place, and howe and whare; and wha sall hafe the heghere gree; and whethir partye sall hafe the werre; [transcriber's note: one stanza missing here, lines - ] wha sall take the flyghte and flee; and wha sall dye and byleue thare: bot jhesu christ, that dyed on tre, saue inglysche men whare so thay fare. * * * * * als i me wente this endres-daye, full faste in mynd makane my mone, in a mery mornynge of may, by huntle bankkes my selfe allone, i herde the jaye, and the 'throstelle,'[l ] the mawys menyde of hir songe, the wodewale beryde als a belle, that all the wode abowte me ronge. allone in longynge, thus als i laye, vndre nethe a semely tre, 'saw i' whare a lady gaye, 'came ridand' ouer a longe lee. if i suld sytt to domesdaye, with my tonge, to wrebbe and wrye, certanely that lady gaye, neuer bese scho askryede for mee. hir palfraye was a dappill graye; swilke one i saghe ne neuer none: als dose the sonne, on someres daye, that faire lady hir selfe scho schone. hir selle[l ] it was of reele bone, full semely was that syghte to see! stefly sett with precyous stones, and compaste all with crapotee, stones of oryence, grete plente. hir hare abowte hir hede it hange; scho rode ouer that lange lee; a whylle scho blewe, a nother scho sange. hir garthes of nobyll sylke they were; the bukylls were of berelle stone; hir steraps were of crystalle clere, and all with perelle ouer bygone. hir payetrelle was of iralle fyne; hir cropoure was of orfaré; and als clere golde hir brydill it schone; one aythir syde hange bellys three. 'scho led seuen grew houndis in a leeshe;' and seuen raches by hir they rone; scho bare a horne abowte hir halse; and vnder hir belte full many a flone. thomas laye and sawe that syghte, vnder nethe ane semly tree; he sayd, "yone es marye most of myghte, that bare that childe that dyede for mee. "but if i speke with yone lady bryghte, i hope myn herte will bryste in three; now sall i go with all my myghte, hir for to mete at eldoun tree." thomas rathely vpe he rase, and he rane ouer that mountayne hye; gyff it be als the storye sayes, he hir mette at eldone tree. he knelyde down appon his knee, vndir nethe that grenwode spraye:-- and sayd, "lufly ladye! rewe one mee; qwene of heuen, als thu wele maye!" then spake that lady milde of thoghte:-- "thomas, late swylke wordes bee; qwene of heuenne, am i noghte, for i tuke neuer so heghe degre. "bot i ame of ane other contree, if i be payrelde moste of prysse; i ryde aftyre this wylde fee; my raches rynnys at my devyse." "if thu be parelde moste of prysse, and here rydis thus in thy folye, of lufe, lady, als thu art wysse, thou gyffe me leue to lye the bye." scho sayde, "thu man, that ware folye; i praye the, thomas, thu lat me bee; ffor i saye the full sekirlye, that syne will fordoo all my beaute." "now lufly ladye rewe on mee, and i will euer more with the duelle; here my trouthe i 'plyghte to thee,' wethir thu will in heuen or helle." "mane of molde, thu will me marre, but yitt thu sall hafe all thy will; and trowe it wele, thu chewys the werre, ffor alle my beaute will thu spylle." down than lyghte that lady bryghte, vndir nethe that grene wode spraye; and, als the storye tellis full ryghte, seuen sythis by hir he laye. scho sayd, "man, the lykes thi playe: what byrde in boure maye delle with the? thou merrys me all this longe daye; i pray the, thomas, late me bee." thomas stode wpe in that stede, and he byhelde that lady gaye; hir hare it hange all ouer hir hede, hir eghne semede owte, that are were graye. and all the riche clothynge was awaye, that he byfore sawe in that stede; hir a schanke blake, hir other graye, and all hir body lyke the lede; thomas laye, and sawe that syghte, vndir nethe that grenewod tree. than sayd thomas, "allas! allas! in faythe this es a dullfull syghte; how arte thu fadyde thus in the face, that schane byfore als the sonne so bryght!" scho sayd, "thomas, take leve at sone and mone, and als at lefe that grewes on tree; this twelmoneth sall thu with me gone, and medill-erthe thu sall non see." he knelyd downe appon his knee, vndir nethe that grenewod spraye; and sayd, "lufly lady![l ] rewe on mee, mylde qwene of heuen, als thu beste maye." "allas!" he sayd, "and wa es mee, i trewe my dedis will wirke me care; my saulle, jhesu, byteche i the, whedir come that euer my banes sall fare." scho ledde hym in at eldone hill, vndir nethe a derne lee; whare it was dirk as mydnyght myrke, and euer the water till his knee. the montenans of dayes three, he herd bot swoghyne of the flode; at the laste, he sayde, "full wa es mee! almaste i dye, for fawte of fude." scho lede hym in till a faire herbere, whare frwte was 'growyng in gret plentee;' pers and appill, bothe rype thay were, the date, and als the damasee; the fygge, and als so the wyne-berye; the nyghtyngales lyggande on thair neste; the papeioyes faste abowte gan flye; and throstylls sange, wolde hafe no reste. he pressede to pulle frowte with his hande, als man for fude that was nere faynt; scho sayd, "thomas, thu late tham stande, or ells the fende the will atteynt. "if thu it plokk, sothely to say, thi saule gose to the fyre of helle; it comes neuer owte or domesdaye, bot ther in payne ay for to duelle. "thomas, sothely, i the hyghte, come lygge thyn hede down on my knee, and 'thou' sall se the fayreste syghte, that euer sawe man of thi contree." he did in hye als scho hym badde; appone hir knee his hede he layde, ffor hir to paye he was full glade, and than that lady to him sayde-- "seese thu nowe yone faire waye, that lyggis ouer yone heghe montayne?-- yone es the waye to heuen for aye, when synfull sawles are passed ther payne. "seese thu nowe yone other waye, that lygges lawe by nethe yone rysse? yone es the waye, the sothe to saye, vnto the joye of paradyse. "seese thu yitt yone third waye, that ligges vnder yone grene playne? yone es the waye, with tene and traye, whare synfull saulis suffiris thare payne. "bot seese thu nowe yone forthe waye, that lygges ouer yone depe delle? yone es the way, so waylawaye, vnto the byrnande fyre of hell. "seese thu yitt yone faire castelle, that standes vpone yone heghe hill? of towne and towre, it beris the belle; in erthe es none lyk it vntill. "ffor sothe, thomas, yone es myn awenn, and the kynges of this countree; bot me ware leuer hanged and drawen, or that he wyste thou laye me by. "when thu commes to yone castelle gay, i pray the curtase man to bee; and whate so any man to the saye, luke thu answere none bott mee. "my lorde es seruede at ylk a mese, with thritty knyghttis faire and free; i sail saye, syttande at the dasse, i tuke thi speche byyonde the see." thomas still als stane he stude. and he byhelde that lady gaye; scho come agayne als faire and gude, and al so ryche one hir palfraye. hir grewe hundis fillide with dere blode; hir rachis couplede, by my faye; scho blewe hir horne with mayne and mode, vnto the castelle scho tuk the waye. in to the haulle sothely scho went; thomas foloued at hir hande; than ladyes come, bothe faire and gent, with curtassye to hit knelande. harpe and fethill bothe thay fande, getterne, and als so the sawtrye; lutte and rybybe, bothe gangande, and all manere of mynstralsye. the most meruelle that thomas thoghte, when that he stode appon the flore; ffor feftty hertes in were broghte, that were bothe 'largely' grete and store. raches laye lapande in the blode, cokes come with dryssynge knyfe; they brittened tham als thay were wode; reuelle amanges thame was full ryfe. knyghtis dawnsede by three and three, thare was revelle, gamen, and playe, lufly ladyes, faire and free, that satte and sange one riche araye. thomas duellide in that solace more than i yowe save, perde; till one a daye, so hafe i grace, my lufly lady sayde to mee: "do busk the, thomas,--the busk agayne,[l ] ffor thu may here no lengare be; hye the faste, with myghte and mayne; i sall the brynge till eldone tree." thomas sayde than with heuy chere; "lufly lady, nowe late me bee; ffor certis, lady, i hafe bene here noghte bot the space of dayes three. "ffor sothe, thomas, als i the telle, thou hase bene here thre yere and more; bot langere here thu may noghte dwelle; the skylle i sall the telle wherefore. "to morne, of helle the foulle fende amange this folke will feche his fee; and thu arte mekill man and hende, i trowe full wele he wolde chese the. "ffor all the gold that euer may bee, ffro hethyn unto the worldis ende, thou bese neuer betrayede for mee; therefore with me i rede thou wende." scho broghte hym agayne to eldone tree, vndir nethe that grenewode spraye; in huntlee bannkes es mery to bee, whare fowles synges bothe nyght and daye. "fferre owtt in yone mountane graye, thomas, my fawkon byggis a neste;-- a fawcoun is an eglis praye; fforthi in na place may he reste. "ffare well, thomas; i wend my waye; ffor me byhouys ouer thir benttis brown." --loo here a fytt: more es to saye, all of thomas of erselldown.-- , laing, by tene. [transcriber's note: this refers to line of the first part, which is missing between pages and .] , linc. ms. throstylle cokke. , sette, laing. , lufly lady, i.e. mary. , buse agayne. thomas the rhymer. traditional version. _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, (iv. .) "given from a copy obtained from a lady residing not far from ercildoune, corrected and enlarged by one in mrs. brown's mss." true thomas lay on huntlie bank; a ferlie he spied wi' his ee; and there he saw a ladye bright, come riding down by the eildon tree. her shirt was o' the grass-green silk, her mantle o' the velvet fyne; at ilka tett of her horse's mane, hung fifty siller bells and nine. true thomas, he pull'd aff his cap, and louted low down to his knee: "all hail, thou mighty queen of heaven! for thy peer on earth i never did see."-- "o no, o no, thomas," she said, "that name does not belang to me; i am but the queen of fair elfland, that am hither come to visit thee. "harp and carp, thomas," she said; "harp and carp along wi' me; and if ye dare to kiss my lips, sure of your bodie i will be."-- "betide me weal, betide me woe, that weird shall never daunton me."-- syne he has kissed her rosy lips, all underneath the eildon tree. "now, ye maun go wi' me," she said; "true thomas, ye maun go wi' me; and ye maun serve me seven years, thro' weal or woe as may chance to be." she mounted on her milk-white steed; she's ta'en true thomas up behind: and aye, whene'er her bridle rung, the steed flew swifter than the wind. o they rade on, and farther on; the steed gaed swifter than the wind; until they reach'd a desert wide, and living land was left behind. "light down, light down, now, true thomas, and lean your head upon my knee; abide and rest a little space, and i will shew you ferlies three. "o see ye not yon narrow road, so thick beset with thorns and briers? that is the path of righteousness, though after it but few enquires. "and see ye not that braid braid road, that lies across that lily leven? that is the path of wickedness, though some call it the road to heaven. "and see not ye that bonny road, that winds about the fernie brae? that is the road to fair elfland, where thou and i this night maun gae. "but, thomas, ye maun hold your tongue, whatever ye may hear or see; for, if you speak word in elfyn land, ye'll ne'er get back to your ain countrie." o they rade on, and farther on, and they waded through rivers aboon the knee, and they saw neither sun nor moon, but they heard the roaring of the sea. it was mirk mirk night, and there was nae stern light, and they waded through red blude to the knee; for a' the blude that's shed on earth rins through the springs o' that countrie. syne they came on to a garden green, and she pu'd an apple frae a tree-- "take this for thy wages, true thomas; it will give thee the tongue that can never lie."-- "my tongue is mine ain," true thomas said; "a gudely gift ye wad gie to me![l ] i neither dought to buy nor sell, at fair or tryst where i may be. "i dought neither speak to prince or peer, nor ask of grace from fair ladye."-- "now hold thy peace!" the lady said, "for as i say, so must it be."-- he has gotten a coat of the even cloth, and a pair of shoes of velvet green; and till seven years were gane and past, true thomas on earth was never seen. . the traditional commentary upon this ballad informs us, that the apple was the produce of the fatal tree of knowledge, and that the garden was the terrestrial paradise. the repugnance of thomas to be debarred the use of falsehood, when he might find it convenient, has a comic effect. scott. the young tamlane. the _tayl of the yong tamlene_ is mentioned in the _complaynt of scotland_, ( ,) and the dance of _thom of lyn_ is noticed in the same work. a considerable fragment of this ballad was printed by herd, (vol. i. ,) under the title of _kertonha'_, a corruption of carterhaugh; another is furnished in maidment's _new book of old ballads_, (p. ,) and a nearly complete version in johnson's _museum_, (p. ,) which, with some alterations, was inserted in the _tales of wonder_, (no. .) the present edition, prepared by sir walter scott from a collation of various copies, is longer than any other, but was originally disfigured by several supposititious stanzas here omitted. another version, with maidment's fragment, will be found in the appendix to this volume. "carterhaugh is a plain, at the conflux of the ettrick and yarrow in selkirkshire, about a mile above selkirk, and two miles below newark castle; a romantic ruin which overhangs the yarrow, and which is said to have been the habitation of our heroine's father, though others place his residence in the tower of oakwood. the peasants point out, upon the plain, those electrical rings, which vulgar credulity supposes to be traces of the fairy revels. here, they say, were placed the stands of milk, and of water, in which _tamlane_ was dipped, in order to effect the disenchantment; and upon these spots, according to their mode of expressing themselves, the grass will never grow. miles cross, (perhaps a corruption of mary's cross,) where fair janet awaited the arrival of the fairy train, is said to have stood near the duke of buccleuch's seat of bow-hill, about half a mile from carterhaugh."--(scott's _minstrelsy_, ii. , at the end of a most interesting essay, introductory to this tale, on the fairies of popular superstition.) "o i forbid ye, maidens a', that wear gowd on your hair, to come or gae by carterhaugh, for young tamlane is there. "there's nane that gaes by carterhaugh, but maun leave him a wad, either gowd rings, or green mantles, or else their maidenheid. "now gowd rings ye may buy, maidens, green mantles ye may spin; but, gin ye lose your maidenheid, ye'll ne'er get that agen."-- but up then spak her, fair janet, the fairest o' a' her kin; "i'll cum and gang to carterhaugh; and ask nae leave o' him."-- janet has kilted her green kirtle, a little abune her knee; and she has braided her yellow hair, a little abune her bree. and when she came to carterhaugh, she gaed beside the well; and there she fand his steed standing, but away was himsell. she hadna pu'd a red red rose, a rose but barely three; till up and starts a wee wee man, at lady janet's knee. says--"why pu' ye the rose, janet? what gars ye break the tree? or why come ye to carterhaugh, withouten leave o' me?"-- says--"carterhaugh it is mine ain; my daddie gave it me; i'll come and gang to carterhaugh, and ask nae leave o' thee." he's ta'en her by the milk-white hand, among the leaves sae green; and what they did, i cannot tell-- the green leaves were between. he's ta'en her by the milk-white hand, among the roses red; and what they did, i cannot say-- she ne'er return'd a maid. when she cam to her father's ha', she looked pale and wan; they thought she'd dreed some sair sickness, or been with some leman. she didna comb her yellow hair, nor make meikle o'er her head; and ilka thing that lady took, was like to be her deid. it's four and twenty ladies fair were playing at the ba'; janet, the wightest of them anes, was faintest o' them a'. four and twenty ladies fair were playing at the chess; and out there came the fair janet, as green as any grass. out and spak an auld grey-headed knight, lay o'er the castle wa',-- "and ever, alas! for thee, janet, but we'll be blamed a'!"-- "now haud your tongue, ye auld grey knight! and an ill deid may ye die; father my bairn on whom i will, i'll father nane on thee."-- out then spak her father dear, and he spak meik and mild-- "and ever, alas! my sweet janet, i fear ye gae with child."-- "and if i be with child, father, mysell maun bear the blame; there's ne'er a knight about your ha' shall hae the bairnie's name. "and if i be with child, father, 'twill prove a wondrous birth; for weel i swear i'm not wi' bairn to any man on earth. "if my love were an earthly knight, as he's an elfin grey, i wadna gie my ain true love for nae lord that ye hae."-- she prink'd hersell and prinn'd hersell, by the ae light of the moon, and she's away to carterhaugh, to speak wi' young tamlane. and when she came to carterhaugh, she gaed beside the well; and there she saw the steed standing, but away was himsell. she hadna pu'd a double rose, a rose but only twae, when up and started young tamlane, says--"lady, thou pu's nae mae! "why pu' ye the rose, janet, within this garden grene, and a' to kill the bonny babe, that we got us between?" "the truth ye'll tell to me, tamlane; a word ye mauna lie; gin e'er ye was in haly chapel, or sained in christentie?"-- "the truth i'll tell to thee, janet, a word i winna lie; a knight me got, and a lady me bore, as well as they did thee. "randolph, earl murray, was my sire, dunbar, earl march, is thine; we loved when we were children small, which yet you well may mind. "when i was a boy just turn'd of nine, my uncle sent for me, to hunt, and hawk, and ride with him, and keep him companie. "there came a wind out of the north, a sharp wind and a snell; and a deep sleep came over me, and frae my horse i fell. "the queen of fairies keppit me, in yon green hill to dwell; and i'm a fairy, lyth and limb; fair ladye, view me well. "then would i never tire, janet, in elfish land to dwell; but aye, at every seven years, they pay the teind to hell; and i am sae fat and fair of flesh, i fear 'twill be mysell[l ]. "this night is hallowe'en, janet, the morn is hollowday; and, gin ye dare your true love win, ye hae nae time to stay. "the night it is good hallowe'en, when fairy folk will ride; and they that wad their true-love win, at miles cross they maun bide." "but how shall i thee ken, tamlane? or how shall i thee knaw, amang so many unearthly knights, the like i never saw?" "the first company that passes by, say na, and let them gae; the next company that passes by, sae na, and do right sae; the third company that passes by, then i'll be ane o' thae. "first let pass the black, janet, and syne let pass the brown; but grip ye to the milk-white steed, and pu' the rider down. "for i ride on the milk-white steed, and aye nearest the town; because i was a christen'd knight, they gave me that renown. "my right hand will be gloved, janet, my left hand will be bare; and these the tokens i gie thee, nae doubt i will be there. "they'll turn me in your arms, janet,[l ] an adder and a snake; but had me fast, let me not pass, gin ye wad buy me maik. "they'll turn me in your arms, janet, an adder and an ask; they'll turn me in your arms, janet, a bale that burns fast. "they'll turn me in your arms, janet, a red-hot gad o' airn; but haud me fast, let me not pass, for i'll do you no harm. "first dip me in a stand o' milk, and then in a stand o' water; but had me fast, let me not pass-- i'll be your bairn's father. "and, next, they'll shape me in your arms, a tod, but and an eel; but had me fast, nor let me gang, as you do love me weel. "they'll shape me in your arms, janet, a dove, but and a swan; and, last, they'll shape me in your arms a mother-naked man: cast your green mantle over me-- i'll be myself again."-- gloomy, gloomy, was the night, and eiry was the way, as fair janet, in her green mantle, to miles cross she did gae. betwixt the hours of twelve and one, a north wind tore the bent; and straight she heard strange elritch sounds upon that wind which went. about the dead hour o' the night, she heard the bridles ring; and janet was as glad o' that as any earthly thing. will o' wisp before them went, sent forth a twinkling light; and soon she saw the fairy bands all riding in her sight. and first gaed by the black black steed, and then gaed by the brown; but fast she gript the milk-white steed, and pu'd the rider down. she pu'd him frae the milk-white steed, and loot the bridle fa'; and up there raise an erlish cry-- "he's won amang us a'!"-- they shaped him in fair janet's arms,[l ] an esk, but and an adder; she held him fast in every shape-- to be her bairn's father. they shaped him in her arms at last, a mother-naked man: she wrapt him in her green mantle, and sae her true love wan! up then spake the queen o' fairies, out o' a bush o' broom-- "she that has borrow'd young tamlane, has gotten a stately groom."-- up then spake the queen o' fairies, out o' a bush o' rye-- "she's ta'en awa the bonniest knight in a' my cumpanie. "but had i kenn'd, tamlane," she says, "a lady wad borrow'd thee-- i wad ta'en out thy twa grey een, put in twa een o' tree. "had i but kenn'd, tamlane," she says, "before ye came frae hame-- i wad ta'en out your heart o' flesh, put in a heart o' stane. "had i but had the wit yestreen that i hae coft the day-- i'd paid my kane seven times to hell ere you'd been won away!" , see _thomas of ersseldoune_, (p. ,) v. , . v. - , v. - . the same process of disenchantment is found in the danish ballad _nattergalen_, st. - , grundtvig, no. (also _svenska folk-visor_, no. ). the comparison with the transformations of proteus is curious. [grk: amphi de cheiras ballomen; oud' ho gerôn doliês epelêtheto technês; all' êtoi prôtista leôn genet' êugeneios, autar epeita drakôn kai pordalis êde megas sus; gigneto d' hygron hydôr kai dendreon hypsipetêlon. hêmeis d' astempheôs echomen tetlêoti thymô.] _odyssey_, iv. - . verum ubi correptum manibus vinclisque tenebis, tum variæ eludent species atque ora ferarum: fiet enim subito sus horridus atraque tigris, squamosusque draco, et fulva cervice leæna, aut acrem flammæ sonitum dabit, atque ita vinclis excidet, aut in aquas tenues dilapsus abibit. sed quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes, tanto, nate, magis contende tenacia vincla. _georgics_, iv. - . the wee wee man. this ballad will be found, in forms slightly varying, in herd, (i. ;) caw's _poetical museum_, (p. ;) motherwell's _minstrelsy_, (p. ;) and buchan's _ancient ballads_, (i. .) it bears some resemblance to the beginning of the remarkable poem, _als y yod on ay mounday_, (see appendix). the present version is from the _poetical museum_. as i was walking by my lane, atween a water and a wa, there sune i spied a wee wee man, he was the least that eir i saw. his legs were scant a shathmont's length, and sma and limber was his thie; atween his shoulders was ae span,[l ] about his middle war but three. he has tane up a meikle stane, and flang't as far as i cold see; ein thouch i had been wallace wicht, i dought na lift it to my knie. "o wee wee man, but ye be strang! tell me whar may thy dwelling be?" "i dwell beneth that bonnie bouir, o will ye gae wi me and see?" on we lap, and awa we rade, till we cam to a bonny green; we lichted syne to bait our steid, and out there cam a lady sheen; wi four and twentie at her back, a' comely cled in glistering green; thouch there the king of scots had stude, the warst micht weil hae been his queen. on syne we past wi wondering cheir, till we cam to a bonny ha; the roof was o the beaten gowd, the flure was o the crystal a. when we cam there, wi wee wee knichts[l ] war ladies dancing, jimp and sma; but in the twinkling of an eie, baith green and ha war clein awa. . much better in motherwell. between his een there was a span, betwixt his shoulders there were ells three. - . there were pipers playing in every neuk, and ladies dancing, jimp and sma'; and aye the owreturn o' their tune was, "our wee wee man has been lang awa!"-- motherwell. the elfin knight. reprinted from _a collection of curious old ballads and miscellaneous poetry_, edinburgh. david webster, . other versions are given in motherwell's _minstrelsy_, (see the appendix to this volume;) kinloch's _ancient scottish ballads_, (p. ;) buchan's _ancient ballads_, (ii. .) similar collections of impossibilities in _the trooper and fair maid_, buchan, i. ; _robin's tesment_, _id._, i. , or aytoun, d ed. ii. ; _as i was walking under a grove_, _pills to purge melancholy_, v. . see also _post_, vol. ii. , , vol. iv. , ; and in german, _von eitel unmöglichen dingen_, erk's _liederhort_, p. - ; uhland, _eitle dinge_, no. , a, b; _wunderhorn_, ii. . the elfin knight sits on yon hill, _ba, ba, ba, lillie ba._ he blaws his horn baith loud and shrill. _the wind hath blawn my plaid awa._ he blaws it east, he blaws it west, he blaws it where he liketh best. "i wish that horn were in my kist, yea, and the knight in my arms niest." she had no sooner these words said, than the knight came to her bed. "thou art o'er young a maid," quoth he, "married with me, that thou would'st be." "i have a sister, younger than i, and she was married yesterday." "married with me if thou would'st be, a curtisie thou must do to me. "it's ye maun mak a sark to me, without any cut or seam," quoth he; "and ye maun shape it, knife-, sheerless, and also sew it needle-, threedless." "if that piece of courtisie i do to thee, another thou must do to me. "i have an aiker of good ley land, which lyeth low by yon sea strand; "it's ye maun till't wi' your touting horn, and ye maun saw't wi' the pepper corn; "and ye maun harrow't wi' a thorn, and hae your wark done ere the morn; "and ye maun shear it wi' your knife, and no lose a stack o't for your life; "and ye maun stack it in a mouse hole, and ye maun thrash it in your shoe sole; "and ye maun dight it in your loof, and also sack it in your glove; "and ye maun bring it over the sea,[l ] fair, and clean, and dry to me; "and when that ye have done your wark, come back to me, and ye'll get your sark." "i'll not quite my plaid for my life; it haps my seven bairnes and my wife." "my maidenhead i'll then keep still, let the elfin knight do what he will. "my plaid awa, my plaid away, and owre the hills and far awa, and far awa to norowa', my plaid shall not be blawn awa." , thou must. the broomfield hill. a fragment of this ballad was printed in herd's collection, ("_i'll wager, i'll wager_," i. .) the present version is from the _border minstrelsy_, (iii. ,) and we have added another from kinloch's _ancient scottish ballads_. a somewhat longer copy is given in buchan's _ballads_, (ii. ,) and a modernized english one, of no value, (_the west country wager_,) in _ancient poems_, &c., percy society, vol. xvii. p. . _brume, brume on hil_, is mentioned in the _complaynt of scotland_, and formed part of captain cox's well-known collection. a danish ballad exhibits the same theme, though differently treated: _sövnerunerne_, grundtvig, no. . there was a knight and a lady bright, had a true tryst at the broom; the ane ga'ed early in the morning, the other in the afternoon. and aye she sat in her mother's bower door, and aye she made her mane, "o whether should i gang to the broomfield hill, or should i stay at hame? "for if i gang to the broomfield hill, my maidenhead is gone; and if i chance to stay at hame, my love will ca' me mansworn."-- up then spake a witch woman, aye from the room aboon; "o, ye may gang to broomfield hill, and yet come maiden hame. "for when ye come to the broomfield hill, ye'll find your love asleep, with a silver belt about his head, and a broom-cow at his feet. "take ye the blossom of the broom, the blossom it smells sweet, and strew it at your true love's head, and likewise at his feet. "take ye the rings off your fingers, put them on his right hand, to let him know, when he doth awake, his love was at his command."-- she pu'd the broom flower on hive-hill, and strew'd on's white hals bane, and that was to be wittering true, that maiden she had gane. "o where were ye, my milk-white steed, that i hae coft sae dear, that wadna watch and waken me, when there was maiden here?"-- "i stamped wi' my foot, master, and gar'd my bridle ring; but nae kin' thing wald waken ye, till she was past and gane."-- "and wae betide ye, my gay goss hawk, that i did love sae dear, that wadna watch and waken me, when there was maiden here."-- "i clapped wi' my wings, master, and aye my bells i rang, and aye cry'd, waken, waken, master, before the ladye gang."-- "but haste and haste, my gude white steed, to come the maiden till, or a' the birds of gude green wood of your flesh shall have their fill."-- "ye needna burst your gude white steed, wi' racing o'er the howm; nae bird flies faster through the wood, than she fled through the broom." lord john. from kinloch's _ancient scottish ballads_, (p. .) "i'll wager, i'll wager," says lord john, "a hundred merks and ten, that ye winna gae to the bonnie broom-fields, and a maid return again."-- "but i'll lay a wager wi' you, lord john, a' your merks oure again, that i'll gae alane to the bonnie broom-fields, and a maid return again." then lord john mounted his grey steed, and his hound wi' his bells sae bricht, and swiftly he rade to the bonny broom-fields, wi' his hawks, like a lord or knicht. "now rest, now rest, my bonnie grey steed, my lady will soon be here; and i'll lay my head aneath this rose sae red, and the bonnie burn sae near." but sound, sound, was the sleep he took, for he slept till it was noon; and his lady cam at day, left a taiken and away, gaed as licht as a glint o' the moon. she strawed the roses on the ground, threw her mantle on the brier, and the belt around her middle sae jimp, as a taiken that she'd been there. the rustling leaves flew round his head, and rous'd him frae his dream; he saw by the roses, and mantle sae green, that his love had been there and was gane. "o whare was ye, my gude grey steed, that i coft ye sae dear; that ye didna waken your master, whan ye ken'd that his love was here."-- "i pautit wi' my foot, master, garr'd a' my bridles ring; and still i cried, waken, gude master, for now is the hour and time."-- "then whare was ye, my bonnie grey hound, that i coft ye sae dear, that ye didna waken your master, whan ye kend that his love was here."-- "i pautit wi' my foot, master, garr'd a' my bells to ring; and still i cried, waken, gude master, for now is the hour and time."-- "but whare was ye, my hawks, my hawks, that i coft ye sae dear, that ye didna waken your master, whan ye ken'd that his love was here."-- "o wyte na me, now, my master dear, i garr'd a' my young hawks sing, and still i cried, waken, gude master, for now is the hour and time."-- "then be it sae, my wager gane! 't will skaith frae meikle ill; for gif i had found her in bonnie broom-fields, o' her heart's blude ye'd drunken your fill." * * * * * the stanzas below are from an american version of this ballad called _the green broomfield_, printed in a cheap song-book. (graham's _illustrated magazine_, sept. .) "then when she went to the green broom field, where her love was fast asleep, with a gray _goose_-hawk and a green laurel bough, and a green broom under his feet. "and when he awoke from out his sleep, an angry man was he; he looked to the east, and he looked to the west, and he wept for his sweetheart to see. "oh! where was you, my gray _goose_-hawk, the hawk that i loved so dear, that you did not awake me from out my sleep, when my sweetheart was so near!" kempion. this ballad was first printed in the _border minstrelsy_, (vol. iii. p. ,) "chiefly from mrs. brown's ms. with corrections from a recited fragment." motherwell furnishes a different version, from recitation, (_minstrelsy_, p. ,) which is subjoined to the present, and the well-known ditty of the _laidley worm of spindleston-heugh_, upon the same theme, will be found in the appendix to this volume. "such transformations as the song narrates," remarks sir walter scott, "are common in the annals of chivalry. in the th and th cantos of the second book of the _orlando inamorato_, the paladin, brandimarte, after surmounting many obstacles, penetrates into the recesses of an enchanted palace. here he finds a fair damsel, seated upon a tomb, who announces to him, that, in order to achieve her deliverance, he must raise the lid of the sepulchre, and kiss whatever being should issue forth. the knight, having pledged his faith, proceeds to open the tomb, out of which a monstrous snake issues forth, with a tremendous hiss. brandimarte, with much reluctance, fulfils the _bizarre_ conditions of the adventure; and the monster is instantly changed into a beautiful fairy, who loads her deliverer with benefits." _jomfruen i ormeham_, in grundtvig's _danmarks gamle folkeviser_, ii. , is essentially the same ballad as _kempion_. the characteristic incident of the story (a maiden who has been transformed by her step-mother into a snake or other monster, being restored to her proper shape by the kiss of a knight) is as common in the popular fiction of the north as scott asserts it to be in chivalrous romance. for instances, see grundtvig, l. l., and under the closely related _lindormen_, ii. . the name _kempion_ is itself a monument of the relation of our ballads to the _kæmpeviser_. pollard of pollard hall, who slew "a venomous serpent which did much harm to man and beast," is called in the modern legend a _champion_ knight. "cum heir, cum heir, ye freely feed, and lay your head low on my knee; the heaviest weird i will you read, that ever was read to gay ladye. "o meikle dolour sall ye dree, and aye the salt seas o'er ye'se swim; and far mair dolour sall ye dree on estmere crags[l ], when ye them climb. "i weird ye to a fiery beast, and relieved sall ye never be, till kempion, the kingis son, cum to the crag, and thrice kiss thee."-- o meikle dolour did she dree, and aye the salt seas o'er she swam; and far mair dolour did she dree on estmere crag, when she them clamb. and aye she cried for kempion, gin he would but come to her hand: now word has gane to kempion, that sicken a beast was in his land. "now, by my sooth," said kempion, "this fiery beast i'll gang and see."-- "and by my sooth," said segramour, "my ae brother, i'll gang wi' thee." then bigged hae they a bonny boat, and they hae set her to the sea; but a mile before they reach'd the shore, around them she gar'd the red fire flee. "o segramour, keep the boat afloat, and let her na the land o'er near; for this wicked beast will sure gae mad, and set fire to a' the land and mair."-- syne has he bent an arblast bow, and aim'd an arrow at her head; and swore if she didna quit the land, wi' that same shaft to shoot her dead. "o out of my stythe i winna rise, (and it is not for the awe o' thee,) till kempion, the kingis son, cum to the crag, and thrice kiss me."-- he has louted him o'er the dizzy crag, and gien the monster kisses ane; awa she gaed, and again she cam. the fieryest beast that ever was seen. "o out o' my stythe i winna rise, (and not for a' thy bow nor thee,) till kempion, the kingis son, cum to the crag, and thrice kiss me."-- he's louted him o'er the estmere crags, and he has gi'en her kisses twa: awa she gaed, and again she cam, the fieryest beast that ever you saw. "o out of my den i winna rise, nor flee it for the fear o' thee, till kempion, that courteous knight, cum to the crag, and thrice kiss me."-- he's louted him o'er the lofty crag, and he has gi'en her kisses three: awa she gaed, and again she cam, the loveliest ladye e'er could be! "and by my sooth," says kempion, "my ain true love, (for this is she,) they surely had a heart o' stane, could put thee to such misery. "o was it warwolf in the wood? or was it mermaid in the sea? or was it man or vile woman, my ain true love, that mis-shaped thee?"-- "it wasna warwolf in the wood, nor was it mermaid in the sea: but it was my wicked step-mother, and wae and weary may she be!"-- "o, a heavier weird shall light her on, than ever fell on vile woman; her hair shall grow rough, and her teeth grow lang, and on her four feet shall she gang. "none shall take pity her upon; in wormeswood she aye shall won; and relieved shall she never be, till st. mungo come over the sea."-- and sighing said that weary wight, "i doubt that day i'll never see!" . if by estmere crags we are to understand the rocky cliffs of northumberland, in opposition to westmoreland, we may bring our scene of action near bamborough, and thereby almost identify the tale of _kempion_ with that of the _laidley worm of spindleston_, to which it bears so strong a resemblance.--scott. but why should we seek to do this? kemp owyne. kemp owyne, says motherwell, "was, no doubt, the same ewein or owain, ap urien the king of reged, who is celebrated by the bards, taliessin and llywarch-hen, as well as in the welsh historical triads. in a poem of gruffyd llwyd, a.d. , addressed to owain glyndwr, is the following allusion to this warrior. 'thou hast travelled by land and by sea in the conduct of thine affairs, like owain ap urien in days of yore, when with activity he encountered the black knight of the water.'[c] his mistress had a ring esteemed one of the thirteen rarities of britain, which, (like the wondrous ring of gyges) would render the wearer invisible." _minstrelsy_, p. lxxxiii. [c] "on sea, on land, thou still didst brave the dangerous cliff and rapid wave; like _urien_, who subdued the knight, and the fell dragon put to flight, yon moss-grown fount beside; the grim, black warrior of the flood, the dragon, gorged with human blood, the waters' scaly pride." jones's _welsh bards_, i. . the copy of kemp owyne printed in buchan's _ancient ballads_, (ii. ,) is the same as the following. her mother died when she was young, which gave her cause to make great moan; her father married the warst woman that ever lived in christendom. she served her with foot and hand, in every thing that she could dee; till once, in an unlucky time, she threw her in ower craigy's sea. says, "lie you there, dove isabel, and all my sorrows lie with thee; till kemp owyne come ower the sea, and borrow you with kisses three, let all the warld do what they will, oh borrowed shall you never be." her breath grew strang, her hair grew lang, and twisted thrice about the tree, and all the people, far and near, thought that a savage beast was she; this news did come to kemp owyne, where he lived far beyond the sea. he hasted him to craigy's sea, and on the savage beast look'd he; her breath was strang, her hair was lang, and twisted was about the tree, and with a swing she came about: "come to craigy's sea, and kiss with me. "here is a royal belt," she cried, "that i have found in the green sea; and while your body it is on, drawn shall your blood never be; but if you touch me, tail or fin, i vow my belt your death shall be." he stepped in, gave her a kiss, the royal belt he brought him wi'; her breath was strang, her hair was lang, and twisted twice about the tree, and with a swing she came about: "come to craigy's sea, and kiss with me. "here is a royal ring," she said, "that i have found in the green sea; and while your finger it is on, drawn shall your blood never be; but if you touch me, tail or fin, i swear my ring your death shall be." he stepped in, gave her a kiss, the royal ring he brought him wi'; her breath was strang, her hair was lang, and twisted ance around the tree, and with a swing she came about: "come to craigy's sea, and kiss with me. "here is a royal brand," she said, "that i have found in the green sea; and while your body it is on, drawn shall your blood never be; but if you touch me, tail or fin, i swear my brand your death shall be." he stepped in, gave her a kiss, the royal brand he brought him wi'; her breath was sweet, her hair grew short, and twisted nane about the tree; and smilingly she came about, as fair a woman as fair could be. king henry. a modernized copy of king henry was published in the _tales of wonder_, (no ,) under the title of _courteous king jamie_. it first appeared in an ancient dress in the _border minstrelsy_, (iii. ,) but a version preferable in some respects was given by jamieson in his _popular ballads_, (ii. ,) which is here printed, without the editor's interpolations. for a notice of similar legends, see the _marriage of sir gawaine_, at page of this volume. lat never a man a wooing wend, that lacketh thingis three; a routh o' gould, an open heart, ay fu' o' charity. as this i speak of king henry, for he lay burd-alane; and he's doen him to a jelly hunt's ha', was far frae ony town. he chas'd the deer now him before, and the roe down by the den, till the fattest buck in a' the flock king henry he has slain. o he has doen him to his ha', to mak him bierly cheer; and in it cam a grisly ghost, staed stappin' i' the fleer. her head hat the roof-tree o' the house, her middle ye mat weel span;-- he's thrown to her his gay mantle; says,--"ladie, hap your lingcan." her teeth was a' like leather stakes, her nose like club or mell; and i ken nae thing she 'pear'd to be, but the fiend that wons in hell. "some meat, some meat, ye king henry; some meat ye gie to me." "and what meat's in this house, ladie? and what ha'e i to gi'e?" "its ye do kill your berry-brown steed, and ye bring him here to me." o whan he slew his berry-brown steed, wow but his heart was sair! she ate him a' up, flesh and bane, left naething but hide and hair. "mair meat, mair meat, ye king henry, mair meat ye bring to me." "and what meat's in this house, ladie? and what hae i to gi'e?" "o ye do kill your good grey hounds, and ye bring them in to me." o whan he killed his good grey hounds, wow but his heart was sair! she ate them a' up, flesh and bane, left naething but hide and hair. "mair meat, mair meat, ye king henry, mair meat ye bring to me." "and what meat's in this house, ladie? and what hae i to gi'e?" "o ye do kill your gay goss hawks, and ye bring them here to me." o whan he kill'd his gay goss hawks, wow but his heart was sair! she ate them a' up, skin and bane, left naething but feathers bare. "some drink, some drink, now, king henry; some drink ye bring to me." "o what drink's in this house, ladie, that ye're nae welcome tee?" "o ye sew up your horse's hide, and bring in a drink to me." and he's sew'd up the bloody hide, a puncheon o' wine put in; she drank it a' up at a waught, left na ae drap ahin'. "a bed, a bed, now, king henry, a bed ye mak to me; for ye maun pu' the heather green, and mak a bed to me." and pu'd has he the heather green, and made to her a bed; and up he's ta'en his gay mantle, and o'er it has he spread. "tak aff your claiths, now, king henry, and lye down by my side;" "o god forbid," says king henry, "that ever the like betide; that ever the fiend that wons in hell, should streek down by my side." * * * * * whan nicht was gane, and day was come, and the sun shone thro' the ha', the fairest lady that ever was seen lay atween him and the wa'. "o weel is me!" says king henry; "how lang'll this last wi' me?" then out it spake that fair lady,-- "e'en till the day you die. "for i've met wi' mony a gentle knicht, that gae me sic a fill; but never before wi' a curteis knicht, that gae me a' my will." cospatrick. (_border minstrelsy_, iii. .) this ballad, which is still very popular, is known under various other names, as _bothwell_, _child brenton_, _lord dingwall_, _we were sisters_, _we were seven_, &c. scott's version was derived principally from recitation, but some of the concluding stanzas were taken from herd's. herd's copy, which must be regarded as a fragment, is given in connection with the present, and buchan's in the appendix to this volume. another edition, of a suspicious character, may be seen in cromek's _remains of nithsdale and galloway song_, (p. .) all the principal incidents of the story are found in _ingefred og gudrune, danske viser_, no. , translated by jamieson, _illustrations_ p. . more or less imperfect versions of the same are _riddar olle, svenska folk-visor_, ii. p. , , , , and _herr Äster och fröken sissa_, p. . the substitution of the maid-servant for the bride, occurs also in _torkild trundesön, danske v._, no. , or _thorkil troneson_, arwidsson, no. . this idea was perhaps derived from _tristan and isold_: see scott's _sir tristrem_, ii. , . cospatrick has sent o'er the faem; cospatrick brought his ladye hame; and fourscore ships have come her wi', the ladye by the grene-wood tree. there were twal' and twal' wi' baken bread, and twal' and twal' wi' gowd sae reid, and twal' and twal' wi' bouted flour, and twal' and twal' wi' the paramour. sweet willy was a widow's son, and at her stirrup he did run; and she was clad in the finest pall, but aye she let the tears down fall. "o is your saddle set awrye? or rides your steed for you ower high? or are you mourning, in your tide, that you suld be cospatrick's bride?" "i am not mourning, at this tide, that i suld be cospatrick's bride; but i am sorrowing in my mood, that i suld leave my mother good. "but, gentle boy, come tell to me, what is the custom of thy countrie?"-- "the custom thereof, my dame," he says, "will ill a gentle laydye please. "seven king's daughters has our lord wedded, and seven king's daughters has our lord bedded; but he's cutted their breasts frae their breast-bane, and sent them mourning hame again. "yet, gin you're sure that you're a maid, ye may gae safely to his bed; but gif o' that ye be na sure, then hire some damsell o' your bour."-- the ladye's call'd her bour maiden, that waiting was into her train; "five thousand merks i'll gie to thee, to sleep this night with my lord for me."-- when bells were rang, and mass was sayne, and a' men unto bed were gane, cospatrick and the bonny maid, into a chamber they were laid. "now, speak to me, blankets, and speak to me, bed, and speak, thou sheet, enchanted web; and speak up, my bonny brown sword, that winna lie, is this a true maiden that lies by me?"-- "it is not a maid that you hae wedded, but it is a maid that you hae bedded; it is a leal maiden that lies by thee, but not the maiden that it should be."-- o wrathfully he left the bed, and wrathfully his claes on did; and he has ta'en him through the ha', and on his mother he did ca'. "i am the most unhappy man, that ever was in christen land! i courted a maiden, meik and mild, and i hae gotten naething but a woman wi' child."-- "o stay, my son, into this ha', and sport ye wi' your merry men a'; and i will to the secret bour, to see how it fares wi' your paramour."-- the carline she was stark and sture, she aff the hinges dang the dure; "o is your bairn to laird or loun, or is it to your father's groom?"-- "o hear me, mother, on my knee, till my sad story i tell to thee: o we were sisters, sisters seven, we were the fairest under heaven. "it fell on a summer's afternoon, when a' our toilsome task was done, we cast the kevils us amang, to see which suld to the grene-wood gang. "ohon! alas, for i was youngest, and aye my wierd it was the hardest! the kevil it on me did fa', whilk was the cause of a' my woe. "for to the grene-wood i maun gae, to pu' the red rose and the slae; to pu' the red rose and the thyme, to deck my mother's bour and mine. "i hadna pu'd a flower but ane, when by there came a gallant hende, wi' high-coll'd hose and laigh-coll'd shoon, and he seem'd to be sum kingis son. "and be i a maid, or be i nae, he kept me there till the close o' day; and be i a maid, or be i nane, he kept me there till the day was done. "he gae me a lock o' his yellow hair, and bade me keep it ever mair; he gae me a carknet o' bonny beads, and bade me keep it against my needs. "he gae to me a gay gold ring, and bade me keep it abune a' thing."-- "what did ye wi' the tokens rare, that ye gat frae that gallant there?"-- "o bring that coffer unto me, and a' the tokens ye sall see."-- "now stay, daughter, your bour within, while i gae parley wi' my son."-- o she has ta'en her thro' the ha', and on her son began to ca'; "what did ye wi' the bonny beads i bade you keep against your needs? "what did you wi' the gay gold ring i bade you keep abune a' thing?"-- "i gae them to a ladye gay, i met on grene-wood on a day. "but i wad gie a' my halls and tours, i had that ladye within my bours; but i wad gie my very life, i had that ladye to my wife."-- "now keep, my son, your ha's and tours, ye have the bright burd in your bours; and keep, my son, your very life, ye have that ladye to your wife."-- now, or a month was come and gane, the ladye bare a bonny son; and 'twas weel written on his breast-bane, "cospatrick[l ] is my father's name." "o row my lady in satin and silk, and wash my son in the morning milk." , cospatrick, _comes patricius_, was the designation of the earl of dunbar, in the days of wallace and bruce.--scott. bothwell. from herd's _scottish songs_, (i. .) as bothwell was walking in the lowlands alane, _hey down, and a down_, he met six ladies sae gallant and fine, _hey down, and a down._ he cast his lot amang them a', and on the youngest his lot did fa'. he's brought her frae her mother's bower, unto his strongest castle and tower. but ay she cry'd and made great moan, and ay the tear came trickling down. "come up, come up," said the foremost man, "i think our bride comes slowly on." "o lady, sits your saddle awry, or is your steed for you owre high?" "my saddle is not set awry, nor carries me my steed owre high; "but i am weary of my life, since i maun be lord bothwell's wife." he's blawn his horn sae sharp and shrill, up start the deer on every hill; he's blawn his horn sae lang and loud, up start the deer in gude green wood. his lady mother lookit owre the castle wa', and she saw them riding ane and a'. she's called upon her maids by seven, to mak his bed baith saft and even: she's called upon her cooks by nine, to make their dinner fair and fine. when day was gane and night was come, "what ails my love on me to frown? "or does the wind blow in your glove, or runs your mind on another love?" "nor blows the wind within my glove, nor runs my mind on another love;" "but i not maid nor maiden am, for i'm wi' bairn to another man." "i thought i'd a maiden sae meek and sae mild, but i've nought but a woman wi' child." his mother's taen her up to a tower, and lockit her in her secret bower: "now doughter mine, come tell to me, wha's bairn this is that you are wi'." "o mother dear, i canna learn wha is the father of my bairn. "but as i walk'd in the lowlands my lane, i met a gentleman gallant and fine; "he keepit me there sae late and sae lang, frae the ev'ning late till the morning dawn; "and a' that he gied me to my propine, was a pair of green gloves, and a gay gold ring, "three lauchters of his yellow hair, in case that we shou'd meet nae mair." his lady mother went down the stair: "now son, now son, come tell to me, where's the green gloves i gave to thee?" "i gied to a lady sae fair and so fine, the green gloves and a gay gold ring: "but i wad gie my castles and towers, i had that lady within my bowers: "but i wad gie my very life, i had that lady to be my wife." "now keep, now keep your castles and towers, you have that lady within your bowers: "now keep, now keep your very life, you have that lady to be your wife." "o row my lady in sattin and silk, and wash my son in the morning milk." willie's ladye. printed from mrs. brown's ms., in the _border minstrelsy_, vol. iii. p. . another copy is given in jamieson's _popular ballads_, (ii. ,) and versions, enlarged and altered from the ancient, in the same work, (ii. ,) and in _tales of wonder_, no. . this ballad bears a striking resemblance to _sir stig and lady torelild_, translated from the danish by jamieson, _illustrations of northern antiquities_, p. . this is the eighth (marked h) of nine danish ballads given by grundtvig, under the title _hustru og mands moder_, vol. ii. . three swedish versions have been printed: two in arwidsson's _fornsånger, liten kerstins förtrollning_, ii. , and another (grundtvig) in cavallius and stephens's _svenska folksagor_. "those who wish to know how an incantation, or charm, of the distressing nature here described, was performed in classic days, may consult the story of galanthis's metamorphosis, in ovid, or the following passage in apuleius: 'eadem (saga, scilicet, quædam) amatoris uxorem, quod in eam dicacule probrum dixerat, jam in sarcinam prægnationis, obsepto utero, et repigrato f[oe]tu, perpetua prægnatione damnavit. et ut cuncti numerant, octo annorum onere, misella illa, velut elephantum paritura, distenditur.' apul. _metam._ lib. i. "there is a curious tale about a count of westeravia, whom a deserted concubine bewitched upon his marriage, so as to preclude all hopes of his becoming a father. the spell continued to operate for three years, till one day, the count happening to meet with his former mistress, she maliciously asked him about the increase of his family. the count, conceiving some suspicion from her manner, craftily answered, that god had blessed him with three fine children; on which she exclaimed, like willie's mother in the ballad, "may heaven confound the old hag, by whose counsel i threw an enchanted pitcher into the draw-well of your palace!" the spell being found, and destroyed, the count became the father of a numerous family. _hierarchie of the blessed angels_, p. ." scott. willie's ta'en him o'er the faem, he's wooed a wife, and brought her hame; he's wooed her for her yellow hair, but his mother wrought her meikle care; and meikle dolour gar'd her dree, for lighter she can never be; but in her bower she sits wi' pain, and willie mourns o'er her in vain. and to his mother he has gane, that vile rank witch, o' vilest kind! he says--"my ladie has a cup, wi' gowd and silver set about; this gudely gift sall be your ain, and let her be lighter o' her young bairn."-- "of her young bairn she's never be lighter, nor in her bour to shine the brighter: but she sall die, and turn to clay, and you sall wed another may."-- "another may i'll never wed, another may i'll never bring hame:"-- but, sighing, said that weary wight-- "i wish my life were at an end! "yet gae ye to your mother again, that vile rank witch, o' vilest kind! and say, your ladye has a steed, the like o' him's no in the land o' leed. "for he is silver shod before, and he is gowden shod behind; at every tuft of that horse mane, there's a golden chess, and a bell to ring. this gudely gift sall be her ain, and let me be lighter o' my young bairn."-- "of her young bairn she's ne'er be lighter, nor in her bour to shine the brighter; but she sall die, and turn to clay, and ye sall wed another may."-- "another may i'll never wed, another may i'll never bring hame:"-- but, sighing, said that weary wight-- "i wish my life were at an end!-- "yet gae ye to your mother again, that vile rank witch, o' rankest kind! and say your ladye has a girdle, it's a' red gowd to the middle; "and aye, at ilka siller hem hang fifty siller bells and ten; this gudely gift sall be her ain, and let me be lighter o' my young bairn."-- "of her young bairn she's ne'er be lighter, nor in your bour to shine the brighter; for she sall die, and turn to clay, and thou sall wed another may."-- "another may i'll never wed, another may i'll never bring hame;"-- but, sighing, said that weary wight-- "i wish my days were at an end!"-- then out and spak the billy blind,[l ] (he spak aye in good time:) "yet gae ye to the market-place, and there do buy a loaf of wace; do shape it bairn and bairnly like, and in it twa glassen een you'll put; "and bid her your boy's christening to, then notice weel what she shall do; and do you stand a little away, to notice weel what she may say." [l ]he did him to the market-place, and there he bought a loaf[l ] o' wax; he shaped it bairn and bairnly like, and in twa glazen een he pat; he did him till his mither then, and bade her to his boy's christnin; and he did stand a little forbye, and noticed well what she did say. "o wha has loosed the nine witch knots, that were amang that ladye's locks? and wha's ta'en out the kaims o' care, that were amang that ladye's hair? "and wha has ta'en down that bush o' woodbine, that hung between her bour and mine? and wha has kill'd the master kid,[l ] that ran beneath that ladye's bed? and wha has loosed her left foot shee, and let that ladye lighter be?" syne, willy's loosed the nine witch knots, that were amang that ladye's locks; and willie's ta'en out the kaims o' care, that were into that ladye's hair; and he's ta'en down the bush o' woodbine, hung atween her bour and the witch carline; and he has kill'd the master kid, that ran beneath that ladye's bed; and he has loosed her left foot shee, and latten that ladye lighter be; and now he has gotten a bonny son, and meikle grace be him upon. . _billy blind_--a familiar genius, or propitious spirit, somewhat similar to the _brownie_. - . inserted from jamieson's copy. . _leaf_, jamieson. . the witch's chief familiar, placed in the chamber of the sick woman in the form of a kid. alison gross. jamieson's _popular ballads_, ii. . from the recitation of mrs. brown. the beginning is to be compared with _lindormen_, the whole ballad with _jomfruen i ormeham_, grundtvig's _folkeviser_, ii. , . o alison gross, that lives in yon tower, the ugliest witch in the north countrie, has trysted me ae day up till her bower, and mony fair speech she made to me. she straiked my head, and she kembed my hair, and she set me down saftly on her knee, says,--"gin ye will be my lemman sae true, sae mony braw things as i would you gi'e." she shaw'd me a mantle o' red scarlet, wi' gouden flowers and fringes fine, says "gin ye will be my lemman sae true, this goodly gift it sall be thine." "awa, awa, ye ugly witch, haud far awa, and lat me be; i never will be your lemman sae true, and i wish i were out of your company." she neist brocht a sark o' the saftest silk, weel wrought wi' pearls about the band; says,--"gin ye will be my ain true love, this goodly gift ye sall command." she shaw'd me a cup o' the good red goud, weel set wi' jewels sae fair to see; says,--"gin ye will be my lemman sae true, this goodly gift i will you gie." "awa, awa, ye ugly witch! haud far awa, and lat me be; for i wadna ance kiss your ugly mouth for a' the gifts that ye cou'd gie." she's turned her richt and round about, and thrice she blew on a grass-green horn; and she sware by the moon and the stars aboon, that she'd gar me rue the day i was born. then out has she ta'en a silver wand, and she's turned her three times round and round; she's mutter'd sic words, that my strength it fail'd, and i fell down senseless on the ground. she's turn'd me into an ugly worm, and gar'd me toddle about the tree; and ay, on ilka saturday's night, my sister maisry came to me, wi' silver bason, and silver kemb, to kemb my headie upon her knee; but or i had kiss'd her ugly mouth, i'd rather hae toddled about the tree. but as it fell out on last hallowe'en, when the seely court[l ] was ridin' by, the queen lighted down on a gowan bank, nae far frae the tree whare i wont to lye. she took me up in her milk-white hand, and she straiked me three times o'er her knee; she changed me again to my ain proper shape, and i nae mair maun toddle about the tree. . _seely court_, i.e. "pleasant or happy court," or "court of the pleasant and happy people." this agrees with the ancient and more legitimate idea of fairies. jamieson. see p. , v. , _et seq._ the earl of mar's daughter. from buchan's _ancient ballads and songs of the north of scotland_, (i. .) it is much to be regretted that this piece has not come down to us in a purer and more ancient form. similar ballads are found in danish, swedish, and faroish. several forms of the danish are given by grundtvig (_ridderen i fugleham_, no. ), who also cites many popular tales which have the same basis, e.g. the countess d'aulnoy's fairy story of _the blue bird_. it was intill a pleasant time, upon a simmer's day; the noble earl of mar's daughter went forth to sport and play. as thus she did amuse hersell, below a green aik tree, there she saw a sprightly doo set on a tower sae hie. "o cow-me-doo, my love sae true, if ye'll come down to me, ye'se hae a cage o' guid red gowd instead o' simple tree: "i'll put gowd hingers roun' your cage, and siller roun' your wa'; i'll gar ye shine as fair a bird as ony o' them a'." but she had nae these words well spoke, nor yet these words well said, till cow-me-doo flew frae the tower, and lighted on her head. then she has brought this pretty bird hame to her bowers and ha'; and made him shine as fair a bird as ony o' them a'. when day was gane, and night was come, about the evening tide, this lady spied a sprightly youth stand straight up by her side. "from whence came ye, young man?" she said, "that does surprise me sair; my door was bolted right secure; what way ha'e ye come here?" "o had your tongue, ye lady fair, lat a' your folly be; mind ye not on your turtle doo last day ye brought wi' thee?" "o tell me mair, young man," she said, "this does surprise me now; what country ha'e ye come frae? what pedigree are you?" "my mither lives on foreign isles, she has nae mair but me; she is a queen o' wealth and state, and birth and high degree; "likewise well skill'd in magic spells, as ye may plainly see; and she transform'd me to yon shape, to charm such maids as thee. "i am a doo the live lang day, a sprightly youth at night; this aye gars me appear mair fair in a fair maiden's sight. "and it was but this verra day that i came ower the sea; your lovely face did me enchant,-- i'll live and dee wi' thee." "o cow-me-doo, my luve sae true, nae mair frae me ye'se gae." "that's never my intent, my luve, as ye said, it shall be sae." "o cow-me-doo, my luve sae true, it's time to gae to bed." "wi' a' my heart, my dear marrow, it's be as ye ha'e said." then he has staid in bower wi' her for sax lang years and ane, till sax young sons to him she bare, and the seventh she's brought hame. but aye as ever a child was born, he carried them away, and brought them to his mither's care, as fast as he cou'd fly. thus he has staid in bower wi' her for twenty years and three; there came a lord o' high renown to court this fair ladie. but still his proffer she refused, and a' his presents too; says, "i'm content to live alane wi' my bird, cow-me-doo." her father sware a solemn oath amang the nobles all, "the morn, or ere i eat or drink, this bird i will gar kill." the bird was sitting in his cage, and heard what they did say; and when he found they were dismist, says, "waes me for this day! "before that i do langer stay, and thus to be forlorn, i'll gang unto my mither's bower, where i was bred and born." then cow-me-doo took flight and flew beyond the raging sea; and lighted near his mither's castle on a tower o' gowd sae hie. as his mither was wauking out, to see what she coud see, and there she saw her little son set on the tower sae hie. "get dancer here to dance," she said, "and minstrells for to play; for here's my young son, florentine, come here wi' me to stay." "get nae dancers to dance, mither, nor minstrells for to play; for the mither o' my seven sons, the morn's her wedding-day." "o tell me, tell me, florentine, tell me, and tell me true, tell me this day without a flaw, what i will do for you." "instead of dancers to dance, mither, or minstrells for to play, turn four-and-twenty wall-wight men, like storks, in feathers gray; "my seven sons in seven swans, aboon their heads to flee; and i, mysell, a gay gos-hawk, a bird o' high degree." then sichin' said the queen hersell, "that thing's too high for me;" but she applied to an auld woman, who had mair skill than she. instead o' dancers to dance a dance, or minstrells for to play, four-and-twenty wall-wight men turn'd birds o' feathers gray; her seven sons in seven swans, aboon their heads to flee; and he, himsell, a gay gos-hawk, a bird o' high degree. this flock o' birds took flight and flew beyond the raging sea; and landed near the earl mar's castle, took shelter in every tree. they were a flock o' pretty birds, right comely to be seen; the people view'd them wi' surprise, as they danc'd on the green. these birds ascended frae the tree, and lighted on the ha'; and at the last wi' force did flee among the nobles a'. the storks there seized some o' the men, they cou'd neither fight nor flee; the swans they bound the bride's best man, below a green aik tree. they lighted next on maidens fair, then on the bride's own head; and wi' the twinkling o' an e'e, the bride and them were fled. there's ancient men at weddings been, for sixty years or more; but sic a curious wedding-day they never saw before. for naething cou'd the companie do, nor naething cou'd they say; but they saw a flock o' pretty birds that took their bride away. when that earl mar he came to know where his dochter did stay, he sign'd a bond o' unity, and visits now they pay. young akin. mr. kinloch printed a fragment of this ballad under the title of _hynde etin_. (see appendix.) the story was afterwards given complete by buchan, (_ballads of the north of scotland_, i. ,) as here follows. buchan had previously communicated to motherwell a modernized version of the same tale, in which the etin is changed to a groom. (see _post_.) this ancient ballad has suffered severely in the course of its transmission to our times. still there can be no doubt that it was originally the same as _the maid and the dwarf king_, which is still sung in denmark, norway, sweden, and the faroe islands. numerous copies of the scandinavian ballad have been given to the world: seven danish versions, more or less complete, four norse, nine swedish, one faroish, and some other fragments (grundtvig, ii. , and note, p. ). one of the swedish ballads (_bergkonungen_, afzelius, no. ) is translated in keightley's _fairy mythology_, , under the title of _proud margaret_. closely related is _agnete og havmanden_, grundtvig, ii. , , which is found in several forms in german (e.g. _die schöne hannele_ in hoffmann von fallersleben's _schlesische volkslieder_, no. ), and two in slavic. lady margaret sits in her bower door, sewing at her silken seam; she heard a note in elmond's-wood, and wish'd she there had been. she loot the seam fa' frae her side, and the needle to her tae; and she is on to elmond-wood as fast as she coud gae. she hadna pu'd a nut, a nut, nor broken a branch but ane, till by it came a young hind chiel, says, "lady, lat alane. "o why pu' ye the nut, the nut, or why brake ye the tree? for i am forester o' this wood: ye shou'd spier leave at me." "i'll ask leave at no living man, nor yet will i at thee; my father is king o'er a' this realm, this wood belongs to me." she hadna pu'd a nut, a nut, nor broken a branch but three, till by it came him young akin, and gar'd her lat them be. the highest tree in elmond's-wood, he's pu'd it by the reet; and he has built for her a bower near by a hallow seat. he's built a bower, made it secure wi' carbuncle and stane; tho' travellers were never sae nigh, appearance it had nane. he's kept her there in elmond's-wood, for six lang years and one; till six pretty sons to him she bear, and the seventh she's brought home. it fell ance upon a day, this guid lord went from home; and he is to the hunting gane, took wi' him his eldest son. and when they were on a guid way, wi' slowly pace did walk, the boy's heart being something wae, he thus began to talk:-- "a question i wou'd ask, father, gin ye wou'dna angry be?" "say on, say on, my bonny boy, ye'se nae be quarrell'd by me." "i see my mither's cheeks aye weet, i never can see them dry; and i wonder what aileth my mither, to mourn continually." "your mither was a king's daughter, sprung frae a high degree; and she might hae wed some worthy prince, had she nae been stown by me. "i was her father's cup-bearer, just at that fatal time; i catch'd her on a misty night, whan summer was in prime. "my luve to her was most sincere, her luve was great for me; but when she hardships doth endure, her folly she does see." "i'll shoot the buntin' o' the bush, the linnet o' the tree, and bring them to my dear mither, see if she'll merrier be." it fell upo' another day, this guid lord he thought lang, and he is to the hunting gane, took wi' him his dog and gun. wi' bow and arrow by his side, he's aff, single, alane; and left his seven children to stay wi' their mither at hame. "o, i will tell to you, mither, gin ye wadna angry be:" "speak on, speak on, my little wee boy, ye'se nae be quarrell'd by me." "as we came frae the hynd hunting, we heard fine music ring:" "my blessings on you, my bonny boy, i wish i'd been there my lane." he's ta'en his mither by the hand, his six brithers also, and they are on thro' elmond's-wood, as fast as they coud go. they wistna weel where they were gaen, wi' the stratlins o' their feet; they wistna weel where they were gaen, till at her father's yate. "i hae nae money in my pocket, but royal rings hae three; i'll gie them you, my little young son, and ye'll walk there for me. "ye'll gi'e the first to the proud porter,[l ] and he will lat you in; ye'll gi'e the next to the butler boy, and he will show you ben; "ye'll gi'e the third to the minstrel that plays before the king; he'll play success to the bonny boy came thro' the wood him lane." he ga'e the first to the proud porter, and he open'd an' let him in; he ga'e the next to the butler boy, and he has shown him ben; he ga'e the third to the minstrel that play'd before the king; and he play'd success to the bonny boy came thro' the wood him lane. now when he came before the king, fell low down on his knee: the king he turned round about, and the saut tear blinded his ee. "win up, win up, my bonny boy, gang frae my companie; ye look sae like my dear daughter, my heart will birst in three." "if i look like your dear daughter, a wonder it is none; if i look like your dear daughter, i am her eldest son." "will ye tell me, ye little wee boy, where may my margaret be?" "she's just now standing at your yates, and my six brithers her wi'." "o where are all my porter boys that i pay meat and fee, to open my yates baith wide and braid? let her come in to me." when she came in before the king, fell low down on her knee: "win up, win up, my daughter dear, this day ye'll dine wi me." "ae bit i canno' eat, father, nor ae drop can i drink, till i see my mither and sister dear, for lang for them i think." when she came before the queen, fell low down on her knee: "win up, win up, my daughter dear, this day ye'se dine wi' me." "ae bit i canno' eat, mither, nor ae drop can i drink, until i see my dear sister, for lang for her i think." when that these two sisters met, she hail'd her courteouslie: "come ben, come ben, my sister dear, this day ye'se dine wi' me." "ae bit i canno' eat, sister, nor ae drop can i drink, until i see my dear husband, for lang for him i think." "o where are all my rangers bold that i pay meat and fee, to search the forest far an' wide, and bring akin to me?" out it speaks the wee little boy,-- "na, na, this maunna be; without ye grant a free pardon, i hope ye'll nae him see." "o here i grant a free pardon, well seal'd by my own han'; ye may make search for young akin, as soon as ever you can." they search'd the country wide and braid, the forests far and near, and found him into elmond's-wood, tearing his yellow hair. "win up, win up, now young akin. win up, and boun wi' me; we're messengers come from the court; the king wants you to see." "o lat him take frae me my head, or hang me on a tree; for since i've lost my dear lady, life's no pleasure to me." "your head will nae be touch'd, akin, nor hang'd upon a tree: your lady's in her father's court, and all he wants is thee." when he came in before the king, fell low down on his knee: "win up, win up now, young akin, this day ye'se dine wi' me." but as they were at dinner set, the boy asked a boun; "i wish we were in the good church, for to get christendoun. "we ha'e lived in guid green wood this seven years and ane; but a' this time since e'er i mind, was never a church within." "your asking 's nae sae great, my boy, but granted it shall be; this day to guid church ye shall gang, and your mither shall gang you wi'." when unto the guid church she came, she at the door did stan'; she was sae sair sunk down wi' shame, she coudna come farer ben. then out it speaks the parish priest, and a sweet smile gae he;--- "come ben, come ben, my lily flower, present your babes to me." charles, vincent, sam, and dick, and likewise james and john; they call'd the eldest young akin, which was his father's name. then they staid in the royal court, and liv'd wi' mirth and glee; and when her father was deceas'd, heir of the crown was she. . the regular propitiation for the "proud porter" of ballad poetry. see, e.g. _king arthur and the king of cornwall_, in the appendix, v. : also the note to _king estmere_, vol. iii. p. . young hastings the groom. (motherwell's _minstrelsy_, p. .) "o well love i to ride in a mist, and shoot in a northern wind; and far better a lady to steal, that's come of a noble kind." four-and-twenty fair ladies put on that lady's sheen; and as many young gentlemen did lead her o'er the green. yet she preferred before them all him, young hastings the groom; he's coosten a mist before them all, and away this lady has ta'en. he's taken the lady on him behind, spared neither the grass nor corn, till they came to the wood of amonshaw, where again their loves were sworn. and they have lived in that wood full many a year and day, and were supported from time to time, by what he made of prey. and seven bairns, fair and fine, there she has born to him, and never was in good church door, nor never gat good kirking. once she took harp into her hand, and harped them asleep; then she sat down at their couch side, and bitterly did weep. said, "seven bairns have i born now to my lord in the ha'; i wish they were seven greedy rats, to run upon the wa', and i mysel' a great grey cat, to eat them ane an' a'. "for ten long years now i have lived within this cave of stane, and never was at good church door, nor got no good churching." o then outspak her eldest child, and a fine boy was he,-- "o hold your tongue, my mother dear; i'll tell you what to dee. "take you the youngest in your lap, the next youngest by the hand; put all the rest of us you before, as you learnt us to gang. "and go with us into some good kirk,-- you say they are built of stane,-- and let us all be christened, and you get good kirking." she took the youngest in her lap, the next youngest by the hand; set all the rest of them her before, as she learnt them to gang. and she has left the wood with them, and to a kirk has gane; where the good priest them christened, and gave her good kirking. clerk colvill, or the mermaid. this ballad exemplifies a superstition deeply rooted in the belief of all the northern nations,--the desire of the elves and water-spirits for the love of christians, and the danger of being exposed to their fascination. the object of their fatal passion is generally a bridegroom, or a bride, on the eve of marriage. see, in the appendix, _sir oluf and the elf-king's daughter_, for further illustrations; also the two succeeding pieces. _clerk colvill_ was first printed in herd's _scottish songs_, (i. ,) and was inserted, in an altered shape, in lewis's _tales of wonder_, (no. .) clerk colvill and his lusty dame were walking in the garden green; the belt around her stately waist cost clerk colvill of pounds fifteen. "o promise me now, clerk colvill, or it will cost ye muckle strife, ride never by the wells of slane, if ye wad live and brook your life." "now speak nae mair, my lusty dame, now speak nae mair of that to me: did i ne'er see a fair woman, but i wad sin with her fair body?" he's ta'en leave o' his gay lady, nought minding what his lady said, and he's rode by the wells of slane, where washing was a bonny maid. "wash on, wash on, my bonny maid, that wash sae clean your sark of silk;" "and weel fa' you, fair gentleman, your body's whiter than the milk." * * * * * then loud, loud cry'd the clerk colvill, "o my head it pains me sair;" "then take, then take," the maiden said, "and frae my sark you'll cut a gare." then she's gi'ed him a little bane-knife, and frae her sark[l ] he cut a share; she's ty'd it round his whey-white face, but ay his head it aked mair. then louder cry'd the clerk colvill, "o sairer, sairer akes my head;" "and sairer, sairer ever will," the maiden crys, "till you be dead." out then he drew his shining blade, thinking to stick her where she stood; but she was vanish'd to a fish, and swam far off, a fair mermaid. "o mother, mother, braid my hair; my lusty lady, make my bed; o brother, take my sword and spear, for i have seen the false mermaid." , his sark. lady isabel and the elf-knight. from buchan's _ballads of the north of scotland_, i. , where it is entitled _the gowans sae gay_, from the burden. the hero of the first of the two following ballads would seem to be an elf, that of the second a nix, or merman, though the punishment awarded to each of them in the catastrophe, as the ballads now exist, is not consistent with their supernatural character. it is possible that in both instances two independent stories have been blended: but it is curious that the same intermixture should occur in norse and german also. see grundtvig's preface to _noekkens svig_, ii. p. . the conclusion in all these cases is derived from a ballad resembling _may colvin_, vol. ii. p. . we have had the elf-knight introduced under the same circumstances at page ; indeed, the first three or four stanzas are common to both pieces. fair lady isabel sits in her bower sewing, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; there she heard an elf-knight blawing his horn, _the first morning in may_. "if i had yon horn that i hear blawing," _aye as the gowans grow gay_; "and yon elf-knight to sleep in my bosom," _the first morning in may_. this maiden had scarcely these words spoken, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; till in at her window the elf-knight has luppen, _the first morning in may_. "its a very strange matter, fair maiden," said he, _aye as the gowans grow gay_, "i canna' blaw my horn, but ye call on me," _the first morning in may_. "but will ye go to yon greenwood side," _aye as the gowans grow gay_? "if ye canna' gang, i will cause you to ride," _the first morning in may_. he leapt on a horse, and she on another, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; and they rode on to the greenwood together, _the first morning in may_. "light down, light down, lady isabel," said he, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; "we are come to the place where ye are to die," _the first morning in may_. "ha'e mercy, ha'e mercy, kind sir, on me," _aye as the gowans grow gay_; "till ance my dear father and mother i see," _the first morning in may_. "seven king's-daughters here hae i slain," _aye as the gowans grow gay_; "and ye shall be the eight o' them," _the first morning in may_. "o sit down a while, lay your head on my knee," _aye as the gowans grow gay_; "that we may hae some rest before that i die," _the first morning in may_. she stroak'd him sae fast, the nearer he did creep, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; wi' a sma' charm she lull'd him fast asleep, _the first morning in may_. "wi' his ain sword belt sae fast as she ban' him, _aye as the gowans grow gay_; with his ain dag-durk sae sair as she dang him, _the first morning in may_. "if seven kings' daughters here ye ha'e slain," _aye as the gowans grow gay_, "lye ye here, a husband to them a'," _the first morning in may_. the water o' wearie's well. from buchan's _ballads of the north of scotland_, ii. . repeated in scottish _traditional versions of ancient ballads_, percy society, xvii. . the three ballads which follow, diverse as they may now appear, after undergoing successive corruptions, were primarily of the same type. in the first (which may be a compound of two ballads, like the preceding, the conclusion being taken from a story of the character of _may colvin_ in the next volume) the merman or nix may be easily recognized: in the second he is metamorphosed into the devil; and in the third, into a ghost. full details upon the corresponding scandinavian, german, and slavic legends, are given by grundtvig, in the preface to _noekkens svig, danmarks g. folkeviser_, ii. : translated by jamieson, i. , and by monk lewis, _tales of wonder_, no. . there came a bird out o' a bush, on water for to dine; and sighing sair, says the king's daughter, "o waes this heart o' mine!" he's taen a harp into his hand, he's harped them all asleep; except it was the king's daughter, who ae wink cou'dna get. he's luppen on his berry-brown steed, taen her on behind himsell; then baith rade down to that water, that they ca' wearie's well. "wide in, wide in, my lady fair, nae harm shall thee befall; aft times hae i water'd my steed, wi' the water o' wearie's well." the first step that she stepped in, she stepped to the knee; and sighing sair, says this lady fair, "this water's nae for me." "wide in, wide in, my lady fair, nae harm shall thee befall; aft times hae i water'd my steed, wi' the water o' wearie's well." the next step that she stepped in, she stepped to the middle; and sighing, says, this lady fair, "i've wat my gowden girdle." "wide in, wide in, my lady fair, nae harm shall thee befall; aft times hae i water'd my steed, wi' the water o' wearie's well." the niest step that she stepped in, she stepped to the chin; and sighing, says, this lady fair, "they shou'd gar twa loves twine." "seven king's-daughters i've drown'd there, in the water o' wearie's well; and i'll make you the eight o' them, and ring the common bell." "sin' i am standing here," she says, "this dowie death to die; ae kiss o' your comely mouth i'm sure wou'd comfort me." he louted him ower his saddle bow, to kiss her cheek and chin; she's taen him in her arms twa, and thrown him headlang in. "sin' seven king's daughters ye've drown'd there, in the water o' wearie's well, i'll make you bridegroom to them a', an' ring the bell mysell." and aye she warsled, and aye she swam, till she swam to dry land; then thanked god most cheerfully, the dangers she'd ower came. the dÆmon lover. this ballad was communicated to sir walter scott, (_minstrelsy_, iii. ,) by mr. william laidlaw, who took it down from recitation. a fragment of the same legend, recovered by motherwell, is given in the appendix to this volume, and another version, in which the hero is not a dæmon, but the ghost of an injured lover, is placed directly after the present. the devil (auld _nick_) here takes the place of the merman (nix) of the ancient ballad. see p. , and the same natural substitution noted in _k.u.h._--_märchen_, d ed. iii. . "o where have you been, my long, long love, this long seven years and more?"-- "o i'm come to seek my former vows ye granted me before."-- "o hold your tongue of your former vows, for they will breed sad strife; o hold your tongue of your former vows, for i am become a wife." he turn'd him right and round about, and the tear blinded his ee; "i wad never hae trodden on irish ground, if it had not been for thee. "i might hae had a king's daughter, far, far beyond the sea; i might have had a king's daughter, had it not been for love o' thee."-- "if ye might have had a king's daughter, yer sell ye had to blame; ye might have taken the king's daughter, for ye kend that i was nane."-- "o faulse are the vows of womankind, but fair is their faulse bodie; i never wad hae trodden on irish ground, had it not been for love o' thee."-- "if i was to leave my husband dear, and my two babes also, o what have you to take me to, if with you i should go?"-- "i hae seven ships upon the sea, the eighth brought me to land; with four-and-twenty bold mariners, and music on every hand." she has taken up her two little babes, kiss'd them baith cheek and chin; "o fair ye weel, my ain two babes, for i'll never see you again." she set her foot upon the ship, no mariners could she behold; but the sails were o' the taffetie, and the masts o' the beaten gold. she had not sail'd a league, a league, a league but barely three, when dismal grew his countenance, and drumlie grew his ee. the masts that were like the beaten gold, bent not on the heaving seas; but the sails, that were o' the taffetie, fill'd not in the east land breeze.-- they had not sailed a league, a league, a league but barely three, until she espied his cloven foot, and she wept right bitterlie. "o hold your tongue of your weeping," says he, "of your weeping now let me be; i will show you how the lilies grow on the banks of italy."-- "o what hills are yon, yon pleasant hills, that the sun shines sweetly on?"-- "o yon are the hills of heaven," he said, "where you will never win."-- "o whaten a mountain is yon," she said, "all so dreary wi' frost and snow?"-- "o yon is the mountain of hell," he cried, "where you and i will go." and aye when she turn'd her round about, aye taller he seem'd for to be; until that the tops o' that gallant ship nae taller were than he. the clouds grew dark, and the wind grew loud, and the levin fill'd her ee; and waesome wail'd the snaw-white sprites upon the gurlie sea. he strack the tap-mast wi' his hand, the fore-mast wi' his knee; and he brake that gallant ship in twain, and sank her in the sea. james herries. from buchan's _ballads of the north of scotland_, (i. .) (see the preface to the last ballad but one.) "o are ye my father, or are ye my mother? or are ye my brother john? or are ye james herries, my first true love, come back to scotland again?" "i am not your father, i am not your mother, nor am i your brother john; but i'm james herries, your first true love, come back to scotland again." "awa', awa', ye former lovers, had far awa' frae me; for now i am another man's wife, ye'll ne'er see joy o' me." "had i kent that ere i came here, i ne'er had come to thee; for i might hae married the king's daughter, sae fain she wou'd had me. "i despised the crown o' gold, the yellow silk also; and i am come to my true love, but with me she'll not go." "my husband he is a carpenter, makes his bread on dry land, and i hae born him a young son,-- wi' you i will not gang." "you must forsake your dear husband, your little young son also, wi' me to sail the raging seas, where the stormy winds do blow." "o what hae you to keep me wi', if i should with you go? if i'd forsake my dear husband, my little young son also?" "see ye not yon seven pretty ships, the eighth brought me to land; with merchandize and mariners, and wealth in every hand?" she turn'd her round upon the shore, her love's ships to behold; their topmasts and their mainyards were cover'd o'er wi' gold. then she's gane to her little young son, and kiss'd him cheek and chin; sae has she to her sleeping husband, and dune the same to him. "o sleep ye, wake ye, my husband, i wish ye wake in time; i woudna for ten thousand pounds, this night ye knew my mind." she's drawn the slippers on her feet, were cover'd o'er wi' gold; well lined within wi' velvet fine, to had her frae the cold. she hadna sailed upon the sea a league but barely three, till she minded on her dear husband, her little young son tee. "o gin i were at land again, at land where i wou'd be, the woman ne'er shou'd bear the son, shou'd gar me sail the sea." "o hold your tongue, my sprightly flower, let a' your mourning be; i'll show you how the lilies grow on the banks o' italy." she hadna sailed on the sea a day but barely ane, till the thoughts o' grief came in her mind, and she lang'd for to be hame. "o gentle death, come cut my breath, i may be dead ere morn; i may be buried in scottish ground, where i was bred and born." "o hold your tongue, my lily leesome thing, let a' your mourning be; but for a while we'll stay at rose isle, then see a far countrie. "ye'se ne'er be buried in scottish ground, nor land ye's nae mair see; i brought you away to punish you, for the breaking your vows to me. "i said ye shou'd see the lilies grow on the banks o' italy; but i'll let you see the fishes swim, in the bottom o' the sea." he reached his band to the topmast, made a' the sails gae down; and in the twinkling o' an e'e, baith ship and crew did drown. the fatal flight o' this wretched maid did reach her ain countrie; her husband then distracted ran, and this lament made he:-- "o wae be to the ship, the ship, and wae be to the sea, and wae be to the mariners, took jeanie douglas frae me! "o bonny, bonny was my love, a pleasure to behold; the very hair o' my love's head was like the threads o' gold. "o bonny was her cheek, her cheek, and bonny was her chin; and bonny was the bride she was, the day she was made mine!" * * * * * *** the following stanzas from a version of this ballad printed at philadelphia (and called _the house carpenter_) are given in graham's _illustrated magazine_, sept. . "i might have married the king's daughter dear;" "you might have married her," cried she, "for i am married to a house carpenter, and a fine young man is he." "oh dry up your tears, my own true love, and cease your weeping," cried he; "for soon you'll see your own happy home, on the banks of old tennessee." the knight's ghost. from _buchan's ballads of the north of scotland_, (i. .) "there is a fashion in this land, and even come to this country, that every lady should meet her lord, when he is newly come frae sea: "some wi' hawks, and some wi' hounds, and other some wi' gay monie; but i will gae myself alone, and set his young son on his knee." she's ta'en her young son in her arms, and nimbly walk'd by yon sea strand; and there she spy'd her father's ship, as she was sailing to dry land. "where hae ye put my ain gude lord, this day he stays sae far frae me?" "if ye be wanting your ain gude lord, a sight o' him ye'll never see." "was he brunt, or was he shot? or was he drowned in the sea? or what's become o' my ain gude lord, that he will ne'er appear to me?" "he wasna brunt, nor was he shot, nor was he drowned in the sea; he was slain in dumfermling, a fatal day to you and me." "come in, come in, my merry young men, come in and drink the wine wi' me; and a' the better ye shall fare, for this gude news ye tell to me." she's brought them down to yon cellar, she brought them fifty steps and three; she birled wi' them the beer and wine, till they were as drunk as drunk could be. then she has lock'd her cellar door, for there were fifty steps and three; "lie there wi' my sad malison, for this bad news ye've tauld to me." she's ta'en the keys intill her hand, and threw them deep, deep in the sea; "lie there wi' my sad malison, till my gude lord return to me." then she sat down in her own room, and sorrow lull'd her fast asleep; and up it starts her own gude lord, and even at that lady's feet. "take here the keys, janet," he says, "that ye threw deep, deep in the sea; and ye'll relieve my merry young men, for they've nane o' the swick o' me. "they shot the shot, and drew the stroke, and wad in red bluid to the knee; nae sailors mair for their lord coud do, nor my young men they did for me." "i hae a question at you to ask, before that ye depart frae me; you'll tell to me what day i'll die, and what day will my burial be?" "i hae nae mair o' god's power than he has granted unto me; but come to heaven when ye will, there porter to you i will be. "but ye'll be wed to a finer knight than ever was in my degree; unto him ye'll hae children nine, and six o' them will be ladies free. "the other three will be bold young men, to fight for king and countrie; the ane a duke, the second a knight, and third a laird o' lands sae free." the wife of usher's well. _minstrelsy of the scottish border_, iii. . that the repose of the dead is disturbed by the immoderate grief of those they have left behind them, is a belief which finds frequent expression in popular ballads. obstinate sorrow rouses them from their grateful slumber; every tear that is shed for them wets their shroud; they can get no rest, and are compelled to revisit the world they would fain forget, to rebuke and forbid the mourning that destroys their peace. "ice-cold and bloody, a lead-weight of sorrow, falls on my breast each tear that you shed," says the ghost of helgi in the _edda_ to his lamenting wife (_helgak. hundingsb._ ii.) the same idea is found in the german ballad, _der vorwirth_, erk's _liederhort_, no. , a, and in various tales, as _das todtenhemdchen_, (_k.u.h. märchen_, no. , and note), etc. in like manner sir aage, in a well-known danish ballad (grundtvig, no. ), and the corresponding _sorgens magt, svenska f.v._, no. . "every time thou weepest for me, thy heart makest sad, then all within, my coffin stands full of clotted blood." rarely is the silence of the grave broken for purposes of consolation. yet some cases there are, as in a lithuanian ballad cited by wackernagel, _altd. blätter_, i. , and a spanish ballad noticed by talvj, _versuch_, p. . the present ballad seems to belong to the latter class rather than the former, but it is so imperfect that its true character cannot be determined. chambers maintains, we think erroneously, that this ballad is a fragment of _the clerk's twa sons o' owsenford_. see the second volume of this collection, page . there lived a wife at usher's well, and a wealthy wife was she, she had three stout and stalwart sons, and sent them o'er the sea. they hadna been a week from her, a week but barely ane, when word came to the carline wife, that her three sons were gane. they hadna been a week from her, a week but barely three, when word came to the carline wife, that her sons she'd never see. "i wish the wind may never cease, nor fishes[l ] in the flood, till my three sons come hame to me, in earthly flesh and blood."-- it fell about the martinmas, when nights are lang and mirk, the carline wife's three sons came hame, and their hats were o' the birk. it neither grew in syke nor ditch, nor yet in ony sheugh; but at the gates o' paradise, that birk grew fair eneugh. * * * * * "blow up the fire, my maidens! bring water from the well! for a' my house shall feast this night, since my three sons are well."-- and she has made to them a bed, she's made it large and wide; and she's ta'en her mantle her about, sat down at the bed-side. * * * * * up then crew the red red cock, and up and crew the gray; the eldest to the youngest said, "'tis time we were away."-- the cock he hadna craw'd but once, and clapp'd his wings at a', whan the youngest to the eldest said, "brother, we must awa.-- "the cock doth craw, the day doth daw, the channerin' worm doth chide; gin we be mist out o' our place, a sair pain we maun bide. "fare ye weel, my mother dear! fareweel to barn and byre! and fare ye weel, the bonny lass, that kindles my mother's fire." . should we not read, for _fishes_ here, _fashes_-- i. e. troubles?--lockhart. the suffolk miracle: _or, a relation of a young man, who, a month after his death, appeared to his sweetheart, and carried her on horseback behind him for forty miles in two hours, and was never seen after but in his grave._ from _a collection of old ballads_, i. . in moore's _pictorial book of ancient ballad poetry_ (p. ) is a copy from a broadside in the roxburghe collection. _the suffolk miracle_ has an external resemblance to several noble ballads, but the likeness does not extend below the surface. it is possible that we have here the residuum of an old poem, from which all the beauty and spirit have been exhaled in the course of tradition; but as the ballad now exists, it is a vulgar ghost-story, without any motive. regarding the external form alone, we may place by its side the breton ballad, _le frère de lait_, in villemarqué's _chants populaires de la bretagne_, vol. i. no. (translated by miss costello, _quart. review_, vol. , p. ), the romaic ballad of _constantine and arete_, in fauriel's _chants populaires de la grèce moderne_, p. (see appendix), and the servian ballad (related to the romaic, and perhaps derived from it), _jelitza and her brothers_, talvj, _volkslieder der serben_, i. , all of them among the most beautiful specimens in this kind of literature; and also bürger's _lenore_. it has been once or twice most absurdly suggested that _lenore_ owed its existence to this _suffolk miracle_. the difference, indeed, is not greater than between a "chronicle history" and _macbeth_; it is however certain that bürger's ballad is all his own, except the hint of the ghostly horseman and one or two phrases, which he took from the description of a low german ballad. the editors of the _wunderhorn_ claim to give this ballad, vol. ii. p. . an equivalent prose tradition is well known in germany. most of the ballads relating to the return of departed spirits are brought together in an excellent article by wackernagel in the _altdeutsche blätter_, i. . a wonder stranger ne'er was known than what i now shall treat upon. in suffolk there did lately dwell a farmer rich and known full well. he had a daughter fair and bright, on whom he placed his chief delight; her beauty was beyond compare, she was both virtuous and fair. there was a young man living by, who was so charmed with her eye, that he could never be at rest; he was by love so much possest. he made address to her, and she did grant him love immediately; but when her father came to hear, he parted her and her poor dear. forty miles distant was she sent, unto his brother's, with intent that she should there so long remain, till she had changed her mind again. hereat this young man sadly grieved, but knew not how to be relieved; he sighed and sobbed continually that his true love he could not see. she by no means could to him send, who was her heart's espoused friend; he sighed, he grieved, but all in vain, for she confined must still remain. he mourned so much, that doctor's art could give no ease unto his heart, who was so strangely terrified, that in short time for love he died. she that from him was sent away knew nothing of his dying day, but constant still she did remain, and loved the dead, although in vain. after he had in grave been laid a month or more, unto this maid he came in middle of the night, who joyed to see her heart's delight. her father's horse, which well she knew, her mother's hood and safe-guard too, he brought with him to testify her parents order he came by. which when her uncle understood, he hoped it would be for her good, and gave consent to her straightway, that with him she should come away. when she was got her love behind, they passed as swift as any wind, that in two hours, or little more, he brought her to her father's door. but as they did this great haste make, he did complain his head did ake; her handkerchief she then took out, and tied the same his head about. and unto him she thus did say: "thou art as cold as any clay; when we come home a fire we'll have;" but little dreamed he went to grave. soon were they at her father's door, and after she ne'er saw him more; "i'll set the horse up," then he said, and there he left this harmless maid. she knocked, and straight a man he cried, "who's there?" "'tis i," she then replied; who wondred much her voice to hear, and was possessed with dread and fear. her father he did tell, and then he stared like an affrighted man: down stairs he ran, and when he see her, cried out, "my child, how cam'st thou here?" "pray, sir, did you not send for me, by such a messenger?" said she: which made his hair stare on his head, as knowing well that he was dead. "where is he?" then to her he said; "he's in the stable," quoth the maid. "go in," said he, "and go to bed; i'll see the horse well littered." he stared about, and there could he no shape of any mankind see, but found his horse all on a sweat; which made him in a deadly fret. his daughter he said nothing to, nor none else, (though full well they knew that he was dead a month before,) for fear of grieving her full sore. her father to the father went of the deceased, with full intent to tell him what his daughter said; so both came back unto this maid. they ask'd her, and she still did say 'twas he that then brought her away; which when they heard they were amazed, and on each other strangely gazed. a handkerchief she said she tied about his head, and that they tried; the sexton they did speak unto, that he the grave would then undo. affrighted then they did behold his body turning into mould, and though he had a month been dead, this handkerchief was about his head. this thing unto her then they told, and the whole truth they did unfold; she was thereat so terrified and grieved, that she quickly died. part not true love, you rich men, then; but, if they be right honest men your daughters love, give them their way, for force oft breeds their lives decay. sir roland. from motherwell's _minstrelsy_, p. . this fragment, motherwell tells us, was communicated to him by an ingenious friend, who remembered having heard it sung in his youth. he does not vouch for its antiquity, and we have little or no hesitation in pronouncing it a modern composition. whan he cam to his ain luve's bouir, he tirled at the pin, and sae ready was his fair fause luve to rise and let him in. "o welcome, welcome, sir roland," she says, "thrice welcome thou art to me; for this night thou wilt feast in my secret bouir, and to-morrow we'll wedded be." "this night is hallow-eve," he said, "and to-morrow is hallow-day; and i dreamed a drearie dream yestreen, that has made my heart fu' wae. "i dreamed a drearie dream yestreen, and i wish it may cum to gude: i dreamed that ye slew my best grew hound, and gied me his lappered blude." * * * * * "unbuckle your belt, sir roland," she said, "and set you safely down." "o your chamber is very dark, fair maid, and the night is wondrous lown." "yes, dark, dark is my secret bowir, and lown the midnight may be; for there is none waking in a' this tower, but thou, my true love, and me." * * * * * she has mounted on her true love's steed, by the ae light o' the moon; she has whipped him and spurred him, and roundly she rade frae the toun. she hadna ridden a mile o' gate, never a mile but ane, whan she was aware of a tall young man, slow riding o'er the plain. she turned her to the right about, then to the left turn'd she; but aye, 'tween her and the wan moonlight, that tall knight did she see. and he was riding burd alane, on a horse as black as jet; but tho' she followed him fast and fell, no nearer could she get. "o stop! o stop! young man," she said, "for i in dule am dight; o stop, and win a fair lady's luve, if you be a leal true knight." but nothing did the tall knight say, and nothing did he blin; still slowly rode he on before, and fast she rade behind. she whipped her steed, she spurred her steed, till his breast was all a foam; but nearer unto that tall young knight, by our ladye, she could not come. "o if you be a gay young knight, as well i trow you be, pull tight your bridle reins, and stay till i come up to thee." but nothing did that tall knight say, and no whit did he blin, until he reached a broad river's side, and there he drew his rein. "o is this water deep," he said, "as it is wondrous dun? or it is sic as a saikless maid and a leal true knight may swim?" "the water it is deep," she said, "as it is wondrous dun; but it is sic as a saikless maid and a leal true knight may swim." the knight spurred on his tall black steed, the lady spurred on her brown; and fast they rade unto the flood, and fast they baith swam down. "the water weets my tae," she said, "the water weets my knee; and hold up my bridle reins, sir knight, for the sake of our ladye." "if i would help thee now," he said, "it were a deadly sin; for i've sworn neir to trust a fair may's word, till the water weets her chin." "o the water weets my waist," she said, "sae does it weet my skin; and my aching heart rins round about, the burn maks sic a din. "the water is waxing deeper still, sae does it wax mair wide; and aye the farther that we ride on, farther off is the other side. "o help me now, thou false, false knight, have pity on my youth; for now the water jawes owre my head, and it gurgles in my mouth." the knight turned right and round about, all in the middle stream, and he stretched out his head to that lady, but loudly she did scream. "o this is hallow-morn," he said, "and it is your bridal day; but sad would be that gay wedding, if bridegroom and bride were away. "and ride on, ride on, proud margaret! till the water comes o'er your bree; for the bride maun ride deep, and deeper yet, wha rides this ford wi' me. "turn round, turn round, proud margaret! turn ye round, and look on me; thou hast killed a true knight under trust, and his ghost now links on with thee." appendix. fragment of the ballad of king arthur and the king of cornwall. printed from the celebrated percy ms. in madden's _syr gawayne_, p. . the editor has added the following note. "it has no title, and the first line has been cut away by the ignorant binder to whom the volume was intrusted, but both are supplied from the notice given of the ballad in the dissertation prefixed to vol. iii. of the _reliques_, p. xxxvii. dr. percy has added in the margin of the ms. these words: "to the best of my remembrance, this was the first line, before the binder cut it." the poem is very imperfect, owing to the leaves having been half torn away to light fires (!) as the bishop tells us, but i am bound to add, previous to its coming into his possession. the story is so singular, that it is to be hoped an earlier and complete copy of it may yet be recovered. on no account perhaps is it more remarkable, than the fact of its close imitation of the famous _gabs_ made by charlemagne and his companions at the court of king hugon, which are first met with in a romance of the twelfth century, published by m. michel from a ms. in the british museum, mo., london, , and transferred at a later period to the prose romance of _galien rethoré_, printed by verard, fol., , and often afterwards. in the absence of other evidence, it is to be presumed that the author of the ballad borrowed from the printed work, substituting arthur for charlemagne, gawayne for oliver, tristram for roland, etc., and embellishing his story by converting king hugon's spy into a "lodly feend," by whose agency the _gabs_ are accomplished. it is further worthy of notice, that the writer seems to regard arthur as the sovereign of little britain, and alludes to an intrigue between the king of cornwall and queen guenever, which is nowhere, as far as i recollect, hinted at in the romances of the round table." "come here my cozen, gawain, so gay; my sisters sonne be yee; for you shall see one of the fairest round tables, that ever you see with your eye." then bespake [the] lady queen guenever, and these were the words said shee: "i know where a round table is, thou noble king, is worth thy round table and other such three. "the trestle that stands under this round table," she said, "lowe downe to the mould, it is worth thy round table, thou worthy king, thy halls, and all thy gold. "the place where this round table stands in, it is worth thy castle, thy gold, thy fee; and all good litle britaine,"-- "where may that table be, lady?" quoth hee, "or where may all that goodly building be?" "you shall it seeke," shee sayd, "till you it find, for you shall never gett more of me." then bespake him noble king arthur, these were the words said hee; "ile make mine avow to god, and alsoe to the trinity, "ile never sleepe one night, there as i doe another, till that round table i see; sir marramiles and sir tristeram, fellowes that ye shall bee. "weele be clad in palmers weede, five palmers we will bee; there is noe outlandish man will us abide, nor will us come nye." then they rived east and they rived west,[l ] in many a strange country. then they travelled[l ] a litle further, they saw a battle new sett; "now, by my faith," saies noble king arthur, [_half a page is here torn away._] but when he came that castle to, and to the palace gate, soe ready was ther a proud porter, and met him soone therat. shooes of gold the porter had on, and all his other rayment was unto the same; "now, by my faith," saies noble king arthur, "yonder is a minion swaine." then bespake noble king arthur, these were the words says hee: "come hither, thou proud porter, i pray thee come hither to me. "i have two poor rings of my finger, the better[l ] of them ile give to thee; [to] tell who may be lord of this castle," he saies, "or who is lord in this cuntry?" "cornewall king," the porter sayes, "there is none soe rich as hee; neither in christendome, nor yet in heathennest, none hath soe much gold as he." and then bespake him noble king arthur, these were the words sayes hee: "i have two poore rings of my finger, the better of them ile give thee, if thou wilt greete him well, cornewall king, and greete him well from me. "pray him for one nights lodging, and two meales meate, for his love that dyed uppon a tree; a bue[l ] ghesting, and two meales meate, for his love that dyed uppon a tree. "a bue[l ] ghesting, and two meales meate, for his love that was of virgin borne, and in the morning that we may scape away, either without scath or scorne." then forth is gone[l ] this proud porter, as fast as he cold hye; and when he came befor cornewall king, he kneeled downe on his knee. sayes, "i have beene porter, man, at thy gate, [_half a page is wanting._] ... our lady was borne, then thought cornewall king these palmers had beene in britt. then bespake him cornewall king, these were the words he said there: "did you ever know a comely king, his name was king arthur?" and then bespake him noble king arthur, these were the words said hee: "i doe not know that comly king, but once my selfe i did him see." then bespake cornwall king againe, these were the words said he. sayes, "seven yeere i was clad and fed, in litle brittaine, in a bower; i had a daughter by king arthurs wife, it now is called my flower; for king arthur, that kindly cockward, hath none such in his bower. "for i durst sweare, and save my othe, that same lady soe bright, that a man that were laid on his death-bed wold open his eyes on her to have sight." "now, by my faith," sayes noble king arthur, "and thats a full faire wight!" and then bespoke cornewall [king] againe, and these were the words he said:[l ] "come hither, five or three of my knights, and feitch me downe my steed; king arthur, that foule cockeward, hath none such, if he had need. "for i can ryde him as far on a day, as king arthur can doe any of his on three. and is it not a pleasure for a king, when he shall ryde forth on his journey? "for the eyes that beene in his head, they[l ] glister as doth the gleed;"-- "now, by my faith," says noble king arthur, [_half a page is wanting._] no body.... but one thats learned to speake. then king arthur to his bed was brought, a greeived man was hee; and soe were all his fellowes with him, from him they[l ] thought never to flee. then take they did that lodly boome,[l ] and under thrubchandler[l ] closed was hee; and he was set by king arthurs bed-side, to heere theire talke, and theire com'nye; that he might come forth, and make proclamation, long before it was day; it was more for king cornwalls pleasure, then it was for king arthurs pay. and when king arthur on his bed was laid, these were the words said hee: "ile make mine avow to god, and alsoe to the trinity, that ile be the bane of cornwall kinge litle brittaine or ever i see!" "it is an unadvised vow," saies gawaine the gay, "as ever king hard make i; but wee that beene five christian men, of the christen faith are wee; and we shall fight against anoynted king, and all his armorie." and then he spake him noble arthur, and these were the words said he: "why, if thou be afraid, sir gawaine the gay, goe home, and drinke wine in thine owne country." , the rived west. , tranckled. , they better. , bue, _sic_. , bue, _sic_; of two. , his gone. , said he. , the. , the. , goome? , thrubchadler. the third parte. and then bespake sir gawaine the gay, and these were the words said hee: "nay, seeing you have made such a hearty vow, here another vow make will i. "ile make mine avow to god, and alsoe to the trinity, that i will have yonder faire lady to litle brittaine with mee. "ile hose her hourly to my hart,[l ] and with her ile worke my will; [_half a page is wanting._] these were the words sayd hee: "befor i wold wrestle with yonder feend, it is better be drowned in the sea." and then bespake sir bredbeddle, and these were the words said he: "why, i will wrestle with yon lodly feend, god! my governor thou shalt bee." then bespake him noble arthur, and these were the[l ] words said he: "what weapons wilt thou have, thou gentle knight? i pray thee tell to me." he sayes, "collen brand ile have in my hand, and a millaine knife fast be my knee; and a danish axe fast in my hands, that a sure weapon i thinke wilbe." then with his collen brand, that he had in his hand, the bunge of the trubchandler he burst in three. what that start out a lodly feend, with seven heads, and one body. the fyer towards the element flew, out of his mouth, where was great plentie; the knight stoode in the middle, and fought, that it was great joy to see. till his collaine brand brake in his hand, and his millaine knife burst on his knee; and then the danish axe burst in his hand first, that a sur weapon he thought shold be. but now is the knight left without any weapone, and alacke! it was the more pitty; but a surer weapon then had he one, had never lord in christentye: and all was but one litle booke, he found it by the side of the sea. he found it at the sea-side, wrucked upp in a floode; our lord had written it with his hands, and sealed it with his bloode. [_half a page is wanting._] "that thou doe.... but ly still in that wall of stone; till i have beene with noble king arthur, and told him what i have done." and when he came to the king's chamber, he cold of his curtesie saye, "sleep you, wake you, noble king arthur? and ever jesus watch yee!" "nay, i am not sleeping, i am waking," these were the words said hee: "for thee i have car'd; how hast thou fared? o gentle knight, let me see." the knight wrought the king his booke, bad him behold, reede, and see; and ever he found it on the backside of the leafe, as noble arthur wold wish it to be. and then bespake him king arthur, "alas! thou gentle knight, how may this be, that i might see him in the same licknesse, that he stood unto thee?" and then bespake him the greene knight,[l ] these were the words said hee: "if youle stand stifly in the battell stronge, for i have won all the victory." then bespake him the king againe, and these were the words said hee: "if we stand not stifly in this battell strong, wee are worthy to be hanged all on a tree." then bespake him the greene knight, these were the words said hee: saies, "i doe coniure thee, thou fowle feend, in the same licknesse thou stood unto me." with that start out a lodly feend, with seven heads, and one body; the fier towarde the element flaugh, out of his mouth, where was great plenty. the knight stood in the middle.... [_half a page is wanting._] ... the space of an houre, i know not what they did. and then bespake him the greene knight, and these were the words said he: saith, "i coniure thee, thou fowle feend, that thou feitch downe the steed that we see." and then forth is gone burlow-beanie, as fast as he cold hie; and feitch he did that faire steed, and came againe by and by. then bespake him sir marramile, and these were the words said hee: "riding of this steed, brother bredbeddle, the mastery belongs to me." marramiles tooke the steed to his hand, to ryd him he was full bold; he cold noe more make him goe, then a child of three yeere old. he laid[l ] uppon him with heele and hand, with yard that was soe fell; "helpe! brother bredbeddle," says marramile, "for i thinke he be the devill of hell. "helpe! brother bredbeddle," says marramile. "helpe! for christs pittye; for without thy help, brother bredbeddle, he will never be rydden for me."[l ] then bespake him sir bredbeddle, these were the words said he: "i coniure thee, thou burlow-beane,[l ] thou tell me how this steed was riddin in his country." he saith, "there is a gold wand, stands in king cornwalls study windowe. "let him take that wand in that window, and strike three strokes on that steed; and then he will spring forth of his hand, as sparke doth out of gleede." then bespake him the greene knight, [_half a page is wanting._] a lowd blast.... and then bespake sir bredbeddle, to the feend these words said hee: says, "i coniure thee, thou burlow-beanie, the powder-box thou feitch me." then forth is gone burlow-beanie, as fast as he cold hie; and feich he did the powder-box, and came againe by and by. then sir tristeram tooke powder forth of that box, and blent it with warme sweet milke; and there put it unto the horne, and swilled it about in that ilke. then he tooke the horne in his hand, and a lowd blast he blew; he rent the horne up to the midst, all his fellowes this they knew.[l ] then bespake him the greene knight, these were the words said he: saies. "i coniure thee, thou burlow-beanie, that thou feitch me the sword that i see." then forth is gone burlow-beanie, as fast as he cold hie; and feitch he did that faire sword, and came againe by and by. then bespake him sir bredbeddle, to the king these words said he: "take this sword in thy hand, thou noble king, for the vowes sake that thou made ile give it thee; and goe strike off king cornewalls head, in bed where he doth lye."[l ] then forth is gone noble king arthur, as fast as he cold hye; and strucken he hath king cornwalls head, and came againe by and by. he put the head upon a swords point, [_the poem terminates here abruptly._] , hurt. , they words. , the greene knight is sir bredbeddle. , sayed. , p' me, _i.e._ pro or per. , burlow-leane. , the knew. , were. fragment of child rowland and burd ellen. it is not impossible that this ballad should be the one quoted by edgar in _king lear_, (act iii. sc. :) "child rowland to the dark tower came." we have extracted the fragment given by jamieson, with the breaks in the story filled out, from _illustrations of northern antiquities_, p. ; and we have added his translation of the danish ballad of _rosmer hafmand_, which exhibits a striking similarity to _child rowland_, from _popular ballads and songs_, ii. . the tale of the _red etin_, as given in chamber's _pop. rhymes of scotland_, p. , has much resemblance to jamieson's story, and, like it, is interspersed with verse. the occurrence of the name merlin is by no means a sufficient ground for connecting this tale, as jamieson would do, with the cycle of king arthur. for merlin, as grundtvig has remarked (_folkeviser_, ii. ), did not originally belong to that cycle, and again, his name seems to have been given in scotland to any sort of wizard or prophet. * * * * * ["king arthur's sons o' merry carlisle] were playing at the ba'; and there was their sister burd ellen, i' the mids amang them a'. "child rowland kick'd it wi' his foot, and keppit it wi' his knee; and ay, as he play'd out o'er them a', o'er the kirk he gar'd it flee. "burd ellen round about the isle to seek the ba' is gane; but they bade lang and ay langer, and she camena back again. "they sought her east, they sought her west, they sought her up and down; and wae were the hearts [in merry carlisle,] for she was nae gait found!" at last her eldest brother went to the warluck merlin, (_myrddin wyldt_,) and asked if he knew where his sister, the fair burd ellen, was. "the fair burd ellen," said the warluck merlin, "is carried away by the fairies, and is now in the castle of the king of elfland; and it were too bold an undertaking for the stoutest knight in christendom to bring her back." "is it possible to bring her back?" said her brother, "and i will do it, or perish in the attempt." "possible indeed it is," said the warluck merlin; "but woe to the man or mother's son who attempts it, if he is not well instructed beforehand of what he is to do." influenced no less by the glory of such an enterprise, than by the desire of rescuing his sister, the brother of the fair burd ellen resolved to undertake the adventure; and after proper instructions from merlin, (which he failed in observing,) he set out on his perilous expedition. "but they bade lang and ay langer, wi' dout and mickle maen; and wae were the hearts [in merry carlisle,] for he camena back again." the second brother in like manner set out; but failed in observing the instructions of the warluck merlin; and "they bade lang and ay langer, wi' mickle dout and maen; and wae were the hearts [in merry carlisle,] for he camena back again." child rowland, the youngest brother of the fair burd ellen, then resolved to go; but was strenuously opposed by the good queen, [gwenevra,] who was afraid of losing all her children. at last the good queen [gwenevra] gave him her consent and her blessing; he girt on (in great form, and with all due solemnity of sacerdotal consecration,) his father's good _claymore_, [excalibar,] that never struck in vain, and repaired to the cave of the warluck merlin. the warluck merlin gave him all necessary instructions for his journey and conduct, the most important of which were, that he should kill every person he met with after entering the land of fairy, and should neither eat nor drink of what was offered him in that country, whatever his hunger or thirst might be; for if he tasted or touched in elfland, he must remain in the power of the elves, and never see _middle eard_ again. so child rowland set out on his journey, and travelled "on and ay farther on," till he came to where (as he had been forewarned by the warluck merlin,) he found the king of elfland's horse-herd feeding his horses. "canst thou tell me," said child rowland to the horse-herd, "where the king of elfland's castle is?"--"i cannot tell thee," said the horse-herd; "but go on a little farther, and thou wilt come to the cow-herd, and he, perhaps, may tell thee." so child rowland drew the good claymore, [excalibar,] that never struck in vain, and hewed off the head of the horse-herd. child rowland then went on a little farther, till he came to the king of elfland's cow-herd, who was feeding his cows. "canst thou tell me," said child rowland to the cow-herd, "where the king of elfland's castle is?"--"i cannot tell thee," said the cow-herd; "but go on a little farther, and thou wilt come to the sheep-herd, and he perhaps may tell thee." so child rowland drew the good claymore, [excalibar,] that never struck in vain, and hewed off the head of the cow-herd. he then went on a little farther, till he came to the sheep-herd. * * * * [_the sheep-herd, goat-herd, and swine-herd are all, each in his turn, served in the same manner; and lastly he is referred to the hen-wife._] "go on yet a little farther," said the hen-wife, "till thou come to a round green hill surrounded with rings (_terraces_) from the bottom to the top; go round it three times _widershins_, and every time say, "open, door! open, door! and let me come in; and the third time the door will open, and you may go in." so child rowland drew the good claymore, [excalibar,] that never struck in vain, and hewed off the head of the hen-wife. then went he three times _widershins_ round the green hill, crying, "open, door! open, door! and let me come in;" and the third time the door opened, and he went in. it immediately closed behind him; and he proceeded through a long passage, where the air was soft and agreeably warm like a may evening, as is all the air of elfland. the light was a sort of twilight or gloaming; but there were neither windows nor candles, and he knew not whence it came, if it was not from the walls and roof, which were rough, and arched like a grotto, and composed of a clear transparent rock, incrusted with _sheeps-silver_ and spar, and various bright stones. at last he came to two wide and lofty folding-doors, which stood a-jar. he opened them, and entered a large and spacious hall, whose richness and brilliance no tongue can tell. it seemed to extend the whole length and height of the hill. the superb gothic pillars by which the roof was supported, were so large and so lofty, (said my seannachy,) that the pillars of the chanry kirk,[d] or of pluscardin abbey, are no more to be compared to them, than the knock of alves is to be compared to balrinnes or ben-a-chi. they were of gold and silver, and were fretted like the west window of the chanry kirk, with wreaths of flowers composed of diamonds and precious stones of all manner of beautiful colors. the key-stones of the arches above, instead of coats of arms and other devices, were ornamented with clusters of diamonds in the same manner. and from the middle of the roof, where the principal arches met, was hung by a gold chain, an immense lamp of one hollowed pearl, perfectly transparent, in the midst of which was suspended a large carbuncle, that by the power of magic continually turned round, and shed over all the hall a clear and mild light like the setting sun; but the hall was so large, and these dazzling objects so far removed, that their blended radiance cast no more than a pleasing lustre, and excited no more than agreeable sensations in the eyes of child rowland. [d] the cathedral of elgin naturally enough furnished similes to a man who had never in his life been twenty miles distant from it. the furniture of the hall was suitable to its architecture; and at the farther end, under a splendid canopy, seated on a gorgeous sofa of velvet, silk, and gold, and "kembing her yellow hair wi' a silver kemb," "there was his sister burd ellen; she stood up him before." says, "'god rue on thee, poor luckless fode! what has thou to do here? "'and hear ye this, my youngest brither, why badena ye at hame? had ye a hundur and thousand lives, ye canna brook ane o' them. "'and sit thou down; and wae, o wae that ever thou was born; for come the king o' elfland in, thy leccam is forlorn!'" a long conversation then takes place; child rowland tells her the news [of merry carlisle,] and of his own expedition; and concludes with the observation, that, after this long and fatiguing journey to the castle of the king of elfland, he is _very hungry_. burd ellen looked wistfully and mournfully at him, and shook her head, but said nothing. acting under the influence of a magic which she could not resist, she arose, and brought him a golden bowl full of bread and milk, which she presented to him with the same timid, tender, and anxious expression of solicitude. remembering the instructions of the warluck merlin, "burd ellen," said child rowland, "i will neither taste nor touch till i have set thee free!" immediately the folding-doors burst open with tremendous violence, and in came the king of elfland, "with '_fi_, _fi_, _fo_, and _fum_! i smell the blood of a christian man! be he dead, be he living, wi' my brand i'll clash his harns frae his harn-pan!'" "strike, then, bogle of hell, if thou darest!" exclaimed the undaunted child rowland, starting up, and drawing the good claymore, [excalibar,] that never struck in vain. a furious combat ensued, and the king of elfland was felled to the ground; but child rowland spared him on condition that he should restore to him his two brothers, who lay in a trance in a corner of the hall, and his sister, the fair burd ellen. the king of elfland then produced a small crystal phial, containing a bright red liquor, with which he anointed the lips, nostrils, eye-lids, ears, and finger-ends of the two young men, who immediately awoke as from a profound sleep, during which their souls had quitted their bodies, and they had seen, &c., &c., &c. so they all four returned in triumph to [merry carlisle.] such was the rude outline of the romance of child rowland, as it was told to me when i was about seven or eight years old, by a country tailor then at work in my father's house. he was an ignorant and dull good sort of honest man, who seemed never to have questioned the truth of what he related. where the _et cæteras_ are put down, many curious particulars have been omitted, because i was afraid of being deceived by my memory, and substituting one thing for another. it is right also to admonish the reader, that the warluck merlin, child rowland, and burd ellen, were the only _names_ introduced in _his_ recitation; and that the others, inclosed within brackets, are assumed upon the authority of the locality given to the story by the mention of _merlin_. in every other respect i have been as faithful as possible. rosmer hafmand, or, the mer-man rosmer. the ballad of _rosmer_ is found in danish, swedish, faroish, and norse. all the questions bearing upon its origin, and the relations of the various _forms_ in which the story exists, are amply discussed by grundtvig, vol. ii. p. . three versions of the danish ballad are given by vedel, all of which jamieson has translated. the following is no. in abrahamson. there dwalls a lady in danmarck, lady hillers lyle men her ca'; and she's gar'd bigg a new castell, that shines o'er danmarck a'. her dochter was stown awa frae her; she sought for her wide-whare; but the mair she sought, and the less she fand,-- that wirks her sorrow and care. and she's gar'd bigg a new ship, wi' vanes o' flaming goud, wi' mony a knight and mariner, sae stark in need bestow'd. she's followed her sons down to the strand, that chaste and noble fre; and wull and waif for eight lang years they sail'd upon the sea. and eight years wull and waif they sail'd, o' months that seem'd sae lang; syne they sail'd afore a high castell, and to the land can gang. and the young lady svanè lyle, in the bower that was the best, says, "wharfrae cam thir frem swains, wi' us this night to guest?" then up and spak her youngest brither, sae wisely ay spak he; "we are a widow's three poor sons, lang wilder'd on the sea. "in danmarck were we born and bred, lady hillers lyle was our mither; our sister frae us was stown awa, we findna whare or whither." "in danmarck were ye born and bred? was lady hillers your mither? i can nae langer heal frae thee, thou art my youngest brither. "and hear ye this, my youngest brither: why bade na ye at hame? had ye a hunder and thousand lives, ye canna brook ane o' them." she's set him in the weiest nook she in the house can meet; she's bidden him for the high god's sake nouther to laugh ne greet. rosmer hame frae zealand came, and he took on to bann: "i smell fu' weel, by my right hand, that here is a christian man." "there flew a bird out o'er the house, wi' a man's bane in his mouth; he coost it in, and i cast it out, as fast as e'er i couth." but wilyly she can rosmer win; and clapping him tenderly, "it's here is come my sister-son;-- gin i lose him, i'll die. "it's here is come, my sister-son, frae baith our fathers' land; and i ha'e pledged him faith and troth, that ye will not him bann." "and is he come, thy sister-son, frae thy father's land to thee? then i will swear my highest aith, he's dree nae skaith frae me." 'twas then the high king rosmer, he ca'd on younkers twae: "ye bid proud svanè lyle's sister-son to the chalmer afore me gae." it was svanè lyle's sister-son, whan afore rosmer he wan, his heart it quook, and his body shook, sae fley'd, he scarce dow stand. sae rosmer took her sister-son, set him upon his knee; he clappit him sae luifsomely, he turned baith blue and blae. and up and spak she, svanè lyle; "sir rosmer, ye're nae to learn that your ten fingers arena sma, to clap sae little a bairn." there was he till, the fifthen year, he green'd for hame and land: "help me now, sister svanè lyle, to be set on the white sand." it was proud lady svanè lyle, afore rosmer can stand: "this younker sae lang in the sea has been, he greens for hame and land." "gin the younker sae lang in the sea has been, and greens for hame and land, then i'll gie him a kist wi' goud, sae fitting till his hand." "and will ye gi'e him a kist wi' goud, sae fitting till his hand? then hear ye, my noble heartis dear, ye bear them baith to land." then wrought proud lady svanè lyle what rosmer little wist; for she's tane out the goud sae red, and laid hersel i' the kist. he's ta'en the man upon his back; the kist in his mouth took he; and he has gane the lang way up frae the bottom o' the sea. "now i ha'e borne thee to the land; thou seest baith sun and moon; namena lady svanè for thy highest god, i beg thee as a boon." rosmer sprang i' the saut sea out, and jawp'd it up i' the sky; but whan he cam till the castell in, nae svanè lyle could he spy. whan he came till the castell in, his dearest awa was gane; like wood he sprang the castell about, on the rock o' the black flintstane. glad they were in proud hillers lyle's house, wi' welcome joy and glee; hame to their friends her bairns were come, that had lang been in the sea. tam-a-line, the elfin knight. (see page .) from _scottish traditionary versions of ancient ballads_, percy society, xvii. p. . take warnin', a' ye ladyes fair, that wear gowd on your hair; come never unto charter-woods, for tam-a-line he's there. even about that knicht's middle o' siller bells are nine; nae ane comes to charter-woods, and a may returns agen. ladye margaret sits in her bouir door, sewing at her silken seam; and she lang'd to gang to charter woods, to pou the roses green. she hadna pou'd a rose, a rose, nor braken a branch but ane, till by it came him true tam-a-line, says, "layde, lat alane. "o why pou ye the rose, the rose? or why brake ye the tree? or why come ye to charter-woods, without leave ask'd of me?" "i will pou the rose, the rose, and i will brake the tree; charter-woods are a' my ain, i'll ask nae leave o' thee." he's taen her by the milk-white hand, and by the grass-green sleeve; and laid her low on gude green wood, at her he spier'd nae leave. when he had got his will o' her, his will as he had ta'en, he's ta'en her by the middle sma', set her to feet again. she turn'd her richt and round about, to spier her true love's name, but naething heard she, nor naething saw, as a' the woods grew dim. seven days she tarried there, saw neither sun nor muin; at length, by a sma' glimmerin' licht, came thro' the wood her lane. when she came to her father's court, was fine as ony queen; but when eight months were past and gane, got on the gown o' green. then out it speaks an eldren knicht, as he stood at the yett; "our king's dochter, she gaes wi' bairn, and we'll get a' the wyte." "o haud your tongue, ye eldren man, and bring me not to shame; although that i do gang wi' bairn, yese naeways get the blame. "were my love but an earthly man, as he's an elfin knicht, i wadna gie my ain true luve, for a' that's in my sicht." then out it speaks her brither dear, he meant to do her harm, "there is an herb in charter-woods will twine you an' the bairn." she's taen her mantle her about, her coiffer by the band; and she is on to charter-woods, as fast as she coud gang. she hadna poud a rose, a rose, nor braken a branch but ane, till by it came him, tam-a-line, says, "ladye, lat alane." "o! why pou ye the pile, margaret, the pile o' the gravil green, for to destroy the bonny bairn that we got us between? "o! why pou ye the pile, margaret, the pile o' the gravil gray, for to destroy the bonny bairn that we got in our play? "for if it be a knave bairn, he's heir o' a' my land; but if it be a lass bairn, in red gowd she shall gang." "if my luve were an earthly man, as he's an elfin grey, i coud gang bound, luve, for your sake, a twalmonth and a day." "indeed your luve's an earthly man, the same as well as thee; and lang i've haunted charter-woods, a' for your fair bodie." "o! tell me, tell me, tam-a-line, o! tell, an' tell me true; tell me this nicht, an' mak' nae lee, what pedigree are you?" "o! i hae been at gude church-door, an' i've got christendom; i'm the earl o' forbes' eldest son, an' heir ower a' his land. "when i was young, o' three years old, muckle was made o' me; my stepmither put on my claithes, an' ill, ill, sained she me. "ae fatal morning i gaed out, dreading nae injurie; and thinking lang, fell soun asleep, beneath an apple tree. "then by it came the elfin queen, and laid her hand on me; and from that time since e'er i mind, i've been in her companie. "o elfin it's a bonny place, in it fain wad i dwell; but aye at ilka seven years' end, they pay a tiend to hell, and i'm sae fou o' flesh an blude, i'm sair fear'd for mysell." "o tell me, tell me, tam-a-line, o tell, an' tell me true; tell me this nicht, an' mak' nae lee, what way i'll borrow you?" "the morn is hallowe'en nicht, the elfin court will ride, through england, and thro' a' scotland, and through the warld wide. "o they begin at sky sett in, ride a' the evenin' tide; and she that will her true love borrow, at miles-cross will him bide. "ye'll do ye down to miles-cross, between twall hours and ane; and full your hands o' holie water, and cast your compass roun'. "then the first ane court that comes you till, is published king and queen; the neist ane court that comes you till, it is maidens mony ane. "the neist ane court that comes you till, is footmen, grooms, and squires; the neist ane court that comes you till, is knichts; and i'll be there. "i tam-a-line, on milk-white steed, a gowd star on my crown; because i was an earthly knicht, got that for a renown. "and out at my steed's right nostril, he'll breathe a fiery flame; ye'll loot you low, and sain yoursel, and ye'll be busy then. "ye'll tak' my horse then by the head, and lat the bridal fa'; the queen o' elfin she'll cry out, 'true tam-a-line's awa'.' "then i'll appear into your arms like the wolf that ne'er wad tame; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, case we ne'er meet again. "then i'll appear into your arms like fire that burns sae bauld; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, i'll be as iron cauld. "then i'll appear into your arms like the adder an' the snake; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, i am your warld's maike. "then i'll appear into your arms like to the deer sae wild; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, and i'll father your child. "and i'll appear into your arms like to a silken string; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, till ye see the fair mornin'. "and i'll appear into your arms like to a naked man; ye'll haud me fast, lat me not gae, and wi' you i'll gae hame." then she has done her to miles-cross, between twal hours an' ane; and filled her hands o' holie water, and kiest her compass roun'. the first ane court that came her till, was published king and queen; the niest ane court that came her till, was maidens mony ane. the niest ane court that came her till, was footmen, grooms, and squires; the niest ane court that came her till, was knichts; and he was there! true tam-a-line, on milk-white steed, a gowd star on his crown; because he was an earthly man, got that for a renown. and out at the steed's right nostril, he breath'd a fiery flame; she loots her low, an' sains hersel, and she was busy then. she's taen the horse then by the head, and loot the bridle fa'; the queen o' elfin she cried out,-- "true tam-a-line's awa'." "stay still, true tam-a-line," she says, "till i pay you your fee;" "his father wants not lands nor rents, he'll ask nae fee frae thee." "gin i had kent yestreen, yestreen, what i ken weel the day, i shou'd hae taen your fu' fause heart, gien you a heart o' clay." then he appeared into her arms like the wolf that ne'er wad tame; she held him fast, lat him not gae, case they ne'er met again. then he appeared into her arms like the fire burning bauld; she held him fast, lat him not gae, he was as iron cauld. and he appeared into her arms like the adder an' the snake; she held him fast, lat him not gae, he was her warld's maike. and he appeared into her arms like to the deer sae wild; she held him fast, lat him not gae, he's father o' her child. and he appeared into her arms like to a silken string; she held him fast, lat him not gae, till she saw fair mornin'. and he appeared into her arms like to a naked man; she held him fast, lat him not gae, and wi' her he's gane hame. these news hae reach'd thro' a' scotland, and far ayont the tay, that ladye margaret, our king's dochter, that nicht had gain'd her prey. she borrowed her love at mirk midnicht, bare her young son ere day; and though ye'd search the warld wide, ye'll nae find sic a may. tom linn. (see p. .) this fragment was taken down from the recitation of an old woman. maidment's _new book of old ballads_, p. . o all you ladies young and gay, who are so sweet and fair, do not go into chaster's wood, for tomlinn will be there. * * * * * fair margaret sat in her bonny bower, sewing her silken seam, and wished to be in chaster's wood, among the leaves so green. she let the seam fall to her foot, the needle to her toe, and she has gone to chaster's wood, as fast as she could go. when she began to pull the flowers; she pull'd both red and green; then by did come, and by did go, said, "fair maid, let abene! "o why pluck you the flowers, lady, or why climb you the tree? or why come ye to chaster's wood, without the leave of me?" "o i will pull the flowers," she said, "or i will break the tree; for chaster's wood it is my own, i'll ask no leave at thee." he took her by the milk-white hand, and by the grass-green sleeve; and laid her down upon the flowers, at her he ask'd no leave. the lady blush'd and sourly frown'd, and she did think great shame; says, "if you are a gentleman, you will tell me your name." "first they call me jack," he said, "and then they call'd me john; but since i liv'd in the fairy court, tomlinn has always been my name. "so do not pluck that flower, lady, that has these pimples gray; they would destroy the bonny babe that we've gotten in our play." "o tell to me, tomlinn," she said, "and tell it to me soon; was you ever at a good church door, or got you christendom?" "o i have been at good church door, and oft her yetts within; i was the laird of foulis's son, the heir of all his land. "but it fell once upon a day, as hunting i did ride, as i rode east and west yon hill, then woe did me betide. "o drowsy, drowsy as i was, dead sleep upon me fell; the queen of fairies she was there, and took me to hersel. "the morn at even is hallowe'en, our fairy court will ride, through england and through scotland both, through all the world wide; and if that ye would me borrow, at rides cross ye may bide. "you may go into the miles moss, between twelve hours and one; take holy water in your hand, and cast a compass round. "the first court that comes along, you'll let them all pass by; the next court that comes along, salute them reverently. "the next court that comes along, is clad in robes of green; and it's the head court of them all, for in it rides the queen. "and i upon a milk-white steed, with a gold star in my crown; because i am an earthly man, i'm next the queen in renown. "then seize upon me with a spring, then to the ground i'll fa'; and then you'll hear a rueful cry, that tomlinn is awa'. "then i'll grow in your arms two, like to a savage wild; but hold me fast, let me not go, i'm father of your child. "i'll grow into your arms two like an adder, or a snake; but hold me fast, let me not go, i'll be your earthly maik. "i'll grow into your arms two like ice on frozen lake; but hold me fast, let me not go, or from your goupen break. "i'll grow into your arms two, like iron in strong fire; but hold me fast, let me not go, then you'll have your desire." and its next night into miles moss, fair margaret has gone; when lo she stands beside rides cross, between twelve hours and one. there's holy water in her hand, she casts a compass round; and presently a fairy band comes riding o'er the mound. * * * * * this seems to be the most appropriate connection for a short fragment from maidment's _north countrie garland_, (p. .) it was taken down from the recitation of a lady who had heard it sung in her childhood. burd ellen and young tamlane. burd ellen sits in the bower windowe, _with a double laddy double, and for the double dow_, twisting the red silk and the blue, _with the double rose and the may-hay_. and whiles she twisted, and whiles she twan, _with a double_, &c. and whiles the tears fell down amang, _with the double_, &c. till once there by cam young tamlane, _with a double_, &c. "come light, oh light, and rock your young son!" _with the double_, &c. "if you winna rock him, you may let him rair, _with a double_, &c. for i hae rockit my share and mair." _with the double_, &c. * * * * * young tamlane to the seas he's gane, _with a double laddy double, and for the double dow,_ and a' women's curse in his company's gane, _with the double rose and the may-hay_. als y yod on ay mounday. (see p. .) in the manuscript from which these verses are taken, they form the preface to a long strain of incomprehensible prophecies of the same description as those which are appended to _thomas of ersyldoune_. whether the two portions belong together, or not, (and it will be seen that they are ill enough joined,) the first alone requires to be cited here for the purpose of comparison with the _wee wee man_. the whole piece has been twice printed, first by finlay, in his _scottish ballads_, (ii. ,) and afterwards, by a person who was not aware that he had been anticipated, in the _retrospective review_, second series, vol. ii. p. . both texts are in places nearly unintelligible, and are evidently full of errors, part of which we must ascribe to the incompetency of the editors. finlay's is here adopted as on the whole the best, but it has received a few corrections from the other, and one or two conjectural emendations. als y yod on ay mounday bytwene wyltinden and wall, the ane after brade way, ay litel man y mette with alle, the leste yat ever y, sathe to say, oither in bowr, oither in halle; his robe was noither grene na gray, bot alle yt was of riche palle. on me he cald, and bad me bide; well stille y stode ay litel space; fra lanchestre the parke syde yeen he come, wel fair his pase. he hailsed me with mikel pride; ic haved wel mykel ferly wat he was; i saide,--"wel mote the betyde, that litel man with large face." i beheld that litel man bi the strete als we gon gae; his berd was syde ay large span, and glided als the fether of pae; his heved was wyte als ony swan, his hegehen was gret and grai als so; brues lange, wel i the can merk it to fize inches and mae. armes scort, for sothe i saye, ay span seemed thaem to bee: handes brade vytouten nay, and fingeres lange, he scheued me. ay stane he tok op thar it lay, and castit forth that i moth see; ay merk-soot of large way bifore me strides he castit three. wel stille i stod als did the stane, to loke him on thouth me nouth lang; his robe was alle gold begane, wel craftelike[l ] maked, i understande; botones asurd, everlk ane, fra his elbouthe ontil his hande; erdelik[l ] man was he nane; that in myn hert ich onderstande. til him i sayde ful sone on ane, for forthirmar i wald him fraine, "gladli wald[l ] i wit thi name, and i wist wat me mouthe gaine; thou ert so litel of fleshe and bane, and so mikel of mith and mayne, war vones thou, litel man, at hame? wit of thee i wald ful faine." "thoth i be litel and lith, am y noth wytouten wane; ferli frained thou wat hi hith, that[l ] thou salt noth wit my name; my wonige stede ful wel es dyght,[l ] nou sone thou salt se at hame." til him i sayde, "for godes mith, let me forth myn erand gane." "the thar noth of thin erand lette, thouth thou come ay stonde wit me, forther salt thou noth bi sette, bi miles twa noyther bi three." na linger durst i for him lette, but forth y funded wyt that free; stintid vs brok no beck; ferlich me thouth hu so mouth bee. he vent forth, als y you say, in at ay yate, y vnderstande; in til ay yate wvndouten nay; it to se thouth me nouth[l ] lang. the bankers on the binkes lay, and fair lordes sett y fonde; in ilka ay hirn y herd ay lay, and leuedys soth meloude sange. [here there seems to be a break, and a new start made, with a tale told not on a _monday_, but on a _wednesday_.] lithe, bothe zonge and alde: of ay worde y will you saye, ay litel tale that me was tald erli on ay wedenesdaye. a mody barn, that was ful bald, my friend that y frained aye, al my gesing he me tald, and galid me als we went bi waye. "miri man, that es so wyth, of ay thing gif me answere: for him that mensked man wyt mith, wat sal worth of this were?" &c. finlay, , crustlike. , clidelik. , glalli wild. , that, qy. yat?; with. , dygh. , south. the elphin knight. (see p. .) "the following transcript is a literal copy from the original in the pepysian library, cambridge." motherwell's _minstrelsy_, appendix, p. i. "a proper new ballad, entituled, _the wind hath blown my plaid away, or, a discourse betwixt a young maid and the elphin-knight_; to be sung with its own pleasant new tune." the elphin knight site on yon hill, _ba, ba, ba, lilli ba,_ he blowes his horn both loud and shril, _the wind hath blown my plaid awa_. he blowes it east, he blowes it west, _ba, ba_, &c. he blowes it where he lyketh best. _the wind_, &c. "i wish that horn were in my kist, _ba, ba_, &c. yea, and the knight in my armes two." _the wind_, &c. she had no sooner these words said, _ba, ba_, &c. when that the knight came to her bed. _the wind_, &c. "thou art over young a maid," quoth he, _ba, ba_, &c. "married with me thou il wouldst be." _the wind_, &c. "i have a sister younger than i, _ba, ba_, &c. and she was married yesterday." _the wind_, &c. "married with me if thou wouldst be, _ba, ba_, &c. a courtesie thou must do to me. _the wind_, &c. "for thou must shape a sark to me, _ba, ba_, &c. without any cut or heme," quoth he. _the wind_, &c. "thou must shape it needle- and sheerlesse, _ba, ba_, &c. and also sue it needle-threedlesse." _the wind_, &c. "if that piece of courtesie i do to thee, _ba, ba_, &c. another thou must do to me. _the wind_, &c. "i have an aiker of good ley-land, _ba, ba_, &c. which lyeth low by yon sea-strand. _the wind_, &c. "for thou must cure it with thy horn, _ba, ba_, &c. so thou must sow it with thy corn. _the wind_, &c. "and bigg a cart of stone and lyme, _ba, ba_, &c. robin redbreast he must trail it hame. _the wind_, &c. "thou must barn it in a mouse-holl, _ba, ba_, &c. and thrash it into thy shoes' soll. _the wind_, &c. "and thou must winnow it in thy looff, _ba, ba_, &c. and also seck it in thy glove. _the wind_, &c. "for thou must bring it over the sea, _ba, ba_, &c. and thou must bring it dry home to me. _the wind_, &c. "when thou hast gotten thy turns well done, _ba, ba_, &c. then come to me and get thy sark then. _the wind_, &c." "i'l not quite my plaid for my life, _ba, ba_, &c. it haps my seven bairns and my wife. _the wind shall not blow my plaid awa._" "my maidenhead i'l then keep still, _ba, ba_, &c. let the elphin knight do what he will. _the wind's not blown my plaid awa._" "_my plaid awa, my plaid awa, and o'er the hill and far awa, and far awa, to norrowa, my plaid shall not be blown awa._" the laidley worm of spindleston-heugh. see p. . "a song above years old, made by the old mountain-bard, duncan frasier, living on cheviot, a.d. ." this ballad, first published in hutchinson's _history of northumberland_, was the composition of mr. robert lambe, vicar of norham. several stanzas are, however, adopted from some ancient tale. it has been often printed, and is now taken from ritson's _northumberland garland_. the similar story of _the worme of lambton_, versified by the rev. j. watson (compare _ormekampen_ and the cognate legends, grundtvig, i. , also vol. viii. p. , of this collection), may be seen in richardson's _borderer's table-book_, viii. , or in moore's _pictorial book of ancient ballad poetry_, page . with the tale of the _lambton worm of durham_ agrees in many particulars that of the _worm of linton_ in roxburghshire. (see scott's introduction to _kempion_, and sir c. sharpe's _bishopric garland_, p. .) it is highly probable that the mere coincidence of sound with _linden-worm_ caused this last place to be selected as the scene of such a story. the king is gone from bambrough castle, long may the princess mourn; long may she stand on the castle wall, looking for his return. she has knotted the keys upon a string, and with her she has them ta'en, she has cast them o'er her left shoulder, and to the gate she is gane. she tripped out, she tripped in, she tript into the yard; but it was more for the king's sake, than for the queen's regard. it fell out on a day, the king brought the queen with him home; and all the lords in our country to welcome them did come. "o welcome father!" the lady cries, "unto your halls and bowers; and so are you, my step-mother, for all that's here is yours." a lord said, wondering while she spake,[l ] "this princess of the north surpasses all of female kind in beauty, and in worth." the envious queen replied, "at least, you might have excepted me; in a few hours, i will her bring down to a low degree. "i will her liken to a laidley worm, that warps about the stone, and not till childy wynd[l ] comes back, shall she again be won." the princess stood at the bower door laughing, who could her blame? but e'er the next day's sun went down, a long worm she became. for seven miles east, and seven miles west, and seven miles north, and south, no blade of grass or corn could grow, so venomous was her mouth. the milk of seven stately cows (it was costly her to keep) was brought her daily, which she drank before she went to sleep. at this day may be seen the cave which held her folded up, and the stone trough, the very same out of which she did sup. word went east, and word went west, and word is gone over the sea, that a laidley worm in spindleston-heughs would ruin the north country. word went east, and word went west, and over the sea did go; the child of wynd got wit of it, which filled his heart with woe. he called straight his merry men all, they thirty were and three: "i wish i were at spindleston, this desperate worm to see. "we have no time now here to waste, hence quickly let us sail: my only sister margaret, something, i fear, doth ail." they built a ship without delay, with masts of the rown tree, with flutring sails of silk so fine, and set her on the sea. they went on board; the wind with speed, blew them along the deep; at length they spied an huge square tower on a rock high and steep. the sea was smooth, the weather clear; when they approached nigher, king ida's castle they well knew, and the banks of bambroughshire. the queen look'd out at her bower window, to see what she could see; there she espied a gallant ship sailing upon the sea. when she beheld the silken sails, full glancing in the sun, to sink the ship she sent[l ] away her witch wives every one. the spells were vain; the hags returned to the queen in sorrowful mood, crying that witches have no power where there is rown-tree wood. her last effort, she sent a boat, which in the haven lay, with armed men to board the ship, but they were driven away. the worm lept out, the worm lept down, she plaited round the stone; and ay as the ship came to the land she banged it off again. the child then ran out of her reach the ship on budley-sand, and jumping into the shallow sea, securely got to land. and now he drew his berry-brown[l ] sword, and laid it on her head; and swore, if she did harm to him, that he would strike her dead. "o quit thy sword, and bend thy bow, and give me kisses three; for though i am a poisonous worm, no hurt i'll do to thee. "o quit thy sword, and bend thy bow, and give me kisses three; if i'm not won e'er the sun go down, won i shall never be." he quitted his sword, and bent his bow, he gave her kisses three; she crept into a hole a worm, but out stept a lady. no clothing had this lady fine, to keep her from the cold; he took his mantle from him about, and round her did it fold. he has taken his mantle from him about, and in it he wrapt her in, and they are up to bambrough castle, as fast as they can win. his absence, and her serpent shape, the king had long deplored; he now rejoyced to see them both again to him restored. the queen they wanted, whom they found all pale, and sore afraid, because she knew her power must yield to childy wynd's, who said, "woe be to thee, thou wicked witch; an ill death mayest thou dee; as thou my sister hast lik'ned, so lik'ned shalt thou be. "i will turn you into a toad, that on the ground doth wend; and won, won shalt thou never be, till this world hath an end." now on the sand near ida's tower, she crawls a loathsome toad, and venom spits on every maid she meets upon her road. the virgins all of bambrough town will swear that they have seen this spiteful toad, of monstrous size, whilst walking they have been. all folks believe within the shire this story to be true, and they all run to spindleston, the cave and trough to view. this fact now duncan frasier, of cheviot, sings in rhime, lest bambroughshire men should forget some part of it in time. v. - . compare _young waters_, (iii. ,) v. - , and _young beichan and susie pye_, (iv. ,) v. - . v. . childy wynd is obviously a corruption of child owain. , went. , berry-broad. lord dingwall. (see p. .) from buchan's _ancient ballads and songs of the north of scotland_. (i. .) we were sisters, sisters seven, _bowing down, bowing down_; the fairest women under heaven. _and aye the birks a-bowing._ they kiest kevels them amang, wha wou'd to the grenewood gang. the kevels they gied thro' the ha', and on the youngest it did fa'. now she must to the grenewood gang, to pu' the nuts in grenewood hang. she hadna tarried an hour but ane, till she met wi' a highlan' groom. he keeped her sae late and lang, till the evening set, and birds they sang. he ga'e to her at their parting, a chain o' gold, and gay gold ring: and three locks o' his yellow hair: bade her keep them for evermair. when six lang months were come and gane, a courtier to this lady came. lord dingwall courted this lady gay, and so he set their wedding-day. a little boy to the ha' was sent, to bring her horse was his intent. as she was riding the way along, she began to make a heavy moan. "what ails you, lady," the boy said, "that ye seem sae dissatisfied? "are the bridle reins for you too strong? or the stirrups for you too long?" "but, little boy, will ye tell me, the fashions that are in your countrie?" "the fashions in our ha' i'll tell, and o' them a' i'll warn you well. "when ye come in upon the floor, his mither will meet you wi' a golden chair. "but be ye maid, or be ye nane, unto the high seat make ye boun. "lord dingwall aft has been beguil'd, by girls whom young men hae defiled. "he's cutted the paps frae their breast bane, and sent them back to their ain hame." when she came in upon the floor, his mother met her wi' a golden chair. but to the high seat she made her boun': she knew that maiden she was nane. when night was come, they went to bed, and ower her breast his arm he laid. he quickly jumped upon the floor, and said, "i've got a vile rank whore." unto his mother he made his moan, says, "mother dear, i am undone. "ye've aft tald, when i brought them hame, whether they were maid or nane. "i thought i'd gotten a maiden bright, i've gotten but a waefu' wight. "i thought i'd gotten a maiden clear, but gotten but a vile rank whore." "when she came in upon the floor, i met her wi' a golden chair. "but to the high seat she made her boun', because a maiden she was nane." "i wonder wha's tauld that gay ladie, the fashion into our countrie." "it is your little boy i blame, whom ye did send to bring her hame." then to the lady she did go, and said, "o lady, let me know "who has defiled your fair bodie? ye're the first that has beguiled me." "o we were sisters, sisters seven, the fairest women under heaven; "and we kiest kevels us amang, wha wou'd to the grenewood gang; "for to pu' the finest flowers, to put around our summer bowers. "i was the youngest o' them a', the hardest fortune did me befa'. "unto the grenewood i did gang, and pu'd the nuts as they down hang. "i hadna stay'd an hour but ane, till i met wi' a highlan' groom. "he keeped me sae late and lang, till the evening set, and birds they sang. "he gae to me at our parting, a chain of gold, and gay gold ring: "and three locks o' his yellow hair: bade me keep them for evermair. "then for to show i make nae lie, look ye my trunk, and ye will see." unto the trunk then she did go, to see if that were true or no. and aye she sought, and aye she flang, till these four things came to her hand. then she did to her ain son go, and said, "my son, ye'll let me know. "ye will tell to me this thing:-- what did yo wi' my wedding-ring?" "mother dear, i'll tell nae lie: i gave it to a gay ladie. "i would gie a' my ha's and towers, i had this bird within my bowers." "keep well, keep well, your lands and strands, ye hae that bird within your hands. "now, my son, to your bower ye'll go: comfort your ladie, she's full o' woe." now when nine months were come and gane, the lady she brought hame a son. it was written on his breast-bane, lord dingwall was his father's name. he's ta'en his young son in his arms, and aye he prais'd his lovely charms. and he has gi'em him kisses three, and doubled them ower to his ladie. hynde etin. (see p. .) from kinloch's _ancient scottish ballads_, p. . may marg'ret stood in her bouer door, kaiming doun her yellow hair; she spied some nuts growin in the wud, and wish'd that she was there. she has plaited her yellow locks a little abune her bree; and she has kilted her petticoats a little below her knee; and she's aff to mulberry wud, as fast as she could gae. she had na pu'd a nut, a nut, a nut but barely ane, till up started the hynde etin, says, "lady! let thae alane." "mulberry wuds are a' my ain; my father gied them me, to sport and play when i thought lang; and they sall na be tane by thee." and ae she pu'd the tither berrie, na thinking o' the skaith; and said, "to wrang ye, hynde etin, i wad be unco laith." but he has tane her by the yellow locks, and tied her till a tree, and said, "for slichting my commands, an ill death shall ye dree." he pu'd a tree out o' the wud, the biggest that was there; and he howkit a cave monie fathoms deep, and put may marg'ret there. "now rest ye there, ye saucie may; my wuds are free for thee; and gif i tak ye to mysell, the better ye'll like me." na rest, na rest may marg'ret took, sleep she got never nane; her back lay on the cauld, cauld floor, her head upon a stane. "o tak me out," may marg'ret cried, "o tak me hame to thee; and i sall be your bounden page until the day i dee." he took her out o' the dungeon deep, and awa wi' him she's gane; but sad was the day an earl's dochter gaed hame wi' hynde etin. * * * * * it fell out ance upon a day, hynde etin's to the hunting gane; and he has tane wi' him his eldest son, for to carry his game. "o i wad ask you something, father, an ye wadna angry be;"-- "ask on, ask on, my eldest son, ask onie thing at me." "my mother's cheeks are aft times weet, alas! they are seldom dry;"-- "na wonder, na wonder, my eldest son, tho' she should brast and die. "for your mother was an earl's dochter, of noble birth and fame; and now she's wife o' hynde etin, wha ne'er got christendame. "but we'll shoot the laverock in the lift, the buntlin on the tree; and ye'll tak them hame to your mother, and see if she'll comforted be." * * * * * "i wad ask ye something, mother, an' ye wadna angry be;"-- "ask on, ask on, my eldest son, ask onie thing at me." "your cheeks they are aft times weet, alas! they're seldom dry;"-- "na wonder, na wonder, my eldest son, tho' i should brast and die. "for i was ance an earl's dochter, of noble birth and fame; and now i am the wife of hynde etin, wha ne'er got christendame." sir oluf and the elf-king's daughter. (see p. .) this is a translation by jamieson (_popular ballads and songs_, i. ), of the danish _elveskud_ (abrahamson, i. ). lewis has given a version of the same in the _tales of wonder_, (no. .) the corresponding swedish ballad, _the elf-woman and sir olof_ (afzelius, iii. ) is translated by keightley, _fairy mythology_, p. . this ballad occurs also in norse, faroish, and icelandic. of the same class are _elfer hill_, (from the danish, jamieson, i. ; from the swedish, keightley, ; through the german, _tales of wonder_, no. :) _sir olof in the elve-dance_, (keightley, ; _literature and romance of northern europe_, by william and mary howitt, i. :) _the merman and marstig's daughter_, (from the danish, jamieson, i. ; _tales of wonder_, no. :) the breton tale of _lord nann and the korrigan_, (keightley, :) three slavic ballads referred to by grundtvig, (_elveskud_, ii. :) _sir peter of stauffenbergh and the mermaid_, (from the german, jamieson, _illustrations of northern antiquities_, ,) and the well-known _fischer_ of goethe. sir oluf the hend has ridden sae wide, all unto his bridal feast to bid. and lightly the elves, sae feat and free, they dance all under the greenwood tree! and there danced four, and there danced five; the elf-king's daughter she reekit bilive. her hand to sir oluf sae fair and free: "o welcome, sir oluf, come dance wi' me! "o welcome, sir oluf! now lat thy love gae, and tread wi' me in the dance sae gay." "to dance wi' thee ne dare i, ne may; the morn it is my bridal day." "o come, sir oluf, and dance wi' me; twa buckskin boots i'll give to thee; "twa buckskin boots, that sit sae fair, wi' gilded spurs sae rich and rare. "and hear ye, sir oluf! come dance wi' me; and a silken sark i'll give to thee; "a silken sark sae white and fine, that my mother bleached in the moonshine." "i darena, i maunna come dance wi' thee; for the morn my bridal day maun be." "o hear ye, sir oluf! come dance wi' me, and a helmet o' goud i'll give to thee." "a helmet o' goud i well may ha'e; but dance wi' thee ne dare i, ne may." "and winna thou dance, sir oluf, wi' me? then sickness and pain shall follow thee!" she's smitten sir oluf--it strak to his heart; he never before had kent sic a smart; then lifted him up on his ambler red; "and now, sir oluf, ride hame to thy bride." and whan he came till the castell yett, his mither she stood and leant thereat. "o hear ye, sir oluf, my ain dear son, whareto is your lire sae blae and wan?" "o well may my lire be wan and blae, for i ha'e been in the elf-womens' play." "o hear ye, sir oluf, my son, my pride, and what shall i say to thy young bride?" "ye'll say, that i've ridden but into the wood, to prieve gin my horse and hounds are good." ear on the morn, whan night was gane, the bride she cam wi' the bridal train. they skinked the mead, and they skinked the wine: "o whare is sir oluf, bridegroom mine?" "sir oluf has ridden but into the wood, to prieve gin his horse and hounds are good." and she took up the scarlet red, and there lay sir oluf, and he was dead! ear on the morn, whan it was day, three likes were ta'en frae the castle away; sir oluf the leal, and his bride sae fair, and his mither, that died wi' sorrow and care. and lightly the elves sae feat and free, they dance all under the greenwood tree! fragment of the dÆmon lover. (see p. .) (motherwell's _minstrelsy_, p. .) "i have seven ships upon the sea, laden with the finest gold, and mariners to wait us upon;-- all these you may behold. "and i have shoes for my love's feet, beaten of the purest gold, and lined wi' the velvet soft, to keep my love's feet from the cold. "o how do you love the ship," he said, "or how do you love the sea? and how do you love the bold mariners that wait upon thee and me?" "o i do love the ship," she said, "and i do love the sea; but woe be to the dim mariners, that nowhere i can see." they had not sailed a mile awa', never a mile but one, when she began to weep and mourn, and to think on her little wee son. "o hold your tongue, my dear," he said, "and let all your weeping abee, for i'll soon show to you how the lilies grow on the banks of italy." they had not sailed a mile awa', never a mile but two, until she espied his cloven foot, from his gay robes sticking thro'. they had not sailed a mile awa', never a mile but three, when dark, dark, grew his eerie looks, and raging grew the sea. they had not sailed a mile awa', never a mile but four, when the little wee ship ran round about, and never was seen more! constantine and arete. see p. . we are indebted for the following recension of _constantine and areté_ to mr. sophocles of harvard college. it is constructed from fauriel's text, combined with a copy in zambelios's [grk: aismata dêmotika], and with a version taken down from the recitation of a cretan woman. the translation is by the skilful hand of professor felton. we may notice by the way that several versions of this piece are given by tommaseo, in his _canti popolari toscani_, etc. iii. . [grk: manna me tous ennia sou huious kai me tê mia sou korê, tên korê tê monakribê tên polyagapêmenê, tên eiches dôdeka chronôn k' hêlios den sou tên eide, 's ta skoteina tên êlouges, 's t' aphenga tên eplekes, 's t' astrê kai 's ton augerino to' ephkeianes ta sgoura tês. hê geitonia den êxere pôs eiches thygatera, kai proxenia sou pherane apo tê babylônê. hoi oktô aderphoi den theloune, kai ho kôstantinos thelei; "dos têne, manna, dos têne tên 'aretê 's ta xena, na 'chô k' egô parêgoria 's tê strata pou diabainô." "phrenimos eisai, kôstantê, m' aschêm' apilogêthês; an tychê pikra gê chara, poios tha mou têne pherê?" to theo tês banei engytê kai tous hagious martyrous, an tychê pikra gê chara na paê na tês tên pherê; kai san tên epantrepsane tên aretê 's ta xena, erchetai chronos disephtos kai hoi ennia pethanan. emeine hê manna monachê san kalamia 's ton kampo. 's ta ochtô mnêmata dernetai, 's ta ochtô myrologaei, 's tou kôstantinou to thaphtio anespa ta mallia tês; "sêkou, kôstantinakê mou, tên aretê mou thelô; to theo mou 'bales engytê kai tous hagious martyrous, an tychê pikra gê chara na pas na mou tên pherês." kai mesa 's ta mesanychta ap' to kibouri bgainei. kanei to sygnepho alogo, kai t' astro salibari, kai to phengari syntrophia kai paei na têne pherê. briskei tên kai chtenizountai oxou 's to phengaraki. apomakria tên chairetaei kai apomakria tês legei. "gia ela, aretoula mou, kyrana mas se thelei." "alimono, aderphaki mou, kai ti 'ne tout' hê hôra! an ên' chara 's to spiti mas, na balô ta chrysa mou, kai an pikra, aderphaki mou, na 'rthô hôs kathôs eimai." "mêde pikra mêde chara; ela hôs kathôs eisai." 's tê strata pou diabainane, 's tê strata pou pagainan, akoun poulia kai kiladoun, akoun poulia kai lene; "gia des kopela omorphê na sernê apethamenos!" "akouses, kôstantakê mou, ti lene ta poulakia?" "poulakia 'ne kai as kiladoun, poulakia 'ne kai as lene." kai parakei pou pagainan kai alla poulia tous legan; "ti blepoume ta thlibera ta paraponemena? na perpatoun hoi zôntanoi me tous apethamenous?" "akouses, kôstantakê mou, ti lene ta poulakia?" "poulakia 'ne kai as kiladoun, poulakia 'ne kai as lene." "phoboumai s' aderphaki mou, kai libanies myrizeis." "echtes bradys epêgame katô 's ton haïgiannê, k' ethymiase mas ho papas me to poly libani." kai parempros pou pêgane, kai alla poulia tous lene; "Ô the megalodyname, megalo thama kaneis! tetoia panôrêa lygerê na sernê apethamenos!" t' akouse pale hê aretê k' erragis' hê kardia tês; "akouses, kôstantakê mou, ti lene ta poulakia? pes mou pou 'n' ta mallakia sou, to pêgouro moustaki?" "megalê arrôstia m' heurêke, m' errêxe tou thanatou." briskoun to spiti kleidôto kleidomantalômeno, kai ta spitoparathyra pou 'tan arachniasmena; "anoixe, manna m', anoixe, kai na tên aretê sou." "an êsai charos, diabaine, kai alla paidia den echô; hê dolêa aretoula mou leipei makria 's ta xena." "anoixe, manna m', anoixe, k' egô' mai ho kôstantês sou. to thio sou 'bala engytê kai tous agious martyrous, an tychê pikra gê chara na paô na sou tên pherô." kai hôste na 'bgê 's tên porta tês, ebgêke hê psychê tês.] constantine and arete. o mother, thou with thy nine sons, and with one only daughter, thine only daughter, well beloved, the dearest of thy children, for twelve years thou didst keep the maid, the sun did not behold her, whom in the darkness thou didst bathe, in secret braid her tresses, and by the starlight and the dawn, didst wind her curling ringlets, nor knew the neighborhood that thou didst have so fair a daughter,-- when came to thee from babylon a woer's soft entreaty: eight of the brothers yielded not, but constantine consented. "o mother give thine arete, bestow her on the stranger, that i may have her solace dear when far away i wander." "though thou art wise, my constantine, thou hast unwisely spoken: be woe my lot or be it joy, who will restore my daughter?" he calls to witness god above, he calls the holy martyrs, be woe her lot, or be it joy, he would restore her daughter: and when they wedded arete, in that far distant country, then comes the year of sorrowing, and all the nine did perish. all lonely was the mother left, like a reed alone in the meadow; o'er the eight graves she beats her breast, o'er eight is heard her wailing, and at the tomb of constantine, she rends her hair in anguish. "arise, my constantine, arise, for arete i languish: on god to witness thou didst call, didst call the holy martyrs, be woe my lot or be it joy, thou wouldst restore my daughter." and forth at midnight hour he fares, the silent tomb deserting, he makes the cloud his flying steed, he makes the star his bridle, and by the silver moon convoyed, to bring her home he journeys: and finds her combing down her locks, abroad by silvery moonlight, and greets the maiden from afar, and from afar bespeaks her. "arise, my aretula dear, for thee our mother longeth." "alas! my brother, what is this? what wouldst at such an hour? if joy betide our distant home, i wear my golden raiment, if woe betide, dear brother mine, i go as now i'm standing." "think not of joy, think not of woe--return as here thou standest." and while they journey on the way, all on the way returning, they hear the birds, and what they sing, and what the birds are saying. "ho! see the maiden all so fair, a ghost it is that bears her." "didst hear the birds, my constantine, didst list to what they're saying?" "yes: they are birds, and let them sing, they're birds, and let them chatter:" and yonder, as they journey on, still other birds salute them. "what do we see, unhappy ones, ah! woe is fallen on us;-- lo! there the living sweep along, and with the dead they travel." "didst hear, my brother constantine, what yonder birds are saying?" "yes! birds are they, and let them sing, they're birds, and let them chatter." "i fear for thee, my brother dear, for thou dost breathe of incense." "last evening late we visited the church of saint johannes, and there the priest perfumed me o'er with clouds of fragrant incense." and onward as they hold their way, still other birds bespeak them: "o god, how wondrous is thy power, what miracles thou workest! a maid so gracious and so fair, a ghost it is that bears her:" 'twas heard again by arete, and now her heart was breaking; "didst hearken, brother constantine, to what the birds are saying? say where are now thy waving locks, thy strong thick beard, where is it?" "a sickness sore has me befallen, and brought me near to dying." they find the house all locked and barred, they find it barred and bolted, and all the windows of the house with cobwebs covered over. "unlock, o mother mine, unlock, thine arete thou seest." "if thou art charon, get thee gone--i have no other children: my hapless arete afar, in stranger lands is dwelling." "unlock, o mother mine, unlock, thy constantine entreats thee. i called to witness god above, i called the holy martyrs, were woe thy lot, or were it joy, i would restore thy daughter." and when unto the door she came, her soul from her departed. the hawthorn tree. ritson's _ancient songs_, ii. . _a mery ballet of the hathorne tre_, from a ms. in the cotton library, vespasian, a. xxv. the ms. has "g. peele" appended to it, but in a hand more modern than the ballad. mr. dyce, with very good reason, "doubts" whether peele is the author of the ballad, but has printed it, peele's _works_, ii. . it is given also by evans, i. , and partly in chappell's _popular music_, i. . the true character of this piece would never be suspected by one reading it in english. the same is true of the german, where the ballad is very common, and much prettier than in english, e.g. _das mädchen und die hasel_, _das mädchen und der sagebaum_, erk's _liederhort_, no. , five copies; hoffmann, _schlesische volkslieder_, no. , three copies, etc. in danish and swedish we find a circumstantial story: _jomfruen i linden_, grundtvig, no. ; _linden, svenska folkvisor_, no. . the tree is an enchanted damsel, one of eleven children transformed by a step-mother into various less troublesome things, and the spell can be removed only by a kiss from the king's son. by the intervention of the maiden, this rite is performed, and the beautiful linden is changed to as beautiful a young woman, who of course becomes the prince's bride. a wendish ballad resembling the german is given by haupt and schmaler, and ballads akin to the danish, are found in slovensk and lithuanian (see grundtvig). it was a maide of my countrè, as she came by a hathorne-tre, as full of flowers as might be seen, 'she' merveld to se the tree so grene. at last she asked of this tre, "howe came this freshness unto the, and every branche so faire and cleane? i mervaile that you growe so grene." the tre 'made' answere by and by: "i have good causse to growe triumphantly; the swetest dewe that ever be sene doth fall on me to kepe me grene." "yea," quoth the maid, "but where you growe, you stande at hande for every blowe; of every man for to be seen; i mervaile that you growe so grene." "though many one take flowers from me, and manye a branche out of my tre, i have suche store they wyll not be sene, for more and more my 'twegges'[l ] growe grene." "but howe and they chaunce to cut the downe, and carry thie braunches into the towne? then will they never no more be sene to growe againe so freshe and grene." "though that you do, yt ys no boote; althoughe they cut me to the roote, next yere againe i will be sene to bude my branches freshe and grene. "and you, faire maide, canne not do so; for yf you let youre maid-hode goe, then will yt never no more be sene, as i with my braunches can growe grene." the maide wyth that beganne to blushe, and turned her from the hathorne-bushe; she though[t]e herselffe so faire and clene, her bewtie styll would ever growe grene. whan that she harde this marvelous dowbte, she wandered styll then all aboute, suspecting still what she would wene, her maid-heade lost would never be seen. wyth many a sighe, she went her waye, to se howe she made herselff so gay, to walke, to se, and to be sene, and so out-faced the hathorne grene. besides all that, yt put her in feare to talke with companye anye where, for feare to losse the thinge that shuld be sene to growe as were the hathorne grene. but after this never could i here of this faire mayden any where, that ever she was in forest sene to talke againe of the hathorne grene. . twedges. st. stephen and herod. ritson's _ancient songs_, i. , sandys's _christmas carols_, p. : from the sloane ms., no. (temp. hen. vi.) this curious little ballad was sung as a carol for st. stephen's day. its counterpart is found in danish (though not in an ancient form), printed in erik pontoppidan's book on the relics of heathenism and papistry in denmark, (_jesusbarnet, stefan, og herodes_ grundtvig, no. ). there is also a similar ballad in faroish. only a slight trace of the story is now left in the swedish _staffans visa_ (_svenska f.v._, no. ), which is sung as a carol on st. stephen's day, as may very well have been the case with the danish and faroish ballads too. the miracle of the roasted cock occurs in many other legends. the earliest mention of it is in vincent of beauvais's _speculum historiale_, l. xxv. c. . it is commonly ascribed to st. james, sometimes to the virgin. (see the preface to the ballad in grundtvig, and to southey's _pilgrim to compostella_.) we meet with it in another english carol called _the carnal[e] and the crane_, printed in sandys's collection, p. , from a broadside copy, corrupt and almost unintelligible in places. the stanzas which contain the miracle are the following: there was a star in the west land, so bright it did appear into king herod's chamber, and where king herod were. the wise men soon espied it, and told the king on high, a princely babe was born that night no king could e'er destroy. "if this be true," king herod said, "as thou tellest unto me, this roasted cock that lies in the dish shall crow full fences[f] three." the cock soon freshly feather'd was, by the work of god's own hand, and then three fences crowed he, in the dish where he did stand. "rise up, rise up, you merry men all, see that you ready be; all children under two years old now slain they all shall be." [e] crow? [f] rounds? * * * * * seynt stevene was a clerk in kyng herowdes halle, and servyd him of bred and cloth, as ever kyng befalle.[l ] stevyn out of kechon cam, wyth boris hed on honde; he saw a sterr was fayr and bryght over bedlem stonde. he kyst[l ] adoun the bores hed, and went into the halle: "i forsake the, kyng herowdes, and thi werkes alle. "i forsak the, kyng herowdes, and thi werkes alle: ther is a chyld in bedlem born is beter than we alle." "quhat eylyt[l ] the, stevene? quhat is the befalle? lakkyt the eyther mete or drynk in kyng herowdes halle?" "lakit me neyther mete ne drynk in kyng herowdes halle: ther is a chyld in bedlem born is beter than we alle." "quhat eylyt the, stevyn? art thu wod, or thu gynnyst to brede?[l ] lakkyt the eythar gold or fe, or ony ryche wede?"[l ] "lakyt 'me' neyther gold ne fe, ne non ryche wede;[l ] ther is a chyld in bedlem born xal[l ] helpen us at our nede." "that is al so soth, stevyn, al so soth, i-wys,[l ] as this capon crowe xal that lyth her in myn dysh." that word was not so sone seyd, that word in that halle, the capon crew, christus natus est! among the lordes alle. "rysyt up, myn turmentowres, be to[l ] and al be on, and ledyt stevyn out of this town, and stonyt hym wyth ston." tokyn he[l ] stevene, and stonyd hym in the way; and therefor is his evyn on crystes owyn day. . befalle, _befell_. . kyst, _cast_. . eylyt, _aileth_. . wod, _mad_: gynnyst to brede, _beginnest to entertain capricious fancies_, like a woman, &c. . fe, _wages_: wede, _clothes_. . ne, _nor_. . xall, _shall_. . soth, _true_: i-wys, _for a certainty_. . be to, _by two_. . he, _they_. glossary. n.b. figures placed after words denote the pages in which they occur. a, _one_. a', _all_. abee, abene, _be_. aboon, abune, _above_. aby, _pay for_. ae, _only, sole_. ae, _aye, still_, ahin, _behind_. airn, _iron_. ald, _old_. all and some, _each and all_. als, _as_. als, _also_. ance, anes, _once_. appone, _upon_. araye, _order_. arblast-bow, _cross-bow_. are, _before_. arena, _are not_. arighte, _laid hold of_. armorie, , _band of armed men_. asey, _assay_. ask, _newt, a kind of lizard_. askryede, _described_. asurd, _azured, blue_. at, , _of_. atteynt, _seize_. aught, _owed_. avanse, _gain, succeed_. avow, _vow_. awa, _away_. awenn, _own_. ay, _a_. ayont, _beyond_. ba', _ball_. backefysyke, . bade, _prayed for_. bade, _abode, staid_. bairnly, _childlike_. bald, _bold_. bale, _blaze, fire_. bale, _harme, ruin, sorrow_. ban', _bound_. bane, _bone_. bankers, , _coverings for benches_. bann, _curse_. barn, _child, wight_. beck, _stream_. bedone, , _bedecked_. begane, _bedecked_. begynne the bord, _sit at the head of the table_. ben, _in_. ben, _prompt, ready_. bent, _plain, field_, (from the coarse grass growing on open lands); bentis, bents, _coarse grass_. beryde, , _cried, made a noise_. bese, _will_ or _shall be_. best man, bride's, , _bridesman_, (corresponding to the best maid, or bridesmaid). bestedde, _circumstanced_. bi, _be_. bierly, , _proper, becoming, comfortable_. bigg, _build_. bilive, _quickly_. billy blind, or billy blin, _a brownie, or domestic fairy_. binkes, _benches_. bird, _lady_. birk, _birch_. birled, , _poured out drink_, or _drunk_. blae, _livid_. blee, _color, complexion_. blewe, , _sounded a horn_. blin, blyn, _stop, cease_. bogle, _spectre, goblin_. bone, _boon_. boome, . qy. goome, _man_? bord, _table_. borrow, _stand surety for, ransom, rescue_. bouir, _chamber, dwelling_. boun, _boon_. boun, _ready_; make ye boun, , boun, , _go straightway_. bourdes, _jests_. boure, bower, _chamber_. bouted, _bolted_. bown, _ready, ready to go_. bowrd, _jest_. brade, _broad_. brae, _hill-side_. brast, _burst_. brayd, _started, turned_. braw, _brave, fine_. bree, _brow_. brening, _burning_. brent, _burnt_. brether, , _brethren_. bricht, _bright_. brimes, _water_. britled, , brittened, , _cut up, carved_. brok, _brook_. broom-cow, _bush of broom_. brook, _enjoy, preserve_. brues, _brows_. brunt, _burnt_. bryste, _burst_. bue, , , _fair_? bugyle, _horn_. bunge, ? buntin, buntlin, _blackbird_; al. _wood-lark_. burd, _maid, lady_. burd-alane, _alone_. burlow-beanie, , _name of a fiend or spirit_. burn, _brook_. busk, _dress, make ready_. but, , _and_; but and, _and also_. by and by, _straightway_. bydeene, , _continuously, in numbers_. byggis, _builds_. bygone, _bedecked_. byhouys, _behoves_. byleve, , _remain_. byrde, _lady_. byre, _cow-house_. byrnande, _burning_. byteche, _commit_. ca', _call_. can, (sometimes gan,) _used as an auxiliary with an infinitive mood, to express the past tense of a verb_. carknet, _necklace_. carline, _female of churl_, _old woman_. carlist, , _churlish_. carp, _talk_, _tell stories_. cast, _planned_. chalmer, _chamber_. channerin', _fretting_. chere, _countenance_. chese, _choose_. chess, _jess_, _strap_. chewys, _choosest_. chiel, _child_, _young man_. christendame, christendoun, _christening_. christentye, _christendom_. claes, _clothes_. clapping, _fondling_. clear, clere, _fair_, _morally pure_. cockward, _cuckold_. coft, _bought_. coiffer, , _coif_, _head-dress_, _cap?_ cold, _could, knew_; _used as an auxiliary with the infinitive to express a past tense_; e.g. he cold fling, _he flung_. coleyne, collen, _cologne steel_. com'nye, , _communing_, _discourse_. compass, _circle_, compenabull, , _sociable_, _admitting to participation_. coost, coosten, _cast_. couth, _could_, _knew_, _understood_. covent, _convent_. cow-me-doo, , like curdoo, _name for a dove_, from its cooing. craftelike, _craftily_. crapoté, . qy. cramasee, _crimson?_ cropoure, _crupper_. crowt, , _curl up_. crystiante, _christendom_. cure, , _till_. dag-durk, _dagger_, _dirk_. damasee, _damson_. dang, _beat_, _struck_. dasse, _dais_, _raised platform_. daunton, _daunt_. decay, _destruction_. dee, _die_. dee, _do_. deid, _death_. dele, dell, _part_. delle, , _dally_. dere, _harm_. derne, _secret_. des, dese, _dais_, _elevated platform_. devyse, _direction_. deynteous, _dainty_. dight, , _placed_, _involved_. dight (corn), _winnow_. dinne, , _trouble_, _circumstance_. distans, , _dissension_, _strife_. done, _do_. doo, _dove_. doubt, dout, _fear_. dought, _could_, _might_; , _may_, _am able_. dow, _could_. dowie, _mournful_, _doleful_. dree, _suffer_. drest, _arranged_. drumlie, _troubled_, _gloomy_. dryssynge, _dressing_. dule, _sorrow_, _trouble_. dullfull, _doleful_. dyght, dygzht, _adorned_, _arrayed_, _dressed_. ear, _soon_, _early_. eerie, eiry, _fearful_, _producing superstitious dread_. eghne, _eyes_. eglis, _eagle's_. elde, eldren, _old_. elfin, , _elf-land_. elritch, _elvish_. endres-daye, , _past day_? _other day_? see halliwell's _dictionary_. "of my fortune, how it ferde, this _endir_ day, as y forth ferde." erdelik, , _earthly_. (finlay, "clidelik.") erlish, _elvish_. esk, _newt_. etin (danish jette), _giant_. even cloth, , _fine cloth_? everlk, _every_. everychon, _every one_. faem, _foam_. faine, _desire_. faine, _glad_. fairest, _forest_. fand, _found_. fare, _go_. farer, _further_. fawte, _want_. fayrse, _fierce_. feat, _neat_, _dexterous_, _nimble_. fee, , _animals_, _deer_; , _rent_, _tribute_. feed, _same as_ food, fud, _creature_, _man_, _woman_, or _child_. feires, _companions_, _mates_. fele, _many_. fell, _hill_, _moor_. ferli, , _fairly?_ ferlie, ferly, _wonder_. ferlich, _wondrous_. fernie, _covered with fern_. fet, fette, _fetched_. fethill, _fiddle_. fforthi, _therefore_. fifthen, _fifth_. fil, _fell_. first ane, _first_. firth, (frith,) _wood_. fize, , _five_. flang, _flung_. flaugh, _flew_. flaw, , _lie_. fleer, _floor_. fley'd, _frightened_. flone, _arrow_. fode, _creature_, _child_. fond, _try_, _make trial_. fonde, _found_. forbye, _aside_. fordoo, _destroy_. foremost man, , (like best man), _bridesman_. forowttyn, _without_. forteynd, _happened_. forther, _further_. forthi, _therefore_. fowles, _birds_. fraine, _question_. free, , _lord_, , _lady_. free, freely, _noble_, _lovely_. frem, _strange_. freyry, _fraternity_. frowte, _fruit_. fu', _full_. fundyd, , _went_. fytt, _canto_, _division of a song_. gad, _bar_. gae, _gave_. gae, _go_, _going_. gait, nae, _no way_, _no where_. galid, , _sang?_ gangande, _going_. gar, _make_, _cause_. gare, , _strip_. garthes, _girths_. gate, , _way_. gesing, , _guessing_; or, _desire_, a. sax. gitsung? getterne, _giitern_, _kind of harp_. ghesting, _lodging_, _hospitable reception_. gied, _went_. gien, _given_. gin, giue, _if_. gleed, _a burning coal_. glided, . qy. _gilded?_ glint, _gleam_. gon, _begun_, _performed_. gon, _went_. goud, _gold_. goupen, _the hollow of the hand contracted to receive anything_. gowan, _flower_. gowd, _gold_. gowden, _golden_. gown of green, got on the, , _was with child_. gravil, ? gree, _favor_, _prize_. green'd, _longed_. greet, _weep_. grew, _gray_. groom, _man_, _young man_. gule, _red_. gurlie, _stormy_, _surly_. gyne, _device_. ha', _hall_. had, _hold_, _keep_. hailsed, _saluted_. halch, _salute_, _embrace_. hallow, _hollow_. hallowe'en, , _the eve of all-saints' day_, supposed to be peculiarly favorable for intercourse with the invisible world, all fairies, witches, and ghosts being then abroad. hals, halse, _neck_; halsed, _greeted_. haly, _holy_. hame, _home_. hap, _cover_. harde, _heard_. harns, _brains_; harn-pan, _skull_. hate, _hat_. hat, _hit_. hand, _hold_. haved, _had_. heal, _conceal_. heathennest, heathynesse, , _heathendom_. hegehen, _eyes_. hegh, _high_; heghere, _higher_. hem, _them_. hende, _handsome_, _gentle_. hent, _took_. herbere, _arbor_, _orchard_. herme, _harm_. hethyn, , _hence_. hett, _bid_. heved, _head_. hi, , _i_. high-coll'd, _high-cut_. hind, _gentle_. hind, , _stripling_. him lane, _alone_. hingers, _hangings_. hirn, _corner_. hith, _hight, is called_. hollen, _holly_. hore, _hoar_, _hoary_. hose, , _clasp_. howkit, _dug_. howm, _holm_; _level, low ground on the bank of a stream_. hunt's-ha', _hunting-lodge_. hye, in, _in haste_; , perhaps _aloud_. hyghte, _bid_; _was called_. hynde, _youth_, _stripling_, _swain_. hy[z]e, in, , _in haste_, _of a sudden_. ic, _i_. iknow, _known_. ilka, _each_. ilke, _same_. inow[z]e, _enough_. intill, _into_, _upon_. iralle, . qu. rialle, _royal?_ jawes, , _dashes_; jawp'd, , _dashed_, _spattered_. jelly, _jolly_, _pleasant_. jimp, _slender_, _neat_. jolly, _pretty_, _gay_. kaim, _comb_. kane, _rent_. karp, _talk_, _relate stories_. kemb, _comb_. ken, _know_. keppit, _caught_, _kept_. kevels, _lots_. kiest, _cast_. kilted, _tucked_. kin', _kind of_. kindly, , "_good old_"? kirk, _church_. kist, _chest_. knave-bairn, _male child_. knicht, _knight_. laidley, _loathly_, _loathsome_. laigh-coll'd, _low-cut_. laith, _loath_. lane, _alone_; joined with pronouns, as, my lane, his lane, her lane, their lane, _myself alone_, &c. lang, _to think_, originally, _to seem long_, then _to be weary_, _feel ennui_. lapande, _lapping_. lappered, _coagulated_, _clotted_. lat, latten, _let_. lauchters, _locks_. laverock, _lark_. leal, _loyal_, _chaste_. leccam, _body_. lede, _lead_. lee, _lie_. leesome, _pleasant_, _sweet_. lelfe, , _leave?_ lere, _lore_, _doctrine_; _learn_. les, lesyng, _lying_, _lie_. lesse and more, _smaller and greater_. lett, lette, _hinder_, _hinderance_; _delay_; withouten lette, _for a certainty_. leuedys, _ladies_. leuer, _liefer_, _rather_. leu[z]e, _laughed_. leven, , _lawn_. levin, _lightning_. ley-land, _lea-land_, _not ploughed_. licht, _light_. lichted, _lighted_. lift, _air_. likes, _dead bodies_. lingcam, , _body_, =leccam? linger, _longer_. link, _walk briskly_; _arm in arm_. lire, _face_, _countenance_. lith, , _supple_, _limber_. lithe, _listen_. lodlye, _loathly_. loffe, _love_. loof, _hollow of the hand_. loot, _bow_. loot, _let_. loun, _loon_. louted, _bowed_. lown, _lone_. low[z]he, _laughed_, _smiled_. luifsomely, _lovingly_. luppen, _leapt_. lygge, _lay_ lyggande, _lying_. lyle, _little_. lystnys, _listen_. lyth, _member_, _limb_. mae, _more_. maen, _moan_. maik, _mate_. makane, _making_. mane, _moan_. mansworn, _perjured_. marrow, _mate_. maste, _most_, _greatest_. maun, _must_. maunna, _may not_. mawys, mavis, _singing thrush_. may, _maid_. medill-erthe, _earth_, _the upper-world_. mekill, _great_, _large_. mell, _mallet_. meloude, _melody_. mensked, , _honored_. menyde, _moaned_. merks, _marks_. merk-soot, , _mark-shot_, _distance between bow-marks_.--finlay. merrys, _marrest_. mese, _mess_, _meal_. micht, _might_. middle-eard, the _upper world_, placed between the nether regions and the sky. minded, _remembered_. minion, _fine_, _elegant_. mirk, _dark_. mith, _might_. mode, _passion_, _energy_. mody, _courageous_. mold, mould, _earth_, _ground_. montenans, _amount_. more, _greater_. most, _greatest_. moth, _might_. mother-naked, _naked as at one's birth_. mouthe, _might_. mungo, st., _st. kentigern_. my lane, _alone_. mykel, _much_. na, _not_; namena, _name not_, _&c._ nay, _denial_. neist, _next_. newfangle, , (_trifling_, _inconstant_), _light_, _loose_. niest, _next_, _nearest_, _close_. noth, nouth, _not_. nouther, noyther, _neither_. on, _in_. on ane, _anon_. one, _on_, _in_. onie, _any_. or, _ere_, _before_. orfaré, , _embroidery_. oryence, _orient_. oure, _over_. over one, , _in a company_, _together?_ see jamieson's _scottish dictionary_, in v. ouer ane. owre, _over_, _too_. owreturn, _refrain_. pae, _peacock_. paines, _penance_. pall, _rich cloth_. palmer, _pilgrim_. papeioyes, _popinjays_. parde, _par dieu_. pautit, _paw_, _beat with the foot_. pay, , _pleasure_, _satisfaction_. paye, , _content_. payetrelle, , (otherwise, patrel, poitrail, pectorale, &c.) _a steel plate for the protection of a horse's chest_. payrelde, _apparelled_. perdé, _par dieu_. perelle, _pearl_. pile, , _down_, sometimes _tender leaves_. plas, , _place_, _palace_. ply[z]t, _plight_, _promise_. poterner, , _pouch_, _purse_. _rightly corrected by percy from_ poterver. _see_ pautonnière, pontonaria, _and_ pantonarius, _in henschel's ed. of ducange_. pou, _pull_. prest, _priest_. prieve, _prove_. prink'd, prinn'd, _adorned_, _drest up_, _made neat_. pristly, _earnestly_. propine, _gift_. raches, _scenting hounds_. radde, _quick_, _quickly_. rair, _roar_. rashing, _striking like a boar_. rathely, _quickly_. raught, _reached_. rauine, _beasts of chase_, _prey_. redd, , _explained_. rede, _counsel_. reekit, , _steamed_. reele bone, , _an unknown material, of which saddles, especially, are in the romances said to be made_; _called variously_, rewel-bone, (_cant. tales_, , ,) rowel-bone, reuylle-bone, _and_ (_young bekie_, vol. iv. ) royal-bone. reet, _root_. reme, _kingdom_. renninge, _running_. repreve, _reprove_, _deride_. rewe, _take pity_. ridand, _riding_. rived, , (_arrived_,) _travelled_. rought, route, rowte, _rout_, _band_, _company_. routh, _plenty_. row, _roll_, _wrap_. rown-tree, _mountain-ash_. rudd, _complexion_. rybybe, _kind of fiddle_. ryn, _run_. rysse, _rise_. safe-guard, _a riding-skirt_. saghe, _saw_. saikless, _guiltless_. sained, _crossed_, _consecrated_. sall, _shall_. same, , _some_, _each_. sark, _shirt_. sathe, _sooth_, _truth_. saw, _saying_, _tale_. sawtrye, _psaltery_. scathe, _damage_. schane, _shone_. scho, _she_. schone, _shoes_. scort, _short_. sculd, _should_. seannachy, _genealogist, bard, or story-teller_. seck, _sack_. sekirlye, _truly_. selle, _saddle_. senne, _since_. sere, _sore_. seres, _sires_, _sirs_. sey, , v. , _saw_. share, , _slip_, _strip_. shathmont, , [a. sax. scæftmund,] _a measure from the top of the extended thumb to the utmost part of the palm, six inches_. shee, , _shoe_. sheede, _spill_. sheeld-bones, _blade-bones_, _shoulder-blades_. sheen, _bright_. sheen, _shoes_. sheep's-silver, _mica_. shent, _injured_, _abused_; , _shamed_. sheugh, _furrow_, _ditch_. sic, _such_. sichin', _sighing_. sicken, _such_. skaith, _harm_. skaith, [qy. skail?] , _save_, _keep innocent of_. skill, but a, , _only reasonable?_ skinked, _poured out_. sky sett in, , for _sunset_ or _evening_. skyll, _reason_, _manner_, _matter_. slae, _sloe_. slawe, _slain_. slichting, _slighting_. smert, _quickly_. snell, _quick_, _keen_. solace, solas, _recreation_, _sport_. sooth, soth, _truth_; sothely, _truly_. soth, , _sweet_. soun, _sound_. speed, , _fare_. spier, _ask_. spylle, _destroy_. stappin', , _stopping_. stark, _strong_. start, _started_. stefly, _thickly_. stered, _guided_. stern light, , _light of stars_. stiffe, , _strong_, _stout_. stinted, _stopped_. store, _big_, _strong_. stown, _stolen_. stowre, _strong_, _brave_. straiked, _stroaked_. strak, _struck_. stratlins, , _straddlings?_ streek, _stretch_. sture, , _big_, _strong_. stythe, _stead_, _place_. suire, _neck_. suld, _should_. swick, _blame_. swilled, , _shook, as in rinsing_. swoghyne, , _soughing_. swylke, _such_. syde, _long_. syen, _since_. syke, _rivulet_, _marshy bottom_. sykerly, sykerlyke, _certainly_, _truly_. syne, _then_. syth, _times_. sythen, _since_. tabull dormounte, , _standing table_, _the fixed table at the end of the hall_. (?) tae, _toe_. taiken, _token_. tee, _to_. teind, _tithe_. tene, _grief_, _sorrow_, _loss_, _harm_. tente, _attention_, _heed_; takis gude tente, _give good attention to_. tett, , _lock_ [_of hair._] thae, _those_. than, _then_ thar, _where_. thar, , _it needs_. then, _than_. think lang, _to be weary_, _impatient_. thir, _these_, _those_. tho, _then_. thoghte, _seemed_. thoth, thouch, thouth, _though_. thought lang, _seemed long_; _grew weary_, _felt ennui_. thouth, , _seemed_. throw, _short time_, _while_. thrubchandler, ? tide, _time_. till, _to_. tirled at the pin, _trilled, or rattled, at the door-pin, or latch, to obtain admission_. tither, _the other_. tod, _fox_. toute, . see chaucer. touting, _tooting_. travayle, _labor_. traye, , _suffering_. [dree?] tree, _wood_, _staff_. trew, _trow_. tryst, _appointment_, _assignation_. twal, _twelve_. twan, _twined_. twine, _part_, _deprive of_. tyde, _time_. tyte, _promptly_, _quick_. unco, _strangely_, _very_. vanes, _flags_. venerye, _hunting_. vent, _went_. verament, _truly_. villanye, vilony, _disgrace_. vntill, _unto_. vones, (wones,) _dwellest_. vytouten, _without_. wa', _wall_. wace, _wax_. wad, _pledge_. wad, , _waded_. wadded, , _woad-colored_, _blue_. wadna, _would not_. wae, waefu', waesome, _sorrowful_, _sad_. waif, _straying_. wald, _would_. walker, , _fuller_. wall-wight men, , _picked_ (waled) _strong men_, _warriors_: see vol. vi., p. , v. . wan afore, , _came before_. wane, _dwelling_. war, _where_. ware of, to be, _to perceive_. warld's maike, , _companion for life_. warluck, _a wizard_, _a man in league with the devil_. warsled, _wrestled_, _struggled_. warwolf, _werwolf_, _manwolf_. wat, _wet_. waught, _draught_. wauking, _walking_. waylawaye, _alas_. wee, _little_. weiest, , [jamieson,] _saddest_, _darkest_. weird, _fate_. weird, _destine_. wend, _weened_. wer, were, _war_. wern, _refuse_. werre, _worse_. werryed, _worried_. wesch, _wash_. wete, weten, _knowing_. whareto, _wherefore_. wharfrae, _whence_. whereas, _where_. wi, _with_. wicht, _strong_, _nimble_, wide, , _wade_. widershins, _the contrary way_, _the way contrary to the course of the sun_. wide-whare, _widely_, _far and near_. wierd, _fate_. wight, _strong_, _active_, _nimble_. wilder'd, _carried astray_. win, _go to_, _attain_; win up, _get up_. win, _rescue_. wind blows in your glove, ? winna, _will not_. wistna, _knew not_. wit, _know_, _knowledge_. wittering, _information_. witti, _intelligible_. wodewale, _woodpecker_. woe, _sad_. won, _dwell_. wonige, , [adj. qy. woning?] _dwelling_. wood, _mad_. worth, , _become_, _be the result_. worthy, i were, , _it would become me_. wow, _exclamation of astonishment or grief_. wpe, _up_. wrebbe, ; _wrebbe and wrye_, _turn and twist_? wrought, , for raught, _reached_. wrucked up, , _thrown up_. wrye, , _wrebbe and wrye_, _turn and twist_? wud, _wood_. wull, , _wandering in ignorance of one's course_, _lost in error_, _bewildered_. wylos, _willow_. wyndouten, _without_. wyne-berye, _grape_. wysse, _wise_. wyt, _with_. wyte, , _blame_. wyth, , _wight_, _agile_. wytouten, _without_. yard, _staff_. yat, _that_. yate, _gate_. y-born, _born_. y-doon, _done_. ychon, _each one_. yeen, , _against_, _towards_. ye'se, _ye shall_, _will_. yestreen, _yesterday_. yett, _gate_ ylk, _each_. yod, _went_. yone, _yon_. yyng, _young_. zede, _went_. zonge, _young_. &c. [z]e, _ye_. [z]ede, _went_. [z]it, _yet_. &c. * * * * * transcriber's notes archaic, unusual and inconsistent spelling or punctuation has generally been retained as in the original. where changes have been made to the text these are listed below: page (line ) added missing close quotation mark: nor keepe me lingering here in paine." page (lines , ) moved close quotation mark: "pray, sir, did you not send for me, by such a messenger?" said she: page (line ) deleted extraneous open quotation mark: "go in," said he, "and go to bed; i'll see the horse well littered." page : added missing open quotation mark ("go on yet a little farther," said the hen-wife, "till thou come to a round green hill ...") page (line ) added missing single quotation mark: "'and sit thou down; and wae, o wae that ever thou was born; page (lines , ) added missing open quotation mark: "our king's dochter, she gaes wi' bairn, and we'll get a' the wyte." page (line ) added missing closing single quotation mark: the queen o' elfin she'll cry out, 'true tam-a-line's awa'.' page added missing closing quotation mark for him that mensked man wyt mith, wat sal worth of this were?" &c. page : the line numbering in lord dingwall is in error, but has been retained as per the original. page (line ) added missing open quotation mark: "o tak me out," may marg'ret cried, "o tak me hame to thee; representative plays by american dramatists edited, with an introduction to each play by montrose j. moses - illustrated with portraits, and original playbills to brander matthews friend of the american theatre to whom all critics of the theatre are beholden. table of contents introduction. bibliographies. rip van winkle: a legend of the catskills. a comparative arrangement with the kerr version. by charles burke. francesca da rimini. by george henry boker. love in ' . an incident of the revolution. by oliver bell bunce. paul kauvar; or, anarchy. by steele mackaye. shenandoah. by bronson howard. in mizzoura. by augustus thomas. the moth and the flame. by clyde fitch. the new york idea. by langdon mitchett. the easiest way. by eugene walter. the return of peter grimm. by david belasco. the authors and their plays. introduction the present volume of "representative plays by american dramatists" includes many hitherto unpublished manuscripts. these are for the first time made available in authoritative form to the student of the american theatre. the editor has tried consistently to adhere to his original basis of selection: to offer only those texts not generally in circulation and not used elsewhere in other anthologies. exactions of copyright have sometimes compelled him to depart from this rule. he has been somewhat embarrassed, editorially, by the ungenerous haste with which a few others have followed closely in his path, even to the point of reproducing plays which were known to be scheduled for this collection. for that reason there have been omitted mr. william gillette's "secret service," available to readers in so many forms, and mr. percy mackaye's "the scarecrow." no anthology of the present historical scope, however, can disregard george henry boker's "francesca da rimini" or bronson howard's "shenandoah." in the instance of mr. langdon mitchell's "the new york idea," it is possible to supersede all previous issues of this refreshing comedy by offering a text which, as to stage directions, has been completely revised by the author. mr. mitchell wishes to have this regarded as the correct version, and has himself prepared the "copy" of same. because of the easy accessibility of dion boucicault's "the octoroon; or, life in louisiana," it was thought best to omit this irish-american playwright, whose jovial prolixity enriched the american stage of the ' 's and ' 's. his "london assurance" is included in the present editor's collection of "representative british dramas: victorian and modern." of more historical significance than joseph jefferson's final version of "rip van winkle," are the two texts upon which boucicault and jefferson based their play. it has been possible to offer the reader a comparative arrangement of the john kerr and charles burke dramatizations. in the choice of steele mackaye's "paul kauvar; or, anarchy" a period is illustrated which might be described as transitional. executors of the augustin daly estate are not ready to allow any of daly's original plays or adaptations to be published. the consequence is "paul kauvar" must stand representative of the eighteen-eighty fervour of lester wallack, a.m. palmer, and daly, who were in the mackaye tradition. oliver bunce's "love in ' " has been selected for the same reason that one might select clyde fitch's revolutionary or civil war pieces--because of its bloodless character; because it is one of the rare parlour comedies of the period. of the new pieces, fitch's "the moth and the flame" has remained unpublished until now. it exemplifies many of his most sprightly observational qualities. "the truth" and "the girl with the green eyes" are more mature, but are no less fitchean than this. mr. david belasco's "the return of peter grimm" is as effective in the reading as it was on the stage under his triumphant management. mr. eugene walter's "the easiest way," at the last moment, was released from publication in the _drama league series of plays_; it still stands as america's most cruelly realistic treatment of certain city conditions. in the choice of mr. augustus thomas's "in mizzoura"--"the witching hour" having so often been used in dramatic collections--the editor believes he has represented this playwright at a time when his dramas were most racy and native. this third volume, therefore, brings examples of the present american stagecraft to date. had his policy of selection not been exclusive, but rather inclusive of plays easily accessible to the student, the editor might have reached out for mr. george c. hazelton's and mr. benrimo's "the yellow jacket," mr. charles kenyon's "kindling," and mr. a.e. thomas's "her husband's wife." he might likewise have included william vaughn moody's "the great divide." these are all representative plays by american dramatists for some future anthologist, when present editions become rare. but here are offered plays that will enrich the american dramatic library because of their rarity, and for that reason others have been excluded, which are easily procurable in print. through the courteous co-operation of dr. fred w. atkinson, professor brander matthews, officials of the new york public library, the library society of philadelphia, mr. robert gould shaw, custodian of the dramatic collection of harvard college library, and through the generous response of the owners of copyrights and manuscripts, the present volume is made possible. the editor, through every phase of his work, has had the unswerving encouragement and assistance of his wife. montrose j. moses. new hartford, conn. august, . bibliography of general works a large bibliography of standard works on the american theatre was given in volume i of the present collection. a very few of the titles have been repeated here, with the additional inclusion of books which will present the essential spirit of modern american playwriting. some of these works mentioned contain further bibliographies, and these will enable the student to go as far in the field as desired. there are still unblazed trails for the research worker, but these trails are becoming fewer and fewer, as interest in the study of american drama as a social and artistic force progresses. atkinson, f.w. american plays. private catalogue. brooklyn, n.y. baker, george pierce. dramatic technique. boston: houghton. . burton, richard. the new american drama. new york: crowell. . chandler, frank w. aspects of modern drama. new york: macmillan. cheney, sheldon. the art theatre. new york: knopf. . cheney, sheldon. the new movement in the theatre. new york: kennerley. . cheney, sheldon. the out-of-door theatre. new york: kennerley. . crawford, mary c. the romance of the american theatre. boston: little, brown. . daly, joseph francis. life of augustin daly. new york: macmillan. . dickinson, thomas h. the case of the american drama. boston: houghton. . dickinson, thomas h. chief contemporary dramatists. boston: houghton. . hamilton, clayton. problems of the playwright. new york: holt. . hamilton, clayton. studies in stagecraft. new york: holt. . hamilton, clayton. the theory of the theatre. new york: holt. . henderson, archibald. the changing drama. new york: holt. . hornblow, arthur. a history of the theatre in america. vols. philadelphia: lippincott. . (the files of the _theatre magazine_ are invaluable as a record of current stage events. mr. hornblow has been the editor of this magazine for many years, from its beginning.) hutton, laurence. curiosities of the american stage. new york: harper. . ireland, joseph n. records of the new york stage from - . vols. . krows, arthur e. play production in america. new york: holt. . mackay, constance d. the little theatre in the united states. new york: holt. . (see also thomas h. dickinson's book on the same subject.) mackaye, percy. the civic theatre. new york: kennerley. . mackaye, percy. the playhouse and the play. new york: macmillan. . moderwell, hiram k. the theatre of to-day. new york: lane. . moses, montrose j. the american dramatist. boston: little, brown. . moses, montrose j. famous actor-families in america. new york: crowell. (o.p.) moses, montrose j. the drama ( - ). see the cambridge history of american literature. volume iii, chapter xviii. also comprehensive bibliography. nathan, george jean. another book of the theatre. new york: huebsch. . nathan, george jean. the popular theatre. new york: knopf. . pence, james harry. the magazine and the drama. new york: dunlap society. . phelps, william lyon. the twentieth century theatre. new york: macmillan. . pollock, channing. the footlights fore and aft. boston: badger. . quinn, a.h. representative american plays. new york: century. . reed, perley i. the realistic presentation of american characters in native american plays prior to eighteen seventy. ohio state university bulletin. vol. , no. , may, . roden, robert f. later american plays. new york: dunlap society. . rolland, romain. the people's theatre. new york: holt. . (giving the principles which are spreading and forming a democratic conception of the theatre.) ruhl, arthur. second nights. new york: scribner. . shipman, louis e. the true adventures of a play. new york: kennerley. . individual bibliographies for plays [transcriber's note: em-dashes connecting items have been replaced with new lines for readability.] rip van winkle dion boucicault. "dramatization of rip van winkle." _critic_ (new york), no. , vol. , pp. - , april , . brown, t. allston. "history of the new york stage," vols. new york: dodd, mead. . h. c. bunner. on jefferson's rip. see matthews and hutton: "actors and actresses in great britain and the united states." vols. . j.b. clapp and e.f. edgett. "plays of the present." new york: dunlap society, . george william curtis. on jefferson's rip. _harper's magazine_, march, . l. clarke davis. "among the comedians." _atlantic monthly_, : - , june, . l. clarke davis. "at and after the play." _lippincott_, july, . durang. "history of the philadelphia stage." published in the philadelphia _dispatch. the galaxy_, february, . on hackett's rip. _harper's magazine_, : . the legend of rip van winkle. laurence hutton. "curiosities of the american stage." new york: harper, . laurence hutton. "plays and players." new york: hurd & houghton. . joseph jefferson. "autobiography." new york: century. . jefferson's version of "rip." new york: dodd, mead. . jefferson, intimate recollections of (by eugenie paul jefferson). new york: dodd, mead. . jefferson's rip is detailed in the following magazines: _ev. sat_., : , . _radical_ (s. johnson), : . _nation_ (a. g. sedgwick), : . _atlantic monthly_ (l. c. davis), : . _appleton_, : . _scribner_, : , december, . _harper_, : , april, . _atlantic monthly_, : . "the original of rip van winkle." _lon. m_., : . n. m. ludlow. "dramatic life as i found it." st. louis: g. i. jones & co. . brander matthews. on jefferson's rip. _scribner_. july, . brander matthews. "these many years." new york: scribner. . henry morley. journal of a london playgoer. september , . montrose j. moses. "famous actor-families in america." chapters and bibliographies under hackett, jefferson, boucicault. new york: crowell. . (o.p.) h.p. phelps. "players of a century." albany, . sol. f. smith. "theatrical management in the west and south for thirty years." new york: harper. . j. b. thompson, d.d. "the genesis of the rip van winkle legend." _old ulster_. kingston, n.y. . vol. : - . eugene tompkins and quincy kilby. "history of the boston theatre." boston: houghton mifflin. . j. rankin towse. on jefferson's rip. _century_, january, . j. rankin towse. "sixty years of the theatre." new york: funk & wagnalls. . j.h. wainwright. rip van winkle. libretto. lacy acting edition. vol. . walsh (t.). dion boucicault the career of. new york: dunlap society, . f.c. wemyss. "twenty-six years of the life of an actor and manager." new york: burgess, stringer & co. . on hackett's rip. francis wilson. "joseph jefferson: reminiscences of a fellow player." new york: scribner. . william winter. "the life of david belasco." vols. new york: moffat, yard & co. . william winter. the jeffersons. boston: j.r. osgood & co. . (see also the macmillan life of jefferson, by winter. .) william winter. "other days." new york: moffat, yard. . william winter. "the wallet of time." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . (besides the rip references, see also j.t. raymond and living's "wolfert's roost.") george henry boker general references for boker, see allibone, lamb's biographical dictionary, appleton's cyclopedia of american biography, national cyclopedia of american biography, warner's library of the world's best literature. lawrence barrett, a professional sketch of. by elwyn a. barren. chicago: knight & leonard co. . (for a review of barrett's opening in "francesca," philadelphia, see telegraphic report in the new york _tribune_, september , , p. .) alfred bates. drama. vol. xx. p. . biographical encyclopedia of pennsylvanians of the nineteenth century. philadelphia: galaxy publishing co. . p. . magazine references to boker: _atlantic monthly_, : , march, . _book buyer_, , . _critic_, january , ; april , ; , : . _harper's monthly_, , : . _harper's weekly_, , : ; , : . _sewanee review_ (j.w. krutch), october, , : - . biographic du très honorable georges h. boker. ministre des etats unis amérique auprès de la sublime porte. _l'orient illustré journal hebdomadaire_, constantinople, aug., . reception tendered by the members of the union league of philadelphia to george h. boker, minister of the united states to turkey, friday evening, december , . philadelphia: . cambridge history of american literature. new york: putnam. . : . bibliography. century association: bryant festival. . . j. b. clapp and e. f. edgett. "plays of the present." new york: dunlap society. . e. l. davenport. a biography, by e. f. edgett. new york: dunlap society. . (a complete bibliography of davenport is in moses' "famous actor-families in america.") duyckinck, e. a. and g. l. "cyclopedia of american literature." philadelphia: william rutter & co. . vols. : . knickerbocker gallery. . p. . charles godfrey leland. a biography. by elizabeth robins pennell. vols. boston: houghton mifflin. charles godfrey leland. memoirs. vols. london: heinemann. . charles godfrey leland. reminiscences of george h. boker. _the american_, , march . : - . charles godfrey leland. _sartain's magazine_, , : - . george parsons lathrop. george h. boker. authors at home. xxvii. _critic_. n.s. vol. , april , . morris. "makers of philadelphia." p. . oberholtzer. "literary history of philadelphia." quinn, a. h. "the dramas of george henry boker." _pub. of modern language association of america_. vol. , no. , n.s., vol. xxv, june, , pp. - . t. buchanan read, a memoir of. philadelphia, . augustus c. rogers. "sketches of our representatives abroad." henry simpson. "lives of eminent philadelphians." philadelphia: william brotherhead. . charles s. boker. by joseph r. chandler. (with portrait.) pp. - . edmund clarence stedman. life and letters of. edited by laura stedman and george m. gould. new york: moffat, yard. . vols. edmund clarence stedman. "poets of america." boston: houghton. . edmund clarence stedman. "an american anthology." boston: houghton. . e. c. stedman and ella m. hutchinson. "a library of american literature." new york: c. l. webster & co. . : - . richard henry stoddard. "recollections personal and literary." edited by ripley hitchcock. introduction by edmund clarence stedman. new york: barnes. . richard henry stoddard. recollections of george henry boker. _lippincott_, june, , : - . bayard taylor, life and letters of. edited by marie hansen-taylor and horace e. scudder. vols. boston: houghton. . w. p. trent. "william gilmore simms." boston: houghton. . william winter. "the wallet of time." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . oliver bell bunce appleton's cyclopedia of american biography. appleton's annual cyclopedia. . t. allston brown. "history of the new york stage." new york: dodd, mead. . vols. articles about bunce in the magazines: _critic_, may , ; : . _literary world_ (boston), : . articles by bunce: "the players." _appleton's journal_, april , . "some of our actors." _the galaxy_. : . "ellen tree." see editor's table, _appleton's journal_, october, . for notices of "love in ' " see the advertisement in the new york _tribune_, february , , and see also the new york _herald_, march , . w. p. eaton. "the american stage of to-day." boston: small, maynard. . pp. - . "where is our drama of ' ?" laurence hutton. "curiosities of the american stage." new york: harper. . lamb. biographical dictionary of the united states. steele mackaye percy mackaye. "steele mackaye, dynamic artist of the american theatre." _the drama_, november, , pp. - ; february, , pp. - . (notices of mackaye's "paul kauvar" in the new york _tribune_ for december , , and other new york papers for the same date. mr. percy mackaye has in preparation a life of his father.) montrose j. moses. "the american dramatist." boston: little, brown. . chapter viii. william winter. "life of david belasco." new york: moffat, yard. . vols. consult indexes. bronson howard william archer, "english dramatists of to-day." london: sampson low, marston, searle, & rivington. . chapter on howard. johnson briscoe. "the pioneer american dramatist." _green book_, : - . may, . j. b. clapp and e. f. edgett. "plays of the present." new york: dunlap society. . barrett h. clark. "the british and american drama of to-day." new york: holt . howard, with bibliography, pp. - . eleanor eustace. "drama in war time." _green book album_. : - . james l. ford. "the banker's daughter." _munsey_, : , . daniel frohman and i. marcosson. charles frohman, a biography. manager and man. new york: harper. . chapter vi. daniel frohman. "memories of a manager." new york: doubleday, page. . articles by bronson howard: "the american drama." _sunday magazine_, october , , reproduced in this volume. "the autobiography of a play." with an introduction by augustus thomas. _dramatic museum of columbia university_. new york, . papers on play-making. ii. series i. (this is also reprinted in the memorial volume mentioned below.) "the literary value of mediocrity." (in the memorial volume, see howard's address: "trash on the stage and the lost dramatists of america." p. .) "in memoriam:" addresses delivered at the memorial meeting, sunday, october , , at the lyceum theatre, new york. new york, . "dry ink." _dramatic mirror_. christmas, . : . "schools for the stage." _century_, : - . _bookman_, : ("the work of bronson howard"). _century magazine_, - ("the plays of bronson howard"). hamilton wright mabie. "american plays old and new." _outlook_. december , . pp. - . brander matthews. bronson howard. _north american review_. , : - . (this essay is also in "gateways to literature.") new york: scribner. . pp. - . brander matthews. "these many years." new york: scribner. . clara morris. "life on the stage." (see chapter on "saratoga"), new york: mcclure, phillips. . montrose j. moses. "the american dramatist." boston: little, brown. . chapter v. (a notice of "shenandoah" is in the new york _tribune_, september , .) t. edgar pemberton. "sir charles wyndham." london, . j. rankin towse. bronson howard. _book buyer_, march, . : - . william winter. "the life of david belasco." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . consult indexes for references to howard. augustus thomas barrett h. clark. "the british and american drama of to-day." new york: holt. . thomas, with bibliography. montrose j. moses. "the american dramatist." boston: little, brown. . chapter ix. walter p. eaton. "at the new theatre and others." boston: small, maynard. . "mr. thomas's new birth." ("the harvest moon.") pp. - . walter p. eaton. "plays and players." cincinnati: stewart & kidd. . "as augustus thomas thinks." pp. - . walter p. eaton. "the american stage of to-day." boston: small, maynard. . "the witching hour." frederick m. smith. "mr. augustus thomas and some of his works." _sewanee review_. april, . xv: - . william winter. "the wallet of time." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . "the plays of augustus thomas." : - . mr. thomas wrote the introduction to bronson howard's "autobiography of a play." see also his introductions to the edition of his plays issued by messrs. samuel french. a political article, "the claims of the candidates," lauding w. j. bryan, was written by mr. thomas, and published in the _north american review_, june, , : - . clyde fitch archie bell. "the clyde fitch i knew." new york: broadway publishing co. . bibliography of clyde fitch. "modern drama and opera." vol. ii. boston: the boston book co. . pp. - . (notices of "the moth and the flame" are in the new york _times_, april , and april , . e. a. dithmar.) martin birnbaum. critical appreciation. _independent_, : - . barrett h. clark. "the british and american drama of to-day." new york: holt. . fitch, with bibliography. walter p. eaton. "at the new theatre." boston: small, maynard. . "the case of clyde fitch." pp. - . this was also published in _scribner's_, : - . norman hapgood. "the stage in america. - ." new york: the macmillan co. . (references to fitch, howard, and thomas.) montrose j. moses. "the american dramatist." boston: little, brown. . chapter x and bibliography. clement scott. "drama of yesterday and to-day." new york: the macmillan co. . vols. l.c. strang. "plays and players of the last quarter century." for the "beau brummell" dispute, both sides, see the biographies of richard mansfield, by paul wilstach and william winter. a memorial edition of "the plays of clyde fitch," edited by montrose j. moses and virginia gerson, vols., has been issued by little, brown & co. boston. . langdon mitchell william archer. "the new york idea." london _tribune_, may , . j. b. clapp and e. f. edgett. "plays of the present." new york: dunlap society. . (reference to "becky sharp.") norman hapgood. "the stage in america. - ." new york: the macmillan co. . joyce kilmer. langdon mitchell, interview with. new york _times_, february , . william winter. "the wallet of time." new york: moffat, yard. . vols. "the acting of mrs. fiske." eugene walter barrett h. clark. "the british and american drama of to-day." new york: holt. . with bibliography. denig, l. "vicissitudes of a playwright." _theatre_, : , may, . "the easiest way" (excerpts). _current literature_, : - . "the easiest way." _dramatist_, : , july, . walter p. eaton. "at the new theatre and others." boston: small, maynard. . pp. - . walter p. eaton. "the american stage of to-day." ("paid in full.") boston: small, maynard. . pp. - . walter p. eaton. "plays of eugene walter." _american magazine_, november, , : - . ada patterson. interview with eugene walter. _theatre_, october, . : - . peirce, francis lament. "eugene walter: an american dramatic realist." _drama_, february, . vol. . eugene walter. sketch of. _green book album_, january, , : - . william winter. "the life of david belasco." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . references in the indexes to "the easiest way," "just a wife." william winter. "the wallet of time." vols. new york: moffat, yard. . : ; - . for contemporary criticism on walter consult the dramatic index, and the indexes of the new york _tribune_ and _times_. david belasco such articles by mr. belasco as "the business of theatrical management," philadelphia _saturday evening post_, june , , may be found by consulting the dramatic index. they are more or less amplified expressions of opinion which were dwelt upon in his extended reminiscences, written for _hearst's magazine_, beginning march, . constant references to mr. belasco are to be found in winter's "wallet of time." but the monumental "life of david belasco," vols., by winter, will give all the biographical data necessary for the student to have. it is issued by moffat, yard, new york, . consult likewise montrose j. moses' "the american dramatist." chapter vii. boston: little, brown. . see also walter p. eaton's "plays and players." cincinnati: stewart & kidd. . "warfield in the spirit world," pp. - . "belasco and hypnotism" (locke's "the case of becky"), pp. - . the authors and their plays rip van winkle the details are given specifically in the introduction to the play, where the different dramatizations are discussed. george henry boker born, philadelphia, pa., october , . died, philadelphia, january , . author of the following plays, with their dates of first production, or when written: "calaynos" (london: sadler's wells theatre, may , ) (philadelphia: walnut street theatre, january , ); "anne boleyn" ( ); "the betrothal" (philadelphia: walnut street theatre, september , ) (new york: broadway theatre, november , ); "all the world a mask" (philadelphia: walnut street theatre, april , ); "the podesta's daughter" ( ); "the widow's marriage" ( ); "leonor de guzman" (philadelphia: walnut street theatre, october , ) (new york: broadway theatre, april , ); "francesca da rimini" (new york: broadway theatre, september , ); "the bankrupt" (ms. ); "königsmark" ( , ); "nydia" ( ); "glaucus" ( ), based on bulwer-lytton. oliver bell bunce the details are given specifically in the introduction to "love in ' ". steele mackaye born, buffalo, new york, june , . died, timpas, colorado, on board train, february , . author of the following plays, with their dates of first production: "monaldi" (new york: st. james theatre, january , ), in collaboration with francis durivage; "marriage," adapted from the french of feuillet (new york: st. james theatre, february , ); "a radical fool," written in london ( - ); "arkwright's wife," in collaboration with tom taylor (leeds, england: theatre royal, july , ); "silas marner," a dramatization of george eliot's novel, written in london ( ); "jealousy," with charles reade, written in london ( - ); "rose michel," based on a french play, in its turn based on victor hugo (new york: union square theatre, november , ); "queen and woman," in collaboration with j. v. pritchard (brooklyn, n. y.: theatre, february , ); "twins," in collaboration with a. c. wheeler (new york: wallack's theatre, april , ); "won at last" (new york: wallack's theatre, december , ); "through the dark" (new york: fifth avenue theatre, march , ); "an iron will" (providence, r. i., low's opera house, october , ); "hazel kirke" (new york: madison square theatre, february , ); "a fool's errand," dramatization from a novel by judge tourgee (philadelphia: arch street theatre, october , ); "dakolar," based on georges ohnet's "le maitre de forges" (new york: lyceum theatre, april , ); "in spite of all," founded on sardou (new york: lyceum theatre, september , ); "rienzi," based on bulwer-lytton's novel (washington: albaugh's opera house, december , ; new york production, niblo's garden, may , ); "the drama of civilization," a pageant (new york: madison square garden, november , ); "anarchy" (buffalo, n. y.: academy of music, may , ); "paul kauvar; or, anarchy" (new york: standard theatre, december , ); "a noble rogue" (chicago: opera house, july , ); "an arrant knave" (chicago: opera house, september , ); "colonel tom" (boston: tremont theatre, january , ); "money mad" (new york: standard theatre, april , ); "cousin larry," written in ; "the world finder," a spectatorio (chicago; spectatorium, , world's fair). bronson howard born, detroit, michigan, october , . died, avon-by-the-sea, new jersey, august , . author of the following plays, with their dates of first production: "fantine" (detroit, mich., ); "saratoga" (new york: fifth avenue theatre, december , ); "diamonds" (new york: fifth avenue theatre, september , ); "moorcroft; or, the double wedding" (new york: fifth avenue theatre, october , ); "lilian's last love" (chicago: hooley's theatre, september , ); "hurricanes" (chicago: hooley's theatre, may , ); "old love letters" (new york: park theatre, august , ); "the banker's daughter," being a revision of "lilian's last love" (new york: union square theatre, september , ); "wives," being an adaptation from molière (new york: daly's theatre, october , ); "fun in the green-room" (new york: booth's theatre, april , ); "the young mrs. winthrop" (new york: madison square theatre, october , ); "one of our girls" (new york: lyceum theatre, november , ); "met by chance" (new york: lyceum theatre, january , ); "the henrietta" (new york: union square theatre, september , ); "baron rudolph," first named "rudolph von hallenstein" (new york: fourteenth street theatre, october , ); "shenandoah" (new york: star theatre, september , ); "aristocracy" (new york: palmer's theatre, november , ); "peter stuyvesant," in collaboration with brander matthews (new york: wallack's theatre, october , ). plays that have never been acted are: "knave & queen," in collaboration with sir charles young, and "kate," issued, , in book form by harper & brothers. augustus thomas born, st. louis, mo., january , . author of the following plays, with their dates of first production: "editha's burglar," with mrs. f. h. burnett (st. louis: pope's theatre, july , ); "the burglar" (boston: park theatre, june, ); "a man of the world" (new york: madison square theatre, october , ); "afterthoughts" (new york: madison square theatre, november , ); "reckless temple" (new york: standard theatre, october , ); "alabama" (new york: madison square theatre, april , ); "colonel carter of cartersville," from the novel by f. hopkinson smith (new york: palmer's theatre, march , ); "holly-tree inn" (new york: union square theatre, april , ); "in mizzoura" (chicago: hooley's theatre, august, ); "new blood" (new york: palmer's theatre, september , ; previously in chicago); "the man upstairs" (new york: hoyt's theatre, april , ); "the capitol" (new york: standard theatre, september , ); "that overcoat" ( ); "the hoosier doctor" (new york: fourteenth street theatre, april , ); "the meddler" (new york: wallack's theatre, september , ); "arizona" (chicago: grand opera house, june , ); "oliver goldsmith" (new york: fifth avenue theatre, march , ); "on the quiet" (new york: hoyt's theatre, february , ); "colorado" (new york: palmer's theatre, january , ); "soldiers of fortune," from the novel by richard harding davis (new york: savoy theatre, march , ); "the earl of pawtucket" (new york: madison square theatre, february , ); "the other girl" (new york: criterion theatre, december , ); "mrs. leffingwell's boots" (new york: savoy theatre, january , ); "the education of mr. pipp," from pictures by charles dana gibson, (new york: liberty theatre, february , ); "delancey" (new york: empire theatre, september , ); "the embassy ball" (new york: daly's theatre, march , ); "the ranger" (new york: wallack's theatre, september , ); "the witching hour" (new york: hackett's theatre, november , ); "the harvest moon" (new york: garrick theatre, october , ); "the member from ozark" (detroit, mich., opera house, ); "as a man thinks" (new york: th street theatre, march , ); "the model" (new york: harris theatre, august , ); "mere man" (new york: harris theatre, november , ); "indian summer" (new york: criterion theatre, october , ); "rio grande" (new york: empire theatre, april , ); "the copperhead" (hartford, conn., january , ); "palmy days" (new york: the playhouse, october , ); "under the bough," previously called "the blue devil" and "speak of the devil" (boston: colonial theatre, may , ). other plays credited to mr. thomas are: "a leaf from the woods," one act (st. louis: pope's theatre, ); "a new year's call," one act (st. louis: pope's theatre, ); "a night's frolic" (new york: herald square theatre, ); "a proper impropriety," one act (new york: union square theatre, ); "alone" (st. louis: pickwick theatre, ); "chimmie fadden," from the book of e. w. townsend (new york: palmer's theatre, ); "combustion" (st. louis: pope's theatre, ); "for money" (new york: star theatre, ); "love will find the way," written for amateurs; "the big rise" (st. louis: pope's theatre, ); "the dress suit," written for amateurs only; "the jucklins" (on the road, ); "the music box," written for amateurs only. clyde fitch born, elmira, new york, may , . died at chalôns-sur-marne, september , . author of the following plays, with their dates of first production: "beau brummell" (new york: madison square theatre, may , ); "frédéric lemaître" (new york: daly's theatre, december , ); "betty's finish" (boston museum, december , ); "pamela's prodigy" (london: royal court theatre, october , ); "a modern match" (new york: union square theatre, march , . later played by the kendalsas "marriage"); "the masked ball," from the french of bisson (new york: palmer's theatre, october , ); "the harvest," afterwards used in "the moth and the flame" (theatre of arts and letters, new york: fifth avenue theatre, january , ); "april weather" (chicago: opera house, may , ); "a shattered idol," from the french of balzac, "old goriot" (st. paul, minn.: globe theatre, july , ); "the social swim," adapted from the french of sardou (new york: harlem opera house, september , ); "an american duchess," from the french of lavadan (new york: lyceum theatre, november , ); "mrs. grundy, jun.," from the french, ( ); "gossip," from the french of claretie, in collaboration with leo ditrichstein (new york: palmer's theatre, march , ); "his grace de grammont" (brooklyn: park theatre, september , ); "mistress betty" (new york: garrick theatre, october , ); "bohemia," from the french (new york: empire theatre, march , ); "the liar," from the french of bisson (new york: hoyt's theatre, september , ); "a superfluous husband," adapted from the german, with leo ditrichstein (new york: miner's fifth avenue theatre, january , ); "the moth and the flame" (new york: lyceum theatre, april , ); "the head of the family," adapted from the german, with leo ditrichstein (new york: knickerbocker theatre, december , ); "nathan hale" (new york: knickerbocker theatre, january , , having been given in chicago the previous january); "barbara frietchie" (new york: criterion theatre, october , ); "the cowboy and the lady" (new york: knickerbocker theatre, december , ); "sapho," from the french of daudet (new york: wallack's theatre, february , ); "the climbers" (new york: bijou theatre, january , ); "lovers' lane" (new york: manhattan theatre, february , ); "captain jinks of the horse marines" (new york: garrick theatre, february , ); "the last of the dandies" (london, october , ); "the way of the world" (new york: hammerstein's victoria, november , ); "the girl and the judge" (new york: lyceum theatre, december , ); "the stubbornness of geraldine" (new york: garrick theatre, november , ); "the girl with the green eyes" (new york: savoy theatre, december , ); "the bird in the cage" (new york: bijou theatre, january , ); "her own way" (new york: garrick theatre, september , ); "algy" (chicago: garrick theatre, october , ); "major andré" (new york: savoy theatre, november , ); "glad of it" (new york: savoy theatre, december , ); "the frisky mrs. johnson" (new york: garrick theatre, may , ); "the coronet of a duchess" (new york: garrick theatre, september , ); "granny" (new york: lyceum theatre, october , ); "cousin billy," adapted from the french (new york: criterion theatre, january , ); "the woman in the case" (new york: herald square theatre, january , ); "her great match" (new york: criterion theatre, september , ); "wolfville," a dramatization of a novel by alfred henry lewis, the play in collaboration with willis steell, (philadelphia, october , ); "the toast of the town," a re-writing of "mistress betty" (new york: daly's theatre, november , ); "toddles," from the french (new york: garrick theatre, march , ); "the house of mirth," a dramatization of mrs. edith wharton's novel (new york: savoy theatre, october , ); "the girl who has everything" (new york: liberty theatre, december , ); "the truth" (new york: criterion theatre, january , ; london: comedy theatre, april , ); "the straight road" (new york: astor theatre, january , ); "her sister," in collaboration with cosmo gordon-lennox (new york: hudson theatre, december , ); "toddles" (new york: garrick theatre, march , ); "girls" (new york: daly's theatre, march , ); "the blue mouse," adapted from the german (new york: lyric theatre, november , ); "the bachelor" (new york: maxine elliott theatre, march , ); "a happy marriage" (new york: garrick theatre, april , ); "the city" (new york: lyric theatre, december , ). langdon mitchell born, philadelphia, february , . the details are given specifically in the introduction to the play. eugene walter born, cleveland, ohio, november , . author of the following plays, with their dates of production: "sergeant james" (boston theatre, ; later called "boots and saddles," ); "the undertow" (new york: harlem opera house, april , ); "paid in full" (new york: astor theatre, february , ); "the wolf" (new york: bijou theatre, april , ); "the easiest way" (new york: belasco theatre, january , ); "just a wife" (new york: belasco theatre, january , ); "the trail of the lonesome pine," being a dramatization of john fox's novel (new york: new amsterdam theatre, january , ); "fine feathers" (new york: astor theatre, january , ); "the knife" (new york: bijou theatre, april , ); "the heritage," called also "the assassin" (new york: the playhouse, january , ); "nancy lee" (new york: hudson theatre, april , ); "the challenge" (season of - ). david belasco born, san francisco, cal., july , . a complete chronology of mr. belasco's plays is to be found in the winter biography. here are only listed those plays written after his arrival in new york. the list does not include the plays presented by him merely in the capacity as manager. "may blossom" (new york: madison square theatre, april , ); "valerie," from sardou (new york: wallack's theatre, february , ); "baron rudolph," with bronson howard (new york: fourteenth street theatre, october , ); "the wife," with henry demille (new york: lyceum theatre, november i, ); "lord chumley," with henry demille (new york: lyceum theatre, august , ); "the charity ball," with henry demille (new york: lyceum theatre, november , ); "men and women," with henry demille (new york: proctor's rd street theatre, october , ); "miss helyett," from the french (new york: star theatre, november , ); "the girl i left behind me," with franklyn fyles (new york: empire theatre, january , ); "the younger son," from the german (new york: empire theatre, october , ); "the heart of maryland" (new york: herald square theatre, october , ); "zaza," from the french of berton and simon (new york: garrick theatre, january , ); "naughty anthony" (new york: herald square theatre, january , ); "madame butterfly," from the novel by john luther long (new york: herald square theatre, march , ); "du barry" (new york: criterion theatre, december , ); "the darling of the gods" (new york: belasco theatre, now the republic, december , ); "sweet kitty bellairs," from a novel by the edgertons (new york: belasco theatre, now the republic, december , ); "adrea," with john luther long (belasco theatre, new york, now the republic, january , ); "the girl of the golden west" (new york: belasco theatre, now the republic, november , ); "the rose of the rancho," with richard walton tully (new york: belasco theatre, now the republic, november , ); "a grand army man," in collaboration (new york: stuyvesant theatre, now the belasco, october , ); "the lily," from the french of wolff and leroux (new york: stuyvesant theatre, now the belasco, december , ); "the return of peter grimm" (new york: belasco theatre, january , ); "the secret," from the french of henry bernstein (new york: belasco theatre, december , ); "van der decken" (wilmington, del.: the playhouse, december , .) this list represents only a small part of mr. belasco's activities. [illustration: =william dunlap= from the painting by charles c. ingham] early american plays - a compilation of the titles of plays and dramatic poems written by authors born in or residing in north america previous to . by oscar wegelin compiler of "early american poetry." [illustration] second edition revised new york the literary collector press the edition of this work is limited to two hundred numbered copies no. copyright, , by oscar wegelin. _to_ evert jansen wendell, esq. foremost among american collectors of dramatic literature, i dedicate this book preface in his ably written introduction to the first edition of this work, mr. john malone makes the following statement: "it may be set down as a safe rule of judgment as to dramatic quality that the plays which were printed were fit for no more than the use to which an indulgent providence and the dunlap society have dedicated them--to serve as examples of the good-will and sympathy with which a few great and good men in the days of our country's fiery trial held out their helping hands to the gentle art of drama." this statement, with a possible exception or two, is in the main correct. few of the plays which are here catalogued have survived because of their literary excellence. we, however, must not look at the contents of this book from this view-point, but rather from the historical. poorly written as many of the plays may be, they still possess to the student of american history an interest which far exceeds that of every other class of writing, the purely historical excepted. the _first_ play written by a resident of what is now the united states was _androboros_ (the man-hater) written by robert hunter, colonial governor of new york, assisted by lewis morris. this play, or rather dramatic satire, was written to ridicule sundry residents of that colony, principally dr. vesey and several members of trinity church. this play, which was issued in , was not followed by another dramatic production, as far as known, until _the suspected daughter_, a farce by "t. t.," was printed at boston in . who "t. t." was is not known, nor can i trace a copy of the play. little of importance came to light previous to the revolution, but that event, stirring as it was, seems to have been a stimulant to native ambition, and a number of dramatic productions were written and printed. among these may be mentioned _the battle of bunker hill_ and _the death of montgomery_ by brackenridge, then a schoolmaster; _the adulateur_ and _the group_ by mercy warren, afterwards well known as one of the foremost dames of the colonies; and several others, some from the royalist side, as sewell's _cure for the spleen_ and an anonymous production, _the battle of long island_. the second war with england was also celebrated by our early playwrights, as was the war with tripoli. the dramatic history of no country would be complete which did not celebrate the deeds and warlike exploits of its aboriginal inhabitants, and the american dramatist was not slow in recognizing the many-sided character of the north american indian. his wars, his fluent oratory, his virtues, are all told, the best of these efforts being embodied in stone's _metamora_, made famous by the acting of edwin forrest. but all of the dramatic productions which were written prior to did not relate to america, and a glance over the list will show many plays which take for their groundwork the french revolution, the napoleonic wars, the russian empire and its people, while love, that mysterious something which lays its finger upon all whether we will or no, is found, as in our fiction, in nearly all of them. what the dramatist, poet, and novelist would do without the help of the fickle goddess is an unsolvable problem. as will be seen by a glance at the contents of this volume, few of the plays were acted, nor were many of them intended for public entertainment. a large number were written to serve a purpose--political or otherwise--and when that had been attained, were forgotten, even by their authors. they show, however, what was and could be accomplished in this way, at a time when the average citizen had little time for aught but earnest, sober thought. when looked at from this view-point we must really wonder that as much remains as has been discovered. can any country besides ours show a better result--at least for quantity, if not for quality? among the interesting facts which will be discovered by a perusal of this list is that a number of the writers of early american plays were men who achieved success in other callings. thus we find among those who found time to interest themselves in the drama and the production of plays, the names of judge h. h. brackenridge, charles brockden browne, the first american novelist, edward hitchcock, president of amherst and foremost among the scientists of his era, david humphreys, revolutionary soldier and diplomat, john neal, the friend of poe, jas. g. percival, the poet, jas. k. paulding, coworker with irving, royall tyler, and samuel woodworth, author of _the old oaken bucket_. this edition is issued at the solicitation of a number of collectors and librarians, who were unable to obtain a copy of the first edition, which was issued for members of the dunlap society in . i have endeavored to make this list as complete as possible, and it has been to me a labor of the greatest interest. nothing that i have ever attempted in bibliographical work has given me more pleasure. numerous corrections will be found by comparison with the earlier edition, and upwards of sixty new titles are included, discovered since the issue of the earlier volume. errors will, of course, be discovered, but i ask indulgence in those who find them, for as all who are interested will readily admit, no bibliographical work was ever perfect. probably the most complete collection of early american plays, at this writing in the hands of a private collector, is that owned by evert jansen wendell, esq., of new york. several of the titles contained in this volume would be unknown to me at this time but for the kindness of mr. wendell, who has given me the opportunity to examine his collection. another good collection is owned by the brown university library, providence, r. i. oscar wegelin. early american plays anonymous titles a new scene interesting to the citizens of the united states of america, additional to the historical play of columbus. by a senator of the united states. [line from virgil] lately performed with applause at the new theatre, in philadelphia. printed by benj. franklin bache, no. market street. mdccxcviii. vo, pp. [ ], - . alfred the great. an historical tragedy, in five acts, by a young gentleman of this city. new york, . mo, pp. . americana; or, a new tale of the genii. being an allegorical mask in five acts. baltimore, . vo, pp. . dedicated to thomas jefferson. the battle of brooklyn. a farce in two acts, as it was performed on long island on tuesday, the th day of august, , by the representatives of the tyrants of america assembled at philadelphia. [ lines of poetry] new york: printed for j. rivington, in the year of the rebellion, . reprinted in brooklyn. vo, . the battle of eutaw springs. a drama in five acts. charleston [circa ] vo, pp. . a play with a similar title was written by w. ioor. the better sort; or, the girl of spirit. a farce. boston, . vo, pp. iv.- . the blockheads; or, the affrighted officers. a farce. bost., queen st., . mo, pp. [ ]. also, mo, pp. v.- . new york, . attributed to mrs. mercy warren. the blockheads; or, fortunate contractor. an opera in two acts. as it was performed at new york [during the revolution.] new york, printed; london, reprinted for g. kearsley. . plates, vo, pp. v.- . blow for blow. a tragedy. baltimore, . catharine brown, the converted cherokee. a missionary drama, founded on fact. by a lady. new haven, . mo, pp. . charles the twelfth; or, the battle of pultowa. a military tragic piece; in four acts. by the author. printed and published at new york, . mo, pp. . columbia and britannia. a dramatic piece, by a citizen of the united states. new london: printed by t. green, . vo, pp. . among the characters in this play are fabius (washington) and perjuris (arnold). mckee copy dated . dramatic pieces calculated to exemplify the mode of conduct which will render young ladies both amiable and happy, when their school education is completed. in three volumes. new haven: printed by abel morse. . mo. the prefaces to these works are signed p. i. contents. vol. . the good mother-in-law, the good daughter-in-law. vol. . the reformation, the maternal sister: a drama in three acts. vol. . the triumph of reason, the contrast. each piece is paged separately. * * * * * the blockheads: or, the affrighted officers. a farce. boston: printed in queen-street. m,dcc,lxxvi. * * * * * essex junto, or quixotic guardian: a comedy, by a citizen of massachusetts. salem, . mo, pp. . an exercise, containing a dialogue and two odes. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, november , . philadelphia: printed by william goddard. [ ] to, pp. . the dialogue was written by thomas coombe. an exercise; containing a dialogue and two odes. set to music, for the public commencement, in the college of philadelphia, may th, . philadelphia: printed by joseph cruikshank, . vo, pp. . an exercise containing a dialogue and two odes. set to music. philadelphia: . sm. vo. the fatal effects of seduction. a tragedy. written for the use of the students of clio hall, in bennington, to be acted on their quarter day, april , . founded on the story of an unhappy young lady of boston. by a friend to literature. [motto] bennington: printed by haswell & russell. . federalism triumphant in the steady habits of connecticut alone; or, the turnpike road to a fortune. a comic opera, or political farce in six acts, as performed at the theatres royal and aristocratic at hartford and new haven, october, . n. p. printed in the year . vo, pp. . the female enthusiast. a tragedy in five acts, by a lady. charleston, j. hoff, . mo, pp. . the french revolution; including a story, founded in fact, of leontine and matilda. a drama. written and exhibited in the united fraternity, at dartmouth, ; exhibited also at windsor, vermont, may, . printed at new bedford, massachusetts, by john spooner, . vo, pp. . heaven on earth, or the new lights of harmony. an extravaganza in two acts, by peter puffem. philadelphia: . mo, pp. . the hero of two wars. a drama in five acts. published in _truth's advocate and monthly anti-jackson expositor_ from march to october, . signed "w." indoctum parliamentum. a farce, in one act, and a beautiful variety of scenes. n. p. [ .] mo, pp. . refers to a law enacted by the legislature of new york, on the petition of eunice chapman, a shaker, to have the marriage contract between herself and husband dissolved. among the characters introduced are: "general radix" (erastus root), "his disorderly sergeant" (dr. sergeant), "lignum" (speaker wood), etc. the intolerants. three first acts of things among us; as performed at the ... with more effect than applause. philadelphia: . mo, pp. . is it a lie? a comic piece in one act. boston: . mo, pp. . the italian husband. a dramatic poem. this piece is part of a book entitled _lays of leisure, the italian husband, the young dreamer, a fugitive offering in verse_. philadelphia: jesper harding, . jefferson and liberty. a celebration of the th of march; a patriotic tragedy: a picture of corrupt administration, in five acts, written by nichols. n. p. sold at the printing office, temple street, . mo, pp. . "nichols" is probably a pseudonym. jonathan in england. a comedy. boston [circa .] mo, pp. . this play is a version of colman's _who wants a guinea?_ and was performed at the park theatre, new york, december , . the lover. a dramatic fragment. published on pp. - of _the witch of new england_. a romance. philadelphia. . mary of scotland; or, the heir of avenal. a drama in three acts. founded on scott's novel, _the abbot_. new york, . mo, pp. . the military glory of great britain. an entertainment given by the late candidates for bachelor's degree at the close of the anniversary commencement held in nassau hall, new jersey, september th, . philadelphia: printed by william bradford, . vo, pp. . the monthly assembly. a farce. boston, . vo. nature and philosophy. a drama adapted from the french, by a citizen of richmond. richmond, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, december , . another edition. new york, . mo, pp. . the new england drama. in five acts; founded on incidents contained in the new england tale. dedham, . mo, pp. . the night watch; or, the pirate's den. a melodrama by a gentleman of boston. boston, . mo, pp. . occurrences of the times; or, the transactions of four days. a farce. boston, . mo, pp. . the orphan. a play in five acts. see _the young carolinians_. the patriots. a comedy in five acts. philadelphia, n. d. published during the revolution. the paxton boys. a farce. translated from the original french, by a native of donegall. the second edition. philadelphia: printed and sold by anthony armbruster, . folding plate. sm. vo, pp. . philip; or, the aborigines. a drama. new york, . mo, pp. . the plan of a performance of solemn musick. to be in the hall of the college of philadelphia, on wednesday evening, april th, . for the benefit of the charity schools. n. p., n. d. vo, pp. . the power of christianity; or, abdallah and sabat. a poem by a lady. charleston, . mo, pp. [ ]. the prince and the patriot. a poem in three dialogues. published in _poems, moral and divine_, by an american gentleman. london, . pp. - . one of the earliest plays written by an american. sans souci, alias free and easy; or, an evening's peep into a polite circle. an intire new entertainment, in three acts. boston: printed by warden and russell, . vo, pp. . second edition. vo, boston, . saul. a dramatic sketch. this piece is probably by n. p. willis. it was published in the _american monthly magazine_ for june, . a scene in the first act of the new farce. published as a specimen. printed: in the first year of the new hegira secundus, the paxtonian expedition. [philadelphia]: printed by anthony armbruster, [ ]. sm. vo, pp. . the search after happiness: a pastoral drama: from the poetry of miss more. by a lady in connecticut. catskill, m. croswell & co., . mo, pp. [ ], . shepherdess of the alps. a play in four acts, by a citizen of new york. new york, . mo, pp. . the suicide. a dialogue exhibited on the stage at the public commencement of yale college, sept. th, m.dccxcvii. litchfield: t. collier. mo, pp. [ ], - . the sultana; or, a trip to turkey. a melodrama in three acts, founded on lord byron's _don juan_. new york, . mo, pp. . written by (----?) bailey. the suspected daughter; or, jealous father. a farce in three acts, both serious and comic, written by t. t. boston. . this is probably the first play written by a native american. mentioned in haven's list. sylla. a tragedy, in five acts, as represented at the theatre français, at paris, by e. jouy, member of the institute. translated from the french, by a citizen of new york. new york, . mo, pp. . same, new york: . mo, pp. . performed at the chatham theatre, . theodora. a dramatic sketch, in two acts. n. p., n. d. the traveller returned. published in _the gleaner_. boston, . tricks of the times; or, the world of quacks. a farce of domestic origin. new york, . mo. a satire on new yorkers of the day. two pages of frederick the great. a farce in three acts. new york, . mo. a tyrant's victims. a tragedy in five acts. see _the young carolinians_. virtue triumphant. a comedy. published in _the gleaner_. the young carolinians; or, americans in algiers. a play in five acts. this and two other plays were published in _essays, religious, moral, etc._, by a lady. charleston, . mo, pp. [ ], [ ] xerxes the great; or, the battle of thermopyle. a drama. philadelphia, . mo. ; or, the veteran and his progeny. boston, . mo, pp. . allen, adam the new gentle shepherd, a pastoral comedy. originally written in the scotch dialect, by allan ramsay, reduced to english by lieutenant adam allen. to which is added a description of the great falls of the river saint john in the province of new brunswick. london: printed for w. j. & j. richardson, ingram court, fenchurch street, . dedicated to the printer's devil. allen has added a third scene to the fourth act, also a song or two. barker, james nelson james nelson barker, born in philadelphia in , died , was originally in the army as a captain of artillery, and served in the war of . he was afterwards an alderman and then mayor of the city of philadelphia. he wrote a work called _sketches of the primitive settlements on the river delaware_, and was a contributor to the _atlantic souvenir_. the indian princess. an operatic melodrama. founded on an incident in smith's _virginia_. philadelphia, . mo, pp. iv.- . first acted in philadelphia, april , . reproduced at the park theatre, new york, june , . this is the story of pocahontas and captain john smith. tears and smiles. a comedy in five acts, performed at the theatre, philadelphia, march , . philadelphia, . mo, pp. . marmion; or, the battle of flodden field. a drama. new york, . mo, pp. vii.- . played at the park theatre, new york, april , . an adaptation of scott's _marmion_. when it was played at the park theatre, new york, from the prejudice then existing against american plays, it was announced as the production of an english author, thomas morton, "received with unbounded applause in london." it was enthusiastically received, and had a long lease of popularity. how to try a lover. a comedy. new york, . mo, pp. . superstition. a tragedy. philadelphia, [ ]. played in philadelphia, pa., . the travellers. philadelphia, . barrymore, william the snow storm; or, lowina of tobolskow. a melo dramatick romance. by william barrymore, esq. baltimore, . mo, pp. . barton, andrew (see colonel thomas forrest.) the disappointment; or, the force of credulity. a new american comic opera of two acts. new york, . mo, pp. . another edition, mo, pp. iv.- . philadelphia, . "air no. iv. is yankee doodle."--_sabin._ beach, l. jonathan postfree; or, the honest yankee. a musical farce in three acts. new york, . mo. bidwell, barnabas barnabas bidwell, born in tyringham (now monterey), mass., august , , died in kingston, canada, july , , was the second son of rev. adonijah bidwell. graduated from yale in , and was made ll.d. by brown university in . he settled in stockbridge, mass., in , and was successively treasurer of berkshire county, attorney-general of the state, and member of congress. his residence in canada resulted from his responsibility for some irregularity in his business as a banker. the mercenary match. a tragedy. new haven, meigs, bowen & dana. [ ]. mo, pp. . this piece was performed by students of yale college. botsford, mrs. the reign of reform; or, yankee doodle court. by a lady. baltimore: printed for the authoress, . mo, pp. . a dialogue, the characters personating distinguished individuals of the day. a continuation of the above. baltimore, . mo, pp. , [ ]. bray, john the toothache; or, mistakes of a morning. a petit comedy in one act. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . breck, charles charles breck, born in boston, mass., , died at amsterdam, holland, may, , was the third son of samuel breck, a wealthy merchant of boston, who was agent to the army and fleet of king louis xvi. after the french intervention in the american revolution. charles breck, while travelling in italy, met and became engaged to a very beautiful young lady of that country. he built in philadelphia, whither his father had removed from boston, a residence exactly like that of his betrothed. her sudden death, just before his arrival in europe to claim his bride, hastened his own. the fox chase. a comedy in five acts, as performed at the theatres, philadelphia and baltimore. new york, . mo, pp. . the trust. a comedy in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . brackenridge, hugh henry hugh henry brackenridge, born near campbelton, scotland, in , died in carlyle, pa., june , . he came with his parents to america, when only five years of age, was graduated from princeton in , and continued as a tutor in that college. he next studied divinity, and took charge of an academy in maryland; was editor of _the united states magazine_ in philadelphia in , and a chaplain in the american army in the war of the revolution. he afterwards studied law under samuel chase. in he crossed the alleghanies, established himself at pittsburg, took an active part in the whiskey insurrection, and after that affair was over took pains to vindicate his conduct by the publication of _incidents of the insurrection in the western parts of pennsylvania_. he was afterwards judge of the supreme court of pennsylvania. the battle of bunker hill. a dramatic piece of five acts, in heroic measure; by a gentleman of maryland. pulchrumque mori succurrit in armis.--virgil. 'tis glorious to die in battle. philadelphia: printed and sold by robert bell, in third street, . frontispiece. vo, pp. [ ], - , [ ]. this play was recited by brackenridge's pupils in . it was dedicated to robt. stockton. the principal characters are well-known officers in the american and british armies. the death of general montgomery, at the siege of quebec. a tragedy, with an ode in honor of the pennsylvania militia, and the small band of regular continental troops who sustained the campaign in the depth of winter, january, , and repulsed the british forces from the banks of the delaware. to which are added elegiacal pieces, commemorative of distinguished characters. philadelphia: printed and sold by robert bell, . frontispiece. vo, pp. , [ ]. another edition, norwich, j. trumbull, . vo, pp. . also phila., . mo, pp. . brown, charles brockden charles brockden brown, born in philadelphia, pa., january , , died there, february , , was originally intended for the bar, but gave up that study for literature about . he soon took rank as a novelist of the first class, and was the first american to take that place in english literature. his first writings were published in philadelphia periodicals, notably, _the rhapsodist_, which appeared in _the columbian magazine_. he published _the monthly magazine_ and _american review_ ( - ), and edited _the literary magazine_ and _american register_ from to . he was with dunlap and dr. elihu hubbard smith, a member of the "friendly club" in new york, and one of dunlap's most devoted friends. he was one of the first to advocate (in ) the purchase of louisiana from france; and in a series of articles published in that year strongly urged the progressive territorial extension of the union. he was married in november, , to miss elizabeth linn, daughter of rev. dr. william linn of new york, and thus became the brother-in-law of john blair linn, between whom and himself a lifelong attachment of affection existed. alcuin. a dialogue on the rights of women. new york, . mo. brown, david paul david paul brown, born in philadelphia in , died in , studied law and was admitted to the bar in . he contributed in early life to a number of magazines, and wrote _the prophet of st. paul's_, philadelphia, ; _the trial_, a tragedy, and a farce called _love and honor_. the last two were not acted, and probably not published. he was also the author of legal works. besides the play mentioned below, he wrote and published a number after , not included in this list. sertorius; or, the roman patriot. a tragedy. philadelphia, . vo, pp. . bryce, james f. democedes, an interlude. in one act. second edition, revised with the addition of a third scene. performed with unbounded applause in annapolis, md., august , , by messrs. mestayer & co. annapolis: . vo, pp. . burk, john daly john daly burk, born in ireland about , died in , became, while at trinity college, dublin, an ardent politician, and involved himself in difficulties with the authorities. it is said he belonged to a secret political society which tried to rescue a rebel on his way to execution. burk took shelter in a bookseller's shop, while his wolf-dog kept the police at bay. escaping in woman's apparel, given him by a miss daly, whose name he afterwards added to his own, he came to america, settled in boston, and became editor of a newspaper called _the polar star and boston daily advertiser_. he afterwards settled in new york, and published a paper called _the time-piece_. arrested on a charge of publishing a libel contrary to the provisions of the sedition law of , he left new york and settled at petersburg, va. in he published a _history of virginia_, in vols., the fourth being issued after his death. he also wrote a _history of the late war in ireland, with an account of the united irish association, from the first meeting in belfast, to the landing of the french at killala_, published in philadelphia, . also _an historical essay on the character and antiquity of irish songs_, published in _the richmond enquirer_, may, . he was killed in a duel with a french man named coquebert. bunker hill; or, the death of gen. warren. an historic tragedy, in five acts. by john burk, late of trinity college, dublin, as played at the theatres in america, for fourteen nights, with unbounded applause. copyright secured according to law. new york: printed by t. greenleaf, mdccxcvii. mo, pp. . another edition, baltimore, . mo, pp. . same: new york, . mo, pp. . reprinted by the dunlap society. this play was first played at the haymarket in boston, february , . it was also played a number of times in new york. female patriotism; or, the death of joan d'arc. an historic play in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the new park theatre, new york, . bethlem gabor, lord of transylvania: or, the man-hating palatine. an historical drama, in three acts. petersburg, . mo, pp. . carr, mrs. the fair american. philadelphia, . mo. played at the john street theatre, new york, november , . chapman, samuel h. samuel henry chapman, born in london, may , ; died in philadelphia, may , , was an actor as well as dramatist. he made his first appearance on the stage at covent garden theatre, london, as _agib_, in _timour, the tartar_. he was brought to the united states in by mr. francis courtney wemyss, manager of the chestnut street theatre, philadelphia, in company with mr. and mrs. sloman, mrs. austin, and miss emery, for the stock company of that theatre. his début was made october , , as _pierre_ in _venice preserved_. he became a favorite immediately, and of him it is said he had no equal in heroic rôles in his time. in may, , he became joint manager of the walnut street theatre. he married elizabeth jefferson, daughter of the elder and aunt of the now living joseph jefferson, in the same year. while riding, to illustrate to an artist the scene of the robbery in turner's lane in his own play of _the mail coach_, he was thrown from his horse, and so injured that he died within a week. it is said his hurt was aggravated greatly by the fact that he continued to play every night, and having a piece of brass armor next his skin, blood-poisoning was caused in his wounded shoulder. the red rover. a drama founded on j. f. cooper's novel of that name. philadelphia, n. d. mo, pp. . played at chestnut street theatre, philadelphia, . cockings, george george cockings, born in devonshire, england, died february , , lived a great part of his time in dartmouth, england, and from there went first to newfoundland, where he passed several years, then to boston, where he held some small position under the english government. for thirty years in england he held the place of register of the society of arts, manufacturing and commerce in the adelphi. he wrote _war, an heroic poem_, boston, ; _the american war_, a _poem_, and other works. the conquest of canada; or, the siege of quebec. an historical tragedy of five acts. london: printed for the author, . vo, pp. v.- . another edition, mo, philadelphia, . crafts, william william crafts, born in charleston, s. c., january , ; died in lebanon springs, n. y., september , . he was educated at harvard and was especially noted there for his proficiency in the classic languages. he returned to charleston, where he was admitted to the bar, and became a leading lawyer and legislator. he was always a ready and convincing speaker. in he delivered the phi beta kappa address at harvard. he was a constant contributor to the _charleston courier_. his works were published in charleston in . he wrote a few volumes of poetry, viz.: _the raciad, sullivan's island_, and _a monody on the death of decatur_. the sea serpent; or, gloucester hoax. a dramatic jeu d'esprit, in three acts. charleston: a. e. miller, . mo, pp. [ ], - . croswell, joseph a new world planted; or, the adventures of the forefathers of new england who landed in plymouth, december , . an historical drama. boston, . vo, pp. . custis, george washington parke george washington parke custis, born in mount airy, md., april , ; died at arlington, fairfax co., va., october , . his father was the son of mrs. washington by her former husband. his early home was at mount vernon, and he was educated at princeton. he married, early in life, mary lee fitzhugh, and their daughter married robert e. lee. arlington house, built by mr. custis, thus came into the lee family. this beautiful estate, which was confiscated during the war between the states, and used as a place of burial for the federal dead, was purchased from general lee's heirs at the close of the war and remains dedicated to the uses of a national cemetery. mr. custis wrote _recollections of general washington_, published first in the _national intelligencer_, and in book form in new york, in . the indian prophecy. a national drama in two acts, founded on a most interesting and romantic occurrence in the life of general washington. georgetown, . mo, pp. . pocahontas; or, the settlers of virginia. a national drama in three acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . another edition. mo, pp. . philadelphia, . this play was first acted at the park theatre, new york, december , , was well received, and was played in different cities of the united states. da ceneda, lorenzo da ponte (_called da ponte_) lorenzo da ponte da ceneda; born in venice, italy, in ; died in new york, august , , was an ardent poet and dramatist, and was attached to the court theatre at vienna in , where several of his librettos were produced with success. he came to new york about , and established himself as a teacher of languages, finally becoming professor of italian literature in columbia college. he was a very popular figure in new york society, and dearly loved by his compatriots, to whom he gave an affectionate welcome upon their coming to his new home. he was an intimate associate of mozart, metastasio, and joseph ii. of austria. upon the arrival of the first italian opera of signor garcia and his illustrious daughter in new york, they found that da ponte had made their way to triumph easy. he was, in fact, the foster-father of italian opera in america. scena quarta dell atto quinto di adad, poema dramatico, del signor giacoma a. hillhouse. tradatto in verso italiano da l. da ponte, n. y. gray e bunce, . this is an italian translation of the last act of hillhouse's _hadad_. assur re d'ormus. dramma. new york: stampatori giovanni gray e cia, . mo, pp. . il don giovanni. dramma eroicomica. nova-jorca: stampatori giovanni gray e cia, . mo, pp. . le nozze di figaro. dramma eroicomica. new york, stampatori giovanni gray e cia, . mo, pp. iv. - . le nozze di figaro, il don giovanni, e l'assur re d'ormus. tre drammi. [new york], stampatori giovanni gray e cia, . mo, pp. [ ] ii, iv. - , , . l'ape musicale. azione teatrale in un atto; da rappresentari nel teatro del park, a new york, per la prima volta. new york, stampatori da g. f. bunce, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, by the italian opera company, april , . da ponte, lorenzo l. lorenzo l. da ponte was the son of the last-named author, and was professor of italian literature and language in the university of the city of new york up to the time of his death in . he published a _history of florence_, and _memorie di lorenzo da ponte da cenada_, vols., new york, . almachide. a tragedy. new york, . mo. darling, david beaux without belles; or, ladies we can do without you. a musical farce as performed at the theatre, fredericksburg, virginia. printed for the author. charlottesville, va. . mo, pp. , [ ]. deering, nathaniel nathaniel deering, born june , ; died near portland, me., in . his grandfather, of the same name, was one of the founders of that city. the subject of this memoir began his education at phillips academy, exeter, and was graduated from harvard college in . he was admitted to the bar in , and practiced for a time in canaan and milburn (now skowhegan), maine. he removed to portland in , and devoted himself to literature. he was the first editor of the _independent statesman_. carrabasset; or, the last of the norridgewocks. a tragedy in five acts. portland, . mo, pp. . deffenbach, f. onliata; or, the indian heroine. philadelphia, . mo. d'elville, rinallo the rescue; or, the villain unmasked. a farce in three acts. new york: printed for the author, . mo, pp. . doddridge, joseph dr. joseph doddridge, born in pennsylvania in ; died in wellsburg, brooke county, va., in november, . he was educated at jefferson academy, canonsburg, pa., and ordained to the ministry in the protestant episcopal church in . he is well known as the author of _a history of the indian wars_, considered the best book on that subject. logan, the last of the race of skikellemus, chief of the cayuga nation. a dramatic piece. to which is added, the dialogue of the backwoodsman and the dandy, first recited at the buffaloe seminary, july the st, , by dr. joseph doddridge. buffalo creek, brooke county, va.: printed for the author, by solomon sala, at the buffaloe printing office, . mo, pp. . reprinted in to size, pp. . cincinnati, . dunlap, william william dunlap, rightly called the father of the american stage, was born in perth amboy, n. j., february , , and died in new york, september , . he came to new york in and commenced the study of painting, for which he had an early inclination. in he went to london, where for three years he worked under benjamin west. on his return he became interested in the drama, and wrote his first play. he soon after became closely identified with the theatre, and appeared on the stage. in he became manager of the john street theatre, and, soon after, sole manager of the new park theatre. in he retired from the management a bankrupt, and devoted himself to his original profession of painting. in he received the appointment of assistant paymaster general of the new york state militia. in he again took up the brush, and exhibited some of his large paintings in most of the cities of the united states. he was founder and vice-president of the national academy of design. he wrote _the life of george frederick cooke_ and _a history of the rise and progress of the arts of design in america_--a most valuable work. he also wrote a number of other works on different subjects. the father; or, american shandyism. a comedy in five acts, as performed at the new york theatre by the old american company, september , . written by a citizen of new york. new york, . vo, pp. . dunlap's first published play. reprinted by the dunlap society, . darby's return. a comic sketch, as performed at the new york theatre, november , , for the benefit of mr. wignell. new york: printed by hodge, allen, and campbell, and sold at their respective bookstores, and by berry and rogers, . vo, pp. . sequel to _the poor soldier_. another edition. new york, . mo. also reprinted in the appendix to _washington and the theatre_, by paul l. ford, new york, . the archers; or, mountaineers of switzerland. an opera in three acts, as performed by the old american co. in new york. new york, . vo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, april , . tell the truth and shame the devil! a farce. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the john street theatre, january , . the knight's adventure. a comedy. new york, . mo. a play was announced to be played at the john street theatre, in , under the title of _the man of fortitude; or, the knight's adventure_, by jno. hodgkinson [q. v.], and dunlap asserts that it was taken bodily from his play while the ms. was in hodgkinson's hands. andrÃ�. a tragedy in five acts, as performed by the old american co., new york, march , . to which are added authentic documents respecting major andré; consisting of letters to miss seward, the cow chase, proceedings of the court martial, etc. copyright secured. new york: printed by t. & j. swords, no. pearl street, . sm. vo, pp. viii.- . another edition. vo, london, . reprinted by the dunlap society. first produced at the new park theatre, new york, march , . the stranger. a tragedy. new york, . mo. adapted from the german of kotzebue. played at the john street theatre, new york, december , . probably this is a reprint of the english translation. false shame; or, the american orphan in germany. a comedy, from the german of a. von kotzebue. new york, . mo, pp. . another edition. mo, pp. . charleston, . played at the park theatre, new york, december , . virgin of the sun. a drama, from the german of a. von kotzebue. new york, . frontispiece. mo. played at the park theatre, new york, march , . the wild goose chase. a play in four acts, with songs. new york, . frontispiece. mo. played at the park theatre, new york, january , . pizarro in peru; or, the death of rollo. a play in five acts, from the german of aug. von kotzebue. new york, . frontispiece. vo. played at the park theatre, new york, march , . abaellino, the great bandit. a grand dramatic romance, in five acts. translated from the german. boston and new york, . mo. another edition. new york, . same, n. y., , pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, february , . the glory of columbia, her yeomanry. a comedy. new york, . mo, pp. . another edition. new york, . mo, pp. . this is the play of _andré_ entirely rewritten. played at the park theatre, new york, july , . ribbemont; or, the feudal baron. a tragedy. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the john street theatre, new york, october , , under the title of _the mysterious monk_. blue beard; or, female curiosity. a dramatic romance in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . another edition. new york, . mo. the voice of nature. a drama in three acts, as performed at the new york theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . from the french play, _le jugement de saloman_. played at the park theatre, new york, february , . the fatal deception; or, the progress of guilt. performed at the park theatre, new york, april , . published as: leicester. a tragedy. as performed at the new york theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . the first american tragedy produced upon the american stage. fountainville abbey. a tragedy. new york, . mo, pp. . from mrs. radcliff's _romance of the forest_. played at the john street theatre, new york, february , . the father of an only child. a comedy. new york, . mo, pp. . this is the play of _the father_, with a new title. the blind boy. a comedy, altered from kotzebue's _epigram_. new york, . mo. played at the park theatre, new york, march , . fraternal discord. a drama. altered from the german of kotzebue. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, october , . the italian father. a comedy in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the new park theatre, new york, april , . rinaldo rinaldini; or, the great banditti. a tragedy. by an american and a citizen of new york. new york, . frontispiece. mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, . wife of two husbands. a drama in five acts, interspersed with songs, choruses, music and dances. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, april , . yankee chronology; or, huzza for the constitution. a musical interlude, in one act, to which are added, the patriotic songs of the freedom of the seas, and yankee tars. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, . peter the great; or, the russian mother. a play in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, november , . the good neighbor. an interlude in one act, as performed at the new york theatre, february , . new york, . mo, pp. . lover's vows. a play in five acts. translated from the german. n. y., . mo, pp. , [ ]. although dunlap states that his translation of the above was not published, (_history of the american theatre_, vol. ii, p. ,) i have seen a copy of the play and his name is on the title page. the wreck of honor; or, adventures in paris. a tragedy. translated from the french. new york, . mo, pp. . a trip to niagara; or, travellers in america. a farce in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . dunlap's last published play. played at the new bowery theatre, new york, october , . eaton, n. w. alberto and matilda. a drama. boston, . mo, pp. . elliot, samuel fayette in prison; or, misfortunes of the great. a modern tragedy, by a gentleman of boston. worcester: printed for the author, . vo, pp . reprinted with this change in title, "by a gentleman of massachusetts," worcester, is. thomas, . vo, pp. . ellison, james the american captive; or, siege of tripoli. a drama in five acts. written by mr. james ellison. boston, . mo, pp. [ ]; - , [ ]; - . eustaphieve, alexis alexis, the czarewitz. a tragedy in acts. this play was published in a volume of poems entitled, reflections, notes, and original anecdotes, illustrating the character of peter the great. boston, . mo, [pp. - .] evans, nathaniel nathaniel evans, born in philadelphia, penn., june , , died in gloucester county, n. j., october , , was graduated from the college of philadelphia, and ordained in england by the bishop of london. as a member of the british society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts, he settled in gloucester county, n. j., and became noted for his eloquence as a preacher. he wrote some very graceful verses, which were collected and published after his death as _poems on several occasions_ [ ]. an exercise, containing a dialogue and ode on peace. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, may th, . philadelphia: printed by andrew stewart, . vo, pp. . the ode was written by dr. paul jackson, of chester, pennsylvania. also published in evans's _poems_. phila., . everett, david david everett, born in princeton, mass., march , , died in marietta, ohio, december , , was graduated from dartmouth in . before entering college he taught school at new ipswich, studied law in boston, and wrote for _russell's gazette and farmer's museum_, in which his prose papers, _common sense in deshabille_, became quite popular. they were published in a volume in . he also contributed to a literary paper called _the nightingale_ in . in he edited the _boston patriot_, and in _the pilot_, a paper in the interest of de witt clinton for the presidency. he left boston in for marietta, ohio, with the purpose of establishing a newspaper there, but death interrupted his plans. daranzel; or, the persian patriot. an original drama in five acts; as performed at the theatre in boston; by david everett, corrected and improved by a literary friend. boston, john russell, . vo, pp. . fairfield, sumner lincoln s. l. fairfield, born in warwick, mass., june , , died in new orleans, la., march , , entered brown university, providence, r. i., at the age of thirteen. he studied so unremittingly, that after a few months he was attacked with a severe sickness. on recovering he was forced to leave college and seek a living as a tutor in the southern states. in he sailed for london and wrote his poem, _the cities of the plain_, which appeared in the _oriental herald_. he was received by lafayette, in france, where he published _pére la chaise_ and _westminster abbey_. he returned to the united states in . mina. a dramatic sketch. baltimore, joseph robinson, . mo, pp. . faugÃ�res, margaretta bleecker margaretta bleecker faugÃ�res, born in tunkhannock, near albany, new york, in , died there january , , was a daughter of the poetess ann eliza bleecker. in she married peter faugéres, a physician of new york, who dissipated her fortune and died in . she supported herself by teaching until her death in . her poems are appended to her mother's _posthumous works_, edited by her, new york, . belisarius. a tragedy. new york, . frontispiece. mo, pp. . offered to the management of the john street theatre and declined. finn, henry james henry james finn, born in cape breton in , died on the steamer _lexington_ off eaton's neck, long island sound, january , , was the son of an officer in the english navy, who retired from that service, and settled with his family in new york when finn was a mere child. his early education was received at the academy at hackensack, and he was for a time a student at princeton. while a copying clerk in the office of mr. thomas phoenix, in new york city, he found means to become a supernumerary in the park theatre, and, having a taste for drawing, took much interest in scene painting. on the death of his father he was taken to england by his mother, and there was subjected to such privation that he gladly took a place in a company of country players. he was finally engaged at the haymarket, london, where he first appeared, may , , as lopez in _the honeymoon_, and for two seasons was an important member of the company. in he went to savannah, where he played successfully for a year, and in became associated with j. k. tefft as editor and publisher of _the georgian_, a daily newspaper. in he went again to england, and, besides playing with success, made material reputation and profit as a miniature painter. he returned to america, and made a brilliant success as _richard iii._ at the federal street theatre, boston, october , . from that time to his tragic death on the loss of the _lexington_ by fire, he was a very popular actor of tragedy and light comedy. montgomery; or, the falls of montmorency. a drama in three acts, as acted at the boston theatre. boston, . mo, pp. , . this play was acted with much success. forrest, colonel thomas (see barton, andrew) disenchantment (disappointment); or, the force of credulity. a new american comic opera of three acts, by andrew barton, esquire. new york, . "perhaps an assumed name for colonel thomas forrest, of germantown," a ms. note on an old copy in the library of philadelphia. this opera was rehearsed by the douglas company in philadelphia, but was withdrawn, supposedly on account of personal allusions of a rather pointed character. the _disenchantment_ was really printed in philadelphia by thomas goddard, although bearing a new york imprint. fowler, manly b. the prophecy; or, love and friendship. a drama. new york, . mo, pp. . frisbie, noah, jr. noah frisbie, jr., born in woodbury, conn., jan. , , was the oldest son of noah frisbie, of the same town, who married margery post in , and was in a member of captain ebenezer downs's company of volunteers in the expedition for the relief of fort william henry on lake george against the french. on the "alarm of lexington," noah frisbie with his two sons noah and jonathan, and their kinsmen asabel, abiel, david and james, joined the continental forces. noah frisbie, jr., appears on the army list at the end of the war as a lieutenant. no further information, except the printing of the under-mentioned play, is available. the history of the falcos. a comedy in four acts. part first. walpole, n. h.: printed for the author, at the observatory press, . mo, pp. . garden, alexander kosciusko; or, the fall of warsaw. a play in verse. published in _the soldier's wreath, or the battle ground of new orleans, and other poems_, by oliver cromwell, of south carolina. charleston, w. riley, , pp. [ - ]. the volume is supposed to be by alex. garden, author of _anecdotes of the revolutionary war_. this i am, however, in doubt about, as the author calls himself "an almost beardless youth." the play is in three acts. godfrey, thomas, jr. thomas godfrey, who was born in philadelphia on december , , and died near wilmington, n. c., august , , was a son of thomas godfrey, the inventor of the quadrant. he was apprenticed to a watchmaker and remained at that trade until . he was an officer in the expedition against fort du quesne. he removed to north carolina and remained there three years. he then went to philadelphia and sailed as a supercargo to the island of new providence, returning from thence to north carolina, where, a few weeks after his arrival, by exposure to the sun on horseback, he contracted a fever which terminated fatally. juvenile poems on various subjects, and the prince of parthia. a tragedy. philadelphia: printed by henry miller, in second street, . vo, pp. xvi, . _the prince of parthia_ is the earliest known tragedy that was written by an american. the play was offered to the company then performing in philadelphia, but was not accepted. grice, c. e. the battle of new orleans; or, glory, love and loyalty; an historical and national drama in five acts. new york, . vo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, july , . hall, everard nolens volens; or, the biter bit. newbern, . mo, pp. , [ ]. harby, isaac isaac harby, born in charleston, s. c., november , , died in new york city, november , . first studied law under langdon cheves, but soon gave this up to become the principal of a school on edisto island. his first literary work was the editing of a weekly paper called _the quiver_. this paper had but a short existence, and he purchased _the investigator_, which he changed to _the southern patriot_. in he conducted _the city gazette_ and wrote for _the charleston mercury_. the second representation of _alberti_, in charleston, , was honored by the presence of president monroe. _alberti_ was written for cooper, but he never appeared in the character. harby is said to have been the finest dramatic critic of his time in america. he came to new york in . alberti. a play. charleston, . mo, pp. . republished with a selection of his writings, charleston, . pp. - . this play was performed at the charleston theatre, . the gordian knot; or, causes and effects. [ ]. "i had the gracious alternative of making a bonfire or of making a publication [of the _gordian knot_]. i decided for the latter--how wisely time will show."--harby's _works_, p. . hatton, ann julia ann julia hatton was a member of the kemble family and a sister of mrs. siddons. she was the wife of william hatton, a celebrated musical instrument maker, at peck slip, new york city. the songs of tammany; or, the indian chief. a serious opera, by ann julia hatton. to be had at the printing-office of john harrison, no. peck slip, and of mr. faulkner, at the box-office of the theatre. [price one shilling.] new york, . mo, pp. . the opera from which these songs were taken (_tammany; or, the indian chief_), was written for the tammany society, and was first played at the john street theatre, march , , and "had a great run." no trace can be found of the play itself being published. the prologue to _tammany_ was published in a volume of poems by r. b. davis, new york, , pp. - . hawkins, micah the saw mill; or, a yankee trick. a comic opera. new york, . mo. played at the park theatre, new york, november , . henry, john john henry was a native of dublin, and made his début at drury lane, in , with little success. he joined douglas's company in the west indies, and coming to new york from there made his first appearance on the american stage at the john street theatre, new york, december , , playing in america until the close of the year . he died in , on a vessel bound for newport. "it is recorded that for many years after the revolution, mr. henry was the only actor in new york who kept a coach, and that in his case frequent attacks of the gout rendered it a necessity." the panels of the coach were decorated with a representation of two crutches crossed, and the motto, "this or these." a school for soldiers; or, the deserter. a dramatic poem. printed at kingston in jamaica [w. i.] . vo. this piece was first played in kingston. played at the john street theatre, new york, april , . hillhouse, james abraham james abraham hillhouse, born in new haven, september , , died there january , , son of hon. james hillhouse, was graduated from yale in . he came to new york and engaged in business as a merchant, but soon retired, and gave his time to literary pursuits. percy's masque. a drama in five acts, from the london edition. new york, . mo. it is doubtful if a london edition of this piece was published. hadad. a dramatic poem, by james a. hillhouse, author of _percy's masque_ and _the judgment_. new york, . vo, pp. . demetria. a domestic tragedy in five acts. this was written in , but was not published until , when it was included in the author's _works_, bost. . vols. hitchcock, edward edward hitchcock, born in deerfield, mass., may , , died in amherst, mass., february , . in he became principal of the academy in deerfield, where he remained for three years. he was ordained minister of the congregational church at conway, mass., in . in he was appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in amherst college. he continued his connection with the college, having been appointed to the presidency with the professorship of natural theology and geology, until his resignation in . he was the author of numerous scientific and theological works. the tragedy mentioned below is his first and probably his only dramatic production. he died in . emancipation of europe; or, the downfall of buonaparte. a tragedy. greenfield, . mo, pp. . hodgkinson, john john hodgkinson was born in manchester, england, in , died in washington, d. c., december , . his real name was meadowcraft. his first successes were on the bath stage. he came to america with the company of hallam & henry, and made his début at the john street theatre in . he bought out henry's interest, and continued one of the managers until . he went to charleston, s. c., in , but became a victim of yellow fever while travelling, and died near washington, d. c. the man of fortitude; or, the knight's adventure. a drama in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the john street theatre, new york, june , . dunlap says that this play was rewritten in prose upon the text of a manuscript in blank verse in one act called _the knight's adventure_, which dunlap had submitted to hodgkinson some years previously, and declares that the latter seemed unconscious of any wrong-doing. robin hood; or, sherwood forest. a comic opera in two acts, by leonard macnally, esq. from hodgkinson's prompt-book. new york, . mo, pp. . hopkinson, francis francis hopkinson, born in philadelphia, pa., september , , died there may , , was the son of thomas hopkinson. francis was educated at the college of philadelphia, studied law under benjamin chew, and was admitted to the bar in . his career belongs to the public history of the making of the united states. to enumerate his works and honors would transcend the scope of this book. he was a member of the continental congress in , signed the declaration of independence, and was the first head of the treasury department of the new government. the first powerful satire of the british in revolution, _the battle of the kegs_, was from his pen. a ripe scholar and a prolific writer of prose and verse in both humorous and earnest methods, skilled in music and in polite conversation, he was one of the most brilliant of the group of early jurists and writers of our country. he was united states district judge of pennsylvania at the time of his death. the authorship of the two anonymous college dialogues cited below is positively given to him in the brinley catalogue (new york, march, ), in view of which, and of the not less important fact that thomas hopkinson died in , i think, notwithstanding the statement made by a contemporary newspaper, that the dialogue of the commencement was his work. of that occasion sanderson's _biography of the signers of the declaration of independence_ says in the memoir of francis hopkinson: "among the records of a public commencement of that institution [the college of philadelphia], held on the twentieth of may, , the board of trustees, comprising the governor, chief justice and most distinguished men of the province, passed the following resolution: 'after the business of the commencement was finished, it was resolved that as francis hopkinson (who was the first scholar entered in this seminary at its opening and likewise one of the first who received a degree in it) was about to embark for england and has always done honor to the place of his education by his abilities and good morals, as well as rendered it many substantial services on all public occasions, the thanks of this institution ought to be delivered to him in the most affectionate manner.'" an exercise containing a dialogue and ode sacred to the memory of his late gracious majesty, george ii. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, may , . the ode written and set to music by francis hopkinson. philadelphia: w. dunlap, . to, pp. . an exercise, containing a dialogue and ode on the accession of his present gracious majesty, george iii. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, may th, . philadelphia: printed by w. dunlap, . to, pp. . dialogue [in verse] for the commencement in the college of philadelphia, may th, . vo, pp. . hopkinson, thomas thomas hopkinson, born in london, england, april , , died in philadelphia, pa., november , , was son of a london merchant. in , having been admitted to the bar, he settled in philadelphia, where he became a deputy, and finally principal clerk of the orphan's court. for many years he was a member of the council of the province and a judge of court. always interested in letters and science, he became the intimate friend of franklin, to whom he suggested the use of metal points for the purpose of obtaining electric sparks. the library company, the college of philadelphia, and the philosophical society named him among their incorporators and earliest officers. perhaps his greatest distinction now is that he was the father of francis hopkinson, who may have caused the under-mentioned dialogue to be produced "for remembrance." an exercise, containing a dialogue and two odes. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, may th, . philadelphia: printed by w. dunlap, . small to, pp. . the _pennsylvania journal_ of june , , is authority for the authorship of this exercise. hosmer, w. h. c. william henry cuyler hosmer was born at avon, in the valley of the genesee, new york, may , , and died there may , . he was graduated from the university of vermont, and was for many years a well-known lawyer and writer on the subjects of north american indians, and their lore. he contributed a number of articles to magazines, and also published several volumes of poetry. his poetical works were published in two volumes in , when the author was a clerk in the custom house of the port of new york. the fall of tecumseh. a drama. avon, . mo. this play, written when the author was but sixteen years of age, was his first literary work. humphreys, david david humphreys was born in derby, conn., in july, , died in new haven, conn., february , . he was graduated from yale college in , and at the beginning of the revolution entered the army. in he was attached to the staff of general putnam, with the rank of major. in he was made a colonel and aide-de-camp to washington. he was custodian of the standards, surrendered at yorktown and was presented with a sword by congress. in he was appointed secretary to the legation for concluding treaties with foreign powers. he resided at mount vernon until the framing of the constitution, when he came to new york with the president. in he was nominated ambassador to portugal, and sailed for that country in . he was afterwards appointed to represent the united states at madrid, and during this time concluded treaties of peace with tripoli and algiers. he was the author of a number of works, including a life of general israel putnam. the widow of malabar; or, the tyranny of custom. a tragedy in five acts. translated from the french of m. le mierre. this play was published in the _miscellaneous works_ of humphreys, new york, , pp. - . first played at the philadelphia theatre, . the announcement of its performance at the john street theatre, new york, october , , was in these words: _the widow of malabar; or, the tyranny of custom._ a play in five acts, written by a citizen of the united states (acted at philadelphia and baltimore with great applause), with a prologue by j. trumbull, ll.d. played at the john street theatre, new york, october, . the yankey in england. a drama in five acts. n. p., n. d. [conn., .] mo, pp. , . dunlap says he also wrote a comedy, and relates how he endeavored to persuade the manager, john bernard, to bring it out, but was unsuccessful. _the yankey in england_ was probably the play. hunter, robert robert hunter was born in england, and was appointed governor of new york in . he was afterwards governor of jamaica, where he died in . he was the author of the celebrated letter on enthusiasm, which has been ascribed to swift. androboros. a bographical farce, in three acts, viz., the senate, the consistory, and the apotheosis. by governour hunter. printed at monoropolis since st august, . the first dramatic piece published in america. it is a severe criticism of the clergy, members, and others of trinity church, the principal among whom was dr. vesey. the piece is excessively rare, and mentioned by few bibliographers, and then only by the first word of the title. it was published anonymously, and printed by wm. bradford in . only one copy is known, now in the collection of the duke of devonshire. a manuscript copy of it is in the collection of evert jansen wendell, esq., of new york. the copy owned by the duke of devonshire formerly belonged to john philip kemble, the tragedian. it contains a number of manuscript corrections, probably from the hand of the author, among them the word "bographical" on the title-page, which is changed to "biographical"; "monoropolis," which is changed to "moropolis." the title-page has been torn at the bottom, and the figures appear in ink. the following lines have been written in this copy by kemble: "androboros, etc. printed at mosicropolis. whoever made the correction meant, i suppose, to imply that it was printed at moros polis--'foolstown.' the corrections that run all through the piece, and the key to the characters, make me suppose that this was the author's copy." on the title, kemble has written, "collated and perfect, j. p. k., ." gov. hunter was assisted in the writing of this piece by chief justice lewis morris. hutton, joseph joseph hutton was born in philadelphia, pa., february , , and died in newbern, n. c., january , . in early life he contributed verses to periodicals of that city; he also wrote prose, and published several romantic stories in a literary paper. about he published a collection of fugitive poems under the title of _leisure hours_. he also published a poem called _the field of orleans_, in the style of sir walter scott. in he removed to newbern, n. c., where he established himself as a teacher and wrote for the newbern _sentinel_. the school for prodigals. a comedy in five acts, as performed at the new theatre, philadelphia. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the chestnut street theatre, philadelphia, in . the wounded hussar; or, rightful heir. a musical afterpiece in two acts, as performed at the new theatre, philadelphia. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . another edition, philadelphia, , mo, pp. . played at the chestnut street theatre, phila., in . fashionable follies. a comedy. new york, . mo. another edition, philadelphia, , mo, pp. . the orphan of prague. a drama in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . hyer, w. g. rosa. a melodrama in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . ingersoll, charles jared charles jared ingersoll, born in philadelphia, pa., october , , died there may , , was a lawyer of note, elected to congress from pennsylvania, - and - . he was united states district attorney for pennsylvania from to . he was the author of the celebrated _inchiquin's letters_ ( ) and a _historical sketch of the second war between the united states and great britain_. edwy and elgiva. a tragedy in five acts. performed at the new theatre. philadelphia, ashbury dickins. vo, pp. . dedicated to mrs. merry, who played _elgiva_ in the original production in . ioor, w. independence; or, which do you like best, the peer or the farmer? a comedy. charleston, . vo, pp. . the battle of the eutaw springs, and evacuation of charleston; or, the glorious th of december, . a national drama in five acts. charleston, for the author, . vo, pp. . played in the charleston theatre in . judah, s. b. h. samuel b. h. judah was a well-known writer of new york city in the early part of the present century. he wrote a novel called _the buccaneers_, and a work entitled _gotham and the gothamites_, both of which reflected on the society of new york at that time, and caused the author to be sued for libel and his works suppressed. his plays were performed in england as well as america. the mountain torrent. a grand melodrama, in two acts. new york, . mo, pp. v.- . played at the park theatre, new york, march , . the rose of arragon; or, the vigil of st. mark. a melodrama in two acts. new york, . mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, april , . a tale of lexington. a national comedy founded on the opening of the revolution, in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. v- . odofriede, the outcast. a dramatic poem. new york, . vo, pp. , [ ]. kennicott, james h. irma; or, the prediction. a tragedy in five acts, as performed at the american theatre, new orleans. new york, . portrait of james h. caldwell. mo, pp. iv.- . this play gained, in competition with five others, the prize of $ offered by james h. caldwell--the manager of the american theatre, new orleans. it was played in that theatre in march, . kerr, john rip van winkle; or, the demons of the catskill mountains. a national drama in two acts. philadelphia, n. d. mo, pp. . played at the park theatre in new york, april , , with mr. james h. hackett in the title rôle. lathy, thomas pike reparation; or, the school for libertines. a drama, as performed at the boston theatre. boston, . mo, pp. . lawson, james james lawson, born in glasgow, scotland, november , ; died in yonkers, n. y., march , . he was educated at glasgow university and came to new york in . he was at first employed as a clerk in the counting house of a maternal uncle, who was a merchant of new york. he began writing for the new york _literary gazette_ in , and from to was the assistant editor of the _morning courier_. he edited the _mercantile advertiser_ from to . for a time subsequently he engaged in the business of marine insurance. he published several volumes of stories and poems. dramatic sketch. julian and elphina. published in _tales and sketches by a cosmopolite_. new york, , pp. - . giordano. a tragedy. new york, . vo, pp. . played at the park theatre, n. y., november , . leacock, john the fall of british tyranny; or, american liberty triumphant. the first campaign. a tragi-comedy of five acts as lately planned at the theatrum pandemonium at st. james. the principal place of action in america. published according to act of parliament. philadelphia: printed by styner & cist. vo, pp. viii.- . same. providence, j. douglas mcdougall. n. d. [ ]. mo, pp. viii.- . same. boston: reprinted by gill & powars & willis. n. d. vo, pp. viii.- . this is an american chronicle play beginning with imaginary events in england before the revolution, showing the battles about boston and ending with the evacuation of that city by the british. disappointed. philadelphia, . mo. played in philadelphia, april , . the medley; or, harlequin have at ye all. a pantomime acted at covent garden. vo, . lee, walter lafayette; or, the fortress of olmutz. a melodrama in three acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . a drama bearing this title was written by wm. woodworth, q. v. leland, aaron w. aaron w. leland, born in holliston, mass., may , , died in chester, vt., august , . he was ordained a minister of the baptist church about , and settled in chester, vt. he was a member of the vermont legislature from to , a councillor for four years, lieutenant-governor of the state for five years, and justice of his county court for eighteen years. he refused a nomination for governor in . he was a very effective orator. the fatal error. a tragedy. exhibited at williams college, march , . pittsfield: printed by seymour & smith, . mo, pp. . another edition. peterboro: reprinted by jonathan bunce & co., [madison county], . mo, pp. . lennox, charlotte this author was a native of new york, and a daughter of gov. james ramsey, of that province. she went to england in and became a writer of note, dr. johnson considering her work equal to that of fanny burney and other well-known female writers. the epilogue to _the sister_ was written by oliver goldsmith. the sister. a comedy. london, . vo, pp. . lillibridge, gardner r. tancred; or, the rightful heir to rochdale castle. a drama, altered from a tale of ancient times. providence, . mo, pp. . lindsley, a. b. love and friendship; or, yankee notions. a comedy in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . low, samuel the politician out-witted. a comedy in five acts, written in , by an american. new york: printed by w. ross, . vo, pp. . macpherson, j. a pennsylvania sailor's letters, alias, the farmer's fall; with extracts from a tragic comedy, called hodge podge improved; or, the race fairly run. the author's sympathy for an innocent woman prevents his publishing the whole of that dramatic piece. number . philadelphia, for the author, . vo, pp. . markoe, peter peter markoe, born in santa cruz (st. croix), one of the west india islands, in , died in philadelphia in . he was educated at trinity college, dublin, read law in london, and settled in philadelphia in . he there became addicted to literature and contributed to the leading periodicals over the name "a native of algiers." the patriot chief. a tragedy. philadelphia: wm. prichard, . vo, pp. . the reconciliation; or, the triumph of nature. a comic opera, in two acts. philadelphia, prichard & hall, . mo, pp. . maurice, mark the manuscript--comprising "the fratricide" and miscellaneous poems. boston, . mo, pp. . mchenry, james dr. james mchenry, born in larne, county antrim, ireland, december , , died there july , . he was graduated in medicine at dublin university and glasgow, and first located in practice at larne, whence he removed to belfast. he came to the united states in and followed his profession in baltimore, md., and pittsburgh, pa. in he settled in philadelphia, where he practiced medicine and carried on a mercantile business. from to the time of his death he was united states consul at londonderry, in ireland. his home in philadelphia was the resort of most of the literary people of that and other cities. he published a poem on the _pleasures of friendship_ in . he was editor of the _american monthly magazine_ in philadelphia in , and wrote and published a number of novels. the usurper. a historical tragedy in five acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . played at the old chestnut street theatre. mead,----. wall street; or, ten minutes before three. a farce. new york, . mo, pp. . third edition. immortalized by halleck in the lines: and who would now the athenian dramas read, when he can get "wall street," by mr. mead. megia, f. lafayette en mount vernon en de octubre, . drama in two actos. filadelfia, stavely y. bringhurst, . mo, pp. . minshull, john a comic opera, entitled rural felicity, with the humour of patrick and the marriage of shelty. new york, . portrait. vo, pp. . a comedy entitled: the sprightly widow, with the frolics of youth; or, a speedy way of uniting the sexes by honourable marriage. new york, . portrait of author. vo, pp. . he stoops to conquer; or, the virgin triumphant. a comedy in three acts. new york, . vo, pp. . pp. - contain littleton's sixth letter, with note by minshull. a comedy entitled, the merry dames; or, the humourist's triumph over the poet in petticoats, and the gallant exploits of the knight of the comb. a comedy in three acts. new york, . vo, pp. . munford, robert colonel robert munford was a distinguished patriot of the revolution. his poems and plays were collected and published by his son william, noticed below. the candidate. the patriots. the above plays were published in a volume of _minor poems_ at petersburg, va., . vo, pp. . munford, william william munford, son of the above, was born in mecklenburg county, va., in , and died in richmond, va., june , . at the age of twenty-one he was elected to the virginia house of delegates. he was afterwards a senator from his district, was elected a member of the privy council of state, and continued in that office up to the time of his death. his chief literary work was a _translation of homer's iliad_ in blank verse, which was not published during his life-time. almoran and hamet. a tragedy. published in a volume of _poems and compositions in prose on several occasions._ richmond, . vo, pp. , [ ]. murdock, j. the triumphs of love; or, happy reconciliations. a comedy. philadelphia, . (plate.) mo, pp. . the politicians; or, a state of things. a dramatic piece. written by an american and a citizen of philadelphia. philadelphia, . vo, pp. , and printed note. neal, john john neal, born in portland, me., august , , died there june , . he was entirely self-educated, and, after a few years of business occupation in baltimore, he was admitted to the maryland bar in . he had already begun to have some popularity as a writer of stories, and in he was led to make a trip to england, in consequence of the popularity which his novels had acquired there. while in england he wrote several articles on america for the _quarterly review_, and enjoyed an intimacy with british men of letters, particularly jeremy bentham. on his return in he established _the yankee_, and was an active journalist for half a century. to his energy is attributed the agitation of woman's suffrage, and the establishment of gymnasiums. he was poe's first encourager. his _recollections_ were published in . otho. a tragedy in five acts. boston, . mo, pp. . this play was written for edmond kean. it was entirely rewritten in _the yankee_ for . noah, mordecai manuel mordecai manuel noah, born in philadelphia, july , , died in new york, may , , was a journalist and a lawyer. he went into politics when quite young, and was appointed united states consul to morocco in ; came to new york about , and edited _the national advocate_. he afterwards established _the new york enquirer_, _the evening star_, and other papers. he published also a volume of travels. he was at one time appointed sheriff of the county. an estimate of his character and popularity is thus given by a contemporary: "he told the best story, rounded the best sentence, and wrote the best play of all his contemporaries.... as editor, critic, and author, he was looked up to as an oracle." the fortress of sorrento. a petit historical drama, in two acts. new york, . mo, pp. . taken from the french opera of _leonora_. she would be a soldier; or, the plains of chippewa. an historical drama in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . this piece was written for the benefit of miss leesugg. it was finished in three days, and first played in philadelphia in . it was performed at the park theatre, new york, june , . the wandering boys; or, the castle of olival. a melodrama in two acts. boston, . mo, pp. . this was also played under the name of _paul and alexis; or the orphans of the rhine_. it was written for mrs. young's benefit, and played at charleston in . marion; or, the hero of lake george. a drama, founded on the events of the revolutionary war, in three acts. new york, . mo. played at the park theatre, new york, november , . the grecian captive; or, the fall of athens. a drama. new york, . mo, pp. iv.- . played at the park theatre, new york, june , . norval, james the generous chief. a tragedy. montreal, . vo. this is probably the only original play published in canada prior to . o'conway, james the knights templars. a historical tragedy, with notes, as it was represented on the french theatre, by the performers of the emperor of the french. to which is prefixed an interesting history of the origin, character, and persecution, of that illustrious order. also the mode of receiving members. the whole supported by the most respectable authorities. translated from the original of m. raynouard, by matthias james o'conway, commissioned interpreter and teacher of the spanish, french and english languages. philadelphia: published by the translator, no. chestnut street. brown & merritt, printers, church alley, . portrait of "jacques de molay." vo, title, p. l., pp. lxviii. - , [ ] parke, john john parke was born in delaware about . at the commencement of the revolution he entered the american army and was attached to washington's division. after the war he was for some time in philadelphia, and was last heard of in arundel county, va. a number of the pieces in his book are dated at camp in the neighborhood of boston, at valley forge and other places. virginia. a pastoral drama, on the birth day of an illustrious personage and the return of peace, february , [ lines of poetry in latin]. published in a volume of poems entitled _the lyric works of horace_, etc. printed by eleazer oswald, at the coffee-house, . another edition. philadelphia: eleazer baldwin. vo, pp. , . this is probably the first attempt to celebrate washington's birthday. paulding, james k. james kirke paulding, born in pleasant valley, dutchess co., n. y., august , , died in hyde park, in the same county, april , , was associated with washington irving in literary work on _salmagundi_. a paper on political affairs from paulding's pen led to his appointment by president madison as secretary of the navy commission in washington. he was agent of the navy at new york, , and secretary of the navy under van buren. the bucktails; or, americans in england. a comedy, written shortly after the conclusion of the war of . this play was published in a volume entitled _american comedies_, by w. i. paulding, author; carey & hart, publishers. philadelphia, . payne, john howard john howard payne, born in new york city, june , , died in tunis, africa, april , , was an actor and journalist. in early life he removed to easthampton, l. i., where the greater part of his childhood was passed. he played in a number of amateur performances, and made his début as an actor at the park theatre, new york city, february , , as _young norval_. he made his literary début by contributing to _the fly_, a juvenile paper published by woodworth. he soon after published a little paper called _the thespian mirror_, which had a short existence. after playing in a number of american cities he went to england in , where his success as an actor and dramatist was very great. his first appearance was at drury lane theatre, june , , as _norval_. he also started a periodical in london called the _opera glass_. he returned to america in and contributed to the _democratic review_ and other periodicals. soon afterward ( ) he was appointed united states consul at tunis, where he died. julia; or, the wanderer. a comedy in five acts, as performed at the new york theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . the first separate writing of payne, written when he was fourteen years of age. performed as _the wanderer_ at the park theatre, new york, february , . lover's vows. a play in five acts. baltimore, . mo, pp. , [ ]. brutus; or, the fall of tarquin. an historical tragedy in five acts. london, . vo, pp. viii.- . same. new york, . mo, pp. . acted for the first time at the theatre royal, drury lane, london, december , . first acted in the united states at the park theatre, new york, march , . accusation; or, the family of d'anglade. a melodrama in three acts, from the french, with alterations. london, . vo, pp. . same, boston, . mo, pp. vii.- . first acted at park theatre, new york, may , . therese, the orphan of geneva. a drama. new york, . mo. first acted at the anthony street theatre, new york, april , . adeline; or, seduction. a melodrama in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . performed for the first time in the united states, at the park theatre, new york, may , . clari, the maid of milan. an opera in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . another edition, london, . vo, pp. . performed for the first time at the theatre royal, covent garden, london, may , . in this opera _home, sweet home_ was sung for the first time. performed for the first time in the united states at the park theatre, new york, november , . ali pacha; or, the signet ring. a melodrama in two acts. new york, . mo, pp. . performed at the park theatre, new york, may , . richelieu; or, the broken heart. a domestic tragedy founded on fact. (as adapted for performance at the theatre royal, covent garden, london, before it was altered by order of the lord chamberlain, and produced under a new name.) now first printed from the author's manuscript. new york, . mo, pp. . the two galley slaves. a melodrama in two acts. london, n. d. [ ]. frontispiece. mo, pp. . first performed in the united states at the park theatre, new york, october , . 'twas i; or, the truth a lie. a farce in two acts. london, n. d. vo, pp. . same, new york, . another edition, new york, . mo. first performed in the united states at the park theatre, new york, may , . charles the second; or, the merry monarch. a comedy. [london, n. d.] mo, pp. . another edition, philadelphia, . first performed in the united states at the park theatre, new york, october , . love in humble life. a petit comedy. london, n. d. mo, pp. . the lancers. a farce. london, n. d. mo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, . the fall of algiers. a drama. london, n. d. mo, pp. . mrs. smith; or, the wife and the widow. a farce, adapted from the french. london, n. d. vo, pp. . played at the new park theatre, new york, march , . peter smink; or, the armistice. a comic drama, adapted from the french. london, n. d. vo, pp. . played at the park theatre, new york, october , , as _peter smink; or, which is the miller?_ a farce. pepper, george kathleen o'neil; or, a picture of feudal times in ireland. a national melodrama of the fourteenth century, in three acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . scenes i. and ii. of act i. of _kathleen o'neil_ were first published in vol. of _the irish shield and monthly milesian_, a monthly journal edited by geo. pepper, in new york, in . vol. i., of this periodical was, i believe, all that was issued, and the play was therefore probably never issued complete except as a separate publication. played at the lafayette theatre, new york. (the lafayette theatre was burned on the night of april , , and never rebuilt). percival, james gates james gates percival, born in berlin, conn., september , , died in hazel green, wis., may , , was an eminent geologist. he was graduated from yale college, studied medicine and practiced in charleston, s. c.; was appointed surgeon in the united states army in , and stationed in boston, mass., on detail for the recruiting station there. he left the service, and took up the study of geology at new haven, conn., in . he aided noah webster in the compilation of his dictionary. he was an official geologist of connecticut and of the state of wisconsin. zamor. a tragedy. this play formed part of the commencement exercises at yale college in . it was afterwards published in percival's first volume of poems, _prometheus_, etc., new haven, , mo, pp. . pirsson, j. p. the discarded daughter. new york, --? potter, reuben phelles, king of tyre; or, the downfall of tyranny. a tragedy in five acts, as performed at the new york theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . acted three times at the park theatre between june and , . preston, william death of louis the sixteenth. a tragedy in five acts. new york: printed by t. & j. swords, . another edition. philadelphia: e. story, . mo, pp. . rittenhouse, david lucy sampson; or, the unhappy heiress. a tragedy in five acts. translated by a citizen of philadelphia. philadelphia: printed by chas. cist, . vo, pp. . rogers, daniel the knight of the rum bottle & co.; or, the speechmakers. a musical farce in five acts, by the editor of _the city hall recorder_. new york, . mo, pp. . daniel rogers was the editor of _the city hall recorder_ at the time this play was published. rogers, robert robert rogers was born at dumbarton, n. h., , died in london about . during the french and indian war he commanded the celebrated "rogers rangers," and participated in the siege of detroit against pontiac and the french. rogers' slide at lake george is named after him. he went to london about , and was appointed governor of michilimackinac in . he afterwards went to algiers and fought under the dey. he returned to america in , and professed to be in sympathy with the patriots, but washington ordered his arrest. he then threw off the mask of friendship, and raised a company of royalists called "the queen's rangers." he went back to england, and his subsequent history is unknown. his best known works are his _journal of the french and indian war_, london, ; and _a concise account of north america_, london, . ponteach; or, the savages of america. a tragedy. london: printed for the author, . vo, pp. . rowson, susanna susanna rowson, born in portsmouth, england, in , died in boston, mass., march , . she was an only daughter of lieutenant william haswell, of the british navy, who was, at the beginning of the revolution, attached to the revenue service, and resided at nantucket, near boston. his property was confiscated by the continental authorities; and himself and family removed on parole to hingham in , and in to abington. a cartel was finally arranged by which lieutenant haswell was exchanged and sent back to england with his family. miss haswell took employment as a governess in early life, and was greatly devoted to literature. she married william rowson, a musician in one of the bands of the household troops. about the time of her marriage she wrote and published a novel entitled _victoria_, which she dedicated to the duchess of devonshire, who introduced her to the prince of wales. she was enabled, by this acquaintance, to obtain a pension for her father. on account of the financial embarrassment of her husband, they went on the stage in , in edinburgh. in they came to america, and first appeared in annapolis, maryland. thence they went to the theatre in philadelphia, and, after a season there, became members of the federal street theatre in boston. mrs. rowson, who had, in , published in england the celebrated novel _charlotte temple_, had continued writing, and the extraordinary popularity of her story of the unfortunate english girl made it easy for her to follow the cultivation of letters. she retired from the stage in , and established a school for young ladies, which remained, during her life-time, the most select and popular in new england. her last appearance was in may, , in her own comedy, _americans in england_. her _poems_ were published in boston in , and _lucy temple_, a sequel to _charlotte temple_, appeared in . * * * * * slaves in algiers; or, a struggle for freedom: a play, interspersed with songs, in three acts. by mrs. rowson, as performed at the new theatres, in philadelphia and baltimore. _philadelphia:_ printed for the author, by wrigley and berriman, no. , chesnut-street. m,dcc,xdiv. * * * * * slaves in algiers; or, a struggle for freedom. a play interspersed with songs, as performed at the new theatres, in philadelphia and baltimore. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . the female patriot. a farce. philadelphia, [?] . mo. played in philadelphia in . the volunteers. a farce, founded on the whisky insurrection in pennsylvania. philadelphia, . mo. americans in england. a comedy. boston, . mo. this piece was acted for mrs. rowson's benefit and farewell to the stage. although the last three titles are mentioned by sabin and other bibliographers, i doubt if they were ever published, as after a diligent search i have failed to locate a copy of any, and none of those who give the titles give collations--an almost certain indication that they have been unable to see copies of the plays. sawyer, lemuel lemuel sawyer was a native of north carolina. he wrote a _life of john randolph_ [of roanoke,] n. y., . died . blackbeard. a comedy in four acts, founded on fact. washington, . mo, pp. . the wreck of honor. a tragedy. new york, --. mo, pp. . selden, almira naomi. a sacred drama in five scenes. published in a volume of poems entitled _effusions of the heart_. bennington, vt., . mo, pp. . _the irish exiles in america_, a drama in five scenes, was also published in the above mentioned volume. sewall, jonathan mitchell jonathan mitchell sewall, born in salem, mass., in , died in portsmouth, n. h., march , . he was graduated from harvard and first entered business life, but eventually became a lawyer. he was register of probate for grafton co., n. h., in . author of the song _war and washington_, very popular during the revolution. his _miscellaneous poems_ were published in . at a performance of addison's _cato_ in the bow street theatre, n. h., in , an epilogue, written by colonel sewall, was spoken, the closing lines of which are: no pent up utica contracts your powers, but the whole boundless continent is yours. a cure for the spleen; or, amusement for a winter's evening. being the substance of a conversation on the times over a friendly tankard and pipe, between sharp, a country parson; bumper, a country justice; fillpot, an innkeeper; graveairs, a deacon; trim, a barber; brim, quaker; puff, a late representative. taken in shorthand by roger de coverly. america, . vo, pp. . a tory protest against the revolution. another edition with the title: _americans aroused in a cure for the spleen_, etc., new york: reprinted by james rivington, n. d. [ ]. vo, pp. . simmons, james wright james wright simmons, born at charleston, s. c., studied at harvard and made an extensive tour of europe, whence he came to new york and was for a time a writer for the _new york mirror_. he was also connected with other new york papers. he afterward held the office of comptroller general and treasurer of the republic of texas. died at memphis, tenn., aged years. julian. a dramatic fragment, n. p., n. d. [ ]. mo. smith, charles charles smith was born about . he was for a time a bookseller in new york, and was the editor of the _monthly military repository_. the following are all translations from kotzebue:-- the count of burgundy.[a] a tragedy in four acts. new york, . vo. another edition, new york, . vo, pp. vi.- . self immolation; or, the sacrifice of love. a play in three acts. new york, . vo, pp. . the wild youth. a comedy for digestion in three acts. new york, . vo, pp. . le perouse[a]. a comedy in two acts. new york, . vo, pp. . the virgin of the sun.[a] a play in five acts. new york, . vo, pp. . adelaide of wulfingen. a tragedy in four acts, (exemplifying the barbarity which prevailed during the thirteenth century). new york, . vo, pp. . the force of calumny.[a] a play in five acts. new york, . vo, pp. . the happy family. a drama in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . pizarro; or, the spaniards in peru.[a] a tragedy in five acts. new york, . vo, pp. . the east indian. a comedy in three acts. new york, . vo, pp. . indigence, and nobleness of mind. a comedy in five acts. new york, . mo, pp. . the widow and the riding horse. a dramatic trifle in one act. new york. . vo, pp. . abbÃ� de l'epÃ�e; or, the orphan.[a] new york, . vo, pp. . false shame; or, the american orphan in germany.[a] newark [?], . mo, pp. . [footnote a: all these titles are dunlap's. in the list of dramatic authors in the appendix to dunlap's _history of the american theatre_ (first edition, new york, ), mr. dunlap includes this name with the comprehensive line, "several bad translations from kotzebue."] fraternal discord. a comedy in five acts. new york, . vo, pp. . the writing desk; or, youth in danger. a play in four acts. new york, . vo, pp. , last page misnumbered . the beautiful unknown. a dramatic history. new york, . mo, pp. , [ ]. smith, elihu hubbard elihu hubbard smith, born in litchfield, conn., september , , died in new york, september , , a graduate of yale and physician of philadelphia, where his father was also a noted doctor. he wrote a number of poems and sonnets for the magazines. he edited the first collection ( ) ever made of american poetry. founder with drs. edward miller and samuel l. mitchell of _the medical repository_. his death was caused by yellow fever contracted from a patient, a stranger who was taken by him into his own house for treatment. edwin and angelina; or, the banditti. an opera in three acts. new york: t. and j. swords, . vo, pp. . played at the john street theatre, new york, december , . when printed it was preceded by a dedication to reuben and abigail smith, the author's parents. smith, jonathan s. the siege of algiers; or, the downfall of hadgi-ali bashaw. a tragi-comedy. philadelphia, . vo, pp. . smith, richard penn richard penn smith, born in philadelphia in , died there in . he was educated as a lawyer. for five years he was editor of _the aurora_, and contributed to a number of other periodicals. his books, not dramatic, were a novel, in , called _the forsaken_, in two volumes; and _the actress of padua and other tales_. he died august , . he wrote fifteen plays in all. the th of january. a drama in three acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. iv.- . the deformed; or, woman's trial. a play, philadelphia, . mo, pp. . the disowned; or, the prodigals. a play. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . snapdragon, hector (pseudonym) the russian banquet. a drama. boston [ ]. mo, pp. . stearns, charles charles stearns, born in massachusetts in , died . he was a unitarian clergyman, and from to his death was pastor of a church at lincoln, in massachusetts. he wrote many good poems, and a variety of religious works. dramatic dialogues. leominster, mass., . mo, pp. . stokes, j. the forest of rosenwald; or, the travellers benighted. a melodrama in two acts, as performed at the new york theatre. new york, e. murden, . mo, pp. . another edition, new york, . mo. played at the park theatre, new york, april , , under the title of _the forest of rosenwald; or, the bleeding nun_. stone, john augustus john augustus stone, an actor, born in concord, mass., in , died near philadelphia, pa., june , . his first appearance on the stage was made in boston, and his début in new york occurred july , , at the park theatre, as _old hardy_ in _the belle's stratagem_, and _old pickle_ in _the spoiled child_. he was for a long time identified with the bowery and chatham theatres. the prize of five hundred dollars offered by mr. edwin forrest for the best american play, was awarded to mr. stone in , for his drama in verse, _metamora_, long and successfully played by mr. forrest. he subsequently received from mr. forrest one thousand dollars for his drama, _the ancient briton_, which, as well as another drama from his pen, _fauntleroy, the banker of rome_, were produced by forrest. he was also author of _la roque_, _the regicide_, _tancred of sicily_, and yankee hill's famous play, _the knight of the golden fleece_, always the most popular of that comedian's plays. he drowned himself in the schuylkill river, near philadelphia, in a fit of mental derangement. mr. forrest erected a very handsome monument to his memory. tancred; or, the siege of antioch. a drama in three acts. philadelphia, . mo, pp. . strong, henry k. the fall of iturbide; or, mexico delivered. a tragedy in five acts. pittsfield, phineas allen, . mo, pp. . talbot, charles s. squire hartley. a farce. albany, . mo. captain morgan. a play. albany [?] . mo. paddy's trip to america: or, the husband with three wives. a farce in two acts. new york, . mo, pp. . taylor, v. things as they will be; or, all barkers are not biters. a farce in three acts, by who d'ye think. new york, . mo, pp. . same. second edition. new york, . mo, pp. [ ]; - . the banker; or, things as they have been. a farce in three acts. respectfully dedicated to the purchasers of _things as they will be_, etc. by a tyro. new york, . mo, pp. [ ], - . turnbull, john d. rudolph; or, the robbers of calabria. a melodrama in three acts, as performed at the boston theatre. boston, . mo, pp. . several editions were published of this play. wood dÃ�mon; or, the clock has struck. a drama. boston, . mo, pp. . tyler, royall royall tyler was born in boston on july , , died in brattleboro, vt., august , . he was graduated from harvard in and studied law in the office of john adams. he was aide-de-camp to general benjamin lincoln in the revolution and in shay's rebellion in . he contributed to the _farmer's museum_, and when dennie became editor, tyler was called in to assist him. he published a series of papers in the _port-folio_ for . in he published, at walpole, n. h., his _algerine captive, or the life and adventures of doctor updike underhill, six years a prisoner among the algerines_; vols. in he contributed to the _columbian sentinel_. in he was elected chief justice of the supreme court of vermont. he also contributed to _the new england galaxy and polyanthus_. in he published _reports of cases in the supreme court of vermont_. the contrast. a comedy in five acts. written by a citizen of the united states. performed with applause at the theatres in new york, philadelphia and maryland; and published (under an assignment of the copyright) by thomas wignell. philadelphia: from the press of prichard & hall, in market street, between second and front streets. m.dcc.xc. plate. sm. vo, pp. xxii- . first played at the john street theatre, april , . reprinted by the dunlap society, new york, . * * * * * as the great business of the polite world is the eager pursuit of amusement, and as the public diversions of the season have been interrupted by the hostile parade in the capital; the exhibition of a new farce may not be unentertaining. the group, as lately acted, and to be re-acted to the wonder of all superior intelligences, nigh head-quarters at amboyne. the author had thought proper to borrow the following spirited lines from a late celebrated poet, and offer to the public by way of prologue, which cannot fail of pleasing at this crisis. _what! arm'd for virtue, and not point the pen, brand the bold front of shameless guilty men, dash the proud gamester from his gilded car, bare the mean heart which lurks beneath a star,_ * * * * * * * * * * _shall i not strip the gilding off a knave, unplac'd, unpension'd, no man's heir or slave? i will or perish in the gen'rous cause; hear this and tremble, ye who 'scape the laws; yes, while i live, no rich or noble, knave, shall walk the world in credit to his grave; to virtue only, and her friends, a friend. the world beside may murmur, or commend._ _boston_: printed and sold by edes and gill, in _queen-street_. . * * * * * the georgia spec; or, land in the moon. a comedy in three acts. boston, . vo. this comedy was written to ridicule the speculating mania in wild yazoo lands, and was performed in boston with success. wallack, w. h. paul jones; or, the pilot of the german ocean. a melodrama in three acts, adapted to the new york theatres. new york, . mo, pp. . warren, mercy mercy warren, born in barnstable, mass., september , , died in plymouth, mass., october , . she was the third child of colonel james otis. she married james warren, of plymouth, who was appointed high sheriff in , which place he held up to the breaking out of the revolution, when he became general of the american forces about boston. she was one of the foremost friends of liberty, and corresponded with most of the great men of her time. she published a _history of the american revolution_. her correspondence with john adams was published by the massachusetts historical society, . the adulateur. a tragedy, as it is now acted in upper servia. [ lines of poetry]. boston: printed and sold at the new printing office, near concert hall, . vo, pp. . the group. as lately acted and to be re-acted to the wonder of all superior intelligences, nigh head-quarters at amboyne. boston: printed and sold by edes and gill, in queen street, . a political satire in two acts in verse, published the day before the battle of lexington. another edition, new york: john anderson, n. d. [ ]. with second and third scenes of act ii. omitted. vo, pp. . the blockheads; or, the affrighted officers. a farce. boston: printed in queen street, . a counter-farce to burgoyne's _blockade_. published without name (attributed to mrs. warren) in the _literary history of the revolution_. new york, . the sack of rome. a tragedy. the ladies of castile. a tragedy. the above plays were published in a volume of _poems, dramatic and miscellaneous_. boston, . the motley assembly. a farce. published for the entertainment of the curious. boston: n. loverly, . mo, pp. . published without name (attributed to mrs. warren), by paul l. ford, in _beginnings of american dramatic literature_. watterson, george george watterson, born in new york in , died in washington, d. c., . he was a lawyer in washington, and was the first librarian of congress. he published several books on law and the topography of washington. he also published the _letters of general washington_. the child of feeling. a comedy. georgetown, . mo, pp. . wetmore, alphonso the pedlar. a farce in three acts. written for the st. louis thespians, by whom it was performed with great applause. st. louis: john a. paxton, . mo, pp. . white, john blake john blake white, born in south carolina in , died . he was an artist, lawyer and dramatist, residing in charleston. foscari; or, the venetian exile. a tragedy in five acts, as performed at the charleston theatre. charleston, . mo, pp. . the mysteries of the castle; or, the victim of revenge. a drama in five acts. charleston, . mo, pp. . modern honour; or, the victim of revenge. a tragedy. charleston, . mo. triumph of liberty; or, louisiana preserved. a national drama. charleston, . mo. the forgers. a drama. played at charleston, s. c., . published in _the southern literary messenger_, march, , and reprinted new york, . white, william charles william charles white, born in worcester, mass., made his début on the stage in boston in , and in new york, at the park theatre, january , , as _young norval_. he afterwards studied law and gave up the stage. orlando; or, parental persecution. a tragedy, as performed at the theatre, federal street, boston. boston, . portrait of wm. c. white. mo, pp. . the clergyman's daughter. a tragedy in five acts, as performed at the boston theatre, with the epilogue by r. t. paine, jr. boston, . mo, pp. . williamson, a. j. preservation; or, the hovel of the rocks. a play in five acts. charleston, . vo, pp. vii.- . wilmer, lambert a. lambert a. wilmer, born in , died in brooklyn, december , , was editor of the brooklyn _saturday visitor_, and of _the pennsylvanian_ in philadelphia. he was the author of _the quacks of helicon_. merlin. a drama. philadelphia, . mo. gloriana; or, the enchantress of elba. a drama. published in a weekly paper in philadelphia about . woodworth, samuel samuel woodworth, born in scituate, mass., january , , died in new york city, december , . his father was a soldier of the revolution. in early life he chose the profession of a printer, and went to boston, where he bound himself apprentice to benjamin russell, editor of _the columbian sentinel_. during this time he employed his leisure in writing poetry for different periodicals in that city over the signature of "selim." in he published a weekly paper in new haven called _the belles-lettres repository_. the next year he went to baltimore, where many of his best poems were published. he came to new york in , and during the war of published a weekly newspaper entitled _the war_. he also edited, at different times, _the halcyon luminary and theological repository_, _the casket_, _the parthenon_, and _the literary gazette_. he also was one of the founders and editors of _the new york mirror_. in he published _champions of freedom_. the deed of gift. a comic opera in three acts, as performed at the boston theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . first acted at the city theatre in warren street, new york, january , . lafayette; or, the castle of olmutz. a drama in three acts, as performed at the new york park theatre. new york, . mo, pp. . first acted at the park theatre, new york, february , . the forest rose; or, american farmers. a pastoral opera in two acts, as performed at the chatham theatre, new york. new york, . mo, pp. . first acted at the chatham theatre, new york, october , . the widow's son; or, which is the traitor? a melodrama in three acts. new york, . mo, pp. . first acted at the park theatre, new york, december , . king's bridge cottage. a revolutionary tale founded on an incident which occurred a few days previous to the evacuation of n. york by the british. a drama in two acts, written by a gentleman of new york and performed at the amateur theatre. new york, . mo, pp. , [ ]. workman, james liberty in louisiana. a comedy. charleston, . mo. played at the charleston theatre in . wright, frances ("fanny") frances wright, born in dundee, scotland, september , , died in cincinnati, o., december , . she became, early in life, imbued with french liberalism, and was an admiring friend of lafayette. she first came to the united states in , and was introduced in literary circles here by joseph rodman drake. after a time spent in paris she came again to the united states in , and purchased acres of land in tennessee, at neshoba (now memphis). here she established a colony of freed slaves. the state authorities compelled the relinquishment of the scheme as contrary to the law of the commonwealth, and the land, which was held for her in trust by lafayette, was reconveyed to her. the negroes were sent to hayti, and miss wright spent three years in lecturing on slavery and social topics in the united states, especially upon woman suffrage, of which she was the first considerable advocate. she went again to france, where she married monsieur d'arnsmont, with whom, however, she lived but a short time, returning finally to cincinnati, ohio, where she made her final home. altorf. a tragedy, first represented in the theatre of new york, february , . philadelphia, . mo, pp. . this play was produced in different cities, but was not a success. another edition, new york, . mo. * * * * * plays in manuscript many more titles could be added to the following list, but these will suffice. ireland's _records of the new york stage_, dunlap's _american theatre_ and rees's _dramatic authors of america_ give many additional titles, but as unpublished plays really do not deserve a place in a bibliography, i have inserted this list only for the purpose of comparison between those printed and those unpublished. anonymous: the american captive. a farce. american tars. (the purse.) the ancient soldier. the battle of north point. capture of major andré. down east; or, the militia training. the festival of peace. greece and liberty. the green mountain boys. guilt. harlequin panatahah. the harper's daughter. the indian wife. the irish patriot. the jubilee; or, triumph of freedom. the lad of spirit. the last of the serpent tribe. life in new york; or, firemen on duty. love in a cloud. lucinda. the manhattoes. the medium; or, happy tea party. miantonomah and nanahmattah. the pilot. the pioneer. the poor student. the return from the camp. ruffian boy. a tale of the crusade. a tragedy. thirty-three john street. a farce. the wigwam; or templeton manor. barker, james n. america. a mask in one act. attila. a tragedy. written in , and left unfinished. the armourer's escape; or, three years at nootka sound. a melodramatic sketch in two acts. played in philadelphia, march , . the embargo; or, what news? played in philadelphia, march , . bell, d. v. the fair maid of perth. played at lafayette theatre, new york, . burgoyne, general john. the blockade of boston. played by burgoyne's thespians, in boston, during the revolutionary war. burk, john daly. joan of arc; or, the maid of orleans. a tragedy. fortunes of nigel. a dramatization of scott's novel. innkeeper of abbeville. which do you like best? chapman, samuel henry. doctor foster. gasparoni. the mail coach. clinch, charles powell. the spy. dramatized from cooper's novel. the expelled collegian. a farce. the avenger's vow. first of may in new york; or, double or quit farce. colman, benjamin. gustavus vasa. cooper and gray, drs. the renegade; or, france restored. da ponte, lorenzo. the italian husband. a tragedy. the roman wife. a tragedy. d'elville, rinallo. clairvoyants. a comedy. dumont, j. b. the invisible witness. dunlap, william. the modest soldier; or, love in new york. the wedding. a comedy. shelty's travels. a farce. sterne's maria; or, the vintage. an opera. the natural daughter. a comedy. the temple of independence. the stranger. count benyowski. the school for soldiers. the force of calumny. the robbery. the knight of guadalquiver. the count of burgundy. the corsicans. abbé de l'epée. where is he? the retrospect. bonaparte in england. the proverb. lewis of mont blanco. thirty years. it is a lie. self immolation. the stranger's birthday. the indians in england. battle of new orleans. nina. an operetta. the miser's wedding. the soldier of ' . la perouse. the merry gardener. forty and twenty. robespierre. the flying dutchman. ellet, mrs. e. f. the duke of buckingham. ewing, robert w. le soltaire. sponge again. the frontier maid. the highland seer. the election. the imperial victim. lafayette. quentin durward. exit in a hurry. bride of death. fennell, james. the wheel of truth. a farce. lindor and clari. picture of paris. field,----. france and liberty. rhyme without reason. a farce. foot, john f. the little thief; or, the night walker. foster,----. the inheritance. hamilton, colonel. the enterprise. an opera. hatton, ann julia. tammany. an opera. . henry, john. the convention. orvidius. the american soldier. true blue. holland, edwin c. the corsair. hutton, joseph. cuffee and duffee. modern honor. ingersoll, charles jared. julian the apostate. ingham, john. the times. the usurper. linn, john blair. bourville castle; or, the gallic orphan. maddocks,----. the bohemian mother. merry, robert. the abbey of st. augustine. milne,----. all in a bustle; or, the new house. a prelude. flash in the pan. the eclipse. the portrait painter. morris, george pope. briar cliff; a tale of the revolution. a drama. noah, mordecai manuel. siege of tripoli. played on the night the park theatre, n. y., was burned. payne, john howard. oswali of athens. proclamation. phillips, j. o. the female spy. paul clifford. beauty and booty. potter, reuben. don alonzo. a tragedy. robinson, j. the yorker's stratagem; or, banana's wedding. a farce. rowson, susanna. columbia's daughter. a drama. stock, thomas. the wedding in wales. stone, john augustus. metamora; a tragedy. restoration. the ancient briton. fauntleroy. la roque, the regicide. tancred of sicily. the knight of the golden fleece. tyler, royall. may-day in town; or, new york in an uproar. villeneuve, le blanc de. le pére indien. a tragedy. white, william charles. the poor lodger. williams, john (anthony pasquin). the federal oath. manhattan stage. wood, mrs. the north americans. a play in five acts. * * * * * index to titles of published plays page abaellino, abbé de l'epée, accusation, adelaide of wulfingen, adeline, adulateur, the, alberti, alberto and matilda, alcuin, alexis the czarowitz, alfred the great, ali pacha, almachide, almoran and hamet, altorf, american captive, the, americana, americans in england, andré, androboros, ape musicale, l', archers, the, assur re d'ormus, banker, the, battle of brooklyn, the, battle of bunker hill, the, battle of eutaw springs, battle of new orleans, the, battle of the eutaw springs, the, beautiful unknown, the, beaux without belles, belisarius, bethlem gabor, better sort, the, blackbeard, blind boy, the, blockheads, the; or fortunate contractor, blockheads, the; or, the affrighted officers, , blow for blow, blue beard, brutus, bucktails, the, bunker hill, candidate, the, captain morgan, carrabasset, catharine brown, charles the second, charles the twelfth, child of feeling, the, clari, clergyman's daughter, the, columbia and britannia, comedy, a, , comic opera, a, conquest of canada, the, contrast, the, count of burgundy, the, cure for the spleen, a, daranzel, darby's return, death of general montgomery, the, death of louis the sixteenth, deed of gift, the, deformed, the, demetria, democedes, dialogue, disappointed, disappointment, the, discarded daughter, the, disenchantment, disowned, the, don giovanni, il, dramatic dialogues, dramatic pieces, dramatic sketch, east indian, the, edwin and angelina, edwy and elgiva, eighth of january, the, emancipation of europe, essex junto, exercise, an, , , , fair american, the, fall of algiers, the, fall of british tyranny, fall of iturbide, the, fall of tecumseh, the, false shame, , fashionable follies, fatal deception, the, fatal effects of seduction, fatal error, the, father, the, father of an only child, federalism triumphant, female enthusiast, the, female patriot, the, female patriotism, force of calumny, the, forest of rosenwald, the, forest rose, the, forgers, the, fortress of sorrento, the, foscari, fountainville abbey, fox chase, the, fraternal discord, , french revolution, the, generous chief, the, georgia spec, the, giordano, gloriana, glory of columbia, the, good neighbor, the, gordian knot, the, grecian captive, the, group, the, hadad, happy family, the, he stoops to conquer, heaven on earth, hero of two wars, the, history of the falcos, the, how to try a lover, independence, indian princess, the, indian prophecy, the, indigence and nobleness of mind, indoctum parliamentum, intolerants, the, irma, is it a lie?, italian father, the, italian husband, the, jefferson and liberty, jonathan in england, jonathan postfree, julia, julian, julian and elphina, kathleen o'neil, king's bridge cottage, knight's adventure, the, knights of the rum bottle & co., the, kosciusko, ladies of castile, the, lafayette, , lafayette en mount vernon, lafayette in prison, lancers, the, leicester, liberty in louisiana, logan, love and friendship, love in humble life, lover, the, lover's vows, , lucy sampson, man of fortitude, the, manuscript, the, marion, marmion, mary of scotland, medley, the, mercenary match, the, merlin, merry dames, the, military glory of great britain, the, mina, mrs. smith, madam honour, montgomery, monthly assembly, the, motley assembly, the, mountain torrent, the, mysteries of the castle, the, naomi, nature and philosophy, new england drama, the, new gentle shepherd, the, new scene, a, new world planted, a, night-watch, the, nolens volens, nozze di figaro, la, occurrences of the times, odofriede, , onliata, orlando, orphan, the, orphan of prague, the, otho, paddy's trip to america, patriot chief, the, patriots, the, , paul jones, paxton boys, the, pedlar, the, pennsylvania sailor's letters, a, percy's masque, perouse, le, peter smink, peter the great, phelles, king of tyre, philip, pizarro, pizarro in peru, plan of a performance of solemn musick, the, pocahontas, politicians, the, ponteach, power of christianity, the, preservation, prince and the patriot, the, prince of parthia, the, prophecy, the, reconciliation, the, red rover, the, reign of reform, the, reparation, rescue, the, ribbemont, richelieu, rinaldo rinaldini, rip van winkle, robin hood, rosa, rose of arragon, the, rudolph, rural felicity, russian banquet, the, sack of rome, the, sans souci, saul, saw mill, the, scena quarta dell atto quinto di adad, scene in the first act of the new farce, a, school for prodigals, the, school for soldiers, a, sea serpent, the, search after happiness, the, self immolation, sertorius, she would be a soldier, shepherdess of the alps, siege of algiers, the, sister, the, slaves in algiers, snow storm, the, songs of tammany, the, sprightly widow, the, squire hartley, stranger, the, suicide, the, sultana, the, superstition, suspected daughter, the, sylla, tale of lexington, a, tancred, , tears and smiles, tell the truth and shame the devil, theodora, therese, things as they will be, toothache, the, traveller returned, the, travellers, the, tricks of the times, trip to niagara, a, triumph of liberty, triumphs of love, the, trust, the, 'twas i, two galley slaves, the, two pages of frederick the great, tyrant's victims, a, usurper, the, virgin of the sun, the, , virginia, virtue triumphant, voice of nature, the, volunteers, the, wall street, wandering boys, the, widow and the riding horse, the, widow of malabar, the, widow's son, the, wife of two husbands, wild goose chase, the, wild youth, the, wood dæmon, wounded hussar, the, wreck of honor, the, , writing desk, the, xerxes the great, yankee chronology, yankey in england, the, young carolinians, the, zamor, [transcriber's note: obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all other inconsistencies are as in the original. the author's spelling has been maintained. unusual subscripts have been marked with { }, e.g.: v{te} for vicomte. bold text has been marked with =.] [illustration: from a photograph by braun, clement & co. empress marie louise by pierre paul prod'hon.] the life of napoleon bonaparte by william milligan sloane ph.d., l.h.d., ll.d. _professor of history in columbia university_ revised and enlarged with portraits volume iv new york the century co. copyright, , , , by the century co. _published, october, _ contents chapter page i. the last imperial victory............................... ii. politics and strategy.................................. iii. the end of the grand army.............................. iv. the frankfort proposals................................ v. the invasion of france................................. vi. napoleon's supreme effort.............................. vii. the great captain at bay............................... viii. the struggles of exhaustion............................ ix. the beginning of the end.............................. x. the fall of paris..................................... xi. napoleon's first abdication........................... xii. the emperor of elba................................... xiii. napoleon the liberator................................ xiv. the dynasties implacable.............................. xv. ligny and quatre bras................................. xvi. the eve of waterloo................................... xvii. waterloo.............................................. xviii. the surrender......................................... xix. st. helena............................................ xx. soldier, statesman, despot............................ xxi. napoleon and the united states........................ xxii. napoleon's place in history........................... historical sources.................................... general bibliography.................................. index................................................. list of illustrations empress marie louise _frontispiece_ facing page napoleon in ................................................. napoleon, françois charles joseph, prince imperial; king of rome; duke of reichstadt............................... map of the field of operations in .......................... the king of rome................................................ map of the campaign of ..................................... napoleon, françois charles joseph, duke of reichstadt, etc., etc., son of napoleon bonaparte......................... napoleon sleeping by las cases on board the _bellerophon_....... napoleon at st. helena.......................................... napoleon i...................................................... life of napoleon bonaparte chapter i the last imperial victory[ ] [footnote : references: pierron: napoléon, de dresde à leipzig. pelet: des principales opérations de la campagne de . york von wartenburg: précis militaire de la campagne de en allemagne. clément: campagne de . lüdtke: die strategische bedeutung der schlacht bei dresden. sorel: l'europe et la révolution française, vol. viii.] napoleon's prospects -- the preparations and plans of the coalition -- cross-purposes of the combatants -- condition of napoleon's mind -- strength and weakness of the allies -- renewal of hostilities -- the feint in silesia -- napoleon at dresden -- first day's fighting -- the victory won on the second day. [sidenote: ] in later years napoleon confessed that during the interval between the first and second saxon campaigns he had been outwitted. his antagonists had, in his own language, "changed for the better"; at least they secured the war they so earnestly desired under conditions vastly more favorable to themselves than to their opponent. both parties had been arming with might and main during the prolonged truce, but each member of the dynastic coalition now had the backing of a growing national enthusiasm, while napoleon had to deal with waning zeal and an exhausted people. thus, then, at the opening of the second campaign in saxony, the allies had four hundred and thirty-five thousand men, and napoleon but three hundred and fifty thousand. with this inferiority, it behooved the emperor to use all his strategic powers, and he did so with a brilliancy never surpassed by him. choosing the elbe as his natural defensive line, hamburg stood almost impregnable at one end, flanked to the southward by magdeburg, wittenberg, and torgau, three mighty fortresses. dresden, which was necessarily the focal point, was intrenched and palisaded for the protection of the army which was to be its main bulwark. davout and oudinot, with seventy thousand men, were to threaten berlin, and, thereby drawing off as many as possible of the enemy, liberate the garrisons of stettin and küstrin; they were then to beleaguer spandau, push the foe across the oder, and stand ready to fall on the flank of the coalition army. napoleon himself, with the remaining two hundred and eighty thousand, was to await the onset of the combined russian, prussian, and austrian forces. the allies now had in their camp two mighty strategists--jomini, the well-known swiss adventurer and military historian, and moreau, who had returned from the united states. the former, pleading that he had lost a merited promotion by berthier's ill-will, and that as a foreigner he had the right of choice, had gone over to the enemies of his employer; the latter, yielding to the specious pleas of his silly and ambitious wife that he might fight napoleon without fighting france, had taken service with the czar. the arrow which penetrated napoleon's vitals was indeed feathered from his own pinions, since these two, with another of napoleon's pupils--bernadotte, the crown prince of sweden--were virtually the council of war. two of them, the latter and moreau, saw the specter of french sovereignty beckoning them on. they dreamed of the chief magistracy in some shape, imperial, monarchical, consular, or presidential, and were more devoted to their personal interests than to those of the coalition. in the service of their ambition was formed the plan by which not only was napoleon overwhelmed, but the fields of france were drenched with blood. under their advice, three great armies were arrayed: that of the north, in brandenburg, was composed of prussians, swedes, and a few russians, its generals being bülow, bernadotte, and tchernicheff; that of the east was the prusso-russian army in silesia, now under blücher, that astounding young cavalryman of seventy, and wittgenstein; finally, that of the south was the new austrian force under schwarzenberg, with an adjunct force of russian troops under barclay, and the russian guard under the grand duke constantine. bülow was in and near berlin with about a hundred and fifty-six thousand men; blücher had ninety-five thousand, and, having violated the armistice, was on august fourteenth already within the neutral zone at striegau, before breslau; the austro-russian force of almost two hundred and fifty thousand was in northern bohemia, near melnik; bennigsen was in poland building up a strong reserve. schwarzenberg, though commander of the main army, was reduced to virtual impotence by the presence at his headquarters of all the sovereigns and of moreau. divided counsels spring from diverse interests; there was at the outset a pitiful caution and inefficiency on the part of the allies, while at napoleon's headquarters there was unity of design at least. both contestants were apparently under serious misapprehensions. the allies certainly were, because francis believed that, as so often before, napoleon's goal would be vienna. the plan adopted by them was therefore very simple: each division of the allied army was to stand expectant; if assailed it was to yield, draw on the french columns, and expose their flank or rear to the attacks of the other two allied armies; then by superior force the invaders were to be surrounded. the allies divined, or believed they divined, that napoleon would hold his guard in reserve, throw it behind any portion of his line opposite which they were vulnerable, break through, and defeat them in detachments. their idea was keen, and displayed a thorough grasp both of the principles on which their opponent had hitherto acted and of his normal character. but nevertheless they were deceived. napoleon discarded all his old principles, and behaved most abnormally. in his conduct there are evidences of a curious self-deception, and his decisions contradicted his language. perpetually minimizing in conversation the disparity between the two forces, and sometimes even asserting his own superiority, he nevertheless almost for the first time assumed the defensive. this unheard-of course may have been due to misapprehension and exaggeration, but it produced for the moment a powerful moral effect on his generals, who, without exception, had hitherto been clamorous for peace, and likewise upon his new boy recruits; both classes began to have a realizing sense that they were now fighting, not for aggression, but for life. if the emperor had any such confidence as he expressed, it must have been due to the fact that boys had fought like veterans at lützen and bautzen, and that at last there were cavalry and artillery in fair proportion. possibly, likewise, he may have been desperate; fully aware that he was about to cast the dice for a last stake, he may have been at once braggart and timid. if he should win in a common defensive battle, he believed, as his subsequent conduct goes to show, that he was safe indefinitely; and if he lost--the vision must have been too dreadful, enough to distract the sanest mind: an exhausted treasury, an exhausted nation, an empty throne, vanished hopes, ruin! yet at the time no one remarked any trace of nervousness in napoleon. long afterward the traitorous marmont, whose name, like that of moreau, was to be execrated by succeeding generations of honorable frenchmen, recalled that the emperor had contemptuously designated the enemy as a rabble, and that he had likewise overestimated the strategic value of berlin. the malignant annalist asserted, too, that napoleon's motive was personal spite against prussia. it has also been studiously emphasized by others that the "children" of napoleon's army were perishing like flowers under an untimely frost, forty thousand french and german boys being in the hospitals; that corruption was rife in every department of administration; and that the soldiers' pay was shamefully in arrears. an eye-witness saw peyrusse, the paymaster, to whom napoleon had just handed four thousand francs for a monument to duroc, coolly pocket a quarter of the sum, with the remark that such was the custom. he would be rash indeed who dared to assert that there was no basis for this criticism. it is true that the instructions to davout and oudinot made light of bülow's army, and that berlin had vastly less strategic value than those instructions seemed to indicate. but, on the other hand, both generals and men were sadly in need of self-reliance, and to see their capitals occupied or endangered had still a tremendous moral effect upon dynastic sovereigns. as to the defects in his army, napoleon could not have been blind; but in all these directions matters had been nearly, if not quite, as bad in , and a victory had set them all in order. what nervousness there was existed rather among the allies. never before in her history, not even under the great frederick, had prussia possessed such an army; the austrians were well drilled and well equipped; the russians were of fair quality, numerous, and with the reserves from poland would be a powerful army in themselves. yet in spite of their strength, the allies were not really able. austria was the head, but her commander, schwarzenberg, was not even mediocre, and among her generals there was only one who was first-rate, namely, radetzky. frederick william and alexander were of incongruous natures; their alliance was artificial, and in such plans as they evolved there was an indefiniteness which left to the generals in their respective forces a large margin for independence. the latter were quick to take advantage of the chance, and this fact accounts for the generally lame and feeble beginning of hostilities. for example, it was through blücher's wilfulness that the moral advantage lay with napoleon in the opening of the struggle. on july ninth bernadotte, frederick william, and the czar had met at trachenberg to lay out a plan of campaign. in this conference, which first opened napoleon's eyes to the determination of the allies, blücher had secured for himself an independent command. the accession of austria rendered the agreement of trachenberg null, but blücher did not abandon his ambition. impatient of orders or good faith, he broke into the neutral zone at striegau on august fourteenth, apparently without any very definite plan. napoleon, hearing that forty thousand russians from this army were marching toward bohemia, advanced from dresden on august fifteenth, to be within reach of the passes of the iser mountains on the upper elbe, and halted at zittau as a central point, where he could easily collect about a hundred and eighty thousand men, and whence, according to circumstances, he could either strike blücher, cut off the russians, or return to dresden in case of need. that city was to be held by saint-cyr. on august twentieth blücher reached the banks of the bober at bunzlau; owing to napoleon's nice calculation, ney, marmont, lauriston, and macdonald were assembled on the other side to check the advance, he himself being at lauban with the guard. had blücher stood, the russo-prussians would have been annihilated, for their inferiority was as two to one. but the headstrong general did not stand; on the contrary, retreating by preconcerted arrangement behind the deichsel, he led his antagonist to the false conclusion that he lacked confidence in his army. napoleon was not generally over-credulous, but this mistake was probably engendered in his mind by the steady stream of uneasy reports he was receiving from his own generals. on the twenty-third he wrote to maret that his division commanders seemed to have no self-reliance except in his presence; "the enemy's strength seems great to them wherever i am not." marmont was the chief offender, having severely criticized a plan of operations which would require one or more of the marshals to act independently in brandenburg or silesia or both, expressing the fear that on the day when the emperor believed himself to have won a decisive battle he would discover that he had lost two. seventeen years of campaigning had apparently turned the great generals of napoleon's army into puppets, capable of acting only on their leader's impulse. whatever the cause, napoleon was set in his idea, and pressed on in pursuit. on the twenty-second blücher was beyond the katzbach, with the french van close behind, when word arrived at napoleon's headquarters that the austro-russians had entered saxony and were menacing dresden. how alert and sane the emperor was, how thoroughly he foresaw every contingency, appears from the minute directions he wrote for macdonald, who was left to block the road for blücher into saxony, while lauriston was to outflank and shut off the perfervid veteran from both berlin and zittau. these instructions having been written, napoleon at first contemplated crossing the elbe above dresden to take schwarzenberg on the flank and rear in the passes of the ore mountains. this would not only cut off the austrian general from the saxon capital, but prevent his swerving to the left for an advance on leipsic. but finding that his enemy was moving swiftly, the emperor resolved to meet him before dresden. it would never do to lose his ally's capital at the outset, or to suffer defeat at the very head of his defensive line. giving orders, therefore, for the corps of marmont, vandamme, and victor, together with latour-maubourg's cavalry and the guard, to wheel, he hastened back to reinforce saint-cyr at dresden. on the twenty-fifth, as he passed bautzen, he learned that oudinot had been defeated at luckau; but he gave no heed to the report, and next day reached dresden at nine in the morning. an hour later the guard came up, having performed the almost incredible feat of marching seventy-six miles in three days. vandamme, with forty thousand men, had arrived at pirna, a few miles above, and saint-cyr was drawing in behind the temporary fortifications of the city itself. the enemy, too, was at hand, but he had no plan. in a council of war held by him the same morning there was protracted debate, and finally moreau's advice to advance in six columns was taken. he refused "to fight against his country," but explained that the french could never be conquered in mass, and that if one assailing column were crushed, the rest could still push on. this long deliberation cost the allies their opportunity; for at four in the afternoon, when they attacked, the mass of the french army had crossed the elbe and had thus completed the garrison of the city. for two hours the fighting was fierce and stubborn; from three different sides russians, austrians, and prussians each made substantial gains; at six napoleon determined to make a general sally and throw in his guard. with fine promptness. mortier, at the head of two divisions of the young guard, attacked the russians, and, fighting until midnight, drove them beyond the hamlet of striefen. saint-cyr dislodged the prussians, and pushed them to strehla; while ney, with two divisions of the young guard, threw a portion of the austrians into plauen, and murat, with two divisions of infantry and latour-maubourg's cavalry, cleared the suburb friedrichstadt of the rest. napoleon, alert and ubiquitous, then made his usual round, and knew when he retired to rest in the royal palace that with seventy thousand men, or rather boys, he had repulsed a hundred and fifty thousand of his foe. his inspiriting personal work might be calculated as worth eighty thousand of his opponents' best men. that night both marmont and victor, with their corps, entered the city; and vandamme in the early dawn began to bombard pirna, thus threatening the allies' connection with bohemia and drawing away forces from them to hold that outpost. the second day's fighting was more disastrous to the allies than the first. the morning opened in a tempest, but at six both sides were arrayed. on the french right were victor and latour-maubourg; then marmont; then the old guard and ney with two divisions of the young guard; next saint-cyr, with mortier on the left. opposite stood russians, prussians, and austrians, in the same relative positions, on higher ground, encircling the french all the way westward and around by the south to plauen; but between their center and left was reserved a gap for klenau's austrians, who were coming up from tharandt in the blinding storm, and were overdue. at seven began the artillery fire of the young guard; but before long it ceased for an instant, since the gunners found the enemy's line too high for the elevation of their guns. "continue," came swiftly the emperor's order; "we must occupy the attention of the enemy on that spot." the ruse succeeded, and the gap was left open; at ten murat dashed through it, and turning westward, killed or captured all who composed the enemy's extreme left. the garrison of pirna then retreated toward peterswald. elsewhere the french merely held their own. napoleon lounged all day in a curious apathy before his camp-fire, his condition being apparently due to the incipient stages of a digestive disorder. early in the afternoon schwarzenberg heard of murat's great charge, but he held firm until at five the flight from pirna was announced, when he abandoned the conflict. by six napoleon was aware that the battle was over, and, mounting his horse, he trotted listlessly to the palace, his old gray overcoat and hood streaming with rain. chapter ii politics and strategy[ ] [footnote : references: luckwaldt: Österreich und die anfänge des befreiungskrieges von : vom abschluss der allianz mit frankreich, bis zum eintritt in die koalition. aster: die kriegsereignisse zwischen peterswalde, pirna, königstein und priesten im august, , und die schlacht bei kulm. wagner: die tage v. dresden u. kulm. heft: der waffenstillstand und die schlacht bei gross-beeren nebst fünf beilagen.] napoleon's conduct after dresden -- military considerations overruled by political schemes -- probable explanation of napoleon's failure -- prussian victories at grossbeeren and on the katzbach -- vandamme overwhelmed at kulm -- napoleon's responsibility -- political considerations again ascendant -- the system of "hither and thither" -- the battle of dennewitz -- its disastrous consequences -- napoleon's vacillation -- strategy thwarted by diplomacy. throughout the night after the victory at dresden, napoleon believed that the enemy would return again to battle on the morrow. this is conclusively shown by the notes which he made for berthier during the evening. these were based on the stated hypothesis that the enemy was not really in retreat, but would on the morrow by a great battle strive to retrieve his failure. but the emperor was altogether mistaken. to be sure, the council of the disheartened allies debated far into the small hours whether an advantageous stand could not still be made on the heights of dippoldiswalde, but the decision was adverse because the coalition army was sadly shattered, having lost a third of its numbers. crippled on its left and threatened on its rear, it began next morning to retreat in fair order toward the ore mountains, and so continued until it became known that vandamme was directly in the path, when a large proportion of the troops literally took to the hills, and retreat became flight. then first, at four in the afternoon, napoleon began to realize what had actually occurred. and what did he do? having ridden almost to pirna before taking measures of any kind to reap the fruits of victory, he there issued orders for the single corps of vandamme, slightly reinforced, to begin the pursuit! thereupon, leaving directions for mortier to hold pirna, he entered a carriage and drove quietly back to dresden! these are the almost incredible facts: no terrific onslaught after the first night, no well-ordered pursuit after the second, a mere pretense of seizing the advantage on the third day! in fact, napoleon, having set his plan in operation at the very beginning of the battle, sank, to all outward appearances, into a state of lassitude, the only sign of alert interest he displayed throughout the conflict being shown when he was told that moreau had been mortally wounded. the cause may have been physical or it may have been moral, but it was probably a political miscalculation. if we may believe captain coignet, the talk of the staff on the night of the twenty-seventh revealed a perfect knowledge of the enemy's rout; they knew that the retreat of their opponents had been precipitate, and they had credible information of disordered bands seen hurrying through byways or rushing headlong through mountain defiles. yet for all this, they were thoroughly discontented, and the burden of their conversation was execration of the emperor. "he's a -------- who will ruin us all," was the repeated malediction. if we may believe napoleon himself, he had a violent attack of vomiting near pirna, and was compelled to leave everything on that fateful day to others. this is possible, but unlikely; the day before, though listless, he was well enough to chat and take snuff as he stood in a redoubt observing the course of events through his field-glass; the day after he was perfectly well, and exercised unusual self-control when tidings of serious import were brought from the north. the sequel goes to show that neither his own sickness nor the bad temper of the army sufficiently accounts for napoleon's unmilitary conduct on the twenty-eighth; it appears, on the contrary, as if he refrained of set purpose from annihilating the austrian army in order to reknit the austrian alliance and destroy the coalition. this he never was willing to admit; but no man likes to confess himself a dupe. had oudinot and macdonald succeeded in their offensive operations against berlin, and had napoleon himself done nothing more than hold dresden, a place which we must remember he considered from the outset as a defensive point, it would have sufficed, in order to obtain the most favorable terms of peace, to throw back the main army of the coalition, humiliated and dispirited, through bohemia to prague. but, as we have repeatedly seen, long service under the empire had destroyed all initiative in the french marshals: in spain one mighty general after another had been brought low; those who were serving in germany seemed stricken with the same palsy. it is true that in the days of their greatness they had commanded choice troops, and that now the flower of the army was reserved for the emperor; but it is likewise true that then they had fought for wealth, advancement, and power. now they yearned to enjoy their gains, and were embittered because napoleon had not accepted austria's terms of mediation until it was too late. moreover, bernadotte, one of their opponents, had been trained in their own school, and was fighting for a crown. to blücher, untamed and untrustworthy in temper, had been given in the person of gneisenau an efficient check on all headlong impulses, and bülow was a commander far above mediocrity. such considerations go far to account for three disasters--those, namely, of grossbeeren, katzbach, and kulm--which made it insufficient for napoleon to hold dresden and throw back the main army of the allies, and which thwarted all his strategy, military and political. the first of these affairs was scarcely a defeat. oudinot, advancing with seventy thousand men by way of wittenberg to seize berlin, found himself confronted by bernadotte with eighty thousand. the latter, with his eye on the crown of france, naturally feared to defeat a french army; at first he thought of retreating across the spree and abandoning the prussian capital. but the prussians were outraged at the possibility of such conduct, and the schemer was convinced that a show of resistance was imperative. on august twenty-second a few skirmishes occurred, and the next day bülow, disobeying his orders, brought on a pitched battle at grossbeeren, which was waged, with varying success, until nightfall left the village in french hands. oudinot, however, discouraged alike by the superior force of the enemy, by the obstinate courage of the prussians, and by the dismal weather, lost heart, and retreated to wittenberg. the heavy rains prevented an effective pursuit, but the prussians followed as far as treuenbrietzen. on august twenty-first, blücher, aware of the circumstances which kept napoleon at dresden, had finally determined to attack macdonald. the french marshal, by a strange coincidence, almost simultaneously abandoned the defensive position he had been ordered to hold, and advanced to give battle. it was therefore a mere chance when on the twenty-fifth the two armies came together, amid rain and fog, at the katzbach. after a bitter struggle the french were routed with frightful loss. a terrific rain-storm set in, and the whole country was turned into a marsh. for five days blücher continued the pursuit, until he reached naumburg, on the right bank of the queiss, where he halted, having captured eighteen thousand prisoners and a hundred and three guns. to these misfortunes the affair at kulm was a fitting climax. no worse leader for a delicate independent movement could have been selected than the reckless vandamme. he was so rash, conceited, and brutish that napoleon once exclaimed in sheer desperation: "if there were two vandammes in my army, nothing could be done until one had killed the other." as might have been expected, the headlong general far outstripped the columns of marmont, saint-cyr, and murat, which had been tardily sent to support him. descending without circumspection into the plain of kulm, he found himself, on the twenty-ninth, confronted by the russian guard; and next morning, when attacked by them in superior force, he was compelled to retreat through a mountain defile toward peterswald, whence he had come. at the mouth of the gorge he was unexpectedly met by the prussian corps of kleist. each side thought the other moving to cut it off. they therefore rushed one upon the other in despair, with no other hope than that of breaking through to rejoin their respective armies. the shock was terrible, and for a time the confusion seemed inextricable. but the russians soon came up, and vandamme, with seven thousand men, was captured, the loss in slain and wounded being about five thousand. saint-cyr, marmont, and murat halted and held the mountain passes. this was the climax of disaster in napoleon's great strategic plan. in no way responsible for grossbeeren, nor for macdonald's defeat on the katzbach, he was culpable both for the selection of vandamme and for failure to support him in the pursuit of schwarzenberg. at st. helena the emperor strove in three ways to account for the crash under which he was buried after dresden: by the sickness which made him unable to give attention to the situation, by the inundation which rendered macdonald helpless at the crossing of the bober, and by the arrival of a notification from the king of bavaria that, after a certain date, he too would join the coalition. this was not history, but an appeal to public sentiment, carefully calculated for untrained readers. the fact was that at dresden the gradual transformation of the strategist into the politician, which had long been going on, was complete. the latter misapprehended the moment for diplomatic negotiations, conceiving the former's victory to have been determinative, when in reality it was rendered partial and contingent by failure to follow it up. great as napoleon was in other respects, he was supremely great as a strategist; it is therefore his psychological development and decline in this respect which are essential to the determination of the moment in which he became bankrupt in ability. this instant was that of course in which his strategic failures became no longer intermittent, but regular; and after dresden such was the case. as to conception and tactics there never was a failure--the year is the wonder-year of his theoretical genius; but after dresden there is continuous failure in the practical combination of concept and means, in other words, of strategic mastery. this contention as to the clouding of napoleon's vision by the interference of political and military considerations is proved by his next step. hitherto his basal principle had been to mass all his force for a determinative blow, his combinations all turning about hostile armies and their annihilation, or at least about producing situations which would make annihilation possible. now he was concerned, not with armies, but with capital cities. claiming that to extend his line toward prague would weaken it, in order to resume a strong defensive he chose the old plan of an advance to berlin, and ney was sent to supersede oudinot, schwarzenberg being left to recuperate unmolested. the inchoate idea of political victory which turned him back from pirna was fully developed; by a blow at berlin and a general northward movement he could not merely punish prussia, but alarm russia, separate the latter's army from that of the other allies, and then plead with austria his consideration in not invading her territories. in spite of all that has been written to the contrary, there was some strength in this idea, unworthy as it was of the author's strategic ability. ney was to advance immediately, while he himself pressed on to hoyerswerda, where he hoped to establish connections for a common advance. such a concentration would have been possible if for a fortnight macdonald had been able to hold blücher, and murat had succeeded in checking schwarzenberg. but the news of macdonald's plight compelled napoleon to march first toward bautzen, in order to prevent blücher from annihilating the army in silesia. exasperated by this unexpected diversion, the emperor started in a reckless, embittered temper. on september fifth it became evident that blücher would not stand, and napoleon prepared to wheel in the direction of berlin; but the orders were almost immediately recalled, for news arrived that schwarzenberg was marching to dresden. at once napoleon returned to the saxon capital. by september tenth he had drawn in his forces, ready for a second defense of the city; but learning that sixty thousand austrians had been sent over the elbe to take on its flank any french army sent after blücher, he ordered the young guard to bautzen for the reinforcement of macdonald. thereupon schwarzenberg, on the fourteenth, made a feint to advance. on the fifteenth napoleon replied by a countermove on pirna, where pontoons were thrown over the river to establish connection with macdonald. on the sixteenth napoleon reconnoitered, on the seventeenth there was a skirmish, and on the eighteenth there were again a push and counterpush. these movements convinced napoleon that schwarzenberg was really on the defensive, and he returned to dresden, determined to let feint and counter-feint, the "system of hither and thither," as he called it, go on until the golden opportunity for a crushing blow should be offered. blücher meantime had turned again on macdonald, who was now on the heights of fischbach with poniatowski on his right. mortier was again at pirna; victor, saint-cyr, and lobau were guarding the mountain passes from bohemia. this was virtually the situation of a month previous to the battle. schwarzenberg might feel that he had prevented the invasion of austria; napoleon, that he had regained his strong defensive. while the victory of dresden had gone for nothing, yet this situation was nevertheless a double triumph for napoleon. ney, in obedience to orders, had advanced on the fifth. bernadotte lay at jüterbog, his right being westerly at dennewitz, under tauenzien. bertrand was to make a demonstration on the sixth against the latter, so that behind this movement the rest of the army should pass by unnoticed. but ney started three hours late, so that the skirmish between tauenzien and bertrand lasted long enough to give the alarm to bülow, who hurried in, attacked reynier's division, and turned the affair into a general engagement. at first the advantage was with the prussians; then ney, at an opportune moment, began to throw in oudinot's corps--a move which seemed likely to decide the struggle in favor of the french. but borstell, who had been bülow's lieutenant at grossbeeren, brought up his men in disobedience to bernadotte's orders, and threw them into the thickest of the conflict. hitherto the saxons had been fighting gallantly on the french side; soon they began to waver, and now, falling back, they took up many of oudinot's men in their flight. the prussians poured into the gap left by the saxons, and when bernadotte came up with his swedes and russians the battle was over. ney was driven into torgau, with a loss of fifteen thousand men, besides eighty guns and four hundred train-wagons. the prussians lost about nine thousand killed and wounded. this affair concentrated into one movement the moral effects of all the minor defeats, an influence which far outweighed the importance of dresden. the french still fought superbly in napoleon's presence, but only then, for they were heartily sick of the war. nor was this all: the bavarians and saxons were coming to feel that their obligations to france had been fully discharged. they were infected with the same national spirit which made heroes of the prussians. these, to be sure, were defending their homes and firesides; but seeing the great french generals successively defeated, and that largely by their own efforts, they were animated to fresh exertions by their victories; even the reserves and the home guard displayed the heroism of veterans. on september seventh ney wrote to napoleon: "your left flank is exhausted--take heed; i think it is time to leave the elbe and withdraw to the saale"; and his opinion was that of all the division commanders. throughout the country-side partizans were seizing the supply-trains; davout had found his dutch and flemings to be mediocre soldiers, unfit at crucial moments to take the offensive; the army had shrunk to about two hundred and fifty thousand men all told; straggling was increasing, and the country was virtually devastated. to this last fact the plain people, sufferers as they were, remained in their larger patriotism amazingly indifferent: the "hither-and-thither" system tickled their fancy, and they dubbed napoleon the "bautzen messenger-boy." uneasiness pervaded every french encampment; on the other side timidity was replaced by courage, dissension by unity. this transformation of german society seemed further to entangle the political threads which had already debased the quality of napoleon's strategy. technically no fault can be found with his prompt changes of plan to meet emergencies, or with the details of movements which led to his prolonged inaction. yet, largely considered, the result was disastrous. the great medical specialist refrains from the immediate treatment of a sickly organ until the general health is sufficiently recuperated to assure success; the medicaster makes a direct attack on evident disease. napoleon conceived a great general plan for concentrating about dresden to recuperate his forces; but when blücher prepared to advance he grew impatient, saw only his immediate trouble, and ordered macdonald to make a grand dash. driving in the hostile outposts to förstgen, he then spent a whole day hesitating whether to go on or to turn westward and disperse another detachment of his ubiquitous foe, which, as he heard from ney, had bridged the elbe at the mouth of the black elster. it was the twenty-third before he turned back to do neither, but to secure needed rest on the left bank of the elbe. but if napoleon's own definition of a truly great man be accurate,--namely, one who can command the situations he creates,--he was himself no longer great. the enemy not only had bridges over the elbe at the mouth of the elster, but at acken and rosslau. the left bank was as untenable for the french as the right, and it was of stern necessity that the various detachments of the army were called in to hold a line far westward, to the north of leipsic. oudinot, restored to partial favor, was left to keep the rear at dresden with part of the young guard. on october first it was learned that schwarzenberg was manoeuvering on the left to surround the invaders if possible by the south, and that blücher, with like aim, was moving to the north. it was evident that the allies had formed a great resolution, and napoleon confessed to marmont that his "game of chess was becoming confused." the fact was, the emperor's diplomacy had far outstripped the general's strategy. it was blazoned abroad that on september twenty-seventh a hundred and sixty thousand new conscripts from the class of , with a hundred and twenty thousand from the arrears of the seven previous classes, would be assembled at the military depots in france. boys like these had won lützen, bautzen, and dresden, and a large minority would be able-bodied men, late in maturing, perhaps, but strong. with this preliminary blare of trumpets, a letter for the emperor francis was sent to general bubna. the bearer was instructed to say that napoleon would make great sacrifices both for austria and prussia if only he could get a hearing. it was too late: already, on september ninth, the three powers had concluded an offensive and defensive alliance for the purpose of liberating the rhenish princes, of making sovereign and independent the states of southern and western germany, and of restoring both prussia and austria to their limits of . this was the treaty which beguiled bavaria from the french alliance, and made the german contingents in the french armies, the saxons among the rest, wild for emancipation from a hated service. it explained the notification previously received from the king of bavaria, who, in return for the recognition of his complete autonomy, formally joined the coalition on october eighth, with an army of thirty-six thousand men. how much of all this the french spies and emissaries made known to napoleon does not appear. one thing only is certain, that napoleon's flag of truce was sent back with his message undelivered. this ominous fact had to be considered in connection with the movements of the enemy. they had learned one of napoleon's own secrets. in a bulletin of are the words: "it rains hard, but that does not stop the march of the grand army." in he boasted concerning prussia: "while people are deliberating, the french army is marching." in , while he himself was vacillating, his foes were stirring. on october third, blücher, having accomplished a superb strategic march, drove bertrand to bitterfeld, and stood before kemberg, west of the elbe, with sixty-four thousand men; bernadotte, with eighty thousand, was crossing at acken and rosslau; and schwarzenberg, with a hundred and seventy thousand, was already south of leipsic; bennigsen, with fifty thousand reserves, had reached teplitz. the enemy would clearly concentrate at leipsic and cut off napoleon's base unless he retreated. but it was october fifth before the bitter resolution to do so was taken, and then the movement began under compulsion. murat was sent, with three infantry corps and one of cavalry, to hold schwarzenberg until the necessary manoeuvers could be completed. chapter iii the end of the grand army[ ] [footnote : references: wuttke: die völkerschlacht bei leipzig. aster: die schlachten bei leipzig. also see works of hofmann, naumann, and dörr.] plans for conducting the retreat -- napoleon's health -- blücher's brilliant idea -- napoleon under compulsion -- his skilful concentration -- the battle-field around leipsic -- the attack -- results of the first day's fighting -- attempt to negotiate -- napoleon's apathy -- the positions of the third day -- the grand army defeated -- the disaster at the elster bridge -- dissolution of the grand army. but how should the retreat be conducted? napoleon's habit of reducing his thoughts to writing for the sake of clearness remained strong upon him to the last, and in the painstaking notes which he made with regard to this important move he outlined two alternatives: to garrison dresden with two corps, send three to reconnoiter about chemnitz, and then march, with five and the guard, to attack schwarzenberg; or else to strengthen murat, place him between schwarzenberg and leipsic, and then advance to drive bernadotte and blücher behind the elbe. but in winter the frozen elbe with its flat shores would be no rampart. both plans were abandoned, and on the seventh orders were issued for a retreat behind the saale, the precipitous banks of which were a natural fortification. behind this line of defense he could rest in safety during the winter, with his right at erfurt and his left at magdeburg. dresden must, he concluded, be evacuated. this would deprive the allies of the easy refuge behind the saxon and bohemian mountains which they had sought at every onset, but it might leave them complete masters of saxony. to avoid this he must take one of three courses: either halt behind the mulde for one blow at the armies of the north and of silesia, or join murat for a decisive battle with the austrian general, or else concentrate at leipsic, and meet the onset of the united allies, now much stronger than he was. the night of the seventh was spent in indecision as to any one or all of these ideas, but in active preparation for the actual movements of the retreat, however it should be conducted; any contingency might be met or a resolve taken when the necessity arose. during that night the emperor took two warm baths. the habit of drinking strong coffee to prevent drowsiness had induced attacks of nervousness, and these were not diminished by his load of care. to allay these and other ailments, he had had recourse for some time to frequent tepid baths. much has been written about a mysterious malady which had been steadily increasing, but the burden of testimony from the emperor's closest associates at this time indicates that in the main he had enjoyed excellent health throughout the second saxon campaign. he was, on the whole, calm and self-reliant, exhibiting signs of profound emotion only in connection with important decisions. he was certainly capable of clear insight and of severe application in a crisis; he could still endure exhausting physical exertion, and rode without discomfort, sitting his horse in the same stiff, awkward manner as of old. there were certainly intervals of self-indulgence and of lassitude, of excessive emotion and depressing self-examination, which seemed to require the offset of a physical stimulus; but on the whole there do not appear to have been such sharp attacks of illness, or even of morbid depression, as amount to providential interference; natural causes, complex but not inexplicable, sufficiently account for the subsequent disasters. for instance, considerations of personal friendship having in earlier days often led him to unwise decisions, a like cause may be said to have brought on his coming disaster. it was the affection of the saxon king for his beautiful capital which at the very last instant, on october eighth, induced napoleon to cast all his well-weighed scheme to the winds, and--fatal decision!--leave saint-cyr and lobau, with three corps, in dresden. a decisive battle was imminent; the commander was untrue to his maxim that every division should be under the colors. but with or without his full force, the master-strategist was outwitted: the expected meeting did not take place as he finally reckoned. on the tenth his headquarters were at düben, and his divisions well forward on the elbe, ready for bernadotte and blücher; but there was no foe. both these generals had been disconcerted by the unexpected swiftness of the french movements; the former actually contemplated recrossing the river to avoid a pitched battle with those whom he hoped before long to secure as his subjects. but the enthusiastic old prussian shamed his ally into action, persuading him at least to march south from acken, effect a junction with the army of silesia, and cross the saale to threaten napoleon from the rear. this was a brilliant and daring plan, for if successful both armies might possibly unite with schwarzenberg's; but even if unsuccessful in that, they would at least reproduce the situation in silesia, and reduce the french to the "hither-and-thither" system, which, rendering a decisive battle impossible, had thwarted the napoleonic strategy. napoleon spent a weary day of waiting in düben, yawning and scribbling, but keeping his geographer and secretary in readiness. it was said at the time, and has since been repeated, that throughout this portion of the campaign napoleon was not recognizable as himself: that he ruminated long when he should have been active; that he consulted when he should have given orders; that he was no longer ubiquitous as of old, but sluggish, and rooted to one spot. but it is hard to see what he left undone, his judgment being mistaken as it was. when rumors of bernadotte's movements began to arrive, he dismissed the idea suggested by them as preposterous; when finally, on the twelfth, he heard that blücher was actually advancing to halle, and no possible doubt remained, he gave instant orders for a march on leipsic. critics have suggested that again delay had been his ruin; but this is not true. an advance over the elbe toward berlin in search of the enemy would merely have enabled blücher and bernadotte to join forces sooner, and have rendered their union with schwarzenberg easier. no stricture is just but one: that napoleon, knowing how impossible it was to obtain such exact information as he seemed determined to have, should have divined the enemy's plan, and acted sooner. the accurate information necessary for such foresight was not obtainable; in fact, it seldom is, and some allowance may be made if the general lingered before rushing into the "tube of a funnel," as marmont expressed it. on the morning of the thirteenth, while the final arrangements for marching to leipsic were making, came the news of bavaria's defection. it spread throughout the army like wildfire, but its effect was less than might be imagined, and it served for the priming of a bulletin, issued on the fifteenth, announcing the approaching battle. on the fifteenth, murat, who had been steadily withdrawing before the allied army of the south, was overtaken at wachau by schwarzenberg's van. he fought all day with magnificent courage, and successfully, hurling the hostile cavalry skirmishers back on the main column. within sound of his guns, napoleon was reconnoitering his chosen battle-field in and about leipsic; and when, after nightfall, the brothers-in-law met, the necessary arrangements were virtually complete. those who were present at the council thought the emperor inexplicably calm and composed--they said indifferent or stolid. but he had reasons to be confident rather than desperate, for by a touch of his old energy he had concentrated more swiftly than his foe, having a hundred and seventy thousand men in array. reynier, with fourteen thousand more, was near; if saint-cyr and lobau, with their thirty thousand, had been present instead of sitting idly in dresden, the french would actually have outnumbered any army the coalition could have assembled for battle. the allies could hope at best to produce two hundred thousand men; bernadotte was still near merseburg; blücher, though coming in from halle, was not within striking distance. in spite of his vacillation and final failure to evacuate dresden, napoleon had an excellent fighting chance. the city of leipsic, engirdled by numerous villages, lies in a low plain watered by the parthe, pleisse, and elster, the last of which to the westward has several arms, with swampy banks. across these runs the highway to frankfort, elevated on a dike, and spanning the deep, central stream of the elster by a single bridge. eastward by connewitz the land is higher, there being considerable swells, and even hills, to the south and southeast. this rolling country was that chosen by napoleon for the main battle against schwarzenberg; marmont was stationed north of the city, near möckern, to observe blücher; bernadotte, the cautious, was still at oppin with his swedes. on the evening of the fifteenth, his dispositions being complete, napoleon made the tour of all his posts. at dusk three white rockets were seen to rise in the southern sky; they were promptly answered by four red ones in the north. these were probably signals between schwarzenberg and blücher. napoleon's watch-fire was kindled behind the old guard, between reudnitz and crottendorf. the battle began early next morning. napoleon waited until nine, and then advanced at the head of his guards to liebertwolkwitz, near wachau, on the right bank of the pleisse, where the decisive struggle was sure to occur, since the mass of the enemy, under barclay, with wittgenstein as second in command, had attacked in four columns at that point. between the pleisse and the elster, near connewitz, stood poniatowski, opposed to schwarzenberg and meerveldt; westward of the elster, near lindenau, stood bertrand, covering the single line of retreat, the frankfort highway, and his antagonist was gyulay. thus there were four divisions in the mighty conflict, which began by an onset of the allies along the entire front. the main engagement was stubborn and bloody, the allies attacking with little skill, but great bravery. until near midday napoleon more than held his own. victor at wachau, and lauriston at liebertwolkwitz, had each successfully resisted six desperate assaults; between them were massed the artillery, a hundred and fifty guns, under drouot, and behind, all the cavalry except that of sebastiani. the great artillery captain was about to give the last splendid exhibition of what his arm can do under favorable circumstances--that is, when strongly posted in the right position and powerfully supported by cavalry. he intended, with an awful shock and swift pursuit, to break through the enemy's center at güldengossa and surround his right. so great was his genius for combinations that while the allies were that moment using three hundred and twenty-five thousand effective men all told to his two hundred and fourteen thousand, yet in the decisive spot he had actually concentrated a hundred and fifteen thousand to their hundred and fourteen thousand. this was because schwarzenberg, having attempted to outflank the french, was floundering to no avail in the swampy meadows between the pleisse and the elster, and was no longer a factor in the contest. when, at midday, all was in readiness and the order was given, the artillery fire was so rapid that the successive shots were heard, not separately, but in a long, sullen note. by two, victor and oudinot on the right, with mortier and macdonald on the left, were well forward of güldengossa, but the place itself still held out. at three the cavalry, under murat, latour-maubourg, and kellermann, were sped direct upon it. with awful effort they broke through, and the bells of leipsic began to ring in triumph--prematurely. the czar had peremptorily summoned from schwarzenberg's command the austro-russian reserve, and at four these, with the cossack guard, charged the french cavalry, hurling them back to markkleeberg. nightfall found victor again at wachau, and macdonald holding liebertwolkwitz. simultaneously with the great charge of the allies meerveldt had dashed out from connewitz toward dölitz, but his force was nearly annihilated, and he himself was captured. at möckern, marmont, after gallant work with inferior numbers, had been beaten on his left, and then compelled for safety to draw in his right. while he still held gohlis and eutritzsch, the mass of his army had been thrown back into leipsic. throughout the day bertrand made a gallant and successful resistance to superior numbers, and drove that portion of the allied forces opposed to him away from lindenau as far as plagwitz. at nightfall three blank shots announced the cessation of hostilities all around. in the face of superior numbers, the french had not lost a single important position, and whatever military science had been displayed was all theirs; blücher made the solitary advance move of the allies, the seizure of möckern by york's corps; schwarzenberg had been literally mired in his attempt to outflank his enemy, and but for alexander's peremptory recall of the reserves destined for the same task, the day would have been one of irretrievable disaster to the coalition. yet napoleon knew that he was lost unless he could retreat. clearly he had expected a triumph, for in the city nothing was ready, and over the elster was but one crossing, the solitary bridge on the frankfort road. the seventeenth was the first day of the week; both sides were exhausted, and the emperor of the french seems to have felt that at all hazards he must gain time. during the previous night long consultations had been held, and the french divisions to the south had been slightly compacted. in the morning meerveldt, the captured austrian general, the same man who after austerlitz had solicited and obtained on the part of francis an interview from napoleon, was paroled, and sent into his own lines to ask an armistice, together with the intervention of francis on the terms of prague: renunciation of poland and illyria by napoleon, the absolute independence of holland, of the hanse towns, of spain, and of a united italy. when we remember that england was paymaster to the coalition, and was fighting for her influence in holland, and that austria's ambition was for predominance in a disunited italy, we feel that apparently napoleon wanted time rather than hoped for a successful plea to his father-in-law. this would be the inevitable conclusion except for the fact that he withdrew quietly to his tent and there remained; the resourceful general was completely apathetic, being either over-confident in his diplomatic mission or stunned by calamity. the day passed without incident except a momentary attack on marmont, and the arrival of bernadotte, who had been spurred to movement by a hint from gneisenau concerning the terms on which great britain was to pay her subsidies. it was asserted at the time that napoleon gave orders early in the morning for building numerous bridges over the western streams. if so, they were not executed, only a single flimsy structure being built, and that on the road leading from the town, not on the lines westward from his positions in the suburbs. his subordinates should have acted in so serious a matter even without orders; but, like the drivers of trains which run at lightning speed, they had, after years of high-pressure service, lost their nerve. marmont asserts that even napoleon was nerveless. "we were occupied," he wrote, "in restoring order among our troops; we should either have commenced our retreat, or at least have prepared the means to commence it at nightfall. but a certain carelessness on the part of napoleon, which it is impossible to explain and difficult to describe, filled the cup of our sorrows." considering who wrote these words, they must be taken with allowance; but they indicate a truth, that in his decadence this hitherto many-sided man could not be both general and emperor. no answer from francis was received; the allies agreed on this course, and determined, according to their agreement with england, not to cease fighting till the last french soldier was over the rhine. it was midnight when napoleon finally drew in his posts and gave preliminary orders to dispose his troops in readiness either to fight or to retreat. when day dawned on october eighteenth the french army occupied an entirely new position: the right wing, under murat, lying between connewitz and dölitz; the center at probstheida in a salient angle; the left, under ney, with front toward the north between paunsdorf and gohlis. within this arc, and close about the city, stood all the well-tried corps, infantry, artillery, and cavalry, under their various leaders of renown--poniatowski, augereau, victor, drouot, kellermann, oudinot, latour-maubourg, macdonald, marmont, reynier, and souham; napoleon was on a hillock at thonberg, with the old guard in reserve. his chief concern was the line of retreat, which was still open when, at seven, the fighting began. schwarzenberg, with the left, could get no farther than connewitz. bennigsen, with the right, started to feel bernadotte and complete the investment. neither was entirely successful, but marmont withdrew from before blücher, and ney from before bernadotte and bennigsen, in order to avoid being surrounded; so that the two french armies were united before nightfall on the western outskirts of the town, where bertrand had routed gyulay, and had kept open the all-important line of retreat, over which, since noon, trains of wagons had been passing. but magnificent as was the work of all these doughty champions on both sides, it was far surpassed in the center, where during the entire day, under napoleon's eye, advance and resistance had been desperate. men fell like grass before the scythe, and surging lines of their comrades moved on from behind. such were the numbers and such the carnage that men have compared the conflict to that of the nations at armageddon. at victor's stand, near probstheida, the fighting was fiercer than the fiercest. the allied troops charged with fixed bayonets, rank after rank, column following on column; cannon roared while grape-shot and shells sped to meet the assailants; men said the air was full of human limbs; ten times russians and prussians came on, only to be ten times driven back. the very soil on which the assailants trod was human flesh. hour after hour the slaughter continued. occasionally the french attempted a rally, but only to be thrown back by musket fire and cavalry charge. it was the same at stötteritz, where no one seemed to pause for breath. woe to him who fell in fatigue: he was soon but another corpse in the piles over which new reinforcements came on to the assault or countercharge. at last there was scarcely a semblance of order; in hand-to-hand conflict men shouted, struggled, wrestled, thrust, advanced, and withdrew, and in neither combatants nor onlookers was there any sense of reality. by dusk the heated cannon were almost useless, the muskets entirely so, and, as darkness came down, the survivors fell asleep where they stood, riders in their saddles, horses in their tracks. napoleon learned that thirty-five thousand saxons on the left had gone over to the enemy, and some one of his staff handing him a wooden chair, he dropped into it and sank into a stupor almost as he touched it. for half an hour he sat in oblivion, while in the thickening darkness the marshals and generals gathered about the watch-fires, and stood with sullen mien to abide his awakening. the moon came slowly up, napoleon awoke, orders were given to complete the dispositions for retreat already taken, and, there being nothing left to do, the emperor, with inscrutable emotions, passed inside the walls of leipsic to take shelter in an inn on the creaking sign-board of which were depicted the arms of prussia! throughout the night french troops streamed over the stone bridge across the elster; in the early morning the enemy began to advance, and ever-increasing numbers hurried away to gain the single avenue of retreat. until midday napoleon wandered aimlessly about the inner town, giving unimportant commands to stem the ever-growing confusion and disorder. haggard, and with his clothing in disarray, he was not recognized by his own men, being sometimes rudely jostled. after an affecting farewell to the king of saxony, in which his unhappy ally was instructed to make the best terms he could for himself, the emperor finally fell into the throng and moved with it toward lindenau. halting near the elster, a french general began to seek information from the roughly clad onlooker who, without a suite or even a single attendant, stood apparently indifferent, softly whistling, "malbrook s'en va t'en guerre." of course the officer started as he recognized the emperor, but the conquered sovereign took no notice. bystanders thought his heart was turned to stone. still the rush of retreat went on, successfully also, in spite of some confusion, until at two some one blundered. by the incredible mistake of a french subaltern, as is now proven, the permanent elster bridge was blown up, and the temporary one had long since fallen. almost simultaneously with this irreparable disaster the allies had stormed the city, and the french rear-guard came thundering on, hoping to find safety in flight. plunging into the deep stream, many, like poniatowski, were drowned; some, like the wounded macdonald, swam safely across. the scene was heartrending as horses, riders, and footmen rolled senseless in the dark flood, while others scrambled over their writhing forms in mad despair. reynier and lauriston, with twenty thousand men, were captured, the king of saxony was sent a prisoner to berlin, and stein prepared to govern his domains by commission from the allies. by ten in the evening bertrand was in possession of weissenfels; oudinot wheeled at lindenau, and held the unready pursuers in check. next morning, the twentieth, napoleon was alert and active; retreat began again, but only in tolerable order. although he could not control the great attendant rabble of camp-followers and stragglers, he had nevertheless about a hundred and twenty thousand men under his standards; as many more, and those his finest veterans, were besieged and held in the fortresses of the elbe, oder, and vistula by local militia. these places, he knew, would no longer be tenable; in fact, they began to surrender almost immediately, and the survivors of leipsic were soon in a desperate plight from hunger and fatigue. yet the commander gave no sign of sensibility. "'t was thus he left russia," said the surly men in the ranks. hunger-typhus appeared, and spread with awful rapidity; the country swarmed with partizans; the columns of the allies were behind and on each flank; fifty-six thousand bavarians were approaching from ansbach, under wrede; at erfurt all the saxons and bavarians still remaining under the french eagles marched away. the only foreign troops who kept true were those who had no country and no refuge, the unhappy poles, who, though disappointed in their hopes, were yet faithful to him whom they wrongly believed to have been their sincere friend. though stricken by all his woes, the emperor was undaunted; the retreat from germany was indeed perilous, but it was marked by splendid courage and unsurpassed skill. at kösen and at eisenach the allies were outwitted, and at hanau, on the twenty-ninth, the bavarians were overwhelmed in a pitched fight by an exhibition of personal pluck and calmness on napoleon's part paralleled only by his similar conduct at krasnoi in the previous year. at the head of less than six thousand men, he held in check nearly fifty thousand until the rest of his columns came up, when he fell with the old fire upon a hostile line posted with the river kinzig in its rear, and not only disorganized it utterly, but inflicted on it a loss of ten thousand men, more than double the number which fell in his own ranks. but in spite of this brilliant success, the ravages of disease continued, and only seventy thousand men of the imperial army crossed the rhine to mainz. soon the houses of that city were packed, and the streets were strewn with victims of the terrible hunger-typhus. they died by hundreds, and corpses lay for days unburied; before the plague was stayed thousands found an inglorious grave. chapter iv the frankfort proposals[ ] [footnote : references: fain: manuscrit de . rothenburg: die schlacht bei leipzig im jahre .] importance of the battle of leipsic -- decline of napoleon's powers -- his gentler side -- disintegration of napoleon's empire -- the coalition and the sentiment of nationality -- reasons for the parley at frankfort -- insincerity of the proposal -- napoleon and france -- the revolution and the empire -- hollow diplomacy. the battle of leipsic is one of the most important in general history. apparently it was only the offset to austerlitz, as the beresina had been to friedland. in reality it was far more, because it gave the hegemony of continental europe to prussia. french imperialism in its death-throes wiped out the score of royal france against the hapsburgs; austria was not yet banished from central europe to the lower courses of the danube, but, what was much the same thing, prussia was launched upon her career of military aggrandizement. three dynasties seemed in that battle to have celebrated a joint triumph; as a matter of fact, the free national spirit of germany, having narrowly escaped being smothered by napoleonic imperialism, had chosen a national dynasty as its refuge. the conflict is well designated by german historians as "the battle of the nations," but the language has a different sense from that which is generally attributed to it. the seeds of italian unity had been sown, but they were not yet to germinate. the battle of leipsic seemed to check them, yet it was the process there begun under which they sprang up and bore fruit. france was destined to become for a time the sport of an antiquated dynastic system. the liberties which men of english blood had been painfully developing for a century she sought to seize in an instant; she was to see them still elude her grasp for sixty years, until her democratic life, having assumed consistency, should find expression in institutions essentially and peculiarly her own. though the conquering monarchs believed that revolutionary liberalism had been quenched at leipsic, its ultimate triumph was really assured, since it was consigned to its natural guardianship, that of national commonwealths. the imperial agglomeration of races and nationalities was altogether amorphous and had been found impossible; that form of union was not again attempted after leipsic, while another--that, namely, of constitutional organic nationalities--was made operative. the successive stages of advance are marked by , , and . the saxon campaigns display the completion of the process in which the great strategist, stifled by political anxieties, became the creature of circumstances both as general and statesman. the russian campaign was nicely calculated, but its proportions and aim were those of the oriental theocrat, not of the prosaic european soldier. with the aid of the railroad and the electric telegraph, they might possibly have been wrought into a workable problem, but that does not excuse the errors of premature and misplaced ambition. the saxon campaigns, again, are marked by a boldness of design and a skill in combination characteristic of the best strategy; but again the proportions are monstrous, and, what is worse, the execution is intermittent and feeble. as in russia, the war organism was insufficient for the numbers and distances involved, while the subordinates of every grade, though supple instruments, seemed mercenary, self-seeking, and destitute of devotion. bonaparte had ruled men's hearts by his use of a cause, securing devotion to it and to himself by rude bonhomie, by success, and by sufficient rewards; napoleon, on the other hand, quenched devotion by a lavishness which sated the greediest, and lost the affections of his associates by the demands of his gigantic plans. as the world-conqueror felt the foundations of his greatness quivering, he became less callous and more human. early in he said: "i have a sympathetic heart, like another, but since earliest childhood i have accustomed myself to keep that string silent, and now it is altogether dumb." his judgment of himself was mistaken: throughout the entire season he was strangely and exceptionally moved by the horrors of war; his purse was ever open for the suffering; he released the king of saxony from his entangling engagements; in spite of his hard-set expression on the retreat from leipsic, he forbade his men to fire the suburbs of the city in order to retard the pursuit of their foes, and before he left mainz for st. cloud he showed the deepest concern, and put forth the strongest effort, in behalf of the dying soldiery. the immediate effects of leipsic were the full display of that national spirit which had been refined, if not created, in the fires of napoleon's imperious career. an austrian army under hiller drove eugène over the adige. the italians, not unsusceptible to the power in the air, felt their humiliation, and, turning on their imperial king in bitter hate, determined, under the influence of feelings most powerfully expressed by alfieri, that they would emulate northern europe. but though they had for years been subject to the new influences, enjoying the equal administration of the code napoléon, and freed from the interference of petty local tyrants, they were neither united nor enlightened in sufficient degree. after an outburst of hatred to france, they were crushed by their old despots, and the land relapsed into the direst confusion. the confederation of the rhine was, however, resolved into its elements: the mecklenburgs reasserted their independence; king jerome fled to france; würtemberg, hesse-darmstadt, and baden followed bavaria's example; cassel, brunswick, hanover, and oldenburg were craftily restored to their former rulers before stein's bureau could establish an administration. holland recalled the prince of orange, spain rose to support wellington, and soult was not merely driven over the pyrenees--he was defeated on french soil, and shut up in bayonne. even the three monarchs, as they sedately moved across germany with their exhausted and battered armies, were aware of nationality as a controlling force in the future. in a direct movement on paris they could, as ney said, "have marked out their days in advance," but they halted at frankfort for a parley. there were several reasons why they should pause. they had seen france rise in her might; they did not care to assist at the spectacle again. moreover, the coalition had accomplished its task and earned its pay; not a frenchman, except real or virtual prisoners, was left east of the rhine. from that point the interests of the three monarchs were divergent. as gentz, the austrian statesman, said, "the war for the emancipation of states bids fair to become one for the emancipation of the people." alexander, frederick william, and francis were each and all anxious for the future of absolutism, but otherwise there was mutual distrust. austria was suspicious of prussia, and desired immediate peace. in the restoration of holland under english auspices, russia saw the perpetuation of british maritime and commercial supremacy, to the disadvantage of her oriental aspirations, and the old russian party demanded peace. on the other hand, alexander wished to avenge napoleon's march to moscow by an advance to paris; and though frederick william distrusted what he called the czar's jacobinism, his own soldiers, thirsting for further revenge, also desired to prosecute the war; even the most enlightened prussian statesmen believed that nothing short of a complete cataclysm in france could shake napoleon's hold on that people and destroy his power. offsetting these conflicting tendencies against one another, metternich was able to secure military inaction for a time, while the coalition formulated a series of proposals calculated to woo the french people, and thus to bring napoleon at once to terms. ostensibly the frankfort proposals, adopted on november ninth, were only a slight advance on the ultimatum of prague: austria was to have enough italian territory to secure her preponderance in that peninsula; france was to keep savoy, with nice; the rest of italy was to be independent. holland and spain liberated, france was to have her "natural" boundaries, the alps, the pyrenees, the ocean, and the rhine. napoleon was to retain a slight preponderance in germany, and the hope was held out that in a congress to settle details for a general pacification, great britain, content with the "maritime rights" which had caused the war, would hand back the captured french colonies. the various ministers present at frankfort assented to these proposals for great britain, austria, russia, and prussia respectively; but alexander and frederick william were dissatisfied with them, and when castlereagh heard them, he was as furious as his cold blood would permit at the thought of france retaining control of the netherlands, antwerp being the commercial key to central europe. such a humor in three of the high contracting parties makes it doubtful whether the frankfort proposals had any reality, and this doubt is further increased by the circumstances of the so-called negotiation. st. aignan, the french envoy to the saxon duchies, had in violation of international law and courtesy been seized at gotha and held as a prisoner. he was now set free and instructed to urge upon napoleon the necessity of an immediate settlement. to his brother-in-law, the pacific caulaincourt, who was soon to displace maret as minister of foreign affairs, he was to hand a private and personal letter from metternich. in the course of this epistle the writer expresses his conviction that any effort to conclude a peace would come to nothing. not only, therefore, were the pretended negotiations entirely destitute of form, they were prejudged from the outset. still further, the allies refused what napoleon had granted after bautzen, an armistice, and insisted that hostilities were to proceed during negotiation. all possible doubt as to the sincerity of the proposals is turned into assurance by metternich's admission in his memoirs that they were intended to divorce napoleon from the french nation, and in particular to work on the feelings of the army. he says that neither alexander nor frederick william would have assented to them had they not been convinced that napoleon would "never in the world of his own accord" resolve to accept them. yet the world has long believed that napoleon, as he himself expressed it, lost his crown for antwerp; that had he believed the honeyed words of the austrian minister, and opened negotiations on an indefinite basis without delay, he might have kept france with its revolutionary boundaries intact for himself and his dynasty, and by the sacrifice of his imperial ambitions have retained for her, if not preponderance, at least importance in the councils of europe. neither napoleon nor the french nation was deceived; a peace made under such circumstances could result only in a dishonorable tutelage to the allied sovereigns. france abhorred the dynasties and all their works, believing that dynastic rule could never mean anything except absolutism and feudalism. the experiment of popular sovereignty wielded by a democracy had been a failure; but the liberal french, like men of the same intelligence throughout europe, did not, for all that, lose faith in popular sovereignty; they knew there must be some channel for its exercise. outside of france, as in it, the most enlightened opinion of the time regarded napoleon as the savior of society. the queen of saxony bitterly reproached metternich for having deserted napoleon's "sacred cause." this was because the emperor of the french seemed to have used the people's power for the people's good. his giant arm alone could wield the popular majesty. it is said that the great mass of the french nation, on hearing of the frankfort proposals, groaned and laughed by turns. being profoundly, devotedly imperialist and therefore idealistic, they were outraged at the thought of hapsburgs, romanoffs, or hohenzollerns, the very incarnations of german feudality, as leaders of the new europe. it seemed the irony of fate that civil and political rights on the basis, not of privilege, but of manhood, the prize for which the world had been turned upside down, should be intrusted to such keepers. welded into a homogeneous nationality themselves, the french could not understand that the inchoate nationalities in other states had as yet nothing but dynastic forms of expression, or foresee that during a century to come the old dynasties would find safety only in adapting royalty to national needs. napoleon seems to have been fully aware of french sentiment. in addition, he understood that not merely for this sufficient reason could he never be king of france in name or fact, but also that, having elsewhere harried and humiliated both peoples and dynasties in the name of revolutionary ideals, the masses had found him out, and were as much embittered as their rulers, believing him to be a charlatan using dazzling principles as a cloak for personal ambition. in may, , the emperor francis, anxious to salve the lacerated pride of the hapsburgs, produced a bundle of papers purporting to prove that the bonapartes had once been ruling princes at treviso. "my nobility," was napoleon's stinging reply, "dates only from marengo." he well knew that when the battle should be fought that would undo marengo, his nobility would end. in other words, without solid french support he was nothing, and that support he was fully aware he could never have as king of france. if the influence of what france improperly believed to be solely the french revolution were to be confined to her boundaries, revolutionary or otherwise, not only was napoleon's prestige destroyed, but along with it would go french leadership in europe. an imperial throne there must be, exerting french influence far abroad. what happened at paris, therefore, may be regarded as a counter-feint to metternich's effort at securing an advantageous peace from the french nation when it should have renounced napoleon. it was merely an attempt to collect the remaining national strength, not now for aggressive warfare, but for the expulsion of hated invaders. having received no formulated proposition for acceptance or rejection, and desiring to force one, the emperor of the french virtually disregarded the letter of metternich's communication, and sent a carefully considered message to the allies. making no mention in this of the terms brought by st. aignan, he suggested caulaincourt as plenipotentiary to an international congress, which should meet somewhere on the rhine, say at mannheim. further, he declared that his object had always been the independence of all the nations, "from the continental as well as from the maritime point of view." this communication reached frankfort on november sixteenth, and, whether wilfully or not, was misinterpreted to mean that the writer would persist in questioning england's maritime rights. thereupon metternich replied by accepting mannheim as the place for the proposed conference, and promised to communicate the language of napoleon's letter to his co-allies. how far these co-allies were from a sincere desire for peace is proven by their next step, taken almost on the date of metternich's reply. a proclamation was widely posted in the cities of france, which stated, in a cant borrowed from napoleon's own practice, that the allies desired france "to be great, strong, and prosperous"; they were making war, it was asserted, not "on france, but on that preponderance which napoleon had too long exercised, to the misfortune of europe and of france herself, to which they guaranteed in advance an extent of territory such as she never had under her kings." napoleon's riposte was to despatch a swarm of trusty emissaries throughout france in order to compose all quarrels of the people with the government, to strengthen popular devotion in every possible way--in short, to counteract the possible effects of this call. the messengers found public opinion thoroughly imperial, but profoundly embittered against maret as the supposed instigator of disastrous wars. maret was transferred to the department of state, and the pacific caulaincourt was made minister of foreign affairs. on december second, at the earliest possible moment, the new minister addressed a note to metternich, accepting the terms of the "general and summary basis." this, said the despatch, would involve great sacrifices; but napoleon would feel no regret if only by a similar abnegation england would provide the means for a general, honorable peace. metternich replied that nothing now stood in the way of convening a congress, and that he would notify england to send a plenipotentiary. there, however, the matter ended, and metternich's record of those frankfort days scarcely notices the subject, so interested is he in the squabbles of the sovereigns over the opening of a new campaign. it was the end of the year when they reached an agreement. chapter v the invasion of france[ ] [footnote : correspondance, vol. xvii. mémoires du roi joseph. beauchamp: histoire des campagnes de et . danitz: geschichte d. feldzugs v. . danilewsky: der feldzug in frankreich. houssaye: .] amazing schemes of napoleon for new levies -- attitude of the people toward the empire -- the disaffected elements -- napoleon's armament -- activity of the imperialists -- release of ferdinand and the pope -- napoleon's farewell to paris -- his strategic plan -- france against europe -- the conduct of bernadotte -- murat's defection -- conflicting interests of the allies -- positions of the opponents at the outbreak of hostilities. [sidenote: - ] what happened in france between the first days of november, , when napoleon reached st. cloud, and the close of the year, is so incredible that it scarcely seems to belong in the pages of sober history. of five hundred and seventy-five thousand frenchmen, strictly excluding germans and poles, who had been sent to war during and , about three hundred thousand were prisoners or shut up in distant garrisons, and a hundred and seventy-five thousand were dead or missing; therefore a hundred thousand or thereabouts remained under arms and ready for active service. by various decrees of the emperor and the senate, nine hundred and thirty-six thousand more were called to arms: a hundred and sixty thousand from the classes between and , whether they had once served or not; a hundred and sixty thousand from the class of ; a hundred and seventy-six thousand five hundred were to be enrolled in the regular national guard, and a hundred and forty thousand in a home guard; finally, in a comprehensive sweep from all the classes between and inclusive, every possible man was to be drawn. this, it was estimated, would produce three hundred thousand more. it is easy to exaggerate the significance of these enormous figures, for to the layman they would seem to mean that every male capable of bearing arms was to be taken. but this was far from being the case; contrary to the general impression, the population of france had been and was steadily increasing. in spite of all the butcheries of foreign and civil wars, the number of inhabitants was growing at the rate of half a million yearly, and the country could probably have furnished three times the number called out. moreover, less than a third of the nine hundred and thirty-six thousand were ever organized, and not more than an eighth of them fought. this disproportion between plan and fulfilment was due partly to official incapacity or worse, partly to a popular resistance which was not due to disaffection. it speaks volumes for the state of the country that even the hated flying columns, with their thorough procedure, could not find the men, especially the fathers, husbands, and only sons, who were the solitary supports of many families. the fields were tilled by the spades of women and children, for there were neither horses to draw nor men to hold the plows. government pawn-shops were gorged, and the government storehouses were bursting with manufactured wares for which there was no market; government securities were worth less than half their face, the currency had disappeared, and usury was rampant. yet it seems certain that four fifths of the people associated none of these miseries with napoleonic empire. the generation which had grown to maturity under napoleon saw only one side of his activities: the majestic public works he had inaugurated, the glories of france and the splendors of empire during the intervals of peace, the exhaustion and abasement of her foes in a long series of splendid campaigns--all this they associated with the imperial rule, and desired what they supposed was a simple thing, the empire and peace. the other fifth was, however, thoroughly aroused. when the legislature convened on december nineteenth, and the diplomatic correspondence was so cleverly arranged and presented as to make the allies appear implacable, an address to the throne was passed, amid thunderous applause and by a large majority, which virtually called for a return to constitutional government as the price of additional war supplies. in sober moments even the most ardent liberals were ashamed, feeling that this was not an opportune moment for disorganizing such administration as there was by calls for the reform of the constitution. only one question was imperative, the awful responsibility they had for the national identity. the general public was so outraged by the spectacle that the deputies reconsidered their action, and by a vote of two hundred and fifty-four to two hundred and twenty-three struck out the obnoxious clause. but this did not appease napoleon, who made no attempt to conceal his rage, and prorogued the chamber in scorn. his support was ample in the almost universal conviction that at such a moment there was no time for parleying about abstract questions of political rights; but every cavilling deputy had some friends at home, and in a crisis where the very existence of france was jeopardized there were agitations by the reactionary radicals. the royalists kept silent then, and for months later, contenting themselves with biting innuendos or witty double meanings; drinking, for instance, to "the emperor's last victory," when the newspapers announced "the last victory of the emperor." the first conscription from the classes of - was thoroughly successful, the second attempt to glean from them was an utter failure; the effort to forestall the draft of met with resistance, and was abandoned. it was impossible to organize the home guards and reserves, for they rebelled or escaped, and local danger had to be averted by local volunteers who were designated as "sedentary" because they could not be ordered away. by the end of january not more than twenty thousand men had been secured for general service from all classes other than the first--at least that was approximately the number in the various camps of instruction. in order to arm and equip the recruits, napoleon had recourse to his private treasure, drawing fifty-five million francs from the vaults of the tuileries for that purpose. the remaining ten were transferred at intervals to blois. but all his treasure could not buy what did not exist. the best military stores were in the heart of europe; the french arsenals could afford only antiquated and almost useless supplies. the recruits were armed, some with shot-guns and knives, some with old muskets, the use of which they did not know; they were for the most part without uniforms, and wore bonnets, blouses, and sabots. there were not half enough horses for the scanty artillery and cavalry. worse than all, there was no time for instruction in the manual and tactics. on one occasion a boy conscript was found standing inactive under a fierce musketry fire; with artless intrepidity he remarked that he believed he could aim as well as anybody if he only knew how to load his gun! [illustration: napoleon in from a painting by aimable-louis-claude pagnest.] the disaffected, though few, were powerful and active, suborning the prefects and civic authorities by every device, issuing proclamations which promised anything and everything, and procuring plans of fortified places for the allies. talleyrand began to utter oracular innuendos about the vindictiveness of the allies, the desertion of murat, the sack of paris, and various half-truths more dangerous even than lies. the air was so full of rumors that, although there was no widespread revolutionary movement, there were now and then serious panics; the town of chaumont surrendered to a solitary würtemberg horseman. but when the populace of the country at large began to wonder who the coming bourbon might be, and what he would take back from the present possessors of royal and ecclesiastical estates, they were staggered. people in the cities heard with some satisfaction the strains of the "marseillaise," which by order of imperial agents were once again ground out around the streets by the hand-organs. napoleon walked the avenues of paris without escort, and was wildly cheered; the empress and her little son were produced on public occasions with dramatic success, and popular wit dubbed the boy conscripts by the name of "marie louises." the little men showed a grim determination and eventually a sublime courage, but they never could acquire the veteran steadfastness which wins battles. journals, theaters, music-halls, and public balls were all managed in the interest of imperial patriotism; imperial tyranny dealt ruthlessly with suspicious characters. yet the imperialists had their doubts, and many, like savary, threw an anchor to windward by storing treasure at distant points, and sending their families to safe retreats. on the whole, the balance of public opinion at the opening of was overwhelmingly imperialist both in the cities and in the country. men ardently desired peace, but they wanted it with honor and under the empire. that the empire desired peace seemed to be proved by steps for the release of its two most important prisoners, the king of spain and the pope. wellington thought that if the former had been despatched directly into his kingdom on december eighth, the day on which the conditions between himself and the emperor were signed, england would have found the further conduct of the war impossible. talleyrand, already deep in royalist plots, must have been of the same opinion, for he did not advise haste, but craftily suggested to his prisoner that the provisional government of spain might refuse to accept him as king unless the treaty of release had been previously ratified by the cortes. accordingly it was referred to them, and, since the liberals desired the assent to their new constitution of a king not under duress, by their influence it was rejected. it was not until march, , that ferdinand was unconditionally released, and this delay proved fatal to napoleon's interests in spain. the liberals could no longer fight for free institutions, because it was then clear that the dynastic conservatism of europe was to win a temporary victory. in about six months king ferdinand undid the progressive work of six years, and spain relapsed into absolutism and ecclesiasticism, with all their attendant evils. nevertheless, france interpreted the conduct of the emperor as indicating an earnest desire for peace, and this feeling had been strengthened by the absolutely unconditional release of the pope on january twenty-second. this apparently gracious concession was effective among the masses, who did not know, as the emperor did, that the allies were already on french soil. the very next day napoleon performed his last official act, which was one of great courage both physical and moral. the national guard in paris had been reorganized, but its leaders had never been thoroughly loyal, many of them being royalists, some radical republicans, and the disaffection of both classes had been heightened by recent events. but the officers were nevertheless summoned to the tuileries; the risk was doubled by the fact that they came armed. drawn up in the vast chamber known as that of the marshals, they stood expectant; the great doors were thrown open, and there entered the emperor, accompanied only by his consort and their child in the arms of his governess, mme. de montesquiou. napoleon announced simply that he was about to put himself at the head of his army, hoping, by the aid of god and the valor of his troops, to drive the enemy beyond the frontiers. there was silence. then, taking in one hand that of the empress, and leading forward his child by the other, he continued, "i intrust the empress and the king of rome to the courage of the national guard." still silence. after a moment, with suppressed emotion, he concluded, "my wife and my son." no generous-hearted frenchman could withstand such an appeal; breaking ranks by a spontaneous impulse, the listeners started forward in a mass, and shook the very walls with their cry, "long live the emperor!" many shed tears, and felt, as they withdrew in respectful silence, a new sense of devotion welling up in their hearts. on the eve of his departure, the emperor received a numerously signed address from the very men whose loyalty he had hitherto had just reason to suspect. it was four in the morning of january twenty-fifth when napoleon left for châlons. from that moment he was no longer emperor. during the long winter nights just past he had wrought with an intensity and a feverish activity which he had never surpassed, sparing neither himself nor others, displaying no consideration for prejudice or honest opposition, calling on every frenchman to sacrifice everything for france, to which, as he vehemently asserted, he himself was more necessary than she to him. if he had come honestly to believe what millions of others believed, it was little wonder; he had thenceforth but one aim--to prove that he was, as of yore, the first general of france, the only one able to save the country in an hour when all her glories were falling in wreck about her. his strategic plans, immense and intricate as was his task, were complete and excellent. the first was intended to prevent invasion by way of liège, the most direct line and that which prussia preferred. the second, which was partly defensive, was the one eventually used against the clumsy form of advance actually chosen by the invaders. of the two, the former was the more brilliant, but the second was almost as clever. by it the rhine bank was divided into three parts for purposes of defense. macdonald was stationed at cologne to protect the lower course; marmont was to guard the central stretch, and they two divided between them the remnants of the army which had been swept out of germany; victor was stationed on the upper course to command the garrisons of the great frontier fortifications and strengthen himself by the new levies; bertrand remained as a sort of rear post on the right bank of the river at kastel, opposite mainz. all told, these generals had at first only fifty thousand men. the allies no sooner obtained possession of central europe than they outdid its recent master in every species of exaction. the countries which had formed the confederacy of the rhine were compelled almost to double the number of the contingents they had raised for france, and to organize every fencible man into either the first or second line of reserves, called by the old feudal terms of ban and arrière-ban. at the same time the allies demanded and obtained new subsidies both of money and arms from great britain. in the three armies of austria, prussia, and russia, as they stood on the rhine, there were ready by january first about two hundred and eighty-five thousand men. by the end of february the army-lists of france, excluding the national guards, displayed a total of six hundred and fifty thousand men; the coalition, including england, had registered nearly a million. deducting forty per cent. as ample to cover all shortcomings, we may say that france, with three hundred and ninety thousand in the ranks, men and boys, faced europe with six hundred thousand full-grown men. these figures include the french armies of catalonia, of the pyrenees, of italy, and of the netherlands, together with the garrisons in all the strong places then held by france on both sides of the rhine; they also include the russian, austrian, and prussian reserves, with the national armies of holland, spain, and italy. aside from the centrifugal forces inherent in the coalition, there was one which threatened its disintegration: the erratic character of the great gascon who represented sweden. bernadotte's first care, after the battle of leipsic, was to move north and secure the long-coveted prize of norway. ever mindful of the hint about a french crown, which alexander had thrown out as still another bait at abo, he gave as his parting admonition the transparent advice that the coming campaign should be confined to a frontier invasion of france, and at hamburg he actually offered davout, as the price of surrender, a safe return for himself and his army to their native land! this was too much; alexander was furious, and the schemer was peremptorily ordered to leave a sufficient investing force before the city and return with the rest of his army to the lower rhine. there he was suffered to remain in idleness, the task assigned to him being that of watching the netherlands; two of his best corps were withdrawn from him and assigned to blücher. nor was napoleon free from his thorn in the flesh. in a bulletin published by him after the retreat from moscow was a passage which implied some censure of murat for his lack of stability. this both the king of naples and his spouse bitterly resented, the latter roundly abusing her brother in their correspondence. this was an excellent pretext for desertion when the general crash appeared imminent, and at erfurt the dashing and gallant, but weak and testy, monarch decamped. hastening south, he entered at once into alliance with austria, and then, putting himself at the head of eighty thousand neapolitans, set out for rome, waging a terrific warfare of proclamations. eugène, too,--and this was an elemental disaster,--was virtually checkmated by the defection of his father-in-law, the king of bavaria, which opened the tyrol to the allies. all italy was consequently lost. augereau, whose feeble loyalty to napoleon was already at the vanishing-point, had been appointed to take forty thousand conscripts, collect any straggling soldiers he could find in southeastern france, and keep open the door out of italy for some or all of eugène's veterans, with whose assistance it was hoped the marshal could form an army for the defense of the vosges mountains. but eugène, having fought the indecisive battle of roverbello, and finding himself in a sorry plight from both the military and political points of view, could send no reinforcements until april, when finally he concluded an armistice releasing his army. augereau therefore found himself opposite bubna at geneva with an ineffective force, and with very little heart to wield what he had. this ended napoleon's grand scheme for uniting the forces of italy, naples, switzerland, and france. prussia was now the ablest as well as the bitterest of napoleon's foes, stein, blücher, gneisenau, and their friends aiming at nothing short of annihilating the napoleonic power. this was, no doubt, due in part to a thirst for revenge; but in the main it was due to the longing for such a leadership in germany as would spread abroad the new doctrines of liberal and constitutional monarchy, in order to restrain austria's ever-increasing influence. the councils of the allies presented an amusing spectacle. the prussians urged an immediate advance by the best line for invasion, that, namely, from liège and brussels; but the austrians, except radetzky, drew back, fearing prussia almost equally with france. the czar held the balance, but his scales were very sensitive, inclining often toward prussia, but settling in the end to a compromise suggested by schwarzenberg and metternich. having imitated napoleon in his practice of war requisitions, the allies now determined to imitate him in contempt for international law, and to violate swiss neutrality. the plan which they adopted was to throw their main army into france by way of basel, and thus turn the line of frowning fortresses behind the rhine, as well as the vosges mountains. blücher was to cross the middle rhine, and bülow, with thirty thousand men, was to coöperate with the english troops under graham in the netherlands. the whole scheme was unmilitary, but it exactly suited metternich, who, having on january thirteenth first learned of bernadotte's understanding with the czar about the crown of france, was very uneasy. both he and schwarzenberg desired to end the war on the frontier, if possible; prussia's power and alexander's ambitions for european preponderance were far more dangerous to austria than a napoleonic empire confined to france. blücher, leaving twenty-eight thousand men before mainz, crossed the saar on january ninth with forty-seven thousand; schwarzenberg, with the main army arrayed in four columns, two hundred and nine thousand strong, crossed the rhine at or near basel and moved toward langres. the thin, straggling french columns began to retreat concentrically toward châlons on the marne. at the opening of the second stage in the campaign blücher had invested the mosel fortresses, and was advancing, with less than thirty thousand men, toward arcis on the aube; schwarzenberg was in and about langres; and the french were concentrated on a line from vitry-le-françois to st. dizier. napoleon reached châlons on the twenty-sixth, having left joseph to represent him in paris. the wily strategist, feeble as was his strength, had momentarily secured the advantage over his unwieldy foe, having wedged himself between the invading armies, and being quite strong enough, with the forty thousand soldiers in his ranks, to cope with blücher. chapter vi napoleon's supreme effort[ ] [footnote : references: fournier, der congress von châtillon. die politik im kriege von . eine historische studie. koch, mémoires p. s. à l'histoire de la campagne de . sorel, l'europe et la révolution française, vol. viii.] the fertility of genius -- the battles of brienne and la rothière -- the french retreat -- victory at champaubert -- victory at montmirail -- victory at vauchamps -- success engenders delusion -- insincerity of the allies -- their clashing interests -- the congress of châtillon -- napoleon's procrastination -- french victory and french diplomacy. [sidenote: ] the year is the most astonishing of napoleon's military life. he first conceived a plan for combining the resources of italy, switzerland, naples, and france. this failed by augereau's sloth and murat's ingratitude. nothing daunted, the fertile brain then outlined schemes for meeting the quick advance of the allies through the netherlands, for defending the rhine frontier, and for a levy _en masse_ of the french people to hurl back invasion under the walls of paris. after taking the field, the daring of his conceptions, the rapidity of his movements, the surprises he prepared for his enemy, the support he wrung from an exhausted land, the devotion he received from a panting, ill-clothed army at bay--all are so remarkable that by contrast the allies appear to be a lumbering, stupid mass. with another antagonist they would have appeared in a very different light; gneisenau's clear head, blücher's daring, radetzky's good sense and courage, together with the valor of the forces at their back, would have won the goal far more easily with an ordinary, or even an extraordinary, combatant in napoleon's plight. the emperor of the french had not merely a prestige worth a hundred thousand men, as he was fond of reckoning: he had an activity of mind and body, a reservoir of resources, which made his single blade cover the whole circumference of defense like the whirling spokes of a fiery wheel. after a skirmish for the possession of st. dizier, the campaign opened at brienne, where blücher, hurrying to gain touch with the main army of the allies, was caught on january twenty-ninth. the conflict probably did not recall to napoleon his mock conflicts when a schoolboy near the same spot. the terrific struggle began late in the afternoon, and lasted in full fury until midnight, when the prussian general, narrowly escaping capture, abandoned the town and hurried toward trannes. thoroughly beaten, he needed not touch alone, but actual union with the austrians, and this he gained near bar on the aube, whence schwarzenberg was passing on toward auxerre. ignorant of this success, napoleon now drew up his line with its center at la rothière, hoping in the first place to hold the bridge over the aube at lesmont, and thus secure the moral effect of his victory at brienne, and in the second to bring on another engagement with blücher, whom he believed to be still isolated. marmont was at montierender, mortier was summoned from before troyes. this stand of napoleon's was a desperate attempt to overawe the allied sovereigns, for strategically it was fatal, since in the case of either victory or defeat the french army was in danger of being outflanked by schwarzenberg's advance, and thus cut off from paris. on february first, blücher, reinforced by twelve thousand of the russian guard, attacked. the battle lasted, with fluctuating success for the allies, during two days, and at its close napoleon safely retreated over the aube to make another stand at troyes. the various conflicts were terrific; in the end blücher lost six thousand dead and wounded, the french about four thousand. the odds against the latter were never less than two to one, sometimes more. had the allies first thrown their full strength into the contest, and had they then followed up their victory by a well-organized pursuit, the campaign would have ended there. as it was, they paused, permitted a disorganized, feeble enemy to escape, and gained nothing from the bloody conflict except an ill-founded self-confidence. blücher wrote on the evening of the battle that they would be in paris within eight days. to general reynier, who was to be liberated by an exchange of prisoners, the czar said: "we shall be in paris before you." a council of war was called which decided for an advance on the french capital in two columns; to blücher, as the conqueror of la rothière, was assigned the shortest line, that down the marne. for several days the allied lines moved onward, slowly, widely scattered, and carelessly. napoleon was as calm and undaunted as if he had been the victor. retreating on the defensive with careful deliberation, he strengthened his forces by well-chosen periods of rest, and by hurrying in reinforcements from the various depots about and beyond paris. on the afternoon of february ninth, when leaving nogent for sézanne, he wrote to his brother joseph, whom he had left to represent his interests at paris, that he could now reckon, all told, on between sixty and seventy thousand men, including engineers and artillery; that he estimated the silesian army under blücher at forty-five thousand, and the main army under schwarzenberg at a hundred and fifty thousand, including bubna and the cossacks. "if i gain a victory over the silesian army, and put it out of account for some days, i can turn against schwarzenberg, reckoning on the reinforcements you will send, with from seventy to eighty thousand men, and i think he cannot oppose me at once with more than from a hundred and ten to a hundred and twenty thousand. if i find myself too weak to attack, i shall be at least strong enough to hold him in check for a fortnight or three weeks, and this would give me the opportunity for new combinations." to hold schwarzenberg temporarily, oudinot with twenty-five thousand men was stationed on the line from provins to sens, and victor with fourteen thousand was sent to nogent. the emperor himself, with the old guard, about eight thousand strong, with ney and marmont each commanding six thousand infantry, and with ten thousand cavalry under nansouty and doumerc, set out from sézanne to try his fortunes with blücher. this was the last of napoleon's great strategic schemes which was destined to be crowned with success. it had but a single drawback. while napoleon was still the boldest man in war that ever lived, as at st. helena he declared himself to be, his marshals were uneasy and depressed; marmont, in this moment of infinite chance, as it seemed to him, fell into a panic. the marshal's fears were not justified, for his emperor's daring was not foolhardy. it was calculated on the myriad chances of his enemy's opportunity and his enemy's ability, and in this case it was perfectly calculated. blücher, in spite of gneisenau's continuous warnings, was over-confident. having dispersed his detachments more than ever, he had for two days been moving swiftly in the hope of cutting off macdonald by a dashing feat of arms. in his haste he had not taken up two russian corps which had been separated from his main line, but on the contrary he had left them so far out that they were beyond support. by a blunder of the czar's, reinforcements which had been promised were still a long distance in the rear. schwarzenberg's movements were marked by an over-confident deliberation as characteristic of him as overhaste was of blücher. accordingly when on the tenth marmont advanced from sézanne, he found the corps of olsusieff, about forty-five hundred strong, virtually isolated at champaubert. his own numbers were slightly superior, and with a swift rush he annihilated the unready russians. napoleon was beside himself with joy, and began to talk of the vistula once more; but he stopped when he saw how sour the visages of marmont and the other marshals grew at the very mention of such an idea. nevertheless, if the process begun at champaubert could be continued, victory and ultimate recovery of something more than french empire were assured. he therefore hurried nansouty and macdonald on toward montmirail for a second stroke of the same kind. the affair at montmirail was more of a battle than that at champaubert, for blücher had been able to gather in the divisions of sacken, york, kleist, and kapzewitch. the battle opened about an hour before noon on the eleventh by a fierce artillery fire from the french, behind which napoleon manoeuvered so as to concentrate his own force against the russians, and separate them from york with his prussians. at two o'clock napoleon attacked the russians, mortier engaging the prussians separately. the plan succeeded, and by nightfall the enemy was in full retreat for château-thierry, where was the nearest bridge over the marne. napoleon had hoped that macdonald would arrive from la ferté-sous-jouarre in time to seize the bridge, cut off the retreat, and make the victory decisive. but in spite of heroic exertion, that marshal could not or did not move with sufficient rapidity over the heavy dirt roads. the flying allies sacked the town with awful cruelty, and destroyed the bridge without any molestation except from the inhabitants, who wreaked their vengeance on numerous stragglers. on the thirteenth the french occupied the place, repaired the bridge, and crossed to the right bank. next morning marmont started in pursuit of blücher. somewhat flushed by such success, napoleon deliberated whether he should not now turn and attack schwarzenberg. the emperor thought these victories might give pause to a mediocre austrian, ever mindful of the terrific blows his country had received once and again from france. he was mistaken; schwarzenberg had moved, though slowly, yet steadily forward. on the twelfth victor abandoned the bridge at nogent, and napoleon sent macdonald with twelve thousand men to join victor at montereau. early on the fourteenth came news that blücher had driven marmont back to fromentières. by noon napoleon had effected a junction with this marshal near Étoges, making a famous and successful flank march over a marshy country, a manoeuver which is justly considered worthy of his great genius. advancing then to the neighborhood of vauchamps, his infantry attacked in front, while the cavalry, under grouchy, outflanked the enemy's line and fell on the rear. blücher was apparently doomed, for he had only three regiments of cavalry, and while facing one powerful enemy he would be forced to break the ranks of another in order to open a line of retreat. he solved the problem, but at enormous cost. forming his troops into a line of solid squares, one stood to support the artillery and receive the onset in front, while the others dashed at grouchy's horsemen, each square standing and retreating behind the next alternately as the bloody retreat went on. at last the butchery ceased, and blücher fled to bergères. the french pursued only as far as Étoges. napoleon had hoped to follow all the way to châlons, annihilate what was left of blücher's army, and then to return and throw himself on schwarzenberg. he was arrested by the news that the seine valley, as far as montereau, was in the hands of the austro-russians; that oudinot and victor had been driven back to nangis; in short, that paris was seriously menaced. it was long asserted that in the three actions just recorded the french far outnumbered their opponents, and that napoleon's generalship was consequently inferior to his high average. the sufficient answer to this is in the facts now universally accepted. at champaubert there were four thousand eight hundred and fifty french against four thousand seven hundred russians; at montmirail there were twenty-two thousand seven hundred russians and prussians against twelve thousand eight hundred french; and in the third engagement, near Étoges, blücher had twenty-one thousand five hundred to ten thousand three hundred. it is therefore natural to compare these three victories with those at montenotte, millesimo, and dego. but they were far greater. at forty-four napoleon displayed exactly the same boldness, steadfastness, and skill which he had displayed in youth; but in addition he overcame the stolid enmity of winter, of variable weather, of roads almost impassable, of swampy fields that were almost impassable by reason of overflowing ditches and half-frozen morasses. he overcame, too, the resisting power created by his own example; for here were the choicest soldiers of the continent, commanded by men inured for eighteen years to the hardships, the shifts, the rapidity of warfare as he himself had taught the art. momentarily napoleon seems to have wondered whether allied and co-allied europe had learned nothing in half a generation, and whether an army twice and a half larger than his own, under veteran generals, was to withdraw again behind the rhine, the elbe, the oder, perhaps the vistula. it is hard to believe that he dreamed such dreams as we read the prosaic, scientific, hard common sense of his military correspondence between january twenty-sixth and february fourteenth. yet there is certainly an appearance of self-deception and vacillation in his political and diplomatic plans, due apparently to the intoxication of success, as when he spoke of the vistula to marmont after champaubert. the innermost thoughts of metternich, and of the diplomats associated with him, are very hard to fathom. for two generations the world believed that after leipsic, napoleon, in his sanguine conceit, rejected offer after offer from the allies, and finally perished utterly because of a folly which made him believe he could recover his predominance. there is now every reason to believe the contrary, and to suppose that napoleon clearly understood the situation. the war was one of extermination on the part of the allies; in the interest of their dynasties they intended not only to destroy napoleon, but also thereby to root out the ideas for which he was supposed to stand. by the light of recent memoirs, especially those of metternich himself, we seem forced to the conclusion that in all the offers after leipsic there was, if anything, far less of reality and sincerity than in those between the armistice of poischwitz and the battle. when castlereagh arrived at the allied headquarters early in january, , he found them established in basel. schwarzenberg had found no difficulty in crossing switzerland. geneva surrendered its keys without a struggle, and generally the swiss seemed indifferent to the violation of their neutrality. as the advance continued, it appeared that the french were equally apathetic. bubna was driven from before lyons by augereau, but dijon surrendered to a squad of cavalrymen which, at the request of the conscientious mayor, made a show of force to oblige him. it was not difficult under such circumstances for the sovereigns and their ministers to convince themselves that any peace with napoleon would be nothing but a "ridiculous armistice," and that the emperor of the french must, in any case, be utterly overthrown. in response to the frankfort proposals, the pacific caulaincourt had promptly arrived to conduct negotiations. the invaders had almost at once suggested that they must abandon the frankfort proposals, and confine france to her royal limits; that is, refuse her belgium with the great port of antwerp. so far they were agreed, but there the unanimity ceased. the czar desired first to conquer france, and then leave her to choose her own government; he intended to take the whole of poland, and give alsace to francis in return for galicia, thus checking austria by both prussia and france, so that he could work his will in the orient. metternich wished the old balance of power, and had determined on the restoration of the bourbons. francis was writing to his daughter that he would never separate her cause and that of her son from france. the prussian king and ministers desired only such an arrangement as would secure to their country what she had regained. stein and his associates wished the utter humiliation of their foe. castlereagh spoke with the authority of a paymaster; he was determined to keep the netherlands from falling under french influence, to restore the bourbons, and to establish so nice an equilibrium in europe that great britain would be unhampered elsewhere in the world. there was to be no mention of colonial restitution or neutral rights. being a second-rate statesman, he was much influenced by metternich, and the two sought to form an impossible alliance between constitutional liberty and feudal absolutism. a so-called congress was opened at châtillon on february fifth.[ ] it must be remembered that the treaty of reichenbach was still a secret. that agreement was the reality behind the congress of prague, the frankfort proposals, and the meeting at mannheim. none of those gatherings consequently was serious; that at châtillon was even less so. the memoirs of metternich explain all the facts: swiss neutrality was violated by austrian influence in order to restore the aristocratic constitution of bern and the ascendancy of that canton; alexander, posing still as a liberal, was angry at this violation of international law, and forbade the restoration of vaud to its old master. schwarzenberg's deliberate movements were due primarily to timidity, but they stood in good stead metternich's desire to restore the bourbons. it has been asserted, and there is much probability in the conjecture, that not only the plan adopted for invading france, but the slowness of the austrians in advancing toward langres, toward troyes, across into the seine valley, together with the spurious activity they displayed before montereau, sens, and fontainebleau, was part of a scheme to wear out but not to exhaust france, and then compel her to take back her dynastic rulers. blücher, who wanted glory and revenge, and the prussian liberals, who desired so to crush france that prussia might be free to slough off her militarism and build up a constitutional government, were alike furious at being chained to the frontier. all these cross-purposes and bitterness were mirrored in the ostentatious proceedings of the congress of châtillon. napoleon, either divining the facts, or, more probably, informed by spies, seemed indifferent, and refused at first to give full powers to caulaincourt; finally the marshals, terrified at the prospect of indefinite war opened by the unlucky mention of the vistula, made their influence so felt that the emperor yielded. [footnote : fournier: der congress von châtillon.] maret's name was long held up to detestation as the instigator of napoleon's procrastinating policy at dresden, the line of conduct which seemed to have made it possible for austria to join the coalition. among the papers of that minister is an account of his relations with napoleon during the congress at châtillon, which displays the evident motive of an attempt to prove how pacific his nature really was. he declares that after the defeat at la rothière, caulaincourt wrote a panic-stricken letter demanding full authority to treat. maret handed it to the emperor, beseeching him to yield. napoleon seemed scarcely to heed, but indicated a passage in montesquieu's "grandeur and fall of the romans," which he happened to be reading: "i know nothing more magnanimous than the resolution taken by a monarch who ruled in our time, to bury himself under the ruins of the throne rather than to accept proposals which a king may not entertain. he had a soul too lofty to descend lower than his misfortunes had hurled him." "but i, sire," rejoined the secretary--"i know something more magnanimous--to cast aside your glory in order to close the abyss into which france would fall along with you." "well, then, gentlemen, make your peace," came the reply. "let caulaincourt make it; let him sign everything necessary to obtain it. i can support the disgrace, but do not expect me to dictate my own humiliation." maret informed caulaincourt, but the latter recoiled before the responsibility, and asked for particular instructions. the emperor persistently refused, but wrote giving the minister "carte blanche" to take any measure which would save the capital. again caulaincourt begged for details, and again napoleon refused, persisting until bertrand joined his supplications to those of maret, whereupon he consented to abandon belgium, and even the left bank of the rhine. the formal despatch containing these concessions was to be signed next morning, on february eighth, but in the interval came news of blücher's movements. maret found the emperor buried in the study of his map. "i have an entirely different matter in hand," was the greeting; "i am at present occupied in dealing blücher a blow in the eye." the signature was indefinitely postponed. on the tenth alexander suspended the congress on the plea of caulaincourt's refusal to state his own or accept the offered terms. then followed the three victories, and napoleon, on the night of the twelfth, wrote to châtillon demanding the frankfort proposals. caulaincourt urgently besought the allies for an armistice, and begged napoleon to be less exacting. prussia and austria were eager for the armistice, but alexander obstinately refused to reopen the congress until the eighteenth, when everything seemed changed, and all the allies really desired peace. caulaincourt, warned by napoleon's letter of the twelfth, refused to treat without full instructions, and as he had none he began to procrastinate. in the end he bore the blame for not having used the carte blanche when he had it in order to save his country, for subsequently he had no opportunity. chapter vii the great captain at bay[ ] [footnote : references: houssaye: . jensen: napoleons feldzug, . weil: la campagne de , d'après les documents des archives impériales et royales de la guerre à vienne. la cavalerie des armées alliées pendant la campagne de .] victor's failure at montereau -- schwarzenberg's ruse -- the french advance and the austrian retreat -- napoleon's effort to divide the coalition -- vain negotiations -- the treaty of chaumont -- blücher's narrow escape -- the prussians defeated at craonne -- napoleon's determination to fight -- his misfortunes at laon -- dissensions at blücher's headquarters -- napoleon at soissons -- rheims recaptured -- another phase in napoleon's eclipse. the eagerness of the prussians and the austrians to grant an armistice was at first due to the belief that caulaincourt's request was a confession of exhaustion; the czar's assent to reopening the congress on the eighteenth was wrung from him by the military operations between the fourteenth and that date. convinced that paris was menaced, napoleon left marmont to hold blücher, and starting for la ferté-sous-jouarre on the fifteenth, covered fifty miles with his army in a marvelous march of thirty-six hours, arriving on the evening of the sixteenth with his men comparatively fresh. next morning the french began to advance, and the austrians to withdraw toward the seine. victor was to seize montereau that same day and hold the bridge. compelled to drive an austrian corps out of valjouan, the marshal did not reach his goal until six or seven in the evening, and finding it beset by the crown prince of würtemberg with fourteen thousand germans, he merely drove in the outposts and then halted for the night. his ardor was far from intense, and though, like macdonald at château-thierry, he might feel that he had done all that could be demanded, yet he lost the opportunity of annihilating a considerable portion of the enemy's force. simultaneously macdonald had now advanced until he stood before bray, while oudinot on the left was before provins. thus far napoleon's advance had been a front movement to cover paris, but that same day, the seventeenth, he drove wittgenstein from nangis, and then expected by a rush over the bridge at montereau to prevent schwarzenberg from extending his flank to fontainebleau, a move which would surround the french right. as a matter of fact, strange riders speaking curious outlandish tongues, cossack scouts in other words, had appeared for the first time that very day in nemours and fontainebleau, terrifying the inhabitants. it seems highly probable that if napoleon's force could have made a quick push from montereau early on the eighteenth, it would have cut off a considerable portion of schwarzenberg's left. in any case the emperor was deeply incensed by what he considered victor's slackness, and degraded him. the humbled marshal confessed his fault, displaying profound contrition, and was speedily restored to partial favor, being intrusted with the command, under ney, of a portion of the young guard. this was the third of the marshals--augereau, macdonald, victor, each in turn--who since the opening of the campaign had shown a physical and moral exhaustion disabling them from rising to the heights of napoleon's expectation. "we must pull on the boots and the resolution of ' ," wrote the emperor to augereau; he was quite right: nothing short of the unsapped revolutionary vigor of france could have saved his cause. on the eighteenth, after a six hours' struggle, the french under gérard and pajol seized montereau. napoleon had halted at nangis, and there berthier received by a flag of truce a letter from schwarzenberg, declaring that he had ceased his offensive march in consequence of news that preliminaries of peace had been signed the day previous at châtillon. this was probably as base a ruse as any ever practised by napoleon's generals. it is likely that all the austrian marches and countermarches for ten days past had been but a bustling semblance calculated for diplomatic effect. be that as it may, before napoleon's advance the austrian commander had quailed, and, with the french at montereau, his columns were already moving back to troyes, where they were drawn up in battle array. napoleon wrote indignantly to joseph that the ruse was probably preliminary to a request for an armistice, and that he would now accept nothing short of the frankfort proposals. "at the first check the wretched creatures fall on their knees." meanwhile he led his army over the river to nogent, and prepared to attack schwarzenberg. but blücher had not been idle; by superhuman exertions he had collected and strengthened his army at châlons, and on the twenty-first he appeared at méry on the seine, threatening napoleon's left flank in case of an advance toward troyes. by this time the flames of french patriotism were rekindled in town and country, and, the soldiers being flushed with victory, it was clearly the hour to strike at any hazard. oudinot was despatched with ten thousand men to hold blücher, and this task he actually accomplished, capturing that portion of méry which lay on the left bank of the river, and fortifying the bridge-head against all comers. marmont being at sézanne with eight thousand men to cover paris, and mortier at soissons with ten thousand to prevent the advance of york and sacken, napoleon marched on troyes. it was late in the evening when his main army was drawn up, and in order to leave time for his rear to come in, he postponed operations until the morning. schwarzenberg had seventy thousand in line, but at four in the early dawn of the twenty-second, leaving in place a front formation sufficient to mask his movements, he decamped with his main force and withdrew behind the aube. arrived at bar, the austrian commander wrote on the twenty-sixth an admirable letter of justification for the course he had taken. defeat would have meant a retreat, not behind the aube, but the rhine. "to offer a decisive battle to an army fighting with all the confidence gained in small affairs, manoeuvering on its own territory, with provisions and munitions within reach, and with the aid of a peasantry in arms, would be an undertaking to which nothing but extreme necessity could drive me." this retreat put a new aspect on the diplomacy of châtillon. on the nineteenth caulaincourt received a despatch from napoleon revoking the carte blanche entirely; the same day napoleon received an ultimatum from the congress, written several days before, to the effect that he was to renounce all the acquisitions of france since , and take no share in the arrangements subsequent to the peace. this last clause being a covert suggestion of abdication, the recipient flew into a passion; when finally he was soothed by the pleadings of berthier and maret, he gave such a meaningless reply as would enable negotiations to proceed, but his counter-project he addressed directly to the emperor francis. it was a refusal to give up antwerp and belgium, and an emphatic recurrence to the frankfort proposals. "if we are not to lay down our arms except on the offensive conditions proposed at the congress, the genius of france and providence will be on our side." napoleon's missive suggested to his father-in-law, as was its intention, that a continental peace on the frankfort basis would leave france free to recuperate her sea power and continue the war with england alone. this was the wedge which for some time past the writer had been proposing to drive into the coalition so as to separate austria from russia. castlereagh was very uneasy as to the possible effect of the message, and there was much anxiety among all the diplomats. their first step was to send a pacific reply and renew their request for an armistice. napoleon consented, but stipulated that hostilities should proceed during the preliminary pourparlers, and that in the protocol a clause should be inserted declaring that the plenipotentiaries were reassembled at châtillon to discuss a peace on the basis proposed at frankfort. a commission to arrange the terms of the armistice met on the twenty-fourth. that they were not in earnest is shown by frederick william's despatch of the twenty-sixth to blücher, saying, "the suspension of arms will not take place." that very day, also, in a council of war held by the allied generals, it was determined to form an invading army of the south. blücher was authorized to make a diversion in favor of the main army--a move which he had really begun the day before by a march to the right. napoleon, leaving macdonald and oudinot, with forty thousand men, to follow schwarzenberg, hurried after blücher with his remaining force. on the twenty-eighth the commission adjourned its sessions with a formal reiteration of the ultimatum already made by the allied powers. the reason was that by that time its members believed napoleon to be elsewhere engaged. schwarzenberg's army had checked oudinot, and as his troops recuperated their strength the leader recovered partial confidence. blücher being off for paris, with napoleon on his heels, the main army of the allies had then turned on the forces of macdonald and oudinot, and had driven them westward until in the pursuit it reached troyes, where it halted, ready, in case of blücher's defeat, to recross the rhine. the congress of châtillon was formally reopened on march first, and continued its useless sessions until the nineteenth, when it closed. during this second period none of the important dignitaries, except schwarzenberg and the king of prussia, attended; the rest withdrew to chaumont, where, on march ninth, the three powers signed a treaty with england, dated back to march first, binding themselves, in return for an annual subsidy of five million pounds sterling equally divided, that each would keep a hundred and fifty thousand men in the field, for twenty years if necessary, provided napoleon would not accept the boundaries of royal france--a futile stipulation. this treaty was the precursor of that iniquitous triple alliance between russia, austria, and prussia which was destined not merely to hamper england herself so seriously in the subsequent period of history, but to stop for some time the progress of liberal ideas throughout europe. blücher crossed the marne on february twenty-seventh with half his force, and then attempted to cross the ourcq in order to attack meaux from the north. but he was checked by marmont and mortier, with the sixteen thousand men they already had, and then, after six thousand new recruits came in from paris, he was forced to retreat. should napoleon arrive in time he would be annihilated. accordingly he hastened up the valley of the ourcq with his entire force. napoleon arrived on the marne too late to attack blücher's rear, and after some hesitation as to whether he should not return to complete his work with schwarzenberg, he finally determined that, inasmuch as the fortress of soissons was secure, and blücher must therefore retreat to the eastward, he could himself deliver an easy but staggering blow on the prussian flank when they should cross the aisne at fismes. accordingly, on march third the worn-out columns of the french passed over the marne. unfortunately, soissons had been left by marmont in charge of an inexperienced commander, who had surrendered almost without resistance when, on march second, bülow and wintzengerode, having come in from the netherlands, suddenly appeared before the place. this stroke of good fortune enabled blücher not merely to find a city of refuge for his exhausted and disorganized force, but to recruit it by the two victorious and elated corps which thenceforth served him as an invaluable rear-guard. napoleon, thwarted again, gave no outward sign of the despair he must have felt, but crossed the aisne on march fifth, and occupied rheims, in order at least to cut blücher off from any connection with schwarzenberg. he then turned to join marmont and mortier in order to drive blücher still farther north, so that, as he wrote to joseph, he might gain time sufficient to return by châlons and attack schwarzenberg. in spite of all his discouragements, blücher had no intention of retreating without a blow. there was constant friction between the prussian commander and his subordinates, so that dissension prevented prompt action. nevertheless, after much delay the army was got in motion to resume the offensive, the general plan being to move eastward instead of withdrawing due north, to cross the plateau of craonne, and, descending into the plain north of berry, to attack the french in force as they advanced to laon. napoleon had expected to meet his foe under the walls of that city; his quick advance was as much of a surprise to blücher as blücher's was to him. the first shock of battle, therefore, occurred at craonne on the sixth, when neither army was in readiness. but blücher secured the advantage of position. though he had only a portion of his force, the troops he did have were on a commanding plateau above the enemy when the action began. the skirmishes of the first day, however, were indecisive. napoleon's knowledge of the district being defective, he sought to secure the best possible information from the inhabitants. some one mentioning incidentally that the mayor of a neighboring town was named de bussy, napoleon recalled, with his astounding memory, that in the regiment of la fère he had had a comrade so named. the mayor turned out to be the sometime lieutenant, and, with superserviceable zeal, the former friend poured out worthless information which led the emperor to believe that on the morrow there would be only blücher's rear-guard to disperse. but it was not so. blücher struggled with his utmost might to gather in his cavalry and artillery, while sacken, with the russians, stood like a wall, repelling the successive surges of ney and victor the whole day through. at nightfall the prussian commander, finding it impossible to assemble guns or horsemen over the icy fields, gave orders for retreat, and his army passed on to laon. though craonne was a victory, the losses of the french were proportionately greater than those of the enemy, and the pursuit, though spirited, gained no advantage. "the young guard melts like snow; the old guard stands; my mounted guards likewise are much reduced," were the words of napoleon's private letter. yet he pressed on. the night of the seventh he spent in a roadside inn under the sign of "the guardian angel." there caulaincourt's last messenger from châtillon found him. the congress was still sitting, but the warrior knew the fact meant and could mean nothing to him; though the allies had increased their demands in proportion to their victories, they had not lessened them in proportion to their defeats. whatever terms he might accept, and whatever metternich might say, this war he felt sure was one for his extermination. as he said then and there, it was a bottomless chasm, and he added, "i am determined to be the last it shall swallow up." so he made no answer, and spent the night completing his plans for battle at laon. that place stands on a terraced hill rising somewhat abruptly from the plain, and throughout the eighth blücher arrayed his army in and on both sides of the city, which itself was of course the key. napoleon, being a firm believer in such movements when on friendly soil, made a long night march. he reached the enemy's fore-posts early on the ninth, and drove them in. at seven ney and mortier began the battle under cover of a mist, and captured two hamlets at the foot of the hill. marmont was on the right, and had already been cut off from the center by a body of cossacks; but he attacked the village of athies. after a long day's hard fighting, he succeeded in capturing a portion of it. further exertion being impossible, his men bivouacked, while he himself withdrew to the comforts of eppes, a château three miles distant. it was noon when napoleon learned that marmont had been severed from the line; at once he renewed his attack on laon, but though he gained clacy on his left, he lost ardon, and was thus more completely cut off from marmont. that night york fell upon marmont's men unawares, and routed them utterly. napoleon heard of this disaster shortly after midnight. he was, of course, deeply agitated--did he dare risk being infolded on both sides, or should he brave his fate in order to mislead the enemy? he chose the desperate course, and when day broke stood apparently undismayed. even when two fugitive dragoons arrived and confirmed in all its details the terrible news from athies, he issued orders as bold as if his army were still entire. this was a desperate ruse, but it succeeded, for the pursuit of marmont's men was stayed. at four the main french army began its retreat, and the next morning saw it at soissons; six thousand had been killed and wounded. again napoleon's name had stiffened the allies into inactive horror, for they did not pursue. york was so disgusted with the dissensions at blücher's headquarters that he threw up his command and left for brussels. blücher was literally at the end of his powers. "for heaven's sake," said langeron, a french refugee in the russian service, on whom the command would have devolved, "whatever happens, let us take the corpse along." "the corpse," with dimmed eyes and trembling hands, traced in great rude letters an epistle beseeching york to return, and this, indorsed by another from the prince royal of prussia, brought back the able but testy refugee. meantime rheims, intrusted to a feeble garrison, had been taken by langeron's rear-guard under st. priest, another french emigrant in the service of the allies. by this disaster communication between schwarzenberg and blücher had been reëstablished. in the short day napoleon could spend at soissons, he took up twenty-five hundred new cavalrymen, a new line regiment of infantry, a veteran regiment of the same, and some artillery detachments. it is not easy to conceive of recuperative power more remarkable than that which was thus exhibited both by france and her emperor. these men had been sent forward from paris in spite of the profound gloom now prevalent there. the truth was at last known in the capital; joseph was hopeless; the empress and her court were preparing for extremities. news had come that in the south soult had been thrown back on toulouse; that in the southwest royalist plots were thickening; that in the southeast augereau had been forced back to lyons; macdonald was ready to abandon provins at the first sign of advance by schwarzenberg; and the sorry tale of laon was early unfolded. yet the administrative machinery was still running, and soldiers were being manufactured from the available materials. those who had been sent to soissons had been hastily gathered, equipped, and drilled almost without hope, but they were precious since they enabled napoleon to refit his shattered battalions. marmont had unwisely abandoned berry-au-bac, and that in disregard of orders. but otherwise he had done his best to make good a temporary lapse, and had got together about eight thousand men at fismes. his narratives give a graphic picture of the situation--of disorder, confusion, chaos among his troops, of artillery served by inexperienced sailors, of undrilled companies whose members had neither hats, clothes, nor shoes. there were plenty of captured uniforms and head-coverings, but they were so infested with vermin that the french, sorry as was their plight, refused to wear them, and clung to their old tatters. marmont's men were heroes, he himself was not yet a traitor. though overborne by a sense of napoleon's recklessness, and therefore unfit for the desperate self-sacrifice which would have made him a fit coadjutor for his chief, he was prepared to atone for his disgrace at athies. early in the morning of the thirteenth the main french army moved from soissons; at four in the afternoon marmont opened the attack on rheims. napoleon himself had arrived, but his troops were slow in coming up, and there was no heavy artillery wherewith to batter in the gates. the struggle went on with desperate courage and gallantry on both sides. st. priest was killed by the same gunner whose aim had been fatal to moreau. "we may well say, o providence! o providence!" wrote napoleon to his brother. at ten the beleaguered garrison began to sally and flee. napoleon rose from the bearskin on which he had been resting before a bivouac fire, and storming with rage lest his prey should escape, hurried in the guns, which were finally within reach. amid awful tumult and carnage the place fell; three thousand of the enemy were slain, and about the same number were captured. the burghers were frenzied with delight as the emperor marched in, and the whole city burst into an illumination. next morning napoleon and marmont met. the culprit was loaded with reproaches for the affair at athies, and treated as a stern father might treat a careless child. no better evidence of the emperor's low state is needed. marmont was now the hero of the hour; his peccadillos might well have been forgotten for the sake of securing his continued faithfulness. with napoleon at his best, this would surely have been the case; but aware that at most the war could be a matter of only a few weeks, the desperate man overdid his rôle of self-confidence, being too rash, too severe, too haughty. not that he was without some hope. although for two years the shadow had been declining on the dial of napoleon's fortunes, and although under adverse conditions one brilliant combination after another had crumbled, yet his ideas were as great as ever, the adjustment of plans to changing conditions was never more admirable. the trouble was that effort and result did not correspond, and this being so, what would have been trifling misdemeanors in prosperity seemed to him in adversity to be dangerous faults. the great officers of state and army, imitating their master's ambitions, had acquired his weaknesses, but had failed in securing either his strength or his adroitness. with him they had lost that fire of youth which had carried them and him always just over the line of human expectation, and so his nice adjustments failed in exasperating ways at the very turn of necessity. hard words and stinging reproofs are soon forgotten in generous youth; they rankle in middle life; and even the invigorating address or inspiring word, when heard too often for twenty years, fails of effect. the beginning of the end was the loss of soissons at the critical instant. napoleon was uncertain and touchy; his marshals were honeycombed with disaffection; the populations, though flashing like powder at his touch, had nowhere risen _en masse_. thereafter the great captain was no longer waging a well-ordered warfare. like an exhausted swordsman, he lunged here and there in the grand style; but his brain was troubled, his blade broken. some untapped reservoirs of strength were yet to be opened, some untried expedients were to be essayed, but the end was inevitable. the movement on rheims was the spasmodic stroke of the dying gladiator. chapter viii the struggles of exhaustion[ ] [footnote : references: houssaye, napoléon à l'île d'elbe, in revue historique, tom. , pp. - . metternich's memoirs.] the allies demoralized -- napoleon's desperate choice -- the battle at arcis -- the correspondence of caulaincourt and napoleon -- panic at schwarzenberg's headquarters -- cross-purposes of the allies -- napoleon's determination confirmed -- his over-confidence -- the resolution to abandon paris -- the french brought to a stand -- their masked retreat -- inefficiency of marmont and augereau -- napoleon's march toward st. dizier -- his terrible disenchantment -- how the allies had discovered napoleon's plans -- their determination to pursue -- the czar's resolution to march on paris -- successful return of the invaders. though unscientific as a military move and futile as to the ultimate result of the war, the capture of rheims was, nevertheless, a telling thrust. on receipt of the news from laon, schwarzenberg had immediately set his army in motion against macdonald, and blücher, after waiting two days to restore order among his worried troops and insubordinate lieutenants, had advanced and laid siege to compiègne. the capture of rheims checked the movements of both austrians and prussians; dismay prevailed in both camps, and both armies began to draw back. the french halted at nangis in their retreat before schwarzenberg, and the people of compiègne were released from the terrors of a siege. "this terrible napoleon," wrote langeron in his memoirs--"they thought they saw him everywhere. he had beaten us all, one after the other; we were always frightened by the daring of his enterprises, the swiftness of his movements, and his clever combinations. scarcely had we formed a plan when it was disconcerted by him." besides this, in obedience to napoleon's call, the peasantry began an organized guerrilla warfare, avenging the pillage, incendiarism, and military executions of the allies by a brutal retaliation in kind which made the marauding invaders quake. finally the momentary consternation of the latter verged on panic when the report reached headquarters that bernadotte, lying inactive at liège with twenty-three thousand swedes, had permitted a flag of truce from joseph to enter his presence. could it be that the sly schemer, for the furtherance of his ambition to govern france, was about to turn traitor and betray the coalition? but the consternation of the allies was the least important effect of the capture of rheims by napoleon.[ ] it initiated certain ideas and purposes in his own mind about which there has been endless discussion. many see in them the immediate cause of his ruin, a few consider them the most splendid offspring of his mind. reinforcements from paris, slender as they were, flowed steadily into his camp; and when he learned that both schwarzenberg and blücher had virtually retreated, he believed himself able to cope once more with the former. accordingly he dictated to his secretary an outline of three possible movements: to arcis on the aube, by way of sézanne to provins, and to meaux for the defense of paris. the first was the most daring; the second would cut the enemy off from the right bank of the seine, but it had the disadvantage of keeping the troops on miry cross-roads; the third was the safest. of course he chose the way of desperation--all or nothing. leaving marmont with seven thousand men at berry-au-bac, and mortier with ten thousand at rheims and soissons, he enjoined them both to hold the line toward paris against blücher at all hazards, and himself set out, on march seventeenth, for arcis on the aube. this he did, instead of marching direct to meaux for the defense of paris, because it would, in his own words, "give the enemy a great shock, and result in unforeseen circumstances." [footnote : see houssaye, , pp. _et seq._] schwarzenberg's movements during the next three days awakened in napoleon the suspicion, which he was only too glad to accept as a certainty, that the austro-russian army was on the point of retreating into the vosges or beyond; and on the twentieth he announced his decision of marching farther eastward, past troyes, toward the frontier forts still in french hands. this idea of a final stand on the confines of france and germany haunted him to the end, and was the "will-o'-the-wisp" which intermittently tempted him to folly. but for the present its execution was necessarily postponed. that very day news was received within the lines he had established about arcis that the enemy, far from retreating, was advancing. soon the french cavalry skirmishers appeared galloping in flight, and were brought to a halt only when the emperor, with drawn sword, threw himself across their path. a short, sharp struggle ensued--sixteen thousand french with twenty-four thousand five hundred of their foe. it was irregular and indecisive, but napoleon held his own. the neighboring hamlet of torcy had also been attacked by the allies, and before their onset the french had at first yielded. but the defenders were rallied, and at nightfall the position was recaptured. this sudden exhibition by schwarzenberg of what looked like courage puzzled napoleon; after long deliberation he concluded that the hostile troops were in all probability only a rear-guard covering the enemy's retreat. he was not very far wrong, but far enough to make all the difference to him. the circumstances require a full explanation. thanks to caulaincourt's sturdy persistence, the congress at châtillon was still sitting, and on the thirteenth the french delegate wrote a last despairing appeal to the emperor. his messenger was delayed three days by the military operations; but when he arrived, on the sixteenth, maret wrung from napoleon concessions which included antwerp, mainz, and even alessandria. in the despatch announcing this, and written on the seventeenth to caulaincourt, maret made no reservation except one: that napoleon intended, after signing the treaty, to secure for himself whatever the military situation at the close of the war might entitle him to retain. the return of the messenger was likewise delayed for three days, and it was the twenty-first before he reached the outskirts of châtillon. he arrived to find caulaincourt departing; the second "carte blanche" had arrived too late. with all his skill, the persistent and adroit minister had been unable to protract negotiations longer than the eighteenth. his appeal having brought no immediate response, he had, several days earlier, despatched a faithful warning, and this reached napoleon at fère-champenoise simultaneously with the departure of the messenger for châtillon. the day previous the emperor had received bad news from southern france: that bordeaux had opened its gates to a small detachment of english under hill, and that the duke of angoulême had been cheered by the people as he publicly proclaimed louis xviii king of france. apparently neither this information nor caulaincourt's warning profoundly impressed napoleon; he knew his gascons well, his "carte blanche" he must have believed to be in châtillon, and it had been in high spirits that he hastened on to arcis, determined to make the most of the time intervening until the close of negotiations. when news of napoleon's advance reached schwarzenberg's headquarters in troyes, there had at first been nothing short of panic; the commander himself was on a sick-bed, having entirely succumbed to the hardships of winter warfare. no sooner had he ordered the first backward step than his army had displayed a feverish anxiety for farther retreat. as things were going, it appeared as if the different corps would, for lack of judicious leadership, be permitted to withdraw still farther in such a way as to separate the various divisions ever more widely, and expose them successively to annihilating blows from napoleon, like those which had overwhelmed the scattered segments of the silesian army. the czar and many others immediately perceived the danger. with faculties unnerved by fear, the officers foreboded a repetition with the bohemian army of montmirail, champaubert, and vauchamps. rumors filled the air: the peasantry of the vosges were rising, the swiss were ready to follow their example; the army must withdraw before it was utterly surrounded and cut off. there was even a report--and so firmly was it believed that it long passed for history--of alexander's having expressed a desire to reopen the congress. schwarzenberg's strange hesitancy in the initial stages of the invasion has been explained. beyond his natural timidity, it was almost certainly due to metternich's politics, which displayed a desire to ruin napoleon's imperial power, but to save france either for the bourbons or possibly for his emperor's son-in-law. if the austrian minister could accomplish this, he could thereby checkmate prussian ambitions for leadership in germany. but during the movements of february and march the actions of the austrian general appear to have been due almost exclusively to cowardice. the papers of castlereagh, of metternich, and of schwarzenberg himself aim to give the impression that during all the events which had occurred since the congress of prague, everything had been straightforward, and that austria had no thought of sparing napoleon or acting otherwise than she did in the end. yet the indications of the time are quite the other way: the russians in schwarzenberg's army were furious, and, as one of them wrote, suspicious "of what we are doing and what we are not doing." alexander, in this crisis, was deeply concerned, not for peace, but for an orderly, concentrated retreat. with stubborn fatalism, he never doubted the final outcome; and during his stay in châtillon he had spent his leisure hours in excogitating a careful plan for the grand entry into paris, whereby the honors were to be his own. consequently, when on the nineteenth he hastened to schwarzenberg's bedside, it was with the object of persuading the austrian commander to make a stand long enough to secure concentration in retreat. this idea originated with the russian general toll, and the place he suggested for concentration was the line between troyes and pougy. but the council was terror-stricken, and though willing to heed alexander's urgent warning, they at first selected a position farther in the rear, on the heights of trannes. with this the czar was content, but on second thought such a course appeared to the more daring among the austrian staff as if it smacked of pusillanimity. schwarzenberg felt the force of this opinion, and by the influence of some one, probably radetzky, it was determined, without consulting the czar, to concentrate near arcis on the left bank of the aube, in order to assume the offensive at plancy. this independent resolution of schwarzenberg's staff explains the presence of allied troops near arcis and at torcy. alexander was much incensed by the news of the meeting, and declared that napoleon's real purpose was to hold them while cutting off their connections on the extreme right at bar and chaumont. this was in fact a close conjecture. napoleon, though surprised into action, was naturally confirmed in his surmise that the hostile troops were a retreating rear-guard; and in consequence he had definitely adopted the most desperate scheme of his life--the plan of hurrying toward the vosges, of summoning the peasantry to rise _en masse_, and of calling out the garrison troops from the frontier fortresses to reinforce his army and enable him to strike the invaders from behind. by his retreat to troyes on february twenty-second, schwarzenberg had avoided a decisive conflict, saving his own army, and leaving napoleon to exhaust himself against the army of silesia; by his decision of march nineteenth he had confirmed napoleon in the conviction that the allies were overawed, and had thus led his desperate foe into the greatest blunder conceivable--this chimerical scheme of concentrating his slender, scattered force on the confines of france, and leaving open a way for the great army of invaders to march direct on paris. of such stuff are contemporary reputations sometimes constructed. but this was not enough: a third time the austrian general was to stumble on greatness. napoleon's movements of concentration had thus far met with no resistance, in spite of their temerity; and throughout the nineteenth the enemy's outposts, wherever found, fled incontinently. it appeared a certainty that the allies were abandoning the line of the seine in order to avoid a blow on their flank. that evening napoleon began to vacillate, gradually abandoning his notion of an offensive move near troyes, and deliberating how best to reach vitry for a further advance toward his eastern fortresses. to avoid any appearance of retreat, he rejected the safer route by way of fère-champenoise to sommesous, and determined to follow the course of the aube for a while before turning northward to sommepuis. he might run across the enemy's rear-guard, but he counted on their pusillanimity for the probable retreat of the very last man to troyes. when ney and sebastiani began on the twentieth to push up the south bank of the aube, they expected no opposition. that very morning napoleon had announced to his minister of war, "i shall neglect troyes, and betake myself in all haste to my fortresses." so far the emperor had made no exhibition of the temerity about which so much was later to be said. but he had deceived himself and had taken a wild resolution. moreover, it is amazing that he should have felt a baseless confidence in blücher's remaining inert. this hallucination is, however, clearly expressed in a despatch to marmont of the very same date. yet, nevertheless, the alternative is not left out of consideration, for he ordered that marshal, in case blücher should resume the offensive, to abandon paris and hasten to châlons. this fatal decision was not taken suddenly: the contingency had been mentioned in a letter of february eighth to joseph, and again from rheims emphatic injunctions to keep the empress and the king of rome from falling into austrian hands were issued to the same correspondent. "do not abandon my son," the emperor pleaded; "and remember that i would rather see him in the seine than in the hands of the enemies of france. the fate of astyanax, prisoner to the greeks, has always seemed to me the unhappiest in history." the messenger had been gone but a few hours when word was brought that blücher had resumed the offensive, and a swift courier was despatched summoning marmont to châlons. in this ultimate decision napoleon showed how cosmopolitan he had grown: he had forgotten, if he had ever understood, the extreme centralization of france; he should have known that, paris lost, the head of the country was gone, and that the dwarfed limbs could develop little or no national vitality. this bitter lesson he was soon to learn. on the momentous afternoon of the twentieth, as has been related, about sixteen thousand french confronted nearly twenty-five thousand of the allies in the sharp but indecisive skirmishes before arcis; the loss of the former was eighteen hundred, that of the allies twenty-seven hundred. in spite of the dimensions which these conflicts had assumed, napoleon remained firm in the belief that he had to do with his retreating enemy's rear-guard; schwarzenberg, on the other hand, was convinced that the french had a strength far beyond the reality. during the night both armies were strongly reinforced, and in the early morning napoleon had twenty-seven thousand five hundred men--quite enough, he believed, to demoralize the retreating austrians. it was ten o'clock when he ordered the attack, ney and sebastiani being directed to the plateau behind the town. what was their surprise and dismay to find schwarzenberg's entire army, which numbered not less than a hundred thousand, drawn up in battle array on the plain to the eastward, the infantry in three dense columns, cavalry to right and left, with three hundred and seventy pieces of artillery on the central front! the spectacle would have been dazzling to any but a soldier: the bright array of gay accoutrements, the glittering bayonets, the waving banners, and the serried ranks. as it was, the audacious french skirmishers instinctively felt the incapacity of a general who could thus assemble an army as if on purpose to display its numbers and expose it to destruction. without a thought they began a sort of challenging rencounter with horse-artillery and cavalry. but the emperor's hopes were dashed when he learned the truth; with equal numbers he would have been exultant; a battle with odds of four to one he dared not risk. sebastiani was kept on the heights to mask the retreat which was instantly determined upon, and at half-past one it began. this ruse was so successful, by reason of the alarms and crossings incident to the withdrawal of the french, that the allies were again terror-stricken; even the czar rejected every suggestion of attack; again force was demoralized by genius. at last, however, scouts brought word that columns of french soldiers were debouching beyond the aube, and the facts were plain. even then the paralyzed invaders feared to attack, and it was not until two thirds of napoleon's force was behind the stream that, after fierce fighting, the french rear was driven from the town. oudinot's corps was the last to cross the river, and, standing until sappers had destroyed the bridge, it hurried away to follow the main column toward vitry. the divisions of gérard and macdonald joined the march, and there were then forty-five thousand men in line. while napoleon was thus neutralizing the efforts of armies and generals by the renown of his name, two of his marshals were finally discredited. enfeebled as blücher appeared to be, he was no sooner freed from the awe of napoleon's proximity than he began to move. on the eighteenth he passed the aisne, and marmont, disobeying the explicit instructions of napoleon to keep open a line of retreat toward châlons, began to withdraw toward fismes, where he effected a junction with mortier. his intention was to keep blücher from paris by false manoeuvers. rheims and Épernay at once fell into hostile hands; there was no way left open toward châlons except the long detour by château-thierry and Étoges; and blücher, it was found, was hurrying to effect a connection with schwarzenberg. this was an assured checkmate. meantime augereau had displayed a similar incapacity. on the eighth he had begun a number of feeble, futile movements intended to prevent the allies from forming their army of the south. but after a few aimless marches he returned to lyons, and stood there in idleness until his opponents had completed their organization. on the twentieth the place was assaulted. the french general had twenty-one thousand five hundred men under his immediate command, six thousand eight hundred catalonian veterans were on their way from perpignan, and at chambèry were seven thousand more from the armies of tuscany and piedmont. the assailants had thirty-two thousand, mostly raw troops. with a stout heart in its commander, lyons could have been held until the reinforcements arrived, when the army of the allies would probably have been annihilated. but there was no stout heart in any of the authorities; not a spade had been used to throw up fortifications; the siege-guns ready at avignon had not been brought up. augereau, at the very height of the battle, summoned the civil authorities to a consultation, and the unwarlike burghers assented without a murmur to his suggestion of evacuation. the great capital of eastern france was delivered as a prize to those who had not earned it. had suchet been substituted for augereau some weeks earlier, the course of history might have been diverted. but although napoleon had contemplated such a change, he shrank from disgracing an old servant, and again, as before leipsic, displayed a kindly spirit destructive to his cause. the night after his retreat from arcis, napoleon sent out a reconnaissance to vitry, and finding it garrisoned by prussians, swerved toward st. dizier, which, after a smart combat, he entered on the twenty-third. this placed him midway between the lines of his enemy's communication both from strasburg and from basel; which of the two, he asked himself, would schwarzenberg return to defend? thinking only how best to bait his foe, he set his army in motion northward; the anxious austrian would certainly struggle to retain the line in greatest danger. this illusion continued, french cavalry scoured the country, some of the châtillon diplomats were captured, and the emperor of austria had a narrow escape at bar. it seemed strange that the country-side as far as langres was deserted, but the fact was apparently explained when the news came that the enemy were in force at vitry; probably they had abandoned troyes and had disregarded brienne in order to divert him from his purpose. alas for the self-deception of a ruined man! the enemy at vitry were a body of eight thousand russian cavalry from the silesian army, sent, under wintzengerode, to dog napoleon's heels and deceive him, just as they actually did. having left vitry on the twenty-eighth, they were moving toward st. dizier when napoleon, believing that they formed the head of a powerful hostile column, fell upon them with needless fury, and all too easily put them to flight; two thousand were captured and five hundred killed. thanks to marmont's disobedience and bad judgment, blücher had opened communications with schwarzenberg, and both were marching as swiftly as possible direct to paris. of this napoleon remained ignorant until the twenty-eighth. from his prisoners the emperor first gained a hint of the appalling truth. it was impossible to believe such reports. orders were issued for an immediate return to vitry in order to secure reliable information. arrived before the place, napoleon called a council of war to decide whether an attempt to storm it should be made. in the moment of deliberation news began to arrive in abundance: captured despatches and bulletins of the enemy, confirmed by definite information from the inhabitants of the surrounding country. there could no longer be any doubt: the enemy, with an advantage of three days' march, was on his way to paris. the futility of his eastward movement appears to have struck napoleon like a thunderbolt. paris abandoned in theory was one thing; france virtually decapitated by the actual loss of its capital was quite another. the thought was unendurable. mounting his horse, the unhappy man spurred back to st. dizier, and closeted himself in silent communing with his maps. the allies had not at first divined napoleon's purpose. indeed, their movements in passing the aube and on the day following were little better than random efforts to fathom it. but on the morning of the twenty-third two important messengers were captured--one a courier from berthier to macdonald with despatches stating exactly where napoleon was; the other a rider with a short note from napoleon to his empress, containing a statement of its writer's plans. this famous paper was lost, for blücher, after having read it, let the rider go. but the extant german translation is doubtless accurate. it runs: "my friend, i have been all day in the saddle. on the twentieth i took arcis on the aube. the enemy attacked at eight in the evening. i beat him, killed four thousand men, and captured four cannon. on the twenty-first the enemy engaged in order to protect the march of his columns toward brienne and bar on the aube. i have resolved to betake myself to the marne in order to draw off the enemy from paris and to approach my fortifications. i shall be this evening in st. dizier. adieu, my friend; kiss my boy." savary declares that there was a final phrase: "this movement makes or mars me." the menace to their lines of communication at first produced consternation in the council of the allies. the first proposition laid before them was that they should return on parallel lines and recover their old bases. had this scheme been adopted, napoleon's strategy would have been justified completely instead of partially as it was; nothing but a miracle could have prevented the evacuation of france by the invaders. but a second, calmer thought determined the invaders to abandon both the old lines, and, opening a new one by way of châlons into the netherlands, to make the necessary detour and fall on napoleon's rear. francis, for the sake of keeping close touch with his own domains, was to join the army of the south at lyons. although there is no proof to support the conjecture, it seems as if the czar and the king of prussia had suggested this so that both francis and metternich might be removed from the military councils of the allies in order that the more warlike party might in their absence take decisive measures. that night a package of letters to napoleon from the imperial dignitaries at paris fell into the hands of the invaders. the writers, each and all, expressed a profound despondency, savary in particular asserting that everything was to be feared should the enemy approach the capital. next morning, the twenty-fourth, the junction between blücher and schwarzenberg was completed. francis and metternich being absent, schwarzenberg, listening to warlike advice, determined to start immediately in pursuit of napoleon and seek a battle. the march was begun, and it seemed as if napoleon's wild scheme was to be completely justified. he had certainly displayed profound insight. alexander, however, had been steadily hardening his purpose to annihilate napoleon. for a week past vitrolles, the well-known royalist agent, had been at his headquarters; the accounts of a steady growth in royalist strength, the efforts of napoleon's lifelong foe, pozzo di borgo, and the budget of despondent letters from the paris officials, combined to temper the czar's mystical humor into a determination of steel. accordingly, on the same day he summoned his personal military advisers, barclay, wolkonsky, diebitsch, and toll; then, pointing out on a map the various positions of the troops engaged in the campaign, he asked, significantly and impressively, whether it were best to pursue napoleon or march on paris. barclay supported the former alternative; diebitsch advised dividing the army and doing both; but toll, with powerful emphasis, declared himself for the second course. the czar listened enthusiastically to what was near his own heart, and expressed himself strongly as favoring it; the others yielded with the eagerness of courtiers, and alexander, mounting his horse, spurred after frederick william and schwarzenberg. the new plan was unfolded; the prussian king supported it; schwarzenberg hesitated, but yielded. that night orders were issued for an about-face, a long explanatory despatch was sent to blücher, and on the twenty-fifth the combined armies of bohemia and silesia were hurrying with measured tramp toward paris. for the first time there was general enthusiasm in their ranks. blücher, who from his unremitted ardor had won the name of "marshal forward," was transported with joy. [illustration: in the collection of the marquis of bassano napoleon-franÇois-charles-joseph, prince imperial; king of rome; duke of reichstadt. _from the painting by sir thomas lawrence_.] the two armies marched on parallel lines, and met with no resistance of any importance, except as the various skirmishes enabled the irregular french soldiers to display a desperate courage, not only the untried "marie louises" coming out from paris, but various bodies of the national guard convoying provision-trains. it was the twenty-fifth before marmont and mortier effected their junction, and then, although about sixteen thousand strong, they were steadily forced back through fère-champenoise and allemant toward charenton, which was under the very walls of paris. marmont displayed neither energy nor common sense on the retreat: his outlying companies were cut off, and strategic points which might have been held were utterly neglected. the army with which he reached paris on the twenty-ninth should have formed an invaluable nucleus for the formation and incorporation of the numerous volunteers and irregular companies which were available; but, like its leader, it was entirely demoralized. ledru des essarts, commander of meaux, was obliged on the twenty-seventh to abandon his charge, a military depot full of ammunition and supplies, which was essential to the safety of paris. the garrison consisted of six thousand men, but among them were not more than eight hundred veterans, hastily collected from marmont's stragglers, and the new conscripts were ill-conditioned and badly commanded. although the generals drew up their men with a bold front to defend the passage of the marne, the undisciplined columns were overwhelmed with terror at the sight of blücher's army, and, standing only long enough to blow up the magazines, fled. they fought gallantly, however, on their retreat throughout the twenty-eighth, but to no avail; one position after another was lost, and they too bivouacked on the evening of the twenty-ninth before the gates of the capital. it is a weak curiosity, possibly, but we must wonder what would have occurred had marmont, instead of retreating to fismes on the eighteenth, withdrawn to rheims, where he and mortier could at least have checked blücher's unauthorized advance, and perhaps have held the army of silesia for a time, when the moral effect would probably have been to justify schwarzenberg and confirm his project for the pursuit of napoleon. in that case, moreover, the precious information of napoleon's letter to his consort would not have fallen into his enemies' hands. would destiny have paused in its career? chapter ix the beginning of the end[ ] [footnote : references: napoleon, king of elba. pons de l'hérault, mémoire aux puissances alliées; publ. pour la "société d'histoire contemporaine." houssaye, napoléon à l'île d'elbe. sorel, essais d'histoire et de critique. talleyrand, metternich. sorel, le congrès de vienne. rose, napoleonic studies. campbell, napoleon at fontainebleau and elba. foresi, napoleone i all' isola dell' elba.] napoleon's problem -- the military situation -- a council of war and state -- the return to paris -- prostrating news -- the empress-regent and her advisers -- traitors within -- talleyrand -- the defenders of the capital -- the flight of the court -- the allies before the city. the pallid, silent emperor at st. dizier was closeted with considerations like these. he knew of the defeat which forced marmont and mortier back on paris; the loss of the capital was imminent; parties were in a dangerous state; his marshals were growing more and more slack; he had failed in transferring the seat of war to lorraine; the information he had so far received was almost certainly colored by the medium of scheming followers through which it came. what single mind could grapple with such affairs? it was not because the thwarted man had lost his nerve, but because he was calm and clear-minded, that he felt the need of frank, dispassionate advice on all these matters. on the other hand, there stood forth in the clearest light a single fact about which there could be no doubt, and it alone might counterbalance all the rest: the peoples of northern and eastern france were at last aroused in behalf of his cause. for years all europe had rung with outcries against the outrages of napoleon's soldiery; the allied armies no sooner became invaders in their turn than they began to outstrip their foe in every deed of shame; in particular, the savage bands from russian asia indulged their inhuman passions to the full, while the french peasantry, rigid with horror, looked on for the moment in paralysis. now they had begun to rise in mass, and from the twenty-fifth to the twenty-eighth their volunteer companies brought in a thousand prisoners. the depots, trains, and impedimenta of every sort which the allies abandoned on turning westward fell into the hands of a peasant soldiery, many of whom were armed with shot-guns. the rising for napoleon was comparable only to that which earlier years had seen in the vendée on behalf of the bourbons. besides, all the chief cities of the district were now in the hands of more or less regular troops; dunette was marching from metz with four thousand men; broussier, from strasburg with five thousand; verdun could furnish two thousand, and several other fortresses a like number. souham was at nogent with his division, allix at auxerre with his; the army at the emperor's disposal could easily be reckoned at seventy thousand. assisted by the partizan bands which now hung in a passion of hatred on the skirts of the invaders, and by the national uprising now fairly under way, could not the emperor-general hope for another successful stand? he well knew that the fear of what had happened was the specter of his enemy's council-board; they would, he reckoned, be rendered over-cautious, and give him at least a fortnight in which to manoeuver before the fall of paris could be expected. counting the men about vitry and the garrison reinforcements at only sixty thousand, the combined armies of suchet, soult, and augereau at the same number, that of marmont at fourteen thousand, and the men in the various depots at sixteen thousand, he would have a total of a hundred and fifty thousand, from which he could easily spare fifty thousand to cut off every line of retreat from his foe, and still have left a hundred thousand wherewith to meet their concentrated force on a basis of something like equality. from the purely strategic point of view, the march of the allies to paris was sheer madness unless they could count on the exhaustion of the population right, left, and behind. if the national uprising could be organized, they would be cut off from all reinforcement and entrapped. already their numbers had been reduced to a hundred and ten thousand men. napoleon with a hundred thousand, and the nation to support him, had a fair chance of annihilating them. it was, therefore, not a mere hallucination which led him to hope that once again the tangled web of affairs might be severed by a sweep of the soldier's saber. but of course in the crisis of his great decision he could not stand alone; he must be sure of his lieutenants. accordingly, after a few hours of secret communing, he summoned a council, and laid before it his considerations substantially as enumerated. those present were berthier, ney, lefebvre, caulaincourt, and maret; oudinot and macdonald, at bar on the ornain and perthes respectively, were too distant to arrive in time, but he believed that he knew their opinion, which was that the war should be continued either in lorraine or from a center of operations to be established at sens. from this conclusion macdonald did not once waver; oudinot had begun to hedge; their absence, therefore, was unimportant. berthier was verging on desperation, and so was caulaincourt, who, since leaving châtillon, had been vainly struggling to reopen negotiations for peace on any terms; ney, though physically brave, was not the stuff from which martyrs are made, and lefebvre, naturally weak, was laboring under a momentary attack of senility. the council was imperative for peace at any price; the emperor, having foreseen its temper, had little difficulty in taking the military steps for carrying out its behests. early in the morning of march twenty-eighth the army was set in motion toward paris. the line of march was to be through bar on the aube, troyes, and fontainebleau, a somewhat circuitous route, chosen apparently for three reasons: because the region to be traversed would still afford sustenance to the men, because the seine would protect its right flank, and because the dangerous point of meaux was thus avoided. such a conclusion is significant of the clearest judgment and the nicest calculation. pages have been written about napoleon's hallucinations at the close of his career; neither here nor in any of the courses he adopted is there aught to sustain the charge. at breakfast-time a squad of jubilant peasants brought in a prisoner whom they believed to be no less a person than the comte d'artois. in reality it was weissenberg, an austrian ambassador on his way to london. he was promptly liberated on parole and despatched with letters to francis and metternich. by a curious adventure, vitrolles was in the minister's suite disguised as a serving-man, but he was not detected. [illustration: map of the field of operations in .] at doulevant napoleon received cipher despatches from la valette, the postmaster-general in paris, a trusted friend. these were the first communications since the twenty-second; the writer said not a moment must be wasted, the emperor must come quickly or all would be lost. his decision once taken, napoleon had grown more feverish with every hour; this message gave wings to his impatience. with some regard for such measures as would preclude his capture by wandering bands of cossacks, he began almost to fly. new couriers were met at doulaincourt with despatches which contained a full history of the past few days; in consequence the troops were spurred to fresh exertions, their marches were doubled, and at nightfall of the twenty-ninth troyes was reached. snatching a few brief hours of sleep, napoleon at dawn next morning threw discretion to the winds, and started with an insufficient escort, determined to reach villeneuve on the vanne before night. the task was performed, but no sooner had he arrived than at once he flung himself into a post-chaise, and, with caulaincourt at his side, sped toward paris; a second vehicle, with three adjutants, followed as best it might; and a third, containing gourgaud and lefebvre, brought up the rear. it will be remembered that gourgaud was an able artillerist; lefebvre, it was hoped, could rouse the suburban populations for the defense of paris. at sens napoleon heard that the enemy was ready to attack; at fontainebleau that the empress had fled toward the loire; at essonnes he was told that the decisive battle was raging; and about ten miles from the capital, at the wretched posting-station of la cour de france, deep in the night, fell the fatal blow. paris had surrendered. the terrible certainty was assured by the bearer of the tidings, belliard, a cavalry officer despatched with his troop by mortier to prepare quarters for his own and marmont's men. maria louisa had played her rôle of empress-regent as well as might be expected from a woman of twenty-three with slender abilities; only once in his letters did the emperor chide her, and that was for a fault at that time venial in european royalty: receiving a high official, in this case the arch-chancellor, in her bedchamber. on the whole, she had been dignified and conciliatory; once she rose to a considerable height, pronouncing before the senate with great effect a stirring speech composed by her husband and forwarded from his headquarters. about her were grouped a motley council: joseph, gentle but efficient; savary, underhanded and unwarlike; clarke, working in the war ministry like a machine; talleyrand, secretly plotting against napoleon, whose title of vice-grand elector he wore with outward suavity; cambacérès, wise but unready; montalivet, adroit but cautious. yet, while there was no one combining ability, enthusiasm, and energy, the equipment of troops had gone on with great regularity, and each day regiments of half-drilled, half-equipped recruits had departed for the seat of war. the national guards who garrisoned the city, some twelve thousand in all, had forgotten their imperialism, having grown very sensitive to the shafts of royalist wit; yet they held their peace and had performed the round of their duties. everything had outwardly been so quiet and regular that napoleon actually contemplated a new levy, but the emptiness of the arsenals compelled him to dismiss the idea. theoretically a fortified military depot, paris was really an antiquated fortress with arsenals of useless weapons. spasmodic efforts had been made to throw up redoubts before the walls, but they had failed from lack of energy in the military administration. a close examination of what lay beneath the surface of parisian society revealed much that was dangerous. talleyrand's house was a nest of intrigue. imperial prefects like pasquier and chabrol were calm but perfunctory. the talleyrand circle grew larger and bolder every day. moreover, it had influential members--de pradt, louis, vitrolles, royer-collard, lambrecht, grégoire, and garat, together with other high functionaries in all departments. bourrienne developed great activity as an extortioner and briber; the great royalist irreconcilables, montmorency, noailles, denfort, fitz-james, and montesquiou, were less and less careful to conceal their activity. jaucourt, one of joseph's chamberlains, was a spy carrying the latest news from headquarters to the plotters. "if the emperor were killed," he wrote on march seventeenth, "we should then have the king of rome and the regency of his mother.... the emperor dead, we could appoint a council which would satisfy all opinions. burn this letter." the program is clear when we recall that the little king of rome was not three years old. napoleon was well aware of the increasing chaos, and smartly reproved savary from rheims. but talleyrand was undaunted. at first he appears to have desired a violent death for napoleon, in the hope of furthering his own schemes during a long imperial regency. at all events, he ardently opposed the departure of the empress and the king of rome from paris. nevertheless it was he who despatched vitrolles, the passionate royalist, to nesselrode with a letter in invisible ink which, when deciphered, turned out to be an inscrutable riddle capable of two interpretations. "the bearer of this deserves all confidence. hear him and know me. it is time to be plain. you are walking on crutches; use your legs and will to do what you can." lannes had long before stigmatized the unfrocked bishop as a mess of filth in a silk stocking; murat said he could take a kick from behind without showing it in his face; in the last meeting of the council of state before the renewal of hostilities, napoleon fixed his eyes on the sphinx-like cripple and said: "i know i am leaving in paris other enemies than those i am going to fight." his fellow-conspirators were scarcely less bitter in their dislike than his avowed enemies. "you don't know the monkey," said dalberg to vitrolles; "he would not risk burning the tip of his paw even if all the chestnuts were for himself." yet, master of intrigue, he pursued the even tenor of his course, scattering innuendos, distributing showers of anonymous pamphlets, smuggling english newspapers into the city, in fact working every wire of conspiracy. surprised by the minister of police in an equivocal meeting with de pradt, he burst out into hollow laughter, his companion joined in the peal, and even savary himself found the merriment infectious. toward the close of march the populace displayed a perilous sensitiveness to all these influences. the london "times" of march fifteenth, which was read by many in the capital, asked what pity blücher and the cossacks would show to paris on the day of their vengeance, the editor suggesting that possibly as he wrote the famous town was already in ashes. such suggestions created something very like a panic, and a week later the climax was reached. when the fugitive peasants from the surrounding country began to take refuge in the capital they found business at a standstill, the shops closed, the streets deserted, the householders preparing for flight. from the twenty-third to the twenty-eighth there was no news from napoleon; the empress and council heard only of marmont's defeat. they felt that a decision must be taken, and finally on the twenty-eighth the imperial officials held a council. the facts were plainly stated by clarke; he had but forty-three thousand men, all told, wherewith to defend the capital, and in consequence it was determined to send the empress and her son to rambouillet on the very next day. this fatal decision was taken partly through fear, but largely in deference to napoleon's letter containing the classical allusion to astyanax. the very men who took it believed that the parisian masses would have died for the young napoleon, and deplored the decision they had reached. "behold what a fall in history!" said talleyrand to savary on parting. "to attach one's name to a few adventures instead of affixing it to an age.... but it is not for everybody to be engulfed in the ruins of this edifice." from that hour the restoration of the bourbons was a certainty. it was a mournful procession of imperial carriages which next morning filed slowly through the city, attracting slight attention from a few silent onlookers, and passed on toward rambouillet. the baby king had shrieked and clutched at the doors as he was torn away from his apartments in the tuileries, and would not be appeased; his mother and attendants were in consternation at the omen, and all thoughtful persons who considered the situation were convinced that the dissolution of the empire was at hand. a deputation from the national guard had sought in vain to dissuade the empress from her course; their failure and the distant booming of cannon produced widespread depression throughout the city, which was not removed by a spirited proclamation from joseph declaring that his brother was on the heels of the invaders. all the public functionaries seemed inert, and everybody knew that, even though the populace should rise, there was no adequate means of resistance either in men or in arms or in proper fortifications. clarke alone began to display energy; with joseph's assistance, what preparations were possible at so late an hour were made: six companies were formed from the recruits at hand, the national guard was put under arms, the students of the polytechnic school were called out for service, communication with marmont was secured, and by late afternoon montmartre, belleville, and st. denis were feebly fortified. the allies had been well aware that what was to be done must be done before the dreaded emperor should arrive, and on that same morning their vanguard had summoned the town; but during the parley their generals began to feel the need of greater strength, and further asked an armistice of four hours. this was granted on the usual condition that within its duration no troops should be moved; but the implied promise was perfidiously broken, and at nightfall both alexander and frederick william, accompanied by their forces, were in sight of the far-famed city. dangers, hardships, bygone insults and humiliations, all were forgotten in a general tumult of joy, wrote danilevsky, a russian officer. alexander alone was pensive, well knowing that, should the city hold out two days, reinforcements from the west might make its capture impossible until napoleon should arrive. accordingly he took virtual command, and issued stringent orders preparatory for the assault early next morning. chapter x the fall of paris[ ] [footnote : references: müffling (genannt weiss), geschichte des feldzugs der englisch-hannoversch-niederlandischen und braunschweigischen armee unter dem fürsten blücher im jahre . houssaye, . mémoires of bourrienne. haussonville, souvenirs. gervinus, geschichte des . jahrhunderts seit den wien verträgen.] the battle before paris -- the armistice -- the position of marmont -- legitimacy and the bourbons -- the provisional government -- napoleon's fury -- suggestions of abdication -- napoleon's new policy foreshadowed -- his troops and officers -- the treason of marmont -- the marshals at fontainebleau -- napoleon's despair. from early dawn until midday on march thirtieth the fighting before paris was almost continuous, the assailants displaying an assurance of victory, the defenders showing the courage of despair. marmont and mortier kept their ranks in order, and the soldiers fought gallantly; elsewhere the militia and the boys emulated each other and the regulars in steadfastness. but when, shortly after noon, it became evident that paris was doomed to fall before superior force, joseph, as deputy emperor, issued to marmont full powers to treat, and followed the empress, whom he overtook at chartres, far beyond rambouillet, where she had expected to halt. she had determined, for greater safety, to cross the loire. at four in the afternoon the prussians captured montmartre, and prepared to bombard from that height; at the same moment the last ranks of the allied armies came up. marmont felt further resistance to be useless; his line of retreat was endangered, and he had special directions not to expose the city to a sack. there was still abundant courage in the citizens, who stood behind the barricades within the gates clamorous for arms and ammunition. a messenger came galloping in with the news that napoleon was but half a day distant. the lookouts now and then espied some general riding a white horse, and called, "'tis he!" but for all the enthusiasm, the expected "he" did not appear. further carnage seemed useless, since french honor had been vindicated, and when the war-worn marmont withdrew into the town he was received as one who had done what man could do. negotiations once fairly begun, the allies abandoned the hard conditions with which they opened the parley, and displayed a sense of great relief. their chief representative, count orloff, behaved with much consideration. recognizing the force of the french plea that their army was quite strong enough, if not to defend the city another twenty-four hours, at least to contest it street by street until, arrived at last on the left bank of the seine, they could regain fontainebleau in safety, orloff assented to what were virtually the stipulations of marmont and mortier. the terms adopted made provision for an armistice, assured kind treatment to the city, and permitted the withdrawal of the troops. throughout the afternoon and evening marmont's house was the rendezvous of the negotiators and of the few political personages left in the city. there was the freest talk: "bonaparte" was conquered; the bourbons would be restored; what a splendid man was this marmont! some weeks earlier the marshal had been significantly informed by his brother-in-law perregaux, a chamberlain of napoleon's, that in case of a restoration he and macdonald would be spared, whatever happened to the other great imperial leaders. talleyrand had ostensibly taken flight with his colleagues, but by an interesting coincidence his coachman had sought the wrong exit from the city, and had been turned back. that night he appeared in marmont's presence with direct overtures from the bourbons. his interview was short, and he seemed to have gained nothing; but he had an air of victory as he withdrew. he saw that marmont was consumed with vanity, feeling that the destinies of france, of napoleon, of all europe, perhaps, were in his hands alone. this was much. passing through the corridors, the sly diplomatist respectfully greeted prince orloff, and begged to lay his profound respects at the feet of the czar. "i shall not forget to lay this blank check before his majesty," was the stinging retort. talleyrand smiled almost imperceptibly with his lips, and went his way. but alexander said on hearing the facts: "as yet this is but anecdote; it may become history." the triumphal entry of the allies into paris began next morning, march thirty-first, , at seven o'clock. it was headed by alexander and frederick william, now universally regarded as the czar's satellite king. francis was in dijon; he was represented by schwarzenberg. the three leaders, with their respective staff officers, were solemnly received by a deputation of the municipal authorities. their soldiers were orderly, and there was no pillage or license. crowds of royalists thronged the streets acclaiming the conquerors and shouting for louis xviii. throughout the afternoon talleyrand and nesselrode were closeted in the former's palace; and when, toward evening, they were joined by the czar and the king, both of whom had devoted the day to ceremony, the diplomats had already agreed that france must have the bourbons. the sovereigns had actually been deceived by the noisy royalist manifestations into believing that france welcomed her invaders, and they assented to the conclusion of the ministers. a formal meeting was instantly arranged; there were present, besides the monarchs and their ministers, schwarzenberg, lichtenstein, dalberg, and pozzo di borgo. alexander assumed the presidency, but talleyrand, with consummate skill, monopolized the deliberations. the czar suggested, as various bases for peace, napoleon under all guaranties, maria louisa as regent for the king of rome, the bourbons, and, it is believed, hinted at bernadotte or the republic as possibilities. of all these courses there was but one which represented the notion of legitimacy with which alexander had in the coalition identified himself, and by which alone he, with his shady title, could hope to assert authority in western europe. this was expounded and emphasized by the wily talleyrand with tremendous effect. the idea of the republic was of course relegated to oblivion; of bernadotte there could not well be a serious question. if france wanted a mere soldier, she already had the foremost in the world. napoleon still alive, the regency would be only another name for his continued rule; the bourbons, and they alone, represented a principle. there was little difficulty, therefore, in reaching the decision not to treat with napoleon bonaparte or with any member of his family. this was the great schemer's first stroke; his second was equally brilliant: the servile senate was appointed to create a provisional government and to construct a new constitution, to be guaranteed by the allies. that body, however obsequious, was still french; even the extreme radicals, as represented by lainé of bordeaux, had to acknowledge this. the new and subservient administration was at work within twenty-four hours; talleyrand, with his two creatures, dalberg and jaucourt; montesquiou, the royalist; and beurnonville, a recalcitrant imperialist, constituting the executive commission. two days later the legislature was summoned, and seventy-nine deputies responded. after considerable debate they pronounced napoleon overthrown for having violated the constitution. the municipal council and the great imperial offices, with their magistrates, gave their assent. the heart of the city appeared to have been transformed: on the street, at the theater, everywhere the white bourbon cockades and ribbons burst forth like blossoms in a premature spring. but outside the focus of agitation, and in the suburbs, the populace murmured, and sometimes exhibited open discontent. in proportion to the distance west and south, the country was correspondingly imperial, obeying the imperial regency now established at blois, which was summoning recruits, issuing stirring proclamations, and keeping up a brave show. in a way, therefore, france for the moment had three governments, that of the allies, that of the regency, and that of napoleon himself. when, in the latest hours of march thirtieth, napoleon met belliard, and heard the disastrous report of what had happened, he gave full vent to a frightful outburst of wrath. as he said himself in calmer moments, such was his anger at that time, that he never seemed to have known anger before. forgetful of all his own shortcomings, he raged against others with a fury bordering on insanity, and could find no language vile or blasphemous enough wherewith to stigmatize joseph and clarke. in utter self-abandonment, he demanded a carriage. there were noise and bustle in the stable. with a choked, hoarse voice the seeming maniac called peremptorily for haste. no vehicle appeared. probably caulaincourt had dared to cross his emperor's command for the sake of his emperor's safety. finally napoleon strode forth into the darkness toward paris. questioning and storming as he walked, he denounced his two marshals for their haste in surrendering. his attendants reasoned in vain until, a mile beyond la cour de france, mortier's vanguard was met marching away under the terms of the convention, and napoleon knew that he was face to face with doom; to advance farther would mean imprisonment or worse. general flahaut was therefore sent to seek marmont's advice, and caulaincourt hurried away to secure an audience with the czar. there were still wild hopes which would not die. perhaps the capitulation was not yet signed, perhaps caulaincourt could gain time if nothing else, perhaps by sounding the tocsin and illuminating the town the populace and national guard would be led to rise and aid the army. the reply from marmont came as swiftly as only discouraging news can come; the situation, he said, was hopeless, the public depressed by the flight of the court, the national guard worthless; he was coming in with the twenty thousand troops still left to himself and mortier. napoleon, now calm and collected, issued careful orders for the two marshals to take position between the essonne and the seine, their left on the former stream, their right on the latter, the whole position protected by these rivers on the flanks, and by the yonne in the rear. it was clear there was to be a great battle under the walls of paris. macdonald was the only general who advised it; berthier, drouot, belliard, flahaut, and gourgaud all wished to return into lorraine; but the divisions were coming in swiftly, and in the short midnight hour before returning to fontainebleau, napoleon's decision was taken. on the afternoon of april first the emperor rode from fontainebleau to marmont's headquarters. while he was in the very act of congratulating marmont on his gallantry, the commissioners who had signed the capitulation arrived and opened their budget of news. they told of the formal entry by the allies, of their resolution not to treat with napoleon, and declared that the white cockade of the bourbons was everywhere visible. napoleon grew pensive and somber as he listened, and then, almost without speaking, rode sadly back to fontainebleau. next morning he was cheerful again, and as he stepped into the white horse court of the palace at the hour of guard-mounting two battalions cheered him enthusiastically. his step was elastic, his countenance lighted with the old fire; the onlookers said, "it is the napoleon of potsdam and schönbrunn." but in the afternoon caulaincourt returned, and the sky seemed darkened; the czar had listened to the envoy's eloquence only so far as to take into consideration once again the question of peace with the empire under a regency; as a condition antecedent, napoleon must abdicate. the stricken man could not hear his faithful servant's report with equanimity. he restrained his violent impulses, but used harsh words. soon it seemed as if ideas of a strange and awful form were mastering him, the gloomy interview was ended, and the emperor dismissed his minister. for such a disease as his there was no remedy but action; next morning two divisions, one each of the old and young guard, arrived, and they were drawn up for review. napoleon, in splendid garb and with a brilliant suite, in which were two marshals, ney and moncey, went through the ceremony. at its close he gathered the officers present into a group, and explained the situation in his old incisive phrase and vibrating tones, closing with the words: "in a few days i am going to attack paris; can i count on you?" there was dead silence. "am i right?" rang out, in a final exhausting effort, the moving call of the great actor. then at last came the hearty, ringing response so breathlessly expected. "they were silent," said general petit in gentle tones, "because it seemed needless to reply." napoleon continued: "we will show them if the french nation be master in their own house, that if we have long been masters in the dwellings of others we will always be so in our own." as the officers scattered to their posts and repeated the "little corporal's" words, the old "growlers," as men had come to call the veterans of the empire, gave another cheer. the bands played the two great hymns of victory, the "marseillaise" and the "chant du départ," as the ranks moved away. napoleon must now have certain clear conceptions. except mortier, drouot, and gérard, his great officers were disaffected; but the ambitious minor generals were still his devoted slaves. the army was thoroughly imperialist, partly because they represented the nation as a whole, partly because they were under the emperor's spell. of such troops he appeared to have at hand sixty thousand, distributed as follows: marmont, twelve thousand five hundred; mortier, six thousand; macdonald, two thousand seven hundred; oudinot, five thousand five hundred; gérard, three thousand; ney, two thousand three hundred; drouot, nine thousand; and about eleven thousand six hundred guard and other cavalry. besides these, there were sixteen hundred poles, two thousand two hundred and fifty recruits, and fifteen hundred men in the garrisons of fontainebleau and mélun. farther away were considerable forces in sens, tours, blois, and orléans, eight thousand in all; and still farther the armies of soult, suchet, augereau, and maison. although the allies had lost nine thousand men before paris, they had quickly called up reinforcements, and had about a hundred and forty thousand men in readiness to fight. this situation may not have been entirely discouraging to the devotee of a dark destiny, to which as a hapless worshiper he had lately commenced to give the name of providence. be that as it may, when macdonald arrived on the morning of the fourth the dispositions for battle had been carefully studied and arranged; every corps was ordered to its station. as usual, napoleon appeared about noon for the ceremony of guard-mounting, and the troops acclaimed him as usual. but a few paces distant from him stood the marshals and higher generals in a little knot, their heads close bunched, their tongues running, their glances averted. from out of this group rang the thunderous voice of ney: "nothing but the abdication can draw us out of this." napoleon started, regained his self-control, pretended not to hear the crushing menace, and withdrew to his work-room. concurrent with the resolve of the marshals at fontainebleau ran the actual treason of one who alone was more important to napoleon's cause than all of them. "i am ready to leave, with my troops, the army of the emperor napoleon on the following conditions, of which i demand from you a written guaranty," are the startling words from a letter of marmont to the czar, dated the previous day. on april first agents of the provisional government had made arrangements with a discredited nobleman named maubreuil for the assassination of napoleon; the next day schwarzenberg introduced into the french lines newspapers and copies of a proclamation explaining that the action of the senate and of all france had released the soldiers from their oaths. marmont forwarded the documents he received to berthier, and while most of the officers flung their copies away in contemptuous scorn, some read and pondered. on april third an emissary from schwarzenberg appeared at marmont's headquarters, and what he said was spoken to willing ears. still under the influence of the homage he had received in paris, the vain marshal saw himself repeating the rôle of monk; he beheld france at peace, prosperity restored, social order reëstablished, and himself extolled as a true patriot--all this if only he pursued the easy line of self-interest, whereby he would not merely retain his duchy, but also secure the new honors and emoluments which would be showered on him. so he yielded on condition that his troops should withdraw honorably into normandy, and that napoleon should be allowed to enjoy life and liberty within circumscribed limits fixed by the allied powers and france. next morning, the fourth, came schwarzenberg's assent, and marmont at once set about suborning his officers; at four in the afternoon arrived an embassy from fontainebleau on its way to paris. the officers composing it desired to see marmont. the informal meeting held in the courtyard at fontainebleau was a historical event. its members chatted about the course taken by the senate, about caulaincourt's mission, and discussed in particular the suggestion of abdication. the marshals and great generals, long since disgusted with campaigning, wounded in their dignity by the emperor's rebukes, and attributing their recent failures to the wretched quality of the troops assigned to them, were eager for peace, and yearned to enjoy their hard-earned fortunes. they caught at the seductive idea presented by caulaincourt. the abdication of napoleon would mean the perpetuation of the empire. the empire would be not merely peace, but peace with what war had gained; to wit, the imperial court and society, the preservation and enjoyment of estates, the continuity of processes which had done so much to regenerate france and make her a modern nation. the prospect was irresistible, and ney only expressed the grim determination of his colleagues when he gave the watchword so unexpectedly at the mounting of the guard. when napoleon entered his cabinet he found there berthier, maret, caulaincourt, and bertrand. concealing his agitation, he began the routine of such familiar labors as impend on the eve of battle. almost instantly hurrying footsteps were heard in the corridor, the door was burst open, and on the threshold stood ney, lefebvre, oudinot, and macdonald. the leader of the company quailed an instant under the emperor's gaze, and then gruffly demanded if there were news from paris. no, was the reply--a deliberate falsehood, since the decree of the senate had arrived the night before. "well, then, i have some," roared ney, and told the familiar facts. at nogent, six weeks earlier, ney and oudinot had endeavored to bully napoleon in a similar way; then they were easily cowed. but now napoleon's manner was conciliatory and his speech argumentative. long and eloquently he set forth his situation. enumerating all the forces immediately and remotely at his disposal, describing minutely the plan of attack which macdonald had stamped with his approval, explaining the folly of the course pursued by the allies, contrasting the perils of their situation with the advantages of his own, he sought to justify his assurance of victory. the eloquence of a napoleon, calm, collected, clear, but pleading for the power which was dearer to him than life, can only be imagined. but his arguments fell on deaf ears; not one of his audience gave any sign of emotion. macdonald was the only one present not openly committed, and he too was sullen; during the last twenty-four hours he had received, through marmont, a letter from beurnonville, the contents of which, though read to napoleon then and there, have not been transmitted to posterity. what happened or what was said thereafter is far from certain, so conflicting and so biased are the accounts of those present. contemporaries thought that in this crisis, when ney declared the army would obey its officers and would not march to paris in obedience to the emperor, there were menacing gestures which betrayed a more or less complete purpose of assassination on the part of some. if so, napoleon was never greater; for, commanding a calm by his dignified self-restraint, he dismissed the faithless officers one and all. they went, and he was left alone with caulaincourt to draw up the form of his abdication. chapter xi napoleon's first abdication[ ] [footnote : references: campbell, sir neil, napoleon at fontainebleau and elba, being a journal of occurrences in - , with notes of conversations. laborde, napoléon et sa garde, ou relation du voyage de fontainebleau à l'île d'elbe en , etc. ussher, a narrative of events connected with the first abdication of napoleon, his embarkation at fréjus and voyage to elba on board his majesty's ship _undaunted_; his embarkation at elba on board the elbese brig of war _l'inconstant_; and a journal of his extraordinary march to paris, narrated by colonel laborde, who accompanied the emperor on that occasion. waldburg, l. f. graf truchsess von, napoleon bonaparte's reise von fontainebleau nach fréjus vom - april, .] the meaning of napoleon's abdication -- the paper and its bearers -- progress of marmont's conspiracy -- alexander influenced by napoleon's embassy -- marmont's soldiers betrayed -- marmont's reputation and fate -- napoleon's scheme for a last stroke -- revolt of the marshals -- napoleon's first attempt at suicide -- unconditional abdication -- restoration of the bourbons -- napoleon's new realm -- flight of the napoleons -- good-by to france, but not farewell. there is no doubt that napoleon sincerely and dearly loved his "growlers"; there is no doubt that with grim humor he constantly circumvented and used them for his own ends; even in his agony he contemplated a course which, leaving them convinced of their success, would yet render their action of no effect. after a short conference with his minister he took a pen and wrote: "the allied powers having declared the emperor napoleon to be the sole obstacle to the establishment of peace in europe, and since the emperor cannot assuredly, without violating his oath, surrender any one of the departments which were united with france when he ascended the throne, the emperor napoleon declares himself ready to abdicate and leave france, even to lay down his life for the welfare of his country and for the preservation of the rights of his son the king, of the empress-regent, and of the laws and institutions, which shall be subject to no change until the definite conclusion of peace and while foreign armies stand upon our soil." but these words carried too plainly a meaning which was not intended to be conspicuous, and the paper, as finally written and executed, runs as follows: "the allied powers having declared the emperor napoleon to be the sole obstacle to the reëstablishment of peace in europe, the emperor napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he is ready to descend from the throne, to leave france, and even to lay down his life for the good of the country, [which is] inseparable from the rights of his son, from those of the empress's regency, and from the laws of the empire." who should constitute the embassy to present the document to the czar? caulaincourt, of course, would necessarily be one; ney, dangerous if thwarted, must be the second; and the third? marmont certainly, was napoleon's first thought, and he ordered full powers to be made out for him. but on second thought he felt that his aide-de-camp in egypt, his trusted friend from then onward, his confidential adviser, "brought up in his tent," as he said, might injure the cause as being too certainly influenced by personal considerations. macdonald, therefore, was named in his stead. the embassy should, however, pass by essonnes, and if marmont desired to go he might send back for his credentials. this was the company which, arriving about four in the afternoon at marmont's headquarters, presented napoleon's message. the busy conspirator was stunned, but he had already won at least five of his generals--souham, merlin, digeon, ledru des essarts, and megnadier, his chief of staff; the tide of treason was in full flow, and could not be stemmed. should the czar assent to the regency, where would marmont be? or, on the other hand, should napoleon learn the truth, there was no question but that a few hours might see the emulator of monk a corpse. in quick decision, the traitorous marshal confessed the steps already taken, and then at the loud cry of reprobation with which his statement was met, he falsely asserted that he was not yet committed, and demanded to join the embassy. the others, willing to remove their colleague from further temptation, assented; and souham was left in command, with strict injunctions to inform the troops of napoleon's abdication, but to take no further steps. at schwarzenberg's headquarters marmont found means to betray the situation to that general. the austrian, by marmont's own account, absolved his fellow-intriguer from all engagements so far made; but somehow that very evening about nine talleyrand knew the whole story, and hastening, pale with terror, to alexander's presence, poured out a bitter remonstrance against the regency. the czar listened, but contemptuously dismissed the petitioner with the non-committal remark that no one would repent having trusted him. it was almost midnight when alexander gave audience to the embassy. marmont was not of the number, having slunk away in guilty uneasiness to await the event at ney's house. to caulaincourt, as the spokesman of the empire, the czar listened attentively and sympathetically. he now felt himself to have taken a false step when, five days earlier, he had virtually assented to the restoration of the bourbons. in the interval their cause had steadily grown more and more unpopular; neither people nor soldiers, not even the national guard, would give any declaration of adherence to the acts of the provisional government; the imperial army, on the other hand, stood firm. his own and russia's honor having been redeemed, the earlier instincts of hatred for absolutism had returned; the feeling that the empire was better for his purposes than any dynasty welled up as he listened to caulaincourt's powerful argument that france as a nation, and her undivided army, alike desired the regency. in fact, the listener wavered so much that, two days later, ney and macdonald asserted their belief that at a certain instant their cause had been won. but at two in the morning an aide-de-camp entered and spoke a few words in russian. the czar gave a startled attention, and the officer repeated his words. "gentlemen," said the monarch, "you base your claim on the unshaken attachment of the army to the imperial government. the vanguard of napoleon's army has just deserted. it is at this moment within our lines." the news was true. the announcement of napoleon's abdication had spread consternation among marmont's men, and they were seriously demoralized. when a routine message came from fontainebleau requiring souham's presence there, his guilty conscience made him tremble; and when gourgaud requested an interview the uneasy general foresaw his own arrest and was terror-stricken. summoning the others who, like himself, were partly committed, he told his fears, and the soldiers were ordered under arms. toward midnight the march began. ignorant at first of whither they were going, the men were silent; but finding themselves before long between two austrian lines, they hooted their officers. thereupon they were told that they were to fight beside these same austrians in defense of the empire, and, believing the lie, were reconciled. arriving finally at versailles, and learning the truth, they mutinied; but marmont soon appeared, and partly cowed them, partly persuaded them to bend before necessity. after learning of souham's deed he had hurried to the czar's antechamber. in an adjoining room were assembled the members of the provisional government. like marmont, they had learned the result of souham's efforts and had regained their equanimity. after grasping the appalling fact that twelve thousand men, the whole sixth corps, with arms and baggage, were prisoners within the austrian lines, of course there had been nothing left for caulaincourt and the marshals but to withdraw. with much embarrassment the czar promised an answer to their request on the following afternoon. all knew that the knell of the empire had struck. to the waiting royalists it seemed a fit moment for pleasantry as the members of the embassy came filing out with stony gaze. the thwarted imperialists sternly repulsed their tormentors. marmont breathed hard as his colleagues passed without a glimpse of recognition, and murmured: "i would give an arm if this had not happened." "an arm? sir, say your head," rejoined macdonald, bitterly. for some time after the first restoration marmont was a hero, but soon his vanity and true character combined to bring out his conduct into clear view, and from his title of ragusa was coined the word "ragusade" as a synonym for treason. during the "hundred days" his name was of course stricken from the list of marshals. loaded with honors in the second restoration, he proved a second time faithless, and in betrayed his trust to the republicans. the people called him "judas," and he died in exile, honored by nobody. there can be little doubt of napoleon's conviction that his offer to abdicate would be rejected by alexander. no sooner was it signed than, with his characteristic astuteness, he set about preparing an alternative course. at once he despatched a messenger requesting the empress to send champagny immediately to dijon as an ambassador to intercede with her father. then, on april fourth, he summoned a conclave of his officers to secure their assent to the battle which he believed inevitable. it was the call to this meeting which had stampeded souham and his colleagues in desertion. the greater officers being absent from fontainebleau, the minor ones were unanimous and hearty in their support of napoleon's plans. but at the very close of the session came the news of what had happened at essonnes. when finally assured of every detail, napoleon took measures at once to repair as best he could the breaches in his defense, saying of marmont quietly and without a sign of panic: "unhappy man, he will be more unhappy than i." only a few days before he had declared to caulaincourt: "there are no longer any who play fair except my poor soldiers and their officers that are neither princes nor dukes nor counts. it is an awful thing to say, but it is true. do you know what i ought to do? send all these noble lords of yesterday to sleep in their beds of down, to strut about in their castles. i ought to rid myself of these frondeurs, and begin the war once more with men of youthful, unsullied courage." he was partly prepared, therefore, even for the defection of marmont. next morning, on the fifth, was issued the ablest proclamation ever penned by him; at noon the veterans from spain were reviewed, and in the afternoon began the movements necessary to array beyond the loire what remained of the army and rally it about the seat of imperial government. but at nine the embassy returned from paris with its news--the czar had refused to accept the abdication; the senate was about to proclaim louis xviii; napoleon was to reign thereafter over the little isle of elba. to this the undaunted emperor calmly rejoined that war henceforth offered nothing worse than peace, and began at once to explain his plans. but he was interrupted--exactly how we cannot tell; for, though the embassy returned as it left, in a body, the memoirs of each member strive to convey the impression that it was he alone who said and did everything. if only the narrative attributed to caulaincourt were of undoubted authenticity, cumulative evidence might create certitude; but it is not. the sorry tale of what probably occurred makes clear that all three were now royalists more or less ardent, for in passing they had concluded a truce with schwarzenberg on that basis. macdonald asserts that his was the short and brutal response to napoleon's exhibition of his plans; to wit, that they must have an abdication without conditions. ney was quite as savage, declaring that the confidence of the army was gone. napoleon at first denounced such mutiny, but then, with seeming resignation, promised an answer next day. he did not yet know that in secret convention the generals were resolving not to obey the orders issued for the morrow; but as the door closed behind the marshals the mind so far clear seemed suddenly eclipsed, and murmuring, "these men have neither heart nor bowels; i am conquered less by fortune than by the egotism and ingratitude of my companions in arms," the great, homeless citizen of the world sank into utter dejection. it appears to have been a fixed purpose with napoleon never to fall alive into his enemy's hands. although they acted under legal forms, yet some european monarchs of the eighteenth century were no more trustworthy in dealing with foes than their great prototype julius cæsar in his faithlessness to a certain canton of the helvetians. they did not display sufficient surprise when enemies were assassinated. since the european colossus had worn about his neck as a kind of amulet a little bag which was said to contain a deadly poison, one of the salts of prussic acid. during the night, when the terrors of a shaken reason overpowered him, he swallowed the drug. whether it had lost its efficacy, or whether the agitated victim of melancholy did not take the entire dose, in either case the effects were imperfect. instead of oblivion came agony, and his valet, rushing to his master's bedside at the sound of a bitter cry, claimed to catch the words: "marmont has struck me the final blow! unhappy man, i loved him! berthier's desertion has broken my heart! my old friends, my comrades in arms!" ivan, the emperor's body physician, was summoned, and administered an antidote; the spasm was allayed, and after a short sleep reason resumed her seat. it is related in the memoirs of caulaincourt, and probably with a sort of homeric truth, that when the minister was admitted in the early morning, napoleon's "wan and sunken eyes seemed struggling to recall the objects round about; a universe of torture was revealed in the vaguely desolate look." napoleon is reported as saying: "god did not will it. i could not die. why did they not let me die? it is not the loss of the throne that makes existence unendurable; my military career suffices for the glory of a single man. do you know what is more difficult to bear than the reverses of fortune? it is the baseness, the horrible ingratitude, of men. before such acts of cowardice, before the shamelessness of their egotism, i have turned away my head in disgust and have come to regard my life with horror.... death is rest.... rest at last.... what i have suffered for twenty days no one can understand." what throws some shadow on this account is the fact that on the following morning napoleon appeared outwardly well and perfectly calm when he assembled his marshals and made a final appeal. it is certain, from the testimony of his secretary and his physician, that he had been violently ill, but the sobriety of the remaining chronicle is to be doubted. possibly, too, the empty sachet had contained a preparation of opium intended to relieve sharp attacks like that at pirna; but in view of the second attempt at suicide made after waterloo, this is not likely. yet the circumstances may easily have been exaggerated; for the evident motive of what has been called the imperial legend is to heighten all the effects in the napoleonic picture. whatever was the truth as to that gloomy night, napoleon's appeal next morning, though eloquent, was in vain; the marshals were unshaken in their determination, though less bitter and violent in their language. "you deserve repose," were the emperor's last words to them; "well, then, take it." thereupon the act of unconditional abdication was written in these words: "the allied powers having declared the emperor napoleon to be the sole obstacle to the reëstablishment of peace in europe, the emperor napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that for himself and his heirs he renounces the thrones of france and of italy, because there is no personal sacrifice which he is not ready to make for the welfare of the nation." these last words were, after some consideration, erased, and the phrase "in the interest of france" was substituted for them. some think, and it may well be true, that this change of form, taken in connection with napoleon's calmness, was another proof of his deep purpose. unable to thwart his "growlers," he may have recollected that once before he had crossed the mediterranean to give a feeble government full scope for its own destruction. france might easily recall her favorite son in her own interest. he was scarcely more than forty-four, a young man still, and this he probably recalled as he made ready to play a new rôle. armed with the document necessary to secure his pardon, ney hurried back to the capital. the elderly, well-meaning, but obtuse louis xviii was immediately proclaimed king by the senate. having "learned nothing, and forgotten nothing," he accepted the throne, making certain concessions to the new france, sufficient, as he hoped, to secure at least the momentary support of the people. the haste to join the white standard made by men on whom napoleon's adventurous career had heaped honor and wealth is unparalleled in history. jourdan, augereau, maison, lagrange, nansouty, oudinot, kellermann, lefebvre, hulin, milhaud, latour-maubourg, ségur, berthier, belliard--such were the earliest names. among the soldiers near by some bowed to the new order, but among the garrisons there was such widespread mutiny that royalist hate was kindled again and fanned to white heat by the scoffs and jeers of the outraged men. their behavior was the outward sign of a temper not universal, of course, but very common among the people. at paris both the king and the king's brother were cheered on their formal entry, but many discriminating onlookers prophesied that the bourbons could not remain long. fully aware that napoleon was yet a power in france, and challenged by the marshals to display a chivalric spirit in providing for the welfare of their former monarch, alexander gave full play to his generous impulses. his first suggestion was that his fallen foe should accept a home and complete establishment in russia; but this would have been to ignore the other members of the coalition. it was determined finally to provide the semblance of an empire, the forms of state, and an imperial income, and to make the former emperor the guest of all europe. the idea was quixotic, but napoleon was not a prisoner; he had done nothing worthy of degradation, and throughout the civilized world he was still regarded by vast numbers as the savior of european society, who had fallen into the hands of cruel oppressors. the paper which was finally drawn up was a treaty between napoleon, for the time and purposes of the instrument a private citizen, as one party, and the four sovereign states of austria, prussia, russia, and england as the other. it had, therefore, no sanction except the public opinion of france and the good faith of those who executed it, the former being bound by her allies to a contract made by them. it was france which was to pay napoleon two millions of francs a year, and leave him to reign undisturbed over elba; the allies granted parma, placentia, and guastalla as a realm in perpetuity to maria louisa and her heirs, through the king of rome, as her successors. the agreement was unique, but so were the circumstances which brought it to pass. there was but one important protest, and that was made by castlereagh in regard to the word napoleon and the imperial style! his protest was vain, but to this day many among the greatest of his countrymen persistently employ "bonaparte" in speaking of the greater, and "napoleon" in designating the lesser, of the two men who have ruled france as emperors. four commissioners, one from each of the powers, proceeded to fontainebleau. they were careful to treat napoleon with the consideration due to an emperor. to all he was courteous, except to the representative of prussia, count truchsess-waldburg, whose presence he declared unnecessary, since there were to be no prussian troops on the southern road toward elba. with colonel campbell, the british commissioner, he was most friendly, conversing enthusiastically with the scotch officer about the scotch poet known as ossian. what was particularly admired in his remarkable outpourings was their warlike tone. as the preparations for departure went forward, it became clear that of all the imperial dignitaries only bertrand and drouot would accompany the exile. the others he dismissed with characteristic and appropriate farewells: to caulaincourt he assigned a gift of five hundred thousand francs from the treasure at blois; constant, the valet, and rustan, the mameluke, were dismissed at their own desire, but not empty-handed. for his line of travel, and for a hundred baggage-wagons loaded with books, furniture, and objects of art, napoleon stipulated with the utmost nicety and persistence. with every hour he showed greater and greater anxiety for his personal safety. indifferent to life but a few short days before, he was now timid and over-anxious. if he had been playing a part and pondering what in a few years, perhaps months, his life and person might again be worth in european politics, he could not have been more painstaking as to measures for his personal safety. the stoic could have recourse to the bowl, the eighteenth-century enthusiast must live and hope to the last. napoleon seems to have struggled for the union of both characters. "they blame me that i can outlive my fall," he remarked. "wrongfully.... it is much more courageous to survive unmerited bad fortune." only once he seemed overpowered, being observed, as he sat at table, to strike his forehead and murmur: "god, is it possible?" sometimes, too, he appeared to be lost in reverie, and when addressed started like one awakened from a dream. all was ready on the twentieth; but the empress, who by the terms of the "treaty" was to accompany her consort as far as the harbor of st. tropez, did not appear. napoleon declared that she had been kidnapped, and refused to stir, threatening to withdraw his abdication. koller, the austrian commissioner, assured him of the truth, that she had resolved of her free will not to be present. in the certainty that all was over, the empress had determined to take refuge with her father, and the imperial government at blois had dispersed, joseph and jerome flying to switzerland. the announcement staggered napoleon, but he replied with words destined to have great significance: "very well; i shall remain faithful to my promise; but if i have new reasons to complain, i shall consider myself absolved." further, he touched on various topics as if seeking to talk against time, remarking that francis had impiously sought the dissolution of his daughter's marriage; that russia and prussia had made austria's position dangerous; that the czar and frederick william had shown little delicacy in visiting maria louisa at rambouillet; that he himself was no usurper; and that he had been wrong not to make peace at prague or dresden. then, suddenly changing tone and topic, he asked with interest what would occur if elba refused to accept him. koller thought he might still take refuge in england. napoleon rejoined that he had thought of that; but, having always sought to do england harm, would the english make him welcome? koller replied that, as all the projects against her welfare had come to naught, england would feel no bitterness. finally, about noon napoleon descended into the courtyard, where the few grenadiers of the old guard were drawn up. the officers, commissioned and non-commissioned, were called forward, and in a few touching words their former leader thanked all who had remained true for their loyalty. with their aid he could have continued the war beyond the loire, but he had preferred to sacrifice his personal interests to those of france. "continue to serve france," runs the napoleonic text of this fine address: but the commissioners thought they heard "to serve the sovereign which the nation has chosen." he could have ended his life, he went on to say, but he wished to live and record for posterity the great deeds of his warriors. then he embraced petit, the commanding officer, and, snatching to his breast the imperial eagle, his standard in so many glorious battles, he pressed it to his lips, and entered the waiting carriage. a swelling sob burst from the ranks, and tears bedewed the weather-beaten cheeks of men who had not wept for years. chapter xii the emperor of elba[ ] [footnote : references: czartoryski, memoirs, vol. ii. houssaye, napoléon à l'île d'elbe, in revue historique, tom. , pp. - , paris, . ussher, napoleon's last voyage. peyrusse: mémorial.] napoleon and the popular frenzy -- serious dangers incurred -- the exile under the british flag -- the voyage to elba -- the napoleonic court at porto ferrajo -- mysterious visitors -- estrangement of maria louisa -- napoleon's "isle of repose" -- the congress of vienna -- its violation of treaty agreement -- discontent in france -- revival of imperialism -- bitterness of the army -- intrigues against the bourbons -- napoleon's behavior -- his fears of assassination. [sidenote: - ] napoleon's journey to elba was a series of disenchantments. as has been said, he had stipulated in his "treaty" that the empress should accompany him to st. tropez, where he was to embark. her absence, he persisted in declaring, was explicable only by forced detention; and he again talked of withdrawing his abdication at this breach of the engagements made by the allies. but he grew more composed, and the journey was sufficiently comfortable as far as lyons. occasionally during that portion of it there were outbursts of good feeling from those who stopped to see his train pass by. but in descending the rhone there was a marked change. as the provençals had been the radicals of the revolution, so now they were the devotees of the restoration. the flood of disreputable calumny had broken loose: men said the emperor's mother was a loose woman, his father a butcher, he himself but a bastard, his true name nicholas. "down with bonaparte! down with nicholas!" was too often the derisive shout as he traversed the villages. maubreuil, the hired assassin, was hurrying from paris with a desperate band, ostensibly to recover crown jewels or government funds which might be among napoleon's effects. recalling alexander's boast that his best servants had been found among the assassins of his father, and recollecting that francis sighed to metternich for napoleon's exile to a far-distant land, elba being too near to france and to europe, it is conceivable that talleyrand might reckon on the moral support of the dynasties in conniving at napoleon's assassination. had he forgotten the murder of enghien? probably not; but his conscience was not over-tender. near valence, on april twenty-fourth, the imperial procession met augereau's carriage. the arch-republican of napoleon's earlier career had given his adhesion to the new government, and had been retained in office. he alighted, the ex-emperor likewise: the latter exhibited all the ordinary forms of politeness, the former studiously disdained them. napoleon, with nice irony, asked if the general were on his way to court. the thrust went home, but in a gruff retort augereau, using the insulting "thou," declared with considerable embarrassment that he cared no more for the bourbons than for napoleon; that he had no motive for his conduct except love for his country. partly by good fortune, partly by good management, the cortège avoided the infuriated bands who, in various places, had sworn to take the fallen emperor's life. at avignon his escape was almost miraculous. near orgon a mob of royalists beset the carriage, and napoleon shrank in pallid terror behind bertrand, cowering there until the immediate danger was removed by his russian escort. a few miles out he donned a postilion's uniform and rode post through the town. at saint-cannat he would not touch a morsel of food for fear of poison. rumors of the bitter feeling prevalent at aix led him for further protection to clothe one of his aides in his own too familiar garb. in that town he was violently ill, somewhat as he had been at fontainebleau. the attack yielded easily to remedies, and the prussian commissioner asserted that it was due to a loathsome disease. thereafter the hounded fugitive wore an austrian uniform, and sat in the austrian commissioner's carriage; thus disguised, the emperor of elba seemed to feel secure. from luc onward the company was protected by austrian hussars; but in spite of these military jailers, mob violence became stronger from day to day in each successive town. napoleon grew morbid, and the line of travel was changed from the direction of st. tropez to that of fréjus in order to avoid the ever-increasing danger. the only alleviation in the long line of ills was a visit from his light and giddy but affectionate sister pauline, the princess borghese, who comforted him and promised to share his exile. at length fréjus was reached, and napoleon resumed his composure as he saw an english frigate and a french brig lying in the harbor. perhaps the beautiful view recalled to an outcast monarch the return, in , of one general bonaparte, who had landed on the same shore to overthrow the directory. if not, it must have been due to unwonted dejection or dark despair. again napoleon remarked a breach of his treaty. he was to have sailed from st. tropez in a corvette; here was only a brig. accordingly, as if to mark an intentional slight, in reality for his safety and comfort, he asked and obtained permission to embark on the english frigate, the _undaunted_, as the guest of her captain. the promised corvette was at st. tropez awaiting its passenger, but the hasty change of plan had made it impossible to bring her around in time. possibly for this reason, too, the baggage of napoleon had been much diminished in quantity; and of this he complained also, as being a breach of his treaty. his farewell to the russian and prussian commissioners was brief and dignified; the austrian hussars paid full military honors to the party; and as the emperor, accompanied by the english and austrian commissioners, embarked, a salvo of twenty-four guns rang out from the _undaunted_. already he had begun to eulogize england and her civilization, and to behave as if throwing himself on the good faith of an english gentleman, exactly as a defeated knight would throw himself on the chivalric courtesy of his conqueror. this appearance of distinguished treatment heightened his self-satisfaction. his attendants said that once again he was "all emperor." it was a serious blow when, on passing aboard ship, he discovered that the salutes had been in recognition of the commissioners, and that the polite but decided captain ussher was determined to treat his illustrious guest with the courtesy due to a private gentleman, and with that alone. although chafing at times during the voyage against the restrictions of naval discipline, napoleon submitted gracefully, and wore a subdued air. this was his first contact with english customs: sometimes they interested him; frequently, as in the matter of after-dinner amusements and sunday observance, they irritated him, and then with a contemptuous petulance he withdrew to his cabin. in conversation with koller, the austrian commissioner, he once referred to his conduct in disguising himself on the road to fréjus as pusillanimous, and admitted in vulgar language that he had made an indecent display of himself. he was convinced that all the dreadful scenes through which he had passed were the work of bourbon emissaries. in general his talk was a running commentary on the past, a well-calculated prattle in which, with apparent spontaneity and ingenuousness, interpretations were placed on his conduct which were thoroughly novel. this was the beginning of a series of historical commentaries lasting, with interruptions, to the end of his life. there is throughout a unity of purpose in the explication and embellishment of history which will be considered later. on may fourth the _undaunted_ cast anchor in the harbor of porto ferrajo. elba was an island divided against itself, there being both imperialists and royalists among its inhabitants, and a considerable party which desired independence. by representing that napoleon had brought with him fabulous sums, the austrian and english commissioners easily won the elbans to a fervor of loyalty for their new emperor. before nightfall of the fourth the court was established, and the new administration began its labors. after mastering the resources and needs of his pygmy realm, the emperor began at once to deploy all his powers, mending the highways, fortifying the strategic points, and creating about the nucleus of four hundred guards which were sent from fontainebleau an efficient little army of sixteen hundred men. his expenses were regulated to the minutest detail, the salt-works and iron-mines, which were the bulwarks of elban prosperity, began at once to increase their output, and taxation was regulated with scrupulous nicety. by that supereminent virtue of the french burgher, good management, the island was made almost independent of the remnants of the tuileries treasure, the sum of about five million francs, which napoleon had brought from france. the same powers which had swayed a world operated with equal success in a sphere almost microscopic by comparison. to many this appeared a sorry commentary on human grandeur, but the great exile did not intend to sink into a contemptible lethargy. if the future had aught in store for him, his capacities must have exercise and their bearings be kept smooth by use. the princess borghese had been separated from her second husband soon after the marriage, and since she had lived an exile from paris, having been banished for impertinent conduct to the empress. but she cherished no malice, and before long, according to promise, she arrived and took up her abode as her brother's companion. madame mère, though distant in prosperity, came likewise to soothe her son in adversity. the intercepted letters of the former prove her to have been at least as loose in her life at elba as ever before, but they do not afford a sufficient basis for the scandals concerning her relations with napoleon which were founded upon them and industriously circulated at the court of louis xviii. the shameful charge, though recently revived and ingeniously supported, appears to have no adequate foundation. napoleon's economies were rendered not merely expedient, but imperative, by the fact that none of the moneys from france were forthcoming which had been promised in his treaty with the powers. after a short stay koller frankly stated that in his opinion they never would be paid, and departed. the island swarmed with bourbon spies, and the only conversation in which napoleon could indulge himself unguardedly was with sir neil campbell, the english representative, or with the titled english gentlemen who gratified their curiosity by visiting him. during the summer heat, when the court was encamped on the heights at marciana for refreshment, there appeared a mysterious lady with her child. both were well received and kindly treated, but they withdrew themselves entirely from the public gaze. common rumor said it was the empress, but this was not true; it was the countess walewska, with one of the two sons she bore her host, whom she still adored. they remained but a few days, and departed as mysteriously as they had come. base females thronged the precincts of the imperial residence, openly struggling for napoleon's favor as they had so far never dared to do; success too frequently attended their efforts. but the one woman who should have been at his side was absent.[ ] it is certain that she made an honest effort to come, and apartments were prepared for her reception in the little palace at porto ferrajo. her father, however, thwarted her at every turn, and finally she was a virtual prisoner at schönbrunn. so manifest was the restraint that her grandmother caroline, queen of the two sicilies, cried out in indignation: "if i were in the place of maria louisa, i would tie the sheets of my bed to the window-frame and flee." committed to the charge of the elegant and subtle neipperg, a favorite chamberlain whom she had first seen at dresden, she was plied with such insidious wiles that at last her slender moral fibre was entirely broken down, and she fell a victim to his charms. as late as august, napoleon received impassioned letters from her; then she grew formal and cold; at last, under metternich's urgency, she ceased to write at all. her french attendant, méneval, managed to convey the whole sad story to her husband; but the emperor was incredulous, and hoped against hope until december. then only he ceased from his incessant and urgent appeals. [footnote : see welschinger: le roi de rome, ch. vi, p. .] the number of visitors to elba was sometimes as high as three hundred in a single day. among these were a few english, fewer french, but many italians. as time passed the heaviness of the austrian yoke had begun to gall the people of napoleon's former kingdom, and considerable numbers from among them, remembering the mild eugène with longing, joined in an extensive though feeble conspiracy to restore napoleon to the throne of italy. lucien returned to rome in order to foster the movement, and murat, observing with unease the general faithlessness of the great powers in small matters, began to tremble for the security of his own seat. with them and others napoleon appears to have corresponded regularly. he felt himself entirely freed from the obligations he had taken at fontainebleau, for he was sure the people of southern france had been instigated to take his life by royalist agents, and while one term after another passed, not a cent was paid of the promised pension; his own fortune, therefore, was steadily melting away. for months he behaved as if really determined to make elba his "isle of repose," as he designated it just before landing; but under such provocations his temper changed. the corner-stone of his treaty was his complete sovereignty; otherwise the paper was merely a promise without any sanction, not even that of international law. this perfect sovereignty had been recognized by the withdrawal of all the commissioners as such, campbell insisting that he remained merely as an ambassador. in a treaty concluded on may thirtieth between louis xviii and the powers of the coalition, the boundaries of france were fixed substantially as they had been in , and the destiny of the lands brought under her sway by the revolution and by napoleon was to be determined by a european congress. this body met on november first, , at vienna. it was soon evident that the four powers of the coalition were to outdo napoleon's extreme endeavors in their reckless disposition of european territories. before the close of the month, however, talleyrand, by his adroit manipulations and his conjurings with the sacrosanct word "legitimacy," had made himself the moving spirit of the congress, and had so inflamed the temper of both metternich and castlereagh against the dictatorial attitude of russia and prussia as to induce austria and great britain to sign, on january third, , a secret treaty with france whereby the parties of the first part bound themselves to resist the aggressiveness of the northern powers, and that by force if necessary. this restored france to the position of a great power. by the middle of february the northern allies were brought to terms, and in return for their concessions it was agreed that murat was to be deposed. this spirit of compromise menaced, or rather finally destroyed, the sovereignty of napoleon, petty as it was. on the charge of conspiring with murat, he could easily be removed from elba, and deported to some more remote spot from which he could exert no influence on european politics. from the opening sessions of the congress there had been a general consensus of opinion as to this course. as to the place opinions varied. castlereagh favored the azores, but others the cape verde islands; st. helena, then well known as a place of call on the long voyage to the cape, had been suggested much earlier, even before elba was chosen, but when or by whom is not known. it is quite possible that wellington, who succeeded castlereagh as english plenipotentiary in february, may have mentioned the name; he had been there, and knew it as almost the remotest spot of land in the world. the formal proposition to that effect appears to have been made by the prussian cabinet. the congress took no definite action in the matter, but the understanding was so clear and general that a proclamation to the national guard was printed in the "moniteur" of march eighth, , stating that measures had been taken at the congress of vienna to remove napoleon farther away. it was easy for everybody, including the captive himself, to believe that, all the other articles of the agreement at fontainebleau having been violated, that which guaranteed the sovereignty of elba was equally worthless. it cannot be doubted that napoleon was fully aware of whatever was proposed at vienna, and it is absolutely certain that he was thoroughly informed as to the changed state of public opinion in france. having promised a fairly liberal constitution as the price of his throne, louis xviii, with colossal stupidity, undertook to ignore the past and promulgated the charter as his own gracious act, done in the nineteenth year of his reign! the upper chamber, or house of peers, was his creature, since he could create members at will. feeble in mind and body, he was unable to check the reactionary assumptions of his family, who, having deserted their country, had returned to it by the aid of invaders despised and feared by the nation. these and the returning emigrants were provided with rich sinecures, and began to talk of restoring estates to their rightful owners; in some cases the possessors, on their death-beds, were intimidated into making such restitution. the extreme clerical party began even to hamper the ministry in its efforts to grant the freedom of worship guaranteed by the constitution. secular business was forbidden on certain holy days, and funeral masses were celebrated for pichegru, moreau, and cadoudal, that for the latter at the king's expense. when, finally, christian burial was refused to an actress, there were riots in paris. but the government continued its suicidal course; even the vendée grew disaffected, and, the suffrage having been greatly restricted, there were murmurings about oligarchies and tyrants. at nîmes the protestants feared another st. bartholomew, and said so. even moderate royalists grew troubled, and could not retort when they heard the new order stigmatized by the fitting name of "paternal anarchy." both veterans and conscripts deserted in great numbers from the army as they saw their officers discharged by the score to make places for the young aristocracy, or their comrades retired, nominally on half-pay, in reality to eke out a subsistence as best they could. it was not long before men showed each other pocket-pieces bearing napoleon's effigy, whispering as watchwords, "courage and hope," or "he has been and will be," or "frenchmen, awake; the emperor is waking." as early as july, , rumors of his return were rife in country districts, and by autumn the longing for it was outspoken and general. in paris there was greater caution, but as marmont was called "judas" for having betrayed his master, so berthier was known as "peter" in that he had denied him, and it was a common joke to tie a white cockade to the tail of a dog. before the chamber met the various factions openly avowed themselves as either royalists, bonapartists, liberals, or jacobins. the money estimates presented made it clear that a king was more expensive than an emperor, and when the peers not only voted to indemnify the emigrants for the lands held by their families, but likewise passed a bill establishing the censorship of the press, it was common talk that the present state of things could not last. the number of french prisoners of war and of soldiers released from the besieged fortresses in central europe was about three hundred thousand, of whom a third were veterans of the empire. to these must be added the army which soult, ignorant of napoleon's abdication, had led to defeat at toulouse, and the soldiers who had served in italy. these men, long accustomed to much consideration, found themselves on their return to be persons of no consequence. they learned that the great officers of the empire were everywhere treated with scant courtesy, and that the great ladies of the imperial court were now virtually driven from the tuileries by the significant questions and loud asides of the royal personages who had supplanted them. it was told in all public resorts how ney had resented the rude affronts put on his wife by the duchess of angoulême. the well-trained subordinate officers of these contingents were turned adrift by thousands on the same terms as those of napoleon's own army, half-pay if they showed themselves good catholics, otherwise nothing. for the most part, again, this promise was empty; young royalists were put in their places, the pay of the old guard was reduced, a new noble guard was organized, promotion was refused to those who had received commissions during the operations of war, and the asylums established for the orphans of those who had belonged to the legion of honor were abolished. so bitter was the outcry that the king felt compelled to dismiss his minister of war, and, not daring to substitute marmont, who demanded the place, appointed soult. he too was speedily discredited for harshness to exelmans, a subordinate who was discovered to have been in correspondence with napoleon; and by the middle of february, , nearly all the soldiers were at heart bonapartists, their friends for the most part abetting them. [illustration: napoleon exposition, the king of rome painted by marie louise under direction of isabey belonging to messrs. marquis and comte de las cases.] in less than two months after louis xviii took his seat, talleyrand and fouché were deep in their element of plot and intrigue. they thought of the son of philippe Égalité as a possible constitutional ruler; they talked of reëstablishing the imperial regency; with napoleon placed beyond the possibility of returning, the latter course would be safe. during the succeeding months they continued to juggle with this double intrigue, and around their plots clustered minor ones in mass. lord liverpool actually called wellington to london for fear the duke should be seized, and marmont put the paris garrison under arms. on january twenty-first, , the death of louis xvi was commemorated by the royalists with the wildest talk; and such was the general fury over exelmans's treatment that fouché at last stepped forward to give his conspiracy some form. carnot and davout were both expected to coöperate; but although they refused, enough officers of influence were secured to make a plan for an extended insurrection entirely feasible. for this all parties were willing to unite; no one knew or cared what was to supplant the existing government--anything was better than "paternal anarchy." how accurate the information was which reached napoleon at elba we cannot ascertain, for his feelings were masked and his conduct was non-committal. he had entirely recovered his health, and though old in experience, he was only forty-five years of age, and still appeared like one in the prime of life. he was apparently vigorous, being short, thick-necked, and inclined to corpulence. his cheeks were somewhat heavy and sensuous, his hair receded far back on the temples, his limbs were powerful, his hands and feet were delicately formed and noticeably small. his movements were nervous and well controlled, his eye was clear and bright, his passions were strong, his self-control was apparent, and the coördination of his powers was easy. to the elban peasant he was gracious; with his subordinates he was dignified; among his many visitors he moved with good humor and tact; his kindness to his mother and sister made both of them devoted and happy. the only anxiety he displayed was in regard to assassination and kidnapping: the former he said he could meet like a soldier; of the latter he spoke with anxious foreboding. he had reason to fear both. every week either in france or italy or both, there was a plot among fanatical royalists and priests to kill him; and though the barbary pirates were eager to seize him and win a great ransom, they were excelled in their zeal both by mariotte, talleyrand's agent in leghorn, and by bruslart, a bitter and ancient enemy, who had been appointed governor of corsica for the purpose. for these reasons, probably, the emperor of elba lived as far as possible in seclusion. as time passed he grew less intimate with campbell, but the scotch gentleman did not attribute the fact to discontent. before leaving elba, on february sixteenth, to reside for a time in florence and perform the duties of english envoy in that place, he gave it as his opinion that if napoleon received the pension stipulated for in the treaty he would remain tranquilly where he was. chapter xiii napoleon the liberator[ ] [footnote : references: sorel, a.: le traité de paris du novembre, . i. les cent jours. lacretelle: histoire de france depuis la restauration. nettement: histoire de la littérature française sous la restauration. constant: mémoires sur les cent jours en forme de lettres. lucien bonaparte: la vérité sur les cent jours.] napoleon ready to reappear -- reasons for his determination -- the return to france -- the northward march -- grenoble opens its gates -- the lyons proclamations -- the emperor in the tuileries -- the emperor of the french -- the additional act -- effects of the return in france and elsewhere -- the congress of vienna denounces napoleon. it has lately been recalled that as early as july, , the emperor of elba remarked to an english visitor that louis xviii, being surrounded by those who had betrayed the empire, would in turn probably be himself betrayed by them. for the ensuing four months, however, the exile gave no sign of any deep purpose; to those who wished to leave him, he gave a hearty good-by. in december, however, he remarked to one of his old soldiers, pointedly, as the man thought: "well, grenadier, you are bored; ... take the weather as it comes." slipping a gold piece into the veteran's hand, he then turned away, humming to a simple air the words, "this will not last forever." thereafter he dissuaded all who sought to depart, saying: "be patient. we'll pass these few winter days as best we may; then we'll try to spend the spring in another fashion." this vague language may possibly have referred to the italian scheme, but on february tenth he received a clear account of what had happened at vienna, and on the evening of the twelfth fleury de chaboulon, a confidential friend of maret, arrived in the disguise of a sailor, and revealed in the fullest and most authentic way the state of france. when he heard of the plan to reëstablish the regency, napoleon burst out hotly: "a regency! what for? am i, then, dead?" two days later, after long conferences, the emissary was despatched to do what he could at naples, and the emperor began his preparations. this was soon known on the mainland, and three days later a personage whose identity has never been revealed arrived in the guise of a marseilles merchant, declaring that, except the rich and the emigrants, every human being in france longed for the emperor's return. if he would but set up his hat on the shores of provence, it would draw all men toward it. when napoleon turned pseudo-historian he declared in one place that the breaches of the fontainebleau treaty and his fears of deportation had nothing to do with his return from elba; in another he states the reverse. since the legend he was then studiously constructing required the unbroken devotion of the french to the standard-bearer of the revolution for the sake of consistency, he probably recalled only the feelings awakened by fleury's report that opportunity was ripe, and that, too, earlier than had been expected. but there were other motives at the time, for peyrusse, keeper of napoleon's purse during the elban sojourn, heard his master asseverate that it would be more dangerous to remain in porto ferrajo than to return to france. in any case, so far as france and the world at large were concerned, the contemptuous indifference of louis and his ministers to their obligations under the treaty powerfully justified napoleon's course. even alexander and castlereagh had early made an indignant protest to talleyrand; but the latter, already deep in conspiracy, turned them off with a flippant rejoinder. with great adroitness and secrecy napoleon collected and fitted out his little flotilla, which consisted of the _inconstant_, a stout brig assigned to him at fontainebleau, and seven smaller craft. during the preparations the french and english war-vessels patrolling the neighboring waters came and went, but their captains suspected nothing. campbell's departure created a false rumor among the islanders that england was favoring some expedition on which the emperor was about to embark, thus allaying all suspicion. when, on the twenty-sixth, a little army of eleven hundred men found itself afloat, with eighty horses and a number of cannon, no one seemed to realize what had happened; except drouot, who pleaded against napoleon's rashness, all were enthusiastic. to avoid suspicion, each captain steered his own course, and the various craft dotting the sea at irregular intervals looked no way unlike the other boats which plied those waters. several men-of-war were sighted, but they kept their course. as one danger after another was averted, the great adventurer's spirits rose until he was exuberant with joy, and talked of austerlitz. it was march first when land was finally sighted from the _inconstant_; as if by magic, the other vessels hove in sight immediately, and by four the men were all ashore on the strand of the gulf of jouan. cambronne, a colonel of the imperial guards, was sent to requisition horses at cannes, with the strict injunction that not a drop of blood be shed. as the great actor had theatrically said on board his brig, he was "about to produce a great novelty," and he counted upon dazzling the beholders into an enthusiasm they had ceased to feel for the old plays. among others brought to napoleon's bivouac that night was the prince of monaco, who had been found by cambronne at st. pierre traveling in a four-horse carriage, and had been taken as a prisoner into napoleon's presence. "where are you going?" was, according to tradition, the greeting of napoleon. "i am returning to my domains," came the reply. "indeed! and i too," was the merry retort. recalling the mortal agony he had endured on the highway through aix but a short year before, and its causes, and having been informed how bitter was the anti-royalist feeling in the dauphiné, napoleon set his little army in march direct toward grenoble. at cannes there was general indifference; at grasse it was found that the division general in command had fled, and there were a few timid shouts of "long live the emperor!" thence to digne on the grenoble highway was a mountain track over a ridge twelve thousand feet above the sea. in twenty hours the slender column marched thirty-five miles. the "growlers" joked about the "little corporal" who trudged at their side, the alpine hamlets provided abundant rations, and the government officials furnished blank passports which enabled napoleon to send emissaries both to grenoble and to marseilles, where masséna was in command. the little garrison of digne was bonapartist in feeling, but it was not yet ready to join napoleon, and withdrew; that at sisteron was kept from meddling by a body of troops which had been despatched as a corps of observation from marseilles, while the populace shouted heartily for the emperor. at gap the officials strove to organize resistance, but they desisted before the menaces of the people. by this time the peasantry were coming in by hundreds. so far napoleon's enterprise had received but four recruits: two soldiers from antibes, a tanner from grasse, and a gendarme. now he was so confident that he dismissed the peasantry, assuring them that the soldiers in front would join his standards. on march seventh the head of the column of imperial adventurers reached la mure, a short day's march from grenoble. they were received with enthusiasm, and a bucket of the poor native wine was brought for the refreshment of the men. when all had been served napoleon reached out for the cheap little glass, and swallowed his ration like the rest. there was wild delight among both his men and the onlookers as the "army" set out for laffray, the next hamlet, where was a small detachment sent from grenoble to destroy a bridge over the drac. with inscrutable faces they stood across the highway, lances set and muskets charged, under orders to fire on napoleon the moment he should appear. at length the critical moment arrived. "there he is! fire!" cried a royalist officer. the soldiers clutched their arms, their faces blanched, their knees shook, and they--disobeyed! napoleon, walking slowly, advanced within pistol-shot. he wore the old familiar gray surtout, the well-known cocked hat, and a tricolor cockade. "soldiers of the fifth," he said in a strong, calm voice, "behold me!" then advancing a few paces farther, he threw open his coat and displaying the familiar uniform, he called: "if there be one soldier among you who wishes to kill his emperor, he can. i come to offer myself to your assaults." in an instant the opposing ranks melted into a mob of sobbing, cheering men, kissing napoleon's shoes, struggling to touch the skirts of his shabby garments. the surrounding throng crowded near in sympathy. "soldiers," cried the magician, "i come with a handful of brave men because i count on you and the people. the throne of the bourbons is illegitimate because it was not erected by the nation. your fathers are threatened by a restoration of titles, of privilege, and of feudal rights; is it not so?" "yes, yes," shouted the multitude. at that instant appeared a rider arrayed in the uniform of the national guard, but wearing a huge tricolor cockade. alighting at napoleon's feet, he said: "sire, i am jean dumoulin the glove-maker; i bring to your majesty a hundred thousand francs and my arm." at that instant likewise an imperial proclamation denouncing traitors, and promising that under the old standards victory would return like the storm-wind, was passing from hand to hand in the garrison of grenoble. labédoyère, the colonel, of the seventh of the line, first announced his purpose to support his emperor, and the royalist officers saw the imperialist feeling spread with dismay. they arranged to evacuate the place next morning. at seven in the evening napoleon summoned the town; the commandant, unable to resist the pressure of both soldiers and populace, fled with a few adherents, and at ten the gates were opened. the reception of the returning exile was hearty and impressive. it was with an army of seven thousand men that, after a rest of thirty-six hours, he started for lyons. "as far as grenoble i was an adventurer; at grenoble i was a prince," wrote napoleon at st. helena. if this were true, at lyons he was an emperor in fact as well as in name, that great city receiving him with plaudits as energetic as were the execrations with which they dismissed artois and macdonald. recalling the lessons of his youth, some learned in corsica, some in the rhone valley, the returning emperor carefully felt the pulse of public opinion as he journeyed. he found the longing for peace to be universal, and even before entering lyons he began to promise peace with honor. but this he quickly found was not enough: it must be peace with liberty as well. the sole task before him, therefore, he declared to be that of protecting the interests and principles of the revolution against the returning emigrants. france, restored to her glory, was to live in harmony with other european powers as long as they minded their own affairs. napoleon, the liberator of france! to terrify foreign invaders and intestine foes a great united nation was to speak in trumpet notes. from lyons, therefore, second city of the empire, was summoned a popular assembly to revise the constitution. to convey the impression that austria was in secret accord with the emperor's course, three delegates from the eastern capital were summoned to assist at a significant ceremony which was to occur almost immediately, the coronation of the empress and the king of rome. still further, a decree was issued which banished the returned emigrants and swept away the pretensions of the arrogant nobles. talleyrand, marmont, augereau, and dalberg were attainted, and the noble guard of the king was abolished. under these influences bonapartist feeling grew so intense and spread so widely that the army of soult, which had been assembled in the southeast to oppose murat, turned imperialist almost to a man. masséna, who seems to have followed the lead of fouché, waited to see what was coming, and remained neutral. ney fell in with the general movement, and joined napoleon at auxerre. "embrace me, my dear general," were the emperor's words of greeting. "i am glad to see you; and i want neither explanations nor justifications." all resistance disappeared before napoleon's advance as he passed autun and descended the yonne valley toward paris. everywhere there were dissensions among the populace, but the enthusiasm of the soldiers and their sympathizers triumphed. the troops despatched by the king's government to overpower the "usurper" sooner or later went over to the "usurper's" standards. one morning a placard was found on the railing around the vendôme column: "napoleon to louis xviii. my good brother, it is useless to send me any more troops; i have enough." paris was in a storm of suppressed excitement. the measures of resistance were half-hearted; the king made lavish concessions and the chambers passed excellent laws without attracting any attention or sympathy; volunteers were raised, but there was no energy in their organization. when napoleon reached fontainebleau on the eighteenth, the reserves stationed in and near paris on the south came over to him in a body. on the nineteenth louis issued a despairing address to the army, and fled to lille; on the morning of the twentieth the capital found itself without any vestige of government. the streets were thronged with people, but there was no disorder until a band of royalists attacked a half-pay officer wearing the imperial cockade. at once the city guard formed and intervened to quell the disturbance. thereupon the imperialists endeavored to seize the tuileries; they, too, were checked, and a double force, royalist and imperial, was set to defend that important spot. over other public buildings the imperial colors waved alone and undisturbed. during the afternoon the crowds dispersed and the imperial officials quietly resumed their places. at nine in the evening a post-chaise rolled up to the tuileries gate, napoleon alighted, and the observers thought his smile was like that of one walking in a dream. at once he was caught in the brawny arms of his admirers, and handed upward from step to step, from landing to landing. so fierce was the affection of his friends that his life seemed to be in danger from their embraces, and it was with relief that he entered his cabinet and closed the door, to find himself among a few of his old stanch and tried servants, with caulaincourt at their head. this reception had been in sharp contrast to the apathy displayed on the streets, where the people were few in number, unenthusiastic, and indifferent. "they let me come," said napoleon to mollien, "as they let the other go." finding himself unable to endure the loneliness of the tuileries, and depressed by the associations of the familiar scenes, he withdrew in a few days to the comparative seclusion of the Élysée, then a suburban mansion dubbed by courtesy a palace. some portion of napoleon's leisure in elba had been devoted, as was mentioned in another connection, to sketching the outline of a treatise intended to prove that his dynasty was quite as legitimate as any other which had ruled over france. his illusions of european empire were dismissed either permanently or temporarily, and for the moment he was the apostle of nationality and popular sovereignty in france. before laying his head on his pillow in the tuileries he displayed this fact to the world in the constitution of his cabinet, which would in our day be designated as a cabinet of concentration, representative of various shades of opinion. maret, davout, cambacérès, gaudin, mollien, decrès, caulaincourt, fouché, and carnot accepted the various portfolios; most surprising of all, benjamin constant, the constitutional republican, became president of a reconstructed council of state. in connection with the announcement of these names, the nation was informed that the constitution was to be revised, and that the censorship of the press was abolished. in reference to the latter, napoleon remarked that, since everything possible had been said about him during the past year, he could himself be no worse off than he was, but the editors could still find much to say about his enemies. to constant he frankly explained what he meant by revision. the common people had welcomed his return because he was one of themselves, and at a signal he could have the nobles murdered. but he wanted no peasants' war, and, as the taste had returned for unrestricted discussion, public trials, emancipated elections, responsible ministers, and all the paraphernalia of constitutional government, the public must be gratified. for all this he was ready, and with it for peace. but peace he could win only by victory, for, although in his conduct, in the lyons decrees, and in casual talk, he hinted at negotiations with foreign powers, those negotiations were purely imaginary. with a clear comprehension of the situation, the ministers went to work. on april twenty-third was promulgated the additional act, whereby the franchise was extended, the state church abolished, liberty of worship guaranteed, and every wretched remnant of privilege or divine right expunged. the two chambers were retained, many imperial dignitaries being assigned to the house of peers, the bonaparte brothers, lucien, joseph, and jerome, among the number. it was, as chateaubriand sarcastically said, a revised and improved edition of louis's constitution. the preamble, however, was new; it set forth that napoleon, having been long engaged in constructing a great european federal system suited to the spirit of the time and favorable to the spirit of civilization, had now abandoned it, and would henceforth devote himself to a single aim, the perfect security of public liberty. this specious representation, half true and half false, awakened no enthusiasm in france; it was accepted, along with the additional act, by a plebiscite, but by only a million three hundred thousand votes--less than half the number cast for the consulate and the empire. this was largely due to a curious apathy, induced by a still more curious but firm conviction that at last france had secured peace with honor. reference has been made to a military conspiracy fomented by fouché in the north; before the hostile public feeling thus engendered in that quarter louis fled to ghent within five days after napoleon reached paris, and, though the royal princes were able to carry on civil war in the south a little longer, it was generally felt that the nation now had a ruler of its own choosing, and that if they attended strictly to their own affairs they would be left in peace. for considerable time there was little news from abroad, and so swift was the rush of internal affairs that no heed was given to what there was. this was suddenly changed in april, when it was brought home to the nation that the specter of war had again been raised, and that the dynasties were finally a unit in their determination to extirpate the napoleonic régime as a measure of self-defense. every man with any means saw himself beggared, and every mother felt her son slipping from her arms to swim once more that sea of blood in which for a generation the hope of the nation had been submerged. the depression was general and terrible, for the prospect was appalling. england, entangled with dynastic alliances in order to preserve her prosperity and dignity, had lost most of her serious and trusted leaders, and the few who survived were so panic-stricken as to have little perspicacity. the king's illness having at last removed him from public life, he had been succeeded by the most profligate and frivolous of all the line of english kings, the prince regent, who was later george iv. percival and liverpool were not merely conservative from principle; they were negative from the love of negatives. already they had laid the basis, in their mismanagement of domestic affairs, for the social turbulence which within a short time was to compel the most sweeping reforms. castlereagh had not even an inkling of what the treaty of chaumont might mean to great britain in the end. to destroy napoleon he was perfectly content that his own free country should support a system of dynastic politics destructive of every principle of liberty. the congress of vienna represented, not a confederation of states, but a league of dynasties posing as nations and banded for mutual self-preservation. to them the permanent restoration of napoleon could mean only one thing, the recognition of a nation's right to choose its own rulers, and that would be the end of absolutism in europe. to great britain it would mean the destruction of her prosperity, or at least a serious diminution of both power and prestige. the late coalition, therefore, was re-cemented without difficulty, but on a basis entirely new. the account of napoleon's escape reached vienna on march sixth. within the week maria louisa, now entirely under neipperg's influence, wrote declaring herself a stranger to all napoleon's schemes, and a few days later the french attendants of the little king of rome were dismissed; the child's last words to méneval were a message of affection to his father.[ ] at that time negotiations among the powers were progressing famously, each having secured its main object; on march thirteenth the congress, under castlereagh's instigation, publicly denounced napoleon as the "enemy and disturber of the world's peace," and proclaimed him an outlaw. the whigs stigmatized the paper in parliament as provocative of assassination and a disgrace to the english character, but, of all the important journals, the "morning chronicle" alone was courageous enough to sustain them, asserting that it was a matter of complete indifference to england whether a bourbon or a bonaparte reigned in france. these manly protests were unheeded, and by the twenty-fifth all europe, except naples, was united against france alone. [footnote : see welschinger: le roi de rome, ch. vii.] chapter xiv the dynasties implacable[ ] [footnote : references: for this and the following chapters see d'angeberg: le congrès de vienne et les traités de , précédé et suivi des actes diplomatiques qui s'y rattachent, avec introduction historique par capefigue; castlereagh's correspondence; capefigue: le congrès de vienne dans ses rapports avec la circonstance actuelle de l'europe; davout: correspondance, vol. iv.; de pradt: du congrès de vienne; flassan: histoire du congrès de vienne; hardenberg's memoirs; humboldt's memoirs; villemain: souvenirs contemporains d'histoire et de littérature; gérard: quelques documents sur la bataille de waterloo; gourgaud: la campagne de ; grouchy: observations sur la relation de la campagne de , publ. par le g{én.} gourgaud, et réfutation de quelques-unes des assertions et écrits relatifs à la bataille de waterloo.] the vienna coalition -- its purpose -- napoleon as a liberal -- the fiasco -- france on the defensive -- napoleon's health -- war preparations of the combatants -- their respective forces -- qualities and achievements of the french -- the armies of blücher and wellington -- the french strategy -- napoleon's first misfortune. [sidenote: ] the supreme effort of the dynasties to outlaw napoleon, and restore france to the bourbons, was made by what was nominally an alliance of eight members--austria, great britain, prussia, russia, france, spain, portugal, and sweden. the last was, however, absorbed in her struggle with norway, and, though spain and portugal were signatories, the real strength of the coalition arranged at vienna lay in a virtual renewal of the treaty of chaumont: austria, prussia, and russia were each to put a hundred and eighty thousand men in the field, and great britain was to continue her subsidies. on april fourth, the sovereigns of europe were notified that the empire meant peace; they retorted by the mobilization of their forces, and by denouncing in a joint protocol the treaty of paris. in his extremity napoleon appealed to talleyrand, but that minister knew too well the temper of the congress at vienna, and refused to coöperate. the versatile fouché thereupon initiated a new plot, this time against napoleon, and sounded metternich; but metternich was dumb. the other diplomats asseverated that they did not wish to interfere with the domestic affairs of france; but they prevaricated, intending nothing less than the complete restoration of the bourbons. under the shadow of this storm-cloud napoleon regulated his domestic affairs of state with intrepid calmness. he had no easy task. it was the revived hatred of the masses for priests and nobles to which he had appealed on his progress from grenoble, and, observing the wild outbursts of the populace at lyons, he had whispered, "this is madness." it was with studied deliberation, therefore, that in paris he cast himself completely upon the moderate liberals. this alienated the jacobin elements throughout the country, and they, in turn, stirred up the royalists. when it became clear that neither maria louisa nor the king of rome was to be crowned, and that there was no help in austria, even the imperialists displayed a dangerous temper. such was the general uneasiness about war that the first measures of army reorganization were taken almost stealthily. it was easy enough to establish the skeleton of formation, and not very difficult to find trustworthy officers, commissioned and non-commissioned; but to summon recruits was to announce the coming war. of the three hundred thousand veterans now returned home, less than one fifth responded to the call for volunteers; the emperor had reckoned on four fifths at least. the national guard was so surly that many felt it would be bravado for napoleon to review them. but he was determined to do so, and on april sixteenth the hazardous ceremony took place. until at least half the companies had been reviewed not a cheer was heard; then there were a few scattering shouts here and there in the ranks; finally there was some genuine enthusiasm. by the middle of may the national deputies summoned at lyons began to arrive. they were to meet, after the fashion of charles the great's assemblies, in the open field. their task was to be the making of a new constitution. it was not reassuring news that they brought from their various homes, and their accounts disturbed public opinion in paris sadly. before long it was known that civil war had again broken out in vendée; the consequences would have been most disastrous had not la rochejacquelein, the insurgent leader, been killed on june fourth. as it was, the ignoble slaughter of one of their order intensified the bitterness of the nobles. worse still, it had been found that of the six hundred and twenty-nine deputies five hundred were ardent constitutionalists indifferent to napoleon, and that only fifty were his devoted personal friends; there were even between thirty and forty who were jacobins, and at fouché's command. under these circumstances the emperor dared not hold the promised national congress. what could be substituted for it? the great dramatic artist was not long at a loss. he determined to summon the electoral deputies to a gorgeous open-air ceremony on june first, and have them stamp with their approval the additional act. a truly impressive spectacle would pass muster for the promised "field of may," and profoundly affect the minds of all present. but, unfortunately, though ségur made the plan, and though every detail was carefully studied by napoleon, the affair was not impressive. about eighteen thousand persons assembled on the benches, and there was a vast crowd in the field. the cannon roared their welcome, and the people cheered the imperial carriage, the marshals, the body-guard, and the procession. but when napoleon and his brothers stepped forth, clad like actors in theatrical costumes of white velvet, wearing spanish cloaks embroidered with the imperial device of golden bees, and with great plumed hats on their heads, there was a hush of disappointment. the populace had expected a soldier in a soldier's uniform; many had felt sure "he" would wear that of the national guard. there was, however, no sign of disrespect while the ministers and the reconstituted corps of marshals filed to their places. among the latter were familiar faces--ney, moncey, kellermann, sérurier, lefebvre, grouchy, oudinot, jourdan, soult, and masséna. a committee of the deputies then stood forth, and their chairman read an address declaring that france desired a ruler of her own selection, and promising loyalty in the coming war. napoleon arose, and in spite of his absurd clothes commanded attention while he set forth his reasons for offering a ready-made constitution instead of risking interminable debate. although he declared that what was offered could, of course, be amended, there was no applause, except from a few soldiers. when the chambers met, a week later, lanjuinais, one of napoleon's lifelong opponents, was chosen president of the house of deputies. the speech from the throne was clever and conciliatory, and in spite of evident distrust both houses promised all the strength of france for defense--but for defense only. the peers declared that under her new institutions france could never be swept away by the temptations of victory; the deputies asserted that nothing could carry the nation beyond the bounds of its own defense, not even the will of a victorious prince. the anxieties and exertions of two months were manifest in napoleon's appearance. his features, though impressive, were drawn, and his long jaw grew prominent. he lost flesh everywhere except around the waist, so that his belly, hitherto inconspicuous, looked almost pendulous. when standing, he folded his hands sometimes in front, sometimes behind, but separated them frequently to take snuff or rub his nose. sometimes he heaved a mechanical sigh, swallowing as if to calm inward agitation. often he scowled, and looked out through half-closed lids as if growing far-sighted; the twitching of his eye and ear on the left side grew more frequent. with thickening difficulties and increasing annoyance, serious urinary and stomach troubles set in; there was also a persistent hacking cough. recourse was again had to protracted warm baths in order to alleviate the accompanying nervousness; but as the ailments were refractory, a mystery soon attached to the malady, and his enemies said it was a loathsome disease. in spite of the statements both of the prussian commissioner at fontainebleau, count truchsess-waldburg, and of sir hudson lowe, it is highly improbable that napoleon's health was undermined by sexual infection. he was surrounded all his life by malignant attendants, and among the sweepings of their minds, which in recent years have been scattered before the public, there would be some proof of the fact. in the utter absence of any reliable information, some have guessed that the trouble was the preliminary stage in the disease of which he died; and others, again, in view of his quick changes of mood, his depressions, exaltations, sharpened sensibilities, and abrupt rudeness, have explained all his peculiarities in disease and health by attributing them to a recondite form of epilepsy. exhausted and nervous, the sufferer might well, as was the case, be found in tears before the portrait of his son; he might well lift up his voice, as he was heard to do, against the destiny which had played him false. but he was quite shrewd enough to see that during his absence no regency could be trusted, and he arranged to conduct affairs by special messengers. joseph was to preside and give the casting-vote in the council of state; to lucien was given a seat in the same body; but the supreme power rested in napoleon. when wellington replaced castlereagh at the congress of vienna, it was quickly apparent that he was greater in the field than at the council-board. both he and blücher desired to assume the offensive quickly; but inasmuch as alexander was determined to retain his ascendancy in the coalition, and as each power insisted on its due share in the struggle, it was arranged to begin hostilities on june twenty-seventh, the earliest date at which the russian troops could reach the confines of france. there were to be three armies. schwarzenberg, with two hundred and fifty thousand men, comprising the austrian, russian, and bavarian contingents, was to attack across the upper rhine; blücher, with one hundred and fifty thousand prussians, was to advance across the lower rhine; and wellington in the netherlands was to collect an army of one hundred and fifty thousand, compounded of dutch, belgians, hanoverians, and some thirty-eight thousand british, who could be there assembled. the two latter armies were in existence by the first of june, but wellington was dissatisfied with the quality of his motley force; even the english contingent was not the best possible, for his peninsular veterans had been sent to find their match in jackson's riflemen at the battle of new orleans. on the eve of hostilities napoleon had one hundred and twenty-four thousand effective men, and three thousand five hundred more in his camp train; wellington had one hundred and six thousand, but of these four thousand hanoverians were left in garrison; blücher had about one hundred and seventeen thousand. neither of the two allied generals dreamed that napoleon would choose the daring form of attack upon which he decided--that of a wedge driven into the broken line nearly a hundred miles in length upon which his enemy lay--for to do so he must pass the ardennes. but he did choose it, and selected for the purpose the valleys of the sambre and the meuse. allowing for the differences in topography, the idea was identical with that which, nineteen years before, he had executed splendidly in piedmont and repeated in germany. the twin enemy seemed unaware that its long and straggling line must, in case of activity, either be broken to maintain the respective bases or else abandon one base for concentration and be cut off from supplies. wellington's base was westward at antwerp, blücher's eastward through liège toward the rhine. vacillation would ensue, napoleon felt, on a central attack, and in that vacillation he intended to repeat with blücher what he had done with brunswick at jena. the opening of the campaign was sufficiently auspicious. by a superb march during the night of june thirteenth, napoleon's army had gained a most advantageous position. the first corps under d'erlon was at solre on the sambre, the second under reille was at leers. the guard, the sixth corps under lobau, the line cavalry and the third corps under vandamme, stood in that order on a line northeasterly from beaumont, and due east of that place were four cavalry corps; the fourth corps under the young and dashing gérard had marched from metz and were at philippeville; to the south lay the guard cavalry and the reserve artillery under grouchy. in front was charleroi, whence a broad turnpike led almost direct to brussels, thirty-four miles due north; another turned eastward toward liège. thirteen miles distant on this was sombreffe; somewhat farther on that, quatre bras, both on the highway running east and west between namur and nivelles. to have accomplished such marches as it did, the french army must have been fine; to have secured such a brilliant strategic position its general must have been almost inspired. he commanded the operating lines of both wellington and blücher, while they were far distant from each other, separated by serious obstacles, both alike instinct with centrifugal rather than centripetal tendency. the same high qualities which shone in their general distinguished the subordinate french commanders. though many of the famous names are absent from the list,--mortier, for instance, having fallen ill on the frontier,--yet soult was present as chief of staff, and ney was coming up to take command of the left wing. reille, d'erlon, and foy were veterans of the peninsular war; what twenty-two years of service had done for the "wild hun," vandamme, is known. kellermann was made famous by marengo, lobau was noted for daring, gérard had earned distinction in russia, and though grouchy's merit has been the theme of much discussion, yet he had been famous under jourdan and moreau, and nothing had occurred in the long interval to tarnish his reputation. nearly half of blücher's troops were irregular reserves, and many of the regulars were recruits, but all were thoroughly drilled and well equipped. the passion of hatred which animated them was comparable only to the "french fury" with which napoleon's army would fight for national existence. such was the reverence for routine among the prussian officers, and so bitter were the jealousies of the petty aristocracy from which they sprang, that the king dared not promote on any basis except that of seniority. in order to make gneisenau second in command, york, kleist, and tauenzien were stationed elsewhere, and bülow was put in command of a reserve to hold belgium when blücher should advance to paris. the aged but fiery marshal had not mended his health by the self-indulgence of a year; the three division generals, ziethen, pirch, and thielemann were capable men of local renown. gneisenau and bülow were the only first-rate men among the prussian commanders, but for rousing enthusiasm blücher's name was a word to conjure with. wellington was felt by his officers and soldiers to be a man of real power; his british recruits were well drilled, and his veterans were good. his associate generals were no more famous than those of gneisenau, but they were, for the most part, english gentlemen with a high sense of duty and much executive ability. one of his corps was commanded by the prince of orange, a respectable soldier, whose name, however, was more valuable than the experience he had gained in the peninsula as aide-de-camp; the other corps was under lord hill, an admirable subordinate and an excellent commander. the only english general whose name is a familiar one abroad was picton, who died on the field. as to the quality of the respective armies, it has become the fashion of each nation to decry that of its own and overrate that of the other two. thus they condone their own blunders, and yet heighten the renown of victory. napoleon was superior in organization, in cavalry, and in artillery to either wellington or blücher, but he was inferior to both in infantry. he was in wretched health, and he had a desperate cause. taking fully into account his consummate ability and personal prestige, it yet remains true that the odds against him were high, certainly eight to five. ziethen's posts before charleroi saw the french camp-fires in the early hours of june fourteenth; that evening they began to withdraw toward fleurus, whither the remainder of the prussian army was gradually set in motion. it seems incredible that this should have been the first move of the allies toward concentrating their widely scattered forces, for neither wellington nor blücher was completely surprised. both commanders had for two days been aware, in a general way, of napoleon's movements, but they were awaiting developments. it was wellington's opinion, carefully set forth in his old age, that it would have been better strategy for the french to advance so as to turn his right, seize his munitions, and cut off his base; but as this would have rolled up the entire allied force, ready to deliver battle with odds of two to one, the statement may perhaps be accepted as an explanation, but certainly not as a justification. in the dawn of the fifteenth a ringing, rousing proclamation, like those of the olden time, and written the day before on the anniversary of marengo, was read to the french soldiers. it was in high spirits that the army, in three columns, began to march. the left, under reille, dislodged the prussian outposts from thuin, and, forcing them back through marchiennes, seized the bridge at that place, and crossed to the left bank of the sambre. the movement was complete by ten in the morning. the center under napoleon comprised the mass of the army: pajol, vandamme, lobau, the guard, exelmans, kellermann, and milhaud. soult despatched his orders by a solitary aide, who broke his leg by a fall from his horse, and failed to deliver them. though at equally critical moments before both eylau and wagram, berthier had done as soult did, with identical results, yet the latter was justly and severely blamed. had vandamme been found, the movements of the center would have been greatly accelerated, the speedy capture of charleroi would have enabled the third corps to reach fleurus in time to intercept ziethen, and thus the whole course of events would have been changed. the marshal's ill success was, therefore, as napoleon called it, a "deplorable mischance," and it was high noon before pajol, with the van, reached charleroi and, after a smart engagement, drove out the prussians. the right wing, under gérard, was in motion at five in the morning, but it also was detained by a serious disaster. shortly after starting it was found that bourmont, the commander of its best division, a man who had been chouan, imperialist, and royalist by turns, had deserted with his chief of staff and eight soldiers. having been at the council of war, he had the latest information of napoleon's secret plans, and his treason demoralized the troops he so basely abandoned. it was long before confidence could be restored; the crossing at charleroi had been delayed too long, and it was nightfall when gérard at last reached châtelet, four miles below, secured the bridge, and crossed with only half his men. the campaign opened, if not in disaster, at least with only partial success. chapter xv ligny and quatre bras[ ] [footnote : the most important works dealing with the military side of the waterloo campaign are those of müffling, berton, gourgaud, clausewitz, siborne, charras, chesney, hooper, maurice, mercer, morris, jomini, ollech, vaudoncourt, ropes, and houssaye. further, there are controversial discussions of importance by grouchy, gérard, heymès, knoop, loben-sels, and bornstedt. the most complete bibliography is, as usual, that of kircheisen.] napoleon's orders -- ney's failure to seize quatre bras -- wellington surprised -- napoleon's fine strategy -- the meeting at ligny -- blücher's defeat -- the hostile forces at quatre bras -- wellington withdraws -- napoleon's over-confidence -- his instructions to grouchy -- his advance from quatre bras. for four hours after his arrival at charleroi, napoleon, uneasy as to the whereabouts of his detachments, stood in idleness waiting for news. during this interval the first prussian corps under ziethen, retreating from charleroi, reached fleurus unmolested, all except a small body, which gathered at gosselies, on the brussels road, but was easily dispersed by reille. it seemed as if the road to quatre bras was open, and when, at half-past four, ney appeared, he was put in command of the left, with verbal instructions, as napoleon asserted some years later, to seize that strategic point. within these limits he was to act independently. if quatre bras were surprised and held, the second move could be attempted: the seizure of sombreffe. since the highway between the two was the only line by which the allied armies could quickly unite, the possibility of attacking them separately would be assured even if the successive attacks should follow each other so closely as to be substantially one battle. either ney misunderstood, or napoleon recorded what he intended to say, not what he actually said. colonel heymès, ney's chief of staff, declared that the emperor's final words were, "go, and drive back the enemy"; the emperor asserted that his orders to go and hold quatre bras were positive. it is also a matter of dispute whether or not napoleon had hoped, after seizing the bridges and crossing the sambre, to complete his movement by surprising both quatre bras and sombreffe on that same day, the fifteenth. had he done so, blücher might possibly have withdrawn to effect a junction with wellington for the decisive conflict, and thus have thwarted napoleon's strategy; but it is not likely, for that move, as finally executed, was the work not of blücher but of gneisenau; at this stage of the campaign the prussians would probably have retreated toward namur. whatever may have been napoleon's intention, ney hurried to gosselies, stationed reille to hold the place, and then, despatching one division to pursue the prussians, and another, with piré's cavalry, toward quatre bras, put himself at the head of the cavalry of the guard to help in seizing this latter important point. but at seven his force, to their astonishment, was confronted by a strong body of nassauers from wellington's army, who, having passed quatre bras, had seized frasnes, a village two and a half miles in advance. these made no stand, but ney, instead of proceeding immediately to attack quatre bras itself, left his men to hold the position at frasnes, and hurried away to consult his superior. for this he had excellent reasons: his staff was not yet organized, and d'erlon's corps was not within call; he was therefore too weak for the movement contemplated by his orders. at the same moment napoleon, who had been in the saddle since three in the morning, and who had become convinced that the retreating prussians would not halt at fleurus, but would rejoin their main army, turned back to charleroi, and, on reaching his quarters an hour later, flung himself in utter exhaustion upon his couch. in fact, he was in exquisite torture from the complication of urinary, hemorrhoidal, and other troubles which his long day's ride had aggravated, and, as he declared at st. helena,--probably the truth,--he had lost his assurance of final success. the day had been fairly successful, but at what a cost of energy! no one, he least of all, could feel that there had been any buoyancy in the movements or favoring fate in the combinations of his armies. throughout the day blücher had displayed a fiery zeal. since early in may he had had no serious consultation with wellington, and in a general conversation held at that time there had been merely a vague understanding as to a union at some point south of sombreffe. that town was accordingly selected by him for concentration, and in general his orders had been well executed. why the bridges of marchiennes and châtelet were not undermined and blown up by the prussians has never been explained. moreover, the language of gneisenau's orders to bülow being vague, the latter misinterpreted it, and his much-needed force was not brought in, as expected. wellington's conduct is a riddle. he displayed little anxiety and found time for social enjoyment as well as for the activities of military command in a supreme crisis. about the middle of the afternoon he was informed, through the prince of orange, as to his enemy's movements. with perfect calm, he commanded that his troops should be ready in their cantonments; at five he issued orders for the divisions to march with a view to concentration at nivelles, the easternmost point which he intended to occupy; at ten, just as he was setting out for the noted ball which the duchess of richmond was giving on the eve of decision, he gave definite instructions for the concentration to begin. these were his very first steps toward concentration, although twenty-seven years later he made the assertion, supported only by his despatch to bathurst of the nineteenth, that he had ordered the anglo-allied army to concentrate to the left, as blücher had ordered the prussians to concentrate to the right. as a matter of fact, he was twenty-four hours behind blücher in ordering his first defensive movements. this is not excused by the fact that his movement of concentration was completed somewhat earlier than blücher's. about twenty minutes after the prince of orange had reached the ball-room, wellington sent him away quietly, and then, summoning the duke of richmond, who, it is doubtfully said, was to have command of the reserve when completely formed, he asked for a map. the two withdrew to an adjoining room. wellington closed the door, and said, with an oath, "napoleon has humbugged me." he then explained that he had ordered his army to concentrate at quatre bras, adding, "but we shall not stop him there; and if so, i must fight him here," marking waterloo with his thumb-nail on the map as he spoke. it was not until the next morning that he left for the front. though napoleon, on the evening of the fifteenth, had neither quatre bras nor sombreffe, he held all the debatable ground; and if, next morning, he could seize the two towns simultaneously, the first move in his great game would be won. it seems as if he must risk everything to that end. what passed between napoleon and ney from midnight until two in the morning is unknown. there is no evidence that the emperor expressed serious dissatisfaction, although he may have been exasperated. he was not exactly in a position to give vent to his feelings. whatever was the nature of their conversation, ney was again at his post long before dawn, and not a soldier moved from charleroi until nearly noon! it seems that napoleon, or ney, or both, must have been stubbornly convinced that wellington could not concentrate within twenty-four hours. that napoleon was not incapacitated by prostration is proved by his acts: about five he sent a preliminary order to ney; very early, also, he took measures to complete gérard's crossing at châtelet; and then, having considered at length the alternatives of pushing straight on to brussels or of taking the course he did, he had reached a decision as early as seven o'clock. it seems almost certain that he delayed chiefly to get his troops well in hand, partly to give them a much-needed rest. they had been seventeen hours afoot the previous day. toward nine, believing that more of ney's command was assembled than was yet the case, he sent a fretful order commanding the marshal to seize quatre bras, and stating that a semi-independent command, under grouchy, would stand at sombreffe, while he himself would hold gembloux. this done, he settled into apparent lethargy. to grouchy he wrote that he intended to attack the enemy at sombreffe, and "even at gembloux," and then to operate immediately with ney "against the english." his scheme was able, for if at either salient angle, quatre bras or sombreffe, his presence should be necessary, he could, at need, quickly join either ney or grouchy; but his senses must have been dulled. when informed that the enemy was at fleurus in force, he hesitated long before resolving to move, being crippled by the inability of his left to move on quatre bras and behaving as if sure that the soldiers before him were only a single corps of blücher's army, which he could sweep away at his convenience. meanwhile vandamme had advanced. the prussians withdrew from fleurus, and deployed at the foot of the hillock on which the village of ligny stands. when, about midday, napoleon arrived at fleurus, he had to experience the unpleasant surprise of finding a strong force ready to oppose him. eighty-seven thousand men, all blücher's army, except bülow's corps and a portion of ziethen's which had been dispersed by the right wing and cavalry of the french near gilly, were drawn up in battle array to oppose him. this was a loss to the foe of possibly two thousand men, a serious weakening at a fateful moment. but the emperor was not yet ready to meet them, much as he had desired just such a contingency. he was not aware of the full strength of his enemy, but he was not sure of annihilating even those he believed to be in presence, for he had left ten thousand men at charleroi, under lobau, as a reserve, and the troops most available for strengthening his line were moving toward quatre bras. by the independent action of their own generals a substantial force of several thousand dutch-belgians, virtually the whole of perponcher's division, was concentrated at quatre bras early that same morning. to be sure, wellington had simultaneously determined on the same step, but it was taken long before his orders arrived. indeed, he seems to have reached quatre bras before his orderly. scarcely halting, he rapidly surveyed the situation and, leaving the troops in command of the prince of orange, rode away to visit blücher. the two commanders met at about one o'clock in the windmill of bry. they parted in the firm conviction that the mass of the french army was at ligny, and with the verbal understanding that wellington, if not himself attacked, would come to blücher's support. on leaving, the english commander sharply criticized the tactical disposition of his ally's army; but blücher, with the fixed idea that, in any case, the duke was coming to his aid, determined to stand as he was. with similar obstinacy, napoleon, still certain that what he had before him, although a great force, was only a screen for the retreat of the main army of the allies, now despatched an order (the second) for ney to combine reille, d'erlon, and kellermann in order to destroy whatever force was in opposition at quatre bras. this was at two. the french attack was opened at half-past two by gérard and vandamme; the resistance was such as to leave no doubt of the real prussian strength. this being clear, napoleon immediately wrote two despatches of the same tenor--one he sent to ney by an aide, and one to d'erlon by a subofficer of the guard.[ ] the former (the third for the same destination) urged ney to come for the sake of france; the other summoned d'erlon from ney's command to the emperor's own immediate assistance: "you will save france, and cover yourself with glory," were its closing words. this last order, the original of which has but lately been revealed, came nigh to ruining the whole day's work. before wellington could return to quatre bras, ney's force was engaged with the prince of orange, and before three o'clock a fierce conflict was raging at that place. d'erlon appears to have been in a frightful quandary as to his duty. he marched away toward st. amand and in his dilemma detached his best division, that of durutte, toward bry. neither superior nor subordinate did anything to the purpose. ney was without the support of an entire corps and did not therefore literally obey his orders. napoleon was unassisted by the wandering force and even confused by their unexpected appearance at a critical moment. they were mistaken at ligny for enemies; d'erlon's vacillation had so detained them. [footnote : for the text of the order to d'erlon and a full discussion of the whole subject, see houssaye, , p. .] blücher, who was determined to fight, come what would, had held in as long as his impatient temper permitted; but when no reinforcement from wellington appeared, he first fumed, and then about six gave his fatal orders to prepare for the offensive. the nature of the ground was such as necessarily to weaken his center by the initial movements. napoleon marked this at once, and summoned his guard in order to break through. for a moment the emperor hesitated; a mysterious force had appeared on the left; perhaps they were foes. but when once assured that they were d'erlon's men, he waited not an instant longer; at eight the crash came, and the prussian line was shattered. retreat was turned into a momentary rout so quickly that blücher could not even exchange his wounded horse for another, and in the first mad rush he was so stunned and overwhelmed that his staff gave him up for lost. the few moments before he was found were the most precious for the allies of the whole campaign, since gneisenau directed the flight northward on the line to wavre, a route parallel with that on which wellington, whatever his success, must now necessarily withdraw. this move, which abandoned the line to namur, is gneisenau's title to fame.[ ] the lines were quickly formed to carry it out, and the rest of the retrograde march went on with great steadiness. napoleon did not wait until d'erlon arrived and thereupon order an immediate, annihilating pursuit, but came to the conclusion that the prussians were sufficiently disorganized, and would seek to reorganize on the old line to the eastward. they were thus, he thought, completely and finally cut off from wellington. it was not until early next morning that he despatched pajol, with his single cavalry corps, to follow the foe, for he was confirmed in his fatal conjecture by the false report of five thousand prussians having been seen on the namur road, and exerting themselves to hold it. the prussians seen were merely a horde of stragglers. the truth was not known until next day. [footnote : long regarded as a more or less haphazard decision, it has been established at last that the officers of the prussian general staff were able by the light of a horn lantern so to exhibit their maps, explain their study of the ground, and develop the necessary strategy as to determine with considerable accuracy where they were and what the scientific move should be. when this was duly set forth in the history of the general staff, the exultation of the emperor william ii was expressed in his public speeches, and the germans of the empire were convinced that by this decision the result of the waterloo campaign was determined.] almost simultaneously with the battle of ligny was fought that of quatre bras. at eleven ney received orders outlining a general plan for the day; about half an hour later came the specific command to unite the forces of d'erlon, reille, and kellermann, and carry quatre bras; at five arrived in hot haste the messenger with the third order. at two o'clock there were not quite seven thousand anglo-belgians in quatre bras, but, successive bodies arriving in swift succession, by half-past six o'clock there were over thirty thousand. at two ney had seventeen thousand men, and though he sought to recall d'erlon, yet, owing to the withdrawal of durutte, and to d'erlon's indecision, he had at half-past six not more than twenty thousand. not one of d'erlon's men had reached him: girard's division of reille's corps was with vandamme before st. amand. gérard's corps had been kept at ligny. had he advanced on the position the previous evening, or had he attacked between eleven and two on the sixteenth, the event of the campaign might have been different from what it was. but if he really believed, as heymès afterward asseverated was the case, that his orders were merely to push and hold the enemy, then his conduct throughout was gallant and correct.[ ] the weight of evidence favors the claim of napoleon that the marshal was perverse in his refusal to take quatre bras according to verbal orders. whatever the truth, the behavior of ney's men was admirable when they did advance, but they were forced back to frasnes before superior numbers. [footnote : ropes: the campaign of waterloo, p. .] next morning wellington was conversing with colonel bowles when a staff officer drew up, his horse flecked with foam, and whispered the news of ligny. without a change of countenance, the commander said to his companion: "old blücher has had a ---- good licking, and gone back to wavre, eighteen miles. as he has gone back, we must go, too. i suppose in england they will say we have been licked. i can't help it; as they have gone back, we must go, too." accordingly, he issued his orders, and his army began to march at ten. on the whole, therefore, the events of june sixteenth seemed favorable to napoleon, since, fighting at two points with inferior numbers, he had been victorious at one, and had thereby secured the other also. we, of course, know that by gneisenau's move this apparent success was rendered nugatory. it is useless to surmise what would have happened had bülow been with blücher, and d'erlon and lobau with napoleon, or if either of these possibilities had happened without the other; as it was, napoleon's strategy gained both quatre bras and sombreffe. the prussians had lost twenty thousand men, missing, wounded, and dead, and it required vigorous treatment to restore blücher. but all night the army marched, and in the morning bülow, having found his direction, was near beauderet and sauvinières, within easy reach at gembloux. the retreat continued throughout the seventeenth. it was a move of the greatest daring, since the line was over a broken country almost destitute of roads, and, the old base of supplies having been abandoned, the men had to starve until gneisenau could secure another by way of louvain. the army bore its hardships well; there was no straggling or demoralization, and the splendor of success makes doubly brilliant the move which confounded napoleon's plans. never dreaming at first that his foe had withdrawn elsewhere than along his natural line of supply toward liège, the emperor considered the separation of the two allies as complete, and after carefully deliberating throughout the long interval he allowed for collecting his troops and giving them a thorough rest, he determined to wheel, join ney, and attack wellington, wherever found. it was serious and inexplicable slackness which he showed in not taking effective measures to determine immediately where his defeated enemy was. being, nevertheless, well aware of the prussian resources and character, he made up his mind to detail grouchy, with thirty-three thousand men, for the purpose of scouring the country toward liège at least as far as namur. then, to provide for what he considered a possible contingency,--namely, that which had actually occurred,--this adjunct army was to turn north, and hasten to gembloux, in order to assure absolutely the isolation of wellington; in any and every case the general was to keep his communications with napoleon open. it was eight in the morning of the seventeenth when napoleon issued from his quarters at fleurus. flahaut was waiting for the reply to an inquiry which he had just brought from ney concerning the details of ligny. the emperor at once dictated a despatch, the most famous in the controversial literature of waterloo, in which his own achievements were told and ney was blamed for the disconnected action of his subordinates the previous day; in particular the marshal was instructed to take position at quatre bras, "as you were ordered," and d'erlon was criticized for his failure to move on st. amand. the wording of the hastily scribbled order to the latter he had probably forgotten; it was: "portez-vous ... à la hauteur de ligny, et fondez sur st. amand--ou vice versa; c'est ce que je ne sais bien." ("betake yourself ... to the heights of ligny, pounce on st. amand--or the reverse; i am not quite sure which.") further, the emperor now declared that, had ney kept d'erlon and reille together, not an englishman would have escaped, and that, had d'erlon obeyed his orders, the prussian army would have been destroyed. in case it were still impossible to seize quatre bras with the force at hand, napoleon would himself move thither. then, entering a carriage, he drove to ligny; lobau was ordered at once to marbais, on the road to quatre bras. after haranguing the troops and prisoners, napoleon was informed, about noon, that wellington was still in position. at once a second order was sent, commanding ney to attack; the emperor, it ran, was already under way to marbais. this was not quite true, for while he was giving detailed instructions to grouchy before parting, that general had seemed uneasy, and had finally pleaded that it would be impossible further to disorganize the prussians, since they had so long a start. these scruples were peremptorily put down, and the chief parted amicably from his subordinate, but with a sense of uneasiness, lest he had left nice and difficult work in unwilling hands. scouts soon overtook him, and expressed doubt as to the prussians having gone to namur. in case they had not, grouchy must act cautiously. accordingly, positive instructions were then dictated to bertrand, and sent to grouchy, whose movements were now doubly important. the latter general was to reconnoiter toward namur, but march direct to gembloux; his chief task was to discover whether blücher was seeking to join wellington or not. for the rest, he was free to act on his own discretion. napoleon then entered his carriage, and drove to quatre bras. mounting his horse, he led the pursuit of the english rear. indignant that ney had lost the opportunity to overwhelm at least a portion of wellington's force, he exclaimed to d'erlon, "they have ruined france!" but he said nothing to ney himself. so active and energetic was the emperor that he actually exposed himself to the artillery fire with which the english gunners sought to retard the pursuit. it was not an easy matter for grouchy to carry out his instructions; at two o'clock began a steady downpour, which lasted well into the next morning; the roads to gembloux were lanes, and the rain turned them into sticky mud. not until that night was grouchy's command assembled at gembloux; it was ten o'clock before the leader gained an inkling of where the prussians were, and then, though uncertain as to their exact movements, he immediately despatched a letter, received by napoleon at two in the morning. the marshal explained that he would pursue as far as wavre, so as to cut off blücher from brussels, and to separate him from wellington. some hours later, about seven in the morning, when finally convinced that the prussians were retiring on wavre, grouchy set his columns in motion in a straight line toward that place by sart-à-walhain, choosing, with very poor judgment, to advance by the right bank of the dyle, and thus jeopardizing the precious connections he had been repeatedly and urgently instructed to keep open. chapter xvi the eve of waterloo[ ] [footnote : references for this and the following two chapters: houssaye: , waterloo; ussher: napoleon's last voyage; ropes: waterloo; bustelli: l'enigma di ligny e di waterloo; york: napoleon als feldherr; gardner: quatre bras, ligny, waterloo; gourgaud: la campagne de ; siborne: history of the war in france and belgium, ; cotton, a voice from waterloo; loben-sels: précis de la campagne dans les pays-bas.] wellington's choice of position -- state of the two armies -- the orders of napoleon to grouchy -- grouchy's interpretation of them -- napoleon surprised by the prussian movements -- his inactivity -- the battle-field -- wellington's position -- napoleon's battle array -- his personal health -- his plan. on the night of june seventeenth wellington's army reached the heights at mont st. jean, on the northern edge of what was destined to be the most talked of battle-field in modern times. his retreat, masked by a strong body of cavalry, with some horse-artillery and a single infantry division, had been slow and regular, being retarded somewhat by the heavy rain. ney had held his position at frasnes, well aware that what was before him was far more than a rear-guard--in fact, owing to the arrival of strong reinforcements during the night, it was the larger portion of the anglo-belgian army. but the instant the french marshal was informed of his enemy's retrograde movements he threw forward a strong force of cavalry to coöperate with napoleon. when reunited, the french army numbered seventy-one thousand five hundred men, with two hundred and forty guns, excluding of course, the whole of gérard's corps, which had been left at ligny to coöperate with grouchy. that wellington was far on his way to the defensive position chosen by himself was probably in accord with napoleon's calculations; his only fear was lest his foe should have withdrawn behind the forest of soignes, where free communication with blücher and the junction of the two allied armies would be assured, as would not be the case at mont st. jean. this anxiety was set at rest by a cavalry reconnaissance, and at dusk the french van bivouacked at belle alliance, separated by a broad, shallow vale from their foe. the rest of the army followed with great difficulty, some by the road; some through plowed or swampy fields, wading the swollen tributaries of the dyle, and floundering through the meadows on their banks. the army of wellington had seized, in passing, what provisions and forage they found, and they had camp-fires to comfort them in the steady rain. the french had scanty or no rations, and lay throughout the night in the grain-fields, without fire or shelter. all told, wellington had sixty-eight thousand men; ten miles on his right, at hal, lay eighteen thousand more; ten miles on his left, twelve from his headquarters at waterloo, was blücher. wellington, who had informed the prussian commander that unless support reached him he would fall back to brussels, at two o'clock in the morning had assurance of blücher's coöperation. there is an unsupported statement of napoleon's that he twice sent to grouchy on the night of the seventeenth, by two separate officers, a definite order to detach seven thousand men from his camp at wavre (where the emperor affected to believe that grouchy was), and make connection by st. lambert with the right of the main army. this would entirely cut off blücher from wellington. the motive of this statement is transparent--with the allies separated, they were outmanoeuvered; with the possibility of their union, and an understanding between them to that effect, he was himself outmanoeuvered. grouchy denied having received this order; neither of the officers intrusted with it ever revealed himself; the original of it has never been found; and in subsequent orders issued next day there is no mention of, or reference to, any such message. either the declaration, twice made at st. helena, was due to forgetfulness, being an account of intentions not carried out, or else it was put forward to explain the result of the campaign as due to his lieutenant's inefficiency. grouchy must have had an uneasy conscience, since for thirty years he suppressed the text of the bertrand order, which was not on the order-book because it had not been dictated to soult; and when, after falsely claiming for the duration of an entire generation that he had acted under verbal instructions, he did publish it, he gave, at the same time, a mutilated version of his own report from gembloux, sent on the night of the seventeenth, changing his original language so as to show that he had never looked upon the separation of the allies as his chief task, but that what was uppermost in his mind was an attack on the prussians. it was two in the morning of the eighteenth when the letter of grouchy, written about four hours earlier, arrived at napoleon's headquarters. both the emperor and soult knew by that time that the whole of blücher's army was moving to wavre; yet they did not give this information, nor any minute directions, to the returning messenger. grouchy, therefore, was left to act on his own discretion, his superior doubtless believing that the inferior would by that time himself be fully informed, and would hasten to throw himself, like an impenetrable wall, between the prussians and the anglo-belgian army. by the defenders of napoleon grouchy is severely criticized for not having marched early in the morning of the eighteenth to moustier, where, if energetic, he could have carried over his army to the left bank of the river by eleven o'clock, thus placing his force within the sphere of napoleon's operations. perhaps he would have been able to prevent the union of the opposing armies, or, if not that, to strengthen napoleon in his struggle. it is proved by marbot's memoirs that this is what napoleon expected. on the other hand, excellent critics present other very important considerations: the line to moustier was over a country so rough and miry that after a torrential rain the artillery would have been seriously delayed, and prussian scouts might well have brought down a strong prussian column in time to oppose the crossing there or elsewhere. grouchy, moreover, could not know that wellington would offer battle in front of the forest of soignes--a resolution which, in the opinion of napoleon and many lesser experts, was a serious blunder. he appears to have been positive that the two armies were aiming to combine for the defense of brussels; finally, when from walhain the sound of the firing at waterloo was distinctly heard, and gérard fiercely urged an immediate march toward the field of battle, grouchy was acting strictly within the limits of the bertrand order, and according to what he then held to be explicit instructions, when he pressed on to concentrate at wavre, and thus, if napoleon had already defeated wellington, to prevent any union between wellington and the prussian army. it is almost certain that grouchy would in no way have changed the event by marching direct to mont st. jean, for the cross-roads were soaked, his troops were already exhausted, and the distance was approximately fourteen and a half miles as the crow flies: the previous day he had been able to make somewhat less than half that distance in nine hours. napoleon himself did not apparently expect the prussians to rally as they did. he spent the hours from dawn, when the rain ceased, in careful reconnoitering. the mud was so thick in places that he required help to draw his feet out of his own tracks. at breakfast, according to a contemporary anecdote, he expressed himself as having never been more favored by fortune; and when reminded that blücher might effect a union with the english, he replied that the prussians would need three days to form again. this opinion is in accord with his exaggerated but reiterated estimates of the disaster produced in blücher's ranks after ligny, and taken in connection with the difficulty of moving artillery, which is not a sufficient explanation in itself, affords the only conceivable reason for his delay in attacking on the eighteenth. it also explains his remissness in leaving grouchy to exercise full discretion as to his movements. at eight the plan of battle was sketched; at nine the orders for the day were despatched throughout the lines; about ten the weary but self-confident emperor threw himself down and slept for an hour; at eleven he mounted, and rode by the brussels highway to the farm of belle alliance. it was probably during the emperor's nap that soult forwarded to grouchy a despatch, marked ten in the morning, instructing that general to manoeuver toward the main army by way of wavre. although, according to marbot, napoleon expected grouchy in the afternoon by way of moustier, at one o'clock a second despatch, of which the emperor certainly had cognizance, was forwarded to grouchy, expressing approval of his intention to move on wavre by sart-à-walhain, but instructing him "always to manoeuver in our direction." the postscript of this second order enjoins haste, since it was thought bülow was already on the heights of st. lambert. the one central idea of napoleon and soult was clearly to leave a wide discretion for grouchy, provided always that he kept his communications with the main army open, and that his general direction was one which would insure easy connection, in order either to cut off or check the prussians. but, however this may be, the hours of napoleon's inactivity were precious to his enemies; by twelve bülow was at st. lambert, and at the same hour two other prussian corps were leaving wavre. these movements were apparently tardy, but gneisenau, feeling that wellington had been a poor reliance at ligny, and very much doubting whether he really intended to stand at waterloo, was unwilling that blücher should despatch his troops until it was certain that the prussian army would not again be left in the lurch. should the anglo-dutch retreat to brussels, the prussians must either retreat by louvain, or be again defeated. anxiety was not dispelled until the roar of cannon was heard between eleven and twelve. then the prussians first exerted themselves to the utmost; it was about four when they were within striking distance, ready to take napoleon's army on its flank. when grouchy reached wavre, at the same hour, he found there but one of blücher's corps, the rear under thielemann. [illustration: campaign of . june th to th.] from belle alliance napoleon returned, and took his station on the height of rossomme. in front was a vale something less than a mile in width. the highway stretched before him in a straight line until it skirted the large farmstead of la haye sainte on the opposite side; then, ascending by a slant to the first crest, it passed the hamlet of mont st. jean, only to ascend still higher to the top of the ridge before falling again into a second depression. at mont st. jean was wellington's center. the road from nivelles to brussels crosses the valley about a quarter of a mile westward, and on it, midway between the two slopes, lay another farm-house, with its barns, that of hougomont. more than half a mile eastward, in the direction from which the prussians were expected, lay scattered the farm buildings of papelotte, la haye, smohain, and frischermont. the valley was covered with rich crops. unobstructed by ditches or hedges, it was cut longitudinally about the middle by a cruciform ridge, with spurs reaching toward belle alliance on one side, and past hougomont on the other; the road passed by a cut through the longitudinal arm. hougomont was almost a fortress, having strong brick walls and a moat; it stood in a large orchard, which was surrounded by a thick hedge. the house at la haye sainte was brick also, and formed one side of a quadrangle, inclosed further by two brick barns and a strong wall of the same material; though not as large or solid as hougomont, it was a strong advance redoubt for mont st. jean. the right and center of wellington were thus well protected, the left was admirably screened by the places already enumerated. his army was deployed in three lines, the front plainly visible to the french, the second partly concealed by the crest of the hill, and the third entirely so. his headquarters were two miles north, at waterloo; his lines of retreat, though broken by the forest of soignes, were open either toward wavre or toward the sea. the latter line was well protected by the troops at hal. uneasy about the character of his dutch-belgian troops, the duke had carefully disposed them among the reliable english and germans, in order to preclude the possibility of a panic. in the foreground of napoleon's position was the french army, also deployed in three lines. the front, extending from the mansion of frischermont to the nivelles road, consisted of two infantry corps, one on each side of belle alliance, and of two corps of cavalry, one on the extreme right wing, one on the left; of this line ney had command. the second was shorter, its wings being cavalry, and its center in two divisions, of cavalry and infantry respectively. the third, or reserve, was the guard. each of the lines had its due proportion of artillery, stationed in all three along the road. this disposition gave the french array, as seen from beyond, a fan-like appearance, the sticks, or columns, converging toward the rear. the array was brilliant; every man and horse was in sight; the number was superior by about four thousand to that of the enemy; the ground was, by eleven, almost dry enough to secure the fullest advantage from superiority in artillery; deserters from the foe came in from time to time. surely the moral effect of such a scene upon the somewhat motley throng across the valley must be very powerful. yet the road to charleroi was the single available line of retreat, and it passed through a deep cut; the soldiers were tired and not really first-rate, fifty per cent. of the line being recruits, and nearly a quarter of the guard untrained men; the tried officers had all been promoted, and those who replaced them needed such careful watching that deep formations had been adopted, and these must not merely diminish the volume of fire, but present vulnerable targets; the cavalry had been hastily gathered, and was far from being as efficient as the british veterans of the german legion. for some moments after reaching his position napoleon stood impassive. he was clad in his familiar costume of cocked hat and gray surtout. throughout his lines he had been received with enthusiasm, and his presence was clearly magnetic, as of old. the direction of affairs in this momentous crisis was his, and he dreamed of two implacable enemies routed, of appeasing the two who were less directly interested, of glory won, of empire regained. reason must have told him how empty was such a vision; for, since the armistice of poischwitz, austria and russia had been quite as bitter, and more tortuous, than the other powers. his expression mirrored pain, both physical and intellectual; his over-confidence and consequent delay were signs of degenerate power; his exertions for three days past had been beyond any human strength, especially when the faculties of body and mind had previously been harassed for more than two months, as his had been. it was the first day of the week, but there was a calm more profound than that of the sabbath; the sky was dull, the misty air was heavy with summer heat; but there was the expectant silence of a great host, the deep determination of two grim and obstinate armies. wellington, with his western lines protected, would be safe when the prussian army should appear where he knew its van already was, and he must manoeuver eastward to keep in touch. napoleon must crush the british center and left, and roll up the line to its right, in order to separate the parts of his dual foe. to this end he had determined to make a feint against hougomont; should wellington throw in his reserves at that point on his right, one strong push might create confusion among the rest, and hurl the whole force westward, away from brussels. it was a simple plan, great in its simplicity, as had been every strategic conception of napoleon from the opening of the campaign. but its execution was like that of every other movement attempted since the first great march of concentration--tardy, slack, and feeble. personal bravery was abundant among the french, but the orderly coöperation of regiment, division, and corps in all the arms, the courage of self-restraint, and the self-sacrifice of individuals in organized movement, with the invigorating ubiquity of a master mind--these were lacking from the first. chapter xvii waterloo[ ] [footnote : further references for this and the following chapter: batty: historical sketch; baudus: Études sur napoléon; bullock: diary; cotton: voice from waterloo; damitz: campagne de ; a. s. fraser: letters; w. fraser: words, etc.; gomm: letters and journals; kennedy: notes on waterloo; vaulabelle: campagne de waterloo; gurwood: wellington's despatches; likewise the lives and memoirs of davout, drouot, gneisenau, wellington, hill, grouchy (par pascallet), and vandamme; waterloo letters, edited by siborne; waterloo roll-call, compiled by dalton.] hougomont -- la haye sainte -- d'erlon repulsed -- ney's cavalry attack -- napoleon's one chance lost -- plancenoit -- union of wellington and blücher -- napoleon's convulsive effort -- charge of the guard -- the rout -- napoleon's flight. napoleon's salute to wellington was a cannonade from a hundred and twenty guns. the fire was directed toward the enemy's center and left, but it was ineffectual, except as the smoke partially masked the first french movement, which was the attack on hougomont by their left, the corps of reille. this was in three divisions, commanded respectively by bachelu, foy, and the emperor's brother jerome, whose director was guillemenot. preceded by skirmishers, the column of jerome gained partial shelter in a wood to the southwest of their goal, but the resistance to their advance was vigorous; on the skirts of the grove were nassauers, hanoverians, and a detachment of the english guards, all picked men, and behind, on higher ground, was an english battery. the two other divisions pressed on behind, and for a time their gains were apparently substantial. but, checked in front by artillery fire, and by a murderous fusillade from loopholes cut in the walls of hougomont, the besiegers hesitated. their fiery energy was not scientifically directed; but such was their zeal, and so great were their numbers, that one brigade doubled on the rear of the fortalice, drove back the english guards from before the entrance to the courtyard on the north, and charged for the opening. some of the french actually forced a passage, and the success of napoleon's first move was in sight when five gallant englishmen, by sheer physical strength, shut the stout gate in the face of the assailants. a fearless french grenadier scaled the wall, but he and his comrades within were killed. a second assault on the same spot failed; so, too, a third from the west, and still another from the east, all of which were repelled by the english guards, who moved down from above, and drove the french into the wood, where they held their own. these close and bloody encounters were contrary to reille's orders, but in the thick of combat his various detachments could not be restrained. [illustration: from the collection of w. c. crane napoleon francis charles joseph, duke of reichstadt, etc., etc., son of napoleon bonaparte.] the second division of the battle was the main attack on wellington's left by d'erlon's corps. between twelve and one a prussian hussar was captured with a message from blücher to wellington announcing the prussian advance. at once the postscript was added to the second despatch to grouchy, already mentioned, and napoleon made ready for his great effort. unable to sit his horse, he had dismounted, and, seated at the table on which his map was spread, had been frequently seen to nod and doze. ney and d'erlon, left to their own judgment, had evolved a scheme of formation so complex that when tried, as it now was, it proved unworkable. the confusion was veiled by a terrific, continuous, and destructive artillery fire. after some delay, and a readjustment involving preparations against the possible flank attack of the prussians, d'erlon's corps advanced in four columns, under donzelot, allix, marcognet, and durutte respectively. opposed was picton's decimated corps, with bylandt's dutch-belgian brigade, which had been all along a target for the strongest french battery, one of seventy-eight guns,[ ] and was now to bear the first onset of the french troops. bylandt's men had stood firm under the awful artillery fire, but their uniforms were like those of the french, and in a mêlée this fact might draw upon them the fire of their own associates, as later in the day at hougomont it actually did, and they grew very uneasy. durutte, on the extreme right, seized papelotte, but lost it almost immediately. the conflict then focused about la haye sainte, where the garden and orchard were seized by an overwhelming force. the buildings had been inadequately fortified, but major baring, with his garrison, displayed prodigies of valor, and held them. [footnote : houssaye says eighty ( , p. ). see also ropes, p. .] the assailants, supported hitherto by batteries firing over their heads, now charged up the hill; as they reached the crest, their own guns were silenced, but their yells of defiance rent the air. the dutch-belgians of the first rank harkened an instant, and, followed by the jeers and menaces of the british grenadiers and royal scots, fled incontinently until they reached a place of safety, when they reformed and stood. picton was thus left unsupported, but at that decisive moment donzelot tried the new tactics again, and his ranks fell into momentary confusion. picton charged, the british artillery opened, and though the english general fell, mortally wounded, his men hurled back the french. this first success enabled wellington to bring in more of his infantry, with the scots greys, and to throw in his cavalry, the first royal dragoons and the enniskillens, for action against a body of french riders, under roussel, which, having swept the fields around la haye sainte, was now coming on. his order was for somerset and ponsonby to charge. the shock was terrific, the french cavalry yielded, and the whole of d'erlon's line rolled back in disorder. efforts were made by the daring englishmen to create complete confusion, but they were not entirely successful, for durutte's column maintained its formation, while the french lancers and dragoons wrought fearful havoc among the british infantry somewhat disorganized by victory. ponsonby fell among his men, and it was due to vandeleur's horse that the french advance was checked. this ended the effort upon which napoleon had based his hope of success; there was still desultory fighting at hougomont, and the prussians, though not visible, were forming behind the forest of paris. there was a long and ominous pause before the next renewal of conflict. wellington used it to repair his shattered left and brought in lambert's peninsular veterans, twenty-two hundred strong. napoleon quickly formed a corps, under lobau, intended to repel the flank attack of the prussians. ney was determined to redeem his repulse by a second front attack, and napoleon, either by word or silence, gave consent. while the batteries kept up their fire, the marshal gathered in the center the largest mass of horsemen which had ever charged on a european battle-field--twelve thousand men, light and heavy cavalry. his aim was to supplement reille, still engaged at hougomont, and dash in upon the allied right center. donzelot's column, now reformed, was hurled directly against la haye sainte, and the mass of the cavalry surged up the hill. the gunners of wellington's artillery, unprotected even by breastworks, stood to their pieces until the attacking line was within forty yards; then they delivered their final salvo, and fled. wavering for an instant, the french advanced with a cheer. before them stood the enemy in hollow squares, four ranks deep, the front kneeling, the second at the charge, the two others ready to fire. the horsemen dared not rush on those bristling lines. in and out among the serried ranks they flowed and foamed, discharging their pistols and slashing with their sabers, until, discouraged by losses and exhausted by useless exertion, their efforts grew feeble. dubois's brigade, according to a doubtful tradition, dashed in ignorance over the brow of a certain shallow ravine, men and horses rolling in horrid confusion into the unsuspected pit. the hollow was undoubtedly there at the time, although it has since been filled up, and, it is believed, was likewise the grave of the fifteen hundred men and two thousand horses that were eventually collected from round about. the british reserve cavalry, supported by the infantry fire and a few hastily collected batteries, completed the defeat of ney's first charge. a second was repulsed in the same way. the undaunted marshal then waited for reinforcements. no fewer than thirty-seven squadrons came in, napoleon sending kellermann's heavy dragoons as a last resort. guyot's division of the heavy cavalry of the guard was also there--some say they had been summoned by ney, others that they came of their own accord; the question arises because, in the next stage of the battle, their absence from the station assigned to them was a serious matter. another time, and still another, this mighty force moved against the foe. pouring in and out, backward and forward, among the squares, they lost cohesion and force until, in the very moment of wellington's extremity, they withdrew, as before, exhausted and spent. the energy and zeal of the english commander had been in strange contrast to napoleon's growing apathy; wellington had further strengthened his line by two brunswick regiments and mercer's battery, and at the last by adam's brigade with the king's germans under dupont. this done, his stand had been superb to the last. yet he was now at the end of his resources. it was six, and to his repeated messages calling for blücher's aid there had been no response. although a portion of bülow's men had been fighting for more than an hour, yet the prussian army was not yet fully engaged and he himself, having no reinforcement nor relief, seemed face to face with defeat. baring had held la haye sainte with unsurpassed gallantry; his calls for men had been answered, but his requisitions for ammunition were strangely neglected. ney, seeing how vain his cavalry charges were, withdrew before the last one took place, arrayed bachelu's division, collected a number of field-pieces, and fell furiously, with cannonade and bayonet charge, upon the farm-house. his success was complete; the garrison fled, his pursuit was hot, and, leading in person, he broke through the opposing line at its very heart. had he been supported by a strong reserve, the battle would have been won. müffling, wellington's prussian aide, dashed away to the prussian lines, and, as he drew near the head of ziethen's division, shouted: "the battle is lost if the corps do not press on and at once support the english army." ney's adjutant, demanding infantry to complete the breach he had made, was received by napoleon with petulance. one brigade from bülow's corps had attacked at about half-past four; repulsed at first, their onset was growing fiercer, for two other brigades had come in. soult had opposed ney's waste of cavalry. but the latter was desperate, and with the other generals was displaying a wilfulness bordering on insubordination. a portion of the guard had just been detached for lobau's support. to ney's demand for infantry the emperor replied: "where do you expect me to get them from? am i to make them?" in truth, his mind and energies were now more concerned with blücher than with wellington, and he was already fighting the advance of bülow in his plans. but had the old bonaparte spirit moved the chieftain to put himself at the head of what remained of the guard infantry, and to make a desperate dash for ney's support, a temporary advantage would almost certainly have been won; then, with a remnant flushed by victory, he could have turned to lobau's assistance before the main prussian army came in. thus was lost napoleon's one chance to deal wellington a decisive blow. it was to prevent a dangerous flank movement of the enemy--the advance, namely, of bülow, with the cavalry corps of prince william, upon plancenoit--that napoleon had detached the young guard, under duhesme, a third of his precious reserve, for the support of lobau's right; durutte being in the rear of his left, that portion was already as strong as it could be made. nevertheless the prussians seized plancenoit; at once the french rallied, and drove them out; blücher threw in eight fresh battalions, and these, with the six already engaged, dashed for the ravine leading to the village. the passage was lined with french, and for a time it was like the valley of hinnom; but the prussians pressed on, and the young guard reeled. napoleon sent in two battalions of the old guard, under morand and pelet; their firmness restored that of their comrades, and the place was cleared, two thousand dead remaining as the victims of that furious charge and countercharge. at seven bülow was back again in his first position, awaiting the arrival of pirch's corps to restore his riddled ranks. napoleon had now left only twelve of the twenty-three battalions of the guard reserve, less than six thousand men. wellington had repaired the breach made by ney, and, though still hard pressed on his right, ziethen had made good the strength of his left, whence some of his cavalry, the brigades of vivian and vandeleur, had been detached to repair other weak spots in the line. at this moment ziethen conceived that bülow was further giving way, and hesitated in his advance. the brief interval was noted by durutte, and with a last desperate effort he carried papelotte, la haye, and smohain, hoping to prevent the fatal juncture. it was half an hour before ziethen retrieved his loss, and thus probably saved wellington's left. by that time pirch had come up, and with this reinforcement bülow, behind the heavy fire of his powerful batteries, charged lobau, and advanced on the guard at plancenoit. lobau, the hero of aspern, stood like a rock until durutte's men and the remnants of d'erlon's corps, flying past his flank, induced a panic in his ranks. thereupon the whole french right fell into confusion: all except the guard, who stood in the churchyard of plancenoit until surrounded and reduced in number to about two hundred and fifty men; then, under pelet's command, they formed a square, placed their eagle in the midst, drove off the cavalry which blocked their path, and reached the main line of retreat with scarcely enough men to keep their formation. the name of ziethen must stand in equal renown with that of colborne among the annals of waterloo. the rout of the french left was the beginning of napoleon's calamity, as that of his right under colborne was its consummation. before the combined armies of wellington and blücher the french could not stand; but, in spite of inferior numbers and the manifest signs of defeat, general bonaparte might have conducted an orderly retreat. the case was different with napoleon the emperor, even though he were now a liberator; to retreat would have been merely a postponement of the day of reckoning. accordingly, the great adventurer, facing his destiny on the height at rossomme, determined, in a last desperate effort, to retrieve the day, and stake all on a last cast of the dice. for an instant he appears to have contemplated a change of front, wheeling for that purpose by hougomont, where his resistance was still strong; but he finally decided to crush the anglo-belgian right, if possible; roll up both armies into a confused mass, so that, perchance, they might weaken rather than strengthen each other; and then, with grouchy's aid, strike for victory. though indifferent to ney's demands, he had set in array against bülow the very choicest troops of his army; surely they might stand firm while his blow elsewhere was delivered. but he did not reckon in this with wellington's reserve power; though the dramatic stories of the duke's mortal anxiety rest on slight foundation, there is no doubt that he felt a great relief when the prussians entered the combat, for immediately he turned his attention, not to rest, but to the reforming of his line. officers and men, english or german, knew nothing of bülow's or blücher's whereabouts when napoleon took his resolution; but, sensible of having been strengthened, they displayed at half-past seven that evening the same grim determination they had shown at eleven in the morning. though wellington's task of standing firm until blücher's arrival was accomplished, and though, perhaps, his soldiers heard the distant firing of the prussian guns, yet nothing could be seen across the long interval, the noise attracted little attention, and neither he nor they could know what was yet before them. it was, therefore, splendid courage in general and army which kept them ever ready for any exertion, however desperate. against this army, in this temper, napoleon despatched what was left of that force which was the peculiar product of his life and genius, the old and middle guard. most of its members were the children of peasants, and had been born in ante-revolution days. neither intelligent in appearance nor graceful in bearing, they nevertheless had the look of perfect fighting-machines. their huge bearskin caps and long mustaches did not diminish the fierceness of their aspect. they had been selected for size, docility, and strength; they had been well paid, well fed, and well drilled; they had, therefore, no ties but those to their emperor, no homes but their barracks, and no enthusiasm but their passion for imperial france. they would have followed no leader unless he were distinguished in their system of life; accordingly, ney was selected for that honor; and as they came in proud confidence up the charleroi road, their emperor passed them in review. like every other division, they had been told that the distant roar was from grouchy's guns; when informed that all was ready for the finishing-stroke, that there was to be a general advance along the whole line, and that no man was to be denied his share in certain victory, even the sick, it is said, rose up, and hurried into the ranks. the air seemed rent with their hoarse cheers as their columns swung in measured tread diagonally across the northern spur of the cruciform elevation which divided the surface of the valley. wellington, informed of the french movement, as it is thought by a deserter, issued hurried orders to the center, ordered maitland's brigade to where the charge must be met, and posted himself, with napier's battery, somewhat to its right. while yet his words of warning were scarcely uttered, the head of the french column appeared. the english batteries belched forth a welcome; but although ney's horse, the fifth that day, was shot, the men he led suffered little, and with him on foot at their side they came steadily onward. the british guards were lying behind the hill-crest, and the french could discern no foe--only a few mounted officers, of whom wellington was one. astonished and incredulous, the assailants pressed steadily on until within twenty yards of the english line. "up, guards! make ready!" rang out the duke's well-known call. the british jumped up and fired; about three hundred of ney's gallant soldiers fell. but there was no confusion; on both sides volley succeeded volley, and this lasted until the british charged. then, and then only, the french withdrew. simultaneously donzelot had fallen upon alten's division; but he was leading a forlorn hope, and making no impression. as ney fell back, a body of french cuirassiers advanced upon the english batteries. their success was partial, and behind them a second column of the guard was formed. again the assault was renewed; but the second attempt fared worse than the first. to the right of maitland, adam's brigade, with the fifty-second regiment, had taken stand; wheeling now, these drove a deadly flank fire into the advancing french, while the others poured in a devastating hail of bullets from the front. the front ranks of the french replied with spirit, but when the british had completed their manoeuver, colborne gave the order, his men cheered in response, and the countercharge began. "vive l'empereur!" came the responsive cheer from the thinning ranks of the assailants, and still they came on. but in the awful crash they reeled, confusion followed, and almost in the twinkling of an eye the rout began. a division of the old guard, the two battalions under cambronne, retreated in fair order to the center of the valley, where they made their last gallant stand against the overwhelming numbers of hugh halkett's german brigade. they fought until but a hundred and fifty survived. from far away the despairing cry of "sauve qui peut!" seemed to ring on their ears. to the first summons of surrender the leader had replied with dogged defiance; the second was made soon after, about three in the afternoon, and to this he yielded. he and his men filed to the english rear without a murmur, but in deep dejection. this occurrence has passed into tradition as an epic event; what cambronne might well have said, "the guard dies, but never surrenders," was not uttered by him, but it epitomizes their character, and in the phrase which seems to have been shouted by the men themselves in their last desperate struggle, they and their leader have found immortality. the last charge of what remained of the guard took place almost at the moment when durutte was finally routed. wellington then sent in the fresh cavalry brigades of vivian and vandeleur against the column of donzelot and the remnants of the french cavalry. these swept all before them, and then the duke gave the order for a general advance. the french left fell into panic, and fled toward belle alliance. before la haye sainte stood two squares of french soldiers, the favored legion chosen to protect the imperial headquarters. in the fatal hour it splendidly vindicated the choice, and amid the chaos stood in perfect order. throughout the famous charge of his devoted men napoleon rode hither and thither, from rossomme to belle alliance. his looks grew dark, but at the very last he called hoarsely to the masses of disorganized troops that came whirling by, bidding them to stand fast. all in vain; and as the last square came on he pressed inside its serried wall. it was not too soon, for the prussians had now joined the forward movement, and in the supreme disorder consequent the other square dissolved. napoleon's convoy withstood the shock of a charge from the twelfth british light dragoons, and again of a prussian charge at rossomme, where gneisenau took up the fierce pursuit. though assaulted, and hard beset by musketry, the square moved silently on. there were no words except an occasional remark addressed by napoleon to his brother jerome, or to one of the officers. at eleven genappe was reached; there, such was the activity of the pursuers, all hope of an orderly retreat vanished, and the square melted away. napoleon had become an object of pity--his eyes set, his frame collapsed, his great head rolling in a drowsy stupor. monthyon and bertrand set him as best they could upon a horse, and, one on each side, supported him as they rode. they had an escort of forty men. at quatre bras they despatched a messenger to summon grouchy, bidding him to retire on namur. the prussians were only one hour behind. at daybreak the hunted emperor reached charleroi, but his attendants dared not delay; two rickety carriages were secured, and it was not until the wretched caravan reached philippeville that the fugitives obtained a few hours' repose. chapter xviii the surrender[ ] [footnote : references: ernouf: histoire de la dernière capitulation de paris, . rédigée sur des documents officiels et inédits. houssaye: , la seconde abdication. la terreur blanche.] nature of napoleon's defeat -- its political consequences -- napoleon's fatal resolution -- the state of paris -- napoleon at the Élysée -- his departure for rochefort -- thoughts of return -- procrastination -- wild schemes of flight -- a refuge in england -- his only resource -- the white terror and the allies. the battle of waterloo is so called because wellington's despatch to england was dated from his headquarters at that place. the world-wide celebrity of the fight was due to the failure of a tremendous cause and the extinction of a tremendous genius. that genius had been so colossal as to confuse human judgment. even yet mankind forgets that its possessor was a finite being and attributes his fall to any cause except the true one. western europe had paid dearly for the education, but it had been educated, learning his novel and original methods in both war and diplomacy. we have followed the gradual decline of the master's ability, physical, mental, and moral; we have noted the rise of the forces opposed to him, military, diplomatic, and national. waterloo is a name of the highest import because it marks the final collapse of personal genius, the beginning of reaction toward an order old in name but new in spirit. waterloo was not great by reason of the numbers engaged, for on the side of the allies were about a hundred and thirty thousand men, on the other seventy-two thousand approximately; nor was there any special brilliancy in its conduct. wellington defended a strong position well and carefully selected. but he wilfully left himself with inferior numbers; he did not heartily coöperate with blücher; both were unready; gneisenau was suspicious; and the battle of ligny was a prussian blunder. napoleon committed, between dawn and dusk of june eighteenth, a series of petty mistakes, each of which can be explained, but not excused. he began too late; he did not follow up his assaults; he did not retreat when beaten; he could attend to only one thing at a time; he failed in control of his subordinates; he was neither calm nor alert. his return from elba had made him the idol of the majority in france, but his conduct throughout the hundred days was that of a broken man. his genius seemed bright at the opening of his last campaign, but every day saw the day's task delayed. his great lieutenants grew uneasy and untrustworthy, though, like his patient, enduring, and gallant men, they displayed prodigies of personal valor. ney and grouchy used their discretion, but it was the discretion of caution most unlike that of desaix at marengo, or of ney himself at eylau. their ignorance cannot be condoned; grouchy's decision at walhain, though justified in a measure by soult's later order, was possibly the immediate cause of final disaster. but such considerations do not excuse napoleon's failure to give explicit orders, nor his nervous interference with ney's formation before quatre bras, nor his deliberate iterations during his captivity that he had expected grouchy throughout the battle. moreover, the interest of waterloo is connected with its immediate and dramatic consequences rather than with its decisive character. if napoleon had won on that day, the allies would have been far from annihilation; both wellington and blücher had kept open their respective lines of retreat. the national uprising of europe would have been more determined than ever; would have been but a repetition of . finally, the losses, though terrible, were not unparalleled. grouchy won at wavre, and, hearing of the disaster at mont st. jean, first contemplated falling on the prussian rear as they swept onward in pursuit. but he quickly abandoned this chimerical idea, and on receipt of napoleon's order from quatre bras, withdrew to namur, and thence, by a masterly retreat, conducted his army back into france. including those who fell at wavre, the allies lost about twenty-two thousand five hundred men, of whom seven thousand were british and a like number prussians. the records at paris are very imperfect, but they indicate that the french losses were about thirty-one thousand. the booty captured after waterloo was unimportant; but the political spoils were immense, and they belonged to the prussians. their high expectation of seizing napoleon's person was disappointed; but the one great result--the realization, namely, of all the tyrannical plans formed at vienna for the humiliation of liberal france--that they secured by their instant, hot pursuit. it is hard to discern the facts in the dust of controversy. prussia, austria, russia, and great britain have each the national conviction of having laid the corsican specter; france has long been busy explaining the facts of her defeat, but seems to have at last completed the task; the most conspicuous monument on the battle-field is that to the dutch-belgians! napoleon was fully aware that at waterloo he had made the last cast of the dice and that he had lost. it cannot be proven, but the charge is made, that far earlier he had ceased to reckon with facts and had begun to juggle with unrealities. the return from elba has all the elements of romance, but events proved that it was based on a sound judgment. had the allied powers been willing to give france the privilege of choosing her own government, which in spite of all that had occurred was hers by every principle known to international law, europe would have enjoyed some years of repose, at any rate; considering napoleon's shattered health and premature old age, france might for a long period have ceased to be a disturber of the public peace, working out then as now, perhaps in equal tribulation, the enduring principles of the revolution; forty years of turmoil might have been spared to the continent and the gory floods poured on the ground at quatre bras, ligny, and waterloo might have coursed unmolested in the veins of the innocent men from which they welled out. the responsibility for all the blood which was shed after the first treaty of paris must be shared with napoleon by dynastic europe, in particular by the diplomatists who represented the hate of russia, austria, and prussia and suffered it to find an outlet in a war of revenge; a portion too belongs to the factious bitterness which reigned supreme in the various french parties, awakening civil strife and endangering french nationality. from first to last there had been little consistency or continuity in napoleon's character--it is by no means certain that he might not well have played, and perhaps magisterially, the rôle of a national ruler; it is of course also possible that he might have remained the same untamed, cosmopolitan adventurer to the end. in view of the political history of france during the hundred days, the former is more probable. but after waterloo he was clearly aware that he could no longer be either the one or the other. it was not to be expected that every instinct would disappear at once, that he would resign himself to obscurity without an effort. after a short rest at philippeville, napoleon composed the customary bulletins concerning his campaign, and despatched them to the capital, together with a letter counseling joseph to stand firm and keep the legislature in hand. if grouchy had escaped, he wrote, he could already array fifty thousand men on the spot; with the means at hand, he could soon organize a hundred and fifty thousand; the troops in regimental depots, together with the national guard, would raise the number to three hundred thousand. these representations were based on a habit of mind, and not on genuine conviction. he believed grouchy's force to have been annihilated, and though he paused at laon as if to reorganize an army, he went through the form of consulting such officers as he could collect, and then, under their advice, pressed on to paris. the officers urged that the army and the majority of the people were loyal, but that the aristocracy, the royalists, and the liberal deputies were utterly untrustworthy. "my real place is here," was the response. "i shall go to paris, but you drive me to a foolish course." this was the voice of reason, but he obeyed the behest of inclination. yet he halted at the threshold, and, entering the city on the night of june twenty-first, made no public announcement of his presence. on the contrary, he almost slunk into the silent halls of the Élysée, where a sleepy attendant or two received the unexpected guest without realizing what had happened. he must have felt that the moral effect of waterloo had been his undoing; unlike any other of his defeats, it had not ruined him as general alone, nor as ruler alone: his prestige as both monarch and soldier was gone. the news of ligny had been received in the city with jubilations; at the instant of napoleon's arrival the truth about mont st. jean was passing all too swiftly on the thousand tongues of rumor from quarter to quarter throughout the town, creating consternation everywhere. early in the morning, davout, fully aware of public sentiment, and true to his instincts, advised the shrinking emperor to prorogue the chambers, and throw himself on the army; carnot believed the public safety required a dictatorship, and urged it; lucien was strongly of the same opinion. but the old napoleon was no more; vacillating almost as if in partial catalepsy, murmuring empty phrases in quick, indistinct utterance, he refused to decide. members of the council began to gain admittance, and, waxing bolder as napoleon grew more silent, the word "abdication" was soon on every tongue. at last a decision was taken, and such a one! lucien was sent to parley with the chambers, and fouché was summoned. the latter, with insidious eloquence, argued that in the legislature alone could napoleon find a support to his throne. the talk was reported, as if by magic, in the assembly halls, and lafayette, supported by constant, put through a motion that any attempt to dissolve the chambers would be considered treason. lucien pleaded in vain for a commission to treat with the invaders in his brother's name; the deputies appointed a committee of public safety, and adjourned. broken in spirit, napoleon spent the evening in moody speculation, weighing and balancing, but never deciding. should he appear at dawn before the tuileries, summon the troops already in paris, and prorogue the hated chambers, or should he not? the notion remained a dream. early in june the court apothecary, cadet de gassicourt, had been ordered by the emperor to prepare an infallible poison. this was done, and during this night of terrible vacillation the dose was swallowed by the desperate fugitive. but, as before at fontainebleau, the theory of the philosopher was weaker than his instincts. in dreadful physical and mental agony, the would-be suicide summoned his pharmacist, and was furnished with the necessary antidotes. but the morning brought no courage, and when the chambers met at their accustomed hour, on the motion of an obscure member they demanded the emperor's abdication. the message was borne by the military commander of the palais bourbon, where the legislature, which had now usurped the supreme power, was sitting, and he asserted of his own motion that, if compliance were refused, the chambers would declare napoleon outlawed. the emperor at first made a show of fierce wrath, but in the afternoon he dictated his final abdication to lucien. no sooner was this paper received than the wild excitement of the deputies and peers subsided, and at once a new directory, consisting of carnot, fouché, caulaincourt, and quinette, took up the reins of government. the city acquiesced, and hour after hour nothing interrupted the deep seclusion of the Élysée, except occasional shouts from passing groups of working-men, calling for napoleon as dictator. but there was a change as the stragglers from waterloo began to arrive, vowing that they still had an arm for the emperor, and denouncing those whom they believed to have betrayed him. the notion of sustaining napoleon by force began to spread, and when the soldiers who were coming in, after suppressing the insurrection in vendée, added their voices to those of their comrades from waterloo, the new authorities feared napoleon's presence as a menace to their power. davout had been the first to suggest an appeal to force, but when napoleon recurred at last to the idea, the marshal opposed it. on june twenty-fifth, therefore, the fallen man withdrew to malmaison; where, in the society of queen hortense and a few faithful friends, during three days he abandoned himself for long intervals to the sad memories of the place. but he also wrote a farewell address to the army, and, in constant communication with a committee of the government, completed a plan for escaping to the united states, "there to fulfil his destiny," as he himself said. for this purpose two frigates were put at the disposal of "him who had lately been emperor." all was ready on the twenty-ninth. that day a passing regiment shouted, "long life to the emperor," and, in a last despairing effort, napoleon sent an offer of his services, as a simple general, to save paris, and defeat the allies, who, though approaching the capital, were now separated. fouché returned an insulting answer to the effect that the government could no longer be responsible for the petitioner's safety. then, at last, napoleon knew that all was over in that quarter. clad in civilian's clothing, and accompanied by bertrand, savary, and gourgaud, he immediately set out for rochefort. general becker led the party as commissioner for the provisional government. it was the exile's intention to hurry onward, but at rambouillet he halted, and spent the evening composing two requests, one for a supply of furniture from paris, the other for the library in the petit trianon, together with copies of visconti's "greek iconography" and the great work on egypt compiled from materials gathered during his ill-starred sojourn in that country. next morning a courier arrived from paris with news. "it is all up with france," he exclaimed, and set out once more. crowds lined the highways; sometimes they cheered, and they were always respectful. such was the enthusiasm of two cavalry regiments at niort that becker was induced to send a despatch to the government, pleading that an army, rallied in napoleon's name, might still exert an important influence in public affairs. just as the general was closing the document there arrived the news of the cannonade heard before the capital on the thirtieth. napoleon dictated a postscript: "we hope the enemy will give you time to cover paris and bring your negotiations to an issue. if, in that case, an english cruiser stops the emperor's departure, you can dispose of him as a common soldier." by a strange coincidence, english cruisers had, as a matter of fact, appeared within a few days in the offing before rochefort. whatever the relation between this circumstance and his suggestion, napoleon studied every possible means of delaying his journey, and actually opened a correspondence with the commanders in bordeaux and the vendée, with a view to overthrowing the "traitorous" government. it was july third when he finally reached rochefort. again for five days he procrastinated. but the allies were entering paris; wellington was bringing louis xviii back to his throne; in forty-eight hours the monarchs of the coalition would arrive. blücher had commissioned a prussian detachment to seize and shoot his hated opponent, wherever found. on the eighth, therefore, the outcast emperor embarked; but for two days the frigates were detained by unfavorable winds. on the tenth, english cruisers hove in sight, and on the eleventh las cases, who had been appointed napoleon's private secretary, was sent to interview captain maitland, of the _bellerophon_, concerning his instructions from the british government. the envoy returned, and stated that the english commander would always be ready to receive napoleon, and conduct him to england, but he could not guarantee that the ex-emperor could settle there, or be free to betake himself to america. this language was almost fatal to the notion of a final refuge in england, which napoleon had begun to discuss and consider during the days spent in rochefort; so las cases sought a second interview. according to his account, maitland then changed his tone, remarking that in england the monarch and his ministers had no arbitrary power; that the generosity of the english people, and their liberal views, were superior to those entertained by sovereigns. to the speaker this was a platitude; to the listeners it was a weighty remark. a prey to uncertainty, napoleon entertained various schemes. he bought two small, half-decked fishing-boats, with a view to boarding a danish ship that lay outside, but the project was quickly dropped. two young officers of the french frigate suggested sailing all the way to new york in the little craft. napoleon seriously considered the possibility, but recalling that such vessels must get their final supplies on the coasts of spain or portugal, rejected the plan, for he dared not risk falling into the hands of embittered foes. word was brought that an american ship lay near by, in the gironde. general lallemand galloped in hot haste to see whether an asylum for the outlawed party could be secured under her flag. he returned with a reply that the captain would be "proud and happy to grant it." but in the interim napoleon had determined to throw himself on the "generosity of england." on the thirteenth gourgaud was sent to london, with a request to the prince regent that the emperor should be permitted to live unknown in some provincial english place, under the name of general duroc. on the fifteenth napoleon embarked on the _bellerophon_, where he was received with all honors; next day the vessel sailed, and on the twenty-fourth she cast anchor in torbay. during the voyage the passenger was often somnolent, and seemed exhausted; but he was affable in his intercourse with the officers, and to maitland, who unwisely yielded the expected precedence. to his kindly keeper, in a sort of beseeching confidence, the prisoner showed portraits of his wife and child, lamenting with tender sensibility his enforced separation from them. the scenes in torbay were curious. crowds from far and near lined the shores, and boats of all descriptions thronged the waters; the sight-seers dared everything to catch a glimpse of the awful monster under the terrors of whose power a generation had reached manhood. if, perchance, they succeeded, the air was rent with cheers. after two days the ship was ordered round into plymouth sound, but the reckless sensation-seekers gathered there in still greater numbers. many have wondered at napoleon's surrender of his person to the english. there was no other course open which seemed feasible to a broken-spirited man in his position. his admirers are correct in thinking that it was more noble for him to have survived his greatness than to have taken his own life. to have entered on a series of romantic adventures such as were suggested--concealment on the danish vessel, flight in open boats, concealment in a water-cask on an american merchantman, and the like--would have been merely the addition of ignominy to his capture; for his presence under the american flag would have been reported by spies, and at that day the standard of the united states would have afforded him little immunity. it is possible that on the morrow of waterloo napoleon might, with grouchy's army, the other survivors, and the men from vendée, have reassembled an army in paris, but it is doubtful. nothing in revolutionary annals can surpass the horror of royalist frenzy, known as the white terror, which broke out in provence and southern france on receipt of the news from waterloo. the ghastly distemper spread swiftly, and when napoleon embarked the tricolor was floating only at rochefort, nantes, and bordeaux; his family was proscribed, ney and labédoyère were imprisoned and doomed to execution. to have surrendered either to wellington or blücher would have been seeking instant death; to have collected such desperate soldiers as could be got together would have been an attempt at guerrilla warfare. to take refuge with the officers of england's navy was the only dignified course with any element of safety in it, since great britain was the only land in europe which afforded the privileges of asylum to certain classes of political offenders. naturally, the negotiators did not proclaim their extremity. considering the date of gourgaud's embassy, it is clear they were in no position to demand formal terms, and maitland's character forbids the conclusion that he made them. it is unfortunate that he did not commit to writing all his transactions with lallemand, savary, and las cases; perhaps he was injudiciously polite, but it is certain that, contrary to their representations, he made no promise, even by implication, that under england's flag napoleon should find a refuge, and not a prison. chapter xix st. helena[ ] [footnote : references: abell, mrs. l. e. (late miss balcombe), recollections of the emperor napoleon; cockburn: diary of buonaparte's voyage to st. helena in ; lowe, mémorial relatif à la captivité de napoléon à sainte-hélène; maitland: narrative of the surrender of buonaparte and his residence on board the _bellerophon_ between may th and august th, ; o'meara, napoleon in exile; or, a voice from st. helena: being the opinions and reflections of napoleon on the most important events of his life and government in his own words; rosebery: napoleon, the last phase; silvestre: de waterloo à sainte-hélène; gourgaud: sainte-hélène, journal inédit de à ; masson: autour de sainte-hélène; las cases: mémorial de sainte-hélène; antommarchi: les derniers moments de napoléon; henry: events of a military life; montholon: récits de la captivité de l'empereur napoléon; montholon: souvenirs de la comtesse; montholon: lettres du comte et de la comtesse (ed. p. gonnard); frémaux: napoléon prisonnier; planat de la faye: souvenirs; gonnard: origines de la légende napoléonienne.] embarrassment of the english ministry -- a strange embassy -- napoleon's attitude -- the transportation -- the prison and its governor -- occupations of the prisoner -- napoleon's historical writings -- failing health and preparations for death -- his last will and testament -- the end -- imprisoned genius -- the st. helena period -- the insatiate curiosity of europe -- first communications from the island -- napoleon's appeal -- gourgaud in europe -- his undeserved notoriety -- futile efforts of las cases -- o'meara's activities -- confusion during the last years -- documentary evidence -- the legend as a historical force. [illustration: napoleon sleeping by las cases on board the bellerophon in red chalk by lépicié.] [sidenote: - ] the ministry of lord liverpool, though ultra-tory, was nevertheless embarrassed by the course of affairs. on june twentieth the premier wrote to castlereagh that he wished napoleon had been captured by louis xviii, and executed as a rebel. this amazing suggestion was the result of the progress made within a year by the doctrine of legitimacy. although talleyrand had observed the hundred days from the safe seclusion of carlsbad, and was coldly received by his "legitimate" sovereign when he returned to paris under wellington's ægis, yet there was no one equally able to restore a "legitimate" government, and, with the aid of wellington, who assumed without question the chief place in reconstructing france, he was soon in full activity. in strict logic, the allies reasoned that napoleon was their common prisoner, and, as the chief malefactor, he should meet the fate which was to be ney's, and later that of murat. by long familiarity with such notions, the czar had finally been converted to the once abhorrent idea of legitimacy, and was hatching the scheme of the holy alliance; even he would have made no objection. but english opinion, however irritated, would not tolerate the idea of death as a penalty for political offenses. whatever ministers felt or said, they dared consider no alternative in dealing with napoleon except that of imprisonment. accordingly, st. helena, the spot suggested at vienna as being the most remote in the habitable world, was designated and the island was borrowed from the east india company. acts of parliament were passed which established a special government for it, and cut it off from all outside communication, "for the better detaining in custody napoleon bonaparte." the continental allies, therefore, on august second, declared the sometime emperor to be their common prisoner. to england they yielded the right to determine his place of detention, but to each of themselves--austria, russia, and prussia--was reserved the right of sending thither a commissioner who should determine the fact of actual imprisonment. it was in torbay that the newspapers brought on board the _bellerophon_ first announced what was under consideration. on july thirty-first, with inconsistent ceremony, the determination was formally announced by an embassy consisting of lord keith, the admiral; sir henry bunbury, an under-secretary of state; and mr. meike, secretary to the admiral. to whom did this highest official authority address itself? to general bonaparte, a private citizen! their message was read in french, and napoleon displayed perfect self-control. asked if he had anything to say, the ex-emperor, without temper or bitterness, appealed against the judgment of governments both to posterity and to the british people. he was, he said, a voluntary guest; he wished to be received as such under the law of nations, and to be domiciled as an english citizen (_sic_). during the interval before naturalization he would dwell under superintendence anywhere in england, thirty leagues from any seaport. he could not live in st. helena; he was accustomed to ride twenty miles a day; what could he do on that little rock at the end of the world? he could have gone to his father-in-law, or to the czar, but while the tricolor was still flying he had confided in british hospitality. though defeated, he was still a sovereign, and deserved to be treated as such. with emphasis he declared that he preferred death to st. helena. the embassy withdrew in silence from the moving scene. lord keith had previously expressed gratitude to napoleon for personal attentions to a young relative who had been captured at waterloo. him, therefore, the imperial prisoner now recalled, and asked if there were any tribunal to which appeal might be made. the answer was a polite negative, with the assurance that the british government would mitigate the situation as far as prudence would permit. "how so?" said napoleon. "surely st. helena is preferable to a smaller space in england," answered keith, "or being sent to france, or perhaps to russia." "russia!" exclaimed napoleon, taken off his guard. "god preserve me from it!" this was the only moment of excitement; the witnesses of the long and trying scene have left on record the profound impression made on them by napoleon's dignity and admirable conduct throughout. subsequently the prisoner composed a written protest appealing to history. an enemy who for twenty years had waged war against the english people had come voluntarily to seek an asylum under english laws; how did england respond to such magnanimity? in his own mind, at least, he instituted and therefore wrote a comparison between-himself and themistocles, who took refuge with the persians, and was kindly treated. the parallel broke down in that the great greek had never forced his enemy into entangling alliances, as napoleon had forced england into successive coalitions for self-preservation. moreover, his surrender was not voluntary: his life would not have been worth a moment's purchase either in france or elsewhere on the continent, to have fled by sea would have been to invite capture. "wherever," as he himself repeatedly said--"wherever there was water to float a ship, there was to be found a british standard." still there were many in england who took his view; much sympathy was aroused, and some futile efforts for his release were made. for the journey to st. helena, napoleon was transferred to admiral cockburn's ship, the _northumberland_. the suite numbered thirty, and was chosen by napoleon himself. its members were bertrand, montholon, and las cases, with their families, together with gourgaud and, following in a later ship, a pole of doubtful duty and dubious personality, the self-styled colonel piontkowski. there were sixteen servants, of whom twelve were napoleon's. the voyage was tedious and uneventful. the admiral adhered to english customs, and discarded the etiquette observed toward crowned heads; but he remained on the best of terms with his illustrious prisoner. there were occasional misunderstandings, and sometimes ill-natured gossip, in which the admiral was denounced behind his back as a "shark"; but such little gusts of temper passed without permanent consequences. napoleon had secured the excellent library he desired, and every day read or wrote during most of the morning; the evenings he devoted to games of hazard for low stakes, or to chess, which he played very badly. he was careful as to his diet, took abundant regular exercise, and, since his health was excellent, he appeared in the main cheerful and resigned. the island of st. helena is the craggy summit of an ancient volcano, rising two thousand seven hundred feet above the sea, and contains forty-five square miles. its shores are precipitous, but it has an excellent harbor, that of jamestown, which was then a port of call on the voyage from england, by the cape of good hope, to india. it lies four thousand miles from london, one thousand one hundred and forty from the coast of africa, one thousand one hundred and eighty from the nearest point in south america. there were a few thousand inhabitants of mixed race, and the tropical climate, though moist and enervating, is fairly salubrious. under the act passed by parliament, england increased the territorial waters around the island to a ring three times the usual size, and policed them by "hovering" vessels, which made the approach of suspicious craft virtually impossible. this, with numerous other precautionary measures of minor importance, made st. helena an impenetrable jail. it was october sixteenth, , when napoleon landed on its shores. the residence provided for the imperial captive was a rather ordinary farm-house in the center of the island, on a plateau two thousand feet high. the grounds were level, and bounded by natural limits, so that they were easy to guard, and could be observed in all their extent by sentries; eventually a circuit of twelve miles was marked out, and within this the prisoner might move at will; if he wished to pass the line, he must be attended by an english officer. considering the conceptions of state and chivalry then prevalent, the place was mean; long after, when enlarged and repaired, the house was thought not unsuitable for the entertainment of an imprisoned zulu chieftain. longwood, for this is the familiar name, might at a pinch have sufficed for the lodging of general bonaparte; it was certainly better than a dungeon; but its modest comfort was far from the luxurious elegance which had become a second nature to the emperor napoleon. such as it was to be, however, it was still uninhabitable in october, and its destined occupant was, until december ninth, the guest of a hospitable merchant, mr. balcombe, at his villa known as the briars. the sentinels and patrols remained six hundred paces from the door during the day; at night the cordon of guards was drawn close around the house; twice in twenty-four hours the orderly must assure himself of the prisoner's actual presence, and human ingenuity could devise no precaution which was not taken by land and sea to make impossible any secret communication, inward or outward. cockburn's serene good-nature rendered it out of the question for the captive to do more than declare his policy of protest and exasperation, until april, , when the admiral departed, and was replaced by sir hudson lowe. the latter was a vulnerable foe. a creature of routine, and fresh from a two years' residence as english commissioner in blücher's camp, he had thoroughly absorbed the temper both of the tory ministry and of the continental reactionaries. neither irascible, severe, nor ill-natured, he was yet punctilious, and in no sense a match for the brilliant genius of his antagonist. with the arrival of this unfortunate official properly begins the st. helena period of napoleon's life--a period considered by many to be instructive; but, as regards the talk and futile calculations in which he indulged, comparable only to that of his ineffectual agitations in corsica. [illustration: from the collection of w. c. crane. engraved by s. w. reynolds. napoleon at st. helena. painted by horace vernet.] napoleon, the prisoner, had a double object--release and self-justification. the former he hoped to gain by working on the feelings of the english liberals; the latter by writing an autobiography which, in order to win back the lost confidence of france, should emphasize the democratic, progressive, and beneficent side of his career, and consign to oblivion his tyrannies and inordinate personal ambitions. the dreary chronicle of the quarrel between a disarmed giant and a potent pygmy is uninteresting in detail, but very illuminating in its large outlines. the routine of a court was instituted and for a time was rigidly observed at longwood. the powerless monarch so successfully simulated the wisdom and judgment of a chastened soul that the accounts which reached the distant world awakened a great pity among the disinterested. as on shipboard and at the briars, he gave his mornings to literature, clad in a studied, picturesque dishabille. the afternoon he devoted to amusement and exercise; but a distaste for more physical exertion than was actually essential to health grew steadily, until he became sluggish and corpulent. at table he was always abstemious; his sleep was irregular and disturbed. the evenings he spent with favorite authors, voltaire, corneille, and ossian; frequently, also, in reading the bible. the opinions he expressed were in the main those of his pseudoscientific days; among other questions discussed was that of polygamy, which he upheld as an excellent institution theoretically. much time was spent by the household in abusing longwood, and so effectually that a wooden house was constructed in england, and erected near by; but the prisoner made difficulties about every particular, and never occupied it. there were continuous schemings for direct intercourse with friends in france, and partial success ended in the dismissal of las cases. gourgaud, too, departed, ostensibly because of a quarrel with montholon, really, as he represented, to agitate with alexander, francis, and maria louisa for napoleon's release. the exile confessed, in an unguarded moment, that no man alive could have satisfied him in the relation of governor of st. helena, but yet he was adroit and indefatigable in his efforts to discredit lowe. the "letters from the cape of good hope," published in england anonymously, but now incorporated in the official edition of napoleon's works as the thirty-first volume, abuse the climate of st. helena, depict the injustice of the imprisonment, and heap scorn on the governor. the book was widely read, and furnished the whigs in parliament with many shafts of criticism. this success emboldened the author, and further compositions by his hand were mysteriously published in europe. for three years napoleon's self-appointed task as a historian was unremittingly pursued, and the results, while he had the assistance of las cases and gourgaud, were voluminous; thereafter the output was a slender rill. most of the volumes which record his observations and opinions bear the names of the respective memorialists, montholon, las cases, gourgaud, o'meara, and antommarchi, the two latter his attendant physicians. the period he took pains to elucidate most fully in these writings was that between toulon and marengo. over his own name appeared monographs on elba, the hundred days, and waterloo. his professional ability is shown by short studies on the "art and history of war," on "army organization," and on "fortification"; likewise by his full analyses of the wars waged by cæsar, turenne, and frederick the great. these are not unworthy of the author's reputation; his versatility is displayed in a few commonplace notes--some on voltaire's "mahomet," some on suicide, and others on the second book of the Æneid. a widely circulated treatise, the "manuscript from st. helena," was long attributed to him, but was a clever forgery. as will be explained, its effect on history was important. for nearly four years napoleon's health was fair. o'meara, the physician appointed to attend him, was assiduous and skilful, but when he became his patient's devoted slave he was dismissed by lowe. thereupon certain disquieting symptoms, which had been noted from time to time, became more pronounced, and the prisoner began to brood and mope in seclusion. in the autumn of , dr. antommarchi, a corsican physician chosen by fesch, was installed at longwood. for a time, as he claimed, he had some success in ameliorating the ex-emperor's condition, and to what the writer records as their confidential talks we owe our knowledge of napoleon's infancy. but from month to month the patient's strength diminished, and the ravages of his mysterious disease at length became very apparent. the obstinacy of lowe in carrying out the letter of his instructions, by intruding on the sufferer to secure material for a daily report, seriously aggravated napoleon's miseries. two priests accompanied antommarchi: one only remained for some time, and after his arrival mass was celebrated almost every morning in the chapel adjoining the sick-room. "not every man is an atheist who would like to be," was a remark napoleon dropped to montholon. yet, though preparing for death, he was making ready simultaneously to speed his parthian arrow. his testament displays his qualities in their entirety. the language sounds simple and sincere; there is a hidden meaning in almost every line. his religion had been outwardly that of a deist; he now professed a piety which he always felt but rarely practised. during his life france had been caressed and used as a skilful artificer caresses and uses his tools; the last words of his will suggest a passionate devotion. to his son he recommended the "love of right, which alone can incite to the performance of great deeds"; for his faithless wife he expressed the tenderest sentiments, and probably felt them. it was his hope that the english people would avenge itself on the english oligarchy, and that france would forgive the traitors who betrayed her--marmont, augereau, talleyrand, and lafayette--as he forgave them. louis he pardoned in the same spirit for the "libel published in ; it is full of falsehoods and falsified documents." the blame for enghien's murder he took to himself. the second portion of the document is a series of munificent-sounding bequests to a list of legatees which includes every one who had done the testator any important service since his earliest childhood. france under the bourbons confiscated the imperial domain of about a hundred and eighty millions, which napoleon had estimated at over two hundred and twenty. when the nation passed again under the bonapartes it appropriated eight millions toward the unpaid legacies. in the end his executors collected three and a half millions of francs wherewith to pay bequests amounting on their face to over nine and a half. in a codicil he remembers a certain cautillon, who had undergone trial for an alleged attempt to assassinate wellington. "cautillon had as much right to assassinate that oligarch as he [wellington] to send me to the rock of st. helena to perish there." such was the nature and substance of an appeal to a generous, forgiving nation, and to posterity, by one who wrote in the same document that he wished to die in the bosom of the christian church, whose central doctrine is love, and whose ethic is forgiveness of enemies. "i closed the abyss of anarchy and brought order out of chaos. i cleansed the revolution, ennobled the people, and made the kings strong. i have awakened all ambitions, rewarded all merit, and enlarged the borders of glory." these were the words of napoleon in ; he lived in this hallucination to the end. in the autumn of he realized his condition, and throughout the winter he was feeble and depressed. in february, , he began to fail rapidly, and the symptoms of his disease, cancer in the stomach, multiplied; but, in spite of feebleness, he faced death with courage. on may third two english physicians, recently arrived, came in for consultation; they could only recommend palliatives, and under the influence of that treatment the imperial patient kept an uncertain hold on his faculties. two days later a violent storm of wind and rain set in. a spreading willow, under which napoleon had spent many hours, was overturned; the trees planted by his hands were uprooted; and a whirlwind devastated the garden in which he had worked for exercise. the death of the sufferer was coincident, and scarcely less violent. the last words uttered were caught by listening ears as the sun rose; they were "tête ... armée." mme. bertrand and her children were present; at the sight of their friend's suffering the boy fainted and the little girls broke into loud lamentation. at eleven in the morning the supreme agonies began; a little before six in the evening the heart put forth its last convulsive effort, and ceased to beat. the mournful band of watchers within bowed their heads. without the door another watch was set--that of the orderly. during the first outburst of grief among those at the bedside two officers entered silently, felt the cold limbs, marked the absence of life, and left without a word. england's prisoner had escaped. * * * * * it requires a complex environment to develop a man of any sort; for the exhibition of his personality and identity he must live in family, church, and state, and beyond all these surroundings even the meanest of mankind is subject to some cosmopolitan influence. how much more true is this of a historical and political personage, who is and can be himself only under the conditions which permit the play of his powers. removed from these, his soul and spirit sicken, his character becomes morbid, his capacities are crippled, his identity is distorted. nothing could be more fatuous and simple than the effort to read the true character of napoleon bonaparte from his talk and behavior when an exile; a prisoner of time and space, as world communications then were; an exhausted body; a crippled, outraged spirit, reduced for attack and defense to the weapons of the pen and the tongue wielded on and over an immensity of apartness. yet exactly this has been the self-imposed task of many investigators and writers. the literature of his prison-house has grown to vast dimensions, and readers feel cheated when the bald outline of all that may even be considered history is offered for their consideration. the narrative of the st. helena epoch in his life just given is probably accurate, and there are portions of it that rest on historical evidence both objective and internal, as trustworthy as most of what passes for history. but when this is said the statement must be carefully guarded, for the reason that substantially all our evidence is virtually such as would be given about himself by a convict behind the bars, his sympathizing accomplices, his jailer, and his prosecutors. the simile is not strained. the surgeon of the _northumberland_, ignorant of french, gathered from those of napoleon's attendants who spoke english such scraps regarding the prisoner as he could, published them, and lost his government employment. the book was widely read and proved a very lucrative enterprise. outside its pages there was profound silence and complete ignorance in europe regarding the now mysterious convict, buried to the world. craving for information was universal and insatiate; if only napoleon himself would speak! it appeared as if the longing were satisfied in a published "manuscript arrived from st. helena by unknown means." the volume was difficult to procure, although edition followed edition in swift succession; many a precious copy was used in reading circles and there are still in existence a considerable number of the very numerous reproductions made at the time with pen and ink. one of these was actually sold not long ago to an unsuspecting editor in the united states and published in his magazine as a rarity. it fell flat because so many knew the truth: that it was apocryphal, the merry jest of a genevese gentleman, lullin de châteauvieux, who lived to see his sport a dangerous element in the falsification of history. it was not only napoleonic in style, but too napoleonic; and, considered as an imperialist pamphlet, an anti-royalist pronunciamento, brought into being the embryo of a legend such as men crave and which the loyal efforts of many historians have utterly failed to destroy. its contents, of course, are utterly worthless except as a comedy, a mask of literature which influenced public opinion. the first known opportunity of the napoleon court for communication with the outside world was afforded by the british government. the guarding and maintenance of napoleon proved a source of great expenditure. the garrison and military staff, the hovering vessels of the navy, the entertainment of the continental commissioners, and especially the allowance for the establishment of longwood, miserable as it was--the total cost appeared to the london authorities exorbitant. prices of supplies at st. helena were enormous because of its remoteness. so the subordinates of the ministry, with the assent of their superiors, determined upon reductions, and they began with the household of the emperor, issuing orders that four of its members should be dismissed. these were, first, the polish adventurer piontkowski, part gentleman, part domestic, and wholly emissary and spy, who had been sent out by the english government in a vessel which followed the _northumberland_, for reasons best known to themselves. he appears to have accepted a charge from napoleon; that, namely, of laying before the czar a formal protest against the treaties which made napoleon the joint prisoner of the allies, entrusted to the charge of great britain. the next to leave were archambaud and rousseau, one a huntsman, one a chief butler; they were to visit joseph bonaparte in the united states and give him the fullest information. the fourth was the chamberlain santini, a corsican, and, though a soldier, utterly illiterate. to him was confided a protest for use either in london or in italy, as the event should determine. a copy was made in chinese ink on white satin ribbon for concealment about his person, but the chief reliance was, that "verbally and literally" he was drilled in its repetition until he could neither forget nor mistake in its recital. the faithful servants reached joseph's home in america, the pole on arrival in england styled himself count and colonel, became the hero of a social season in london, and vanished from history as mysteriously as he entered it. but santini with italian adroitness gained not only the presence of lord holland but his attentive ear; his recital was translated into english and published, the matter was brought before parliament by interpellation of the great whig statesman and caused great excitement throughout the world. napoleon's "appeal to the english nation," as printed from santini's copy, recited the stupidity of his jailer, the unhealthiness of the climate, the expense and difficulty of living. his statements were not merely confirmed, the conditions of life on st. helena were monstrously exaggerated by montchenu, the french commissioner, in a private letter which was published soon after the arrival of santini in london. this, too, was circulated all abroad. public opinion was further agitated. the allied dynasties were made to feel ashamed by their subjects, and in great britain there was a fierce surge of reprobation, the resonance of which has not yet died away. the exile was chained to a horrid rock, in a climate europeans could not endure, his miserable existence in hovels overrun with vermin must be eked out by loans from friends and the sale of his silver tableware, he was put to needless shame by the stupid regulations of a stupid government, stupidly enforced by a stupid governor, he was sick of body and heart, very sick and might die. whose was the responsibility for this disgrace to civilization? somewhat in this way men talked and questioned; soon his faults were forgotten in the pitiful recital of his woes; the legend was further advanced, once more the glory of napoleon's epoch became a powerful force in europe. on the fourteenth of march, , there arrived in england a member of the st. helena court, whose name and fame bid fair to rival if not to obliterate those of all his companions in exile, though most undeservedly. this was general gourgaud, styled master of ordinance. he was thirty-five years old and had been a soldier for sixteen, winning promotion for intelligence and intrepidity, securing napoleon's affection by personal charm and by services which once at least, and probably twice, directly saved the emperor's life, until at last he was a baron, a general at waterloo, and a companion in st. helena. this all seems passing strange because he was a high officer of louis xviii before napoleon's return from elba; made obeisance to established authority as soon as he returned from captivity, and during the successive governments of france to his death in found favor with each in turn. whatever he was before and after, his life in st. helena was that of a sentimental, jealous, sensitive child, scarcely a male at that. every word and every act of every one gave him such pangs of wounded vanity that at last his presence was intolerable and by the influence of the montholons it was arranged that he should leave. no sooner was the dust of longwood shaken from his feet than within sight of its doors he accepted the kindly attentions of his former jailers with eagerness, and no sooner were those feet ashore in england than he began to woo the ministry, to make advances to the bourbons, and to fawn on the holy alliance itself. it was not until he experienced certain chills and got his groping finger on the pulse of public opinion that he found himself utterly mistaken and in danger of mortal error. he then wrote, and gave to the public prints, a curious letter, addressed to marie louise, asserting that napoleon was dying in the torments of a frightful agony. this amounted to a recantation. in consequence he was banished from england under the alien bill. at once he hurried away to prince eugène (napoleon's treasurer) and from him reclaimed and received, for four years certainly, his arrears of imperial pay and pension. in he was permitted to return to france. the notoriety of his name is due to two sets of circumstances. sir walter scott told the truth about his conduct, just when the noble general was beginning to swim in the refulgence of the napoleonic legend. there ensued a wordy warfare. the weapons on one side were official papers; on the other denials, insinuations, and finally the assertion of some vague commission or another given by the great captive, impossible of fulfilment in any way other than by the mysterious course of the plenipotentiary. this mystery is still unsolved and the commission undiscovered, but in france at least the conflict still rages. as late as a caustic critic was challenged to a duel by the testy and furious family head of the gourgauds. the other set of circumstances is equally curious. gourgaud left behind him a journal of his st. helena life. its contents are certainly authentic evidence of the writer's character, and as there is no means of checking the authenticity of what is recorded about napoleon and his longwood household, the record may possibly be and probably is accurate. the sore spirit of the writer required a confidant, and since there was no congenial soul to receive his outpourings he relieved himself as other sentimental egoists have done in the pages of a journal. from these the most conscientious efforts have been made to construct a psychology of the emperor. the result is a morbid psychology of a caged falcon, the revival of bitter controversy as to the treatment of the great prisoner by a tory ministry, and generally of a rather abstracted but intense interest in the napoleonic legend. hence the prolonged vogue of a celebrity which should have been ephemeral. the general is in no proper sense a historical factor except as the influence of his behavior in europe served to quicken the existing lively interest in napoleon. as far as his earliest testimony went, and many inclined to heed it, the master he had served was in excellent health, was kindly treated, and in general was better off than could have been expected. this of course lashed the imperialists to fury; their information was to the diametrically opposite effect. antecedent to gourgaud's departure was that of las cases, but his journey was so impeded, his health so shaken, and his devotion so discounted, that whatever he accomplished in molding public opinion was logically subsequent to the work of the general. spanish by origin, french by six centuries of devotion, his family was of the higher nobility. he himself had been an emigrant, but had returned to become a member of the council of state. as a great civil official he had learned to love napoleon and deliberately chose exile with him rather than honors and service under the restored bourbons. in he wrote, and endeavored to forward secretly, letters containing his views as to the disgraceful treatment of napoleon. these were intercepted and the writer was condemned in lowe's first fury to depart. on second thought the governor begged him to remain under certain restrictions; these las cases would not accept, possibly because he saw himself of greater use in europe than in st. helena. he reached the cape of good hope in january, , was there detained eight months, was then forwarded to england, where he was forbidden to land, thence to belgium, and finally, in december, a physical derelict, he found shelter in frankfort-on-the-main, where he lived for a time under the strictest surveillance. his faculties were soon restored to a certain rather impaired activity, and in he laid a powerful protest against the treatment of napoleon before the congress of aix-la-chapelle. no less a person than the emperor's mother was his agent and intermediary. a meeting of reactionary sovereigns and their ministers, terrified by the throes of a revolutionary spirit more and more personified in bonaparte, could in no case be receptive to such a remonstrance, and was utterly cold and scornful in the face of gourgaud's evidence to the well-being and kind treatment of napoleon, already published. even with the most enlightened and liberal public of europe, that of great britain, las cases' controversial publications fell rather flat. readers were weary of the theme, since o'meara was now and had been for some time past in possession of the napoleonic field. dr. o'meara, the emperor's body-physician, was a warm-hearted irishman, faithful, able, and devoted. that he received substantial gratuities from his patient is no longer questioned, and these transfers of money have been called by a harsh name; yet it is easy for a loyal but illogical devotee to confuse salary, gifts, fees, bribes, each with each, and one with the other; the crime was not quite so heinous with a man of his character as it would have been in persons of severer quality and mold. it seems equally certain that the stern pedant acting as governor would gladly have employed the same inducements to secure him as a spy. at least he did not qualify as the channel of a double espionage, and for that reason fell under the grave suspicion of authority. the diagnosis of napoleon's malady as very grave, which he had made, was confirmed in january, , by stokoe, the ship's surgeon of the _conqueror_, the british flag vessel then in the harbor. but from o'meara it was not accepted; he was dismissed from service and on july twenty-fifth, , sailed homeward. on august seventeenth the london "morning post" began to print communications sent from st. helena by him, and shortly after he landed, in october, there appeared a pamphlet by him attacking sir hudson lowe. his voluminous "voice from st. helena" was not published until after napoleon's death. like the rest of the contemporary memoirs and memorials, the value of his writings lies in their effect on the liberal sentiment of the world. the metternich system of repression and intervention, which worked its will in dynastic government for a generation after napoleon, engendered a newer liberalism which forgot the tyranny of napoleonic imperialism and remembered the consulate as expressing a well-organized form of government, adapted superbly for crushing systems, dynastic or aristocratic or plutocratic, which oppressed mankind by denying the only possible equality, equality of opportunity, the napoleonic "carrière ouverte aux talents." by all sympathetic nationalists, constitutionalists, and radicals these books were literally devoured, and in france particularly their effect was lasting. there could never have been a second napoleon except as he was thought likely to reproduce the consulate; when his rule had proved to be imperialistic the country was disenchanted. liberty with order is so ardently desired! but too often the devices to secure it beget license with chaos. the literal correctness of o'meara's reporting, like that of the rest, cannot be controverted by any rebutting testimony, but the nature portrayed is the same morbid, sensational, notoriety-seeking, unwholesome, and pathological specimen as that furnished by the others. dr. stokoe was speedily disgraced because it was now certain that any bulletin of serious illness was evidence of conspiracy by the emperor and his friends for his escape. it is still affirmed that this second physician yielded to the emperor's blandishments and disobeyed lowe's orders. his successor, dr. verling, was lowe's man, and, finding his position intolerable, resigned with the insinuation that he could not accept bribes. the party strife demanded either that napoleon must be entirely well and well treated, or else utterly moribund and abominably used. neither was the case, but a mortal disease had declared itself, his grand marshal was seriously alarmed, and the members of the bonaparte family in europe were dreaming of napoleon's escape or planning the renewal of his household by fresh blood. the bertrands and the montholons, though faithful and devoted, were simply worn out. a corsican physician, dr. antommarchi, and an italian priest, buonavita, were added to the household in september, . mme. montholon with her child was already at home seeking substitutes, having departed from st. helena in july. neither event had any special consequences. mme. montholon found a possible successor to the grand marshal in the person of planat, an officer of the hundred days. negotiations for his sailing were protracted; such was napoleon's condition before they were concluded that montholon would not consider deserting his post, though bertrand was quite willing to see planat supplant himself. buonavita was ill and returned to europe. antommarchi was detested by his patient, a new priest and a new doctor were found, and the faithful pauline desired to join her exiled brother. by this time the year had passed and the fateful spring of was well advanced. all preparations for relieving the household and the guard at st. helena were now, of course, futile. three years of suffering had culminated in the death of the exile. the documentary material for the st. helena epoch is very scanty. the "mémorial" of las cases and the "voice" of o'meara are both valuable as works but not as transcripts. of gourgaud's "journal" the value is greater, but the medium of transmission most abnormal. the volumes of mrs. abell and lady malcolm furnish very slight material; the papers of the outsiders like montchenu, balmain, and sturmer, like even lowe himself, furnish side-lights only; the souvenirs of mme. montholon are trifling and cannot bear critical examination. the recitals of montholon were thought of importance until careful scrutiny showed how he had drawn on las cases and o'meara, how scanty, scrappy, and confused his own notes were, and finally, when his letters to his wife were printed, how completely these unfalsified documents contradicted the other publications in the few interesting points on which they touch, both in the english edition of colburn and the carefully edited and reedited french edition. the more the slight authentic material is examined the more certain it appears that it is hopeless to read from it napoleon's character, even in the unnatural environment of st. helena, least of all for the years of real life. conduct is the only test of belief, not the invalid lamentations or cynical banter of dreary, hopeless imprisonment. and when all this talk of a man in anguish is dubiously reported, distorted by the medium of a heart-sick listener, or by the transcription of men bored to extinction, its value is obviously still further diminished. the story has been briefly narrated of how the legend was engendered, of how it was planted and watered on the continent of europe, and its influence on subsequent generations has been indicated. this is the sum total of what history finds as its material during the closing years of napoleon's life. the souvenirs of bertrand and marchand are as yet inaccessible, if indeed they exist. some day their possible publication may shed a few rays of new light on minor points: they cannot greatly enlarge or substantively reconstruct the slight historical material we have been able to discover. for valuable generalizations we must fall back on the many abundant facts of napoleon's long career, on the very few facts of his conduct when mewed and exasperated at st. helena, on the effects which these in sum have produced in history. the world at large marvels at the general, the statesman, the conqueror, the emperor; it is apt to pass unnoticed the judge and tamer of two epochs, the mediator between a ruined past, a chaotic present, and a future, orderly at least, though streaked with the stains of tyranny. chapter xx soldier, statesman, despot questionings -- the industrious burgher -- the industrious sovereign -- end of the marvelous -- public virtue and private weakness -- the man and the age -- latin and german -- first struggles -- usurpation of power -- political theories -- the napoleonic system -- its foundation -- stimulus to despotism -- the surrender of france -- the master soldier. [sidenote: review] the tomb of erasmus in basel is marked by a stone slab on which are an epitaph, an effigy, and then the pathetic word "terminus." should these fateful syllables be written over the mortal remains of napoleon bonaparte? no. beyond his death there was more, far more than the work he wrought during his life. men ever love a seeming mystery, and while they do, a favorite theme of speculation will be the career of the great corsican in its historical aspect. before our long study can be brought to a close, two questions must be considered, or rather two sides of one question must be viewed. why did he rise, and what did he accomplish? the answers will be as various as the investigators who give them. but the man as seen in the preceding pages certainly displays these recognizable characteristics: he was a man of the people, he had a transcendent military genius, he was indefatigable, and he had unsurpassed energy. no mere man, even the most remarkable, can climb without supports of some kind, however unstable they may be. napoleon bonaparte did not soar, he rose on the ladder of power by stages easily traceable: first by the protection of the robespierres; then by the necessities and velleities of barras and the directory; afterward by the encouragement of all france, which was sick of the inefficient directory; and still later by the army, which adored a leader who frankly repaid devotion in the hard cash of booty, and bravery in the splendid rewards of that glory which was a national passion. with such opportunities, bonaparte unfolded what was certainly his supereminent quality--the quality which endeared him to the french masses as did no other, the quality which above all others distinguished him from the hated tyrants under whom they had so long suffered, the quality which even the meanest intellect could mark as distinctively middle-class, in opposition to its negation in the upper class--the quality, namely, of untiring industry; laborious, self-initiated, self-guided, self-improving industry. this burgher quality napoleon possessed as no burgher ever did. it was no exaggeration, but the simple truth, when he said to roederer: "i am always working. i think much. if i appear always ready to meet every emergency, to confront every problem, it is because, before undertaking any enterprise, i have long considered it, and have thus foreseen what could possibly occur. it is no genius which suddenly and secretly reveals to me what i have to say or do in some circumstance unforeseen by others: it is my own meditation and reflection. i am always working--when dining, when at the theater; i waken at night in order to work." how profoundly this was impressed upon those intimately associated with napoleon can be traced in their memoirs on many a page. it was soult who said, most sapiently: "what we call an inspiration is nothing but a calculation made with rapidity." generally there is no mystery in the power of domination: he rules who is indispensable. the jacobins needed a man, they found him in the unscrupulous bonaparte; the directory needed a man, they found him in the expert artillerist; france needed a man, she found him in the conqueror of italy. and having risen, he did not intermit his industry for a moment. rehearsing his coronation by means of puppets, or studying with painful care the complicated accounts of his fiscal officers, or absorbing himself in whatever else it might be, he was always the man who knew more about everything than any one else. throughout his reign he was the fountainhead of every governmental activity: the council of state sharpened not their own, but his thoughts; his secretaries were his pocket note-book; his ministers were the executors of his personal designs; pensions and presents were given by him to his friends, and not to those who served the state as they themselves thought best; every french community received his personal attention, and every frenchman who came to his general receptions was treated with rude jocularity. in all this he was perfectly natural. at times, however, he felt compelled to attitudinize; perhaps, in the theatrical poses which he assumed for self-protection or for the sake of representing a personified, unapproachable imperial majesty, he copied talma, with whom he cultivated a sort of intimacy. possibly, too, his violent sallies were considered dramatic by himself. "otherwise," he once said, "they would have slapped me on the shoulder every day." "it is sad," remarked roederer, apropos of a certain event. "yes, like greatness," was napoleon's rejoinder. napoleon's preëminence lasted just as long as this effective personal supremacy continued. when his faculties refused to perform their continuous, unceasing task, he began to decline; when the material of his calculations transcended all human power, even his own, the descent grew swifter; and the crash came when his abilities worked either intermittently or not at all. ruin was the consequence of feebleness; the imagination of the world had clothed him with demoniac qualities, but it ceased so to do just in proportion as his superiority to others in plan and execution began to diminish. "there is no empire not founded on the marvelous, and here the marvelous is the truth." these were the words of talleyrand, addressed to the first consul on june twenty-first, , just after the news of marengo had reached paris. the marvel of the absolute monarchy was the divine right of kings: when men ceased to hold the doctrine, the days of absolutism were numbered. the marvel of napoleon was his unquestioned human supremacy: when that declined his empire fell. in the truest sense of that word so dear to modern times, napoleon was a self-made man. by his extraordinary energy he made a deficient education do double duty; and those of his natural gifts which in a sluggish man would have been mediocre, he paraded so often, and in such swift succession, that they appeared miraculous. this fiery energy, it cannot too often be repeated, was the man's most distinctive characteristic; when it failed he was undone. was consistency, as generally understood, to be expected in this personage; is it, indeed, found in most great men? nowhere does the theory of evolution writhe to sustain itself more than in psychology; nowhere does it discover a greater complexity--a complexity which makes doubtful its sufficiency. admitting that napoleon was selfish; that he was lustful; that once, at least, he was criminal; that at various times--yes, even frequently--he was unpopular, and dared not in extremity call for a national uprising to sustain his cause; that he had pitiful limitations in dealing with religion, politics, and finance; supposing him to have displayed on occasion the qualities of a resurrected medieval free-lance, or of the borgias, or of other historical monsters; confessing that he was launched upon the fiery lake of revolution by the madness of extreme jacobinism; sustaining the awful indictment in each detail--was there no reverse to the medal, no light to the shadow, no general result except negations? was the work of alexander the great worthless because of his debaucheries? was catharine ii of russia a mere damned soul because of her harlotries? did talleyrand's duplicity and meanness render less valuable or permanent the work he did in thwarting the coalition at vienna? the answer of history is plain: what the great of the earth have wrought for others or against them is to be recorded and judged with impartiality; how they sinned against themselves is to be told as an awful warning, and then to be left for the decision of the great tribunal. modern philosophy requires such complicated and yet such minute knowledge in every department of science that the specialist has supplanted the general scholar and the system-maker; the man who aspires to create a plan displaying the unity of either the objective or the subjective world, or any harmony of one with the other, is generally regarded as either an antiquated imbecile or a charlatan. yet in the examination of historical characters a symmetrical consistency capable of being grasped by the meanest intellect is imperiously demanded by all readers and critics. this is natural, but not altogether reasonable: symmetry cannot be found in the commonest human being on our globe, much less in those who rise supereminent. the greater the man, the more impossible to connect in a mathematical diagram the different phases of his conduct. the search for mediocre consistency in the character of napoleon is like the cynic philosopher's quest for a man. this personage strove, and with considerable success, to think and act for an entire nation--ay, more, for western europe. in order to render this conceivable, he first took command of his own body--sleeping at will, and never more than six hours; eating when and what he would, but always with extreme moderation; waking from profound slumber and rousing his mind instantaneously to the highest pitch, so that he then composed as incisively as in the midst of active ratiocination. he was able to train his secretaries and servants into instruments destitute of personal volition--even his great generals, who were taught to act for themselves within certain limits, never transcended the fixed boundary, and grew inefficient when deprived of his impulse. he never failed to reward merit or to gratify ambition for the sake of securing an able lieutenant, and nascent devotion he quickened into passion by the display of suitable familiarity. a thoughtful, self-contained, self-sufficient worker, he was sometimes a trifle uneasy in social intercourse, perhaps always so beneath his mask of good breeding, when he wore one; but he played his various rôles in public with consummate skill, except that he made nervous movements with his eyes, hands, and ears. his little tricks of rolling his right shoulder, tugging at his cuffs, and the like; his inability to write, and his generally clumsy movements when irritated, were due to deficient training in early childhood. forbidding in his intercourse with ambitious women and other self-seekers, he was considerate with the suffering, and found it difficult, if not impossible, to refuse the petitions of the needy. loving rough and ready ways in those busied about his person,--as, for instance, when his valet rubbed him down in the morning with a coarse towel,--he was yet so sensitive that he had to have his hats worn by others before he could set them on his own head. it is useless to seek even homely physical consistency in a man thus constituted. it is equally useless to ask whether napoleon could have been as great a man in another epoch as he was in his own. in any epoch of warfare he would have been great; it is likely that in any epoch of peace he would have reached eminence as a legislator and administrator. the real historical question is this: how did he, being what he was, and his age, being what it was, interact one upon the other; and what was the resultant? there was as little consistency in his age as in himself; the sinuosities of each fitted strangely into those of the other, and the result was a period of twenty years on which common consent fixes the name of the napoleonic age. does his personality throw any light on the antecedent period--does his career influence the succeeding years? the age of the revolution has such intimate connection with the movements of french society that it is very generally called in other countries the french revolution. but while the movement developed itself more easily and took more radical forms in france than elsewhere, it was due to the condition of civilization the world around. france has been in a peculiar sense the teacher of europe; for in language, literature, laws, and institutions she is the heir of rome. in spite of roman catholicism, or perhaps in consequence of the roman hierarchy, her inheritance has been pagan rather than christian; her ethics have been hellenic, her literature augustan, her laws imperial, her temperament a combination of the stoic and epicurean which is essentially latin, her language elegant, elliptical, and precise like that of livy or tacitus. the teuton in general, the anglo-saxon in particular, may give his days and nights to classical studies: he is never so imbued with their spirit as the gaul. "it is with his bible in one pocket and his shakspere in another," said an eminent frenchman not long since, "that the anglo-saxon goes forth to reduce the world in the interests of his commerce, his civilization, and his religion. the most enlightened has neither the cold worldliness of horace nor the calculating zeal of cæsar, but he has the persistency of faith in himself and his nation which, whatever may be his personal belief, is a constituent element in his blood, or, better still, the controlling member of that complex organism to which he belongs." i venture to believe, on the other hand, that the frenchman espouses his cause from an unselfish impulse begotten of pure reason, an ethereal ichor percolating through society by channels of sympathy, which diminishes the historic pressure for continuous national consistency and natural unity, but emphasizes the great uplifting movements of society. the french armies of the revolution went forth to scour europe for its deliverance from feudalism, absolutism, and ecclesiasticism, because the french people had renewed their youthful and pristine vigor in their enthusiasm for pure principle without regard to experience or expediency. napoleon bonaparte had all their doctrine, with something more: a consuming ardor unconscious of any physical limitations to the nervous strength of himself or others, and a readiness for any fate which would transmute his dull, unsuccessful, commonplace existence into excitement. when he found his opportunity to heap pelion upon ossa, to supplement himself by the splendors of french devotion, he did indeed come near to transcending even the olympians and storming the seat of kronos. it was a long, discouraging, heartbreaking struggle by which he gained his first vantage-ground. this was no exceptional experience; for every adventurer knows that it is more troublesome to make the start than to continue the advance. it is harder to save the first small capital than to conduct a prosperous business. it is more difficult, apparently, in human life to overcome the inertia of immobility than that of motion; at least psychological laws seem in this respect to contravene those of physics. it is not true that the armies of the republic were those of the bourbons: the transition may have been gradual, but it was radical. it is also untrue that the armies of napoleon were those of the revolution: they differed as the zenith from the nadir, being recruited on a new principle, animated by new motives, and led by an entirely different class of men. a supreme command having been attained by means curiously compounded of chivalric romance and base scheming, the man of action did not hesitate a moment to put every power in motion. throwing off all superior control, he set himself to every task in the revolution of italy--conquest, political and religious; constructive politics and administration; social and financial transformation. winning the devotion of his troops by intoxicating successes, as a leveler he was permanently successful; but this typical burgher had no permanent success in building up a democratic-imperial society out of the royal, princely, and aristocratic elements which had so long monopolized the ability of the peninsula; what he wrought outlasted his time, but the country had to undergo another revolution before its middle classes were ready for the heavy burden of independence and self-government. yet the struggle for what was accomplished appears to have created a climacteric in the doer. before the days of italy his ambitions were petty enough: employment in the service of russia or england, supremacy in corsica or military promotion in france; but afterward they enlarged by leaps and bounds: italian principalities, austrian dukedoms, lombard confederations, the primacy of france in some form, oriental dominion--one such concept took form in the morning, to be swept away at night and replaced by ever more luxurious growths of fantasy. the realization of these dreams was still more amazing than their misty formation. the revolutionary doctrines of the passing age had stimulated france to over-exertion; her leaders were discredited, her people exhausted. the same agitation had stupefied the italians; but whatever their political disintegration may have been, the roman chair and throne retained its moral influence as the bond and mainspring of society throughout the whole peninsula; and now the successor of st. peter was humbled to the dust, willing to escape with the mere semblance of either secular or ecclesiastical independence. it was an exceptional moment, a vacillating, retrogressive hour in the history of austria, of france, and of italy. the exceptional man, the vigorous citizen of a new political epoch, the inspired strategist of a new military epoch, the unscrupulous doubter of a new religious epoch--this typical personage was at hand to take advantage of the situation; and he did so, hastening the disintegrating processes already at work, seizing every advantage revealed by the crumbling of old systems, and reaping the harvest of french heedlessness. the opportunity gave the man his chance, but the chance once seized, the man enlarged his sphere with each successive year. this he did by means which were as remarkable as the personage who devised them--and remarkable, too, not for their negative, but for their constructive quality. broadly stated, the revolution utterly expunged all the governmental and social guarantees of the preceding monarchy, destroying not merely the absolute power of one man with its sanction of divine right, but all the checks upon it to be found either in the ancient traditions of the people or in their ancient institution of parliaments. it will be clear to the careful student of the revolutionary governments that while there was a gradual clarifying of opinion antecedent to the consulate, and a vague longing for guarantees of individual rights higher than the acts of any assembly, however representative it claimed to be, nevertheless great ideas, great conceptions, great outlines, had all remained in their inchoate state, and that of the several succeeding constitutions each had been more worthless than the one before. almost any kind of a constitution will serve an enlightened nation which has confirmed political habits, if it chooses to support a fundamental law not hostile to them; and none, however ingenious, can stand before recalcitrant populations. the revolutionary constitutions of france, excepting perhaps that of , were alike feeble; and in the stress applied to the one democratic land of europe by her dynastic enemies all around, they were not worth the paper and ink used to record them. under each had developed a pure despotism of one kind or another, on the plea that in war there must be a single head, either an executive committee or an executive man. these persons or person had, on pleas of necessity or expediency, gradually arrogated to the executive all the powers of government, befooling the people more or less completely by the specious formalities of various kinds through which the popular will was supposed to find expression. no one understood this fact better than napoleon bonaparte; and since it seemed that the supreme power had to be in the hands of some one man or clique, he was easily tempted to grasp it for himself when it became clear that the profligate and dishonest directory had run its course. he did not make the situation, but he used it. history does not record that the french nation was shocked or discouraged by the events of the eighteenth of brumaire; on the contrary, the occurrences in paris and at st. cloud seemed commonplace to a storm-tossed people, and the results were welcomed by the majority in every class. the reasons for this general satisfaction varied, of course; for the conservative and progressive royalists, the conservative and radical republicans of every stripe, had widely different expectations as to the next act in the drama. but the chief actor was concerned only for himself and the nation; partizans he neither honored nor feared, except as he was anxious not to be identified with them. to him, as a man of the people, it seemed that in the revolution the third estate had asserted itself; that the third estate must be pacified; that the third estate must be prosperous; that the third estate, for all these purposes, needed only to be confirmed in their simple theory of government, which was that the power could be delegated by them to any one fit to wield it, and this once done, the delegate might without harm to the state be left undisturbed to manage the public business, while the people should give their undivided attention to their private affairs. how successful the consulate was in this respect is universally known and admitted. with consummate cleverness the first consul summoned to his assistance all the giants of his time, whether they were scholars with their theories and knowledge, administrators with their tact and experience, political managers with their easy consciences and oiled feathers, or skilful demagogues with their greedy followers and insatiate self-interest. these he either enticed or bullied into his service, according as he read their characters; a few--a very few--like barère, he found obdurate, and drove into provincial exile. at no time did he make a finer display of his astounding capacity for molding strong men by his still stronger will than during the early days of the consulate; and the manifest reason for his success was that he had a fine instinct for character and for putting the right man in the right place. what he thus accomplished has been told. the foundations he then laid rest solid to-day; the now antiquated edifice he erected on them, though altered and repaired, still retains its identity. the revolution had overthrown the old régime completely, and the ruins of society were without form and void. from this chaos napoleon painfully gathered the substantial materials of a new structure, and out of these reconstructed the family, the state, and the church. he revived the domestic spirit, made marriage a solid institution, and reëstablished parental authority while destroying parental despotism. in civil society he restored the right of property and fixed the sanctity of contract, thus assuring respect for the individual and the ascendancy of the law. the finances he reformed by an equitable system of taxation, and by the establishment of an ingenious treasury system comparable to that devised by alexander hamilton for the united states. in the concordat he went as far, probably, as france could then go in emancipating religion and the church; protestantism has prospered under the regulations he laid down, and by his treatment of the jews they have been changed from despised and down-trodden social freebooters into prosperous and patriotic citizens. upon every class of men then living he imposed by an iron will a system of his own. the leading survivors of jacobinism, extreme royalists, moderate republicans, proscribers and proscribed, men of the bourgeoisie--all bowed to his sway and accepted his rewards. it is said that they yielded to the superior force of his police and his pretorians. be it so. the fivefold police system he established was a system of checks and counter-checks within itself, within the administration, and even within the army--a body without which, as he firmly believed, the beginnings of social transformation could not be made. he professed, and no doubt honestly, that he would divest himself of this police service as opportunity served, and deluded both himself and his followers into the belief that the process was almost complete before the close of his era. through the perspective of a century we can see the faults of napoleon's plan. the gallic church is still roman, in spite of his intention that the roman church should become french; the extreme centralization of his administrative system still throttles local free government and makes both oligarchic rule and political revolution easier in france than in any other free land; the educational scheme which he formed, although more fully changed than any other of his institutions, and but recently embarked, let us hope, on a course for ultimate independence, nevertheless suffers in its present complete dependence on state support, and in the consequent absence of private personal enthusiasm which might make its separate universities and schools rich in opportunities and strong in the loyalty of their sons. but we must remember that the consulate was a hundred years since, and that for its day it wrought so beneficently that bonaparte, first consul, remains one of the foremost among all lawgivers and statesmen. and that, too, precisely for the reasons which some cite as condemning him. he took the revolutionary ideas of political, civil, and religious emancipation: with these he commingled both his own sound sense and the experience of advisers from every class, realizing as much of civil liberty and good order as appears to have been practical at the moment. but in one respect he failed miserably, and that failure vitiated much of the substantial gain which seemed to have been made. he failed in curbing his own ambition. the majestic ridge of his achievement was the verge of the precipice over which he fell. in the first place, his signal success as a lawgiver was due entirely to the dazzling splendors of his victories. marengo was the climax to a series of such achievements as had not so far been wrought on the tented field within the bounds of french history. it is easy to assert that the french were intoxicated because they were french: there is not the slightest reason to suppose that any other nation under similar circumstances would have behaved differently. the seven years' war turned the heads of the english people completely, and they lost their american colonies in consequence; rome lost her political liberty when she became mistress not only of the latin, but of the greek and oriental shores of the mediterranean; the distant military expeditions of alexander the great prepared the fall of his ill-assorted empire. in each case the careful student will admit that social exaltation was the forerunner of division and of subsequent despotism in some form. even in the little states of greece and southern italy the tyrants always arose from the disintegration of legal government, and by the assertion of some form of power--mind, money, or military force. it was, therefore, as a military despot that the first consul promulgated beneficent codes, founded an enduring jurisprudence, created an efficient magistracy, and established social order. in this process he completed the work of the revolution by exalting the third estate to ascendancy in the nation. the whole work, therefore, was not only recognized as his in the house of every french burgher: he was considered at every fireside to be the consummator of the revolution for which france had so long suffered in an agony of bloody sweat. was it therefore any wonder that not only he himself, but even the most enlightened leaders of european thought, considered the safety and renovation of european society to depend upon the extension of his work? it is hard for us to appreciate this, because in france napoleon's institutions have remained almost as he left them, and well-nigh stationary, while for a century the processes of ruthless reform have been continuously working in other european lands, and some neighboring peoples have outstripped the french in the matter of a national unity consistent with local freedom. the first consul felt that in order to become great he had been forced to become strong; we can understand that he could easily deceive himself into concluding that in order to be greater he must become stronger. it was in these days that he exclaimed, in the intimacy of familiar intercourse: "i feel the infinite in me." thereafter democracy in any form, even the mildest, was offensive. such men as roederer were sent to naples, berg--anywhere out of france. the times were not far removed from those of the beneficent despots, except that this one ruled, not by hereditary divine right, but by military force. bonaparte's imperfect training in politics and history made it possible for such visions as those which now arose to haunt his brain. the beneficence he had displayed already; for despotism he had had the finest conceivable training, first among the sluggish populations of the italian states which he had reorganized, then in the myth of egyptian conquest which he had created and felt bound to maintain, and lastly in the national disorders of a france shuddering at the possibility of a return either to the hideous excesses of the terror or to the intolerable abuses of ecclesiasticism and absolute monarchy. among other dreadful curses incident to revolution and civil war is the stimulation of fanaticism. in his seizure of the supreme power the purpose of the first consul was justified to himself, and his procedure was rendered tolerable to the nation at large by the scandalous intrigues and complots which were hatched like cockatrices' eggs in every foul cranny of the land. the conspirators stopped at nothing: bad faith, subornation, murder of every variety, from the dagger to the bowl. this gave the first consul his chance to become himself the arch-intriguer, and as such he overmatched all his opponents, ultramontanes, radicals, and royalists. finally only a few unreconstructed reactionaries were left from each of these classes, who, though exhausted and panting, still had the strength to be noisy, and occasionally to make a feint of activity. but in the various localities and classes of france each of the factions had numerous silent and inactive sympathizers who had surrendered only as they felt unable to keep up the uneven conflict. the flames of the volcano were quenched, and the gulf of the crater was bridged by a crust, but the lava of sedition boiled and seethed below. it is a well-known nostrum for civil dissension to stir up foreign conflict, and then to call upon the patriotism of men from all parties. to this the first consul dared not openly resort. in fact, the indications are that if his enemies in france and his foes abroad had consented peaceably to the fulfilment of his now manifest ambitions, he would himself have been glad enough to secure without further fighting what he had gained by war, and to extend the influence of a bonapartist france by steady encroachments rather than by exhausting hostilities. the word of every man has exactly the value which his character gives it, and treaties are worth the good faith of those who make them, not a tittle more. neither of the parties to the general peace was exhausted, neither was really earnest. it was a bellicose age: war was then in the air, as peace is now. the rupture of the treaty made at amiens was quite as much the work of george iii as it was of bonaparte the first consul, and the two nations over which they ruled were easily led to renew the struggle. nothing goes to prove that there was long premeditation on the part of either; but at the time and since, were it not for the widespread distrust in bonaparte's character, popular opinion would have put the blame of renewed war more upon his opponent than on him. thus far the angel and the devil which struggle for possession of every man had waged a fairly even conflict, and the blame and praise of what is stigmatized as bonaparte's conduct must be meted out to his foes in even measure. he and his times had interacted one upon the other to a remarkably even degree. but once launched on the career of personal aggrandizement, every hindrance to consuming ambition was ruthlessly cast aside. until the responsibility for inordinate bloodshed is all his own. it is needless to dwell upon the period of the empire in order to study napoleon's character. it shines forth effulgent, but noxious. he remained personally what he had always been--imperious, laborious, unprincipled; but, on the other hand, kindly, generous, sensitive to the popular movements. his thirst for power became predominant; his lavish contempt for men and money displayed the recklessness of a desperate parvenu; his passion for war burst all its bounds. personal ambition eclipsed principle, expediency, shrewdness--in short, every quality which makes for self-preservation. the reason was not conscious despair, but unconscious desperation. politically he had fought and won an easy but a decisive battle. imperialism was firmly seated. the behavior of the french people was natural enough, but they lent themselves to his purposes with complete surrender. in this the world learned a lesson which should never be forgotten: that democracy is an excellent workhorse, but a poor charger; a good hack, but an untrustworthy racer. the interest of the plain man is in his daily life, his family, his business, his advancement. he cannot be an expert in foreign or domestic politics, in public law, or in warfare; expertness requires the exclusive devotion of a lifetime. make the common person a theorist, and he is an ardent democrat, but a poor administrator. hence the necessity in transition epochs for a wise constitution. it was not difficult to convince the french burgher that, all other forms of democratic administration having had a chance and having failed in times of war, the only one so far untried--that of delegating power to a single superior man--should have a fair trial, the more as the excellent man was at hand. even in times of peace the hard-worked citizen either neglects his political duties altogether, or, performing them in a thoughtless routine, longs for some one he can trust to do his thinking and acting: in war, as far as we have had the opportunity to observe in ancient and modern times, his imperialism is avowed, and he demands a dictator. we have no reason to suppose that there is any democracy which could outlast twenty years of a herculean struggle for national life or death, and such the franco-english wars which introduced the last century seemed to the frenchman of that time to be. from the soldier's point of view, napoleon had likewise such an easy triumph as has fallen to the lot of few commanders. his opponents were so conservative that their ideas were antiquated, his own strategy was so new and revolutionary that it dumfounded them. a favorite method of detraction is illustrated by the familiar story of columbus's egg. what is once done, anybody can do. the strategic reputation of frederick the great is in our day first attacked by the so-called comparative method--that is, by comparing it with the achievements and system, not of his contemporaries, but of napoleon, his successor; and then the strategic reputation of napoleon is diminished by sneering at that of frederick, with whose antiquated method the new one came into comparison and contact, to the complete disaster of the former. this vicious circle may be dismissed with contempt. napoleon's strategic genius was, unlike any other talent he possessed, constructive and original. no doubt he studied cæsar; no doubt he studied maillebois; no doubt he studied the work of turenne and of the great frederick; no doubt he was a pupil of the giant soldiers who inaugurated and carried on the wars of the revolution; but while others had pursued the same studies, it remained for him to devise and put into operation a strategy based upon past experience, but subversive of accepted dogmas, new, adapted to its ends, and founded on theories which, though modified in practice by the discoveries of an intervening century, have, when properly understood, never, not even to-day, been shaken in principle. his triumphs as a soldier, therefore, are his own; and it was not until all europe had learned the lessons which he taught her generals by a series of object demonstrations lasting twenty years, that the teacher began to diminish in success and splendor. the persistent critics of frederick have been asking and reiterating questions such as these: why did not the king begin early in july, ? why did he not storm the camp of pirna? why did he not continue the war in october? why did he not renew hostilities the following year until forced to it? and so on, and so on. by this method they have shrunk the horizon to their own dimensions, and have imprisoned their victim within the pale of his faults; but a wider view and the historic background display his strategy in large outline, as illuminated by the light of his age; and thus the defeats of kolin and kunersdorf, as well as the victories of leuthen, rossbach, zorndorf, and torgau, exhibit the prussian general as the great genius which he was. it was not until napoleon had taught his rivals what fighting ought to be that men could also pick and nag at him by asking why waterloo did not begin four hours earlier, why more explicit directions were not given to grouchy, why in the desperate man chose to cut off the line of his enemies' communications rather than withdraw into paris and call the nation to arms; and so on to infinity. judged either historically or theoretically, the strategy of napoleon is original, unique, and unexcelled. it is his greatest achievement, because his most creative. chapter xxi napoleon and the united states a decisive epoch -- britain dominates the sea -- napoleon's policy -- trade and western empire -- to the west indies -- needs of the empire -- great britain's sea rival -- the imperial policy revealed -- tempestuous times in the united states -- party government -- livingston's efforts -- louisiana purchased -- effect on american life -- change in constitutional attitude -- the kaleidoscope of party politics -- preponderance of the south and west -- the louisiana purchase and the nation. a decisive epoch was that of the eighteenth-century revolutions, a crisis reached after long, slow preparation, precipitated by social and religious bigotry, dizzy in its consummation, wild and headlong in its flight, precipitous in its crash. of this important time the results have been so permanent that they are the commonplaces of contemporary history; in what carlyle called the revolutionary loom the warp and woof were spun from the past, and the fabric is that from which our working-clothes are cut. within those years appeared the great dominating soul of modern humanity, who displayed first and last every weakness and every sordid meanness of mankind, but in such giant dimensions that even his depravity inspires awe. his virtues were equally portentous because they worked on the grand scale, with materials that had been threshed and winnowed in the theory and experience of five generations of mankind. it was well within this stupendous age and by the act of this representative man that louisiana was redeemed from spanish misrule and incorporated with the territories of the united states. nor was this all. a careful examination of the general political situation at that time will exhibit the elemental and almost ultimate fact that the sale of louisiana was coincident with the turn of the age. the substance of the treaty of amiens was that great britain ostensibly abandoned all concern with the continent of europe, and that france, ostensibly too, should strictly mind her own affairs in her colonies and the remoter quarters of the globe. george iii removed from his escutcheon the fleur-de-lis, and from his ceremonial title the style of king of france. events narrated in another connection proved the whole negotiation to have been on both sides purely diplomatic, an exchange of public and hollow courtesies in order to gain time for the realities in the struggle for supremacy between the world powers of the period, a struggle begun with modern history, renewed in , and destined to last until the exhaustion of one of the contestants in . neither party to the treaty had the slightest intention of observing either its spirit or its letter. while the paper was in process of negotiation bonaparte was consolidating french empire on the continent, and after its signature he did not pause for a single instant to show even a formal respect for his obligations. the reorganization of holland in preparation for its incorporation into the french system, the annexation of piedmont and the defiance to russia in the matter of her italian protégés, the act of moderation in switzerland, and finally, the contemptuous rearrangement of germany, were successive steps which reduced england to despair for her continental trade. to her it seemed as if there could be no question about two things: first, that the old order must be restored, in order to safeguard her commerce; and second, that her colonial policy must be more aggressive than ever. it was samuel adams who first sneered at his fatherland as a people of shopkeepers. the winged word soon became a commonplace to all outsiders, but as it flew every nation that used the gibe girded itself to enter the struggle for the same goal. france above all was determined to be a nation of shopkeepers, and the first consul of what was still a shaky experiment in government knew well that rather than abandon that ambition, he must sacrifice every other. after all, a colonial empire has value only as the home nation has accessible ports, manufactories for colonial products, and wares to exchange with the producers. france had neither factories nor manufactures, and was destitute of nearly the whole machinery of exchange. her merchant vessels sailed only by grace of the british fleet. her home market was dependent on british traders even in times of war. bonaparte's foremost thought, therefore, was for concentration of energy. the sea-power of the world was britain's, and her tyranny of the seas without a real check; even the united states could only spit out defiant and revengeful threats when her merchantmen were treated with contempt on the high seas by british men-of-war. therefore with swift and comprehensive grasp he framed and announced a new policy. the french envoy in london was informed that france was now forced to the conquest of europe--this of course for the stimulating of french industries--and to the restoration of her occidental empire. this was most adroit. the embers of french patriotism could be fanned into a white heat by these well-worn but never exhausted expedients--a blast against perfidious albion and a sentimental passion for the new france beyond the atlantic. the motions were a feint against england by the formation of a second camp at boulogne, where a force really destined for austria was assembled, and the wresting of louisiana from the weak spanish hands which held it. as an incident of the agitation it seemed best that the french democracy should have an imperial rather than a republican title, and the style of emperor and empire was exhumed from the garbage heap of the terror for use in the pageantry of a court. in europe thus, as in the neighboring continents, the rearrangement of politics, territorial boundaries, social, economic, and diplomatic relations, a change which has made possible the modern system, was really dependent on the events which led to the adoption of the policy just described. but this policy involved a reversal of every sound historical principle in bonaparte's plans. for twelve years longer he was to commit blunder upon blunder; to trample on national pride; to elevate a false system of political economy into a fetish; to conduct, as in the moscow campaign, great migrations to the eastward in defiance of nature's laws; to launch his plain, not to say vulgar and weak, family on an enterprise of monarchical alliances for which they had no capacity; to undo, in short, as far as in him lay, every beneficent and well-conceived piece of statesmanship with which he had so far been concerned. it has been well said that had he died in midsummer, , his glory would have been immaculate and there would have been no spots on his sun. the napoleonic work in europe was destined to have its far-reaching and permanent results, but the man was ere long almost entirely eliminated from control over them. the very last of his great constructions was the sale of louisiana. he needed the purchase-money, he selected his purchaser and forced it on him, with a view to upbuilding a giant rival to the gigantic power of great britain. when we turn therefore to america, we shall at once observe on how slender a thread a great event may depend, how great a fire may be kindled by a spark adroitly placed. while yet other matters were hanging in the balance, he selected his own brother-in-law, general leclerc, such was his deep concern, to conduct an expedition to the west indies. there were embarked , men, and these the very flower of the republican armies, superb fighters, but a possible thorn in the side of a budding emperor at home. their goal was san domingo, where a wonderful negro, toussaint louverture, noting the attractive example of the benevolent despots in europe, had, under republican forms, not only abolished slavery, but had made himself a beneficent dictator. the fine but delicate structure of his negro state was easily crushed to the earth, but the fighting was fierce and prolonged, the climate and the pest were enabled to inaugurate and complete a work of slaughter more baleful than that of war, and two-thirds of the french invaders, including the commander and fifteen of his generals, fell victims to the yellow fever. the french were utterly routed, the sorry remnant sailed away, and the blacks fell into the hands of the worthless tyrant dessalines, whose misrule killed the germs of order planted by toussaint. one of our historians thinks this check of france by black soldiers to have been a determinative factor in american history, for thereafter there could be no question of a gulf and caribbean empire for france. louisiana, he indicates, became at once a superfluous dependency, costly and annoying. this is a far-fetched contention: great as have been the services of the negro to the united states since he first fought on the battle-field of monmouth under washington, the failure of france in san domingo was not through the sword of the blacks, but was an act of god through pestilence. the circumstances that forced louisiana upon the united states, then a petty power with revenues and expenditures less than those of many among the single states which now compose the federation, arose from napoleon's european necessities. the cession from spain included all that spain had received from france, the whole gulf coast from st. mary's to the rio grande, and the french pretensions not only northwestward to the rockies but even to the pacific. the return made to spain was the insignificant kingdom of etruria and a solemn pledge that, should the first consul fail in his promise, louisiana in its fullest extent was to be restored to spain. france therefore might not otherwise alienate it to any power whatever. the exacting and suspicious spirit shown both by charles iv and his contemptible minister godoy, prince of the peace, had exasperated bonaparte beyond endurance. the spanish bourbons were doomed by him to the fate of their kinsfolk in france; a pledge to a vanishing phantom of royalty was of small account. it was during the delay created by the punctilio of godoy that the failure of the san domingo expedition extinguished all hope of making louisiana the sole entrepôt and staple of supplies for the west indies. and simultaneously it grew evident that the truce negotiated at amiens as a treaty could not last much longer, that either france must endure the humiliation of seeing her profits therefrom utterly withheld, or herself declare war, or goad great britain into a renewal of hostilities. this last, as is well known, was the alternative chosen by napoleon. our government had been in despair. the establishment of french empire in the west indies would have destroyed our lucrative trade with the islands. it was trying enough that a feeble power like spain should command the outlet of the mississippi basin, but intolerable that such a mastery of the continent should fall into the hands of a strong and magisterial power like france. we were in dismay, even after the departure of the french from san domingo. bonaparte, however, was scarcely less disturbed; for jefferson, despite his avowed gallicism, spiritedly declared both to the first consul and to livingston, our minister to paris, that the occupation of louisiana by the great french force organized to that end could only result in an alliance of the two english-speaking nations which would utterly banish the french flag from the high seas. bonaparte preserved an outward calm for those about him and went his way apparently unperturbed. but inwardly his mind seethed, and without long delay he took his choice between the courses open to him. it was the first exhibition to himself and his family of the imperial despot soon to be known as napoleon i, emperor of the french. if britain was the tyrant of the seas, he would be despot of the land. to french empire he would reduce germany, italy, and spain in subjection, and with all the maritime resources of the continent at his back he would first shut every important port to english commerce, and then with allied and dependent fleets at his disposal try conclusions with the british behemoth for liberty of the seas and a new colonial empire. by the second camp at boulogne and the occupation of hanover, napoleon threw england into panic, while simultaneously he began the creation of his grand imperial army and thereby menaced austria, the greatest german power, in her coalition with russia, sweden, naples, and great britain. the latter, he was well aware, could face a hostile demonstration on her front with courage, if not with equanimity; and he determined to add a double stroke--to gain a harvest of gold and on her rear to strengthen her exasperated transatlantic sea rival by selling louisiana to the united states. [illustration: photograph in the collection of dr. charles j. cooper napoleon i from the bust by chaudet, after the death-mask. the bust marks the place where stood the bed on which napoleon died.] that determination was the turning-point in his career, just as the sudden wheel and about-face of the splendid force at boulogne, when he hurled it across europe at vienna, displayed at last the turning-point in his policy. his brother lucien had been an influential negotiator with spain and plumed himself on the acquisition of the great domain which had been for long the brightest jewel in the crown of france. his brother joseph had negotiated the treaty of amiens as a step preparatory to regaining a magnificent colonial empire for his country, an empire of which an old and splendid french possession was to be the corner-stone. both were stunned and then infuriated when they learned their brother's resolution, sensations which were intensified to fury when they heard him announce that he would work his will in spite of all constitutional checks and balances. there is no historic scene more grotesque than that depicted by lucien in his memoirs when he and joseph undertook to oppose napoleon. the latter was luxuriating in his morning bath on april seventh, , in the tuileries when the brothers were admitted. after a long and intimate talk on general politics the fateful subject was finally broached by napoleon, as he turned from side to side and wallowed in the perfumed water. neither of the brothers could control his feelings, and the controversy grew hot and furious from minute to minute until joseph, leaning over the tub, roared threats of opposition and words of denunciation. brother napoleon, lifting himself half-way to the top, suddenly fell back and clenched his arguments by splashing a full flood in the face and over the body of joseph, drenching him to the skin. a valet was summoned, entered, and, paralyzed by the fury of the scene, fell in a dead faint. new aid was called and, the fires of passion being quenched for the time, the conflict ended until napoleon and joseph were decently clothed, when it was renewed in the office of the secretary bourrienne. ere long hot words were again spoken, violent language was succeeded by violent gestures, until at last napoleon in a theatrical rage dashed his snuff-box on the floor, and the contestants separated. disjointed and fierce as was the stormy argument, it revealed the whole of the imperial policy. meanwhile events in america, if not so picturesque and majestic, were equally tempestuous. the peace policy of jefferson was rapidly going to pieces in the face of a westward menace, the federalists were jubilant, and in the senate james ross, of pennsylvania, called for war. when the intendant of spain at new orleans denied americans the storage rights they had enjoyed in that city since , the french politics of the president fell into general disrepute and contempt, for men reasoned _a fortiori_, if such things be done in the green tree, what shall be done in the dry? it mattered not that spain's highest official, the governor, disavowed the act, the fire was in the stubble. the intendant was stubborn and the fighting temper waxed hot. both the governor and the spanish envoy at washington disavowed the act again and rebuked the subordinate. congress was soothed, but not so the people of the west and south. they were fully aware, as have been all our frontiersmen and pioneers from the beginning, that the mississippi and all the lands it waters are the organic structure of unity and successful settlement on this continent. the pacific and atlantic coast strips, even the great but bleak valley of the st. lawrence, are mere incidents of territorial unity and political control when compared with the great alluvion of the mississippi. this was unknown, utterly unknown, and worse yet, entirely indifferent to our statesmen. madison certainly, and possibly jefferson, believed that western immigration would pause and end on the east bank of the father of waters. yet party government was a necessity under the american system, and jefferson's ladder, the republican party, would be knocked into its component parts should the west and south, noisy, exacting, and turbulent, desert and go over to the expiring faction of the federalists; nay, worse, it might be forced into almost complete negation of its own existence by a forced adoption of the federalist policy, alliance with great britain--monarchic and aristocratic--rather than with radical and democratic france. what could a distracted partizan do? jefferson was adroit and inventive. he sent james monroe to negotiate with bonaparte for the purchase of new orleans and both floridas at the price of two millions, or upward to ten, for all or part, whatever he could get; he was not even to disdain the deposit or storage right, if nothing else could be had, and if he could get nothing, he was to await instructions. with such credentials he sailed on march eighth, . a peace-lover must sometimes speak low and small, even as cowards sometimes do. three weeks later appeared in new orleans laussat, the advance agent of french occupation; victor and his troops were to follow. it is not possible to conceive that a foreign policy could be more perplexing, confused, or uncertain than that of the philosophic theorist who is the hero of the strict-constructionist party in these united states. robert r. livingston, the regular american envoy at paris, had, under his instructions from home, worked with skill and zeal on the spoliation claims and incidentally on the question of the mississippi and the floridas. while the colonization schemes of bonaparte seemed feasible, livingston made no headway whatever, except to extort an admission that the spoliation claims were just. neither talleyrand nor livingston was much concerned about the great northwest. the american was clear that the importance of any control lay in the possession of new orleans, and on april eleventh, , he said so to the french minister, vigorously and squarely declaring further that a persistent refusal of our request would unite us with great britain to the serious discomfiture of france in her colonial aspirations. this was said with some asperity, for livingston had been aware that the first consul wanted all negotiation transferred to washington under the guidance of a special envoy, the wilful bernadotte, sent for the purpose; and now, worse yet, he himself was to be superseded by monroe. he had been a diligent and even importunate negotiator; it was a ray of comfort in later days to recall that the first suggestion for the sale of all louisiana was made to him in that momentous interview. what had occurred livingston could not know. it was this. on the morning of that very day there reached the tuileries despatches giving in full detail an account of the tremendous preparations making in england for the renewal of war both by land and sea. bonaparte's impatience knew no bounds. hitherto he had concealed his true policy of sale behind a scheme to spend the purchase-money on internal improvements in france, and he had on his work-table map-outlines for five great canals. now, at daybreak, he summoned barbé-marbois, sometime french consul-general in the united states, an official of state with a thorough knowledge of our affairs, and ordered that a negotiation for the sale, not of the floridas and new orleans, but of all louisiana, should immediately be opened with livingston. he fixed the price at fifty million francs. the envoy could of course do nothing, but he thought thirty millions enough. next day monroe arrived at havre, and reaching paris on the thirteenth, that very same day barbé-marbois and our two great statesmen began to treat. upon monroe and livingston devolved a momentous responsibility. to monroe by a most indefinite implication was left a certain liberty, for under no circumstances whatsoever was he to end a negotiation if once it was begun. and here, instead of minimizing terms, was, so to speak, a great universe of land tender. but we had not so easily thrown off the bright and glistening garment of righteousness as had napoleon bonaparte, and in the minds of both americans was the question, non-existent for the first consul, as he himself squarely said, of whether the inhabitants of the district, men and women, human souls, could be dealt in as chattels are. livingston had already seen darkly as in a glass what possession of the west might do for the united states. bonaparte's contributions to the discussion were terse and trenchant. if he did not transfer the title right speedily, a british fleet would take possession almost in a twinkling; the transfer, he said, might in three centuries make america the rival of europe; why not? it was a long way ahead; but, on the other hand, there never had been an enduring confederation, and this one in america was unlikely to begin the series; finally, he wanted the cash, as the united states wanted the land. let there be no delay. and there was none. the terms of the sale and the facts of the transfer do not concern us here. in bonaparte the united states had no friend; but what the ancient régime began in helping to establish american independence, the first consul completed; for, thanks to him, the war of was fought for commercial liberty, while the exploitation of louisiana has made the nation what it is to-day. the great territory, with all its responsibilities and possibilities, made the united states a world power; a puny enough power at first, but it has grown. jefferson and his agents were primarily statesmen for the purpose of existing conditions, and in monroe's mission desired a remedy solely and entirely for party evils. they had, however, the courage to accept the fortune forced upon them, even though in their case, as in that of bonaparte, it entailed, we repeat, a complete reversal of all the political and party principles of the platform on which they had hitherto stood. the change wrought by the louisiana purchase in american life and culture was simply revolutionary. hitherto in our weakness we had faced backward, varying between two ideas of european alliance. we virtually had british and french parties. jefferson, who represented the latter, thought of no other alternative in his trouble than to strike hands with england. with louisiana on our hands, we turned our faces to our own front door. the louisiana we bought had no pacific outlet in reality, but the lewis and clark expedition gave it one, and that we have broadened by war and by purchase until we control the western shore of the continent. under such engrossing cares we ceased to think of either french or british ties, except as exasperating, and became not merely americans, but, realizing washington's aspirations, turned into real continentals, with a scorn of all entanglements whatever. in the occupation and settlement of louisiana the slavery question became acute, and the struggle to expand that system over louisiana soil precipitated the civil war. but if the change in national outlook was radical, that in constitutional attitude was even more so. the constitutions of our original states were the expression of political habits in a community, the federal constitution was in the main a transcript of those elements which were common in some degree to all the british colonies. it was an age of written constitutions, because the flux of institutions was so rapid that men needed a mooring for the substantial gains they had made. the past was so recent that statesmen were timid, and they wanted their metes and bounds to be fixed by a monument. nothing was more natural than to pause and fall back on the record thus made permanent, and strict construction was and long continued to be a political fetish. the louisiana purchase was a circumstance of the first importance in party struggle. yet neither federalist nor republican dared, after mature deliberation, to urge the question of constitutional amendment as essential to meet the crisis thus precipitated. the enormous price entailed what was felt to be an intolerable burden of taxation, and in the uproar of spoken and printed debate played no small part. but the vital question was whether the adjustment of new relations was constitutional. never did the kaleidoscope of politics display a more surprising reversal of effect. the loose-construction party lost its wits entirely, while the strict constructionists suddenly became the apostles not of verbal but of logical construction. jefferson violated his principles in signing the treaty, but he was easily persuaded that amendment was not necessary, that on the contrary the treaty-making power covered the case completely. this was not conquest, which would have been covered by the war power, but purchase, which is covered by the treaty power, surrendered, like the other, by the states to the federal government. the federalists were represented in the house by gaylord griswold; in the senate by ross and pickering. their resistance was identical in both factious to the highest degree. they contended that the executive had usurped the powers of congress by regulating commerce with foreign powers and by incorporating foreign soil and foreign people with the united states, this last being a power which it was doubtful whether congress possessed. supposing, however, that new orleans became american, how could a treaty be valid which gave preferential treatment to that single port in admitting french and spanish ships on equal terms with those owned by americans? the treaty, they asseverated, was therefore unconstitutional and, even worse, impolitic, because we were unfitted and did not desire to incorporate into our delicately balanced system peoples different in speech, faith, and customs from ourselves. they were, however, only mildly opposed to expansion; they were determined and captious in the interpretation of the constitution. the party in power were avowedly expansionist; their retort was equally dialectic and vapid. the whole discussion would have been empty except for pickering's contention that there existed no power to incorporate foreign territory into the united states, as was stipulated by the treaty. the house had resolved, ninety to twenty-five, to provide the money and had appointed a committee on provisional government; the senate ratified the treaty, twenty-six to five. what made the debates and action of congress epochal was the federalist contention that thomas jefferson as provisional and interim governor was nothing more or less than an american despot in succession to a spanish tyrant. where was the constitution now; where would it be when in appointing the necessary officials--executive, judicial, and legislative--he would usurp not merely spanish despotism but the powers of both the other branches of the federal government? the republicans quibbled, too; to appoint these three classes of officials was not to exercise their powers. but they confirmed in unanswerable logic a distinction thus far only mooted in our political history--that between states and territories. already presidential appointees were exercising all three powers in mississippi and indiana. this clenched the contentions of the republicans, and the bill for provisional government passed by an overwhelming vote on october thirty-first. both parties throughout the struggle had tacitly abandoned the position that congress possessed merely delegated powers and nothing further except the ability to carry them into effect. both therefore admitted the possible interpretation of the constitution under stress of necessity, and the federalists in their quibbling contentions lost hold everywhere except in new england. that section saw its influence eclipsed by the preponderance of southern and western power and ere long was ripe for secession. volumes have been written and more will be on the romance of the louisiana purchase; josiah quincy threatened the dismemberment of the union when the present state of louisiana was admitted in ; but for jefferson's wisdom in exploration it might have remained a wilderness long after settlement began; great britain coveted it in when jackson saved it; aaron burr probably coveted an empire within it; napoleon iii had dreams of its return to the new france he was to found in mexico. excluding the floridas, which spain would not concede as a part of it, and the oregon country, the territory thus acquired was greater than that of great britain, germany, france, spain, portugal, and italy combined. its agricultural and mineral resources were, humanly speaking, inexhaustible. no wonder it excited the cupidity as it stirred the imagination of mankind; no wonder if men avid to retain their power were dismayed at the preponderance it was sure to exert eventually in a federal union of states. at the present moment fourteen of our commonwealths, with a population of about sixteen millions and a taxable wealth of seven billions, occupy its soil. by the time we are fifty years older, at the present rate of settlement, these will contain about a third of the power in the union as determined by numbers and prosperity. all of them, however, were from the first administrative districts, never states, and by the retroactive influence of this fact state sovereignty has thus been made an empty phrase. and this leads us to remember that, if the louisiana purchase revolutionized our national outlook, our constitutional attitude, and our sectional control, it quite as radically changed our national texture. from that hour to this we have called to the masses of europe for help to develop the wilderness, and they have come by millions, until now the men and women of revolutionary stock probably number less than fifteen millions in the entire country. these later americans have, like the migrations of the norsemen in central and southern europe, proved so conservative in their americanism that they outrun their predecessors in loyalty to its essentials. they made the union as it now is, in a very high sense, and there is no question that in the throes of civil war it was their blood which flowed at least as freely as ours in its defense. it is they who have kept us from developing on colonial lines and have made us a nation separate and apart. this it is which has prevented the powerful influence of great britain from inundating us, while simultaneously two english-speaking peoples have reacted one upon the other in their radical differences to keep aflame the zeal for exploration, beneficent occupation, and general exploitation of the globe in the interests of a high civilization. the localities of the union have been stimulated into such activities that manufactures and agriculture have run a mighty race; commerce alone lags, and no wonder, for louisiana gave us a land world of our own, a home market more valuable than both the indies or the continental mass of the far east. chapter xxii napoleon's place in history exhaustion -- the change in napoleon's views -- intermitting powers -- their extinction -- common sense and idealism -- the man and the world -- the philosophy of expediency -- a mediating work -- french institutions -- transformation of france -- napoleon and english policy -- his work in germany -- french influence in italy and eastern europe -- napoleon and the western world. [sidenote: summary] if napoleon's qualities as usurper, statesman, and warrior be as remarkable as they appear, why was his time so short, what were the causes of his decline, and what is his place in history? the causes of his decline may be summed up in a single word--exhaustion. there exists no record of human activity more complete than is that of napoleon bonaparte's life. in its beginnings we can see this worshiper of power stimulating his immature abilities in vain until, with reckless desperation, he closed the period of training and made his scandalous bargain with barras; then, grown suddenly, inexplicably rich, becoming with better clothing, food, and lodging physically more vigorous, he seems mercilessly to drive the rowels into his own flanks until initiative, ingenuity, and ruthlessness are displayed with apparently superhuman dimensions. the period of achievement is short, but glorious in politics; the age of domination is long and exciting. throughout both there is the same wanton physical excess and intellectual dissipation. then comes the turn. every human age has in it the germs of the next; we begin to die at birth, and the characteristic qualities and powers of one period diminish as those of the next increase. so it was with napoleon. he compressed so much, both as regards the number and importance of events, into so short a space that his times are like those wrinkled japanese pictures which are made by shriveling a large print into a small compass--intense and deep, but unreal. to change the metaphor, he found the ship of state dashing onward, with her helm lashed and no one daring to take the task of the steersman in hand. he cut the lashings and laid hold. his unassisted efforts as a pilot gave the vessel a new course; but he had no steam or other mechanical power, no _deus ex machinâ_, to aid him; and, as the storm increased, exhaustion followed; he seemed to be steering when, in reality, his actions were under the compulsion of events he was not controlling; and this continued until the wreck. but the inertia of his powers resembled their rise so perfectly as to represent continuous growth, and thus to deceive observers: in a few years he had ordered the revolutionary chaos of western europe to his liking, and the resultant organization worked by the principles he had infused into it. as he saw his imperfect and shallow theories of society successively confounded, he had no vigor left to reconstruct them and adapt himself to new situations. his efforts at the rôle of liberator throughout the hundred days deserve careful study. he simply could not yield or adapt himself, except in non-essentials. the shifts to which he had resort would have been ridiculous had they not been pathetic. the governmental forms attempted by the revolution had been successively destroyed by the furious energy of jacobinism: the directory was but a compromise, and when it took refuge for safety in the army its performances seemed to the masses sure to bring back the terror; the consulate was only a disguised monarchy founded on military force; and as royalism was impossible, there seemed to vast numbers no other alternative than the empire. that there was no other alternative was due to napoleon's imperious character, now developed to its utmost extent. he was selfish, hardened, and, though active like his symbolic bee, without capacity for further development. his mother knew that he could not hold out; she said it, and saved money for a rainy day. he himself had haunting premonitions of this truth. his passion to perpetuate himself by founding a dynasty was the real basis for his warlike ardor. profoundly moved, in fact awe-stricken, by the imperishable hatred of the older dynasties, and yet reveling in his military genius, he waged war ruthlessly and with zest, enjoying the discomfiture of his foes, and delighting in the exercise of his powers. but, after all, war was but a means. he frequently dwelt on the advantages of hereditary succession; he lingered with suspicious frequency over the satisfaction a dynastic ruler must feel in the devotion or, if not that, in the submissiveness of his people; he was hypersensitive to the slightest popular disturbance; and he must have foreboded his own fall, since he was accustomed to wear poison in an amulet around his neck, so that when the great crisis should arrive he might take his own life. "ah! why am i not my grandson?" he longingly ejaculated. this single cause of napoleon's fall can be better seen in the record of his second captivity than in any other portion of his life. there is no such thing as absolute exhaustion short of death. but intermittent and flickering exertion is symptomatic of failing powers in a jaded horse; it forebodes the end in a worn-out man. cheerful and busy at first, because recruited by a long and favorable sea-voyage, he set out in st. helena at a racing gait to write history and mold the public opinion of europe. playful and energetic, he caught together the scanty remnants of his momentary grandeur, and emulated the masters of ceremony at the tuileries in organizing a court and issuing edicts for the conduct of its little affairs. his life was to be that of a caged lion--caged, but yet a lion. the plan would not work. in the affairs of longwood there were, as everywhere, hitches and irregularities. to napoleon these soon became not the incidents, but the substance of life. with the departure of his secretaries the business of biographical composition became first irksome, then impossible, and the poor muse of history was finally turned out of doors. to regular exercise succeeded spasmodic over-exertion; complaint became the subject-matter for the exercise of both mind and tongue; daily association with kindly but second-rate persons checked the flow of great ideas; the combinations of austerlitz and wagram gave place to the small moves in a game of spite with a bureaucratic british governor. from the days of his boyhood until his alliance with barras the exile had been a dreamy, vague, indefinite, unsuccessful fellow; his powers were not quickly developed. while he had france and europe to work upon, he showed the extraordinary qualities repeatedly outlined, mind and hand, thought and deed, working together. already jaded, his stupendous capacity became intermittent after the fatal armistice of poischwitz; but it worked, for it still had the raw material of grand strategy and great politics to work on. this continued until after waterloo. that battle, not a great one in itself, was nevertheless epic, both in its effects upon the world and in its ruin of the brains which had swayed the destinies of europe for twenty years. between the flight to charleroi and the escape to the _bellerophon_, napoleon shows no pluck and no brains. in actual captivity his mind was without a sufficient task and under no pressure from necessity. it consequently, though somewhat invigorated at first, intermitted more and more toward the close, working, when it did work, awkwardly and with friction, until the physical collapse came, and the end was reached. the attempts to remodel history, the efforts to delineate his own and others' motives, the specious summaries of his career and its epochs, the fragmentary expositions of his philosophy in ethics, politics, and psychology--all the stately volumes which bear his name, his literary remains, in fact, present a pitiful sight when closely examined. they are but the scoriæ of a burnt-out mind, but dust and ashes; a splendid mass, but an extinct volcano. it was only natural that his successors and admirers should seek to erect a more enduring foundation for his fame by collecting and carefully editing what he had written when at his best, when acting according to his momentary, normal impulse, and when, therefore, he had the least pose and the greatest sincerity. but it is a proof of their shrewdness that they selected and published less and less after erfurt, and that out of the voluminous pen-product of st. helena they chose a hundred and fifty pages which the "correspondence," intended to be the most splendid monument to the emperor's glory, could present as authentic biographical material. if, then, napoleon was after all but a plain man, how did he become a personage? simply because he was the typical man of his day, less the personal mediocrity; the typical burgher in personal character, the typical soldier in war, the typical despot in peace, and the typical idealist in politics; capable in all these qualities of analysis; capable, consequently, of being understood; capable of exhaustion and of being overwhelmed by combinations. in other words, he was really great because he was the shrewd common-sense personage of his age, considering the ideal social structure as a level of comfort in money, in shelter, in food, in clothes, in religion, in morality, in decency, in domestic good-nature, in the commonplace good things fairly divided as far as they would go round. this was the side of his nature which in a period of social exhaustion planted him four-square as a social force, presented him to france as the rock against which the "red fool-fury" of jacobinism had dashed itself to pieces, and gave him for a time command of all hearts. thus established, he at once fell heir to french tradition--that is, to the continuous policy of the nation in foreign and domestic affairs; which was that france should be the jupiter in the olympus of european nations by reason of her excellence both in beauty and in strength. here was a temptation not to be resisted, the superlative temptation like that of the serpent and the woman, the chance to transcend by knowledge, the opportunity to "hitch his wagon to a star," to commingle the glory of france with his own until the elements were no longer separable. into this snare, great as he was in his representative plainness, he fell, and in the ensuing confusion he not only destroyed himself, but brought the proud and splendid nation which had cherished him to the very verge of destruction. he could not sway one emancipated people without swaying an emancipated europe, and this after austerlitz he determined to do. then he lost his head: his wisdom turned out to be nothing but adoration of mere expediency; his strength proved weakness when, with his imperial idealism, he braved in spain the idealism of a true nation; his vaunted physical endurance disappeared with self-indulgence, the golden head and brazen loins fell in a crash as the feet of clay disintegrated before the storm of national uprisings. this being true, we have in his career every element of epic greatness: a colossal man, a chaotic age, the triumph of principle, the reëstablishment of historical equilibrium by means of a giant cast away when no longer needed. and this epic quality, which is not in the man alone nor in the age alone, appears when the two are combined, and then only. looking at him in our cold light, he has every attribute of the commonplace adventurer; looking at the france of with our perspective, the people and the times appear almost mad in their frantic efforts to accomplish the work of ages in the moments of a single lifetime. yet combine the two, and behold the man of the third estate rising, advancing, reflecting, and then planting himself in the foreground as the most dramatic figure of public life, and you have a scene, a stage, and actors which cannot be surpassed in the range of history. to the end of the consulate the action is powerful, because it represents reality: a nation unified, a people restored to wholesome influences, peace inaugurated, constitutional government established. there is so far no tawdry decoration, no fine clothes, no posing, no ranting. but with the next scene, that of the empire, the spectator becomes aware of all these annoyances, and more. the leading actor grows self-conscious, identifies himself with the public interest for personal ends and to the detriment of the nation, displays no moral or artistic self-restraint, and soon arranges every element so as to make his studied personal ambitions appear like the resultants of ominous forces which act from without, and against which he is donning the armor of despotism for the public good. the play becomes a human tragicomedy, and, verging to its close, ends, like the tragedies of the greeks, with a people betrayed and the force of the age chained to a torrid rock as the sport of the elements. was this the end, and did napoleon have no place in history, as many historians have lately been contending? far from it. from his couch of porphyry beneath the gilded dome on the banks of the seine, the emperor, though "dead and turned to clay," still exercises a powerful sway. the actual napoleonic empire had, as we have before remarked, a striking resemblance to those of alexander and charlemagne. based, as were these, upon conquest, and continued for a little life by the idealism of a single person, it seemed like a brilliant bubble on the stream of time. but alexander hellenized the civilization of his day, and prepared the world for christianity; charlemagne plowed, harrowed, and sowed the soil of barbaric europe, making it receptive for the most superb of all secular ideals, that of nationality; napoleon tore up the system of absolutism by the roots, propagated in the most distant lands of europe the modern conception of individual rights, overthrew the rotten structure of the german-roman empire, and in spite of himself regenerated the long-abused ideas of nationality and fatherland. it must be confessed that his own shallow political science, the second-hand rousseauism he had learned from his desultory reading, had little to do with this, except negatively. one by one he saw his faiths made ridiculous by the violent phases of jacobinism after it took control of the revolutionary movement. his heart, his conscience, his intellect, all undisciplined, then revolted against the metaphysic which had misled him, and "ideologist" became his most contemptuous epithet. controlled by instinct and ambition, he nevertheless remained throughout his period the one thorough idealist among the men of action, goethe being the superlative, transcendent genius of idealism among the thinkers. each successive day saw his scorn of physical limitations increase, his impatience of language, customs, laws, of local attachment, personal fidelity, and national patriotism grow. the result was a fixed conviction that for humanity at large all these were naught. at last he planted himself upon the burgher philosophy of utility and expediency, putting his faith in the loyalty of his family, in homely dependence upon matrimonial alliance, in the passion of humanity for physical ease and earthly well-being. this was the concert by which he sought to create a federation of beneficent kingdoms that would win all men to the prime mover. space and time rebelled; the lofty ideals of humanity and philosophy would not down; selfishness proved impotent as a support; the dreamer recognized that again he had been deceived. haggard and exhausted, he finally turned, in the rôle of napoleon liberator, to the notion of nationality and of government swayed by popular will in all its phases. but it was too late. instead of being the leader of a van, he had forgotten, in his own phrase, to keep pace with the march of ideas, and was a straggler in the rear, without a moral status or a devoted following. all this is true; but it is equally true that much of his work endured both in france and in the civilized world. in france, indeed, the work he did has been in some details only too enduring. history is there to tell us that the test of high civilization is not necessarily in great dimensions. those histories of the ancient world in which humanity seems strange and distasteful, of egypt, phenicia, babylon, and assyria, were wide in extent and long in duration: those of greece and rome, whose poets, statesmen, legislators, and warriors are our despair, were small in proportion and comparatively short in duration, while they were normal and healthy; the world-empires of both were neither natural nor admirable. it will not do, therefore, to judge napoleon by the length of his career, nor by the standards of other times and different circumstances. the centralization of administration in the commonwealth which he rescued from the clutches of anarchy was probably essential to the rescue; the expediency which he deliberately cultivated in the concordat, in the laws of the family and inheritance, and in the fatal continental system, was possibly a statesman's palliative for momentary political disease. his artificial aristocracy, his system of great fiefs, his financial shifts--who dares to say that these institutions did not meet a temporary want? moreover, it is worth considering whether a direct reaction to moderate, sane republicanism from extreme and furious jacobinism was possible at all, and whether a reaction from napoleon's imperial democracy was not easier and the results more permanent. in other words, is it likely that the third french republic could have been the direct successor of the first? the question is certainly debatable. no pen can so delineate the sufferings of france under napoleonic institutions as that of taine has so ably and scathingly done; his wonderful etching powerfully exhibits painful truths. but who is to blame if a nation is hampered by its administration, by a centralization it no longer needs, by social regulations which it has outgrown, by political habits which do not suit the age? not alone the man who inaugurated them, for ends partly selfish but also partly statesmanlike; the people who timidly endure are responsible for the doom which will certainly overtake any nation living in a social and political structure antiquated and unsuitable. one thing at least the new france has done with magisterial style: she has introduced into her political machinery respect for political habit. the french government of to-day is distinctly an outgrowth of conditions, and not of theories. its constitution has none of the fatal marks of completeness which her other republican constitutions have borne; on the contrary, there never was a period in modern times when to the outsider french institutions seemed as crescive as they do to-day. and they have abundant material on which to work. there are signs that the system of nations as armed camps, for which napoleon set the example, is breaking by its own weight; modern armies are mostly national schools controlled by scientific inquisitiveness and permeated by a civic spirit; the pacific federal system of the great european powers sometimes seems feeble and rickety, but it is in existence. alliances are now federations for peace; the triple alliance continues to be a federation for peace; so too the sextuple alliance, so energetic and persistent in its support of turkey, has been a federation for peace. perhaps the day is nearer than we think when the hague tribunal shall develop a vigorous, practical working system of international understandings, without appeal to war. then certainly, but long before, let us hope, france may anchor her liberties in a bill of rights, destroy judicial inquisition, begin to slacken the bonds of her prefectoral system, emancipate her universities and academies, regenerate public feeling as to the increase of population by modifying her laws of the family, and go on not only to populate her own fertile fields, but to make the magnificent colonies which she has acquired the future homes of countless children, a field for exerting her superfluous energy--in short, when she may slough off her now superfluous napoleonic institutions. it would be utterly unjust, however, to plead a justification of napoleon solely by such a monumental fact as that he was in all likelihood the forerunner of modern france. even when the country adopted him, his positive, direct influence for good was great. the concordat whatever its faults, partly secured a free church and a free state, separating thus what god had never joined together in holy wedlock; his splendid codes--for no matter who pondered and shaped them, they were his in execution--have guaranteed the perpetuity of civil equality not only in france, but, as the sequel has shown, throughout great expanses of europe; the questions of a nation's right to its chosen ruler and government, agitated in a new form during the hundred days, were those with which succeeding generations were concerned until they were answered in the affirmative. the difference between the france of and that of is on one side painful, but on another side it is remarkably significant. the former was transitional and chaotic; the latter had that amazing but completed social union, stronger than any ever known in history, which has saved the country in succeeding storm-periods. in it there was respect for persons, for contract, for property; the administration was unitary, homogeneous, and active; the finances, though not regulated, were restored to vigor; and the processes were inaugurated by which the great cities of france have become healthful and beautiful, while at the same time the internal improvements of the country have been systematized and rendered splendid in their efficiency. revolutionary concepts were so modified and assimilated that the efforts of the dynasties, when put to the test of public opinion, failed because they were felt to be absurd by the masses. it was one of napoleon's aphorisms that "to have the right of using nations, you must begin by serving them well." like a good burgher, he made his servants comfortable and happy. his example, moreover, was reflected abroad throughout europe; and to the millions of plain and not very shrewd inhabitants of other lands, the revolution, as napoleon had shaped it, lost many of the horrors with which jacobinism, to the everlasting damnation of both the thing and its name, had clothed it. it is a question whether there was in existence a strong liberal france, such as idealists depict, that could pacifically have done this wonderful work. examining and duly weighing the desperation of dynastic absolutism, it looks as if nothing but the counter-poison of napoleon's militarism could have prevented its annihilating french liberalism. without napoleon the conservative liberalism of to-day would have been impossible. turning to the field of general history, there are certain facts, admittedly napoleon's doing, which quite as certainly are among the most important factors of contemporary politics. of themselves these would suffice to give him a high place in constructive history. in the first place, he deprived england of the monopoly in what had long been essentially and peculiarly her political ideal. what was the basis of the long conflict between england and france to which napoleon fell heir? was the struggle of these two glorious and enlightened sister nations a struggle for territorial ascendancy in europe? not entirely. was it a life-and-death struggle for ascendancy in the western world? no. the seven years' war had decided that question against france, and the american war for independence had in a sense evened the score in its decision against england; for the prize had been awarded to a new people. no; the conflict did not rage over this. what, then, was the cause? nothing less than a passion for the ascendancy of one of these highest forms of civilization throughout the globe, including both europe and america. this anglo-saxon political, commercial, religious, and social conception was, after the napoleonic wars, no longer confined to great britain. thence onward the great powers of europe have been chiefly concerned, aside from their care for self-preservation, in partitioning africa and asia among themselves; and this process is no sooner complete than they begin to murmur about the monroe doctrine and to cast longing eyes toward central and south america. the state system which was once european has become coextensive with the sphere on which we live, and this notion of world-domination, so denounced when held by napoleon, has become the motive-power of every great modern civilization. if we consider the national politics of europe beyond the boundaries of france, history again becomes a record of influences started by napoleon's works, either of commission or of omission. russia's grandeur as a european power appears to be largely due to the temporary extinction of poland's hope for national resurrection. had napoleon, instead of playing his doubtful game with the grand duchy of warsaw, turned into an autonomous permanency the scarcely known provisional government of poland, which he actually inaugurated and which worked for a considerable time, and had he restored to its sway both the prussian and austrian shares in the shameless partition, we might have seen quite another result to the military migration of . we can scarcely doubt, moreover, that poland, restored under french protection, would have been a buffer state between russia, prussia, and austria, rendering the crushing coalition an impossibility in , while in the allies could probably never have crossed the french frontier, if indeed they had dared to go even so far in their march across europe. but his positive achievement was quite as important. the germany of to-day is a great federal state guided, but not dominated, by prussia. what are its other important members? bavaria, würtemberg, and baden--all three in their present extent and influence the creations of napoleon; the nice balance of powers in the german empire is due to his arrangement of the map. there is even a sense in which all germany, as we know it, sprang full armed from his head. he not merely taught the peoples of central europe their strategy, tactics, and military organization: it was he who carried the standard of enlightenment (in his own interest, of course, but still he carried it) through the length and breadth of their territories, and made its significance clear to the meanest intellect of their teeming millions. thereafter the longings for german unity, for german fatherland, for the organization of german strength into one movement, could never be checked. the swarm of petty tyrants who had modeled their life and conduct on the example of louis xiv, and who in struggling to vie with his villainies had debauched themselves and their peoples, was swept away by napoleon's ruthlessness, to give place to the larger, more wholesome nationality of the nineteenth century, which was destined in the end to inspire the surrounding nations with the new concept of respect, not alone for one's own nationality, but for that of others. what french influence effected in italy is a topic so recondite as to require separate discussion; for the results were not so immediate or so dramatic as they were in germany. but the destruction of petty governments was as ruthless as in the north; the ideas which marched in bonaparte's ranks found at least a large minority of intelligent admirers among the invaded; and italian unity, though won by a family he feared and abused, is in no doubtful sense indebted for its existence, not merely to napoleon's age, but to the ideas he disseminated and to the efforts at a practical beginning which he made. as to austria-hungary, the new historical epoch which makes her essentially the empire of the lower danube takes its rise from napoleon's time and influence. the relaxation of her grasp on italy has thrown her across the adriatic for the territorial expansion essential to her position as a great power. it has been her mission to rescue by moral influence some of the fairest lands in the balkan peninsula from waste and anarchy. mere proximity is a powerful factor; the turbulence of austrian local patriotism has been the seed of wholesome discontent among the christian populations of turkey, whose first awakening was largely due to the emissaries sent by napoleon to fire the hearts of the oppressed and suffering subjects of that distracted land. servia is one example of this; and in a sense the national awakening of greece began with the hopes similarly aroused. the astounding magic of his name in the united states is partly due to a quality of the american mind which makes its possessor the passionate and indiscriminating adorer of greatness in every form. the americans are more french than the french in their admiration of power. but, after all, this is not the main reason for their interest in napoleon. they are, dimly at least, aware of certain facts which have determined their history and made them an independent nation; though already stated and discussed, we may be pardoned for recapitulating them in this connection. their first war for independence left them tributary to the mother-country both industrially and commercially. it was napoleon who pitilessly, though slyly and indirectly, launched them into the second war with great britain, from which they emerged with some glory and some sense of defeat, but, after all, with the tremendous and permanent gain of absolute commercial independence. in the second place, their purchase of louisiana, though understood by only a few at the moment, revolutionized their national system both inside and outside. that momentous step destroyed the literal interpretation of the constitution, hitherto enslaving a congeries of jarring little commonwealths in the bondage of verbalism, because, though manifestly beneficent and necessary, it could be justified before the law only by an appeal to the spirit and not to the letter. thenceforward americans have steadily been enlarging their constitutional law by interpretation, and the apparent timidity of amendment which they display is simply due to the absence of necessity for revision as long as expansion by interpretation continues. but certainly quite as important as this was also the displacement, by the acquisition of that vast territory, of what may be called the national center of gravity. until then the aspirations of americans had been toward europe; the public opinion of the country had, until then, demanded the largest possible intercourse with that continent compatible with freedom from political entanglement. thereafter there was a change in their spirit: a continent of their own was open to their energies. for two generations their history has been concerned with exploration, with mechanical invention, and with solving the great problem of how to prevent an extension of slavery corresponding to the extension of territory. but nevertheless, steadily and vigorously two correlated concepts were propagating themselves: neglect of europe, in order to expand and assimilate their recent acquisition; industrial exclusiveness, for the sake of this great home market which immigration, settlement, and the formation of new commonwealths were creating, not at the front door, but in the rear of the states stretching along the atlantic. this resulted in a temporary "about-face" of the nation; and it is only now, when the prize of material greatness and of territorial unity has been secured, that the people turn once more toward the rising sun, in order to get from older lands everything germane to its own civilization, and to assimilate these acquisitions, if possible, in realizing its own ideals of moral grandeur. historical sources in making this book i had access to the following original sources: i. unpublished documents: _a_, the papers of the french ministry of foreign affairs during the years of napoleon's life, including those of the "fonds napoléon." _b_, the unpublished correspondence of napoleon kept in the french ministry of war, including the "volumes rouges" and the "dossier de l'empereur." this is as voluminous at least as the published correspondence, but of personal and technical rather than political interest. i have also consulted the archives of the general staff in the same building concerning many events connected with napoleon's career. _c_, the papers of napoleon's youth known as the ashburnham papers, but now owned by the italian government, and kept in the laurentian library at florence. since i used them they have been published by masson and biagi, but the editors have corrected the text to an extent which is in our day not considered scientific. _d_, the despatches of american diplomatists resident abroad during napoleon's career. _e_, certain papers from the record office in london relating to napoleon's surrender and his life in st. helena. _f_, certain papers of henri beyle containing characterizations of napoleon and contemporary anecdotes concerning him. these were translated by jean de mitty from a cipher manuscript in the public library at grenoble. _g_, a considerable number of napoleon's letters, kindly put at my disposal by various collectors. ii. published official papers. within the last few years original documents concerning the napoleonic epoch have been printed very extensively. nearly all the important books are based on archival research, and the respective authors generally print a certain number of despatches or reports in justification of their conclusions. the following collections are the most important: _a_, the correspondence of napoleon. _b_, official papers of the helvetic republic. _c_, diplomatic correspondence between prussia and france, - . _d_, lord whitworth's despatches. _e_, ducasse's supplement to napoleon's correspondence. _f_, the papers of gentz and schwarzenberg. _g_, the papers of metternich. _h_, napoleon's letters to caulaincourt. _i_, napoleon's letters to king joseph. _j_, the letters of king jerome, queen catharine, and king frederick of würtemberg. _k_, the papers of castlereagh, banks, jackson, and other english statesmen of the time. _l_, diplomatic correspondence between russia and france. _m_, the archives of count woronzoff. _n_, diplomatic correspondence of the sardinian ambassadors at st. petersburg. _o_, diplomatic correspondence of the ministers of the republic and kingdom of italy. _p_, lecestre's unpublished letters of napoleon. this list might be extended almost indefinitely by adding such collections as ducasse's memoirs of king joseph, napoleon's letters to josephine, the correspondence of eugène, etc., etc.; but these older books are too well known to require enumeration, and, though authentic, are only semi-official or personal publications. iii. contemporary memoirs. those titles given in the bibliography are, with a few exceptions, the most valuable. the positive, literal truth of the so-called memoirs attributed to bourrienne, constant, caulaincourt, barras, fouché, and avrillon is very slender. they are all made by skilful patchwork and must be read with the utmost caution. in fact, it is doubtful whether, with the exception of barras's scandalous record, they have, strictly speaking, any right to the names they bear. this much negative value they have: that they show how history can be falsified in one interest or another. during the fourteen years which have elapsed since the book was completed for magazine publication, and the twelve since it was revised to the form of four volumes, great numbers of what were then manuscript journals, memoirs, or letters have been printed and published; of these proper use has been made in this edition, and their titles are given in the bibliography. the author may be pardoned for remarking that few details of importance have been found incorrect, wherever experts agree, and that his many critics have made no demand for the reconstruction of his characterization in its broad outlines, however opposed they may be to his portrayals or discussions. this list of books makes no pretense to completeness. it is a conservative estimate that there are two hundred thousand titles of books relating to napoleon and his age. what is here given is sufficient to assure the reader a complete view of napoleon and his times from the best sources. wm. m. sloane. _new york, august , ._ general bibliography bibliographies =brière, g.=; =caron, p.=; et =maistre, h.= répertoire méthodique de l'histoire moderne et contemporaine de la france. paris, (one vol. yearly). =cambridge modern history=. new york and london, . vol. ix, napoleon. =catalogue de l'histoire de france=. v. =dahlmann, e. c.=, and =waitz, g.= quellenkunde der deutschen geschichte. =fournier, a.=, ed. bourne, e. g. new york, . =gardiner, s. r.=, and =mullinger, j. b.= introduction to english history. london, . =kircheisen, f.= bibliography of napoleon. leipzig, . =kircheisen, f.= bibliographie du temps de napoléon. paris, geneva, london, . =lumbroso, a.= saggio di una bibliografia ragionata per servire alla storia dell' epoca napoleonica. modena, - . parts - . europe =alison, sir a.= history of europe from the commencement of the french revolution in to the restoration of the bourbons in . london, - . v. {o}. =bredow, g. g.= chronik des xixten jahrhunderts. v. altona, . continued by c. venturini. v. altona, - . =delbrück, h.= historische u. politische aufsätze. berlin, . {o}. =faguet, e.= politiques et moralistes du e siècle. paris, . {o}. =froidevaux, h.= la politique coloniale de napoléon ier. in revue des questions historiques, tom. , pp. - . paris, ier avril, . =heeren, a. h. l.= handbuch der geschichte des europäischen staatensystems und seiner colonieen. göttingen, . =houssaye, h.= . éd. paris, . {o}. =houssaye, h.= . paris, . =houssaye, h.= . waterloo et la terreur blanche. paris, . =lavisse, e.=, et =rambaud, a.= histoire générale du ivme siècle à nos jours. v. paris, - . (vol. ix, - . bibliography.) =mahan, a. t.= influence of sea power upon history. london, . {o}. =mahan, a. t.= the influence of sea power upon the french revolution and empire. v. london, . =montgaillard, j. g. m. rocques de=. de la france et de l'europe sous le gouvernement de bonaparte. paris et lyon, an xii ( ). =plotho, c.= v. der krieg des verbündet. europa gegen frankreich im jahre . berlin, . {o}. =pölitz, k. h. l.= d. europäischen verfassungen seit d. jahre bis auf die neueste zeit. mit geschichtl. einleit. u. erläuter. te neu geordn., berichtigte u. ergänzte aufl. leipzig, . v. {o}. =rambaud, a.=, et =lavisse, e.= histoire générale. v. lavisse. =rocke, p.= die kontinentalsperre. naumb., . {o}. =schlegel, a. w.= Über d. continentalsystem u. d. einfluss desselben auf schweden. leipzig, . {o}. =schulz, k. g.= geschichte d. kriege in europa seit dem jahre . berlin, - . bände in theilen. =sorel, a.= l'europe et la révolution française ( - ). v. paris, - . =sorel, a.= essais historiques et critiques. paris, . treaties =angeberg, d'=. le congrès de vienne et les traités de , précédé et suivi des actes diplomatiques, avec intr. hist. par m. capefigue. paris, . v. =barral-montferrat, marquis de=. dix ans de paix armée entre la france et l'angleterre, - . ier v. paris, . {o}. =bowman, h. m.= die englisch-französische friedensverhandlung (dez., , bis jan., ). leipzig, . =garden, g. de=. histoire générale des traités de paix et autres transactions principales entre les puissances de l'europe depuis la paix de westphalie. paris, - . v. {o}. =laperouse, a.= le congrès de châtillon. châtillon-sur-seine, . {o}. =leclercq, a.= recueil des traités de la france. publ. sous les auspices du ministre des affaires étrangères. paris, - . v. {o}. =martens, g. f. de=. recueil des principaux traités d'alliance, de paix, de trève, etc., conclus par les puissances de l'europe, tant entre elles qu'avec les puissances et états dans d'autres parties du monde depuis jusqu'à présent ( ). paris, - . v. {o}. suppl. to . paris, - . éd. paris, - . v. {o}. (continued by his nephew to the present time.) =pons, andré, comte de rio=. known as pons de l'hérault. le congrès de châtillon. paris, . {o}. =weiss, j. b. von=. weltgeschichte (vols. xix-xxii, - ). leipzig, - . diplomatic history and international law bailleu, p. preussen und frankreich von bis : diplomatische correspondenzen. leipzig, - . v. {o}. (publ. a. d. k. preuss. staatsarchiv. bde. , .) bignon, l. p. souvenirs d'un diplomate (la pologne, - ), précédés d'une notice hist. sur la vie de l'auteur par m. mignet. paris, . =buchez, p. j. b.= histoire parlementaire de la révolution française. éd., revisée et entièrement remaniée par l'auteur, en collaboration avec mm. jules bastide, e. s. de bois-le-comte et q. ott. paris, - . v. {o}. =constant de rebecque, h. b.= cours de politique const.; ou, coll. des ouvrages publ. sur le gouvernement représentatif, avec une intr. et des notes par Éd. laboulaye. paris, . v. {o}. =du casse, p. e. a.= histoire des négociations diplomatiques relatives aux traités de mortfontaine, de lunéville et d'amiens. paris, . v. {o}. =dufraisse, m.= histoire du droit de guerre et de paix ( - ). paris, . =fournier, a.= der congress von châtillon. die politik im kriege von . eine historische studie. {o}. wien u. prag, . tempsky. =fournier, a.= gentz u. cobenzl. geschichte d. österreich. diplomatie in den jahre - . nach neuen quellen. wien, . {o}. =gardane, a. de=. mission du gén. gardane en perse sous le premier empire. documents historiques. paris, . {o}. =gardane, comte g.= de histoire générale des traités de paix depuis la paix de westphalie (to ). v. paris, - . =goldsmith, l.= secret history of the cabinet of bonaparte. london, . {o}. =greppi=. révélations diplomatiques sur les relations de la sardaigne avec l'autriche et la russie. paris, . {o}. =kiesselbach, w. d.= continentalsperre in ihrer oekonomisch-polit. bedeutung. ein beitrag z. handelsgeschichte. stuttgart, . {o}. =kleist, heinr. v.= politische schriften und andere nachträge zu seinen werken. mit einer einleitung zum ersten male herausg. von r. kopke. berlin, . {o}. =klinkowström, clem. v.= aus d. alten registratur d. staatskanzlei. briefe polit. inhalts von u. an frdr. v. gentz aus den jahren - . wien, . {o}. =lefebvre, a.= histoire des cabinets de l'europe pendant le consulat et l'empire. paris, - . =léouzon-le-duc, l. a.=, Éd. correspondance diplomatique du baron de staël holstein et de son successeur le baron brinkman: documents inéd. sur la révolution ( - ), recueillis aux archives royales de suède et publiés avec une introduction par l. léouzon-le-duc. paris, . {o}. =maistre, j. de=. correspondance diplomatique, - . Éd. par a. blanc. paris, . v. {o}. =masson, f.= le département des affaires étrangères pendant la révolution ( - ). paris, . =montgaillard, j. g. m. roques=, known as comte de. mémoires diplomatiques - , extraits du ministère de l'intérieur et publiés, avec une introduction et des notes, par clément de lacroise. paris, . {o}. =napoléon i.= collection générale et complète de lettres, proclamations, discours, rédigée d'après le moniteur, classée suivant l'ordre du temps - , accompagnée de notes historiques, publiée par c. a. fischer. leipzig, - . v. {o}. =pingaud, l.= un agent secret sous la révolution et l'empire: le comte d'antraigues. paris, . {o}. =pozzo di borgo, comte=. correspondance diplomatique du c{te} pozzo di borgo et du c{te} de nesselrode depuis la restauration. =pradt, d. d. de=. histoire de l'ambassade dans le grand duché de varsovie en . éd. rev. et corr. paris, . {o}. =stewarton=. secret history of the court and cabinet of st. cloud. in a series of letters. anon. th american ed. new york, . {o}. =tratchefski, a.= relations diplomatiques de la russie avec la france à l'époque de napoléon i. saint-pétersbourg, - . v. {o}. =ulmann, h.= russisch-preussische politik unter alexander i und friedrich wilhelm iii bis , urkundlich dargestellt. {o}. leipzig, . duncker. =vandal, a.= négociations avec la russie relatives au second mariage de napoléon. in revue historique, tom. , pp. - . paris, . military history =aster, k. h.= d. kriegsereignisse zwischen peterswalde, pirna, königstein u. priesten im aug., , u. die schlacht bei kulm. dresden, . {o}. =aster, k. h.= gefechte u. schlachten bei leipzig im october, . ausg. dresden, - . bde. {o}. =aster, k. h.= schilderung d. kriegsereignisse in und vor dresden, vom märz bis august, . ausg. leipzig, . {o}. =barral, georges=. l'épopée de waterloo: narration nouvelle des cent jours et de la campagne de belgique en . paris, . {o}. =beauchamp, a. de=. histoire des campagnes de - . paris, - . v. {o}. =beauharnais, le prince eugène de=. mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire. publ., annotés et mis en ordre par a. du casse. paris, - . v. {o}. =beiträge= zur geschichte d. krieges von - , oder bemerk. berichtigungen u. zusätze zu d. in theile des werkes: geschichte d. kriege in europa seit d. jahre als folgen d. staatsveränderung in frankreich unter ludwig xvi, etc. berlin, . breslau, . =beiträge= zur geschichte d. krieges vom jahre u. , oder bemerk. berichtigungen u. zusätze zu d. in theile des werkes, etc. breslau, . (contains the memoirs of oginski, eugen's von würtemberg, and bennigsen.) =beiträge= zur geschichte d. französ.-russ. feldzügs im jahre . breslau, . {o}. =beiträge= zur geschichte d. feldzüge - in frankreich, in besond. beziehung auf d. commando d. kronprinzen v. würtemberg, herausg. v. d. offizieren d. würtemb. gen. quart. staabs. stuttgart, . hefte, mit plänen. =beiträge= zur geschichte d. feldzüge v. - , von e. offizier d. alliirten armee. berlin, . {o}. =bernays, guillaume=. schicksale d. grossherzogth. frankfurt u. seiner truppen. eine kulturhistor. u. militär. studie aus der zeit d. rheinbundes. berlin, . {o}. =berthezène, p.= souvenirs militaires de la république et de l'empire [ - ]; publ. par son fils. paris, . v. {o}. =bertin, g.= la campagne de , d'après des témoins oculaires. {o}. paris, . flammarion. =bertrand, e.= les marins de la garde ( - ). {o}. paris, . baudin. =bleibtreu, k.= geschichte und geist der europäischen kriege unter friedrich dem grossen und napoleon. leipzig, . =borcke, j. v.= kriegerleben. - . nach dessen aufzeichng. bearb. von leszczynski. berlin, . {o}. =bourgeois, r.= relation fidèle et détaillée de la dernière campagne de bonaparte terminée par la bataille de mont saint-jean, dite de waterloo ou de la belle alliance, par un témoin oculaire. paris, . {o}. =bourgoing, p. de=. itinéraire de napoléon i de smorgoni à paris, épisode de la guerre de . premier extrait des mém. militaires et politiques inédits. paris, . =bustelli, g.= l'enigma di ligny e di waterloo ( - giugno, ) studiato e sciolto. v. {o}. viterbo, . agnesotti. =buturlin=. hist. militaire de la campagne de russie en . paris, . v. {o}. atlas {o}. =chabot-arnault=. histoire des flottes militaires. paris, . {o}. =charras, j. b. a.= histoire de la campagne de . waterloo. avec un atlas. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =chesney, c. c.= Étude de la campagne de : waterloo. bruxelles, . {o}. =chesney, c. c.= waterloo lectures. ed. london, . {o}. =chevalier, Éd.= histoire de la marine française sous le consulat et l'empire. paris, . {o}. =clausewitz, c.= v. hinterlassene werke ü. krieg u. kriegführung. berlin, - . v. {o}. =colin, j.= Études sur la campagne de - en italie. {o}. av. carte et croquis. paris, . baudoin. =colomb, e.= v. blücher in briefen aus den feldzügen - . stuttgart, . {o}. =corte=. battaglie di s. michele e mondovi. torino, . =damitz, k. von=. geschichte des feldzugs von in den niederlanden u. frankreich. berlin, - . v. {o}. =danielson, j. r.= finska kriget och finlands krigare ( - ). stockholm, . wahlstrom. =danilewsky, m.= darstellung d. feldzuges in frankreich im jahre . in's deutsche übertr. v. c. v. kotzebue. riga, - . bde. =danilewsky, m.= geschichte des krieges im jahre . mit plänen. riga, . {o}. =danilewsky, m.= geschichte des vaterland. krieges im jahre , auf allerhöchsten befehl des kaisers von russland verfasst. aus d. russ. übersetzt von c. r. goldhammer. riga, . thle. =danilewsky, m.= relation de la campagne de (austerlitz). tr. du russe par le gén. l. narischkine. paris, . {o}. carte et plan. =davout, l.=, prince d'eckmühl. opérations du e corps, - . rapport publié par son neveu le général davout, duc d'auerstädt. paris, . {o}. =dechent=. beiträge z. gesch. des feldzuges von , nach quellen des archivs marburg. berlin, . {o}. =de cugnac=. campagnes de l'armée de réserve en . tom. i: passage du grand saint-bernard. tom. ii: marengo. av. cartes et croquis. paris, - . chapelot. =delauney=. napoléon et la défense des côtes. extrait du "mémorial de l'artillerie de la marine." paris, . {o}. =denniée=, baron. itinéraire de l'empereur napoléon pendant la campagne de . paris, . {o}. =desbrière, e.= - . projets et tentatives de débarquement aux îles britanniques. av. cartes et croquis. v. {o}. paris, - . chapelot. =ditfurth, m.= d. schlacht bei borodino am sept., . mit besond. rücksicht auf die theilnahme d. deutschen reitercontingente. marburg, . =doisy de villargennes, a. j.= reminiscences of army life under napoleon bonaparte. cin., . {o}. =dörr, j. d.= schlacht von hanau am oktbr., . cassel, . {o}. =doublet, p. j. l. o.= mémoires historiques sur l'invasion et l'occupation de malte par une armée française en . publ. pour la première fois par le comte de panisse-passis. paris, . {o}. =dumas, m.= précis des événements militaires; ou, essai historique sur les campagnes de à . paris, - . v. {o}. =durdent, r. j.= campagne de moscou en . paris, . {o}. =duruy, a.= Études d'histoire militaire sur la révolution et l'empire. paris, . {o}. (first chapter is la conspiration du gén. malet.) =du teil, b{on} j.= napoléon bonaparte et les généraux du teil ( - ). l'École d'artillerie d'auxonne et le siège de toulon. une famille militaire au xviiie siècle. =eniden, f.= erinnerungen eines österreichischen ordonnanzoffiziers aus dem feldzuge . {o}. wien, . seidel. =fabvier, c. n.= journal des opérations du sixième corps pendant la campagne de en france. paris, . {o}. =fezensac, r. e. p. j. de montesquiou, duc de=. souvenirs militaires de à . éd. paris, . {o}. =foucart, p.= bautzen (une bataille de jours), - mai, . paris, . {o}. =foucart, p.= campagne de prusse ( ), d'après les archives de la guerre: jena. paris, . {o}. =französische= armee im jahre , ein beitrag zur geschichte d. befreiungs kriege. berlin, . {o}. =friant comte=. vie militaire du lieutenant-général comte friant. paris, . {o}. =gachot, e.= histoire militaire de masséna. paris, . =gamot=. réfutation en ce qui concerne le m{al} ney de l'ouvrage ayant pour titre "campagne de ... par le g{al} gourgaud." paris, . {o}. =gardner, d.= quatre-bras, ligny, waterloo: narrative of the campaign in belgium, . london, . {o}. =gérard, e. m., comte=. quelques documents sur la bataille de waterloo, propres à éclairer la question portée devant le public par m. le marquis de grouchy. paris, . {o}. =giraud, p. f. f. j.= campagne de paris en , précédée d'un coup d'oeil sur celle de ; ou, précis historique et impartial des événements depuis l'invasion de la france par les armées étrangères jusqu'à la capitulation de paris, la déchéance et l'abdication de buonaparte inclusivement. paris, . {o}. =gleig, g. r.= story of the battle of waterloo. new york, . =gouvion saint-cyr, l., marquis de=. mémoires pour servir à l'histoire militaire sous le directoire, le consulat et l'empire, - . paris, . v. {o}. =grenier, p.= Étude sur manoeuvres d'eylau et friedland. av. croquis. paris, . {o}. =grouchy, gen.= observations sur la relation de la campagne de , pub. par le gén. gourgaud; et réfutation de quelques-unes des assertions d'autres écrits relatifs à la bataille de waterloo. paris, . {o}. =grouchy, marquis de=. mémoires du m{al} de grouchy. paris, - . v. {o}. =guillaume, f., dit guillaume de vaudoncourt=. histoire des campagnes de et en france. paris, . v. {o}. =guillon, e.= les complots militaires sous le consulat et l'empire, d'après les documents inédits des archives. {o}. paris, . plon. =guillon, e.= nos écrivains militaires. Études de littérature et d'histoire militaire. e sér. depuis la révolution jusqu'à nos jours. {o}. paris. plon. =hamilton, captain thomas=. annals of the peninsular campaigns from to . edinburgh, . v. {o}. =helfert=. d. schlacht bei kulm, . wien, . gr. {o}. =helldorff=. zur geschichte d. schlacht bei kulm. aufklärung verschiedener bis jetzt unrichtig darg. thatsachen über die tage vom - august, . berlin, . {o}. =heymès=. relation de la campagne de , dite de waterloo, pour servir à l'histoire du maréchal ney. paris, no date. {o}. =histoire= des sociétés secrètes de l'armée et des conspirations militaires qui ont eu pour objet la destruction du gouvernement de bonaparte. paris, . [anon.] =hofmann, g. w. v.= die schlacht bei borodino mit einer uebersicht des feldzugs von . koblenz, . {o}. =hooper, g.= waterloo, the downfall of the first napoleon. london, . {o}. =höpfner, ed. v.= d. krieg von u. . beiträge zur geschichte d. preuss. armee nach d. quellen d. kriegs-archivs bearb. berlin, - . v. {o}. mit schlacht u. gefechts plänen u. beilagen. =houssaye, h.= . waterloo. {o}. paris, . perrin. trad. en allem. par a. ostermeyer. {o}. london, . grant richards. =jomini, h. de=. portable atlas of the fields of waterloo and ligny. brussels, . {o}. =jomini, h. de=. histoire crit. et militaire des guerres de la révolution, - . nouv. éd. paris, - . v. {o} and atlas fol. =jomini, h. de=. précis politique et militaire des campagnes de à , extr. des souvenirs inéd., avec une notice biog. et des cartes, plans et légendes, publ. f. lecomte. lausanne, . v. {o}. =jomini, h. de=. précis politique et militaire de la campagne de , pour servir de supplément et de rectification à la vie politique et militaire de napoléon, racontée par lui-même. paris, . {o}. =jurien de la gravière, j. b. e.= guerres maritimes sous la république et l'empire, avec les plans des batailles navales ... et une carte du sund ... e éd. paris, no date. v. {o}. =koch, j. b. f.= mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de la campagne de . paris, . v. {o}. =krebs, l.=, et =morris, h.= campagnes dans les alpes pendant la révolution, d'après les archives des états-majors français et austro-sarde ( - ). {o}. av. cartes et croquis. paris, . plon. =lacroix, d.= les maréchaux de napoléon. {o}. av. grav. paris, . garnier. =larrey, d. j.= mémoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes. (in his mém. de méd. et de chirur. militaire. v. {o}. paris, - .) =la tour d'auvergne, e. de=. waterloo. Étude de la campagne de . avec cartes et plans. paris, . {o}. =lecène, p.= les marins français, - . nouv. éd. paris, . {o}. =legler, th.= denkwürdigkeiten a. d. russischen feldzuge vom jahr . jahrb. des hist. vereins des kantons glarus, . =leissnig, w. s.= märsche u. kriegsereignisse, terrain bemerkungen, u. s. w., eines königl. sächs. dragoner offiziers bei d. französ. armee auf dem zuge nach moskau im jahre . i. th. marsch aus lausitz, durch polen, preussen, litthauen bis moskau. leipzig, . {o}. =lewal=. la veillée d'jena. Étude de stratégie de combat. {o}. paris, . chapelot. =leydolph, e=. die schlacht bei jena. mit karten. aufl. {o}. jena, . bräunlich. =loben-sels, e. von=. précis de la campagne de dans les pays-bas. la haye, . {o}. =loir, m.= gloires et souvenirs maritimes d'après les mémoires et les récits de baudin, bonaparte, de l'admiral p. bouvet, du vice-admiral courbet, etc. {o}. avec plans. paris, . hachette. =loir, m.= brueys à aboukir ( er août, ). {o}. paris, . chapelot. extrait de la "revue militaire." =loir, m.= Études d'histoire maritime (révolution; empire; restauration). {o}. paris, . berger-levrault. =loir, m.= gloires et souvenirs maritimes. paris, . {o}. =lossau, v.= charakteristik der kriege napoleons. (mit plänen u. karten.) karlsruhe, - . v. {o}. atlas fol. =lumbroso, b{on} a.= la campagne de murat en . précis militaire et politique de la campagne de j. murat en italie contre les autrichiens. {o}. paris, . =maag, a.= die schicksale der schweizer-regimenter in napoleons i feldzug nach russland, . {o}. biel, . kuhn. aufl. {o}. biel, . kuhn. =malachowski, v.= Üb. die entwickelung der leitenden gedanken zur ersten campagne bonapartes. ein vortrag. berlin, . =malo, c.= champs de bataille de l'armée française (belgique, allemagne, italie) (genappe, fleurus, ligny, steinkerque, neerwinden, malplaquet, waterloo, jena, auerstädt, eylau, friedland, lützen, dresde, leipzig, etc.). avec illustr. {o}. paris, . hachette. =martinien, a.= liste des officiers généraux tués ou blessés sous le premier empire. paris, . {o}. =masson, f.= cavaliers de napoléon. paris, . fol. =menge, a.= die schlacht von aspern am und mai, . eine erläuterung der kriegsführung napoleons i und des erzherzogs carl von oesterreich. {o}. berlin, . stilke. =miller, m. v.= darstellung d. feldzugs d. französ. verbündeten armee gegen d. russ. im jahre , mit besond. rücksicht auf d. theilnahme d. k. würtembergischen truppen. stuttgart, . thle. {o}. =morris, w. o'c.= napoleon, warrior and ruler, and the military supremacy of revolutionary france. new york, . {o}. =mudford, w.= historical account of the battle of waterloo. london, . {o}. =müffling, a. g. v.= (genannt weiss). stratégie napoléonienne. la campagne d'automne de et les lignes intérieures. {o}. paris, . baudoin. =müffling, c. v.= geschichte d. feldzuges d. armee unter wellington u. blücher im jahre . nebst d. plänen d. schlachten von ligny, quatre-bras u. belle-alliance. stuttgart, . {o}. =müffling, d.= operationsplan der preussisch-sächsischen armee. . schlacht von auerstädt, rückzug bis lübeck. weimar, . {o}. =müffling, c. v.= histoire de la campagne de l'armée anglaise et de l'armée prussienne en . stuttgart, . {o}. =müller, p.= l'espionnage militaire sous napoléon ier. c. schulmeister. {o}. paris, . berger-levrault. =napier, sir wm.= history of the war in the peninsula and the south of france, - . london, . =napoléon i.= correspondance avec le ministre de la marine depuis jusqu'en avril, . extrait d'un portefeuille de ste hélène. paris, . v. {o}. =ney, m. l. f., duc d'elchingen=. documents inédits sur la campagne de . paris, . {o}. see also dumoulin. =nösfelt, f. a.=, und =löbell, j. w.= kriegsgeschichten aus d. jahren u. , oder darstellungen a. d. feldzügen d. franzosen u. verbündeten truppen, u. s. w. mit dem plan d. schlacht bei leipzig. breslau, - . v. {o}. =oman=. history of the peninsular war. london, . v. =oncken, w.= d. zeitalter d. revolution d. kaiserreiches u. d. befreiungskriege. berlin, - . v. {o}. =pascallet, e.= notice biog. sur m. le maréchal marquis de grouchy, pair de france, avec des éclaircissements et des détails hist. sur la campagne de ... et sur la bataille de waterloo. éd. paris, . {o}. =pelet, j. j. g.= réponse aux observations du gén. müffling sur la campagne de . (extrait du "spectateur militaire.") = pelet, j. j. g., baron=. des principales opérations de la campagne de . paris, . {o}. (extrait du "spectateur militaire.") =pelet, j. j. g.= tableau de la grande armée en sept. et oct., . (extrait du "spectateur militaire.") =pelleport, le gén. vicomte pierre de=. souvenirs militaires et intimes de à . publ. par son fils sur manuscrits originaux, lettres, notes et documents officiels laissés par l'auteur. bordeaux, . v. {o}. =petzel=. die operationen napoleons von la rothière bis bar-sur-aube vom - febr., . {o}. berlin, . mittler. =pfalz, a.= die marchfeldschlachten von aspern und deutsch-wagram im jahre . aufl. kornenburg, . kühkopf. =pfister, a.= aus dem lager der verbündeten, und . stuttgart und leipzig, . deutsche verlagsanstalt. =picard, c.= la cavalerie dans les guerres de la révolution et de l'empire. v. {o}. saumur, - . milon. =pièces= diverses relatives aux opérations militaires et politiques du général bonaparte. paris, an viii. {o}. =pion des loches, a. a. f.= mes campagnes ( - ). notes et correspondance, mises en ordre et publiées par m. chipon et l. pingaud. paris, . {o}. =plotho, c. v.= tagebuch während d. krieges zwisch. russland u. preussen in d. jahren u. . mit plänen. berlin, . {o}. =pönitz, c. e.= militärische briefe eines verstorbenen, an seine noch lebenden freunde; historischen, wissenschaftlichen, kritischen u. humoristischen inhalts. zur unterhaltenden belehrung f. eingeweihte und laien im kriegswesen. adorf, - . v. {o}. =porter, sir r. ker.= hist. de la campagne de russie pendant l'année , contenant des détails puisés dans des sources officielles ou provenant de récits français interceptés et inconnus jusqu'à ce jour, traduit de l'anglais sur la e éd. m.... avec des notes. paris, . {o}. =poyen, h. de=. les guerres des antilles de à . {o}. av. cartes. paris, . berger-levrault. extr. du mémorial de l'artillerie de la marine. =quinet, e.= histoire de la campagne de . paris, . {o}. =radetzky, graf=. denkschriften militärisch-politischen inhalts aus d. handschriftlichen nachlass. stuttgart, . =roloff, g.= politik und kriegführung während des feldzuges von . {o}. berlin, . mayer. =ropes, j. c.= campaign of waterloo. a military history. d éd., with atlas. new york, . {o}. atlas fol. =ropes, j. c.= first napoleon. a sketch political and military. boston, . {o}. =roth v. schreckenstein=. d. kavallerie in d. schlacht an der moskwa (von d. russen schlacht bei borodino genannt) am sept., . nebst einigen ausführlichen nachrichten u. d. leistungen des kavallerie-corps unter d. anführung d. gen. latour-maubourg. münster, . {o}. =roussel=. les maitres de la guerre. frédéric ii, napoléon, moltke. essai critique, d'après des travaux inédits du g{al} bonnal. {o}. paris, . montgredien. =rousset, c.= la grande armée de . paris, . {o}. =rousset, c.= les volontaires, - . paris, . {o}. =rühle v. lilienstern, j. j. v.= reise eines malers mit der armee im jahre . rudolstadt, - . v. =rühle v. lilienstern, th. jak.= bericht von augenzeugen v. d. feldzug im oct., . thle. tübingen, . =rühle v. lilienstern, th. jak.= pallas: e. zeitschr. f. staats. u. kriegskunst. jahrg. - . hefte. (battle of wagram.) =rüstow, w.= d. krieg von in deutschland u. italien. als anleitung zu kriegshistorischen studien bearb. fraunfeld, . {o}. =sargent, h. h.= campaign of marengo, with comments. {o}. london, . paul. =sargent, h. h.= napoleon bonaparte's first campaign, with comments. {o}. london, . paul. =saski=. campagne de en allemagne et en autriche. v. {o}. paris, , . berger-levrault. =sauzey=. iconographie du costume militaire de la révolution et de 'empire, contenant de courtes notices historiques sur plus de deux cent corps de troupes, et huit mille références à plus de cinq mille planches d'uniformes coloriés. av. preface par h. bouchot. {o}. paris, . dubois. =schleiffer, a. d.= schlacht bei hohenlinden am dezbr., , u. d. vorausgegangenen heeresbewegungen. nach d. besten quellen bearb. mit e. legende u. color. karte. rathenow, . {o}. =ségur, p. p. de=. histoire de napoléon et de la grande armée pendant l'année . e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =sérurier, baron=. mémoires militaires, mis en ordre et rédigés par son ami m. le miere de corvey. avec une introduction de j. turquan. paris, . {o}. =siborne, w.= history of the war in france and belgium in . d ed. london, . {o}. atlas fol. =smekal, g.= die schlacht bei aspern und esslingen, und mai, . {o}. wien, . seidel. =soltyk, comte r.= napoléon en . mém. hist. et militaires sur la campagne de russie. paris, . {o}. =souvenirs militaires=. napoléon à waterloo, ou précis rectifié de la campagne de , avec des documents nouveaux et des pièces inédites, par un ancien officier de la garde impériale qui est resté près de napoléon pendant toute la campagne. paris, . {o}. =stewart, c. w. v.= histoire de la guerre de et en allemagne et en france. paris, . {o}. =stuhr, p. f.= d. drei letzten feldzüge gegen napoleon, krit. historisch dargestellt. lemgo, . {o}. =tondu-nangis= père. la bataille de montereau ( févr., ). av. notes, etc. {o}. montereau, . zanote. =treuenfeld, v.= d. tage von ligny u. belle-alliance. hann., . {o}. =wedel, c. a. w., graf von=. geschichte eines offiziers im kriege gegen russland, , etc. berlin, . asher. napoleon _a._ memoirs =abell, mrs. l. e. b.= recollections of the emperor napoleon on the island of st. helena. d ed., rev. by her daughter, mrs. c. johnston. london, . {o}. =allonville, comte d'=. mémoires secrets de à . paris, - . v. {o}. =anglemont, e. d'=. le duc d'enghien, histoire-drame. paris, . {o}. =arnault, a. v.= souvenirs d'un sexagénaire. paris, . v. {o}. =audiffret-pasquier, e. d., duc d'=. histoire de mon temps: mémoires publ. par le duc d'audiffret-pasquier. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =audiffret-pasquier, e. d., duc d'=. history of my time: memoirs, ed. by the duc d'audiffret-pasquier, tr. by c. e. roche. the revolution, the consulate, the empire. new york, - . v. {o}. =avrillon, mme.= mémoires sur la vie privée de l'imp. joséphine, sa famille, et sa cour. paris, . v. {o}. =barante, a. g. p. brugière de=. Études historiques et biographiques. nouv. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =barante, a. g. p. brugière de=. souvenirs, - . publ. par son petit-fils c. de barante. paris, - . v. {o}. =barbé-marbois, f. de=. journal d'un déporté non jugé; ou, déportation, en violation des lois, décrétée le fructidor an v. ( sept., ). paris, . v. {o}. =barras, p. f. j. n., comte de=. mémoires. pub. avec une introduction générale, des préfaces et des appendices par g. duruy. paris, . v. {o}. =baudouin, a.= anecdotes historiques du temps de la restauration, suivies de recherches sur l'origine de la presse, son développement, son influence sur les esprits, ses rapports avec l'opinion publique, les mesures restrictives apportées à son exercise. paris, . {o}. =bausset, l. f. j. de=. mémoires anecdotiques sur l'intérieur du palais. - . éd. paris, . v. {o}. =belliard, a. d.= mémoires ( - ), recueillis et mis en ordre par m. vinet. paris, . v. {o}. =bellune, claude victor perrin=, duc de, pair et maréchal de france. mémoires mis en ordre par son fils aîné, victor st. perrin. paris, . v. . (no more published.) =béranger, p. j. de=. ma biographie, suivie d'un appendice. éd. paris, . {o}. =bertin, g. la= campagne de , d'après des témoins oculaires. paris n. d. {o}. =beugnot, comte j. c.= mémoires ( - ), publ. par le comte a. beugnot, son petit-fils. éd. paris, . {o}. =bigarré, général=. mémoires, - . paris, . {o}. =bonaparte, lucien=, et ses mémoires ( - ), ed. by t. jung. paris, . v. {o}. =bonaparte, lucien=. réponse aux mémoires du général lamarque sur les faits relatifs à . london, . {o}. =bourrienne, l. a. f. de=. mémoires sur napoléon, le directoire, le consulat, l'empire et la restauration. . =broglie, a. c. l. v., duc de=. souvenirs. - . paris, - . v. {o}. =buloz, a., Éd.= bourrienne et ses erreurs volontaires et involontaires; ou, obs. sur ses mémoires par belliard, gourgaud, d'aure, de survilliers, méneval, bonacossi, d'eckmühl, massias, boulay de la meurthe, de stein, cambacérès. paris, . v. {o}. =cadoudal, s. g. de=. georges cadoudal et la chouannerie. paris, . {o}. =carnot, s. h.= mémoires, par son fils. paris, - . v. {o}. =castellane, b. e. v. e., le maréchal de=. journal ... - . éd. paris, - . v. {o}. =caulaincourt=. souvenirs du duc de vicence. recueillis et publiés par charlotte de sor (mme. oilleaux-désormeaux). éd. paris, . v. {o}. =chaptal, j. a., comte de chanteloup=. mes souvenirs sur napoléon. publ. par a. chaptal. paris, . {o}. =chastenay, mme. de=. mémoires. publiés par roserot. paris, . =chateaubriand, m. le vicomte de=. mémoires d'outre-tombe. paris, n. d. v. {o}. (oeuvres.) =chateaubriand, f. a. de=. mémoires de bonaparte. paris, . {o}. (oeuvres, v. .) =consalvi, h., cardinal=. mémoires, avec une intr. et des notes par j. crétineau-joly. ces mém. publ. pour la première fois sont enrichis du fac-simile de autographes précieux. paris, . v. {o}. =constant de rebecque, b.= mémoires sur les cent jours. paris, - . v. {o}. =courier, p. l.= collection des lettres et articles publ. jusqu'à ce jour. paris, . {o}. =davout=. life. by count vigier. v. paris, . =davout, l., prince d'eckmühl=. mémoire au roi. paris, . {o}. =dieffenbach, l. f.= karl ludwig, schulmeister, d. hauptspion, parteigänger, polizeipräfekt u. geheimer agent napoleons i. eine mit benützung zahlreicher, bisher unbekannter amtl. aktenstücke angestellte histor. untersuchung. leipzig, . =du casse, p. e. a.= le général arrighi de casanova, duc de padoue. paris, . v. {o}. =du casse, p. e. a.= le général vandamme et sa correspondance. paris, . v. {o}. =dufort, j. n.= mémoires sur les règnes de louis xv et louis xvi et sur la révolution. publ. avec une intr. et des notes par r. de crèvecoeur. paris, . v. {o}. =dumas, c.= memoirs of his own time, including the revolution, the empire, and the restoration. philadelphia, . v. {o}. =dumoulin=. procès du maréchal ney. paris, . v. =ernouf, a. a.= le gén. kléber: mayence et vendée, allemagne, expédition d'Égypte. éd. paris, . {o}. =ernouf, a. a.= maret, duc de bassano. éd. paris, . {o}. =fain, a. j. f.= manuscrit de , contenant le précis des événements de cette année pour servir à l'histoire de napoléon. paris, . v. {o}. =fain, a. j. f.= manuscrit de , pour servir à l'histoire de l'empereur napoléon. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =fain, a. j. f.= manuscript of : a history of events which led to the abdication of napoleon. london, . {o}. =fleury de chaboulon, p. a. e., baron=. mémoires pour servir à l'hist. de la vie privée, du retour, et du règne de napoléon en . london, . v. {o}. =fouché, f.= memoirs of his public life, comprising letters to napoleon, wellington, blücher, etc. london, . {o}. =gaëte, duc de=. mémoires, souvenirs, opinions et écrits. paris, . v. {o}. =garat=. Éloge funèbre des généraux kléber et desaix, prononcé le er vendémiaire an ix à la place des victoires. paris, an ix. {o}. =geffroy, a.= notices et extraits des manuscrits concernant l'histoire ou la littérature de france qui sont conservés dans les archives ou bibliothèques de suède, danemark et norvège. paris, . {o}. =gentz, f. de=. mémoires et lettres inédits. publ. par g. schlesier. stuttgart, . =gérando, m. a. de rathsamhausen, baronne de=. lettres, suivies de fragments d'un journal écrit par elle de à . paris, . {o}. =grouchy, marquis de=. le m{al} de grouchy du au juin, , avec documents historiques inédits et réfutation de m. thiers. paris, . {o}. =hobhouse, j. c.= letters by an englishman at paris during the last reign of the emperor napoleon i. philadelphia, . {o}. =home, g.= memoirs of an aristocrat and reminiscences of the emperor napoleon. london, . {o}. =junot, l. p., duchesse d'abrantès=. memoirs. london, - . v. {o}. =junot, l. p., duchesse d'abrantès=. mémoires; ou, souvenirs historiques sur napoléon et la révolution, le directoire, le consulat, l'empire et la restauration. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =kotzebue, a. f. f. v.= erinnerungen aus paris im jahre . berlin, . v. =kotzebue, a. f. f. v.= souvenirs de paris en . trad. de l'all. avec des notes. paris, . v. {o}. =lafayette, g. m. de=. memoirs, correspondence and manuscripts. publ. by his family. london, . v. {o}. =lafayette, g. m. de=. mes rapports avec le premier consul ( - ). (v. of his mémoires.) =lamarque, m.= mémoires et souvenirs. paris, - . v. {o}. =lamothe-langon, baron e. l. de=. mémoires et souvenirs d'une femme de qualité sur le consulat et l'empire. paris, . v. {o}. =landrieux, j.= mémoires, - , avec une intr. biog. et hist. par l. grasilier. tome er. paris, . {o}. =larévellière-lepeaux, l. m.= mémoires. publ. par son fils, sur le ms. autographe de l'auteur, et suivis des pièces justificatives et de corresp. inédites. paris, . v. {o}. =laskey, j. c.= description of the series of medals struck by order of napoleon bonaparte. london, . {o}. =lavalette, comte de=. mémoires et souvenirs. publ. par sa famille et sur ses manuscrits, - . paris, . v. {o}. =lejeune, l. f., baron, général=. mémoires publiés par m. g. bapst. paris, . v. {o}. =lemann, j.= napoléon er et les israélites. la prépondérance juive. me partie: son organisation ( - ). {o}. lyon, , vitte; paris, lecoffre. =libri-carrucci=. souvenirs de la jeunesse de napoléon. paris, . {o}. =macdonald, e. j. j. a., duc de tarente=. souvenirs, avec une introduction par m. c. rousset. paris, . {o}. =mahon, patrice= (art roë, papa felix). trois grenadiers de l'an viii. paris, . {o}. =maistre, j. de=. mémoires politiques et correspondance diplomatique. avec explications et commentaires historiques, par a. blanc. e éd. . {o}. =malouet, p. v.= mémoires. publ. par son petit-fils. éd. augm. de lettres inédites. paris, . v. {o}. =marbot, baron m. de=. mémoires. paris, . v. {o}. =marmont, a. f. l. viesse de, duc de raguse=. mémoires. - . paris, . v. {o}. =masséna, a., duc de rivoli, prince d'essling, maréchal de france=. mémoires, rédigés d'après les documents qu'il a laissés et sur ceux du dépôt de la guerre et du dépôt des fortifications, par le général koch. paris, - . v. and atlas. =masson, f.= napoléon chez lui. paris, . =melzi, d'eril f., duca di lodi=. memoire, documenti e lettere inedite di napoleone º e beauharnais. ed. g. melzi. milano, . v. {o}. =mémoires= et souvenirs d'un pair de france, ex-membre du sénat conservateur. paris, - . v. {o}. =mémoires= tirés des papiers d'un homme d'état, sur les causes secrètes qui ont déterminé la politique des cabinets dans la guerre de la révolution, depuis jusqu'en . paris, - . v. {o}. (par le comte a. f. d'allonville, a. de beauchamp et a. schubart.) =méneval, c. f., baron de=. memoirs illustrating the history of napoleon i from to . ed. by his grandson, napoleon joseph de méneval (tr. by robert h. sherard). new york, . v. {o}. =miot de melito=. mémoires ( - ). éd. paris, . v. {o}. =mollien, n. f., comte=. mémoires d'un ministre du trésor public, - . paris, . v. {o}. =montégut, e.= le maréchal davout, son caractère et son génie. paris, . {o}. =muralt, c. v.= hans v. reinhard, bürgermeister d. eidgenossischen standes zürich u. landammann d. schweiz. beitrag z. gesch. d. schweiz während d. letzten jahrzehnte; bearb. nach reinhards nachgelassenen denkschriften, tagebüchern u. briefwechsel. zürich, . =napoléon i.= memoirs of the history of france. hist. miscellanies. london, . v. {o}. (dictated to the count de montholon.) =napoléon i.= memoirs of the history of france during the reign of napoleon, dictated by him at st. helena. london, - . v. {o}. =nasica, t.= mémoires sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de napoléon i jusqu'à l'âge de ans. paris, . {o}. e édit., . {o}. =neuville, j. g. hyde de=. mémoires et souvenirs. paris, . v. {o}. =ney, m. l. f., duc d'elchingen=. mémoires. publiés par sa famille. paris, . v. {o}. =nodier, c. e.= souvenirs, portraits, Épisodes de la révolution et de l'empire. éd. doublée par l'adjonction de morceaux nouveaux et accompagnée de notes. paris, . v. {o}. =nougarède de fayet, a.= notice sur la vie et les travaux de m. le comte bigot de préameneu, ministre des cultes sous l'empire, l'un des trois rédacteurs du projet de code civil. paris, . {o}. =odeleben, e. o. i., freiherr von=. napoleon's feldzug in sachsen im jahre . aufl. dresden, . {o}. =pajol, c. p. v., c{te}=. kléber, sa vie, sa correspondance. paris, . {o}. =pelet, j. j. g.= mém. sur la guerre de en allemagne, avec les opérations particulières des corps d'italie, de pologne, de saxe, de naples et de walcheren. paris, - . v. {o}. =peyrusse, g. j. r., baron=. - : mémorial et archives de m. le b{on} peyrusse, trésorier-général de la couronne pendant les cent jours. vienne, moscou, Île d'elbe. carcassonne, . {o}. =pontécoulant, l. g. d., comte de=. souvenirs historiques et parlementaires, extraits de ses papiers et de sa correspondance, - . paris, - . v. {o}. =rapp, gén.= mémoires des contemporains pour servir à l'histoire de la république et de l'empire. ière livraison. mémoires du gén. rapp. publiés par sa famille. paris, . {o}. =récamier, mme j. f. j. a. b.= souvenirs et correspondance tirés des papiers de mme récamier (par mme lenormant). e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =récamier, j. f. j. a. b.= memoirs and correspondence. tr. and ed. by i. m. luyster. london, . {o}. =rémusat, c. e. j. g. de v. de=. mémoires, - . publiés par paul de rémusat. paris, . v. {o}. =rémusat, c. e. j. g. de v. de=. lettres, - . publiées par paul de rémusat. paris, . v. {o}. =rieu, j. l.= mémoires. genève, . {o}. =roederer, p. l., comte=. oeuvres, publ. par son fils, a. m. roederer. paris, - . v. {o}. =saint-elme, ida=. mémoires d'une contemporaine; ou, souvenirs d'une femme sur les principaux personnages de la république, du consulat, de l'empire, etc. ( - ). paris, - . v. =savary, a. j. m. r., duc de rovigo=. mémoires pour servir à l'hist. de l'empereur napoléon. paris, . v. {o}. =ségur, p. p., comte de=. histoire et mémoires. paris, . v. {o}. =ségur, p. p., comte de=. mélanges. paris, . {o}. =staël-holstein, madame de=. considérations sur la révolution française: ouvrage posthume publ. en par m. de broglie et m. de staël. nouv. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =stedingk, c. b. l. c., comte de=. mémoires posthumes: rédigés sur des lettres, dépêches et autres pièces authentiques, laissées à sa famille, par le gén. de bjornstjerna. paris, - . v. {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m. de, prince de bénévent=. extraits des mémoires de. recueillis et mis en ordre par madame la comtesse o ... du c ... (le baron lamothe-langon), auteur des mémoires d'une femme de qualité. paris, . v. {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m. de, prince de bénévent=. mémoires, publ. avec une préf. et des notes par le duc de broglie. paris, . v. {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m. de, prince de bénévent=. correspondance diplomatique: le ministère de talleyrand sous le directoire. avec intr. et notes par g. pallain. paris, . {o}. =thibaudeau, a. c.= mémoires sur la convention et le directoire. e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =thibaudeau, a. c.= mémoires sur le consulat de à , par un ancien conseiller d'état. paris, . {o}. =thiébault, p. c. f. a. h. d., baron=. mémoires, publ. sous les auspices de sa fille, mlle c. thiébault, d'après le ms. orig. par f. calmettes, - . paris, - . v. {o}. =vauthier, g.= essai sur la vie et les oeuvres de népomucène lemercier. toulon, . {o}. =villèle, comte de=. mémoires et correspondance. paris, - . v. {o}. =vitrolles, e. d'arnaud, baron de=. mémoires et relations politiques: publ. par e. forgues, - . paris, . v. {o}. =waldburg, g. t. v.= nouvelle relation de l'itinéraire de napoléon de fontainebleau à l'île d'elbe. trad. de l'allemand. paris, . {o}. =welschinger, h.= le duc d'enghien, - . paris, . {o}. =wiehr, e.= napoleon und bernadotte in herbstfeldzuge . berlin, . {o}. =wilson, sir r. t.= private diary during the campaigns of - ; from the invasion of russia to the capture of paris; ed. by h. randolph. london, . v. napoleon _b._ his correspondence =davout, l., prince d'eckmühl=. correspondance: ses commandements, son ministère, - . avec intr. et notes par ch. de mazade. paris, . v. {o}. =driault, e.= napoléon à finkenstein (avril-mai, ), d'après la correspondance de l'empereur, les archives du ministère des affaires étrangères, les archives nationales. in revue d'histoire diplomatique, tom. xiii, pp. - . paris, . =du casse, p. e. a.= supplément à la correspondance de napoléon i: lettres curieuses omises par le comité de publication, rectifications. paris, . {o}. =fiévée, j.= correspondance et relations avec bonaparte. paris, . v. {o}. =fournier, a.= zur textkritik der korrespondenz napoleons i. (archiv. für Österr. gesch., vol. .) vienna. =guillois, a.= napoléon: l'homme, le politique, l'orateur, d'après sa corresp. et ses oeuvres. paris, . v. {o}. =lecestre, léon=. lettres inédites sur napoléon ier (an viii- ). paris, . v. {o}. =le vasseur=. commentaires de napoléon; suivis d'un résumé des principes de stratégie du prince charles. paris, - . v. {o}. =livre ix=. mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de france en , avec le plan de la bataille de mont saint-jean. paris, . {o}. this is the "second manuscrit venu de sainte-hélène." it was attributed to napoleon and not repudiated by him. =marmottan, p.= bonaparte et la république de lucques. paris, . {o}. =mauduit, h. de=. les derniers jours de la grande armée; ou, souvenirs, documents, et correspondance inédite de napoléon en et . éd. paris, - . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= commentaires. paris, . v. {o}. =napoleon i=. confidential correspondence with his brother joseph. sel. and tr. with notes from the "mém. du roi joseph." new york, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= correspondance. publ. par ordre de l'empereur napoléon iii. paris, - . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= correspondance militaire, extrait de la corresp. générale. paris, - . v. {o}. =napoléon i=. lettres à joséphine et lettres de joséphine à napoléon et à sa fille. paris, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= lettres inédites de. (an vii- .) paris, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= letters to caulaincourt. published by a. vandal in the "revue bleue," mars--avril, . =napoleon i.= new letters omitted from the edition publ. under the auspices of napoleon iii. transl. by lady m. lloyd. london, . heinemann. =napoléon i.= oeuvres littéraires. publ. d'après les originaux et les meilleurs textes, avec une intr., des notes historiques et littéraires et un index par t. martel. paris, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= oeuvres litt. et politiques. nouvelle éd. (ed. par p. lacroix.) paris, . {o}. =napoléon i.= recueil, par ordre chronologique, de ses lettres, proclamations, bulletins, discours sur les matières civiles et politiques, etc., formant une histoire de son règne, écrite par lui-même et accompagnée de notes historiques par m. kermoysan. paris, - . v. {o}. =napoleon i.= selection from his letters and despatches. with explan. notes by d. a. bingham. london, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= opinions sur divers sujets de politique et d'administration recueillies par un membre de son conseil d'état (b{on} pelet) et récit de quelques événements de l'époque. paris, . {o}. =pelet de la lozère, j.= opinions de napoléon sur divers sujets de politique et d'administration, recueillies par un membre de son conseil d'état et récit de quelques événements de l'époque. paris, . {o}. =sassenay, marquis de=. napoléon i et la fondation de la république argentine. jacques de liniers et le marquis de sassenay ( - ). paris, . {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m. de, prince de bénévent=. correspondance avec le premier consul pendant la campagne de marengo. publiée par le comte boulay de la meurthe. extrait de la "revue d'histoire diplomatique." laval, . {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m. de, prince de bénévent=. lettres inédites à napoléon ( - ), publ. d'après les originaux conservés aux archives des affaires étrangères. avec une intr. et des notes par p. bertrand. e éd. paris, . {o}. napoleon _c._ his family =d'arzuzon, c.= hortense de beauharnais. {o}. paris, . lévy. =d'arzuzon, c.= mme louis bonaparte. {o}. paris, . lévy. =aubenas, j. a.= histoire de l'impératrice joséphine. paris, - . v. {o}. =beauharnais, eugène de=. mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire. edited by a. du casse. v. paris, - . =becker, a.= der plan der zweiten heirat napoleons. in mittheilungen des instituts für oesterreichische geschichtsforschung, tom. , pp. - . innsbruck, . =du casse, p. e. a.= les rois frères de napoléon i; documents inédits relatifs au premier empire. paris, . {o}. =ducrest=. mémoires sur l'impératrice joséphine. paris, . v. {o}. =durand, madame=. napoleon and marie-louise ( - ). a memoir. london, . {o}. =herisson, m., comte de=. le cabinet noir: louis xvii, napoléon, marie-louise. éd. paris, . {o}. =lamothe-langon, b{on} e.l. de=. napoléon, sa famille, ses amis, ses généraux, ses ministres et ses contemporains; ou, soirées secrètes du luxembourg, des tuileries, de saint-cloud, de la malmaison, de fontainebleau, etc., par m. le ... ex-ministre de s.m. impériale et royale. paris, . v. {o}. =marie-louise=. correspondance, - . lettres intimes et inédites à la comtesse de colloredo et à mlle de poutet, depuis comtesse de crenneville. paris, . {o}. =marmottan, p.= elisa bonaparte. {o}. paris, . champion. =masson, f.= napoléon et sa famille. ( - .) paris, . {o}. =mémoires= sur l'impératrice joséphine, ses contemporains, la cour de navarre et de la malmaison (par mme g.d. bochsa, nièce de mme de genlis). paris, . v. {o}. (attribués par m. delacourt à mme durand.) =méneval, c.f., baron de=. napoléon et marie-louise: souvenirs historiques. éd., cor. et augm. paris, - . v. {o}. =montesquiou, abbé de=. le divorce de napoléon et l'abbé de montesquiou. auch., . {o}. =turquan, j.= souveraines et grandes dames. l'impératrice joséphine d'après les témoignages des contemporains. paris, . {o}. =welschinger, h.= le divorce de napoléon. paris, . {o}. =wertheimer, e.= die heirat der erzherzogin marie louise mit napoleon i. wien, . napoleon _d._ his marshals and generals. see also memoirs =berthier, marshal=. life. by gen. derrécagaix (part i, to ). paris, . =bessières, marshal=. by a. rabel. paris, . =blocqueville, a.l. d'eckmühl=. le maréchal davout, prince d'eckmühl, raconté par les siens et par lui-même. paris, - . v. {o}. =davout, marshal=. correspondance ( - ). edited by c. de mazade. v. paris, . =desaix, general=. by j. desaix and la folliot. paris, . =dumas, général comte m.= souvenirs ( - ). edited by his son. v. paris, . =goecke, r.= das grossherzogth. berg unter joachim murat, napoleon i u. louis napoleon, - . ein beitrag zur gesch. der französ. fremdherrschaft auf dem rechten rheinufer. meist nach den acten d. düsseldorfer staats-archivs. köln, . {o}. =grouchy, marshal=. mémoires. edited by the marquis de grouchy. v. paris, - . =jourdan, marshal=. mémoires militaires. v. paris, . =lefebvre, marshal=. by j. wirth. paris, . =kläber, h.= leben und thaten des französischen generals j.b. kléber. dresden, . =maret, marshal=. life, by a. a. ernouf. paris, . =moreau, j. v.=, vie politique, militaire et privée du général. by a. de beauchamp. paris, . =martha-beker, f., comte de mons=. Études historiques sur le général desaix. clermont-ferrand, . {o}. napoleon _e_. his biography =ashton, j.= english caricature and satire on napoleon i. london, . v. new ed., . =barni, j.= napoléon i et son historien m. thiers. paris, . {o}. =batjin, n.= histoire de l'empereur napoléon ier. london, . v. {o}. =baudus=. Études sur napoléon. paris, . v. {o}. =belloc, mme. l. swanton=. bonaparte et les grecs. paris, . {o}. =beyle, h.= (=stendhal=, _pseud._). vie de napoléon: fragments. éd. paris, . {o}. =böhtlingk, a.= napoléon bonaparte: seine jugend und sein emporkommen ( - ). ausg. leipzig, . v. {o}. =bois, m.= napoléon bonaparte, lieutenant d'artillerie à auxonne; vie militaire et privée. {o}. paris, . flammarion. =bonaparte, n. joseph c. p., prince=. napoleon and his detractors. tr. and ed. with a biog. sketch and notes by r. s. de beaufort. london, . {o}. =bondois, p.= napoléon et la société de son temps ( - ). {o}. paris, . alcan. =bonnal de ganges=. la génie de napoléon. paris, . v. {o}. =bourrienne, l. a. f. de=. memoirs of napoleon bonaparte. ed. with pref. and notes by r. w. phipps. new york, . v. {o}. =chalamet, a.= guerres de napoléon, - , racontées par des témoins oculaires. paris, . {o}. =channing, w. e.= remarks on the life and character of napoleon bonaparte. edinburgh, . {o}. =chuquet, a.= la jeunesse de napoléon. v. {o}. paris, - . colin. i. brienne. ii. la révolution. iii. toulon. =colin, j.= l'Éducation militaire de napoléon. paris, . chapelot. =coquelle, p.= napoléon et l'angleterre, - . paris, . =coston, f. g., baron de=. biographie des premières années de napoléon bonaparte, c'est-à-dire depuis sa naissance jusqu'à l'époque de son commandement-en-chef de l'armée d'italie, avec un appendice renfermant des documents inédits ou peu connus postérieurs à cette époque. paris, . v. {o}. =dayot, a.= napoléon raconté par l'image. paris, . {o}. =des armoises, o.= avant la gloire. napoléon enfant. napoléon et ses compatriotes. {o}. paris, . librairie illustrée. =ducéré, e.= napoléon à bayonne. bayonne, . {o}. =dumouriez, c. f. d.= jugement sur bonaparte. (in his mémoires, v. .) =fischer, a.= goethe und napoleon. eine studie. {o}. frauenfeld, . huber. aufl. mit anhang: weimar und napoleon. {o}. ibid. . ibid. =fournier, a.= napoleon i. eine biographie. leipzig, - . v. {o}. (das wissen d. gegenwart. v. , , .) eng. trans. new york, . (bibliography.) =gadobert, b.= la jeunesse de napoléon i. de au siège de toulon. (relation inédite.) {o}. paris, . chamuel. =gallois, léon=. histoire de napoléon d'après lui-même. e éd. paris, . {o}. =garsou, j.= béranger et la légende napoléonienne. {o}. bruxelles, . weissenbruch. =garsou, j.= les créateurs de la légende napoléonienne. barthélemy et méry. bruxelles, . =gautier, paul=. madame de staël et napoléon. paris, . =geoffroy de grandmaison, c. a.= napoléon et ses historiens. {o}. paris, . perrin. =germond de lavigne, l. a. g.= les pamphlets de la fin de l'empire, des cent jours et de la restauration. catalogue raisonné. paris, . {o}. =grand-cartaret, j.= napoléon en images. estampes anglaises. (portraits et caricatures.) {o}. avec reproductions. paris, . firmin-didot. =hazlitt, w.= life of napoleon buonaparte. ed. london, . v. {o}. =holzhausen, p.= der erste konsul bonaparte und seine deutschen besucher. {o}. bonn, . holzhausen. =jorissen, t.= napoléon i et le roi de hollande, - , d'après des documents authentiques et inédits. (la haye, m. nighoff.) paris, . {o}. =jung, th.= bonaparte et son temps ( - ), d'après les documents inédits. paris, - . v. {o}. =lanfrent=. histoire de napoléon i. paris, - . v. {o}. =laurent, p. m.= history of napoleon. london, . v. {o}. =laurent de l'ardèche, p. m.= histoire de l'empereur napoléon. illustrée par h. vernet. paris, . gr. {o}. =lemoine, a.= napoléon ier et les juifs. {o}. paris, . fayard. =lettow-vorbeck, o. von=. napoleons untergang, . berlin, . =lévy, m.= bonaparte à valence. {o}. tournon, . boyer. =lévy, a.= napoléon intime. éd. paris, . {o}. =lockhart, j. g.= history of napoleon bonaparte. ed. london, . v. {o}. =lumbroso, a.= miscellanea napoleonica. roma, , , . {o}. =lumbroso, a.= napoleone i e l'inghilterra. roma, . {o}. =maitland, sir f. l.= relation concernant l'embarquement et le séjour de l'empereur napoléon à bord du _bellérophon_. paris, . {o}. =masson, f.= les débuts des bonapartes. paris, . {o}. =masson, f.= napoléon chez lui: la journée de l'empereur aux tuileries. paris, . {o}. =masson, f.= napoléon et les femmes. i. l'amour. paris, . {o}. =masson, f.= napoléon inconnu. papiers inédits ( - ). publiés par f. masson et g. biagi. accompagnés de notes sur la jeunesse de napoléon ( - ). paris, . v. {o}. =monier, a.= une année de la vie de l'empereur napoléon; ou, précis historique de tout ce qui s'est passé depuis le avril, , jusqu'au mars, ... par a. d. b. m. éd. rev. paris, . {o}. =napoléon ier.= la république, le consulat, l'empire, sainte-hélène, d'après les peintres, les sculpteurs et les graveurs. album oblong. av. planches et gravures. paris, . hachette. =norvins, j. m. de=. histoire de napoléon. éd. paris, - . v. {o}. =paris= zur zeit d. kaiserkrönung. nebst e schilderung d. hauptpersonen bei diesem merkwürd. feste u. napoleons bildn. leipzig, . {o}. =pélissier, l. g.= le registre de l'île d'elbe. lettres et ordres inédits de napoléon ier, mai, ,- févr., . {o}. paris, . fontemoing. =peyre, r.= napoléon i et son temps: histoire militaire, gouvernement intérieur, lettres, sciences et arts. paris, . {o}. =pingaud, l.= bernadotte, napoléon et les bourbons. paris, . =poullet, p.= la belgique et la chute de napoléon i. extrait de la "revue générale." bruxelles, . {o}. =prentout, h.= l'Île de france sous decaen, - . {o}. paris, . hachette. =remacle, c{te} de=. bonaparte et les bourbons. relations secrètes des agents de louis xviii à paris sous le consulat ( - ). {o}. paris, . plon. =révérend, v{te} a.= armorial du premier empire. titres, majorats et armoiries concédés par napoléon ier. v. {o}. paris, . champion. =riols, j. de=. napoléon peint par lui-même, anecdotes, souvenirs, caractère, appréciations, etc. paris, . {o}. =rocquain, f.= napoléon i et le roi louis, d'après les documents conservés aux archives nationales. paris, . {o}. =roloff, g.= napoleon i. {o}. berlin, . bondi. coll. vorkampfer des jahrhunderts. =rose, j. h.= napoleon and english commerce. in english historical review, v. viii, pp. - . london, . =rose, j. h.= the life of napoleon i, including new materials from the british official records. london, . =saint-hilaire, marco=. histoire populaire, anecdotique et pittoresque de napoléon et la grande armée. paris, . gr. {o}. =scott, sir walter=. life of napoleon bonaparte, with a preliminary view of the french revolution. edinburgh, . v. {o}. =scott, sir walter=. vie de napoléon buonaparte, précédée d'un tableau préliminaire sur la révolution franç. paris, . v. {o}. =seeley, j. r.= short history of napoleon i. london, . {o}. =seeley, j. r.= courte histoire de napoléon i. trad. paris, . {o}. =ségur, p. p. de=. geschichte napoleons und der grossen armee im jahre . stuttgart, . v. {o}. =sepet, m.= napoléon, son caractère, son génie, son rôle historique. paris, . {o}. =sorel, a.= bonaparte et hoche en . paris, . {o}. =tatistcheff, s.= alexandre i et napoléon ( - ), d'après leur correspondance inédite. paris, . =thibaudeau, a. c.= histoire générale de napoléon bonaparte, de sa vie privée et publique, de sa carrière politique et militaire, de son administration et de son gouvernement. paris, - . v. {o}. =vallaux, c.= les campagnes des armées françaises ( - ). av. cartes. {o}. paris, . alcan. =vandal, a.= l'avènement de bonaparte. paris, . =vandal, a.= napoléon et alexandre ier: l'alliance russe sous le premier empire. paris, - . v. {o}. =whately, r.= historic doubts relative to napoleon buonaparte. with intr. by h. morley. new york, no date. {o}. =yorck v. wartenburg=. napoleon als feldherr. aufl. berlin, - . v. {o}. napoleon in elba =campbell, sir n.= napoleon at fontainebleau and elba. - . london, . {o}. =fabre, j.= de fontainebleau à l'île d'elbe. paris, . {o}. =foresi, e.= napoleone i all' isola dell' elba. firenze. =gourgaud et montholon=. mémoires p. s. à l'histoire de france sous napoléon, écrits à sainte-hélène par les généraux qui ont partagé sa captivité, et publ. sur le manuscrit entièrement corrigés de la main de napoléon. v. {o}. paris, - . didot. bossange. trad. en allem., espagn., angl. et dan. =helfert, j. a.= napoleon i fahrt von fontainebleau nach elba, april-mai, . mit benützung der ämtlichen reiseberichte des kaiserlich österreichischen commissars gen. koller. wien, . {o}. =lancelotti=. napoleon auf elba. dresden, . =livi, g.= napoleone all' isola d'elba. milano, . =pélissier, l. g.= l'Île d'elbe au commencement du xixe siècle. in bulletin de la société languedocienne de géographie, . =pellet, e. a. m.= napoléon à l'île d'elbe: mélanges historiques. paris, . {o}. =pichot, a.= napoléon à l'île d'elbe: chronique des événements de - , d'après le journal du col. sir neil campbell, le journal d'un détenu et autres doc. inédits ou pen connus, pour servir à l'hist. du premier empire et de la restauration, accompagné d'une gravure en taille douce. paris, . {o}. =waldburg, g. t. v.=, ed. napoleon buonaparte's reise von fontainebleau nach fréjus, vom bis april, . einzigrechtmässig. ausg. berlin, . {o}. france =anti-jacobin, or weekly examiner=. st ed. london, - . d ed., . =aucoc, l.= conférences sur l'administration et le droit administratif, faites à l'École des ponts et chaussées. éd. paris, - . v. {o}. =aucoc, l.= le conseil d'état avant et depuis , ses transformations, ses travaux, et son personnel: Étude hist. et bibliographique. paris, . {o}. =aulard, f. a.= le directoire exécutif (in rambaud et lavisse, histoire générale, t. viii). paris, . {o}. =bailac, j. b.= nouvelle chronique de la ville de bayonne, par un bayonnais. bayonne, - . v. {o}. =barante, a. g. p. brugière de=. histoire du directoire de la république française. paris, . v. {o}. =beiträge= zur geschichte d. ruckzugs d. franzosen nach d. schlacht bei leipzig. leipzig, . {o}. =bertrand, a.= l'organisation française: le gouvernement, l'administration. paris, . {o}. =bignon, l. p.= histoire de france sous napoléon, rédigée et terminée par a. ernouf. paris, - . v . {o}. =biré, e.= causeries historiques. les historiens de la révolution et de l'empire. {o}. paris, . bloud. =blanc, a. e.= napoléon ier: ses institutions civiles et administratives. paris, . {o}. =blanc, l.= histoire de la révolution française. paris, - . v. {o}. nouvelle éd. ornée de gravures. paris, . v. {o}. =bogdanowitsch, m.= geschichte d. krieges in frankreich u. d. sturzes napoleons i, nach d. zuverlässigsten quellen. aus d. russ. von g. baumgarten. leipzig, . {o}. =boissonnade, j. f.= critique littéraire sous le premier empire. publ. par f. colincamp. paris, . v. {o}. =bosse, r. h. b. von=. Übersicht d. französischen staatswirthschaft. braunschw., . thle. =boulay de la meurthe, comte de=. les dernières années du duc d'enghien. ( - .) paris, . {o}. =brunetière, f.= Études critiques sur l'histoire de la littérature française. paris, - . v. {o}. =buchez, p. b. j., et roux-lavergne, p. c.= histoire parlementaire de la révolution française; ou, journal des assemblées nationales depuis jusqu'en . paris, - . v. {o}. =chuquet, a.= l'alsace en . {o}. paris, . plon. =corréard, f.= la france sous le consulat. {o}. paris, . may. coll. bibliothèque d'histoire militaire. =cobbett, w.= facts and observations relative to the peace with bonaparte. philadelphia, . {o}. =debidour, a.= Études critiques sur la révolution, l'empire et la période contemporaine. {o}. paris, . charpentier. =debidour=. histoire des rapports de l'église et de l'état en france ( - ). paris, . alcan. =dejob=. l'instruction publique en france et en italie au xixe siècle. {o}. paris, . colin. =delplace, l.= la belgique sous la domination française. v. louvain, . =des granges, c. m.= geoffroy et la critique dramatique sous le consulat et l'empire ( - ). (thèse.) paris, . hachette. =desmarets, c.= témoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police sous napoléon. paris, . {o}. =dontenville, j.= le général moreau, - . paris, . =duruy, a.= l'instruction publique et la révolution. paris, . {o}. =duvergier de hauranne, p.= histoire de gouvernement parlementaire en france, - ; précédée d'une intr. paris, - . v. {o}. =faber, t.= notices sur l'intérieur de la france, écrites en . st.-pétersbourg, . {o}. (la paix de tilsit arrêta la publication d'un second vol. qui devait paraître. le premier vol. n'a pas été répandu dans le public que par une réimpression faite à londres, dans le recueil intitulé: "offrandes à bonaparte par trois étrangers." .) =fauchille, p.= du blocus maritime. paris, . {o}. =fauchille, p.= la question juive en france sous le premier empire, d'après des documents inéd. paris, . {o}. =fauriel, c.= les derniers jours du consulat, manuscrit inéd. publ. et annot. par l. lalanne. paris, . =fescourt=. histoire de la double-conspiration de contre le gouvernement consulaire et de la déportation qui eut lieu dans la deuxième année du consulat; contenant des détails authentiques et curieux sur la machine infernale et les déportés. paris. . {o}. =fiévée, j.= correspondance polit, et administrative, commencée au mois de mai, . v. paris, - . {o}. =forneron, h.= hist. générale des émigrés pendant la révolution française. éd. rev. et corr. paris, . v. {o}. =fortescue=. the manuscripts of j. b. fortescue, esq. preserved at dropmore. london, . =goncourt, e. et j. de=. histoire de la société française pendant le directoire. nouv. éd. paris, . {o}. =gourgaud, g.= campagne de , ou relation des opérations militaires qui out eu lieu en france et en belgique pendant les cent jours. paris, . {o}. =grouchy, gén.= fragments historiques relatifs à la campagne de et à la bataille de waterloo. paris, . {o}. =hamel, e.= hist. des deux conspirations du gén. malet. nouv. éd. rev., corr. et augm. d'une nouvelle préface. paris, . {o}. =hahn, l.= d. unterrichtswesen in frankreich mit einer geschichte der pariser universität. breslau, . {o}. =hélie, f. a.= les constitutions de la france. ouvrage contenant, outre les constitutions, les principales lois relatives au culte, à la magistrature, aux élections, à la liberté de la presse, de réunion et d'association, à l'organisation des départements et des communes, avec un commentaire. paris, - . facs. =houssaye, h.= , la première restauration, le retour de l'île d'elbe, les cent jours. éd., rev. paris, . {o}. =hüffer, h.= quellen zur geschichte des zeitalters der französischen révolution. leipzig, . teubner. =julien, b.= histoire de la poésie française à l'époque impériale. paris, . v. {o}. =jullien, m. a.= entretien politique sur la situation actuelle de la france et sur les plans du nouveau gouvernement. paris, an viii ( ). {o}. =labaume, e.= histoire de la chute de l'empire de napoléon, ornée de huit plans ou cartes pour servir au récit des principales batailles livrées en - . paris, . v. {o}. =lacombe, p.= essai d'une bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs à l'histoire religieuse de paris pendant la révolution ( - ). paris, . {o}. =lacretelle, c. j. d. de=. dix années d'épreuves pendant la révolution. paris, . {o}. =lafon, j. b. h.= hist. de la conjuration du gén. malet, avec des détails officiels sur cette affaire. éd., rev., corr. et augm. des pièces offic. des procès; recueillies à la com. militaire, etc. paris, . =lamartine, a. m. l. de=. histoire de la restauration. paris, - . v. {o}. =lamartine, a. m. l. de=. history of the restoration of monarchy in france. new york, - . {o}. =lamothe-langon, baron e. l. de=. les après-dîners de s. a. s. cambacérès, second consul, ou révélations de plusieurs grands personages sur l'ancien régime, le directoire, l'empire et la restauration, recueillies et publiées par le b{on} e. l. de lamothe-langon. paris, . v. {o}. =lanzac de laborie, de=. la domination française en belgique, - . paris, . v. {o}. =lavallée, j.= histoire de l'origine, du progrès et de la décadence des diverses factions qui ont agité la france depuis le juillet, , jusqu'à l'abdication de napoléon. london, . v. {o}. =lavisse, e.=, et =rambaud, a=., histoire générale du ive siècle jusqu'à nos jours, ouvrage publié sous la direction de. paris, - . v. {o}. =lubis, f. p.= histoire de la restauration ( - ). e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =lubis, f. p.= résumé de l'histoire des cent jours. paris, . {o}. =mahan, a. t.= influence of sea power upon the french revolution and empire, - . london, . v. {o}. =martel, comte a. de=. historiens fantaisistes (m. thiers). paris, . v. {o}. =merlet, g.= tableau de la littérature française ( - ). paris, - . v. {o}. =meyer, fr. j. l.= briefe aus d. haupstadt u. dem innern frankreichs unt. d. consular-regierung. stuttgart, . thle. {o}. =montglave, g. de=. les souvenirs d'un grognard de la vieille. paris, . {o}. =mortimer-ternaux=. histoire de la terreur ( - ). paris, - . v. {o}. =nicolas, ch.= les budgets de la france depuis le commencement du xixe siècle. tableaux budgétaires. paris, . {o}. =nougarède de fayet, a.= recherches hist. sur le procès et la condamnation du duc d'enghien. paris, . v. {o}. =pajol, c{te}=. pajol, général en chef, par le gén. de division c{te} pajol, son fils aîné. paris, . v. {o}. =panckoucke, p.= la république considérée dans ses divers gouvernements, ou la france comme elle est après ce qu'elle a été. essai d'observations impartiales et instructives sur les événements et les hommes pendant la révolution. paris, an iv ( ). {o}. =passy, l.= frochot, préfet de la seine. hist. administrative, - . paris, . {o}. =peuchet, j.= essai d'une statistique générale de la france. paris. . {o}. =pfuel, e. v.= d. rückzug der franzosen aus russland. hrsg. von f. förster. berlin, . {o}. =picaud, a.= carnot, l'organisateur de la victoire, - . nouv. éd. paris, no date. {o}. =pisani, abbé p.= la dalmatie de à . Épisode des conquêtes napoléoniennes. paris, . gr. {o}. =pradt, d. d. de=. récit historique sur la restauration de la royauté en france le mars, . par l'auteur du "congrès de vienne," etc. e éd. paris, . {o}. =procès= instruit par la cour de justice criminelle contre georges, pichegru, moreau et autres prévenus de conspiration contre la personne du premier consul. paris, . v. {o}. =rapetti, p. n.= la défection de marmont en , ouvrage suivi d'un précis des jugements de napoléon ier sur le maréchal marmont, d'une notice bibliog., avec extraits de tous les ouvrages publ. sur le même sujet, etc. paris, . {o}. =regnault-warin, j. b. j. i. p.= introduction à l'histoire de l'empire français; ou, essai sur la monarchie de napoléon. paris, . v. {o}. =rochechouart, général comte de=. souvenirs sur la révolution, l'empire et la restauration. mémoires inédits publiés par son fils. paris, . {o}. =rocquain, f.= État de la france au brumaire d'après les rapports des conseillers d'état chargés d'une enquête sur la situation de la république, avec pièces inédites, de la fin du directoire, publiées pour la première fois et précédées d'une préface et d'une introduction. paris, . {o}. =rodriguez, j. a.= relation historique de ce qui s'est passé à paris à la mémorable époque de la déchéance de napoléon buonaparte, écrite en espagnol et traduite en français par l'auteur. paris, . {o}. =sainte-beuve, c. a.= chateaubriand et son groupe littéraire sous l'empire. nouv. éd., cor. paris, . v. {o}. =schaeffner, w.= geschichte d. rechtsverfassung frankreichs. ausg. frankfurt-am-main, . v. {o}. =schlarendorf, g. v.= napoleon u. das französische volk unter seinem consulate. hrsg. von j. f. reichardt. germanien., . {o}. =schlarendorf, g. v.= bonaparte and the french people under his consulate. american ed. new york, . {o}. =schmidt, a.= paris pendant la révolution, d'après les rapports de la police secrète, - . trad. franç. accompagnée d'une préface par p. viollet. paris, - . v. {o}. =schmidt, a.= parizer zustände während d. revolutionszeit von - . jena, - . v. in . {o}. =schmidt, a.= tableaux de la révolution française. publ. sur les papiers inédits du département de la police secrète de paris. leipzig, - . v. {o}. =schoelcher, v.= vie de toussaint louverture. paris, . {o}. =schoell, f.= recueil de pièces officielles sur les événements qui se sont passés depuis quelques années. paris, . v. {o}. =sorel, a.= l'europe et la révolution française. paris, - . v. {o}. =stourm, r.= les finances de l'ancien régime et de la révolution, origines du système financier actuel. paris, . v. {o}. =sybel, h. von=. geschichte d. revolutionszeit von - . neue ausg. stuttgart, . v. {o}. =taine, h.= les origines de la france contemporaine. paris, - . v. {o}. =talleyrand-périgord, c. m.= correspondance inédite du prince de talleyrand et du roi louis xviii pendant le congrès de vienne, publiée sur les manuscrits conservés au dépôt des affaires étrangères, avec préface, éclaircissements et notes par g. pallain. paris, . {o}. =thibaudeau, a. c.= le consulat et l'empire; ou, histoire de france et de napoléon bonaparte de à . paris, - . v. {o}. =thiers, a.= histoire du consulat et de l'empire ( - ). paris, - . v. {o}. atlas fol. =thiers, a.= history of the consulate and the empire of france under napoleon. tr. by d. f. campbell. london, - . v. also atlas fol. . =toulongeon, f. e.= histoire de france depuis la révolution de . paris, - . v. {o}. =vaulabelle, a. t. de=. histoire de deux restaurations jusqu'à l'avènement de louis-philippe de jan., , à oct., . nouv. éd. paris, . v. {o}. =véron, l. d.= mémoires d'un bourgeois de paris, comprenant la fin de l'empire, la restauration, la monarchie de juillet, la république jusqu'au rétablissement de l'empire. paris, - . v. {o}. =villemain, a. f.= souvenirs contemporains d'histoire et de littérature. paris, - . parts. {o}. =vührer, a.= histoire de la dette publique en france. paris, . v. =walsh, r.= letter on the genius and dispositions of the french government. philadelphia, . {o}. =welschinger, h.= la censure sous le premier empire. paris, . v. {o}. =williams, h. m.= narrative of the events which have taken place in france, with an account of the present state of society and public opinion. ed. london, . {o}. the code =colmet de santerre=. le divorce de l'empereur et le code napoléon. {o}. paris, . =des gilleuls, a.= de l'esprit du droit public sous le consulat et l'empire. {o}. paris, . picard. =jac, e.= bonaparte et le code civil. de l'influence personnelle exercée par le premier consul sur notre législation civile. {o}. paris, . rousseau. =locré de roissy, j. g., baron de=. procès-verbaux du conseil d'état, cont. la discussion du projet de code civil. années ix-xii. paris, an xii ( - ). v. {o}. =pérouse, h.= napoléon i et les lois civiles du consulat et de l'empire. paris, . {o}. =rehberg, a. w.= ueber den code napoleon u. dessen einführung in deutschland. hannover, . {o}. =roloff, g.= die kolonialpolitik napoleons i. karte. münchen, . oldenbourg, coll. historische bibliothek. =sévin, f.= Étude sur les origines révolutionnaires des codes napoléon. nouv. éd. paris, . {o}. =thézard, l.= de l'influence des travaux de pothier et du chancelier d'aguesseau sur le droit civil moderne. paris, . {o}. great britain =adolphus, j.= history of england from the accession to the decease of king george iii. london, - . v. {o}. =alison, sir a.= lives of lord castlereagh and sir charles stewart, the d and d marquesses of londonderry; with annals of contemporary events. edinburgh, . v. {o}. =auckland=. journal and correspondence of william, lord auckland. london, . v. {o}. =bisset, r.= the history of the reign of george iii to the termination of the late war. london, . v. {o}. =brougham.= historical sketches of statesmen who flourished in the time of george iii. paris, . =browning, o.= england and napoleon in , being the despatches of lord whitworth and others, now first printed. london, . {o}. =buckingham=. memoirs of the court and cabinets of george iii, by the duke of buckingham and chandos. london, - . v. {o}. =burghersh, lord=. (john fane, earl of westmoreland.) memoir of the operations of the allied armies under prince schwarzenberg and marshal blücher, - . london, . {o}. =castlereagh, lord=. correspondence, despatches and other papers. ed. by c. w. vane. london, - . v. {o}. =charlemont, james, first earl of=. manuscripts and correspondence. london, . v. {o}. =cockburn, henry=. memorials of his time. new ed. edinburgh, . {o}. =cornwallis=. correspondence, ed. by charles ross. london, . v. {o}. =cottin, p.= toulon et les anglais en , d'après des documents inédits. avec planches et dessins. {o}. paris, . ollendorf. =cottin, p.= l'angleterre devant ses alliés ( - ): toulon ( ), anvers et nimègue ( ), quiberon ( ), guadeloupe ( ), Égypte ( - ), naples ( ), cadix et cabrera ( - ). {o}. paris, . aux bureaux de la revue rétrospective. =elliot, sir g., earl of minto=. life and letters, - . ed. by the countess of minto. london, . v. {o}. =fox, c. j.= memorials and correspondence, ed. by lord j. russell. london, - . v. {o}. =fox, henry r.=, lord holland. foreign reminiscences. ed. by his son. new york, . {o}. =henry, w.= events of a military life. london, . v. {o}. =jackson, sir g.= diaries and letters from the peace of amiens to the battle of talavera. ed. by lady jackson. paris, . v. {o}. =jackson, sir g.= the bath archives. a further selection from [his] diaries and letters from - . ed. by lady jackson. london, . v. {o}. =james, w.= naval history of great britain. london, . v. =laughton, j. k.= life of nelson. london, . d ed. . =laughton, j. k.= the nelson memorial. nelson and his companions in arms. london, . {o}. =liverpool, earl of (r. b. jenkinson)=. memoirs. london, . =mahan, a. t.= life of nelson. london, . v. {o}. =malmesbury, lord=. diaries and correspondence. london, . v. {o}. =massey=. a history of england during the reign of george iii. london, - . v. {o}. =maxwell, w. h.= life of the duke of wellington. th ed. . v. {o}. =morris, gouverneur=. diary and letters. new york, . v. {o}. =paget, sir arthur=. the paget papers. london, . v. {o}. =parliamentary history=. vols. xxxvi _et seq_. london, _et seq._ =romilly, sir samuel=. memoirs and correspondence. london, . v. {o}. =rose, g.= diaries and correspondence. ed. by l. v. harcourt. london, . v. {o}. =ségur, p. p. de=. history of the expedition to russia in . philadelphia, . {o}. =sidmouth=. life and correspondence of henry addington, first viscount sidmouth. ed. by g. pellew. london, . v. {o}. =sinclair, sir j.= correspondence, with reminiscences of the most distinguished characters in great britain and in foreign countries during the last fifty years. london, . v. {o}. =stanhope=. life of the right honorable william pitt. london, - . v. {o}. =stewart, c. w. v=., first earl vane and third marquis of londonderry. narrative of the war in germany and france in - . london, . {o}. =wellesley, a., duke of wellington=. civil correspondence and memoranda. london, . v. {o}. =wellesley, a., duke of wellington=. despatches from - . new ed. london, - . v. {o}. (vols. - of coll. despatches.) =windham, w.= the diary of william windham, - . ed. by mrs. henry baring. london, . {o}. =yonge, c. d.= life and administration of robert banks jenkinson, d earl of liverpool ( - ). london, . v. {o}. italy =besancenet, a. de=. le général dommartin en italie et en Égypte. ordres de service. correspondance, - . paris, . {o}. =botta, c.= storia d'italia dal al . torino, . v. =bouvier, f.= bonaparte en italie ( ). {o}. av. cartes. paris, . cerf. =cantù, c.=, ed. corrispondenze di diplomatici della repubblica e del regno di italia - . compilazione archivistica. vol. iº. milano, . {o}. =castro=. milano durante la dominazione napoleonica. milano, . {o}. =castro=. storia d'italia dal al . milano, . {o}. =coignet, capitaine=. les cahiers ( - ), publ. d'après le ms. orig. par l. larchey. nouv. éd., rev. et cor. paris, . {o}. =coletta, p.= storia del reame di napoli dal al . paris, . {o}. =coppi=. annali d'italia dal al . rome, . {o}. =dandolo, g.= la caduta della republica di venezia ed i suoi ultimi cinquant'anni. studii, storici, ed appendice. venezia. - . v. {o}. =dejob=. mme de staël et l'italie (avec une bibliographie de l'influence française en italie, - ). paris, . =einsiedel, a. a. v.= die feldzüge d. oesterreicher in italien im jahre . mit schlachtplan u. karte. weimar, . {o}. =fabry, g.= histoire de l'armée d'italie ( - ). de loano à févr., . v. {o}. paris, . champion. tom. . {o}. paris, . chapelot. =gachot, e.= la deuxième campagne d'italie, . {o}. paris, . perrin. =gaffarel, paul=. bonaparte et les républiques italiennes - . paris, . {o}. =graham, colonel t.= despatches on the italian campaign of - . ed. by j. h. rose. in english historical review, vol. , pp. - , - . london, . =helfert, j. a.= königin karolina von neapel u. sicilien im kampfe gegen die französische weltherrschaft, - . mit benützung von schriftstücken des k. k. haus-hof-u. staats-archivs. wien, . {o}. =johnston, r. m.= the napoleonic empire in southern italy. v. london, . (bibliography.) =la folie, c. j.= (coraccini, _pseud._) histoire de l'administration du royaume d'italie pendant la domination française. paris, . {o}. =la folie, c. j.= (coraccini, _pseud._) storia dell'amministrazione del regno d'italia durante il dominio francese. lugano, . =liebenstein, t. e. f. v.= d. krieg napoleons gegen russland in d. jahre u. . frankfurt-am-main, . thle. =litta biumi, a.= della battaglia di montenotte. milano, . {o}. =lucchesini=. historische entwickelung der ursachen und wirkungen des rheinbundes. aus dem italienischen. leipzig, . thle. {o}. =nani-mocenigo, conte=. venezia durante la dominazione napoleonica. venezia, . {o}. =pellet, e. a. m.= bonaparte en toscane en . paris, . {o}. (extrait de la "revue bleue.") =reumont, a. v.= beiträge zur italienischen geschichte. berlin, - . bde. =rolhenburg, v.= die schlacht bei rivoli. leipzig, . =romanin, f.= storia documentata di venezia. venezia, - . v. =sforza, g.=, ed. sull' occupazione di massa di lunigiana da' francesi nel , lettere d'un giacobino. lucca, . {o}. =trolard, e.= pélerinage aux champs de bataille français d'italie, v. . de montenotte au pont d'arcole. v. , . de rivoli à marengo et à solferino. paris, . v. {o}. =welschinger, h.= le roi de rome, - . paris, . {o}. the papacy =artaud de montor, f.= histoire des souverains pontifes romains. paris, - . v. {o}. =boulay de la meurthe, comte de=, ed. documents sur la négociation du concordat. paris, - . v. {o}. =chotard, h.= le pape pie vii à savone, d'après les minutes des lettres inéd. du gén. berthier au prince borghèse et d'après les mémoires inéd. de m. de lebseltern, conseiller d'ambassade autrichien. paris, . {o}. =geoffroy de grandmaison=. napoléon et les cardinaux noirs, - . paris, . {o}. =giucci, g.= storio de pio vii. rome, - . =haussonville, j. o. b. de cleron d'=. l'Église romaine et le premier empire, - ; avec notes, correspondances dipl. et pièces justificatives, entièrement inédites. e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =mejer, o. z.= geschichte der römisch-deutschen frage. rostock, - . thle. =pradt, d. d. de=. les quatre concordats; suivis de considérations sur le gouvernement de l'Église en général et sur l'Église de france en particulier depuis . paris, . v. {o}. =séché, l.= les origines du concordat. i. pie vi et le directoire. ii. pie vii et le consulat. paris, . v. {o}. =theiner, a.= hist. des deux concordats de la république française et de la république cisalpine conclus en - entre napoléon bonaparte et le saint-siège; suivie d'une relation de son couronnement comme empereur des français par pie vii, d'après des doc. inéd. extraits des archives du vatican et de celles de france. paris, - . {o}. switzerland =amtliche sammlung= der acten aus d. zeit d. helvetischen republik ( - ) in anschluss an d. sammlung d. ältern. eidg. abschiede. hrsg. auf anordng. d. bundesbehörden. bearb. v. j. strickler. bern, - . bde. {o}. =luginbühl, r.= ph. alb. stapfer, helvetischer minister d. künste u. wissenschaften ( - ). ein lebens u. kulturbild. basel, . {o}. =oechsli, w.= die schweiz in den jahren und . {o}. zürich, . schulthess. =rutsche, p.= der kanton zürich zur zeit der helvetik ( - ). {o}. zürich, . fasi. =schweizer, p.= geschichte der schweizerischen neutralität. =senfft, f. c. l., comte de=. mémoires: organisation politique de la suisse, - . leipzig, . {o}. =vulliemin, l.= geschichte der schweizerischen eidgenossenschaft. deutsch v. j. keller. aarau, . {o}. =vulliemin, l.= histoire de la confédération suisse. Éd. révisée et corrigée. lausanne, . v. {o}. spain and portugal =barkhausen, g. h.= tagebuch eines rheinbund-offiziers aus dem feldzuge gegen spanien und während spanischer und englischer kriegsgefangenschaft. - . hrsg. von seinem enkel. {o}. wiesbaden, . bergmann. =baumgarten, h.= geschichte spaniens vom ausbruch d. französisch. revolution bis auf unsere tage. leipzig, - . v. {o}. (staatengesch. d. neuesten zeit. bde. , .) =boppe, p.= la légion portugaise, - . {o}. paris, . =boppe, p.= les espagnols à la grande armée. le corps de la romana ( - ); le régiment joseph-napoléon ( - ). {o}. paris, . =grolmann, e. v.= tagebuch eines deutschen offizier üb. seinen feldzug in spanien, . hrsg. v. p. t. rehfues. nürnberg, . =hitzigrat, h.= hamburg und die kontinentalsperre. {o}. hamburg, . herold (programm). =joseph-napoléon, king of spain=. mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire, publ., annot. et mis en ordre par a. du casse. éd. paris, - . v. {o}. =lafuente y zamálloa, m.= historia-general de españa, desde los tiempos mas remotos hasta nuestros dias. madrid, - . v. {o}. =moore, j.= narrative of the campaign of the british army in spain commanded by sir john moore. d ed. london, . {o}. =rehfues, p. j.= spanien nach eigner ansicht im jahre his auf die neueste zeit. frankfurt-am-main, . bde. =southey, r.= hist. of the peninsular war. london, - . v. {o}. germany, including russia and austria =adam, a.= aus dem leben eines schlachtenmalers, selbstbiographie nebst e. anh. hrsg. v. h. holland. stuttgart, . {o}. =baader, j.= streiflichter auf die zeit d. tiefsten erniedrigung deutschlands oder die reichsstadt nürnberg in d. jahren - . nürnberg, . =beaulieu-marconnay, karl frhr. v.= karl v. dalberg u. seine zeit, zur charakteristik d. fürsten primas. weimar, . bde. {o}. =beer, a.= geschichte des welthandels im xix jahrhunderte. wien, - . bde. =beer, a.= zehn jahre österreichischer politik, - . leipzig, . {o}. =beiträge= zur geschichte d. jahres , von einem höhern offizier d. preuss. armee. potsdam, . bde. mit beilagen. =beitzke, h.= geschichte d. deutschen freiheitskriege in den jahren - . neu bearb. aufl. v. p. goldschmidt. bremen, . bde. {o}. =blumenthal, m.= der preussische landsturm von . auf archivalischen grundlagen dargestellt. {o}. berlin, . schröder. =bockenheimer, c. e.= erinnerungen an die geschichte d. stadt mainz in d. jahren u. . mainz, . {o}. =bogdanowitsch, m.= geschichte des feldzuges im jahre , nach den zuverlässigsten quellen. aus d. russ. v. g. baumgarten. leipzig, - . bde. {o}. =böhtlingk, a.= napoleon bonaparte u. d. rastatter gesandtenmord: ein wort an meine herren kritiker. leipzig, . {o}. =bouvier, f.= les premiers combats de . prologue de la campagne de france dans les vosges. paris, . {o}. =boyen, h. v.= erinnerungen aus dem leben d. gen. feldmarschalls h. v. b. aus seinen nachlass im auftrage d. familie, hrsg. v. f. nippold. thle. leipzig, - . {o}. =brandt, heinrich=. aus dem leben des generals der infanterie von brandt, te auflage. thle. berlin, - . =burghersh, lord=. memoiren üb. d. operationen d. verbündeten heere unter dem fürsten schwarzenberg u. dem feldmarschall blücher während des endes u. . aus d. engl. von j. w. schreiber. berlin, . {o}. =buturlin=. tableau de la campagne d'automne de en allemagne. e éd. rev. paris, . {o}. =cadet de gassicourt, ch. l.= voyage en autriche, en moravie et en bavière, fait à la suite de l'armée française en . paris, . {o}. =cerini, cl. f. x. v.= d. feldzüge d. sachsen in d. jahre u. . aus d. bewährt. quellen gezogen u. dargestellt von e. stabsoffizier. dresden, . {o}. =charras, j. b. a.= histoire de la guerre de en allemagne. derniers jours de la retraite de russie. insurrection de l'allemagne. armements. diplomatie. entrée en campagne. éd. paris, . {o}. =clair, c.= andré hofer et l'insurrection du tyrol en . éd. paris, . {o}. =clausewitz, c. v.= nachrichten über preussen in seiner grossen katastrophe. berlin, . v. =colomb, f. a. von=. aus dem tagebuche. streifzüge, - . berlin, . {o}. =dahlmann, f. c.= waitz, g. quellenkunde d. deutschen geschichte. te aufl. quellen und bearbeitungen der deutschen geschichte neu zusammengestellt von g. waitz. te aufl. göttingen, . {o}. =darmstaedter, p.= das grossherzogtum frankfurt. ein kulturbild aus der rheinbundszeit. {o}. frankfurt-am-main, . baer. =dechend=. die pr.-hess. waffenbruderschaft im jahre . jahrbücher für die deutsche armee und marine. . july, oct., nov. =delbrück, h.= das leben d. feldmarschalls grafen neithardt v. gneisenau. berlin, . bde. {o}. =droysen, j. g.= d. leben d. feldmarschalls grafen york v. wartenburg. aufl. leipzig, . thle. =duncker, m. w.= abhandlungen aus der neueren geschichte. leipzig, . {o}. =eckardt, j.= yorck u. paulucci, aktenstücke u. beiträge z. geschichte d. convention von taurogge ( - dezbr., ). leipzig, . {o}. =egger, jos.= geschichte tirols von den ältesten zeiten bis in die neuzeit. innsbruck, - . v. {o}. =ernouf, a. a.= les français en prusse ( - ), d'après des documents contemporains recueillis en allemagne. paris, . {o}. =escoiquiz, don juan=. wahrhafte darstell. d. gründe, welche den könig ferdinand vii im april d. jahre , zur reise nach bayonne bewogen haben. aus d. span, übersetzt. wien, . =eugen, herzog v. württemberg=. memoiren. frankfurt-an-der-oder, . v. {o}. =euler, c.= friedrich ludwig jahn; sein leben u. wirken. stuttgart, . {o}. =eyssenhardt, f.= barthold georg niebuhr: ein biog. versuch. gotha, . {o}. =fichte=. der geschlossene handelstadt. wien, . {o}. =fisher, h.= studies in napoleonic statesmanship: germany. oxford, . =förster, f.= geschichte d. befreiungskriege, - . nach theilweise ungedruckten quellen u. mündlichen aufschlussen bedeutender zeitgenossen. leipzig, - . v. {o}. =foucart, p.= campagne de prusse ( ), d'après les archives de la guerre. prenzlow-lübeck. paris, . {o}. =fournier, a.= historische studien u. skizzen. prague, . {o}. =friccius, c.= geschichte des krieges in den jahren u. . mit besond. rücksicht auf ostpreussen u. d. königsberg'sche landwehrbataillon. berlin, . {o}. =funck, k. w. f.= erinnerungen aus d. feldzüge des sächsischen corps unter d. gen. reynier im jahre , aus papieren d. verstorbenen. dresden, . =gagern, f. h. e.= mein antheil an der politik. i: unter napoleons herrschaft. ii: nach napoleons fall--d. congress zu wien. iii: d. bundestag. stuttgart, - . =gentz, f. de=. oesterreichs theilnahme an den befreiungskriegen. nebst einem anhang "briefwechsel zwischen den fürsten schwarzenberg und metternich." wien, . {o}. =gentz, f. de=. tagebücher. aus dem nachlass varnhagen's v. ense. leipzig, - . v. {o}. =gildemeister, j. k. f.= fink's u. berger's ermordung. beitr. zur charakteristik d. französ. herrschaft in deutschland. bremen, . =goecke, r.= d. königr. westphalen. jahre französ. fremdherrschaft im herzen deutschlands, - . nach den quellen dargestellt vollendet u. hrsg. von th. ilgen. düsseldorf, . {o}. =goltz-colmar, frhr. v.= rossbach u. jena: studien üb. die zustände u. das geistige leben in der preuss. armee während der Übergangszeit vom xviii zum xix jahrh. berlin, . =grolmann, e. v.= geschichte des feldzuges von in dem östlichen u. nördlichen frankreich bis z. einnahme v. paris, als beitrage z. neueren kriegsgeschichte. hrsg. von major v. damitz. berlin, - . v. {o}. =guretzky-cornitz, h. v.= geschichte d. ersten brandenburgischen ulanen-regiments (kaiser v. russland) vom jahre - . berlin, . {o}. =häusser, l.= deutsche geschichte vom tode friedrichs des grossen bis zur gründung des deutschen bundes. berlin, - . thle. veränderte u. vermehrte aufl. berlin, . =havemann, wilh.= d. kurfürstenthum hannover unter zehnjähnger fremdherrschaft, - . jena, . {o}. =heilmann, j.= feldmarschall fürst wrede. leipzig, . {o}. =heinrich, p.= erzherzog johann. vienna, . =helfert, j. a., frhr. von=. zur lösung der rastatter gesandtenmordfrage. gesammelte aufsätze. {o}. stuttgart und wien, . roth. =helfert, j. a.= joachim murat, seine letzten kämpfe u. sein ende. wien, . {o}. =helfert, j. a.= maria karolina v. oesterreich, königin v. neapel u. sicilien. anklagen u. vertheidigg., mit benützg. v. schriftstücken d. k. k. haus-hof-u. staats-archivs. wien, . {o}. =helfert, j. a.= maria louisa, erzherzogin v. oesterreich, kaiserin d. franzosen. mit benützg. v. briefen an ihre Æltern u. v. schriftstücken d. k. k. haus-hof-u. staats-archivs. prague, . {o}. =henckel von donnersmark, w. l. v., graf=. erinnerungen aus meinem leben. zerbst, . {o}. =hofmann, g. w. v.= zur geschichte des feldzuges von . neu. bearb. u. verm. aufl. berlin, . {o}. =hofmann, g. w. v.= zur geschichte des feldzuges von bis nach d. schlacht von belle-alliance. koblenz, . aufl. berlin, . =holzhausen, p.= davout in hamburg. ein beitrag zur geschichte der jahre - . von einem freunde historischer wahrheit. deutsche ausgabe. {o}. mülheim a. d. ruhr, . zeigenhirt. =hormayr, j. f.= d. heer von inneröstreich unter den befehlen d. erzherzogs johann im kriege von in italien, tyrol u. ungarn. durchgehends aus offiziellen quellen, aus d. erlass. befehlen, operations journalen. leipzig, . {o}. =hormayr, h. v.= lebensbilder aus dem befreiungskriege. piece aus den "politischen predigten des dr. faber." leipzig, . {o}. =horn, g.= das buch der königin luise. mit portraits u. illustr. nach gleichzeit. originalen. aufl. berl., . fol. =hüffer, h.= die politik der deutschen mächte im revolutionskriege bis zum abschluss des friedens von campo-formio. (dipl. verhandlungen a. d. zeit d. französisch. rev. bd. i.) =hüffer, h.= oestreich u. preussen gegenüber der französischen revolution bis zum abschluss des friedens von campo-formio. vornehmlich nach ungedr. urkunden d. archivs in berlin, wien u. paris. bonn, . {o}. (dipl. verhandlungen a. d. zeit d. französisch. rev. bd. i.) =hüffer, h.= d. rastatter congress u. d. zweite coalition. bonn, - . v. {o}. (dipl. verhandlungen a. d. zeit d. französisch. rev. bd. i.) =knesebeck, e. v.= leben des freiherrn hugh v. halkett, k. hannoverischer general d. infanterie. stuttgart, . {o}. =koberstein, k.= preussisches bilderbuch. leipzig, . {o}. =krauss, th.= geschichte d. bayerischen heeresabtheilung im feldzug gegen russland, . augsburg, . {o}. =krones, r. v. marchland, frz.= zur geschichte oesterreichs im zeitalter d. französischen kriege u. d. restauration, - . mit besond. rücksicht auf das berufsleben d. staatsmannes frhrn. ant. v. baldacci. gotha, . {o}. =ledebur, a. l. v.= erlebnisse aus den kriegsjahren - . ein zeit u. lebensbild zusammengestellt aus den hinterlassenen papieren, etc. nebst einigen kurzen notizen über das leben des verewigten. berlin, . =lehmann, m.= freiherr vom stein. vols. i and ii, - . leipzig, . =lehmann, m.= knesebek u. schön: beitrage zur gesch. d. freiheitskriege. leipzig, . {o}. =lettow-vorbeck, o. v.= d. krieg v. - . berlin, - . v. {o}. =lombard, j. g.= matériaux pour servir à l'histoire des années - , dédiés aux prussiens par un ancien compatriote. paris, . {o}. =lützow, adf.= freikorps in den jahre u. von k. v. l. gegenüber d. in d. preuss. jahrbücher, hrsg. v. h. v. treitschke, auf genommenen darstellung v. a. koberstein. berl., . {o}. =mallet du pan, j.= correspondance inédite avec la cour de vienne ( - ), publ. d'après les mss. conservés aux archives de vienne par a. michel; avec une préface de h. taine. paris, . v. {o}. =matériaux= pour servir à l'histoire de la bataille d'austerlitz, recueillis par un militaire. weimar, . {o}. with a map of the battle-field. =meerheimb, f. v.= die schlachten bei bautzen am u. mai, . vortrag geh. in d. militär. gesellschaft zu berlin am novbr., . berlin, . {o}. =metternich, c. w. n. l., fürst v. metternich-winneburg=. aus nachgelassenen papieren ( - ). hrsg. von r. metternich-winneburg; geord. von a. v. klinkowström. wien, - . v. in . {o}. =metternich-winneburg, r.=, ed. Österreichs theilnahme an den befreiungskriegen: ein beitrag z. gesch. d. jahre - nach aufzeichngn. von frdr. v. gentz, nebst e. anh. briefwechsel zwischen den fürsten schwarzenberg u. metternich, geordnet u. zusammengestellt von a. v. klinkowström. wien, . {o}. =meyer=. erinnerungen aus hannover u. hamburg aus den jahren - . nebst einem anhang mit bemerkungen. von einem zeitgenossen. hannover, . {o}. =mirus, r. d.= treffen bei wartenburg am okt., . berlin, . =monckeberg, c.= hamburg unter dem drucke d. franzosen, - . hist. denkwürdigkeiten. hamburg, . {o}. =montgelas, max, graf v.= denkwürdigkeiten ( - ) im auszug aus dem französ. original übers. von max frhrn. v. freyberg-eisenberg u. hrsg. v. ludg. grafen v. montgelas. stuttgart, . {o}. =müffling, f. c. f., frhr. v.= (sonst =weiss= genannt). aus meinem leben. thle. berlin, . {o}. aus meinem leben. berlin, . thle. {o}. (untrustworthy.) =müffling, c. v.= d. preussisch-russische campagne im jahre bis zum waffenstillstande. breslau, . {o}. =müller, f. v.= erinnerungen aus den kriegszeiten v. - . braunschw., . {o}. =natzmer, g. e.= aus dem leben der gen. oldwig v. natzmer: ein beitrag z. preuss. geschichte. berlin, . =naumann, r. d.= völkerschlacht bei leipzig. nebst nachrichten von zeitgenossen u. augenzeugen über dieselbe. karte des schlachtfeldes u. plane d. stadt leipzig von . leipzig, . {o}. =neumann, l.=, et =plason, a. de=. recueil des traités et conventions conclus par l'autriche avec les puissances étrangères depuis jusqu'à nos jours. leipzig, - . v. {o}. nouvelle suite. vienne, - . v. {o}. =ompteda, f. v.= zur deutschen gesch. in dem jahrzehnt vor den befreiungskriegen. i: d. Überwältigung hannovers durch die franzosen. eine hist, polit. studie. hannover, . ii u. iii: politischer nachlass des hannoverschen staats u. cabinet-ministers ludw. von ompteda aus den jahren - . veröffentlicht von f. v. ompteda. jena, . =oncken, w.= oesterreich und preussen im befreiungskriege: urkundliche aufschlüsse über d. politische geschichte des jahres . berlin, - . v. {o}. =perthes, c. t.= politische zustände u. personen in deutschland z. zeit d. franz. herrschaft. das südliche u. westliche deutschland. aufl. gotha, . {o}. =pertz, g. h.= d. leben den feldmarschalls graf en neithardt v. gneisenau, - . schluss bd. von h. delbrück. berlin, - . bde. {o}. =pertz, g. h.= d. leben des ministers freiherrn von stein, - . berlin, - . v. {o}. =pfister=. aus dem lager des rheinbundes, - . stuttgart, . =plotho, c. v.= d. krieg in deutschland u. frankreich in d. jahren - . berl., . thle. {o}. =pohl, j. g. v.= denkwürdigkeiten a. meinen leben u. aus meiner zeit. . =prokesch, a. v.= denkwürdigkeiten aus dem leben des feldmarschalls fürsten carl zu schwarzenberg. neue ausg. wien, . {o}. =ranke, l. von=. hardenberg u. d. gesch. d. preussischen staates von - . aufl. leipzig, - . v. {o}. (sämmt. werke. bde. - .) =reichardt, j. f.= vertraute briefe aus paris, geschrieben in den jahren - . ausg. hamburg, . thle. {o}. =reiche, l. v.= memoiren, hrsg. von l. v. weltzien. leipzig, . thle. {o}. =rist, j. g.= lebenserinnerungen, herausg. von g. poel. gotha, . th. =roos, h. u. l. v.= ein jahr aus meinem leben, oder reise von den westl. ufern d. donau an die nara, südl. von moskwa u. zurück an die beresina mit d. grossen armee napoleons im jahre . st. petersburg, . {o}. =schimpff, g. v.= . napoleon in sachsen. nach des kaisers korrespondenz. dresden, . {o}. =schlitter, h.= kaiser franz i u. die napoleoniden vom sturze napoleons bis zu dessen tode. wien, . {o}. =schlossberger, a. v.=, ed. briefwechsel der königin katharina u. d. königs jérome v. westphalen, so wie d. kaisers napoleon i m. dem könig friedrich v. württemberg, vom oktbr., , bis dezbr., . stuttgart, . {o}. =schlossberger, a. v.=, ed. politische u. militärische correspondenz könig friedrichs von württemberg mit kaiser napoleon i. - . stuttgart, . =schmölzer, h.= a. hofer und seine kampfgenossen. {o}. innsbruck, . wagner. =seeley, j. r.= the life and times of stein, or germany and prussia in the napoleonic age. cambridge, . v. {o}. =ségur, p. p., comte de=. napoléon à moscou, un passage de la beresina. (from hist. de napoléon et de la grande armée pendant l'année . comment by a. hemme.) =servieres, g.= l'allemagne française sous napoleon i. paris, . =staps, fr.= erschossen zu schönbrunn bei wien, auf napoleons befehl im oktober, . eine broch. aus d. hinterlass. papieren seines vaters... berlin, . {o}. =steffens, h.= was ich erlebte. aus d. erinnerung niedergeschrieben. breslau, - . v. {o}. =steffens, h.= zur erinnerung: aus briefen an seinen verleger. hrsg. v. m. tietzen. leipzig, . {o}. =stern, alfr.= abhandlungen u. aktenstücke zur geschichte d. preussischen reformzeit - . leipzig, . {o}. =strippelmann, f. g. l.= beiträge zur gesch. hessen-cassels, hessen, frankreich, - . marburg, . heft. heft. gesch. d. napoleonschen usurpation kurhessens u. achtserklärung, im jahre . marburg, . =stutterheim, k. v.= la bataille d'austerlitz par un militaire, témoin de la journée du décembre, . hamburg, . {o}. (this work was tr. by p. coffin into english in .) =stutterheim, k. v.= la guerre de l'an entre l'autriche et la france, par un officier autrichien. vienne, . {o} and atlas. =thielen, m. f.= d. feldzug d. verbündeten heere europas in frankreich unter dem oberbefehle des k. k. feldmarschalls fürsten carl zu schwarzenberg. wien, . {o}. =thielen, m. v.= erinnerungen aus dem kriegerleben eines jährigen veteranen d. oesterreichischen armee, mit besonderer bezugnahme auf die feldzüge d. jahre , , - ; nebst einem anhang d. politik oesterreichs vom jahre - betr. wien, . {o}. =thugut, frhr. v.= vertrauliche briefe. hrsg. v. a. v. vivenot. wien, . v. {o}. =thürheim, a.= ludwig, fürst starhemberg, ehemaliger k. k. a. o. gesandter an den höfen in haag, london u. turin, etc. graz, . {o}. =tournon, de=. die provinz bayreuth unter französischer herrschaft ( - ). mit karte. aus dem französischen übersetzt von l. von fahrmbacher. {o}. wunsiedel, . köhler. =vivenot, a. v.= thugut, clerfayt und wurmser. original-dokumente aus dem k. k. haus-hof-und staats-archivs in wien vom juli, , bis februar, . wien, . {o}. =vivenot, a. v.= zur geschichte des rastatter congresses. wien, . {o}. =voss, sophie marie, gräfin v.= jahre am preussischen hofe. aus den erinnergn. leipzig, . =welden, l. v.= d. feldzug d. oesterreicher gegen russland im jahre . wien, . =welden, l. f. v.= d. krieg v. zwischen Österreich u. frankreich von anfang mai bis zum friedensschlusse. aus offiziellen quellen. mit e. (lith.) Übersichtskarte d. marchfeldes (in mp. fol.). wien, . =wertheimer, e.= geschichte Österreichs u. ungarns im ersten jahrzehnt d. xixten jahrh. nach ungedr. quellen. leipzig, - . v. {o}. =wigger, f.= geschichte d. familie v. blücher. schwerin, - . bde. {o}. =winkopp, p. a.=, ed. d. rheinische bund. frankfurt, - . =wohlwill, a.= d. befreiung hamburgs am märz, . hamburg, . =wolzogen, l. v.= memoiren, aus dessen nachlass unter beifügung offizieller militär. denkschriften mitgetheilt v. a. v. wolzogen. leipzig, . {o}. =wuttke, h.= d. völkerschlacht bei leipzig. berlin, . {o}. =ziehlberg, a. v. ferdinande v. schmettau=. eine erinnerg. aus dem jahre . dessau, . {o}. =zwiedineck-südenhorst, h. v.= erzherzog johann v. Österreich im feldzüge v. . mit benützg. der v. ihm hinterlassenen acten u. aufzeichngn., amtl. u. privat-correspondenzen dargestellt. mit plan-skizzen. graz, . {o}. russia and poland =bernhardi, th. v.= denkwürdigkeiten a. d. leben des kaiserl. russ. generals v. d. infanterie carl frdr. grafen v. toll. verm. aufl. leipzig, . bde. =bernhardi, th. v.= geschichte russlands u. der europäisch. politik, bis . leipzig, - . v. {o}. (staatengesch. d. neuesten zeit. bde. , , .) =bloch, j. de=. les finances de la russie au xixe siècle. historique et statistique. vol. {o}. paris, . guillaumin. =bogdanowitsch, m.= geschichte d. krieges im jahre für deutschlands unabhängigkeit. aus d. russ. mit genehmigung d. autors von a. s. st. petersburg, - . bde. =bonaparte, louis=. documents historiques et réflexions sur le gouvernement de la hollande. (nouv. éd.) paris, . v. {o}. =bourgeois, r.= tableau de la campagne de moscou en . paris, . {o}. =bréaut, j., des marlots=. . lettre d'un capitaine de cuirassiers sur la campagne de russie. publiée par j. a. léher. paris, . {o}. =burkersroda, v.= d. sachsen in russland: ein beitrag z. geschichte des russ. feldzugs im jahre , besond. im bezug a. d. schicksal d. k. sächs. truppen-abtheil. bei d. grossen französ. armee. naumburg, . {o}. =chambray, g.= histoire de l'expédition de russie, . éd. paris, . {o}. =choiseul-gouffier, comtesse de=. reminiscences sur l'empereur alexandre i et sur l'empereur napoléon i. paris, . {o}. =czartoryski, a. g., prince=. memoirs and correspondence, with documents relative to the prince's negotiations with pitt, fox, and brougham, and an account of his conversations with lord palmerston and other eng. statesmen in london, . ed. by a. gielgud. ed. london, . v. {o}. =czartoryski, a. g., prince=. mémoires et correspondance avec l'empereur alexandre i. préf. de ch. de mazade. paris, . v. {o}. =förster, f.= napoleon i russischer feldzug, . aufl. . =foucart, p.= la campagne de pologne: pultusk et golymin, nov., ,-jan., , d'après les archives de la guerre. paris, . v. {o}. =gentz, f. de=. dépêches inédites du chevalier de gentz aux hospodars de valachie, pour servir à l'histoire de la politique européenne ( à ), publiées par le comte prokesch-osten fils. paris, - . v. {o}. =george, h. b.= napoleon's invasion of russia. london, . unwin. =goethe, thdr.= aus d. leben eines sächsischen husaren u. aus dessen feldzugen, , - in polen u. russland. leipzig, . {o}. =gourgaud, g.= napoléon et la grande armée en russie, ou examen critique de l'ouvrage de m. le comte ph. de ségur. e éd. paris, . v. {o}. =guillaume, f.=, dit =guillaume de vaudoncourt=. mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre entre la france et la russie en . london et paris, et . {o}, et un petit vol. de planches. =helldorf=. aus dem leben des kaiserlich. russischen generals d. infanterie, prinzen eugen v. württemberg, aus dessen eigenhändigen aufzeichnungen so wie aus dem schriftlichen nachlass seiner adjuanten gesammelt u. hrsg. berlin, - . v. {o}. =joyneville, c.= life and times of alexander i, emperor of all the russias. london, . v. {o}. =kobeko, d.= la jeunesse d'un tsar. paul ier et catherine ii. Éd. dimitri de benckendorff. paris, . {o}. =labaume, e.= circumstantial narrative of the campaign in russia, with plans of the battle of moskwa and malojaroslavetz, . tr. e. boyce. ed. london, . {o}. =labaume, e.= relation circonstantiée de la campagne de russie en . ouvrage orné des plans de la bataille de la moscowa et du combat de malojaroslavetz. paris, . {o}. =léher, j. a.=, Éd. de bréaut des marlots, j. lettre d'un capitaine de cuirassiers sur la campagne de russie, . paris, . {o}. =lehmann, m.= scharnhorst. thl. seit dem tilsiter frieden. leipzig, . {o}. =lossberg, h. v.= briefe in d. heimat geschrieben während des feldzuges in russland: ein beitrag z. geschichte dieses feldzuges. cassel, . {o}. =margueron=. campagne de russie. {o}. paris, . charles-lavauzelle. =meerheim, r. v.= erlebnisse eines veteranen d. grossen armee während des feldzuges in russland in . herausg. v. dessen sohne r. v. meerheim. dresden, . {o}. =miliutin=. geschichte des krieges russlands mit frankreich im jahre . münchen, . v. {o}. =minckwitz, a. v.= d. brigade thielmann in dem feldzuge von in russland. hierzu ein (lith.) situationsplan vom schlachtfelde d. schlacht an der moskwa am sept., . dresden, . {o}. =oginski, m. v.= denkwürdigkeiten üb. polen u. die polen im jahre - . deutsch v. f. gleich. leipzig, . thle. {o}. =oginski, m. v.= mémoires sur la pologne et les polonais depuis jusqu'à la fin de . paris, - . v. {o}. =porter, sir r. ker.= narrative of the campaign in russia during . london, . =puibusque, l. g.= lettres sur la guerre de russie en , sur la ville de st.-pétersbourg, les moeurs et les usages des habitants de la pologne. éd. paris, . {o}. =rambaud, a.= history of russia from the earliest times to . tr. by l. b. lang. london, . {o}. =röder, frz.= d. kriegszug napoleons gegen russland im jahre . nach den besten quellen u. seinen eigenen tagebüchern dargestellt, nach d. zeitfolge d. begebenheiten, hrsg. v. k. röder. leipzig, . {o}. =röder v. bomsdorf, o. w. k.= mittheil. aus d. feldzug in russland , an einen offizier des generalstabes. leipzig, . thle. {o}. =rostopchin=, or =rostoptchine, f.= vérité sur l'incendie de moscou. paris, . =rüstow, w.= d. krieg gegen russland. politisch-militärisch bearb. zürich, . bde. {o}. =surruges, abbé=. lettres sur l'incendie de moscou, écrites de cette ville au r. p. bouvet. éd. paris, . {o}. =tatistcheff, s.= alexandre i et napoléon, d'après leur correspondance inédite. - . paris, . {o}. =tchitchagoff, p.= mémoires inédits. campagnes de la russie, , contre la turquie, l'autriche et la france. berlin, . {o}. =tolstoi, l.= physiologie de la guerre. napoléon et la campagne de russie. tr. par m. delines. paris, . {o}. =wilson, sir r.= narrative of events during the invasion of russia by napoleon bonaparte, and the retreat of the french army, . ed. by g. h. randolph. london, . {o}. =woronzow, s. r., comte de=. arkhiv kniazia vorontsova, viii, ix. boumagi gr. s. r. vorontsova. moskva, . t. {o}. netherlands =grolmann, e. von=. geschichte des feldzugs von in den niederlanden u. frankreich, als beitrag z. kriegsgeschichte d. neueren kriege. hrsg. von major v. damitz. berlin, . v. {o}. =kampen, van=. geschichte der niederlande. hamburg, - . v. {o}. =legrand, l.= la révolution française en hollande: la république batave. paris, . =paquet, syphorien=. voyage historique et pittoresque fait dans les pays-bas et dans quelques départements voisins pendant les années , et . paris, . v. {o}. scandinavian powers =hochschild, c. f. l.= désirée, reine de suède et de norvège. paris, . {o}. =schinkel, b. v.= minnen ur sveriges nyare historia. i{ra} afd. bihang, , , . upsala, - . {o}. =schmidt, fr.= schweden unter karl xiv johann. heidelberg, . {o}. =swederns, g.= schwedens politik u. kriege in dem jahre - vorzüglich unter leitung des kronprinzen carl johan. deutsche, von dem verf. gänzlich umgearb. ausg. aus dem schwed. von c. f. frisch. leipzig, . thle. {o}. =thorsoë, a. d.= danske stats-politiske historie fra - . i. tidsrummet, - . kiobenhavn, . {o}. =touchard-lafosse, g.= histoire de charles xiv (jean bernadotte), roi de suède et de norvège. paris, . v. {o}. egypt =abdurrahman gabarti=. journal pendant l'occupation française en Égypte, suivi d'un précis de la même campagne par mou'allem nicolas-el-turki, tr. de l'arabe par a. cardin. paris, . {o}. =bertrand, général h. g.=, ed. guerre d'orient. campagnes d'Égypte et de syrie. mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de napoléon dictés par lui-même à sainte-hélène et publiés par le gén. bertrand. paris, . v. {o}. atlas fol. =boulay de la meurthe, comte=. le directoire et l'expédition d'Égypte: Étude sur les tentatives du directoire pour communiquer avec bonaparte, le secourir et le ramener. paris, . {o}. =copies= of original letters from the army of gen. bonaparte in egypt, with an eng. tr. london, - . parts. {o}. =la jonquière, c.= l'expédition d'Égypte ( - ). v. {o}. av. cartes. paris, - . charles lavauzelle. =nakoula-el-turk=. histoire de l'expédition des français en Égypte. tr. et publ. par desgranges. paris, . {o}. =pièces= officielles de l'armée d'Égypte. e partie. par., an ix. {o}. =simon, e. t.= correspondance de l'armée française en Égypte, interceptée par l'escadre de nelson. trad. en franç. paris, an vii. {o}. =richardot, c.= nouveaux mémoires sur l'armée française en Égypte et en syrie, ou la vérité mise au jour sur les principaux faites et événements de cette armée, la statistique du pays, les usages et les moeurs des habitants, avec le plan de la côte d'aboukir à alexandrie et à la tour des arabes. paris, . {o}. =villiers du terrage, e. de=. journal et souvenirs sur l'expédition d'Égypte ( - ); publ. par le b{on} m. de villiers du terrage. {o}. av. cartes et gravures. paris, . plon. =wilson, sir r. t.= history of the british expedition to egypt. ed. london, . {o}. the balkan states =beer, a.= d. orientalische politik oesterreichs seit . prague, . {o}. =boppe, a.= documents inédits sur les relations de la serbie avec napoléon i, - . extrait de l'otatchbina, livres xix et xx. belgrade, . {o}. =zinkeisen=. geschichte des osmanischen reiches. gotha, . {o}. saint helena =abell, mrs. l. e. b.= recollections of the emperor napoleon during the first three years of his captivity. london, . {o}. =a diary of st. helena= ( - ). the journal of lady malcolm, containing the conversations of napoleon with sir p. malcolm, ed. by sir a. wilson. {o}. london, . innes. =antommarchi, f.= mémoires; ou, les derniers moments de napoléon. bruxelles, . v. {o}. =bingham, gen. g. r.= diary of napoleon's voyage to st. helena. blackwood's magazine, oct., . =forsyth, w.= history of the captivity of napoleon at st. helena: from the letters and journals of sir h. lowe. london, v. {o}. =gourgaud, gén. g. de=. sainte-hélène: journal inédit de à . v. {o}. paris, . flammarion. trad. en allem. par h. conrad. {o}. stuttgart, . lutz. coll. memoiren-bibliothek. =las cases, e. a. d. m. j., marquis de=. mémorial de sainte-hélène; ou, jour. où se trouve consigné, jour par jour, ce qui a dit et fait napoléon durant dix-huit mois. paris, - . v. {o}. =lullin de châteauvieux, j. f.= manuscripts transmitted from st. helena by an unknown channel. new york, . {o}. =lullin de châteauvieux, j. f.= manuscrit venu de sainte-hélène d'une manière inconnue. éd. lond., . {o}. =maitland, sir f. l.= narrative of the surrender of buonaparte and of his residence on board the _bellerophon_. ed. london, . {o}. =masson, f.= autour de sainte-hélène. paris, . =melliss, j. c.= st. helena: a phys., hist., and topog. description of the island, incl. its geology, fauna, flora, and meteorology. london, . {o}. =montchenu, marquis de=. la captivité de sainte-hélène, d'après les rapports inédits, par g. firmin-didot. paris, . {o}. =montholon, c{tesse} de=. souvenirs de sainte-hélène ( - ); publ. sous les auspices du v{te} du couedic de kergoualer, son petit-fils, par le c{te} fleury. av. gravures. {o}. paris, . paul. =montholon-sémonville, c. t. de=. history of the captivity of napoleon at st. helena. london, - . v. {o}. american ed., philadelphia, . {o}. =montholon-sémonville, c. t. de=. récits de la captivité de l'empereur napoléon à sainte-hélène. paris, . v. {o}. =napoléon i.= mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de france sous le règne de napoléon, écrits à sainte-hélène par les généraux gourgaud et montholon, qui ont partagé sa captivité. e éd., disposée dans un nouvel ordre et augmentée de chapitres inédits, etc. paris, . v. {o}. =o'meara, b. e.= napoléon dans l'exil; ou, une voix de sainte-hélène. trad, par a. roy. london, . v. {o}. =o'meara, b. e.= napoléon in exile; or, a voice from st. helena ( - ). ed. new york, . v. {o}. =recueil de pièces authentiques sur le captif de sainte-hélène=, de mémoires et documents écrits ou dictés par l'empereur napoléon, suivis de lettres de mm. le grand maréchal c{te} bertrand, le c{te} de las cases, le gén. b{on} gourgaud, le gén. c{te} montholon. paris, - . v. {o}. =schlitter, h.= d. berichte d. k. k. commissars bartholomäus v. stürmer aus st. helena zur zeit d. dortigen internirung napoleon bonapartes, - . {o}. wien, . {o}. =warden, w.= conduct and conversations of napoleon buonaparte and his suite during the voyage to st. helena, and some months there. albany, . {o}. index a =aachen=, _n.'s_ court at, ii. , , . =aalen=, the french position at, ii. . =abdullah pasha=, routed at esdraelon, ii. , . =aben, river=, military operations on the, iii. . =abensberg=, lefebvre defeats the austrians at, iii. ; oudinot ordered to, ; battle of, . =aberdeen, lord=, english envoy at vienna, iii. . =abo=, alexander's hint to bernadotte at, iv. . =aboukir=, battle of, ii. - , ; trophies from, deposited at the invalides, . =aboukir bay=, battle of, ii. , . =abrantès=, junot at, iii. . =abrantès, duchesse d'=, friendship with _n._, i. , . =absolutism=, its growth in europe, i. ; its decline and abolition, - , , ; iv. , , . =academy, the=, ordered to occupy itself with literary criticism, iii. . =acken=, military operations near, iv. , , . =acqui=, military operations at, i. . =acre=, phélippeaux at, i. ; siege of, ii. , - ; the key of palestine, ; relief expedition from constantinople to, - ; parley between phélippeaux and _n._ at, ; compared with smolensk, iii. . =act of mediation, the=, ii. . =acton, sir j. f. e.=, rule of, in naples, ii. . =adam, albrecht=, on the french advance into russia, iii. . =adam, sir f.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =adda, river=, military operations on the, i. , ; ii. . =addington, henry=, succeeds pitt in the ministry, ii. ; negotiates for peace, ; belief in the peace of amiens, ; holds england to be arbiter of the continent, ; continental policy, , , ; appoints lord whitworth ambassador to paris, ; his influence undermined by pitt, ; driven from power, . =addison, joseph=, on england's insular position, ii. . =additional act, the=, iv. , , . =aderklaa=, austrian advance through, iii. . =adige, river=, military operations on, i. , , - , - , , ; ii. , , , ; iii. ; iv. ; cession to austria of lands on, ii. ; boundary of the cisalpine republic, ; boundary of austria in italy, ; eugène to collect troops on, . =adrial, m.=, member of the council of state, ii. ; reviser of the code, . =adriatic sea=, _n._ threatens to seize, i. ; french fleet in, ii. ; cession to austria of lands on, ; marriage of, ; _n.'s_ control of, iii. ; the highway to india, . =Æetes=, _n._ likened to, iv. . =Æneid=, _n.'s_ notes on the, iv. . =afghanistan=, projected rising against england in, iii. . =africa=, proposed military operations in northern, iii. ; the partition of, iv. . ="agamemnon," the=, at siege of bastia, i. ; ii. . "=agathon=," iii. . =agricultural laborers=, condition at outbreak of the revolution, i. , , . =agriculture=, encouragement of, ii. . =aigues-mortes=, the canal of, ii. . =aisne, river=, military movements on the, iv. , . =aix=, fesch at, i. ; _n._ at, ; iv. , ; arrest of corsican commissioners at, i. ; _n.'s_ sickness at, iv. ; bitter feeling against _n._ at, , . =ajaccio= made a seat of government, i. ; the bonaparte family in, - ; _n._ at, - , , , , , , prepares plans for its defense, ; political parties in, ; patriotic schemes, ; _n._ assumes leadership in, ; the democratic club at, , , , , , ; withdrawal of french troops from, ; reorganizing the municipal government, , ; attack on _n._ in, ; disorders in, - , - , , ; claims to be capital of corsica, ; political movements in, - ; election of officers in, , ; popular feeling against _n._ in, , ; embarkation of sardinian expedition at, ; _n._ demands allegiance to france from, ; _n.'s_ plot against the citadel at, - ; expedition from st. florent against, - ; outburst against the bonapartes in, ; _n.'s_ cave at, ; weakness of, ; _n.'s_ last visit to, ii. . =albania=, _n._ offers the country to england, ii. . =albuera=, battle of, iii. . =albufera, duke of=. _see_ =suchet=. =alessandria=, opening of the road to, i. ; military operations near, ; in french hands, ; melas rallies his army at, ii. , ; topography of the country, , ; melas retires to, ; _n._ concedes to the allies at châtillon, iv. . =alexander i=, succeeds paul i, ii. ; waives claim to malta, ; liberates english ships, ; his bloody title to the throne, ii. , ; iii. , ; iv. ; abandons the neutrality policy, ii. ; personal relations between _n._ and, ; iii. , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , ; pacification of, ii. ; ruptures diplomatic relations with france, ; animus toward france, ; greed for oriental empire, , , , , , , ; iii. , , , ; iv. ; attitude on the death of enghien, ii. , ; demands indemnity for king of sardinia, ; _n.'s_ words of warning to, ; demands indemnity for piedmont, ; undertakes peace negotiations, ; his scheme of redistribution of europe, ; england's negotiations with, ; character and personality, ; iii. - , , , , , ; iv. , , ; recalls his peace envoy, ii. ; brings prussia into the coalition, , ; at berlin, , ; relations with frederick william iii, ; iii. , , ; prefers one of paul i's assassins, ii. ; at olmütz, ; _n._ opens negotiations with, ; forces the battle of austerlitz, ; after the battle, ; deserts francis i, ; interview with _n._, ; retreats to poland, ; evacuates naples, ; conscienceless concerning territories of others, ; breaks off negotiations with _n._, ; rejects the oubril treaty, ; uncertain attitude, ; _n.'s_ insinuations concerning queen louisa and, iii. ; _n.'s_ doubts about his movements, ; activity after jéna, ; offers rewards for french prisoners, ; devotion of the army to, , ; interest in constantinople, ; meeting with _n._ at tilsit, et seq., , ; _n.'s_ proposals to, ; reminded of paul i's death, ; invited to make a separate peace, ; accepts _n.'s_ terms, ; promises to aid france against england, ; deserts prussia, ; proposed visit to paris, ; proposes a treaty with turkey, ; on european politics, ; opinion of louis xviii, ; claims concessions from _n._, ; saves silesia to prussia, ; acquires bielostok, ; refuses to seize prussian territory, ; parting from _n._ at tilsit, ; savary's influence over, ; hostility of russian society to, , , , ; enmity to england, ; _n._ proposes matrimonial unions to, , , , , ; coquets with english agents, ; effect of the treaty of tilsit on, ; apprehensions at england's actions, ; seeks to abolish serfdom, ; difficulties of his position, ; demands reparation for denmark, ; declares war on england, ; repudiates the agreement of slobozia, ; keeps faith with _n._, ; holds _n._ to his promises, ; ambition to acquire the danubian principalities, , , , , ; appoints tolstoi to negotiate with _n._, ; declines _n.'s_ offers, ; essays to effect the liberation of prussia, , ; continues his demands on _n._, ; _n._ seeks further interviews with, , ; court intrigue around, ; receives presents from _n._, ; seeks to acquire finland, , , ; breaks off negotiations for interview with _n._, ; "stalemated," ; humiliation of, , ; joseph seeks his consent to acceptance of the spanish crown, ; uncertainty concerning _n.'s_ plans, ; approves _n.'s_ course at bayonne, ; friendship with caulaincourt, , , ; proposed second meeting with _n._, , , ; informed of the capitulation of baylen, ; influence on emperor francis, ; rewon by _n.'s_ promises, ; remonstrates with austria, , ; determines to exact the fruits of tilsit, ; intellectual pretensions, ; meeting with _n._ at erfurt, et seq.; dramatic incident at performance of "oedipe," ; apparent success of his demands at erfurt, ; hot words with _n._ at erfurt, ; approves of _n.'s_ contemplated divorce, ; relies on _n._ to gratify his ambitions, ; at königsberg, , ; modifies his tone to vienna, ; neutrality of, ; gives no support to francis, ; orders invasion of galicia, ; his observance of franco-russian treaties, , ; advises peace, ; _n._ explains the treaty of schönbrunn to, ; hesitates to betroth his sister to _n._, , ; fears the loss of moldavia and wallachia, ; chagrined at the austrian war and its results, ; anxiety for a french alliance, ; attitude concerning _n.'s_ second marriage, , ; offers norway to sweden, , , ; discriminates against france in customs duties, ; action on _n.'s_ occupation of the north sea coast, ; reserves his family rights over oldenburg, ; refuses to accept erfurt, ; liberal tendencies, ; friendship with czartoryski, , , ; ambition for equality with _n._, iii. ; essays the rôle of european mediator, ; disgusted with the old dynasties, ; outwitted by _n._ in the polish negotiations, et seq.; impending rupture with _n._, et seq.; rupture with _n._ over the polish question, et seq.; refuses to restore the integrity of poland, ; proposes to accept the crown of warsaw, ; virtual declaration of war against france, ; hopes of the poles in, ; _n._ offers the use of the "moniteur" to, ; _n._ threatens action against, ; prepares for war, ; proves an untrustworthy ally, ; determines on defensive warfare, ; position as to the continental system, , ; _n._ warns him of his military preparations, ; hints an offer of the french crown to bernadotte, ; makes qualified alliance with prussia, ; effect of his policy on prussia, ; makes terms with turkey, ; personal connection with the war of , ; concessions by, ; ultimatum to france, , ; proposes counter-terms to _n._, ; demands better terms for sweden, ; invited to dresden, ; demands the evacuation of prussia, ; ukase of december, , ; his german advisers blamed, ; allays trouble at st. petersburg, ; financial difficulties, ; military policy, ; replaces barclay de tolly by kutusoff, ; his advisers, - ; silent steadfastness, - ; religious spirit, ; conduct after the capture of moscow, ; determines to continue the war, ; friendship with galitzin, ; treatment of french prisoners, ; makes terms with prussia, ; goes to vilna, ; project to become king of poland, ; seeks alliances with prussia and austria, ; abandons the polish idea, ; ambition to pose as liberator of europe, ; relations with stein, , ; in correspondence with york, ; negotiates treaty with spain, july, , ; metternich seeks to embroil him with bernadotte, ; advances against eugène, ; favors annexation of saxony by prussia, ; importance of keeping him hostile to france, ; _n.'s_ attempt to negotiate with, ; secret meeting with metternich, ; fatalism of, ; francis seeks alliance with, ; jealousy of austria, ; mediocrity in military affairs, iv. ; in military council at trachenberg, ; battle of leipsic, - ; anxiety for the future of absolutism, ; distrust of his allies, ; jacobinism of, ; dissatisfied with frankfort terms, ; desires revenge for moscow, ; checks bernadotte's ambitions, ; encourages bernadotte's ambition, , ; holds the balances in the coalition, ; ambition for european supremacy, ; predicts speedy entry into paris, ; military blunder, ; designs to acquire galicia, ; poses as a liberal, ; designs regarding poland, ; desires to conquer france, ; forbids the restoration of vaud to bern, ; suspends the congress of châtillon, ; consents to re-opening the congress, ; activity of, , ; prepares for the entry into paris, ; terror-stricken at arcis, ; attitude toward austria, ; holds a military council, ; intrigues with vitrolles, ; eagerness to annihilate _n._, ; violates armistice before paris, ; orders an assault, ; fears _n.'s_ arrival at paris, ; talleyrand sends a "blank check" to, ; leads the allies into paris, ; schemes for french government, ; the representative of legitimacy, ; presides at the council for peace, ; deceived by the parisians' reception, ; approves the bourbon restoration, ; caulaincourt seeks audience of, ; marmont's offer to, ; hears talleyrand's remonstrance against the regency, ; presentation of _n.'s_ abdication to, , ; hatred for absolutism, ; hears of the defection of _n.'s_ army, ; revulsion of feeling in favor of the empire, ; refuses to accept the abdication, ; generous impulses, ; proposes a home for _n._ in russia, ; alleged indelicacy of his visit to the empress at rambouillet, ; boast as to his servants, ; protests to talleyrand against violations of treaty obligations, ; determines to retain ascendancy in the coalition, ; converted to the legitimacy idea, ; besought for _n.'s_ release, ; correspondence with: galitzin, prince, iii. ; george iii, iii. ; marmont, iv. ; napoleon, iii. , , , , . =alexander the great=, _n._ likened to, i. ; iii. ; iv. ; _n.'s_ admiration for, ii. , , , ; his work for civilization, ; iv. , ; his ideal, iii. ; the cause of his undoing, iv. . =alexandria=, _n.'s_ views concerning, ii. ; nelson seeks the egyptian expedition at, ; _n.'s_ arrival at, ; capture of, ; the march to cairo from, ; adm. brueys ordered to, ; _n._ at, ; arrival of the rhodes expedition at, ; english fleet at, ; _n._ sails from, ; england's occupation of, . =alfieri, vittorio=, sings of italian freedom, ii. ; iv. . =alien act=, england's position with regard to, ii. . =alkmaar=, capitulation of the duke of york at, ii. ; capitulation of, . =alle, river=, military operations on the, iii. , . =allemand=, retreat of the french through, iv. . =allenburg=, bennigsen collects his troops at, iii. . =allix, j. a. f.=, at auxerre, iv. ; battle of waterloo, . "=all the talents=," the ministry of, iii. . =almeida=, siege and capture of, iii. ; retaken by the english, . =alpon, river=, military operations on the, i. , . =alps, the=, military operations in, i. , , , ; ii. - , , ; the keys of, i. , ; french supremacy in, ii. ; suvaroff's disasters in, ; hannibal's passage of, ; road across the simplon, ; france's "natural boundary," iv. . =alsace=, austria driven out of, i. ; royalists in, ii. ; duc d'enghien's conspiracy in, , ; regulations for jews in, iii. ; proposed cession of, to austria, iv. . =alten, k. a. von=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =altenburg=, peace negotiations at, iii. . =altenkirchen=, battle of, i. . =alvinczy, gen. joseph=, _n.'s_ operations against, i. ; commanding austrian forces for relief of mantua, - ; defeats masséna at bassano and caldiero, ; operations against verona, - ; retreats from caldiero, ; operations on the adige, - ; the rivoli campaign, et seq.; defeat at rivoli, ; flees to the tyrol, . =america=, disquiet of the english colonies in, i. ; precedent for france's aid to english colonies in, ; english measures against colonies in, ; raynal's question concerning the discovery of, ; marquis de beauharnais in, ; collapse of french schemes of colonization in, ii. ; france looks to her possessions in, ; scheme for a bourbon monarchy in, iii. , . =american embargo act of =, iii. - , - . =americas, emperor of the two=, iii. . =amiens=, the treaty of, ii. , - , , - , - , , , , , ; iii. ; iv. . =amsterdam=, asked for loan of ten millions, ii. ; smuggled commerce of, iii. , ; louis permitted to return to, ; removal of the capital to, ; march of french troops to, ; sends deputation to paris, . =amurrio=, gen. victor at, iii. . =anarchists=, in france, ii. ; assassination schemes among, . =anarchy=, the seed of "a pure democracy," i. . =ancients, council of the=, represent public sentiment, ii. ; members of, proscribed, ; sieyès president of, ; join the bonapartist ranks, ; give banquet to _n._ in st. sulpice, ; share in bonapartist plots, ; plots of the th brumaire, et seq.; endeavor to postpone _n.'s_ dictatorship, ; pass vote of confidence in _n._, ; adopts the consulate, . =ancona=, capture of, i. ; importance of, ; _n._ at, ; _n._ proposes to seize, ; rise of, ; fall of, ii. ; austrian occupation of, ; seized by french troops, ; annexed to italy, iii. , . =andalusia=, dupont advances toward, iii. ; withdrawal of troops from, ; soult ordered to, . =andernach=, alteration of boundary at, ii. . =andréossy, gen. a. f.=, service in egypt, ii. ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ; action on the th brumaire, ; ambassador to london, ; despatch from _n._ to, ; reports austrian activity, iii. ; influence in vienna, . =angély, regnault de st. jean d'=, dreads a new terror, ii. ; member of the council of state, ; prophesies the undoing of france, iii. . =angerburg=, lestocq at, iii. . =anghiari=, provera crosses the adige at, i. , . =anglas, boissy d'=, quells riot at the national convention, i. . =anglo-saxon= spirit of civilization, iv. . =angoulême, duchess of=, affronts madame ney, iv. . =angoulême, duke of=, proclaims louis xviii, at bordeaux, iv. . =anne, grand duchess=, mentioned for marriage with _n._, iii. , ; _n._ seeks her hand in marriage, , . =ansbach=, bernadotte's movements in, ii. , ; ceded to bavaria, ; augereau commanding in, ; french violation of territory, iii. ; military movements near, iv. . =anselme, gen.=, i. . =antibes=, recruits for _n.'s_ army from, iv. . =antilles=, scheme for population of the, ii. . =antommarchi, dr. f.=, assists _n._ on his history, iv. ; _n.'s_ physician, . =antonelli, cardinal=, diplomatic duel with portails, ii. . =antraigues, comte d'=, exposes pichegru's treachery, ii. , ; furnishes pen portrait of _n._, , . =antwerp=, commercial key to central europe, iv. ; _n._ "loses his crown for," ; refused to france by the allies, ; _n._ refuses to give up, ; _n._ concedes, to the allies, . =aosta=, arrival of lannes at, ii. . =apennines=, military operations in the, i. , , ; ii. . =apolda=, military movements near, ii. . =apollonius of tyana=, _n._ compares jesus christ with, ii. . =aqua tofana=, plot to poison _n._ with, i. . =arabia=, _n.'s_ attention turned toward, i. , . =aragon=, french occupation of, iii. ; military government of, ; captured by suchet, ; french possession of, . =aranjuez=, the revolution at, iii. - ; charles iv's court at, , , . =arc de triomphe=, erection of the, iii. . =arch-chancellor of state=, creation of the office of, ii. . =arch-chancellor of the empire=, creation of the office of, ii. . "=archive russe=," cited, i. . =arch-treasurer=, creation of the office of, ii. . =arcis-sur-aube=, blücher advances on, iv. ; _n._ moves to, - ; battle of, , , ; proposed concentration of the allies at, ; retreat of the french from, ; _n.'s_ retreat from, ; french capture of, . =arcole=, _n._ at, i. ; the lessons of, ; battle of, , , ; ii. . =ardennes mountains=, proposed boundaries for germany, iii. ; military operations in the, iv. . =ardon=, loss of, iv. . =aremberg, duke of=, marries mlle. tascher de la pagerie, iii. . =arena, joseph=, success of, in isola rossa, i. ; member of the national assembly, ; banished to italy, ; influence of, ; charged with conspiracy, ii. ; execution of, . =arenberg=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =argenson, comte d'=, suggests the suez canal, ii. . =argenteau, gen.=, defeated at dego and montenotte, i. . =aristocrats=, guillotining the, i. ; under the régime of the first consul, ii. . =arles=, the canal of, ii. . =armed neutrality=, the, ii. - ; russia abandons the, . =army= (french), its relation to the throne, i. ; demoralization and discontent in, and desertions from, - , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , ; iv. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; changes in the, i. - ; compulsory service, , , ; reorganization of the, , , , ; regulations, ; political sentiments in, and influence of, , , , ; ii. , , , , ; iv. , ; _n.'s_ relations with, care for, and reliance on, i. , , ; ii. , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , ; iv. , , , , ; , , , , , ; its prestige weakened by th fructidor, ii. ; its mainsprings of action, ; importance of _n.'s_ securing its adhesion, ; _n.'s_ manifestos to, , ; contempt for the concordat, ; quartered in foreign countries, ; disappearance of discontent in the, ; creation of marshals of france, ; conciliating the, ; its leaders, ; effect of trafalgar on, ; effect of austerlitz on, ; the army chest, , ; iii. ; change in the personnel of the, ; venality of contractors, , ; improving the commissary, ; strengthening the, ; censorship of correspondence from the, ; founding of military factories, ; morale after eylau, ; _n.'s_ exhibitions of, to the czar, ; pension system, ; military schools, ; its lust for sack and booty, , ; over-confidence in, ; the cantinière of busaco, ; discipline in spain, ; "marshal stockpot's" deserters, ; expense of maintenance, , ; its equipment for the russian campaign of , ; _n.'s_ address to, before the russian campaign, ; sufferings in russia, , et seq.; vitality, ; wrath at _n.'s_ desertion, ; scheme for supporting, ; quality of the new ( ), ; juvenile soldiers in, iv. , , ; corruption in the, ; lack of pay for, ; effect of long campaigning on the generals, ; dwindling numbers of, ; dearth of military supplies, ; ambition among the minor generals, ; revival of bonapartist feeling among the, ; returns to _n.'s_ standard, ; reorganization of, ; its morale at waterloo, ; _n.'s_ farewell address to the, . _see also_ =conscription=. =army of catalonia=, service on the rhine, iv. . =army of egypt=, advances on syria, ii. , ; abandoned by _n._ in egypt, ; adm. bruix sent to relieve the, ; its desolate plight, , . =army of england, the=, creation of, ii. ; _n._ general of, , ; on the watch at boulogne, ; the right wing of, ; strength, , ; ordered to march to the eastward, . =army of helvetia=, incorporated into the army of the rhine, ii. . =army of holland=, freed for active service, ii. . =army of italy=, equipment of the, i. ; campaign in the alps, ; _n.'s_ service with and command of, , , , , - , ; question of its sustenance, ; strength and organization, , ; _n.'s_ plans for the, ; corsicans in the, ; _n.'s_ monograph on, ; promised booty, , , ; the question of its employment, , ; joined to that of the pyrenees, ; destitution of, ; strength ( ), ; pillage in the, ; reinforced from vendée, ; popularity of, ; growing arrogance of the, ii. ; reinforced by the army of the alps, ; speculations as to further employment, ; restrained from pillage, ; moreau's service with, ; division of, and disaster, ; frauds in, ; commanded by masséna, , ; scheme for raising money for, ; _n.'s_ manifesto to, , ; its line of operations, ; service on the rhine, iv. . =army of silesia=, contemplated movement against, iv. ; contemplated movement of, . =army of the alps=, napoleon's plans for the, i. ; combined with army of italy, ii. . =army of the danube=, under command of jourdan, ii. . =army of the east= (allies), iv. . =army of the elbe=, formation of, iii. . =army of the interior=, the, i. ; _n._ made second in command, ; _n._ reorganizes, ; , ; commanded by augereau, ii. . =army of the main=, formation of the, iii. . =army of the netherlands=, service on the rhine, iv. . =army of the north=, conquers the austrian netherlands, i. ; in , ; operations on the rhine, ; barras's schemes in regard to, ii. . =army of the north= (allies), in brandenburg, iv. ; contemplated movement against the, . =army of the pyrenees=, transferred to maritime alps, i. ; joined to that of italy, ; service on the rhine, iv. . =army of the reserve=, ordered to italy, ii. , ; expected to attack melas, ; crosses the alps, - . =army of the rhine, the= (french), _n._ seeks to join, i. ; _n._ fails of admission, ; commanded by citizen beauharnais, ; the question of its employment, ; fails to support _n._ in italy, ; destitution of, ii. ; augereau commander of, ; disbanded, ; moreau commanding, ; _n.'s_ manifesto to, ; contempt for the concordat in, ; the san domingo expedition selected from, ; _n.'s_ method of quelling opposition in, - ; weakened to ensure success in italy, . =army of the rhine= (archduke charles's), i. . =army of the sambre and meuse=, wins battle of fleurus, i. ; campaigning in the alps, ; brought to paris, ii. . =army of the south= (allies), iv. ; pursues murat, ; augereau attempts to hinder, ; francis joins, at lyons, . =army of the tyrol= (austrian), retreats to head waters of the enns, iii. ; archduke john ordered to join, . =army of the var=, i. . =army of the west, the=, _n._ ordered to join, i. ; _n._ refuses to serve in, , ; under hoche, ; reinforces the army of italy, ; freed for active service, ii. . "=army organization=," _n.'s_ essay on, iv. . =arnault, a. v.=, reports _n.'s_ speech to barras, ii. ; "memoirs" of, iii. ; records interview between mme. de staël and _n._, . =arndt, e. m.=, member of the reform party in prussia, ii. ; his war-cry of "freedom and austria," iii. ; inspires to german unity, . =arrighi=, gen. j. t., wounded at acre, ii. . =art=, _n.'s_ plunder of works of, i. , , ; revival of, ii. ; _n._ advises encouragement of, . "=art and history of war=," _n.'s_ essay on, ii. . =artillery=, _n.'s_ study and use of, i. ; ii. ; condition in , ; its use at wagram, iii. ; use of, at leipsic, iv. , . =artisan class=, at outbreak of the revolution, i. . =artois, count of=, leads emigrant royalists against france, i. ; returns to england, ; schemes for the restoration of, ii. ; complicity in the cadoudal conspiracy, ; refrains from entering france, ; doubtful courage of, - ; suspected of plotting in paris, ; _n._ determines to seize, ; his plots in paris, ; supposed capture of, iv. ; enters paris, ; reception in lyons, . =asia=, france's interest in, ii. ; _n.'s_ schemes of conquest in, ; russia's ambition in, , ; england's vulnerability in, iii. ; proposed invasion of, ; _n.'s_ scheme to drive russia into, ; the partition of, iv. . =asia minor=, proposed military operations in, iii. . =aspern=, the advantage of position at, ii. ; battle of, iii. - , , ; monument in churchyard of, ; losses at, ; military operations near, ; captured by the austrians, . =assembly of notables=, i. . =assyria=, the history of, iv. . =asti=, topography of country near, ii. . =astorga=, british troops at, iii. , ; _n._ at, , ; ney at, . =astrakhan=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. . =asturias=, rebellion in, iii. ; flight of blake into, . =asturias, prince of=, leads revolt against godoy, iii. ; conspiracy of his father against his succession, , ; arrest of, , ; proposed french matrimonial alliance for, , , , ; character, popularity, and following, ; seeks _n.'s_ aid, , ; mentions his mother's shame, ; commissions the duke del infantado, ; trial and release, ; pardoned by his father, ; charles iv, abdicates in favor of, . _see also_ =ferdinand vii=. =astyanax=, the king of rome likened to, iv. , . =atheists=, in the national convention, i. . =athies=, capture and recapture of, iv. , . =atlantic=, _n.'s_ mastery of ports on the, iii. . =attila=, _n._ likened to, i. . =aube, river=, military operations on the, iv. , , , , , , , . =aubry, françois=, royalist intrigues by, i. ; _n.'s_ vindictiveness toward, , . =auerstädt=, battle of, ii. - ; prussia's humiliation at, iii. ; davout created duke of, . _see also_ =davout=. =augereau, gen. p. c. f.=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; general of division, army of italy, ; defeats austrians at millesimo, , ; at lonato, ; battle of bassano, ; at verona, ; battle of arcole, - ; battle of lonato, ; driven into porto legnago, ; the rivoli campaign, , ; commanding army of the interior, ii. ; takes command in paris, ; events of the th of fructidor, ; commanding army of the rhine, ; opposes _n._, ; blunders in south-western germany, ; commanding in the pyrenees, , ; jacobin candidate for supreme command, ; fails to attend banquet at st. sulpice, ; offers services to _n._, ; position on the main, ; dangerous position after hohenlinden, ; at concordat celebration at notre dame, ; victory at castiglione, ; created marshal, ; plan of naval expedition for, ; commanding in germany, ; exasperates the people of ansbach, ; near coburg, ; battle of jéna, - ; at golynim, iii. ; strength in poland, ; in the eylau campaign, , - ; wounded at eylau, ; created duke of castiglione, ; income, ; service in spain, ; in campaign of , ; battle of leipsic, iv. ; confronting bubna at geneva, ; sent to eugène's assistance, ; waning loyalty of, , ; repulses bubna from lyons, ; moral exhaustion of, ; letter from _n._, ; driven back to lyons, ; strength, ; incapacity, ; evacuates lyons, ; _n.'s_ kindness toward, ; contrasted with suchet, ; strength, march, , ; available forces, ; transfers allegiance to louis xviii, , ; meeting with _n._ near valence, ; alleges patriotism as cause of his desertion, ; attainted, ; _n.'s_ forgiveness for, . =augsburg=, military movements near, iii. , . =augusta of bavaria=, marries eugène de beauharnais, ii. . =aujezd=, military operations at, ii. . =aulic council=, i. , ; ii. , . =austerlitz=, battle of, ii. et seq., ; the lessons of, , ; iii. ; "the sun of," ii. ; iii. ; reception of the news in england, ii. ; meeting of the sovereigns after, iii. ; fruits of the battle, ; talleyrand's policy after, ; _n.'s_ terms after, ; alexander's pliableness after, ; the battle compared with that at leipsic, iv. ; interview between francis and _n._ at, . =austerlitz, bridge of=, in paris, iii. . =austin, john=, on the napoleonic code, ii. . =austria=, hampered by alliances, i. ; campaign against france, ; france declares war against, , ; relations (alliances and negotiations for mutual support) with prussia, ; ii. , ; iii. , , , ; captures lafayette, i. ; effect of military successes, ; military operations against, in piedmont, ; partition of poland, , ; masséna's campaign against, ; opening of hostilities against, ; enters genoese territory, ; cessation of operations against, ; defeated at weissenburg and fleurus, ; driven out of alsace, ; relations with england (alliances and negotiations with, and subsidies from), , ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , ; iv. , , ; armistice between france and, i. ; french schemes against, ; defeated by prussia, ; hostility to france, ; relations (alliances and negotiations for mutual support) with russia, , ; ii. , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , ; question of military operations against, i. ; operations in piedmont in , ; plans for overthrow of, ; forces of, separated from sardinians, ; _n._ dictates terms to, at leoben, ; military operations in lombardy, - ; defeated at montenotte, ; army separated from piedmontese, ; crushed at lodi, , ; violates venetian neutrality, , ; treaty with venice, ; outgeneraled by _n._ at mantua, ; the system of cabinet campaigning in vogue in, ; interest in possession of mantua, ; losses in campaign before mantua, ; temporary cessation of hostilities between france and, ; france's interest in the humiliation of, ; military enthusiasm in, ; fourth attempt to retrieve position in italy, ; spain allied with france against, ; precarious condition of foreign relations, ; magnificence of her opposition to france, ; covets venetian territory, ; reoccupies triest and fiume, ; england blamed for trouble between france and, ; treaty of leoben, - ; seeks to retain modena, ; secures possession of venetia, - ; ii. ; proposes to recognize the french republic, i. ; defeated by hoche on the rhine, , ; rupture of the coalition with england, ; _n._ offers venice to, ; influence of _n._ in, ; desires restoration of the milanese, ; schemes of european reorganization, ; iii. , , , , ; gen. clarke's mission to, i. ; releases lafayette, ; _n._ has free hand in negotiations with, ii. ; final negotiations with, ; activity of, ; treaty of campo formio, - ; carnot's desire for peace with, ; venice seeks to continue war with, ; congress of rastatt, , , , ; humiliation of, , , ; iii. , , , , - ; attitude of frederick the great toward, ii. ; acquisition of swiss territory, ; to be restrained from interference in rome, ; declines reciprocity with france, ; favors secularization of ecclesiastical principalities, ; disturbed feeling in, , ; bernadotte's embassy to, , , ; france's demands on, concerning the bourbons, ; strained relations between france and, ; alliance with turkey, ; violates the helvetian republic, ; relations (strained or hostile) with prussia, , , ; iii. , ; iv. , , ; scheme to dismember bavaria, ii. ; military operations on the adige, ; military operations on the rhine, , ; joins the second coalition, , , , ; defeats masséna at zürich, and joubert at novi, ; incurs the ill-will of paul i, , , ; holdings in italy, ; duplicity with russia, ; russia incensed at, ; france's services to prussia against, ; military situation at beginning of , ; moreau ordered to move against, ; system of tactics pursued by, ; defeated at engen, ; successes in italy, ; quality of her troops, ; battle of marengo, - ; negotiates for peace, , ; agrees to evacuate northern italy, ; armistice between france and, , ; interest to abandon england, ; _n._ proposes general armistice to, ; seeks concessions in italy, ; raises new troops, ; _n._ determines to prosecute the war with, ; position behind the inn, ; signs peace of lunéville, ; her line in italy, as fixed at lunéville, ; armistice of steyer, ; battle of hohenlinden, ; signs separate peace, ; loss of power, ; the spiritual principalities in, ; russia's jealousy of, ; aspirations concerning bavaria, ; ecclesiastical influence in, ; share in redistributions of , , ; ney's check on, ; proposed occupation of malta by, ; _n.'s_ preparations for striking, ; truckles to france, ; withdraws troops from swabia, ; acquiesces in creation of french empire, ; represented at _n.'s_ court at aachen, ; _n.'s_ designs against, , , ; recuperating, ; pretext for war between france and, ; francis's title and powers curtailed, ; the sanitary cordon, ; popular dislike of russia in, ; alexander's scheme for compensating, ; apprehensions of losing venice, ; falls into _n.'s_ trap, ; army reforms, ; mobilizes troops, ; her ambitions, ; her disarmament demanded, ; _n._ threatens to march to vienna, ; abused in paris newspapers, ; declaration of war against, ; declares war against france, sept. , , ; strength, ; her line of defense, ; popular opinion of _n._ in, ; capitulation of ulm, ; junction of troops at marburg, ; outgeneraled by _n._, ; drives the elector of bavaria from munich, ; battle of austerlitz, et seq.; ill feeling between russia and, ; threatened with loss of venetia and the tyrol, ; accepts _n.'s_ terms for an armistice, ; _n.'s_ scheme to crush, ; suspected bribery of talleyrand by, ; pays war indemnity to france, ; cessions by, ; acquires salzburg and berchtesgaden, ; surrenders venice to france, ; losses at austerlitz, ; stripped of leadership, ; neutralization of her power, ; francis i declares himself hereditary emperor, ; protector of ragusa, ; demoralization of the army, ; rehabilitation of, ; neutrality between russia and turkey, ; anxiety concerning polish lands, ; offer of silesia to, ; iii. ; resolves on neutrality, ii. ; turko-persian alliance against, iii. ; _n._ proposes alliance with, , ; hostile preparations, ; proposal for a new coalition, ; proposes to act as mediator, ; shrewd attitude of, ; throws troops on frontier of galicia, ; omitted from the continental olympus, ; _n.'s_ object to humiliate, ; interest in poland, ; partition of, , ; her position after tilsit, ; proposed commercial war against england, ; offended dignity of, ; treaty of fontainebleau, oct. , , ; outward subserviency to france, ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; military reorganization of, , , , , ; proposed neutralization of, ; the situation in, ; awakening of the national spirit in, ; encouraged to revolt, , - , ; effect of the bayonne negotiations on, et seq.; hereditary rivalry with france, ; belligerent tone in, , , , ; necessity for her repression, ; _n._ and alexander remonstrate with, - ; _n._ proposes alliance with, ; to be held in check by russia, ; compact between russia and france against, ; russia urged to occupy part of, ; transformation of, et seq.; the german movement in, ; opportunity to lead a revolt against _n._, ; failure of negotiations with france, ; change of plan of campaign, , ; napoleonic ideas in, ; archduke charles's proclamations, ; intoxicated with success, ; the fifth war with, et seq.; her aggressions, ; extinguishment of her hopes in italy, ; claims the battle of aspern, ; losses at wagram, ; plague in her army, ; to reduce her army, ; cession of territory, ; _n.'s_ terms of peace, ; _n._ contemplates alliance with, , , ; reduced to a second-class power, , , , ; desire to assassinate _n._ in, ; recognizes _n.'s_ acquisitions in spain, portugal, and italy, ; joins the continental system, ; _n._ chooses a matrimonial alliance with the house of, ; necessity of placating, ; good feeling toward france, ; democratic tendencies in, ; distribution of the lands taken from, ; brought into the napoleonic system, ; bankruptcy of, ; alliance with france, , ; interest in stirring up strife between france and russia, ; pro-russian party in, , ; _n.'s_ reply to francis's request for assistance, ; alexander seeks the favor of, ; foments hostile feeling between russia and france, ; seeks territorial aggrandizement at expense of turkey, ; contemplates neutrality, ; overawed by _n.'s_ preparations, ; contributes troops to the french army, ; stipulates for territorial enlargement, ; furnishes troops for russian campaign of , ; agricultural distress in, ; acquires galicia, ; attitude of her troops toward russia, ; _n._ suspicious of, ; narrow escape at essling, ; alexander seeks alliance with, ; value of her alliance to france, ; roman catholic influence in, ; proposed surrender of illyria to, , , ; hostility to _n._ in, , ; saxony turns toward, , ; metternich's diplomatic schemes for, ; refuses to enter coalition against france, ; _n._ offers to subsidize, ; _n._ seeks aid from, to check kutusoff, ; proposes to act as mediator, , - , , , , ; wooed for the coalition, ; secret agreement with saxony, ; rejects _n.'s_ offer of silesia, ; hostile neutrality of, ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; pivotal in european politics, , , ; growing strength, , - ; abandoned by saxony, ; proposed surrender of dalmatia to, ; proposed rectification of her western frontier, ; outwits _n._, , ; iv. i, ; gathers troops in bohemia, iii. - ; the allies' reliance on, ; fear of _n._, ; nesselrode demands her adherence to the coalition, ; aggrandizement by royal marriages, ; to be pledged never to side with france, ; proposed enlargement of, ; secret treaty of reichenbach, , , ; throws off the mask of mediator, ; duplicity of, ; regeneration of, ; seeks to regain ascendancy in germany and italy, ; _n.'s_ agents in, ; _n._ attempts to bribe, , ; declares war, ; hamburg and triest offered to, ; takes the lead among the allies, iv. ; strength, ; _n._ seeks alliance with, , ; saved by schwarzenberg from invasion, ; _n._ offers terms to, ; scheme to restore status of , ; concludes alliance of sept. , , ; seeks to regain predominance in italy, ; rise of her prussian rival, ; desires peace, ; demands italian territory, ; at the congress at frankfort, ; troops on the rhine, - ; forms alliance with murat, ; the czar's designs to check, ; violates swiss neutrality, ; suspicious slowness of her movements, ; eager for an armistice, , , ; _n._ endeavors to separate russia from, ; treaty of chaumont, ; the triple alliance, ; attitude toward _n._, ; _n.'s_ dread of capture of the empress by, ; party to the treaty of fontainebleau (april, ), ; weight of her yoke in italy, ; negotiates secret treaty with england and france, ; invited to take part in the coronation of the king of rome, ; member of the vienna coalition, ; quota of troops, ; refuses help to france, ; the campaign of the hundred days, et seq.; claims the glory of annihilating _n._, ; claims the right of overseeing the imprisonment of _n._, ; loss of italian territory, . =austria-hungary=, the rise of, iv, , . =austrian netherlands, the=, defeat of the french in, i. ; the revolutionary spirit in, ; dumouriez's successes in, ; french conquest, of, ; surrendered to france, ii. . _see also_ =belgium=. =autun=, _n._ at, i. , , - ; iv. ; the buonapartes at, i. ; talleyrand bishop of, ii. . =auxerre=, military movements near, iv. ; imperial forces at, ; ney rejoins _n._ at, . =auxonne=, _n._ at, i. , , , , , - , ; disturbances in, , , ; _n._ seeks to be retained at, . =avignon=, the girondists at, i. ; _n._ arrives before, ; jacobin siege of, ; _n.'s_ life at, , ; annexed to france, ; the pope asks compensation for the loss of, ii. ; lost to the pope at the peace of tolentino, ; residence of pius vii at, ; augereau's neglected guns at, iv. ; plots to assassinate _n._ at, . =azanza, m. j. de=, king joseph's spanish minister at paris, iii. ; =azara, chevalier j. n. de=, represents spain at amiens, ii. ; at the tuileries, march , , . =azores=, proposition to deport the emperor to, iv. . b =babylon=, the history of, iv. . =bacciocchi, mme.=, literary coterie, ii. ; acquires the duchy of lucca, . _see also_ =buonaparte, marie-anne-elisa=. =bacciocchi, pasquale=, marries elisa buonaparte, i. . =bachelu= in battle of waterloo, iv. , . =bacon, francis=, _n.'s_ study of, ii. . =badajoz=, soult's capture of, iii. ; english siege and storming of, - , . =baden=, violation of her neutrality, i. ; ii. , ; makes peace with france ( ), i. , ; relations with russia, ii. ; strengthening of, ; residence of the duc d'enghien in, ; french expedition to, ; news of the duc d'enghien's arrest in, ; friendly relations with france, ; acquires territory after austerlitz, ; subservience to france, , ; created a separate kingdom, ; member of the confederation of the rhine, ; supplies contingent for _n.'s_ army, ii. ; iii. ; allotment of austrian lands to, ; turns from _n._ to the allies, iv. ; position in germany, . =bagration, gen. peter=, holds murat at hollabrunn, ii. ; in battle of austerlitz, ; in campaign of eylau, iii. ; called in by barclay de tolly, ; movements on the dnieper and pripet, ; contemplated junction with barclay, ; establishes communication with drissa, ; driven east by davout, ; junction with barclay at smolensk, , ; plan of junction with barclay at vitebsk, ; battle of smolensk, . =bailly, jean sylvain=, mayor of paris, i. . =balcombe, mr.=, entertains _n._ at st. helena, iv. . =balearic isles=, _n._ offers them to england, ii. , . =balkan peninsula=, russia's ambitions in, iii. ; rescue of the people of, iv. . =baltic sea, the=, england's operations in and on, ii. , ; iii. , , , , ; gateway of, ; spanish military movements on, ; _n.'s_ mastery of ports on, ; efficient blockade of, impossible, . =baltimore=, jerome bonaparte's residence in, ii. . =bamberg=, austrian troops at, ii. ; _n.'s_ military route through, ; concentration of troops in, iii. . =bank of england=, suspends specie payments, i. ; scarcity of money in, iii. . =bank of france=, organization of, ii. , ; the récamiers and the, , ; compelled to lower its rate, iii. ; plethora of silver in, . =barbary=, plots of the pirates to seize _n._, iv. . =barbé-marbois, f.=, proscribed, ii. ; minister of finance, ; state treasurer, ; minister of the treasury, . =barbets=, guerrilla bands of, i. . =barcelona=, french troops at, iii. ; duhesme besieged in, ; besieged by vives, . =barclay de tolly, m. a.=, proposed movement against, iii. ; calls in bagration, ; retreats to drissa, ; junction with bagration at smolensk, - ; plans to meet bagration at vitebsk, ; battle of smolensk, - ; takes stand behind the uscha, ; retreats toward moscow, ; charged with german bias, ; succeeded by kutusoff, ; retained as military adviser, ; restored to chief command, , ; battle of bautzen, ; with the army of the south, iv. ; battle of leipsic, ; advises pursuit of _n._, . =barère, bertrand=, exiled, ii. . ="bargain of famine,"= the, i. , . =barham, adm.=, naval administration of, ii. . =baring, major=, in battle of waterloo, iv. , . =barnabe=, declares brumaire illegal, ii. . =barras, jean-paul-françois-nicolas=, relations with _n._ and influence on his career, i. , , , , , , , ; ii. , , ; iv. , , ; in siege of toulon, i. ; opposes robespierre, ; influence among the thermidorians, ; leader of military committee of the convention, ; a dantonist, ; in social life, , ; commander-in-chief of convention forces, ; claims the honors of the th vendémiaire, , ; resigns his command, ; member of the directory, , ; character, , ; ii. , ; intimacy with josephine beauharnais, i. ; connection with _n.'s_ marriage, ; bribed by venetian ambassador, ; dissatisfied with treaty of leoben, ; learns of pichegru's treachery, ii. ; plan to bring troops to paris, ; clamors for peace, ; derides carnot's suggestions, ; responsibility for the th fructidor, ; responsibility for the th vendémiaire, ; approves the treaty of campo formio, ; charged with tampering with bernadotte, ; intrigue with _n._, talleyrand, and sieyès for a new constitution, ; suggests that _n._ assume a dictatorship, ; warns _n._ to leave france for egypt, ; resignation and fall of, , , , ; _n.'s_ charges against, before the ancients, . =barry, mme. du=, relations with talleyrand, ii. . =bar-sur-aube=, military movements near, iv. , , , , ; narrow escape of francis at, ; _n.'s_ march through, . =bar-sur-ornain=, oudinot at, iv. . =bartenstein=, french occupation of, iii. ; military movements near, ; treaty of, iii. , , . =barthélemy, f.=, member of the directory, ii. ; imprisonment of, . =basel=, treaty of, i. ; ii. ; iii. ; alteration of boundary at, ii. ; republican propaganda in, ; invasion of france via, iv. , ; headquarters of the allies at, ; schwarzenberg's communications with, threatened, ; tomb of erasmus in, . =bassano=, defeat of wurmser at, i. ; alvinczy defeats masséna at, , ; battle of, , ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; maret created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =maret=. =basseville, n. j. h.=, killed in rome, i. , , . =bastia=, made a seat of government, i. ; _n._ at, ; radical influences in, ; patriot success in, ; tradition concerning _n.'s_ connection with events at, ; share in annexation of corsica to france ; paoli's return to, ; revolutionary movements in, ; declared the capital of corsica, ; disorders in, ; _n._ sails from, may , , ; _n._ flees to, ; under domination of salicetti, ; french power in, ; imprisonment of corsicans in, ; english capture of, ; nelson at, ii. . =bastille, the=, destruction of, i. , , ; celebrations of the storming of, ; ii. . =batavian republic, the=, formation of, i. ; an appanage of france, ; naval defeat at camperdown, ii. ; dependence on france, ; levy of troops and war material on, ; anglo-russian force forced to evacuate, ; loyalty to _n._, ; a new constitution for, ; regains colonies, , ; english efforts to discredit france in, . _see also_ =holland=; =netherlands=. ="battle of dorking,"= ii. . =battle of five days=, iii. . ="battle of the nations,"= iv. . =bautzen=, battle of, iii. , ; iv. ; fatal results of the french victory at, iii. ; _n._ moves toward, iv. ; the young guard ordered to, ; _n._ nicknamed from, ; boy soldiers at, ; the armistice after, . ="bautzen messenger-boy,"= the, iv. . =bavaria=, treaty with france ( ), i. ; austria's gaze on, ; ii. , , ; austria's scheme to dismember, ; suvaroff driven from italy to, ; moreau ordered to drive the austrians into, ; the campaign in, et seq.; negotiations with france, ; acquires passau, ; relations with russia, ; alexander i's scheme of giving to austria, ; _n._ threatens to enlarge, , ; austrian troops in, ; the elector driven from munich by austria, ; friendly relations with, subservience and military support to france, , , , , ; iii. , , , , , ; acquires ansbach, ii. ; created a separate kingdom, , , ; acquires territory after austerlitz, ; member of the confederation of the rhine, ; joins in the war against prussia, ; defeated at innsbruck, iii. ; _n.'s_ success in, ; maria louisa's progress through, ; allotment of austrian lands to, ; losses of her soldiers in russia, ; roman catholic influence in, ; hesitates to furnish new levies, ; augereau commanding troops of, ; national spirit in, iv. ; revulsion of feeling against france, , , , , ; part in the campaign at leipsic, ; position in germany, , ; battle of hanau, ; the campaign of waterloo , et seq. =bayanne, cardinal=, at paris, iii. ; his demands on behalf of the pope, . =baylen=, capitulation of, dupont at, iii. , , . =bayonne=, formation of new french army at, iii. , , ; _n._ goes to, ; ferdinand vii at, ; trial of ferdinand at, ; end of negotiations at, ; convocation of spanish notables at, ; ultimate failure of _n.'s_ work at, ; _n._ at, nov. , , ; effect of negotiations at, ; the decree of , ; soult shut up in, iv. . =bayreuth=, _n._ at, ii. ; ney at, ; davout's force in, iii. . ="beaucaire, the supper of,"= i. , . =beauderet=, military movements near, iv. . =beauharnais, marquis alexandre de=, marriage to josephine de la pagerie, i. ; service in america, ; separated from his wife, ; commander of the army of the rhine, ; partial reconciliation with josephine, ; elected to states-general, ; president of national assembly, ; denunciation, imprisonment, and execution, . =beauharnais, eugène de=, birth of, i. ; early life, ; interposes to reconcile josephine and _n._, ii. ; viceroy at milan, ; ordered to organize troops on the adige, ; marries augusta of bavaria, ; expels the english from leghorn, iii. ; letter from _n._ to, ; presents ultimatum to pius vii, ; formally adopted by _n._, ; viceroy of italy, ; defeated by archduke john, ; letter from _n._ to, ; commanding in italy, ; character, ; at villach, ; at bruck, ; drives archduke john into hungary, ; battle of wagram, ; guards the marchfeld, ; executes hofer's sentence, ; offers amnesty to the tyroleans, ; informs josephine of the impending divorce, ; share in the austrian marriage negotiations, ; acquires principality of frankfort, ; viceroy of italy, ; a grand duchy created for, ; strength of his corps, march, , ; contemplated movement by, ; battle of borodino, ; defeats kutusoff at malojaroslavetz, ; battle of wiazma, ; the hero of the retreat from moscow, , ; at krasnoi, ; junction with ney, ; succeeds murat in command, , ; reorganizes the army, ; withdraws to berlin, ; retires behind the elbe, ; establishes headquarters at leipsic, ; _n.'s_ instructions to, ; to guard holland, ; alexander advances against, ; strength in the saxon campaign of , ; junction with _n._, ; ordered to raise a new army in italy, , ; driven over the adige by hiller, iv. ; checkmated in italy, ; battle of roverbello, ; concludes armistice, . =beauharnais, françois de=, french minister at madrid, connection with ferdinand's conspiracy, iii. ; conducts intrigues for the portuguese throne, ; opens the eyes of godoy, ; advises ferdinand to go to bayonne, . =beauharnais, hortense=, birth of, i. ; early life, ; interposes to reconcile josephine and _n._, ii. ; marries louis bonaparte, ; iii. . _see also_ =buonaparte, hortense=. =beauharnais, josephine=, social life in paris, i. ; _n.'s_ infatuation for, and marriage, - ; ii. ; birth and early life, i. - ; characteristics, - ; imprisonment, ; returns to martinique, ; returns to france, ; intimacy with barras, . _see also_ =bonaparte, josephine=. =beauharnais family=, proposed alliance between ferdinand vii and, iii, - ; share in the austrian marriage negotiations, . =beaulieu, j. p.=, commanding austrian army in lombardy, i. - ; attacks laharpe at voltri, , ; falls back on acqui, ; _n.'s_ operations against, - ; military genius, ; defense of milan, - ; outflanked at piacenza, ; retreats to the mincio, ; seizes peschiera, , ; thwarts _n.'s_ plan, ; violates venetian neutrality, ; his army scattered, . =beaumont=, military operations near, iv. . =becker, gen.=, accompanies _n._ to rochefort, iv. ; urges _n.'s_ value as a general, . =beet-root sugar=, production encouraged, iii, ; _n.'s_ interest in, . =belce, canon=, vice-president of the directory of corsica, i. . =belgium=, proposals to establish a republic in, i. ; plunder of works of art from, ; _n.'s_ policy concerning, ; ceded to france by treaty of leoben, ; england's efforts to release, ; france's interest in, ; england's concessions as to, ii. ; incorporated with france, ; the code napoléon in, ; public works in, ; visit of _n._ and maria louisa to, iii. ; mediocrity of soldiers of, iv. ; the allies refuse to give the country to france, ; _n._ entreated to abandon, ; _n._ refuses to give up, ; campaign of waterloo, et seq.; provisions for defense of, ; weakness of her troops, , . _see also_ =austrian netherlands=. =belle alliance=, french van at, iv. ; _n._ at, , , ; topography, ; the french position at, ; fighting at, . =bellegarde, gen. h. de=, supersedes melas, ii. ; on the mincio, . ="bellerophon," the=, napoleon embarks on, iv. , , , ; sails for torbay, ; goes to plymouth sound, ; in torbay, . =bellesca=, organizes rebellion in favor of don john, iii. . =belleville=, defense of, iv. , . =belliard, gen. a. d.=, carries the news of surrender of paris to the emperor, iv. , ; advises a return to lorraine, ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, . =bellingham, john=, assassinates mr. perceval, iii. . =bellinzona=, austrian force at, ii. ; moncey arrives at, . =bellowitz=, military operations near, ii. . =belluno=, lusignan driven beyond, i. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; victor created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =victor=. =belt, the=, difficulties of bernadotte's crossing the, iii. . =belbedere, gen.=, forces near burgos, iii. . =benevento=, talleyrand created prince of, ii. (_see also_ =talleyrand=); destruction of magazines at, iii. . =bennigsen, gen. l. a. t.=, assassin of paul i, ii. ; commanding russian forces at breslau, ; battle of pultusk, iii. , ; general-in-chief of the russian army, , ; position at szuczyn, ; turns back ney from königsberg, ; attempts to reach dantzic, ; attempts to destroy ney, ; defeated at mohrungen, ; military genius, , ; campaign of eylau, et seq.; captures french courier at eylau, ; retreats to königsberg, ; hampered for men and funds, ; moves against ney on the passarge, ; retires behind the alle, ; strength, summer of , ; battle of heilsberg, ; injurious delays by, ; battle of friedland, ; abandons heilsberg, ; confesses defeat, ; retreats across the niemen, ; reinforcements for, ; proposes an armistice, , ; commanding in poland, iv. ; reaches teplitz, ; in battle of leipsic, . =berchtesgaden=, apportioned to the grand duke of tuscany, ii. ; ceded to austria, ; embodied in the confederation of the rhine, iii. . =beresina=, battle of, compared with that of friedland, iv. . =beresina, river=, the crossing of the, iii. , , . =berg, grand duchy of=, quota of men, ii. ; french seizure of lands near, ; vassalage to france recognized at tilsit, iii. ; the grand duchess quarrels with queen hortense, ; scheme to incorporate it with france, ; louis napoleon created grand duke, ; the french regency of, ; french influence in, . =bergamo=, the revolutionary movement in, i. , , . =bergen=, battle of, ii. . =bergères=, blücher retreats to, iv. . =berlier, m.=, assists in preparation of the code, ii. . =berlin=, consternation in ( - ), ii. ; sieyès' mission to, ; french party in, ; the visits of alexander i to, , ; war feeling in, ii. ; _n._ refuses to treat outside of, ; _n.'s_ entry into, ; _n._ receives polish deputation in, ; french occupation of, iii. ; centralization in, ; eugène at, ; the prussian court removed to breslau from, ; patriotism in the university, ; defense of, ; proposed allotment of, to jerome, ; threatened by oudinot, ; england's diplomacy in, ; french demonstrations against, iv. ; bülow commanding at, ; overestimate of its strategical value, ; blücher's road to, blocked by lauriston, ; failure of oudinot and macdonald in movements against, - ; _n._ determines to march on, , ; possible movement toward, . =berlin decree=, the, ii. ; iii. , , , , , , . =berlin university=, iii. . =bern=, treaty of leoben to be ratified at, i. ; proposed congress at, ii. , ; capture of the city, ; french intervention in, ; the plundering of, ; french military arrogance in, ; attempt to restore the constitution of, iv. . =bernadotte, gen. j. b. j.=, military successes of, i. ; a product of carnot's system, ; commanding army of the sambre and meuse, ; storms gradisca, ; communicates pichegru's treachery to barras, ii. ; ambassador to austria, , ; charges of venality concerning his mission, ; recalled, ; characteristics, , ; iii. ; iv. , , ; marries désirée clary, ii. ; iii. ; ordered to the middle rhine, ii. ; develops the conscription schemes of carnot, ; secretary of war, ; counterplots on the th brumaire, ; plans to head a force at st. cloud, ; created marshal, ; ordered to göttingen, ; commanding in germany, ; marches to ingolstadt, ; watches the russian army, ; violates prussian neutrality at ansbach, ; in battle of austerlitz, - ; prince of ponte corvo, ; iii. ; at lobenstein, ii. ; defeats hohenlohe at schleiz, ; at naumburg, ; absence from jéna and auerstädt, ; relations with _n._, ; iii. , ; at apolda, ii. ; defeats prussians at halle, ii. ; sacks lübeck, ii, ; strength in poland, iii. ; position at elbing, ; action at mohrungen, ; escapes to gilgenburg, ; threatens königsberg, ; in campaign of eylau, ; threatens denmark, ; denmark yields to, ; income, ; fails to join the russian forces in finland, ; restrains spanish operations on the baltic, ; his advance-guard of spanish troops, ; troops in bremen, hamburg, and lübeck, ; to concentrate in dresden, ; ordered to linz, , ; relieved by lefebvre at linz, ; in battle of wagram, , ; disgraced at wagram, , ; heads troops for service in the netherlands, ; kindly treatment of pomerania, ; failure on the marchfeld, ; chosen as successor to charles xiii, ; installation at stockholm, ; assumes title of prince charles john, ; popularity in sweden, ; republicanism of, ; ambition to acquire norway, , ; iv. ; changes from roman catholic to lutheran, iii. ; character of his rule, ; eager to escape from french protection, ; varied character of his life, ; virtual king of sweden, ; unwillingly grants a liberal constitution, ; ambition to acquire the french crown, ; iv. , , , , , , , , ; temporizes with france and russia, iii. ; assists russia against _n._, ; metternich seeks to embroil him with alexander, ; _n._ attempts to win over, ; pomerania offered to, ; joins the coalition, ; iv. , ; his troops evacuate hamburg, ; commanding army of the north, ; in military council at trachenberg, ; battle of grossbeeren, ; at jüterbog, ; battle of dennewitz, , ; crosses the elbe, ; contemplated movement against, ; _n._ seeks to engage, , ; proposed junction with schwarzenberg, ; at merseburg, ; at oppin, ; offers terms to davout, ; ordered to the lower rhine, ; at liège, ; receives flag of truce from joseph, ; the allies dread betrayal by, . =bernadotte, mme.=, i. . =bernburg=, french forces at, iii. . =berneck=, defeat of junot by the black legion at, iii. . =berner klause=, the, i. . =berry=, military movements near, iv. , . =berry, charles ferdinand, duc de=, doubtful courage of, ii. ; refrains from entering france, ; suspected of plotting in brittany, . =berry-au-bac=, abandoned by marmont, iv. ; marmont at, . =berthier, gen. alexandre=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; service in the alps, ; at lodi, ; in the rivoli campaign, ; carries treaty of campo formio to the directory, ii. ; plunders venetia, ; proclaims the roman republic, ; ordered to kill hostile tribesmen, ; ordered to prepare for triumphal entry into cairo, ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ; action on the th brumaire, ; forms the army of reserve, ; sent to geneva, ; method of computing his army, ; plans for crossing the alps, ; urges capture of fort bard, ; created marshal, ; master of the hounds, ; muzzles the press in prussia, ; letter from _n._, aug. , , ; personal attendance on _n._, ; in battle of eylau, iii. ; iv. ; at tilsit, iii. , ; income, , ; created prince of neufchâtel, , , ; appointed vice-constable, ; at bayonne, ; chief of staff, , , ; orders to, iii. ; deficiency of military knowledge, ; fails in execution of his orders, ; charged with treachery, ; on _n.'s_ habit of work, ; discovers attempt to assassinate _n._, ; _n.'s_ proxy to marry maria louisa, - ; created prince of wagram, ; letter from ney to, nov. , , , ; informs macdonald of the russian disasters, ; alleged hostility to jomini, iv. ; battle of dresden, ; at nangis, ; receives flag of truce from schwarzenberg, ; persuades _n._ to resume negotiations, ; capture of one of his couriers, ; at council at st. dizier, ; advises a return to lorraine, ; marmont sends treasonable documents to, ; at the abdication scene, ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, ; nicknamed "peter," ; faults at eylau and wagram, . =berthollet, c. l.=, plunders italian scientific collections, i. ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ii. ; member of the senate, . =berton, l. s.=, i. . =bertrand, gen. h. g.=, base conduct at vienna, ii. ; in campaign of , iii. ; in battle of bautzen, ; beleaguers schweidnitz, ; battle of dennewitz, iv. ; driven by blücher to bitterfeld, ; battle of leipsic, , , , , ; takes weissenfels, ; defends the rhine at kastel, ; begs _n._ to abandon belgium and the left bank of the rhine, ; at the abdication scene, ; accompanies _n._ to elba, , ; sends positive instructions to grouchy, , ; escorts _n._ from the field of waterloo, ; accompanies _n._ to rochefort, ; accompanies _n._ to st. helena, . =bertrand, mme.=, present at _n.'s_ death-bed, iv. . =bessarabia=, alleged concession of, to russia, iii. . =bessières, gen. j. b.=, service in egypt, ii. ; created marshal, ; in battle of austerlitz, ; in eylau campaign, iii. , ; created duke of istria, ; income, ; character, ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; invades spain, , , ; instructions to, concerning spanish policy, ; ordered to arrest ferdinand, ; besieges santander, ; defeats the spaniards at medina de rio seco, ; occupies old castile and aragon, ; ordered to connect with junot, ; at miranda, ; pursues hiller, ; battle of essling, ; commanding the young guard, ; killed at rippach, , ; importance of his loss to _n._, . =bethencourt, gen.=, crosses the simplon, ii. ; near domo d'ossola, . =beugnot=, regent of berg, iii. ; anecdote concerning, , . =beurnonville, marquis de=, _n.'s_ envoy to prussia, ii. ; royalist intrigues of, iv. , . =beys=, the egyptian, ii. . =biberach=, battle of, ii. . =biberich=, anecdote of _n._ at the castle of, iii. . =bible=, _n.'s_ study of the, iv. . =bicêtre, prison of=, imprisonment of a milliner in, iii. . =bielostok=, united to russia, iii. , . =bilbao=, lefebvre near, iii. . =bisamberg=, junction of archduke charles and hiller at, iii. , ; military operations near, , . =biscay=, _n.'s_ contemplated movements in, iii. ; military government of, . =bismarck, prince otto von=, policy in, , ii. . =bitterfeld=, bertrand driven by blücher to, iv. . =biville=, landing of the cadoudal conspirators at, ii. . =black elster, river=, military movements on the, iv. . =black forest, the=, dessaix defeats the austrians in, i. ; military operations in, ii. , . =black legion, the=, organization of, iii. ; defeats junot at berneck, ; defeats the saxons at nossen, . =black sea=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. . =blake, gen.=, defeated at medina de rio seco, iii. ; advances from durango, ; concerted french movement against, ; driven back to valmaseda, ; _n.'s_ scheme to annihilate, ; defeated at espinosa, ; joins la romana, in asturias, ; annihilation of his army by suchet, . =blankenburg=, louis xviii retreats to, ii. . =blankenhain=, prince hohenlohe at, ii. . =blasowitz=, military operations near, ii. . =blois=, _n.'s_ private treasure at, iv. , ; imperial regency established at, ; french garrison at, ; dissolution of the imperial government at, . =blücher, marshal g. l. von=, member of prussian reform party, ii. ; prussian commander, ; military movements near eisenach, ; battle of auerstädt, ; reaches lübeck, ; duplicity to klein, ; surrender of, ; in campaign of , iii. ; at striegau, iv. , ; violates the armistice, , ; commanding the army of the east, ; gives _n._ an advantage, , ; secures an independent command, ; pursued by _n._, ; at bunzlau, ; retreats behind the deichsel, ; crosses the katzbach, ; battle of katzbach, ; pursues macdonald, ; macdonald fails to hold, ; operations in silesia, ; attacks macdonald at fischbach, ; macdonald ordered to check his advance, ; advances on dresden, ; northward movement, ; marches to kemberg, ; drives bertrand to bitterfeld, ; contemplated movement against, ; _n._ seeks to engage, , ; joint movements with bernadotte and schwarzenberg, ; advances to halle, ; battle of leipsic, , , ; acquires two swedish corps, ; crosses the rhine, ; aims to annihilate _n._, ; crosses the saar, ; invests the mosel fortresses, ; advances on arcis, ; effects union with schwarzenberg, ; defeated at brienne, ; battles of la rothière and troyes, ; predicts a speedy entry into paris, ; leads the advance down the marne, ; attempts to cut off macdonald, ; strength, feb. , , ; french movement from sézanne against, , ; battle of montmirail, ; retreat across the marne, ; defeated at vauchamps, ; retreats to bergères, ; drives marmont to fromentières, ; _n._ deals him "a blow in the eye," ; marmont ordered to hold, ; at méry, ; collects his army at châlons, ; oudinot sent against, ; pursued by _n._, ; makes diversion in favor of main army, ; advances on paris, ; letter from frederick william iii, feb. , , ; _n._ in pursuit of, ; moves on meaux, ; recruits his forces at soissons, ; retreats up the ourcq, ; checked by marmont and mortier, ; crosses the marne, ; cut off from schwarzenberg, ; driven north, ; battle of craonne, ; retreats from craonne to laon, ; dissensions in his army, - , ; battle of laon, ; recalls york, ; regains communication with schwarzenberg, ; dismayed at the capture of rheims, , ; besieges compiègne, ; resumes the offensive, , ; marmont's plan of operations against, ; crosses the aisne, ; effects junction with schwarzenberg, , , ; captures a courier to the empress, ; advised of the movement on paris, ; "marshal forward," ; crosses the marne, ; fears of, in paris, ; captures montmartre, ; desires to take the field, ; plan of the campaign of waterloo, ; quality of his troops, ; _n.'s_ position with regard to wellington and, ; relative strength in waterloo campaign, ; awaits developments, ; relations with wellington, , ; possible change of strategy, ; defensive movements, ; at fleurus, ; retires from fleurus, ; his tactics criticized by wellington, ; meeting with wellington at bry, ; battle of ligny, , ; gets "a ---- good licking," , ; wounded at ligny, ; grouchy's pursuit of, ; apprehended movement to join wellington, ; promises support to wellington, ; grouchy aims to prevent union between wellington and, ; movement to wavre, - ; disaster at ligny, ; possible retreat via louvain, ; fails to come to wellington's assistance, ; wellington's faint-hearted coöperation with, ; his lines of retreat, ; determination to kill _n._, , ; _character_: ambition, iv. ; ardor and courage, , , , , ; desire for glory and revenge, , , ; duplicity, ii. ; head-strong temper, iv. , , ; influence over troops, , ; over-confidence, , ; self-indulgence, . =bober, river=, military movements on the, iv. , . =bocognano=, _n._ in hiding near, i. , . =bohemia=, archduke ferdinand escapes into, ii. ; archduke ferdinand commanding in, ; _n.'s_ line of retreat through, ; plan of austrian operations in, iii. ; _n.'s_ reasons for not pursuing archduke charles into, ; gathering of austrian troops in, ; boundary of a neutral zone, ; beacons flash the declaration of war through, ; austro-russian troops in, iv. ; advance of russian troops toward, ; the allies' communication with, threatened, ; guarding the passes from, ; refuge of the allies in, ; army of, moves on paris, . =bohemian forest=, military movements in the, iii. , , . =bois, pierre du=, proposes french seizure of egypt, ii. . =bologna=, seizure and ransom of, i. , ; the pope prepares to recover, ; armistice of, ; new scheme of government for, ; _n._ at, , ; military operations at, , ; surrendered to france, ; ceded to venice at leoben, ; corporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. . =bonaparte=. _see_ =buonaparte=. =boniface, pope=, crowns pepin, ii. . =bonifacio=, _n._ at, i. . =bonnier, m.=, member of the congress of rastatt, ii. ; killed at rastatt, . =bontemps, m.=, arrest of, ii. . =bordeaux=, condition in , i. ; exempt from legislation concerning jews, iii. ; opens its gates to english troops, iv. ; proclamation of louis xviii., ; _n._ seeks to rouse imperial feeling in, ; immunity from the white terror, . =borghese, prince=, marries pauline (buonaparte) leclerc, ii. ; separates from pauline, iv. . =borghese, princess pauline (buonaparte)=, looseness of her life, iv. ; acquires the duchy of lucca, ii. ; dismissed from paris, iv. ; accompanies _n._ to elba, - ; alleged scandalous relations with _n._, . _see also_ =buonaparte, pauline=. =borghetto=, battle of, i. . =borgo, pozzo di=. _see_ =pozzo di borgo=. =bormida, river=, road to italy opened through the valley of, i. ; the country of, ii. ; melas crosses, ; military operations on the, . =borodino=, bonaparte at, ii. ; battle of, iii. , , - ; rescuing the wounded from the field of, . =borrissoff=, the french retreat through, iii. , , ; russian plan of operation at, ; captured by tchitchagoff, , ; battles at, - . =borstell, gen.=, battle of dennewitz, iv. . =bosporus=, proposed expedition to the, iii. . =botanical garden=, lecture system of the, i. . =bothnia=, repulse of the russians from, iii. . =bou, mme.=, i. . =boudet, gen. jean=, in battle of essling, iii. , . =bouillé, marquis f. c. a. de=, i. . =boulay de la meurthe, antoine=, presents temporary plan of the consulate, ii, ; member of the council of state, ; reviser of the code, . =boulogne=, the army of england, flotilla, and military preparations at, ii. , , , , ; _n._ at, ; _n.'s_ ceremonial at, july, , ; real purpose of the flotilla, ; distribution of legion of honor crosses at, ; the army ordered east from, . =bourbon-condé, louis-antoine-henri de=. _see_ =enghien, duc d'=. =bourbon-hapsburg alliance=, corsica joins the, i. . =bourbons, the=, influence of, i. ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; ii. , , , , , , ; iv. ; discredit royalty, i. ; their motto, ; france's demands on austria concerning, ii. ; hopes and rumors of restoration of, and plots therefore, , , , , , ; iv. , , , , , , ; talleyrand's predilection for, ii. ; england's attitude toward, , , , ; iv. ; a blow at the, ii. ; _n._ complains of england's protection of, , ; foster the jacobin spirit of insurrection, ; responsibility for the execution of ney, ; the duc d'enghien, ; intrigues against _n.'s_ life, ; iv. , ; _n.'s_ attempt to fix death of duc d'enghien on, ii. ; causes of the french dislike for, ; their "divine right," ; their founder, ; scheme to establish a monarchy in america, iii. , ; metternich's desire to restore the, iv. , ; rising in vendée, ; restoration of, , - , , ; enthusiasm for, in paris, ; revulsion of feeling in france and by alexander against, , ; fickle imperialists support louis xviii, ; maintain spies in elba, ; _n._ on the illegitimacy of their throne, . =the neapolitan=, impending downfall, ii. ; banished, , , ; iii. ; proposal that they retain power in sicily, ii. . =the spanish=, scheme to emancipate spain from rule of, ii. ; incapacity and degradation, iii. ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; deposed, - , , ; proposals to restore the throne to, , . =bourgeoisie=, the, at outbreak of the revolution, i. , ; _n._ seeks the support of, ii. . =bourmont, gen.=, deserts before charleroi, iv. . =bourrienne, l. a. f. de=, on the question of _n.'s_ birth, i. ; shares mathematical honors with _n._, ; shares _n.'s_ poverty in paris, ; obtains diplomatic position at stuttgart, ; anecdotes of _n._ by, ; describes _n.'s_ personality, ; _n.'s_ friendship for, ; improved fortunes of, ; _n.'s_ confidences with, ii. ; on _n.'s_ plans of escaping from egypt, ; _n._ expresses his satisfaction to, concerning the th brumaire, ; rebukes _n._ at st. cloud, ; character, ; dismissed, ; on mme. de staël, iii. ; venality of, iv. . =bourse=, _n.'s_ failure to govern the, ii. ; rise in values after the austrian marriage, iii. . =bowles, col. geo.=, conversation with wellington, iv. . =boyer, gen. j. p.=, prepares a "triumphal" return to cairo, ii. . =brabant=, visit of _n._ and maria louisa to, iii. ; french occupation of, ; _n.'s_ offer to exchange it for hanseatic towns, . =braganza, house of=, decline of, iii. ; flight to brazil, ; _n._ proposes to restore portugal to, . =brandenburg=, proposed allotment of, to jerome, iii. ; the army of the north in, iv. ; contemplated operations in, . =brandenburg, house of=, the imperial crown for the, ii. ; owes its safety to the czar, iii. . =braunau=, the austrian camp at, ii. ; captured by lannes, ; russian troops at, ; french occupation of, . =bray=, macdonald before, iv. . =brazi=, don john embarks for, iii. . =breisgau=, grant to grand duke of tuscany in, ii. ; duc d'enghien prepares to retire to the, , ; part of, acquired by baden, ; würtemberg acquires part of, . =breitenlee=, austrian advance through, iii. . =bremen=, closed to british commerce, ii. ; laid under contribution, ; proposal to give it to prussia, ; bernadotte's force in, iii. ; scheme to incorporate with france, ; position in the french empire, ; french forces at, . =brenta, river=, military operations on the, i. , - , . =brescia=, seized by france, i. ; the french position at, ; captured by quasdanowich, ; evacuated by the enemy, ; the revolutionary movement in, , . =breslau=, russian troops at, ii. ; the prussian court moves from berlin to, iii. ; patriotism in the university, ; french occupation of, ; pursuit of the allies to, ; french evacuation of, , ; military movements near, iv. . =brest=, naval preparations at, ii. , , , , , ; blockade of, iii. ; junction of nelson and cornwallis before, ii. ; the fleet ordered to the english channel from, ; villeneuve's mission to relieve, ; the squadron ordered to the mediterranean, iii. ; imprisonment of schill's followers in, ; naval station at, . =brest-litovski=, military operations near, iii. . ="briars, the,"= _n._ a guest at, iv. , . =bribery=, _n.'s_ first lesson in, i. . =bridge of arts=, the, iii. . =brienne=, _n._ at, i. , - , , ; iv. ; _n.'s_ mock battles at, i. ; iv. ; lucien buonaparte at, i. ; lucien quits, and louis remains at, ; louis fails of admission to, ; _n.'s_ garden at, ; _n.'s_ contemporaries at, ; battle of, iv. , ; military movements near, , . =brienne, mme. loménie de=, _n.'s_ early friend, i. , . =brigandage=, suppression of, in corsica, i. , . =brigido, col.=, at battle of arcole, i. . =brindisi=, embargo on, ii. . =brinkmann=, on _n.'s_ influence in france, ii. . =brissot, j. p.=, leader of the girondists, i. . =brittany=, foundation of the jacobin club in, i. ; violence and civil war in, , , , ; ii. , ; _n._ conciliates, ; suspected plot of the duc de berry in, . =brixen=, joubert at, i. ; apportioned to the grand duke of tuscany, ii. ; ceded to bavaria, . =broglie, duc de=, on the emperor's court at fontainebleau, iii. . =broussier, gen.=, marches to relief of paris, iv. . =bruck=, prince eugène at, iii. . =brueys d'aigalliers, vice-adm. françois-paul=, commanding french fleet in the adriatic, ii, ; ordered to corfu, ; ordered to alexandria, ; in the battle of the nile, - . =bruix, adm. e.=, sent to conquer the mediterranean ii. ; interview with barras, ; argument in favor of the slave-trade, . =brumaire=, the plot of the th of, ii. et seq., et seq., ; iv. . =brune, gen. g. m. a.=, plunders bern, ii. ; military genius, ; campaign in holland, , , , ; battle of bergen, ; supersedes masséna in italy, ; advances to trent, ; created marshal, ; venality of, iii. . =brunet, gen.=, commanding the army of italy, i. . =brünn=, military operations near, ii. , , , - ; iii. ; _n._ establishes headquarters at, ii. . =brunswick=, french occupation of, ii. ; organization of the black legion, iii. ; the black legion's escape through, ; restored to its former ruler, iv. . =brunswick, charles f. w., duke of=, commander-in-chief of the prussian army, ii. , , ; at naumberg, ; decline of his influence, ; at erfurt, ; plan of opposition to the french, ; in battle of jena, - ; death of, , ; proclamation against the french republic, ; appeals to _n.'s_ mercy, . =brunswick, frederick w., duke of=, deprived of his throne, iii. ; organizes the black legion, ; exploits with the black legion, ; escapes to england, . =brunswick, house of=, sieyès suspected of plotting with the, ii. . =bruslart=, governor of corsica, plots against _n._, iv. . =brussels=, proposed invasion of france via, iv. ; york retires to, ; military operations near, , , , , , , ; topography of, . =brutus=, statue at the tuileries, ii. . =bruyères=, killed at reichenbach, iii. . =bry=, meeting of wellington and blücher at, iv. . =bubna, gen.=, emissary from francis to _n._, iii. , ; iv. ; suggests an armistice, iii. ; procrastinates, ; confronting augereau at geneva, iv. ; in the campaign of , ; driven from lyons by augereau, . ="bucentaur," the=, destruction of, ii. . ="bucentaure," the=, at trafalgar, ii. . =budberg=, russian councilor, iii. . =budweis=, archduke charles at, iii. . =buenos ayres=, english expedition against, iii. . ="buffer" states=, ii. ; iii. . =bug, river=, proposed french occupation to the, ii. ; military operations on the, iii. , , . =bulgaria=, alleged concession of, to russia, iii. . =bull-fights=, _n._ proposes to introduce them into paris, ii. . =bülow, gen. f. w. von=, junction of bernadotte with, iii. ; commanding army of the north, iv. ; holding berlin, iv. ; strength, ; belittled by _n._, ; military ability, ; battle of grossbeeren, ; battle of dennewitz, ; coöperates with graham in the netherlands, ; captures soissons, ; commanding reserve forces, ; in waterloo campaign, ; near beauderet, ; at st. lambert, ; battle of waterloo, - . =bunbury, sir henry=, on commission to notify _n._ of his sentence, iv. . =bunzlau=, blücher at, iv. . =buonaparte, carlo maria di= (father of _n._), early life of, i. , ; ennobled, ; marriage, ; submission and french naturalization, ; character, , ; death, , ; ambitions and advancements, - , , ; mission to versailles, - ; claim against the jesuits, , ; breaks down, ; his "infamy," ; _n._ renounces the royalist principles of, ; his paternity of _n._ denied, iv. . =buonaparte, caroline= (sister of _n._), birth, i. ; at nice, ; early life, ; gift to her brother on departure for egypt, ii. ; married to murat, , ; resents _n.'s_ abuse of murat, iv. . _see also_ =murat, mme=. =buonaparte, princess charlotte=, proposal to marry her to the prince of asturias, iii. ; sent to madame mère, . =buonaparte, hortense=, life in holland, iii. ; death of her eldest son, ; quarrels with the grand duchess of berg, ; share in the austrian marriage negotiations, ; louis complains of, ; criticized by mme. de staël, . _see also_ =beauharnais, hortense=. =buonaparte, jerome= (brother of _n._), birth, i. , ; sent to school in paris, ; marriage to elizabeth patterson, ii. ; residence in the united states, ; deserts his wife elizabeth, ; service in the west indies, ; fails to secure divorce from his american wife, ; marries catherine of würtemberg, ; iii. , ; assists in the sack of poland, ii. ; commanding corps of würtembergers and bavarians, iii. ; king of westphalia, , ; pius vii refuses to annul his marriage, ; assumes the title of napoleon, ; relations with _n._, ; ordered to raise levies in westphalia, ; at the erfurt conference, ; defeated by the black legion, ; deprived of part of hanover, ; supplies quota to _n.'s_ army, ; in the russian campaign, ; at grodno, ; military blunders and incompetence, ; proposed allotment of brandenburg and berlin to, ; flees to france, iv. ; takes refuge in switzerland, ; assigned to the house of peers, ; battle of waterloo, , . =buonaparte, joseph= (grandfather of _n._), ennobled, i. . =buonaparte, joseph= (brother of _n._), childish relations with _n._, i. ; educated for the priesthood, , ; goes to autun, ; character, ; iii. , ; iv. ; desire for military service, i. ; search for a career, , , , , , , , , , - ; attends his father in his last illness, , ; his politics, ; studies law at pisa, ; early struggles, ; claims share in framing corsican appeal to national assembly, ; appointed mayor's secretary at ajaccio, ; at marseilles, ; member of the constituent assembly at orezza, , ; represents ajaccio in district directory, ; disappointments to, ; political offices and schemes, , ; member of corsican directory, ; reminiscences of, conversations, confidences, and relations with _n._, ; iii. , , , , , , ; leaves corsica for toulon, i. ; trades on his brother's commission in the national guard, ; made commissary-general, ; marriage of, ; deprived of employment, , ; settles in genoa, , ; proposed land speculation for, ; _n.'s_ correspondence with, - , ; ii. ; iii. , , ; iv. , , , , ; plans for diplomatic appointment, i. , ; marriage, ; enamoured of désirée clary, ; receives diplomatic appointment, ; french minister at rome, ii. , ; demands provera's dismissal from rome, ; demands his passports, ; sends information to _n._ in egypt, ; political and social preferment, ; member of the five hundred, ; plenipotentiary to negotiate with cobenzl, ; france's representative at lunéville, ; his skilful diplomacy, ; negotiates the treaty of amiens, ; _n._ confides the duc d'enghien's case to, ; at malmaison, ; seeks clemency for the duc d'enghien, ; coolness between _n._ and, ; the right of imperial succession in his family, ; created elector and imperial prince, ; on his brother's strength with the army, ; at _n.'s_ coronation, ; declines the crown of italy, ; in battle of austerlitz, ; made king of naples, ; dominion over sicily, ; advised to show himself terrible at first, ; reports _n.'s_ indian scheme, ; pius vii refuses to recognize his sovereignty, iii. ; assumes the title of napoleon, ; residence at naples, ; interview with _n._ at venice, - ; the crown of spain offered to, ; reform of neapolitan politics, ; ambition, ; ordered to bayonne, ; king of spain, , , , , , ; assumes government at madrid, iii. ; entreats _n._ assistance in spain, ; lacks male descendants, ; asserts his sovereignty, ; driven from madrid, ; the spaniards swear allegiance to, , ; accompanies _n._ on his second marriage journey, ; his spanish territory contracted, ; signs a conditional abdication, ; bickerings with soult, ; wellington moves to madrid against, ; temporary government at valencia, ; acting regent in paris, iv. , ; gives up hope, ; sends flag of truce to bernadotte, ; enjoined to save the empress and her son from austrian capture, ; member of the empress-regent's council, ; proclaims his brother's approach to paris, ; prepares for defense of paris, ; deputy emperor, ; overtakes the empress at chartres, ; empowers marmont to treat for surrender, ; napoleon's rage at, ; takes refuge in switzerland, ; assigned to the house of peers, ; president of the council of state, ; advised to hold the legislature in hand, . =buonaparte, josephine=, marital relations with _n._, i. - ; ii. , , , , ; iii. , , , , , - , , , - ; character, licentious conduct, jealousy, etc., i. - ; ii. , ; iii. , , , , ; domestic and social life, the imperial court, etc., i. - ; ii. - , ; iii. - , ; the divorce, its causes and decretal, i. , ; ii. , , , ; iii. , , , - , - , , ; letters from _n._, i. , , ; iii. , , ; visits rome, ii. ; joins _n._ in paris, dec., , ; royalist intrigues with, ; bids farewell to _n._ at toulon, ; influence over gohier, ; in pecuniary straits, ; brings about marriage between hortense and louis bonaparte, ; fear of talleyrand, ; attitude in the duc d'enghien's case, ; accompanies _n._ to boulogne, ; ecclesiastically married to _n._, ; the coronation, - ; forbidden to follow her husband to poland, iii. ; reproaches _n._ with his amours, ; travels through france, ; accompanies _n._ to bayonne, ; _n.'s_ harsh treatment at fontainebleau, ; self-abasement of, ; withdraws to malmaison, ; conducts negotiations for _n.'s_ austrian marriage, ; _n._ visits, after the divorce, ; never preferred to power, . =buonaparte, letizia=, death of, i. ; tradition concerning birth of _n._, , ; character, ; iv. , ; letter from _n._ to, i. ; vicissitudes of fortune, , , , , , ; ii. ; iv. ; her opinion of _n._, i. ; settles near toulon, ; disapproves _n.'s_ marriage, ; social influence, ii. ; remark of mme. permon to, ; distrusts _n.'s_ elevation, ; residence in corsica, ; refuses to attend the coronation, ; princess charlotte's sojourn with, iii. ; attacks on her good name, iv. ; visits _n._ at elba, ; thrift, ; knowledge of _n.'s_ limitations, . =buonaparte, louis= (brother of _n._), birth, i. ; prospects, ; loses appointment to artillery school, ; remains at brienne, ; _n._ aids and protects, , , , , , , ; fails to secure admission to brienne, ; certificate to his republicanism, ; confirmed, ; follows his brother's fortunes, , ; idle career, ; promoted adjutant-general of artillery, ; ordered to châlons as a cadet, ; officer of home guard at nice, ; falls from favor, ; lieutenant of artillery, ; deprived of employment, ; ordered to châlons, , ; promoted, ; marries hortense beauharnais, ii. ; iii. ; his son napoleon, ii. ; created constable of france, ; iii. ; at _n.'s_ coronation, ii. ; declines the crown of italy for his son, ; made king of holland, ; iii. , , ; ordered to hold the rhine, ii. ; character, iii. ; reprimanded by _n._ for economy, ; character of his reign, , , , , - ; letters from _n._, , , ; relations with _n._, ; assumes title of louis napoleon, ; the spanish crown offered to, ; refuses the crown, , ; loyalty to the dutch, ; violates the continental system, ; _n.'s_ affection for, ; promoted general, ; made councilor of state, ; share in the italian and egyptian campaigns, ; arrogates the royal dignity to himself, ; _n.'s_ quarrel with, - ; _n._ offers to exchange the hanseatic towns for brabant and zealand, ; contemplates resistance to _n._, ; reduced to the position of a french governor, , ; prepares to defend holland, ; summoned to paris, ; complains of his queen hortense, ; virtually a prisoner in france, ; submits to _n._, ; permitted to return to amsterdam, ; opens negotiations with england, ; continues to oppose _n._, , ; flight to teplitz, . =buonaparte, louis napoleon= (nephew of _n._, son of louis; crown prince of holland), created grand duke of berg, iii. . =buonaparte, lucien= (great-uncle of _n._), condition, i. ; affection for his family, ; illness of, , - ; political opinions, ; death, . =buonaparte, lucien= (brother of _n._), birth, i. ; goes to autun, ; relations with _n._, , , ; advancement for, ; at brienne, ; turns toward the priesthood, ; leaves brienne, , ; efforts to enter at aix, ; memoirs of _n._, , , , - ; ii. ; independence of, i. ; radical leader at ajaccio, ; letter to costa, ; in diplomatic service, ; denounces paoli, ; at toulon, ; appropriates _n.'s_ birth certificate, ; in commissary department, , ; "the little robespierre," ; marriage, ; deprived of employment, ; destitution of, , ; imprisoned at aix, ; liberated, ; foments quarrels in italy, ii. ; political and social preferment, ; member and president of the five hundred, , , - ; on the th brumaire, - ; makes a dramatic scene at st. cloud, ; summons bonapartist members of the five hundred to meet, ; harangues the mutilated chambers, ; minister of the interior, ; suggests plebiscite on the question of life consulship, ; declines to marry the queen of etruria, ; exiled, ; second marriage, ; democracy of, ; in literary society, ; at summit of his career, ; french minister to madrid, ; dispute between _n._ and joseph concerning marriage of, ; the savior of _n.'s_ fortunes on the th brumaire, ; the right of imperial succession in his family, ; created an imperial prince, ; at rome during _n.'s_ coronation, ; proposal that he take the crown of etruria, iii. ; opposes hereditary consulate for _n._, ; residence at rome, ; marries mme. de jauberthon, ; refuses kingly honors, , ; refuses to divorce his wife, , ; character, , ; interview with _n._ at mantua, , ; sails to the united states, ; captured by the english, ; mme. de staëls complaint of _n._ to, , ; fosters revolution in rome, iv. ; assigned to the house of peers, ; member of the council of state, ; advises a dictatorship after waterloo, ; endeavors to solve the difficulties after waterloo, ; _n._ dictates his abdication to, . =buonaparte, maria-anna= (sister of _n._), i. . =buonaparte, marie-anne-elisa= (sister of _n._), birth, i. ; educated at saint-cyr, , , , ; defective education, , ; _n._ visits at st. cyr, ; quits st. cyr and returns to corsica, , ; at nice, ; suitor for, ; marriage to felice bacciocchi, ; ii. ; acquires massa-e-carrara and garfagnana, ; created grand duchess of tuscany and princess of lucca and piombino, iii. . _see also_ =bacciocchi, princess=. =buonaparte, nabulione=, i. , ; forms of the name, , . =buonaparte, napoleon=. _see_ =napoleon=. =buonaparte, napoleon louis charles= (nephew of _n._, son of louis), _n.'s_ partiality for, ii. ; iii. ; proposal to create him king of italy, ii. ; death of, iii. , , . =buonaparte, pauline= (sister of _n._), birth of, i. ; at nice, ; suitor for, ; flirtation with fréron, ; marries gen. leclerc, ii. ; marries prince borghese, ; acquires guastalla, ; adviser to maria louisa, iii. ; created duchess of guastalla, . _see also_ =leclerc, mme.=; =borghese princess=. =buonaparte family, the=, i. , - ; ennobling and coat armor of, ; vicissitudes of fortune, , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; _n._ regards himself as head of, , , , , ; claim against the government, , ; the "infamy" of, ; salicetti's influence over, ; influence in corsica, , ; _n.'s_ devotion to, , , ; outburst against, in ajaccio, ; driven from their estates, ; leave corsica for toulon, ; residence in toulon, , ; flight to marseilles, ; driven from toulon, ; social diplomacy of, ; news of _n.'s_ return from egypt brought to, ii. ; political preferment among members of, ; meeting to consider the hereditary consulship, ; the women of, ; domestic life, ; relations with the first consul, ; social triumph of, iii. ; urge divorce from josephine, ; allotment of crowns among, , ; consolidation of italy under, ; agree on the austrian marriage, ; arrogance of its members, , ; fraternal instincts, ; austrian discovery of their royal descent, iv. ; proscribed, ; france again under, . =burgau=, ceded to bavaria, ii. . =burgos=, murat assumes command at, iii. ; ferdinand vii at, ; siege and fall of, , ; french movement toward, ; failure of marmont to capture, . =burgundy=, _n._ visits, i. . =burke, edmund=, influence of his oratory, i. ; on malmesbury's mission to paris, . =burrard, gen. h.=, defeats wellesley's plans at vimeiro, iii. ; retired from active service, . =busaco=, battle of, iii, , ; the _cantinière_ of, . =buttafuoco, matteo=, treachery of, i. , ; invites rousseau to corsica, ; relations with choiseul, ; represents corsica at versailles, ; attitude toward corsican patriots, ; popular hatred of, , , ; succeeded by salicetti, , ; _n.'s_ diatribe against, , ; _n.'s_ "letters" to, ; his marriage condemned by _n._, . =buxhöwden, gen.=, advance of russian troops under, ii. ; joins kutusoff at wischau, . =bylandt, count de=, advises holland to defy france, iii. ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . c =cabanis=, influence on the consulate, ii. . =cabarrus, jeanne m. i. t.=, i. . _see also_ =fontenaye, mme. de=; =tallien, mme.= =cadiz=, nelson loses an eye at, ii. ; villeneuve makes for, , ; collingwood blockades, ; nelson's fleet off, ; threatened invasion by england, iii. , ; seizure of a french fleet at, ; soult before, , ; soult abandons, ; becomes the capital of the nationalists, . =cadore=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; champagny created duke of, iii. . _see_ =champagny=. =cadoudal, georges=, complaints of england's harboring of, ii. ; conspiracy to seize _n._, et seq.; leader of the chouans, ; arrest and execution, , ; _n.'s_ clemency toward his co-conspirators, ; funeral mass celebrated for, iv. . =cæsar, augustus=, _n._ likened to, iii. . =cæsar, julius=, _n.'s_ study of and admiration for, resemblances between _n._ and, i. , , ; ii. , , , ; iii. ; iv. , , ; _n._ disclaims the rôle of, ii. , ; his work for civilization, ; iii. . =caffarelli, gen.=, bearer of _n.'s_ letter to pius vii, ii. ; in battle of austerlitz, . =cagliari=, expedition against, i. . =cahors=, birthplace of murat, ii. . "=caia=," and "=caius=," ii. . "=Ça ira=," i. , . =cairo=, military operations at, i. ; ii. ; magallon consul at, ; the march from alexandria to, ; capture of, ; failure of the promised plunder at, ; fortification of, ; _n._ at, , ; retreat of the army from acre to, ; _n.'s_ "triumphal" return to, ; surrender of, . =calahorra=, the spanish forces near, iii. , . =calais=, parallel between magdeburg and, iii. . =calder, adm. sir robert=, encounters villeneuve off cape finisterre, ii. ; reinforces blockade of brest, ; encounter with villeneuve, . =caldiero=, occupied by alvinczy, i. ; alvinczy retreats from, . =calendar, the republican=, i. . =calonne, c. a. de=, taxation problems of, i. . =calotte=, the constitution of the, i. . =calvi=, french influence and power in, i. , ; the buonapartes seek asylum in, ; _n._ at, ; imprisonment of corsicans in, ; english capture of, . =cambacérès, j. j. r.=, dreads a new terror, ii. ; appointed consul, ; minister of justice, ; organizer of the code napoléon, , ; scheme for reform of the tribunate, ; suggests plebiscite on question of life consulship, ; chancellor of france, ; at _n.'s_ coronation, ; demurs to action against the duc d'enghien, ; created duke of parma, iii. ; salary, ; arch-chancellor, ; on _n.'s_ appearance after the treaty of schönbrunn, ; member of extraordinary council on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; member of the empress-regent's council, iv. ; character, ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, . =cambronne, gen. p. j. e.=, aids in _n.'s_ escape from elba, iv. ; in battle of waterloo, . =campan, mme.=, appointment in the imperial court, ii. . =campbell, sir neil=, british commissioner at fontainebleau, iv. ; _n.'s_ relations with, , , ; accompanies _n._ to elba, ; ambassador to _n.'s_ court at elba, ; leaves elba for florence, , . =camperdown=, battle of, ii. . =campo formio=, treaty of, i. ; ii. - , , , , , , , ; iii. . =canada=, lost to france, i. , . =canals=, bonaparte's scheme of, ii, . =canino, prince of=. _see_ =buonaparte, lucien=. =cannes=, _n.'s_ march through, on return from elba, iv. , . =canning, george=, denounces _n._, ii, ; foreign secretary in portland cabinet, iii. ; responsibility for the bombardment of copenhagen, , ; despatches the fleet to the baltic, ; demands the secret articles of tilsit, ; fall of, ; policy of action against _n._, ; enforces orders in council, . =canonical institution=, the question of, iv. . =canova, antonio=, makes statue of empress maria louisa, iii. . =cantonal assemblies=, ii. . =cape of good hope=, taken by england from the dutch, ii. , ; ceded to the batavian republic by treaty of amiens, ; england's rights in, ; _n.'s_ ambitions concerning, ; iii. . =cape st. vincent=, battle of, i. ; ii. . =cape verd islands=, proposition to deport _n._ to, iv. . =caprera=, expedition against, i. . =caprino=, battle at, i. , . "=captain=," nelson's ship in battle of cape st. vincent, ii, . =capuchins=, attempt to oust them from corsican domains, i. . =caraccioli, adm. f. c.=, execution of, ii. . =cardinals, the college of=, transplanted to france, iii. , . =carinthia=, _n._ in, i. ; revolutionary sentiment in, ii. ; part of, ceded to france, iii. . =carinthian mountains=, pursuit of archduke john across the, iii. . =carlsbad=, talleyrand at, iv. . "=carmagnole=," the, i. , . =carniola=, charles guards road into, i. ; ceded to france, iii. . =carnot, lazare n. m.=, minister of war, i. , ; favors _n._, , ; reorganizes the french army, , , , , ; military policy of, ; removal of, ; escape of, ; ii. , ; member of the directory, i. , - ; character, - ; at battle of maubeuge, ; plans the italian campaign ( ), ; _n.'s_ correspondence with, may, , ; advises restoring the milanese to austria, ; relations with _n._, ii. ; desire for peace with austria, ; barras derides his suggestions, ; writes a justificatory pamphlet, ; development of his conscription scheme, ; reappointed minister of war, , ; influence on the fall of the directory, ; military genius, ; detaches lecourbe's force from moreau's army, ; possible successor to _n._, ; influence on the consulate, ; member of the tribunate, ; remonstrates against adulation of _n._, ; opposes the creation of the empire, ; pensioned, iii. ; commissioned to write on fortification, ; invited to join in insurrection, iv. ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, ; advises a dictatorship for france after waterloo, ; member of the new directory, . =caroline, queen of naples=, iii. ; on maria louisa's imprisonment at schönbrunn, iv. . =carpentras=, lost to the pope at peace of tolentino, ii. . =carrier, j. b.=, crimes of, i. ; opposes robespierre, . =carrion-nisas, a. h.=, "peter the great," ii. . =cartagena=, villeneuve ordered to, ii. ; rebellion in, iii. . =carteaux, gen.=, seizes valence, i. ; besieges avignon, ; takes marseilles, ; captures ollioules, ; besieges toulon, , ; ignorance of military affairs, ; removed from command, . =cassel=, blücher's military movements in, ii. ; restored to its former ruler, iv. . =castaños, gen. f. x. de=, causes dupont's surrender at baylen, iii. ; position on the ebro, , ; concerted french movement against, ; collects his troops at siguenza, . =casteggio=, battle of, ii. . =castellane=, journal of, iii. . =castelnuovo=, disarmament of, i. . =castiglione=, battle of, i. ; ii. ; augereau's victory at, ; celebration of the battle of, ; augereau created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =augereau=. =castile=, french occupation of, iii. ; weakness of french forces in, ; reinforcements for masséna ordered from, . =castlereagh, lord=, secretary for war in portland cabinet, iii. ; policy of action and bitterness against _n._, ; iv. , ; prime minister of england, iii. ; inspires action by bernadotte, ; becomes foreign secretary, , , ; dissatisfied with the frankfort terms, iv. ; character, , ; at headquarters of the allies at basel, ; influence in european councils, , ; under metternich's influence, ; uneasiness at _n.'s_ message to francis, ; on the european policy of , ; protests against the use of the imperial style by _n._, ; negotiates secret treaty between england, austria, and france, ; protests to talleyrand against violation of treaty obligations, ; retires from congress of vienna, ; letter from lord liverpool, june , , . =catalonia=, french occupation of, iii. ; duhesme evacuates, ; military government of, ; french possession of, . =catharine of würtemberg=, marries jerome bonaparte, ii. ; iii. , . =cathcart, gen. w. s.=, besieges copenhagen, iii. ; heads english embassy to russia, ; influences the armistice of poischwitz, ; english minister at st. petersburg, ; at congress of prague, . =catherine ii=, policy of, i. ; iii. , ; death of, i. , ; _n._ shatters a gift of, ii. ; _n.'s_ admiration for, ; share in partition of poland, iii. ; her life and work, iv. . =catherine, grand duchess= (of russia), mentioned for marriage with _n._, iii. , ; marries the duke of oldenburg, , , . =catholic emancipation=, the question of, ii. . =cato=, statue at the tuileries, ii. . =cattaro=, alexander i's scheme for acquiring, ii. ; russian occupation of, ; compensation for, iii. . =caulaincourt, a. a. l. de=, leads expedition to offenburg, ii. ; master of the horse, , ; relations with _n._, ; iii. ; iv. , , , , ; conducts negotiations with russia, iii. , - , , - , , , , , , , , - ; connection with the d'enghien murder, iii. ; _n.'s_ instructions to, ; discusses partition of turkey, ; explains bernadotte's dilatoriness, ; reproved by _n._, ; friendship with the czar, , ; ordered to ventilate the divorce question, ; conducts _n.'s_ matrimonial negotiations in russia, , ; explains the austrian marriage to alexander, ; recalled, , ; knowledge of russia, , ; french commissioner at poischwitz, ; at congress of prague, ; letter from metternich, november, , iv. , ; minister of foreign affairs, ; letter to metternich, dec. , , ; conducts negotiations at châtillon, - , , , ; demands authority to treat after la rothière, , ; blamed for not saving his country at châtillon, ; letter from maret, ; at council at st. dizier, ; seeks peace at any price, ; seeks audience with alexander, , ; at the abdication scene, , ; on commission to present abdication to alexander, , , ; urges the regency, ; transfers his allegiance, ; _n.'s_ declaration to, concerning his generals, ; memoirs of, ; records _n.'s_ first attempt at suicide, ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, ; member of the new directory, . =cautillon=, attempt to assassinate wellington, iv. ; _n.'s_ bequest to, . =cavallos=, defends ferdinand's position, iii. . =cavalry=, _n.'s_ views on, and use of, i. ; ii. . =cayenne=, wholesale deportations to, ii. . =celibacy=, _n._ on, i. . =ceracchi=, charged with conspiracy, ii. ; execution of, . =ceraino=, military operations near, i. . =cerbeau, du=, i. . =cervoni=, i. , . =ceva=, battle of, i. - . =ceylon=, retained by england, ii. , ; france guarantees its return to holland, . =chaboulon, fleury de=, sent to naples, iv. ; reveals the state of france to _n._, . =chabran, gen.=, forces in savoy, ii. ; crosses the little st. bernard, . =chabrol=, imperial prefect, iv. . =chaillot=, suspected plot of royalists at, ii. . =châlons=, _n._ leaves paris for, iv. ; french concentration at, ; _n._ reaches, ; _n._ plans pursuing blücher to, ; blücher collects his army at, ; _n._ plans to attack schwarzenberg at, ; marmont ordered to, , ; the allies open new communications via, . =cham=, archduke charles makes a stand at, iii. , . =chamartin=, the french troops at, iii. , . =chambers of commerce=, establishment of, ii. . =chambéry=, _n._ at, ii. , ; reinforcements for augereau at, iv. . =champagny, l. a.=, created duke of cadore, iii. ; appointed minister of external relations, , ; plenipotentiary at altenburg, , ; succeeded in the foreign office by maret, ; mission to francis at dijon, iv. . =champaubert=, battle of, iv. , . =championnet, gen.=, overthrows the neapolitan throne, ii. ; disgraceful conduct at naples, . =channel tunnel=, the, ii. . "=chant du départ=," the, iv. . =chaptal, j. a.=, member of the council of state, ii. . =chardon, abbé=, on _n.'s_ boyhood, i. . =charenton=, marmont and mortier driven back to, iv. . =charette=, institutes royalist retaliation on republican prisoners, i. . =charleroi=, military operations near, iv. , - , , , , ; _n._ at, , , , . =charles, archduke=, defeats jourdan, i. ; defeated by moreau, ; campaign in the tyrol, , ; ordered into friuli, , ; military genius, ; iii. ; guards carniola, i. ; battle on the tagliamento, ; on the river mur, ; cut off from succor, ; letter from _n._, ; defeats jourdan at ostrach and stockach, ii. ; effect of his successes, ; defeats masséna at zürich, ; defeated by masséna at zürich, ; withdraws temporarily from service, ; resumes command after hohenlinden, , ; commanding austrian army in italy, ; reaches marburg, ; position on the adige, ; commanding austrian troops from italy, ; the throne of spain offered to, iii. ; reorganizes the austrian army, ; declares war against france, ; to operate in bohemia, ; plans to rouse the german people, ; procrastinates, ; offensive movement in the danube valley, ; _n.'s_ plan for meeting, ; mistakes in the campaign of eckmühl, - ; crosses the isar, ; a lost opportunity, ; plan of offense, ; marches against davout, ; marches on ratisbon, , ; force at ludmannsdorf and rohr, ; force at moosburg, ; retires to ratisbon, ; in battle of eckmühl, ; retires before davout, ; _n.'s_ reasons for not pursuing after eckmühl, ; crosses the danube, ; makes a stand at cham, , ; sues for peace, , ; junction with hiller at bisamberg, , ; seizes ratisbon, ; at budweis, ; indecision of, ; his line on the danube, ; advance toward wagram, ; attempts to break _n.'s_ bridges, ; in battles of aspern and essling, - ; conduct after aspern, - ; seeks the offices of diplomacy, ; battle of wagram, - ; withdraws toward znaim, ; orders archduke john to attack, ; pursued by _n._ and marmont, ; asks an armistice, ; quarrels with the emperor and john, ; resigns his command, ; at marriage of maria louisa, . =charles emmanuel=, succeeds victor amadeus, i. ; retires to sardinia, ii. , , . =charles emmanuel iv=, invited by russia to return to turin, ii. . =charles ludwig frederic, of baden=, marries stephanie napoleone, ii. . =charles the great=, his work for civilization, ii. ; _n.'s_ emulation of, ; iii. , ; french longings for a modern, ii. ; restoring the empire of, ; reversion to state and titles of the reign of, ; coronation of, ; gift to the papacy, ; his system of "marches," iii. ; _n._ resumes the grant of, ; magnificence of his empire, ; spanish territory of, , ; his donation to hadrian i revoked by _n._, ; his ideal, ; _n._ compared with, ; iv. ; the second, iii. ; imitation of his times, iv. ; influence on europe, . =charles iv= (of spain), attachment to godoy, ii. ; king of spain, ; subserviency to france, and relations with _n._, iii. , - , ; conspires against his son's succession, ; unites with _n._ in coercing portugal, ; scheme to acquire portugal, ; character, ; announces his son's conspiracy, ; blames the french minister at madrid, ; correspondence with _n._, , , ; pardons ferdinand, ; proposes to cut off ferdinand's succession, ; _n._ reveals his policy to, ; panic-stricken at the french invasion, ; deposes godoy, ; last days of his kingdom, ; abdicates, ; repudiates his abdication, , ; seeks murat's protection, ; virtual prisoner in the escorial, ; deposed, - ; summoned to bayonne, ; refuses ferdinand's offer to surrender the crown, ; pensioned, ; restrains gen. solano's movements, ; at compiègne, ; goes to marseilles, ; weakness of, ; goes to italy, . =charles v=, magnificence of his empire, iii. . =charles x.= _see_ =artois, count of=. =charles xii of sweden=, military despotism of, ii. . =charles xiii=, king of sweden, ii. ; succeeds gustavus iv, iii. ; makes bernadette his successor, ; under _n.'s_ protection, ; feebleness of his rule, . =charters=, destruction of feudal, i. , . =chartres=, flight of the empress and joseph through, iv. . =chartres, duc de= (louis philippe), scheme to place him on the french throne, iv. . =chateaubriand, f. a.=, friendship with mme. bacciocchi, ii. ; literary works, ; envoy to valais, ; a disciple of rousseau, ; envoy to rome, ; supposed sponsor for the concordat, ; influence, ; his name omitted from the honor list of , iii. ; on the new constitution, iv. . =château-thierry=, french occupation of, iv. ; blücher's retreat through, and sack of, , ; macdonald's failure at, ; military movements near, . =châtelet=, military operations near, iv. , , . =chatham, earl of=, compared with carnot, i. ; policy toward france, ii. . =châtillon, congress of=, iv. - , , , ; caulaincourt's carte blanche at, , , ; rumored preliminaries of peace at, ; sends ultimatum to _n._, , ; closes, ; capture of some of the diplomats of, . =chaumont=, surrenders to one würtemberg horseman, iv. ; treaty of, , ; military operations near, . =chemnitz=, the saxon army at, ii. ; contemplated movements at, iv. . =chénier, andré=, ii. . =chénier, m. j.=, driven from the tribunate, ii. ; "cyrus," ; suppresses his writings, iii. ; rewards for his literary work, ; opposes the empire, ; made inspector-general of the university, . =cheops, pyramid of=, _n._, in the, ii. . =cherasco=, capture of, i. , . =chevreuse, mme. de=, pert remark to _n._, and banishment, iii. . =chimay, princess de=, i. . _see also_ =tallien, mme.= =china=, _n.'s_ attention turned toward, i. . =chiusa veneta=, capture of fort at, i, . =choiseul, c. a. g.=, refuses protectorate to corsica, i. ; his policy toward corsica, - ; disgrace of, ; _n.'s_ hatred for, ; scheme of egyptian conquest, ii. . =chouans, the=, rebellion of, i. , , ; legislation against, ii. ; the cadoudal conspiracy, et seq. =christian vii=, imbecility of, iii. . =christianity=, _n.'s_ confusion of ideas concerning, i. , . =church, the=, _n.'s_ attitude toward, and relations with, i. , , , , ; ii. , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , ; demands for reform of, in corsica, i. , ; enforced contributions by, at ajaccio, ; attitude of the french governments toward, and relations with the nation, ; ii. , , , , et seq.; _n.'s_ study of the gallican, i. ; reorganization of its property, ; changes in, ; sequestration of lands of, , , ; louis xvi's support of, ; _n.'s_ speculation in sequestered lands of, ; plotting in, ; question of allegiance of the clergy, ; relation to education, ii. - ; influence in austria and germany, ; reconstruction in france, ; scheme for unity of, in germany, ; archbishops created counts, iii. ; degradation in spain, ; pillaged in spain, ; repressed in the tyrol, ; the bishops' court pronounces _n.'s_ first marriage null, ; attitude toward _n.'s_ second marriage, , ; the college of cardinals transplanted from rome to paris, , . =cicero=, statue at the tuileries, ii. . =cintra=, junot surrenders at, iii. , , . =cisalpine republic, the=, formation of, ii. , ; pillage of, ; treaty with france, march, , ; the valtellina incorporated with, ; recognized by prussia, ; dissolution of, ; picks a quarrel with sardinia, ; reëstablishment of, , , ; tribute levied on, ; question of a president for, ; english efforts to discredit france in, . =cispadane republic, the=, i. , ; question of a constitution for, ii. . =citadella=, battle of, i. . "=citizen=," use of the term in france, ii. . =citizenship=, liberty, equality, and fraternity in, i. ; the primary duty of, . =ciudad rodrigo=, spanish defense of, iii. ; storming of, , . =civil code=, introduced into warsaw, iii. . _see also_ =code=. =civil liberty=, developed in inverse ratio to political liberty, ii. . "=civism=," i. , , . =clacy=, captured by _n._, iv. . =clanship=, i. . =clarke, gen.=, letter from _n._, nov. , , i. , ; at montebello, ; meeting with _n._, ; mission to vienna, ; french agent in treaty of campo formio, ii. ; recalled to paris, , ; forbidden to enter vienna, ; guardian to king louis's widow, ; drives british ships from tuscan harbors, ; created duke of feltre, iii. ; ordered to fortify the spanish frontier, ; minister of war, iv. ; member of the empress-regent's council, , ; advises the flight of the empress, ; prepares for defense of paris, ; _n.'s_ rage at, . =clary, eugénie bernardine désirée=, proposal to wed _n._ to, i. , ; affianced to duphot, ii. , ; marries bernadotte, . =clergy, the=, position at outbreak of the revolution, i. , , ; attitude in corsica, , ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, and relations with, , , , , ; ii. ; revolution among the clergy of dauphiny, i. , ; constitutional reforms for, ; upheaval among, ; attitude of the directory toward, ii. , ; transported to cayenne, ; talleyrand a leader among, ; released from the jacobin ban, ; abolition of celibacy of, ; conformists and nonconformists to the civil constitution, , ; a "consecrated constabulary," ; restoration to the ecclesiastical fold, ; encourage rebellion in spain, iii. . _see also_ =church=; =papacy=; =pius vii=; =rome=. =cleves=, prussia's price for, ii. ; ceded to france, . =cleves and berg=, the grand duchy of, ii. ; french garrison in, . =clichy club, the=, ii. , , , . =coalition of =, centrifugal forces in, iv. - . =cobenzl, count l.=, austrian plenipotentiary at campo formio, ii. ; at congress of rastatt, ; negotiates with france after marengo, ; on universal conquest, iii. . =coblentz=, headquarters of french royalists, ii. . =coburg=, military operations near, ii. . =cockburn, adm. sir george=, conveys _n._ to st. helena, iv. , . =code civil=, its contravention by jewish legislation, iii. . =code napoléon, the=, ii. - ; iv. ; introduced into parma and piacenza, ii. ; abolition of the law of entail and primogeniture, iii. ; _n.'s_ excuse for overruling, ; introduced into holland, ; in italy, iv. . =code of commerce=, the, ii. ; iii. . =code of criminal procedure, the=, iii. . =coignet, private=, _n.'s_ friendly familiarity with, ii. . =coignet=, writes of the entry into berlin, ii. ; on the march to russia, iii. ; reports demoralization after dresden, iv. . =coigny, mlle. de=, married to savary, ii. . =coimbra=, military movements near, iii. . =colborne, sir j.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =col di tenda=, the french line at, ii. . =college of cardinals=, increased french representation in the, iii. . =college of france, the=, ii. . =colli, gen.=, commanding piedmontese troops, i. , ; reinforcements for, defeated, . =collingwood, adm. cuthbert=, his knowledge of the enemy's movements, ii. ; blockades cadiz, ; at trafalgar, . =cologne=, macdonald entrusted with defense of, iv. . =colombier, caroline du=, _n.'s_ first love, i. , . =colombier, mme. du=, i. , . =colonization=, talleyrand's views on, ii. . =colonna=, represents corsica in the national assembly, i. , ; member of the directory of corsica, . =colonna-cesari=, leads corsican expedition against sardinia, i. , . =column of vendôme=, erection of the, iii. . =comédie française=, members accompany _n._ to erfurt, iii. . =commerce=, condition of, at outbreak of the revolution, i. ; influence on the social life of the world, ii. ; encouragement of, ; revived by the peace of amiens, ; improved condition of, ; the scope of british, . =committee of public safety=, usurps supreme power, i. ; aided by carnot, ; corsicans denounced in, ; keeps _n._ under surveillance, , ; plans expedition against rome, ; abolished, , ; the new, , , ; appoints _n._ on military commission, ; proposes to transfer _n._ to constantinople, ; considers policy of excluding english goods from the continent, ii. ; difficulties with mme. de staël, iii. . =communal list, the=, ii. . =compiègne=, spanish royal exiles at, iii. ; meeting of the emperor with his austrian bride at, , , , ; blücher besieges, iv. . =compignano, countess of=. _see_ =buonaparte, marie-anne-elisa=. =compulsory loans=, ii. . =compulsory military service=, i. . =concordat, the=, ii. , , , et seq., ; iv. , , ; service in honor of, ii. ; its effect in france, ; "the vaccine of religion," ; contempt of the army of the rhine for, ; the supposed sponsor for, ; effect in germany, ; extension to venice refused by pius vii, iii. ; venetia admitted to, ; undoing the work of, ; rupture of, . =concordat of fontainebleau=, the, iii. , . =condé=, evacuation of, i. . =condé, the great=, ii. . =condé, prince of=, ii. . =condorcet, j. a. n. de c.=, believer in equality of the sexes, ii. . =conegliano=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; moncey created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =moncey=. =confederation of the rhine, the=, organization of, ii. - , ; hesse-cassel refused admission to, ; levies of troops for france in, iii. , , , , , ; recognized at tilsit, ; saxony united with, ; relations with france, , , , ; additions to, ; called to arms by prussia, ; proposed abandonment of french protectorate over, ; proposed dissolution of, ; proposed dynastic independence for sovereigns of, ; purpose of the allies to free, iv. ; resolved into its elements, ; forced by allies to raise military contingents, . =confiscation=, opposition to the reintroduction of, ii. ; principle of punishment by, iii. , . =coni=, surrendered to france, i. . =connewitz=, military operations near, iv. , . =consalvi, cardinal=, negotiates the concordat, ii. ; memorialist of pius vii, ; dismissed from the papal service, . =conscription, the=, i. , ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , - , , ; development of carnot's scheme, ii. ; _n.'s_ influence on the laws of, ; how enforced, ; jewish evasions of the, iii. ; jews made subject to, . =conservatoire des arts et métiers=, founded, i. . =conservatory of music=, reorganization of, i. . =constable=, creation of the office of, ii. . =constabulary=, abolition of the, i. . =constance, city of=, ceded to baden, ii. . =constance, lake=, the austrian camp on, ii. . =constant=, _n.'s_ valet, iv. . =constant de rebecque, henri-benjamin=, dreads a new terror, ii. ; member of the tribunate, , ; driven from the tribunate, ; president of the council of state, iv. ; supports the chambers, . =constantine, grand duke=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. , ; bennigsen writes to, after friedland, iii. ; leader of the peace party, ; at tilsit, ; with the army of the south, iv. . =constantine the great=, _n._ likened to, ii. . =constantinople=, proposal to send _n._ to, i. ; _n.'s_ eye on, ; proposed mission for talleyrand to, ii. ; russia to aid in defense of, ; _n._ given leave to march on, , ; fleet sent to relief of acre from, , ; russian ambition to acquire, ; iii. , , , ; a british fleet at, ; french influence at, , ; proposed disposition of, after tilsit, ; revolution in, ; england threatens to bombard, . =constitutional checks=, i. . =constitution of =, prohibition against first consul's military leadership, ii. . =consular guard, the=, at marengo, ii. , ; strengthening of, . =consulate=, proposed formation of a, ii. ; a disguised monarchy, iv. . =continental system, the=, ii. , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , - , , , , ; iv. ; england's policy against, iii. - . =copenhagen=, battle of, ii. ; bombardment of, iii. , - , . =coppet=, mme. de staël's residence at, ii. ; iii. . =corday, charlotte=, assassination of marat, i. . =cordova=, french capture and abandonment of, iii. . =corfu=, _n._ proposes to seize, i. ; france's jealous care of, ii. ; adm. brueys ordered to, ; blockade of, ; russian occupation of, , , , ; french occupation of, iii. , , ; english naval watch on, ; proposed expedition to egypt from, . =corizier=, wounded at acre, ii. . =corneille, pierre=, _n.'s_ study of, iii. ; iv. . =cornet=, starts the proceedings of the th brumaire, ii. . =cornwallis, lord charles=, character, ii. ; negotiates the treaty of amiens, . =cornwallis, adm. william=, junction of nelson and, before brest, ii. . =corona=, military operations at, i. , . =correggio, a. a.=, plunder of the works of, i. , . =corsica=, external relations, i. - , , ; physical features and population, - , , ; rousseau's views on, , ; the buonaparte family in, , et seq.; feudalism in, , ; paoli's share in history of, et seq., - , , , , - , - ; national heroes and patriotism in, , , , ; jews in, ; french schemes concerning, expeditions against, and occupations of, - , , , , , , , - , , , , ; _n.'s_ love for, residences in, schemes concerning, and peculiar relations to, - , - , , , , - , , , , , - , , - , - , - , , , , , , ; ii. , ; montesquieu's views on, i. ; joins the bourbon-hapsburg alliance, ; ceded by genoa to france, ; england's interests in, protectorate over, conquest and abandonment of, , , , , - , - , , ; disaffection, riots, and rebellion in, , , , - , , , - , , , ; compared with sardinia, ; _n.'s_ history of, , , - ; introduction of silkworm culture into, ; the betrayal of, ; the revolution in, - ; scheme of liberation, et seq.; plan for elective council in, ; rival parties and classes, schemes and intrigues in, - , , , , - , , , - ; desired reforms for, ; representation in the national assembly, - ; the council of twelve nobles in, ; genoa's claims to, , , ; ecclesiastical and religious troubles, , , ; democracy in, ; meeting of the constituent assembly at orezza, - ; bastia declared the capital, ; the national guard in, , , - , , ; _n._ leaves for auxonne, ; _n._ mobbed in, ; customs in, ; _n._ leaves, ; expedition against sardinia from, - ; enforcement of the convention's decrees in, ; salicetti deserts the cause of, ; _n._ appointed inspector-general of artillery for, ; new commissioners sent to, ; the buonapartes leave, ; success of revolt against the convention, ; convention commission for, ; _n.'s_ expedition against, , - , ; employment of refugees from, ; salicetti blamed for insurrection in, ; wretched internal plight, ; charges against refugees from, ; _n.'s_ last visit to, ii. . =corsican feuillants, the=, i. . =corsican jacobins, the=, i. . =corso, cape=, paoli's landing at, i. . =corte=, the town of, i. ; removal of seat of government from, ; carlo buonaparte at, - ; a paolist center, ; joseph buonaparte at, ; _n._ ordered to, , ; meeting between paoli and _n._ at, ; _n._ a suspect at, . =corunna=, the junta of, iii. ; moore's retreat to, and death at, ; england's tardiness at, . =cossacks=, military achievements of, iii. , , , ; harass the retreating french army, , ; relieve hamburg, ; in battle of leipsic, iv. ; in the campaign of , ; advance to nemours and fontainebleau, ; at the battle of laon, ; fears of, in paris, . =costa=, letter from _n._ to, i. ; letter from lucien to, . =council of ancients=, the, i. . =council of juniors=, the, i. . =council of state, the=, ii. , - ; stripped of its supremacy, ; approves _n.'s_ action against the duc d'enghien, ; its functions, iii. . ="count of essex," the=, i. . ="courier," the london=, publishes spanish manifesto of _n._, iii. . =coustou, abbé=, attends carlo buonaparte's death-bed, i. . =coxe's "travels in switzerland,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. . =cracow=, ceded to the grand duchy of warsaw, iii. ; schwarzenberg seeks shelter in, . =crancé, dubois de=, i. ; reorganization of the french armies by, ; organizes national conscription, . =craonne=, battle of, iv. . =crema=, withdrawal of the austrians from milan to, ii. . =croatia=, austrian recruiting in, i. ; part of, ceded to france, iii. . =cromwell, oliver=, _n._ disclaims the rôle of, ii. , ; the need of a second, in france, ; _n._ compared with, . =cronstadt=, alexander fears for, iii. . =crôsne=, sieyès accepts the estate of, ii. . =crottendorf=, military operations near, iv. . =crusades, the=, ii. . =cuneo=, associated with _n._ in corsica, i. . =custine, gen. a. p.=, occupies frankfort, i. ; defeat of, . =cyprus=, sir sidney smith puts into, ii. . ="cyrus,"= by chénier, ii. . =czartoryski, a. g.=, memoirs of, ii. ; russian minister of foreign affairs, ; on the russian policy in , ; friendship with alexander i, ii. ; iii. , ; on the hereditary disease of the romanoffs, iii. ; retirement of, ; schemes in regard to restoration of poland, , , ; transfers faith from alexander to _n._, iii. . =czernicheff, count=, aide-de-camp to alexander i, iii. ; _n._ offers terms to, . d =dagobert=, _n._ in the iron chair of, ii. . =dalberg, archbishop=, scheme to unify the german church, ii. ; prince-primate, ; at the erfurt conference, iii. ; receives ratisbon in exchange for frankfort principality, ; his territory erected into a grand duchy for eugène, ; estimate of _n.'s_ influence, ; characterization of talleyrand, iv. ; at peace council in paris, ; member of the executive commission, , ; attainted, . =dalmatia=, ceded to austria at leoben, i. ; alterations of boundaries near, ii. ; ceded by austria to italy, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; assigned by _n._ to italy, ; _n._ offers to exchange, iii. ; french dominion recognized at tilsit, ; soult created duke of, (_see also_ =soult=); french strength in, ; proposed surrender of, to austria, iv. . =dalrymple, sir h. w.=, retired from active service, iii. . =damascus=, garrison of el arish ordered to, ii. ; reinforcements for acre from, . =danican, auguste=, royalist leader, i. ; the th vendémiaire, . =danilevsky=, on the allies reaching paris, iv. . =danton, g. j.=, becomes head of the jacobin commune, i. ; member of the national convention, ; dictator of france, ; overawes the girondists, ; murder of, . =dantzic=, military movements near, iii. , , ; siege of, , ; surrender of, , ; freedom restored to, ; independence of, ; lefebvre created duke of, (_see also_ =lefebvre=); davout ordered to hold, ; french military stores in, ; murat's position at, untenable, ; measures for the relief of, ; held by the french, ; rapp commanding at, ; proposed new capital for prussia, ; proposed division of the domain, ; proposed cession of, to prussia, , . =danube river, the=, rebellion against turkey on, ii. ; kray retreats toward, ; proposed indian expeditions via, ; military operations on, , , , ; iii. , , , , - , , , , , - , , , ; mack essays to cross at günzburg, ii. ; the french march from the rhine to, ; annihilation of mortier on, ; _n.'s_ line of retreat to, ; russian successes on the lower, iii. ; _n._ plans redistribution of territories on, ; proposed russian acquisitions on, ; topographical features, ; the crossing at lobau, , , , , ; defeat of russians by turks on, ; russia warned not to cross, ; russian successes on, ; withdrawal of russian troops from, ; effect of the rising of, at essling, . =danubian principalities=, proposed partition of, iii. ; alexander's ambition to acquire, , , , ; _n._ offers to exchange them for silesia, , , . _see also_ =moldavia=; =wallachia=. =dardanelles, the=, alexander i's scheme for seizing, ii. . =darmagnac, gen.=, invades navarre, iii. ; seizes pamplona, . =darmstadt=, relations with russia, ii. ; strengthening of, ; quota of men, . =daru, p. a. n.=, advises wintering in moscow, iii. . =daunou, p. c. f.=, dreads a new terror, ii. ; ideas of government, ; named as consul, ; member of the tribunate, ; influence on the consulate, ; driven from the tribunate, ; attempt to admit him to the senate, ; upholds machiavelli's theses concerning the church of rome, iii. . =dauphiny=, the peasantry of, i. ; _n._ travels in, ; revolutionary feeling among the clergy of, , ; anti-royalist feeling in, iv. . =david, abbé=, arrest of, ii. . =david, jacques l.=, painter, ii. . =davidowich, gen. p.=, defeated at roveredo, i. , ; strength in the tyrol, ; defeats vaubois, , , ; retreats to the tyrol, . =davout, gen. l. n.=, service in egypt, ii. , ; service in the army of england, ; created marshal, ; character, ; iii. ; watches the russian army, ii. ; in battle of austerlitz, , , , ; at nordhalben, ; at naumburg, ; in battle of jena, - ; captures wittenberg, ; sacks poland, ; at golynim, iii. ; strength in poland, ; in the eylau campaign, , - ; in battle of heilsberg, ; pursues lestocq from friedland, - ; created duke of auerstädt, ; income, ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; recalled from poland to silesia, ; commanding in saxony, ; archduke charles plans to attack, ; his command in the fifth austrian war, ; forces in stettin, bayreuth, hanover, and magdeburg, ; to concentrate at bamberg, ; commanding on the isar, ; archduke charles marches against, ; to concentrate at ingolstadt, - ; movements before ratisbon, ; on the laber, ; in battle of eckmühl, ; forces back archduke charles, ; battles of aspern and essling, - ; battle of wagram, , ; ordered to hold baltic positions, ; revenue of, ; occupies swedish pomerania, ; letter from _n._, ; strength, march, , ; reproved for his reports of prussia, ; slowness of action at opening of the russian campaign, ; drives bagration eastward, ; battle of borodino, ; on the retreat from moscow, - , ; battle of wiazma, ; at krasnoi, ; division commander under eugène, ; in campaign of , ; occupies hamburg, , ; vandamme goes to his assistance, ; to threaten berlin, iv. ; _n.'s_ instructions to, ; mediocrity of his troops, ; besieged in hamburg, ; invited to join in insurrection, ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, ; advises _n._ after waterloo, ; suggests _n.'s_ use of force, . ="day of the paris sections, the,"= i. - . =debry, j. a. j.=, _n.'s_ friendship with, i. ; ii. , ; member of congress of rastatt, ; wounded at rastatt, , ; accusations against, . =de bussy=, in the la fère regiment, iv. ; gives _n._ worthless information at craonne, . =décadi=, decadence of the festival, ii. . =decrès, adm.=, french minister of marine, ii. ; letter from _n._, sept. , , ; warns _n._ against his career of conquest, iii. ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, iv. . =defermon, j.=, ii. . =dego=, battle of, i. , , ; iv. . =deichsel river=, blücher retreats behind the, iv. . =delacroix=, french minister of foreign affairs, i. ; french agent in the netherlands, ii. . =demagogues=, disgust with, in france, ii. . =de maistre=, _n._ refutes his theory of social order, iii. ; on the supineness of pius vii, . =democracy=, a pure, i. , ; germany's opposition to, ; its good and bad qualities, iv. . =denfort=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =denmark=, joins the "armed neutrality," ii. ; iii. , ; proposed commercial war against england, ; _n._ calls for alliance with, ; importance of her sea power, ; ordered to declare war against england, ; england offers to seize her fleet, ; refuses england's offer, ; yields to bernadotte, ; losses of norway, schleswig, and holstein, ; yields to england, ; humiliation of, ; vassalage to france, , ; england seeks to conciliate, ; bombardment of copenhagen, - , ; alexander i demands reparation for, ; _n._ urges england's restoration of her fleet, ; spanish troops in, ; seizure of american ships by, ; hostility to england, ; holds norway, ; friendly to france, ; despatches troops to hamburg, ; shifts her assistance from russia to france, ; strengthening the alliance between france and, . =dennewitz=, battle of, iv. , . =denon, d. v.=, accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ii. . =departmental list, the=, ii. . =de pradt=, in charge of polish affairs, iii. ; interview between _n._ and, at warsaw, , ; royalist intrigues of, iv. , . =desaix, louis-charles-antoine=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; crosses the rhine near strasburg, ; defeats the austrians in the black forest, ; service in egypt, ii. , , , ; battle of the pyramids, ; ordered to leave egypt, , ; reaches stradella, ; battle of marengo, - ; killed, , ; contrasted with ney, iv. . =desenzano=, military operations near, i. . =desgenettes, dr.=, heroism at jaffa, ii. . =des mazis=, _n.'s_ friendship for, i. , ; appointed to the regiment of la fère, . =dessau=, captured by lannes, ii. . =dessolles, gen.=, ii. . "=destiny=," _n.'s_, i. . =deutsch-wagram=, archduke charles advances to, iii. . _see also_ =wagram=. =d'hilliers, gen.=, service in egypt, ii. . ="dialogue on love,"= by _n._, i. , . =diderot, denis=, co-author with raynal, i. . =diebitsch, gen. h. k. f. a.=, encounters a prussian force, iii. ; military adviser to alexander, iv. . =dieppe=, landing of the cadoudal conspirators near, ii. . =diet, the=, reduction of austria's power in, ii. . =digeon, gen. a. e. m.=, seduced by marmont, iv. . =digne=, _n.'s_ march through, on return from elba, iv. . =dijon=, _n._ visits, i. ; formation of an army of reserve at, ii. ; surrenders to the allies, iv. ; francis in, , . =diodorus siculus=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =diplomacy=, the language of, i. . =dippoldiswalde=, military movements near, iv. . =directory, the=, establishment of, i. , , , - ; social life under, , ; europe and, - ; financial war policy, ; assumes to dictate military plans, , ; plans to belittle _n._, , ; entrusts _n._ with diplomatic powers, ; yields to _n.'s_ plans, , ; contributions sent to, , ; plans for campaign in germany, ; attitude toward italy, - ; _n.'s_ relations with, - , - , , - , , , ; ii. , , , - , , - , , , , - , ; iv. , ; ratifies the treaty of leoben, i. ; letters from _n._, april , , ; may , , ; pitt's negotiations for peace with, ; refuses to treat with england, ; antagonism to the, ii. ; plot of louis xviii and pichegru against, , , ; moreau's relations with, ; gains complete control on the th of fructidor, ; reliance on the army, ; effects of the th fructidor on, ; attitude toward italy and venice, ; approves the treaty of campo formio, , ; relations with talleyrand, ; members of, ; attitude toward emigrants, ; attitude toward clergy, , ; attitude toward royalists, , ; attitude toward the german ecclesiastical principalities, ; eastern policy, ; jacobinism in, , ; fails to secure alliance with turkey, ; misunderstanding between the united irishmen and, ; weakness, , ; desires the escape of the army in egypt, ; reconstruction of, , , ; blunders in italy, , ; corruption in, , ; gohier president of, ; _n._ pays official visit to, on return from egypt, ; relations with moreau, ; last days and downfall, et seq.; iv. , , ; carnot's influence on its fall, ii. ; suppresses freedom of the press, ; incorporates belgium with france, ; attitude toward prussia, ; relations with sieyès, ; liberty of conscience under the, ; suspends diplomatic relations with the united states, ; pretensions toward the united states, ; financial maladministration, ; recourse to forced contributions, ; plans for invading england, ; system of licenses for english goods, iii. ; difficulties with mme. de staël, ; organization of a new, iv. . =divine right=, kings by, ii. ; abolition of, in france, iv. . =divorce=, _n.'s_ share in codifying the law of, ii. ; under the code, ; _n.'s_ advocacy of easy, . =dnieper river=, military operations on the, iii. , , , , , . =dniester river=, turkish movements on the, ii. . =doctoroff, gen.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; in battle of eylau, iii. . =dôle=, publications of _n.'s_ literary work at, i. . =dolgoruki, prince=, mission from alexander i to _n._, ii. . =dolgoruki, princess=, on _n.'s_ receptions, ii. . =dölitz=, military operations near, iv. , . =domination=, the power of, iv. , . =domo d'ossola=, bethencourt near, ii. . =don, river=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. ; the cossacks of the, iii. . =donaueschingen=, the austrian headquarters at, ii. ; abandoned by kray, . =donauwörth=, military movements near, iii. ; _n._ reaches, . =donzelot, gen f. x.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. , , , , . =dora baltea river=, austrian force on the, ii. . =dora ridaria river=, austrian force on the, ii. . =dornburg=, military movements near, ii. , . =dorothea, empress-dowager of russia=, disapproves _n.'s_ proposed marriage to anne, iii. ; hatred of _n._, . =douay=, _n._ ordered to, i. , . =doulaincourt=, _n._ at, iv. . =doulevant=, _n._ at, iv. . =doumerc, gen. j. p.=, moves from sézanne against blücher, iv. . =dover=, scheme of naval demonstration off, ii. . =drac, river=, iv. . =draft=, use of, in france, ii. . =drave, river=, military movements on the, i. ; iii. . =dresden=, death of moreau before, ii. ; _n._ at, iii. , , , , , , , , , ; iv. - , , , - ; bernadotte to concentrate in, iii. ; saxon troops in, ; _n.'s_ strategy at, ; seized by the duke of brunswick, ; meeting of the allied sovereigns at, ; the climax of the napoleonic drama, ; iv. ; _n.'s_ incognito journey through, iii. ; interview between _n._ and metternich at, ; interview between _n._ and frederick augustus at, ; french forces at, ; eugène to hold, - ; welcomes alexander and frederick william iii, ; discontent at military occupation, ; retreat of the allies behind, ; destruction and rebuilding of the bridges at, , ; french occupation of, , ; defense of, iv. , , , ; held by saint-cyr, ; french advance to zittau from, ; menaced by the allies, ; battle of, - , - ; demoralization of the army after, ; _n.'s_ mistakes after, - ; _n.'s_ physical ailments at, , ; _n.'s_ successes at, , ; schwarzenberg moves on, ; oudinot at, ; blücher advances on, ; boy soldiers at, ; _n.'s_ retreat from, - ; _n.'s_ scheme to hold, ; frederick's love for, ; french garrison in, - ; maret's influence over _n._ at, ; _n._ acknowledges his mistake in not making peace at, . =drissa=, weakness of, iii. ; bagration establishes communication with, . =drouot, gen. a.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; battle of leipsic, iv. , ; advises a return to lorraine, ; attachment to _n._, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; accompanies _n._ to elba, ; advises against the escape from elba, . =düben=, _n._ at, iv. . =dubois, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =duclos's "memoirs of the reigns of louis xiv and louis xv,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. . =duero, river=, military movements on the, iii. , , . =dufresne=, ii. . =dugommier, gen. j. f.=, appointed commander-in-chief before toulon, i. ; influence at toulon, . =dugua, gen. c. f. j.=, service in egypt, ii. ; in battle of the pyramids, . =duhesme, gen. p. g.=, invades spain, iii. ; at barcelona, ; occupies catalonia, , ; evacuates catalonia, ; besieged in barcelona, ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . =dulaure's "history of the nobility,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. . =dumanoir, adm.=, at trafalgar, ii. . =dumolard, j. v.=, interpellates the government as to _n.'s_ independence, ii. . =dumoulin, jean=, comes to _n.'s_ aid at laffray, iv. . =dumouriez, charles f.=, takes part in the conquest of corsica, i. ; on the northeastern frontier, ; wins battle of jemmapes, ; defection of, ; correspondence with nelson, ii. ; suspected of royalist plots, , . =dünaburg=, preparations for the siege of, iii. ; ney advances toward, . =duncan, adm. adam=, wins the battle of camperdown, ii. . =dunette, gen.=, marches to relief of paris, iv. . =dunkirk=, besieged by duke of york, i. . =duphot, gen. l.=, affianced to désirée clary, ii. , ; killed at rome, . =dupont, gen. pierre=, in battle of friedland, iii. ; ordered to invade spain, ; invades spain, ; advances on andalusia, ; holds the tagus, ; capitulates at baylen, , , , . =durango=, blake advances from, iii. . =duroc, gen. g. c. m.=, wounded at acre, ii. ; _n.'s_ aide-de-camp, ; _n.'s_ envoy to prussia, , ; grand marshal of the palace, ; offers hanover to prussia, ; personal attendance on _n._, ; proposes terms after tilsit, iii. ; blamed for queen louisa's failure, ; proposes indemnity for maria louisa, ; created duke of friuli, ; at bayonne, ; foresees france's discontent, ; killed at reichenbach, - ; _n.'s_ grief for, ; _n._ contributes to monument to, iv. ; _n._ proposes to take the name of, . =dürrenstein=, destruction of mortier's division at, ii. , . =durutte, gen. j. f.=, sent to ligny, iv. ; battle of waterloo, , , , , . =düsseldorf=, jourdan's army at, i. ; jourdan crosses the rhine at, . =dutch flanders=, ceded to france, i. . =duteil=, _n.'s_ acquaintance with, i. ; _n._ seeks aid from, ; grants _n._ permission to sail for corsica, . =duteil, gen. j.=, general of artillery before toulon, i. ; on _n.'s_ ability, . =dutheil, n. f.=, devises plan of campaign for austria and england, i. . =dutot=, takes _n.'s_ place in the west, i. . =duval's "william the conqueror,"= ii. . =duvernet's "history of the sorbonne,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. . =dwina, river=, fortifications on the, iii. ; military movements on the, , , . . =dyle, river=, military movements on the, iv. , . e =east, the=, _n.'s_ attention turned toward, i. ; _n.'s_ comparison of europe with, ii. ; _n.'s_ dreams of empire in. _see also_ =napoleon=. =east friesland=, scheme to incorporate it with france, iii. . =east galicia=, part of, ceded to warsaw, iii. . =east india company=, lends the island of st. helena to the government, iv. . =east indies=, england watches french policy concerning, ii. . =east prussia=, ney moves on, iii. . =ebelsberg=, battle of, iii. . =ebrington, lord=, _n.'s_ characterization of cornwallis to, ii. ; _n.'s_ declaration to, concerning the duc d'enghien, . =ebro, river=, military movements on, iii. , , , ; proposed exchange of territory on, ; boundary of french annexed territory, . =ecclesiastical princes=, _n._ on the status of, ii. . =ecclesiastical principalities=, secularization of, on the rhine, ii. . =ecclesiasticism=, _n.'s_ confusion of ideas concerning, i. . =eckmühl=, the campaign of, iii. et seq. =education=, demands for, in corsica, i. ; _n.'s_ interest in, system and reforms of, ; ii. - , , ; iii. , - ; iv. . =Égalité, philip=, member of the national convention, i. . =eglé, mme.=, guardian of the beauharnais children, i. . =egypt=, _n.'s_ plans of conquest of, i. ; ii. , , - , ; iii. ; scandals of mameluke administration in, ii. , ; french schemes of conquest, , - ; iii. , ; importance of, ii. ; rebellion in, ; the expeditionary forces, - ; scholastic branch of the expedition, ; plunder of, - , ; departure of expedition from toulon, ; character of the population, ; the mamelukes, ; terrors of the campaign, ; the army disheartened, ; nelson follows the french fleet to, ; _n.'s_ rule in, - ; _n.'s_ religious masquerading in, - ; establishment of printing-presses in, ; insurrection suppressed in, ; establishment of an institute in, ; dearth of news from france, , ; rumors of _n.'s_ death in, ; despatches from france, feb., , ; _n._ given leave to remain in, ; importance of _n.'s_ conquering, ; turkish preparations for the relief of, ; attempted risings in, ; adm. bruix sent to relieve the army in, ; _n._ returns from, - ; the colonial idea, ; the turning-point of success in, ; kléber prepares to evacuate, ; desaix recalled from, ; desperate situation of the french in, ; kléber's administration in, ; assassination of kléber, ; french disasters in, ; restored to turkey, ; england to evacuate, ; turkey's suzerainty over, ; question of reëstablishing french colonies in, ; _n._ disclaims designs on, ; _n.'s_ irritation at england's occupation of, ; davout's campaign in, ; _n.'s_ immoralities in, ; plan to allure nelson to, ; the object of the expedition against, ; english commerce with, iii. ; english expedition to seize, ; french expedition against, in , ; the tactics of the army in, adopted in russia, ; _n.'s_ desertion of the army in, likened to his conduct at smorgoni, ; work on, compiled by _n.'s_ order, iv. ; history of, . =eichstädt=, portion of, acquired by grand duke of tuscany, ii. ; ceded to bavaria, . =eisdorf=, fighting at, iii. . =eisenach=, military movements near, ii. , ; the allies outwitted at, iv. . =el arish=, siege and surrender of, ii. ; massacre of the garrison, ; treaty between sir sidney smith and kléber at, . =elba=, _n.'s_ literary labors at, i. ; iv. , - ; secured to france, ii. ; france to evacuate, ; countess walewska follows _n._ to, iii. ; iv. ; the sentence of exile to, iv. ; the monarch of, , , ; _n.'s_ journey to, - ; possibility of her not receiving the imperial exile, ; imperialist and royalist sentiment in, ; _n._ begins his new administration, ; _n.'s_ life in, et seq.; bourbon spies in, ; visitors to, ; scheme to deport _n._ from, ; _n.'s_ escape from, - ; the naval patrol at, ; _n.'s_ monograph on, . =elbe, river, the=, the prussian base on, ii. ; key to the valley of, ; english blockade of, ; iii. ; western boundary of prussia, ; commanded by fortress of magdeburg, , ; the kingdom of westphalia created on, , ; preparations to oppose english landing on, ; french occupation of the coast near, ; military movements on, , , , ; iv. , - , , - ; scheme of hanoverian extension on, ; territory on, offered to sweden, ; french recovery of the lower part, ; boundary of a neutral zone, ; exhaustion of the french on, iv. ; french garrisons on, . =elbing=, military movements near, iii. , . =elchingen=, ney created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =ney=. ="elective affinities,"= iii. . =electoral colleges=, ii. . =eliot, sir gilbert=, viceroy of corsica, i. . =elliott=, killed at arcole, i. . =elsfleth=, escape of the black legion to, iii. . =elster, river, the=, military operations on, iii. , ; iv. - , - , - . =Élysée, the=, _n._ takes up residence at, iv. ; _n._ returns from waterloo to, , . =embabeh=, battle of, ii. . =embargo=, the, ii. , , , . =emigrants=, plots by, i. , , ; ii. ; confiscation of property of, and harsh legislation against, i. , , ; ii. , ; the aristocrats of the, i. ; _n.'s_ speculation in lands of, ; attitude of the directory toward, ii. , ; _n.'s_ secret dealings with, ; talleyrand among the, ; encouraged to return, amnesty to, and indemnity for, , , ; ; _n._ complains of england harboring, ; _n._ demands their expulsion from naples, ; return to france under louis xviii, iv. ; banished again from france, . =emigration, the=, i. , , , . =emperor of the two americas=, the, iii. . =empire=, the french use of the term, ii. . =empire of the west=, _n._ threatens to resuscitate the, ii. . =engen=, battle of, ii. . =enghien, duc d'=, arrest and murder of, i. ; ii. , - , , , , ; iii. ; iv. ; monarchical schemes and plots of, ii. , , - ; character, ; married to princess rohan-rochefort, ; seeks service with england, ; residence at ettenheim, - ; prepares to retire to freiburg, ; _n._ examines papers of, ; _n._ defends the execution of, ; _n._ blames talleyrand for his murder, ; iii. ; statements concerning _n.'s_ connection with his murder, , ; _n.'s_ self-blame for murder of, iv. . =england=, france's emulation of, i. ; hampered by parliamentary opposition and american disquiet, ; the american uprising against, , ; paoli's relations with, asylum in, and aid from, , , , - , - , ; gives aid to, establishes protectorate over, and takes possession of corsica, , , , - , - ; transformation of parties in, ; _n.'s_ study of history of, , , , ; sympathy with france in, ; french admirers of the constitution of, ; constitutional government in, ; closes the scheldt, ; republican ideas in, ; effect of execution of louis xvi in, ; hostility between france and, , ; ii. , , , , , - , , , ; iii. , , ; _n.'s_ ideas of serving, i. , , ; ii. ; iv. ; subsidizes european powers, i. ; ii. , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , - ; iv. , , , , , ; naval establishment, expenses, and activity, i. , ; ii. , ; iii. , ; captures ollioules, i. ; in the defense and occupation of toulon, , ; naval operations and power on the mediterranean (other than specifically mentioned items), , ; ii. - , , ; iii. , ; influence in genoa, i. ; prints counterfeit french money in genoa, ; fails to help the allies in piedmont, ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, sept., , ; naval supremacy, ; ii. - , , , , , , ; iii. - , - , - ; iv. ; alliances with austria, i. ; ii. , , ; sends fleet to northern coast of france, i. ; subsidizes french royalists, ; the fleet driven from leghorn, ; seizes porto ferrajo, ; insurrection in corsica against rule of, ; blamed by _n._ for embroiling france and austria, ; rupture of the coalition with austria, ; military condition in , ; desire for peace with france, and negotiations leading thereto, , ; ii. , ; iii. , ; interest in the netherlands and belgium, i. ; prestige, magnificence of empire, influence, independence, etc., of, ; ii. , , , , , , , ; iii. - , - , , , ; iv. , ; defeats spain at cape st. vincent, i. ; price of consols, march, , ; effect of the treaty of leoben in, ii. ; conquest of dutch colonies, , ; _n.'s_ personal hostility to, , , , - , , - ; iii. , , , , - , - , , , ; iv. ; speculations in paris as to operations against, ii. ; financial condition, , ; talleyrand expelled from, ; defeats holland at camperdown, ; acquires the cape of good hope, ; protects sardinia, ; _n.'s_ schemes of invasion of, , - , , - , - ; _n.'s_ views on political history of, ; her indian possessions, and french and russian schemes to strike her through them, , , , , ; iii. , - ; naval operations at acre, ii. , ; fleet at alexandria, ; joins the second coalition, , , ; military operations in holland, , ; iii. , , , ; completion of the work of the revolution in, ii. ; relations, negotiations, and alliances with russia, , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , - , , , , , , , , ; reception of russian soldiers in, after alkmaar, ii. ; siege, capture, and occupation of malta, and negotiations concerning its cession and tenure, , , , , , , , , , , , , ; attitude toward the bourbons, ; declines to negotiate with _n._, ; prepares to invade france, ; denounced by _n._ as author of the war of , ; debate in parliament on _n.'s_ accession as first consul, ; hatred of revolutionary excesses, ; alliance with portugal, ; opposes spread of revolutionary ideas, ; blockades genoa, ; formation of the "armed neutrality" against, ; accused by paul i of treachery, ; the continental system and the embargo, _n.'s_ commercial warfare against, , , , , , , , , , ; iii. - , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , (_see also_ =berlin decree=; =continental system=; =milan decree=); portugal forced to withdraw from alliance with, ii, ; reply to the "armed neutrality," ; _n.'s_ demands for colonial cessions, ; concludes peace with france, oct. , , ; retains ceylon and trinidad, ; treaty of amiens, , , , , et seq.; iv. ; treaty of commerce with the united states, , ii. ; recognizes neutrality of united states, ; attempts to put down san domingo insurrection, ; surrender of rochambeau to, ; schemes for restoration of charles x in, ; to evacuate egypt, ; paul i's antipathy to, ; efforts to discredit france in europe, et seq.; disapproves _n.'s_ reconstruction of europe, ; appoints lord whitworth ambassador to paris, ; refuses to admit french consuls, ; protests against the slave-trade, ; commerce of, , ; iii. , , , - , , , , , , ; iv. ; position with regard to the alien act, ii. ; freedom of the press in, ; complaints against, of harboring emigrants and bourbons, ; attacks of the french press on, , ; _n._ attempts to muzzle the press in, , ; _n.'s_ answer to remonstrances from, ; occupation of alexandria, ; suspects france's war preparations, , ; _n.'s_ treatment of her representative, ; the royal message of march , , ; the militia called out, march , , ; diplomatic rupture with france, ; publication of lord whitworth's despatches in, ; declares war against france, may , , ; declares embargo on french ships, ; commencement of hostilities, ; attacks spanish commerce, ; panic in, ; plans for defense, , ; puts caraccioli to death, ; interest in jacobin insurrection, ; active diplomacy in, ; the duc d'enghien seeks to enter the service of, ; _n.'s_ attempt to fix the death of duc d'enghien on, ; pitt's return to power, ; nature of the war with, ; expulsion of her envoys from stuttgart and munich, ; naval aid from portugal, ; war with spain, dec., , ; acquires trinidad, ; blockades brest, ; addington succeeded by pitt, ; justice of the war with, ; european alliances, ; bad faith of, ; _n._ insists on no asylum for the bourbons in, ; fails to secure prussia's alliance, ; _n.'s_ policy toward, ; author of the third coalition, ; mack's ideas of her invading france, ; naval shortcomings, ; battle of trafalgar, - ; reception of the news of austerlitz in, ; lethargy after trafalgar, ; declares war against prussia, ; fox assumes power, ; _n._ considers peace with, ; lord yarmouth's negotiations, ; _n._ offers european territory to, , ; end of negotiations with, ; alliance with prussia and russia, ; demands the surrender of sicily, ; proposal to give hanover to, , ; state of war with prussia, ; her vulnerable point, iii. ; "enemy's ships make enemy's goods," ; the soul of continental coalitions, ; right of search and impressment, ii. ; iii. , ; orders in council, ii. ; iii. , , , , , , , ; turkey declares war against, iii. ; sends fleet to constantinople, ; refuses subsidy to russia, ; afghanistan incited against, ; persia stirred up against, ; proposal for a new coalition, ; naval operations in the baltic, , , , , , ; withholds subsidies, ; troops in pomerania, ; alexander promises to oppose, ; opposed to prussia's neutrality, ; necessity for _n.'s_ humbling, - ; france declares war against ( ), ; "all the talents" ministry, ; duke of portland's ministry, ; commercial rivalry with the united states, ; the "rule of ," ; understanding with the united states, ; declares blockade from brest to the elbe, ; war with france ( ), ; decline of manufactures, ; failure of commercial negotiations with sweden and russia, ; french demands on, ; russia to mediate between france and, ; seizes the portuguese fleet, ; gains entrance to and is expelled from leghorn, ; offers to seize denmark's fleet, ; denmark ordered to declare war against, ; threatens to make spanish south american colonies independent, ; bombards copenhagen, ; enmity of alexander i to, ; parliament compared with the french tribunate, ; decadence of primogeniture in, ; seeks to conciliate denmark, ; egyptian expedition, ; expedition to buenos ayres, ; russia declares war against, , , ; retaliates on russia by orders in council, ; announces blockade of european ports, , ; decline of trade with the united states, ; the war of , , ; austria's secret sympathy with, ; _n._ urges her restoration of the danish fleet, ; _n.'s_ desire for peace with, , , , , ; iv. ; contempt for the blockade, iii. ; withdraws troops from sicily, ; sends troops to portugal, , , , , , ; supposed assistance to sweden, ; proposed menace to, ; blockades the russian fleet, ; promised coöperation of the papal states against, ; portugal enforces the berlin and milan decrees against, ; fate of her allies, ; supports the house of braganza, ; outbreak of the peninsular war, ; benefits accruing from the troubles in spain, ; scheme to capture cadiz, , ; negotiations with austria, ; proposed humiliation of, ; plans of _n._ and alexander at erfurt concerning, ; _n._ fears an alliance between turkey and, ; exasperated at the capitulation of cintra, ; supposed plan to abandon portugal, ; tardiness at corunna, ; offers to subsidize austria, ; austria appeals for assistance to, ; escape of the duke of brunswick to, ; expedition to flushing, - ; necessity of bringing her to terms, ; _n.'s_ allegations against, ; the lesson of trafalgar, ; paper blockade by, ; the neutralization system, ; licenses violations of the orders in council, ; louis opens negotiations with, ; rejects fouché's agent, ; loss of trade with portugal, spain, and triest, ; threatened with loss of trade with hanseatic towns and holland, ; united states prohibition of commercial intercourse with, ; the walcheren expedition, , , ; _n._ proposes that she withdraw the orders in council of , ; proposal that she send joint expedition with france to establish louis xviii in america, ; seizure of american ships by, ; fouché's english-dutch conspiracy, ; destruction of her wares on the french borders, ; denmark's hostility to, ; divided councils in, ; expedition to sicily, , ; finds support in spanish popular feeling, ; strength of forces in the peninsula, ; attitude toward affairs in the peninsula, ; depreciation of the currency, ; expedition to spain, ; mme. de staël in, ; _n._ hopes to meet her on the sea, ; threatened with bankruptcy, ; exchange of prisoners with, ; her colonial interests, ; russia opens her ports to, ; refuses _n.'s_ offer of peace in spain, ; armistice with russia, ; threatens to bombard constantinople, ; under castlereagh's leadership, ; to be driven from spain, ; arouses sweden against france, ; negotiates peace between turkey and russia, ; distracted condition of politics in, ; naval defeats, , ; united states declares war against, ; assassination of mr. perceval, ; negotiates treaty between russia and spain, july, , - ; in grand european coalition against _n._, ; metternich's negotiations with, ; returns to pitt's policy, ; abandons hanoverian schemes, ; proposal to bleed her colonies, ; proposed isolation of, ; the allies' reliance on, ; guarantees a war loan, ; treaty with prussia, june , , ; treaty with russia, june , , ; issues paper money, ; to be kept out of the continental peace, ; metternich proposes that she continue the war, , ; commercial agreement with sweden, ; influence in holland, iv. , ; determination to crush france, ; at the congress of frankfort, ; proposal that she hand back french colonies, ; "maritime rights," , ; prolongation of the war in spain, , ; desire to establish equilibrium in europe, ; signs treaty of chaumont, ; effect of the triple alliance on, ; troops occupy bordeaux, ; party to the treaty of fontainebleau (april, ), ; distinction in, between the two napoleons, ; _n._ contemplates taking refuge in, ; _n.'s_ eulogy of her civilization and chivalry, ; negotiates secret treaty with austria and france, ; regency in, ; lack of suitable leaders in, ; her dynastic alliances, , ; effects of _n.'s_ restoration on, ; member of the vienna coalition, ; campaign of waterloo, - ; losses at waterloo, ; claims the glory of annihilating _n._, ; watches the harbor of rochefort, ; _n._ throws himself on the generosity of, ; reasons for _n.'s_ surrender to, - , ; asylum for political refugees, ; intolerance of death penalty for political offenses, ; resolves to banish _n._, - ; _n._ desires to acquire citizenship in, ; sympathy for _n._ in, , ; passes special acts for government of st. helena, ; _n.'s_ last wishes for, ; the seven years' war, , ; character of the wars with france, ; _n.'s_ struggles with, ; wars with the united states, . =english channel, the=, marching french troops to, ii. ; naval operations in, ; obstacles to _n.'s_ crossing, ; _n.'s_ hope to hold, ; french plans for seizing, ; villeneuve ordered to, ; villeneuve's attempt to enter, . =enns, river=, military operations on the, ii. ; iii. . =entail=, restoration of the right of, iii. ; abolition of the law of, . =enzersdorf=, military operations near, iii. , , . =enzersfeld=, military movements near, iii. . =Épernay=, captured by the allies, iv. . ="epochs of my life,"= i. . =eppes=, marmont at, iv. . =equality=, _n.'s_ affectation of love for, ii. ; one of the meanings of the word, . =equality of citizenship=, decreed, i, . =erasmus=, tomb of, iv. . =erding=, battle of, iii. . =erfurt=, military movements near, ii. ; the duke of brunswick at, ; fall of, ; meeting of _n._ and alexander at, iii. et seq.; treaty of, , , , , ; _n.'s_ maladroitness at, , ; _n.'s_ vacillation at, , ; the conference at, , ; alexander redeems his promise made at, ; offered to alexander and refused by him, ; the throne of, offered to the duke of oldenburg, ; alexander offers to exchange oldenburg for, ; french troops ordered to, ; french forces at, ; _n._ goes to, ; plan of winter quarters at, iv. ; saxon and bavarian troops at, ; murat deserts at, . =erlon, gen. d.=, in the waterloo campaign, iv. , , ; battle of quatre bras, - ; _n.'s_ expression of indignation at ney to, ; battle of waterloo, , , . =erskine, lord=, on england's attitude with regard to france, ii. . =escoiquiz, canon=, tutor to ferdinand vii, iii. ; letter to _n._, oct. , , , ; defends ferdinand's position, ; notified by _n._ of ferdinand's deposition, ; infamy of, . =escorial=, godoy's intrigues at the, iii. ; charles iv a virtual prisoner in, . =escudier, j. f.=, commissioner of the national convention, i. . =esdraelon=, battle on the plains of, ii. . =esla, river=, military movements on the, iii. . =espagne, gen. j. l. b.=, in battle of aspern, iii. . =espinosa=, defeat of blake at, iii. . =essarts, ledru des=, evacuates meaux, iv. ; seduced by marmont, . ="essay on revolutions"= (chateaubriand's), ii. . =essen, gen. h. h.=, in campaign of eylau, iii. . =essenbach=, military operations near, iii. . =essling=, battle of, iii. - , - , ; _n._ exposes himself at, - ; effect of rising of the river at, . =essling, prince of=. _see_ =masséna=. =essonne, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =essonnes=, _n._ at, iv. ; marmont at, ; marmont's defection at, . =establishment of st. louis=, the female academy at st. cyr, i. . _see also_ =st. cyr=. =estates, the=, meetings at versailles, i. , . =estates, the three=, i. ; in the seventeenth century, . =estates-general=, meetings of the, i. , , ; fusion of the three bodies, ; troops ordered to control the, . =esterhazy, prince=, at the marriage of maria louisa, iii. . =Étoges=, battle of, iv. ; military movements near, , . =etruria=, creation of the kingdom of, ii. ; death of king louis, ; iii. ; exchanged for louisiana, ii. ; under french protection, ; _n._ calls for alliance with, iii. ; neutrality of, ; scheme to incorporate in italy, ; proposal that lucien take the crown of, ; abdication of the queen regent, ; incorporated into the kingdom of italy, ; the crown offered to ferdinand vii, ; _n.'s_ disposition of, . =ettenheim=, residence of the duc d'enghien at, ii. ; reputed emigrant conspiracy at, ; ordener's expedition to, ; arrest of the duc d'enghien at, ; caulaincourt's mission to, iii. . =eulen mountains=, military movements near, iv. . =euphrates=, proposed military operations on the, iii. . =europe=, movement of civilization in, i. ; the revolutionary epoch and spread of revolutionary ideas in, , et seq.; ii. , , ; absolutism, its decay and abolition, i. ; iii. ; iv. , , ; aroused feelings, concerted movements, and coalitions against france, i. , , ; ii. , , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , ; iv. , , - ; _n._ on the sovereigns of, i. ; the directory and, - ; neutrality of northern, ; conditions of civilization and warfare in ( ), ; the destinies of, dependent on fate of italy, , ; _n._ a citizen of, ; schemes of reconstruction of the map of, ; ii. , , ; iii. , , , , , , , ; iv. , , , ; schemes of pacification of, i. ; ii. , , ; iii. , , , , , - ; iv. ; france's foreign policy, in, ii. ; schemes of napoleonic and french empire over, , , , , , ; iii. , , ; _n._ on the freedom of, ii. ; iii. ; _n.'s_ relations to, and influence on, ii. , , , ; iii. ; iv. , ; upheavals in the politics of, ii. - , ; compared by _n._ with the orient, ; general armament of ( ), ; _n.'s_ visions of military domination in, ; situation of affairs at close of , ; jealousy in, concerning the mediterranean, ; _n._ the destroyer of, ; influence of england in, and her subsidies to the powers of, , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , - ; iv. , , , , , ; situation of affairs at beginning of , ii. et seq.; efforts of the directory to extend the french system in, ; prussia's place in, ; iii. ; military situation in ( ), ii. ; the "armed neutrality," ; reduction of austria as a power in, ; the old dynasties and the dynastic idea in, , , ; iii. , , , , , ; iv. ; anxiety in, as to permanency of peace of amiens, ii. ; destruction of the balance of power, ; _n.'s_ warning to, march , , ; _n.'s_ views on continental conquest, ; _n.'s_ notification to, in the murder of the duc d'enghien, ; the embargo, blockades, and other commercial warfare in, , , , , ; iii. , , , - , , , , , , (_see also_ =berlin decree=; =continental system=; =milan decree=); outbreak of war in , ii. ; _n._ arrayed against, ; the price of the hegemony of, ; fox upholds existing sovereignties in, ; necessity of colonial produce to, ; russia's ambition to be included in, iii. ; general warfare in, ; english monopoly of commerce, ; law of colonial trade, ; alexander i on politics of, ; st. petersburg holds the peace of, ; _n.'s_ hopes of a coalition in, against england, ; general sanhedrim of, ; influence of the peace of tilsit on, ; a moment of universal anarchy for, ; the situation in, , ; power of the word "legitimacy" in, ; growth of the national idea in, , , , ; iv. (_see also_ =germany=; =prussia=); the right of force in, iii. ; the french idea of their great cause in, ; views on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; publicity of _n.'s_ domestic concerns throughout, ; system of private confiscations, ; rejoicings over the birth of the king of rome, , ; the condition of, set forth in _n.'s_ reply to the paris chamber of commerce, - ; _n.'s_ coast system of protection ; apprehensions of war in, , ; tendency toward rupture of the peace of, ; the russian march of french troops over, ; _n.'s_ scheme for two powers in, ; responsibility of kutusoff for bloodshed in, ; austria a pivotal state in, , , ; _n._ desires to avoid the reprobation of, ; a neutral zone for, ; peace congress of, ; nervousness among the allies, iv. ; prussia acquires the hegemony of continental, ; distrust among the allies, , ; the commercial key to central, ; struggle for manhood suffrage in, ; exactions of the allies in central, , ; the armed forces of, jan. , , ; jealousies among the powers, , ; england's desire to establish equilibrium in, ; military outrages in, ; mobilization of troops, ; notified that the empire means peace, ; possible consequences of _n.'s_ success at waterloo, ; the doctrine of legitimacy, ; france the teacher of, ; abolition of feudalism and ecclesiasticism, ; progress of reform in, ; a bellicose age in, ; influence of charles the great on, ; the armies of modern, ; the alliances of, ; the national politics of, . =eutritzsch=, military operations near, iv. . =exagérés=, the, i. . =executive council=, establishment of the, i. ; military preparations by, . =exelmans, gen. r. j. i.=, corresponds with the emperor, iv. ; in waterloo campaign, . =extravagance=, at outbreak of the revolution, i. . =eylau=, the campaign of, iii. et seq.; iv. ; the causes of _n.'s_ weakness at, iii. ; the grand army after, ; the lessons of, . f =family relations=, under the code, ii. . =fanaticism=, iv. . =fauvelet=, _n.'s_ school friend, i. . =faypoult, g. c.=, french political agent in genoa, ii. . =feltre=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; clarke created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =clarke=. =feraud=, murder of, . =ferdinand, archduke=, commanding austrian army in germany, ii. ; escapes into bohemia, ; at ulm, ; commanding in bohemia, ; invades poland and captures warsaw, iii. , ; vicissitudes in poland, ; evacuates warsaw, ; on the way to charles's assistance, . =ferdinand of parma=, ii. . =ferdinand i=, king of naples, ii. ; iii. . _see also_ =ferdinand iv=. =ferdinand iii=, flees to vienna, ii. . =ferdinand iv=, position in , i. ; evacuates the papal states, ii. ; compelled to restore plunder, . =ferdinand vii= (_see also_ =asturias, prince of=), letters to _n._, iii. , , ; seeks _n.'s_ favor, , ; enters madrid, ; doubtful recognition of his throne, ; hinted order that he go to bayonne, ; at vitoria, ; revulsion of spanish feeling against, ; goes to bayonne, , , ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, - ; orders for his arrest, ; deposed, - ; character, , , ; offers to surrender his crown, ; the crown of etruria offered to, ; trial at bayonne, ; popularity in spain, , ; pension and grant to, ; in virtual custody of talleyrand, ; cowed into submission, , ; asks _n.'s_ adoption and permission to appear at court, ; release of, iv. ; relapses into absolutism and ecclesiasticism, . =fère-champenoise=, the emperor at, iv. ; military movements near, ; retreat of the french through, . =fermo=, consolidated with the kingdom of italy, iii. . =ferrara=, the pope prepares to recover, i. ; new scheme of government for, ; surrendered to france, ; ceded to venice at leoben, ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. . =ferrol=, reported junction of french and spanish fleets at, ii. ; blockade of, ; villeneuve's retreat to, ; supposed english schemes at, iii. , . =fersen, count=, essays to represent sweden at congress of rastatt, ii. . =fesch, joseph=, i. ; childhood with _n._, ; appointed to seminary at aix, ; _n.'s_ correspondence with, , , ; enters the priesthood, ; returns to corsica, ; literary collaborator with _n._, , ; member of the constituent assembly at orezza, ; custodian of _n.'s_ papers, ; supplanted as head of family by _n._, ; radical leader at ajaccio, ; leaves corsica for toulon, ; in commissary department at toulon, ; storekeeper in commissary department, ; escapes arrest, ; at aix, ; conforms to the civil constitution, ii. ; archbishop of lyons and cardinal, ; reënters the church, ; grand almoner, ; selects a physician for _n._, iv. . =feudal system=, in corsica, i. , ; remnants of the, ; absorption of its power in the french crown, ; abolition of, , , ; ii. ; iii. , , ; iv. ; the oath of the legion of honor concerning, ii. ; _n.'s_ influence on, iii. ; french hatred of, iv. . =feuillants, the=, i. ; form a ministry, ; fall of the ministry, . =fichte, j. g.=, member of the reform party in prussia, ii. ; influence on prussian regeneration, iii. . =fifth regiment= (french), _n._ offers himself to the bullets of the, iv, . =fifty-second regiment= (english), in battle of waterloo, iv. . =figueras=, captured by the french, iii. . =filangieri, gaëtano=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =finance=, an occult doctrine of, iii, . =finisterre, cape=, calder encounters villeneuve off, ii. . =finkenstein=, _n._ at, iii. , , ; persian envoy at, . =finland=, russian ambition to acquire, iii. , , , , ; russia's claims to, recognized at tilsit, ; acquired by russia, , , , , , ; russian invasion of, , ; russia threatened with the loss of, ; offered to sweden by _n._, . =fioravente, gen.=, captured at verona, i. . =first consul=, the office of the, ii. . =fischbach=, military movements near, iv. . =fismes=, _n._ aims to strike the prussians at, iv. ; marmont rallies his troops at, , ; junction of marmont and mortier at, ; marmont retreats to, . =fitz-james, edward=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =fiume=, reoccupied by austria, i. ; seized by _n._, ; _n._ proposes to cede, iv. . =five hundred, the=, i. ; their representation of public sentiment, ii. ; inquiry in, as to _n.'s_ independence, ; its members proscribed, ; jacobin majority in, , ; bonapartes among, ; lucien bonaparte elected president, , ; _n._ at the meetings of, th and th brumaire, , - ; counterplots against _n._ among, ; opposition by, - ; meeting of bonapartist members of, ; adopts the consulate, ; deposition of members, ; rewards among, for complacency, . =flahaut, gen. a. c. j.=, sent to seek marmont's advice, iv. ; advises a return to lorraine, ; bearer of despatch from _n._ to ney, . =flanders=, _n._ in, i. ; _n._ journey to, iii. . _see also_ =austrian netherlands=; =batavian republic=; =dutch flanders=; =holland=; =netherlands=. =fleurus=, battle of, i. ; jourdan's victory at, ii. ; military operations near, iv. , , ; _n._ at, , . =florence=, the buonaparte family in, i. , , , ; position in the french empire, iii. ; sends deputation to paris, iii. . =flushing=, holland's indemnity for, ii. ; english capture of, iii. ; _n._ builds ships at, . =fombio=, battle of, i. . =fontainebleau=, pius vii, at, ii. ; treaty of, iii. ; social vices at, ; treaty of (oct. , ), ; _n.'s_ court at, , , ; diplomatic negotiations at, ; treaty of (oct. , ), for partition of portugal, , , , , , ; _n.'s_ harsh treatment of josephine at, ; imprisonment of pius vii at, , , , ; the decree (of oct. , ), iii. ; the concordat of, , ; military movements near, iv. , , ; _n._ at, , , ; _n._ reviews the guard at, , ; treasonable utterances of the marshals at, ; scene of _n.'s_ abdication, - ; council of war at, ; treaty of (april, ), - , , , - , ; _n._ leaves, for elba, . =fontanes, marquis de=, oration on washington by, ii. ; retires from presidency of the senate, iii. ; grand master of the university, . =fontenaye, mme. de=, i. . _see also_ =tallien, mme=. =forchheim=, _n.'s_ base, ii. . =forez regiment=, the, i. . =forfait, p. a. l.=, secretary of the navy, ii. . =förstgen=, military operations near, iv. . =fort bard=, ii. . =fort carré=, _n.'s_ confinement in, i. - . =fortification=, _n.'s_ essay on, iv. . =fort luco=, fires on french ship at porto di lido, i. , . =fort mulgrave=, capture of, i. . =fouché, joseph=, describes atrocities at toulon, i. ; opposes robespierre, ; minister of police, ii. , , ; joins the bonapartist ranks, ; detection of plots by, ; _n.'s_ confidence in, ; attitude toward the conspirators of nivôse, ; suspected of jacobinism, ; disgraced, degraded, and banished, , ; iii. , ; character, ii. ; iii. , , , ; iv. ; instigates moreau's letter to _n._, ii. ; urges action against bourbon plotters, ; ordered to supervise correspondence from the army, iii. ; created duke of otranto, ; licenses vice in paris, ; whips in the nobility to the imperial court, ; favors ferdinand vii, , ; share in the matter of josephine's divorce, , ; raises national guards for service in the netherlands, ; on the second marriage of _n._, ; advocates alliance with russia, ; member of extraordinary council on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; raises troops to repel the walcheren expedition, ; the superserviceable mephistopheles of the empire, ; intervenes in holland's negotiations with england, ; english-dutch conspiracy, ; returns from exile in italy, ; memorializes against war, ; warns _n._ of the fate of charles xii, ; recalled to active service, ; double intrigues of, iv. ; neutrality of, ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, ; military conspiracy of, ; plots against _n._, , ; attitude after waterloo, , ; member of the new directory, ; refuses responsibility for _n.'s_ safety, . =fougé, mme.=, _n.'s_ relations with, ii. . =fouquier-tinville, a. q.=, execution of, i. . =fourcroy, a. f.=, member of the council of state, ii. , ; organizer of the educational system of france, , . =fourth artillery=, treason in the, i. . =fourth regiment=, _n.'s_ service in the, i. , . =fox, charles james=, on french military successes, i. ; reports _n._ as favorable to peace, ii. ; defends france in parliament, ; visits _n._ at paris, ; bias toward france, ; lays aside french sympathies, ; secretary of state, ; becomes prime minister, ; declares war against prussia, ; negotiations with _n._, , ; supposed peace policy of, ; upholds the claims of existing sovereignties in europe, ; compelled to adopt pitt's program, ; death, ; iii. . =foy, gen. m. s.=, masséna's envoy to paris, iii. , ; brings orders for reinforcements, ; in the waterloo campaign, iv. ; battle of waterloo, . =france=, convention with genoa regarding corsica, i. , ; emulation of england, ; her colonial ambitions, possessions, and losses, , ; ii. , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , ; precedent for her aid to american colonies, i. ; relation of the army to the throne, ; _n._ studies her history and politics, , , ; _n.'s_ bitterness against, , , , , ; outbreak of the revolution of in, et seq.; social conditions and customs, the domestic relations, etc., - , , , ; ii. , - , , , , ; iii. - , - , - , - , ; iv. , , - , - ; financial troubles, issues of paper money, financial policies and reforms, i. , , ; ii. , , , , , , - ; iii. , , , , , , , - , - ; iv. ; declared a limited monarchy, i. ; the rise of popular government, ; destruction of feudalism, ; iii. , ; adoption of the tricolor, i. ; the end of absolutism, ; the title and position of the king, , , ; corsica and navarre joined to, ; disorganization of the army, ; changes in, - ; patriotism, spirit of national unity, military enthusiasm, etc., , , , , - , ; ii. , , , ; iii. , , , , , , ; iv. , ; the first stage of transformation in, i. ; famine, ; the problem of government, - , ; geographical reconstruction, ; failure of reform, ; split on the subject of monarchy, ; the national oath, ; fear of war, ; vicissitudes of royalism in; bourbon and anti-bourbon sentiment and intrigues, , , , ; ii. , , , , , ; iv. , , , - , ; desertion of troops to austria, i. ; anarchy, , ; outbreak of insurrection, june , , ; the republic, ; expected coalition against, ; efforts at and failures of constitutional government, , ; ii. , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , , , (_see also_ specific constitutions mentioned infra); abolition of the monarchy, i. , , ; ii. ; declaration of the republic, i. ; establishment of an executive council, ; political parties, ; the republican calendar, ; ii. , , ; the dictatorship, i. ; preparing for foreign war, ; declares war against england, ; _n.'s_ personal relations with and influence on; the likes and dislikes of the french people for _n._, - , , ; ii. , , , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. - , - , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , ; civil war, i. et seq.; ii. , ; massacres, i. ; militarism, - , ; ii. ; iii. ; difficulties of a new political program, i. - ; confiscation of lands, ; adoption of ancient roman governmental systems, ; the directory, , et seq.; land and labor troubles, ; purging of the army, ; military successes, ; territorial ambitions, ; suspected influences in the army, ; the constitution of , , , , , - , , - ; ii. , , ; reaction in, i. ; condition of the press, ; ii. , , , ; growth of science, literature, and the arts, i. ; iii. , - , , ; woman in, i. ; british views of affairs in, ; english fleet on northern coast, ; military dictatorship, ; parties, ; the regicides in, ; coalitions against, ; ii. , , , ; cursed by absolutism, i. ; the popular conception of its boundaries, ; struggle for and achievement of liberty and civil rights, - ; ii. , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , , ; the th vendémiaire, i. ; foreign policy, ; intestinal troubles, ; military dictator of europe, ; condition at opening of , ; a new lease of national life for, ; military strength and recuperative power, - ; ii. , , , ; iii. , , , , - ; iv. , , , , , , , , ; vicissitudes of her naval power, i. - ; ii. , , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. ; apex of revolutionary greatness, i. ; preëminence in europe, ; rejoicings over lodi, ; foreign populations well disposed toward, ; eastern policy, ; ii. ; dissatisfaction with treaty of leoben, i. ; desire for peace, ii. , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , , ; suicide among naval officers, ii. ; internal administration, offices and office-holders, and public works, , , - , - , , ; iii. , , , , , , ; iv. , ; the th of fructidor, ii. ; martial law in, ; punctiliousness in exacting war indemnities, ; exasperation at england's mastery of the seas, ; aspirations toward "liberty of the seas," ; educational methods and reforms, , - ; iii. , - ; iv. , ; _n._ constructive commander-in-chief, ii. ; makes war only against tyrannical dynasties, ; schemes of world-conquest, ; popular ideas concerning the egyptian campaign, ; _n._ summoned to take supreme command, ; elections, may, , ; relations between church and state, religious sentiment, the clergy, etc., , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , ; iv. , , , , ; fears of a revival of the terror, ii. ; the draft in, ; iii. (_see also_ =conscription=); arbitrary tariff in, ii. ; thirst for glory and booty in, , , , ; iii. , , ; iv. , ; the constitution of , ii. , , , , , , , , , , , ; "the pear is ripe," , ; need of a cromwell, ; feelings of the various parties, ; adoption of the roman consular system, ; the plebiscite of dec. , , , ; the new charter, ; compulsory loans, ; disgust at demagogues, ; results of the upheaval of brumaire, ; taxation methods and reforms, , , , ; iii. , , ; end of the provisional consulate, ii. ; two policies open to _n._, ; confidence in the new administration, ; english preparations to invade, ; the inveterate foe of england, ; salaries of the first consul, consuls, and other officers, ; the legislative system, - , ; iii. (_see also_ titles of its various branches); the judicial system, and legal abuses and reforms, ii. - , - , , ; iv. , ; isolation against england and austria, ii. ; _n.'s_ scheme of leadership among nations, ; her fate identified with that of _n._, ; inefficiency of the department of war, ; use of the term "citizen," ; public festivals, ; use of the term "empire," , ; the center of a system of republics, ; characteristics and temperaments of her people, , , , ; iii. ; iv. , , ; satisfaction with the peace of amiens, ii. ; _n.'s_ reorganization of, et seq.; aspirations toward a european empire, ; position in europe in , ; political centralization, , ; iii. ; iv. , , , ; usury in, ii. ; iii. , ; iv. ; speculation in, ii. ; the ministry of the interior, ; crime in, ; confiscation of crown and emigrants' lands, ; levy of forced contributions by, ; revival of the public credit, ; commerce, agriculture, and industries in, , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , ; iv. ; compared with the roman empire, ii. ; tendency toward one-man government, ; discontent of the republicans, ; tendency toward a paternal government, ; the consulate compared with the roman empire, ; plebiscite on question of hereditary consulship, , ; prerogatives of the government, ; her cup of satisfaction full, ; _n._ the personification of, ; autocratic power of the government, ; restoration of public confidence, ; sanctions _n.'s_ schemes of european reorganization, ; arbitrary shipping regulation, ; protective policy, ; restores the slave-trade, ; sequestrations of english property in, ; influence of the bourgeoisie, ; prepares naval armaments, ; importation of english goods into, forbidden, ; disregard for treaty stipulations, ; seizure of english prisoners of war in, ; declares embargo on british ships, ; failure of the revolution to give political freedom to, ; effect of moreau's fate on the moderate republicans, ; police system, , ; iv. ; law of treason in, ii. ; indignation over the death of the duc d'enghien, ; the days before the empire, et seq.; _n.'s_ conception of the empire, , ; question of consular heredity, ; reforms in, ; creation of the empire, et seq.; the constitution of , ; the question of hereditary empire, ; imperial titles in, ; creation of marshals, ; _n.'s_ civil list, ; the imperial heraldic device, ; _n.'s_ distinction between the state and the empire, , , ; scheme of a great empire, ; her generals and admirals contrasted, ; blockades european ports, ; destruction of the pope's hopes for ecclesiastical matters in, ; restoration of the gregorian calendar, ; european apprehensions as to her assumptions, ; decline in government bonds, ; iii. ; iv. ; union of the crowns of italy and, ii. ; position in the european balance, ; iii. ; military commanders, ii. ; naval power shattered at trafalgar, ; preëminence of, ; the court of ( ), , ; the imperial catechism, ; venality of officials, ; iii. ; continental conquests, ii. ; right of search and impressment, ; the supports of the empire, iii. ; likened to a cephalopod, ; founding of military factories, ; declares war against england ( ), ; colonial trade, rule of . ; closes harbors to english ships, ; to mediate between russia and turkey, ; desire for naval allies, ; effect of the treaty of tilsit in, ; her european relations, ; lays other countries under commercial tribute, ; journeys of the emperor and empress through, ; the semitic question in, - ; iv. ; panic of , iii. ; appreciation of government bonds, ; prosperity, ; creation of hereditary legislators, ; the right of entail, , ; the aristocracy, - ; creation of a noble class, , ; salaries of ministers and ambassadors, ; the prefecture, ; restriction of commerce with the united states, ; lack of an heir to the throne, ; proposed supremacy in europe, ; secret compact with spain for partition of portugal, ; negotiates for rights in spanish colonies, ; welcome to the grand army in, ; rival schools of history in, ; the army and nation exhausted, ; discontent in, , , ; iv. - ; cession of austrian territory to, iii. ; growing independence of the nobility, ; absolutist tendency, ; enthusiasm over _n.'s_ second marriage, - ; transplantation of the ecclesiastical establishments from rome to, , ; creation of the papal departments of rome and trasimenus, , ; overpowered by england at sea, ; monopolies in, ; violations of the continental system in, ; scheme to incorporate new lands into, ; seizure of american vessels by, , ; part of the north sea coast incorporated into the empire, , ; enlargement of the empire, ; vassal states, ; a central bureaucracy in, ; proposal to incorporate spain into, ; the natural extensions of, ; principle of punishment by confiscation, ; russian discrimination against goods from, ; enthusiasm in, over birth of the king of rome, ; the successor to the frankish dominion of charles the great, ; military expenses, ; revenue from contributions, ; the war method of replenishing the treasury, , ; exchange of prisoners with england, ; expeditions against sicily, egypt, and ireland, ; russia's virtual declaration of war against, ; effect of the continental system on industry, ; "flying columns," ; admiration for the empire in, ; general confidence in, ; intrigues leading to the russian campaign of , - ; scarcity of provisions in, ; malet's conspiracy, , ; revolutionary spirit in, , ; effect of the russian failure in, ; civil officials whipped into line, ; relief for soldiers' families, ; plan of regency for, ; reception of stragglers from russia in, ; the stimulus of bad news in, ; seizure of communal domains, ; proposed "guard of honor," ; _n._ threatens to abolish the legislature, ; value of the austrian alliance to, ; possibility of _n.'s_ becoming king of, ; proposed territorial concessions by, ; scheme to confine her to the west bank of the rhine, ; exhaustion of, iv. ; demoralization of the marshals, ; military reverses, ; revulsion of feeling of bavaria and saxony regarding, ; england's determination to crush, ; death throes of the empire, ; her "natural boundaries," ; the frankfort proposals as to territorial changes, - ; hatred of dynastic rule, ; failure of popular sovereignty, ; hatred of feudalism, ; movement for the expulsion of the invaders, ; publication of the allies' proclamation in, ; losses of the wars of - , ; the home guard, ; radical agitation in, ; "sedentary" volunteers, ; panics, ; imperialist sentiment in, - ; invaded by the allies, et seq.; disaffection in the national guard, ; schemes of the allies for invasion of, , , ; the allies determine to confine her to her royal limits, ; the czar's determination to conquer, ; proposal that she continue the war with england, ; attempt to confine _n._ to the boundaries of royal, ; marauding excesses of the allies, ; irregular warfare in, ; empty arsenals in, ; the dissolution of the empire, ; proposed forms of government for, ; under three forms of government, ; the provisional government seeks the emperor's death by assassination, ; regeneration of, ; proposed perpetuation of the empire, ; _n._ renounces the throne of, ; pensions _n._, ; the virtue of the french burgher, ; fails to pay _n.'s_ pension, , , ; formation of the new upper chamber, ; restored to position of a great power, ; louis xviii's constitution, ; change of public opinion, - ; comparative expenses of the kingdom and the empire, ; return of the emigrants to, ; restriction of the suffrage, ; release of prisoners of war, ; "paternal anarchy" in, , ; abolition of orphan asylums, ; _n.'s_ march through, on his return from elba, - ; visions of a reunited, ; _n.'s_ plans for, on returning from elba, ; returned emigrants banished from, ; _n._ the "liberator" of, ; the apostle of popular sovereignty in, ; abolition of privilege and divine right, , ; the new cabinet, ; reconstruction of the house of peers, ; promulgation of the additional act, ; plebiscite in, ; the specter of war in, , ; bitterness of the nobles, ; pledged to self-defense only, ; reconstituted corps of marshals, ; the "french fury," ; austrian and prussian schemes for the humiliation of, ; carnot advises a dictatorship for, ; organization of a new directory, ; demands for _n.'s_ abdication, ; appointment of committee of public safety, ; the allies in, ; the white terror, ; reconstruction, ; confiscation of the imperial domain, ; the revolution in, - ; the teacher of europe, ; the heir of rome, ; enthusiasm for principle, ; the third estate, , ; overthrow of the old régime, ; protestantism in, ; the new régime, ; tendency toward revolution, ; the terror, ; conspiracies in, ; rupture of the treaty of amiens, ; trial of a single-headed government, ; abandonment of the people to _n.'s_ purposes, ; character of the wars with england, ; the french tradition, ; present conditions of government, ; hopes for the future, ; progress between and , ; _n._ the forerunner of modern, ; the seven years' war, . see also names of persons or places connected with events in, passim. =francis i= (emperor of austria), scheme of territorial aggrandizement, i. ; opposes the army of the rhine, ; greed for italian territory, , ; ii. ; prepares for flight into hungary, i. ; offers _n._ a principality and settled income, ii. ; declines to send diplomatic agent to paris, ; _n._ writes personal letter to, ; military plans for , ; letter from _n._ to, june, , ; his claims of empire, ; dismemberment of his empire, ; advised of _n.'s_ seizure of the crown of italy, ; declares war against france, sept. , , ; attempts negotiations with _n._, ; inaugurates peace negotiations, ; secures an armistice, ; interview with _n._ after austerlitz, ; iii. ; iv. ; proposes to continue the war, ii. ; abandons his germanic crown, ; outwitted by andréossy, ; resolves on neutrality, ; attitude during the eylau campaign, iii. ; _n._ offers silesia to, ; his "divine right," ; character, ; the czar's influence with, ; _n._ demands that he disarm, ; compact between russia and france against, ; reproached by _n._ from erfurt, ; decides to strike _n._ during his spanish difficulties, ; abused by _n._, , ; treatment of hungary, ; seeks aid of frederick william, ; fails to secure advantage after aspern, ; obstinacy of, ; his position after wagram, ; hopes of continuing the war, ; assumes command of the army, ; trusts to dilatory negotiations, ; concedes _n.'s_ demands, ; gets no support from alexander, ; proposal that he abdicate, , ; peace negotiations between _n._ and, ; angered at the treaty of schönbrunn, ; at marriage of maria louisa, ; asks aid against russian aggression, ; alarmed at russian successes on the danube, ; acquires galicia, ; dean of the sovereigns at dresden, ; _n._ seeks to hold his adhesion, ; lukewarmness toward _n._, ; dread of _n._, ; letter from _n._, ; _n.'s_ reply to his peace proposals, ; _n.'s_ dread of, ; at gitschin, ; conference with nesselrode, ; political use of his daughter, ; seeks alliance with alexander, ; letter from metternich, june , , ; ratifies the treaty of reichenbach, ; reception of _n.'s_ attempts to bribe austria, ; fears french invasion of vienna, iv. ; letter from _n._, sept., , ; declines to treat after leipsic, ; anxiety for the future of absolutism, ; distrust of his allies, ; discovers the royal ancestry of the buonapartes, ; proposed cession of alsace to, ; to maria louisa on the situation, ; _n._ demands the frankfort proposals from, ; narrow escape from capture at bar-sur-aube, ; joins the army of the south at lyons, ; relations with his allies, ; letter from _n._ to, march , , ; at dijon, , ; _n._ seeks the aid of, through maria louisa, ; maria louisa takes refuge with, , ; seeks the dissolution of his daughter's marriage, ; desires _n.'s_ exile, ; keeps his daughter a virtual prisoner, ; besought for _n.'s_ release, . =francisco, don= (infante of spain), ordered to bayonne, iii. . =franconia=, treaty with france, , i. ; french occupation of, ii. ; iii. ; the campaign in, ; exploits of the black legion in, . =frankfort-on-the-main=, occupied by custine, i. ; member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. ; french demonstrations near, ; the principality transferred from dalberg to prince eugène, iii. ; furnishes new levies, ; parley of the allies at, iv. - ; , ; _n._ adheres to the proposals of, , , . =frasnes=, military operations at, iv. , , . =fraternity=, decreed, i. . =frederick vi=, signs treaty of fontainebleau, iii. ; hopes to acquire sweden, ; assists in the continental system, . =frederick august i=, elector of saxony, accepts french terms after jena, ii. ; proposed exchange of poland for saxony, iii. ; made king of saxony, ; acquires the grand duchy of warsaw, ; interview with _n._ at dresden, ; peculiar relations toward _n._, , , ; offers his troops to austria, ; difficult position of, ; declares himself favorable to france, ; love for his capital, iv. ; sent prisoner to berlin, ; released by _n._ from his engagements, . =frederick the great=, opinion of paoli, i. ; defeats austria, ; his military genius and principles of warfare, , , ; ii. ; iv. , ; contrasted with _n._, i. , ; ii. ; attitude toward austria, ; statue at the tuileries, ; territorial acquisitions, ; _n.'s_ visit to, and spoliation of the tomb of, ; self-coronation, iii. ; end of his system, ; _n._ repudiates the military ideas of, ; _n.'s_ analysis of the wars of, iv. ; _n.'s_ study of, . =frederick william i=, his civil and military administration, ii. ; school system of, . =frederick william ii=, reign of, ii. . =frederick william iii=, sieyès's mission to, ii. ; _n._ offers the friendship of france to, ; character and personality, , , , , ; iii. , , , , ; iv. ; refuses to make alliance with _n._, ii. ; neutrality of, , , , ; motive in joining the "armed neutrality," ; _n.'s_ threatening message to, ; friendly to france, ; letter to _n._, may, , ; swears friendship with alexander i, ; joins the third coalition, ; signs away prussian independence, ; threatens to abdicate, ; proposes the organization of a north german confederation, ; mobilizes the army, ; demands the french evacuation of germany, ; declares war, ; at naumburg, ; reluctance for war, , ; military blunders, ; in battle of auerstädt, , ; sues for peace, ; flight from jena, ; refuses to accept an armistice, ; desperation of, ; precarious situation at königsberg, iii. ; _n._ opens negotiations with, ; refuses _n.'s_ overtures, ; refuses to negotiate separate peace, ; desperate situation, ; his "divine right," ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, , , ; armistice arranged with, ; meeting with the emperors at tilsit, - , - ; humiliation of, ; calls on his queen for aid, ; spoils interview between _n._ and his queen, ; death of, ; residence at memel, ; in need of comforts, ; sequestration of his westphalian estates, ; friendship with alexander, ; at st. petersburg, ; proposes alliance with austria, ; refuses aid to francis, ; secret armament by, ; denounces schill, ; withdraws from offer of alliance, ; sounds austria, ; offers alliance to alexander, ; at dresden, ; _n._ seeks to hold his adhesion, ; prussian disregard of, ; nominally degrades york, ; forced to a decision, ; negotiates with _n._, ; removes the court to breslau, ; grief at death of the queen, ; mobilizes the army, ; declares war, ; proposed allotment of territory to, ; mediocrity in military affairs, iv. ; in military council at trachenberg, ; anxiety for the future of absolutism, ; distrust of his allies, ; dissatisfied with the frankfort terms, ; seeks the retention of prussian acquisitions, ; letter to blücher, feb. , , ; at congress of châtillon, ; attitude toward francis, ; favors movement on paris, ; violates armistice before paris, ; his relations with alexander, ; enters paris, ; at the peace council in paris, ; approves the bourbon restoration, ; deceived by the parisians' reception, ; alleged indelicacy of his visit to the empress at rambouillet, ; system of promotion in the army, . =frederick william iv= (crown prince), a suitor for a napoleonic princess, iii. ; persuades york to rejoin blücher, iv. . =frederick, king of würtemberg=, at the erfurt conference, iii. ; marries his daughter to jerome buonaparte, ii. . =free trade=, demand for, in corsica, i. . =freiburg=, duc d'enghien prepares to retire to, ii. ; military movements near, ii. . =fréjus=, _n._ lands at, ii. ; iv. ; _n.'s_ triumphant progress to paris from, ii. ; place of _n.'s_ embarkation changed from st. tropez to, iv. ; arrival of _n._ at, . ="french citizen," the=, change of name to "french courier," iii. . ="french courier," the=, iii. . =french empire, the=, the emperor the head of, ii. ; distinguished from france, . =french language=, _n.'s_ use of the, i. . =frère, gen.=, success at segovia, iii. . =fréron, louis s.=, in siege of toulon, i. , ; bloodthirsty character, ; _n.'s_ friendship with, ; opposes robespierre, ; influence among the thermidorians, ; social life in paris, ; a dantonist, ; uses influence in _n.'s_ behalf, , ; flirtation with pauline buonaparte, ; commissioner at marseilles, . =friant, gen.=, marches toward ingolstadt, iii. ; in battle of borodino, . =fribourg=, the plundering of, ii. . =frick valley=, to be ceded to austria, ii. . =friedland=, battle of, iii. - ; the campaign reviewed, - ; alexander's pliableness after, ; battle of, compares with that at beresina, iv. . =friedrichshamn=, treaty of, iii. . =friedrichstadt=, fighting at, iv. . =friends of the constitution, the=, i. . =frischermont=, the farms of, iv. ; the french position at, . =friuli=, retreat of wurmser's troops through, i. ; quasdanowich's strength in, ; archduke charles in, ; campaign in, et seq.; ceded by austria to italy, ii. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; duroc created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =duroc=. =fromentières=, military operations near, iv. . =fructidor, the th of=, ii. ; _n.'s_ responsibility for, , , ; talleyrand's views of, ; counterstroke to, ; amnesty for the victims of, ; ruptures negotiations at lille, . =fructidorians=, attitude toward _n._, ii. ; the radical wing of the, . =fuenterrabia=, _n._ seeks information concerning, iii. . =fulton, robert=, tries to interest _n._ in steam, ii. . =fuentes de onoro=, battle of, iii. . =fusina=, the french army at, i. . g =gaëta=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. . =gaffori=, i. ; fails to arouse enthusiasm in ajaccio, . =galicia=, russian troops in, ii. ; austria's forces on the frontier of, iii. ; russian invasion of, ; _n._ demands cession of, ; part of, ceded to russia, ; territory of, ceded to grand duchy of warsaw, , , ; austria stipulates for acquisition of, ; ceded to austria, ; poniatowski commanding in, ; alexander proposes to exchange alsace for, iv. . =galitzin, prince=, in battle of eylau, iii. ; invades galicia, ; letter from alexander i, ; alexander's friendship with, ; character, . =gallican church, the=, _n.'s_ study of, i. ; a voluntary, ii. ; _n.'s_ threat to liberate it from rome, iii. ; regulation of its relations with rome, , ; _n.'s_ failure to change, iv. . =gallo=, austrian plenipotentiary at leoben, i. ; austrian plenipotentiary in treaty of campo formio, ii. ; bribed by _n._, . =gambling=, suppression of, iii. . =ganteaume, adm.=, member of the council of state, ii. ; commanding at brest, ; plan of naval operations for, ; fails to run the blockade of brest, . =gap=, _n.'s_ welcome at, on return from elba, iv. . =garat, d. j.=, bonapartist agent in naples, ii. ; royalist intrigues of, iv. . =garda, lake=, military operations near, i. , - , - . =gareau=, rapacity of, i. . =garfagnana=, given to elisa (buonaparte), ii. . =gasparin, a. e.=, member of convention commission for corsica, i. . =gassendi=, _n.'s_ host in nuits, i. . =gassicourt, cadet de=, story of lannes's death-bed, iii. ; prepares poison for _n._, iv. . =gaudin, m. m. c.=, appointed to the treasury, ii. , ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, iv. . =gaza=, capture of, ii. . =gembloux=, _n._ at, iv. ; military movements near, ; grouchy ordered to, , , . =genappe=, _n.'s_ flight through, iv. . =gendarmerie=, formation of the system of, i. . =geneva=, _n._ in, ii. ; to be ceded to france, ; berthier sent to, ; mme. de staël's exile in, iii. ; augereau confronting bubna at, iv. ; surrenders to the allies, . =geneva, lake of=, french forces on the, ii. . ="genius of christianity"= (chateaubriand's), ii. . =genoa=, relation of corsica to, i. ; loses its hold on corsica, ; convention with france regarding corsica, , ; cedes corsica to france, ; the buonaparte family in, ; paoli's fears concerning, ; claims to corsica, , ; _n.'s_ relations with and attitude toward, , - , , ; ii. , ; relations with france, i. , - ; english influence in, ; seizure of french vessel in harbor of, ; counterfeit french money in, ; her neutrality violated, ; preparations for war with, - , ; _n.'s_ scheme of operations against sardinia and, ; neutrality, ; the road opened to, ; reopening of commerce with marseilles, ; political status in , ; levy of enforced contributions from, ; ii. ; military operations against ( ), i, ; french proposition to revolutionize, ; guerrillas from, ; coercive measures against, ; makes alliance with the directory, ; disposition by treaty of leoben, ; french intervention in, ii. ; sends an embassy to montebello, ; revolution in, ; disappearance of genoa the superb, ; commercial greatness, ; plunder of, ; transformed into the ligurian republic, ; trampled under foot by _n._, ; the french line at, ; austria's plans against, ; english expedition against, , ; masséna forced back into, ; siege of, , , , ; the key of, ; surrender of, ; _n._ learns of masséna's disaster at, ; accepts a consular constitution, ; contributes men to france in war of, , ; masséna's defense of, ; french acquisition of, , ; position in the french empire, iii. . =gentili=, member of the directory of corsica, i. ; delegate to the national assembly, ; places ionian islands under french protection, ii. . =gentz, friedrich von=, manifesto against _n._, iii. ; on the campaign of , iv. . =george iii=, recalls paoli to england, i. ; incurs the ill will of paul i, ii. ; receives personal letter from _n._, ; pasquinades on, ; quarrel with pitt over catholic emancipation, ; character, ; fears for absolutism, ; on treaty of amiens, ; message to parliament, march , , ; elector of hanover, ; effect of his imbecility, ; letter from _n._, jan. , , ; negotiations for the return of hanover to, , , ; use of german troops in the american colonies, ; ousts the "all the talents" ministry, iii. ; joint letter from _n._ and alexander to ( ), ; retirement of, iv. ; rupture of the treaty of amiens, . =george iv= (prince regent), attitude toward france ( ), i. ; regency of, iv. ; character, ; besought for asylum for _n._, . =georgia=, france undertakes to drive the russians from, iii. . =gera=, military movements near, ii. . =gérard, gen. e. m.=, created baron, iii. ; battle of borodino, ; seizes montereau, iv. ; moves toward vitry, ; attachment to _n._, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; in the waterloo campaign, et seq.; at châtelet, ; crosses the sambre, , ; battle of ligny, , , ; at walhain, . =gerasdorf=, military operations near, iii. ; archduke charles advances to, . =german church=, _n.'s_ threat to liberate it from rome, iii. . =germanic diet=, prussia's growing ascendancy in the, i. . =german empire=, _n.'s_ scheme to rival the, ii. ; abolished, . =german-roman empire=, decadence of, ii. . =germany=, honors to paoli in, i. ; _n.'s_ study of, ; opposition of, to democracy, ; cedes the left bank of the rhine to france, ; growth of liberal ideas in southern, ; neutrality of northern, ; secularization of church lands in, ; ii. ; republican schemes for, i. ; to be forced to yield the rhine frontier, ; military operations in ( ), ; jourdan's disasters in, ; _n._ enters, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; claim to malta, ii. ; augereau's blundering in, ; plundering in, ; french military arrogance in, ; attitude of the directory toward the ecclesiastical principalities of, ; anti-revolutionary sentiment in, ; jourdan ordered to command in, ; archduke charles commanding in central, ; the seat of liberalism in, ; billeting of french troops in, ; france's pecuniary demands upon, ; _n.'s_ plan for a campaign in central, ; moreau levies contributions on, ; adjustment of the temporal and spiritual principalities of, , ; reduction of austria's ascendancy in, ; france's rights in, according to peace of lunéville, ; franco-russian agreement concerning, ; the code napoléon in, ; effect of the concordat in, ; question of indemnifying displaced princes, ; england's active diplomacy in, et seq.; ; _n.'s_ policy of reorganization in, ; rearrangement of territories, , , ; development of national spirit, regeneration, and unification in, , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , , , , , ; strength of the military party and anti-french sentiment in , ii. ; _n.'s_ eye to invasion of, ; moreau's levies on, ; homage to _n._ by the princes of, ; _n.'s_ claim to, ; alexander i's scheme for partition of, ; _n._ threatens to invade, ; archduke ferdinand commanding in, ; high-handed proceedings of the french army in, ; extension of the french empire in, ; humiliation of, et seq.; state of religion and morality in, ; scheme for unity of the church in, ; good-will to _n._ in western, ; the germanic empire abolished, ; french occupation of southern, , ; russia's pretensions in, ; _n.'s_ intention to evacuate, ; frederick william demands the evacuation of, ; austria asks for rearrangement of, iii. ; its composite character, ; french nobility endowed with lands in, ; liberal movement in, ; austria looks for indemnities in, ; hopes of the hapsburgs to regain lost territory in, ; archduke charles's address to, ; insurrections in, ; hatred of _n._ in, ; french occupation of the coast, ; french evacuation of southern, ; confiscation in, ; mme. de staël's book on, ; withdrawal of french troops from, ; influence of prussia in, ; proposed new boundaries for, ; feelings toward _n._ in, ; withdrawal of the hapsburgs from the leadership of, ; conspiracies in, ; revolutionary feeling in, ; russian proclamation to, ; sweden sends troops to, ; austria aims at recovering ascendancy in, ; purpose of the allies to restore states in, iv. ; the retreat from, ; proposed influence for _n._ in, ; prussia's ambition for leadership in, ; _n.'s_ influence in the creation of modern, ; the federation of, . ="germany in her deepest humiliation,"= ii. . =gernstädt=, military operations near, ii. . =gerry, elbridge=, talleyrand attempts to corrupt, ii. . =ghent=, flight of louis xviii to, iv. . =giacominetta=, _n.'s_ childish love, i. . =gibraltar=, i. ; nelson sails for, ii. ; nelson waters his ships at, ; importance of, iii. . =gibraltar, straits of=, villeneuve ordered to, ii. . ="gilded youth," the=, i. . =gilgenburg=, ney and bernadotte escape to, iii. ; military movements near, , . =ginguené, p. l.=, bonapartist agent in turin, ii. . =gironde, department of the=, exempt from legislation concerning jews, iii. . =gironde, river=, _n._ proposes to seek asylum on american ship in the, iv. . =girondists, the=, form a ministry, i. ; the fall from the ministry, ; leaders of, ; position in the national convention, ; struggle between the jacobins and, ; favor louis xvi, ; failure of their policy, ; defeat the jacobins in marseilles, ; movement of marseillais on paris, ; retreat from avignon, ; their cause discussed in the "supper of beaucaire," , ; prepare toulon for siege, ; deliver the fleet at toulon to lord hood, ; murders of, at toulon, ; overawed by danton and marat, ; effects of their policy, ; failure of, , ; their part in organizing the directory, ; influence on the new constitution, ; royalism among, . =girzikowitz=, military operations near, ii. . =gitschin=, francis i. at, iii. . =glatz=, siege of, iii. . =glogau=, held by the french, iii. ; relieved by victor, . =glory=, the french passion for, ii. , ; iii. . =gneisenau, gen. august=, institutes military reforms in prussia, iii. ; military ability, iv. , , ; spurs up bernadotte at leipsic, ; aims to annihilate _n._, ; warns blücher against over-confidence, ; in waterloo campaign, , ; orders the prussian retreat to wavre, , ; his title to fame, , ; holds blücher's troops, ; doubts wellington's ability to stand at waterloo, ; in battle of waterloo, , . =godoy, manuel de=, prime minister of spain, ii. , ; relations with queen louisa, , , ; iii. , , , ; the "prince of the peace," ii. ; iii. ; proposed kingdom for, in portugal, , ; spanish revolt against, ; treachery to _n._, ; ill-gotten wealth, ; relations with _n._, , ; waning power and downfall of, , , , , ; causes arrest of ferdinand, ; ferdinand's charges against, ; becomes aware of _n.'s_ policy, ; skill in diplomacy, ; refuses to assent to french seizure of portugal, ; appalled at the french invasion, ; contemplates a bourbon monarchy in america, ; clamor for his death, ; capture of, ; seeks protection of ferdinand, ; destruction of his property, ; proposed trial of, , , ; hinted order that he come to france, , ; summoned to bayonne, ; popular hatred of, ; at compiègne, ; infamy of, . =goethe, johann w. von=, meetings with _n._, iii. ; decorated at erfurt, ; on _n._, , ; the idealist among thinkers, iv. . =gohier, m.=, member of the directory, ii. ; represents jacobin element in the directory, ; falls under josephine's influence, ; president of the directory, ; joins the bonapartist ranks, ; proposed resignation of, ; seeks counsel with barras, ; refuses to resign, ; imprisonment of, , . =gohlis=, military operations near, iv. - . =goldbach, river=, military operations on the, ii. - , . =golden book, the=. _see_ =venice=. =goltz=, at tilsit, iii. , ; interview with _n._, . =golynim=, military operations near, iii. . =görz=, ceded to france, iii. . =göss=, castle of, treaty of leoben signed in, i. . =gosselies=, military operations near, iv. , . =gotha=, imprisonment of st. aignan at, iv. . =göttingen=, bernadotte ordered to, ii. ; patriotism in the university, iii. . =gourgaud, gen.=, accompanies _n._ to paris, iv. ; advises a return to lorraine, ; requests interview with souham, ; accompanies _n._ to rochefort, ; goes to london to seek english asylum for _n._, ; accompanies _n._ to st. helena, ; mission to secure _n.'s_ release, ; assists _n._ on his history, . =government=, rousseau's views on, i. ; the centralization of, ii. ; the mystery of, iii. . =gradisca=, storming of, i. . =graham, gen.=, commanding english troops in the netherlands, iv. . =grain=, monopoly of trade in, i. . =grand army, the=, _n.'s_ distrust of, iii. ; passes from prussia to spain, ; murat commanding the remnants of, ; demoralization of, ; crosses the niemen, . =grandmaison=, charges plots among the five hundred, ii. . =granville, lord=, on affairs in france, i. . =grasse=, _n.'s_ march through, on return from elba, iv. . =graudenz=, precarious situation of the garrison of, iii. ; bennigsen attempts to succor, ; demanded by _n._ as a pledge, . =gravina, adm.=, escapes from trafalgar, ii. . =great britain=, the modern empire of, ii. . _see also_ =england=. ="great elector,"= the office of, ii. , . =great görschen=, fighting at, iii. . =great raigern=, military operations near, ii. . =great st. bernard pass=, the passage of the, ii. - . ="great terror," the=, i. . =greece= (=ancient=), influence on french art, iii. ; effects of ambition in, iv. ; the history of, . =greece=, nelson seeks the french fleet at, ii. ; proposal that france take, iii. ; _n._ plans the liberation of, ; the national awakening of, iv. . =grégoire, henri=, influence on the consulate, ii. ; royalist intrigues of, . =gregorian calendar=, restoration of the, ii. . =gregory vii=, ii. . =grenadier guards=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =grenier, gen.=, in battle of hohenlinden, ii. ; division commander under eugène, iii. . =grenoble=, pius vii a prisoner at, iii. , ; _n.'s_ march to, on return from elba, iv. ; imperial proclamation at, ; obeys _n.'s_ summons to surrender, ; _n.'s_ welcome at, ; _n._ at, . =grenville, lord=, letter to talleyrand from, ii. ; on _n.'s_ wickedness, . =grisons, the=, quarrel between the valtellina and, ii. ; austrian violation of neutrality in, ; kray's communications via, to be cut, . =grodno=, jerome at, iii. . =gros, a. j.=, painter, ii. ; created a baron, . =grosbois=, residence of barras, ii. . =grossbeeren=, battle of, iv. , , . =gross-ebersdorf=, military operations near, iii. . =grouchy, gen. e.=, in battle of hohenlinden, ii. ; at tilsit, iii. ; commanding cavalry in russian campaign of , ; in battle of vauchamps, iv. ; recreated marshal, ; movements and orders in the waterloo campaign, et seq., , , - , , , ; letter to _n._, june , , , ; suspected unwillingness of, ; gérard to coöperate with, ; uneasy conscience of, ; garbled account of waterloo by, ; at walhain, , ; criticism of, ; at wavre, ; _n.'s_ reliance on, , ; ordered to retire on namur, , ; responsibility for disaster at waterloo, ; victory at wavre, ; leads his army back to france, . =guadarrama mountains=, _n._ crosses the, iii. - . =guadeloupe=, french plans to strengthen, ii. . "=guardian angel, the=," near craonne, the emperor's night at, iv. , . "=guard of honor=," the proposed, iii. . =guards= (=english=), in battle of waterloo, iv. . =guastalla=, given to pauline (buonaparte), ii. ; granted to maria louisa, iv. . =guastalla, duchess of=, pauline created, iii. . =gudin, gen.=, in battle of pultusk, iii. ; in the eckmühl campaign, . =guérin, pierre n.=, created baron, iii. . =guernsey=, russian soldiers transported to, ii. . =guiana=, pichegru escapes from, ii. . =guidai=, engaged in malet's conspiracy, iii. . =guieu, gen.=, in the rivoli campaign, i. , . =guilleminot, gen.=, mediator between russia and turkey, iii. ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . =guillotine, the=, work of, i. . =güldengossa=, military operations near, iv. . =günzburg=, mack essays to cross the danube at, ii. . =gustavus adolphus=, scene of his defeat of wallenstein, iii. . =gustavus iv=, king of sweden, hated by his subjects, iii. ; in pomerania, ; weakness of, ; gives place to charles xiii, . =guyot=, battle of waterloo, iv. . =gyuläi=, austrian diplomatic agent, ii. . =gyulay, gen.=, battle of leipsic, iv. , . h =hadrian i=, charles the great's donation to, revoked by _n._, iii. . =hague, the=, removal of the capital to amsterdam from, iii. . =hal=, wellington's troops at, iv. , . =halberstadt=, the black legion's escape through, iii. . =halkett, hugh=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =halle=, bernadotte's victory at, ii. ; the black legion's escape through, iii. ; patriotism in the university, ; blücher's advance to, iv. , . =hamburg=, negotiations between france and prussia concerning, ii. ; laid under contribution, , ; closed to british commerce, ; seizure of rumbold at, ; proposal to give it to prussia, ; french occupation of, ; spanish troops in, iii. ; bernadotte's force in, ; smuggled commerce of, ; scheme to incorporate with france, ; position in the french empire ; sends deputation to paris, ; rising against the french garrison, ; captured by vandamme, ; danish troops sent to, ; occupied by davout, ; the status quo to be maintained in, ; _n._ offers the city to austria, ; end of _n.'s_ defensive line, iv. ; davout besieged at, . =hameln=, attempt to besiege, ii. ; capitulation of, . =hamilton, alexander=, u. s. treasury system, iv. . =hanau=, oudinot's command in, iii. ; battle of, iv. ; compared to krasnoi, . =hannibal=, _n.'s_ allusion to, i. ; his passage of the alps, ii. , . =hanover=, _n._ threatens to seize, ii. ; george iii, elector of, ; french occupations of, , , , , iii. , ; prussia negotiates with france for, ii. , ; the french garrison replaced by prussians, ; ceded to prussia, , , ; negotiations for its return to george iii, , , ; attempt to drive the french from, ; troops in pomerania, iii. ; allotted to jerome, ; jerome deprived of part of, ; excepted from the scheme of prussian aggrandizement, ; england abandons scheme for extension of, ; prussia promises to cede part of saxony to, ; proposed cession of hildesheim to, ; restored to its former ruler, iv. ; campaign of the hundred days, et seq. =hanover, the house of=, ii. . =hanseatic towns=, free cities, ii. ; joachim i's aspirations concerning, ; proposal to include in north german confederation, ; hesitate to reply to prussia, ; neutrality of, iii. ; virtual dependence on france, ; smuggled commerce of, ; scheme to incorporate them with france, ; _n._ offers to evacuate, ; offered to louis for brabant and zealand, ; england threatened with loss of trade with, ; _n._ refuses to cede points concerning, ; proposal that france evacuate the, ; proposed independence of the, ; iv. . =happiness=, _n._ on, i. . =hapsburg, house of=, end of its policy of territorial expansion, ii, ; effect of the bayonne negotiations on, iii. et seq.; seeks indemnity for lost domains, ; hopes of regaining lost territory, ; demoralization in, ; matrimonial alliance with _n._, , ; iv. ; democratic blows at the dignity of, iii. ; iv. ; withdraws from the leadership of germany, iii. . =harcourt=, on affairs in france, i. . =hardenberg, prince k. a. von=, aims at consolidation of prussia, ii. ; dismissal of, ; iii. , , ; prussian minister, ii. . iii; ; at tilsit, ; proposes the partition of turkey, ; seeks refuge in vienna, ; effect of his reforms, ; metternich's negotiations with, ; hostility to _n._, . =harel=, share in the execution of d'enghien, ii. . =hassenhausen=, engagement at, ii. . =hatzfeldt, prince=, court-martialed and sentenced to death, ii. ; the sentence commuted, . =haugwitz, count=, prussian envoy to france, ii. , ; policy after austerlitz, ; concludes treaty with france, ; demand for the disgrace of, . =hauterive, duhoux d'=, royalist leader, i. ; reviews french situation in , ii. . =havelburg=, french troops at, iii. . =havre=, france's alleged naval preparations at, ii. . =hébert, j. r.=, leader of the exagérés, i. ; terrorist, . =heddersdorf=, defeat of the austrian, by hoche at, i. . =heidenheim=, the french position at, ii. . =heilsberg=, ney retreats from, iii. ; bennigsen reaches, , ; battle of, ; _n._ concentrates his army at, ; the russians abandon, ; _n.'s_ peril at, . =heinrichsdorf=, engagement near, iii. . =heliopolis=, battle of, ii. . =helvetian republic, the=, alliance with france, ii. ; formation of, , ; neutrality violated by austria, ; _n._ grand mediator of the, ; english efforts to discredit france in, ; in vassalage to france, iii. . =henry, prince of prussia=, ii. . =henry iii=, _n._ likened to, ii. . =henry iv=, heads the bourbon dynasty, i. ; _n._ discerns likeness to himself, ii. ; _n._ emulates in uxoriousness, iii. . =herat=, proposed franco-russian expedition via, ii. . =herbois, collet d'=, member of the national convention, i. , . =hercules, pillars of=, "the new," iii. . =hereditary nobility=, abolished, ii. . =heredity=, _n._ on, i. . =herodotus=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =hesse=, french march through, ii. ; furnishes contingent to _n.'s_ army, iii. . =hesse-cassel=, excluded from the confederation of the rhine, ii. , ; proposal to include in the confederation, ; hesitates to reply to prussia, ; french occupation of, ; neutrality of, ; organized into the kingdom of westphalia, iii. . =hesse-cassel, house of=, extinction of, ii. . =hesse-darmstadt=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. ; quota of men, ; turns from _n._ to the allies, iv. . =heymès, col.=, records _n.'s_ orders to ney at quatre bras, iv. , . =high admiral=, creation of the office of, ii. . =highways=, _n.'s_ scheme of, ii. . =hildesheim=, apportioned to prussia, ii. ; proposed cession of, to hanover, iii. . =hill, lord=, joins wellington in the peninsula, iii. ; occupies bordeaux, iv. ; in waterloo campaign, . =hiller, gen.=, military operations on the inn, iii. ; movements to support, ; movements before ratisbon, ; driven back to landshut, ; flees to neumarkt, ; bessières pursues, ; crosses the danube at mautern, ; battle of ebelsberg, ; defeats wrede at erding, ; effects junction with charles at bisamberg, , ; drives eugène over the adige, iv. . =hilliers, baraguey d'=, capture of his command in russia, iii. . =history=, the functions and study of, i. , ; iv. ; _n.'s_ study and theory of, i. , , . "=history of corsica=," i. , , , . =hoche, gen. lazare=, defeats wurmser at weissenburg, i. ; commanding army of the west, ; military genius, ; ii. ; campaign in the netherlands, i. ; defeats austria on the rhine, ; expedition to ireland, ; considered for minister of war, ii. ; distrusted by the people, ; death of, . =hofer, andreas=, exploits in the tyrol, iii. ; capture, trial, and death of, ; his family ennobled, , ; his patriotism and fame, ; compared to tell, . =hohenems=, acquired by würtemberg, ii. . =hohenlinden=, battle of, ii. - . =hohenlohe, prince of=, commanding at chemnitz, ii. ; at blankenhain, ; defeated by bernadotte at schleiz, ; in battle of jéna, , ; retreats to prenzlau, ; surrender of, . =hohen-thann=, military movements near, iii. . =hohenzollern=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =hohenzollern, house of=, ii. ; _n._ in the palace of the, ; its territories, ; _n._ contemplates its extinction, ; provisions for french evacuation of its lands, iii. ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, , ; humiliation of, . =holitsch=, interview between francis i and _n._ near, ii. . =hollabrunn=, bagration's stand at, ii. ; soult at, . =holland=, honors to paoli in, i. ; _n.'s_ study of the history of, ; expected enmity of, ; closes the scheldt, ; becomes the batavian republic, ; conquest and occupation by france, ; ii. , ; republican schemes for, i. ; plunder of works of art from, ; organization of the orange party in, ; efforts to check democracy in, ; english conquests of colonies from, ii. ; proposal to make her a dependency of france, ; loss of colonies by, ; compulsory enrolment in the republican system, ; brune's campaign in, , , ; loyalty to _n._, ; indemnity for flushing, ; the code napoléon in, ; iii. ; a new constitution imposed on, ii. ; indemnity to house of orange, ; french guarantees to, ; share in the war of , ; independence of, ; _n.'s_ claim to, ; prussia bound to secure the liberties of, ; louis made king, ; iii. , ; enlistments from, under the french eagles, ; louis's reign in, , , ; vassalage to france recognized at tilsit, ; relations of france with, ; smuggled commerce of, , ; louis's loyalty to the dutch, , ; oudinot ordered to coerce, ; england's paper blockade of, ; visit of _n._ to, ; violates the continental system, - ; _n._ reduces louis to the position of a french governor, ; geographically a part of france, , ; _n.'s_ scheme for the annexation of, ; england threatened with loss of trade with, ; _n._ offers to evacuate, ; opposition to _n._ in, ; seizures of american ships in, ; fouché's english-dutch conspiracy, ; louis abdicates, ; removal of the capital to amsterdam, ; annexed to france, ; popularity of louis in, ; prosperity under french rule, ; the national movement in, ; "the alluvium of france," ; english expedition to, ; incorporated into the french empire, ; _n._ refuses to cede any part of, ; riots in, ; eugène to guard, ; proposal that france evacuate, ; mediocrity of soldiers of, iv. ; _n._ offers to restore independence of, ; english influence in, , ; recalls the prince of orange, ; proposed independence of, . =holland, lord=, advocates _n.'s_ cause in parliament, ii. . =holstein=, threatened french invasion of, iii. ; denmark's loss of, . =holy alliance, the=, iii. ; iv. . =holy inquisition=, abolished in spain, iii. . =holy league, the=, i. . =holy roman empire=, dismemberment of the, ii. ; abolition of, ; desire to substitute a western empire for, ; title of the heir to, iii. . =hood, lord=, seizure at toulon, i. . =hortense, queen=, at malmaison, iv. . _see also_ =beauharnais, hortense de=. =hostage law=, the, ii. , . =hougomont=, the farm-house of, iv. , ; fighting at, - , . =hoyerswerda=, _n._ moves toward, iv. . =hugo, victor=, on _n._, i. ; at school in madrid, iii. . =humanity=, the cause of, i. . =hyères=, retreat of the corsican expedition to, i. . =hulin, gen. p. a.=, presides at trial of duc d'enghien, ii. - ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, iv. . =humboldt, william von=, member of prussian reform party, ii. ; reorganizes the educational system of prussia, iii. ; at congress of prague, iii. . =hundred days=, the campaign of the, iv. et seq.; _n.'s_ monograph on, ; the political question of the, . =hungary=, francis i prepares for flight into, i. ; french machinations in, ii. ; importance of securing to the allies, ; archduke john in, iii. , , , , ; _n.'s_ policy of winning the people of, ; leopold ii's reign, ; francis i's treatment of, . i =iberian peninsula=, proposed appropriation of, iii. . =ibrahim bey=, in the battle of the pyramids, ii. ; fails to assist the rhodes expedition, . =Île dieu=, landing of count of artois on, i. . =iller, gen.=, commanding in the tyrol, ii. . =iller, river=, austrian forces on the, ii. . =illyria=, austrian recruiting in, i. ; marmont in, iii. ; constitution of, ; military government of, ; proposed surrender of, to austria, iii. , , , , iv. . =imagination=, _n's_ prophetic utterance on a disordered, i. . =imperial guard=, at kronach, ii. ; discontent among the, iii. ; strength in poland, , ; at eylau, ; battle of heilsberg, ; battle of friedland, ; exclusiveness of, ; service in spain, , , ; accompanies _n._ from spain to paris, ; strength in march, , ; omission of _n._ to use them at borodino, ; at smolensk, ; at krasnoi, ; on march from smolensk to lithuania, ; _n.'s_ address to, near orcha, ; demoralization of, ; jealousy of the proposed "guard of honor," ; at rippach, ; in battle of lützen, ; the allies' belief in _n.'s_ use of, iv. ; at lauban, ; feat of marching, ; battle of dresden, , ; its losses, ; _n._ reviews the, , ; in waterloo campaign, - ; battle of ligny, ; battle of waterloo, , , ; personnel and morale, ; "dies but never surrenders," . =imperial university=, founding of the, iii. . =imposts=, the regulation of, i. . ="inconstant," the=, _n.'s_ escape from elba in, iv. . =india=, _n.'s_ attention turned toward, i. ; _n.'s_ aspirations for a career in, , , ; ii. ; _n._ given leave to march on, ; importance of _n.'s_ conquering, ; russia's ambition in, , , ; franco-russian plans for invasion of, , ; _n.'s_ dreams of empire in, ; iii. , ; iv. ; _n.'s_ plans for attacking england in, ii. ; proposed french expedition to, ; proposed franco-persian invasion of, iii. ; england's vulnerable heel, , - ; the highway to, . =indus, river=, the, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. . =industry=, improved condition of, ii. ; _n._ advises encouragement of, . =infantado, duke del=, leader of ferdinand vii's party, iii. ; commissioned governor of new castile, . =infantry=, _n.'s_ early views concerning, i. , . ="influence of the passions,"= _n.'s_ study of mme. de staël's, ii. . =ingolstadt=, bernadotte marches to, ii. ; davout to concentrate at, iii. - . =inn quarter=, ceded to austria, ii. ; embodied in the confederation of the rhine, iii. . =inn, river, the=, military movements on, ii. , , ; iii. , , , . =innocent ii=, contrasted with =pius vii=, iii. . =innsbruck=, seized by the tyrolese, iii. ; garrisoned by austrians, ; lefebvre drives tyroleans from, . =inquisition, the holy=, blamed for disorders in spain, iii. . =institute of france=, reorganization of, i. ; talleyrand a member of, ii. , ; elects _n._ a member, , ; part of the educational system of france, . =institutions=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =international law=, the law of colonial trade, iii. , , ; neutral ships and neutral goods, - ; the "rule of ," , ; right of search, , ; contraband of war, ; sanctity of all flags on high seas, ; the law of neutrals, , , ; use of "simulated papers," , . =international understandings=, a hoped-for system of, iv. . =invalides, hospital of the=, trophies from aboukir deposited at, ii. ; inauguration of the empire at, ; distribution of legion of honor crosses at, ; relics of frederick the great sent to, . =ionian islands=, taken under french protection, ii. ; worship of _n._ in, ; france retains, ; suzerainty of turkey over, ; occupied by russia, ; compensation for, iii. ; england's naval watchfulness over, ; military government of, . =ireland=, hoche's expedition to, i. ; plans of french invasion of, ii. , , , ; arrest and dismissal of french consuls in, ; _n._ foments disturbance in, ; volunteer forces in, ; english troops sent to portugal from, iii. ; french expedition against ( ), . =iron mask, the man in the=, i. . =isar, river=, military movements on the, ii. ; iii. - . =isenburg=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =iser mountains=, military movements near, iv. . =islam=, _n._ professes the religion of, ii. . =isola rossa=, patriot success at, i. . =isonzo, river=, military operations on the, i. ; proposed boundary for italy, ii. . =istria=, ceded to austria at leoben, i. ; austrian forces in, ii. ; ceded by austria to italy, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; bessières created duke of, iii. . _see_ also =bessières=. =italian church=, _n._ threat to liberate it from rome, iii. . =italian republic=, _n._ president of the, . =italy=, affinity with corsica, i. , , , ; the root of the buonaparte family in, ; expected enmity of, ; movements of the french fleet against, ; _n.'s_ plan of campaign in, , - ; suspension of offensive operations in, ; opening the roads into, , ; uneasiness in, at english proximity, ; french schemes against english influence in, ; growth of liberal ideas in, ; _n._ claims the honors of the campaign in, ; adoption of _n.'s_ plan of campaign against ( ), ; austria's gaze on, ; _n.'s_ peculiar relations to, and knowledge of, - , ; the battle-field of rival dynasties, ; status in , ; revolutionary spirit in, ; wealth, , , ; cost of the war in, ; _n.'s_ successes in ( ), ; french pillage in, , , ; ii. , , ; the destinies of europe dependent on fate of, i. ; "an artichoke," ; the garden of, ; crushed at lodi, ; levying contributions in, , - , , ; the fate of europe dependent on campaign in, ; _n.'s_ personal views of his campaign in, ; _n.'s_ negotiations with, - ; relations with france, - ; the campaign in, et seq.; austria's fourth attempt to retrieve position in, ; the key of, ; spain's mastery of, ; austria's greed for territory in, ; austria's determination to fight in, ; spread of the revolutionary movement in, ; _n.'s_ organization of native forces in, ; scheme of a central republic for, ; general disarmament of, ; _n._ has free hand in rearrangement of, ii. ; _n.'s_ schemes to master, ; lands in, ceded to austria, ; attitude of the directory toward, ; _n.'s_ reports on the people of, ; _n._ the deliverer of, ; the enlightenment of, ; france's policy toward, ; keeping open gateways into, ; polish troops in, ; _n.'s_ forces in, ; reasons for success of revolutionary propaganda in, ; proposed movements of the allies in, ; joubert's command in, ; french disasters in, , ; dissolution of the republics in, ; france foments quarrels in, ; schérer's blunders in, ; russian military operations in, , ; francis i determined to hold northern, ; _n.'s_ bad faith with the states of, ; french and austrian troops in, ; _n.'s_ plan of campaign in, ( ), et seq.; the reserve army ordered to, ; lecourbe ordered to, ; austrian successes and forces in, ; open to _n.'s_ armies, ; austria agrees to evacuate northern, ; austria seeks concessions in, ; masséna's maladministration in, ; murat commanding in central, ; brune's and macdonald's movements in, ; austria's line in, as fixed at lunéville, ; alleged plans of _n._ to secure principality in, ; _n.'s_ problems in, et seq.; influence of france in, ; franco-russian agreement concerning, ; the code napoléon in, ; iv. ; reorganization of the cisalpine republic, ii. ; _n.'s_ grip on, ; austria's share in, ; moreau's soldiers drafted into, ; the second campaign in, ; restriction of the temporal power in, ; necessity for reorganization, ; union of the crowns of france and, ; coronation of _n._ as king, ; _n.'s_ scheme of independence for, ; _n._ ignores russian interference in, ; prince eugène beauharnais viceroy of, ; _n.'s_ sojourn in, ; austria's ambition concerning, ; eugène beauharnais to organize troops in, ; austria's interest in, ; archduke charles commanding in, ; prussia bound to secure the independence of, ; austrian troops withdrawn to vienna from, ; _n._ proposes to add venetia to, ; acquires friuli and istria, ; acquires dalmatia, , ; _n._ exacts tribute from, ; venetia incorporated into, , ; enlistments from, under the french eagles, iii. ; french dominion recognized at tilsit, ; temporal appointment of bishops in, ; ecclesiastical difficulties in, , ; relations of france with, ; proposal to lay under commercial tribute to france, ; french nobility endowed with lands in, ; _n.'s_ royal progress through, ; _n.'s_ firm hold on, ; as a highway to india, ; lack of an heir to the throne, ; abolition of the hostile strip between naples and, ; annexation of papal states, to, , ; etruria incorporated with kingdom, , ; _n._ visits (nov., ), ; _n._ offers the crown to lucien, ; austria looks for indemnities in, ; hopes of the hapsburgs to regain territory in, ; defeat of prince eugène by archduke john in, ; archduke john in, ; consolidation of, under the napoleon family, ; extinguishment of austria's hopes in, ; the city of rome incorporated with, ; machiavelli and daunou on the attitude of the church of rome toward, ; breaking the chains of ecclesiastical oppression in, ; substitution of military despotism, ; allotment of austrian lands to, ; england's paper blockade of, ; eugène made viceroy of, ; "the flank of france," ; confiscation in, ; furnishes contingent to _n.'s_ army, ; _n._ ruler of, ; roman catholic influence in, ; _n._ refuses to cede any part of, ; eugène ordered to raise a new army in, , ; proposal to liberate her from france, ; austria seeks to regain ascendancy in, ; iv. , ; _n._ offers to guarantee the unity of, ; sowing the seeds of unity for, ; effect of the battle of leipsic on, ; confusion in, ; alfieri's work in, ; humiliation of, ; proposed independence of, ; fails to support _n._, , ; lost to france, ; _n._ renounces the throne of, ; feels the austrian yoke, ; revulsion of feeling toward _n._ in, ; plots against _n._, ; social reforms in, ; after-effects of the revolution, ; _n.'s_ task in, ; french influences in, ; austria driven from, . =ivan=, body physician to the emperor, iv. . =ivrea=, attacked by lannes, ii. ; capture of, . =izquierdo=, spanish minister to france, iii. ; conducts negotiations between spain and france, ; reports failure of his mission, . j =jackson, andrew=, at new orleans, iv. . =jacobin club, the=, foundation of, i. ; influence, , , ; letter from _n._ to, ; closing of, . =jacobinism=, in _n.'s_ early life, i. ; _n._ renounces, ; its decline in france, ii. ; french hatred of, ; rising tide of ( ), ; pitt's delusion concerning _n._ and, ; decadence and obliteration of, , , , ; effect on _n._, iv. . =jacobins, the=, declare open hostility to louis xvi, i. , ; danton's leadership in, ; struggle between the girondists and, ; position in the national convention, , ; connection of the buonapartes with, ; supremacy of, , ; defeated by the girondists in marseilles, ; intensity of their movement, ; disorders of their rule, ; decline of their power, , , ; ii. ; military successes, i. ; influence among the thermidorians, ; tyranny of, ; strive for the mastery, ; reaction in favor of, ; _n.'s_ relations with, , ; influence in the directory, ii. ; activity in may elections ( ), ; political faith, ; influence in the five hundred, ; suppression of their section of the press, ; attitude on the th brumaire, ; end of the party, , ; financial effects of their rule, ; legislation against, ; attitude toward the church, ; assassination schemes among, , ; reputed rising in france, ; england fosters the spirit of insurrection among the, ; alienated from _n._, iv. ; subservient to _n.'s_ will, . =jaffa=, bombardment of, ii. ; massacre and license at, ; the french hospitals at, , ; stories of _n.'s_ inhumanity at, ; the retreat from, . =jamestown, st. helena=, iv. . =janina, pasha of=, rebellious spirit of, ii. . =janizaries=, rebellion of the, iii. , . =jason=, _n._ likened to, iii. . =jauberthon, mme. de=, marries lucien buonaparte, iii. . =jaucourt, ----=, royalist intrigues of, iv. ; letter of, march , , ; member of the executive commission, . =jay treaty, the=, ii. . =jemmapes=, battle of, i. . =jefferson, thomas=, his embargo policy, iii. , . =jena=, battle of, ii. - ; moral effect upon prussia, ; practical results to the french, ; prussia's humiliation at, iii. ; a royal hare-hunt on the field of, ; immediate effects of the battle, ; patriotism in the university, ; the strategy of, . =jena, the bridge of=, in paris, iii. . =jerome= (king of westphalia), violates the continental system, iii. ; acquires hanover and magdeburg, ; hesitates about furnishing new levies, iv. . _see also_ =buonaparte, jerome=. =jesuits=, carlo buonaparte's claims against the, i. , , ; alexander seeks their influence in poland, iii. . =jesus christ=, _n._ compares apollonius of tyana with, ii. . =jews=, in corsica, i. ; paoli's relations with the, ; rights and duties under the code, ii. ; the semitic question in france, iii. - ; general sanhedrim of, ; _n.'s_ legislation concerning, ; liable to military service, ; regulations for alsace, ; present standing in france, ; iv. . =jezzar=, commanding turkish troops in syria, ii. - ; n. reports his massacres to, ; reinforcements from damascus for, . =joachim i=, grand duke of cleves and berg, ii. . _see also_ =murat=. =john, archduke=, succeeds kray in command, ii. ; forces of, ; position on the inn, ; battle of hohenlinden, ; reaches marburg, ; to excite revolt in the tyrol, iii. ; defeats prince eugène, ; abandons the tyrol, ; escapes from macdonald into hungary, ; ordered to linz, ; at völkermarkt, ; in hungary, ; driven into hungary by eugène, ; preparations to oppose, ; advances toward raab, ; in presburg, , , ; turns to guard hungary, ; ordered to attack, ; accused of criminal negligence, ; banished to styria, ; proposes to continue the war, ; quarrels with charles, . =john, don=, regent of portugal, iii. ; character, ; yields to demands of france, ; plan to capture, ; bellesca organizes rebellion in favor of, . =jomini, henri=, on the eckmühl campaign, iii. ; records _n.'s_ warlike spirit, ; _n.'s_ military confidences and conversations with, , ; alleged hostility of berthier to, iv. ; goes over to the allies, ; military genius, . =jouan, gulf of=, landing of _n._ on shores of, iv. . =joubert, gen. b. c.=, in rivoli campaign, i. - ; occupies rivoli, ; military operations in the tyrol, , ; joins _n._, ; withdraws from the tyrol, , ; french agent in the netherlands, ii. ; to succeed _n._ in italy, ; defeated and killed at novi, , , ; succeeds moreau, ; relations with sieyès, ; statue at the tuileries, . =jourdan, gen. j. b.=, defeats the austrians at fleurus, i. ; suspected of intrigue, ; a product of carnot's system, ; saved from defeat at maubeuge, ; commanding forces at düsseldorf, ; military genius, ; seizes würzburg, ; meets with disaster in germany, ; defeated near ratisbon, ; wins battle of altenkirchen, ; disgraced, ; member of the five hundred, ii. ; commanding army of the danube, ; ordered to central germany, ; defeated at ostrach and stockach, ; succeeded by lenouf, ; carries out conscription measures, ; jacobin candidate for supreme command, ; demands a vote of "public danger," ; fails to attend banquet at st. sulpice, ; warned to keep the peace, ; legislation aimed against, ; annexes piedmont, ; victory at fleurus, ; pacification of piedmont, ; created marshal, ; military adviser to joseph, iii. ; goes over to louis xviii, iv. ; recreated marshal, . "=journal of debates=," the, iii. . "=journal of the empire=," the, iii. . =joux=, imprisonment and death of toussaint louverture in castle of, ii. . =judicial administration, the=, ii. - . =judiciary=, reform of the, i. . =july =, celebration of, ii. . =junot, gen. andoche=, _n._ wins the admiration of, i. ; letters from _n._, ; iii. , ; accompanies _n._ to paris, i. ; delivers _n.'s_ terms to venice, ; escorts josephine to montebello, ; formulates demand on the venetian senate, ii. ; service in egypt, ; in battle of esdraelon, ; ordered to leave egypt, ; ordered with "corps of observation" to portugal, iii. ; his venality and greed, , ; ordered to invade portugal, ; reaches abrantès, ; garrisons portuguese fortresses, ; prepares for invasion of spain, ; reaches lisbon, ; military administration in portugal, ; goes to oporto, ; aspires to the crown of portugal, , ; revulsion of feeling in portugal against, ; appointed governor of portugal, ; strength in portugal, ; bessières ordered to connect with, ; precarious situation, ; escapes to cintra, ; defeated at vimeiro, ; surrenders at cintra, , , ; returns to france, ; forces in spain, ; defeated by the black legion at berneck, ; in leon, ; battle of borodino, . =junot, mme.=, i. ; opinions of _n._, ii. ; ancient lineage of, iii. . =jura mountains=, proposed boundary for germany, iii. . =jüterbog=, bernadotte at, iv. . k =kaja=, fighting at, iii. . =kalatscha, river=, military operations on the, iii. - . =kalish, treaty of=, feb. , , iii. , . =kalkreuth, gen.=, prussian commander, ii. ; defense of dantzic, iii. ; at tilsit, ; agreement to evacuate prussia, . =kaluga=, extension of the russian lines toward, iii. ; french retreat toward, . =kamenski, gen.=, russian general-in-chief, iii. ; mistake at battle of pultusk, ; retired, . =kandahar=, projected rising against england in, iii. . =kapzewitch, gen.=, reinforces blücher at montmirail, iv. . =karl august=, duke of saxe-weimar, accepts french terms after jena, ii. . =karlings, the=, the legitimacy of, ii. . =kastel=, bertrand stationed at, iv. . =katzbach, river=, blücher crosses the, iv. ; battle of, . =kehl=, moreau crosses the rhine at, i. . =keith, adm. g. k. e.=, expedition against genoa, ii. ; gratitude to _n._ for favors, iv. ; announces the sentence of imprisonment to _n._, . =kellermann, gen. f. c.=, defeats the allies at valmy, i. ; commanding forces in the alps, , ; plans of the directory regarding, ; in savoy, ; receives subsidy from _n._, ; proposition that he organize republics in italy, . =kellermann, gen. f. e.=, in battle of marengo, ii. , ; battle of leipsic, iv. , ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, ; recreated marshal, ; in the waterloo campaign, , , , ; battle of quatre bras, . =kemberg=, blücher's march to, iv. . =keralio, m. de=, commends _n.'s_ ability, i. , . =khiva=, proposed franco-russian expedition via, ii. . =kienmayer, gen.=, austrian commandant in franconia, iii. . =kilmaine, gen. c. j.=, watches venice, i. . ="king of the french," or "king of france,"= i. . =kings=, divine right of, iv. . =kinzig=, the austrian line at, ii. . =kinzig, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =kirchener, gen.=, killed at reichenbach, iii. . =klagenfurt=, capture of, i. ; _n._ in, ; invasion of the tyrol from, iii. . =kléber, gen. j. b.=, military successes of, i. ; a product of carnot's system, ; service in egypt, ii. et seq.; marches on syria, ; in battle of esdraelon, , ; at the siege of acre, ; in the battle of aboukir, ; appointed to chief command of army in egypt, ; instructions for evacuating egypt, ; protests against _n.'s_ conduct, ; deceived by _n._, ; prepares to evacuate egypt, ; military genius, ; concludes treaty of el arish, ; his admirable administration, ; assassination of, , ; succeeded by menou, . =klein, gen.=, in the austerlitz campaign, ii. ; blücher's duplicity to, . =kleist, gen.=, in battle of bautzen, iii. ; prussian commissioner at poischwitz, , ; battle of kulm, iv. ; reinforces blücher at montmirail, ; displaced, . =klenau, gen.=, at surrender of mantua, i. ; threatens augereau, ii. ; commanding under archduke john, ; battle of wagram, iii. ; march from tharandt to dresden, iv. . =knight of malta, the=, letters from the czar to, i. ; death of, ii. . =knights of st. john of malta, the=, corruption among, ii. ; wars against the turks, ; paul i seeks to head, ; malta restored to, , . =kobelnitz=, military operations near, ii. . =kolberg=, bennigsen attempts to succor, iii. ; siege abandoned, ; _n._ demands, as a pledge, . =kolin=, battle of, iv. . =koller, gen.=, austrian commissioner at fontainebleau, iv. ; suggests an asylum for _n._ in england, ; accompanies _n._ to elba, ; quits elba, . =kollowrath, gen.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; ordered to seize linz, iii. . =königsberg=, lestocq's retreat to, ii. ; ney's false move toward, iii. ; frederick william shut up in, ; bennigsen's defense of, ; bennigsen retreats to, ; russian retreat toward, ; lestocq driven into, ; reinforcements for bennigsen from, ; _n._ leaves tilsit for, ; the league of virtue in, ; popularity of stein's measures at, ; alexander i at, ; murat enters, ; patriotism in the university, ; proposed new capital for prussia, . =korner, theodor=, incites prussian patriotism, iii. . =korneuburg=, military operations near, iii. . =korsakoff, gen.=, defeated by masséna at zürich, ii. , . =kosciusko, tadeusz=, lack of faith in _n._, ii. , . =kösen=, the allies outwitted at, iv. . =kossuth, louis=, charges treachery against maria louisa, iii. . =kottbus=, ceded to saxony, iii. . =kourakine, count=, at tilsit, iii. ; russian ambassador to france, ; injured by fire, ; leaves paris for st. petersburg, ; takes _n.'s_ messages to alexander, . =krasnoi=, the french retreat through, iii. - ; _n.'s_ coolness at, ; compared to hanau, iv. . =kray, gen. paul=, commanding austrian troops on the rhine, ii. ; _n.'s_ plans to defeat, ; abandons donaueschingen, ; outwitted by moreau, ; defeated by moreau at engen, ; retreats toward the danube, ; defeated at messkirch, ; superseded by archkude john, . =kremlin, the=, iii. , ; french occupation of, , ; pillaged, ; failure to destroy, , . =krems=, kutusoff crosses the danube at, ii. . =kronach=, the imperial guard at, ii. . =krossen=, proposed allotment of, to saxony, iii. . =kulm=, battle of, iv. , . =kunersdorf=, battle of, iv. . =küstrin=, capitulation of, ii. ; held by the french, iii. ; relief of the french garrison in, iv. . =kutusoff, gen. m. l. g.=, moves toward brünn, ii. ; crosses the danube at krems, ; escapes from murat, ; pursued by the french, ; at schrattenthal, ; outwits murat at hollabrunn, ; joins austrian and russian troops' at brünn, , ; battle of austerlitz, - ; succeeds barclay de tolly, iii. ; battle of borodino, , ; flight from borodino, ; claims the victory, , ; reinforcements for, ; takes position at tarutino, ; menaces the french in moscow, ; refers lauriston to st. petersburg, ; extends his line toward kaluga, ; feigned movement against, - ; defeated at malojaroslavetz, ; russian failure to reinforce, ; _n._ plans an ambush for, ; battle of wiazma, ; his allies want and winter, , ; at krasnoi, ; pursuit of the french army, ; mistake as to _n.'s_ movements, ; responsibility for further bloodshed, ; "the plain gentleman of pskoff," ; bad generalship of, , ; losses in the campaign, ; enters vilna, ; desires peace, ; advance through poland, ; _n._ seeks austrian aid to check, ; issues proclamation to german princes, ; death, . l =labanoff, prince=, comes to bennigsen's aid after friedland, iii. ; conducts negotiations with _n._, ; at tilsit, . =labédoyère, gen. c. a. h.=, determines to support _n._, iv. ; imprisoned and condemned to death, . =laber, river=, military operations on the, iii. , . =laborde, alexandre de=, _n.'s_ confidential agent in the treaty of schönbrunn, iii. ; suggests the marriage of _n._ and maria louisa, . =labouchere, henry=, mission from holland to england, iii. . =la carolina=, defeat of dupont at, iii. . =lacombe-saint-michel, j. p.=, secures _n.'s_ appointment to the army of the west, i. ; member of committee of safety, . =la cour de france=, _n._ at, iv. , . =la cuesta, gen.=, defeated at medina de rio seco, iii. . =la favorita=, battle of, i. , . =lafayette, marquis de=, commands the national guard, i. ; endeavors to calm the national assembly, , ; _n._ on, ; commanding armies in the north, ; pronounces against popular excesses, ; flight, and capture by the austrians, ; released from austrian prison, ; ii. , ; possible successor to _n._, ; influence on the consulate, ; remonstrates against _n.'s_ life consulship, ; supports the chambers, iv. ; _n.'s_ forgiveness for, . =la fère=, the regiment of, i. ; the regiment at douay, ; ordered on special service, ; _n.'s_ service in, , ; mutiny in, ; transformed into the first regiment, . =la ferté-sous-jouarre=, military movements near, iv. ; _n.'s_ rapid march to, . =laffont=, royalist leader, i. ; on the th vendémiaire, ; executed, . =laffray=, dramatic welcome to the returned emperor at, iv. ; _n._ offers himself to the bullets of the fifth regiment at, . =la flèche=, the military school at, i. . =la force=, imprisonment of malet in, iii. . =lagrange, gen.=, moves against castaños, iii. ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, iv. . =lagrange, j. l.=, created baron, iii. . =laharpe, gen.=, general of division, army of italy, i. ; attacked by beaulieu at voltri, , ; retreats to savona, ; killed at fombio, ; tutor to alexander i, iii. . =la haye=, the farms of, iv. ; fighting at, . =la haye sainte=, the farm-house of, iv. ; fighting at, - , . =lahorie, gen. v.=, engaged in malet's conspiracy, iii. . =laine, j. h. j.=, radical member of the senate, iv. . =lajolais, gen. f.=, plots of, in the cadoudal conspiracy, ii. ; implicates moreau, . =la junquera=, saint-cyr at, iii. . =lakanal, joseph=, provides for mixed schools, ii. . =lake constance=, kray's communications via, to be cut, ii. . =lallemand, gen. c. f. a.=, proposes asylum for _n._ on an american ship, iv. ; negotiations with capt. maitland, . =lallemant, m.=, french republican agent in venice, i. ; ii. . "=l'ambigu=," published in london, ii. ; _n._ lampooned in, . =lambrecht=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =la mortilla=, _n._ prepares plans for its defense, i. . =la mure=, _n.'s_ welcome at, on return from elba, iv. . =land=, tenure at outbreak of the revolution, i. , , , . =landes, department of the=, exempt from legislation concerning jews, iii. . =landgrafenberg=, military operations at, ii. . =landsberg=, engagement at, iii. . =landshut=, military movements near, iii. - , ; _n._ at, ; battle of, ; archduke charles's military mistake at, . =langeron, gen. andrault=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; captures rheims, iv. ; on the dissensions in blücher's army, ; on the terror of _n.'s_ name, . =langres=, military movements near, iv. , , . =lanjuinais, jean d.=, president of house of deputies, iv. . =lannes, gen. jean=, recommended for promotion, i. ; threatens genoa, ; service in egypt, ii. ; wounded at acre, ; battle of aboukir, ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ; action on the th brumaire, ; commanding at the tuileries, ; crosses the st. bernard, - ; attacks ivrea, ; hesitates at fort bard, ; reaches aosta, ; defeats ott at casteggio, ; commanding corps at marengo, - ; battle of montebello, ; restored to favor, ; created marshal, ; character, ; iii. , ; captures braunau, ii. ; pursues the russians, ; in battle of austerlitz, , ; at coburg, ; in battle of jena, ; seizes dessau, ; pursues hohenlohe, ; ordered to the narew, iii. ; battle of pultusk, ; strength in poland, ; sickness, ; battle of heilsberg, ; battle of friedland, ; created duke of montebello, ; familiarity with _n._, ; moves against castaños, ; movements before ratisbon, ; in battle of eckmühl, ; at the crossing of the danube at lobau, ; battle of essling, , ; mortally wounded, ; _n.'s_ grief at loss of, ; reproaches _n._ for his ambition, ; _n._ saves him from drowning, ; warns _n._ against treachery, ; characterization of talleyrand, iv. . =lanusse, gen. f.=, recommended for promotion, i. . =laon=, battle of, iv. - , ; _n._ at, . =laplace, p. s.=, minister of the interior, ii. ; succeeded by lucien buonaparte, ; created baron, iii. . =lapoype, gen. j. f.=, feeling against in marseilles, i. ; acquitted by the convention, . =larevellière-lépeaux, louis-marie de=, member of the directory, i. , , ; ii. ; character, i. ; dissatisfied with treaty of leoben, ; _n.'s_ relations with, ii. ; resigns from the directory, . =la rochejaquelein, gen. l. du v.=, killed, iv. . =la romana, gen. p. c.=, revolts in denmark, iii. ; at valmaseda, ; at santander, ; joined by blake, . =la rothière=, battle at, iv. , . =lasalle gen. a. c.=, captures stettin, ii. ; success near valladolid, iii. ; in battle of aspern, ; killed at wagram, . =las cases, e. a. d.=, _n.'s_ intimacy with, i. ; memoirs of _n._, ; recounts the story of the "day of the sections," ; _n.'s_ conversations with, ii. ; _n.'s_ declaration to, concerning the duc d'enghien, ; appointed private secretary to _n._, iv. ; negotiates with capt. maitland for _n.'s_ passage to england, , ; accompanies _n._ to st. helena, ; assists _n._ on his history, ; dismissed, . =latouche-tréville, adm. l.=, scheme of naval operations for, ii. ; death of, . =latour-maubourg, gen. m.=, commanding cavalry in russian campaign of , iii. ; battle of dresden, iv. , ; battle of leipsic, , ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, . =lauban=, _n._ at, iv. . =lauderdale, lord=, british envoy to france, ii. , ; demands his passports, ; reopens negotiations, . =laudon, gen. g. e.=, commanding forces in the tyrol, i. ; at verona, . =lauriston, gen. a. j.=, splendid artillery work at wagram, iii. ; replaces caulaincourt at st. petersburg, ; mission to kutusoff's camp, ; commanding division under eugène, ; in campaign of , ; occupies leipsic, ; battle of lützen, ; battle of bautzen, ; beleaguers schweidnitz, ; confronts blücher at the bober, iv. ; detailed to block blücher's road to berlin, ; battle of leipsic, , ; captured at leipsic, . =lausanne=, ovation to _n._ at, ii. ; french forces near, ; _n._ at, may , , . =la valette, gen.=, formulates demands on the genoese senate, ii. ; postmaster-general at paris, letter to _n._, march, , iv. . =lawyers=, status at outbreak of the revolution, i. . =lazaref=, russian grenadier, decorated by _n._ at tilsit, iii. . =league of virtue=, the, iii. , . =lebrun, charles f.=, appointed third consul, ii. , ; revises the code, ; evades responsibility concerning the duc d'enghien, ; treasurer of france, ; at _n.'s_ coronation, ; created duke of piacenza, iii. ; arch-treasurer, ; salary of, ; at krasnoi, . =lech, river=, military operations on the, ii. ; iii. . =leclerc, victor-emmanuel=, conducts expedition against san domingo, ii. ; marries pauline buonaparte, ; death of, . =leclerc, mme.=, accompanies her husband to san domingo, ii. ; marries prince borghese, . =lecourbe, gen. c. j.=, commanding in the alps, ii. ; captures memmingen, ; captures stockach, ; ordered to italy, . =leers=, gen. reille at, iv. . =lefebvre, gen. f. g.=, commander of the paris garrison, ii. ; joins the bonapartist ranks, ; in battle of jena, , ; strength in poland, iii. ; besieges dantzic, , ; created duke of dantzic, ; besieges saragossa, ; success at tudela, ; near bilbao, ; rash movements by, ; in movement against madrid, ; commanding bavarian troops at münich, ; in campaign of eckmühl, ; defeats the austrians at abensberg, ; at salzburg, ; drives tyroleans from innsbruck, ; relieves vandamme at linz, ; withdrawn from the tyrol, ; commanding the old guard, ; a momentary attack of senility, iv. ; at council at st. dizier, ; accompanies the emperor to paris, ; at the abdication scene, ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, ; recreated marshal, . =lefebvre-desnouettes, col. charles=, service in egypt, ii. . =leghorn=, _n._ plans to meet joseph at, i. ; the english fleet driven from, ; levy of enforced contributions from, ; england gains entrance into, iii. ; expulsion of the english from, ; position in the french empire, ; plots against _n._ in, iv. . =legion of honor=, establishment of the, ii. , ; distribution of crosses, ; first russian member of the, iii. ; french pride in, ; new members of, ; abolition of the orphan asylums of the, iv. . =legislature, the=, ii. , - ; constitution of, ; new methods of electing to, ; _n._ opens, aug. , , iii. ; its functions, ; distribution of titles among heads of, ; _n._ contemplates its abolition, ; demands constitutional government, iv. ; prorogued, ; overthrows _n._, . =legnago=, french occupation of, i. , ; military operations near, . =legrand, gen. c. j.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; in battle of aspern, iii. . =leibnitz, g. w. von=, advocates french conquest of egypt, ii. . =leipsic=, seized by the duke of brunswick, iii. ; eugène establishes headquarters at, ; french forces at, , ; military movements near, ; iv. , , , , ; battle of, et seq.; topography, ; _n._ in, ; importance of the battle in history, ; triumph of revolutionary liberalism at, ; _n._ spares the city from fire, ; effects of the battle of, ; mistaken ideas concerning _n.'s_ attitude after, . =le noble's "spirit of gerson,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. . =lenouf, gen.=, succeeds jourdan in command, ii. ; retreats behind the rhine, . =leo iii=, crowns charles the great, ii. . =leoben=, the french at, i. ; seized by masséna, ; _n.'s_ position at, ; treaty of, - , , , , ; ii. , , ; alleged duplicity by _n._ at, i. - ; french march to, ii. ; ney's victory at, . =leon=, french troops in, iii. . =leonetti=, denounced by n., i. . =leopold ii=, acknowledges hungarian rights, iii. . =lepelletier=, the section of, i. . =lesmont=, military operations at, iv. . =lesseps, j. b. b.=, french consul-general at st. petersburg, iii. . =lestocq, gen.=, retreats to königsberg, ii. ; joins the prussian army, iii. ; at neidenburg, ; at angerburg, ; opposes ney's march to königsberg, ; relieves the garrison of graudenz, ; in campaign of eylau, , ; in battle of heilsberg, - ; in friedland campaign, , ; pursued by davout, . =leszcynski, maria=, _n.'s_ imitation of her marriage to louis xv, iii. . =letourneur, c. l.=, member of the directory, i. , ; character, ; retires from the directory, ii. . ="letters from the cape of good hope,"= iv. . ="letters of buonaparte to buttafuoco,"= i. . =leuthen=, battle of, iv. . =levant, the=, france occupies venetian possessions in, i. ; genoa's commerce with, ii. ; french plots for disturbances in, ; france's jealous care for possessions in, , ; england aspires to control, ; sebastiani's mission to, - ; question of establishing french colonies in, ; portuguese naval operations in, ; plans for redistribution of lands on, iii. ; the control of, ; efficient blockade of, impossible, . =leveson-gower, lord=, english ambassador at st. petersburg, iii. . =leyen, von der=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =liberty=, paoli on, i. ; the recognized colors of, . =liberty, fraternity, and equality=, i. . "=liberty of the seas=," ii. . =lichtenstein=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =lichtenstein, prince john of=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. - ; negotiates for an armistice, ; in battle of aspern, iii. ; austrian peace commissioner, - ; at peace council in paris, iv. . =lido, porto di=, venetians fire on french vessel in, i. . =liebertwolkwitz=, military operations near, iv. - . =liège=, flight of lafayette to, i. ; military operations near, ; iv. , , , . =ligny=, battle of, iv. - ; gérard at, ; blücher's disaster at, ; a prussian blunder, ; the news of, in paris, . =liguria=, ecclesiastical reforms and confiscations in, iii. . =ligurian alps=, guerrillas in the, i. . =ligurian republic=, the formation of, ii. , ; french control over, ; piedmont added to, ; reorganized, ; tribute levied on, ; english efforts to discredit france in, ; incorporated with france, . =lille=, peace negotiations at, ii. , , ; flight of louis xviii to, iv. . =lindau=, ceded to bavaria, ii. . =lindenau=, seized by the duke of brunswick, iii. ; military operations near, iv. , , . =linz=, military movements near, iii. - ; , . =lisbon=, recall of the french envoy from, iii. ; democracy in, ; junot's march to, , ; fraternization of the people with junot's army, ; russian squadron sent to, ; french scheme to seize, ; masséna's march to, ; masséna's precarious situation before, , ; wellington's difficult position at, ; filled with fugitives, . =lisle, rouget de=, composes the "marseillaise," i. . =literature=, revival of, ii. ; censorship of, iii. . =lithuania=, poniatowski's doubts of, iii. ; impassivity of its people, ; the march from smolensk toward, ; maret in charge of affairs in, . =littawa, river=, military operations on the, ii. . ="little corporal," the=, i. ; iv. , . =little gibraltar=, capture of, i. . =little görschen=, fighting at, iii. . ="little napoleon,"= iii. . =little st. bernard pass=, the crossing of the, ii. , . =liverpool, lord=, attacks wellington, iii. ; recalls wellington, iv. ; mismanagement of english affairs, , ; embarrassment of, ; views as to the disposition of _n._, ; letter to castlereagh, june , , . =loano=, battle of, i. . =lobau=, crossing the danube at, iii. , , , . =lobau, gen.=, guarding roads from bohemia, iv. ; holds dresden, , ; in the waterloo campaign, - ; at charleroi, ; ordered to marbais, ; battle of waterloo, , , ; =lobau, river=, military movements on the, iii. , , . =lobenstein=, bernadotte at, ii. . =lodi=, battle of, - ; ii. ; _n.'s_ narrow escape at, i. ; withdrawal of the austrians from milan to, ii. . =logroño=, french success at, iii. ; ney at, . =loire, river=, the empress flees across the, iv. ; military movements on the, . =loison, gen. l. h.=, at piacenza, ii. . =lombardy=, french troops in, i. ; military operations against, , , , , ; favors the french revolution, ; the military gate to, ; _n.'s_ successes in, ; expected partition of, ; richness of the country, , ; ii. ; _n.'s_ influence in, i. ; revolutionary movement in, ; france's interest in, ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. ; held by austria, ; _n._ aims to secure, ; the iron crown of, ; _n.'s_ royal progress through, iii. . =lonato=, battle of, i. - , ; _n.'s_ narrow escape at, , . =london=, talleyrand diplomatic agent in, ii. ; talleyrand expelled from, ; publication of "l'ambigu" in, ; irish radical paper, in, subsidized by _n._, ; reception of the duke of brunswick in, iii. . =longwood=, _n.'s_ residence at, i. ; iv. - , . =longwy=, garrison of, capitulates to prussia, i. ; abandoned by the enemy, . =loretto=, capture of, i. , ; the image of the lady of, . =l'orient=, the squadron ordered to the mediterranean from, iii. . =lorraine=, proposal to continue the war in, iv. , , . =lothair=, _n._ contrasted with, iii. . =louis=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =louis=, king of etruria, attendant in _n.'s_ antechamber, ii. ; death of, ; iii. . =louis=, king of etruria (son of the preceding), proposed kingdom in portugal for, iii. . =louis=, prince of prussia, ii. ; killed at saalfeld, . ="louis capet,"= i. . =louis philippe.= _see_ =chartres, duc de=. =louis xiv=, disgraces vauban, i. ; schemes of world-conquest, ii. ; "abolishes" the pyrenees, iii. ; _n._ not the successor of, ; influence of his villainies, iv. . =louis xv=, refuses protectorate to corsica, i. ; death of, ; _n.'s_ imitation of his marriage to maria leszcynski, iii. ; _n._ not the successor of, . =louis xvi=, accession of, i. ; character, , , , ; contest with the parliament of paris, ; alienation of, from the people, - ; attempted reforms by, - ; abandoned by the nobles, ; curtailment of his hunting-grounds, ; takes up residence in paris, ; title under the new constitution, ; honors paoli, ; betrayal of, ; accepts the constitution, ; flight and recapture, ; clamor for his trial, ; refuses to sanction secularization of estates of the church and nobility, ; negotiates with foreign powers, , , ; celebrates the fall of the bastille, ; takes refuge in the national assembly, ; the national assembly dismisses his body-guard, ; marseilles demands dethronement of, ; imprisoned in the temple, ; _n.'s_ views concerning, ; condemnation and execution, ; causes of his downfall, ; the regicides of, ; celebrations of his death, ii. ; iv. . =louis xvii=, i. . =louis xviii=, recognized by the powers, i. ; relationship to victor amadeus, ; retires to blankenburg, ii. ; purchases pichegru's adhesion, ; _n.'s_ negotiations with, , ; banished, ; hopes for restoration of, ; residence in warsaw, , , ; the cadoudal conspiracy, ; promises constitutional government, ; manifesto of, ; alexander i's opinion of, iii. ; at mittau, ; offered a kingdom in the united states, ; proclaimed king at bordeaux, iv. ; acclaimed in paris, ; proclaimed king by the senate, , ; imperial generals transfer their allegiance to, ; character, , ; his feeble tenure, ; scandals circulated at the court of, ; treaty with the powers, may , , ; power to create peers, ; blunders of, - ; appoints soult minister of war, ; _n._ prophesies the betrayal of, ; indifference to treaty obligations, ; sends troops against _n._, ; makes concessions, ; flees to lille, ; flees to ghent, ; _n.'s_ forgiveness for, . =louisa, queen= (of prussia), brings about the treaty of potsdam, ii. ; character and influence, , ; _n.'s_ abuse of, ; at memel, iii. , ; at tilsit, ; scandal concerning the czar, ; interviews with _n._ concerning magdeburg, - ; the incident of the rose, ; sarcastic speech to talleyrand, ; compared with queen mary of england, ; death of, , , ; in need of comforts, iii. . =louisa, queen= (of spain), relations with godoy, ii. , , ; iii. , , , , ; friendship for _n._, ii. ; admits england to leghorn, iii. ; supposed poisoning of her daughter-in-law, ; examines ferdinand's papers, ; her son reveals her shame, ; suspected of intrigue in spain, ; panic-stricken at the french invasion, ; advocates the scheme of monarchy in america, ; repents her abdication, , ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; virtual prisoner in the escorial, ; summoned to bayonne, . =louisiana=, ceded to france, ii. , ; collapse of french rule in, ; expedition to, ; spain's exasperation over loss of, ; _n.'s_ dream of empire in, ; sold by france to the united states, , ; iv. . =louvain=, gneisenau opens fresh communications via, iv. ; possible retreat of the prussians via, . =louverture, toussaint=, defense of san domingo, ii. ; organizes a consular government, ; capture and death of, . =louvre, the=, _n.'s_ second marriage in, iii. - . =love=, _n._ on, i. . =low countries=. _see_ =austrian netherlands=; =batavian republic=; =belgium=; =dutch flanders=; =holland=; =netherlands=. =lowe, sir hudson=, allegations about _n.'s_ physical ailments, iv. ; character, ; his custody of _n._, - ; _n.'s_ disputes with, . =lübeck=, proposal to give it to prussia, ii. ; surrender of, ; sack of, ; bernadotte's force in, iii. ; extension of the french empire, to, . =luc=, _n._ at, iv. . =lucca=, given to pauline (buonaparte) borghese, ii. , ; given to elisa, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, . =lucca and piombino=, prince of. _see_ =bacciocchi, f. p.= =lucca and piombino=, princess of. _see_ =buonaparte, marie-anne-elisa=. =luckau=, defeat of oudinot at, iv. . =ludmannsdorf=, archduke charles's force at, iii. . =lunéville=, negotiations between cobenzl and joseph bonaparte at, ii. , ; the peace of, , , , , , , , , . =lusha, river=, military movements on the, iii. . =lusignan, gen.=, military operations on the piave, i. - . =lützen=, battle of, iii. - ; iv. , . =lützow, baron l. a. w.=, raises the "black troop," iii. . =luxembourg, the=, barras's social life in, i. ; gohier and moulins withdraw to, ii. ; moreau commanding guard at, ; the first consul installed at, ; residence of the bonapartes at, . =lyceums, the=, ii. ; iii. . =lyons=, _n.'s_ memoir to the academy at, i. ; the "two-cent revolt" in, ; _n._ at, , ; ii. ; iv. , , ; honors to paoli in, i. ; massacres and anarchy in, , , ; girondist success at, ; siege of, ; fall of, ; recapture of, ; reorganization of the cisalpine republic at, ii. ; fesch becomes archbishop of, ; repulse of bubna from before, iv. ; augereau driven back to, ; assaulted by the allies, ; evacuated by augereau, ; francis i, at, ; constitutional assembly summoned to, ; reception of artois and macdonald at, ; national assembly at, . =lyons academy, the=, _n.'s_ essay before, i. - ; _n.'s_ competition for prize of, . m =macdonald, gen. e. j. j. a.=, commanding army of the north, i. ; a product of carnot's system, ; ordered to command in naples, ii. ; succeeds championnet, ; defeated on the trebbia, ; action on the th brumaire, ; commanding guard at versailles, ; commanding in the grisons, ; crosses the splugen, ; created duke of tarante, iii. ; commanding in italy, ; pursues archduke john into hungary, ; at villach, ; battle of wagram, ; strength, march, , ; in russian campaign, ; reaches tilsit, ; campaign of , ; battle of lützen, ; battle of bautzen, ; beleaguers schweidnitz, ; confronts blücher at the bober, iv. , ; detailed to block blücher's road into saxony, ; fails in his movement against berlin, - ; battle of katzbach, , ; reinforcements for, ; attacked by blücher at fischbach, ; ordered to check blücher's advance, ; battle of leipsic, - , ; at crossing of the elster, ; defends the rhine at cologne, ; blücher attempts to cut off, ; fails to check blücher's retreat, ; ordered toward montmirail, ; ordered to join victor at montereau, ; his failure at château-thierry, ; before bray, ; moral exhaustion of, ; opposed to schwarzenberg, , ; driven beyond troyes, ; demoralized at provins, ; moves toward vitry, ; at perthes, ; bourbon intrigues with, ; advises endeavor to recover paris, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; at fontainebleau, ; approves plan of attack on paris, ; at the abdication scene, ; on commission to present abdication to the czar, , ; rebuke to marmont, ; transfers his allegiance, ; reception in lyons, . =macedonia=, _n.'s_ eye on, i. . =macerata=, annexed to italy, iii. , . =machiavelli, his "history of florence,"= _n.'s_ study of, i. ; on friendships, ii. ; theses concerning the church of rome, iii. . =mack, gen. k.=, leads neapolitan army against rome, ii. ; mobilizes the austrian army, ; quartermaster-general with archduke ferdinand in germany, ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; essays to cross the danube at günzburg, ; misled concerning _n.'s_ movements, ; interview with _n._, ; result of his capitulation, . ="madame mère,"= i. . _see also_ =buonaparte, letizia=. =madeleine islands=, _n._ writes of their strategic importance, i. . =madison, james=, policy of nonintervention, iii. ; declares war against england, . =madrid=, effect of marengo at, ii. ; lucien buonaparte minister at, ; the land-owning class in, iii. ; culmination of intrigues at, ; the queen regent of etruria sent to, ; irritation against france in, ; murat advances on, ; rioting in, ; entry of ferdinand vii into, ; murat enters, - ; proposed visit of _n._ to, - ; _n._ disapproves the seizure of, ; charles iv a virtual prisoner at, ; placed under administration of a junta, ; announcement of the bourbons' deposition in, ; revolt against murat's tyranny in, ; joseph assumes the government at, , ; murat commanding at, ; the french possession of, in danger, ; the french evacuate, ; sir john moore's supposed movement on, ; the french army before the gates of, ; capitulation of, ; _n._ makes officers prisoners of war, ; french troops leave, ; chilly reception of _n._ in, ; french evacuation of, ; wellington moves against, ; victor hugo at school in, ; george sand in, . =magallon, charles=, french consul at cairo, ii. ; advocates seizure of egypt, . =magdalena=, bombardment of, i. ; capture of, . =magdalena islands=, expedition against the, i. . =magdeburg=, hohenlohe's retreat to, ii. ; siege of, ; frederick william's hard struggle to retain, iii. ; queen louisa's efforts to save, - ; passes to jerome with westphalia, , ; parallel between calais and, ; french occupation of, , , , , ; iv. , . =maginajo=, paoli's landing at, i. . =magnano=, battle of, ii. . =mahmud ii=, proclaimed sultan, iii. ; makes treaty with russia, . ="mahomet"= (voltaire's), _n.'s_ notes on, iv. . =maillebois=, _n.'s_ study of, iv. . =main, river=, augereau's force on the, ii. . =main, army of the=. _see_ =army of the main=. =mainau=, ceded to baden, ii. . =maintenon, mme. de=, patron of the st. cyr academy, i. . =mainz=, evacuation of, i. ; ceded to france, ii. , , ; marmont ordered to, ; _n._ leaves paris for, ; occupied by mortier, , ; sends deputation to paris, iii. ; _n._ at, , , ; iv. ; meeting of _n._ and maria louisa at, iii. ; french retreat to, iv. ; disease in, ; _n.'s_ humanity at, ; defense of the rhine at, ; prussian forces at, ; _n._ concedes to the allies at châtillon, . =mainz, bishop of=, _n.'s_ sarcasm to agent of, ii. . =mainz, the elector of=, ii. . _see also_ =dalberg, archbishop=. =maison, gen.=, available forces of, iv. ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, . =maistre, joseph de=, on social order, iii. . =maitland, sir p.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. , . =maitland, capt. f. l.=, takes _n._ on board the bellerophon iv. ; relations with _n._, - . ="malbrook s'en va t'en guerre,"= iv. . =malet, c. f. de=, conspiracy to overthrow the empire, iii. , ; his career and execution, . =malmaison=, _n._ at, ii. , , ; iii. ; iv. ; social vices at, iii. ; josephine withdraws to, ; _n._ visits josephine at, . =malmesbury, earl of=, mission to paris ( ), i. ; views concerning france, ; resumes peace negotiations at lille, ii. . =malojaroslavetz=, battle of, iii. , . =malta=, _n._ plans seizure of, i. ; ii. , , ; rival claimants of, ; french intrigues in, ; the citadel of the mediterranean, ; _n.'s_ expedition against, , ; capture of, , ; the knights of st. john, , ; blockade of, ; besieged by england, ; paul i seeks control of, , , ; french capture of, ; captured by england, ; proposed cession of, to russia, ; england withdraws from, , ; russia waives claim to, ; restored to the knights of st. john, ; proposed cession by england, ; france pushes england for declaration concerning, ; england's occupation of, , , , , , ; england refuses to admit the neapolitan garrison, ; _n._ suggests austrian or russian occupation, ; england insists on ten years' occupancy of, ; _n.'s_ ambition concerning, ; proposal that england keep, ; importance of, iii. . =mamelukes=, scandals concerning, ii, , ; usurpation of egypt by, ; foundation of the military organization of, ; attack the french at shebreket, ; in the battle of the pyramids, ; enlisted in french army, ; the last of the, . =manche, letourneaux de la=, member of the directory, i. . =manhood suffrage=, i. . =manin=, last doge of venice, death of, ii. . =mann, admiral=, driven from the mediterranean, i. . =mannheim=, _n.'s_ line of retreat via, ii. ; proposed conference at, iv. , . ="man of destiny," the=, i. . ="man on horseback," the=, i. , . =mansilla=, soult ordered to, iii. . =mantua=, capture of, i. ; military operations around, - , - , ; siege of, et seq.; garrison, ; importance, ; the siege raised, ; re-blockaded by the french, ; wurmser relieves, ; austria's efforts to relieve, , - et seq.; _n.'s_ critical position before, ; wurmser's ineffectual sally from, ; bids defiance to france, ; wurmser's defense and surrender of, - ; disposition by treaty of leoben, ; capture of, ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. ; lost to france, ; interview between _n._ and lucien at, iii. ; trial and execution of hofer at, . =manufactures=, condition of, at outbreak of the revolution, i. ; encouragement of, ii. ; iii. , . ="manuscrit de l'Île d'elbe," the=, i. . ="manuscrit de ste. hélène,"= repudiated by _n._, iv. . =marat, j. p.=, head of the committee of surveillance, i. ; crimes and assassination of, . =marbais=, military movements near, iv. . =marbeuf, marquis de=, tradition concerning his paternity of _n._, i. ; influences _n.'s_ education, , , ; marriage of, ; death, , . =marbeuf, mgr. y. a. de=, bishop of autun, social influence of, i. ; disgrace of, ; literary patron of _n._, . =marbot, gen.=, denies the story of lannes's death-bed, iii. ; relates anecdote of the cantinière of busaco, ; memoirs of, iv. , ; on grouchy's blunders, , . =marburg=, junction of austrian troops at, ii. . =marceau, gen. f. s.=, in battle of fleurus, i. ; statue at the tuileries, ii. . =march, river=, military operations on the, iii. . =marchfeld, the=, fighting in, iii. ; military operations on, ; prince eugène left to guard, ; bernadotte's failure on, . =marchiennes=, military operations near, iv. , . =marciana=, _n._ at, iv. . =marcognet, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =marengo=, _n.'s_ over-confidence at, ii. ; topography of country near, , ; battle of, - ; iii. , ; _n.'s_ triumphant return from, ii. ; _n.'s_ desire for peace after, ; effect of the battle at madrid, ; moreau's troops employed at, ; celebration on the field of, ; statements concerning _n.'s_ movements after, iii. ; _n.'s_ narrow escape at, ; a nobility dating from, iv. ; its place in french history, . =maret, h. b.=, secretary to _n._, ii. ; iii. ; recovery of, ; influence of, ; increased activity of, ; created duke of bassano, ; report from laborde to, ; member of extraordinary council on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; succeeds champagny in the foreign office, ; warlike zeal of, ; letter from _n._, sept. , , ; letter from _n._, nov. , , ; in charge of affairs in lithuania, ; meeting with metternich, ; on the austrian marriage, ; letter from _n._, aug. , , iv. ; minister of foreign affairs, , ; succeeded by caulaincourt, , ; transferred to the department of state, ; french dislike of, ; influence over _n._ at dresden, ; on the congress of châtillon, , ; records anecdote of caulaincourt after la rothière, , ; persuades _n._ to resume negotiations, ; wrings concessions from _n._, ; letter to caulaincourt, march , , ; at council at st. dizier, ; at the abdication scene, ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, . =maria, queen of portugal=, mental alienation of, iii. ; embarks for brazil, . =maria, amelia=, princess of saxony, mentioned for marriage with _n._, iii. . =maria amelia=, queen of saxony, reproaches metternich for deserting _n._, iv. . =maria antoinetta theresa=, wife of ferdinand vii, death of, iii. . =maria carolina=, queen of naples, alleged intrigues of, ii. ; approaching downfall, ; breaks her compact with _n._, . =maria louisa=, of austria, at compiègne, iii. ; proposed marriage with _n._, , , ; preparations for her marriage, - ; marriage in vienna, - ; progress from vienna to paris, ; meeting with _n._ at compiègne, ; civil marriage, ; induction into her imperial court, - ; personality and character, , , , ; visit to holland, ; statue by canova, ; birth of the king of rome, ; abandonment of _n._, ; iv. , , ; _n.'s_ affection for, iii. , , , ; iv. ; accompanies _n._ to dresden, iii. ; married to neipperg, ; returns from dresden to paris, ; at prague, ; lack of affection for, in france, ; plan of regency for, , ; iv. , ; visits pius vii, iii. ; metternich on her marriage, ; political ends subserved through, ; her marriage "a piece of stupidity," ; charged with treachery, ; meets _n._ at mainz, ; dramatic appearances before the people, iv. , ; entrusted to the care of the national guard, ; francis i to, on the situation, ; prepares for extremities, ; joseph enjoined to preserve her from austrian capture, ; letter from _n._, march , , , ; character as empress-regent, ; her council, ; rebuked by _n._, ; flight from paris, - ; establishes a regency at blois, ; flight of, ; _n._ seeks her intervention with her father, ; declines to accompany _n._ to elba, ; _n.'s_ anxiety for, - ; takes refuge with her father, , ; at rambouillet, ; _n._ breaks off relations with, ; succumbs to neipperg's wiles, ; proposed coronation of, ; relations with neipperg, ; disclaims connection with her husband, ; failure of the attempt to crown, ; besought for _n.'s_ release, ; _n.'s_ sentiments toward, . =marie louise=, queen of etruria, lucien refuses to marry, ii. ; abdicates and goes to madrid, iii. ; interview with _n._, ; supports charles iv, ; ordered to bayonne, . =maria theresa=, character, iii. . =marie antoinette=, tradition concerning, i. . "=marie louises=," in the defense of paris, iv, . =mariotte=, talleyrand's agent in leghorn, iv. ; plots to seize _n._, . =maritime alps=, war in the, i. , , . =markgrafneusiedl=, military operations near, iii. - . =markkleeberg=, fighting near, iv. . =markoff, count=, russian ambassador at paris, ii. , ; at the tuileries, march , , , . =marlborough, duke of=, military genius, i. ; _n._ compared with, . =marmont, gen. a. f. l.=, _n._ visits, i. ; records _n.'s_ mercy, ; admiration for _n._, , ; accompanies _n._ to paris, may , , ; at milan, ; records utterances of _n._ at milan, ; service in egypt, ii. ; _n._ tells him of intention to return from egypt, ; reports declaration of sir sidney smith, ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ; commanding at the military school, ; passes fort bard, ; in battle of marengo, ; ordered from the texel to mainz, ; at neuburg, ; character, ; iv. ; letter from _n._ to, nov. , , ii. ; created duke of ragusa, iii. ; called to vienna from illyria, ; pursues archduke charles, , ; repulsed at znaim, ; replaces masséna, ; withdraws for concentration, ; move against burgois, ; advances on wellington, ; battle of salamanca, , , ; campaign of , ; the saxon campaign, ; battle of bautzen, , ; treachery, iv. ; recollections of _n._, ; confronts blücher at the bober, ; criticizes _n.'s_ plans, ; battle of dresden, , ; sent to support of vandamme at kulm, ; _n._ confesses failure to, ; characterization of the march to leipsic, ; battle of leipsic, - , ; on _n.'s_ conduct after leipsic, ; assigned to defense of the rhine, ; at montierender, ; falls into panic, ; moves from sézanne against blücher, ; annihilates olsusieff's corps, ; demoralization of, ; pursues blücher, ; driven by blücher to fromentières, ; junction of _n._ and, near Étoges, ; battle of champaubert, ; ordered to hold blücher, ; at sézanne, ; checks blücher at the ourcq, ; loses soissons, ; junction with _n._, ; battle of laon, ; routed by york, ; at eppes, ; disaster at athies, , ; abandons berry-au-bac, ; rallies his troops at fismes, ; captures rheims, ; reproached by _n._, ; at berry-au-bac, ; defends the paris line against blücher, ; letter from _n._, march , , ; ordered to châlons, - ; joins mortier at fismes, ; plan of operations against blücher, ; disobedience and incapacity of, , , , ; retreats to fismes, ; junction with mortier, ; supposed advantages of a retreat to rheims, ; driven back to charenton, ; driven back on paris, , , , ; strength, ; empowered to treat for surrender, ; defense of paris, , ; vanity, , ; concludes terms of surrender, ; approached by bourbon intriguers, ; homage of paris to, , ; denounced by _n._, ; receives the emperor's congratulations, ; reveals the worst to the emperor, ; ordered to take position under the walls of paris, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; the treason of, ; terms of his secession, ; letter to alexander, april , , ; repeats the rôle of monk, , ; sends treasonable documents to berthier, ; seduces five of his generals, ; reveals his plot to schwarzenberg, ; at essonnes, ; attempts to explain away his action, ; demands to join the embassy to the czar, ; "brought up in _n.'s_ tent," ; aids in delivering up souham's troops, , ; fails to face alexander, ; demoralization among his troops, ; seeks audience with the czar, , ; his subsequent career of treason, and death, ; despised by the imperial generals, ; coining of the word "ragusade," ; macdonald's rebuke to, ; nicknamed judas, , ; stricken from the list of marshals, ; _n._ on his desertion, ; _n.'s_ charge against, ; puts the paris garrison under arms, ; applies for post of minister of war, ; attainted, ; _n.'s_ forgiveness for, . =marne, river=, military operations on the, iv. , , , , , . =marriage=, under the code, ii. , . =marseillais=, the, in the riots of august , , i. , . ="marseillaise," the=, sung in paris, i. ; permitted by imperial order, iv. ; played at fontainebleau, . =marseilles=, _n._ at, i. , , , , , , ; sends deputation to paris, ; demands abolition of monarchy, ; equipment of sardinian expedition from, ; anarchy and massacres in, , , , , ; the buonapartes in, , , ; defeat of the jacobins in, ; movement of marseillais on paris, ; captured by carteaux, ; refugees from, at toulon, ; the "bastille" of, ; _n.'s_ views of the fortifications, ; feeling against _n._ in, ; circulation of counterfeit money in, ; news of the terror in, ; reopening of commerce with genoa, ; forced military loans in, ; masséna commanding at, iv. ; _n._ sends emissaries to, . ="marsh," the=, position in the national convention, i. . ="marshal forward,"= iv. . _see also_ =blücher=. =marshall, john=, talleyrand attempts to corrupt, ii. . =martial law=, reforms of, i. . =martinique=, birthplace of josephine beauharnais, i. ; french squadron at, ii. ; french plans to strengthen, . =mary, queen= (of england), likened to queen louisa, iii. . ="masked prophet," the=, i. , . =massa-e-carrara=, incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. ; given to elisa (buonaparte), . =masséna, gen. andré=, general in army of italy, i. , ; seizes ventimiglia, ; plan of campaign in the apennines, ; on the courage of his troops, ; defeats austrians at millesimo, ; at lodi, ; defeated at bassano, ; battle of citadella, ; defeated by alvinczy at caldiero, ; military operations on the piave, , ; attacked at st. michel, ; in the rivoli campaign, , , ; ii. ; operations in the italian alps, i. ; captures chiusa veneta, ; seizes st. michael and leoben, ; operations on the river mur, ; ordered to switzerland, ii, ; military genius, ; , iii. ; defeated at zürich, ii. ; defeats korsakoff at zürich, ; , ; fitted for rôle of general monk, ; victories in italy, ; supreme commander of the army of italy, , , , ; puts suvaroff to flight, ; defeats archduke charles at zürich, ; makes a forced levy in switzerland, ; brings switzerland into french hands, ; defense and surrender of genoa, , , , ; plans for the relief of, , ; superseded by brune, ; republicanism of, ; created marshal, ; leaves italy for austria, ; ordered to naples, ; avarice of, ; venality of, iii. ; created duke of rivoli, ; yearly income and enormous fortune, , , ; to concentrate at ulm, ; to concentrate on the lech, ; movements on the isar, , ; in campaign of eckmühl, ; ordered from augsburg to ingolstadt, - ; at moosburg, ; in the enns valley, ; crosses the danube, ; in battle of aspern, ; character, ; battle of wagram, , ; commanding in spain, ; disasters in the peninsula, ; insubordination in his army, ; battle of busaco, ; in coimbra, ; march toward lisbon, ; enters portugal, ; soult's jealousy of, ; soult fails to relieve, ; withdraws toward santarem, ; awaits reinforcements, ; failure in spain, ; precarious situation before lisbon, ; joined by soult, ; defeated at fuentes de onoro, ; reinforcements ordered from castile to, ; disgraced by _n._, ; succeeded by marmont, ; holds his position, ; insubordination among his officers, ; punishes desertion, ; commanding at marseilles, iv. ; neutrality of, ; recreated marshal, . =masseria, joseph=, associated with _n._ in corsica, i. ; success of his agitation, . =massias, baron n.=, french minister at karlsruhe, ii. . =matra, m. e.=, a rival of paoli, i. . =maubeuge=, battle of, i. . =maubreuil, comte de=, arranges for the assassination of the emperor, iv. , . =mautern=, hiller crosses the danube at, iii. . =maximilian, archduke=, evacuates vienna, iii. . =maximilian, joseph=, king of bavaria, gives his daughter to eugène de beauharnais, ii. ; at the erfurt conference, iii. ; his reforms in the tyrol, ; threatens to join the coalition, iv. ; joins the allies, ; grant of autonomy to, ; defection of, . =meaux=, prison massacres in, i. ; blücher moves on, iv. ; _n.'s_ plan of movement via, ; evacuation of, . =mecklenburg=, territory restored to the reigning house, iii. . =mecklenburg-schwerin=, proposal to include in north german confederation, ii. . =mecklenburg-schwerin=, duke of, refuses to furnish levies, iii. . =mecklenburg-strelitz=, proposal to include in north german confederation, ii. . =mecklenburgs=, the, assert their independence, iv. . =medical school=, lecture system of the, i. . =medina de rio seco=, french success at, iii. . =mediterranean, the=, english naval operations in, and power on, i. , , ; ii. , , , ; iii. ; naval operations in the, i. , ; departure of the english fleet from, ; _n._ a child of, ii. ; france's ambition for conquest of, ; the citadel of the, , ; _n.'s_ schemes on, , ; iii. , ; elaboration of plans for operations in, ii. ; importance, ; _n._ calls for ships in, ; adm. bruix sent to conquer, ; european jealousy regarding control of, ; english cessions in, , ; villeneuve's orders for operation in, ; attempt to unite french fleets in, iii. ; _n.'s_ mastery of, ; english trade with, ; roman dominion of, . =meerveldt, gen.=, austrian plenipotentiary at leoben, i. ; austrian plenipotentiary in treaty of campo formio, ii. ; defeated at leoben, ; battle of leipsic, iv. , ; at austerlitz, ; sent to ask an armistice, ; captured at leipsic, . =megnadier, gen.=, seduced by marmont, iv. . =mehemet ali=, accession to power, ii. . =meike=, on commission to notify _n._ of his sentence, iv. . =meissen=, french forces at, iii. . =melas, gen.=, commanding austrian army in italy, ii. ; drives suchet across the var, ; forces masséna back into genoa, ; military tactics, ; cuts off communication with masséna, ; position on the var, ; hurries to turin, , ; _n.'s_ plans for the defeat of, , ; reinforcements for, ; rallies his army at alessandria, , ; capture of one of his couriers, ; military characteristics, ; crosses the bormida, ; in battle of marengo, - ; retires to alessandria, ; superseded by bellegarde, . =melnik=, austro-russian troops near, iv. . =mélun=, the garrison at, iv. . =melzi, comte f.=, nominated for president of the cisalpine republic, ii. ; letter from _n._ to, march , , . =memel=, queen louisa at, iii. ; proposal that russia seize, ; tolstoi visits frederick william and louisa at, . =memmingen=, captured by lecourbe, ii. ; seized by soult, . =méneval, claude f. de=, statement of _n._ to, concerning the duc d'enghien, ii. ; reveals maria louisa's defection to _n._, iv. ; dismissed from the service of the king of rome, . =menou, gen. j. f. de=, commanding the army of the interior, i. ; ordered to disarm the insurgents, ; pusillanimity of, , ; service in egypt, ii. ; professes islamism, ; succeeds kléber, ; surrenders in egypt, ; disasters in egypt, . =mentone=, _n._ in, i. . =mercier, l. s.=, _n.'s_ study of his "philosophic visions," ii. . =merlin, p. a.=, member of the directory, ii. , , ; interferes to prevent _n.'s_ resignation as commander of egyptian expedition, ; resigns from the directory, ; seduced by marmont, iv. . =merseburg=, bernadotte at, iv. . =méry=, blücher at, iv. ; captured by oudinot, . =messkirch=, battle of, ii. . =mettenberg=, engagement on the, ii. . =metternich, prince von=, character, ii. ; iii. - ; on _n.'s_ designs of - , ii. ; on the treaty of tilsit, iii. ; allusions to _n.'s_ tenure of power, ; letter to stadion, july , , ; _n.'s_ conversations and confidences with, , , , , , ; at st. cloud levee, aug. , , ; deceived by the clique of talleyrand and fouché, ; goes to vienna, ; plenipotentiary at altenburg, ; suggests a union between _n._ and maria louisa, ; succeeds stadion as foreign minister, ; reports france's financial condition, ; stirs up strife between france and russia, ; reports the russian army on the danube, ; character of his negotiations with france, ; on the russian war of , ; interview with _n._ at dresden, ; holds back schwarzenberg, ; negotiations with england, ; prepares to desert _n._, ; seeks to embroil russia and sweden, ; negotiations with hardenberg, ; negotiations with _n._, ; foresees the aims of the new coalition, ; triumph in the saxon affair, ; _n._ fears the intrigues of, ; arranges a basis of mediation with nesselrode, ; meeting with maret, ; on the franco-austrian marriage, ; secret meeting with alexander, ; double-dealing of, ; interview with _n._, - ; demands suspension of the franco-austrian treaty of , ; charged by _n._ with venality, ; poses as armed mediator, ; interview with _n._, june , , - ; letter to francis, june , , ; advocates a continental peace, ; encourages rivalries of petty potentates, ; at congress of prague, ; his policy exposed, ; diplomacy during the frankfort parley, iv. - ; reproached for deserting _n._, ; letter to caulaincourt, nov. , , ; letter from caulaincourt, dec. , , ; suggests compromise plan of invasion of france, ; his memoirs, , ; position in european diplomacy, - ; influence over castlereagh, ; desires to restore the bourbons, ; his policy concerning france, ; strives to check prussian ambition, ; on the european policy of , ; relations with the allies, ; letter from _n._, march , , ; besought to encompass _n.'s_ exile, ; urges maria louisa to break relations with her husband, ; negotiates secret treaty between austria, england, and france, , ; fouché attempts intrigue with, . =metternich, countess=, share in the austrian marriage negotiations, iii. . =metz=, imprisonment of the prince of hesse-cassel in, ii. ; sends men to relief of paris, iv. . =meuse, river=, a french river, iii. ; military movements on the, iv. . =mexico=, scheme of a bourbon monarchy in, iii. , . =middle guard=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =milan=, under foreign yoke, i. ; _n.'s_ entry into and subsequent visits to, , , , ; ii. , ; iii. ; , ; defense of, by beaulieu, i. - ; flight of the archduke from, ; coercion applied to, ; provisional government for, ; plundered of works of art, ; levy of enforced contributions from, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; _n.'s_ residence at montebello, , , , ; gen. clarke at, ; celebration of july , in ( ), ii. ; troops moved to picardy from, ; moreau ordered to cut kray's communication with, ; plan of march to, abandoned, ; festival at, ; french entry into (june , ), ; _n.'s_ care for the cathedral, ; austrian evacuation of, ; count of st. julien sent to, ; coronation of _n._ at, , ; prince eugène beauharnais viceroy at, ; sends deputation to paris, iii. . =milan decree, the=, iii. , , , . =milanese, the=, provisional government for, i. ; scheme to organize republic in, ; disposition by treaty of leoben, ; question of restoring to austria, . =milhaud, gen. j. b.=, transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, iv. ; in waterloo campaign, . =military courts=, reconstitution of, i. . =military discipline=, reforms in, i. - . =military schools in france=, i. ; iii. ; _n.'s_ criticisms of, i. . =military strategy=, _n.'s_ skill in, ii. ; the art of, . =milleli=, _n.'s_ summer house and grotto, i. , . =millesimo=, military operations at, i. , , ; battle of, iv. . =mincio, river, the=, military operations on, i. , , , ; ii. , ; boundary of austrian holdings in italy, ii. . =minsk=, _n.'s_ scheme to seize, iii. ; the french retreat through, , . =miollis, gen. s. a. f.=, occupies the city of rome, iii. . =miot de melito=, i. ; conversations with _n._, ii. ; on the demonstration against england, ; "memoirs" of, quoted, iii. . =mirabeau, h. g. r.=, activity at the meeting of the estates-general, i. ; on position of the navarrese, ; plea for corsica in the national assembly, ; share in the conquest of corsica, ; inspires amnesty to paoli, , ; leads the national assembly against buttafuoco, ; military reforms of, ; succeeds necker, ; death, ; opinion of talleyrand, ii. ; statue at the tuileries, ; his politics to be ignored, iii. . =miranda=, bessières at, iii. . =mississippi, river, the=, the united states acquires control of, ii. . =mittau=, louis xviii at, iii. . =mlawa=, military operations near, iii. . =möckern=, military operations near, iv. , . =modena=, intrigue in the court of, i. ; held to ransom, , ; the armistice with, broken, ; austria's protectorate over, ; austria seeks to retain, ; disposition by treaty of leoben, ; incorporated into the cisalpine republic, ii. ; _n.'s_ bad faith with, . =modena, duke of=, attempts to bribe _n._, i. , ; destruction of his government, ; driven from his throne, . =modlin=, french military stores in, iii. ; held by the french, . =mohileff=, french garrison in, iii. . =mohrungen=, skirmish at, iii. . =moldavia=, russian ambition to possess, ii. ; iii. , , , , , ; dismissal of the turkish viceroy of, ii. ; alleged concession of, to russia, iii. ; russian evacuation of, ; _n._ offers to offset silesia against wallachia and, , , ; russia threatened with the loss of, . =molière, j. b.=, scene from "tartufe," iii. . =molitor, gen. g. j. j.=, in battle of aspern, iii. . =möllendorf, gen. r. j. h.=, prussian commander, ii. . =mollien, n. f.=, director of public debt, ii. ; keeper of the army-chest, , ; minister of the treasury, ; advises against war, iii. ; protests against issue of paper money, ; remark of _n._ to, iv. ; member of _n.'s_ new cabinet, . =monaco, prince of=, brought as prisoner to _n._, iv. . =moncey, gen.=, crosses the st. gotthard, ii. , ; created marshal, ; created duke of conegliano, iii. ; invades spain, ; defeated at valencia, ; advances on valencia, ; at madrid, ; at tafalla, ; moves against castaños, ; besieges saragossa, ; at review of the guard at fontainebleau, iv. ; recreated marshal, . =mondego, river=, wellington retreats down the, iii. . =mondovi=, battle of, i. , . =money-lenders=, _n.'s_ hatred for, ii. . =monfalcone=, ceded to france, iii. . =monge, gaspard=, _n.'s_ mathematical teacher, i. ; minister of the navy, ; founds the polytechnic school, ; plunders italian scientific collections, ; carries treaty of campo formio to the directory, ii. ; warlike declaration against england, ; elaborates plan for operations, in the mediterranean, ; accompanies _n._ on his return from alexandria, ; member of the senate, ; _n.'s_ friendship with, ; created baron, iii. . ="moniteur," the=, records "buona parte's" action at toulon, i. ; records _n.'s_ daily life, ii. ; on the events of the th brumaire, ; excites warlike feeling in france ( ), ; attacks england, , ; publishes sebastiani's report, ; on the imperial court at aachen, ; threatens austria, ; on the field of austerlitz, ; insults prussia, ; announces the position of the napoleonic princes, iii. ; announces the fall of the house of braganza, ; justifies french invasion of spain, ; publishes "authorized" reports of the spanish failure, ; on austrian aggressions, ; announces the annexation of holland, ; _n._ offers alexander the use of, ; proclamation to the national guard, march , , iv. . =monk, gen. george=, _n._ is offered the rôle of, ii. ; masséna fitted for the rôle, ; _n._ compared with, ; marmont emulates the rôle, iv. , . =monnier, gen. j. c.=, in battle of marengo, ii. . =monroe, james=, president of united states, understanding with england, iii. . =monroe doctrine, the=, iv. . =montalivet, comte j. p. b.=, member of the empress-regent's council, iv. . =mont blanc, department of=, i. . =montbrun, gen. l. p.=, commanding cavalry in russian campaign of, , iii. . =mont cenis pass=, the, crossed by _n._, ii. ; crossed by turreau, , ; austrian watch on, ; the road over, ; iii. . =monte albaredo=, the french pass over, ii. . =monte baldo=, military operations near, i. , , - . =montebello=, the austrian retreat toward, i. ; _n.'s_ residence at, , , , ; josephine at, ; genoese embassy to, ii. ; engagements near, ; battle of, ; lannes created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =lannes=. =monte legino=, rampon's stand at, i. , . =montenotte=, battle of, i. ; iv. . =montereau=, military movements near, iv. , ; victor ordered to seize, ; besieged by the crown prince of würtemberg, ; battle of, , ; captured by the french, , . =monte rotondo=, carlo buonaparte at, i. . =montesquieu, c. de s.=, views on corsica, i. ; _n.'s_ views on his political speculations, ii. , ; _n.'s_ study of, ; on human ambition, iii. ; _n.'s_ admiration for, ; "grandeur and fall of the romans," iv. . =montesquiou, a. a. a.=, royalist intrigues of, iv. ; member of the executive commission, . =montesquiou, mme. de=, governess to the king of rome, iv, . =montgelas, m. j. g.=, bavarian minister of state, iii. . =mont genèvre=, building a road over, ii. . =montholon, charles=, the "manuscrit de l'Île d'elbe" attributed to, i. ; _n.'s_ declaration to, concerning the duc d'enghien, ii. ; accompanies _n._ to st. helena, iv. ; residence on the island, ; assists _n._ on his history, ; remark of _n._ to, . =monthyon, gen.=, escorts _n._ from the field of waterloo, iv. . =montierender=, military movements at, iv. . =montmartre=, defense of, iv. ; captured by the prussians, . =montmirail=, battle of, iv. , . =montmorency=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =montpellier=, death of carlo buonaparte, at i. . =mont st. jean=, wellington's retreat to, iv. , ; possibility of grouchy reaching, ; topography of, ; wellington's center at, ; fighting at, . =moore, sir john=, commanding english troops in the peninsula, iii. ; at salamanca, ; at astorga, , ; french search for, ; prepares to attack soult, ; crosses the esla, ; destroys magazines at benevento, ; reaches corunna, ; his retreat, death, and example, ; defeat of soult, . =moosburg=, archduke charles's force at, iii. ; masséna at, . =morand, gen. l. c. a.=, in the eckmühl campaign, iii. ; battle of borodino, ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . =moravia=, kutusoff's advance into, ii. . =moreau, gen. j. v.=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; commanding forces at strasburg, ; at munich, ; defeats archduke charles, ; crosses the rhine at kehl, ; operations on the rhine, ; military genius, ; ii. , , ; iv. ; fails to reinforce _n._, i. - ; crosses the rhine near strasburg, ; declines to aid the directors, ii. ; serves in the army of italy, ; suspected of complicity with pichegru, , , ; last stand in piedmont, ; succeeds schérer in command, ; military operations in the apennines, ; succeeded by joubert, ; tempted with a dictatorship, ; tainted with royalism, ; joins the bonapartist ranks, ; a banquet at st. sulpice, ; relations with the directory, ; commanding guard at the luxembourg, ; blamed for imprisoning moulins and gohier, ; appointed to command the army of the rhine, , ; personal ambition, , ; iv. ; a military rival of _n._, ii. , , ; _n.'s_ scheme to strengthen, ; letter from _n._, march , , ; ordered to take the offensive, ; participation in the revolution of brumaire, ; lack of supplies for, ; crosses the rhine, april , , ; outwits kray, ; passes the black forest, ; defeats kray at messkirch and engen, ; troops detached from, ; levies contributions on south germany, ; effect of his victories, ; occupies munich, ; fortresses ceded to, , ; representative of revolutionary traditions in warfare, ; position near munich, ; battle of hohenlinden, ; eclipses _n._ in military glory, ; advances toward vienna, ; republican sentiment in his army, ; fall of, , - , ; implicated in the cadoudal conspiracy, et seq.; arrest and imprisonment of, ; popular denunciation of, ; banishment of, ; takes up arms against _n._, ; mortally wounded at dresden, ; iv. ; effect of his disgrace, ii. ; movements at munich, iii. ; summoned from america for european service, ; iv. ; goes over to the allies, ; with schwarzenberg's army, ; character, ; enters the russian service, ; ambition to acquire the french crown, ; treachery of, ; plans the battle of dresden, , ; refuses to fight against his country, ; death, ; funeral mass celebrated for, . =moreau, mme.=, ambition of, ii. . =morlaix=, villeneuve at, ii. . "=morning chronicle=," on england's indifference to french affairs, iv. . =morsbach=, military movements near, iii. . =mortier, gen. e. a.=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; occupies hanover, ii. ; created marshal, ; destruction of his division, ; annihilated at dürrenstein, ; in the austerlitz campaign, ; occupies mainz, , ; seizes the prince of hesse-cassel, ; threatens stralsund, iii. ; battle of heilsberg, ; battle of friedland, ; created duke of treviso, ; yearly income, ; reinforcements for, ; occupies franconia, ; forces in spain, ; ordered to blow up the kremlin, ; in the retreat from moscow, ; commanding the guard, campaign of , ; battle of dresden, iv. ; holds pirna, , ; battle of leipsic, ; at troyes, ; battle of montmirail, ; at soissons, ; junction with _n._, ; checks blücher at the ourcq, ; battle of laon, ; defends the paris line against blücher, ; at rheims, ; at soissons, ; junction with marmont at fismes, ; driven back to charenton, ; junction with marmont, ; driven back on paris, , ; defense of paris, , ; concludes terms of surrender, ; denounced by _n._, , ; ordered to take position under the walls of paris, ; strength after surrender of paris, ; attachment to _n._, ; absent from the waterloo campaign, . =moscow=, _n._ threatens to march to, iii. ; military enthusiasm in, ; russian retreat from smolensk toward, ; _n.'s_ line from the niemen to, ; defense of, - ; agreement of the opposing generals as to its capture, ; the kremlin, , ; capture and burning, - ; _n._ expects alexander to save, ; _n.'s_ political and military blunders at, , ; fountain of russian inspiration, ; topography, buildings, monuments, etc., ; russian abandonment of, ; disputed honor of the conflagration, ; pillage of, ; the french army in, - ; _n.'s_ dissipation in, ; _n.'s_ intention to be crowned in, ; french retreat from, - , et seq.; throwing away the spoils of, ; destruction of, ; alexander's desire to avenge the french seizure of, iv. . =mosel, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =moskwa, river=, military movements on the, iii. , . =moulins, j. f. a.=, member of the directory, ii. ; represents jacobin element in the directory, ; proposed resignation of, ; refuses to resign, ; imprisonment of, , ; _n.'s_ charges against, before the ancients, . ="mountain," the=, position in the national convention, i. ; suspects an english party in corsica, ; action discussed in the "supper of beaucaire," ; _n.'s_ affiliation with, ; fall of, ; factions in, ; status in the provinces, ; annihilation of, . =moustier=, question of grouchy's moving to, iv. , . =mozhaisk=, military operations at, iii, , ; depot of the french army at, . =müffling, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =muiron=, killed at arcole, i. . =mulde, river=, contemplated movements on the, iv. . =müller, w.=, member of prussian reform party, ii. . =multedo=, member of directory of corsica, i. ; denounces _n._, ; letter from _n._, . =münchberg=, soult at, ii. . =munich=, moreau at, i. ; ii. , ; iii. ; military operations near, ii. ; méhée de la touche's machinations in, ; expulsion of the english envoy at, ; the elector of bavaria reoccupies, ; _n.'s_ plan to reach, iii. . =münster=, position in the french empire, iii. . =mur, river=, military operations on the, i. . =murad bey=, attacks the french at shebreket, ii. ; battle of the pyramids, ; worries _n._ with mysterious intrigues, ; fails to assist the rhodes expedition, ; death, . =murat, gen. joachim=, at borghetto, i. ; threatens genoa, ; in rivoli campaign, ; service in egypt, ii. ; ordered to kill hostile tribesmen, ; battle of aboukir, ; accompanies _n._ on return from alexandria, ; action on the th brumaire, ; commanding guard at st. cloud, ; proposes to clear the orangery, ; pursues the austrians from milan, ; battle of marengo, ; commanding in central italy, ; watches naples, ; his plebeian birth, ; marries caroline buonaparte, , ; guardian to king louis's widow, ; military commandant at paris, ; share in trial of d'enghien, ; created marshal, ; at _n.'s_ coronation, ; captures werneck's division at nördlingen, ; enters vienna, ; reproached by _n._, ; crosses the tabor bridge, ; base conduct at vienna, ; vanity of, ; permits kutusoff's escape, ; "destroys the fruits of a campaign," ; pursues the russian force, ; checked by bagration at hollabrunn, ; outwitted by kutusoff at hollabrunn, ; battle of austerlitz, , ; grand duke of cleves and berg, ; takes title of joachim i, ; his ambitions, ; prussian campaign of , , , ; personal attendance on _n._, ; at saalburg, ; in battle of jena, ; character, ; iii. , ; invests magdeburg, ii. ; pursues hohenlohe, ; at golymin, iii. ; strength in poland, ; in campaign of eylau, - ; pursues bennigsen, ; battle of heilsberg, ; pursues lestocq from friedland, ; at tilsit, ; interview with queen louisa, ; assumes title of napoleon, ; advances on madrid, ; at burgos, ; assumes command in spain, ; his dilemma, ; his protection sought by charles iv, ; letter to _n._, march , , ; enters madrid, - ; ambition to secure the spanish throne, , , ; letters from _n._, march, , ; designated protector of spain, ; relations with _n._, ; attitude of spanish people toward, ; his policy in spain, , ; refuses to recognize ferdinand, ; trouble with his prisoner godoy, ; appointed dictator of spain, ; madrid revolts against, ; _n._ offers him the crown of naples or of portugal, ; executes patriots in madrid, ; becomes king of naples, , , ; _n.'s_ control over, ; butchery in the madrid riots, ; strength at madrid, ; commander-in-chief at madrid, ; executes decree depriving the pope of secular power, ; member of extraordinary council on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; violates the continental system, ; strength, march , , ; cavalry command in the russian campaign of , ; urges action at vitebsk, ; battle of smolensk, ; remonstrates against fighting at smolensk, ; enters moscow, ; reports the temper of the russian peasantry, ; sudden attack on, , ; desperate fighting on the retreat from moscow, ; ordered to form behind the niemen, ; commanding the remnants of the grand army, ; deserts the army and returns to naples, , , ; iv. ; crosses the niemen, iii. ; enters königsberg, ; held to his allegiance, ; battle of dresden, iv. ; sent to support vandamme at kulm, ; fails to check schwarzenberg or hold blücher, ; ordered to hold schwarzenberg, , ; battle of wachau, , ; battle of leipsic, , , ; forms alliance with austria, ; marches on rome, ; censured by _n._, ; deserts _n._, , ; characterization of talleyrand, ; uneasy for his throne, ; deposed, ; soult opposed to, ; condemned to death, . =murat, mme.=, marital relations, ii. . =murati=, success of, at bastia, i. . =museum of arts and crafts=, founded, i. . =mustapha iv=, seeks the friendship of france, iii. ; overthrows selim iii, ; weak reign of, ; murders selim iii, . n =n=, napoleon's monogram, iii. . =namur=, military operations near, iv. , , , , . =nangis=, victor and oudinot driven back to, iv. ; wittgenstein driven from, ; _n._ at, ; berthier at, ; french retreat stopped at, . =nansouty, gen.=, in the eckmühl campaign, iii. ; commanding cavalry in russian campaign of , ; moves from sézanne against blücher, iv. ; ordered toward montmirail, ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, . =nantes=, immunity from the white terror, iv. . =napier, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =naples=, bourbon influence in, i. ; humiliation of, , ; aids in defense of toulon, ; under foreign yoke, ; french proposition to revolutionize, ; becomes refractory, ; makes peace with france, ; _n.'s_ leniency to, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; plunder of, ii. , ; arrogance of, , ; diplomatic offset of spain against, ; claims malta, ; neutralization of, ; dread of french spoliation in, ; makes war on rome, , , , ; spread of revolutionary ideas to, ; joins the second coalition, , ; macdonald ordered to, ; bonapartist agency in, ; capture of, by championnet, , ; unbridled license at, ; watched by murat, ; russia intercedes for, , ; english ships forbidden to enter, ; forced contributions from, ; france withdraws from, , , ; not allowed to garrison malta, ; seized by saint-cyr, ; fate of her admiral, caraccioli, ; russia demands france's evacuation of, , ; independence of, ; a focus of anti-french conspiracies, ; _n._ demands expulsion of emigrants from, ; _n._ threatens to seize, ; villeneuve ordered to, ; prussia bound to secure the liberties of, ; banishment of the bourbons from, , , ; iii. ; russian occupation of, ii. , ; joseph bonaparte made king of, , ; iii. ; masséna ordered to, ii. ; rupture of the queen's engagement with _n._, ; opened to english ships, ; _n._ exacts tribute from, ; russia evacuates, ; vassalage to france recognized at tilsit, iii. ; trouble concerning the papal states, ; abolition of the hostile strip between italy and, ; financial and political reform in, ; murat becomes king of, , , , ; england's loss of trade with, ; seizure of american ships by, ; murat returns to , ; fails to support _n._, iv. , ; insecurity of murat's throne, ; refrains from joining the european coalition against _n._, . =naples, king of=. _see_ =buonaparte, joseph=. "=napoladron=," iii. . =napoleon buonaparte=. (_note._--items concerning napoleon's relations with persons or places will be found under the respective names of such subjects. for a conspectus of events in his career, _see_ the tables of contents in each volume. for aphorisms by or concerning napoleon, _see_ =phrases=. for details of his character _see_ paragraph below,--_analysis of character_.) birth and infancy, i. - ; brothers and sisters, , ; forms of his name, ; nicknames, ; his personal recollections of childhood, , ; development of military genius at the snow forts, ; challenges a schoolmate, ; letter to his father, ; conceptions of the state, ; aptitude for the navy, ; two enemies of, ; views on and first lessons in revolution, - , , ; hatred of france, , ; improvement in financial condition, ; a corsican revolutionist, ; first appearance as an orator, ; political schemes, ; certificates as to his republicanism, , ; prepared for confirmation, ; his detractors, ; his desire concerning his biographies, ; course of life from to , et seq.; payment of debts, ; growing notoriety, ; a starting-point of his career, ; addresses the minister of war on the national guard, ; debts of, ; a corsican jacobin, - ; strained relations with the ministry of war, , ; purchases sequestrated church lands, ; election methods, ; his "civism," , ; with the mob at the tuileries, ; on riots, ; relations with the marseilles deputation, ; on the conflict of august , , ; seeks commission in naval artillery, ; aims at corsican leadership, ; failure in politics, ; general of brigade, , - , ; his own record of his life, ; influential friends, , , ; a jacobin general, - ; denies his nobility, ; refuses to obey the convention's summons, ; a montagnard, ; the "plan-maker" of the robespierres, ; the germ of his military system, ; vicissitudes in war and diplomacy, , ; suspension and arrest, - ; appeal to the "representatives of the people" ( ), ; release, ; the end of apprenticeship, - ; degraded from artillery to infantry, ; jacobin proclivities, , ; renounces jacobinism, ; the general of the convention, - ; plans marriage and settled life, ; jealousy directed against, ; his police services, ; courtship and marriage, , ; a typical corsican, ; views on love and marriage, ; adopts new spelling of his name, ; a product of carnot's system, ; the oedipus of france, ; on a great stage, - ; demands reinforcements, ; insists on unity of command, ; keynote of military policy, ; secret of his military success, ; "the little corporal," ; iv. ; an insubordinate conqueror and diplomatist, i. - ; entrusted with diplomatic powers, ; threats against, ; prostitution of his subordinates, , ; scheme of art plunder, ; views concerning arts and sciences, ; plans succeeding the capture of milan, - ; refuses bribes, ; a prophecy fulfilled, ; narrow escapes, ; extinction of the corsican in, ; memoirs, ; military jealousy directed against, ; independent attitude of, ii. ; attitude toward royalty, ; "a personage in europe," ; plans for building up sea power, ; bribery of and by, ; constructive commander-in-chief of french forces, ; represses pillage, ; supplanter of the revolution, ; his "complete code of politics," ; theories of government, , ; doubtful points in connection with the egyptian campaign, - ; on english political history, ; "the pear is not yet ripe," ; assumes the rôle of a prophet, ; el kebir, the exalted, ; receives secret information from his brothers, ; summoned to take supreme command, ; death at st. helena, ; iv. ; gives toast: "the harmony of all the french," ii. ; scheme to make him consul, ; secret meeting of his friends, th of brumaire, ; critical moment in talleyrand's house, ; temporary dictator, ; speech to barras's messenger, th brumaire, ; dangerous confidence of, ; "traitor and outlaw," , , ; the arbiter of french destiny, ; reports of his wealth, ; first consul, , , ; royalist predilections for, ; his choice of two policies, ; the epoch of, ; importance in universal history, ; apparent loss of military ambition, ; choice of administrators, , - ; english views of, , ; salary as first consul, ; the personality of the council of state his, ; aims at centralization of government, ; beneficent effects of his régime on the world, ; controls foreign relations, ; foreign policy, , ; makes enemies as first consul, ; the fate of france identified with his, ; contrasts administrative with military glory, ; on the art of war, ; expansion of his schemes, ; his favorite tactics, ; distinction between the statesman and the general, - ; violation of the constitution in assuming command, ; undisputed mastery of france, ; sportive tricks with old dynasties of europe, ; period of his greatest renown, ; married life, , , ; malicious libels on, ; as kingmaker, ; urged by russia to declare himself king, ; codification of the laws, ; regenerates feudal society, ; study of law, ; his interest in education, ; the new era, ; method of deporting opposition, - ; apparent summit of his power, ; plots and attempts to assassinate, , ; iv. , , ; policy toward his enemies, ii. ; popularity, - ; proposal to make him king, ; the tool of fate and architect of his own fortunes, ; his first marriage, ; a soldier of fortune, ; at maturity, et seq.; a man of all ages, ; the personification of france, ; effect of conspiracies on, ; safeguards for, ; on friendships, ; on the forces by which kings rule, ; effect of his married life on the code, ; war a necessity to, ; french admiration for, ; expansion of the revolutionary system, ; relations with the diplomatic corps, , ; consular levee of march , , ; reception of diplomatic corps, apr. , , ; remonstrances against adulation of, ; mortification of, ; on the pinnacle of revolutionary power, ; brief review of his career, - ; creates a virtual tyranny, ; "consul, stadholder, or emperor?" ; his imperial title, ; his civil list, ; heraldic device of the empire, ; secures the imperial succession to his family, ; inauguration of the empire, ; coronation, , et seq.; iv. ; his naval plans of , ii. ; reception of the news of trafalgar, ; as a man of science, ; his strength with the army, ; forms of his strategy, ; fear of poison, ; encourages arts and sciences, - ; first speech from the imperial throne, ; germs of the national uprising against, ; the spell of his name, ; deprecates war, ; backed by the nation, ; "moderation" of, ; anger at naval failures, ; rapidity and perfection of his movements, ; his military commanders, ; sinks the emperor in the general, , ; iii. , ; the head of the french empire, ii. ; demands recognition as emperor of rome, ; violation of dynastic ties, ; ideas about territorial sanctity, ; "napoleon the great," ; the imperial catechism, ; traveling arrangements, ; distrust of his suite, ; simplicity of his military dress, ; likened to an octopus, ; political methods and policies, iii. , , , , ; a new seat of war for, ; determined to "conquer the sea by land," ; new experience in campaigning ; his first child, ; the center of his administration, ; the supports of his empire, ; centralization of government in, ; nameless charges against, ; his excuses for his license, ; his monogram (n) , ; commercial policy, , ; attitude toward the russo-prussian alliance, ; preference for action before words, ; recognizes the power of decorations, ; drafts on his associates, ; the surname of napoleon, ; on the ambitions of the french people, ; on paternal government, ; personal decrees, ; recognizes popular fickleness, ; creates a titled class, ; art under, ; system of imperial patronage, ; discourages gambling, ; relations with his friends and generals, ; imprisons a milliner, ; pert remarks addressed to, ; supposed cause of the turn of his fortunes, ; ignorance concerning american affairs, ; realizes the limitations of his power, ; his "master," ; ill luck at sea, ; political system of, ; the height of his power, ; crushes a watch in passion, ; his determination to crush opposition, ; intercepts suspected correspondence, , ; his "cabinet noir," ; turn of his fortunes, , ; justifies pillage, ; crushing blows, , et seq.; the embodiment of power, ; divorce impending, ; system of territorial expansion, ; his extinctions of ruling dynasties, ; diplomatic exhibit of his political scheme at st. cloud, ; dramatic incident at performance of "oedipe," ; appreciation of the drama, ; familiarity with ancient history, , ; thickening of the divorce plot, ; the character of his civilization, ; orders list of marriageable princesses to be prepared, ; a gang of self-seeking traitors to, ; well informed on the european situation, ; system of spies, ; skilful historians on, ; shifts responsibility for wars onto the enemy, ; his plan of campaigns, ; policy of wooing people and abusing their rulers, ; bonaparte distinguished from napoleon, ; iv. , ; ultimate terms of peace, iii. ; sick of war, ; dread of assassination, ; excommunicated, ; change in his manner, ; his "harem," ; declining popularity, ; basis of his power, ; alleges the reasons for his divorce, ; decides on the austrian marriage, ; second marriage, ; banishes the cardinals, ; renounces title of roman emperor, ; consolidation of his power, ; fills vacant bishoprics, ; extent of his empire, , ; change of naval policy, ; the national uprisings against, ; causes leading to his overthrow, ; mistaken policy of providing thrones for relatives, ; his perquisites in english sugar and coffee, ; spanish schoolboys' nickname for, ; deals with state property for personal benefit, ; policy of personal attachments, ; his "extraordinary domain," , ; imperial residences, ; endows maternity hospital, ; chooses between lives of child and mother, ; aspirations for sea power, ; flood-tide of success, ; method of replenishing an empty treasury, , ; the man and the embodied political force of europe, distinguished, - ; "emperor of the continent," ; an incident that changed the course of history, ; new naval schemes, ; belief in the devotion of france, ; policy of territorial aggrandizement, ; his ideal, ; beginning of his decline, ; considered the anti-christ, ; secret funds, ; studies roman history, ; warned against war by ministers and friends, ; warned of the fate of charles xii, ; moral reforms, ; the climax of his drama, ; physical characteristics at opening of the russian campaign of , ; afflicted with dysuria, ; address to his army before the russian campaign, ; plans of action, , ; longing for a great battle, ; desperate military straits of, ; deplores the barbarity of war, ; contracts a loathsome disease, ; weakness and indecision on the retreat from moscow, ; shares the hardships of the army, , , ; commands a division of the army, ; bulletin of dec. , , ; false report of his death, ; wrath of the army against, ; "robbed the cradle and the grave," ; revolutionary training, ; his "library," ; on credit, ; faces a european coalition, , ; refuses to cede european holdings, ; conciliatory attitude, ; fallacies of his military schemes of , ; aims of the new coalition against, ; belief in cavalry, ; attitude toward austria, ; his blunder of , ; the beginning of the final disaster, ; a tyro in dynastic politics, ; alleged turning-point in his career, ; suspects treachery, ; isolation of, , ; characterizes his austrian marriage as stupidity, ; his first fatal blunder, ; tries to bribe austria, ; former friends turn against, iv. ; advantage over the allies, ; the hazard of the die, ; characterization of the allies, ; value of his presence in the field, ; climax of disaster, ; appeals to sentiment rather than history, ; the wonder-year of his theoretical genius, ; transformed from strategist into politician, ; the diplomat outstrips the strategist, ; definition of a great man, ; outwitted by the allies, , ; the savior of society, ; found out by the masses, ; newness of his nobility, ; his aim the independence of the nations, ; spends his private treasure on the army, ; his last official act, ; no longer emperor, ; leaves paris for châlons, ; value of his prestige, ; his supreme military effort, ; a famous march by, ; the allies' determination to exterminate the napoleonic idea, , ; his military correspondence, , ; yields to his marshals, ; estrangement and desertion of his marshals, , , - ; suggestion that he abdicate, ; realizes the war is for his extermination, ; "the spasmodic stroke of the dying gladiator," ; rouses the peasantry to guerrilla warfare, ; desperate scheme of, ; "this movement makes or mars me," ; capture of a bundle of letters from paris for, ; chances for a last stand, ; contemplates a new levy, ; the allies refuse to treat with, ; proposal that he govern france under guarantees, ; overthrown by the legislature, ; regains his equilibrium, ; rage at learning of the surrender, ; the allies refuse to negotiate with, ; his first abdication, , - , ; influence over the troops, ; desertion of the army, ; the knell of the empire, ; proclamation of april , , ; a homeless citizen of the world, ; determination never to be taken alive, ; final form of his declaration of abdication, ; use of the imperial style, ; the savior of european society, ; treatment accorded to, by the allies, - ; parting gifts to old acquaintances, ; treasure at blois, ; denies the charge of usurpation, ; alleged to be a bastard, ; alleged theft of crown jewels, ; his true name said to be nicholas, ; calumnies heaped on, , ; plots for the exile of, ; adopts disguise, ; farewell to the allies' commissioners, ; effect of english customs on, ; begins the administration of his island realm, ; treasure at the tuileries, ; his historical commentaries, ; forced to practise economy, ; diminution of his private fortune, ; scheme to deport him still further, ; keeps informed as to course of european events, , ; scouts the idea of a regency, ; prepares for his escape, ; alleged fears of deportation, ; his escape justified, ; dismisses the peasantry from his column, ; troops flock to, ; forms his new cabinet, ; acquiesces in popular demand for constitutional government, ; the apostle of popular sovereignty, ; views on abolition of censorship of press, ; devotion to the cause of public liberty, ; resolution of the european dynasties to extirpate his régime, ; "the enemy and disturber of the world's peace," ; proclaimed an outlaw, , ; turns toward the moderate liberals, ; call for volunteers, ; his reconstituted corps of marshals, ; proclamation to the army, june , , ; apparent successes of june , , ; effects of his inactivity, ; his last dream of glory, , ; loss of the last chance, ; the emperor contrasted with the general, ; demand for his abdication, ; calls for him as dictator, ; idea of regaining the government by force, ; abdicates for the second time, ; adopts civilian's clothing, ; the government refuses responsibility for his safety, ; romantic schemes for his escape, ; desire for his execution, ; regarded as the common prisoner of the allies, ; general bonaparte, a private citizen, ; appeals against his sentence, , ; upholds polygamy, ; his autobiography, , ; efforts for his release, , ; as a prisoner, - ; attempts intercourse with friends in france, ; farewell message to his son, ; his testament, ; bequests and their settlements, ; last sickness and death, ; a possible epitaph, ; his rise to power, et seq.; questionings as to his life and work, et seq.; his love of artillery, ; lack of education, ; on greatness, ; influence on history, et seq.; early struggles, et seq.; methods of acquiring supreme power, , , ; lasting character of his work, ; legal reforms, ; police system of, ; centralization of his administrative system, , , ; social reforms, , , ; educational system, ; the secret of his downfall, ; position among lawgivers and statesmen, ; rule by military force, ; attitude toward democracy, ; deficient education in politics and history, ; influence on modern times, , ; popular distrust of his character, ; meets intrigue with intrigue, ; responsibility for bloodshed, ; causes of his downfall, - , ; his place in history, - ; essays the rôle of liberator, , , ; in captivity, ; his "correspondence," ; roots out absolutism, ; his artificial aristocracy, . _analysis of character_. ability to mold men, ii. , , , - , , , , - , , , , - , , , , , , ; iv. , , ; as an adventurer, iv. ; ambition, i. ; , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; ii. , - , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , - , ; amusements, iv. , ; anxiety for his safety and comfort, iv. ; asceticism, i. ; autocracy, ii. ; bravado, iii. ; use of bribery, acceptance and rejection of bribes, i. ; ii. ; as a burgher, ii. ; iv. ; calmness under stress, ii. ; iv. ; use of cant, iv. ; capacity for work, energy, industry, and attention to detail, i. , , , , , ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , - , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - ; iv. , , - , , ; casuistry, i. ; caustic, sarcastic or vigorous tongue or pen, i. , , ; ii. , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , - , , , , ; caution, i. , ; ii. , , ; (lack of), ii. ; iii. ; change in temperament, iii. ; character at brienne, i. ; cheerfulness and good humor, ii. , ; iii. , ; clemency, ii. ; coffee-drinking habit, iv. ; contempt for ideals, ii. ; iii. ; , , , ; contempt for men and money, iv. ; cosmopolitanism, ; courage, i. - , , ; ii. ; iii. , , , ; iv. , ; charge of cowardice against, ii. ; a criminal, iv. ; cruelty, ii. , , ; decay of physical and intellectual powers, neglect of details, vacillation, etc., iii. , , ; , - , , , , ; iv. , , , , , - ; , - , ; desire for peace, ii. , ; iii. , , , , , ; iv. , ; desperation, iii. ; despondency and pessimism, i. , , , ; iii. ; iv. ; despotism, iii. , , , , , ; iv. ; the man of destiny and of the hour, the representative man of his epoch, a fatalist and opportunist, i. , , , , , , , - , ; ii. - , , ; iii. , ; iv. , , , , , ; determination to rule or ruin, iii. ; his "divine character," ii. ; domestic virtues--filial, parental, and connubial affection, i. , , , , , , , , , , - ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. - , ; love of dramatic effect; ability as an actor, i. , ; ii. ; iii. ; iv. , , ; dread of assassination and kidnapping, ii. ; iii. , ; iv. , ; dreams of universal and european empire, i. ; ii. , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , ; iv. , ; dreams of oriental conquest and empire, i. , , , , , ; ii. - , , - , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , ; iv. ; dress, i. ; ii. , ; iii. , , . ; duplicity, shiftiness, and versatility, i. , , , , , , , , , ; dynastic ambitions and longings for an heir, ii. , - , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , ; early education and later studies, i. - , - , , , - , , , , , ; early military irregularities and inaptitude, i. , , , , - , ; organizes educational system, ii. ; iii. , ; egoism, vanity, and self-assertiveness, ii. , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , ; elasticity of spirits, iv. ; elements of his failure, iii. , ; endurance of privation, iii. , , , , ; equestrianism, sporting instincts, etc., iii. , ; exaggeration and disregard of truth, i. , ; as a financier, ii. , , ; iii. , , - , , ; iv. , , , ; foresight and insight, ii. , , ; iii. , ; generosity, hospitality, and charity, i. , ; ii. , ; iii. , , , , , , ; his all-embracing genius, ii. , ; habit of reducing thoughts to writing, iv. ; hallucinations and self-delusions, iii. , ; iv. , , , ; hatred and vindictiveness, i. ; ii. ; as a historian, iv. , , ; humanity, iv. ; his human supremacy, iv. ; an iconoclast, ii. ; imperious character, iv. ; inconsistency, iii. , , , ; iv. - ; inelegance of manner, lack of breeding and delicacy, ii. - , , , ; iii. , , ; influenced by personal friendships, iv. ; intellectual powers, iii. ; intolerance of criticism, ; invincibility, ii. ; iii. ; knowledge of human nature, ii. , ; qualities of leadership, i. , , , , , , , , , , , , , - ; liberalism, ii. ; literary tastes, studies, style, and work, i. , , , , , - , , , , - , - , , , , , , , - , , , , , - , ; ii. , , ; iii. , , - , , ; iv. , , , , , ; magnanimity (assumed), ii. ; magnificence, lavishness, and love of display, iii. , , , , , - , ; a man of the people, et seq.; views on marriage, ; mathematical ability, i. , , ; military blunders, iii. , , , - , ; iv. ; military education, and early service in the army, i. , , , - , , , , , , , , , - , , , , - , , , , , - ; military genius and strategy, i. , , , , , , , , , , - , - , - , - , , , , - ; ii. , , , , - , - , , , , , - , , ; iii. , , , , , - , , , , - , , , , , , , - , - , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , ; denies moral responsibility, ii. ; nerve, iii. ; nervousness, ; over-credulousness, iv. ; patriotism, i. , , , , , ; ii. , ; persistence, i. , ; ii. , , ; personal appearance, i. , , ; ii. , , ; iii. , ; iv. , ; physical condition and vigor, i. ; iii. , , , ; iv. , , , - ; physical peculiarities, conditions, ailments, etc., i. , , ; iv. , , , , , , , , - , , - ; plain-spokenness, iii. ; his political acumen, ii. ; poverty, i. , , , , , , , , , , ; powers of analysis and calculation, i. , ; secret of his preëminence, iv. , ; ready wit, iii. ; recklessness, i. ; as a reformer, iii. ; reliance on public opinion, iv. ; attitude toward religion and relations with the church, i. , , , , ; ii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , - , , , ; resolution, iii. , ; restlessness, i. , , , ; review of his character, iv. ; sanguine temperament, iii. ; self-assertion, self-confidence, self-interest, and selfishness, i. , , , , , , , , - , ; iii. , , , , , , , , ; iv. , , ; a self-made man, iv. ; self-restraint, i. , ; sensuality, i. , ; ii. ; iii. , , , , , , ; iv. , ; sensitiveness, ii. ; slow development, iv. ; social life, manners, and reforms, his court, public receptions, etc., i. , , , , , , , , , - , ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , - , , - , - , , , , , , ; iv. ; as soldier, statesman, and despot, iv. et seq.; speculative mania, , , ; statecraft and diplomacy, i. , , ; ii. , , - , , , , - , , - , , , - , - , , , , , - , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , ; his strong will, ii. , , ; views concerning suicide, and his attempts thereat, i. ; ii. ; iv. , , , , ; superstition, ii. ; temper, ii. ; iii. ; the terror of his name, ; iv. , , , ; theocratic assumptions, ii. ; thirst for conquest and warlike zeal, ii. , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , ; thirst for power, ; unscrupulousness, i. , , , , , , , , , , , ; ii. , , , , , ; iii. , , , ; iv. ; attitude toward and relations with women, i. , , , , , , ; ii. , ; iii. , - , , ; iv. , . =napoleon ii=, king of rome, _n.'s_ affection for, iii. , ; malet's conspiracy, ; insignificance of, ; possibility of a regency for, . =napoleone, stéphanie=, marries prince charles of baden, ii. ; _n.'s_ liaison with, . =napoleon's mount=, ii. , . =narbonne, comte de=, mission from dresden to russia, iii. . =narew, river=, military movements on the, iii. , , . =nassau=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =nassau, prince= of, anecdote of, iii. . =national assembly, the=, corsican affairs in, i. - ; persuades paoli to return to corsica, ; condemns buttafuoco, ; refuses to create corsican national guard, ; debates on the military power, ; difficulties of its work, - , , ; self-effacement of, ; ecclesiastical legislation by, ; the king takes refuge in, ; dismisses the king's body-guard, ; abolishes the kingship, ; lafayette endeavors to calm, , ; disperses, . =national convention, the=, election of a, i. ; meeting of, sept. , , ; the king summoned before, ; enforces its decrees in corsica, ; paoli summoned to appear before, , ; appeal to, by _n._, in paoli's behalf, ; denounces paoli, ; sends new commissioners to corsica, ; promises indemnity to corsican sufferers, ; supremacy of, ; corsica's successful revolt against, ; popular support of, ; effect of the "treason of toulon" on, ; receives news of capture of toulon, ; vengeance on toulon, ; overthrow of the girondists, ; _n._ and gen. lapoype summoned before, ; terrorists in, ; turns on robespierre, ; downfall, , ; jacobins in, ; question of reelection of members, , , ; rebellion and riots against, , , ; proclaims amnesty, ; royalist intrigues in, ; popular hatred of, ; prepares for conflict, , ; adopts _n.'s_ plan for italian campaign, ; distrusts _n._, ; triumph on the th vendémiaire, - ; its plans thwarted by violence, ; _n.'s_ peculiar relations to, ; financial maladministration, ii. ; plans for invading england, ; scheme of revolutionary extension, iii. ; =national guard, the=, organization and reorganization of, i. , , , , , ; calling in officers of, ; _n._ adjutant-major in, ; feeling against the convention among, , ; defense of the tuileries, ; oppose the convention forces, - ; the th vendémiaire, - ; _n._ appointed commander of, ii. ; drafts for the imperial army from, iii. ; in defense of paris, iv. , ; decay of imperialism among, ; fails to persuade the empress to stay, ; _n._ hopes to raise, ; refuses to obey the provisional government, ; proclamation to, march , , ; reviewed by _n._, ; surly spirit among, . =national guard of corsica=, _n.'s_ schemes to form, i. ; _n._ appointed adjutant-major in, . =national library=, lecture system of the, i. . =national list, the=, ii. . =naudin=, letter of _n._ to, july , , i. . =naumburg=, prussian headquarters at, ii. , ; davout and bernadette at, ; blücher pursues macdonald to, iv. . =navarre=, question of the sovereignty of, i. ; incorporated with france, ; french invasion of, iii, ; the château of, granted to ferdinand vii, ; _n.'s_ contemplated movements in, ; military government of, . =navy=, _n.'s_ aptitude for the, i. ; suicide among officers of the french, ii. ; preparations at toulon, . =nazareth=, skirmish at, ii. . =necker, jacques=, schemes of, i. ; _n.'s_ study of, ; minister of finance, ; problems of taxation, , ; flight from france, ; banishment, ; fall, ; mme. de staël's inheritance from, iii. . =negroes=, arguments in favor of enslaving, ii. . =neidenburg=, military operations near, iii. , . =neipperg, count a. a.=, relations with maria louisa, iii. ; iv. , . =neisse=, siege of, iii. . =nelson, adm. horatio=, captures bastia, i. ; ii. ; expected coöperation with austria at savona, i. ; sails from cadiz in chase of the egyptian expedition, ii. ; returns to sicily, ; seeks the french fleet in greece, ; follows to egypt, ; loses an eye at cadiz, ; battle of cape st. vincent, ; battle of the nile, , , ; battle of copenhagen, ii. ; sanctions the execution of caraccioli, ; correspondence with dumouriez, ; aided by portugal, ; plan to allure him to egypt, ; villeneuve avoids, ; enticed to the west indies, ; joins cornwallis before brest, ; sails for portsmouth, ; pursues villeneuve to gibraltar, ; chases villeneuve to the west indies and back, ; arrives off cadiz, ; his ambition, ; battle of trafalgar, - ; his death, . =nemours=, cossacks advance to, iv. . =nesselrode, count=, appearance in russian diplomacy, iii. ; refuses to treat with france, ; conference with francis, ; demands austria's adherence to the coalition, ; agrees to basis of austrian mediation, ; letter from talleyrand to, iv. ; approves the restoration of the bourbons, ; negotiates with talleyrand, . =netherlands=, french defeats in, i. ; hoche's campaign in, ; england's interest in, ; iv. ; the enlightenment of, ii. ; course of affairs ( - ), , ; french agents in the, ; english expedition to destroy the dockyards of, iii. ; french influence in, iv. ; bernadotte assigned to watch, ; english troops in the, ; the allies' invasion of france via, , ; campaign of the hundred days, et seq.; weakness of the troops of, , . _see also_ =austrian netherlands=; =belgium=; =dutch flanders=; =holland=. =neuburg=, marmont at, ii. . =neufchâteau=, member of the directory, ii. , ; mission to congress of rastatt, . =neufchâtel=, ceded to france, ii. ; berthier created prince of, iii. . _see also_ =berthier=. =neumarkt=, jourdan's defeat near, i. ; masséna's movements at, ; flight of hiller to, iii. ; _n._ at, . =neu-reppin=, military movements near, ii. . =neutrality=, the principle of the agreement of , ii. . =neuwied=, hoche crosses the rhine at, i. . =new castile=, duke del infantado commissioned governor of, iii. . =new england=, commercial greed, iii. . =newfoundland=, proposed french expedition to, ii. . =new galicia=, annexed to the grand duchy of warsaw, iii. . =new orleans=, battle of, iv. . =new york=, proposal that _n._ sail to, iv. . =ney, marshal michel=, a product of carnot's system, i. ; in battle of hohenlinden, ii. ; occupies switzerland, , ; service in the army of england, ; execution of, ; joins _n._ at waterloo, ; created marshal, ; plan for his invasion of ireland, ; character, ; iii. ; holds the bridge at günzenburg, ii. ; victory at leoben, ; clears the enemy from the tyrol, ; at bayreuth, ; in battle of jena, - ; invests magdeburg, ; at neidenburg, iii. ; strength in poland, ; threatens königsberg, ; reprimanded by _n._, ; retreats from heilsberg, ; pursued by bennigsen, ; escapes to gilgenburg, ; in eylau campaign, ; battle of heilsberg, ; movements on the passarge, ; battle of friedland, ; created duke of elchingen, ; yearly income, , ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; quarrel with tolstoi, ; at logroño, ; moves against castaños, ; lack of vigor of movement, ; movement against madrid, ; stationed at astorga, ; in leon, ; strength, march, , ; advances on dünaburg, ; battle of smolensk, ; reckless pursuit after smolensk, ; battle of borodino, ; "the bravest of the brave," ; hero of the retreat from moscow, , ; letter to berthier, nov. , , ; junction with eugène, ; "a marshal of the empire has never surrendered," ; perilous retreat from smolensk, ; his most brilliant deed of arms, ; crosses the dnieper, ; at the crossing of the beresina, , ; reaches vilna, ; in campaign of , ; battle of lützen, ; battle of bautzen, ; beleaguers schweidnitz, ; confronts blücher at the bober, iv. ; battle of dresden, ; supersedes oudinot, ; battle of dennewitz, , ; driven into torgau, ; letter to _n._, sept. , , ; battle of leipsic, ; on the allies' march on paris, ; moves from sézanne against blücher, ; commanding the young guard, ; battle of craonne, ; battle of laon, ; moves up the aube, ; battle of arcis-sur-aube, ; courage, ; at council at st. dizier, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; at review of the guard at fontainebleau, ; treasonable utterance at fontainebleau, ; demands the emperor's abdication, ; voices the disaffection of the army, ; on commission to present abdication to the czar, , ; transfers his allegiance, ; returns to paris, ; resents royalist affronts to his wife, ; rejoins napoleon at auxerre, ; recreated marshal, ; in the waterloo campaign, ; dispute concerning his orders, ; ordered to quatre bras, , , ; moves to gosselies, ; interview with _n._, ; battle of quatre bras, - ; at frasnes, , ; _n._ determines to join, ; _n.'s_ despatch to, june , , ; _n.'s_ indignation at, ; moves to coöperate with _n._, ; battle of waterloo, , - ; insubordinate spirit, ; commanding the guard, ; at quatre bras, ; contrasted with desaix, ; at eylau, ; imprisoned and condemned to death, . =nice=, _n._ at, i. , , , , , , ; inadequate works at, ; the buonapartes at, ; news of the terror in, ; france's ambition to gain, , ; lost to sardinia, ; proposal that france should keep, iv. . =niemen, river, the=, military movements on, iii. , , , , ; meeting of the sovereigns on, iii. et seq.; prussian territory on, ; french advance from the vistula to, ; french advance to the dwina from, . =nile, river, the=, the campaign on, ii. et seq.; mamelukes drowned in, ; battle of, - , , . =nîmes=, alarm among the protestants of, iv. . =niort=, enthusiasm for the fallen emperor at, iv. . =nivelles=, military operations near, iv. , ; topography of, , . =nivôse=, the plot of, ii. - . =nobilles, comte de=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =nobility of france, the=, loss of its feudal power, i. ; privileges, and assumptions of privileges of, , ; yielding of privileges by, ; flight of, , (_see also_ =emigrants=). =noble guard=, institution of a, iv. ; abolition of the, . =nogara=, military operation near, i. . =nogent=, victor ordered to, iv. ; _n._ at, , ; abandoned by victor, ; souham's forces at, ; abdication proposed to the emperor at, . =non-intercourse act of march , =, iii. . =non-intervention act, the=, iii. . =nordhalben=, davout at, ii. . =nordhausen=, military movements near, ii. . =nördlingen=, the french position at, ii. ; capture of werneck's division at, . =normandy=, unrest in, i. ; marmont's troops to withdraw into, iv. . =north=, proposed league of the, ii. . =north cape=, a boundary of the continental system, iii. . =north german confederation=, proposed organization of, ii. - , . _see also_ =confederation of the rhine=. =north sea=, proposed french expedition to, ii. ; part of the coast incorporated into the french empire, iii. , , . ="northumberland,"= the, conveys _n._ to st. helena, iv. . =norway=, lost to denmark, iii. ; subordination to denmark, ; in vassalage to france, ; offered by alexander to sweden, , , , ; bernadotte's ambition to acquire, , ; in possession of denmark, iii. ; russian troops for the conquest of, ; struggle with sweden, iv. . =nossen=, defeat of the saxons by the black legion at, iii. . =notables of france=, ii. ; abolition of the list of, . =notre dame cathedral=, service in honor of the concordat at, ii. ; _n.'s_ coronation in, - . =novi=, battle of, ii. , , ; military operations near, ii. . =nuits=, _n._ visits, i. ; society in, . =nyon=, carnot's concealment at, ii. . o "=oberon=," iii. . =ocana=, battle of, iii. , . =ochs, peter=, republican propagandist in switzerland, ii. . =oder, river, the=, proposed surrender to _n._ of forts on, iii. ; threatened expulsion of the french from, ; military movements on, iv. ; french garrisons on, . "=oedipe=," performed at erfurt, iii. . =offenburg=, reputed emigrant conspirators in, ii. ; caulaincourt's expedition to, . =officialdom=, popular hatred of, i. . =offingen=, the french position at, ii. . =oglio, river, the=, beaulieu retreats behind, i. ; austria's boundary in venetia, ; schérer driven behind, ii. . =o'hara, gen.=, captured before toulon, i. . =old castile=, french occupation of, iii. . =oldenburg=, proposal to include in north german confederation, ii. ; scheme to incorporate with france, iii. ; alexander i reserves his family rights over, ; alexander offers to exchange, for erfurt, ; incorporated in the french empire, , ; proposal that france evacuate, ; restored to its former ruler, iv. . =oldenburg, duke of=, marries grand duchess catherine, iii. , ; dethroned, , ; proposed allotment of territory to, . =old guard, the=, battle of leipsic, iv. , ; moves against blücher from sézanne, ; _n._ reviews them at fontainebleau, ; _n._ takes leave of, ; reduction of the pay of, ; in battle of waterloo, , . _see also_ =imperial guard=. =ollioules=, capture and recapture of, i. . =olmütz=, military operations near, ii. , . =olsusieff, gen.=, annihilated by marmont at champaubert, iv. . =o'meara, edward=, publisher of an elban ms., i. ; _n.'s_ declaration to, concerning the duc d'enghien, ii. ; _n.'s_ conversations with, ; physician to _n._, iv. ; assists _n._ on his history, ; dismissed by lowe, . =oneglia=, masséna's advance through, i. ; french troops in the valley of, ; _n.'s_ service at, , . =oporto=, seizure of the french governor of, iii. ; bishop of, applies to england for help, ; occupied by soult, . =oppin=, bernadotte at, iv. . =orange, house of=, indemnity to, for loss of power, ii. . =orange, the prince of=, recalled to holland, iv. ; in waterloo campaign, , ; at the duchess of richmond's ball, ; battle of quatre bras, . =orcha=, military movements near, iii. . =ordener, gen.=, leads expedition to ettenheim, and arrests the duc d'enghien, ii. . =ore mountains=, contemplated operations in the, iv. ; retreat of the allies toward, . =orezza=, _n._ at, i. , ; meeting of the constituent assembly at, - . =orgon=, attempt to assassinate _n._ at, iv. . =oriani, comte b.=, _n.'s_ statement to, i. . ="orient," the=, sunk in aboukir bay, ii. . =oriental question, the=, ii. . =orleans=, prison massacres in, i. ; french garrison at, iv. . =orloff, count=, conducts negotiations for surrender of paris, iv. . =ormea=, masséna's advance through, i. . =orscha=, french garrison in, iii. . =ortenau=, ceded to baden, ii. . =osnabrück=, position in the french empire, iii. . =ossian=, _n.'s_ acquaintance with and study of, ii. ; iv. , . =ostermann-tolstoi, gen.=, in battle of eylau, iii. ; character, ; conducts negotiations with _n._, , , ; reception at paris, ; quarrel with ney, ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; at st. cloud levee, aug. , , . =osterode=, _n.'s_ headquarters at, iii. , . =ostrach=, battle of, ii. . =ostrolenka=, russian retreat to, iii. ; russians driven out of, . =othman=, the royal line of, iii. . =otranto=, embargo on, ii. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; fouché created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =fouché=. =ott, gen.=, besieges genoa, ii. , , , ; defeated by lannes at casteggio, ; reaches alessandria, ; in battle of marengo, . =otto, comte l. g.=, ambassador to england, ii. ; letter from _n._, oct. , , , ; recalled from london, . =otto the great=, _n._ likened to, ii. . =ottoman empire=, proposed partition of, ii. . _see also_ =egypt=; =turkey=. =oubril=, his treaty rejected by alexander i, ii. , ; russian envoy to paris, , , . =oudinot, gen. c. n.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. ; created duke of reggio, iii. ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; character, ; commanding in hanau, ; ordered to augsburg, ; ordered to abensberg, ; battle of wagram, ; ordered to coerce holland, ; strength, march, , ; at the crossing of the beresina, - ; in campaign of , ; threatens berlin, ; _n.'s_ instructions to, iv. ; defeated at luckau, ; fails in his movement against berlin, - ; battle of grossbeeren, ; retreats to wittenberg, ; superseded by ney, ; battle of dennewitz, , ; at dresden, ; battle of leipsic, , ; checks pursuits at lindenau, ; opposes schwarzenberg, ; driven back to nangis, ; before provins, ; captures méry, ; ordered to hold blücher, ; checked by schwarzenberg, ; driven beyond troyes, ; retreats from arcis, ; at bar-sur-ornain, ; strength after the surrender of paris, ; at the abdication scene, ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, ; recreated marshal, . =ourcq, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =ouvrard, g. j.=, sent by fouché on mission to england, iii. . p =pachra, river=, french crossing of the, iii. . =pacific ocean=, influence of the united states on the, ii. . =paderborn=, apportioned to prussia, ii. . =padua=, military operations near, i. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. . =pagerie, marie-josephe-rose tascher de la=. _see_ =beauharnais, josephine=. =pagerie, mlle. tascher de la=, sought in marriage by ferdinand vii, iii. ; marries the duke of aremberg, . =pagerie, tascher de la=, father of josephine beauharnais, i. ; death of, . =paine, thomas=, on financial condition of england, ii. . =pajol, gen.=, seizes montereau, iv. ; in the waterloo campaign, ; engagement at charleroi, ; battle of ligny, . =palace of the government, the=, ii. . =palafox, gen. josé de=, military ability, iii. ; at saragossa, , . =palais royal=, headquarters of the tribunate, ii. ; a refuge for the disreputable, . =palestine=, the key of, ii. ; importance of _n.'s_ conquering, . =palm, j. p.=, bookseller of nuremberg, execution of, ii. . =palma=, _n._ advances to, i. . =pamplona=, _n._ seeks information concerning, iii. ; seized by darmagnac, . =pan, mallet du=, criticizes mme. de staël, iii. . =panatheri=, secretary of directory of corsica, i. . =pantheon club=, closing of the, i. . =paoli, pascal=, his share in the history of corsica, i. et seq.; relations with the jews and with the vatican, ; compared with washington, ; his character and renown, , ; offers asylum to rousseau, ; hoodwinked by choiseul, , ; defeat and escape, ; appeals to the powers, ; aspirations for corsica, , , ; _n.'s_ address to, ; his conciliation sought by france, ; _n._ a supporter and admirer of, , , , , ; the "history of corsica," dedicated to, ; _n.'s_ correspondence with, - ; his return to corsica, - , , ; activity of his agents, ; directs corsican agitation, ; amnesty granted to, , ; quits england, ; honored by louis xvi and the national assembly, ; misrepresented in paris, ; popularity in corsica, , ; meeting with _n._ at rostino, ; virtual dictator of corsica, ; agitation in his behalf in corsica, , ; interferes in riots in ajaccio, ; difficulties of his situation, ; displeasure at _n._, ; despair of, ; commander-in-chief in corsica, ; _n._ seeks reconciliation with, ; lieutenant-general in the french army, ; opposes sardinian invasion scheme, , , ; _n.'s_ insubordination to, ; suspected of intrigue with england, , ; position on declaration of war against england, ; denounced by lucien buonaparte, ; summoned to appear before the national convention, , ; _n._ antagonizes, - , , , ; denounced by the national convention, ; summons _n._ to corte, ; offers to leave corsica, ; seeks english protection for corsica, - ; views of condition of france, ; declared an outlaw, ; fails to fortify ajaccio, ; seeks aid from england, ; recalled to england, . =paolists, the=, i. . =papacy, the=, french feeling against the, i. ; the directory desires its overthrow, , ; _n.'s_ alliance with, ; _n._ proposes negotiations with the, ii. ; relations of _n._ and france with, , , . _see also_ =church=; =pius vii=; =rome=. =papal states, the=, french proposition to revolutionize, i. ; french seizures and ransom in, ; _n._ protects clergy in, ; under french influence, ; scheme to conquer, ii. ; held by austria, , ; evacuated by ferdinand iv, ; _n._ demands expulsion of russians, english, and sardinians from, ; _n.'s_ influence over, recognized at tilsit, iii. ; _n._ demands banishment of hostile agents from, and closing of ports to england, ; french invasion of, ; demands for the inviolability of, ; annexed to france, . =papelotte=, the farms of, iv. ; fighting at, , . =paradomania=, iii. . "=parallel between cæsar, cromwell, and bonaparte=," ii. . =parbasdorf=, military operations near, iii. , . =paris=, the military school at, i. , , ; _n.'s_ sojourn in ( ), ; the parliament banished from, ; base elements of population flock to, ; encounter in the place vendôme, ; burning of the barriers, ; destruction of the bastille, , ; louis xvi takes up residence in, ; famine, ; return of the court to, ; municipal reform, ; _n._ returns to (may , ), ; _n.'s_ impoverished condition in, ; great outburst of sedition, ; marseilles sends a deputation to, ; the barricades on august , , ; _n._ and elisa in, ; _n.'s_ residences in (holland patriots' hotel), ; (fossés montmartre), ; (michodière street), ; (chantereine street), ii. ; (victory street), ; massacres of royalist prisoners, i. ; overturn of municipal government, ; committee of surveillance, , ; prison massacres in (sept. - , ), ; representation in the national convention, ; condemnation and execution of louis xvi, ; establishment of the revolutionary tribunal, ; _n._ at ( ), ; scenes of the terror, ; _n.'s_ sojourn in ( ), , et seq.; , ; influence in political movements, ; bread riots, ; jacobin plots, ; critical condition of affairs, , , ; social life ( , ), - , , , ; hatred of the national convention in, ; military preparations, , , ; royalist plots against, ; critical condition of affairs, - ; rebellion against the convention, et seq.; the th vendémiaire, - ; restoration of order, ; _n._ cows the low elements in, ; rejoicings in, over piedmontese successes, ; glorification of _n._ in ( ), ; receptacle for plundered works of art, ; "the capital of european liberties," ; spring elections of , ii. ; critical condition of affairs, ; royalist intrigues, the clichy faction, , , ; necessity for a powerful general in, , ; barras schemes to bring troops to, ; the th of fructidor, ; _n.'s_ remittances to, ; feeling in, over the treaty of campo formio, ; return of _n._ to ( ), - ; the "street of victory," ; plot and counterplot in, ; distrust of _n._ in ( ), ; popular ideas in, concerning the egyptian campaign, ; _n.'s_ triumphant progress from fréjus to, ; hatred of the terror, , ; _n.'s_ reception in (from egypt), - ; banquet to _n._ in st. sulpice, , ; _n._ appointed commander of the troops, et seq.; the th brumaire, et seq.; iv. ; fouché closes the barriers, ii. ; apportionment of the guards in, ; _n._ reopens the barriers, ; the th brumaire, et seq.; weeding out old republican politicians from, ; warlike feeling in ( ), ; welcomes _n._ from marengo, ; _n.'s_ relations with polite society in, ; service in honor of the concordat, ; schemes of the duc d'enghien's supporters in, ; explosion of infernal machine in rue st. nicaise, ; mme. de staël exiled from, ; restoration of street names, ; improved social conditions, ; the press of, attacks england, ; center of the government, ; feeling in, concerning _n.'s_ court at aachen, ; coronation of _n._, , , - ; prospects of coming war in, ; fickleness of society in, ; abuse of austria and russia by press, ; _n._ returns to (jan. , ), ; affection for n. in, ; _n._ proposes to introduce bull-fights, ; _n._ leaves for mainz, ; relics of frederick the great sent to, ; official reports from eylau in, iii. ; the situation in ( ), et seq.; the head and body of france, ; sensitiveness of the bourse, ; mme. de staël returns to, and again expelled from, ; the situation in, after friedland, ; proposal that alexander visit, ; question of the cardinal at, ; return of _n._ from tilsit to, ; public works, , ; jewish sanhedrim in, iii. ; social vices in, ; tolstoi's reception at, ; the soul of france, , ; iv. , ; the divorce scandal in, iii. ; _n._ returns from spain to (jan. , ), ; _n._ returns from vienna to, , ; _n.'s_ second marriage, - ; the college of cardinals transplanted from rome to, , ; rejoicings in, over birth of the king of rome, , ; a rival to rome as capital of the western empire, ; remembrance of the terror, ; monarchical sentiment in, ; importance of _n.'s_ presence in, ; the malet conspiracy in, ; ; treachery in, ; the allies, advance on, iv. , , , , , , - , , , ; gloom and panic in, , , , , , , , ; _n.'s_ public appearances in, , ; the national-guard, ; defense of, , , , , , , - ; joseph acting regent in, ; blücher's advance toward, ; sends reinforcements to _n._, , ; _n.'s_ resolution to abandon, ; _n.'s_ march toward, , , ; surrender of, , ; the empress's flight from, - , ; intrigue in, ; royalist influences in, ; in communication with marmont, ; summoned to surrender, ; armistice before, ; looking for _n._ in, ; fighting before, ; not to be sacked, , ; entrance of the allies, , , , ; council of the allies and french diplomats, ; royalist enthusiasm in, - ; assents to the overthrow of _n._, ; the white cockade in, , ; plans for the recovery of, ; reception of louis xviii in, ; riots in, at burial of an actress, ; secret longings for _n.'s_ return in, ; the garrison put under arms, ; disappearance of the government, ; raising the imperialist standard in, ; placard on the vendôme column, ; excitement in, ; arrival of _n._ in, ; treaty of, ; the news of waterloo and ligny in, , ; _n._ returns from waterloo to, ; formation of a new directory, ; appointment of a committee of public safety, ; _n._ offers to defend, ; possibility of reassembling an army in, . =paris, forest of=, formation of the prussians behind, iv. . =paris, marquis de=, leads the parisian mob, i. . =paris sections=, the day of the, i. - . =parker, sir hyde=, at battle of copenhagen, ii. . =parliament of paris=, reconstitution of the, i. ; contest with louis xvi, ; banished from the capital, . =parma=, intrigue in the court of, i. ; plundered of works of art, ; _n.'s_ leniency to, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; _n.'s_ violation of neutrality of, ii. ; secured to france, ; adopts the french code, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; cambacérès created duke of, iii. (_see also_ =cambacérès=); ecclesiastical reforms and confiscations in, ; position in the french empire, ; granted to maria louisa, iv. . =parma, duke of=, submission of, i. ; plan to give the papal states to, ii. ; _n.'s_ promises to, . =parthe, river=, military movements on the, iv. . =parthenopean republic, the=, proclaimed, ii. ; abandonment of, - ; fate of its admiral caraccioli, . =parthians=, roman campaigns against the, iii. . =pasquier=, baron de, attitude toward _n._, ii. ; prefect of police, iii. ; episode of the malet conspiracy, ; imperial prefect, iv. . =passarge, river=, military operations on the, iii. , , , . =passariano=, _n.'s_ headquarters at, ii. , , . =passau=, apportioned to bavaria, ii. , ; _n.'s_ line of retreat to, . =passeyr=, the estates of, conferred upon hofer's family, iii. . =patterson=, elizabeth, married to jerome buonaparte, ii. . =paul i=, succeeds catherine ii, i. ; institutes the second coalition, ii. ; incensed at george iii, ; demands thugut's dismissal, ; incensed at austria, , ; withdraws from the coalition, ; seeks control of malta, , , ; friendship with _n._ and france, , , , ; plan for invasion of india and partition of asia, ; receives the sword of valetta from _n._, ; aims to destroy austria's power, ; accuses england and austria of treachery, ; concludes alliance with _n._, ; assassinated, , , ; iii. ; effect of his death on france, ii. ; antipathy to great britain, ; supports the house of savoy, . _see also_ =russia=. "=paul and virginia=," iii. . =paunsdorf=, military operations near, iv. . =pavia=, the sack of, i. ; military operations near, ii. . =pawnbrokerage in france=, iii. . =peasant proprietors=, at outbreak of the revolution, i. , . =peccadeuc, picot de=, _n.'s_ enemy, i. . =pelet, gen.=, charges berthier with treachery, iii. ; on the battle of aspern, ; denies the story of lannes's death-bed, ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . =pelham, thomas=, employs méhée de la touche, ii. . =peltier, j. g.=, publishes "l'ambigu," ii. ; prosecuted for libeling _n._, . =penal code, the=, iii. . =peninsula, peninsular war=. _see_ =portugal=; =spain=. =pensions=, reforms in french, i. . =pension system=, iii. . =pepin the short=, coronation of, ii. . =peraldi=, associated with _n._ in corsica, i. ; becomes an enemy of _n._, , ; seeks election in national guard of corsica, ; ordered to prepare fleet at toulon, ; seeks to arrest _n._, . =perceval, spencer=, assassination of, iii. ; mismanagement of english affairs, iv. , . =peretti=, his name reprobated in corsica, i. ; vote of censure on, ; seeks election in national guard of corsica, . =permon, mme.=, _n.'s_ friendship with, i. , , - ; friendship with salicetti, - ; correspondence with _n._, ; declines _n.'s_ matrimonial offer, ; notable saying of, ii. . =perpignan=, reinforcements for augereau from, iv. . =perponcher, gen. g. h.=, in battle of quatre bras, iv, . =perregaux, comte de=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =persia=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. ; sebastiani's mission to, - ; treaty with france, iii. , ; _n._ arranges treaty between turkey and, , ; incited to invade india, ; proposed rupture with england, ; _n._ studies the history of, ; _n.'s_ intercourse with, ; themistocles's refuge in, iv. . =perthes=, macdonald at, iv. . =peru=, scheme of a bourbon monarchy in, iii. , . =peschiera=, seized by beaulieu, i. , ; french occupation of, , ; the revolutionary movement in, ; disarmament of, . "=peter the great=," by carrion-nisas, ii. . =peterswald=, military movements near, iv. , . =petit, gen.=, at review of the guard at fontainebleau, iv. ; _n.'s_ farewell to, . =petit trianon=, _n._ secures the library from, iv. , . =peyrusse=, corruption of, iv. ; keeper of _n.'s_ purse at elba, . =pfaffenhofen=, military movements near, iii. . =phélippeaux, a. de=, _n.'s_ enemy, i. ; superintends the defense of acre, ii. , ; parley with _n._ at acre, . =phenicia=, the history of, iv. . =philip, don=, of spain, ii. . =philip le bel=, schemes of world-conquest, ii. . =philippe "Égalité,"= despicable actions of, i. ; scheme for his son, . =philippeville=, _n._ at, iv. , . ="philosophical and political history of the two indies,"= _n.'s_ study of, ii. . ="philosophic visions" (mercier)=, _n.'s_ study of, ii. . =phrases=: _alfieri:_ "italia virtuosa, magnanima, libera, et una," ii. . _anonymous or unassigned_ (see also _popular_, infra): [a lady] "fond of men when they are polite," iii. . "a mystery in the soul of state," iii. . "democracy an excellent workhorse, but a poor charger; a good hack, but an untrustworthy racer," iv. . "everything has been restored except the two million frenchmen who died for liberty," ii. . "freedom of the seas and the invasion of england," ii. . [bonaparte] "his consular majesty," ii. . _a paris actor:_ "j'ai fait des rois madame, et n'ai pas voulu l'être," ii. . "legislative eunuchs," ii. . [louis xviii] "learned nothing and forgot nothing," iv. . [the army chest] "a french providence, which made the laurel a fertile tree, the fruits of which had nourished the brave whom its branches covered," iii. . _arndt:_ "freedom and austria," iii. . _berthier:_ "by general's reckoning, not that of the office," ii. . _cambronne:_ "the guard dies but never surrenders," iv. . _charles iv:_ a king "who had nothing further to live for than his louise and his emmanuel," iii. . _coignet:_ "providence and courage never abandon the good soldier," iii. . _congress of vienna:_ [napoleon] "the enemy and disturber of the world's peace," iv. . _czartoryski:_ "paradomania," iii. . _dalberg:_ "the monkey [talleyrand] would not risk burning the tip of his paw even if all the chestnuts were for himself," iv. . _princess dolgoruki:_ [the first consul's residence] "is not exactly a court, but it is no longer a camp," ii. . _gentz:_ "the war for the emancipation of states bids fair to become one for the emancipation of the people," iv. . _goethe:_ "a great man can be recognized only by his peers," iii. . _kutusoff:_ "the plain gentleman of pskoff," iii. . _machiavelli:_ "friends must be treated as if one day they might be enemies," ii. . _marmont:_ "the tube of a funnel," iv. . _napoleon:_ "about to produce a great novelty," iv. . "a great man--one who can command the situations he creates," iv. . "a kind of vermin which i have in my clothes," ii. . "a lion's advice," iii. . "a man like me troubles himself little about a million men," iii. . "a thing must needs be done before the announcement of your plan," iii. . "bullets have been flying about our legs these twenty years," iii. . "credit is but a dispensation from paying cash," iii. . "emperor of the continent," iii. . "enemy's lands make enemy's goods," ii. . [england a] "nation of traders," ii. . "everything to-morrow," iii. . "fortune is a woman; the more she does for me, the more i shall exact from her," i. . "forty centuries look down upon you from ... the pyramids," ii. . "gathered to strike; separated to live," ii. . _see also_ p. . "generals who save troops for the next day are always beaten," iii. . "god hath given it [the crown of italy] to me; let him beware who touches it," ii. . "great battles are won with artillery," iii. . "i am conquered less by fortune than by the egotism and ingratitude of my companions in arms," iv. . "i am determined to be the last [the bottomless chasm] shall swallow up," iv. . "i am driven onward to a goal which i know not," iii. . "i am the god of the day," ii. . "i cannot be everywhere," ii. . (_cf._ "the enemy's strength," infra.) "ideologist," iv. . "i feel the infinite in me," iv. . "if there be one soldier among you who wishes to kill his emperor, he can. i come to offer myself to your assaults," iv. . "i have destroyed the enemy merely by marches," ii. . "i have never found the limit of my capacity for work," iii. . "i have often slept two in a bed, but never three," iii. . "i leave my army to come and share the national perils," ii. . "i may find in spain the pillar of hercules, but not the limits of my power," iii. . "in our day no one has conceived anything great; it falls to me to give the example," i. . "in war the moral element and public opinion are half the battle," iii. . "in war you see your own troubles; those of the enemy you cannot see. you must show confidence," iii. . "i pray god to have you in his holy keeping," ii. . "i shall conduct this war [saxon campaign] as general bonaparte," iii. . "it is ... courageous to survive unmerited bad fortune," iv. . "it rains hard, but that does not stop the march of the grand army," iv. . (_cf._ "while others," etc., infra.) "i walk with the goddess of fortune, accompanied by the god of war," ii. . "liberty and equality ... put beyond caprice of chance and uncertainty of the future," ii. . "masters of the channel for six hours, we are masters of the world," ii. . "my generals are a parcel of post inspectors," iii. . "metaphysicians ... fit only to be drowned," ii. . "my enemies make appointments at my tomb," iii. . "my master has no bowels, and that master is the nature of things," iii. . [napoleon determined to] "conquer the sea by land," iii. . [napoleon] "shows himself terrible at the first moment," ii. . [napoleon] "the minister of the power of god, and his image on earth," ii. . [napoleon's] "library," iii. . [ney] "the bravest of the brave," iii. . "perfidious and tyrannical great britain," iii. . [singing the tune of tilsit] "according to the written score," iii. . "spurred and booted ruler," ii. . "tête ... armée," iv. . "the art of war is to gain time when your strength is inferior," ii. . [the concordat] "the vaccine of religion," ii. . "the ebro is nothing but a line," iii. . "the enemy's strength seems great [to the division commanders] wherever i am not," iv. . (_cf._ "i cannot," etc., supra.) "the finances are falling into disorder, and ... need war," iii. . "the game of chess is becoming confused," iv. . "the genius of france and providence will be on our side," iv. . "the growlers," iv. , , . "the new pillars of hercules," iii. . "the pear is not yet ripe," ii. . (for the ripening of the pear, _see_ ii. , .) "the revolution is planted on the principles from which it proceeded. it is ended," ii. . "the spanish ulcer," iii. . "the sun of austerlitz," ii. . "the system of hither and thither," iv. , , . "the worse the troops the greater the need of artillery," iii. . "this is the moment when characters of a superior sort assert themselves," ii. . "this movement makes or mars me," iv. . "three years more, and i am lord of the universe," iii. . "to have the right of using nations, you must begin by serving them well," iv. . "to honor and serve the emperor is to honor and serve god," ii. . "to strike a salutary terror into others," ii. . "victor of austerlitz," ii. . "vous êtes un homme," iii. . "war is like government, a matter of tact," i. . [war with russia] "a scene in an opera," iii. . "we'll pass these few winter days as best we may; then we'll try to spend the spring in another fashion," iv. "we must pull on the boots and the resolution of ," iv. . "wherever ... water to float a ship, there ... a british standard," iv. . "which has been the happiest age of humanity?" iii. . "while others were taking counsel the french army was marching," ii. . (_cf._ "it rains hard," supra.) "why am i not my grandson?" iv. . "you manage men with toys," ii. . _nelson:_ "england expects every man to do his duty," ii. . "in case signals cannot be seen or clearly understood, no captain can do wrong if he places his ship alongside that of an enemy," ii. . "westminster abbey or victory," ii. . _ney:_ "a marshal of the empire has never surrendered," iii. . _mme. permon:_ "the pike is eating the other two fish," ii. . _pitt_ (concerning): the "austerlitz look," ii. . _pius vii:_ [bonaparte the pope's] "son in christ jesus," ii. . _popular_: "armed men spring up at the stamp of his foot," iii. . "ban," and "arrière ban" (feudal terms), iv. . "bautzen messenger-boy," the, iv. . [blücher] "marshal forward," iv. . "emperor of the gauls," ii. . "enemy's ships make enemy's goods," ii. . "equality," ii. . "fighting with the legs instead of with the bayonets," ii. . "france the most beautiful land next to the kingdom of heaven," iii. . "french fury," iv. . (_cf._ "furia francesca," ii. .) "frenchmen, awake; the emperor is waking," iv. . "he has been and will be," iv. . "his sacred majesty," ii. . "liberty of the seas," ii. , . "marie louises," the, iv. . "mother moscow," "the holy city," iii. . "napoladron," iii. . "napoleon, by the grace of god emperor," ii. . [napoleon] "perhaps an angel, perhaps a devil,--certainly not a man," iii. . "napoleon the great," ii. . "neutral flag, neutral goods," ii. . "neutral ships make neutral goods; free ships, free goods," ii. . "paternal anarchy," iv. , . "ragusade," iv. . "robbing the cradle and the grave," iii. . "sauve qui peut," iv, . "the emperor's last victory," iv. . "the fountain of honor," ii. . "the liberator of poland," ii. . "the little corporal," i. ; iv. , . "the man of god, the anointed of the lord," ii. . "the napoleon of potsdam and schönbrunn," iv. . "the return of the hero," ii. . _regnaud de st. jean d'angely:_ "the unhappy man [napoleon] will undo himself, undo us all, undo everything," iii. . _revolution, motto of the:_ france, "one and indivisible," ii. . _st. andré:_ "the fate of the world depends on a kick or two," iii. . _savigny:_ [the code napoléon] "a political malady," ii. . _sieyès:_ "une poire pour la soif," ii. . _soult:_ "an inspiration is nothing but a calculation made with rapidity," iv. . _talleyrand:_ "italy the flank of france; spain its natural continuation; and holland its alluvium," iii. . "napoleon's civilization that of roman history," iii. . "pleasure will not move at the drum-tap," iii. . "society will pardon much to a man of the world, but cheating at cards never," iii. . "there is no empire not founded on the marvelous, and here the marvelous is the truth," iv. . _vandamme:_ "that devil of a man," iii. . _villeneuve:_ "any captain not under fire is not at his post, and a signal to recall him would be a disgrace," ii. . _wellington:_ "i must fight him here [waterloo]," iv. . "old blücher has had a ---- good licking," iv. . "up, guards! make ready!" iv. . _zacharias, pope:_ "he is king who has the power," ii. . =piacenza=, military operations near, i. , ; ii. ; loison at, ; adopts the french code, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; lebrun created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =lebrun=. =piacenza, duke of=, submission of, i. . =piave river=, military operations on the, i. , , , . =picardy=, movement of troops to, ii. . =pichegru, gen. charles=, _n.'s_ early acquaintance with, i. ; called to command paris troops, ; conquers the austrian netherlands, , ; suspected of intrigue, ; royalist schemes of, ; ii. , ; a product of carnot's system, i. ; conquest of holland, ii. ; plans a coup d'état, ; exposure of his treachery in , , ; proscribed, ; implicated with moreau, , , ; escapes from guiana, ; heads royalist rising in provence, ; fall and death, , ; leads royalist plot, ; savary suspected of complicity in death of, ; funeral mass celebrated for, iv. . =picton, sir t.=, in waterloo campaign, iv. ; battle of waterloo, ; killed, . =piedmont=, military operations in, i. , , , et seq.; troops of, enter savoy, ; french movement against, ; _n._ advises against advancing into, ; austro-sardinian operations in ( ), ; revolutionary spirit in, ; conquest of, - , ; army separated from austrians, ; successes in, ; french propositions to organize republic in, , ; loses island of st. peter, ii. ; incorporated with the ligurian republic, ; moreau's last stand in, ; held by suvaroff, ; held by austria, , ; tribute levied on, ; incorporated with france, , , , ; jourdan's pacification of, ; alexander i demands indemnity for, ; ecclesiastical reforms and confiscations in, iii. ; parallel between the waterloo campaign and that in, iv. . =piedmontese=, in french service, ii. . =piktupönen=, frederick william and hardenberg at, iii. ; frederick william's stay at, . "=pillars of hercules, the new=," iii . =pillau=, napoleon demands, as a pledge, iii. . french military stores in, . =pinckney, c. c.=, talleyrand attempts to corrupt, ii. . =piombino=, given to elisa (buonaparte) bacciocchi, ii. , . _see also_ =lucca and piombino=. =pirch, gen.=, in waterloo campaign, iv. , . =piré, gen.=, ordered to quatre bras, iv. . =pirna=, vandamme at, iv. - ; mortier at, , ; sickness of _n._ at, , ; _n._ abandons, ; _n._ moves on, . =pisa=, carlo buonaparte at, i. . =pitt, william, jr.=, prime minister of england, i. ; takes active measures against france, ; difficulties of his administration, , ; anxiety for peace after leoben, ii. ; declines to negotiate with _n._, ; delusion concerning _n._ and france, ; denounces _n._ as the destroyer of europe, ; advocates restoration of the bourbons, ; policy toward france, , - , , ; iii. ; british confidence in, ii. ; falls from power on the catholic emancipation question, ; calls for defense of the kingdom, ; raises volunteers, ; returns to power, ; his policy of european coalitions, - ; becomes prime minister, ; on france's designs against england, ; success of his efforts, ; reception of the news of austerlitz, ; death, ; fox compelled to adopt his program, ; england returns to his policy, iii. . =pius vi=, signs treaty of tolentino, i. ; ransoms bologna, ; prepares to recover lost territory, ; quarrel with france, ; _n.'s_ problem concerning, ; hostilities by, ; campaign against, - ; his army dispersed, ; expresses gratitude to _n._, ; _n.'s_ conquest of, ii. ; ill health, ii, persecution of, ; withdraws to siena, ; stripped of his possessions, ; death, burial, and memorial services, , , , . =pius vii=, election of, ii. ; resumes temporal power, ; removes the ban from talleyrand, ; relations with _n._, , et seq.; iii. , , ; the matter of _n.'s_ coronation, ii. , - et seq.; refuses to receive mme. talleyrand, ; his demands for the church, ; at fontainebleau, ; his humiliation and return to rome, - ; refuses a divorce to jerome buonaparte, ; neutrality in the austerlitz campaign, ii. ; desires unity of the german church, ; refuses to recognize joseph's sovereignty, iii. ; _n.'s_ ultimatum to, ; refuses to join the french federation against england, ; his demands on _n._, ; concessions to _n.'s_ demands, ; prisoner at grenoble, , ; disbandment of the noble guard, ; a _fainéant_ prince in the quirinal, ; issues bull, june , , ; wearing effect of _n.'s_ quarrel with, ; indemnity for, ; deposed from the temporal power, , , ; retains his ecclesiastical position, ; excommunicates _n._ and his adherents, ; imprisoned at savona, , ; removed from rome to fontainebleau, ; refuses to renounce the secular power, ; in florence, ; does not recognize _n.'s_ divorce, ; provision of residence and revenue for, ; the second quarrel of investitures, ; relations with the gallican church, , ; inflexibility of, ; de maistre on the supineness of, ; contrasted with innocent ii, ; partial submission of, ; refuses to institute _n.'s_ nominees as bishops, ; prisoner at fontainebleau, , ; hostility of the french ecclesiastics to, ; the concordat of fontainebleau, ; interviews with _n._ at fontainebleau, ; restoration of roman domains to, ; residence at avignon, ; retracts his assent, ; release of, iv. ; humiliation of, . =pizzighettone=, french occupation of, i. . =placentia=, ecclesiastical reforms and confiscations in, iii. ; granted to maria louisa, iv. . =plagwitz=, fighting near, iv. . ="plain," the=, position in the national convention, i. . =plancenoit=, fighting at, iv. . =plancy=, military movements near, iv. . =plato=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =platoff, count m. i.=, harasses the french retreat from moscow, iii. , . =plauen=, fighting near, iv. ; austrians driven into, . =plebiscites=, of dec. , , ii. , ; of may, , - ; of , . =pleisse, river=, military operations on the, iv. , . =plombières=, josephine's coterie at, ii. . =plutarch=, _n.'s_ study of, i. ; ii. . =plymouth sound=, the "bellerophon" in, iv. . =po, river=, the country of the, i. ; ii. - ; military operations on the, i. , , , ; ii. - , , , . =point-du-jour=, sérurier's guard at the, ii. . =poischwitz=, armistice of, iii. - , ; iv. , , . =poland=, partition of, i. , , ; ii. , , ; iii. , ; austria's gaze on, i. ; french schemes for the reconstruction of, ii. - ; alexander i's designs concerning, ; iii. , , , ; iv. ; alexander retreats to, ii. ; extension of the french empire in, ; sack of, ; _n.'s_ opportunity to save, ; pro-napoleon enthusiasm in, ; iii. , ; dissensions in, ii. ; _n.'s_ policy concerning, iii. , , , , , , , , ; iv. ; french occupation of, iii. , ; enlistments from, under the french eagles, , , ; _n._ organizes government for, ; _n._ "the liberator of," ; horrors of the winter campaign in, ; a new field of warfare for _n._, ; new levies ordered in, ; morale of the french army in, ; proposed transfer to the king of saxony, ; proposed new kingdom of, ; prussian provinces ceded to warsaw, ; possible restoration of, , , , - , ; iv. ; war indemnity exacted from, iii. ; french nobility endowed with lands in, ; strengthening the french forces in, ; dangers of withdrawing russian troops from, ; davout recalled from, ; reliance on _n._, , ; invaded by archduke ferdinand, ; concentration of troops at warsaw, ; archduke ferdinand's vicissitudes in, ; enlargement of, ; second partition of, ; schemes of alexander and czartoryski in regard to, , ; rupture between alexander and _n._ over, et seq.; alexander refuses to restore the integrity of, ; the patriots of, in warsaw, ; movement of russian troops toward, ; factor in the russian war of, , ; _n.'s_ mistake in not restoring, ; abbé de pradt's mission from dresden to, ; the diet of warsaw begs for the reconstruction of, ; possible schemes of french annexation of, ; czartoryski's ambitions in, ; kutusoff's advance through, ; prussia seeks to recover part of, - ; bennigsen in, iv. ; _n._ offers to renounce, ; the extinction of, . =poles=, seek alliance with france, i. ; in french service, ; ii. ; military service in italy, ; _n.'s_ policy of winning, iii. ; loyalty to _n._, ; iv. ; _n.'s_ waning prestige among, iii. . =polish church=, _n.'s_ threat to liberate it from rome, iii. . =politics, the art of=, i. ; _n.'s_ passion for, and study of, , , , , . =polygamy=, forbidden by the french sanhedrim, iii. ; _n._ upholds, iv. . =polytechnic school=, founding of the, i. ; ii. - ; calling out of students of, iv. . =pomerania=, prussia recommended to seize, ii. ; gustavus iv commanding in, iii. ; prussia retains her strongholds in, ; _n._ promises to restore to sweden, ; bernadotte's kindly treatment of, ; davout occupies swedish, ; offered to bernadotte, . =pomerania, duke of=, seeks representation at congress of rastatt, ii. . =pompei=, member of the directory of corsica, i. . =poniatowski, prince j. a.=, relies on _n.'s_ good will, ii. ; archduke ferdinand's pursuit of, iii. ; reoccupies warsaw, ; strength of his corps, march, , ; doubts lithuania's rising, ; battle of borodino, ; battle of wiazma, ; claims to the polish throne, ; fails to keep russia out of warsaw, ; commanding in galicia, ; at fischbach, iv. ; battle of leipsic, , , ; drowned in the elster, . =ponsonby, sir w.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =pont d'austerlitz=, iii. . =pont des arts=, iii. . =pont d'jena=, iii. . =pontebba pass=, battles in, i. . =ponte corvo=, bernadotte created prince of, ii. ; iii. . _see also_ =bernadotte=. =pontécoulant, doulcet de=, uses influence on _n.'s_ behalf, i. ; retired from the central committee, ; _n.'s_ relations with, ii. . =ponte-nuovo=, battle of, i. ; _n._ visits the battle-ground at, . =pont royal=, the mêlée at the, i. . =popular government=, the rise of, i. . =popular representation without eyes, ears, or power=, ii. . =porcil=, military operations near, i, . =portalis, j. e. m.=, councilor of state, ii. ; on committee to draft the code, ; minister of public worship, . =portland, duke of=, prime minister of england, iii. , . =port mahon=, i. . =porto ferrajo=, seized by england, i. ; arrival of the exile at, iv. ; _n.'s_ residence at, ; danger of _n.'s_ remaining in, . =porto legnago=, augereau driven into, i. . =port royal=, education of josephine de la pagerie at, i. . =portsmouth=, nelson sails for, ii. . =portugal=, growth of liberal ideas in, i. ; war with spain, ii. ; joins the second coalition, ; france offers peace to, ; alliances with england, , ; _n.'s_ problems in, et seq.; forced contribution levied on, ; iii. ; abandons english alliance, ii. ; compelled to close her harbors to english ships, ; iii. ; france guarantees integrity of, ii. ; neutrality of, , ; iii. , ; spanish invasion of, ii. ; proposed commercial war against england, iii. ; _n._ calls for alliance with, ; seizure of her fleet by england, ; junot's army on the borders of, ; proposed acquisition by spain, , ; movement of english troops into, , ; the situation in, ; french invasion of, et seq.; ; obeys the berlin and milan decrees, ; closing of the harbors, ; rupture of diplomatic relations between france and, ; dynastic troubles in, ; democracy in, , ; proposed partition of, ; commerce with england, ; spain coöperates with france against, ; seizure of fortresses by france, ; flight of don john from, ; escape of the fleet from the tagus, ; revulsion of feeling against junot in, ; fraternization of the people with junot's army, ; appointment of a council of regency, ; junot's military administration in, ; applies to england for help, ; insurrections against french rule, ; _n._ offers the crown to lucien, ; intrigues for the throne of, ; junot appointed governor of, ; to be given to a bonaparte prince, ; france proposes an exchange for, ; the crown offered to murat, ; destruction of her commerce, ; junot's occupation of, ; french evacuation of, ; lord wellesley enters, ; intensity of the rebellion in, ; sympathy with spain, ; supposed english scheme to abandon, ; wellesley expels the french from, ; england's loss of trade with, ; reinforcements for the english army in, ; english failures in, ; held by wellington, ; masséna invades, ; junot aspires to the crown of, ; soult aspires to the crown of, , ; soult's invasion of ( ), ; wellington retreats to, , ; _n._ proposes to restore, to the house of braganza, ; member of the vienna coalition, iv. ; _n.'s_ dread of capture in, . =posen=, _n._ in, ii. ; iii. ; expected scene of operations, ; french occupation of, ; incorporated into the grand duchy of warsaw, ; eugène assumes command at, ; murat abandons the army at, . =potemkin, prince=, _n._ seeks service with, i. . =potsdam=, treaty of, ii. , ; _n._ at, . =pougy=, military operations near, iv. . =pozzo di borgo, count c. a.=, the corsican victory of, i. ; associated with _n._ in corsica, ; member of the directory of corsica, ; delegate to the national assembly, ; _n.'s_ lifelong foe, ; iii. ; iv. ; attorney-general of corsica, i. ; suspected of intrigue with england, ; denounced by _n._, ; ordered to trial, ; russian envoy at vienna, ii. ; iii. , ; on the humiliation of prussia, ; influence at st. petersburg, ; at peace council in paris, iv. . =pradt, abbé de=, mission from dresden to poland, iii. . =prague=, maria louisa at, iii. ; _n._ acknowledges his mistake in not making peace at, iv. . =prague, congress of=, iii. - ; ; iv. , , . =prairial=, the th of, ii. . =pratzen=, fighting on the heights of, ii. - . =preameneu, bigot de=, on committee to draft the code, ii. . =prefects=, the system of, ii. . =pregel, river=, military movements on the, iii. . =prenzlau=, hohenlohe's retreat to, ii. ; hohenlohe driven from, . =presburg=, treaty of, ii. , ; iii. , , , ; military operations near, , ; archduke john at, , . =press, the=, freedom of, decreed, i. ; demand for freedom of in corsica, ; condition in france, ; members of, proscribed, ii. ; abolition of liberty of, , ; _n._ and the liberty of, ; muzzling of, , , ; suppression of jacobin papers, ; _n.'s_ use of, ; iii. ; servility to _n._, ii. - ; censorship of, , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , ; iv. ; in modern france, ii. ; _n.'s_ reason for repression of, ; liberty of, in england, ; _n._ attempts to muzzle the english, ; supervision of the, iv. ; abolition of censorship promised, . =press-gang=, employment of, in france, ii. . =pretender, the=. _see_ =louis xviii=. =preussisch-eylau=. _see_ =eylau=. =préval, gen.=, refuses service on d'enghien courtmartial, ii, . =primary assembly, the=, i. . =primogeniture=, _n._ on, i. ; abolished, ii. ; iii. ; its advantages and decay, . =primolano=, capture of wurmser's advance-guard at, i. . ="prince of the peace," the=. _see_ =godoy=. =pripet, river=, bagration's stand on the, iii. . =privilege=, the overthrow of, i. . =privy council=, creation of a, ii. . =probstheida=, military movements near, iv. . =property rights=, _n.'s_ share in codifying the law concerning, ii. . =prossnitz=, junction of russian and austrian troops at, ii. . =protestants=, demand of civil rights, for the, i. . =provence=, a tempestuous time in, i. ; royalist rising in, ii. ; royalist sentiment in, iv. ; _n.'s_ reception in, , ; longing in, for the emperor's return, ; the white terror in, . =provera, gen.=, in rivoli campaign, i. - ; called to reorganize the roman army, ii. . =provins=, military movements near, iv. , , , . =prowtowski, gen.=, accompanies _n._ to st. helena, iv. . =prud'hon, pierre=, painter, ii. . =prussia=, relations, alliances, etc., with austria, i. , ; ii. , , , , ; iii. , , , ; iv. , ; captures longwy, i. ; expected enmity of, ; effect of military successes of, ; partition of poland, , ; abandons the coalition, , ; defeats austria, ; uplifting of, and growth of the national spirit in, , , ; ii. , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , ; makes peace with france ( ), i. , ( ), ; neutrality of, ; ii. , , - , , ; iii. ; treaty with france ( ), i. ; attitude toward france ( - ), ii. - ; favors secularization of ecclesiastical principalities, ; supposed mistaken policy of, ; recognizes the cisalpine republic, ; the center of gravity of europe, ; negotiates with france for hamburg, ; refuses to join the second coalition, ; france's assistance to, against austria, ; _n._ negotiates with, ; supremacy in the german diet, ; joins the "armed neutrality," ; territories acquired by ( ), ; strengthening of, ; ney's check on, ; _n._ dictates her attitude, , ; acquiesces in the creation of the empire, ; protests against rumbold's seizure, ; negotiates for hanover, - ; relations with russia, negotiations and treaties between the two countries, and attitudes of their rulers, , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. ; hardenberg's aim at consolidation, ii. ; refuses alliance with england, ; to receive hanover for assistance to france, ; garrisons hanover, ; strength compared with france, ; violation of her neutrality, ; resents bernadotte's violation of ansbach, ; renounces her neutrality, ; decline of her influence, ; negotiates for peace, ; to close her ports to england, ; _n._ demands offensive and defensive alliance with, ; subservience to france, ; proposal to give hamburg, bremen, and lübeck to, ; alliance with france, ; england declares war against, ; acquires hanover, , ; humiliation of, , , ; iii. , , , , , , - ; neutralization of her power, ii. ; joins england and russia, ; territorial aggrandizement, ; the reigns of the fredericks, , ; her army, , , - , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. ; education in, ii. ; condition in , ; feudalism in, - ; influence of queen louisa in, ; the reform party in, - ; exasperation at _n._ in, , , ; _n._ demands the disarmament of, ; ill effects of aristocratic pride in, - ; advised by _n._ to seize pomerania, ; _n.'s_ necessity for quick action with, - ; the war party, , , ; hesitation about mobilization, ; declares war, ; state of war with england, ; weakness of, ; plan of the campaign, , , ; alliance with saxony, ; moral effect of jéna upon, , ; advance of the french through, - ; total defeat of, - ; _n.'s_ treatment of, , ; plundered of works of art, ; sack and rapine in, ; unconscionable demands on, ; peace negotiations, ; abandoned by saxony, ; enlistments from, under the french eagles, iii. ; retreat from pultusk, ; _n.'s_ proffered terms to, after eylau, ; proposed rehabilitation of, ; _n.'s_ reserve forces in central, ; treaty with russia at bartenstein, ; proposal for a new coalition, ; weakness of, , ; numbers in the field, summer of , ; severity of _n.'s_ terms for, ; _n._ grants concessions at tilsit, ; armistice with, ; retains strongholds in silesia and pomerania, ; _n.'s_ attempts to secure alliance with, ; interest in poland, ; french liberal idea of france's affinity with, ; representatives at tilsit, ; acquisitions of territory, ; proposed transfer of saxony to, ; responsibility for her belligerency, ; new boundaries, ; retains silesia, , ; reorganization at tilsit, ; the kingdom of westphalia carved out of, ; treaty of tilsit, (_see also_ =tilsit=); feeling toward frederick william in, ; mutilation of, ; war indemnity exacted from, , ; french occupation of, , , , , , , ; effect of the peace of tilsit on, ; fails to raise war indemnity, ; closes and fortifies her harbors, ; abolition of old land tenures in, ; responsibility for the war with france, ; the patriotic writers of, ; reorganization of the educational system, ; abolition of the privy council, ; municipal autonomy, ; freeing the serfs in, ; the "yunker" class, ; military reforms in, , , ; the league of virtue, , ; subserviency to france, ; hostility to france, ; pleads bankruptcy, ; _n._ proposes further humiliation of, ; _n._ offers to evacuate, , , ; encouraged to revolt, , , ; civil reforms in, ; death of military reforms in, ; death of militarism in, ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; endeavors to secure mitigation of _n.'s_ demands, ; proposes to reduce her army, ; french evacuation of, , ; effect of battle of jena on, ; military centralization of, ; warlike temper in, ; the pursuit after waterloo, ; secret armament in, ; offer of warsaw to, ; french occupation of the coast, ; mme. de staël in, ; pecuniary demands upon, ; treaty with france, feb. , , , ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; influence in germany, ; threatened dismemberment of, ; renders military aid to france, ; furnishes contingent to _n.'s_ army, ; _n._ belittles, ; coalition with austria and russia, ; religious aspect of the european situation in, ; _n._ hints at territorial cessions to, ; in grand coalition against _n._, ; forced to a decision, ; _n._ demands more troops from, ; advised by metternich to join russia, ; entry of russian troops into, , ; aims to recover prussian poland, - ; popular detestation of _n._ in, ; death of the queen, ; mobilization of the army, ; condition at opening of , - ; declares war, ; scheme for territorial aggrandizement of, ; seeks subsidy from england, ; designs on saxony, ; _n._ determines to dismember, ; subsidized by england, , ; iv. , ; strenuous endeavors of, iii. ; proposed restoration of, ; proposed new capital for, ; _n.'s_ new schemes for, ; proposed enlargement of, ; proposed rectification of the western boundary, ; secret treaty of reichenbach, , , ; guarantees a war loan, ; treaty with england, june , , ; strength of, iv. ; _n.'s_ personal spite against, , ; _n.'s_ attempts to separate russia from, ; heroism in, ; losses at dennewitz, ; _n._ offers terms to, ; scheme to restore her status of , ; concludes alliance of sept. , , ; beginning of her military aggrandizement, ; acquires the hegemony of continental europe, ; eagerness for war in, ; at the congress of frankfort, ; proposes to invade france via liège, , ; troops on the rhine, ; _n.'s_ implacable foe, ; seeks the retention of her acquisitions, ; desire for constitutional government in, ; eager for an armistice, , , ; treaty of chaumont, ; the triple alliance, ; metternich strives to check ambition of, ; party to the treaty of fontainebleau (april, ), ; attitude at congress of vienna, , ; quota of troops, ; member of the vienna coalition, ; campaign of waterloo, et seq.; reaps harvest of political spoils at waterloo, ; claims the glory of annihilating _n._, ; losses at waterloo, ; claims the right of overseeing the imprisonment of _n._, ; influence in germany, . =pruth, river=, russia acquires a boundary on the, iii. . =przasnysz=, military operations near, iii. . =public works=, _n.'s_ scheme of, ii. . =pultusk=, battle of, iii. - . =puntowitz=, military operations near, ii. , . =puster valley=, military operations in the, i. . =pyramids=, battle of the, ii. . =pyrenees, the=, french troops in ii. , , ; iii. , ; louis xiv "abolishes," ; a boundary of the continental system, ; plans for the defense of, ; soult driven over, iv. ; france's "natural boundary," . q =quasdanowich, gen.=, _n.'s_ operations against, i. ; captures brescia, ; battle of lonato, , ; strength in friuli, . =quatre bras=, military operations near, iv. , , ; battle of, - ; _n.'s_ flight through, ; ney at, . =quedlinburg=, apportioned to prussia, ii. . =queiss, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =quenza, col.=, elected lieutenant-colonel in national guard of corsica, i. ; commanding corsican volunteers, ; conduct at ajaccio condemned, ; his command under dumouriez, . =quiberon=, english expedition to, i. . =quinette, n. m.=, member of the new directory, iv. . =quirinal, the=, pius vii a _fainéant_ prince in, iii. ; forcible entry into, . r =raab=, archduke john advances toward, iii. . =radetsky, count j. j. w.=, military genius, ; favors invasion of france, ; courage, ; advises concentration of the allies at arcis, . =radziwill, princess=, member of prussian reform party, ii. . =ragusa=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; _n._ offers the territory to england, , ; marmont created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =marmont=. "=ragusade=," the word, iv. . =rahmaniyeh=, mameluke retreat toward, ii. . =raigern=, military operations near, ii. , . =rambouillet=, the imperial court at, iii. ; flight of the empress to, iv. - , ; _n._ at, . =rambouillet decree, the=, march , , iii. . =ramolini=, associated with _n._ in corsica, i. . =ramolino, letizia= (mother of _n._), marriage, i. ; character, - . _see also_ =buonaparte, letizia=. =rampon, gen.=, holds argenteau in check, i. , ; his stand at monte legino, , . =rapinat=, frauds of, ii. . =rapp, count jean=, on _n.'s_ desire for peace, ii. ; in battle of austerlitz, ; seizes a would-be assassin of _n._, iii. ; recounts the horrors of the russian campaign, ; begs _n._ to desist at smolensk, ; commanding at dantzic, . =rastatt=, congress of, ii. , , , , , , , , , , ; neutralization of, ; the murders at, , . =ratisbon=, jourdan's defeat near, i. ; selected as _n.'s_ headquarters, iii. ; military movements near, , , , , ; battle of, ; seized by archduke charles, ; _n._ wounded at, ; given to dalberg, ; saxon troops offered to austria at, . =raynal, abbé g. t. f.=, _n._ a disciple of, i. , - , , , , , ; ii. , ; his works and opinions, i. - ; the "history of corsica" addressed to, , , ; founds prize for essay on america, . =raynouard, f. j. m.=, "the templars," ii. . =réal, p. f.=, urges action against bourbon plotters, ii. ; police-agent, ; share in the trial of d'enghien, - . =reason=, the party of, i. . =récamier, mme.=, social life in paris, i. ; ii. , ; instigates moreau's letter to _n._, ; _n.'s_ differences with, , ; relations with mme. de staël, ; exiled, . =récamier, m.=, bankruptcy of, ii. . =recco, abbé=, _n.'s_ early tutor, i. . ="redoubtable," the=, at trafalgar, ii. . =red sea=, its importance, ii. . "=reflections on the state of nature=," i. . =reform=, the french nobility and, i. . =regensburg=, seat of the german diet, ii. . _see also_ =ratisbon=. =reggio=, new scheme of government for, i. ; disposition by treaty of leoben, ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; oudinot created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =oudinot=. =regnaud, m. l. e.=, ii. . =regnier, c. a.=, moves the appointment of _n._ as commander of the paris garrison, ii. ; in leon, iii. ; strength, march, , . =reich, baronne de=, imprisonment of, ii. . =reichenbach=, french generals killed at, iii. ; secret treaty of, , , , ; iv. . =reille, gen.=, service in spain, iii. ; at leers, iv. ; in the waterloo campaign, ; seizes marchiennes, ; crosses the sambre, ; at thuin, ; disperses the prussians at gosselies, , ; battle of quatre bras, , , ; battle of waterloo, - . =religion=, _n.'s_ attitude toward, i. ; ii. - , - , , , , , , , ; iii. , ; influence on the social life of the world, ii. . =religious opinion=, freedom of, decreed, i. . =rémusat, mme. de=, _n.'s_ relations with, i. ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , , ; confidences with josephine, ii. ; reports _n.'s_ answers to josephine's charges, iii. ; conversations with talleyrand, . =réné=, exploit at lake garda, i. . =rennes=, interview between _n._ and villeneuve at, ii. . =republican calendar=, ceases to exist, ii. . =restoration, the=, revulsion of feeling against _n._ at the, ii. . =reudnitz=, military operations near, iv. . =revolution, the=, its germ, i. ; _n.'s_ views concerning, ; first mutterings and opening of, - et seq.; excesses of, - ; federation for, ; european antagonism to, ; in the rhone valley, - ; becomes a national movement, ; favored in lombardy and tuscany, ; propagating the ideas of, ; ii. ; failure to give political freedom to france, ; effect on the french people, ; its humanitarian mission, ; the art of, iii. ; treatment in french literature, ; completion of its program to close the continent to english commerce, ; the work of, ; _n._ the standard-bearer of, ; iv. , ; its principles and effect, - ; shorn of its horrors, . =rewbell, j. f.=, member of the directory, i. , , ; ii. ; character, i. ; dissatisfied with treaty of leoben, ; _n.'s_ relations with, ii. ; advocates _n.'s_ resignation, ; suspected of peculation, ; fails of reelection to the directory, . =rey, gen.=, in the battle of rivoli, i. . =reynier, gen.=, service in egypt, ii. ; battle of the pyramids, ; fails to keep russia out of warsaw, iii. ; division commander under eugène, ; in campaign of , ; beleaguers schweidnitz, ; battle of dennewitz, iv. ; battle of leipsic, , , ; captured at leipsic, ; exchanged, . =rheims=, prison massacres in, i. ; occupied by _n._, iv. ; captured by st. priest, ; _n.'s_ low physical and moral condition at, ; captured by the french, , , ; _n._ at, , ; captured by the allies, ; possible advantages of a supposititious retreat by marmont to, . =rhine, river, the=, the boundary question and struggles for, i. , , , , ; ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , ; iv. , ; royalist plots on, i. ; military operations on, , , , , , ; ii. , , , , , , - , ; iv. , , - , , ; plundering on, ii. ; iii. ; french supremacy on, ii. ; _n.'s_ scheme of petty states on, ; french march to the danube from, ; louis ordered to hold, ; a french river, iii. ; _n.'s_ excursion on, . =rhodes=, turkish naval preparations at, ii. ; expedition to egypt from, - . =rhone, river, the=, french acquisitions on, i. ; _n.'s_ reception on, iv. . =rhone, valley, the=, the revolution in, i. - ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; civil war in, ; to be ceded to france, ii. . =richelieu, cardinal=, scheme of intervention in germany, ii. ; policy at close of the thirty years' war, . =richepanse, gen.=, success on the mettenberg, ii. ; in battle of hohenlinden, . =richmond, duchess of=, ball on the eve of waterloo, iv. . =richmond, duke of=, interview between wellington and, at the ball, iv. . =ricord=, commissioner of the national convention, i. ; in siege of toulon, ; in charge of movements against genoa, . =ricord, mme.=, _n.'s_ attentions to, i. . =riga=, _n._ threatens to march to, iii. ; preparations for the siege of, ; prussian troops at, ; military operations near, . =rights of man=, the, i. . =rippach=, skirmish at, iii. ; death of bessières at, . =riviera=, austrian garrison for the, ii. . =rivoli=, the starting-point of _n.'s_ public career, i. ; battle of, , , - ; ii. , ; _n.'s_ estimate of, i. , ; effect of the campaign on european history, ; masséna created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =masséna=. =road-work=, french popular hatred of, i. . =roberjot=, member of congress of rastatt, ii. ; killed at rastatt, . =roberjot, mme.=, accuses debry of murder, ii. . =robespierre, augustin=, commissioner of the national convention, i. ; in siege of toulon, ; _n.'s_ friendship with, , , , , ; leadership of, ; describes the french campaign in lombardy, ; execution, ; influence on _n.'s_ life, iv. . =robespierre, charlotte=, _n.'s_ attentions to, i. . =robespierre, mme.=, pension for, ii. . =robespierre, maximilien=, member of the national convention, i. ; dictator of france, ; fall and execution, - , ; religious decrees, ; _n.'s_ characterization of, ; hatred of the church, ; dread of carnot, ; influence on _n.'s_ life, iv. . "=robespierre, the little=," i. . =rochambeau, gen.=, succeeds leclerc in san domingo, ii. ; surrenders to an english fleet, . =rochefort=, naval expedition from, ii. , ; the fleet ordered to the english channel from, ; villeneuve's mission to relieve, ; the squadron ordered to the mediterranean, iii. ; _n._ journeys to rochefort, iv. ; english cruisers at, ; immunity from the white terror, . =roederer=, ii. , ; dreads a new terror, ; joins the bonapartist ranks, ; an opportunist, ; on the necessity of renewing the constitution, ; the th brumaire, ; member of the council of state, ; on fourcroy's educational measures, ; advocates the legion of honor, ; suggests hereditary consulship, ; dismissed, ; character, ; reforms neapolitan finance, iii. ; interviews and conversations with _n._, ; iv. , ; sent out of france, . =roger-ducos=, member of the directory, ii. ; scheme to make him consul, ; proposed resignation of, ; resigns from the directory, , , ; consul of france, . =rohan, cardinal=, retirement at ettenheim, ii. . =rohan-rochefort, princess charlotte of=, married to duc d'enghien, ii. ; the duc d'enghien's last message to, . =rohr=, archduke charles's force at, iii. . =roland, j. n.=, forms a ministry, i. ; leader of the girondists, . =romagna=, surrendered to france, i. ; ceded to venice at leoben, ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ii. ; austrian forces in, . =roman catholic church=, _n.'s_ views concerning the, i. ; influence in corsica, ; opposition to the french republic, ; the pope shorn of his temporal power, iii. ; influence on france, iv. . =roman catholics=, disturbances among, in corsica, i. , . =roman church=, _n.'s_ failure to gallicize, iv. . =roman empire, the=, ii. ; compared with napoleonic france, ii. , . =roman republic, the=, organization and proclamation of, ii. , ; neapolitan invasion of, ; abandonment of, . =romanoff, house of=, _n._ proposes matrimonial alliances with, iii. . =rome=, maritime expedition against, i. , ; difficulties of an attack on, ; murder of french minister (basseville) in, , , ; _n.'s_ hostility toward the central power at, ; temporal power of the pope, ; plunder of, ; ii. ; plan to capture, i. ; _n.'s_ plans concerning, , , , ; quarrel between france and, , ; influence of, ; proposition to hand her over to spain, ; campaign against pius vi, - ; dispersal of the papal army, ; victor's military watch on, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; _n.'s_ operations against, ii. ; joseph buonaparte minister at, ; berthier proclaims the roman republic in, ; calls provera to reorganize her army, ; liberal rising in, ; austria to be restrained from interference in, ; neapolitan invasion of, , , ; recognition of the pope's temporal power in, ; restrictions on residence in, ; remains of pius vi sent to, ; chateaubriand french representative at, ; france to evacuate, ; madame mère and lucien at, ; _n._ demands recognition as emperor of, ; ports of, closed to enemies of france, ; french occupation of, iii. ; excommunication for the invaders of, ; disbandment of the noble guard, ; pius vii's idle state in, ; severing of the spiritual and temporal powers, , ; the city incorporated with italy, ; occupied by gen. miollis, ; the college of cardinals and ecclesiastical courts transported to france, , ; the department of, created, , , ; secularization of the convents, ; dispersal of foreign prelates, ; paris a rival to, as capital of the western empire, ; sends deputation to paris, ; restoration of the pope's domains, ; murat marches on, iv. ; lucien fosters revolution in, ; france the heir of, ; influence throughout italy, . =rome= (ancient), governmental systems of, adopted in france, i. , ; ii. ; influence on french art, iii. ; the territorial expansion of, ; loss of her political liberty, iv. ; the history of, . =rome, the king of=, schwarzenberg's toast to, iii. ; the title, ; birth of, , ; brilliancy of his future, ; address of the paris chamber of commerce on the birth of, ; his portrait at borodino, ; entrusted to care of the national guard, iv. ; joseph enjoined to preserve him from austrian capture, ; likened to astyanax, , ; chances of his succession, ; flight from paris, - ; an ill omen for, ; proposed regency for, ; _n._ declares for his succession, ; territory granted to, ; proposed coronation of, ; dismissal of his french attendants, ; sends message to his father, ; failure of the attempt to crown, ; _n.'s_ farewell message to, . =roncesvalles=, french military movements at, iii. . =ronco=, military operations at, i. - . =rosily, adm.=, ordered to supersede villeneuve, ii. . =rositten=, military operations near, iii. . =rossbach=, battle of, iv. . =rosslau=, military operations near, iv. , . =rossomme=, _n._ at, iv. , , ; fighting at, . =rostino=, meeting of _n._ and paoli at, i. . =rousseau, jean jacques=, views on corsica, i. , ; offered asylum by paoli, ; _n.'s_ study of, and admiration for, , - , , , ; ii. , ; iv. ; _n.'s_ style compared with that of, i. ; on man in a state of nature, ; influence of, in france, , ; theory of natural boundaries, ; chateaubriand a disciple of, ii. . =roussel, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =roustan=, reply to rousseau, i. . =roverbello=, battle of, iv. . =roveredo=, battle of, i. ; abandoned by vaubois, . =rovigo=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; savary created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =savary=. =royal corsican regiment=, refuses to fight against its native island, i. . =royal family=, imprisoned in the temple, i. . =royalism=, hatred of the french for, ii. ; its evils abolished from france, . =royalists=, institute the "white terror," i. , ; plots and intrigues of, , , ; ii. - , , , , - ; iv. ; english subsidies for, i. ; banished from sardinia, ; the clichy faction, ii. - , , ; relations and negotiations between _n._ and, ii. - , , , , , , , ; iv. ; extended influence in , ii. ; events of the th of fructidor, , , , ; austria seeks their triumph in paris, ; proscription of, , , ; attitude of the directory toward, ; claims concerning the murders at rastatt, ; moreau's tendency toward, ; sigh for a second richelieu, ; views of the results of the th brumaire, ; encouraged to return to france, ; dissensions among, - ; publish "l'ambigu," ; the cadoudal conspiracy, et seq.; in alsace, ; argument in their favor, ; growing strength of, iv. ; display their enthusiasm in paris, ; their hour of triumph, ; opposition to, by the army, ; supported in provence, ; plots against _n.'s_ life, , ; commemorate the death of louis xvi, ; defend the tuileries, ; stirred up by jacobin enmity to _n._, . =royal power=, _n._ on, i. . =royal scots fusileers=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . ="royal sovereign," the=, at trafalgar, ii. . =royer-collard, p. p.=, royalist intrigues of, iv. . =rüchel, gen.=, his military command, ii. ; at eisenach, ; ordered to concentrate at weimar, ; in battle of jena, , . =rue de paix, the=, iii. . =rue rivoli, the=, iii. . =rully, gen.=, commands expedition to corsica, i. ; killed at st. florent, . =rumanizoff, count=, russian minister, iii. , ; discusses partition of turkey, ; at the erfurt conference, ; foresees danger to the franco-russian alliance, ; adviser to alexander i, ; leads the peace party of russia, . =rumbold=, seized by french agents at hamburg, ii. . =rumelia=, proposed disposition of, after tilsit, iii. . =russbach, river=, military operations on the, iii. , , . =russia=, aggrandizement of, i. ; _n.'s_ ambition to serve, , ; ii. ; iv. ; share in the partition of, and relations with poland, i. , ; iii. , , ; relations and alliances with austria, i. , ; ii. , , , , , , , , , , ; iii. , , - , , , , ; iv. , ; death of catherine ii, i. ; foreign policy ( ), ; _n._ intercepts despatches from the czar to malta, ; weakness of revolutionary sentiment in, ii. ; alliances and relations with, schemes of conquest of, and wars with turkey, , , ; iii. , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , ; plans military operations in italy, ii. ; the second coalition, , , , ; military operations in holland, ; military operations in switzerland and italy, ; successes on the trebbia, ; defeats joubert at novi, ; defeated at zürich by masséna, ; withdraws from the second coalition, ; interest in, and activity concerning malta, , , , , ; alliances and general friendly relations with france, , , - , , , , , ; iii. , , - , , , , , , , , , , , ; organizes the "armed neutrality," ii. , , ; schemes of oriental extension and conquest, , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , ; iv. , ; intercedes for naples, ii. ; _n.'s_ relations with and attitudes toward, , , , ; ii. - ; iii. , , , , , , - , ; relations with, subsidies from, and wars with england, ii. , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; iv. , , ; assassination of paul i and accession of alexander i, ii. ; abandons the "armed neutrality," ; hostile and general unfriendly relations with france, , , , - ; , , ; iii. , , , - , , , ; mourns the death of the duc d'enghien, ii. ; stains on reigning houses of, ; protests against seizure of enghien, ; occupies ionian islands, , , , ; demands indemnity for the king of sardinia, , , ; attitude in , ; relations (friendly and hostile) with prussia, , - , , ; iii. , , - , , , , , , , , , ; her troops in galicia, ii. ; bernadotte and davout watch her army, ; military position on the inn, ; defeat of mortier at dürrenstein, ; military position on the enns, ; outgeneraled by _n._, ; the battle of austerlitz, et seq.; czartoryski's view of her policy in , ; occupies naples, ; excluded from councils of western europe, ; occupies bocche di cattaro, ; strengthens corfu, ; pretensions in germany, ; military operations on the danube, ii. ; military operations against, iii. ; concentrates troops at pultusk, ; driven from warsaw, ; character of the population, ; a new seat of war for _n._, ; battle of pultusk, ; retreat to ostrolenka, ; _n.'s_ new experience in campaigning in, ; defects in the army, ; devotion of the army to the czar, ; the cossacks, ; defeat at mohrungen, ; condition of troops at eylau, ; financial difficulties, , , , ; turko-persian alliance against, ; successes on the lower danube, ; weakness of, , ; requests francis's adherence to convention of bartenstein, ; proposal for a new coalition, ; bravery of her soldiers, ; dissensions in the court, ; forces engaged at friedland, , ; military sacrifices, ; peace party in, ; fighting the battles of others, , ; destitution in the army, ; schemes of territorial aggrandizement, , ; _n._ demands pledges from, ; proposed baltic boundary line, ; ambition to be regarded as a european power, ; _n._ a foil to her ambition, ; representatives at tilsit, ; schemes for the partition or acquisition of the danubian principalities, , , , , , , ; to mediate between england and france, ; acquires bielostok, , ; refuses to seize memel, ; dislike of savary in, ; court and social manners and customs, ; discontent with the czar, , , ; intrigues to acquire, and the invasion and acquisition of finland, , , - , , , , , , ; attempts to bring spain into the coalition, ; effect of the treaty of tilsit, ; diplomatic intrigues in, ; her good offices sought with denmark, ; frontier menaced by france, ; alexander seeks to abolish serfdom in, ; commerce of, ; effects of the peace of tilsit on, ; _n._ intervenes between turkey and, ; terms of the agreement at slobozia, ; tolstoi defends, ; diplomatic crisis in, - ; sends a fresh mission to _n._, ; proposed invasion of sweden, ; court intrigue in, ; caulaincourt conducts negotiations with, ; blockade of the fleet by england, ; outwitted by _n._, ; the spanish question discussed with, ; _n.'s_ proposed naval coöperation with, ; the anti-french party in, , ; urged to occupy warsaw, and parts of prussia and austria, ; _n._ makes technical call for the aid of, ; invades galicia, ; acquires part of galicia, ; menaced by the treaty of schönbrunn, ; news of the austrian marriage in, ; treaty with sweden, sept. , , ; evades the continental system, ; mme. de staël in, ; rivalry of france, ; effects of the continental system on, ; an incident that changed the course of history, , ; advances an army to the danube, ; prepares for war, ; opens negotiations with england and sweden, ; war with france inevitable, ; acquires a boundary on the pruth, ; treaty with sweden, april , , ; withdraws troops from the danube, ; thoroughness of _n.'s_ preparations for war with, - ; caulaincourt's knowledge of, ; agricultural distress in, ; concentration of troops in, ; intrigues leading to the war of , - ; ukase of dec., , ; the neutral trade of, ; narbonne's mission from dresden to, ; _n.'s_ scheme to expel her from europe, ; _n.'s_ military knowledge of, , , ; menacing outlook for, ; _n.'s_ plan of campaign in, , ; disposition of her army, ; _n._ strikes the first blow at, ; military weakness, ; military enthusiasm in, ; sufferings of both armies in, , et seq.; battle of smolensk, iii. ; "the ney of," , ; despotic character of her government, ; lack of centralization in, , ; horrors of the campaign in, , ; _n._ fails to pass counterfeit money in, ; the lessons of eylau and austerlitz, ; _n.'s_ ignorance of the strength of feeling in, ; speculation on the czar's military policy, ; battle of borodino, - , ; the kremlin, , ; claims the honor of burning moscow, ; temper of the peasantry, ; the old russian party for peace, ; alexander's advisers, ; founding of the russian bible society, ; english military mission to reorganize the army, ; causes of the french disasters in, ; _n.'s_ retreat from moscow, - ; partizan warfare in, ; adopting the tactics of egypt in, ; the terror of _n.'s_ name in, , , ; her allies, want and winter, , ; massacre of french stragglers in, ; _n.'s_ contempt for, ; treatment of french prisoners in, ; hopes in, of capturing _n._, ; _n.'s_ excuse for defeat in, ; compared with spain, ; poor generalship in, ; diminishing strength of, ; invades the grand duchy of warsaw, ; treaty with spain, july, , ; metternich seeks to embroil sweden and, ; possession of warsaw, ; apathy of, ; nesselrode's appearance in, ; secret treaty of reichenbach, , ; issues paper money, ; treaty with england, ; to maintain a standing army, ; guarantees a war loan, ; inaugurates the coalition of , ; strength, iv. ; _n._ attempts to separate prussia from, ; concludes alliance of sept. , , ; the campaign of , ; at the congress of frankfort, ; anxiety for peace, ; troops on the rhine, ; _n._ endeavors to separate austria from, ; the triple alliance, ; treaty of chaumont, ; suspicious of schwarzenberg's attitude, ; barbarity of her troops, ; party to the treaty of fontainebleau (april, ), ; alexander proposes a home for _n._ in, ; attitude at congress of vienna, , ; quota of troops, ; member of the vienna coalition, ; the campaign of the hundred days, et seq.; claims the glory of annihilating _n._, ; claims the right of overseeing the imprisonment of _n._, ; _n.'s_ horror of being sent to, ; expansion of, . _see also_ =alexander i=; =paul i=; =st. petersburg=. =rustan=, _n.'s_ body-servant, ii. ; iii. ; ; iv. ; queen louisa's allusion to, at tilsit, iii. . =rustchuk, pasha of=, appointed grand vizir, iii. ; attempts to restore selim iii, . s =saalburg=, military operations at, ii. . =saale, river=, military operations on the, ii. - ; iv. , , . =saar, river=, military operations on the, iv. . =sachsen, gen.=, leads neapolitan army against rome, ii. . =sacken, gen.=, in battle of eylau, iii. ; checks schwarzenberg, ; reinforces blücher at montmirail, iv. ; held by mortier, ; battle of craonne, . =st. aignan=, french envoy to saxon duchies, iv. ; imprisoned at gotha, ; conducts negotiations with _n._, , , . =st. amand=, d'erlon ordered to move on, iv. . =st. andré=, mayor of mainz, anecdote concerning _n._ and, iii. . =st. bartholomew's day=, fears of a repetition of the massacre of, iv. . ="st. bartholomew of privilege," the=, i. . =st. bernard range=, austrian watch on the, ii. , . _see also_ =great st. bernard=; =little st. bernard=. =saint-cannat=, _n._ at, iv. . =st. cloud=, proposed councils at, ii. - , , et seq.; bernadotte plans to head a force at, ; murat commanding guard at, ; the th and th brumaire at, et seq.; iv. ; _n._ declines a gift of, ii. ; promulgation of the decree creating the empire from, ; return of _n._ from tilsit to, iii. ; social vices at, ; important levee at, aug. , , ; _n._ and maria louisa at, ; the imperial court at, ; _n._ returns to, iv. , . =saint-cyr=, elisa buonaparte educated at, i. , , ; the academy at, , . =saint-cyr, carra=, in battle of aspern, iii. , . =saint-cyr, gen.=, military successes of, i. ; at battle of biberach, ii. ; engagement on the mettenberg, ; fails to come up at messkirch, ; reinforces moreau at engen, ; enters naples, ; ordered to occupy naples, ; villeneuve ordered to coöperate with, ; at la junquera, iii. . =saint-cyr, gouvion=, strength of his corps, march, , iii. ; losses of his bavarian corps in russia, ; wittgenstein resumes offensive against, ; junction with victor, ; checks wittgenstein, ; holds dresden, iv. , , , ; battle of dresden, ; sent to support vandamme at kulm, ; guarding roads from bohemia, . =st. denis=, tumults at, i. ; restoration of the cathedral at, iii. ; defense of, iv. . =st. dizier=, military movements near, iv. , , ; _n._ at, , , ; military council at, . =st. florent=, _n._ prepares plans for its defense, i. ; french fleet at, ; disorders at, , ; expedition against ajaccio from, - ; french power in, ; english capture of, . =st. george=, provera at, i. . =st. gotthard pass=, suvaroff's disasters in, ii. ; french passage of, , - ; austrian watch on, . =st. helena=, _n.'s_ will made at, i. ; _n.'s_ reminiscent statements made at, , , , ; ii. , , , , , , , ; ; iii. , , ; iv. , , , , , ; _n.'s_ death at, ii. ; iv. ; _n.'s_ ambition concerning, ii. ; early proposition to deport _n._ to, iv. ; chosen as the place of exile, - ; _n.'s_ objections to the rock, ; special form of government for, , ; the voyage to, , ; landing of _n._ at, ; topography, climate, etc., , ; _n.'s_ life on, - ; violent storm in, ; the exile's court at, . =saint-hilaire, gen.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. , ; in eylau campaign, iii. . =st. ildefonso=, the treaties of, ii. . =st. jean d'acre=. _see_ =acre=. "=st. jerome=," correggio's, i. . =st. julien, count=, blundering negotiations by, ii. , ; imprisonment of, . =st. lambert=, grouchy ordered to, iv. ; bülow at, . =st. leu=, proposal that louis withdraw to, iii. . =st. mark=, actions at, i. , , . =st. maximin=, lucien buonaparte in, i. . =st. michael=, seizure of, by masséna, i. . =st. michel=, battle of, i. . =st. napoleon=, i. . =st. peter, island of=, capture, ii. . =st. peter's, rome=, _n._ claims coronation in, ii. . =st. petersburg=, the french envoy dismissed from, ii. ; return of the czar from tilsit to, iii. ; the peace of europe in, ; the french ambassador at, ; diplomatic intrigues at, ; alexander fears for, ; diplomatic crisis in, , ; court intrigue in, ; terror of the british fleet in, ; situation at, ; social and diplomatic life in, ; caulaincourt's mission to, , , ; frederick william iii at, ; news of the austrian marriage at, ; _n._ threatens to march to, ; lauriston sent to replace caulaincourt at, ; defense of, ; demoralization at, ; military enthusiasm in, ; founding of the russian bible society in, ; england's diplomacy in, . _see also_ =alexander i=; =paul i=; =russia=. =st. pierre=, arrest of the prince of monaco at, iv. . =saint-pierre, bernardin de=, rewards to, for literary work, iii. . =st. priest, gen.=, captures rheims, iv. ; killed at rheims, . =st. quentin=, the canal of, ii. . =st. roch=, the mêlée at the church of, i. - . =saint-ruff, abbé de=, _n.'s_ social relations with, i. , ; death of, . =st. stephen=, attack on, i. . =st. sulpice=, banquet to _n._ in church of, ii. , . =st. tropez=, _n.'s_ embarkation from, iv. , , ; place of _n.'s_ embarkation changed to fréjus, . =saladin=, founds the military organization of mamelukes, ii. . =salamanca=, sir john moore at, iii. ; battle of, , ; defeat of marmont at, iii. . =salicetti, christopher=, represents corsica in the national assembly, i. - ; succeeds buttafuoco, ; influence in corsica, , , ; plans invasion of sardinia, - ; arrives in corsica, ; relations with _n._ and influence on his career, , , - , , , , - ; adheres to france, ; defends the corsican commission, ; arrives in paris, ; heads a commission to corsica, ; in siege of toulon, , ; influence in france, ; plans expedition to corsica, ; ambition, ; blamed for insurrection in corsica, ; seeks his own safety, ; influence among the thermidorians, , ; friendship with mme. permon, ; concealed by mme. permon, , ; _n.'s_ address to, , ; levies forced contributions in genoa, ; plans of the directory concerning, ; rapacity, ; duplicity, ii. , ; gives genoa a consular constitution, . =salm=, member of the confederation of the rhine, ii. . =salo=, the revolutionary movement in, i. ; engagement at, , . =salzburg=, apportioned to the grand duke of tuscany, ii. ; ceded to austria, ; lefebvre at, iii. ; embodied in the confederation of the rhine, . =sambre, river=, military movements on the, iv. , - , . =sampiero=, i. ; resemblance to _n._, ; _n.'s_ sketch of, . =sand, george=, in madrid during the war, iii. . =san domingo=, influence of louverture in, ii. ; declares its independence, ; unsuccessful attempt to conquer, ; failure of _n.'s_ ambition concerning, ; plan for french recovery of, . =sandoz-rollin=, prussian minister in paris, ii. . =san giuliano=, military operations at, ii. , . =san miniato=, the buonaparte family in, i. . =sansculottes, the=, i. . =sansculottides, the=, i. . =san sebastian=, captured by the french, iii. . =santa lucia=, french plans to strengthen, ii. . =santander=, besieged by bessières, iii. . =santarem=, masséna withdraws toward, iii. ; "marshal stockpots" deserters at, . =santerre, a. j.=, leader of the mob of aug. , , i. ; favored by _n._, ; _n.'s_ threat against, ii. . ="santissima trinidad," the=, at trafalgar, ii. . =santon, mount= (austerlitz), ii. , . =saorgio=, _n._ at taking of, i. . =saragossa=, siege of, iii. - , - . =sardinia=, weakness of, i. ; compared with corsica, ; hostilities between france and, - , , , , , , , ; goes to defense of toulon, ; operations in piedmont, in , ; revolutionary spirit in, ; signs armistice, , , ; victor amadeus, king of, ; conclusion of peace with france ( ), , , ; _n._ opens negotiations with, ii. ; provoked by france into italian quarrels, ; _n.'s_ bad faith with, ; russia demands indemnity for the king of, , - ; prussia bound to secure indemnity for king of, . =sardinia, island of=, charles emmanuel king of, i. ; charles emmanuel retires to, ii. , ; nelson seeks shelter at, . =sart-â-walhain=, grouchy's movements via, iv. , . =sarzana=, the buonaparte family in, i. . =satschan lake=, russian disasters at, ii. . =saumarez, sir james=, blockades the russian fleet, iii. . =sauvinières=, military movements near, iv. . =savary, gen.=, aide-de-camp to _n._, ii. ; share in duc d'enghien's trial and execution, , - ; mission to alexander i at austerlitz, , ; reports interview of alexander i with _n._, ; unsavory career, ; marries mlle. de coigny, ; in eylau campaign, iii. ; on _n.'s_ mental and personal vigor, ; expels the russians from the narew and ostrolenka, ; in battle of heilsberg, ; report of the meeting at tilsit, ; accompanies the czar to st. petersburg, ; french ambassador to russia, , ; influence over the czar, ; disliked in russia, ; created duke of rovigo, ; mission to madrid, , ; recognizes ferdinand as king, ; reproached by ferdinand, ; encourages ferdinand to rely on _n._, , ; accompanies ferdinand toward bayonne, , ; notifies ferdinand of his deposition, ; hatred of, in paris, ; minister of police, , ; episode of the malet conspiracy, ; provides for time of danger, ; records _n._ correspondence, ; alarm for the safety of paris, ; member of the empress-regent's council, ; character, ; reproved by _n._, ; talleyrand to, on the flight of the empress, ; surprises talleyrand and de pradt together, ; accompanies _n._ to rochefort, ; negotiations with capt. maitland, . =save, river=, territory on, ceded to france, iii. . =savigny, f. k. von=, characterization of the code, ii. . =savona=, military operations at, i. , , ; ii. ; imprisonment of pius vii at, iii. , . =savoy=, military operations against, in piedmont, i. ; captured by france, ; france's ambition to conquer, ; france's claims to, ; lost to sardinia, ; kellermann in, ; chabran's forces in, ii. ; proposal that france should keep, iv. . =savoy, house of, the=, french schemes against, i. ; importance of france gaining over, ; its system of government, ; vicissitudes, ; francis i's hostility to, ii. ; loses the support of paul i, ; lineage, . =saxe-gotha=, accepts french terms after jena, ii. ; spread of liberal ideas in, . =saxe-weimar=, accepts french terms after jena, ii. ; spread of liberal ideas in, . =saxony=, withdraws from the coalition, i. ; neutrality of, , ; seizure of the english minister to, ii. ; excluded from the confederation of the rhine, ; proposal to include her in north german confederation, ; reported french advance on, ; proposed independence for, ; military movements in, - ; alliance with prussia, ; takes part in the jena campaign, ; spread of liberal ideas in, ; abandons prussia and adopts neutrality, ; proposed exchange of territories, iii. ; united with the rhine confederation, ; acquires kottbus, ; independence, ; the archduke charles proposes to march into, ; furnishes troops to france, ; troops in dresden, , ; defeated at nossen by the black legion, ; in vassalage to france, ; supports _n._, ; the levies in, ; peculiar relations toward _n._, ; turns to austria, ; threatened war in, ; secret agreement with austria, ; prussian designs on, ; the campaign of in, et seq.; iv. ; strategy of the campaign in, iii. ; abandons austria, ; declares in favor of france, ; proposed allotment of territory to, ; prussia promises to cede part of, to hanover, ; invaded by austro-russian troops, iv. ; national spirit in, ; revulsion of feeling against france, , ; refuge of the allies in, ; defection of troops at leipsic, ; character of the campaigns in, . =say, j. b.=, member of the tribunate, ii. . =scandinavia=, effort to bring her into the coalition, iii. . =schaffhausen=, _n._ plans operations at, ii. . =scharnhorst, gen.=, plan of the prussian campaign, ii. - ; in battle of eylau, iii. ; institutes military reforms in prussia, , ; mission to vienna, ; hostility to _n._, ; limits to his means, ; killed at lützen, . =scheldt, river, the=, reopening of, i. ; closing the navigation of, ; a french river, iii. ; scheme of hanoverian extension on, . =schérer, gen.=, commanding the army of italy, i. ; ordered to upper italy, ii. ; driven behind the mincio and oglio, ; defeated at magnano, ; succeeded by moreau, ; incompetency, , . =schill, f. von=, _n.'s_ abuse of, iii. ; attempts to rouse the german spirit, ; final stand and death at stralsund, , ; helps insurrection in westphalia, ; denounced by frederick william, . =schimmelpenninck, r. j.=, grand pensionary of the batavian republic, ii. ; represents the batavian republic at amiens, ; intrigues to make louis buonaparte king of holland, . =schlapanitz=, military operations near, ii. . =schleiermacher, f. e. d.=, member of the reform party in prussia, ii. ; influence on prussian regeneration, iii. . =schleiz=, engagement at, ii. . =schleswig=, denmark's loss of, iii. . =schloditten=, military operations near, iii. . =schönbrunn=, _n._ establishes headquarters in palace at ( ), ii. , ; ( ) iii. ; interview between _n._ and haugwitz at, ii. ; treaties of, ; iii. , , ; _n.'s_ proclamations from, ; _n._ leaves for the lobau, ; prince liechtenstein at, ; accident to _n._ near, ; attempt to assassinate _n._ at, ; _n._ returns to paris from, ; virtual imprisonment of maria louisa at, iv. . =schrattenthal=, kutusoff at, ii. . =schwarzenberg, prince=, reliance on peccadeuc, i. ; austrian minister to france, iii. ; suggests the marriage of _n._ and maria louisa, ; toasts the king of rome, ; commands austrian contingent in russian campaign of , ; in volhynia, ; holds back tormassoff, ; opposed by tormassoff and tchitchagoff, ; retreats behind the bug, ; expected to cover the crossing of the beresina, ; driven back, ; checked by sacken, ; lukewarmness, ; retreats across the vistula, ; evacuates warsaw, ; seeks shelter in cracow, ; held back by metternich, ; commanding the army of the south, iv. ; hampered by presence of the allied sovereigns, ; military incapacity, cowardice, and reputation, , , , , - ; _n._ moves against, ; battle of dresden, ; vandamme's pursuit of, ; murat fails to check, ; protects austria from invasion, ; moves on dresden, ; southern movement by, ; gets to southward of leipsic, ; murat ordered to hold, ; contemplated attack on, ; proposed junction of blücher and bernadotte with, ; battle of wachau, ; battle of leipsic, - ; suggests compromise plan of invasion of france, , ; at langres, ; crosses the rhine at basel, ; movement toward auxerre, ; junction with blücher, ; strength, feb. , , ; _n.'s_ contemplated movement against, - ; steady advance of, ; crosses switzerland, ; danger of his advancing to fontainebleau, ; sends flag of truce to berthier, ; retreats to troyes, ; quails before _n.'s_ advance, ; macdonald and oudinot in pursuit of, ; checks oudinot, ; strength at troyes, ; withdraws behind the aube, ; justifies his course, ; at bar-sur-aube, ; _n._ prepares to attack, ; at congress of châtillon, ; blücher cut off from, , ; _n._ plans to attack him at châlons, ; regains communications with blücher, ; moves against macdonald, ; dismayed at the capture of rheims, ; supposed retreat to the vosges, ; engagements at arcis and torcy, ; sickness, , ; on the european policy of , ; retreats to troyes, ; _n._ misled by his actions, ; apprehensions of _n.'s_ strength, ; strength, ; battle of arcis-sur-aube, ; blücher seeks a junction with, ; his communications threatened, , ; junction with blücher, , ; favors movement on paris, ; determines to seek a battle, ; proposes to pursue _n._, ; at peace council in paris, ; enters paris with the allies, ; seduces marmont, ; sows treason in the french army, ; marmont reveals his plot to, ; plan for the campaign of the hundred days, . =schweidnitz=, the allied forces near, iii. ; _n.'s_ strategy at, . =science=, _n._ advises encouragement of, ii. . =scrivia, river, the=, ott driven back to, ii. ; the country of, - . =sebastiani, gen. f. h. b.=, mission to persia and the levant, ii. - ; obtains thorough knowledge of the east, ii. ; strategy and diplomacy at constantinople, ; end of his influence in turkey, ; defeats a spanish division, ; moves up the aube, iv. ; battle of arcis-sur-aube, . =secret police=, license vice, iii. . =segovia=, french success at, iii. . =ségur, count=, minister to russia, ii. ; appointed master of ceremonies at the tuileries, , ; foresees france's discontent, iii. ; transfers his allegiance to louis xviii, iv. ; plans the ratification of the additional act, . =seine, river, the=, the quays of, iii. ; military movements on the, iv. , , , , , , , , . =selim iii=, dismisses viceroys of moldavia and wallachia, ii. ; moves against russia, ; declares war against england, iii. ; overthrow of, , , , ; held prisoner in the seraglio, ; murdered by mustapha iv, . =semaphore=, use of, in warfare, iii. . =semlino=, disposition of the spoils of moscow at, iii. . =semonville, huguet de=, envoy to constantinople, i. ; dreads a new terror, ii. . =sénancour, s. p. de=, "obermann," ii. . =senarmont, gen.=, in battle of friedland, iii. . =senate, the=, in ; ii. , , - ; orders deportation of suspects, ; subservience to _n._, - ; new methods of electing to, ; enlargement of its powers, ; the tool of the first consul, ; steps toward creating the empire, - ; changes in, under the constitution of , ; announces the result of the plebiscite, ; substitution of a hereditary house for the elective, iii. ; its members ennobled, ; confirms the divorce, ; decrees the annexation of the papal states, ; decadence of constitutional forms in, ; speech of maria louisa before the, iv. ; ordered to draft a new constitution, ; absolves the army from allegiance to _n._, ; proclaims louis xviii, , . =sens=, military movements near, iv. , ; proposal to continue the war from a center at, ; _n._ at, ; the french garrison at, . "=sentimental journey to nuits,"= _n.'s_, i. . =september =, celebration of, ii. . =serfdom=, at outbreak of the revolution, i. ; abolished in warsaw, iii. . =serpalten=, military operations near, iii. . =sérurier, gen.=, general of division, army of italy, i. ; at siege of mantua, , ; storms gradisca, ; delivers venice to austria, ii. ; action on the th brumaire, ; commanding at the point-du-jour, ; excites the soldiery at st. cloud, ; recreated marshal, iv. . =serves=, _n._ visits, i. . =servia=, the rise of, iv. . =seurre=, disorders in, i. . =seventh regiment of the line=, supports _n._ on his return from elba, iv. . =seven years' war, the=, i. , ; iv. , . =sextuple alliance, the=, iv. . =seychelles=, deportation of suspects to the, ii. . =sézanne=, _n._ at, iv. ; marmont at, ; _n.'s_ plan of movement via, . =shebreket=, mameluke attack on the french at, ii. ; action at, . =shipping=, harassing regulations by france, ii. . =shuvaloff, count=, russian commissioner at poischwitz, iii. , . =sicily=, ferdinand iv king of, i. ; iii. ; nelson seeks the egyptian expedition at, ii. ; nelson returns to, ; joseph made king of, , ; proposal that the bourbons retain power in, ; _n._ offers england territory as substitute for, , ; england demands the surrender of, ; withdrawal of english troops from, iii. ; proposed french seizure of, , ; english troops sent to portugal from, ; england threatened with loss of trade with, ; english expedition to, , ; french expedition against, . =siena=, pius vi withdraws to, ii. ; position in the french empire, iii. . =sierra moreña=, defeat of dupont in, iii. . =sieyès, abbé=, pamphlet of the third estate, i. , ; character, , ; ii. ; declines service in the directory, i. , ; relations with _n._, , ; ii. , , , - ; president of the ancients, ; venality, ; mission to berlin, ; checkmates prussia, ; charged with tampering with bernadotte, ; theories of government, constitution-building, etc., , , - , , , , , , ; member of the directory, , ; relations with joubert, ; schemes for a dictatorship, , ; suspected of plotting with the house of brunswick, ; brought into the bonapartist ranks, - ; surrenders his leadership, ; proposed resignation of, ; scheme to make him consul, ; difficulty of holding him in the traces, , ; resigns from the directory, , ; at st. cloud, th brumaire, ; consul of france, ; proceedings for election of first consul, ; accepts the estate of crôsne, ; chief of the senate, , ; keeper of the directory's secret funds, ; negotiations and intrigues in prussia, , ; relations with the directory, ; monarchical schemes for france, , . =siguenza=, castaños collects his troops at, iii. . =silesia=, wrested from austria by prussia, i. ; austria seeks compensation for, ; austria's ambition concerning, ii. ; offer of part of, to austria, ii. ; military operations in, iii. ; iv. ; _n._ offers it to austria, iii. ; _n.'s_ reserve forces in, ; prussia retains her strongholds in, ; position in europe, ; remains prussian, , ; _n._ offers to offset the danubian principalities against, - , ; french occupation, ; alexander demands relinquishment of designs on, ; davout ordered to, ; austria stipulates for acquisition of, ; to be connected with old prussia, ; austria rejects _n.'s_ offer of, ; the army of the east in, iv. ; contemplated operations in, ; military operations in, ; strength of her forces under blücher, ; army of, moves on paris, . =silk culture=, introduced into corsica, i. . =simplon=, creation of the department of the, iii. . =simplon pass=, to pass under french control, ii. ; the crossing of the, , ; military road through, , ; iii . =sisteron=, _n.'s_ welcome at, on return from elba, iv. . =slave-trade=, revival of the, ii. , , , , ; england protests against, . =slobozia=, armistice concluded at, iii. ; treaty of, . =smith, adam=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =smith, sir sidney=, captures french transports, ii. ; at the siege of acre, , ; occupies jaffa, ; watching _n._ at alexandria, ; allows _n._ to slip through his fingers, ; puts into cyprus, ; concludes treaty at el arish, ; commanding british fleet at lisbon, iii. ; urges don john to embark for brazil, . =smohain=, the farms of, iv. ; fighting at, . =smolensk=, _n.'s_ plan to seize, iii. ; military movements near, , - , , , , ; enthusiasm among the russians at, iii. ; strategical position, ; battle of, - ; _n.'s_ military blunder at, - ; the shrine at, , ; compared with acre, ; french garrison in, , ; concentration of french troops at, iii. ; guerrilla warfare around, ; arrival of the french army at, in its retreat, ; massacre of french stragglers in, ; shameful scenes in, ; abandonment of wounded at, ; the march to lithuania from, ; reorganization of the army at, ; destruction of the fortifications of, ; ney's perilous retreat from, . =smorgoni=, _n.'s_ desertion of his army at, iii. , . =social contract=, _n.'s_ views concerning the, i. , . =social customs, privileges=, etc., i. - ; _n.'s_ study of, , , , . =södermannland, duke of=, attempts the siege of hameln, ii. . =soignes=, fears of wellington's withdrawal behind, iv. ; wellington's position in front of, , . =soissons=, maria louisa's progress through, iii. ; mortier at, iv. , ; blücher recruits his forces at, ; surrenders to the allies, , ; french retreat to, ; _n._ at, ; the french army leaves, . =sokolnitz=, fighting at, ii. - . =solano, gen.=, makes ineffectual movement against the french, iii. . =solothurn=, the plundering of, ii. . =solre=, gen. d'erlon at, iv. . =sombreffe=, military movements near, iv. , - . =somerset, gen. f. j. h.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =sommepuis=, military movements near, iv. . =sommesous=, military movements near, iv. . =somosierra=, crossing the pass of, iii. . =sophia dorothea=, wife of jerome, iii. . =sortlack, forest of=, military movements in the, iii. . =souham, gen.=, in battle of leipsic, iv. ; at nogent, ; left in command at essonnes, ; seduced by marmont, ; summoned to fontainebleau, ; delivers his army prisoners to the austrians, , . =soult, marshal=, commanding force at tarentum, ii. ; service in the army of england, ; created marshal, ; character, ; iii. ; seizes memmingen, ii. ; reaches hollabrunn, ; battle of austerlitz, - ; at münchberg, ; battle of jena, - ; invests magdeburg, ; battle of pultusk, iii. ; strength in poland, ; campaign of eylau, ; at osterode, ; battle of heilsberg, ; pursues lestocq from friedland, ; created duke of dalmatia, ; yearly income, , ; movement against blake, ; lack of vigor of movement, ; ordered to mansilla, ; entrusted with the pursuit of moore, ; battle of corunna, ; crosses the esla, ; defeated by wellesley in portugal, ; causes wellesley to withdraw, ; service in spain, ; ordered to andalusia, ; ordered to join masséna in portugal, ; jealousy of masséna, ; before cadiz, ; fails to relieve masséna, ; defeated in attack on sir john moore, ; captures badajoz, ; invasion of portugal ( ), ; occupies oporto, ; expelled from portugal, ; failure in spain, ; battle of talavera, ; made commander-in-chief, ; bickerings with joseph, ; battle of ocaña, , ; aims to win the crown of portugal, , ; retreats toward the south coast, ; returns to cadiz, ; defeated at albuera, ; marches to relief of badajoz, ; joins masséna, ; marches to joseph's aid, ; abandons cadiz, ; despatched on pyrenean campaign, ; shut up in bayonne, iv. ; thrown back on toulouse, ; strength, march, , ; available forces of, ; defeat at toulouse, ; appointed minister of war, ; revival of imperial sentiment in his army, ; opposed to murat, ; recreated marshal, ; chief of staff in the waterloo campaign, , ; blunder before charleroi, , ; cognizant of blücher's movement to wavre, ; orders to grouchy, , ; battle of waterloo, ; on inspiration, . =sound, the=, threats to close it to english commerce, iii. . =south america=, spanish concessions to france in, ii. ; england's commerce with, iii. ; england threatens to make spanish colonies independent, . =spain=, affinity with corsica, i. ; bourbon influence in, ; expected enmity of, i. ; goes to defense of toulon, ; blockades mediterranean ports, ; _n.'s_ relations with, and attitude toward, ; ii. , , et seq., , , ; iii. , , , , , , , , , , et seq., , , ; iv. , ; growth of liberal ideas in, i. ; withdraws from the coalition ( ), ; relations and alliances with france, , ; ii. - , - , , , , , ; iii. , , , ; _n._ proposes to hand rome over to, i. ; drives admiral mann from the mediterranean, ; destruction of fleet off cape st. vincent, ; diplomatic offset of naples against, ii. ; war with portugal, ; preparations for action in, ; schemes of revolutionary propaganda for, ; naval inaction, ; low intrigues in, ; effect of marengo in, ; godoy prime minister, ; proposed incorporation of portugal with, ; recovers colonies under the peace of amiens, ; exchanges louisiana for etruria, ; england attacks her commerce, ; exasperated over sale of louisiana, ; treaties with france, , ; loses trinidad and louisiana, ; war with england, dec., , ; her maritime forces controlled by france, ; humiliates portugal, ; naval power shattered at trafalgar, ; _n._ offers part of her territory to england, ; called on for troops by france, iii. ; proposal that she acquire portugal, ; attempt to bring her into the coalition, ; incapacity of the bourbons in, ; _n._ encourages dissensions in, ; decay and humiliation, , , , , ; revolt against godoy, ; embargo on english commerce, ; the fleet ordered to toulon, ; necessity for the "regulation" of her affairs, ; the situation in, ; secret compact with france for partition of portugal, ; new title for the king, ; plans for invasion of, ; scheme to acquire portugal, ; depletion of the army, ; depopulation, ; corruption, ; social life, ; degradation of the church in, ; primogeniture and land tenure, ; factions of the crown prince and of the prime minister, ; _n._ tempted by her colonies, , ; arrest of the crown prince, ; fortifying the french frontier, ; announcement of the crown prince's conspiracy, ; the "secret hand" in, ; expected regeneration by france, ; dupont ordered to invade, ; benefits accruing to england from troubles in, ; _n._ on the intestinal troubles in, ; the crown given to joseph, , , , , ; french invasion and occupation of, - , , ; deposition of godoy from office, ; murat assumes command in, ; popular outbreaks, , ; abdication of charles iv, ; patriotic and national spirit in, - , - , , , ; iv. ; enthusiasm for ferdinand vii, iii. ; political intrigues in, - ; murat protector of, ; attitude of the people toward murat, ; deposition of the bourbons, ; murat appointed dictator, ; _n._ assumes the royal and hereditary rights of the throne of, ; louis refuses the crown of, ; military movements in western spain and on the baltic, ; character of the people, - , , , , ; convocation of notables at bayonne, ; adoption of a new constitution, , ; destruction of her commerce, ; lack of centralization in, , , ; guerrilla warfare, iii. - , , ; influence of the clergy in the rebellion, ; french disasters in, , , ; fate of french soldiers in, ; french movement against southern, ; french pillage in, ; national uprising against france, , ; difficulties of the french campaign in, ; offer of the throne to archduke charles, ; _n._ returns to, ; caliber of the french army in, ; _n.'s_ strength in, nov. , , , ; regular and irregular forces, ; _n._ assumes command in, ; lack of military genius in, ; sir john moore enters, ; sympathy between portugal and, ; abolition of the inquisition and of the feudal system, ; _n._ institutes reforms in, ; formation of a liberal constitution for, ; _n._ threatens to assume the crown, ; question of annihilating its nationality, ; statements as to _n.'s_ leaving, ; reinforcements for, ; wellesley prepares for invasion of, ; need of prompt action in, ; the war in, ; the crown offered to louis and rejected, ; england's loss of trade with, ; fouché's offer to restore the bourbons to, ; seizures of american ships in, ; annexation of part of, to france, ; open warfare in, ; seizure of northern provinces of, ; "the natural continuation of france," ; policy of total annexation, ; french rapine in, ; policy of military administration for, ; quality and strength of the french armies in, ; masséna in command in, ; wellington's provisions for french victories in, ; blunders by the insurrectionary leaders, ; wellington enters, ; french occupation, close of , ; soult abandons the south of, ; discipline of the french army in, ; england's expeditions to, ; confiscation in, ; troops withdrawn from germany for service in, ; _n.'s_ offer of peace in, refused by england, ; england to be driven from, ; compared with russia, ; french disasters in, ; exhaustion of, ; recall of commanders from, ; treaty with russia, july, , ; in grand coalition against _n._, ; _n._ offers peace to england in, ; wellington's reverses in, ; proposal to restore bourbon rule, ; _n._ abandons, ; wellington's successes in, ; french defeats in, iv. ; _n._ offers to restore the independence of, ; rises in support of wellington, ; proposed independence of, ; prolongation of the war in, ; restoration of the king to, ; relapses into absolutism and ecclesiasticism, ; adoption of a new constitution, ; member of the vienna coalition, ; _n.'s_ dread of capture in, . =spandau=, capitulation of, ii. ; proposed siege of, iv. . =spartel, cape=, nelson's fleet off, ii. . =specialist=, the work of the, iv. . =speculation=, mania for, in france, i. , ; ii. . =spirding, lake=, military movements near, iii. . =splüglen pass=, proposed movement of the reserve army via, ii. ; crossed by macdonald, . =spree, river=, military movements on the, iii. , ; iv. . =stadion, count=, austrian diplomatic agent, ii. ; austrian minister of state, iii. , , , ; letter from metternich, july , , ; urges prompt action, ; resigns, ; mission to the allies' camp, . =staël, mme. de=, relations with, enmity toward, and criticisms of _n._, ii. , , , , , ; iii. , - ; procures revocation of talleyrand's exile, ii. ; _n.'s_ study of her writings, ; "influence of the passions," ; on liberty in france, ; her salon, ; her character, ; iii. - ; banishments of, ii. ; relations with mme. récamier, ii. , ; returns to paris, iii. ; ordered back to geneva, ; at coppet, ; difficulties with the directory, ; criticizes josephine beauharnais, ; difficulties with the committee of public safety, ; poverty, ; her book on germany, . =stage=, censorship of the, ii. . =standing armies=, i. . =staps=, attempts to assassinate _n._, iii. . =starhemberg, count=, austrian ambassador to london, iii, ; leaves london, . =starsiedel=, fighting at, iii, . =state=, _n.'s_ conceptions of the, i. . =state system=, the, iv. . =states of the church=, pius vii strives to augment the, ii. . =steffens, prof.=, summons german students into the ranks, iii. . =stein, baron h. f. c.=, prussian statesman, ii. ; iii. ; frees the serfs, ; introduces military reforms in prussia, ; resigns his ministry, ; _n._ demands his dismissal, , ; seeks refuge in vienna, ; exile from prussia, ; effect of his reforms, ; adviser to alexander i, ; reorganizes prussian provinces, ; formulates the treaty of kalish, ; relations with alexander, , ; hostility to _n._, ; iv. , ; joins frederick william at breslau, iii. ; on the unification of germany, ; character, ; leading part in prussia's awakening, ; prepares to govern the conquered territories, iv. . =sterling, adm.=, naval operations of, ii. . =stettin=, capitulation of, ii. ; davout's force in, ; proposed french movement on, ; held by the french, ; relief of the french in, iv. . =stewart, sir charles=, english minister at berlin, iii. ; influences the armistice of poischwitz, . =steyer=, armistice signed at, ii. . =stockach=, battle of, ii. ; captured by lecourbe, . =stockholm=, installation of bernadotte at, iii. . "=stockpot, marshal=," iii. . =stötteritz=, fighting at, iv. . =strabo=, _n.'s_ study of, i. . =stradella=, desaix commanding corps at, ii. ; fortified camp at, ; military operations near, . =stralsund=, threatened by mortier iii., ; schill's final stand at, , ; capture of, . =strasburg=, moreau's army at, i. ; moreau and desaix cross the rhine near, ; retirement of cardinal rohan from, ii. ; imprisonment of duc d'enghien at, , ; french expeditions to, ; iii. ; caulaincourt's mission to, ; maria louisa's progress through, ; schwarzenberg's communications with, threatened, iv. , ; sends troops to relief of paris, . =strebersdorf=, military operations near, iii. , . =street of peace, the=, iii. . =street of rivoli, the=, iii. . =strehla=, fighting near, iv. . =striefen=, fighting near, iv. . =striegau=, blücher at, iv. , . =stuart=, british envoy to vienna, ii. . "=study in politics, a=," projected by _n._, i. . =studjenka=, the passage of the beresina at, iii. - . =stura, river, the=, masséna's advance through valley of, i. ; austrian force on, ii. . =stuttgart=, bourrienne in diplomacy at, i. ; machinations of méhée de la touche in, ii. , ; expulsion of the english envoy at, . =styria=, junction of austrian troops in. ii. ; prince eugène in, iii. ; archduke john banished to, . =suchet, marshal louis-gabriel=, retreat before melas, ii. ; expected to attack melas, ; military operations on the var, ; pursues the russians, ; battle of austerlitz, ; service in spain, iii. ; annihilates blake's spanish army, ; captures aragon and valencia, ; captures tarragona, ; contrasted with augereau, iv. ; strength, march, , ; available forces of, . =sucy=, _n.'s_ letters to, i. ; prophesies as to _n.'s_ future, ii. . =suez, isthmus of=, importance of, ii. . =suez canal=, suggested by d'argenson, ii. . =suicide=, _n.'s_ views concerning, and his attempts to commit, i. , ; ii. ; iv. , , , , . =sunday=, resumption of its observance, ii. . ="supper of beaucaire," the=, i. - , . =survilliers, comte de=. _see_ =buonaparte, joseph=. =suvaroff, gen. a. v.=, defeats macdonald on the trebbia, ii. ; holds piedmont, ; driven by masséna to bavaria, ; disasters in the alps, . =swabia=, treaty with france ( ), i. ; demonstrations of emigrants in, ii. ; withdrawal of austrian troops from, ; french occupation of, . =sweden=, excluded from congress of rastatt, ii. ; joins the "armed neutrality," ; _n.'s_ hatred for the royal house of, ; joachim i's aspirations to the crown of, ; prussia recommended to go to war with, ; member of the coalition, iii. ; held back by mortier, ; internal dissensions, ; neutrality of, ; failure of commercial negotiations with england, ; proposed commercial war against england, ; virtual dependence on france, ; english regulations concerning american trade with, , ; supposed assistance from england to, ; _n._ hints at rectification of her boundaries, ; proposed russian invasion of, ; makes obstinate resistance in finland, ; failure of the demonstration against, ; alexander's uncertain position in regard to, ; _n._ promises to restore pomerania to, ; promises to exclude british commerce, ; treaty with russia, sept. , , ; cedes finland to russia, , ; frederick vi hopes to acquire, ; _n.'s_ ambitions concerning, ; accession of charles xiii, ; selection of bernadotte as heir to the throne, ; abdication of gustavus iv, ; mme. de staël in, ; alexander offers norway to, , , ; russia opens negotiations with, ; demands and acquires a liberal constitution, ; eagerness to escape from french protection, ; _n._ offers finland to, ; bids for her alliance by france and russia, , ; davout occupies pomerania, ; treaty with russia, april , , ; alexander demands better terms for, ; in grand coalition against _n._ ( ), ; metternich seeks to embroil russia and, ; subsidized by england, ; ambition to secure norway, ; _n._ attempts to win over, ; evacuates hamburg, ; commercial agreement with england, ; inaugurates the coalition of , ; bernadotte seeks to annex norway to, iv. ; struggle with norway, ; member of the vienna coalition, . =swiss guard=, at the tuileries, i. . =switzerland=, republican schemes and revolutionary movements in, i. ; ii. , ; _n.'s_ schemes and influence in, i. ; ii. , , , ; french plundering of, ; organization of the helvetian republic, ; masséna ordered to command in, ; russian military operations in, - ; berthier commanding in, ; masséna's successes in, ; masséna makes a forced levy in, ; falls into french hands, , , ; kray's retreat via, cut off, ; jealousy of piedmont, ; factions in, ; adoption of the name, ; neutrality of, ; the act of mediation, ; furnishes contingents to _n.'s_ armies, ; iii. , , ; occupied by ney, ii. ; lends aid to france in , ; independence of, ; _n.'s_ claim to, ; prussia bound to secure the liberties of, ; mme. de staël banished to, ; relations of france with, iii. , ; valais separated from, ; violation of her neutrality by the allies, iv. , , , ; fails to support the emperor, , ; reported rising in, ; jerome and joseph take refuge in, . =syria=, nelson seeks the egyptian expedition off the coast of, ii. ; _n.'s_ schemes of conquest in, , ; turkish movements in, - ; the french advance into, , . =szuczyn=, russian retreat to, iii, . t =tabor, mount=, battle near, ii. . =tabor bridge=, murat crosses the, ii. . =tacticus=, _n.'s_ references to, ii. . =tactics and strategy=, the lessons of austerlitz, ii. , . =tafalla=, moncey at, iii. . =tagliamento, river=, military operations on the, i. - . =tagus, river, the=, british fleet in, iii. ; french attempt to capture the fleet in, ; dupont holds, ; the lines of torres vedras, ; military operations on, . =taine, h. a.=, on the napoleonic régime, iv. . =talavera=, battle of, iii. , , . =talleyrand, prince=, minister of foreign affairs, ii. , , , , , ; relations with and views on _n._, ii. , , , , , - , , ; iii. , - , , , , , , ; iv. , ; attempts to force _n.'s_ hand, ii. ; relations with mme. du barry, ; expelled from england, ; mirabeau's opinion of, ; relations with the directory, ; career, - ; system of national education, , - ; charged with tampering with bernadotte, ; member of the institute, ; advocates seizure of egypt, , ; intrigue with _n._, barras, and sieyès for a new constitution, ; ascribes the egyptian expedition to _n._, ; proposed mission to constantinople, ; dreads a new terror, ; critical moment in his house, before the th brumaire, ; influence on barras, ; bourbon sympathies of, ; _n._ proposes a constitution to, ; offers peace to portugal, ; monarchical views of, ; discusses possibility of _n.'s_ death, ; negotiations with count st. julien, ; negotiations with cobenzl, ; demands bribes from american envoys, ; the pope's ban removed from, ; carves up german principalities, ; demands to know england's intentions concerning malta, ; lord whitworth's utterances to, ; his explanation of the scene of march , , ; urges action against bourbon plotters, ; notifies baden of the seizure of duc d'enghien, ; charged with suppressing despatches, ; josephine's dread of, ; blamed by _n._ for the murder of the duc d'enghien, ; iii. ; murder of the duc d'enghien sits lightly on, ii. ; grand chamberlain, ; attitude of pius vii toward, ; excommunication taken off from, ; replies to russia's demands, ; diplomatic replies to pius vii, ; at vienna, ; created prince of benevento, ; iii. , ; negotiations with lord yarmouth, ii. , ; bribed by german princes, ; on the proposed north german confederation, ; at tilsit, iii. , ; warns _n._ against queen louisa's fascinations, ; author of treaty of tilsit, ; queen louisa's sarcasm to, ; showy character of his diplomacy, ; responsibility for the treaty of tilsit, ; advocates support of the emperor, ; conversations with mme. de rémusat, ; on the discords in the imperial court, ; resigns from the ministry, , ; salary, ; his influence on the wane, ; vice-grand elector, ; iv. ; policy after austerlitz, iii. ; favors ferdinand vii, ; resumes active diplomacy, ; negotiations with izquierdo, ; at bayonne, ; estimate of ferdinand vii, ; constituted custodian of ferdinand vii, , ; stinging rebuke addressed to _n._ by, ; prepares to return to public life, ; acts in the interests of austria, , ; at the erfurt conference, , - ; ordered to ventilate the divorce question, ; his treachery read by _n._, ; blamed by _n._ for the spanish failure, ; member of extraordinary council on _n.'s_ second marriage, ; on the natural extensions of france, ; meeting of _n._ and mme. de staël at house of, ; pecuniary losses, ; on the aims of the coalition of , ; spreads alarming reports, iv. ; on the spanish situation, , ; royalist intrigues of, , , , ; member of the empress-regent's council, ; murat's and lannes's characterizations of, ; desires a violent death for the emperor, ; opposes the departure of the empress from paris, ; _n.'s_ knowledge of his duplicity, , ; on the empress's flight from paris, ; dalberg's characterization of, , ; simulated flight from paris, ; interview with prince orloff, ; sends a "blank check" to alexander, ; at peace council in paris, ; gives adherence to louis xviii, ; negotiates with nesselrode, ; member of the executive commission, ; learns of marmont's defection, ; remonstrates with alexander against the regency, ; suspected complicity in plots to assassinate _n._, ; negotiates secret treaty between france, england, and austria, ; influence at the congress of vienna, , ; double intrigues of, , , ; ignores russian and english protests, ; attainted, ; _n._ appeals to, ; at carlsbad, ; returns to paris, ; reception by louis xviii, ; resumes active functions, ; on the secret of empire, ; his value in european politics, ; correspondence with--french, ambassador at london, ii. ; grenville, lord, ; napoleon, , , ; iii. , ; nesselrode, count, iv. ; _character:_ ambition, iii. ; iv. ; brilliancy, ii. ; iii. ; capacity for intrigue, ii. , ; iv. , , , , , ; diplomatic and political ability, ii. , , ; iii. , , ; duplicity, ii. - , - ; iv. ; gaming passion, ii. ; greed ; learning, ; licentiousness, , ; self-interest, iii. , , , ; treachery, , ; iv. ; unscrupulousness, ii. , , ; iv. , ; venality, ii. , , , , , ; iii. , , ; iv. ; versatility, ii. . =talleyrand, mme.=, pius vii refuses to receive, ii. . =tallien, j. l.=, opposes robespierre, i. ; social life in paris, ; influence for _n._, ; favors appointment of _n._ as convention general, ; marriage, . =tallien, mme.=, "the goddess of thermidor," i. ; _n.'s_ social intercourse with, ; matrimonial experiences, . =talma, f. j.=, i. ; accompanies _n._ to erfurt, iii. ; _n.'s_ intimacy with, iv. . =tanaro=, _n._ at taking of, i. . =tanaro, river=, the country of the, ii. . =taranto=, embargo on, ii. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ; macdonald created duke of, iii. . _see also_ =macdonald=. =tarentum=, soult's force at, ii. . =tarragona=, captured by suchet, iii. . =tarutino=, kutusoff takes position at, iii. . =tarvis=, capture of, i. . =tatars=, characteristics of the, iii. . =tatary=, _n._ studies the history of, i. . =tauenzien, gen.=, battle of dennewitz, iv. ; during the waterloo campaign, . =tauroggen=, convention of, iii. , . =taxation=, necker's problems of, i. ; exemption of privileged classes from, , , ; conditions of, at outbreak of the revolution, - ; the stamp tax, ; the land-tax, , ; outbreak against, at auxonne, ; demand for equality of, in corsica, , ; reform of the system of, ii. , . =tchitchagoff, adm.=, joins tormassoff, iii. ; pursuit of the french army by, , , ; hopes of capturing _n._, ; description of _n._, ; captures borrissoff, , ; driven out of borrissoff, ; at the crossing of the beresina, ; blamed by kutusoff and wittgenstein, , ; bad generalship of, , . =tchernicheff, gen.=, commanding army of the north, iv. . =telnitz=, fighting at, ii. , . ="templars, the,"= by raynouard, ii. . =temple, the=, the royal family imprisoned in the, i. . =tenda pass=, captured by the french, i. , ; _n.'s_ entertainment for mme. turreau at, . =teplitz=, louis's flight to, iii. ; bennigsen reaches, iv. . =terror, the=, i. - , , , , ; iv. ; fears of a revival of, ii. . =terrorists, the=, growing influence of, ii. ; assassination schemes among, . =testamentary rights=, under the code, ii. . =tettenborn, gen.=, relieves hamburg, iii. . =texel, the=, marmont ordered to mainz from, ii. . =thann=, battle of, iii. . =tharandt=, klenau's march to dresden from, iv. . =themistocles=, his refuge with the persians, iv. ; _n._ draws parallel between his case and that of, . =thermidorians, the=, i. ; prominent members of, ; adopt roman systems, , , ; establish the directory, ; anger the people of paris, . =thielemann, gen.=, in waterloo campaign, iv. ; at wavre, . =third coalition, the=, ii. et seq.; prussia induced to join, , ; rout of the allies at austerlitz, ; destruction of its strength and morale, . =third estate, the=, at outbreak of the revolution, i. ; constitution of, ; assumes to represent the nation, ; forces a junction with the two upper estates, ; sieyès's pamphlet on the, ; _n.'s_ care for, iv. , . =third republic=, the constitution of the, i. . =thirty years' war=, richelieu's policy at close of the, ii. . =thomé=, alleges attempt to stab _n._, ii. . =thonberg=, _n._ at, iv. . =thorn=, siege of, iii. ; french occupation of, ; military movements near, ; _n._ in, ; french military stores in, . =thought=, influence on the social life of the world, ii. . =thouvenot, gen.=, service in spain, iii. . =three emperors, fight of the=, ii. . =thugut, count=, greed for territorial aggrandizement, i. ; determines on italian conquest, , ; opens negotiations at leoben, ; warns gen. clarke to keep away from vienna, ; ii. ; not deceived by treaty of campo formio, ; paul i demands his dismissal, ; repudiates st. julien's negotiations, ; overthrow of, . =thuin=, military operations at, iv. . =thuméry, marquis of=, suspected of plotting against _n._, ii. . =thuringia=, military movements in, ii. . =tiber, river=, military operations on the, i. . =ticino, river=, military operations on the, i. ; ii. . =tierney, g.=, on england's attitude toward france, ii. . =tilly, count=, _n.'s_ letter to, aug. , , i. . =tilsit=, bennigsen crosses the niemen at, iii. ; meeting of the emperors at, - , ; treaty of, , , , , - , , , , , , - , - , , - , , , , , , , , , , , ; neutralization of, ; reasons leading to the peace of, et seq.; queen louisa at, , - ; french representatives at, ; fraternizing of russia and france at, - ; decoration of the russian grenadier at, ; _n.'s_ position at, ; macdonald reaches, . ="times," the= (london), on the allies' capture of paris, iv. . =tissot, dr.=, _n.'s_ letter to, i. . =tobacco=, establishment of state monopoly in, iii. . =toledo=, dupont's forces near, iii. . =tolentino=, treaty of, i. , ; ii. . =toll, gen.=, meets alexander i after austerlitz, ii. ; proposes concentration of the allied forces, iv. ; advises movement on paris, . =tolosa=, french forces at, iii. . =tolstoi, gen.=, _see_ =ostermann-tolstoi=. =torbay=, the "bellerophon" at, iv. , . =torcy=, battle at, iv. ; military operations at, . =torgau=, saxon troops withdrawn from, iii. ; french occupation of, iv. ; ney driven into, ; battle of, . =tormassoff, gen.=, confronted by schwarzenberg, iii. ; joined by tchitchagoff, . =torres vedras=, the lines of, iii. . =tortona=, surrendered to france, i. ; _n._ at, ; scheme to relieve masséna via, ii. ; the key of genoa, ; topography of the country, , ; the consular guard at, . =tortugas, the=, death of leclerc in, ii. . =touche, méhée de la=, contrives moreau's ruin, ii. - ; english plots with, . =toulon=, the recovery of, for the convention, i. ; military and naval preparations at, , , , ; ii. , , , ; return of the sardinian expedition to, i. ; anarchy in, , ; the buonapartes in, ; the buonapartes driven from, ; siege of, , , ; marseilles refugees at, ; lord hood's seizure at, ; the "treason" of, - ; _n._ at, , , , , , ; _n.'s_ plans for capture of, ; _n._ seeks mercy for rebels at, ; the national convention's vengeance on, , ; massacres in, ; british occupation of, ; recapture of, ; news of the terror in, ; english fleet driven from, ; the corsican expedition leaves, ; _n._ at siege of, ; forced military loans in, ; departure of egyptian expedition from, ii. - ; nelson seeks the egyptian expedition at, ; _n._ sails from alexandria for, ; failure of villeneuve's expedition from, ; _n._ orders the spanish fleet to, iii. . =toulouse=, soult thrown back on, iv. ; defeat of soult at, . =tournon, the chamberlain de=, mission to spain, iii. . =tours=, the french garrison at, iv. . =trachenberg=, military council at, iv. . =trade=, condition at outbreak of the revolution, i. . =trafalgar=, _n.'s_ reception of the news of, ii. ; battle of, - ; iii. ; effect in france, ii. ; _n.'s_ reply to, ii. ; the lesson of, . =trannes=, military movements near, iv. , . =transpadane republic, the=, i. , , , ; question of a constitution for the, ii. . =trasimenus=, creation of the department of, iii. , . =traun, river=, military movements on the, iii. . =treaties=, the value of, iv. . for specific treaties see the names of parties signatory (countries or rulers) and of the places at which signed. =trebbia, river=, french disasters on the, ii. , . =treilhard, m.=, member of the directory, ii. . =trent=, military operations near, i. , , ; abandoned by vaubois, ; brune advances to, ii. ; apportioned to the grand duke of tuscany, ; ceded to bavaria, . =treuenbrietzen=, prussian pursuit of oudinot to, iv. . =treviso=, creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. ; mortier created duke of, iii. (_see also_ =mortier=); the buonaparte family princes of, iv. . =trianon=, _n._ retires to, after the divorce, iii, ; the imperial court at, . =trianon decree, the=, iii. . =tribunate, the=, ii. , - ; constitution of, ; opposition to _n._ in, , ; secret sessions of, ; new method of electing to, ; form of addressing the first consul in, ; carnot remonstrates in, against adulation of _n._, ; independence of, ; initiates the imperial movement, ; condition under the imperial constitution of , ; destruction of, iii. ; compared with the english parliament, ; its functions, . =tricolor=, louis xvi, adopts the, i. ; _n.'s_ scheme to unfurl, in corsica, ; insult to, in naples, . =triest=, _n._ threatens to seize, i. ; seized by _n._, ; reoccupied by austria, ; rise of, ; importations of english goods at, iii. ; ceded to france, ; england's loss of trade with, ; basis of possible oriental operations, ; french occupation of, ; _n._ offers the city to austria, . =trinidad=, retained by england, ii. , ; ceded to england, . =triple alliance, the=, iv. , , . =triumphal arch, paris=, erection of the, iii. . =tronchet=, on committee to draft the code, ii. . =troyes=, recall of the parliament to paris from, i. ; battle of, iv. ; military movements near, , , - , , - , , , . =truchsess-waldburg, count=, prussian commissioner at fontainebleau, iv. ; _n.'s_ attitude toward, ; allegations concerning _n.'s_ physical ailments, , . =tudela=, french success at, iii. ; scheme of operations at, ; spanish forces near, , . =tuileries, the=, the mob at, i. ; the carnage at, ; robespierre orders the destruction of, ; storming of, aug. , , ; defense of, - ; _n._ at, on the th brumaire, ii. , ; lannes's guard at, ; decoration of, ; rechristened "the palace of the government," ; _n._ takes possession of, ; residence of the buonapartes at, , ; social functions at, , , , - , ; consular levee of march , , ; _n.'s_ interview with lord whitworth at, feb. , , - ; scene between whitworth and _n._, march , , , ; the imperial court at, , - ; refurnishing the, iii, ; social vices at, ; _n._ at, ; the divorce scandal in, ; the divorce decree pronounced in, ; imperial family life at, , ; depository of the emperor's funds, , ; iv. , ; the officers of the national guard summoned to, ; flight of the empress from, ; changes in the court at, ; _n._ reënters, ; struggle between royalists and imperialists at, ; loneliness of, . =turas=, military operations near, ii. . =turenne, marshal=, military genius, i. ; _n._ compared with, , ; _n.'s_ analysis of the wars of, iv. , . =turin=, military operations around, i. , ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; gen. clarke's mission to, ; _n._ in, ii. ; revolutionary movements in, ; bonapartist agency in, ; charles emmanuel iv invited to return to, ; melas hastens to, , ; topography of country near, ; sends deputation to paris, iii. . =turkey=, _n._ studies the history of, i. ; seeks to organize its armies, ; france seeks alliance with, ; _n.'s_ plans for service in, , - ; austria's gaze on, ; _n.'s_ eye on, ; france's influence on, ; disaffection in, ii. ; schemes for the dismemberment of, , , , , , , ; iii. , , , , - , , , , , , , ; france's justification of egyptian schemes to, ii. ; _n._ seeks alliance with, ; refuses alliance with france, ; negotiations and alliances with russia, , ; iii. , , , , ; ; alliance with russia and austria, ; military activity, , ; joins the second coalition, ii. , ; checked by franco-russian treaty of peace ( ), ; defeat of, at heliopolis, ; egypt restored to, ; treaty between france and ( ), ; integrity of her boundaries, ; suzerainty over ionia and egypt, ; _n._ on her policy, ; source of discord between france and russia, ; oubril undertakes to guarantee her integrity, ; _n._ resolves to assert supremacy over, ii. ; military operations on the dniester, ; _n.'s_ scheme of protectorate over, ; hostilities with russia, iii. , , , , ; declares war against england, ; _n._ arranges a treaty between persia and, , ; austria espouses the cause of, ; overthrow of selim iii, , , , ; revolt of the janizaries, ; alliance with france, ; end of sebastiani's influence in, ; russian acquisitions in, ; french influence in, ; _n._ intervenes between russia and, ; terms of the agreement at slobozia, ; russia's ambition to acquire territory of, ; usurpation of mustapha, iv, ; threatened anarchy in, ; reform in, ; threatened loss of french prestige in, ; accession of mahmud ii, ; alexander's uncertain position in regard to, ; _n._ fears her alliance with russia or england, ; england's trade under the flag of, ; russian designs against, ; austria seeks territorial aggrandizement at expense of, ; pivotal in european politics, ; _n._ endeavors to form alliance with, ; in grand coalition against _n._ ( ), ; european support of, iv. ; _n.'s_ influence on modern, . =turreau, gen.=, at mont cenis pass, ii. ; crosses mont cenis, . =turreau, mme.=, _n.'s_ ghastly entertainment for, i. . =tuscany=, the buonaparte family in, i. - ; favors the french revolution, ; peace between france and, ; withdraws from the coalition ( ), ; military operations against, - ; french proposition to revolutionize, ; treaty with france, jan. , , ; plunder of, ii. ; involved in italian quarrels, ; france acquires temporary possession of, ; _n.'s_ bad faith with, ; austrian occupation of, , , ; reinforcements for melas from, ; creation of kingdom of, ; british ships driven from harbors of, ; the situation in, iii. ; ecclesiastical reforms and confiscations in, ; elisa created grand duchess of, . _see also_ =buonaparte, marie-anne-elisa=. =tuscany, the grand duke of=, i. ; flees to vienna, ii, ; loses his territory, ; territories acquired by, . =tutschkoff, gen.=, in battle of eylau, iii. . =twelfth light dragoons=, at the battle of waterloo, iv. . =two-cent revolt, the=, i. . =two sicilies, the=, i. . =tyrol, the=, the road to vienna through, i. ; military operations in, - , - , , , , - ; ii. , ; iii. , , , ; _n.'s_ unsuccessful attempt to conciliate its people, i. ; loyalty to austria, ; the insurrection in, ; kray's retreat to, cut off, ii. ; iller commanding in the, ; soult cuts off the austrian retreat to, ; ney sweeps the austrians from, ; _n._ threatens to seize, ; ceded by austria to bavaria, ; insurrection ripe in, iii. ; archduke john to excite revolt in, ; rising against bavarian rule, ; repression of priestly tyranny in, ; revolution against bondage in, ; characteristics of its people, ; maximilian's reforms in, ; guerrilla warfare in, , ; abandoned by archduke john, ; its people abused by _n._, ; french evacuation of, ; rising in, ; french invasion of, ; effects of the armistice of znaim, ; reduced to submission, ; amnesty offered by prince eugène, ; opened to the allies, iv. . u =ucciani=, _n.'s_ escape to, i. . =udine=, congress at, ii. . =ulm=, austrian retreat to, ii. ; austrian troops in sight of, ; the french at, - ; the capitulation at, , ; concentration of troops in, iii. . ="undaunted," the=, _n._ sails for elba on, iv. . =united irishmen=, misunderstanding between the directory and the, ii. . =united states, the=, constitutional government in, i. ; the french idea of the system of government in, ; talleyrand's residence in, ii. ; talleyrand's views on, , ; mission concerning protection of commerce, ; treaty of commerce with england, , ; arrogance of the directory toward, , ; imbroglio with france, ; suspension of diplomatic relations with france, ; commercial convention with france, ; neutrality declaration, , ; jerome buonaparte's residence in, ; events leading to the war of , , ; iii. ; purchases louisiana, ii. , ; iv. ; _n.'s_ relations with, and influence on, ii. ; iii. , ; iv. ; carnot's comparison of france with, ii. ; moreau's banishment to, ; commercial rivalry with england, iii. ; british claim of right of search, , ; effect of british "orders in council" upon, ; ocean commerce, ; authorizes reprisals, ; french attacks on commerce of, seizures of vessels, etc., , , , , , ; rising naval power, ; liberty of testamentary disposition in, ; english provisions concerning the carrying trade of, - ; permitted to trade direct with sweden, , ; _n._ attempts to force them into the french system, , ; decline of trade with england, ; jefferson's administration, , ; agricultural policy of the democrats, , ; the embargo, , , ; the war of , , ; policy of the federalists, ; the non-intervention act, ; indispensability of cotton in europe, ; "neutralized" commerce of, ; proposal that louis xviii acquire a kingdom in, ; alleged seizure of french vessels by, ; the non-intercourse act of march , , ; prohibition of commercial intercourse with england and france, ; seizure of ships by england, ; lucien attempts to escape to, ; chafing under restrictions of commerce, ; crippled commerce of, ; declares war against england, ; naval successes of, ; moreau summoned from, ; iv. ; _n._ plans escape to, , ; hamilton's treasury system, ; the independence of, ; the war for independence, ; wars with england, , ; popular interest in _n._ in, , ; expansion of constitutional law, ; growth of, ; _n.'s_ influence in, ; the slavery question in, . _see also_ =america=. =university of berlin=, iii. . =university of france=, ii. ; iii. . =ural mountains=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. . =urbino=, annexed to italy, iii. , . =uscha, river=, military operations on the, iii. . =ussher, capt.=, conveys _n._ to elba in the "undaunted," iv. , . =usury=, the curse and its cure in france, ii. ; iii. , . =utizy=, military movements near, iii. . v =valais=, declared an independent commonwealth, ii. ; chateaubriand french representative in, ; scheme to incorporate it with france, iii. ; separated from switzerland, ; independence of, ; annexed to the french empire, . =valeggio=, _n.'s_ narrow escape at, i. . =valençay=, the spanish captives at, iii. , , . =valence=, _n._ joins his regiment at, i. ; _n.'s_ life at, and visits to, i. - , , , , , , , - , , ; the garrison at, and people of, ; obsequies of mirabeau at, , ; friends of the constitution in, ; reception of _n._ and elisa at, ; occupied by carteaux, ; death of pius vi at, ii. ; burial of pius vi at, ; meeting of _n._ and augereau near, iv. . =valencia=, massacre of the french at, iii. ; moncey advances on, ; french defeat before, ; captured by suchet, ; temporary french government at, . =valenciennes=, evacuation of, i. . =valenza=, military operations near, i. . =valetta=, french plot to seize, ii. ; the sword of, given to paul i, . =valjouan=, victor drives the austrians from, iv. . =valladolid=, captured by the french, iii. ; french success near, ; french communications at, ; _n._ at, jan. , , . =valmaseda=, blake driven back to, iii. . =valmy=, defeat of the allies at, i. . =valtellina, the=, quarrel between the grisons and, ii. ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, . =vandamme, gen.=, in battle of austerlitz, ii. - ; dread of _n._, iii. ; in battle of eckmühl, ; at linz, , ; relieved by lefebvre, ; strength of his corps, march, , ; commanding division in eugène's army, ; junction of danish troops with, ; captures hamburg, ; goes to davout's assistance, ; in battle of dresden, iv. - ; at pirna, - ; pursues the allies, ; battle of kulm, ; captured at kulm, ; character, ; in the waterloo campaign, - ; advances toward fleurus, ; battle of ligny, . =vandeleur, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =vanne, river=, iv. . =var, river=, military operations on the, ii. , , , , . =vatican=, relations of paoli with the, i. . =vauban=, disgrace of, i. ; eulogized by carnot, . =vaubois, gen.=, service in the alps, i. ; defeated by davidowich, , , ; service in egypt, ii. . =vauchamps=, battle of, iv. . =vaud=, revolutionary outbreak in, ii. , ; french intervention in, ; alexander forbids the restoration of, iv. . =vaux=, submission of carlo buonaparte to, i. . =venaissin, the=, annexed to france, i. . =vendée, la=, civil war, massacres, and royalist plots in, i. , , , , , , , , ; ii. , , , , ; iv. , , ; reinforcements for the army of italy from, i. ; _n._ conciliates, ii. ; revulsion of feeling against the bourbons in, iv. ; _n._ seeks to rouse imperial feeling in, . =vendémiaire=, the th of, - ; ii. . =vendetta, the=, i. - . =vendôme, column of=, erection of the, iii. ; placard on the, iv. . =venetia=, neutrality violated by beaulieu, i. ; jealousy between venice and other towns of, ; coveted by austria, ; the revolutionary movement in, ; the mainland ceded to austria, ; the oligarchy of, ; french military operations in, ii. ; france's acquisitions in, ; incorporated in the cisalpine republic, ; plunder of, ; surrender to austria, ; _n._ threatens to seize, ; incorporated with italy, , ; admitted to the concordat, iii. . _see also_ =venice=. =venetian alps=, road to vienna through the, i. . =venetian republic=, political status in , i. . =venice=, _n._ studies the history of, i. ; austria's ambitions in, , ; ii. , ; military operations against ( ), i. ; beaulieu violates neutrality of, - ; treaty with austria, ; decadence and downfall of, , ; at _n.'s_ mercy, ; resents violations of territory, ; _n.'s_ violation of neutrality of, ; the humiliation of, - ; the golden book of, , , ; pillage in, , ; ii. ; kilmaine's military watch on, i. ; revolution in, , - ; concludes negotiations with _n._, - ; acquires bologna, ferrara, and the romagna, ; _n._ forbidden to interfere with, ; loss of independence, - ; fires on french ship, ; _n._ "an attila to," ; _n._ declares war against, ; the oligarchy of, ; attempts to bribe _n._, ; treaty between france and ( ), ; the new republic of, ; loses independence, , ; french occupation of, - ; letter from _n._ to the provisional government, ; _n.'s_ characterization of the venetians, ; _n._ offers the republic to austria, ; _n._ reproached for the overthrow of, ii. ; lallemant's propaganda in, , ; junot's demands on the senate, ; dismemberment of, ; the directory's ambition for the conquest of, ; ceded to austria, ; the last doge of, ; destruction of the "bucentaur" at, ; destruction of naval stores at, ; seeks to continue war with austria, ; dragged into war by _n._, ; election of pius vii at, ; _n._ threatens to seize, ; surrendered to france, ; pius vii refuses to extend the concordat to, iii. ; ceded to france, ; appropriations for the harbor, ; _n._ at, nov., , ; interview between joseph and _n._ at, - ; basis of possible oriental operations, . _see also_ =venetia=; =venetian republic=. =ventimiglia=, seized by masséna, i. . =vercelli=, melas proposes to attack _n._ via, ii. . =verdier=, success at logroño, iii. ; occupies aragon, . =verdun=, abandoned by the enemy, i. ; imperial troops at, iv. . =verhuel=, dutch commissioner to paris, ii. . =verona=, _n._ at, i. ; french occupation of, ; military operations near, , , - , - ; insurrection in, , , ; disarmament of, . =veronese vespers, the=, i. , . =versailles=, meetings of the estates at, i. , ; luxury in, ; the parisian mob at, ; prison massacres in, ; macdonald's guard at, ii. ; _n._ retires to, after his divorce, iii. ; souham delivers his army prisoners at, iv. , . =vicenza=, military operations before, i. ; creation of hereditary duchy of, ii. . =victor, gen. c. p.=, attacks provera at la favorita, i. ; watches rome, ; reinforces lannes at casteggio, ii. ; commanding corps at marengo, - ; service in the army of england, ; battle of heilsberg, iii. ; battle of friedland, - ; created duke of belluno, ; yearly income, ; character, ; _n.'s_ opinion of, ; at amurrio, ; defeated by wellesley at talavera, ; strength of his corps, march, , ; ordered to advance east from the niemen, ; in retreat from moscow, et seq.; effects junction with saint-cyr, ; checks wittgenstein, ; abandons vitebsk, ; driven back, ; at the crossing of the beresina, - ; ordered to hold back wittgenstein, ; defeated by wittgenstein at borrissoff, ; division commander under eugène, ; in campaign of , ; relieves glogau, ; battle of dresden, iv. - ; guarding roads from bohemia, ; battle of leipsic, , , ; assigned to defense of the rhine, ; ordered to nogent, ; junction with macdonald at montereau, ; abandons nogent, ; driven back to nangis, ; drives the austrians from valjouan, ; fails to capture montereau, - ; moral exhaustion of, - ; degraded, but restored to favor, ; commanding portion of the young guard, ; battle of craonne, . =victor amadeus=, king of sardinia, i. , ; guards lombardy, ; checkmated by _n._, ; death of, ; relationship to louis xviii, , . ="victory," the=, at trafalgar, ii. , . =vienna=, plans for french advance on, i. ; austria opposes _n.'s_ advance to, ; combined movements on, et seq.; the peace party in, ; rejoicing in, at treaty of leoben, ; gen. clarke's mission to, ; rejoicings in, over treaty of campo formio, ii. ; gen. clarke forbidden to enter, ; dread of revolutionary sentiment in, ; attack on the french embassy ( ), ; flight of ferdinand iii to, ; _n.'s_ plans to subdue, ; _n._ sends peace commissioner to, ; court intrigues at, ; moreau advances toward, ; stuart british envoy to, ; _n._ threatens, , ; french treachery at, ; the french enter, - , ; talleyrand at, ; pozzo di borgo's mission at, ii. ; andréossy's mission at, ; french influence in, iii. ; decree of, may , , ; belligerent tone at, , , , ; effect of _n.'s_ and alexander's remonstrances at, , ; metternich goes to, ; defensive measures for, ; _n.'s_ march on, after eckmühl, ; capitulation of, ; _n.'s_ characterization of its inhabitants, ; charles's plan to free, ; proposed french retreat toward, ; _n.'s_ army around, ; consternation at rumored franco-russian marriage, ; french soldiers nursed in, ; marriage of maria louisa at, - ; pro-russian party in, , ; characterization of _n._ in, ; england's diplomacy in, ; francis fears a french invasion of, iv. ; congress of, , , , ; news of _n.'s_ escape in, . =vienna coalition, the=, iv. , . =vigo=, villeneuve at, ii. . =villach=, _n._ enters germany at, i, ; eugène and macdonald at, iii. . =villanova=, military operations at, i. . =villefranche=, expedition against corsica from, i. . =villeneuve=, _n._ at, iv. . =villeneuve, adm.=, in the battle of the nile, ii. ; commanding at toulon, ; proposed naval expedition for, ; escapes from toulon, and returns, ; ordered to the west indies, ; character, , , - ; returns to european waters, ; his combined fleet at ferrol and corunna, ; at vigo, ; disheartened, ; dissatisfied with his fleet, , , ; encounter with calder, , ; ordered to relieve rochefort and brest, ; retreats to cadiz, , , ; fails to appear in the channel, ; chased by nelson to the west indies and back, ; retreat to ferrol, ; orders for mediterranean cruise, ; remonstrates against his orders, ; _n._ prepares to supersede, ; tries to evade disgrace, ; battle of trafalgar, - ; interview with _n._, ; his suicide, . =villetard=, french republican agent in venice, i. . =vilna=, _n._ in, iii. - ; barclay de tolly's army confronting, ; the french retreat through, , ; _n.'s_ incognito journey through, ; kutusoff enters, ; alexander goes to, . =vimeiro=, defeat of junot at, iii. - . =vincennes=, the trial and execution of the duc d'enghien at, ii. , , - ; iii. . =vincent, gen.=, austrian representative at erfurt, iii. , . =visconti=, "greek iconography," iv. . =vistula, river, the=, _n.'s_ conquests west of, ii. ; plan of campaign on, ; bridging of, iii. , ; french positions on, ; attempt to drive the french across, ; proposed boundary line on, ; military operations on, , , ; alexander promises assistance to prussia on, iii. ; the french army reaches, ; french advance to the niemen from, ; murat's position on, untenable, ; schwarzenberg retreats across, ; threatened expulsion of the french from, ; french garrisons on, iv. ; _n._ entertains hopes of returning to, , , . =vitebsk=, its strategical position, iii. ; _n._ at, ; military movements near, , ; french garrison in, ; the french abandon, . =vitoria=, dupont ordered to, iii. ; ferdinand vii at, ; french forces at, ; battle of, . =vitrolles=, royalist intrigues of, iv. , , ; captured with weissenberg at st. dizier, . =vitry=, military movements near, iv. , , , ; prussian occupation of, ; french troops at, . =vives, gen.=, besieges barcelona, iii. . =vivian, gen.=, in battle of waterloo, iv. . =volga, river, the=, proposed indian expeditions via, ii. ; cossacks of, iii. . =volhynia=, austrian troops in, iii. , ; bagration's position in, . =völkermarkt=, archduke john at, iii. . =volney, constantin f. c.=, espouses the corsican cause, i. , ; _n.'s_ friendship with, ; ii. , ; member of the senate, . =voltaire=, on the character of paoli, i. ; _n.'s_ study of, ; ii. ; iv. ; his "essay on manners," i. ; on the hohenzollern territories, ii. ; performance of his "oedipe" at erfurt, iii. . =voltri=, military operations at, i. . =vorarlberg=, kray's retreat via, cut off, ii. ; ceded to bavaria, . =vosges mountains, the=, proposed boundary for germany, iii. ; the allies turn the line of, iv. , ; supposed retreat of schwarzenberg to, ; reported rising in, ; _n._ urges guerrilla risings in, . =voss, countess=, attendant on queen louisa, iii. . w =wachau=, battle of, iv. - . =wagram=, charles's advance toward, iii. ; battle of, - ; iv. ; french demoralization after, iii. ; doubtful honors of, , ; _n.'s_ position after, ; position of francis after, ; berthier created prince of, . _see also_ =berthier=. =walcheren=, the english expedition to, iii. , , , , . =walewska, countess=, _n.'s_ amours with, iii. ; visits _n._ at elba, iv. . =walhain=, gérard at, iv. ; grouchy at, , . =wallachia=, dismissal of the turkish viceroy of, ii. , ; alleged concession of, to russia, iii. ; russian evacuation of, ; russian ambition to possess, , , , , ; russian occupation of, , ; alexander demands possession of, ; _n._ offers to offset moldavia and, against silesia, , , ; proposed evacuation of prussia for that of, ; alexander's fear of losing, ; russia threatened with the loss of, . =wallenstein=, scene of his overthrow by gustavus adolphus, iii. . =war=, _n.'s_ aphorisms, theories, and plans of, i. - ; ii. ; iii. ; barbarity in, ii. ; thirst for, in france, ; the art of, . =warens, mme. de=, memoirs of, i. . =warfare=, progress in methods of, i. , ; in napoleonic times, ii. - . =warsaw= (city), louis xviii living in, ii. ; polish national movement in, ii. ; the russians driven from, iii. , ; french occupation of, - ; frivolity in, ; _n.'s_ amours in, ; _n._ offers to evacuate, ; proposition that russia occupy, , ; archduke ferdinand to march against, ; captured by archduke ferdinand, ; polish troops at, ; reoccupied by poniatowski, ; offered to prussia, ; attitude of the poles in, ; jesuit influence in, ; proposition to make it capital of a saxon province, ; _n._ in, ; the diet begs the restoration of poland, ; schwarzenberg evacuates, ; russian occupation of, ; proposed new capital for prussia, . =warsaw, grand duchy of=, creation of, iii. , , ; acquires prussian territory, ; new constitution for, ; _n._ seeks to add silesia to, , , ; alexander's jealousy of, ; _n._ promises to evacuate, ; fortification of, , ; acquires new galicia, ; territorial acquisitions, , ; pro-russian party in, ; alexander proposes to accept the crown of, ; military operations in, ; open to invasion, ; _n.'s_ incognito journey through, ; interview between _n._ and de pradt at, , ; russian invasion of, ; _n._ refuses to give up, ; reft from saxony, ; in russian possession, ; threatened dismemberment of, , ; proposed extinction of, ; _n.'s_ scheme in, . =washington, george=, comparison of paoli with, i. ; death of, ii. ; admiration of france for, ; statue at the tuileries, ; festival in honor of, , ; compared with _n._, ; declares the neutrality of the united states ( ), . =waterloo=, the advantage of position at, ii. ; the prussian pursuit after, iii. ; _n.'s_ attempt at suicide after, iv. ; _n.'s_ reminiscences of, ; wellington indicates the battle-ground, ; the controversial literature of, ; the battle-field, et seq.; character of the french troops at, ; wellington's headquarters at, ; the plans of battle, ; the battle, et seq.; application of the name to the battle, ; review of the battle, et seq.; political spoils, ; moral effect on the emperor, ; the news in paris, ; _n.'s_ monograph on, ; _n.'s_ delay at, ; epic character of, ; effect on the world, . =waterloo campaign=, parallel between campaign in piedmont and, iv. . =wavre=, military operations at, iv. , , , - , . =wealth=, _n._ on, i. . =weapons of war in =, i. . =wehlau=, military movements near, iii. . =weimar=, dissension in the prussian camp at, ii. ; fighting at, ; meetings of _n._ with goethe and wieland at, iii. , , . =weimar, grand duchess of=, entertains _n._, iii. . =weirother, col.=, at austerlitz, ii. . =weissenberg, gen.=, captured near st. dizier, iv. . =weissenburg=, battle of, i. ; the french position at, ii. . =weissenfels=, taken by bertrand, iv. . =weissensee=, narrow escape of frederick william iii at, ii. . =wellenburg=, acquired by würtemberg, ii. . =wellesley, sir arthur=, takes command of operations in portugal, iii. ; enters portugal, ; defeats junot at vimeiro, ; recalled to england and vindicated, ; expels the french from portugal, ; prepares for invasion of spain, ; battle of talavera, ; withdraws before soult, ; created duke of wellington, ; _see also_ =wellington, duke of=. =wellesley, lord=, succeeds canning as prime minister, iii. ; secretary for foreign affairs, ; reinforces the army in portugal, ; succeeded by castlereagh, . =wellington, duke of= (_see also_ =wellesley, sir arthur=), effect of moore's spirit on, iii. ; holds portugal, ; reinforced by lord hill, ; battle of talavera, , ; battle of busaco, ; retreat down the mondego, ; constructs the lines of torres vedras, , ; battle of ocaña, , ; difficult position at lisbon, ; character, , ; summons famine to his aid, ; advances into spain, ; battles of albuera and fuentes de onoro, ; retreats to portugal, ; recaptures almeida, ; attacked by lord liverpool, ; on masséna's stand, ; battle of salamanca, ; storming of badajoz, , ; captures ciudad rodrigo, , ; advances on the duero, ; period of inactivity, ; returns to portugal, ; resumes the offensive, ; between two fires, ; demoralization of his army, ; moves against madrid, ; defeats marmont at salamanca, ; withdraws to the portuguese frontier, ; hampered by english political situation, , ; reverses in the peninsula, ; battle of vitoria, ; threatens france, ; successes in spain, , ; spain rises to support, iv. ; on the war in spain, ; signs conditions with _n._, ; succeeds castlereagh at congress of vienna, , ; proposes to deport _n._ to st. helena, ; recalled by lord liverpool, ; desires to take the field, ; military genius, ; plan of campaign of the hundred days, ; dissatisfaction with his troops, ; _n.'s_ position with regard to blücher and, ; influence over troops, ; relative strength in waterloo campaign, ; awaits developments, ; reminiscences of waterloo, , ; relations with blücher, ; interview between the duke of richmond and, at the ball, ; indicates the battle-ground at waterloo, ; concentration of his troops, , ; criticizes blücher's tactics, ; meeting with blücher at bry, ; battle of quatre bras, - ; conversation with col. bowles, ; retreat to mont st. jean, , ; _n._ determines to attack, ; apprehended junction of blücher and, , ; his choice of position, et seq., , , ; proposes to fall back to brussels, ; strength at waterloo, ; blücher promises support, ; grouchy aims to prevent union between blücher and, ; his resolution to give battle in front of soignes, ; his center at mont st. jean, ; gneisenau's doubt of his standing at waterloo, ; lack of confidence in the dutch-belgian troops, ; headquarters at waterloo, ; lines of retreat, , ; the plan of waterloo, ; battle of waterloo, et seq.; repeated calls for blücher, ; stories of his anxiety, ; his conduct of the waterloo campaign, ; faint-hearted coöperation with blücher, ; restores louis xviii, ; danger of _n.'s_ surrender to, ; share in the reconstruction of france, ; alleged attempt to assassinate, . =wels=, russian troops at, ii. . =wereja=, capture of the french garrison of, iii. . =werneck, gen.=, capture of his division at nördlingen, ii. . =werther=, _n._ compared to, i. . =wesel=, ceded to france, ii. ; french garrison at, , , ; demand for its restoration to prussia, . =weser, river=, french occupation of the coast near, iii. ; territory on, offered to sweden, . =western empire=, accomplishment of _n.'s_ dream of, iii. ; an end to the dreams of, . =west indies, the=, scheme for populating, ii. ; english blockade of the french fleet in, ; jerome buonaparte in, ; england watches french policy concerning, ; france looks to her power in, ; _n.'s_ ambitions in, ; french squadrons ordered to, ; nelson enticed to, ; _n.'s_ ambitions in, iii. . =westphalia=, military movements in, ii. ; organization of the kingdom of, iii. , ; jerome king of, , ; war indemnity exacted from, ; levy of troops in, , - ; sequestration of frederick william's estates in, ; insurrection in, ; schill's failure in, ; scheme to incorporate part with france, ; french occupation of, ; french influence in, ; flight of jerome to france, iv. . =west prussia=, lestocq's retreat through, ii. . =whitbread, samuel=, on the french revolution, ii. . ="white terror," the=, i. ; iv. . =whitworth, lord=, character, ii. ; ambassador to paris, , ; evades declaration of england's maltese policy, ; summoned to the tuileries, feb. , , - ; at consular levee of march , , - ; his attitude, , ; on _n.'s_ reception of april , ; reports on france's naval preparations, ; publication of his despatches in england, ; _n.'s_ declarations to, on subject of invading england, ; a diplomatic method of, iii. . =wiazma=, battle of, iii. . =wieland, c. m.=, interview with _n._ at wiemar, iii. ; decorated at erfurt, ; estimate of _n.'s_ influence, . =wilberforce, william=, deprecates war with france, ii. . =willach= (carinthia), ceded to france, iii. . =willenberg=, military movements near, iii. . =william, prince= (of prussia), mission to paris, iii. ; in battle of waterloo, iv. . ="william the conqueror," by duval=, ii. . =willot, gen.=, proposes to destroy the directory, ii. ; suspected of plotting against _n._, . =wilson, sir robert=, endeavors to reorganize the russian army, iii. . =wintzengerode=, captures soissons, iv. ; defeated near st. dizier, . =wischau=, junction of austrian and russian troops at, ii. . =wittau=, military operations near, iii. . =wittenberg=, captured by davout, ii. ; french forces at, iii. ; french occupation of, iv. ; military movements near, . =wittgenstein, gen.=, in the russian campaign, iii. ; menaces the french left, ; resumes offensive against saint-cyr, ; checked by victor and saint-cyr, ; pursuit of the french army, , ; victor ordered to hold back, ; at the passage of the beresina, ; defeats victor at borrissoff, ; bad generalship of, , , ; losses in the russian campaign, ; fails to cut off macdonald's retreat, ; commanding the allied army, ; the battle of lützen, ; loses his command, ; commanding army of the east, iv. ; battle of leipsic, ; driven from nangis, . =wkra, river=, bridging of the, iii. . =wolkousky, prince p. m.=, in military council with alexander i, iv. . =women=, _n.'s_ attitude toward, and ideas concerning, i. , , , , , ; ii. , , ; iii. , ; education of, ii. , ; demands of german social custom on, iii. , . =wrede, gen.=, in campaign of eckmühl, iii. ; movements before ratisbon, ; defeated by hiller at erding, ; battle of wagram, ; reaches vilna, ; commanding bavarian troops, iv. . =wright, capt.=, lands the cadoudal conspirators in france, ii. , ; savary suspected of complicity in death of, . =wurmser, gen.=, _n.'s_ operations against, i. ; sent to reinforce beaulieu, ; military genius, ; marches to relief of mantua, et seq.; operations on lake garda, - ; attempts to succor mantua, , ; operations on the brenta, ; advance-guard captured at primolano, ; defeated at bassano, ; demoralization of his army, ; makes ineffectual sally from mantua, ; besieged in mantua, his defense and surrender, - ; _n.'s_ generosity to, , . =würtemberg=, makes peace with france ( ), i. , ; grants to the grand duke of, ii. ; relations with russia, ; french march through, ; friendly relations with and subservience to france, , ; iii. ; created an independent kingdom, ii. , ; acquires territory after austerlitz, ; member of the confederation of the rhine, , ; supplies contingents to _n.'s_ armies, ii. ; iii. , , , ; maria louisa's progress through, iii. ; allotment of austrian lands to, ; turns from _n._ to the allies, iv. ; position in germany, . =würtemberg, princess catherine of=, marries jerome napoleon, iii. , . =würzburg=, seized by jourdan, i. ; reported french occupation of, ii. ; _n.'s_ base, ; french forces at, iii. . y ="yamacks," the=, iii. . =yarmouth, lord=, negotiates for peace, ii. , , . =yelin=, author of "germany in her deepest humiliation," ii. . =yermoloff, gen.=, pursuit of the french army by, iii. . =yonne, river=, military operations on the, iv. , . =york, duke of=, besieges dunkirk, i. ; defeated by brune at bergen, ii. , ; capitulates at alkmaar, . =york, gen.=, in correspondence with alexander i, iii. ; concludes convention of tauroggen, , , ; nominally degraded, ; desertion of the french cause, ; his action approved by the estates of eastern prussia, ; battle of bautzen, ; battle of leipsic, iv. ; reinforces blücher at montmirail, ; held by mortier, ; routs marmont at athies, ; quits blücher's army, but returns, . ="young guard,"= the, iii. ; battle of lützen, ; battle of dresden, iv. ; ordered to bautzen, ; at dresden, ; under command of ney, ; victor commanding portion of, ; "melts like snow," ; _n._ reviews, ; battle of waterloo, . z =zaborowski=, _n._ seeks service with, i. . =zach, gen.=, in battle of marengo, ii. . =zacharias, pope=, on kingly power, ii. . =zamosc=, held by the french, iii. . =zampaglini=, corsican patriot brigand, i. . =zante=, france's jealous care of, ii. . =zealand=, french occupation of, iii. ; _n.'s_ offer to exchange it for hanseatic towns, . =zembin=, the emperor's retreat through, iii. . =ziethen, gen. j. j.=, in waterloo campaign, iv. ; at charleroi, ; at fleurus, , ; battle of waterloo, , . =zittau=, french advance from dresden to, iv. ; blücher's road to, blocked by lauriston, . =znaim=, military operations near, ii. ; kutusoff's retreat to, ; charles withdraws toward, iii. ; fighting at, ; french repulse at, ; the armistice of, , . =zorndorf=, battle of, iv. . =zürich=, the plundering of, ii. ; battles of, , ; army of the reserve ordered to, , ; masséna's victory at, . transcriber's notes inconsistent spellings and hyphenation have been retained as in the original. with the exception of minor changes to format or punctuation, any changes to the text are listed at the end of the book. in this plain text version of the e-book, symbols from the ascii and latin- character sets only are used. the following substitutions are made for other symbols in the text: [et] = latin small letter et [oe] and [oe] = oe-ligature (upper and lower case). other conventions used to represent the original text are as follows: italic typeface is indicated by _underscores_. small caps typeface is represented by upper case. superscript typeface is preceded by caret (e.g. y^e) footnotes are numbered in sequence throughout the book and presented at the end of each chapter. * * * * * _books about books_ _edited by a. w. pollard_ early illustrated books [illustration] early illustrated books a history of the decoration and illustration of books in the th and th centuries by alfred w. pollard [illustration] _second edition_ london kegan paul, trench, trubner & co., ltd. new york: e. p. dutton & co. mdccccxvii _first edition, _ _second edition, revised and corrected_ _may _ _the rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved_ preface this little book was written nearly a quarter of a century ago in the enthusiasm of a first acquaintance with a fascinating subject, and with an honest endeavour to see for myself as many as possible of the books i set out to describe. if i had tried to rewrite it now i might have made it more interesting to experts, but at the cost of destroying whatever merit it possesses as an introductory sketch. i have therefore been content to correct, as thoroughly as i could, its many small errors (not all of my own making), more especially those due to the ascription of books to impossible dates and printers, which before the publication of robert proctor's _index to the early printed books in the british museum_, in , was very difficult to avoid. in these emendations, and in getting the titles of foreign books into better form, i have had much kind help from mr. victor scholderer of the british museum. i am grateful also to mr. e. gordon duff for his leave to use again the chapter on english illustrated books which he kindly wrote for me for the first edition. a. w. p. contents chapter i page rubrishers and illuminators chapter ii the completion of the printed book chapter iii germany--i. chapter iv germany--ii. chapter v italy--i. chapter vi italy--ii. chapter vii france chapter viii the french books of hours chapter ix holland chapter x spain chapter xi england. by e. gordon duff index early illustrated books chapter i rubrishers and illuminators no point in the history of printing has been more rightly insisted on than that the early printers were compelled to make the very utmost of their new art in order to justify its right to exist. when a generation had passed by, when the scribes trained in the first half of the fifteenth century had died or given up the struggle, when printing-presses had invaded the very monasteries themselves, and clever boys no longer regarded penmanship as a possible profession, then, but not till then, printers could afford to be careless, and speedily began to avail themselves of their new license. in the early days of the art no such license was possible, and the striking similarity in the appearance of the printed books and manuscripts produced contemporaneously in any given city or district, is the best possible proof of the success with which the early printers competed with the most expert of the professional scribes. all this is trite enough, but we are somewhat less frequently reminded that, after some magnificent experiments by fust and schoeffer at mainz, the earliest printers deliberately elected to do battle at first with the scribes alone, and that in the fifteenth century the scribes were very far, indeed, from being the only persons engaged in the production of books. the subdivision of labour is not by any means a modern invention; on the contrary, it is impossible to read a list of the medieval guilds in any important town without being struck with the minuteness of the sections into which some apparently quite simple callings were split up. of this subdivision of labour, the complex art of book-production was naturally an instance. for a proof of this, we need go no further than the records of the guild of st. john the evangelist at bruges, in which, according to mr. blades's quotation of the extracts made by van praet, members of at least fourteen branches of industry connected with the manufacture of books joined together for common objects. in the fifteenth century a book of devotions, commissioned by some wealthy book-lover, such as the duke of bedford, might be written by one man, have its rubrics supplied by another, its small initial letters and borders by a third, and then be sent to some famous miniaturist in france or flanders for final completion. the scribe only supplied the groundwork, all the rest was added by other hands, and it was only with the scribe that the early printers competed. the restriction of their efforts to competition with the scribe alone, was not accepted by the first little group of printers until after some fairly exhaustive experiments. the interesting trial leaves, preserved in some copies of the -line bible, differ from the rest not only in having their text compressed into two lines less, but also in having the rubrics printed instead of filled in by hand. printing in two colours still involves much extra labour, and it was easier to supply the rubric by hand than to be at the pains of a second impression, even if this could be effected by the comparatively simple process of stamping. except, therefore, in the trial leaves, the rubrics of the first bible are all in manuscript. peter schoeffer, however, when he joined with the goldsmith fust in the production of the magnificent mainz _psalter_ of , was not content to rely on the help of illuminators for his rubrics and capitals, or, as the disuse of the word majuscules makes it convenient to call them, initial letters. accordingly, the psalter appeared not only with printed rubrics, but with the magnificent b at the head of the first psalm, which has so often been copied, and some two hundred and eighty smaller initials, printed in blue and red. schoeffer's initial letters appear again in two editions of the _canon of the mass_ attributed to , in the _psalter_ of , in the _rationale_ of durandus of the same year, and in a _donatus_ printed in the type of the bible. as mr. duff has pointed out, in some sheets of this bible itself the red initial letters are printed and the outline of the blue ones impressed in blank for the guidance of the illuminator in filling them in. thereafter schoeffer seems to have kept his initials for special occasions, as in the -line _donatus_ issued _c._ , perhaps when he was starting business for himself, and in the antiquarian reprints of the _psalter_ in and after . doubtless he was sorry when he could no longer print in the colophon of a book that it was 'venustate capitalium decoratus, rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus,' but while illuminators were still plentiful, handwork was probably the least expensive process of decoration. it is noteworthy, also, that mr. duff's discovery as regards the bible brings us down to the beginning of those troublous three years in the history of mainz, during which fust and schoeffer only printed 'bulls and other such ephemeral publications.' when they resumed the printing of important works in with the _decretals_ of boniface viii. and the _de officiis_ of cicero, schoeffer was content to leave decoration to the illuminator. the firm's expenses were thus diminished, and purchasers were able to economise in the amount of decoration bestowed upon the copy they were buying. it is noteworthy, indeed, that even in , when he was habitually using his printed initial letters, schoeffer did not refuse customers this liberty, for while one of the copies of the _rationale durandi_ at the bibliothèque nationale has the initials printed, in the others they are illuminated by hand. very little attention has as yet been devoted to the study of the illumination and rubrication of printed books, and much patient investigation will be needed before we can attain any real knowledge of the relation of the illuminators to the early printers. professor middleton, in his work on _illuminated manuscripts_, had something to say on the subject, but the pretty little picture he drew of a scene in gutenberg's (?) shop seems to have been rather hastily arrived at. 'the workshop,' he wrote, 'of an early printer included not only compositors and printers, but also cutters and founders of type, illuminators of borders and initials, and skilful binders, who could cover books with various qualities and kinds of binding. a purchaser in gutenberg's shop, for example, of his magnificent bible in loose sheets, would then have been asked what style of illumination he was prepared to pay for, and then what kind of binding, and how many brass bosses and clasps he wished to have.' what evidence there is on the subject hardly favours the theory which professor middleton thus boldly stated as a fact. the names we know in connection with the decoration of the -line bible are those of heinrich cremer, vicar of the church of st. stephen at mainz, who rubricated, illuminated, and bound the paper copy now in the bibliothèque nationale, and johann fogel, a well-known binder of the time, whose stamps are found on no fewer than three of the extant copies of this bible. we have no reason to believe that either cremer or fogel was employed in the printer's shop, so that as regards the particular book which he instances, it is hard to see on what ground professor middleton built his assertion. as regards schoeffer's practice after , the evidence certainly points to the majority of his books having been rubricated before they left his hands, but the variety of the styles in the copies i have seen, especially in those on vellum, forbids my believing that they were all illuminated in a single workshop. a copy in the british museum of his edition of the _constitutions_ of pope clement v. presents us with an instance, rather uncommon in a printed book, though not infrequently found in manuscripts, of an elaborate border and miniatures, sketched out in pencil and prepared for gilding, but never completed. the book could hardly have been sold in this condition, and would not have been returned so from any illuminator's workshop. we must conjecture that it was sold unilluminated to some monastery, where its decoration was begun by one of the monks, but put aside for some cause, and never finished. the utmost on this subject that we can say at present is that as a printer would depend for the sale of his books in the first place on the inhabitants of the town in which he printed, and as these would be most likely to employ an illuminator from the same place, the predominant style of decoration in any book is likely to be that of the district in which it was printed, and if we find the same style predominant in a number of books this may give us a clue to connect them altogether, or to distinguish them from some other group. in this way, for instance, it is possible that some light may be thrown on the question whether the -line bible was finished at bamberg or at mainz. certainly the clumsy, heavy initials in the british museum copy are very unlike those which occur in mainz books, and if this style were found to predominate in other copies we should have an important piece of new evidence on a much debated question. but our knowledge that schoeffer had an agency for the sale of his books as far off from the place of their printing as paris, the italian character of the illuminations added to some of his books, and the occurrence of a note in a book printed in italy that the purchaser could not wait to have it illuminated there, but entrusted it to a german artist on his return home, may suffice to warn us against any rash conclusion in the present very meagre state of our knowledge. apart from the question as to where they were executed, the illuminations in books printed in germany are not, as a rule, very interesting. germany was not the home of fine manuscripts during the fifteenth century, and her printed books depend for their beauty on the rich effect of their gothic types, their good paper and handsome margins, rather than on the accessories added by hand. the attempts of the more ambitious miniaturists to depict, within the limits of an initial, st. jerome translating the bible or david playing on the harp, are, for the most part, clumsy and ill-drawn. on the other hand, fairly good scroll-work of flowers and birds is not uncommon. as a rule it surrounds the whole page of text, but in some cases an excellent effect is produced by the stem of the design being brought up between the two columns of a large page, branching out at either end so as to cover the upper and lower margins, those at the sides being left bare. it may be mentioned that much good scroll-work is found on paper copies, the vellum used in early german books being usually coarse and brown, and sometimes showing the imperfections of the skin by holes as large as a filbert, so that it was employed apparently, chiefly for its greater resistance to wear and tear, rather than as a luxurious refinement, as was the case in italy and france. an extreme instance of the superiority of a paper copy to one on vellum may be found by comparing the coarsely-rubricated -line bible in the grenville collection at the british museum with the very prettily illuminated copy of the same book in the king's library. the grenville copy is on vellum, the king's on paper; but my own preference has always been for the latter. even in germany, however, good vellum books were sometimes produced, for the printers endeavoured to match the skins fairly uniformly throughout a volume, and a book-lover of taste would not be slow to pick out the best copy. the finest german vellum book with which i am acquainted is the lamoignon copy of the bible, now in the british museum. this was specially illuminated for a certain conradus dolea, whose name and initials are introduced into the lower border on the first page of the second volume. the scroll-work is excellent, and the majority of the large initials are wisely restricted to simple decorative designs. only in a few cases, as at the beginning of the psalms, where david is as usual playing his harp, is the general good taste which marks the volume disturbed by clumsy figure-work. in turning from the illuminations of the first german books to those printed by jenson and vindelinus de spira at venice we are confronted with an interesting discovery, first noted by the vicomte delaborde in his delightful book _la gravure en italie avant marc-antoine_ (p. ), carried a little further in the _bibliographie des livres à figures venitiens_, written by the prince d'essling when he was duc de rivoli, then greatly extended by the researches of dr. paul kristeller, some of the results of which, when as yet unpublished, he kindly communicated to me, and finally summed up in the prince d'essling's magnificent work, _les livres à figures venitiens_. in a considerable number--the list given me by dr. kristeller enumerated about forty--of the works published by jenson and vindelinus, from to , the work of the illuminator has been facilitated in some copies by the whole or a portion of his design having been first stamped for him from a block. the evidence of this stamping is partly in the dent made in the paper or vellum, partly in the numerous little breaks in the lines where the block has not retained the ink; but i was myself lucky enough to find in the grenville copy of the _virgil_ printed at venice by bartholomaeus de cremona in , an uncoloured example of this stamped work, which was reproduced in _bibliographica_, and subsequently by the prince d'essling. a copy of the _pliny_ of in the bibliothèque nationale, illuminated by means of this device, has an upper and inner border of the familiar white elliptical interlacements on a gold and green ground. in the centre of the lower border is a shield supported by two children, and at the feet of each child is a rabbit. the outer border shows two cornucopias on a green and gold ground. the upper and inner borders are repeated again in the _livy_ and _virgil_ of , in the _valerius maximus_ of , and in the _rhetorica_ of george of trebizond of . in this last book it is joined with another border, first found in the _de officiis_ of cicero of the same year. all these books proceeded from the press of johannes and vindelinus de spira. a quite distinct set of borders are found in jenson's edition of cicero's _epistolae ad familiares_ of ; but in an article in the _archivio storico delle arti_ dr. kristeller showed that the lower border of the _pliny_ of , described above, occurs again in a copy of the _de evangelica praeparatione_, printed by jenson in . the apparent distinction of the blocks used in the books of the two firms is thus broken down, and in face of the rarity of the copies thus decorated in comparison with those illuminated by hand, or which have come down to us with their blank spaces still unfilled, it seems impossible to maintain that either the preliminary engraving or the illumination was done in the printer's workshop. we should rather regard the engraving as a labour-saving device employed by some master illuminator to whom private purchasers sent the books they had purchased from the de spiras or jenson for decoration. no instance has as yet been found of a book printed after being illuminated in this way.[ ] apart from the special interest of these particular borders, the illumination in early italian books is almost uniformly graceful and beautiful. interlacements, oftenest of white upon blue, sometimes of gold upon green, are the form of ornament most commonly met with. still prettier than these are the floral borders, tapering off into little stars of gold. elaborate architectural designs are also found, but these, as a rule, are much less pleasing. in the majority of the borders of all three classes a shield, of the graceful italian shape, is usually introduced, sometimes left blank, sometimes filled in with the arms of the owner. more often than not this shield is enclosed in a circle of green bay leaves. the initial letters are, as a rule, purely decorative, the designs harmonising with the borders. in some instances they consist simply of a large letter in red or blue, without any surrounding scroll-work. we must also note that in some copies of books from the presses of the german printers at rome we find large initial letters in red and blue, distinctly german in their design, the work, possibly, of the printers themselves. germany and italy are the only two countries in which illumination plays an important part in the decoration of early books. in england, where the wars of the roses had checked the development of a very promising native school of illuminators, the use of colour in printed books is almost unknown. the early issues from caxton's press, before he began to employ printed initials, are either left with their blanks unfilled, or rubricated in the plainest possible manner. in france, the scholastic objects of the press at the sorbonne, and the few resources of the printers who succeeded it during the next seven or eight years, at first forbade any serious competition with the splendid manuscripts which were then being produced. in holland and spain woodcut initials, which practically gave the death-blow to illumination as a necessary adjunct of a book, were introduced almost simultaneously with the use of type. so far we have considered illumination merely as a means of completing in a not immoderately expensive manner the blanks left by the earliest printers. we may devote a few pages to glancing at the subsequent application of the art to the decoration of special copies intended for presentation to a patron, or commissioned by a wealthy book-lover. the preparation of such copies was practically confined to france and italy. a copy on vellum of the great bible of , presented to henry viii. by his 'loving, faithfull and obedient subject and daylye oratour, anthony marler of london, haberdassher,' has the elaborate woodcut title-page carefully painted over by hand, but this is almost the only english book of which i can think in which colour was thus employed. in germany its use was only too common, but for popular, not for artistic work, for at least two out of every three early german books with woodcut illustrations have the cuts garishly painted over in the rudest possible manner, to the great defacement of the outlines, which we would far rather see unobscured. it is tempting, indeed, to believe that in many cases this deplorable addition must have been the work of the 'domestic' artist; it is certainly rare to find an instance in which it in any way improves the underlying cut. in france and italy, on the other hand, the early printers were confronted by many wealthy book-lovers, accustomed to manuscripts adorned with every possible magnificence, and in a few instances they found it worth while to cater for their tastes. for this purpose they employed the most delicate vellum (very unlike the coarse material used by the germans for its strength) decorating the margins with elaborate borders, and sometimes prefixing a coloured frontispiece. in france this practice was begun by guillaume fichet and jean heynlyn, the managers of the press at the sorbonne. several magnificent copies of early sorbonne books--so sober in their ordinary dress--are still extant, to which fichet has prefixed a large miniature representing himself in his clerical garb presenting a copy of the book to the pope, to our own edward iv., to cardinal bessarion, or to other patrons. in some cases he also prefixed a specially printed letter of dedication, thereby rendering the copy absolutely unique. some twenty years later this practice of preparing special copies for wealthy patrons was resumed by antoine vérard, whose enterprise has bequeathed to the bibliothèque nationale a whole row of books thus specially decorated for charles viii., and to the british museum a no less splendid set commissioned by henry vii. nor were vérard's patrons only found among kings, for a record still exists of four books thus ornamented by him for charles d'angoulême, at a total cost of over two hundred livres, equivalent to rather more than the same number of pounds sterling of our present money. vérard's methods of preparing these magnificent volumes were neither very artistic nor very honest. the miniatures are thickly painted, so that an underlying woodcut, on quite a different subject, was sometimes utilised to furnish the artist with an idea for the grouping of the figures. thus a cut from ovid's _metamorphoses_, representing saturn devouring his children and a very unpleasing figure of venus rising from the sea, was converted into a holy family by painting out the venus and reducing saturn's cannibal embrace to an affectionate fondling. this process of alteration and painting out was also employed by vérard to conceal the fact that these splendid copies were often not of his own publication, but commissioned by him from other publishers. thus henry vii.'s copy of _l'examen de conscience_ has the colophon, in which it is stated to have been printed for pierre regnault of rouen, rather carelessly erased, and in charles viii.'s copy of the _compost et kalendrier des bergers_ ( )[ ] guiot marchant's device has been concealed by painting over it the royal arms, while the colophon in which his name appears has been partly erased, partly covered over by a painted copy of vérard's well-known device. vérard's borders, also, are as a rule heavy, consisting chiefly of flowers and arabesques arranged in clumsy squares or lozenges. altogether these princely volumes are perhaps rather magnificent than in good taste. the custom of illuminating the cuts in vellum books was not practised only by vérard. almost all the french publishers of books of hours resorted to it--at first, while the illumination was carefully done, with very splendid effect, afterwards to the utter ruin of the beautiful designs which the colour concealed. under francis i. illumination seems to have revived, for we hear of a vellum copy of the _de philologia_ of budæus, printed by ascensius ( ), having its first page of text enclosed in a rich border in which appear the arms of the dukes of orleans and angoulême to whom it was dedicated. in another work by budæus (himself a book-lover as well as a scholar), the _de transitu hellenismi_, printed by robert estienne in , the portrait and arms of francis i. are enclosed in another richly illuminated border, and the king's arms are painted in other books printed about this time. in a vellum copy of a french bible printed by jean de tournes at lyons in , there are over three hundred miniatures, and borders to every page. even by the middle of the seventeenth century the use of illumination had not quite died out in france, though it adds nothing to the beauty of the tasteless works then issued from the french presses. one of the latest instances in which i have encountered it is in a copy presented to louis xiv. of _la lyre du jeune apollon, ou la muse naissante du petit de beauchasteau_ (paris, ); in this the half-title is surrounded by a wreath of gold, and surmounted by a lyre, the title is picked out in red, blue, and gold, and the headpieces and tailpieces throughout the volume are daubed over with colour. by the expenditure of a vast amount of pains, a dull book is thus rendered both pretentious and offensive. in italy, the difference between ordinary copies of early books and specially prepared ones, is bridged over by so many intermediate stages of decoration that we are obliged to confine our attention to one or two famous examples of sumptuous books. the italian version of _pliny_, made by cristoforo landino and printed by jenson in , exists in such a form as one of the douce books (no. ) in the bodleian library. this copy has superb borders at the beginning of each book, and is variously supposed to have been prepared for ferdinand ii., king of naples, and for a member of the strozzi family of florence, the arms of both being frequently introduced into the decoration. still more superb are the three vellum copies of giovanni simoneta's _historia delle cose facte dallo invictissimo duca francesco sforza_, translated (like the _pliny_) by cristoforo landino, and printed by antonio zarotto at milan in . these copies were prepared for members of the sforza family, portraits of whom are introduced in the borders. the decoration is florid, but superb of its kind, and provoked dibdin to record his admiration of the copy now in the grenville library as 'one of the loveliest of membranaceous jewels' it had ever been his fortune to meet with. for many years in a case devoted to specimens of illuminated printed books in the king's library the british museum used to exhibit vellum copies of the aldine _martial_ of , and _catullus_ of , and side by side with them, printed respectively just twelve years later, and also on vellum, an _aulus gellius_ and _plautus_ presented by giunta, the florentine rival of aldus, to the younger lorenzo de' medici. the use of illumination in printed books was a natural and pleasing survival of the glories of the illuminated manuscript. its discontinuance was in part a sign of health as testifying to the increased resources of the printing press; in part a symptom of the carelessness as to the form of books which by the end of the seventeenth century had become well-nigh universal throughout europe. so long as a few rich amateurs cared for copies of their favourite authors printed on vellum, and decorated by the hands of skilful artists, a high standard of excellence was set up which influenced the whole of the book-trade, and for this reason the revival of the use of vellum in our own day may perhaps be welcomed. it may be noted that the especially italian custom of introducing the arms of the owner into the majority of illuminated designs left its trace in the blank shields which so frequently form the centre of the printed borders in italian books from to . theoretically these shields were intended to be filled in with the owner's arms in colour, but they are more often found blank. two examples of their use are here shown, one from the upper border of the _calendar_, printed at venice in (the first book with an ornamental title-page), the other from the lower border of the first page of text of the _trabisonda istoriata_, printed also at venice in . we may note also that the parallel custom of inserting the arms of the patron to whom a book was dedicated was carried on in spain in a long series of title-pages, in which the arms of the patron form the principal feature. [illustration: from the _calendar_ of .] [illustration: from _la trabisonda historiata_ of .] in england, also, a patron's coat was sometimes printed as one of the decorations of a book. thus on the third leaf of the first edition of the _golden legend_ there is a large woodcut of a horse galloping past a tree, the device of the earl of arundel, the patron to whom caxton owed his yearly fee of a buck in summer and a doe in winter. so, too, in the morton _missal_, printed by pynson in , the morton arms occupy a full page at the beginning of the book. under elizabeth and james i. the practice became fairly common. in some cases where the leaf thus decorated has become detached, the arms have all the appearance of an early book-plate, and the bagford example of sir nicholas bacon's plate has endured suspicions on this account. in this instance, however, the fortunate existence of a slight flaw in the block, which occurs also in the undoubtedly genuine gift-plate of , offers a strong argument in favour of its having been in the possession of sir nicholas himself, and therefore presumably used by him as a mark of possession. * * * * * [ ] in a copy of the edition of _suetonius_, printed by sweynheym and pannartz at rome in , which belonged to william morris, and is now in the morgan collection at new york, there are nine excellent woodcut capitals used with a handsome border-piece, which do not appear in other examples. dr. lippmann found similar decorations in the edition of _lactantius_, printed at subiaco by the same firm. in this case the blocks probably belonged to the printers, but were used to decorate only a few copies. [ ] a full description of this copy will be found in dr. sommer's introduction to the facsimile and reprint of the english translations of paris, , and london, (kegan paul, ). chapter ii the completion of the printed book as we have seen, the typical book during the first quarter of a century of the history of printing is one in which the printer supplied the place of the scribe and of the scribe alone. an appreciable, though not a very large, percentage of early books have come down to us in the exact state in which they issued from the press, with a blank space at their beginning for an illumination, blanks for the initial letters, blanks for the chapter headings, no head-lines, no title-page, no pagination, and no signatures to guide the binder in arranging the sheets in the different gatherings. our task in the present chapter is to trace briefly the history of the emancipation of the printer from his dependence on handwork for the completion of his books. we shall not expect to find this emancipation effected step by step in any orderly progression. innovations, the utility of which seems to us obvious and striking, occur as if by hazard in an isolated book, are then abandoned even by the printer who started them, and subsequently reappear in a number of books printed about the same time at different places, so that it is impossible to fix the chronology of the revived fashion. [illustration] we have already noted how the anxiety of the earliest mainz printers to rival at the very outset the best manuscripts with which they were acquainted, led them to anticipate improvements which were not generally adopted till many years afterwards. among these we must not reckon the use for the rubrics or chapter headings of red ink, which appears in the trial leaves of the -line bible, and was to a greater or less extent employed by schoeffer in most of his books. although red ink has appeared sporadically, and still does so, on the title-page of a book here or there, more especially on those which make some pretence to sumptuousness, its use in the fifteenth century was a survival, not an anticipation. for legal and liturgical works it was long considered essential; for other books the expense of the double printing which it involves soon brought it into disfavour and has kept it there ever since. the use of a colophon, or crowning paragraph, at the end of a book, to give the information now contained on our title-pages, dates from the mainz psalter of , and was continued by schoeffer in most of his books. a colophon occurs also in the _catholicon_ of , though it does not mention the printer's name (almost certainly gutenberg). there is an admirably full one in rhyming couplets (set out as prose) to pfister's _buch der vier historien von joseph, daniel, esther, und judith_, and the brothers bechtermüntze, who printed the _vocabularius ex quo_ at eltvil in , are equally explicit. in many cases, however, no colophon of any sort appears, and the year and place of publication have to be deduced from the information given in other books printed in the same types, or from the chance entry by a purchaser or rubricator of the date at which the book came into or left his hands. we may claim colophons as part of the subject of this book, because they early received decorative treatment. schoeffer prints them, as a rule, in his favourite red ink, and it was as an appendix to the colophon that the printer's device first made its appearance. schoeffer's well-known shields occur in this connection in his bible of . no other instance of a device is known until about , when they became common, some printers, like arnold ther hoernen of cologne, and colard mansion of bruges, imitating schoeffer in the modest size of their badges, while others, among whom some dutch printers are prominent, made their emblem large enough, if need be, to decorate a whole page. of schoeffer's coloured capitals enough has already been said. woodcut initials for printing in outline, the outline being intended to be coloured by hand, were used by günther zainer at augsburg at least as early as , and involved him in a controversy to which we shall allude in our next chapter. their use spread slowly, for it was about this date that the employment of hand-painted initials was given a fresh lease of life, by the introduction of the printed 'director,' or small letter, indicating to the illuminator the initial he was required to supply. the director had been used by the scribes, and in early printed books is frequently found in manuscript. it was, of course, intended to be painted over, but the rubrication of printed books was so carelessly executed that it often appears in the open centre of the coloured letter. in so far as it delayed the introduction of woodcut letters, this ingenious device was a step backward rather than an improvement. in the order of introduction, the next addition to a printer's stock-in-trade which we have to chronicle is the use of woodcut illustrations. these were first employed by albrecht pfister, who in was printing at bamberg. like schoeffer's coloured initials, pfister's illustrated books form an incident apart from the general history of the development of the printed book, and it will be convenient, therefore, to give them a brief notice here, rather than to place them at the head of our next chapter. they are six in number, or, if we count different editions separately, nine, of which only two have dates, viz.: one of the two editions of boner's _edelstein_, dated , and the _buch der vier historien von joseph, daniel, esther, und judith_, dated , with pfister's name in the rhyming colophon already alluded to. the undated books are another edition of the _edelstein_; the _belial seu consolatio peccatorum_; a _biblia pauperum_; two closely similar editions of this in german; two editions of the _rechtstreit des menschen mit dem tode_, also called _gespräch zwischen einem wittwer und dem tode_. attention was first drawn to these books by the pastor jacob august steiner of augsburg in , and when the volume which he described was brought to the bibliothèque nationale, with other spoils from germany, a learned frenchman, camus, read a paper on them before the institute in . the three tracts which the volume contained were restored to the library at wolfenbüttel in , but the bibliothèque has since acquired another set of three and a separate edition of the german _biblia pauperum_. the only other copies known are those in the spencer collection, one of the _belial_ at nuremberg, and a unique example of the undated _edelstein_ at berlin.[ ] these four books contain altogether no less than cuts, executed in clumsy outline. one hundred and one of these cuts belong to the _edelstein_, a collection of german fables written before . the book which contains them is a small folio of leaves, and with a width of page larger by a fourth than the size of the cuts. to fill this gap, pfister introduced on the left of the illustration a figure of a man. in the dated copy, in which the cuts are more worn, this figure is the same throughout the book; in the undated there are differences in the man's headgear, and in the book or tablet he is holding, constituting three different variations. in the _buch der vier historien_ the cuts number , six of which, however, are repeated, making impressions. in the impossibility of obtaining access to the originals, while the spencer collection was in the course of removal, the careful copy of one of these, made for camus in , was chosen for reproduction as likely to be less familiar than the illustrations from pfister's other books given by dibdin in his _bibliotheca spenceriana_. the subject is the solemn sacrifice of a lamb at bethulia after judith's murder of holofernes. the _biblia pauperum_ is in three editions, two in german, the third in latin; each consists of printed leaves, with a large cut formed of five separate blocks illustrating different subjects, but joined together as a whole, on each page. the last book of pfister's we have to notice, the _complaint of the widower against death_, is probably earlier than either of his dated ones. it contains leaves, with five full-page cuts, showing ( ) death on his throne, and the widower and his little son in mourning; ( ) death and the widower, with a pope, a noble, and a monk vainly offering death gold; ( ) two figures of death (one mounted) pursuing their victims; ( ) death on his throne, with two lower compartments representing monks at a cloister gate, and women walking with a child in a fair garden,--this to symbolise the widower's choice between remarriage and retiring to a monastery; ( ) the widower appearing before christ, who gives the verdict against him, since all mortals must yield their bodies to death and their souls to god. the cuts in this book are larger and bolder than the other specimens of pfister's work which we have noticed, but they are rude enough. [illustration: from pfister's _buch der vier historien_.] [illustration--transcription as follows: sermo ad populum predicabilis · in festo presentacionis. beatissime marie semper virginis nouiter cum magna diligencia. ad communem vsum multorum sacerdotum presertim curatorum collectus. et idcirco per impressonem multiplicatus. sub hoc currente. anno domini mº ccccº .lxxº. cuiusquidem collectionis atque etiam multiplicacionis eius non paruipendenda racio si placet · videri poteret. in folii laterem sequenti] after the introduction of woodcut illustrations, the next innovation with which we have to concern ourselves is the adoption of the title-page. what may be called accidental title-pages are found on both the latin and the german edition of a bull of pope pius ii. printed by fust and schoeffer in . after this arnold ther hoernen of cologne appears to have been the first printer lavish enough to devote a whole page to prefixing a title to a book. a facsimile is here given, from which we see that this 'sermon preachable on the feast of the presentation of the most blessed virgin' was printed in at the outset of ther hoernen's career. the printer, however, seems to have understood no better than schoeffer the commercial advantage of what he was doing, and the next title-page which has to be chronicled is another of the same kind, reading the 'tractatulus compendiosus per modum dyalogi timidis | ac deuotis viris editus instruens non plus curam | de pullis et carnibus habere suillis quam quo modo | verus deus et homo qui in celis est digne tractetur. | ostendens insuper etiam salubres manuductiones quibus | minus dispositus abilitetur,' etc. what we may call the business title of this book is much more sensibly set forth in the brief colophon: 'explicit exhortacio de celebratione misse per modum dyalogi inter pontificem et sacerdotem, anno lxx[et],' &c. still, here also, the absence of an incipit, and of any following text must be taken as constituting a title-page. three years later two augsburg printers, bernardus 'pictor' and erhardus ratdolt, who had started a partnership in venice with petrus löslein of langenzenn in bavaria, produced the first artistic title-page as yet discovered. this appears in all the three editions of a calendar which they issued in latin and italian in , and in german in . the praises of the calendar are sung in twelve lines of verse, beginning in the latin edition:-- aureus hic liber est: non est preciosior ulla gemma kalendario quod docet istud opus. aureus hic numerus; lune solisque labores monstrantur facile: cunctaque signa poli. then follows the date, then the names of the three printers in red ink. this letterpress is surrounded by a border in five pieces, the uppermost of which shows a small blank shield (see p. ), while on the two sides skilfully conventionalised foliage is springing out of two urns. the two gaps between these and the printers' names are filled up by two small blocks of tracery. it is noteworthy that this charming design was employed by printers from augsburg, the city in which wood-engraving was first seriously employed for the decoration of printed books. but the design itself is distinctly italian in its spirit, not german. like its two predecessors, the title-page of was a mere anticipation, and was not imitated. the systematic development of the title-page begins in the early part of the next decade, when the custom of printing the short title of the book on a first page, otherwise left blank, came slowly into use.[ ] the two earliest appearances of these label title-pages in england are ( ) in 'a passing gode lityll boke necessarye & behouefull agenst the pestilens,' by 'canutus, bishop of aarhus,' printed by machlinia, probably towards the close of his career [ - ?]; and ( ) in one of the earliest works printed by wynkyn de worde, caxton's foreman, after his master's death. here, in the centre of the first page, we find a three-line paragraph reading: the prouffytable boke for mañes soule and right comfortable to the body and specially in aduersitee & tribulation, which boke is called the chastysynge of goddes chyldern. other countries were earlier than england both in the adoption of the label title-page and in filling the blank space beneath the title with some attempt at ornament. in france the ornament usually took the form of a printer's mark, more rarely of an illustration; in italy and germany usually of an illustration, more rarely of a printer's mark. until the first quarter of the sixteenth century was drawing to a close the colophon still held its place at the end of the book as the chief source of information as to the printer's name and place and date of publication. the author's name, also, was often reserved for the colophon, or hidden away in a preface or dedicatory letter. title-pages completed according to the fashion which, until the antiquarian revival by william morris of the old label form, has ever since held sway, do not become common till about . perhaps the chief reason why the convenient custom of the title-page spread so slowly was that soon after the augsburg printers began to imitate in woodcuts the elaborate borders with which the illuminators had been accustomed to decorate the first page of the text of a manuscript or early printed book. when they first appear these woodcut borders grow out of the initial letter with which the text begin, and extend only over part of the upper and inner margins. in other instances, however, they completely surround the first page of text, and this is nearly always the case with the very beautiful borders which are found, towards the close of the century, in many books printed in italy. in these they are mostly preceded by a 'label' title-page. the use of borders to surround every page of text was practically confined[ ] to books of devotion, notably the books of hours, whose wonderful career began in and lasted for upwards of half a century. head-pieces are found in a few books, chiefly greek, printed at venice towards the close of the fifteenth century. in the absence of any previous investigations on the subject, it is dangerous to attempt to say where tail-pieces first occur, but their birthplace was probably france. pagination and head-lines are said to have been first used by arnold ther hoernen at cologne in and ; printed signatures by john koelhoff at the same city in . the date of koelhoff's book, an edition of nider's _expositio decalogi_, has been needlessly held to be a misprint, though it is a curious coincidence that we find signatures stamped by hand in one edition of franciscus de platea's _de restitutionibus_, venice, , and printed close to the text in the normal way in another edition issued at cologne the following year. none of these small matters have any direct bearing on the decoration of books, but they are of interest to us as pointing to the printer's gradual emancipation from his long dependence on the help of the scribe. it is perhaps worth while, for the same reason, to take as a landmark günther zainer's edition of the _de regimine principum_ of aegidius columna. this book is possessed of printed head-lines, chapter headings, paragraph marks, and large and small initial letters. from first page to last it is untouched by the hand of the rubricator, and shows that zainer at any rate had won his independence within five years of setting up his press. curiously enough, to this particular specimen of his work he did not give his name, though it is duly dated. [illustration: from ptolemy's _cosmographia_, ulm, .] * * * * * [ ] a leaf of the _rechtstreit_ is in the taylorian institute at oxford. [ ] it may be noted that in a few books, alike in germany, italy, and france, issued about , a label title is printed on the back of the last leaf, either instead of, or in addition to, that on the recto of the first. [ ] they are found also in some books of emblems, and in a few books printed at lyons in the middle of the sixteenth century. chapter iii germany-- - in the fifteenth century augsburg was one of the chief centres in germany for card-making and woodcut pictures. the cutters were jealous of their privileges, and when, in , günther zainer, a native of reutlingen, who had been printing in their town for some years (his first book was issued in march ), asked for admission to the privileges of a burgher, they not only opposed him, but demanded that he should be forbidden to print woodcuts in his books. the abbot of ss. ulric and afra, melchior de stamheim, who subsequently set up presses of his own, procured a compromise, and günther was allowed to employ woodcuts freely, so long as they were cut by authorised cutters. zainer's first dated book with illustrations is a translation of the _legenda aurea_ of jacobus de voragine, with a small cut prefacing each of the two hundred and thirty-four biographies. the first part of this was finished in october , and the second in april . in came also two editions of the _belial_ or 'processus luciferi contra jesum christum,' in which thirty-two cuts help the understanding of the extraordinary text, and to the same year belongs ingold's _das guldin spiel_, a wonderful work, in which the seven deadly sins are illustrated from seven games. as a copy of this book is available, which has had the good fortune to escape the colourist, one of its twelve cuts--that showing card-playing, with which an augsburg woodcutter would be especially familiar--is here reproduced. the face of the man at the far end of the table is perhaps the most expressive piece of drawing in all the series. in zainer printed for the abbot of ss. ulric and afra a _speculum humanae salvationis_, with numerous biblical woodcuts. he also issued two editions in and of a bible, with large initial letters, into each of which is introduced a little picture. at the end of the second of these editions he adds the fine device, shown on p. , which it is strange that he should not have used more often. in he printed an account of the supposed murder of a small boy, named simon, by the jews, illustrated with some quite vivid pictures, and to about this time belongs his finest work, an undated edition of the _speculum humanae vitae_, full of numerous delightful cuts illustrating various trades and callings. in he illustrated a german edition of the moralisation of the game of chess by jacobus de cessolis, of which caxton had helped to print an english version a year or two before. [illustration: from ingold's _guldin spiel_, augsburg, .] [illustration: device of günther zainer.] during the ten or twelve years of his activity at augsburg, which was brought to a close by his death in , günther zainer printed probably at least a hundred works, of which about twenty, mostly either religious or, according to the ideas of the time, amusing, have illustrations. of the works printed during the second half of his career, the majority have woodcut initials, large or small, and a few also woodcut borders to the first page. the initials (which sometimes only extend through a part of a book, blanks being left when the stock failed), if seen by themselves, are rather clumsy, but harmonise well with the remarkably heavy gothic type which zainer chiefly used during this period of his career. if his engraved work cannot be praised as highly artistic, it was at least plentiful and bold, and admirably adapted for the popular books in which it mostly appeared. johann bämler, who during twenty years from printed a long list of illustrated books at augsburg, can hardly have set much store by originality, for in several of these, _e.g._ the _belial_ ( ), the _plenarium_ ( ), the _legenda sanctorum_, &c., the cuts are wholly or mainly copied from those in editions previously issued by zainer. bämler began his own career as an illustrator with some frontispieces, as we may call them, which come after the table of contents, and facing the first page of text in the _summa confessorum_ of johannes friburgensis, the _goldenen harfen_ of nider, and others of his early books. in he issued the first of his three editions of the _buch von den sieben todsünden und den sieben tugenden_. the 'sins and virtues' are personified as armed women riding on various animals, with various symbolical devices on their shields, banners, and helmets. but the ladies' faces are all very much alike, and the armorial symbolism is so recondite, that a considerable acquaintance with medieval 'bestiaries' would be required to decipher it. far better than this conventional work are the cuts in the _buch der natur_, printed by bämler in the next year. this is a fourteenth-century treatise dealing with men and women, with the sky and its signs, with beasts, trees, vegetables, stones, and famous wells, and, as in zainer's _spiegel des menschlichen lebens_, the artist drew from nature far better than from his imagination. in an edition of königshofen's _chronik von allen königen und kaisern_, printed in , bämler inserted four full-page cuts representing christ in glory, the emperor sigismund dreaming in his bed, st. veronica holding before her the cloth miraculously imprinted with the face of christ, and the vision of pope gregory, when the crucified christ appeared to him on the altar. of bämler's later books, his edition (issued in ), of the history of the crusades (_türken-kreuzzüge_), by rupertus de sancto remigio, is perhaps the most noticeable. the large cut of the pope, attended by a young cardinal, preaching to a crowd of pilgrims, whose exclamation of 'deus vult' is represented by a scroll between them and the preacher, is really a fine piece of work, though the buildings in the background, from whose windows listeners are thrusting their heads, have the usual curious resemblance to bathing-machines. some of the smaller cuts also are good, notably one of a group of mounted pilgrims, which has a real out-of-door effect. after , though he lived another twenty years, bämler published few or no new works, being content to reprint his old editions. our next augsburg printer is anton sorg, whose first dated work with woodcuts is the _buch der kindheit unseres herrn_ ( ). in his _büchlein das da heisset der seelen trost_, he produced the first series of illustrations to the ten commandments,--large full-page cuts, rudely executed. his _passion nach dem texte der vier evangelisten_, first issued in , ran through no less than five editions in twelve years. in he produced the first german translation of the _travels of mandeville_, illustrated with numerous cuts of some merit. by far his most famous work is his edition of reichenthal's account of the council of constance, illustrated with more than eleven hundred cuts, chiefly of the arms of the dignitaries there present. the arms were necessarily intended to be coloured (the present system of representing the heraldic colours by conventional arrangements of lines and dots only dates from the seventeenth century), and this fate has also befallen the larger illustrations, whose workmanship is, indeed, so rude, that it could scarcely stand alone. these larger cuts represent processions of the pope and his cardinals, the dubbing of a knight, a tournament, the burning of huss for heresy, the scattering of his ashes (which half fill a cart) over the fields, and other incidents of the famous council. but the interest of the book remains chiefly heraldic. after , printers of illustrated books became numerous at augsburg, peter berger, johann schobsser, hans schauer, and lucas zeissenmaier being rather more important than their fellows. more prolific than these, but not more enterprising in respect to new designs, was the elder hans schoensperger, who began his long career in . his chief claim to distinction is his printing of the emperor maximilian's _theuerdank_, to which we shall refer in the next chapter. erhard ratdolt deserves mention for his ten years' stay at venice, where, as we have seen, he issued in the _calendar_, which is the first book with an ornamental title-page. in he returned to augsburg at the invitation of bishop friedrich von hohenzollern to print service-books, into which in future he put all his best work. his types and initial letters he brought with him from italy; for his illustrations, he had recourse to german artists of no exceptional ability. a few of his service-books, however, are distinguished by some interesting, if not very successful, experiments in printing some of the colours in his woodcuts. the foregoing sketch of the chief illustrated books published at augsburg during the fifteenth century can hardly escape the charge of dullness. it has been worth while, however, to plod through with it, because it may serve very well as an epitome of the average illustrated work done between and throughout germany. some of the works we have mentioned remained to the end augsburg books--_e.g._ the _buch der kunst geistlich zu werden_, the _buch der natur_, the _historie aus den geschichten der römer_, were repeatedly published there and nowhere else. others, _e.g._ the _historie des königs apollonius_, were shared between augsburg and ulm, chiefly, no doubt, through the relationship of the two zainers. the _historia trojana_ of guido delle colonne and the _geschichte des grossen alexander_ enjoyed long careers at augsburg, and were then taken up by martin schott at strasburg. eleven editions of the _belial_ of jacobus de theramo were shared fairly equally between the two cities. the bible and the _legenda aurea_ were of too widespread an interest to be monopolised by one or two places. a few books, like the _Æsop_ and the _de claris mulieribus_ of boccaccio, which start from ulm, or the early _fasciculus temporum_, of which more than half the early editions belonged to cologne, trace their source elsewhere than to augsburg. but it was at augsburg that the majority of the popular illustrated books of the fifteenth century were first published, and the editions issued in other towns were mostly more or less servile imitations of them. next in importance to augsburg in the early history of illustrated books in germany, ranks the neighbouring city of ulm, where the names of wood-engravers are found in the town registers from the early part of the century, and the printers had thus plenty of good material to call to their aid. the first illustrated book which we know with certainty to have been printed at ulm is the _de claris mulieribus_ of boccaccio, issued by johann zainer, in a latin edition dated , and in a german translation, with the same cuts, about the same time. this johann zainer was probably a kinsman of günther zainer of augsburg, but very little is known of him. the _de claris mulieribus_ begins with a fine engraved border extending over the upper and inner margins of the first page. it is not merely decorative but pictorial, the subject represented being the temptation of adam and eve. eve is handing her husband an apple from the forbidden tree, amid whose branches is seen the head of the serpent, his body being twisted into a large initial s, and then tapering away into the upper section of the border, where it becomes a branch, among the leaves of which appear emblems of the seven deadly sins. the numerous woodcuts in the text are quite equal to the average augsburg work. our illustration shows scipio warning massinissa to put away his newly married wife, and the hapless sophonisba drinking the poison, which is the only marriage gift her husband could send her. zainer's most striking success was achieved by his edition of steinhöwel's version of the _life and fables of Æsop_, of which no less than eleven editions were printed in various german towns before the end of the century, for the most part closely copied from the ulm original. in this, there are altogether two hundred woodcuts, eleven of which belong to the story of sigismund at the end of the book. the frontispiece is a large picture of Æsop, who, here and throughout the chapters devoted to his imaginary 'life,' is represented as a knavish clown, a variant of eulenspiegel or marcolphus. some of the illustrations to the fables are very good, notably those of the sower and the birds, the huntsman, and king stork, here reproduced from sorg's reprint. the _Æsop_ and the boccaccio _de claris mulieribus_ give johann zainer a high place among the german printers of illustrated books. his other work was unimportant and mostly imitative. his types are much smaller than those used in the early augsburg books, and his initials less heavy and massive. they are not more than an inch high, and consist of a simple outline overlaid with jagged work. [illustration: from boccaccio _de clar. mul._, ulm, .] [illustration: king log and king stork, from the ulm _Æsop_.] in , leonhard holl printed at ulm an edition of ptolemy's _cosmographia_, which contains the first woodcut map and fine initial letters, one of which, showing the editor, nicolaus germanus, presenting his book to the pope, is given as a frontispiece to this chapter. in he issued the first of many editions of the _buch der weisheit der alten menschen von anbeginn der welt_. the wisdom of the ancients chiefly takes the form of fables, which are illustrated with cuts, larger but much less artistic than those of zainer's _Æsop_. from conrad dinkmuth we have the first illustrated editions of three notable works, the _seelenwurzgarten_, or 'garden of the soul' ( ), thomas lirar's _schwäbische chronik_ ( ), and the _eunuchus_ of terence ( ). this last is illustrated with fourteen remarkable woodcuts, over five inches by seven in size, and each occupying about three-fourths of a page. the scene is mostly laid in a street, and there is some attempt at perspective in the vista of houses. the figures of the characters are fairly good, but not above the average ulm work of the time. two later ulm books, written by gulielmus caoursin and printed by johann reger in , are of great interest, one giving the _stabilimenta_ or ordinances, of the order of st. john of jerusalem, the other an account of the successful defence of rhodes by its knights against the turks. both are richly illustrated with woodcuts of very considerable artistic merit. [illustration: from the _eunuchus_, ulm, .] at lübeck in lucas brandis printed, as his first book, a notable edition of the _rudimentum noviciorum_, an epitome of history, sacred and profane, during the six ages of the world. the epitome is epitomised at the beginning of the book by ten pages of cuts, mostly of circles linked together by chains, and bearing the name of some historical character. into the space left by these circles are introduced pictures of the world's history from the creation and the flood down to the life of christ, which is told in a series of nine cuts on the last page. the first page of the text is surrounded, except at the top, by a border in three pieces, into one section of which are introduced birds, and into another a blank shield supported by two lions. the inner margin of the first page of text bears a fine figure of a man reading a scroll, and the two columns are separated by a spiral of leaves climbing round a stick. the cuts in the text are partly repeated from the preliminary pages, partly new, though extreme economy is shown in their use, one figure of a philosopher standing for at least twenty different sages. the large initial letters at the beginning of the various books have scenes introduced into them, the little battle-piece in the q of the 'quinta aetas' being the most remarkable. altogether this is a very splendid and noteworthy book, and one which brandis never equalled in his later work. at nuremberg in , johann sensenschmidt, its first printer, issued a german bible, introducing illustrations into the large initial letters. at cologne first one printer and then another published illustrated editions (ten in all) of the _fasciculus temporum_, though the cuts in these are mostly restricted to a few conventional scenes of cities, and representations of the nativity and crucifixion and of christ in glory. at cologne also, about , there appeared two great german dialect bibles in two volumes, in the type and with borders which are found in books signed by heinrich quentel, to whose press they are therefore assigned. there are altogether one hundred and twenty-five cuts, ninety-four in the old testament (thirty-three of which illustrate the life of moses), and thirty-one in the new. they are of considerable size, stretching right across the double-columned page, and are the work of a skilful, but not very highly inspired, artist. they have neither the naïveté of the early augsburg and ulm workmen, nor the richness of the later german work. they were, however, immensely popular at the time. in anton koberger copied them at nuremberg, omitting, however, the borders which occur on the first and third pages of the first volume, and at the beginning of the new testament, and rejecting also nineteen of the thirty-one new testament illustrations. the cuts were used again in other editions, and influenced later engravers for many years. hans holbein even used them as the groundwork for his own designs for the old testament printed by adam petri at basel in . at strassburg, illustrated books were first issued by knoblochtzer in , and after , martin schott and johann prüss printed them in considerable numbers. both these printers, however, were as a rule contented to reproduce the woodcuts in the different augsburg books, and the original works issued by them are mostly poor. an exception may be made in favour of the undated _buch der heiligen drei könige_ of johannes hildeshemensis, printed by prüss. this has a good border round the upper and inner margins of the first page of text woodcut initials, and fifty-eight cuts of considerable merit.[ ] at mainz, peter schoeffer was very slow in introducing pictures into his books, making no use of them until he took to missal printing in , when a cut of the crucifixion became almost obligatory. in , however, a remarkable reprint of the _meditationes_ of cardinal turrecremata had been issued at mainz by johann numeister or neumeister, a wandering mainz printer, who had previously worked at foligno, and is subsequently found at albi, but now while revisiting his native place published there reduced adaptations of the cuts in the editions printed by hahn at rome (see chapter v), worked on soft metal instead of on wood. in addition to the places we have mentioned, illustrated books were issued during this period by bernhard richel at basel, by conrad fyner at esslingen, and by other printers in less important german towns. but those we have already discussed are perhaps sufficient as representatives of the first stage of book-illustration in germany. they have all this much in common that they are planned and carried out under the immediate direction of the printers themselves, each of whom seems to have had one or more wood-engravers attached to his office, who drew their own designs upon the wood and cut them themselves. there is a maximum of outline-work, a minimum of shading and no cross-hatching. every line is as direct and simple as possible. at times the effect is inconceivably rude, at times it is delightful in its child-like originality, and the craftsman's efforts to give expression to the faces are sometimes almost ludicrously successful. to the present writer these simple woodcuts are far more pleasing than all the glories of the illustrated work of the next century. they are in keeping with the books they decorate, in keeping with the massive black types and the stiff white paper. after , we may almost say after , we shall find that the printing and illustrating of books are no longer closely allied trades. an artist draws a design with pen and ink, a clever mechanic imitates it as minutely as he can on the wood, and the design is then carelessly printed in the midst of type-work, which bears little relation to it. paper and ink also are worse, and types smaller and less carefully handled. everything was sacrificed to cheapness, and the result was as dull as cheap work usually is. by the time that the great artists began to turn their attention to book-illustration, printing in germany was almost a lost art. * * * * * [ ] many of knoblochtzer's books also have very pretentious borders, though the designs are usually coarse. a quarto border used in his _salomon et marcolfus_ with a large initial letter, and a folio one in his reprint of _Æsop_ perhaps show his best work. these are reproduced, with many other examples of his types, initials, and illustrations in _heinrich knoblochtzer in strassburg von karl schorbach und max spirgatis_. (strassburg, .) chapter iv germany, from the second period of book-illustration in germany dates from the publication at mainz in of bernhard von breydenbach's celebrated account of his pilgrimage to jerusalem. two years previously schoeffer had brought out a _herbarius_ in which one hundred and fifty plants were illustrated, mostly only in outline, and in he followed this up with another work of the same character, the _gart der gesundheyt_, which has between three and four hundred cuts of plants and animals, and a fine frontispiece of botanists in council. this in its turn formed the basis of jacob meidenbach's enlarged latin edition of the same work, published under the title of _hortus sanitatis_, with additional cuts and full-page frontispieces to each part. these three books in the naïveté and simplicity of some of their illustrations, belong to the period which we have reviewed in our last chapter, but in other cuts a real effort seems to have been made to reproduce the true appearance of the plant, and the increased care for accuracy links them with the newer work. it is, however, the _opus transmarinae peregrinationis ad sepulchrum dominicum in jherusalem_ which opens a new era, as the first work executed by an artist of distinction as opposed to the nameless craftsmen at whose woodcuts we have so far been looking. when bernhard von breydenbach went on his pilgrimage in he took with him the artist, erhard reuwich, and while breydenbach made notes of their adventures, reuwich sketched the inhabitants of palestine, and drew wonderful maps of the places they visited. on their return to mainz in , breydenbach began writing out his latin account of the pilgrimage, and reuwich not only completed his drawings, but took so active a part in passing the work through the press that, though the types used in it apparently belonged to schoeffer, he is spoken of as its printer. the book appeared in , and as its magnificence deserved, was issued on vellum as well as on paper. its first page was blank, the second is occupied by a frontispiece, in which the art of wood-engraving attained at a leap to an unexampled excellence. in the centre of the composition is the figure of a woman, personifying the town of mainz, standing on a pedestal, below and on either side of which are the shields of breydenbach and his two noble companions, the count of solms and sir philip de bicken. the upper part of the design is occupied by foliage amid which little naked boys are happily scrambling. the dedication to the archbishop of mainz begins with a beautiful, but by no means legible, r, in which a coat of arms is enclosed in light and graceful branches. this, and the smaller s which begins the preface are the only two printed initials in the volume. all the rest are supplied by hand. the most noticeable feature in the book are seven large maps, of venice, parenzo in illyria, corfu, modon, near the bay of navarino, crete, rhodes, and jerusalem. these are of varying sizes, from that of venice, which is some five feet in length, to those of parenzo and corfu, which only cover a double-page. they are panoramas rather than maps, and are plainly drawn from painstaking sketches, with some attempt at local colour in the people on the quays and the shipping. besides these maps there is a careful drawing, some six inches square, of the church of the holy sepulchre, headed 'haec est dispositio et figura templi dominici sepulchri ab extra,' and cuts of saracens (here shown), two jews, greeks, both seculars and monks, syrians and indians, with tables of the alphabets of their respective languages. spaces are also left for drawings of jacobites, nestorians, armenians, and georgians, which apparently were not engraved. [illustration: saracens from breydenbach.] after breydenbach and his fellows had visited jerusalem they crossed the desert to the shrine of st. katharine on mount sinai, and this part of their travels is illustrated by a cut of a cavalcade of turks in time of peace. there is also a page devoted to drawings of animals, showing a giraffe, a crocodile, two indian goats, a camel led by a baboon with a long tail and walking stick, a salamander and a unicorn. underneath the baboon is written 'non constat de nomine' ('name unknown'), and the presence of the unicorn did not prevent the travellers from solemnly asserting,--'haec animalia sunt veraciter depicta sicut vidimus in terra sancta!' at the end of the text is reuwich's device, a woman holding a shield, on which is depicted the figure of a bird. the book is beautifully printed, in a small and very graceful gothic letter. it obtained the success it deserved, for there was a speedy demand for a german translation (issued in ), and at least six different editions were printed in germany during the next twenty years, besides other translations. alike in its inception and execution breydenbach's _pilgrimage_ stands on a little pinnacle by itself, and the next important books which we have to notice, stephan's _schatzbehalter oder schrein der wahren reichthümer des heils und ewiger seligkeit_ and hartmann schedel's _liber chronicarum_, usually known as the _nuremberg chronicle_, are in every respect inferior, even the unsurpassed profusion of the woodcuts in the latter being almost a sin against good taste. both works were printed by anton koberger of nuremberg, the one in , the other two years later, and in both the illustrations were designed, partly or entirely, by michael wohlgemuth, whose initial w appears on many of the cuts in the _schatzbehalter_. of these there are nearly a hundred, each of which occupies a large folio page, and measures nearly seven inches by ten. the composition in many of these pictures is good, and the fine work in the faces and hair show that we have travelled very far away from the outline cuts of the last chapter. on the other hand, there is no lack of simplicity in some of the scenes from the old testament. in his anxiety, for instance, to do justice to samson's exploits, the artist has represented him flourishing the jawbone of the ass over a crowd of slain philistines, while with the gates of gaza on his back he is casually choking a lion with his foot. in the next cut he is walking away with a pillar, while the palace of the philistines, apparently built without any ground floor, is seen toppling in the air. in contrast with these primitive conceptions we find the figure of christ often invested with real dignity, and the representation of god the father less unworthy than usual. in the only copy of the book accessible to me the cuts are all coloured, so that it is impossible to give a specimen of them, but the figure of noah reproduced from the _nuremberg chronicle_ gives a very fair idea of the work of wohlgemuth, or his school, at its best. the _chronicle_, to which we must now turn, is a mighty volume of rather over three hundred leaves, with sixty-five or sixty-six lines to each of its great pages. it begins with the semblance of a title-page in the inscription in large woodcut letters on its first page, 'registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cum figuris et ymaginibus ab inicio mundi,' though this really amounts only to a head-line to the long table of contents which follows. it is noticeable, also, as showing how slowly printed initials were adopted in many towns in germany, that a blank is left at the beginning of each alphabetical section of this table, and a larger blank at the beginning of the prologue, and that throughout the volume there are no large initial letters. this is also the case with the _schatzbehalter_, the blanks in the british museum copy being filled up with garish illumination. after the 'table' in the _chronicle_ there is a frontispiece of god in glory, at the foot of which are two blank shields held by wild men. the progress of the work of creation is shown by a series of circles, at first blank, afterwards more and more filled in. in the first five the hand of god appears in the upper left-hand corner, to signify his creative agency. the two chief features in the _chronicle_ itself are its portraits and its maps. the former are, of course, entirely imaginary, and the invention of the artist was not equal to devising a fresh head for every person mentioned in the text, a pardonable economy considering that there are sometimes more than twenty of these heads scattered over a single page and connected together by the branches of a quasi-genealogical tree. the maps, if not so good as those in breydenbach's _pilgrimage_, are still good. for ninive, for 'athene vel minerva,' for troy, and other ancient places, the requisite imagination was forthcoming; while the maps of venice,[ ] of florence, and of other cities of italy, france, and germany, appear to give a fair idea of the chief features of the places represented. nuremberg, of course, has the distinction of two whole pages to itself (the other maps usually stretch across only the lower half of the book), and full justice is done to its churches of s. lawrence and s. sebaldus, to the calvary outside the city walls, and to the hedge of spikes, by which the drawbridge was protected from assault. [illustration: from the _nuremberg chronicle_.] we shall have very soon to return again to wohlgemuth and nuremberg, but in the year which followed the production of the great _chronicle_ sebastian brant's _narrenschiff_ attracted the eyes of the literary world throughout europe to the city of basel, and we also may be permitted to digress thither. in the year of the _chronicle_ itself a basel printer, michael furter, had produced a richly illustrated work, the _ritter vom thurn von den exempeln der gottesfurcht und ehrbarkeit_, the cuts in which have ornamental borders on each side of them. brant had recourse to furter a little later, but for his _narrenschiff_ he went to bergmann de olpe, from whose press it was published in . the engraver or engravers (for there seem to have been at least two different hands at work) of its one hundred and fourteen cuts are not known, but brant is said to have closely supervised the work, and may possibly have furnished sketches for it himself. many of the illustrations could hardly be better. the satire on the book-fool in his library is too well known to need description; other excellent cuts are those of the children gambling and fighting while the fool-father sits blindfold,--of the fool who tries to serve two masters, depicted as a hunter setting his dog to run down two hares in different directions,--of the fool who looks out of the window while his house is on fire,--of the sick fool (here shown) who kicks off the bedclothes and breaks the medicine bottles while the doctor vainly tries to feel his pulse,--of the fool who allows earthly concerns to weigh down heavenly ones (a miniature city and a handful of stars are the contents of the scales),--of the frightened fool who has put to sea in a storm, and many others. the popularity of the book was instantaneous and immense. imitations of the basel edition were printed and circulated all over germany: in bergmann published a latin version by jacob locher with the same cuts, and translations speedily appeared in almost every country in europe. it is noteworthy that in the _narrenschiff_ we have no longer to deal with a great folio but with a handy quarto, and that, save for its cuts and the adjacent brokers, it has no artistic pretensions. [illustration: the sick fool] in the same year ( ) as the _narrenschiff_, bergmann printed another of brant's works, his poems 'in laudem virginis mariae' and of the saints, with fourteen cuts, and in his _de origine et conservatione bonorum regum et laude civitatis hierosolymae_, which has only two, but these of considerable size. in the following year brant transferred his patronage to michael furter, who printed his _passio sancti meynhardi_, with fifteen large cuts, by no means equal to those of the _narrenschiff_. in the indefatigable author employed both his printers, giving to bergmann his _varia carmina_ and to furter his edition of the _revelatio s. methodii_, which is remarkable not only for its fifty-five illustrations, but for brant's allusion to his own theory, 'imperitis pro lectione pictura est,' to the unlearned a picture is the best text. after brant removed to strassburg, where his influence was speedily apparent in the illustrated books published by johann grüninger, who in had issued as his first illustrated book an edition of the _narrenschiff_, and in published an illustrated and annotated _terence_. he followed these up with other editions of the _narrenschiff_, brant's _carmina varia_, and a _horace_ ( ), with over six hundred cuts, many of which, however, had appeared in the printer's earlier books. in he produced an illustrated _boethius_, and in the next year two notable works, brant's _heiligenleben_ and an annotated _virgil_, each of them illustrated with over two hundred cuts, of which very few had been used before. the year was notable for the publication not only of the _narrenschiff_, but of a low saxon bible printed by stephan arndes at lübeck, where he had been at work since . the cuts to this book show some advance upon those in previous german bibles, but they are not strikingly better than the work in the _nuremberg chronicle_, to whose designers we must now return. in we find wohlgemuth designing a frontispiece to an _ode on s. sebaldus_, published by conrad celtes, a nuremberg scholar, with whom he had previously entered into negotiations for illustrating an edition of _ovid_, which was never issued. in celtes published the comedies of hroswitha, a learned nun of the tenth century, who had undertaken to show what charming religious plays might be written on the lines of terence. by far the finest of the large cuts with which the book is illustrated is the second frontispiece, in which hroswitha, comedies in hand, is being presented by her abbess to the emperor. the designs to the plays themselves are dull enough, a fault which those who are best acquainted with the good nun's style as a dramatist will readily excuse. her one brilliant success, a scene in which a wicked governor, who has converted his kitchen into a temporary prison, is made to inflict his embraces on the pots and pans, instead of on the holy maidens immured amidst them, was not selected for illustration. the woodcuts to the plays of hroswitha were designed by wohlgemuth or his scholars, and this was also the case with those in the _quatuor libri amorum_, published by celtes in , to which albrecht dürer himself contributed three illustrations. for three years, from st. andrew's day , dürer had served an apprenticeship to wohlgemuth, and when he returned to nuremberg after his 'wanderjahre,' during which he seems to have executed a single woodcut of no great merit for an edition of the _epistles of s. jerome_, printed by nic. kesler, at basel, in , he too began to work as an illustrator. his first important effort in this character is the series of sixteen wood-engravings, illustrating the apocalypse, printed at nuremberg in . the first leaf bears a woodcut title _die heimliche offenbarung johannis_, and on the verso of the last cut but one is the colophon, 'gedrücket zu nurnbergk durch albrecht dürer maler, nach christi geburt m.cccc und darnach im xcviij iar.' it has also in one or more editions some explanatory text, taken from the bible, but in spite of these additions it is a portfolio of engravings rather than a book, and as such does not come within our province. on the same principle we can only mention, without detailed description, the _epitome in divae parthenices mariae historiam_ of , the _passio domini nostri jesu_, issued about the same date, and the _passio christi_, or 'little passion,' as it is usually called, printed about . all these have descriptive verses by the benedictine monk chelidonius (though these do not appear in all copies), but they belong to the history of wood-engraving as such, and not to our humbler subject of book-illustration. still less need we concern ourselves with the 'triumphal car' and 'triumphal arch' of the emperor maximilian, designed by dürer, and published, the one in , the other not till after the artist's death. besides these works and the single sheet of the rhinoceros of , dürer designed frontispieces for an edition of his own poems in , for a life of s. jerome by his friend lazarus spengler in , and for the _reformation der stadt nürnberg_ of . in also he drew a set of designs for half-ornamental, half-illustrative borders to fill in the blank spaces left in the book of prayers printed on vellum for the emperor maximilian in . by him also was the woodcut of christ on the cross, which appears first in the eichstätt _missal_ of three years later. for us, however, dürer's importance does not lie in these particular designs, but in the fact that he set an example of drawing for the wood-cutters, which other artists were not slow to follow. in directing the attention of german artists to the illustration of books, the emperor maximilian played a more important part than dürer himself. as in politics, so in art, his designs were on too ambitious a scale, and of the three great books he projected, the _theuerdank_, the _weisskunig_, and the _freydal_, only the first was brought to a successful issue. this is a long epic poem allegorising the emperor's wedding trip to burgundy, and though attributed to melchior pfintzing was apparently, to a large extent, composed by maximilian himself. the printing was entrusted to the elder hans schoensperger of augsburg, but for some unknown reason, when the book was completed in , the honour of its publication was allowed to nuremberg. a special fount of type was cut for it by jost dienecker of antwerp, who indulged in such enormous flourishes, chiefly to any _g_ or _h_ which happened to occur in the last line of text in a page, that many eminent printers have imagined that the whole book was engraved on wood. the difficulties of the setting up, however, have been greatly exaggerated, for the flourishes came chiefly at the top or foot of the page, and are often not connected with any letter in the text. in the present writer's opinion it is an open question whether the type, which is otherwise a very handsome one, is in any way improved by these useless appendages. they add on an average about an inch at the top and an inch and a half at the foot to the column of the text, which is itself ten inches in height, and contains twenty-four lines to a full page. the task of illustrating this royal work was entrusted to hans schäufelein, an artist already in the emperor's employment, and from his designs there were engraved one hundred and eighteen large cuts, each of them six and a half inches high by five and a half broad. the cuts, which chiefly illustrate hunting scenes and knightly conflicts, are not conspicuously better than those produced about the same time by other german artists, but they have the great advantage of having been carefully printed on fine vellum, and this has materially assisted their reputation. the _weisskunig_, a celebration of maximilian's life and travels, and the _freydal_, in honour of his knightly deeds, were part of the same scheme as the _theuerdank_. the two hundred and thirty-seven designs for the _weisskunig_ were mainly the work of hans burgkmair,[ ] an augsburg artist of repute; its literary execution was entrusted to the emperor's secretary, max treitzsaurwein, who completed the greater part of the text as early as . but the emperor's death in found the great work still unfinished, and it was not until that it was published as a fragment, with the original illustrations (larger, and perhaps finer, than those in the _theuerdank_), of which the blocks had, fortunately, been preserved. the _freydal_, though begun as early as , was left still less complete; the designs for it, however, are in existence at vienna. the 'triumph of the emperor maximilian,' another ambitious work, with one hundred and thirty-five woodcuts designed by burgkmair, was first published in . the death of maximilian in and the less artistic tastes of charles v. caused german illustrators to turn for work to the augsburg printers, and during the next few years we find them illustrating a number of books for the younger schoensperger, for hans othmar, for miller, and for grimm and wirsung, all augsburg firms. the most important result of this activity was the german edition of petrarch's _de remediis utriusque fortunae_, for which in the years immediately following the emperor's death an artist named hans weiditz, whose identity has only lately been re-established, drew no less than two hundred and fifty-nine designs. owing to the death of the printer, grimm, the book was put on one side, but was finally brought out by heinrich steiner, grimm's successor, in . in the interim some of the cuts had been used for an edition of cicero _de senectute_, and they were afterwards used again in a variety of works. despite the excellence of the cuts the _petrarch_ is a very disappointing book. to do justice to the fine designs the most delicate press work was necessary, and, except when the pressmen were employed by an emperor, the delicacy was not forthcoming; it may be said, indeed, that it was made impossible by the poorness and softness of the paper on which the book is printed. at this period it was only the skill of individual artists which prevented german books from being as dull and uninteresting as they soon afterwards became. books of devotion in germany never attained to the beauty of the french _horae_, but they did not remain uninfluenced by them. in or before we find a _nouum b. mariae virginis psalterium_ printed at zinna, near magdeburg, with very beautiful, though florid, borders. in there appeared at augsburg a german prayer-book, entitled _via felicitatis_, with thirty cuts, all with rich conventional borders, probably by hans schäufelein, and we have already seen that in the same year dürer himself designed borders for the emperor's own _gebetbuch_. in , again, burgkmair had contributed a series of designs, many of which had rich architectural borders, to a _leiden christi_, published by schoensperger at augsburg. in the same artist designed another set of illustrations, with very richly ornamented borders of flowers and animals, for the _devotissimae meditationes de vita beneficiis et passione jesu christi_, printed by grimm. the use of borders soon became a common feature in german title-pages, especially in the small quartos in which the lutherans and anti-lutherans carried on their controversies; but it cannot be said that they often exhibit much beauty. the innumerable translations of the bible, which were another result of the lutheran controversy, also provided plenty of work for the illustrators. the two augsburg editions of the new testament in were both illustrated, the younger schoensperger's by schäufelein, silvan othmar's by burgkmair. burgkmair also issued a series of twenty-one illustrations to the apocalypse, for which othmar had not had the patience to wait. [illustration: border attributed to lucas cranach.] at wittenberg the most important works issued were the repeated editions of luther's translation of the bible. here also lucas cranach, who had previously (in ) designed the cuts for what was known as the _wittenberger heiligthumsbuch_, in produced his _passional christi und antichristi_, in which, page by page, the sufferings and humility of christ were contrasted with the luxury and arrogance of the pope. at wittenberg, too, the thin quartos with woodcut borders to their title-pages were peculiarly in vogue, the majority of the designs being poor enough, but some few having considerable beauty, especially those of lucas cranach, of which an example is here given. meanwhile, at strassburg, hans grüninger and martin flach and his son continued to print numerous illustrated works, largely from designs by hans baldung grün, and a still more famous publisher had arisen in the person of johann knoblouch, who for some of his books secured the help of urs graf, an artist whose work preserved some of the old-fashioned simplicity of treatment. at nuremberg illustrated books after koburger's death proceeded chiefly from the presses of jobst gutknecht and peypus, for the latter of whom hans springinklee, one of the minor artists employed on the _weisskunig_, occasionally drew designs. at basel michael furter continued to issue illustrated books for the first fifteen years of the new century, johann amorbach adorned with woodcuts his editions of ecclesiastical statutes and constitutions, and adam petri issued a whole series of illustrated books, chiefly of religion and theology. to basel urs graf gave the most and the best of his work, and there the young hans holbein designed in rapid succession the cuts for the new testament of , for an _apocalypse_, two editions of the pentateuch, and a vulgate, besides numerous ornamental borders. some of these merely imitate the rather tasteless designs of urs graf, in which the ground plan is architectural, and relief is given by a profusion of naked children, not always in very graceful attitudes. holbein's best designs are far lighter and prettier. the foot of the border is usually occupied by some historical scene, the death of john the baptist, mucius scævola and porsenna, the death of cleopatra, the leap of curtius, or hercules and orpheus. in a title-page to the _tabula cebetis_ he shows the whole course of man's life--little children crowding through the gate, which is guarded by their 'genius,' and the fortune, sorrow, luxury, penitence, virtue, and happiness which awaits them. the two well-known borders for the top and bottom of a page, illustrating peasants chasing a thieving fox and their return dancing, were designed for andreas cratander, for whom also, as for valentine curio, holbein drew printers' devices. ambrosius holbein also illustrated a few books, the most noteworthy in the eyes of englishmen being the edition of more's _utopia_, printed by froben. his picture of hercules gallicus, dragging along the captives of his eloquence, part of a border designed for an _aulus gellius_ published by cratander in , is worthy of hans himself. while the german printers degenerated ever more and more, those of basel and zurich maintained a much higher standard of press-work, and from to , when the demand for illustrated books had somewhat lessened, produced a series of classical editions in tall folios, well printed and on good paper, which at least command respect. they abound with elaborate initial letters, which are, however, too deliberately pictorial to be in good taste. in germany itself by the middle of the sixteenth century the artistic impulse had died away, or survived only in books like those of jost amman, in which the text merely explains the illustrations. it is a pleasure to go back some seventy or eighty years and turn our attention to the beginning of book-illustration in italy. * * * * * [ ] dr. lippmann was of opinion that the map of venice was adapted from reuwich's; that of florence from a large woodcut, printed at florence between and , of which the unique example is at berlin; and that of rome from a similar map, now lost, which served also as a model for the cut in the edition of the _supplementum chronicarum_, printed at venice in . [ ] burgkmair had already done work for the printers, notably for an edition of jornandes _de rebus gothorum_, printed in , on the first page of which king alewinus and king athanaricus are shown in conversation, the title of the book being given in a shield hung over their heads. chapter v italy--i the first illustrated books and those of venice surrounded by pictures and frescoes, and accustomed to the utmost beauty in their manuscripts, the italians did not feel the need of the cheaper arts, and for the first quarter of a century after the introduction of printing into their country, the use of engraved borders, initial letters, and illustrations was only occasional and sporadic. perhaps not very long after the middle of the century an italian block-book of the passion had been issued, probably at venice, as it was there that most of the cuts were used again in for an edition of the _devote meditatione_, attributed to s. bonaventura. a copy of this is in the british museum; of the block-book eighteen leaves are preserved at berlin. despite some ungainliness in the figures and rather coarse cutting, the pictures are vigorous and effective, but quite unlike any later venetian work. something of the same kind may be said of those in an edition of the _meditationes_ of cardinal turrecremata, printed by ulrich hahn at rome in , the first work printed in italy with movable type, in which woodcut illustrations were used. the cuts are thirty-four in number, and professed to illustrate the same subjects as the frescoes recently painted by the cardinal's order in the church of san maria di minerva at rome.[ ] the execution is so rude, that it is impossible to say whether they are the work of a german influenced by italian models, or of an italian working to please a german master, nor is the point of the slightest importance. thirty-three of the cuts were used again in the editions printed at rome in and , and it is from the edition that the accompanying illustration of the flight into egypt is taken. this in its original size is one of the best of the series, but the reduction necessary for its appearance on one of our pages has had a more than usually unfortunate effect, both on the cut itself and on the printer's type which appears below it. [illustration: from the _meditationes_ of turrecremata, rome, .] in , the courtier-printer, joannes philippus de lignamine, issued an edition of the _opuscula_ of philippus de barberiis adorned with twenty-nine cuts representing twelve prophets, twelve sibyls, st. john the baptist, the holy family, christ with the emblems of his passion, the virgin proba, and the philosopher plato. plato, malachi, and hosea are all represented by the same cut, another serves for both jeremiah and zechariah, and two of the sibyls are also made to merge their individualities. with the exception of the figure of christ, which is merely painful, the cuts are pleasantly and even ludicrously rude. nevertheless, they are not without vigour, and are, to my thinking, greatly preferable to the more conventional figures of the twelve sibyls and proba which appeared shortly afterwards in an undated edition of the same book, printed by sixtus riessinger. in this edition the figures are surrounded by architectural borders, and we have also a border to the first page and several large initial letters, all in exact imitation of the interlacement work, which is the commonest form of decoration in italian manuscripts of the time. riessinger's mark, a girl holding a black shield with a white arrow on it, and a scroll with the letters s.r.d.a. (sixtus riessinger de argentina), is found in the 'register' at the end of the book. to riessinger we also owe a _cheiromantia_, with figures of hands, which i have not seen, while from lignamine's press there was issued an edition of the _herbarium_ of apuleius barbarus (who was, of course, confused with his famous namesake), which has rude botanical figures and, at the end of the book, a most man-like portrait of a mandrake, with a dog duly tugging at one of his fibrous legs. the list of illustrated books printed at rome before also includes[ ] some little editions, mostly by silber or plannck, of the _mirabilia romae_, a guidebook to the antiquities of the city, in which there are a few cuts of pilgrims gazing at the cloth of s. veronica, of ss. peter and paul, of romulus and remus, and other miscellaneous subjects. the interest of all these books is purely antiquarian. if we turn from rome to the neighbouring city of naples, we shall find evidence of much more artistic work. in sixtus riessinger printed there for francesco tuppo an edition of boccaccio's _libro di florio e di bianzefiore_, or _philocolo_, illustrated with forty-one woodcuts, of no great technical merit, but by no means without charm. two years later a representation of the supposed origin of music by the figures of five blacksmiths working at an anvil occurs in an edition of the _musices theoria_ of francesco gafori, printed in by francesco di dino. much more important than this is a handsome edition of _Æsop_ published in by francesco tuppo, and printed for him by an anonymous firm known to bibliographers as the 'germain fidelissimi.' this contains eighty-seven large cuts heavily cut, but well drawn and with a massive vigour, one of which, representing the death of Æsop, occupies a full page. the cuts illustrating the fabulist's life have rather commonplace borders to them, but when the fables themselves are reached, these are replaced by much more important ones. into an upper compartment are introduced figures of hercules wrestling with antæus, hercules riding on a lion, and a combat between mounted pigmies. the fables have also a large border surrounding the first page of text, used again in the hebrew bible of . the ground-work of all the borders is black, but this has not always enabled them to escape the hand of the colourist. the book is also adorned by two large and two smaller printed initials. to the same artist as the illustrator of the _Æsop_ must be attributed the title-cut of granollach's _astrologia_, issued in or about the same year. in , again, matthias moravus printed one of the few italian _horae_, a charming little book, three inches by two, with sixteen lines of very pretty gothic type, printed in red and black, to each of its tiny pages, and four little woodcuts, which in the only copy i have seen have been painted over. a daintier prayer-book can hardly be conceived. when we turn from the south to the north of italy, we find that an italian printer at verona had preceded the german immigrants in issuing an important work with really fine woodcuts as early in . this is the _de re militari_ of robertus valturius, written some few years previously, and dedicated to sigismund malatesta. in this fine book, printed by john of verona, there are eighty-two woodcuts representing various military operations and engines, all drawn in firm and graceful outline, which could hardly be bettered. the designs for these cuts have been attributed to the artist matteo de' pasti, whose skill as a painter, sculptor, and engraver, valturius had himself commended in a letter written in the name of malatesta to mahomet ii. the conjecture rests solely on this commendation, but seems intrinsically probable. the book has no other adornment save these woodcuts and its fine type. another edition was printed in the same town eleven years later by boninus de boninis. besides the _valturius_, the only other early verona book with illustrations known to me is an edition of _Æsop_ in the italian version of accio zucco, printed by giovanni alvisio in . this has a frontispiece in which the translator is seen presenting his book to a laurel-crowned person sitting in a portico, through which there is a distant view. this is followed by a page of majuscules containing the title of the book, but ending with a 'foeliciter incipit.' on the back of this is a tomb-like erection, bearing the inscription 'lepidissimi Æsopi fabellae,' which gives it the rank of the second ornamental title-page (see p. for the first). facing this is a page surrounded by an ornamental border, at the foot of which is the usual shield supported by the usual naked boys. within the border are latin verses beginning: "vt iuuet et prosit conatum pagina praesens dulcius arrident seria picta iocis," the lines being spaced out with fragments from the ornamental borders which surround each of the pictures in the body of the book. these, on the whole, are not so good as those in the naples edition of , but were helped out, at least in some copies, by rather pretty colouring. the chief feature in the book is the care bestowed upon the preliminary leaves. in florence, before , we have no example of wood-engraving employed in book illustration, but in , nicolaus lorenz of breslau issued there the first of three books with illustrations engraved on copper. this is an edition of bettini's _monte santo di dio_ with three plates, representing respectively ( ) the holy mountain, up which a man is climbing by the aid of a ladder of virtues; ( ) christ standing in a 'mandorla' or almond-shaped halo formed by the heads of cherubs; and ( ) the torments of hell. this was followed in by a _dante_ with the commentary of landino, with engravings illustrating the first eighteen cantos. spaces were left for engravings at the head of the other cantos, but the plan was too ambitious, and they were never filled up. some copies of the book have no engravings at all, others only two, those prefixed to cantos and , the first of which is most inartistically introduced on the lower margin of the page, tempting mutilation by the binder's shears. the other venture of nicolaus lorenz, which has engraved work, is the _sette giornate della geographia_ of berlinghieri, in which he introduces numerous maps. at milan only two illustrated books are known to have been issued before , both of which appeared in . the rarer of these, which is seldom found in perfect condition, is the _summula di pacifica conscientia_ of fra pacifico di novara, printed by philippus de lavagna, and illustrated with three copper-plates, one of which represents the virtues of the madonna, the others containing diagrams exhibiting the prohibited degrees of consanguinity. the other book is a _breviarium totius juris canonici_, printed by leonard pachel and ulrich scinzenceller, with a woodcut portrait of its author, 'magister paulus florentinus ordinis sancti spiritus,' otherwise paolo attavanti. the illustrated books printed in italy which we have hitherto noticed are of great individual interest, but they led to the establishment of no school of book-illustration, and the value of wood engravings was as yet so little understood that the cuts in them often failed to escape the hands of the colourists. at venice, on the other hand, where bernhard maler and erhard ratdolt introduced the use of printed initials and borders in , we find a continuous progress to the record of which we must now turn. the border to the title-page of the kalendars of has already been noticed: both the latin and the italian editions also contained printed initials of a rustic shape, resembling those in some early books in ulm, but larger and better. the next year the partners made a great step in advance in the initials and borders of an _appian_, and an edition of cepio's _gesta petri mocenici_. these were followed by an edition of _dionysius periegetes_, and in by the _cosmographia_ of pomponius mela. three distinct borders are used in these books, all of them with light and graceful floral patterns in relief on a black ground. the large initials are of the same character, and both these and the borders are unmistakably italian. in ratdolt lost the aid of bernhard maler, who up to that date seems to have been the leading spirit of the firm, and the books subsequently issued are much less decorative. in another german, georg walch, issued an edition of the _fasciculus temporum_ with illustrations mostly poor enough, but with a quaint little attempt at realism in one of venice. these cuts of walch's, and also a decorative initial, ratdolt was content to copy on a slightly larger scale in an edition of his own the next year. he also printed an undated _chiromantia_, with twenty-one figures of heads, a reprint of which bearing his name and that of mattheus cerdonis de windischgretz was issued at padua in . in , came the _poetica astronomica_ of hyginus, with numerous woodcuts of the astronomical powers, those of mercury (here very slightly reduced) and sol being perhaps the best. to the same year belongs a reprint of the _cosmographia_ of pomponius mela with a curious map and a few good initials, also a _euclid_ with mathematical diagrams and a border and initials from the _appian_ of . [illustration: from the _hyginus_ of .] after ratdolt does not seem to have printed any new illustrated books, and in he ceased printing at venice and returned, as we have seen, to augsburg. subject to the doubt as to whether he has not been credited with praise which really belongs to bernhard maler, his brief italian career entitles him to a place of some importance among the decorators of books, for though his illustrations were unimportant, his borders and initials are among the best of the fifteenth century. in octavianus scotus printed three missals with a rude cut of the crucifixion, and these were imitated by other printers in , , and . the year was marked by the publication, by bernardino de benaliis, of an edition of the _supplementum chronicarum_ of giovanni philippo foresti of bergamo, with numerous outline woodcuts of cities, for the most part purely imaginary and conventional, the same cuts being used over and over again for different places. four years later a new edition was printed by bernardino de novara, in which more accurate pictures were substituted in the case of some of the more important towns, notably florence and rome. in both issues the first three cuts, representing the creation, the fall, and the sacrifice of cain and abel, are copied from those in the cologne bible. the year after his edition of the _supplementum_, bernardinus de benaliis printed an _Æsop_ with sixty-one woodcuts adapted from those in the veronese edition of . of this edition dr. lippmann, who had the only known copy under his charge at berlin, remarks that 'the style of engraving is, to a large extent, cramped and angular, and the entire appearance of the work is that of a genuine chapbook.' [illustration: from the _devote meditatione_, venice, [ ].] in we arrive at the first of the numerous illustrated editions of the _trionfi_ of petrarch. this was printed by bernardino de novara, and has six full-page cuts, measuring some ten inches by six, and illustrating the triumphs of love, of chastity, death, fame, and time, and of the true divinity over the false gods. the designs are excellent, but the engraver had very imperfect control over his point, and his treatment of the eyes of the figures introduced is by itself sufficient to spoil the pictures. curiously enough, the ornamental border of white figures on a black ground is certainly better cut than the pictures themselves. the same inferiority of the engraver to the designer is seen in the illustrations to the edition of the _deuote meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore_ attributed to s. bonaventura. the first illustrated edition of this book, with eleven illustrations taken (slightly cut down) from the block book of the passion already mentioned, had been printed in by ieronimo de santis. the edition was printed by matteo di codecha (or capcasa) of parma, who republished the book no less than six times during the next five years, after which the cuts were used by other printers,--_e.g._ by gregorio di rusconi, from whose edition in our illustration of the mocking of christ is taken. it is interesting to compare this venetian series with the florentine edition published a little later by antonio mischomini, whose engraver, while taking many hints from the designs of his predecessor, greatly improved on them. the next year witnessed the first venetian edition of another work in which the artists of the two cities were to be matched together. this is the _fior di virtù_, whose title-cut of fra cherubino da spoleto gathering flowers in the convent garden shows a great advance on previous venetian work. unfortunately the british museum copy has been slightly injured, so that i am obliged to take my reproduction from the second of two similar editions published by matteo codecha in , . these have each thirty-six vignettes in the text, illustrating the examples in the animal world of the virtues which the author desired to inculcate. [illustration: from the _fior di virtù_, venice, .] we must now turn to the first illustrated edition of malermi's italian version of the bible, printed in . after the woodcut basis for the six little illuminations in the spencer copy of adam of ammergau's edition of , the first biblical woodcuts at venice are a series of thirty-eight small vignettes which decorate an edition of the _postilla_ or sermons, of nicolaus de lyra, printed for octavianus scotus in . in the bible itself, printed the next year by giovanni ragazzo for lucantonio giunta, the illustrations are on a very lavish scale, numbering in all three hundred and eighty-three, of which a few are duplicates, and about a fourth are adapted in miniature from the cuts in the cologne bibles, which formed a model for so many other editions. some of the best cuts in this and other venetian books are signed with a small _b_, which by some writers has been supposed to stand for the name of the artist who designed them, but is more probably to be referred to the workshop at which they were engraved. the craftsmen employed on the new testament were quite unskilled, but many of the illustrations to the old testament are delightful. the first page of the bible is occupied by six somewhat larger cuts, illustrating the days of creation, joined together within an architectural border. other editions containing the same cuts, with additions from other books, were issued in , , and . a rival edition, printed by guglielmo de monteferrato, with a new set of cuts of a similar character appeared in . these three religious works, the _meditatione_, the _postilla_, and the malermi bible thoroughly established the use of vignettes, or small cuts worked into the text, as an alternative to full-page illustrations, like those in the _petrarch_, and it was natural that this method of decoration should soon be applied to the greatest of italian works, the _divina commedia_. in producing an illustrated dante, venice had been anticipated not only by the florentine edition of , though the engravings in this are only found in the first few cantos, but by a very curious edition published at brescia in , with full-page cuts, surrounded by a black border with white arabesques. these large cuts, which measure ten inches by six, are very coarsely executed, and have no merit save what the earlier ones derive from their imitation of those in the florentine edition. in the course of the year two illustrated _dantes_ were published at venice, the first on march rd by bernardino benali and matteo [codecha] da parma, the second on november th by pietro cremonese. the earlier edition has a fine woodcut frontispiece illustrating the first canto, but the vignettes which succeed it are so badly cut as to lose all their beauty. in the later edition the same designs appear to have been followed, but the vignettes are larger and much better cut, so that they are at least somewhat less unworthy of their subject. both editions have printed initials, but of the poorest kind, and in both the text is hidden away amid the laborious commentary of landino. after dante's _divina commedia_ it is natural to expect an edition of boccaccio's _decamerone_, and this duly followed the next year from the press of gregorius de gregoriis. the first page is occupied by a woodcut of the ten fine ladies and gentlemen who tell the stories, seated in the beautiful garden to which they had retired from the plague which was raging around them. beneath this are seventeen lines of text, with a blank left for an initial h, and woodcut and text are surrounded by an architectural border, at the foot of whose columns little boys standing on the heads of lions are blowing horns, while in the lower section of the design the usual blank shield is approached from either side by cupids riding on rams. the blank for the initial is a great blot on the page, as any coloured letter would have destroyed the delicacy of the whole design. in the body of the work each of the ten books is headed by a double cut, in one part of which the company of narrators is standing in front of a gateway, while one of their number is playing a guitar; in the other they are all seated before a fountain, presided over by a wreath-crowned master of the story-telling. the vignettes which illustrate the different tales vary very much in quality, though some, like the little cut of the marquis and his friends approaching griselda as she brings water from the well, could hardly be bettered. the _boccaccio_ of heralded a long series of illustrated books from the press of gregorius de gregoriis and his brother john. most of these were devotional in their character, _e.g._ the _zardine de oratione_, the _monte dell' oratione_, the _vita e miracoli del sancto antonio di padova_, the _passione di cristo_, &c. the _novellino_ of masuccio salernitano formed a pendant to the _boccaccio_, and was published in the same year. to the gregorii we also owe the magnificent border, in white relief on a black ground, to the latin _herodotus_ of , repeated again in the second volume of the works of s. jerome published in - . equally famous with any of these is the same printer's series of editions of the _fascicolo de medicina_ of johannes ketham. in the first of these, printed in , the illustrations are confined to cuts of various dreadful-looking surgical instruments; but in large pictures were added, each occupying the whole of a folio page, and representing a dissection, a consultation of physicians, the bedside of a man struck down by the plague. the dissection was printed in several colours, but this experiment was abandoned, and a new block was cut for the subsequent editions. in some of his later books gregorius repaired the mistake of the _boccaccio_, and used excellent woodcut initials. the _herodotus_ of has only its magnificent border by way of illustration, but other classical authors received much more generous treatment during this decade. an italian _livy_, with numerous vignettes, was printed in by giovanni di vercelli, and a latin one in by p. pincio, lucantonio giunta in each case acting as publisher.[ ] in lazarus de soardis printed for simon de luere a _terence_ with numerous vignettes; and in the same year there appeared an illustrated edition, several times reprinted, of the _metamorphoses_ of ovid, the printer being giovanni rossi and the publisher once more lucantonio giunta. the cuts in this work measure something over three inches by five, and have little borders on each side of them; but the fineness of the designs is lost by poor engraving. some of them are signed _ia_, others n. we now approach one of the most famous books in the annals of venetian printing, the _hypnerotomachia poliphili_ printed by aldus in , at the expense of a certain leonardo crasso of verona, 'artium et iuris pontificis consultus,' by whom it was dedicated to guidobaldo, duke of urbino. the author of the book was francesco colonna, a dominican friar, who had been a teacher of rhetoric at treviso and padua, and was now spending his old age in the convent of ss. giovanni e paolo in venice, his native city. colonna's authorship of the romance is revealed in an acrostic formed by the initial letters of the successive chapters, which make up the sentence, 'poliam frater franciscus columna peramavit': 'brother francesco colonna greatly loved polia.' who polia was is a little uncertain. in the opening chapter she tells her nymphs that her real name was lucretia, but she has been identified with a hippolita lelio, daughter of a jurisconsult at treviso, who entered a convent after having been attacked by the plague, which visited treviso from to . on the other hand, it is plausibly suggested that polia ([greek: polia]), 'the grey-haired lady,' is only a symbol of antiquity, and at the beginning of the book there is at least a pretence of an allegory, though this is not carried very far. [illustration: from the _hypnerotomachia_, venice, .] in the story polifilo, a name intended to mean 'the lover of polia,' imagines himself in his dream as passing through a dark wood till he reaches a little stream, by which he rests. the valley through which it runs is filled with fragments of ancient architecture, which form the subjects of many illustrations. as he comes to a great gate he is frightened by a dragon. escaping from this, he meets five nymphs (the five senses), and is brought to the court of queen eleuterylida (free will). then follows a description of the ornaments of her palace and of four magnificent processions, the triumphs of europa, leda, and danaë, and the festival of bacchus. after this we have a triumph of vertumnus and pomona, and a picture of nymphs and men sacrificing before a terminal figure of priapus. meanwhile polifilo has met the fair polia, and together they witness some of the ceremonies in the temple of venus, and view its ornaments and those of the gardens round it. the first book, which is illustrated with one hundred and fifty-one cuts, now comes to an end. book ii describes how the beautiful polia, after an attack of the plague, had taken refuge in a temple of diana; how, while there, she dreamt a terrifying dream of the anger of cupid, so that she was moved to let her lover embrace her, and was driven from diana's temple with thick sticks; lastly, of how venus took the lovers under her protection, and at the prayer of polifilo caused cupid to pierce an image of polia with his dart, thereby fixing her affections as firmly on polifilo as he could wish--if only it were not all a dream! this second book is illustrated with only seventeen woodcuts, but as these are not interrupted by any wearisome architectural designs, their cumulative effect is far more impressive than those of the first, though many of the pictures in this--notably those of polifilo in the wood and by the river, his presentation to eleuterylida, the scenes of his first meeting with polia, and some of the incidents of the triumphs--are quite equal to them. unfortunately, the best pictures in both books are nearly square, so that it is impossible to reproduce them in an octavo except greatly reduced. the woodcuts of the _polifilo_ have been ascribed to nearly a dozen artists, but in every case on the very slenderest grounds. some of the cuts, like some of those in the mallermi bible, are marked with a little _b_; but this, as has been said, is almost certainly indicative of the engraver's workshop from which they proceeded, rather than of the artist who drew the designs. the edition of is a handsome folio; the text is printed in fine roman type, with three or four different varieties of beautiful initial letters. the title and headings are printed in the delicate majuscules which belong to the type, and have a very graceful appearance. a second edition of the _polifilo_ was published in , with, for the most part, the same cuts. this was followed in the next year by a french translation by jean martin, printed at paris by jacques kerver, and republished three times during the century. for the french editions the cuts were freely imitated, the rather short, plump italian women reappearing as ladies of even excessive height. in england in simon waterson printed an abridged translation with the pretty title, _hypnerotomachia, or the strife of love in a dreame_, with a few cuts copied from the italian originals. the book, now extremely rare, was apparently not well received, for waterson, abandoning all hope of a second edition, speedily parted with his wood-blocks. four of the cuts are found amid the most incongruous surroundings in the _strange and wonderful tidings happened to richard hasleton, borne at braintree in essex, in his ten yeares trauailes in many forraine countries_, though this egregious work was printed by a. i. for william barley in , only three years after the _strife of love in a dreame_. as we have noted, aldus printed the _hypnerotomachia_ on commission, and save for two discreditably bad cuts in his _musaeus_ and a rather fine portrait of s. catherine of siena in his edition of her letters printed in , he troubled himself with no other illustrations. in his larger works he revived the memory of the stately folios of jenson, and in his popular editions sought no other adornment than the beauty of his italic type. if pictures were needed to make a book more acceptable to a rich patron, he did not disdain to have recourse to the illuminator. some of his greek books have most beautiful initial letters, and in the aristotle of he employs good head-pieces, though these fall far short of the large oriental design, printed in red, placed by his friendly rival, zacharias kaliergos, at the top of the first page of the _commentary_ of simplicius on aristotle of . [illustration] the influence of aldus certainly helped to widen the gulf which already existed between the finely printed works intended for scholars and wealthy book-lovers and the cheaper and more popular ones in which woodcuts formed an addition very attractive to the humbler book-buyers. perhaps this in part accounts for the great deterioration in italian illustrated books after the close of the fifteenth century. the delicate vignettes and outline cuts only appear in reprints, and in new works their place is taken by heavily shaded engravings, mostly of very little charm. the numerous liturgical works published by lucantonio giunta and his successors perhaps show this work at its best. they are mostly printed in gothic type with an abundant use of red ink, and the heaviness of the illustrations is thus all the better carried off. but as the century advanced venetian printing deteriorated more and more rapidly: partly from excessive competition; partly, as mr. brown has shown in his _the venetian printing press_, from too much interference on the part of the government; partly, we must suppose, simply from the decline of good taste, though it is noticeable that between and , when the insides of books had become merely dull, is a brilliant period in the history of venetian binding. whatever the cause, within a few years after the close of the fifteenth century the glories of venetian printing had disappeared. [illustration: from the _epistole_ of pulci, florence, _c._ .] * * * * * [ ] the title of the book, printed in red, beneath the first woodcut, reads: 'meditationes rever[=e]dissimi patris dñi johannis de turre cremata sacros[~c]e romane eccl'ie cardinalis posite & depicte de ipsius m[~a]dato [~i] eccl'ie ambitu marie de minerva, rome.' [ ] maps hardly come under the head of illustrations, but we may note the appearance in of the edition of ptolemy's _cosmographia_, by arnold buckinck, with maps engraved by conrad sweynheim, the partner of pannartz. [ ] in the intervening year giunta had published the _santa catharina_, printed by matteo codecha, some copies of which have the false date mcccclxxxiii. chapter vi italy--ii florence and milan--italian printers' marks we must now return from venice to florence, where, after the experiments with engravings on copper in and , no illustrated books had been published until on march , , francesco di dino (whom we have already seen at work at naples ten years earlier) brought out an edition of the _specchio di croce_ of domenico cavalca, with a frontispiece representing the crucifixion. in september of the same year an edition of the _laudi_ of jacopone da todi (the franciscan author of the _stabat mater_), was printed by francesco buonaccorsi, which contains on the verso of its eighth leaf a most beautiful outline woodcut,[ ] st. jacopone kneeling by a little lectern, his book on the ground, while above him is a vision of the madonna enshrined in a 'mandorla,' supported below by three cherubs and above by four maturer angels. in we make the acquaintance of lorenzo di morgiani and giovanni tedesco da maganza, or johann petri of mainz, from whose press some of the most important of the florentine illustrated books were issued. the first result of their activity was a new edition of bettini's _monte santo di dio_, in which the three copperplates of the edition of were freely imitated upon wood. in the same year they printed a little treatise on arithmetic, written by philippo calandro and dedicated to giuliano dei medici. this is the most delightful of all arithmetic books. it has a title-cut of 'pictagoras arithmetice introductor,' and the earlier pages of the book are surrounded by a characteristic renaissance border. towards the end of the work there is a series of illustrated problems, only a little more absurd than those which still occur in children's school-books. one of these, however, is so good that we must permit ourselves a little digression to quote it in a free translation:-- "a squirrel flying from a cat climbed to the top of a tree - / arm's-lengths (_braccia_) in height. the cat, wanting to seize the squirrel, began to climb the tree, and each day leaped up half an arm's length, and each night descended a third of one. the squirrel, on its part, believing that the cat had gone away, wanted to get down from the tree, and each day descended a quarter of an arm's length, and each night went back one-fifth of one: i want to know in how many days the cat will reach the said squirrel?" the answer is days; but the picture must have been taken on the first or second, for the cat is still very plump, and so large in proportion to the tree that if he had but stood on his hind legs he ought to have reached the top! others of the pictures are without this charming touch of absurdity, perhaps the most perfect being a little cut of a traveller on horseback, as to the expenses of whose journey the teacher was anxious for some information from his young friends. these little cuts are all about an inch square, and drawn in outline. another edition of the arithmetic, in roman type instead of black letter, but otherwise very similar, was issued in by bernardo zucchetta. with the year we come to the first dated editions of the illustrated savonarola tracts, which play no inconsiderable part in the history of book illustration in italy. their existence is in itself the best refutation of the popular belief that the reformer's influence was wholly hostile to the interests of art, though the number of artists who reckoned themselves, formally or informally, among his followers should have sufficed to prevent the belief growing up. these tracts, save for the cuts with which they are adorned, are insignificant in appearance, being for the most part badly printed, and with few and poor initial letters. the woodcuts, seldom more than two in a tract, are, however, charming, and have won for them much attention. [illustration: from an undated savonarola tract, florence, _c._ .] the first publisher of these tracts seems to have been antonio mischomini, who on june , , issued a trac tato dello amore di iesu christo composto da frate hieronymo da ferrara del l'ordine de frati predica tori pri ore di san marcho di f i r e n z e with the title arranged cross-wise, as here shown. on the back of the title is a picture of the crucifixion, with the blessed virgin and s. john standing by the cross. this was followed on june th by the _tractato della humilta_, with a large title-cut representing the dead christ before his cross, an angel supporting each arm. neither of these cuts shows typical florentine work, for the blank spaces have all to be cleared away by the engraver, and there is an abundance of shading. the first design was clearly spoilt in the cutting, the second is of great beauty. the typical florentine work, in which white lines are cut out from a black ground, as well as black lines from a white, appears in the _tractato ouero sermone della oratione_, finished by mischomini on october th. here the title-cut shows the scene at gethsemane: the three disciples asleep in the foreground, christ in prayer, and the hands of an angel holding a cup appearing in a corner above. the picture, as always in distinctively florentine work, is surrounded by a little border or frame, in which a small white pattern is picked out from a black ground. the other illustrated savonarola tracts bearing an early date, with which i am acquainted, are the _de simplicitate christianae vitae_, printed 'impensis ser petri pacini,' august th, , and the _predica dell arte del bene morire_, preached on nov. of that year, taken down at the time by ser lorenzo violi, and doubtless published immediately afterwards. the _de simplicitate_ has on its first page a picture of a dominican friar writing in his cell, a sand-glass at his side, a crucifix in front of his desk, and books and his gown scattered on a table. the illustrations to the _arte del bene morire_ comprise a hideous outline cut of death, scythe on shoulder, flying over ground strewn with corpses (this is enclosed in a large black border used by mischomini in ), and cuts of death showing a young man heaven and hell,[ ] of a sick man with his good and bad angels watching him and death standing without the door, and of a dying man attended by a friar, death sitting now at his bed's foot, and the angels watching as before. turning now to the undated tracts, we find that the _expositione del pater noster_ contains ( ) a very beautiful variant of the representation of the scene on gethsemane, the angel appearing on the left instead of the right,[ ] ( ) a cut of s. james writing at a table, ( ) a small cut of david in prayer, and some still smaller pictures of prophets and of the crucifixion. at the end of the book is an _epistola a una devota donna bolognose_, which is headed and ended by a cut of a dominican preaching in the open air to a congregation of nuns. an undated edition of the _tractato della humilta_ has images of pity at the beginning and end, the former surrounded by a black border. yet another edition has an outline cut of christ holding his cross, while blood streams from his hand into a chalice. an edition of the _tractato dello amore di iesu_ has two outline cuts, one large, one small, showing the blessed virgin and s. john standing by the cross. a tract on self-examination, addressed to the abbess of the convent of the murate at florence, shows an aged friar being welcomed at the convent. other tracts have pictures of a priest elevating the host, a man praying before an altar, a man and woman praying, &c. one of the rarest is the superb cut to the _dyalogo della verita prophetica_, in which a friar is preaching to seven questioners arranged in a half-circle under a tree, a view of florence occupying the background. cuts in other books show savonarola meeting a devil and an astrologer, and represent him preaching to an intent congregation. with these tracts we must join the defence of savonarola by his follower domenico benivieni, who appears in the title-cut in earnest disputation with a group of florentines, while later on in the book there is a full-page illustration of the reformer's vision of the regeneration of the world and the church, in which the stream of christ's blood as he hangs on the cross is being literally used for the washing away of sins. this book was published by francesco buonaccorsi in . [illustration: from savonarola's _operetta sopra i dieci commandamenti di dio_, .] florentine book-illustration reached its highest in an edition of the _epistole e evangelii_,[ ] or liturgical gospels and epistles, printed in by lorenzo morgiani and johann petri at the instance of the ser piero pacini da pescia, who for the next fourteen or fifteen years seems to have been an active promoter of illustrated books. only two copies of the edition of the _epistole e evangelii_ are known to exist, but the owner of one of them, mr. c. w. dyson perrins, has reproduced all the woodcuts in it in very finely executed facsimile, together with a reprint of the text, for presentation to the roxburghe club, so that the illustrator's work can now be studied with comparative ease. the title-page shows s. peter and s. paul standing in a circle enclosed in an arabesque border of white floral ornaments and dolphins on a black ground. at the corners of the border are figures of the four evangelists. in the text there are twelve dozen large woodcuts and two dozen half-length figures of prophets, evangelists, and epistle-writers. of the larger cuts eleven represent s. paul writing and one s. peter, most of the rest scenes from the life of christ, several of those representing the passion having previously appeared in an undated edition of the _meditatione_ attributed to s. bonaventura from the press of mischomini. the cuts form a treasure-house of florentine art, and were frequently drawn upon by the printers of the later _rappresentationi_, at which we shall soon have to look. [illustration: from the _giuocho delli scacchi_, florence, .] we must return now to antonio mischomini, who published many other illustrated books besides the savonarola tracts. in he printed an edition of cristoforo landino's _formulare di lettere e di orationi uolgari_, with a large title-cut of a very young teacher addressing a class, and at the end of the book his mark (a cross-surmounted m within two squares and a circle), surrounded by the arabesque border which we have already noticed in the _arte del bene morire_ of . the next year (_i.e._ ) he printed the _libro di giuocho delli scacchi_ of jacobus de cessolis, with a large title-cut (repeated at the end of the book) representing courtiers playing in the presence of a king, and thirteen smaller cuts personifying the various pieces. these comprise a king and queen, a judge, a knight, a 'rook,' or vicar of the king to visit in his stead all parts of the realm, and the eight 'popolari' or pawns, a labourer, smith, wool-merchant, money-changer, physician, tavern-keeper (here shown), city-guard, and a runner to be at the rook's service. chess-players may be interested to know that the pawns actually in use in , as shown on the board in the title-cut, had already lost this excessive individuality, and resemble those of our own day. [illustration: from the _fior di virtù_, florence, .] in mischomini printed the commentary on the ten commandments by frate marco dal monte sancta maria, which has a title-cut of the friar preaching, and three full-page allegorical illustrations freely copied from those in an edition printed at venice. the first of these represents 'la figura della vita eterna' by a picture of the glories of heaven,[ ] and the earthly devotions by which they are to be attained; the second, which is in three divisions, the traversing of the desert of sin; and the third, mount sinai, up which moses is seen climbing. in the same year, , mischomini also published a catechism known as the _lucidario_, to which he prefixed a title-cut showing damocles at his feast, the sword hanging over his head, and in another compartment some little rabbits running happily in a wood. damocles and the rabbits have nothing whatever to do with the catechism, and the occurrence of the cut proves that before this date mischomini must have printed an edition of the _fior di virtù_, to which it rightfully belongs. we have already looked at the venetian editions of this book, and shall not be surprised to find that the florentine printers had the good sense to copy their charming title-cut, though they did not improve it by their addition of an incongruous border of pilasters, a vernicle, and an image of pity. the first florentine edition of this book, with which i am acquainted, has a fitfully rhyming colophon, adapted from that of the venetian edition of , showing that it was printed at florence in , and ought, at any rate, to be read on feast-days. to entice readers to persevere in this task, there are thirty-five illustrations, some of which, like the one in the _lucidario_, are divided into two parts, so as to secure a contrast or comparison between an animal and a man--as, for example, between a humble sheep and a proud general riding in triumph, or, as shown in our illustration, between the constancy of the ph[oe]nix, who permits herself to be burnt to ashes rather than quit her nest, and that of an emperor constantine who (by a gross plagiarism upon solon) quitted his country for ever, after making his counsellors swear to observe his laws unaltered until his return. the book was printed yet a third time, probably about , by gian stephano da pavia, at the request of bernardo pacini. the printer of the edition is not known; it cannot have been mischomini, who seems to have brought his brilliant career to a close about . the foregoing notice of his illustrated books is by no means exhaustive. passing mention has been made in the chapter on venice of one other important one, the undated _meditatione_, attributed to s. bonaventura, with cuts of peculiar interest, from the opportunity they afford of comparing the different styles in vogue in the two cities. three other florentine books issued during the fifteenth century remain to be mentioned, none of which i have seen. the first of these, an undated edition of domenico capranica's _arte di bene morire_ (not to be confounded with savonarola's), published by morgiani and johann petri about , contains twelve large cuts and twenty-two small ones. the larger cuts are interesting, because ten of them are based on those found in the old block books of the _ars moriendi_, the other two coming from savonarola's book of the same name. the smaller ones seem brought together rather at haphazard. the other two books, an _Æsop_, printed in by francesco buonaccorsi for piero pacini, and the _morgante maggiore_ (a long poem on the adventures of orlando) of ludovico pulci, printed in , both exist only in single copies in foreign libraries, but a good many illustrations from both have been reproduced by dr. kristeller. [illustration] of illustrated books printed at florence after , the most important is an edition of the _quatriregio del decorso della vita humana_ of federico frezzi, printed, this also, 'ad petitione di ser piero pacini di pescia,' as late as , though there is ground for believing that this may really be a reprint from a fifteenth century edition now no longer extant. like the author of the _hypnerotomachia_, frezzi was a dominican, and was consecrated bishop of foligno, his native place, in . he attended the council of constance, and died there in . he was a man of great learning and a book-collector, but rather a dull poet. his _quatriregio_ is an imitation of dante's _divina commedia_, and is divided into four books treating successively of the kingdoms 'of the god cupid,' 'of satan,' 'of the vices,' and 'of the goddess minerva and of virtue.' it was first printed in , and went through three other editions before it was honoured with illustrations. the importance of this illustrated edition has perhaps been overrated. taken individually, the best of the cuts are not superior to those in earlier florentine books of less pretensions, while the cumulative effect of the series of one hundred and twenty-six (several of which, it should be said, are duplicates) is seriously diminished, partly by the monotonous recurrence of the same figure in every cut, partly by the coarseness and angularity with which most of the blocks have been engraved. it must be mentioned that the cut on the first page of the poem is signed with the initials l. v., which were at one time interpreted as standing for luca egidio di venturi, _i.e._ luca signorelli, whose recognised signature, however, was l. c. (luca di cortona). two other great series of florentine illustrated books still remain to be considered. the first of these is the _rappresentazioni_, sacred and secular, which enjoyed a life extending over two centuries, and must be reckoned as the most artistic of chapbooks. in m. colomb de batines published at florence a bibliography of these 'antiche rappresentazioni italiane,' to which i am indebted for the following details concerning their chief authors. the plays are almost uniformly written in _ottava rima_, and poorly printed in double columns. a large number of them, at least a score, were written and printed during the fifteenth century, but these earliest editions are, as a rule, not illustrated. maffeo belcari ( - ) apparently was the first author who obtained the honours of print. his play of _abraham_ appeared in , after which it was reprinted some twenty times, the latest known edition belonging to the eighteenth century. belcari also wrote on the annunciation, on s. john the baptist visited by christ in the desert, and on s. panuntius. lorenzo de' medici himself wrote a play of s. john and s. paul, bernardo pulci (d. ) produced one on the legend of barlaam and josaphat, while his wife antonia was quite a prolific dramatist, claiming as her own plays on s. domitilla, s. guglielma, the patriarch joseph, s. francis, and the prodigal son. during the fifteenth century anonymous plays were written on the nativity, on the life of queen hester, on the angel raphael, on the conversion of three robbers by s. francis, and on s. eustachio, s. antony, and s. antonia. plays on the last judgment, on s. agatha, s. agnes, s. catharine, s. cecilia, s. christina, &c., also appeared at an early date. an angel, as a rule, acts as prologue, and the action of the drama is divided between numerous characters. most of the plays were, doubtless, intended to be acted on the feast-day of the saint whose life they celebrate, and in a church bearing the saint's name, but the multiplicity of the editions show that they also won the favour of a reading public. a few undated editions of these little books, from the types used in their press work, may be assigned to the end of the fifteenth century. the first printer who is known to have made a specialty of the _rappresentazioni_ is francesco benvenuto, who began printing them in , and enjoyed a career of thirty years. m. colomb de batines mentions several of his editions, but they are very scarce, and i have only myself seen a _raphael_ of with a title-cut of tobit and the angel enclosed in a border, partly the same as that of the _fior di virtù_ of , a _barlaam_ and _josafat_, also of , with six illustrations (including our friend damocles and the rabbit, whose fate seems to have been to be lugged in inappropriately), and a _miracolo di tre peregrini che andauano a sancto iacopo di galitia_, with a solitary cut of the saint rescuing one of the pilgrims who is being unjustly hanged. the great majority of the extant _rappresentazioni_ were printed between and , mostly anonymously, though giovanni baleni and a printer 'alle scale di badia' were responsible for a great many of them. of course, in many cases the cuts were sadly the worse for wear, but they held on wonderfully, and even in the seventeenth century editions a tolerable impression is sometimes met with. many of them, also, were recut, sometimes skilfully, so that it is not uncommon to find a better example in a later edition than in an earlier. the illustrations here shown are from an undated edition of lorenzo de' medici's _rappresentatione di san giovanni e paulo_, the careful printing of which is an argument for its belonging to the beginning of the sixteenth century, and a picture of the martyrdom of s. dorothea from an edition of her _rappresentatione_ printed in . [illustration: martyrdom of s. dorothea.] with these religious _rappresentazioni_ m. colomb de batines joins a few secular poems, whose title to be considered dramatic is not very clear. of those which he mentions, the earliest is the _favola d' orfeo_, by angelo politiano, which forms part of _la giostra di giuliano di medici_, printed without name or date, probably about , with ten excellent cuts, that of aristeo pursuing the flying eurydice being, perhaps, the best. _la giostra di lorenzo di medici_, celebrated by luigi pulci, has only a single cut, but that a fine one--a meeting of knights in an amphitheatre. among other secular chapbooks which enjoyed a long popularity was a series of 'contrasti,'[ ] the contrast of carnival and lent, of men and women, of the living and the dead, of the blonde and the brunette, and of riches and poverty. i give here the first of the two cuts of the _contrasto di carnesciale e la quaresima_, undated, but probably early. with these little poems we must join the metrical _novelle_ and _istorie_, now chiefly known through the discovery in the university library at erlangen of a little collection of twenty-one tracts, all undated, and without any indication of their printers, but which may mostly be assigned to the end of the fifteenth century. among them are the _novella di gualtieri e griselda_, the _novella di due preti et un cherico_, the _novella della figliuola del mercatante_, &c. [illustration] the charm of these little florentine books is so great, and of late years has won such steadily increasing recognition, that i do not think an apology is needed for the length at which they have here been treated. none the less, we must remember that they were essentially popular books, and that the wealthy book lovers of the time probably regarded them very slightly. mischomini himself did not turn his attention to them till he had been printing nearly a dozen years, and even after his more expensive books, the great _plotinus_, for instance, issued in that year, kept strictly to the traditions of twenty years earlier, and were wholly destitute of ornament, even of printed initials. the two classes of books--those on good paper and in a large handsome type, and those on poor paper with small type carelessly printed, but with delightful woodcuts--were issued side by side, but the beauties of the two were never combined, and the florentine printers would doubtless have been greatly surprised if they had been told that it was the chapbooks which were to win the day. even in the little italic editions issued by the giuntas, in imitation of aldus, which appealed to an intermediate class of purchasers, woodcuts occur but rarely, and the only instance i can call to mind is a _dante_, printed by philippo giunta in , which, besides some plans of the _inferno_, &c., has a single cut illustrating the first canto. we have devoted so much space to venice and florence that the illustrated books of other towns must be noticed with rather unfair brevity. brescia may be taken as an example of a town at which the native artist did his best. we have already remarked the publication there of a _dante_ in . the same year witnessed the appearance of an _Æsop_, rudely imitated from the verona edition, and in baptista da farfengo printed another book in which we have been interested, a _fior di virtù_, with a title-cut of a student, head on hand, reading at a desk. on a ledge on the wall are two flower-pots, the flowers in which reach up to a very decorative ceiling. this is quite a nice example of brescian art, but the productions of the town have not been specially studied, and further research might show that they deserve more serious praise. at ferrara artists of the schools of venice and florence appear to have combined in the production of some very notable books. two of these were published by lorenzo di rossi in . the first is an edition of the epistles of s. jerome, with numerous vignettes and three frontispieces, the third of which, somewhat in the style of the venetian boccaccio, bears the date , divided between its two columns. this frontispiece appears also in the other work, the _de pluribus claris selectisque mulieribus_ of philippus bergomensis, the illustrations in the text of which show florentine influence in their black backgrounds. this book has a title-page printed in large gothic letters cut in wood, similar to that of the _nuremberg chronicle_. no illustrated books appear to have been issued at milan during the eighties, but in philippo mantegazza printed the _theorica musice_ of gafori with some coarse cuts, and this was followed in by the _triumfi_ of petrarch, printed by antonio zaroto with the usual six full-page illustrations. as befits the reputation of milan as a musical centre, the works of gafori were often printed there. in guillaume le signerre of rouen printed there the first edition of the _practica musice_, with a curious title-page representing the relations of the muses and the heavenly bodies, and fine ornamental borders to two pages of text. at the base of one of these are little scenes of choir-boys practising and a music-mistress giving a lesson. the style of the borders is distinctly venetian. in another work of gafori's printed at milan, the _de harmonia instrumentorum_ of (reprinted two years later at turin), the cuts exhibit the heavy milanese shading, one of them representing a lesson on the organ, and the other a performer playing. in le signerre printed a devotional work, the _specchio di anima_ of besalii, with seventy-eight full-sized cuts to its eighty-eight pages. most of the cuts relate to the passion of christ, and they are described by dr. lippmann as 'vigorously executed in coarse thick outlines, with scarcely any shading.' some of these cuts reappear three years later in the same printer's _tesauro spirituale_, of which the unique copy is in the berlin print-room. in le signerre printed an _Æsop_, the cuts in which are surrounded by small black borders relieved in white. the illustrations themselves are poor. at the end of the book is the printer's mark, a crowned stork in a shield within a circle, on either side of which stand a fox and a monkey. in this same year le signerre transferred his press to saluzzo, where in he issued the _tesauro spirituale_, and four years later an edition of the _de veritate contricionis_ of vivaldus, with a fine frontispiece representing s. jerome in the desert. the border shows typical milanese ornament, and recalls the illumination to the _sforziada_, mentioned in our first chapter. in a still finer work, an edition of the _opus regale_, also by vivaldus, was printed at saluzzo by jacobus de circis. this contains a fine picture of saint louis of france in prayer, and also a large portrait of the marquis of saluzzo, louis ii., whose taste has won for the town its little niche in the history of printing. [illustration: mark of bazalerius de bazaleriis.] [illustration: mark of stephanus guillireti.] [illustration: mark of francis de mazalis.] italian printers' devices are very decorative and interesting, and may now be studied in dr. paul kristeller's 'die italienischen buchdrucker- und verlegerzeichen,' which gives nearly a complete collection of those in use before , to the number of between three and four hundred. in the great majority of devices the ground is black, with a simple design, mostly including a circle and a cross, outlined in white. the mark of bazalerius de bazaleriis of bologna and reggio, taken from a copy of the _epistolae_ of philelphus, printed by him in , shows this class of design in almost its simplest form. in that of stephanus guillireti, who printed at rome from to , we have the addition of a shield (the arms on which, unluckily, have not been identified) and floral sprays. these floral sprays become the chief feature in the design of franciscus de mazalis of reggio, who printed from to ; though the initials, circle, and cross of the simpler devices are all retained. an even more beautiful example of this class of mark was used by egmont and barrevelt, the printers of the sarum missal, who added to its attractiveness by the use of red ink, instead of black. red ink also adds immensely to the effect of the well-known mark of nikolaos blastos, which occurs in a copy of the commentary of simplicius upon aristotle, printed by zacharias kaliergos at venice in . the delicate tracery of this design is unsurpassed by any work of the time. the mark of nicolaus gorgonzola, who printed at milan from to , in its floral ornaments, is very similar in style to those of mazalis and egmont, but, as in the mark of blastos, the cross and circle have disappeared, and the name is set out in full, instead of by its initials. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: mark of niccolo zoppino.] purely ornamental designs, of the styles illustrated in these five examples, form the majority among italian devices, but more pictorial ones were by no means unknown. one of the best of these was that used by 'simon de gabiis dictus bevilaqua,' who printed at venice from to about . another good device is that of ser piero di pacini of pescia, the publisher of so many of the florentine illustrated books. this consists of a crowned dolphin on a black ground, with sometimes a smaller device of a bird, placed on each side of it. [illustration: mark of hieronymus francisci baldassaris.] as examples of later styles, though not very beautiful in themselves, we add here the rather clumsy woodcut of s. nicholas adopted by niccolò d'aristotele da ferrara, called 'il zoppino,' who printed at venice from to about , and the very florid device of hieronymus francisci baldassaris, a printer at perugia from about to . the arms there shown are those of the city of perugia, while the f. and the cross above it reproduce the mark used by the printer's father, francesco, the founder of the firm. the aldine anchor and the _fleur-de-lys_ of lucantonio giunta and his successors are too well known to need reproduction or comment, though both stand rather apart from the ordinary run of italian marks. [illustration] * * * * * [ ] this, and nearly all the florentine illustrations mentioned here, will be found reproduced in dr. paul kristeller's _early florentine woodcuts_, published in , after this chapter was written. [ ] there are two variants of this cut, the smaller introducing a little landscape background. [ ] there is yet a third variant, which may be recognised by the angel appearing on the right, but showing his whole body, not the hands only, as in the cut. [ ] a reprint was issued in . [ ] in contrast to the prevailing anthropomorphism of the time, the first person of the trinity is represented by a 'loco tondo et vacuo,' a blank circle, with a halo of angels round it. on either side of this circle stand christ and the blessed virgin. [ ] el contrasto di carnesciale e la quaresima; el contrasto degli huomini e delle donne; el contrasto del vivo e del morto; el contrasto della bianca e della brunetta; la contenzione della poverta contra la richezza, &c. chapter vii france--fifteenth century the earliest productions of the french press will not bear comparison with those of either the german or the italian: they have neither the massive dignity of the one, nor the artistic grace of the other. the worthy professors at the sorbonne, who called to their aid the swiss or german printers, crantz gering and friburger, bestowed, as we have seen in our first chapter, considerable trouble on the decoration by hand of special copies for presentation to influential friends or patrons, but in other respects, their books were wholly destitute of ornament. when, after little more than two years, they gave up their press, the three printers started again on their own account with a rather ugly gothic type, nor did gering, who afterwards worked both by himself and in combination with other printers, produce a really handsome book until about . the semi-gothic types of another firm of german printers in paris, peter caesaris and stoll, are much more attractive, but the average french work during the seventies is dull. the first attempt at decoration appears to have been made, not at the capital, but at lyons, where, in august , an anonymous printer, probably martin husz, completed a double-column edition of _le miroir de la redemption humaine_, translated from the latin by julien macho, with cuts previously used in a german edition of the _speculum_, printed at basel in . in , also, barthélemy buyer printed an edition of the romance of _baudoin, comte de flandre_, with no cuts, but with rude printed initials. in an edition of _les quatre filz aymon_, unsigned and undated, but printed at lyons about , the first page bears four grotesque woodcuts representing the reception of the youths by charlemagne, the buffet which the emperor's son gave one of them over a game of chess, the fatal blow with the golden chess-board by which the buffet was returned, and then the four youths fighting amid a crowd. on the next page a larger picture shows their expulsion from charlemagne's court. throughout the book are curious woodcut initials, interwoven with grotesque faces. about ortuin and schenck produced (anonymously) an edition of the _roman de la rose_ with eighty-six small woodcuts, which were imitated in later editions both at lyons and paris, and were not without a certain rude merit. in mathieu husz and pierre hongre issued a _légende dorée_, with large pictures of christ in glory on the last day, and of the crucifixion, and numerous very rough cuts at the head of the different chapters. in the same year, husz published, in conjunction with jean schabeler, an illustrated translation of boccaccio's _de casibus illustrium virorum_ ('du dechier des nobles hommes et femmes'). meanwhile, at albi, in languedoc, of all places in the world, neumeister had reprinted in an illustrated edition of the _meditationes_ of turrecremata, which he had produced two years previously at mainz. in we hear of illustrated books in three other towns. at rennes, pierre bellescullée and josses printed the _coutumes de bretagne_, with a woodcut of the arms of brittany, used again the next year in the same printers' _floret en francoys_, a book noticeable for having a woodcut title printed in white on a black ground. at vienne, pierre schenck printed another edition, in double-columns, of _l'abuzé en court_, with small cuts at the chapter headings. at chambéry, antoine neyret finished, on july th, an edition of the _exposition des Évangiles en romant_ of maurice de sully, and in the following november the romance of _baudoin comte de flandre_. the bishop's sermons have, on the first page, a large initial i and a very rough cut of the disciples loosing the ass and her colt for christ's use. with their other illustrations i am not acquainted. the romance of count baldwin has a full-page cut of the count riding on a gaily-decked charger, and thirteen smaller illustrations of his adventures, of which, however, several are repeated. the execution of them all is as rude as can well be conceived. two years later, neyret printed the first edition of a very famous book, _le livre du roi modus et de la reine ratio_, 'lequel fait mencion commant on doit deviser de toutes manières de chasses.' the cuts in this are numerous, and their representations of the various hunting scenes are more than sufficiently grotesque. the list of books we have named could certainly be extended, especially as regards those printed at lyons, but it is sufficiently full to enable us to draw some useful conclusions from it. the illustrations are, almost without exception, poor in design and badly cut, and are mostly accompanied by inferior types and press-work. some of them are imitated from the books of foreign printers, and they contain little evidence of the growth of any french school of illustrators. on the other hand, they testify to the spread of a demand for illustrated books, at least in the provinces, which local printers were doing their best to satisfy. at paris the demand, apparently, had not yet arisen. in the first dated book which bears the name of jean du pré, a _missale ad usum ecclesiae parisiensis_, printed by him in conjunction with didier huym in september , there is a large woodcut of god the father and the crucifixion, illustrating the canon. two months later du pré printed a verdun missal with a really fine metal cut of a priest at mass, and a little figure rising up to represent his soul in prayer. in february - appeared his first illustrated secular work, _de la ruine des nobles hommes_, another translation from boccaccio's _de casibus_, with a woodcut of varying merit at the head of each book. these have a special interest for english students, as some years later they were borrowed by pynson to illustrate his edition of lydgate's version of the same work. in may jacques bonhomme issued millet's _l'histoire de la destruction de troye la grant_, with numerous woodcuts of battles, frequently used in later works; and the following year guyot marchant produced the first of numerous editions of a _danse macabre_ illustrated with a wonderful series of pictures, full of grotesque vigour and skilfully cut, showing death as a grinning skeleton seizing on his prey in every class of society. marchant followed this up with a _danse macabre des femmes_ (somewhat less good) in , and also with a _compost et calendrier des bergers_, which was no less successful. meanwhile the greatest paris publisher of the century, antoine vérard, had come on the scene. although some of the innumerable works which bear his name are said to have been printed '_par_ antoine vérard,' it is clear that the expression must not be taken too literally, and that he was a 'libraire,' _i.e._ a bookseller or publisher, rather than a printer. his first dated book is an edition, enriched with a single woodcut, of laurent du premier fait's french version of the _decamerone_, and the colophon tells us that it was printed for antoine vérard, 'libraire, demeurant sur le pont notre dame, à l'image de saint jean l'evangéliste,' on november , . the types used in the book have been identified as belonging to jean du pré, and the association of the two men seems to have led to important results. the next year we find du pré printing an edition of s. jerome's _vie des anciens saintz pères_, with a delightful frontispiece of the saint preaching from a lectern in the open air, numerous smaller cuts, and initial letters with interwoven faces. during also, he assisted pierre gérard (who earlier in the year had printed by himself an edition of boutillier's _la somme rurale_ with a single cut), in producing at abbeville the first really magnificent french illustrated book, s. augustine's _cité de dieu_, in which paper and print and woodcuts of artistic value all harmonise.[ ] two years later he joined with another provincial printer, jean le bourgeois, in producing a still more splendid book, the romance of _lancelot du lac_, the first volume of which was finished by le bourgeois at rouen on november th, and the second by du pré at paris on september th. in also, du pré produced his first 'book of hours,' but the french _horae_ form so important an episode in the history of the decoration of books, that we must reserve their treatment for a separate chapter, in which, besides those of du pré and vérard, we shall have to speak of the long series inaugurated by philippe pigouchet and simon vostre in . at starting, vérard's resources were probably small, and for a year or two he produced little beyond his _horae_. in , however, he published a french _livy_, with four small cuts, representing a battle, a siege, a king and his court, and some riders, whose hats have a very ecclesiastical shape, entering a town. the next year produced a work entitled _l'art de chevalerie selon végèce_, really an edition of the _faits d'arme et de chevalerie_ of christine de pisan. this has a single large cut representing a king and his court. the _livre de politiques d'aristote_, published in , has a large frontispiece of the translator, nicholas oresme, presenting his book to charles viii, in which the characteristic style of vérard's artist is fully developed. in , an edition of _lucain, suetone et saluste_, which i have not seen, was printed for vérard by pierre le rouge. to probably belongs his french _seneca_, and in this year he must have obtained the aid of the king or of some very rich patron, for his activity from to the end of the century is quite amazing. it is from about , also, that we may date the production of those magnificent special copies on vellum, enriched with elaborate, if not very artistic, miniatures, to which we have already alluded in our first chapter. the chief book of was undoubtedly the series of treatises making up the _art de bien vivre et de bien mourir_, of which a detailed description will be given later on. these treatises were printed for vérard by cousteau and menard, the first part being finished on july th, the last on december th. next to them in importance is a _josephus de la bataille judaique_, one of vérard's large folios, with columns of printed text, not reckoning any margin, nearly twelve inches long. the frontispiece is a fine cut of a triumphal entry of a king who should be french, since he wears the lilies. the design, however, must have been made for this book, for a label in the middle of the picture bears the name 'josephus,' while in the _gestes romaines_ and _lancelot_, in both of which the cut reappears, the label is left blank. the 'entry' is also used again, three times in the _josephus_ itself, at the beginning of the fourth, fifth, and seventh books. an entry of a different kind, that of joshua and his staff into jericho, is depicted in the cut (here reproduced) which heads the prologue. this is faced by the first page of text, headed by a cut of an author presenting his book to an ecclesiastic. both pages are surrounded by fine borders of flowers, women, and shield. the head-cut to the second book shows a monk handing a book to a king; that used for the third and sixth (repeated again in the _lancelot_ of ) shows a king on his throne surrounded by his courtiers, a sword of justice is in his hand, and a suppliant kneels before him. small cuts, fitting into the columns, head the different chapters in each book, but are of no great merit. occasionally a border about an inch wide runs up the side of one of the columns of text, usually on the outer margin, but sometimes on the inner. altogether the book is a very notable one. [illustration: from vérard's _josephus_, . (much reduced.)] in , vérard's activity was still on the increase, and we have at least eight illustrated books of his bearing the date of this year. in the romance of _le jouvencel_ and bonnor's _arbre des batailles_, both in to, the cuts, all of them small, are nearly identical, and are repeated again and again in each book. much more important than these are the editions of the _chronicques de france_ (printed for vérard by jehan maurand), and a translation of the metamorphoses of ovid, issued under the very taking title of _la bible des poetes_. this is another of vérard's great folios, with profuse illustrations, large and small, and in its vellum edition is a very gaudy and magnificent book. in vérard published his _lancelot_; and in , a _légende dorée_ and s. jerome's _vie des pères en françois_. this last book was finished on october , but its appearance was preceded by that of the first volume of the publisher's most ambitious undertaking, an edition of the _miroir historial_ of vincent de beauvais. this enormous chronicle is in thirty-two books, which vérard divided between five great folio volumes, averaging about three hundred and twenty leaves, printed in long double columns. the whole work thus contains about the same amount of matter as some fifty volumes of the present series, yet it was faultlessly printed on the finest vellum, and with innumerable woodcuts, subsequently coloured, in considerably less than a year. the first volume was finished on september , , and the colophon which announces the completion of the last, 'à l'honneur et louenge de nostre seigneur iesucrist et de sa glorieuse et sacrée mere et de la court celeste de paradis,' bears date may th, . in the face of such activity and enterprise, i feel ashamed of having girded at the good man for having used some of the _ovid_ cuts as a basis to his illuminations in this gigantic work. after to the end of the century, vérard's dated books are very few. the only one i have met with myself is a _merlin_ of . it is possible that he produced less (the _miroir_ may not have proved a financial success), but it is quite as likely that he merely discontinued his wholesome practice of dating his books, and that the _boethius_, the _roman de la rose_, the _gestes romaines_, the romances of _tristram_ and _gyron_, and other undated works, whose colophons show that they were printed while the pont notre dame was still standing, _i.e._ before october th, , belong to these years. after vérard's enterprise certainly seems less. he continued to issue editions of poets and romances, but they are much less sumptuous than of yore, and in place of his great folios we have a series of small octavos, mostly of works of devotion, with no other ornament than the strange twists of the initial l, which adorns their title-pages. the example here given is from an undated and unsigned edition of the _livre du faulcon_, but the letter itself frequently occurs in vérard's undoubted books. the first hint for this grotesque form of ornament may have been found in the small initials of du pré's edition of s. jerome's _vie des anciens saintz pères_, and variants of the l were used by other publishers besides vérard, _e.g._ by jacques maillet at lyons, and pierre le rouge and michel le noir at paris. the most noticeable examples of the l, besides the one here given, are the man-at-arms l of the edition of the _mer des histoires_ (p. lerouge), the monkey-and-bagpipes l, here shown, from maillet's edition of the _recueil des histoires troyennes_, a st. george-and-the-dragon l in a lyons reprint of the _mer des histoires_, and the january-and-may l which, i believe, was first used by vérard for a edition of the _matheolus_, or 'quinze joies du mariage,' but of which a counterpart existed at lyons. [illustration: initial l used by vérard.] [illustration: initial l used by maillet.] it seems probable that the attention which vérard paid to his vellum editions, in which the woodcuts were only useful as guides to the illustrator, made him less careful than he would otherwise have been to secure the best possible work in his ordinary books. certainly i think his most interesting cuts are to be found not in his later books but in the collection of six treatises which he had printed by gillet cousteau and jehan menard in , and republished, somewhat less sumptuously, the next year, under the collective title _l'art de bien vivre et de bien mourir_, the reprint coming from the press of pierre le rouge. the cuts in this collection have a special interest for us, because some of them were afterwards used in english books, and we may therefore be allowed to examine them at some length. [illustration: from vérard's _art de bien vivre_. (reduced.)] in the edition the first title-page _le liure intitule lart de bien mourir_ heralds only the first work, an adaptation of the old _ars moriendi_ showing the struggle between good and bad angels for the possession of the dying soul. the devils tempt the sufferer to hasten his end ('interficias teipsum' one of them is saying, the words being printed on a label), they remind him of his sins ('periuratus es'), tempt him to worldly thoughts ('intende thesauro'), persuade his physicians to over-commiseration ('ecce quantam penam patitur'), or flatter him with undeserved praise ('coronam meruisti'). to each of these assaults his good angels have a 'bonne inspiracion' by way of answer, and the devils have to confess 'spes nobis nulla' and to see the little figure of the soul received into heaven. the second treatise is called at the beginning _l'eguyllon de crainte divine pour bien mourir_, but on the title-page placed on the back of the last leaf 'les paines denfer et les paines de purgatoire.' its illustrations consist of large cuts in which devils are inflicting excruciating and revolting tortures on their victims. its colophon gives the printers' names and the date july , . the next three parts of the book are _le traité de l'avenement de l'antechrist, les quinze signes_, or fifteen tokens of judgment, and _les joies du paradis_. the printing of these was finished on october . only the middle treatise is much illustrated, but here the artist had full play for his powers in representing the fish swimming on the hills, the seas falling into the abyss, the sea-monsters covering the earth, the flames of the sea, the trees wet with blood, the crumbling of cities, the stones fighting among themselves, and the other signs of the last day. perhaps the best of this set of cuts is that representing the 'esbahissement' or astonishment of the men and women who had hidden themselves in holes in the earth, when at last they ventured forth. but in the last treatise, the _art de bien vivre_, quaintness and horror are replaced by really beautiful work. the cuts here are intended to illustrate the ave maria, lord's prayer, creed, ten commandments, and seven sacraments. those in the last series are the largest in the book, each of them occupying a full page. the creed has a series of smaller cuts of inferior work. but the picture which precedes this, representing the twelve apostles, and the pictures of the angelic salutation, of the pope invoking the blessed virgin (here shown), and of christ teaching the apostles, show the finest work, outside the _horae_, in any french books during the fifteenth century. these blocks appear also in two english books printed at paris, in , _the traytte of god lyuyng and good deyng_, and _the kalendayr of shyppars_, and in many of the english editions of the latter work from pynson's in onward. pierre lerouge, one of vérard's printers, produced at least one fine book quite independently of him. this is the first illustrated edition of _la mer des hystoires_, the french version of the _rudimentum noviciorum_ (see p. ), the general plan of which it follows, though not slavishly. pierre lerouge printed his edition for a publisher named vincent commin. it is in two tall folios, with the man-at-arms l to decorate its title-pages, and splendid initials p, i, and s, the first having within it a figure of a scribe at work, the s being twisted into the form of a scaly snake, and the body of the i containing a figure of christ. the cuts and borders of the book are not very remarkable. in vérard published a new edition of it, having obtained the use of the old blocks. a lyons reprint was issued about , and other editions during the sixteenth century. two other printers who cannot be said to have learnt anything from vérard are jean bonhomme, who as early as printed an illustrated edition of a very popular book, _le livre des profits champêtres_, translated from the latin of petrus crescentius, and germain bineaut, who in printed a _pathelin le grant et le petit_ which is said to have woodcuts. guyot marchant's series of editions of the _danse macabre_ or 'danse des morts,' has been already mentioned. an edition of the same work, printed at lyons, february , (no printer's name), a copy of which is among the books which entered the british museum under the bequest of mr. alfred huth, is especially interesting as containing cuts of the shops of a printer and a bookseller, at both of which death is at work. [illustration: from a lyons _danse macabre_, . (much reduced.)] another edition of the _danse_ was printed by nicole de la barre at paris in , and others of the same character in the early years of the next century. we shall have to recur to the book again both with reference to the _horae_ and for the later lyons editions, the cuts in which followed designs by holbein. the only other paris printer whom we have space here to mention is jean trepperel, whose career began in , in which year, according to hain, he issued a _histoire de pierre de provence et de la belle maguelonne_, probably illustrated. in he published an edition of the _chroniques de france_, with four cuts, one of the founding of a town, another of an assault, and two battle scenes. they are good of their kind, especially that which serves for all the founders of cities from Æneas and romulus to s. louis, but their repetition becomes a little wearisome. in an undated issue of jehan quentin's _orologe de devotion_ the cuts are all different, but fall into two series, one badly drawn and infamously engraved, the other showing really fine work, and having all the appearance of having been originally designed for a book of hours. the only other fifteenth century book of trepperel's with which i am acquainted is a charming quarto edition of the romance of _paris et vienne_, a copy of which is in the morgan collection. it is undated, but was printed while the pont notre dame was still standing. the title-cut shows signs of breakage, and may possibly have been designed for the earlier edition by denis meslier mentioned by brunet as having a single cut. the rest of the large cuts in the book have all the appearance of having been specially designed for the new edition, and are equal to the best work in the _horae_. meanwhile at lyons the rude cuts of the books which heralded illustrated work in france had been replaced by far more artistic productions. in michelet topie de pymont and jacques herrnberg produced a french version (by nicole le huen) of breydenbach's _peregrinatio_ (see p. ) with copies of some of the original cuts, the smaller ones cut on wood, the large maps engraved on copper. the next year jacques maillet brought out a rival version (by frere jehan de hersin) for which he acquired the original mainz woodblocks themselves. to maillet, also, we owe passable imitations of some of the less sumptuous books of vérard's. lastly, jean trechsel struck out a new line in a profusely illustrated _terence_ of . at rouen the missal and breviary printed by martin morin were adorned with a curious initial m and b in the same style as some of the more frequent ls, and pierre regnault did work which vérard found worthy of his vellum. paris, however, having once gained the predominance in illustrated work, had as yet no difficulty in maintaining her position. it remains for us to notice briefly the printers' devices in early french books. these are so numerous that it is possible to divide them into rough classes. the largest of these is formed by the marks which have as their central ornament a tree with a shield or label hung on the trunk, with supporters varied according to the owner's fancy, and which are not always easy to assign to their right place in the animal creation. durand gerlier preferred rams, michel tholoze wild men, denys janot a creature which looks like a kangaroo, hemon le fevre dancing bears duly muzzled and chained, simon vostre leopards, thielmann kerver unicorns, felix baligault rabbits, robert gourmont winged stags, jehan guyart of bordeaux dolphins. most of these devices have a dotted background, and they are sometimes found printed in red ink, which adds greatly to their decorative effect. another class, to which vérard's well-known device belongs, showed in their upper part the french lilies crowned and supported by angels. jean le forestier combined this with the tree of knowledge, choosing lions as its supporters, but adding also the sacred lamb (for his name 'jean'), and similar variations were adopted by other printers. in another large class the french printers, especially those of lyons, followed the simple cross and circle so common in italy. this was mostly printed in white on a black ground, as by pierre levet, matthieu vivian of orleans, and le tailleur. less often, as in the marks of berthold rembolt and georges wolf, the ground is white and the design black. guillaume balsarin who, as was very common, had two devices, had one of each kind. outside these classes the special designs are too many to be enumerated. the successive le noirs punned on their names in at least six different devices of black heads, and deny de harsy with less obvious appropriateness selected two black men with white waistbands to uphold his shields. guyot marchant's shoemakers, with the bar of music to complete his pious motto _sola fides sufficit_, form one of the earliest and best known of french marks. pierre regnault showed excellent taste in his flower-surrounded p, in which the letters of his surname may also be deciphered. the scholar-printer badius ascensius chose a useful, if not very pretty, design of printers at work, the two variants of which first appear respectively in and . all these devices and countless others will be found roughly figured in silvestre's _marques typographiques_, many of them appear also in brunet's _manuel du libraire_, and those of the chief fifteenth century printers have been reproduced with absolute fidelity in m. thierry-poux's _monuments de l'imprimerie française_. only the mark of du pré and one of those used by caillaut are therefore given here, the first (on p. ) in honour of a pioneer in french illustration, the second, as perhaps the most beautiful of any which the present writer has seen. [illustration: mark of antoine caillaut.] * * * * * the first greek book printed in france appeared in , and the awakening of classical feeling was accompanied, as in other countries, by the putting away of the last remnants of mediæval art and literature as childish things. the old romances continued to be published, chiefly by the lenoirs, but in a smaller and cheaper form, and for the most part with old cuts. vérard diminished his output, and the publishers of the _horae_ turned in despair to german designs in place of the now despised native work. soon only some little octavos remained to show that there was still an unclassical public to be catered for. these were chiefly printed by galliot du pré, with titles in red and black, and sometimes with little architectural borders in imitation of the more ambitious german ones. when they disappear we say farewell to the richness and colour which distinguishes the best french books of the end of the fifteenth century. instead of the black letter and quaint cuts we have graceful but cold roman types, or pretty but thin italics, with good initial letters, sometimes with good head-and tail-pieces, but with few pictures, and with only a neat allegoric device on the title-page instead of the rich designs used by the earlier printers. geoffroy tory of bourges was the first important printer of the new school. his earliest connection with publishing was as the editor of various classical works, but he returned from a visit to italy full of artistic theories as to book-making, which he proceeded to carry out, partly in alliance with simon colines, for whom he designed a new device representing time with his scythe. tory's own device of the 'pot cassé,' a broken vase pierced by a _toret_ or auger, is said to refer to his desolation on the death of his only daughter. devices of other printers have been ascribed to him on the ground of the appearance in them of the little cross of lorraine, which is found in some of tory's undoubted works. it is certain, however, that the cross was not his individual signature, but only that of his studio. after the _horae_, which we shall notice in our next chapter, tory's most famous book was his own _champfleury_, 'auquel est contenu l'art et science de la vraie proportion des lettres antiques,' printed in . this is a fantastic work, interesting for the prelude in which he speaks of his connection with the famous grolier, and for the few illustrations scattered about the text. the best of these are the vignettes of 'hercules gallicus,' leading in chains the captives of his eloquence, and of the triumphs of apollo and the muses. the specimen alphabets at the end of the book also deserve notice. they show that tory was better than his theories, for his attempt to prove, by far-fetched analogies and derivations, that there is an ideal shape for every letter, is as bad in art as it is false in history. tory was succeeded in his office of royal printer by robert estienne, and during the rest of the century the classical editions of this family of great printers form the chief glories of the french press. their books, both large and small, are admirably printed, and in excellent taste, though with no other ornaments than their printer's device, and good initials and head-pieces. but it must be owned that from the reign of francis i. onwards, the decoration of the text of most french books is far less interesting than the superb bindings on which the kings and their favourites began to lavish so much expense. only two more paris books need here be mentioned, both of them printed in , and both with cuts imitated from the italian--jacques gohary's translation of the _hypnerotomachia poliphili_ and the _amour de cupido et de psiché_ translated from apuleius. the first of these was published by jacques kerver, the second by jeanne de marnef. of original paris work of any eminence we have no record after the death of tory. meanwhile at lyons a new school of book-illustration was springing up. from the beginning of the century the lyons printers had imitated, or pirated, the delicate italic books printed by aldus. the luckless Étienne dolet added something to the classical reputation of the town, and by the middle of the century the printers there were turning out numerous pocket editions of the classics, which they sold to their customers in 'trade bindings' of calf stamped with gold, and often painted over with many-coloured interlacements. the fashion for small books was set, and when illustrations were fitted to them the result was singularly dainty. before considering the editions of jean de tournes and his rivals we must stop to notice the appearance at lyons in of the belated first edition of holbein's _dance of death_, the woodcuts for which, the work of h. l., whose identity with hans lützelburger has been sufficiently established, are known to have been in existence as early as , and were probably executed two or three years before that date. several sets of proofs from the woodcuts are in existence, with lettering said to be in the types of froben of basel, who may have abandoned the idea of publishing them because of the vigour of their satire on the nobles and well-to-do. the trechsels, the printers of the french edition, are known to have had dealings with a basel woodcutter with initials h. l., who died before june , and may have purchased the blocks directly from him, or at a later date from froben. in they issued forty-one woodcuts with a dedication by jean de vauzelles, and a french quatrain to each cut either by him or by gilles corrozet, giving to the book the title _les simulachres et historiees faces de la mort_. its success was as great as it deserved, and ten more cuts were added in subsequent editions. in the same year as the _dance of death_ the trechsels issued another series of upwards of a hundred cuts after designs by holbein, the _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_, with explanatory verses by gilles corrozet. these, though scarcely less beautiful, and at the time almost as successful as those in the _dance of death_, are not quite so well known, and i therefore select one of them, taken from the reprint of the following year, as an illustration. [illustration: from _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_, lyons, .] the success of these two books invited imitation, and during the next twenty years many dainty illustrated books were issued by franciscus gryphius, macé bonhomme, guillaume roville, and jean de tournes. in gryphius issued a little latin testament, with thirty-four lines of dainty roman type to a page, which only measures - / in. × , and in which are set charming cuts. bonhomme's chief success was an edition, printed in , of the first three books of the _metamorphoses_ translated into french verse by clément marot and barthélemy aneau. this has borders to every page, and numerous vignettes measuring only - / in. × . in the following year this was capped by jean de tournes with another version of the _metamorphoses_, with borders and vignettes attributed to bernard salomon, usually called 'le petit bernard,' and the success of the book caused it to be re-issued in dutch and italian. the borders are wonderfully varied, some of them containing little grotesque figures worthy of our own doyle, others dainty lacework, and others less pleasing architectural essays. this, like most of the best books of its kind, was printed throughout in italics, and the attempt about this time of robert granjon, another lyons printer, to supersede the italic by a type modelled on the french cursive hand, the 'caractères de civilité,' was only partially successful. in , and possibly in other years, jean de tournes published an almanack and engagement-book, a _calendrier historial_, with tiny vignettes representing the occupations appropriate to the seasons, and alternate pages for the entry of notes by any purchasers barbarous enough to deface so charming a book with their hasty handwriting. when the brief blaze of pretty books at lyons died out, french printing fast sinks into dulness, and the attempt of a frenchman at antwerp to revive its glories was only partially successful, though he has left behind him a great name. jean plantin was born at tours in , and after trying to earn a living first at paris and then at caen, set up a bookseller's shop at antwerp in , and six years later printed his first book, the _institution d'une fille de noble maison_. he was soon in a position to give commissions to good artists, luc de heere, pierre huys, godefroid ballain, and others, and issued the _devises héroiques_ of claude paradin ( ), and the _emblems_ of sambucus ( ), of hadrianus junius ( ), and alciati ( ), with illustrations from their designs. his _horae_, printed in and , with florid borders, and his _psalter_ of , attempted to revive a class of book then going out of fashion. besides the great antwerp polyglott, whose printing occupied him from to , and nearly brought him to ruin, plantin printed some other bibles, one in flemish in , and a 'bible royale' in , being noticeable for their ambitious decoration. he published also some great folio missals, more imposing than elegant. he had numerous sets of large initials, one specially designed for music books being really graceful, and a long array of variations on the device of the hand and compass which he adopted as his mark. the title-pages of his larger books are surrounded with heavy architectural borders, some of which were engraved on copper. at his death, in , he had attained _labore et constantia_, as his motto phrased it, to a foremost position among the printers of his day, but his florid illustrated books have very little real beauty, and mark the beginning of a century and a half of bad taste from which only the microscopic editions of the elzevirs are wholly free. * * * * * [ ] the only other abbeville illustrated book is the _triomphe des neuf preux_, with conventional portraits of most of the heroes (their legs wide apart), and a bullet-headed du guesclin, based on authentic tradition. in a reprint by michel le noir at paris, while some of the old cuts were retained this du guesclin was replaced by a much more showy figure. chapter viii the french books of hours in the course of the fourteenth century the hours of the blessed virgin superseded the psalter as the popular book of devotions for lay use. throughout the fifteenth century magnificently illuminated manuscript copies were produced in france in great numbers, and it is thus not surprising that it was in illustrated editions of this book that french printers and publishers achieved their most noteworthy success. each of the hours, we are told, had its mystical reference to some event in the lives of the blessed virgin and our lord. lauds referred to the visit of mary to elizabeth, prime to the nativity, terce to the angels' message to the shepherds, sext to the adoration by the magi, nones to the circumcision, vespers to the flight into egypt, compline to the assumption of the virgin. the subsidiary hours of the passion naturally suggested the crucifixion or, less frequently, the invention or finding of the cross by the emperor constantine, and those of the holy spirit the day of pentecost. we have here the subjects for nine pictures, which were almost invariably heralded by one of the annunciation, and might easily be increased by a representation of the adoration by the shepherds, of the murder of the innocents, and the death of the virgin. moreover, the contents of books of hours were gradually enlarged till they deserved the title, which has been given them, of the lay-folk's prayer-book. a typical book of hours would contain-- (i.) a kalendar (one picture). (ii.) passages from the gospels on the passion of christ. (one to three pictures.) (iii.) private prayers. (iv.) the hours themselves--horae intemeratae beatae mariae virginis--with the subsidiary hours of the passion and of the holy ghost. (nine to thirteen pictures.) (v.) the seven penitential psalms. (one or two pictures.) (vi.) the litany of the saints. (vii.) the vigils of the dead. (one to four pictures.) (viii.) seven psalms on christ's passion. the kalendar usually contained poetical directions for the preservation of health, and was therefore preluded by a rather ghastly anatomical picture of a man. the passages from the gospel, which began with the first chapter of s. john, were illustrated by a picture of the evangelist's martyrdom, and the passion by one of the kiss of judas, or of the crucifixion. to the penitential psalms were sometimes prefixed pictures of bathsheba bathing on her housetop, and of the death of uriah, or, more rarely, of an angel appearing to david with weapons in his hand, signifying the three punishments between which he must choose for his sin in numbering the people. the litany of the saints offered too wide a field for full-page cuts to be assigned it, but was often illustrated by smaller ones set in the text. to the vigils of the dead the commonest illustrations at first were those of 'les trois vifs et les trois morts,' three gay cavaliers meeting their own grinning corpses. 'dives and lazarus' was first joined with these and afterwards superseded them. we also find pictures of the day of judgment, the entombment, and in one instance of a funeral. two illustrations in honour of the eucharist are also of common occurrence--one of angels upholding a chalice,[ ] the other of the vision of s. gregory, when he saw the crucified christ appearing on the altar. if we add to these a picture of the tree of jesse, and another of the church in heaven and on earth, we shall have exhausted the list of subjects which appear with any frequency, though pictures of the creation and fall, of david and goliath, of the descent from the cross, and perhaps one or two others may occasionally be found. it should be mentioned that the illustrations to the psalms on the passion are usually repeated from others previously used, but putting these on one side, it will be found that we have accounted for the subjects of some five-and-twenty pictures, and this is in excess of the number found in any one book, which varies from six to twenty-two. in some of the earlier _horae_, as we shall see, the printers contented themselves with these large illustrations, and in others surrounded the text with purely decorative borders of flowers and birds. but in a typical edition the borders consist of a number of small blocks or plates, the figures in which reinforced the teaching of the main illustrations. in an edition printed by jean du pré in february - , five pages are devoted to an explanation of these vignettes, and it will not be a waste of space to quote a few lines: ¶cest le repertoire des histoires & figures de la bible tant du vieilz testame_n_t q_ue_ du nouueau _con_tenues dedens les vignettes de ces presentes heures imprimees en cuyure. en chascune desq_ue_lles vignettes so_n_t contenues deux figures du vieilz testame_n_t signifia_n_s une vraye histoire du nouueau. co_m_me il appert par les chapitres cottez et alleguez au propos tant en latin que fra_n_coys en chascune desd_its_ figures et histoires. ¶et premierement en la pagee [_sic_] ensuyuante listoire de lannu_n_ciation est p_re_figuree la natiuite nostre dame. com_m_e il appert par les deux figures de iesse et balaan. prouue par le liure de isaye, xi chapitre et des no_m_bres xxiiii. chap. ¶item en lautre pagee ensuyua_n_te p_ar_ rebecca et sara est ente_n_du co_m_me nostre dame fut espousee a ioseph. ai_n_si q_u_'on lit en genese xxiiii. c. & tho. vi. thus we see that, as first planned, the border vignettes formed a continuous series illustrating historically the teaching of the _horae_ by reference to old testament types, with chapter and verse for their significance. it will be noticed also that it is distinctly stated that the vignettes in this edition were 'imprimées en cuyvre,' printed on copper. two months later, in an edition published by antoine vérard (april , ), the same table was reproduced with very slight alterations. the words 'en cuyvre' were then omitted, but 'imprimées' was left in, awkwardly enough. there can be no doubt that the omission was deliberate, and we have thus two statements which reinforce the opinion of the best experts, that both wood and copper were employed in engraving different editions of these designs. these old testament types do not appear to have long retained their popularity, and were soon superseded by a less continuous form of illustration. the calendar offered an excuse for introducing one series of vignettes of the sports and occupations of each month, another of the signs of the zodiac, and a third giving pictures of the saints in connection with the days on which they were commemorated. the gospels of the passion were illustrated by vignettes on the same subject; the hours themselves by a long series on the lives of christ and of the blessed virgin. the dance of death was brought in to illustrate the vigils of the dead, and relief was given by some charming scenes of hunting and rural life, which formed the border to the private prayers and the litany of the saints. in addition to these, we have representations of the prophets and sibyls, of the cardinal virtues, and the lives of the saints, and an admixture of purely decorative or grotesque designs. between the vignettes spaces were often left, which were filled in, sometimes with illustrative texts, sometimes with a continuous prayer or exhortation, either in french or latin. thus in the preliminary leaves of some of the _horae_ the text read: tout bon loyal et vaillant catholique qui commencer aucune euure ymagine doit inuoquer en toute sa pratique premierement la puissance diuine par ce beau nom iesus qui illumine tout cueur humain & tout entendement. cest en tout fait ung beau commencement: and when we turn to the gospels of the passion we find a prayer beginning 'protecteur des bons catholiques donne nous croire tellement les paroles euangeliques,' &c. in vérard's earlier editions the book would have to be turned round to read the words on the lower border, but in pigouchet's this defect was remedied, so that we are left free to imagine that the prayer was meant for devotional use, and not merely as a decoration. the chief firms employed in the production of these beautiful prayer-books during the fifteenth century were (i.) jean du pré; (ii.) antoine vérard; (iii.) philippe pigouchet, working chiefly for simon vostre, a publisher, but also for de marnef, laurens philippe, and occasionally on his own account; (iv.) thielman kerver. the proportion of dated and undated editions is about equal, and with careful study it ought to be possible to trace the career of each of the important firms, noting when each new illustration or vignette makes its first appearance. unfortunately great confusion has been introduced into the bibliography of _horae_ by the presence in them of calendars, mostly for twenty years, giving the dates of the moveable feasts. all that these calendars show is that the edition in which they occur must have been printed before, probably at least five or six years before, the last year for which they are reckoned. the fact that, _e.g._, the editions printed by pigouchet in august and september have the to calendar is by itself sufficient to prove that they cannot do more than this. unluckily a connection has often been assumed between the first year of the calendar and the year of publication--_e.g._ undated _horae_ with the calendar for - are frequently ascribed on that ground only to , or with perverse ingenuity to ; as if a calendar of the moveable feasts were like an annual almanac, and must necessarily be printed in readiness for the new year. great confusion has thus been caused, so that it is impossible to trust any conjectural date for an _horae_ unless we know the grounds on which it is based. the earliest dated french _horae_ was finished by antoine vérard on august , , and followed by another the next year dated july , ; but the cuts in both of these are small and rude, mere guides to an illuminator, and as vérard's later editions bring him into connection with other publishers, it will be convenient to consider first three editions by jean du pré, all of which are of great interest. the one which we must rank as the earliest is an undated _hore ad vsum romanum_, signed 'jo. de prato' (_i.e._ j. du pré) which can be shown to have been issued some little time before feb. , - , the date of a psalter printed by antoine cayllaut in which one of the cuts appears in a more worn condition. the text measures - / in. by - / . this is the only one of the three which was known to brunet, whose list of _horae_ in the fifth volume of his _manuel du libraire_, long as it is, is very incomplete. its text, including the borders, measures - / in. by - / , and in addition to du pré's mark and the anatomical man is illustrated by nineteen engravings. nine of these are the usual illustrations to the hours themselves, and the subsidiary hours of the passion and of the holy ghost. the penitential psalms are illustrated by david's bathsheba and the death of uriah, and the vigils of the dead by a figure of death. in addition to these we have the fall of lucifer, descent from the cross, with emblems of the four evangelists, a figure of the trinity, the virgin and child in glory, s. christopher, s. mary magdalen, and the vision of s. gregory, with small pictures from the life of christ and figures of the saints. the borders carry out the plan of the table of vignettes, containing three scenes from the bible and three heads, with explanatory text, on each page throughout the greater part of the book. towards the end these are replaced by figures of saints and angels. the artist's designs have been rather spoilt by the engraver, whose strokes are frequently much too black. the second of du pré's editions is a very interesting book, for the illustrations are printed in three colours--blue, red, and green. it is dated , but without the mention of any month. it has some unusual illustrations--_e.g._ the three maries with the body of christ, david and goliath, lazarus in abraham's bosom and dives in torment, and s. christopher. many of the pages are without vignettes, and where these occur they are not joined neatly together to form a continuous border, but set, rather at haphazard, about the margin. pictures and vignettes are printed sometimes in the same, sometimes in different colours. the page of text measures - / in. by , or without borders, by - / . the last edition known to me by du pré is undated, and has a latin title-page, _hore ad usum romanum. jo. de prato._ the text with borders measures - / in. by - / . its borders are similar to those of the large folios of the period, having a floral groundwork, into which birds, figures of men and women, angels and grotesques are introduced. to make up for the lack of vignettes there are seven small illustrations of the passion set in the text. for the larger illustrations, which appear to be woodcuts, du pré again varied his subjects, introducing for the only time in these three editions _les trois vifs et les trois morts_, reduced reproductions of which are here given. [illustration: _les trois vifs._ from a _horae_ of jean du pré. (reduced.)] [illustration: _les trois morts._ from a _horae_ of jean du pré. (reduced.)] it was not to be expected that so enterprising a publisher as vérard would rest content with the very unpretentious _horae_ he produced in and , but the precise date at which he first made a more ambitious essay is not easy to fix. the undated edition of his _grandes heures_ for the use of rome is constantly assigned to , for no other reason than that it contains the - almanac, though the breaks in the borders suffice to show that this was not the first appearance of the blocks. at the library at toulouse there is said to be a vérard _horae ad usum romanum_ dated april , , that is, as the french year at this time began, at easter, , and this may be the first of vérard's new editions. this was followed the next year by the first edition of his _grandes heures_, with thirteen woodcuts and a frontispiece. i have not been fortunate enough to see a copy of either of these editions, but three undated _horae_ in the british museum, printed by vérard, seem to belong to the same type as the _grandes heures_. in addition to a poorly cut vision of heaven, the anatomical man, and the chalice, they contain, in varying order, fourteen large woodcuts--(i.) the fall of lucifer; (ii.) the history of adam and eve; (iii.) a double picture, the upper half showing the strife between mercy, justice, peace, and reason in the presence of god, and the lower half the annunciation, which followed the triumph of mercy; (iv.) the marriage of joseph and mary; (v.) the invention of the cross; (vi.) the gift of the spirit; (vii.) a double picture of the nativity and the adoration by the shepherds; (viii.) the adoration by the magi; (ix.) a double picture of the annunciation to the shepherds and of peasants dancing round a tree; (x.) the circumcision; (xi.) the killing of the innocents; (xii.) the crowning of the virgin; (xiii.) david entering a castle, with the words 'tibi soli peccavi,'--against thee only have i sinned,--issuing from his mouth; (xiv.) a funeral service, the hearse standing before the altar. the cut of the message to the shepherds here shown will give a fair idea of the characteristics of this series, as well as of the borders by which they were accompanied.[ ] a full list of the larger subjects has been given because some of them often occur in later editions joined with other pictures of the school of pigouchet, and it is useful to be able to fix their origin at a glance.[ ] six of them form the only large illustrations in the little _horae_, printed for vérard, april , , in which, as we have already noted, the words 'on copper' appear to have been deliberately omitted from the table of the vignettes. the size of the _grandes heures_ is in. by , that of the edition of april , in. by . brunet enumerates altogether thirty editions of _horae_ printed by vérard, the last of which bearing a date belongs to the year . so far as i am acquainted with them these later editions have few distinguishing characteristics, but are mostly made up with illustrations designed for other firms. [illustration: from a _grandes heures_ of antoine vérard.] we come now to the most celebrated of all the series of _horae_, those printed by pigouchet, chiefly for simon vostre. brunet in his list rightly discredits the existence of an edition by this printer dated as early as january , . he accepts, however, and briefly describes as if he had himself seen, one of september , , and mentions also an edition printed april , - . no copy of either of these editions has come to light during the twenty years in which the present writer has been interested in _horae_, and it seems fairly certain that pigouchet's first illustrated work is to be found in an edition _ad usum parisiensem_, dated december , . the large cuts in this are fairly good, but a little stiff; the small border-cuts include a long set of incidents in the life of christ with old testament types after the manner of the _biblia pauperum_. a _horae_ of may , , substitutes floral borders for these little pictures. in another set of editions in which pigouchet was concerned, apparently between and , the borders are made up of vignettes of very varying size, which may be recognised by many of them being marked with gothic letters, mostly large minuscules. sometimes one, sometimes two, vignettes thus lettered occur on a page, and we may presume that the lettering, which is certainly a disfigurement, was intended to facilitate the arrangement of the borders. in these _horae_, also, the designs are comparatively coarse and poor. some of the large illustrations are divided into an upper compartment, containing the main subject, and two lower compartments, containing its 'types.' [illustration: dives and lazarus, from pigouchet's _horae_, . (reduced.)] certainly by , and possibly in earlier editions which i have not seen, pigouchet had arrived at his typical style, of which a good specimen-page is given in our illustration from the edition of august , . his original idea appears to have been for editions with a page of text measuring - / in. by - / , such as he issued on april , , and january , - . but at least as early as november , , he added another inch both to the height and breadth of his page by the insertion of the little figures, which will be noticed at the left of the lower corner and on the right at the top. the extra inch was valuable, for it enabled him to surround his large illustrations with vignettes, but the borders themselves are not improved by them, for they mar the rich effect of the best work in which the backgrounds are of black with pricks of white. these same dotted backgrounds, which we have already noticed as present in some of the finest of the printers' marks, appear also in three plates, which are found in the editions, and thenceforward, but, as far as i can ascertain, not earlier. these three plates illustrate (i.) the tree of jesse; (ii.) the church militant and triumphant; (iii.) the adoration of the shepherds. all three plates are of great beauty, and the last is noticeable for the names--'mahault,' 'aloris,' 'alison,' 'gobin le gay,' and 'le beau roger'--which are assigned to the shepherds and their wives, and which are the same as those by which they are known in the french mystery-plays. the artists who used these dotted backgrounds evidently viewed the _horae_ rather from the mystery-play standpoint. they cared little for the 'types' which vérard and du pré so carefully explained in their early editions, but delighted in the dance of death and in scenes of hunting and rural life, or failing these in grotesques. they placed their talents at the disposal of religion, but they bargained to be allowed to introduce a good deal of humour as well. the best french _horae_ were all published within about ten years. during this decade, which just overlaps the fifteenth century, the only serious rival of pigouchet was thielman kerver, who began printing in , and by dint of close imitation approached very near indeed to pigouchet's success. with the lessening of pigouchet's activity about , there came an after-flood of bad taste, which swept everything before it. the old french designs were displaced by reproductions of german work utterly unsuited to the french types and ornaments, and along with these there came an equally disastrous substitution of florid renaissance borders of pillars and cherubs for pigouchet's charming vignettes and hunting scenes. thielman kerver, who had begun with better things, soon made his surrender to the new fashion, and his firm continued to print _horae_, for which it is difficult to find a good word until about . his activity was more than equalled by gilles hardouyn, who with his successors was responsible for some seventy editions during the first half of the sixteenth century. guillaume eustace, guillaume godard, and françois regnault were less formidable competitors, and besides these some thirty or forty editions are attributable to other printers. on january th (or to use the affected style of the colophon itself, 'xvii. kal. febr.'), , geoffroy tory, the scholar, artist, and printer, in conjunction with his friend simon colines, brought out a _horae_, which is certainly not open to the charge of bad taste. the printed page measures - / in. by - / , the type used is a delicate roman letter with a slight employment of red ink, but no hand work, the borders are in the most delicate style of the renaissance. the illustrations number twelve, of which one, that of the annunciation, occupies two pages. there are no unusual subjects, except that in the picture of the crucifixion tory displays his classical pedantry by surrounding the central picture with four vignettes illustrating virgil's 'sic vos non vobis' quatrain, on the sheep, the bees, the birds, and the oxen, whose life enriches others but not themselves. in the picture of the adoration by the magi, here given, tory obtains an unusually rich effect by the figure of the negro. he repeats this, on a smaller scale, in the black raven, croaking _cras, cras_, in the picture of the triumph of death. the tone of the other illustrations is rather thin, and the length of the faces and slight angularity in the figures (effects which tory, the most affected of artists, no doubt deliberately sought for) cause them just to fall short of beauty. compared, however, with the contemporary editions of other printers, tory's _horae_ seem possessed of every beauty. we know of five editions before his death or retirement in , and of some seven others before the close of the half century. after the publication of _horae_ in france almost entirely ceased, but some pretty editions were issued at antwerp by the french printer christopher plantin in and , and perhaps in other years. the decree of pope pius v. making the use of the office no longer obligatory on the clergy seems to have been preceded by a great falling off of the popularity of the hours among the laity, in whom the booksellers had found their chief customers, and after a very few editions sufficed to supply the demand of those who were still wedded to their use. [illustration: from tory's _horae_, . (reduced.)] * * * * * [ ] i join this with the other illustration as having a eucharistic significance, but in one of vérard's editions the full explanation is given: 'cest la mesure de la playe du coste de notre seigneur iesucrist qui fut apportee de constantinople au noble empereur saint charlemaine afin que nulz ennemys ne luy peussent nuire en bataille.' [ ] the defects in this reproduction appear also in the original, from which it is reduced. [ ] _e.g._, in an edition printed by jean poitevin, may , , the illustrations for terce, sext, nones, vespers, and compline are from vérard; the others, including the printer's device, were imitated from pigouchet. chapter ix holland thirty years ago, under the title _the woodcutters of the netherlands_ (a little suggestive of a story for boys on life in a dutch forest) sir martin conway wrote a treatise on the early book-illustrations of the low countries, which is still the standard work on the subject, and only needed plenty of facsimiles to make it completely illuminating. unfortunately in the process block was still in its infancy, and in the absence of this cheap method of reproduction the book was issued without a single picture. written some nine years later the present chapter epitomises so much of sir martin's treatise as the rather scanty stock of low country illustrated books in england enabled me to visualise, and for lack of an intervening pilgrimage to dutch libraries comparatively little can now be added to it. sir martin conway divided his book into three parts, the first giving the history of the woodcutters, the second a catalogue of the cuts, and the third a list of the books containing them. putting on one side the blocks imported or directly copied from france and germany, he attributes the illustrations in fifteenth century dutch books to some five-and-twenty different workmen and their apprentices. his first group is formed of-- (i.) a louvain woodcutter who worked for john and conrad de westphalia, for whom he cut two capital little vignette portraits of themselves, and for veldener, for whom he executed the nine illustrations in an edition of the _fasciculus temporum_, published on december , . (ii.) a utrecht woodcutter, whose most important works are a set of cuts to illustrate the _boeck des gulden throens_, published by a mysterious printer, gl., in , some additional cuts for a new edition by veldener of the _fasciculus temporum_, and a set of thirty-nine cuts, chiefly on the life of christ, for the same printer's _epistolen ende ewangelien_ of . (iii.) a bruges woodcutter, possibly the printer himself, who illustrated colard mansion's french edition of the _metamorphoses_ of ovid ( ); and (iv.) a gouda woodcutter, by whose aid gerard leeu started on his career as a printer of illustrated books with the _dialogus creaturarum_ (of which he printed six editions between june , , and august , ), and the _gesten van romen_, _vier uterste_, and _historia septem sapientum_. of these books, whose illustrations are grouped together as all executed in pure line work, the most interesting to us are the _metamorphoses_ and the _dialogus_. the former is handsomely printed in red and black in mansion's large type, and has seventeen single-column cuts of gods and goddesses and as many double-column ones illustrating the metamorphoses themselves. the larger cuts are the more successful, and are certainly superior to the average french work of the day, to which they bear a considerable resemblance. uncouth as they are, they were thought good enough by antoine vérard to serve as models for his own edition of . the _metamorphoses_, mansion's first illustrated book, was also the last work issued from his press; and part of the edition was not published till after his disappearance from bruges. the hundred and twenty-one cuts in leeu's _dialogus creaturarum_ are the work of a far more inspired, if very child-like, artist. with a minimum of strokes the creatures about whom the text tells its wonderful stories are drawn so as to be easily recognisable, and we have no reason to suppose that the humour which pervades them was otherwise than intentional. we come now to the best period of dutch illustration, which centres round the presses of leeu at gouda and antwerp, and of jacob bellaert at haarlem, whose business was probably only a branch of leeu's. during his stay at gouda, leeu commissioned an important set of sixty-eight blocks, thirty-two of which were used in the _lijden ons heeren_ of , and the whole set in a _devote ghetiden_, which sir martin conway conjectures to have been published just after the printer's removal to antwerp in the summer of . fifty-two of them were used again, in conjunction with other cuts, in the _boeck vanden leven christi_ of ludolphus in , and the history of many of them can be traced in other books to as late as . thus they were evidently popular, though neither their design nor their cutting calls for much praise. another set of seven cuts, to each of which is joined a sidepiece showing a teacher and a scholar, appears in leeu's last gouda book, the _van den seven sacramenten_ of june , , and evinces a much greater mastery over his tools on the part of the engraver. the little sidepiece, which was added to bring the breadth of the cuts up to that of leeu's folio page ( - / in.), is particularly good. after leeu's removal to antwerp his activity as a printer of illustrated books suffered a temporary check, and our interest is transferred to the office of jacob bellaert at haarlem, who, after borrowing some of leeu's cuts for a _lijden ons heeren_, issued in december , in the following february had printed under the name of _der sonderen troest_ a dutch version of the _belial_ of jacobus de theramo. this has altogether thirty-two cuts, the first of which occupies a full page, and represents in its different parts the fall of lucifer and of adam and eve, the flood, the passage of the red sea, and the baptism of christ. six half-page cuts represent incidents of the harrowing of hell, the ascension, and the day of pentecost. the other illustrations at a hasty glance seem to be of the same size ( in. by - / ), but are soon discovered to be separable into different blocks, usually three in number. eight blocks of - / in. each, and seventeen of half this width, are thus arranged in a series of dramatic combinations. thus we are first shown the different persons who answer the citation of solomon, whose judgment hall is the central block in thirteen illustrations; then the controversy in heaven before christ as the judge; then scenes in a royal council chamber, &c. our illustration is taken from the opening of solomon's court, with belial appearing to plead on one side, and christ answering the summons of the messenger, azahel, on the other. [illustration: from leeu's edition of _der sonderen troest_, antwerp, .] in october of the same year, , bellaert printed an edition of the _boeck des gulden throens_, in which four cuts, representing the soul, depicted as a woman with flowing hair, being instructed by an elder, serve as illustrations to all the twenty-four discourses. in we have first of all two romances, the _historie vanden vromen ridder jason_ and the _vergaderinge der historien van troyen_, both translated from raoul le fèvre, and illustrated with half-folio cuts, which i have not seen. at the end of the year came a translation of glanville's _de proprietatibus rerum_, with eleven folio cuts, of which the most interesting are the first, which shows the almighty seated in glory within a circle thrown up by a black background, and the sixth, which contains twelve little medallions, representing the pleasures and occupations of the different months. during bellaert printed three illustrated books, an _epistelen ende euangelien_, pierre michault's _doctrinael des tyts_, an allegory, in which virtue exhibits to the author the schools of vice, and a dutch version of deguileville's _pélerinage de la vie humaine_. the ten cuts in the second of these three books are described by sir martin conway as carefully drawn, the more numerous illustrations in the others showing hasty work, probably produced by an inferior artist. after bellaert disappears, and most of his cuts and types are found in the possession of gerard leeu, who, since his removal to antwerp, had lacked the help of a good engraver. he apparently secured the services of bellaert's artist, and now printed french and dutch editions of the romance of _paris and vienne_ (may ), an edition of _reynard the fox_, of which only a fragment remains, the already-mentioned edition of _ludolphus_, for which he used cuts both new and old, a _kintscheyt jhesu_ ( ), dutch and latin versions of the story of the seven wise men of rome, who saved the young prince from the wiles of his step-mother, and numerous religious works. at the time of his death, in , he was engaged on an edition of the _cronycles of england_, which has on its title-page a fine quarto cut showing the shield of england supported by angels. in leeu had copied (sir martin conway says, 'borrowed,' but this is a mistake) blocks from anton sorg, of augsburg, for an edition of _Æsop_, and in , in his _duytsche ghetiden_, he employed a set of woodcuts imitated from those in use in the french _horae_. sir martin assigns these directly to a french wood-cutter, but the work, both in the cuts and the borders, appears to me sufficiently distinctive to be set down rather as an imitation than as produced by a foreign artist. its success was immediate, and the designs appear in half a dozen books printed by leeu during the next two years, and in nine others issued by lieseveldt, their purchaser, between and the end of the century. we must now look very briefly at some of the illustrated books printed in other dutch towns. at zwolle, from onwards, peter van os issued a large number of devotional works, the cuts in many of which were copied from sets made for leeu. this, however, is not the case with a folio cut of the virgin manifesting herself to s. bernard, which is given as a frontispiece to three editions of the saint's _sermons_ ( , &c.), and is of great beauty. at delft, jacob van der meer also copied leeu's books; in he produced an original set of illustrations to the ever-popular _scaeckspul_ of jacobus de cessolis, and three years later, a _passionael_, with upwards of ninety cuts, which were used again and again in more than a score of similar works or editions. he was succeeded by christian snellaert, who, in , endeavoured to imitate leeu's french cuts in an edition of the _kerstenen spieghel_. john de westphalia continued to work at louvain until , but his illustrated books were few and unimportant. at gouda, gotfrid de os, after borrowing blocks from leeu, when the latter had departed for antwerp, issued a few books with woodcuts, notably the romance of godfrey of boulogne (_historie hertoghe godeuaerts van boloen_), and _le chevalier délibéré_ by olivier de lamarche, with sixteen large and very striking woodcuts, which have been reproduced in facsimile by the bibliographical society from the reprint issued about the end of the century at schiedam. at deventer, jacobus de breda and richard paffroet, from onwards, printed a large number of books with single cuts, none of any great importance. in the last decade of the century, hugo janszoen commissioned several sets of crude religious cuts, while the illustrated books issued at antwerp by godfrey back, who had married the widow of an earlier printer, mathias van der goes, do not seem to have been much better. this decline of good work sir martin conway attributes chiefly to the influence of the french woodcuts introduced by leeu. 'the characteristic quality,' he says, 'of the french cuts is the large mass of delicately cut shade lines which they contain. the workmen of the low countries finding these foreign cuts rapidly becoming popular, endeavoured to imitate them, but without bestowing upon their work that care by which alone any semblance of french delicacy could be attained. from the year onwards, dutch and flemish cuts always contain large masses of clumsily cut shade. the outlines are rude; the old childishness is gone; thus the last decade of the fifteenth century is a decade of decline.' when we pass from the illustrations to the other decorations in early dutch books, we find that large borders of foliage, boldly but rather coarsely treated, were used by veldener in his _fasciculus temporum_ of , and in gerard leeu's edition of the _dyalogus creaturarum_ the following year. veldener's is accompanied by a fine initial o, in which the design of the border is carried on. leeu's page contains a rather heavy s, and the woodcut of the faces of the sun and moon. in , as we have seen, leeu printed a _psalter of the blessed virgin_, by s. bernard, in imitation of the french _horae_. this has very graceful little floral borders in small patterns on grounds alternately black and white. after leeu's death, they passed into the possession of adrian van lieseveldt, who used them for a _duytsche ghetyden_ in . the most noteworthy initial letters are the five alphabets, printed in red, used by john of westphalia. in the smallest the letters are a third of an inch square, in the largest about an inch and a quarter. this and the next size are picked out with white scroll-work, somewhat in the same way as schoeffer's. peter van os at zwolle used a large n, four inches square, with intertwining foliage. he had also a fount of rustic capitals, almost undecipherable. leeu, besides his large s, had several good alphabets of initials. a very beautiful d, reproduced by holtrop from the _vier uterste_ (quatuor novissima) of , is much the most graceful letter in any dutch book. no other initials of the same style have been found. eckert van hombergh also had some good initials, in which the ground is completely covered with a light floral design. gotfrid van os at gouda, m. van der goes at antwerp, jacob jacobsoen at delft, and lud. de ravescoet at louvain, were the chief other possessors of initials, the use of which continued for a long time to be very partial. [illustration: mark of jacob bellaert.] several of the devices of the dutch printers are very splendid. the borders which surrounded the unicorn of h. eckert van hombergh and the eagle of jacob bellaert give them special magnificence. the castle at antwerp was used as a device by gerard leeu, and subsequently by thierry martens, and a printer at gouda placed a similar erection on an elephant, perhaps as a pun between _howdah_ and gouda. peter van os at zwolle had a large device of an angel holding a shield; m. van der goes at antwerp a still larger one of a ragged man flourishing a club, while his shield displays a white lion on a black ground. another antwerp printer, g. back, used several varieties of bird-cages as his marks, in one of which the antwerp castle is introduced on a shield hanging from the cage. several printers--_e.g._ colard mansion at bruges, jacob jacobsoen at delft, and gerard leeu at gouda, contented themselves with small devices of a pair of shields braced together. leeu, however, while at gouda, used also a large device of a helmeted shield supported by two lions. [illustration: from the romance of _tirant lo blanch_, valentia, .] chapter x spain since the first edition of this book appeared knowledge both of spanish incunabula and the types in which they are printed has been greatly increased, thanks to the researches of professor haebler. these have dealt incidentally, but only incidentally, with the illustration and decoration of early spanish books, and the present writer must still confine himself mainly to the little handful of illustrated books which have come under his own notice. the book-hand in use in spain's manuscripts during the fifteenth century was unusually massive and handsome, and the same characteristics naturally reappear in the majority of the types used by the early printers in spain. a considerable proportion of these were germans, whose tradition of good press-work was very fairly maintained by their immediate successors, so that throughout a great part of the sixteenth century spanish books retain much of the primitive dignity which we are wont to associate only with 'incunabula.' from a very early period, also, they are distinguished by the excellence of their initial letters, which are almost as plentiful as they are good; the great majority of books printed after , which i have seen, being fully provided with them. the prevailing form of initial exhibits very delicate white tracery on a black ground. in a few instances, as in a _seneca_ printed by meinardo ungut and stanislao polono, at seville, in , some of the initials are in red, and have a very decorative effect. a fine capital l and a appear in a work of jean de mena, issued by these printers in , and a good m in their _claros varones_ of pulgar in the following year. a _consolat_, printed, it is said, by pedro posa at barcelona in , is very remarkable for its profusion of fine initials. engraved borders are not of common occurrence in spanish books, though i shall have to notice two striking instances of their use in books printed at zamora and valencia. borders are found, also, on the title-pages of various laws printed at barcelona during the reign of ferdinand and isabella, but these are of no great beauty, and some of the pieces of which they are composed are poor copies from the french _horae_. as a rule, spanish title-pages are handsome and imposing. during the last few years of the fifteenth century and the beginning of its successor, the titles of books were often printed in large woodcut letters. a spanish _livy_, printed at salamanca in , a _vocabulary_ of antonio lebrixa, printed by kromberger at seville in , and a _mar de istorias_ printed at valladolid in , supply examples of this practice. in an _obra a llaors del benauenturat lo senyor sant cristofol_, printed at valencia in , the woodcut title is in white on a black ground, which is also relieved by a medallion of the saint fording the stream. pictures were also used in connection with the more ordinary woodcut titles in black--_e.g._ in juan de lucena's _tratado de la vita beata_, printed by juan de burgos in , we have a cut of a king, bearing his sword of justice and surrounded by his counsellors; and in a _libro de consolat tractant dels fets maritims_ of the same year, printed by johan luschner at barcelona, beneath the woodcut title there is a large figure of a ship up whose masts sailors are climbing, apparently in quest of a very prominent moon. woodcut pictures of the hero decorate the title-pages of the romances of spain as of other countries, and these pictorial title-pages are found also, though less frequently, in works of devotion and in plays. such pictures are less common in spain than elsewhere, because of the great popularity there of the heraldic title-page, in which the arms of the country, or of the hero or patron of the work, form a singularly successful method of ornament. these heraldic title-pages are found in a few books, printed before , and were in common use throughout the sixteenth century. the earliest spanish illustrated book with which i am acquainted is the _libro delos trabajos de hercules_ of the marquis enrique de villena, printed by antonio de centenera at zamora, on january th, ( ). this has eleven woodcuts, illustrating the hero's exploits, and so rudely executed that they are plainly the work of a native artist. far more interesting than these 'prentice cuts are the illustrative initials, apparently engraved on soft metal, in a _copilacion de leyes_, promulgated in , and supposed to have been printed by centenera in the same year. these initials are nine in number, and must have been designed and executed by finished artists, whose work is so fine that the printer in most instances has failed to do justice to it. on the first page of text an initial p contains within it figures of a king and queen, ferdinand and isabella. this page has at its foot a border containing a hunting scene, with a blank shield in its centre. the rest of the page is surrounded by a text, printed decoratively, so as to form an open-work border. the first section of the laws, treating of 'la santa fe,' has an initial e, showing god the father upholding the crucified christ. the second section sets forth the duty of the king to hear causes two days a week, and begins with an l, here reproduced, in which the king is unpleasantly close pressed by the litigants. [illustration: initial l from a _copilacion de leyes_, zamora, _c._ .] two knights spurring from the different sides of an s head the laws of chivalry; a canonist and his scholars in an a preside over matrimony; money-changers in a d over commerce, while a luckless wretch being hanged in the midst of a t warns evil-doers of what they may expect under the criminal law. the pages containing these initials are enriched also by a border in two pieces, the lower part of which shows a shield, with a device of trees, supported by kneeling youths. the perpendicular piece running up the outer margin bears a floral design. all the letters, while directly illustrating the subjects of the chapters which they begin, are at the same time essentially decorative, and they are certainly the best pictorial initials i have ever seen, though it must be reckoned against them that they were unduly difficult to print with the text. the page here reproduced, unfortunately only about one-third of its original size, from the famous romance of _tirant lo blanch_, gives us another example of this peculiar style of engraving. it is taken from the edition printed at valencia in , and may fairly be reckoned as one of the most decorative pages in any fifteenth-century book. the rest of the volume has no other ornament than some good initials. the first spanish book with woodcuts of any artistic merit with which i am acquainted is an edition of diego de san pedro's _carcel d'amor_, printed at barcelona in . this has sixteen different cuts, some of which are several times repeated. the title-cut, showing love's prison, is here reproduced, and gives a very good idea of a characteristic spanish woodcut. the other illustrations show the lover in various attitudes before his lady, a meeting in a street, the author at work on his book, &c. another edition of the _carcel d'amor_, with the same woodcuts, was printed at burgos in by fadrique aleman. [illustration: title-page of diego de san pedro's _carcel d'amor_, barcelona, .] most of the other spanish incunabula with woodcuts, which i have seen, were printed at seville by meinardo ungut and stanislao polono. the first of these, gorricio's _contemplaciones sobre el rosario de nuestra señora_, issued in , has some good initials, two large cuts nearly the full size of the quarto page, and fifteen smaller ones, with graceful borders mostly on a black ground. the small cuts illustrate the life of christ and of the b. virgin, and are, to some extent, modelled on the pictures in the french _horae_. in the same year, the same printers published ayala's _chronica del rey don pedro_, with a title-cut of a young king, seated on his throne, and also the _lilio de medicina_ of b. de gordonio with a title-cut of lilies. in , a firm of four printers, 'paulo de colonia, juan pegnicer de nuremberg, magno y thomas,' published an edition of juan de mena's _labirinto_ or _las ccc_ (so called from the number of stanzas in which it is written) with a title-cut of the author (?) kneeling before a king. three years later, still at seville, pedro brun printed in quarto the romance of the emperor _vespasian_, with fourteen full-page cuts of sea voyages, sieges, the death of pilate, &c. against these books printed at seville, during the last decade of the century, i have only notes of one or two books issued at salamanca, valencia, and barcelona, with unimportant title-cuts, and a reprint at burgos of the _trabajos de hercules_ ( ) with poor illustrations fitted into the columns of a folio page. but it is quite possible that my knowledge is as one-sided as it is limited, and i must, therefore, refrain from building up any theory that seville, rather than any other town, was the chief home of illustrated books in spain. after the spanish books which i have met have no important illustrations beyond the cuts which appear on some of their title-pages. but here, also, i should be sorry to make my small experience the basis of a general statement. the devices of the spanish printers were greatly influenced by those of their compeers of italy and france. the simple circle and cross, in white on a black ground, with the printer's initials in the semicircles, is fairly common, while diego de gumiel and arnaldo guillermo brocar varied it, according to the best italian fashion, with very beautiful floral tracery. the tree of knowledge and pendant shields, beloved of the french printers, appear in the marks of meinardo ungut and stanislao polono, and of juan de rosembach. arnaldo guillermo had another and very elaborate mark, showing a man kneeling before the emblems of the passion, and two angels supporting a shield with a device of a porcupine. one of the quaintest of all printers' marks was used by a later printer of the name juan brocar, whose motto 'legitime certanti' is illustrated by a mail-clad soldier grasping a lady's hair while he himself is being seized by the devil! [illustration: from the _canterbury tales_, nd edition.] chapter xi england _by_ e. gordon duff the art of the wood-engraver may almost be said to have had no existence in england before the introduction of printing, for there are not probably more than half a dozen cuts now known, if indeed so many, that are of an earlier date. the few that exist are devotional prints of the type known as the 'image of pity,' in which a half-length figure of christ on the cross stands surrounded with the emblems of the passion. it may be taken, i think, for granted that at the time caxton set up his press at westminster, that is, in the year , there was no wood-engraver competent to undertake the work of illustrating his books. we see, for instance, that in the first edition of the _canterbury tales_ there are no woodcuts, while they appear in the second edition; and it is not likely that caxton would have left a book so eminently suited for illustration without some such adornment had the necessary craftsmen been available. as it was, it was not till that woodcuts first appeared in an english printed book, the _mirror of the world_. in this there are two series of cuts. one, consisting of diagrams, is found in most of the mss. of the book; the other, which represents masters teaching their scholars or at work alone, was a new departure of caxton's. it is quite probable that they were intended for general use in books, indeed we find some used in the _cato_, but they do not appear to have been employed elsewhere. the diagrams are meagre and difficult to understand, so much so that the printer has printed several in their wrong places. the necessary letterpress occurring within them is not printed (caxton had not then a small enough type), but is written in by hand, and it is worth noticing that this is done in all copies in the same hand, and so must have been done in caxton's office, some are fond enough to suppose by caxton himself. in the next year appeared the second edition of the _game of chesse_, with a number of woodcuts. the first edition, printed at bruges by caxton and mansion, had no illustrations. the cuts are coarsely designed and roughly cut, but serve their purpose; indeed, they are evidently intended as illustrations rather than ornaments. some controversy has at different times arisen as to whether these cuts were executed in england or abroad, but mr. linton has very justly decided in favour of england. the work, he says, is so poor that any one who could hold a knife could cut them, therefore there was no necessity to send abroad. about we have two important illustrated books, the _canterbury tales_ and the _Æsop_; the former with illustrations, the latter with . the cuts of the _canterbury tales_ depict for the most part the various individuals of the pilgrimage, and there is also a bird's-eye view of all the pilgrims seated at an immense round table at supper, which was used afterwards by wynkyn de worde for the 'assembly of gods.' the copies of german cuts in the _Æsop_, with the exception of the full-page frontispiece (known only in the copy in the windsor library), are smaller, and are the work of two, if not three, engravers. one cut seems to have been hurriedly executed in a different manner to the rest, perhaps to take the place of one injured at the last moment. it is not worked in the usual manner with the outlines in black--_i.e._ raised lines on the wood-block, but a certain amount of the effect has been produced by a white line on a black ground--_i.e._ by the cut-away lines of the wood-block. the _golden legend_, which was the next illustrated book to appear, contains the most ambitious woodcuts which caxton used. those in the earlier part are the full width of a large folio page, and show, especially in their backgrounds, a certain amount of technical skill. the later part of the book contains a number of small cuts of saints very coarsely executed, and the same cut is used over and over again for different saints. in caxton first used his large woodcut device, which is probably, though the contrary is often asserted, of english workmanship. it is entirely un-french in style and execution, and was probably cut to print on the missal printed by maynyal for caxton in order that the publisher might be brought prominently into notice. about this time ( - ) two more illustrated books were issued,--the _royal book_ and the _speculum vite christi_. the series cut for the _speculum_ are of very good workmanship, though the designs are poor, but all of them were not used in the book. one or two appear later in books printed by w. de worde, manifestly from the same series. the _royal book_ contains only seven cuts, six of which are from the _speculum_. some of the cuts occur also in the _doctrinal of sapience_ and the _book of divers ghostly matters_. it is impossible not to think when examining caxton's books that the use of woodcuts was rather forced upon him by the necessities of his business, than deliberately preferred by himself. he seems to have wished to popularise the more generally known books, and only to have used woodcuts when the book absolutely needed them. he did not, as some later printers did, simply use woodcuts to attract the unwary purchaser. what cuts caxton possessed at the end of his career it is hard to determine. the set of large _horae_ cuts which w. de worde used must have been caxton's, for we find one of them, the crucifixion, used in the _fifteen o'es_, which was itself intended as a supplement to a _horae_, now unknown. in the same way there must have been a number of cuts for use in the vo _horae_, but as that is known only from a small fragment, we cannot identify them. from similarity of style and identity of measurement we can pick out a few from wynkyn de worde's later editions, but many must be passed over. on turning to examine the presses at work at the same time as caxton's one cannot but be struck by the scarcity of illustrations. lettou and machlinia, though they produced over thirty books, had no ornaments that we know of beyond a border which was used in their edition of the _horae ad usum sarum_, and passed into the hands of pynson. they seem to have been without everything except type, not having even initial letters. the st. alban's press was a step in advance. a few cuts were used in the _chronicles_, and the _book of st. alban's_ contains coats of arms, produced by a combination of wood-cutting and printing in colour. the oxford press was the most ambitious, and was in possession of two sets of cuts, in neither case intended for the books in which they were used. one set was prepared for a _golden legend_, but no such book is known to have been issued at the oxford press. one of these cuts appears as a frontispiece to lyndewode's _constitutions_. it represents jacobus de voragine writing the _golden legend_, so that it did equally well for lyndewode writing his law-book. others of the series are used in the _liber festialis_ of , but as that was a small folio and the cuts were large, the ends were cut off, and they are all printed in a mutilated condition. the other cuts used in the _festial_ are small, and form part of a set for a _horae_, but no _horae_ is known to have been printed at the oxford press. it would be natural to suppose in this case that these cuts had been procured from some other printer who had used them in the production of the books for which they were intended; but the most careful search has failed to find them in any other book. besides these cuts the oxford press owned a very beautiful border, which was used in the commentary on the _de anima_ of aristotle by alexander de hales and the commentary on the _lamentations of jeremiah_ by john lattebury, printed in and . the printers owned nothing else for the adornment of their books but a rudely cut capital g, which we find used many times in the _festial_. the poverty of ornamental letters and borders is very noticeable in all the english presses of the fifteenth century. caxton possessed one ambitious letter, a capital a, which was used first in the _order of chivalry_, and a series of eight borders, each made up of four pieces, and found for the first time in the _fifteen o'es_. they are of little merit, and compare very unfavourably with french work of the period. the best set of borders used in england belonged to notary and his partners when they started in london about . they are in the usual style, with dotted backgrounds, and may very likely have been brought from france. pynson's borders, which he used in a _horae_ about , are much more english in style, but are not good enough to make the page really attractive; in fact almost the only fine specimens of english printing with borders are to be found in the morton _missal_, which he printed in . in this book also there are fine initial letters, often printed in red. it is hard to understand why, as a rule, english initial letters were so very bad; it certainly was not from the want of excellent models, for those in the sarum missals, printed at venice by hertzog in , and sold in england by frederic egmont, contain most beautifully designed initials, as good as can be found in any early printed book. wynkyn de worde, when he succeeded in to caxton's business, found himself in possession of a large number of cuts, a considerably larger number than ever appeared in the books of caxton's that now remain to us. the first illustrated book he issued was a new edition of the _golden legend_, in which the old cuts were utilised. this was printed in . in a new edition of the _speculum vite christi_ was issued, of which only one complete copy is known, that in the library at holkham. it probably contains only the series of cuts used by caxton in his edition, for the few leaves to be found in other libraries have no new illustrations. about the same time ( ) de worde issued several editions of the _horae ad usum sarum_, one in octavo (known from a few leaves discovered in the binding of a book in the library of corpus christi college, oxford) and the rest in quarto. in the quarto editions we find the large series of pictures, among which are the three rioters and three skeletons, the tree of jesse, and the crucifixion, which occur in caxton's _fifteen o'es_. it is extremely probable that all the cuts in these editions had belonged to caxton. the two cuts in the fragment of the octavo edition, however, are of quite a different class, evidently newly cut, and much superior in style and simplicity to caxton's. it is much to be regretted that no complete copy of the book exists, for the neat small cuts and bold red and black printing form a very tasteful page. a curious specimen of engraving is to be found in the _scala perfectionis_, by walter hylton, also printed in . it represents the virgin and child seated under an architectural canopy, and below this are the words of the antiphon beginning, 'sit dulce nomen d[=n]i.' these words are not printed from type, but cut on the block, and the engraver seems to have treated them simply as part of the decoration, for many of the words are by themselves quite unreadable and bear only a superficial resemblance to the inscription from which they were copied. an edition of bartholomaeus' _de proprietatibus rerum_ issued about this time has a number of cuts, not of very great interest; and the _book of st. albans_ of has an extra chapter on fishing, illustrated with a picture of an angler at work, with a tub, in the german fashion, to put his fish into. it has also a curiously modern diagram of the sizes of hooks. in de worde issued an illustrated edition of malory's _morte d'arthur_. the cuts are very ambitious, but badly executed, and the hand of the engraver who cut them may be traced in several books. in an edition of _mandeville_ was issued, ornamented with a number of small cuts, and about this time several small books were issued having cuts on the title-page. richard pynson's first illustrated book was an edition of the _canterbury tales_, printed some time before . at the head of each tale is a rudely executed cut of the pilgrim who narrates it. these cuts were made for this edition, and were in some cases altered while the book was going through the press to serve for different characters: the squire and the manciple, the sergeant and doctor of physic, are from the same blocks with slight alterations. in came an edition of lydgate's _falle of princis_, a translation from the _de casibus virorum et feminarum illustrium_ of boccaccio, illustrated with the cuts used by jean dupré in his paris edition of a french version of the same work in . one of the neatest of these, depicting marcus manlius thrown into the tiber, is here shown. about an edition of the _speculum vite christi_ was issued, with a number of neatly executed small cuts, and in pynson printed the beautiful sarum missal, known as the _morton missal_. special borders and ornaments, introducing a rebus on the name of morton, were engraved for this, and a full-page cut of the prelate's coat of arms appears at the commencement of the book. [illustration: the death of marcus manlius. from lydgate's _the falle of princis_, pynson, . (reduced.)] after the year almost every book issued by w. de worde, who was pre-eminently the popular publisher, had an illustration on the title-page. this was not always cut for the book, nor indeed always very applicable to the letterpress, and the cuts can almost all be arranged into series made for more important books. there were, however, a few stock cuts: a schoolmaster with a gigantic birch for grammars, a learned man seated at a desk for works of more advanced scholarship, and lively pictures of hell for theological treatises. the title-page was formed on a fixed plan. at the top, printed inside a wood-cut ribbon, was placed the title, below this the cut. pynson, who was the royal printer, and a publisher of learned works, disdained such attempts to catch the more vulgar buyers. his title-pages rarely have cuts, and these are only used on such few popular books as he issued. both he and de worde had a set of narrow upright cuts of men and women with blank labels over their heads, which could be used for any purpose, and have the names printed in type in the label above. foreign competition was also at this time making its influence felt on english book-illustration. w. de worde had led the way by purchasing from godfried van os, about , some type initial letters, and at least one woodcut. pynson, early in the sixteenth century, obtained some cuts from vérard, which he used in his edition of the _kalendar of shepherdes_, , and julian notary, who began printing about , seems to have made use of a miscellaneous collection of cuts obtained from various quarters. he had, amongst other curious things, part of a set of metal cuts executed in the _manière criblée_, which have not been traced to any other book, but appear to have passed at a considerably later date into the hands of wyer, who commenced to print before . when w. de worde left westminster in to settle in fleet street, he parted with some of his old woodcuts to notary,--woodcuts which had been used in the _horae_ of , and had originally belonged to caxton. all these miscellaneous cuts appear in his _golden legend_ of , and the large cut of the 'assembly of saints' on the title-page seems also to have been borrowed. it was used by hopyl at paris in for his edition of the _golden legend_ in dutch, and passed afterwards with hopyl's business to his son-in-law prevost, who used it in a theological work of john major's. the engraved metal ornamental initials were obtained from andré bocard. some time before an extremely curious book, entitled the _passion of our lorde jesu_, was printed abroad, probably in paris. the uncouthness of the language seems to have brought about its destruction; for, though many fragments have been found in bindings, only one perfect copy, now in the bodleian, is known. it contains a number of large cuts of a very german appearance and quite unlike any others of the period. some are used also in the york _manual_ printed for de worde in . about this time too a number of popular books in english, some adorned with rude woodcuts, were issued by john of doesborch, a printer in antwerp. among them may be mentioned _the wonderful shape and nature of man, beasts, serpents, &c._, the _fifteen tokens_, the _story of the parson of kalenbrowe_, and the _life of virgilius_. a still earlier antwerp cut, which had been used by gerard leeu for the title-page of his english _solomon and marcolphus_, found its way to england and was used by copland. in the last years of henry vii.'s reign, from to , a few books may be mentioned as particularly interesting from their illustrations. in de worde printed the _ordinary of chrysten men_, a large book with a block-printed title. it was reprinted in . in appeared the _recuyles of y^e hystoryes of troye_, a typical example of an illustrated book of the period. there are about seventy cuts of all kinds, of which twelve were specially cut for the book: many others were used in the _morte d'arthur_, and the rest are miscellaneous. in we have the '_craft to live and die well_,' of which there is another edition in the following year. in appears the _castle of labour_, one of the few books entirely illustrated with cuts specially made for it; in the _kalendar of shepherdes_. the cuts in these last three books were all ultimately derived from french originals. an edition of the _seven wise masters of rome_, of which the only known copy is imperfect, appeared about , though the cuts which illustrate it were made before . the fragment contains seven cuts, but the set must have consisted of eleven. they are very careful copies of those used by gerard leeu in his edition of , and have lost none of the feeling of the originals. three books only of pynson's production during this period call for special notice. about he issued an edition of the _castle of labour_, with very well-cut illustrations closely copied from the french edition. in appeared his edition of the _kalendar of shepherdes_, which is illustrated for the most part with cuts obtained from vérard, and in an edition of the _golden legend_. of each of these books but one copy is known. for some unknown reason, the accession of henry vii. acted in the most extraordinary way upon the english presses, which in that year issued a very large number of books. perhaps the influx of visitors to london on that occasion made an unusual demand; but at any rate a number of popular books were then issued. amongst them are _rychard cuer de lyon_, the _fiftene joyes of maryage_, the _convercyon of swerers_, the _parliament of devils_, and many others. besides these there were, of course, a number of funeral sermons on henry vii., many of which have curious frontispieces. one of these was used again a little later, for the funeral sermon of the king's mother, the lady margaret, the royal pall and effigy on it being cut out and replaced by an ordinary pall. this method of inserting new pieces into old blocks, technically termed plugging, was not much used at this period when wood-engraving was so cheap. an excellent example, however, will be found in the books printed for william bretton, which contain a large coat of arms. a mistake was made in the cutting of the arms, and a new shield was inserted, the mantling and supporters being untouched. another notable book of that period is barclay's _ship of fools_, issued by pynson in . it contains one hundred and eighteen cuts, the first being a full-page illustration of the printer's coat of arms. the rest are copies, roughly executed, of those in the original edition. another version of this book, translated by henry watson, was issued the same year by wynkyn de worde. it is illustrated with a special series of cuts, which are used again in the later editions. of the original edition of only one copy is known, printed on vellum and preserved in the bibliothèque nationale. stray cuts from this series are found in several of de worde's other books, but may be at once recognised from the occurrence of the 'fool' in his typical cap and bells. about this time and a little earlier the title was very often cut entire on a block. the _de proprietatibus_ of _c._ contains the first and the most elaborate specimen, in which the words 'bartholomeus de proprietatibus rerum' are cut in enormous letters on a wooden board; indeed the whole block was so large that hardly any copy contains the whole. faques, pynson, and others used similar blocks, in which the letters were white and the background black (one of pynson's printed in red is to be found in the _ortus vocabulorum_ of ), but their uncouthness soon led to their disuse. numbers of service books were issued by pynson and wynkyn de worde, profusely illustrated with small cuts, most of which appear to have been of home manufacture, though unoriginal in design. it is worth noticing one difference in the cuts of the two printers. pynson's small cuts have generally an open or white background, de worde's are, as a rule, dotted in the french style. since in some of their service books these two printers used exactly similar founts of type the identification of their cuts is of particular value. but these service books almost from the first began to deteriorate. the use of borders was abandoned, and little care was given to keeping sets of cuts together, or using those of similar styles in one book. we find the archaic cuts of caxton, the delicate pictures copied from french models, and roughly designed and executed english blocks all used together, sometimes even on the same page. the same thing is noticeable in all the illustrated books of the period. de worde used caxton's cuts up to the very end of his career, though in many cases the blocks were worm-eaten or broken. the peculiar mixture of cuts is very striking in some books. take as an example the edition of _robert the devil_, published about . no cut used in it is original: one is from a book on good living and dying, another from the _ship of fools_,[ ] a third is from a devotional book of the previous century, and so on. in the _oliver of castile_ of , though there are over sixty illustrations, not more than three or four are specially cut for it, but come from the _morte d'arthur_, the _gesta romanorum_, _helias knight of the swan_, the _body of policy_, _richard cuer de lion_, the _book of carving_, and so on, and perhaps many are used in several. indeed, w. de worde minded as little about using the same illustrations over and over again as some of our modern publishers. for all books issued in the early years of the sixteenth century it was thought necessary to have at least an illustration on the title-page, so that practically an examination of the illustrated books of the period means almost an examination of the entire produce of the printing press. in time, when the subject has been thoroughly studied, it will be possible to separate all the cuts into series cut for some special purpose. a rather important influence was introduced into the history of english book illustration about , when pynson obtained a series of borders and other material, closely imitated from the designs made by holbein for froben.[ ] they are the first important examples of 'renaissance' design used in english books, and their effect was rapid and marked. wynkyn de worde, who in his devices had hitherto been content to use caxton's trade-mark with some few extra ornaments, introduced a hideous parody of one of froben's devices, poor in design, and wretched in execution. the series of borders used by pynson were good in execution, and their style harmonised with the roman type used by him at that time, but with other books it was different. the heavy english black letter required something bolder, and unless these borders were heavily cut, they looked particularly meagre. a very beautiful title-page of this type (here somewhat reduced) is that in sir thomas elyot's _image of governance_, printed by thomas berthelet at london in - . [illustration] [illustration: device of thomas berthelet.] the illustrated books of this period offer a curious mixture of styles, for nothing could be more opposed in feeling than the early school of english cuts and the newly introduced renaissance designs. the outsides of the books underwent exactly the same change, for in place of the old pictorial blocks with which the stationers had heretofore stamped their bindings, they used hideous combinations of medallions and pillars. the device of berthelet is an excellent specimen of the new style. despising good old english names and signs, he carried on business at the sign of lucretia romana in fleet street, and his device depicts that person in the act of thrusting a sword into her bosom. in the background is a classical landscape, and on either side pillars. above are festoons, and on ribbons at the head and feet of the figure the name of the printer and of his sign. though the cut is uninteresting it is a beautiful piece of work. another result of the new movement was the banishment of woodcuts from the title-page. those to pynson's books have already been noticed, but lesser printers like scot, godfrey, rastell, and treveris also made use of borders of classical design, and gave up the use of woodcuts. it is extremely curious to notice what excellent effects on a title-page the printers at this time produced from the poorest materials. they seem to have understood much better than those of a later date how to use different sized type with effect, and to make the whole page pleasing, without attracting too much attention to one particular part. [illustration: device of richard faques.] before leaving this early period it will be as well to return a little, and briefly notice some of the more marked illustrated books produced by printers other than pynson and de worde. the two printers of the name of faques, guillam and richard, produced a few most interesting books, and the device of the last named, founded on that of the paris printer, thielman kerver, is a fine piece of engraving. the name was originally cut upon the block as faques, and was so used in his two first books; but in order to make the name appear more english in form, the 'ques' was cut out and 'kes' inserted in type. the last dated book which he printed, the _mirrour of our lady_ of , contains several fine illustrations; that on the reverse of the title-page depicting a woman of some religious order writing a book, has at the bottom the letters e. g. joined by a knot, which may be the initials of the engraver. the cambridge press of - , from the scholastic nature of its books, required no illustrations, but it used for the title-page of the _galen_ a woodcut border, rather in the manner of holbein, but evidently of native production. in this border reappears in a dutch prognostication printed at antwerp. the oxford press of the early sixteenth century borrowed some of its cuts from de worde, but a few, such as the ambitious frontispiece and the four diagrams in the _compotus_ of , were original. john rastell in his _pastyme of people_ used a number of full-page illustrations of the kings of england, coarse in design and execution, and very remarkable in appearance. peter treveris issued a number of books with illustrations, some of which are well worthy of notice. the _grete herbal_, first published in , contained a large number of cuts. jerome of bruynswyke's _worke of surgeri_ has some curious plates of surgical operations, and though the subjects are rather repulsive, they are excellent specimens of the wood-cutting of the period. treveris' best known book is the _policronicon_ of , printed for john reynes, whose mark in red generally occurs on the title-page. this title-page is a fine piece of work, and has been facsimiled by dibdin in his _typographical antiquities_. some of the cuts and ornaments used by treveris passed after his death into the hands of the edinburgh printer, thomas davidson. lawrence andrewe of calais, who printed shortly before , also issued some curious illustrated books. before coming to england he had translated the extraordinary book, _the wonderful shape and nature of man, beasts, serpentes, &c._, printed by john of doesborch, whom we have spoken of above. on his own account he issued the _boke of distyllacyon of waters_ by jerome of brunswick, illustrated with pictures of apparatus, and _the mirror of the world_. this is founded on caxton's edition, but is much more fully illustrated, the cuts to the natural history portion being particularly curious. it is worth noticing that andrewe, like some other printers at this time, introduced his device into many of the initial letters and borders which were cut for him, so that they can be readily identified when they occur, after his death, in books by other printers. after the death of wynkyn de worde in , ideas as regards book-illustration underwent a great change. theology had become popular, and theological books were not adapted for illustration. the ordinary book, with pictures put in haphazard, absolutely died out; and cuts were only used in chap books, or in large illustrated volumes,--descriptions of horrible creatures, and the likenesses of comets or portents on the one hand, chronicles, books of travel, and scientific works on the other. the difference which we noticed between w. de worde and pynson, the one being a popular printer and the other a printer of standard works, is distinctly marked in the succeeding generation. while wyer, byddell, and copland published the popular books, grafton and whytchurch, wolfe and day, issued more solid literature. the old woodcuts passed into the hands of the poorer printers, and were used till they were worn out, and it is curious to notice how long in many cases this took. on the other hand, the illustrations made for new books are, as a rule, of excellent design and execution, owing a good deal, in all probability, to the influence of holbein, who, for the latter portion of his life, was living in england. as examples of his work, we may take two books published in , cranmer's _catechism_, published by walter lynne, and halle's _chronicles_, published by grafton. the first contains a number of small cuts, one of which is signed in full hans holbein, and two others are signed with his initials h. h. some writers insist that these three cuts alone are to be ascribed to him, and that the rest are from an unknown hand. besides these small cuts, there is one full-page cut on the back of the title of very fine work. it represents edward vi. seated on his throne with the bishops kneeling on his right, the peers on his left. from the hands of the king the bishops are receiving a bible. the cut at the end of halle's _chronicles_, very similarly executed and also ascribed to holbein, represents henry viii. sitting in parliament. almost all the volumes of chronicles, of which a number were issued in the sixteenth century, contain woodcuts, and two are especially well illustrated,--grafton's _chronicles_, published in , and holinshed's _chronicles_ in . the illustrations in the latter book, which mr. linton considers to have been cut on metal, do not appear in the later edition of . among the illustrations in the first edition, so dibdin says, is to be found a picture of a guillotine. [illustration: from cranmer's _catechism_, london, .] of all the english printers of the latter half of the sixteenth century, none produced finer books than john day, who, it has been suggested, engraved some of the woodcuts which he used. the best known, perhaps, of his books is the _book of christian prayers_, commonly called queen elizabeth's prayer book, which he published in . in a way, this book is undoubtedly a fine specimen of book-ornamentation, but as it was executed in a style then out of date, having borders like the earlier service books, it suffers by comparison with the 'books of hours' of fifty years earlier. another book of day's which obtained great popularity was the _history of martyrs_, compiled by john fox. we read on day's epitaph in the church of bradley-parva-- "he set a fox to wright how martyrs runne, by death to lyfe. fox ventured paynes and health, to give them light; day spent in print his wealth." considering the popularity of the book, and the number of editions that were issued, we can hardly imagine that day lost money upon it. the illustrations are of varied excellence, but the book contains also some very fine initial letters. one, the c at the commencement of the dedication, contains a portrait of queen elizabeth on her throne, with three men standing beside her, two of whom are supposed to be day and fox. below the throne, forming part of the letter, is the pope holding two broken keys. initial letters about this time arrived at their best. they were often very large, and contained scenes, mythological subjects, or coats-of-arms. a fine specimen of this last class is to be found in the _cosmographical glasse_, by william cuningham, . it is a large d containing the arms of robert, lord dudley, to whom the book is dedicated. very soon after this some ingenious printer invented the system of printing an ornamental border for the letter with a blank space for the insertion of an ordinary capital letter,--a system which soon succeeded in destroying any beauty or originality which letters had up to this time possessed. in conclusion, it will be well to notice the growth of engraving on metal in england. the earliest specimen that i know of is the device first used by pynson about . it is certainly metal, and has every appearance of having been cut in this country. some writers have put forward the theory that the majority of early illustrations, though to all appearance woodcuts, were really cut on metal. but wherever it is possible to trace an individual cut for any length of time, we can see from the breakages, and in some cases from small holes bored by insects, that the material used was certainly wood. julian notary had some curious metal cuts, but they were certainly of foreign design and workmanship, and the same may be said of the metal cuts found amongst the early english service books. the border on the title-page of the cambridge _galen_, usually described as engraved on metal, is really an ordinary woodcut. it is not till that we find a book illustrated with engravings produced in this country. this was thomas raynald's _byrth of mankynde_, which contains four plates of surgical diagrams. in some of the later editions these plates have been re-engraved on wood. in another medical book appeared, _compendiosa totius delineatio aere exarata per thomam geminum_. it has a frontispiece with the arms of henry viii., and forty plates of anatomical subjects. other editions appeared in and , and the title-page of the last is altered by the insertion of a portrait of elizabeth in place of the royal arms. the _stirpium adversaria nova authoribus petro pena et mathia de lobel_ of has a beautifully engraved title-page, and the edition of parker's _bible_ contains a map of the holy land with the following inscription in an ornamental tablet: 'graven bi humfray cole, goldsmith, an english man born in y^e north, and pertayning to y^e mint in the tower, .' humfray cole is supposed by some authorities to have engraved the beautiful portraits of elizabeth, the earl of leicester, and lord burleigh, which appear in the earlier edition of . saxton's maps, which appeared in , are partly the work of native engravers, for at least eight were engraved by augustine ryther and nicholas reynolds. in there are two books,--broughton's _concent of scripture_, and sir john harington's _ariosto_. the latter contains almost fifty plates, closely copied from a venetian edition, and was the most ambitious book illustrated with metal plates published in the century. there are a few other books published before which contain specimens of engraving, but none worthy of particular mention. * * * * * [ ] this particular cut, which represents the fool looking out of a window while his house is on fire, meant to illustrate the chapter 'of bostynge or hauynge confydence in fortune,' is not used in the edition of . it may, perhaps, occur in the edition of , of which the unique copy is at paris. [ ] sir thomas more, the friend and employer both of pynson and froben, had probably a good deal to do with this purchase of material. index abbeville, . Æsop, dutch, _leeu's_, ; english, _caxton's_, ; german, _steinhöwel's_, ; italian, _brescia_, ; _florence_, ; _milan_, ; _naples_, ; _venice_, ; _verona_, . albi, . aldus, - . antwerp, , _sq._ arndes, s., . _art de bien vivre et de bien mourir_, - . augsburg, - , - . _aymon, les quatre fils_, . _b_ (engraver's signature), . back, g., , . bacon, sir n., book-plate, . baldassaris, h., . baleni, g., . bämler, j., - . barberiis, p. de, . basel, - . bazaleriis, b. de, . belcari, m., . _belial_, by jacobus de theramo, , ; dutch version called _der sonderen troest_, - . bellaert, j., - , _sq._ benaliis, b. de, , . benivieni, domenico, . benvenuto, f., . bergomensis, philippus, _de claris mulieribus_, . berthelet, t., - . bettini, a., _monte santo di dio_, , . bevilaqua, s., device, . _bible des poetes_, . bibles: _english_, ; _german_, , ; and , ; _c._ , , ; , ; lübeck, , ; _italian_, ; _latin_, -line, , ; -line, ; , , , , . _biblia pauperum_, pfister's, _sq._ blastos, n., . boccaccio, g., _de claris mulieribus_, , ; _decamerone_, . bodner, _edelstein_, . bonaventura, st., _deuote meditatione_, _sq._ bonhomme, jacques, . bonhomme, macé, . brandis, l., - . brant, sebastian, - . breda, j. de, . brescia, . breydenbach, b. von, - , . brocar, a. g., . brocar, j., . bruges, _sq._ _buch der natur_, . _buch der vier historien_, _sq._ _buch der weisheit_, . _buch von den sieben todsünden_, . buonaccorsi, f., , . burgkmair, h., , . caillaut, a., . calandro, p., _arithmetic_, . _calendario_, , . caliergi, z. _see_ kaliergos. cambridge, . capcasa. _see_ codecha. capranica, d., _arte di ben morire_, . caxton, w., , - . celtes, c., . centenera, a., sq. cessolis, j. de, chess-book, _dutch_, ; _english_, ; _german_, ; _italian_, _sq._ chambéry, . _champfleury_, . chaucer, g., _canterbury tales_, caxton's, ; pynson's, . _chroniques de france_, . codecha (or capcasa) m. di, , , note. cole, h., . cologne, . colonna, f., . colophons, - . columna, Ægidius, _de regimine principum_, . _contrasti_, . conway, sir w. m., quoted, _sqq._ _copilacion de leyes_, , _sq._ cousteau, g., . cranach, l., . cremer, h., . cremonese, p., . dance of death (danse macabre), , . dante, _divina commedia_, brescia, , , ; florence, , ; , ; venice, , . day, j., _sq._ delfft, , . deventer, . _dialogus creaturarum_, . dienecker, jost, . dinckmut, c., . dino, fran. di, . directors, . doesborch, jan van, , . dolea, c., . dorothea, s., _rappresentatione_, . dupré, galliot, . du pré, jean, , - , , - . durandus, _rationale_ ( ), , . dürer, a., _sq._ egmont, f., , . _epistole ed evangelii_, . eustace, g., . faques, g. and r., . farfengo, b. da, . _fasciculus temporum_, cologneedd., ; ratdolt's, ; louvain and utrecht, . ferdinand ii., king of naples, . ferrara, . fichet, g., . _fifteen o'es_, , . _fior di virtú_, brescia, ; florence, ; venice, _sq._ florence, , - . fogel, j., . foresti, g. p., of bergamo, _supplementum chronicarum_, note, . fox, john, _acts and monuments_ (book of martyrs), . _freydal_, , . frezzi, f., _quatriregio_, . furter, michael, , . gafori, f., . _game of chess._ _see_ cessolis, j. de. _gart der gesundheit_, . gérard, p., . gerlier, d., . giunta, l. a., , , . godard, g., . _golden legend._ _see_ voragine, j. de. gorgonzola, n., device, . gorricio, g., _contemplaciones sobre el rosario_, . gouda, - , . graf, urs, _sq._ granjon, r., . gregoriis, g. de, . grün, hans baldung, . grüninger, j., , . gryphius, f., . guillireti, s., . haarlem, - . han, u., _sq._ hardouyn, g., . harrington, sir j., _orlando furioso_ ( ), . headlines, . headpieces, . _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_, _sqq._ holbein, a., . holbein, h., , , _sqq._ holl, l., . hours, books of, , - . hroswitha, . husz, m., . hyginus, _poetica astronomica_, _sq._ _hypnerotomachia_, - , . ingold, _das guldin spiel_, . jenson, n., , , . johann petri, . jornandes, _de rebus gothorum_, note. josephus, _de la bataille judaique_, _sq._ kaliergos, z., , . kerver, j., . kerver, t., , . ketham, j., _fascicolo de medicina_, . knoblochtzer, h., . knoblouch, j., . koberger, a., , . koelhoff, j., . l., french initial, - . landino, c., , , . lavagna, p., . leeu, g., _sqq._ le rouge, p., , , . le signerre, g., . lettou, j., . lieseveldt, a. van, . lignamine, j. p. de, , . lorenz, nicolaus, . louis ii., marquis of saluzzo, . louis, st., . louvain, . lübeck, , . _lucidario_ ( ), . lützelburger, hans, . lydgate, j., _falle of princes_, . lyndewode, w., _constitutiones_, . lyons, _sqq._, , , , - . machlinia, w. de, , . maillet, j., . mansion, c., . marchant, g., . martorel, t., _tirant lo blanch_, _sq._ maximilian, emperor, - . mazalis, f. de, . medici, l. de, . meer, jacob van der, . meidenbach, j., . menard, j., . _mer des hystoires_, . milan, , . _mirror of our lady_ ( ), . _mirror of the world_ ( ), . mischomini, a., , , , , , . more, sir t., note. morgiani, lorenzo di, . morin, martin, . _morton missal_, , , . naples, . neumeister, j., , . neyret, a., . nider, j., _expositio decalogi_, . novara, b. di, . _novelle_, . nuremberg, _sq._, . _nuremberg chronicle._ _see_ schedel. olpe, bergmann de, - . os, g. van, , . os, p. van, . ovid, _metamorphoses_, bruges ( ), ; lyons ( ), ; paris, vérard ( ), , ; venice ( ), . oxford, _sq._, . pachel, l., . pacini, bernardo di, . pacini, piero di, , . pagination, . paris, - . _paris et vienne_, . _passion of our lord jesu_, . pasti, matteo dei, . paulus florentinus, . petrarca, f., _de remediis utriusque fortunae_, ; _trionfi_, _sq._ petri, johann, . pfister, a., _sqq._ pigouchet, a., _sqq._ plantin, c., . politiano, angelo, . polono, stanislao, . presentation copies, _sq._ printers' workshop, cuts of, _sq._ prüss, johann, . ptolemy, _cosmographia_, . pulci, l., _morgante maggiore_, . pynson, richard, _sqq._ quentel, h., . _rappresentazioni_, _sqq._ rastell, j., , . ratdolt, erhard, , , - . _rechtstreit des menschen mit dem tode_, . regnault, f., . reichenthal, ulrich von, _conciliumbuch_, . rennes, . riessinger, s., _sq._ _robert the devil_, . rome, - . rouen, , . _rudimentum noviciorum_, , . rupertus de sancto remigio, _türken-kreuzzüge_, . saint albans, book of, . saluzzo, . san pedro, diego di, _carcel d'amor_, _sq._ santis, hier. de, . savonarola tracts, - . schäufelein, h., , . schedel, h., _liber chronicarum_, - . schenck, p., . schobsser, j., . schoeffer, p., - , , , _sq._ schönsperger, h., , . schott, m., . scinzenzeler, u., . scotus, oct., . sensenschmidt, j., . _seven wise masters of rome_, . seville, . sforza family, . simoneta, g., . snellaert, c., . sorg, a., . _speculum vitae christi_, caxton's, ; de worde's, ; pynson's, . stephan, p., _schatzbehalter_, . strassburg, , . strozzi family, . _supplementum chronicarum._ _see_ foresti. tailpieces, . _terence_, trechsel's, ; _eunuchus_, , . theramo, jac. de. see _belial_. _theuerdank_, - . _tirant lo blanch_, _sq._ title-pages, first use of, - . tory, g., _sq._ tournes, j., de. , , . _trabajos de hercules_, , . trechsel, j., . trechsel, m., . trepperel, j., . turrecremata, cardinal, _meditationes_, _sqq._ ulm, - . ungut, m., , . utrecht, . valencia, , . valturius, _de re militari_, . veldener, j., , . vellum, use of, _sq._, . venice, - . vérard, antoine, - , - , - . verona, _sq._ _vespasian_, spanish romance of, . vienne, . villena, e. de. see _trabajos de hercules_. vivaldus, j. l., . voragine, jac. de, _legenda aurea_, english, , , , , ; french, ; german, . vostre, simon, . _weisskunig_, , . westphalia, johann de, , . wittenberg, . wohlgemuth, michael, , . worde, wynkyn de, , _sqq._ zainer, günther, , _sqq._ zainer, johann, _sqq._ zamora, . zarotus, ant., . zinna, . zwolle, . _printed by_ morrison & gibb limited, _edinburgh_ * * * * * transcriber's note page : changed comma to period ( ... rather than a printer.) produced from images generously made available by st-hand-history.org) transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. italics in the footnote citations were inconsistently applied by the typesetter. italic text is denoted by _underscores_. the following changes were made or suggested: page xlix: "viena" is a possible typo for "vienna" page xlix: "megico" is a possible typo for "mejico" page : the opening quote mark is missing in the quote ending "in company," page : "aläsku" should possibly be "aläksu" page : "von bis pud" should possibly be "von bis pfund" page : "mit grellen farben" should possibly be "die mit grellen farben" page : viaye changed to viage page : "some of women would with difficulty" is apparently missing a word page : crane's topog. mem. possibly should be cram's page : farnham's trav., pp. -; is missing an end page reference page : "galeon" should possibly be "galleon" page : footnote is missing its anchor page : footnote is missing its anchor page : footnote is missing its anchor page : "to the west fork of walker's river the south.'" is apparently missing a word page : headquarters possibly should be headwaters page : gray colors possibly should be gay colors page : looses possibly should be loses the works of hubert howe bancroft. volume i. the native races. vol. i. wild tribes. san francisco: a. l. bancroft & company, publishers. . entered according to act of congress in the year , by hubert h. bancroft, in the office of the librarian of congress, at washington. _all rights reserved._ [illustration: the world: the white part showing the pacific states.] preface. in pursuance of a general plan involving the production of a series of works on the western half of north america, i present this delineation of its aboriginal inhabitants as the first. to the immense territory bordering on the western ocean from alaska to darien, and including the whole of mexico and central america, i give arbitrarily, for want of a better, the name pacific states. stretching almost from pole to equator, and embracing within its limits nearly one tenth of the earth's surface, this last western land offers to lovers of knowledge a new and enticing field; and, although hitherto its several parts have been held somewhat asunder by the force of circumstances, yet are its occupants drawn by nature into nearness of relationship, and will be brought yet nearer by advancing civilization; the common oceanic highway on the one side, and the great mountain ramparts on the other, both tending to this result. the characteristics of this vast domain, material and social, are comparatively unknown and are essentially peculiar. to its exotic civilization all the so-called older nations of the world have contributed of their energies; and this composite mass, leavened by its destiny, is now working out the new problem of its future. the modern history of this west antedates that of the east by over a century, and although there may be apparent heterogeneity in the subject thus territorially treated, there is an apparent tendency toward ultimate unity. to some it may be of interest to know the nature and extent of my resources for writing so important a series of works. the books and manuscripts necessary for the task existed in no library in the world; hence, in , i commenced collecting material relative to the pacific states. after securing everything within my reach in america, i twice visited europe, spending about two years in thorough researches in england and the chief cities of the continent. having exhausted every available source, i was obliged to content myself with lying in wait for opportunities. not long afterward, and at a time when the prospect of materially adding to my collection seemed anything but hopeful, the _biblioteca imperial de méjico_, of the unfortunate maximilian, collected during a period of forty years by don josé maría andrade, litterateur and publisher of the city of mexico, was thrown upon the european market and furnished me about three thousand additional volumes. in , having accumulated some sixteen thousand books, manuscripts, and pamphlets, besides maps and cumbersome files of pacific coast journals, i determined to go to work. but i soon found that, like tantalus, while up to my neck in water, i was dying of thirst. the facts which i required were so copiously diluted with trash, that to follow different subjects through this trackless sea of erudition, in the exhaustive manner i had proposed, with but one life-time to devote to the work, was simply impracticable. in this emergency my friend, mr henry l. oak, librarian of the collection, came to my relief. after many consultations, and not a few partial failures, a system of indexing the subject-matter of the whole library was devised, sufficiently general to be practicable, and sufficiently particular to direct me immediately to all my authorities on any given point. the system, on trial, stands the test, and the index when completed, as it already is for the twelve hundred authors quoted in this work, will more than double the practical value of the library. of the importance of the task undertaken, i need not say that i have formed the highest opinion. at present the few grains of wheat are so hidden by the mountain of chaff as to be of comparatively little benefit to searchers in the various branches of learning; and to sift and select from this mass, to extract from bulky tome and transient journal, from the archives of convent and mission, facts valuable to the scholar and interesting to the general reader; to arrange these facts in a natural order, and to present them in such a manner as to be of practical benefit to inquirers in the various branches of knowledge, is a work of no small import and responsibility. and though mine is the labor of the artisan rather than that of the artist, a forging of weapons for abler hands to wield, a producing of raw materials for skilled mechanics to weave and color at will; yet, in undertaking to bring to light from sources innumerable essential facts, which, from the very shortness of life if from no other cause, must otherwise be left out in the physical and social generalizations which occupy the ablest minds, i feel that i engage in no idle pastime. a word as to the nations of which this work is a description, and my method of treating the subject. aboriginally, for a savage wilderness, there was here a dense population; particularly south of the thirtieth parallel, and along the border of the ocean north of that line. before the advent of europeans, this domain counted its aborigines by millions; ranked among its people every phase of primitive humanity, from the reptile-eating cave-dweller of the great basin, to the aztec and maya-quiché civilization of the southern table-land,--a civilization, if we may credit dr draper, "that might have instructed europe," a culture wantonly crushed by spain, who therein "destroyed races more civilized than herself." differing among themselves in minor particulars only, and bearing a general resemblance to the nations of eastern and southern america; differing again, the whole, in character and cast of features from every other people of the world, we have here presented hundreds of nations and tongues, with thousands of beliefs and customs, wonderfully dissimilar for so segregated a humanity, yet wonderfully alike for the inhabitants of a land that comprises within its limits nearly every phase of climate on the globe. at the touch of european civilization, whether latin or teutonic, these nations vanished; and their unwritten history, reaching back for thousands of ages, ended. all this time they had been coming and going, nations swallowing up nations, annihilating and being annihilated, amidst human convulsions and struggling civilizations. their strange destiny fulfilled, in an instant they disappear; and all we have of them, besides their material relics, is the glance caught in their hasty flight, which gives us a few customs and traditions, and a little mythological history. to gather and arrange in systematic compact form all that is known of these people; to rescue some facts, perhaps, from oblivion, to bring others from inaccessible nooks, to render all available to science and to the general reader, is the object of this work. necessarily some parts of it may be open to the charge of dryness; i have not been able to interlard my facts with interesting anecdotes for lack of space, and i have endeavored to avoid speculation, believing, as i do, the work of the collector and that of the theorizer to be distinct, and that he who attempts to establish some pet conjecture while imparting general information, can hardly be trusted for impartial statements. with respect to the territorial divisions of the first volume, which is confined to the wild tribes, and the necessity of giving descriptions of the same characteristics in each, there may be an appearance of repetition; but i trust this may be found more apparent than real. although there are many similar customs, there are also many minor differences, and, as one of the chief difficulties of this volume was to keep it within reasonable limits, no delineation has been repeated where a necessity did not appear to exist. the second volume, which treats of the civilized nations, offers a more fascinating field, and with ample space and all existing authorities at hand, the fault is the writer's if interest be not here combined with value. as regards mythology, languages, antiquities, and migrations, of which the three remaining volumes treat, it has been my aim to present clearly and concisely all knowledge extant on these subjects; and the work, as a whole, is intended to embody all facts that have been preserved concerning these people at the time of their almost simultaneous discovery and disappearance. it will be noticed that i have said little of the natives or their deeds since the coming of the europeans; of their wars against invaders and among themselves; of repartimientos, presidios, missions, reservations, and other institutions for their conquest, conversion, protection, or oppression. my reason for this is that all these things, so far as they have any importance, belong to the modern history of the country and will receive due attention in a subsequent work. in these five volumes, besides information acquired from sources not therein named, are condensed the researches of twelve hundred writers, a list of whose works, with the edition used, is given in this volume. i have endeavored to state fully and clearly in my text the substance of the matter, and in reaching my conclusions to use due discrimination as to the respective value of different authorities. in the notes i give liberal quotations, both corroborative of the text, and touching points on which authors differ, together with complete references to all authorities, including some of little value, on each point, for the use of readers or writers who may either be dissatisfied with my conclusions, or may wish to investigate any particular branch of the subject farther than my limits allow. i have given full credit to each of the many authors from whom i have taken material, and if, in a few instances, a scarcity of authorities has compelled me to draw somewhat largely on the few who have treated particular points, i trust i shall be pardoned in view of the comprehensive nature of the work. quotations are made in the languages in which they are written, and great pains has been taken to avoid mutilation of the author's words. as the books quoted form part of my private library, i have been able, by comparison with the originals, to carefully verify all references after they were put in type; hence i may confidently hope that fewer errors have crept in than are usually found in works of such variety and extent. the labor involved in the preparation of these volumes will be appreciated by few. that expended on the first volume alone, with all the material before me, is more than equivalent to the well-directed efforts of one person for ten years. in the work of selecting, sifting, and arranging my subject-matter, i have called in the aid of a large corps of assistants, and, while desiring to place on no one but myself any responsibility for the work, either in style or matter, i would render just acknowledgment for the services of all; especially to the following gentlemen, for the efficient manner in which, each in his special department, they have devoted their energies and abilities to the carrying out of my plan;--to mr t. arundel-harcourt, in the researches on the manners and customs of the civilized nations; to mr walter m. fisher, in the investigation of mythology; to mr albert goldschmidt, in the treatise on language; and to mr henry l. oak, in the subject of antiquities and aboriginal history. contents of this volume. chapter i. ethnological introduction. page. facts and theories--hypotheses concerning origin--unity of race--diversity of race--spontaneous generation--origin of animals and plants--primordial centres of population-- distribution of plants and animals--adaptability of species to locality--classification of species--ethnological tests--races of the pacific--first intercourse with europeans chapter ii. hyperboreans. general divisions--hyperborean nations--aspects of nature--vegetation--climate--animals--the eskimos--their country--physical characteristics--dress--dwellings--food-- weapons--boats--sledges--snow-shoes--government--domestic affairs--amusements--diseases--burial--the koniagas, their physical and social condition--the aleuts--the thlinkeets-- the tinneh chapter iii. columbians. habitat of the columbian group--physical geography--sources of food supply--influence of food and climate--four extreme classes--haidahs--their home--physical peculiarities-- clothing--shelter--sustenance--implements--manufactures-- arts--property--laws--slavery--women--customs--medicine-- death--the nootkas--the sound nations--the chinooks--the shushwaps--the salish--the sahaptins chapter iv. californians. groupal divisions; northern, central, and southern californians, and shoshones--country of the californians-- the klamaths, modocs, shastas, pitt river indians, eurocs, cahrocs, hoopahs, weeyots, tolewahs, and rogue river indians and their customs--the tehamas, pomos, ukiahs, gualalas, sonomas, petalumas, napas, suscols, suisunes, tamales, karquines, tulomos, thamiens, olchones, runsiens, escelens, and others of central california--the cahuillos, diegueños, islanders, and mission rancherías of southern california--the snakes or shoshones proper, utahs, bannocks, washoes and other shoshone nations chapter v. new mexicans. geographical position of this group, and physical features of the territory--family divisions; apaches, pueblos, lower californians, and northern mexicans--the apache family: comanches, apaches proper, hualapais, yumas, cosninos, yampais, yalchedunes, yamajabs, cruzados, nijoras, navajos, mojaves, and their customs--the pueblo family: pueblos, moquis, pimas, maricopas, pápagos, and their neighbors--the cochimis, waicuris, pericuis, and other lower californians-- the seris, sinaloas, tarahumares, conchos, tepehuanes, tobosos, acaxees, and others in northern mexico chapter vi. wild tribes of mexico. territorial aspects--two main divisions; wild tribes of central mexico, and wild tribes of southern mexico--the coras and others in jalisco--descendants of the aztecs--the otomís and mazahuas adjacent to the valley of mexico--the pames--the tarascos and matlaltzincas of michoacan--the huaztecs and totonacos of vera cruz and tamaulipas--the chontales, chinantecs, mazatecs, cuicatecs, chatinos, miztecs, zapotecs, mijes, huaves, chiapanecs, zoques, lacandones, choles, mames, tzotziles, tzendales, chochones and others of southern mexico chapter vii. wild tribes of central america. physical geography and climate--three groupal divisions; first, the nations of yucatan, guatemala, salvador, western honduras, and nicaragua; second, the mosquitos of honduras; third, the nations of costa rica and the isthmus of panamá--the popolucas, pipiles and chontales--the descendants of the maya-quiché races--the natives of nicaragua--the mosquitos, poyas, ramas, lencas, towkas, woolwas, and xicaques of honduras--the guatusos of the rio frio--the caimanes, bayamos, dorachos, goajiros, mandingos, savanerics, sayrones, and viscitas living in costa rica and on the isthmus authorities quoted. abbot (gorham d.), mexico and the united states. new york, . abert (j. w.), report of his examination of new mexico. - . ( th congress, st session, senate executive doc. .) washington, . about (edmond), handbook of social economy. new york, . acazitli (francisco de sandoval), relacion de la jornada que hizo. indios chichimecas de xuchipila. in icazbalceta, col. de doc., tom. ii. acosta (joaquin), compendio histórico del descubrimiento, etc. de la nueva granada. paris, . acosta (josef de), historia natural y moral de las yndias. sevilla, . [quoted as hist. de las ynd.] acosta (josef de), the naturall and morall historie of the east and west indies. london, n.d. [ ]. [quoted as hist. nat. ind.] adair (james), the history of the american indians. london, . to. adelung (johann christoph), see vater (j. s.), mithridates. akademie der wissenschaften, sitzungsberichte. berlin. alaman (lúcas), disertaciones sobre la historia de la república mejicana. méjico, - . vols. alaman (lúcas), historia de méjico. méjico, - . vols. alarcon (fernando), the relation of the nauigation and discouery which captaine fernando alarchon made. 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(shea's linguistics, no. .) san augustine, . athanasius, see west-indische spieghel. atlantic monthly. boston, et seq. atwater (caleb), description of the antiquities of ohio. in amer. antiq. soc. transact., vol. i. aubin, mémoire sur l'écriture figurative. paris, . auger (Édouard), voyage en californie. paris, . avila (francisco de), arte de la lengua mexicana. mexico, . baegert (jacob), an account of the aboriginal inhabitants of the californian peninsula. in smithsonian report, - . baer (k. e. von), statistische und ethnographische nachrichten über die russischen besitzungen an der nordwestküste von amerika. st petersburg, . baeza (bartolomé del granado), los indios de yucatan. in registro yucateco, tom. i. baily (john), central america; describing guatemala, honduras, salvador, nicaragua, and costa rica. london, . bain (alexander), mind and body; the theories of their relation. new york, . baldwin (john d.), ancient america. new york, . barber (john w.), and henry howe, all the western states and territories. cincinnati, . bárcena, (j. m. roa), ensayo de una historia anecdótica de mexico. mexico, . bárcena, (j. m. roa), leyendas mexicanas. mexico, . barcia (andrés gonzalez de), historiadores primitivos de las indias occidentales. madrid, . folio. vols. bard (samuel a.), waikna; or, adventures on the mosquito shore. 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( d cong., d sess., senate ex. doc. .) washington, . sitjar (buenaventura), vocabulario de la lengua de los naturales de la mision de san antonio, alta california. (shea's linguistics, no. .) new york, . sivers (jegór von), ueber madeira und die antillen nach mittelamerika. leipzig, . smart (charles), notes on the tonto apaches. in smithsonian report, . smith (buckingham), coleccion de varios documentos para la historia de la flórida y tierras adyacentes. madrid, . to. smith (buckingham), a grammatical sketch of the heve language. (shea's linguistics, no. .) new york, . smith (charles hamilton), the natural history of the human species. london, . smith (jedediah), excursion à l'ouest des monts rocky. in nouvelles annales des voy., . tom. xxxvii. smithsonian institution, annual report of the board of regents. washington, et seq. smucker (samuel m.), the life of col. john charles fremont. new york, . sociedad mexicana de geografía y estadística, boletin. mexico, et seq. [includes instituto nacional.] société de géographie, bulletin. paris. soden (julius), die spanier in peru und mexiko. berlin, . vols. solis (antonio de), historia de la conquista de mexico. madrid, - . vols. to. solórzano pereyra (juan de), de indiarum jure. sive de iusta indiarum occidentalium inquisitione, acquisitione & retentione. lugduni, . vols. folio. solórzano pereyra (juan de), política indiana. [translation of preceding work.] madrid, . vols. folio. sonora, descripcion geográfica, natural y curiosa de la provincia de sonora. [ .] in doc. hist. mex., serie iii., pt. iv. sonora, rudo ensayo, tentativa de una prevencional descripcion geográfica de la provincia de sonora. [same as preceding.] san augustin, . to. soulé (frank), et al., the annals of san francisco. new york, . southern quarterly review. new orleans, et seq. sparks (jared), life of john ledyard. cambridge, . spectateur américain. amsterdam, . spencer (herbert), illustrations of universal progress. new york, . spencer (herbert), the principles of biology. new york, . vols. spencer (herbert), the principles of psychology. new york, . vols. spencer (herbert), recent discussions in science, philosophy and morals. new york, . spencer (herbert), social statics; or, the conditions essential to human happiness. new york, . spizelius (theophilus), elevatio relations monteziniana de repertis in america tribubus israeliticis. basilea, . sproat (gilbert malcolm), scenes and studies of savage life. london, . squier (e. g.), antiquities of the state of new york. buffalo, . squier (e. g.), monograph of authors who have written on the languages of central america. new york, . squier (e. g.), new mexico and california. in american review, nov. . squier (e. g.), nicaragua; its people, scenery, resources, condition, and proposed canal. new york, ; and new york, . vols. squier (e. g.), the serpent symbol. new york, . squier (e. g.), the state of central america. new york, . squier (e. g.), waikna. see bard (sam. a.). squier (e. g.), and e. h. davis, the ancient monuments of the mississippi valley. (smithsonian contributions, vol. i.) new york, . to. staehlin (j. von), an account of the new northern archipelago. london, . stanley (j. m.), portraits of north american indians. washington, . stansbury (howard), exploration and survey of the valley of the great salt lake of utah. 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[mexico, .] venegas (miguel), noticia de la california y de su conquista. madrid, . vols. veniaminoff (ivan), langues de l'amérique russe. in nouvelles annales des voy., . tom. cxxv. veniaminoff (ivan), situation présente de l'Église orthodoxe (greco-russe) dans l'amérique du nord. in nouvelles annales des voy., . tom. xc. veniaminoff (ivan), ueber die sprachen des russischen amerikas nach wenjaminow; in erman (a.), archiv für wissenschaftl. kunde von russland, tom. vii., heft. i. berlin, . vera cruz, estadística del estado libre y soberano. jalapa, . vetancvrt (avgvstin de), teatro mexicano. mexico, . folio. vetch, on the monuments and relics of the ancient inhabitants of new spain. in lond. geog. soc., jour., vol. vii. veytia (mariano), historia antigua de méjico. mexico, . vols. victor (mrs francis fuller), all over washington and oregon. san francisco, . vigne (g. t.), travels in mexico, south america, etc. london, . vols. vigneaux (ernest), souvenirs d'un prisonnier de guerre au mexique. paris, . villa señor y sanchez (josef antonio de), theatro americano. mexico, . vols. to. villagra (gaspar de), historia de la nueva mexico. alcalá, . villagutierre soto-mayor (juan de), historia de la conquista de la provincia de el itza. 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[amsterdam, .] wheelwright (william), observations on the isthmus of panamá. london, . whipple (a. w.), report of explorations near th parallel, - . in pac. r. r. reports, vols. iii., iv. whipple, ewbank, and turner, report upon the indian tribes. [ .] in pac. r. r. reports, vol. iii. white (e.), ten years in oregon. ithaca, . whitney (william dwight), language and the study of language. new york, . whittlesey (charles), ancient mining on the shores of lake superior. (smithsonian contribution, no. .) washington, . to. whymper (frederick), travel and adventure in the territory of alaska. new york, . wierzbicki (f. p.), california as it is. san francisco, . wilkes (charles), narrative of the u. s. ex. ex., - . philadelphia, . vols. to. (u. s. ex. ex., vols. i-v.) wilkes (charles), western america. philadelphia, . wilkes (george), history of oregon. new york, . wilkeson, notes on puget sound, n.pl., n.d. williamson (r. s.), report of explorations in california, . in pac. r. r. reports, vol. v. willson (marcius), american history. cincinnati, . wilson (daniel), physical ethnology. in smithsonian report, . wilson (robert anderson), mexico and its religion. new york, . wilson (robert anderson), a new history of the conquest of mexico. philadelphia, . wimmel (heinrich), californien. cassel, . winslow (charles f.), force and nature. philadelphia, . winterbotham (w.), an historical view of the u. s. of america. new york, . vols. winterfeldt (l. von), der mosquito-staat. berlin, . winthrop (theodore), the canoe and the saddle. boston, . wise, los gringos. new york, . wizlizenus (a.), memoir of a tour to northern mexico. ( th cong., st sess., senate miscel. doc. .) washington, . woods (daniel b.), sixteen months at the gold diggings. new york, . worsley (israel), review of the american indians. london, . wortley (lady emmeline stuart), travels in the united states. new york, . wrangell, observations recueillies par l'amiral ---- sur les habitants des côtes nord-ouest de l'amérique. in nouvelles annales des voy., . tom. cxxxvii. wyeth (john b.), oregon. cambridge, . ximenez (francisco), las historias del orígen de los indios de esta provincia de guatemala. viena, . yates (john), sketch of the sacramento valley in . ms. yepes (joaquin lopez), catecismo y declaracion de la doctrina cristiana en lengua otomí. megico, . yonge (c. d.), three centuries of modern history. new york, . young (thomas), narrative of a residence on the mosquito shore. london, . yucatan, estadística de. mexico, . zenteno (carlos de tapia), arte novissima de lengua mexicana. mexico, . zenteno (carlos de tapia), noticia de la lengua huasteca. mexico, . zapata (juan ortiz), relacion de las missiones que la compañia de jesus tiene en el reino y provincia de la nueva viscaya. [ .] in doc. hist. mex., serie iv., tom. iii. zuazo (alonso), carte del licenciado ---- al padre fray luis de figueroa. in icazbalceta, col. de doc., tom. i. zuñiga (ignacio), rápida ojeada al estado de sonora. [coup d'oeil, etc.] in nouvelles annales des voy., . tom. xciii. zurita (alonzo de), rapport sur les différentes classes de chefs de la nouvelle espagne. in ternaux-compans, voy., série ii., tom. i. paris, . the native races of the pacific states. wild tribes. chapter i. ethnological introduction. facts and theories--hypotheses concerning origin--unity of race--diversity of race--spontaneous generation--origin of animals and plants--primordial centres of population-- distribution of plants and animals--adaptability of species to locality--classification of species--ethnological tests-- races of the pacific--first intercourse with europeans. facts are the raw material of science. they are to philosophy and history, what cotton and iron are to cloth and steam-engines. like the raw material of the manufacturer, they form the bases of innumerable fabrics, are woven into many theories finely spun or coarsely spun, which wear out with time, become unfashionable, or else prove to be indeed true and fit, and as such remain. this raw material of the scholar, like that of the manufacturer, is always a staple article; its substance never changes, its value never diminishes; whatever may be the condition of society, or howsoever advanced the mind, it is indispensable. theories may be only for the day, but facts are for all time and for all science. when we remember that the sum of all knowledge is but the sum of ascertained facts, and that every new fact brought to light, preserved, and thrown into the general fund, is so much added to the world's store of knowledge,--when we consider that, broad and far as our theories may reach, the realm of definite, tangible, ascertained truth is still of so little extent, the importance of every never-so-insignificant acquisition is manifest. compare any fact with the fancies which have been prevalent concerning it, and consider, i will not say their relative brilliance, but their relative importance. take electricity, how many explanations have been given of the lightning and the thunder, yet there is but one fact; the atmosphere, how many howling demons have directed the tempest, how many smiling deities moved in the soft breeze. for the one all-sufficient first cause, how many myriads of gods have been set up; for every phenomenon how many causes have been invented; with every truth how many untruths have contended, with every fact how many fancies. the profound investigations of latter-day philosophers are nothing but simple and laborious inductions from ascertained facts, facts concerning attraction, polarity, chemical affinity and the like, for the explanation of which there are countless hypotheses, each hypothesis involving multitudes of speculations, all of which evaporate as the truth slowly crystallizes. speculation is valuable to science only as it directs the mind into otherwise-undiscoverable paths; but when the truth is found, there is an end to speculation. so much for facts in general; let us now look for a moment at the particular class of facts of which this work is a collection. [sidenote: tendency of philosophic inquiry.] the tendency of philosophic inquiry is more and more toward the origin of things. in the earlier stages of intellectual impulse, the mind is almost wholly absorbed in ministering to the necessities of the present; next, the mysterious uncertainty of the after life provokes inquiry, and contemplations of an eternity of the future command attention; but not until knowledge is well advanced does it appear that there is likewise an eternity of the past worthy of careful scrutiny,--without which scrutiny, indeed, the eternity of the future must forever remain a sealed book. standing as we do between these two eternities, our view limited to a narrow though gradually widening horizon, as nature unveils her mysteries to our inquiries, an infinity spreads out in either direction, an infinity of minuteness no less than an infinity of immensity; for hitherto, attempts to reach the ultimate of molecules, have proved as futile as attempts to reach the ultimate of masses. now man, the noblest work of creation, the only reasoning creature, standing alone in the midst of this vast sea of undiscovered truth,--ultimate knowledge ever receding from his grasp, primal causes only thrown farther back as proximate problems are solved,--man, in the study of mankind, must follow his researches in both of these directions, backward as well as forward, must indeed derive his whole knowledge of what man is and will be from what he has been. thus it is that the study of mankind in its minuteness assumes the grandest proportions. viewed in this light there is not a feature of primitive humanity without significance; there is not a custom or characteristic of savage nations, however mean or revolting to us, from which important lessons may not be drawn. it is only from the study of barbarous and partially cultivated nations that we are able to comprehend man as a progressive being, and to recognize the successive stages through which our savage ancestors have passed on their way to civilization. with the natural philosopher, there is little thought as to the relative importance of the manifold works of creation. the tiny insect is no less an object of his patient scrutiny, than the wonderful and complex machinery of the cosmos. the lower races of men, in the study of humanity, he deems of as essential importance as the higher; our present higher races being but the lower types of generations yet to come. hence, if in the following pages, in the array of minute facts incident to the successive peoples of which we speak, some of them appear small and unworthy of notice, let it be remembered that in nature there is no such thing as insignificance; still less is there anything connected with man unworthy of our most careful study, or any peculiarity of savagism irrelevant to civilization. [sidenote: origin of man.] different schools of naturalists maintain widely different opinions regarding the origin of mankind. existing theories may be broadly divided into three categories; in the first two of which man is considered as a special creation, and in the third as a natural development from some lower type. the special-creation school is divided on the question of unity or diversity of race. the first party holds by the time-honored tradition, that all the nations of the earth are descended from a single human pair; the second affirms, that by one creative act were produced several special creations, each separate creation being the origin of a race, and each race primordially adapted to that part of the globe which it now inhabits. the third theory, that of the development school, denies that there ever were common centres of origin in organic creation; but claims that plants and animals generate spontaneously, and that man is but the modification of some preexisting animal form. [sidenote: hypotheses concerning origin.] the first hypothesis, the doctrine of the monogenists, is ably supported by latham, prichard, and many other eminent ethnologists of europe, and is the favorite opinion of orthodox thinkers throughout christendom. the human race, they say, having sprung from a single pair, constitutes but one stock, though subject to various modifications. anatomically, there is no difference between a negro and a european. the color of the skin, the texture of the hair, the convolutions of the brain, and all other peculiarities, may be attributed to heat, moisture, and food. man, though capable of subduing the world to himself, and of making his home under climates and circumstances the most diverse, is none the less a child of nature, acted upon and molded by those conditions which he attempts to govern. climate, periodicities of nature, material surroundings, habits of thought and modes of life, acting through a long series of ages, exercise a powerful influence upon the human physical organization; and yet man is perfectly created for any sphere in which he may dwell; and is governed in his condition by choice rather than by coercion. articulate language, which forms the great line of demarcation between the human and the brute creation, may be traced in its leading characteristics to one common source. the differences between the races of men are not specific differences. the greater part of the flora and fauna of america, those of the circumpolar regions excepted, are essentially dissimilar to those of the old world; while man in the new world, though bearing traces of high antiquity, is specifically identical with all the races of the earth. it is well known that the hybrids of plants and of animals do not possess the power of reproduction, while in the intermixture of the races of men no such sterility of progeny can be found; and therefore, as there are no human hybrids, there are no separate human races or species, but all are one family. besides being consistent with sound reasoning, this theory can bring to its support the testimony of the sacred writings, and an internal evidence of a creation divine and spiritual, which is sanctioned by tradition, and confirmed by most philosophic minds. man, unlike animals, is the direct offspring of the creator, and as such he alone continues to derive his inheritance from a divine source. the hebraic record, continue the monogenists, is the only authentic solution of the origin of all things; and its history is not only fully sustained by science, but it is upheld by the traditions of the most ancient barbarous nations, whose mythology strikingly resembles the mosaic account of the creation, the deluge, and the distribution of peoples. the semitic family alone were civilized from the beginning. a peculiar people, constantly upheld by special act of providence from falling into paganism, they alone possessed a true knowledge of the mystery of creation. a universal necessity for some form of worship, a belief inherent in all mankind, in an omnipotent deity and a life beyond the grave, point to a common origin and prophesy a common destiny. this much for the monogenists. the second hypothesis, that of the polygenists, holds that there was not one only, but several independent creations, each giving birth to the essential, unchangeable peculiarities of a separate race; thus constituting a diversity of species with primeval adaptation to their geographical distribution. morton, agassiz, gliddon, and others in america, stand sponsors for this theory. the physiological differences of race, they say, which separate mankind into classes, do not result from climatic surroundings, but are inherited from original progenitors. they point to marked characteristics in various peoples which have remained unchanged for a period of four thousand years. in place of controverting divine revelation, they claim that mosaic history is the history of a single race, and not the history of all mankind; that the record itself contains an implied existence of other races; and that the distribution of the various species or races of men, according to their relative organisms, was part of the creative act, and of no less importance than was the act of creation. the third hypothesis, derived mainly from the writings of lamarck, darwin, and huxley, is based upon the principle of evolution. all existing species are developments of some preëxisting form, which in like manner descended by true generation from a form still lower. man, say they, bears no impress of a divine original that is not common to brutes; he is but an animal, more perfectly developed through natural and sexual selection. commencing with the spontaneous generation of the lowest types of vegetable and animal life,--as the accumulation of mold upon food, the swarming of maggots in meat, the infusorial animalcules in water, the generation of insect life in decaying vegetable substances,--the birth of one form arising out of the decay of another, the slow and gradual unfolding from a lower to a higher sphere, acting through a long succession of ages, culminate in the grandeur of intellectual manhood. thus much for this life, while the hope of a like continued progress is entertained for the life to come. while the tendency of variety in organic forms is to decrease, argue these latter-day naturalists, individuals increase in a proportion greater than the provisional means of support. a predominating species, under favorable circumstances, rapidly multiplies, crowding out and annihilating opposing species. there is therefore a constant struggle for existence in nature, in which the strongest, those best fitted to live and improve their species, prevail; while the deformed and ill-favored are destroyed. in courtship and sexual selection the war for precedence continues. throughout nature the male is the wooer; he it is who is armed for fight, and provided with musical organs and ornamental appendages, with which to charm the fair one. the savage and the wild beast alike secure their mate over the mangled form of a vanquished rival. in this manner the more highly favored of either sex are mated, and natural selections made, by which, better ever producing better, the species in its constant variation is constantly improved. many remarkable resemblances may be seen between man and the inferior animals. in embryonic development, in physical structure, in material composition and the function of organs, man and animals are strikingly alike. and, in the possession of that immaterial nature which more widely separates the human from the brute creation, the 'reasonable soul' of man is but an evolution from brute instincts. the difference in the mental faculties of man and animals is immense; but the high culture which belongs to man has been slowly developed, and there is plainly a wider separation between the mental power of the lowest zoöphyte and the highest ape, than between the most intellectual ape and the least intellectual man. physically and mentally, the man-like ape and the ape-like man sustain to each other a near relationship; while between the mammal and the mollusk there exists the greatest possible dissimilarity. articulate language, it is true, acting upon the brain, and in turn being acted upon to the improvement of both, belongs only to man; yet animals are not devoid of expedients for expressing feeling and emotion. it has been observed that no brute ever fashioned a tool for a special purpose; but some animals crack nuts with a stone, and an accidentally splintered flint naturally suggests itself as the first instrument of primeval man. the chief difficulty lies in the high state of moral and intellectual power which may be attained by man; yet this same progressive principle is likewise found in brutes. nor need we blush for our origin. the nations now most civilized were once barbarians. our ancestors were savages, who, with tangled hair, and glaring eyes, and blood-besmeared hands, devoured man and beast alike. surely a respectable gorilla lineage stands no unfavorable comparison. between the first and the last of these three rallying points, a whole continent of debatable land is spread, stretching from the most conservative orthodoxy to the most scientific liberalism. numberless arguments may be advanced to sustain any given position; and not unfrequently the same analogies are brought forward to prove propositions directly oppugnant. as has been observed, each school ranks among its followers the ablest men of science of the day. these men do not differ in minor particulars only, meeting in general upon one broad, common platform; on the contrary, they find themselves unable to agree as touching any one thing, except that man is, and that he is surrounded by those climatic influences best suited to his organization. any one of these theories, if substantiated, is the death-blow of the others. the first denies any diversity of species in creation and all immutability of race; the second denies a unity of species and the possibility of change in race; the third denies all special acts of creation and, like the first, all immutability of race. [sidenote: plants and animals.] the question respecting the origin of animals and plants has likewise undergone a similar flux of beliefs, but with different result. whatever the conclusions may be with regard to the origin of man, naturalists of the present day very generally agree, that there was no one universal centre of propagation for plants and animals; but that the same conditions of soil, moisture, heat, and geographical situation, always produce a similarity of species; or, what is equivalent, that there were many primary centres, each originating species, which spread out from these centres and covered the earth. this doctrine was held by early naturalists to be irreconcilable with the scripture account of the creation, and was therefore denounced as heretical. linnæus and his contemporaries drew up a pleasing picture, assigning the birth-place of all forms of life to one particular fertile spot, situated in a genial climate, and so diversified with lofty mountains and declivities, as to present all the various temperatures requisite for the sustenance of the different species of animal and vegetable life. the most exuberant types of flora and fauna are found within the tropical regions, decreasing in richness and profusion towards either pole; while man in his greatest perfection occupies the temperate zone, degenerating in harmony of features, in physical symmetry, and in intellectual vigor in either direction. within this temperate zone is placed the hypothetical cradle of the human race, varying in locality according to religion and tradition. the caucasians are referred for their origin to mount caucasus, the mongolians to mount altai, and the africans to mount atlas. three primordial centres of population have been assigned to the three sons of noah,--arabia, the semitic; india, the japetic; and egypt, the hamitic centre. thibet, and the mountains surrounding the gobi desert, have been designated as the point from which a general distribution was made; while the sacred writings mention four rich and beautiful valleys, two of which are watered by the tigris and euphrates, as the birth-place of man. it was formerly believed that in the beginning, the primeval ocean covered the remaining portion of the globe, and that from this central spot the waters receded, thereby extending the limits of terrestrial life. admitting the unity of origin, conjecture points with apparent reason to the regions of armenia and of iran, in western asia, as the cradle of the human race. departing from this geographical centre, in the directions of the extremities of the continent, the race at first degenerated in proportion to distance. civilization was for many ages confined within these central limits, until by slow degrees, paths were marked out to the eastward and to the westward, terminating the one upon the eastern coast of asia, and the other upon the american shores of the pacific. [sidenote: primordial centers.] concerning the distribution of plants and animals, but one general opinion is now sustained with any degree of reason. the beautifully varied systems of vegetation with which the habitable earth is clothed, springing up in rich, spontaneous abundance; the botanical centres of corresponding latitudes producing resemblance in genera without identity of species; their inability to cross high mountains or wide seas, or to pass through inhospitable zones, or in any way to spread far from the original centre,--all show conclusively the impossibility that such a multitude of animal and vegetable tribes, with characters so diverse, could have derived their origin from the same locality, and disappearing entirely from their original birth-place, sprung forth in some remote part of the globe. linnæus, and many others of his time, held that all telluric tribes, in common with mankind, sprang from a single pair, and descended from the stock which was preserved by noah. subsequently this opinion was modified, giving to each species an origin in some certain spot to which it was particularly adapted by nature; and it was supposed that from these primary centres, through secondary causes, there was a general diffusion throughout the surrounding regions. a comparison of the entomology of the old world and the new, shows that the genera and species of insects are for the most part peculiar to the localities in which they are found. birds and marine animals, although unrestricted in their movements, seldom wander far from specific centres. with regard to wild beasts, and the larger animals, insurmountable difficulties present themselves; so that we may infer that the systems of animal life are indigenous to the great zoölogical provinces where they are found. on the other hand, the harmony which exists between the organism of man and the methods by which nature meets his requirements, tends conclusively to show that the world in its variety was made for man, and that man is made for any portion of the earth in which he may be found. whencesoever he comes, or howsoever he reaches his dwelling-place, he always finds it prepared for him. on the icy banks of the arctic ocean, where mercury freezes and the ground never softens, the eskimo, wrapped in furs, and burrowing in the earth, revels in grease and train-oil, sustains vitality by eating raw flesh and whale-fat; while the naked inter-tropical man luxuriates in life under a burning sun, where ether boils and reptiles shrivel upon the hot stone over which they attempt to crawl. the watery fruit and shading vegetation would be as useless to the one, as the heating food and animal clothing would be to the other. the capability of man to endure all climates, his omnivorous habits, and his powers of locomotion, enable him to roam at will over the earth. he was endowed with intelligence wherewith to invent methods of migration and means of protection from unfavorable climatic influence, and with capabilities for existing in almost any part of the world; so that, in the economy of nature the necessity did not exist with regard to man for that diversity of creation which was deemed requisite in the case of plants and animals. the classification of man into species or races, so as to be able to designate by his organization the family to which he belongs, as well as the question of his origin, has been the subject of great diversity of opinion from the fact that the various forms so graduate into each other, that it is impossible to determine which is species and which variety. attempts have indeed been made at divisions of men into classes according to their primeval and permanent physiological structure, but what uniformity can be expected from such a classification among naturalists who cannot so much as agree what is primeval and what permanent? the tests applied by ethnologists for distinguishing the race to which an individual belongs, are the color of the skin, the size and shape of the skull,--determined generally by the facial angle,--the texture of the hair, and the character of the features. the structure of language, also, has an important bearing upon the affinity of races; and is, with some ethnologists, the primary criterion in the classification of species. the facial angle is determined by a line drawn from the forehead to the front of the upper jaw, intersected by a horizontal line passing over the middle of the ear. the facial angle of a european is estimated at °, of a negro at °, and of the ape at °. representations of an adult troglodyte measure °, and of a satyr °. some writers classify according to one or several of these tests, others consider them all in arriving at their conclusions. [sidenote: specific classifications.] thus, virey divides the human family into two parts: those with a facial angle of from eighty-five to ninety degrees,--embracing the caucasian, mongolian, and american; and those with a facial angle of from seventy-five to eighty-two degrees,--including the malay, negro, and hottentot. cuvier and jaquinot make three classes, placing the malay and american among the subdivisions of the mongolian. kant makes four divisions under four colors: white, black, copper, and olive. linnæus also makes four: european, whitish; american, coppery; asiatic, tawny; and african, black. buffon makes five divisions and blumenbach five. blumenbach's classification is based upon cranial admeasurements, complexion, and texture of the hair. his divisions are caucasian or aryan, mongolian, ethiopian, malay, and american. lesson makes six divisions according to colors: white, dusky, orange, yellow, red, and black. bory de st vincent arranges fifteen stocks under three classes which are differenced by hair: european straight hair, american straight hair, and crisped or curly hair. in like manner prof. zeune designates his divisions under three types of crania for the eastern hemisphere, and three for the western, namely, high skulls, broad skulls, and long skulls. hunter classifies the human family under seven species; agassiz makes eight; pickering, eleven; desmoulins, sixteen; and crawford, sixty-three. dr latham, considered by many the chief exponent of the science of ethnology in england, classifies the different races under three primary divisions, namely: mongolidæ, atlantidæ, and japetidæ. prichard makes three principal types of cranial conformation, which he denominates respectively, the civilized races, the nomadic or wandering races, and the savage or hunting races. agassiz designates the races of men according to the zoölogical provinces which they respectively occupy. thus the arctic realm is inhabited by hyperboreans, the asiatic by mongols, the european by white men, the american by american indians, the african by black races, and the east indian, australian and polynesian by their respective peoples. now when we consider the wide differences between naturalists, not only as to what constitutes race and species,--if there be variety of species in the human family,--but also in the assignment of peoples and individuals to their respective categories under the direction of the given tests; when we see the human race classified under from one to sixty-three distinct species, according to individual opinions; and when we see that the several tests which govern classification are by no means satisfactory, and that those who have made this subject the study of their lives, cannot agree as touching the fundamental characteristics of such classification--we cannot but conclude, either that there are no absolute lines of separation between the various members of the human family, or that thus far the touchstone by which such separation is to be made remains undiscovered. [sidenote: all tests fallacious.] the color of the human skin, for example, is no certain guide in classification. microscopists have ascertained that the normal colorations of the skin are not the results of organic differences in race; that complexions are not permanent physical characters, but are subject to change. climate is a cause of physical differences, and frequently in a single tribe may be found shades of color extending through all the various transitions from black to white. in one people, part occupying a cold mountainous region, and part a heated lowland, a marked difference in color is always perceptible. peculiarities in the texture of the hair are likewise no proof of race. the hair is more sensibly affected by the action of the climate than the skin. every degree of color and crispation may be found in the european family alone; and even among the frizzled locks of negroes every gradation appears, from crisped to flowing hair. the growth of the beard may be cultivated or retarded according to the caprice of the individual; and in those tribes which are characterized by an absence or thinness of beard, may be found the practice, continued for ages, of carefully plucking out all traces of beard at the age of puberty. no physiological deformities have been discovered which prevent any people from cultivating a beard if such be their pleasure. the conformation of the cranium is often peculiar to habits of rearing the young, and may be modified by accidental or artificial causes. the most eminent scholars now hold the opinion that the size and shape of the skull has far less influence upon the intelligence of the individual than the quality and convolutions of the brain. the structure of language, especially when offered in evidence supplementary to that of physical science, is most important in establishing a relationship between races. but it should be borne in mind that languages are acquired, not inherited; that they are less permanent than living organisms; that they are constantly changing, merging into each other, one dialect dying out and another springing into existence; that in the migrations of nomadic tribes, or in the arrival of new nations, although languages may for a time preserve their severalty, they are at last obliged, from necessity, to yield to the assimilating influences which constantly surround them, and become merged into the dialects of neighboring clans. and on the other hand, a counter influence is exercised upon the absorbing dialect. the dialectic fusion of two communities results in the partial disappearance of both languages, so that a constant assimilation and dissimilation is going on. "the value of language," says latham, "has been overrated;" and whitney affirms that "language is no infallible sign of race;" although both of these authors give to language the first place as a test of national affinities. language is not a physiological characteristic, but an acquisition; and as such should be used with care in the classification of species. science, during the last half century, has unfolded many important secrets; has tamed impetuous elements, called forth power and life from the hidden recesses of the earth; has aroused the slumbering energies of both mental and material force, changed the currents of thought, emancipated the intellect from religious transcendentalism, and spread out to the broad light of open day a vast sea of truth. old-time beliefs have had to give place. the débris of one exploded dogma is scarcely cleared away before we are startled with a request for the yielding up of another long and dearly cherished opinion. and in the attempt to read the book of humanity as it comes fresh from the impress of nature, to trace the history of the human race, by means of moral and physical characteristics, backward through all its intricate windings to its source, science has accomplished much; but the attempt to solve the great problem of human existence, by analogous comparisons of man with man, and man with animals, has so far been vain and futile in the extreme. i would not be understood as attempting captiously to decry the noble efforts of learned men to solve the problems of nature. for who can tell what may or may not be found out by inquiry? any classification, moreover, and any attempt at classification, is better than none; and in drawing attention to the uncertainty of the conclusions arrived at by science, i but reiterate the opinions of the most profound thinkers of the day. it is only shallow and flippant scientists, so called, who arbitrarily force deductions from mere postulates, and with one sweeping assertion strive to annihilate all history and tradition. they attempt dogmatically to set up a reign of intellect in opposition to that of the author of intellect. terms of vituperation and contempt with which a certain class of writers interlard their sophisms, as applied to those holding different opinions, are alike an offense against good taste and sound reasoning. notwithstanding all these failures to establish rules by which mankind may be divided into classes, there yet remains the stubborn fact that differences do exist, as palpable as the difference between daylight and darkness. these differences, however, are so played upon by change, that hitherto the scholar has been unable to transfix those elements which appear to him permanent and characteristic. for, as draper remarks, "the permanence of organic forms is altogether dependent on the invariability of the material conditions under which they live. any variation therein, no matter how insignificant it might be, would be forthwith followed by a corresponding variation in form. the present invariability of the world of organization is the direct consequence of the physical equilibrium, and so it will continue as long as the mean temperature, the annual supply of light, the composition of the air, the distribution of water, oceanic and atmospheric currents, and other such agencies, remain unaltered; but if any one of these, or of a hundred other incidents that might be mentioned, should suffer modification, in an instant the fanciful doctrine of the immutability of species would be brought to its true value." [sidenote: origin of the indians.] the american indians, their origin and consanguinity, have, from the days of columbus to the present time proved no less a knotty question. schoolmen and scientists count their theories by hundreds, each sustaining some pet conjecture, with a logical clearness equaled only by the facility with which he demolishes all the rest. one proves their origin by holy writ; another by the writings of ancient philosophers; another by the sage sayings of the fathers. one discovers in them phoenician merchants; another, the ten lost tribes of israel. they are tracked with equal certainty from scandinavia, from ireland, from iceland, from greenland, across bering strait, across the northern pacific, the southern pacific, from the polynesian islands, from australia, from africa. venturesome carthaginians were thrown upon the eastern shore; japanese junks on the western. the breezes that wafted hither america's primogenitors are still blowing, and the ocean currents by which they came cease not yet to flow. the finely spun webs of logic by which these fancies are maintained would prove amusing, did not the profound earnestness of their respective advocates render them ridiculous. acosta, who studied the subject for nine years in peru, concludes that america was the ophir of solomon. aristotle relates that the carthaginians in a voyage were carried to an unknown island; whereupon florian, gomara, oviedo, and others, are satisfied that the island was española. "who are these that fly as a cloud," exclaims esaias, "or as the doves to their windows?" scholastic sages answer, columbus is the _columba_ or dove here prophesied. alexo vanegas shows that america was peopled by carthaginians; anahuac being but another name for anak. besides, both nations practiced picture-writing; both venerated fire and water, wore skins of animals, pierced the ears, ate dogs, drank to excess, telegraphed by means of fires on hills, wore all their finery on going to war, poisoned their arrows, beat drums and shouted in battle. garcia found a man in peru who had seen a rock with something very like greek letters engraved upon it; six hundred years after the apotheosis of hercules, coleo made a long voyage; homer knew of the ocean; the athenians waged war with the inhabitants of atlantis; hence the american indians were greeks. lord kingsborough proves conclusively that these same american indians were jews: because their "symbol of innocence" was in the one case a fawn and in the other a lamb; because of the law of moses, "considered in reference to the custom of sacrificing children, which existed in mexico and peru;" because "the fears of tumults of the people, famine, pestilence, and warlike invasions, were exactly the same as those entertained by the jews if they failed in the performance of any of their ritual observances;" because "the education of children commenced amongst the mexicans, as with the jews, at an exceedingly early age;" because "beating with a stick was a very common punishment amongst the jews," as well as among the mexicans; because the priesthood of both nations "was hereditary in a certain family;" because both were inclined to pay great respect to lucky or unlucky omens, such as the screeching of the owl, the sneezing of a person in company," etc., and because of a hundred other equally sound and relevant arguments. analogous reasoning to this of lord kingsborough's was that of the merced indians of california. shortly after the discovery of the yosemite valley, tidings reached the settlers of mariposa that certain chiefs had united with intent to drop down from their mountain stronghold and annihilate them. to show the indians the uselessness of warring upon white men, these chieftains were invited to visit the city of san francisco, where, from the number and superiority of the people that they would there behold, they should become intimidated, and thereafter maintain peace. but contrary to the most reasonable expectations, no sooner had the dusky delegates returned to their home than a council was called, and the assembled warriors were informed that they need have no fear of these strangers: "for," said the envoys, "the people of the great city of san francisco are of a different tribe from these white settlers of mariposa. their manners, their customs, their language, their dress, are all different. they wear black coats and high hats, and are not able to walk along the smoothest path without the aid of a stick." there are many advocates for an asiatic origin, both among ancient and modern speculators. favorable winds and currents, the short distance between islands, traditions, both chinese and indian, refer the peopling of america to that quarter. similarity in color, features, religion, reckoning of time, absence of a heavy beard, and innumerable other comparisons, are drawn by enthusiastic advocates, to support a mongolian origin. the same arguments, in whole or in part, are used to prove that america was peopled by egyptians, by ethiopians, by french, english, trojans, frisians, scythians; and also that different parts were settled by different peoples. the test of language has been applied with equal facility and enthusiasm to egyptian, jew, phoenician, carthaginian, spaniard, chinese, japanese, and in fact to nearly all the nations of the earth. a complete review of theories and opinions concerning the origin of the indians, i propose to give in another place; not that intrinsically they are of much value, except as showing the different fancies of different men and times. fancies, i say, for modern scholars, with the aid of all the new revelations of science, do not appear in their investigations to arrive one whit nearer an indubitable conclusion. it was obvious to the europeans when they first beheld the natives of america, that these were unlike the intellectual white-skinned race of europe, the barbarous blacks of africa, or any nation or people which they had hitherto encountered, yet were strikingly like each other. into whatsoever part of the newly discovered lands they penetrated, they found a people seemingly one in color, physiognomy, customs, and in mental and social traits. their vestiges of antiquity and their languages presented a coincidence which was generally observed by early travelers. hence physical and psychological comparisons are advanced to prove ethnological resemblances among all the peoples of america, and that they meanwhile possess common peculiarities totally distinct from the nations of the old world. morton and his confrères, the originators of the american homogeneity theory, even go so far as to claim for the american man an origin as indigenous as that of the fauna and flora. they classify all the tribes of america, excepting only the eskimos who wandered over from asia, as the american race, and divide it into the american family and the toltecan family. blumenbach classifies the americans as a distinct species. the american mongolidæ of dr latham are divided into eskimos and american indians. dr morton perceives the same characteristic lineaments in the face of the fuegian and the mexican, and in tribes inhabiting the rocky mountains, the mississippi valley, and florida. the same osteological structure, swarthy color, straight hair, meagre beard, obliquely cornered eyes, prominent cheek bones, and thick lips are common to them all. dr latham describes his american mongolidæ as exercising upon the world a material rather than a moral influence; giving them meanwhile a color, neither a true white nor a jet black; hair straight and black, rarely light, sometimes curly; eyes sometimes oblique; a broad, flat face and a retreating forehead. dr prichard considers the american race, psychologically, as neither superior nor inferior to other primitive races of the world. bory de st vincent classifies americans into five species, including the eskimos. the mexicans he considers as cognate with the malays. humboldt characterizes the nations of america as one race, by their straight glossy hair, thin beard, swarthy complexion, and cranial formation. schoolcraft makes four groups; the first extending across the northern end of the continent; the second, tribes living east of the mississippi; the third, those between the mississippi and the rocky mountains; and the fourth, those west of the rocky mountains. all these he subdivides into thirty-seven families; but so far as those on the pacific coast are concerned, he might as reasonably have made of them twice or half the number. all writers agree in giving to the nations of america a remote antiquity; all admit that there exists a greater uniformity between them than is to be found in the old world; many deny that all are one race. there is undoubtedly a prevailing uniformity in those physical characteristics which govern classification; but this uniformity goes as far to prove one universal race throughout the world, as it does to prove a race peculiar to america. traditions, ruins, moral and physical peculiarities, all denote for americans a remote antiquity. the action of a climate peculiar to america, and of natural surroundings common to all the people of the continent, could not fail to produce in time a similarity of physiological structure. [sidenote: individuality of race.] the impression of a new world individuality of race was no doubt strengthened in the eyes of the conquerors, and in the mind of the train of writers that followed, by the fact, that the newly discovered tribes were more like each other than were any other peoples they had ever before seen; and at the same time very much unlike any nation whatever of the old world. and so any really existing physical distinctions among the american stocks came to be overlooked or undervalued. darwin, on the authority of elphinstone, observes that in india, "although a newly arrived european cannot at first distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him entirely dissimilar; and the hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference between the several european nations." it has been observed by prof. von martius that the literary and architectural remains of the civilized tribes of america indicate a higher degree of intellectual elevation than is likely to be found in a nation emerging from barbarism. in their sacerdotal ordinances, privileged orders, regulated despotisms, codes of law, and forms of government are found clear indications of a relapse from civilization to barbarism. chateaubriand, from the same premises, develops a directly opposite conclusion, and perceives in all this high antiquity and civilization only a praiseworthy evolution from primeval barbarism. thus arguments drawn from a comparison of parallel traits in the moral, social, or physical condition of man should be received with allowance, for man has much in common not only with man, but with animals. variations in bodily structure and mental faculties are governed by general laws. the great variety of climate which characterizes america could not fail to produce various habits of life. the half-torpid hyperborean, the fierce warrior-hunter of the vast interior forests, the sluggish, swarthy native of the tropics, and the intelligent mexican of the table-land, slowly developing into civilization under the refining influences of arts and letters,--all these indicate variety in the unity of the american race; while the insulation of american nations, and the general characteristics incident to peculiar physical conditions could not fail to produce a unity in their variety. [sidenote: races of the pacific.] the races of the pacific states embrace all the varieties of species known as american under any of the classifications mentioned. thus, in the five divisions of blumenbach, the eskimos of the north would come under the fourth division, which embraces malays and polynesians, and which is distinguished by a high square skull, low forehead, short broad nose, and projecting jaws. to his fifth class, the american, which he subdivides into the american family and the toltecan family, he gives a small skull with a high apex, flat on the occiput, high cheek bones, receding forehead, aquiline nose, large mouth, and tumid lips. morton, although he makes twenty-two divisions in all, classifies americans in the same manner. the polar family he characterises as brown in color, short in stature, of thick, clumsy proportions, with a short neck, large head, flat face, small nose, and eyes disposed to obliquity. he perceives an identity of race among all the other stocks from mount st elias to patagonia; though he designates the semi-civilized tribes of mexico and peru as the toltecan family, and the savage nations as the appalachian branch of the american family. dr prichard makes three divisions of the tribes bordering the pacific between mount st elias and cape st lucas: the tribes from the borders of the eskimos southward to vancouver island constitute the first division; the tribes of oregon and washington, the second; and the tribes of upper and lower california, the third. pickering assigns the limits of the american, malay, or toltecan family to california and western mexico. he is of the opinion that they crossed from southeastern asia by way of the islands of the pacific, and landed upon this continent south of san francisco, there being no traces of them north of this point; while the mongolians found their way from northeastern asia across bering strait. the californians, therefore, he calls malays; and the inhabitants of vancouver island, british columbia, washington, and oregon, he classifies as mongolians. californians, in the eyes of this traveler, differ from their northern neighbors in complexion and physiognomy. the only physiological test that mr pickering was able to apply in order to distinguish the polynesian in san francisco from the native californian, was that the hair of the former was wavy, while that of the latter was straight. both have more hair than the oregonian. the skin of the malay of the polynesian islands, and that of the californian are alike, soft and very dark. three other analogous characteristics were discovered by mr pickering. both have an open countenance, one wife, and no tomahawk! on the other hand, the mongolian from asia, and the oregonian are of a lighter complexion, and exhibit the same general resemblances that are seen in the american and asiatic eskimos. in general the toltecan family may be described as of good stature, well proportioned, rather above medium size, of a light copper color; as having long black obliquely pointed eyes, regular white teeth, glossy black hair, thin beard, prominent cheek bones, thick lips, large aquiline nose, and retreating forehead. a gentle expression about the mouth is blended with severity and melancholy in the upper portion of the face. they are brave, cruel in war, sanguinary in religion, and revengeful. they are intelligent; possess minds well adapted to the pursuit of knowledge; and, at the time of the arrival of the spaniards, were well advanced in history, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy. they constructed aqueducts, extracted metals, carved images in gold, silver, and copper; they could spin, weave, and dye; they could accurately cut precious stones; they cultivated corn and cotton; built large cities, constructing their buildings of stone and lime; made roads and erected stupendous tumuli. certain ethnological zones have been observed by some, stretching across the continent in various latitudes, broken somewhat by intersecting continental elevations, but following for the most part isothermal lines which, on coming from the east, bend northward as the softer air of the pacific is entered. thus the eskimos nearly surround the pole. next come the tinneh, stretching across the continent from the east, somewhat irregularly, but their course marked generally by thermic lines, bending northward after crossing the rocky mountains, their southern boundary, touching the pacific, about the fifty-fifth parallel. the algonkin family border on the tinneh, commencing at the mouth of the st lawrence river, and extending westward to the rocky mountains. natural causes alone prevent the extension of these belts round the entire earth. indeed, both philologists and physiologists trace lines of affinity across the pacific, from island to island, from one continent to the other; one line, as we have seen, crossing bering strait, another following the aleutian archipelago, and a third striking the coast south of san francisco bay. [sidenote: savage humanity.] it is common for those unaccustomed to look below the surface of things, to regard indians as scarcely within the category of humanity. especially is this the case when we, maddened by some treacherous outrage, some diabolic act of cruelty, hastily pronounce them incorrigibly wicked, inhumanly malignant, a nest of vipers, the extermination of which is a righteous act. all of which may be true; but, judged by this standard, has not every nation on earth incurred the death penalty? human nature is in no wise changed by culture. the european is but a white-washed savage. civilized venom is no less virulent than savage venom. it ill becomes the full grown man to scoff at the ineffectual attempts of the little child, and to attempt the cure of its faults by killing it. no more is it a mark of benevolent wisdom in those favored by a superior intelligence, with the written records of the past from which to draw experience and learn how best to shape their course for the future, to cry down the untaught man of the wilderness, deny him a place in this world or the next, denounce him as a scourge, an outlaw, and seize upon every light pretext to assist him off the stage from which his doom is so rapidly removing him. we view man in his primitive state from a wrong stand-point at the outset. in place of regarding savages as of one common humanity with ourselves, and the ancestors perhaps of peoples higher in the scale of being, and more intellectual than any the world has yet seen, we place them among the common enemies of mankind, and regard them more in the light of wild animals than of wild men. and let not him who seeks a deeper insight into the mysteries of humanity despise beginnings, things crude and small. the difference between the cultured and the primitive man lies chiefly in the fact that one has a few centuries the start of the other in the race of progress. before condemning the barbarian, let us first examine his code of ethics. let us draw our light from his light, reason after his fashion; see in the sky, the earth, the sea, the same fantastic imagery that plays upon his fancy, and adapt our sense of right and wrong to his social surroundings. just as human nature is able to appreciate divine nature only as divine nature accords with human nature; so the intuitions of lower orders of beings can be comprehended only by bringing into play our lower faculties. nor can we any more clearly appreciate the conceptions of beings below us than of those above us. the thoughts, reasonings, and instincts of an animal or insect are as much a mystery to the human intellect as are the lofty contemplations of an archangel. [sidenote: pacification of tierra firme.] three hundred and thirty-six years were occupied in the discovery of the western border of north america. from the time when, in , the adventurous notary of triana, rodrigo de bastidas, approached the isthmus of darien, in search of gold and pearls, till the year , when messrs dease and simpson, by order of the hudson's bay company, completed the survey of the northern extremity, which bounds the arctic ocean, the intervening territory was discovered at intervals, and under widely different circumstances. during that time, under various immediate incentives, but with the broad principle of avarice underlying all, such parts of this territory as were conceived to be of sufficient value were seized, and the inhabitants made a prey to the rapacity of the invaders. thus the purpose of the worthy notary bastidas, the first spaniard who visited the continent of north america, was pacific barter with the indians; and his kind treatment was rewarded by a successful traffic. next came columbus, from the opposite direction, sailing southward along the coast of honduras on his fourth voyage, in . his was the nobler object of discovery. he was striving to get through or round this _tierra firme_ which, standing between himself and his theory, persistently barred his progress westward. he had no time for barter, nor any inclination to plant settlements; he was looking for a strait or passage through or round these outer confines to the more opulent regions of india. but, unsuccessful in his laudable effort, he at length yielded to the clamorous cupidity of his crew. he permitted his brother, the adelantado, to land and take possession of the country for the king of spain, and, in the year following, to attempt a settlement at veragua. [sidenote: first intercourse with europeans.] in - , juan de solis with pinzon continued the search of columbus, along the coast of yucatan and mexico, for a passage through to the southern ocean. the disastrous adventures of alonzo de ojeda, diego de nicuesa, and juan de la cosa, on the isthmus of darien, between the years and , brought into more intimate contact the steel weapons of the chivalrous hidalgos with the naked bodies of the savages. vasco nuñez de balboa, after a toilsome journey across the isthmus in , was rewarded by the first view of the pacific ocean, of which he took possession for the king of spain on the twenty-fifth of september. the white sails of córdova grijalva, and garay, descried by the natives of yucatan and mexico in - , were quickly followed by cortés and his keen-scented band of adventurers, who, received by the unsuspecting natives as gods, would have been dismissed by them as fiends had not the invasion culminated in the conquest of mexico. during the years - , cortés made expeditions to tehuantepec, panuco, and central america; gil gonzales and cristobal de olid invaded nicaragua and honduras. nuño de guzman in , with a large force, took possession of the entire northern country from the city of mexico to the northern boundary of sinaloa; and cabeza de vaca crossed the continent from texas to sinaloa in the years - . journeys to the north were made by cortés, ulloa, coronado, mendoza, and cabrillo between the years and . hundreds of roman catholic missionaries, ready to lay down their lives in their earnest anxiety for the souls of the indians, spread out into the wilderness in every direction. during the latter part of the sixteenth century had place,--the expedition of francisco de ibarra to sinaloa in , the campaign of hernando de bazan against the indians of sinaloa in , the adventures of oxenham in darien in , the voyage round the world of sir francis drake, touching upon the northwest coast in ; the expedition of antonio de espejo to new mexico in ; francisco de gali's return from macao to mexico, by way of the northwest coast, in ; the voyage of maldonado to the imaginary straits of anian in ; the expedition of castaño de sosa to new mexico in ; the voyage of juan de fuca to the straits of anian in ; the wreck of the 'san agustin' upon the northwest coast in ; the voyage of sebastian vizcaino towards california in ; the discoveries of juan de oñate in new mexico in , and many others. intercourse with the natives was extended during the seventeenth century by the voyage of sebastian vizcaino from mexico to california in ; by the expedition of francisco de ortega to lower california in ; by the journey of thomas gage from mexico to guatemala in ; by the voyage round the world of william dampier in ; by the reckless adventures of the buccaneers from to ; by the expedition of isidor de otondo into lower california in ; by the expedition of father kino to sonora and arizona in ; by the expeditions of kino, kappus, mange, bernal, carrasco, salvatierra, and others to sonora and arizona in - ; and by the occupation of lower california by the jesuits, salvatierra, ugarte, kino, and piccolo, from to . voyages of circumnavigation were made by dampier in - ; by rogers in - ; by shelvocke in - , and by anson in - . frondac made a voyage from china to california in . the first voyage through bering strait is supposed to have been made by semun deschneff and his companions in the year , and purports to have explored the asiatic coast from the river kolyma to the south of the river anadir, thus proving the separation of the continents of asia and america. in , a russian cossack, named popoff, was sent from the fort on the anadir river to subdue the rebellious tschuktschi of tschuktschi noss, a point of land on the asiatic coast near to the american continent. he there received from the natives the first intelligence of the proximity of the continent of america and the character of the inhabitants; an account of which will be given in another place. in , vitus bering and alexei tschirikoff sailed in company, from petropaulovski, for the opposite coast of america. they parted company during a storm, the latter reaching the coast in latitude fifty-six, and the former landing at cape st elias in latitude sixty degrees north. the earliest information concerning the aleutian islanders was obtained by the russians in the year , when michael nevodtsikoff sailed from the kamtchatka river in pursuit of furs. a russian commercial company, called the promyschleniki, was formed, and other hunting and trading voyages followed. lasareff visited six islands of the andreanovski group in ; and the year following was made the discovery of the alaskan peninsula, supposed to be an island until after the survey of the coast by captain cook. drusinin made a hunting expedition to unalaska and the fox islands in ; and, during the same year, stephen glottoff visited the island of kadiak. korovin, solovieff, synd, otseredin, krenitzen, and other russian fur-hunters spent the years - among the aleutian islands, capturing sea-otters, seals, and foxes, and exchanging, with the natives, beads and iron utensils, for furs. [sidenote: occupation of california.] a grand missionary movement, growing out of the religious rivalries of the two great orders of the catholic church, led to the original occupation of upper california by spaniards. the work of christianizing lower california was inaugurated by the jesuits, under fathers salvatierra and kino, in . when the jesuits were expelled from mexico in , their missions were turned over to the franciscans. this so roused the zeal of the dominicans that they immediately appealed to spain, and in obtained an edict, giving them a due share in the missions of lower california. the franciscans, thinking it better to carry their efforts into new fields than to contend for predominance at home, generously offered to cede the whole of lower california to the dominicans, and themselves retire to the wild and distant regions of upper california. this being agreed upon, two expeditions were organized to proceed northward simultaneously, one by water and the other by land. in january, , the ship 'san carlos,' commanded by vicente vila, was dispatched for san diego, followed by the 'san antonio,' under juan perez, and the 'san josé,' which was unfortunately lost. the land expedition was separated into two divisions; the first under rivera y moncada departed from mexico in march, and arrived at san diego in may; the second under gaspar de portolá and father junípero serra reached san diego in july, . portolá with his companions immediately set out by land for the bay of monterey; but, unwittingly passing it by, they continued northward until barred in their progress by the magnificent bay of san francisco. unable to find the harbor of monterey, they returned to san diego in january, . in april, portolá made a second and more successful attempt, and arrived at monterey in may. meanwhile perez and junípero serra accomplished the voyage by sea, sailing in the 'san carlos.' in , pedro fages and juan crespi proceeded from monterey to explore the bay of san francisco. they were followed by rivera y moncada in , and palou and ezeta in ; and in , moraga founded the mission of dolores. in , bodega y quadra voyaged up the californian coast to the fifty-eighth parallel. in , dominguez and escalante made an expedition from santa fé to monterey. menonville journeyed to oajaca in new spain in . in , captain cook, in his third voyage round the world, touched along the coast from cape flattery to norton sound; and in , bodega y quadra, maurelle, and arteaga voyaged up the western coast to mount st elias. during the years - , voyages of circumnavigation were made by dixon and portlock, and by la pérouse, all touching upon the northwest coast. french canadian traders were the first to penetrate the northern interior west of hudson bay. their most distant station was on the saskatchewan river, two thousand miles from civilization, in the heart of an unknown wilderness inhabited by savage men and beasts. these _coureurs des bois_ or wood-rangers, as they were called, were admirably adapted, by their disposition and superior address, to conciliate the indians and form settlements among them. unrestrained, however, by control, they committed excesses which the french government could check only by prohibiting, under penalty of death, any but its authorized agents from trading within its territories. british merchants at new york soon entered into competition with the fur princes of montreal. but, in , a more formidable opposition arose in the organization of the hudson's bay company, by prince rupert and other noblemen, under a charter of charles ii. which granted exclusive right to all the territory drained by rivers flowing into hudson bay. notwithstanding constant feuds with the french merchants regarding territorial limits, the company prospered from the beginning, paying annual dividends of twenty-five and fifty per cent. after many times increasing the capital stock. in , the canadians formed the _compagnie du nord_, in order the more successfully to resist encroachment. upon the loss of canada by the french in , hostilities thickened between the companies, and the traffic for a time fell off. in , the famous northwest company was formed by canadian merchants, and the management entrusted to the frobisher brothers and simon m'tavish. the head-quarters of the company were at montreal, but annual meetings were held, with lordly state, at fort william, on the shore of lake superior. the company consisted of twenty-three partners, and employed over two thousand clerks and servants. it exercised an almost feudal sway over a wide savage domain, and maintained a formidable competition with the hudson's bay company, with which they were for two years in actual war. in , they purchased, from the partners of john jacob astor, the settlement of astoria on the columbia river. in , they united with the hudson's bay company; and the charter covering the entire region occupied by both was renewed by act of parliament. in , some merchants of new orleans organized a company which was commissioned by d'abadie, director-general of louisiana, under the name of pierre ligueste laclède, antoine maxan, and company. their first post occupied the spot upon which the city of st louis is now situated; and, under the auspices of the brothers chouteau, they penetrated northwestward beyond the rocky mountains. in , the missouri fur company was formed at st louis, consisting of the chouteaus and others; and an expedition under major henry was sent across the rocky mountains, which established the first post on the columbia river. between the years and , the rocky mountain fur company of st louis extended their operations over california and oregon, but at a loss of the lives of nearly one half of their employés. john jacob astor embarked in the fur trade at new york in , purchasing at that time in montreal. in , he obtained a charter for the american fur company, which was, in , merged into the southwest company. in , mr astor conceived the project of establishing a transcontinental line of posts. his purpose was to concentrate the fur trade of the united states, and establish uninterrupted communication between the pacific and the atlantic. he made proposals of association to the northwest company, which were not only rejected, but an attempt was made by that association to anticipate mr astor in his operations, by making a settlement at the mouth of the columbia river. in , the pacific fur company was founded by mr astor, and an expedition dispatched overland by way of st louis and the missouri river. at the same time a vessel was sent round cape horn to the mouth of the columbia; but, their adventure in that quarter proving unsuccessful, the company was dissolved, and the operations of mr astor were thereafter confined to the territory east of the rocky mountains. [sidenote: the great northwest.] samuel hearne, an officer of the hudson's bay company, was the first european to reach the arctic ocean through the interior of the continent. he descended coppermine river to its mouth in the year . the upper misinipi river was first visited by joseph frobisher in . three years later, one peter pond penetrated to within thirty miles of athabasca lake, and established a trading post at that point. four canoe-loads of merchandise were exchanged by him for more fine furs than his canoes could carry. other adventurous traders soon followed; but not long afterwards the inevitable broils which always attended the early intercourse of europeans and indians, rose to such a height that, but for the appearance of that terrible scourge, the small-pox, the traders would have been extirpated. the ravages of this dire disease continued to depopulate the country until , when traders again appeared among the knisteneaux and tinneh. the most northern division of the northwest company was at that time the athabascan lake region, where alexander mackenzie was the managing partner. his winter residence was at fort chipewyan, on athabasca lake. the indians who traded at his establishment informed him of the existence of a large river flowing to the westward from slave lake. thinking thereby to reach the pacific ocean, mr mackenzie, in the year , set out upon an expedition to the west; and, descending the noble stream which bears his name, found himself, contrary to his expectations, upon the shores of the arctic sea. in , he made a journey to the pacific, ascending peace river, and reaching the coast in latitude about fifty-two. the first expedition organized by the british government for the purpose of surveying the northern coast, was sent out under lieutenants franklin and parry in . during the year following, franklin descended coppermine river, and subsequently, in , he made a journey down the mackenzie. in , d. w. harmon, a partner in the northwest company, crossed the rocky mountains, at about the fifty-sixth parallel, to fraser and stuart lakes. the accounts of the natives given by these travelers and their companions are essentially the same, and later voyagers have failed to throw much additional light upon the subject. john meares, in , visited the straits of fuca, nootka sound, and cook inlet; and, during the same year, two ships, sent out by boston merchants, under robert gray and john kendrick, entered nootka sound. estevan martinez and gonzalo haro, sent from mexico to look after the interest of spain in these regions, explored prince william sound, and visited kadiak. during the same year, the russians established a trading post at copper river. in , joseph billings visited the aleutian islands, and the boston vessels explored the eastern coast of queen charlotte island. in , salvador fidalgo was sent by the mexican government to nootka; and monaldo explored the straits of juan de fuca. in , four ships belonging to boston merchants, two spanish ships, one french and several russian vessels touched upon the northwest coast. the spanish vessels were under the command of alejandro malespina; etienne marchand was the commander of the french ship. the 'sutil y mexicana' entered nootka sound in ; and during the same year, vancouver commenced his explorations along the coast above cape flattery. in - , baron von humboldt was making his searching investigations in mexico; while the captive new englander, jewett, was dancing attendance to maquina, king of the nootkas. lewis and clark traversed the continent in . in , a mr fraser set out from canada, and crossed the rocky mountains near the headwaters of the river which bears his name. he descended fraser river to the lake which he also called after himself. there he built a fort and opened trade with the natives. kotzebue visited the coast in ; and the russian expedition under kramchenko, wasilieff, and etolin, in . captain morrel explored the californian coast from san diego to san francisco in ; captains beechey and lütke, the northwest coast in ; and sir edward belcher in . j. k. townsend made an excursion west of the rocky mountains in . in , dease and simpson made an open boat voyage from the mackenzie river, westward to point barrow, the farthest point made by beechey from the opposite direction, thus reaching the _ultima thule_ of northwestern discovery. sir george simpson crossed the continent in , fremont in , and paul kane in . kushevaroff visited the coast in , laplace in , commodore wilkes in , and captain kellett in . following the discovery of gold, the country was deluged by adventurers. in - , commenced the series of explorations for a pacific railway. the necessities of the natives were examined, and remnants of disappearing nations were collected upon reservations under government agents. the interior of alaska was first penetrated by the employés of the russian-american fur company. malakoff ascended the yukon in ; and, in , derabin established a fort upon that river. in , w. h. hooper made a boat expedition from kotzebue sound to the mackenzie river; and, in , william h. dall and frederick whymper ascended the yukon. i have here given a few only of the original sources whence my information is derived concerning the indians. a multitude of minor voyages and travels have been performed during the past three and a half centuries, and accounts published by early residents among the natives, the bare enumeration of which i fear would prove wearisome to the reader. enough, however, has been given to show the immediate causes which led to the discovery and occupation of the several parts of this western coast. the spanish cavaliers craved from the indians of the south their lands and their gold. the spanish missionaries demanded from the indians of northern mexico and california, faith. the french, english, canadian, and american fur companies sought from the indians of oregon and new caledonia, peltries. the russians compelled the natives of the aleutian islands to hunt sea-animals. the filthy raw-flesh-eating eskimos, having nothing wherewith to tempt the cupidity of the superior race, retain their primitive purity. [sidenote: cupidity and zeal.] we observe then three original incentives urging on civilized white men to overspread the domain of the indian. the first was that thirst for gold, which characterized the fiery hidalgos from spain in their conquests, and to obtain which no cruelty was too severe nor any sacrifice of human life too great; as though of all the gifts vouchsafed to man, material or divine, one only was worth possessing. the second, following closely in the footsteps of the first, and oftentimes constituting a part of it, was religious enthusiasm; a zealous interest in the souls of the natives and the form in which they worshiped. the third, which occupied the attention of other and more northern europeans, grew out of a covetous desire for the wild man's clothing; to secure to themselves the peltries of the great hyperborean regions of america. from the south of europe the spaniards landed in tropical north america, and exterminated the natives. from the north of europe the french, english, and russians crossed over to the northern part of america; and, with a kinder and more refined cruelty, no less effectually succeeded in sweeping them from the face of the earth by the introduction of the poisonous elements of a debased cultivation. fortunately for the indians of the north, it was contrary to the interests of white people to kill them in order to obtain the skins of their animals; for, with a few trinkets, they could procure what otherwise would require long and severe labor to obtain. the policy, therefore, of the great fur-trading companies has been to cherish the indians as their best hunters, to live at peace with them, to heal their ancient feuds, and to withhold from them intoxicating liquors. the condition of their women, who were considered by the natives as little better than beasts, has been changed by their inter-social relations with the servants of the trading companies; and their more barbarous practices discontinued. it was the almost universal custom of the employés of the hudson's bay company to unite to themselves native women; thus, by means of this relationship, the condition of the women has been raised, while the men manifest a kinder feeling towards the white race who thus in a measure become one with them. the efforts of early missionaries to this region were not crowned with that success which attended the spaniards in their spiritual warfare upon the southern nations, from the fact that no attention was paid to the temporal necessities of the natives. it has long since been demonstrated impossible to reach the heart of a savage through abstract ideas of morality and elevation of character. a religion, in order to find favor in his eyes, must first meet some of his material requirements. if it is good, it will clothe him better and feed him better, for this to him is the chiefest good in life. intermixtures of civilized with savage peoples are sure to result in the total disappearance of refinement on the one side, or in the extinction of the barbaric race on the other. the downward path is always the easiest. of all the millions of native americans who have perished under the withering influences of european civilization, there is not a single instance on record, of a tribe or nation having been reclaimed, ecclesiastically or otherwise, by artifice and argument. individual savages have been educated with a fair degree of success. but, with a degree of certainty far greater, no sooner is the white man freed from the social restraint of civilized companionship, than he immediately tends towards barbarism; and not infrequently becomes so fascinated with his new life as to prefer it to any other. social development is inherent: superinduced culture is a failure. left alone, the nations of america might have unfolded into as bright a civilization as that of europe. they were already well advanced, and still rapidly advancing towards it, when they were so mercilessly stricken down. but for a stranger to re-create the heart or head of a red man, it were easier to change the color of his skin. [illustration: native races of the pacific states hyperborean group] chapter ii. hyperboreans. general divisions--hyperborean nations--aspects of nature--vegetation--climate--animals--the eskimos--their country--physical characteristics--dress--dwellings-- food--weapons--boots--sledges--snow-shoes--government--domestic affairs--amusements--diseases--burial--the koniagas, their physical and social condition--the aleuts--the thlinkeets--the tinneh. i shall attempt to describe the physical and mental characteristics of the native races of the pacific states under seven distinctive groups; namely, i. hyperboreans, being those nations whose territory lies north of the fifty-fifth parallel; ii. columbians, who dwell between the fifty-fifth and forty-second parallels, and whose lands to some extent are drained by the columbia river and its tributaries; iii. californians, and the inhabitants of the great basin; iv. new mexicans, including the nations of the colorado river and northern mexico; v. wild tribes of mexico; vi. wild tribes of central america; vii. civilized nations of mexico and central america. it is my purpose, without any attempt at ethnological classification, or further comment concerning races and stocks, plainly to portray such customs and characteristics as were peculiar to each people at the time of its first intercourse with european strangers; leaving scientists to make their own deductions, and draw specific lines between linguistic and physiological families, as they may deem proper. i shall endeavor to picture these nations in their aboriginal condition, as seen by the first invaders, as described by those who beheld them in their savage grandeur, and before they were startled from their lair by the treacherous voice of civilized friendship. now they are gone,--those dusky denizens of a thousand forests,--melted like hoar-frost before the rising sun of a superior intelligence; and it is only from the earliest records, from the narratives of eye witnesses, many of them rude unlettered men, trappers, sailors, and soldiers, that we are able to know them as they were. some division of the work into parts, however arbitrary it may be, is indispensable. in dealing with mythology, and in tracing the tortuous course of language, boundaries will be dropped and beliefs and tongues will be followed wherever they lead; but in describing manners and customs, to avoid confusion, territorial divisions are necessary. [sidenote: groupings and subdivisions.] in the groupings which i have adopted, one cluster of nations follows another in geographical succession; the dividing line not being more distinct, perhaps, than that which distinguishes some national divisions, but sufficiently marked, in mental and physical peculiarities, to entitle each group to a separate consideration. the only distinction of race made by naturalists, upon the continents of both north and south america, until a comparatively recent period, was by segregating the first of the above named groups from all other people of both continents, and calling one mongolians and the other americans. a more intimate acquaintance with the nations of the north proves conclusively that one of the boldest types of the american indian proper, the tinneh, lies within the territory of this first group, conterminous with the mongolian eskimos, and crowding them down to a narrow line along the shore of the arctic sea. the nations of the second group, although exhibiting multitudinous variations in minor traits, are essentially one people. between the california diggers of the third division and the new mexican towns-people of the fourth, there is more diversity; and a still greater difference between the savage and civilized nations of the mexican table-land. any classification or division of the subject which could be made would be open to criticism. i therefore adopt the most simple practical plan, one which will present the subject most clearly to the general reader, and leave it in the best shape for purposes of theorizing and generalization. in the first or hyperborean group, to which this chapter is devoted, are five subdivisions, as follows: the _eskimos_, commonly called western eskimos, who skirt the shores of the arctic ocean from mackenzie river to kotzebue sound; the _koniagas_ or southern eskimos, who, commencing at kotzebue sound, cross the kaviak peninsula, border on bering sea from norton sound southward, and stretch over the alaskan[ ] peninsula and koniagan islands to the mouth of the atna or copper river, extending back into the interior about one hundred and fifty miles; the _aleuts_, or people of the aleutian archipelago; the _thlinkeets_, who inhabit the coast and islands between the rivers atna and nass; and the _tinneh_, or athabascas, occupying the territory between the above described boundaries and hudson bay. each of these families is divided into nations or tribes, distinguished one from another by slight dialectic or other differences, which tribal divisions will be given in treating of the several nations respectively. let us first cast a glance over this broad domain, and mark those aspects of nature which exercise so powerful an influence upon the destinies of mankind. midway between mount st elias and the arctic seaboard rise three mountain chains. one, the rocky mountain range, crossing from the yukon to the mackenzie river, deflects southward, and taking up its mighty line of march, throws a barrier between the east and the west, which extends throughout the entire length of the continent. between the rocky mountains and the pacific, interposes another called in oregon the cascade range, and in california the sierra nevada; while from the same starting-point, the alaskan range stretches out to the southwest along the alaskan peninsula, and breaks into fragments in the aleutian archipelago. three noble streams, the mackenzie, the yukon, and the kuskoquim, float the boats of the inland hyperboreans and supply them with food; while from the heated waters of japan comes a current of the sea, bathing the icy coasts with genial warmth, tempering the air, and imparting gladness to the oily watermen of the coast, to the northernmost limit of their lands. the northern border of this territory is treeless; the southern shore, absorbing more warmth and moisture from the japan current, is fringed with dense forests; while the interior, interspersed with hills, and lakes, and woods, and grassy plains, during the short summer is clothed in luxuriant vegetation. notwithstanding the frowning aspect of nature, animal life in the arctic regions is most abundant. the ocean swarms with every species of fish and sea-mammal; the land abounds in reindeer, moose, musk-oxen; in black, grizzly, and arctic bears; in wolves, foxes, beavers, mink, ermine, martin, otters, raccoons, and water-fowl. immense herds of buffalo roam over the bleak grassy plains of the eastern tinneh, but seldom venture far to the west of the rocky mountains. myriads of birds migrate to and fro between their breeding-places in the interior of alaska, the open arctic sea, and the warmer latitudes of the south. from the gulf of mexico, from the islands of the pacific, from the lakes of california, of oregon, and of washington they come, fluttering and feasting, to rear their young during the sparkling arctic summer-day. [sidenote: man and nature.] the whole occupation of man throughout this region, is a struggle for life. so long as the organism is plentifully supplied with heat-producing food, all is well. once let the internal fire go down, and all is ill. unlike the inhabitants of equatorial latitudes, where, eden-like, the sheltering tree drops food, and the little nourishment essential to life may be obtained by only stretching forth the hand and plucking it, the hyperborean man must maintain a constant warfare with nature, or die. his daily food depends upon the success of his daily battle with beasts, birds, and fishes, which dispute with him possession of sea and land. unfortunate in his search for game, or foiled in his attempt at capture, he must fast. the associate of beasts, governed by the same emergencies, preying upon animals as animals prey upon each other, the victim supplying all the necessities of the victor, occupying territory in common, both alike drawing supplies directly from the storehouse of nature,--primitive man derives his very quality from the brute with which he struggles. the idiosyncrasies of the animal fasten upon him, and that upon which he feeds becomes a part of him. thus, in a nation of hunters inhabiting a rigorous climate, we may look for wiry, keen-scented men, who in their war upon wild beasts put forth strength and endurance in order to overtake and capture the strong; cunning is opposed by superior cunning; a stealthy watchfulness governs every movement, while the intelligence of the man contends with the instincts of the brute. fishermen, on the other hand, who obtain their food with comparatively little effort, are more sluggish in their natures and less noble in their development. in the icy regions of the north, the animal creation supplies man with food, clothing, and caloric; with all the requisites of an existence under circumstances apparently the most adverse to comfort; and when he digs his dwelling beneath the ground, or walls out the piercing winds with snow, his ultimate is attained. the chief differences in tribes occupying the interior and the seaboard,--the elevated, treeless, grassy plains east of the rocky mountains, and the humid islands and shores of the great northwest,--grow out of necessities arising from their methods of procuring food. even causes so slight as the sheltering bend of a coast-line; the guarding of a shore by islands; the breaking of a seaboard by inlets and covering of the strand with sea-weed and polyps, requiring only the labor of gathering; or the presence of a bluff coast or windy promontory, whose occupants are obliged to put forth more vigorous action for sustenance--all govern man in his development. turn now to the most northern division of our most northern group. [sidenote: the eskimos.] the eskimos, esquimaux, or as they call themselves, _innuit_, 'the people,' from _inuk_, 'man,'[ ] occupy the arctic seaboard from eastern greenland along the entire continent of america, and across bering[ ] strait to the asiatic shore. formerly the inhabitants of our whole hyperborean sea-coast, from the mackenzie river to queen charlotte island--the interior being entirely unknown--were denominated eskimos, and were of supposed asiatic origin.[ ] the tribes of southern alaska were then found to differ essentially from those of the northern coast. under the name eskimos, therefore, i include only the western eskimos of certain writers, whose southern boundary terminates at kotzebue sound.[ ] [sidenote: eskimo land.] eskimo-land is thinly peopled, and but little is known of tribal divisions. at the coppermine river, the eskimos are called _naggeuktormutes_, or deer-horns; at the eastern outlet of the mackenzie, their tribal name is _kittegarute_; between the mackenzie river and barter reef, they go by the name of _kangmali innuit_; at point barrow they call themselves _nuwungmutes_; while on the nunatok river, in the vicinity of kotzebue sound, they are known as _nunatangmutes_. their villages, consisting of five or six families each,[ ] are scattered along the coast. a village site is usually selected upon some good landing-place, where there is sufficient depth of water to float a whale. between tribes is left a spot of unoccupied or neutral ground, upon which small parties meet during the summer for purposes of trade.[ ] the eskimos are essentially a peculiar people. their character and their condition, the one of necessity growing out of the other, are peculiar. first, it is claimed for them that they are the anomalous race of america--the only people of the new world clearly identical with any race of the old. then they are the most littoral people in the world. the linear extent of their occupancy, all of it a narrow seaboard averaging scarcely one hundred miles in width, is estimated at not less than five thousand miles. before them is a vast, unknown, icy ocean, upon which they scarcely dare venture beyond sight of land; behind them, hostile mountaineers ever ready to dispute encroachment. their very mother-earth, upon whose cold bosom they have been borne, age after age through countless generations,[ ] is almost impenetrable, thawless ice. their days and nights, and seasons and years, are not like those of other men. six months of day succeed six months of night. three months of sunless winter; three months of nightless summer; six months of glimmering twilight. about the middle of october[ ] commences the long night of winter. the earth and sea put on an icy covering; beasts and birds depart for regions sheltered or more congenial; humanity huddles in subterraneous dens; all nature sinks into repose. the little heat left by the retreating sun soon radiates out into the deep blue realms of space; the temperature sinks rapidly to forty or fifty degrees below freezing; the air is hushed, the ocean calm, the sky cloudless. an awful, painful stillness pervades the dreary solitude. not a sound is heard; the distant din of busy man, and the noiseless hum of the wilderness alike are wanting. whispers become audible at a considerable distance, and an insupportable sense of loneliness oppresses the inexperienced visitor.[ ] occasionally the aurora borealis flashes out in prismatic coruscations, throwing a brilliant arch from east to west--now in variegated oscillations, graduating through all the various tints of blue, and green, and violet, and crimson; darting, flashing, or streaming in yellow columns, upwards, downwards; now blazing steadily, now in wavy undulations, sometimes up to the very zenith; momentarily lighting up in majestic grandeur the cheerless frozen scenery, but only to fall back with exhausted force, leaving a denser obscurity. nature's electric lantern, suspended for a time in the frosty vault of heaven;--munificent nature's fire-works; with the polar owl, the polar bear, and the polar man, spectators. in january, the brilliancy of the stars is dimmed perceptibly at noon; in february, a golden tint rests upon the horizon at the same hour; in march, the incipient dawn broadens; in april, the dozing eskimo rubs his eyes and crawls forth; in may, the snow begins to melt, the impatient grass and flowers arrive as it departs.[ ] in june, the summer has fairly come. under the incessant rays of the never setting sun, the snow speedily disappears, the ice breaks up, the glacial earth softens for a depth of one, two, or three feet; circulation is restored to vegetation,[ ] which, during winter, had been stopped,--if we may believe sir john richardson, even the largest trees freezing to the heart. sea, and plain, and rolling steppe lay aside their seamless shroud of white, and a brilliant tint of emerald overspreads the landscape.[ ] all nature, with one resounding cry, leaps up and claps her hands for joy. flocks of birds, lured from their winter homes, fill the air with their melody; myriads of wild fowls send forth their shrill cries; the moose and the reindeer flock down from the forests;[ ] from the resonant sea comes the noise of spouting whales and barking seals; and this so lately dismal, cheerless region, blooms with an exhuberance of life equaled only by the shortness of its duration. and in token of a just appreciation of the creator's goodness, this animated medley--man, and beasts, and birds, and fishes--rises up, divides, falls to, and ends in eating or in being eaten. [sidenote: physical characteristics.] the physical characteristics of the eskimos are: a fair complexion, the skin, when free from dirt and paint, being almost white;[ ] a medium stature, well proportioned, thick-set, muscular, robust, active,[ ] with small and beautifully shaped hands and feet;[ ] a pyramidal head;[ ] a broad egg-shaped face; high rounded cheek-bones; flat nose; small oblique eyes; large mouth; teeth regular, but well worn;[ ] coarse black hair, closely cut upon the crown, leaving a monk-like ring around the edge,[ ] and a paucity of beard.[ ] the men frequently leave the hair in a natural state. the women of icy reef introduce false hair among their own, wearing the whole in two immense bows at the back of the head. at point barrow, they separate the hair into two parts or braids, saturating it with train-oil, and binding it into stiff bunches with strips of skin. their lower extremities are short, so that in a sitting posture they look taller than when standing. [sidenote: improvements upon nature.] were these people satisfied with what nature has done for them, they would be passably good-looking. but with them as with all mankind, no matter how high the degree of intelligence and refinement attained, art must be applied to improve upon nature. the few finishing touches neglected by the creator, man is ever ready to supply. arrived at the age of puberty, the great work of improvement begins. up to this time the skin has been kept saturated in grease and filth, until the natural color is lost, and until the complexion is brought down to the eskimo standard. now pigments of various dye are applied, both painted outwardly and pricked into the skin; holes are cut in the face, and plugs or labrets inserted. these operations, however, attended with no little solemnity, are supposed to possess some significance other than that of mere ornament. upon the occasion of piercing the lip, for instance, a religious feast is given. on the northern coast the women paint the eyebrows and tattoo the chin; while the men only pierce the lower lip under one or both corners of the mouth, and insert in each aperture a double-headed sleeve-button or dumb-bell-shaped labret, of bone, ivory, shell, stone, glass, or wood. the incision when first made is about the size of a quill, but as the aspirant for improved beauty grows older, the size of the orifice is enlarged until it reaches a width of half or three quarters of an inch.[ ] in tattooing, the color is applied by drawing a thread under the skin, or pricking it in with a needle. different tribes, and different ranks of the same tribe, have each their peculiar form of tattooing. the plebeian female of certain bands is permitted to adorn her chin with but one vertical line in the centre, and one parallel to it on either side, while the more fortunate noblesse mark two vertical lines from each corner of the mouth.[ ] a feminine cast of features, as is common with other branches of the mongolian race, prevails in both sexes. some travelers discover in the faces of the men a characteristic expression of ferociousness, and in those of the women, an extraordinary display of wantonness. a thick coating of filth and a strong odor of train-oil are inseparable from an eskimo, and the fashion of labrets adds in no wise to his comeliness.[ ] [sidenote: eskimo dress.] for covering to the body, the eskimos employ the skin of all the beasts and birds that come within their reach. skins are prepared in the fur,[ ] and cut and sewed with neatness and skill. even the intestines of seals and whales are used in the manufacture of water-proof overdresses.[ ] the costume for both sexes consists of long stockings or drawers, over which are breeches extending from the shoulders to below the knees; and a frock or jacket, somewhat shorter than the breeches with sleeves and hood. this garment is made whole, there being no openings except for the head and arms. the frock of the male is cut at the bottom nearly square, while that of the female reaches a little lower, and terminates before and behind in a point or scollop. the tail of some animal graces the hinder part of the male frock; the woman's has a large hood, in which she carries her infant. otherwise both sexes dress alike; and as, when stripped of their facial decorations, their physiognomies are alike, they are not unfrequently mistaken one for the other.[ ] they have boots of walrus or seal skin, mittens or gloves of deer-skin, and intestine water-proofs covering the entire body. several kinds of fur frequently enter into the composition of one garment. thus the body of the frock, generally of reindeer-skin, may be of bird, bear, seal, mink, or squirrel skin; while the hood may be of fox-skin, the lining of hare-skin, the fringe of wolverine-skin, and the gloves of fawn-skin.[ ] two suits are worn during the coldest weather; the inner one with the fur next the skin, the outer suit with the fur outward.[ ] thus, with their stomachs well filled with fat, and their backs covered with furs, they bid defiance to the severest arctic winter.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings of the eskimos.] in architecture, the eskimo is fully equal to the emergency; building, upon a soil which yields him little or no material, three classes of dwellings. penetrating the frozen earth, or casting around him a frozen wall, he compels the very elements from which he seeks protection to protect him. for his _yourt_ or winter residence he digs a hole of the required dimensions, to a depth of about six feet.[ ] within this excavation he erects a frame, either of wood or whalebone, lashing his timbers with thongs instead of nailing them. this frame is carried upward to a distance of two or three feet above the ground,[ ] when it is covered by a dome-shaped roof of poles or whale-ribs turfed and earthed over.[ ] in the centre of the roof is left a hole for the admission of light and the emission of smoke. in absence of fire, a translucent covering of whale-intestine confines the warmth of putrifying filth, and completes the eskimo's sense of comfort. to gain admittance to this snug retreat, without exposing the inmates to the storms without, another and a smaller hole is dug to the same depth, a short distance from the first. from one to the other, an underground passage-way is then opened, through which entrance is made on hands and knees. the occupants descend by means of a ladder, and over the entrance a shed is erected, to protect it from the snow.[ ] within the entrance is hung a deer-skin door, and anterooms are arranged in which to deposit frozen outer garments before entering the heated room. around the sides of the dwelling, sleeping-places are marked out; for bedsteads, boards are placed upon logs one or two feet in diameter, and covered with willow branches and skins. a little heap of stones in the centre of the room, under the smoke-hole, forms the fireplace. in the corners of the room are stone lamps, which answer all domestic purposes in the absence of fire-wood.[ ] in the better class of buildings, the sides and floor are boarded. supplies are kept in a store house at a little distance from the dwelling, perched upon four posts, away from the reach of the dogs, and a frame is always erected on which to hang furs and fish. several years are sometimes occupied in building a hut.[ ] mark how nature supplies this treeless coast with wood. the breaking-up of winter in the mountains of alaska is indeed a breaking-up. the accumulated masses of ice and snow, when suddenly loosened by the incessant rays of the never-setting sun, bear away all before them. down from the mountain-sides comes the avalanche, uprooting trees, swelling rivers, hurrying with its burden to the sea. there, casting itself into the warm ocean current, the ice soon disappears, and the driftwood which accompanied it is carried northward and thrown back upon the beach by the october winds. thus huge forest-trees, taken up bodily, as it were, in the middle of a continent, and carried by the currents to the incredible distance, sometimes, of three thousand miles, are deposited all along the arctic seaboard, laid at the very door of these people, a people whose store of this world's benefits is none of the most abundant.[ ] true, wood is not an absolute necessity with them, as many of their houses in the coldest weather have no fire; only oil-lamps being used for cooking and heating. whale-ribs supply the place of trees for house and boat timbers, and hides are commonly used for boards. yet a bountiful supply of wood during their long, cold, dark winter comes in no wise amiss.[ ] their summer tents are made of seal or untanned deer skins with the hair outward, conical or bell-shaped, and without a smoke-hole as no fires are ever kindled within them. the wet or frozen earth is covered with a few coarse skins for a floor.[ ] [sidenote: snow houses.] but the most unique system of architecture in america is improvised by the eskimos during their seal-hunting expeditions upon the ice, when they occupy a veritable crystal palace fit for an arctic fairy. on the frozen river or sea, a spot is chosen free from irregularities, and a circle of ten or fifteen feet in diameter drawn on the snow. the snow within the circle is then cut into slabs from three to four inches in thickness, their length being the depth of the snow, and these slabs are formed into a wall enclosing the circle and carried up in courses similar to those of brick or stone, terminating in a dome-shaped roof. a wedge-like slab keys the arch; and this principle in architecture may have first been known to the assyrians, egyptians, chinese or eskimos.[ ] loose snow is then thrown into the crevices, which quickly congeals; an aperture is cut in the side for a door; and if the thin wall is not sufficiently translucent, a piece of ice is fitted into the side for a window. seats, tables, couches, and even fireplaces are made with frozen snow, and covered with reindeer or seal skin. out-houses connect with the main room, and frequently a number of dwellings are built contiguously, with a passage from one to another. these houses are comfortable and durable, resisting alike the wind and the thaw until late in the season. care must be taken that the walls are not so thick as to make them too warm, and so cause a dripping from the interior. a square block of snow serves as a stand for the stone lamp which is their only fire.[ ] "the purity of the material," says sir john franklin, who saw them build an edifice of this kind at coppermine river, "of which the house was framed, the elegance of its construction, and the translucency of its walls, which transmitted a very pleasant light, gave it an appearance far superior to a marble building, and one might survey it with feelings somewhat akin to those produced by the contemplation of a grecian temple, reared by phidias; both are triumphs of art, inimitable in their kind."[ ] eskimos, fortunately, have not a dainty palate. everything which sustains life is food for them. their substantials comprise the flesh of land and marine animals, fish and birds; venison, and whale and seal blubber being chief. choice dishes, tempting to the appetite, arctic epicurean dishes, eskimo nectar and ambrosia, are daintily prepared, hospitably placed before strangers, and eaten and drunk with avidity. among them are: a bowl of coagulated blood, mashed cranberries with rancid train-oil, whortleberries and walrus-blubber, alternate streaks of putrid black and white whale-fat; venison steeped in seal-oil, raw deer's liver cut in small pieces and mixed with the warm half-digested contents of the animal's stomach; bowls of live maggots, a draught of warm blood from a newly killed animal.[ ] fish are sometimes eaten alive. meats are kept in seal-skin bags for over a year, decomposing meanwhile, but never becoming too rancid for our eskimos. their winter store of oil they secure in seal-skin bags, which are buried in the frozen ground. charlevoix remarks that they are the only race known who prefer food raw. this, however, is not the case. they prefer their food cooked, but do not object to it raw or rotten. they are no lovers of salt.[ ] [sidenote: migrations for food.] in mid-winter, while the land is enveloped in darkness, the eskimo dozes torpidly in his den. early in september the musk-oxen and reindeer retreat southward, and the fish are confined beneath the frozen covering of the rivers. it is during the short summer, when food is abundant, that they who would not perish must lay up a supply for the winter. when spring opens, and the rivers are cleared of ice, the natives follow the fish, which at that time ascend the streams to spawn, and spear them at the falls and rapids that impede their progress. small wooden fish are sometimes made and thrown into holes in the ice for a decoy; salmon are taken in a whalebone seine. at this season also reindeer are captured on their way to the coast, whither they resort in the spring to drop their young. multitudes of geese, ducks, and swans visit the ocean during the same period to breed.[ ] august and september are the months for whales. when a whale is discovered rolling on the water, a boat starts out, and from the distance of a few feet a weapon is plunged into its blubbery carcass. the harpoons are so constructed that when this blow is given, the shaft becomes disengaged from the barbed ivory point. to this point a seal-skin buoy or bladder is attached by means of a cord. the blows are repeated; the buoys encumber the monster in diving or swimming, and the ingenious eskimo is soon able to tow the carcass to the shore. a successful chase secures an abundance of food for the winter.[ ] seals are caught during the winter, and considerable skill is required in taking them. being a warm-blooded respiratory animal, they are obliged to have air, and in order to obtain it, while the surface of the water is undergoing the freezing process, they keep open a breathing-hole by constantly gnawing away the ice. they produce their young in march, and soon afterward the natives abandon their villages and set out on the ice in pursuit of them. seals, like whales, are also killed with a harpoon to which is attached a bladder. the seal, when struck, may draw the float under water for a time, but is soon obliged to rise to the surface from exhaustion and for air, when he is again attacked and soon obliged to yield. the eskimos are no less ingenious in catching wild-fowl, which they accomplish by means of a sling or net made of woven sinews, with ivory balls attached. they also snare birds by means of whalebone nooses, round which fine gravel is scattered as a bait. they manoeuvre reindeer to near the edge of a cliff, and, driving them into the sea, kill them from canoes. they also waylay them at the narrow passes, and capture them in great numbers. they construct large reindeer pounds, and set up two diverging rows of turf so as to represent men; the outer extremities of the line being sometimes two miles apart, and narrowing to a small enclosure. into this trap the unsuspecting animals are driven, when they are easily speared.[ ] [sidenote: bear-hunting.] to overcome the formidable polar bear the natives have two strategems. one is by imitating the seal, upon which the bear principally feeds, and thereby enticing it within gunshot. another is by bending a piece of stiff whalebone, encasing it in a ball of blubber, and freezing the ball, which then holds firm the bent whalebone. armed with these frozen blubber balls, the natives approach their victim, and, with a discharge of arrows, open the engagement. the bear, smarting with pain, turns upon his tormentors, who, taking to their heels, drop now and then a blubber ball. bruin, as fond of food as of revenge, pauses for a moment, hastily swallows one, then another, and another. soon a strange sensation is felt within. the thawing blubber, melted by the heat of the animal's stomach, releases the pent-up whalebone, which, springing into place, plays havoc with the intestines, and brings the bear to a painful and ignominious end. to vegetables, the natives are rather indifferent; berries, acid sorrel leaves, and certain roots, are used as a relish. there is no native intoxicating liquor, but in eating they get gluttonously stupid. notwithstanding his long, frigid, biting winter, the eskimo never suffers from the cold so long as he has an abundance of food. as we have seen, a whale or a moose supplies him with food, shelter, and raiment. with an internal fire, fed by his oily and animal food, glowing in his stomach, his blood at fever heat, he burrows comfortably in ice and snow and frozen ground, without necessity for wood or coal.[ ] nor are those passions which are supposed to develop most fully under a milder temperature, wanting in the half-frozen hyperborean.[ ] one of the chief difficulties of the eskimo during the winter is to obtain water, and the women spend a large portion of their time in melting snow over oil-lamps. in the arctic regions, eating snow is attended with serious consequences. ice or snow, touched to the lips or tongue, blisters like caustic. fire is obtained by striking sparks from iron pyrites with quartz. it is a singular fact that in the coldest climate inhabited by man, fire is less used than anywhere else in the world, equatorial regions perhaps excepted. caloric for the body is supplied by food and supplemented by furs. snow houses, from their nature, prohibit the use of fire; but cooking with the eskimo is a luxury, not a necessity. he well understands how to utilize every part of the animals so essential to his existence. with their skins he clothes himself, makes houses, boats, and oil-bags; their flesh and fat he eats. he even devours the contents of the intestines, and with the skin makes water-proof clothing. knives, arrow-points, house, boat, and sledge frames, fish-hooks, domestic utensils, ice-chisels, and in fact almost all their implements, are made from the horns and bones of the deer, whale, and seal. bowstrings are made of the sinews of musk-oxen, and ropes of seal-skin.[ ] the eskimo's arms are not very formidable. backed by his ingenuity, they nevertheless prove sufficient for practical purposes; and while his neighbor possesses none better, all are on an equal footing in war. their most powerful as well as most artistic weapon is the bow. it is made of beech or spruce, in three pieces curving in opposite directions and ingeniously bound by twisted sinews, so as to give the greatest possible strength. richardson affirms that "in the hands of a native hunter it will propel an arrow with sufficient force to pierce the heart of a musk-ox, or break the leg of a reindeer." arrows, as well as spears, lances, and darts, are of white spruce, and pointed with bone, ivory, flint, and slate.[ ] east of the mackenzie, copper enters largely into the composition of eskimo utensils.[ ] before the introduction of iron by europeans, stone hatchets were common.[ ] [sidenote: sledges, snow-shoes, and boats.] the hyperboreans surpass all american nations in their facilities for locomotion, both upon land and water. in their skin boats, the natives of the alaskan seaboard from point barrow to mount st elias, made long voyages, crossing the strait and sea of bering, and held commercial intercourse with the people of asia. sixty miles is an ordinary day's journey for sledges, while indians on snow-shoes have been known to run down and capture deer. throughout this entire border, including the aleutian islands, boats are made wholly of the skins of seals or sea-lions, excepting the frame of wood or whale-ribs. in the interior, as well as on the coast immediately below mount st elias, skin boats disappear, and canoes or wooden boats are used. two kinds of skin boats are employed by the natives of the alaskan coast, a large and a small one. the former is called by the natives _oomiak_, and by the russians _baidar_. this is a large, flat-bottomed, open boat; the skeleton of wood or whale-ribs, fastened with seal-skin thongs or whale's sinews, and covered with oiled seal or sea-lion skins, which are first sewed together and then stretched over the frame. the baidar is usually about thirty feet in length, six feet in extreme breadth, and three feet in depth. it is propelled by oars, and will carry fifteen or twenty persons, but its capacity is greatly increased by lashing inflated seal-skins to the outside. in storms at sea, two or three baidars are sometimes tied together.[ ] the small boat is called by the natives _kyak_, and by the russians _baidarka_. it is constructed of the same material and in the same manner as the baidar, except that it is entirely covered with skins, top as well as bottom, save one hole left in the deck, which is filled by the navigator. after taking his seat, and thereby filling this hole, the occupant puts on a water-proof over-dress, the bottom of which is so secured round the rim of the hole that not a drop of water can penetrate it. this dress is provided with sleeves and a hood. it is securely fastened at the wrists and neck, and when the hood is drawn over the head, the boatman may bid defiance to the water. the baidarka is about sixteen feet in length, and two feet in width at the middle, tapering to a point at either end.[ ] it is light and strong, and when skillfully handled is considered very safe. the native of norton sound will twirl his kyak completely over, turn an aquatic somersault, and by the aid of his double-bladed paddle come up safely on the other side, without even losing his seat. so highly were these boats esteemed by the russians, that they were at once universally adopted by them in navigating these waters. they were unable to invent any improvement in either of them, although they made a baidarka with two and three seats, which they employed in addition to the one-seated kyak. the kadiak baidarka is a little shorter and wider than the aleutian.[ ] sleds, sledges, dogs, and arctic land-boats play an important part in eskimo economy. the eskimo sled is framed of spruce, birch, or whalebone, strongly bound with thongs, and the runners shod with smooth strips of whale's jaw-bone. this sled is heavy, and fit only for traveling over ice or frozen snow. indian sleds of the interior are lighter, the runners being of thin flexible boards better adapted to the inequalities of the ground. sledges, such as are used by the voyagers of hudson bay, are of totally different construction. three boards, each about one foot in width and twelve feet in length, thinned, and curved into a semicircle at one end, are placed side by side and firmly lashed together with thongs. a leathern bag or blanket of the full size of the sled is provided, in which the load is placed and lashed down with strings.[ ] sleds and sledges are drawn by dogs, and they will carry a load of from a quarter to half a ton, or about one hundred pounds to each dog. the dogs of alaska are scarcely up to the average of arctic canine nobility.[ ] they are of various colors, hairy, short-legged, with large bushy tails curved over the back; they are wolfish, suspicious, yet powerful, sagacious, and docile, patiently performing an incredible amount of ill-requited labor. dogs are harnessed to the sledge, sometimes by separate thongs at unequal distances, sometimes in pairs to a single line. they are guided by the voice accompanied by a whip, and to the best trained and most sagacious is given the longest tether, that he may act as leader. an eastern dog will carry on his back a weight of thirty pounds. the dogs of the northern coast are larger and stronger than those of the interior. eskimo dogs are used in hunting reindeer and musk-oxen, as well as in drawing sledges.[ ] those at cape prince of wales appear to be of the same species as those used upon the asiatic coast for drawing sledges. snow-shoes, or foot-sledges, are differently made according to the locality. in traveling over soft snow they are indispensable. they consist of an open light wooden frame, made of two smooth pieces of wood each about two inches wide and an inch thick; the inner part sometimes straight, and the outer curved out to about one foot in the widest part. they are from two to six feet in length, some oval and turned up in front, running to a point behind; others flat, and pointed at both ends, the space within the frame being filled with a network of twisted deer-sinews or fine seal-skin.[ ] the hudson bay snow-shoe is only two and a half feet in length. the kutchin shoe is smaller than that of the eskimo. [sidenote: property.] the merchantable wealth of the eskimos consists of peltries, such as wolf, deer, badger, polar-bear, otter, hare, musk-rat, arctic-fox, and seal skins; red ochre, plumbago, and iron pyrites; oil, ivory, whalebone; in short, all parts of all species of beasts, birds, and fishes that they can secure and convert into an exchangeable shape.[ ] the articles they most covet are tobacco, iron, and beads. they are not particularly given to strong drink. on the shore of bering strait the natives have constant commercial intercourse with asia. they cross easily in their boats, carefully eluding the vigilance of the fur company. they frequently meet at the gwosdeff islands, where the tschuktschi bring tobacco, iron, tame-reindeer skins, and walrus-ivory; the eskimos giving in exchange wolf and wolverine skins, wooden dishes, seal-skins and other peltries. the eskimos of the american coast carry on quite an extensive trade with the indians of the interior,[ ] exchanging with them asiatic merchandise for peltries. they are sharp at bargains, avaricious, totally devoid of conscience in their dealings; will sell their property thrice if possible, and, if caught, laugh it off as a joke. the rights of property are scrupulously respected among themselves, but to steal from strangers, which they practice on every occasion with considerable dexterity, is considered rather a mark of merit than otherwise. a successful thief, when a stranger is the victim, receives the applause of the entire tribe.[ ] captain kotzebue thus describes the manner of trading with the russo-indians of the south and of asia. "the stranger first comes, and lays some goods on the shore and then retires; the american then comes, looks at the things, puts as many things near them as he thinks proper to give, and then also goes away. upon this the stranger approaches, and examines what is offered him; if he is satisfied with it, he takes the skins and leaves the goods instead; but if not, then he lets all the things lie, retires a second time, and expects an addition from the buyer." if they cannot agree, each retires with his goods. [sidenote: social economy.] their government, if it can be called a government, is patriarchal. now and then some ancient or able man gains an ascendency in the tribe, and overawes his fellows. some tribes even acknowledge an hereditary chief, but his authority is nominal. he can neither exact tribute, nor govern the movements of the people. his power seems to be exercised only in treating with other tribes. slavery in any form is unknown among them. caste has been mentioned in connection with tattooing, but, as a rule, social distinctions do not exist.[ ] [sidenote: amusements.] the home of the eskimo is a model of filth and freeness. coyness is not one of their vices, nor is modesty ranked among their virtues. the latitude of innocency marks all their social relations; they refrain from doing in public nothing that they would do in private. female chastity is little regarded. the kutchins, it is said, are jealous, but treat their wives kindly; the new caledonians are jealous, and treat them cruelly; but the philosophic eskimos are neither jealous nor unkind. indeed, so far are they from espionage or meanness in marital affairs, that it is the duty of the hospitable host to place at the disposal of his guest not only the house and its contents, but his wife also.[ ] the lot of the women is but little better than slavery. all the work, except the nobler occupations of hunting, fishing, and fighting, falls to them. the lesson of female inferiority is at an early age instilled into the mind of youth. nevertheless, the eskimo mother is remarkably affectionate, and fulfills her low destiny with patient kindness. polygamy is common; every man being entitled to as many wives as he can get and maintain. on the other hand, if women are scarce, the men as easily adapt themselves to circumstances, and two of them marry one woman. marriages are celebrated as follows: after gaining the consent of the mother, the lover presents a suit of clothes to the lady, who arrays herself therein and thenceforth is his wife.[ ] dancing, accompanied by singing and violent gesticulation, is their chief amusement. in all the nations of the north, every well-regulated village aspiring to any degree of respectability has its public or town house, which among the eskimos is called the _casine_ or _kashim_. it consists of one large subterranean room, better built than the common dwellings, and occupying a central position, where the people congregate on feast-days.[ ] this house is also used as a public work-shop, where are manufactured boats, sledges, and snow-shoes. a large portion of the winter is devoted to dancing. feasting and visiting commence in november. on festive occasions, a dim light and a strong odor are thrown over the scene by means of blubber-lamps. the dancers, who are usually young men, strip themselves to the waist, or even appear _in puris naturalibus_, and go through numberless burlesque imitations of birds and beasts, their gestures being accompanied by tambourine and songs. sometimes they are fantastically arrayed in seal or deer skin pantaloons, decked with dog or wolf tails behind, and wear feathers or a colored handkerchief on the head. the ancients, seated upon benches which encircle the room, smoke, and smile approbation. the women attend with fish and berries in large wooden bowls; and, upon the opening of the performance, they are at once relieved of their contributions by the actors, who elevate the provisions successively to the four cardinal points and once to the skies above, when all partake of the feast. then comes another dance. a monotonous refrain, accompanied by the beating of an instrument made of seal-intestines stretched over a circular frame, brings upon the ground one boy after another, until about twenty form a circle. a series of pantomimes then commences, portraying love, jealousy, hatred, and friendship. during intervals in the exercises, presents are distributed to strangers. in their national dance, one girl after another comes in turn to the centre, while the others join hands and dance and sing, not unmusically, about her. the most extravagant motions win the greatest applause.[ ] among other customs of the eskimo may be mentioned the following. their salutations are made by rubbing noses together. no matter how oily the skin, nor how rank the odor, he who would avoid offense must submit his nose to the nose of his hyperborean brother,[ ] and his face to the caressing hand of his polar friend. to convey intimations of friendship at a distance, they extend their arms, and rub and pat their breast. upon the approach of visitors they form a circle, and sit like turks, smoking their pipes. men, women, and children are inordinately fond of tobacco. they swallow the smoke and revel in a temporary elysium. they are called brave, simple, kind, intelligent, happy, hospitable, respectful to the aged. they are also called cruel, ungrateful, treacherous, cunning, dolorously complaining, miserable.[ ] they are great mimics, and, in order to terrify strangers, they accustom themselves to the most extraordinary contortions of features and body. as a measure of intellectual capacity, it is claimed for them that they divide time into days, lunar months, seasons, and years; that they estimate accurately by the sun or stars the time of day or night; that they can count several hundred and draw maps. they also make rude drawings on bone, representing dances, deer-hunting, animals, and all the various pursuits followed by them from the cradle to the grave. but few diseases are common to them, and a deformed person is scarcely ever seen. cutaneous eruptions, resulting from their antipathy to water, and ophthalmia, arising from the smoke of their closed huts and the glare of sun-light upon snow and water, constitute their chief disorders.[ ] for protection to their eyes in hunting and fishing, they make goggles by cutting a slit in a piece of soft wood, and adjusting it to the face. the eskimos do not, as a rule, bury their dead; but double the body up, and place it on the side in a plank box, which is elevated three or four feet from the ground, and supported by four posts. the grave-box is often covered with painted figures of birds, fishes, and animals. sometimes it is wrapped in skins, placed upon an elevated frame, and covered with planks, or trunks of trees, so as to protect it from wild beasts. upon the frame or in the grave-box are deposited the arms, clothing, and sometimes the domestic utensils of the deceased. frequent mention is made by travelers of burial places where the bodies lie exposed, with their heads placed towards the north.[ ] [sidenote: the koniagas.] the koniagas derive their name from the inhabitants of the island of kadiak, who, when first discovered, called themselves _kanagist_.[ ] they were confounded by early russian writers with the aleuts. english ethnologists sometimes call them southern eskimos. from kadiak they extend along the coast in both directions; northward across the alaskan peninsula to kotzebue sound, and eastward to prince william sound. the koniagan family is divided into nations as follows: the _koniagas_ proper, who inhabit the koniagan archipelago; the _chugatshes_,[ ] who occupy the islands and shores of prince william sound; the _aglegmutes_, of bristol bay; the _keyataigmutes_, who live upon the river nushagak and the coast as far as cape newenham; the _agulmutes_, dwelling upon the coast between the kuskoquim and kishunak rivers; the _kuskoquigmutes_,[ ] occupying the banks of the river kuskoquim; the _magemutes_, in the neighborhood of cape romanzoff; the _kwichpagmutes_, _kwichluagmutes_, and _pashtoliks_, on the kwichpak, kwickluak, and pashtolik rivers; the _chnagmutes_, near pashtolik bay; the _anlygmutes_, of golovnin bay, and the _kaviaks_ and _malemutes_, of norton sound.[ ] "all of these people," says baron von wrangell, "speak one language and belong to one stock." the most populous district is the kuskoquim valley.[ ] the small islands in the vicinity of kadiak were once well peopled; but as the russians depopulated them, and hunters became scarce, the natives were not allowed to scatter, but were forced to congregate in towns.[ ] schelikoff, the first settler on kadiak, reported, in that and contiguous isles, thirty thousand natives. thirty years later, saritsheff visited the island and found but three thousand. the chugatshes not long since lived upon the island of kadiak, but, in consequence of dissensions with their neighbors, they were obliged to emigrate and take up their residence on the main land. they derived their manners originally from the northern nations; but, after having been driven from their ancient possessions, they made raids upon southern nations, carried off their women, and, from the connections thus formed, underwent a marked change. they now resemble the southern rather than the northern tribes. the kadiaks, chugatshes, kuskoquims, and adjacent tribes, according to their own traditions, came from the north, while the unalaskas believe themselves to have originated in the west. the kaviaks intermingle to a considerable extent with the malemutes, and the two are often taken for one people; but their dialects are quite distinct. [sidenote: land of the koniagas.] the country of the koniagas is a rugged wilderness, into many parts of which no white man has ever penetrated. mountainous forests, glacial cañons, down which flow innumerable torrents, hills interspersed with lakes and marshy plains; ice-clad in winter, covered with luxuriant vegetation in summer. some sheltered inlets absorb an undue proportion of oceanic warmth. thus the name aglegmutes signifies the inhabitants of a warm climate. travelers report chiefs among the koniagas seven feet in height, but in general they are of medium stature.[ ] their complexion may be a shade darker than that of the eskimos of the northern coast, but it is still very light.[ ] the chugatshes are remarkable for their large heads, short necks, broad faces, and small eyes. holmberg claims for the koniagas a peculiar formation of the skull; the back, as he says, being not arched but flat. they pierce the septum of the nose and the under lip, and in the apertures wear ornaments of various materials; the most highly prized being of shell or of amber. it is said that at times amber is thrown up in large quantities by the ocean, on the south side of kadiak, generally after a heavy earthquake, and that at such times it forms an important article of commerce with the natives. the more the female chin is riddled with holes, the greater the respectability. two ornaments are usually worn, but by very aristocratic ladies as many as six.[ ] their favorite colors in face-painting are red and blue, though black and leaden colors are common.[ ] young kadiak wives secure the affectionate admiration of their husbands by tattooing the breast and adorning the face with black lines; while the kuskoquim women sew into their chin two parallel blue lines. the hair is worn long by men as well as women. on state occasions, it is elaborately dressed; first saturated in train-oil, then powdered with red clay or oxide of iron, and finished off with a shower of white feathers. both sexes wear beads wherever they can find a place for them, round the neck, wrists, and ankles, besides making a multitude of holes for them in the ears, nose, and chin. into these holes they will also insert buttons, nails, or any european trinket which falls into their possession.[ ] [sidenote: kadiak and kuskoquim dress.] the aboriginal dress of a wealthy kadiak was a bird-skin parka, or shirt, fringed at the top and bottom, with long wide sleeves out of which the wearer slipped his arms in an emergency. this garment was neatly sewed with bird-bone needles, and a hundred skins were sometimes used in the making of a single parka. it was worn with the feathers outside during the day, and inside during the night. round the waist was fastened an embroidered girdle, and over all, in wet weather, was worn an intestine water-proof coat. the kadiak breeches and stockings were of otter or other skins, and the boots, when any were worn, were of seal-neck leather, with whale-skin soles. the russians in a measure prohibited the use of furs among the natives, compelling them to purchase woolen goods from the company, and deliver up all their peltries. the parkas and stockings of the kuskoquims are of reindeer-skin, covered with embroidery, and trimmed with valuable furs. they also make stockings of swamp grass, and cloaks of sturgeon-skin. the malemute and kaviak dress is similar to that of the northern eskimo.[ ] the chugatshes, men, women, and children, dress alike in a close fur frock, or robe, reaching sometimes to the knees, but generally to the ankles. their feet and legs are commonly bare, notwithstanding the high latitude in which they live; but they sometimes wear skin stockings and mittens. they make a truncated conic hat of straw or wood, in whimsical representation of the head of some fish or bird, and garnished with colors.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings and food of the koniagas.] the koniagas build two kinds of houses; one a large, winter village residence, called by the russians _barabara_, and the other a summer hunting-hut, placed usually upon the banks of a stream whence they draw food. their winter houses are very large, accommodating three or four families each. they are constructed by digging a square space of the required area to a depth of two feet, placing a post, four feet high above the surface of the ground, at every corner, and roofing the space over to constitute a main hall, where eating is done, filth deposited, and boats built. the sides are of planks, and the roof of boards, poles, or whale-ribs, thickly covered with grass. in the roof is a smoke-hole, and on the eastern side a door-hole about three feet square, through which entrance is made on hands and knees, and which is protected by a seal or other skin. under the opening in the roof, a hole is dug for fire; and round the sides of the room, tomb-like excavations are made, or boards put up, for sleeping-places, where the occupant reposes on his back with his knees drawn up to the chin. adjoining rooms are sometimes made, with low underground passages leading off from the main hall. the walls are adorned with implements of the chase and bags of winter food; the latter of which, being in every stage of decay, emits an odor most offensive to unhabituated nostrils. the ground is carpeted with straw. when the smoke-hole is covered by an intestine window, the dwellings of the koniagas are exceedingly warm, and neither fire nor clothing is required.[ ] the _kashim_, or public house of the koniagas, is built like their dwellings, and is capable of accommodating three or four hundred people.[ ] huts are built by earthing over sticks placed in roof-shape; also by erecting a frame of poles, and covering it with bark or skins. the koniagas will eat any digestible substance in nature except pork; from which fact kingsborough might have proven incontestably a jewish origin. i should rather give them swinish affinities, and see in this singularity a hesitancy to feed upon the only animal, except themselves, which eats with equal avidity bear's excrements, carrion birds, maggoty fish, and rotten sea-animals.[ ] when a whale is taken, it is literally stripped of everything to the bare bones, and these also are used for building huts and boats.[ ] these people can dispose of enormous quantities of food; or, if necessary, they can go a long time without eating.[ ] before the introduction of intoxicating drinks by white men, they made a fermented liquor from the juice of raspberries and blueberries. tobacco is in general use, but chewing and snuffing are more frequent than smoking. salmon are very plentiful in the vicinity of kadiak, and form one of the chief articles of diet. during their periodical ascension of the rivers, they are taken in great quantities by means of a pole pointed with bone or iron. salmon are also taken in nets made of whale-sinews. codfish are caught with a bone hook. whales approach the coast of kadiak in june, when the inhabitants pursue them in baidarkas. their whale-lance is about six feet in length, and pointed with a stone upon which is engraved the owner's mark. this point separates from the handle and is left in the whale's flesh, so that when the body is thrown dead upon the beach, the whaler proves his property by his lance-point. many superstitions are mentioned in connection with the whale-fishery. when a whaler dies, the body is cut into small pieces and distributed among his fellow-craftsmen, each of whom, after rubbing the point of his lance upon it, dries and preserves his piece as a sort of talisman. or the body is placed in a distant cave, where, before setting out upon a chase, the whalers all congregate, take it out, carry it to a stream, immerse it and then drink of the water. during the season, whalers bear a charmed existence. no one may eat out of the same dish with them, nor even approach them. when the season is over, they hide their weapons in the mountains. in may, the koniagas set out in two-oared baidarkas for distant islands, in search of sea-otter. as success requires a smooth sea, they can hunt them only during the months of may and june, taking them in the manner following. fifty or one hundred boats proceed slowly through the water, so closely together that it is impossible for an otter to escape between them. as soon as the animal is discovered, the signal is given, the area within which he must necessarily rise to the surface for air, is surrounded by a dozen boats, and when he appears upon the surface he is filled with arrows. seals are hunted with spears ten or twelve feet in length, upon the end of which is fastened an inflated bladder, in order to float the animal when dead. [sidenote: the kuskokwigmutes and malemutes.] the kuskokwigmutes are less nomadic than their neighbors; being housed in permanent settlements during the winter, although in summer they are obliged to scatter in various directions in quest of food. every morning before break of day, during the hunting-season, a boy lights the oil-lamps in all the huts of the village, when the women rise and prepare the food. the men, excepting old men and boys, all sleep in the kashim, whither they retire at sunset. in the morning they are aroused by the appearance of the shamán, arrayed in his sacerdotal robes, and beating his sacred drum. after morning worship, the women carry breakfast to their husbands in the kashim. at day-break the men depart for their hunting or fishing, and when they return, immediately repair to the kashim, leaving the women to unload and take care of the products of the day's work. during the hunting-season the men visit their wives only during the night, returning to the kashim before daylight. the malemutes leave their villages upon the coast regularly in february, and, with their families, resort to the mountains, where they follow the deer until snow melts, and then return to catch water-fowl and herring, and gather eggs upon the cliffs and promontories of the coast and islands. in july is their salmon feast. the fawns of reindeer are caught upon the hills by the women in august, either by chasing them down or by snaring them. deer are stalked, noosed in snares, or driven into enclosures, where they are easily killed. at kadiak, hunting begins in february, and in april they visit the smaller islands for sea-otter, seals, sea-lions, and eggs. their whale and other fisheries commence in june and continue till october, at which time they abandon work and give themselves up to festivities. the seal is highly prized by them for its skin, blubber, and oil. one method of catching seals illustrates their ingenuity. taking an air-tight seal-skin, they blow it up like a bladder, fasten to it a long line, and, concealing themselves behind the rocks, they throw their imitation seal among the live ones and draw it slowly to the shore. the others follow, and are speared or killed with bow and arrows. blueberries and huckleberries are gathered in quantities and dried for winter use; they are eaten mixed with seal-oil. the koniagas are also very fond of raw reindeer-fat. they hunt with guns, and snare grouse, marten, and hares. a small white fish is taken in great quantities from holes in the ice. they are so abundant and so easily caught that the natives break off the barbs from their fish-hooks in order to facilitate their operations. the white polar bear does not wander south of the sixty-fifth parallel, and is only found near bering strait. some were found on st matthew island, in bering sea, but were supposed to have been conveyed thither upon floating ice. the natives approach the grizzly bear with great caution. when a lair is discovered, the opening is measured, and a timber barricade constructed, with an aperture through which the bear may put his head. the indians then quietly approach and secure their timbers against the opening of the den with stones, and throw a fire-brand into the den to arouse the animal, who thereupon puts his head out through the hole and meets with a reception which brings him to an untimely end.[ ] [sidenote: war, implements, and government.] in former times, the koniagas went to war behind a huge wooden shield a foot thick and twelve feet in width. it was made of three thicknesses of larch-wood, bound together with willows, and with it they covered thirty or forty lancers.[ ] they poisoned their arrow and lance points with a preparation of aconite, by drying and pulverizing the root, mixing the powder with water, and, when it fermented, applying it to their weapons.[ ] they made arrow-points of copper, obtaining a supply from the kenai of copper river;[ ] and the wood was as finely finished as if turned in a lathe. the boats of the koniagas are similar to those of the north, except that the bow and stem are not alike, the one turning up to a point and the other cut off square.[ ] needles made of birds' bones, and thread from whale-sinews, in the hands of a kadiak woman, produced work, "many specimens of which," says lisiansky, "would do credit to our best seamstresses."[ ] they produced fire by revolving with a bow-string a hard dry stick upon a soft dry board, one end of the stick being held in a mouth-piece of bone or ivory. their implements were few--a stone adze, a shell or flint knife, a polishing stone, and a handled tooth.[ ] yet they excel in carving, and in working walrus-teeth and whalebone, the former being supplied them mostly by the aglegmutes of the alaskan peninsula. the tools used in these manufactures were of stone, and the polishing tools of shell. traces of the stone age are found in lamps, hammers and cutting instruments, wedges and hatchets. carving is done by the men, while the women are no less skillful in sewing, basket-making, crocheting, and knitting. the women tan, and make clothing and boat-covers from skins and intestines.[ ] the agulmutes are skilled in the carving of wood and ivory; the kuskoquims excel in wood and stone carving. they make in this manner domestic utensils and vases, with grotesque representations of men, animals, and birds, in relief. authority is exercised only by heads of households, but chiefs may, by superior ability, acquire much influence.[ ] before they became broken up and demoralized by contact with civilization, there was a marked division of communities into castes; an hereditary nobility and commonalty. in the former was embodied all authority; but the rule of american chieftains is nowhere of a very arbitrary character. slavery existed to a limited extent, the thralls being mostly women and children. their male prisoners of war, they either killed immediately or reserved to torture for the edification and improvement of their children.[ ] upon the arrival of the russians, the slaves then held by the natives, thinking to better their condition, left their barbaric masters and placed themselves under the protection of the new comers. the russians accepted the trust, and set them to work. the poor creatures, unable to perform the imposed tasks, succumbed; and, as their numbers were diminished by ill treatment, their places were supplied by such of the inhabitants as had been guilty of some misdemeanor; and singularly enough, misdemeanors happened to be about in proportion to the demand for slaves.[ ] [sidenote: morality of the koniagas.] the domestic manners of the koniagas are of the lowest order. in filth they out-do, if possible, their neighbors of the north.[ ] thrown together in little bands under one roof, they have no idea of morality, and the marriage relation sits so loosely as hardly to excite jealousy in its abuse. female chastity is deemed a thing of value only as men hold property in it. a young unmarried woman may live uncensured in the freest intercourse with the men; though, as soon as she belongs to one man, it is her duty to be true to him. sodomy is common; the kaviaks practice polygamy and incest; the kadiaks cohabit promiscuously, brothers and sisters, parents and children.[ ] the malemutes are content with one wife, but they have no marriage ceremony, and can put her away at pleasure. they prize boy babies, but frequently kill the girls, taking them out into the wilderness, stuffing grass into their mouth and abandoning them; yet children are highly esteemed, and the barren woman is a reproach among her people. such persons even go so far as to make a doll or image of the offspring which they so greatly desire, and fondle it as if it were a real child.[ ] two husbands are also allowed to one woman; one the chief or principal husband, and the other a deputy, who acts as husband and master of the house during the absence of the true lord; and who, upon the latter's return, not only yields to him his place, but becomes in the meantime his servant. but the most repugnant of all their practices is that of male concubinage. a kadiak mother will select her handsomest and most promising boy, and dress and rear him as a girl, teaching him only domestic duties, keeping him at woman's work, associating him only with women and girls, in order to render his effeminacy complete. arriving at the age of ten or fifteen years, he is married to some wealthy man, who regards such a companion as a great acquisition. these male wives are called _achnutschik_ or _schopans_.[ ] [sidenote: koniagan sweat-houses.] a most cruel superstition is enforced upon maidens at the age of puberty; the victim being confined for six months in a hut built for the purpose, apart from the others, and so small that the poor inmate cannot straighten her back while upon her knees. during the six months following, she is allowed a room a little larger, but is still permitted no intercourse with any one. daughters of principal men obtain the right of access to the kashim by undergoing a ceremonial yielding up of their virginity to the shamán.[ ] marriage ceremonies are few, and marriage engagements peculiar. the consent of the father of the intended bride being obtained, the aspirant for nuptial honors brings wood and builds a fire in the bath-room; after which, he and the father take a bath together. the relatives meanwhile congregate, a feast is held, presents are made, the bridegroom takes the name of the bride's father, the couple are escorted to a heated vapor-bath and there left together. although extremely filthy in their persons and habits, all indians attach great importance to their sweat-baths. this peculiar institution extends through most of the nations of our territory, from alaska to mexico, with wonderful uniformity. frequently one of the side subterranean apartments which open off from the main hall, is devoted to the purposes of a sweat-house. into one of these caverns a kadiak will enter stripped. steam is generated by throwing water upon heated stones. after sweltering for a time in the confined and heated atmosphere, and while yet in a profuse perspiration, the bather rushes out and plunges into the nearest stream or into the sea, frequently having to break the ice before being able to finish his bath. sometimes all the occupants of the house join in a bath. they then clear the floor of the main room from obstructions, and build a hot fire under the smoke-hole. when the fire is reduced to coals, a covering is placed over the smoke-hole, and the bathers proceed to wash themselves in a certain liquid, which is carefully saved for this and other cleansing purposes, and also for tanning. the alkali of the fluid combines with the grease upon their persons, and thus a lather is formed which removes dirt as effectually as soap would. they then wash in water, wrap themselves in deer-skins, and repose upon shelves until the lassitude occasioned by perspiration passes away. festivals of various kinds are held; as, when one village is desirous of extending hospitality to another village, or when an individual becomes ambitious of popularity, a feast is given. a ceremonial banquet takes place a year after the death of a relative; or an entertainment may be announced as a reparation for an injury done to one's neighbor. at some of these feasts only men dance, and at others the women join. upon these occasions, presents are exchanged, and the festivities sometimes continue for several days. the men appear upon the scene nearly or quite naked, with painted faces, and the hair fantastically decorated with feathers, dancing to the music of the tambourine, sometimes accompanied by sham fights and warlike songs. their faces are marked or fantastically painted, and they hold a knife or lance in one hand and a rattle in the other. the women dance by simply hopping forward and backward upon their toes.[ ] a visitor, upon entering a dwelling, is presented with a cup of cold water; afterward, fish or flesh is set before him, and it is expected that he will leave nothing uneaten. the more he eats, the greater the honor to the host; and, if it be impossible to eat all that is given him, he must take away with him whatever remains. after eating, he is conducted to a hot bath and regaled with a drink of melted fat. sagoskin assisted at a ceremony which is celebrated annually about the first of january at all the villages on the coast. it is called the festival of the immersion of the bladders in the sea. more than a hundred bladders, taken only from animals which have been killed with arrows, and decorated with fantastic paintings, are hung upon a cord stretched horizontally along the wall of the kashim. four birds carved from wood, a screech-owl with the head of a man, a sea-gull, and two partridges, are so disposed that they can be moved by strings artfully arranged; the owl flutters his wings and moves his head; the gull strikes the boards with his beak as if he were catching fish, and the partridges commence to peck each other. lastly, a stake enveloped in straw is placed in the centre of the fire-place. men and women dance before these effigies in honor of _jug-jak_, the spirit of the sea. every time the dancing ceases, one of the assistants lights some straw, burning it like incense before the birds and the bladders. the principal ceremony of the feast consists, as its name indicates, in the immersion of the bladders in the sea. it was impossible to discover the origin of this custom; the only answer given to questions was, that their ancestors had done so before them. [sidenote: superstitions of the koniagas.] the shamán, or medicine-man of the koniagas, is the spiritual and temporal doctor of the tribe; wizard, sorcerer, priest, or physician, as necessity demands. in the execution of his offices, the shamán has several assistants, male and female, sages and disciples; the first in rank being called _kaseks_, whose duty it is to superintend festivals and teach the children to dance. when a person falls sick, some evil spirit is supposed to have taken possession of him, and it is the business of the shamán to exorcise that spirit, to combat and drive it out of the man. to this end, armed with a magic tambourine, he places himself near the patient and mutters his incantations. a female assistant accompanies him with groans and growls. should this prove ineffectual, the shamán approaches the bed and throws himself upon the person of the sufferer; then, seizing the demon, he struggles with it, overpowers and casts it out, while the assistants cry, "he is gone! he is gone!" if the patient recovers, the physician is paid, otherwise he receives nothing.[ ] colds, consumption, rheumatism, itch, boils, ulcers, syphilis, are among their most common diseases. blood-letting is commonly resorted to as a curative, and except in extreme cases the shamán is not called. the koniagas bleed one another by piercing the arm with a needle, and then cutting away the flesh above the needle with a flint or copper instrument. beaver's oil is said to relieve their rheumatism. "the kadiak people," says lisiansky, "seem more attached to their dead than to their living." in token of their grief, surviving friends cut the hair, blacken the face with soot, and the ancient custom was to remain in mourning for a year. no work may be done for twenty days, but after the fifth day the mourner may bathe. immediately after death, the body is arrayed in its best apparel, or wrapped with moss in seal or sea-lion skins, and placed in the kashim, or left in the house in which the person died, where it remains for a time in state. the body, with the arms and implements of the deceased, is then buried. it was not unfrequent in former times to sacrifice a slave upon such an occasion. the grave is covered over with blocks of wood and large stones.[ ] a mother, upon the death of a child, retires for a time from the camp; a husband or wife withdraws and joins another tribe.[ ] the character of the koniagas may be drawn as peaceable, industrious, serviceable to europeans, adapted to labor and commerce rather than to war and hunting. they are not more superstitious than civilized nations; and their immorality, though to a stranger most rank, is not to them of that socially criminal sort which loves darkness and brings down the avenger. in their own eyes, their abhorrent practices are as sinless as the ordinary, openly conducted avocations of any community are to the members thereof. [sidenote: the aleuts.] the aleuts are the inhabitants of the aleutian archipelago. the origin of the word is unknown;[ ] the original name being _kagataya koung'ns_, or 'men of the east,' indicating an american origin.[ ] the nation consists of two tribes speaking different dialects; the _unalaskans_, occupying the south-western portion of the alaskan peninsula, the shumagin islands, and the fox islands; and the _atkhas_, inhabiting the andreanovski, rat, and near islands. migrations and intermixtures with the russians have, however, nearly obliterated original distinctions. the earliest information concerning the aleutian islanders was obtained by michael nevodtsikoff, who sailed from kamchatka in . other russian voyagers immediately followed, attracted thither in search of sea-animal skins, which at that time were very plentiful.[ ] tribute was levied upon the islanders by the russians, and a system of cruelty commenced which soon reduced the natives from ten thousand to but little more than one thousand. the aleuts, to langsdorff, "appear to be a sort of middle race between the mongrel tartars and the north americans." john ledyard, who visited unalaska with captain cook, saw "two different kinds of people; the one we knew to be the aborigines of america, while we supposed the others to have come from the opposite coasts of asia."[ ] their features are strongly marked, and those who saw them as they originally existed, were impressed with the intelligent and benevolent expression of their faces.[ ] they have an abundance of lank hair, which they cut with flints--the men from the crown, and the women in front.[ ] both sexes undergo the usual face-painting and ornamentations. they extend their nostrils by means of a bow-cylinder. the men wear a bone about the size of a quill in the nose, and the women insert pieces of bone in the under lip.[ ] their legs are bowed, from spending so much of their time in boats; they frequently sitting in them fifteen or twenty hours at a time. their figure is awkward and uncouth, yet robust, active, capable of carrying heavy burdens and undergoing great fatigue.[ ] [sidenote: aleutian hat and habitation.] the hat of the aleut is the most peculiar part of his dress. it consists of a helmet-shaped crown of wood or leather, with an exceedingly long brim in front, so as to protect the eyes from the sun's reflection upon the water and snow. upon the apex is a small carving, down the back part hang the beards of sea-lions, while carved strips of bone and paint ornament the whole. this hat also serves as a shield against arrows. the fox islanders have caps of bird-skin, on which are left the bright-colored feathers, wings, and tail.[ ] as a rule, the men adopt bird-skin clothing, and the women furs, the latter highly ornamented with beads and fringes.[ ] the habitations of the fox islanders are called _ullaa_, and consist of immense holes from one to three hundred feet in length, and from twenty to thirty feet wide. they are covered with poles and earthed over, leaving several openings at the top through which descent is made by ladders. the interior is partitioned by stakes, and three hundred people sometimes occupy one of these places in common. they have no fire-place, since lamps hollowed from flat stones answer every purpose for cooking and light.[ ] a boat turned bottom upward is the summer house of the aleut.[ ] raw seal and sea-otter, whale and sea-lion blubber, fish, roots, and berries are staple articles of food among the aleuts. to procure vegetable food is too much trouble. a dead, half-putrefied whale washed ashore is always the occasion of great rejoicing. from all parts the people congregate upon the shore, lay in their winter supplies, and stuff themselves until not a morsel remains. november is their best hunting-season. whale-fishing is confined to certain families, and the spirit of the craft descends from father to son. birds are caught in a net attached to the end of a pole; sea-otter are shot with arrows; spears, bone hooks, and nets are used in fishing.[ ] after the advent of the russians, the natives were not allowed to kill fur-animals without accounting to them therefor.[ ] their weapons are darts with single and double barbs, which they throw from boards; barbed, bone-pointed lances; spears, harpoons, and arrows, with bone or stone points. at their side is carried a sharp stone knife ten or twelve inches long, and for armor they wear a coat of plaited rushes, which covers the whole body.[ ] an aleut bear-trap consists of a board two feet square and two inches thick, planted with barbed spikes, placed in bruin's path and covered with dust. the unsuspecting victim steps firmly upon the smooth surface offered, when his foot sinks into the dust. maddened with pain, he puts forward another foot to assist in pulling the first away, when that too is caught. soon all four of the feet are firmly spiked to the board; the beast rolls over on his back, and his career is soon brought to an end. [sidenote: customs of the aleuts.] notwithstanding their peaceful character, the occupants of the several islands were almost constantly at war. blood, the only atonement for offense, must be washed out by blood, and the line of vengeance becomes endless. at the time of discovery, the unimak islanders held the supremacy. the fabrications of the aleuts comprise household utensils of stone, bone, and wood; missiles of war and the chase; mats and baskets of grass and the roots of trees, neat and strong; bird-beak rattles, tambourines or drums, wooden hats and carved figures. from the wing-bone of the sea-gull, the women make their needles; from sinews, they make thread and cord.[ ] to obtain glue for mending or manufacturing purposes, they strike the nose until it bleeds.[ ] to kindle a fire, they make use of sulphur, in which their volcanic islands abound, and the process is very curious. first they prepare some dry grass to catch the fire; then they take two pieces of quartz, and, holding them over the grass, rub them well with native sulphur. a few feathers are scattered over the grass to catch the particles of sulphur, and, when all is ready, holding the stones over the grass, they strike them together; a flash is produced by the concussion, the sulphur ignites, and the straw blazes up.[ ] the aleuts have no marriage ceremony. every man takes as many women to wife as he can support, or rather as he can get to support him. presents are made to the relatives of the bride, and when she ceases to possess attractions or value in the eyes of her proprietor, she is sent back to her friends. wives are exchanged by the men, and rich women are permitted to indulge in two husbands. male concubinage obtains throughout the aleutian islands, but not to the same extent as among the koniagas.[ ] mothers plunge their crying babies under water in order to quiet them. this remedy performed in winter amid broken ice, is very effectual.[ ] every island, and, in the larger islands, every village, has its _toyon_, or chief, who decides differences, is exempt from work, is allowed a servant to row his boat, but in other respects possesses no power. the office is elective.[ ] the aleuts are fond of dancing and given to hospitality. the stranger guest, as he approaches the village, is met by dancing men and dancing women, who conduct him to the house of the host, where food is given him. after supper, the dancing, now performed by naked men, continues until all are exhausted, when the hospitalities of the dwelling are placed at the disposal of the guest, and all retire.[ ] a religious festival used to be held in december, at which all the women of the village assembled by moonlight, and danced naked with masked faces, the men being excluded under penalty of death. the men and women of a village bathe together, in aboriginal innocency, unconscious of impropriety. they are fond of pantomimic performances; of representing in dances their myths and their legends; of acting out a chase, one assuming the part of hunter, another of a bird or beast trying to escape the snare, now succeeding, now failing--the piece ending in the transformation of a captive bird into a lovely woman, who falls exhausted into the arms of the hunter. the dead are clothed and masked, and either placed in the cleft of a rock, or swung in a boat or cradle from a pole in the open air. they seem to guard the body as much as possible from contact with the ground.[ ] [sidenote: character of the aleuts.] in their nature and disposition, these islanders are sluggish but strong. their sluggishness gives to their character a gentleness and obsequiousness often remarked by travelers; while their inherent strength, when roused by brutal passions, drives them on to the greatest enormities. they are capable of enduring great fatigue, and, when roused to action by necessity, they will perform an incredible amount of work, suffering the severest cold or heat or hunger with the most stoical calmness. they are very quiet in their demeanor; sometimes sitting in companies within their dens, or on their house-tops gazing at the sea for hours, without speaking a word. it is said that formerly they were much more gay and cheerful, but that an acquaintance with civilization has been productive of the usual misfortune and misery.[ ] it does not appear that the russians were behind the spaniards in their barbarous treatment of the natives.[ ] notwithstanding their interest lay in preserving life, and holding the natives in a state of serfdom as fishers and hunters, the poor people were soon swept away. father innocentius veniaminoff, a russian missionary who labored among the islanders long and faithfully, gives them the highest character for probity and propriety. among other things, he affirms that during a residence of ten years in unalaska, there did not occur a single fight among the natives. proselytes were made by the russians with the same facility as by the spaniards. tribute was levied by the russians upon all the islanders, but, for three years after their conversion, neophytes were exempt; a cheap release from hateful servitude, thought the poor aleut; and a polity which brought into the folds of the church pagan multitudes. [sidenote: the thlinkeets.] the thlinkeets, as they call themselves, or _kolosches_, as they are designated by the russians, inhabit the coast and islands from mount st elias to the river nass. the name thlinkeet signifies 'man,' or 'human being.' kolosch,[ ] or more properly _kaluga_, is the aleutian word for 'dish,' and was given to this people by aleutian seal-hunters whom the russians employed during their first occupation of the island of the sitkas. perceiving a resemblance in the shape of the thlinkeet lip-ornament, to the wooden vessels of their own country, they applied to this nation the name kaluga, whence the kolosches of the russians. holmberg carries their boundaries down to the columbia river; and wrangell perceives a likeness, real or imaginary, to the aztecs.[ ] indeed the differences between the thlinkeets and the inhabitants of new caledonia, washington, and oregon, are so slight that the whole might without impropriety be called one people. the thlinkeets have, however, some peculiarities not found elsewhere; they are a nation distinct from the tinneh upon their eastern border, and i therefore treat of them separately. the three families of nations already considered, namely, the eskimos, the koniagas, and the aleuts, are all designated by most writers as eskimos. some even include the thlinkeets, notwithstanding their physical and philological differences, which, as well as their traditions, are as broadly marked as those of nations that these same ethnologists separate into distinct families. nomadic nations, occupying lands by a precarious tenure, with ever-changing boundaries, engaged in perpetual hostilities with conterminous tribes that frequently annihilate or absorb an entire community, so graduate into one another that the dividing line is often with difficulty determined. thus the thlinkeets, now almost universally held to be north american indians proper, and distinct from the eskimos, possess, perhaps, as many affinities to their neighbors on the north, as to those upon the south and east. the conclusion is obvious. the native races of america, by their geographical position and the climatic influences which govern them, are of necessity to a certain degree similar; while a separation into isolated communities which are acted upon by local causes, results in national or tribal distinctions. thus the human race in america, like the human race throughout the world, is uniform in its variety, and varied in its unity. the thlinkeet family, commencing at the north, comprises the _ugalenzes_,[ ] on the shore of the continent between mount st elias and copper river; the _yakutats_, of bering bay; the _chilkats_, at lynn canal; the _hoodnids_, at cross sound; the _hoodsinoos_, of chatham strait; and, following down the coast and islands, the _takoos_, the _auks_, the _kakas_, the _sitkas_,[ ] the _stikines_,[ ] and the _tungass_. the sitkas on baranoff island[ ] are the dominant tribe. descending from the north into more genial climes, the physical type changes, and the form assumes more graceful proportions. with the expansion of nature and a freer play of physical powers, the mind expands, native character becomes intensified, instinct keener, savage nature more savage, the nobler qualities become more noble; cruelty is more cruel, torture is elevated into an art, stoicism is cultivated,[ ] human sacrifice and human slavery begin, and the oppression and degradation of woman is systematized. "if an original american race is accepted," says holmberg, "the thlinkeets must be classed with them." they claim to have migrated from the interior of the continent, opposite queen charlotte island. the ugalenzes spend their winters at a small bay east from kadiak, and their summers near the mouth of copper river, where they take fish in great quantities. their country also abounds in beaver. the chilkats make two annual trading excursions into the interior. the tacully tribes, the sicannis and nehannes, with whom the chilkats exchange european goods for furs, will allow no white man to ascend their streams. [sidenote: thlinkeet peculiarities.] naturally, the thlinkeets are a fine race; the men better formed than the boatmen of the north;[ ] the women modest, fair, and handsome;[ ] but the latter have gone far out of their way to spoil the handiwork of nature. not content with daubing the head and body with filthy coloring mixtures; with adorning the neck with copper-wire collars, and the face with grotesque wooden masks; with scarring their limbs and breast with keen-edged instruments; with piercing the nose and ears, and filling the apertures with bones, shells, sticks, pieces of copper, nails, or attaching to them heavy pendants, which drag down the organs and pull the features out of place;[ ] they appear to have taxed their inventive powers to the utmost, and with a success unsurpassed by any nation in the world, to produce a model of hideous beauty. [sidenote: thlinkeet lip-ornament.] this success is achieved in their wooden lip-ornament, the crowning glory of the thlinkeet matron, described by a multitude of eye-witnesses; and the ceremony of its introduction may be not inappropriately termed, the baptism of the block. at the age of puberty,--some say during infancy or childhood,--in the under lip of all free-born female thlinkeets,[ ] a slit is made parallel with the mouth, and about half an inch below it.[ ] if the incision is made during infancy, it is only a small hole, into which a needle of copper, a bone, or a stick is inserted, the size being increased as the child grows. if the baptism is deferred until the period when the maiden merges into womanhood, the operation is necessarily upon a larger scale, and consequently more painful.[ ] when the incision is made, a copper wire, or a piece of shell or wood, is introduced, which keeps the wound open and the aperture extended; and by enlarging the object and keeping up a continuous but painful strain, an artificial opening in the face is made of the required dimensions. on attaining the age of maturity, this wire or other incumbrance is removed and a block of wood inserted. this block is oval or elliptical in shape, concaved or hollowed dish-like on the sides, and grooved like the wheel of a pulley on the edge in order to keep it in place.[ ] the dimensions of the block are from two to six inches in length, from one to four inches in width, and about half an inch thick round the edge, and highly polished.[ ] old age has little terror in the eyes of a thlinkeet belle, for larger lip-blocks are introduced as years advance, and each enlargement adds to the lady's social status, if not to her facial charms. when the block is withdrawn, the lip drops down upon the chin like a piece of leather, displaying the teeth, and presenting altogether a ghastly spectacle.[ ] this custom is evidently associated in their minds with womanly modesty, for when la pérouse asked them to remove their block, some refused; those who complied manifesting the same embarrassment shown by a european woman who uncovers her bosom. the yakutats alone of all the thlinkeet nation have never adopted this fashion. [sidenote: dress of the thlinkeets.] their dress, which is made from wolf, deer, bear, or other skin, extends from the shoulder to the knee, and consists of a mantle, or cape, with sleeves, which reaches down to the waist, and to which the women attach a skirt, or gown, and the men a belt and apron. a white blanket is made from the wool of the wild sheep, embroidered with figures, and fringed with furs, all of native work. this garment is most highly prized by the men. they wear it thrown over the shoulder so as to cover the whole body. vancouver thus describes the dress of a chief at lynn canal. his "external robe was a very fine large garment, that reached from his neck down to his heels, made of wool from the mountain sheep, neatly variegated with several colors, and edged and otherwise decorated with little tufts or frogs of woolen yarn, dyed of various colors. his head-dress was made of wood, much resembling in its shape a crown, adorned with bright copper and brass plates, from whence hung a number of tails or streamers, composed of wool and fur, wrought together, dyed of various colors, and each terminating in a whole ermine skin. the whole exhibited a magnificent appearance, and indicated a taste for dress and ornament that we had not supposed the natives of these regions to possess." the men make a wooden mask, which rests on a neckpiece, very ingeniously carved, and painted in colors, so as to represent the head of some bird or beast or mythological being. this was formerly worn in battle, probably, as la pérouse suggests, in order to strike terror into the hearts of enemies, but is now used only on festive occasions.[ ] a small hat of roots and bark, woven in the shape of a truncated cone, ornamented with painted figures and pictures of animals, is worn by both sexes.[ ] ordinarily, however, the men wear nothing on the head; their thick hair, greased and covered with ochre and birds' down, forming a sufficient covering. the hat is designed especially for rainy weather, as a protection to the elaborately dressed hair.[ ] besides their every-day dress, they have a fantastic costume for tribal holidays. for their winter habitations, a little back from the ocean, the thlinkeets build substantial houses of plank or logs, sometimes of sufficient strength to serve as a fortress. they are six or eight feet in height, the base in the form of a square or parallelogram, the roof of poles placed at an angle of forty-five degrees and covered with bark. the entrance is by a small side door. the fire, which is usually kept burning night and day, occupies the centre of the room; over it is a smoke-hole of unusual size, and round the sides of the room are apartments or dens which are used as store-houses, sweat-houses, and private family rooms. the main room is very public and very filthy.[ ] summer huts are light portable buildings, thrown up during hunting excursions in the interior, or on the sea-beach in the fishing-season. a frame is made of stakes driven into the ground, supporting a roof, and the whole covered with bark, or with green or dry branches, and skins or bark over all. the door is closed by bark or a curtain of skins. each hut is the rendezvous for a small colony, frequently covering twenty or thirty persons, all under the direction of one chief.[ ] [sidenote: food of the thlinkeets.] the food of the thlinkeets is derived principally from the ocean, and consists of fish, mussels, sea-weeds, and in fact whatever is left upon the beach by the ebbing tide--which at sitka rises and falls eighteen feet twice a day--or can be caught by artificial means. holmberg says that all but the yakutats hate whale as the jews hate pork. roots, grasses, berries, and snails are among their summer luxuries. they chew a certain plant as some chew tobacco, mixing with it lime to give it a stronger effect,[ ] and drink whale-oil as a european drinks beer. preferring their food cooked, they put it in a tight wicker basket, pouring in water, and throwing in heated stones, until the food is boiled.[ ] for winter, they dry large quantities of herring, roes, and the flesh of animals. for catching fish, they stake the rivers, and also use a hook and line; one fisherman casting from his canoe ten or fifteen lines, with bladders for floats. for herring, they fasten to the end of a pole four or five pointed bones, and with this instrument strike into a shoal, spearing a fish on every point. they sometimes make the same instrument in the shape of a rake, and transfix the fish with the teeth. the sitkas catch halibut with large, wooden, bone-pointed hooks.[ ] the arms of the thlinkeets denote a more warlike people than any we have hitherto encountered. bows and arrows; hatchets of flint, and of a hard green stone which cuts wood so smoothly that no marks of notches are left; great lances, six or eight varas in length, if bodega y quadra may be trusted, hardened in the fire or pointed with copper, or later with iron; a large, broad, double-ended dagger, or knife,--are their principal weapons. the knife is their chief implement and constant companion. the handle is nearer one end than the other, so that it has a long blade and a short blade, the latter being one quarter the length of the former. the handle is covered with leather, and a strap fastens it to the hand when fighting. both blades have leathern sheaths, one of which is suspended from the neck by a strap.[ ] [sidenote: the thlinkeets in war.] they also encase almost the entire body in a wooden and leathern armor. their helmets have curiously carved vizors, with grotesque representations of beings natural or supernatural, which, when brilliantly or dismally painted, and presented with proper yells, and brandishings of their ever-glittering knives, are supposed to strike terror into the heart of their enemies. they make a breast-plate of wood, and an arrow-proof coat of thin flexible strips, bound with strings like a woman's stays.[ ] when a thlinkeet arms for war, he paints his face and powders his hair a brilliant red. he then ornaments his head with white eagle-feathers, a token of stern, vindictive determination. during war they pitch their camp in strong positions, and place the women on guard. trial by combat is frequently resorted to, not only to determine private disputes, but to settle quarrels between petty tribes. in the latter case, each side chooses a champion, the warriors place themselves in battle array, the combatants armed with their favorite weapon, the dagger, and well armored, step forth and engage in fight; while the people on either side engage in song and dance during the combat. wrangell and laplace assert that brave warriors killed in battle are devoured by the conquerors, in the belief that the bravery of the victim thereby enters into the nature of the partaker.[ ] coming from the north, the thlinkeets are the first people of the coast who use wooden boats. they are made from a single trunk; the smaller ones about fifteen feet long, to carry from ten to twelve persons; and the larger ones, or war canoes, from fifty to seventy feet long; these will carry forty or fifty persons. they have from two and a half to three feet beam; are sharp fore and aft, and have the bow and stern raised, the former rather more than the latter. being very light and well modeled, they can be handled with ease and celerity. their paddles are about four feet in length, with crutch-like handles and wide, shovel-shaped blades. boats as well as paddles are ornamented with painted figures, and the family coat-of-arms. bodega y quadra, in contradiction to all other authorities, describes these canoes as being built in three parts; with one hollowed piece, which forms the bottom and reaches well up the sides, and with two side planks. having hollowed the trunk of a tree to the required depth, the thlinkeet builders fill it with water, which they heat with hot stones to soften the wood, and in this state bend it to the desired shape. when they land, they draw their boats up on the beach, out of reach of the tide, and take great care in preserving them.[ ] [sidenote: industries of the thlinkeets.] the thlinkeets manifest no less ingenuity in the manufacture of domestic and other implements than in their arms. rope they make from sea-weed, water-tight baskets and mats from withes and grass; and pipes, bowls, and figures from a dark clay. they excel in the working of stone and copper, making necklaces, bracelets, and rings; they can also forge iron. they spin thread, use the needle, and make blankets from the white native wool. they exhibit considerable skill in carving and painting, ornamenting the fronts of their houses with heraldic symbols, and allegorical and historical figures; while in front of the principal dwellings, and on their canoes, are carved parts representing the human face, the heads of crows, eagles, sea-lions, and bears.[ ] la pérouse asserts that, except in agriculture, which was not entirely unknown to them, the thlinkeets were farther advanced in industry than the south sea islanders. trade is carried on between europeans and the interior indians, in which no little skill is manifested. every article which they purchase undergoes the closest scrutiny, and every slight defect, which they are sure to discover, sends down the price. in their commercial intercourse they exhibit the utmost decorum, and conduct their negotiations with the most becoming dignity. nevertheless, for iron and beads they willingly part with anything in their possession, even their children. in the voyage of bodega y quadra, several young thlinkeets thus became the property of the spaniards, as the author piously remarks, for purposes of conversion. sea-otter skins circulate in place of money.[ ] the office of chief is elective, and the extent of power wielded depends upon the ability of the ruler. in some this authority is nominal; others become great despots.[ ] slavery was practiced to a considerable extent; and not only all prisoners of war were slaves, but a regular slave-trade was carried on with the south. when first known to the russians, according to holmberg, most of their slaves were flatheads from oregon. slaves are not allowed to hold property or to marry, and when old and worthless they are killed. kotzebue says that a rich man "purchases male and female slaves, who must labor and fish for him, and strengthen his force when he is engaged in warfare. the slaves are prisoners of war, and their descendants; the master's power over them is unlimited, and he even puts them to death without scruple. when the master dies, two slaves are murdered on his grave that he may not want attendance in the other world; these are chosen long before the event occurs, but meet the destiny that awaits them very philosophically." simpson estimates the slaves to be one third of the entire population. interior tribes enslave their prisoners of war, but, unlike the coast tribes, they have no hereditary slavery, nor systematic traffic in slaves. [sidenote: caste and clanship.] with the superior activity and intelligence of the thlinkeets, social castes begin to appear. besides an hereditary nobility, from which class all chiefs are chosen, the whole nation is separated into two great divisions or clans, one of which is called the wolf, and the other the raven. upon their houses, boats, robes, shields, and wherever else they can find a place for it, they paint or carve their crest, an heraldic device of the beast or the bird designating the clan to which the owner belongs. the raven trunk is again divided into sub-clans, called the frog, the goose, the sea-lion, the owl, and the salmon. the wolf family comprises the bear, eagle, dolphin, shark, and alca. in this clanship some singular social features present themselves. people are at once thrust widely apart, and yet drawn together. tribes of the same clan may not war on each other, but at the same time members of the same clan may not marry with each other. thus the young wolf warrior must seek his mate among the ravens, and, while celebrating his nuptials one day, he may be called upon the next to fight his father-in-law over some hereditary feud. obviously this singular social fancy tends greatly to keep the various tribes of the nation at peace.[ ] although the thlinkeet women impose upon themselves the most painful and rigorous social laws, there are few savage nations in which the sex have greater influence or command greater respect. whether it be the superiority of their intellects, their success in rendering their hideous charms available, or the cruel penances imposed upon womanhood, the truth is that not only old men, but old women, are respected. in fact, a remarkably old and ugly crone is accounted almost above nature--a sorceress. one cause of this is that they are much more modest and chaste than their northern sisters.[ ] as a rule, a man has but one wife; more, however, being allowable. a chief of the nass tribe is said to have had forty. a young girl arrived at the age of maturity is deemed unclean; and everything she comes in contact with, or looks upon, even the clear sky or pure water, is thereby rendered unpropitious to man. she is therefore thrust from the society of her fellows, and confined in a dark den as a being unfit for the sun to shine upon. there she is kept sometimes for a whole year. langsdorff suggests that it may be during this period of confinement that the foundation of her influence is laid; that in modest reserve, and meditation, her character is strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind as well as body. this infamous ordeal, coming at a most critical period, and in connection with the baptism of the block, cannot fail to exert a powerful influence upon her character. it is a singular idea that they have of uncleanness. during all this time, according to holmberg, only the girl's mother approaches her, and that only to place food within her reach. there she lies, wallowing in her filth, scarcely able to move. it is almost incredible that human beings can bring themselves so to distort nature. to this singular custom, as well as to that of the block, female slaves do not conform. after the girl's immurement is over, if her parents are wealthy, her old clothing is destroyed, she is washed and dressed anew, and a grand feast given in honor of the occasion.[ ] the natural sufferings of mothers during confinement are also aggravated by custom. at this time they too are considered unclean, and must withdraw into the forest or fields, away from all others, and take care of themselves and their offspring. after the birth of a child, the mother is locked up in a shed for ten days. a marriage ceremony consists in the assembling of friends and distribution of presents. a newly married pair must fast for two days thereafter, in order to insure domestic felicity. after the expiration of that time they are permitted to partake of a little food, when a second two days' fast is added, after which they are allowed to come together for the first time; but the mysteries of wedlock are not fully unfolded to them until four weeks after marriage. very little is said by travelers regarding the bath-houses of the thlinkeets, but i do not infer that they used them less than their neighbors. in fact, notwithstanding their filth, purgations and purifications are commenced at an early age. as soon as an infant is born, and before it has tasted food, whatever is in the stomach must be squeezed out. mothers nurse their children from one to two and a half years. when the child is able to leave its cradle, it is bathed in the ocean every day without regard to season, and this custom is kept up by both sexes through life. those that survive the first year of filth, and the succeeding years of applied ice water and exposure, are very justly held to be well toughened. the thlinkeet child is frequently given two names, one from the father's side and one from the mother's; and when a son becomes more famous than his father, the latter drops his own name, and is known only as the father of his son. their habits of life are regular. in summer, at early dawn they put out to sea in their boats, or seek for food upon the beach, returning before noon for their first meal. a second one is taken just before night. the work is not unequally divided between the sexes, and the division is based upon the economical principles of civilized communities. the men rarely conclude a bargain without consulting their wives. marchand draws a revolting picture of their treatment of infants. the little bodies are so excoriated by fermented filth, and so scarred by their cradle, that they carry the marks to the grave. no wonder that when they grow up they are insensible to pain. nor are the mothers especially given to personal cleanliness and decorum.[ ] music, as well as the arts, is cultivated by the thlinkeets, and, if we may believe marchand, ranks with them as a social institution. "at fixed times," he says, "evening and morning, they sing in chorus, every one takes part in the concert, and from the pensive air which they assume while singing, one would imagine that the song has some deep interest for them." the men do the dancing, while the women, who are rather given to fatness and flaccidity, accompany them with song and tambourine.[ ] their principal gambling game is played with thirty small sticks, of various colors, and called by divers names, as the crab, the whale, and the duck. the player shuffles together all the sticks, then counting out seven, he hides them under a bunch of moss, keeping the remainder covered at the same time. the game is to guess in which pile is the whale, and the crab, and the duck. during the progress of the game, they present a perfect picture of melancholic stoicism.[ ] the thlinkeets burn their dead. an exception is made when the deceased is a shamán or a slave; the body of the former is preserved, after having been wrapped in furs, in a large wooden sarcophagus; and the latter is thrown out into the ocean or anywhere, like a beast. the ashes of the burned thlinkeet are carefully collected in a box covered with hieroglyphic figures, and placed upon four posts. the head of a warrior killed in battle is cut off before the body is burned, and placed in a box supported by two poles over the box that holds his ashes.[ ] some tribes preserve the bodies of those who die during the winter, until forced to get rid of them by the warmer weather of spring. their grandest feasts are for the dead. besides the funeral ceremony, which is the occasion of a festival, they hold an annual 'elevation of the dead,' at which times they erect monuments to the memory of their departed. the shamáns possess some knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs, but the healing of the body does not constitute so important a part of their vocation as do their dealings with supernatural powers. [sidenote: thlinkeet character.] to sum up the character of the thlinkeets, they may be called bold, brave, shrewd, intelligent, industrious, lovers of art and music, respectful to women and the aged; yet extremely cruel, scalping and maiming their prisoners out of pure wantonness, thievish, lying, and inveterate gamblers. in short they possess most of the virtues and vices incident to savagism. [sidenote: the tinneh.] the tinneh, the fifth and last division of our hyperborean group, occupy the 'great lone land,' between hudson bay and the conterminous nations already described; a land greater than the whole of the united states, and more 'lone,' excepting absolute deserts, than any part of america. white men there are scarcely any; wild men and wild beasts there are few; few dense forests, and little vegetation, although the grassy savannahs sustain droves of deer, buffalo, and other animals. the tinneh are, next to the eskimos, the most northern people of the continent. they inhabit the unexplored regions of central alaska, and thence extend eastward, their area widening towards the south to the shores of hudson bay. within their domain, from the north-west to the south-east, may be drawn a straight line measuring over four thousand miles in length. the tinneh,[ ] may be divided into four great families of nations; namely, the _chepewyans_, or athabascas, living between hudson bay and the rocky mountains; the _tacullies_, or carriers, of new caledonia or north-western british america; the _kutchins_, occupying both banks of the upper yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth to the mackenzie river; and the _kenai_, inhabiting the interior from the lower yukon to copper river. the chepewyan family is composed of the northern indians, so called by the fur-hunters at fort churchill as lying along the shores of hudson bay, directly to their north; the copper indians, on coppermine river; the horn mountain and beaver indians, farther to the west; the strong-bows, dog-ribs, hares, red-knives, sheep, sarsis, brush-wood, nagailer, and rocky-mountain indians, of the mackenzie river and rocky mountains.[ ] the tacully[ ] nation is divided into a multitude of petty tribes, to which different travelers give different names according to fancy. among them the most important are the talkotins and chilkotins, nateotetains and sicannis, of the upper branches of fraser river and vicinity. it is sufficient for our purpose, however, to treat them as one nation. the kutchins,[ ] a large and powerful nation, are composed of the following tribes. commencing at the mackenzie river, near its mouth, and extending westward across the mountains to and down the yukon; the loucheux or quarrellers, of the mackenzie river; the vanta kutchin, natche kutchin, and yukuth kutchin, of porcupine river and neighborhood; the tutchone kutchin, han kutchin, kutcha kutchin, gens de bouleau, gens de milieu, tenan kutchin, nuclukayettes, and newicarguts, of the yukon river. their strip of territory is from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles in width, lying immediately south of the eskimos, and extending westward from the mackenzie river about eight hundred miles.[ ] the kenai[ ] nation includes the ingaliks, of the lower yukon; the koltchanes, of the kuskoquim river; and to the south-eastward, the kenais, of the kenai peninsula, and the atnas, of copper river.[ ] thus we see that the tinneh are essentially an inland people, barred out from the frozen ocean by a thin strip of eskimo land, and barely touching the pacific at cook inlet. philologists, however, find dialectic resemblances, imaginary or real, between them and the umpquas[ ] and apaches.[ ] [sidenote: the chepewyans.] the name chepewyan signifies 'pointed coat,' and derives its origin from the parka, coat, or outer garment, so universally common throughout this region. it is made of several skins differently dressed and ornamented in different localities, but always cut with the skirt pointed before and behind. the chepewyans believe that their ancestors migrated from the east, and therefore those of them who are born nearest their eastern boundary, are held in the greatest estimation. the dog-ribs alone refer their origin to the west. the chepewyans are physically characterized by a long full face,[ ] tall slim figure;[ ] in complexion they are darker than coast tribes,[ ] and have small piercing black eyes,[ ] flowing hair,[ ] and tattooed cheeks and forehead.[ ] altogether they are pronounced an inferior race.[ ] into the composition of their garments enter beaver, moose, and deer-skin, dressed with and without the hair, sewed with sinews and ornamented with claws, horns, teeth, and feathers.[ ] [sidenote: the northern indians.] the northern indian man is master of his household.[ ] he marries without ceremony, and divorces his wife at his pleasure.[ ] a man of forty buys or fights for a spouse of twelve,[ ] and when tired of her whips her and sends her away. girls on arriving at the age of womanhood must retire from the village and live for a time apart.[ ] the chepewyans inhabit huts of brush and portable skin tents. they derive their origin from a dog. at one time they were so strongly imbued with respect for their canine ancestry that they entirely ceased to employ dogs in drawing their sledges, greatly to the hardship of the women upon whom this laborious task fell. their food consists mostly of fish and reindeer, the latter being easily taken in snares. much of their land is barren, but with sufficient vegetation to support numerous herds of reindeer, and fish abound in their lakes and streams. their hunting grounds are held by clans, and descend by inheritance from one generation to another, which has a salutary effect upon the preservation of game. indian law requires the successful hunter to share the spoils of the chase with all present. when game is abundant, their tent-fires never die, but are surrounded during all hours of the day and night by young and old cooking their food.[ ] superabundance of food, merchandise, or anything which they wish to preserve without the trouble of carrying it about with them while on hunting or foraging expeditions, is _cached_, as they term it; from the french, _cacher_, to conceal. canadian fur-hunters often resorted to this artifice, but the practice was common among the natives before the advent of europeans. a sudden necessity often arises in indian countries for the traveler to relieve himself from burdens. this is done by digging a hole in the earth and depositing the load therein, so artfully covering it as to escape detection by the wily savages. goods may be cached in a cave, or in the branches of a tree, or in the hollow of a log. the camp-fire is frequently built over the spot where stores have been deposited, in order that the disturbance of the surface may not be detected. their weapons[ ] and their utensils[ ] are of the most primitive kind--stone and bone being used in place of metal. their dances, which are always performed in the night, are not original, but are borrowed from the southern and dog-rib indians. they consist in raising the feet alternately in quick succession, as high as possible without moving the body, to the sound of a drum or rattle.[ ] they never bury their dead, but leave the bodies where they fall, to be devoured by the birds and beasts of prey.[ ] their religion consists chiefly in songs and speeches to these birds and beasts and to imaginary beings, for assistance in performing cures of the sick.[ ] old age is treated with disrespect and neglect, one half of both sexes dying before their time for want of care. the northern indians are frequently at war with the eskimos and southern indians, for whom they at all times entertain the most inveterate hatred. the copper indians, bordering on the southern boundary of the eskimos at the coppermine river, were originally the occupants of the territory south of great slave lake. the dog-ribs, or slavés as they are called by neighboring nations, are indolent, fond of amusement, but mild and hospitable. they are so debased, as savages, that the men do the laborious work, while the women employ themselves in household affairs and ornamental needlework. young married men have been known to exhibit specimens of their wives' needle-work with pride. from their further advancement in civilization, and the tradition which they hold of having migrated from the westward, were it not that their language differs from that of contiguous tribes only in accent, they might naturally be considered of different origin. bands of dog-ribs meeting after a long absence greet each other with a dance, which frequently continues for two or three days. first clearing a spot of ground, they take an arrow in the right hand and a bow in the left, and turning their backs each band to the other, they approach dancing, and when close together they feign to perceive each other's presence for the first time; the bow and arrow are instantly transferred from one hand to the other, in token of their non-intention to use them against friends. they are very improvident, and frequently are driven to cannibalism and suicide.[ ] [sidenote: hares, dog-ribs, and tacullies.] the hare indians, who speak a dialect of the tinneh scarcely to be distinguished from that of the dog-ribs, are looked upon by their neighbors as great conjurers. the hare and sheep indians look upon their women as inferior beings. from childhood they are inured to every description of drudgery, and though not treated with special cruelty, they are placed at the lowest point in the scale of humanity. the characteristic stoicism of the red race is not manifested by these tribes. socialism is practiced to a considerable extent. the hunter is allowed only the tongue and ribs of the animal he kills, the remainder being divided among the members of the tribe. the hares and dog-ribs do not cut the finger-nails of female children until four years of age, in order that they may not prove lazy; the infant is not allowed food until four days after birth, in order to accustom it to fasting in the next world. the sheep indians are reported as being cannibals. the red-knives formerly hunted reindeer and musk-oxen at the northern end of great bear lake, but they were finally driven eastward by the dog-ribs. laws and government are unknown to the chepewyans.[ ] [sidenote: the tacullies, or carriers.] the tacullies, or, as they were denominated by the fur-traders, 'carriers,' are the chief tribe of new caledonia, or north-western british america. they call themselves tacullies, or 'men who go upon water,' as their travels from one village to another are mostly accomplished in canoes. this, with their sobriquet of 'carriers,' clearly indicates their ruling habitudes. the men are more finely formed than the women, the latter being short, thick, and disproportionately large in their lower limbs. in their persons they are slovenly; in their dispositions, lively and contented. as they are able to procure food[ ] with but little labor, they are naturally indolent, but appear to be able and willing to work when occasion requires it. their relations with white people have been for the most part amicable; they are seldom quarrelsome, though not lacking bravery. the people are called after the name of the village in which they dwell. their primitive costume consists of hare, musk-rat, badger, and beaver skins, sometimes cut into strips an inch broad, and woven or interlaced. the nose is perforated by both sexes, the men suspending therefrom a brass, copper, or shell ornament, the women a wooden one, tipped with a bead at either end.[ ] their avarice lies in the direction of hiaqua shells, which find their way up from the sea-coast through other tribes. in , these beads were the circulating medium of the country, and twenty of them would buy a good beaver-skin. their paint is made of vermilion obtained from the traders, or of a pulverized red stone mixed with grease. they are greatly addicted to gambling, and do not appear at all dejected by ill fortune, spending days and nights in the winter season at their games, frequently gambling away every rag of clothing and every trinket in their possession. they also stake parts of a garment or other article, and if losers, cut off a piece of coat-sleeve or a foot of gun-barrel. native cooking vessels are made of bark, or of the roots or fibres of trees, woven so as to hold water, in which are placed heated stones for the purpose of cooking food.[ ] polygamy is practiced, but not generally. the tacullies are fond of their wives, performing the most of the household drudgery in order to relieve them, and consequently they are very jealous of them. but to their unmarried daughters, strange as it may seem, they allow every liberty without censure or shame. the reason which they give for this strange custom is, that the purity of their wives is thereby better preserved.[ ] during a portion of every year the tacullies dwell in villages, conveniently situated for catching and drying salmon. in april they visit the lakes and take small fish; and after these fail, they return to their villages and subsist upon the fish they have dried, and upon herbs and berries. from august to october, salmon are plentiful again. beaver are caught in nets made from strips of cariboo-skins, and also in cypress and steel traps. they are also sometimes shot with guns or with bows and arrows. smaller game they take in various kinds of traps. the civil polity of the tacullies is of a very primitive character. any person may become a _miuty_ or chief who will occasionally provide a village feast. a malefactor may find protection from the avenger in the dwelling of a chief, so long as he is permitted to remain there, or even afterwards if he has upon his back any one of the chief's garments. disputes are usually adjusted by some old man of the tribe. the boundaries of the territories belonging to the different villages are designated by mountains, rivers, or other natural objects, and the rights of towns, as well as of individuals, are most generally respected; but broils are constantly occasioned by murders, abduction of women, and other causes, between these separate societies.[ ] when seriously ill, the carriers deem it an indispensable condition to their recovery that every secret crime should be confessed to the magician. murder, of any but a member of the same village, is not considered a heinous offense. they at first believed reading and writing to be the exercise of magic art. the carriers know little of medicinal herbs. their priest or magician is also the doctor, but before commencing his operations in the sick room, he must receive a fee, which, if his efforts prove unsuccessful, he is obliged to restore. the curative process consists in singing a melancholy strain over the invalid, in which all around join. this mitigates pain, and often restores health. their winter tenements are frequently made by opening a spot of earth to the depth of two feet, across which a ridge-pole is placed, supported at either end by posts; poles are then laid from the sides of the excavation to the ridge-pole and covered with hay. a hole is left in the top for purposes of entrance and exit, and also in order to allow the escape of smoke.[ ] slavery is common with them; all who can afford it keeping slaves. they use them as beasts of burden, and treat them most inhumanly. the country of the sicannis in the rocky mountains is sterile, yielding the occupants a scanty supply of food and clothing. they are nevertheless devotedly attached to their bleak land, and will fight for their rude homes with the most patriotic ardor. [sidenote: nehannes and talkotins.] the nehannes usually pass the summer in the vicinity of the sea-coast, and scour the interior during the winter for furs, which they obtain from inland tribes by barter or plunder, and dispose of to the european traders. it is not a little remarkable that this warlike and turbulent horde was at one time governed by a woman. fame gives her a fair complexion, with regular features, and great intelligence. her influence over her fiery people, it is said, was perfect; while her warriors, the terror and scourge of the surrounding country, quailed before her eye. her word was law, and was obeyed with marvelous alacrity. through her influence the condition of the women of her tribe was greatly raised. great ceremonies, cruelty, and superstition attend burning the dead, which custom obtains throughout this region,[ ] and, as usual in savagism, woman is the sufferer. when the father of a household dies, the entire family, or, if a chief, the tribe, are summoned to present themselves.[ ] time must be given to those most distant to reach the village before the ceremony begins.[ ] the talkotin wife, when all is ready, is compelled to ascend the funeral pile, throw herself upon her husband's body and there remain until nearly suffocated, when she is permitted to descend. still she must keep her place near the burning corpse, keep it in a proper position, tend the fire, and if through pain or faintness she fails in the performance of her duties, she is held up and pressed forward by others; her cries meanwhile are drowned in wild songs, accompanied by the beating of drums.[ ] when the funeral pile of a tacully is fired, the wives of the deceased, if there are more than one, are placed at the head and foot of the body. their duty there is to publicly demonstrate their affection for the departed; which they do by resting their head upon the dead bosom, by striking in frenzied love the body, nursing and battling the fire meanwhile. and there they remain until the hair is burned from their head, until, suffocated and almost senseless, they stagger off to a little distance; then recovering, attack the corpse with new vigor, striking it first with one hand and then with the other, until the form of the beloved is reduced to ashes. finally these ashes are gathered up, placed in sacks, and distributed one sack to each wife, whose duty it is to carry upon her person the remains of the departed for the space of two years. during this period of mourning the women are clothed in rags, kept in a kind of slavery, and not allowed to marry. not unfrequently these poor creatures avoid their term of servitude by suicide. at the expiration of the time, a feast is given them, and they are again free. structures are erected as repositories for the ashes of their dead,[ ] in which the bag or box containing the remains is placed. these grave-houses are of split boards about one inch in thickness, six feet high, and decorated with painted representations of various heavenly and earthly objects. the indians of the rocky mountains burn with the deceased all his effects, and even those of his nearest relatives, so that it not unfrequently happens that a family is reduced to absolute starvation in the dead of winter, when it is impossible to procure food. the motive assigned to this custom is, that there may be nothing left to bring the dead to remembrance. a singular custom prevails among the nateotetain women, which is to cut off one joint of a finger upon the death of a near relative. in consequence of this practice some old women may be seen with two joints off every finger on both hands. the men bear their sorrows more stoically, being content in such cases with shaving the head and cutting their flesh with flints.[ ] [sidenote: kutchin characteristics.] the kutchins are the flower of the tinneh family. they are very numerous, numbering about twenty-two tribes. they are a more noble and manly people than either the eskimos upon the north or the contiguous tinneh tribes upon their own southern boundary. the finest specimens dwell on the yukon river. the women tattoo the chin with a black pigment, and the men draw a black stripe down the forehead and nose, frequently crossing the forehead and cheeks with red lines, and streaking the chin alternately with red and black. their features are more regular than those of their neighbors, more expressive of boldness, frankness, and candor; their foreheads higher, and their complexions lighter. the tenan kutchin of the tananah river, one of the largest tribes of the yukon valley, are somewhat wilder and more ferocious in their appearance. the boys are precocious, and the girls marry at fifteen.[ ] the kutchins of peel river, as observed by mr isbister, "are an athletic and fine-looking race; considerable above the average stature, most of them being upwards of six feet in height and remarkably well proportioned." their clothing is made from the skins of reindeer, dressed with the hair on; their coat cut after the fashion of the eskimos, with skirts peaked before and behind, and elaborately trimmed with beads and dyed porcupine-quills. the kutchins, in common with the eskimos, are distinguished by a similarity in the costume of the sexes. men and women wear the same description of breeches. some of the men have a long flap attached to their deer-skin shirts, shaped like a beaver's tail, and reaching nearly to the ground.[ ] of the coat, mr whymper says: "if the reader will imagine a man dressed in two swallow-tailed coats, one of them worn as usual, the other covering his stomach and buttoned behind, he will get some idea of this garment." across the shoulders and breast they wear a broad band of beads, with narrower bands round the forehead and ankles, and along the seams of their leggins. they are great traders; beads are their wealth, used in the place of money, and the rich among them literally load themselves with necklaces and strings of various patterns.[ ] the nose and ears are adorned with shells.[ ] the hair is worn in a long cue, ornamented with feathers, and bound with strings of beads and shells at the head, with flowing ends, and so saturated with grease and birds' down as to swell it sometimes to the thickness of the neck. they pay considerable attention to personal cleanliness. the kutchins construct both permanent underground dwellings and the temporary summer-hut or tent.[ ] [sidenote: food of the kutchins.] on the yukon, the greatest scarcity of food is in the spring. the winter's stores are exhausted, and the bright rays of the sun upon the melting snow almost blind the eyes of the deer-hunter. the most plentiful supply of game is in august, september, and october, after which the forming of ice on the rivers prevents fishing until december, when the winter traps are set. the reindeer are in good condition in august, and geese are plentiful. salmon ascend the river in june, and are taken in great quantities until about the first of september; fish are dried or smoked without salt, for winter use. fur-hunting begins in october; and in december, trade opens with the eskimos, with whom furs are exchanged for oil and seal-skins. the kutchin of the yukon are unacquainted with nets, but catch their fish by means of weirs or stakes planted across rivers and narrow lakes, having openings for wicker baskets, by which they intercept the fish. they hunt reindeer in the mountains and take moose-deer in snares.[ ] both kutchins and eskimos are very jealous regarding their boundaries; but the incessant warfare which is maintained between the littoral and interior people of the northern coast near the mackenzie river, is not maintained by the north-western tribes. one of either people, however, if found hunting out of his own territory, is very liable to be shot. some kutchin tribes permit the eskimos to take the meat of the game which they kill, provided they leave the skin at the nearest village.[ ] the kutchins of the yukon river manufacture cups and pots from clay, and ornament them with crosses, dots, and lines; moulding them by hand after various patterns, first drying them in the sun and then baking them. the eskimo lamp is also sometimes made of clay. the tinneh make paint of pulverized colored stones or of earth, mixed with glue. the glue is made from buffalo feet and applied by a moose-hair brush. in the manufacture of their boats the kutchins of the yukon use bark as a substitute for the seal-skins of the coast. they first make a light frame of willow or birch, from eight to sixteen feet in length. then with fine spruce-fir roots they sew together strips of birch bark, cover the frame, and calk the seams with spruce gum. they are propelled by single paddles or poles. those of the mackenzie river are after the same pattern.[ ] in absence of law, murder and all other crimes are compounded for.[ ] a man to be well married must be either rich or strong. a good hunter, who can accumulate beads, and a good wrestler, who can win brides by force, may have from two to five wives. the women perform all domestic duties, and eat after the husband is satisfied, but the men paddle the boats, and have even been known to carry their wives ashore so that they might not wet their feet. the women carry their infants in a sort of bark saddle, fastened to their back; they bandage their feet in order to keep them small.[ ] kutchin amusements are wrestling, leaping, dancing, and singing. they are great talkers, and etiquette forbids any interruption to the narrative of a new comer.[ ] [sidenote: the tenan kutchin.] the tenan kutchin, 'people of the mountains,' inhabiting the country south of fort yukon which is drained by the river tananah, are a wild, ungovernable horde, their territory never yet having been invaded by white people. the river upon which they dwell is supposed to take its rise near the upper yukon. they allow no women in their deer-hunting expeditions. they smear their leggins and hair with red ochre and grease. the men part their hair in the middle and separate it into locks, which, when properly dressed, look like rolls of red mud about the size of a finger; one bunch of locks is secured in a mass which falls down the neck, by a band of dentalium shells, and two smaller rolls hang down either side of the face. after being soaked in grease and tied, the head is powdered with finely cut swan's down, which adheres to the greasy hair. the women wear few ornaments, perform more than the ordinary amount of drudgery, and are treated more like dogs than human beings. chastity is scarcely known among them. the kutcha kutchin, 'people of the lowland,' are cleaner and better mannered. the kutchins have a singular system of totems. the whole nation is divided into three castes, called respectively _chitcheah_, _tengratsey_, and _natsahi_, each occupying a distinct territory. two persons of the same caste are not allowed to marry; but a man of one caste must marry a woman of another. the mother gives caste to the children, so that as the fathers die off the caste of the country constantly changes. this system operates strongly against war between tribes; as in war, it is caste against caste, and not tribe against tribe. as the father is never of the same caste as the son, who receives caste from his mother, there can never be intertribal war without ranging fathers and sons against each other. when a child is named, the father drops his former name and substitutes that of the child, so that the father receives his name from the child, and not the child from the father. they have scarcely any government; their chiefs are elected on account of wealth or ability, and their authority is very limited.[ ] their custom is to burn the dead, and enclose the ashes in a box placed upon posts; some tribes enclose the body in an elevated box without burning.[ ] [sidenote: the kenai.] the kenai are a fine, manly race, in which baer distinguishes characteristics decidedly american, and clearly distinct from the asiatic eskimos. one of the most powerful kenai tribes is the unakatanas, who dwell upon the koyukuk river, and plant their villages along the banks of the lower yukon for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. they are bold and ferocious, dominative even to the giving of fashion in dress. that part of the yukon which runs through their territory abounds with moose, which during the summer frequent the water in order to avoid the mosquitos, and as the animals are clumsy swimmers, the indians easily capture them. their women occupy a very inferior position, being obliged to do more drudgery and embellish their dress with fewer ornaments than those of the upper tribes. the men wear a heavy fringe of beads or shells upon their dress, equal sometimes to two hundred marten-skins in value. at nuklukahyet, where the tananah river joins the yukon, is a neutral trading-ground to which all the surrounding tribes resort in the spring for traffic. skins are their moneyed currency, the beaver-skin being the standard; one 'made' beaver-skin represents two marten-skins. the ingaliks inhabiting the yukon near its mouth call themselves _kaeyah khatana_. their dialect is totally distinct from the malemutes, their neighbors on the west, but shows an affinity with that of the unakatanas to their east. tobacco they both smoke and snuff. the smoke they swallow; snuff is drawn into the nostrils through a wooden tube. they manufacture snuff from leaf tobacco by means of a wooden mortar and pestle, and carry bone or wooden snuff-boxes. they are described by travelers as a timid, sensitive people, and remarkably honest. ingalik women are delivered kneeling, and without pain, being seldom detained from their household duties for more than an hour. the infant is washed, greased, and fed, and is seldom weaned under two or three years. the women live longer than the men; some of them reaching sixty, while the men rarely attain more than forty-five years. the koltschanes, whose name in the dialect of the kenai signifies 'guest,' and in that of the atnas of copper river, 'stranger,' have been charged with great cruelty, and even cannibalism, but without special foundation. wrangell believes the koltschanes, atnas, and kolosches to be one people. the kenai, of the kenaian peninsula, upon recovery from dangerous illness, give a feast to those who expressed sympathy during the affliction. if a bounteous provision is made upon these occasions, a chieftainship may be obtained thereby; and although the power thus acquired does not descend to one's heir, he may be conditionally recognized as chief. injuries are avenged by the nearest relative, but if a murder is committed by a member of another clan, all the allied families rise to avenge the wrong. when a person dies, the whole community assemble and mourn. the nearest kinsman, arrayed in his best apparel, with blackened face, his nose and head decked with eagle's feathers, leads the ceremony. all sit round a fire and howl, while the master of the lamentation recounts the notable deeds of the departed, amidst the ringing of bells, and violent stampings, and contortions of his body. the clothing is then distributed to the relatives, the body is burned, the bones collected and interred, and at the expiration of a year a feast is held to the memory of the deceased, after which it is not lawful for a relative to mention his name. the lover, if his suit is accepted, must perform a year's service for his bride. the wooing is in this wise: early some morning he enters the abode of the fair one's father, and without speaking a word proceeds to bring water, prepare food, and to heat the bath-room. in reply to the question why he performs these services, he answers that he desires the daughter for a wife. at the expiration of the year, without further ceremony, he takes her home, with a gift; but if she is not well treated by her husband, she may return to her father, and take with her the dowry. the wealthy may have several wives, but the property of each wife is distinct. they are nomadic in their inclinations and traverse the interior to a considerable distance in pursuit of game. the atnas are a small tribe inhabiting the atna or copper river. they understand the art of working copper, and have commercial relations with surrounding tribes. in the spring, before the breaking up of ice upon the lakes and rivers, they hunt reindeer, driving them into angle-shaped wicker-work corrals, where they are killed. in the autumn another general hunt takes place, when deer are driven into lakes, and pursued and killed in boats. their food and clothing depend entirely upon their success in these forays, as they are unable to obtain fish in sufficient quantities for their sustenance; and when unsuccessful in the chase, whole families die of starvation. those who can afford it, keep slaves, buying them from the koltschanes. they burn their dead, then carefully collect the ashes in a new reindeer-skin, enclose the skin in a box, and place the box on posts or in a tree. every year they celebrate a feast in commemoration of their dead. baer asserts that the atnas divide the year into fifteen months, which are designated only by their numbers; ten of them belong to autumn and winter, and five to spring and summer. [sidenote: tinneh character.] the tinneh character, if we may accept the assertions of various travelers, visiting different parts under widely different circumstances, presents a multitude of phases. thus it is said of the chepewyans by mackenzie, that they are "sober, timorous, and vagrant, with a selfish disposition which has sometimes created suspicions of their integrity. they are also of a quarrelous disposition, and are continually making complaints which they express by a constant repetition of the word _edmy_, 'it is hard,' in a whiny and plaintive tone of voice. so indolent that numbers perish every year from famine. suicide is not uncommon among them." hearne asserts that they are morose and covetous; that they have no gratitude; are great beggars; are insolent, if any respect is shown them; that they cheat on all opportunities; yet they are mild, rarely get drunk; and "never proceed to violence beyond bad language;" that they steal on every opportunity from the whites, but very rarely from each other; and although regarding all property, including wives, as belonging to the strongest, yet they only wrestle, and rarely murder. of the same people sir john franklin says, that they are naturally indolent, selfish, and great beggars. "i never saw men," he writes, "who either received or bestowed a gift with such bad grace." the dog-ribs are "of a mild, hospitable, but rather indolent disposition," fond of dancing and singing. according to the same traveler the copper indians are superior, in personal character, to any other chepewyans. "their delicate and humane attentions to us," he remarks, "in a period of great distress, are indelibly engraven on our memories." simpson says that it is a general rule among the traders not to believe the first story of an indian. although sometimes bearing suffering with fortitude, the least sickness makes them say, "i am going to die," and the improvidence of the indian character is greatly aggravated by the custom of destroying all the property of deceased relatives. sir john richardson accuses the hare indians of timidity, standing in great fear of the eskimos, and being always in want of food. they are practical socialists, 'great liars,' but 'strictly honest.' hospitality is not a virtue with them. according to richardson, neither the eskimos, dog-ribs, nor hare indians, feel the least shame in being detected in falsehood, and invariably practice it if they think that they can thereby gain any of their petty ends. even in their familiar intercourse with each other, the indians seldom tell the truth in the first instance, and if they succeed in exciting admiration or astonishment, their invention runs on without check. from the manner of the speaker, rather than by his words, is his truth or falsehood inferred, and often a very long interrogation is necessary to elicit the real fact. the comfort, and not unfrequently even the lives of parties of the timid hare indians are sacrificed by this miserable propensity. the hare and dog-rib women are certainly at the bottom of the scale of humanity in north america. ross thinks that they are "tolerably honest; not bloodthirsty, nor cruel;" "confirmed liars, far from being chaste." according to harmon, one of the earliest and most observing travelers among them, the tacullies "are a quiet, inoffensive people," and "perhaps the most honest on the face of the earth." they "are unusually talkative," and "take great delight in singing or humming or whistling a dull air." "murder is not considered as a crime of great magnitude." he considers the sicannis the bravest of the tacully tribes. but the kutchins bear off the palm for honesty. says whymper: "finding the loads too great for our dogs, we raised an erection of poles, and deposited some bags thereon. i may here say, once for all, that our men often left goods, consisting of tea, flour, molasses, bacon, and all kinds of miscellaneous articles, scattered in this way over the country, and that they remained untouched by the indians, who frequently traveled past them." simpson testifies of the loucheux that "a bloody intent with them lurks not under a smile." murray reports the kutchins treacherous; richardson did not find them so. jones declares that "they differ entirely from the tinneh tribes of the mackenzie, being generous, honest, hospitable, proud, high-spirited, and quick to revenge an injury." tribal boundaries. accurately to draw partition lines between primitive nations is impossible. migrating with the seasons, constantly at war, driving and being driven far past the limits of hereditary boundaries, extirpating and being extirpated, overwhelming, intermingling; like a human sea, swelling and surging in its wild struggle with the winds of fate, they come and go, here to-day, yonder to-morrow. a traveler passing over the country finds it inhabited by certain tribes; another coming after finds all changed. one writer gives certain names to certain nations; another changes the name, or gives to the nation a totally different locality. an approximation, however, can be made sufficiently correct for practical purposes; and to arrive at this, i will give at the end of each chapter all the authorities at my command; that from the statements of all, whether conflicting or otherwise, the truth may be very nearly arrived at. all nations, north of the fifty-fifth parallel, as before mentioned, i call hyperboreans. to the eskimos, i give the arctic sea-board from the coppermine river to kotzebue sound. late travelers make a distinction between the malemutes and kaveaks of norton sound and the eskimos. whymper calls the former 'a race of tall and stout people, but in other respect, much resembling the esquimaux.' _alaska_, p. . sir john richardson, in his _journal_, vol. i., p. , places them on the 'western coast, by cook's sound and tchugatz bay, nearly to mount st. elias;' but in his _polar regions_, p. , he terminates them at kotzebue sound. early writers give them the widest scope. 'die südlichsten sind in amerika, auf der küste labrador, wo nach charlevoix dieser völkerstamm den namen esquimaux bey den in der nähe wohnenden abenaki führte, und auch an der benachbarten ostseite von neu-fundland, ferner westlich noch unter der halbinsel alaska.' _vater_, _mithridates_, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. . dr latham, in his _varieties of man_, treats the inhabitants of the aleutian islands as eskimos, and in _native races of the russian empire_, p. , he gives them 'the whole of the coast of the arctic ocean, and the coast from behring strait to cook inlet.' prichard, _researches_, vol. v., p. , requires more complete evidence before he can conclude that the aleuts are not eskimos. being entirely unacquainted with the great kutchin family in the yukon valley, he makes the carriers of new caledonia conterminous with the eskimos. the boundary lines between the eskimos and the interior indian tribes 'are generally formed by the summit of the watershed between the small rivers which empty into the sea and those which fall into the yukon.' _dall's alaska_, p. . malte-brun, _précis de la géographie_, vol. v., p. , goes to the other extreme. 'les esquimaux,' he declares, 'habitent depuis le golfe welcome jusqu'au fleuve mackenzie, et probablement jusqu'au détroit de bering; ils s'étendent au sud jusqu'au lac de l'esclave.' ludewig, _aboriginal languages_, p. , divides them into 'eskimo proper, on the shores of labrador, and the western eskimos.' gallatin sweepingly asserts that 'they are the sole native inhabitants of the shores of all the seas, bays, inlets, and islands of america, north of the sixtieth degree of north latitude.' _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the western eskimos, says beechey, 'inhabit the north-west coast of america, from ° ´ n. to ° ´ n.' _voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'along the entire coast of america.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . [sidenote: eskimos and koniagas.] the tribal subdivisions of the eskimos are as follows:--at coppermine river they are known by the name of _naggeuktoomutes_, 'deer-horns.' at the eastern outlet of the mackenzie they are called _kittear_. between the mackenzie river and barter reef they call themselves _kangmali-innuin_. the tribal name at point barrow is _nuwangmeun_. 'the _nuna-tangmë-un_ inhabit the country traversed by the nunatok, a river which falls into kotzebue sound.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . from cape lisburn to icy cape the tribal appellation is _kitegues_. 'deutsche karten zeigen uns noch im nord-west-ende des russischen nordamerika's, in dieser so anders gewandten küstenlinie, nördlich vom kotzebue-sund: im westlichen theile des küstenlandes, das sie west-georgien nennen, vom cap lisburn bis über das eiscap; hinlaufend das volk der kiteguen.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . 'the tribes appear to be separated from each other by a neutral ground, across which small parties venture in the summer for barter.' the _tuski_, _tschuktschi_, or _tchutski_, of the easternmost point of asia, have also been referred to the opposite coast of america for their habitation. the tschuktchi 'occupy the north-western coast of russian asia, and the opposite shores of north-western america.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the koniagan nation occupies the shores of bering sea, from kotzebue sound to the island of kadiak, including a part of the alaskan peninsula, and the koniagan and chugatschen islands. the _koniagas_ proper inhabit kadiak, and the contiguous islands. _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . 'the konægi are inhabitants of the isle of kodiak.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'die eigentlichen konjagen oder bewohner der insel kadjak.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'zu den letztern rechnet man die aleuten von kadjack, deren sprache von allen küstenbewohnern von der tschugatschen-bay, bis an die berings-strasse und selbst weiter noch die herrschende ist.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'from iliamna lake to the th degree of west longitude.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'la côte qui s'étend depuis le golfe kamischezkaja jusqu'au nouveau-cornouaille, est habitée par cinq peuplades qui forment autant de grandes divisions territoriales dans les colonies de la russie américaine. leurs noms sont: koniagi, kenayzi, tschugatschi, ugalachmiuti et koliugi.' _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., p. . the _chugatsches_ inhabit the islands and shores of prince william sound. 'die tchugatschen bewohnen die grössten inseln der bai tschugatsk, wie zukli, chtagaluk u. a. und ziehen sich an der südküste der halbinsel kenai nach westen bis zur einfahrt in den kenaischen meerbusen.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'die tschugatschen sind ankömmlinge von der insel kadjack, die während innerer zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben, sich zu ihren jetzigen wohnsitzen an den ufern von prince william's sound und gegen westen bis zum eingange von cook's inlet hingewendet haben.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'les tschugatschi occupent le pays qui s'étend depuis l'extrémité septentrionale de l'entrée de cook jusqu'à l'est de la baie du prince guillaume (golfe tschugatskaja.)' _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., p. . according to latham, _native races_, p. , they are the most southern members of the family. the tschugazzi 'live between the ugalyachmutzi and the kenaizi.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'occupy the shores and islands of chugach gulf, and the southwest coasts of the peninsula of kenai.' _dall's alaska_, p. . tschugatschi, 'prince william sound, and cook's inlet.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . tchugatchih, 'claim as their hereditary possessions the coast lying between bristol bay and beering's straits.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . the _aglegmutes_ occupy the shores of bristol bay from the river nushagak along the western coast of the alaskan peninsula, to latitude °. 'die aglegmjuten, von der mündung des flusses nuschagakh bis zum ° oder ° an der westküste der halbinsel aljaska; haben also die ufer der bristol-bai inne.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . dall calls them oglemutes, and says that they inhabit 'the north coast of aliaska from the th degree of west longitude to the head of bristol bay, and along the north shore of that bay to point etolin.' _alaska_, p. . die agolegmüten, an den ausmündungen der flüsse nuschagack und nackneck, ungefähr an der zahl.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . the _kijataigmutes_ dwell upon the banks of the river nushagak and along the coast westward to cape newenham. 'die kijataigmjuten wohnen an den ufern des flusses nuschagakh, sowie seines nebenflusses iligajakh.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . dall says that they call themselves nushergagmut, and 'inhabit the coast near the mouth of the nushergak river, and westward to cape newenham.' _alaska_, p. . 'die kijaten oder kijataigmüten an den flüssen nuschagack und ilgajack.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'am fl. nuschagak.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . the _agulmutes_ inhabit the coast between the rivers kuskoquim and kishunak. 'die aguljmjuten haben sowohl den küstenstrich als das innere des landes zwischen den mündungen des kuskokwim und des kishunakh inne.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'this tribe extends from near cape avinoff nearly to cape romanzoff.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'den agulmüten, am flusse kwichlüwack.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'an der kwickpak-münd.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . the _kuskoquigmutes_ occupy the banks of kuskoquim river and bay. 'die kuskokwigmjuten bewohnen die ufer des flusses kuskokwim von seiner mündung bis zur ansiedelung kwygyschpainagmjut in der nähe der odinotschka kalmakow.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . the kuskwogmuts 'inhabit both shores of kuskoquim bay, and some little distance up that river.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'die kuskokwimer an dem flusse kuskokwim und andern kleinen zuflüssen desselben und an den ufern der südlich von diesem flusse gelegenen seen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'between the rivers nushagak, ilgajak, chulitna, and kuskokwina, on the sea-shore.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _magemutes_ live between the rivers kishunak and kipunaiak. 'die magmjuten oder magagmjuten, zwischen den flüssen kiskunakh und kipunajakh.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'these inhabit the vicinity of cape romanzoff and reach nearly to the yukon-mouth.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'magimuten, am flusse kyschunack.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'im s des norton busens.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . the _kwichpagmutes_, or inhabitants of the large river, dwell upon the kwichpak river, from the coast range to the uallik. 'die kwichpagmjuten, haben ihre ansiedelungen am kwickpakh vom küstengebirge an bis zum nebenflusse uallik.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'kuwichpackmüten, am flusse kuwichpack.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'tlagga silla, or little dogs, nearer to the mouth of the yukon, and probably conterminous with the eskimo kwichpak-meut.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . on whymper's map are the _primoski_, near the delta of the yukon. the _kwichluagmutes_ dwell upon the banks of the kwichluak or crooked river, an arm of the kwichpak. 'die kwichljuagmjuten an den ufern eines mündungsarmes des kwichpakh, der kwichljuakh.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'inhabit the kwikhpak slough.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the _pashtoliks_ dwell upon the river pashtolik. 'die paschtoligmjuten, an den ufern des pastolflusses.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'paschtoligmüten, am flusse paschtol.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . whymper places them immediately north of the delta of the yukon. the _chnagmutes_ occupy the coast and islands south of the unalaklik river to pashtolik bay. 'die tschnagmjuten, an den ufern der meerbusen pastol und schachtolik zwischen den flüssen pastol an unalaklik.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'den tschnagmüten, gegen norden von den paschtuligmüten und gegen westen bis zum kap rodney.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'am. sdl. norton-busen.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . the _anlygmutes_ inhabit the shores of golovnin bay and the southern coast of the kaviak peninsula. 'die anlygmjuten, an den ufern der bai golownin nördlich vom nortonsunde.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'anlygmüten, an der golowninschen bai.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'ndl. vom norton-sund.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . the _kaviaks_ inhabit the western portion of the kaviak peninsula. 'adjacent to port clarence and behring strait.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'between kotzebue and norton sounds.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the _malemutes_ inhabit the coast at the mouth of the unalaklik river, and northward along the shores of norton sound across the neck of the kaviak peninsula at kotzebue sound. 'die maleigmjuten bewohnen die küste des nortonsundes vom flusse unalaklik an und gehen durch das innere des landes hinauf bis zum kotzebuesunde.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'from norton sound and bay north of shaktolik, and the neck of the kaviak peninsula to selawik lake.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'den malimüten, nahe an den ufern des golfes schaktulack oder schaktol.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . the malemutes 'extend from the island of st. michael to golovin sound.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'ndl. am norton-busen bis zum kotzebue sund.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . [sidenote: the aleuts.] the aleuts inhabit the islands of the aleutian archipelago, and part of the peninsula of alaska and the island of kadiak. they are divided into the _atkahs_, who inhabit the western islands, and the _unalaskans_ or eastern division. the tribal divisions inhabiting the various islands are as follows; namely, on the alaskan peninsula, three tribes to which the russians have given names--_morshewskoje_, _bjeljkowskoje_, and _pawlowskoje_; on the island of unga, the _ugnasiks_; on the island of unimak, the _sesaguks_; the _tigaldas_ on tigalda island; the _avatanaks_ on avatanak island; on the island of akun, three tribes, which the russians call _arteljnowskoje_, _rjätscheschnoje_, and _seredkinskoje_; the _akutans_ on the akutan island; the _unalgas_ on the unalga island; the _sidanaks_ on spirkin island; on the island of unalashka, the _ililluluk_, the _nguyuk_, and seven tribes called by the russians _natykinskoje_, _pestnjakow-swoje_, _wesselowskoje_, _makuschinskoja_, _koschhiginskoje_, _tuscon-skoje_, and _kalechinskoje_; and on the island of umnak the _tuliks_. latham, _nat. races_, p. , assigns them to the aleutian isles. 'die unalaschkaer oder fuchs-aleuten bewohnen die gruppe der fuchsinseln, den südwestlichen theil der halbinsel aljaska, und die inselgruppe schumaginsk. die atchaer oder andrejanowschen aleuten bewohnen die andrejanowschen, die ratten, und die nahen-inseln der aleuten-kette.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, pp. , . inhabit 'the islands between alyaska and kamschatka.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . [sidenote: the thlinkeets.] the thlinkeets, or kolosches, occupy the islands and shores between copper river and the river nass. 'die eigentlichen thlinkithen (bewohner des archipels von den parallelen des flusses nass bis zum st. elias-berge).' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'the kalosh indians seen at sitka inhabit the coast between the stekine and chilcat rivers.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'kaloches et kiganis. côtes et îles de l'amérique russe.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . the 'koloshians live upon the islands and coast from the latitude ° ´ to the mouth of the atna or copper river.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'from about ° to ° n. lat., reaching therefore across the russian frontier as far as the columbia river.' _müller's chips_, vol. i., p. . 'at sitka bay and norfolk sound.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'between jacootat or behring's bay, to the th degree of north latitude.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'die völker eines grossen theils der nordwest-küste von america.' _vater_, _mithridates_, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. . 'les koliugi habitent le pays montueux du nouveau-norfolk, et la partie septentrionale du nouveau-cornouaille.' _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., p. . the _ugalenzes_ or ugalukmutes, the northernmost thlinkeet tribe, inhabit the coast from both banks of the mouth of copper river, nearly to mount st elias. 'about mount elias.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . adjacent to behring bay. _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'die ugalenzen, die im winter eine bucht des festlandes, der kleinen insel kajak gegenüber, bewohnen, zum sommer aber ihre wohnungsplätze an dem rechten ufer des kupferflusses bei dessen mündung aufschlagen.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'das vorgebirge st. elias, kann als die gränzscheide der wohnsitze der see-koloschen gegen nordwest angesehen werden.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'les ugalachmiuti s'étendent depuis le golfe du prince guillaume, jusqu'à la baie de jakutat.' _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., p. . 'ugalenzen oder ugaljachmjuten. an der russ. küste ndwstl. vom st. elias berg.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . 'west of cape st. elias and near the island of kadjak.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _yakutats_ 'occupy the coast from mount fairweather to mount st. elias.' _dall's alaska_, p. . at 'behring bay.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _chilkat_ come next, and live on lynn canal and the chilkat river. 'at chilkaht inlet.' 'at the head of chatham straits.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . 'am lynn's-canal, in russ. nordamerika.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . 'on lynn's canal.' _schoolcraft's archives_, vol. v., p. . a little to the northward of the stakine-koan. _dunn's oregon_, p. . the _hoonids_ inhabit the eastern banks of cross sound. 'for a distance of sixty miles.' 'at cross sound reside the whinegas.' 'the hunnas or hooneaks, who are scattered along the main land from lynn canal to cape spencer.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , . the huna cow tribe is situated on cross sound. _schoolcraft's archives_, vol. v., p. . the _hoodsinoos_ 'live near the head of chatham strait.' 'on admiralty island.' 'rat tribes on kyro and kespriano islands.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , . 'hootsinoo at hoodsinoo or hood bay.' _schoolcraft's archives_, vol. v., p. . 'hoodsunhoo at hood bay.' _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . 'hoodsunhoo at hood bay.' 'eclikimo in chatham's strait.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _takoos_ dwell 'at the head of takoo inlet on the takoo river. the sundowns and takos who live on the mainland from port houghton to the tako river.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . tako and samdan, tako river. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the _auks indians_ are at the mouth of the takoo river and on admiralty island. 'north of entrance tako river.' _schoolcraft's arch._, p. . 'the ark and kake on prince frederick's sound.' _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _kakas_ inhabit the shores of frederick sound and kuprianoff island. 'the kakus, or kakes, who live on kuprinoff island, having their principal settlement near the northwestern side.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the ark and kake on prince frederick's sound.' _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _sitkas_ occupy baranoff island. 'they are divided into tribes or clans, of which one is called coquontans.' _buschmann_, _pima spr. u. d. spr. der koloschen_, p. . 'the tribe of the wolf are called coquontans.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'the sitka-koan,' or the people of sitka. 'this includes the inhabitants of sitka bay, near new archangel, and the neighboring islands.' _dall's alaska_, p. . simpson calls the people of sitka 'sitkaguouays.' _overland jour._, vol. i., p. . 'the sitkas or indians on baronoff island.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . the _stikeen indians_ inhabit the country drained by the stikeen river. 'do not penetrate far into the interior.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the stikein tribe 'live at the top of clarence's straits, which run upwards of a hundred miles inland.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'at stephens passage.' 'the stikeens who live on the stackine river and the islands near its mouth.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'stikeen indians, stikeen river, sicknaahutty, taeeteetan, kaaskquatee, kookatee, naaneeaaghee, talquatee, kicksatee, kaadgettee.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the secatquonays occupy the main land about the mouths of the stikeen river, and also the neighboring islands. _simpson's overland jour._, vol. i., p. . the _tungass_, 'live on tongas island, and on the north side of portland channel.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . southern entrance clarence strait. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the tongarses or tun ghaase 'are a small tribe, inhabiting the s.e. corner of prince of wales's archipelago.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'tungass, an der sdlst. russ. küste.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . 'tunghase indians of the south-eastern part of prince of wales's archipelago.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . tongas indians, lat. ° ´ n. and long. ° ´ w. _dall's alaska_, p. . [sidenote: the tinneh.] the tinneh occupy the vast interior north of the fifty-fifth parallel, and west from hudson bay, approaching the arctic and pacific coasts to within from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles: at prince william sound, they even touch the seashore. mackenzie, _voy._, p. cxvii., gives boundaries upon the basis of which gallatin, _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. , draws a line from the mississippi to within one hundred miles of the pacific at ° ´, and allots them the northern interior to eskimos lands. 'extend across the continent.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'von der nördlichen hudsonsbai aus fast die ganze breite des continents durchläuft--im norden und nordwesten den ten grad u. beinahe die gestade des polarmeers erreicht.' _buschmann_, _athapask. sprachst._, p. . the athabascan area touches hudson's bay on the one side, the pacific on the other.' _latham's comp. phil._, p. . 'occupies the whole of the northern limits of north america, together with the eskimos.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _chipewyans_, or athabascas proper, mackenzie, _voy._, p. cxvi., places between n. latitude ° and °, and w. longitude ° and °. 'between the athabasca and great slave lakes and churchill river.' _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'frequent the elk and slave rivers, and the country westward to hay river.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . the northern indians occupy the territory immediately north of fort churchill, on the western shore of hudson bay. 'from the fifty-ninth to the sixty-eighth degree of north latitude, and from east to west is upward of five hundred miles wide.' _hearne's jour._, p. ; _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . the _copper indians_ occupy the territory on both sides of the coppermine river south of the eskimo lands, which border on the ocean at the mouth of the river. they are called by the athabascas _tantsawhot-dinneh_. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., ; _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _horn mountain indians_ 'inhabit the country betwixt great bear lake and the west end of great slave lake.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . the _beaver indians_ 'inhabit the lower part of peace river.' _harmon's jour._, p. . on mackenzie's map they are situated between slave and martin lakes. 'between the peace river and the west branch of the mackenzie.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . edchawtawhoot-dinneh, strong-bow, beaver or thick-wood indians, who frequent the rivière aux liards, or south branch of the mackenzie river, _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . the _thlingcha-dinneh_, or dog-ribs, 'inhabit the country to the westward of the copper indians, as far as mackenzie's river.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . 'east from martin lake to the coppermine river.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'at fort confidence, north of great bear lake.' _simpson's nar._, p. . 'between martin's lake and the coppermine river.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _kawcho-dinneh_, or hare indians, are 'immediately to the northward of the dog-ribs on the north side of bear lake river.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . they 'inhabit the banks of the mackenzie, from slave lake downwards.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . between bear lake and fort good hope, _simpson's nar._, p. . on mackenzie river, below great slave lake, extending towards the great bear lake. _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . 'to the eastward of the dog-ribs are the red-knives, named by their southern neighbors, the _tantsaut-'dtinnè_ (birch-rind people). they inhabit a stripe of country running northwards from great slave lake, and in breadth from the great fish river to the coppermine.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . the _ambawtawhoot tinneh_, or sheep indians, 'inhabit the rocky mountains near the sources of the dawhoot-dinneh river which flows into mackenzie's.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . further down the mackenzie, near the ° parallel. _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . the _sarsis_, _circees_, _ciriés_, _sarsi_, _sorsi_, _sussees_, _sursees_, or _surcis_, 'live near the rocky mountains between the sources of the athabasca and saskatchewan rivers; are said to be likewise of the tinné stock.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'near the sources of one of the branches of the saskachawan.' _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _tsillawdawhoot tinneh_, or brush-wood indians, inhabit the upper branches of the rivière aux liards. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . on the river aux liards (poplar river), _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _nagailer_, or chin indians, on mackenzie's map, latitude ° ´ longitude ° to °, 'inhabit the country about ° ´ n. l. to the southward of the takalli, and thence extend south along fraser's river towards the straits of fuca.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . the _slouacuss tinneh_ on mackenzie's are next north-west from the nagailer. vater places them at ° ´. 'noch näher der küste um den ° ´ wohnten die slua-cuss-dinais d. i. rothfisch-männer.' _vater_, _mithridates_, vol. iii., pt. iii., p. . on the upper part of frazers river. _cox's adven._, p. . the _rocky mountain indians_ are a small tribe situated to the south-west of the sheep indians. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'on the unjigah or peace river.' _gallatin_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . on the upper tributaries of peace river. _mackenzie's voy._, p. . the _tacullies_, or carriers, inhabit new caledonia from latitude ° ´ to latitude °. 'a general name given to the native tribes of new-caledonia.' _morse's report_, p. . 'all the natives of the upper fraser are called by the hudson bay company, and indeed generally, "porteurs," or carriers.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'tokalis, le nord de la nouvelle calédonie.' _mofras, explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'northern part of new caledonia.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'on the sources of fraser's river.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'unter den völkern des tinné-stammes, welche das land westlich von den rocky mountains bewohnen, nehmen die takuli (wasservolk) oder carriers den grössten theil von neu-caledonien ein.' _buschmann_, _athapask. sprachst._, p. . 'greater part of new caledonia.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'latitude of queen charlotte's island.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'from latitude ° ´, where it borders on the country of the shoushaps, to latitude °, including simpson's river.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'south of the sicannis and straits lake.' _harmon's jour._, p. . they 'are divided into eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose names are--beginning at the south--as follows: the tautin, or talkotin; the tsilkotin or chilcotin; the naskotin; the thetliotin; the tsatsnotin; the nulaautin; the ntshaautin; the natliautin; the nikozliautin; the tatshiautin; and the babine indians.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'the principal tribes in the country north of the columbia regions, are the chilcotins and the talcotins.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . the talcotins 'occupy the territory above fort alexandria on frazer river.' _hazlitt's b. c._, p. . 'spend much of their time at bellhoula, in the bentinck inlet.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the calkobins 'inhabit new caledonia, west of the mountains.' _de smet's letters and sketches_, p. . the nateotetains inhabit the country lying directly west from stuart lake on either bank of the nateotetain river. _harmon's jour._, p. . the naskootains lie along frazer river from frazer lake. _id._, p. . the _sicannis_ dwell in the rocky mountains between the beaver indians on the east, and the tacullies and atnas on the west and south. _id._, p. . they live east of the tacullies in the rocky mountain. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'on the rocky mountains near the rapid indians and west of them.' _morse's report_, p. . the _kutchins_ are a large nation, extending from the mackenzie river westward along the yukon valley to near the mouth of the river, with the eskimos on one side and the koltshanes on the other. buschmann, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. , places them on the sixty-fifth parallel of latitude, and from ° to ° of longitude west from greenwich. 'das volk wohnt am flusse yukon oder kwichpak und über ihm; es dehnt sich nach richardson's karte auf dem ten parallelkreise aus vom - ° w. l. v. gr., und gehört daher zur hälfte dem britischen und zur hälfte dem russischen nordamerika an.' they are located 'immediately to the northward of the hare indians on both banks of mackenzie's river.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . gallatin, _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. , places their northern boundary in latitude ° ´. to the west of the mackenzie the loucheux interpose between the esquimaux 'and the tinné, and spread westward until they come into the neighborhood of the coast tribes of beering's sea.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'the kutchin may be said to inhabit the territory extending from the mackenzie, at the mouth of peel's river, lat. °, long. °, to norton's sound, living principally upon the banks of the youcon and porcupine rivers, though several of the tribes are situated far inland, many days' journey from either river.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'they commence somewhere about the th degree of north latitude, and stretch westward from the mackenzie to behring's straits.' 'they are divided into many petty tribes, each having its own chief, as the tatlit-kutchin (peel river indians), ta-kuth-kutchin (lapiene's house indians), kutch-a-kutchin (youcan indians), touchon-ta-kutchin (wooded-country indians), and many others.' _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. , . the degothi-kutchin, or loucheux, quarrellers, inhabit the west bank of the mackenzie between the hare indians and eskimos. the loucheux are on the mackenzie between the arctic circle and the sea. _simpson's nar._, p. . the vanta-kutchin occupy 'the banks of the porcupine, and the country to the north of it.' 'vanta-kutshi (people of the lakes), i only find that they belong to the porcupine river.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . they 'inhabit the territory north of the head-waters of the porcupine, somewhat below lapierre's house.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the natche-kutchin, or gens de large, dwell to the 'north of the porcupine river.' 'these extend on the north bank to the mouth of the porcupine.' _dall's alaska_, pp. , . 'neyetse-kutshi, (people of the open country), i only find that they belong to the porcupine river.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . whymper's map calls them rat indians. 'the na-tsik-kut-chin inhabit the high ridge of land between the yukon and the arctic sea.' _hardisty_, in _dall's alaska_, p. . the kukuth-kutchin 'occupy the country south of the head-waters of the porcupine.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the tutchone kutchin, gens de foux, or crow people, dwell upon both sides of the yukon about fort selkirk, above the han kutchin. _id._, pp. , . 'tathzey-kutshi, or people of the ramparts, the gens du fou of the french canadians, are spread from the upper parts of the peel and porcupine rivers, within the british territory, to the river of the mountain-men, in the russian. the upper yukon is therefore their occupancy. they fall into four bands: _a_, the tratsè-kutshi, or people of the fork of the river; _b_, the kutsha-kutshi; _c_, the zèkà-thaka (ziunka-kutshi), people on this side, (or middle people); and, _d_, the tanna-kutshi, or people of the bluffs.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . the han-kutchin, an-kutchin gens de bois, or wood people, inhabit the yukon above porcupine river. _whymper's alaska_, p. . they are found on the yukon next below the crows, and above fort yukon. _dall's alaska_, p. . 'han-kutchi residing at the sources of the yukon.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'the artez-kutshi, or the tough (hard) people. the sixty-second parallel cuts through their country; so that they lie between the head-waters of the yukon and the pacific.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . see also _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . the kutcha-kutchins, or kot-à-kutchin, 'are found in the country near the junction of the porcupine and the yukon.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the tenan-kutchin, or tananahs, gens de buttes, or people of the mountains, occupy an unexplored domain south-west of fort yukon. their country is drained by the tananah river. _dall's alaska_, p. . they are placed on whymper's map about twenty miles south of the yukon, in longitude ° west from greenwich. on whymper's map are placed: the birch indians, or gens de bouleau on the south bank of the yukon at its junction with porcupine river; the gens de milieu, on the north bank of the yukon, in longitude °; the nuclukayettes on both banks in longitude °; and the newicarguts, on the south bank between longitude ° and °. the _kenais_ occupy the peninsula of kenai and the surrounding country. _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'an den ufern und den umgebungen von cook's inlet und um die seen iliamna und kisshick.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . the unakatana yunakakhotanas, live 'on the yukon between koyukuk and nuklukahyet.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'junakachotana, ein stamm, welcher auf dem flusse jun-a-ka wohnt.' _sagoskin_, in _denkschr. der russ. geo. gesell._, p. . 'die junnakachotana, am flusse jukchana oder junna (so wird der obere lauf des kwichpakh genannt) zwischen den nebenflüssen nulato und junnaka, so wie am untern laufe des letztgenannten flusses.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'die junnachotana bewohnen den obern lauf des jukchana oder junna von der mündung des junnaka.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'die jugelnuten haben ihre ansiedelungen am kwichpakh, am tschageljuk und an der mündung des innoka. die inkalichljuaten, am obern laufe des innoka. die thljegonchotana am flusse thljegon, der nach der vereinigung mit dem tatschegno den innoka bildet.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, pp. , . 'they extend virtually from the confluence of the co-yukuk river to nuchukayette at the junction of the tanana with the yukon.' 'they also inhabit the banks of the co-yukuk and other interior rivers.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . the _ingaliks_ inhabit the yukon from nulato south to below the anvic river. see _whymper's map_. 'the tribe extends from the edge of the wooded district near the sea to and across the yukon below nulato, on the yukon and its affluents to the head of the delta, and across the portage to the kuskoquim river and its branches.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'die inkiliken, am untern laufe des junna südlich von nulato.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'an dem ganzen ittege wohnt der stamm der inkiliken, welcher zu dem volk der ttynai gehört.' _sagoskin_, in _denkschr. der russ. geo. gesell._, p. . 'an den flüssen kwichpack, kuskokwim und anderen ihnen zuströmenden flüssen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'the ingaliks living on the north side of the yukon between it and the kaiyuh mountains (known as takaitsky to the russians), bear the name of kaiyuhkatana or "lowland people," and the other branches of ingaliks have similar names, while preserving their general tribal name.' _dall's alaska_, p. . on whymper's map they are called t'kitskes and are situated east of the yukon in latitude ° north. the _koltschanes_ occupy the territory inland between the sources of the kuskoquim and copper rivers. 'they extend as far inland as the watershed between the copper-river and the yukon.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . 'die galzanen oder koltschanen (d. h. fremdlinge, in der sprache der athnaer) bewohnen das innere des landes zwischen den quellflüssen des kuskokwim bis zu den nördlichen zuflüssen des athna oder kupferstromes.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'diejenigen stämme, welche die nördlichen und östlichen, dem atna zuströmenden flüsse und flüsschen bewohnen, eben so die noch weiter, jenseits der gebirge lebenden, werden von den atnaern koltschanen, d. h. fremdlinge, genannt.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'north of the river atna.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the nehannes occupy the territory midway between mount st. elias and the mackenzie river, from fort selkirk and the stakine river. 'according to mr. isbister, range the country between the russian settlements on the stikine river and the rocky mountains.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . the nohhannies live 'upon the upper branches of the rivière aux liards.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . they 'inhabit the angle between that branch and the great bend of the trunk of the river, and are neighbours of the beaver indians.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . the region which includes the lewis, or tahco, and pelly rivers, with the valley of the chilkaht river, is occupied by tribes known to the hudson bay voyageurs as nehannees. those on the pelly and macmillan rivers call themselves affats-tena. some of them near liard's river call themselves daho-tena or acheto-tena, and others are called sicannees by the voyageurs. those near francis lake are known as mauvais monde, or slavé indians. about fort selkirk they have been called gens des foux. the _kenai_ proper, or kenai-tena, or thnaina, inhabit the peninsula of kenai, the shores of cook inlet, and thence westerly across the chigmit mountains, nearly to the kuskoquim river. they 'inhabit the country near cook's inlet, and both shores of the inlet as far south as chugachik bay.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'die eigentlichen thnaina bewohnen die halbinsel kenai und ziehen sich von da westlich über das tschigmit-gebirge zum mantaschtano oder tchalchukh, einem südlichen nebenflusse des kuskokwim.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'dieses--an den ufern und den umgebungen von cook's inlet und um die seen iliamna und kisshick lebende volk gehört zu dem selben stamme wie die galzanen oder koltschanen, atnaer, und koloschen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'les _kenayzi_ habitent la côte occidentale de l'entrée de cook ou du golfe kenayskaja.' _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., p. . 'the indians of cook's inlet and adjacent waters are called "kanisky." they are settled along the shore of the inlet and on the east shore of the peninsula.' 'east of cook's inlet, in prince william's sound, there are but few indians, they are called "nuchusk."' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _atnas_ occupy the atna or copper river from near its mouth to near its source. 'at the mouth of the copper river.' _latham's comp. phil._, vol. viii., p. . 'die athnaer, am athna oder kupferflusse.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'on the upper part of the atna or copper river are a little-known tribe of the above name [viz., ah-tena]. they have been called atnaer and kolshina by the russians, and yellow knife or nehaunee by the english.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'diese kleine, jetzt ungefähr aus familien bestehende, völkerschaft wohnt an den ufern des flusses atna und nennt sich atnaer.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . footnotes: [ ] of late, custom gives to the main land of russian america, the name _alaska_; to the peninsula, _aliaska_; and to a large island of the aleutian archipelago, _unalashka_. the word of which the present name alaska is a corruption, is first encountered in the narrative of betsevin, who, in , wintered on the peninsula, supposing it to be an island. the author of _neue nachrichten von denen neuentdekten insuln_, writes, page , 'womit man nach der abgelegensten insul _aläksu_ oder _alachschak_ über gieng.' again, at page , in giving a description of the animals on the supposed island he calls it 'auf der insul _aläsku_.' 'this,' says coxe, _russian discoveries_, p. , 'is probably the same island which is laid down in krenitzin's chart under the name of _alaxa_.' _unalaschka_ is given by the author of _neue nachrichten_, p. , in his narrative of the voyage of drusinin, who hunted on that island in . at page he again mentions the 'grosse insul _aläksu_.' on page , in glottoff's log-book, , is the entry: 'den sten may der wind ostsüdost; man kam an die insul _alaska_ oder _aläksu_.' still following the author of _neue nachrichten_, we have on page , in an account of the voyages of otseredin and popoff, who hunted upon the aleutian islands in , mention of a report by the natives 'that beyond unimak is said to be a large land _aläschka_, the extent of which the islanders do not know.' on cook's atlas, voyage , the peninsula is called _alaska_, and the island _oonalaska_, la pérouse, in his atlas, map no. , , calls the peninsula _alaska_, and the island _ounalaska_. the spaniards, in the _atlas para el viage de las goletas sutil y mexicana_, , write _alasca_ for the peninsula, and for the island _unalaska_. sauer, in his account of billings' expedition, , calls the main land _alaska_, the peninsula _alyaska_, and the island _oonalashka_. wrangell, in _baer's statistische und ethnographische nachrichten_, p. , writes for the peninsula _alaska_ and for the island _unalaschka_. holmberg, _ethnographische skizzen_, p. , calls the island _unalaschka_ and the peninsula _aljaska_. dall, _alaska_, p. , says that the peninsula or main land was called by the natives _alayeksa_, and the island _nagun-alayeksa_, 'or the land near alayeksa.' thus we have, from which to choose, the orthography of the earliest voyagers to this coast--russian, english, french, spanish, german, and american. the simple word _alaksu_, after undergoing many contortions, some authors writing it differently on different pages of the same book, has at length become _alaska_, as applied to the main land; _aliaska_ for the peninsula, and _unalashka_ as the name of the island. as these names are all corruptions from some one original word, whatever that may be, i see no reason for giving the error three different forms. i therefore write alaska for the mainland and peninsula and unalaska for the island. [ ] the name is said, by charlevoix 'to be derived from the language of the abenaqui, a tribe of algonquins in canada, who border upon them and call them "esquimantsic."' 'l'origine de leur nom n'est pas certain. toutefois il y a bien de l'apparence qu'il vient du mot abenaqui, _esquimantsic_ qui veut dire "mangeur de viande cruë."' see _prichard's physical history of mankind_, vol. v., pp. , . 'french writers call them eskimaux.' 'english authors, in adopting this term, have most generally written it "esquimaux," but dr. latham, and other recent ethnologists, write it "eskimos," after the danish orthography.' _richardson's polar regions_, p. . 'probably of canadian origin, and the word, which in french orthography is written esquimaux, was probably originally _ceux qui miaux_ (_miaulent_).' _richardson's journal_, vol. i., p. . 'said to be a corruption of _eskimantik_, _i. e._ raw-fish-eaters, a nickname given them by their former neighbors, the mohicans.' _seemann's voyage of the herald_, vol. ii., p. . eskimo is derived from a word indicating sorcerer or shamán. 'the northern tinneh use the word _uskeemi_.' _dall's alaska_, pp. , . 'their own national designation is "keralit."' _morton's crania americana_, p. . they 'call themselves "innuit," which signifies "man."' _armstrong's narrative_, p. . [ ] it is not without reluctance that i change a word from the commonly accepted orthography. names of places, though originating in error, when once established, it is better to leave unchanged. indian names, coming to us through russian, german, french, or spanish writers, should be presented in english by such letters as will best produce the original indian pronunciation. european personal names, however, no matter how long, nor how commonly they may have been erroneously used, should be immediately corrected. every man who can spell is supposed to be able to give the correct orthography of his own name, and his spelling should in every instance be followed, when it can be ascertained. veit bering, anglicè vitus behring, was of a danish family, several members of which were well known in literature before his own time. in danish writings, as well as among the biographies of russian admirals, where may be found a fac-simile of his autograph, the name is spelled _bering_. it is so given by humboldt, and by the _dictionnaire de la conversation_. the author of the _neue nachrichten von denen neuentdekten insuln_, one of the oldest printed works on russian discoveries in america; as well as müller, who was the companion of bering for many years; and buschmann,--all write _bering_. baer remarks: 'ich schreibe ferner bering, obgleich es jetzt fast allgemein geworden ist, behring zu schreiben, und auch die engländer und franzosen sich der letztern schreibart bequemt haben. bering war ein däne und seine familie war lange vor ihm in der literatur-geschichte bekannt. sie hat ihren namen auf die von mir angenommene weise drucken lassen. derselben schreibart bediente sich auch der historiograph müller, der längere zeit unter seinen befehlen gedient hatte, und pallas.' _statistische und ethnographische nachrichten_, p. . there is no doubt that the famous navigator wrote his name _bering_, and that the letter 'h' was subsequently inserted to give the danish sound to the letter 'e.' to accomplish the same purpose, perhaps, coxe, langsdorff, beechey, and others write _beering_. [ ] 'die kadjacker im gegentheil nähern sich mehr den amerikanischen stämmen und gleichen in ihrem aeussern gar nicht den eskimos oder den asiatischen völkern, wahrscheinlich haben sie durch die vermischung mit den stämmen amerika's ihre ursprüngliche asiatische äussere gestalt und gesichtsbildung verloren und nur die sprache beibehalten.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn. nachr._, p. . 'ils ressemblent beaucoup aux indigènes des îles curiles, dépendantes du japon.' _laplace_, _circumnavigation de l'artémise_, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'the tribes crowded together on the shores of beering's sea within a comparatively small extent of coast-line, exhibit a greater variety, both in personal appearance and dialect, than that which exists between the western eskimos and their distant countrymen in labrador; and ethnologists have found some difficulty in classifying them properly.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] for authorities, see tribal boundaries, at the end of this chapter. [ ] _collinson_, in _london geographical society journal_, vol. xxv., p. . [ ] 'im nordwestlichsten theile von amerika fand franklin den boden, mitte august, schon in einer tiefe von zoll gefroren. richardson sah an einem östlicheren punkte der küste, in ° ´ breite, die eisschicht im julius aufgethaut bis fuss unter der krautbedeckten oberfläche.' _humboldt_, _kosmos_, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _silliman's journal_, vol. xvi., p. . _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . _armstrong's nar._, p. . [ ] 'characteristic of the arctic regions.' _silliman's jour._, vol. xvi., p. . [ ] at kotzebue sound, in july, choris writes: 'le sol était émaillé de fleurs de couleurs variées, dans tous les endroits où la neige venait de fondre.' _voyage pittoresque_, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'in der einöde der inseln von neu-sibirien finden grosse heerden von rennthieren und zahllose lemminge noch hinlängliche nahrung.' _humboldt_, _kosmos_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'thermometer rises as high as ° fahr. with a sun shining throughout the twenty-four hours the growth of plants is rapid in the extreme.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'during the period of incubation of the aquatic birds, every hole and projecting crag on the sides of this rock is occupied by them. its shores resound with the chorus of thousands of the feathery tribe.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'their complexion, if divested of its usual covering of dirt, can hardly be called dark.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'in comparison with other americans, of a white complexion.' _mcculloh's aboriginal history of america_, p. . 'white complexion, not copper coloured.' _dobbs' hudson's bay_, p. . 'almost as white as europeans.' _kalm's travels_, vol. ii., p. . 'not darker than that of a portuguese.' _lyon's journal_, p. . 'scarcely a shade darker than a deep brunette.' _parry's rd voyage_, p. . 'their complexion is light.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'eye-witnesses agree in their superior lightness of complexion over the chinooks.' _pickering's races of man_, _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . at coppermine river they are 'of a dirty copper color; some of the women, however, are more fair and ruddy.' _hearne's travels_, p. . 'considerably fairer than the indian tribes.' _simpson's nar._, p. . at cape bathurst 'the complexion is swarthy, chiefly, i think, from exposure and the accumulation of dirt.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'shew little of the copper-colour of the red indians.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'from exposure to weather they become dark after manhood.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'both sexes are well proportioned, stout, muscular, and active.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'a stout, well-looking people.' _simpson's nar._, pp. , . 'below the mean of the caucasian race.' _dr. hayes_, in _historic. magazine_, vol. i., p. . 'they are thick set, have a decided tendency to obesity, and are seldom more than five feet in height.' _figuier's human race_, p. . at kotzebue sound, 'tallest man was five feet nine inches; tallest woman, five feet four inches.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'average height was five feet four and a half inches.' at the mouth of the mackenzie they are of 'middle stature, strong and muscular.' _armstrong's nar._, pp. , . 'low, broad-set, not well made, nor strong.' _hearne's trav._, p. . 'the men were in general stout.' _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'of a middle size, robust make, and healthy appearance.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'men vary in height from about five feet to five feet ten inches.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'women were generally short.' 'their figure inclines to squat.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . [ ] 'tous les individus qui appartiennent à la famille des eskimaux, se distinguent par la petitesse de leurs pieds et de leurs mains, et la grosseur énorme de leurs têtes.' _de pauw_, _recherches phil._, tom. i., p. . 'the hands and feet are delicately small and well formed.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'small and beautifully made.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . at point barrow, 'their hands, notwithstanding the great amount of manual labour to which they are subject, were beautifully small and well-formed, a description equally applicable to their feet.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . [ ] 'the head is of good size, rather flat superiorly, but very fully developed posteriorly, evidencing a preponderance of the animal passions; the forehead was, for the most part, low and receding; in a few it was somewhat vertical, but narrow.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . their cranial characteristics 'are the strongly developed coronary ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its greater capacity compared with the indian cranium. the former is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches a cubic shape.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly, but not acutely, and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . dr gall, whose observations on the same skulls presented him for phrenological observation are published by m. louis choris, thus comments upon the head of a female eskimo from kotzebue sound: 'l'organe de l'instinct de la propagation se trouve extrêmement développé pour une tête de femme.' he finds the musical and intellectual organs poorly developed; while vanity and love of children are well displayed. 'en général,' sagely concluded the doctor, 'cette tête femme présentait une organization aussi heureuse que celle de la plupart des femmes d'europe.' _voy. pitt._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'large fat round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eyebrows slanting like the chinese, and wide mouths.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'broad, flat faces, high cheekbones.' _dr hayes_, in _hist. mag._, vol. i., p. . their 'teeth are regular, but, from the nature of their food, and from their practice of preparing hides by chewing, are worn down almost to the gums at an early age.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . at hudson strait, broad, flat, pleasing face; small and generally sore eyes; given to bleeding at the nose. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'small eyes and very high cheek bones.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'la face platte, la bouche ronde, le nez petit sans être écrasé, le blanc de l'oeil jaunâtre, l'iris noir et peu brillant.' _de pauw_, _recherches phil._, tom. i., p. . they have 'small, wild-looking eyes, large and very foul teeth, the hair generally black, but sometimes fair, and always in extreme disorder.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. . 'as contrasted with the other native american races, their eyes are remarkable, being narrow and more or less oblique.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . expression of face intelligent and good-natured. both sexes have mostly round, flat faces, with mongolian cast. _hooper's tuski_, p. . [ ] 'allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . hair cut 'close round the crown of the head, and thereby, leaving a bushy ring round the lower part of it.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'their hair is straight, black, and coarse.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . a fierce expression characterized them on the mackenzie river, which 'was increased by the long disheveled hair flowing about their shoulders.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . at kotzebue sound 'their hair was done up in large plaits on each side of the head.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . at camden bay, lofty top-knots; at point barrow, none. at coppermine river the hair is worn short, unshaven on the crown, and bound with strips of deer-skin. _simpson's nar._, pp. , . some of the men have bare crowns, but the majority wear the hair flowing naturally. the women cut the hair short in front, level with the eyebrows. at humphrey point it is twisted with some false hair into two immense bows on the back of the head. _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'their hair hangs down long, but is cut quite short on the crown of the head.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . hair cut like 'that of a capuchin friar.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] crantz says the greenlanders root it out. 'the old men had a few gray hairs on their chins, but the young ones, though grown up, were beardless.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'the possession of a beard is very rare, but a slight moustache is not infrequent.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'as the men grow old, they have more hair on the face than red indians.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'generally an absence of beard and whiskers.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'beard is universally wanting.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'the young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable shew of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'all have beards.' _bell's geography_, vol. v., p. . kirby affirms that in alaska 'many of them have a profusion of whiskers and beard.' _smithsonian report_, , p. . [ ] 'the lip is perforated for the labret as the boy approaches manhood, and is considered an important era in his life.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'some wore but one, others one on each side of the mouth.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'lip ornaments, with the males, appear to correspond with the tattooing of the chins of the females.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'the women tattoo their faces in blue lines produced by making stitches with a fine needle and thread, smeared with lampblack.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . between kotzebue sound and icy cape, 'all the women were tattooed upon the chin with three small lines.' they blacken 'the edges of the eyelids with plumbago, rubbed up with a little saliva upon a piece of slate.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . at point barrow, the women have on the chin 'a vertical line about half an inch broad in the centre, extending from the lip, with a parallel but narrower one on either side of it, a little apart. some had two vertical lines protruding from either angle of the mouth; which is a mark of their high position in the tribe.' _armstrong's nar._, pp. , . on bering isle, men as well as women tattoo. 'plusieurs hommes avaient le visage tatoué.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'give a particularly disgusting look when the bones are taken out, as the saliva continually runs over the chin.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . at camden, labrets were made of large blue beads, glued to pieces of ivory. none worn at coppermine river. _simpson's nar._, pp. , . 'many of them also transfix the septum of the nose with a dentalium shell or ivory needle.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'these natives almost universally use a very unpleasant liquid for cleansing purposes. they tan and soften the seal-skin used for boot-soles with it.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'females occasionally wash their hair and faces with their own urine, the odour of which is agreeable to both sexes, and they are well accustomed to it, as this liquor is kept in tubs in the porches of their huts for use in dressing the deer and seal skins.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'show much skill in the preparation of whale, seal, and deer-skins.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . they have a great antipathy to water. 'occasionally they wash their bodies with a certain animal fluid, but even this process is seldom gone through.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'during the summer, when on whaling or sealing excursions, a coat of the gut of the whale, and boots of seal or walrus hide, are used as water-proof coverings.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . at point barrow they wear 'kamleikas or water-proof shirts, made of the entrails of seals.' _simpson's nar._, p. . women wear close-fitting breeches of seal-skin. _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'they are on the whole as good as the best oil-skins in england.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] the dress of the two sexes is much alike, the outer shirt or jacket having a pointed skirt before and behind, those of the female being merely a little longer. 'pretty much the same for both sexes.' _figuier's human race_, p. . [ ] 'they have besides this a jacket made of eider drakes' skins sewed together, which, put on underneath their other dress, is a tolerable protection against a distant arrow, and is worn in times of hostility.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . messrs dease and simpson found those of point barrow 'well clothed in seal and reindeer skins.' _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. viii., p. . 'the finest dresses are made of the skins of unborn deer.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'the half-developed skin of a fawn that has never lived, obtained by driving the doe till her offspring is prematurely born.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . eskimo women pay much regard to their toilet. _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] their dress consists of two suits. _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'reindeer skin--the fur next the body.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'two women, dressed like men, looked frightfully with their tattooed faces.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . seal-skin jackets, bear-skin trowsers, and white-fox skin caps, is the male costume at hudson strait. the female dress is the same, with the addition of a hood for carrying children. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . at camden bay, reindeer-skin jackets and water-proof boots. _simpson's nar._, p. . at coppermine river, 'women's boots which are not stiffened out with whalebone, and the tails of their jackets are not over one foot long.' _hearne's travels_, p. . deer-skin, hair outside, ornamented with white fur. _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the indoor dress of the eastern eskimo is of reindeer-skin, with the fur inside. 'when they go out, another entire suit with the fur outside is put over all, and a pair of watertight sealskin moccasins, with similar mittens for their hands.' _silliman's journal_, vol. xvi., p. . the frock at coppermine river has a tail something like a dress-coat. _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] 'some of them are even half-naked, as a summer heat, even of ° is insupportable to them.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'down to the frozen subsoil.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'some are wholly above ground, others have their roof scarcely raised above it.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'formed of stakes placed upright in the ground about six feet high, either circular or oval in form, from which others inclined so as to form a sloping roof.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'half underground, with the entrance more or less so.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'they are more than half underground,' and are 'about twenty feet square and eight feet deep.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the whole building is covered with earth to the thickness of a foot or more, and in a few years it becomes overgrown with grass, looking from a short distance like a small tumulus.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . [ ] a smaller drift-wood house is sometimes built with a side-door. 'light and air are admitted by a low door at one end.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'the fire in the centre is never lit merely for the sake of warmth, as the lamps are sufficient for that purpose.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'they have no fire-places; but a stone placed in the centre serves for a support to the lamp, by which the little cooking that is required is performed.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'on trouva plusieurs huttes construites en bois, moitié dans la terre, moitié en dehors.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. ii., p. . at beaufort bay are wooden huts. _simpson's nar._, p. . at toker point, 'built of drift-wood and sods of turf or mud.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . at cape krusenstern the houses 'appeared like little round hills, with fences of whale-bone.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'they construct yourts or winter residences upon those parts of the shore which are adapted to their convenience, such as the mouths of rivers, the entrances of inlets, or jutting points of land, but always upon low ground.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'i was surprised at the vast quantity of driftwood accumulated on its shore, several acres being thickly covered with it, and many pieces at least sixty feet in length.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . [ ] 'eastern esquimaux never seem to think of fire as a means of imparting warmth.' _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] their houses are 'moveable tents, constructed of poles and skins.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. . 'neither wind nor watertight.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . at cape smythe, hooper saw seven eskimo tents of seal skin. _tuski_, p. . 'we entered a small tent of morse-skins, made in the form of a canoe.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . at coppermine river their tents in summer are of deer-skin with the hair on, and circular. _hearne's travels_, p. . at st lawrence island, kotzebue saw no settled dwellings, 'only several small tents built of the ribs of whales, and covered with the skin of the morse.' _voyage_, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] 'in parallelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda, with an arched roof.' _silliman's jour._, vol. xvi., p. . _parry's voy._, vol. v., p. . _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'these houses are durable, the wind has little effect on them, and they resist the thaw until the sun acquires very considerable power.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] the snow houses are called by the natives _igloo_, and the underground huts _yourts_, or _yurts_, and their tents _topeks_. winter residence, 'iglut.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . beechey, describing the same kind of buildings, calls them 'yourts.' _voy._, vol. i., p. . tent of skins, tie-poo-eet; topak; toopek. tent, too-pote. _ibid._, vol. ii., p. . 'yourts.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . tent, topek. dall says richardson is wrong, and that igloo or iglu is the name of ice houses. _alaska_, p. . house, iglo. tent, tuppek. _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . snow house, eegloo. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] they are so fond of the warm blood of dying animals that they invented an instrument to secure it. see _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'whale-blubber, their great delicacy, is sickening and dangerous to a european stomach.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] hearne says that the natives on the arctic coast of british america are so disgustingly filthy that when they have bleeding at the nose they lick up their own blood. _travels_, p. . 'salt always appeared an abomination.' 'they seldom cook their food, the frost apparently acting as a substitute for fire.' _collinson_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxv., p. . at kotzebue sound they 'seem to subsist entirely on the flesh of marine animals, which they, for the most part, eat raw.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'during the two summer months they hunt and live on swans, geese, and ducks.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'secures winter feasts and abundance of oil for the lamps of a whole village, and there is great rejoicing.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'the capture of the seal and walrus is effected in the same manner. salmon and other fish are caught in nets.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'six small perforated ivory balls attached separately to cords of sinew three feet long.' _dease & simpson_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. viii., . [ ] near smith river, a low piece of ground, two miles broad at the beach, was found enclosed by double rows of turf set up to represent men, narrowing towards a lake, into which reindeer were driven and killed. _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] 'ce qu'il y a encore de frappant dans la complexion de ces barbares, c'est l'extrême chaleur de leur estomac et de leur sang; ils échauffent tellement, par leur haleine ardente, les huttes où ils assemblent en hiver, que les européans, s'y sentent étouffés, comme dans une étuve dont la chaleur est trop graduée: aussi ne font-ils jamais de feu dans leur habitation en aucune saison, et ils ignorent l'usage des cheminées, sous le climat le plus froid du globe.' _de pauw_, _recherches phil._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'the voluptuousness and polygamy of the north american indians, under a temperature of almost perpetual winter, is far greater than that of the most sensual tropical nations.' _martin's british colonies_, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'the seal is perhaps their most useful animal, not merely furnishing oil and blubber, but the skin used for their canoes, thongs, nets, lassoes, and boot soles.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . [ ] they have 'two sorts of bows; arrows pointed with iron, flint, and bone, or blunt for birds; a dart with throwing-board for seals; a spear headed with iron or copper, the handle about six feet long; and formidable iron knives, equally adapted for throwing, cutting, or stabbing.' _simpson's nar._, p. . they ascended the mackenzie in former times as far as the ramparts, to obtain flinty slate for lance and arrow points. _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . at st. lawrence island, they are armed with a knife two feet long. _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . one weapon was 'a walrus tooth fixed to the end of a wooden staff.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] at the coppermine river, arrows are pointed with slate or copper; hatchets also are made of a thick lump of copper. _hearne's travels_, pp. - . [ ] 'the old ivory knives and flint axes are now superseded, the russians having introduced the common european sheath-knife and hatchet. the board for throwing darts is in use, and is similar to that of the polynesians.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] the 'baydare is a large open boat, quite flat, made of sea-lions' skins,' and is used also for a tent. at lantscheff island it was 'a large and probably leathern boat, with black sails.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . 'the kaiyaks are impelled by a double-bladed paddle, used with or without a central rest, and the umiaks with oars.' can 'propel their kaiyaks at the rate of seven miles an hour.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., pp. , . at hudson strait they have canoes of seal-skin, like those of greenland. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . not a drop of water can penetrate the opening into the canoe. _müller's voy._, p. . the kyak is like an english wager-boat. they are 'much stronger than their lightness would lead one to suppose.' _hooper's tuski_, pp. , . _oomiaks_ or family canoes of skin; float in six inches of water. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'with these boats they make long voyages, frequently visiting st. lawrence island.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'frame work of wood--when this cannot be procured whalebone is substituted.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . mackenzie saw boats put together with whalebone; 'sewed in some parts, and tied in others.' _voyages_, p. . they also use a sail. 'on découvrit au loin, dans la baie, un bateau qui allait à la voile; elle était en cuir.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. ii., p. . they 'are the best means yet discovered by mankind to go from place to place.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'it is wonderful what long voyages they make in these slight boats.' _campbell's voy._, p. . 'the skin, when soaked with water, is translucent; and a stranger placing his foot upon the flat yielding surface at the bottom of the boat fancies it a frail security.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] the 'kajak is shaped like a weaver's shuttle.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . 'the paddle is in the hands of an eskimo, what the balancing pole is to a tight-rope dancer.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the koltshanen construct birch-bark canoes; but on the coast skin boats or baidars, like the eskimo kaiyaks and umiaks, are employed.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . if by accident a hole should be made, it is stopped with a piece of the flesh of the sea-dog, or fat of the whale, which they always carry with them. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . they strike 'the water with a quick, regular motion, first on one side, and then on the other.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'wiegen nie über pfund, und haben ein dünnes mit leder überzognes gerippe.' _neue nachrichten_, p. . 'the aleutians put to sea with them in all weathers.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . at the shumagin islands they 'are generally about twelve feet in length, sharp at each end, and about twenty inches broad.' _meares' voy._, p. x. they are as transparent as oiled paper. at unalaska they are so light that they can be carried in one hand. _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. , . [ ] 'they average twelve feet in length, two feet six inches in height, two feet broad, and have the fore part turned up in a gentle curve.' 'the floor resembles a grating without cross-bars, and is almost a foot from the level of the snow.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . at saritscheff island 'i particularly remarked two very neat sledges made of morse and whalebones.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'to make the runners glide smoothly, a coating of ice is given to them.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . at norton sound captain cook found sledges ten feet long and twenty inches in width. a rail-work on each side, and shod with bone; 'neatly put together; some with wooden pins, but mostly with thongs or lashings of whale-bone.' _third voy._, vol. ii., p. , . mackenzie describes the sledges of british america, _voyages_, pp. , . [ ] 'about the size of those of newfoundland, with shorter legs.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'neither plentiful nor of a good class.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . [ ] the dog will hunt bear and reindeer, but is afraid of its near relative, the wolf. _brownell's ind. races_, p. . [ ] 'an average length is four and a half feet.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'the innuit snowshoe is small and nearly flat,' 'seldom over thirty inches long.' 'they are always rights and lefts.' ingalik larger; kutchin same style; hudson bay, thirty inches in length. _dall's alaska_, pp. , . 'they are from two to three feet long, a foot broad, and slightly turned up in front.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'blue beads, cutlery, tobacco, and buttons, were the articles in request.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . at hudson strait they have a custom of licking with the tongue each article purchased, as a finish to the bargain. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., . 'articles of russian manufacture find their way from tribe to tribe along the american coast, eastward to repulse bay.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . [ ] are very anxious to barter arrows, seal-skin boots, and ivory ornaments for tobacco, beads, and particularly for iron. _hooper's tuski_, p. . some of their implements at coppermine river are: stone kettles, wooden dishes, scoops and spoons made of buffalo or musk-ox horns. _hearne's travels_, p. . at point barrow were ivory implements with carved figures of sea-animals, ivory dishes, and a 'fine whalebone net.' also 'knives and other implements, formed of native copper' at coppermine river. _simpson's nar._, pp. , , . at point barrow they 'have unquestionably an indirect trade with the russians.' _simpson's nar._, . [ ] 'they are very expert traders, haggle obstinately, always consult together, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they have cheated anybody.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'a thieving, cunning race.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . they respect each other's property, 'but they steal without scruple from strangers.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'they have a chief (nalegak) in name, but do not recognize his authority.' _dr hayes_, in _hist. mag._, vol. i., p. . government, 'a combination of the monarchical and republican;' 'every one is on a perfect level with the rest.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. , . 'chiefs are respected principally as senior men.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . at kotzebue sound, a robust young man was taken to be chief, as all his commands were punctually obeyed. _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . quarrels 'are settled by boxing, the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately, until one of them gives in.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . every man governs his own family. _brownell's ind. races_, p. . they 'have a strong respect for their territorial rights, and maintain them with firmness.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] they are 'horribly filthy in person and habits.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'a husband will readily traffic with the virtue of a wife for purposes of gain.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . 'more than once a wife was proffered by her husband.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . as against the above testimony, seemann affirms: 'after the marriage ceremony has been performed infidelity is rare.' _voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'these people are in the habit of collecting certain fluids for the purposes of tanning; and that, judging from what took place in the tent, in the most open manner, in the presence of all the family.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'two men sometimes marry the same woman.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'as soon as a girl is born, the young lad who wishes to have her for a wife goes to her father's tent, and proffers himself. if accepted, a promise is given which is considered binding, and the girl is delivered to her betrothed husband at the proper age.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . women 'carry their infants between their reindeer-skin jackets and their naked backs.' _simpson's nar._, p. . 'all the drudgery falls upon the women; even the boys would transfer their loads to their sisters.' _collinson_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxv., p. . [ ] the '_kashim_ is generally built by the joint labour of the community.' _richardson's pol. reg._, p. . [ ] 'their dance is of the rudest kind, and consists merely in violent motion of the arms and legs.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . they make 'the most comical motions with the whole body, without stirring from their place.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . their song consisted of the words: 'hi, yangah yangah; ha ha, yangah--with variety only in the inflection of voice.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . when heated by the dance, even the women were stripped to their breeches. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'an old man, all but naked, jumped into the ring, and was beginning some indecent gesticulations, when his appearance not meeting with our approbation he withdrew.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'c'était la plus grande marque d'amitié qu'ils pouvaient nous donner.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. ii., p. . 'they came up to me one after the other--each of them embraced me, rubbed his nose hard against mine, and ended his caresses by spitting in his hands and wiping them several times over my face.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . [ ] 'their personal bravery is conspicuous, and they are the only nation on the north american continent who oppose their enemies face to face in open fight.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'simple, kind people; very poor, very filthy, and to us looking exceedingly wretched.' _mcclure's dis. n. w. passage_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxiv., p. . 'more bold and crafty than the indians; but they use their women much better.' _bell's geog._, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'their diseases are few.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'diseases are quite as prevalent among them as among civilized people.' _dall's alaska_, p. . 'ophthalmia was very general with them.' _beechey's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'there is seldom any mortality except amongst the old people and very young children.' _armstrong's nar._, p. . [ ] at point barrow, bodies were found in great numbers scattered over the ground in their ordinary seal-skin dress; a few covered with pieces of wood, the heads all turned north-east towards the extremity of the point. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'they lay their dead on the ground, with their heads all turned to the north.' 'the bodies lay exposed in the most horrible and disgusting manner.' _dease and simpson_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. viii., p. , . 'their position with regard to the points of the compass is not taken into consideration.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. ii., p. . 'there are many more graves than present inhabitants of the village, and the story is that the whole coast was once much more densely populated.' _dall's alaska_, p. . hooper, on coming to a burial place not far from point barrow, 'conjectured that the corpses had been buried in an upright position, with their heads at or above the surface.' _tuski_, p. . [ ] kadiak 'is a derivative, according to some authors, from the russian _kadia_, a large tub; more probably, however, it is a corruption of kaniag, the ancient innuit name.' _dall's alaska_, p. . holmberg thinks that the word kadiak arose from _kikchtak_, which in the language of the koniagas means a large island. 'der name kadjak ist offenbar eine verdrehung von kikchtak, welches wort in der sprache der konjagen "grosse insel" bedeutet und daher auch als benennung der grössten insel dieser gruppe diente.' _ethnographische skizzen über die völker des russischen amerika_, p. . 'a la division _koniagi_ appartient la partie la plus septentrionale de l'alaska, et l'île de kodiak, que les russes appellent vulgairement _kichtak_, quoique, dans la langue des naturels, le mot kightak ne désigne en général qu'une île.' _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . coxe affirms that the natives 'call themselves kanagist.' _russian dis._, p. . and sauer says, 'the natives call themselves _soo-oo-it_.' _billings' ex._, p. . 'man verstand von ihnen, das sie sich selbst kanagist nennen.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] _tschugatsches_, _tschugatsi_ or _tschgatzi_. latham, _native races_, p. , says the name is athabascan, and signifies 'men of the sea.' [ ] _kuskoquigmutes_, _kuskokwimen_, _kuskokwigmjuten_, _kusckockwagemuten_, _kuschkukchwakmüten_, or _kaskutchewak_. [ ] the termination _mute_, _mut_, _meut_, _muten_, or _mjuten_, signifies people or village. it is added to the tribal name sometimes as a substantive as well as in an adjective sense. [ ] 'herr wassiljew schätzt ihre zahl auf mindestens seelen beiderlei geschlechts und jeglichen alters.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] 'es waren wohl einst alle diese inseln bewohnt.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] the malemutes are 'a race of tall and stout people.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'die kuskokwimer sind, mittlerer statur, schlank, rüstig und oft mit grosser stärke begabt.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . _dixon's voy._, p. . 'bisweilen fallen sogar riesige gestalten auf, wie ich z. b. einen häuptling in der igatschen bucht zu sehen gelegenheit hatte, dessen länge ¾ fuss betrug.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . the chief at prince william sound was a man of low stature, 'with a long beard, and seemed about sixty years of age.' _portlock's voy._, p. . a strong, raw-boned race. _meares' voy._, p. . at cook's inlet they seemed to be of the same nation as those of pr. wm. sd., but entirely different from those at nootka, in persons and language. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . they are of 'middle size and well proportioned.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'they emigrated in recent times from the island of kadyak, and they claim, as their hereditary possessions, the coast lying between bristol bay and beering's straits.' _richardson's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'die tschugatschen sind ankömmlinge von der insel kadjack, die während innerer zwistigkeiten von dort vertrieben.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] achkugmjuten, 'bewohner der warmen gegend.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'copper complexion.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'they bore their under lip, where they hang fine bones of beasts and birds.' _staehlin's north. arch._, p. . 'setzen sich auch--zähne von vögeln oder thierknochen in künstliche oeffnungen der unterlippe und unter der nase ein.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] the people of kadiak, according to langsdorff, are similar to those of unalaska, the men being a little taller. they differ from the fox islanders. _voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'die insulaner waren hier von den einwohnern, der vorhin entdeckten übrigen fuchsinsuln, in kleidung und sprache ziemlich verschieden.' _neue nachr._, p. . 'ils ressemblent beaucoup aux indigènes des îles curiles, dépendantes du japon.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'they wore strings of beads suspended from apertures in the lower lip.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'their ears are full of holes, from which hang pendants of bone or shell.' _meares' voy._, p. xxxii. 'elles portent des perles ordinairement en verre bleu, suspendues au-dessous du nez à un fil passé dans la cloison nasale.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'upon the whole, i have nowhere seen savages who take more pains than these people do to ornament, or rather to disfigure their persons.' at prince william sound they are so fond of ornament 'that they stick any thing in their perforated lip; one man appearing with two of our iron nails projecting from it like prongs; and another endeavouring to put a large brass button into it.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . they slit the under lip, and have ornaments of glass beads and muscle-shells in nostrils and ears; tattoo chin and neck. _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'die frauen machen einschnitte in die lippen. der nasenknorpel ist ebenfalls durchstochen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] the kadiaks dress like the aleuts, but their principal garment they call _konägen_; _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . like the unalaskas, the neck being more exposed, fewer ornamentations. _sauer_, _billings' voy._, p. . 'consists wholly of the skins of animals and birds.' _portlock's voy._, p. . a coat peculiar to norton sound appeared 'to be made of reeds sewed very closely together.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'nähen ihre _parken_ (winter-kleider) aus vögelhäuten und ihre _kamleien_ (sommer-kleider) aus den gedärmen von wallfischen und robben.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . at norton sound 'principally of deer-skins.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'ihre kleider sind aus schwarzen und andern fuchsbälgen, biber, vogelhäuten, auch jungen rennthier and jewraschkenfellen, alles mit sehnen genäht.' _neue nachr._, p. . 'the dress of both sexes consists of parkas and camleykas, both of which nearly resemble in form a carter's frock.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'una tunica entera de pieles que les abriga bastantemente.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'by the use of such a girdle, it should seem that they sometimes go naked.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'plastered over with mud, which gives it an appearance not very unlike a dung hill.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . sea-dog skin closes the opening. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . the kuskoquims have 'huttes qu'ils appellent barabores pour l'été.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'mit erde und gras bedeckt, so dass man mit recht die wohnungen der konjagen erdhütten nennen kann.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'a door fronting the east.' _sauer_, _billings' voy._, p. . at norton sound 'they consist simply of a sloping roof, without any side-walls.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . build temporary huts of sticks and bark. _portlock's voy._, p. . [ ] 'in dem kashim versammelt sich die männliche bevölkerung des ganzen dorfes zur berathschlagung über wichtige angelegenheiten, über krieg und frieden, etc.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] 'le poisson est la principale nourriture.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'berries mixed with rancid whale oil.' 'the fat of the whale is the prime delicacy.' _lisiansky's voy._, pp. , . 'meistentheils nähren sie sich mit rohen und trocknen fischen, die sie theils in der see mit knöchernen angelhaken, theils in den bächen mit sacknetzen, die sie aus sehnen flechten, einfangen.' _neue nachr._, p. . they generally eat their food raw, but sometimes they boil it in water heated with hot stones. _meares' voy._, p. xxxv. the method of catching wild geese, is to chase and knock them down immediately after they have shed their large wing-feathers; at which time they are not able to fly. _portlock's voy._, p. . [ ] 'ich hatte auf der insel afognak gelegenheit dem zerschneiden eines wallfisches zuzusehen und versichere, dass nach verlauf von kaum stunden nur die blanken knochen auf dem ufer lagen.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] the kadiaks 'pass their time in hunting, festivals, and abstinence. the first takes place in the summer; the second begins in the month of december, and continues as long as any provisions remain; and then follows the period of famine, which lasts till the re-appearance of fish in the rivers. during the period last mentioned, many have nothing but shell-fish to subsist on, and some die for want.' _lisiansky's voy._, pp. , . [ ] 'wild animals which they hunt, and especially wild sheep, the flesh of which is excellent.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . they eat the larger sort of fern-root baked, and a substance which seemed the inner bark of the pine. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'die eingebornen essen diese wurzeln (lagat) roh und gekocht; aus der wurzel, nachdem sie in mehl verwandelt ist, bäckt man, mit einer geringen beimischung von weizenmehl, süssliche, dünne kuchen.' _sagoskin_, _tagebuch_, in _denkschr. d. russ. geog. gesell._, p. . [ ] 'ihre hölzernen schilde nennen sie kujaki.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] 'selecting the roots of such plants as grow alone, these roots are dried and pounded, or grated.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . [ ] 'die pfeilspitzen sind aus eisen oder kupfer, ersteres erhalten sie von den kenayern, letzteres von den tutnen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'de pedernal en forma de arpon, cortado con tanta delicadeza como pudiera hacerlo el mas hábil lapidario.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . [ ] at prince william sound cook found the canoes not of wood, as at nootka. at bristol bay they were of skin, but broader. _third voy._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'die kadjakschen baidarken unterscheiden sich in der form ein wenig von denen der andern bewohner der amerikanischen küste, von denen der aleuten aber namentlich darin, dass sie kürzer und breiter sind.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . at prince william sound, 'formada la canoa en esqueleto la forran por fuera con pieles de animales.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'qu'on se figure une nacelle de quatre mètres de long et de soixante centimètres de large tout au plus.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, vol. vi., p. . 'these canoes were covered with skins, the same as we had seen last season in cook's river. _dixon's voy._, p. . 'safer at sea in bad weather than european boats.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] their whale-sinew thread was as fine as silk. _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] the only tool seen was a stone adze. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'their sewing, plaiting of sinews, and small work on their little bags may be put in competition with the most delicate manufactures found in any part of the known world.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'if we may judge by these figures, the inhabitants of cadiack must have lost much of their skill in carving, their old productions of this kind being greatly superior.' _lisiansky_, p. . the ingalik's household furniture is made 'von gebogenem holz sehr zierlich gearbeitet und mittelst erdfarben roth, grün und blau angestrichen. zum kochen der speisen bedienen sie sich irdener, ausgebrannter geschirre.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] 'tis most probable they are divided into clans or tribes.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'they have a king, whose name was sheenoway.' _meares' voy._, p. xxvii. 'they always keep together in families, and are under the direction of toyons or chiefs.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] female slaves are sold from one tribe to another. _sauer, billings' voy._, p. . [ ] 'zugleich verschwand auch ihre benennung; man nannte sie ferner kajuren, ein wort aus kamtschatka hieher übergesiedelt, welches tagelöhner oder arbeiter bedeutet.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] 'they will not go a step out of the way for the most necessary purposes of nature; and vessels are placed at their very doors for the reception of the urinous fluid, which are resorted to alike by both sexes.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'not only do brothers and sisters cohabit with each other, but even parents and children.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'images dressed in different forms.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'the most favoured of women is she who has the greatest number of children.' _sauer_, _billings' voy._, p. . [ ] 'der vater oder die mutter bestimmen den sohn schon in seiner frühsten kindheit zum achnutschik, wenn er ihnen mädchenhaft erscheint.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'male concubines are much more frequent here than at oonalashka.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . they 'are happy to see them taken by the chiefs, to gratify their unnatural desires. such youths are dressed like women, and taught all their domestic duties.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'ces peuples sont très adonnés aux plaisirs des sens et même à un vice infame.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. vii., p. . 'of all the customs of these islanders, the most disgusting is that of men, called _schoopans_, living with men, and supplying the place of women.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . this shameful custom applies to the thlinkeets as well. 'quelques personnes de l'equipage du solide ont rapporté qu'il ne leur est pas possible de douter que les tchinkîtânéens ne soient souillés de ce vice honteux que la théogonie immorale des grecs avoit divinisé.' _marchand_, _voy. aut. du monde_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'der schamane hat seiner obliegenheit gemäss oder aus besonderem wohlwollen sie der jungferschaft beraubt und sie wäre unwürdig vor der versammlung zu erscheinen, wenn sie ihre erste liebe irgend einem anderen und nicht dem schamanen gezollt hätte.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] 'their dances are proper tournaments.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . they are much addicted to public dances, especially during winter. _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'masks of the most hideous figures are worn.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'use a sort of rattle composed of a number of the beaks of the sea-parrot, strung upon a wooden cross,'--sounds like castanets. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'die tänzer erscheinen, eben so, mit wurfspiessen oder messern in den händen, welche sie über dem kopfe schwingen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . [ ] 'les sorciers et chamans jouissent d'une grande faveur dans cette région glacée de l'amérique.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'schamanen und alte weiber kennen verschiedene heilmittel.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'next in rank to the shamans are the kaseks, or sages, whose office is to teach children the different dances, and superintend the public amusements and shows, of which they have the supreme control.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'the dead body of a chief is embalmed with moss, and buried.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . [ ] 'in one of the small buildings, or kennels, as they may very properly be called, was a woman who had retired into it in consequence of the death of her son.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'the word aleutian seems to be derived from the interrogative particle _allix_, which struck strangers in the language of that people.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . the unalaskas and 'the people of oomnak, call themselves _cowghalingen_.' 'the natives of alaska and all the adjacent islands they call _kagataiakung'n_.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'the inhabitants of unalashka are called _kogholaghi_; those of akutan, and further east to unimak, _kighigusi_; and those of unimak and alaxa, _kataghayekiki_. they cannot tell whence these appellations are derived; and now begin to call themselves by the general name of _aleyut_, given to them by the russians, and borrowed from some of the kurile islands.' _coxe's russ. dis._, p. . [ ] yet, says d'orbigny, _voyage_, p. : 'si on interroge les aléoutiens sur leur origine, ils disent que leurs ancêtres ont habité un grand pays vers l'ouest, et que de là ils sont avancés de proche en proche sur les îles désertes jusqu'au continent américain.' [ ] trapesnikoff took from an unknown island in , sea-otter skins. durneff returned to kamchatka in , with , skins. in one crew touched at bering island and took , arctic foxes, and , sea-bears. cholodiloff, in , took from one island , otter-skins. tolstych in one voyage took , sea-otter, blue foxes, and sea-bears. _coxe's russ. dis._, pp. , , , , . [ ] _sparks_, _life of ledyard_, p. . [ ] a great deal of character. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'rather low of stature, but plump and well shaped; with rather short necks; swarthy chubby faces; black eyes; small beards, and long, straight, black hair; which the men wear loose behind, and cut before, but the women tie up in a bunch.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'von gesicht sind sie platt und weiss, von guter statur, durchgängig mit schwarzen haaren.' _neue nachr._, p. . 'low in stature, broad in the visage.' _campbell's voy._, p. . hair 'strong and wiry;' scanty beard, but thick on the upper lip. _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . [ ] 'les femmes aléoutes portaient aux mains et aux pieds des chapelets de pierres de couleur et préférablement d'ambre.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'none are so highly esteemed as a sort of long muscle, commonly called sea-teeth, the _dentalium entalis_ of linnæus.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'women have the chin punctured in fine lines rayed from the centre of the lip and covering the whole chin.' they wear bracelets of black seal-skin around the wrists and ankles, and go barefoot. _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'im nasen-knorpel und der unterlippe machen beide geschlechter löcher und setzen knochen ein, welches ihr liebster schmuck ist. sie stechen sich auch bunte figuren im gesicht aus.' _neue nachr._, p. . 'they bore the upper lip of the young children of both sexes, under the nostrils, where they hang several sorts of stones, and whitened fish-bones, or the bones of other animals.' _staehlin's north arch._, p. . [ ] 'leur conformation est robuste et leur permet de supporter des travaux et des fatigues de toute sorte.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . [ ] at shumagin island, their caps were of sea-lion skins. _müller's voy._, p. . on the front are one or two small images of bone. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . a wooden hat, 'which in front comes out before the eyes like a sort of umbrella, and is rounded off behind.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'einige haben gemeine mützen von einem bunten vogelfell, woran sie etwas von den flügeln und dem schwanz sitzen lassen;--sind vorn mit einem brettchen wie ein schirm versehn und mit bärten von seebären--geschmücket.' _neue nachr._, pp. , . [ ] on a feather garment, 'a person is sometimes employed a whole year.' 'the women for the most part go bare-footed.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., pp. , . 'seams covered with thin slips of skin, very elegantly embroidered with white deer's hair, goat's hair, and the sinews of sea animals, dyed of different colours.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'ihr pelzkleid wird über den kopf angezogen, und ist hinten und vorn ganz zu. die männer tragen es aus vogelhäuten; die weiber hingegen von bibern und jungen seebären.' _neue nachr._, p. . 'boots and breeches in one piece.' _campbell's voy._, p. . [ ] 'round the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several are lodged together) have their separate apartments, where they sleep, and sit at work; not upon benches, but in a kind of concave trench, which is dug all around the inside of the house, and covered with mats.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'when they have stood for sometime, they become overgrown with grass, so that a village has the appearance of an european churchyard full of graves.' _langsdorff's voy._, p. . 'in den jurten wird niemals feuer angelegt und doch ist es gemeiniglich sehr warm darinnen, so dass beide geschlechter ganz nakkend sitzen.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] 'a bidarka or boat is turned up sideways, and at the distance of four or five feet, two sticks, one opposite to the head and the other to the stern, are driven into the ground, on the tops of which a cross stick is fastened. the oars are then laid along from the boat to the cross stick, and covered with seal skins, which are always at hand for the purpose.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'among the greatest delicacies of oonalashka are the webbed feet of a seal, which are tied in a bladder, buried in the ground, and remain there till they are changed into a stinking jelly.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. ii., p. . almost everything is eaten raw. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . the sea-dog is caught with nets, killed when asleep, or enticed on shore by a false cap made to resemble a seal's head. _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'l'aléoute peut tuer les phoques et les oiseaux, sans être obligé d'en rendre compte à la compagnie.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. vii., p. . [ ] 'die spitze selbst wird theils aus obsidian oder lavaglas, theils auch aus trachyt verfertigt.' _kittlitz_, _reise_, vol. i., p. . spear-handles are feathered, the points of sharpened flint. _neue nachr._, p. , 'arrows are thrown from a narrow and pointed board, twenty inches long, which is held by the thumb and three fingers. they are thrown straight from the shoulder with astonishing velocity.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'les armes défensives consistaient en une cotte de joncs tressés qui leur couvrait tout le corps.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'no such thing as an offensive, or even defensive weapon was seen amongst the natives of oonalashka.' probably they had been disarmed by the russians. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'wherever any one has fixed his habitation, nobody else dares to hunt or fish.' _staehlin's nor. arch._, p. . for birds they point their darts with three light bones, spread and barbed. _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'indeed, there is a neatness and perfection in most of their work, that shews they neither want ingenuity nor perseverance.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] they make 'baskets called ishcats, in which the aleutians keep all their valuables.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'thread they make of the sinews of the seal, and of all sizes, from the fineness of a hair to the strength of a moderate cord, both twisted and plaited.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . of the teeth of sea-dogs they carve little figures of men, fish, sea-otters, sea-dogs, sea-cows, birds, and other objects. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'wollen sie etwas an ihren pfeilen oder sonst eine kleinigkeit leimen, so schlagen sie sich an die nase und bestreichen es mit ihrem blute.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. ; _campbell's voy._, p. . [ ] 'comme les femmes coûtaient cher en présents de fiançailles, la plupart des aléoutes n'en avaient qu'une ou deux.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . purchase as many girls for wives as they can support. _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . 'objects of unnatural affection.' _id._, p. . 'their beards are carefully plucked out as soon as they begin to appear, and their chins tattooed like those of the women.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'the russians told us, that they never had any connections with their women, because they were not christians. our people were not so scrupulous; and some of them had reason to repent that the females of oonalashka encouraged their addresses without any reserve; for their health suffered by a distemper that is not unknown here.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'it often happens that a mother plunges her noisy child into water, even in winter, and keeps it there till it leaves off crying.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'schreyt das kind, so trägt es die mutter, es sey winter oder sommer nakkend nach der see, und hält es so lange im wasser bis es still wird.' _neue nachr._, p. . [ ] 'have their own chiefs in each island.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'generally is conferred on him who is the most remarkable for his personal qualities.' _coxe's russ. dis._, p. . [ ] those of the inhabitants who have two wives give their guests one, or a slave. _neue nachr._, p. . 'in the spring holidays, they wear masks, neatly carved and fancifully ornamented.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . [ ] 'on avait soin de le disposer de manière à ce qu'il ne touchât pas la terre.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'embalm the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass.' _sauer_, _billings' ex._, p. . slaves sometimes slaughtered. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'bury their dead on the summits of hills.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'when a man dies in the hut belonging to his wife, she retires into a dark hole, where she remains forty days. the husband pays the same compliment to his favorite wife upon her death.' _coxe's russ. dis._, p. . 'die todten werden begraben, und man giebt dem mann seinen kahn, pfeile und kleider mit ins grab.' 'die todten umwinden sie mit riemen und hängen sie in einer art hölzerner wiege an einen auf zwey gabelen ruhenden querstock in der luft auf.' _neue nachr._, pp. , . [ ] 'naturellement silencieux.' _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. . 'sie verrichten auch die nothdurft und das ehegeschäft ohne alle scheu.' _neue. nachr._, p. . 'a stupid silence reigns among them.' 'i am persuaded that the simplicity of their character exceeds that of any other people.' _lisiansky's voy._, pp. , . 'kind-hearted and obliging, submissive and careful; but if roused to anger, they become rash and unthinking, even malevolent, and indifferent to all danger.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'to all appearance, they are the most peaceable, inoffensive people, i ever met with. and, as to honesty, they might serve as a pattern to the most civilized nation upon earth.' _cook_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'to hunt was their task; to be drowned, or starved, or exhausted, was their reward.' _simpson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'they are harmless, wretched slaves,' whose race will soon be extinct. _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . the russian hunters 'used not unfrequently to place the men close together, and try through how many the ball of their rifle-barrelled musket would pass.' _sauer_, _billings' ex. app._, p. . 'of a thousand men, who formerly lived in this spot, scarcely more than forty remained.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'la variole, la syphilis, voire même le choléra depuis quelques années, en emportent une effrayante quantité.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _kaluga_, _kaljush_, _koljush_, _kalusch_, _kolush_, _kolosch_, _kolosh_, _kolosches_. marchand calls them tchinkîtâné. _voyage aut. du monde_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] see _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, pp. , . [ ] _ugalachmiuti_, _ugaljachmjuten_, _ugalyachmutzi_, _ugalukmutes_, _ugalenzi_, _ugalenzen_, _ugalenzes_. [ ] they 'call themselves g-tinkit, or s-chinkit, or also s-chitcha-chon, that is, inhabitants of sitki or sitcha.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., . [ ] the orthographic varieties of this word are endless. _stickeen_, _stekin_, _stakhin_, _stachin_, _stikin_, _stachine_, _stikeen_, _stikine_, _stychine_, are among those before me at the moment. [ ] at the end of this chapter, under tribal boundaries, the location of these tribes is given definitely. [ ] a thlinkeet boy, 'when under the whip, continued his derision, without once exhibiting the slightest appearance of suffering.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'leur corps est ramassé, mais assez bien proportionné.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'very fierce.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'limbs straight and well shaped.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'stolze gerade haltung.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'active and clever.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'bigote á manera de los chinos.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'limbs ill-proportioned.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'très supérieurs en courage et en intelligence.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] the women 'are pleasing and their carriage modest.' _portlock's voy._, p. . when washed, white and fresh. _dixon's voy._, p. . 'dunkle hautfarbe.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'eran de color blanco y habia muchos con ojos azules.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . as fair as many europeans. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'muchos de ellos de un blanco regular.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . [ ] 'leur chevelure, dure, épaisse, mêlée, couverte d'ocre, de duvet d'oiseaux et de toutes les ordures que la négligence et le temps y ont accumulées, contribue encore à rendre leur aspect hideux.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'a more hideous set of beings, in the form of men and women, i had never before seen.' _cleveland's voy._, p. . the men painted 'a black circle extending from the forehead to the mouth, and a red chin, which gave the face altogether the appearance of a mask.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . pourraient même passer pour jolies, sans l'horrible habitude qu'elles ont adoptée.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . 'that person seems to be reckoned the greatest beau amongst them, whose face is one entire piece of smut and grease.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'ils se font des cicatrices sur les bras et sur la poitrine.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'um aus dem gesichte diese fette farbenmasse abzuwaschen, gebrauchen sie ihren eignen urin, und dieser verursacht bei ihnen den widerlichen geruch, der den sich ihm nahenden fremdling fast zum erbrechen bringt.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] meares, _voyages_, p. xxxi., states that at prince william sound, 'the men have universally a slit in their under lip, between the projecting part of the lip and the chin, which is cut parallel with their mouths, and has the appearance of another mouth.' worn only by women. _dixon's voy._, p. . [ ] 'about three tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under lip.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'in the centre of the under-lip.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'fendue au ras des gencives.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'in the thick part near the mouth.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'when the first person having this incision was seen by one of the seamen, who called out, that the man had two mouths.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'in their early infancy, a small incision is made in the center of the under lip, and a piece of brass or copper wire is placed in, and left in the wound. this corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh gradually increases the orifice, until it is sufficiently large to admit the wooden appendage.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'les femmes de tchinkîtâné ont cru devoir ajouter à leur beauté naturelle, par l'emploi d'un ornement labial, aussi bizarre qu'incommode.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'simply perforated, and a piece of copper wire introduced.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'les jeunes filles n'ont qu'une aiguille dans la lèvre inférieure.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'on y prépare les petites filles aussitôt qu'elles sont nées.' _id._, tom. iv., p. . 'at first a thick wire.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . when almost marriageable. _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'the children have them bored at about two years of age, when a piece of copper-wire is put through the hole; this they wear till the age of about thirteen or fourteen years, when it is taken out, and the wooden ornament introduced.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'said to denote maturity.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'se percer la lèvre inférieure des l'enfance.' 'd'agrandir peu à peu cette ouverture au point de pouvoir jeune fille y introduire une coquille, et femme mariée une énorme tasse de bois.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . 'never takes place during their infancy.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'when the event takes place that implies womanhood.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'wenn zum ersten mal beim mädchen sich spuren der mannbarkeit zeigen, wird ihre unterlippe durchstochen und in diese oeffnung eine knochenspitze, gegenwärtig doch häufiger ein silberstift gelegt.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'pues les pareció que solo lo tenian los casados.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . [ ] 'concave on both sides.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'so lange sie unverheirathet ist, trägt sie diesen; erhält sie aber einen mann, so presst man einen grösseren schmuck von holz oder knochen in die oeffnung, welcher nach innen, d. h. zur zahnseite etwas trogförmig ausgehöhlt ist.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'une espèce d'écuelle de bois sans anses qui appuie contre les gencives.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . pieces of shell resembling teeth. _meares' voy._, p. xxxi. [ ] 'as large as a large saucer.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'from one corner of the mouth to the other.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'frequently increased to three, or even four inches in length, and nearly as wide.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'a communément un demi-pouce d'épaisseur, deux de diamètre, et trois pouces de long.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . 'at least seven inches in circumference.' _meares' voy._, p. xxxviii. 'mit den jahren wird der schmuck vergrössert, so dass er bei einem alten weibe über zoll breit angetroffen wird.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . from two to five inches long, and from one and a half to three inches broad. ladies of distinction increase the size. 'i have even seen ladies of very high rank with this ornament, full five inches long and three broad.' mr dwolf affirms that he saw 'an old woman, the wife of a chief, whose lip ornament was so large, that by a peculiar motion of her under-lip she could almost conceal her whole face with it.' 'horrible in its appearance to us europeans.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'es una abertura como de media pulgada debaxo del labio inferior, que representa segunda boca, donde colocan una especie de roldana elíptica de pino, cuyo diámetro mayor es de dos pulgadas, quatro lineas, y el menor de una pulgada.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . [ ] 'une énorme tasse de bois, destinée à recevoir la salive qui s'en échappe constamment.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . 'l'effet de cet ornement est de rabattre, par le poids de sa partie saillante la lèvre inférieure sur le menton, de développer les charmes d'une grande bouche béante, qui prend la forme de celle d'un four, et de mettre à découvert une rangée de dents jaunes et sales.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'she is obliged to be constantly on the watch, lest it should fall out, which would cover her with confusion.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'the weight of this trencher or ornament weighs the lip down so as to cover the whole of the chin, leaving all the lower teeth and gum quite naked.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'l'usage le plus révoltant qui existe peut-être sur la terre.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'always in proportion to a person's wealth.' 'distorts every feature in the lower part of the face.' _dixon's voy._, p. , . 'in running the lip flaps up and down so as to knock sometimes against the chin and sometimes against the nose. upon the continent the kaluga is worn still larger; and the female who can cover her whole face with her under-lip passes for the most perfect beauty,' 'the lips of the women held out like a trough, and always filled with saliva stained with tobacco-juice, of which they are immoderately fond, is the most abominably revolting part of the spectacle.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'dadurch entsteht eine im selbigen maasse ausgedehnte lippe, die höchst widerlich aussieht, um so mehr, da sich nun mehr der mund nicht schliessen kann, sondern unaufhörlich einen braunen tabaksspeichel von sich gibt.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'so distorts the face as to take from it almost the resemblance to the human; yet the privilege of wearing this ornament is not extended to the female slaves, who are prisoners taken in war.' _cleveland's voy._, p. . 'look as if they had large flat wooden spoons growing in the flesh.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'the sight is hideous. our men used jocosely to say, this lower lip would make a good slab to lay their trousers on to be scrubbed.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'on ne connaît point d'explication plausible de cette mutilation, qui, chez les indiens, passe pour un signe de noblesse.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'die männertracht unterscheidet sich in nichts von der weiber; sie besteht nämlich aus einem bis zu den knieen gehenden hemde.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . some of their blankets 'are so curiously worked on one side with the fur of the sea-otter, that they appear as if lined with it.' 'some dress themselves in short pantaloons.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'las mugeres visten honestamente una especie de túnica interior de piel sobada.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxvii. 'se vestian las mugeres tunicas de pieles ajustadas al cuerpo con brazaletes de cobre o hierro.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'usual clothing consists of a little apron.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'their feet are always bare.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . [ ] 'usan sombreros de la corteza interior del pino en forma de cono truncado.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxvii. their wooden masks 'are so thick, that a musket-ball, fired at a moderate distance, can hardly penetrate them.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] pluck out their beard. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'ils ont de la barbe, moins à la vérité que les européens, mais assez cependant pour qu'il soit impossible d'en douter.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'the women in general are hair-dressers for their husbands.' _portlock's voy._, p. . [ ] 'der eingang, ziemlich hoch von der erde, besteht aus einem kleinen runden loche.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . 'ils se construisent des maisons de bois ou de terre pour l'hiver.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, vol. vi., p. . 'the barabaras of the sitcan people are of a square form, and spacious. the sides are of planks; and the roof resembles that of a russian house.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'habitan estos indios en chozas ó rancherías de tablas muy desabrigadas.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxvi. at sitka the roof 'rests upon ten or twelve thick posts driven into the ground, and the sides of the house are composed of broad thick planks fastened to the same posts.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'dans l'intérieur des terres, des habitations bien construites, spacieuses et commodes.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'shanties on a large scale.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'their huts are made of a few boards, which they take away with them when they go to their winter quarters. it is very surprising to see how well they will shape their boards with the shocking tools they employ; some of them being full feet long, ½ feet broad, and not more than an inch thick.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'high, large, and roomy, built of wood, with the hearth in the middle, and the sides divided into as many compartments as there are families living under the roof.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'lebt in schoppen aus balken gebaut, wo an den seiten für jede familie besondere plätze abgetheilt sind, in der mitte aber feuer für alle zusammen angemacht wird. so pflegen gemeiniglich bis familien eine einzige scheune einzunehmen.' _baer's ethn. u. stat._, p. . [ ] 'vingt-cinq pieds de long sur quinze à vingt pieds de large.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'roof in the whole with the bark of trees.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'las casas en que estos habitan en las playas son de poca consideracion y ninguna subsistencia.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'a few poles stuck in the ground, without order or regularity.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'gebäude besteht aus langen, sorgfältig behauenen brettern, die kartenhausartig über einander gestellt, an zahlreichen in die erde gesteckten stangen befestigt, recht eigentlich ein hölzernes zelt bilden. es hat die form einer länglichen barake mit zwei giebeln.' _kittlitz_, _reise_, vol. i., pp. , . [ ] all kinds of fish; 'such as salmon, mussels, and various other shell-fish, sea-otters, seals and porpoises; the blubber of the porpoise, they are remarkably fond of, and indeed the flesh of any animal that comes in their way.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'vom meere, an dessen ufern sie sich stets ansiedeln, erhalten sie ihre hauptsächlichste nahrung; einige wurzeln, gräser u. beeren gehören nur zu den leckerbissen des sommers.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . cakes made of bark of spruce-fir, mixed with roots, berries, and train-oil. for salt they use sea-water. never eat whale-fat. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . at sitka, summer food consists of berries, fresh fish, and flesh of amphibious animals. winter food, of dried salmon, train-oil, and the spawn of fish, especially herrings. _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'sus alimentos se reducen á pescado cocido ó asado ya fresco ó ya seco, varias hierbas y raizes.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . they chew 'a plant which appears to be a species of tobacco.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'sont couverts de vermine; ils font une chasse assidue à ces animaux dévorans, mais pour les dévorer eux-mêmes.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'tägliche nahrung der einwohner--sind hauptsächtlich fische, doch häufig auch mollusken und echinodermen.' _kittlitz_, _reise_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'le poisson frais ou fumé, les oeufs séchés de poisson.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'is sometimes cooked upon red-hot stones, but more commonly eaten raw.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'not so expert in hunting as the aleutians. their principal mode is that of shooting the sea animals as they lie asleep.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . they boil their victuals in wooden vessels, by constantly putting red-hot stones into the water. _portlock's voy._, p. . 'das kochen geschieht jetzt in eisernen kesseln, vor der bekanntschaft mit den russen aber wurden dazu aus wurzeln geflochtene körbe angewandt.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] to their fishing lines, bladders are fastened, 'which float upon the surface of the water, so that one person can attend to fourteen or fifteen lines.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'ils pêchent, comme nous, en barrant les rivières, ou à la ligne.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'for taking the spawn, they use the branches of the pine-tree, to which it easily adheres, and on which it is afterwards dried. it is then put into baskets, or holes purposely dug in the ground, till wanted.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'su comun alimento es el salmon, y es ingenioso el método que tienen de pescarle.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxvii. 'their lines are very strong, being made of the sinews or intestines of animals.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'die riesenbutte, die in sitcha bisweilen ein gewicht von bis pud erreicht, wird aus der tiefe mit grossen hölzernen angeln, die mit widerhaken aus eisen oder knochen versehen sind, herausgezogen. die angelschnur besteht aus an einander geknüpften fucusstängeln.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] 'bows and arrows were formerly their only weapons; now, besides their muskets, they have daggers, and knives half a yard long.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . their weapons were bows, arrows, and spears. _dixon's voy._, p. . 'leur lances dont l'ancienne forme n'est pas connue, est à présent composée de deux pièces: de la hampe, longue de quinze ou dix-huit pieds, et du fer qui ne le cède en rien à celui de la hallebarde de parade dont étoit armé un suisse de paroisse.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . knives, some two feet long, shaped almost like a dagger, with a ridge in the middle. worn in skin sheaths hung by a thong to the neck under their robe, probably used only as weapons. _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'las armas ofensivas que generalmente usan son las flechas, lanzas de seis y ocho varas de largo con lenguetas de fierro.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'the daggers used in battle are made to stab with either end, having three, four or five inches above the hand tapered to a sharp point; but the upper part of those used in the sound and river is excurvated.' _portlock's voy._, p. . 'principally bows and arrows.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'sus armas se reducen al arco, la flecha y el puñal que traen siempre consigo.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxvii. 'comme nous examinions très attentivement tous ces poignards, ils nous firent signe qu'ils n'en faisaient usage que contre les ours et les autres bêtes des forêts.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'der dolch ist sehr breit und hat zwei geschliffene blätter auf jeder seite des griffes, das obere jedoch nur ein viertel von der länge des unteren.' 'beide blätter oder klingen sind mit ledernen scheiden versehen.' _holmberg_, _ethn. skiz._, p. . [ ] 'a kind of jacket, or coat of mail, made of thin laths, bound together with sinews, which makes it quite flexible, though so close as not to admit an arrow or dart.' _cook's third voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'für den krieg besitzen die kaloschen auch von holz gearbeitete schutzwaffen: brustharnische, sturmhauben und seltsam geschnitzte visire, mit grellen farben bemalte fratzengesichter darstellen.' _kittlitz_, _reise_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'they never attack their enemies openly.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'les guerriers tués ou faits prisonniers à la guerre, passent également sous la dent de leurs vainqueurs qui, en dévorant une proie aussi distinguée, croient y puiser de nouvelles forces, une nouvelle énergie.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] 'bien hechas de una pieza con su falca sobre las bordas.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'on n'est pas moins étonné de leur stabilité: malgré la légèreté et le peu de largeur de la coque, elles n'ont pas besoin d'être soutenues par des balanciers, et jamais on ne les accouple.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'las regulares canoas de que se sirven son de pino, y no tienen mas capacidad que la que basta para contener una familia, sin embargo que las hay sumamente grandes.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'rudely excavated and reduced to no particular shape, but each end has the resemblance of a butcher's tray.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'their canoes are much inferior to those of the lower coast, while their skin "baidarkes" (kyacks) are not equal to those of norton sound and the northern coast.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . at cook's inlet, 'their canoes are sheathed with the bark of trees.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . these canoes 'were made from a solid tree, and many of them appeared to be from to feet in length, but very narrow, being no broader than the tree itself.' _meares' voy._, p. xxxviii. 'their boat was the body of a large pine tree, neatly excavated, and tapered away towards the ends, until they came to a point, and the fore-part somewhat higher than the after-part; indeed, the whole was finished in a neat and very exact manner.' _portlock's voy._, p. . [ ] 'ont fait beaucoup plus de progrès dans les arts que dans la morale.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . thlinkeet women make baskets of bark of trees, and grass, that will hold water. _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . they have tolerable ideas of carving, most utensils having sculptures, representing some animal. _portlock's voy._, p. . 'ces peintures, ces sculptures, telles qu'elles sont, on en voit sur tous leurs meubles.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'de la vivacidad de su genio y del afecto al cambio se debe inferir son bastantemente laboriosos.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'tienen lana blanca cuya especie ignoraron.' _perez_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'masks very ingeniously cut in wood, and painted with different colors.' a rattle, 'very well finished, both as to sculpture and painting.' 'one might suppose these productions the work of a people greatly advanced in civilization.' _lisiansky's voy._, pp. , . 'found some square patches of ground in a state of cultivation, producing a plant that appeared to be a species of tobacco.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'the skins of the sea-otters form their principal wealth, and are a substitute for money.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'in one place they discovered a considerable hoard of woolen cloth, and as much dried fish as would have loaded bidarkas.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] 'le gouvernement des tchinkitânéens paroîtroit donc se rapprocher du gouvernement patriarchal.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'de su gobierno pensamos cuando mas, oiendo el modo de someterse á algunos viejos, seria oligárhico.' _bodega y quadra_, _nav._, ms. p. . 'though the toyons have power over their subjects, it is a very limited power, unless when an individual of extraordinary abilities starts up, who is sure to rule despotically.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . 'chaque famille semble vivre d'une manière isolée et avoir un régime particulier.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . 'ces conseils composés des vieillards.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] tribes are distinguished by the color and character of their paint. _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . they 'are divided into tribes; the principal of which assume to themselves titles of distinction, from the names of the animals they prefer; as the tribe of the bear, of the eagle, etc. the tribe of the wolf are called _coquontans_, and have many privileges over the other tribes.' _lisiansky's voy._, pp. , . [ ] 'the women possess a predominant influence, and acknowledged superiority over the other sex.' _meares' voy._, p. . 'parmi eux les femmes jouissent d'une certaine considération.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . they treat their wives and children with much affection and tenderness, and the women keep the treasures. _portlock's voy._, p. . the kalush 'finds his filthy countrywomen, with their lip-troughs, so charming, that they often awaken in him the most vehement passion.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'it is certain that industry, reserve, modesty, and conjugal fidelity, are the general characteristics of the female sex among these people.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'quoiqu'elles vivent sous la domination d'hommes très-féroces, je n'ai pas vu qu'elles en fussent traitées d'une manière aussi barbare que le prétendent la plupart des voyageurs.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'weddings are celebrated merely by a feast, given to the relatives of the bride.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'ils ne s'écartent jamais de deux pas pour aucun besoin; ils ne cherchent dans ces occasions ni l'ombre ni le mystère; ils continuent la conversation qu'ils ont commencée, comme s'ils n'avaient pas un instant à perdre; et lorsque c'est pendant le repas, ils reprennent leur place, dont ils n'ont jamais été éloignés d'une toise.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'ont un goût décidé pour le chant.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'the women sit upon the ground at a distance of some paces from the dancers, and sing a not inharmonious melody, which supplies the place of music.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'they dance and sing continually.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . besides the tambourine, captain belcher saw a castanet and 'a new musical instrument, composed of three hoops, with a cross in the centre, the circumference being closely strung with the beaks of the alca arctica.' _voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] they lose at this game all their possessions, and even their wives and children, who then become the property of the winner.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'ce jeu les rend tristes et sérieux.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] upon one tomb, 'formaba una figura grande y horrorosa que tenia entre sus garras una caxa.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxviii. 'the box is frequently decorated with two or three rows of small shells.' _dixon's voy._, p. . 'the dead are burned, and their ashes preserved in small wooden boxes, in buildings appropriated to that purpose.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'nos voyageurs rencontrèrent aussi un morai qui leur prouva que ces indiens étaient dans l'usage de brûler les morts et d'en conserver la tête.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'on the death of a toyon, or other distinguished person, one of his slaves is deprived of life, and burned with him.' _lisiansky's voy._, p. . [ ] called by gallatin, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. , _athapasca_, the name 'first given to the central part of the country they inhabit.' sir john richardson, _jour._, vol. ii., p. , calls them 'tinnè, or 'dtinnè, athabascans or chepewyans.' 'they style themselves generally dinneh men, or indians.' _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'les indiens de la côte ou de la nouvelle calédonie, les tokalis, les chargeurs (carriers) les schouchouaps, les atnas, appartiennent tous à la nation des chipeouaïans dont la langue est en usage dans le nord du continent jusqu'à la baie d'hudson et à la mer polaire.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] are 'known under the names of _loucheux_, _digothi_, and _kutshin_.' _latham's nat. races_, p. . 'they are called deguthee dinees, or the _quarrellers_.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . 'on peel's river they name themselves _kutchin_, the final _n_ being nasal and faintly pronounced.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . they are also called _tykothee-dinneh_, loucheux or quarrellers. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'the loucheux proper is spoken by the indians of peel's river. all the tribes inhabiting the valley of the youkon understand one another.' _hardisty_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] gallatin, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. , erroneously ruled the loucheux out of his athabasca nation. 'im äussersten nordosten hat uns gallatin aufmerksam gemacht auf das volk der loucheux, zänker-indianer oder digothi: an der mündung des mackenzie-flusses, nach einigen zu dessen beiden seiten (westliche und östliche): dessen sprache er nach den reisenden für fremd den athapaskischen hielt: worüber sich die neuen nachrichten noch widersprechen.' _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . franklin, _nar._, vol. ii., p. , allies the loucheux to the eskimos. [ ] tnai, 'man;' tnaina ttynai, thnaina, kinai, kenai, kenaize. [ ] see notes on boundaries at the end of this chapter. [ ] besides the 'umkwa,' being outlying members of the athabaskan stock,' there are the 'navahoe, the jecorilla, the panalero, along with the apatsh of new mexico, california, and sonora. to these add the hoopah of california, which is also athabaskan.' _latham's comp. phil._, p. . [ ] william w. turner was the first to assert positively that the apaches spoke a language which belongs to the athabascan family. _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. . [ ] face 'oval.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'broad faces, projecting cheek-bones, and wide nostrils.' _id._, vol. i., p. . foreheads low, chin long. _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . an exact compound between the usquemows and western indians. _barrow's geog. hudson bay_, p. . [ ] generally more than medium size. _hearne's trav._, p. . 'well proportioned, and about the middle size.' _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . 'long-bodied, with short, stout limbs.' _ross_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'dingy copper.' _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . 'swarthy.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxix. dingy brown, copper cast. _hearne's trav._, p. . 'very fresh and red.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'dirty yellowish ochre tinge.' _ross_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'small, fine eyes and teeth.' _franklin's nar._, vol. i., . [ ] 'hair lank, but not always of a dingy black. men in general extract their beard, though some of them are seen to prefer a bushy, black beard, to a smooth chin.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxix. beard in the aged 'between two and three inches long, and perfectly white.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'black, strait, and coarse.' _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . 'neither sex have any hair under their armpits, and very little on any other part of the body, particularly the women; but on the place where nature plants the hair, i never knew them attempt to eradicate it.' _hearne's trav._, p. . [ ] tattooing appears to be universal among the kutchins. _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the chepewyans tattooed 'by entering an awl or needle under the skin, and, on drawing it out again, immediately rubbing powdered charcoal into the wound.' _hearne's trav._, p. . 'both sexes have blue or black bars, or from one to four straight lines on their cheeks or forehead, to distinguish the tribe to which they belong.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxx. [ ] women 'destitute of real beauty.' _hearne's trav._, p. . 'very inferior aspect.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . women nasty. _mackenzie's voy._, p. . 'positively hideous.' _ross_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] a deer-horn mountaineer's dress 'consisted of a shirt, or jacket with a hood, wide breeches, reaching only to the knee, and tight leggins sewed to the shoes, all of deer's skins.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . the cap consists of the skin of a deer's head. _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxii. [ ] as witness this speech of a noble chief: 'women were made for labor; one of them can carry, or haul, as much as two men can do. they also pitch our tents, make and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and, in fact, there is no such thing as traveling any considerable distance, in this country without their assistance.' _hearne's trav._, p. . [ ] an indian desiring another one's wife, fights with her husband, principally by pulling hair. if victorious, he pays a number of skins to the husband. _hooper's tuski_, p. . [ ] 'continence in an unmarried female is scarcely considered a virtue.' 'their dispositions are not amatory.' 'i have heard among them of two sons keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his daughter, and of several married to their sisters. _ross_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . women carry their children on the back next the skin, and suckle them until another is born. they do not suspend their ordinary occupations for child-birth. _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxii. 'a temporary interchange of wives is not uncommon; and the offer of their persons is considered as a necessary part of the hospitality due to strangers.' _id._, p. xcvi. women are 'rather the slaves than the companions of the men.' _bell's geog._, vol. v., p. . [ ] they are harsh towards their wives, except when enceinte. they are accused of abandoning the aged and sick, but only one case came to his knowledge. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., pp. , . [ ] beeatee, prepared from deer only, 'is a kind of haggis, made with the blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest of the flesh, together with the heart and lungs cut, or more commonly cut into small shivers; all of which is put into the stomach, and roasted.' _hearne's trav._, p. . 'not remarkable for their activity as hunters, owing to the ease with which they snare deer and spear fish.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxiii. the deer-horn mountaineers 'repair to the sea in spring and kill seals; as the season advances, they hunt deer and musk oxen at some distance from the coast. they approach the deer either by crawling, or by leading these animals by ranges of turf towards the spot where the archer can conceal himself.' do not use nets, but the hook and line. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'nets made of lines of twisted willow-bark, or thin strips of deer-hide.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . curdled blood, a favorite dish. _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] the weapons of the chepewyans are bows and arrows; stone and bone axes and knives. _harmon's jour._, p. . the bows of the deer-horns 'are formed of three pieces of fir, the centre piece alone bent, the other two lying in the same straight line with the bowstring; the pieces are neatly tied together with sinew. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . in preparing for an attack, each coppermine indian paints his shield with figures of sun, moon, or some animal or imaginary beings, each portraying whatever character he most relies upon. _hearne's trav._, p. . in some parts hunting grounds descend by inheritance, and the right of property is rigidly enforced. _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] 'their cooking utensils are made of pot-stone, and they form very neat dishes of fir.' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . make fishing-lines and nets of green deer-thongs. _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxvi. [ ] 'they are great mimics.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . men dance naked; women dressed. a crowd stand in a straight line, and shuffle from right to left without moving the feet from the ground. _hearne's trav._, p. . 'the men occasionally howl in imitation of some animal.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . [ ] 'they manifest no common respect to the memory of their departed friends, by a long period of mourning, cutting off their hair, and never making use of the property of the deceased.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxviii. the death of leading men is attributed to conjuring. they never bury the dead, but leave them, where they die, for wild beasts to devour. _hearne's trav._, p. . the chepewyans bury their dead. when mourning for relatives they gash their bodies with knives. _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] 'the northern indians seldom attain a great age, though they have few diseases.' _martin's brit. col._, vol. iii., p. . for inward complaints, the doctors blow zealously into the rectum, or adjacent parts. _hearne's trav._, p. . the conjurer shuts himself up for days with the patient, without food, and sings over him. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . medicine-men or conjurers are at the same time doctors. _hooper's tuski_, pp. , . 'the kutchins practice blood-letting _ad libitum_.' _jones_, _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'their principal maladies are rheumatic pains, the flux, and consumption.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxiv. [ ] according to the report of the dog-ribs, the mountain indians are cannibals, casting lots for victims in time of scarcity. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'instances of suicide, by hanging, frequently occur among the women.' _harmon's jour._, p. . during times of starvation, which occur quite frequently, the slavé indians eat their families. _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'these people take their names, in the first instance, from their dogs. a young man is the father of a certain dog, but when he is married, and has a son, he styles himself the father of the boy. the women have a habit of reproving the dogs very tenderly when they observe them fighting. "are you not ashamed," say they, "to quarrel with your little brother?"' _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'whether circumcision be practiced among them, i cannot pretend to say, but the appearance of it was general among those whom i saw.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . dog-rib indians, sometimes also called slavés, 'a name properly meaning 'strangers.' _gallatin_, in _am. arch. soc. trans._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'order is maintained in the tribe solely by public opinion.' _richardson's jour._, vol. ii., p. . the chiefs are now totally without power. _franklin's nar._, vol. i., p. . 'they are influenced, more or less, by certain principles which conduce to their general benefit.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. cxxv. [ ] 'many consider a broth, made by means of the dung of the cariboo and the hare, to be a dainty dish.' _harmon's jour._, p. . they 'are lazy, dirty, and sensual,' and extremely uncivilized. 'their habits and persons are equally disgusting.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'they are a tall, well formed, good-looking race.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'an utter contempt of cleanliness prevailed on all hands, and it was revolting to witness their voracious endeavors to surpass each other in the gluttonous contest.' _ind. life_, p. . [ ] the women 'run a wooden pin through their noses.' _harmon's jour._, p. . at their burial ceremonies they smear the face 'with a composition of fish-oil and charcoal.' when conjuring, the chief and his companions 'wore a kind of coronet formed of the inverted claws of the grizzly bear.' _ind. life_, pp. , . [ ] the tacullies have 'wooden dishes, and other vessels of the rind of the birch and pine trees.' 'have also other vessels made of small roots or fibres of the cedar or pine tree, closely laced together, which serve them as buckets to put water in.' _harmon's jour._, p. . [ ] 'in the summer season both sexes bathe often; and this is the only time, when the married people wash themselves.' the tacullies are very fond and very jealous of their wives, 'but to their daughters, they allow every liberty, for the purpose, as they say, of keeping the young men from intercourse with the married women.' _harmon's jour._, pp. , , . a father, whose daughter had dishonored him, killed her and himself. _ind. life_, . [ ] 'the people of every village have a certain extent of country, which they consider their own, and in which they may hunt and fish; but they may not transcend these bounds, without purchasing the privilege of those who claim the land. mountains and rivers serve them as boundaries.' _harmon's jour._, p. . [ ] mackenzie, _voy._, p. , found on fraser river, about latitude °, a deserted house, by , with three doors, by ½ feet; three fire-places, and beds on either side; behind the beds was a narrow space, like a manger, somewhat elevated, for keeping fish. 'their houses are well formed of logs of small trees, buttressed up internally, frequently above seventy feet long and fifteen high, but, unlike those of the coast, the roof is of bark; their winter habitations are smaller, and often covered over with grass and earth; some even dwell in excavations of the ground, which have only an aperture at the top, and serves alike for door and chimney.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . [ ] 'quelques peuplades du nord, telles que les sikanis, enterrent leurs morts.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the sicaunies bury, while the tacullies, burn their dead.' _harmon's jour._, p. . they 'and the chimmesyans on the coast, and other tribes speaking their language, burn the dead.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . see also _dunn's oregon_, pp. , ; _ind. life_, pp. , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] they fire guns as a warning to their friends not to invade their sorrow. _mackenzie's voy._, p. . [ ] 'in the winter season, the carriers often keep their dead in their huts during five or six months, before they will allow them to be burned.' _harmon's jour._, p. . [ ] 'she must frequently put her hands through the flames and lay them upon his bosom, to show her continued devotion.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . they have a custom of mourning over the grave of the dead; their expressions of grief are generally exceedingly vociferous. _ind. life_, pp. , . [ ] 'on the end of a pole stuck in front of the lodge.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] women cut off a joint of one of their fingers. men only cut off their hair close to their heads, but also frequently cut and scratch their faces and arms. _harmon's jour._, p. . with some sharp instrument they 'force back the flesh beyond the first joint, which they immediately amputate.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . [ ] 'the men are completely destitute of beard, and both men and women, are intensely ugly.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'they reminded me of the ideal north american indian i had read of but never seen.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . distinguished from all other tribes for the frankness and candor of their demeanor, and bold countenances. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'males are of the average hight of europeans, and well-formed, with regular features, high foreheads, and lighter complexions than those of the other red indians. the women resemble the men.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'tunic or shirt reaching to the knees, and very much ornamented with beads, and hyaqua shells from the columbia.' _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the tenan kutchins are 'gay with painted faces, feathers in their long hair, patches of red clay at the back of their head.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . jackets like the eskimos. _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'both sexes wear breeches.' _simpson's nar._, p. . [ ] 'the kutch-a-kutchin, are essentially traders.' _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . appear to care more for useful than ornamental articles. _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'dentalium and arenicola shells are transmitted from the west coast in traffic, and are greatly valued.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] some wear 'wampum (a kind of long, hollow shell) through the septum of the nose.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . they pierce the nose and insert shells, which are obtained from the eskimos at a high price. _franklin's nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] the loucheux live in huts 'formed of green branches. in winter their dwellings are partly under ground. the spoils of the moose and reindeer furnish them with meat, clothing, and tents.' _simpson's nar._, pp. , . the co-yukon winter dwellings are made under ground, and roofed over with earth, having a hole for the smoke to escape by, in the same manner as those of the malemutes and ingaliks. _whymper's alaska_, pp. , . their movable huts are constructed of deer-skin, 'dressed with the hair on, and sewed together, forming two large rolls, which are stretched over a frame of bent poles,' with a side door and smoke-hole at the top. _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] the loucheux are 'great gormandizers, and will devour solid fat, or even drink grease, to surfeiting.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'the bears are not often eaten in summer, as their flesh is not good at that time.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . some of their reindeer-pounds are over one hundred years old and are hereditary in the family. _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . 'the mode of fishing through the ice practiced by the russians is much in vogue with them.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . [ ] the kutchins 'have no knowledge of scalping.' 'when a man kills his enemy, he cuts all his joints.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , . the loucheux of peel river and the eskimos are constantly at war. _hooper's tuski_, p. . [ ] 'at peace river the bark is taken off the tree the whole length of the intended canoe, which is commonly about eighteen feet, and is sewed with watupe at both ends.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . when the kutchins discover a leak, 'they go ashore, light a small fire, warm the gum, of which they always carry a supply, turn the canoe bottom upward, and rub the healing balm in a semi-fluid state into the seam until it is again water-tight.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . the tacullies 'make canoes which are clumsily wrought, of the aspin tree, as well as of the bark of the spruce fir.' _harmon's jour._, p. . rafts are employed on the mackenzie. _simpson's nar._, p. . 'in shape the northern indian canoe bears some resemblance to a weaver's shuttle; covered over with birch bark.' _hearne's jour._, pp. , . 'kanots aus birkenrinde, auf denen sie die flüsse u. seen befahren.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . the kutchin canoe 'is flat-bottomed, is about nine feet long and one broad, and the sides nearly straight up and down like a wall.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] as for instance for a life, the fine is forty beaver-skins, and may be paid in guns at twenty skins each; blankets, equal to ten skins each; powder, one skin a measure; bullets, eighteen for a skin; worsted belts, two skins each. _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'for theft, little or no punishment is inflicted; for adultery, the woman only is punished'--sometimes by beating, sometimes by death. _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] kutchin 'female chastity is prized, but is nearly unknown.' _jones_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . loucheux mothers had originally a custom of casting away their female children, but now it is only done by the mountain indians, _simpson's nar._, p. . the kutchin 'women are much fewer in number and live a much shorter time than the men.' _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the old people 'are not ill-used, but simply neglected.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . the children are carried in small chairs made of birch bark. _id._, p. . 'in a seat of birch bark.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] the loucheux dances 'abound in extravagant gestures, and demand violent exertion.' _simpson's nar._, p. . see _hardisty_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'singing is much practiced, but it is, though varied, of a very hum-drum nature.' _hooper's tuski_, p. . 'at the festivals held on the meeting of friendly tribes, leaping and wrestling are practised.' _richardson's jour._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'irrespective of tribe, they are divided into three classes, termed respectively, chit-sa, nate-sa, and tanges-at-sa, faintly representing the aristocracy, the middle classes, and the poorer orders of civilized nations, the former being the most wealthy and the latter the poorest.' _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] on peel river 'they bury their dead on stages.' on the yukon they burn and suspend the ashes in bags from the top of a painted pole. _kirby_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . they of the yukon 'do not inter the dead, but put them in oblong boxes, raised on posts.' _whymper's alaska_, pp. , . [illustration: native races of the pacific states columbian group] chapter iii. columbians. habitat of the columbian group--physical geography--sources of food-supply--influence of food and climate--four extreme classes--haidahs--their home--physical peculiarities-- clothing--shelter--sustenance--implements--manufactures-- arts--property--laws--slavery--women--customs--medicine-- death--the nootkas--the sound nations--the chinooks--the shushwaps--the salish--the sahaptins--tribal boundaries. the term columbians, or, as scouler[ ] and others have called them, _nootka-columbians_, is, in the absence of a native word, sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the aboriginal nations of north-western america between the forty-third and fifty-fifth parallels, from those of the other great divisions of this work. the columbia river, which suggests the name of this group, and nootka sound on the western shore of vancouver island, were originally the chief centres of european settlement on the north-west coast; and at an early period these names were compounded to designate the natives of the anglo-american possessions on the pacific, which lay between the discoveries of the russians on the north and those of the spaniards on the south. as a simple name is always preferable to a complex one, and as no more pertinent name suggests itself than that of the great river which, with its tributaries, drains a large portion of this territory, i drop 'nootka' and retain only the word 'columbian.'[ ] these nations have also been broadly denominated flatheads, from a custom practiced more or less by many of their tribes, of compressing the cranium during infancy;[ ] although the only indians in the whole area, tribally known as flatheads, are those of the salish family, who do not flatten the head at all. [sidenote: columbian families.] in describing the columbian nations it is necessary, as in the other divisions, to subdivide the group; arbitrarily this may have been done in some instances, but as naturally as possible in all. thus the people of queen charlotte islands, and the adjacent coast for about a hundred miles inland, extending from ° to ° of north latitude, are called _haidahs_ from the predominant tribe of the islands. the occupants of vancouver island and the opposite main, with its labyrinth of inlets from ° to °, i term _nootkas_. the _sound indians_ inhabit the region drained by streams flowing into puget sound, and the adjacent shores of the strait and ocean; the _chinooks_ occupy the banks of the columbia from the dalles to the sea, extending along the coast northward to gray harbor, and southward nearly to the californian line. the interior of british columbia, between the cascade and rocky mountains, and south of the territory occupied by the hyperborean carriers, is peopled by the _shushwaps_, the _kootenais_, and the _okanagans_. between ° and °, extending west from the cascade to the rocky mountains, chiefly on the columbia and clarke fork, is the _salish_ or flathead family. the nations dwelling south of ° and east of the cascade range, on the columbia, the lower snake, and their tributary streams, may be called _sahaptins_, from the name of the nez percé tribes.[ ] the great _shoshone_ family, extending south-east from the upper waters of the columbia, and spreading out over nearly the whole of the great basin, although partially included in the columbian limits, will be omitted in this, and included in the californian group, which follows. these divisions, as before stated, are geographic rather than ethnographic.[ ] many attempts have been made by practical ethnologists, to draw partition lines between these peoples according to race, all of which have proved signal failures, the best approximation to a scientific division being that of philologists, the results of whose researches are given in the third volume of this series; but neither the latter division, nor that into coast and inland tribes--in many respects the most natural and clearly defined of all[ ]--is adapted to my present purpose. in treating of the columbians, i shall first take up the coast families, going from north to south, and afterward follow the same order with those east of the mountains. [sidenote: home of the columbians.] no little partiality was displayed by the great spirit of the columbians in the apportionment of their dwelling-place. the cascade mountains, running from north to south throughout their whole territory, make of it two distinct climatic divisions, both highly but unequally favored by nature. on the coast side--a strip which may be called one hundred and fifty miles wide and one thousand miles long--excessive cold is unknown, and the earth, warmed by asiatic currents and watered by numerous mountain streams, is thickly wooded; noble forests are well stocked with game; a fertile soil yields a great variety of succulent roots and edible berries, which latter means of subsistence were lightly appreciated by the indolent inhabitants, by reason of the still more abundant and accessible food-supply afforded by the fish of ocean, channel, and stream. the sources of material for clothing were also bountiful far beyond the needs of the people. passing the cascade barrier, the climate and the face of the country change. here we have a succession of plains or table-lands, rarely degenerating into deserts, with a good supply of grass and roots; though generally without timber, except along the streams, until the heavily wooded western spurs of the rocky mountains are reached. the air having lost much of its moisture, affords but a scanty supply of rain, the warming and equalizing influence of the ocean stream is no longer felt, and the extremes of heat and cold are undergone according to latitude and season. yet are the dwellers in this land blessed above many other aboriginal peoples, in that game is plenty, and roots and insects are at hand in case the season's hunt prove unsuccessful. ethnologically, no well-defined line can be drawn to divide the people occupying these two widely different regions. diverse as they certainly are in form, character, and customs, their environment, the climate, and their methods of seeking food may well be supposed to have made them so. not only do the pursuit of game in the interior and the taking of fish on the coast, develop clearly marked general peculiarities of character and life in the two divisions, but the same causes produce grades more or less distinct in each division. west of the cascade range, the highest position is held by the tribes who in their canoes pursue the whale upon the ocean, and in the effort to capture leviathan become themselves great and daring as compared with the lowest order who live upon shell-fish and whatever nutritious substances may be cast by the tide upon the beach. likewise in the interior, the extremes are found in the deer, bear, elk, and buffalo hunters, especially when horses are employed, and in the root and insect eaters of the plains. between these four extreme classes may be traced many intermediate grades of physical and intellectual development, due to necessity and the abilities exercised in the pursuit of game. the columbians hitherto have been brought in much closer contact with the whites than the hyperboreans, and the results of the association are known to all. the cruel treacheries and massacres by which nations have been thinned, and flickering remnants of once powerful tribes gathered on government reservations or reduced to a handful of beggars, dependent for a livelihood on charity, theft, or the wages of prostitution, form an unwritten chapter in the history of this region. that this process of duplicity was unnecessary as well as infamous, i shall not attempt to show, as the discussion of indian policy forms no part of my present purpose. whatever the cause, whether from an inhuman civilized policy, or the decrees of fate, it is evident that the columbians, in common with all the aborigines of america, are doomed to extermination. civilization and savagism will not coalesce, any more than light and darkness; and although it may be necessary that these things come, yet are those by whom they are unrighteously accomplished none the less culpable. once more let it be understood that the time of which this volume speaks, was when the respective peoples were first known to europeans. it was when, throughout this region of the columbia, nature's wild magnificence was yet fresh; primeval forests unprofaned; lakes, and rivers, and rolling plains unswept; it was when countless villages dotted the luxuriant valleys; when from the warrior's camp-fire the curling smoke never ceased to ascend, nor the sounds of song and dance to be heard; when bands of gaily dressed savages roamed over every hill-side; when humanity unrestrained vied with bird and beast in the exercise of liberty absolute. this is no history; alas! they have none; it is but a sun-picture, and to be taken correctly must be taken quickly. nor need we pause to look back through the dark vista of unwritten history, and speculate, who and what they are, nor for how many thousands of years they have been coming and going, counting the winters, the moons, and the sleeps; chasing the wild game, basking in the sunshine, pursuing and being pursued, killing and being killed. all knowledge regarding them lies buried in an eternity of the past, as all knowledge of their successors remains folded in an eternity of the future. we came upon them unawares, unbidden, and while we gazed they melted away. the infectious air of civilization penetrated to the remotest corner of their solitudes. their ignorant and credulous nature, unable to cope with the intellect of a superior race, absorbed only its vices, yielding up its own simplicity and nobleness for the white man's diseases and death. [sidenote: haidah nations.] in the haidah family i include the nations occupying the coast and islands from the southern extremity of prince of wales archipelago to the bentinck arms in about °. their territory is bounded on the north and east by the thlinkeet and carrier nations of the hyperboreans, and on the south by the nootka family of the columbians. its chief nations, whose boundaries however can rarely be fixed with precision, are the _massets_, the _skiddegats_, and the _cumshawas_, of queen charlotte islands; the _kaiganies_, of prince of wales archipelago; the _chimsyans_, about fort simpson, and on chatham sound; the _nass_ and the _skeenas_, on the rivers of the same names; the _sebassas_, on pitt archipelago and the shores of gardner channel; and the millbank sound indians, including the _hailtzas_ and the _bellacoolas_, the most southern of this family. these nations, the orthography of whose names is far from uniform among different writers, are still farther subdivided into numerous indefinite tribes, as specified at the end of this chapter. the haidah territory, stretching on the mainland three hundred miles in length, and in width somewhat over one hundred miles from the sea to the lofty chilkoten plain, is traversed throughout its length by the northern extension of the cascade range. in places its spurs and broken foot-hills touch the shore, and the very heart of the range is penetrated by innumerable inlets and channels, into which pour short rapid streams from interior hill and plain. the country, though hilly, is fertile and covered by an abundant growth of large, straight pines, cedars, and other forest trees. the forest abounds with game, the waters with fish. the climate is less severe than in the middle united states; and notwithstanding the high latitude of their home, the haidahs have received no small share of nature's gifts. little has been explored, however, beyond the actual coast, and information concerning this nation, coming from a few sources only, is less complete than in the case of the more southern nootkas. [sidenote: physical peculiarities of the haidahs.] favorable natural conditions have produced in the haidahs a tall, comely, and well-formed race, not inferior to any in north-western america;[ ] the northern nations of the family being generally superior to the southern,[ ] and having physical if not linguistic affinities with their thlinkeet neighbors, rather than with the nootkas. their faces are broad, with high cheek bones;[ ] the eyes small, generally black, though brown and gray with a reddish tinge have been observed among them.[ ] the few who have seen their faces free from paint pronounce their complexion light,[ ] and instances of albino characteristics are sometimes found.[ ] the hair is not uniformly coarse and black, but often soft in texture, and of varying shades of brown, worn by some of the tribes cut close to the head.[ ] the beard is usually plucked out with great care, but moustaches are raised sometimes as strong as those of europeans;[ ] indeed there seems to be little authority for the old belief that the north-western american indians were destitute of hair except on the head.[ ] dr scouler, comparing chimsyan skulls with those of the chinooks, who are among the best known of the north-western nations, finds that in a natural state both have broad, high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead, but the chimsyan skull, between the parietal and temporal bones, is broader than that of the chinook, its vertex being remarkably flat.[ ] swollen and deformed legs are common from constantly doubling them under the body while sitting in the canoe. the teeth are frequently worn down to the gums by eating sanded salmon.[ ] [sidenote: haidah dress and ornament.] the haidahs have no methods of distortion peculiar to themselves, by which they seek to improve their fine physique; but the custom of flattening the head in infancy obtains in some of the southern nations of this family, as the hailtzas and bellacoolas,[ ] and the thlinkeet lip-piece, already sufficiently described, is in use throughout a larger part of the whole territory. it was observed by simpson as far south as millbank sound, where it was highly useful as well as ornamental, affording a firm hold for the fair fingers of the sex in their drunken fights. these ornaments, made of either wood, bone, or metal, are worn particularly large in queen charlotte islands, where they seem to be not a mark of rank, but to be worn in common by all the women.[ ] besides the regular lip-piece, ornaments, various in shape and material, of shell, bone, wood, or metal, are worn stuck in the lips, nose, and ears, apparently according to the caprice or taste of the wearer, the skin being sometimes, though more rarely, tattooed to correspond.[ ] both for ornament and as a protection against the weather, the skin is covered with a thick coat of paint, a black polish being a full dress uniform. figures of birds and beasts, and a coat of grease are added in preparation for a feast, with fine down of duck or goose--a stylish coat of tar and feathers--sprinkled over the body as an extra attraction.[ ] when the severity of the weather makes additional protection desirable, a blanket, formerly woven by themselves from dog's hair, and stained in varied colors, but now mostly procured from europeans, is thrown loosely over the shoulders. chiefs, especially in times of feasting, wear richer robes of skins.[ ] the styles of dress and ornament adopted around the forts from contact with the whites need not be described. among the more unusual articles that have been noticed by travelers are, "a large hat, resembling the top of a small parasol, made of the twisted fibres of the roots of trees, with an aperture in the inside, at the broader end" for the head, worn by a sebassa chief; and at millbank sound, "masks set with seals' whiskers and feathers, which expand like a fan," with secret springs to open the mouth and eyes.[ ] mackenzie and vancouver, who were among the earliest visitors to this region, found fringed robes of bark-fibre, ornamented with fur and colored threads. a circular mat, with an opening in the centre for the head, was worn as a protection from the rain; and war garments consisted of several thicknesses of the strongest hides procurable, sometimes strengthened by strips of wood on the inside.[ ] [sidenote: haidah houses.] the haidahs use as temporary dwellings, in their frequent summer excursions for war and the hunt, simple lodges of poles, covered, among the poorer classes by cedar mats, and among the rich by skins. their permanent villages are usually built in strong natural positions, guarded by precipices, sometimes on rocks detached from the main land, but connected with it by a narrow platform. their town houses are built of light logs, or of thick split planks, usually of sufficient size to accommodate a large number of families. poole mentions a house on queen charlotte islands, which formed a cube of fifty feet, ten feet of its height being dug in the ground, and which accommodated seven hundred indians. the buildings are often, however, raised above the ground on a platform supported by posts, sometimes carved into human or other figures. some of these raised buildings seen by the earlier visitors were twenty-five or thirty feet from the ground, solidly and neatly constructed, an inclined log with notches serving as a ladder. these houses were found only in the southern part of the haidah territory. the fronts were generally painted with figures of men and animals. there were no windows or chimney; the floors were spread with cedar mats, on which the occupants slept in a circle round a central fire, whose smoke in its exit took its choice between the hole which served as a door and the wall-cracks. on the south-eastern boundary of this territory, mackenzie found in the villages large buildings of similar but more careful construction, and with more elaborately carved posts, but they were not dwellings, being used probably for religious purposes.[ ] [sidenote: food of the haidahs.] although game is plentiful, the haidahs are not a race of hunters, but derive their food chiefly from the innumerable multitude of fish and sea animals, which, each variety in its season, fill the coast waters. most of the coast tribes, and all who live inland, kill the deer and other animals, particularly since the introduction of firearms, but it is generally the skin and not the flesh that is sought. some tribes about the bentinck channels, at the time of mackenzie's visit, would not taste flesh except from the sea, from superstitious motives. birds that burrow in the sand-banks are enticed out by the glare of torches, and knocked down in large numbers with clubs. they are roasted without plucking or cleaning, the entrails being left in to improve the flavor. potatoes, and small quantities of carrots and other vegetables, are now cultivated throughout this territory, the crop being repeated until the soil is exhausted, when a new place is cleared. wild parsnips are abundant on the banks of lakes and streams, and their tender tops, roasted, furnish a palatable food; berries and bulbs abound, and the inner tegument of some varieties of the pine and hemlock is dried in cakes and eaten with salmon-oil. the varieties of fish sent by nature to the deep inlets and streams for the haidah's food, are very numerous; their standard reliance for regular supplies being the salmon, herring, eulachon or candle-fish, round-fish, and halibut. salmon are speared; dipped up in scoop-nets; entangled in drag-nets managed between two canoes and forced by poles to the bottom; intercepted in their pursuit of smaller fish by gill-nets with coarse meshes, made of cords of native hemp, stretched across the entrance of the smaller inlets; and are caught in large wicker baskets, placed at openings in weirs and embankments which are built across the rivers. the salmon fishery differs little in different parts of the northwest. the candle-fish, so fat that in frying they melt almost completely into oil, and need only the insertion of a pith or bark wick to furnish an excellent lamp, are impaled on the sharp teeth of a rake, or comb. the handle of the rake is from six to eight feet long, and it is swept through the water by the haidahs in their canoes by moonlight. herring in immense numbers are taken in april by similar rakes, as well as by dip-nets, a large part of the whole take being used for oil. seals are speared in the water or shot while on the rocks, and their flesh is esteemed a great delicacy. clams, cockles, and shell-fish are captured by squaws, such an employment being beneath manly dignity. fish, when caught, are delivered to the women, whose duty it is to prepare them for winter use by drying. no salt is used, but the fish are dried in the sun, or smoke-dried by being hung from the top of dwellings, then wrapped in bark, or packed in rude baskets or chests, and stowed on high scaffolds out of the reach of dogs and children. salmon are opened, and the entrails, head, and back-bone removed before drying. during the process of drying, sand is blown over the fish, and the teeth of the eater are often worn down by it nearly even with the gums. the spawn of salmon and herring is greatly esteemed, and besides that obtained from the fish caught, much is collected on pine boughs, which are stuck in the mud until loaded with the eggs. this native caviare is dried for preservation, and is eaten prepared in various ways; pounded between two stones, and beaten with water into a creamy consistency; or boiled with sorrel and different berries, and moulded into cakes about twelve inches square and one inch thick by means of wooden frames. after a sufficient supply of solid food for the winter is secured, oil, the great heat-producing element of all northern tribes, is extracted from the additional catch, by boiling the fish in wooden vessels, and skimming the grease from the water or squeezing it from the refuse. the arms and breast of the women are the natural press in which the mass, wrapped in mats, is hugged; the hollow stalks of an abundant sea-weed furnish natural bottles in which the oil is preserved for use as a sauce, and into which nearly everything is dipped before eating. when the stock of food is secured, it is rarely infringed upon until the winter sets in, but then such is the indian appetite--ten pounds of flour in the pancake-form at a meal being nothing for the stomach of a haidah, according to poole--that whole tribes frequently suffer from hunger before spring.[ ] the haidah weapons are spears from four to sixteen feet long, some with a movable head or barb, which comes off when the seal or whale is struck; bows and arrows; hatchets of bone, horn, or iron, with which their planks are made; and daggers. both spears and arrows are frequently pointed with iron, which, whether it found its way across the continent from the hudson-bay settlements, down the coast from the russians, or was obtained from wrecked vessels, was certainly used in british columbia for various purposes before the coming of the whites. bows are made of cedar, with sinew glued along one side. poole states that before the introduction of fire-arms, the queen charlotte islanders had no weapon but a club. brave as the haidah warrior is admitted to be, open fair fight is unknown to him, and in true indian style he resorts to night attacks, superior numbers, and treachery, to defeat his foe. cutting off the head as a trophy is practiced instead of scalping, but though unmercifully cruel to all sexes and ages in the heat of battle, prolonged torture of captives seems to be unknown. treaties of peace are arranged by delegations from the hostile tribes, following set forms, and the ceremonies terminate with a many days' feast.[ ] nets are made of native wild hemp and of cedar-bark fibre; hooks, of two pieces of wood or bone fastened together at an obtuse angle; boxes, troughs, and household dishes, of wood; ladles and spoons, of wood, horn, and bone. candle-fish, with a wick of bark or pith, serve as lamps; drinking vessels and pipes are carved with great skill from stone. the haidahs are noted for their skill in the construction of their various implements, particularly for sculptures in stone and ivory, in which they excel all the other tribes of northern america.[ ] [sidenote: haidah manufactures.] the cedar-fibre and wild hemp were prepared for use by the women by beating on the rocks; they were then spun with a rude distaff and spindle, and woven on a frame into the material for blankets, robes, and mats, or twisted by the men into strong and even cord, between the hand and thigh. strips of otter-skin, bird-feathers, and other materials, were also woven into the blankets. dogs of a peculiar breed, now nearly extinct, were shorn each year, furnishing a long white hair, which, mixed with fine hemp and cedar, made the best cloth. by dyeing the materials, regular colored patterns were produced, each tribe having had, it is said, a peculiar pattern by which its matting could be distinguished. since the coming of europeans, blankets of native manufacture have almost entirely disappeared. the bellacoolas made very neat baskets, called _zeilusqua_, as well as hats and water-tight vessels, all of fine cedar-roots. each chief about fort simpson kept an artisan, whose business it was to repair canoes, make masks, etc.[ ] the haidah canoes are dug out of cedar logs, and are sometimes sixty feet long, six and a half wide, and four and a half deep, accommodating one hundred men. the prow and stern are raised, and often gracefully curved like a swan's neck, with a monster's head at the extremity. boats of the better class have their exteriors carved and painted, with the gunwale inlaid in some cases with otter-teeth. each canoe is made of a single log, except the raised extremities of the larger boats. they are impelled rapidly and safely over the often rough waters of the coast inlets, by shovel-shaped paddles, and when on shore, are piled up and covered with mats for protection against the rays of the sun. since the coming of europeans, sails have been added to the native boats, and other foreign features imitated.[ ] [sidenote: trade and government.] rank and power depend greatly upon wealth, which consists of implements, wives, and slaves. admission to alliance with medicine-men, whose influence is greatest in the tribe, can only be gained by sacrifice of private property. before the disappearance of sea-otters from the haidah waters, the skins of that animal formed the chief element of their trade and wealth; now the potatoes cultivated in some parts, and the various manufactures of queen charlotte islands, supply their slight necessities. there is great rivalry among the islanders in supplying the tribes on the main with potatoes, fleets of forty or fifty canoes engaging each year in the trade from queen charlotte islands. fort simpson is the great commercial rendezvous of the surrounding nations, who assemble from all directions in september, to hold a fair, dispose of their goods, visit friends, fight enemies, feast, and dance. thus continue trade and merry-making for several weeks. large fleets of canoes from the north also visit victoria each spring for trading purposes.[ ] very little can be said of the government of the haidahs in distinction from that of the other nations of the northwest coast. among nearly all of them rank is nominally hereditary, for the most part by the female line, but really depends to a great extent on wealth and ability in war. females often possess the right of chieftainship. in early intercourse with whites the chief traded for the whole tribe, subject, however, to the approval of the several families, each of which seemed to form a kind of subordinate government by itself. in some parts the power of the chief seems absolute, and is wantonly exercised in the commission of the most cruel acts according to his pleasure. the extensive embankments and weirs found by mackenzie, although their construction must have required the association of all the labor of the tribe, were completely under the chief's control, and no one could fish without his permission. the people seemed all equal, but strangers must obey the natives or leave the village. crimes have no punishment by law; murder is settled for with relatives of the victim, by death or by the payment of a large sum; and sometimes general or notorious offenders, especially medicine-men, are put to death by an agreement among leading men.[ ] slavery is universal, and as the life of the slave is of no value to the owner except as property, they are treated with extreme cruelty. slaves the northern tribes purchase, kidnap, or capture in war from their southern neighbors, who obtain them by like means from each other, the course of the slave traffic being generally from south to north, and from the coast inland.[ ] polygamy is everywhere practiced, and the number of wives is regulated only by wealth, girls being bought of parents at any price which may be agreed upon, and returned, and the price recovered, when after a proper trial they are not satisfactory. the transfer of the presents or price to the bride's parents is among some tribes accompanied by slight ceremonies nowhere fully described. the marriage ceremonies at millbank sound are performed on a platform over the water, supported by canoes. while jealousy is not entirely unknown, chastity appears to be so, as women who can earn the greatest number of blankets win great admiration for themselves and high position for their husbands. abortion and infanticide are not uncommon. twin births are unusual, and the number of children is not large, although the age of bearing extends to forty or forty-six years. women, except in the season of preparing the winter supply of fish, are occupied in household affairs and the care of children, for whom they are not without some affection, and whom they nurse often to the age of two or three years. many families live together in one house, with droves of filthy dogs and children, all sleeping on mats round a central fire.[ ] [sidenote: haidah gamblers.] the haidahs, like all indians, are inveterate gamblers, the favorite game on queen charlotte islands being odd and even, played with small round sticks, in which the game is won when one player has all the bunch of forty or fifty sticks originally belonging to his opponent. farther south, and inland, some of the sticks are painted with red rings, and the player's skill or luck consists in naming the number and marks of sticks previously wrapped by his antagonist in grass. all have become fond of whisky since the coming of whites, but seem to have had no intoxicating drink before. at their annual trading fairs, and on other occasions, they are fond of visiting and entertaining friends with ceremonious interchange of presents, a suitable return being expected for each gift. at these reception feasts, men and women are seated on benches along opposite walls; at wedding feasts both sexes dance and sing together. in dancing, the body, head, and arms are thrown into various attitudes to keep time with the music, very little use being made of the legs. on queen charlotte islands the women dance at feasts, while the men in a circle beat time with sticks, the only instruments, except a kind of tambourine. for their dances they deck themselves in their best array, including plenty of birds' down, which they delight to communicate to their partners in bowing, and which they also blow into the air at regular intervals, through a painted tube. their songs are a simple and monotonous chant, with which they accompany most of their dances and ceremonies, though mackenzie heard among them some soft, plaintive tones, not unlike church music. the chiefs in winter give a partly theatrical, partly religious entertainment, in which, after preparation behind a curtain, dressed in rich apparel and wearing masks, they appear on a stage and imitate different spirits for the instruction of the hearers, who meanwhile keep up their songs.[ ] after the salmon season, feasting and conjuring are in order. the chief, whose greatest authority is in his character of conjurer, or _tzeetzaiak_ as he is termed in the hailtzuk tongue, pretends at this time to live alone in the forest, fasting or eating grass, and while there is known as _taamish_. when he returns, clad in bear-robe, chaplet, and red-bark collar, the crowd flies at his approach, except a few brave spirits, who boldly present their naked arms, from which he bites and swallows large mouthfuls. this, skillfully done, adds to the reputation of both biter and bitten, and is perhaps all the foundation that exists for the report that these people are cannibals; although mr duncan, speaking of the chimsyans in a locality not definitely fixed, testifies to the tearing to pieces and actual devouring of the body of a murdered slave by naked bands of cannibal medicine-men. only certain parties of the initiated practice this barbarism, others confining their tearing ceremony to the bodies of dogs.[ ] [sidenote: magicians and medicine-men.] none of these horrible orgies are practiced by the queen charlotte islanders. the performances of the haidah magicians, so far as they may differ from those of the nootkas have not been clearly described by travelers. the magicians of chatham sound keep infernal spirits shut up in a box away from the vulgar gaze, and possess great power by reason of the implicit belief on the part of the people, in their ability to charm away life. the doctor, however, is not beyond the reach of a kinsman's revenge, and is sometimes murdered.[ ] with their ceremonies and superstitions there seems to be mixed very little religion, as all their many fears have reference to the present life. certain owls and squirrels are regarded with reverence, and used as charms; salmon must not be cut across the grain, or the living fish will leave the river; the mysterious operations with astronomical and other european instruments about their rivers caused great fear that the fisheries would be ruined; fogs are conjured away without the slightest suspicion of the sun's agency.[ ] european navigators they welcome by paddling their boats several times round the ship, making long speeches, scattering birds' down, and singing.[ ] ordinary presents, like tobacco or trinkets, are gladly received, but a written testimonial is most highly prized by the haidahs, who regard writing as a great and valuable mystery. they have absolutely no methods of recording events. although living so constantly on the water, i find no mention of their skill in swimming, while poole states expressly that they have no knowledge of that art.[ ] very slight accounts are extant of the peculiar methods of curing diseases practiced by the haidahs. their chief reliance, as in the case of all indian tribes, is on the incantations and conjurings of their sorcerers, who claim supernatural powers of seeing, hearing, and extracting disease, and are paid liberally when successful. bark, herbs, and various decoctions are used in slight sickness, but in serious cases little reliance is placed on them. to the bites of the sorcerer-chiefs on the main, eagle-down is applied to stop the bleeding, after which a pine-gum plaster or sallal-bark is applied. on queen charlotte islands, in a case of internal uneasiness, large quantities of sea-water are swallowed, shaken up, and ejected through the mouth for the purpose, as the natives say, of 'washing themselves inside out.'[ ] [sidenote: haidah burials.] death is ascribed to the ill will and malign influence of an enemy, and one suspected of causing the death of a prominent individual, must make ready to die. as a rule, the bodies of the dead are burned, though exceptions are noted in nearly every part of the territory. in the disposal of the ashes and larger bones which remain unburned, there seems to be no fixed usage. encased in boxes, baskets, or canoes, or wrapped in mats or bark, they are buried in or deposited on the ground, placed in a tree, on a platform, or hung from a pole. articles of property are frequently deposited with the ashes, but not uniformly. slaves' bodies are simply thrown into the river or the sea. mourning for the dead consists usually of cutting the hair and blackening anew the face and neck for several months. among the kaiganies, guests at the burning of the bodies are wont to lacerate themselves with knives and stones. a tribe visited by mackenzie, kept their graves free from shrubbery, a woman clearing that of her husband each time she passed. the nass indians paddle a dead chief, gaily dressed, round the coast villages.[ ] the haidahs, compared with other north american indians, may be called an intelligent, honest, and brave race, although not slow under european treatment to become drunkards, gamblers, and thieves. acts of unprovoked cruelty or treachery are rare; missionaries have been somewhat successful in the vicinity of fort simpson, finding in intoxicating liquors their chief obstacle.[ ] [sidenote: the nootkas.] the nootkas, the second division of the columbian group, are immediately south of the haidah country; occupying vancouver island, and the coast of the main land, between the fifty-second and the forty-ninth parallels. the word _nootka_ is not found in any native dialect of the present day. captain cook, to whom we are indebted for the term, probably misunderstood the name given by the natives to the region of nootka sound.[ ]the first european settlement in this region was on the sound, which thus became the central point of early english and spanish intercourse with the northwest coast; but it was soon abandoned, and no mission or trading post has since taken its place, so that no tribes of this family have been less known in later times than those on the west coast of vancouver island. the chief tribes of the nootka family, or those on whose tribal existence, if not on the orthography of their names authors to some extent agree, are as follows.[ ] the _nitinats_, _clayoquots_, and _nootkas_, on the sounds of the same names along the west coast of vancouver island; the _quackolls_ and _newittees_,[ ] in the north; the _cowichins_, _ucletas_, and _comux_, on the east coast of vancouver and on the opposite main; the _saukaulutuchs_[ ], in the interior of the island; the _clallums_,[ ] _sokes_, and _patcheena_, on the south end; and the _kwantlums_ and _teets_,[ ] on the lower fraser river. these tribes differ but little in physical peculiarities, or manners and customs, but by their numerous dialects they have been classed in nations. no comprehensive or satisfactory names have, however, been applied to them as national divisions.[ ] between the nootka family and its fish-eating neighbors on the north and south, the line of distinction is not clearly marked, but the contrast is greater with the interior hunting tribes on the east. since their first intercourse with whites, the nootkas have constantly decreased in numbers, and this not only in those parts where they have been brought into contact with traders and miners, but on the west coast, where they have retained in a measure their primitive state. the savage fades before the superior race, and immediate intercourse is not necessary to produce in native races those 'baleful influences of civilization,' which like a pestilence are wafted from afar, as on the wings of the wind.[ ] [sidenote: nootka physique.] the nootkas are of less than medium height, smaller than the haidahs, but rather strongly built; usually plump, but rarely corpulent;[ ] their legs, like those of all the coast tribes, short, small, and frequently deformed, with large feet and ankles;[ ] the face broad, round, and full, with the usual prominent cheek-bone, a low forehead, flat nose, wide nostrils, small black eyes, round thickish-lipped mouth, tolerably even well-set teeth; the whole forming a countenance rather dull and expressionless, but frequently pleasant.[ ] the nootka complexion, so far as grease and paint have allowed travelers to observe it, is decidedly light, but apparently a shade darker than that of the haidah family.[ ] the hair, worn long, is as a rule black or dark brown, coarse, and straight, though instances are not wanting where all these qualities are reversed.[ ] the beard is carefully plucked out by the young men, and this operation, repeated for generations, has rendered the beard naturally thin. old men often allow it to grow on the chin and upper lip. [sidenote: nootka hair and beard.] to cut the hair short is to the nootka a disgrace. worn at full length, evened at the ends, and sometimes cut straight across the forehead, it is either allowed to hang loosely from under a band of cloth or fillet of bark, or is tied in a knot on the crown. on full-dress occasions the top-knot is secured with a green bough, and after being well saturated with whale-grease, the hair is powdered plentifully with white feathers, which are regarded as the crowning ornament for manly dignity in all these regions. both sexes, but particularly the women, take great pains with the hair, carefully combing and plaiting their long tresses, fashioning tasteful head-dresses of bark-fibre, decked with beads and shells, attaching leaden weights to the braids to keep them straight. the bruised root of a certain plant is thought by the ahts to promote the growth of the hair.[ ] the custom of flattening the head is practiced by the nootkas, in common with the sound and chinook families, but is not universal, nor is so much importance attached to it as elsewhere; although all seem to admire a flattened forehead as a sign of noble birth, even among tribes that do not make this deformity a sign of freedom. among the quatsinos and quackolls of the north, the head, besides being flattened, is elongated into a conical sugar-loaf shape, pointed at the top. the flattening process begins immediately after birth, and is continued until the child can walk. it is effected by compressing the head with tight bandages, usually attached to the log cradle, the forehead being first fitted with a soft pad, a fold of soft bark, a mould of hard wood, or a flat stone. observers generally agree that little or no harm is done to the brain by this infliction, the traces of which to a great extent disappear later in life. many tribes, including the aht nations, are said to have abandoned the custom since they have been brought into contact with the whites.[ ] [sidenote: nootka face-painting.] the body is kept constantly anointed with a reddish clayey earth, mixed in train oil, and consequently little affected by their frequent baths. in war and mourning the whole body is blackened; on feast days the head, limbs, and body are painted in fantastic figures with various colors, apparently according to individual fancy, although the chiefs monopolize the fancy figures, the common people being restricted to plain colors. solid grease is sometimes applied in a thick coating, and carved or moulded in _alto-rilievo_ into ridges and figures afterwards decorated with red paint, while shining sand or grains of mica are sprinkled over grease and paint to impart a glittering appearance. the women are either less fond of paint than the men, or else are debarred by their lords from the free use of it; among the ahts, at least of late, the women abandon ornamental paint after the age of twenty-five. in their dances, as in war, masks carved from cedar to represent an endless variety of monstrous faces, painted in bright colors, with mouth and eyes movable by strings, are attached to their heads, giving them a grotesquely ferocious aspect.[ ] the nose and ears are regularly pierced in childhood, with from one to as many holes as the feature will hold, and from the punctures are suspended bones, shells, rings, beads, or in fact any ornament obtainable. the lip is sometimes, though more rarely, punctured. bracelets and anklets of any available material are also commonly worn.[ ] the aboriginal dress of the nootkas is a square blanket, of a coarse yellow material resembling straw matting, made by the women from cypress bark, with a mixture of dog's hair. this blanket had usually a border of fur; it sometimes had arm-holes, but was ordinarily thrown over the shoulders, and confined at the waist by a belt. chiefs wore it painted in variegated colors or unpainted, but the common people wore a coarser material painted uniformly red. women wore the garment longer and fastened under the chin, binding an additional strip of cloth closely about the middle, and showing much modesty about disclosing the person, while the men often went entirely naked. besides the blanket, garments of many kinds of skin were in use, particularly by the chiefs on public days. in war, a heavy skin dress was worn as a protection against arrows. the nootkas usually went bareheaded, but sometimes wore a conical hat plaited of rushes, bark, or flax. european blankets have replaced those of native manufacture, and many indians about the settlements have adopted also the shirt and breeches.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings of the nootkas.] the nootkas choose strong positions for their towns and encampments. at desolation sound, vancouver found a village built on a detached rock with perpendicular sides, only accessible by planks resting on the branches of a tree, and protected on the sea side by a projecting platform resting on timbers fixed in the crevices of the precipice. the nimkish tribe, according to lord, build their homes on a table-land overhanging the sea, and reached by ascending a vertical cliff on a bark-rope ladder. each tribe has several villages in favorable locations for fishing at different seasons. the houses, when more than one is needed for a tribe, are placed with regularity along streets; they vary in size according to the need or wealth of the occupants, and are held in common under the direction of the chief. they are constructed in the manner following. a row of large posts, from ten to fifteen feet high, often grotesquely carved, supports an immense ridge-pole, sometimes two and a half feet thick and one hundred feet long. similar but smaller beams, on shorter posts, are placed on either side of the central row, distant from it fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five feet, according to the dimensions required. this frame is then covered with split cedar planks, about two inches thick, and from three to eight feet wide. the side planks are tied together with bark, and supported by slender posts in couples just far enough apart to receive the thickness of the plank. a house like this, forty by one hundred feet, accommodates many families, each of which has its allotted space, sometimes partitioned off like a double row of stalls, with a wide passage in the middle. in the centre of each stall is a circle of stones for a fire-place, and round the walls are raised couches covered with mats. in rainy weather, cracks in the roof and sides are covered with mats. no smoke or window holes are left, and when smoke becomes troublesome a roof-plank is removed. the entrance is at one end. these dwellings furnish, according to nootka ideas, a comfortable shelter, except when a high wind threatens to unroof them, and then the occupants go out and sit on the roof to keep it in place. frequently the outside is painted in grotesque figures of various colors. only the frame is permanent; matting, planks, and all utensils are several times each year packed up and conveyed in canoes to another locality where a frame belonging to the tribe awaits covering. the odor arising from fish-entrails and other filth, which they take no pains to remove, appears to be inoffensive, but the nootkas are often driven by mosquitos to sleep on a stage over the water.[ ] [sidenote: food of the nootkas.] the nootkas, like the haidahs, live almost wholly on the products of the sea, and are naturally expert fishermen. salmon, the great staple, are taken in august and september, from sea, inlet, and river, by nets, spears, pots or baskets, and even by hooks. hooks consist of sharp barbed bones bound to straight pieces of hard wood; sea-wrack, maple-bark, and whale-sinew furnish lines, which in salmon-fishing are short and attached to the paddles. the salmon-spear is a forked pole, some fifteen feet long, the detachable head having prongs pointed with fish-bone or iron, and the fish in deep water is sometimes attracted within its reach by a wooden decoy, forced down by a long pole, and then detached and allowed to ascend rapidly to the surface. spearing is carried on mostly by torch-light. a light-colored stone pavement is sometimes laid upon the bottom of the stream, which renders the fish visible in their passage over it. nets are made of nettles or of wild flax, found along fraser river. they are small in size, and used as dip-nets, or sunk between two canoes and lifted as the fish pass over. a pot or basket fifteen to twenty feet long, three to five feet in diameter at one end, and tapering to a point at the other, is made of pine splinters one or two inches apart, with twig-hoops; and placed, large end up stream, at the foot of a fall or at an opening in an embankment. the salmon are driven down the fall with poles, and entering the basket are taken out by a door in the small end. this basket is sometimes enclosed in another one, similar but of uniform diameter, and closed at one end. fences of stakes across the river oblige the salmon to enter the open mouth in their passage up, and passing readily through an opening left in the point of the inner basket, they find themselves entrapped. in march, herring appear on the coast in great numbers, and in april and may they enter the inlets and streams, where they are taken with a dip-net, or more commonly by the fish-rake--a pole armed with many sharp bones or nails. early in the season they can be taken only by torch-light. halibut abound from march to june, and are caught with hooks and long lines, generally at some distance from shore. for all other fish, european hooks were early adopted, but the halibut, at least among the ahts, must still be taken with the native hook. many other varieties of fish, caught by similar methods, are used as food, but those named supply the bulk of the nootka's provision. in may or june, whales appear and are attacked in canoes by the chief, with the select few from each tribe who alone have the right to hunt this monarch of the sea. the head of their harpoon is made of two barbed bones and pointed with muscle-shell; it is fastened to a whale-sinew line of a few feet in length, and this short line to a very long bark rope, at one end of which are seal-skin air-bags and bladders, to keep it afloat. the point is also fastened to a shaft from ten to twenty-five feet in length, from which it is easily detached. with many of these buoys in tow the whale cannot dive, and becomes an easy prey. whale-blubber and oil are great delicacies, the former being preferred half putrid, while the oil with that of smaller denizens of the sea preserved in bladders, is esteemed a delicious sauce, and eaten with almost everything. sea-otters and seals are also speared, the former with a weapon more barbed and firmly attached to the handle, as they are fierce fighters; but when found asleep on the rocks, they are shot with arrows. seals are often attracted within arrow-shot by natives disguised as seals in wooden masks. clams and other shell-fish, which are collected in great numbers by the women, are cooked, strung on cypress-bark cords, and hung in the houses to dry for winter use. fish are preserved by drying only, the use of salt being unknown. salmon, after losing their heads and tails, which are eaten in the fishing season, are split open and the back-bone taken out before drying; smaller fry are sometimes dried as they come from their element; but halibut and cod are cut up and receive a partial drying in the sun. the spawn of all fish, but particularly of salmon and herring, is carefully preserved by stowing it away in baskets, where it ferments. bear, deer, and other land animals, as well as wild fowl, are sometimes taken for food, by means of rude traps, nets, and covers, successful only when game is abundant, for the nootkas are but indifferent hunters. in the time of jewitt, three peculiarities were observable in the nootka use of animal food, particularly bear-meat. when a bear was killed, it was dressed in a bonnet, decked with fine down, and solemnly invited to eat in the chief's presence, before being eaten; after partaking of bruin's flesh, which was appreciated as a rarity, the nootka could not taste fresh fish for two months; and while fish to be palatable must be putrid, meat when tainted was no longer fit for food. the nootka cuisine furnished food in four styles; namely, boiled--the mode par excellence, applicable to every variety of food, and effected, as by the haidahs, by hot stones in wooden vessels; steamed--of rarer use, applied mostly to heads, tails, and fins, by pouring water over them on a bed of hot stones, and covering the whole tightly with mats; roasted--rarely, in the case of some smaller fish and clams; and raw--fish-spawn and most other kinds of food, when conveniences for cooking were not at hand. some varieties of sea-weed and lichens, as well as the camass, and other roots, were regularly laid up for winter, while berries, everywhere abundant, were eaten in great quantities in their season, and at least one variety preserved by pressing in bunches. in eating, they sit in groups of five or six, with their legs doubled under them round a large wooden tray, and dip out the food nearly always boiled to a brothy consistency, with their fingers or clam-shells, paying little or no attention to cleanliness. chiefs and slaves have trays apart, and the principal meal, according to cook, was about noon. feasting is the favorite way of entertaining friends, so long as food is plentiful; and by a curious custom, of the portion allotted them, guests must carry away what they cannot eat. water in aboriginal days was the only nootka drink; it is also used now when whisky is not to be had.[ ] [sidenote: nootka battles and boats.] lances and arrows, pointed with shell, slate, flint, or bone, and clubs and daggers of wood and bone, were the weapons with which they met their foes; but firearms and metallic daggers, and tomahawks, have long since displaced them, as they have to a less degree the original hunting and fishing implements.[ ] the nootka tribes were always at war with each other, hereditary quarrels being handed down for generations. according to their idea, loss of life in battle can be forgotten only when an equal number of the hostile tribe are killed. their military tactics consist of stratagem and surprise in attack, and watchfulness in defense. before engaging in war, some weeks are spent in preparation, which consists mainly of abstinence from women, bathing, scrubbing the skin with briers till it bleeds, and finally painting the whole body jet-black. all prisoners not suitable for slaves are butchered or beheaded. in an attack the effort is always made to steal into the adversary's camp at night and kill men enough to decide the victory before the alarm can be given. when they fail in this, the battle is seldom long continued, for actual hand-to-hand fighting is not to the nootka taste. on the rare occasions when it is considered desirable to make overtures of peace, an ambassador is sent with an ornamented pipe, and with this emblem his person is safe. smoking a pipe together by hostile chiefs also solemnizes a treaty.[ ] nootka boats are dug out each from a single pine-tree, and are made of all sizes from ten to fifty feet long, the largest accommodating forty or fifty men. selecting a proper tree in the forest, the aboriginal nootka fells it with a sort of chisel of flint or elk-horn, three by six inches, fastened in a wooden handle, and struck by a smooth stone mallet. then the log is split with wooden wedges, and the better piece being selected, it is hollowed out with the aforesaid chisel, a mussel-shell adze, and a bird's-bone gimlet worked between the two hands. sometimes, but not always, fire is used as an assistant. the exterior is fashioned with the same tools. the boat is widest in the middle, tapers toward each end, and is strengthened by light cross-pieces extending from side to side, which, being inserted after the boat is soaked in hot water, modify and improve the original form. the bow is long and pointed, the stern square-cut or slightly rounded; both ends are raised higher than the middle by separate pieces of wood painted with figures of birds or beasts, the head on the bow and the tail on the stern. the inside is painted red; the outside, slightly burned, is rubbed smooth and black, and for the whale fishery is ornamented along the gunwales with a row of small shells or seal-teeth, but for purposes of war it is painted with figures in white. paddles are neatly made of hard wood, about five and a half feet long with a leaf-shaped blade of two feet, sharp at the end, and used as a weapon in canoe-fighting. a cross-piece is sometimes added to the handle like the top of a crutch.[ ] in addition to the implements already named are chests and boxes, buckets, cups and eating-troughs, all of wood, either dug out or pinned together; baskets of twigs and bags of matting; all neatly made, and many of the articles painted or carved, or ornamented with shell work. as among the haidahs, the dried _eulachon_ is often used as a lamp.[ ] the matting and coarser kinds of cloth are made of rushes and of pine or cedar bark, which after being soaked is beaten on a plank with a grooved instrument of wood or bone until the fibres are separated. the threads are twisted into cords between the hand and thigh; these cords, hung to a horizontal beam and knotted with finer thread at regular intervals, form the cloth. thread of the same bark is used with a sharpened twig for a needle. intercourse with europeans has modified their manufactures, and checked the development of their native ingenuity.[ ] [sidenote: property of the nootkas.] captain cook found among the ahts very "strict notions of their having a right to the exclusive property of everything that their country produces," so that they claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. the limits of tribal property are very clearly defined, but individuals rarely claim any property in land. houses belong to the men who combine to build them. private wealth consists of boats and implements for obtaining food, domestic utensils, slaves, and blankets, the latter being generally the standard by which wealth or price is computed. food is not regarded as common property, yet any man may help himself to his neighbor's store when needy. the accumulation of property beyond the necessities of life is considered desirable only for the purpose of distributing it in presents on great feast-days, and thereby acquiring a reputation for wealth and liberality; and as these feasts occur frequently, an unsuccessful man may often take a fresh start in the race. instead of being given away, canoes and blankets are often destroyed, which proves that the motive in this disposal of property is not to favor friends, but merely to appear indifferent to wealth. it is certainly a most remarkable custom, and one that exerts a great influence on the whole people. gifts play an important part in procuring a wife, and a division of property accompanies a divorce. to enter the ranks of the medicine-men or magicians, or to attain rank of any kind, property must be sacrificed; and a man who receives an insult or suffers any affliction must tear up the requisite quantity of blankets and shirts, if he would retain his honor.[ ] trade in all their productions was carried on briskly between the different nootka tribes before the coming of the whites. they manifest much shrewdness in their exchanges; even their system of presents is a species of trade, the full value of each gift being confidently expected in a return present on the next festive occasion. in their intertribal commerce, a band holding a strong position where trade by canoes between different parts may be stopped, do not fail to offer and enforce the acceptance of their services as middlemen, thereby greatly increasing market prices.[ ] the system of numeration, sufficiently extensive for the largest numbers, is decimal, the numbers to ten having names which are in some instances compounds but not multiples of smaller numbers. the fingers are used to aid in counting. the year is divided into months with some reference to the moon, but chiefly by the fish-seasons, ripening of berries, migrations of birds, and other periodical events, for which the months are named, as: 'when the herrings spawn,' etc. the unit of measure is the span, the fingers representing its fractional parts.[ ] the nootkas display considerable taste in ornamenting with sculpture and paintings their implements and houses, their chief efforts being made on the posts of the latter, and the wooden masks which they wear in war and some of their dances; but all implements may be more or less carved and adorned according to the artist's fancy. they sometimes paint fishing and hunting scenes, but generally their models exist only in imagination, and their works consequently assume unintelligible forms. there seems to be no evidence that their carved images and complicated paintings are in any sense intended as idols or hieroglyphics. a rude system of heraldry prevails among them, by which some animal is adopted as a family crest, and its figure is painted or embroidered on canoes, paddles, or blankets.[ ] [sidenote: nootka art and government.] to the nootka system of government the terms patriarchal, hereditary, and feudal have been applied. there is no confederation, each tribe being independent of all the rest, except as powerful tribes are naturally dominant over the weak. in each tribe the head chief's rank is hereditary by the male line; his grandeur is displayed on great occasions, when, decked in all his finery, he is the central figure. at the frequently recurring feasts of state he occupies the seat of honor; presides at all councils of the tribe, and is respected and highly honored by all; but has no real authority over any but his slaves. between the chief, or king, and the people is a nobility, in number about one fourth of the whole tribe, composed of several grades, the highest being partially hereditary, but also, as are all the lower grades, obtainable by feats of valor or great liberality. all chieftains must be confirmed by the tribe, and some of them appointed by the king; each man's rank is clearly defined in the tribe, and corresponding privileges strictly insisted on. there are chiefs who have full authority in warlike expeditions. harpooners also form a privileged class, whose rank is handed down from father to son. this somewhat complicated system of government nevertheless sits lightly, since the people are neither taxed nor subjected to any laws, nor interfered with in their actions. still, long-continued custom serves as law and marks out the few duties and privileges of the nootka citizen. stealing is not common except from strangers; and offenses requiring punishment are usually avenged--or pardoned in consideration of certain blankets received--by the injured parties and their friends, the chiefs seeming to have little or nothing to do in the matter.[ ] [sidenote: nootka slavery and marriage.] slavery is practiced by all the tribes, and the slave-trade forms an important part of their commerce. slaves are about the only property that must not be sacrificed to acquire the ever-desired reputation for liberality. only rich men--according to some authorities only the nobles--may hold slaves. war and kidnapping supply the slave-market, and no captive, whatever his rank in his own tribe, can escape this fate, except by a heavy ransom offered soon after he is taken, and before his whereabouts becomes unknown to his friends. children of slaves, whose fathers are never known, are forever slaves. the power of the owner is arbitrary and unlimited over the actions and life of the slave, but a cruel exercise of his power seems of rare occurrence, and, save the hard labor required, the material condition of the slave is but little worse than that of the common free people, since he is sheltered by the same roof and partakes of the same food as his master. socially the slave is despised; his hair is cut short, and his very name becomes a term of reproach. female slaves are prostituted for hire, especially in the vicinity of white settlements. a runaway slave is generally seized and resold by the first tribe he meets.[ ] [sidenote: the nootka family.] the nootka may have as many wives as he can buy, but as prices are high, polygamy is practically restricted to the chiefs, who are careful not to form alliances with families beneath them in rank. especially particular as to rank are the chiefs in choosing their first wife, always preferring the daughters of noble families of another tribe. courtship consists in an offer of presents by the lover to the girl's father, accompanied generally by lengthy speeches of friends on both sides, extolling the value of the man and his gift, and the attractions of the bride. after the bargain is concluded, a period of feasting follows if the parties are rich, but this is not necessary as a part of the marriage ceremony. betrothals are often made by parents while the parties are yet children, mutual deposits of blankets and other property being made as securities for the fulfillment of the contract, which is rarely broken. girls marry at an average age of sixteen. the common nootka obtains his one bride from his own rank also by a present of blankets, much more humble than that of his rich neighbor, and is assisted in his overtures by perhaps a single friend instead of being followed by the whole tribe. courtship among this class is not altogether without the attentions which render it so charming in civilized life; as when the fond girl lovingly caresses and searches her lover's head, always giving him the fattest of her discoveries. wives are not ill treated, and although somewhat overworked, the division of labor is not so oppressive as among many indian tribes. men build houses, make boats and implements, hunt and fish; women prepare the fish and game for winter use, cook, manufacture cloth and clothing, and increase the stock of food by gathering berries and shell-fish; and most of this work among the richer class is done by slaves. wives are consulted in matters of trade, and in fact seem to be nearly on terms of equality with their husbands, except that they are excluded from some public feasts and ceremonies. there is much reason to suppose that before the advent of the whites, the nootka wife was comparatively faithful to her lord, that chastity was regarded as a desirable female quality, and offenses against it severely punished. the females so freely brought on board the vessels of early voyagers and offered to the men, were perhaps slaves, who are everywhere prostituted for gain, so that the fathers of their children are never known. women rarely have more than two or three children, and cease bearing at about twenty-five, frequently preventing the increase of their family by abortions. pregnancy and childbirth affect them but little. the male child is named at birth, but his name is afterwards frequently changed. he is suckled by the mother until three or four years old, and at an early age begins to learn the arts of fishing by which he is to live. children are not quarrelsome among themselves, and are regarded by both parents with some show of affection and pride. girls at puberty are closely confined for several days, and given a little water but no food; they are kept particularly from the sun or fire, to see either of which at this period would be a lasting disgrace. at such times feasts are given by the parents. divorces or separations may be had at will by either party, but a strict division of property and return of betrothal presents is expected, the woman being allowed not only the property she brought her husband, and articles manufactured by her in wedlock, but a certain proportion of the common wealth. such property as belongs to the father and is not distributed in gifts during his life, or destroyed at his death, is inherited by the eldest son.[ ] from the middle of november to the middle of january, is the nootka season of mirth and festivity, when nearly the whole time is occupied with public and private gaiety. their evenings are privately passed by the family group within doors in conversation, singing, joking, boasting of past exploits, personal and tribal, and teasing the women until bed-time, when one by one they retire to rest in the same blankets worn during the day.[ ] swimming and trials of strength by hooking together the little fingers, or scuffling for a prize, seem to be the only out-door amusements indulged in by adults, while the children shoot arrows and hurl spears at grass figures of birds and fishes, and prepare themselves for future conflicts by cutting off the heads of imaginary enemies modeled in mud.[ ] to gambling the nootkas are passionately addicted, but their games are remarkably few and uniform. small bits of wood compose their entire paraphernalia, sometimes used like dice, when the game depends on the side turned up; or passed rapidly from hand to hand, when the gamester attempts to name the hand containing the trump stick; or again concealed in dust spread over a blanket and moved about by one player that the rest may guess its location. in playing they always form a circle seated on the ground, and the women rarely if ever join the game.[ ] they indulge in smoking, the only pipes of their own manufacture being of plain cedar, filled now with tobacco by those who can afford it, but in which they formerly smoked, as it is supposed, the leaves of a native plant--still mixed with tobacco to lessen its intoxicating properties. the pipe is passed round after a meal, but seems to be less used in serious ceremonies than among eastern indian nations.[ ] [sidenote: nootka amusements.] but the nootka amusement par excellence is that of feasts, given by the richer classes and chiefs nearly every evening during 'the season.' male and female heralds are employed ceremoniously to invite the guests, the house having been first cleared of its partitions, and its floor spread with mats.[ ] as in countries more civilized, the common people go early to secure the best seats, their allotted place being near the door. the élite come later, after being repeatedly sent for; on arrival they are announced by name, and assigned a place according to rank. in one corner of the hall the fish and whale-blubber are boiled by the wives of the chiefs, who serve it to the guests in pieces larger or smaller, according to their rank. what can not be eaten must be carried home. their drink ordinarily is pure water, but occasionally berries of a peculiar kind, preserved in cakes, are stirred in until a froth is formed which swells the body of the drinker nearly to bursting.[ ] eating is followed by conversation and speech-making, oratory being an art highly prized, in which, with their fine voices, they become skillful. finally, the floor is cleared for dancing. in the dances in which the crowd participate, the dancers, with faces painted in black and vermilion, form a circle round a few leaders who give the step, which consists chiefly in jumping with both feet from the ground, brandishing weapons or bunches of feathers, or sometimes simply bending the body without moving the feet. as to the participation of women in these dances, authorities do not agree.[ ] in a sort of conversational dance all pass briskly round the room to the sound of music, praising in exclamations the building and all within it, while another dance requires many to climb upon the roof and there continue their motions. their special or character dances are many, and in them they show much dramatic talent. a curtain is stretched across a corner of the room to conceal the preparations, and the actors, fantastically dressed, represent personal combats, hunting scenes, or the actions of different animals. in the seal-dance naked men jump into the water and then crawl out and over the floors, imitating the motions of the seal. indecent performances are mentioned by some visitors. sometimes in these dances men drop suddenly as if dead, and are at last revived by the doctors, who also give dramatic or magic performances at their houses; or they illuminate a wax moon out on the water, and make the natives believe they are communing with the man in the moon. to tell just where amusement ceases and solemnity begins in these dances is impossible.[ ] birds' down forms an important item in the decoration at dances, especially at the reception of strangers. all dances, as well as other ceremonies, are accompanied by continual music, instrumental and vocal. the instruments are: boxes and benches struck with sticks; a plank hollowed out on the under side and beaten with drum-sticks about a foot long; a rattle made of dried seal-skin in the form of a fish, with pebbles; a whistle of deer-bone about an inch long with one hole, which like the rattle can only be used by chiefs; and a bunch of muscle-shells, to be shaken like castanets.[ ] their songs are monotonous chants, extending over but few notes, varied by occasional howls and whoops in some of the more spirited melodies, pleasant or otherwise, according to the taste of the hearer.[ ] certain of their feasts are given periodically by the head chiefs, which distant tribes attend, and during which take place the distributions of property already mentioned. whenever a gift is offered, etiquette requires the recipient to snatch it rudely from the donor with a stern and surly look.[ ] [sidenote: miscellaneous customs.] among the miscellaneous customs noticed by the different authorities already quoted, may be mentioned the following. daily bathing in the sea is practiced, the vapor-bath not being used. children are rolled in the snow by their mothers to make them hardy. camps and other property are moved from place to place by piling them on a plank platform built across the canoes. whymper saw indians near bute inlet carrying burdens on the back by a strap across the forehead. in a fight they rarely strike but close and depend on pulling hair and scratching; a chance blow must be made up by a present. invitations to eat must not be declined, no matter how often repeated. out of doors there is no native gesture of salutation, but in the houses a guest is motioned politely to a couch; guests are held sacred, and great ceremonies are performed at the reception of strangers; all important events are announced by heralds. friends sometimes saunter along hand in hand. a secret society, independent of tribe, family, or crest, is supposed by sproat to exist among them, but its purposes are unknown. in a palaver with whites the orator holds a long white pole in his hand, which he sticks occasionally into the ground by way of emphasis. an animal chosen as a crest must not be shot or ill-treated in the presence of any wearing its figure; boys recite portions of their elders' speeches as declamations; names are changed many times during life, at the will of the individual or of the tribe. [sidenote: customs and cannibalism.] in sorcery, witchcraft, prophecy, dreams, evil spirits, and the transmigration of souls, the nootkas are firm believers, and these beliefs enable the numerous sorcerers of different grades to acquire great power in the tribes by their strange ridiculous ceremonies. most of their tricks are transparent, being deceptions worked by the aid of confederates to keep up their power; but, as in all religions, the votary must have some faith in the efficacy of their incantations. the sorcerer, before giving a special demonstration, retires apart to meditate. after spending some time alone in the forests and mountains, fasting and lacerating the flesh, he appears suddenly before the tribe, emaciated, wild with excitement, clad in a strange costume, grotesquely painted, and wearing a hideous mask. the scenes that ensue are indescribable, but the aim seems to be to commit all the wild freaks that a maniac's imagination may devise, accompanied by the most unearthly yells which can terrorize the heart. live dogs and dead human bodies are seized and torn by their teeth; but, at least in later times, they seem not to attack the living, and their performances are somewhat less horrible and bloody than the wild orgies of the northern tribes. the sorcerer is thought to have more influence with bad spirits than with good, and is always resorted to in the case of any serious misfortune. new members of the fraternity are initiated into the mysteries by similar ceremonies. old women are not without their traditional mysterious powers in matters of prophecy and witchcraft; and all chiefs in times of perplexity practice fasting and laceration. dreams are believed to be the visits of spirits or of the wandering soul of some living party, and the unfortunate nootka boy or girl whose blubber-loaded stomach causes uneasy dreams, must be properly hacked, scorched, smothered, and otherwise tormented until the evil spirit is appeased.[ ] whether or not these people were cannibals, is a disputed question, but there seems to be little doubt that slaves have been sacrificed and eaten as a part of their devilish rites.[ ] the nootkas are generally a long-lived race, and from the beginning to the failing of manhood undergo little change in appearance. jewitt states that during his captivity of three years at nootka sound, only five natural deaths occurred, and the people suffered scarcely any disease except the colic. sproat mentions as the commonest diseases; bilious complaints, dysentery, a consumption which almost always follows syphilis, fevers, and among the aged, ophthalmia. accidental injuries, as cuts, bruises, sprains, and broken limbs, are treated with considerable success by means of simple salves or gums, cold water, pine-bark bandages, and wooden splints. natural pains and maladies are invariably ascribed to the absence or other irregular conduct of the soul, or to the influence of evil spirits, and all treatment is directed to the recall of the former and to the appeasing of the latter. still, so long as the ailment is slight, simple means are resorted to, and the patient is kindly cared for by the women; as when headache, colic, or rheumatism is treated by the application of hot or cold water, hot ashes, friction, or the swallowing of cold teas made from various roots and leaves. nearly every disease has a specific for its cure. oregon grape and other herbs cure syphilis; wasp-nest powder is a tonic, and blackberries an astringent; hemlock bark forms a plaster, and dog-wood bark is a strengthener; an infusion of young pine cones or the inside scrapings of a human skull prevent too rapid family increase, while certain plants facilitate abortion. when a sickness becomes serious, the sorcerer or medicine-man is called in and incantations begin, more or less noisy according to the amount of the prospective fee and the number of relatives and friends who join in the uproar. a very poor wretch is permitted to die in comparative quiet. in difficult cases the doctor, wrought up to the highest state of excitement, claims to see and hear the soul, and to judge of the patient's prospects by its position and movements. the sick man shows little fortitude, and abandons himself helplessly to the doctor's ridiculous measures. failing in a cure, the physician gets no pay, but if successful, does not fail to make a large demand. both the old and the helplessly sick are frequently abandoned by the ahts to die without aid in the forest.[ ] [sidenote: nootka burial.] after death the nootka's body is promptly put away; a slave's body is unceremoniously thrown into the water; that of a freeman, is placed in a crouching posture, their favorite one during life, in a deep wooden box, or in a canoe, and suspended from the branches of a tree, deposited on the ground with a covering of sticks and stones, or, more rarely, buried. common people are usually left on the surface; the nobility are suspended from trees at heights differing, as some authorities say, according to rank. the practice of burning the dead seems also to have been followed in some parts of this region. each tribe has a burying-ground chosen on some hill-side or small island. with chiefs, blankets, skins, and other property in large amounts are buried, hung up about the grave, or burned during the funeral ceremonies, which are not complicated except for the highest officials. the coffins are often ornamented with carvings or paintings of the deceased man's crest, or with rows of shells. when a death occurs, the women of the tribe make a general howl, and keep it up at intervals for many days or months; the men, after a little speech-making, keep silent. the family and friends, with blackened faces and hair cut short, follow the body to its last resting-place with music and other manifestations of sorrow, generally terminating in a feast. there is great reluctance to explain their funeral usages to strangers; death being regarded by this people with great superstition and dread, not from solicitude for the welfare of the dead, but from a belief in the power of departed spirits to do much harm to the living.[ ] [sidenote: character of the nootkas.] the nootka character presents all the inconsistencies observable among other american aborigines, since there is hardly a good or bad trait that has not by some observer been ascribed to them. their idiosyncrasies as a race are perhaps best given by sproat as "want of observation, a great deficiency of foresight, extreme fickleness in their passions and purposes, habitual suspicion, and a love of power and display; added to which may be noticed their ingratitude and revengeful disposition, their readiness for war, and revolting indifference to human suffering." these qualities, judged by civilized standards censurable, to the nootka are praiseworthy, while contrary qualities are to be avoided. by a strict application, therefore, of 'put yourself in his place' principles, to which most 'good indians' owe their reputation, nootka character must not be too harshly condemned. they are not, so far as physical actions are concerned, a remarkably lazy people, but their minds, although intelligent when aroused, are averse to effort and quickly fatigued; nor can they comprehend the advantage of continued effort for any future good which is at all remote. what little foresight they have, has much in common with the instinct of beasts. ordinarily, they are quiet and well behaved, especially the higher classes, but when once roused to anger, they rage, bite, spit and kick without the slightest attempt at self-possession. a serious offense against an individual, although nominally pardoned in consideration of presents, can really never be completely atoned for except by blood; hence private, family, and tribal feuds continue from generation to generation. women are not immodest, but the men have no shame. stealing is recognized as a fault, and the practice as between members of the same tribe is rare, but skillful pilfering from strangers, if not officially sanctioned, is extensively carried on and much admired; still any property confided in trust to a nootka is said to be faithfully returned. to his wife he is kind and just; to his children affectionate. efforts for their conversion to foreign religions have been in the highest degree unsuccessful.[ ] [sidenote: the sound indians.] the sound indians, by which term i find it convenient to designate the nations about puget sound, constitute the third family of the columbian group. in this division i include all the natives of that part of washington which lies to the west of the cascade range, except a strip from twenty-five to forty miles wide along the north bank of the columbia. the north-eastern section of this territory, including the san juan group, whidbey island, and the region tributary to bellingham bay, is the home of the _nooksak_, _lummi_, _samish_ and _skagit_ nations, whose neighbors and constant harassers on the north are the fierce kwantlums and cowichins of the nootka family about the mouth of the fraser. the central section, comprising the shores and islands of admiralty inlet, hood canal, and puget sound proper, is occupied by numerous tribes with variously spelled names, mostly terminating in _mish_, which names, with all their orthographic diversity, have been given generally to the streams on whose banks the different nations dwelt. all these tribes may be termed the _nisqually_ nation, taking the name from the most numerous and best-known of the tribes located about the head of the sound. the _clallams_ inhabit the eastern portion of the peninsula between the sound and the pacific. the western extremity of the same peninsula, terminating at cape flattery, is occupied by the _classets_ or _makahs_; while the _chehalis_ and _cowlitz_ nations are found on the chehalis river, gray harbor, and the upper cowlitz. excepting a few bands on the headwaters of streams that rise in the vicinity of mount baker, the sound family belongs to the coast fish-eating tribes rather than to the hunters of the interior. indeed, this family has so few marked peculiarities, possessing apparently no trait or custom not found as well among the nootkas or chinooks, that it may be described in comparatively few words. when first known to europeans they seem to have been far less numerous than might have been expected from the extraordinary fertility and climatic advantages of their country; and since they have been in contact with the whites, their numbers have been reduced,--chiefly through the agency of small-pox and ague,--even more rapidly than the nations farther to the north-west.[ ] these natives of washington are short and thick-set, with strong limbs, but bow-legged; they have broad faces, eyes fine but wide apart; noses prominent, both of roman and aquiline type; color, a light copper, perhaps a shade darker than that of the nootkas, but capable of transmitting a flush; the hair usually black and almost universally worn long.[ ] all the tribes flatten the head more or less, but none carry the practice to such an extent as their neighbors on the south, unless it be the cowlitz nation, which might indeed as correctly be classed with the chinooks. by most of the sound natives tattooing is not practiced, and they seem somewhat less addicted to a constant use of paint than the nootkas; yet on festive occasions a plentiful and hideous application is made of charcoal or colored earth pulverized in grease, and the women appreciate the charms imparted to the face by the use of vermilion clay. the nose, particularly at cape flattery, is the grand centre of facial ornamentation. perforating is extravagantly practiced, and pendant trinkets of every form and substance are worn, those of bone or shell preferred, and, if we may credit wilkes, by some of the women these ornaments are actually kept clean. [sidenote: sound dress and dwellings.] the native garment, when the weather makes nakedness uncomfortable, is a blanket of dog's hair, sometimes mixed with birds' down and bark-fibre, thrown about the shoulders. some few fasten this about the neck with a wooden pin. the women are more careful in covering the person with the blanket than are the men, and generally wear under it a bark apron hanging from the waist in front. a cone-shaped, water-proof hat, woven from colored grasses, is sometimes worn on the head.[ ] temporary hunting-huts in summer are merely cross-sticks covered with coarse mats made by laying bulrushes side by side, and knotting them at intervals with cord or grass. the poorer individuals or tribes dwell permanently in similar huts, improved by the addition of a few slabs; while the rich and powerful build substantial houses, of planks split from trees by means of bone wedges, much like the nootka dwellings in plan, and nearly as large. these houses sometimes measure over one hundred feet in length, and are divided into rooms or pens, each house accommodating many families. there are several fire-places in each dwelling; raised benches extend round the sides, and the walls are often lined with matting.[ ] [sidenote: food of the sound indians.] in spring time they abandon their regular dwellings and resort in small companies to the various sources of food-supply. fish is their chief dependence, though game is taken in much larger quantities than by the nootkas; some of the more inland sound tribes subsisting almost entirely by the chase and by root-digging. nearly all the varieties of fish which support the northern tribes are also abundant here, and are taken substantially by the same methods, namely, by the net, hook, spear, and rake; but fisheries seem to be carried on somewhat less systematically, and i find no account of the extensive and complicated embankments and traps mentioned by travelers in british columbia. to the salmon, sturgeon, herring, rock-cod, and candle-fish, abundant in the inlets of the sound, the classets, by venturing out to sea, add a supply of whale-blubber and otter-meat, obtained with spears, lines, and floats. at certain points on the shore tall poles are erected, across which nets are spread; and against these nets large numbers of wild fowl, dazzled by torch-lights at night, dash themselves and fall stunned to the ground, where the natives stand ready to gather in the feathery harvest. vancouver noticed many of these poles in different localities, but could not divine their use. deer and elk in the forests are also hunted by night, and brought within arrow-shot by the spell of torches. for preservation, fish are dried in the sun or dried and smoked by the domestic hearth, and sometimes pounded fine, as are roots of various kinds; clams are dried on strings and hung up in the houses, or occasionally worn round the neck, ministering to the native love of ornament until the stronger instinct of hunger impairs the beauty of the necklace. in the better class of houses, supplies are neatly stored in baskets at the sides. the people are extremely improvident, and, notwithstanding their abundant natural supplies in ocean, stream, and forest, are often in great want. boiling in wooden vessels by means of hot stones is the ordinary method of cooking. a visitor to the nooksaks thus describes their method of steaming elk-meat: "they first dig a hole in the ground, then build a wood fire, placing stones on the top of it. as it burns, the stones become hot and fall down. moss and leaves are then placed on the top of the hot stones, the meat on these, and another layer of moss and leaves laid over it. water is poured on, which is speedily converted into steam. this is retained by mats carefully placed over the heap. when left in this way for a night, the meat is found tender and well cooked in the morning." fowls were cooked in the same manner by the queniults.[ ] i find no mention of other weapons, offensive or defensive, than spears, and bows and arrows. the arrows and spears were usually pointed with bone; the bows were of yew, and though short, were of great power. vancouver describes a superior bow used at puget sound. it was from two and a half to three feet long, made from a naturally curved piece of yew, whose concave side became the convex of the bow, and to the whole length of this side a strip of elastic hide or serpent-skin was attached so firmly by a kind of cement as to become almost a part of the wood. this lining added greatly to the strength of the bow, and was not affected by moisture. the bow-string was made of sinew.[ ] the tribes were continually at war with each other, and with northern nations, generally losing many of their people in battle. sticking the heads of the slain enemy on poles in front of their dwellings, is a common way of demonstrating their joy over a victory. the indians at port discovery spoke to wilkes of scalping among their warlike exploits, but according to kane the classets do not practice that usage.[ ] vancouver, finding sepulchres at penn cove, in which were large quantities of human bones but no limb-bones of adults, suspected that the latter were used by the indians for pointing their arrows, and in the manufacture of other implements.[ ] [sidenote: manufactures of puget sound.] the sound manufactures include only the weapons and utensils used by the natives. their articles were made with the simplest tools of bone or shell. blankets were made of dog's hair,--large numbers of dogs being raised for the purpose,--the wool of mountain sheep, or wild goats, found on the mountain slopes, the down of wild-fowl, cedar bark-fibre, ravellings of foreign blankets, or more commonly of a mixture of several of these materials. the fibre is twisted into yarn between the hand and thigh, and the strands arranged in perpendicular frames for weaving purposes. willow and other twigs supply material for baskets of various forms, often neatly made and colored. oil, both for domestic use and for barter, is extracted by boiling, except in the case of the candle-fish, when hanging in the hot sun suffices; it is preserved in bladders and skin-bottles.[ ] canoes are made by the sound indians in the same manner as by the nootkas already described; being always dug out, formerly by fire, from a single cedar trunk, and the form improved afterwards by stretching when soaked in hot water. of the most elegant proportions, they are modeled by the builder with no guide but the eye, and with most imperfect tools; three months' work is sufficient to produce a medium-sized boat. the form varies among different nations according as the canoe is intended for ocean, sound, or river navigation; being found with bow or stern, or both, in various forms, pointed, round, shovel-nosed, raised or level. the raised stern, head-piece, and stern-post are usually formed of separate pieces. like the nootkas, they char and polish the outside and paint the interior with red. the largest and finest specimen seen by mr. swan was forty-six feet long and six feet wide, and crossed the bar into shoalwater bay with thirty queniult indians from the north. the paddle used in deep water has a crutch-like handle and a sharp-pointed blade.[ ] [sidenote: trade and government of the sound indians.] in their barter between the different tribes, and in estimating their wealth, the blanket is generally the unit of value, and the _hiaqua_, a long white shell obtained off cape flattery at a considerable depth, is also extensively used for money, its value increasing with its length. a kind of annual fair for trading purposes and festivities is held by the tribes of puget sound at bajada point, and here and in their other feasts they are fond of showing their wealth and liberality by disposing of their surplus property in gifts.[ ] the system of government seems to be of the simplest nature, each individual being entirely independent and master of his own actions. there is a nominal chief in each tribe, who sometimes acquires great influence and privileges by his wealth or personal prowess, but he has no authority, and only directs the movements of his band in warlike incursions. i find no evidence of hereditary rank or caste except as wealth is sometimes inherited.[ ] slaves are held by all the tribes, and are treated very much like their dogs, being looked upon as property, and not within the category of humanity. for a master to kill half a dozen slaves is no wrong or cruelty; it only tends to illustrate the owner's noble disposition in so freely sacrificing his property. slaves are obtained by war and kidnapping, and are sold in large numbers to northern tribes. according to sproat, the classets, a rich and powerful tribe, encourage the slave-hunting incursions of the nootkas against their weaker neighbors.[ ] wives are bought by presents, and some performances or ceremonies, representative of hunting or fishing scenes, not particularly described by any visitor, take place at the wedding. women have all the work to do except hunting and fishing, while their lords spend their time in idleness and gambling. still the females are not ill-treated; they acquire great influence in the tribe, and are always consulted in matters of trade before a bargain is closed. they are not overburdened with modesty, nor are husbands noted for jealousy. hiring out their women, chiefly however slaves, for prostitution, has been a prominent source of tribal revenue since the country was partially settled by whites. women are not prolific, three or four being ordinarily the limit of their offspring. infants, properly bound up with the necessary apparatus for head-flattening, are tied to their cradle or to a piece of bark, and hung by a cord to the end of a springy pole kept in motion by a string attached to the mother's great toe. affection for children is by no means rare, but in few tribes can they resist the temptation to sell or gamble them away.[ ] [sidenote: amusements of the sound indians.] feasting, gambling, and smoking are the favorite amusements; all their property, slaves, children, and even their own freedom in some cases are risked in their games. several plants are used as substitutes for tobacco when that article is not obtainable. if any important differences exist between their ceremonies, dances, songs and feasts, and those of vancouver island, such variations have not been recorded. in fact, many authors describe the manners and customs of 'north-west america' as if occupied by one people.[ ] there is no evidence of cannibalism; indeed, during vancouver's visit at puget sound, some meat offered to the natives was refused, because it was suspected to be human flesh. since their acquaintance with the whites they have acquired a habit of assuming great names, as duke of york, or jenny lind, and highly prize scraps of paper with writing purporting to substantiate their claims to such distinctions. their superstitions are many, and they are continually on the watch in all the commonest acts of life against the swarm of evil influences, from which they may escape only by the greatest care.[ ] [sidenote: character of the sound indians.] disorders of the throat and lungs, rheumatism and intermittent fevers, are among the most prevalent forms of disease, and in their methods of cure, as usual, the absurd ceremonies, exorcisms, and gesticulations of the medicine-men play the principal part; but hot and cold baths are also often resorted to without regard to the nature or stage of the malady.[ ] the bodies of such as succumb to their diseases, or to the means employed for cure, are disposed of in different ways according to locality, tribe, rank, or age. skeletons are found by travelers buried in the ground or deposited in a sitting posture on its surface; in canoes or in boxes supported by posts, or, more commonly, suspended from the branches of trees. corpses are wrapped in cloth or matting, and more or less richly decorated according to the wealth of the deceased. several bodies are often put in one canoe or box, and the bodies of young children are found suspended in baskets. property and implements, the latter always broken, are deposited with or near the remains, and these last resting-places of their people are religiously cared for and guarded from intrusion by all the tribes.[ ] all the peculiarities and inconsistencies of the nootka character perhaps have been noted by travelers among the indians of the sound, but none of these peculiarities are so clearly marked in the latter people. in their character, as in other respects, they have little individuality, and both their virtues and vices are but faint reflections of the same qualities in the great families north and south of their territory. the cape flattery tribes are at once the most intelligent, bold, and treacherous of all, while some of the tribes east and north-east of the sound proper have perhaps the best reputation. since the partial settlement of their territory by the whites, the natives here as elsewhere have lost many of their original characteristics, chiefly the better ones. the remnants now for the most part are collected on government reservations, or live in the vicinity of towns, by begging and prostitution. some tribes, especially in the region of bellingham bay, have been nominally converted to christianity, have abandoned polygamy, slavery, head-flattening, gambling, and superstitious ceremonies, and pay considerable attention to a somewhat mixed version of church doctrine and ceremonies.[ ] the chinooks constitute the fourth division of the columbian group. originally the name was restricted to a tribe on the north bank of the columbia between gray bay and the ocean; afterwards, from a similarity in language and customs, it was applied to all the bands on both sides of the river, from its mouth to the dalles.[ ] it is employed in this work to designate all the oregon tribes west of the cascade range, southward to the rogue river or umpqua mountains. this family lies between the sound indians on the north and the californian group on the south, including in addition to the tribes of the columbia, those of the willamette valley and the coast. all closely resemble each other in manners and customs, having also a general resemblance to the northern families already described, springing from their methods of obtaining food; and although probably without linguistic affinities, except along the columbia river, they may be consistently treated as one family--the last of the great coast or fish-eating divisions of the columbian group. among the prominent tribes, or nations of the chinook family may be mentioned the following: the _watlalas_ or upper chinooks, including the bands on the columbia from the cascades to the cowlitz, and on the lower willamette; the lower chinooks from the cowlitz to the pacific comprising the _wakiakums_ and _chinooks_ on the north bank, and the _cathlamets_ and _clatsops_ on the south; the _calapooyas_ occupying the valley of the willamette, and the _clackamas_ on one of its chief tributaries of the same name; with the _killamooks_ and _umpquas_ who live between the coast range[ ] and the ocean. with respect to the present condition of these nations, authorities agree in speaking of them as a squalid and poverty-stricken race, once numerous and powerful, now few and weak. their country has been settled by whites much more thickly than regions farther north, and they have rapidly disappeared before the influx of strangers. whole tribes have been exterminated by war and disease, and in the few miserable remnants collected on reservations or straggling about the oregon towns, no trace is apparent of the independent, easy-living bands of the remote past.[ ] it is however to be noted that at no time since this region has been known to europeans has the indian population been at all in proportion to the supporting capacity of the land, while yet in a state of nature, with its fertile soil and well-stocked streams and forests. [sidenote: chinook physique.] in physique the chinook can not be said to differ materially from the nootka. in stature the men rarely exceed five feet six inches, and the women five feet. both sexes are thick-set, but as a rule loosely built, although in this respect they had doubtless degenerated when described by most travelers. their legs are bowed and otherwise deformed by a constant squatting position in and out of their canoes. trained by constant exposure with slight clothing, they endure cold and hunger better than the white man, but to continued muscular exertion they soon succumb. physically they improve in proportion to their distance from the columbia and its fisheries; the calapooyas on the upper willamette, according to early visitors, presenting the finest specimens.[ ] descending from the north along the coast, hyperboreans, columbians, and californians gradually assume a more dusky hue as we proceed southward. the complexion of the chinooks may be called a trifle darker than the natives of the sound, and of vancouver; though nothing is more difficult than from the vague expressions of travelers to determine shades of color.[ ] points of resemblance have been noted by many observers between the chinook and mongolian physiognomy, consisting chiefly in the eyes turned obliquely upward at the outer corner. the face is broad and round, the nose flat and fat, with large nostrils, the mouth wide and thick-lipped, teeth irregular and much worn, eyes black, dull and expressionless; the hair generally black and worn long, and the beard carefully plucked out; nevertheless, their features are often regular.[ ] [sidenote: head-flattening phenomenon.] it is about the mouth of the columbia that the custom of flattening the head seems to have originated. radiating from this centre in all directions, and becoming less universal and important as the distance is increased, the usage terminates on the south with the nations which i have attached to the chinook family, is rarely found east of the cascade range, but extends, as we have seen, northward through all the coast families, although it is far from being held in the same esteem in the far north as in its apparently original centre. the origin of this deformity is unknown. all we can do is to refer it to that strange infatuation incident to humanity which lies at the root of fashion and ornamentation, and which even in these later times civilization is not able to eradicate. as alphonso the wise regretted not having been present at the creation--for then he would have had the world to suit him--so different ages and nations strive in various ways to remodel and improve the human form. thus the chinese lady compresses the feet, the european the waist, and the chinook the head. slaves are not allowed to indulge in this extravagance, and as this class are generally of foreign tribes or families, the work of ethnologists in classifying skulls obtained by travelers, and thereby founding theories of race is somewhat complicated; but the difficulty is lessened by the fact that slaves receive no regular burial, and hence all skulls belonging to bodies from native cemeteries are known to be chinook.[ ] the chinook ideal of facial beauty is a straight line from the end of the nose to the crown of the head. the flattening of the skull is effected by binding the infant to its cradle immediately after birth, and keeping it there from three months to a year. the simplest form of cradle is a piece of board or plank on which the child is laid upon its back with the head slightly raised by a block of wood. another piece of wood, or bark, or leather, is then placed over the forehead and tied to the plank with strings which are tightened more and more each day until the skull is shaped to the required pattern. space is left for lateral expansion; and under ordinary circumstances the child's head is not allowed to leave its position until the process is complete. the body and limbs are also bound to the cradle, but more loosely, by bandages, which are sometimes removed for cleansing purposes. moss or soft bark is generally introduced between the skin and the wood, and in some tribes comfortable pads, cushions, or rabbit-skins are employed. the piece of wood which rests upon the forehead is in some cases attached to the cradle by leather hinges, and instances are mentioned where the pressure is created by a spring. a trough or canoe-shaped cradle, dug out from a log, often takes the place of the simple board, and among the rich this is elaborately worked, and ornamented with figures and shells. the child while undergoing this process, with its small black eyes jammed half out of their sockets, presents a revolting picture. strangely enough, however, the little prisoner seems to feel scarcely any pain, and travelers almost universally state that no perceptible injury is done to the health or brain. as years advance the head partially but not altogether resumes its natural form, and among aged persons the effects are not very noticeable. as elsewhere, the personal appearance of the women is of more importance than that of the men, therefore the female child is subjected more rigorously and longer to the compressing process, than her brothers. failure properly to mould the cranium of her offspring gives to the chinook matron the reputation of a lazy and undutiful mother, and subjects the neglected children to the ridicule of their young companions;[ ] so despotic is fashion. a practice which renders the chinook more hideous than the compression of his skull is that of piercing or slitting the cartilage of the nose and ears, and inserting therein long strings of beads or hiaqua shells, the latter being prized above all other ornaments. tattooing seems to have been practiced, but not extensively, taking usually the form of lines of dots pricked into the arms, legs, and cheeks with pulverized charcoal. imitation tattooing, with the bright-colored juices of different berries, was a favorite pastime with the women, and neither sex could resist the charms of salmon-grease and red clay. in later times, however, according to swan, the custom of greasing and daubing the body has been to a great extent abandoned. great pains is taken in dressing the hair, which is combed, parted in the middle, and usually allowed to hang in long tresses down the back, but often tied up in a queue by the women and girls, or braided so as to hang in two tails tied with strings.[ ] [sidenote: chinook dress.] for dress, skins were much more commonly used in this region than among other coast families; particularly the skins of the smaller animals, as the rabbit and woodrat. these skins, dressed and often painted, were sewed together so as to form a robe or blanket similar in form and use to the more northern blanket of wool, which, as well as a similar garment of goose-skin with the feathers on, was also made and worn by the chinooks, though not in common use among them. they prefer to go naked when the weather permits. skins of larger animals, as the deer and elk, are also used for clothing, and of the latter is made a kind of arrow-proof armor for war; another coat of mail being made of sticks bound together. females almost universally wear a skirt of cedar bark-fibre, fastened about the waist and hanging to the knees. this garment is woven for a few inches at the top, but the rest is simply a hanging fringe, not very effectually concealing the person. a substitute for this petticoat in some tribes is a square piece of leather attached to a belt in front; and in others a long strip of deer-skin passed between the thighs and wound about the waist. a fringed garment, like that described, is also sometimes worn about the shoulders; in cold weather a fur robe is wrapped about the body from the hips to the armpits, forming a close and warm vest; and over all is sometimes thrown a cape, or fur blanket, like that of the men, varying in quality and value with the wealth of the wearer. the best are made of strips of sea-otter skin, woven with grass or cedar bark, so that the fur shows on both sides. chiefs and men of wealth wear rich robes of otter and other valuable furs. the conical hat woven of grass and bark, and painted in black and white checks or with rude figures, with or without a brim, and fastened under the chin, is the only covering for the head.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings of the chinooks.] the chinooks moved about less for the purpose of obtaining a supply of food, than many others, even of the coast families, yet the accumulation of filth or--a much stronger motive--of fleas, generally forced them to take down their winter dwellings each spring, preserving the materials for re-erection on the same or another spot. the best houses were built of cedar planks attached by bark-fibre cords to a frame, which consisted of four corner, and two central posts and a ridge pole. the planks of the sides and ends were sometimes perpendicular, but oftener laid horizontally, overlapping here in clapboard fashion as on the roof. in some localities the roof and even the whole structure was of cedar bark. these dwellings closely resembled those farther north, but were somewhat inferior in size, twenty-five to seventy-five feet long, and fifteen to twenty-five feet wide, being the ordinary dimensions. on the columbia they were only four or five feet high at the eaves, but an equal depth was excavated in the ground, while on the willamette the structure was built on the surface. the door was only just large enough to admit the body, and it was a favorite fancy of the natives to make it represent the mouth of an immense head painted round it. windows there were none, nor chimney; one or more fireplaces were sunk in the floor, and the smoke escaped by the cracks, a plank in the roof being sometimes moved for the purpose. mats were spread on the floor and raised berths were placed on the sides, sometimes in several tiers. partitions of plank or matting separated the apartments of the several families. smaller temporary huts, and the permanent homes of the poorer indians were built in various forms, of sticks, covered with bark, rushes, or skins. the interior and exterior of all dwellings were in a state of chronic filth.[ ] [sidenote: fisheries of the chinooks.] the salmon fisheries of the columbia are now famous throughout the world. once every year innumerable multitudes of these noble fish enter the river from the ocean to deposit their spawn. impelled by instinct, they struggle to reach the extreme limits of the stream, working their way in blind desperation to the very sources of every little branch, overcoming seeming impossibilities, and only to fulfill their destiny and die; for if they escape human enemies, they either kill themselves in their mad efforts to leap impassable falls, or if their efforts are crowned with success, they are supposed never to return to the ocean. this fishery has always been the chief and an inexhaustible source of food for the chinooks, who, although skillful fishermen, have not been obliged to invent a great variety of methods or implements for the capture of the salmon, which rarely if ever have failed them. certain ceremonies must, however, be observed with the first fish taken; his meat must be cut only with the grain, and the hearts of all caught must be burned or eaten, and on no account be thrown into the water or be devoured by a dog. with these precautions there is no reason to suppose that the chinook would ever lack a supply of fish. the salmon begin to run in april, but remain several weeks in the warmer waters near the mouth, and are there taken while in their best condition, by the chinook tribe proper, with a straight net of bark or roots, sometimes five hundred feet long and fifteen feet deep, with floats and sinkers. one end of the net is carried out into the river at high water, and drawn in by the natives on the shore, who with a mallet quiet the fish and prevent them from jumping over the net and escaping. farther up, especially at the cascades and at the falls of the willamette, salmon are speared by natives standing on the rocks or on planks placed for the purpose; scooped up in small dip-nets; or taken with a large unbaited hook attached by a socket and short line to a long pole. there is some account of artificial channels of rocks at these places, but such expedients were generally not needed, since, beside those caught by the chinooks, such numbers were cast on the rocks by their own efforts to leap the falls, that the air for months was infected by the decaying mass; and many of these in a palatable state of decay were gathered by the natives for food. hooks, spears, and nets were sometimes rubbed with the juice of certain plants supposed to be attractive to the fish. once taken, the salmon were cleaned by the women, dried in the sun and smoked in the lodges; then they were sometimes powdered fine between two stones, before packing in skins or mats for winter use. the heads were always eaten as favorite portions during the fishing season. next to the salmon the sturgeon was ranked as a source of food. this fish, weighing from two hundred to five hundred pounds, was taken by a baited hook, sunk about twenty feet, and allowed to float down the current; when hooked, the sturgeon rises suddenly and is dispatched by a spear, lifted into the canoe by a gaff-hook, or towed ashore. the chinooks do not attack the whale, but when one is accidentally cast upon the shore, more or less decayed, a season of feasting ensues and the native heart is glad. many smaller varieties of fish are taken by net, spear, hook, or rake, but no methods are employed meriting special description. wild fowl are snared or shot; elk and deer are shot with arrows or taken in a carefully covered pit, dug in their favorite haunts. as to the methods of taking rabbits and woodrats, whose skins are said to have been so extensively used for clothing, i find no information. nuts, berries, wild fruits and roots are all used as food, and to some extent preserved for winter. the wapato, a bulbous root, compared by some to the potatoe and turnip, was the aboriginal staple, and was gathered by women wading in shallow ponds, and separating the root with their toes.[ ] boiling in wooden kettles by means of hot stones, was the usual manner of cooking, but roasting on sticks stuck in the sand near the fire was also common. clam-shells and a few rude platters and spoons of wood were in use, but the fingers, with the hair for a napkin, were found much more convenient table ware.[ ] in all their personal habits the chinooks are disgustingly filthy, although said to be fond of baths for health and pleasure. the clatsops, as reported by one visitor, form a partial exception to this rule, as they occasionally wash the hands and face.[ ] [sidenote: weapons of the chinooks.] their chief weapons are bows and arrows, the former of which is made of cedar, or occasionally, as it is said, of horn and bone; its elasticity is increased by a covering of sinew glued on. the arrow-head is of bone, flint, or copper, and the shaft consists of a short piece of some hard wood, and a longer one of a lighter material. the bows are from two and a half to four feet long; five styles, differing in form and curve, are pictured by schoolcraft. another weapon in common use was a double-edged wooden broad-sword, or sharp club, two and a half or three feet long; spears, tomahawks, and scalping knives are mentioned by many travelers, but not described, and it is doubtful if either were ever used by these aborigines.[ ] i have already spoken of their thick arrow-proof elk-skin armor, and of a coat of short sticks bound together with grass; a bark helmet is also employed of sufficient strength to ward off arrows and light blows. ross states that they also carry a circular elk-skin shield about eighteen inches in diameter. although by no means a blood-thirsty race, the chinook tribes were frequently involved in quarrels, resulting, it is said, from the abduction of women more frequently than from other causes. they, like almost all other american tribes, make a free use of war paint, laying it on grotesquely and in bright colors; but unlike most other nations, they never resorted to treachery, surprise, night attacks, or massacre of women and children. fighting was generally done upon the water. when efforts to settle amicably their differences, always the first expedient, failed, a party of warriors, covered from head to foot with armor, and armed with bows, arrows, and bludgeons, was paddled by women to the enemies' village, where diplomatic efforts for peace were renewed. if still unsuccessful, the women were removed from danger, and the battle commenced, or, if the hour was late, fighting was postponed till the next morning. as their armor was arrow-proof and as they rarely came near enough for hand-to-hand conflict, the battles were of short duration and accompanied by little bloodshed; the fall of a few warriors decided the victory, the victors gained their point in the original dispute, the vanquished paid some damages, and the affair ended.[ ] [sidenote: implements, manufactures, boats.] troughs dug out of one piece of cedar, and woven baskets served this people for dishes, and were used for every purpose. the best baskets were of silk grass or fine fibre, of a conical form, woven in colors so closely as to hold liquids, and with a capacity of from one to six gallons. coarser baskets were made of roots and rushes, rude spoons of ash-wood, and circular mats did duty as plates. wapato diggers used a curved stick with handle of horn; fish-hooks and spears were made of wood and bone in a variety of forms; the wing-bone of the crane supplied a needle. with regard to their original cutting instruments, by which trees were felled for canoes or for planks which were split off by wedges, there is much uncertainty; since nearly all authorities state that before their intercourse with europeans, chisels made of 'old files,' were employed, and driven by an oblong stone or a spruce-knot mallet. pipe-bowls were of hard wood fitted to an elder stem, but the best ones, of stone elegantly carved, were of haidah manufacture and obtained from the north.[ ] to kindle a fire the chinook twirls rapidly between the palms a cedar stick, the point of which is pressed into a small hollow in a flat piece of the same material, the sparks falling on finely-frayed bark. sticks are commonly carried for the purpose, improving with use. besides woven baskets, matting is the chief article of chinook manufacture. it is made by the women by placing side by side common bulrushes or flags about three feet long, tying the ends, and passing strings of twisted rushes through the whole length, sometimes twenty or thirty feet, about four inches apart, by means of a bone needle.[ ] chinook boats do not differ essentially, either in material, form, or method of manufacture, from those already described as in use among the sound family. always dug out of a single log of the common white cedar, they vary in length from ten to fifty feet, and in form according to the waters they are intended to navigate or the freight they are to carry. in these canoes lightness, strength, and elegance combine to make them perfect models of water-craft. lewis and clarke describe four forms in use in this region, and their description of boats, as of most other matters connected with this people, has been taken with or without credit by nearly all who have treated of the subject. i cannot do better than to give their account of the largest and best boats used by the killamooks and other tribes on the coast outside the river. "the sides are secured by cross-bars, or round sticks, two or three inches in thickness, which are inserted through holes just below the gunwale, and made fast with cords. the upper edge of the gunwale itself is about five-eighths of an inch thick, and four or five in breadth, and folds outwards, so as to form a kind of rim, which prevents the water from beating into the boat. the bow and stern are about the same height, and each provided with a comb, reaching to the bottom of the boat. at each end, also, are pedestals, formed of the same solid piece, on which are placed strange grotesque figures of men or animals, rising sometimes to the height of five feet, and composed of small pieces of wood, firmly united, with great ingenuity, by inlaying and mortising, without a spike of any kind. the paddle is usually from four feet and a half to five feet in length; the handle being thick for one-third of its length, when it widens, and is hollowed and thinned on each side of the centre, which forms a sort of rib. when they embark, one indian sits in the stern, and steers with a paddle, the others kneel in pairs in the bottom of the canoe, and sitting on their heels, paddle over the gunwale next to them. in this way they ride with perfect safety the highest waves, and venture without the least concern in seas where other boats or seamen could not live an instant." the women are as expert as the men in the management of canoes.[ ] [sidenote: chinook property and trade.] the chinooks were always a commercial rather than a warlike people, and are excelled by none in their shrewdness at bargaining. before the arrival of the europeans they repaired annually to the region of the cascades and dalles, where they met the tribes of the interior, with whom they exchanged their few articles of trade--fish, oil, shells, and wapato--for the skins, roots, and grasses of their eastern neighbors. the coming of ships to the coast gave the chinooks the advantage in this trade, since they controlled the traffic in beads, trinkets and weapons; they found also in the strangers ready buyers of the skins obtained from the interior in exchange for these articles. their original currency or standard of value was the hiaqua shell from the northern coast, whose value was in proportion to its length, a fathom string of forty shells being worth nearly double a string of fifty to the fathom. since the white men came, beaver-skins and blankets have been added to their currency. individuals were protected in their rights to personal property, such as slaves, canoes, and implements, but they had no idea of personal property in lands, the title to which rested in the tribe for purposes of fishing and the chase.[ ] in decorative art this family cannot be said to hold a high place compared with more northern nations, their only superior work being the modeling of their canoes, and the weaving of ornamental baskets. in carving they are far inferior to the haidahs; the cathlamets, according to lewis and clarke, being somewhat superior to the others, or at least more fond of the art. their attempts at painting are exceedingly rude.[ ] little can be said of their system of government except that it was eminently successful in producing peaceful and well regulated communities. each band or village was usually a sovereignty, nominally ruled by a chief, either hereditary or selected for his wealth and popularity, who exerted over his tribe influence rather than authority, but who was rarely opposed in his measures. sometimes a league existed, more or less permanent, for warlike expeditions. slight offenses against usage--the tribal common law--were expiated by the payment of an amount of property satisfactory to the party offended. theft was an offense, but the return of the article stolen removed every trace of dishonor. serious crimes, as the robbery of a burial-place, were sometimes punished with death by the people, but no special authorities or processes seem to have been employed, either for detection or punishment.[ ] slavery, common to all the coast families, is also practiced by the chinooks, but there is less difference here perhaps than elsewhere between the condition of the slaves and the free. obtained from without the limits of the family, towards the south or east, by war, or more commonly by trade, the slaves are obliged to perform all the drudgery for their masters, and their children must remain in their parents' condition, their round heads serving as a distinguishing mark from freemen. but the amount of the work connected with the chinook household is never great, and so long as the slaves are well and strong, they are liberally fed and well treated. true, many instances are known of slaves murdered by the whim of a cruel and rich master, and it was not very uncommon to kill slaves on the occasion of the death of prominent persons, but wives and friends are also known to have been sacrificed on similar occasions. no burial rights are accorded to slaves, and no care taken of them in serious illness; when unable to work they are left to die, and their bodies cast into the sea or forest as food for fish or beast. it was not a rare occurrence for a freeman to voluntarily subject himself to servitude in payment of a gambling-debt; nor for a slave to be adopted into the tribe, and the privilege of head-flattening accorded to his offspring.[ ] [sidenote: marital relations of the chinooks.] not only were the chinooks a peaceable people in their tribal intercourse, but eminently so in their family relations. the young men when they married brought their wives to their father's home, and thus several generations lived amicably in their large dwellings until forced to separate by numbers, the chief authority being exercised not by the oldest but by the most active and useful member of the household. overtures for marriage were made by friends of the would-be bridegroom, who offered a certain price, and if accepted by the maiden's parents, the wedding ceremony was celebrated simply by an interchange and exhibition of presents with the congratulations of invited guests. a man might take as many wives as he could buy and support, and all lived together without jealousy; but practically few, and those among the rich and powerful, indulged in the luxury of more than one wife. it has been noticed that there was often great disparity in the ages of bride and groom, for, say the chinooks, a very young or very aged couple lack either the experience or the activity necessary for fighting the battles of life. divorce or separation is easily accomplished, but is not of frequent occurrence. a husband can repudiate his wife for infidelity, or any cause of dissatisfaction, and she can marry again. some cases are known of infidelity punished with death. barrenness is common, the birth of twins rare, and families do not usually exceed two children. childbirth, as elsewhere among aboriginals, is accompanied with but little inconvenience, and children are often nursed until three or five years old. they are carried about on the mother's back until able to walk; at first in the head-flattening cradle, and later in wicker baskets. unmarried women have not the slightest idea of chastity, and freely bestow their favors in return for a kindness, or for a very small consideration in property paid to themselves or parents. when married, all this is changed--female virtue acquires a marketable value, the possessorship being lodged in the man and not in the woman. rarely are wives unfaithful to their husbands; but the chastity of the wife is the recognized property of the husband, who sells it whenever he pleases. although attaching no honor to chastity, the chinook woman feels something like shame at becoming the mother of an illegitimate child, and it is supposed to be partly from this instinct, that infanticide and abortion are of frequent occurrence. at her first menstruation a girl must perform a certain penance, much less severe, however, than among the northern nations. in some tribes she must bathe frequently for a moon, and rub the body with rotten hemlock, carefully abstaining from all fish and berries which are in season, and remaining closely in the house during a south wind. did she partake of the forbidden food, the fish would leave the streams and the berries drop from the bushes; or did she go out in a south wind, the thunder-bird would come and shake his wings. all thunder-storms are thus caused. both young children and the old and infirm are kindly treated. work is equally divided between the sexes; the women prepare the food which the men provide; they also manufacture baskets and matting; they are nearly as skillful as the men with the canoe, and are consulted on all important matters. their condition is by no means a hard one. it is among tribes that live by the chase or by other means in which women can be of little service, that we find the sex most oppressed and cruelly treated.[ ] [sidenote: chinook feasts and festivities.] like all indians, the chinooks are fond of feasting, but their feasts are simply the coming together of men and women during the fishing season with the determination to eat as much as possible, and this meeting is devoid of those complicated ceremonies of invitation, reception, and social etiquette, observed farther north; nor has any traveler noticed the distribution of property as a feature of these festivals. fantastically dressed and gaudily decked with paint, they are wont to jump about on certain occasions in a hopping, jolting kind of dance, accompanied by songs, beating of sticks, clapping of hands, and occasional yells, the women usually dancing in a separate set. as few visitors mention their dances, it is probable that dancing was less prevalent than with others. their songs were often soft and pleasing, differing in style for various occasions, the words extemporized, the tunes being often sung with meaningless sounds, like our tra-la-la. swan gives examples of the music used under different circumstances. smoking was universal, the leaves of the bear-berry being employed, mixed in later times with tobacco obtained from the whites. smoke is swallowed and retained in the stomach and lungs until partial intoxication ensues. no intoxicating drink was known to them before the whites came, and after their coming for a little time they looked on strong drink with suspicion, and were averse to its use. they are sometimes sober even now, when no whisky is at hand. but the favorite amusement of all the chinook nations is gambling, which occupies the larger part of their time when not engaged in sleeping, eating, or absolutely necessary work. in their games they risk all their property, their wives and children, and in many instances their own freedom, losing all with composure, and nearly always accompanying the game with a song. two persons, or two parties large or small, play one against the other; a banking game is also in vogue, in which one individual plays against all comers. a favorite method is to pass rapidly from hand to hand two small sticks, one of which is marked, the opponent meanwhile guessing at the hand containing the marked stick. the sticks sometimes take the form of discs of the size of a silver dollar, each player having ten; these are wrapped in a mass of fine bark-fibre, shuffled and separated in two portions; the winner naming the bunch containing the marked or trump piece. differently marked sticks may also be shuffled or tossed in the air, and the lucky player correctly names the relative position in which they shall fall. a favorite game of females, called _ahikia_, is played with beaver-teeth, having figured sides, which are thrown like dice; the issue depends on the combinations of figures which are turned up. in all these games the players squat upon mats; sticks are used as counters; and an essential point for a successful gambler is to make as much noise as possible, in order to confuse the judgment of opponents. in still another game the players attempt to roll small pieces of wood between two pins set up a few inches apart, at a distance of ten feet, into a hole in the floor just beyond. the only sports of an athletic nature are shooting at targets with arrows and spears, and a game of ball in which two goals are placed a mile apart, and each party--sometimes a whole tribe--endeavors to force the ball past the other's goal, as in foot-ball, except that the ball is thrown with a stick, to one end of which is fixed a small hoop or ring.[ ] children's sports are described only by swan, and as rag babies and imitated catholic baptisms were the favorite pastimes mentioned, they may be supposed not altogether aboriginal. [sidenote: customs and superstitions.] personal names with the chinooks are hereditary, but in many cases they either have no meaning or their original signification is soon forgotten. they are averse to telling their true name to strangers, for fear, as they sometimes say, that it may be stolen; the truth is, however, that with them the name assumes a personality; it is the shadow or spirit, or other self, of the flesh and blood person, and between the name and the individual there is a mysterious connection, and injury cannot be done to one without affecting the other; therefore, to give one's name to a friend is a high mark of chinook favor. no account is kept of age. they are believers in sorcery and secret influences, and not without fear of their medicine-men or conjurers, but, except perhaps in their quality of physicians, the latter do not exert the influence which is theirs farther north; their ceremonies and tricks are consequently fewer and less ridiculous. inventions of the whites not understood by the natives are looked on with great superstition. it was, for instance, very difficult at first to persuade them to risk their lives before a photographic apparatus, and this for the reason before mentioned; they fancied that their spirit thus passed into the keeping of others, who could torment it at pleasure.[ ] consumption, liver complaint and ophthalmia are the most prevalent chinook maladies; to which, since the whites came, fever and ague have been added, and have killed eighty or ninety per cent. of the whole people, utterly exterminating some tribes. the cause of this excessive mortality is supposed to be the native method of treatment, which allays a raging fever by plunging the patient in the river or sea. on the columbia this alleviating plunge is preceded by violent perspiration in a vapor bath; consequently the treatment has been much more fatal there than on the coast where the vapor bath is not in use. for slight ills and pains, especially for external injuries, the chinooks employ simple remedies obtained from various plants and trees. many of these remedies have been found to be of actual value, while others are evidently quack nostrums, as when the ashes of the hair of particular animals are considered essential ingredients of certain ointments. fasting and bathing serve to relieve many slight internal complaints. strangely enough, they never suffer from diseases of the digestive organs, notwithstanding the greasy compounds used as food. when illness becomes serious or refuses to yield to simple treatment, the conclusion is that either the spirits of the dead are striving to remove the spirit of the sick person from the troubles of earth to a happier existence, or certain evil spirits prefer this world and the patient's body for their dwelling-place. then the doctor is summoned. medical celebrities are numerous, each with his favorite method of treatment, but all agree that singing, beating of sticks, indeed a noise, however made, accompanied by mysterious passes and motions, with violent pressure and kneading of the body are indispensable. the patient frequently survives the treatment. several observers believe that mesmeric influences are exerted, sometimes with benefit, by the doctors in their mummeries.[ ] [sidenote: chinook burial rites.] when the chinook dies, relatives are careful to speak in whispers, and indulge in no loud manifestations of grief so long as the body remains in the house. the body is prepared for final disposition by wrapping it in blankets, together with ornaments and other property of a valuable but not bulky nature. for a burial place an elevated but retired spot near the river bank or on an island is almost always selected, but the methods of disposing of the dead in these cemeteries differ somewhat among the various tribes. in the region about the mouth of the columbia, the body with its wrappings is placed in the best canoe of the deceased, which is washed for the purpose, covered with additional blankets, mats, and property, again covered, when the deceased is of the richer class, by another inverted canoe, the whole bound together with matting and cords, and deposited usually on a plank platform five or six feet high, but sometimes suspended from the branches of trees, or even left on the surface of the ground. the more bulky articles of property, such as utensils, and weapons, are deposited about or hung from the platform, being previously spoiled for use that they may not tempt desecrators among the whites or foreign tribes; or, it may be that the sacrifice or death of the implements is necessary before the spirits of the implements can accompany the spirit of the owner. for the same purpose, and to allow the water to pass off, holes are bored in the bottom of the canoe, the head of the corpse being raised a little higher than the feet. some travelers have observed a uniformity in the position of the canoe, the head pointing towards the east, or down the current of the stream. after about a year, the bones are sometimes taken out and buried, but the canoe and platform are never removed. chiefs' canoes are often repainted. farther up both the columbia and willamette rivers, excavations of little depth are often made, in which bodies are deposited on horizontal boards and covered over with a slightly inclining roof of heavy planks or poles. in these vaults several tiers of corpses are often placed one above another. at the cascades, depositories of the dead have been noticed in the form of a roofed inclosure of planks, eight feet long, six feet wide, and five feet high, with a door in one end, and the whole exterior painted. the calapooyas also buried their dead in regular graves, over which was erected a wooden head-board. desecration of burial places is a great crime with the chinook; he also attaches great importance to having his bones rest in his tribal cemetery wherever he may die. for a long time after a death, relatives repair daily at sunrise and sunset to the vicinity of the grave to sing songs of mourning and praise. until the bones are finally disposed of, the name of the deceased must not be spoken, and for several years it is spoken only with great reluctance. near relatives often change their name under the impression that spirits will be attracted back to earth if they hear familiar names often repeated. chiefs are supposed to die through the evil influence of another person, and the suspected, though a dear friend, was formerly often sacrificed. the dead bodies of slaves are never touched save by other slaves.[ ] [sidenote: chinook character.] there is little difference of opinion concerning the character of the chinooks. all agree that they are intelligent and very acute in trade; some travelers have found them at different points harmless and inoffensive; and in a few instances honesty has been detected. so much for their good qualities. as to the bad, there is unanimity nearly as great that they are thieves and liars, and for the rest each observer applies to them a selection of such adjectives as lazy, superstitious, cowardly, inquisitive, intrusive, libidinous, treacherous, turbulent, hypocritical, fickle, etc. the clatsops, with some authors, have the reputation of being the most honest and moral; for the lowest position in the scale all the rest might present a claim. it should however be said in their favor that they are devotedly attached to their homes, and treat kindly both their young children and aged parents; also that not a few of their bad traits originated with or have been aggravated by contact with civilization.[ ] the inland families, constituting the fifth and last division of the columbians, inhabit the region between the cascade range and the eastern limit of what i term the pacific states, from ° ´ to ° of north latitude. these bounds are tolerably distinct; though that on the south, separating the eastern portions of the columbian and californian groups, is irregular and marked by no great river, mountain chain, or other prominent physical feature. these inland natives of the northwest occupy, in person, character, and customs, as well as in the location of their home, an intermediate position between the coast people already described--to whom they are pronounced superior in most respects--and the rocky mountain or eastern tribes. travelers crossing the rocky mountains into this territory from the east, or entering it from the pacific by way of the columbia or fraser, note contrasts on passing the limits, sufficient to justify me in regarding its inhabitants as one people for the purposes aimed at in this volume.[ ] instead, therefore, of treating each family separately, as has been done with the coast divisions of the group, i deem it more convenient, as well as less monotonous to the reader, to avoid repetition by describing the manners and customs of all the people within these limits together, taking care to note such variations as may be found to exist. the division into families and nations, made according to principles already sufficiently explained, is as follows, beginning again at the north: [sidenote: the shushwaps.] the shushwaps, our first family division, live between ° ´ and ° in the interior of british columbia, occupying the valleys of the fraser, thompson, and upper columbia rivers with their tributary streams and lakes. they are bounded on the west by the nootkas and on the north by the carriers, from both of which families they seem to be distinct. as national divisions of this family may be mentioned the shushwaps proper, or _atnahs_,[ ] who occupy the whole northern portion of the territory; the _okanagans_,[ ] in the valley of the lake and river of the same name; and the _kootenais_,[ ] who inhabit the triangle bounded by the upper columbia, the rocky mountains, and the th parallel, living chiefly on flatbow river and lake. all three nations might probably be joined with quite as much reason to the salish family farther south, as indeed has usually been done with the okanagans; while the kootenais are by some considered distinct from any of their adjoining nations. the salish family dwells south of the shushwaps, between ° and °, altogether on the columbia and its tributaries. its nations, more clearly defined than in most other families, are the _flatheads_,[ ] or salish proper, between the bitter root and rocky mountains on flathead and clarke rivers; the _pend d'oreilles_,[ ] who dwell about the lake of the same name and on clarke river, for fifty to seventy-five miles above and below the lake; the _coeurs d'alêne_,[ ] south of the pend d'oreilles, on coeur d'alêne lake and the streams falling into it; the _colvilles_,[ ] a term which may be used to designate the variously named bands about kettle falls, and northward along the columbia to the arrow lakes; the _spokanes_,[ ] on the spokane river and plateau along the columbia below kettle falls, nearly to the mouth of the okanagan; and the _pisquouse_,[ ] on the west bank of the columbia between the okanagan and priest rapids. [sidenote: the sahaptin family.] the sahaptin family, the last of the columbian group, is immediately south of the salish, between the cascade and bitter root mountains, reaching southward, in general terms, to the forty-fifth parallel, but very irregularly bounded by the shoshone tribes of the californian group. of its nations, the _nez percés_,[ ] or sahaptins proper, dwell on the clearwater and its branches, and on the snake about the forks; the _palouse_[ ] occupy the region north of the snake about the mouth of the palouse; the south banks of the columbia and snake near their confluence, and the banks of the lower walla walla are occupied by the _walla wallas_;[ ] the _yakimas_ and _kliketats_[ ] inhabit the region north of the dalles, between the cascade range and the columbia, the former in the valley of the yakima, the latter in the mountains about mt. adams. both nations extend in some bands across into the territory of the sound family. the natives of oregon east of the cascade range, who have not usually been included in the sahaptin family, i will divide somewhat arbitrarily into the _wascos_, extending from the mountains eastward to john day river, and the _cayuse_,[ ] from this river across the blue mountains to the grande ronde. [sidenote: physique of the inland tribes.] the inland columbians are of medium stature, usually from five feet seven to five feet ten inches, but sometimes reaching a height of six feet; spare in flesh, but muscular and symmetrical; with well-formed limbs, the legs not being deformed as among the chinooks by constant sitting in the canoe; feet and hands are in many tribes small and well made. in bodily strength they are inferior to whites, but superior, as might be expected from their habits, to the more indolent fish-eaters on the pacific. the women, though never corpulent, are more inclined to rotundity than the men. the nez percés and cayuses are considered the best specimens, while in the north the kootenais seem to be superior to the other shushwap nations. the salish are assigned by wilkes and hale an intermediate place in physical attributes between the coast and mountain tribes, being in stature and proportion superior to the chinooks, but inferior to the nez percés.[ ] inland, a higher order of face is observed than on the coast. the cheek-bones are still high, the forehead is rather low, the face long, the eyes black, rarely oblique, the nose prominent and frequently aquiline, the lips thin, the teeth white and regular but generally much worn. the general expression of the features is stern, often melancholy, but not as a rule harsh or repulsive. dignified, fine-looking men, and handsome young women have been remarked in nearly all the tribes, but here again the sahaptins bear off the palm. the complexion is not darker than on the coast, but has more of a coppery hue. the hair is black, generally coarse, and worn long. the beard is very thin, and its growth is carefully prevented by plucking.[ ] [sidenote: head-flattening in the interior.] the custom of head-flattening, apparently of seaboard origin and growth, extends, nevertheless, across the cascade barrier, and is practiced to a greater or less extent by all the tribes of the sahaptin family. among them all, however, with the exception perhaps of the kliketats, the deformity consists only of a very slight compression of the forehead, which nearly or quite disappears at maturity. the practice also extends inland up the valley of the fraser, and is found at least in nearly all the more western tribes of the shushwaps. the salish family do not flatten the skull.[ ] other methods of deforming the person, such as tattooing and perforating the features are as a rule not employed; the yakimas and kliketats, however, with some other lower columbia tribes, pierce or cut away the septum of the nose,[ ] and the nez percés probably derived their name from a similar custom formerly practiced by them. paint, however, is used by all inland as well as coast tribes on occasions when decoration is desired, but applied in less profusion by the latter. the favorite color is vermilion, applied as a rule only to the face and hair.[ ] elaborate hair-dressing is not common, and both sexes usually wear the hair in the same style, soaked in grease, often painted, and hanging in a natural state, or in braids, plaits, or queues, over the shoulders. some of the southern tribes cut the hair across the forehead, while others farther north tie it up in knots on the back of the head.[ ] the coast dress--robes or blankets of bark-fibre or small skins--is also used for some distance inland on the banks of the columbia and fraser, as among the nicoutamuch, kliketats, and wascos; but the distinctive inland dress is of dressed skin of deer, antelope, or mountain sheep; made into a rude frock, or shirt, with loose sleeves; leggins reaching half-way up the thigh, and either bound to the leg or attached by strings to a belt about the waist; moccasins, and rarely a cap. men's frocks descend half-way to the knees; women's nearly to the ankles. over this dress, or to conceal the want of some part of it, a buffalo or elk robe is worn, especially in winter. all garments are profusely and often tastefully decorated with leather fringes, feathers, shells, and porcupine quills; beads, trinkets and various bright-colored cloths having been added to indian ornamentation since the whites came. a new suit of this native skin clothing is not without beauty, but by most tribes the suit is worn without change till nearly ready to drop off, and becomes disgustingly filthy. some tribes clean and whiten their clothing occasionally with white earth, or pipe-clay. the buffalo and most of the other large skins are obtained from the country east of the mountains.[ ] [sidenote: inland dwellings.] the inland dwelling is a frame of poles, covered with rush matting, or with the skins of the buffalo or elk. as a rule the richest tribes and individuals use skins, although many of the finest sahaptin houses are covered with mats only. notwithstanding these nations are rich in horses, i find no mention that horse-hides are ever employed for this or any other purpose. the form of the lodge is that of a tent, conical or oblong, and usually sharp at the top, where an open space is left for light and air to enter, and smoke to escape. their internal condition presents a marked contrast with that of the chinook and nootka habitations, since they are by many interior tribes kept free from vermin and filth. their light material and the frequency with which their location is changed contributes to this result. the lodges are pitched by the women, who acquire great skill and celerity in the work. holes are left along the sides for entrance, and within, a floor of sticks is laid, or more frequently the ground is spread with mats, and skins serve for beds. dwellings are often built sufficiently large to accommodate many families, each of which in such case has its own fireplace on a central longitudinal line, a definite space being allotted for its goods, but no dividing partitions are ever used. the dwellings are arranged in small villages generally located in winter on the banks of small streams a little away from the main rivers. for a short distance up the columbia, houses similar to those of the chinooks are built of split cedar and bark. the walla wallas, living in summer in the ordinary mat lodge, often construct for winter a subterranean abode by digging a circular hole ten or twelve feet deep, roofing it with poles or split cedar covered with grass and mud, leaving a small opening at the top for exit and entrance by means of a notched-log ladder. the atnahs on fraser river spend the winter in similar structures, a simple slant roof of mats or bark sufficing for shade and shelter in summer. the okanagans construct their lodges over an excavation in the ground several feet deep, and like many other nations, cover their matting in winter with grass and earth.[ ] [sidenote: food of the inland nations.] the inland families eat fish and game, with roots and fruit; no nation subsists without all these supplies; but the proportion of each consumed varies greatly according to locality. some tribes divide their forces regularly into bands, of men to fish and hunt, of women to cure fish and flesh, and to gather roots and berries. i have spoken of the coast tribes as a fish-eating, and the interior tribes as a hunting people, attributing in great degree their differences of person and character to their food, or rather to their methods of obtaining it; yet fish constitutes an important element of inland subsistence as well. few tribes live altogether without salmon, the great staple of the northwest; since those dwelling on streams inaccessible to the salmon by reason of intervening falls, obtain their supply by annual migrations to the fishing-grounds, or by trade with other nations. the principal salmon fisheries of the columbia are at the dalles, the falls ten miles above, and at kettle falls. other productive stations are on the powder, snake, yakima, okanagan, and clarke rivers. on the fraser, which has no falls in its lower course, fishing is carried on all along the banks of the river instead of at regular stations, as on the columbia. nets, weirs, hooks, spears, and all the implements and methods by which fish are taken and cured have been sufficiently described in treating of the coast region; in the interior i find no important variations except in the basket method in use at the chaudières or kettle falls by the quiarlpi tribe. here an immense willow basket, often ten feet in diameter and twelve feet deep, is suspended at the falls from strong timbers fixed in crevices of the rocks, and above this is a frame so attached that the salmon in attempting to leap the fall strike the sticks of the frame and are thrown back into the basket, in the largest of which naked men armed with clubs await them. five thousand pounds of salmon have thus been taken in a day by means of a single basket. during the fishing-season the salmon chief has full authority; his basket is the largest, and must be located a month before others are allowed to fish. the small nets used in the same region have also the peculiarity of a stick which keeps the mouth open when the net is empty, but is removed by the weight of the fish. besides the salmon, sturgeon are extensively taken in the fraser, and in the arrow lakes, while trout and other varieties of small fish abound in most of the streams. the fishing-season is the summer, between june and september, varying a month or more according to locality. this is also the season of trade and festivity, when tribes from all directions assemble to exchange commodities, gamble, dance, and in later times to drink and fight.[ ] [sidenote: hunting by shushwaps, salish, and sahaptins.] the larger varieties of game are hunted by the natives on horseback wherever the nature of the country will permit. buffalo are now never found west of the rocky mountains, and there are but few localities where large game has ever been abundant, at least since the country became known to white men. consequently the flatheads, nez percés, and kootenais, the distinctively hunting nations, as well as bands from nearly every other tribe, cross the mountains once or twice each year, penetrating to the buffalo-plains between the yellowstone and the missouri, in the territory of hostile nations. the bow and arrow was the weapon with which buffalo and all other game were shot. no peculiar cunning seems to have been necessary to the native hunter of buffalo; he had only to ride into the immense herds on his well-trained horse, and select the fattest animals for his arrows. various devices are mentioned as being practiced in the chase of deer, elk, and mountain sheep; such as driving them by a circle of fire on the prairie towards the concealed hunters, or approaching within arrow-shot by skillful manipulations of a decoy animal; or the frightened deer are driven into an ambush by converging lines of bright-colored rags so placed in the bushes as to represent men. kane states that about the arrow lakes hunting dogs are trained to follow the deer and to bring back the game to their masters even from very long distances. deer are also pursued in the winter on snow-shoes, and in deep snow often knocked down with clubs. bear and beaver are trapped in some places; and, especially about the northern lakes and marshes, wild fowl are very abundant, and help materially to eke out the supply of native food.[ ] [sidenote: food and its preparation.] their natural improvidence, or an occasional unlucky hunting or fishing season, often reduces them to want, and in such case the resort is to roots, berries, and mosses, several varieties of which are also gathered and laid up as a part of their regular winter supplies. chief among the roots are the camass, a sweet, onion-like bulb, which grows in moist prairies, the couse, which flourishes in more sterile and rocky spots, and the bitter-root, which names a valley and mountain range. to obtain these roots the natives make regular migrations, as for game or fish. the varieties of roots and berries used for food are very numerous; and none seem to grow in the country which to the native taste are unpalatable or injurious, though many are both to the european.[ ] towards obtaining food the men hunt and fish; all the other work of digging roots, picking berries, as well as dressing, preserving, and cooking all kinds of food is done by the women, with some exceptions among the nez percés and pend d'oreilles. buffalo-meat is jerked by cutting in thin pieces and drying in the sun and over smouldering fires on scaffolds of poles. fish is sun-dried on scaffolds, and by some tribes on the lower columbia is also pulverized between two stones and packed in baskets lined with fish-skin. here, as on the coast, the heads and offal only are eaten during the fishing-season. the walla wallas are said usually to eat fish without cooking. roots, mosses, and such berries as are preserved, are usually kept in cakes, which for eating are moistened, mixed in various proportions and cooked, or eaten without preparation. to make the cakes simply drying, pulverizing, moistening, and sun-drying usually suffice; but camas and pine-moss are baked or fermented for several days in an underground kiln by means of hot stones, coming out in the form of a dark gluey paste of the proper consistency for moulding. many of these powdered roots may be preserved for years without injury. boiling by means of hot stones and roasting on sharp sticks fixed in the ground near the fire, are the universal methods of cooking. no mention is made of peculiar customs in eating; to eat often and much is the aim; the style of serving is a secondary consideration.[ ] life with all these nations is but a struggle for food, and the poorer tribes are often reduced nearly to starvation; yet they never are known to kill dogs or horses for food. about the missions and on the reservations cattle have been introduced and the soil is cultivated by the natives to considerable extent.[ ] [sidenote: personal habits in the interior.] in their personal habits, as well as the care of their lodges, the cayuses, nez percés, and kootenais, are mentioned as neat and cleanly; the rest, though filthy, are still somewhat superior to the dwellers on the coast. the flatheads wash themselves daily, but their dishes and utensils never. de smet represents the pend d'oreille women as untidy even for savages.[ ] guns, knives and tomahawks have generally taken the place of such native weapons as these natives may have used against their foes originally. only the bow and arrow have survived intercourse with white men, and no other native weapon is described, except one peculiar to the okanagans,--a kind of indian slung-shot. this is a small cylindrical ruler of hard wood, covered with raw hide, which at one end forms a small bag and holds a round stone as large as a goose-egg; the other end of the weapon is tied to the wrist. arrow-shafts are of hard wood, carefully straightened by rolling between two blocks, fitted by means of sinews with stone or flint heads at one end, and pinnated with feathers at the other. the most elastic woods are chosen for the bow, and its force is augmented by tendons glued to its back.[ ] [sidenote: the inland nations at war.] the inland families cannot be called a warlike race. resort to arms for the settlement of their intertribal disputes seems to have been very rare. yet all are brave warriors when fighting becomes necessary for defense or vengeance against a foreign foe; notably so the cayuses, nez percés, flatheads and kootenais. the two former waged both aggressive and defensive warfare against the snakes of the south; while the latter joined their arms against their common foes, the eastern blackfeet, who, though their inferiors in bravery, nearly exterminated the flathead nation by superiority in numbers, and by being the first to obtain the white man's weapons. departure on a warlike expedition is always preceded by ceremonious preparation, including councils of the wise, great, and old; smoking the pipe, harangues by the chiefs, dances, and a general review, or display of equestrian feats and the manoeuvres of battle. the warriors are always mounted; in many tribes white or speckled war-horses are selected, and both rider and steed are gaily painted, and decked with feathers, trinkets, and bright-colored cloths. the war-party in most nations is under the command of a chief periodically elected by the tribe, who has no authority whatever in peace, but who keeps his soldiers in the strictest discipline in time of war. stealthy approach and an unexpected attack in the early morning constitute their favorite tactics. they rush on the enemy like a whirlwind, with terrific yells, discharge their guns or arrows, and retire to prepare for another attack. the number slain is rarely large; the fall of a few men, or the loss of a chief decides the victory. when a man falls, a rush is made for his scalp, which is defended by his party, and a fierce hand-to-hand conflict ensues, generally terminating the battle. after the fight, or before it when either party lacks confidence in the result, a peace is made by smoking the pipe, with the most solemn protestations of goodwill, and promises which neither party has the slightest intention of fulfilling. the dead having been scalped, and prisoners bound and taken up behind the victors, the party starts homeward. torture of the prisoners, chiefly perpetrated by the women, follows the arrival. by the flatheads and northern nations captives are generally killed by their sufferings; among the sahaptins some survive and are made slaves. in the flathead torture of the blackfeet are practiced all the fiendish acts of cruelty that native cunning can devise, all of which are borne with the traditional stoicism and taunts of the north american indian. the nez percé system is a little less cruel in order to save life for future slavery. day after day, at a stated hour, the captives are brought out and made to hold the scalps of their dead friends aloft on poles while the scalp-dance is performed about them, the female participators meanwhile exerting all their devilish ingenuity in tormenting their victims.[ ] the native saddle consists of a rude wooden frame, under and over which is thrown a buffalo-robe, and which is bound to the horse by a very narrow thong of hide in place of the mexican _cincha_. a raw-hide crupper is used; a deer-skin pad sometimes takes the place of the upper robe, or the robe and pad are used without the wooden frame. stirrups are made by binding three straight pieces of wood or bone together in triangular form, and sometimes covering all with raw-hide put on wet; or one straight piece is suspended from a forked thong, and often the simple thong passing round the foot suffices. the bridle is a rope of horse-hair or of skin, made fast with a half hitch round the animal's lower jaw. the same rope usually serves for bridle and lariat. sharp bones, at least in later times, are used for spurs. wood is split for the few native uses by elk-horn wedges driven by bottle-shaped stone mallets. baskets and vessels for holding water and cooking are woven of willow, bark, and grasses. rushes, growing in all swampy localities are cut of uniform length, laid parallel and tied together for matting. rude bowls and spoons are sometimes dug out of horn or wood, but the fingers, with pieces of bark and small mats are the ordinary table furniture. skins are dressed by spreading, scraping off the flesh, and for some purposes the hair, with a sharp piece of bone, stone, or iron attached to a short handle, and used like an adze. the skin is then smeared with the animal's brains, and rubbed or pounded by a very tedious process till it becomes soft and white, some hides being previously smoked and bleached with white clay.[ ] [sidenote: preparation of skins. river-boats.] on the lower columbia the wascos, kliketats, walla wallas, and other tribes use dug-out boats like those of the coast, except that little skill or labor is expended on their construction or ornamentation; the only requisite being supporting capacity, as is natural in a country where canoes play but a small part in the work of procuring food. farther in the interior the mountain tribes of the sahaptin family, as the cayuses and nez percés, make no boats, but use rude rafts or purchase an occasional canoe from their neighbors, for the rare cases when it becomes necessary to transport property across an unfordable stream. the flatheads sew up their lodge-skins into a temporary boat for the same purpose. on the fraser the nootka dug-out is in use. but on the northern lakes and rivers of the interior, the pend d'oreille, flatbow, arrow, and okanagan, northward to the tacully territory, the natives manufacture and navigate bark canoes. both birch and pine are employed, by stretching it over a cedar hoop-work frame, sewing the ends with fine roots, and gumming the seams and knots. the form is very peculiar; the stem and stern are pointed, but the points are on a level with the bottom of the boat, and the slope or curve is upward towards the centre. travelers describe them as carrying a heavy load, but easily capsized unless when very skillfully managed.[ ] [sidenote: horses, property, and trade.] horses constitute the native wealth, and poor indeed is the family which has not for each member, young and old, an animal to ride, as well as others sufficient to transport all the household goods, and to trade for the few foreign articles needed. the nez percés, cayuses and walla wallas have more and better stock than other nations, individuals often possessing bands of from one thousand to three thousand. the kootenais are the most northern equestrian tribes mentioned. how the natives originally obtained horses is unknown, although there are some slight traditions in support of the natural supposition that they were first introduced from the south by way of the shoshones. the latter are one people with the comanches, by whom horses were obtained during the spanish expeditions to new mexico in the sixteenth century. the horses of the natives are of small size, probably degenerated from a superior stock, but hardy and surefooted; sustaining hunger and hard usage better than those of the whites, but inferior to them in form, action, and endurance. all colors are met with, spotted and mixed colors being especially prized.[ ] the different articles of food, skins and grasses for clothing and lodges and implements, shells and trinkets for ornamentation and currency are also bartered between the nations, and the annual summer gatherings on the rivers serve as fairs for the display and exchange of commodities; some tribes even visit the coast for purposes of trade. smoking the pipe often precedes and follows a trade, and some peculiar commercial customs prevail, as for instance when a horse dies soon after purchase, the price may be reclaimed. the rights of property are jealously defended, but in the salish nations, according to hale, on the death of a father his relatives seize the most valuable property with very little attention to the rights of children too young to look out for their own interests.[ ] indeed, i have heard of deeds of similar import in white races. in decorative art the inland natives must be pronounced inferior to those of the coast, perhaps only because they have less time to devote to such unproductive labor. sculpture and painting are rare and exceedingly rude. on the coast the passion for ornamentation finds vent in carving and otherwise decorating the canoe, house, and implements; in the interior it expends itself on the caparison of the horse, or in bead and fringe work on garments. systems of numeration are simple, progressing by fours, fives, or tens, according to the different languages, and is sufficiently extensive to include large numbers; but the native rarely has occasion to count beyond a few hundreds, commonly using his fingers as an aid to his numeration. years are reckoned by winters, divided by moons into months, and these months named from the ripening of some plant, the occurrence of a fishing or hunting season, or some other periodicity in their lives, or by the temperature. among the salish the day is divided according to the position of the sun into nine parts. de smet states that maps are made on bark or skins by which to direct their course on distant excursions, and that they are guided at night by the polar star.[ ] [sidenote: chiefs and their authority.] war chiefs are elected for their bravery and past success, having full authority in all expeditions, marching at the head of their forces, and, especially among the flatheads, maintaining the strictest discipline, even to the extent of inflicting flagellation on insubordinates. with the war their power ceases, yet they make no effort by partiality during office to insure re-election, and submit without complaint to a successor. except by the war chiefs no real authority is exercised. the regular chieftainship is hereditary so far as any system is observed, but chiefs who have raised themselves to their position by their merits are mentioned among nearly all the nations. the leaders are always men of commanding influence and often of great intelligence. they take the lead in haranguing at the councils of wise men, which meet to smoke and deliberate on matters of public moment. these councils decide the amount of fine necessary to atone for murder, theft, and the few crimes known to the native code; a fine, the chief's reprimand, and rarely flogging, probably not of native origin, are the only punishments; and the criminal seldom attempts to escape. as the more warlike nations have especial chiefs with real power in time of war, so the fishing tribes, some of them, grant great authority to a 'salmon chief' during the fishing-season. but the regular inland chiefs never collect taxes nor presume to interfere with the rights or actions of individuals or families.[ ] prisoners of war, not killed by torture, are made slaves, but they are few in number, and their children are adopted into the victorious tribe. hereditary slavery and the slave-trade are unknown. the shushwaps are said to have no slaves.[ ] [sidenote: family relations.] in choosing a helpmate, or helpmates, for his bed and board, the inland native makes capacity for work the standard of female excellence, and having made a selection buys a wife from her parents by the payment of an amount of property, generally horses, which among the southern nations must be equaled by the girl's parents. often a betrothal is made by parents while both parties are yet children, and such a contract, guaranteed by an interchange of presents, is rarely broken. to give away a wife without a price is in the highest degree disgraceful to her family. besides payment of the price, generally made for the suitor by his friends, courtship in some nations includes certain visits to the bride before marriage; and the spokane suitor must consult both the chief and the young lady, as well as her parents; indeed the latter may herself propose if she wishes. runaway matches are not unknown, but by the nez percés the woman is in such cases considered a prostitute, and the bride's parents may seize upon the man's property. many tribes seem to require no marriage ceremony, but in others an assemblage of friends for smoking and feasting is called for on such occasions; and among the flatheads more complicated ceremonies are mentioned, of which long lectures to the couple, baths, change of clothing, torch-light processions, and dancing form a part. in the married state the wife must do all the heavy work and drudgery, but is not otherwise ill treated, and in most tribes her rights are equally respected with those of the husband. [sidenote: women and children.] when there are several wives each occupies a separate lodge, or at least has a separate fire. among the spokanes a man marrying out of his own tribe joins that of his wife, because she can work better in a country to which she is accustomed; and in the same nation all household goods are considered as the wife's property. the man who marries the eldest daughter is entitled to all the rest, and parents make no objection to his turning off one in another's favor. either party may dissolve the marriage at will, but property must be equitably divided, the children going with the mother. discarded wives are often reinstated. if a kliketat wife die soon after marriage, the husband may reclaim her price; the nez percé may not marry for a year after her death, but he is careful to avoid the inconvenience of this regulation by marrying just before that event. the salish widow must remain a widow for about two years, and then must marry agreeably to her mother-in-law's taste or forfeit her husband's property.[ ] the women make faithful, obedient wives and affectionate mothers. incontinence in either girls or married women is extremely rare, and prostitution almost unknown, being severely punished, especially among the nez percés. in this respect the inland tribes present a marked contrast to their coast neighbors.[ ] at the first appearance of the menses the woman must retire from the sight of all, especially men, for a period varying from ten days to a month, and on each subsequent occasion for two or three days, and must be purified by repeated ablutions before she may resume her place in the household. also at the time of her confinement she is deemed unclean, and must remain for a few weeks in a separate lodge, attended generally by an old woman. the inland woman is not prolific, and abortions are not uncommon, which may probably be attributed in great measure to her life of labor and exposure. children are not weaned till between one and two years of age; sometimes not until they abandon the breast of their own accord or are supplanted by a new arrival; yet though subsisting on the mother's milk alone, and exposed with slight clothing to all extremes of weather, they are healthy and robust, being carried about in a rude cradle on the mother's back, or mounted on colts and strapped to the saddle that they may not fall off when asleep. after being weaned the child is named after some animal, but the name is changed frequently later in life.[ ] although children and old people are as a rule kindly cared for, yet so great the straits to which the tribes are reduced by circumstances, that both are sometimes abandoned if not put to death.[ ] [sidenote: games in the interior.] the annual summer gathering on the river banks for fishing and trade, and, among the mountain nations, the return from a successful raid in the enemy's country, are the favorite periods for native diversions.[ ] to gambling they are no less passionately addicted in the interior than on the coast,[ ] but even in this universal indian vice, their preference for horse-racing, the noblest form of gaming, raises them above their stick-shuffling brethren of the pacific. on the speed of his horse the native stakes all he owns, and is discouraged only when his animal is lost, and with it the opportunity to make up past losses in another race. foot-racing and target-shooting, in which men, women and children participate, also afford them indulgence in their gambling propensities and at the same time develop their bodies by exercise, and perfect their skill in the use of their native weapon.[ ] the colvilles have a game, _alkollock_, played with spears. a wooden ring some three inches in diameter is rolled over a level space between two slight stick barriers about forty feet apart; when the ring strikes the barrier the spear is hurled so that the ring will fall over its head; and the number scored by the throw depends on which of six colored beads, attached to the hoop's inner circumference, falls over the spear's head.[ ] the almost universal columbian game of guessing which hand contains a small polished bit of bone or wood is also a favorite here, and indeed the only game of the kind mentioned; it is played, to the accompaniment of songs and drumming, by parties sitting in a circle on mats, the shuffler's hands being often wrapped in fur, the better to deceive the players.[ ] all are excessively fond of dancing and singing; but their songs and dances, practiced on all possible occasions, have not been, if indeed they can be, described. they seem merely a succession of sounds and motions without any fixed system. pounding on rude drums of hide accompanies the songs, which are sung without words, and in which some listeners have detected a certain savage melody. scalp-dances are performed by women hideously painted, who execute their diabolical antics in the centre of a circle formed by the rest of the tribe who furnish music to the dancers.[ ] all are habitual smokers, always inhaling the smoke instead of puffing it out after the manner of more civilized devotees of the weed. to obtain tobacco the native will part with almost any other property, but no mention is made of any substitute used in this region before the white man came. besides his constant use of the pipe as an amusement or habit, the inland native employs it regularly to clear his brain for the transaction of important business. without the pipe no war is declared, no peace officially ratified; in all promises and contracts it serves as the native pledge of honor; with ceremonial whiffs to the cardinal points the wise men open and close the deliberations of their councils; a commercial smoke clinches a bargain, as it also opens negotiations of trade.[ ] [sidenote: treatment of horses.] the use of the horse has doubtless been a most powerful agent in molding inland customs; and yet the introduction of the horse must have been of comparatively recent date. what were the customs and character of these people, even when america was first discovered by the spaniards, must ever be unknown. it is by no means certain that the possession of the horse has materially bettered their condition. indeed, by facilitating the capture of buffalo, previously taken perhaps by stratagem, by introducing a medium with which at least the wealthy may always purchase supplies, as well as by rendering practicable long migrations for food and trade, the horse may have contributed somewhat to their present spirit of improvidence. the horses feed in large droves, each marked with some sign of ownership, generally by clipping the ears, and when required for use are taken by the lariat, in the use of which all the natives have some skill, though far inferior to the mexican _vaqueros_. the method of breaking and training horses is a quick and an effectual one. it consists of catching and tying the animal; then buffalo-skins and other objects are thrown at and upon the trembling beast, until all its fear is frightened out of it. when willing to be handled, horses are treated with great kindness, but when refractory, the harshest measures are adopted. they are well trained to the saddle, and accustomed to be mounted from either side. they are never shod and never taught to trot. the natives are skillful riders, so far as the ability to keep their seat at great speed over a rough country is concerned, but they never ride gracefully, and rarely if ever perform the wonderful feats of horsemanship so often attributed to the western indians. a loose girth is used under which to insert the knees when riding a wild horse. they are hard riders, and horses in use always have sore backs and mouths. women ride astride, and quite as well as the men; children also learn to ride about as early as to walk.[ ] each nation has its superstitions; by each individual is recognized the influence of unseen powers, exercised usually through the medium of his medicine animal chosen early in life. the peculiar customs arising from this belief in the supernatural are not very numerous or complicated, and belong rather to the religion of these people treated elsewhere. the pend d'oreille, on approaching manhood, was sent by his father to a high mountain and obliged to remain until he dreamed of some animal, bird, or fish, thereafter to be his medicine, whose claw, tooth, or feather was worn as a charm. the howling of the medicine-wolf and some other beasts forebodes calamity, but by the okanagans the white-wolf skin is held as an emblem of royalty, and its possession protects the horses of the tribe from evil-minded wolves. a ram's horns left in the trunk of a tree where they were fixed by the misdirected zeal of their owner in attacking a native, were much venerated by the flatheads, and gave them power over all animals so long as they made frequent offerings at the foot of the tree. the nez percés had a peculiar custom of overcoming the _mawish_ or spirit of fatigue, and thereby acquiring remarkable powers of endurance. the ceremony is performed annually from the age of eighteen to forty, lasts each time from three to seven days, and consists of thrusting willow sticks down the throat into the stomach, a succession of hot and cold baths, and abstinence from food. medicine-men acquire or renew their wonderful powers by retiring to the mountains to confer with the wolf. they are then invulnerable; a bullet fired at them flattens on their breast. to allowing their portraits to be taken, or to the operations of strange apparatus they have the same aversion that has been noted on the coast.[ ] steam baths are universally used, not for motives of cleanliness, but sometimes for medical purposes, and chiefly in their superstitious ceremonies of purification. the bath-house is a hole dug in the ground from three to eight feet deep, and sometimes fifteen feet in diameter, in some locality where wood and water are at hand, often in the river bank. it is also built above ground of willow branches covered with grass and earth. only a small hole is left for entrance, and this is closed up after the bather enters. stones are heated by a fire in the bath itself, or are thrown in after being heated outside. in this oven, heated to a suffocating temperature, the naked native revels for a long time in the steam and mud, meanwhile singing, howling, praying, and finally rushes out dripping with perspiration, to plunge into the nearest stream.[ ] every lodge is surrounded by a pack of worthless coyote-looking curs. these are sometimes made to carry small burdens on their backs when the tribe is moving; otherwise no use is made of them, as they are never eaten, and, with perhaps the exception of a breed owned by the okanagans, are never trained to hunt. i give in a note a few miscellaneous customs noticed by travelers.[ ] [sidenote: medical practice.] these natives of the interior are a healthy but not a very long-lived race. ophthalmia, of which the sand, smoke of the lodges, and reflection of the sun's rays on the lakes are suggested as the causes, is more or less prevalent throughout the territory; scrofulous complaints and skin-eruptions are of frequent occurrence, especially in the sahaptin family. other diseases are comparatively rare, excepting of course epidemic disorders like small-pox and measles contracted from the whites, which have caused great havoc in nearly all the tribes. hot and cold baths are the favorite native remedy for all their ills, but other simple specifics, barks, herbs, and gums are employed as well. indeed, so efficacious is their treatment, or rather, perhaps, so powerful with them is nature in resisting disease, that when the locality or cause of irregularity is manifest, as in the case of wounds, fractures, or snake-bites, remarkable cures are ascribed to these people. but here as elsewhere, the sickness becoming at all serious or mysterious, medical treatment proper is altogether abandoned, and the patient committed to the magic powers of the medicine-man. in his power either to cause or cure disease at will implicit confidence is felt, and failure to heal indicates no lack of skill; consequently the doctor is responsible for his patient's recovery, and in case of death is liable to, and often does, answer with his life, so that a natural death among the medical fraternity is extremely rare. his only chance of escape is to persuade relatives of the dead that his ill success is attributable to the evil influence of a rival physician, who is the one to die; or in some cases a heavy ransom soothes the grief of mourning friends and avengers. one motive of the cayuses in the massacre of the whitman family is supposed to have been the missionary's failure to cure the measles in the tribe. he had done his best to relieve the sick, and his power to effect in all cases a complete cure was unquestioned by the natives. the methods by which the medicine-man practices his art are very uniform in all the nations. the patient is stretched on his back in the centre of a large lodge, and his friends few or many sit about him in a circle, each provided with sticks wherewith to drum. the sorcerer, often grotesquely painted, enters the ring, chants a song, and proceeds to force the evil spirit from the sick man by pressing both clenched fists with all his might in the pit of his stomach, kneading and pounding also other parts of the body, blowing occasionally through his own fingers, and sucking blood from the part supposed to be affected. the spectators pound with their sticks, and all, including doctor, and often the patient in spite of himself, keep up a continual song or yell. there is, however, some method in this madness, and when the routine is completed it is again begun, and thus repeated for several hours each day until the case is decided. in many nations the doctor finally extracts the spirit, in the form of a small bone or other object, from the patient's body or mouth by some trick of legerdemain, and this once effected, he assures the surrounding friends that the tormentor having been thus removed, recovery must soon follow.[ ] grief at the death of a relative is manifested by cutting the hair and smearing the face with black. the women also howl at intervals for a period of weeks or even months; but the men on ordinary occasions rarely make open demonstrations of sorrow, though they sometimes shed tears at the death of a son. several instances of suicide in mourning are recorded; a walla walla chieftain caused himself to be buried alive in the grave with the last of his five sons. the death of a wife or daughter is deemed of comparatively little consequence. in case of a tribal disaster, as the death of a prominent chief, or the killing of a band of warriors by a hostile tribe, all indulge in the most frantic demonstrations, tearing the hair, lacerating the flesh with flints, often inflicting serious injury. the sacrifice of human life, generally that of a slave, was practiced, but apparently nowhere as a regular part of the funeral rites. among the flatheads the bravest of the men and women ceremonially bewail the loss of a warrior by cutting out pieces of their own flesh and casting them with roots and other articles into the fire. a long time passes before a dead person's name is willingly spoken in the tribe. the corpse is commonly disposed of by wrapping in ordinary clothing and burying in the ground without a coffin. the northern tribes sometimes suspended the body in a canoe from a tree, while those in the south formerly piled their dead in wooden sheds or sepulchres above ground. the okanagans often bound the body upright to the trunk of a tree. property was in all cases sacrificed; horses usually, and slaves sometimes, killed on the grave. the more valuable articles of wealth were deposited with the body; the rest suspended on poles over and about the grave or left on the surface of the ground; always previously damaged in such manner as not to tempt the sacrilegious thief, for their places of burial are held most sacred. mounds of stones surmounted with crosses indicate in later times the conversion of the natives to a foreign religion.[ ] [sidenote: inland morality.] in character and in morals,[ ] as well as in physique, the inland native is almost unanimously pronounced superior to the dweller on the coast. the excitement of the chase, of war, and of athletic sports ennobles the mind as it develops the body; and although probably not by nature less indolent than their western neighbors, yet are these natives of the interior driven by circumstances to habits of industry, and have much less leisure time for the cultivation of the lower forms of vice. as a race, and compared with the average american aborigines, they are honest, intelligent, and pure in morals. travelers are liable to form their estimate of national character from a view, perhaps unfair and prejudiced, of the actions of a few individuals encountered; consequently qualities the best and the worst have been given by some to each of the nations now under consideration. for the best reputation the nez percés, flatheads and kootenais have always been rivals; their good qualities have been praised by all, priest, trader and tourist. honest, just, and often charitable; ordinarily cold and reserved, but on occasions social and almost gay; quick-tempered and revengeful under what they consider injustice, but readily appeased by kind treatment; cruel only to captive enemies, stoical in the endurance of torture; devotedly attached to home and family; these natives probably come as near as it is permitted to flesh-and-blood savages to the traditional noble red man of the forest, sometimes met in romance. it is the pride and boast of the flathead that his tribe has never shed the blood of a white man. yet none, whatever their tribe, could altogether resist the temptation to steal horses from their neighbors of a different tribe, or in former times, to pilfer small articles, wonderful to the savage eye, introduced by europeans. many have been nominally converted by the zealous labors of the jesuit fathers, or protestant missionaries; and several nations have greatly improved, in material condition as well as in character, under their change of faith. as mr alexander ross remarks, "there is less crime in an indian camp of five hundred souls than there is in a civilized village of but half that number. let the lawyer or moralist point out the cause." tribal boundaries. the columbian group comprises the tribes inhabiting the territory immediately south of that of the hyperboreans, extending from the fifty-fifth to the forty-third parallel of north latitude. [sidenote: the haidah family.] in the haidah family, i include all the coast and island nations of british columbia, from ° to °, and extending inland about one hundred miles to the borders of the chilcoten plain, the _haidah nation_ proper having their home on the queen charlotte islands. 'the haidah tribes of the northern family inhabit queen charlotte's island.' 'the massettes, skittegás, cumshawás, and other (haidah) tribes inhabiting the eastern shores of queen charlotte's island.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'the principal tribes upon it (q. char. isl.) are the sketigets, massets, and comshewars.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'tribal names of the principal tribes inhabiting the islands:--klue, skiddan, ninstence or cape st. james, skidagate, skidagatees, gold-harbour, cumshewas, and four others.... hydah is the generic name for the whole.' _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . 'the cumshewar, massit, skittageets, keesarn, and kigarnee, are mentioned as living on the island.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the following bands, viz.: lulanna, (or sulanna), nightan, massetta, (or mosette), necoon, aseguang, (or asequang), skittdegates, cumshawas, skeedans, queeah, cloo, kishawin, kowwelth, (or kawwelth), and too, compose the queen charlotte island indians, 'beginning at n. island, north end, and passing round by the eastward.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; and _kane's wand._, end of vol. 'the hydah nation which is divided into numerous tribes inhabiting the island and the mainland opposite.' _reed's nar._ 'queen charlotte's island and prince of wales archipelago are the country of the haidahs; ... including the kygany, massett, skittegetts, hanega, cumshewas, and other septs.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'les indiens koumchaouas, haïdas, massettes, et skidegats, de l'île de la reine charlotte.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . my haidah family is called by warre and vavasour _quacott_, who with the newette and twenty-seven other tribes live, 'from lat. ° to lat. °, including queen charlotte's island; north end of vancouver's island, millbank sound and island, and the main shore.' _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . the massets and thirteen other tribes besides the quacott tribes occupy queen charlotte islands. _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. bay_, p. . the ninstence tribe inhabits 'the southernmost portions of moresby island.' _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , - . the crosswer indians live on skiddegate channel. _downie_, in _b. col. papers_, vol. iii., p. . the _kaiganies_ inhabit the southern part of the prince of wales archipelago, and the northern part of queen charlotte island. the kygargeys or kygarneys are divided by schoolcraft and kane into the youahnoe, clictass (or clictars), quiahanles, houaguan, (or wonagan), shouagan, (or showgan), chatcheenie, (or chalchuni). _archives_, vol. v., p. ; _wanderings_, end of vol. the kygáni 'have their head-quarters on queen charlotte's archipelago, but there are a few villages on the extreme southern part of prince of wales archipelago.' _dall's alaska_, p. . a colony of the hydahs 'have settled at the southern extremity of prince of wales's archipelago, and in the northern island.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'die kaigàni (kigarnies, kigarnee, kygànies der engländer) bewohnen den südlichen theil der inseln (archipels) des prinzen von wales.' _radloff_, _sprache der kaiganen_, in _mélanges russes_, tom. iii., livrais. v., p. . 'the kegarnie tribe, also in the russian territory, live on an immense island, called north island.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the hydahs of the south-eastern alexander archipelago include 'the kassaaus, the chatcheenees, and the kaiganees.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . 'called kaiganies and kliavakans; the former being near kaigan harbor, and the latter near the gulf of kliavakan scattered along the shore from cordova to tonvel's bay.' _halleck and scott_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. - . 'a branch of this tribe, the kyganies (kigarnies) live in the southern part of the archipel of the prince of wales.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'to the west and south of prince of wales island is an off-shoot of the hydah,' indians, called anega or hennegas. _mahony_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _chimsyans_ inhabit the coast and islands about fort simpson. ten tribes of chymsyans at 'chatham sound, portland canal, port essington, and the neighbouring islands.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . 'the chimsians or fort simpson indians.' _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . 'indians inhabiting the coast and river mouth known by the name of chyniseyans.' _ind. life_, p. . the tsimsheeans live 'in the fort simpson section on the main land.' _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . chimpsains, 'living on chimpsain peninsula.' _scott_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the chimmesyans inhabit 'the coast of the main land from ° ´ n., down to ° ´ n.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the chimseeans 'occupy the country from douglas' canal to nass river.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . divided into the following bands; kispachalaidy, kitlan (or ketlane), keeches (or keechis), keenathtoix, kitwillcoits, kitchaclaith, kelutsah (or ketutsah), kenchen kieg, ketandou, ketwilkcipa, who inhabit 'chatham's sound, from portland canal to port essington (into which skeena river discharges) both main land and the neighboring islands.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the chymsyan connection 'extending from milbank sound to observatory inlet, including the sebassas, neecelowes, nass, and other offsets.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii. p. . mr. duncan divides the natives speaking the tsimshean language into four parts at fort simpson, nass river, skeena river, and the islands of milbank sound. _mayne's b. c._, p. . the keethratlah live 'near fort simpson.' _id._, p. . the _nass_ nation lives on the banks of the nass river, but the name is often applied to all the mainland tribes of what i term the haidah family. the nation consists of the kithateen, kitahon, ketoonokshelk, kinawalax (or kinaroalax), located in that order from the mouth upward. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. four tribes, 'nass river on the main land.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . 'on observatory inlet, lat. °.' _bryant_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . adjoin the sebassa tribe. _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . about fort simpson. _dunn's oregon_, p. . the hailtsa, haeeltzuk, billechoola, and chimmesyans are nass tribes. _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . see _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, pp. - . 'there is a tribe of about souls now living on a westerly branch of the naas near stikeen river; they are called "lackweips" and formerly lived on portland channel.' _scott_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _skeenas_ are on the river of the same name, 'at the mouth of the skeena river.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . they are the 'kitsalas, kitswingahs, kitsiguchs, kitspayuchs, hagulgets, kitsagas, and kitswinscolds.' _scott_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . keechumakarlo (or keechumakailo) situated 'on the lower part of the skeena river.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the kitswinscolds live 'between the nass and the skeena.' _scott_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the kitatels live 'on the islands in ogden's channel, about sixty miles below fort simpson.' _id._ the _sebassas_ occupy the shores of gardner channel and the opposite islands. inhabit banks island. _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . the labassas in five tribes are situated on 'gardner's canal, canal de principe, canal de la reida.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . keekheatla (or keetheatla), on canal de principe; kilcatah, at the entrance of gardner canal; kittamaat (or kittamuat), on the north arm of gardner canal; kitlope on the south arm; neeslous on canal de la reido (reina). _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. 'in the neighbourhood of seal harbour dwell the sebassa tribe.' _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . 'the shebasha, a powerful tribe inhabiting the numerous islands of pitt's archipelago.' _bryant_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _millbank sound_ tribes are the onieletoch, weitletoch (or weetletoch), and kokwaiytoch, on millbank sound; eesteytoch, on cascade canal; kuimuchquitoch, on dean canal; bellahoola, at entrance of salmon river of mackenzie; guashilla, on river canal; nalalsemoch, at smith inlet, and weekemoch on calvert island. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. - ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. 'the millbank indians on millbank sound.' _bryant_, in _am. antiq. soc. transact._, vol. ii., p. . the _bellacoolas_ live about the mouth of salmon river. '"bentick's arms"--inhabited by a tribe of indians--the bellaghchoolas. their village is near salmon river.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the billechoolas live on salmon river in latitude ° ´. _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. . the bellahoolas 'on the banks of the salmon river.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . 'the indians at milbank sound called belbellahs.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'spread along the margins of the numerous canals or inlets with which this part of the coast abounds.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'in the neighbourhood of the fort (mcloughlin) was a village of about five hundred ballabollas.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . the _hailtzas_, hailtzuks, or haeelzuks 'dwell to the south of the billechoola, and inhabit both the mainland and the northern entrance of vancouver's island from latitude ° ´ n. to ° ´ n.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'the hailtsa commencing in about latitude ° n., and extending through the ramifications of fitzhugh and milbank sounds.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'an diesem sunde (milbank) wohnen die hailtsa-indianer.' _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. ; _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . [sidenote: the nootka family.] the nootka family dwells south of the haidah, occupying the coast of british columbia, from bentinck arms to the mouth of the fraser, and the whole of vancouver island. by other authors the name has been employed to designate a tribe at nootka sound, or applied to nearly all the coast tribes of the columbian group. 'the native population of vancouver island ... is chiefly composed of the following tribes:--north and east coasts (in order in which they stand from north to south)--quackolls, newittees, comuxes, yukletas, suanaimuchs, cowitchins, sanetchs, other smaller tribes;--south coast (... from east to west)--tsomass, tsclallums, sokes, patcheena, sennatuch;--west coast ... (from south to north)--nitteenats, chadukutl, oiatuch, toquatux, schissatuch, upatsesatuch, cojuklesatuch, uqluxlatuch, clayoquots, nootkas, nespods, koskeemos, other small tribes.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'in barclay sound: pacheenett, nittinat, ohiat, ouchuchlisit, opecluset, shechart, toquart, ucletah, tsomass;--clayoquot sound: clayoquot, kilsamat, ahouset, mannawousut, ishquat;--nootka sound: matchclats, moachet, neuchallet, ehateset.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'about queen charlotte sound;--naweetee, quacolth, queehavuacolt (or queehaquacoll), marmalillacalla, clowetsus (or clawetsus), murtilpar (or martilpar), nimkish, wewarkka, wewarkkum, clallueis (or clalluiis), cumquekis, laekquelibla, clehuse (or clehure), soiitinu (or soiilenu), quicksutinut (or quicksulinut), aquamish, clelikitte, narkocktau, quainu, exenimuth, (or cexeninuth), tenuckttau, oiclela.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. on the seaboard, south of nitinaht sound, and on the nitinaht river, the pacheenaht and nitinaht tribes; on barclay, otherwise nitinaht sound, the ohyaht, howchuklisaht, opechisaht, seshaht, youclulaht, and toquaht tribes; on klahohquaht sound, the klahohquaht, killsmaht, ahousaht and manohsaht tribes; on nootkah sound, the hishquayaht, muchlaht, moouchat (the so-called nootkahs), ayhuttisaht and noochahlaht; north of nootkah sound, the kyohquaht, chaykisaht, and klahosaht tribes. _sproat's scenes_, p. . alphabetical list of languages on vancouver island: ahowzarts, aitizzarts, aytcharts, cayuquets, eshquates (or esquiates), klahars, klaizzarts, klaooquates (or tlaoquatch), michlaïts, mowatchits, neuchadlits, neuwitties, newchemass, (nuchimas), savinnars, schoomadits, suthsetts, tlaoquatch, wicananish. _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. . 'among those from the north were the aitizzarts, schoomadits, neuwitties, savinnars, ahowzarts, mowatchits, suthsetts, neuchadlits, michlaits, and cayuquets; the most of whom were considered as tributary to nootka. from the south the aytcharts, and esquiates also tributary, with the klaooquates and the wickanninish, a large and powerful tribe, about two hundred miles distant.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . 'tribes situated between nanaimo and fort rupert, on the north of vancouver island, and the mainland indians between the same points ... are divided into several tribes, the nanoose, comoux, nimpkish, quawguult, &c., on the island; and the squawmisht, sechelt, clahoose, ucletah, mamalilaculla, &c., on the coast, and among the small islands off it.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . list of tribes on vancouver island: 'songes, sanetch, kawitchin, uchulta, nimkis, quaquiolts, neweetg, quacktoe, nootka, nitinat, klayquoit, soke.' _findlay's directory_, pp. - . the proper name of the vancouver island tribes is yucuatl. _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the nootka territory 'extends to the northward as far as cape saint james, in the latitude of ° ´ n. ... and to the southward to the islands ... of the wicananish.' _meares' voy._, p. . 'the cawitchans, ucaltas, and coquilths, who are i believe of the same family, occupy the shores of the gulf of georgia and johnston's straits.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'twenty-four tribes speaking the challam and cowaitzchim languages, from latitude ° along the coast south to whitby island in latitude °; part of vancouver's island, and the mouth of franc's river.' also on the strait of juan de fuca and vancouver islands, the sanetch, three tribes; hallams, eleven tribes; sinahomish; skatcat; cowitchici, seven tribes; soke; cowitciher, three tribes. _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. ; also in _hazlitt's b. c._, pp. - . five tribes at fort rupert;--quakars, qualquilths, kumcutes, wanlish, lockqualillas. _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'the chicklezats and ahazats, inhabiting districts in close proximity on the west coast of vancouver.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . 'north of the district occupied by the ucletahs come the nimkish, mamalilacula, matelpy and two or three other smaller tribes. the mamalilaculas live on the mainland.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the population of vancouver island 'is divided into twelve tribes; of these the kawitchen, quaquidts and nootka are the largest.' _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . 'ouakichs, grande île de quadra et van couver.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . [sidenote: nations inhabiting vancouver island.] in naming the following tribes and nations i will begin at the north and follow the west coast of the island southward, then the east coast and main land northward to the starting-point. the _uclenus_ inhabit scott island. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the _quanes_ dwell at cape scott. _id._ the _quactoe_ are found in the 'woody part n.w. coast of the island.' _findlay's directory_, p. . the _koskiemos_ and _quatsinos_ live on 'the two sounds bearing those names.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . kuskema, and quatsinu, 'outside vancouver's island south of c. scott.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the _kycucut_, 'north of nootka sound, is the largest tribe of the west coast.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the _aitizzarts_ are 'a people living about thirty or forty miles to the northward' of nootka sound. _jewitt's nar._, pp. , . the _ahts_ live on the west coast of the island. 'the localities inhabited by the aht tribes are, chiefly, the three large sounds on the west coast of vancouver island, called nitinaht (or barclay) klahohquaht, and nootkah.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . the _chicklezahts_ and _ahazats_ inhabit districts in close proximity on the west coast of vancouver. _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . the _clayoquots_, or klahohquahts, live at clayoquot sound, and the moouchats at nootka sound. _sproat's scenes_, pp. , . north of the wickininish. _jewitt's nar._, p. . the _toquahts_ are a people 'whose village is in a dreary, remote part of nitinaht (or barclay) sound.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . the _seshats_ live at alberni, barclay sound. _sproat's scenes_, p. . the _pacheenas_, or 'pacheenetts, which i have included in barclay sound, also inhabit port san juan.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the _tlaoquatch_ occupy the south-western part of vancouver. 'den südwesten der quadra- und vancouver-insel nehmen die tlaoquatch ein, deren sprache mit der vom nutka-sunde verwandt ist.' _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. . tlaoquatch, or tloquatch, on 'the south-western coast of vancouver's island.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _sokes_ dwell 'between victoria and barclay sound.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'east point of san juan to the songes territory.' _findlay's directory_, p. . the _wickinninish_ live about two hundred miles south of nootka. _jewitt's nar._, p. . the _songhies_ are 'a tribe collected at and around victoria.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'the songhish tribe, resident near victoria.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. . songes, 's.e. part of the island.' _findlay's directory_, p. . the _sanetch_ dwell 'sixty miles n.w. of mount douglas.' _findlay's directory_, p. . the _cowichins_ live 'in the harbour and valley of cowitchen, about miles north of victoria.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'cowichin river, which falls into that (haro) canal about miles n. of cowichin head, and derives its name from the tribe of indians which inhabits the neighbouring country.' _douglas_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxiv., p. . kawitchin, 'country n.w. of sanetch territory to the entrance of johnson's straits.' _findlay's directory_, p. . 'north of fraser's river, and on the opposite shores of vancouver's island.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'north of fraser's river, on the north-west coast.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the _comux_, or komux, 'live on the east coast between the kowitchan and the quoquoulth tribes.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . comoux, south of johnston straits. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the comoux 'extend as far as cape mudge.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the _kwantlums_ dwell about the mouth of the fraser. 'at and about the entrance of the fraser river is the kuantlun tribe: they live in villages which extend along the banks of the river as far as langley.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. , . the _teets_ live on the lower frazer river. 'from the falls (of the fraser) downward to the seacoast, the banks of the river are inhabited by several branches of the haitlin or teet tribe.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'extending from langley to yale, are the smess, chillwayhook, pallalts, and teates.... the smess indians occupy the smess river and lake, and the chillwayhooks the river and lake of that name.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . teate indians. see _bancroft's map of pac. states_. the _nanaimos_ are 'gathered about the mouth of the fraser.' _mayne's b. c._, p. .--chiefly on a river named the nanaimo, which falls into wentuhuysen inlet. _douglas_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxiv., p. . the _squawmishts_ 'live in howe sound.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the _sechelts_ live on jervis inlet. _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . the _clahoose_, or klahous, 'live in desolation sound.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . the _nanoose_ 'inhabit the harbour and district of that name, which lies miles north of nanaimo.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the _tacultas_, or tahcultahs, live at point mudge on valdes island. _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . the _ucletas_ are found 'at and beyond cape mudge.' 'they hold possession of the country on both sides of johnstone straits until met or miles south of fort rupert by the nimpkish and mamalilacullas.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . yougletats--'une partie campe sur l'ile vancouver elle-même, le reste habite sur le continent, au nord de la rivière fraser.' _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . yongletats, both on vancouver island, and on the mainland above the fraser river. _bolduc_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cviii., pp. - . the _nimkish_ are 'at the mouth of the nimpkish river, about miles below fort rupert.' _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . the _necultas_ and _queehanicultas_ dwell at the entrance of johnston straits. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _kane's wand._, end of vol. the _quackolls_ and 'two smaller tribes, live at fort rupert.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. , . 'on the north-east side of vancouver's island, are to be found the coquilths.' _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . coquilths, a numerous tribe living at the north-east end. _dunn's oregon_, p. . the cogwell indians live around fort rupert. _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . the _newittees_ 'east of cape scott ... meet the quawguults at fort rupert.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . neweetg, 'at n.w. entrance of johnson's straits.' _findlay's directory_, p. . 'at the northern extremity of the island the newette tribe.' _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . newchemass came to nootka 'from a great way to the northward, and from some distance inland.' _jewitt's nar._, p. . the _saukaulutucks_ inhabit the interior of the northern end of vancouver island. _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'at the back of barclay sound, ... about two days' journey into the interior, live the only inland tribe.... they are called the upatse satuch, and consist only of four families.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . [sidenote: the sound family.] the sound family includes all the tribes about puget sound and admiralty inlet, occupying all of washington west of the cascade range, except a narrow strip along the north bank of the columbia. in locating the nations of this family i begin with the extreme north-east, follow the eastern shores of the sound southward, the western shores northward, and the coast of the pacific southward to gray harbor. list of tribes between olympia and nawaukum river. 'staktamish, squaks'namish, sehehwamish, squalliamish, puyallupamish, s'homamish, suquamish, sinahomish, snoqualmook, sinaahmish, nooklummi.' _tolmie_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . a canadian trapper found the following tribes between fort nisqually and fraser river; 'sukwámes, sunahúmes, tshikátstat, puiále, and kawítshin.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - . cheenales, west; cowlitz, south; and nisqually, east of puget sound. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , map. the _shimiahmoos_ occupy the 'coast towards frazer's river.' 'between lummi point and frazer's river.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . 'most northern tribe on the american side of the line.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the _lummis_ 'are divided into three bands--a band for each mouth of the lummi river.' _fitzhugh_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'on the northern shore of bellingham bay.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'lummi river, and peninsula.' _id._, p. . 'on a river emptying into the northern part of bellingham bay and on the peninsula.' _id._, p. , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _nooksaks_ are 'on the south fork of the lummi river.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . nooksâhk, 'on the main fork of the river.' _id._, p. . nooksáhk, 'above the lummi, on the main fork of the river.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'south fork lummi river.' _id._, p. . nootsaks 'occupy the territory from the base of mount baker down to within five miles of the mouth of the lummi.' _coleman_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., p. . neuksacks 'principally around the foot of mount baker.' _fitzhugh_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the neukwers and siamanas, or stick indians 'live on lakes back of whatcom and siamana lakes and their tributaries.' _id._, p. . three tribes at bellingham bay, neuksack, samish, and lummis, with some neukwers and siamanas who live in the back country. _id._, p. . neuksacks, a tribe inhabiting a country drained by the river of the same name ... taking the name lummi before emptying into the gulf of georgia. _simmons_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . nooklummie, 'around bellingham's bay.' _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the _samish_ live on samish river and southern part of bellingham bay. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . 'they have several islands which they claim as their inheritance, together with a large scope of the main land.' _fitzhugh_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _skagits_ 'live on the main around the mouth of skagit river, and own the central parts of whidby's island, their principal ground being the neighborhood of penn's cove.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. , and in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . whidby's island 'is in the possession of the sachet tribe.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . the sachets inhabit whidby's island. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . sachets, 'about possession sound.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . skadjets, 'on both sides of the skadjet river, and on the north end of whidby's island.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . the skagit, 'on skagit river, and penn's cove,' the n'quachamish, smalèhhu, miskaiwhu, sakuméhu, on the branches of the same river. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . sockamuke, 'headwaters of skagit river,' neutubvig, 'north end of whidby's island, and county between skagit's river and bellingham's bay.' cowewachin, noothum, miemissouks, north to frazer river. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the _kikiallis_ occupy the banks of 'kikiallis river and whitby's island.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . the _skeysehamish_ dwell in the 'country along the skeysehamish river and the north branch of the sinahemish.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . the _snohomish_ reside on 'the southern end of whidby's island, and the country on and near the mouth of the sinahomish river.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . the sinahemish 'live on the sinahemish river (falling into possession sound).' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . 'sinahoumez (en tribus) de la rivière fraser à la baie de puget.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'n'quutlmamish, skywhamish, sktahlejum, upper branches, north side, sinahomish river.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . neewamish, 'neewamish river, bay and vicinity;' sahmamish, 'on a lake between neewamish and snohomish river;' snohomish, 'south end of whitney's island, snohomish river, bay and vicinity;' skeawamish, 'north fork of the snohomish river, called skeawamish river;' skuckstanajumps, 'skuckstanajumps river, a branch of skeawamish river;' stillaquamish, 'stillaquamish river and vicinity;' kickuallis, 'mouth of kickuallis river and vicinity.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . stoluchwámish, on stoluchwámish river, also called steilaquamish. _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , , also in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . squinámish, swodámish, sinaahmish, 'north end of whitby's island, canoe passage, and sinamish river.' _id._, pp. , . 'southern end of whidby's island and sinahomish river.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - . the _snoqualmooks_ 'reside on the south fork, north side of the sinahomish river.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. , and in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . snoqualimich, 'snoqualimich river and the south branch of the sinahemish.' _harley_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . the _dwamish_ are 'living on and claiming the lands on the d'wamish river.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . dwamish river and lake, white and green rivers. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . on d'wamish lake etc. ... reside the samamish and s'ketehlmish tribes. 'the d'wamish tribe have their home on lake fork, d'wamish river.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . dwamish, 'lake fork, dwamish river;' samamish, s'ketéhlmish, 'dwamish lake;' smelkámiah, 'head of white river;' skopeáhmish, 'head of green river;' stkámish, 'main white river.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _skopeahmish_ have their home at the 'head of green river.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the sekamish band 'on the main white river;' the smulkamish tribe 'at the head of white river.' _ib._ the _seattles_, a tribe of the snowhomish nation, occupied as their principal settlement, 'a slight eminence near the head of what is now known as port madison bay.' _overland monthly_, , vol. iv., p. . the _suquamish_ 'claim all the land lying on the west side of the sound, between apple tree cove on the north, and gig harbor on the south.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . soquamish, 'country about port orchard and neighbourhood, and the west side of widby's island.' _harley_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . 'peninsula between hood's canal and admiralty inlet.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . snoquamish, 'port orchard, elliott's bay, and their vicinity.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . shomamish, 'on vashon's island.' _ib._ 'vashon's island.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . s'slomamish, 'vaston's island.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'the indians frequenting this port (orchard) call themselves the jeachtac tribe.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the _puyallupamish_ live 'at the mouth of puyallup river;' t'quaquamish, 'at the heads of puyallup river.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . squallyamish and pugallipamish, 'in the country about nesqually, pugallipi, and sinnomish rivers.' _harley_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . puallipawmish or pualliss, 'on pualliss river, bay, and vicinity.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . puyyallapamish, 'puyallop river.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the _nisquallies_, or skwall, 'inhabit the shores of puget's sound.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'nesquallis, de la baie de puget à la pointe martinez.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . nasqually tribes, 'nasqually river and puget's sound.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson bay_, p. . squallyamish, 'at puget sound.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the squalliahmish are composed of six bands, and have their residence on nisqually river and vicinity. _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . squallyamish or nisqually, nisqually river and vicinity. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . fort nisqually is frequented by the 'squallies, the clallams, the paaylaps, the scatchetts, the checaylis,' and other tribes. _simpson's overland journey_, vol. i., p. . the _steilacoomish_ dwell on 'stalacom creek;' loquamish, 'hood's reef.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . stitcheosawmish, 'budd's inlet and south bay,' in the vicinity of olympia. _id._, vol. iv., p. . steilacoomamish, 'steilacoom creek and vicinity.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _sawamish_ have their residence on 'totten's inlet.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . sayhaymamish, 'totten inlet.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'srootlemamish, quackenamish at case's inlet.' _ib._ quáks'namish, 'case's inlet;' s'hotlemamish, 'carr's inlet;' sahéhwamish, 'hammersly's inlet;' sawámish, 'totten's inlet;' squaiaitl, 'eld's inlet;' stéhchasámish, 'budd's inlet;' noosehchatl, 'south bay.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _skokomish_ live at the upper end of hood canal. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . töanhooch and shokomish on hood's canal. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . tuanoh and skokomish 'reside along the shores of hood's canal.' _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . toankooch, 'western shore of hood's canal. they are a branch of the nisqually nation.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . tuanooch, 'mouth of hood's canal.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'the region at the head of puget sound is inhabited by a tribe called the toandos.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . homamish, hotlimamish, squahsinawmish, sayhaywamish, stitchassamish, 'reside in the country from the narrows along the western shore of puget's sound to new market.' _mitchell and harley_, in _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . the _noosdalums_, or nusdalums, 'dwell on hood's channel.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'die noosdalum, wohnen am hood's-canal;' _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. . 'noostlalums, consist of eleven tribes or septs living about the entrance of hood's canal, dungeness, port discovery, and the coast to the westward.' _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the _chimakum_, or chinakum, 'territory seems to have embraced the shore from port townsend to port ludlow.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'on port townsend bay.' _id._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the _clallams_, or clalams, are 'about port discovery.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'their country stretches along the whole southern shore of the straits to between port discovery and port townsend.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . southern shore of the straits of fuca east of the classets. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . at port discovery. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . sklallum, 'between los angelos and port townsend.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . sklallams, 'at cape flattery.' _id._, vol. v., p. . 'scattered along the strait and around the bays and bights of admiralty inlet, upon a shoreline of more than a hundred miles.' _scammon_, in _overland monthly_, , vol. vii., p. . 's'klallams, chemakum, toanhooch, skokomish, and bands of the same, taking names from their villages, ... and all residing on the shores of the straits of fuca and hood's canal.' _webster_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . kahtai, kaquaith, and stehllum, at port townsend, port discovery, and new dungeness. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . stentlums at new dungeness. _id._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . [sidenote: indians of the coast of washington.] the _makahs_, or _classets_, dwell about cape flattery. macaw, 'cape flattery to neah bay.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . pistchin, 'neah bay to los angelos point.' _ib._ 'country about cape flattery, and the coast for some distance to the southward, and eastward to the boundary of the halam or noostlalum lands.' _id._, vol. v., p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , ; _hale_, in _id._, , p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . 'at neah bay or waadda, and its vicinity.' _simmons_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . tatouche, a tribe of the classets. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . classets 'reside on the south side of the straits of fuca.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _mitchell and harley_, in _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. . tatouche or classets, 'between the columbia and the strait of fuca.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'clatset tribe.' _cornwallis' n. el dorado_, p. . 'classets, on the strait of fuca.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. ; _stevens' address_, p. . makahs, 'inhabiting a wild broken peninsula circumscribed by the river wyatch, the waters of the strait and the pacific.' _scammon_, in _overland monthly_, , vol. vii., p. . klaizzarts, 'living nearly three hundred miles to the south' of nootka sound. _jewitt's nar._, p. . the elkwhahts have a village on the strait. _sproat's scenes_, p. . list of tribes between columbia river and cape flattery on the coast; calasthocle, chillates, chiltz, clamoctomichs, killaxthocles, pailsh, potoashs, quieetsos, quinnechart, quiniülts. _morse's rept._, p. . the _quillehute_ and _queniult_, or quenaielt, 'occupy the sea-coast between ozelt or old cape flattery, on the north, and quinaielt river on the south.' _simmons_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . quinaielt, quillehuté, queets, and hoh, live on the quinaielt river and ocean. _smith_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the queniult live 'at point grenville.' _swan's n. w. coast_, p. . 'on the banks of a river of the same name.' _id._, p. . the wilapahs 'on the wilapah river.' _id._, p. . the copalis 'on the copalis river, eighteen miles north of gray's harbor.' _id._, p. . quinaitle, north of gray's harbor. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . quinaik, 'coast from gray's harbor northward.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . ehihalis, quinailee, grey's harbor and north. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . south of the classets along the coast come the quinnechants, calasthortes, chillates, quinults, pailsk, etc. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . the kaliouches and konnichtchates, spoken of as dwelling on destruction island and the neighboring main. _tarakanov_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xx., p. , et seq. the _chehalis_, or chickeeles, 'inhabit the country around gray's harbour.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . on the chehalis river. _nesmith_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . frequent also shoalwater bay. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . on the cowelits. 'among the tsihailish are included the kwaiantl and kwenaiwitl ... who live near the coast, thirty or forty miles south of cape flattery.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - . 'in the vicinity of the mouth of the columbia.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . 'chekilis, et quinayat. près du havre de gray et la rivière chekilis.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _swan's n. w. coast_, p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _starling_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'a quarante milles au nord, (from the columbia) le long de la côte, habitent les tchéilichs.' _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. x., p. . the whiskkah and wynooche tribes on the northern branches of the chihailis. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . sachals 'reside about the lake of the same name, and along the river chickeeles.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . the _cowlitz_ live on the upper cowlitz river. occupy the middle of the peninsula which lies west of puget sound and north of the columbia. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . on the cowlitz river. the taitinapams have their abode at the base of the mountains on the cowlitz. _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; and in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. , vol. v., p. . cowlitsick, 'on columbia river, miles from its mouth.' _morse's rept._, p. . there are three small tribes in the vicinity of the cowlitz farm, 'the cowlitz, the checaylis and the squally.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . the staktomish live 'between nisqually and cowlitz and the head waters of chehaylis river.' _am. quar. register_, vol. iii., p. ; _harley_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . [sidenote: the chinook family.] the chinook family includes, according to my division, all the tribes of oregon west of the cascade range, together with those on the north bank of the columbia river. the name has usually been applied only to the tribes of the columbia valley up to the dalles, and belonged originally to a small tribe on the north bank near the mouth. 'the nation, or rather family, to which the generic name of chinook has attached, formerly inhabited both banks of the columbia river, from its mouth to the grand dalles, a distance of about a hundred and seventy miles.' 'on the north side of the river, first the chinooks proper (tchi-nuk), whose territory extended from cape disappointment up the columbia to the neighborhood of gray's _bay_ (not gray's _harbor_, which is on the pacific), and back to the northern vicinity of shoalwater bay, where they interlocked with the chihalis of the coast.' _gibbs' chinook vocab._, pp. iii., iv. the name watlalas or upper chinooks 'properly belongs to the indians at the cascades,' but is applied to all 'from the multnoma island to the falls of the columbia.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - . 'the principal tribes or bands were the wakaíkam (known as the wahkyekum), the katlámat (cathlamet), the tshinuk (chinook), and the tlatsap (clatsop).' _ib._ 'the natives, who dwell about the lower parts of the columbia, may be divided into four tribes--the clotsops, who reside around point adams, on the south side; ... the chinooks; waakiacums; and the cathlamets; who live on the north side of the river, and around baker's bay and other inlets.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the tribes may be classed: 'chinooks, clatsops, cathlamux, wakicums, wacalamus, cattleputles, clatscanias, killimux, moltnomas, chickelis.' _ross' adven._, p. . tribes on north bank of the columbia from mouth; chilts, chinnook, cathlamah, wahkiakume, skillute, quathlapotle. _lewis and clarke's map._ 'all the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the straits (of fuca), and the deeply indented territory as far as and including the tide-waters of the columbia, may be comprehended under the general term of chinooks.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'the chenook nation resides along upon the columbia river, from the cascades to its confluence with the ocean.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'inhabiting the lower parts of the columbia.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . 'hauts-tchinouks, près des cascades du rio colombia. tchinouks d'en bas, des cascades jusqu'à la mer, bas-tchinouks.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. , - . 'on the right bank of the columbia.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the cheenooks and kelussuyas, tribes, live at 'pillar rock, oak point, the dallas, the cascades, cheate river, takama river, on the columbia.' 'cheenooks, clatsops and several tribes near the entrance of the columbia river.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . upper and lower chinooks on the columbia river, lower chinooks at shoalwater bay. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . chinooks, 'north of the columbia.' _id._, p. . 'upper chinooks, five bands, columbia river, above the cowlitz. lower chinooks, columbia river below the cowlitz, and four other bands on shoalwater bay.' _stevens_, in _id._, p. . 'mouth of columbia river, north side, including some miles interior.' _emmons_, in _id._, vol. iii., p. . the chinnooks 'reside chiefly along the banks of a river, to which we gave the same name; and which, running parallel to the sea coast ... empties itself into haley's bay.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. , and map; _irving's astoria_, p. . 'to the south of the mouth of the columbia.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'chenooks on the columbia.' _swan's n. w. coast_, p. . north side of the columbia. _morse's report_, p. ; _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . tshinuk south of the columbia at mouth. watlala on both sides of the river from the willamette to dalles. they properly belong to the indians at the cascades. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - , and map, p. . banks of the columbia from dalles to the mouth. _farnham's trav._, p. . the upper chinooks were the shalala and echeloots of lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . in the vicinity of the mouth of the columbia, there are, besides the chinooks, the klickatacks, cheehaylas, naas, and many other tribes. _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . 'the flathead indians are met with on the banks of the columbia river, from its mouth eastward to the cascades, a distance of about miles; they extend up the walhamette river's mouth about thirty or forty miles, and through the district between the walhamette and fort astoria.' _kane's wand._, p. . 'the flatheads are a very numerous people, inhabiting the shores of the columbia river, and a vast tract of country lying to the south of it.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . 'the cathlascon tribes, which inhabit the columbia river.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . cathlascos on the columbia river, s. side miles from its mouth. _morse's rept._, p. . shoalwater bay indians: whilapah on whilapah river; necomanchee, or nickomin, on nickomin river, flowing into the east side of the bay; quelaptonlilt, at the mouth of whilapah river; wharhoots, at the present site of bruceport; querqueltin, at the mouth of a creek; palux, on copalux or palux river; marhoo, nasal, on the peninsula. _swan's n. w. coast_, p. . 'karweewee, or artsmilsh, the name of the shoalwater bay tribes.' _id._, p. . along the coast north of the columbia are the chinnooks, killaxthockle, chilts, clamoitomish, potoashees, etc. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . quillequeoquas at shoalwater bay. map in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . kwalhioqua, north of the columbia near the mouth. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , and map, p. . klatskanai, 'on the upper waters of the nehalem, a stream running into the pacific, on those of young's river, and one bearing their own name, which enters the columbia at oak point.' _gibbs' chinook vocab._, p. iv. willopahs, 'on the willopah river, and the head of the chihalis.' _ib._ the _chilts_ inhabit the 'coast to the northward of cape disappointment.' _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. . 'north of the mouth of the columbia and chealis rivers.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. , and map. 'on the sea-coast near point lewis.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . miscellaneous bands on the columbia; aleis, on the north side of the colombia. _gass' jour._, p. . cathlacumups 'on the main shore s.w. of wappatoo isl.' _morse's rept._, p. . cathlakamaps, 'at the mouth of the wallaumut.' _id._, p. . cathlanamenamens, 'on the island in the mouth of the wallaumut.' _id._, p. . cathlanaquiahs, 'on the s.w. side of wappatoo isl.' _id._, p. . cathlapootle, eighty miles from mouth of the columbia opposite the mouth of the willamette. _id._, p. . calhlathlas, 'at the rapids, s. side.' _id._, p. . clahclellah, 'below the rapids.' _morse's rept._, p. . clannarminnamuns, 's.w. side of wappatoo isl.' _id._, p. . clanimatas, 's.w. side of wappatoo isl.' _ib._ clockstar, 's.e. side of wappattoo isl.' _ib._ cooniacs, 'of oak point (kahnyak or kukhnyak, the kreluits of franchère and skilloots of lewis and clarke).' _gibbs' chinook vocab._, p. iv. hellwits, 's. side miles from mouth.' _morse's rept._, p. . katlagakya, 'from the cascades to vancouver.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . katlaminimim, on multnomah island. _ib._ katlaportl, river of same name, and right bank of columbia for five miles above its mouth. _ib._ ketlakaniaks, at oak point, formerly united with kolnit. _ib._ klakalama, between kathlaportle and towalitch rivers. _ib._ mamnit, 'multnomah isl.' _ib._ nechakoke, 's. side, near quicksand river, opposite diamond isl.' _morse's rept._, p. . neerchokioon, south side above the wallaumut river. _ib._ shalala at the grand rapids down to the willamet. _ib._ quathlapotle, between the cowlits and chahwahnahinooks (cathlapootle?) river. _lewis and clarke's map._ seamysty, 'at the mouth of the towalitch river.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . shoto, w. side back of a pond and nearly opposite the entrance of the willamut. _morse's rept._, p. . skillutes, 'about junction of cowlitz.' _lewis and clarke's map._ skiloots on the columbia on each side, from the lower part of the columbia valley as low as sturgeon island, and on both sides of the coweliskee river. _morse's rept._, p. . smockshop. _id._, p. . trile kalets, near fort vancouver. _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . wahclellah, 'below all the rapids.' _morse's rept._, p. . wakamass, 'deer's isle to the lower branch of the wallamat.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . wyampams, at the narrows. _ross' adven._, pp. - . tchilouits on the columbia, south bank, below the cowlitz. _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. x., p. . cathlâkaheckits and cathlathlalas in vicinity of the cascades. _id._, tom. xii., , p. . the _clatsops_ live on point adams. _hines' voy._, p. . 'south side of the (columbia) river at its mouth.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, pp. , . 'southern shore of the bay at the mouth of the columbia, and along the seacoast on both sides of point adams.' _morton's crania_, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , and map. miles from mouth, south side. _morse's rept._, p. . 'south side of the river.' _gass' jour._, p. . 'from near tillamook head to point adams and up the river to tongue point.' _gibbs' chinook vocab._, p. iv. klakhelnk, 'on clatsop point, commonly called clatsops.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , vol. v., p. . [sidenote: coast tribes of oregon.] the _wakiakum_, or 'wakaikum, live on the right bank of the columbia; on a small stream, called cadet river.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . wakiakums (wakáiakum) 'towards oak point.' _gibbs' chinook vocab._, p. iv. wahkiacums, adjoining the cathlamahs on the south-east and the skilloots on the north-west. _lewis and clarke's map._ waakicums, thirty miles from the mouth of the columbia, north side. _morse's rept._, p. . the _cathlamets_ extend from tongue point to puget's island. _gibbs' chinook vocab._, p. iv. 'opposite the lower village of the wahkiacums.' _irving's astoria_, p. . ' miles from the mouth of columbia.' _morse's rept._, p. . 'on a river of same name.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _lewis and clarke's map._ 'along the coast south of the columbia river are the clatsops, killamucks, lucktons, kahunkle, lickawis, youkone, necketo, ulseah, youitts, shiastuckle, killawats, cookoose, shalalahs, luckasos, hannakalals.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . 'along the coast s. of columbia river, and speak the killamucks language,' youicone, neekeetoos, ulseahs, youitts, sheastukles, killawats, cookkoooose, shallalah, luckkarso, hannakallal. _morse's rept._, p. . náélim, 'on a river on the sea-coast, miles s. of clatsop point,' and the following tribes proceeding southward. nikaas, kowai, neselitch, tacóón, aleya, sayonstla, kiliwatsal, kaons, godamyou (!), stotonia, at the mouth of coquin river. _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. - . the _killamooks_ dwell along the coast southward from the mouth of the columbia. 'near the mouth of the columbia.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . callimix, ' miles s. of columbia.' _morse's rept._, p. . killamucks, 'along the s.e. coast for many miles.' _id._, p. . tillamooks, 'along the coast from umpqua river to the neachesna, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . kilamukes, 'south and east of mouth of the columbia, extending to the coast.' _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . nsietshawus, or killamuks, 'on the sea-coast south of the columbia.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , and map, p. . 'between the river columbia and the umpqua.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . 'country about cape lookout.' _palmer's jour._, p. . 'on comprend sous le nom général de killimous, les indiens du sud du rio colombia, tels que les nahelems, les nikas, les kaouais, les alsiias, les umquas, les toutounis et les sastés. ces deux dernières peuplades se sont jusqu'à présent montrées hostiles aux caravanes des blancs.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. , . killamucks, next to the clatsops. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . 'callemeux nation.' _gass' jour._, p. . callemax on the coast forty leagues south of the columbia. _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, tom. x., p. . the lucktons are found 'adjoining the killamucks, and in a direction s.s.e.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . the jakon, or yakones, dwell south of the killamooks on the coast. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , and map, p. . the tlatskanai are farther inland than the killamooks. _id._, p. . the _umpquas_ live 'on a river of that name.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc. jour._, vol. ii., p. . 'in a valley of the same name. they are divided into six tribes; the sconta, chalula, palakahu, quattamya, and chastà.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . umbaquâs. _id._, p. . 'umpquas ( tribus) sur la rivière de ce nom, et de la rivière aux vaches.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the umkwa inhabit the upper part of the river of that name, having the kalapuya on the north, the lutuami (clamets), on the east, and the sainstkla between them and the sea.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , and map, p. . two hundred and twenty-five miles south of the columbia. _hines' voy._, p. . 'the country of the umpquas is bounded east by the cascade mountains, west by the umpqua mountains and the ocean, north by the calipooia mountains and south by grave creek and rogue river mountains.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , vol. v., p. . the saiustkla reside 'upon a small stream which falls into the sea just south of the umqua river.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , map, p. . sinselaw, 'on the banks of the sinselaw river.' _harvey_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . sayousla, 'near the mouth of sayousla bay.' _brooks_, in _id._, , p. . saliutla, 'at the mouth of the umbaquâ river.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . the katlawotsetts include the siuslaw and alsea bands on siuslaw river; the scottsburg, lower umpqua, and kowes bay bands on umpqua river. _drew_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . kiliwatshat, 'at the mouth of the umpqua.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the alseas, or alseyas, live on alsea bay. _brooks_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _harvey_, in _id._, , p. . chocreleatan, 'at the forks of the coquille river.' quahtomahs, between coquille river and port orford. nasomah, 'near the mouth of the coquille river.' _parrish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [sidenote: natives of the willamette valley.] willamette valley nations: 'the nations who inhabit this fertile neighbourhood are very numerous. the wappatoo inlet extends three hundred yards wide, for ten or twelve miles to the south, as far as the hills near which it receives the waters of a small creek, whose sources are not far from those of the killamuck river. on that creek resides the clackstar nation, a numerous people of twelve hundred souls, who subsist on fish and wappatoo, and who trade by means of the killamuck river, with the nation of that name on the sea-coast. lower down the inlet, towards the columbia, is the tribe called cathlacumup. on the sluice which connects the inlet with the multnomah, are the tribes cathlanahquiah and cathlacomatup; and on wappatoo island, the tribes of clannahminamun and clahnaquah. immediately opposite, near the towahnahiooks, are the quathlapotles, and higher up, on the side of the columbia, the shotos. all these tribes, as well as the cathlahaws, who live somewhat lower on the river, and have an old village on deer island, may be considered as parts of the great multnomah nation, which has its principal residence on wappatoo island, near the mouth of the large river to which they give their name. forty miles above its junction with the columbia, it receives the waters of the clackamos, a river which may be traced through a woody and fertile country to its sources in mount jefferson, almost to the foot of which it is navigable for canoes. a nation of the same name resides in eleven villages along its borders: they live chiefly on fish and roots, which abound in the clackamos and along its banks, though they sometimes descend to the columbia to gather wappatoo, where they cannot be distinguished by dress or manners, or language, from the tribes of multnomahs. two days' journey from the columbia, or about twenty miles beyond the entrance of the clackamos, are the falls of the multnomah. at this place are the permanent residences of the cushooks and chaheowahs, two tribes who are attracted to that place by the fish, and by the convenience of trading across the mountains and down killamuck river, with the nation of killamucks, from whom they procure train oil. these falls were occasioned by the passage of a high range of mountains; beyond which the country stretches into a vast level plain, wholly destitute of timber. as far as the indians, with whom we conversed, had ever penetrated that country, it was inhabited by a nation called calahpoewah, a very numerous people, whose villages, nearly forty in number, are scattered along each side of the multnomah, which furnish them with their chief subsistence, fish, and the roots along its banks.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . calapooyas, moolallels, and clackamas in the willamette valley. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , map. cathlakamaps at the mouth of the ouallamat; cathlapoutles opposite; cathlanaminimins on an island a little higher up; mathlanobes on the upper part of the same island; cathlapouyeas just above the falls; the cathlacklas on an eastern branch farther up; and still higher the chochonis. _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. x., pp. , . the cathlathlas live ' miles from the mouth of the wallaumut.' _morse's rept._, p. . the cloughewallhah are 'a little below the falls.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . the katlawewalla live 'at the falls of the wallamat.' _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the leeshtelosh occupy the 'headwaters of the multnomah.' _hunter's captivity_, p. . the multnomahs (or mathlanobs) dwell 'at upper end of the island in the mouth of the wallaumut.' _morse's rept._, p. . the nemalquinner lands are 'n.e. side of the wallaumut river, miles above its mouth.' _morse's rept._, p. . the newaskees extend eastward of the headwaters of the multnomah, on a large lake. _hunter's captivity_, p. . the yamkallies dwell 'towards the sources of the wallamut river.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the _calapooyas_ live in the upper willamette valley. callipooya, 'willamette valley.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. , vol. iii., p. . kalapuya, 'above the falls.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . callawpohyeaas, willamette tribes sixteen in number. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . calapooah, seventeen tribes on the willamette and its branches. _parker's explor. tour_, p. . callappohyeaass nation consists of wacomeapp, nawmooit, chillychandize, shookany, coupé, shehees, longtonguebuff, lamalle, and pecyou tribes. _ross' adven._, pp. - . kalapooyahs, 'on the shores of the oregon.' _morton's crania_, p. . 'willamat plains.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . kalapuyas, 'above the falls of the columbia.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . ' miles from the mouth of the wallaumut, w. side.' _morse's rept._, p. . vule puyas, valley of the willamette. _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . the _clackamas_ are on the 'clackama river.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'clakemas et kaoulis, sur le ouallamet et la rivière kaoulis.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'valley of the clakamus and the willamuta falls.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . klackamas, 'three miles below the falls.' _hines' voy._, p. . clackamis. _palmer's jour._, p. . clarkamees. _morse's rept._, p. . clackamus. _lewis and clarke's map._ the _mollales_ are found in 'willamettee valley.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'at the mouth of the wallamet, and the wapatoo islands.' _tucker's oregon_, p. . 'upon the west side of the willamette and opposite oregon city.' _palmer's jour._, p. . [sidenote: the shushwap family.] the shushwap family comprises all the inland tribes of british columbia, south of lat. ° ´. the _atnahs_, strangers, niccoutamuch, or shushwaps proper, inhabit the fraser and thompson valleys. 'at spuzzum ... a race very different both in habits and language is found. these are the nicoutamuch, or nicoutameens, a branch of a widely-extended tribe. they, with their cognate septs, the atnaks, or shuswapmuch, occupy the frazer river from spuzzum to the frontier of that part of the country called by the hudson bay company new caledonia, which is within a few miles of fort alexandria.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'shushwaps of the rocky mountains inhabit the country in the neighbourhood of jasper house, and as far as tête jaune cache on the western slope. they are a branch of the great shushwap nation who dwell near the shushwap lake and grand fork of the thompson river in british columbia.' thompson river and lake kamloops. _milton and cheadle's northw. pass._, pp. , . 'on the pacific side, but near the rocky mountains, are the shoushwaps who, inhabiting the upper part of frazer's river, and the north fork of the columbia.' _blakiston_, in _palliser's explor._, p. . 'the shooshaps live below the sinpauelish indians.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'the shushwaps possess the country bordering on the lower part of frazer's river, and its branches.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the atnahs or soushwap, 'live in the country on the fraser's and thompson's rivers.' 'they were termed by mackenzie the chin tribe.' (see p. , note of this vol.) _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. ; _buschmann_, _brit. nordamer._, p. . shooshaps, south of the sinpavelist. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - . 'the atnah, or chin indian country extends about one hundred miles,' from fort alexander. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . shooshewaps inhabit the region of the north bend of the columbia, in °. atnahs, in the region of the fraser and thompson rivers. _macdonald's lecture on b. c._, p. ; _hector_, in _palliser's explor._, p. . 'the shewhapmuch (atnahs of mackenzie) ... occupy the banks of thompson's river; and along frazer's river from the rapid village, twenty miles below alexandria, to the confluence of these two streams. thence to near the falls the tribe bears the name of nicutemuch.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'the stta llimuh, natives of anderson lake, speak a dialect of the sheswap language.' skowhomish, in the same vicinity. _mckay_, in _b. c. papers_, vol. ii., p. . 'the loquilt indians have their home in the winter on lake anderson, and the surrounding district, whence they descend to the coast in jervis inlet in the summer.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the kamloops dwell about one hundred and fifty miles north-west of okanagan. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . the clunsus are east of fraser river, between yale and latitude °; skowtous, on the fiftieth parallel south of lake kamloops and west of lake okanagan; sockatcheenum, east of fraser and north of °. _bancroft's map of pac. states._ the _kootenais_ live in the space bounded by the columbia river, rocky mountains, and clarke river. the kitunaha, coutanies, or flatbows, 'wander in the rugged and mountainous tract enclosed between the two northern forks of the columbia. the flat-bow river and lake also belong to them.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - , map, p. . 'inhabit the country extending along the foot of the rocky mountains, north of the flatheads, for a very considerable distance, and are about equally in american and in british territory.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . kootoonais, 'on mcgillivray's river, the flat bow lake, etc.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . kootonais, on 'or about the fiftieth parallel at fort kootonie, east of fort colville.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . 'between the rocky mountains, the upper columbia and its tributary the killuspeha or pend'oreille, and watered by an intermediate stream called the kootanais river is an angular piece of country peopled by a small, isolated tribe bearing the same name as the last-mentioned river, on the banks of which they principally live.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . the lands of the cottonois 'lie immediately north of those of the flatheads.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . kutanàe, kútani, kitunaha, kutneha, coutanies, flatbows, 'near the sources of the mary river, west of the rocky mountains.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'inhabit a section of country to the north of the ponderas, along m'gillivray's river.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'koutanies ou arcs-plats, près du fort et du lac de ce nom.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'in the kootanie valley.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . kootonays, south of the shushwaps. _palliser's explor._, p. . 'great longitudinal valley' of the kootanie river. _hector_, in _id._, p. . 'the tobacco plains form the country of the kootanies.' _blakiston_, in _id._, p. . 'about the northern branches of the columbia.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . kootanais, 'angle between the saeliss lands and the eastern heads of the columbia.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . about the river of the same name, between the columbia and rocky mountains. _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . a band called sinatcheggs on the upper arrow lake. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. . the kootenais were perhaps the tushepaws of lewis and clarke. the _tushepaws_ are 'a numerous people of four hundred and fifty tents, residing on the heads of the missouri and columbia rivers, and some of them lower down the latter river.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. , and map; _bulfinch's ogn._, p. . 'on a n. fork of clarke's river.' _morse's rept._, p. . ootlashoots, micksucksealton (pend d'oreilles?), hohilpos (flatheads?), branches of the tushepaws. _id._, and _lewis and clarke's map_. the tushepaw nation might as correctly be included in the salish family or omitted altogether. according to _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. , they were the kootenais. the _okanagans_, or okinakanes, 'comprise the bands lying on the river of that name, as far north as the foot of the great lake. they are six in number, viz: the tekunratum at the mouth; konekonep, on the creek of that name; kluckhaitkwee, at the falls; kinakanes, near the forks; and milaketkun, on the west fork. with them may be classed the n'pockle, or sans puelles, on the columbia river, though these are also claimed by the spokanes. the two bands on the forks are more nearly connected with the schwogelpi than with the ones first named.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . oakinackens, priests' rapids, northward over miles, and miles in width, to the shewhaps, branching out into tribes, as follows, beginning with the south: 'skamoynumachs, kewaughtchenunaughs, pisscows, incomecanétook, tsillane, intiétook, battlelemuleemauch, or meatwho, inspellum, sinpohellechach, sinwhoyelppetook, samilkanuigh and oakinacken, which is nearly in the centre.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . 'on both sides the okanagan river from its mouth up to british columbia, including the sennelkameen river.' _ross_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'près du fort de ce nom.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'on the okanagan and piscour rivers.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . 'composed of several small bands living along the okinakane river, from its confluence with the columbia to lake okinakane.... a majority of the tribe live north of the boundary line.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'columbia valley.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . north-east and west of the shoopshaps. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . junction of the okanagan and columbia. _parker's map._ 'upper part of fraser's river and its tributaries.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . principal family called conconulps about miles up stream of the same name. _ross' adven._, pp. - . the similkameen live on s. river, and 'are a portion of the okanagan tribe.' _palmer_, in _b. col. papers_, vol. iii., p. . the okanagans, called catsanim by lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . cutsahnim, on the columbia above the sokulks, and on the northern branches of the taptul. _morse's rept._, p. . [sidenote: the salish family.] the salish family includes all the inland tribes between ° and °. the salish, saalis, selish, or flatheads, 'inhabit the country about the upper part of the columbia and its tributary streams, the flathead, spokan, and okanagan rivers. the name includes several independent tribes or bands, of which the most important are the salish proper, the kullespelm, the soayalpi, the tsakaitsitlin, and the okinakan.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'the saeliss or shewhapmuch race, whose limits may be defined by the rocky mountains eastward; on the west the line of frazer's river from below alexandria to kequeloose, near the falls, in about latitude ° ´; northward by the carrier offset of the chippewyans; and south by the sahaptins or nez percés of oregon.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'from thompson's river other septs of this race--the shuswaps, skowtous, okanagans, spokans, skoielpoi (of colville), pend'oreilles, and coeurs d'aleines--occupy the country as far as the flathead passes of the rocky mountains, where the saelies or flatheads form the eastern portion of the race.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . 'about the northern branches of the columbia.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . tribes mentioned in _lewis and clarke's trav._, and map: tushepaw (kootenai), hopilpo (flathead), micksucksealtom (pend d'oreilles), wheelpo, (chualpays), sarlisto and sketsomish (spokanes), hehighenimmo (sans poils), according to _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . see _morse's rept._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'between the two great branches of the columbia and the rocky mountains are only five petty tribes: the kootanais and selish, or flatheads, at the foot of the mountains, and the pointed hearts, pend d'oreilles, and spokanes lower down.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. . 'divided into several tribes, the most important of which are the selishes, the kullespelms, the soayalpis, the tsakaïtsitlins, and the okinakans.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - . the _flatheads_, or salish proper, reside on the river, valley, and lake of the same name. 'inhabit st. mary's or the flathead valley and the neighborhood of the lake of the same name.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. , and in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'occupying the valleys between the bitter root and rocky mountains.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'south of the flathead valley on the bitter root.' _sully_, in _id._, , p. . st. mary's river. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'east and south-east (of the coeurs d'alène) and extends to the rocky mountains.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. , and map. _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . saalis ou faux têtes-plates. sur la rivière de ce nom au pied des montagnes rocheuses. _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'along the foot of the mountains.' _ross' adven._, p. . 'in new caledonia, w. of the rocky mountains.' _morse's rept._, p. . bitter root valley. _hutchins_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , , p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . hopilpo, of lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'ils occupent le pays compris entre le lewis river et la branche nord-ouest ou la columbia, et borné en arrière par les monts-rocailleux.' _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. . the _pend d'oreilles_ occupy the vicinity of the lake of the same name. 'on the flathead or clarke river.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . 'at clark's fork.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . lower pend d'oreilles, 'in the vicinity of the st. ignatius mission.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the kalispelms or pend d'oreilles of the lower lake, inhabit the country north of the coeur d'alenes and around the kalispelm lake.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . calispels, or calispellum, 'on fool's prairie at the head of colville valley, and on both sides of the pend d'oreille river, from its mouth to the idaho line, but principally at the camas prairie.' _winans_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , . situated to the east of fort colville, adjoining the kootonais on their eastern border. _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . 'pend'oreilles ou kellespem. au-dessous du fort colville.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . skatkmlschi, or pend d'oreilles of the upper lake. a tribe who, by the consent of the selish, occupy jointly with them the country of the latter. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . kullas-palus, 'on the flathead or clarke river.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . ponderas, 'north of clarke's river and on a lake which takes its name from the tribe.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. and map; _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the pend'oreilles were probably the micksucksealtom of lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . tribes baptized by de smet: thlishatkmuche, stietshoi, zingomenes, shaistche, shuyelpi, tschilsolomi, siur poils, tinabsoti, yinkaceous, yejak-oun, all of same stock. tribes mentioned by morse as living in the vicinity of clarke river: coopspellar, lahama, lartielo, hihighenimmo, wheelpo, skeetsomish. _rept._, p. . the _coeurs d'aléne_ 'live about the lake which takes its name from them.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . east of the spokanes, at headwaters of the spokane river. _parker's explor. tour_, p. , and map. 'the skitswish or coeur d'alenes, live upon the upper part of the coeur d'alene river, above the spokanes, and around the lake of the same name.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . their mission is on the river ten miles above the lake and thirty miles from the mountains. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . stietshoi, or coeur d'alenes on the river, and about the lake. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , map, vol. v., p. . pointed hearts, 'shores of a lake about fifty miles to the eastward of spokan house.' _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . 'st. joseph's river.' _mullan's rept._, p. . the _colvilles_ include the tribes about kettle falls, and the banks of the columbia up to the arrow lakes. 'colville valley and that of the columbia river from kettle falls to a point thirty miles below.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the colvilles, whose tribal name is swielpree, are located in the colville valley, on the kettle river, and on both sides of the columbia river, from kettle falls down to the mouth of the spokane.' _winans_, in _id._, , p. . colvilles and spokanes, 'near fort colville.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . the lakes, 'whose tribal name is senijextee, are located on both sides of the columbia river, from kettle falls north to british columbia.' _winans_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'so named from their place of residence, which is about the arrow lakes.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'les sauvages des lacs ... résident sur le lac-aux-flèches.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the chaudières, or kettle falls, reside 'about colville.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . the village of les chaudières 'is situated on the north side just below the fall.' _cox's advent._, vol. i., p. . chaudières 'live south of the lake indians.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'fort colville is the principal ground of the schwoyelpi or kettle falls tribe.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'the tribe in the vicinity (of fort colville) is known as the chaudière, whose territory reaches as far up as the columbia lakes.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . 'gens des chaudières. près du lac schouchouap au-dessous des dalles.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'called in their own language, chualpays.' _kane's wand._, pp. - . 'called quiarlpi (basket people).' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the chualpays called wheelpo by lewis and clarke, and by morse. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . [sidenote: the spokane nation.] the _spokanes_ live on the spokane river and plateau, along the banks of the columbia from below kettle falls, nearly to the okanagan. 'the spokihnish, or spokanes, lie south of the schrooyelpi, and chiefly upon or near the spokane river. the name applied by the whites to a number of small bands, is that given by the coeur d'alene to the one living at the forks. they are also called sinkoman, by the kootonies. these bands are eight in number: the sinslihhooish, on the great plain above the crossings of the coeur d'alene river; the sintootoolish, on the river above the forks; the smahoomenaish (spokehnish), at the forks; the skaischilt'nish, at the old chemakane mission; the skecheramouse, above them on the colville trail; the scheeetstish, the sinpoilschne, and sinspeelish, on the columbia river; the last-named band is nearly extinct. the sinpoilschne (n'pochle, or sans puelles) have always been included among the okinakanes, though, as well as the sinspeelish below them, they are claimed by the spokanes. the three bands on the columbia all speak a different language from the rest.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , ; and _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - . 'this tribe claim as their territory the country commencing on the large plain at the head of the slawntehus--the stream entering the columbia at fort colville; thence down the spokane to the columbia, down the columbia half way to fort okinakane, and up the spokane and coeur d'alene, to some point between the falls and the lake, on the latter.' _id._, p. . 'inhabit the country on the spokane river, from its mouth to the boundary of idaho.' _paige_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'at times on the spokane, at times on the spokane plains.' _mullan's rept._, pp. , . 'principally on the plains.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . 'north-east of the palooses are the spokein nation.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. , and map. 'au-dessous du fort okanagam à l'est.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'au nord-ouest des palooses se trouve la nation des spokanes.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'have a small village at the entrance of their river, but their chief and permanent place of residence is about forty miles higher up ... where the pointed-heart river joins the spokan from the south-east.' _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . 'the spokanes, whose tribal names are sineequomenach, or upper, sintootoo, or middle spokamish, and chekasschee, or lower spokanes, living on the spokane river, from the idaho line to its mouth.' _winans_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . spokane, the sarlilso and sketsomish of lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _sans poils_ (hairless), or 'sanpoils, which includes the nespeelum indians, are located on the columbia, from the mouth of the spokane down to grand coulée (on the south of the columbia), and from a point opposite the mouth of the spokane down to the mouth of the okanagan on the north side of the columbia, including the country drained by the sanpoil, and nespeelum creeks.' _winans_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . sinpoilish, west of the columbia between priest rapids and okanagan. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , map. sinpauelish, west of the kettle falls indians. _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'sinipouals. près des grands rapides du rio colombia.' _mofras_, _explor_., tom. ii., p. . sinpavelist, west of the chaudières. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . sinapoils, 'occupy a district on the northern banks of the columbia, between the spokan and oakinagan rivers.' _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . hehighenimmo of lewis and clarke. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _pisquouse_ inhabit the west bank of the columbia between the okanagan and priest rapids. piskwaus, or piscous; 'name properly belongs to the tribe who live on the small river which falls into the columbia on the west side, about forty miles below fort okanagan. but it is here extended to all the tribes as far down as priest's rapids.' the map extends their territory across the columbia. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , and map, p. . pisquouse, 'immediately north of that of the yakamas.' 'on the columbia between the priest's and ross rapids.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; and _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'piscaous. sur la petite rivière de ce nom à l'ouest de la colombie.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . the skamoynumacks live on the banks of the columbia, at priest rapids, near the mouth of the umatilla. thirty miles distant up the river are the kewaughtohenemachs. _ross' adven._, pp. , . 'the mithouies are located on the west side of the columbia river, from the mouth of the okanagan down to the wonatchee, and includes the country drained by the mithouie, lake chelan, and enteeatook rivers.' _winans_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the isle de pierres, whose tribal name is linkinse, are located on the east and south side of the col. riv. from grand coulée down to priests' rapids, which includes the peninsula made by the great bend of the col.' _ib._ [sidenote: sahaptin family.] the sahaptin family is situated immediately south of the salish. only six of the eight nations mentioned below have been included in the family by other authors. 'the country occupied by them extends from the dalles of the columbia to the bitter-root mountains, lying on both sides of the columbia and upon the kooskooskie and salmon forks of lewis' and snake river, between that of the selish family on the north, and of the snakes on the south.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. 'the first and more northern indians of the interior may be denominated the shahaptan family, and comprehends three tribes; the shahaptan, or nez percés of the canadians; the kliketat, a scion from the shahaptans who now dwell near mount rainier, and have advanced toward the falls of the columbia; and the okanagan, who inhabit the upper part of fraser's river and its tributaries.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . hale's map, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , divides the territory among the nez percés, walla-wallas, waiilaptu, and molele. 'the indians in this district (of the dalles) are dog river, wascos, tyicks, des chutes, john day, utilla, cayuses, walla-walla, nez percés, mountain snakes and bannacks.' _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the different tribes attached to fort nez percés, and who formerly went by that cognomen, are the shamooinaugh, skamnaminaugh, e'yackimah, ispipewhumaugh, and inaspetsum. these tribes inhabit the main north branch above the forks. on the south branch are the palletto pallas, shawhaapten or nez percés proper, pawluch, and cosispa tribes. on the main columbia, beginning at the dallas, are the necootimeigh, wisscopam, wisswhams, wayyampas, lowhim, sawpaw, and youmatalla bands.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. - . cathlakahikits, at the rapids of columbia river, n. side; chippanchickchicks, 'n. side of columbia river, in the long narrows, a little below the falls.' hellwits, 'at the falls of columbia river;' ithkyemamits, 'on columbia river, n. side near chippanchickchicks'; yehah, 'above the rapids.' _morse's rept._, pp. - . the _nez percés_ 'possess the country on each side of the lewis or snake river, from the peloose to the wapticacoes, about a hundred miles--together with the tributary streams, extending, on the east, to the foot of the rocky mountains.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'on both sides of the kooskooskia and north fork of snake river.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; and _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'a few bands of the nez percés indians occupy the salmon river and the clearwater.' _thompson_, in _id._, p. . 'the nez percés country is bounded west by the palouse river and the tucannon; on the north by the range of mountains between clear water and the coeur d'alene; east by the bitter root mountains; on the south they are bounded near the line dividing the two territories.' _craig_, in _id._, , p. . the buffalo, a tribe of the nez perces, winter in the bitter root valley. _owen_, in _id._, , p. . 'upper waters and mountainous parts of the columbia.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . 'country lying along lewis river and its tributaries from the eastern base of the blue mountains to the columbia.' _palmer's jour._, p. . nez percés or sahaptins, 'on the banks of the lewis fork or serpent river.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'chohoptins, or nez-percés, ... on the banks of lewis river.' _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . 'rove through the regions of the lewis branch.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . 'the lower nez percés range upon the wayleeway, immahah, yenghies, and other of the streams west of the mountains.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . some flatheads live along the clearwater river down to below its junction with the snake. _gass' jour._, p. . country 'drained by the kooskooskie, westward from the blackfoot country, and across the rocky mountains.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. . 'près du fort de ce nom, à la junction des deux branches du fleuve.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . junction of snake and clearwater. _parker's explor. tour_, _map_. chopunnish. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. , and map. copunnish. _bulfinch's oregon_, p. . 'the nez-percés are divided into two classes, the nez-percés proper, who inhabit the mountains, and the polonches, who inhabit the plain country about the mouth of the snake river.' _gairdner_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . chopunnish, 'on lewis river below the entrance of the kooskooskee, on both sides.' 'on the kooskooskee river below the forks, and on cotter's creek.' bands of the chopunnish; pelloatpallah, kimmooenim, yeletpoo, willewah, soyennom. _morse's rept._, p. . the _palouse_, or 'the palus, usually written paloose, live between the columbia and the snake.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vi. 'the peloose tribe has a stream called after it which empties into lewis river.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . upon the peloose river. 'entrance of great snake river and surrounding country.' _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'properly a part of the nez percés. their residence is along the nez percé river and up the pavilion.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . in three bands; at the mouth of the pelouse river; on the north bank of snake river, thirty miles below the pelouse; and at the mouth of the snake river. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - . palouse, or pelouse, 'reside on the banks of the palouse and snake rivers.' _mullan's rept._, pp. , . 'la tribu paloose appartient à la nation des nez-percés ... elle habite les bords des deux rivières des nez-percés et du pavilion.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . selloatpallah, north of the snake, near its confluence with the columbia. _lewis and clarke's map._ same as the sewatpalla. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _walla-wallas_ 'occupy the country south of the columbia and about the river of that name.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. 'a number of bands living usually on the south side of the columbia, and on the snake river to a little east of the peluse.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'are on a small stream which falls into the columbia near fort nez-percés.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'inhabit the country about the river of the same name, and range some distance below along the columbia.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'upon the banks of the columbia, below the mouth of the lewis fork are found the walla-wallas.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. . 'oualla-oualla, au-dessus du fort des nez percés.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'under this term are embraced a number of bands living usually on the south side of the columbia, and on the snake river, to a little east of the pelouse; as also the klikatats and yakamas, north of the former.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'on both sides of the columbia river between snake river and hudson bay fort, walla-walla.' _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . walla wallapum. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'les walla-walla habitent, sur la rivière du même nom, l'un des tributaires de la colombie, et leur pays s'étend aussi le long de ce fleuve.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . wollaw wollah. south side of the snake, at junction with the columbia. _lewis and clarke's map._ wollaolla and wollawalla, 'on both sides of col., as low as the muscleshell rapid, and in winter pass over to the taptul river.' _morse's rept._, pp. - . 'country south of the columbia and about the river of that name.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. walawaltz nation about the junction of the snake and columbia. on walla walle river. _gass' jour._, pp. - . 'on both banks of the columbia, from the blue mountains to the dalles.' _farnham's trav._, p. . wallah wallah. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . 'about the river of that name.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, pp. , . wallawallahs, 'reside along the lower part of the walla walla, the low bottom of the umatilla and the columbia, from the mouth of lewis river for one hundred miles south.' _palmer's jour._, pp. , . 'on the borders of the wallahwallah and columbia.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. . the sciatogas and toustchipas live on canoe river (tukanon?), and the euotalla (touchet?), the akaïtchis 'sur le big-river,' (columbia). _hunt_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. x., pp. - . the sciatogas 'possède le pays borné au sud-est par la grande-plaine; au nord, par le lewis-river; à l'ouest par la columbia; au sud par l'oualamat.' _id._, , tom. xii., p. . [sidenote: the cayuses and wascos.] the _cayuses_ extend from john day river eastward to grande ronde valley. the cayuse, cailloux, waiilatpu, 'country south of the sahaptin and wallawalla. their head-quarters are on the upper part of wallawalla river.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. , map, p. . 'the country belonging to the cayuse is to the south of and between the nez perces and walla-wallas, extending from the des chutes, or wanwanwi, to the eastern side of the blue mountains.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'on the west side of the blue mountains and south of the columbia river.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'occupy a portion of the walla-walla valley.' _dennison_, in _id._, , p. ; _cain_, in _id._, , pp. - . 'À l'ouest des nez-perces sont les kayuses.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the kayouse dwell upon the utalla or emnutilly river. _townsend's nar._, p. . 'west of the nez percés.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. , and map. 'rove through the regions of the lewis branch.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . 'kayouses. près du grand détour de la colombie.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . waiilatpu, molele, called also willetpoos, cayuse, 'western oregon, south of the columbia river.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . caäguas 'inhabit the country bordering on wallawalla river and its tributaries, the blue mountains and grand round.' _palmer's jour._, pp. - . wyeilat or kyoose, country to the south of walla walla. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . the skyuses 'dwell about the waters of the wayleeway and the adjacent country.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . the willewah 'reside on the willewah river, which falls into the lewis river on the s.w. side, below the forks.' _morse's rept._, p. . in grande ronde valley. _lewis and clarke's map_; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the umatillas 'live near the junction of the umatilla and columbia rivers.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . umatallow river and country extending thence westward to dalles. _tolmie_, in _id._, p. . 'the utillas occupy the country along the river bearing that name.' _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the wahowpum live 'on the n. branch of the columbia, in different bands from the pishquitpahs; as low as the river lapage; the different bands of this nation winter on the waters of taptul and cataract rivers.' _morse's rept._, p. ; _lewis and clarke's map._ on john day's river. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the _wascos_ include all the tribes between the cascade range and john day river, south of the columbia. 'they are known by the name of wasco indians, and they call their country around the dallas, wascopam. they claim the country extending from the cascades up to the falls of the columbia, the distance of about fifty miles.' _hines' voy._, p. . 'the wascos occupy a small tract of country near to and adjoining the dalles.' _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . on both sides of the columbia about the dalles are the wascopams. _map_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . eneshur, echeloots, chillukkitequaw and sinacshop occupy the territory, on _lewis and clarke's map_; _morse's rept._, p. . the tchipantchicktchick, cathlassis, ilttekaïmamits, and tchelouits about the dalles. _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'the residence of the molele is (or was) in the broken and wooded country about mounts hood and vancouver.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the mollales have their home in the willamette valley. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'the tairtla, usually called taigh, belong ... to the environs of the des-chutes river.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. 'the des chutes ... formerly occupied that section of country between the dalles and the tyich river.' _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the tyichs ... formerly occupied the tyich valley and the country in its vicinity, which lies about miles south of fort dalles.' _ib._ 'the john day rivers occupy the country in the immediate vicinity of the river bearing that name.' _ib._ 'the dog river, or cascade indians reside on a small stream called dog river, which empties into the columbia river, about half way between the cascades and dalles.' _id._, p. . the cascades dwell 'on the river of that name.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . the _yakimas_ occupy the valley of the yakima river and its branches. 'the upper yakimas occupy the country upon the wenass and main branch of the yakima, above the forks; the lower upon the yakima and its tributaries, below the forks and along the columbia from the mouth of the yakima to a point three miles below the dalles.' _robie_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . three bands, wishhams, clickahut, and skien, along the columbia. _id._, p. . 'the pshwanwappam bands, usually called yakamas, inhabit the yakama river.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. lewis and clarke's chanwappan, shaltattos, squamaross, skaddals, and chimnahpum, on the yakima river. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the yakimas 'are divided into two principal bands, each made up of a number of villages, and very closely connected; one owning the country on the nahchess and lower yakima, the other are upon the wenass and main branch above the forks.' _id._, p. . yackamans, northern banks of the columbia and on the yackamans river. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . on the yakima. _hale's ethnog._, _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'south of the long rapids, to the confluence of lewis' river with the columbia, are the yookoomans.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . pishwanwapum (yakima), in yakimaw or eyakema valley. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . called stobshaddat by the sound indians. _id._, p. . the chimnapums are 'on the n.w. side of col. river, both above and below the entrance of lewis' r. and the taptul r.' _morse's rept._, p. ; _lewis and clarke's map._ the 'chunnapuns and chanwappans are between the cascade range and the north branch of the columbia.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . the pisquitpahs, 'on the muscleshell rapids, and on the n. side of the columbia, to the commencement of the high country; this nation winter on the waters of the taptul and cataract rivers.' _morse's rept._, p. . the sokulks dwell north of the confluence of the snake and columbia. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. , and map; _morse's rept._, p. . at priest rapids. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . [sidenote: the kliketats.] the _kliketats_ live in the mountainous country north of the cascades, on both sides of the cascade range, and south of the yakimas. klikatats 'inhabit, properly, the valleys lying between mounts st. helens and adams, but they have spread over districts belonging to other tribes, and a band of them is now located as far south as the umpqua.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'roilroilpam is the klikatat country, situated in the cascade mountains north of the columbia and west of the yakamas.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. 'wander in the wooded country about mount st. helens.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'in the vicinity of the mouth of the columbia.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . klikatats. 'au-dessus du fort des nez-percés.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the kliketat, a scion from the sahaptans, who now dwell near mount rainier and have advanced towards the falls of the columbia.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . on _lewis and clarke's map_ the kliketat territory is occupied by the chanwappan, shallatos, squamaros, skaddals, shahalas. also in _morse's rept._, p. . whulwhypum, or kliketat, 'in the wooded and prairie country between vancouver and the dalles.' _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . the weyehhoo live on the north side of the columbia, near chusattes river. (kliketat.) _gass' jour._, p. . footnotes: [ ] the _nootka-columbians_ comprehend 'the tribes inhabiting quadra and vancouver's island, and the adjacent inlets of the mainland, down to the columbia river, and perhaps as far s. as umpqua river and the northern part of new california.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . [ ] gilbert malcolm sproat, a close observer and clear writer, thinks 'this word nootkah--no word at all--together with an imaginary word, columbian, denoting a supposed original north american race--is absurdly used to denote all the tribes which inhabit the rocky mountains and the western coast of north america, from california inclusively to the regions inhabited by the esquimaux. in this great tract there are more tribes, differing totally in language and customs, than in any other portion of the american continent; and surely a better general name for them could be found than this meaningless and misapplied term _nootkah columbian_.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . yet mr sproat suggests no other name. it is quite possible that cook, _voy. to the pacific_, vol. ii., p. , misunderstood the native name of nootka sound. it is easy to criticise any name which might be adopted, and even if it were practicable or desirable to change all meaningless and misapplied geographical names, the same or greater objections might be raised against others, which necessity would require a writer to invent. [ ] _kane's wand._, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. ; the name being given to the people between the region of the columbia and ° ´. [ ] the name _nez percés_, 'pierced noses,' is usually pronounced as if english, _nez pér-ces_. [ ] for particulars and authorities see tribal boundaries at end of this chapter. [ ] 'the indian tribes of the north-western coast may be divided into two groups, the insular and the inland, or those who inhabit the islands and adjacent shores of the mainland, and subsist almost entirely by fishing; and those who live in the interior and are partly hunters. this division is perhaps arbitrary, or at least imperfect, as there are several tribes whose affinities with either group are obscure.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . see _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - , and _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'the best division is into coast and inland tribes.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'by far the best looking, most intelligent and energetic people on the n. w. coast.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . also ranked by prichard as the finest specimens physically on the coast. _researches_, vol. v., p. . the nass people 'were peculiarly comely, strong, and well grown.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . 'would be handsome, or at least comely,' were it not for the paint. 'some of the women have exceedingly handsome faces, and very symmetrical figures.' 'impressed by the manly beauty and bodily proportions of my islanders.' _poole's queen charlotte isl._, pp. , . mackenzie found the coast people 'more corpulent and of better appearance than the inhabitants of the interior.' _voy._, pp. - ; see pp. - . 'the stature (at burke's canal) ... was much more stout and robust than that of the indians further south. the prominence of their countenances and the regularity of their features, resembled the northern europeans.' _vancouver's voy._ vol. ii., p. . a chief of 'gigantic person, a stately air, a noble mien, a manly port, and all the characteristics of external dignity, with a symmetrical figure, and a perfect order of european contour.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , , . mayne says, 'their countenances are decidedly plainer' than the southern indians. _b. c._, p. . 'a tall, well-formed people.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . 'no finer men ... can be found on the american continent.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . in °, 'son bien corpulentos.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. . 'the best looking indians we had ever met.' 'much taller, and in every way superior to the puget sound tribes. the women are stouter than the men, but not so good-looking.' _reed's nar._ [ ] the sebassas are 'more active and enterprising than the millbank tribes.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the haeeltzuk are 'comparatively effeminate in their appearance.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the kyganies 'consider themselves more civilised than the other tribes, whom they regard with feelings of contempt.' _id._, p. . the chimsyans 'are much more active and cleanly than the tribes to the south.' _id._, p. . 'i have, as a rule, remarked that the physical attributes of those tribes coming from the north, are superior to those of the dwellers in the south.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - , - ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. , ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'regular, and often fine features.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - , - , - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'opening of the eye long and narrow.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'had it not been for the filth, oil, and paint, with which, from their earliest infancy, they are besmeared from head to foot, there is great reason to believe that their colour would have differed but little from such of the labouring europeans, as are constantly exposed to the inclemency and alterations of the weather.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'between the olive and the copper.' _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - . 'their complexion, when they are washed free from paint, is as white as that of the people of the s. of europe.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . skin 'nearly as white as ours.' _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - . 'of a remarkable light color.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . 'fairer in complexion than the vancouverians.' 'their young women's skins are as clear and white as those of englishwomen.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'fair in complexion, sometimes with ruddy cheeks.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'de buen semblante, color blanco y bermejos.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. . [ ] tolmie mentions several instances of the kind, and states that 'amongst the hydah or queen charlotte island tribes, exist a family of coarse, red-haired, light-brown eyed, square-built people, short-sighted, and of fair complexion.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - , ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . [ ] _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . 'what is very unusual among the aborigines of america, they have thick beards, which appear early in life.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'after the age of puberty, their bodies, in their natural state, are covered in the same manner as those of the europeans. the men, indeed, esteem a beard very unbecoming, and take great pains to get rid of it, nor is there any ever to be perceived on their faces, except when they grow old, and become inattentive to their appearance. every crinous efflorescence on the other parts of the body is held unseemly by them, and both sexes employ much time in their extirpation. the nawdowessies, and the remote nations, pluck them out with bent pieces of hard wood, formed into a kind of nippers; whilst those who have communication with europeans procure from them wire, which they twist into a screw or worm; applying this to the part, they press the rings together, and with a sudden twitch draw out all the hairs that are inclosed between them.' _carver's trav._, p. . [ ] _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, p. . [ ] _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. , , . 'the most northern of these flat-head tribes is the hautzuk.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., pp. , . 'this wooden ornament seems to be wore by all the sex indiscriminately, whereas at norfolk sound it is confined to those of superior rank.' _dixon's voy._, pp. , , with a cut. a piece of brass or copper is first put in, and 'this corrodes the lacerated parts, and by consuming the flesh gradually increases the orifice.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - , . _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , ; _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. , with plate. [ ] _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , . [ ] _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , , , - ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. , ; _dunn's oregon_, p. . [ ] _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . 'the men habitually go naked, but when they go off on a journey they wear a blanket.' _reed's nar._ 'cuero de nutrias y lobo marino ... sombreros de junco bien tejidos con la copa puntiaguda.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. . [ ] _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] at salmon river, ° ´, 'their dress consists of a single robe tied over the shoulders, falling down behind, to the heels, and before, a little below the knees, with a deep fringe round the bottom. it is generally made of the bark of the cedar tree, which they prepare as fine as hemp; though some of these garments are interwoven with strips of the sea-otter skin, which give them the appearance of a fur on one side. others have stripes of red and yellow threads fancifully introduced towards the borders.' clothing is laid aside whenever convenient. 'the women wear a close fringe hanging down before them about two feet in length, and half as wide. when they sit down they draw this between their thighs.' _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - , ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] a house 'erected on a platform, ... raised and supported near thirty feet from the ground by perpendicular spars of a very large size; the whole occupying a space of about thirty-five by fifteen (yards), was covered in by a roof of boards lying nearly horizontal, and parallel to the platform; it seemed to be divided into three different houses, or rather apartments, each having a separate access formed by a long tree in an inclined position from the platform to the ground, with notches cut in it by way of steps, about a foot and a half asunder.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . see also pp. , - , , . 'their summer and winter residences are built of split plank, similar to those of the chenooks.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'ils habitent dans des loges de soixante pieds de long, construites avec des troncs de sapin et recouvertes d'écorces d'arbres.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'their houses are neatly constructed, standing in a row; having large images, cut out of wood, resembling idols. the dwellings have all painted fronts, showing imitations of men and animals. attached to their houses most of them have large potatoe gardens.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . see also, pp. - , - , ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., pp. , , with cuts on p. and frontispiece. 'near the house of the chief i observed several oblong squares, of about twenty feet by eight. they were made of thick cedar boards, which were joined with so much neatness, that i at first thought they were one piece. they were painted with hieroglyphics, and figures of different animals,' probably for purposes of devotion, as was 'a large building in the middle of the village.... the ground-plot was fifty feet by forty-five; each end is formed by four stout posts, fixed perpendicularly in the ground. the corner ones are plain, and support a beam of the whole length, having three intermediate props on each side, but of a larger size, and eight or nine feet in height. the two centre posts, at each end, are two and a half feet in diameter, and carved into human figures, supporting two ridge poles on their heads, twelve feet from the ground. the figures at the upper part of this square represent two persons, with their hands upon their knees, as if they supported the weight with pain and difficulty: the others opposite to them stand at their ease, with their hands resting on their hips.... posts, poles, and figures, were painted red and black, but the sculpture of these people is superior to their painting.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . see also pp. , , - , , ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , - ; _reed's nar._; _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] on food of the haidahs and the methods of procuring it, see _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. , ; _mackenzie's voy._, pp. , - , - , , , , - ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , - , - ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , , - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _pemberton's vancouver island_, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _reed's nar._ [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _poole's q. char. isl._, p. ; _mackenzie's voy._, p. - . 'once i saw a party of kaiganys of about two hundred men returning from war. the paddles of the warriors killed in the fight were lashed upright in their various seats, so that from a long distance the number of the fallen could be ascertained; and on each mast of the canoes--and some of them had three--was stuck the head of a slain foe.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . [ ] the kaiganies 'are noted for the beauty and size of their cedar canoes, and their skill in carving. most of the stone pipes, inlaid with fragments of haliotis or pearl shells, so common in ethnological collections, are their handiwork. the slate quarry from which the stone is obtained is situated on queen charlotte's island.' _dall's alaska_, p. . the chimsyans 'make figures in stone dressed like englishmen; plates and other utensils of civilization, ornamented pipe stems and heads, models of houses, stone flutes, adorned with well-carved figures of animals. their imitative skill is as noticeable as their dexterity in carving.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . the supporting posts of their probable temples were carved into human figures, and all painted red and black, 'but the sculpture of these people ( ° ´) is superior to their painting.' _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - ; see pp. - . 'one man (near fort simpson) known as the arrowsmith of the north-east coast, had gone far beyond his compeers, having prepared very accurate charts of most parts of the adjacent shores.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . 'the indians of the northern family are remarkable for their ingenuity and mechanical dexterity in the construction of their canoes, houses, and different warlike or fishing implements. they construct drinking-vessels, tobacco-pipes, &c., from a soft argillaceous stone, and these articles are remarkable for the symmetry of their form, and the exceedingly elaborate and intricate figures which are carved upon them. with respect to carving and a faculty for imitation, the queen charlotte's islanders are equal to the most ingenious of the polynesian tribes.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'like the chinese, they imitate literally anything that is given them to do; so that if you give them a cracked gun-stock to copy, and do not warn them, they will in their manufacture repeat the blemish. many of their slate-carvings are very good indeed, and their designs most curious.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . see also, _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. , and plate p. . the skidagates 'showed me beautifully wrought articles of their own design and make, and amongst them some flutes manufactured from an unctuous blue slate.... the two ends were inlaid with lead, giving the idea of a fine silver mounting. two of the keys perfectly represented frogs in a sitting posture, the eyes being picked out with burnished lead.... it would have done credit to a european modeller.' _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . 'their talent for carving has made them famous far beyond their own country.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . a square wooden box, holding one or two bushels, is made from three pieces, the sides being from one piece so mitred as to bend at the corners without breaking. 'during their performance of this character of labor, (carving, etc.) their superstitions will not allow any spectator of the operator's work.' _reed's nar._; _ind. life_, p. . 'of a very fine and hard slate they make cups, plates, pipes, little images, and various ornaments, wrought with surprising elegance and taste.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'ils peignent aussi avec le même goût.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, p. ; _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., pp. - . [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., pp. - , , ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , , . 'they boil the cedar root until it becomes pliable to be worked by the hand and beaten with sticks, when they pick the fibres apart into threads. the warp is of a different material--sinew of the whale, or dried kelp-thread.' _reed's nar._ 'petatito de vara en cuadro bien vistoso, tejido de palma fina de dos colores blanco y negro que tejido en cuadritos.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., pp. , - . [ ] _poole's q. char. isl._, p. , and cuts on pp. , ; _mackenzie's voy._, p. ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxxv; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _reed's nar._; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. , with plate. the bellabellahs 'promised to construct a steam-ship on the model of ours.... some time after this rude steamer appeared. she was from to feet long, all in one piece--a large tree hollowed out--resembling the model of our steamer. she was black, with painted ports; decked over; and had paddles painted red, and indians under cover, to turn them round. the steersman was not seen. she was floated triumphantly, and went at the rate of three miles an hour. they thought they had nearly come up to the point of external structure; but then the enginery baffled them; and this they thought they could imitate in time, by perseverance, and the helping illumination of the great spirit.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . see also, p. . 'a canoe easily distanced the champion boat of the american navy, belonging to the man-of-war _saranac_.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . [ ] _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _macfie's b. c._, pp. , , ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - , ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. cxxv. [ ] _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - ; _tolmie and anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , ; _macfie's b. c._, p. ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. ; _dixon's voy._, p. . 'there exists among them a regular aristocracy.' 'the chiefs are always of unquestionable birth, and generally count among their ancestors men who were famous in battle and council.' 'the chief is regarded with all the reverence and respect which his rank, his birth, and his wealth can claim,' but 'his power is by no means unlimited.' _bendel's alex. arch._, p. . [ ] _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _bendel's alex. arch._, p. ; _kane's wand._, p. . [ ] 'polygamy is universal, regulated simply by the facilities for subsistence.' _anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . see pp. - , and vol. i., pp. - . the women 'cohabit almost promiscuously with their own tribe though rarely with other tribes.' poole, spending the night with a chief, was given the place of honor, under the same blanket with the chief's daughter--and her father. _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - , - , . 'the indians are in general very jealous of their women.' _dixon's voy._, p. - . 'tous les individus d'une famille couchent pêle-mêle sur le sol plancheyé de l'habitation.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'soon after i had retired ... the chief paid me a visit to insist on my going to his bed-companion, and taking my place himself.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . see pp. , - . _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'on the weddingday they have a public feast, at which they dance and sing.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , - . 'according to a custom of the bellabollahs, the widow of the deceased is transferred to his brother's harem.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. - . 'the temporary present of a wife is one of the greatest honours that can be shown there to a guest.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . [ ] 'the queen charlotte islanders surpass any people that i ever saw in passionate addiction' to gambling. _poole's q. char. isl._, p. - . see pp. - , - . _mackenzie's voy._, pp. , . the sebassas are great gamblers, and 'resemble the chinooks in their games.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , - , - , . 'the indian mode of dancing bears a strange resemblance to that in use among the chinese.' _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _ind. life_, p. . [ ] _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _duncan_, in _mayne's b. c._, pp. - , and in _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _white's oregon_, p. ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, nov. , pp. - ; _ind. life_, p. ; _reed's nar._; _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . [ ] the indians of millbank sound became exasperated against me, 'and they gave me the name of "_schloapes_," i. e., "_stingy_:" and when near them, if i should spit, they would run and try to take up the spittle in something; for, according as they afterwards informed me, they intended to give it to their doctor or magician; and he would charm my life away.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . see pp. - ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - . [ ] _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - . [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - , ; _anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] at about ° ´, between the fraser river and the pacific, mackenzie observed the treatment of a man with a bad ulcer on his back. they blew on him and whistled, pressed their fingers on his stomach, put their fists into his mouth, and spouted water into his face. then he was carried into the woods, laid down in a clear spot, and a fire was built against his back while the doctor scarified the ulcer with a blunt instrument. _voy._, pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - ; _duncan_, in _mayne's b. c._, - ; _reed's nar._, in _olympia wash. stand._, _may , _. [ ] at boca de quadra, vancouver found 'a box about three feet square, and a foot and a half deep, in which were the remains of a human skeleton, which appeared from the confused situation of the bones, either to have been cut to pieces, or thrust with great violence into this small space.' ... 'i was inclined to suppose that this mode of depositing their dead is practised only in respect to certain persons of their society.' _voy._, vol. ii., p. . at cape northumberland, in ° ´, 'was a kind of vault formed partly by the natural cavity of the rocks, and partly by the rude artists of the country. it was lined with boards, and contained some fragments of warlike implements, lying near a square box covered with mats and very curiously corded down.' _id._, p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, pp. - . on queen charlotte islands, 'ces monumens sont de deux espèces: les premiers et les plus simples ne sont composés que d'un seul pilier d'environ dix pieds d'élévation et d'un pied de diamètre, sur le sommet duquel sont fixées des planches formant un plateau; et dans quelques-uns ce plateau est supporté par deux piliers. le corps, déposé sur cette plate-forme, est recouvert de mousse et de grosses pierres' ... 'les mausolées de la seconde espèce sont plus composés: quatre poteaux plantés en terre, et élevés de deux pieds seulement au-dessus du sol portent un sarcophage travaillé avec art, et hermétiquement clos.' _marchand_, _voy._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'according to another account it appeared that they actually bury their dead; and when another of the family dies, the remains of the person who was last interred, are taken from the grave and burned.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. . see also pp. , - ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. , ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _dall's alaska_, p. . [ ] on the coast, at ° ´, vancouver found them 'civil, good-humoured and friendly.' at cascade canal, about ° ´, 'in traffic they proved themselves to be keen traders, but acted with the strictest honesty;' at point hopkins 'they all behaved very civilly and honestly;' while further north, at observatory inlet, 'in their countenances was expressed a degree of savage ferocity infinitely surpassing any thing of the sort i had before observed,' presents being scornfully rejected. _voy._, vol. ii., pp. , , , . the kitswinscolds on skeena river 'are represented as a very superior race, industrious, sober, cleanly, and peaceable.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the chimsyans are fiercer and more uncivilized than the indians of the south. _sproat's scenes_, p. . 'finer and fiercer men than the indians of the south.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'they appear to be of a friendly disposition, but they are subject to sudden gusts of passion, which are as quickly composed; and the transition is instantaneous, from violent irritation to the most tranquil demeanor. of the many tribes ... whom i have seen, these appear to be the most susceptible of civilization.' _mackenzie's voy._, p. , . at stewart's lake the natives, whenever there is any advantage to be gained are just as readily tempted to betray each other as to deceive the colonists. _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - , - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . a kygarnie chief being asked to go to america or england, refused to go where even chiefs were slaves--that is, had duties to perform--while he at home was served by slaves and wives. the sebassas 'are more active and enterprising than the milbank tribes, but the greatest thieves and robbers on the coast.' _dunn's oregon_, p. , . 'all these visitors of fort simpson are turbulent and fierce. their broils, which are invariably attended with bloodshed, generally arise from the most trivial causes.' _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. . the kygarnies 'are very cleanly, fierce and daring.' the islanders, 'when they visit the mainland, they are bold and treacherous, and always ready for mischief.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the kygarnies 'are a very fierce, treacherous race, and have not been improved by the rum and fire-arms sold to them.' _dall's alaska_, p. . queen charlotte islanders look upon white men as superior beings, but conceal the conviction. the skidagates are the most intelligent race upon the islands. wonderfully acute in reading character, yet clumsy in their own dissimulation.... 'not revengeful or blood-thirsty, except when smarting under injury or seeking to avert an imaginary wrong.' ... 'i never met with a really brave man among them.' the acoltas have 'given more trouble to the colonial government than any other along the coast.' _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , - , - , , , , , , , - , , , - . 'of a cruel and treacherous disposition.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . they will stand up and fight englishmen with their fists. _sproat's scenes_, p. . intellectually superior to the puget sound tribes. _reed's nar._ 'mansos y de buena indole.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, s. iv., vol. vi., p. . on skeena river, 'the worst i have seen in all my travels.' _downie_, in _b. c. papers_, vol. iii., p. . 'as rogues, where all are rogues,' preëminence is awarded them. _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., pp. - . [ ] 'on my arrival at this inlet, i had honoured it with the name of king george's sound; but i afterward found, that it is called nootka by the natives.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . 'no aht indian of the present day ever heard of such a name as nootkah, though most of them recognize the other words in cook's account of their language.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . sproat conjectures that the name may have come from _noochee! noochee!_ the aht word for mountain. a large proportion of geographical names originate in like manner through accident. [ ] for full particulars see tribal boundaries at end of this chapter. [ ] 'the newatees, mentioned in many books, are not known on the west coast. probably the klah-oh-quahts are meant.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . [ ] there are no indians in the interior. _fitzwilliam's evidence_, in _hud. b. co., rept. spec. com._, , p. . [ ] the same name is also applied to one of the _sound_ nations across the strait in washington. [ ] the teets or haitlins are called by the tacullies, '_sa-chinco_' strangers. _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., pp. - . [ ] sproat's division into nations, 'almost as distinct as the nations of europe' is into the quoquoulth (quackoll) or fort rupert, in the north and north-east; the kowitchan, or thongeith, on the east and south; aht on the west coast; and komux, a distinct tribe also on the east of vancouver. 'these tribes of the ahts are not confederated; and i have no other warrant for calling them a nation than the fact of their occupying adjacent territories, and having the same superstitions and language.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , . mayne makes by language four nations; the first including the cowitchen in the harbor and valley of the same name north of victoria, with the nanaimo and kwantlum indians about the mouth of the fraser river, and the songhies; the second comprising the comoux, nanoose, nimpkish, quawguult, etc., on vancouver, and the squawmisht, sechelt, clahoose, ucle-tah, mama-lil-a-culla, etc., on the main, and islands, between nanaimo and fort rupert; the third and fourth groups include the twenty-four west-coast tribes who speak two distinct languages, not named. _mayne's vanc. isl._, pp. - . grant's division gives four languages on vancouver, viz., the quackoll, from clayoquot sound north to c. scott, and thence s. to johnson's strait; the cowitchin, from johnson's strait to sanetch arm; the tsclallum, or clellum, from sanetch to soke, and on the opposite american shore; and the macaw, from patcheena to clayoquot sound. 'these four principal languages ... are totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, and modes of expression.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . scouler attempts no division into nations or languages. _lond. geo. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. , . mofras singularly designates them as one nation of , souls, under the name of _ouakich_. _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . recent investigations have shown a somewhat different relationship of these languages, which i shall give more particularly in a subsequent volume. [ ] see _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , on the 'effects upon savages of intercourse with civilized men.' 'hitherto, ( ) in vancouver island, the tribes who have principally been in intercourse with the white man, have found it for their interest to keep up that intercourse in amity for the purposes of trade, and the white adventurers have been so few in number, that they have not at all interfered with the ordinary pursuits of the natives.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . [ ] 'muy robustos y bien apersonados.' 'de mediana estatura, excepto los xefes cuya corpulencia se hace notar.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , . 'the young princess was of low stature, very plump.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . macquilla, the chief was five feet eight inches, with square shoulders and muscular limbs; his son was five feet nine inches. _belcher's voy._, vol. i., pp. - . the seaboard tribes have 'not much physical strength.' _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . 'la gente dicen ser muy robusta.' _perez_, _rel. del viage, ms._, p. . 'leur taille est moyenne.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'in general, robust and well proportioned.' _meares' voy._, p. . under the common stature, pretty full and plump, but not muscular--never corpulent, old people lean--short neck and clumsy body; women nearly the same size as the men. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'of smaller stature than the northern tribes; they are usually fatter and more muscular.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . in the north, among the clayoquots and quackolls, men are often met of five feet ten inches and over; on the south coast the stature varies from five feet three inches to five feet six inches. _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'the men are in general from about five feet six to five feet eight inches in height; remarkably straight, of a good form, robust and strong.' only one dwarf was seen. _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . the klah-oh-quahts are 'as a tribe physically the finest. individuals may be found in all the tribes who reach a height of five feet eleven inches, and a weight of pounds, without much flesh on their bodies.' extreme average height: men, five feet six inches, women, five feet one-fourth inch. 'many of the men have well-shaped forms and limbs. none are corpulent.' 'the men generally have well-set, strong frames, and, if they had pluck and skill, could probably hold their own in a grapple with englishmen of the same stature.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'rather above the middle stature, copper-colored and of an athletic make.' _spark's life of ledyard_, p. ; _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'spare muscular forms.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, pp. - . [ ] limbs small, crooked, or ill-made; large feet; badly shaped, and projecting ankles from sitting so much on their hams and knees. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'their limbs, though stout and athletic, are crooked and ill-shaped.' _meares' voy._, p. . 'ils ont les membres inférieures légèrement arqués, les chevilles très-saillantes, et la pointe des pieds tournée en dedans, difformité qui provient de la manière dont ils sont assis dans leurs canots.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'stunted, and move with a lazy waddling gait.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. . 'skeleton shanks ... not much physical strength ... bow-legged--defects common to the seaboard tribes.' _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - . all the females of the northwest coast are very short-limbed. 'raro es el que no tiene muy salientes los tobillos y las puntas de los pies inclinadas hácia dentro ... y una especie de entumecimiento que se advierte, particularmente en las mugeres.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , , - . they have great strength in the fingers. _sproat's scenes_ p. . women, short-limbed, and toe in. _id._, p. ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . 'the limbs of both sexes are ill-formed, and the toes turned inwards.' 'the legs of the women, especially those of the slaves, are often swollen as if oedematous, so that the leg appears of an uniform thickness from the ankle to the calf,' from wearing a garter. _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . [ ] the different aht tribes vary in physiognomy somewhat--'faces of the chinese and spanish types may be seen.' 'the face of the ahts is rather broad and flat; the mouth and lips of both men and women are large, though to this there are exceptions, and the cheekbones are broad but not high. the skull is fairly shaped, the eyes small and long, deep set, in colour a lustreless inexpressive black, or very dark hazel, none being blue, grey, or brown.... one occasionally sees an indian with eyes distinctly chinese. the nose ... in some instances is remarkably well-shaped.' 'the teeth are regular, but stumpy, and are deficient in enamel at the points,' perhaps from eating sanded salmon. _sproat's scenes_, pp. , . 'their faces are large and full, their cheeks high and prominent, with small black eyes; their noses are broad and flat; their lips thick, and they have generally very fine teeth, and of the most brilliant whiteness.' _meares' voy._, pp. - ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . 'la fisonomia de estos (nitinats) era differente de la de los habitantes de nutka: tenian el cráneo de figura natural, los ojos chicos muy próximos, cargados los párpados.' many have a languid look, but few a stupid appearance. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , , - , . 'dull and inexpressive eye.' 'unprepossessing and stupid countenances.' _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. , . the wickinninish have 'a much less open and pleasing expression of countenance' than the klaizzarts. the newchemass 'were the most savage looking and ugly men that i ever saw.' 'the shape of the face is oval; the features are tolerably regular, the lips being thin and the teeth very white and even: their eyes are black but rather small, and the nose pretty well formed, being neither flat nor very prominent.' the women 'are in general very well-looking, and some quite handsome.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. , , . 'features that would have attracted notice for their delicacy and beauty, in those parts of the world where the qualities of the human form are best understood.' _meares' voy._, p. . face round and full, sometimes broad, with prominent cheek-bones ... falling in between the temples, the nose flattening at the base, wide nostrils and a rounded point ... forehead low; eyes small, black and languishing; mouth round, with large, round, thickish lips; teeth tolerably equal and well-set, but not very white. remarkable sameness, a dull phlegmatic want of expression; no pretensions to beauty among the women. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . see portraits of nootkas in _belcher's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _cook's atlas_, pl. - ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, _atlas_; _whymper's alaska_, p. . 'long nose, high cheek bones, large ugly mouth, very long eyes, and foreheads villainously low.' 'the women of vancouver island have seldom or ever good features; they are almost invariably pug-nosed; they have however, frequently a pleasing expression, and there is no lack of intelligence in their dark hazel eyes.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. - . 'though without any pretensions to beauty, could not be considered as disagreeable.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'have the common facial characteristics of low foreheads, high cheek-bones, aquiline noses, and large mouths.' 'among some of the tribes pretty women may be seen.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . [ ] 'her skin was clean, and being nearly white,' etc. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'reddish brown, like that of a dirty copper kettle.' some, when washed, have 'almost a florid complexion.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. , . 'brown, somewhat inclining to a copper cast.' the women are much whiter, 'many of them not being darker than those in some of the southern parts of europe.' the newchemass are much darker than the other tribes. _jewitt's nar._, pp. , . 'their complexion, though light, has more of a copper hue' than that of the haidahs. _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'skin white, with the clear complexion of europe.' _meares' voy._, p. . the color hard to tell on account of the paint, but in a few cases 'the whiteness of the skin appeared almost to equal that of europeans; though rather of that pale effete cast ... of our southern nations.... their children ... also equalled ours in whiteness.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . 'their complexion is a dull brown,' darker than the haidahs. 'cook and meares probably mentioned exceptional cases.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'tan blancos como el mejor español.' _perez_, _rel. del viage, ms._, p. . 'por lo que se puede inferir del (color) de los niños, parece menos obscuro que el de los mexicanos,' but judging by the chiefs' daughters they are wholly white. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'a dark, swarthy copper-coloured figure.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . they 'have lighter complexions than other aborigines of america.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . 'sallow complexion, verging towards copper colour.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. - . copper-coloured. _spark's life of ledyard_, p. . [ ] 'the hair of the natives is never shaven from the head. it is black or dark brown, without gloss, coarse and lank, but not scanty, worn long.... slaves wear their hair short. now and then, but rarely, a light-haired native is seen. there is one woman in the opechisat tribe at alberni who had curly, or rather wavy, brown hair. few grey-haired men can be noticed in any tribe. the men's beards and whiskers are deficient, probably from the old alleged custom, now seldom practiced, of extirpating the hairs with small shells. several of the nootkah sound natives (moouchahts) have large moustaches and whiskers.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'el cabello es largo lacio y grueso, variando su color entre rubio, obscuro, castaño y negro. la barba sale á los mozos con la misma regularidad que á los de otros paises, y llega á ser en los ancianos tan poblada y larga como la de los turcos; pero los jóvenes parecen imberbes porque se la arrancan con los dedos, ó mas comunmente con pinzas formadas de pequeñas conchas.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , . 'hair of the head is in great abundance, very coarse, and strong; and without a single exception, black, straight and lank.' no beards at all, or a small thin one on the chin, not from a natural defect, but from plucking. old men often have beards. eyebrows scanty and narrow. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'neither beard, whisker, nor moustache ever adorns the face of the redskin.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _jewitt's nar._, pp. , , . hair 'invariably either black or dark brown.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _meares' voy._, p. ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _spark's life of ledyard_, p. . [ ] _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. - ; _meares' voy._, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _jewitt's nar._, pp. , , , , - ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . [ ] _mayne's b. c._, pp. , , with cut of a child with bandaged head, and of a girl with a sugar-loaf head, measuring eighteen inches from the eyes to the summit. _sproat's scenes_, pp. - ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; meares' voy., p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., p. , cut of three skulls of flattened, conical, and natural form; _kane's wand._, p. ; _jewitt's nar._, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, p. . [ ] at valdes island, 'the faces of some were made intirely white, some red, black, or lead colour.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . at nuñez gaona bay, 'se pintan de encarnado y negro.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . at nootka sound, 'con esta grasa (de ballena) se untan todo el cuerpo, y despues se pintan con una especie de barniz compuesto de la misma grasa ó aceyte, y de almagre en términos que parece este su color natural.' chiefs only may paint in varied colors, plebeians being restricted to one.' _id._, pp. - . 'many of the females painting their faces on all occasions, but the men only at set periods.' vermilion is obtained by barter. black, their war and mourning color, is made by themselves. _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. . 'ces indiens enduisent leur corps d'huile de baleine, et se peignent avec des ocres.' chiefs only may wear different colors, and figures of animals. _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'rub their bodies constantly with a red paint, of a clayey or coarse ochry substance, mixed with oil.... their faces are often stained with a black, a brighter red, or a white colour, by way of ornament.... they also strew the brown martial mica upon the paint, which makes it glitter.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . 'a line of vermilion extends from the centre of the forehead to the tip of the nose, and from this "trunk line" others radiate over and under the eyes and across the cheeks. between these red lines white and blue streaks alternately fill the interstices. a similar pattern ornaments chest, arms, and back, the frescoing being artistically arranged to give apparent width to the chest.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'they paint the face in hideous designs of black and red (the only colours used), and the parting of the hair is also coloured red.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'at great feasts the faces of the women are painted red with vermilion or berry-juice, and the men's faces are blackened with burnt wood. about the age of twenty-five the women cease to use paint.... some of the young men streak their faces with red, but grown-up men seldom now use paint, unless on particular occasions.... the leader of a war expedition is distinguished by a streaked visage from his black-faced followers.' _sproat's scenes_, p. - . the manner of painting is often a matter of whim. 'the most usual method is to paint the eye-brows black, in form of a half moon, and the face red in small squares, with the arms and legs and part of the body red; sometimes one half of the face is painted red in squares, and the other black; at others, dotted with red spots, or red and black instead of squares, with a variety of other devices, such as painting one half of the face and body red, and the other black.' _jewitt's nar._, p. ; _meares' voy._, p. ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. ; _spark's life of ledyard_, p. . [ ] 'the habit of tattooing the legs and arms is common to all the women of vancouver's island; the men do not adopt it.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'no such practice as tattooing exists among these natives.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . 'the ornament on which they appear to set the most value, is the nose-jewel, if such an appellation may be given to the wooden stick, which some of them employ for this purpose.... i have seen them projecting not less than eight or nine inches beyond the face on each side; this is made fast or secured in its place by little wedges on each side of it.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , - ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _whymper's alaska_, pp. , , with cut of mask. _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , and illustration of a hair medicine-cap. [ ] 'their cloaks, which are circular capes with a hole in the centre, edged with sea-otter skin, are constructed from the inner bark of the cypress. it turns the rain, is very soft and pliable,' etc. _belcher's voy._, vol. i., p. . the usual dress of the newchemass 'is a _kootsuck_ made of wolf skin, with a number of the tails attached to it ... hanging from the top to the bottom; though they sometimes wear a similar mantle of bark cloth, of a much coarser texture than that of nootka.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , - , - , - . 'their common dress is a flaxen garment, or mantle, ornamented on the upper edge by a narrow strip of fur, and at the lower edge, by fringes or tassels. it passes under the left arm, and is tied over the right shoulder, by a string before, and one behind, near its middle.... over this, which reaches below the knees, is worn a small cloak of the same substance, likewise fringed at the lower part.... their head is covered with a cap, of the figure of a truncated cone, or like a flower-pot, made of fine matting, having the top frequently ornamented with a round or pointed knob, or bunch of leathern tassels.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - , - , . 'the men's dress is a blanket; the women's a strip of cloth, or shift, and blanket. the old costume of the natives was the same as at present, but the material was different.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. , . 'their clothing generally consists of skins,' but they have two other garments of bark or dog's hair. 'their garments of all kinds are worn mantlewise, and the borders of them are fringed' with wampum. _spark's life of ledyard_, pp. - ; _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , , - , - ; _meares' voy._, pp. - ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _whymper's alaska_, p. ; _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. ; _macfie's van. isl._, pp. , ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . see portraits in _cook's atlas_, _belcher's voy._, _sutil y mexicana, atlas_, and _whymper's alaska._ [ ] on the east side of vancouver was a village of thirty-four houses, arranged in regular streets. the house of the leader 'was distinguished by three rafters of stout timber raised above the roof, according to the architecture of nootka, though much inferior to those i had there seen, in point of size.' bed-rooms were separated, and more decency observed than at nootka sound. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. - , with a view of this village; also pp. - , description of the village on desolation sound; p. , on valdes island; p. , view of village on bute canal; and vol. iii., pp. - , a peculiarity not noticed by cook--'immense pieces of timber which are raised, and horizontally placed on wooden pillars, about eighteen inches above the roof of the largest houses in that village; one of which pieces of timber was of a size sufficient to have made a lower mast for a third rate man of war.' see _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. , - , and _atlas_, plate . a sort of a duplicate inside building, with shorter posts, furnishes on its roof a stage, where all kinds of property and supplies are stored. _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'the planks or boards which they make use of for building their houses, and for other uses, they procure of different lengths, as occasion requires, by splitting them out, with hard wooden wedges from pine logs, and afterwards dubbing them down with their chizzels.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . grant states that the nootka houses are palisade inclosures formed of stakes or young fir-trees, some twelve or thirteen feet high, driven into the ground close together, roofed in with slabs of fir or cedar. _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . the teets have palisaded enclosures. _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'the chief resides at the upper end, the proximity of his relatives to him being according to their degree of kindred.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _belcher's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. , - , , - ; _seemann's voy. of herald_, vol. i., pp. - . the carved pillars are not regarded by the natives as idols in any sense. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. , - . some houses eighty by two hundred feet. _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, pp. - . [ ] 'their heads and their garments swarm with vermin, which, ... we used to see them pick off with great composure, and eat.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . see also pp. - , - . 'their mode of living is very simple--their food consisting almost wholly of fish, or fish spawn fresh or dried, the blubber of the whale, seal, or sea-cow, muscles, clams, and berries of various kinds; all of which are eaten with a profusion of train oil.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , - , - , - , . _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , , , - , - . 'the common business of fishing for ordinary sustenance is carried on by slaves, or the lower class of people;--while the more noble occupation of killing the whale and hunting the sea-otter, is followed by none but the chiefs and warriors.' _meares' voy._, p. . 'they make use of the dried fucus giganteus, anointed with oil, for lines, in taking salmon and sea-otters.' _belcher's voy._, vol. i., pp. - . _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , , - , - , , - , - ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. - ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., p. ; _pemberton's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . the sau-kau-lutuck tribe 'are said to live on the edge of a lake, and subsist principally on deer and bear, and such fish as they can take in the lake.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. , - , - , - , - , - , - ; vol. ii., p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _forbes' vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _rattray's vanc. isl._, pp. - , - ; _hud. bay co., rept. spec. com._, , p. . [ ] _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , , ; _jewitt's nar._, pp. - ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. . 'the native bow, like the canoe and paddle, is beautifully formed. it is generally made of yew or crab-apple wood, and is three and a half feet long, with about two inches at each end turned sharply backwards from the string. the string is a piece of dried seal-gut, deer-sinew, or twisted bark. the arrows are about thirty inches long, and are made of pine or cedar, tipped with six inches of serrated bone, or with two unbarbed bone or iron prongs. i have never seen an aht arrow with a barbed head.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . 'having now to a great extent discarded the use of the traditional tomahawk and spear. many of these weapons are, however, still preserved as heirlooms among them.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . 'no bows and arrows.' 'generally fight hand to hand, and not with missiles.' _fitzwilliam's evidence_, in _hud. bay co. rept._, , p. . [ ] the ahts 'do not take the scalp of the enemy, but cut off his head, by three dexterous movements of the knife ... and the warrior who has taken most heads is most praised and feared.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'scalp every one they kill.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. , , . one of the nootka princes assured the spaniards that the bravest captains ate human flesh before engaging in battle. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . the nittinahts consider the heads of enemies slain in battle as _spolia opima_. _whymper's alaska_, pp. , ; _jewitt's nar._, pp. - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , , , , vol. ii., p. - . women keep watch during the night, and tell the exploits of their nation to keep awake. _meares' voy._, p. . _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. - , - . [ ] 'they have no seats.... the rowers generally sit on their hams, but sometimes they make use of a kind of small stool.' _meares' voy._, pp. - . the larger canoes are used for sleeping and eating, being dry and more comfortable than the houses. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. , , and _atlas_, pl. . 'the most skillful canoe-makers among the tribes are the nitinahts and the klah-oh-quahts. they make canoes for sale to other tribes.' 'the baling-dish of the canoes, is always of one shape--the shape of the gable-roof of a cottage.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. , - ; _mayne's b. c._, p. , and cut on title-page. canoes not in use are hauled up on the beach in front of their villages. _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'they keep time to the stroke of the paddle with their songs.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . their canoes 'are believed to supply the pattern after which clipper ships are built.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , . _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. , , , , - . _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , which describes a painted and ornamented plate of native copper some one and a half by two and a half feet, kept with great care in a wooden case, also elaborately ornamented. it was the property of the tribe at fort rupert, and was highly prized, and only brought out on great occasions, though its use was not discovered. _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. . [ ] woolen cloths of all degrees of fineness, made by hand and worked in figures, by a method not known. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. - ; _jewitt's nar._, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , , - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _pemberton's vanc. isl._, p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, pp. - . 'the implement used for weaving, (by the teets) differed in no apparent respect from the rude loom of the days of the pharaohs.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . [ ] _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , , , - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , ; _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - ; _mayne's b. c._, - . [ ] _jewitt's nar._, pp. - ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. , , - , . before the adoption of blankets as a currency, they used small shells from the coast bays for coin, and they are still used by some of the more remote tribes. _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'their acuteness in barter is remarkable.' _forbes' vanc. isl._, p. . [ ] the ahts 'divide the year into thirteen months, or rather moons, and begin with the one that pretty well answers to our november. at the same time, as their names are applied to each actual new moon as it appears, they are not, by half a month and more (sometimes), identical with our calendar months.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'las personas mas cultas dividen el año en catorce meses, y cada uno de estos en veinte dias, agregando luego algunos dias intercalares al fin de cada mes. el de julio, que ellos llaman _satz-tzi-mitl_, y es el primero de su año, á mas de sus veinte dias ordinarios tiene tantos intercalares quantos dura la abundancia de lenguados, atunes, etc.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. , ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'they shew themselves ingenious sculptors. they not only preserve, with great exactness, the general character of their own faces, but finish the more minute parts, with a degree of accuracy in proportion, and neatness in execution.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - , and _atlas_, pl. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., pp. - , and cut, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - , ; _mayne's b. c._, cut on p. . [ ] 'in an aht tribe of two hundred men, perhaps fifty possess various degrees of acquired or inherited rank; there may be about as many slaves; the remainder are independent members.' some of the klah-oh-quahts 'pay annually to their chief certain contributions, consisting of blankets, skins, etc.' 'a chief's "blue blood" avails not in a dispute with one of his own people; he must fight his battle like a common man.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , - , . cheslakees, a chief on johnson's strait, was inferior but not subordinate in authority to maquinna, the famous king at nootka sound, but the chief at loughborough's channel claimed to be under maquinna. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . 'la dignidad de tays es hereditaria de padres á hijos, y pasa regularmente á estos luego que estan en edad de gobernar, si los padres por ancianidad ú otras causas no pueden seguir mandando.' 'el gobierno de estos naturales puede llamarse patriarcal; pues el xefe de la nacion hace á un mismo tiempo los oficios de padre de familia, de rey y de sumo sacerdote.' 'los nobles gozan de tanta consideracion en nutka, que ni aun de palabra se atreven los tayses á reprehenderlos.' 'todos consideraban á este (maquinna) como soberano de las costas, desde la de buena esperanza hasta la punta de arrecifes, con todos los canales interiores.' to steal, or to know carnally a girl nine years old, is punished with death. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , , , , . 'there are such men as chiefs, who are distinguished by the name or title of _acweek_, and to whom the others are, in some measure, subordinate. but, i should guess, the authority of each of these great men extends no farther than the family to which he belongs.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'la forme de leur gouvernement est toute patriarcale, et la dignité de chef, héréditaire.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . several very populous villages to the northward, included in the territory of maquilla, the head chief, were entrusted to the government of the principal of his female relations. the whole government formed a political bond of union similar to the feudal system which formerly obtained in europe. _meares' voy._, pp. - . 'the king or head tyee, is their leader in war, in the management of which he is perfectly absolute. he is also president of their councils, which are almost always regulated by his opinion. but he has no kind of power over the property of his subjects.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , , , . _kane's wand._, pp. - . 'there is no code of laws, nor do the chiefs possess the power or means of maintaining a regular government; but their personal influence is nevertheless very great with their followers.' _douglas_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxiv., p. . [ ] 'usually kindly treated, eat of the same food, and live as well as their masters.' 'none but the king and chiefs have slaves.' 'maquinna had nearly fifty, male and female, in his house.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . meares states that slaves are occasionally sacrificed and feasted upon. _voy._, p. . the newettee tribe nearly exterminated by kidnappers. _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'an owner might bring half a dozen slaves out of his house and kill them publicly in a row without any notice being taken of the atrocity. but the slave, as a rule, is not harshly treated.' 'some of the smaller tribes at the north of the island are practically regarded as slave-breeding tribes, and are attacked periodically by stronger tribes.' the american shore of the strait is also a fruitful source of slaves. _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'they say that one flathead slave is worth more than two roundheads.' _rept. ind. aff._, , p. ; _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , ; _kane's wand._, p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , , - . [ ] 'the women go to bed first, and are up first in the morning to prepare breakfast,' p. . 'the condition of the aht women is not one of unseemly inferiority,' p. . 'their female relations act as midwives. there is no separate place for lying-in. the child, on being born, is rolled up in a mat among feathers.' 'they suckle one child till another comes,' p. . 'a girl who was known to have lost her virtue, lost with it one of her chances of a favourable marriage, and a chief ... would have put his daughter to death for such a lapse,' p. . in case of a separation, if the parties belong to different tribes, the children go with the mother, p. . 'no traces of the existence of polyandry among the ahts,' p. . the personal modesty of the aht women when young is much greater than that of the men, p. . _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , - , - , , , . one of the chiefs said that three was the number of wives permitted: 'como número necesario para no comunicar con la que estuviese en cinta.' 'muchos de ellos mueren sin casarse.' 'el tays no puede hacer uso de sus mugeres sin ver enteramente iluminado el disco de la luna.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - . women treated with no particular respect in any situation. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . persons of the same crest are not allowed to marry. 'the child again always takes the crest of the mother.' 'as a rule also, descent is traced from the mother, not from the father.' 'intrigue with the wives of men of other tribes is one of the commonest causes of quarrel among the indians.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - , ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - . the women are 'very reserved and chaste.' _meares' voy._, pp. , , , ; _kane's wand._, pp. - . the indian woman, to sooth her child, makes use of a springy stick fixed obliquely in the ground to which the cradle is attached by a string, forming a convenient baby-jumper. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _pemberton's vanc. isl._, p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'where there are no slaves in the tribe or family they perform all the drudgery of bringing firewood, water, &c.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. - , . no intercourse between the newly married pair for a period of ten days, p. . 'perhaps in no part of the world is virtue more prized,' p. . _jewitt's nar._, pp. - , , - ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. . [ ] 'when relieved from the presence of strangers, they have much easy and social conversation among themselves.' 'the conversation is frequently coarse and indecent.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'cantando y baylando al rededor de las hogueras, abandonándose á todos los excesos de la liviandad.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . [ ] _sproat's scenes_, pp. - ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . [ ] _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _pemberton's vanc. isl._, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . [ ] _sproat's scenes_, p. . but lord says 'nothing can be done without it.' _nat._, vol. i., p. . [ ] the indian never invites any of the same crest as himself. _macfie's vanc. isl._, . 'they are very particular about whom they invite to their feasts, and, on great occasions, men and women feast separately, the women always taking the precedence.' _duncan_, in _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . [ ] _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] 'i have never seen an indian woman dance at a feast, and believe it is seldom if ever done.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . the women generally 'form a separate circle, and chaunt and jump by themselves.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. . 'as a rule, the men and women do not dance together; when the men are dancing the women sing and beat time,' but there is a dance performed by both sexes. _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . 'on other occasions a male chief will invite a party of female guests to share his hospitality.' _macfie's vanc. isl._, p. . 'las mugeres baylan desayradisimamente; rara vez se prestan á esta diversion.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . [ ] 'la decencia obliga á pasar en silencio los bayles obscenos de los mischîmis (common people), especialmente el del impotente á causa de la edad, y el del pobre que no ha podido casarse.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. - ; _mayne's b. c._, pp. - ; _jewitt's nar._, p. ; _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, pp. - . [ ] _jewitt's nar._, pp. , , - ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] their music is mostly grave and serious, and in exact concert, when sung by great numbers. 'variations numerous and expressive, and the cadence or melody powerfully soothing.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. - , . dislike european music. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - . 'their tunes are generally soft and plaintive, and though not possessing great variety, are not deficient in harmony.' jewitt thinks the words of the songs may be borrowed from other tribes. _jewitt's nar._, p. , and specimen of war song, p. . airs consist of five or six bars, varying slightly, time being beaten in the middle of the bar. 'melody they have none, there is nothing soft, pleasing, or touching in their airs; they are not, however, without some degree of rude harmony.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xviii., p. . 'a certain beauty of natural expression in many of the native strains, if it were possible to relieve them from the monotony which is their fault.' there are old men, wandering minstrels, who sing war songs and beg. 'it is remarkable how aptly the natives catch and imitate songs heard from settlers or travelers.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . [ ] _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _jewitt's nar._, p. . [ ] 'i have seen the sorcerers at work a hundred times, but they use so many charms, which appear to me ridiculous,--they sing, howl, and gesticulate in so extravagant a manner, and surround their office with such dread and mystery,--that i am quite unable to describe their performances,' pp. - . 'an unlucky dream will stop a sale, a treaty, a fishing, hunting, or war expedition,' p. . _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . a chief, offered a piece of tobacco for allowing his portrait to be made, said it was a small reward for risking his life. _kane's wand._, p. . shrewd individuals impose on their neighbors by pretending to receive a revelation, telling them where fish or berries are most abundant. description of initiatory ceremonies of the sorcerers. _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , - , . _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . a brave prince goes to a distant lake, jumps from a high rock into the water, and rubs all the skin off his face with pieces of rough bark, amid the applause of his attendants. description of king's prayers, and ceremonies to bring rain. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - , . candidates are thrown into a state of _mesmerism_ before their initiation. _'medicus'_, in _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. v., pp. - ; _barrett-lennard's trav._, pp. - ; _californias, noticias_, pp. - . [ ] they brought for sale 'human skulls, and hands not yet quite stripped of the flesh, which they made our people plainly understand they had eaten; and, indeed, some of them had evident marks that they had been upon the fire.' _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., p. . slaves are occasionally sacrificed and feasted upon. _meares' voy._, p. . 'no todos habian comido la carne humana, ni en todo tiempo, sino solamente los guerreros mas animosos quando se preparaban para salir á campaña.' 'parece indudable que estos salvages han sido antropófagos.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'at nootka sound, and at the sandwich islands, ledyard witnessed instances of cannibalism. in both places he saw human flesh prepared for food.' _spark's life of ledyard_, p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, pp. - . 'cannibalism, all-though unknown among the indians of the columbia, is practised by the savages on the coast to the northward.' _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - . the cannibal ceremonies quoted by macfie and referred to vancouver island, probably were intended for the haidahs farther north. _vanc. isl._, p. . a slave as late as was drawn up and down a pole by a hook through the skin and tendons of the back, and afterwards devoured. _medicus_, in _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. v., p. . 'l'anthropophagie á été longtemps en usage ... et peut-être y existe-t-elle encore.... le chef maquina ... tuait un prisonnier à chaque lune nouvelle. tous les chefs étaient invités à cette horrible fête.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'it is not improbable that the suspicion that the nootkans are cannibals may be traced to the practice of some custom analagous to the _tzeet-tzaiak_ of the haeel tzuk.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. - . 'the horrid practice of sacrificing a victim is not annual, but only occurs either once in three years or else at uncertain intervals.' _sproat's scenes_, p. . [ ] 'rheumatism and paralysis are rare maladies.' syphilis is probably indigenous. amputation, blood-letting, and metallic medicine not employed. medicines to produce love are numerous. 'young and old of both sexes are exposed when afflicted with lingering disease.' _sproat's scenes_, pp. - , , - . 'headache is cured by striking the part affected with small branches of the spruce tree.' doctors are generally chosen from men who have themselves suffered serious maladies. _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - . 'their cure for rheumatism or similar pains ... is by cutting or scarifying the part affected.' _jewitt's nar._, p. . they are sea sick on european vessels. _poole's q. char. isl._, p. . description of ceremonies. _swan_, in _mayne's b. c._, pp. - , . 'the patient is put to bed, and for the most part starved, lest the food should be consumed by his internal enemy.' 'the warm and steam bath is very frequently employed.' _medicus_, in _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. v., pp. - . [ ] the custom of burning or burying property is wholly confined to chiefs. 'night is their time for interring the dead.' buffoon tricks, with a feast and dance, formed part of the ceremony. _jewitt's nar._, pp. , - , . at valdes island, 'we saw two sepulchres built with plank about five feet in height, seven in length, and four in breadth. these boards were curiously perforated at the ends and sides, and the tops covered with loose pieces of plank;' inclosed evidently the relics of many different bodies. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. - . 'the coffin is usually an old canoe, lashed round and round, like an egyptian mummy-case.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'there is generally some grotesque figure painted on the outside of the box, or roughly sculptured out of wood and placed by the side of it. for some days after death the relatives burn salmon or venison before the tomb.' 'they will never mention the name of a dead man.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. - . 'as a rule, the indians burn their dead, and then bury the ashes.' 'it was at one time not uncommon for indians to desert forever a lodge in which one of their family had died.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - , with cut of graves. for thirty days after the funeral, dirges are chanted at sunrise and sunset. _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - . children frequently, but grown persons never, were found hanging in trees. _meares' voy._, p. ; _sproat's scenes_, pp. - . the bodies of chiefs are hung in trees on high mountains, while those of the commons are buried, that their souls may have a shorter journey to their residence in a future life. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - . 'the indians never inter their dead,' and rarely burn them. _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . [ ] 'as light-fingered as any of the sandwich islanders. of a quiet, phlegmatic, and inactive disposition.' 'a docile, courteous, good-natured people ... but quick in resenting what they look upon as an injury; and, like most other passionate people, as soon forgetting it.' not curious; indolent; generally fair in trade, and would steal only such articles as they wanted for some purpose. _cook's voy. to pac._, vol. ii., pp. , - , etc. 'exceedingly hospitable in their own homes, ... lack neither courage nor intelligence.' _pemberton's vanc. isl._, p. . the kla-iz-zarts 'appear to be more civilized than any of the others.' the cayuquets are thought to be deficient in courage; and the kla-os-quates 'are a fierce, bold, and enterprizing people.' _jewitt's nar._, pp. - . 'civil and inoffensive' at horse sound. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'their moral deformities are as great as their physical ones.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . the nittinahts given to aggressive war, and consequently 'bear a bad reputation.' _whymper's alaska_, p. . not brave, and a slight repulse daunts them. 'sincere in his friendship, kind to his wife and children, and devotedly loyal to his own tribe,' p. . 'in sickness and approaching death, the savage always becomes melancholy,' p. . _sproat's scenes_, pp. , , , , - , - , , . 'comux and yucletah fellows very savage and uncivilized dogs,' and the nootkas not to be trusted. 'cruel, bloodthirsty, treacherous and cowardly.' _grant_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. , , , , . _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. , - , , , ; _poole's q. char. isl._, pp. - . the spaniards gave the nootkas a much better character than voyagers of other nations. _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. , - , - , , , , , - , - ; _forbes' vanc. isl._, p. ; _rattray's vanc. isl._, pp. - . the ucultas 'are a band of lawless pirates and robbers, levying black-mail on all the surrounding tribes.' _barrett-lennard's trav._, p. . 'bold and ferocious, sly and reserved, not easily provoked, but revengeful.' _spark's life of ledyard_, p. . the teets have 'all the vices of the coast tribes' with 'none of the redeeming qualities of the interior nations.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . [ ] 'those who came within our notice so nearly resembled the people of nootka, that the best delineation i can offer is a reference to the description of those people' (by cook), p. . at cape flattery they closely resembled those of nootka and spoke the same language, p. . at gray harbor they seemed to vary in little or no respect 'from those on the sound, and understood the nootka tongue', p. . 'the character and appearance of their several tribes here did not seem to differ in any material respect from each other,' p. . evidence that the country was once much more thickly peopled, p. . _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , , , ; vol. ii., p. . the chehalis come down as far as shoal-water bay. a band of klikatats (sahaptins) is spoken of near the head of the cowlitz. 'the makahs resemble the northwestern indians far more than their neighbors.' the lummi are a branch of the clallams. _rept. ind. aff._, , pp. - . the lummi 'traditions lead them to believe that they are descendants of a better race than common savages.' the semianmas 'are intermarried with the north band of the lummis, and cowegans, and quantlums.' the neuk-wers and siamanas are called stick indians, and in had never seen a white. 'the neuk-sacks (mountain men) trace from the salt water indians,' and 'are entirely different from the others.' 'the loomis appear to be more of a wandering class than the others about bellingham bay.' _id._, , pp. - . 'they can be divided into two classes--the salt-water and the stick indians.' _id._, , p. . of the nisquallies 'some live in the plains, and others on the banks of the sound.' the classets have been less affected than the chinooks by fever and ague. _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . the clallams speak a kindred language to that of the ahts. _sproat's scenes_, p. . 'el gobierno de estos naturales de la entrada y canales de fuca, la disposicion interior de las habitaciones las manufacturas y vestidos que usan son muy parecidos á los de los habitantes de nutka.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . the sound indians live in great dread of the northern tribes. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the makahs deem themselves much superior to the tribes of the interior, because they go out on the ocean. _scammon_, in _overland monthly_, vol. vii., pp. - . the nooksaks are entirely distinct from the lummi, and some suppose them to have come from the clallam country. _coleman_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., p. . _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . [ ] at port discovery they 'seemed capable of enduring great fatigue.' 'their cheek-bones were high.' 'the oblique eye of the chinese was not uncommon.' 'their countenances wore an expression of wildness, and they had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features.' some of women would with difficulty be distinguished in colour from those of european race. the classet women 'were much better looking than those of other tribes.' portrait of a tatouche chief. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , , - . 'all are bow-legged.' 'all of a sad-colored, caravaggio brown.' 'all have coarse, black hair, and are beardless.' _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. . 'tall and stout.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . sproat mentions a clallam slave who 'could see in the dark like a racoon.' _scenes_, p. . the classet 'cast of countenance is very different from that of the nootkians ... their complexion in also much fairer and their stature shorter.' _jewitt's nar._, p. . the nisqually indians 'are of very large stature; indeed, the largest i have met with on the continent. the women are particularly large and stout.' _kane's wand._, pp. , , . the nisquallies are by no means a large race, being from five feet five inches to five feet nine inches in height, and weighing from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and eighty pounds. _anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . 'de rostro hermoso y da gallarda figura.' _navarrete_, in _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. xciv. the queniults, 'the finest-looking indians i had ever seen.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . neuksacks stronger and more athletic than other tribes. many of the lummi 'very fair and have light hair.' _rept. ind. aff._, , p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _morton's crania_, p. , with plate of cowlitz skull; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _murphy and harned_, _puget sound directory_, pp. - ; _clark's lights and shadows_, pp. - , - . [ ] 'less bedaubed with paint and less filthy' than the nootkas. at port discovery 'they wore ornaments, though none were observed in their noses.' at cape flattery the nose ornament was straight, instead of crescent-shaped, as among the nootkas. vancouver supposed their garments to be composed of dog's hair mixed with the wool of some wild animal, which he did not see. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , , . at port discovery some had small brass bells hung in the rim of the ears, p. . some of the skagits were tattooed with lines on the arms and face, and fond of brass rings, pp. - . the classets 'wore small pieces of an iridescent mussel-shell, attached to the cartilage of their nose, which was in some, of the size of a ten cents piece, and triangular in shape. it is generally kept in motion by their breathing,' p. . _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , , , , - , - . the conical hats and stout bodies 'brought to mind representations of siberian tribes.' _pickering's races_, in _idem._, vol. ix., p. . the clallams 'wear no clothing in summer.' faces daubed with red and white mud. illustration of head-flattening. _kane's wand._, pp. , , - , . _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. - ; _rossi_, _souvenirs_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _san francisco bulletin_, _may , _; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _id._, , p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . above gray harbor they were dressed with red deer skins. _navarrete_, in _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. xciv: _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. - ; _murphy and harned_, in _puget sd. direct._, pp. - . [ ] the skagit tribe being exposed to attacks from the north, combine dwellings and fort, and build themselves 'enclosures, four hundred feet long, and capable of containing many families, which are constructed of pickets made of thick planks, about thirty feet high. the pickets are firmly fixed into the ground, the spaces between them being only sufficient to point a musket through.... the interior of the enclosure is divided into lodges,' p. . at port discovery the lodges were 'no more than a few rudely-cut slabs, covered in part by coarse mats,' p. . _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , , . the clallams also have a fort of pickets one hundred and fifty feet square, roofed over and divided into compartments for families. 'there were about two hundred of the tribe in the fort at the time of my arrival.' 'the lodges are built of cedar like the chinook lodges, but much larger, some of them being sixty or seventy feet long.' _kane's wand._, pp. , , - . 'their houses are of considerable size, often fifty to one hundred feet in length, and strongly built.' _rept. ind. aff._, , pp. - . 'the planks forming the roof run the whole length of the building, being guttered to carry off the water, and sloping slightly to one end.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - . well built lodges of timber and plank on whidbey island. _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . at new dungeness, 'composed of nothing more than a few mats thrown over cross sticks;' and on puget sound 'constructed something after the fashion of a soldier's tent, by two cross sticks about five feet high, connected at each end by a ridge-pole from one to the other, over some of which was thrown a coarse kind of mat; over others a few loose branches of trees, shrubs or grass.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . the queniults sometimes, but not always, whitewash the interior of their lodges with pipe-clay, and then paint figures of fishes and animals in red and black on the white surface. see description and cuts of exterior and interior of indian lodge in _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - , , ; _crane's top. mem._, p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _clark's lights and shadows_, p. . [ ] the nootsaks, 'like all inland tribes, they subsist principally by the chase.' _coleman_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., pp. , , ; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . sturgeon abound weighing to pounds, and are taken by the clallams by means of a spear with a handle seventy to eighty feet long, while lying on the bottom of the river in spawning time. fish-hooks are made of cedar root with bone barbs. their only vegetables are the camas, wappatoo, and fern roots. _kane's wand._, pp. - , - , . at puget sound, 'men, women and children were busily engaged like swine, rooting up this beautiful verdant meadow in quest of a species of wild onion, and two other roots, which in appearance and taste greatly resembled the saranne.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , , . in fishing for salmon at port discovery 'they have two nets, the drawing and casting net, made of a silky grass,' 'or of the fibres of the roots of trees, or of the inner bark of the white cedar.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'the line is made either of kelp or the fibre of the cypress, and to it is attached an inflated bladder.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . at port townsend, 'leurs provisions, consistaient en poisson séché au soleil ou boucané; ... tout rempli de sable.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, pp. - , . the clallams 'live by fishing and hunting around their homes, and never pursue the whale and seal as do the sea-coast tribes.' _scammon_, in _overland monthly_, vol. vii., p. . the uthlecan or candle-fish is used on fuca strait for food as well as candles. _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . lamprey eels are dried for food and light by the nisquallies and chehalis. 'cammass root, ... stored in baskets. it is a kind of sweet squills, and about the size of a small onion. it is extremely abundant on the open prairies, and particularly on those which are overflowed by the small streams.' cut of salmon fishery, p. . 'hooks are made in an ingenious manner of the yew tree.' 'they are chiefly employed in trailing for fish.' cut of hooks, pp. - . the classets make a cut in the nose when a whale is taken. each seal-skin float has a different pattern painted on it, p. . _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , , - , - . the chehalis live chiefly on salmon. _id._, vol. v., p. . according to swan the puget sound indians sometimes wander as far as shoalwater bay in chinook territory, in the spring. the queniult indians are fond of large barnacles, not eaten by the chinooks of shoalwater bay. cut of a sea-otter hunt. the indians never catch salmon with a _baited_ hook, but always use the hook as a _gaff_. _n. w. coast_, pp. , , , , , ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., pp. - , , - ; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'they all depend upon fish, berries, and roots for a subsistence, and get their living with great ease.' _starling_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - . the makahs live 'by catching cod and halibut on the banks north and east of cape flattery.' _ind. aff. rept._ , p. . 'when in a state of semi-starvation the beast shows very plainly in them (stick indians): they are generally foul feeders, but at such a time they eat anything, and are disgusting in the extreme.' _id._, , p. ; _id._, , p. ; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - ; _hittell_, in _hesperian_, vol. iii., p. ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, pp. - ; _maurelle's jour._, p. . [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . at gray harbor the bows were somewhat more circular than elsewhere. _id._, vol. ii., p. ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - . [ ] _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'they have been nearly annihilated by the hordes of northern savages that have infested, and do now, even at the present day, infest our own shores' for slaves. they had fire-arms before our tribes, thus gaining an advantage.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _clark's lights and shadows_, p. . [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'a single thread is wound over rollers at the top and bottom of a square frame, so as to form a continuous woof through which an alternate thread is carried by the hand, and pressed closely together by a sort of wooden comb; by turning the rollers every part of the woof is brought within reach of the weaver; by this means a bag formed, open at each end, which being cut down makes a square blanket.' _kane's wand._, pp. - . cuts showing the loom and process of weaving among the nootsaks, also house, canoes, and willow baskets. _coleman_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., pp. - . the clallams 'have a kind of cur with soft and long white hair, which they shear and mix with a little wool or the ravelings of old blankets.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the makahs have 'blankets and capes made of the inner bark of the cedar, and edged with fur.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the candle-fish 'furnishes the natives with their best oil, which is extracted by the very simple process of hanging it up, exposed to the sun, which in a few days seems to melt it away.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . they 'manufacture some of their blankets from the wool of the wild goat.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the queniults showed 'a blanket manufactured from the wool of mountain sheep, which are to be found on the precipitous slopes of the olympian mountains.' _alta california_, _feb. , _, quoted in _california farmer_, _july , _; _cornwallis' new el dorado_, p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'they present a model of which a white mechanic might well be proud.' description of method of making, and cuts of queniult, clallam, and cowlitz canoes, and a queniult paddle. _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . at port orchard they 'exactly corresponded with the canoes of nootka,' while those of some visitors were 'cut off square at each end,' and like those seen below cape orford. at gray harbor the war canoes 'had a piece of wood rudely carved, perforated, and placed at each end, three feet above the gunwale; through these holes they are able to discharge their arrows.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., p. . the clallam boats were 'low and straight, and only adapted to the smoother interior waters.' _scammon_, in _overland monthly_, vol. vii., p. . cut showing nootsak canoes in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., p. . 'the sides are exceedingly thin, seldom exceeding three-fourths of an inch.' to mend the canoe when cracks occur, 'holes are made in the sides, through which withes are passed, and pegged in such a way that the strain will draw it tighter; the withe is then crossed, and the end secured in the same manner. when the tying is finished, the whole is pitched with the gum of the pine.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - . the clallams have 'a very large canoe of ruder shape and workmanship, being wide and shovel-nosed,' used for the transportation of baggage. _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. ; _clark's lights and shadows_, pp. - . [ ] _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _starling_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'ils obéissent à un chef, qui n'exerce son pouvoir qu'en temps de guerre.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, p. . at gray harbor 'they appeared to be divided into three different tribes, or parties, each having one or two chiefs.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . wilkes met a squaw chief at nisqually, who 'seemed to exercise more authority than any that had been met with.' 'little or no distinction of rank seems to exist among them; the authority of the chiefs is no longer recognized.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; vol. v., p. . yellow-cum had become chief of the makahs from his own personal prowess. _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . [ ] _sproat's scenes_, p. ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - . the nooksaks 'have no slaves.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . it is said 'that the descendants of slaves obtain freedom at the expiration of three centuries.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] the makahs have some marriage ceremonies, 'such as going through the performance of taking the whale, manning a canoe, and throwing the harpoon into the bride's house.' _ind. aff. rept._, p. . the nooksak women 'are very industrious, and do most of the work, and procure the principal part of their sustenance.' _id._, , p. . 'the women have not the slightest pretension to virtue.' _id._, , p. ; _siwash nuptials_, in _olympia washington standard, july , _. in matters of trade the opinion of the women is always called in, and their decision decides the bargain. _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . 'the whole burden of domestic occupation is thrown upon them.' cut of the native baby-jumper. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , . at gray harbor they were not jealous. at port discovery they offered their children for sale. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., pp. - . 'rarely having more than three or four' children. _swan's n. w. coast_, p. ; _clark's lights and shadows_, pp. - . [ ] _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _rossi_, _souvenirs_, pp. - ; _san francisco bulletin_, _may , ._ [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. , . the lummi 'are a very superstitious tribe, and pretend to have traditions--legends handed down to them by their ancestors.' 'no persuasion or pay will induce them to kill an owl or eat a pheasant.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , . no forms of salutation. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, pp. - . [ ] among the skagits 'dr. holmes saw an old man in the last stage of consumption, shivering from the effects of a cold bath at the temperature of ° fahrenheit. a favourite remedy in pulmonary consumption is to tie a rope tightly around the thorax, so as to force the diaphram to perform respiration without the aid of the thoracic muscles.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . among the clallams, to cure a girl of a disease of the side, after stripping the patient naked, the medicine-man, throwing off his blanket, 'commenced singing and gesticulating in the most violent manner, whilst the others kept time by beating with little sticks on hollow wooden bowls and drums, singing continually. after exercising himself in this manner for about half an hour, until the perspiration ran down his body, he darted suddenly upon the young woman, catching hold of her side with his teeth and shaking her for a few minutes, while the patient seemed to suffer great agony. he then relinquished his hold, and cried out that he had got it, at the same time holding his hands to his mouth; after which he plunged them in the water and pretended to hold down with great difficulty the disease which he had extracted.' _kane's wand._, pp. - . small-pox seemed very prevalent by which many had lost the sight of one eye. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . to cure a cold in the face the queniults burned certain herbs to a cinder and mixing them with grease, anointed the face. _swan's n. w. coast_, p. . among the nooksaks mortality has not increased with civilization. 'as yet the only causes of any amount are consumption and the old diseases.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . at neah bay, 'a scrofulous affection pervades the whole tribe.' the old, sick and maimed are abandoned by their friends to die. _id._, , p. . [ ] slaves have no right to burial. _kane's wand._, p. . at a queniult burial place 'the different colored blankets and calicoes hung round gave the place an appearance of clothes hung out to dry on a washing day.' _swan's n. w. coast_, p. . at port orchard bodies were 'wrapped firmly in matting, beneath which was a white blanket, closely fastened round the body, and under this a covering of blue cotton.' at port discovery bodies 'are wrapped in mats and placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, and surrounded with stakes and pieces of plank to protect them.' on the cowlitz the burial canoes are painted with figures, and gifts are not deposited till several months after the funeral. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , - , - . among the nisquallies bodies of relatives are sometimes disinterred at different places, washed, re-wrapped and buried again in one grave. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'ornés de rubans de diverses couleurs, de dents de poissons, de chapelets et d'autres brimborions du goût des sauvages.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, pp. - . on penn cove, in a deserted village, were found 'several sepulchres formed exactly like a centry box. some of them were open, and contained the skeletons of many young children tied up in baskets.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. - , ; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . a correspondent describes a flathead mummy from puget sound preserved in san francisco. 'the eye-balls are still round under the lid; the teeth, the muscles, and tendons perfect, the veins injected with some preserving liquid, the bowels, stomach and liver dried up, but not decayed, all perfectly preserved. the very blanket that entwines him, made of some threads of bark and saturated with a pitchy substance, is entire.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'their native bashfulness renders all squaws peculiarly sensitive to any public notice or ridicule.' probably the laziest people in the world. the mails are intrusted with safety to indian carriers, who are perfectly safe from interference on the part of any indian they may meet. _kane's wand._, p. - , - , , - . 'la mémoire locale et personelle du sauvage est admirable; il n'oublie jamais un endroit ni une personne.' nature seems to have given him memory to supply the want of intelligence. 'much inclined to vengeance. those having means may avert vengeance by payments.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, pp. , - . 'perfectly indifferent to exposure; decency has no meaning in their language.' although always begging, they refuse to accept any article not in good condition, calling it _peeshaaak_, a term of contempt. _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. - . murder of a spanish boat's crew in latitude ° ´. _maurelle's jour._, pp. , . 'cheerful and well disposed' at port orchard. at strait of fuca 'little more elevated in their moral qualities than the fuegians.' at nisqually, 'addicted to stealing.' 'vicious and exceedingly lazy, sleeping all day.' the skagits are catholics, and are more advanced than others in civilization. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , , - , . both at gray harbor and puget sound they were uniformly civil and friendly, fair and honest in trade. each tribe claimed that 'the others were bad people and that the party questioned were the only good indians in the harbor.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., pp. - . 'the clallam tribe has always had a bad character, which their intercourse with shipping, and the introduction of whiskey, has by no means improved.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the superior courage of the makahs, as well as their treachery, will make them more difficult of management than most other tribes.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . the lummis and other tribes at bellingham bay have already abandoned their ancient barbarous habits, and have adopted those of civilization. _coleman_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxxix., pp. - ; _simpson's overland journ._, vol. i., pp. - . 'the instincts of these people are of a very degraded character. they are filthy, cowardly, lazy, treacherous, drunken, avaricious, and much given to thieving. the women have not the slightest pretension to virtue.' the makahs 'are the most independent indians in my district--they and the quilleyutes, their near neighbors.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , ; _id._, , p. ; _id._, , p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. ; _cram's top. mem._, p. . [ ] perhaps the cascades might more properly be named as the boundary, since the region of the dalles, from the earliest records, has been the rendezvous for fishing, trading, and gambling purposes, of tribes from every part of the surrounding country, rather than the home of any particular nation. [ ] for details see tribal boundaries at the end of this chapter. the chinooks, clatsops, wakiakums and cathlamets, 'resembling each other in person, dress, language, and manners.' the chinooks and wakiakums were originally one tribe, and wakiakum was the name of the chief who seceded with his adherents. _irving's astoria_, pp. - . 'they may be regarded as the distinctive type of the tribes to the north of the oregon, for it is in them that the peculiarities of the population of these regions are seen in the most striking manner.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - , . all the tribes about the mouth of the columbia 'appear to be descended from the same stock ... and resemble one another in language, dress, and habits.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . the cathleyacheyachs at the cascades differ but little from the chinooks. _id._, p. . scouler calls the columbia tribes _cathlascons_, and considers them 'intimately related to the kalapooiah family.' _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the willamette tribes 'differ very little in their habits and modes of life, from those on the columbia river.' _hunter's cap._, p. . mofras makes _killimous_ a general name for all indians south of the columbia. _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . the nechecolees on the willamette claimed an affinity with the eloots at the narrows of the columbia. the killamucks 'resemble in almost every particular the clatsops and chinnooks. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , . 'of the coast indians that i have seen there seems to be so little difference in their style of living that a description of one family will answer for the whole.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . 'all the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the straits, and the deeply indented territory as far and including the tide-waters of the columbia, may be comprehended under the general term of chinooks.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'the race of the chenooks is nearly run. from a large and powerful tribe ... they have dwindled down to about a hundred individuals, ... and these are a depraved, licentious, drunken set.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . the willopahs 'may be considered as extinct, a few women only remaining.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., p. ; _de smet_, _missions de l'orégon_, pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , - ; _irving's astoria_, pp. - ; _fitzgerald's hud. b. co._, pp. - ; _hines' oregon_, pp. - , ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - . 'in the wallamette valley, their favorite country, ... there are but few remnants left, and they are dispirited and broken-hearted.' _robertson's oregon_, p. . [ ] 'the personal appearance of the chinooks differs so much from that of the aboriginal tribes of the united states, that it was difficult at first to recognize the affinity.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'there are no two nations in europe so dissimilar as the tribes to the north and those to the south of the columbia.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., p. . 'thick set limbs,' north; 'slight,' south. _id._, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., p. . 'very inferior in muscular power.' _id._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'among the ugliest of their race. they are below the middle size, with squat, clumsy forms.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , . the men from five feet to five feet six inches high, with well-shaped limbs; the women six to eight inches shorter, with bandy legs, thick ankles, broad, flat feet, loose hanging breasts. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - . 'a diminutive race, generally below five feet five inches, with crooked legs and thick ankles.' 'broad, flat feet.' _irving's astoria_, pp. , . 'but not deficient in strength or activity.' _nicolay's oregon_, p. . men 'stout, muscular and strong, but not tall;' women 'of the middle size, but very stout and flabby, with short necks and shapeless limbs.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . at cape orford none exceed five feet six inches; 'tolerably well limbed, though slender in their persons.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . the willamette tribes were somewhat larger and better shaped than those of the columbia and the coast. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , , . _hunter's cap._, pp. - ; _hines' voy._, pp. , . 'persons of the men generally are rather symmetrical; their stature is low, with light sinewy limbs, and remarkably small, delicate hands. the women are usually more rotund, and, in some instances, even approach obesity.' _townsend's nar._, p. . 'many not even five feet.' _franchère's nar._, pp. - . can endure cold, but not fatigue; sharp sight and hearing, but obtuse smell and taste. 'the women are uncouth, and from a combination of causes appear old at an early age. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - . 'the indians north of the columbia are, for the most part good-looking, robust men, some of them having fine, symmetrical, forms. they have been represented as diminutive, with crooked legs and uncouth features. this is not correct; but, as a general rule, the direct reverse is the truth.' _swan's n. w. coast_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . [ ] the following terms applied to chinook complexion are taken from the authors quoted in the preceding note: 'copper-colored brown;' 'light copper color;' 'light olive;' 'fair complexion.' 'not dark' when young. 'rough tanned skins.' 'dingy copper.' 'fairer' than eastern indians. fairer on the coast than on the columbia. half-breeds partake of the swarthy hue of their mothers. [ ] 'the cheenook cranium, even when not flattened, is long and narrow, compressed laterally, keel-shaped, like the skull of the esquimaux.' broad and high cheek-bones, with a receding forehead.' _scouler_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'skulls ... totally devoid of any peculiar development.' nose flat, nostrils distended, short irregular teeth; eyes black, piercing and treacherous. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , . 'broad faces, low foreheads, lank black hair, wide mouths.' 'flat noses, and eyes turned obliquely upward at the outer corner.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , . 'faces are round, with small, but animated eyes. their noses are broad and flat at the top, and fleshy at the end, with large nostrils.' _irving's astoria_, p. . portraits of two calapooya indians. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . south of the columbia they have 'long faces, thin lips,' but the calapooyas in willamette valley have 'broad faces, low foreheads,' and the chinooks have 'a wide face, flat nose, and eyes turned obliquely outwards.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; vol. ii., pp. - . 'dull phlegmatic want of expression' common to all adults. _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . women 'well-featured,' with 'light hair, and prominent eyes.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . 'their features rather partook of the general european character.' hair long and black, clean and neatly combed. _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'women have, in general, handsome faces.' 'there are rare instances of high aquiline noses; the eyes are generally black,' but sometimes 'of a dark yellowish brown, with a black pupil.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - . the men carefully eradicate every vestige of a beard. _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'the features of many are regular, though often devoid of expression.' _townsend's nar._, p. . 'pluck out the beard at its first appearance.' _kane's wand._, p. . portrait of chief, p. . 'a few of the old men only suffer a tuft to grow upon their chins.' _franchère's nar._, p. . one of the clatsops 'had the reddest hair i ever saw, and a fair skin, much freckled.' _gass' jour._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . for descriptions and plates of chinook skulls see _morton's crania_, pp. - ; pl. - , , , and _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'practiced by at least ten or twelve distinct tribes of the lower country.' _townsend's nar._, pp. - . 'on the coast it is limited to a space of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending between cape flattery and cape look-out. inland, it extends up the columbia to the first rapids, or one hundred and forty miles, and is checked at the falls on the wallamette.' _belcher's voy._, vol. i., p. . the custom 'prevails among all the nations we have seen west of the rocky mountains,' but 'diminishes in receding eastward.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . 'the indians at the dalles do not distort the head.' _kane's wand._, pp. , - . 'the chinooks are the most distinguished for their attachment to this singular usage.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the tribes from the columbia river to millbank sound flatten the forehead, also the yakimas and klikitats of the interior. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , . 'the practice prevails, generally, from the mouth of the columbia to the dalles, about one hundred and eighty miles, and from the straits of fuca on the north, to coos bay.... northward of the straits it diminishes gradually to a mere slight compression, finally confined to women, and abandoned entirely north of milbank sound. so east of the cascade mountains, it dies out in like manner.' _gibbs_, in _nott and gliddon's indig. races_, p. . 'none but such as are of noble birth are allowed to flatten their skulls.' _gray's hist. ogn._, p. . [ ] all authors who mention the chinooks have something to say of this custom; the following give some description of the process and its effects, containing, however, no points not included in that given above. _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , - ; _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - , with cut; _chamber's jour._, vol. x., pp. - ; _belcher's voy._, vol. i., pp. - , with cuts; _townsend's nar._, pp. - ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., pp. - , with plate. females remain longer than the boys. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , . 'not so great a deformity as is generally supposed.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , - . 'looking with contempt even upon the white for having round heads.' _kane's wand._, p. , , cut. 'as a general thing the tribes that have followed the practice of flattening the skull are inferior in intellect, less stirring and enterprising in their habits, and far more degraded in their morals than other tribes.' _gray's hist. ogn._, p. . mr. gray is the only authority i have seen for this injurious effect, except domenech, who pronounces the flat-heads more subject to apoplexy than others. _deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _gass' jour._, pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - ; _morton's crania am._, pp. - , cut of cradle and of skulls; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - , _atlas_, pl. ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, pp. - , , with cut; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_ p. ; _wilson_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] the multnomah women's hair 'is most commonly braided into two tresses falling over each ear in front of the body.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , , - , - . the clackamas 'tattoo themselves below the mouth, which gives a light blue appearance to the countenance.' _kane's wand._, pp. , - , . at cape orford 'they seemed to prefer the comforts of cleanliness to the painting of their bodies.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . on the columbia 'in the decoration of their persons they surpassed all the other tribes with paints of different colours, feathers and other ornaments.' _id._, vol. ii., p. . 'ils mettent toute leur vanité dans leurs colliers et leurs pendants d'oreilles.' _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . 'some of these girls i have seen with the whole rim of their ears bored full of holes, into each of which would be inserted a string of these shells that reached to the floor, and the whole weighing so heavy that to save their ears from being pulled off they were obliged to wear a band across the top of the head.' 'i never have seen either men or women put oil or grease of any kind on their bodies.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. , - . see _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - ; _cox's adven._, pp. - ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _franchère's nar._, p. . [ ] 'these robes are in general, composed of the skins of a small animal, which we have supposed to be the brown mungo.' 'sometimes they have a blanket woven with the fingers, from the wool of their native sheep.' every part of the body but the back and shoulders is exposed to view. the nechecolies had 'larger and longer robes, which are generally of deer skin dressed in the hair.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , , - , . 'i have often seen them going about, half naked, when the thermometer ranged between ° and °, and their children barefooted and barelegged in the snow.' 'the lower indians do not dress as well, nor with as good taste, as the upper.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - . the fringed skirt 'is still used by old women, and by all the females when they are at work in the water, and is called by them their _siwash coat_.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - , - , ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - . the conical cap reminded pickering of the siberian tribes. _races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - , - ; _hines' voy._, p. . collars of bears' claws, for the men, and elks' tusks for the women and children. _irving's astoria_, pp. - ; _gass' jour._, pp. , - , - , , , , . [ ] 'their houses seemed to be more comfortable than those at nootka, the roof having a greater inclination, and the planking being thatched over with the bark of trees. the entrance is through a hole, in a broad plank, covered in such a manner as to resemble the face of a man, the mouth serving the purpose of a door-way. the fire-place is sunk into the earth, and confined from spreading above by a wooden frame.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . emmons, in _schoolcraft's archives_, vol. iii., p. , speaks of a palisade enclosure ten or fifteen feet high, with a covered way to the river. 'the indian huts on the banks of the columbia are, for the most part, constructed of the bark of trees, pine branches, and brambles, which are sometimes covered with skins or rags.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . but 'the chinooks build their houses of thick and broad planks,' etc. _id._ lewis and clarke saw a house in the willamette valley two hundred and twenty-six feet long, divided into two ranges of large apartments separated by a narrow alley four feet wide. _travels_, pp. - , , - , - , , . the door is a piece of board 'which hangs loose by a string, like a sort of pendulum,' and is self-closing. _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . 'the tribes near the coast remove less frequently than those of the interior.' _california, past, present and future_, p. . 'i never saw more than four fires, or above eighty persons--slaves and all--in the largest house.' _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _nicolay's ogn._, pp. , - ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. , from _lewis and clarke_; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , from _lewis and clarke_; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , - , ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , - ; _strickland's hist. missions_, pp. - . [ ] 'in the summer they resort to the principal rivers and the sea coast, ... retiring to the smaller rivers of the interior during the cold season.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. bay_, p. . all small fish are driven into the small coves or shallow waters, 'when a number of indians in canoes continue splashing the water; while others sink branches of pine. the fish are then taken easily out with scoops or wicker baskets.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., pp. , - , - , - . fish 'are not eaten till they become soft from keeping, when they are mashed with water.' in the willamette valley they raised corn, beans, and squashes. _hunter's cap._, pp. - . a 'sturgeon, though weighing upwards of three hundred pounds, is, by the single effort of one indian, jerked into the boat'! _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - , , - . the umpquas, to cook salmon, 'all provided themselves with sticks about three feet long, pointed at one end and split at the other. they then apportioned the salmon, each one taking a large piece, and filling it with splinters to prevent its falling to pieces when cooking, which they fastened with great care, into the forked end of the stick; ... then placing themselves around the fire so as to describe a circle, they stuck the pointed end of the stick into the ground, a short distance from the fire, inclining the top towards the flames, so as to bring the salmon in contact with the heat, thus forming a kind of pyramid of salmon over the whole fire.' _hines' voy._, p. ; _id. ogn._, p. . 'there are some articles of food which are mashed by the teeth before being boiled or roasted; this mastication is performed by the women.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , , - . 'the salmon in this country are never caught with a (baited) hook.' _wilkes' hist. ogn._, p. . 'turbot and flounders are caught (at shoalwater bay) while wading in the water, by means of the feet.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. , , - , , - , with cuts. on food, see _ross' adven._, vol. i., pp. - , , - ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , , , - , , ; _wells_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xiii., pp. - , with cuts; _nicolay's ogn._, pp. , - ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. - ; vol. ii., pp. - ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. ; _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. ; _ind. life_, p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _gass' jour._, pp. , - , - ; _fédix_, _l'orégon_, pp. - ; _stanley's portraits_, pp. - . [ ] for description of the various roots and berries used by the chinooks as food, see _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . [ ] the multnomahs 'are very fond of cold, hot, and vapour baths, which are used at all seasons, and for the purpose of health as well as pleasure. they, however, add a species of bath peculiar to themselves, by washing the whole body with urine every morning.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , . eat insects from each other's head, for the animals bite them, and they claim the right to bite back. _kane's wand._, pp. - . [ ] _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; vol. ii., p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _ross' adven._, p. ; _kane's wand._, p. ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. , pl. ½; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , ; _hines' ogn._, p. ; _franchère's nar._, p. ; _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - , - , . [ ] 'when the conflict is postponed till the next day, ... they keep up frightful cries all night long, and, when they are sufficiently near to understand each other, defy one another by menaces, railleries, and sarcasms, like the heroes of homer and virgil.' _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. - ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. , - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _stanley's portraits_, pp. - ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. . [ ] pickering makes 'the substitution of the water-proof basket, for the square wooden bucket of the straits' the chief difference between this and the sound family. _races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _ross' adven._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. , pl. ½, showing cradle, ladles, wapato diggers, _pautomaugons_, or war clubs and pipes. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , - . [ ] _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. . [ ] _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . 'hollowed out of the cedar by fire, and smoothed off with stone axes.' _kane's wand._, p. . at cape orford 'their shape much resembled that of a butcher's tray.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., p. . 'a human face or a white-headed eagle, as large as life, carved on the prow, and raised high in front.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . 'in landing they put the canoe round, so as to strike the beach stern on.' _franchère's nar._, p. . 'the larger canoes on the columbia are sometimes propelled by short oars.' _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'finest canoes in the world.' _wilkes' hist. ogn._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - , with cuts; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - ; _gass' jour._, p. . [ ] dried and pounded salmon, prepared by a method not understood except at the falls, formed a prominent article of commerce, both with coast and interior nations. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , . a fathom of the largest hiaqua shells is worth about ten beaver-skins. a dying man gave his property to his intimate friends 'with a promise on their part to restore them if he recovered.' _franchère's nar._, pp. - , ; _ross' adven._, pp. - , - ; _swan's n. w. coast_, p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. ; _kane's wand._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _gass' jour._, p. ; _morton's crania am._, pp. - ; _fédix_, _l'orégon_, pp. - . [ ] have no idea of drawing maps on the sand. 'their powers of computation ... are very limited.' _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _ross' adven._, pp. - , ; _kane's wand._, p. . [ ] the willamette tribes, nine in number, were under four principal chiefs. _ross' adven._, pp. - , , . casanov, a famous chief at fort vancouver employed a hired assassin to remove obnoxious persons. _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _franchère's nar._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . [ ] 'live in the same dwelling with their masters, and often intermarry with those who are free.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , . 'treat them with humanity while their services are useful.' _franchère's nar._, p. . treated with great severity. _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _fitzgerald's hud. b. co._, pp. - ; _stanley's portraits_, pp. - . [ ] _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. , ; _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - . 'in proportion as we approach the rapids from the sea, female impurity becomes less perceptible; beyond this point it entirely ceases.' _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. , ; vol. i., pp. - , ; _wells_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xiii., p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . ceremonies of a widow in her endeavors to obtain a new husband. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. ; _ross' adven._, pp. , - ; _franchère's nar._, pp. , - ; _hunter's cap._, p. ; _hines' voy._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , - ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , ; _gass' jour._, p. ; _strickland's hist. missions_, pp. - . [ ] 'i saw neither musical instruments, nor dancing, among the oregon tribes.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'all extravagantly fond of ardent spirits, and are not particular what kind they have, provided it is strong, and gets them drunk quickly.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - , - . 'not addicted to intemperance.' _franchère's nar._, p. . at gambling 'they will cheat if they can, and pride themselves on their success.' _kane's wand._, pp. , . seldom cheat, and submit to their losses with resignation. _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - ; _wells_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xiii., p. , and cut of dance at coos bay; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - ; vol. v., p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - , - ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , , - , - ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _palmer's jour._, p. . [ ] _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _gass' jour._, pp. , ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _kane's wand._, pp. , - ; _swan's n. w. coast_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . [ ] doctors, if unsuccessful, are sometimes subjected to rough treatment, but rarely killed, except when they have previously threatened the life of the patient. _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - . at the dalles an old woman, whose incantations had caused a fatal sickness, was beheaded by a brother of the deceased. _ind. life_, pp. - , - . whole tribes have been almost exterminated by the small-pox. _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . venereal disease prevalent, and a complete cure is never effected. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , . generally succeed in curing venereal disease even in its worst stage. _ross' adven._, pp. - . the unsuccessful doctor killed, unless able to buy his life. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . flatheads more subject to apoplexy than others. _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. - , , - , , vol. ii., pp. - ; _townsend's nar._, pp. , - ; _franchère's nar._, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , - ; _fitzgerald's hud. b. co._, pp. - ; _strickland's hist. missions_, pp. - . [ ] a chief on the death of his daughter 'had an indian slave bound hand and foot, and fastened to the body of the deceased, and enclosed the two in another mat, leaving out the head of the living one. the indian then took the canoe and carried it to a high rock and left it there. their custom is to let the slave live for three days; then another slave is compelled to strangle the victim by a cord.' _letter_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . see also vol. iii., pp. - ; vol. vi., pp. - , with plate; vol. v., p. . 'the emblem of a squaw's grave is generally a camass-root digger, made of a deer's horns, and fastened on the end of a stick.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., pp. - , vol. iv., p. . 'i believe i saw as many as an hundred canoes at one burying place of the chinooks.' _gass' jour._, p. . 'four stakes, interlaced with twigs and covered with brush,' filled with dead bodies. _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . at coos bay, 'formerly the body was burned, and the wife of the corpse killed and interred.' now the body is sprinkled with sand and ashes, the ankles are bent up and fastened to the neck; relatives shave their heads and put the hair on the body with shells and roots, and the corpse is then buried and trampled on by the whole tribe. _wells_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xiii., p. . 'the canoe-coffins were decorated with rude carved work.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . strangers are paid to join in the lamentations. _ross' adven._, p. . children who die during the head-flattening process are set afloat in their cradles upon the surface of some sacred pool, where the bodies of the old are also placed in their canoes. _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . on burial and mourning see also, _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. - , , - , with cut of canoe on platform. _mofras' explor._, vol. ii., p. , and pl. of _atlas_; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , ; _kane's wand._, pp. - , , - ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - , - , vol. ii., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , - ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., p. ; _belcher's voy._, vol. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , - ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, pp. - ; _fremont's ogn. and cal._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _franchère's nar._, p. ; _palmer's jour._, p. ; _ind. life_, p. ; _townsend's nar._, p. . [ ] 'the clumsy thief, who is detected, is scoffed at and despised.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. - , . 'the kalapuya, like the umkwa, ... are more regular and quiet' than the inland tribes, 'and more cleanly, honest and moral than the' coast tribes. the chinooks are a quarrelsome, thievish, and treacherous people. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , , , . 'a rascally, thieving set.' _gass' jour._, p. . 'when well treated, kind and hospitable.' _swan's n. w. coast_, pp. , , . at cape orford 'pleasing and courteous deportment ... scrupulously honest.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. i., pp. - . laziness is probably induced by the ease with which they obtain food. _kane's wand._, pp. , . 'crafty and intriguing.' easily irritated, but a trifle will appease him. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. , - , , , - , - , - . 'they possess in an eminent degree, the qualities opposed to indolence, improvidence, and stupidity: the chiefs above all, are distinguished for their good sense and intelligence. generally speaking, they have a ready intellect and a tenacious memory.' 'rarely resist the temptation of stealing' white men's goods. _franchère's nar._, pp. - , . loquacious, never gay, knavish, impertinent. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , , - . 'thorough-bred hypocrites and liars.' 'the killymucks the most roguish.' industry, patience, sobriety and ingenuity are their chief virtues; thieving, lying, incontinence, gambling and cruelty may be classed among their vices. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , , - , , - , , vol. ii., p. . at wishiam 'they were a community of arrant rogues and freebooters.' _irving's astoria_, pp. , . 'lying is very common; thieving comparatively rare.' _white's ogn._, p. . 'do not appear to possess a particle of natural good feeling.' _townsend's nar._, p. . at coos bay 'by no means the fierce and warlike race found further to the northward.' _wells_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xiii., p. . umqua and coose tribes are naturally industrious; the suislaws the most advanced; the alcea not so enterprising. _sykes_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . calapooias, a poor, cowardly, and thievish race. _miller_, in _id._, , p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. , ; _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _ind. life_, pp. - , ; _fitzgerald's vanc. isl._, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , etc. [ ] 'they all resemble each other in general characteristics.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . shushwaps and salish all one race. _mayne's b. c._, p. - . 'the indians of the interior are, both physically and morally, vastly superior to the tribes of the coast.' _id._, p. . 'the kliketat near mount rainier, the walla-wallas, and the okanagan ... speak kindred dialects.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . the best-supported opinion is that the inland were of the same original stock with the lower tribes. _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'on leaving the verge of the carrier country, near alexandria, a marked change is at once perceptible.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . inland tribes differ widely from the piscatorial tribes. _ross' adven._, p. . 'those residing near the rocky mountains ... are and always have been superior races to those living on the lower columbia.' _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'i was particularly struck with their vast superiority (on the similkameen river, lat. ° ´, long. ° ´) in point of intelligence and energy to the fish indians on the fraser river, and in its neighbourhood.' _palmer_, in _b. c. papers_, vol. iii., p. . striking contrast noted in passing up the columbia. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'the shewhapmuch ... who compose a large branch of the saeliss family,' known as _nicute-much_--corrupted by the canadians into couteaux--below the junction of the fraser and thompson. _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. - . atnahs is their name in the takali language, and signifies 'strangers.' 'differ so little from their southern neighbors, the salish, as to render a particular description unnecessary.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . they were called by mackenzie the chin tribe, according to _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. , but mackenzie's chin tribe was north of the atnahs, being the nagailer tribe of the carriers. see _mackenzie's voy._, pp. - , and map. [ ] 'about okanagan, various branches of the carrier tribe.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'okanagans, on the upper part of frazer's river.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . [ ] also known as flat-bows. 'the poorest of the tribes composing the flathead nation.' _mccormick_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'speaking a language of their own, it is not easy to imagine their origin; but it appears probable that they once belonged to some more southern tribe, from which they became shut off by the intervention of larger tribes.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'in appearance, character, and customs, they resemble more the indians east of the rocky mountains than those of lower oregon.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'les arcs-à-plats, et les koetenais sont connus dans le pays sous le nom de skalzi.' _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . [ ] the origin of the name flathead, as applied to this nation, is not known, as they have never been known to flatten the head. 'the mass of the nation consists of persons who have more or less of the blood of the spokanes, pend d'oreilles, nez perces, and iroquois.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. ; _stuart's montana_, p. . gass applied the name apparently to tribes on the clearwater of the sahaptin family. _jour._, p. . [ ] also called _kalispelms_ and _ponderas_. the upper pend d'oreilles consist of a number of wandering families of spokanes, kalispelms proper, and flatheads. _suckley_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _stevens_, in _id._, p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'very similar in manners, etc., to the flatheads, and form one people with them.' _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . [ ] the native name, according to hale, is _skitsuish_, and coeur d'alêne, 'awl heart,' is a nickname applied from the circumstance that a chief used these words to express his idea of the canadian traders' meanness. _ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] _quiarlpi_, 'basket people,' _chaudieres_, 'kettles,' _kettle falls_, _chualpays_, _skoielpoi_, and _lakes_, are some of the names applied to these bands. [ ] 'ils s'appellent entre eux les enfants du soleil, dans leur langue spokane.' _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . 'differing very little from the indians at colville, either in their appearance, habits, or language.' _kane's wand._, p. . [ ] so much intermarried with the yakamas that they have almost lost their nationality.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'pierced noses,' so named by the canadians, perhaps from the nasal ornaments of the first of the tribe seen, although the custom of piercing the nose has never been known to be prevalent with this people. 'generally known and distinguished by the name of "black robes," in contradistinction to those who live on fish.' named nez perces from the custom of boring the nose to receive a white shell, like the fluke of an anchor. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. , - . 'there are two tribes of the pierced-nose indians, the upper and the lower. _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - . 'though originally the same people, their dialect varies very perceptibly from that of the tushepaws.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . called _thoiga-rik-kah_, _tsoi-gah_, 'cowse-eaters,' by the snakes. 'ten times better off to-day than they were then'--'a practical refutation of the time-honored lie, that intercourse with whites is an injury to indians.' _stuart's montana_, pp. - . 'in character and appearance, they resemble more the indians of the missouri than their neighbors, the salish.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'la tribu paloose appartient à la nation des nez-percés et leur ressemble sous tous les rapports.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . [ ] the name comes from that of the river. it should be pronounced wala-wala, very short. _pandosy's gram._, p. . 'descended from slaves formerly owned and liberated by the nez perces.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'not unlike the pierced-noses in general appearance, language, and habits.' _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - . parts of three different nations at the confluence of the snake and columbia. _gass' jour._, pp. - , 'none of the indians have any permanent habitations' on the south bank of the columbia about and above the dalles. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . 'generally camping in winter on the north side of the river.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] the name yakima is a word meaning 'black bear' in the walla walla dialect. they are called klikatats west of the mountains. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'the klikatats and yakimas, in all essential peculiarities of character, are identical, and their intercourse is constant.' _id._, p. , and _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'pshawanwappam bands, usually called yakamas.' the name signifies 'stony ground.' _gibbs_, in _pandosy's gram._, p. vii. 'roil-roil-pam, is the klikatat country.' 'its meaning is "the mouse country."' _id._ the yakima valley is a great national rendezvous for these and surrounding nations. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. , . kliketats, meaning robbers, was first the name given to the whulwhypums, and then extended to all speaking the same language. for twenty-five years before they overran the willamette valley, but at that time were forced by government to retire to their own country. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] wasco is said to mean 'basin,' and the tribe derives its name, traditionally, from the fact that formerly one of their chiefs, his wife having died, spent much of his time in making cavities or basins in the soft rock for his children to fill with water and pebbles, and thereby amuse themselves. _victor's all over ogn._, pp. - . the word cayuse is perhaps the french _cailloux_, 'pebbles.' called by tolmie, 'wyeilats or kyoose.' he says their language has an affinity to that of the carriers and umpquas. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'resemble the walla-wallas very much.' _kane's wand._, pp. - . 'the imperial tribe of oregon' claiming jurisdiction over the whole columbia region. _farnham's trav._, p. . the snakes, walla-wallas, and cayuse meet annually in the grande ronde valley. _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . 'individuals of the pure blood are few, the majority being intermixed with the nez perces and the wallah-wallahs.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . the region which i give to the wascos and cayuses is divided on hale's map between the walla-wallas, waiilatpu, and molele. [ ] in the interior the 'men are tall, the women are of common stature, and both are well formed.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'of middle height, slender.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the inland tribes of british columbia, compared with those on the coast, 'are of a better cast, being generally of the middle height.' _id._, p. . see also p. . the nez percés and cayuses 'are almost universally fine-looking, robust men.' in criticising the person of one of that tribe 'one was forcibly reminded of the apollo belvidere.' _townsend's nar._, pp. , . the klikatat 'stature is low, with light, sinewy limbs.' _id._, p. ; also pp. - . the walla-wallas are generally powerful men, at least six feet high, and the cayuse are still 'stouter and more athletic.' _gairdner_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . the umatillas 'may be a superior race to the "snakes," but i doubt it.' _barnhart_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the salish are 'rather below the average size, but are well knit, muscular, and good-looking.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'well made and active.' _dunn's oregon_, pp. , . 'below the middle hight, with thick-set limbs.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - , - . the cootonais are above the medium height. very few shushwaps reach the height of five feet nine inches. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. , , vol. i., p. . see also on physique of the inland nations, _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , , , - , - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; _dunn_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _; _san francisco herald_, _june, _; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , and vol. i., frontispiece, cut of a group of spokanes. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , ; _palmer's jour._, p. ; _ross' adven._, pp. , ; _stuart's montana_, p. . [ ] the interior tribes have 'long faces, and bold features, thin lips, wide cheek-bones, smooth skins, and the usual tawny complexion of the american tribes.' 'features of a less exaggerated harshness' than the coast tribes. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. - . 'hair and eyes are black, their cheek bones high, and very frequently they have aquiline noses.' 'they wear their hair long, part it upon their forehead, and let it hang in tresses on each side, or down behind.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . complexion 'a little fairer than other indians.' _id._ the okanagans are 'better featured and handsomer in their persons, though darker, than the chinooks or other indians along the sea-coast.' 'teeth white as ivory, well set and regular.' the voices of walla wallas, nez percés, and cayuses, are strong and masculine. _ross' adven._, pp. , . the flatheads (nez percés) are 'the whitest indians i ever saw.' _gass' jour._, p. . the shushwap 'complexion is darker, and of a more muddy, coppery hue than that of the true red indian.' _milton and cheadle's n. w. pass._, p. . the nez perces darker than the tushepaws. dignified and pleasant features. would have quite heavy beards if they shaved. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , - , - , . the inland natives are an ugly race, with 'broad faces, low foreheads, and rough, coppery and tanned skins.' the salish 'features are less regular, and their complexion darker' than the sahaptins. _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - . teeth of the river tribes worn down by sanded salmon. _anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _kane's wand._, p. . nez perces and cayuses 'are almost universally fine looking, robust men, with strong aquiline features, and a much more cheerful cast of countenance than is usual amongst the race. some of the women might almost be called beautiful, and none that i have seen are homely.' some very handsome young girls among the walla wallas. the kliketat features are 'regular, though often devoid of expression.' _townsend's nar._, pp. , , , . flatheads 'comparatively very fair in complexion, ... with oval faces, and a mild, and playful expression of countenance.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the kayuls had long dark hair, and regular features. _coke's rocky mountains_, p. . cut and description of a clickitat skull, in _morton's crania_, p. , pl. . 'the flatheads are the ugliest, and most of their women are far from being beauties.' _stuart's montana_, p. . [ ] 'the sahaptin and wallawallas compress the head, but not so much as the tribes near the coast. it merely serves with them to make the forehead more retreating, which, with the aquiline nose common to these natives, gives to them occasionally, a physiognomy similar to that represented in the hieroglyphical paintings of central america.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , . all the shushwaps flatten the head more or less. _mayne's b. c._, p. . 'il est à remarquer que les tribus établies au-dessus de la jonction de la branche sud de la colombie, et désignées sous le nom de têtes plates, ont renoncé depuis longtemps à cet usage.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'a roundhead klickatat woman would be a pariah.' _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. . nez percés 'seldom known to flatten the head.' _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. . see _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - , - ; _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , - ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _kane's wand._, p. ; _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. , with cut. walla wallas, skyuse, and nez percés flatten the head and perforate the nose. _farnham's trav._, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , ; _gass' jour._, p. . [ ] _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - . [ ] the salish 'profuse in the use of paint.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - , and in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . nez percés painted in colored stripes. _hines' voy._, p. . 'four indians (nez percés) streaked all over with white mud.' _kane's wand._, p. . walla walla 'faces painted red.' the okanagan 'young of both sexes always paint their faces with red and black bars.' _ross' adven._, pp. , - . the inland tribes 'appear to have less of the propensity to adorn themselves with painting, than the indians east of the mountains, but not unfrequently vermilion mixed with red clay, is used not only upon their faces but upon their hair.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . red clay for face paint, obtained at vermilion forks of the similkameen river, in b. c. _palmer_, in _b. c. papers_, vol. iii., p. . pend d'oreille women rub the face every morning with a mixture of red and brown powder, which is made to stick by a coating of fish-oil. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . [ ] the oakinack 'women wear their hair neatly clubbed on each side of the head behind the ears, and ornamented with double rows of the snowy higua, which are among the oakinackens called shet-la-cane; but they keep it shed or divided in front. the men's hair is queued or rolled up into a knot behind the head, and ornamented like that of the women; but in front it falls or hangs down loosely before the face, covering the forehead and the eyes, which causes them every now and then to shake the head, or use the hands to uncover their eyes.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . the head of the nez perces not ornamented. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , , , - ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _kane's wand._, p. . [ ] the ootlashoot women wear 'a long shirt of skin, reaching down to the ancles, and tied round the waist.' few ornaments. the nez percés wear 'the buffalo or elk-skin robe decorated with beads, sea-shells, chiefly mother-of-pearl, attached to an otter-skin collar and hung in the hair.' leggins and moccasins are painted; a plait of twisted grass is worn round the neck. the women wear their long robe without a girdle, but to it 'are tied little pieces of brass and shells, and other small articles.' 'the dress of the female is indeed more modest, and more studiously so than any we have observed, though the other sex is careless of the indelicacy of exposure.' 'the sokulk females have no other covering but a truss or piece of leather tied round the hips and then drawn tight between the legs.' three fourths of the pisquitpaws 'have scarcely any robes at all.' the chilluckittequaws use skins of wolves, deer, elk, and wild cats. 'round their neck is put a strip of some skin with the tail of the animal hanging down over the breast.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , , , , , , , - . many of the walla walla, nez percé, and cayuse females wore robes 'richly garnished with beads, higuas,' etc. the war chief wears as a head-dress the whole skin of a wolf's head, with the ears standing erect. the okanagans wear in winter long detachable sleeves or mittens of wolf or fox skin, also wolf or bear skin caps when hunting. men and women dress nearly alike, and are profuse in the use of ornaments. _ross' adven._, p. , - ; _id._, _fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . the flatheads often change their clothing and clean it with pipe-clay. they have no regular head-dress. from the yakima to the okanagan the men go naked, and the women wear only a belt with a slip passing between the legs. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , , - , vol. ii., p. . nez percés better clad than any others, cayuses well clothed, walla wallas naked and half starved. _palmer's jour._, pp. , , - . at the dalles, women 'go nearly naked, for they wear little else than what may be termed a breech-cloth, of buckskin, which is black and filthy with dirt.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , , . the kliketat women wear a short pine-bark petticoat tied round the loins. _townsend's nar._, pp. , , . 'their buffaloe robes and other skins they chiefly procure on the missouri, when they go over to hunt, as there are no buffaloe in this part of the country and very little other game.' _gass' jour._, pp. , , - , . tusshepaw 'women wore caps of willow neatly worked and figured.' _irving's astoria_, pp. , , ; _id._, _bonneville's adven._, p. . the flathead women wear straw hats, used also for drinking and cooking purposes. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - , . the shushwaps wear in wet weather capes of bark trimmed with fur, and reaching to the elbows. moccasins are more common than on the coast, but they often ride barefoot. _mayne's b. c._, p. . _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _kane's wand._, p. , and cut; _fremont's ogn. and cal._, pp. - ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _franchère's nar._, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _hunt_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, tom. x., , pp. - , . [ ] the sokulk houses 'generally of a square or oblong form, varying in length from fifteen to sixty feet, and supported in the inside by poles or forks about six feet high.' the roof is nearly flat. the echeloot and chilluckittequaw houses were of the chinook style, partially sunk in the ground. the nez percés live in houses built 'of straw and mats, in the form of the roof of a house.' one of these 'was one hundred and fifty-six feet long, and about fifteen wide, closed at the ends, and having a number of doors on each side.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , - , - , . nez percé dwellings twenty to seventy feet long and from ten to fifteen feet wide; free from vermin. flathead houses conical but spacious, made of buffalo and moose skins over long poles. spokane lodges oblong or conical, covered with skins or mats. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , , . nez percé and cayuse lodges 'composed of ten long poles, the lower ends of which are pointed and driven into the ground; the upper blunt and drawn together at the top by thongs' covered with skins. 'universally used by the mountain indians while travelling.' umatillas live in 'shantys or wigwams of driftwood, covered with buffalo or deer skins.' klicatats 'in miserable loose hovels.' _townsend's nar._, pp. - , , . okanagan winter lodges are long and narrow, 'chiefly of mats and poles, covered over with grass and earth;' dug one or two feet below the surface; look like the roof of a common house set on the ground. _ross' adven._, pp. - . on the yakima river 'a small canopy, hardly sufficient to shelter a sheep, was found to contain four generations of human beings.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. , . on the clearwater 'there are not more than four lodges in a place or village, and these small camps or villages are eight or ten miles apart.' 'summer lodges are made of willows and flags, and their winter lodges of split pine.' _gass' jour._, pp. , , . 'at kettle falls, the lodges are of rush mats.' 'a flooring is made of sticks, raised three or four feet from the ground, leaving the space beneath it entirely open, and forming a cool, airy, and shady place, in which to hang their salmon.' _kane's wand._, pp. , - . the pend d'oreilles roll their tent-mats into cylindrical bundles for convenience in traveling. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , . _barnhart_, in _id._, , p. . the shushwap den is warm but 'necessarily unwholesome, and redolent ... of anything but roses.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . yakimas, 'rude huts covered with mats.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . shushwaps erect rude slants of bark or matting; have no tents or houses. _milton and cheadle's n. w. pass._, p. . from the swamps south of flatbow lake, 'the kootanie indians obtain the klusquis or thick reed, which is the only article that serves them in the construction of their lodges,' and is traded with other tribes. _sullivan_, in _palliser's explor._, p. . in winter the salish cover their mats with earth. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . flag huts of the walla wallas. _farnham's trav._, p. ; _mullan's rept._, pp. - ; _palmer's jour._, p. ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _id._, _bonneville's adven._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _id._, _west. missions_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . _hunt_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, tom. x., , pp. - , . [ ] natives begin to assemble at kettle falls about three weeks before the salmon begin to run; feuds are laid by; horse-racing, gambling, love-making, etc., occupy the assembly; and the medicine-men are busy working charms for a successful season. the fish are cut open, dried on poles over a small fire, and packed in bales. on the fraser each family or village fishes for itself; near the mouth large gaff-hooks are used, higher up a net managed between two canoes. all the principal indian fishing-stations on the fraser are below fort hope. for sturgeon a spear seventy to eighty feet long is used. cut of sturgeon-fishing. _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , , - . the pend d'oreilles 'annually construct a fence which reaches across the stream, and guides the fish into a weir or rack,' on clarke river, just above the lake. the walla walla 'fisheries at the dalles and the falls, ten miles above, are the finest on the river.' the yakima weirs constructed 'upon horizontal spars, and supported by tripods of strong poles erected at short distances apart; two of the logs fronting up stream, and one supporting them below;' some fifty or sixty yards long. the salmon of the okanagan were 'of a small species, which had assumed a uniform red color.' 'the fishery at the kettle falls is one of the most important on the river, and the arrangements of the indians in the shape of drying-scaffolds and store-houses are on a corresponding scale.' _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , , ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - . the salmon chief at kettle falls distributes the fish among the people, every one, even the smallest child, getting an equal share. _kane's wand._, pp. - . on des chutes river 'they spear the fish with barbed iron points, fitted loosely by sockets to the ends of poles about eight feet long,' to which they are fastened by a thong about twelve feet long. _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . on the upper columbia an indian 'cut off a bit of his leathern shirt, about the size of a small bean; then pulling out two or three hairs from his horse's tail for a line, tied the bit of leather to one end of it, in place of a hook or fly.' _ross' adven._, pp. - . at the mouth of flatbow river 'a dike of round stones, which runs up obliquely against the main stream, on the west side, for more than one hundred yards in length, resembling the foundation of a wall.' similar range on the east side, supposed to be for taking fish at low water. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., pp. - . west of the rocky mountains they fish 'with great success by means of a kind of large basket suspended from a long cord.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - . on powder river they use the hook as a gaff. _coke's rocky mts._, p. . a wasco spears three or four salmon of twenty to thirty pounds each in ten minutes. _remy and brenchley's jour._, vol. ii., p. . no salmon are taken above the upper falls of the columbia. _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . walla walla fish-weirs 'formed of two curtains of small willow switches matted together with withes of the same plant, and extending across the river in two parallel lines, six feet asunder. these are supported by several parcels of poles, ... and are either rolled up or let down at pleasure for a few feet.... a seine of fifteen or eighteen feet in length is then dragged down the river by two persons, and the bottom drawn up against the curtain of willows.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . make fishing-nets of flax. _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'the inland, as well as the coast, tribes, live to a great extent upon salmon.' _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, pp. - . palouse 'live solely by fishing.' _mullan's rept._, p. . salmon cannot ascend to coeur d'alêne lake. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - . okanagan food 'consists principally of salmon and a small fish which they call carp.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the walla wallas 'may well be termed the fishermen of the skyuse camp.' _farnham's trav._, p. . [ ] the shushwaps formerly crossed the mountains to the assinniboine territory. the okanagans when hunting wear wolf or bear skin caps; there is no bird or beast whose voice they cannot imitate. war and hunting were the nez percé occupation; cross the mountains for buffalo. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. , , - , . the chief game of the nez percés is the deer, 'and whenever the ground will permit, the favourite hunt is on horseback.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . the salish live by the chase, on elk, moose, deer, big-horn and bears; make two trips annually, spring to fall, and fall to mid-winter, across the mountains, accompanied by other nations. the pend d'oreilles hunt deer in the snow with clubs; have distinct localities for hunting each kind of game. nez percés, flatheads, coeurs d'alêne, spokanes, pend d'oreilles, etc., hunt together. yakimas formerly joined the flatheads in eastern hunt. _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - , - , , - . 'two hunts annually across the mountains--one in april, for the bulls, from which they return in june and july; and another, after about a month's recruit, to kill cows, which have by that time become fat.' _stevens, gibbs, and suckley_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , , - , vol. xii., p. . kootenais live by the chase principally. _hutchins_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . spokanes rather indolent in hunting; hunting deer by fire. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , vol. ii., pp. - . the kootenais 'seldom hunt;' there is not much to shoot except wild fowl in fall. trap beaver and carriboeuf on a tributary of the kootanie river. _palliser's explor._, pp. , , . flatheads 'follow the buffalo upon the headwaters of clarke and salmon rivers.' nez percé women accompany the men to the buffalo-hunt. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , . kootenais cross the mountains for buffalo. _mayne's b. c._, p. . coeurs d'alêne ditto. _mullan's rept._, p. . half of the nez percés 'usually make a trip to the buffalo country for three months.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . shushwaps 'live by hunting the bighorns, mountain goats, and marmots.' _milton and cheadle's n. w. pass._, p. . buffalo never pass to west of the rocky mountains. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. ; _kane's wand._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , , - ; _ind. life_, pp. - , - ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _hunt_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, tom. x., , pp. - ; _stuart_, in _id._, tom. xii., pp. , - ; _joset_, in _id._, tom. cxxiii., , pp. - . [ ] the kliketats gather and eat _peahay_, a bitter root boiled into a jelly; _n'poolthla_, ground into flour; _mamum_ and _seekywa_, made into bitter white cakes; _kamass_; _calz_, a kind of wild sunflower. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . the flatheads go every spring to camass prairie. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the kootenais eat kamash and an edible moss. _id._, _missions de l'orégon_, pp. - . 'the cayooses, nez percés, and other warlike tribes assemble (in yakima valley) every spring to lay in a stock of the favourite kamass and pelua, or sweet potatoes.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . quamash, round, onion-shaped, and sweet, eaten by the nez percés. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . couse root dug in april or may; camas in june and july. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the skyuses 'main subsistence is however upon roots.' the nez percés eat _kamash_, _cowish_ or biscuit root, _jackap_, _aisish_, _quako_, etc. _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. , . okanagans live extensively on moss made into bread. the nez percés also eat moss. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , . pend d'oreilles at the last extremity live on pine-tree moss; also collect camash, bitter-roots, and sugar pears. _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , - . 'i never saw any berry in the course of my travels which the indians scruple to eat, nor have i seen any ill effect from their doing so.' _kane's wand._, p. . the kootenai food in september 'appears to be almost entirely berries; namely, the "sasketoom" of the crees, a delicious fruit, and a small species of cherry, also a sweet root which they obtain to the southward.' _blakiston_, in _palliser's explor._, p. . flatheads dig _konah_, 'bitter root' in may. it is very nutritious and very bitter. _pahseego_, camas, or 'water seego,' is a sweet, gummy, bulbous root. _stuart's montana_, pp. - . colvilles cut down pines for their moss (alectoria?). kamas also eaten. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . the shushwaps eat moss and lichens, chiefly the black lichen, or _whyelkine_. _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. . the salish in march and april eat _popkah_, an onion-like bulb; in may, _spatlam_, a root like vermicelli; in june and july, _itwha_, like roasted chestnuts; in august, wild fruits; in september, _marani_, a grain. _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] at the dalles 'during the fishing season, the indians live entirely on the heads, hearts and offal of the salmon, which they string on sticks, and roast over a small fire.' besides pine-moss, the okanagans use the seed of the balsam oriza pounded into meal, called _mielito_. 'to this is added the _siffleurs_.' berries made into cakes by the nez percés. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , , . quamash, 'eaten either in its natural state, or boiled into a kind of soup, or made into a cake, which is then called pasheco.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , . women's head-dress serves the flatheads for cooking, etc. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , - ; _id._, _missions de l'orégon_, pp. - . 'the dog's tongue is the only dish-cloth known' to the okanagans. pine-moss cooked, or _squill-ape_, will keep for years. 'at their meals they generally eat separately and in succession--man, woman and child.' _ross' adven._, pp. - , , - . 'most of their food is roasted, and they excel in roasting fish.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , . 'pine moss, which they boil till it is reduced to a sort of glue or black paste, of a sufficient consistence to take the form of biscuit.' _franchère's nar._, p. . couse tastes like parsnips, is dried and pulverized, and sometimes boiled with meat. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . root bread on the clearwater tastes like that made of pumpkins. _gass' jour._, pp. - . kamas after coming from the kiln is 'made into large cakes, by being mashed, and pressed together, and slightly baked in the sun.' white-root, pulverized with stones, moistened and sun-baked, tastes not unlike stale biscuits. _townsend's nar._, pp. - . camas and sun-flower seed mixed with salmon-heads caused in the eater great distension of the stomach. _remy and brenchley's jour._, vol. ii., pp. - . _sowete_, is the name of the mixture last named, among the cayuses. _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _ind. life_, p. ; _stuart's montana_, pp. - ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . [ ] additional notes and references on procuring food. the okanagans break up winter quarters in february; wander about in small bands till june. assemble on the river and divide into two parties of men and two of women for fishing and dressing fish, hunting and digging roots, until october; hunt in small parties in the mountains or the interior for four or six weeks; and then go into winter quarters on the small rivers. _ross' adven._, pp. - . further south on the columbia plains the natives collect and dry roots until may; fish on the north bank of the river till september, burying the fish; dig camas on the plains till snow falls; and retire to the foot of the mountains to hunt deer and elk through the winter. the nez percés catch salmon and dig roots in summer; hunt deer on snow-shoes in winter; and cross the mountains for buffalo in spring. sokulks live on fish, roots, and antelope. eneeshur, echeloots, and chilluckittequaw, on fish, berries, roots and nuts. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , - , , , . spokanes live on deer, wild fowl, salmon, trout, carp, pine-moss, roots and wild fruit. they have no repugnance to horse-flesh, but never kill horses for food. the sinapoils live on salmon, camas, and an occasional small deer. the chaudiere country well stocked with game, fish and fruit. _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. . the kayuse live on fish, game, and camass bread. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - . 'ils cultivent avec succès le blé, les patates, les pois et plusieurs autres légumes et fruits.' _id._, _miss. de l'orégon._, p. . pend d'oreilles; fish, kamash, and pine-tree moss. _id._, _west. missions_, p. . 'whole time was occupied in providing for their bellies, which were rarely full.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . yakimas and kliketats; unis or fresh-water muscles, little game, sage-fowl and grouse, kamas, berries, salmon. the okanagans raise some potatoes. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , , . kootenais; fish and wild fowl, berries and pounded meat, have cows and oxen. _palliser's explor._, pp. , . palouse; fish, birds, and small animals. umatillas; fish, sage-cocks, prairie-hares. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. , - . tushepaws would not permit horses or dogs to be eaten. _irving's astoria_, p. . nez percés; beaver, elk, deer, white bear, and mountain sheep, also steamed roots. _id._, _bonneville's adven._, p. . sahaptin; gather cherries and berries on clarke river. _gass' jour._, p. ; _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. ; _hines' voy._, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - ; _stanley's portraits_, pp. - ; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; _hale's ethnog._, _ib._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - , , vol. ii., pp. , , ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , , . [ ] the okanagan weapon is called a _spampt_. _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _id._, _fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - . 'ils ... faire leurs arcs d'un bois très-élastique, ou de la corne du cerf.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. . [ ] torture of blackfeet prisoners; burning with a red-hot gun-barrel, pulling out the nails, taking off fingers, scooping out the eyes, scalping, revolting cruelties to female captives. the disputed right of the flatheads to hunt buffalo at the eastern foot of the mountains is the cause of the long-continued hostility. the wisest and bravest is annually elected war chief. the war chief carries a long whip and secures discipline by flagellation. except a few feathers and pieces of red cloth, both the flathead and kootenai enter battle perfectly naked. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., p. . the cayuse and sahaptin are the most warlike of all the southern tribes. the nez percés good warriors, but do not follow war as a profession. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - , , - , vol. ii., pp. - , . among the okanagans 'the hot bath, council, and ceremony of smoking the great pipe before war, is always religiously observed. their laws, however, admit of no compulsion, nor is the chief's authority implicitly obeyed on these occasions; consequently, every one judges for himself, and either goes or stays as he thinks proper. with a view, however, to obviate this defect in their system, they have instituted the dance, which answers every purpose of a recruiting service.' 'every man, therefore, who enters within this ring and joins in the dance ... is in honour bound to assist in carrying on the war.' _id._, _adven._, pp. - . mock battles and military display for the entertainment of white visitors. _hines' voy._, pp. - . the chilluckittequaws cut off the forefingers of a slain enemy as trophies. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . when scouting, 'flathead chief would ride at full gallop so near the foe as to flap in their faces the eagle's tail streaming behind (from his cap), yet no one dared seize the tail or streamer, it being considered sacrilegious and fraught with misfortune to touch it.' _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., p. . a thousand walla wallas came to the sacramento river in , to avenge the death of a young chief killed by an american about a year before. _colton's three years in cal._, p. . one flathead is said to be equal to four blackfeet in battle. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _gray's hist. ogn._, pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _stanley's portraits_, pp. - ; _ind. life_, pp. - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] white marl clay used to cleanse skin robes, by making it into a paste, rubbing it on the hide and leaving it to dry, after which it is rubbed off. saddles usually sit uneasily on the horse's back. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , - . 'mallet of stone curiously carved' among the sokulks. near the cascades was seen a ladder resembling those used by the whites. the pishquitpaws used 'a saddle or pad of dressed skin, stuffed with goats' hair.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , . on the fraser a rough kind of isinglass was at one time prepared and traded to the hudson bay company. _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'the sahaptins still make a kind of vase of lava, somewhat in the shape of a crucible, but very wide; they use it as a mortar for pounding the grain, of which they make cakes.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , . (undoubtedly an error.) pend d'oreilles; 'les femmes ... font des nattes de joncs, des paniers, et des chapeaux sans bords.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'nearly all (the shushwaps) use the spanish wooden saddle, which they make with much skill.' _mayne's b. c._, pp. - . 'the saddles for women differ in form, being furnished with the antlers of a deer, so as to resemble the high pommelled saddle of the mexican ladies.' _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _palmer's jour._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. , ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] 'the white-pine bark is a very good substitute for birch, but has the disadvantage of being more brittle in cold weather.' _suckley_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . yakima boats are 'simply logs hollowed out and sloped up at the ends, without form or finish.' _gibbs_, in _id._, p. . the flatheads 'have no canoes, but in ferrying streams use their lodge skins, which are drawn up into an oval form by cords, and stretched on a few twigs. these they tow with horses, riding sometimes three abreast.' _stevens_, in _id._, p. . in the kootenai canoe 'the upper part is covered, except a space in the middle.' the length is twenty-two feet, the bottom being a dead level from end to end. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., pp. - . 'the length of the bottom of the one i measured was twelve feet, the width between the gunwales only seven and one half feet.' 'when an indian paddles it, he sits at the extreme end, and thus sinks the conical point, which serves to steady the canoe like a fish's tail.' _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , - . on the arrow lakes 'their form is also peculiar and very beautiful. these canoes run the rapids with more safety than those of any other shape.' _kane's wand._, p. . see _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _hector_, in _palliser's explor._, p. ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , , . [ ] 'the tradition is that horses were obtained from the southward,' not many generations back. _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. , - . individuals of the walla wallas have over one thousand horses. _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. bay_, p. . kootenais rich in horses and cattle. _palliser's explor._, pp. , . kliketat and yakima horses sometimes fine, but injured by early usage; deteriorated from a good stock; vicious and lazy. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'la richesse principale des sauvages de l'ouest consiste en chevaux.' _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , . at an assemblage of walla wallas, shahaptains and kyoots, 'the plains were literally covered with horses, of which there could not have been less than four thousand in sight of the camp.' _ross' adven._, p. . the kootanies about arrow lake, or sinatcheggs have no horses, as the country is not suitable for them. _id._, _fur hunters_, vol. ii., pp. - . of the spokanes the 'chief riches are their horses, which they generally obtain in barter from the nez percés.' _cox's adven._, vol. i., p. . a skyuse is poor who has but fifteen or twenty horses. the horses are a fine race, 'as large and of better form and more activity than most of the horses of the states.' _farnham's trav._, p. . the flatheads 'are the most northern of the equestrian tribes.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . many nez percés 'have from five to fifteen hundred head of horses.' _palmer's jour._, pp. - . indians of the spokane and flathead tribes 'own from one thousand to four thousand head of horses and cattle.' _stevens' address_, p. . the nez percé horses 'are principally of the pony breed; but remarkably stout and long-winded.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. ; _hastings' em. guide_, p. ; _hines' voy._, p. ; _gass' jour._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. . [ ] the chilluckittequaw intercourse seems to be an intermediate trade with the nations near the mouth of the columbia. the chopunnish trade for, as well as hunt, buffalo-robes east of the mountains. course of trade in the sahaptin county: the plain indians during their stay on the river from may to september, before they begin fishing, go down to the falls with skins, mats, silk-grass, rushes and chapelell bread. here they meet the mountain tribes from the kooskooskie (clearwater) and lewis rivers, who bring bear-grass, horses, quamash and a few skins obtained by hunting or by barter from the tushepaws. at the falls are the chilluckittequaws, eneeshurs, echeloots and skilloots, the latter being intermediate traders between the upper and lower tribes. these tribes have pounded fish for sale; and the chinooks bring wappato, sea-fish, berries, and trinkets obtained from the whites. then the trade begins; the chopunnish and mountain tribes buy wappato, pounded fish and beads; and the plain indians buy wappato, horses, beads, etc. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , - . horse-fairs in which the natives display the qualities of their steeds with a view to sell. _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . the oakinacks make trips to the pacific to trade wild hemp for hiaqua shells and trinkets. _ross' adven._, pp. , . trade conducted in silence between a flathead and crow. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . kliketats and yakimas 'have become to the neighboring tribes what the yankees were to the once western states, the traveling retailers of notions.' _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . cayuses, walla wallas, and nez percés meet in grande ronde valley to trade with the snakes. _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. - , ; _palmer's jour._, pp. , ; _dunniway's capt. gray's comp._, p. ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _mayne's b. c._, p. ; _gass' jour._, p. . [ ] in calculating time the okanagans use their fingers, each finger standing for ten; some will reckon to a thousand with tolerable accuracy, but most can scarcely count to twenty. _ross' adven._, p. . the flatheads 'font néanmoins avec précision, sur des écorces d'arbres ou sur des peaux le plan, des pays qu'ils ont parcourus, marquant les distances par journées, demi-journées ou quarts de journées.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . count years by snows, months by moons, and days by sleeps. have names for each number up to ten; then add ten to each; and then add a word to multiply by ten. _parker's explor. tour_, p. . names of the months in the pisquouse and salish languages beginning with january;--'cold, a certain herb, snow-gone, bitter-root, going to root-ground, camass-root, hot, gathering berries, exhausted salmon, dry, house-building, snow.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'menses computant lunis, ex spkani, _sol_ vel _luna_ et dies per ferias. hebdomadam unicam per splcháskat, _septem dies_, plures vero hebdomadas per s'chaxèus, id est, _vexillum_ quod a duce maximo qualibet die dominica suspendebatur. dies antem in novem dividitur partes.' _mengarini_, _grammatica linguae selicae_, p. ; _sproat's scenes_, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . [ ] the twelve oakinack tribes 'form, as it were, so many states belonging to the same union, and are governed by petty chiefs.' the chieftainship descends from father to son; and though merely nominal in authority, the chief is rarely disobeyed. property pays for all crimes. _ross' adven._, pp. - , - , . the chualpays are governed by the 'chief of the earth' and 'chief of the waters,' the latter having exclusive authority in the fishing-season. _kane's wand._, pp. - . the nez percés offered a flathead the position of head chief, through admiration of his qualities. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , . among the kalispels the chief appoints his successor, or if he fails to do so, one is elected. _de smet_, _western miss._, p. . the flathead war chief carries a long whip, decorated with scalps and feathers to enforce strict discipline. the principal chief is hereditary. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., p. . the 'camp chief' of the flatheads as well as the war chief was chosen for his merits. _ind. life_, pp. - . among the nez percés and wascos 'the form of government is patriarchal. they acknowledge the hereditary principle--blood generally decides who shall be the chief.' _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. - . no regularly recognized chief among the spokanes, but an intelligent and rich man often controls the tribe by his influence. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - . 'the salish can hardly be said to have any regular form of government.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. - . every winter the cayuses go down to the dalles to hold a council over the chinooks 'to ascertain their misdemeanors and punish them therefor by whipping'! _farnham's trav._, p. - . among the salish 'criminals are sometimes punished by banishment from their tribe.' 'fraternal union and the obedience to the chiefs are truly admirable.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _hines' voy._, p. ; _stanley's portraits_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _white's oregon_, p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _joset_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, tom. cxxiii., , pp. - . [ ] 'slavery is common with all the tribes.' _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hud. b._, p. . sahaptins always make slaves of prisoners of war. the cayuses have many. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _palmer's jour._, p. . among the okanagans 'there are but few slaves ... and these few are adopted as children, and treated in all respects as members of the family.' _ross' adven._, p. . the inland tribes formerly practiced slavery, but long since abolished it. _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'not practised in the interior.' _mayne's b. c._, p. . not practiced by the shushwaps. _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . [ ] each okanagan 'family is ruled by the joint will or authority of the husband and wife, but more particularly by the latter.' wives live at different camps among their relatives; one or two being constantly with the husband. brawls constantly occur when several wives meet. the women are chaste, and attached to husband and children. at the age of fourteen or fifteen the young man pays his addresses in person to the object of his love, aged eleven or twelve. after the old folks are in bed, he goes to her wigwam, builds a fire, and if welcome the mother permits the girl to come and sit with him for a short time. these visits are several times repeated, and he finally goes in the day-time with friends and his purchase money. _ross' adven._, pp. - . the spokane husband joins his wife's tribe; women are held in great respect; and much affection is shown for children. among the nez percés both men and women have the power of dissolving the marriage tie at pleasure. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. , - , , . the coeurs d'alêne 'have abandoned polygamy.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , ; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . pend d'oreille women less enslaved than in the mountains, but yet have much heavy work, paddle canoes, etc. generally no marriage among savages. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - , . the nez percés generally confine themselves to two wives, and rarely marry cousins. no wedding ceremony. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . polygamy not general on the fraser; and unknown to kootenais. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. , , vol. i., pp. - . nez percés have abandoned polygamy. _palmer's jour._, pp. , . flathead women do everything but hunt and fight. _ind. life_, p. . flathead women 'by no means treated as slaves, but, on the contrary, have much consideration and authority.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'rarely marry out of their own nation,' and do not like their women to marry whites. _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . the sokulk men 'are said to content themselves with a single wife, with whom ... the husband shares the labours of procuring subsistence much more than is usual among savages.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _dunniway's capt. gray's comp._, p. ; _gray's hist. ogn._, p. ; _tolmie and anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _de smet's west. miss._, p. . [ ] the wife of a young kootenai left him for another, whereupon he shot himself. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. . among the flatheads 'conjugal infidelity is scarcely known.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . the sahaptins 'do not exhibit those loose feelings of carnal desire, nor appear addicted to the common customs of prostitution.' _gass' jour._, p. . inland tribes have a reputation for chastity, probably due to circumstances rather than to fixed principles. _mayne's b. c._, p. . spokanes 'free from the vice of incontinence'. among the walla wallas prostitution is unknown, 'and i believe no inducement would tempt them to commit a breach of chastity.' prostitution common on the fraser. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , - . nez percé women remarkable for their chastity. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . [ ] in the salish family on the birth of a child wealthy relatives make presents of food and clothing. the nez percé mother gives presents but receives none on such an occasion. the flatheads and pend d'oreilles bandage the waist and legs of infants with a view to producing broad-shouldered, small-waisted and straight-limbed adults. _tolmie and anderson_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - . among the walla wallas 'when traveling a hoop, bent over the head of the child, protects it from injury.' the confinement after child-birth continues forty days. at the first menstruation the spokane woman must conceal herself two days in the forest; for a man to see her would be fatal; she must then be confined for twenty days longer in a separate lodge. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , . the okanagan mother is not allowed to prepare her unborn infant's swaddling clothes, which consist of a piece of board, a bit of skin, a bunch of moss, and a string. _ross' adven._, pp. - . 'small children, not more than three years old, are mounted alone and generally upon colts.' younger ones are carried on the mother's back 'or suspended from a high knob upon the forepart of their saddles.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . houses among the chopunnish 'appropriated for women who are undergoing the operation of the menses.' 'when anything is to be conveyed to these deserted females, the person throws it to them forty or fifty paces off, and then retires.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . [ ] with the pend d'oreilles 'it was not uncommon for them to bury the very old and the very young alive, because, they said, "these cannot take care of themselves, and we cannot take care of them, and they had better die."' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _suckley_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _white's ogn._, p. ; _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] in the yakima valley 'we visited every street, alley, hole and corner of the camp.... here was gambling, there scalp-dancing; laughter in one place, mourning in another. crowds were passing to and fro, whooping, yelling, dancing, drumming, singing. men, women, and children were huddled together; flags flying, horses neighing, dogs howling, chained bears, tied wolves, grunting and growling, all pell-mell among the tents.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . at kettle falls 'whilst awaiting the coming salmon, the scene is one great revel: horse-racing, gambling, love-making, dancing, and diversions of all sorts, occupy the singular assembly; for at these annual gatherings ... feuds and dislikes are for the time laid by.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] the principal amusement of the okanagans is gambling, 'at which they are not so quarrelsome as the spokans and other tribes,' disputes being settled by arbitration. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . a young man at kettle falls committed suicide, having lost everything at gambling. _kane's wand._, pp. - . 'les indiens de la colombie ont porté les jeux de hasard au dernier excès. après avoir perdu tout ce qu'ils ont, ils se mettent eux-mêmes sur le tapis, d'abord une main, ensuite l'autre; s'ils les perdent, les bras, et ainsi de suite tous les membres du corps; la tête suit, et s'ils la perdent, ils deviennent esclaves pour la vie avec leurs femmes et leurs enfants.' _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - . many kooteneais have abandoned gambling. _de smet_, _west. miss._, p. . 'whatever the poor indian can call his own, is ruthlessly sacrificed to this moloch of human weakness.' _ind. life_, p. ; _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. - . [ ] spokanes; 'one of their great amusements is horse-racing.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . kliketats and yakimas; 'the racing season is the grand annual occasion of these tribes. a horse of proved reputation is a source of wealth or ruin to his owner. on his speed he stakes his whole stud, his household goods, clothes, and finally his wives; and a single heat doubles his fortune, or sends him forth an impoverished adventurer. the interest, however is not confined to the individual directly concerned; the tribe share it with him, and a common pile of goods, of motley description, apportioned according to their ideas of value, is put up by either party, to be divided among the backers of the winner.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . 'running horses and foot-races by men, women and children, and they have games of chance played with sticks or bones;' do not drink to excess. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , . _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. ; _franchère's nar._, p. . [ ] _kane's wand._, pp. - . [ ] the principal okanagan amusement is a game called by the voyageurs 'jeu de main,' like our odd and even. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, p. . it sometimes takes a week to decide the game. the loser never repines. _ross' adven._, pp. - ; _stuart's montana_, p. . [ ] among the wahowpums 'the spectators formed a circle round the dancers, who, with their robes drawn tightly round the shoulders, and divided into parties of five or six men, perform by crossing in a line from one side of the circle to the other. all the parties, performers as well as spectators, sing, and after proceeding in this way for some time, the spectators join, and the whole concludes by a promiscuous dance and song.' the walla wallas 'were formed into a solid column, round a kind of hollow square, stood on the same place, and merely jumped up at intervals, to keep time to the music.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , . nez percés dance round a pole on sundays, and the chiefs exhort during the pauses. _irving's bonneville's adven._, pp. - , . in singing 'they use _hi_, _ah_, in constant repetition, ... and instead of several parts harmonizing, they only take eighths one above another, never exceeding three.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - . 'the song was a simple expression of a few sounds, no intelligible words being uttered. it resembled the words _ho-ha-ho-ha-ho-ha-ha-ha_, commencing in a low tone, and gradually swelling to a full, round, and beautifully modulated chorus.' _townsend's nar._, p. . chualpay scalp-dance. _kane's wand._, p. . religious songs. _dunn's oregon_, pp. - ; _palmer's jour._, p. . [ ] de smet thinks inhaling tobacco smoke may prevent its injurious effects. _voy._, p. . in all religious ceremonies the pipe of peace is smoked. _ross' adven._, pp. - . _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _hines' voy._, p. . 'the medicine-pipe is a sacred pledge of friendship among all the north-western tribes.' _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] in moving, the girls and small boys ride three or four on a horse with their mothers, while the men drive the herds of horses that run loose ahead. _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - , . horses left for months without a guard, and rarely stray far. they call this 'caging' them. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , , . 'babies of fifteen months old, packed in a sitting posture, rode along without fear, grasping the reins with their tiny hands.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. xii., pt. ii., p. , with plate; _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. - ; _palliser's rept._, p. ; _farnham's trav._, pp. -; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _franchère's nar._, pp. - ; _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'l'aigle ... est le grand oiseau de médecine.' _de smet_, _voy._, pp. , ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _stevens_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and in _de smet's west. miss._, pp. - ; _suckley_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. - ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; _kane's wand._, pp. , - , . [ ] _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _ross' adven._, pp. - . [ ] the walla wallas receive bad news with a howl. the spokanes 'cache' their salmon. they are willing to change names with any one they esteem. 'suicide prevails more among the indians of the columbia river than in any other portion of the continent which i have visited.' _kane's wand._, pp. - , - . 'preserve particular order in their movements. the first chief leads the way, the next chiefs follow, then the common men, and after these the women and children.' they arrange themselves in similar order in coming forward to receive visitors. do not usually know their own age. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , - , . distance is calculated by time; a day's ride is seventy miles on horseback, thirty-five miles on foot. _ross' adven._, p. . natives can tell by examining arrows to what tribe they belong. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. . kliketats and yakimas often unwilling to tell their name. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. . 'd'après toutes les observations que j'ai faites, leur journée équivaut à peu près à cinquante ou soixante milles anglais lorsqu'ils voyagent seuls, et à quinze ou vingt milles seulement lorsqu'ils lèvent leur camps.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . among the nez percés everything was promulgated by criers. 'the office of crier is generally filled by some old man, who is good for little else. a village has generally several.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . habits of worship of the flatheads in the missions. _dunn's oregon_, pp. - . 'a pack of prick-eared curs, simply tamed prairie wolves, always in attendance.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] the nez percés 'are generally healthy, the only disorders which we have had occasion to remark being of scrophulous kind.' with the sokulks 'a bad soreness of the eyes is a very common disorder.' 'bad teeth are very general.' the chilluckittequaws' diseases are sore eyes, decayed teeth, and tumors. the walla wallas have ulcers and eruptions of the skin, and occasionally rheumatism. the chopunnish had 'scrofula, rheumatism, and sore eyes,' and a few have entirely lost the use of their limbs. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , , . the medicine-man uses a medicine-bag of relics in his incantations. _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - . the okanagan medicine-men are called _tlaquillaughs_, and 'are men generally past the meridian of life; in their habits grave and sedate.' 'they possess a good knowledge of herbs and roots, and their virtues.' i have often 'seen him throw out whole mouthfuls of blood, and yet not the least mark would appear on the skin.' 'i once saw an indian who had been nearly devoured by a grizzly bear, and had his skull split open in several places, and several pieces of bone taken out just above the brain, and measuring three-fourths of an inch in length, cured so effectually by one of these jugglers, that in less than two months after he was riding on his horse again at the chase. i have also seen them cut open the belly with a knife, extract a large quantity of fat from the inside, sew up the part again, and the patient soon after perfectly recovered.' the most frequent diseases are 'indigestion, fluxes, asthmas, and consumptions.' instances of longevity rare. _ross' adven._, pp. - . a desperate case of consumption cured by killing a dog each day for thirty-two days, ripping it open and placing the patient's legs in the warm intestines, administering some barks meanwhile. the flatheads subject to few diseases; splints used for fractures, bleeding with sharp flints for contusions, ice-cold baths for ordinary rheumatism, and vapor bath with cold plunge for chronic rheumatism. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., pp. - , vol. i., pp. - . among the walla wallas convalescents are directed to sing some hours each day. the spokanes require all garments, etc., about the death-bed to be buried with the body, hence few comforts for the sick. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - , . the flatheads say their wounds cure themselves. _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - . the wascos cure rattlesnake bites by salt applied to the wound or by whisky taken internally. _kane's wand._, pp. , , - . a female doctor's throat cut by the father of a patient she had failed to cure. _hines' voy._, p. . the office of medicine-men among the sahaptins is generally hereditary. men often die from fear of a medicine-man's evil glance. rival doctors work on the fears of patients to get each other killed. murders of doctors somewhat rare among the nez percés. _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. - , . small-pox seems to have come among the yakimas and kliketats before direct intercourse with whites. _gibbs_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , . a nez percé doctor killed by a brother of a man who had shot himself in mourning for his dead relative; the brother in turn killed, and several other lives lost. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . [ ] the sokulks wrap the dead in skins, bury them in graves, cover with earth, and mark the grave by little pickets of wood struck over and about it. on the columbia below the snake was a shed-tomb sixty by twelve feet, open at the ends, standing east and west. recently dead bodies wrapped in leather and arranged on boards at the west end. about the centre a promiscuous heap of partially decayed corpses; and at eastern end a mat with twenty-one skulls arranged in a circle. articles of property suspended on the inside and skeletons of horses scattered outside. about the dalles eight vaults of boards eight feet square, and six feet high, and all the walls decorated with pictures and carvings. the bodies were laid east and west. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , - , - , - . okanagans observe silence about the death-bed, but the moment the person dies the house is abandoned, and clamorous mourning is joined in by all the camp for some hours; then dead silence while the body is wrapped in a new garment, brought out, and the lodge torn down. then alternate mourning and silence, and the deceased is buried in a sitting posture in a round hole. widows must mourn two years, incessantly for some months, then only morning and evening. _ross' adven._, pp. - . frantic mourning, cutting the flesh, etc., by nez percés. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - , - , vol. ii., p. . destruction of horses and other property by spokanes. _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. - . a shushwap widow instigates the murder of a victim as a sacrifice to her husband. the horses of a walla walla chief not used after his death. _kane's wand._, pp. - , - , , . hundreds of wasco bodies piled in a small house on an island, just below the dalles. a walla walla chief caused himself to be buried alive in the grave of his last son. _hines' voy._, pp. , - . among the yakimas and kliketats the women do the mourning, living apart for a few days, and then bathing. okanagan bodies strapped to a tree. stone mounds over spokane graves. _gibbs and stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , , vol. xii., pt. i., p. . pend d'oreilles buried old and young alive when unable to take care of them. _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . 'high conical stacks of drift-wood' over walla walla graves. _townsend's nar._, p. . shushwaps often deposit dead in trees. if in the ground, always cover grave with stones. _mayne's b. c._, p. . killing a slave by wascos. _white's ogn._, pp. - . dances and prayers for three days at nez percé chief's burial. _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . burying infant with parents by flatheads. _de smet_, _voy._, p. . light wooden pilings about shushwap graves. _milton and cheadle's northw. pass._, p. ; _alvord_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. ; _palmer_, in _b. c. papers_, pt. iii., p. ; _gass' jour._, p. ; _ind. life_, p. ; _tolmie_, in _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. - , - . [ ] sokulks 'of a mild and peaceable disposition,' respectful to old age. chilluckittequaws 'unusually hospitable and good humoured.' chopunnish 'the most amiable we have seen. their character is placid and gentle, rarely moved into passion.' 'they are indeed selfish and avaricious.' will pilfer small articles. _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , , , , - , . the flatheads 'se distinguent par la civilité, l'honnétété, et la bonté.' _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - , - , - , - , - . flatheads 'the best indians of the mountains and the plains,--honest, brave, and docile.' kootenais 'men of great docility and artlessness of character.' _stevens and hoecken_, in _de smet's west. miss._, pp. , , , . coeurs d'alène selfish and poor-spirited. _de smet_, _miss. de l'orégon_, p. . in the walla wallas 'an air of open unsuspecting confidence,' 'natural politeness,' no obtrusive familiarity. flatheads 'frank and hospitable.' except cruelty to captives have 'fewer failings than any of the tribes i ever met.' brave, quiet, and amenable to their chiefs. spokanes 'quiet, honest, inoffensive,' but rather indolent. 'thoughtless and improvident.' okanagans 'indolent rascals;' 'an honest and quiet tribe.' sanspoils dirty, slothful, dishonest, quarrelsome, etc. coeurs d'alène 'uniformly honest;' 'more savage than their neighbours.' kootenais honest, brave, jealous, truthful. kamloops 'thieving and quarrelling.' _cox's adven._, vol. i., pp. , , , , - , - , , vol. ii., pp. , - , , - . okanagans active and industrious, revengeful, generous and brave. _ross' adven._, pp. , - , - . skeen 'a hardy, brave people.' cayuses far more vicious and ungovernable than the walla wallas. nez percés treacherous and villainous. _kane's wand._, pp. , , , - , . nez percés 'a quiet, civil, people, but proud and haughty.' _palmer's jour._, pp. , , , , , - . 'kind to each other.' 'cheerful and often gay, sociable, kind and affectionate, and anxious to receive instruction.' 'lying scarcely known.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , , , , - , - . of the nicutemuchs 'the habitual vindictiveness of their character is fostered by the ceaseless feuds.' 'nearly every family has a minor vendetta of its own.' 'the races that depend entirely or chiefly on fishing, are immeasurably inferior to those tribes who, with nerves and sinews braced by exercise, and minds comparatively ennobled by frequent excitement, live constantly amid war and the chase.' _anderson_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., pp. - . inland tribes of british columbia less industrious and less provident than the more sedentary coast indians. _mayne's b. c._, pp. , . sahaptins 'cold, taciturn, high-tempered, warlike, fond of hunting.' palouse, yakimas, kliketats, etc., of a 'less hardy and active temperament' than the nez percés. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , - . cayuses 'dreaded by their neighbors on account of their courage and warlike spirit.' walla wallas 'notorious as thieves since their first intercourse with whites.' 'indolent, superstitious, drunken and debauched.' character of flatheads, pend d'oreilles, umatillas. _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - , , , , , , pp. - . yakimas and kliketats 'much superior to the river indians.' _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., pp. , , , , vol. xii., pt. i., p. . wascos 'exceedingly vicious.' _hines' voy._, pp. , . the nez percés 'are, certainly, more like a nation of saints than a horde of savages.' skyuses, walla wallas. _irving's bonneville's adven._, pp. , , - , . tushepaws; _irving's astoria_, p. . thompson river indians rather a superior and clever race. _victoria colonist_, oct., . 'indians from the rocky mountains to the falls of columbia, are an honest, ingenuous, and well disposed people,' but rascals below the falls. _gass' jour._, p. . flathead 'fierceness and barbarity in war could not be exceeded.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . flatheads, walla wallas and nez percés; _gray's hist. ogn._, pp. , . kootenais; _palliser's explor._, pp. , . salish, walla wallas; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. . walla wallas, cayuses, and nez percés; _white's oregon_, p. . walla wallas, kootenais; _lord's nat._, vol. ii., pp. , . flatheads, nez percés; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , , - . nez percés; _catlin's n. am. ind._, vol. ii., p. ; _franchère's nar._, p. . kayuses, walla wallas; _townsend's nar._, p. . sahaptins; _wilkes' hist. ogn._, p. . nez percés; _hastings' emigrants' guide_, p. . flatheads; _ind. life_, pp. ix., x., . at dalles; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . shushwaps; _grant's ocean to ocean_, pp. - , . at dalles; _hunt_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. x., p. ; _stuart_, in _id._, , tom. xii., p. . pend d'oreilles; _joset_, in _id._, , tom. cxxiii., pp. - . [illustration: native races of the pacific states californian group] chapter iv. californians. groupal divisions; northern, central, and southern californians, and shoshones--country of the californians-- the klamaths, modocs, shastas, pitt river indians, eurocs, cahrocs, hoopahs, weeyots, tolewas, and rogue river indians and their customs--the tehamas, pomos, ukiahs, gualalas, sonomas, petalumas, napas, suscols, suisunes, tamales, karquines, ohlones, tulomos, thamiens, olchones, rumsens, escelens, and others of central california--the cahuillas, diegueÑos, islanders, and mission rancherias of southern california--the snakes or shoshones proper, utahs, bannocks, washoes and other shoshone nations. of the seven groups into which this work separates the nations of western north america, the californians constitute the third, and cover the territory between latitude ° and ° ´, extending back irregularly into the rocky mountains. there being few distinctly marked families in this group, i cannot do better in subdividing it for the purpose of description than make of the californians proper three geographical divisions, namely, the _northern californians_, the _central californians_, and the _southern californians_. the _shoshones_, or fourth division of this group, who spread out over south-eastern oregon, southern idaho, and the whole of nevada and utah, present more distinctly marked family characteristics, and will therefore be treated as a family. [sidenote: home of the californians.] the same chain of mountains, which, as the cascade range, divides the land of the columbians, holds its course steadily southward, and entering the territory of the californian group forms, under the name of the sierra nevada, the partition between the californians proper and the shoshones of idaho and nevada. the influence of this range upon the climate is also here manifest, only intenser in degree than farther north. the lands of the northern californians are well watered and wooded, those of the central division have an abundance of water for six months in the year, namely, from november to may, and the soil is fertile, yielding abundantly under cultivation. sycamore, oak, cotton-wood, willow, and white alder, fringe the banks of the rivers; laurel, buckeye, manzanita, and innumerable berry-bearing bushes, clothe the lesser hills; thousands of acres are annually covered with wild oats; the moist bottoms yield heavy crops of grass; and in summer the valleys are gorgeous with wild-flowers of every hue. before the blighting touch of the white man was laid upon the land, the rivers swarmed with salmon and trout; deer, antelope, and mountain sheep roamed over the foot-hills, bear and other carnivora occupied the forests, and numberless wild fowl covered the lakes. decreasing in moisture toward the tropics, the climate of the southern californians is warm and dry, while the shoshones, a large part of whose territory falls in the great basin, are cursed with a yet greater dryness. the region known as the great basin, lying between the eastern base of the sierra nevada and the wahsatch mountains, and stretching north and south from latitude ° to °, presents a very different picture from the land of the californians. this district is triangular in shape, the apex pointing toward the south, or southwest; from this apex, which, round the head of the gulf of california, is at tide level, the ground gradually rises until, in central nevada, it reaches an altitude of about five thousand feet, and this, with the exception of a few local depressions, is about the level of the whole of the broad part of the basin. the entire surface of this plateau is alkaline. being in parts almost destitute of water, there is comparatively little timber; sage-brush and greasewood being the chief signs of vegetation, except at rare intervals where some small stream struggling against almost universal aridity, supports on its banks a little scanty herbage and a few forlorn-looking cotton-wood trees. the northern part of this region, as is the case with the lands of the californians proper, is somewhat less destitute of vegetable and animal life than the southern portion which is indeed a desert occupied chiefly by rabbits, prairie-dogs, sage-hens, and reptiles. the desert of the colorado, once perhaps a fertile bottom, extending northward from the san bernardino mountains one hundred and eighty miles, and spreading over an area of about nine thousand square miles, is a silent unbroken sea of sand, upon whose ashy surface glares the mid-day sun and where at night the stars draw near through the thin air and brilliantly illumine the eternal solitude. here the gigantic cereus, emblem of barrenness, rears its contorted form, casting weird shadows upon the moonlit level. in such a country, where in winter the keen dust-bearing blast rushes over the unbroken desolate plains, and in summer the very earth cracks open with intense heat, what can we expect of man but that he should be distinguished for the depths of his low attainment. but although the poverty and barrenness of his country account satisfactorily for the low type of the inhabitant of the great basin, yet no such excuse is offered for the degradation of the native of fertile california. on every side, if we except the shoshone, in regions possessing far fewer advantages than california, we find a higher type of man. among the tuscaroras, cherokees, and iroquois of the atlantic slope, barbarism assumes its grandest proportions; proceeding west it bursts its fetters in the incipient civilization of the gila; but if we continue the line to the shores of the pacific we find this intellectual dawn checked, and man sunk almost to the utter darkness of the brute. coming southward from the frozen land of the eskimo, or northward from tropical darien we pass through nations possessing the necessaries and even the comforts of life. some of them raise and grind wheat and corn, many of them make pottery and other utensils, at the north they venture out to sea in good boats and make behemoth their spoil. the californians on the other hand, comparatively speaking, wear no clothes, they build no houses, do not cultivate the soil, they have no boats, nor do they hunt to any considerable extent; they have no morals nor any religion worth calling such. the missionary fathers found a virgin field whereon neither god nor devil was worshiped. we must look, then, to other causes for a solution of the question why a nobler race is not found in california; such for instance as revolutions and migrations of nations, or upheavals and convulsions of nature, causes arising before the commencement of the short period within which we are accustomed to reckon time. [sidenote: tribal diversity.] there is, perhaps, a greater diversity of tribal names among the californians than elsewhere in america; the whole system of nomenclature is so complicated and contradictory that it is impossible to reduce it to perfect order. there are tribes that call themselves by one name, but whose neighbors call them by another; tribes that are known by three or four names, and tribes that have no name except that of their village or chief.[ ] tribal names are frequently given by one writer which are never mentioned by any other;[ ] nevertheless there are tribes on whose names authorities agree, and though the spelling differs, the sound expressed in these instances is about the same. less trouble is experienced in distinguishing the tribes of the northern division, which is composed of people who resemble their neighbors more than is the case in central california, where the meaningless term 'indians,' is almost universally applied in speaking of them.[ ] another fruitful source of confusion is the indefinite nickname 'digger' which is applied indiscriminately to all the tribes of northern and middle california, and to those of nevada, utah, and the southern part of oregon. these tribes are popularly known as the californian diggers, washoe diggers, shoshone diggers of utah, etc., the signification of the term pointing to the digging of roots, and in some parts, possibly, to burrowing in the ground. the name is seemingly opprobrious, and is certainly no more applicable to this people than to many others. by this territorial division i hope to avoid, as far as possible, the two causes of bewilderment before alluded to; neither treating the inhabitants of an immense country as one tribe, nor attempting to ascribe distinct names and idiosyncrasies to hundreds of small, insignificant bands, roaming over a comparatively narrow area of country and to all of which one description will apply. [sidenote: nations of northern california.] the northern californians, the first tribal group, or division, of which i shall speak, might, not improperly, be called the klamath family, extending as they do from rogue river on the north, to the eel river south, and from the pacific ocean to the californian boundary east, and including the upper and lower klamath and other lakes. the principal tribes occupying this region are the _klamaths_,[ ] who live on the headwaters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that name; the _modocs_,[ ] on lower klamath lake and along lost river; the _shastas_, to the south-west of the lakes, near the shasta mountains; the _pitt river indians_; the _eurocs_ on the klamath river between weitspek and the coast; the _cahrocs_[ ] on the klamath river from a short distance above the junction of the trinity to the klamath mountains; the _hoopahs_ in hoopah valley on the trinity near its junction with the klamath; numerous tribes on the coast from eel river and humboldt bay north, such as the _weeyots_,[ ] _wallies_, _tolewahs_, etc., and the _rogue river indians_,[ ] on and about the river of that name.[ ] the northern californians are in every way superior to the central and southern tribes.[ ] their physique and character, in fact, approach nearer to the oregon nations than to the people of the sacramento and san joaquin valleys. this applies more particularly to the inland tribes. the race gradually deteriorates as it approaches the coast, growing less in stature, darker in color, more and more degraded in character, habits, and religion. the rogue river indians must, however, be made an exception to this rule. the tendency to improve toward the north, which is so marked among the californians, holds good in this case; so that the natives on the extreme north-west coast of the region under consideration, are in many respects superior to the interior but more southerly tribes. [sidenote: physical peculiarities.] the northern californians round the klamath lakes, and the klamath, trinity, and rogue rivers, are tall, muscular, and well made,[ ] with a complexion varying from nearly black to light brown, in proportion to their proximity to, or distance, from the ocean or other large bodies of water; their face is large, oval, and heavily made, with slightly prominent cheek-bones, nose well set on the face and frequently straight, and eyes which, when not blurred by ophthalmia, are keen and bright. the women are short and some of them quite handsome, even in the caucasian sense of the word;[ ] and although their beauty rapidly fades, yet they do not in old age present that unnaturally wrinkled and shriveled appearance, characteristic of the central californians. this description scarcely applies to the people inhabiting the coast about redwood creek, humboldt bay, and eel river, who are squat and fat in figure, rather stoutly built, with large heads covered with coarse thick hair, and repulsive countenances, who are of a much darker color, and altogether of a lower type than the tribes to the east and north of them.[ ] [sidenote: dress in northern california.] dress depends more on the state of the climate than on their own sense of decency. the men wear a belt, sometimes a breech-clout, and the women an apron or skirt of deer-skin or braided grass; then they sometimes throw over the shoulders a sort of cloak, or robe, of marten or rabbit skins sewn together, deer-skin, or, among the coast tribes, seal or sea-otter skin. when they indulge in this luxury, however, the men usually dispense with all other covering.[ ] occasionally we find them taking great pride in their gala dresses and sparing no pains to render them beautiful. the modocs, for instance, took large-sized skins, and inlaid them with brilliant-colored duck-scalps, sewed on in various figures; others, again, embroidered their aprons with colored grasses, and attached beads and shells to a deep fringe falling from the lower part.[ ] a bowl-shaped hat, or cap, of basket-work, is usually worn by the women, in making which some of them are very skillful. this hat is sometimes painted with various figures, and sometimes interwoven with gay feathers of the woodpecker or blue quail.[ ] the men generally go bare-headed, their thick hair being sufficient protection from sun and weather. in the vicinity of the lakes, where, from living constantly among the long grass and reeds, the greatest skill is acquired in weaving and braiding, moccasins of straw or grass are worn.[ ] at the junction of the klamath and trinity rivers their moccasins have soles of several thicknesses of leather.[ ] the natives seen by maurelle at trinidad bay, bound their loins and legs down to the ankle with strips of hide or thread, both men and women. the manner of dressing the hair varies; the most common way being to club it together behind in a queue, sometimes in two, worn down the back, or occasionally in the latter case drawn forward over the shoulders. the queue is frequently twisted up in a knot on the back of the head--_en castanna_--as maurelle calls it. occasionally the hair is worn loose, and flowing, and some of the women cut it short on the forehead. it is not uncommon to see wreaths of oak or laurel leaves, feathers, or the tails of gray squirrels twisted in the hair; indeed, from the trouble which they frequently take to adorn their coiffure, one would imagine that these people were of a somewhat æsthetic turn of mind, but a closer acquaintance quickly dispels the illusion. on eel river some cut all the hair short, a custom practiced to some extent by the central californians.[ ] [sidenote: facial ornamentation.] as usual these savages are beardless, or nearly so.[ ] tattooing, though not carried to any great extent, is universal among the women, and much practiced by the men, the latter confining this ornamentation to the breast and arms. the women tattoo in three blue lines, extending perpendicularly from the centre and corners of the lower lip to the chin. in some tribes they tattoo the arms, and occasionally the back of the hands. as they grow older the lines on the chin, which at first are very faint, are increased in width and color, thus gradually narrowing the intervening spaces. now, as the social importance of the female is gauged by the width and depth of color of these lines, one might imagine that before long the whole chin would be what southey calls "blue, darkly, deeply, beautifully blue;" but fashion ordains, as in the lip-ornament of the thlinkeets, that the lines should be materially enlarged only as the charms of youth fade, thus therewith gauging both age and respectability.[ ] in some few tribes, more especially in the vicinity of the lakes, the men paint themselves in various colors and grotesque patterns. among the modocs the women also paint. miller says that when a modoc warrior paints his face black before going into battle it means victory or death, and he will not survive a defeat.[ ] both men and women pierce the dividing cartilage of the nose, and wear various kinds of ornaments in the aperture. sometimes it is a goose-quill, three or four inches long, at others, a string of beads or shells. some of the more northerly tribes wear large round pieces of wood or metal in the ears.[ ] maurelle, in his bucolic description of the natives at trinidad bay, says that "on their necks they wear various fruits, instead of beads."[ ] vancouver, who visited the same place nearly twenty years later, states that "all the teeth of both sexes were by some process ground uniformly down horizontally to the gums, the women especially, carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth reduced even below this level."[ ] here also we see in their habitations the usual summer and winter residences common to nomadic tribes. the winter dwellings, varying with locality, are principally of two forms--conical and square. those of the former shape, which is the most widely prevailing, and obtains chiefly in the vicinity of the klamath lakes and on the klamath and trinity rivers, are built in the manner following: a circular hole, from two to five feet in depth, and varying in diameter, is dug in the ground. round this pit, or cellar, stout poles are sunk, which are drawn together at the top until they nearly meet; the whole is then covered with earth to the depth of several inches. a hole is left in the top, which serves as chimney and door, a rude ladder or notched pole communicating with the cellar below, and a similar one with the ground outside. this, however, is only the commoner and lighter kind of conical house. many of them are built of much heavier timbers, which, instead of being bent over at the top, and so forming a bee-hive-shaped structure, are leaned one against the other. the dwellings built by the hoopahs are somewhat better. the inside of the cellar is walled up with stone; round this, and at a distance of a few feet from it, another stone wall is built on the surface level, against which heavy beams or split logs are leaned up, meeting at the top, or sometimes the lower ends of the poles rest against the inside of the wall, thus insuring the inmates against a sudden collapse of the hut.[ ] [sidenote: californian habitations.] the square style of dwelling is affected more by the coast tribes, although occasionally seen in the interior. a cellar, either square or round, is dug in the same manner as with the conical houses. the sides of the hole are walled with upright slabs, which project some feet above the surface of the ground. the whole structure is covered with a roof of sticks or planks, sloping gently outward, and resting upon a ridge-pole. the position of the door varies, being sometimes in the roof, sometimes on a level with the ground, and occasionally high up in the gable. its shape and dimensions, however, never alter; it is always circular, barely large enough to admit a full-grown man on hands and knees. when on the roof or in the gable, a notched pole or mud steps lead up to the entrance; when on the ground, a sliding panel closes the entrance. in some cases, the excavation is planked up only to a level with the ground. the upper part is then raised several feet from the sides, leaving a bank, or rim, on which the inmates sleep; occasionally there is no excavation, the house being erected on the level ground, with merely a small fire-hole in the centre. the floors are kept smooth and clean, and a small space in front of the door, paved with stones and swept clean, serves as gossiping and working ground for the women.[ ] the temporary summer houses of the northern californians are square, conical, and inverted-bowl-shaped huts; built, when square, by driving light poles into the ground and laying others horizontally across them; when conical, the poles are drawn together at the top into a point; when bowl-shaped, both ends of the poles are driven into the ground, making a semi-circular hut. these frames, however shaped, are covered with neatly woven tule matting,[ ] or with bushes or ferns.[ ] [sidenote: hunting and fishing.] the californians are but poor hunters; they prefer the snare to the bow and arrow. yet some of the mountain tribes display considerable dexterity in the chase. to hunt the prong-buck, the klamath fastens to each heel a strip of ermine-skin, and keeping the herd to the windward, he approaches craftily through the tall grass as near as possible, then throwing himself on his back, or standing on his head, he executes a pantomime in the air with his legs. naturally the antelope wonder, and being cursed with curiosity, the simple animals gradually approach. as soon as they arrive within easy shooting-distance, down go the hunter's legs and up comes the body. too late the antelope learn their mistake; swift as they are, the arrow is swifter; and the fattest buck pays the penalty of his inquisitiveness with his life. the veeards, at humboldt bay, construct a slight fence from tree to tree, into which inclosure elk are driven, the only exit being by a narrow opening at one end, where a pole is placed in such a manner as to force the animal to stoop in passing under it, when its head is caught in a noose suspended from the pole. this pole is dragged down by the entangled elk, but soon he is caught fast in the thick undergrowth, and firmly held until the hunter comes up.[ ] pitfalls are also extensively used in trapping game. a narrow pass, through which an elk or deer trail leads, is selected for the pit, which is ten or twelve feet deep. the animals are then suddenly stampeded from their feeding-grounds, and, in their wild terror, rush blindly along the trail to destruction.[ ] the bear they seldom hunt, and if one is taken, it is usually by accident, in one of their strong elk-traps. many of the tribes refuse to eat bear-meat, alleging that the flesh of a man-eating animal is unclean; but no doubt bruin owes his immunity as much to his teeth and claws as to his uncleanness. [sidenote: fishing by night on the klamath.] fishing is more congenial to the lazy taste of these people than the nobler but more arduous craft of hunting; consequently fish, being abundant, are generally more plentiful in the aboriginal larder than venison. several methods are adopted in taking them. sometimes a dam of interwoven willows is constructed across a rapid at the time when salmon are ascending the river; niches four or five feet square are made at intervals across the dam, in which the fish, pressed on by those behind, collect in great numbers and are there speared or netted without mercy. much ingenuity and labor are required to build some of the larger of these dams. mr gibbs describes one thrown across the klamath, where the river was about seventy-five yards wide, elbowing up the stream in its deepest part. it was built by first driving stout posts into the bed of the river, at a distance of some two feet apart, having a moderate slope, and supported from below, at intervals of ten or twelve feet, by two braces; the one coming to the surface of the water, the other reaching to the string-pieces. these last were heavy spars, about thirty feet in length, and secured to each post by withes. the whole dam was faced with twigs, carefully peeled, and placed so close together as to prevent the fish from passing up. the top, at this stage of the water, was two or three feet above the surface. the labor of constructing this work must, with the few and insufficient tools of the natives, have been immense. slight scaffolds were built out below it, from which the fish were taken in scoop-nets; they also employ drag-nets and spears, the latter having a movable barb, which is fastened to the shaft with a string in order to afford the salmon play.[ ] on rogue river, spearing by torch-light--a most picturesque sight--is resorted to. twenty canoes sometimes start out together, each carrying three persons--two women, one to row and the other to hold the torch, and a spearman. sometimes the canoes move in concert, sometimes independently of each other; one moment the lights are seen in line, like an army of fire-flies, then they are scattered over the dark surface of the water like ignes fatui. the fish, attracted by the glare, rise to the surface, where they are transfixed by the unerring aim of the spearmen. torchlight spearing is also done by driving the fish down stream in the day-time by dint of much wading, yelling, and howling, and many splashes, until they are stopped by a dam previously erected lower down; another dam is then built above, so that the fish cannot escape. at night fires are built round the edge of the enclosed space, and the finny game speared from the bank.[ ] some tribes on the klamath erect platforms over the stream on upright poles, on which they sleep and fish at the same time. a string leads from the net either to the fisherman himself or to some kind of alarm; and as soon as a salmon is caught, its floundering immediately awakens the slumberer. on the sea-shore smelts are taken in a triangular net stretched on two slender poles; the fisherman wades into the water up to his waist, turns his face to the shore, and his back to the incoming waves, against whose force he braces himself with a stout stick, then as the smelts are washed back from the beach by the returning waves, he receives them in his net. the net is deep, and a narrow neck connects it with a long network bag behind; into this bag the fish drop when the net is raised, but they cannot return. in this manner the fisherman can remain for some time at his post, without unloading. eels are caught in traps having a funnel-shaped entrance, into which the eels can easily go, but which closes on them as soon as they are in. these traps are fastened to stakes and kept down by weights. similar traps are used to take salmon. when preserved for winter use, the fish are split open at the back, the bone taken out, then dried or smoked. both fish and meat, when eaten fresh, are either broiled on hot stones or boiled in water-tight baskets, hot stones being thrown in to make the water boil. bread is made of acorns ground to flour in a rough stone mortar with a heavy stone pestle, and baked in the ashes. acorn-flour is the principal ingredient, but berries of various kinds are usually mixed in, and frequently it is seasoned with some high-flavored herb. a sort of pudding is also made in the same manner, but is boiled instead of baked. they gather a great variety of roots, berries, and seeds. the principal root is the camas,[ ] great quantities of which are dried every summer, and stored away for winter provision. another root, called _kice_, or _kace_,[ ] is much sought after. of seeds they have the _wocus_,[ ] and several varieties of grass-seeds. among berries the huckleberry and the manzanita berry are the most plentiful.[ ] the women do the cooking, root and berry gathering, and all the drudgery. the winter stock of smoked fish hangs in the family room, sending forth an ancient and fish-like smell. roots and seeds are, among some of the more northerly tribes, stored in large wicker boxes, built in the lower branches of strong, wide-spreading trees. the trunk of the tree below the granary is smeared with pitch to keep away vermin.[ ] the modocs are sometimes obliged to cache their winter hoard under rocks and bushes; the great number of their enemies and bad character of their ostensibly friendly neighbors, rendering it unsafe for them to store it in their villages. so cunningly do they conceal their treasure that one winter, after an unusually heavy fall of snow, they themselves could not find it, and numbers starved in consequence.[ ] although the northern californians seldom fail to take a cold bath in the morning, and frequently bathe at intervals during the day, yet they are never clean.[ ] [sidenote: war and weapons.] the northern californians are not of a very warlike disposition, hence their weapons are few, being confined chiefly to the bow and arrow.[ ] the bow is about three feet in length, made of yew, cedar, or some other tough or elastic wood, and generally painted. the back is flat, from an inch and a half to two inches wide, and covered with elk-sinews, which greatly add both to its strength and elasticity; the string is also of sinew. the bow is held horizontally when discharged, instead of perpendicularly as in most countries. the arrows are from two to three feet long, and are made sometimes of reed, sometimes of light wood. the points, which are of flint, obsidian, bone, iron, or copper, are ground to a very fine point, fastened firmly into a short piece of wood, and fitted into a socket in the main shaft, so that on withdrawing the arrow the head will be left in the wound. the feathered part, which is from five to eight inches long, is also sometimes a separate piece bound on with sinews. the quiver is made of the skin of a fox, wild-cat, or some other small animal, in the same shape as when the animal wore it, except at the tail end, where room is left for the feathered ends of arrows to project. it is usually carried on the arm.[ ] mr powers says: "doubtless many persons who have seen the flint arrow-heads made by the indians, have wondered how they succeeded with their rude implements, in trimming them down to such sharp, thin points, without breaking them to pieces. the veeards--and probably other tribes do likewise--employ for this purpose a pair of buck-horn pincers, tied together at the point with a thong. they first hammer out the arrow-head in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nip off one tiny fragment after another, using that infinite patience which is characteristic of the indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, on one piece. there are indians who make arrows as a specialty, just as there are others who concoct herbs and roots for the healing of men."[ ] the shastas especially excelled in making obsidian arrow-heads; mr wilkes of the exploring expedition notices them as being "beautifully wrought," and lyon, in a letter to the american ethnological society, communicated through dr e. h. davis, describes the very remarkable ingenuity and skill which they display in this particular. the arrow-point maker, who is one of a regular guild, places the obsidian pebble upon an anvil of talcose slate and splits it with an agate chisel to the required size; then holding the piece with his finger and thumb against the anvil, he finishes it off with repeated slight blows, administered with marvelous adroitness and judgment. one of these artists made an arrow-point for mr lyon out of a piece of a broken porter-bottle. owing to his not being acquainted with the grain of the glass, he failed twice, but the third time produced a perfect specimen.[ ] the wallies poison their arrows with rattlesnake-virus, but poisoned weapons seem to be the exception.[ ] the bow is skilfully used; war-clubs are not common.[ ] [sidenote: war and its motives.] wars, though of frequent occurrence, were not particularly bloody. the casus belli was usually that which brought the spartan king before the walls of ilion, and titus tatius to incipient rome--woman. it is true, the northern californians are less classic abductors than the spoilers of the sabine women, but their wars ended in the same manner--the ravished fair cleaving to her warrior-lover. religion also, that ever-fruitful source of war, is not without its conflicts in savagedom; thus more than once the shastas and the umpquas have taken up arms because of wicked sorceries, which caused the death of the people.[ ] so when one people obstructed the river with their weir, thereby preventing the ascent of salmon, there was nothing left for those above but to fight or starve. along pitt river, pits from ten to fifteen feet deep were formerly dug, in which the natives caught man and beast. these man-traps, for such was their primary use, were small at the mouth, widening toward the bottom, so that exit was impossible, even were the victim to escape impalement upon sharpened elk and deer horns, which were favorably placed for his reception. the opening was craftily concealed by means of light sticks, over which earth was scattered, and the better to deceive the unwary traveler, footprints were frequently stamped with a moccasin in the loose soil. certain landmarks and stones or branches, placed in a peculiar manner, warned the initiated, but otherwise there was no sign of impending danger.[ ] some few nations maintain the predominancy and force the weaker to pay tribute.[ ] when two of these dominant nations war with each other, the conflict is more sanguinary. no scalps are taken, but in some cases the head, hands, or feet of the conquered slain are severed as trophies. the cahrocs sometimes fight hand to hand with ragged stones, which they use with deadly effect. the rogue river indians kill all their male prisoners, but spare the women and children.[ ] the elk-horn knives and hatchets are the result of much labor and patience.[ ] the women are very ingenious in plaiting grass, or fine willow-roots, into mats, baskets, hats, and strips of parti-colored braid for binding up the hair. on these, angular patterns are worked by using different shades of material, or by means of dyes of vegetable extraction. the baskets are of various sizes, from the flat, basin-shaped, water-tight, rush bowl for boiling food, to the large pointed cone which the women carry on their backs when root-digging or berry-picking.[ ] they are also expert tanners, and, by a comparatively simple process, will render skins as soft and pliable as cloth. the hide is first soaked in water till the hair loosens, then stretched between trees or upright posts till half dry, when it is scraped thoroughly on both sides, well beaten with sticks, and the brains of some animal, heated at a fire, are rubbed on the inner side to soften it. finally it is buried in moist ground for some weeks. [sidenote: manufactures and boats.] the interior tribes manifest no great skill in boat-making, but along the coast and near the mouth of the klamath and rogue rivers, very good canoes are found. they are still, however, inferior to those used on the columbia and its tributaries. the lashed-up-hammock-shaped bundle of rushes, which is so frequently met in the more southern parts of california, has been seen on the klamath,[ ] but i have reason to think that it is only used as a matter of convenience, and not because no better boat is known. it is certain that dug-out canoes were in use on the same river, and within a few miles of the spot where tule buoys obtain. the fact is, this bundle of rushes is the best craft that could be invented for salmon-spearing. seated astride, the weight of the fisherman sinks it below the surface; he can move it noiselessly with his feet so that there is no splashing of paddles in the sun to frighten the fish; it cannot capsize, and striking a rock does it no injury. canoes are hollowed from the trunk of a single redwood, pine, fir, sycamore, or cottonwood tree. they are blunt at both ends and on rogue river many of them are flat-bottomed. it is a curious fact that some of these canoes are made from first to last without being touched with a sharp-edged tool of any sort. the native finds the tree ready felled by the wind, burns it off to the required length, and hollows it out by fire. pitch is spread on the parts to be burned away, and a piece of fresh bark prevents the flames from extending too far in the wrong direction. a small shelf, projecting inward from the stern, serves as a seat. much trouble is sometimes taken with the finishing up of these canoes, in the way of scraping and polishing, but in shape they lack symmetry. on the coast they are frequently large; mr powers mentions having seen one at smith river forty-two feet long, eight feet four inches wide, and capable of carrying twenty-four men and five tons of merchandise. the natives take great care of their canoes, and always cover them when out of the water to protect them from the sun. should a crack appear they do not caulk it, but stitch the sides of the split tightly together with withes. they are propelled with a piece of wood, half pole, half paddle.[ ] [sidenote: wealth in northern california.] wealth, which is quite as important here as in any civilized communities, and of much more importance than is customary among savage nations, consists in shell-money, called _allicochick_, white deer-skins, canoes, and, indirectly, in women. the shell which is the regular circulating medium is white, hollow, about a quarter of an inch through, and from one to two inches in length. on its length depends its value. a gentleman, who writes from personal observation, says: "all of the older indians have tattooed on their arms their standard of value. a piece of shell corresponding in length to one of the marks being worth five dollars, 'boston money,' the scale gradually increases until the highest mark is reached. for five perfect shells corresponding in length to this mark they will readily give one hundred dollars in gold or silver."[ ] white deer-skins are rare and considered very valuable, one constituting quite an estate in itself.[ ] a scalp of the red-headed woodpecker is equivalent to about five dollars, and is extensively used as currency on the klamath. canoes are valued according to their size and finish. wives, as they must be bought, are a sign of wealth, and the owner of many is respected accordingly.[ ] among the northern californians, hereditary chieftainship is almost unknown. if the son succeed the father it is because the son has inherited the father's wealth, and if a richer than he arise the ancient ruler is deposed and the new chief reigns in his stead. but to be chief means to have position, not power. he can advise, but not command; at least, if his subjects do not choose to obey him, he cannot compel obedience. there is most frequently a head man to each village, and sometimes a chief of the whole tribe, but in reality each head of a family governs his own domestic circle as he thinks best. as in certain republics, when powerful applicants become multiplied--new offices are created, as salmon-chief, elk-chief, and the like. in one or two coast tribes the office is hereditary, as with the patawats on mad river, and that mysterious tribe at trinidad bay, mentioned by mr meyer, the allequas.[ ] their penal code is far from draconian. a fine of a few strings of allicochick appeases the wrath of a murdered man's relatives and satisfies the requirements of custom. a woman may be slaughtered for half the sum it costs to kill a man. occasionally banishment from the tribe is the penalty for murder, but capital punishment is never resorted to. the fine, whatever it is, must be promptly paid, or neither city of refuge nor sacred altar-horns will shield the murderer from the vengeance of his victim's friends.[ ] [sidenote: women and domestic affairs.] in vain do we look for traces of that arcadian simplicity and disregard for worldly advantages generally accorded to children of nature. although i find no description of an actual system of slavery existing among them, yet there is no doubt that they have slaves. we shall see that illegitimate children are considered and treated as such, and that women, entitled by courtesy wives, are bought and sold. mr drew asserts that the klamath children of slave parents, who, it may be, prevent the profitable prostitution or sale of the mother, are killed without compunction.[ ] marriage, with the northern californians, is essentially a matter of business. the young brave must not hope to win his bride by feats of arms or softer wooing, but must buy her of her father, like any other chattel, and pay the price at once, or resign in favor of a richer man. the inclinations of the girl are in nowise consulted; no matter where her affections are placed, she goes to the highest bidder, and "mammon wins his way where seraphs might despair." neither is it a trifling matter to be bought as a wife; the social position of the bride herself, as well as that of her father's family thereafter, depends greatly upon the price she brings; her value is voted by society at the price her husband pays for her, and the father whose daughter commands the greatest number of strings of allicochick, is greatly to be honored. the purchase effected, the successful suitor leads his blushing property to his hut and she becomes his wife without further ceremony. wherever this system of wife-purchase obtains, the rich old men almost absorb the female youth and beauty of the tribe, while the younger and poorer men must content themselves with old and ugly wives. hence their eagerness for that wealth which will enable them to throw away their old wives and buy new ones. when a marriage takes place among the modocs, a feast is given at the house of the bride's father, in which, however, neither she nor the bridegroom partake. the girl is escorted by the women to a lodge, previously furnished by public contributions, where she is subsequently joined by the man, who is conducted by his male friends. all the company bear torches, which are piled up as a fire in the lodge of the wedded pair, who are then left alone. in some tribes this wife-traffic is done on credit, or at least partially so; but the credit system is never so advantageous to the buyer as the ready-money system, for until the full price is paid, the man is only 'half-married,' and besides he must live with his wife's family and be their slave until he shall have paid in full.[ ] the children of a wife who has cost her husband nothing are considered no better than bastards, and are treated by society with contumely; nobody associates with them, and they become essentially ostracized. in all this there is one redeeming feature for the wife-buyer; should he happen to make a bad bargain he can, in most instances, send his wife home and get his money back. mr gibbs asserts that they shoot their wives when tired of them, but this appears inconsistent with custom. [sidenote: adultery and chastity.] polygamy is almost universal, the number of wives depending only on the limit of a man's wealth. the loss of one eye, or expulsion from the tribe, are common punishments for adultery committed by a man. a string of beads, however, makes amends. should the wife venture on any irregularity without just compensation, the outraged honor of her lord is never satisfied until he has seen her publicly disemboweled. among the hoopahs the women are held irresponsible and the men alone suffer for the crime.[ ] illegitimate children are life-slaves to some male relative of the mother, and upon them the drudgery falls; they are only allowed to marry one in their own station, and their sole hope of emancipation lies in a slow accumulation of allicochick, with which they can buy their freedom. we are told by mr powers that a modoc may kill his mother-in-law with impunity. adultery, being attended with so much danger, is comparatively rare, but among the unmarried, who have nothing to fear, a gross licentiousness prevails.[ ] among the muckalucs a dance is instituted in honor of the arrival of the girls at the age of puberty. on the klamath, during the period of menstruation the women are banished from the village, and no man may approach them. although the principal labor falls to the lot of the women, the men sometimes assist in building the wigwam, or even in gathering acorns and roots.[ ] kane mentions that the shastas, or, as he calls them, the chastays, frequently sell their children as slaves to the chinooks.[ ] dances and festivities, of a religio-playful character, are common, as when a whale is stranded, an elk snared, or when the salmon come. there is generally a kind of thanksgiving-day once a year, when the people of neighboring tribes meet and dance. the annual feast of the veeards is a good illustration of the manner of these entertainments. the dance, which takes place in a large wigwam, is performed by as many men as there is room for, and a small proportion of women. they move in a circle slowly round the fire, accompanying themselves with their peculiar chant. each individual is dressed in all the finery he can muster; every valuable he possesses in the way of shells, furs, or woodpecker-scalps, does duty on this occasion; so that the wealth of the dancers may be reckoned at a glance. when the dance has concluded, an old gray-beard of the tribe rises, and pronounces a thanksgiving oration, wherein he enumerates the benefits received, the riches accumulated, and the victories won during the year; exhorting the hearers meanwhile, by good conduct and moral behavior, to deserve yet greater benefits. this savage nestor is listened to in silence and with respect; his audience seeming to drink in with avidity every drop of wisdom that falls from his lips; but no sooner is the harangue concluded than every one does his best to violate the moral precepts so lately inculcated, by a grand debauch. the cahrocs have a similar festival, which they call the feast of the propitiation. its object is much the same as that of the feast just described, but in place of the orator, the chief personage of the day is called the chareya, which is also the appellation of their deity. no little honor attaches to the position, but much suffering is also connected with it. it is the duty of the chareya-man to retire into the mountains, with one attendant only, and there to remain for ten days, eating only enough to keep breath in his body. meanwhile the cahrocs congregate in honor of the occasion, dance, sing, and make merry. when the appointed period has elapsed, the chareya-man returns to camp, or is carried by deputies sent out for the purpose, if he have not strength to walk. his bearers are blindfolded, for no human being may look upon the face of the chareya-man and live. his approach is the signal for the abrupt breaking up of the festivities. the revelers disperse in terror, and conceal themselves as best they may to avoid catching sight of the dreaded face, and where a moment before all was riot and bustle, a deathly stillness reigns. then the chareya-man is conducted to the sweat-house, where he remains for a time. and now the real propitiation-dance takes place, the men alone participating in its sacred movements, which are accompanied by the low, monotonous chant of singers. the dance over, all solemnity vanishes, and a lecherous saturnalia ensues, which will not bear description. the gods are conciliated, catastrophes are averted, and all is joy and happiness.[ ] [sidenote: sports and games.] a passion for gambling obtains among the northern californians as elsewhere. nothing is too precious or too insignificant to be staked, from a white or black deer-skin, which is almost priceless, down to a wife, or any other trifle. in this manner property changes hands with great rapidity. i have already stated that on the possession of riches depend power, rank, and social position, so that there is really much to be lost or won. they have a game played with little sticks, of which some are black, but the most white. these they throw around in a circle, the object being seemingly to make the black ones go farther than the white. a kind of guess-game is played with clay balls.[ ] there is also an international game, played between friendly tribes, which closely resembles our 'hockey.' two poles are set up in the ground at some distance apart, and each side, being armed with sticks, endeavors to drive a wooden ball round the goal opposite to it.[ ] in almost all their games and dances they are accompanied by a hoarse chanting, or by some kind of uncouth music produced by striking on a board with lobster-claws fastened to sticks, or by some other equally primitive method. before the introduction of spirituous liquors by white men drunkenness was unknown. with their tobacco for smoking, they mix a leaf called _kinnik-kinnik_.[ ] [sidenote: medical treatment.] the diseases and ailments most prevalent among these people are scrofula, consumption, rheumatism, a kind of leprosy, affection of the lungs, and sore eyes, the last arising from the dense smoke which always pervades their cabins.[ ] in addition to this they have imaginary disorders caused by wizards, witches, and evil spirits, who, as they believe, cause snakes and other reptiles to enter into their bodies and gnaw their vitals. some few roots and herbs used are really efficient medicine, but they rely almost entirely upon the mummeries and incantations of their medicine men and women.[ ] their whole system of therapeutics having superstition for a basis, mortality is great among them, which may be one of the causes of the continent being, comparatively speaking, so thinly populated at the time of its discovery. syphilis, one of the curses for which they may thank the white man, has made fearful havoc among them. women doctors seem to be more numerous than men in this region; acquiring their art in the _temescal_ or sweat-house, where unprofessional women are not admitted. their favorite method of cure seems to consist in sucking the affected part of the patient until the blood flows, by which means they pretend to extract the disease. sometimes the doctress vomits a frog, previously swallowed for the occasion, to prove that she has not sucked in vain. she is frequently assisted by a second physician, whose duty it is to discover the exact spot where the malady lies, and this she effects by barking like a dog at the patient until the spirit discovers to her the place. mr gibbs mentions a case where the patient was first attended by four young women, and afterward by the same number of old ones. standing round the unfortunate, they went through a series of violent gesticulations, sitting down when they could stand no longer, sucking, with the most laudable perseverance, and moaning meanwhile most dismally. finally, when with their lips and tongue they had raised blisters all over the patient, and had pounded his miserable body with hands and knees until they were literally exhausted, the performers executed a swooning scene, in which they sank down apparently insensible.[ ] the rogue river medicine-men are supposed to be able to wield their mysterious power for harm, as well as for good, so that should a patient die, his relatives kill the doctor who attended him; or in case deceased could not afford medical attendance, they kill the first unfortunate disciple of Æsculapius they can lay hands on, frequently murdering one belonging to another tribe; his death, however, must be paid for.[ ] but the great institution of the northern californians is their temescal, or sweat-house, which consists of a hole dug in the ground, and roofed over in such a manner as to render it almost air-tight. a fire is built in the centre in early fall, and is kept alive till the following spring, as much attention being given to it as ever was paid to the sacred fires of hestia; though between the subterranean temescal, with its fetid atmosphere, and lurid fire-glow glimmering faintly through dense smoke on swart, gaunt forms of savages, and the stately temple on the forum, fragrant with fumes of incense, the lambent altar-flame glistening on the pure white robes of the virgin priestesses, there is little likeness. the temescal[ ] is usually built on the brink of a stream; a small hatchway affords entrance, which is instantly closed after the person going in or out. here congregate the men of the village and enact their sudorific ceremonies, which ordinarily consist in squatting round the fire until a state of profuse perspiration sets in, when they rush out and plunge into the water. whether this mode of treatment is more potent to kill or to cure is questionable. the sweat-house serves not only as bath and medicine room, but also as a general rendezvous for the male drones of the village. the women, with the exception of those practicing or studying medicine, are forbidden its sacred precincts on pain of death; thus it offers as convenient a refuge for henpecked husbands as a civilized club-house. in many of the tribes the men sleep in the temescal during the winter, which, notwithstanding the disgusting impurity of the atmosphere, affords them a snug retreat from the cold gusty weather common to this region.[ ] [sidenote: burial and mourning.] incremation obtains but slightly among the northern californians, the body usually being buried in a recumbent position. the possessions of the deceased are either interred with him, or are hung around the grave; sometimes his house is burned and the ashes strewn over his burial-place. much noisy lamentation on the part of his relatives takes place at his death, and the widow frequently manifests her grief by sitting on, or even half burying herself in, her husband's grave for some days, howling most dismally meanwhile, and refusing food and drink; or, on the upper klamath, by cutting her hair close to the head, and so wearing it until she obtains consolation in another spouse. the modocs hired mourners to lament at different places for a certain number of days, so that the whole country was filled with lamentation. these paid mourners were closely watched, and disputes frequently arose as to whether they had fulfilled their contract or not.[ ] occasionally the body is doubled up and interred in a sitting position, and, rarely, it is burned instead of buried. on the klamath a fire is kept burning near the grave for several nights after the burial, for which rite various reasons are assigned. mr powers states that it is to light the departed shade across a certain greased pole, which is supposed to constitute its only approach to a better world. mr gibbs affirms that the fire is intended to scare away the devil, obviously an unnecessary precaution as applied to the satan of civilization, who by this time must be pretty familiar with the element. the grave is generally covered with a slab of wood, and sometimes two more are placed erect at the head and foot; that of a chief is often surrounded with a fence; nor must the name of a dead person ever be mentioned under any circumstances.[ ] [sidenote: burial ceremonies at pitt river.] the following vivid description of a last sickness and burial by the pitt river indians, is taken from the letter of a lady eye-witness to her son in san francisco:-- it was evening. we seated ourselves upon a log, your father, bertie, and i, near the fire round which the natives had congregated to sing for old gesnip, the chief's wife. presently sootim, the doctor, appeared, dressed in a low-necked, loose, white muslin, sleeveless waist fastened to a breech-cloth, and red buck-skin cap fringed and ornamented with beads; the face painted with white stripes down to the chin, the arms from wrist to shoulder, in black, red, and white circles, which by the lurid camp-fire looked like bracelets, and the legs in white and black stripes,--presenting altogether a merry-andrew appearance. creeping softly along, singing in a low, gradually-increasing voice, sootim approached the invalid and poised his hands over her as in the act of blessing. the one nearest him took up the song, singing low at first, then the next until the circle was completed; after this the pipe went round; then the doctor taking a sip of water, partly uncovered the patient and commenced sucking the left side; last of all he took a pinch of dirt and blew it over her. this is their curative process, continued night after night, and long into the night, until the patient recovers or dies. next day the doctor came to see me, and i determined if possible to ascertain his own ideas of these things. giving him some _muck-a-muck_,[ ] i asked him, "what do you say when you talk over old gesnip?" "i talk to the trees, and to the springs, and birds, and sky, and rocks," replied sootim, "to the wind, and rain, and leaves, i beg them all to help me." iofalet, the doctor's companion on this occasion, volunteered the remark: "when indian die, doctor very shamed, all same boston doctor;[ ] when indian get well, doctor very smart, all same boston doctor." gesnip said she wanted after death to be put in a box and buried in the ground, and not burned. that same day the poor old woman breathed her last--the last spark of that wonderful thing called life flickered and went out; there remained in that rude camp the shriveled dusky carcass, the low dim intelligence that so lately animated it having fled--whither? when i heard of it i went to the camp and found them dressing the body. first they put on gesnip her best white clothes, then the next best, placing all the while whatever was most valuable, beads, belts, and necklaces, next the body. money they put into the mouth, her daughter contributing about five dollars. the knees were then pressed up against the chest, and after all of her own clothing was put on, the body was rolled up in the best family bear-skin, and tied with strips of buckskin. then soomut, the chief and husband, threw the bundle over his shoulders, and started off for the cave where they deposit their dead, accompanied by the whole band crying and singing, and throwing ashes from the camp-fire into the air. and thus the old barbarian mourns: "soomut had two wives--one good, one bad; but she that was good was taken away, while she that is bad remains. o gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and the mournful procession take up the refrain: "o gesnip gone, gone, gone!" again the ancient chief: "soomut has a little boy, soomut has a little girl, but no one is left to cook their food, no one to dig them roots. o gesnip gone, gone, gone!" followed by the chorus. then again soomut: "white woman knows that gesnip was strong to work; she told me her sorrow when gesnip died. o gesnip gone, gone, gone!" and this was kept up during the entire march, the dead wife's virtues sung and chorused by the whole tribe, accompanied by the scattering of ashes and lamentations which now had become very noisy. the lady further states that the scene at the grave was so impressive that she was unable to restrain her tears. no wonder then that these impulsive children of nature carry their joy and sorrow to excess, even so far as in this instance, where the affectionate daughter of the old crone had to be held by her companions from throwing herself into the grave of her dead mother. after all, how slight the shades of difference in hearts human, whether barbaric or cultured! as before mentioned, the ruling passion of the savage seems to be love of wealth; having it, he is respected, without it he is despised; consequently he is treacherous when it profits him to be so, thievish when he can steal without danger, cunning when gain is at stake, brave in defense of his lares and penates. next to his excessive venality, abject superstition forms the most prominent feature of his character. he seems to believe that everything instinct with animal life--with some, as with the siahs, it extends to vegetable life also--is possessed by evil spirits; horrible fancies fill his imagination. the rattling of acorns on the roof, the rustling of leaves in the deep stillness of the forest is sufficient to excite terror. his wicked spirit is the very incarnation of fiendishness; a monster who falls suddenly upon the unwary traveler in solitary places and rends him in pieces, and whose imps are ghouls that exhume the dead to devour them.[ ] were it not for the diabolic view he takes of nature, his life would be a comparatively easy one. his wants are few, and such as they are, he has the means of supplying them. he is somewhat of a stoic, his motto being never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow, and he concerns himself little with the glories of peace or war. now and then we find him daubing himself with great stripes of paint, and looking ferocious, but ordinarily he prefers the calm of the peaceful temescal to the din of battle. the task of collecting a winter store of food he converts into a kind of summer picnic, and altogether is inclined to make the best of things, in spite of the annoyance given him in the way of reservations and other benefits of civilization. taken as a whole, the northern californian is not such a bad specimen of a savage, as savages go, but filthiness and greed are not enviable qualities, and he has a full share of both.[ ] [sidenote: the central californians.] the central californians occupy a yet larger extent of territory, comprising the whole of that portion of california extending, north and south, from about ° ´ to °, and, east and west, from the pacific ocean to the californian boundary. [sidenote: nations of central california.] the native races of this region are not divided, as in the northern part of the state, into comparatively large tribes, but are scattered over the face of the country in innumerable little bands, with a system of nomenclature so intricate as to puzzle an oedipus. nevertheless, as among the most important, i may mention the following: the _tehamas_, from whom the county takes its name; the _pomos_, which name signifies 'people', and is the collective appellation of a number of tribes living in potter valley, where the head-waters of eel and russian rivers interlace, and extending west to the ocean and south to clear lake. each tribe of the nation takes a distinguishing prefix to the name of pomo, as, the _castel pomos_ and _ki pomos_ on the head-waters of eel river; the _pome pomos_, earth people, in potter valley; the _cahto pomos_, in the valley of that name; the _choam chadéla pomos_, pitch-pine people, in redwood valley; the _matomey ki pomos_, wooded valley people, about little lake; the _usals_, or _camalél pomos_, coast people, on usal creek; the _shebalne pomos_, neighbor people, in sherwood valley, and many others. on russian river, the _gallinomeros_ occupy the valley below healdsburg; the _sanéls_, _socoas_, _lamas_, and _seacos_, live in the vicinity of the village of sanél; the _comachos_ dwell in ranchería and anderson valleys; the _ukiahs_, or yokias, near the town of ukiah, which is a corruption of their name;[ ] the _gualalas_[ ] on the creek which takes its name from them, about twenty miles above the mouth of russian river. on the borders of clear lake were the _lopillamillos_, the _mipacmas_, and _tyugas_; the _yolos_, or yolays, that is to say, 'region thick with rushes,' of which the present name of the county of yolo is a corruption, lived on cache creek; the _colusas_ occupied the west bank of the sacramento; in the valley of the moon, as the _sonomas_ called their country, besides themselves there were the _guillicas_, the _kanimares_, the _simbalakees_, the _petalumas_, and the _wapos_; the _yachichumnes_ inhabited the country between stockton and mount diablo. according to hittel, there were six tribes in napa valley: the _mayacomas_, the _calajomanas_, the _caymus_, the _napas_, the _ulucas_, and the _suscols_; mr taylor also mentions the _guenocks_, the _tulkays_, and the _socollomillos_; in suisun valley were the _suisunes_, the _pulpones_, the _tolenos_, and the _ullulatas_; the tribe of the celebrated chief marin lived near the mission of san rafael, and on the ocean-coast of marin county were the _bolanos_ and _tamales_; the _karquines_ lived on the straits of that name. humboldt and mülhlenpfordt mention the _matalanes_, _salses_, and _quirotes_, as living round the bay of san francisco. according to adam johnson, who was indian agent for california in , the principal tribes originally living at the mission dolores, and yerba buena, were the _ahwashtes_, _altahmos_, _romanans_, and _tulomos_; choris gives the names of more than fifteen tribes seen at the mission, chamisso of nineteen, and transcribed from the mission books to the tribal boundaries of this group, are the names of nearly two hundred rancherías. the _socoisukas_, _thamiens_, and _gergecensens_ roamed through santa clara county. the _olchones_ inhabited the coast between san francisco and monterey; in the vicinity of the latter place were the _rumsens_ or runsiens, the _ecclemaches_, _escelens_ or eslens, the _achastliens_, and the _mutsunes_. on the san joaquin lived the _costrowers_, the _pitiaches_, _talluches_, _loomnears_, and _amonces_; on fresno river the _chowclas_, _cookchaneys_, _fonechas_, _nookchues_, and _howetsers_; the _eemitches_ and _cowiahs_, lived on four creeks; the _waches_, _notoowthas_, and _chunemmes_ on king river, and on tulare lake, the _talches_ and _woowells_. in their aboriginal manners and customs they differ but little, so little, in fact, that one description will apply to the whole division within the above-named limits. the reader will therefore understand that, except where a tribe is specially named, i am speaking of the whole people collectively. the conflicting statements of men who had ample opportunity for observation, and who saw the people they describe, if not in the same place, at least in the same vicinity, render it difficult to give a correct description of their physique. they do not appear to deteriorate toward the coast, or improve toward the interior, so uniformly as their northern neighbors; but this may be accounted for by the fact that several tribes that formerly lived on the coast have been driven inland by the settlers and vice versa. [sidenote: physical peculiarities.] some ethnologists see in the californians a stock different from that of any other american race; but the more i dwell upon the subject, the more convinced i am, that, except in the broader distinctions, specific classifications of humanity are but idle speculations. their height rarely exceeds five feet eight inches, and is more frequently five feet four or five inches, and although strongly they are seldom symmetrically built. a low retreating forehead, black deep-set eyes, thick bushy eyebrows, salient cheek-bones, a nose depressed at the root and somewhat wide-spreading at the nostrils, a large mouth with thick prominent lips, teeth large and white, but not always regular, and rather large ears, is the prevailing type. their complexion is much darker than that of the tribes farther north, often being nearly black; so that with their matted, bushy hair, which is frequently cut short, they present a very uncouth appearance.[ ] the question of beard has been much mooted; some travelers asserting that they are bearded like turks, others that they are beardless as women. having carefully compared the pros and cons, i think i am justified in stating that the central californians have beards, though not strong ones, and that some tribes suffer it to grow, while others pluck it out as soon as it appears.[ ] [sidenote: dress in central california.] during summer, except on festal occasions, the apparel of the men is of the most primitive character, a slight strip of covering round the loins being full dress; but even this is unusual, the majority preferring to be perfectly unencumbered by clothing. in winter the skin of a deer or other animal is thrown over the shoulders, or sometimes a species of rope made from the feathers of water-fowl, or strips of otter-skin, twisted together, is wound round the body, forming an effectual protection against the weather. the women are scarcely better clad, their summer costume being a fringed apron of tule-grass, which falls from the waist before and behind nearly down to the knees, and is open at the sides. some tribes in the northern part of the sacramento valley wear the round bowl-shaped hat worn by the natives on the klamath. during the cold season a half-tanned deer-skin, or the rope garment above mentioned, is added. the hair is worn in various styles. some bind it up in a knot on the back of the head, others draw it back and club it behind; farther south it is worn cut short, and occasionally we find it loose and flowing. it is not uncommon to see the head adorned with chaplets of leaves or flowers, reminding one of a badly executed bronze of apollo or bacchus. ear-ornaments are much in vogue; a favorite variety being a long round piece of carved bone or wood, sometimes with beads attached, which is also used as a needle-case. strings of shells and beads also serve as ear-ornaments and necklaces. the head-dress for gala days and dances is elaborate, composed of gay feathers, skillfully arranged in various fashions.[ ] [sidenote: personal adornment.] tattooing is universal with the women, though confined within narrow limits. they mark the chin in perpendicular lines drawn downward from the corners and centre of the mouth, in the same manner as the northern californians; they also tattoo slightly on the neck and breast. it is said that by these marks women of different tribes can be easily distinguished. the men rarely tattoo, but paint the body in stripes and grotesque patterns to a considerable extent. red was the favorite color, except for mourning, when black was used. the friars succeeded in abolishing this custom except on occasions of mourning, when affection for their dead would not permit them to relinquish it. the new almaden cinnabar mine has been from time immemorial a source of contention between adjacent tribes. thither, from a hundred miles away, resorted vermilion-loving savages, and often such visits were not free from blood-shed.[ ] a thick coat of mud sometimes affords protection from a chilly wind. it is a convenient dress, as it costs nothing, is easily put on, and is no incumbrance to the wearer. the nudity of the savage more often proceeds from an indifference to clothing than from actual want. no people are found entirely destitute of clothing when the weather is cold, and if they can manage to obtain garments of any sort at one time of year they can at another. [sidenote: dwellings in central california.] their dwellings are about as primitive as their dress. in summer all they require is to be shaded from the sun, and for this a pile of bushes or a tree will suffice. the winter huts are a little more pretentious. these are sometimes erected on the level ground, but more frequently over an excavation three or four feet deep, and varying from ten to thirty feet in diameter. round the brink of this hole willow poles are sunk upright in the ground and the tops drawn together, forming a conical structure, or the upper ends are bent over and driven into the earth on the opposite side of the pit, thus giving the hut a semi-globular shape. bushes, or strips of bark, are then piled up against the poles, and the whole is covered with a thick layer of earth or mud. in some instances, the interstices of the frame are filled by twigs woven cross-wise, over and under, between the poles, and the outside covering is of tule-reeds instead of earth. a hole at the top gives egress to the smoke, and a small opening close to the ground admits the occupants. each hut generally shelters a whole family of relations by blood and marriage, so that the dimensions of the habitation depend on the size of the family.[ ] thatched oblong houses are occasionally met with in russian river valley, and mr powers mentions having seen one among the gallinomeros which was of the form of the letter l, made of slats leaned up against each other, and heavily thatched. along the centre the different families or generations had their fires, while they slept next the walls. three narrow holes served as doors, one at either end and one at the elbow.[ ] a collection of native huts is in california called a _ranchería_, from rancho, a word first applied by the spaniards to the spot where, in the island of cuba, food was distributed to repartimiento indians. [sidenote: food and methods of obtaining it.] the bestial laziness of the central californian prevents him from following the chase to any extent, or from even inventing efficient game-traps. deer are, however, sometimes shot with bow and arrow. the hunter, disguised with the head and horns of a stag, creeps through the long grass to within a few yards of the unsuspecting herd, and drops the fattest buck at his pleasure. small game, such as hares, rabbits, and birds, are also shot with the arrow. reptiles and insects of all descriptions not poisonous are greedily devoured; in fact, any life-sustaining substance which can be procured with little trouble, is food for them. but their main reliance is on acorns, roots, grass-seeds, berries and the like. these are eaten both raw and prepared. the acorns are shelled, dried in the sun, and then pounded into a powder with large stones. from this flour a species of coarse bread is made, which is sometimes flavored with various kinds of berries or herbs. this bread is of a black color when cooked, of about the consistency of cheese, and is said, by those who have tasted it, to be not at all unpalatable.[ ] the dough is frequently boiled into pudding instead of being baked. a sort of mush is made from clover-seed, which is also described as being rather a savory dish. grasshoppers constitute another toothsome delicacy. when for winter use, they are dried in the sun; when for present consumption, they are either mashed into a paste, which is eaten with the fingers, ground into a fine powder and mixed with mush, or they are saturated with salt water, placed in a hole in the ground previously heated, covered with hot stones, and eaten like shrimps when well roasted. dried chrysalides are considered a bonne bouche, as are all varieties of insects and worms. the boiled dishes are cooked in water-tight baskets, into which hot stones are dropped. meat is roasted on sticks before the fire, or baked in a hole in the ground. the food is conveyed to the mouth with the fingers. [sidenote: acorns and wild fowl.] grasshoppers are taken in pits, into which they are driven by setting the grass on fire, or by beating the grass in a gradually lessening circle, of which the pit is the centre. for seed-gathering two baskets are used; a large one, which is borne on the back, and another smaller and scoop-shaped, which is carried in the hand; with this latter the tops of the ripe grass are swept, and the seed thus taken is thrown over the left shoulder into the larger basket. the seeds are then parched and pulverized, and usually stored as pinole,[ ] for winter use.[ ] when acorns are scarce the central californian resorts to a curious expedient to obtain them. the woodpecker, or _carpintero_ as the spaniards call it, stores away acorns for its own use in the trunks of trees. each acorn is placed in a separate hole, which it fits quite tightly. these the natives take; but it is never until hunger compels them to do so, as they have great respect for their little caterer, and would hold it sacrilege to rob him except in time of extreme need.[ ] wild fowl are taken with a net stretched across a narrow stream between two poles, one on either bank. decoys are placed on the water just before the net, one end of which is fastened to the top of the pole on the farther bank. a line passing through a hole in the top of the pole on the bank where the fowler is concealed, is attached to the nearest end of the net, which is allowed to hang low. when the fowl fly rapidly up to the decoys, this end is suddenly raised with a jerk, so that the birds strike it with great force, and, stunned by the shock, fall into a large pouch, contrived for the purpose in the lower part of the net.[ ] fish are both speared and netted. a long pole, projecting sometimes as much as a hundred feet over the stream, is run out from the bank. the farther end is supported by a small raft or buoy. along this boom the net is stretched, the nearer corner being held by a native. as soon as a fish becomes entangled in the meshes it can be easily felt, and the net is then hauled in.[ ] on the coast a small fish resembling the sardine is caught on the beach in the receding waves by means of a hand-net, in the manner practiced by the northern californian heretofore described.[ ] the central californians do not hunt the whale, but it is a great day with them when one is stranded.[ ] in reality their food was not so bad as some writers assert. before the arrival of miners game was so plentiful that even the lazy natives could supply their necessities. the 'nobler race,' as usual, thrust them down upon a level with swine. johnson thus describes the feeding of the natives at sutter's fort: "long troughs inside the walls were filled with a kind of boiled mush made of the wheat-bran; and the indians, huddled in rows upon their knees before these troughs, quickly conveyed their contents by the hand to the mouth." "but," writes powers to the author, "it is a well-established fact that california indians, even when reared by americans from infancy, if they have been permitted to associate meantime with others of their race, will, in the season of lush blossoming clover, go out and eat it in preference to all other food."[ ] in their personal habits they are filthy in the extreme. both their dwellings and their persons abound in vermin, which they catch and eat in the same manner as their northern neighbors.[ ] [sidenote: californian weapons.] their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and sometimes clubs. the first-named do not differ in any essential respect from those described as being used by the northern californians. they are well made, from two and a half to three feet long, and backed with sinew; the string of wild flax or sinew, and partially covered with bird's down or a piece of skin, to deaden the twang. the arrows are short, made of reed or light wood, and winged with three or four feathers. the head is of flint, bone, obsidian, or volcanic glass, sometimes barbed and sometimes diamond-shaped. it is fastened loosely to the shaft, and can be extracted only from a wound by cutting it out. the shaft is frequently painted in order that the owner may be able to distinguish his own arrows from others. spears, or rather javelins, are used, seldom exceeding from four and a half to five feet in length. they are made of some tough kind of wood and headed with the same materials as the arrows. occasionally the point of the stick is merely sharpened and hardened in the fire.[ ] the head of the fishing-spear is movable, being attached to the shaft by a line, so that when a fish is struck the pole serves as a float. some of the tribes formerly poisoned their arrows, but it is probable that the custom never prevailed to any great extent. m. du petit-thouars was told that they used for this purpose a species of climbing plant which grows in shady places. it is said that they also poison their weapons with the venom of serpents.[ ] pedro fages mentions that the natives in the country round san miguel use a kind of sabre, made of hard wood, shaped like a cimeter, and edged with sharp flints. this they employ for hunting as well as in war, and with such address that they rarely fail to break the leg of the animal at which they hurl it.[ ] [sidenote: battles and weapons.] battles, though frequent, were not attended with much loss of life. each side was anxious for the fight to be over, and the first blood would often terminate the contest. challenging by heralds obtained. thus the shumeias challenge the pomos by placing three little sticks, notched in the middle and at both ends, on a mound which marked the boundary between the two tribes. if the pomos accept, they tie a string round the middle notch. heralds then meet and arrange time and place, and the battle comes off as appointed.[ ] among some tribes, children are sent by mutual arrangement into the enemy's ranks during the heat of battle to pick up the fallen arrows and carry them back to their owners to be used again.[ ] when fighting, they stretch out in a long single line and endeavor by shouts and gestures to intimidate the foe.[ ] notwithstanding the mildness of their disposition and the inferiority of their weapons, the central californians do not lack courage in battle, and when captured will meet their fate with all the stoicism of a true indian. for many years after the occupation of the country by the spaniards, by abandoning their villages and lying in ambush upon the approach of the enemy, they were enabled to resist the small squads of mexicans sent against them from the presidios for the recovery of deserters from the missions. during the settlement of the country by white people, there were the usual skirmishes growing out of wrong and oppression on the one side, and retaliation on the other; the usual uprising among miners and rancheros, and vindication of border law, which demanded the massacre of a village for the stealing of a cow. trespass on lands and abduction of women are the usual causes of war among themselves. opposing armies, on approaching each other in battle array, dance and leap from side to side in order to prevent their enemies from taking deliberate aim. upon the invasion of their territory they rapidly convey the intelligence by means of signals. a great smoke is made upon the nearest hilltop, which is quickly repeated upon the surrounding hills, and thus a wide extent of country is aroused in a remarkably short time. the custom of scalping, though not universal in california, was practiced in some localities. the yet more barbarous habit of cutting off the hands, feet, or head of a fallen enemy, as trophies of victory, prevailed more widely. they also plucked out and carefully preserved the eyes of the slain. it has been asserted that these savages were cannibals, and there seems to be good reason to believe that they did devour pieces of the flesh of a renowned enemy slain in battle. human flesh was, however, not eaten as food, nor for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on or showing hate for a dead adversary, but because they thought that by eating part of a brave man they absorbed a portion of his courage. they do not appear to have kept or sold prisoners as slaves, but to have either exchanged or killed them.[ ] [sidenote: implements and manufactures.] they are not ingenious, and manufacture but few articles requiring any skill. the principal of these are the baskets in which, as i have already mentioned, they carry water and boil their food. they are made of fine grass, so closely woven as to be perfectly water-tight, and are frequently ornamented with feathers, beads, shells, and the like, worked into them in a very pretty manner. fletcher, who visited the coast with sir francis drake in , describes them as being "made in fashion like a deep boale, and though the matter were rushes, or such other kind of stuffe, yet it was so cunningly handled that the most part of them would hold water; about the brimmes they were hanged with peeces of the shels of pearles, and in some places with two or three linkes at a place, of the chaines forenamed ... and besides this, they were wrought vpon with the matted downe of red feathers, distinguished into diuers workes and formes."[ ] the baskets are of various sizes and shapes, the most common being conical or wide and flat. their pipes are straight, the bowl being merely a continuation of the stem, only thicker and hollowed out.[ ] [sidenote: no boats in san francisco bay.] it is a singular fact that these natives about the bay of san francisco and the regions adjacent, had no canoes of any description. their only means of navigation were bundles of tule-rushes about ten feet long and three or four wide, lashed firmly together in rolls, and pointed at both ends. they were propelled, either end foremost, with long double-bladed paddles. in calm weather, and on a river, the centre, or thickest part of these rafts might be tolerably dry, but in rough water the rower, who sat astride, was up to his waist in water.[ ] it has been asserted that they even ventured far out to sea on them, but that this was common i much doubt.[ ] they were useful to spear fish from, but for little else; in proof of which i may mention, on the authority of roquefeuil, that in - , the koniagas employed by the russians at bodega, killed seals and otters in san francisco bay under the very noses of the spaniards, and in spite of all the latter, who appear to have had no boats of their own, could do to prevent them. in their light skin baidarkas, each with places for two persons only, these bold northern boatmen would drop down the coast from bodega bay, where the russians were stationed, or cross over from the farallones in fleets of from forty to fifty boats, and entering the golden gate creep along the northern shore, beyond the range of the presidio's guns, securely establish themselves upon the islands of the bay and pursue their avocation unmolested. for three years, namely from to , these northern fishermen held possession of the bay of san francisco, during which time they captured over eight thousand otters. finally, it occurred to the governor, don luis argüello, that it would be well for the spaniards to have boats of their own. accordingly four were built, but they were so clumsily constructed, ill equipped, and poorly manned, that had the russians and koniagas felt disposed, they could easily have continued their incursions. once within the entrance, these northern barbarians were masters of the bay, and such was their sense of security that they would sometimes venture for a time to stretch their limbs upon the shore. the capture of several of their number, however, by the soldiers from the fort, made them more wary thereafter. maurelle, who touched at point arenas in , but did not enter the bay of san francisco, says that "a vast number of indians now presented themselves on both points, who passed from one to the other in small canoes made of fule, where they talked loudly for two hours or more, till at last two of them came alongside of the ship, and most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head, and a canister of seeds which tasted much like walnuts." the only account of this voyage in my possession is an english translation, in which "canoes made of fule" might easily have been mistaken for boats or floats of tule.[ ] split logs were occasionally used to cross rivers, and frequently all means of transportation were dispensed with, and swimming resorted to. captain phelps, in a letter to the author, mentions having seen skin boats, or baidarkas, on the sacramento river, but supposes that they were left there by those same russian employés.[ ] vancouver, speaking of a canoe which he saw below monterey, says: "instead of being composed of straw, like those we had seen on our first visit to san francisco, it was neatly formed of wood, much after the nootka fashion, and was navigated with much adroitness by four natives of the country. their paddles were about four feet long with a blade at each end; these were handled with great dexterity, either entirely on one side or alternately on each side of their canoe."[ ] i account for the presence of this canoe in the same manner that captain phelps accounts for the skin canoes on the sacramento, and think that it must have come either from the south or north. the probable cause of this absence of boats in central california is the scarcity of suitable, favorably located timber. doubtless if the banks of the sacramento and the shores of san francisco bay had been lined with large straight pine or fir trees, their waters would have been filled with canoes; yet after all, this is but a poor excuse; for not only on the hills and mountains, at a little distance from the water, are forests of fine trees, but quantities of driftwood come floating down every stream during the rainy season, out of which surely sufficient material could be secured for some sort of boats. shells of different kinds, but especially the variety known as _aulone_, form the circulating medium. they are polished, sometimes ground down to a certain size, and arranged on strings of different lengths.[ ] [sidenote: chieftainship and its rights.] chieftainship is hereditary, almost without exception. in a few instances i find it depending upon wealth, influence, family, or prowess in war, but this rarely. in some parts, in default of male descent, the females of the family are empowered to appoint a successor.[ ] although considerable dignity attaches to a chief, and his family are treated with consideration, yet his power is limited, his principal duties consisting in making peace and war, and in appointing and presiding over feasts. every band has its separate head, and two or even three have been known to preside at the same time.[ ] sometimes when several bands are dwelling together they are united under one head chief, who, however, cannot act for the whole without consulting the lesser chiefs. practically, the heads of families rule in their own circle, and their internal arrangements are seldom interfered with. their medicine-men also wield a very powerful influence among them.[ ] sometimes, when a flagrant murder has been committed, the chiefs meet in council and decide upon the punishment of the offender. the matter is, however, more frequently settled by the relatives of the victim, who either exact blood for blood from the murderer or let the thing drop for a consideration. among the neeshenams revenge must be had within twelve months after the murder or not at all.[ ] [sidenote: rulers of new albion.] according to fletcher's narrative, there seems to have been much more distinction of rank at the time of drake's visit to california than subsequent travelers have seen; however, allowance must be made for the exaggerations invariably found in the reports of early voyagers. in proof of this, we have only to take up almost any book of travel in foreign lands printed at that time; wherein dragons and other impossible animals are not only zoölogically described, but carefully drawn and engraved, as well as other marvels in abundance. captain drake had several temptations to exaggerate. the richer and more important the country he discovered, the more would it redound to his credit to have been the discoverer; the greater the power and authority of the chief who formally made over his dominions to the queen of england, the less likely to be disputed would be that sovereign's claims to the ceded territory. fletcher never speaks of the chief of the tribe that received drake, but as 'the king,' and states that this dignitary was treated with great respect and ceremony by the courtiers who surrounded him. these latter were distinguished from the canaille by various badges of rank. they wore as ornaments chains "of a bony substance, euery linke or part thereof being very little, and thinne, most finely burnished, with a hole pierced through the middest. the number of linkes going to make one chaine, is in a manner infinite; but of such estimation it is amongst them, that few be the persons that are admitted to weare the same; and euen they to whom its lawfull to use them, yet are stinted what number they shall vse, as some ten, some twelue, some twentie, and as they exceed in number of chaines, so thereby are they knowne to be the more honorable personages." another mark of distinction was a "certain downe, which groweth vp in the countrey vpon an herbe much like our lectuce, which exceeds any other downe in the world for finenesse, and beeing layed vpon their cawles, by no winds can be remoued. of such estimation is this herbe amongst them, that the downe thereof is not lawfull to be worne, but of such persons as are about the king (to whom also it is permitted to weare a plume of feather on their heads, in signe of honour), and the seeds are not vsed but onely in sacrifice to their gods." the king, who was gorgeously attired in skins, with a crown of feather-work upon his head, was attended by a regular body-guard, uniformly dressed in coats of skins. his coming was announced by two heralds or ambassadors, one of whom prompted the other, during the proclamation, in a low voice. his majesty was preceded in the procession by "a man of large body and goodly aspect, bearing the septer or royall mace;" all of which happened, if we may believe the worthy chaplain of the expedition, on the coast just above san francisco bay, three hundred years ago.[ ] [sidenote: how a bride is won.] slavery in any form is rare, and hereditary bondage unknown.[ ] polygamy obtains in most of the tribes, although there are exceptions.[ ] it is common for a man to marry a whole family of sisters, and sometimes the mother also, if she happen to be free.[ ] husband and wife are united with very little ceremony. the inclinations of the bride seem to be consulted here more than among the northern californians. it is true she is sometimes bought from her parents, but if she violently opposes the match she is seldom compelled to marry or to be sold. among some tribes the wooer, after speaking with her parents, retires with the girl; if they agree, she thenceforth belongs to him; if not, the match is broken off.[ ] the neeshenam buys his wife indirectly by making presents of game to her family. he leaves the gifts at the door of the lodge without a word, and, if they are accepted, he shortly after claims and takes his bride without further ceremony. in this tribe the girl has no voice whatever in the matter, and resistance on her part merely occasions brute force to be used by her purchaser.[ ] [sidenote: child-birth and the couvade.] when an oleepa lover wishes to marry, he first obtains permission from the parents. the damsel then flies and conceals herself; the lover searches for her, and should he succeed in finding her twice out of three times she belongs to him. should he be unsuccessful he waits a few weeks and then repeats the performance. if she again elude his search, the matter is decided against him.[ ] the bonds of matrimony can be thrown aside as easily as they are assumed. the husband has only to say to his spouse, i cast you off, and the thing is done.[ ] the gallinomeros acquire their wives by purchase, and are at liberty to sell them again when tired of them.[ ] as usual the women are treated with great contempt by the men, and forced to do all the hard and menial labor; they are not even allowed to sit at the same fire or eat at the same repast with their lords. both sexes treat children with comparative kindness;[ ] boys are, however, held in much higher estimation than girls, and from early childhood are taught their superiority over the weaker sex. it is even stated that many female children are killed as soon as born,[ ] but i am inclined to doubt the correctness of this statement as applied to a country where polygamy is practiced as extensively as in california. old people are treated with contumely, both men and women, aged warriors being obliged to do menial work under the supervision of the women. the gallinomeros kill their aged parents in a most cold-blooded manner. the doomed creature is led into the woods, thrown on his back, and firmly fastened in that position to the ground. a stout pole is then placed across the throat, upon either end of which a person sits until life is extinct.[ ] a husband takes revenge for his wife's infidelities upon the person of her seducer, whom he is justified in killing. sometimes the male offender is compelled to buy the object of his unholy passions. in consequence of their strictness in this particular, adultery is not common among themselves, although a husband is generally willing to prostitute his dearest wife to a white man for a consideration. the central californian women are inclined to rebel against the tyranny of their masters, more than is usual in other tribes. a refractory tahtoo wife is sometimes frightened into submission. the women have a great dread of evil spirits, and upon this weakness the husband plays. he paints himself in black and white stripes to personate an ogre, and suddenly jumping in among his terrified wives, brings them speedily to penitence. child-bearing falls lightly on the californian mother. when the time for delivery arrives she betakes herself to a quiet place by the side of a stream; sometimes accompanied by a female friend, but more frequently alone. as soon as the child is born the mother washes herself and the infant in the stream. the child is then swaddled from head to foot in strips of soft skin, and strapped to a board, which is carried on the mother's back. when the infant is suckled, it is drawn round in front and allowed to hang there, the mother meanwhile pursuing her usual avocations. so little does child-bearing affect these women, that, on a journey, they will frequently stop by the way-side for half an hour to be delivered, and then overtake the party, who have traveled on at the usual pace. painful parturition, though so rare, usually results fatally to both mother and child when it does occur. this comparative exemption from the curse, "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," is doubtless owing partly to the fact that the sexes have their regular season for copulation, just as animals have theirs, the women bringing forth each year with great regularity. a curious custom prevails, which is, however, by no means peculiar to california. when child-birth overtakes the wife, the husband puts himself to bed, and there grunting and groaning he affects to suffer all the agonies of a woman in labor. lying there, he is nursed and tended for some days by the women as carefully as though he were the actual sufferer. ridiculous as this custom is, it is asserted by mr tylor to have been practiced in western china, in the country of the basques, by the tibareni at the south of the black sea, and in modified forms by the dyaks of borneo, the arawaks of surinam, and the inhabitants of kamchatka and greenland.[ ] the females arrive early at the age of puberty,[ ] and grow old rapidly.[ ] [sidenote: californian diversions.] most important events, such as the seasons of hunting, fishing, acorn-gathering, and the like, are celebrated with feasts and dances which differ in no essential respect from those practiced by the northern californians. they usually dance naked, having their heads adorned with feather ornaments, and their bodies and faces painted with glaring colors in grotesque patterns. broad stripes, drawn up and down, across, or spirally round the body, form the favorite device; sometimes one half of the body is colored red and the other blue, or the whole person is painted jet black and serves as a ground for the representation of a skeleton, done in white, which gives the wearer a most ghastly appearance.[ ] the dancing is accompanied by chantings, clapping of hands, blowing on pipes of two or three reeds and played with the nose or mouth, beating of skin drums, and rattling of tortoise-shells filled with small pebbles. this horrible discord is, however, more for the purpose of marking time than for pleasing the ear.[ ] the women are seldom allowed to join in the dance with the men, and when they are so far honored, take a very unimportant part in the proceedings, merely swaying their bodies to and fro in silence. plays, representing scenes of war, hunting, and private life, serve to while away the time, and are performed with considerable skill. though naturally the very incarnation of sloth, at least as far as useful labor is concerned, they have one or two games which require some exertion. one of these, in vogue among the meewocs, is played with bats and an oak-knot ball. the former are made of a pliant stick, having the end bent round and lashed to the main part so as to form a loop, which is filled with a network of strings. they do not strike but push the ball along with these bats. the players take sides, and each party endeavors to drive the ball past the boundaries of the other. another game, which was formerly much played at the missions on the coast, requires more skill and scarcely less activity. it consists in throwing a stick through a hoop which is rapidly rolled along the ground. if the player succeeds in this, he gains two points; if the stick merely passes partially through, so that the hoop remains resting upon it, one point is scored. but, as usual, games of chance are much preferred to games of skill. the chief of these is the same as that already described in the last chapter as being played by the natives all along the coasts of oregon, washington, and british columbia, and which bears so close a resemblance to the odd-and-even of our school-days. they are as infatuated on this subject as their neighbors, and quite as willing to stake the whole of their possessions on an issue of chance. they smoke a species of strong tobacco in the straight pipes before mentioned;[ ] but they have no native intoxicating drink.[ ] [sidenote: medicine and sweat-houses.] the principal diseases are small-pox, various forms of fever, and syphilis. owing to their extreme filthiness they are also very subject to disgusting eruptions of the skin. women are not allowed to practice the healing art, as among the northern californians, the privileges of quackery being here reserved exclusively to the men. chanting incantations, waving of hands, and the sucking powers obtain. doctors are supposed to have power over life and death, hence if they fail to effect a cure, they are frequently killed.[ ] they demand the most extortionate fees in return for their services, and often refuse to officiate unless the object they desire is promised them. sweat-houses similar to those already described are in like manner used as a means of cure for every kind of complaint.[ ] they have another kind of sudatory. a hole is dug in the sand of a size sufficient to contain a person lying at full length; over this a fire is kept burning until the sand is thoroughly heated, when the fire is removed and the sand stirred with a stick until it is reduced to the required temperature. the patient is then placed in the hole and covered, with the exception of his head, with sand. here he remains until in a state of profuse perspiration, when he is unearthed and plunged into cold water. they are said to practice phlebotomy, using the right arm when the body is affected and the left when the complaint is in the limbs. a few simple decoctions are made from herbs, but these are seldom very efficient medicines, especially when administered for the more complicated diseases which the whites have brought among them. owing to the insufficient or erroneous treatment they receive, many disorders which would be easily cured by us, degenerate with them into chronic maladies, and are transmitted to their children.[ ] incremation is almost universal in this part of california.[ ] the body is decorated with feathers, flowers, and beads, and after lying in state for some time, is burned amid the howls and lamentations of friends and relations. the ashes are either preserved by the family of the deceased or are formally buried. the weapons and effects of the dead are burned or buried with them.[ ] when a body is prepared for interment the knees are doubled up against the chest and securely bound with cords. it is placed in a sitting posture in the grave, which is circular. this is the most common manner of sepulture, but some tribes bury the body perpendicularly in a hole just large enough to admit it, sometimes with the head down, sometimes in a standing position. the pomos formerly burned their dead, and since they have been influenced by the whites to bury them, they invariably place the body with its head toward the south. [sidenote: mourning for the dead.] a scene of incremation is a weird spectacle. the friends and relatives of the deceased gather round the funeral pyre in a circle, howling dismally. as the flames mount upward their enthusiasm increases, until in a perfect frenzy of excitement, they leap, shriek, lacerate their bodies, and even snatch a handful of smoldering flesh from the fire, and devour it. the ashes of the dead mixed with grease, are smeared over the face as a badge of mourning, and the compound is suffered to remain there until worn off by the action of the weather. the widow keeps her head covered with pitch for several months. in the russian river valley, where demonstrations of grief appear to be yet more violent than elsewhere, self-laceration is much practiced. it is customary to have an annual dance of mourning, when the inhabitants of a whole village collect together and lament their deceased friends with howls and groans. many tribes think it necessary to nourish a departed spirit for several months. this is done by scattering food about the place where the remains of the dead are deposited. a devoted neeshenam widow does not utter a word for several months after the death of her husband; a less severe sign of grief is to speak only in a low whisper for the same time.[ ] regarding a future state their ideas are vague; some say that the meewocs believe in utter annihilation after death, but who can fathom the hopes and fears that struggle in their dark imaginings. they are not particularly cruel or vicious; they show much sorrow for the death of a relative; in some instances they are affectionate toward their families.[ ] [sidenote: central californian character.] although nearly all travelers who have seen and described this people, place them in the lowest scale of humanity, yet there are some who assert that the character of the californian has been maligned. it does not follow, they say, that he is indolent because he does not work when the fertility of his native land enables him to live without labor; or that he is cowardly because he is not incessantly at war, or stupid and brutal because the mildness of his climate renders clothes and dwellings superfluous. but is this sound reasoning? surely a people assisted by nature should progress faster than another, struggling with depressing difficulties. from the frozen, wind-swept plains of alaska to the malaria-haunted swamps of darien, there is not a fairer land than california; it is the neutral ground, as it were, of the elements, where hyperboreal cold, stripped of its rugged aspect, and equatorial heat, tamed to a genial warmth, meet as friends, inviting, all blusterings laid aside. yet if we travel northward from the isthmus, we must pass by ruined cities and temples, traces of mighty peoples, who there flourished before a foreign civilization extirpated them. on the arid deserts of arizona and new mexico is found an incipient civilization. descending from the arctic sea we meet races of hunters and traders, which can be called neither primitive nor primordial, living after their fashion as men, not as brutes. it is not until we reach the golden mean in central california that we find whole tribes subsisting on roots, herbs and insects; having no boats, no clothing, no laws, no god; yielding submissively to the first touch of the invader; held in awe by a few priests and soldiers. men do not civilize themselves. had not the greeks and the egyptians been driven on by an unseen hand, never would the city of the violet crown have graced the plains of hellas, nor thebes nor memphis have risen in the fertile valley of the nile. why greece is civilized, while california breeds a race inferior to the lowest of their neighbors, save only perhaps the shoshones on their east, no one yet can tell. when father junípero serra established the mission of dolores in , the shores of san francisco bay were thickly populated by the ahwashtees, ohlones, altahmos, romanons, tuolomos, and other tribes. the good father found the field unoccupied, for, in the vocabulary of these people, there is found no word for god, angel, or devil; they held no theory of origin or destiny. a ranchería was situated on the spot where now beach street intersects hyde street. were it there now, as contrasted with the dwellings of san francisco, it would resemble a pig-sty more than a human habitation. on the marin and sonoma shores of the bay were the tomales and camimares, the latter numbering, in , ten thousand souls. marin, chief of the tomales, was for a long time the terror of the spaniards, and his warriors were ranked as among the fiercest of the californians. he was brave, energetic, and possessed of no ordinary intelligence. when quite old he consented to be baptized into the romish church. [sidenote: yosemite valley indians.] it has been suspected that the chief marin was not a full-bred indian, but that he was related to a certain spanish sailor who was cast ashore from a wrecked galeon on a voyage from manila to acapulco about the year . the ship-wrecked spaniards, it has been surmised, were kindly treated by the natives; they married native wives, and lived with the tomales as of them, and from them descended many of their chiefs; but of this we have no proof. yosemite valley was formerly a stronghold to which tribes in that vicinity resorted after committing their depredations upon white settlers. they used to make their boast that their hiding place could never be discovered by white men. but during the year , the marauders growing bold in their fancied security, the whites arose and drove them into the mountains. following them thither under the guidance of tenaya, an old chief and confederate, the white men were suddenly confronted by the wondrous beauties of the valley. the indians, disheartened at the discovery of their retreat, yielded a reluctant obedience, but becoming again disaffected they renewed their depredations. shortly afterward the yosemite indians made a visit to the monos. they were hospitably entertained, but upon leaving, could not resist the temptation to drive off a few stray cattle belonging to their friends. the monos, enraged at this breach of good faith, pursued and gave them battle. the warriors of the valley were nearly exterminated, scarce half a dozen remaining to mourn their loss. all their women and children were carried away into captivity. these yosemite indians consisted of a mixture from various tribes, outlaws as it were from the surrounding tribes. they have left as their legacy a name for every cliff and waterfall within the valley. how marvelous would be their history could we go back and trace it from the beginning, these millions of human bands, who throughout the ages have been coming and going, unknowing and unknown! in the southern californians, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth parallel, there are less tribal differences than among any people whom we have yet encountered, whose domain is of equal extent. those who live in the south-eastern corner of the state are thrown by the sierra nevada range of mountains into the shoshone family, to which, indeed, by affinity they belong. the chief tribes of this division are the _cahuillas_ and the _diegueños_, the former living around the san bernardino and san jacinto mountains, and the latter in the southern extremity of california. around each mission were scores of small bands, whose rancherías were recorded in the mission books, the natives as a whole being known only by the name of the mission. when first discovered by cabrillo in , the islands off the coast were inhabited by a superior people, but these they were induced by the padres to abandon, following which event the people rapidly faded away. the natives called the island of santa cruz _liniooh_, santa rosa _hurmal_, san miguel _twocan_, and san nicolas _ghalashat_. as we approach the southern boundary of california a slight improvement is manifest in the aborigines. the men are here well made, of a stature quite up to the average, comparatively fair-complexioned and pleasant-featured. the children of the islanders are described by the early voyagers as being white, with light hair and ruddy cheeks, and the women as having fine forms, beautiful eyes, and a modest demeanor.[ ] the beard is plucked out with a bivalve shell, which answers the purpose of pincers. [sidenote: dress in southern california.] a short cloak of deer-skin or rabbit-skins sewed together, suffices the men for clothing; and sometimes even this is dispensed with, for they think it no shame to be naked.[ ] the women and female children wear a petticoat of skin, with a heavy fringe reaching down to the knees; in some districts they also wear short capes covering the breasts.[ ] on the coast and, formerly, on the islands, seals furnished the material.[ ] the more industrious and wealthy embroider their garments profusely with small shells. around santa barbara rings of bone or shell were worn in the nose; at los angeles nasal ornaments were not the fashion. the women had cylinder-shaped pieces of ivory, sometimes as much as eight inches, in length, attached to the ears by a shell ring. bracelets and necklaces were made of pieces of ivory ground round and perforated, small pebbles, and shells. paint of various colors was used by warriors and dancers. mr hugo reid, who has contributed valuable information concerning the natives of los angeles county, states that girls in love paint the cheeks sparingly with red ochre, and all the women, before they grow old, protect their complexion from the effects of the sun by a plentiful application of the same cosmetic.[ ] vizcaino saw natives on the southern coast painted blue and silvered over with some kind of mineral substance. on his asking where they obtained the silver-like material they showed him a kind of mineral ore, which they said they used for purposes of ornamentation.[ ] they take much pride in their hair, which they wear long. it is braided, and either wound round the head turban-like,[ ] or twisted into a top-knot; some tie it in a queue behind. according to father boscana the girls are tattooed in infancy on the face, breast, and arms. the most usual method was to prick the flesh with a thorn of the cactus-plant; charcoal produced from the maguey was then rubbed into the wounds, and an ineffaceable blue was the result.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings and food.] dwellings, in the greater part of this region, differ but little from those of the central californians. in shape they are conical or semi-globular, and usually consist of a frame, formed by driving long poles into the ground, covered with rushes and earth.[ ] on the coast of the santa barbara channel there seems to have been some improvement in their style of architecture. it was probably here that cabrillo saw houses built after the manner of those in new spain.[ ] it is possible that the influences of the southern civilization may have extended as far as this point. father boscana's description of the temples or _vanquechs_ erected by the natives in the vicinity of san juan capistrano, in honor of their god, chinigchinich, is thus translated: "they formed an enclosure of about four or five yards in circumference, not exactly round, but inclining to an oval. this they divided by drawing a line through the centre, and built another, consisting of the branches of trees, and mats to the height of about six feet, outside of which, in the other division, they formed another of small stakes of wood driven into the ground. this was called the gate, or entrance, to the vanquech. inside of this, and close to the larger stakes, was placed a figure of their god chinigchinich, elevated upon a kind of hurdle. this is the edifice of the vanquech."[ ] almost every living thing that they can lay their hands on serves as food. coyotes, skunks, wild cats, rats, mice, crows, hawks, owls, lizards, frogs, snakes, excepting him of the rattle, grasshoppers and other insects, all are devoured by the inland tribes. stranded whales, animals of the seal genus, fish, and shell-fish, form the main support of those inhabiting the coast. venison they are of course glad to eat when they can get it, but as they are poor hunters, it is a rare luxury. when they did hunt the deer they resorted to the same artifice as their northern neighbors, placing a deer's head and horns on their own head, and thus disguised approaching within bow-shot. bear-meat the majority refuse to eat from superstitious motives.[ ] grasshoppers are eaten roasted. acorns are shelled, dried, and pounded in stone mortars into flour, which is washed and rewashed in hot and cold water until the bitterness is removed, when it is made into gruel with cold water, or baked into bread. various kinds of grass-seeds, herbs, berries, and roots, are also eaten, both roasted and raw. wild fowl are caught in nets made of tules, spread over channels cut through the rushes in places frequented by the fowl, at a sufficient height above the water to allow the birds to swim easily beneath them. the game is gently driven or decoyed under the nets, when at a given signal, a great noise is made, and the terrified fowl, rising suddenly, become hopelessly entangled in the meshes, and fall an easy prey. or selecting a spot containing clear water about two feet deep, they fasten a net midway between the surface and the bottom, and strewing the place with berries, which sink to the bottom under the net, they retire. the fowl approach and dive for the berries. the meshes of the net readily admit the head, but hold the prisoner tight upon attempting to withdraw it. and what is more, their position prevents them from making a noise, and they serve also as a decoy for others. fish are taken in seines made from the tough bark of the tioñe-tree. they are also killed with spears having a movable bone head, attached to a long line, so that when a fish is struck the barb becomes loosened; line is then paid out until the fish is exhausted with running, when it is drawn in. many of the inland tribes come down to the coast in the fishing season, and remain there until the shoals leave, when they return to the interior. food is either boiled by dropping hot stones into water-baskets, or, more frequently, in vessels made of soap-stone.[ ] in their cooking, as in other respects, they are excessively unclean. they bathe frequently, it is true, but when not in the water they are wallowing in filth. their dwellings are full of offal and other impurities, and vermin abound on their persons. [sidenote: weapons and war.] bows and arrows, and clubs, are as usual the weapons most in use. sabres of hard wood, with edges that cut like steel, are mentioned by father junípero serra.[ ] war is a mere pretext for plunder; the slightest wrong, real or imaginary, being sufficient cause for a strong tribe to attack a weaker one. the smaller bands form temporary alliances; the women and children accompanying the men on a raid, carrying provisions for the march, and during an engagement they pick up the fallen arrows of the enemy and so keep their own warriors supplied. boscana says that no male prisoners are taken, and no quarter given; and hugo reid affirms of the natives of los angeles county that all prisoners of war, after being tormented in the most cruel manner, are invariably put to death. the dead are decapitated and scalped. female prisoners are either sold or retained as slaves. scalps, highly prized as trophies, and publicly exhibited at feasts, may be ransomed, but no consideration would induce them to part with their living captives.[ ] among the few articles they manufacture are fish-hooks, needles, and awls, made of bone or shell; mortars and pestles of granite, and soap-stone cooking vessels, and water-tight baskets.[ ] the clay vessels which are frequently found among them now, were not made by them before the arrival of the spaniards. the stone implements, however, are of aboriginal manufacture, and are well made. the former are said to have been procured mostly by the tribes of the mainland from the santa rosa islanders.[ ] the instruments which they used in their manufactures were flint knives and awls; the latter fages describes as being made from the small bone of a deer's fore-foot. the knife is double-edged, made of a flint, and has a wooden haft, inlaid with mother of pearl.[ ] on this coast we again meet with wooden canoes, although the balsa, or tule raft, is also in use. these boats are made of planks neatly fastened together and paid with bitumen;[ ] prow and stern, both equally sharp, are elevated above the centre, which made them appear to vizcaino "como barquillos" when seen beside his own junk-like craft. the paddles were long and double-bladed, and their boats, though generally manned by three or four men, were sometimes large enough to carry twenty. canoes dug out of a single log, scraped smooth on the outside, with both ends shaped alike, were sometimes, though more rarely, used.[ ] the circulating medium consisted of small round pieces of the white mussel-shell. these were perforated and arranged on strings, the value of which depended upon their length.[ ] i have said before that this money is supposed to have been manufactured for the most part on santa rosa island. hence it was distributed among the coast tribes, who bought with it deer-skins, seeds, etc., from the people of the interior. [sidenote: government and punishments.] each tribe acknowledged one head, whose province it was to settle disputes,[ ] levy war, make peace, appoint feasts, and give good advice. beyond this he had little power.[ ] he was assisted in his duties by a council of elders. the office of chief was hereditary, and in the absence of a male heir devolved upon the female nearest of kin. she could marry whom she pleased, but her husband obtained no authority through the alliance, all the power remaining in his wife's hands until their eldest boy attained his majority, when the latter at once assumed the command. a murderer's life was taken by the relatives of his victim, unless he should gain refuge in the temple, in which case his punishment was left to their god. vengeance was, however, only deferred; the children of the murdered man invariably avenged his death, sooner or later, upon the murderer or his descendants. when a chief grew too old to govern he abdicated in favor of his son, on which occasion a great feast was given. when all the people had been called together by criers, "the crown was placed upon the head of the chief elect, and he was enrobed with the imperial vestments," as father boscana has it; that is to say, he was dressed in a head-ornament of feathers, and a feather petticoat reaching from the waist half-way down to the knees, and the rest of his body painted black. he then went into the temple and performed a pas seul before the god chinigchinich. here, in a short time, he was joined by the other chiefs, who, forming a circle, danced round him, accompanied by the rattling of turtle-shells filled with small stones. when this ceremony was over he was publicly acknowledged chief. as i said before, the chief had little actual authority over individuals; neither was the real power vested in the heads of families; but a system of influencing the people was adopted by the chief and the elders, which is somewhat singular. whenever an important step was to be taken, such as the killing of a malefactor, or the invasion of an enemy's territory, the sympathies of the people were enlisted by means of criers, who were sent round to proclaim aloud the crime and the criminal, or to dilate upon the wrongs suffered at the hands of the hostile tribe; and their eloquence seldom failed to attain the desired object.[ ] [sidenote: marriage in southern california.] the chief could have a plurality of wives, but the common people were only allowed one.[ ] the form of contracting a marriage varied. in los angeles county, according to mr reid, the matter was arranged by a preliminary interchange of presents between the male relatives of the bridegroom and the female relatives of the bride. the former proceeded in a body to the dwelling of the girl, and distributed small sums in shell money among her female kinsfolk, who were collected there for the occasion. these afterward returned the compliment by visiting the man and giving baskets of meal to his people. a time was then fixed for the final ceremony. on the appointed day the girl, decked in all her finery, and accompanied by her family and relations, was carried in the arms of one of her kinsfolk toward the house of her lover; edible seeds and berries were scattered before her on the way, which were scrambled for by the spectators. the party was met half-way by a deputation from the bridegroom, one of whom now took the young woman in his arms and carried her to the house of her husband, who waited expectantly. she was then placed by his side, and the guests, after scattering more seeds, left the couple alone. a great feast followed, of which the most prominent feature was a character-dance. the young men took part in this dance in the rôles of hunters and warriors, and were assisted by the old women, who feigned to carry off game, or dispatch wounded enemies, as the case might be. the spectators sat in a circle and chanted an accompaniment. according to another form of marriage the man either asked the girl's parents for permission to marry their daughter, or commissioned one of his friends to do so. if the parents approved, their future son-in-law took up his abode with them, on condition that he should provide a certain quantity of food every day. this was done to afford him an opportunity to judge of the domestic qualities of his future wife. if satisfied, he appointed a day for the marriage, and the ceremony was conducted much in the same manner as that last described, except that he received the girl in a temporary shelter erected in front of his hut, and that she was disrobed before being placed by his side. children were often betrothed in infancy, kept continually in each other's society until they grew up, and the contract was scarcely ever broken. many obtained their wives by abduction, and this was the cause of many of the inter-tribal quarrels in which they were so constantly engaged. if a man ill-treated his wife, her relations took her away, after paying back the value of her wedding presents, and then married her to another. little difficulty was experienced in obtaining a divorce on any ground; indeed, in many of the tribes the parties separated whenever they grew tired of each other. adultery was severely punished. if a husband caught his wife in the act, he was justified in killing her, or, he could give her up to her seducer and appropriate the spouse of the latter to himself. [sidenote: child-birth.] at the time of child-birth many singular observances obtained; for instance, the old women washed the child as soon as it was born, and drank of the water; the unhappy infant was forced to take a draught of urine medicinally, and although the husband did not affect the sufferings of labor, his conduct was supposed in some manner to affect the unborn child, and he was consequently laid under certain restrictions, such as not being allowed to leave the house, or to eat fish and meat. the women as usual suffer little from child-bearing. one writer thus describes the accouchement of a woman in the vicinity of san diego: "a few hours before the time arrives she gets up and quietly walks off alone, as if nothing extraordinary was about to occur. in this manner she deceives all, even her husband, and hides herself away in some secluded nook, near a stream or hole of water. at the foot of a small tree, which she can easily grasp with both hands, she prepares her 'lying-in-couch,' on which she lies down as soon as the labor pains come on. when the pain is on, she grasps the tree with both hands, thrown up backward over her head, and pulls and strains with all her might, thus assisting each pain, until her accouchement is over. as soon as the child is born, the mother herself ties the navel-cord with a bit of buck-skin string, severing it with a pair of sharp scissors, prepared for the occasion, after which the end is burned with a coal of fire; the child is then thrown into the water; if it rises to the surface and cries, it is taken out and cared for; if it sinks, there it remains, and is not even awarded an indian burial. the affair being all over, she returns to her usual duties, just as if nothing had happened, so matter of fact are they in such matters." purification at child-birth lasted for three days, during which time the mother was allowed no food, and no drink but warm water. the ceremony, in which mother and child participated, was as follows: in the centre of the hut a pit was filled with heated stones, upon which herbs were placed, and the whole covered with earth, except a small aperture through which water was introduced. the mother and child, wrapped in blankets, stood over the pit and were soon in a violent perspiration. when they became exhausted from the effect of the steam and the heated air, they lay upon the ground and were covered with earth, after which they again took to the heated stones and steam. the mother was allowed to eat no meat for two moons, after which pills made of meat and wild tobacco were given her. in some tribes she could hold no intercourse with her husband until the child was weaned. children, until they arrived at the age of puberty, remained under the control of their parents, afterward they were subject only to the chief. like the spartan youth, they were taught that abstinence, and indifference to hardship and privations, constitute the only true manhood. to render them hardy much unnecessary pain was inflicted. they were forbidden to approach the fire to warm themselves, or to eat certain seeds and berries which were considered luxuries. a youth, to become a warrior, must first undergo a severe ordeal; his naked body was beaten with stinging nettles until he was literally unable to move; then he was placed upon the nest of a species of virulent ant, while his friends irritated the insects by stirring them up with sticks. the infuriated ants swarmed over every part of the sufferer's body, into his eyes, his ears, his mouth, his nose, causing indescribable pain. boscana states that the young were instructed to love truth, to do good, and to venerate old age.[ ] at an early age they were placed under the protection of a tutelar divinity, which was supposed to take the form of some animal. to discover the particular beast which was to guide his future destinies, the child was intoxicated,[ ] and for three or four days kept without food of any kind. during this period he was continually harassed and questioned, until, weak from want of food, crazed with drink and importunity, and knowing that the persecution would not cease until he yielded, he confessed to seeing his divinity, and described what kind of brute it was. the outline of the figure was then molded in a paste made of crushed herbs, on the breast and arms of the novitiate. this was ignited and allowed to burn until entirely consumed, and thus the figure of the divinity remained indelibly delineated in the flesh. hunters, before starting on an expedition, would beat their faces with nettles to render them clear-sighted. a girl, on arriving at the age of puberty, was laid upon a bed of branches placed over a hole, which had been previously heated, where she was kept with very little food for two or three days. old women chanted songs, and young women danced round her at intervals during her purification. in the vicinity of san diego the girl is buried all but her head, and the ground above her is beaten until she is in a profuse perspiration. this is continued for twenty-four hours, the patient being at intervals during this time taken out and washed, and then reimbedded. a feast and dance follow.[ ] when the missionaries first arrived in this region, they found men dressed as women and performing women's duties, who were kept for unnatural purposes. from their youth up they were treated, instructed, and used as females, and were even frequently publicly married to the chiefs or great men.[ ] [sidenote: amusements.] gambling and dancing formed, as usual, their principal means of recreation. their games of chance differed little from those played farther north. that of guessing in which hand a piece of wood was held, before described, was played by eight, four on a side, instead of four. another game was played by two. fifty small pieces of wood, placed upright in a row in the ground, at distances of two inches apart, formed the score. the players were provided with a number of pieces of split reed, blackened on one side; these were thrown, points down, on the ground, and the thrower counted one for every piece that remained white side uppermost; if he gained eight he was entitled to another throw. if the pieces all fell with the blackened side up they counted also. small pieces of wood placed against the upright pegs, marked the game. they reckoned from opposite ends of the row, and if one of the players threw just so many as to make his score exactly meet that of his opponent, the former had to commence again. throwing lances of reed through a rolling hoop was another source of amusement. professional singers were employed to furnish music to a party of gamblers. an umpire was engaged, whose duty it was to hold the stakes, count the game, prevent cheating, and act as referee; he was also expected to supply wood for the fire. when they were not eating, sleeping, or gambling, they were generally dancing; indeed, says father boscana, "such was the delight with which they took part in their festivities, that they often continued dancing day and night, and sometimes entire weeks." they danced at a birth, at a marriage, at a burial; they danced to propitiate the divinity, and they thanked the divinity for being propitiated by dancing. they decorated themselves with shells and beads, and painted their bodies with divers colors. sometimes head-dresses and petticoats of feathers were worn, at other times they danced naked. the women painted the upper part of their bodies brown. they frequently danced at the same time as the men, but seldom with them. time was kept by singers, and the rattling of turtle-shells filled with pebbles. they were good actors, and some of their character-dances were well executed; the step, however, like their chanting, was monotonous and unvarying. many of their dances were extremely licentious, and were accompanied with obscenities too disgusting to bear recital. most of them were connected in some way with their superstitions and religious rites.[ ] these people never wandered far from their own territory, and knew little or nothing of the nations lying beyond their immediate neighbors. mr reid relates that one who traveled some distance beyond the limits of his own domain, returned with the report that he had seen men whose ears descended to their hips; then he had met with a race of lilliputians; and finally had reached a people so subtly constituted that they "would take a rabbit, or other animal, and merely with the breath, inhale the essence; throwing the rest away, which on examination proved to be excrement." [sidenote: customs and superstitions.] they had a great number of traditions, legends, and fables. some of these give evidence of a powerful imagination; a few are pointed with a moral; but the majority are puerile, meaningless, to us at least, and filled with obscenities. it is said that, in some parts, the southern californians are great snake-charmers, and that they allow the reptiles to wind themselves about their bodies and bite them, with impunity. feuds between families are nursed for generations; the war is seldom more than one of words, however, unless a murder is to be avenged, and consists of mutual vituperations, and singing obscene songs about each other. friends salute by inquiries after each other's health. on parting one says 'i am going,' the other answers 'go.' they are very superstitious, and believe in all sorts of omens and auguries. an eclipse frightens them beyond measure, and shooting stars cause them to fall down in the dust and cover their heads in abject terror. many of them believe that, should a hunter eat meat or fish which he himself had procured, his luck would leave him. for this reason they generally hunt or fish in pairs, and when the day's sport is over, each takes what the other has killed. living as they do from hand to mouth, content to eat, sleep, and dance away their existence, we cannot expect to find much glimmering of the simpler arts or sciences among them. their year begins at the winter solstice, and they count by lunar months, so that to complete their year they are obliged to add several supplementary days. all these months have symbolic names. thus december and january are called the month of cold; february and march, the rain; march and april, the first grass; april and may, the rise of waters; may and june, the month of roots; june and july, of salmon fishing; july and august, of heat; august and september, of wild fruits; september and october, of bulbous roots; october and november, of acorns and nuts; november and december, of bear and other hunting. [sidenote: medical treatment.] sorcerers are numerous, and as unbounded confidence is placed in their power to work both good and evil, their influence is great. as astrologers and soothsayers, they can tell by the appearance of the moon the most propitious day and hour in which to celebrate a feast, or attack an enemy. sorcerers also serve as almanacs for the people, as it is their duty to note by the aspect of the moon the time of the decease of a chief or prominent man, and to give notice of the anniversary when it comes round, in order that it may be duly celebrated. they extort black-mail from individuals by threatening them with evil. the charm which they use is a ball made of mescal mixed with wild honey; this is carried under the left arm, in a small leather bag,--and the spell is effected by simply laying the right hand upon this bag. neither does their power end here; they hold intercourse with supernatural beings, metamorphose themselves at will, see into the future, and even control the elements. they are potent to cure as well as to kill. for all complaints, as usual, they 'put forth the charm of woven paces and of waving hands,' and in some cases add other remedies. for internal complaints they prescribe cold baths; wounds and sores are treated with lotions and poultices of crushed herbs, such as sage and rosemary, and of a kind of black oily resin, extracted from certain seeds. other maladies they affirm to be caused by small pieces of wood, stone, or other hard substance, which by some means have entered the flesh, and which they pretend to extract by sucking the affected part. in a case of paralysis the stricken parts were whipped with nettles. blisters are raised by means of dry paste made from nettle-stalks, placed on the bare flesh of the patient, set on fire, and allowed to burn out. cold water or an emetic is used for fever and like diseases, or, sometimes, the sufferer is placed naked upon dry sand or ashes, with a fire close to his feet, and a bowl of water or gruel at his head, and there left for nature to take its course, while his friends and relatives sit round and howl him into life or into eternity. snake-bites are cured by an internal dose of ashes, or the dust found at the bottom of ants' nests, and an external application of herbs.[ ] the medicine-men fare better here than their northern brethren, as, in the event of the non-recovery of their patient, the death of the latter is attributed to the just anger of their god, and consequently the physician is not held responsible. to avert the displeasure of the divinity, and to counteract the evil influence of the sorcerers, regular dances of propitiation or deprecation are held, in which the whole tribe join.[ ] [sidenote: death and burial.] the temescal, or sweat-house, is the same here as elsewhere, which renders a description unnecessary.[ ] the dead were either burned or buried. father boscana says that no particular ceremonies were observed during the burning of the corpse. the body was allowed to lie untouched some days after death, in order to be certain that no spark of life remained. it was then borne out and laid upon the funeral pyre, which was ignited by a person specially appointed for that purpose. everything belonging to the deceased was burned with him. when all was over the mourners betook themselves to the outskirts of the village, and there gave vent to their lamentation for the space of three days and nights. during this period songs were sung, in which the cause of the late death was related, and even the progress of the disease which brought him to his grave minutely described in all its stages. as an emblem of grief the hair was cut short in proportion to nearness of relation to or affection for the deceased, but laceration was not resorted to.[ ] mr taylor relates that the santa inez indians buried their dead in regular cemeteries. the body was placed in a sitting posture in a box made of slabs of claystone, and interred with all the effects of the dead person.[ ] according to reid, the natives of los angeles county waited until the body began to show signs of decay and then bound it together in the shape of a ball, and buried it in a place set apart for that purpose, with offerings of seeds contributed by the family. at the first news of his death all the relatives of the deceased gathered together, and mourned his departure with groans, each having a groan peculiar to himself. the dirge was presently changed to a song, in which all united, while an accompaniment was whistled through a deer's leg-bone. the dancing consisted merely in a monotonous shuffling of the feet.[ ] pedro fages thus describes a burial ceremony at the place named by him sitio de los pedernales.[ ] immediately after an indian has breathed his last, the corpse is borne out and placed before the idol which stands in the village, there it is watched by persons who pass the night round a large fire built for the purpose; the following morning all the inhabitants of the place gather about the idol and the ceremony commences. at the head of the procession marches one smoking gravely from a large stone pipe; followed by three others, he three times walks round the idol and the corpse; each time the head of the deceased is passed the coverings are lifted, and he who holds the pipe blows three puffs of smoke upon the body. when the feet are reached, a kind of prayer is chanted in chorus, and the parents and relatives of the defunct advance in succession and offer to the priest a string of threaded seeds, about a fathom long; all present then unite in loud cries and groans, while the four, taking the corpse upon their shoulders, proceed with it to the place of interment. care is taken to place near the body articles which have been manufactured by the deceased during his life-time. a spear or javelin, painted in various vivid colors, is planted erect over the tomb, and articles indicating the occupation of the dead are placed at his foot; if the deceased be a woman, baskets or mats of her manufacture are hung on the javelin.[ ] death they believed to be a real though invisible being, who gratified his own anger and malice by slowly taking away the breath of his victim until finally life was extinguished. the future abode of good spirits resembled the scandinavian valhalla; there, in the dwelling-place of their god, they would live for ever and ever, eating, and drinking, and dancing, and having wives in abundance. as their ideas of reward in the next world were matter-of-fact and material, so were their fears of punishment in this life; all accidents, such as broken limbs or bereavement by death, were attributed to the direct vengeance of their god, for crimes which they had committed.[ ] though good-natured and inordinately fond of amusement, they are treacherous and unreliable. under a grave and composed exterior they conceal their thoughts and character so well as to defy interpretation. and this is why we find men, who have lived among them for years, unable to foretell their probable action under any given circumstances. [sidenote: the shoshone family.] the shoshone family, which forms the fourth and last division of the californian group, may be said to consist of two great nations, the snakes, or shoshones proper, and the utahs. the former inhabit south-eastern oregon, idaho, western montana, and the northern portions of utah and nevada, are subdivided into several small tribes, and include the more considerable nation of the bannacks. the utahs occupy nearly the whole of utah and nevada, and extend into arizona and california, on each side of the colorado. among the many tribes into which the utahs are divided may be mentioned the _utahs_ proper, whose territory covers a great part of utah and eastern nevada; the _washoes_ along the eastern base of the sierra nevada, between honey lake and the west fork of walker river; the _pah utes_, or, as they are sometimes called, piutes, in western and central nevada, stretching into arizona and south-eastern california; the _pah vants_ in the vicinity of sevier lake, the _pi edes_ south of them, and the _gosh utes_, a mixed tribe of snakes and utahs, dwelling in the vicinity of gosh ute lake and mountains. the shoshones[ ] are below the medium stature; the utahs, though more powerfully built than the snakes, are coarser-featured and less agile. all are of a dark bronze-color when free from paint and dirt, and, as usual, beardless. the women are clumsily made, although some of them have good hands and feet.[ ] on the barren plains of nevada, where there is no large game, the rabbit furnishes nearly the only clothing. the skins are sewn together in the form of a cloak, which is thrown over the shoulders, or tied about the body with thongs of the same. in warm weather, or when they cannot obtain rabbit-skins, men, women and children are, for the most part, in a state of nudity. the hair is generally allowed to grow long, and to flow loosely over the shoulders; sometimes it is cut straight over the forehead, and among the utahs of new mexico it is plaited into two long queues by the men, and worn short by the women. ornaments are rare; i find mention in two instances[ ] of a nose-ornament, worn by the pah utes, consisting of a slender piece of bone, several inches in length, thrust through the septum of the nose. tattooing is not practiced but paint of all colors is used unsparingly.[ ] the snakes are better dressed than the utahs, their clothing being made from the skins of larger game, and ornamented with beads, shells, fringes, feathers, and, since their acquaintance with the whites, with pieces of brilliant-colored cloth. a common costume is a shirt, leggins, and moccasins, all of buck-skin, over which is thrown, in cold weather, a heavy robe, generally of buffalo-skin, but sometimes of wolf, deer, elk, or beaver. the dress of the women differs but little from that of the men, except that it is less ornamented and the shirt is longer.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the snakes.] the dress of the snakes seen by captains lewis and clarke was richer than is usually worn by them now; it was composed of a robe, short cloak, shirt, long leggins, and moccasins. the robe was of buffalo or smaller skins, dressed with the hair on; the collar of the cloak, a strip of skin from the back of the otter, the head being at one end and the tail at the other. from this collar were suspended from one hundred to two hundred and fifty ermine-skins,[ ] or rather strips from the back of the ermine, including the head and tail; each of these strips was sewn round a cord of twisted silk-grass, which tapered in thickness toward the tail. the seams were concealed with a fringe of ermine-skin; little tassels of white fur were also attached to each tail, to show off its blackness to advantage. the collar was further ornamented with shells of the pearl-oyster; the shirt, made of the dressed hides of various kinds of deer, was loose and reached half-way down the thigh; the sleeves were open on the under side as low as the elbow,--the edges being cut into a fringe from the elbow to the wrist,--and they fitted close to the arm. the collar was square, and cut into fringe, or adorned with the tails of the animals which furnished the hide; the shirt was garnished with fringes and stained porcupine-quills; the leggins were made each from nearly an entire antelope-skin, and reached from the ankle to the upper part of the thigh. the hind legs of the skin were worn uppermost, and tucked into the girdle; the neck, highly ornamented with fringes and quills, trailed on the ground behind the heel of the wearer; the side seams were fringed, and for this purpose the scalps of fallen enemies were frequently used. the moccasins were also of dressed hide, without the hair, except in winter, when buffalo-hide, with the hair inside, answered the purpose. they were made with a single seam on the outside edge, and were embellished with quills; sometimes they were covered with the skin of a polecat, the tail of which dragged behind on the ground. ear-ornaments of beads, necklaces of shells, twisted-grass, elk-tushes, round bones, like joints of a fish's back-bone, and the claws of the brown bear, were all worn. eagles' feathers stuck in the hair, or a strip of otter-skin tied round the head, seem to have been the only head-dresses in use.[ ] this, or something similar, was the dress only of the wealthy and prosperous tribes. like the utahs, the snakes paint extensively, especially when intent upon war.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings and food of the shoshones.] the snakes also build better dwellings than the utahs. long poles are leaned against each other in a circle, and are then covered with skins, thus forming a conical tent. a hole in the top, which can be closed in bad weather, serves as chimney, and an opening at the bottom three or four feet high, admits the occupants on pushing aside a piece of hide stretched on a stick, which hangs over the aperture as a door. these skin tents, as is necessary to a nomadic people, are struck and pitched with very little labor. when being moved from one place to another, the skins are folded and packed on the ponies, and the poles are hitched to each side of the animal by one end, while the other drags. the habitations of the people of nevada and the greater part of utah are very primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which they crawl, or even of a mere shelter of bushes, semi-circular in shape, roofless, and three or four feet high, which serves only to break the force of the wind. some of them build absolutely no dwellings, but live in caves and among the rocks, while others burrow like reptiles in the ground. farnham gives us a very doleful picture of their condition; he says: "when the lizard, and snail, and wild roots are buried in the snows of winter, they are said to retire to the vicinity of timber, dig holes in the form of ovens in the steep sides of the sand-hills, and, having heated them to a certain degree, deposit themselves in them, and sleep and fast till the weather permits them to go abroad again for food. persons who have visited their haunts after a severe winter, have found the ground around these family ovens strewn with the unburied bodies of the dead, and others crawling among them, who had various degrees of strength, from a bare sufficiency to gasp in death, to those that crawled upon their hands and feet, eating grass like cattle."[ ] naturally pusillanimous, weak in development, sunk below the common baser passions of the savage, more improvident than birds, more beastly than beasts, it may be possible to conceive of a lower phase of humanity, but i confess my inability to do so. pine-nuts, roots, berries, reptiles, insects, rats, mice, and occasionally rabbits are the only food of the poorer shoshone tribes. those living in the vicinity of streams or lakes depend more or less for their subsistence upon fish. the snakes of idaho and oregon, and the tribes occupying the more fertile parts of utah, having abundance of fish and game, live well the year round, but the miserable root-eating people, partly owing to their inherent improvidence, partly to the scantiness of their food-supply, never store sufficient provision for the winter, and consequently before the arrival of spring they are invariably reduced to extreme destitution. to avoid starvation they will eat dead bodies, and even kill their children for food.[ ] a rat or a rabbit is prepared for eating by singeing the hair, pressing the offal from the entrails and cooking body and intestines together. lizards, snakes, grasshoppers, and ants are thrown alive into a dish containing hot embers, and are tossed about until roasted; they are then eaten dry or used to thicken soup. grasshoppers, seeds, and roots, are also gathered and cooked in the same manner as by the nations already described. the gosh utes take rabbits in nets made of flax-twine, about three feet wide and of considerable length. a fence of sage-brush is erected across the rabbit-paths, and on this the net is hung. the rabbits in running quickly along the trail become entangled in the meshes and are taken before they can escape. lizards are dragged from their holes by means of a hooked stick. to catch ants a piece of fresh hide or bark is placed upon the ant-hill; this is soon covered by vast swarms of the insects, which are then brushed off into a bag and kept there until dead, when they are dried for future use. among the hunting tribes antelope are gradually closed in upon by a circle of horsemen and beaten to death with clubs. they are also stalked after the fashion of the californians proper, the hunter placing the head and horns of an antelope or deer upon his own head and thus disguised approaching within shooting distance. [sidenote: native fish-weir.] fish are killed with spears having movable heads, which become detached when the game is struck, and are also taken in nets made of rushes or twigs. in the latter case a place is chosen where the river is crossed by a bar, the net is then floated down the stream and on reaching the bar both ends are drawn together. the fish thus enclosed are taken from the circle by hand, and the shoshone as he takes each one, puts its head in his mouth and kills it with his teeth. captain clarke describes an ingeniously constructed weir on snake river, where it was divided into four channels by three small islands. three of these channels were narrow "and stopped by means of trees which were stretched across, and supported by willow stakes, sufficiently near to prevent the passage of the fish. about the centre of each was placed a basket formed of willows, eighteen or twenty feet in length, of a cylindrical form, and terminating in a conic shape at its lower extremity; this was situated with its mouth upwards, opposite to an aperture in the weir. the main channel of the water was then conducted to this weir, and as the fish entered it they were so entangled with each other, that they could not move, and were taken out by emptying the small end of the willow basket. the weir in the main channel was formed in a manner somewhat different; there were, in fact two distinct weirs formed of poles and willow sticks quite across the river, approaching each other obliquely with an aperture in each side of the angle. this is made by tying a number of poles together at the top, in parcels of three, which were then set up in a triangular form at the base, two of the poles being in the range desired for the weir, and the third down the stream. to these poles two ranges of other poles are next lashed horizontally, with willow bark and withes, and willow sticks joined in with these crosswise, so as to form a kind of wicker-work from the bottom of the river to the height of three or four feet above the surface of the water. this is so thick as to prevent the fish from passing, and even in some parts with the help of a little gravel and some stone enables them to give any direction which they wish to the water. these two weirs being placed near to each other, one for the purpose of catching the fish as they ascend, the other as they go down the river, are provided with two baskets made in the form already described, and which are placed at the apertures of the weir." for present consumption the fish are boiled in water-tight baskets by means of red-hot stones, or are broiled on the embers; sometimes the bones are removed before the fish is cooked; great quantities are also dried for winter. some few of the utahs cultivate a little maize, vegetables, and tobacco, and raise stock, but efforts at agriculture are not general. the snakes sometimes accompany the more northern tribes into the country of the blackfeet, for the purpose of killing buffalo.[ ] in their persons, dwellings and habits, the utahs are filthy beyond description. their bodies swarm with vermin which they catch and eat with relish. some of the snakes are of a more cleanly disposition, but, generally speaking, the whole shoshone family is a remarkably dirty one.[ ] [sidenote: weapons of the shoshones.] the bow and arrow are universally used by the shoshones, excepting only some of the most degraded root-eaters, who are said to have no weapon, offensive or defensive, save the club. the bow is made of cedar, pine, or other wood, backed with sinew after the manner already described, or, more rarely, of a piece of elk-horn. the string is of sinew. the length of the bow varies. according to farnham, that used by the pi utes is six feet long, while that of the shoshones seen by lewis and clark was only two and a half feet in length. the arrows are from two to four feet, and are pointed with obsidian, flint, or, among the lower tribes, by merely hardening the tip with fire. thirty or forty are usually carried in a skin quiver, and two in the hand ready for immediate use. lances, which are used in some localities, are pointed in the same manner as the arrows when no iron can be procured. the snakes have a kind of mace or club, which they call a _poggamoggon_. it consists of a heavy stone, sometimes wrapped in leather, attached by a sinew thong about two inches in length, to the end of a stout leather-covered handle, measuring nearly two feet. a loop fastened to the end held in the hand prevents the warrior from losing the weapon in the fight, and allows him to hold the club in readiness while he uses the bow and arrow.[ ] they also have a circular shield about two and a half feet in diameter, which is considered a very important part of a warrior's equipment, not so much from the fact that it is arrow-proof, as from the peculiar virtues supposed to be given it by the medicine-men. the manufacture of a shield is a season of great rejoicing. it must be made from the entire fresh hide of a male two-year-old buffalo, and the process is as follows. a hole is dug in the ground and filled with red-hot stones; upon these water is poured until a thick steam arises. the hide is then stretched, by as many as can take hold of it, over the hole, until the hair can be removed with the hands and it shrinks to the required size. it is then placed upon a prepared hide, and pounded by the bare feet of all present, until the ceremony is concluded. when the shield is completed, it is supposed to render the bearer invulnerable. lewis and clarke also make mention of a species of defensive armor "something like a coat of mail, which is formed by a great many folds of dressed antelope skins, united by means of a mixture of glue and sand. with this they cover their own bodies and those of their horses, and find it impervious to the arrow." i find mention in one instance only, of a shield being used by the utahs. in that case it was small, circular, and worn suspended from the neck. the fishing spear i have already described as being a long pole with an elk-horn point. when a fish is struck the shaft is loosened from its socket in the head, but remains connected with the latter by a cord.[ ] arrows are occasionally poisoned by plunging them into a liver which has been previously bitten by a rattlesnake.[ ] [sidenote: manner of making war.] the tribes that possess horses always fight mounted, and manage their animals with considerable address. in war they place their reliance upon strategy and surprise; fires upon the hills give warning of an enemy's approach. prisoners of war are killed with great tortures, especially female captives, who are given over to the women of the victorious tribe and by them done to death most cruelly; it is said, however, that male prisoners who have distinguished themselves by their prowess in battle, are frequently dismissed unhurt. scalps are taken, and sometimes portions of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy are eaten that the eater may become endued with the valor of the slain. he who takes the most scalps gains the most glory. whether the warriors who furnished the trophies fell by the hand of the accumulator or not, is immaterial; he has but to show the spoils and his fame is established. the snakes are said to be peculiarly skillful in eluding pursuit. when on foot, they will crouch down in the long grass and remain motionless while the pursuer passes within a few feet of them, or when caught sight of they will double and twist so that it is impossible to catch them. the custom of ratifying a peace treaty by a grand smoke, common to so many of the north american aborigines, is observed by the shoshones.[ ] the pipe, the bowl of which is usually of red stone, painted or carved with various figures and adorned with feathers, is solemnly passed from mouth to mouth, each smoker blowing the smoke in certain directions and muttering vows at the same time. the only tools used before iron and steel were introduced by the whites were of flint, bone, or horn. the flint knife had no regular form, and had a sharp edge about three or four inches long, which was renewed when it became dull. elk-horn hatchets, or rather wedges, were used to fell trees. they made water-proof baskets of plaited grass, and others of wicker-work covered with hide. the snakes and some of the utahs were versed in the art of pottery, and made very good vessels from baked clay. these were not merely open dishes, but often took the form of jars with narrow necks, having stoppers.[ ] [sidenote: laws and government.] boats, as a rule, the shoshones have none. they usually cross rivers by fording; otherwise they swim, or pass over on a clumsy and dangerous raft made of branches and rushes.[ ] by way of compensation they all, except the poorest, have horses, and these constitute their wealth. they have no regular currency, but use for purposes of barter their stock of dried fish, their horses, or whatever skins and furs they may possess. they are very deliberate traders, and a solemn smoke must invariably precede a bargain.[ ] although each tribe has an ostensible chief, his power is limited to giving advice, and although his opinion may influence the tribe, yet he cannot compel obedience to his wishes. every man does as he likes. private revenge, of course, occasionally overtakes the murderer, or, if the sympathies of the tribe be with the murdered man, he may possibly be publicly executed, but there are no fixed laws for such cases. chieftainship is hereditary in some tribes; in others it is derived from prestige.[ ] the utahs do not hesitate to sell their wives and children into slavery for a few trinkets. great numbers of these unfortunates are sold to the navajos for blankets. an act which passed the legislature of utah in , legalizing slavery, sets forth that from time immemorial, slavery has been a customary traffic among the indians; that it was a common practice among them to gamble away their wives and children into slavery, to sell them into slavery to other nations, and that slaves thus obtained were most barbarously treated by their masters; that they were packed from place to place on mules; that these unfortunate humans were staked out to grass and roots like cattle, their limbs mutilated and swollen from being bound with thongs; that they were frozen, starved, and killed by their inhuman owners; that families and tribes living at peace would steal each other's wives and children, and sell them as slaves. in view of these abuses it was made lawful for a probate judge, or selectmen, to bind out native captive women and children to suitable white persons for a term not to exceed twenty years.[ ] polygamy, though common, is not universal; a wife is generally bought of her parents;[ ] girls are frequently betrothed in infancy; a husband will prostitute his wife to a stranger for a trifling present, but should she be unfaithful without his consent, her life must pay the forfeit. the women, as usual, suffer very little from the pains of child-bearing. when the time of a shoshone woman's confinement draws near, she retires to some secluded place, brings forth unassisted, and remains there for about a month, alone, and procuring her subsistence as best she can. when the appointed time has elapsed she is considered purified and allowed to join her friends again. the weaker sex of course do the hardest labor, and receive more blows than kind words for their pains. these people, in common with most nomadic nations, have the barbarous custom of abandoning the old and infirm the moment they find them an incumbrance. lewis and clarke state that children are never flogged, as it is thought to break their spirit.[ ] [sidenote: gambling and drinking.] the games of hazard played by the shoshones differ little from those of their neighbors; the principal one appears to be the odd-and-even game so often mentioned; but of late years they have nearly abandoned these, and have taken to 'poker,' which they are said to play with such adroitness as to beat a white man. with the voice they imitate with great exactness the cries of birds and beasts, and their concerts of this description, which generally take place at midnight, are discordant beyond measure. though they manufacture no intoxicating liquor themselves, they will drink the whisky of the whites whenever opportunity offers. they smoke the _kinikkinik_ leaf when no tobacco can be procured from the traders.[ ] in connection with their smoking they have many strange observances. when the pipe is passed round at the solemnization of a treaty, or the confirmation of a bargain, each smoker, on receiving it from his neighbor, makes different motions with it; one turns the pipe round before placing the stem to his lips; another describes a semicircle with it; a third smokes with the bowl in the air; a fourth with the bowl on the ground, and so on through the whole company. all this is done with a most grave and serious countenance, which makes it the more ludicrous to the looker-on. the snakes, before smoking with a stranger, always draw off their moccasins as a mark of respect. any great feat performed by a warrior, which adds to his reputation and renown, such as scalping an enemy, or successfully stealing his horses, is celebrated by a change of name. killing a grizzly bear also entitles him to this honor, for it is considered a great feat to slay one of these formidable animals, and only he who has performed it is allowed to wear their highest insignia of glory, the feet or claws of the victim. to bestow his name upon a friend is the highest compliment that one man can offer another. the snakes, and some of the utahs, are skillful riders, and possess good horses. their horse-furniture is simple. a horse-hair or raw-hide lariat is fastened round the animal's neck; the bight is passed with a single half-hitch round his lower jaw, and the other end is held in the rider's hand; this serves as a bridle. when the horse is turned loose, the lariat is loosened from his jaw and allowed to trail from his neck. the old men and the women have saddles similar to those used for packing by the whites; they are a wooden frame made of two pieces of thin board fitting close to the sides of the horse, and held together by two cross-pieces, in shape like the legs of an isosceles triangle. a piece of hide is placed between this and the horse's back, and a robe is thrown over the seat when it is ridden on. the younger men use no saddle, except a small pad, girthed on with a leather thong. when traveling they greatly overload their horses. all the household goods and provisions are packed upon the poor animal's back, and then the women and children seat themselves upon the pile, sometimes as many as four or five on one horse.[ ] [sidenote: diseases and burial.] the poorer utahs are very subject to various diseases, owing to exposure in winter. they have few, if any, efficient remedies. they dress wounds with pine-gum, after squeezing out the blood. the snakes are much affected by rheumatism and consumption, caused chiefly by their being almost constantly in the water fishing, and by exposure. syphilis has, of course, been extensively introduced among all the tribes. a few plants and herbs are used for medicinal purposes, and the medicine-men practice their wonted mummeries, but what particular means of cure they adopt is not stated by the authorities. i find no mention of their having sweat-houses.[ ] concerning the disposal of the dead usage differs. in some parts the body is burned, in others it is buried. in either case the property of the deceased is destroyed at his burial. his favorite horse, and, in some instances, his favorite wife, are killed over his grave, that he may not be alone in the spirit land. laceration in token of grief is universal, and the lamentations of the dead person's relatives are heard for weeks after his death, and are renewed at intervals for many months. child-like in this, they rush into extremes, and when not actually engaged in shrieking and tearing their flesh, they appear perfectly indifferent to their loss.[ ] [sidenote: shoshone character.] the character of the better shoshone tribes is not much worse than that of the surrounding nations; they are thieving, treacherous, cunning, moderately brave after their fashion, fierce when fierceness will avail them anything, and exceedingly cruel. of the miserable root and grass eating shoshones, however, even this much cannot be said. those who have seen them unanimously agree that they of all men are lowest. lying in a state of semi-torpor in holes in the ground during the winter, and in spring crawling forth and eating grass on their hands and knees, until able to regain their feet; having no clothes, scarcely any cooked food, in many instances no weapons, with merely a few vague imaginings for religion, living in the utmost squalor and filth, putting no bridle on their passions, there is surely room for no missing link between them and brutes.[ ] yet as in all men there stands out some prominent good, so in these, the lowest of humanity, there is one virtue: they are lovers of their country; lovers, not of fair hills and fertile valleys, but of inhospitable mountains and barren plains; these reptile-like men love their miserable burrowing-places better than all the comforts of civilization; indeed, in many instances, when detained by force among the whites, they have been known to pine away and die. tribal boundaries. [sidenote: northern californians.] to the northern californians, whose territory extends from rogue river on the north to eel river south, and from the pacific ocean to the californian boundary east, including the klamath, and other lakes, are assigned, according to the authorities, the following tribal boundaries: there are 'the hoopahs, and the ukiahs of mendocino;' 'the umpquas, kowooses or cooses, macanootoony's of the umpqua river section, nomee cults, and nomee lacks of tehama county; the copahs, hanags, yatuckets, terwars and tolowas, of the lower klamath river; the wylaks and noobimucks of trinity county mountains west from sacramento plains; the modocs of klamath lake, the ylackas of pitt river, the ukas and shastas of shasta county.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'the _tototins_ are divided into twelve bands; eight of them are located on the coast, one on the forks of the coquille, and three on rogue river.' 'the tototins, from whom is derived the generic name of the whole people speaking the language, reside on the north bank of the tototin river, about four miles from its mouth. their country extends from the eastern boundary of the yahshutes, a short distance below their village, up the stream about six miles, where the fishing-grounds of the mackanotins commence.' 'the country of the euquachees commences at the "three sisters," and extends along the coast to a point about three miles to the south of their village, which is on a stream which bears their name. the mining town of elizabeth is about the southern boundary of the euquachees, and is called thirty miles from port orford. next southward of the euquachees are the yahshutes, whose villages occupy both banks of the tototin or rogue river, at its mouth. these people claim but about two and a half miles back from the coast, where the tototin country commences. the yahshutes claim the coast to some remarkable headlands, about six miles south of rogue river. south of these headlands are the chetlessentuns. their village is north of, but near, the mouth of a stream bearing their name, but better known to the whites as pistol river. the chetlessentuns claim but about eight miles of the coast; but as the country east of them is uninhabited, like others similarly situated, their lands are supposed to extend to the summit of the mountains. next to the chetlessentuns on the south are the wishtenatins, whose village is at the mouth of a small creek bearing their name. they claim the country to a small trading-post known as the whale's head, about twenty-seven miles south of the mouth of rogue river. next in order are the cheattee or chitco band, whose villages were situated on each side of the mouth, and about six miles up a small river bearing their name.... the lands of these people extend from whale's head to the california line, and back from the coast indefinitely.... the mackanotin village is about seven miles above that of the tototins, and is on the same side of the river. they claim about twelve miles of stream. the shistakoostees succeed them (the mackanotins). their village is on the north bank of rogue river, nearly opposite the confluence of the illinois. these are the most easterly band within my district in the south.' _parrish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'dr. hubbard, in his notes ( ) on the indians of rogue river and south oregon, on the ocean, before alluded to, gives the following list of names of rancherias and clans of the lototen or tutatamys tribe. masonah band, location, coquille river; chockrelatan band, location, coquille forks; quatomah band, location, flore's creek; laguaacha band, location, elk river; cosulhenten band, location, port orford; yuquache band, location, yugua creek; chetlessenten band, location, pistol river; yah shutes band, location, rogue river; wishtanatan band, location, whale's head; cheahtoc band, location, chetko; tototen band, location, six miles above the mouth of rogue river; sisticoosta band, location, above big bend, of rogue river; maquelnoteer band, location, fourteen miles above the mouth of rogue river.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the tutotens were a large tribe, numbering thirteen clans, inhabiting the southern coast of oregon. _golden era_, _march, _. 'toutounis ou coquins, sur la rivière de ce nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'on the lower part of the clamet river are the totutune, known by the unfavorable soubriquet of the rogue, or rascal indians.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the bands of the tootooton tribe 'are scattered over a great extent of country--along the coast and on the streams from the california line to twenty miles north of the coquille, and from the ocean to the summit of the coast range of mountains.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . taylor places the tutunahs in the northwest corner of del norte county. _ms. map._ the _hunas_ live in california a little south of rogue river, on the way north from crescent city. _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . _modoc_, by some _moädoc_, is a word which originated with the shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild indians or enemies. 'their proper habitat is on the southern shore of lower klamath lake, on hot creek, around clear lake, and along lost river in oregon.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . they own the klamath river from the lake 'to where it breaks through the siskiyou range to the westward.' _id._, vol. xi., p. . in the northern part of siskiyou county. _ms. map_. 'the modocs of the klamath lake were also called moahtockna.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. east of the klamaths, whose eastern boundary is twenty-five or thirty miles east of the cascade range, along the southern boundary of oregon, 'and extending some distance into california, is a tribe known as the modocks. east of these again, but extending farther south, are the moetwas.' 'the country round ancoose and modoc lakes, is claimed and occupied by the modoc indians.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'the modocs (or moadoc, as the word is pronounced) known in their language as the okkowish, inhabit the goose lake country, and are mostly within the state of california.... the word modoc is a shasta indian word, and means all distant, stranger, or hostile indians, and became applied to these indians by white men in early days from hearing the shastas speak of them.' see _steele_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _oukskenahs_, in the north-western part of siskiyou county. _ms. map._ [sidenote: the trinity river tribes.] the _klamaths_ or _lutuami_--'lutuami, or tlamatl, or clamet indians. the first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. the second is that by which they are known to the chinooks, and through them to the whites. they live on the head waters of the river and about the lake, which have both received from foreigners the name of clamet.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . that portion of the eastern base of the cascade range, south of the forty-fourth parallel, 'extending twenty-five or thirty miles east, and south to the california line, is the country of the klamath indians.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the tlameths 'inhabit the country along the eastern base of the cascade and sierra nevada mountains, and south to the great klameth lake.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the clamets inhabit 'roquas river, near the south boundary' (of oregon). _warre and vavasour_, in _martin's hudson's bay_, p. . 'lutuami, clamets; also tlamatl--indians of southwestern oregon, near the clamet lake.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'klamacs, sur la rivière de ce nom et dans l'intérieur des terres.' _de mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . clamet: on the upper part of the river, and sixty miles below the lake so named. _framboise_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. . 'next east of the shastas are the klamath lake indians, known in their language as the okshee, who inhabit the country about the klamath lakes, and east about half way to the goose lake, to wright lake, and south to a line running about due east from shasta butte.' _steele_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'the name of klamath or tlamath, belonging to the tribes on the lake where the river rises, is not known among those farther down.... thus, at the forks, the weitspeks call the river below pohlik, signifying down; and that above pehtsik, or up; giving, moreover, the same name to the population in speaking of them collectively. three distinct tribes, speaking different languages, occupy its banks between the sea and the mouth of the shasté, of which the lowest extends up to bluff creek, a few miles above the forks. of these there are, according to our information, in all, thirty-two villages.... the names of the principal villages ... are the weitspek (at the forks), wahsherr, kaipetl, moraiuh, nohtscho, méhteh, schregon, yauterrh, pecquan, kauweh, wauhtecq, scheperrh, oiyotl, naiagutl, schaitl, hopaiuh, rekqua, and weht'lqua, the two last at the mouth of the river.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _eurocs_ inhabit 'the lower klamath from weitspeck down, and along the coast for about twenty miles.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . the eurocs 'inhabit the banks of the klamath from the junction of the trinity to the mouth, and the sea coast from gold bluff up to a point about six miles above the mouth of the klamath.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _cahrocs_ live between the eurocs and the foot of the klamath mountains, also a short distance up salmon river. 'on the klamath river there live three distinct tribes, called the eurocs, cahrocs, and modocs; which names mean respectively, "down the river," "up the river," and "head of the river."' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . speaking of indians at the junction of salmon and klamath rivers, mr. gibbs says: 'they do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "kahruk," up, and "youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of the trinity) do "pehtsik," and "pohlik."' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _tolewahs_ are the first tribe on the coast north of klamath river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the tahlewahs are a 'tribe on the klamath river.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'in the vicinity of crescent city and smith's river there are the ... lopas, talawas, and lagoons.' _heintzelman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'in del norte county ... the haynaggis live along smith river, the tolowas on the lagoon, and the tahatens around crescent city.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the cops, hanags, yantuckets, and tolawas, are 'indian tribes living near the oregon and california coast frontiers.' _crescent city herald_, _aug. _. the tolowas at the meeting point of trinity, humboldt, and klamath counties. _ms. map._ the _terwars_, north-west of the tolowas. _ms. map._ the _weitspeks_ are the 'principal band on the klamath, at the junction of the trinity.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _oppegachs_ are a tribe at red-cap's bar, on the klamath river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _hoopahs_ live 'am unteren rio de la trinidad, oder trinity river.' _buschmann_, _das apache als eine athhapask. spr._, p. . 'indian tribe on the lower part of the trinity river.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the hoopas live 'in hoopa valley, on the lower trinity river.' _power's pomo, ms._, p. . 'the lower trinity tribe is, as well as the river itself, known to the klamaths by the name of hoopah.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; see also p. . in the northern part of klamath county. _ms. map._ 'upon the trinity, or hoopah, below the entrance of the south fork or otahweiaket, there are said to be eleven ranches, the okenoke, agaraits, uplegoh, olleppauh'lkahtehtl and pephtsoh; ... and the haslintah, aheltah, sokéakeit, tashhuanta, and witspuk above it; a twelfth, the méyemma, now burnt, was situated just above "new" or "arkansas" river.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _copahs_, in the extreme north of klamath county, north of the hoopahs. _ms. map._ the cops are mentioned as 'living near the oregon and california coast frontiers,' in the _crescent city herald_, _aug., _. the _kailtas_ live on the south fork of trinity river. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _pataways_ occupy the banks of the trinity, from the vicinity of big bar to south fork. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _chimalquays_ lived on new river, a tributary of the trinity. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _siahs_ 'occupied the tongue of land jutting down between eel river, and van dusen's fork.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the sians or siahs lived on the headwaters of smith river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _ehneks_, eenahs, or eenaghs, lived above the tolewas on smith river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'ehnek was the name of a band at the mouth of the salmon or quoratem river.' _id._, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . _wishosk_ 'is the name given to the bay (humboldt) and mad river indians by those of eel river.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _weeyots_ are 'a band on the mouth of eel river and near humboldt bay.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the humboldt bay indians call themselves wishosk; and those of the hills teokawilk; 'but the tribes to the northward denominate both those of the bay and eel river, weyot, or walla-walloo.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the _patawats_ live on the lower waters of mad river, and around humboldt bay, as far south as arcata, perhaps originally as far down as eureka.' _powers' pomo, ms._ _ossegon_ is the name given to the indians of gold bluff, between trinidad and the klamath. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the _lassics_ formerly dwelt in mad river valley, from the head waters down to low gap, or thereabout, where they borrowed on the wheelcuttas.' _powers' pomo, ms._ _chori_ was the name given to the indians of trinidad by the weeyots. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _chillulahs_ 'occupied the banks of redwood creek, from the coast up about twenty miles.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the oruk, tchololah, or bald hill indians, lived on redwood creek. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _wallies_ occupy the sandy country north of humboldt bay. _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . 'the _wheelcuttas_ had their place on the upper redwood creek, from the land of the chillulahs up to the mountains. they ranged across southward by the foot of the bald hills, which appear to have marked the boundary between them and the chillulahs in that direction; and penetrated to van dusen's fork, anent the siahs and lassics, with whom they occasionally came in bloody collision.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _veeards_ 'live around lower humboldt bay, and up eel river to eagle prairie.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _shastas_ live to the south-west of the lutuamis or klamaths. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'sastés, dans l'intérieur au nord de la californie.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the shasta indians, known in their language as weohow--it meaning stone house, from the large cave in their country--occupy the land east of shasta river, and south of the siskiyou mountains, and west of the lower klamath lake.' _steele_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the shastas occupy the centre of the county of that name. _ms. map._ 'indians of south-western oregon, on the northern frontiers of upper california.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . watsahewah is the name 'of one of the scott river bands of the shasta family.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the name is spelled variously as shasty, shaste, sasté, &c. the _palaiks_ live to the southeast of the lutuamis or klamaths. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'indians of south-western oregon, on the northern frontiers of upper california.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . on the klamath are the odeeilahs; in shasta valley the ikarucks, kosetahs, and idakariúkes; and in scott's valley the watsahewas and eehs. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the _hamburg indians_, known in their language as the tka, inhabit immediately at the mouth of scott's river, known in their language as the ottetiewa river.' _steele_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the _scott's valley indians_, known in their language as the iddoa, inhabit scott's valley above the cañon.' _ib._ 'the _yreka_ (a misnomer for yeka--shasta butte) indians, known in their language as the hoteday, inhabit that part of the country lying south of klamath river, and west of shasta river.' _ib._ the _yuka_ or uka tribe 'inhabited the shasta mountains in the vicinity of mccloud's fork of pitt river.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the ukas are directly south of the modocs. _ms. map._ 'the yukeh, or as the name is variously spelt, yuka, yuques, and uca, are the original inhabitants of the nome-cult, or round valley, in tehama county ... and are not to be confounded with the yukai indians of russian river.' _gibbs_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. . 'the _noser_ or _noza_ indians ... live in the vicinity of lassen's butte.' _siskiyou chronicle_, _may, _. the _ylakas_ are to the southeast of the ukas. _ms. map._ the central californians occupy the whole of that portion of california extending north and south, from about ° ´ to °, and east and west, from the pacific ocean to the californian boundary. they are tribally divided as follows: 'the _mattoles_ have their habitat on the creek which bears their name, and on the still smaller stream dignified with the appellation of bear river. from the coast they range across to eel river, and by immemorial indian usage and prescriptive right, they hold the western bank of this river from about eagle prairie, where they border upon the veeards, up southward to the mouth of south fork.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _betumkes_ live on the south fork of eel river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . in the northern part of mendocino county. _ms. map._ the _choweshaks_ live on the head of eel river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . tribes living on the middle fork of eel river, in the valley called by the indians betumki were the naboh choweshak, chawteuh bakowa, and samunda. _id._, p. . the choweshaks lived on the head of eel river. _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the _loloncooks_ live on bull creek and the lower south fork of eel river, owning the territory between those streams and the pacific.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _batemdakaiees_ live in the valley of that name on the head of eel river. _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . [sidenote: russian river and coast tribes.] the _pomos_ consist of 'a great number of tribes or little bands, sometimes one in a valley, sometimes three or four, clustered in the region where the headwaters of eel and russian rivers interlace, along the estuaries of the coast and around clear lake. really, the indians all along russian river to its mouth are branches of this great family, but below calpello they no longer call themselves pomos.... the broadest and most obvious division of this large family is, into eel river pomos and russian river pomos.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., pp. - . the castel pomos 'live between the forks of the river extending as far south as big chamise and blue rock.' _id._, p. . the ki-pomos 'dwell on the extreme headwaters of south fork, ranging eastward to eel river, westward to the ocean and northward to the castel pomos.' _ib._, _ms. map_. 'the cahto pomos (lake people) were so called from a little lake which formerly existed in the valley now called by their name.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., p. . the choam chadéla pomos (pitch pine people) live in redwood valley. _id._, p. . the matomey ki pomos (wooded valley people) live about little lake. _ib._ the camalèl pomos (coast people) or usals live on usal creek. _ib._ the shebalne pomos (neighbor people) live in sherwood valley. _ib._ the pome pomos (earth people) live in potter valley. besides the pome pomos there are two or three other little rancherias in potter valley, each with a different name; and the whole body of them are called ballo ki pomos (oat valley people). _id._ the camalel pomos, yonsal pomos, and bayma pomos live on ten mile, and the country just north of it, in mendocino county. _tobin_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the salan pomas are a tribe of indians inhabiting a valley called potter's valley.' _ford_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _niahbella pomos_ live in the north-west of mendocino county. _ms. map._ the _ukiahs_ live on russian river in the vicinity of parker's ranch. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. , . 'the yuka tribe are those mostly within and immediately adjoining the mountains.' _mendocino herald_, _march, _. the yukai live on russian river. _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the ukias are in the south-eastern part of mendocino county. _ms. map._ the _soteomellos_ or sotomieyos 'lived in russian river valley.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _shumeias_ 'lived on the extreme upper waters of eel river, opposite potter valley.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _tahtoos_ 'live in the extreme upper end of potter valley.' _ib._ the _yeeaths_ live at cape mendocino. _tobin_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _kushkish_ indians live at shelter cove. _id._, p. . the _comachos_ live in russian river valley, in rancheria and anderson valleys. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _kajatschims_, _makomas_, and _japiams_ live in the russian river valley, north of fort ross. _baer_, _stat. und ethno._, p. . the _gallinomeros_ occupy dry creek valley and russian river valley below healdsburg. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _masalla magoons_ 'live along russian river south of cloverdale.' _id._ the _rincons_ live south of the masalla magoons. _id._ the _gualalas_ live on gualala or wallalla creek. _id._ the nahlohs, carlotsapos, chowechaks, chedochogs, choiteeu, misalahs, bacowas, samindas, and cachenahs, tuwanahs, lived in the country between fort ross and san francisco bay. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . _chwachamaju_ (russian severnovskia) or northerners, is the name of one of the tribes in the vicinity of fort ross. _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. und ethno._, p. . 'severnovskia, severnozer, or "northerners." indians north of bodega bay. they call themselves chwachamaja.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _olamentkes_ live at bodega. _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. und ethnog._, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _kainamares_ or kainaméahs are at fitch's ranch, extending as far back as santa rosa, down russian river, about three leagues to cooper's ranch, and thence across the coast at fort ross, and for twenty-five miles above. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the kanimares had rancherias at santa rosa, petaluma, or pataloma, and up to russian river.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. 'the proper name of russian river in sonoma valley is canimairo after the celebrated indians of those parts.' _id._, _june , _. the indians of the plains in vicinity of fort ross, call themselves kainama. _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. und ethno._, p. . the kyanamaras 'inhabit the section of country between the cañon of russian river and its mouth.' _ford_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _tumalehnias_ live on bodega bay. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _socoas_, _lamas_, and _seacos_, live in russian river valley in the vicinity of the village of sanél. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _sonomas_, sonomis, or sonomellos, lived at the embarcadero of sonoma. _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the sonomas lived in the south-eastern extremity of what is now the county of sonoma. _ms. map._ the _tchokoyems_ lived in sonoma valley. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the chocuyens lived in the region now called sonoma county, and from their chief the county takes its name. _cronise's nat. wealth_, p. . the word sonoma means 'valley of the moon.' _tuthill's hist. cal._, p. . the tchokoyems live in sonoma valley. _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the _timbalakees_ lived on the west side of sonoma valley.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _guillicas_ lived 'northwest of sonoma,' on the old wilson ranch of . _ib._; _ms. map_. the _kinklas_ live in ° ´ north lat. and ° ´ long. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . the klinkas are a 'tribu fixée au nord du rio del sacramento.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . south of the rogue river indians 'the population is very scanty until we arrive at the valley of the sacramento, all the tribes of which are included by the traders under the general name of kinklá, which is probably, like tlamatl, a term of chinook origin.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . the talatui live 'on the kassima river, a tributary to the sacramento, on the eastern side, about eighty miles from its mouth.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _oleepas_ live on the feather river, twenty miles above marysville. _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'the nemshous, as stated by general sutter, roamed (prior to ) between the bear and american rivers; across the sacramento were the yolos and colusas; north of the american fork were the bashones. on the banks of the river north of fort helvetia, roamed the veshanacks, the touserlemnies and youcoolumnies; between the american (plain and hills) and the mokalumne roamed the walacumnies, cosumnies, solumnees, mokelumnees, suraminis, yosumnis, lacomnis, kis kies and omochumnies.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the colusas live in the north-eastern corner of colusa county. the yolos, in the northern part of the county of that name. west of them the olashes. the bushones in the south of yolo county. the nemshoos in the eastern part of placer county. the yukutneys north of them. the vesnacks south-west of the nemshoos, and north of the pulpenes. the youcoulumnes and cosumnes are in the eastern part of amador county. the mokelumnes south of them. the yachachumnes west of the mokelumnes. _ms. map_. 'yolo is a corruption of the indian yoloy, which signified a region thick with rushes, and was the name of the tribe owning the tule lands west of the sacramento and bordering on cache creek.' _tuthill's hist. cal._, p. . the following are names of rancherias of tame indians or neophytes in the sacramento valley; sakisimme, shonomnes, tawalemnes, seywamenes, mukelemnes, cosumne. rancherias of wild indians or gentiles, are: sagayacumne, socklumnes, olonutchamne, newatchumne, yumagatock, shalachmushumne, omatchamne, yusumne, yuleyumne, tamlocklock, sapototot, yalesumne, wapoomne, kishey, secumne, pushune, oioksecumne, nemshan, palanshan, ustu, olash, yukulme, hock, sishu, mimal, yulu, bubu, honcut. _indian tribes of the sacramento valley, ms._ tame indians or neophites: lakisumne, shonomne, fawalomnes, mukeemnes, cosumne. wild indians or gentiles: sagayacumne, locklomnee, olonutchamne, yumagatock, shalachmushumne, omutchamne, yusumne, yaleyumne, yamlocklock, lapototot, yalesumne, wajuomne, kisky, secumne, pushune, oioksecumne, nemshaw, palanshawl ustu, olash, yukulme, hock, lishu, mimal, ubu, bubu, honcut. _sutter's estimate of indian population, , ms._ the ochecamnes, servushamnes, chupumnes, omutchumnes, sicumnes, walagumnes, cosumnes, sololumnes, turealemnes, saywamines, nevichumnes, matchemnes, sagayayumnes, muthelemnes, and lopstatimnes, lived on the eastern bank of the sacramento. the bushumnes (or pujuni), (or sekomne) yasumnes, nemshaw, kisky, yaesumnes, huk, and yucal, lived on the western bank of the sacramento. _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., pp. , . the _yubas_ or _yuvas_ lived on yuva river, a tributary to the sacramento. _fremont's geog. memoir_, p. . the _meidoos_ and _neeshenams_ are on the yuba and feather rivers. 'as you travel south from chico the indians call themselves meidoo until you reach bear river; but below that it is neeshenam, or sometimes mana or maidec, all of which denote men or indians.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xii., p. . the _cushnas_ live near the south fork of the yuba river. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . taylor also mentions the cushnas south of the yuba. _cal. farmer_, _may , _. [sidenote: clear lake tribes.] the _guenocks_ and _locollomillos_ lived between clear lake and napa. _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _lopillamillos_ or lupilomis lived on the borders of clear lake. _ib._; _ms. map_. the _mayacmas_ and _tyugas_ dwell about clear lake. _san francisco herald_, _june, _. the mayacmas and tyugas 'inhabited the vicinity of clear lake and the mountains of napa and mendocino counties.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _; _ms. map_. the _wi-lackees_ 'live along the western slope of the shasta mountains from round valley to hay fork, between those mountains on one side and eel and mad rivers on the other, and extending down the latter stream about to low gap.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the wye lakees, nome lackees, noimucks, noiyucans and noisas, lived at clear lake. _geiger_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . _napobatin_, meaning 'many houses,' was the collective name of six tribes living at clear lake: their names were hulanapo, habenapo or stone house, dahnohabe, or stone mountain, möalkai, shekom, and howkuma. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _shanelkayas_ and _bedahmareks_, or lower people, live on the east fork of eel river. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the _sanéls_ live at clear lake.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the sanels occupy russian river valley in the vicinity of the american village of sanel.' _powers' pomo, ms._ the _bochheafs_, _ubakheas_, _tabahteas_, and the _moiyas_, live between clear lake and the coast. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _socoas_, _lamas_, and _seacos_, occupy russian river valley in the vicinity of the village of sanel. _powers' pomo, ms._ the _napas_ 'inhabited the salvador vallejo ranch of entre-napa--that is the place between napa river and napa creek.' _hittell_, in _hesperian mag._, vol. iv., p. ; _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'the napa indians lived near that town and near yount's ranch.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. 'the _caymus_ tribe occupied the tract now owned by g. c. yount.' _hittell_, in _hesperian mag._, vol. iv., p. . 'the _calajomanas_ had their home on the land now known as the bale ranche.' _ib._ the _mayacomas_ dwelt in the vicinity of the hot springs in the upper end of napa valley. _ib._ the _ulucas_ lived on the east of the river napa, near the present townsite. _id._, p. . 'the _suscols_ lived on the ranch of that name, and between napa and benicia.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. 'the former domain of the suscol indians was afterwards known as suscol ranch.' _hittel_, in _hesperian mag._, vol. iv., p. ; _ms. map_. the _tulkays_ lived 'below the town of napa.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _canaumanos_ lived on bayle's ranch in napa valley. _ib._ the _mutistuls_ live 'between the heads of napa and putos creeks.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _yachimeses_ originally occupied the ground upon which the city of stockton now stands. _cal. farmer_, _dec. , _. the _yachichumnes_ 'formerly inhabited the country between stockton and mt. diablo.' _san francisco evening bulletin_, _sept. , _. the _suisunes_ live in suisun valley. _cal. farmer_, _march , _. solano county was named from their chief. _cronise's nat. wealth_, p. ; _tuthill's hist. cal._, p. . the _ullulatas_ 'lived on the north side of suisun valley.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _pulpenes_ lived on the eastern side of suisun valley. _ib._ the _tolenos_ lived on the north side of suisun valley. _ib._ the _karquines_ lived on the straits of that name. _ib._ the _tomales_, tamales, tamallos, or tamalanos, and bollanos, lived between bodega bay and the north shore of san francisco bay. _id._, _march , _, _march , _. the _socoisukas_, _thamiens_, and _gerguensens_ or gerzuensens 'roamed in the santa clara valley, between the coyote and guadalupe rivers, and the country west of san jose city to the mountains.' _id._, _june , _. the _lecatuit_ tribe occupied marin county, and it is from the name of their chief that the county takes its name. _cronise's nat. wealth_, p. . 'the _petalumas_ or the _yolhios_ lived near or around that town.' _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the _tulares_, so called by the spaniards, lived between the northern shore of the bay of san francisco and san rafael. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _wapos_ inhabited 'the country about the geysers.' _ford_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _yosemites_ inhabited the valley of the same name. the tosemiteiz are on the headwaters of the chowchilla. _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _ahwahnachees_ are the inhabitants of yosemite valley. _hittel's yosemite_, p. . [sidenote: tribes near the mission dolores.] the following names of rancherías which formerly existed in the vicinity of the mission dolores, are taken from the mission books: abmoctac, amutaja, altanui, aleytac, anchin, aleta, aramay, altajumo, aluenchi, acnagis, assunta, atarpe, anamás, acyum, anamon, cachanegtac, caprup, cazopo, carascan, conop, chutchin, chagunte, chapugtac, chipisclin, chynau, chipletac, chuchictac, chiputca, chanigtac, churmutcé, chayen, chupcan, elarroyde, flunmuda, génau, guloismistac, gamchines, guanlen, hunctu, halchis, horocroc, huimen, itáes, juniamuc, josquigard, juchium, juris, joquizará, luidneg, luianeglua, lamsim, livangelva, livangebra, libantone, macsinum, mitliné, malvaitac, muingpe, naig, naique, napa, ompivromo, ousint, oturbe, olestura, otoacte, petlenum, or petaluma, pruristac, puichon, puycone, patnetac, pructaca, purutea, proqueu, quet, sitlintaj, suchni, subchiam, siplichiquin, siscastac, ssiti, sitintajea, ssupichum, sicca, soisehme, saturaumo, satumuo, sittintac, ssichitca, sagunte, ssalayme, sunchaque, ssipudca, saraise, sipanum, sarontac, ssogereate, sadanes, tuzsint, tatquinte, titmictac, tupuic, titiyú, timita, timsim, tubisuste, timigtac, torose, tupuinte, tuca, tamalo, or tomales, talcan, totola, urebure, uturpe, ussete, uchium, véctaca, vagerpe, yelamú, yacmui, yacomui, yajumui, zomiomi, zucigin ... aguasajuchium, apuasto, aguasto, carquin, (karquines), cuchian, chaclan, chiguau, cotejen, chuscan, guylpunes, huchun, habasto, junatca, jarquin, sanchines, oljon, olpen, olemos, olmolococ, quemelentus, quirogles, salzon, sichican, saucon, suchigin, sadan, uquitinac, volvon (or bolbon). 'the tribes of indians upon the bay of san francisco, and who were, after its establishment, under the supervision of the mission of dolores, were five in number; the ahwashtees, ohlones (called in spanish costanos, or indians of the coast), altahmos, romanons, and tuolomos. there were, in addition to these, a few small tribes, but all upon the land extending from the entrance to the head of san francisco bay, spoke the same language.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _may , _. the tribes mentioned by adam johnston in schoolcraft, who lived around the missions of dolores and yerba buena, were the 'ahwashtes, ohlones, altahmos, romanans, and tulomos. the ohlones were likely the same called by the old priests, sulones, solomnies, the sonomis were another.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . 'the following races of californians were named to us living within the precincts of the mission of san francisco; guymen, utschim, olumpali, soclan, sonomi, chulpun, umpin, kosmitas, bulbones, tchalabones, pitem, lamam, apalamu, tcholoones, suysum, numpali, tamal, and ululato.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'on compte dans cette seul mission (san francisco) plus de quinze différentes tribus d'indiens: les khoulpouni; les oumpini; les kosmiti; les lamanès; les bolbonès; les pitemèns; les khalalons; les apatamnès, ils parlent la même langue et habitent le long des bords du rio sacramento; les guimen; les outchioung; les olompalis; les tamals; les sonons ils parlent la même langue; ces tribus sont les plus nombreuses dans la mission de san francisco; les saklans; les ouloulatines; les noumpolis; les souissouns; ils parlent des langues différentes.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. iii., pp. , . 'california indians on the bay of san francisco, and formerly under the supervisions of the mission dolores. there were five tribes: ashwashtes, olhones (called by the spaniards costanos, or indians of the coast), altahmos, romonans, and tulomos. a few other small tribes round the bay speak the same language.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . 'um die bai von san francisco die matalánes, salses und quiróles, deren sprachen, eine gemeinsame quelle haben.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . the olchones 'inhabit the seacoast between san francisco and monterey.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . the salsonas, 'viven unas seis leguas distantes rumbo al sueste (of san francisco bay) por las cercanias del brazo de mar.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . the _korekins_ formerly lived at the mouth of the san joaquin. _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'the rancherias of indians near this mission, all within eight or ten miles of santa cruz, ... were: aulintac, the rancheria proper to the mission; chalumü, one mile north-west of the mission; hottrochtac, two miles north-west; ... wallanmai; sio cotchmin; shoremee; onbi; choromi; turami; payanmin; shiuguermi; hauzaurni. the mission also had neophytes of the rancherias of tomoy, osacalis (souquel), yeunaba, achilla, yeunata, tejey, nohioalli, utalliam, locobo, yeunator, chanech, huocom, chicutae, aestaca, sachuen, hualquilme, sagin, ochoyos, huachi, apil, mallin, luchasmi, coot, and agtism, as detailed in a letter from friar ramon olbez to governor de sola, in november, , in reply to a circular from him, as to the native names, etc., of the indians of santa cruz, and their rancherias.' _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the _mutsunes_ are the natives of the mission of san juan baptista. _cal. farmer_, _nov. _, and _june , _; _hist. mag._, vol. i., p. . the _ansaymas_ lived in the vicinity of san juan bautista. _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'four leagues (twelve miles) southeast of the mission (monterey), inside the hills eastward, was the rancheria of echilat, called san francisquita. eslanagan was one on the east side of the river and ecgeagan was another; another was ichenta or san jose; another xaseum in the sierra, ten leagues from carmelo; that of pachhepes was in the vicinity of xaseum, among the escellens. that of the sargentarukas was seven leagues south and east of the river in a canaditta de palo colorado.' _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the _runsienes_ live near monterey. _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the rumsen or runsienes are 'indians in the neighbourhood of monterey, california. the achastliers speak a dialect of the same language.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'um den hafen von monterey leben die rumsen oder runsien, die escelen oder eslen, die ecclemáches, und achastliés.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'la partie septentrionale de la nouvelle-californie est habitée par les deux nations des rumsen et escelen.... elles forment la population du preside et du village de monterey. dans la baie de s. francisco, on distingue les tribus des matalans, salsen et quirotes.' _humboldt_, _pol._, p. . 'eslen y runsien que ocupan toda la california septentrional.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'um monterey wohnen zwey völker ... die rumsen, und im osten von diesen die escelen.' _vater_, _mithridates_, p. . 'the eslenes clan roamed over the present ranchos san francisquito, tallarcittos, and up and down the carmelo valley.' 'the rancheria _per se_ of the escellens was named by the priests, santa clara; soccorondo was across the river a few miles. their other little clans or septs were called coyyo, yampas, fyules, nennequi, jappayon, gilimis, and yanostas.' _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the eskelens are 'california indians, east of monterey. the ekklemaches are said to be a tribe of the eskelen, and to speak the richest idiom of all the california indians.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the country of the ecclemachs extends more than twenty leagues east of monterey. _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. the _katlendarucas_ seem 'to have been situated near the esteros or lagoons about the mouth of the salinas river, or in the words of the old priest, "en los esteros de la entrada al mar del rio de monterey, o reversa de esta grande ensenada." their rancherias were capanay, lucayasta, paysim, tiubta, culul, mustac, pytogius, animpayamo, ymunacam, and all on the pajaro river, or between it and the salinas.' _cal. farmer_, _april , _; _ms. map_. the _sakhones_ had rancherias near monterey 'on the ranchos now known as loucitta, tarro, national buena esperanza, buena vista, and lands of that vicinity.' _ib._; _ms. map_. 'the _wallalshimmez_ live on tuolumne river.' _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the _potoancies_ claim the merced river as their homes.' _ib._ the potaaches occupy the same region on the _ms. map_. 'the _nootchoos_ ... live on the headwaters of chowchilla.' _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the nootchoos live on the south fork of the merced. _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . 'the _pohoneeches_ live on the headwaters of fresno.' _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pohoneeches live on the north bank of the fresno. _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . the _pitcatches_, the _tallenches_, and the _coswas_, live on the san joaquin. _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [sidenote: king's river and tulare lake tribes.] 'the _wattokes_, a nation of indians, consisting of the wattokes, ituchas, chokemnies, and wechummies, live high up on king's river.' _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _watches_, the _notonotoos_, and the _wemelches_, live in the neighborhood of king's river farm. _ib._ 'the _talches_ and woowells live on tulare lake.' _ib._ the _chowchillas_, _choocchancies_, and _howachez_, are mentioned as living at fresno river farm. _id._, p. . the chowchillas inhabit 'from the kern river of the tulare deltas to the feather river.' _taylor_, in _bancroft's hand book almanac_, , p. . the _wallas_ live in tuolumne county. _patrick_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . there has been much discussion about the word wallie, or walla. powers asserts that it is derived from the word 'wallim,' which means 'down below', and was applied by the yosemite indians to all tribes living below them. the wallies live on the stanislaus and tuolumne. _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . the mewahs live in tuolumne county. _jewett_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _meewoc_ nation 'extended from the snow-line of the sierra to the san joaquin river, and from the cosumnes to the fresno.... north of the stanislaus they call themselves meewoc (indians); south of it, to the merced, meewa; south of that to the fresno, meewie. on the upper merced river is wakâlla; on the upper tuolumne, wakalumy; on the stanislaus and mokelumne, wakalumytoh.... as to tribal distribution, the meewocs north of the stanislaus, like the neeshenams, designate principally by the points of the compass. these are toomun, choomuch, háyzooit, and ólowit (north, south, east, and west), from which are formed various tribal names--as toomuns, toomedocs, and tamolécas, choomuch, choomwits, choomedocs, or chimedocs, and choomtéyas; olowits, olówedocs, oloweéyas, etc. olówedocs is the name applied to all indians living on the plains, as far west as stockton. but there are several names which are employed absolutely, and without any reference to direction. on the south bank of the cosumnes are the cawnees; on sutter creek, the yulónees; on the stanislaus and tuolumne the extensive tribe of wallies; in yosemite, the awánees, on the south fork of merced, the nootchoos; on the middle merced, the choomtéyas, on the upper chowchilla, the héthtoyas; on the middle chowchilla the tribe that named the stream; and on the north bank of the fresno the pohoneechees.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., pp. - ; _ms. map_. the _coitch_ tribe live one hundred and fifty miles east of the vegas of santa clara. _los angeles star_, _may , _. the _notonatos_ lived on king's river. _maltby's ms. letter._ the _kahweahs_ lived on four creeks. _ib._ the _yolanchas_ lived on tule river. _ib._ the _pokoninos_ lived on deer creek. _ib._ the _poloyamas_ lived on pasey creek. _ib._ the _polokawynahs_ lived on kern river. _ib._ the _ymithces_ and _cowiahs_ live on four creeks. _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _waches_, _notoowthas_, _ptolmes_, and _chunemnes_ live on king river. _ib._ the _costrowers_, _pitiaches_, _talluches_, _loomnears_ and _amonces_ live on the san joaquin. _id._, p. . the _chowclas_, _chookchaneys_, _phonechas_, _nookchues_, and _howetsers_, live on the fresno river. _ib._ the _coconoons_ live on the merced river. _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the _monos_ living west of the sierra nevada, live on fine gold gulch and the san joaquin river. _ib._ east of the sierra nevada they occupy the country south of mono lake. _ms. map._ 'the monos, cosos, and some other tribes, occupy the eastern slopes of the sierra nevadas.' _cal. farmer_, _may , _. 'the olanches, monos, siqiurionals, wasakshes, cowhuillas, chokiamauves, tenisichs, yocolles, paloushiss, wikachumnis, openoches, taches, nutonetoos and choemimnees, roamed from the tuolumne to kings river and the tejon, on the east of the san joaquin, the tulare lakes and in the sierra nevada, as stated by lieut. beale, in .' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the _tulareños_ live in the mountain wilderness of the four creeks, porsiuncula (or kerns or current) river and the tejon; and wander thence towards the headwaters of the mohave and the neighborhood of the cahuillas. their present common name belongs to the spanish and mexican times and is derived from the word tularé (a swamp with flags). _hayes' ms._ 'tulareños, habitant la grande vallée de los tulares de la californie.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the _yocut_ dominion includes the kern and tulare basins and the middle of san joaquin, stretching from fresno to kern river falls.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xi., p. . cumbatwas on pitt river. _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ shastas, in shasta and scott valleys. _ib._ [sidenote: southern californians.] the southern californians, whose territory lies south of the thirty-fifth parallel, are, as far as is known, tribally distributed as follows: the _cahuillos_ 'inhabit principally a tract of country about eighty miles east from san bernardino, and known as the cabeson valley, and their villages are on or near the road leading to la paz on the colorado river.... another branch of this tribe numbering about four hundred occupy a tract of country lying in the mountains about forty miles southeast from san bernardino, known as the coahuila valley.' _stanley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'the coahuillas are scattered through the san bernardino and san jacinto mountains and eastward in the cabesan valley.' _whiting_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the coahuilas live in the san jacinto mountains. _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the cohuillas reside in the northern half of the country, commencing on the coast, and extending to within fifty miles of the colorado river, following the eastern base of the mountains. _san francisco herald_, _june, _. the cahuillos or cawios reside 'near the pacific, between the sources of the san gabriel and santa anna.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the cahuillas are a little to the north of the san luiseños, occupying the mountain ridges and intervening valleys to the east and southeast of mount san bernadino, down towards the mohava river and the desert that borders the river colorado, the nation of mohavas lying between them and these rivers. i am unable just now to give the number and names of all their villages. san gorgonio, san jacinto, coyote, are among those best known, though others even nearer the desert, are more populous.' _hayes' ms._ the cohuillas occupy the southwestern part of san bernardino county, and the northwestern part of san diego county. _ms. map._ 'the carvilla indians occupy the country from san gorgonio pass to the arroyo blanco.' _cram's topog. memoir_, p. . 'the _cowillers_ and _telemnies_ live on four creeks.' _id._, p. . 'the limits of the kahweyah and kahsowah tribes appear to have been from the feather river in the northern part of the state, to the tulare lakes of the south.' _cal. farmer_, _may , _. the _diegeños_ 'are said to occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, and about the same distance below san diego, and to extend about a hundred miles into the interior.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. the dieguinos are in the southern part of san diego county, and extend from the coast to the desert. _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the dieguinas reside in the southern part of the country watered by the colorado, and claim the land from a point on the pacific to the eastern part of the mountains impinging on the desert. _san francisco herald_, _june, _. the comeyas or diegenos 'occupy the coast for some fifty miles above, and about the same distance below san diego, and extend about a hundred miles into the interior.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'the indians round san diego, deguinos, diegeños, were in a savage state, and their language almost unknown. bartlett says that they are also called comeya; but whipple asserts that the comeya, a tribe of the yumas, speak a different language.' _ludewig_, _ab. lang._, p. . on page ludewig says that as the name diegeños means the indians round san diego, there is no such name as deguinos. 'the villages of the dieguinos, wherever they live separately, are a little to the south of the cahuillas. indeed, under this appellation they extend a hundred miles into lower california, in about an equal state of civilization, and thence are scattered through the tecaté valley over the entire desert on the west side of new river.... their villages known to me are san dieguito (about twenty souls), san diego mission, san pasqual, camajal (two villages), santa ysabel, san josé, matahuay, lorenzo, san felipe, cajon, cuyamaca, valle de las viejas.' _hayes' ms._ the _missouris_ 'are scattered over san bernardino, san diego and other counties in the southern part of the state.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _kechi_ inhabit the country about mission san luis rey. _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . the _chumas_, or _kachumas_ live three miles from the mission of santa inez. _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. _los cayotes_ was the name given by the spaniards to the tribe which originally inhabited san diego county. _hoffman_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. v., p. . the _new river indians_ 'live along new river, sixty miles west from fort yuma, and near san diego.' _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _sierras_, or caruanas, the _lagunas_, or tataguas, and the _surillos_ or cartakas are mentioned as living on the tejon reservation. _wentworth_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . the _serranos_ lived in the vicinity of san bernardino. _reid_, in _los angeles star, letter i._, in _hayes col._ mr taylor claims to have discovered the exact positions of many of the places mentioned. his statement, for the accuracy of which i by no means vouch, is as follows: 'xucu, or shucu, on the ortega farm, near rincon point; missisissepono on rafel gonzale's rancho on saticoy river, near sea, sometimes called pono; coloc, near carpentaria beach. mugu, below saticoy some thirty miles, near the sea; anacbuc or anacarck, near the islet of la patera, near the sea shore. partocac or paltocac, the indian cemetery on the mesa of la patera, near sea; aguin at the beach of los llagos canada; casalic, at the refugio playa and canada; tucumu or playa of arroyo honda. xocotoc, cojo, or cojotoc, near pt. concepcion; pt. concepcion, cancac or caacac, or cacat.' _cal. farmer_, _aug. , _. [sidenote: southern mission indians.] the following names of rancherías were taken from the archives of the various missions; in the vicinity of la purissima: lajuchu, silimastus, sisolop, jlaacs, or slacus, huasna, estait, esmischue, ausion, esnispele, silisne, sacspili, estait, huenejel, husistaic, silimi, suntaho, alacupusyuen, espiiluima, tutachro, sisolop, naila, tutachro, paxpili, or axpitil, silino, lisahuato, guaslaique, pacsiol, sihimi, huenepel ninyuelgual, lompoc, nahuey, or nahajuey, sipuca, stipu, ialamma, huasna, sacsiol, kachisupal, salachi, nocto, fax, salachi, sitolo, or sautatho, omaxtux. near santa inez, were: sotomoenu, katahuac, asiuhuil, situchi, kulahuasa, sisuchi, kuyam, or cuyama, ionata, tekep, kusil, sanchu, sikitipuc, temesathi, lujanisuissilac, tapanissilac, ialamne, chumuchn, suiesia, chumuchu, tahijuas, tinachi, lompoe, ionata, aguama, sotonoemu, guaislac, tequepas, matiliha, stucu, aketsum, or kachuma, ahuamhoue, geguep, achillimo, alizway, souscoc, talaxano, nutonto, cholicus. near santa barbara were guainnonost, sisabanonase, huelemen, inoje, luijta, cajpilili, missopeno (sopono), inajalayehua, huixapa, calahuassa, snihuax, huililoc, yxaulo, anijue, sisuch, cojats, numguelgar, lugups, gleuaxcuyu, chiuchin, ipec, sinicon, xalanaj, xalou, sisahiahut, cholosoc, ituc, guima, huixapapa, eleunaxciay, taxlipu, elmian, anajue, huililic, inajalaihu, estuc, eluaxcu. sihuicom, liam. some of these were from rancherias of the valleys east of the range on the coast. some of these taylor locates as follows: 'janaya, above the mission, salpilil on the patera; aljiman, near the windmill of la patera; geliec, near islet of la patera; tequepes, in santa ynez valley; cascili, in the refugio playa; miguihui, on the dos pueblos; sisichii, in dos pueblos; maschal, on santa cruz island; gelo, the islet of la patera; cuyamu on dos pueblos also cinihuaj on same rancho; coloc, at the rincon; alcax in la goleta; allvatalama, near the la goleta estero; sayokenek, on the arroyo burro; partocac cemetery, near sea bluffs of la goleta; humaliju, of san fernando mission; calla wassa and anijue, of santa ynez mission; sajcay in los cruces; sasaguel, in santa cruz island; lucuyumu, in the same island, dated november, ; nanahuani and chalosas were also on same island; eljman was on san marcos, xexulpituc and taxlipu, were camps of the tulares.' _cal. farmer_, _aug. , _. near san buenaventura mission were: 'miscanaka, name of the mission site. ojai or aujay, about ten miles up san buenavent river. mugu, on the coast near sea on guadalasca rancho, not far from the point so called. matillija up the s. b. river towards santa inez, which mission also had matilija indians. the matillija sierra separates the valleys of s. buenaventa and s. inez. sespe was on the san cayetano rancho of saticoy river, twenty miles from the sea. mupu and piiru were on the arroyos of those names which came into the saticoy near sespe. kamulas was higher up above piiru. cayeguas (not a spanish name as spelt on some maps) on rancho of that name. somes or somo near hills of that name. malico, range of hills south of somo. chichilop, lisichi, liam, sisa, sisjulcioy, malahue, chumpache, lacayamu, ypuc, lojos aogni, luupsch, miguigui, and chihucchihui were names of other rancherias.... ishgua or ishguaget, was a rancheria near the mouth of the saticoy river and not far from the beach.... hueneme was a rancheria on the ocean coast a few miles south of saticoy river. tapo and simi were rancherias on the present noriega rancho of simi. saticoy is the name of the existing rancheria ... on the lower part of the santa paula or saticoy rancho, about eight miles from the sea, near some fine springs of water, not far from the river, and near the high road going up the valleys.' _cal. farmer_, _july , _. 'the site of san fernando was a rancheria called pasheckno. other clans were okowvinjha, kowanga and saway yanga. the ahapchingas were a clan or rancheria between los angeles and san juan capistrano, and enemies of the gabrielenos or those of san gabriel.... the following are the names of the rancherias, or clans, living in the vicinity of san luis rey mission: enekelkawa was the name of one near the mission-site, mokaskel, cenyowpreskel, itukemuk, hatawa, hamechuwa, itaywiy, milkwanen, ehutewa, mootaeyuhew, and hepowwoo, were the names of others. at the aquas calientes was a very populous rancheria, called hakoopin.' _id._, _may , _. in los angeles county, the following are the principal lodges or rancherias, with their corresponding present local names: yangna, los angeles; sibag-na, san gabriel; isanthcagna, mision vieja; sisitcanogna, pear orchard; sonagna, mr white's farm; acuragua, the presa; asucsagna, azuza; cucomogna, cucamonga farm; pasinogna, rancho del chino; awigna, la puente; chokishgna, the saboneria; nacaugna, carpenter's farm; pineugna, santa catalina island; pimocagna, rancho de los ybarras; toybipet, san josé; hutucgna, santa ana (yorbes); aleupkigna, santa anita; maugna, rancho de los felis; hahamogna, rancho de los verdugas; cabuegna, caliuenga; pasecgna, san fernando; houtgna, ranchito de lugo, suangna, suanga; pubugna, alamitos; tibahagna, serritos; chowig-na, palos verdes; kinkipar, san clemente island, harasgna. _reid_, in _los angeles star, letter i._, in _hayes collection_. the _san luisieños_ inhabit the northern part of san diego, from the coast east, including the mountains. _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the villages of the san luiseños are in a section of country adjacent to the cahuillas, between and miles in the mountainous interior from san diego; they are known as las flores, santa margarita, san luis rey mission, wahoma, pala, temecula, ahuanga (two villages), la joya, potrero, and bruno's and pedro's villages within five or six miles of aqua caliente; they are all in san diego county.' _hayes' ms._ the _noches_ are settled along the rivers which flow between the colorado and the pacific ocean. _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . garces mentions the western noches in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., vol. i., p. . the _tejon_ indians were those who inhabited the southern part of tulare valley. _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., p. . the _playanos_ were indians who came to settle in the valley of san juan capistrano. _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . the shoshones, whose territory spreads over south-eastern oregon, southern idaho, and the whole of utah and nevada, extending into arizona and new mexico, and the eastern border of california, i divide into two great nations, the snakes or shoshones, proper, and the utahs, with their subdivisions. wilson divides the shoshones into the shoshones and bannacks, and the utahs; the latter he subdivides into seven bands, which will be seen under utahs. he adds: 'among the shoshonies there are only two bands properly speaking. the principal or better portion are called shoshonies, or snakes ... the others the shoshocoes.... their claim of boundary is to the east, from the red buttes on the north fork of the platte, to its head in the park, decayaque, or buffalo bull-pen, in the rocky mountains; to the south across the mountains, over to the yanpapa, till it enters green, or colorado river, and then across to the backbone or ridge of mountains called the bear river mountains running nearly due west towards the salt lake, so as to take in most of the salt lake, and thence on to the sinks of marry's or humboldt's river; thence north to the fisheries, on the snake river, in oregon; and thence south (their northern boundary), to the red buttes, including the source of green river.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. vi., p. . 'under various names ... the great race of shoshones, is found scattered over the boundless wilderness, from texas to the columbia. their territory is bounded on the north and west by ... the blackfeet and crows.' _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - . [sidenote: the snakes.] the _snakes_, or shoshones proper, although they form a part only of the great shoshone family, are usually termed 'the shoshones' by the authorities. they are divided by dr hurt into 'snakes, bannacks, tosiwitches, gosha utes, and cumumpahs, though he afterwards classes the last two divisions as hybrid races between the shoshones and the utahs.... the shoshones claim the northeastern portion of the territory for about four hundred miles west, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five miles south from the oregon line.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . 'the great snake nation may be divided into three divisions, namely, the shirrydikas, or dog-eaters; the wararereekas, or fish-eaters; and the banattees, or robbers. but, as a nation, they all go by the general appellation of shoshones, or snakes.... the shirrydikas are the real shoshones, and live in the plains hunting the buffalo.' the country claimed by the snake tribes 'is bounded on the east by the rocky mountains, on the south by the spanish waters; on the pacific, or west side, by an imaginary line, beginning at the west end, or spur, of the blue mountains, behind fort nez percés, and running parallel with the ocean to the height of land beyond the umpqua river, in about north lat. ° (this line never approaches within miles of the pacific); and on the north by another line, running due east from the said spur of the blue mountains, and crossing the great south branch, or lewis river, at the dalles, till it strikes the rocky mountains miles north of the three pilot knobs, or the place thereafter named the 'valley of troubles.'' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. , . 'they embrace all the territory of the great south pass, between the mississippi valley and the waters of the columbia.... under the name of yampatickara or root-eaters and bonacks they occupy with the utahs the vast elevated basin of the great salt lake, extending south and west to the borders of new mexico and california.' _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - , . 'the hunters report, that the proper country of the snakes is to the east of the youta lake, and north of the snake or lewis river; but they are found in many detached places. the largest band is located near fort boise, on the snake river to the north of the bonacks.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . the shoshones 'occupy the centre and principal part of the great basin.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. 'inhabit that part of the rocky mountains which lies on the grand and green river branches of the colorado of the west, the valley of great bear river, the habitable shores of the great salt lake, a considerable portion of country on snake river above and below fort hall, and a tract extending two or three hundred miles to the west of that post.' _farnham's trav._, p. . the shoshones inhabit about one third of the territory of utah, living north of salt lake 'and on the line of the humboldt or mary river, some miles west and to south of the oregon line. the yuta claim the rest of the territory between kansas, the sierra nevada, new mexico and the oregon frontier.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'les soshonies, c'est-à-dire les déterreurs de racines, surnommés les serpents, ... habitent la partie méridionale du territoire de l'orégon, dans le voisinage de la haute californie.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'their country lies south-west of the south-east branch of the columbia, and is said to be the most barren of any part of the country in these western regions.' _parker's explor. tour_, p. . 'on the south part of the oregon territory, adjoining upper california, are located the shoshones or snake indians.' _ib._, p. . 'serpents ou saaptins, monquis, bonacks et youtas toutes les branches du rio colombia ou sud-est et les environs du lac salé an timpanogos.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'the country of the shoshonees proper is south of lewis or snake river, and east of the salt lake. there is, however one detached band, known as the wihinasht, or western snakes, near fort boirie, separated from the main body by the tribe of bonnaks.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'the shoshones are a small tribe of the nation called snake indians, a vague denomination, which embraces at once the inhabitants of the southern part of the rocky mountains, and of the plains on each side.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . the snakes or shothoucs 'formerly occupied the whole of that vast territory lying between the rocky and the blue mountains, and extending northward to the lower fork of the columbia, and to the south as far as the basin of the great salt lake.' _coke's rocky mts._, p. . 'they occupy southern and western nevada.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they inhabit the southern part of the rocky mountains and the plains on each side.' _bulfinch's ogn._, p. . 'they occupy all the country between the southern branches of lewis's river, extending from the umatullum to the e. side of the stony mountains, on the southern parts of wallaumut river from about ° to ° n. lat. a branch of this tribe reside ... in spring and summer on the w. fork of lewis river, a branch of the columbia, and in winter and fall on the missouri.' _morse's rept._, p. . 'the shoshones dwell between the rocky and blue mountain ranges.' _nicolay's ogn. ter._, p. . 'the aboriginees of the reese river country consist of the shoshone nation, divided into many subordinate tribes, each having a distinctive name, and occupying a tract of country varying from to miles square. their country is bordered on the west by the pi-utes, the edwards creek mountains some miles west of reese river, being the dividing line. on the east it extends to ruby valley, where it joins on the territory of the goshoots, the bannocks being their neighbors on the northeast.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'the snake tribe, inhabit the country bordering on lewis and bear rivers, and their various tributaries.' _palmer's jour._, p. . 'the snake indians, who embrace many tribes, inhabit a wide extent of country at the head of snake river above and below fort hall, and the vicinity of great bear river and great salt lake. they are a migratory race, and generally occupy the south-eastern portion of oregon.' _dunn's ogn._, p. . the shoshones inhabit the great plains to the southward of the lewis river. _cox's adven._, vol. ii., p. . the shoshones occupy 'almost the whole eastern half of the state (nevada). the line separating them from the pai-utes on the east and south is not very clearly defined.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the western bands of shoshones ... range from the idaho boundary north, southward to the thirty-eighth parallel; their western limit is the line passing through the sunatoya mountains; their eastern limit steptoe and great salt lake valleys.' _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the snakes inhabit 'the plains of the columbia between the d and th degrees of latitude.' _franchère's nar._, p. . the washakeeks or green river snakes inhabit the country drained by green river and its tributaries. the tookarikkahs, or mountain sheep-eaters, 'occupy the salmon river country and the upper part of snake river valley, and coiners' prairie, near the boise mines.' these two bands are the genuine snakes; other inferior bands are the hokandikahs or salt lake diggers who 'inhabit the region about the great lake.' the aggitikkahs or salmon-eaters who 'occupy the region round about salmon falls, on snake river.' _stuart's montana_, p. . [sidenote: bannacks and utahs.] 'the _bannacks_, who are generally classed with the snakes, inhabit the country south of here, (powder river) in the vicinity of harney lake.... the winnas band of snakes inhabit the country north of snake river, and are found principally on the bayette, boise, and sickley rivers.' _kirkpatrick_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . the bonacks 'inhabit the country between fort boise and fort hall.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . they 'inhabit the southern borders of oregon, along the old humboldt river emigrant road.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . the bonaks seem 'to embrace indian tribes inhabiting a large extent of country west of the rocky mountains. as the name imports, it was undoubtedly given to that portion of indians who dig and live on the roots of the earth.' _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the bonaks inhabit 'the banks of that part of saptin or snake river which lies between the mouth of boisais or reeds river and the blue mountains.' _farnham's trav._, p. . the bonax inhabit the country west of the lewis fork of the columbia between the forty-second and forty-fourth parallels. _parker's map._ the bannacks range through northern nevada, and into oregon and idaho. _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . they 'claim the southwestern portions of montana as their land.' _sully_, in _id._, p. . 'this tribe occupies most of that portion of nevada north of the forty-first degree of north latitude, with the southeastern corner of oregon and the southwestern corner of idaho.' _parker_, in _id._, , p. . the bannocks drift 'from boise city to the game country northeast of bozeman, montana, and south as far as fort bridger, wyoming territory ... traveling from oregon to east of the rocky mountains.' _high_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . [sidenote: utahs.] the _utah_ nation occupies all that portion of the territory assigned to the shoshone family lying south of the snakes, between the country of the californians proper, and the rocky mountains. it is divided into several tribes, the number varying with different authorities. wilson divides the utah nation into seven tribes; viz., the 'taos, yampapas, ewinte, tenpenny utahs, parant utahs, sampiches, pahmetes.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. vi., p. . 'besides the parawat yutas, the yampas, - miles south, on the white river; the tebechya, or sun-hunters, about tête de biche, near spanish lands; and the tash yuta, near the navajos; there are scatters of the nation along the californian road from beaver valley, along the santa clara, virgen, las vegas, and muddy rivers, to new mexico.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'the tribes of utah territory are: utahs at large, pi utahs, roving, uwinty utahs, utahs of sampitch valley, utahs of carson valley, utahs of lake sevier and walker river, navahoes and utahs of grand river, shoshonees, or snakes proper, diggers on humboldt river, eutahs of new mexico.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . the utahs are composed of several bands, the most important of which are the timpanogs who 'range through utah valley and the mountains adjoining the valley on the east.... the uintahs, the principal band of the utahs, ... range through uintah valley and the green river country.... the pah vants ... range through pah vant and sevier valleys and west to the white mountains.' _irish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the yutah nation is very numerous, and is also made up of many bands, which are to be distinguished only by their names.... four of these bands called noaches, payuches, tabiachis and sogup, are accustomed to occupy lands within the province of new mexico, or very near it, to the north and northeast.' _whipple, ewbank, & turner's rept._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'the utahs are divided into three bands--mohuaches, capotes, and nomenuches or poruches.' _delgado_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; see also pp. , . 'the ute tribe dr. hurt divides into the pah utahs, tamp pah-utes, cheveriches, pah vants, san pitches, and pyedes. the utahs proper inhabit the waters of green river, south of green river mountains, the grand river and its tributaries and as far south as the navajo country. they also claim the country bordering on utah lake and as far south as the sevier lake.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . 'the utahs are a separate and distinct tribe of indians, divided into six bands, each with a head chief, as follows: the menaches ... the capotes ... the tabe-naches ... the cibariches ... the tempanahgoes ... the piuchas.' _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the yutahs are subdivided into four great bands: the noaches, the payuches (whom we believe to be identical with the paï utahs), the tabiachis, and the sogups, who live in perfect harmony on the north eastern confines of new mexico, and at a distance of miles to the south of the great tribe of the zuguaganas.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the utes are 'those ... which inhabit the vicinity of the lakes and streams and live chiefly on fish, being distinguished by the name of pah utahs or pah utes, the word pah, in their language signifying water.' _stansbury's rept._, p. . 'the country of the utaws is situated to the east and southeast of the soshonees, at the sources of the rio colorado.' _de smet's letters_, p. . 'the youtas live between the snake and green rivers.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'the utahs of new mexico are a portion of the tribe of the same name inhabiting the territory of utah.... they inhabit and claim all that region of country, embracing the sources of the north-western tributaries of the arkansas river, above bent's fort, up to the southern boundary of utah territory, and all the northern tributaries of the rio grande, which lie within new mexico and north of the th parallel of latitude.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the utes 'occupy and claim that section of country ranging from abiquin, northward to navajo river and westward somewhat of this line.' _davis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the eutaws 'reside on both sides of the eutaw or anahuac mountains, they are continually migrating from one side to the other.' _farnham's trav._, p. . 'the youtas inhabit the country between the snake and green rivers.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., p. . 'the utahs' claim of boundaries are all south of that of the shoshonies, embracing the waters of the colorado, going most probably to the gulf of california.' _wilson_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. vi., p. . the country of the utaws 'is situated to the east and southeast of the shoshones, about the salt lake, and on the head waters of the colorado river, which empties into the gulf of california.... their country being in latitude about °.' 'the utaws are decent in appearance and their country, which is towards santa fe, is said to be tolerably good.' _parker's explor. tour_, pp. , . the yutas, utaws, or youtas, 'range between lat. ° and ° north and the meridians ° and ° w. long. of washington. the great yutas tribe is divided into two families which are contradistinguished by the names of their respective head-quarters; the tao yutas, so called because their principal camp is pitched in tao mountains, seventy miles north of santa fé; and the timpanigos yutas, who hold their great camp near the timpanigos lake.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'um den fluss dolóres haben die yutas, tabeguáchis, payúches und tularénos ihre wohnsitze.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . the utahs live 'on the border of new mexico.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'le pays des utaws est situé à l'est et au sud-est de celui des soshonies, aux sources du rio-colorado.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'the yutas or eutaws are one of the most extensive nations of the west, being scattered from the north of new mexico to the borders of snake river and rio colorado.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. . the _pah utes_ occupy the greater part of nevada, and extend southward into arizona and south-eastern california. there is reason to believe that the pi utes are a distinct tribe from the pah utes, but as the same localities are frequently assigned to both tribes by different writers, and as many have evidently thought them one and the same, thereby causing great confusion, i have thought it best to merely give the names as spelled by the authorities without attempting to decide which tribe is being spoken of in either case. the pah-utes 'range principally in the southwestern portion of utah and the southeastern portion of nevada.' _head_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pah utes 'are spread over the vast tract of territory, between the sierra nevada and the colorado river, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the northward through california and nevada into southern oregon and idaho.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pah-utes inhabit the western part of nevada. _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pah utes and pah edes range over all that part of utah south of the city of filmore in millard county. _head_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the term pah utes is applied to a very large number of indians who roam through that vast section of country lying between the sierra nevada and the colorado, going as far south as the thirty-fifth parallel, and extending to the northward through california, nevada, into southern oregon and idaho. the indians of this tribe in arizona are located in the big bend of the colorado, on both sides of the river, and range as far east as diamond river, west to the sierra nevada, and northward into the state of nevada.' _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pah utes 'properly belong in nevada and arizona, but range over in southwestern utah.' _irish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pah-utes 'range principally from the borders of oregon, on the north, to the southeast boundary of nevada, and from the sierra nevada eastward to the humboldt river and sink of carson; there are one or two small bands of them still further east, near austin, nevada. they are much scattered within these limits.' _douglas_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . 'the pah-utes roam along the eastern slopes of the sierra nevada, from the mouth of the virgin with the colorado (in about lat. ° long. °) to the territories of the washoes north, and as far east as the sevier lake country of fremont's explorations.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'the pa-utahs, and lake utahs occupy the territory lying south of the snakes, and upon the waters of the colorado of the west and south of the great salt lake.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . the pá yuta (pey utes) 'extend from forty miles west of stony point to the californian line, and n.w. to the oregon line, and inhabit the valley of the fenelon river, which rising from lake bigler empties itself into pyramid lake.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'the womenunche (also known as the pa uches) occupy the country on the san juan river.' _collins_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the custom of designating the different bands of pah utes is derived from the name of some article of food not common in other localities; "ocki," signifies "trout," "toy," "tule," &c. the ocki pah utes ... are located on walker river and lake, and the mountains adjacent thereto. the cozaby pah utes ... range from mono lake east to smoky valley.' _campbell_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . the pah utes extend, 'over portions of utah and arizona territories, also the states of nevada and california. _fenton_, in _id._, p. . the chemehuevis are a band of pah-utahs. _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . the chimehuevais live about forty miles below the colorado river agency, on the california side of the river, and are scattered over an area of fifty square miles. _tonner_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the chemehuewas are 'located mainly on the west bank of the colorado, above la paz, and ranges along the river from about thirty miles south of fort mohave, to a point fifty miles north of fort yuma, to the eastward, but a short distance.' _sherman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the chemehuevis live on the colorado river, above the bill williams fork, a small tribe and quite unknown. _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the chemehuevis are 'a band of pahutahs, ... belonging to the great shoshonee family.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the chimchinves are undoubtedly a branch of the pah ute tribe.' _stanley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [sidenote: pi utes and gosh utes.] the _pi utes_, or pyutes, 'inhabit western utah, from oregon to new mexico; their locations being generally in the vicinity of the principal rivers and lakes of the great basin, viz., humboldt, carson, walker, truckee, owens's, pyramid, and mono.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . 'the tribe of indians who inhabit this section (near fort churchill) of which the post forms the centre comes under the one generic name of piute, and acknowledge as their great chief winnemucca. they are split up into small captaincies and scattered throughout a vast extent of territory.' _farley_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. iii., p. . the piutes or paiuches inhabit 'the northern banks of the colorado, the region of severe river, and those portions of the timpanigos desert where man can find a snail to eat.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . the piutes live 'along the eastern slopes of the sierra nevada, from the mouth of the virgen with the colorado (in about lat. ° long. °) to the territories of the washoes north, and as far east as the sevier lake.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'von ° nordwärts die pai utes.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., p. . the territory occupied by the piutes 'is about one hundred miles broad, and is bounded on the north by the country of the bannocks, on the east by that of the shoshones, on the south by the state line between nevada and california and on the west by the territory of the washoes.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the piutes inhabit 'a country two hundred miles long by one hundred and twenty broad, lying parallel and east of that of the washoes.... south of walker lake are the mono pi utes.... they are closely allied to the walker river or ocki pi utes ... located in the vicinity of walker river and lake and carson river and upper lake.... at the lower carson lake are the toy pi utes.' _campbell_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'upon the colorado river, in the northern part of the territory lives a band, or some bands, of pi utes, occupying both sides of the river, roaming to the limit of arizona on the west, but on the east, for some miles, how far cannot be determined.' _whittier_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pi ute 'range extends north to the beaver, south to fort mojave, east to the little colorado and san francisco mountains, and on the west through the southern part of nevada as far as the california line ... the larger portion living in nevada.' _fenton_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pi utes inhabit the south-west portion of utah. _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the pi ute indians are scattered over a large extent of country in southeastern nevada and southwestern utah.' _powell_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pi utes inhabit the south-eastern part of nevada. _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _gosh utes_ inhabit the country west of great salt lake, and extend to the pah utes. they are said by most writers to be of mixed breed, between the snakes, or shoshones proper, and the utahs: 'the goshautes live about forty miles west' of salt lake city. _forney_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the goships, or gosha utes, range west of salt lake. _cooley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the goships 'range between the great salt lake and the land of the western shoshones.' _head_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the goship shoshones 'live in the western part of utah, between great salt lake and the western boundary of the territory,' (utah). _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the goshutes are located 'in the country in the vicinity of egan cañon.... in the shoshone range.' _douglas_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the goship shoshones inhabit that part of utah which lies between great salt lake and the western boundary of the territory (utah).' _tourtellotte_, in _id._, p. . the goshoots 'dr. hurt classes among the shoshones; but according to mr. g. w. bean, capt. simpson's guide in the fall of ... they are the offspring of a disaffected portion of the ute tribe, that left their nation, about two generations ago, under their leader or chief goship, whence their name goship utes since contracted into goshutes.... reside principally in the grassy valleys west of great salt lake, along and in the vicinity of capt. simpson's routes, as far as the ungoweah range.' _simpson's route to cal._, pp. - . the gosh yutas, 'a body of sixty under a peaceful leader were settled permanently on the indian farm at deep creek, and the remainder wandered to miles west of gt. s. l. city.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . the _toquimas_ live about the head of reese river valley, and in the country to the east of that point. _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the _temoksees_ live about thirty miles south of jacobsville. _cal. farmer_, _june , ._ the _pah vants_ 'occupy the corn creek, paravan, and beaver valleys, and the valley of sevier.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . half the pavants 'are settled on the indian farm at corn creek; the other wing of the tribe lives along sevier lake, and the surrounding country in the north-east extremity of filmore valley, fifty miles from the city, where they join the gosh yuta.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . although mr burton gives this as the fruit of his own observation, it is evidently taken from _forney's rept._, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , which reads as follows: 'about half of them (the pahvants) have their home on the corn creek indian farm. the other wing of the tribe lives along sevier lake and surrounding country, in the northeast extremity of fillmore valley, and about fifty miles from fillmore city.' the pah vants range 'through pah-vant and sevier valleys, and west to the white mountains.' _cooley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the pahvents occupy the territory in the vicinity of corn creek reservation, and south of the goship shoshones.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the pah vant indians inhabit the country south of the goship shoshones.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _pi edes_ 'are a band ranging through beaver and little salt lake valley, and on the virgin and santa clara rivers, down to the muddy, embracing the whole southern portion of utah territory.' _irish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the py edes live adjoining the pahvants, down to the santa clara.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . 'the pi ede indians inhabit the country south of the pah vants.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the piede indians inhabit the extreme southern portion of the territory (utah) on the santa clara and muddy rivers.' _armstrong_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the piede indians live on rio virgin and santa clara river. _carvalho's incid. of trav._, p. . [sidenote: washoes and sampitches.] the _washoes_ 'inhabit the country along the base of the sierra nevada mountains, from honey lake on the north to the west fork of walker's river the south.' _dodge_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . _simpson's route to cal._, on p. , and _burton's city of the saints_, p. , repeat this. the washoes 'are stated to have boundaries as high up as the oregon line, along the eastern flanks of the sierra nevada, as far to the east as two hundred miles and to the south to walker's river.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. the washoes live in the extreme western part of nevada. _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'commencing at the western boundary of the state, we have first the washoe tribe, ... occupying a tract of country one hundred miles long, north and south, by twenty-five in width.' _campbell_, in _id._, p. . the washoes 'live along lake bigler and the headwaters of carson, walker, and truckee rivers, and in long and sierra valleys.' _wasson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _washoes_ 'are scattered over a large extent of country along the western border of the state' of nevada. _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the washoes 'frequent the settled portions of the state, principally the towns of virginia city, carson city, reno, washoe city, and genoa. in summer they betake themselves to the mountains in the vicinity of lake tahoe and hope valley.' _douglas_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _sampitches_ 'range through the sanpitch valley and creek on the sevier river.' _irish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the sampiches are a tribe wandering on the desert to the south of youta lake.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . burton mentions 'sampichyas' settled at san pete. _city of the saints_, p. . the san pitches 'live in the san pitch valley and along the sevier river.' _cooley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the san pitches occupy a territory south and east of the timpanagos.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, . p. . 'the san pitch indians inhabit the country about the san pete reservation.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'les sampectches, les pagouts et les ampayouts sont les plus proches voisins des serpents.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the _uinta utes_ 'claim uinta valley and the country along green river.' _forney_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the uinta yutas live 'in the mountains south of fort bridger, and in the country along green river.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . the _yam pah utes_ 'inhabit the country south of the uinta valley reservation.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _id._, , p. . the _elk mountain utes_ live in the south-eastern portion of utah. _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _burton's city of the saints_, p. . repeats. the _tosawees_ or white knives, or as they are sometimes called shoshoteos or foot-men, on the humboldt and goose creek. _stuart's montana_, p. . 'the tosawitches, or white knives, inhabit the region along the humboldt river.' _simpson's shortest route_, p. . the indians about stony point are called tosawwitches (white knives). _hurt_, in _ind. aff. rept._, . the _weber utes_ 'live in the valley of salt lake.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , also in _id._, , p. . the weber utes live in the vicinity of salt lake city. _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the weber river yutas are principally seen in great salt lake city. their chief settlement is forty miles to the north. _burton's city of the saints_, p. . the _cum umbahs_ 'are mixed-bloods of the utes and shoshonees, and range in the region of salt lake, weber and ogden valleys in northern utah.' _irish_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _wimmenuches_ are 'a tribe of the ute indians, whose country is principally from tierra amarilla northward to ellos de los animas and thence also to the rio grande. they mix with the pi utes in utah.' _davis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the wemenuche utes 'roam and hunt west of the san juan river, and their lodges are to be found along the banks of the rio de las animas, rio de la plata and rio mancos.' _hanson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the weminuche utes live near the san juan river. _armstrong_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _capote utes_ 'roam from within five to fifty miles of the agency, but the greater part of the time live in the vicinity of tierra amarilla, from five to ten miles distant, north and south along the rio charmer.' _hanson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _armstrong_, in _id._, , p. . 'the _sheberetches_ inhabit the country south of the yam pah utes.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _fish utes_ 'inhabit the country about red lake, south of the sheberetches.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _tash utes_ live near the navajos. _burton's city of the saints_, p. . the _tabechya_, or sun-hunters, 'live about tête de biche, near spanish lands.' 'timpenaguchya, or timpana yuta, corrupted into tenpenny utes, ... dwell about the kanyon of that name, and on the east of the sweetwater lake.' _burton's city of the saints_, pp. - . 'the timpanoge indians formerly resided at and about spanish fort reservation, but they are now scattered among other bands and do not now exist as a separate tribe.' _tourtellotte_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; see also _id._, , p. . the timpanogs inhabit 'utah valley, and the neighboring mountains.' _cooley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . footnotes: [ ] 'sometimes there is a tribal name for all who speak the same language; sometimes none, and only names for separate villages; sometimes a name for a whole tribe or family, to which is prefixed a separate word for each dialect, which is generally co-extensive with some valley. of the first, an instance is found in the cahrocs, on the klamath, who are a compact tribe, with no dialects; of the second, in the large tribe on the lower klamath, who have also no dialects, and yet have no name, except for each village; of the third, in the great family of the pomos on russian river, who have many dialects, and a name for each,--as ballo ki pomos, cahto pomos, etc.... some remnants of tribes have three or four names, all in use within a radius of that number of miles; some, again, are merged, or dovetailed, into others; and some never had a name taken from their own language, but have adopted that given them by a neighbor tribe, altogether different in speech.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . [ ] the natives 'when asked to what tribe they belong, give the name of their chief, which is misunderstood by the inquirer to be that of the tribe itself.' _bartlett's nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'every fifteen or twenty miles of country seems to have been occupied by a number of small lodges or septs, speaking a different language or very divergent dialect.' _taylor_, in _bancroft's hand-book almanac_, , p. . beechey counted eleven different dialects in the mission of san carlos. _voyage_, vol. ii., p. . 'almost every or leagues, you find a distinct dialect; so different, that in no way does one resemble the other.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . 'from the san joaquin northward to the klamath there are some hundreds of small tribes.' _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] hale calls them the _lutuami_, or _tlamatl_, and adds, 'the first of these names is the proper designation of the people in their own language. the second is that by which they are known to the chinooks, and through them, to the whites.' _ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] 'there true name is _moüdoc_--a word which originated with the shasteecas, who applied it indefinitely to all wild indians or enemies.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, , vol. x., p. . 'also called moahtockna.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'the word modoc is a shasta indian word, and means all distant, stranger, or hostile indians, and became applied to these indians by white men in early days, by hearing the shastas speak of them.' _steele_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] speaking of indians at the junction of the salmon and klamath rivers: 'they do not seem to have any generic appellation for themselves, but apply the terms "kahruk," up, and "youruk," down, to all who live above or below themselves, without discrimination, in the same manner that the others (at the junction of the trinity) do "peh-tsik," and "poh-lik."' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'the bay (humboldt) indians call themselves, as we were informed, wish-osk; and those of the hills te-ok-a-wilk; but the tribes to the northward denominate both those of the bay and eel river, we-yot, or walla-walloo.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] they are also called lototen or tututamy, totutime, toutouni, tootooton, tutoten, tototin, tototutna, etc. [ ] for further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on tribal boundaries, at the end of this chapter. [ ] mr. gibbs, speaking of the tribes seen on the klamath and trinity rivers, says: 'in person these people are far superior to any we had met below; the men being larger, more muscular, and with countenances denoting greater force and energy of character, as well as intelligence. indeed, they approach rather to the races of the plains, than to the wretched "diggers" of the greater part of california.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the indians in the northern portion of california and in oregon, are vastly superior in stature and intellect to those found in the southern part of california.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, . the indians on the trinity 'are of another tribe and nature from those along the sacramento.' _kelly's excursion_, vol. ii., p. . speaking of the wallies, they, 'in many respects differ from their brethren in the middle and lower counties of the state. they are lighter colored and more intelligent.' _johnson_, in _overland monthly_, , vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the males are tall, averaging in height about five feet eight inches, are well proportioned, athletic, and possess the power of endurance to a great degree.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, march, . 'the people here (rogue river) were larger and stronger than those in south california, but not handsomer.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . speaking of indians on the klamath river, 'their stature is a trifle under the american; they have well-sized bodies, erect and strong-knit.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . on the upper trinity they are 'large and powerful men, of a swarthier complexion, fierce and intractable.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . near mount shasta, 'a fine-looking race, being much better proportioned than those more to the northward, and their features more regular.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . at klamath lake, 'well-grown and muscular.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . on the trinity, 'majestic in person, chivalrous in bearing.' _kelly's excursion_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] in the vicinity of klamath lake 'the squaws are short in comparison with the men, and, for indians have tolerably regular features.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . in the rogue river region 'some of them are quite pretty, usually well-formed, handsomely developed, small features, and very delicate and well-turned hands and feet.... they are graceful in their movements and gestures, ... always timid and modest.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, march, . on the klamath river, 'with their smooth, hazel skins, oval faces, plump and brilliant eyes, some of the young maidens,--barring the tattooed chins,--have a piquant and splendid beauty.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . on the klamath and trinity rivers, many of the women 'were exceedingly pretty; having large almond-shaped eyes, sometimes of a hazel color, and with the red showing through the cheeks. their figures were full, their chests ample; and the younger ones had well-shaped busts, and rounded limbs.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . but as to the beauty of women tastes never agree; mr kelly in his _excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. , speaking of a band of 'noble-looking indians' which he met near trinity river, says that they were 'accompanied by a few squaws, who, strange to say, in this latitude are ugly, ill-favoured, stunted in stature, lumpy in figure, and awkward in gait,' and concerning the rogue river indians a lady states that 'among the women ... there were some extremely clumsy figures.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . the pit-river indian girls 'have the smallest and prettiest feet and hands i have ever seen.' _miller's life amongst the modocs_, p. . [ ] at crescent city, mr powers saw some 'broad-faced squaws of an almost african blackness;' the patawats in the vicinity of mad river and humboldt bay are 'blackskinned, pudgy in stature; well cushioned with adipose tissue;' at redwood creek 'like most of the coast tribes they are very dark colored, squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the interior indians.' _pomo, ms._ at trinidad bay 'their persons were in general indifferently, but stoutly made, of a lower stature than any tribe of indians we had before seen.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . at the mouth of eel river the weeyots 'are generally repulsive in countenance as well as filthy in person.... their heads are disproportionately large; their figures, though short, strong and well developed.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . carl meyer names the indians he saw at trinidad bay, _allequas_, or wood-indians (holzindianer). i do not find the name anywhere else, and judging by his description, they appear to differ considerably from the natives seen in the same vicinity by vancouver or mr powers; he, meyer, says; 'sie sind von unserm wuchse, starke und beleibte, kräftige gestalten. ihre haut ist wenig zimmet oder lohfarbig, eher weisslich, wie die der antisischen inkas gewesen sein soll; bei der jugend und besonders beim weiblichen geschlechte schimmert oft ein sanftes roth auf den wangen hervor. ihr kopf ist wenig gedrückt, die stirn hoch, der gesichtswinkel gegen grad, die nase römisch gekrümmt, das auge gross in wenig quadratisch erweiterten augenhöhlen und intelligent, die lippen nicht aufgetrieben, das kinn oval, und hände und füsse klein.' _nach dem sacramento_, p. . [ ] at pitt river they 'have no dress except a buckskin thrown around them.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ near mount shasta 'they can scarcely be said to wear any dress, except a mantle of deer or wolf skin. a few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with a highly ornamented girdle.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . near pitt river, the indians were nearly naked. _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . at trinidad bay 'their clothing was chiefly made of the skins of land animals, with a few indifferent small skins of the sea-otter.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'the men, however, do not wear any covering, except the cold is intense, when indeed they put upon their shoulders the skins of sea-wolves, otters, deer, or other animals.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . 'they were clothed, for the most part, in skins.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . on smith river they were 'in a complete state of nature, excepting only a kind of apology for an apron, worn by the women, sometimes made of elk's skin, and sometimes of grass.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . among the weeyots at eel river the men 'wore a deer-skin robe over the shoulder, and the women a short petticoat of fringe.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . on klamath river their only dress was the fringed petticoat, or at most, a deerskin robe thrown back over the shoulders, in addition. _id._, p. . 'the primitive dress of the men is simply a buckskin girdle about the loins; of the women, a chemise of the same material, or of braided grass, reaching from the breast to the knees.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . 'were quite naked excepting the maro.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . the klamath lake indians 'wear little more than the breech-cloth.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'they were all well dressed in blankets and buckskin.' _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . carl meyer, speaking of a tribe he names allequas, at trinidad bay, says: 'der mann geht im sommer ganz nackt, im winter trägt er eine selbst gegerbte hirsch- oder rehdecke über die schultern.' 'die allequas-weiber tragen im sommer von bast-schnüren oder von rehfellstreifen, im winter von pelzwerk oder gänseflaum verfertigte schürzen, die bis auf die knie reichen.' _nach dem sacramento_, p. , . 'the klamaths, during the summer go naked, in winter they use the skins of rabbits and wild fowl for a covering.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'an indian will trap and slaughter seventy-five rabbits for one of these robes, making it double, with fur inside and out.' _powers' pomo, ms._ [ ] _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., . [ ] _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, p. . [ ] _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _maurelle's jour._, p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. ; _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . 'die allequas (trinidad bay) haben starkes, ziemlich geschmeidiges haar, das der männer und der kinder wird bis auf einen zoll länge regelmässig abgebrannt, so dass sie das aussehen von titusköpfen erhalten. zuweilen sieht man die männer auch mit einem ziemlich langen, durch eine harzige flüssigkeit gesteiften, aufgerichteten zopf, der als schmuck betrachtet, bei festlichen anlässen, oder im kriege mit rothen oder weissen federn geziert wird, und alsdann dem schopf eines wiedehopfs gleicht.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . 'both men and women part their hair in the middle, the men cut it square on the neck and wear it rather long, the women wear theirs long, plaited in two braids, hanging down the back.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'barthaare haben sie, wie alle indianer nord-amerikas, nur wenig; sie werden ausgerupft, und nur in der trauer stehen gelassen.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, pp. - . [ ] the men tattoo so that they may 'be recognized if stolen by modocs.' 'with the women it is entirely for ornament.' _the shastas and their neighbors_, _ms_. at rogue river the women 'were tattooed on the hands and arms as well as the chin.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . at trinidad bay 'they ornamented their lower lip with three perpendicular columns of punctuation, one from each corner of the mouth and one in the middle, occupying three fifths of the chin.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . maurelle says the same, and adds that a space is left between each line, 'which is much larger in the young than in the older women, whose faces are generally covered with punctures.' _jour._, p. . at mad river and humboldt bay, the same, 'and also lines of small dots on the backs of their hands.' _powers' pomo_, _ms_. at mouth of eel river 'both sexes tattoo; the men on their arms and breasts; the women from inside the under lip down to and beneath the chin. the extent of this disfigurement indicates to a certain extent, the age and condition of the person.' 'in the married women the lines are extended up above the corners of the mouth.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , . 'i have never observed any particular figures or designs upon their persons; but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm. tattooing has mostly been on the persons of females, and seems to be esteemed as an ornament, not apparently indicating rank or condition.' _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the squaws among the cahrocs on the klamath 'tattoo, in blue, three narrow fern-leaves, perpendicularly on the chin.' 'for this purpose they are said to employ soot, gathered from a stove, mingled with the juice of a certain plant.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . among the shastys the women 'are tattooed in lines from the mouth to the chin.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . among the allequas at trinidad bay: 'die mädchen werden im fünften jahre mit einem schwarzen streifen von beiden mundwinkeln bis unter das kinn tättowirt, welchem striche dann alle fünf jahre ein parallellaufender beigefügt wird, so dass man an diesen zeichnungen leicht das alter jeder indianerin übersehen kann.... die männer bemalen sich bei besondern anlässen mit einem tannenfirniss, den sie selbst bereiten, das gesicht, und zeichnen allerlei geheimnissvolle figuren und verzierungen auf wange, nase und stirn, indem sie mit einem hölzernen stäbchen den noch weichen firniss auf den einzelnen stellen von der haut wegheben.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . [ ] 'i never saw two alike.' _the shastas and their neighbors_, _ms_. at klamath lake they are 'painted from their heads to their waists all colours and patterns.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . the modocs 'paint themselves with various pigments formed from rotten wood, different kinds of earth, &c.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . kane 'took a sketch of a chastay (shasta) female slave (among the chinooks) the lower part of whose face, from the corners of the mouth to the ears and downwards, was tattooed of a bluish colour. the men of this tribe do not tattoo, but paint their faces like other indians.' _wand._, p. . ida pfeiffer, _second journ._, p. , saw indians on smith river, who painted their faces 'in a most detestable manner. they first smeared them with fish fat and then they rubbed in the paint, sometimes passing a finger over it in certain lines, so as to produce a pattern.' _miller's life amongst the modocs_, p. . [ ] 'no taste in bead work.' _the shastas and their neighbors_, _ms_. 'in den ohren tragen die allequas (at trinidad bay) schmucksachen, welche sie theils von den weissen erhalten, theils aus holz nachahmen; auch sind diese gegenstände zuweilen durch steinchen ersetzt, die talismanische kräfte besitzen sollen. nur die in den fernen bergen wohnenden tragen hölzerne oder auch eiserne ringe in den nasenwandungen.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. ; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., plate xiv. [ ] _maurelle's jour._, p. . [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the lodges are dome-shaped; like beaver-houses, an arched roof covers a deep pit sunk in the ground, the entrance to which is a round hole.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'large round huts, perhaps feet in diameter, with rounded tops, on which was the door by which they descended into the interior.' _fremont's explor. ex._, p. . 'the modoc excavates a circular space from two to four feet deep, then makes over it a conical structure of puncheons, which is strongly braced up with timbers, frequently hewn and a foot square.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. ; _id._, vol. ix., p. . 'the style was very substantial, the large poles requiring five or six men to lift.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'have only an opening at the summit.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . on the inside of the door they frequently place a sliding panel. 'the kailtas build wigwams in a conical shape--as all tribes on the trinity do--but they excavate no cellars.' _powers' pomo_, _ms_. see full description of dwellings, by _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the entrance is a 'round hole just large enough to crawl into, which is on a level with the surface of the ground, or is cut through the roof.' _johnson_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. ; _miller's life amongst the modocs_, p. . [ ] 'built of plank, rudely wrought.' the roofs are not 'horizontal like those at nootka, but rise with a small degree of elevation to a ridge in the middle.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - . well built, of boards; often twenty feet square; roof pitched over a ridge-pole; ground usually excavated or feet; some cellars floored and walled with stone. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the dwellings of the hoopas were built of large planks, about ½ inches thick, from two to four feet wide, and from six to twelve feet in length.' _trinity journal_, _april, _. 'the floors of these huts are perfectly smooth and clean, with a square hole two feet deep in the centre, in which they make their fire.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . 'the huts have never but one apartment. the fire is kindled in the centre, the smoke escaping through the crevices in the roof.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _march, _. the houses of the eurocs and cahrocs 'are sometimes constructed on the level earth, but oftener they excavate a round cellar, four or five feet deep, and twelve or fifteen feet in diameter.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. ; _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. ; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms_. [ ] kit carson says of lodges seen near klamath lake: 'they were made of the broad leaves of the swamp flag, which were beautifully and intricately woven together.' _peters' life of carson_, p. . 'the wild sage furnishes them shelter in the heat of summer, and, like the cayote, they burrow in the earth for protection from the inclemencies of winter.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'their lodges are generally mere temporary structures, scarcely sheltering them from the pelting storm.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'slightly constructed, generally of poles.' _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the earth in the centre scooped out, and thrown up in a low, circular embankment.' _turner_, in _overland monthly_, p. xi., p. . [ ] _powers' pomo, ms._ [ ] 'the rocks supply edible shell-fish.' _schumacher's oregon antiquities, ms._ 'the deer and elk are mostly captured by driving them into traps and pits.' 'small game is killed with arrows, and sometimes elk and deer are dispatched in the same way.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _april, _. 'the elk they usually take in snares.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . 'the mountain indians subsisted largely on game, which of every variety was very abundant, and was killed with their bows and arrows, in the use of which they were very expert.' _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'die indianer am pittflusse machen graben oder löcher von circa kubikfuss, bedecken diese mit zweigen und gras ganz leicht, sodass die thiere, wenn sie darüber gejagt werden, hinein fallen und nicht wieder herauskönnen. wilde gänse fangen sie mit netzen ... nur selten mögen indianer den grauen bär jagen.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. ; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] schumacher, _oregon antiquities, ms._, classifies their ancient arrow and spear points thus: long barbs with projections, short barbs with projections, and long and short barbs without projections. 'the point of the spear is composed of a small bone needle, which sits in a socket, and pulls out as soon as the fish starts. a string connecting the spear handle and the center of the bone serves, when pulled, to turn the needle cross wise in the wound.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _march , _; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _april, _; _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'in spawning-time the fish school up from clear lake in extraordinary numbers, so that the indians have only to put a slight obstruction in the river, when they can literally shovel them out.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. ; _schumacher's oregon antiquities, ms._ [ ] 'the camas is a bulbus root, shaped much like an onion.' _miller's life amongst the modocs_, p. . [ ] 'a root about an inch long, and as large as one's little finger, of a bitter-sweetish and pungent taste, something like ginseng.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . [ ] 'an aquatic plant, with a floating leaf, very much like that of a pond-lily, in the centre of which is a pod resembling a poppy-head, full of farinaceous seeds.' _ib._ see also _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . 'their principal food is the kamas root, and the seed obtained from a plant growing in the marshes of the lake, resembling, before hulled, a broom-corn seed.' _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] the klamaths 'subsist upon roots and almost every living thing within their reach, not excepting reptiles, crickets, ants, etc.' _thompson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _heintzelman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ [ ] _turner_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xi., p. . [ ] at rogue river, 'the men go in the morning into the river, but, like the malays, bring all the dirt out on their skins that they took in.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . at pitt river they are 'disgusting in their habits.' _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. ; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ 'of the many hundreds i have seen, there was not one who still observed the aboriginal mode of life, that had not a sweet breath. this is doubtless due to the fact that, before they became civilized, they ate their food cold.' _powers' pomo, ms._ 'they always rise at the first dawn of day, and plunge into the river.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _march, _. 'their persons are unusually clean, as they use both the sweat-house and the cold-bath constantly.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'mit tagesanbruch begibt sich der allequa (trinidad bay) in jeder jahreszeit zur nahen quelle, wo er sich am ganzen leibe wäscht und in den strahlen der aufsteigenden sonne trocknen lässt.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. ; _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ [ ] carl meyer, after describing the bow, adds: 'fernere waffen der allequas sind; das obsidian-beil oder tomahawk, die keule, die lanze und der wurfspiess.' _nach dem sacramento_, p. . this statement, i think, may be taken with some allowance, as nowhere else do i find mention of a tomahawk being used by the californians. [ ] schumacher, _oregon antiquities, ms._, speaking of an ancient spear-point, says, 'the pointed teeth show it to have been a very dangerous weapon.' _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ on the klamath river, 'among the skins used for quivers, i noticed the otter, wild-cat, fisher, fawn, grey fox and others.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . near mt shasta, 'bows and arrows are very beautifully made: the former are of yew, and about three feet long ... backed very neatly with sinew, and painted.... the arrows are upwards of thirty inches long.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . at port trinidad, 'arrows are carried in quivers of wood or bone, and hang from their wrist or neck.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . on pigeon river 'their arrows were in general tipped with copper or iron.' _greenhow's hist. ogn._, p. . the pit river 'arrows are made in three parts.' _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . the allequas at trinidad bay, described by carl meyer, carried their arrows either 'schussfertig in der hand oder in einem über die schultern geworfenen köcher aus fuchs- oder biberpelz. der bogen ist aus einer starken, elastischen rothtannenwurzel verfertigt, etwa ½ fuss lang und auf der rückseite mit einer bärensehne überklebt.' _nach dem sacramento_, p. . see _mofras_, _explor._, _atlas_, plate xxv. speaking of the quiver, mr powers says: 'in the animal's head they stuff a quantity of grass or moss, as a cushion for the arrow-heads to rest in, which prevents them from being broken.' _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . 'their arrows can only be extracted from the flesh with the knife.' _cutts' conquest of cal._, p. . 'am oberen theile (california) ist der bogen von einer lage von hirsch-sehnen verstärkt und elastisch gemacht. die pfeile bestehen aus einem rohrartigen gewächse von mässiger länge, an der spitze mit obsidian ... versehen, ihre länge ist zoll, ihre breite zoll und die dicke / zoll, scharfkantig und spitz zulaufend.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . [ ] _powers' pomo, ms._; _schumacher's oregon antiquities, ms._; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] _hist. mag._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _johnson_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . at trinidad bay 'zuweilen werden die pfeile mit dem safte des sumachbaumes vergiftet, und alsdann nur zum erlegen wilder raubthiere gebraucht.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . 'einige stämme vergiften die spitzen ihrer pfeile auf folgende weise: sie reizen nämlich eine klapperschlange mit einer vorgehaltenen hirschleber, worin sie beisst, und nachdem nun die leber mit dem gifte vollständig imprägnirt ist, wird sie vergraben und muss verfaulen; hierin wird nun die spitze eingetaucht und dann getrocknet.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . the pitt river indians 'use the poison of the rattle-snake, by grinding the head of that reptile into an impalpable powder, which is then applied by means of the putrid blood and flesh of the dog to the point of the weapon.' _gross' system of surgery_, vol. i., p. . 'the pitt river indians poisoned their arrows in a putrid deer's liver. this is a slow poison, however, and sometimes will not poison at all.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _schumacher's oregon antiquities, ms._ [ ] among other things seen by meyer were, 'noch grössere bogen, die ihnen als bedeutende ferngeschosse dienen. ein solcher ist fuss lang, und der indianer legt sich auf die erde, um denselben zu spannen, indem er das rechte knie in den bogen einstemmt und mit beiden armen nachhilft.' the bow and arrow, knife, and war-club, constitute their weapons. in one of their lodges i noticed an elk-skin shield, so constructed as to be impervious to the sharpest arrows. _palmer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . miller mentions a modoc who was 'painted red, half-naked, and held a tomahawk in his hand.' _life amongst the modocs_, p. . [ ] _salem statesman_, _april, _. [ ] hence, if we may credit miller, _life amongst the modocs_, p. , the name pitt river. [ ] the hoopas exacted tribute from all the surrounding tribes. at the time the whites arrived the chimalaquays were paying them tribute in deer-skins at the rate of twenty-five cents per head. _powers' pomo_, _ms_. the hoopahs have a law requiring those situated on the trinity, above them to pay tribute. _humboldt times_, _nov. _; _s. f. evening bulletin_, _nov. , _. [ ] the sassics, cahrocs, hoopahs, klamaths and rogue river indians, take no scalps, but decapitate the slain, or cut off their hands and feet. _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . [ ] the veeards on lower humboldt bay 'took elk-horns and rubbed them on stones for days together, to sharpen them into axes and wedges.' _powers' pomo, ms._ on the klamath river they had 'spoons neatly made of bone and horn.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'for basket making, they use the roots of pine-trees, the stem of the spice-bush, and ornament with a kind of grass which looks like a palm leaf, and will bleach white. they also stain it purple with elder berries, and green with soapstone.' ... 'the pitt river indians excel all others in basket-making, but are not particularly good at bead work.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._, _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _johnson_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _powers' pomo, ms._ [ ] _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. ; _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] the boats formerly used by the modocs were 'quite rude and unshapely concerns, compared with those of the lower klamath, but substantial and sometimes large enough to carry pounds of merchandise.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. , vol. x., p. . 'blunt at both ends, with a small projection in the stern for a seat.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'those on rogue river were roughly built--some of them scow fashion, with flat bottom.' _emmons_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the pitt river indians 'used boats made from pine; they burn them out ... about twenty feet long, some very good ones.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] _chase_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . 'a kind of bead made from a shell procured on the coast. these they string and wear about the neck.... another kind is a shell about an inch long, which looks like a porcupine quill. they are more valuable than the other. they also use them as nose-ornaments.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ 'the unit of currency is a string of the length of a man's arm, with a certain number of the longer shells below the elbow, and a certain number of the shorter ones above.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . 'a rare shell, spiral in shape, varying from one to two inches in length, and about the size of a crowquill, called by the natives, _siwash_, is used as money.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, march, . [ ] 'the ownership of a (white) deer-skin, constitutes a claim to chieftainship, readily acknowledged by all the dusky race on this coast.' _humboldt times_, _dec., _. [ ] 'property consists in women, ornaments made of rare feathers and shells, also furs and skins.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, march, . their wealth 'consisted chiefly of white deerskins, canoes, the scalp of the red-headed woodpecker, and _aliquachiek_.' _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept. joint spec. com._, , p. . [ ] 'have no tribal organization, no such thing as public offence.' _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ a pitt river chief tried the white man's code, but so unpopular was it, that he was obliged to abandon it. _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ among the klamath and trinity tribes the power of the chief 'is insufficient to control the relations of the several villages, or keep down the turbulence of individuals.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - . the cahrocs, eurocs, hoopas, and kailtas, have a nominal chief for each village, but his power is extremely limited and each individual does as he likes. among the tolewas in del norte county, money makes the chief. the modocs and patawats have an hereditary chieftainship. _powers' pomo, ms._ at trinidad bay they were 'governed by a ruler, who directs where they shall go both to hunt and fish.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . 'der häuptling ist sehr geachtet; er hat über handel und wandel, leben und tod seiner unterthanen zu verfügen, und seine macht vererbt sich auf seinen erstgebornen.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . the chief 'obtains his position from his wealth, and usually manages to transmit his effects and with them his honors, to his posterity.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, march, . formerly 'the different rancherias had chiefs, or heads, known as mow-wee-mas, their influence being principally derived from their age, number of relatives, and wealth.' _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept. joint. spec. com._, p. . [ ] the cahrocs compound for murder by payment of one string. among the patawats the average fine for murdering a man is ten strings, for killing a woman five strings, worth about $ and $ respectively. 'an average patawut's life is considered worth about six ordinary canoes, each of which occupies two indians probably three months in making, or, in all, tantamount to the labor of one man for a period of three years.' 'the hoopas and kailtas also paid for murder, or their life was taken by the relatives of the deceased.' _powers' pomo, ms._ 'they seem to do as they please, and to be only governed by private revenge. if one man kills another the tribe or family of the latter kill the murderer, unless he buy himself off.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] _drew's owyhee reconnaissance_, p. . [ ] the cahrocs, eurocs, hoopahs, and patawats, all acquire their wives by purchase. _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _powers' pomo, ms._ 'wenn ein allequa seine künftige lebensgefährtin unter den schönen seines stammes erwählt hat und sich verheirathen will, muss er dem mauhemi (chief) eine armslange muschelschnur vorzeigen.' _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, p. . the mountain indians seldom, if ever, intermarry with those on the coast. _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept. joint. spec. com._, , p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . buy wives with shell-money. _pfeiffer's second journ._ among the modocs 'the women are offered for sale to the highest buyer.' _meacham's lecture_, in _s. f. alta california_, oct. , ; _miller's life amongst the modocs_. [ ] polygamy is common among the modocs. _meacham's lecture_, in _s. f. alta california_, _oct. , _. on pitt river a chief sometimes has five wives. 'the most jealous people in the world.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ 'among the tribes in the north of the state adultery is punished by the death of the child.' _taylor_, in _california farmer_, _march , _. 'the males have as many wives as they are able to purchase;' adultery committed by a woman is punished with death. _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _march, _. among the cahrocs polygamy is not tolerated; among the modocs polygamy prevails, and the women have considerable privilege. the hoopa adulterer loses one eye, the adulteress is exempt from punishment. _powers' pomo, ms._ the weeyots at eel river 'have as many wives as they please.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . at trinidad bay 'we found out that they had a plurality of wives.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . [ ] all the young unmarried women are a common possession. _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. . the women bewail their virginity for three nights before their marriage. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . if we believe powers, they cannot usually have much to bewail. [ ] boys are disgraced by work. _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ women work, while men gamble or sleep. _wiley_, in _ind. aff. rept. joint spec. com._, , p. ; _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ [ ] _kane's wand._, p. . [ ] for the god chareya, see _bancroft's nat. races_, vol. iii., pp. , . [ ] _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . the pitt river indians 'sing as they gamble and play until they are so hoarse they cannot speak.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] _chase_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'they used tobacco, which they smoaked in small wooden pipes, in form of a trumpet, and procured from little gardens, where they had planted it.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . [ ] the pitt river indians 'give no medicines.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ 'the prevailing diseases are venereal, scrofula and rheumatism.' many die of consumption. _force_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . at the mouth of eel river 'the principal diseases noticed, were sore eyes and blindness, consumption, and a species of leprosy.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . they suffer from a species of lung fever. _geiger_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'a disease was observed among them (the shastas) which had the appearance of the leprosy.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'the only medicine i know of is a root used for poultices, and another root or plant for an emetic.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ 'the root of a parasite fern, found growing on the tops of the fir trees (collque nashul), is the principal remedy. the plant in small doses is expectorant and diurtetic; hence it is used to relieve difficulties of the lungs and kidneys; and, in large doses, it becomes sedative and is an emmenagogue; hence, it relieves fevers, and is useful in uterine diseases, and produces abortions. the squaws use the root extensively for this last mentioned purpose.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _march, _. [ ] a pitt river doctor told his patient that for his fee 'he must have his horse or he would not let him get well.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. viii., p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _rector_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _ostrander_, in _id._, , p. ; _miller_, in _id._, p. . [ ] _temescal_ is an aztec word defined by molina, _vocabulario_, 'temazcalli, casilla como estufa, adonde se bañan y sudan.' the word was brought to this region and applied to the native sweat-houses by the franciscan fathers. _turner_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. , gives 'sweat-house' in the chemehuevi language, as _pahcaba_. [ ] _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._; _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. ; _powers' pomo, ms._; _chase_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _meacham's lecture on the modocs_, in _s. f. alta california_, _oct. , _; _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] on pitt river they burn their dead and heap stones over the ashes for a monument. 'no funeral ceremonies.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ on the ocean frontier of south oregon and north california 'the dead are buried with their faces looking to the west.' _hubbard_, in _golden era_, _march, _. the patawats and chillulas bury their dead. the tolewahs are not allowed to name the dead. _powers' pomo, ms._ 'it is one of the most strenuous indian laws that whoever mentions the name of a deceased person is liable to a heavy fine, the money being paid to the relatives.' _chase_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . 'the bodies had been doubled up, and placed in a sitting posture in holes. the earth, when replaced, formed conical mounds over the heads.' _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . 'they bury their dead under the noses of the living, and with them all their worldly goods. if a man of importance, his house is burned and he is buried on its site.' _johnson_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ii., p. . 'the chick or ready money, is placed in the owner's grave, but the bow and quiver become the property of the nearest male relative. chiefs only receive the honors of a fence, surmounted with feathers, round the grave.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'upon the death of one of these indians they raised a sort of funeral cry, and afterward burned the body within the house of their ruler.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . [ ] _muck-a-muck_, food. in the chinook jargon 'to eat; to bite; food. muckamuck chuck, to drink water.' _dict. chinook jargon, or indian trade language_, p. . [ ] in the vicinity of nootka sound and the columbia river, the first united states traders with the natives were from boston; the first english vessels appeared about the same time, which was during the reign of george iii. hence in the chinook jargon we find '_boston_, an american; _boston illahie_, the united states;' and '_king george_, english--_king george man_, an englishman.' [ ] 'they will often go three or four miles out of their way, to avoid passing a place which they think to be haunted.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ [ ] the pitt river indians 'are very shrewd in the way of stealing, and will beat a coyote. they are full of cunning.' _the shastas and their neighbors, ms._ they 'are very treacherous and bloody in their dispositions.' _abbott_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. vi., p. . 'the indians of the north of california stand at the very lowest point of culture.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . 'incapable of treachery, but ready to fight to the death in avenging an insult or injury. they are active and energetic in the extreme.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . at klamath lake they are noted for treachery. _fremont's explor. ex._, p. . 'the tolowas resemble the hoopas in character, being a bold and masterly race, formidable in battle, aggressive and haughty.' the patawats are 'extremely timid and inoffensive.' the chihulas, like most of the coast tribes 'are characterized by hideous and incredible superstitions.' the modocs 'are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom, sullen when angered, and notorious for keeping punic faith. their bravery nobody can dispute.' the yukas are a 'tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and every way bad, but brave race.' _powers' pomo, ms._ on trinity river 'they have acquired the vices of the whites without any of their virtues.' _heintzelman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . above the forks of the main trinity they are 'fierce and intractable.' on the klamath they 'have a reputation for treachery, as well as revengefulness; are thievish, and much disposed to sulk if their whims are not in every way indulged.' they 'blubber like a schoolboy at the application of a switch.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , , . the rogue river indians and shastas 'are a warlike race, proud and haughty, but treacherous and very degraded in their moral nature.' _miller_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . at rogue river they are 'brave, haughty, indolent, and superstitious.' _ostrander_, in _id._, , p. ; _roseborough's letter to the author, ms._ [ ] these are not to be confounded with the yukas in round valley, tehama county. [ ] spelled walhalla on some maps. [ ] in the vicinity of fort ross, 'die indianer sind von mittlerem wuchse, doch trifft man auch hohe gestalten unter ihnen an; sie sind ziemlich wohl proportionirt, die farbe der haut ist bräunlich, doch ist diese farbe mehr eine wirkung der sonne als angeboren; die augen und haare sind schwarz, die letzteren stehen straff.... beide geschlechter sind von kräftigem körperbau.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethn._, p. . 'quoique surpris dans un très-grand négligé, ces hommes me parurent beaux, de haute taille, robustes et parfaitement découplés ... traits réguliers ... yeux noirs ... nez aquilin surmonté d'un front élevé, les pommettes des joues arrondies, ... fortes lèvres ... dents blanches et bien rangées ... peau jaune cuivré, un cou annonçant la vigueur et soutenu par de larges épaules ... un air intelligent et fier à la fois.... je trouvai toutes les femmes horriblement laides.' _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., - . at the head of the eel river 'the average height of these men was not over five feet four or five inches. they were lightly built, with no superfluous flesh, but with very deep chests and sinewy legs.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the clear lake indians are of a very degraded caste; their foreheads naturally being often as low as the compressed skulls of the chinooks, and their forms commonly small and ungainly.' _id._, p. . at bodega bay 'they are an ugly and brutish race, many with negro profiles.' _id._, p. . 'they are physically an inferior race, and have flat, unmeaning features, long, coarse, straight black hair, big mouths, and very dark skins.' _revere's tour_, p. . 'large and strong, their colour being the same as that of the whole territory.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . it is said of the natives of the sacramento valley, that 'their growth is short and stunted; they have short thick necks, and clumsy heads; the forehead is low, the nose flat with broad nostrils, the eyes very narrow and showing no intelligence, the cheek-bones prominent, and the mouth large. the teeth are white, but they do not stand in even rows: and their heads are covered by short, thick, rough hair.... their color is a dirty yellowish-brown.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . 'this race of indians is probably inferior to all others on the continent. many of them are diminutive in stature, but they do not lack muscular strength, and we saw some who were tall and well-formed.... their complexion is a dark mahogany, or often nearly black, their faces round or square, with features approximating nearer to the african than the indian. wide, enormous mouth, noses nearly flat, and hair straight, black, and coarse.... small, gleaming eyes.' _johnson's cal. and ogn._, pp. - . of good stature, strong and muscular. _bryant's cal._, p. . 'rather below the middle stature, but strong, well-knit fellows.... good-looking, and well limbed.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'they were in general fine stout men.' a great diversity of physiognomy was noticeable. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. , . on the sacramento 'were fine robust men, of low stature, and badly formed.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'the mouth is very large, and the nose broad and depressed.' 'chiefly distinguished by their dark color ... broad faces, a low forehead.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'their features are coarse, broad, and of a dark chocolate color.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. at drake's bay, just above san francisco, the men are 'commonly so strong of body, that that which two or three of our men could hardly beare, one of them would take vpon his backe, and without grudging carrie it easily away, vp hill and downe hill an english mile together.' _drake's world encomp._, p. . 'los naturales de este sitio y puerto son algo trigueños, por lo quemados del sol, aunque los venidos de la otra banda del puerto y del estero ... son mas blancos y corpulentos.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . 'ugly, stupid, and savage; otherwise they are well formed, tolerably tall, and of a dark brown complexion. the women are short, and very ugly; they have much of the negro in their countenance.... very long, smooth, and coal-black hair.' _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., pp. - . 'they all have a very savage look, and are of a very dark color.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'ill made; their faces ugly, presenting a dull, heavy, and stupid countenance.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . the tcholovoni tribe 'differe beaucoup de toutes les autres par les traits du visage par sa physionomie, par un extèrieur assez agréable.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. ., plate vi., vii., xii. 'the alchones are of good height, and the tuluraios were thought to be, generally, above the standard of englishmen. their complexion is much darker than that of the south-sea islanders, and their features far inferior in beauty.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . at santa clara they are 'of a blackish colour, they have flat faces, thick lips, and black, coarse, straight hair.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'their features are handsome, and well-proportioned; their countenances are cheerful and interesting.' _morrell's voy._, p. . at placerville they are 'most repulsive-looking wretches.... they are nearly black, and are exceedingly ugly.' _borthwick's three years in cal._, p. . in the yosemite valley 'they are very dark colored,' and 'the women are perfectly hideous.' _kneeland's wonders of yosemite_, p. . the monos on the east side of the sierra are 'a fine looking race, straight, and of good height, and appear to be active.' _von schmidt_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. - . at monterey 'ils sont en général bien faits, mais faibles d'esprit et de corps.' in the vicinity of san miguel, they are 'généralement d'une couleur foncée, sales et mal faits ... à l'exception tout fois des indiens qui habitent sur les bords de la rivière des tremblements de terre, et sur la côte voisine. ceux-ci sont blancs, d'une joli figure, et leurs cheveux tirent sur le roux.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. , ; also quoted in _marmier_, _notice sur les indiens_, p. . 'sont généralement petits, faibles ... leur couleur est très-approchante de celle des nègres dont les cheveux ne sont point laineux: ceux de ces peuples sont longs et très-forts.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'la taille des hommes est plus haute (than that of the chilians), et leurs muscles mieux prononcés.' the figure of the women 'est plus élevée (than that of the chilian women), et la forme de leurs membres est plus régulière; elles sont en général d'une stature mieux développée et d'une physionomie moins repoussante.' _rollin_, in _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . at san josé 'the men are almost all rather above the middling stature, and well built; very few indeed are what may be called undersized. their complexions are dark but not negro like ... some seemed to possess great muscular strength; they have very coarse black hair.' some of the women were more than five feet six inches in height. and speaking of the californian indians, in general, 'they are of a middling, or rather of a low stature, and of a dark brown colour, approaching to black ... large projecting lips, and broad, flat, negro-like noses; ... bear a strong resemblance to the negroes.... none of the men we saw were above five feet high ... ill-proportioned ... we had never seen a less pleasing specimen of the human race.' _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - , , see plate. and speaking generally of the californian indians: 'die männer sind im allgemeinen gut gebaut und von starker körperbildung,' height 'zwischen fünf fuss vier zoll und fünf fuss zehn oder eilf zoll.' complexion 'die um ein klein wenig heller als bei den mulatten, also weit dunkler ist, als bei den übrigen indianerstämmen.' _osswald_, _californien_, p. . the coast indians 'are about five feet and a half in height, and rather slender and feeble,' in the interior they 'are taller and more robust.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'cubische schädelform, niedrige stirn, breites gesicht, mit hervorragendem jochbogen, breite lippen und grosser mund, mehr platte nase und am innenwinkel herabgezogene augen.' _wimmel_, _californien_, pp. v, . 'les californiens sont presque noirs; la disposition de leur yeux et l'ensemble de leur visage leur donnent avec les européens une ressemblance assez marquée.' _rossi_, _souvenirs_, pp. - . 'they are small in stature; thin, squalid, dirty, and degraded in appearance. in their habits little better than an ourang-outang, they are certainly the worst type of savage i have ever seen.' _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. . 'more swarthy in complexion, and of less stature than those east of the rocky mountains ... more of the asiatic cast of countenance than the eastern tribe.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'dépasse rarement la hauteur de cinq pieds deux ou trois pouces; leur membres sont grêles et médiocrement musclés. ils ont de grosses lévres qui se projettent en avant, le nez large et aplati comme les ethiopiens; leurs cheveux sont noirs, rude et droits.' _auger_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'generally of small stature, robust appearance, and not well formed.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'schön gewachsen und von schwärtzlich-brauner farbe.' _mühlenpfordt mejico_, tom. ii., part ii., p. . 'low foreheads and skins as black as guinea negroes.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . 'en naissant les enfants sont presque blancs ... mais ils noircissent en grandissant.' 'depuis le nord du rio sacramento jusqu'au cap san lucas ... leurs caractères physique, leurs moeurs et leurs usages sont les mêmes.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. , . 'skin of such a deep reddish-brown that it seems almost black.' _figuier's human race_, p. ; _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. sprache_, p. ; _forbes' cal._, pp. - ; _harper's monthly_, vol. xiii., p. . 'a fine set of men, who, though belonging to different nationalities, had very much the same outward appearance; so that when you have seen one you seem to have seen them all.' _pim and seemann's dottings_, p. . [ ] on the sacramento river 'the men universally had some show of a beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'they had beards and whiskers an inch or two long, very soft and fine.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . on russian river 'they have quite heavy moustaches and beards on the chin, but not much on the cheeks, and they almost all suffer it to grow.' the clear lake indians 'have also considerable beards, and hair on the person.' at the head of south fork of eel river, 'they pluck their beards.' gibbs, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - . at monterey 'plusieurs ont de la barbe; d'autres, suivant les pères missionaires, n'en ont jamais eu, et c'est un question qui n'est pas même décidée dans le pays.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'les californiens ont la barbe plus fournie que les chiliens, et les parties génitales mieux garnies: cependant j'ai remarqué, parmi les hommes, un grand nombre d'individus totalement dépourvus de barbe; les femmes ont aussi peu de poil au pénil et aux aisselles.' _rollin_, in _la pérouse_, _voy._, vol. iv., p. . 'they have the habit common to all american indians of extracting the beard and the hair of other parts of their body.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . beards 'short, thin, and stiff.' _bartlett's nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'in general very scanty, although occasionally a full flowing beard is observed.' _forbes' cal._, pp. - . 'beards thin; many shave them close with mussel-shells.' _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'ihr bart ist schwach.' _wimmel_, _californien_, vol. v. at san antonio, 'in the olden times, before becoming christians, they pulled out their beards.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. choris in his _voy. pitt._, plates vi., vii., xii., of part iii., draws the indians with a very slight and scattered beard. 'pluck out their beard.' _auger_, _voy. in cal._, p. . 'wear whiskers.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'les indiens qui habitent dans la direction du cap de nouvel-an (del año nuevo) ... ont des moustaches.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . mühlenpfordt mentions that at the death of a relation, 'die männer raufen haupthaar und bart sich aus.' _mejico_, vol. ii., part ii., p. . [ ] at fort ross 'die männer gehen ganz nackt, die frauen hingegen bedecken nur den mittleren theil des körpers von vorne und von hinten mit den fellen wilder ziegen; das haar binden die männer auf dem schopfe, die frauen am nacken in büschel zusammen; bisweilen lassen sie es frei herunter wallen; die männer heften die büschel mit ziemlich künstlich, aus einer rothen palme geschnitzten hölzchen fest.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . at clear lake 'the women generally wear a small round, bowl-shaped basket on their heads; and this is frequently interwoven with the red feathers of the woodpecker, and edged with the plume tufts of the blue quail.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . see also p. , plate xiv., for plate of ornaments. at kelsey river, dress 'consists of a deer-skin robe thrown over the shoulders.' _id._, p. . in the sacramento valley 'they were perfectly naked.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'both sexes have the ears pierced with large holes, through which they pass a piece of wood as thick as a man's finger, decorated with paintings or glass beads.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . 'the men go entirely naked; but the women, with intuitive modesty, wear a small, narrow, grass apron, which extends from the waist to the knees, leaving their bodies and limbs partially exposed.' _delano's life on the plains_, pp. , . 'they wear fillets around their heads of leaves.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'the dress of the women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of strings of 'californian flax,' or sometimes of rushes.' men naked. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . at bodega they 'most liberally presented us with plumes of feathers, rosaries of bone, garments of feathers, as also garlands of the same materials, which they wore round their head.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . 'the women wore skins of animals about their shoulders and waists;' hair 'clubbed behind.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . around san francisco bay: 'in summer many go entirely naked. the women, however, wear a deer-skin, or some other covering about their loins; but skin dresses are not common.' to their ears the women 'attach long wooden cylinders, variously carved, which serve the double purpose of ear-rings and needle-cases.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'all go naked.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'the men either go naked or wear a simple breech-cloth. the women wear a cloth or strips of leather around their loins.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . three hundred years ago we are told that the men in the vicinity of san francisco bay 'for the most part goe naked; the women take a kinde of bulrushes, and kembing it after the manner of hemp, make themselues thereof a loose garment, which being knitte about their middles, hanges downe about their hippes, and so affordes to them a couering of that which nature teaches should be hidden; about their shoulders they weare also the skin of a deere, with the haire vpon it.' the king had upon his shoulders 'a coate of the skins of conies, reaching to his wast; his guard also had each coats of the same shape, but of other skin.... after these in their order, did follow the naked sort of common people, whose haire being long, was gathered into a bunch behind, in which stucke plumes of feathers; but in the forepart onely single feathers like hornes, every one pleasing himselfe in his owne device.' _drake's world encomp._, pp. , . 'asi como adamitas se presentan sin el menor rubor ni vergüenza (esto es, los hombres) y para librarse del frio que todo el año hace en esta mision (san francisco), principalmente las mañanas, se embarran con lodo, diciendo que les preserva de él, y en quanto empieza á calentar el sol se lavan: las mugeres andan algo honestas, hasta las muchachas chiquitas: usan para la honestidad de un delantar que hacen de hilos de tule, ó juncia, que no pasa de la rodilla, y otro atrás amarrados á la cintura que ambos forman como unas enaguas, con que se presentan con alguna honestidad, y en las espaldas se ponen otros semejantes para librarse en alguna manera del frio.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . at monterey, and on the coast between monterey and santa barbara the dress 'du plus riche consiste en un manteau da peau de loutre qui couvre ses reins et descend au dessous des sines.... l'habillement des femmes est un manteau de peau de cerf mal tannée.... les jeunes filles au-dessous de neuf ans n'ont qu'une simple ceinture et les enfans de l'autre sexe sont tout nus.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'ils se percent aussi les oreilles, et y portent des ornemens d'un genre et d'un gout trés-variés.' _rollin_, in _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'those between monterey and the extreme northern boundary of the mexican domain, shave their heads close.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . on the coast between san diego and san francisco 'presque tous ... vont entierement nus; ceux qui ont quelques vêtements, n'ont autre chose qu'une casaque faite de courroies de peau de lapins, de lièvres ou de loutres tressés ensemble, et qui ont conservé le poil. les femmes ont une espèce de tablier de roseaux tressés qui s'attache autour de la taille par un cordon, et pend jusqu'aux genoux; une peau de cerf mal tannée et mal préparée, jetée sur leurs épaules en guise de manteau, compléte leur toilette.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'sont tres peu couverts, et en été, la plupart vont tout nus. les femmes font usage de peaux de daim pour se couvrir.... ces femmes portent encore comme vêtement des espèces de couvertures sans envers, faites en plumes tissues ensemble ... il a l'avantage d'être très-chaud.... elles portent généralement, au lieu de boucles d'oreilles, des morceaux d'os ou de bois en forme de cylindre et sculptés de différentes manières. ces ornements sont creux et servent également d'étuis pour renfermer leurs aiguilles.' _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . speaking generally of the californian indians, 'both sexes go nearly naked, excepting a sort of wrapper round the waist, only in the coldest part of the winter they throw over their bodies a covering of deer-skin, or the skin of the sea-otter. they also make themselves garments of the feathers of many different kinds of water fowl, particularly ducks and geese, bound together fast in a sort of ropes, which ropes are then united quite close so as to make something like a feather skin.' it is very warm. 'in the same manner they cut the sea-otter skins into small strips, which they twist together, and then join them as they do the feathers, so that both sides have the fur alike.' _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - . see also _farnham's life in cal._, p. , and _forbes' cal._, p. . 'im winter selbst tragen sie wenig bekleidung, vielleicht nur eine hirschhaut, welche sie über die schulter werfen; männer, frauen und kinder gehen selbst im winter im schnee barfuss.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _patrick, gilbert, heald, and von schmidt_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. , and plate xii.; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., part ii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _shea's catholic missions_, p. ; _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _augur_, _voy. en cal._, p. . after having collated the above notes i was rather taken aback by meeting the following: 'the general costume of nearly all the californian indians gives them rather an interesting appearance; when fully dressed, their hair, which has been loose, is tied up, either with a coronet of silver, or the thongs of skin, ornamented with feathers of the brightest colours; bracelets made in a similar manner are wore; breeches and leggings of doe-skin, sewed, not unfrequently with human hair; a kind of kilt of varied coloured cloth or silk (!), fastened by a scarf, round their waist; ... the women wear a cloth petticoat, dyed either blue or red, doe-skin shirt, and leggings, with feathered bracelets round their waist.' _coulter's adventures_, vol. i., pp. - . surely mr coulter should know an indian dress from one composed of mexican cloth and trinkets. [ ] at bodega the women 'were as much tatooed or punctured as any of the females of the sandwich islands.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . in the sacramento valley 'most of the men had some slight marks of tattooing on the breast, disposed like a necklace.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . dana, in a note to hale, says: 'the faces of the men were colored with black and red paint, fancifully laid on in triangles and zigzag lines. the women were tattooed below the mouth.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'most of them had some slight marks of tattooing on their breast; somewhat similar to that of the chinooks.... the face was usually painted, the upper part of the cheek in the form of a triangle, with a blue-black substance, mixed with some shiny particles that looked like pulverized mica.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., pp. , . 'their faces daubed with a thick dark glossy substance like tar, in a line from the outside corners of the eyes to the ends of the mouth, and back from them to the hinge of the jawbone ... some also had their entire foreheads coated over.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'the women are a little tattooed on the chin.' _pfeiffer's second journ._, p. . at monterey and vicinity, 'se peignent le corps en rouge, et en noir lorsqu'ils sont en deuil.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'se peignent la peau pour se parer.' _rollin_, in _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . 'this one thing was obserued to bee generall amongst them all, that euery one had his face painted, some with white, some blacke, and some with other colours.' _drake's world encomp._, p. . 'tattooing is practised in these tribes by both sexes, both to ornament the person and to distinguish one clan from another. it is remarkable that the women mark their chins precisely in the same way as the esquimaux.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'les indigènes indepéndents de la haute-californie sont tatoués ... ces signes servent d'ornement et de distinction, non seulement d'une tribu à une autre tribu, mais encore, d'une famille à une autre famille.' _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'tattooing is also used, but principally among the women. some have only a double or triple line from each corner of the mouth down to the chin; others have besides a cross stripe extending from one of these stripes to the other; and most have simple long and cross stripes from the chin over the neck down to the breast and upon the shoulders.' _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; see plate, p. . when dancing, 'ils se peignent sur le corps des lignes régulières, noires, rouges et blanches. quelques-uns ont la moitié du corps, depuis la tête jusqu'en bas, barbouillée de noir, et l'autre de rouge; le tout croisé par des raies blanches, d'autres se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. ; see also plate xii. 'i have never observed any particular figured designs upon their persons, but the tattooing is generally on the chin, though sometimes on the wrist and arm.' mostly on the persons of the females. _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'les femmes seules emploient le tatouage.' _auger_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] 'il est bien rare qu'un indien passe la nuit dans sa maison. vers le soir chacun prend son arc et ses flèches et va se réunir aux autres dans de grandes cavernes, parce-qu'ils craignent d'être attaqués a l'improviste par leurs ennemis et d'être surpris sans défense au milieu de leurs femmes et de leurs enfants.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. - . [ ] two authors describe their dwellings as being much smaller than i have stated them to be: 'leur maisons ont quatre pieds de diamètre.' _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . their wigwams have 'une élévation au-dessus du sol de cinq à huit pieds et une circonférence de dix à douze.' _holinski_, _la californie_, p. . the authorities i have followed, and who agree in essential particulars, are: _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. ; _pfeiffer's second journ._, pp. - ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., pp. , ; _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. ; _drake's world encomp._, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. , with cut; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., pp. , ; _palou_, _noticias_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., vol. vi., pp. , ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. ; _delano's life on the plains_, p. ; _gerstäcker's journ._, p. ; _gilbert_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _patrick_, in _id._, p. ; _jewett_, in _id._, p. ; _bailey_, in _id._, , p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _wimmel_, _californien_, pp. , ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _baer_, _stat. und ethno._, p. ; _kostromitonow_, in _id._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., p. ; _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. ; _roquefeuil's voy. round the world_, p. ; _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. , . [ ] wilkes, and the majority of writers, assert that the acorns are sweet and palatable in their natural state; kostromitonow, however, says: 'nachdem die eicheln vom baume gepflückt sind, werden sie in der sonne gedörrt, darauf gereinigt und in körben mittelst besonders dazu behauener steine gestossen, dann wird im sande oder sonst wo in lockerer erde eine grube gegraben, die eicheln werden hineingeschüttet und mit wasser übergossen, welches beständig von der erde eingezogen wird. dieses ausspülen wiederholt man so lange bis die eicheln alle ihre eigenthümliche bitterkeit verloren haben.' _baer_, _stat. und ethno._, p. . the acorn bread 'looks and tastes like coarse black clay, strongly resembling the soundings in hampton roads, and being about as savory and digestible.' _revere's tour_, p. . never having eaten 'coarse black clay,' i cannot say how it tastes, but according to all other authorities, this bread, were it not for the extreme filthiness of those who prepare it, would be by no means disagreeable food. [ ] pinole is an aztec word, and is applied to any kind of grain or seeds, parched and ground, before being made into dough. '_pinolli_, la harina de mayz y chia, antes que la deslian.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. the aztecs made pinole chiefly of maize or indian corn. [ ] 'nos trageron su regalo de tamales grandes de mas de á tercia con su correspondiente grueso, amasados de semillas silvestres muy prietas que parecen brea; los probé y no tienen mal gusto y son muy mantecosos.' _palou_, _noticias_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. . among the presents given to drake by the indians was 'a roote which they call petáh, whereof they make a kind of meale, and either bake it into bread or eate it raw; broyled fishes, like a pilchard; the seede and downe aforenamed, with such like.' _drake's world encomp._, p. . catch salmon in baskets. 'they neither sow nor reap, but burn their meadows from time to time to increase their fertility.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'les rats, les insectes, les serpentes, tout sans exception leur sert de nourriture.... ils sont trop maladroits et trop paresseux pour chasser.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. . 'entre ellas tienen una especie de semilla negra, y de su harina hacen unos tamales, á modo de bolas, de tamaño de una naranja, que son muy sabrosos, que parecen de almendra tostada muy mantecosa.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'their fastidiousness does not prompt them to take the entrails out' of fishes and birds. _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'live upon various plants in their several seasons, besides grapes, and even use the artemesia.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., pp. , . 'ils trouvent aussi autour d'eux une quantité d'aloès dont ils font un fréquent usage.... ils utilisent éncore la racine d'une espèce de roseau.... ils mangent aussi une fleur sucrée qui ressemble à celle de l'églantier d'espagne, et qui croît dans les endroits marécageux.' _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, pp. - , . were cannibals and their sorcerers still eat human flesh. _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. , - . the meewocs 'eat all creatures that swim in the waters, all that fly through the air, and all that creep, crawl, or walk upon the earth, with, perhaps a dozen exceptions.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . 'ils se nourrissent également d'une espèce de gâteaux fabriqués avec du gland, et qu'ils roulent dans le sable avant de le livrer à la cuisson; de là vient qu'ils sont, jeunes encore, les dents usées jusqu'à la racine, et ce n'est pas, comme le dit malte-brun, parce qu'ils ont l'habitude de les limer.' _auger_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'while i was standing there a couple of pretty young girls came from the woods, with flat baskets full of flower-seed, emitting a peculiar fragrance, which they also prepared for eating. they put some live coals among the seed, and swinging it and throwing it together, to shake the coals and the seed well, and bring them in continual and close contact without burning the latter, they roasted it completely, and the mixture smelled so beautiful and refreshing that i tasted a good handful of it, and found it most excellent.' _gerstaecker's journ._, p. . see farther: _humboldt_, _pol._, tom. i., pp. - ; _holinski_, _la californie_, p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - , ; _wimmel_, _californien_, pp. , ; _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. ; _taylor's el dorado_, vol. i., p. ; _king's rept._, in _taylor's el dorado_, vol. ii., p. ; _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _fremont's explor. ex._, pp. , ; _johnson's cal. and ogn._, p. ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _placerville index_, _aug., _; _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _patrick, mcdermott, gilbert, benitz, jannson, von schmidt, mcadam, bowlby, and jewett_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , - ; _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. ; _helper's land of gold_, pp. - ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, pp. - , , ; _yate's sketch of the sacramento valley in , ms._; _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _mcdaniels' early days of cal. ms._; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., pp. , ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; _knight's pioneer life, ms._ [ ] when the indian finds a tree stocked by the carpenter bird he 'kindles a fire at its base and keeps it up till the tree falls, when he helps himself to the acorns.' _helper's land of gold_, p. . [ ] _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'when a sturgeon is caught, the spinal marrow, which is considered a delicacy, is drawn out whole, through a cut made in the back, and devoured raw.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _browne_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xxiii., p. . [ ] 'they cook the flesh of this animal in holes dug in the ground and curbed up with stone like wells. over this they build large fires, heat them thoroughly, clean out the coals and ashes, fill them with whale flesh, cover the opening with sticks, leaves, grass and earth, and thus bake their repast.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. - . 'ils font rôtir cette chair dans des trous creusés en terre.' _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] _johnson's cal. and ogn._, p. ; _powers' account of john a. sutter, ms._; and _id._, _letter to the author, ms._ [ ] 'reinlichkeit kennen sie nicht, und in ihren hütten sind die diversesten parasiten vertreten.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'i have seen them eating the vermin which they picked from each other's heads, and from their blankets. although they bathe frequently, they lay for hours in the dirt, basking in the sun, covered with dust.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'in their persons they are extremely dirty.' eat lice like the tartars. _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'very filthy, and showed less sense of decency in every respect than any we had ever met with.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'ein bogen mit pfeilen und ein spiess sind ihre waffen; alles dieses wird meistens aus jungem tannenholz verfertigt. die spitzen der pfeile und spiesse bestehen aus scharfen, künstlich behauenen steinen, zur bogensehne nehmen sie die sehnen wilder ziegen; ausserdem führen sie in kriegszeiten eine art von schleuder, mit welcher sie steine auf eine grosse entfernung werfen.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . bow 'from three to four and a half feet long.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'their arms are clubs, spears of hard wood, and the bow and arrow.... arrows are mostly made of reeds.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _feb. , _. 'die einzige waffe zur erlegung des wildes ist ihnen der bogen und pfeil.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'their only arms were bows and arrows.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . bows 'about thirty inches long ... arrows are a species of reed ... spears are pointed with bone.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'the quiver of dressed deer-skin, holds both bow and arrows.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'the point (of the arrow) itself is a piece of flint chipped down into a flat diamond shape, about the size of a diamond on a playing-card; the edges are very sharp, and are notched to receive the tendons with which it is firmly secured to the arrow.' _borthwick's three years in cal._, p. . 'arrows are pointed with flint, as are also their spears, which are very short. they do not use the tomahawk or scalping knife.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'leurs armes sont l'arc et les flèches armées d'un silex très-artistement travaillé.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'ces arcs sont encore garnis, au milieu, d'une petite lanière de cuir, qui a pour object d'empêcher la flèche de dévier de la position qu'on lui donne en la posant sur l'arc.... ils prétendent que cette précaution rend leurs coups encore plus sûrs. les flèches sont moins longues que l'arc, elles ont ordinairement de à centimètres de long, elles sont faites d'un bois très-léger et sont égales en grosseur à chaque extrémité ... l'autre extrémité de la flèche est garnie, sur quatre faces, de barbes en plumes qui ont centimètres de longueur sur , millimètres de hauteur.' _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . they 'maintain armories to make their bows, and arrows, and lances.' arrows 'are tipped with barbed obsidian heads ... the shaft is ornamented with rings of the distinguishing paint of the owner's rancheria. their knives and spear-points are made of obsidian and flint.' arrows are of two kinds, 'one short and light for killing game, and the other a war-shaft measuring a cloth-yard in length.' _revere's tour_, pp. - . 'ces flèches offrent peu de danger à une certaine distance, à cause de la parabole qu'elles sont forcées de décrire, et qui donne à celui que les voit venir la temps de les éviter.' _auger_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'la corde, faite avec du chanvre sylvestre, est garnie d'un petit morceau de peau qui en étouffe le sifflement.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; see _atlas_, plate . 'ihre waffen bestehen nur in bogen und pfeil.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., part ii., p. . 'they have no offensive arms at all, except bows and arrows, and these are small and powerless.... arrows are about two feet long.' _gerstaecker's journ._, p. . 'sometimes the bow is merely of wood and rudely made.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'their weapons consist only of bows and arrows; neither the tomahawk nor the spear is ever seen in their hands.' _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'a portion of the string is covered with downy fur' to deaden the sound. arrows are invariably pointed with flint. they have 'sometimes wooden barbs.' javelins pointed with flint, or sometimes simply sharpened at the end. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . arrows were about three feet long, and pointed with flint. short spears also pointed with flint. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'traian unas lanzas cortas con su lengüeta de pedernal tan bien labradas como si fuesen de hierro ó acero, con solo la diferencia de no estar lisas.' _palou_, _noticias_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. . 'los mas de ellos traian varas largas en las manos á modo de lanzas.' _id._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _life of gov. l. w. boggs, by his son, ms._ [ ] _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . it is impossible to locate with certainty the san miguel of fages. there are now several places of the name in california, of which the san miguel in san luis obispo county comes nearest the region in which, to agree with his own narrative, fages must have been at the time. the cimeter mentioned by him, must have strongly resembled the _maquahuitl_ of the ancient mexicans, and it was possibly much farther south that he saw it. [ ] _powers' pomo, ms._; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . [ ] _butte record_, _aug., ._ [ ] 'suelen entrar en ella entonando cánticos militares mezclados de extraños alaridos; y acostumbran formarse los campeones en dos lineas muy próximas para empezar disparándose flechazos. como uno de sus principales ardides consiste en intimidar al enemigo, para conseguirlo procura cada partido que oiga el contrario los preparativos de la batalla.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'on coming in sight of the enemy they form in an extended line, something like light infantry, and shouting, like bacchanals dance from side to side to prevent the foe from taking deliberate aim.' _revere's tour_, p. . [ ] in the vicinity of fort ross: 'in ihren kriegen wird unerschrockenheit geachtet; gefangene feinde tödtet man nicht, sondern wechselt sie nach beendigtem kampfe aus; nie verurtheilt man sie zu sklaven.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . near feather river 'they carry off their dead to prevent their being scalped, which next after death they are most fearful of.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . in the sacramento valley 'the californians differ from the other north american tribes in the absence of the tomahawk and of the practice of scalping.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . at clear lake, 'they do not scalp the slain.' _revere's tour_, p. . in the vicinity of san francisco 'occasionally, they appear to have eaten pieces of the bodies of their more distinguished adversaries killed in battle.' _soulé's annals of san francisco_, p. . at monterey, 'lorsqu'ils avaient vaincu et mis à mort sur le champ de bataille des chefs ou des hommes très-courageux, ils en mangeaient quelques morceaux, moins en signe de haine et de vengeance, que comme un hommage qu'ils rendaient à leur valeur, et dans la persuasion qua cette nourriture était propre à augmenter leur courage.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'muchos indios armados de arco y flechas y llamándolos vinieron luego y me regularon muchos de ellos flechas, que es entre ellos la mayor demostracion de paz.' _palou_, _noticias_, in _doc. mex. hist._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. . at santa cruz they eat slices of the flesh of a brave fallen enemy, thinking to gain some of his valour. they 'take the scalps of their enemies ... they pluck out the eyes of their enemies.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'gefangene werden nicht lange gehalten, sondern gleich getödtet.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . in order to intimidate their enemies 'cometen con el propio fin en las primeras víctimas las crueldades mas horrorosas.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_ p. . [ ] _drake's world encomp._, p. . [ ] 'make baskets of the bark of trees.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'make a very ingenious straw box for keeping their worm bait alive; burying it in the earth, yet not allowing the worms to escape.' _kneeland's wonders of yosemite_, p. . 'die gewöhnlichste form für den korb ist halbconisch, fuss lang und zoll breit.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'their baskets, made of willows, are perfectly water-tight.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . 'they sometimes ornament the smaller ones with beads, pearl-shell, feathers, &c.' _revere's tour_, p. 'leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres utensiles sont artistiquement incrustés de morceaux de nacre de perle ... garnissent leur calebasses et leur cruches d'ouvrages de vannerie brodés avec des fils-déliés qu'elles tirent de diverses racines.' _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. ; _langsdorff's voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _borthwick's three years in cal._, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _maurelle's jour._, p. . at clear lake 'their canoes or rather rafts are made of bundles of the tulé plant.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . at san francisco bay and vicinity 'the only canoes of the indians are made of plaited reeds.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'they do not possess horses or canoes of any kind; they only know how to fasten together bundles of rushes, which carry them over the water by their comparative lightness.' _chamisso_, in _kotzebue's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'les indiens font leur pirogues à l'instant où ils veulent entreprendre un voyage par eau; elles sont en roseaux. lorsque l'on y entre elles s'emplissent à moitié d'eau; de sorte qu'assis, l'on en a jusqu'au gras de la jambe; on les fait aller avec des avirons extrêmement longs, et pointus aux deux extremités.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. . had no boats, but it was reported that they had previously used boats made of rushes. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'the most rude and sorry contrivances for embarcation i had ever beheld.... they were constructed of rushes and dried grass of a long broad leaf, made up into rolls the length of the canoe, the thickest in the middle and regularly tapering to a point at each end ... appeared to be very ill calculated to contend with wind and waves.... they conducted their canoe or vessel by long double-bladed paddles, like those used by the esquimaux.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'the balsas are entirely formed of the bulrush ... commonly the rowers sit on them soaked in water, as they seldom rise above the surface.' _forbes' cal._, p. . build no canoes, but occasionally make use of rafts composed of one or two logs, generally split. _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'the "balsa" is the only thing of the boat kind known among them. it is constructed entirely of bulrushes ... sit flat upon the craft, soaked in water, plying their paddles ... most of them in all kinds of weather, are either below, or on a level with the water.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'my opinion is that the indians of california, previous to the occupation by the jesuit fathers had no other boats than those made from the tule, and even as late as , i never knew or heard of an indian using any other.' _phelps' letter, ms._ [ ] _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. ; _cronise's nat. wealth_, p. . [ ] _roquefeuil's voy._, pp. - . tule is an aztec word, from _tollin_, signifying rushes, flags, or reeds. _molina_, _vocabulario._ mendoza says that when the ancient mexicans arrived at the site of mexico, it was a complete swamp, covered 'con grandes matorrales de enea, que llaman _tuli_.' _esplicacion del codice_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. . that the spaniards themselves had not boats at this time is also asserted by kotzebue: 'that no one has yet attempted to build even the simplest canoe in a country which produces a superabundance of the finest wood for the purpose, is a striking proof of the indolence of the spaniards, and the stupidity of the indians.' _new voy._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _phelps' letter, ms._ [ ] _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'sending off a man with great expedition, to vs in a canow.' _drake's world encomp._, p. . [ ] the shells 'they broke and rubbed down to a circular shape, to the size of a dime, and strung them on a thread of sinews.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _march , _. 'three kinds of money were employed ... white shell-beads, or rather buttons, pierced in the centre and strung together, were rated at $ a yard; periwinkles, at $ a yard; fancy marine shells, at various prices, from $ to $ , or $ , according to their beauty.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . [ ] the office of chief is hereditary in the male line only. the widows and daughters of the chiefs are, however, treated with distinction, and are not required to work, as other women. _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., p. . in one case near clear lake, when 'the males of a family had become extinct and a female only remained, she appointed a chief.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . at the port of sardinas 'durmió dos noches en la capitana una india anciana, que era señora de estos pueblos, acompañada de muchos indios.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. xxxii. [ ] the kainameahs had three hereditary chiefs. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] in russian river valley and the vicinity: 'die achtung die man für den vater hegte, geht häufig auf den sohn über; aber die gewalt des oberhauptes ist im allgemeinen sehr nichtig; denn es steht einem jeden frei, seinen geburtsort zu verlassen und einen anderen aufenthalt zu wählen.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, pp. - . 'derjenige, der am meisten anverwandte besitzt, wird als häuptling oder tojon anerkannt; in grösseren wohnsitzen giebt es mehrere solcher tojone, aber ihre autorität ist nichts sagend. sie haben weder das recht zu befehlen, noch den ungehorsam zu züchtigen.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . at clear lake chiefdom was hereditary. _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . see also pp. , . among the gualalas and gallinomeros, chieftainship was hereditary. the sanéls live in large huts, each containing or persons related to each other, each of these families has its own government. the comachos paid voluntary tribute for support of chief. _powers' pomo, ms._ in the sacramento valley a chief has more authority than that arising merely from his personal character. _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . on the coast between san diego and san francisco, in the vicinity of san miguel 'chaque village est gouverné despotiquement par un chef qui est seul arbitre de la paix et de la guerre.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. ; _jewett_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _gerstaecker's journ._, p. ; _histoire chrétienne de la cal._, p. ; _wimmel_, _californien_, pp. - . [ ] 'el robo era un delito casi desconocido en ambas naciones. entre los runsienes se miraba quasi con indiferencia el homicidio; pero no así entre los eslenes, los quales castigaban al delinquente con pena de muerte.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'im fall ein indianer ein verbrechen in irgend einem stamme verübt hat, und die häuptlinge sich bestimmt haben ihn zu tödten, so geschieht dies durch bogen und pfeil.' _wimmel_, _californien_, pp. - ; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xii., p. . [ ] _drake's world encomp._, pp. - . [ ] _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . [ ] near san francisco, 'teniendo muchas mugeres, sin que entre ellas se experimente la menor emulacion.' _palou_, _vida de junipero serra_, p. . at monterey 'la polygamie leur était permise.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . in tuolumne county 'polygamy is practiced.' _healey_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . at clear lake 'polygamy is practiced only by the chiefs.' _revere's tour_, p. . 'bei manchen stämmen wird vielweiberei gestattet.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'a man often marries a whole family, the mother and her daughters.... no jealousies ever appear among these families of wives.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'an indian man may have as many wives as he can keep; but a woman cannot have a plurality of husbands, or men to whom she owes obedience.' _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . in the sacramento valley 'the men in general have but one wife.' _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., p. . 'of these indians it is reported that no one has more than one wife.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'entre los runsienes y eslenes no era permitido á cada hombre tener mas de una muger.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . at clear lake and down the coast to san francisco bay 'they have but one wife at a time.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . in the vicinity of fort ross 'es ist nicht erlaubt mehr als eine frau zu haben.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . in the country round san miguel 'non-seulement ce capitaine a le droit d'avoir deux femmes, tandis que les autres indiens n'en ont qu'une, mais il peut les renvoyer quand cela lui plaît, pour en prendre d'autres dans le village.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] at monterey, 'ils étaient même dans l'usage d'épouser toutes les soeurs d'une famille.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . near fort ross, 'die blutsverwandtschaft wird streng beachtet und es ist nicht gestattet aus dem ersten oder zweiten grade der verwandtschaft zu heirathen; selbst im falle einer scheidung darf der nächste anverwandte die frau nicht ehelichen, doch giebt es auch ausnahmen.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . at san francisco 'no conocen para sus casamientos el parentezco de afinidad; antes bien este los incita á recibir por sus propias mugeres á sus cuñadas, y aun á las suegras, y la costumbre que observan es, que el que logra una muger, tiene por suyas á todas sus hermanas.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . 'parentage and other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles to matrimony.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'souvent une femme presse son mari d'épouser ses soeurs, et même sa mère, et cette proposition est fréquemment acceptée.' _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'este método de comprar las mugeres era comun á entrambas naciones (runsienes y eslenes), bien que entre los runsienes hacia mucho mas solemne el contrato la intervencion de los parientes de los novios, contribuyendo los del varon con su quota, la qual se dividia entre los de la novia al tiempo de entregar á esta.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage._ p. . [ ] _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xii., p. . [ ] _delano's life on the plains_, p. . at santa cruz, 'the gentile indian, when he wishes to marry, goes to the hut of her he desires for a wife, and sitting himself close by her, sighs without speaking a word, and casting at her feet some beads on a string, goes out, and without further ceremony he is married.' _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. at clear lake 'rape exists among them in an authorized form, and it is the custom for a party of young men to surprise and ravish a young girl, who becomes the wife of one of them.' _revere's tour_, pp. - . [ ] _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . at clear lake 'if the parties separate the children go with the wife.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _powers' pomo, ms._ [ ] 'the yukas are often brutal and cruel to their women and children, especially to the women.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., p. . in the vicinity of fort ross, 'sie lieben ihre kinder mit grosser zärtlichkeit.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . [ ] _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'the practice of abortion, so common among the chinooks and some other tribes in oregon, is unknown here.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - . [ ] mr powers, in his _pomo, ms._, makes this assertion upon what he states to be reliable authority. [ ] for a full account of this custom of the couvade, as it existed in various parts of the world, see _tylor's researches_, pp. - , and _max müller's chips_, vol. ii., pp. - . for its observance in california, see _venagas_, _noticias de cal._, tom. i., p. , and _farnham's life in cal._, p. . [ ] 'it was not a thing at all uncommon, in the days of the indians' ancient prosperity, to see a woman become a mother at twelve or fourteen. an instance was related to me where a girl had borne her first-born at ten, as nearly as her years could be ascertained, her husband, a white man, being then sixty-odd.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., p. . [ ] for further authorities on family and domestic affairs, see: _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _delano's life on the plains_, pp. ; _forbes' cal._, p. ; _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. - . also quoted in _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, pp. - ; _wimmel_, _californien_, p. ; _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _; _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. ; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., pp. , - , vol. x., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - ; _borthwick's three years in cal._, p. ; _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. ; _rollin_, in _id._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., pp. , ; _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _gilbert, mcadam, and jewett_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _revere's tour_, p. ; _reid_, in _los angeles star_, ; _farnham's life in cal._, pp. - ; _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. ; _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, pp. - . [ ] every traveler who has seen them dance enters into details of dress, etc.; but no two of these accounts are alike, and the reason of this is that they have no regular figures or costumes peculiar to their dances, but that every man, when his dress is not paint only, wears all the finery he possesses with an utter disregard for uniformity. 'at some of their dances we were told that they avoid particular articles of food, even fowls and eggs.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . dancing is executed at santa cruz, by forming a circle, assuming a stooping posture, raising a loud, discordant chant, and, without moving from their places, lifting and lowering a foot, and twisting the body into various contortions. _archives of santa cruz mission._ 'in their dances they sometimes wear white masks.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'se poudrent les cheveux avec du duvet d'oiseaux.' _choris_, _voy. pitt._, part iii., p. . when a wallie chief 'decides to hold a dance in his village, he dispatches messengers to the neighboring rancherias, each bearing a string whereon is tied a certain number of knots. every morning thereafter the invited chief unties one of the knots, and when the last but one is reached, they joyfully set forth for the dance.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . for descriptions of dances of neeshenams, see _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. xii., pp. - . [ ] 'each one had two and sometimes three whistles, made of reeds, in his mouth.' _san francisco bulletin_, _oct. , ._ 'some had whistles or double flageolets of reed which were stuck into their noses.' _revere's tour_, p. . 'the gentiles do not possess any instrument whatever.' _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. 'their own original instrument consists of a very primitive whistle, some double, some single, and held in the mouth by one end, without the aid of the fingers; they are about the size and length of a common fife, and only about two notes can be sounded on them.' _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. [ ] 'they use a species of native tobacco of nauseous and sickening odour.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'they burned the aulone shell for the lime to mix with their tobacco, which they swallowed to make them drunk.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. 'a species of tobacco is found on the sandy beaches which the indians prepare and smoke.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. . 'se pusieron á chupar y reparé en ellos la misma ceremonia de esparcir el humo hácia arriba diciendo en cada bocanada unas palabras; solo entendí una que fué _esmen_ que quiere decir sol; observé la misma costumbre de chupar primero el mas principal, luego da la pipa á otro, y da vuelta á otros.' _palou_, _noticias_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. ; see also p. . [ ] on the subject of amusements, see _kotzebue's voy._, vol. i., p. . _delano's life on the plains_, p. ; _helper's land of gold_, pp. - ; _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, pp. , - ; _kostromitonow_, in _id._, pp. - ; _holinski_, _la californie_, p. ; _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _; _wimmel_, _californien_, p. ; _drake's world encomp._, p. ; _revere's tour_, pp. - ; _san francisco bulletin_, _oct. , _, _nov. , _; _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., pp. - , - , vol. x., pp. - ; _power's pomo, ms._; _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. ; _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _hist. chrétienne_, pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pp. ii., p. ; _choris_, _voy. pitt._, pt. iii., pp. - ; _la pérouse_, _voy._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] the meewocs 'believe that their male physicians, who are more properly sorcerers, can sit on a mountain top fifty miles distant from a man they wish to destroy, and compass his death by filliping poison towards him from their finger-ends.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . [ ] 'i incautiously entered one of these caverns during the operation above described, and was in a few moments so nearly suffocated with the heat, smoke, and impure air, that i found it difficult to make my way out.' _bryant's cal._, p. . [ ] 'zur heilung bedienen sich die schamane der kräuter und wurzeln, grösstentheils aber saugen sie mit dem munde das blut aus der kranken stelle aus, wobei sie steinchen oder kleine schlangen in den mund nehmen und darauf versichern, sie hätten dieselben aus der wunde herausgezogen.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. ; see also pp. , , - . 'until now it has not been ascertained that the indians had any remedy for curing the sick or allaying their sufferings. if they meet with an accident they invariably die.' _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. 'ring-worm is cured by placing the milk of the poison oak in a circle round the affected part.' _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., p. . 'among the meewocs stomachic affections and severe travail are treated with a plaster of hot ashes and moist earth spread on the stomach.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. x., p. . see further: _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _holinski_, _la californie_, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _beechey's voy._, vol. ii., pp. , ; _san joaquin republican_, _sept., _; _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. ; _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. ; _pickering's races_, in _id._, vol. ix., p. ; _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; also quoted in _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. ; _kneeland's wonders of yosemite_, p. ; _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. ; _powers' pomo, ms._; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. ; _delano's life on the plains_, p. ; _laplace_, _circumnav._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] 'from north to south, in the present california, up to the columbia river they burnt the dead in some tribes, and in others buried them. these modes of sepulture differed every few leagues.' _taylor's indianology_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. a dead oleepa was buried by one woman in 'a pit about four feet deep, and ten feet in front of the father's door.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . at santa cruz 'the gentiles burn the bodies of their warriors and allies who fall in war; those who die of natural death they inter at sundown.' _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the indians of the bay of san francisco burned their dead with everything belonging to them, 'but those of the more southern regions buried theirs.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . in the vicinity of clear lake all the tribes with the exception of the yubas bury their dead. _geiger_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'los runsienes dividian últimamente entre los parientes las pocas cosas que componian la propiedad del difunto. los eslenes, al contrario, no solo no repartian cosa alguna, sino que todos sus amigos y súbditos debian contribuir con algunos abalorios que enterraban con el cadáver del fallecido.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'if a woman dies in becoming a mother, the child, whether living or dead, is buried with its mother.' _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'die nächsten anverwandten schneiden sich das haar ab und werfen es ins feuer, wobei sie sich mit steinen an die brust schlagen, auf den boden stürzen, ja bisweilen aus besonderer anhänglichkeit zu dem verstorbenen sich blutrünstig oder gar zu tode stossen; doch sind solche fälle selten.' _kostromitonow_, in _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, p. . 'the body is consumed upon a scaffold built over a hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . see also: _tehama gazette_, _may, _; _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. - ; _powers' pomo, ms._; also in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., p. , vol. x., p. , vol. xii., p. ; _san francisco evening bulletin_, _april , _; _macfie's vanc. isl._, pp. - ; _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. ; _placerville index_, ; _marmier_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, pp. , ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., p. ; _wimmel_, _californien_, p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _folsom dispatch_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _; _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _forbes' cal._, p. . [ ] in the russian river valley the indians 'sind weichherzig, und von natur nicht rachsüchtig ... sie erlernen mit leichtigkeit mancherlei handarbeiten und gewerbe.' _baer_, _stat. u. ethno._, pp. - . near fort ross 'sind sie sanft und friedfertig, und sehr fähig, besonders in der auffassung sinnlicher gegenstände. nur in folge ihrer unmässigen trägheit und sorglosigkeit scheinen sie sehr dumm zu seyn.' _kostromitonow_, in _id._, pp. - . 'they appear ... by no means so stupid' as those at the missions. _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . at bodega bay 'their disposition is most liberal.' _maurelle's jour._, p. . at clear lake 'they are docile, mild, easily managed ... roguish, ungrateful, and incorrigibly lazy ... cowardly and cringing towards the whites ... thorough sensualists and most abandoned gamblers ... wretchedly improvident.' _revere's tour_, pp. - . in the sacramento valley they are 'excessively jealous of their squaws ... stingy and inhospitable.' _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'a mirthful race, always disposed to jest and laugh.' _dana_, in _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'possessed of mean, treacherous, and cowardly traits of character, and the most thievish propensities.' _johnson's cal. and ogn._, p. . in the vicinity of san francisco bay 'they are certainly a race of the most miserable beings i ever saw, possessing the faculty of human reason.' _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . 'for the most part an idle, intemperate race.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'they are a people of a tractable, free, and louing nature, without guile or treachery.' _drake's world encomp._, p. . 'bastantes rancherias de gentiles muy mansos y apacibles.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. . 'son muy mansos, afables, de buenas caras y los mas de ellos barbados.' _palou_, _noticias_, in _id._, tom. vii., p. . at monterey they 'étaient lourds et peu intelligents.' those living farther from the missions were not without 'une certaine finesse, commune à tous les hommes élevés dans l'état de nature.' _petit-thouars_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'ces peuples sont si peu courageux, qu'ils n'opposent jamais aucune résistance aux trois ou quatre soldats qui violent si évidement à leur égard le droit des gens.' _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'the yukas are a tigerish, truculent, sullen, thievish, and every way bad, but brave race.' _powers_, in _overland monthly_, vol. ix., p. . the tahtoos were very cowardly and peace-loving. _powers' pomo, ms._ than the oleepas 'a more jolly, laughter-loving, careless, and good-natured people do not exist.... for intelligence they are far behind the indians east of the rocky mountains.' _delano's life on the plains_, p. . the kannimares 'were considered a brave and warlike indian race.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _march , _. the condition of the wallas 'is the most miserable that it is possible to conceive; their mode of living, the most abject and destitute known to man.' _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the fresno river indians 'are peaceable, quiet and industrious.' _henley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . a rational, calculating people, generally industrious. _lewis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . on the coast range north and east of mendocino 'they are a timid and generally inoffensive race.' _bailey_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . in placer county they are industrious, honest, and temperate; the females strictly virtuous. _brown_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . lazy, trifling, drunken. _applegate_, _ib._ in tuolumne: friendly, generally honest, truthful; men lazy, women industrious. _jewett_, _id._, p. . in the yosemite valley, 'though low in the scale of man, they are not the abject creatures generally represented; they are mild, harmless, and singularly honest.' _kneeland's wonders of yosemite_, p. . at santa clara they have no ambition, are entirely regardless of reputation and renown. _vancouver's voy._, vol. ii., p. . in stupid apathy 'they exceed every race of men i have ever known, not excepting the degraded races of terra del fuego or van dieman's land.' _kotzebue's new voy._, vol. ii., p. . at santa cruz 'they are so inclined to lying that they almost always will confess offences they have not committed;' very lustful and inhospitable. _comellas' letter_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. at kelsey river they are 'amiable and thievish.' _gibbs_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . 'in general terms, the california indians are more timid, peaceable, and joyous than any of their neighbors.' _stephens_, in _powers' pomo, ms._ 'their stupidity, insensibility, ignorance, inconstancy, slavery to appetite, excessive sloth and laziness, being absorbed for the time in the stir and din of night-watching and battle, give them a new existence.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . 'faul und jeder anstrengung abgeneigt.' _osswald_, _californien_, p. . 'stupidity seemed to be their distinctive character.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . 'loose, lazy, careless, capricious, childish and fickle.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _march , _. 'they are really the most harmless tribes on the american continent.' _gerstaecker's nar._, p. . revengeful, timid, treacherous and ungrateful. _kelly's excursion to cal._, vol. ii., p. . 'cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' _johnston_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'dull, indolent, phlegmatic, timid and of a gentle, submissive temper.' _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. . 'in stature no less than in mind are certainly of a very inferior race of human beings.' _langsdorff's voy._, pt. ii., p. . 'pusillanimous.' _forbes' cal._, p. . 'ils sont également extrêmes dans l'expression de la joie et de la colère.' _rollin_, in _la pérouse_, _voy._, tom. iv., p. . 'seemed to be almost of the lowest grade of human beings.' _king's rept._, in _bayard taylor's el dorado, appendix_, vol. ii., p. . 'die indianer von californien sind physisch und moralisch den andern indianern untergeordnet.' _wimmel_, _californien_, p. . 'su estupidez mas parece un entorpecimiento de las potencias por falta de accion y por pereza característica, que limitacion absoluta de sus facultades intelectuales; y así quando se las pone en movimiento, y se les dan ideas, no dexan de discernir y de aprender lo que se les enseña.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. . 'i noticed that all the indians from southern to northern california were low, shiftless, indolent, and cowardly.' _miller's life amongst the modocs_, p. . cowardly and treacherous in the extreme. _life of gov. l. w. boggs, by his son, ms._ [ ] at santa catalina 'las mujeres son muy hermosas y honestas, los niños son blancos y rubios y muy risueños.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, p. , in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv. see also _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . at santa barbara, 'son mas altos, dispuestos, y membrados, que otros, que antes se avian visto.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . on the coast from san diego to san francisco they are 'd'une couleur foncée, de petite taille, et assez mal faits.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . at san luis rey, 'sont bien faits et d'une taille moyenne.' _id._, p. ; quoted in _marmier_, p. . an indian seen at santa inez mission 'was about twenty-seven years old, with a black thick beard, iris of the eyes light chocolate-brown, nose small and round, lips not thick, face long and angular.' _cal. farmer_, _may , _. the noches 'aunque de buena disposicion son delgados y bastante delicados para andar á pié.' _garces_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. . 'well proportioned in figure, and of noble appearance.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'the women (of the diegeños) are beautifully developed, and superbly formed, their bodies as straight as an arrow.' _michler_, in _emory's u. s. and mex., bound. survey_, vol. i., p. . the cahuillas 'are a filthy and miserable-looking set, and great beggars, presenting an unfavorable contrast to the indian upon the colorado.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] the ordinary cloak descends to the waist: 'le chef seul en a une qui lui tombe jusqu'au jarret, et c'est là la seule marque de distinction.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] these capes father crespi describes as being 'unos capotillos hechos de pieles de liebres y conejos de que hacen tiras y tercidas como mecate; cosen uno con otro y las defienden del frio cubriéndolas por la honestidad.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., pp. - ; see also _id._, p. . [ ] the lobo marino of the spanish is the common seal and sea calf of the english; le veau marin and phoque commun of the french; vecchio marino of the italians; meerwolf and meerhund of the germans; zee-hund of the dutch; sael-hund of the danes; sial of the swedes; and moelrhon of the welsh. _knight's eng. encyc. nat. hist._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] _reid_, in _los angeles star_. [ ] _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . [ ] this hair turban or coil 'sirve de bolsa para guardar en la cabeza los abalorios y demas chucherias que se les dá.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . the same custom seems to prevail among the cibolos of new mexico, as marmier, in his additional chapter in the french edition of _bryant's cal._, p. , says: 'les hommes du peuple tressent leurs cheveux avec des cordons, et y placent le peu d'objets qu'ils possèdent, notamment la corne qui renferme leur tabac à fumer.' [ ] on the subject of dress see also _navarrete_, _introd._, in _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. lxiv.; _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _garces_, in _doc. mex. hist._, serie ii., tom. i., p. ; _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] on the los angeles coast: 'la ranchería se compone de veinte casas hechas de zacate de forma esférica á modo de uno media naranja con su respiradero en lo alto por donde les entra la luz y tiene salida el humo.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. ; _hoffmann_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'partiéron de allí el , entráron en una ensenada espaciosa, y siguiendo la costa viéron en ella un pueblo de indios junto á la mar con casas grandes á manera de las de nueva-españa.' _navarrete_, _introd._, in _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, pp. xxix., xxxi., xxxvi. the accounts of cabrillo's voyage are so confused that it is impossible to know the exact locality in which he saw the people he describes. on this point compare _cabrillo_, _relacion_, in _col. doc. hist. florida_, tom. i., p. ; _browne's lower cal._, pp. , ; _burney's chron. hist. discov._, vol. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'nur um die meerenge von santa barbara fand man, , die bewohner ein wenig gesittigter. sie bauten grosse häuser von pyramidaler form, in dörfer vereint.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. - . [ ] _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. ; _bancroft's nat. races_, vol. iii., pp. - . [ ] 'one of their most remarkable superstitions is found in the fact of their not eating the flesh of large game. this arises from their belief that in the bodies of all large animals the souls of certain generations, long since past, have entered.... a term of reproach from a wild tribe to those more tamed is, "they eat venison."' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. - ; see also _reid_, in _los angeles star_. [ ] 'all their food was either cold or nearly so.... salt was used very sparingly in their food, from an idea that it had a tendency to turn their hair gray.' _reid_, in _los angeles star_. 'i have seen many instances of their taking a rabbit, and sucking its blood with eagerness, previous to consuming the flesh in a crude state.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . 'viven muy regalados con varias semillas, y con la pesca que hacen en sus balsas de tule ... y queriendoles dar cosa de comida, solian decir, que de aquello no, que lo que querian era ropa; y solo con cosa de este género, eran los cambalaches que hacian de su pescado con los soldados y arrieros.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . see also _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _stanley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _id._, , pp. - ; _walker_, in _id._, , p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _hoffmann_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. v., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, pp. - . [ ] _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, pp. - . [ ] the baskets, though water-proof, 'were used only for dry purposes. the vessels in use for liquids were roughly made of rushes and plastered outside and in with bitumen or pitch, called by them _sanot_.' _reid_, in _los angeles star_; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; and _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'leurs mortiers de pierre et divers autres ustensiles sont incrustés avec beaucoup d'art de morceaux de nacre de perle.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . 'mortars and pestles were made of granite, about sixteen inches wide at the top, ten at the bottom, ten inches high and two thick.' soapstone pots were 'about an inch in thickness, and procured from the indians of santa catalina; the cover used was of the same material.' _reid_, in _los angeles star_. on the eastern slopes of the san bernardino mountains, blankets are made which will easily hold water. _taylor_, in _san francisco bulletin_, , also quoted in _shuck's cal. scrap book_, p. . 'todas sus obras son primorosas y bien acabadas.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. . [ ] _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. - . [ ] 'the planks were bent and joined by the heat of fire, and then paved with asphaltum, called by them chapapote.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. [ ] at santa catalina vizcaino saw 'vnas canoguelas, que ellos vsan, de tablas bien hechas, como barquillos, con las popas, y proas levantadas, y mas altas, que el cuerpo de la barca, ò canoa.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; see also _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . on the coast of los angeles father crespi saw 'canoas hechas de buenas tablas de pino, bien ligadas y de una forma graciosa con dos proas.... usan remos largos de dos palas y vogan con indecible lijeriza y velocidad.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. . at san diego palou describes 'balsas de tule, en forma de canoas, con lo que entran muy adentro del mar.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. ; _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. ; _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . description of balsas, which differ in no respect from those used north. [ ] 'the worth of a rial was put on a string which passed twice and a-half round the hand, i. e., from end of middle finger to wrist. eight of these strings passed for the value of a silver dollar.' _cal. farmer_, _june , _. 'eight yards of these beads made about one dollar of our currency.' _id._, _jan. , _. [ ] 'if a quarrel occurred between parties of distinct lodges (villages), each chief heard the witnesses produced by his own people; and then, associated with the chief of the opposite side, they passed sentence. in case they could not agree, an impartial chief was called in, who heard the statements made by both, and he alone decided. there was no appeal from his decision.' _reid_, in _los angeles star_. [ ] 'pour tout ce qui concerne les affaires intérieures, l'influence des devins est bien supérieure à la leur.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . at san diego 'chaque village est soumis aux ordres absolus d'un chef.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; or see _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . 'i have found that the captains have very little authority.' _stanley_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, pp. - . [ ] dr. hoffman states that in the vicinity of san diego 'their laws allow them to keep as many wives as they can support.' _san francisco medical press_, vol. vi., p. . fages, speaking of the indians on the coast from san diego to san francisco, says: 'ces indiens n'ont qu'une seule femme à la fois, mais ils en changent aussi souvent que cela leur convient.' _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . of those in the vicinity of san luis rey the same author says: 'les chefs de ce district ont le privilége de prendre deux on trois femmes, de les répudier ou de les changer aussi souvent qu'ils le veulent; mais les autres habitants n'en ont qu'une seule et ne peuvent les répudier qu'en cas d'adultère.' _id._, p. . [ ] 'les veufs des deux sexes, qui veulent se remarier, ne peuvent le faire qu'avec d'autres veufs.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; see also _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] 'the perverse child, invariably, was destroyed, and the parents of such remained dishonored.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . 'ils ne pensent pas à donner d'autre éducation à leurs enfants qu'à enseigner aux fils exactement ce que faisait leur père; quant aux filles, elles ont le droit de choisir l'occupation qui leur convient le mieux.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . [ ] the intoxicating liquor was 'made from a plant called _pibat_, which was reduced to a powder, and mixed with other intoxicating ingredients.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . [ ] _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . for other descriptions of ceremony observed at age of puberty, see: _hoffman_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. vi., pp. - ; _mckinstry_, in _san francisco herald_, _june, _. [ ] 'pero en la mision de s. antonio se pudo algo averiguar, pues avisando á los padres, que en una de las casas de los neófitos se habian metido dos gentiles, el uno con el traje natural de ellos, y el otro con el trage de muger, expresándolo con el nombre de joya (que dicen llamarlos asi en su lengua nativa) fué luego el p. misionero con el cabo y un soldado á la casa á ver lo que buscaban, y los hallaron en el acto de pecado nefando. castigáronlos, aunque no con la pena merecida, y afearonles el hecho tan enorme; y respondió el gentil, que aquella joya era su muger.... solo en el tramo de la canal de santa bárbara, se hallan muchos joyas, pues raro es el pueblo donde no se vean dos ó tres.' _palou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . 'así en esta ranchería como en otros de la canal, hemos visto algunos gentiles con traje de muger con sus nagüitas de gamusa, y muy engruesadas y limpias; no hemos podido entender lo que significa, ni á qué fin.' _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. . see also _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, pp. - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. ; _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. . [ ] 'in some tribes the men and the women unite in the dance; in others the men alone trip to the music of the women, whose songs are by no means unpleasant to the ear.' _mckinstry_, in _s. francisco herald_, _june _. 'in their religious ceremonial dances they differ much. while, in some tribes, all unite to celebrate them, in others, men alone are allowed to dance, while the women assist in singing.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. - . [ ] 'la danse est exécutée par deux couples au son d'une espèce de flûte, les autres restent simples spectateurs et se contentent d'augmenter le bruit en frappant des roseaux secs.' _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., p. ; _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, pp. - ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. - ; _mckinstry_, in _s. francisco herald_, _june _; _reid_, in _los angeles star_; _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vi., p. . [ ] _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., p. . 'when the new year begun, no thought was given to the past; and on this account, even amongst the most intelligent, they could not tell the number of years which had transpired, when desirous of giving an idea of any remote event.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . [ ] 'for gonorrhoea they used a strong decoction of an herb that grows very plentifully here, and is called by the spanish "chancel agua," and wild pigeon manure, rolled up into pills. the decoction is a very bitter astringent, and may cure some sores, but that it fails in many, i have undeniable proof. in syphilis they use the actual cautery, a living coal of fire applied to the chancer, and a decoction of an herb, said to be something like sarsaparilla, called rosia.' _hoffman_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. v., p. - . [ ] i am indebted for the only information of value relating to the medical usages of the southern california tribes, to _boscana's ms._, literally translated by robinson in his _life in cal._, pp. - , and also given in substance in _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - , and to reid's papers on the indians of los angeles county, in the _los angeles star_, also quoted in _cal. farmer_, _jan. , ._ [ ] see _mofras_, _explor._, tom. ii., pp. - , and plate, p. , and hoffmann, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'the same custom is now in use, but not only applied to deaths, but to their disappointments and adversities in life, thus making public demonstration of their sorrow.' _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, pp. - . [ ] _california farmer_, _may , _. [ ] _reid_, in _los angeles star_. [ ] the latitude of which he fixes at ° ´. [ ] _fages_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. ci., pp. - . quoted almost literally by _marmier_, _notice_, in _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, p. . [ ] _boscana_, in _robinson's life in cal._, p. . [ ] in spelling the word shoshone, i have followed the most common orthography. many, however, write it shoshonee, others, shoshonie, either of which would perhaps give a better idea of the pronunciation of the word, as the accent falls on the final _e_. the word means 'snake indian,' according to stuart, _montana_, p. ; and 'inland,' according to ross, _fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . i apply the name shoshones to the whole of this family; the shoshones proper, including the bannacks, i call the snakes; the remaining tribes i name collectively utahs. [ ] see _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - ; _remy and brenchley's journey_, vol. i., p. ; _chandless' visit_, p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _carvalho's incid. of trav._, p. ; _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _beckwith_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. ; _farley's sanitary rept._, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. iii., p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _hesperian magazine_, vol. x., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _prince_, quoted in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _; _townsend's nar._, pp. , ; _bryant_, _voy. en cal._, pp. , ; _coke's rocky mountains_, p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, pp. , ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _figuier's human race_, p. ; _burton's city of the saints_, p. . mention is made by salmeron of a people living south of utah lake, who were 'blancas, y rosadas las mejillas como los franceses.' _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . escalante, speaking of indians seen in the same region, lat. ° ´ ´´, says: 'eran estos de los barbones, y narices agujeradas, y en su idioma se nombran tirangapui, tian los cinco, que con su capitan venieron primero, tan crecida la barba, que parecian padres capuchinos ó belemitas.' _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. . wilkes writes, 'southwest of the youta lake live a tribe who are known by the name of the monkey indians; a term which is not a mark of contempt, but is supposed to be a corruption of their name.... they are reported to live in fastnesses among high mountains; to have good clothing and houses; to manufacture blankets, shoes, and various other articles, which they sell to the neighboring tribes. their colour is as light as that of the spaniards; and the women in particular are very beautiful, with delicate features, and long flowing hair.... some have attempted to connect these with an account of an ancient welsh colony, which others had thought they discovered among the mandans of the missouri; while others were disposed to believe they might still exist in the monkeys of the western mountains. there is another account which speaks of the monquoi indians, who formerly inhabited lower california, and were partially civilized by the spanish missionaries, but who have left that country, and of whom all traces have long since been lost.' _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. iv., pp. - . 'on the southern boundary of utah exists a peculiar race, of whom little is known. they are said to be fair-skinned, and are called the "white indians;" have blue eyes and straight hair, and speak a kind of spanish language differing from other tribes.' _san francisco evening bulletin_, _may , _. taylor has a note on the subject, in which he says that these fair indians were doubtless the moquis of western new mexico. _cal. farmer_, _june , _. although it is evident that this mysterious and probably mythic people belong in no way to the shoshone family, yet as they are mentioned by several writers as dwelling in a region which is surrounded on all sides by shoshones, i have given this note, wherefrom the reader can draw his own conclusions. [ ] _beckwith_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. ; _heap's cent. route_, p. . [ ] speaking of women: 'their breasts and stomachs were covered with red mastic, made from an earth peculiar to these rocks, which rendered them hideous. their only covering was a pair of drawers of hare-skin, badly sewn together, and in holes.' _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. ii., p. ; see also vol. i., p. , and vol. ii., pp. , , . 'the women often dress in skirts made of entrails, dressed and sewed together in a substantial way.' _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. hareskins 'they cut into cords with the fur adhering; and braid them together so as to form a sort of cloak with a hole in the middle, through which they thrust their heads.' _farnham's life and adven._, p. . the remaining authorities describe them as naked, or slightly and miserably dressed; see _stansbury's rept._, pp. , - ; _chandless' visit_, p. ; _heap's cent. route_, p. ; _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. ; _bryant's cal._, p. ; _forney_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _dodge_, _ib._, pp. - ; _fenton_, in _id._, , p. ; _graves_, in _id._, , p. ; _burton's city of the saints_, pp. - , - , , ; _fremont's explor. ex._, pp. , - , , , , , ; _bulfinch's oregon_, p. ; _saxon's golden gate_, p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, p. . [ ] _townsend's nar._, pp. , ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , - ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - , - , vol. ii., pp. - ; _chandless' visit_, p. ; _carvalho's incid. of trav._, p. ; _white's ogn._, p. ; _lord's nat._, vol. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] 'the ermine is the fur known to the north-west traders by the name of the white weasel, but is the genuine ermine.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . [ ] _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - . [ ] 'on y rencontre aussi des terres métalliques de différentes couleurs, telles que vertes, bleues, jaunes, noires, blanches, et deux sortes d'ocres, l'une pâle, l'autre d'un rouge brillant comme du vermillion. les indiens en font très-grand cas; ils s'en servent pour se peindre le corps et le visage.' _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. . [ ] 'they remain in a semi-dormant, inactive state the entire winter, leaving their lowly retreats only now and then, at the urgent calls of nature, or to warm their burrows.... in the spring they creep from their holes ... poor and emaciated, with barely flesh enough to hide their bones, and so enervated from hard fare and frequent abstinence, that they can scarcely move.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . stansbury mentions lodges in utah, east of salt lake, which were constructed of 'cedar poles and logs of a considerable size, thatched with bark and branches, and were quite warm and comfortable.' _stansbury's rept._, p. ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. ; _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., pp. - , , vol. ii., pp. , ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _farley_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. iii., p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _heap's cent. route_, pp. - ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - ; _coke's rocky mountains_, p. ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. ; _white's ogn._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, - , pp. , , ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _dunn's oregon_, pp. , - , - ; _bulfinch's oregon_, p. ; _farnham's trav._, pp. , - ; _simpson's route to cal._, p. ; _burton's city of the saints_, p. ; _knight's pioneer life, ms._ [ ] _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _dennison_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _saint-amant_, _voyages_, p. . [ ] 'they eat the seed of two species of conifers, one about the size of a hazel-nut, the other much smaller. they also eat a small stone-fruit, somewhat red, or black in colour, and rather insipid; different berries, among others, those of _vaccinium_. they collect the seed of the _atriplex_ and _chenopodium_, and occasionally some grasses. among roots, they highly value that of a bushy, yellowish and tolerably large broomrape, which they cook or dry with the base, or root-stock, which is enlarged, and constitutes the most nutritious part. they also gather the napiform root of a _cirsium acaule_, which they eat raw or cooked; when cooked, it becomes quite black, resinous as pitch and rather succulent; when raw, it is whitish, soft, and of a pleasant flavour.' _remy and brenchley's journey_, vol. i., p. . the shoshones of utah and nevada 'eat certain roots, which in their native state are rank poison, called tobacco root, but when put in a hole in the ground, and a large fire burned over them, become wholesome diet.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. vi., p. . 'of the roots used ... the pap-pa, or wild potatoe, is abundant.' _id._, vol. iv., p. ; see also, _id._, vol. v., pp. - . at bear river, 'every living animal, thing, insect, or worm they eat.' _fremont's explor. exp._, p. , see also pp. , , - , , - , , . inland savages are passionately fond of salt; those living near the sea detest it. _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. . the utahs eat 'the cactus leaf, piñon-nut, and various barks; the seed of the bunch-grass, and of the wheat, or yellow grass, somewhat resembling rye, the rabbit-bush twigs, which are chewed, and various roots and tubers; the soft sego bulb, the rootlet of the cat-tail flag, and of the tule, which when sun-dried and powdered to flour, keeps through the winter and is palatable even to white men.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. , see also pp. , . the pi-edes 'live principally on lizards, swifts, and horned toads.' _ind. aff. rept._, . p. ; see also _id._, , p. ; , p. ; , p. ; , p. ; , pp. ; , pp. , ; , pp. , ; , p. . the snakes eat a white-fleshed kind of beaver, which lives on poisonous roots, whose flesh affects white people badly, though the indians roast and eat it with impunity. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. , see also vol. i., p. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _farnham's life and adven._, pp. , - ; _irving's bonneville's adven._, pp. , , - ; _wilkes' nar._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. v., p. ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _bryant's cal._, p. ; _stansbury's rept._, pp. , , ; _kelly's excursion_, vol. i., p. ; _saxon's golden gate_, p. ; _smith_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xxxvii., p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. - ; _townsend's nar._, p. ; _white's ogn._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, p. - , ; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _irving's astoria_, pp. , ; _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - , ; _stevens_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. i., p. ; _farnham's trav._, pp. , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., pp. , , vol. ii., pp. , , , , , ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. ii., p. ; _simpson's route to pac._, pp. - ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , - ; _bigler's early days in utah and nevada, ms._ [ ] the wararereeks are 'dirty in their camps, in their dress, and in their persons.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . the persons of the piutes are 'more disgusting than those of the hottentots. their heads are white with the germs of crawling filth.' _farnham's trav._, p. . 'a filthy tribe--the prey of idleness and vermin.' _farnham's life and adven._, p. . bryant says, of the utahs between salt lake and ogden's hole, 'i noticed the females hunting for the vermin in the heads and on the bodies of their children; finding which they ate the animals with an apparent relish.' _bryant's cal._, p. . the snakes 'are filthy beyond description.' _townsend's nar._, p. . 'j'ai vu les sheyennes, les serpents, les youts, etc., manger la vermine les uns des autres à pleins peignes.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'the snakes are rather cleanly in their persons.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'a weapon called by the chippeways, by whom it was formerly used, the poggamoggon.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . bulfinch, _oregon_, p. , says the stone weighs about two pounds. salmeron also mentions a similar weapon used by the people living south of utah lake; concerning whom see note , p. . [ ] the utahs 'no usan mas armas que las flechas y algunas lanzas de perdernal, ni tienen otro peto, morrion ni espaldar que el que sacaron del vientre de sus madres.' _escalante_, quoted in _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, ser. iii., part iv., p. . 'bows made of the horns of the bighorn ... are formed by cementing with glue flat pieces of the horn together, covering the back with sinewes and glue, and loading the whole with an unusual quantity of ornaments.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . at ogden river, in utah, they work obsidian splinters 'into the most beautiful and deadly points, with which they arm the end of their arrows.' _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . 'pour toute arme, un arc, des flèches et un bâton pointu.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . 'bows and arrows are their (banattees) only weapons of defence.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . the arrows of the pa-utes 'are barbed with a very clear translucent stone, a species of opal, nearly as hard as the diamond; and, shot from their long bow, are almost as effective as a gunshot.' _fremont's expl. ex._, p. . the pi-utes and pitches 'have no weapon of defence except the club, and in the use of that they are very unskilful.' _farnham's trav._, p. . southwest of great salt lake, 'their arms are clubs, with small bows and arrows made of reeds.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . the pi-utes 'make some weapons of defence, as bows and arrows. the bows are about six feet long; made of the savine (juniperus sabina).' _farnham's life and adven._, p. ; see farther, _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. ii., pp. , ; _stansbury's rept._, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _heap's cent. route_, pp. , , , , ; _palmer's jour._, p. ; _bulfinch's oregon_, p. ; _irving's bonneville's adven._, pp. , , ; _hale's ethnog._, in _u. s. ex. ex._, vol. vi., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , ; _irving's astoria_, p. ; _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xiii., p. ; _bigler's early days in utah and nevada, ms._; _knight's pioneer life, ms._ [ ] _remy and brenchley's jour._, vol. ii., p. ; _heap's cent. route_, p. ; _thornton's ogn. and cal._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'taking an enemy's scalp is an honour quite independent of the act of vanquishing him. to kill your adversary is of no importance unless the scalp is brought from the field of battle, and were a warrior to slay any number of his enemies in action, and others were to obtain the scalps or first touch the dead, they would have all the honours, since they have borne off the trophy.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; see also p. . the utahs 'will devour the heart of a brave man to increase their courage, or chop it up, boil it in soup, engorge a ladleful, and boast they have drunk the enemy's blood.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. ; see also p. . the utahs never carry arrows when they intend to fight on horseback. _heap's cent. route_, p. ; see also p. ; _remy and brenchley's journ._, pp. , ; _stansbury's rept._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - ; _bulfinch's oregon_, p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. . [ ] the pipe of the chief 'was made of a dense transparent green stone, very highly polished, about two and a half inches long, and of an oval figure, the bowl being in the same situation with the stem. a small piece of burnt clay is placed in the bottom of the bowl to separate the tobacco from the end of the stem.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . pots made of 'a stone found in the hills ... which, though soft and white in its natural state, becomes very hard and black after exposure to the fire.' _id._, p. . 'these vessels, although rude and without gloss, are nevertheless strong, and reflect much credit on indian ingenuity.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . pipe-stems 'resemble a walking-stick more than anything else, and they are generally of ash, and from two-and-a-half to three feet long.' _id._, vol. ii., p. . 'cooking vessels very much resembling reversed bee-hives, made of basket work covered with buffalo skins.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . stansbury discovered pieces of broken indian pottery and obsidian about salt lake. _stansbury's rept._, p. . the material of baskets 'was mostly willow twig, with a layer of gum, probably from the pine tree.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . the utahs 'manufacture very beautiful and serviceable blankets.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'considering that they have nothing but stone hammers and flint knives it is truly wonderful to see the exquisite finish and neatness of their implements of war and hunting, as well as their ear-rings and waist-bands, made of an amalgam of silver and lead.' _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. 'les indiens en font des jarres, des pots, des plats de diverses formes. ces vaisseaux communiquent une odeur et une saveur très-agréables à tout ce qu'ils renferment; ce qui provient sans doute de la dissolution de quelque substance bitumineuse contenue dans l'argile.' _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., p. . 'the pipes of these indians are either made of wood or of red earth; sometimes these earthen pipes are exceedingly valuable, and indians have been known to give a horse in exchange for one of them.' _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , - , . [ ] _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. . [ ] among the snakes in idaho garments of four to five beaver-skins were sold for a knife or an awl, and other articles of fur in proportion. horses were purchased for an axe each. a ship of seventy-four guns might have been loaded with provision, such as dried buffalo, bought with buttons and rings. articles of real value they thus disposed of cheaply, while articles of comparatively no value, such as indian head-dress and other curiosities, were held high. a beaver-skin could thus be had for a brass-ring, while a necklace of bears' claws could not be purchased for a dozen of the same rings. axes, knives, ammunition, beads, buttons and rings, were most in demand. clothing was of no value; a knife sold for as much as a blanket; and an ounce of vermilion was of more value than a yard of fine cloth. _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., pp. - . see further, _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _townsend's nar._, pp. , ; _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _; _farnham's trav._, p. . [ ] 'they inflict no penalties for minor offences, except loss of character and disfellowship.' _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - ; _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'it is virtuous to seize and ravish the women of tribes with whom they are at war, often among themselves, and to retain or sell them and their children as slaves.' _drews' owyhee recon._, p. . the pi-edes 'barter their children to the utes proper for a few trinkets or bits of clothing, by whom they are again sold to the navajos for blankets.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. . 'some of the minor tribes in the southern part of the territory (utah), near new mexico, can scarcely show a single squaw, having traded them off for horses and arms.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'viennent trouver les blancs, et leur vendent leurs enfants pour des bagatelles.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _knight's pioneer life, ms._; _utah, acts, resolutions, etc._, p. . [ ] 'a refusal in these lands is often a serious business; the warrior collects his friends, carries off the recusant fair, and after subjecting her to the insults of all his companions espouses her.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . [ ] 'the women are exceedingly virtuous ... they are a kind of mercantile commodity in the hands of their masters. polygamy prevails among the chiefs, but the number of wives is not unlimited.' _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., pp. - . they are given to sensual excesses, and other immoralities. _farnham's trav._, p. ; see also p. . 'prostitution and illegitimacy are unknown ... they are not permitted to marry until eighteen or twenty years old ... it is a capital offence to marry any of another nation without special sanction from their council and head chief. they allow but one wife.' _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _. at the time of their confinement the women 'sit apart; they never touch a cooking utensil, although it is not held impure to address them, and they return only when the signs of wrath have passed away.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'infidelity of the wife, or prostitution of an unmarried female, is punishable by death.' _davies_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'our pi-ute has a peculiar way of getting a foretaste of connubial bliss, cohabiting experimentally with his intended for two or three days previous to the nuptial ceremony, at the end of which time, either party can stay further proceedings, to indulge other trials until a companion more congenial is found.' _farley_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. iii., p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. - , ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. . [ ] the snakes 'ont une sorte de tabac sauvage qui croît dans les plaines contiguës aux montagnes du spanish-river, il a les feuilles plus étroites que le nôtre, il est plus agréable à fumer, ses effets étant bien moins violens.' _stuart_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xii., pp. - . the kinik-kinik 'they obtain from three different plants. one is a _cornus_, resembling our _cornus sanguinea_; after having detached the epidermic cuticle, they scrape the bark and dry it, when it is ready for use. another is a vaccinium with red berries; they gather the leaves to smoke them when dry; the third is a small shrub, the fruit and flower of which i have never seen, but resembles certain species of daphnads (particularly that of kauai), the leaves of which are in like manner smoked.' _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., p. ; see also p. ; _ross' fur hunters_, vol. i., p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. ; _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _de smet_, _voy._, pp. - ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , , - . [ ] 'en deux occasions diverses, je comptai cinq personnes ainsi montées, dont deux, certes, paraissaient aussi capables, chacune à elle seule, de porter la pauvre bête, que le cheval était à même de supporter leurs poids.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _lewis and clarke's trav._, pp. , - , ; _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'with strong constitutions generally, they either die at once or readily recover.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'there is no lack of pulmonary difficulties among them.' _farley_, in _san francisco medical press_, vol. iii., p. . syphilis usually kills them. _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . 'the _convollaria stellata_ ... is the best remedial plant known among those indians.' _fremont's explor. ex._, p. ; _davies_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _prince_, in _cal. farmer_, _oct. , _; _coke's rocky mts._, p. ; _parker's explor. tour_, pp. - , - . [ ] 'the yutas make their graves high up the kanyons, usually in clefts of rock.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . at the obsequies of a chief of the timpenaguchya tribe 'two squaws, two pa yuta children, and fifteen of his best horses composed the "customs."' _id._, p. . 'when a death takes place, they wrap the body in a skin or hide, and drag it by the leg to a grave, which is heaped up with stones, as a protection against wild beasts.' _id._, p. ; _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., pp. , ; _de smet_, _voy._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] the shoshones of carson valley 'are very rigid in their morals.' _remy and brenchley's journ._, vol. i., p. . at haw's ranch, 'honest and trustworthy, but lazy and dirty.' _id._, p. . these kusi-utahs 'were very inoffensive and seemed perfectly guileless.' _id._, vol. ii., p. . the pai-uches are considered as mere dogs, the refuse of the lowest order of humanity. _farnham's life and adven._, p. . the timpanigos yutas 'are a noble race ... brave and hospitable.' _id._, p. . the pi-utes are 'the most degraded and least intellectual indians known to the trappers.' _farnham's trav._, p. . 'the snakes are a very intelligent race.' _id._, p. . the bannacks are 'a treacherous and dangerous race.' _id._, p. . the pi-edes are 'timid and dejected;' the snakes are 'fierce and warlike;' the tosawitches 'very treacherous;' the bannacks 'treacherous;' the washoes 'peaceable, but indolent.' _simpson's route to cal._, p. - . the utahs 'are brave, impudent, and warlike ... of a revengeful disposition.' _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'industrious.' _armstrong_, in _id._, , p. . 'a race of men whose cruelty is scarcely a stride removed from that of cannibalism.' _hurt_, in _id._, p. . 'the pah-utes are undoubtedly the most interesting and docile indians on the continent.' _dodge_, in _id._, , p. . the utahs are 'fox-like, crafty, and cunning.' _archuleta_, in _id._, , p. . the pi-utes are 'teachable, kind, and industrious ... scrupulously chaste in all their intercourse.' _parker_, in _id._, , p. . the weber-utes 'are the most worthless and indolent of any in the territory.' _head_, in _id._, p. . the bannocks 'seem to be imbued with a spirit of dash and bravery quite unusual.' _campbell_, in _id._, p. . the bannacks are 'energetic and industrious.' _danilson_, in _id._, , p. . the washoes are docile and tractable. _douglas_, in _id._, , p. . the pi-utes are 'not warlike, rather cowardly, but pilfering and treacherous.' _powell_, in _id._, , p. . the shoshokoes 'are extremely indolent, but a mild, inoffensive race.' _irving's bonneville's adven._, p. . the snakes 'are a thoroughly savage and lazy tribe.' _franchère's nar._, p. . the shoshones are 'frank and communicative.' _lewis and clarke's trav._, p. . the snakes are 'pacific, hospitable and honest.' _dunn's oregon_, p. . 'the snakes are a very intelligent race.' _white's ogn._, p. . the pi-utes 'are as degraded a class of humanity as can be found upon the earth. the male is proud, sullen, intensely insolent.... they will not steal. the women are chaste, at least toward their white brethren.' _farley_, in _san francisco medical jour._, vol. iii., p. . the snakes have been considered 'as rather a dull and degraded people ... weak in intellect, and wanting in courage. and this opinion is very probable to a casual observer at first sight, or when seen in small numbers; for their apparent timidity, grave, and reserved habits, give them an air of stupidity. an intimate knowledge of the snake character will, however, place them on an equal footing with that of other kindred nations, either east or west of the mountains, both in respect to their mental faculties and moral attributes.' _ross' fur hunters_, vol. ii., p. . 'les sampectches, les pagouts et les ampayouts sont ... un peuple plus misérable, plus dégradé et plus pauvre. les français les appellent communément les dignes-de-pitié, et ce nom leur convient à merveille.' _de smet_, _voy._, p. . the utahs 'pariassent doux et affables, très-polis et hospitaliers pour les étrangers, et charitables entre eux.' _id._, p. . 'the indians of utah are the most miserable, if not the most degraded, beings of all the vast american wilderness.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the utahs 'possess a capacity for improvement whenever circumstances favor them.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . the snakes are 'la plus mauvaise des races des peaux-rouges que j'ai fréquentées. ils sont aussi paresseux que peu prévoyants.' _saint-amant_, _voy._, p. . the shoshones of idaho are 'highly intelligent and lively ... the most virtuous and unsophisticated of all the indians of the united states.' _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _april , _. the washoes have 'superior intelligence and aptitude for learning.' _id._, _june , _; see also _id._, _june , _. the nevada shoshones 'are the most pure and uncorrupted aborigines upon this continent ... they are scrupulously clean in their persons, and chaste in their habits ... though whole families live together, of all ages and both sexes, in the same tent, immorality and crime are of rare occurrence.' _prince_, in _id._, _oct. , _. the bannacks 'are cowardly, treacherous, filthy and indolent.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'the utahs are predatory, voracious and perfidious. plunderers and murderers by habit ... when their ferocity is not excited, their suspicions are so great as to render what they say unreliable, if they do not remain altogether uncommunicative.' _id._, vol. v., pp. - . the pa-vants 'are as brave and improvable as their neighbours are mean and vile.' _burton's city of the saints_, p. . 'the yuta is less servile, and consequently has a higher ethnic status than the african negro; he will not toil, and he turns at a kick or a blow.' _id._, p. . the shoshokoes 'are harmless and exceedingly timid and shy.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. . [illustration: native races of the pacific states new mexican group] chapter v. new mexicans. geographical position of this group, and physical features of the territory--family divisions: apaches, pueblos, lower californians, and northern mexicans--the apache family: comanches, apaches proper, hualapais, yumas, cosninos, yampais, yalchedunes, yamajabs, cochees, cruzados, nijoras, navajos, mojaves, and their customs--the pueblo family: pueblos, moquis, pimas, maricopas, papagos, and their neighbours--the cochimis, waicuris, pericuis, and other lower californians--the seris, sinaloas, tarahumares, conchos, tepehuanes, tobosos, acaxes, and others in northern mexico. the new mexicans, under which name i group the nations of new mexico, arizona, lower california, sonora, sinaloa, chihuahua, durango, coahuila, nuevo leon, northern zacatecas, and western texas, present some peculiarities not hitherto encountered in this work. as a groupal designation, this name is neither more nor less appropriate than some others; all i claim for it is that it appears as fit as any. the term mexican might with propriety be applied to this group, as the majority of its people live within the mexican boundary, but that word is employed in the next division, which is yet more strictly of mexico. the territory of the new mexicans, which lies for the most part between the parallels ° and ° and the meridians ° and °, presents a great diversity of climate and aspect. on reaching the northern extremity of the gulf of california, the sierra nevada and coast ranges of mountains join and break up into detached upheavals, or as they are called 'lost mountains'; one part, with no great elevation, continuing through the peninsula, another, under the name of sierra madre, extending along the western side of mexico. the rocky mountains, which separate into two ranges at about the forty-fifth parallel, continue southward, one branch, known in utah as the wahsatch, merging into the sierra madre, while the other, the great cordillera, stretches along the eastern side of mexico, uniting again with the sierra madre in the mexican table-land. besides these are many detached and intersecting ranges, between which lie arid deserts, lava beds, and a few fertile valleys. from the sterile sandy deserts which cover vast areas of this territory, rise many isolated groups of almost inaccessible peaks, some of which are wooded, thus affording protection and food for man and beast. two great rivers, the colorado and the rio grande del norte flow through this region, one on either side, but, except in certain spots, they contribute little to the fertilization of the country. in the more elevated parts the climate is temperate, sometimes in winter severely cold; but on the deserts and plains, with the scorching sun above and the burning sand beneath, the heat is almost insupportable. the scanty herbage, by which the greater part of this region is covered, offers to man but a transient food-supply; hence he must move from place to place or starve. thus nature, more than elsewhere on our coast, invites to a roving life; and, as on the arabian deserts, bands of american bedouins roam over immense tracts seeking what they may devour. here it is that many a luckless miner and ill-protected traveler pays the penalty of his temerity with his life; here it is, more than elsewhere within the temperate zones of the two americas, that the natives bid defiance to the encroachments of civilization. sweeping down upon small settlements and isolated parties, these american arabs rob, murder, and destroy, then fleeing to their strongholds bid defiance to pursuers. in the midst of all this we find another phenomenon in the semi-civilized towns-people of new mexico and arizona; a spontaneous awakening from the ruder phases of savagism. the families of this division may be enumerated as follows: the _apaches_, under which general name i include all the savage tribes roaming through new mexico, the north-western portion of texas, a small part of northern mexico, and arizona; the _pueblos_, or partially cultivated towns-people of new mexico and arizona, with whom i unite, though not town-builders, the non-nomadic pimas, maricopas and pápagos of the lower gila river; the _lower californians_, who occupy the peninsula; and the _northern mexicans_, which term includes the various nations scattered over the states of sonora, sinaloa, chihuahua, durango, coahuila, nuevo leon and northern zacatecas. [sidenote: the apaches.] to the apaches, using the term in the signification of a family of this division, no accurate boundaries can be assigned. owing to their roving proclivities and incessant raids they are led first in one direction and then in another. in general terms they may be said to range about as follows: the _comanches_, jetans, or nauni, consisting of three tribes, the comanches proper, the yamparacks, and tenawas, inhabiting northern texas, eastern chihuahua, nuevo leon, coahuila, durango, and portions of south-western new mexico,[ ] by language allied to the shoshone family;[ ] the _apaches_, who call themselves shis inday, or 'men of the woods,'[ ] and whose tribal divisions are the chiricaguis, coyoteros, faraones, gileños, lipanes, llaneros, mescaleros, mimbreños, natages, pelones, pinaleños, tejuas, tontos and vaqueros, roaming over new mexico, arizona, north-western texas, chihuahua and sonora,[ ] and who are allied by language to the great tinneh family;[ ] the _navajos_, or tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic affinities with the apache nation, with which indeed they are sometimes classed, living in and around the sierra de los mimbres;[ ] the _mojaves_, occupying both banks of the colorado in mojave valley; the _hualapais_, near the headwaters of bill williams fork; the _yumas_, on the east bank of the colorado, near its junction with the rio gila;[ ] the _cosninos_, who like the hualapais are sometimes included in the apache nation, ranging through the mogollon mountains;[ ] and the _yampais_, between bill williams fork and the rio hassayampa.[ ] of the multitude of names mentioned by the early spanish authorities, i only give in addition to the above the _yalchedunes_, located on the west bank of the colorado in about latitude ° ´, the _yamajabs_, on the east bank of the same river, in about latitude °- °; the _cochees_, in the chiricagui mountains of arizona, the _cruzados_[ ] in new mexico, and finally the _nijoras_,[ ] somewhere about the lower colorado.[ ] the apache country is probably the most desert of all, alternating between sterile plains and wooded mountains, interspersed with comparatively few rich valleys. the rivers do little to fertilize the soil except in spots; the little moisture that appears is quickly absorbed by the cloudless air and arid plains which stretch out, sometimes a hundred miles in length and breadth, like lakes of sand. in both mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious apache, inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. it is here, among our western nations, that we first encounter thieving as a profession. no savage is fond of work; indeed, labor and savagism are directly antagonistic, for if the savage continues to labor he can but become civilized. now the apache is not as lazy as some of his northern brothers, yet he will not work, or if he does, like the pueblos who are nothing but partially reclaimed apaches or comanches, he forthwith elevates himself, and is no longer an apache; but being somewhat free from the vice of laziness, though subject in an eminent degree to all other vices of which mankind have any knowledge, he presents the anomaly of uniting activity with barbarism, and for this he must thank his thievish propensities. leaving others to do the work, he cares not whom, the agriculturists of the river-bottoms or the towns-people of the north, he turns ishmaelite, pounces upon those near and more remote, and if pursued retreats across the _jornadas del muerte_, or 'journeys of death' as the mexican calls them, and finds refuge in the gorges, cañons, and other almost impregnable natural fortresses of the mountains. [sidenote: physique of apaches.] [sidenote: physical peculiarities.] the disparity in physical appearance between some of these nations, which may be attributed for the most part to diet, is curious. while those who subsist on mixed vegetable and animal food, present a tall, healthy, and muscular development, hardly excelled by the caucasian race, those that live on animal food, excepting perhaps the comanches, are small in stature, wrinkled, shriveled, and hideously ugly.[ ] all the natives of this family, with the exception of the apaches proper, are tall, well-built, with muscles strongly developed, pleasing features, although at times rather broad faces, high foreheads, large, clear, dark-colored eyes, possessing generally extraordinary powers of vision, black coarse hair and, for a wonder, beards. taken as a whole, they are the most perfect specimens of physical manhood that we have yet encountered. while some, and particularly females, are of a light copper color, others again approach near to the dark californian. women are generally plumper, inclining more to obesity than the men. some comely girls are spoken of amongst them, but they grow old early.[ ] in contradistinction to all this the apaches proper, or apache nation, as we may call them, are slim, ill developed, but very agile. their height is about five feet four to five inches; features described as ugly, repulsive, emotionless, flat, and approaching the mongol cast, while the head is covered with an unkempt mass of coarse, shocky, rusty black hair, not unlike bristles. the women are not at all behind the men in ugliness, and a pleasing face is a rarity. a feature common to the family is remarkably small feet; in connection with which may be mentioned the peculiarity which obtains on the lower colorado, of having the large toe widely separated from the others, which arises probably from wading in marshy bottoms. all the tribes whose principal subsistence is meat, and more particularly those that eat horse and mule flesh, are said to exhale a peculiar scent, something like the animals themselves when heated.[ ] [sidenote: dress of apaches and mojaves.] all the natives of this region wear the hair much in the same manner, cut square across the forehead, and flowing behind.[ ] the mojave men usually twist or plait it, while with the women it is allowed to hang loose. tattooing is common, but not universal; many of the mojave women tattoo the chin in vertical lines like the central californians, except that the lines are closer together.[ ] paint is freely used among the mojaves, black and red predominating, but the apaches, yumas, and others use a greater variety of colors.[ ] breech-cloth and moccasins are the ordinary dress of the men,[ ] while the women have a short petticoat of bark.[ ] the dress of the mojaves and apaches is often more pretentious, being a buckskin shirt, skull-cap or helmet, and moccasins of the same material; the latter, broad at the toes, slightly turned up, and reaching high up on the leg, serve as a protection against cacti and thorns.[ ] it is a common practice among these tribes to plaster the head and body with mud, which acts as a preventive against vermin and a protection from the sun's rays.[ ] in their selection of ornaments the mojaves show a preference for white, intermixed with blue; necklaces and bracelets made from beads and small shells, usually strung together, but sometimes sewed on to leather bands are much in vogue. the apache nation adopt a more fantastic style in painting and in their head-dress; for ornament they employ deer-hoofs, shells, fish-bones, beads, and occasionally porcupine-quills, with which the women embroider their short deer-skin petticoats.[ ] the navajoes, both men and women, wear the hair long, tied or clubbed up behind; they do not tattoo or disfigure themselves with paint.[ ] the ordinary dress is a species of hunting-shirt, or doublet, of deer-skin, or a blanket confined at the waist by a belt; buckskin breeches, sometimes ornamented up the seams with pieces of silver or porcupine-quills; long moccasins, reaching well up the leg, and a round helmet-shaped cap, also of buckskin, surmounted with a plume of eagle or wild turkey feathers, and fastened with a chin-strap. the women wear a blanket and waist-belt, breeches and moccasins. the belts, which are of buckskin, are frequently richly ornamented with silver. they sometimes also use porcupine-quills, with which they embroider their garments.[ ] [sidenote: comanche dress and ornament.] the comanches of both sexes tattoo the face, and body generally on the breast.[ ] the men do not cut the hair, but gather it into tufts or plaits, to which they attach round pieces of silver graduated in size from top to bottom; those who cannot obtain or afford silver use beads, tin, or glass.[ ] much time is spent by them in painting and adorning their person--red being a favorite color; feathers also form a necessary adjunct to their toilet.[ ] some few wear a deer-skin shirt, but the more common dress is the buffalo-robe, which forms the sole covering for the upper part of the body; in addition, the breech-cloth, leggins, and moccasins are worn. the women crop the hair short, and a long shirt made of deer-skin, which extends from the neck to below the knees, with leggins and moccasins, are their usual attire.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings of the apaches.] nomadic and roving in their habits, they pay little attention to the construction of their dwellings. seldom do they remain more than a week in one locality;[ ] hence their lodges are comfortless, and diversified in style according to caprice and circumstances. the frame-work everywhere is usually of poles, the comanches placing them erect, the lipans bringing the tops together in cone-shape, while the apaches bend them over into a low oval;[ ] one or other of the above forms is usually adopted by all this family,[ ] with unimportant differences depending on locality and variations of climate. the framework is covered with brushwood or skins, sometimes with grass or flat stones. they are from twelve to eighteen feet in diameter at the widest part, and vary from four to eight feet in height,[ ] which is sometimes increased by excavation.[ ] a triangular opening serves as a door, which is closed with a piece of cloth or skin attached to the top.[ ] when on or near rocky ground they live in caves, whence some travelers have inferred that they build stone houses.[ ] a few of the mojave dwellings are so superior to the others that they deserve special notice. they may be described as a sort of shed having perpendicular walls and sloping roof, the latter supported by a horizontal beam running along the center, the roof projecting in front so as to form a kind of portico. the timber used is cottonwood, and the interstices are filled up with mud or straw.[ ] none of their houses have windows, the door and smoke-hole in the roof serving for this purpose; but, as many of them have their fires outside, the door is often the only opening.[ ] [sidenote: new mexican dwellings.] small huts about three feet in height constitute their medicine-lodges, or bath-houses, and are generally in form and material like their other structures.[ ] the mojaves also build granaries in a cylindrical form with conical, skillfully made osier roofs.[ ] [sidenote: food and agriculture.] the food of all is similar;[ ] most of them make more or less pretentions to agriculture, and are habituated to a vegetable diet, but seldom do any of them raise a sufficient supply for the year's consumption, and they are therefore forced to rely on the mesquit-bean, the piñon-nut and the maguey-plant, _agave mexicana_, and other wild fruits, which they collect in considerable quantities.[ ] they are but indifferent hunters, and secure only a precarious supply of small game, such as rabbits and squirrels, with ultimate recourse to rats, grasshoppers, lizards and other reptiles.[ ] a few fish are taken by those living in the neighborhood of rivers.[ ] the navajos, mojaves, and yumas, have long been acquainted with the art of agriculture and grow corn, beans, pumpkins, melons, and other vegetables, and also some wheat; some attempt a system of irrigation, and others select for their crops that portion of land which has been overflowed by the river. the navajos possess numerous flocks of sheep, which though used for food, they kill only when requiring the wool for blankets. although in later years they have cows, they do not make butter or cheese, but only a curd from sour milk, from which they express the whey and of which they are very fond.[ ] their method of planting is simple; with a short sharp-pointed stick small holes are dug in the ground into which they drop the seeds, and no further care is given to the crop except to keep it partially free from weeds.[ ] maize soaked in water is ground to a paste between two stones. from this paste tortillas, or thin cakes, are made which are baked on a hot stone. to cook the maguey, a hole is made in the ground, in which a fire is kindled; after it has burned some time the maguey-bulb is buried in the hot ashes and roasted. some concoct a gypsy sort of dish or ollapodrida; game, and such roots or herbs as they can collect, being put in an earthen pot with water and boiled.[ ] as before mentioned, the roving apaches obtain most of their food by hunting and plunder; they eat more meat and less vegetable diet than the other arizona tribes. they have a great partiality for horse-flesh, seldom eat fish, but kill deer and antelope.[ ] when hunting they frequently disguise themselves in a skin, and imitating closely the habits and movements of the animal, they contrive to approach within shooting-distance.[ ] whether it be horse or deer, every portion of the carcass with the exception of the bones, is consumed, the entrails being a special delicacy. their meat they roast partially in the fire, and eat it generally half raw. when food is plenty they eat ravenously and consume an enormous quantity; when scarce, they fast long and stoically. most of them hate bear-meat and pork. so jew-like is the navajo in this particular that he will not touch pork though starving.[ ] [sidenote: buffalo hunting.] the comanches do not cultivate the soil, but subsist entirely by the chase. buffalo, which range in immense herds throughout their country, are the chief food, the only addition to it being a few wild plants and roots; hence they may be said to be almost wholly flesh-eaters.[ ] in pursuit of the buffalo they exhibit great activity, skill, and daring. when approaching a herd, they advance in close column, gradually increasing their speed, and as the distance is lessened, they separate into two or more groups, and dashing into the herd at full gallop, discharge their arrows right and left with great rapidity; others hunt buffalo with spears, but the common and more fatal weapon is the bow and arrow. the skinning and cutting up of the slain animals is usually the task of the women.[ ] the meat and also the entrails are eaten both raw and roasted. a fire being made in a hole, sticks are ranged round it, meeting at the top, on which the meat is placed. the liver is a favorite morsel, and is eaten raw; they also drink the warm blood of the animal.[ ] no provision is made for a time of scarcity, but when many buffalo are killed, they cut portions of them into long strips, which, after being dried in the sun, are pounded fine. this pemican they carry with them in their hunting expeditions, and when unsuccessful in the chase, a small quantity boiled in water or cooked with grease, serves for a meal. when unable to procure game, they sometimes kill their horses and mules for food, but this only when compelled by necessity.[ ] in common with all primitive humanity they are filthy--never bathing except in summer[ ]--with little or no sense of decency.[ ] [sidenote: weapons.] [sidenote: bow and lance.] throughout arizona and new mexico, the bow and arrow is the principal weapon, both in war and in the chase; to which are added, by those accustomed to move about on horseback, the shield and lance;[ ] with such also the mexican riata may now occasionally be seen.[ ] in battle, the colorado river tribes use a club made of hard heavy wood, having a large mallet-shaped head, with a small handle, through which a hole is bored, and in which a leather thong is introduced for the purpose of securing it in the hand.[ ] they seldom use the tomahawk. some carry slings with four cords attached.[ ] the bows are made of yew, bois d'arc, or willow, and strengthened by means of deer-sinews, firmly fastened to the back with a strong adhesive mixture. the length varies from four to five feet. the string is made from sinews of the deer.[ ] a leathern arm-guard is worn round the left wrist to defend it from the blow of the string.[ ] the arrows measure from twenty to thirty inches, according to length of bow, and the shaft is composed of two pieces; the notch end, which is the longer, consisting of a reed, into which is fitted a shorter piece made of acacia, or some other hard wood, and tipped with obsidian, agate, or iron. it is intended that when an object is struck, and an attempt is made to draw out the arrow, the pointed end shall remain in the wound. there is some difference in the feathering; most nations employing three feathers, tied round the shaft at equal distances with fine tendons. the tontos have their arrows winged with four feathers, while some of the comanches use only two. all have some distinguishing mark in their manner of winging, painting, or carving on their arrows.[ ] the quiver is usually made of the skin of some animal, deer or sheep, sometimes of a fox or wild-cat skin entire with the tail appended, or of reeds, and carried slung at the back or fastened to a waist-belt.[ ] the lance is from twelve to fifteen feet long, the point being a long piece of iron, a knife or sword blade socketed into the pole.[ ] previous to the introduction of iron, their spears were pointed with obsidian or some other flinty substance which was hammered and ground to a sharp edge. the frame of the shield is made of light basket-work, covered with two or three thicknesses of buffalo-hide; between the layers of hide it is usual with the comanches to place a stuffing of hair, thus rendering them almost bullet proof. shields are painted in various devices and decorated with feathers, pieces of leather, and other finery, also with the scalps of enemies, and are carried on the left arm by two straps.[ ] [sidenote: apache warriors.] their fighting has more the character of assassination and murder than warfare. they attack only when they consider success a foregone conclusion, and rather than incur the risk of losing a warrior will for days lie in ambush till a fair opportunity for surprising the foe presents itself.[ ] the ingenuity of the apache in preparing an ambush or a surprise is described by colonel cremony as follows: "he has as perfect a knowledge of the assimilation of colors as the most experienced paris modiste. by means of his acumen in this respect, he can conceal his swart body amidst the green grass, behind brown shrubs, or gray rocks, with so much address and judgment that any but the experienced would pass him by without detection at the distance of three or four yards. sometimes they will envelop themselves in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of earth, will so resemble a granite boulder as to be passed within near range without suspicion. at others, they will cover their persons with freshly gathered grass, and lying prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the field. again they will plant themselves among the yuccas, and so closely imitate the appearance of that tree as to pass for one of its species." before undertaking a raid they secrete their families in the mountain fastnesses, or elsewhere, then two by two, or in greater numbers, they proceed by different routes, to a place of rendezvous, not far from where the assault is to be made or where the ambuscade is to be prepared. when, after careful observation, coupled with the report of their scouts, they are led to presume that little, if any, resistance will be offered them, a sudden assault is made, men, women and children are taken captives, and animals and goods secured, after which their retreat is conducted in an orderly and skillful manner, choosing pathways over barren and rugged mountains which are known only to themselves.[ ] held asunder from congregating in large bodies by a meagerness of provisions, they have recourse to a system of signals which facilitates intercourse with each other. during the day one or more columns of smoke are the signals made for the scattered and roaming bands to rendezvous, or they serve as a warning against approaching danger. to the same end at night they used a fire beacon; besides these, they have various other means of telegraphing which are understood only by them, for example, the displacement and arrangement of a few stones on the trail, or a bended twig, is to them a note of warning as efficient, as is the bugle-call to disciplined troops.[ ] they treat their prisoners cruelly; scalping them, or burning them at the stake; yet, ruled as they are by greediness, they are always ready to exchange them for horses, blankets, beads, or other property. when hotly pursued, they murder their male prisoners, preserving only the females and children, and the captured cattle, though under desperate circumstances they do not hesitate to slaughter the latter.[ ] the apaches returning to their families from a successful expedition, are received by the women with songs and feasts, but if unsuccessful they are met with jeers and insults. on such occasions says colonel cremony, "the women turn away from them with assured indifference and contempt. they are upbraided as cowards, or for want of skill and tact, and are told that such men should not have wives, because they do not know how to provide for their wants. when so reproached, the warriors hang their heads and offer no excuse for their failure. to do so would only subject them to more ridicule and objurgation; but indian-like, they bide their time in the hope of finally making their peace by some successful raid." if a mojave is taken prisoner he is forever discarded in his own nation, and should he return his mother even will not own him.[ ] [sidenote: comanche warriors.] the comanches, who are better warriors than the apaches, highly honor bravery on the battle-field. from early youth, they are taught the art of war, and the skillful handling of their horses and weapons; and they are not allowed a seat in the council, until their name is garnished by some heroic deed.[ ] before going on the war-path they perform certain ceremonies, prominent among which is the war-dance.[ ] they invariably fight on horseback with the bow and arrow, spear and shield, and in the management of these weapons they have no superiors. their mode of attack is sudden and impetuous; they advance in column, and when near the enemy form subdivisions charging on the foe simultaneously from opposite sides, and while keeping their horses in constant motion, they throw themselves over the side, leaving only a small portion of the body exposed, and in this position discharge their arrows over the back of the animal or under his neck with great rapidity and precision.[ ] a few scalps are taken, for the purpose of being used at the war or scalp dance by which they celebrate a victory. prisoners belong to the captors and the males are usually killed, but women are reserved and become the wives or servants of their owners, while children of both sexes are adopted into the tribe.[ ] peace ceremonies take place at a council of warriors, when the pipe is passed round and smoked by each, previous to which an interchange of presents is customary.[ ] [sidenote: implements.] household utensils are made generally of wickerwork, or straw, which, to render them watertight, are coated with some resinous substance. the mojaves and a few of the apache tribes have also burnt-clay vessels, such as water-jars and dishes.[ ] for grinding maize, as before stated, a kind of metate is used, which with them is nothing more than a convex and a concave stone.[ ] of agricultural implements they know nothing; a pointed stick, crooked at one end, which they call _kishishai_, does service as a corn-planter in spring, and during the later season answers also for plucking fruit from trees, and again, in times of scarcity, to dig rats and prairie dogs from their subterranean retreats. their cradle is a flat board, padded, on which the infant is fastened; on the upper part is a little hood to protect the head, and it is carried by the mother on her back, suspended by a strap.[ ] their saddles are simply two rolls of straw covered with deer or antelope skin, which are connected by a strap; a piece of raw hide serves for girths and stirrups. in later years the mexican saddle, or one approaching it in shape, has been adopted, and the navajos have succeeded in making a pretty fair imitation of it, of hard ash. their bridles, which consist of a rein attached to the lower jaw, are very severe on the animal.[ ] although not essentially a fish-eating people, the mojaves and axuas display considerable ingenuity in the manufacture of fishing-nets, which are noted for their strength and beauty. plaited grass, or the fibry bark of the willow, are the materials of which they are made.[ ] fire is obtained in the old primitive fashion of rubbing together two pieces of wood, one soft and the other hard. the hard piece is pointed and is twirled on the softer piece, with a steady downward pressure until sparks appear.[ ] [sidenote: navajo blankets.] the navajos excel all other nations of this family in the manufacture of blankets.[ ] the art with them is perhaps of mexican origin, and they keep for this industry large flocks of sheep.[ ] some say in making blankets cotton is mixed with the wool, but i find no notice of their cultivating cotton. their looms are of the most primitive kind. two beams, one suspended and the other fastened to the ground, serve to stretch the warp perpendicularly, and two slats, inserted between the double warp, cross and recross it and also open a passage for the shuttle, which is simply a short stick with some thread wound around it. the operator sits on the ground, and the blanket, as the weaving progresses, is wound round the lower beam.[ ] the wool, after being carded, is spun with a spindle resembling a boy's top, the stem being about sixteen inches long and the lower point made to revolve in an earthen bowl by being twirled rapidly between the forefinger and thumb. the thread after being twisted is wound on the spindle, and though not very even, it answers the purpose very well.[ ] the patterns are mostly regular geometrical figures, among which diamonds and parallels predominate.[ ] black and red are the principal variations in color, but blue and yellow are at times seen. their colors they obtain mostly by dyeing with vegetable substances, but in later years they obtain also colored manufactured materials from the whites, which they again unravel, employing the colored threads obtained in this manner in their own manufactures.[ ] they also weave a coarse woolen cloth, of which they at times make shirts and leggins.[ ] besides pottery of burnt clay, wickerwork baskets, and saddles and bridles, no general industry obtains in this family.[ ] featherwork, such as sewing various patterns on skins with feathers, and other ornamental needlework, are also practiced by the navajos.[ ] of the comanches, the abbé domenech relates that they extracted silver from some mines near san saba, from which they manufactured ornaments for themselves and their saddles and bridles.[ ] [sidenote: property.] they have no boats, but use rafts of wood, or bundles of rushes fastened tightly together with osier or willow twigs, and propelled sometimes with poles; but more frequently they place upon the craft their property and wives, and, swimming alongside of it, with the greatest ease push it before them.[ ] for their maintenance, especially in latter days, they are indebted in a great measure to their horses, and accordingly they consider them as their most valuable property. the navajos are larger stock owners than any of the other nations, possessing numerous flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle as well as horses and mules. these, with their blankets, their dressed skins, and peaches which they cultivate, constitute their chief wealth.[ ] certain bands of the apache nation exchange with the agriculturists pottery and skins for grain.[ ] among the navajos, husband and wife hold their property separate, and at their death it becomes the inheritance of the nephew or niece. this law of entail is often eluded by the parents, who before death give their goods to their children.[ ] their exchanges are governed by caprice rather than by established values. sometimes they will give a valuable blanket for a trifling ornament. the mojaves have a species of currency which they call _pook_, consisting of strings of shell beads, whose value is determined by the length.[ ] at the time of coronado's expedition, in , the comanches possessed great numbers of dogs, which they employed in transporting their buffalo-skin tents and scanty household utensils.[ ] when a buffalo is killed, the successful hunter claims only the hide; the others are at liberty to help themselves to the meat according to their necessities.[ ] in their trading transactions they display much shrewdness, and yet are free from the tricks usually resorted to by other nations.[ ] [sidenote: arts and calendar.] their knowledge of decorative art is limited; paintings and sculptures of men and animals, rudely executed on rocks or walls of caverns are occasionally met with; whether intended as hieroglyphical representations, or sketched during the idle moments of some budding genius, it is difficult to determine, owing to the fact that the statements of the various authors who have investigated the subject are conflicting.[ ] the comanches display a certain taste in painting their buffalo-robes, shields, and tents. the system of enumeration of the apaches exhibits a regularity and diffusiveness seldom met with amongst wild tribes, and their language contains all the terms for counting up to ten thousand.[ ] in this respect the comanches are very deficient; what little knowledge of arithmetic they have is decimal, and when counting, the aid of their fingers or presence of some actual object is necessary, being, as they are, in total ignorance of the simplest arithmetical calculation. the rising sun proclaims to them a new day; beyond this they have no computation or division of time. they know nothing of the motions of the earth or heavenly bodies, though they recognise the fixedness of the polar star.[ ] their social organization, like all their manners and customs, is governed by their wild and migratory life. government they have none. born and bred with the idea of perfect personal freedom, all restraint is unendurable.[ ] the nominal authority vested in the war chief, is obtained by election, and is subordinate to the council of warriors.[ ] every father holds undisputed sway over his children until the age of puberty. his power, importance, and influence at the council-fire is determined by the amount of his slaves and other property.[ ] those specially distinguished by their cunning and prowess in war, or success in the chase, are chosen as chiefs. [sidenote: comanche government.] a chief may at any time be deposed.[ ] sometimes it happens that one family retains the chieftaincy in a tribe during several generations, because of the bravery or wealth of the sons.[ ] in time of peace but little authority is vested in the chief; but on the war path, to ensure success, his commands are implicitly obeyed. it also frequently happens that chiefs are chosen to lead some particular war or marauding expedition, their authority expiring immediately upon their return home.[ ] among the comanches public councils are held at regular intervals during the year, when matters pertaining to the common weal are discussed, laws made, thefts, seditions, murders, and other crimes punished, and the quarrels of warrior-chiefs settled. smaller councils are also held, in which, as well as in the larger ones, all are free to express their opinion.[ ] questions laid before them are taken under consideration, a long time frequently elapsing before a decision is made. great care is taken that the decrees of the meeting shall be in accordance with the opinion and wishes of the majority. laws are promulgated by a public crier, who ranks next to the chief in dignity.[ ] ancestral customs and traditions govern the decisions of the councils; brute force, or right of the strongest, with the law of talion in its widest acceptance, direct the mutual relations of tribes and individuals.[ ] murder, adultery, theft, and sedition are punished with death or public exposure, or settled by private agreement or the interposition of elderly warriors. the doctor failing to cure his patient must be punished by death. the court of justice is the council of the tribe, presided over by the chiefs, the latter with the assistance of sub-chiefs, rigidly executing judgment upon the culprits.[ ] all crimes may be pardoned but murder, which must pay blood for blood if the avenger overtake his victim.[ ] all the natives of this family hold captives as slaves;[ ] some treat them kindly, employing the men as herders and marrying the women; others half-starve and scourge them, and inflict on them the most painful labors.[ ] nothing short of crucifixion, roasting by a slow fire, or some other most excruciating form of death, can atone the crime of attempted escape from bondage. they not only steal children from other tribes and sell them, but carry on a most unnatural traffic in their own offspring.[ ] [sidenote: treatment of women.] [sidenote: marriage and child-birth.] womankind as usual is not respected. the female child receives little care from its mother, being only of collateral advantage to the tribe. later she becomes the beast of burden and slave of her husband. some celebrate the entry into womanhood with feasting and dancing.[ ] courtship is simple and brief; the wooer pays for his bride and takes her home.[ ] every man may have all the wives he can buy. there is generally a favorite, or chief wife, who exercises authority over the others. as polygamy causes a greater division of labor, the women do not object to it.[ ] sometimes a feast of horse-flesh celebrates a marriage.[ ] all the labor of preparing food, tanning skins, cultivating fields, making clothes, and building houses, falls to the women, the men considering it beneath their dignity to do anything but hunt and fight. the women feed and saddle the horses of their lords; oftentimes they are cruelly beaten, mutilated, and even put to death.[ ] the marriage yoke sits lightly; the husband may repudiate his wife at will and take back the property given for her; the wife may abandon her husband, but by the latter act she covers him with such disgrace that it may only be wiped out by killing somebody[ ]--anybody whom he may chance to meet. in the event of a separation the children follow the mother. they are not a prolific race; indeed, it is but seldom that a woman has more than three or four children. as usual parturition is easy; but owing to unavoidable exposure many of their infants soon die. the naming of the child is attended with superstitious rites, and on reaching the age of puberty they never fail to change its name.[ ] immediately after the birth of the child, it is fastened to a small board, by bandages, and so carried for several months on the back of the mother. later the child rides on the mother's hip, or is carried on her back in a basket or blanket, which in travelling on horseback is fastened to the pommel of the saddle. boys are early taught the use of weapons, and early learn their superiority over girls, being seldom or never punished.[ ] it is a singular fact that of all these people the thievish meat-eating apache is almost the only one who makes any pretentions to female chastity. all authorities agree that the apache women both before and after marriage are remarkably pure.[ ] yuma husbands for gain surrender not only their slaves, but their wives. hospitality carries with it the obligation of providing for the guest a temporary wife. the usual punishment for infidelity is the mutilation of the nose or ears, which disfigurement prevents the offender from marrying, and commonly sends her forth as a public harlot in the tribe.[ ] the seducer can appease the anger of an injured husband by presents, although before the law he forfeits his life. even sodomy and incestuous intercourse occur among them. old age is dishonorable.[ ] [sidenote: amusements.] [sidenote: smoking and dancing.] they are immoderately fond of smoking, drinking, feasting, and amusements which fill up the many hours of idleness. dancing and masquerading is the most favorite pastime. they have feasts with dances to celebrate victories, feasts given at marriage, and when girls attain the age of puberty; a ceremonial is observed at the burial of noted warriors, and on other various occasions of private family life, in which both men and women take part. the dance is performed by a single actor or by a number of persons of both sexes to the accompaniment of instruments or their own voices.[ ] all festivities are incomplete without impromptu songs, the music being anything but agreeable, and the accompaniment corn-stalk or cane flutes, wooden drums, or calabashes filled with stone and shaken to a constantly varying time.[ ] they also spend much time in gambling, often staking their whole property on a throw, including everything upon their backs. one of these games is played with a bullet, which is passed rapidly from one hand to the other, during which they sing, assisting the music with the motion of their arms. the game consists in guessing in which hand the bullet is held. another comanche game is played with twelve sticks, each about six inches in length. these are dropped on the ground and those falling across each other are counted for game, one hundred being the limit.[ ] horse-racing is likewise a passion with them;[ ] as are also all other athletic sports.[ ] when smoking, the comanches direct the first two puffs, with much ceremony and muttering, to the sun, and the third puff with a like demonstration is blown toward the earth. when short of tobacco, they make use of the dried leaves of the sumach, of willow-bark, or other plants.[ ] the comanches are remarkable for their temperance, or rather abhorrence for intoxicating drink; all the other nations of this family abandon themselves to this subtle demoralization, and are rapidly sinking under it. they make their own spirits out of corn and out of agave americana, the pulque and mescal, both very strong and intoxicating liquors.[ ] of all north american indians the comanches and cheyennes are said to be the most skillful riders, and it would be difficult to find their superiors in any part of the world. young children, almost infants, are tied by their mothers to half-wild, bare-backed mustangs, which place thenceforth becomes their home. they supply themselves with fresh horses from wild droves wandering over the prairies, or from mexican rancherías. a favorite horse is loved and cherished above all things on earth, not excepting wives or children. the women are scarcely behind the men in this accomplishment. they sit astride, guide the horses with the knee like the men, and catch and break wild colts. in fighting, the comanches throw the body on one side of the horse, hang on by the heel and shoot with great precision and rapidity. it is beneath the dignity of these horsemen to travel on foot, and in their sometimes long and rapid marches, they defy pursuit.[ ] before horses were known they used to transport their household effects on the backs of dogs, which custom even now prevails among some nations.[ ] [sidenote: comanche customs.] the comanche observes laws of hospitality as strictly as the arab, and he exacts the observance of his rules of etiquette from strangers. when a visitor enters his dwelling, the master of the house points to him a seat, and how to reach it, and the host is greatly offended if his directions are not strictly followed. meeting on the prairie, friends as well as enemies, if we may believe colonel marcy, put their horses at full speed. "when a party is discovered approaching thus, and are near enough to distinguish signals, all that is necessary to ascertain their disposition is to raise the right hand with the palm in front, and gradually push it forward and back several times. they all understand this to be a command to halt, and if they are not hostile, it will at once be obeyed. after they have stopped, the right hand is raised again as before, and slowly moved to the right and left, which signifies, i do not know you. who are you? they will then answer the inquiry by giving their signal." then they inflict on strangers the hugging and face-rubbing remarked among the eskimos, demonstrating thereby the magnitude of their joy at meeting.[ ] the various tribes of the yuma and mojave nations hold communication with one another by means of couriers or runners, who quickly disseminate important news, and call together the various bands for consultation, hunting, and war. besides this, there is used everywhere on the prairies, a system of telegraphy, which perhaps is only excelled by the wires themselves. smoke during the day, and fires at night, perched on mountain-tops, flash intelligence quickly and surely across the plains, giving the call for assistance or the order to disperse when pursued. the advanced posts also inform the main body of the approach of strangers, and all this is done with astonishing regularity, by either increasing or diminishing the signal column, or by displaying it only at certain intervals or by increasing the number.[ ] in cold weather many of the nations in the neighborhood of the colorado, carry firebrands in their hands, as they assert for the purpose of warming themselves, which custom led the early visitors to name the colorado the rio del tizon.[ ] [sidenote: diseases and medicine.] the comanches stand in great dread of evil spirits, which they attempt to conciliate by fasting and abstinence. when their demons withhold rain or sunshine, according as they desire, they whip a slave, and if their gods prove obdurate, their victim is almost flayed alive. the navajos venerate the bear, and as before stated, never kill him nor touch any of his flesh.[ ] although early writers speak of cannibalism among these people, there is no evidence that they do or ever did eat human flesh.[ ] in their intercourse they are dignified and reserved, and never interrupt a person speaking. unless compelled by necessity, they never speak any language but their own, it being barbarous in their eyes to make use of foreign tongues.[ ] [sidenote: burial of the dead.] although endowed generally with robust and healthy constitutions, bilious and malarial fever, pneumonia, rheumatism, dysentery, ophthalmia, measles, small-pox, and various syphilitic diseases are sometimes met among them; the latter occurring most frequently among the navajos, mojaves, yumas, and comanches. whole bands are sometimes affected with the last-mentioned disease, and its effects are often visible in their young. a cutaneous ailment, called _pintos_, also makes its appearance at times.[ ] for these ailments they have different remedies, consisting of leaves, herbs, and roots, of which decoctions or poultices are made; scarification and the hunger cure are resorted to as well. among the mojaves the universal remedy is the sweat-house, employed by them and the other nations not only as a remedy for diseases, but for pleasure. there is no essential difference between their sweat-houses and those of northern nations--an air-tight hut near a stream, heated stones, upon which water is thrown to generate steam, and a plunge into the water afterward. as a cure for the bite of a rattlesnake they employ an herb called _euphorbia_. broken or wounded limbs are encased in wooden splints until healed. but frequently they abandon their sick and maimed, or treat them with great harshness.[ ] priests or medicine-men possess almost exclusively the secrets of the art of healing. when herbs fail they resort to incantations, songs, and wailings. they are firm believers in witchcraft, and wear as amulets and charms, feathers, stones, antelope-toes, crane's bills, bits of charred wood and the like. their prophets claim the power of foretelling future events, and are frequently consulted therefor.[ ] most of the nations in the vicinity of the colorado, burn their dead as soon as possible after death, on which occasion the worldly effects of the deceased are likewise spiritualized; utensils, property, sometimes wives, are sent with their master to the spirit land.[ ] those that do not burn the dead, bury them in caves or in shallow graves, with the robes, blankets, weapons, utensils, and ornaments of the deceased. the comanches frequently build a heap of stones over the grave of a warrior, near which they erect a pole from which a pair of moccasins is suspended.[ ] after burying the corpse, they have some mourning ceremonies, such as dances and songs around a fire, and go into mourning for a month. as a sign of grief they cut off the manes and tails of their horses, and also crop their own hair and lacerate their bodies in various ways; the women giving vent to their affliction by long continued howlings. but this applies only to warriors; children, and old men, are not worth so ostentatious a funeral.[ ] the name of a deceased person is rarely mentioned, and the apaches are shy of admitting strangers to a celebration of funeral ceremonies, which mostly take place at night. in general they are averse to speaking upon the subject of death at all. the navajos, says mr davis, "have a superstitious dread of approaching a dead body, and will never go near one when they can avoid it."[ ] [sidenote: new mexican character.] in the character of the several nations of this division there is a marked contrast. the apaches as i have said, though naturally lazy like all savages, are in their industries extremely active,--their industries being theft and murder, to which they are trained by their mothers, and in which they display consummate cunning, treachery, and cruelty.[ ] the navajos and mojaves display a more docile nature; their industries, although therein they do not claim to eschew all trickery, being of a more peaceful, substantial character, such as stock-raising, agriculture, and manufactures. professional thieving is not countenanced. though treacherous, they are not naturally cruel; and though deaf to the call of gratitude, they are hospitable and socially inclined. they are ever ready to redeem their pledged word, and never shrink from the faithful performance of a contract. they are brave and intelligent, and possess much natural common sense.[ ] the tamajabs have no inclination to share in marauding excursions. though not wanting in courage, they possess a mild disposition, and are kind to strangers.[ ] the comanches are dignified in their deportment, vain in respect to their personal appearance, ambitious of martial fame, unrelenting in their feuds, always exacting blood for blood, yet not sanguinary. they are true to their allies, prizing highly their freedom, hospitable to strangers, sober yet gay, maintaining a grave stoicism in presence of strangers, and a spartan indifference under severe suffering or misfortune. formal, discreet, and arab-like, they are always faithful to the guest who throws himself upon their hospitality. to the valiant and brave is awarded the highest place in their esteem. they are extremely clannish in their social relations. quarrels among relatives and friends are unheard of among them.[ ] [sidenote: the pueblos.] the non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of new mexico and arizona, the second division of this group, i call the pueblos, or towns-people, from _pueblo_, town, population, people, a name given by the spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were found, when first discovered, permanently located in comparatively well-built towns. strictly speaking, the term pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along the banks of the rio grande del norte and its tributaries, between latitudes ° ´ and ° ´, and although the name is employed as a general appellation for this division, it will be used, for the most part, only in its narrower and popular sense. in this division, besides the before-mentioned _pueblos_ proper, are embraced the _moquis_, or villagers of eastern arizona, and the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower gila river,--the _pimas_, _maricopas_, _pápagos_, and cognate tribes. the country of the towns-people, if we may credit lieutenant simpson, is one of "almost universal barrenness," yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally productive. the fame of this so-called civilization reached mexico at an early day; first through alvar nuñez cabeza de vaca and his companions, who belonged to the expedition under the unfortunate pámphilo de narvaez, traversing the continent from florida to the shore of the gulf of california; they brought in exaggerated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted the expeditions of marco de niza in , of coronado in , and of espejo in . these adventurers visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of quivira, tontonteac, marata and others, in which great riches were said to exist. the name of quivira was afterwards applied by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. the name cíbola, from _cíbolo_, mexican bull, _bos bison_, or wild ox of new mexico, where the spaniards first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns which were afterwards known as the seven cities of cíbola. but most of the villages known at the present day were mentioned in the reports of the early expeditions by their present names. the statements in regard to the number of their villages differed from the first. castañeda speaks of seven cities.[ ] the following list, according to lieutenant whipple's statement, appears to be the most complete. commencing north, and following the southward course of the rio grande del norte; shipap, acoti, taos, picuris, san juan, pojuaque, santa clara, san ildefonso, nambe, tesuque, cochite, pecos, santo domingo, cuyamanque, silla, jemez, san felipe, galisteo, santa ana, zandia, laguna, acoma, zuñi, isleta, and chilili.[ ] the moquis who speak a distinct language, and who have many customs peculiar to themselves, inhabit seven villages, named oraibe, shumuthpa, mushaiina, ahlela, gualpi, siwinna, and tegua.[ ] by the spanish conquest of new mexico the natives were probably disturbed less than was usually the case with the vanquished race; the pueblos being well-domiciled and well-behaved, and having little to be stolen, the invaders adopted the wise policy of permitting them to work in peace, and to retain the customs and traditions of their forefathers as they do, many of them, to this day. attempts have been made to prove a relationship with the civilized aztecs of mexico, but thus far without success. no affinities in language appear to exist; that of the moquis, indeed, contains a few faint traces of and assimilations to aztec words, as i shall show in the third volume of this work, but they are not strong enough to support any theory of common origin or relationship.[ ] [sidenote: pimas and pÁpagos.] the pimas inhabit the banks of the gila river about two hundred miles above its confluence with the colorado. their territory extends from about the bend of the gila up the river to a place called maricopa coppermine; northward their boundary is the salt river, and south the picacho. they are generally divided, and known as the upper and lower pimas, which branches show but slight dialectic differences. when first seen their territory extended further southward into sonora. the pápagos, their neighbors, are closely allied to them by language. in nowise related to them, but very similar in their manners and customs, are the maricopas, who reside in their immediate vicinity, and who claim to have migrated to that place some centuries ago, from a more westerly territory. all these people, although not dwelling in houses built, like those of the pueblos, of solid materials, have settled villages in which they reside at all times, and are entirely distinct from the roving and nomadic tribes described in the apache family. when first found by the spaniards, they cultivated the soil, and knew how to weave cotton and other fabrics; in fact it was easily observable that they had made a step toward civilization. i therefore describe them together with the pueblos. the region occupied by them, although containing some good soil, is scantily provided with water, and to enable them to raise crops, they are obliged to irrigate, conducting the water of the gila to their fields in small canals. the water obtained by digging wells is frequently brackish, and in many places they are forced to carry all the water needed for household purposes quite a long distance. the climate is claimed to be one of the hottest on the american continent. the pueblos, and moqui villagers, are a race of small people, the men averaging about five feet in height, with small hands and feet, well-cut features, bright eyes, and a generally pleasing expression of countenance.[ ] their hair is dark, soft, and of fine texture, and their skin a clear shade of brown.[ ] the woman seldom exceed four feet in height, with figure rotund, but a graceful carriage, and face full, with pretty, intelligent features and good teeth.[ ] albinos are at times seen amongst them, who are described as having very fair complexions, light hair, and blue or pink eyes.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the pueblos.] [sidenote: pima and maricopa dwellings.] the pimas and their neighbors are men of fine physique, tall and bony, many of them exceeding six feet in height, broad-chested, erect, and muscular, but frequently light-limbed with small hands, though the feet of both sexes are large. they have large features, expressive of frankness and good nature, with prominent cheek-bones and aquiline nose, those of the women being somewhat retroussés.[ ] the females are symmetrically formed, with beautifully tapered limbs, full busts, pleasing features, embellished with white and evenly set teeth.[ ] their coarse hair grows to a great length and thickness, and their dark complexion becomes yet darker toward the south.[ ] the ordinary dress of the pueblos is the breech-cloth and blanket; some add a blouse of cotton or deer-skin, a waist-belt, and buckskin leggins and moccasins. the women wear a long, cotton, sleeveless tunic, confined round the waist by a colored girdle, a species of cape bordered in different colors, fastened round the neck at the two corners, and reaching down to the waist, while over the head a shawl is thrown. the feet are protected by neat moccasins of deer-skin or woolen stuff, surmounted by leggins of the same material. they have a habit of padding the leggins, which makes them appear short-legged with small feet.[ ] the men bind a handkerchief or colored band round the head. young women dress the hair in a peculiarly neat and becoming style. parting it at the back, they roll it round hoops, when it is fastened in two high bunches, one on each side of the head, placing sometimes a single feather in the center; married women gather it into two tight knots at the side or one at the back of the head; the men cut it in front of the ears, and in a line with the eye-brows, while at the back it is plaited or gathered into a single bunch, and tied with a band.[ ] on gala occasions they paint and adorn themselves in many grotesque styles; arms, legs, and exposed portions of the body are covered with stripes or rings, and conical-shaped head-dresses; feathers, sheep-skin wigs, and masks, are likewise employed.[ ] the habiliments of the pimas are a cotton serape of their own manufacture, a breech-cloth, with sandals of raw-hide or deer-skin. women wear the same kind of serape, wound round the loins and pinned, or more frequently tucked in at the waist, or fastened with a belt in which different-colored wools are woven; some wear a short petticoat of deer-skin or bark.[ ] they wear no head-dress. like the pueblos, the men cut the hair short across the forehead, and either plait it in different coils behind, which are ornamented with bits of bone, shells, or red cloth, or mix it with clay, or gather it into a turban shape on top of the head, leaving a few ornamented and braided locks to hang down over the ears.[ ] each paints in a manner to suit the fancy; black, red, and yellow are the colors most in vogue, black being alone used for war paint. some tattoo their newly born children round the eyelids, and girls, on arriving at the age of maturity, tattoo from the corners of the mouth to the chin. some tribes oblige their women to cut the hair, others permit it to grow.[ ] for ornament, shell and bead necklaces are used; also ear-rings of a blue stone found in the mountains.[ ] the dwellings of the agricultural pimas, maricopas, and pápagos consist of dome-shaped huts, either round or oval at the base. there are usually thirty or more to a village, and they are grouped with some regard to regularity. strong forked stakes are firmly fixed in the ground at regular distances from each other, the number varying according to the size of the hut, cross-poles are laid from one to the other, around these are placed cotton-wood poles, which are bent over and fastened to the transverse sticks, the structure is then wattled with willows, reeds, or coarse straw, and the whole covered with a coat of mud. the only openings are an entrance door about three feet high, and a small aperture in the center of the roof that serves for ventilation. their height is from five to seven feet, and the diameter from twenty to fifty. outside stands a shed, open at all sides with a roof of branches or corn-stalks, under which they prepare their food. their houses are occupied mainly during the rainy season; in summer they build light sheds of twigs in their corn-fields, which not only are more airy, but are also more convenient in watching their growing crops. besides the dwelling-place, each family has a granary, similar in shape and of like materials but of stronger construction; by frequent plastering with mud they are made impervious to rain.[ ] the towns of the pueblos are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of these aboriginals. some of them are situated in valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they are planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached only by artificial grades or by steps cut in the solid rock. some of the towns are of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a town being frequently but a block of buildings. thus a pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by three or four buildings of from three to four hundred feet in length, and about one hundred and fifty feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight to nine feet each in height. the buildings forming the square do not meet, but in some cases are connected by bridges or covered gangways, and in some instances the houses project over the streets below, which being narrow, are thus given an underground appearance. the stories are built in a series of gradations or retreating surfaces, decreasing in size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. [sidenote: pueblo houses.] in some of the towns these terraces are on both sides of the building; in others they face only toward the outside; while again in others they are on the inside. in front of the terraces is a parapet, which serves as a shelter for the inhabitants when forced to defend themselves against an attack from the outside. these terraces are about six feet wide, and extend round the three or four sides of the square, forming a walk for the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the story beneath; so with the stories above. as there is no inner communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along the several rows of terraces, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome intrusion. the outside walls of one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, having no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in some towns, a few loopholes. all the doors and windows are on the inside opening on the court. the several stories of these huge structures are divided into multitudinous compartments of greater or lesser size, which are apportioned to the several families of the tribe. access is had to the different stories by means of the ladders, which at night and in times of danger are drawn up after the person entering. to enter the rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one must mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then descend through a trap door in the floor by another ladder on the inside. the roofs or ceilings, which are nearly flat, are formed of transverse beams which slope slightly outward, the ends resting on the side walls; on these, to make the floor and terrace of the story above, is laid brush wood, then a layer of bark or thin slabs, and over all a thick covering of mud sufficient to render them water-tight. the windows in the upper stories are made of flakes of selenite instead of glass. the rooms are large, the substantial partitions are made of wood, and neatly whitewashed. the apartments on the ground floor are gloomy, and generally used as store-rooms; those above are sometimes furnished with a small fireplace, the chimney leading out some feet above the terrace. houses are common property, and both men and women assist in building them; the men erect the wooden frames, and the women make the mortar and build the walls. in place of lime for mortar, they mix ashes with earth and charcoal. they make adobes or sun-dried bricks by mixing ashes and earth with water, which is then moulded into large blocks and dried in the sun. some of the towns are built with stones laid in mud. captain simpson describes several ruined cities, which he visited, which show that the inhabitants formerly had a knowledge of architecture and design superior to any that the pueblos of the present day possess. yet their buildings are even now well constructed, for although several stories in height, the walls are seldom more than three or four feet in thickness. the apartments are well arranged and neatly kept; one room is used for cooking, another for grinding corn and preserving winter supplies of food, others for sleeping-rooms. on the balconies, round the doors opening upon them, the villagers congregate to gossip and smoke, while the streets below, when the ladders are drawn up, present a gloomy and forsaken appearance. sometimes villages are built in the form of an open square with buildings on three sides, and again two or more large terraced structures capable of accommodating one or two thousand people are built contiguous to each other, or on opposite banks of a stream. in some instances the outer wall presents one unbroken line, without entrance or anything to indicate the busy life within; another form is to join the straight walls, which encompass three sides of a square, by a fourth circular wall; in all of which the chief object is defense. the pueblos take great pride in their picturesque and, to them, magnificent structures, affirming that as fortresses they have ever proved impregnable. to wall out black barbarism was what the pueblos wanted, and to be let alone; under these conditions time was giving them civilization.[ ] [sidenote: pueblo estufas.] the sweat-house, or as the spaniards call it, the _estufa_, assumes with the pueblos the grandest proportions. every village has from one to six of these singular structures. a large, semi-subterranean room, it is at once bath-house, town-house, council-chamber, club-room, and church. it consists of a large excavation, the roof being about on a level with the ground, sometimes a little above it, and is supported by heavy timbers or pillars of masonry. around the sides are benches, and in the center of the floor a square stone box for fire, wherein aromatic plants are kept constantly burning. entrance is made by means of a ladder, through a hole in the top placed directly over the fire-place so that it also serves as a ventilator and affords a free passage to the smoke. usually they are circular in form and of both large and small dimensions; they are placed either within the great building or underground in the court without. in some of the ruins they are found built in the center of what was once a pyramidal pile, and four stories in height. at jemez the estufa is of one story, twenty-five feet wide by thirty feet high. the ruins of chettro kettle contain six estufas, each two or three stories in height. at bonito are estufas one hundred and seventy-five feet in circumference, built in alternate layers of thick and thin stone slabs. in these subterranean temples the old men met in secret council, or assembled in worship of their gods. here are held dances and festivities, social intercourse, and mourning ceremonies. certain of the pueblos have a custom similar to that practiced by some of the northern tribes, the men sleeping in the sweat-house with their feet to the fire, and permitting women to enter only to bring them food. the estufas of tiguex were situated in the heart of the village, built underground, both round and square, and paved with large polished stones.[ ] [sidenote: how food is obtained.] from the earliest information we have of these nations they are known to have been tillers of the soil; and though the implements used and their methods of cultivation were both simple and primitive, cotton, corn, wheat, beans, with many varieties of fruits, which constituted their principal food, were raised in abundance. the pueblos breed poultry to a considerable extent; fish are eaten whenever obtainable, as also a few wild animals, such as deer, hares, and rabbits, though they are indifferent hunters.[ ] the pápagos, whose country does not present such favorable conditions for agriculture are forced to rely for a subsistence more upon wild fruits and animals than the nations north of them. they collect large quantities of the fruit of the pitahaya (_cereus giganteus_), and in seasons of scarcity resort to whatever is life-sustaining, not disdaining even snakes, lizards, and toads.[ ] most of these people irrigate their lands by means of conduits or ditches, leading either from the river or from tanks in which rain-water is collected and stored for the purpose. these ditches are kept in repair by the community, but farming operations are carried on by each family for its own separate benefit, which is a noticeable advance from the usual savage communism.[ ] fishing nets are made of twisted thread or of small sticks joined together at the ends. when the rivers are low, fish are caught in baskets or shot with arrows to which a string is attached.[ ] the corn which is stored for winter use, is first par-boiled in the shuck, and then suspended from strings to dry; peaches are dried in large quantities, and melons are preserved by peeling and removing the seeds, when they are placed in the sun, and afterward hung up in trees. meal is ground on the metate and used for making porridge, tortillas, and a very thin cake called _guayave_, which latter forms a staple article of food amongst the pueblos. the process of making the guayave, as seen by lieutenant simpson at santo domingo on the rio grande, is thus described in his journal. "at the house of the governor i noticed a woman, probably his wife, going through the process of baking a very thin species of corn cake, called, according to gregg, guayave. she was hovering over a fire, upon which lay a flat stone. near her was a bowl of thin corn paste, into which she thrust her fingers; allowing then the paste to drip sparingly upon the stone, with two or three wipes from the palm of her hand she would spread it entirely and uniformly over the stone; this was no sooner done than she peeled it off as fit for use; and the process was again and again repeated, until a sufficient quantity was obtained. when folded and rolled together, it does not look unlike (particularly that made from the blue corn) a hornet's nest--a name by which it is sometimes called." the pimas do all their cooking out of doors, under a shed erected for the purpose. they collect the pulp from the fruit of the pitahaya, and boiling it in water, make a thick syrup, which they store away for future use. they also dry the fruit in the sun like figs.[ ] the pueblos and moquis are remarkable for their personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings.[ ] [sidenote: pueblo weapons.] their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, and clubs. the pueblos use a crooked stick, which they throw somewhat in the manner of the boomerang; they are exceedingly skillful in the use of the sling, with a stone from which they are said to be able to hit with certainty a small mark or kill a deer at the distance of a hundred yards. for defense, they use a buckler or shield made of raw hide. their arrows are carried in skin quivers or stuck in the belt round the waist.[ ] bows are made of willow, and are about six feet in length, strung with twisted deer-sinews; arrows are made of reeds, into which a piece of hard wood is fitted.[ ] the pimas wing their war arrows with three feathers and point them with flint, while for hunting purposes they have only two feathers and wooden points.[ ] it has been stated that they poison them, but there does not appear to be good foundation for this assertion.[ ] clubs, which are used in hand-to-hand combats, are made of a hard, heavy wood, measuring from twenty to twenty-four inches in length. in former days they were sharpened by inserting flint or obsidian along the edge.[ ] [sidenote: war ceremonies.] the pimas wage unceasing war against the apaches, and the pueblos are ever at enmity with their neighbors, the navajos. the pueblos are securely protected by the position and construction of their dwellings, from the top of which they are able to watch the appearance and movements of enemies, and should any be daring enough to approach their walls, they are greeted by a shower of stones and darts. as an additional protection to their towns, they dig pitfalls on the trails leading to them, at the bottom of which sharp-pointed stakes are driven, the top of the hole being carefully covered.[ ] expeditions are sometimes organized against the navajos for the recovery of stolen property. on such occasions the towns-people equip themselves with the heads, horns, and tails of wild animals, paint the body and plume the head.[ ] lieutenant simpson mentions a curious custom observed by them, just previous to going into action. "they halted on the way to receive from their chiefs some medicine from the medicine bags which each of them carried about his person. this they rubbed upon their heart, as they said, to make it big and brave." the pueblos fight on horseback in skirmishing order, and keep up a running fight, throwing the body into various attitudes, the better to avoid the enemies' missiles, at the same time discharging their arrows with rapidity.[ ] the pimas, who fight usually on foot, when they decide on going to war, select their best warriors, who are sent to notify the surrounding villages, and a place of meeting is named where a grand council is held. a fire being lighted and a circle of warriors formed, the proceedings are opened by war songs and speeches, their prophet is consulted, and in accordance with his professional advice, their plan of operations is arranged.[ ] the attack is usually made about day-break, and conducted with much pluck and vigor. they content themselves with proximate success, and seldom pursue a flying foe.[ ] during the heat of battle they spare neither sex nor age, but if prisoners are taken, the males are crucified or otherwise cruelly put to death, and the women and children sold as soon as possible.[ ] the successful war party on its return is met by the inhabitants of the villages, scalps are fixed on a pole, trophies displayed, and feasting and dancing indulged in for several days and nights; if unsuccessful, mourning takes the place of feasting, and the death-cries of the women resound through the villages.[ ] [sidenote: pueblo trade.] for farming implements they use plows, shovels, harrows, hatchets, and sticks, all of wood.[ ] baskets of willow-twigs, so closely woven as to be water-tight, and ornamented with figures; and round, baked, and glazed earthen vessels, narrow at the top, and decorated with paintings or enamel, are their household utensils.[ ] for mashing hulled corn they used the metate, a mexican implement, made of two stones, one concave and the other convex, hereafter more fully described. among their household utensils there must also be mentioned hair sieves, hide ropes, water-gourds, painted fans, stone pipes, and frame panniers connected with a netting to carry loads on their backs.[ ] in their manufacture of blankets, of cotton and woolen cloths, and stockings, the pueblos excel their neighbors, the navajos, although employing essentially the same method, and using similar looms and spinning instruments, as have been described in the preceding pages. although the women perform most of this work, as well as tanning leather, it is said that the men also are expert in knitting woolen stockings. according to mühlenpfordt the pimas and maricopas make a basket-boat which they call _cora_, woven so tight as to be water-proof without the aid of pitch or other application.[ ] all these nations, particularly the pueblos, have great droves of horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats grazing on the extensive plains, and about their houses poultry, turkeys, and dogs. the flocks they either leave entirely unprotected, or else the owner herds them himself, or from each village one is appointed by the war captain to do so. the pápagos carry on an extensive trade in salt, taken from the great inland salt lakes. besides corn, they manufacture and sell a syrup extracted from the pitahaya.[ ] the laws regulating inheritance of property are not well defined. among some there is nothing to inherit, as all is destroyed when the person dies; among others the females claim the right of inheritance; at other times the remaining property is divided among all the members of the tribe. in general they care but little for gold, and all their trade, which at times is considerable, is carried on by barter; a kind of blue stone, often called turquoise, beads, skins, and blankets, serving the purpose of currency.[ ] the pueblos display much taste in painting the walls of their estufas, where are represented different plants, birds, and animals symmetrically done, but without any scenic effect. hieroglyphic groupings, both sculptured and painted, are frequently seen in the ancient pueblo towns, depicting, perhaps, their historical events and deeds. with colored earths their pottery is painted in bright colors.[ ] many spanish authors mention a great many gold and silver vessels in use amongst them, and speak of the knowledge they had in reducing and working these metals; but no traces of such art are found at present.[ ] [sidenote: laws of the pueblos.] among the pueblos an organized system of government existed at the time of coronado's expedition through their country; castañeda, speaking of the province of tiguex, says that the villages were governed by a council of old men; and a somewhat similar system obtains with these people at the present time. each village selects its own governor, frames its own laws, and in all respects they act independently of each other. the governor and his council are elected annually by the people; all affairs of importance and matters relating to the welfare of the community are discussed at the estufa; questions in dispute are usually decided by a vote of the majority. all messages and laws emanating from the council-chamber are announced to the inhabitants by town criers. the morals of young people are carefully watched and guarded by a kind of secret police, whose duty it is to report to the governor all irregularities which may occur; and especial attention is given that no improper intercourse shall be allowed between the young men and women, in the event of which the offending parties are brought before the governor and council and, if guilty, ordered to marry, or if they refuse they are restricted from holding intercourse with each other, and if they persist they are whipped. among their laws deserves to be particularly mentioned one, according to which no one can sell or marry out of the town until he obtains permission from the authorities.[ ] in the seven confederate pueblos of the moquis, the office of chief governor is hereditary; it is not, however, necessarily given to the nearest heir, as the people have the power to elect any member of the dominant family. the governor is assisted by a council of elders, and in other respects the moqui government is similar to that of the other towns.[ ] the pimas and maricopas have no organized system of government, and are not controlled by any code of laws; each tribe or village has a chief to whom a certain degree of respect is conceded, but his power to restrain the people is very limited; his influence over them is maintained chiefly by his oratorical powers or military skill. in war the tribe is guided by the chief's advice, and his authority is fully recognized, but in time of peace his rule is nominal; nor does he attempt to control their freedom or punish them for offences. the chief's office is hereditary, yet an unpopular ruler may be deposed and another chosen to fill his place.[ ] [sidenote: women among the pueblos.] among the pueblos the usual order of courtship is reversed; when a girl is disposed to marry she does not wait for a young man to propose to her, but selects one to her own liking and consults her father, who visits the parents of the youth and acquaints them with his daughter's wishes. it seldom happens that any objections to the match are made, but it is imperative on the father of the bridegroom to reimburse the parents of the maiden for the loss of their daughter. this is done by an offer of presents in accordance with his rank and wealth. the inhabitants of one village seldom marry with those of another, and, as a consequence, intermarriage is frequent among these families--a fertile cause of their deterioration. the marriage is always celebrated by a feast, the provisions for which are furnished by the bride, and the assembled friends unite in dancing and music. polygamy is never allowed, but married couples can separate if they are dissatisfied with each other; in such a contingency, if there are children, they are taken care of by the grandparents, and both parties are free to marry again; fortunately, divorces are not of frequent occurrence, as the wives are always treated with respect by their husbands.[ ] to the female falls all indoor work, and also a large share of that to be done out of doors. in the treatment of their children these people are careful to guide them in the ways of honesty and industry, and to impress their minds with chaste and virtuous ideas. mothers bathe their infants with cold water, and boys are not permitted to enter the estufas for the purpose of warming themselves; if they are cold they are ordered to chop wood, or warm themselves by running and exercise.[ ] a girl's arrival at the age of puberty among the gila nations is a period of much rejoicing; when the first symptoms appear, all her friends are duly informed of the important fact, and preparations are made to celebrate the joyful event. the girl is taken by her parents to the prophet, who performs certain ceremonies, which are supposed to drive the evil out of her, and then a singing and dancing festival is held. when a young man sees a girl whom he desires for a wife, he first endeavors to gain the good will of the parents; this accomplished, he proceeds to serenade his lady-love, and will often sit for hours, day after day, near her house, playing on his flute. should the girl not appear it is a sign she rejects him; but if, on the other hand, she comes out to meet him, he knows that his suit is accepted, and he takes her to his house. no marriage ceremony is performed. among the pápagos the parents select a husband for their daughter to whom she is, so to say, sold. it not unfrequently happens that they offer their daughter at auction, and she is knocked down to the highest bidder. however, among all the nations of this family, whether the bridegroom makes a love-match or not, he has to recompense the parents with as much as his means will permit.[ ] although polygamy is not permitted, they often separate and marry again at pleasure. women, at the time of their confinement as well as during their monthly periods, must live apart; as they believe that if any male were to touch them, he would become sick. the children are trained to war, and but little attention given to teaching them useful pursuits. all the household labor is performed by the women; they also assist largely in the labors of the field; severe laws oblige them to observe the strictest chastity, and yet, at their festivals, much debauchery and prostitution take place.[ ] [sidenote: pueblo dances.] with but few exceptions, they are temperate in drinking and smoking. intoxicating liquors they prepare out of the fruits of the pitahaya, agave, aloe, corn, mezcal, prickly pear, wild and cultivated grapes. colonel cremony says that the pimas and maricopas 'macerate the fruit of the pitahaya (species of cactus) in water after being dried in the sun, when the saccharine qualities cause the liquid to ferment, and after such fermentation it becomes highly intoxicating. it is upon this liquor that the maricopas and pimas get drunk once a year, the revelry continuing for a week or two at a time; but it is also an universal custom with them to take regular turns, so that only one third of the party is supposed to indulge at one time, the remainder being required to take care of their stimulated comrades, and protect them from injuring each other or being injured by other tribes.'[ ] all are fond of dancing and singing; in their religious rites, as well as in other public and family celebrations, these form the chief diversion. different dances are used on different occasions; for example, they have the arrow, scalp, turtle, fortune, buffalo, green-corn, and montezuma dances. their costumes also vary on each of these occasions, and not only are grotesque masks, but also elk, bear, fox, and other skins used as disguises. the dance is sometimes performed by only one person, but more frequently whole tribes join in, forming figures, shuffling, or hopping about to the time given by the music. lieutenant simpson, who witnessed a green-corn dance at the jemez pueblo, describes it as follows: 'when the performers first appeared, all of whom were men, they came in a line, slowly walking and bending and stooping as they approached. they were dressed in a kirt of blanket, the upper portion of their bodies being naked and painted red. their legs and arms, which were also bare, were variously striped with red, white and blue colors; and around their arms, above the elbow, they wore a green band, decked with sprigs of piñon. a necklace of the same description was worn around the neck. their heads were decorated with feathers. in one hand they carried a dry gourd, containing some grains of corn; in the other, a string from which were hung several tortillas. at the knee were fastened small shells of the ground turtle and antelope's feet; and dangling from the back, at the waist, depended a fox-skin. the party was accompanied by three elders of the town, whose business it was to make a short speech in front of the different houses, and, at particular times, join in the singing of the rest of the party. thus they went from house to house, singing and dancing, the occupants of each awaiting their arrival in front of their respective dwellings.' a somewhat similar moqui dance is described by mr ten broeck. some of the pueblo dances end with bacchanalia, in which not only general intoxication, but promiscuous intercourse between the sexes is permitted.[ ] 'once a year,' says kendall, 'the keres have a great feast, prepared for three successive days, which time is spent in eating, drinking and dancing. near this scene of amusement is a dismal gloomy cave, into which not a glimpse of light can penetrate, and where places of repose are provided for the revellers. to this cave, after dark, repair grown persons of every age and sex, who pass the night in indulgences of the most gross and sensual description.' reed flutes and drums are their chief instruments of music; the former they immerse in a shallow basin of water, and thereby imitate the warbling of birds. the drum is made of a hollow log, about two and a half feet long and fifteen inches in diameter. a dried hide, from which previously the hair has been scraped, is stretched over either end, and on this the player beats with a couple of drumsticks, similar to those used on our kettle-drums. gourds filled with pebbles and other rattles, are also used as a musical accompaniment to their dances.[ ] [sidenote: customs of pimas and pÁpagos.] the cocomaricopas and pimas are rather fond of athletic sports, such as football, horse and foot racing, swimming, target-shooting, and of gambling.[ ] many curious customs obtain among these people. mr walker relates that a pima never touches his skin with his nails, but always uses a small stick for that purpose, which he renews every fourth day, and wears in his hair. among the same nation, when a man has killed an apache, he must needs undergo purification. sixteen days he must fast, and only after the fourth day is he allowed to drink a little pinole. during the sixteen days he may not look on a blazing fire, nor hold converse with mortal man; he must live in the woods companionless, save only one person appointed to take care of him. on the seventeenth day a large space is cleared off near the village, in the center of which a fire is lighted. the men form a circle round this fire, outside of which those who have been purified sit, each in a small excavation. certain of the old men then take the weapons of the purified and dance with them in the circle; for which service they receive presents, and thenceforth both slayer and weapon are considered clean, but not until four days later is the man allowed to return to his family. they ascribe the origin of this custom to a mythical personage, called szeukha, who, after killing a monster, is said to have fasted for sixteen days. the pápagos stand in great dread of the coyote, and the pimas never touch an ant, snake, scorpion, or spider, and are much afraid of thunderstorms. like the mojaves and yumas, the maricopas in cold weather carry a firebrand to warm themselves withal. in like manner the pueblos have their singularities and semi-religious ceremonies, many of which are connected with a certain mythical personage called montezuma. among these may be mentioned the perpetual watching of the eternal estufa-fire, and also the daily waiting for the rising sun, with which, as some writers affirm, they expectantly look for the promised return of the much-loved montezuma. the moqui, before commencing to smoke, reverently bows toward the four cardinal points.[ ] their diseases are few; and among these the most frequent are chills and fevers, and later, syphilis. the pueblos and moquis resort to the sweat-house remedy, but the pimas only bathe daily in cold running water. here, as elsewhere, the doctor is medicine-man, conjuror, and prophet, and at times old women are consulted. if incantations fail, emetics, purgatives, or blood-letting are prescribed.[ ] the pimas bury their dead immediately after death. at the bottom of a shaft, about six feet deep, they excavate a vault, in which the corpse is placed, after having first been tied up in a blanket. house, horses, and most personal effects are destroyed; but if children are left, a little property is reserved for them. a widow or a daughter mourns for three months, cutting the hair and abstaining from the bath during that time. the maricopas burn their dead. pueblo and moqui burials take place with many ceremonies, the women being the chief mourners.[ ] [sidenote: character of the pueblos.] industrious, honest, and peace-loving, the people of this division are at the same time brave and determined, when necessity compels them to repel the thieving apache. sobriety may be ranked among their virtues, as drunkenness only forms a part of certain religious festivals, and in their gambling they are the most moderate of barbarians.[ ] the lower californians present a sad picture. occupying the peninsula from the head of the gulf to cape san lucas, it is thought by some that they were driven thither from upper california by their enemies. when first visited by the missionary fathers, they presented humanity in one of its lowest phases, though evidences of a more enlightened people having at some previous time occupied the peninsula were not lacking. clavigero describes large caves or vaults, which had been dug out of the solid rock, the sides decorated with paintings of animals and figures of men, showing dress and features different from any of the inhabitants. whom they represented or by whom they were depicted there is no knowledge, as the present race have been unable to afford any information on the subject. [sidenote: lower california.] the peninsula extends from near ° to ° north latitude; in length it is about seven hundred, varying in width from thirty-five to eighty miles. its general features are rugged; irregular mountains of granite formation and volcanic upheavals traversing the whole length of the country, with barren rocks and sandy plains, intersected by ravines and hills. some fertile spots and valleys with clear mountain streams are there, and in such places the soil produces abundantly; then there are plains of greater or less extent, with rich soil, but without water; so that, under the circumstances, they are little more than deserts. these plains rise in places into mesas, which are cut here and there by cañons, where streams of water are found, which are again lost on reaching the sandy plains. altogether, lower california is considered as one of the most barren and unattractive regions in the temperate zone, although its climate is delightful, and the mountain districts especially are among the healthiest in the world, owing to their southern situation between two seas. a curious meteorological phenomenon is sometimes observed both in the gulf and on the land; it is that of rain falling during a perfectly clear sky. savants, who have investigated the subject, do not appear to have discovered the cause of this unusual occurrence. the greater part of the peninsula, at the time of its discovery, was occupied by the _cochimís_, whose territory extended from the head of the gulf to the neighborhood of loreto, or a little south of the twenty-sixth parallel; adjoining them were the _guaicuris_, living between latitude ° and ° ´; while the _pericúis_ were settled in the southern part, from about ° ´ or ° to cape san lucas, and on the adjacent islands.[ ] the lower californians are well formed, robust and of good stature, with limbs supple and muscular; they are not inclined to corpulence; their features are somewhat heavy, the forehead low and narrow, the nose well set on, but thick and fleshy; the inner corners of the eyes round instead of pointed; teeth very white and regular, hair very black, coarse, straight, and glossy, with but little on the face, and none upon the body or limbs. the color of the skin varies from light to dark brown, the former color being characteristic of the dwellers in the interior, and the latter of those on the sea-coast.[ ] [sidenote: cochimÍ and pericÚi dress.] adam without the fig-leaves was not more naked than were the cochimís before the missionaries first taught them the rudiments of shame. they ignored even the usual breech-cloth, the only semblance of clothing being a head-dress of rushes or strips of skin interwoven with mother-of-pearl shells, berries, and pieces of reed. the guaicuris and pericúis indulge in a still more fantastic head-dress, white feathers entering largely into its composition. the women display more modesty, for, although scantily clad, they at least essay to cover their nakedness. the pericúi women are the best dressed of all, having a petticoat reaching from the waist to the ankles, made from the fibre of certain palm-leaves, and rendered soft and flexible by beating between two stones. over the shoulders they throw a mantle of similar material, or of plaited rushes, or of skins. the cochimí women make aprons of short reeds, strung upon cords of aloe-plant fibres fastened to a girdle. the apron is open at the sides, one part hanging in front, the other behind. as they are not more than six or eight inches wide, but little of the body is in truth covered. when traveling they wear sandals of hide, which they fasten with strings passed between the toes.[ ] both sexes are fond of ornaments; to gratify this passion, they string together pearls, shells, fruit-stones and seeds in the forms of necklaces and bracelets. in addition to the head-dress the pericúis are distinguished by a girdle highly ornamented with pearls and mother-of-pearl shells. they perforate ears, lips, and nose, inserting in the openings, shells, bones, or hard sticks. paint in many colors and devices is freely used on war and gala occasions; tattooing obtains, but does not appear to be universal among them. mothers, to protect them against the weather, cover the entire bodies of their children with a varnish of coal and urine. cochimí women cut the hair short, but the men allow a long tuft to grow on the crown of the head. both sexes among the guaicuris and pericúis wear the hair long and flowing loosely over the shoulders.[ ] equally adamitic are their habitations. they appear to hold a superstitious dread of suffocation if they live or sleep in covered huts; hence in their rare and meagre attempts to protect themselves from the inclemencies of the weather, they never put any roof over their heads. roving beast-like in the vicinity of springs during the heat of the day, seeking shade in the ravines and overhanging rocks; at night, should they desire shelter, they resort to caverns and holes in the ground. during winter they raise a semi-circular pile of stones or brushwood, about two feet in height, behind which, with the sky for a roof and the bare ground for a bed, they camp at night. over the sick they sometimes throw a wretched hut, by sticking a few poles in the ground, tying them at the top and covering the whole with grass and reeds, and into this nest visitors crawl on hands and knees.[ ] [sidenote: lower californian food.] reed-roots, wild fruit, pine-nuts, cabbage-palms, small seeds roasted, and also roasted aloe and mescal roots constitute their food. during eight weeks of the year they live wholly on the redundant fat-producing _pitahaya_, after which they wander about in search of other native vegetable products, and when these fail they resort to hunting and fishing. of animal food they will eat anything--beasts, birds, and fishes, or reptiles, worms, and insects; and all parts: flesh, hide, and entrails. men and monkeys, however, as articles of food are an abomination; the latter because they so much resemble the former. the gluttony and improvidence of these people exceed, if possible, those of any other nation; alternate feasting and fasting is their custom. when so fortunate as to have plenty they consume large quantities, preserving none. an abominable habit is related of them, that they pick up the undigested seeds of the pitahaya discharged from their bowels, and after parching and grinding them, eat the meal with much relish. clavigero, baegert, and other authors, mention another rather uncommon feature in the domestic economy of the cochimís; it is that of swallowing their meat several times, thereby multiplying their gluttonous pleasures. tying to a string a piece of well-dried meat, one of their number masticates it a little, and swallows it, leaving the end of the string hanging out of the mouth; after retaining it for about two or three minutes in his stomach, it is pulled out, and the operation repeated several times, either by the same individual or by others, until the meat becomes consumed. here is father baegert's summary of their edibles: "they live now-a-days on dogs and cats; horses, asses and mules; item: on owls, mice and rats; lizards and snakes; bats, grasshoppers and crickets; a kind of green caterpillar without hair, about a finger long, and an abominable white worm of the length and thickness of the thumb."[ ] their weapon is the bow and arrow, but they use stratagem to procure the game. the deer-hunter deceives his prey by placing a deer's head upon his own; hares are trapped; the cochimís throw a kind of boomerang or flat curved stick, which skims the ground and breaks the animal's legs. fish are taken from pools left by the tide and from the sea, sometimes several miles out, in nets and with the aid of long lances. it is said that at san roche island they catch fish with birds. they also gather oysters, which they eat roasted, but use no salt. they have no cooking utensils, but roast their meat by throwing it into the fire and after a time raking it out. insects and caterpillars are parched over the hot coals in shells. fish is commonly eaten raw; they drink only water.[ ] it is said that they never wash, and it is useless to add that in their filthiness they surpass the brutes.[ ] besides bows and arrows they use javelins, clubs, and slings of cords, from which they throw stones. their bows are six feet long, very broad and thick in the middle and tapering toward the ends, with strings made from the intestines of animals. the arrows are reeds about thirty inches in length, into the lower end of which a piece of hard wood is cemented with resin obtained from trees, and pointed with flint sharpened to a triangular shape and serrated at the edges. javelins are sharpened by first hardening in the fire and then grinding to a point; they are sometimes indented like a saw. clubs are of different forms, either mallet-head or axe shape; they also crook and sharpen at the edge a piece of wood in the form of a scimeter.[ ] their wars, which spring from disputed boundaries, are frequent and deadly, and generally occur about fruit and seed time. the battle is commenced amidst yells and brandishing of weapons, though without any preconcerted plan, and a tumultuous onslaught is made without regularity or discipline, excepting that a certain number are held in reserve to relieve those who have expended their arrows or become exhausted. while yet at a distance they discharge their arrows, but soon rush forward and fight at close quarters with their clubs and spears; nor do they cease till many on both sides have fallen.[ ] [sidenote: implements in lower california.] their implements and household utensils are both rude and few. sharp flints serve them instead of knives; a bone ground to a point answers the purpose of a needle or an awl; and with a sharp-pointed stick roots are dug. fire is obtained in the usual way from two pieces of wood. when traveling, water is carried in a large bladder. the shell of the turtle is applied to various uses, such as a receptacle for food and a cradle for infants. the lower californians have little ingenuity, and their display of mechanical skill is confined to the manufacture of the aforesaid implements, weapons of war, and of the chase; they make some flat baskets of wicker work, which are used in the collection of seeds and fruits; also nets from the fibre of the aloe, one in which to carry provisions, and another fastened to a forked stick and hung upon the back, in which to carry children.[ ] for boats the inhabitants of the peninsula construct rafts of reeds made into bundles and bound tightly together; they are propelled with short paddles, and seldom are capable of carrying more than one person. in those parts where trees grow a more serviceable canoe is made from bark, and sometimes of three or more logs, not hollowed out, but laid together side by side and made fast with withes or pita-fibre cords. these floats are buoyant, the water washing over them as over a catamaran. on them two or more men will proceed fearlessly to sea, to a distance of several miles from the coast. to transport their chattels across rivers, they use wicker-work baskets, which are so closely woven as to be quite impermeable to water; these, when loaded, are pushed across by the owner, who swims behind.[ ] besides their household utensils and boats, and the feathers or ornaments on their persons, i find no other property. they who dwell on the sea-coast occasionally travel inland, carrying with them sea-shells and feathers to barter with their neighbors for the productions of the interior.[ ] they are unable to count more than five, and this number is expressed by one hand; some few among them are able to understand that two hands signify ten, but beyond this they know nothing of enumeration, and can only say much or many, or show that the number is beyond computation, by throwing sand into the air and such like antics. the year is divided into six seasons; the first is called mejibo, which is midsummer, and the time of ripe pitahayas; the second season amaddappi, a time of further ripening of fruits and seeds; the third amadaappigalla, the end of autumn and beginning of winter; the fourth, which is the coldest season, is called majibel; the fifth, when spring commences, is majiben; the sixth, before any fruits or seeds have ripened, consequently the time of greatest scarcity, is called majiibenmaaji.[ ] neither government nor law is found in this region; every man is his own master, and administers justice in the form of vengeance as best he is able. as father baegert remarks: 'the different tribes represented by no means communities of rational beings, who submit to laws and regulations and obey their superiors, but resembled far more herds of wild swine, which run about according to their own liking, being together to-day and scattered to-morrow, till they meet again by accident at some future time. in one word, the californians lived, _salva venia_, as though they had been free-thinkers and materialists.' in hunting and war they have one or more chiefs to lead them, who are selected only for the occasion, and by reason of superior strength or cunning.[ ] [sidenote: marriage.] furthermore, they have no marriage ceremony, nor any word in their language to express marriage. like birds or beasts they pair off according to fancy. the pericúi takes as many women as he pleases, makes them work for him as slaves, and when tired of any one of them turns her away, in which case she may not be taken by another. some form of courtship appears to have obtained among the guaicuris; for example, when a young man saw a girl who pleased him, he presented her with a small bowl or basket made of the pita-fibre; if she accepted the gift, it was an evidence that his suit was agreeable to her, and in return she gave him an ornamented head-dress, the work of her own hand; then they lived together without further ceremony. although among the guaicuris and cochimís some hold a plurality of wives, it is not so common as with the pericúis, for in the two first-mentioned tribes there are more men than women. a breach of female chastity is sometimes followed by an attempt of the holder of the woman to kill the offender; yet morality never attained any great height, as it is a practice with them for different tribes to meet occasionally for the purpose of holding indiscriminate sexual intercourse. childbirth is easy; the pericúis and guaicuris wash the body of the newly born, then cover it with ashes; as the child grows it is placed on a frame-work of sticks, and if a male, on its chest they fix a bag of sand to prevent its breasts growing like a woman's, which they consider a deformity. for a cradle the cochimís take a forked stick or bend one end of a long pole in the form of a hoop, and fix thereto a net, in which the infant is placed and covered with a second net. it can thus be carried over the shoulder, or when the mother wishes to be relieved, the end of the pole is stuck in the ground, and nourishment given the child through the meshes of the net. when old enough the child is carried astride on its mother's shoulders. as soon as children are able to get food for themselves, they are left to their own devices, and it sometimes happens that when food is scarce the child is abandoned, or killed by its parents.[ ] [sidenote: lower californian feast.] nevertheless, these miserables delight in feasts, and in the gross debauchery there openly perpetrated. unacquainted with intoxicating liquors, they yet find drunkenness in the fumes of a certain herb smoked through a stone tube, and used chiefly during their festivals. their dances consist of a series of gesticulations and jumpings, accompanied by inarticulate murmurings and yells. one of their great holidays is the pitahaya season, when, with plenty to eat, they spend days and nights in amusements; at such times feats of strength and trials of speed take place. the most noted festival among the cochimís occurs upon the occasion of their annual distribution of skins. to the women especially it was an important and enjoyable event. upon an appointed day all the people collected at a designated place. in an arbor constructed with branches, the road to which was carpeted with the skins of wild animals that had been killed during the year, their most skillful hunters assembled; they alone were privileged to enter the arbor, and in their honor was already prepared a banquet and pipes of wild tobacco. the viands went round as also the pipe, and, in good time, the partakers became partially intoxicated by the smoke; then one of the priests or sorcerers, arrayed in his robe of ceremony, appeared at the entrance to the arbor, and made a speech to the people, in which he recounted the deeds of the hunters. then the occupants of the arbor came out and made a repartition of the skins among the women; this finished, dancing and singing commenced and continued throughout the night. it sometimes happened that their festivals ended in fighting and bloodshed, as they were seldom conducted without debauchery, especially among the guaicuris and pericúis.[ ] when they have eaten their fill they pass their time in silly or obscene conversation, or in wrestling, in which sports the women often take a part. they are very adroit in tracking wild beasts to their lairs and taming them. at certain festivals their sorcerers, who were called by some _quamas_, by others _cusiyaes_, wore long robes of skins, ornamented with human hair; these sages filled the offices of priests and medicine-men, and threatened their credulous brothers with innumerable ills and death, unless they supplied them with provisions. these favored of heaven professed to hold communication with oracles, and would enter caverns and wooded ravines, sending thence doleful sounds, to frighten the people, who were by such tricks easily imposed upon and led to believe in their deceits and juggleries.[ ] as to ailments, lower californians are subject to consumption, burning fevers, indigestion, and cutaneous diseases. small pox, measles, and syphilis, the last imported by troops, have destroyed numberless lives. wounds inflicted by the bites of venomous reptiles may be added to the list of troubles. loss of appetite is with them, generally, a symptom of approaching death. they submit resignedly to the treatment prescribed by their medicine-men, however severe or cruel it may be. they neglect their aged invalids, refusing them attendance if their last sickness proves too long, and recovery appears improbable. in several instances they have put an end to the patient by suffocation or otherwise.[ ] diseases are treated externally by the application of ointments, plasters, and fomentations of medicinal herbs, particularly the wild tobacco. smoke is also a great panacea, and is administered through a stone tube placed on the suffering part. the usual juggleries attend the practice of medicine. in extreme cases they attempt to draw with their fingers the disease from the patient's mouth. if the sick person has a child or sister, they cut its or her little finger of the right hand, and let the blood drop on the diseased part. bleeding with a sharp stone and whipping the affected part with nettles, or applying ants to it, are among the remedies used. for the cure of tumors, the medicine-men burst and suck them with their lips until blood is drawn. internal diseases are treated with cold-water baths. the means employed by the medicine-man are repeated by the members of the patient's family and by his friends. in danger even the imitation of death startles them. if an invalid is pronounced beyond recovery, and he happens to slumber, they immediately arouse him with blows on the head and body, for the purpose of preserving life.[ ] [sidenote: death and burial in lower california.] death is followed by a plaintive, mournful chant, attended with howling by friends and relatives, who beat their heads with sharp stones until blood flows freely. without further ceremony they either inter or burn the body immediately, according to the custom of the locality: in the latter case they leave the head intact. oftentimes they bury or burn the body before life has actually left it, never taking pains to ascertain the fact.[ ] weapons and other personal effects are buried or burned with the owner; and in some localities, where burying is customary, shoes are put to the feet, so that the spiritualized body may be prepared for its journey. in colechá and guajamina mourning ceremonies are practiced certain days after death--juggleries--in which the priest pretends to hold converse with the departed spirit through the scalp of the deceased, commending the qualities of the departed, and concluding by asking on the spirit's behalf that all shall cut off their hair as a sign of sorrow. after a short dance, more howling, hair-pulling, and other ridiculous acts, the priest demands provisions for the spirit's journey, which his hearers readily contribute, and which the priest appropriates to his own use, telling them it has already started. occasionally they honor the memory of their dead by placing a rough image of the departed on a high pole, and a _quama_ or priest sings his praises.[ ] the early missionaries found the people of the peninsula kind-hearted and tractable, although dull of comprehension and brutal in their instincts, rude, narrow-minded, and inconstant. a marked difference of character is observable between the cochimís and the pericúis. the former are more courteous in their manners and better behaved; although cunning and thievish, they exhibit attachment and gratitude to their superiors; naturally indolent and addicted to childish pursuits and amusements, they lived among themselves in amity, directing their savage and revengeful nature against neighboring tribes with whom they were at variance. the pericúis, before they became extinct, were a fierce and barbarous nation, unruly and brutal in their passions, cowardly, treacherous, false, petulant, and boastful, with an intensely cruel and heartless disposition, often shown in relentless persecutions and murders. in their character and disposition the guaicuris did not differ essentially from the pericúis. in the midst of so much darkness there was still one bright spot visible, inasmuch as they were of a cheerful and happy nature, lovers of kind and lovers of country. isolated, occupying an ill-favored country, it was circumstances, rather than any inherent incapacity for improvement, that held these poor people in their low state; for, as we shall see at some future time, in their intercourse with civilized foreigners, they were not lacking in cunning, diplomacy, selfishness, and other aids to intellectual progress.[ ] [sidenote: northern mexicans.] the northern mexicans, the fourth and last division of this group, spread over the territory lying between parallels ° and ° of north latitude. their lands have an average breadth of about five hundred miles, with an area of some , square miles, comprising the states of sonora, sinaloa, chihuahua, durango, nuevo leon, and the northern portions of zacatecas, san luis potosí and tamaulipas. nearly parallel with the pacific seaboard, and dividing the states of sonora and sinaloa from chihuahua and durango, runs the great central cordillera; further to the eastward, passing through coahuila, nuevo leon, and san luis potosí, and following the shore line of the mexican gulf, the sierra madre continues in a southerly direction, until it unites with the first-named range at the isthmus of tehuantepec. all of these mountains abound in mineral wealth. the table-land between them is intersected by three ridges; one, the sierra mimbres, issuing from the inner flank of the western cordillera north of arispe, extending in a northerly direction and following the line of the rio grande. the middle mountainous divide crosses from durango to coahuila, while the third rises in the state of jalisco and taking an easterly and afterward northerly direction, traverses the table-land and merges into the sierra madre in the state of san luis potosí. on these broad table-lands are numerous lakes fed by the streams which have their rise in the mountains adjacent; in but few spots is the land available for tillage, but it is admirably adapted to pastoral purposes. the climate can hardly be surpassed in its tonic and exhilarating properties; the atmosphere is ever clear, with sunshine by day, and a galaxy of brilliant stars by night; the absence of rain, fogs, and dews, with a delicious and even temperature, renders habitations almost unnecessary. all this vast region is occupied by numerous tribes speaking different languages and claiming distinct origins. upon the northern seaboard of sonora and tiburon island are the _ceris_, _tiburones_, and _tepocas_; south of them the _cahitas_, or _sinaloas_, which are general names for the _yaquis_ and _mayos_, tribes so called from the rivers on whose banks they live. in the state of sinaloa there are also the _cochitas_, _tuvares_, _sabaibos_, _zuaques_, and _ahomes_, besides many other small tribes. scattered through the states of the interior are the _Ópatas_, _eudeves_, _jovas_, _tarahumares_, _tubares_, and _tepehuanes_, who inhabit the mountainous districts of chihuahua and durango. east of the tarahumares, in the northern part of the first-named state, dwell the _conchos_. in durango, living in the hills round topia, are the _acaxées_; south of whom dwell the _xiximes_. on the table-lands of mapimi and on the shores of its numerous lakes, the _irritilas_ and many other tribes are settled; while south of these again, in zacatecas and san luis potosí, are the _guachichiles_, _huamares_, and _cazcanes_, and further to the east, and bordering on the gulf shores we find the country occupied by scattered tribes, distinguished by a great variety of names, prominent among which are the _carrizas_ or _garzas_, _xanambres_, and _pintos_.[ ] [sidenote: physical peculiarities in north mexico.] most of these nations are composed of men of large stature; robust, and well formed, with an erect carriage; the finest specimens are to be found on the sea-coast, exceptions being the Ópatas and chicoratas, the former inclining to corpulency, the latter being short, although active and swift runners. the women are well limbed and have good figures, but soon become corpulent. the features of these people are quite regular, the head round and well shaped, with black and straight hair; they have high cheek-bones and handsome mouths, with a generally mild and pleasing expression of countenance. they have piercing black eyes, and can distinguish objects at great distances. the ceris see best toward the close of the day, owing to the strong reflection from the white sands of the coast during the earlier part of the day. the carrizas are remarkable for their long upper lip. the men of this region have little beard; their complexion varies from a light brown to a copper shade. many of them attain to a great age.[ ] for raiment the cahitas and ceris wear only a small rag in front of their persons, secured to a cord tied round the waist; the tarahumares, acaxées, and other nations of the interior use for the same purpose a square piece of tanned deer-skin painted, except in cold weather, when they wrap a large blue cotton mantle round the shoulders. the women have petticoats reaching to their ankles, made of soft chamois or of cotton or agave-fibre, and a _tilma_ or mantle during the winter. some wear a long sleeveless chemise, which reaches from the shoulders to the feet. the ceri women have petticoats made from the skins of the albatross or pelican, the feathers inside. the Ópata men, soon after the conquest, were found well clad in blouse and drawers of cotton, with wooden shoes, while their neighbors wore sandals of raw hide, cut to the shape of the foot.[ ] the cahitas, acaxées and most other tribes, pierce the ears and nose, from which they hang small green stones, attached to a piece of blue cord; on the head, neck, and wrists, a great variety of ornaments are worn, made from mother-of-pearl and white snails' shells, also fruit-stones, pearls, and copper and silver hoops; round the ankles some wear circlets of deer's hoofs, others decorate their heads and necks with necklaces of red beans and strings of paroquets and small birds; pearls and feathers are much used to ornament the hair. the practice of painting the face and body is common to all, the colors most in use being red and black. a favorite style with the ceris is to paint the face in alternate perpendicular stripes of blue, red, and white. the pintos paint the face, breast, and arms; the tarahumares tattoo the forehead, lips, and cheeks in various patterns; the yaquis the chin and arms; while other tribes tattoo the face or body in styles peculiar to themselves. both sexes are proud of their hair, which they wear long and take much care of; the women permit it to flow, in loose tresses, while the men gather it into one or more tufts on the crown of the head, and when hunting protect it by a chamois cap, to prevent its being disarranged by trees or bushes.[ ] [sidenote: northern mexican dwellings.] their houses are of light construction, usually built of sticks and reeds, and are covered with coarse reed matting. the chinipas, yaquis, Ópatas and conchos build somewhat more substantial dwellings of timber and adobes, or of plaited twigs well plastered with mud; all are only one story high and have flat roofs. although none of these people are without their houses or huts, they spend most of their time, especially during summer, under the trees. the tarahumares find shelter in the deep caverns of rocky mountains, the tepehuanes and acaxées place their habitations on the top of almost inaccessible crags, while the humes and batucas build their villages in squares, with few and very small entrances, the better to defend themselves against their enemies--detached buildings for kitchen and store-room purposes being placed contiguous.[ ] the northern mexicans live chiefly on wild fruits such as the pitahaya, honey, grain, roots, fish, and larvæ; they capture game both large and small, and some of them eat rats, mice, frogs, snakes, worms, and vermin. the ahomamas along the shores of lake parras, the yaquis, batucas, ceris, tarahumares, and the Ópatas since the conquest have become agriculturists and cattle-breeders, besides availing themselves of fishing and hunting as means of subsistence. on the coast of sonora, there being no maize, the natives live on pulverized rush and straw, with fish caught at sea or in artificial enclosures. the dwellers on the coast of sinaloa consume a large quantity of salt, which they gather on the land during the dry season, and in the rainy reason from the bottom of marshes and pools. it is said that the salineros sometimes eat their own excrement. according to the reports of the older historians, the tobosos, bauzarigames, cabezas, contotores, and acaxées, as well as other tribes of durango and sinaloa, formerly fed on human flesh,--hunted human beings for food as they hunted deer or other game. the flesh of their brave foes they ate, thinking thereby to augment their own bravery.[ ] [sidenote: methods of hunting.] the ceris of tiburon island depend for food entirely on fish and game. they catch turtle by approaching the animal and suddenly driving the point of their spear into its back, a cord being attached to the weapon by which they drag the prize on to the raft as soon as its strength has become exhausted. according to gomara, the natives of sonora in were caught poisoning the deer-pools, probably for the skins, or it may have been only a stupefying drink that the pools were made to supply. the sinaloans are great hunters; at times they pursue the game singly, then again the whole town turns out and, surrounding the thickest part of the forest, the people set fire to the underbrush and bring down the game as it attempts to escape the flames. a feast of reptiles is likewise thus secured. iguanas are caught with the hands, their legs broken, and thus they are kept until required for food. for procuring wild honey, a bee is followed until it reaches its tree, the sweet-containing part of which is cut off and carried away. the tarahumares hunt deer by driving them through narrow passes, where men are stationed to shoot them. others make use of a deer's head as a decoy. for fishing they have various contrivances; some fish between the rocks with a pointed stick; others, when fishing in a pool, throw into the water a species of cabbage or leaves of certain trees, that stupefy the fish, when they are easily taken with the hands; they also use wicker baskets, and near the pacific ocean they inclose the rivers, and catch enormous quantities of smelt and other fish, which have come up from the sea to spawn. the laguneros of coahuila catch ducks by placing a calabash on their heads, with holes through which to breathe and see; thus equipped, they swim softly among the ducks, and draw them under water without flutter or noise. tatéma is the name of a dish cooked in the ground by the tarahumares. the laguneros make tortillas of flour obtained from an aquatic plant. the zacatecs make the same kind of bread from the pulp of the maguey, which is first boiled with lime, then washed and boiled again in pure water, after which it is squeezed dry and made into cakes. most of the people use _pozole_, or _pinolatl_, both being a kind of gruel made of pinole, of parched corn or seeds ground, the one of greater thickness than the other; also _tamales_, boiled beans, and pumpkins. the ceris of tiburon eat fish and meat uncooked, or but slightly boiled. the salineros frequently devour uncooked hares and rabbits, having only removed their furs.[ ] [sidenote: how arrows were made and poisoned.] the weapons universally used by these nations were bows and arrows and short clubs, in addition to which the chiefs and most important warriors carried a short lance and a buckler. the arrows were carried in a quiver made of lion or other skins. the tarahumares and some others wore a leathern guard round the left wrist, to protect it from the blow of the bow-string. flint knives were employed for cutting up their slain enemies. the ceris, jovas, and other tribes smeared the points of their arrows with a very deadly poison, but how it was applied to the point, or whence obtained, it is difficult to determine; some travelers say that this poison was taken from rattlesnakes and other venomous reptiles, which, by teasing, were incited to strike their fangs into the liver of a cow or deer which was presented to them, after which it was left to putrefy, and the arrows being dipped into the poisonous mass, were placed in the sun to dry; but other writers, again, assert that the poison was produced from a vegetable preparation. the wound inflicted by the point, however slight, is said to have caused certain death. the arrows were pointed with flint, or some other stone, or with bone, fastened to a piece of hard wood, which is tied by sinews to a reed or cane, notched, and winged with three feathers; when not required for immediate use, the tying was loosed, and the point reversed in the cane, to protect it from being broken. the ceris and chicoratos cut a notch a few inches above the point, so that in striking it should break off and remain in the wound. their clubs were made of a hard wood called _guayacan_, with a knob at the end, and when not in use were carried slung to the arm by a leather thong. their lances were of brazil wood, bucklers of alligator-skin, and shields of bull's hide, sufficiently large to protect the whole body, with a hole in the top to look through. another kind of shield was made of small lathes closely interwoven with cords, in such a manner that, when not required for use, it could be shut up like a fan, and was carried under the arm.[ ] living in a state of constant war, arising out of family quarrels or aggressions made into each other's territories, they were not unskilled in military tactics. previous to admission as a warrior, a young man had to pass through certain ordeals; having first qualified himself by some dangerous exploit, or having faithfully performed the duty of a scout in an enemy's country. the preliminaries being settled, a day was appointed for his initiation, when one of the braves, acting as his godfather, introduced him to the chief, who, for the occasion, had first placed himself in the midst of a large circle of warriors. the chief then addressed him, instructing him in the several duties required of him, and drawing from a pouch an eagle's talon, with it proceeded to score his body on the shoulders, arms, breast, and thighs, till the blood ran freely; the candidate was expected to suffer without showing the slightest signs of pain. the chief then handed to him a bow and a quiver of arrows; each of the braves also presented him with two arrows. in the campaigns that followed, the novitiate must take the hardest duty, be ever at the post of danger, and endure without a murmur or complaint the severest privations, until a new candidate appeared to take his place.[ ] [sidenote: war customs in north mexico.] when one tribe desires the assistance of another in war, they send reeds filled with tobacco, which, if accepted, is a token that the alliance is formed; a call for help is made by means of the smoke signal. when war is decided upon, a leader is chosen, at whose house all the elders, medicine-men, and principal warriors assemble; a fire is then lighted, and tobacco handed round and smoked in silence. the chief, or the most aged and distinguished warrior then arises, and in a loud tone and not unpoetic language, harangues his hearers, recounting to them heroic deeds hitherto performed, victories formerly gained, and present wrongs to be avenged; after which tobacco is again passed round, and new speakers in turn address the assembly. war councils are continued for several nights, and a day is named on which the foe is to be attacked. sometimes the day fixed for the battle is announced to the enemy, and a spot on which the fight is to take place selected. during the campaign fasting is strictly observed. the acaxées, before taking the war-path, select a maiden of the tribe, who secludes herself during the whole period of the campaign, speaking to no one, and eating nothing but a little parched corn without salt. the ceris and Ópatas approach their enemy under cover of darkness, preserving a strict silence, and at break of day, by a preconcerted signal, a sudden and simultaneous attack is made. to fire an enemy's house, the tepagues and others put lighted corn-cobs on the points of their arrows. in the event of a retreat they invariably carry off the dead, as it is considered a point of honor not to leave any of their number on the field. seldom is sex or age spared, and when prisoners are taken, they are handed over to the women for torture, who treat them most inhumanly, heaping upon them every insult devisable, besides searing their flesh with burning brands, and finally burning them at the stake, or sacrificing them in some equally cruel manner. many cook and eat the flesh of their captives, reserving the bones as trophies. the slain are scalped, or a hand is cut off, and a dance performed round the trophies on the field of battle. on the return of an expedition, if successful, entry into the village is made in the day-time. due notice of their approach having been forwarded to the inhabitants, the warriors are received with congratulations and praises by the women, who, seizing the scalps, vent their spleen in frantic gestures; tossing them from one to another, these female fiends dance and sing round the bloody trophies, while the men look on in approving silence. should the expedition, however, prove unsuccessful, the village is entered in silence and during the dead of night. all the booty taken is divided amongst the aged men and women, as it is deemed unlucky by the warriors to use their enemy's property.[ ] their household utensils consist of pots of earthen ware and gourds, the latter used both for cooking and drinking purposes; later, out of the horns of oxen cups are made. the tarahumares use in place of saddles two rolls of straw fastened by a girdle to the animal's back, loose enough, however, to allow the rider to put his feet under them. emerging from their barbarism, they employ, in their agricultural pursuits, plows with shares of wood or stone, and wooden hoes. the ceris have a kind of double-pointed javelin, with which they catch fish, which, once between the prongs, are prevented from slipping out by the jagged sides.[ ] the ahomoas, eudebes, jovas, yaquis, and Ópatas weave fabrics out of cotton or agave-fibre, such as blankets or serapes, and cloth with colored threads in neat designs and figures; these nations also manufacture matting from reeds and palm-leaves. their loom consists of four short sticks driven into the ground, to which a frame is attached to hold the thread. the shuttle is an oblong piece of wood, on which the cross-thread is wound. after passing through the web, the shuttle is seized and pressed close by a ruler three inches in breadth, which is placed between the web and supplies the place of a comb. when any patterns are to be worked, several women assist to mark off with wooden pegs the amount of thread required. the yaquis and ceris manufacture common earthen ware, and the tarahumares twist horse-hair into strong cords; they also use undressed hides cut in strips, and coarse aloe-fibres.[ ] [sidenote: property of ceris, Ópatas, and yaquis.] no boats or canoes are employed by any of the natives of this region; but the ceris, the tiburones, and the tepocas make rafts of reeds or bamboos, fastened together into bundles. these rafts are about eighteen feet long and tapering toward both ends; some are large enough to carry four or five men; they are propelled with a double-bladed paddle, held in the middle and worked alternately on both sides.[ ] subsequent to the conquest, the Ópatas and yaquis accumulated large flocks of sheep, cattle, and bands of horses; the latter are good miners, and expert divers for pearls. their old communistic ideas follow them in their new life; thus, the landed property of the tarahumares is from time to time repartitioned; they have also a public asylum for the sick, helpless, and for orphans, who are taken care of by male and female officials called _tenanches_. pearls, turquoises, emeralds, coral, feathers, and gold were in former times part of their property, and held the place of money; trade, for the most part, was carried on by simple barter.[ ] the northern mexicans make no pretensions to art; nevertheless, guzman states that in the province of culiacan the walls of the houses were decorated with obscene paintings. they are all great observers of the heavenly bodies and the changes in the atmosphere; the yaquis count their time by the moon. they are good musicians, imitating to perfection on their own instruments almost any strain they happen to hear. their native melodies are low, sweet, and harmonious. in petatlan they embroidered dresses with pearls, and as they had no instrument for piercing the jewel, they cut a small groove round it, and so strung them. with pearls they formed on cloth figures of animals and birds.[ ] i find nowhere in this region any system of laws or government. there are the usual tribal chieftains, selected on account of superior skill or bravery, but with little or no power except in war matters. councils of war, and all meetings of importance, are held at the chief's house.[ ] [sidenote: marriage and polygamy.] the ceris and tepocas celebrate the advent of womanhood with a feast, which lasts for several days. the ahome maiden wears on her neck a small carved shell, as a sign of her virginity, to lose which before marriage is a lasting disgrace. on the day of marriage the bridegroom removes this ornament from his bride's neck. it is customary among most of the tribes to give presents to the girl's parents. the tahus, says castañeda, are obliged to purchase a maiden from her parents, and deliver her to the _cacique_,[ ] chief, or possibly high priest, to whom was accorded the _droit de seigneur_. if the bride proves to be no virgin, all the presents are returned by her parents, and it is optional with the bridegroom to keep her or condemn her to the life of a public prostitute. the bauzarigames, cabezas, contotores, and tehuecos practice polygamy and inter-family marriages, but these are forbidden by the ceris, chinipas, tiburones, and tepocas. different ceremonies take place upon the birth of the first child. among some, the father is intoxicated, and in that state surrounded by a dancing multitude, who score his body till the blood flows freely. among others, several days after the birth of a male child, the men visit the house, feel each limb of the newly born, exhort him to be brave, and finally give him a name; women perform similar ceremonies with female children. the couvade obtains in certain parts; as for instance, the lagunero and ahomama husbands, after the birth of a child, remain in bed for six or seven days, during which time they eat neither fish nor meat. the sisibotaris, ahomes, and tepehuanes hold chastity in high esteem, and both their maidens and matrons are remarkably chaste. the standard of morality elsewhere in this vicinity is in general low, especially with the acaxées and tahus, whose incestuous connections and system of public brothels are notorious. according to arlegui, ribas, and other authors, among some of these nations male concubinage prevails to a great extent; these loathsome semblances of humanity, whom to call beastly were a slander upon beasts, dress themselves in the clothes and perform the functions of women, the use of weapons even being denied them.[ ] drunkenness prevails to a great extent among most of the tribes; their liquors are prepared from the fruit of the pitahaya, mezquite-beans, agave, honey, and wheat. in common with all savages, they are immoderately fond of dancing, and have numerous feasts, where, with obscene carousals and unseemly masks, the revels continue, until the dancers, from sheer exhaustion or intoxication, are forced to rest. the Ópatas hold a festival called _torom raqui_, to insure rain and good crops. clearing a square piece of ground, they strew it with seeds, bones, boughs, horns, and shells; the actors then issue forth from huts built on the four corners of the square, and there dance from sunrise to sunset. on the first day of the year they plant in the ground a tall pole, to which are tied long ribbons of many colors. a number of young maidens, fancifully attired, dance round the pole, holding the ends of the ribbons, twisting themselves nearer or away from the center in beautiful figures. upon other occasions they commemorate, in modern times, what is claimed to be the journey of the aztecs, and the appearance of montezuma among them. hunting and war expeditions are inaugurated by dances. their musical instruments are flutes and hollow trunks beaten with sticks or bones, and accompanied with song and impromptu words, relating the exploits of their gods, warriors, and hunters. they are passionately fond of athletic sports, such as archery, wrestling, and racing; but the favorite pastime is a kind of foot-ball. the game is played between two parties, with a large elastic ball, on a square piece of ground prepared expressly for the purpose. the players must strike the ball with the shoulders, knees, or hips, but never with the hand. frequently one village challenges another as upon the occasion of a national festival, which lasts several days, and is accompanied with dancing and feasting. they have also games with wooden balls, in which sticks are used when playing. the players are always naked, and the game often lasts from sunrise to sunset, and sometimes, when the victory is undecided, the play will be continued for several successive days. bets are freely made, and horses and other property staked with the greatest recklessness.[ ] [sidenote: customs in northern mexico.] loads are carried on the head, or in baskets at the back, hanging from a strap that passes across the forehead. another mode of carrying burdens is to distribute equally the weight at both ends of a pole which is slung across the shoulder, _à la chinoise_. their conceptions of the supernatural are extremely crude; thus, the Ópatas, by yells and gesticulations, endeavor to dispel eclipses of the heavenly bodies; before the howling of the wind they cower as before the voice of the great spirit. the ceris superstitiously celebrate the new moon, and bow reverentially to the rising and setting sun. nuño de guzman states that in the province of culiacan tamed serpents were found in the dwellings of the natives, which they feared and venerated. others have a great veneration for the hidden virtues of poisonous plants, and believe that if they crush or destroy one, some harm will happen to them. it is a common custom to hang a small bag containing poisonous herbs round the neck of a child, as a talisman against diseases or attacks from wild beasts, which they also believe will render them invulnerable in battle. they will not touch a person struck by lightning, and will leave him to die, or, if dead, to lie unburied.[ ] [sidenote: medical treatment.] intermittent and other fevers prevail among the people of northern mexico. small-pox, introduced by europeans, has destroyed many lives; syphilis was introduced among the carrizos by the spanish troops. the tarahumares suffer from pains in the side about the end of the spring. the Ópatas of oposura are disfigured by goitres, but this disease seems to be confined within three leagues of the town. wounds inflicted by arrows, many of them poisoned, and bites of rattlesnakes are common. friends, and even parents and brothers leave to their fate such as are suffering from contagious diseases; they, however, place water and wild fruits within the sufferer's reach. to relieve their wearied legs and feet after long marches, they scarify the former with sharp flints. in extreme cases they rub themselves with the maguey's prickly leaf well pounded, which, acting as an emollient on their hardened bodies, affords them prompt relief. the carrizos cure syphilis with certain plants, the medicinal properties of which are known to them. as a purgative they use the grains of the _maguacate_, and as a febrifuge the _cenicilla_ (_teraina frutescens_). with the leaves of the latter they make a decoction which, mixed with hydromel, is an antidote for intermittent fevers. they also use the leaves of the willow in decoction, as a remedy for the same complaint. in sinaloa, the leaf and roots of the _guaco_ are used by the natives as the most efficacious medicine for the bites of poisonous reptiles. the Ópatas employ excellent remedies for the diseases to which they are subject. they have a singular method of curing rattlesnake bites, a sort of retaliative cure; seizing the reptile's head between two sticks, they stretch out the tail and bite it along the body, and if we may believe alegre, the bitten man does not swell up, but the reptile does, until it bursts. in some parts, if a venomous snake bites a person, he seizes it at both ends, and breaks all its bones with his teeth until it is dead, imagining this to be an efficacious means of saving himself from the effect of the wounds. arrow wounds are first sucked, and then _peyote_ powder is put into them; after two days the wound is cleaned, and more of the same powder applied; this operation is continued upon every second day, and finally powdered lechugilla-root is used; by this process the wound, after thoroughly suppurating, becomes healed. out of the leaves of the maguey, lechugilla, and date-palm, as well as from the rosemary, they make excellent balsams for curing wounds. they have various vegetable substances for appeasing the thirst of wounded persons, as water is considered injurious. the acaxées employ the sucking processes, and blowing through a hollow tube, for the cure of diseases. the yaquis put a stick into the patient's mouth, and with it draw from the stomach the disease; the ceris of tiburon island also employ charms in their medical practice.[ ] i find nothing of cremation in these parts. the dead body is brought head and knees together, and placed in a cave or under a rock. several kinds of edibles, with the utensils and implements with which the deceased earned a support while living, are deposited in the grave, also a small idol, to serve as a guide and fellow traveler to the departed on the long journey. on the lips of dead infants is dropped milk from the mother's breast, that these innocents may have sustenance to reach their place of rest. among the acaxées, if a woman dies in childbirth, the infant surviving is slain, as the cause of its mother's death. cutting the hair is the only sign of mourning among them.[ ] [sidenote: character.] the character of the northern mexicans, as portrayed by arlegui, is gross and low; but some of these tribes do not deserve such sweeping condemnation. the mayos, yaquis, acaxées, and Ópatas are generally intelligent, honest, social, amiable, and intrepid in war; their young women modest, with a combination of sweetness and pride noticed by some writers. the Ópatas especially are a hard-working people, good-humored, free from intemperance and thievishness; they are also very tenacious of purpose, when their minds are made up--danger often strengthening their stubbornness the more. the sisibotaris, ahomamas, onavas, and tarahumares are quiet and docile, but brave when occasion requires; the last-mentioned are remarkably honest. the tepocas and tiburones are fierce, cruel, and treacherous, more warlike and courageous than the ceris of the main land, who are singularly devoid of good qualities, being sullenly stupid, lazy, inconstant, revengeful, depredating, and much given to intemperance. their country even has become a refuge for evil-doers. in former times they were warlike and brave: but even this quality they have lost, and have become as cowardly as they are cruel. the tepehuanes and other mountaineers are savage and warlike, and their animosity to the whites perpetual. the laguneros and other tribes of coahuila are intelligent, domestic, and hospitable; the former especially are very brave. in chihuahua they are generally fierce and uncommunicative. at el paso, the women are more jovial and pleasant than the men; the latter speak but little, never laugh, and seldom smile; their whole aspect seems to be wrapped in melancholy--everything about it has a semblance of sadness and suffering.[ ] tribal boundaries. to the new mexican group belong the nations inhabiting the territory lying between the parallels ° and ° of north latitude, and the meridians ° and ° of west longitude; that is to say, the occupants of the states of new mexico, arizona, lower california, sonora, sinaloa, chihuahua, durango, coahuila, nuevo leon, northern zacatecas, and western texas. in the apache family, i include all the savage tribes roaming through new mexico, the north-western portion of texas, a small part of northern mexico, and arizona; being the comanches, apaches proper, navajos, mojaves, hualapais, yumas, cosninos, yampais, yalchedunes, yamajabs, cochees, cruzados, nijoras, cocopas, and others. the _comanches_ inhabit western texas, eastern new mexico, and eastern mexico, and from the arkansas river north to near the gulf of mexico south. range 'over the plains of the arkansas from the vicinity of bent's fort, at the parallel of °, to the gulf of mexico ... from the eastern base of the llano estacado to about the meridian of longitude th.' _pope_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. . from the western border of the choctaw country 'uninterruptedly along the canadian to tucumcari creek and thence, occasionally, to rio pecos. from this line they pursue the buffalo northward as far as the sioux country, and on the south are scarcely limited by the frontier settlements of mexico.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'during summer ... as far north as the arkansas river, their winters they usually pass about the head branches of the brazos and colorado rivers of texas.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. . 'between ° and ° longitude and ° and ° north latitude.' _norton_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'about thirteen thousand square miles of the southern portion of colorado, and probably a much larger extent of the neighboring states of kansas and texas, and territory of new mexico and the "indian country," are occupied by the kioways and comanches.' _dole_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _evans and collins_, in _id._, pp. , ; _martinez_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . 'en invierno se acercan á téjas, y en estío á la sierra de santa fe.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . 'comanches ou hietans (eubaous, yetas), dans le nord-ouest du texas.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxiii., p. . 'originaire du nouveau-mexique; mais ... ils descendent souvent dans les plaines de la basse-californie et de la sonora.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'range east of the mountains of new mexico.' _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. . 'in dem uncultivirten theile des bolson de mapimi' (chihuahua). _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'entre la rivière rouge et le missouri, et traversent el rio-bravo-del-norte.' _dufey_, _resumé de l'hist._, tom. i., p. . 'upon the south and west side' of the rio brazos. _marcy's rept._, p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. - . 'im westen des mississippi und des arcansas ... und bis an das linke ufer des rio grande.' _ludecus_, _reise_, p. . 'range from the sources of the brazos and colorado, rivers of texas, over the great prairies, to the waters of the arkansas and the mountains of rio grande.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . concurrent statements in _wilson's amer. hist._, p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. ; _moore's texas_, p. ; _dewees' texas_, p. ; _holley's texas_, p. ; _dragoon camp._, p. . 'la nacion comanche, que está situada entre el estado de texas y el de nuevo méxico ... se compone de las siguientes tribus ó pueblos, á saber: yaparehca, cuhtzuteca, penandé, pacarabó, caiguarás, noconi ó yiuhta, napuat ó quetahtore, yapainé, muvinábore. sianábone, caigua, sarritehca y quitzaené.' _garcía rejon_, in _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'extends from the witchita mountains as far as new mexico, and is divided into four bands, called respectively the cuchanticas, the tupes, the yampaxicas, and the eastern comanches.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . see also: _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. , - ; _foote's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _frost's ind. wars_, p. . [sidenote: apache tribes.] the _apaches_ may be said to 'extend from the country of the utahs, in latitude ° north to about the th parallel.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . 'along both sides of the rio grande, from the southern limits of the navajo country at the parallel of °, to the extreme southern line of the territory, and from thence over the states of chihuahua, sonora, and durango, of mexico. their range eastward is as far as the valley of the pecos, and they are found as far to the west as the pimos villages on the gila.' _pope_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. . scattered 'throughout the whole of arizona, a large part of new mexico, and all the northern portion of chihuahua and sonora, and in some parts of durango.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . range 'over some portions of california, most of sonora, the frontiers of durango, and ... chihuahua.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. . apatschee, a nation 'welche um ganz neu-biscaya, und auch an tarahumara gränzet.' _steffel_, in _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . 'reicht das gebiet der apache-indianer vom . bis zum . grad westlicher länge von greenwich, und von den grenzen des utah-gebietes, dem . grad, bis hinunter zum . grad nördlicher breite.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . inhabit 'all the country north and south of the gila, and both sides of the del norte, about the parallel of the jornada and dead man's lakes.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'tota hæc regio, quam novam mexicanam vocant, ab omnibus pene lateribus ambitur ab apachibus.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'recorren las provincias del norte de méxico, llegando algunas veces hasta cerca de zacatecas.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'derramadas desde la intendencia de san luis potosí hasta la extremidad setentrional del golfo de california.' _balbi_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'se extienden en el vasto espacio ... que comprenden los grados á de latitud norte, y á de longitude de tenerife.' _cordero_, in _id._, p. ; see also _id._, p. . 'from the entrance of the rio grande to the gulf of california.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. . 'the southern and south-western portions of new mexico, and mainly the valley of the gila.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _bent_, in _id._, vol. i., p. . 'scarcely extends farther north than albuquerque ... nor more than two hundred miles south of el paso del norte; east, the vicinity of the white mountains; west, generally no further than the borders of sonora.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'ils ont principalement habité le triangle formé par le rio del norte, le gila et le colorado de l'ouest.' _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., pp. , . concurrent authorities: _gallatin_, in _id._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. , ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, pp. , ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _stanley's portraits_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _western scenes_, p. ; _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _conder's mex. guat._, vol. ii., p. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _poston_, in _id._, , p. ; _clark_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . the apache nation is divided into the following tribes; chiricagüis, coyoteros, faraones, gileños, copper mine apaches, lipanes, llaneros, mescaleros, mimbreños, natages, pelones, pinaleños, tontos, vaqueros, and xicarillas. the lipanes roam through western texas, coahuila, and the eastern portion of chihuahua. their territory is bounded on the west by the 'lands of the llaneros; on the north, the comanche country; on the east, the province of cohaguila; and on the south, the left bank of the rio grande del norte.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _id._; _pope_, in _id._, vol. ii., p. . the lee panis 'rove from the rio grande to some distance into the province of texas. their former residence was on the rio grande, near the sea shore.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. . su 'principal asiento es en coahuila, nuevo leon y tamaulipas.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'divídese en dos clases ... la primera ha estado enlazada con los mescaleros y llaneros, y ocupa los terrenos contiguos á aquellas tribus: la segunda vive generalmente en la frontera de la provincia de tejas y orillas del mar.... por el poniente son sus limites los llaneros; por el norte los comanches; por el oriente los carancaguaces y borrados, provincia de tejas, y por el sur nuestra frontera (mexico).' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'from time immemorial has roved and is yet roving over the bolson de mapimi.' _wislizenus' tour_, p. . 'frequented the bays of aransas and corpus christi, and the country lying between them and the rio grande.' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _foote's texas_, p. . see also: _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _moore's texas_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the mescaleros inhabit 'the mountains on both banks of the river pecos, as far as the mountains that form the head of the bolson de mapimi, and there terminate on the right bank of the rio grande. its limit on the west is the tribe of the taracones; on the north, the extensive territories of the comanche people; on the east, the coast of the llanero indians; and on the south, the desert bolson de mapimi.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'im bolsón de mapimí und in den östlichen gränzgebirgen del chanáte, del diablo puerco und de los pílares.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'occupent le bolson de mapimi, les montagnes de chanate, et celles de los organos, sur la rive gauche du rio grande del norte.' _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . live 'east of the rio del norte.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _carleton_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _western scenes_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . 'on the east side of the rio grande, and on both sides of the pecos, extending up the latter river ... to about the thirty-fourth parallel.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. - . see also: _steck_, in _id._, , pp. - , , p. ; _collins_, in _id._, , p. ; _cooley_, in _id._, , p. ; _norton_, in _id._, , p. . 'the copper mine apaches occupy the country on both sides of the rio grande, and extend west to the country of the coyoteros and pinalinos, near the eastern san francisco river.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . the faraones, pharaones or taracones, 'inhabit the mountains between the river grande del norte and the pecos.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . the following concur; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . the 'xicarillas anciently inhabited the forests of that name in the far territories to the north of new mexico, until they were driven out by the comanches, and now live on the limits of the province, some of them having gone into the chasms (cañadas) and mountains between pecuries and taos, which are the last towns of the province.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'inhabiting the mountains north of taos.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. . 'les jicorillas, à l'extrémité nord du nouveau-mexique.' _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., p. . 'from the rio grande eastward beyond the red river, between the thirty-fourth and thirty-seventh parallels.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'in the mountains which lie between santa fé, taos, and abiquin.' _collins_, in _id._, , pp. - . 'at the cimarron.' _graves_, in _id._, , p. . 'upon rio ose, west of the rio grande.' _davis_, in _id._, , p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the llaneros occupy 'the great plains and sands that lie between the pecos and the left bank of the river grande del norte.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . inhabit the 'cajones de la cabellera y pitaycachi, sierra de mimbres, laguna de guzman.' _barrangan_, in _el orden, mex._, _decemb. , _. 'ocupan ... los llanos y arenales situados entre el rio de pecos, nombrado por ellos tjunchi, y el colorado que llaman tjulchide.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; domenech's deserts, vol. ii., p. . the mimbreños have their hunting grounds upon the mimbres mountains and river, and range between the sierras san mateo and j'lorida on the north and south, and between the burros and mogoyen on the west and east. _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'südlich von den apáches gileños, an den gränzen von chihuáhua und neu-mejico jagen in den gebirgen im osten die apáches mimbreños.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . 'la provincia de nuevo méxico es su confin por el norte; por el poniente la parcialidad mimbreña; por el oriente la faraona, y por el sur nuestra frontera.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . see also: _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'in the wild ravines of the sierra de acha.' _mill's hist. mex._, p. . the chiricaguis adjoin on the north 'the tontos and moquinos; on the east the gileños; and on the south and west the province of sonora.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'live in the mountains of that name, the sierra largua and dos cabaces.' _steck_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - . the tontos 'inhabit the northern side of the gila from antelope peak to the pimo villages.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'between rio verde and the aztec range of mountains,' and 'from pueblo creek to the junction of rio verde with the salinas.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. - ; in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _cortez_, in _id._, p. . 'südlich von den wohnsitzen der cocomaricópas und dem rio gila.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . on the 'rio puerco.' _barrangan_, in _el orden, mex._, _decemb. , _. 'in the cañons to the north and east of the mazatsal peaks.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . see _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. . 'inhabit the tonto basin from the mogollon mountains on the north to salt river on the south, and between the sierra ancha on the east to the mazatsal mountains.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'on both sides of the verde from its source to the east fork, and ... around the headwaters of the chiquito colorado, on the northern slope of the black mesa or mogollon mountains ... on the north, to salt river on the south, and between the sierra ancha on the east and the mazatsal mountains on the west.' _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pinaleños, piñols or piñals range 'over an extensive circuit between the sierra piñal and the sierra blanca.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . 'between the colorado chiquito and rio gila.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. see also: _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . in 'the country watered by the salinas and other tributaries of the gila.' _steck_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; also _whittier_, in _id._, , p. ; _colyer_, in _id._, , p. ; _jones_, in _id._, p. . the coyoteros 'live in the country north of the gila and east of the san carlos.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'upon the rio san francisco, and head waters of the salinas.' _steck_, in _id._, , p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. . 'the gileños inhabit the mountains immediately on the river gila ... bounded on the west by the chiricagüìs; on the north by the province of new mexico; on the east by the mimbreño tribe.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'oestlich von diesem flusse (gila), zwischen ihm und dem südlichen fusse der sierra de los mimbres, eines theiles der sierra madre.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _maxwell_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the apache mojaves are 'a mongrel race of indians living between the verde or san francisco and the colorado.' _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _navajos_ occupy 'a district in the territory of new mexico, lying between the san juan river on the north and northeast, the pueblo of zuñi on the south, the moqui villages on the west, and the ridge of land dividing the waters which flow into the atlantic ocean from those which flow into the pacific on the east.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'extending from near the th to th meridian, and from the th to the th parallel of latitude.' _clark_, in _hist. mag._, vol. viii., p. . northward from the th parallel 'to rio san juan, valley of tuñe cha, and cañon de chelle.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'between the del norte and colorado of the west,' in the northwestern portion of new mexico. _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'in the main range of cordilleras, to miles west of santa fé, on the waters of rio colorado of california.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. - . 'between the del norte and the sierra anahuac, situated upon the rio chama and puerco,--from thence extending along the sierra de los mimbros, into the province of sonora.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . 'la provincia de navajoos, que está situada à la parte de el norte del moqui, y à la del noruest de la villa de santa fee.' _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. . 'esta nacion dista de las fronteras de nuevo-méxico como veinticinco leguas, entre los pueblos de moqui, zuñi y la capital (santa fé).' _barreiro_, _ojeada sobre n. mex._, app., p. . 'habita la sierra y mesas de navajó.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . see also: _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . 'along the th parallel, north latitude.' _mowry's arizona_, p. . 'on the tributaries of the river san juan, west of the rio grande, and east of the colorado, and between the thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallels of north latitude.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'from cañon de chelly to rio san juan.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . 'from the rio san juan to the gila.' _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'directly west from santa fé, extending from near the rio grande on the east, to the colorado on the west; and from the land of the utahs on the north, to the apaches on the south.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'fifty miles from the rio del norte.' _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . 'from the ° to the ° of north latitude.' and 'from soccorro to the valley of taos.' _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. . concurrent authorities: _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . [sidenote: mojaves and yumas.] the _mojaves_ dwell on the mojave and colorado rivers, as far up as black cañon. the word mojave 'appears to be formed of two yuma words--hamook (three), and häbî (mountains)--and designates the tribe of indians which occupies a valley of the colorado lying between three mountains. the ranges supposed to be referred to are: st, "the needles," which terminates the valley upon the south, and is called asientic-häbî, or first range; d, the heights that bound the right bank of the colorado north of the mojave villages, termed havic-häbî, or second range; and, d, the blue ridge, extending along the left bank of the river, to which has been given the name of hamook-häbî, or third range.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'von ° ´ nordwärts bis zum black cañon.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. - . 'inhabit the cottonwood valley.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'occupy the country watered by a river of the same name, which empties into the colorado.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'the mohaves, or hamockhaves, occupy the river above the yumas.' _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . see further: _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _cal. mercantile jour._, vol. i., p. ; _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _willis_, in _id._, _spec. com._, , pp. - ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . the _hualapais_ are 'located chiefly in the cerbat and aquarius mountains, and along the eastern slope of the black mountains. they range through hualapai, yampai, and sacramento valleys, from bill williams fork on the south to diamond river on the north.' _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'in the almost inaccessible mountains on the upper colorado.' _poston_, in _id._, , p. . 'on the north and south of the road from camp mohave to prescott.' _whittier_, in _id._, , p. . 'in the northwest part of arizona.' _willis_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . the _yumas_ or cuchans range 'from the new river to the colorado, and through the country between the latter river and the gila, but may be said to inhabit the bottom lands of the colorado, near the junction of the gila and the colorado.' _ind. traits_, vol. i., in _hayes collection_. 'both sides of the colorado both above and below the junction with the gila.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'from about sixty miles above fort yuma to within a few miles of the most southern point of that part of the colorado forming the boundary.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'das eigentliche gebiet dieses stammes ist das thal des untern colorado; es beginnt dasselbe ungefähr achtzig meilen oberhalb der mündung des gila, und erstreckt sich von da bis nahe an den golf von californien.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., pp. , - , . 'la junta del gila con el colorado, tierra poblada de la nacion yuma.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'le nord de la basse-californie, sur la rive droite du rio-colorado.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'for ten or fifteen miles north and south' in the valley near the mouth of the gila. _ives' colorado riv._, p. . see _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _latham's comparative philology_, vol. viii., p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _mowry's arizona_, p. ; _mckinstry_, in _san francisco herald_, _june, _; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - ; _bailey_, in _id._, , p. ; _jones_, in _id._, , p. ; _howard_, in _id._, , pp. - ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. . the _cosninos_ 'roam northward to the big bend of the colorado.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'in the vicinity of bill williams and san francisco mountains.' _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . see also: _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . the _yampais_ inhabit the country west and north-west of the aztec range of mountains to the mouth of the rio virgen. _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'am obern colorado.' 'nördlich von den mohaves.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. , . 'on the west bank of the colorado, about the mouth of bill williams's fork.' _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _poston_, in _id._, , p. . the _yalchedunes_ or talchedunes 'live on the right bank of the colorado, and their tribes first appear in lat. ° ´.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . the _yamajabs_ or tamajabs 'are settled on the left bank of the colorado from ° of latitude to °.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the _cochees_ are in the 'chiricahua mountains, southern arizona and northern sonora.' _whittier_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the _nijoras_ dwell in the basin of the rio azul. 'petite tribu des bords du gila.' _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. ; _gallatin_, in _id._, , tom. cxxxi., p. . the _soones_ live 'near the head waters of the salinas.' emory's reconnoissance, p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. . the _cocopas_ 'live along the colorado for fifty miles from the mouth.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'on the colorado bottoms were the cocopahs, the southern gulf tribes of which consag calls the bagiopas, hebonomas, quigyamas, cuculetes, and the alchedumas.' _browne's explor. of lower cal._, p. . 'on the right bank of the river colorado, from lat. ° ´ upward.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'range all the way from port isabel, upon the east bank of the river (colorado), to the boundary line between the republic of mexico and the united states.' _johnson's hist. arizona_, p. . 'between the gila and the gulf, and near the latter.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . see also: _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _poston_, in _id._, , p. ; _bailey_, in _id._, , p. ; _howard_, in _id._, , p. . without definitely locating them, salmeron enumerates the following nations, seen by oñate during his trip through new mexico: the cruzados, somewhere between the moquis and the rio gila, near a river which he calls the rio sacramento. 'dos jornadas de allí (cruzados) estaba un rio de poco agua, por donde ellos iban á otro muy grande que entra en la mar, en cuyas orillas habia una nacion que se llama amacava.' 'pasada esta nacion de amacabos ... llegaron á la nacion de los bahacechas.' 'pasada esta nacion de bahacecha, llegaron á la nacion de los indios ozaras.' 'la primera nacion pasado el rio del nombre de jesus, es halchedoma.' 'luego está la nacion cohuana.' 'luego está la nacion haglli.' 'luego los tlalliquamallas.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . 'la nacion excanjaque que habita cien leguas del nuevo-méxico, rumbo nordeste.' _id._, p. . 'habitan indios excanjaques aquel tramo de tierra que en cuarenta y seis grados de altura al polo y ciento sesenta y dos de longitud, se tiende oblícuamente al abrigo que unas serranías hacen á un rio que corre norueste, sur deste á incorporarse con otro que se va á juntar con el misissipi, son contérmino de los pananas.' _id._, p. . 'cerca de este llano de matanza, está otro llano de esa otra parte del rio en que hay siete cerros, habitados de la nacion aixas.' _id._, p. . 'la nacion de los aijados, que hace frente por la parte del oriente y casi confina con la nacion quivira por la parte del norte, estando vecina de los tejas por levante.' _paredes_, in _id._, p. . [sidenote: pueblo family.] in the pueblo family, besides the inhabitants of the villages situated in the valley of the rio grande del norte, i include the seven moqui villages lying west of the former, and also the pimas, the maricopas, the pápagos, and the sobaipuris with their congeners of the lower gila river. 'the number of inhabited pueblos in the territory [new mexico] is twenty-six.... their names are taos, picoris, nambé, tezuque, pojuaque, san juan, san yldefonso, santo domingo, san felipe, santa ana, cochiti, isleta, silla, laguna, acoma, jemez, zuñi, sandia, and santa clara.... in texas, a short distance below the southern boundary of new mexico, and in the valley of the del norte, is a pueblo called isleta of the south,' and another called los lentes. _davis' el gringo_, pp. - . san gerónimo de taos, san lorenzo de picuries, san juan de los caballeros, santo tomas de abiquiu, santa clara, san ildefonso, san francisco de nambé, nuestra señora de guadalupe de pojuaque, san diego de tesuque, n. s. de los angeles de tecos, san buena ventura de cochiti, santo domingo, san felipe, n. s. de los dolores de sandia, san diego de jemes, n. s. de la asumpcion de zia, santa ana, san augustin del isleta, n. s. de belem, san estevan de acoma, san josef de la laguna, n. s. de guadalupe de zuñi. _alencaster_, in _meline's two thousand miles_, p. . taos, eighty-three miles north north-east of santa fé; picuris, on rio picuris, sixty miles north by east of santa fé; san juan, on the rio grande, thirty-four miles north of santa fé, on road to taos; santa clara, twenty-six miles north north-west of santa fé; san ildefonso, on rio grande, eighteen miles north of santa fé; nambe, on nambe creek, three miles east of pojuaque; pojuaque, sixteen miles north of santa fé; tesuque, eight miles north of santa fé; cochiti, on west bank of rio grande, twenty-four miles south-west of santa fé; santo domingo, on rio grande, six miles south of cochiti; san felipe, on rio grande, six miles south of santo domingo; sandia, on rio grande, fifteen miles south of san felipe; isleta, on rio grande, thirty miles south of sandia; jemes, on jemes river, fifty miles west of santa fé; zia, near jemes, fifty-five miles west of santa fé; santa ana, near zia, sixty-five miles west of santa fé; laguna, west of albuquerque forty-five miles, on san josé river; acoma, one hundred and fifteen miles west of santa fé, on a rock five hundred feet high, fifteen miles south-west of laguna; zuñi, one hundred and ninety miles west south-west of santa fé, in the navajo country, on zuñi river. _meline's two thousand miles_, p. . see _abert_, in _emory's reconnoissance_, pp. - ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. - , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _ward_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , - ; _barreiro_, _ojeada sobre n. mex._, p. . 'la primera, entrando sur á norte, es la nacion tigua.... están poblados junto á la sierra de puruai, que toma el nombre del principal pueblo que se llama asi, y orillas del gran rio ... fueran de éste, pueblan otros dos pueblos, el uno san pedro, rio abajo de puruai y el otro santiago, rio arriba.... la segunda nacion es la de tahanos, que al rumbo oriental y mano derecha del camino, puebla un rio que de la parte del oriente ... viene á unirse con el rio grande; su pueblo principal es zandia con otros dos pueblos.... la tercera nacion es la de los gemex, que á la parte occidua puebla las orillas del rio-puerco cuyo principal pueblo qicinzigua.... la cuarta nacion es de los teguas, que están poblados al norte de los tahanas, de esa otra parte del rio, su principal es galisteo ... con otros dos pueblos, y hay al rumbo oriental, encaramada en una sierra alta, la quinta de navon de los pecos, su principal pueblo se llama así, otro se llama el tuerto, con otras rancherías en aquellos picachos.... la sesta nacion es la de los queres.... el pueblo principal de esta nacion es santo domingo ... la sétima nacion al rumbo boreal es la de los tahos.... la octava nacion es la de los picuries, al rumbo norueste de santa cruz, cuyo pueblo principal es san felipe, orillas del rio zama, y su visita cochite, orilla del mismo rio.... la última nacion es la de los tompiras, que habita de esa otra parte de la cañada de santa clara y rio zama, en un arroyo que junta al dicho rio, y es las fronteras de los llanos de cíbola ó zuñi.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . 'some sixty miles to the south southeast of fort defiance is situated the pueblo of zuñi, on a small tributary of the colorado chiquito.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . 'on the rio de zuñi.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'to the n. e. of the little colorado, about lat. °, are the zunis.' _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. . the _moquis_, are settled 'west from the navajos, and in the fork between the little and the big colorados.' the names of their villages are, according to mr leroux, 'Óráibè, shúmuthpà, múshàilnà, ahlélà, guálpí, shiwinnà, téquà.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'westward of the capital of new mexico ... oraibe, taucos, moszasnavi, guipaulavi, xougopavi, gualpi.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'desde estos parages (zuñi) corriendo para el vest noruest, empiezan los pueblos, y rancherías de las provincias de moqui oraybe: los pueblos moquinos son: hualpi, tanos, moxonavi, xongopavi, quianna, aguatubi, y rio grande de espeleta.' _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. ii., p. . 'the five pueblos in the moqui are orayxa, masanais, jongoapi, gualpa, and another, the name of which is not known.' _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. . 'the three eastern villages are located on one bluff, and are named as follows: taywah, sechomawe, jualpi.... five miles west of the above-named villages ... is ... the village of meshonganawe.... one mile west of the last-named village ... is ... shepowlawe. five miles, in a northwestern direction, from the last-named village is ... shungopawe. five miles west of the latter ... is the oreybe village.' _crothers_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . further authorities: _palmer_, in _id._, , p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _marcy's life on the border_, p. . [sidenote: the pimas of arizona.] 'the _pimas_ inhabit the country on both banks of the gila river, two hundred miles above its mouth. they claim the territory lying between the following boundaries: commencing at a mountain about twelve miles from the bend of the gila river, the line runs up said river to the maricopa coppermine. the north line extends to salt river and the southern one to the picacho.' _walker's pimas, ms._ 'la partie la plus septentrionale de l'intendance de la sonora porte le nom de la pimeria.... on distingue la pimeria alta de la pimeria baxa.' _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . 'corre, pues, esta pimería alta, de sur á norte desde los grados hasta los que se cuentan desde esta mision de nuestra señora de los dolores hasta el rio del gila ... y de oriente á poniente desde el valle de los pimas, llamados sobaipuris, hasta las cercanías y costas del seno del mar californio, habitadas de los pimas sobas.... por el sur tiene el resto de las naciones ópata, endeves, pertenecientes á dicha provincia y entre ellas y la sierra-madre, de oriente á poniente, la pimería baja.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. - . 'los pueblos de pimas bajos son ... desde taraitzi hasta cumuripa, onapa, nuri, movas y oanbos lo son hàcia el sur de cumuripa, suaqui, san josé de pimas, santa rosalía, ures y nacameri hácia el poniente, son la frontera contra los seris.... los pimas altos ocupan todo el terreno que hay desde de cucurpe por santa ana caborca hasta la mar de oriente á poniente y sur norte, todo lo que desde dicha mision tirando por dolores, remedios, cocospera el presidio de terrenate, y desde éste siguiendo el rio de san pedro ó de los sobaipuris hasta su junta con el rio xila, y por ambas orillas de este hasta el colorado y entre la mar, ó seno de californias se encierra.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . 'from the river yaqui in sonora, northward to the gila and even beyond the tomosatzi (colorado) eastward beyond the mountains in the province of taraumara, and westward to the sea of cortez.' _smith_, _grammar of the pima or névome language_, p. viii; _id._, _heve language_, pp. - ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. . 'nördlich vom flusse yaqui, vom dorfe s. josé de pimas bis zu dem über leguas nördlicher gelegenen dorfe cucurápe, bewohnen die pimas bajas die mitte des landes.' 'nördlich vom fluss ascensión, von der küste weit ins land hinein, treffen wir die pimas altas.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. - . 'pimérie haute et basse. la première s'étend depuis les rios colorado et gila jusqu'à la ville de hermosillo et au rio de los ures, et la seconde depuis cette limite jusqu'au rio del fuerte qui la sépare de sinaloa.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. . 'los pimas altos ocupan los partidos de la magdalena y del altar; lindan al norte con el gila; al este con los apaches y con los ópatas, sirviendo de limite el rio san pedro ó de sobaipuris; al oeste el mar de cortés, y al sur el terreno que ocuparon los séris.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . see also: _malte-brun_, _sonora_, pp. - ; _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _cutts' conq. cal._, p. ; _stanley's portraits_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the _maricopas_ inhabit both sides of the gila river, for about leagues in the vicinity of its junction with the asuncion river. _apostólicos afanes_, p. . 'on the northern bank of the gila, a few miles west of that of the pimas, in about west longitude °.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'desde stue cabitic, se estienden à lo largo del rio (gila) como treinta y seis leguas.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'vom südlichen ufer des gila bis zum östlichen des colorádo.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, pp. - ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. . 'au sud du rio gila, sur une étendue de près de milles, en remontant depuis l'embouchure.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, p. . the pimas and maricopas live 'on the gila, one hundred and eighty miles from its junction with the colorado.' _mowry's arizona_, p. . 'wo der te grad westlicher länge den gila-strom kreuzt, also ungefähr auf der mitte der strecke, die der gila, fast vom rio grande del norte bis an die spitze des golfs von kalifornien, zu durchlaufen hat, liegen die dörfer der pimos und coco-maricopas.' _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. . 'non loin du confluent du rio salinas, par ° environ de longitude.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. - . 'on the gila river, about one hundred miles above the confluence of that stream with the colorado.' _dole_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'claimed as their own property the entire gila valley on both sides, from the piñal mountains to the tesotal.' _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'from maricopa wells to a short distance beyond sacaton.' _whittier_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . limits also given in _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _bailey_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. ; _poston_, in _id._, , p. . the _pápagos_ 'inhabit that triangular space of arid land bounded by the santa cruz, gila, and colorado rivers, and the mexican boundary line.' _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'nördlich von diesen (pimas altas) hausen im osten der sierra de santa clara, welche sich unter ½° nördlicher breite dicht am östlichen ufer des meerbusens von californien erhebt, die papágos oder papábi-ootam.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . 'junto al rio de san marcos: leguas mas arriba habita la nacion de los papagos.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iv., p. . 'in the country about san xavier del baca, a few miles from tucson.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _jones_, in _id._, p. ; _dole_, in _id._, , p. . 'wander over the country from san javier as far west as the tinajas altas.' _emory's rept. mex. and u. s. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . see also: _davidson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. . the _sobaipuris_, a nation related to the pimas, live among the lower pimas. 'por una sierrezuela que hay al oriente de este rio y sus rancherías, se dividen éstas del valle de los pimas sobaipuris, que á poca distancia tienen las suyas muchas y muy numerosas, las mas al poniente y pocas al oriente del rio, que naciendo de las vertientes del cerro de terrenate, que está como treinta leguas al norte de esta mision, corre de sur à norte hasta juntarse con el tantas veces nombrado de gila y juntos corren al poniente.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . reference also in _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iv., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . [sidenote: lower californians.] the lower californian family includes all the nations inhabiting the peninsula of lower california, northward to the mouth of the colorado river. the _cochimís_ inhabit the peninsula north of the twenty-sixth degree of north latitude. 'i cochimí ne presero la parte settentrionale da gr. sino a , e alcune isole vicine del mar pacifico.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . 'desde el territorio de loreto, por todo lo descubierto al norte de la nacion cochimí, ó de los cochimies.' 'la nacion, y lengua de los cochimies ázia el norte, despues de la ultima mission de san ignacio.' 'los laymones son los mismos, que los cochimies del norte.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . 'los cochimíes ocupaban la peninsula desde loreto hasta poco mas allá de nuestra frontera. los de las misiones de san francisco javier y san josé comondú se llamaban edúes; los de san ignacio didúes.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _forbes' cal._, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, pp. , ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. ; _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. spr._, pp. - . 'between san fernando and moleje were the limonies, divided (going from north) into the cagnaguets, adacs and kadakamans.' 'from santo tomas to san vicente they were termed icas.' _browne's lower cal._, p. ; _hist. chrétienne de la cal._, p. . 'nördlich von loréto schwärmt der zahlreiche stamm der cochimíes, auch cochimas oder colimíes genannt. zu ihnen gehören die laimónes und die icas.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . the _guaicuris_ roam south of the cochimís, as far as magdalena bay. 'si stabilirono tra i gr. ½ e .' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . 'los guaicuras se subdividen en guaicuras, coras, conchos, uchitas, y aripas. los guaicuras vivian principalmente en la costa del pacífico, desde el puerto de san bernabe hasta el de la magdalena. los coras en la costa del golfo, desde los pericúes hasta la mision de los dolores, comprendiendo el puerto de la paz. entre los guaicuras, los coras, y los pericúes estaban los uchitas ó uchities. hasta el mismo loreto, ó muy cerca llegaban los conchos ó monquies, á quienes los jesuitas pusieron lauretanos, ... una rama de su nacion nombrada monquí-laimon ó monquíes del interior, porque vivian lejos de la costa, y se encuentran tambien nombrados por solo laimones. los aripas al norte de los guaicuras.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . 'desde la paz hasta mas arriba del presidio real de loreto, es de los monquis ... à si mismos se llaman con vocablo general monqui, ó monquis ... los vehities, que pueblan las cercanías de la bahía y puerto de la paz; y la de los guaycúras, que desde la paz se estienden en la costa interior hasta las cercanías de loreto. los monquis mismos se dividen en liyùes, didiùs, y otras ramas menores.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . 'los guaicuras se establecieron entre el paralelo de ° ´ y el de °.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'von la paz bis über den presidio von loréto dehnt der stamm monqui, moqui oder mongui sich aus, welchem die familien guaycùra und uchíti oder vehíti angehören, die jedoch von einigen reisenden für ganz verschiedene stämme gehalten werden.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. spr._, p. ; _forbes' cal._, p. ; _browne's lower cal._, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'la nacion ya nombrada guaicure, que habita el ramalde la sierra giganta, que viene costeando el puerto de la magdalena hasta el de san bernabé.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . the _pericúis_ live in the southern portion of the peninsula from cape san lucas northward to la paz. 'desde el cabo de san lucas, hasta mas acà del puerto de la paz de la nacion pericù.... a los indios, que caen al sùr, ò mediodia de su territorio, llaman edù, ó equù, ó edùes ... se divide en varias nacioncillas pequeñas, de las quales la mas nombrada es la de los coras, nombre propio de una ranchería, que se ha comunicado despues à algunos pueblos, y al rio, que desagua en la bahía de san bernabé.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . 'los pericúes habitan en la mision de santiago, que tiene sujeto á san josé del cabo y en las islas de cerralvo, el espíritu santo y san josé.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'i pericui ne occuparono la parte australe dal c. di s. luca sino a gr. , e le isole adjacenti di cerralvo, dello spirito santo, e di s. giuseppe.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . 'im süden, vom cap san lucas bis über den hafen los pichilingues und die mission la paz hinaus wohnen die perícues zu welchen die familien edú oder equu und cora gerechnet werden.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . see also: _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. ; _californias, noticias_, carta i., p. ; _browne's lower cal._, p. ; _forbes' cal._, p. ; _buschmann_, _spuren der aztek. spr._, p. . the northern mexican family is composed of the inhabitants of the states of sonora, sinaloa, chihuahua, coahuila, nuevo leon, and portions of tamaulipas, durango, and zacatecas, south as far as ° north latitude, divided as follows: [sidenote: ceris and Ópatas.] the _seris_ 'live towards the coast of sonora, on the famous cerro prieto, and in its immediate neighborhood.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'reside in the village near hermosillo, occupy the island of tiburon in the gulf of california, north of guaymas.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . 'son las islas nombradas s. antonio, taburon, s. estevan, bocalinas, salsipuedes, la tortuga, la ensenada de la concepcion, habitadas de indios de la nacion seris.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . 'su principal abrigo es el famoso cerro prieto, al poniente de san josé de los pimas, doce leguas, y doce casi al sur del pitic; del mar como cerca de catorce leguas al oriente, y de la boca del rio hiaqui al norte, treinta leguas.... otro asilo tienen, así en su isla del tiburon, casi como cuarenta leguas al poniente de la hacienda del pitic y como una legua de la costa, en el seno de californias; como en la de san juan bautista, cerca de nueve leguas del tiburon al sud-sudueste y á mas de dos leguas de tierra.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., pp. - . 'los ceris ... [ ] estaban situados en la villa de horcasitas en un pueblo llamado el pópulo, una legua hácia el este de dicha villa, camino para nacameri. de allí se trasladaron en al pueblo de ceris.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'the céres are confined to the island of tiburon, the coast of tépoca, and the pueblo of los céres, near pitic.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'zwischen dem flecken petíc und der küste, und diese hinauf bis zum flusse ascensión.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . the country adjacent to the bay of san juan bautista was occupied by the ceris. _browne's apache country_, p. . 'sus madrigueras las han tenido en el famoso cerro prieto, doce leguas al oeste de san josé de los pimas, en la cadena que se extiende hácia guaymas, en el rincon de márcos, en las sierras de bocoatzi grande, en la sierra de picu cerca de la costa, y sobre todo en la isla del tiburon, situada en el golfo de californias, á una legua de la playa.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _pajaken_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _. concurrent authorities: _lachappelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. . the salineros 'hácia los confines de la pimeria alta.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the tepocas are south of the latter. 'ordinarily live on the island of tiburon.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'los mas próximos á la isla del tiburon.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, pp. - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. . the guaymas and upanguaymas live near the like-named port. 'ocupaban el terreno en que ahora se encuentra el puerto de ese nombre, y que se redujeron al pueblo de belen.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _Ópatas_ occupy central and eastern sonora. 'in the eastern part of the state, on the banks of the sonora and oposura, and in the vicinity of the town of arispe and the mineral region of nocasari.' _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. . 'leurs villages couvrent les bords des rivières de yaqui, de sonora et de nacaméri, ainsi que la belle vallée d'oposura.' _zuñiga_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xciii., pp. - . 'im osten des staats, an den ufern der flüsse sonóra und oposúra und bis gegen die stadt aríspe und den minendistrict von nacosári hinauf.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'habita el centro del estado de sonora.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'le long des rivières de san miguel de horcasitas, d'arispe, de los ures et d'oposura.' _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcv., p. . 'confinan al norte con los pimas y con los apaches; al este con la tarahumara; al sur con la pimeria baja, y al oeste con los pimas y con los séris.' 'ocupan en el estado de sonora los actuales partidos de sahuaripa, oposura, ures, arizpe y parte del de magdalena.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , - . the Ópatas, eudebes, and jovas 'pueblan la mayor parte de la sonora, desde muy adentro de la sierra, son sus terrenos hácia al sur desde este que pusimos por lindero al oriente, por el desierto pueblo de natora, aribetzi, bacanora, tonitzi, soyopa, nacori, alamos, parte de ures, nacameri, opodepe, cucurpe hácia el poniente; desde aquí arispe, chinapa, bacoatzi, cuquiaratzi hasta babispe hácia el norte, y desde esta mision la poco ha citado sierra hasta natora, los que la terminan hácia el oriente.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . see also: _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _pajaken_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, tom. ii., p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , . in early days 'they occupied the whole western slope of the sierra, from the headquarters of the sonora river to nuri, near the yaqui towns. they were then esteemed different tribes in different localities, and are named in the old records as jobas, teqüimas, teguis, and cogüinachies.' _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. . 'la nacion ópata se subdivide en ópatas tegüis, avecindados en los pueblos de opodepe, terrapa, cucurpe, alamos, batuco. en opatas tegüimas en sinoquipe, banamichi, huepaca, aconchi, babiacora, chinapa, bacuachi, cuquiarachi, cumpas. Ópatas cogüinachis en toniche, matape, oputo, oposura, guasavas, bacadeguachi, nacori (otro), mochopa. los del pueblo de santa cruz se dice que son de nacion contla. los batucas, en el pueblo de batuco corresponden tambien á los ópatas, así como los sahuaripas, los himeris y los guasabas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - , and _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. - . to the jovas 'pertenecen los pueblos de san josé teopari, los dolores, sahuaripa, donde hay tambien ópatas, pónida, santo tomas, arivetzi, san mateo malzura.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . ovas, 'esta nacion está poblada á orillas del rio papigochic, variedad de algunos pueblos y corre hasta cerca del partido de samaripa y uno de sus pueblos llamado teopari (que es de nacion ova su gente) y corre como se ha dicho poblada en este rio hasta cerca de la mision de matachic.' _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. . 'los ovas, tribu que vive principalmente en sonora ... en chihuahua está poblada orillas del rio papigochi (el yaqui), llegando hasta cerca de yepomera, de la mision de tarahumares de matachic; sus rancherías se llamaron oparrapa, natora, bacaniyahua ó baipoa, orosaqui y xiripa.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the sobas 'ocuparon à caborca, encontrándose tambien en los alrededores.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the potlapiguas, 'nacion gentil cerca de babispe y de bacerac, colocada en la frontera.' _ib._ the tepahues were 'habitadores de una península que forman dos rios ó brazos del mayo al oriente de los de esta nacion.' _id._, p. . the tecayaguis, cues or macoyahuis were 'en las vertientes del rio, antes de los tepahues ... sus restos se encuentran en el pueblo de la concepcion de macoyahui.' _ib._ the hymeris, 'nacion situada en los varios valles que forma la sierra madre entre occidente y norte del valle de sonora.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. . the _sonoras_ inhabit the valley of soñora, which 'cae a la banda del norte, apartado de la villa (sinaloa) ciento y treinta leguas.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . the eudeves, eudebes, hegues, hequis, heves, eudevas or dohme dwell in the villages 'matape, nacori, los alamos, robesco, bacanora, batuco, tepuspe, cucurpe, saracatzi, toape, and opodepe.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the sibubapas 'del pueblo de suaqui.' _id._, p. . the nures, 'habitadores del pueblo de nuri.' _ib._ 'habita cerca de la de los nebomes.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, vol. iii., p. . the hios, 'á ocho leguas al este de tepahue.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the huvagueres and tehuisos are neighbors of the hios. _ib._ the basiroas and teatas, 'más al este.' _ib._ the tupocuyos are four leagues northwest of santa magdalena. 'de santa magdalena en ... el rumbo al noroeste ... á leguas de distancia llegamos á la ranchería del tupocuyos.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . [sidenote: sinaloas and mayos.] 'the indians of the state of cinaloa belong to different tribes: towards the south, in the country and in the sierra, the coras, najarites, and hueicolhues are to be found; to the north of culiacan, the cinaloas, cochitas and tuvares; and towards the town of el fuerte, and farther north, we find the mayos indians, to which belong also the tribes quasare, ahome, and ocoronis.' _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . the _sinaloas_ 'tiene su assiento y poblaciones en el mismo rio de tegueco, y cuaque, en lo mas alto dél, y mas cercanas a las haldas de serranias de topia; y sus pueblos comiençan seis leguas arriba del fuerte de montesclaros.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , . 'los mas orientales de las gentes que habitaban las riberas del que ahora llamamos rio del fuerte.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'avecindados en una parte de las orillas, hácia las fuentes del rio del fuerte.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _mayos_ occupy the banks of the rivers mayo and fuerte. the mayo river 'baña todos los pueblos de indígenas llamados los mayos.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'die eigentlichen mayos wohnen hauptsächlich westlich and nordwestlich von der stadt alamos.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'los mayos, sobre el rio mayo ... están distribuidos en los pueblos de santa cruz de mayo, espíritu santo echojoa ó echonova, natividad navajoa ó navohoua, concepcion cuirimpo, san ignacio de tesia, santa catalina cayamoa ó camoa, san bartolomé batacosa, masiaca.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, p. . 'the mayos on the river mayo inhabit the following towns: tepágue, conecáre, camóa, tésia, navahóa, curinghóa, echehóa, and santa cruz de mayo, a seaport. towns of the same nation on the rio del fuerte: tóro, báca, chóis, omi, san miguel, charác, sivilihóa, and teguéco.' _hardy's trav._, pp. , ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; also: _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. . the _yaquis_ are settled on the rio yaqui and between it and the rio mayo. on the yaqui river at a distance of twelve leagues from the sea, 'está poblada la famosa nacion de hiaquis.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'lista de los pueblos del rio yaqui, contados desde cocori, primer pueblo al otro lado del rio de buenavista, al este del estado, camino para la ciudad de alamos, y rio abajo hasta belen: cocori, bacum, torin, bicam, potam, rahum, huirivis.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'zwischen den flüssen mayo und yaquí.... die ortschaften des stammes yaquí (hiaquí) sind besonders: belén, huadíbis, raún, potan, bican, torin, bacún und cocorún.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, p. . 'les habitations des yaquis commencent, à partir de la rivière de ce nom, et s'étendent également sur le rio de mayo fuerte et de sinaloa, sur une étendue de plus de lieues.' _zuñiga_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xciii., p. ; _ternaux-compans_, in _id._, tom. xcv., p. . 'taraumara es la residencia de los indios yaquis.' 'are still farther north (than the mayos), and belong entirely to the state of sonora.' _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., pp. - ; _pajaken_, in _cal. farmer_, _june , _; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. v., p. . 'occupent le pays situé au sud de guaymas jusqu'au rio del fuerte.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. . see further: _ferry_, _scènes de la vie sauvage_, pp. , ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. - ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _mex. in _, pp. - ; _hist. chrétienne de la cal._, p. . the _zuaques_ have their villages between the mayo and yaqui rivers. 'los zuaques estaban adelante, á cinco leguas de los tehuecos, y sus tierras corrian por espacio de diez leguas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'sus pueblos ... eran tres ... el principal dellos, llamado mochicaui.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . the _tehuecos_ are west of the sinaloas. 'seis leguas al oeste del último de sus pueblos (sinaloas) seguian los teguecos ó tehuecos.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'los pueblos desta nacion, que en sus principios fueron tres, començauan quatro leguas rio arriba del vltimo de los Çuaques.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . the _ahomes_ dwell on the rio zuaque four leagues from the sea. 'la nacion ahome, y su principal pueblo.... dista quatro leguas de la mar de californias.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, vol. i., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . the _vacoregues_ 'vivian en las playas del mar y en los médanos, ... un pueblo, orillas del rio (fuerte), no lejos de ahome.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _batucaris_ 'frecuentaban un lagunazo á tres leguas de ahome.' _ib._ the _comoporis_ 'existian en una península, siete leguas de ahome.' _ib._ 'en vna peninsula retirada, y en los medanos, ó montes de arena del mar, viuian las rancherias de la gente fiera destos comoporis.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . the _guazaves_ 'distante diez, y doze leguas de la villa' (cinaloa). _id._, p. . 'habitadores de san pedro guazave y de tamazula, orillas del rio sinaloa.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _zoes_ 'eran indios serranos, que tenian sus poblaciones en lo alto del mismo rio de los cinaloas, y a las haldas de sus serranias.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'se establecieron á las faldas de la sierra, en las fuentes del rio del fuerte cercanos á los sinaloas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'confinan con los tubares.' _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. . the _huites_ 'vivian en la sierra, à siete leguas de los sinaloas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _ohueras_ and _cahuimetos_ dwell at 'san lorenzo de oguera ... situado á seis leguas al e. de la villa de sinaloa y sobre el rio.' _id._, p. . the _chicoratos_ and _basopas_, 'en la sierra, y á siete leguas al e. de oguera, se encuentra la concepcion de chicorato.... cinco leguas al norte tiene à san ignacio de chicuris, en que los habitantes son tambien basopas.' _ib._ the _chicuràs_ 'eran vecinos de los chicoratos.' _ib._ the _tubares_ or tovares live in the 'pueblos de concepcion, san ignacio y san miguel.' 'habitan uno de los afluentes del rio del fuerte.' _id._, pp. - . 'poblada en varias rancherias sobre los altos del rio grande de cinaloa.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'en el distrito de mina.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . the _chinipas_, _guailopos_, and _maguiaquis_ live 'en san andres chinipas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . the _hizos_ are in 'nuestra señora de guadalupe de voragios ó taraichi.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _varogios_, _husorones_, _cutecos_ and _tecàrgonis_ are in 'nuestra señora de loreto de voragios ó sinoyeca y en santa ana.' _ib._ the _tarahumares_ inhabit the district of tarahumara in the state of chihuahua. 'provincia ... confina por el o con la de sonora, por el e con el nuevo méxico, sirviéndole de límites el rio grande del norte, por este rumbo no están conocidos aun sus términos, por el s o con la de cinaloa ... toma el nombre de la nacion de indios así llamada, que confinaba con la de los tepeguanes.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. v., p. ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'in den tiefen und wilden schluchten von tararécua und santa sinforósa, jagen verschiedene familien der tarahumáras.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _mexikanische zustände_, tom. i., p. . 'bewohnen einen theil des berglandes im w. der hauptstadt, wo sie namentlich in dem schönen hochthale des rio papigóchic in allen ortschaften einen theil der bevölkerung bilden.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'inhabit the towns in mulatos.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'en la raya que divide los reynos de la vizcaya y de la galicia no en los terminos limitados que hoy tiene que es acaponeta, sino en los que antes tubo hasta cerca de sinaloa.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . 'al oriente tienen el rio de los conchos y al poniente la sinaloa, sonora y las regiones del nuevo méxico, al norte y al austro la nacion de los tepehuanes. 'se estiendan por el norte hasta mas abajo de san buenaventura.' 'vivian en s. josé de bocas, cabecera de una de las misiones de los jesuitas,' in durango. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . 'Á tres leguas de san josé temaichic está otro pueblo y mucha gente en él llamada taraumar pachera.' _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _richthofen_, _mexico_, p. . 'les tahues étaient probablement les mêmes que ceux que l'on désigne plus tard sous le nom de tarahumaras.' 'leur capitale était téo-colhuacan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, preface, p. . the _conchos_ inhabit the banks of the rio conchos, near its confluence with the rio del norte. 'endereço su camino hazia el norte, y a dos jornadas topo mucha cantidad de indios de los que llaman conchos.' _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , . 'en en real del parral.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. . 'se estiende hasta las orillas del rio grande del norte. por la parte del septentrion confina con los laguneros, y al mediodia tiene algunos pueblos de los tepehuanes y valle de santa bárbara.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. . the _passaguates_ live twenty-four leagues north of the conchos. 'andadas las veinte y quatro leguas dichas (from the conchos), toparon otra nacion de indios, llamados passaguates.' _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , . the mamites, colorados, arigames, otaquitamones, pajalames, poaramas were in the neighborhood of the conchos. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _guazapares_ are 'a veinte leguas de distancia del pueblo y partido de loreto al sur, reconociendo al oriente, y solas diez del pueblo y partido de santa inés, caminando derecho al oriente, está el pueblo y partido de santa teresa de guazapares, llamado en su lengua guazayepo.' _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. . the _temoris_ dwell in the 'pueblo de santa maría magdalena de temoris.... a cinco leguas de distancia hácia el norte del pueblo y cabecera de santa teresa está el pueblo llamado nuestra señora del valle humbroso.' _id._, p. . the _tobosos_ are north of the tarahumares and in the mission of san francisco de coahuila, in the state of coahuila. 'se extendian por el bolson de mapimí, y se les encuentra cometiendo depredaciones así en chihuahua y en durango, como en las misiones de parras, en las demas de coahuila y en el norte de nuevo leon.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - , , . in coahuila, 'un paraje ... que llaman la cuesta de los muertos, donde tienen habitacion los indios tobosos.' _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. - , - . 'a un paraje que hoy es la mision del santo nombre de jesus.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia_, p. . the sisimbres, chizos, cocoyomes, coclamas, tochos, babos, and nures live near the tobosos. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'valle de san bartholome, presidio de la provincia de tepeguana ... antigua residencia de los indios infieles cocoyomes.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. i., pp. - . the _tepagues_ are 'cinco leguas arriba del rio de mayo, en vn arroyo.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . the _conicaris_ live 'distante de chinipa diez y seis leguas.' _id._, pp. , . [sidenote: north-eastern mexican tribes.] a multitude of names of nations or tribes are mentioned by different authorities, none of which coincide one with the other. but few nations are definitely located. i therefore first give the different lists of names, and afterwards locate them as far as possible. 'babeles, xicocoges, gueiquizales, goxicas, manos prietas, bocoras, escabas, cocobiptas, pinanacas, codames, cacastes, colorados, cocomates, jaímamares, contores, filifaes, babiamares, catujanes, apes, pachagues, bagnames, isipopolames, piez de benado. chancafes, payaguas, pachales, jumes, johamares, bapancorapinamacas, babosarigames, pauzanes, paseos, chahuanes, mescales, xarames, chachaguares, hijames, iedocodamos, xijames, cenízos, pampapas, gavilanes. sean estos nombres verdaderos, ó desfigurados segun la inteligencia, caprichos, ó voluntariedad de los que se emplearon en la pacificacion del pais, ó de los fundadores de las doctrinas, parece mas creible que los mencionados yndios, fuesen pequeñas parcialidades, ó ramos de alguna nacion cayo nombre genérico no ha podido saberse.' _revillagigedo_, _carta, ms._ 'pacpoles, coaquites, zíbolos, canos, pachoches, sicxacames, siyanguayas, sandajuanes, liguaces, pacuazin, pajalatames y carrizos.' _padilla_, cap. lxix., quoted in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'negritos, bocalos, xanambres, borrados, guanipas, pelones, guisoles, hualahuises, alasapas, guazamoros, yurguimes, mazames, metazures, quepanos, coyotes, bguanas, zopilotes, blancos, amitaguas, quimis, ayas, comocabras, mezquites.' _archivo general, mss._, tom. xxxi., fol. , quoted in _ib._ 'paogas, caviseras, vasapalles, ahomamas, yanabopos, daparabopos, mamazorras, neguales, salineros y baxaneros, conocidos generalmente bajo la apelacion de laguneros.' _id._, p. . 'rayados y cholomos.' _id._, p. . 'las tribus que habitaban el valle (del rio nazas) se nombraban irritilas, miopacoas, meviras, hoeras y maiconeras, y los de la laguna' [laguna grande de san pedro or tlahuelila]. _id._, p. . 'pajalates, orejones, pacoas, tilijayas, alasapas, pausanes, y otras muchas diferentes, que se hallan en las misiones del rio de san antonio y rio grande ... como son; los pacúaches, mescales, pampopas, tácames, chayopines, venados, pamaques, y toda la juventud de pihuiques, borrados, sanipáos y manos de perro.' _id._, p. ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'Á media legua corta ... [de san juan bautista] se fundó la mision de san bernardo ... con las naciones de ocanes, canuas, catuxanes, paxchales, pomulumas, pacuaches, pastancoyas, pastalocos y pamasus, á que se agregaron despues los pacuas, papanacas, tuancas y otras.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the gijames are in the mountains near the mission of el santo nombre de jesus de peyotes. _morfi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . the pitas and pasalves at the mission of 'nuestra señora de los dolores de la punta.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the pampopas 'habitaban en el rio de las nueces, à leguas al sur de la mision de san juan bautista; los tilijaes mas abajo de los anteriores; al sur de estos los patacales, y los cachopostales cerca de los pampopas. los pajalaques vivian en el rio de san antonio como à leguas de la mision de san bernardo; los pacos y los pastancoyas à leguas en el paraje nombrado el carrizo; los panagues à leguas de la mision sobre el rio de las nueces; los pauzanes sobre el rio de san antonio, y los paguachis à leguas del mismo san bernardo.' ... 'con indios de la naciones mahuames, pachales, mescales, jarames, ohaguames y chahuames ... con ellos y con las tribus de pampopas, tilofayas, pachalocos y tusanes situó de nuevo la mision de san juan bautista, junto al presidio del mismo nombre, cerca del rio bravo.' 'a tiro de escopeta [from santo nombre de jesus peyotes] se encuentra san francisco vizarron de los pausanes ... con familias de tinapihuayas, pihuiques y julimeños, aunque la mayor parte fueron pauzanes.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . 'en el valle de santo domingo, á orilla del rio de sabinas ... san juan bautista ... lo pobló con indios chahuanes, pachales, mescales y jarames, à que se agregaron despues algunos pampopas, tilofayas, pachalocos y tusanes.' _morfi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . the cabesas, contotores, bazaurigames and others were at the mission san buenaventura. _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . the gabilanes and tripas blancas roamed over a stretch of country situated north of the presidio of mapimi, between the rivers san pedro and conchos to their confluence with the rio grande. _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. - . the _laguneros_ 'poblados à las margenes de la laguna que llaman grande de san pedro, y algunos dellos en las isletas que haze la misma laguna.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . los misioneros franciscanos atrajeron de paz las tribus siguientes, con los cuales fundaron cinco misiones. san francisco de coahuila, un cuarto de legua al norte de monclova, con indios boboles y obayas, à los cuales se agregaron algunos tobosos y tlaxcaltecas conducidas de san esteban del saltillo. santa rosa de nadadores, puesta en à cuarenta leguas al noroeste de coahuila, de indios cotzales y manosprietas, trasladada junto al rio de nadadores para huir de la guerra de los tobosos, y colocada al fin, en , à siete leguas al noroeste de coahuila: se le agregaron ocho familias tlaxcaltecas. san bernardo de la candela, con indios catujanes, tilijais y milijaes, y cuatro familias tlaxcaltecas. san buenaventura de las cuatro ciénegas, veinte leguas al oeste de coahuila, con indios cabezas, contores y bauzarigames: la mision repuesta en con los tocas y los colorados. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _irritilas_ occupy 'la parte del partido de mapimí al este.' _id._, p. . the _pisones_ and _xanambres_ roam 'al sur del valle de la purísima y al norte hasta rio blanco, confinando al oeste con los cuachichiles.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . other names which cannot be located are: cadimas, pelones, nazas, pamoranos, quedexeños, palmitos, pintos, quinicuanes, maquiapemes, seguyones, ayagua, zima, canaina, comepescados, aguaceros, vocarros, posuamas, zalaias, malahuecos, pitisfiafuiles, cuchinochis, talaquichis, alazapas, pafaltoes. _id._, pp. - . [sidenote: tribes of tamaulipas.] the nations or tribes of tamaulipas, although very numerous, are mostly located. the _olives_ live in horcasitas. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _palagueques_ are at the mission of san francisco xavier. _ib._ the _anacanas_, 'a una legua de altamira.' _ib._ the _aretines_, _panguais_, and _caramiguais_ in the 'sierra del chapopote, que remata en la barra del tordo.' _ib._ the _mapulcanas_, _cataicanas_, _caramiguais_, _panguais_, and _zapoteros_ live near the salinas, which are between the cerro del maiz and the sea. _ib._ the _caribays_, _comecamotes_, _ancasiguais_, _tagualilos_, and _pasitas_ are near de soto la marina and santander. _ib._ the _moraleños_ and _panguajes_ live on the coast between marina and altamirano. _ib._ the _martinez_, 'en la sierra de tamaulipa vieja.' _ib._ the _mariguanes_, _caramariguanes_, _aretines_, 'habitada desde el cerro de s. josé á la mar.' _ib._ the _tumapacanes_, 'en el camino para santander.' _ib._ the _inapanames_, 'á una y media leguas de la primera villa (santillana).' _ib._ the _pintos_ and _quinicuanes_ dwell near san fernando de austria. _ib._ the _tedexeños_, 'en las lagunas de la barra.' _ib._ the _comecrudos_, 'donde el rio se vacia en sus crecientes.' _ib._ the _tamaulipecos_ and _malincheños_ live at the mission of s. pedro alcántara. _ib._ the _guixolotes_, _cadimas_, _canaynes_, and _borrados_ are 'al pié de la sierra de tamaulipas, teniendo al sur el terreno que se llama la tamaulipa moza.' _id._, pp. - . the _nazas_, _narices_, _comecrudos_, and _texones_ are at the mission of reynosa. _id._, p. . the _tanaquiapemes_, _saulapaguemes_, _auyapemes_, _uscapemes_, _comesacapemes_, _gummesacapemes_, _catanamepaques_ are 'rumbo al este y sobre el rio, à seis leguas de la mision ... se internan à las tierras llegando en sus correrías únicamente hasta el mar.' _ib._ the _carrizos_, _cotomanes_, and _cacalotes_ are at 'camargo, situado sobre el rio da s. juan ... al otro lado del bravo ... los cuales por fuera del rio grande llegan hasta revilla.' _ib._ the _garzas_ and _malaguecos_ live near rio alamo. _id._, p. . no location for the following can be found: politos, mulatos, pajaritos, venados, payzanos, cuernos quemados. _id._, pp. - . the _tepehuanes_ inhabit the mountains of southern chihuahua and the northern portions of durango, a district commonly called the partido de tepehuanes. 'estiende desde la sierra del mezquital hasta el parral ... hasta adelante de topia, muy cerca de caponeta.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. - . 'se extiende esta region desde la altura misma de guadiana, á poco ménos de grados hasta los de latitud septentrional. sus pueblos comienzan á las veinticinco leguas de la capital de nueva-vizcaya, ácia el noroeste en santiago de papásquiaro. al norte tiene á la provincia de taraumara, al sur la de chiametlán y costa del seno californio, al oriente los grandes arenales y naciones vecinas á la laguna de s. pedro, y al poniente la sierra madre de topía, que la divide de esta provincia y la de sinaloa.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'sus pueblos, parte en llanos, y parte en sierra, a las vertientes de la de topia, y san andres.... y por essa parte vezinos a las naziones xixime, y acaxee, y aun a las de la tierra mas adentro de cinaloa.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . for concurrent testimony see: _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the _acaxées_ inhabit the valleys of the mountain regions of topia and s. andres in durango and sinaloa. 'la principal nacion, en cuyas tierras está el real de topia, es la acaxee.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'lo limitan al norte y al este el tepehuan, al sur el xixime y al oeste el sabaibo y el tebaca.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , , ; _zapata_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., pp. - . 'san pedro valle de topia, el mineral de topia, asuncion sianori, san antonio tahuahueto y los dolores de agua caliente, las cuales poblaciones marcan los terrenos habitados por los acaxees.' _tamaron_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _tebacas_ lived among the acaxees in the mountain districts of topia and s. andres. _id._, p. . the _sabaibos_ 'habitaban en el partido de san ignacio otatitlan y pueblos de piaba, alaya y quejupa.' _ib._ the _cácaris_ dwell in cacaria. _id._, p. . the _papudos_ and _tecayas_ were settled in the district of san andres. _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. - . the _xiximes_ inhabited 'en el coraçon desta sierra' de san andres. _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'ocupan el partido de san dimas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the _hinas_ 'habitan la mayor parte en profundísimas quebradas del centro de la sierra, y muchos á las márgenes del rio de humace, que en su embocadura llaman de piaxtla, muy cerca de su nacimiento, como á cinco leguas de yamoriba.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. . 'habitantes de las márgenes del rio de piaztla.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _humes_ are in the sierra de san andres. 'como nueue leguas del pueblo de quilitlan, y en lo mas alto de toda esta sierra, caminando al oriente.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . 'nueve leguas mas adelante del lugar de queibos ó de santiago.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , . the _zacatecos_ inhabit the like-named state, and particularly near the rio nazas. 'baxò la sierra, que oy llaman del calabazal, y parò â las orillas de un rio, que oy llaman de suchil.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. . 'los que habitan en el rio de las nasas son indios zacatecos.' _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. . 'se extendian hasta el rio nazas. cuencamé, cerro gordo, s. juan del rio, nombre de dios, quedaban comprendidos en esta demarcacion.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _guachichiles_, cuachichiles, or huachichiles 'corrian por zacatecas hasta san potosí y coahuila.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'la villa del saltillo está fundada sobre el terreno que en lo antiguo ocuparon los indios cuachichiles.' _id._, pp. , ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . footnotes: [ ] the comanches 'are divided into three principal bands, to wit: the comanche, the yamparack and the tenawa.' _burnet_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; 'ietans, termed by the spaniards comanches, and in their own language na-uni, signifying "life people."' _prichard's nat. hist._, vol. ii., p. . 'the comanches and the numerous tribes of chichimecas ... are comprehended by the spaniards under the vague name of mecos.' _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'the tribe called themselves niyuna.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _neighbors_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _french's hist. la._, p. . 'se divide en cuatro ramas considerables bajo los nombres de cuchanticas, jupes, yamparicas y orientales.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. ; see also _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . the jetans or camanches, as the spaniards term them, or padoucas, as they are called by the pawnees. _pike's explor. trav._, p. . [ ] _turner_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'los indios yutas, ... son los mismos que los comanches ó cumanches, pues yuta eso quiere decir en la lengua de los lipanes. por consiguente no se pueden distinguir esos nombres, que aunque de dos lenguas diferentes espresan una misma nacion.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . 'the comanches are a branch of the shoshones or snakes.' _ruxton's adven._, p. . 'the pawnees are descended from a cousin-germanship of the same stock.' _edward's hist. tex._, pp. - . 'si le sang des aztéques existe encore sans mélange en amerique, il doit couler dans les veines des comanches.' _domenech's jour._, p. ; see also _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _buschmann_, _spuren der azt. spr._, p. . [ ] 'probably because their winter quarters are always located amid the forests which grow upon the sierras.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] cordero gives the following tribal names, which he says are used among themselves: vinni ettinenne, tontos; segatajenne, chiricaguis; tjuiccujenne, gileños; iccujenne, mimbreños; yutajenne, faraones; sejenne, mescaleros; cuelcajenne, llaneros; lipajenne and yutajenne, lipans and navajos. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , - . 'los pimas gileños llaman á los yavipais taros ó nifores; los jamajabs les llaman yavipais y nosotros apaches.' _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., pp. , - . 'yavipais tejua que son los indómitos apaches.' _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. . 'yavapais, or apache mohaves, as they are more generally called.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'pueden dividirse en nueve tribus principales ... tontos, chirocahues, gileños, mimbreños, faraones, mezcaleros, llaneros, lipanes y navajoes. todos hablan un mismo idioma.... no componen una nacion uniforme en sus usos y costumbres, pero coinciden en la major parte de sus inclinaciones, variando en otras con proporcion á los terrenos de su residencia, á las necesidades que padecen.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . apaches, 'their name is said to signify 'men.'' mescaleros, 'the meaning of the name, probably, is drinkers of mescal.' _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., pp. - . _froebel's central amer._, pp. , , ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _ruxton's adven._, p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _steck_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and _id._, , p. , , p. ; _bailey_, in _id._, , p. ; _clum_, in _id._, , p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . called coyoteros, because it is believed that 'they feed upon the flesh of the coyote.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'les gileños ... avec les axuas et les apaches qui viennent de la sierra madre sont confondus sous le nom de pápagos.' _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. ; _bustamante_, in _cavo_, _tres siglos_, tom. iii., pp. - . 'tonto, in spanish means stupid.' 'tonto is a spanish corruption of the original indian name.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _ayers_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _collins_, in _id._, , p. ; _id._, , p. ; _maxwell_, in _id._, , p. ; _parker_, in _id._, , p. ; _walker_, in _id._, , p. ; _clum_, in _id._, , p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., p. . [ ] 'the apaches and their congeners belong to the athapascan family.' _turner_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. , and in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the apaches call the navajoes yútahkah. the navajoes call themselves, as a tribe, tenúai (man). the appellation návajo was unquestionably given them by the spaniards.' _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , . 'the navajoes and apaches are identically one people.' _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _ruxton's adven._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'navajoes and apaches have descended from the same stock.' _carleton_, in _ind. aff., rept. spec. com._, , p. . 'the navajoes are a pueblo indian.' _griner_, in _id._, p. . 'allied to the crow indians.' _fitzpatrick_, in _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . 'most civilized of all the wild indians of north america.' _farnham's life in cal._, p. . the navajoes 'are a division of the ancient mexicans.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . [ ] '"yumah," signifies "son of the river," and is only applied to the indians born on the banks of the colorado. this nation is composed of five tribes ... among which ... the yabipaïs (yampaïs or yampaos).' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'the cajuenches and cuchans ... belong to two different divisions of one tribe, which forms part of the great nation of the yumas.' _id._, p. . [ ] cosninos, 'es ist mehrfach die ansicht ausgesprochen worden, dass die meisten derselben zu dem stamme der apaches gehören, oder vielmehr mit ihnen verwandt sind.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. - ; _figuier's human race_, p. . [ ] 'the yampais form a connecting link between the gila, colorado, and pueblo indians.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . yampais are related to the yumas. _möllhausen_, _reisen_, tom. i., p. . yampais: 'unable to separate them from the tonto-apaches.' _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'llaman á estos indios los cruzados, por unas cruces que todos, chicos y grandes se atan del copete, que les viene á caer en la frente; y esto hacen cuando ven á los españoles.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'unos dicen que á un lado de estas naciones (yutas) para hácia al poniente está la nacion de los nijoras, y otros afirman que no hay tal nacion nijora, sino que esta palabra nijor quiere decir cautivo, y que los cocomaricopas les dan de noche á las naciones mas inmediatas y les quitan sus hijos, los que cautivan y venden á los pimas y éstos á los españoles; si es asi que hay tal nacion, está en esta inmediacion del rio colorado para el rio salado ó rio verde.' _noticias de la pimeria_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'todos estos cautivos llaman por acá fuera nijores, aunque hay otra nacion hijeras á parte.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . [ ] for further particulars as to location of tribes, see notes on tribal boundaries, at the end of this chapter. [ ] 'besonders fiel uns der unterschied zwischen den im gebirge, ähnlich den wölfen lebenden yampays und tontos ... und den von vegetabilischen stoffen sich nährenden bewohnern des colorado-thales auf, indem erstere nur kleine hässliche gestalten mit widrigem tückischem ausdruck der physiognomie waren, die anderen dagegen wie lauter meisterwerke der schöpferischen natur erschienen.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . [ ] the navajos are 'of good size, nearly six feet in height, and well proportioned; cheek-bones high and prominent, nose straight and well shaped; hair long and black; eyes black; ... feet small; lips of moderate size; head of medium size and well shaped; forehead not small but retreating.' _lethermann_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'fine looking, physically.' 'most symmetrical figure, combining ease, grace and power, and activity.' and the comanches 'about five feet ten inches in height, with well proportioned shoulders, very deep chest, and long, thin, but muscular arms.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , , . the mojave 'men are tall, erect, and finely proportioned. their features are inclined to european regularity; their eyes large, shaded by long lashes.' the cuchans are 'a noble race, well formed, active and intelligent.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., pp. , . the navajos are distinguished 'by the fullness and roundness of their eyes.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'the camanches are small of stature ... wear moustaches and heads of long hair.' _pope_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. . the comanches 'que da un aspecto bien particular á estas naciones, es la falta completa de cejas, pues ellos se las arrancan; algunos tienen una poca barba.' _berlandier and thovel_, _diario_, p. . the yumas 'if left to their natural state, would be fine looking,' but the hualpais 'were squalid, wretched-looking creatures, with splay feet, large joints and diminutive figures ... features like a toad's.... they present a remarkable contrast to our tall and athletic mojaves.' the navajos are 'a fine looking race with bold features.' 'the mojaves are perhaps as fine a race of men physically, as there is in existence.' _ives' colorado river_, pp. , , - , , , , , , , , plate p. . the comanches are 'de buena estatura.' _beaumont_, _crónica de mechoacan, ms._, p. . the people between the colorado and gila rivers. 'es gente bien agestada y corpulenta, trigueños de color.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . the cruzados are described as 'bien agestados y nobles y ellas hermosas de lindos ojos y amorosas.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; see also _cordoue_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, serie i., tom. x., p. . in new mexico allegre describes them as 'corpulentos y briosos, pero mal agestados, las orejas largas ... tienen poco barba.' _allegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; and of the same people alcedo writes 'son de mejor aspecto, color y proporcion que los demás.' _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . and lieut. möllhausen, who frequently goes into ecstasies over the splendid figures of the lower colorado people, whom he calls the personification of the ancient gods of the romans and greeks, says further that they are 'grosse, schön gewachsene leute,' and describes their color as 'dunkelkupferfarbig.' of the women he adds 'ganz im gegensatze zu den männern sind die weiber der indianer am colorado durchgängig klein, untersetzt und so dick, dass ihr aussehen mitunter an's komische gränzt.' comparing the hualapais with the mojaves he writes 'auf der einen seite die unbekleideten, riesenhaften und wohlgebildeten gestalten der mohaves ... auf der andern seite dagegen die im vergleich mit erstern, zwergähnlichen, hagern.... figuren der wallpays, mit ihren verwirrten, struppigen haaren, den kleinen, geschlitzten augen und dem falschen, gehässigen ausdruck in ihren zügen.' the cosninos he calls 'hässlich und verkümmert.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , - ; _möllhausen_, _reisen_, tom. i., pp. - , , , , , , tom. ii., pp. , , and plate frontispiece. _möllhausen_, _mormonenmädchen_, tom. ii., p. . the comanche 'men are about the medium stature, with bright copper-coloured complexions ... the women are short with crooked legs ... far from being as good looking as the men.' in the colorado valley 'are the largest and best-formed men i ever saw, their average height being an inch over six feet.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , . 'les comanchés ont la taille haute et élancée, et sont presque aussi blancs que les européens.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, serie v., no. , p. . and of the comanches see further. _dragoon camp._, p. . 'robust, almost herculean race.' _foote's texas_, vol. i., p. . 'exceedingly handsome.' _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. ii., p. ; _hartmann and millard's texas_, p. . 'women are ugly, crooklegged, stoop-shouldered.' _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , , ; _mexikanische zustände_, tom. i., p. ; _froebel's cent. am._, p. ; see also _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _domenech_, _journ._, p. . the yuma 'women are generally fat.' 'the men are large, muscular, and well formed.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. , . navajo women are 'much handsomer and have lighter complexions than the men.' _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. - ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , , , , plate . the navajos have 'light flaxen hair, light blue eyes ... their skin is of the most delicate whiteness.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. . on the mojaves see further, _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. ; _cal. mercantile jour._, vol. i., p. , plate; _clum_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . and on the yumas. _poston_, in _ind. rept. aff._, , p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _feb. , _. women's 'feet are naturally small.' _emory's rept._, in _u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . the yampais are broad-faced, and have 'aquiline noses and small eyes.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . _indian traits_, in _hayes col._ [ ] 'their average height is about five feet four or five inches. they are but slimly built, and possess but little muscular development ... light brownish red color.' some have 'a chinese cast of countenance ... rusty black hair.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . their 'features were flat, negro-like ... small legged, big-bellied and broad-shouldered.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'more miserable looking objects i never beheld;' legs, 'large and muscular.' _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. . 'widerliche physiognomien und gestalten ... unter mittlerer grösse ... grosse köpfe, vorstehende stirn und backenknochen, dicke nasen, aufgeworfene lippen und kleine geschlitzte augen.... ihr gesicht war dunkler als ich es jemals bei indianern gefunden.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . 'von zottigen weit abstehenden haupthaaren bedeckt.' _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iii., p. . 'ill-formed, emaciated, and miserable looking race ... had all a treacherous-fiendish look.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . 'physically of a slighter build than any indians i have seen.' _clum_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'most wretched looking indians i have ever seen.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . 'small in stature.... coal-black eye.' _peters' life of carson_, p. . 'hair is very black and straight, much resembling horse hair ... appears to belong to the asiatic type.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'gipsy looking with an eye singularly wild and piercing.' _houstoun's texas_, p. . 'have very light complexions.' _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. . 'die lipanis haben blondes haar, und sind schöne leute.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'sont des beaux hommes.' _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. . 'tall, majestic in figure; muscular.' _brantz-mayer's mex. aztec., etc._, vol. ii., p. . 'fine physical conformation.' _foote's texas_, vol. i., p. . 'their skin looked whiter than i have ever seen it in the indians.' _wizlizenus' tour_, p. . 'crian pié menor que los otros indios.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'todos son morenos, cuerpo bien proporcionado, ojos vivos, cabello largo y lampiños.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'su talla y color diferencian algo en cada tribu, variando este desde el bronceado al moreno. son todos bien proporcionados ... y ninguna barba.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. ; see also _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . 'though not tall, are admirably formed, with fine features and a bright complexion, inclining to yellow.' _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . 'son altos, rubios y de bellisimas proporciones.' _revista científica_, tom. i., p. . 'taille ordinaire, de couleur foncé.' 'comme ces indiens ne font leur nourriture que de chair et principalement de celle de l'âne et du mulet, ils exhalent une odeur si pénétrante que les chevaux et surtout les mules rebroussent chemin aussitôt qu'ils les éventent.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . [ ] 'cut their hair short over the forehead, and let it hang behind.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . distinguished 'durch den vollständig gleichmässigen schnitt ihrer schwarzen haare.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _browne's apache country_, ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, pp. , ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., pp. , ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., pp. , . [ ] mojave girls, after they marry, tattoo the chin 'with vertical blue lines.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . yumas: 'doch ist ihnen das tätowiren nicht fremd; dieses wird indessen mehr von den frauen angewendet welche sich die mundwinkel und das kinn mit blauen punkten und linien schmücken.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. - ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., and plate; _michler_, in _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _treasury of trav._, p. . [ ] 'das gesicht hatten sich alle vier (mojaves) auf gleiche weise bemalt, nämlich kohlschwarz mit einem rothen striche, der sich von der stirne über nase, mund und kinn zog.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , , ; plate, . 'painted perfectly black, excepting a red stripe from the top of his forehead, down the bridge of his nose to his chin.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . the apaches 'se tiñen el cuerpo y la cara con bastantes colores.' _doc. hist. n. vizcaya, ms._, p. . 'pintura de greda y almagre con que se untan la cara, brazos y piernas.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., and plate; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _sedelmair_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'naked with the exception of the breech-cloth.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, pp. , ; see also plates; mojave men 'simply a breech-cloth.' _touner_, in _ind. aff. rept._, . 'no clothing but a strip of cotton.... the yumas display 'a ludicrous variety of tawdry colors and dirty finery.' _ives' colorado rept._, pp. , , . see colored plates of yumas, mojaves, and hualpais, 'andan enteramente desnudos.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. , ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, pp. , ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _indian traits_, vol. i., in _hayes col._ [ ] 'a few stripes of the inner bark of the willow or acacia tied scantily round their waists.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'long fringe of strips of willow bark wound around the waist.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . the men wear 'a strip of cotton,' the women 'a short petticoat, made of strips of bark.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'nude, with the exception of a diminutive breech cloth.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'las mas se cubren de la cintura hasta las piernas con la cáscara interior del sauce.' _sedelmair_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'las mugeres se cubren de la cintura á la rodilla con la cáscara interior del sauce.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, vol. i., p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., plate and cuts; _touner_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _michler_, in _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., pp. , , with plate. [ ] 'partly clothed like the spaniards, with wide drawers, moccasins and leggings to the knee ... their moccasins have turned-up square toes ... mostly they have no head-dress, some have hats, some fantastic helmets.' _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. . 'they prefer the legging and blanket to any other dress.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. , . 'mexican dress and saddles predominated, showing where they had chiefly made up their wardrobe.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'los hombres, se las acomodan alrededor del cuerpo, dejando desambarazados los brazos. es en lo general la gamuza ó piel del venado la que emplean en este servicio. cubren la cabeza de un bonete ó gorra de lo mismo, tal vez adornado de plumas de aves, ó cuernos de animales.... el vestuario de las mujeres es igualmente de pieles.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'cervinis tergoribus amiciuntur tam foeminæ quam mares.' _benavides_, in _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _sonora, descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _doc. hist. n. vizcaya, ms._, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., pp. , ; _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _roedel_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _niza_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. , ; see also _froebel's cent. am._, pp. , ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., pp. , , ; _linati_, _costumes_, plate xxii.; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. ii., p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. . [ ] the hair of the mohaves is occasionally 'matted on the top of the head into a compact mass with mud.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . 'their pigments are ochre, clay, and probably charcoal mingled with oil.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'ihr hauptschmuck dagegen sind die langen, starken haare, die mittelst nasser lehmerde in rollen gedreht.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. . the axuas 'beplastered their bodies and hair with mud.' _hardy's trav._, pp. - , , , ; _browne's apache country_, pp. , . [ ] small white beads are highly prized by the mohaves. _ives' colorado river_, pp. - . 'the young girls wear beads ... a necklace with a single sea-shell in front.' the men 'leather bracelets, trimmed with bright buttons ... eagles' feathers, called "sormeh," sometimes white, sometimes of a crimson tint ... strings of wampum, made of circular pieces of shell.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., pp. , . 'shells of the pearl-oyster, and a rough wooden image are the favorite ornaments of both sexes' with the apaches. _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'sus adornos en el cuello y brazos son sartas de pesuñas de venado y berrendos, conchas, espinas de pescado y raices de yerbas odoríferas. las familias mas pudientes y aseadas bordan sus trajes y zapatos de la espina del puerco-espin.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'adórnanse con gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados de otras cuentas, de conchas coloradas redondas.' _sedelmair_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'las mugeres por arracadas ó aretes, se cuelgan conchas enteras de nácar, y otras mayores azules en cada oreja.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., pp. , ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _almanza_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _browne's apache country_, pp. - ; _michler_, in _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, pp. - ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - ; _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, serie i., tom. ix., pp. , , ; _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _mexikanische zustände_, tom. i., p. . [ ] the 'hair is worn long and tied up behind' by both sexes; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'langes starkes haar in einen dicken zopf zusammengeknotet.' _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'tolerably well dressed, mostly in buckskin.... they dress with greater comfort than any other tribe, and wear woolen and well-tanned buckskin ... the outer seams are adorned with silver or brass buttons.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. , , . leggins made of deer-skin with thick soles ... a leathern cap shaped like a helmet, decorated with cocks', eagles' or vultures' feathers. _figuier's hum. race_, pp. , . 'auf dem kopfe tragen sie eine helmartige lederkappe die gewöhnlich mit einem busch kurzer, glänzender truthahnfedern und einigen geier oder adlerfedern geschmückt ist.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , . 'a close banded cap is worn by the men which is gracefully ornamented by feathers, and held under the chin by a small throat-latch.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. , and plate vii., fig. , p. . 'their wardrobes are never extravagantly supplied.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the women 'wear a blanket.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. , and plate. the women 'wore blankets, leggins and moccasons.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , , . 'over all is thrown a blanket, under and sometimes over which is worn a belt, to which are attached oval pieces of silver.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the women's dress is 'chiefly composed of skins ... showily corded at the bottom, forming a kind of belt of beads and porcupine quills.' _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. - . _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., pp. , ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] 'tattooed over the body, especially on the chest.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'tattoo their faces and breasts.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'mares juxta atque foeminæ facies atque artus lineis quibusdam persignant.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _warden_, _recherches_, p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. . [ ] 'they never cut the hair, but wear it of very great length, and ornament it upon state occasions with silver and beads.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'their heads are covered with bits of tin and glass.' _shepard's land of the aztecs_, p. . 'der dicke und lang über den rücken hinabhängende zopf mit abwärts immer kleiner werdenden silbernen scheiben belastet, die, im nacken mit der grösse einer mässigen untertasse beginnend, an der spitze des zopfes mit der grösse eines halben thalers endigten.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. , and _froebel's cent. am._, p. . they 'never cut their hair, which they wear long, mingling with it on particular occasions silver ornaments and pearls.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'todos ellos llevan la cabeza trasquilada desde la mitad hasta la frente, y dejan lo demas del pelo colgando.' _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _revista cientifica_, tom. i., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _dragoon camp._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. . [ ] 'im gesichte mit zinnober bemalt, auf dem kopfe mit adlerfedern geschmückt.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. . 'it takes them a considerable time to dress, and stick feathers and beads in their hair.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'fond of decking themselves with paint, beads and feathers.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , , . 'vederbosschen op't hoofd.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . 'en quanto á los colores, varian mucho, no solamente en ellos, sino tambien en los dibujos que se hacen en la cara.' _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. . the comanches 'de tout sexe portent un miroir attaché au poignet, et se teignent le visage en rouge.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. , ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , , , ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _hartmann and millard_, _texas_, p. ; _larenaudière_, _mex. et guat._, p. , plate; _tempsky's mitla_, p. ; _gilliam's trav._, p. ; _horn's captivity_, p. . [ ] 'the camanches prefer dark clothes.' _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , , . 'les guerriers portent pour tout vêtement une peau de buffle en manteau.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'las mugeres andan vestidas de la cintura para abajo con unos cueros de venado adobado en forma de faldellines, y cubren el cuerpo con unos capotillos del mismo cuero.' _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . 'vistense galanos ... asi hombres como mugeres con mantas pintadas y bordadas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'sus vestidos se componen de unas botas, un mediano delantal que cubre sus vergüenzas, y un coton, todo de pieles: las mugeres usan una manta cuadrada de lana negra muy estrecha.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'tam mares quam foeminæ gossypinis tunicis et ferarum exuviis vestiebantur ad mexicanorum normam et quod insolens barbaris, ideoque hispanis novum visum, utebantur calceis atque ocreis quæ è ferarum tergoribus et taurino corio consuta erant. foeminis capillus bene pexus et elegantur erat dispositus, nec ullo præterea velamine caput tegebant.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, pp. , ; _dragoon camp._, p. ; _warden_, _recherches_, pp. , ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. , , ; _revista cientifica_, tom. i., p. ; _horn's captivity_, p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , , ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _larenaudière_, _mex. et guat._, p. , plate; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. , , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. , and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. iv., p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. , , ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _hartmann and millard_, _texas_, p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, pp. , ; _maillard_, _hist. tex._, p. , _jaramillo_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _castaño de soza_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. iv., p. ; _houstoun's tex._, p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] the apaches 'rarely remain more than a week in any one locality.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'cette nation étant nomade et toujours à la poursuite du gibier.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _backus_, in _id._, vol. iv., p. ; _ten broeck_, in _id._, vol. iv., p. ; _bailey_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _foote's texas_, p. ; _carleton_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _holley's texas_, p. ; _dragoon camp._, p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, pt. x., p. . [ ] 'the principal characteristic i believe, is the form of their wigwams; one sets up erect poles, another bends them over in a circular form, and the third gives them a low oval shape.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . other tribes make their lodges in a different way, by a knowledge of which circumstance, travelers are able to discover on arriving at a deserted camp whether it belongs to a hostile or friendly tribe. _parker's notes on texas_, p. ; _hartmann and millard_, _texas_, p. ; _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _bulletin_, tom. v., p. . [ ] 'sus chozas ó jacales son circulares, hechas de ramas de los árboles, cubiertas con pieles de caballos, vacas, ó cíbolos.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'i did expect ... to find that the navajos had other and better habitations than the conical, pole, brush, and mud lodge.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'the camanches make their lodges by placing poles in the ground in a circle and tying the tops together.' _parker's notes on texas_, p. . huts are only temporary, conical, of sticks. _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'sie bestanden einfach aus grossen lauben von cedernzweigen, deren wölbung auf starken pfählen ruhte, und von aussen theilweise mit erde, lehm, und steinen bedeckt war.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. , - . 'un grand nombre de forme ronde.' _jaramillo_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . 'their lodges are rectangular.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _ives' colorado river_, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. . [ ] 'they make them of upright poles a few feet in height ... upon which rest brush and dirt.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., pp. - . 'the very rudest huts hastily constructed of branches of cedar trees, and sometimes of flat stones for small roofs.' _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . these huts are about eight feet high, eighteen feet in diameter at base, the whole being covered with bark or brush and mud. _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'exceedingly rude structures of sticks about four or five feet high.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'the comanches make their lodges ... in a conical shape ... which they cover with buffalo hides.' _parker's notes on tex._, p. . 'ils habitent sous des tentes.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., tom. , p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _bent_, in _id._, vol. i., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. ; _mange_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _dufey_, _résumé de l'hist._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _ludecus_, _reise_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _emory's recon._, p. ; _marcy's rept._, p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cli., p. ; _jaramillo_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, serie i., tom. ix., pp. - ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan_, p. ; _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; see also, _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. - ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _cordoue_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. . [ ] _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . 'this compels the navajoes to erect substantial huts of an oval form, the lower portion of the hut being excavated.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'they live in brush houses, in the winter time, digging a hole in the ground and covering this with a brush roof.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _maillard's hist. tex._, p. . [ ] 'their lodges are ... about four or five feet high, with a triangular opening for ingress or egress.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the most they do is to build small huts ... with thick poles for the arches and a small door through which a single person can hardly pass. _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . a ranchería of the cuabajai is described as 'formada como una grande galeria en una pieza muy larga adornada con arcos de sauz, y cubierta con esteras de tule muy delgadas y bien cocidas; tenia ventanas para la luz y desahogar el humo y dos puertas, una al oriente y otra al poniente, ... á los dos lados de la pieza habia varios cámaras ó alojamientos para dormir.' _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, pp. - . [ ] 'some live in caves in the rocks.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'they do not live in houses built of stone as has been repeatedly represented, but in caves, caverns, and fissures of the cliffs.' _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'ils habitaient des cavernes et des lieux souterrains, où ils déposaient leurs récoltes.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. . most of the navajos 'live in houses built of stone.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _almanza_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _sanchez_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, p. . [ ] 'the large cottonwood posts and the substantial roof of the wide shed in front, are characteristic of the architecture of this people.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'they are built upon sandy soil and are thirty or forty feet square; the sides about two feet thick of wicker-work and straw ... their favorite resort seems to be the roof, where could usually be counted from twenty to thirty persons, all apparently at home.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . [ ] see plate in _marcy's army life_, p. . 'the fire is made in the front of the lodge.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'in every village may be seen small structures, consisting of a frame-work of slight poles, bent into a semi-spherical form and covered with buffalo hides. these are called medicine lodges and are used as vapor-baths.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'they make huts three feet high for bath-rooms and heat them with hot stones.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xviii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. [ ] 'ils sont très-laborieux; ils cultivent les melons, les haricots, et d'autres légumes; ils récoltent aussi en abondance le maïs.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'bohnen, mais, weizen, feingeriebenes mehl, kürbisse und melonen.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , - . 'the yumas and other tribes on the colorado, irrigate their lands, and raise wheat, corn, melons, &c.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. , , ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _ives' colorado river_, pp. , , , ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., pp. , , ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , , ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. ; _browne's apache country_, pp. , , ; _mowry's arizona_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _mexicanische zustände_, tom. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _champagnac_, _voyageur_, p. ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. , , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. - ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _farnham's life in cal._; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _clark_, in _hist. mag._, vol. viii., p. ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] 'a small but agreeable nut called the piñon, grows abundantly in this country; and during a period of scarcity, it sometimes constitutes the sole food of the poorer class of natives for many successive weeks.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'living upon the fruit of the mezquit and tornilla trees.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, pp. , ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'tambien tienen para su sustento mescali, que es conserva de raiz de maguey.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , , , , ; _cordoue_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _castañeda_, in _id._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'the quail and hare of the valley, and the deer and lizards of the plains, together furnish but a scanty supply.' _ehrenberg_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they ate worms, grasshoppers, and reptiles.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. - . 'an den dünnen gurt hatten unsere besucher noch ratten, grosse eidechsen und frösche befestigt.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . 'depending upon game and roots for food.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and , p. . 'mas para ellos es plato regaladísimo el de ratones del campo asados ó cocidos y toda especie de insectos.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, pp. , ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] on the rivers colorado and gila. 'usan de hilo torcido unas redes y otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas, en que forman á modo de un pequeño barquito para pescar del infinito pescado que hay en el rio.' _sedelmair_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . the cajuenches when the produce is insufficient, live on fish. _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . the navajos 'live by raising flocks and herds, instead of hunting and fishing.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . the apaches 'no comen pescado alguno, no obstante de lo que abundan sus rios.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'el apache no come el pescado, aunque los hay abundantes en sus rios.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'they do not make butter and cheese.... some who own cattle make from the curd of soured milk small masses, which some have called cheese.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'they never to my knowledge make butter or cheese, nor do i believe they know what such things are.' _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the navajoes 'make butter and cheese.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . some of the 'men brought into camp a quantity of cheese.' _ives' colorado river_, pp. , . [ ] _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'they plant corn very deep with a stake and raise very good crops.' _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'the metate is a slightly hollowed hard stone, upon which soaked maize is laid and then reduced to paste.... the paste so formed is then patted between the hands until it assumes a flat, thin and round appearance when it is laid on a hot pan and baked into a tortilla.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. - . 'ils récoltent aussi en abondance le maïs dont ils font de tortillas.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'their meat was boiled with water in a tusquin (clay kettle) and this meat-mush or soup was the staple of food among them.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. , . 'a large echino cactus ... hollowed so as to make a trough. into this were thrown the soft portions of the pulpy substance which surrounds the heart of the cactus; and to them had been added game and plants gathered from the banks of the creek. mingled with water, the whole had been cooked by stirring it up with heated stones.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'ils mangent des pains de maïs cuits sous la cendre, aussi gros que les gros pains de castille.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _castaño de soza_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] 'the apaches rely chiefly upon the flesh of the cattle and sheep they can steal ... they are said, however, to be more fond of the meat of the mule than that of any other animal.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. - . 'a nonproductive race, subsisting wholly on plunder and game.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . the jicarilla apaches: 'the chase is their only means of support.' _carson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they live entirely by hunting.' _delgado_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'die nahrung der apaches besteht hauptsächlich in dem fleische der rinder und schafe ... doch soll, wie man sagt, maulthierfleisch ihre lieblingsspeise sein.' _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . 'ihre besten leckerbissen sind pferde und mauleselfleisch, welches sie braten und dem rindfleische vorziehen.' _ochs_, in _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . their daintiest food is mule and horseflesh. _apostólicos afanes_, p. . 'anteriormente antes que en la frontera abundase el ganado, uno de sus alimentos era la came del caballo, y la caza de diferentes animales.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. - ; _edward's hist. texas_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. ; _stanley's portraits_, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _edwards' campaign_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; see further _ind. aff. repts._, from - ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'what i would have sworn was an antelope, proved to be a young indian, ... who having enveloped himself in an antelope's skin with head, horns and all complete, had gradually crept up to the herd under his disguise.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . 'se viste de una piel de los mismos animales, pone sobre su cabeza otra de la clase de los que va á buscar, y armado de su arco y flechas andando en cuatro piés, procura mezclarse en una banda da ellos.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _ferry_, _scènes de la vie sauvage_, p. . [ ] 'they always asked if we had bear on the table, for they wished to avoid it.... i found they had some superstitious prejudice against it.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . 'the apaches are rather fond of lion and panther meat, but seldom touch that of the bear.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'tambien matan para comer osos.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . the navajoes 'never kill bears or rattlesnakes unless attacked.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'sie verehren den bären, der nie von ihnen getödtet wird, und dessen fleisch zu essen sie sich scheuen. schweinefleisch verschmähen sie desgleichen; beim ärgsten hunger können sie es nicht über sich gewinnen, davon zu kosten.' _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. ; _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . [ ] 'the northern and middle comanches ... subsist almost exclusively upon the flesh of the buffalo, and are known among the indians as buffalo-eaters.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , , . 'they plant no corn, and their only food is meat, and a few wild plants that grow upon the prairies.' _marcy's rept._, p. . the comanches are a 'nation subsisting solely by the chase.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. . 'subsist mainly upon the buffalo.' _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'acknowledge their entire ignorance of even the rudest methods of agriculture.' _baylor_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. , and _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _french's hist. coll. la._, pt. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, pp. - , ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _ludecus_, _reise_, p. ; _dragoon camp._, p. ; _foote's texas_, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _holley's texas_, p. ; _dufey_, _résumé_, tom. i., p. ; _dewees' texas_, p. ; _frost's ind. battles_, p. . [ ] 'luego que los cíbolos echan á huir, los cazadores sin apresurarlos demasiado los persiguen á un galope corto, que van activando mas y mas hasta que rompen en carrera ... el indio sin cesar de correr, dispara su arco en todas direcciones, y va sembrando el campo de reses.... las indias al mismo tiempo van dessollando cada una de aquellas reses, recogiendo la piel y la carne.' _revista científica_, tom. i., pp. - . 'at a suitable distance from their prey they divide into two squadrons, one half taking to the right, and the other to the left, and thus surround it.' _edward's hist. tex._, p. ; _french's hist. coll. la._, pt. ii., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. - . women when they perceive a deer or antelope 'give it chase, and return only after capturing it with the lasso.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'when any game was killed, the indians would tear out the heart, liver, and entrails, and eat them raw.' _frost's ind. battles_, p. . 'ces indiens se nourissent de viande crue et boivent du sang.... ils coupent la viande en tranches très-minces et la font sécher au soleil; ils la réduisent ensuite en poudre pour la conserver.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. - . 'they "jerked" or dried the meat and made the pemmican.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'comen las criadillas crudas, recogiendo la sangre que corre del cuerpo con unas tutundas ó jicaras, se la beben caliente.' _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. ; _horn's captivity_, pp. , ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'at one time their larder is overstocked and they gorge themselves to repletion.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , , . 'catch and tame these wild horses, and when unsuccessful in chase, subsist upon them.' _holley's texas_, p. . 'when pressed by hunger from scarcity of game, they subsist on their young horses and mules.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'have a rare capacity for enduring hunger, and manifest great patience under its infliction. after long abstinence they eat voraciously.' _burnet_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _edward's hist. tex._, p. . [ ] the tribe 'lived in the most abject condition of filth and poverty.' _browne's apache country_, p. . 'with very few exceptions, the want of cleanliness is universal--a shirt being worn until it will no longer hang together, and it would be difficult to tell the original color.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'they are fond of bathing in the summer, ... but nothing can induce them to wash themselves in winter.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . they give off very unpleasant odors. _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. . 'they seem to have a natural antipathy against water, considered as the means of cleansing the body ... water is only used by them in extreme cases; for instance, when the vermin become too thick on their heads, they then go through an operation of covering the head with mud, which after some time is washed out.' _dodt_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. . [ ] 'they defecate promiscuously near their huts; they leave offal of every character, dead animals and dead skins, close in the vicinity of their huts.' _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. . [ ] the mojave 'arms are the bow and arrow, the spear and the club.' _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . 'armed with bows and arrows.' _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. . the querechos 'use the bow and arrow, lance and shield.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , . 'the apache will invariably add his bow and arrows to his personal armament.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , - , , . 'neben bogen und pfeilen führen sie noch sehr lange lanzen.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . 'they use the bow and arrow and spear.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'armed with bows and arrows, and the lance.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . for colored lithograph of weapons see _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'el armamento de los apaches se componen de lanza, arco y flechas.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'las armas de los apaches son fusil, flechas y lanza.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . 'los yumas son indios ... de malas armas, muchos no llevan arco, y si lo llevan es mal dispuesto, y con dos ó tres flechas.' _garces_, in _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _drew_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _odin_, in _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _dewees' texas_, p. ; _holley's texas_, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _dragoon camp._, p. ; _moore's texas_, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _brantz-mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. - , ; _pagés' travels_, vol. i., p. ; _linati_, _costumes_, plate xxii.; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _mormonenmädchen_, tom. ii., p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, pp. - , with cut. [ ] 'their weapons of war are the spear or lance, the bow, and the laso.' _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. . [ ] among 'their arms of offence' is 'what is called macána, a short club, like a round wooden mallet, which is used in close quarters.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'war clubs were prepared in abundance.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . die apachen 'nur bogen, pfeile und keulen.' _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . 'their clubs are of mezquite wood (a species of acacia) three or four feet long.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'ils n'ont d'autre arme qu'un grand croc et une massue.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'arma sunt ... oblongi lignei gladii multis acutis silicibus utrimque muniti.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'sus armas son flechas, y macanas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . among the comanches: 'leur massue est une queue de buffle à l'extrémité de laquelle ils insèrent une boule en pierre on en métal.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'mit vierstreifigen strickschleudern bewaffnet.' _mexikanische zustände_, tom. i., p. . 'sie fechten mit lanzen, büchsen, pfeilen und tamahaks.' _ludecus_, _reise_, p. . 'une petite hache en silex.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., p. ; _treasury of trav._, p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] the querecho 'bows are made of the tough and elastic wood of the "bois d'arc" or osage orange (maclura aurantiaca), strengthened and reenforced with the sinews of the deer wrapped firmly around them, and strung with a cord made of the same material.' _marcy's army life_, p. . the tonto 'bow is a stout piece of tough wood ... about five feet long, strengthened at points by a wrapping of sinew ... which are joined by a sinew string.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the navajo 'bow is about four feet in length ... and is covered on the back with a kind of fibrous tissue.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the yuma 'bow is made of willow.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'langen bogen von weidenholz.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. . apaches: 'the bow forms two semicircles, with a shoulder in the middle; the back of it is entirely covered with sinews, which are laid on ... by the use of some glutinous substance.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. . 'los tamaños de estas armas son differentes, segun las parcialidades que las usan.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. , ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . [ ] the apaches: 'tous portaient au poignet gauche le bracelet de cuir ... ce bracelet de cuir est une espèce de paumelle qui entoure la main gauche, ... le premier sert à amortir le coup de fouet de la corde de l'arc quand il se détend, la seconde empêche les pennes de la flèche de déchirer la peau de la main.' _ferry_, _scènes de la vie sauvage_, p. . 'with a leather bracelet on one wrist and a bow and quiver of arrows form the general outfit.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] the coyoteros 'use very long arrows of reed, finished out with some hard wood, and an iron or flint head, but invariably with three feathers at the opposite end.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . navajoes: 'the arrow is about two feet long and pointed with iron.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the querechos 'arrows are twenty inches long, of flexible wood, with a triangular point of iron at one end, and two feathers ... at the opposite extremity.' _marcy's army life_, p. . the apache 'arrows are quite long, very rarely pointed with flint, usually with iron. the feather upon the arrow is placed or bound down with fine sinew in threes, instead of twos.... the arrow-shaft is usually made of some pithy wood, generally a species of yucca.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'sagittæ acutis silicibus asperatæ.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'arrows were ... pointed with a head of stone. some were of white quartz or agate, and others of obsidian.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . the tonto 'arrows ... are three feet long ... the cane is winged with four strips of feather, held in place by threads of sinew ... which bears on its free end an elongated triangular piece of quartz, flint, or rarely iron.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the lipan arrows 'have four straight flutings; the comanches make two straight black flutings and two red spiral ones.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. ; _tempsky's mitla_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _conder's mex. guat._, vol. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . [ ] the apache 'quivers are usually made of deer-skin, with the hair turned inside or outside, and sometimes of the skin of the wild-cat, with the tail appended.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'quiver of sheep-skin.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . 'quiver of fresh-cut reeds.' _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. . 'un carcax ó bolsa de piel de leopardo en lo general.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _tempsky's mitla_, p. . [ ] 'the spear is eight or ten feet in length, including the point, which is about eighteen inches long, and also made of iron.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . should the apaches possess any useless firearms, 'generalmente vienen á darles nuevo uso, haciendo de ellas lanzas, cuchillos, lengüetas de flechas.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'la lanza la usan muy larga.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . 'lance of fifteen feet in length.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _holley's texas_, p. ; _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. ; _revista científica_, tom. i., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . [ ] the comanche 'shield was round ... made of wicker-work, covered first with deer skins and then a tough piece of raw buffalo-hide drawn over, ... ornamented with a human scalp, a grizzly bear's claw and a mule's tail ... for the arm were pieces of cotton cloth twisted into a rope.' _parker's notes on tex._, p. . 'en el brazo izquierdo llevaba el chimal, que es un escudo ovalado, cubierto todo de plumas, espejos, chaquiras y adornos de paño encarnado.' _revista científica_, tom. i., p. . their shield 'is generally painted a bright yellow.' _domenech's deserts_ vol. ii., p. . 'shield of circular form, covered with two thicknesses of hard, undressed buffalo hide, ... stuffed with hair ... a rifle-ball will not penetrate it unless it strikes perpendicular to the surface.' _marcy's army life_, pp. - ; _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. ; _tempsky's mitla_, p. . a 'navajo shield ... with an image of a demon painted on one side ... border of red cloth, ... trimmed with feathers.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _linati_, _costumes_, plate xxii.; _shepard's land of the aztecs_, p. ; _edward's hist. tex._, p. . [ ] 'wherever their observations can be made from neighboring heights with a chance of successful ambush, the apache never shows himself.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . 'attacking only when their numbers, and a well-laid ambush, promise a certainty of success.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'colocan de antemano una emboscada.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. - , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _davis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'salen ... generalmente divididos en pequeñas partidas para ocultar mejor sus rastros.... es imponderable la velocidad con que huyen despues que han ejecutado un crecido robo ... las montañas que encumbran, los desiertos sin agua que atraviesan.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . 'they steal upon their enemies under the cover of night.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, p. ; _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . [ ] 'la practica, que observan para avisarse los unos à los otros ... es levantar humaredas.' _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. . 'smokes are of various kinds, each one significant of a particular object.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. - . 'in token of retreate sounded on a certaine small trumpet ... made fires, and were answered againe afarre off ... to giue their fellowes vnderstanding, how wee marched and where we arriued.' _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. ii., p. ; _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'la suma crueldad con que tratan á los vencidos atenaccandolos vivos y comiendose los pedazos de la carne que la arrancan.' _doc. hist. n. vizcaya, ms._, p. . 'their savage and blood-thirsty natures experience a real pleasure in tormenting their victim.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'hang their victims by the heels to a tree and put a slow fire under their head.' _browne's apache country_, pp. , , . among the navajos, 'captives taken in their forays are usually treated kindly.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'ils scalpent avec la corde de leur arc, en la tournant rapidement autour de la tête de leur victime.' _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. - , , , ; _farnham's trav._, p. ; _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _labadi_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . [ ] _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'obran en la guerra con mas táctica que los apaches.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . 'a young man is never considered worthy to occupy a seat in council until he has encountered an enemy in battle.' _marcy's army life_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, pp. - ; _foote's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _maillard's hist. tex._, p. . [ ] 'when a chieftain desires to organize a war-party, he ... rides around through the camp singing the war-song.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'when a chief wishes to go to war ... the preliminaries are discussed at a war-dance.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'they dart forward in a column like lightning.... at a suitable distance from their prey, they divide into two squadrons.' _holley's texas_, p. . 'a comanche will often throw himself upon the opposite side of his charger, so as to be protected from the darts of the enemy.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _dewees' texas_, p. ; _shepard's land of the aztecs_, p. ; _ludecus_, _reise_, p. . [ ] 'ils tuent tous les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent vivre que les enfants, qu'ils élèvent avec soin pour s'en servir comme d'esclaves.' _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . 'invariably kill such men as offer the slightest impediment to their operations, and take women and children prisoners.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , . 'prisoners of war belong to the captors.' _burnet_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _farnham's trav._, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _foote's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _horn's captivity_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . [ ] 'ten chiefs were seated in a circle within our tent, when the pipe, the indian token of peace, was produced ... they at first refused to smoke, their excuse being, that it was not their custom to smoke until they had received some presents.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'i saw no earthenware vessels among them; the utensils employed in the preparation of food being shallow basins of closely netted straw. they carried water in pitchers of the same material, but they were matted all over with a pitch.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'aus binsen und weiden geflochtene gefässe, mitunter auch einige aus thon geformte;' ... by the door stood 'ein breiter stein ... auf welchem mittelst eines kleineren die mehlfrüchte zerrieben wurden.' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , . 'panniers of wicker-work, for holding provisions, are generally carried on the horse by the women.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . 'their only implements are sticks.' _greene_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they (the axuas of colorado river) had a beautiful fishing-net made out of grass.' ... 'they had also burnt earthen jars, extremely well made. the size of each of them might be about two feet in diameter in the greatest swell; very thin, light, and well formed.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'nets wrought with the bark of the willow.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. . 'tienen mucha loza de las coloradas, y pintadas y negras, platos, caxetes, saleros; almofias, xicaras muy galanas: alguna de la loza está vidriada. tienen mucho apercibimiento de leña, é de madera, para hacer sus casas, en tal manera, á lo que nos dieron á entender, que cuando uno queria hacer casa, tiene aquella madera allí de puesto para el efecto, y hay mucha cantidad. tiene dos guaxexes á los lados del pueblo, que le sirven para se bañar, porque de otros ojos de agua, á tiro de arcabuz, beben y se sirven. a un cuarto de legua va el rio salado, que decimos, por donde fué nuestro camino, aunque el agua salada se pierde de muchas leguas atrás.' _castaño de sosa_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. iv., p. ; _taylor_, in _cal. farmer_, _feb. th, _; _browne's apache country_, p. . 'their only means of farming are sharpened sticks.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'their utensils for the purpose of grinding breadstuff, consist of two stones; one flat, with a concavity in the middle; the other round, fitting partly into the hollow of the flat stone.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . [ ] 'the cradle of the navajo indians resembles the same article made by the western indians. it consists of a flat board, to support the vertebral column of the infant, with a layer of blankets and soft wadding, to give ease to the position, having the edges of the frame-work ornamented with leather fringe. around and over the head of the child, who is strapped to this plane, is an ornamented hoop, to protect the face and cranium from accident. a leather strap is attached to the vertebral shell-work, to enable the mother to sling it on her back.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - , and plate p. . [ ] 'the saddle is not peculiar but generally resembles that used by the mexicans. they ride with a very short stirrup, which is placed further to the front than on a mexican saddle. the bit of the bridle has a ring attached to it, through which the lower jaw is partly thrust, and a powerful pressure is exerted by this means when the reins are tightened.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'sa selle est faite de deux rouleaux de paille reliés par une courroie et maintenus par une sangle de cuir.' _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _tempsky's mitla_, p. . the navajos have 'aus zähem eschenholz gefertigten sattelbogen.' _möllhausen_, _flüchtling_, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'das netz war weitmaschig, aus feinen, aber sehr starken bastfäden geflochten, vier fuss hoch, und ungefähr dreissig fuss lang. von vier zu vier fuss befanden sich lange stäbe an demselben, mittelst welcher es im wasser, zugleich aber auch auf dem boden und aufrecht gehalten wurde.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'el apache para sacar lumbre, usa ... un pedazo de sosole y otro de lechuguilla bien secos. al primero le forman una punta, lo que frotan con la segunda con cuanta velocidad pueden á la manera del ejercicio de nuestros molinillos para hacer el chocolate: luego que ambos palos se calientan con la frotacion, se encienden y producen el fuego.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . [ ] the navajos 'manufacture the celebrated, and, for warmth and durability, unequaled, navajo blanket. the navajo blankets are a wonder of patient workmanship, and often sell as high as eighty, a hundred, or a hundred and fifty dollars.' _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'navajo blankets have a wide and merited reputation for beauty and excellence.' _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _ind. aff. rept., spec. com._, , p. ; _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. , , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _farnham's life in cal._, pp. - . [ ] 'this art may have been acquired from the new mexicans, or the pueblo indians.' _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'this manufacture of blankets ... was originally learned from the mexicans when the two people lived on amicable terms.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] 'the blanket is woven by a tedious and rude process, after the manner of the pueblo indians.... the manner of weaving is peculiar, and is, no doubt, original with these people and the neighboring tribes.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'the spinning and weaving is done ... by hand. the thread is made entirely by hand, and is coarse and uneven.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'the wool or cotton is first prepared by carding. it is then fastened to the spindle near its top, and is held in the left hand. the spindle is held between the thumb and the first finger of the right hand, and stands vertically in the earthen bowl. the operator now gives the spindle a twirl, as a boy turns his top, and while it is revolving, she proceeds to draw out her thread, precisely as is done by our own operatives, in using the common spinning-wheel. as soon as the thread is spun, the spindle is turned in an opposite direction, for the purpose of winding up the thread on the portion of it next to the wooden block.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'the colors are woven in bands and diamonds. we have never observed blankets with figures of a complicated pattern.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'the colors, which are given in the yarn, are red, black, and blue. the juice of certain plants is employed in dyeing, but it is asserted by recent authorities that the brightest red and blue are obtained by macerating strips of spanish cochineal, and altamine dyed goods, which have been purchased at the towns.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'the colors are red, blue, black, and yellow; black and red being the most common. the red strands are obtained by unravelling red cloth, black by using the wool of black sheep, blue by dissolving indigo in fermented urine, and yellow is said to be by coloring with a particular flower.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . the women 'welche sich in der wahl der farben und der zusammenstellung von bunten streifen und phantastischen figuren in dem gewebe gegenseitig zu übertreffen suchen. ursprünglich trugen die decken nur die verschiedenen farben der schafe in breiten streifen, doch seit die navahoes farbige, wollene stoffe von neu-mexiko beziehen können, verschaffen sie sich solche, um sie in fäden aufzulösen, und diese dann zu ihrer eigenen weberei zu verwenden.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. . [ ] 'ils (the apaches) travaillent bien les cuirs, font de belles brides.' _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. . 'they manufacture rough leather.' _pike's explor. trav._, p. . 'man macht leder.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . 'it has been represented that these tribes (the navajos) wear leather shoes.... inquiry from persons who have visited or been stationed in new mexico, disaffirms this observation, showing that in all cases the navajo shoes are skins, dressed and smoked after the indian method.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. . they 'knit woolen stockings.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . 'they also manufacture ... a coarse woolen cloth with which they clothe themselves.' _clark_, in _hist. mag._, vol. viii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - . 'the navajoes raise no cotton.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'sie sind noch immer in einigen baumwollengeweben ausgezeichnet.' _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . 'these people (the inhabitants of arizona in ) had cotton, but they were not very carefull to vse the same: because there was none among them that knew the arte of weauing, and to make apparel thereof.' _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . [ ] the xicarillas, 'manufacture a sort of pottery which resists the action of fire.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the yuma 'women make baskets of willow, and also of tule, which are impervious to water; also earthen ollas or pots, which are used for cooking and for cooling water.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _revillagigedo_, _carta, ms._, p. . 'figure . a scoop or dipper, from the mohave tribe, and as neat and original an article in earthenware as could well be designed by a civilized potter.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'professor cox was informed that the new mexican indians colored their pottery black by using the gum of the mezquite, which has much the appearance and properties of gum arabic, and then baking it. much of the ancient pottery from the colorado chiquito is colored, the prevailing tints being white, black, and red.' _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. . the yampais had 'some admirably made baskets of so close a texture as to hold water; a wicker jar coated with pine tree gum.' _sitgreaves' zuñi. ex._, p. ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _gregg's com. prairies_, p. . 'in regard to the manufacture of plumage, or feather-work, they certainly display a greater fondness for decorations of this sort than any indians we have seen.... i saw no exhibition of it in the way of embroidery.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . [ ] 'mines d'argent exploitées par les comanches, qui en tirent des ornements pour eux et pour leurs chevaux, ainsi que des balles pour leurs fusils.' _domenech_, _jour._, p. . [ ] the mescaleros had 'a raft of bulrush or cane, floated and supported by some twenty or thirty hollow pumpkins fastened together.' _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. iii., p. . the yumas had 'batteaus which could hold or pounds weight.' _id._, vol. iv., p. . the mojaves had 'flössen, die von binsen-bündeln zusammengefügt waren (die einzige art von fahrzeug, welche ich bei den bewohnern des colorado-thales bemerkte).' _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . 'merely bundles of rushes placed side by side, and securely bound together with willow twigs ... their owners paddled them about with considerable dexterity.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. , and plate. _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. , ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. . [ ] 'immense numbers of horses and sheep, attesting the wealth of the tribe.' _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , . 'they possess more wealth than all the other wild tribes in new mexico combined.' _graves_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they are owners of large flocks and herds.' _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . [ ] the jicarilla apaches 'manufacture a species of coarse earthenware, which they exchange for corn and wheat.' _keithly_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . [ ] 'das eigenthum des vaters nicht auf den sohn übergeht, sondern dass neffen und nichten als die rechtmässigen erben anerkannt werden wenn nicht der vater bei lebzeiten schon seine habe an die eigenen kinder geschenkt hat.' _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. . 'the husband has no control over the property of his wife.... property does not descend from father to son, but goes to the nephew of the decedent, or, in default of a nephew, to the niece ... but if, while living, he distributes his property to his children, that disposition is recognised.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - . 'when the father dies ... a fair division is not made; the strongest usually get the bulk of the effects.' _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . [ ] 'the blankets, though not purchasable with money ... were sold, in some instances, for the most trifling article of ornament or clothing.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . shell beads, which they call 'pook,' are their substitute for money.' _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] the querechos encountered by coronado had with them 'un grand troupeau de chiens qui portaient tout ce qu'ils possédaient.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . 'the only property of these people, with the exception of a few articles belonging to their domestic economy, consists entirely in horses and mules.' _marcy's army life_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _marcy's rept._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. - . [ ] 'there are no subdivisions of land acknowledged in their territory, and no exclusive right of game.' _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . 'their code is strictly spartan.' _marcy's army life_, p. . [ ] 'they are sufficiently astute in dealing.' _burnet_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. . 'le chef des indiens choisit, parmi ces objets, ceux qui sont nécessaires à sa tribu.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'in comanche trade the main trouble consists in fixing the price of the first animal. this being settled by the chiefs.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , ; _burnet_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _dewees' texas_, p. . [ ] mr bartlett, describing an excursion he made to the sierra waco near the copper mines in new mexico, says, he saw 'an overhanging rock extending for some distance, the whole surface of which is covered with rude paintings and sculptures, representing men, animals, birds, snakes, and fantastic figures ... some of them, evidently of great age, had been partly defaced to make room for more recent devices.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. - , with cuts. in arizona, emory found 'a mound of granite boulders ... covered with unknown characters.... on the ground nearby were also traces of some of the figures, showing some of the hieroglyphics, at least, to have been the work of modern indians.' _emory's reconnoissance_, pp. , , with cut. the comanches 'aimaient beaucoup les images, qu'ils ne se lassaient pas d'admirer.' _domenech_, _jour._, p. . [ ] 'the apaches count ten thousand with as much regularity as we do. they even make use of the decimal sequences.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] 'they have no computation of time beyond the seasons ... the cold and hot season ... frequently count by the caddo mode--from one to ten, and by tens to one hundred, &c.... they are ignorant of the elements of figures.' _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., pp. - . 'ce qu'ils savent d'astronomie se borne à la connaissance de l'étoile polaire.... l'arithmétique des sauvages est sur leurs doigts; ... il leur faut absolument un objet pour nombrer.' _hartmann and millard_, _tex._, pp. - . [ ] the navajos have no tribal government, and in reality no chiefs. _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'their form of government is so exceedingly primitive as to be hardly worthy the name of a political organization.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. , ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'ils n'ont jamais connu de domination.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série. v., no. , p. . 'each is sovereign in his own right as a warrior.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] 'it is my opinion that the navajo chiefs have but very little influence with their people.' _bennett_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and , p. ; _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . [ ] 'los padres de familia ejercen esta autoridad en tanto que los hijos no salen de la infancia, porque poco antes de salir de la pubertad son como libres y no reconocen mas superioridad que sus propias fuerzas, ó la del indio que los manda en la campaña.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. - . 'every rich man has many dependants, and these dependants are obedient to his will, in peace and in war.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'every one who has a few horses and sheep is a "head man."' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. . the rule of the querechos is 'essentially patriarchal.' _marcy's army life_, p. . [ ] 'when one or more (of the navajos) are successful in battle or fortunate in their raids to the settlements on the rio grande, he is endowed with the title of captain or chief.' _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'en cualquiera de estas incorporaciones toma el mando del todo por comun consentimiento el mas acreditado de valiente.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the comanches have 'a right to displace a chief, and elect his successor, at pleasure.' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . a chief of the comanches is never degraded 'for any private act unconnected with the welfare of the whole tribe.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] the office of chief is not hereditary with the navajos. _cremony's apaches_, p. . the wise old men of the querechos 'curb the impetuosity of ambitious younger warriors.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'i infer that rank is (among the mojaves), to some extent, hereditary.' _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , . 'this captain is often the oldest son of the chief, and assumes the command of the tribe on the death of his father,' among the apaches. _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . [ ] the mescaleros and apaches 'choose a head-man to direct affairs for the time being.' _carleton_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'es gibt auch stämme, an deren spitze ein kriegs- sowie ein friedens-häuptling steht.' _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. ; _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . [ ] when col. langberg visited the comanches who inhabit the bolson de mapimi, 'wurde dieser stamm von einer alten frau angeführt.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. . 'i have never known them (comanches) to make a treaty that a portion of the tribe do not violate its stipulations before one year rolls around.' _neighbors_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] the chiefs of the comanches 'are in turn subject to the control of a principal chief.' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . 'la autoridad central de su gobierno reside en un gefe supremo.' _revista científica_, tom. i., p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, p. . the southern comanches 'do not of late years acknowledge the sovereignty of a common ruler and leader in their united councils nor in war.' _marcy's army life_, p. . the gila apaches acknowledge 'no common head or superior.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . [ ] the comanches 'hold regular councils quarterly, and a grand council of the whole tribe once a year.' _edward's hist. tex._, p. . 'at these councils prisoners of war are tried, as well as all cases of adultery, theft, sedition and murder, which are punished by death. the grand council also takes cognizance of all disputes between the chiefs, and other matters of importance.' _maillard's hist. tex._, p. . 'their decisions are of but little moment, unless they meet the approbation of the mass of the people; and for this reason these councils are exceedingly careful not to run counter to the wishes of the poorer but more numerous class, being aware of the difficulty, if not impossibility, of enforcing any act that would not command their approval.' _collins_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'singulis pagis sui reguli erant, qui per praecones suos edicta populo denuntiabant.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'tienen otra persona, que llaman pregonero, y es la segunda persona de la república; el oficio de este, es manifestar al pueblo todas las cosas que se han de hacer.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, tom. i., p. . they recognize 'no law but that of individual caprice.' _steck_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the comanches 'acknowledge no right but the right of the strongest.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'la loi du talion est la base fondamentale du code politique, civil et criminel de ces diverses peuplades, et cette loi reçoit une rigoureuse application de nation à nation, de famille à famille, d'individu à individu.' _hartmann and millard_, _tex._, p. . [ ] the comanches punish 'adultery, theft, murder, and other crimes ... by established usage.' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . among the navajos, 'lewdness is punished by a public exposure of the culprit.' _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . _marcy's army life_, pp. , . navajoes 'regard each other's right of property, and punish with great severity any one who infringes upon it. in one case a navajo was found stealing a horse; they held a council and put him to death.' _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . a cuchano young boy who frightened a child by foretelling its death, which accidentally took place the next day, 'was secretly accused and tried before the council for "being under the influence of evil spirits,"' and put to death. _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. iii.; _feudge_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . among the yumas, 'each chief punishes delinquents by beating them across the back with a stick. criminals brought before the general council for examination, if convicted, are placed in the hands of a regularly appointed executioner of the tribe, who inflicts such punishment as the council may direct.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. iii. [ ] the apache chief ponce, speaking of the grief of a poor woman at the loss of her son, says: 'the mother of the dead brave demands the life of his murderer. nothing else will satisfy her.... would money satisfy me for the death of my son? no! i would demand the blood of the murderer. then i would be satisfied.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'if one man (apache) kills another, the next of kin to the defunct individual may kill the murderer--if he can. he has the right to challenge him to single-combat.... there is no trial, no set council, no regular examination into the crime or its causes; but the ordeal of battle settles the whole matter.' _id._, p. . [ ] _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'ils (comanches) tuent tous les prisonniers adultes, et ne laissent vivre que les enfans.' _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. . the navajos 'have in their possession many prisoners, men, women, and children, ... whom they hold and treat as slaves.' _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. . [ ] one boy from mexico taken by the comanches, said, 'dass sein geschäft in der gefangenschaft darin bestehe die pferde seines herrn zu weiden.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. . the natives of new mexico take the women prisoners 'for wives.' _marcy's rept._, p. . some prisoners liberated from the comanches, were completely covered with stripes and bruises. _dewees' texas_, p. . miss olive oatman detained among the mohaves says: 'they invented modes and seemed to create necessities of labor that they might gratify themselves by taxing us to the utmost, and even took unwarranted delight in whipping us on beyond our strength. and all their requests and exactions were couched in the most insulting and taunting language and manner, as it then seemed, and as they had the frankness soon to confess, to fume their hate against the race to whom we belonged. often under the frown and lash were we compelled to labor for whole days upon an allowance amply sufficient to starve a common dandy civilized idler.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. - , . [ ] 'it appeared that the poor girl had been stolen, as the indian (axua) said, from the yuma tribe the day before, and he now offered her for sale.' _hardy's trav._, p. . 'the practice of parents selling their children is another proof of poverty' of the axuans. _id._, p. . [ ] 'according to their (tontos') physiology the female, especially the young female, should be allowed meat only when necessary to prevent starvation.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . the comanches 'enter the marriage state at a very early age frequently before the age of puberty.' _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . whenever a jicarilla female arrives at a marriageable age, in honor of the 'event the parents will sacrifice all the property they possess, the ceremony being protracted from five to ten days with every demonstration of hilarity.' _steck_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. - . among the yumas, the applicant for womanhood is placed in an oven or closely covered hut, in which she is steamed for three days, alternating the treatment with plunges into the near river, and maintaining a fast all the time.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., pp. - . the apaches celebrate a feast with singing, dancing, and mimic display when a girl arrives at the marriageable state, during which time the girl remains 'isolated in a huge lodge' and 'listens patiently to the responsibilities of her marriageable condition,' recounted to her by the old men and chiefs. 'after it is finished she is divested of her eyebrows.... a month afterward the eye lashes are pulled out.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , - . [ ] there is no marriage ceremony among the navajoes 'a young man wishing a woman for his wife ascertains who her father is; he goes and states the cause of his visit and offers from one to fifteen horses for the daughter. the consent of the father is absolute, and the one so purchased assents or is taken away by force. all the marriageable women or squaws in a family can be taken in a similar manner by the same individual; i. e., he can purchase wives as long as his property holds out.' _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. . [ ] among the apaches, the lover 'stakes his horse in front of her roost.... should the girl favor the suitor, his horse is taken by her, led to water, fed, and secured in front of his lodge.... four days comprise the term allowed her for an answer.... a ready acceptance is apt to be criticised with some severity, while a tardy one is regarded as the extreme of coquetry.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. - ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , . the apache 'who can support or keep, or attract by his power to keep, the greatest number of women, is the man who is deemed entitled to the greatest amount of honor and respect.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . un comanche, 'peut épouser autant de femmes qu'il veut, à la seule condition de donner à chacune un cheval.' _domenech_, _jour._, p. . among the navajoes, 'the wife last chosen is always mistress of her predecessors.' _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. they seldom, if ever, marry out of the tribe. _ward_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . 'in general, when an indian wishes to have many wives he chooses above all others, if he can, sisters, because he thinks he can thus secure more domestic peace.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'i think that few, if any, have more than one wife,' of the mojaves. _ives' colorado riv._, p. . [ ] 'the navajo marriage-ceremony consists simply of a feast upon horse-flesh.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . when the navajos desire to marry, 'they sit down on opposite sides of a basket, made to hold water, filled with atole or some other food, and partake of it. this simple proceeding makes them husband and wife.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . [ ] the comanche women 'are drudges.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _dufey_, _résumé de l'hist._, tom. i., p. ; _neighbors_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . labor is considered degrading by the comanches. _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . the apache men 'no cuidan de otras cosas, sino de cazar y divertirse.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , , . 'la femme (du comanche) son esclave absolue, doit tout faire pour lui. souvent il n'apporte pas même le gibier qu'il a tué, mais il envoie sa femme le chercher au loin.' _dubuis_, in _domenech_, _jour._, p. . the navajos 'treat their women with great attention, consider them equals, and relieve them from the drudgery of menial work.' _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. . the navajo women 'are the real owners of all the sheep.... they admit women into their councils, who sometimes control their deliberations; and they also eat with them.' _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. ., in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'de aquí proviene que sean árbitros de sus mugeres, dandoles un trato servilísimo, y algunas veces les quitan hasta la vida por celos.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'les comanches, obligent le prisonnier blanc, dont ils ont admiré le valeur dans le combat, á s'unir aux leurs pour perpétuer sa race.' _fossey_, _mexique_, p. . [ ] among the apaches, 'muchas veces suele disolverse el contrato por unánime consentimiento de los desposados, y volviendo la mujer á su padre, entrega este lo que recibió por ella.' _cordero_. in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . when the navajo women abandon the husband, the latter 'asks to wipe out the disgrace by killing some one.' _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] navajo women, 'when in parturition, stand upon their feet, holding to a rope suspended overhead, or upon the knees, the body being erect.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'previous to a birth, the (yuma) mother leaves her village for some short distance and lives by herself until a month after the child is born; the band to which she belongs then assemble and select a name for the little one, which is given with some trivial ceremony.' _emory's rept._, vol. i., p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. . 'si el parto es en marcha, se hacen á un lado del camino debajo de un árbol, en donde salen del lance con la mayor facilidad y sin apuro ninguno, continuando la marcha con la criatura y algun otro de sus chiquillos, dentro de una especie de red, que á la manera de una canasta cargan en los hombros, pendiente de la frente con una tira de cuero ó de vaqueta que la contiene, en donde llevan ademas alunos trastos ó cosas que comer.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _fossey_, _mexique_, p. . 'luego que sale á luz esta, sale la vieja de aquel lugar con la mano puesta en los ojos, y no se descubre hasta que no haya dado una vuelta fuera de la casa, y el objeto que primero se le presenta á la vista, es el nombre que se le pone á la criatura.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _ives' colorado river_, pp. , ; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'quand les indiennes (comanches) voyagent avec leurs enfants en bas âge, elles les suspendent à la selle avec des courroies qu'elles leur passent entre les jambes et sous les bras. les soubresauts du cheval, les branches, les broussailles heurtent ces pauvres petits, les déchirent, les meurtrissent: peu importe, c'est une façon de les aguerrir.' _domenech_, _journ._, p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'a la edad de siete años de los apaches, ó antes, lo primero que hacen los padres, es poner á sus hijos el carcax en la mano enseñándoles á tirar bien, cuya táctica empiezan á aprender en la caza.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . the apaches, 'juventutem sedulo instituunt castigant quod aliis barbaris insolitum.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . male children of the comanches 'are even privileged to rebel against their parents, who are not entitled to chastise them but by consent of the tribe.' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. - . in fact a navajo indian has said, 'that he was afraid to correct his own boy, lest the child should wait for a convenient opportunity, and shoot him with an arrow.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . [ ] 'the navajo women are very loose, and do not look upon fornication as a crime.' _guyther_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'prostitution is the rule among the (yuma) women, not the exception.' _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. . 'prostitution prevails to a great extent among the navajoes, the maricopas, and the yuma indians; and its attendant diseases, as before stated, have more or less tainted the blood of the adults; and by inheritance of the children.' _carleton_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . among the navajoes, 'the most unfortunate thing which can befall a captive woman is to be claimed by two persons. in this case, she is either shot or delivered up for indiscriminate violence.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . the colorado river indians 'barter and sell their women into prostitution, with hardly an exception.' _safford_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'the comanche women are, as in many other wild tribes, the slaves of their lords, and it is a common practice for their husbands to lend or sell them to a visitor for one, two, or three days at a time.' _marcy's rept._, p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. . 'las faltas conyugales no se castigan por la primera vez; pero á la segunda el marido corta la punta de la nariz á su infiel esposa, y la despide de su lado.' _revista científica_, vol. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . 'the squaw who has been mutilated for such a cause, is _ipso facto_ divorced, and, it is said, for ever precluded from marrying again. the consequence is, that she becomes a confirmed harlot in the tribe.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. , - , . 'el culpable, segun dicen, jamas es castigado por el marido con la muerte; solamente se abroga el derecho de darle algunos golpes y cogerse sus mulas ó caballos.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. . 'these yung men may not haue carnall copulation with any woman: but all the yung men of the countrey which are to marrie, may company with them.... i saw likewise certaine women which liued dishonestly among men.' _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'they tolde mey that ... such as remayned widowes, stayed halfe a yeere, or a whole yeere before they married.' _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . [ ] 'en las referidas reuniones los bailes son sus diversiones favoritas. los hacen de noche al son de una olla cubierta la boca con una piel tirante, que suenan con un palo, en cuya estremidad lian un boton de trapos. se interpolan ambos secsos, saltan todos a un mismo tiempo, dando alaridos y haciendo miles de ademanes, en que mueven todos los miembros del cuerpo con una destreza extraordinaria, arremedando al coyote y al venado. desta manera forman diferentes grupos simétricamente.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'este lo forma una junta de truhanes vestidos de ridiculo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo para cometer los mayores desórdenes, y gusten tanto de estos hechos, que ni los maridos reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las que resultan en perjuicio de las hijas.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'the females (of the apaches) do the principal part of the dancing.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'among the abenakis, chactas, comanches, and other indian tribes, the women dance the same dances, but after the men, and far out of their sight ... they are seldom admitted to share any amusement, their lot being to work.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , . 'de éstos vinieron cinco danzas, cada una compuesta de treinta indias; de éstas, veintiseis como de à años, y las cuatro restantes de mas edad, que eran las que cuidaban y dirigian à las jóvenes.' _museo mex._, tom. i., p. . 'the dance (of the tontos) is similar to that of the california indians; a stamp around, with clapping of hands and slapping of thighs in time to a drawl of monotones.' _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . the yumas 'sing some few monotonous songs, and the beaux captivate the hearts of their lady-loves by playing on a flute made of cane.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. iii. 'no tienen mas orquesta que sus voces y una olla ó casco de calabazo à que se amarra una piel tirante y se toca con un palo.' _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, pp. - ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., pp. , . [ ] _stanley's portraits_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. . 'y el vicio que tienen estos indios, es jugar en las estufas las mantas, y otras preseas con vnas cañuelas, que hechan en alto (el qual juego vsaban estos indios mexicanos) y al que no tiene mas que vna manta, y la pierde, se la buelven; con condicion, que ha de andar desnudo por todo el pueblo, pintado, y embijado todo el cuerpo, y los muchachos dandole grita.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'the players generally take each about ten arrows, which they hold with their bows in the left hand; he whose turn it is advances in front of the judges, and lances his first arrow upwards as high as possible, for he must send off all the others before it comes down. the victory belongs to him who has most arrows in the air together, and he who can make them all fly at once is a hero.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'the indians amuse themselves shooting at the fruit (pitaya), and when one misses his aim and leaves his arrow sticking in the top of the cactus, it is a source of much laughter to his comrades.' _browne's apache country_, p. ; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. . the hoop and pole game of the mojaves is thus played. 'the hoop is six inches in diameter, and made of elastic cord; the poles are straight, and about fifteen feet in length. rolling the hoop from one end of the course toward the other, two of the players chase it half-way, and at the same time throw their poles. he who succeeds in piercing the hoop wins the game.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. iii.; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., pp. , ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'tienen unas pelotas de materia negra como pez, embutidas en ella varias conchuelas pequeñas del mar, con que juegan y apuestan arrojándola con el pié.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'los salvages recogen sus hojas generalmente en el otoño, las que entónces están rojas y muy oxidadas: para hacer su provision, la secan al fuego ó al sol, y para fumarlas, las mezclan con tabaco.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . the comanches smoke tobacco, 'mixed with the dried leaves of the sumach, inhaling the smoke into their lungs, and giving it out through their nostrils.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , ; _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . the comanches 'avoid the use of ardent spirits, which they call "fool's water."' _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., p. . _dubuis_, in _domenech_, _jour._, p. . 'in order to make an intoxicating beverage of the mescal, the roasted root is macerated in a proportionable quantity of water, which is allowed to stand several days, when it ferments rapidly. the liquor is boiled down and produces a strongly intoxicating fluid.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'when its stem (of the maguey) is tapped there flows from it a juice which, on being fermented, produces the pulque.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. . the apaches out of corn make an intoxicating drink which they called "teeswin," made by boiling the corn and fermenting it. _murphy_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. , . [ ] _jones_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. , p. ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, , tom. i., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _shepard's land of the aztecs_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. - ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . the apache women, 'son tan buenas ginetas, que brincan en un potro, y sin mas riendas que un cabrestillo, saben arrendarlo.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. . 'a short hair halter was passed around under the neck of the horse, and both ends tightly braided into the mane, on the withers, leaving a loop to hang under the neck, and against the breast, which, being caught up in the hand, makes a sling into which the elbow falls, taking the weight of the body on the middle of the upper arm. into this loop the rider drops suddenly and fearlessly, leaving his heel to hang over the back of the horse, to steady him, and also to restore him when he wishes to regain his upright position on the horse's back.' _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. . les comanches 'regardent comme un déshonneur d'aller à pied.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. . the comanches, for hardening the hoofs of horses and mules, have a custom of making a fire of the wild rosemary--artemisia--and exposing their hoofs to the vapor and smoke by leading them slowly through it. _parker's notes on tex._, p. . [ ] _marcy's army life_, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _cordoue_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . 'les teyas et querechos ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent leur bagage; ils l'attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d'une sangle et d'un petit bât. quand la charge se dérange les chiens se mettent à hurler, pour avertir leur maître de l'arranger.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , . 'on the top of the bank we struck a camanche trail, very broad, and made by the lodge poles, which they transport from place to place ... by fastening them on each side of their pack horses, leaving the long ends trailing upon the ground.' _parker's notes on tex._, p. . 'si carecen de cabalgaduras, cargan los muebles las mujeres igualmente que sus criaturas.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. . [ ] _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , , ; _marcy's rept._, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. , ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, pp. , ; _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . when the yampais 'wish to parley they raise a firebrand in the air as a sign of friendship.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'these messengers (of the mohaves) were their news-carriers and sentinels. frequently two criers were employed (sometimes more) one from each tribe. these would have their meeting stations. at these stations these criers would meet with promptness, and by word of mouth, each would deposit his store of news with his fellow expressman, and then each would return to his own tribe with the news.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. , . 'el modo de darse sus avisos para reunirse en casos de urgencia de ser perseguidos, es por medio de sus telégrafos de humos que forman en los cerros mas elevados formando hogueras de los palos mas humientos que ellos conocen muy bien.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'para no detenerse en hacer los humos, llevan los mas de los hombres y mujeres, los instrumentos necessarios para sacar lumbre; prefieren la piedra, el eslabon, y la yesca; pero si no tienen estos útiles, suplen su falta con palos preparados al efecto bien secos, que frotados se inflaman.' _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., p. . [ ] _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, p. . 'su frazada en tiempo de frio es un tizon encendido que aplicándolo á la boca del estómago caminan por los mañanas, y calentando ya el sol como a las ocho tiran los tizones, que por muchos que hayan tirado por los caminos, pueden ser guias de los caminantes.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., vol. iv., p. . [ ] the comanches 'have yearly gatherings to light the sacred fires; they build numerous huts, and sit huddled about them, taking medicine for purification, and fasting for seven days. those who can endure to keep the fast unbroken become sacred in the eyes of the others.' _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . if a yuma kills one of his own tribe he keeps 'a fast for one moon; on such occasions he eats no meat--only vegetables--drinks only water, knows no woman, and bathes frequently during the day to purify the flesh.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . 'it was their (mojaves,) custom never to eat salted meat for the next moon after the coming of a captive among them.' _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. - . [ ] 'entre cuyas tribus hay algunas que se comen á sus enemigos.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'los chirumas, que me parecen ser los yumas, no se que coman carne humana como dijo el indio cosnina.' _garces_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. . 'among the spoil which we took from these camanches, we found large portions of human flesh evidently prepared for cooking.' _dewees' texas_, p. - . certain europeans have represented the comanches 'as a race of cannibals; but according to the spaniards ... they are merely a cruel, dastardly race of savages.' _pagés' travels_, vol. i., p. . [ ] _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. . [ ] _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'gonorrhoea and syphilis are not at all rare' among the navajos. _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. . [ ] _hardy's trav._, p. - . 'los comanches la llaman puip; y cuando uno de entre ellos está herido, mascan la raiz (que es muy larga) y esprimen el yugo y la saliva en la llaga.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _id._, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. . the apaches: 'cuando se enferma alguno á quien no han podido hacer efecto favorable la aplicacion de las yerbas, único antidoto con que se curan, lo abandonan, sin mas diligencia ulterior que ponerle un monton de brasas á la cabecera y una poca de agua, sin saberse hasta hoy qué significa ésto ó con qué fin la hacen.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . [ ] _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _domenech_, _jour._, pp. , ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _parker's notes on tex._, p. - . among the comanches during the steam bath, 'the shamans, or medicine-men, who profess to have the power of communicating with the unseen world, and of propitiating the malevolence of evil spirits, are performing various incantations, accompanied by music on the outside.' _marcy's army life_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. ; _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . 'de aquí ha sucedido que algunos indios naturalmente astutos, se han convertido en adivinos, que han llegado á sostener como á sus oràculos. estos mismos adivinos hacen de médicos, que por darse importancía á la aplicacion de ciertas yerbas, agregan porcion de ceremonias supersticiosas y ridiculas, con cánticos estraños, en que hablan á sus enfermos miles de embustes y patrañas.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . [ ] at the colorado river they 'burned those which dyed.' _alarchon_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. - . 'it is the custom of the mojaves to burn their property when a relation dies to whose memory they wish to pay especial honor.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'die comanches tödteten früher das lieblingsweib des gestorbenen häuptlings.' _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. . 'no navajo will ever occupy a lodge in which a person has died. the lodge is burned.' _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'when a death occurs they (yumas) move their villages, although sometimes only a short distance, but never occupying exactly the same locality.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'when a comanche dies ... he is usually wrapped in his best blankets or robes, and interred with most of his "jewelry," and other articles of esteem.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. ii., pp. , . 'cuando muere algun indio, ... juntando sus deudos todas las alhajas de su peculio, se las ponen y de esta manera lo envuelven en una piel de cíbolo y lo llevan á enterrar.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _kennedy's texas_, vol. i., p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. . the comanches cover their tombs 'with grass and plants to keep them concealed.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _id._, _jour._, p. . the apaches: 'probably they bury their dead in caves; no graves are ever found that i ever heard of.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . see also _james' exped._, vol. ii., p. . 'on the highest point of the hill, was a comanche grave, marked by a pile of stones and some remnants of scanty clothing.' _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , . the custom of the mescalero apaches 'heretofore has been to leave their dead unburied in some secluded spot.' _curtis_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. . [ ] among the navajos 'immediately after a death occurs a vessel containing water is placed near the dwelling of the deceased, where it remains over night; in the morning two naked indians come to get the body for burial, with their hair falling over and upon their face and shoulders. when the ceremony is completed they retire to the water, wash, dress, do up their hair, and go about their usual avocations.' _bristol_, in _ind. aff. rept. spec. com._, , p. . the navajos 'all walked in solemn procession round it (the grave) singing their funeral songs. as they left it, every one left a present on the grave; some an arrow, others meat, moccasins, tobacco, war-feathers, and the like, all articles of value to them.' _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _revista científica_, tom. i., p. . 'a los niños y niñas de pecho les llevan en una jicara la leche ordenada de sus pechos las mismas madres, y se las echan en la sepultura; y esto lo hacen por algunos dias continuos.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _marcy's army life_, p. . 'when a young warrior dies, they mourn a long time, but when an old person dies, they mourn but little, saying that they cannot live forever, and it was time they should go.' _parker's notes on tex._, pp. , . [ ] _davis' el gringo_, pp. - ; _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . [ ] 'the quality of mercy is unknown among the apaches.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. - , , - , - . 'perfectly lawless, savage, and brave.' _marcy's rept._, p. . 'for the sake of the booty, also take life.' _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'inclined to intemperance in strong drinks.' _henry_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. v., p. . 'ferocísimos de condicion, de naturaleza sangrientos.' _almanza_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'sumamente vengativo.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'alevoso y vengativo caracte ... rastutos ladrones, y sanguinarios.' _bustamante_, in _cavo_, _tres siglos_, tom. iii., p. . 'i have not seen a more intelligent, cheerful, and grateful tribe of indians than the roving apaches.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , , ; _garcía conde_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. v., pp. - , ; _doc. hist. n. vizcaya, ms._, p. ; _cordero_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. , - ; _smart_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _turner_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxv., pp. , ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., pp. , , ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _mowry's arizona_, pp. - ; _pope_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , ; _hist. chrétienne de la cal._, p. ; _edward's hist. tex._, p. ; _peters' life of carson_, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _pike's explor. trav._, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., pp. - ; _figuier's hum. race_, pp. , ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. - , and _cent. amer._, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; see further, _ind. aff. repts._, from to ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, pp. , . [ ] the navajos: 'hospitality exists among these indians to a great extent.... nor are these people cruel.... they are treacherous.' _letherman_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. , . 'brave, hardy, industrious.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . 'tricky and unreliable.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . the mojaves: 'they are lazy, cruel, selfish; ... there is one good quality in them, the exactitude with which they fulfil an agreement.' _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , - ; _backus_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . [ ] _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. . 'estos indios se aventajan en muchas circunstancias á los yumas y demas naciones del rio colorado; son menos molestos y nada ladrones.' _garces_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. ; also in _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'grave and dignified ... implacable and unrelenting ... hospitable, and kind ... affectionate to each other ... jealous of their own freedom.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , - , , - , , . 'alta estima hacen del valor estas razas nomadas.' _museo mex._, tom. ii., p. . 'loin d'être cruels, ils-sont très-doux et très-fidèles dans leurs amitiés.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, serie i., tom. ix., p. ; _payno_, in _revista científica_, tom. i., p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de chihuahua_, pp. - ; _domenech_, _jour._, pp. , , ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, tom. v., no. , p. ; _neighbors_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , ; vol. ii., pp. , ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _shepard's land of the aztecs_, p. ; _pagés' travels_, vol. i., p. ; _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'tiguex est situé vers le nord, à environ quarante lieues,' from cíbola. _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . 'la province de cibola contient sept villages; le plus grand se nomme muzaque.' _id._, p. . of two provinces north of tiguex, 'l'une se nommait hemes, et renfermait sept villages; l'autre yuque-yunque.' _id._, p. . 'plus au nord (of tiguex) est la province de quirix ... et celle de tutahaco.' _id._, p. . from cicuyé to quivira, 'on compte sept autres villages.' _id._, p. . 'il existe aussi, d'après le rapport ... un autre royaume très-vaste, nommé villes, et la capitale. acus sans aspiration est un royaume.' _niza_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . 'the kingdome of totonteac so much extolled by the father prouinciall, ... the indians say is a hotte lake, about which are five or sixe houses; and that there were certaine other, but that they are ruinated by warre. the kingdome of marata is not to be found, neither haue the indians any knowledge thereof. the kingdome of acus is one onely small citie, where they gather cotton which is called acucu, and i say that this is a towne. for acus with an aspiration nor without, is no word of they countrey. and because i gesse that they would deriue acucu of acus, i say that it is this towne whereinto the kingdom of acus is conuerted.' _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _espeio_, in _id._, pp. - ; _mendoza_, _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _escalante_, in _id._, pp. - ; _pike's explor. trav._, pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . [ ] _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. - , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. - ; _hezio_, _noticia de las misiones_, in _meline's two thousand miles_, pp. - ; _chacon_, in _id._, pp. - ; _alencaster_, in _id._, p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _calhoun_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii. 'los nombres de los pueblos del moqui son, segun lengua de los yavipais, sesepaulabá, masagneve, janogualpa, muqui, concabe y muca á quien los zuñís llaman oraive, que es en el que estuve.' _garces_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. ; _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. . [ ] affirmations are abundant enough, but they have no foundation whatever in fact, and many are absurd on their face. 'nous affirmons que les indiens pueblos et les anciens mexicains sont issus d'une seule et même souche.' _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. . 'these indians claim, and are generally supposed, to have descended from the ancient aztec race.' _merriwether_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'they are the descendants of the ancient rulers of the country.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . 'they are the remains of a once powerful people.' _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _colyer_, in _id._, , p. . 'they (moquis) are supposed by some to be descended from the band of welsh, which prince madoc took with him on a voyage of discovery, in the twelfth century; and it is said that they weave peculiarly and in the same manner as the people of wales.' _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'il est assez singulier que les moquis soient désignés par les trappers et les chasseurs américains, qui pènètrent dans leur pays ... sous le nom d'indiens welches.' _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. . 'moques, supposed to be vestiges of aztecs.' _amer. quart. register_, vol. i., p. ; _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'les hommes sont petits.' _mendoza_, _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . the moquis are 'of medium size and indifferently proportioned, their features strongly marked and homely, with an expression generally bright and good-natured.' _ives' colorado riv._, pp. - , - . the keres 'sind hohen wuchses.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. - ; _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., pp. - ; _pike's explor. trav._, p. . [ ] 'the people are somewhat white.' _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . 'much fairer in complexion than other tribes.' _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. ; _kendall's nar._, vol. i., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _prichard's researches_, vol. v., pp. , ; _walker_, in _s. f. herald_, _oct. , _; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'prettiest squaws i have yet seen.' _marcy's army life_, p. . good looking and symmetrical. _davis' el gringo_, pp. - . [ ] _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . 'many of the inhabitants have white skin, fair hair, and blue eyes.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. . [ ] 'a robust and well-formed race.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . 'well built, generally tall and bony.' _walker's pimas, ms._ the maricopas 'sont de stature plus haute et plus athlétique que les pijmos.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; see also _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, pp. , ; _id._, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _bigler's early days in utah and nevada, ms._; _johnson's hist. arizona_, p. ; _brackett_, in _western monthly_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _san francisco bulletin_, _july, _. [ ] 'las mujeres hermosas.' _mange_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. , . 'rather too much inclined to embonpoint.' _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , , ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'ambos secsos ... no mal parecidos y muy melenudos.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , . 'trigueños de color.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'die masse, dicke und länge ihres haupthaares grenzt an das unglaubliche.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. - , ; _stratton's capt. oatman girls_, p. . [ ] 'heads are uncovered.' _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. . 'los hombres visten, y calçan de cuero, y las mugeres, que se precian de largos cabellos, cubren sus cabeças y verguenças con lo mesmo.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'de kleeding bestond uit kotoene mantels, huiden tot broeken, genaeyt, schoenen en laerzen van goed leder.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , - . the women 'having the calves of their legs wrapped or stuffed in such a manner as to give them a swelled appearance.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. - , , , - ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _espejo_, in _id._, pp. - ; _niza_, in _id._, pp. , ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. , , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., pp. , , vol. ii., pp. , ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _wizlizenus' tour_, p. ; _larenaudière_, _mex. et gaut._, p. ; _warden_, _recherches_, p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. - , - ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. - , , , , ; _jaramillo_, in _id._, pp. - ; _ives' colorado riv._, pp. - ; _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _abert_, in _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , ; _kendall's nar._, vol. i., p. ; _revilla-gigedo_, _carta, ms._; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iv., p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , - ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. , . [ ] both sexes go bareheaded. 'the hair is worn long, and is done up in a great queue that falls down behind.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. , - , . the women 'trençan los cabellos, y rodeanse los à la cabeça, por sobre las orejas.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'llevan las viejas el pelo hecho dos trenzas y las mozas un moño sobre cada oreja.' _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'van vestidos estos indios con frazadas de algodon, que ellos fabrican, y otras de lana.' _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. . their dress is cotton of domestic manufacture. _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'kunstreich dagegen sind die bunten gürtel gewebt, mit denen die mädchen ein stück zeug als rock um die hüften binden.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. , ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - , ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , ; _mowry's arizona_, p. ; _mange_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. - ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; _briefe aus den verein. staat._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'men never cut their hair.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . they plait and wind it round their heads in many ways; one of the most general forms a turban which they smear with wet earth. _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. ; _emory_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii., p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. , , ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'all of them paint, using no particular design; the men mostly with dark colors, the women, red and yellow.' _walker's pimas, ms._; _johnson's hist. arizona_, p. . 'the women when they arrive at maturity, ... draw two lines with some blue-colored dye from each corner of the mouth to the chin.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'adornanse con gargantillas de caracolillos del mar, entreverados de otras cuentas de concha colorada redonda.' _mange_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'they had many ornaments of sea shells.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . 'some have long strings of sea-shells.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. - . 'rarely use ornaments.' _walker's pimas, ms._; _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. - ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. , p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. . the maricopas 'occupy thatched cottages, thirty or forty feet in diameter, made of the twigs of cotton-wood trees, interwoven with the straw of wheat, corn-stalks, and cane.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. ; _mange_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. , - . 'leurs (pápagos) maisons sont de formes coniques et construites en jonc et en bois.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _walker's pimas, ms._; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , . 'andere, besonders die dummen papagos, machten löcher und schliefen des nachts hierinnen; ja im winter machten sie in ihren dachslöchern zuvor feuer, und hitzten dieselben.' _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . 'their summer shelters are of a much more temporary nature, being constructed after the manner of a common arbor, covered with willow rods, to obstruct the rays of the vertical sun.' _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. . in front of the pimo house is usually 'a large arbor, on top of which is piled the cotton in the pod, for drying.' _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. . the pápagos' huts were 'fermées par des peaux de buffles.' _ferry_, _scènes de la vie sauvage_, p. . granary built like the mexican _jakals_. they are better structures than their dwellings, more open, in order to give a free circulation of air through the grain deposited in them. _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, pp. , , , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. ii.; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. , - . 'ellas son las que hacen, y edifican las casas, assi de piedra, como de adove, y tierra amasada; y con no tener la pared mas de vn pie de ancho, suben las casas dos, y tres, y quatro, y cinco sobrados, ó altos; y á cada alto, corresponde vn corredor por de fuera; si sobre esta altura hechan mas altos, ó sobrados (porque ay casas que llegan á siete) son los demás, no de barro, sino de madera.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . for further particulars, see _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , , , , , , , , , ; _niza_, in _id._, pp. , , , ; _diaz_, in _id._, pp. , ; _jaramillo_, in _id._, pp. , _cordoue_, in _id._, tom. x., pp. - ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , , ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _ten broeck_, in _id._, vol. iv., pp. , , and plates, pp. , ; _warden_, _recherches_, p. ; _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, p. ; _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , , ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , , , ; _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., pp. , , , ; _gallatin_, in _id._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. , , , , , , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , , - ; _coronado_, in _id._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _niza_, in _id._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, _tagebuch_, pp. - , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , , . the town of cíbola 'domos è lapidibus et caemento affabre constructas et conjunctim dispositas esse, superliminaria portarum cyaneis gemmis, (turcoides vocant) ornata.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , - ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. . 'the houses are well distributed and very neat. one room is designed for the kitchen, and another to grind the grain. this last is apart, and contains a furnace and three stones made fast in masonry.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. - , , , , , , ; _castaño de sosa_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. . [ ] in the province of tucayan, 'domiciliis inter se junctis et affabre constructis, in quibus et tepidaria quae vulgo stuvas appellamus, sub terra constructa adversus hyemis vehementiam.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'in the centre was a small square box of stone, in which was a fire of guava bushes, and around this a few old men were smoking.' _marcy's army life_, p. . 'estufas, que mas propiamente deberian llamar sinagogas. en estas hacen sus juntas, forman sus conciliábulos, y ensayan sus bailes á puerta cerrada.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , - , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _niel_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] 'magna ipsis mayzü copia et leguminum.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , , - , . 'hallaron en los pueblos y casas muchos mantenimientos, y gran infinidad de gallinas de la tierra.' _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , . 'criaban las indias muchas gallinas de la tierra.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'zy leven by mair, witte orweten, haesen, konynen en vorder wild-braed.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. , and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . compare _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. - , , ; _cortez_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, pp. - ; _jaramillo_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. - ; _diaz_, in _id._, pp. - ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , , , ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _bent_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; ruxton, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. ; _gallatin_, in _id._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. - , , - , , ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in the felsengeb._, tom. ii., pp. , ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. , - , - ; _browne's apache country_, pp. , , - , - , - ; _sedelmair_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. , ; _id._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _emory's reconnoissance_, p. ; _mowry's arizona_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, pp. , ; _eaton_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _ind. aff. repts._, from to . [ ] 'para su sustento no reusa animal, por inmundo que sea.' _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. . 'los pápagos se mantienen de los frutos silvestres.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. - . 'hatten grossen appetit zu pferd- und mauleselfleisch.' _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. - , , - ; _sonora_, _descrip., geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. . [ ] the pimas 'hacen grandes siembras ... para cuyo riego tienen formadas buenas acequias.' _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., pp. , . 'we were at once impressed with the beauty, order, and disposition of the arrangements for irrigating.' _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, pp. - . with the pueblos: 'regen-bakken vergaederden 't water: of zy leiden 't uit een rievier door graften.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._; _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'usan de hilo torcido unas redes y otras de varios palitos, que los tuercen y juntan por las puntas.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] 'hacen de la masa de ma'z por la mañana atole.... tambien hacen tamales, y tortillas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'the fruit of the petajaya ... is dried in the sun.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , , , - . 'from the suwarrow (cereus giganteus) and pitaya they make an excellent preserve.' _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . see also _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , , , , ; _carleton_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , , - ; _davis' el gringo_, pp. , , - , - ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. - , . [ ] _ives' colorado riv._, pp. - , . 'ils vont faire leurs odeurs au loin, et rassemblent les urines dans de grands vases de terre que l'on va vider hors du village.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . [ ] 'the only defensive armor they use is a rude shield made of raw bull-hide.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. - . 'bows and arrows, and the wooden boomerang.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the papagos 'armes sont la massue, la lance et l'arc; ils portent aussi une cuirasse et un bouclier en peau de buffle.' _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . for further comparisons see _whipple, ewbank, and turner's rept._, p. , in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii.; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _larenaudière_, _mex. et guat._, p. ; _pike's explor. trav._, p. ; _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. .; _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _sedelmair_, in _id._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _id._, p. ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., pp. , . [ ] bows 'of strong willow-boughs.' _walker's pimas, ms._ 'bows are six feet in length, and made of a very tough and elastic kind of wood, which the spaniards call tarnio.' _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. , . [ ] the pima 'arrows differ from those of all the apache tribes in having only two feathers.' _cremony's apaches_, p. . 'war arrows have stone points and three feathers; hunting arrows, two feathers and a wooden point.' _walker's pimas, ms._; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] the pimas: 'flechas, ennervadas con el eficaz mortífero veneno que componen de varias ponzoñas, y el zumo de la yerba llamada en pima _usap_.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'die spitzen ihrer pfeile ... welche mit einer dunklen substanz überzogen waren. sie behaupteten, dass diese aus schlangengift bestehe, was mir indess unwahrscheinlich ist.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , . [ ] 'una macana, como clava ó porra.... estas son de un palo muy duro y pesado.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'macanas, que son vnas palos de media vara de largo, y llanos todos de pedernales agudos, que bastan a partir por medio vn hombre.' _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., pp. , . [ ] 'de grosses pierres avaient été rassemblées au sommet, pour les rouler sur quiconque attaquerait la place.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. . 'they have placed around all the trails leading to the town, pits, ten feet deep.' _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . see further, _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . [ ] 'painted to the eyes, their own heads and their horses covered with all the strange equipments that the brute creation could afford.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . [ ] 'sometimes a fellow would stoop almost to the earth, to shoot under his horse's belly, at full speed.' _emory's reconnoissance_, p. . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._ [ ] _cremony's apaches_, p. . [ ] _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. - ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, pp. , ; _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, serie v., no. , p. . [ ] _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _cremony's apaches_, pp. - . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. - . [ ] baskets and pottery 'are ornamented with geometrical figures.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - , . 'schüsselförmige runde körbe (coritas), diese flechten sie aus einem hornförmigen, gleich einer ahle spitzigen unkraute.' _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . the pueblos had 'de la vaiselle de terre très-belle, bien vernie et avec beaucoup d'ornements. on y vit aussi de grands jarres remplies d'un métal brillant qui servait à faire le vernis de cette faïence.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , ; see also _niza_, in _id._, p. . 'they (pueblos) vse vessels of gold and siluer.' _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, pp. , , , ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. , ; _carleton_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., pp. , ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _browne's apache country_, pp. , , , . [ ] 'all the inhabitants of the citie (cíbola) lie vpon beddes raysed a good height from the ground, with quilts and canopies ouer them, which couer the sayde beds.' _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _id._, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . the quires had 'umbracula (vulgo tirazoles) quibus sinenses utuntur solis, lunæ, et stellarum imaginibus eleganter picta.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . the moquis' chief men have pipes made of smooth polished stone. _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. . [ ] _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , , . 'sie flechten von zartgeschlitzten palmen auf damastart die schönsten ganz leichten hüthe, aus einem stücke.' _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . the maricopa blankets will turn rain. _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . the moquis wove blankets from the wool of their sheep, and made cotton cloth from the indigenous staple. _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the maricopas make a heavy cloth of wool and cotton, 'used by the women to put around their loins; and an article from to inches wide, used as a band for the head, or a girdle for the waist.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'rupicaprarum tergora eminebant (among the yumanes) tam industriè præparata ut cum belgicis certarent.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . [ ] _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., pp. , ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , , ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _eaton_, in _id._, vol. iv., p. ; _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. ; see further _ind. aff. reports_, from to ; _browne's apache country_, p. . 'these papagos regularly visit a salt lake, which lies near the coast and just across the line of sonora, from which they pack large quantities of salt, and find a ready market at tubac and tucson.' _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. , and , p. . 'many pimas had jars of the molasses expressed from the fruit of the cereus giganteus.' _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. . [ ] 'die vernichtung des eigenthums eines verstorbenen,--einen unglücklichen gebrauch der jeden materiellen fortschritt unmöglich macht.' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., p. . 'the right of inheritance is held by the females generally, but it is often claimed by the men also.' _gorman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'all the effects of the deceased (pima) become common property: his grain is distributed; his fields shared out to those who need land; his chickens and dogs divided up among the tribe.' _browne's apache country_, pp. , ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _niza_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , , ; _id._, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . the zuñis 'will sell nothing for money, but dispose of their commodities entirely in barter.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . the pimos 'wanted white beads for what they had to sell, and knew the value of money.' _cutts' conq. of cal._, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. xi., pp. , . 'ils apportèrent des coquillages, des turquoises et des plumes.' _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, in _id._, tom. vii., p. ; _diaz_, in _id._, tom. xi., p. ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . many of the pueblo indians are rich, 'one family being worth over one hundred thousand dollars. they have large flocks.' _colyer_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . [ ] _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. ; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . [ ] 'estos ahijados tienen mucho oro y lo benefician.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. i., p. . 'they vse vessels of gold and siluer, for they have no other mettal.' _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. - , - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _diaz_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . [ ] pueblo government purely democratic; election held once a year. 'besides the officers elected by universal suffrage, the principal chiefs compose a "council of wise men."' _davis' el gringo_, pp. - . 'one of their regulations is to appoint a secret watch for the purpose of keeping down disorders and vices of every description.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. . see further: _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _niza_, in _id._, p. ; _palmer_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xvii., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxi., p. ; _stanley's portraits_, p. . [ ] _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _marcy's army life_, p. . [ ] 'gobierno no tienen alguno, ni leyes, tradiciones ó costumbres con que gobernarse.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'cada cual gobernado por un anciano, y todas por el general de la nacion.' _escudero_, _noticias de sonora y sinaloa_, p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . compare: _grossman_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _walker's pimas, ms._ [ ] 'un homme n'épouse jamais plus d'une seule femme.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _ward_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . [ ] 'ils traitent bien leurs femmes.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . 'desde que maman los niños, los laban sus madres con nieve todo el cuerpo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. . [ ] 'early marriages occur ... but the relation is not binding until progeny results.' _poston_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'no girl is forced to marry against her will, however eligible her parents may consider the match.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. - ; _davis' el gringo_, p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _browne's apache country_, p. . [ ] 'si el marido y mujer se desavienen y los hijos non pequeños, se arriman á cualquiera de los dos y cada uno gana por su lado.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'tanto los pápagos occidentales, como los citados gilas desconocen la poligamia.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'among the pimas loose women are tolerated.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. - ; _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. ; _emory's rept. u. s. and mex. boundary survey_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'the pimas also cultivate a kind of tobacco, this, which is very light, they make up into cigaritos, never using a pipe.' _walker's pimas, ms._ the pueblos 'sometimes get intoxicated.' _walker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . the pueblos 'are generally free from drunkenness.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . [ ] _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'their hair hung loose upon their shoulders, and both men and women had their hands painted with white clay, in such a way as to resemble open-work gloves. the women ... were bare-footed, with the exception of a little piece tied about the heel.... they all wore their hair combed over their faces, in a manner that rendered it utterly impossible to recognize any of them.... they keep their elbows close to their sides, and their heels pressed firmly together, and do not raise the feet, but shuffle along with a kind of rolling motion, moving their arms, from the elbows down, with time to the step. at times, each man dances around his squaw; while she turns herself about, as if her heels formed a pivot on which she moved.' _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. . the dresses of the men were similar to those worn on other festivities, 'except that they wear on their heads large pasteboard towers painted typically, and curiously decorated with feathers; and each man has his face entirely covered by a vizor made of small willows with the bark peeled off, and dyed a deep brown.' _id._, p. . 'such horrible masks i never saw before--noses six inches long, mouths from ear to ear, and great goggle eyes, as big as half a hen's egg, hanging by a string partly out of the socket.' _id._, p. . 'each pueblo generally had its particular uniform dress and its particular dance. the men of one village would sometimes disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, moving on all-fours, and mimicking the animal they were attempting to personate. others would appear in the garb of a turkey, with large heavy wings.' _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., pp. , . 'festejo todo (pimas) el dia nuestra llegada con un esquisito baile en forma circular, en cuyo centro figaraba una prolongada asta donde pendian trece cabelleras, arcos, flechas y demas despojos de otros tantos enemigos apaches que habian muerto.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'este lo forma una junta de truhanes vestidos de ridículo y autorizados por los viejos del pueblo para cometer los mayores desórdenes, y gustan tanto de estos hechos, que ni los maridos reparan las infamias que cometen con sus mugeres, ni las que resultan en perjuicio de las hijas.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. - . for further particulars see _kendall's nar._, vol. i., p. ; _marcy's army life_, pp. - ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _davis' el gringo_, pp. - ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _sitgreaves' zuñi ex._, plates , , ; _whipple_, in _pac. r. r. rept._, vol. iii., p. ; _pike's explor. trav._, p. . [ ] _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _johnson's hist. arizona_, p. . 'their instruments consisted, each of half a gourd, placed before them, with the convex side up; upon this they placed, with the left hand, a smooth stick, and with their right drew forward and backwards upon it, in a sawing manner, a notched one.' _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'i noticed, among other things, a reed musical instrument with a bell-shaped end like a clarionet, and a pair of painted drumsticks tipped with gaudy feathers.' _ives' colorado riv._, p. . 'les indiens (pueblos) accompagnent leurs danses et leur chants avec des flûtes, où sont marqués les endroits où il faut placer les doigts.... ils disent que ces gens se réunissent cinq ou six pour jouer de la flûte; que ces instruments sont d'inégales grandeurs.' _diaz_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _castañeda_, in _id._, pp. , ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. . 'while they are at work, a man, seated at the door, plays on a bagpipe, so that they work keeping time: they sing in three voices.' _davis' el gringo_, p. . [ ] the cocomaricopas, 'componen unas bolas redondas del tamaño de una pelota de materia negra como pez, y embutidas en ellas varias conchitas pequeñas del mar con que hacen labores y con que juegan y apuestan, tirándola con la punta del pié corren tres ó cuatro leguas y la particularidad es que el que da vuelta y llega al puesto donde comenzaron y salieron á la par ese gana.' _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'it is a favorite amusement with both men [maricopas] and boys to try their skill at hitting the pitahaya, which presents a fine object on the plain. numbers often collect for this purpose; and in crossing the great plateau, where these plants abound, it is common to see them pierced with arrows.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'amusements of all kinds are universally resorted to [among the pueblos]; such as foot-racing, horse-racing, cock-fighting, gambling, dancing, eating, and drinking.' _ward_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. , . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._ 'the papago of to-day will on no account kill a coyote.' _davidson_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. . 'eben so abergläubischen gebrauch hatten sie bey drohenden kieselwetter, da sie den hagel abzuwenden ein stück von einem palmteppiche an einem stecken anhefteten und gegen die wolken richteten.' _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. , ; _arny_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , pp. , . 'a sentinel ascends every morning at sunrise to the roof of the highest house, and, with eyes directed towards the east, looks out for the arrival of the divine chieftain, who is to give the sign of deliverance.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., p. , , , , and vol. ii., p. . 'on a dit que la coutume singulière de conserver perpétuellement un feu sacré près duquel les anciens mexicains attendaient le retour du dieu quetzacoatl, existe aussi chez les pueblos.' _ruxton_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxvi., p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv.. p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. ; _cremony's apaches_, p. ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, p. . 'i, however, one night, at san felipe, clandestinely witnessed a portion of their secret worship. one of their secret night dances is called tocina, which is too horrible to write about.' _arny_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _ward_, in _id._, , p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. . 'ils ont des prêtres ... ils montent sur la terrasse la plus élevée du village et font un sermon au moment où le soleil se lève.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._; _mowry_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _ruggles_, in _id._, , p. ; _andrews_, in _id._, , p. ; _ward_, in _id._, , p. ; _davis' el gringo_, pp. , . the cause of the decrease of the pecos indians is 'owing to the fact that they seldom if ever marry outside of their respective pueblos.' _parker_, in _ind. aff. rept._, , p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. . 'au milieu [of the estufa] est un foyer allumé, sur lequel on jette de temps en temps une poignée de thym, ce qui suffit pour entretenir la chaleur, de sorte qu'on y est comme dans un bain.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . [ ] _walker's pimas, ms._ the pimas, 'usan enterrar sus varones con su arco y flechas, y algun bastimento y calabazo de agua, señal que alcanzan vislumbre de la immortalidad, aunque no con la distincion de prémio ó castigo.' _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. . 'the maricopas invariably bury their dead, and mock the ceremony of cremation.' ... 'sacrifice at the grave of a warrior all the property of which he died possessed, together with all in possession of his various relatives.' _cremony's apaches_, pp. , . 'the pimos bury their dead, while the coco-maricopas burn theirs.' _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. ii., p. . 'the females of the family [pueblo] approached in a mournful procession (while the males stood around in solemn silence), each one bearing on her head a tinaja, or water-jar, filled with water, which she emptied into the grave, and whilst doing so commenced the death-cry. they came singly and emptied their jars, and each one joined successively in the death-cry; ... they believe that on a certain day (in august, i think) the dead rise from their graves and flit about the neighboring hills, and on that day, all who have lost friends, carry out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and such other good things of this life as they can obtain, and place them in the haunts frequented by the dead, in order that the departed spirits may once more enjoy the comforts of this nether world.' _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - . if the dead pima was a chief, 'the villagers are summoned to his burial. over his grave they hold a grand festival. the women weep and the men howl, and they go into a profound mourning of tar. soon the cattle are driven up and slaughtered, and every body heavily-laden with sorrow, loads his squaw with beef, and feasts for many days.' _browne's apache country_, pp. - ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. , , ; _ferry_, _scènes de la vie sauvage_, p. ; _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _id._, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . [ ] 'though naturally disposed to peaceful pursuits, the papagoes are not deficient in courage.' _browne's apache country_, pp. , , - , , ; _johnson's hist. arizona_, p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _escudero_, _noticias de sonora y sinaloa_, p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , ; _froebel's cent. amer._, pp. , , ; _id._, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _garces_, _diario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie ii., tom. i., p. ; _sedelmair_, _relacion_, in _id._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _gallardo_, in _id._, p. . 'the peaceful disposition of the maricopas is not the result of incapacity for war, for they are at all times enabled to meet, and vanquish the apaches in battle.' _emory_, in _fremont and emory's notes of trav._, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., pp. , ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. , ; _mange_, _itinerario_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., pp. - ; _mowry's arizona_, p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, pp. , ; _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - , . 'the pueblos were industrious and unwarlike in their habits.' _marcy's army life_, pp. , . the moquis 'are a mild and peaceful race of people, almost unacquainted with the use of arms, and not given to war. they are strictly honest.... they are kind and hospitable to strangers.' _davis' el gringo_, pp. , . 'c'est une race (pueblos) remarquablement sobre et industrieuse, qui se distingue par sa moralité.' _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. , , ; _ruxton_, in _id._, , tom. cxxvi., pp. , , ; _ruxton's adven. mex._, p. ; _ives' colorado riv._, pp. , , , , - ; _gregg's com. prairies_, vol. i., p. , , ; _pike's explor. trav._, p. ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. iv., p. ; _champagnac_, _voyageur_, p. ; _hughes' doniphan's ex._, pp. , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _wislizenus' tour_, p. ; _pattie's pers. nar._, p. ; _ten broeck_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. , ; _eaton_, in _id._, p. ; _bent_, in _id._, vol. i., p. ; _kendall's nar._, vol. i., p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _möllhausen_, _tagebuch_, p. ; _möllhausen_, _reisen in die felsengeb._, tom. ii., p. . the pueblos 'are passionately fond of dancing, and give themselves up to this diversion with a kind of frenzy.' _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., pp. , , , , and vol. ii., pp. , - ; _cutts' conq. of cal._, pp. - , ; _simpson's jour. mil. recon._, pp. , , , ; _scenes in the rocky mts._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - ; _mayer's mex. as it was_, p. ; _id._, _mex., aztec etc._, vol. ii., p. . see further: _ind. aff. rept._, from to . [ ] _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _forbes' cal._, pp. - ; _mofras_, _explor._, tom. i., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _gleeson's hist. cath. church_, vol. i., pp. - ; _prichard's researches_, vol. v., p. . 'esse sono tre nella california cristiana, cioè quelle de' pericui, de' guaicuri, e de' cochimì.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . venegas, in giving the opinion of father taravàl, says: 'tres son (dice este habil missionero) las lenguas: la cochimi, la pericù, y la de loreto. de esta ultima salen dos ramos, y son: la guaycùra, y la uchiti; verdad es, que es la variacion tanta, que el que no tuviere connocimiento de las tres lenguas, juzgara, no solo que hay quatro lenguas, sino que hay cinco.... està poblada la primera àzia el medioda, desde el cabo de san lucas, hasta mas acá del puerto de la paz de la nacion pericú, ó siguiendo la terminacion castellana de los pericúes: la segunda desde la paz, hasta mas arriba del presidio real de loreto, es de los monquis; la tercera desde el territorio de loreto, por todo lo descubierto al norte de la nacion cochimi, ó de los cochimíes.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . 'auf der halbinsel alt-californien wohnen: an der südspitze die perícues, dann die monquis oder menguis, zu welchen die familien der guaycúras und coras gehören, die cochímas oder colímiës, die laimónes, die utschítas oder vehítis, und die icas.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . 'all the indian tribes of the peninsula seem to be affiliated with the yumas of the colorado and with the coras below la paz ... in no case do they differ in intellect, habits, customs, dress, implements of war, or hunting, traditions, or appearances from the well-known digger indians of alta-california, and undoubtedly belong to the same race or family.' _browne's lower cal._, pp. - . [ ] 'di buona statura, ben fatti, sani, e robusti.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - . 'el color en todos es muy moreno ... no tienen barba ni nada de vello en el cuerpo.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. , , carta ii., p. . compare: _kino_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _crespi_, in _id._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. , ; _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. ; _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; _gleeson's hist. cath. church_, p. . [ ] 'siendo de gran deshonra en los varones el vestido.' _salvatierra_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. v., p. . 'aprons are about a span wide, and of different length.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - . consult further: _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _gleeson's hist. cath. church_, pp. - , - ; _forbes' cal._, pp. , ; _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - , , ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. , and in _berenger_, _col. de voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'unos se cortan un pedazo de oreja, otros las dos; otros agugerean el labio inferior, otros las narizes, y es cosa de risa, pues allí llevan colgando ratoncillos, lagartijitas, conchitas. &c.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. , . 'it has been asserted that they also pierce the nose. i can only say that i saw no one disfigured in that particular manner.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'nudi agunt, genas quadratis quibusdam notis signati.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . further reference: _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., pp. , ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. - , and in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. . [ ] _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. ; _campbell's hist. span. amer._, p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. , ; _californias, noticias_, carta i., p. ; _lockman's trav. jesuits_, vol. i., p. . 'le abitazioncelle più comuni sono certe chiuse circolari di sassi sciolti, ed ammucchiati, le quali hanno cinque piedi di diametro, e meno di due d'altezza.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . 'i am certainly not much mistaken in saying that many of them change their night-quarters more than a hundred times in a year.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'twenty-four pounds of meat in twenty-four hours is not deemed an extraordinary ration for a single person.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - . 'no tienen horas señaladas para saciar su apetito: comen cuanto hallan por delante; hasta las cosas mas sucias sirven á su gula.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. - , ; see also: _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _salvatierra_, in _id._, serie iv., tom. v., p. ; _crespi_, in _id._, serie iv., tom. vii., pp. , , ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., pp. - ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'la pesca si fa da loro in due maniere, o con reti nella spiaggia, o ne' gorghi rimasi della marea, o con forconi in alto mare.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. , - ; 'use neither nets nor hooks, but a kind of lance.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'forman los indios redes para pescar, y para otros usos.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'poichè le stesse donne si lavavano, e si lavano anche oggidì con essa (orina) la faccia.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. ; _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. , ; _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _kino_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. i., p. ; _crespi_, in _id._, serie iv., tom. vii., p. . 'si trovarono altre spezie d'armi per ferir da vicino, ma tutte di legno. la prima è un mazzapicchio, simile nella forma a una girella col suo manico tutta d'un pezzo. la seconda è a foggia d'un ascia di legnajuolo tutta anch'essa d'un sol pezzo. la terza ha la forma d'una piccola scimitara.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. , . [ ] 'el modo de publicar la guerra era, hacer con mucho estruendo gran provision de cañas, y pedernales para sus flechas, y procurar, que por varios caminos llegassen las assonadas à oídos de sus contrarios.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . referring to venegas' work, baegert, _smithsonian rept._, , p. , says: 'all that is said in reference to the warfare of the californians is wrong. in their former wars they merely attacked the enemy unexpectedly during the night, or from an ambush, and killed as many as they could, without order, previous declaration of war, or any ceremonies whatever.' see also: _apostólicos afanes_, pp. - , and _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'in lieu of knives and scissors they use sharp flints for cutting almost everything--cane, wood, aloë, and even their hair.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'le loro reti, tanto quelle da pescare, quanto quelle, che servono a portare checchessia, le fanno col filo, che tirano dalle foglie del mezcal.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. . further notice in _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . [ ] vancouver, _voy._, vol. ii., p. , speaking of lower california says: 'we were visited by one of the natives in a straw canoe.' 'vedemmo che vsci vna canoua in mare con tre indiani dalle lor capanne.' _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. - , , , and in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . see further: _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. , and in _berenger_, _col. de voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'tienen trato de pescado con los indios de tierra adentro.' _salmeron_, _relaciones_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; also, _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. - . [ ] 'su modo de contar es muy diminuto y corto, pues apénas llegan á cinco, y otros á diez, y van multiplicando segun pueden.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., p. . 'non dividevano l'anno in mesi, ma solamente in sei stagioni.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia della, cal._, tom. i., pp. - . _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. . 'entre ellos siempre hay alguno mas desahogado y atrevido, que se reviste con el caracter de capitan: pero ni este tiene jurisdiccion alguna, ni le obedecen, y en estando algo viejo lo suelen quitar del mando: solo en los lances que les tiene cuenta siguen sus dictámenes.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. , . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_ tom. iii., fol. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - . 'sus casamientos son muy ridiculos: unos para casarse enseñan sus cuerpos á las mugeres, y estas á ellos; y adoptándose á su gusto, se casan: otros en fin, que es lo mas comun, se casan sin ceremonia.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. , - . 'el adulterio era mirado como delito, que por lo menos daba justo motivo á la venganza, á excepción de dos ocasiones: una la de sus fiestas, y bayles: y otra la de las luchas.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., p. . 'les hommes s'approchaient des femmes comme des animaux, et les femmes se mettaient publiquement à quatre pattes pour les recevoir.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . this method of copulation is by no means peculiar to the lower californians, but is practiced almost universally by the wild tribes of the pacific states. writers naturally do not mention this custom, but travellers are unanimous in their verbal accounts respecting it. [ ] 'fiesta entre los indios gentiles no es mas que una concurrencia de hombres y mugeres de todas partes para desahogar los apetitos de luxuria y gula.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. - . 'una de las fiestas mas celebres de los cochimies era la del dia, en que repartian las pieles à las mugeres una vez al año.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _salvatierra_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. v., pp. , . [ ] _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. , . 'there existed always among the californians individuals of both sexes who played the part of sorcerers or conjurers, pretending to possess the power of exorcising the devil.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - . 'las carreras, luchas, peleas y otras trabajos voluntarios les ocasionan muchos dolores de pecho y otros accidentes.' _californias, noticias_, carta i., pp. - . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _apostólicos afanes_, pp. - ; _salvatierra_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. v., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., pp. - . 'rogaba el enfermo, que le chupassen, y soplassen de el modo mismo, que lo hacian los curanderos. executaban todos por su orden este oficio de piedad, chupando, y soplando primero la parte lesa, y despues todos los otros organos de los sentidos.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] baegert says: 'it seems tedious to them to spend much time near an old, dying person that was long ago a burden to them and looked upon with indifference. a person of my acquaintance restored a girl to life that was already bound up in a deer-skin, according to their custom, and ready for burial.' _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . [ ] 'solevano essi onorar la memoria d'alcuni defunti ponendo sopra un' alta pertica la loro figura gossamente formata di rami, presso alla quale si metteva un guama a predicar le loro lodi.' _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. . [ ] 'la estupidèz è insensibilidad: la falta de conocimiento, y reflexion: la inconstancia, y volubilidad de una voluntad, y apetitos sin freno, sin luz, y aun sin objeto: la pereza, y horror à todo trabajo, y fatiga à la adhesion perpetua à todo linage de placer, y entretenimiento puerìl, y brutàl: la pusilanimidad, y flaqueza de animo; y finalmente, la falta miserable de todo lo que forma à los hombres esto es racionales, politicos, y utiles para sì, y para la sociedad.' _venegas_, _noticia de la cal._, tom. i., pp. - , - . 'las naciones del norte eran mas despiertas, dóciles y fieles, ménos viciosas y libres, y por tanto mejor dispuestas para recibir el cristianismo que las que habitaban al sur.' _sutil y mexicana_, _viage_, p. lxxxix. 'eran los coras y pericues, y generalmente las rancherias del sur de california, mas ladinos y capaces; pero tambien mas viciosos é inquietos que las demas naciones de la península.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. . 'ces peuples sont d'une tres-grande docilité, ils se laissent instruire.' _californie, nouvelle descente_, in _voy. de l'empereur de la chine_, p. . other allusions to their character may be found in _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. i., p. ; _villa-señor y sanchez_, _theatro_, tom. ii., p. ; _baegert_, in _smithsonian rept._, , pp. - ; _crespi_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. vii., pp. , - ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia della cal._, tom. i., pp. - ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] father ribas, the first priest who visited the yaquis, was surprised at the loud rough tone in which they spoke. when he remonstrated with them for doing so, their reply was, 'no vés que soy hiaqui: y dezianlo, porque essa palabra, y nombre, significa, el que habla a gritos.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. . mayos: 'their name comes from their position, and means in their own language boundary, they having been bounded on both sides by hostile tribes.' _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. . 'segun parece, la palabra _talahumali ó tarahumari_ significa, "_corredor de a pié_;" de _tala ó tara_, pié, _y huma_, correr'. _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'la palabra _tepehuan_ creen algunos que es mexicana, y corrupcion de _tepehuani_, conquistador; ó bien un compuesto de _tepetl_, monte, y _hua_, desinencia que en mexicano indica posesion, como si dijéramos señor ó dueño del monte. otros, acaso con mas exactitud, dicen que _tepchuan_ es voz tarahumar, derivada de _pehua_ ó pegua, que significa _duro_, lo cual conviene con el carácter de la nacion.' _id._, tom. ii., p. . 'la palabra _acaxee_ parece ser la misma que la de _acaxete_, nombre de un pueblo perteneciente al estado de _puebla_, ambos corrupcion de la palabra mexicana _acaxitl_, compuesta de _atl_ (agua,) y de _caxitl_ (cazuela ó escudilla), hoy tambien corrompida, _cajete_: el todo significa _alberca_, nombre perfectamente adecuado á la cosa, pues que alcedo, [_diccion. geográf. de américa_] dice que en _acaxete_, "hay una caja ó arca de agua de piedra de cantería, en que se recogen las que bajan de la sierra y se conducen à _tepeaca_: el nombre, pues, nos dice que si no la obra arquitectónica, á lo menos la idea y la ejecucion, vienen desde los antiguos mexicanos."' _diccionario universal de hist. geog._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'las mugeres son notables por los pechos y piés pequeños.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . 'tienen la vista muy aguda.... el oido es tambien vivissimo.' _arlegui_, _crón. de zacatecas_, pp. - . see also, _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , ; _zuñiga_, in _escudero_, _noticias de sonora y sinaloa_, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , pp. , ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans._, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, pp. - ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, pp. , ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. , ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _guzman_, _rel. anon._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., fol. ; _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. - ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., pp. , ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'no alcanzan ropa de algodon, si no es algunas pampanillas y alguna manta muy gruesa; porque el vestido de ellos es de cuero de venados adobados, y el vestido que dellos hacen es coser un cuero con otro y ponérselos por debajo del brazo atados al hombro, y las mujeres traen sus naguas hechas con sus jirones que les llegan hasta los tobillos como faja.' _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., pp. , , . the ceri women wear 'pieles de alcatras por lo general, ó una tosca frazada de lana envuelta en la cintura.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , , . [ ] the temoris had 'las orejas cercadas de los zarcillos que ellos vsan, adornados de conchas de nacar labradas, y ensartadas en hilos azules, y cercan toda la oreja.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , . near culiacan, nuño de guzman met about , warriors who 'traian al cuello sartas de codornices, pericos pequeños y otros diferentes pajaritos.' _tello_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. . the humes, 'coronadas sus cabezas de diademas de varias plumas de papagayos, guacamayas con algunos penachos de hoja de plata batida.' _ahumada_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. . 'los indios de este nuevo reyno son de diversas naciones que se distinguen por la diversidad de rayas en el rostro.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , . 'no hemos visto á ningun carrizo pintado con vermellon, tal como lo hacen otros.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . for further description see _hardy's trav._, pp. - , ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, pp. - ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _espejo_, in _id._, pp. , - ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. vii., p. ; _castañeda_, in _id._, tom. ix., p. ; _jaramillo_, in _id._, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , pp. - , ; _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. ; _arnaya_, in _id._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _descrip. top._, in _id._, serie iv., tom. iv., pp. - ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., pp. , - ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. , , and ii., pp. , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , , ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , - ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, pp. - ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, pp. - ; _hazart_, _kirchen-geschichte_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'todos los pueblos de los indios cobiertas las casas de esteras, á las cuales llaman en lengua de méxico _petates_, y por esta causa le llamamos petatlan.' _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. . compare _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , ; _combier_, _voy._, pp. , , , ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _niza_, in _id._, p. ; _espejo_, in _id._, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , , - ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , , , ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, pp. , ; _id._, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _azpilcueta_, in _id._, tom. ii., p. ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . [ ] 'comian inmundas carnes sin reservar la humana.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , , , . 'ils mangent tous de la chair humaine, et vont à la chasse des hommes.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , - . see also, _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. , - ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , , , , , , . [ ] poçolatl, 'beuida de mayz cozido.' pinolatl, 'beuida de mayz y chia tostado.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. the batucas 'cuanto siembran es de regadío ... sus milpas parecen todas huertas.' _azpilcueta_, in _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. , see also p. ; acaxées, mode of fishing, etc., in _id._, tom. i., pp. - , also - , , - ; tarahumaras, mode of fishing, hunting, and cooking. _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. , , - , , . the yaquis 'fields and gardens in the highest state of cultivation.' _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. . for further account of their food and manner of cooking, etc., see _revista mexicana_, tom. i., pp. - ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _zepeda_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , - ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. , ; _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._ serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - ; _jaramillo_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, in _id._, tom. vii., pp. - , - , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, tom. iii., p. ; _coronado_, in _id._, pp. , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, pp. - , , , , ; _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. ; _tello_, in _id._, p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. - ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., pp. , ; _zuñiga_, in _id._, , tom. xciii., p. ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, pp. - . [ ] of the ceris it is said that 'la ponzoña con que apestan las puntas de sus flechas, es la mas activa que se ha conocido por acá ... no se ha podido averiguar cuáles sean á punto fijo los mortíferos materiales de esta pestilencial maniobra? y aunque se dicen muchas cosas, como que lo hacen de cabezas de víboras irritadas cortadas al tiempo que clavan sus dientes en un pedazo de bofes y de carne humana ya medio podrida ... pues no es mas que adivinar lo que no sabemos. sin duda su principal ingrediente será alguna raíz.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - , . 'el magot es un árbol pequeño muy losano y muy hermoso á la vista; pero á corta incision de la corteza brota una leche mortal que les servia en su gentilidad para emponzoñar sus flechas.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. . see also _hardy's trav._, pp. - , ; _stone_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. ii., p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. vii., pp. - ; _castañeda_, in _id._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , - ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , pp. - , ; _arlegui_, _chron. de zacatecas_, p. ; _tello_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. ; _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _id._, p. , ; _descrip. topog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iv., p. ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , , , ; _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., pp. , ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _ramirez_, in _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, pp. , ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. , ; _niza_, in _id._, p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . [ ] 'el jóven que desea valer por las armas, ántes de ser admitido en toda forma á esta profesion, debe hacer méritos en algunas campañas ... despues de probado algun tiempo en estas experiencias y tenida la aprobacion de los ancianos, citan al pretendiente para algun dia en que deba dar la última prueba de su valor.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., pp. - , - , and tom. i., pp. - . examine _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - ; _lizasoin_, in _id._, pp. - . [ ] as to the mayos, 'eran estos indios en sus costumbres y modo de guerrear como los de sinaloa, hacian la centinela cada cuarto de hora, poniendose en fila cincuenta indios, uno delante de otro, con sus arcos y flechas y con una rodilla en tierra.' _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . see also _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , - ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _hazart_, _kirchen-geschichte_, tom. ii., p. ; _ferry_, _scènes de le vie sauvage_, p. ; _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. ; _coronado_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _gallatin_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxxxi., p. . [ ] see _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. , , ; _descrip. topog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iv., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. . [ ] 'vsauan el arte de hilar, y texer algodon, ó otras yeruas siluestres, como el cañamo de castilla, o pita.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , . for the yaquis, see _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. ; for the Ópatas and jovas, _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - ; and for the tarahumares, _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, pp. , ; id., in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, pp. - . [ ] 'el indio tomando el asta por medio, boga con gran destreza por uno y otro lado.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. iii., p. . 'an indian paddles himself ... by means of a long elastic pole of about twelve or fourteen feet in length.' _hardy's trav._, pp. , . see also _niza_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., pp. ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. vii., p. ; _ulloa_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] the carrizos 'no tienen caballos, pero en cambio, sus pueblos están llenos de perros.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . the tahus 'sacrifiaient une partie de leurs richesses, qui consistaient en étoffes et en turquoises.' _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. . compare further, _combier_, _voy._, pp. - ; _zuñiga_, in _escudero_, _noticias de sonora y sinaloa_, p. ; _mex. in _, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, p. . [ ] 'son grandes observadores de los astros, porque como siempre duermen á cielo descubierto, y estan hechos â mirarlos, se marabillan de qualquier nueva impression, que registran en los cielos.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. . among the yaquis, 'hay asimismo músicos de violin y arpa, todo por puro ingenio, sin que se pueda decir que se les hayan enseñado las primeras reglas.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, p. . see also _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . [ ] 'leyes, ni reyes que castigassen tales vicios y pecados, no los tuuieron, ni se hallaua entre ellos genero de autoridad y gouierno politico que los castigasse.' _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _ahumada_, _carta_, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iv., tom. iii., p. ; _espejo_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] the word _cacique_, which was used by the spaniards to designate the chiefs and rulers of provinces and towns throughout the west indies, central america, mexico, and peru, is originally taken from the cuban language. oviedo, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. , explains it as follows: 'cacique: señor, jefe absoluto ó rey de una comarca ó estado. en nuestros dias suele emplearse esta voz en algunas poblaciones de la parte oriental de cuba, para designar al regidor decano de un ayuntamiento. asi se dice: regidor cacique. metafóricamente tiene aplicacion en nuestra península, para designar á los que en los pueblos pequeños llevan la voz y gobiernan á su antojo y capricho.' [ ] 'juntos grandes y pequeños ponen á los mocetones y mujeres casaderas en dos hileras, y dada una seña emprenden á correr éstas; dada otra siguen la carrera aquellos, y alcanzándolas, ha de cojer cada uno la suya de la tetilla izquierda; y quedan hechos y confirmados los desposorios.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. - . 'unos se casan con una muger sola, y tienen muchas mancebas.... otras se casan con quantas mugeres quieren.... otras naciones tienen las mugeres por comunes.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. - . for further account of their family relations and marriage customs, see _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , , , ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. , p. ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., pp. , , , ; _hazart_, _kirchen-geschichte_, tom. ii., p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _arista_, in _id._, p. ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _löwenstern_, _mexique_, p. . [ ] les yaquis 'aiment surtout une danse appelée _tutuli gamuchi_ ... dans laquelle ils changent de femmes en se cédant réciproquement tous leurs droits conjugaux.' _zuñiga_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xciii., pp. - . the sisibotaris; 'en las danzas ... fué muy de notar que aunque danzaban juntos hombres y mugeres, ni se hablaban ni se tocaban inmediatamente las manos.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. , and tom. i., pp. - . in the province of pánuco, 'cuando estan en sus borracheras é fiestas, lo que no pueden beber por la boca, se lo hacen echar por bajo con un embudo.' _guzman_, _rel. anón._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. . see further, _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, pp. , , ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , ; _castañeda_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ix., p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. , ; _donnavan's adven._, pp. , ; _las casas_, _hist. indias, ms._, lib. iii., cap. ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. ; _soc. géog._, _bulletin_, série v., no. . p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., p. . [ ] the Ópatas have 'grande respeto y veneracion que hasta hoy tienen á los hombrecitos pequeños y contrahechos, á quienes temen y franquean su casa y comida.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., p. . 'angulis atque adytis angues complures reperti, peregrinum in modum conglobati, capitibus supra et infra exsertis, terribili rictu, si quis propuis accessisset, cæterum innocui; quos barbari vel maxime venerabantur, quod diabolus ipsis hac forma apparere consuesset: eosdem tamen et manibus contrectabant et nonnunquam iis vescebantur.' _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . further reference in _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, p. ; _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. - ; _sevin_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxx., p. . [ ] 'quando entre los indios ay algun contagio, que es el de viruelas el mas continuo, de que mueren innumerables, mudan cada dia lugares, y se van á los mas retirados montes, buscando los sitios mas espinosos y enmarañados, para que de miedo de las espinas, no entren (segun juzgan, y como cierto lo afirman) las viruelas.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. - , . see also, _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, pp. - ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , - ; _löwenstern_, _mexique_, p. ; _hardy's trav._, p. ; _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] see _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iii., p. ; _villa_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, p. . [ ] 'las mas de las naciones referidas son totalmente barbaras, y de groseros entendimientos; gente baxa.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. . the yaquis: 'by far the most industrious and useful of all the other tribes in sonora ... celebrated for the exuberance of their wit.' _hardy's trav._, pp. , . 'los ópatas son tan honrados como valientes ... la nacion ópata es pacífica, dócil, y hasta cierto punto diferente de todas los demas indígenas del continente ... son amantes del trabajo.' _zuñiga_, in _escudero_, _noticias de sonora y sinaloa_, pp. - . 'la tribu ópata fué la que manifestó un carácter franco, dócil, y con simpatías á los blancos ... siempre fué inclinada al órden y la paz.' _velasco_, _noticias de sonora_, pp. , . the Ópatas 'son de génio malicioso, disimulados y en sumo grado vengativos; y en esto sobresalen las mujeres.' _sonora_, _descrip. geog._, in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . see also: _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, pp. , , , , ; _bartlett's pers. nar._, vol. i., pp. - ; _ward's mexico_, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., p. ; _combier_, _voy._, pp. - ; _malte-brun_, _sonora_, pp. - ; _browne's apache country_, p. ; _lachapelle_, _raousset-boulbon_, p. ; _cabeza de vaca_, _relation_, pp. , ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, pp. , ; _alegre+, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. , - , , , and tom. ii., p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , ; _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, pp. - ; _garcía conde_, in _album mex._, tom. i., p. . [illustration: native races of the pacific states mexican group] chapter vi. wild tribes of mexico. territorial aspects--two main divisions; wild tribes of central mexico, and wild tribes of southern mexico--the coras and others in jalisco--descendants of the aztecs--the otomÍs and mazahuas adjacent to the valley of mexico--the pames--the tarascos and matlaltzincas of michoacan--the huaztecs and totonacs of vera cruz and tamaulipas--the chontales, chinantecs, mazatecs, cuicatecs, chatinos, miztecs, zapotecs, mijes, huaves, chiapanecs, zoques, lacandones, choles, mames, tzotziles, tzendales, chochones, and others of southern mexico. the term wild tribes of mexico, which i employ to distinguish this from the other groupal divisions of the native races of the pacific states needs some explanation. the territory embraced under this title extends from latitude ° north, to the eighteenth parallel on the atlantic, and the fifteenth on the pacific; that is to the central american line, including yucatan and excluding guatemala. at the time of the conquest, a large portion of this region as well as part of central america was occupied by those nations that we call civilized, which are fully described in the second volume of this work. these several precincts of civilization may be likened to suns, shining brightly at their respective centres, and radiating into the surrounding darkness with greater or less intensity according to distance and circumstances. the bloody conquest achieved, these suns were dimmed, their light went out; part of this civilization merged into that of the conquerors, and part fell back into the more distant darkness. later many of the advanced aboriginals became more and more identified with the spaniards; the other natives soon came to be regarded as savages, who, once pacified, spread over the seat of their nation's former grandeur, obliterating many of the traces of their peoples' former high advancement;--so that very shortly after the spaniards became masters of the land, any description of its aborigines could but be a description of its savage nations, or of retrograded, or partially obliterated peoples of higher culture. and thus i find it, and thus must treat the subject, going over the whole territory almost as if there had been no civilization at all. for variety and striking contrasts the climate and scenery of central and southern mexico is surpassed by no region of equal extent in the world. it is here that the tierra caliente, or hot border-land of either ocean, the tierra templada, or temperate belt adjacent, and the tierra fria, or cool elevated table-land assume their most definite forms. the interior table-lands have an average elevation above the sea of from , to , feet. the geological formation is on a titanic scale; huge rocks of basalt, granite, and lava rise in fantastic shapes, intersected by deep barrancas or ravines presenting unparalleled scenes of grandeur. prominent among the surrounding mountains tower the snow-clad crests of orizaba and popocatepetl,--volcanic piles whose slumbering fires appear to be taking but a temporary rest. the plateau is variegated with many lakes; the soil, almost everywhere fertile, is overspread with a multitudinous variety of nopal, maguey, and forests of evergreen, among which the graceful fir and umbrageous oak stand conspicuous. seasons come and go and leave no mark behind; or it may be said that spring, satisfied with its abode, there takes up its perpetual rest; the temperature is ever mellow, with resplendent sunshine by day, while at night the stars shine with a brilliancy nowhere excelled. the limits of the tierra templada it is impossible to define, as the term is used in a somewhat arbitrary manner by the inhabitants of different altitudes. on the lowlands along the coast known as the tierra caliente, the features of nature are changed; vegetation assumes a more luxuriant aspect; palms, parasitical plants and trees of a tropical character, take the place of the evergreens of a colder clime; the climate is not salubrious, and the heat is oppressive. on the atlantic side furious storms, called 'northers,' spring up with a suddenness and violence unexampled in other places, often causing much destruction to both life and property. [sidenote: tribes of central mexico.] for the purpose of description, i separate the wild tribes of mexico in two parts,--the _wild tribes of central mexico_, and the _wild tribes of southern mexico_. the first of these divisions extends from ° north latitude to the northern boundary of the state of oajaca, or rather to an imaginary line, taking as its base said boundary and running from the pacific ocean to the gulf of mexico, that is to say from vera cruz to acapulco. to enumerate and locate all the nations and tribes within this territory, to separate the uncivilized from the civilized, the mythical from the real, is not possible. i have therefore deferred to the end of this chapter such authorities as i have on the subject, where they will be found ranged in proper order under the head of tribal boundaries. of the tribes that are known to have possessed no civilization, such as was found among the aztecs and other cultivated nations, i will only mention the people denominated _chichimecs_, under which general name were designated a multitude of tribes inhabiting the mountains north of the valley of mexico, all of which were prominently dependent on the result of the chase for their subsistence; the ancient _otomís_ who mostly occupied the mountains which inclose the valley of mexico; and the _pames_ in querétaro. south of mexico were numerous other nations who were more or less intermixed with those more civilized. finally, i shall describe those people who, since they came in contact with the whites, have retrograded in such a degree, that their manners and customs can only be given in connection with those of the wild tribes, and which comprise a large proportion of all the present aborigines of mexico.[ ] [sidenote: physical features in northern mexico.] the natives of the valley of mexico are represented by some authorities as tall, by others as of short stature; but from what i gather we may conclude that on the whole they are over rather than under the middle height, well made and robust. in vera cruz they are somewhat shorter, say from four feet six inches to five feet at most, and clumsily made, having their knees further apart than europeans and walking with their toes turned in; the women are shorter than the men and become fully developed at a very early age. in jalisco both sexes are tall; they are also well built, and among the women are found many forms of such perfection that they might well serve as models for sculpture. throughout the table-lands, the men are muscular and well proportioned. their skin is very thick and conceals the action of the muscles; they are out-kneed, turn their toes well in, and their carriage is anything but graceful.[ ] various opinions have been advanced by competent persons in regard to the features of the natives of mexico. baron von humboldt describes them as resembling the aborigines of canada, peru, florida, and brazil; having elongated eyes, the corners turned towards the temples, prominent cheek-bones, large lips, and a sweet expression about the mouth, forming a strong contrast with their otherwise gloomy and severe aspect. rossi says that their eyes are oval, and that their physiognomy resembles that of the asiatics. according to prescott, they bear a strong resemblance to the egyptians, and viollet le duc asserts that the malay type predominates. they have generally a very narrow forehead, an oval face, long black eyes set wide apart, large mouth with thick lips, teeth white and regular, the nose small and rather flat. the general expression of the countenance is melancholy, and exhibits a strange combination of moroseness and gentleness. although some very handsome women are to be found among them, the majority of the race, both men and women, are ugly, and in old age, which with the women begins early, their faces are much wrinkled and their features quite harsh. they have acute senses, especially that of sight, which remains unimpaired to a very advanced age. long, straight, black, thick, and glossy hair is common to all; their beard is thin, and most of them, especially in the capital and its vicinity, have a small moustache; but very few, if any, have hair on their legs, thighs, or arms. it is very seldom that a gray-haired native is found. all the people referred to, are remarkable for their strength and endurance, which may be judged of by the heavy burdens they carry on their backs. the inhabitants of the table-lands are of various hues; some are olive, some brown, others of a red copper color. in the sierras some have a bluish tint as if dyed with indigo. the natives of the tierras calientes are of a darker complexion, inclining to black. there are some called _indios pintos_, whose cuticle is of a less deep color, inclining more to yellowish and marked with dark copper-colored spots.[ ] [sidenote: mexican costumes.] [sidenote: dress in michoacan.] in the valley of mexico the natives wear the _ichapilli_, or a sort of shirt without sleeves, made of white and blue striped cotton, which reaches to the knees and is gathered round the waist with a belt. this is frequently the only garment worn by the aborigines of the mexican valley. in lieu of the ancient feather ornaments for the head, they now use large felt or straw hats, the rim of which is about nine inches in width; or they bind round the head a colored handkerchief. most of the men and women go barefooted, and those who have coverings for their feet, use the _cacles_, or _huaraches_, (sandals) made of tanned leather and tied with thongs to the ankles. the dress of the women has undergone even less change than that of the men, since the time of the spanish conquest. many of them wear over the ichapilli a cotton or woolen cloth, bound by a belt just above the hips; this answers the purpose of a petticoat; it is woven in stripes of dark colors or embellished with figures. the ichapilli is white, with figures worked on the breast, and is longer than that worn by the men. in puebla the women wear very narrow petticoats and elegant _quichemels_ covering the breast and back and embroidered all over with silk and worsted. in the state of vera cruz and other parts of the tierra caliente the men's apparel consists of a short white cotton jacket or a dark-colored woolen tunic, with broad open sleeves fastened round the waist with a sash, and short blue or white breeches open at the sides near the knee; these are a spanish innovation, but they continue to wear the square short cloak, _tilma_ or _tilmatli_, with the end tied on one of the shoulders or across the breast. sometimes a pair of shorter breeches made of goat or deer skin are worn over the cotton ones, and also a jacket of the same material. the women wear a coarse cotton shift with large open sleeves, often worked about the neck in bright colored worsted, to suit the wearer's fancy; a blue woolen petticoat is gathered round the waist, very full below, and a blue or brown rebozo is used as a wrapper for the shoulders. sometimes a muffler is used for the head and face.[ ] they bestow great care on their luxuriant hair, which they arrange in two long braids that fall from the back of the head, neatly painted and interwoven with worsted of lively colors, and the ends tied at the waist-band or joined behind; others bind the braids tightly round the head, and occasionally add some wild flowers.[ ] in the tierra fria, a thick dark woolen blanket with a hole in the centre through which passes the head protects the wearer during the day from the cold and rain, and serves at night for a covering and often for the bed itself. this garment has in some places taken the place of the tilmatli. children are kept in a nude state until they are eight or ten years old, and infants are enveloped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and limbs exposed. the huicholas of jalisco have a peculiar dress; the men wear a short tunic made of coarse brown or blue woolen fabric, tightened at the waist with a girdle hanging down in front and behind, and very short breeches of poorly dressed goat or deer skin without hair, at the lower edges of which are strung a number of leathern thongs. married men and women wear straw hats with high pointed crowns and broad turned-up rims; near the top is a narrow and handsomely woven band of many colors, with long tassels. their long bushy hair is secured tightly round the crown of the head with a bright woolen ribbon. many of the men do up the hair in queues with worsted ribbons, with heavy tassels that hang below the waist.[ ] de laet, describing the natives of jalisco early in the seventeenth century, speaks of square cloths made of cotton and maguey tied on the right or left shoulder, and small pebbles or shells strung together as necklaces. mota padilla, in his history of new galicia, says that the chichimecs at xalostitlan, in , went naked. the inhabitants of alzatlan about that time adorned themselves with feathers. in zacualco, the common dress of the women about the same period, particularly widows, was the _huipil_, made of fine cotton cloth, generally black. the natives of the province of pánuco, for many years after the spanish conquest, continued to go naked; they pulled out the beard, perforated the nose and ears, and, filing their teeth to a sharp point, bored holes in them and dyed them black. the slayer of a human being used to hang a piece of the skin and hair of the slain at the waist, considering such things as very valuable ornaments. their hair they dyed in various colors, and wore it in different forms. their women adorned themselves profusely, and braided their hair with feathers. sahagun, speaking of the matlaltzincas, says that their apparel was of cloth made from the maguey; referring to the tlahuicas, he mentions among their faults that they used to go overdressed; and of the macoaques, he writes: that the oldest women as well as the young ones paint themselves with a varnish called _tecocavitl_, or with some colored stuff, and wear feathers about their arms and legs. the tlascaltecs in wore cotton-cloth mantles painted in various fine colors. the inhabitants of cholula, according to cortés, dressed better than the tlascaltecs; the better class wearing over their other clothes a garment resembling the moorish cloak, yet somewhat different, as that of cholula had pockets, but in the cloth, the cut, and the fringe, there was much resemblance to the cloak worn in africa. old spanish writers tell us that the natives of michoacan made much use of feathers for wearing-apparel and for adorning their bodies and heads. at their later religious festivals, both sexes appear in white, the men with shirt and trowsers, having a band placed slantingly across the breast and back, tied to a belt round the waist, and on the head a small red cloth arranged like a turban, from which are pendent scarlet feathers, similar to those used by the ancient aztec warriors. the man is also adorned with a quantity of showy beads, and three small mirrors, one of which is placed on his breast, another on his back, and the third invariably on his forehead. at his back he carries a quiver, and in his hand a bow, adorned with bright colored artificial flowers, or it may be the aztec axe, so painted and varnished as to resemble flint. at the present time, a native woman, however poor, still wears a necklace of coral or rows of red beads. the unmarried women of chilpanzinco used to daub their faces with a pounded yellow flower. in durango, the natives were accustomed to rub their swarthy bodies with clay of various colors, and paint reptiles and other animals thereon.[ ] the dwellings of the wild tribes of central mexico vary with climate and locality. in the lowlands, sheds consisting of a few poles stuck in the ground, the spaces between filled with rushes, and the roof covered with palm-leaves, afforded sufficient shelter. in the colder highlands they built somewhat more substantial houses of trunks of trees, tied together with creeping plants, the walls plastered with mud or clay, the roof of split boards kept in place with stones. in treeless parts, houses were constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks and stones, and the interior walls covered with mats; the best houses were only one story high, and the humbler habitations too low to allow a man to stand erect. the entire house constituted but one room, where all the family lived, sleeping on the bare ground. a few stones placed in the middle of the floor, served as a fireplace where food was cooked. in vera cruz there is a separate small hut for cooking purposes. the wild nomadic chichimecs lived in caverns or fissures of rocks situated in secluded valleys, and the pames contented themselves with the shade afforded by the forest-trees.[ ] [sidenote: food and agriculture.] corn, beans, tomatoes, chile, and a variety of fruits and vegetables constitute the chief subsistence of the people, and in those districts where the banana flourishes, it ranks as an important article of food. the natives of vera cruz and tamaulipas gather large quantities of the pitahaya, by means of an osier basket attached to a long pole; round the brim are arranged several forks, for the purpose of detaching the fruit, which then drops into the basket. from the blossoms and buds they make a ragout, and also grind the seeds for bread. from the sea and rivers they obtain a plentiful supply of fish, and they have acquired from childhood a peculiar habit of eating earth, which is said to be injurious to their physical development. it has been stated that in former days they used human flesh as food. the otomís and tribes of jalisco cultivated but little grain, and consumed that little before it ripened, trusting for a further supply of food to the natural productions of the soil and to game, such as rabbits, deer, moles, and birds, and also foxes, rats, snakes and other reptiles. corn-cobs they ground, mixed cacao with the powder, and baked the mixture on the fire. from the lakes in the valley of mexico they gathered flies' eggs, deposited there in large quantities by a species of flies called by the mexicans _axayacatl_, that is to say, 'water-face,' and by mm. meneville and virlet d'aoust _corixa femorata_ and _notonecta unifasciata_. the eggs being pounded, were moulded into lumps and sold in the market-place; they were esteemed a special delicacy, and were eaten fried. these people are also accused by some authors of having eaten human flesh.[ ] other tribes, inhabiting the valley of mexico, puebla, michoacan, and querétaro, show a greater inclination to cultivate the soil, and live almost wholly on the products of their own industry. they plant corn by making a hole in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, into which the seed is dropped and covered up. honey is plentiful, and when a tree is found where bees are at work, they stop the entrance with clay, cut off the branch and hang it outside their huts; after a short time they remove the clay, and the bees continue their operations in their new locality, as if they had not been disturbed.[ ] gemelli careri thus describes a novel method of catching ducks: "others contrive to deceive ducks, as shy as they are; for when they have us'd 'em to be frequently among calabashes left floating on the lake for that purpose, they make holes in those calabashes, so that putting their heads in them, they can see out of them, and then going up to the neck in the water, they go among the ducks and draw 'em down by the feet." for making tortillas, the corn is prepared by placing it in water, to which a little lime is added, and allowing it to soak all night, or it is put to simmer over a slow fire; the husk is then easily separated and the corn mashed or ground on the metate. from this paste the tortilla is formed by patting it between the hands into a very thin cake, which is cooked on an earthern pan placed over the fire; the tortilla is eaten with boiled beans, and a mixture of chile and lard. the ground corn is also mixed with water and strained through a sieve; of this liquor they make a gruel, to which is added a little cacao or sugar. the sediment which remains in the sieve is used to make tamales, which are a combination of chopped meat, chile, and onions, which ingredients are covered with the corn paste, and the whole enveloped in corn or plantain leaves and boiled or baked. the mexicans are very moderate eaters, but have an insatiable passion for strong liquors.[ ] laziness and filth follow us as we proceed southward in our observations; among the mexicans, the poorer classes especially are filthy in their persons, and have a disgusting appearance, which increases with the infirmities of age. many of them indulge freely in the use of a steam-bath called _temazcalli_, similar to the russian vapor-bath, but it does not appear to have the effect of cleansing their persons.[ ] [sidenote: weapons and shields.] all these tribes use bows and arrows; the latter carried in a quiver slung at the back, a few spare ones being stuck in the belt for immediate use. a heavy club is secured to the arm by a thong, and wielded with terrible effect at close quarters. in battle, the principal warriors are armed with spears and shields. another weapon much in use is the sling, from which they cast stones to a great distance and with considerable accuracy. the natives of the valley of mexico kill birds with small pellets blown through a hollow tube.[ ] the clubs, which are from three to four feet in length, are made of a species of heavy wood, some having a round knob at the end similar to a mace, others broad and flat, and armed with sharp pieces of obsidian, fastened on either side. acosta states that with these weapons they could cut off the head of a horse at one stroke. spears and arrows are pointed with flint or obsidian, the latter having a reed shaft with a piece of hard wood inserted into it to hold the point. their quivers are made of deer-skin, and sometimes of seal or shark-skin. shields are ingeniously constructed of small canes so woven together with thread that they can be folded up and carried tied under the arm. when wanted for use they are loosed, and when opened out they cover the greater part of the body.[ ] [sidenote: war and treatment of captives.] aboriginally, as with most northern nations, warfare was the normal state of these people. the so-called chichimecs attacked all who entered their domain, whether for hunting, collecting fruit, or fighting. war once declared between two tribes, each side endeavors to secure by alliance as many of their neighbors as possible; to which end ambassadors are despatched to the chiefs of adjacent provinces, each bearing in his hand an arrow of the make peculiar to the tribe of the stranger chief. arriving at the village, the messenger seeks out the chief and lays the arrow at his feet; if the proposal of his master be accepted by the stranger chief, the rendezvous is named and the messenger departs. the ambassadors having returned with their report, preparations are at once made for the reception of the allies, a feast is prepared, large quantities of game and intoxicating drink are made ready, and as soon as the guests arrive the viands are placed before them. then follow eating and drinking, concluding with drunken orgies; this finished, a council is held, and the assault planned, care being taken to secure places suitable for an ambuscade and stones for the slingers. a regular organization of forces is observed and every effort made to outflank or surround the enemy. archers and slingers march to an attack in single file, always occupying the van, while warriors armed with clubs and lances are drawn up in the rear; the assault is commenced by the former, accompanied with furious shouts and yells. during the period of their wars against the spaniards, they often expended much time and labor in the fortification of heights by means of tree-trunks, and large rocks, which were so arranged, one on top of another, that at a given signal they might be loosened, and let fall on their assailants. the chiefs of the tepecanos and contiguous tribes carried no weapons during the action, but had rods with which they chastised those who exhibited symptoms of cowardice, or became disorderly in the ranks.[ ] the slain were scalped or their heads cut off, and prisoners were treated with the utmost barbarity, ending invariably in the death of the unfortunates; often were they scalped while yet alive, and the bloody trophy placed upon the heads of their tormentors. the heads of the slain were placed on poles and paraded through their villages in token of victory, the inhabitants meanwhile dancing round them. young children were sometimes spared, and reared to fight in the ranks of their conquerors; and in order to brutalize their youthful minds and eradicate all feelings of affection toward their own kindred, the youthful captives were given to drink the brains and blood of their murdered parents. the chichimecs carried with them a bone, on which, when they killed an enemy, they marked a notch, as a record of the number each had slain. mota padilla states that when nuño de guzman arrived in the valley of coynan, in jalisco, the chiefs came out to meet him, and, as a sign of peace and obedience, dropped on one knee; upon being raised up by the spaniards, they placed round their necks strings of rabbits and quails, in token of respect.[ ] as the wants of the people are few and simple, so is the inventory of their implements and household furniture. every family is supplied with the indispensable metate, an oblong stone, about twelve by eighteen inches, smooth on the surface and resting upon three legs in a slanting position; with this is used a long stone roller, called the _metlapilli_, for rubbing down the maize, and a large earthen pan, called the _comalli_, on which to bake the tortillas. their bottles, bowls, and cups are made from gourds, often prettily painted, and kept hanging round the walls; some unglazed earthenware vessels, ornamented with black figures on a dull red ground, are used for cooking, a block of wood serves for a stool and table, and lastly a few petates (aztec, _petlatl_, 'palm-leaf mat'), are laid upon the ground for beds. these comprise the whole effects of a native's house. for agricultural purposes, they have wooden spades, hoes, and sharp stakes for planting corn. their products are carried home or to market in large wicker-work frames, often five feet high by two and a half feet broad, made from split palm-leaves.[ ] in the state of jalisco, the natives are celebrated for the manufacture of blankets and woolen mantas; in other parts of the country they continue to weave cotton stuffs in the same manner as before the conquest, all on very primitive hand-looms. the common designs are in blue or red and white stripes, but they are sometimes neatly worked with figures, the juice from the murex or purple shell supplying the vermilion color for the patterns. the inhabitants of tonala exhibit much taste and excellence in the production of pottery, making a great variety of toys, masks, figures, and ornaments, besides the vessels for household use. in the vicinity of santa cruz, the fibres of the aloe, crushed upon the metate, are employed for the manufacture of ropes, nets, bags, and flat round pelotas, used in rubbing down the body after a bath. palm-leaf mats and dressed skins also figure largely among the articles of native industry.[ ] in vera cruz, they have canoes dug out of the trunk of a mahogany or cedar tree, which are capable of holding several persons, and are worked with single paddles.[ ] [sidenote: trade and arts.] a considerable trade is carried on in pottery, mats, dressed skins, and manufactures of the aloe-fibre; also fruit, feathers, vegetables, and fish. all such wares are packed in light osier baskets, which, thrown upon their backs, are carried long distances to the several markets. in the province of vera cruz, vanilla, jalap, and other herbs are important articles of native commerce, and all the interior tribes place a high value on salt, for which they readily exchange their products.[ ] the natives display much patience and skill in ornamental work, especially carvings in stone, and in painting; although the figures, their gods bearing witness, are all of grotesque shapes and appearance. with nothing more than a rude knife, they make very ingenious figures, of wax, of the pith of trees, of wood, charcoal, clay, and bone. they are fond of music, and readily imitate any strain they hear. from time immemorial they have retained a passion for flowers, in all seasons of the year tastefully decorating therewith their dwellings and shops. the art of working in gold and silver is well known to the natives of jalisco, who execute well-shaped specimens of cups and vases, beautifully engraved and ornamented.[ ] the wild tribes surrounding, and in places intermixed with, the civilized nations of central mexico, as far as i can learn, do not appear to have had any systematic tribal government; at least, none of the old historians have given any account of such. some of the tribes attach themselves to chiefs of their own choice, to whom they pay a certain tribute from the produce of their labor or hunting expeditions, while others live without any government or laws whatsoever, and only elect a chief on going to war.[ ] [sidenote: marriage customs.] marriage takes place at an early age, and girls are seldom found single after they attain fourteen or fifteen years. gomara, however, says that women in the district of tamaulipas are not married till they reach the age of forty. the otomís marry young, and if, when arrived at the age of puberty, a young girl has not found a mate, her parents or guardians select one for her, so that none shall remain single. among the guachichiles, when a young man has selected a girl, he takes her on trial for an indefinite period; if, afterwards, both parties are satisfied with each other, the ceremony of marriage is performed; should it happen, however, that the man be not pleased, he returns the girl to her parents, which proceeding does not place any obstacle in the way of her obtaining another suitor. the chichimecs cannot marry without the consent of parents; if a young man violates this law and takes a girl without first obtaining the parental sanction, even with the intention of marrying her, the penalty is death; usually, in ancient times, the offender was shot with arrows. when one of this people marries, if the girl proves not to be a virgin, the marriage is null, and the girl is returned to her parents. when a young man desires to marry, his parents make a visit to those of the intended bride, and leave with them a bouquet of flowers bound with red wool; the bride's parents then send round to the houses of their friends a bunch of mariguana, a narcotic herb, which signifies that all are to meet together at the bride's father's on the next night. the meeting is inaugurated by smoking; then they chew mariguana, during which time all preliminaries of the marriage are settled. the following day the resolutions of the conclave are made known to the young man and woman, and if the decision is favorable, the latter sends her husband a few presents, and from that time the parties consider themselves married, and the friends give themselves up to feasting and dancing.[ ] a plurality of wives was found among all the inhabitants of this region at the time of the spanish conquest, the first wife taking precedence of those who came after her. many had concubines who, it may be said, ranked third in the family circle. the missionary fathers, however, soon put an end to the custom of more than one wife, whenever they had the power to do so. herrera says that the chichimecs indulged in one wife only, but that they had the habit of repudiating her for any slight cause, and of taking another. the women are kept under subjection by their husbands, and not only have all the indoor work to do, such as cooking, spinning, and mat-making, but they are also required to carry heavy burdens home from the market, and bring all the wood and water for household use. infants are carried on the mother's back, wrapped in a coarse cotton cloth, leaving the head and legs free. among the chichimecs, when a woman goes out of her house, she places her child in a wicker basket, and there leaves it, usually suspending it from the branch of a tree. a child is suckled by the mother until another comes on and crowds it out. mühlenpfordt relates that he saw a boy of seven or eight years of age demanding suck and receiving it from his mother. a woman near her time of confinement, retires to a dark corner of the house, attended by some aged woman, who sings to her, and pretends to call the baby from afar. this midwife, however, does not in any way assist at the birth, but as soon as the child is born she goes out, meanwhile covering her face with her hands, so that she may not see. having walked once round the house, she opens her eyes, and the name of the first object she sees is chosen as the name of the child. among the otomís, a young woman about to become a mother is the victim of much unnecessary suffering arising from their superstitious practices; loaded with certain amulets and charms, she must carefully avoid meeting certain individuals and animals whose look might produce evil effects--a black dog especially must be avoided. the song of a mocking-bird near the house is held to be a happy omen. at certain hours the mother was to drink water which had been collected in the mountains, and previously presented to the gods; the phases of the moon were carefully watched. she was obliged to undergo an examination from the old crone who attended her, and who performed certain ceremonies, such as burning aromatic herbs mingled with saltpetre. sometimes, amidst her pains, the ancient attendant obliged her charge to jump about, and take powerful medicines, which frequently caused abortion or premature delivery. if the child was a boy, one of the old men took it in his arms and painted on its breast an axe or some implement of husbandry, on its forehead a feather, and on the shoulders a bow and quiver; he then invoked for it the protection of the gods. if the child proved to be a female, the same ceremony was observed, with the exception that an old woman officiated, and the figure of a flower was traced over the region of the heart, while on the palm of the right hand a spinning-wheel was pictured, and on the left a piece of wool, thus indicating the several duties of after life. according to the _apostólicos afanes_, the coras call the child after one of its uncles or aunts. in twelve months' time a feast is prepared in honor of said young, and the mother and child, together with the uncle or aunt, placed in the middle of the circle of relatives. upon these occasions much wine is drunk, and for the first time salt is placed in the child's mouth. as soon as the child's teeth are all cut, a similar meeting takes place, and the child is then given its first meal; and again, at the age of twelve, the ancients come together, when the youth is first given wine to drink. as a rule, young people show great respect and affection for their parents; all their earnings being at once handed over to them.[ ] in early times, immorality and prostitution existed among these nations to an unparalleled extent. gomara says that in the province of tamaulipas there were public brothels, where men enacted the part of women, and where every night were assembled as many as a thousand, more or less, of these worse than beastly beings, according to the size of the village. it is certain that incest and every species of fornication was commonly practiced, especially in the districts of vera cruz, tamaulipas, and querétaro.[ ] [sidenote: children and amusements.] their amusements are stamped with the general melancholy of their character. dancing, accompanied with music and singing, is their favorite pastime, but it is seldom indulged in without the accompanying vice of intoxication. when the totonacs join in their national dances, they attach a kind of rattle called _aiacachtli_ to a band round the head, that produces a peculiar sound during the performance. among some tribes women are not permitted to join in the dances. they make various kinds of drinks and intoxicating liquors. one is made from the fruit of the nopal or prickly pear, which is first peeled and pressed; the juice is then passed through straw sieves, and placed by a fire or in the sun, where in about an hour it ferments. another drink, called chicha, is made from raw sugar-cane, which is mashed with a wooden mallet and passed through a pressing-machine. their principal and national drink is pulque, made from the agave americana, and is thus prepared: when the plant is about to bloom, the heart or stalk is cut out, leaving a hole in the center, which is covered with the outer leaves. every twenty-four hours, or in the hotter climates twice a day, the cavity fills with the sap from the plant, which is taken out and fermented by the addition of some already-fermented pulque, and the process is continued until the plant ceases to yield a further supply. the liquor obtained is at first of a thick white color, and is at all times very intoxicating.[ ] [sidenote: making an alliance.] father joseph arlegui, in his _chrónica de la provincia de zacatecas_, which province then comprised a much larger extent of territory than the present state of zacatecas, describes a singular ceremony nowhere else mentioned. it is employed when one nation wishes to form a close connection, friendship, alliance, family or blood relationship, so to say (tratan de hacerse parientes), with another nation; and the process is as follows: from the tribe with which the alliance is desired, a man is seized, and a feast or drunken carousal commenced. meanwhile the victim destined to form the connecting link between the two bands, and whose blood is to cement their friendship, is kept without food for twenty-four hours. into him is then poured of their execrable beverages until he is filled, and his senses are deadened, when he is stretched before a fire, built in a wide open place, where all the people may have access to him. having warmed well his body, and rubbed his ears, each aspirant to the new friendship, armed with a sharp awl-shaped instrument, made of deer's bone, proceeds to pierce the ears of the prostrate wretch, each in turn forcing his sharpened bone through some new place, which causes the blood to spurt afresh with every incision. with the blood so drawn, the several members of the tribe anoint themselves, and the ceremony is done. on the spot where the relative of a cora is killed in a fight, a piece of cloth is dipped in blood, and kept as a remembrance, until his death be avenged by killing the slayer, or one of the males of his family. when meeting each other on a journey, they make use of many complimentary salutations, and a kind of freemasonry appears to exist among them. major brantz mayer mentions a tribe at cuernavaca that, in the event of a white man arriving at their village, immediately seize and place him under guard for the night in a large hut; he and his animals are carefully provided for until the following day, when he is despatched from the village under an escort, to wait upon him until far beyond the limits of the settlement. the custom, at the present day, of hiding money in the ground is universal; nothing would induce a native to entrust his savings with another. the inhabitants of querétaro spend much of their time basking in the sun, and if the sun does not yield sufficient warmth, they scoop out a hole in the ground, burn in it branches and leaves of the maguey, and when properly heated, lay themselves down in the place, and cover themselves with a mat or the loose earth.[ ] the mexicans are not subject to many diseases. small-pox, brought into the country at the time of the conquest, typhoid fever, and syphilis are those which cause the greatest destruction of life; the two former are aggravated by the filthy condition of the villages. yellow fever, or black vomit, very rarely attacks the aborigines. the measles is a prevalent disease. death is likewise the result of severe wounds, fractures, or bruises, most of which end in mortification, owing to neglect, or to the barbarous remedies applied to combat them. the huastecs of vera cruz suffer from certain worms that breed in their lips, and highly esteem salt for the curative properties they believe it to possess against this disorder. at the village of comalá, in the state of colima, a considerable number of the children are born deaf and dumb, idiots, or deformed; besides which, when they reach a mature age, if we may believe the early chroniclers, the goitres are more or less developed on them, notwithstanding humboldt's assertion that the aborigines never suffer from this disorder. there is another disease, cutaneous in its character, which is quite prevalent in many parts of the country, and is supposed to be contracted under the influence of a warm, humid, and unhealthy climate, and may be described as follows: without pain the skin assumes a variety of colors, the spots produced being white, red, brownish, or blue. the pintos, as south-western coast-dwellers are called, the chief victims to this disorder, experience no physical pain, except when they go into a cold climate; then they feel twitchings in the places where the skin has changed color. the disease is declared to be contagious: and from all accounts no remedy for it has been as yet discovered. formerly, an epidemic called the _matlalzahuatl_ visited the country at long intervals and caused terrible havoc. all the spanish writers who speak of it call it the _peste_, and suppose it to be the same scourge that destroyed nearly the whole population of the toltec empire in the eleventh century. others believe it to have borne a greater similarity to yellow fever. the disease, whatever it is, made its appearance in , , and , since which date i find no mention of it, destroying each time an immense number of people; but upon no occasion did it attack the pure whites or the mestizos. its greatest havoc was in the interior, on the central plateau, and in the coldest and most arid regions, the lowlands of the coast being nearly, if not entirely, free from its effects.[ ] [sidenote: medical treatment.] when small-pox was first introduced, the natives resorted to bathing as a cure, and a very large number succumbed to the disease. an old spanish author, writing in , states that the natives of the kingdom of new spain had an extensive knowledge of medicinal herbs; that they seldom resorted to bleeding or compound purgatives, for they had many simple cathartic herbs. they were in the habit of making pills with the india-rubber gum mixed with other substances, which they swallowed, and rubbed themselves withal, to increase their agility and suppleness of body. cold water baths are commonly resorted to when attacked with fever, and they cannot be prevailed upon to abandon the practice. the _temazcalli_ or sweat-bath, is also very much used for cases of severe illness. the bath-house stands close to a spring of fresh water, and is built and heated not unlike a european bake-oven. when up to the required temperature the fire is taken out, and water thrown in; the patient is then thrust into it naked, feet foremost and head near the aperture, and laid on a mat that covers the hot stones. the hole that affords him air for breathing is about eighteen inches square. when sufficiently steamed, and the body well beaten with rushes, a cold water bath and a brisk rubbing complete the operation.[ ] in michoacan, the natives believe that the leaves of a plant called _cozolmecatl_ or _olcacaran_ applied to a sore part of the body will foretell the result of the disorder; for if the leaves adhere to the spot, it is a sure sign that the sufferer will get well, but if they fall off, the contrary will happen. when prostrated with disease, the nearest relatives and friends surround the patient's couch and hold a confab upon the nature of his ailment and the application of the remedy. old sorceresses and charlatans put in practice their spells; fumigations and meltings of saltpetre abound; and by some jugglery, out of the crystallized saltpetre is brought a monstrous ant, a horrible worm, or some other object, which, as they allege, is the cause of the disorder. as the disease progresses, the friends of the sufferer severally recommend and apply, according to the judgment each may have formed of the matter, oil of scorpions or of worms, water supposed to produce miraculous effects on fevers, or like applications, and these empirical remedies, most of which are entirely useless, and others extremely barbarous, are applied together without weight or measure.[ ] [sidenote: burial and character.] in common with other peoples, it is usual with these nations to place several kinds of edibles in the grave with the deceased. among the coras, when one died, the corpse was dressed and wrapped in a mantle; if a man, with bow and arrows, and if a woman, with her distaff, etc., and in this manner the body was buried in a cave previously selected by the deceased. all his worldly goods were placed at the door of his former house, so that he might come and take them without crossing the threshold, as they believed the dead returned to see about property. if the deceased had cattle, his friends and relatives every now and then placed some meat upon sticks about the fields, for fear he might come for the cattle he formerly owned. five days after death a hired wizard essayed to conjure away the shade of the departed property-holder. these spirit-scarers went smoking their pipes all over the dead man's house, and shook zapote-branches in the corners, till they pretended to have found the fancied shadow, which they hurled headlong to its final resting-place. upon the second of november most of the natives of the mexican valley bring offerings to their dead relatives and friends, consisting of edibles, live animals, and flowers, which are laid on or about the graves. the anniversary or commemoration of the dead among the ancient aztecs occurred almost upon the same day.[ ] the thick-skinned, thoughtful and reserved aboriginals of central mexico are most enigmatical in their character. their peculiar cast of features, their natural reserve, and the thickness of their skin, make it extremely difficult to ascertain by the expression of the face what their real thoughts are. the general characteristics of this people may be summed up as follows: peaceable, gentle and submissive to their superiors, grave even to melancholy, and yet fond of striking exhibitions and noisy revelry; improvident but charitable, sincerely pious, but wallowing in ignorance and superstitions; quick of perception, and possessed of great facility for acquiring knowledge, especially of the arts, very imitative, but with little originality, unambitious, unwilling to learn, and indifferent to the comforts of life. irascibility is by no means foreign to their nature, but it seems to lie dormant until awakened by intoxication or some powerful impulse, when the innate cruelty flames forth, and they pass suddenly from a state of perfect calmness to one of unrestrained fierceness. courage and cowardice are so blended in their character that it is no easy matter to determine which is the predominant trait. a fact worthy of notice is that upon many occasions they have proved themselves capable of facing danger with the greatest resolution, and yet they will tremble at the angry frown of a white man. laziness, and a marked inclination to cheating and stealing are among the other bad qualities attributed to them; but there is abundant evidence to show, that although naturally averse to industry, they work hard from morning till night, in mining, agriculture, and other occupations, and in their inefficient way accomplish no little labor. murder and highway robbery are crimes not generally committed by the pure aboriginal, who steals rarely anything but food to appease his hunger or that of his family. a mexican author says, the indian cuts down a tree to pick its fruit, destroys an oak of ten years growth for a week's firewood; in other words, he produces little, consumes little, and destroys much. another mexican writer affirms that the indian is active, industrious, handy in agricultural labor, a diligent servant, a trusty postman, humble, hospitable to his guests, and shows a sincere gratitude to his benefactors.[ ] [sidenote: character in northern mexico.] the pames, otomís, pintos, and other nations north of the mexican valley were, at the time of the conquest, a barbarous people, fierce and warlike, covetous even of trifles and fond of display. the michoacaques or tarascos are warlike and brave, and for many years after the conquest showed themselves exceedingly hostile to the whites, whom they attacked, plundered, and frequently murdered, when traveling through their country. in they were already quiet, and gave evidences of being intelligent and devoted to work. the men in the vicinity of the city of vera cruz are careless, lazy, and fickle; much given to gambling and drunkenness; but the women are virtuous, frugal, cleanly, and extremely industrious. the natives of jalapa, judging by their countenance, are less intelligent, and lack the sweetness of character that distinguishes the inhabitants of the higher plateau; they are, however, peaceable and inoffensive. the wild tribes of the north are rude, revengeful, dull, irreligious, lazy, and given to robbery, plunder, and murder. such are the characteristics attributed to them under the name of chichimecs by old spanish authors and others. indeed, the only creditable traits they were allowed to possess, were, in certain parts, courage and an independent spirit. of the nations of jalisco, both ancient and modern writers bear testimony to their bravery. they are also sagacious and somewhat industrious, but opposed to hard labor (as what savage is not), and not easily kept under restraint. those who dwell on lake chapala are quiet and mild, devoted to agricultural pursuits. they indeed proved themselves high-spirited and efficient in defending their rights, when long oppression had exhausted their forbearance. the coras were hardy and warlike, averse to any intercourse with the whites and to the christian religion, but by the efforts of the missionaries, and the heavy blows of the spanish soldiers, they were brought under subjection, and became tractable.[ ] [sidenote: the nations of southern mexico.] the southern mexicans, under which name i group the people inhabiting the present states of oajaca, guerrero, chiapas, the southern portion of vera cruz, tabasco, and yucatan, constitute the second and last division of this chapter. much of this territory is situated within the _tierras calientes_, or hot lands, wherein every variety of tropical vegetation abounds in luxuriant profusion. the heat, especially along the coast, to the unacclimated is most oppressive. the great chain of the cordillera in its transit across the tehuantepec isthmus, approaches nearer to the pacific seaboard than to the atlantic, and dropping from the elevated table-land of central mexico, seeks a lower altitude, and breaks into cross-ridges that traverse the country in an east and west direction. upon the northern side of the isthmus are plains of considerable extent, of rich alluvial soil, through which several rivers, after draining the mountain districts, discharge into the mexican gulf. these streams, in their course through the table-lands, are bordered by rich lands of greater or lesser extent. on the southern side, nature puts on a bolder aspect and a narrower belt of lowlands is traversed by several rivers, which discharge the drainage of the southern slope into the pacific ocean, and into the lagoons that border the ocean. one of the most important features of yucatan is the absence of any important river. the coast, which is of great extent, has in general a bleak and arid appearance, and is little broken except on the north-west, where it is indented by the laguna de terminos, and on the eastern side by the bays of ascension, espíritu santo, and chetumel. the central part of the yucatan peninsula is occupied by a low ridge of mountains, of barren aspect. a short distance from the coast the general appearance of the country improves, being well-wooded, and containing many fertile tracts. many of the nations occupying this region at the time of the conquest may be called cultivated, or at least, progressive, and consequently belong to the civilized nations described in the second volume of this work; others falling back into a state of wildness after the central civilization was extinguished, makes it extremely difficult to draw any line separating civilization from savagism. nevertheless we will examine them as best we may; and if it be found that what we learn of them refers more to the present time than has been the case with nations hitherto treated, the cause will be obvious. the _zapotecs_, who were in former times a very powerful nation, still occupy a great portion of oajaca, surrounded by the ruins of their ancient palaces and cities. the whole western part of the state is taken up by the _miztecs_. tributary to the above before the conquest, were the _mijes_ and other smaller tribes now residing in the mountain districts in the centre of the isthmus. the _huaves_, who are said to have come by sea from the south, and to have landed near the present city of tehuantepec, spread out over the lowlands and around the lagoons on the south-western coast of oajaca. in the province of goazacoalco, and in tabasco, are the _ahualulcos_, and _chontales_, who occupy a large portion of the latter state. south of them in chiapas are the _choles_, _tzendales_, _zotziles_, _alames_, and _quelenes_, and in the extreme south-eastern end of the same state, and extending into central america, some tribes of the _lacandones_ are located. the extensive peninsula of yucatan, the ancient name of which was mayapan, formed the independent and powerful kingdom of the mayas, who held undisputed possession of the country until, after a heroic resistance, they were finally compelled to yield to the superior discipline and weapons of the spanish invaders.[ ] [sidenote: physique in oajaca and yucatan.] the zapotecs proper are well-formed and strong; the features of the men are of a peculiar cast and not pleasing; the women, however, are delicately formed, and graceful with handsome features. another tribe of the same nation, the zapotecs of tehuantepec, are rather under the medium height, with a pleasing oval face and present a fine personal appearance. not a few of them have light-colored hair, and a somewhat fair complexion. their senses, especially that of sight, are acute, and the constitution sound and robust, notwithstanding their habits of intoxication. the females have regular and handsome features, and though of small stature and bizarre in their carriage, are truly graceful and seductive. dark lustrous eyes, long eye-lashes, well defined eye-brows, luxuriant and glossy jet-black hair, play havoc with the men. those of acayucan village are particularly noted for their beauty. but not all are thus; instance the chatinos who are remarkably ugly. the natives of oajaca are generally large and well-formed; those of sierra are of a light-yellow complexion, and their women are tolerably white with mild features. some branches of the miztecs and mazatecs carry upon their shoulders very large loads. father burgoa writing of the miztecs, of yangüistlan, in the year , speaks of their beautiful complexion and fine forms. the mijes are of good height, strongly built, hardy, and active; they wear a beard, and altogether their aspect is repulsive. the zoques are very much like the mijes, their features are as prominent and unprepossessing; but they are probably more athletic. the chontales are tall and very robust. in the village of tequisistlan, oajaca, shortly after the spanish conquest, they were all reported as of a gigantic stature. the huaves present a different appearance from any of the other natives of the isthmus of tehuantepec. they are generally well-made, and of strong constitutions. the natives of tabasco who dwell in the country bordering on the river of that name, are of medium height, and with well-developed limbs. both men and women have round flat faces, low foreheads, small eyes, flattish noses, thick lips, small but quite full mouths, white teeth, and tawny complexions. the ahualulcos are rather under the middle height, but of great physical strength. they have a low narrow forehead, salient cheek-bones, full lips, white teeth, small beard, and coarse hair. their features are aquiline, and the expression of their countenance is melancholy, one of gentleness blended with sternness. they strongly resemble the descendants of the aztecs of mexico. the women are more delicately made, and some beautiful ones are seen among them. they move quickly and with much natural grace.[ ] the descendants of the mayas are of medium size, with good limbs, large faces and mouth, the upper lip slightly arched, and a marked tendency to stoutness; the nose is somewhat flat, eyes sleepy-looking and hair black and glossy, which rarely turns gray; complexion of a copper color, and in some instances yellowish. naturally strong, the maya or yucatec can carry heavy loads long distances, and perform a great deal of hard labor without showing signs of fatigue. an old spanish writer mentions that they were generally bow-legged, and many of them squint-eyed. the same author says they had good faces, were not very dark, did not wear a beard, and were long-lived. the women are plump, and generally speaking not ugly.[ ] [sidenote: dress in oajaca and yucatan.] very scanty was the dress of the dwellers on tehuantepec isthmus. in oajaca and chiapas, the men wore a piece of deer or other skin fastened round the waist, and hanging down in front, and the women wore aprons of maguey-fibre. montanus in describing the mijes says they were quite naked, but that some wore round the waist a white deer-skin dressed with human hearts. the lacandones, when going to war, wore on their shoulders the skin of a tiger, lion, or deer. the quelenes wrapped round their head a colored cloth, in the manner of a turban, or garland of flowers. at present, the usual dress of the zapotecs is a pair of wide mexican drawers, and short jacket of cotton, with a broad-brimmed hat, made of felt or straw--yet the huaves and many of the poorer class, still wear nothing but a breech-cloth. the costume of the women is simple, and not without elegance. that of the miztecs, zapotecs, and others dwelling in the city of tehuantepec is a skirt made of cotton,--sometimes of wool--that reaches nearly to the ankles, prettily and often elaborately worked in various designs and colors. the upper part of the body is covered with a kind of chemisette, with short sleeves called the _huipil_, of fine texture, and adorned with lace and gold or silk threads. on the head is a white cotton covering, made like a narrow sack or sleeve, which is drawn on and hangs down over the back. in tabasco, the dress of the men differs little from that of the people of tehuantepec; the tabascan women wear a cotton petticoat or a few yards of calico wrapped round the waist, and reaching below the knees. over the petticoat they wear a frock with sleeves to the wrist, leaving the bosom and neck exposed. children and boys go naked; indeed, whenever clothing to any extent is found in this region, we may be sure that the foreign trader is at the bottom of it.[ ] both sexes usually wear the hair long, parting it in the middle, and either permit it to hang in loose tresses over the shoulders, or, binding it with gay colored ribbons, loop it up on the back of the head, where it is fastened with a large comb. on festive occasions they interweave flowers with the hair, and also mingle with it a species of shining beetle, called _cucullo_, which emits a phosphorescent light, and produces a very pretty effect. among the zoques who reside at san miguel and santa maría chimalapa, the males shave the crown of the head, a custom of possible monkish origin peculiar to themselves. feather tufts and skins of green birds were formerly much used for ornaments; they had also necklaces made of pieces of gold joined together, and amber beads. nose and ears were pierced, and pieces of stone or amber or gold rings or a bit of carved wood inserted. montanus describes a kind of snake called _ibobaca_, which he says the inhabitants of chiapas wore round the neck.[ ] they also painted and stained the face. when fernandez de córdova explored the northern coast of yucatan, he found the people clad in cotton garments, and at the present day this forms the principal material from which their clothing is made. men now wear a cotton shirt or blouse, usually without sleeves, and wide drawers; round the waist is tied a white or colored sash; for protection from the sun, a straw hat is worn, or perhaps a piece of colored calico, and their sandals are made from deer-skin. instead of drawers, they used to wear a broad cotton band passed round the loins, the ends of which were arranged to hang one in front and the other behind; a cloak or mantle of cotton called _zugen_ was thrown over the shoulders. colonel galindo mentions that they used the bark of the india-rubber tree for making garments, and cogolludo says that when the spaniards arrived at aké, in the year , the army of natives were in a state of nudity, with only their privy parts covered, and the whole body besmeared with clay of different colors. the women display considerable taste in the style of their garments; over a petticoat, which reaches to their ankles, and prettily bordered at the bottom, they have a dress with sleeves down to the elbow; the skirt is open at the sides, and does not fall as low as the petticoat, so that the border of the latter may be seen, the bosom of the dress is open, and on each side of the breast and round the neck it is embroidered with coarse silk, as in tehuantepec; the huipil (aztec, _vipilli_) is also worn. in country places women wear the petticoat alone, using the overskirt or huipil only on special occasions. when out of doors, they cover the head and part of the face with a piece of cotton cloth.[ ] all permit the hair to attain to its full length; the men plait theirs and wind it round the head, leaving a short end to hang down behind, while that of the women hangs in dark masses over their shoulders, or is neatly bound up behind and decorated with flowers or feathers. herrera states that it was customary to scorch the faces of young children to prevent the growth of their beards, and the men allowed the hair to grow down over the eyebrows, making their heads and foreheads flat on purpose. they pierced nose and ears, ornamenting them with rings set with pearls and bits of amber, and wore collars and bracelets of gold. some among them filed their teeth. they painted the face and all exposed parts of the body in many colors, using white or yellow with black and red, covering themselves from the waist upward with a variety of designs and figures. when going to battle paint was much used, in order to render their appearance more formidable; men tattooed on the chest, and the women mixed liquid amber with their pigments, which, when rubbed over the body, emitted a perfume.[ ] [sidenote: zapotec buildings.] the better class of zapotecs of the present day build their houses in a substantial manner of adobes; the common people construct a more simple dwelling with branches arranged in a double row, and the space between filled in with earth; they also make them of wattled cane-work plastered with clay. such dwellings are cool and proof against the frequent earthquakes that occur in their territory. roofs are thatched with palmetto-leaves without opening, nor are there any windows in the walls. the interior is divided into several compartments, according to size and necessity.[ ] the mijes thatch their houses with bundles of coarse straw. the chinantecs, chochos, and chontales originally built no houses, but sought out the most shady forests, where they dwelt, or they located themselves in ravines and rocky parts, living in caverns or holes under the rocks; the tzendales of chiapas had many towns and painted their houses; the ahualulcos lived together in communities, and had commodious, well-built houses of interwoven cane, plastered on the inside with mud, the roof thatched with palmetto.[ ] [sidenote: preparation of food.] from the earliest times of which we have any record, the natives of oajaca and the isthmus of tehuantepec cultivated corn and vegetables, and likewise followed the chase; those who dwelt on the borders of the sea or lakes applied themselves to fishing. the zapotecs now raise wheat, and build mills. it is asserted by an old spanish chronicler that this nation exceeded all others in eating and drinking. as early as , they gathered crops of maguey, maize, spanish peas, chile, potatoes, and pumpkins, and bred swine and poultry. of late they cultivate rice, sugar-cane, and other tropical productions, as also do the inhabitants of tehuantepec. primitive agriculture has undergone but little alteration; deer are caught by means of traps and nets. the miztecs, mijes, and cuicatecs have from the earliest times been cultivators of the soil. the mijes make a coarse or impure sugar from sugar-cane; their corn-fields are often many miles distant from their dwellings. the huaves, the greater portion of whom are on the borders of the lagoons on the isthmus of tehuantepec, live mostly on the proceeds of their fisheries, although they raise a small supply of grain and fruit. their fishing is almost exclusively done with sweep-nets in shallow waters, and during one month of the year they catch large schools of shrimps in traps. the zoques produce the small quantity of corn that they need, some _achote_, many very fine oranges, and tobacco. they are fond of iguanas and their eggs, and of parrots, killing the latter with stones. the chontales of tabasco and tehuantepec use maize and cocoa as food. they eat flesh only upon great religious festivals, marriages, or other celebrations, but are fond of fish. in olden times they were cannibals, and antonio de herrera, the chief chronicler of the indies, accused also the natives of chiapas of being eaters of human flesh. since the conquest the natives have lived mostly on corn and other vegetable productions, cultivated by themselves. a large portion of the mayas and of the other aborigines of yucatan are to-day engaged in the cultivation of the soil, they also breed such domestic animals as they need for themselves. they are very simple and frugal in their eating.[ ] all the natives of this section of the mexican republic grind their maize in the same manner; after first soaking it in lye or in lime and water, it is bruised on the metate, or rubbing-stone, being wet occasionally, until it becomes a soft paste. with this they make their tortillas and other compounds, both to eat and drink. to make tortillas the maize paste is shaped into thin cakes with the palms of the hands and cooked upon a flat clay pan. the _totoposte_ is a smaller cake used for journeys in lieu of the tortillas. the difference between them is in the manner of preparation; the totopostes are cooked one side only and laid near the fire which makes them crisp, and require to be moistened in order to render them eatable. tamales are a favorite dish and are made of pork, game, or poultry. the meat is cut up in small pieces and washed; a small quantity of the maize paste seasoned with cinnamon, saffron, cloves, pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red coloring matter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a pan and as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a thick gruel, it is removed, mixed with the meat, some more lard and salt added, and the mass kneaded for a few moments. it is then divided into small portions, which are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. the tamales thus prepared are covered with a banana-leaf or corn-husk and placed in a pot or pan over which large leaves are laid. they are allowed to boil from one hour and a half to two hours. the _posole_ is a nourishing drink made of sour maize paste mixed with water; sometimes they add a little honey to it. they also prepare a drink by parching corn and grinding it to powder on the metate, and mixing it with water and a little _achote_. this last drink they prefer to the posole, for long journeys.[ ] the natives of tehuantepec and especially those who reside in the goazacoalco district are neat and clean in regard to their personal habits. they observe the custom of bathing daily. in their ablutions they make use of a plant called _chintule_ the root of which they mix with water, thereby imparting to their bodies a strong aromatic odor. the same plant is used when they wash their clothes, the scent from which remains on them for some time. a pleasing feature in the appearance of these people is the spotless whiteness of their cotton dresses and the care they bestow on their luxuriant hair. the other tribes who inhabit this isthmus as well as those of chiapas are not so clean in their persons, and as a consequence are much infested with vermin which the women have a disgusting habit of eating when picked from the heads of their children. the mayas make frequent use of cold water, but this practice appears to be more for pleasure than for cleansing purposes, as neither in their persons nor in their dwellings do they present an appearance of cleanliness.[ ] [sidenote: weapons and war.] the weapons of the southern mexicans were in most respects similar to those used by the central mexicans, namely, bows and arrows, macanas, and lances, the latter of great length and very strong. in tabasco they carried turtle-shell shields highly polished so as to reflect the sun; they also had flint stones for lances and arrow-points, but sometimes weapon-points were made from strong thorns and fish-bones. the hard wooden sword of the maya was a heavy and formidable weapon, and required the use of both hands to wield it; the edge was grooved for the purpose of inserting the sharp flint with which it was armed. slings were commonly used by all these nations. in addition to shields the mayas had for defensive armor garments of thickly quilted cotton called _escaupiles_, which covered the body down to the lower part of the thigh, and were considered impervious to arrows. the flint knife of former days has now been replaced by the machete which serves the purpose of both cutlass and chopping-knife, and without it no native ever goes into the woods.[ ] when the spaniards first arrived at tabasco, they encountered a people well-skilled in the art of war, with a fair knowledge of military tactics, who defended their country with much bravery; their towns and villages were well fortified with intrenchments or palisades, and strong towers and forts were built on such places as presented the most favorable position for resisting attacks. to their forts they retired when invaded by a superior force, and from the walls they hurled large rocks with damaging effect against their foes. cortés found erected on the bank of the tabasco river, in front of one of their towns, a strong wooden stockade, with loopholes through which to discharge arrows; and subsequently, during his march through their country, they frequently set fire to their villages, with the object of harassing his troops. when advancing to battle they maintained a regular formation, and they are described as having met francisco montejo in good order, drawn up in three columns, the centre under the command of their chief, accompanied by their chief priest. the combatants rushed forward to the attack with loud shouts, cheered on by the blowing of horns and beating of small drums called _tunkules_. prisoners taken in battle were sacrificed to their gods.[ ] the furniture of their houses is of the plainest description, and limited to their absolute wants. their tables or benches are made of a few rough boards, and a mat called _petate_, spread on the floor, serves for a bed, while a coarse woolen blanket is used for covering; some few have small cane bedsteads. the natives of tabasco and yucatan more commonly have a network _hamaca_ or hammock, suspended from two posts or trees. their cooking-utensils consist of the metate, pots made of earthenware, and gourds. the universal machete carried by man and boy serves many purposes, such as chopping firewood, killing animals, eating, and building houses. burgoa describes nets of a peculiar make used by the zapotecs for catching game; in the knots of the net were fixed the claws of lions, tigers, bears, and other wild beasts of prey, and at intervals were fastened a certain number of small stones; the object of such construction being probably to wound or disable the animal when caught.[ ] [sidenote: oajacan manufactures.] the zapotecs, miztecs, mayas, and others, since the conquest, have long been justly celebrated for the manufacture of cotton stuffs, a fact that is all the more surprising when we consider the very imperfect implements they possessed with which to perform the work. burgoa speaks of the excellence and rich quality of their manufactures in cotton, silk, and gold thread, in , and thomas gage, writing about the same time, says "it is rare to see what works those indian women will make in silk, such as might serve for patterns and samplers to many schoolmistresses in england." all the spinning and weaving is done by the women; the cotton clothes they make are often interwoven with beautiful patterns or figures of birds and animals, sometimes with gold and silk thread. a species of the agave americana is extensively cultivated through the country, from the fibres of which the natives spin a very strong thread that is used chiefly for making hammocks; the fibre is bleached and then dyed in different rich tints. the materials they have for dyeing are so good that the colors never fade. the zapotecs have also an intimate knowledge of the process of tanning skins, which they use for several domestic purposes.[ ] notwithstanding their proximity to the sea-coast, and although their country is in many parts intersected by rivers and lagoons, they have a surprisingly slight knowledge of navigation, few having any vessels with which to venture into deep water. the inhabitants of tabasco, the yucatan coast, and cozumel island possess some canoes made from the single trunk of a mahogany-tree, which they navigate with small lateen sails and paddles. the huaves and others are in complete ignorance of the management of any description of boats.[ ] the zoques make from the ixtle and pita thread and superior hammocks, in which they have quite a trade. in the neighborhood of santa maría they grow excellent oranges, and sell them throughout all the neighboring towns. the zapotecs have, many of them, a considerable commerce in fruits, vegetables, and seeds. in the city of tehuantepec the business of buying and selling is conducted exclusively by women in the market-place. the ahualulcos are chiefly employed in cutting planks and beams, with which they supply many places on this isthmus; they also trade to some extent in seeds and cotton cloths. different kinds of earthenware vessels for domestic purposes are made by the natives of chiapas, and by them exchanged for salt, hatchets, and glass ornaments. the mayas have an extensive business in logwood, which, besides maize and poultry, they transport to several places along the coast. mr stephens describes a small community of the maya nation, numbering about a hundred men with their families, living at a place called schawill, who hold and work their lands in common. the products of the soil are shared equally by all, and the food for the whole settlement is prepared at one hut. each family contributes its quota of provisions, which, when cooked, are carried off smoking hot to their several dwellings. many of the natives of tabasco earn a livelihood by keeping bee-hives; the bees are captured wild in the woods, and domesticated. the huaves breed cattle and tan hides; cheese and tasajo, or jerked meat, are prepared and exported by them and other tribes on the isthmus of tehuantepec. at the present day cochineal is cultivated to a considerable extent, and forms an important article of commerce among the inhabitants. a rather remarkable propensity to the possession of large numbers of mules is peculiar to the mijes; such property in no way benefits them, as they make no use of them as beasts of burden; indeed, their owners seem to prefer carrying the loads on their own backs.[ ] [sidenote: zapotec government.] formerly the zapotecs were governed by a king, under whom were caciques or governors who ruled over certain districts. their rank and power descended by inheritance, but they were obliged to pay tribute to the king, from whom they held their authority in fief. at the time of the conquest the most powerful among them was the lord of cuicatlan; for the service of his household, ten servants were furnished daily, and he was treated with the greatest respect and homage. in later years a cacique was elected annually by the people, and under him officers were appointed for the different villages. once a week these sub-officers assembled to consult with and receive instructions from the cacique on matters relating to the laws and regulations of their districts. in the towns of the miztecs a municipal form of government was established. certain officials, elected annually, appointed the work which was to be done by the people, and every morning at sunrise the town-criers from the tops of the highest houses called the inhabitants to their allotted tasks. it was also the duty of the town-criers to inflict the punishment imposed on all who from laziness or other neglect failed to perform their share of work. a somewhat similar system appears to have prevailed in chiapas, where the people lived under a species of republican government.[ ] the mayas were at one time governed by a king who reigned supreme over the whole of yucatan. internal dissensions and wars, however, caused their country to be divided up into several provinces, which were ruled over by lords or petty kings, who held complete sway, each in his own territory, owing allegiance to none, and recognizing no authority outside of their own jurisdiction. these lords appointed captains of towns, who had to perform their duties subject to their lord's approval. disputes arising, the captains named umpires to determine differences, whose decisions were final. these people had also a code of criminal laws, and when capital punishment was ordered, public executioners carried the sentence into effect. the crime of adultery in the man was punishable by death, but the injured party could claim the right to have the adulterer delivered to him, and he could kill or pardon him at pleasure; disgrace was the punishment of the woman. the rape of a virgin was punished by stoning the man to death.[ ] [sidenote: slavery and marriage.] slavery existed among the tribes of goazacoalco and tabasco. doña marina was one of twenty female slaves who were presented to cortés by the cacique of the latter place; and when her mother, who lived in the province of goazacoalco, gave her away to some traveling merchants, she, to conceal the act, pretended that the corpse of one of her slaves who died at that time was that of her own daughter.[ ] [sidenote: weddings and fathers-in-law.] among the zapotecs and other nations who inhabit the isthmus of tehuantepec, marriages are contracted at a very early age; it happens not unfrequently that a youth of fourteen marries a girl of eleven or twelve. polygamy is not permissible, and gentleness, affection, and frugality characterize the marital relations. certain superstitious ceremonies formerly attended the birth of children, which, to a modified extent, exist at the present day. when a woman was about to be confined, the relatives assembled in the hut, and commenced to draw on the floor figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed. this operation continued till the moment of birth, and the figure that then remained sketched upon the ground was called the child's _tona_ or second self. when the child grew old enough, he procured the animal that represented him and took care of it, as it was believed that health and existence were bound up with that of the animals, in fact, that the death of both would occur simultaneously. soon after the child was born, the parents, accompanied by friends and relatives, carried it to the nearest water, where it was immersed, while at the same time they invoked the inhabitants of the water to extend their protection to the child; in like manner they afterwards prayed for the favor of the animals of the land. it is a noticeable trait, much to the credit of the parents, that their children render to them as well as to all aged people the greatest respect and obedience. that the women are strictly moral cannot be asserted. voluptuous, with minds untrained, and their number being greatly in excess of the men, it is not surprising that travelers have noted an absence of chastity among these women; yet few cases of conjugal infidelity occur, and chastity is highly esteemed. illegitimate children are not common, partly the result, perhaps, of early marriages.[ ] among the quelenes, when a contract of marriage was made, the friends and relatives collected at the assembly-house common to every village. the bride and bridegroom were then introduced by the parents, and in the presence of the cacique and priest confessed all the sins of which they were guilty. the bridegroom was obliged to state whether he had had connection with the bride or with other women, and she, on her part, made a full confession of all her shortcomings; this ended, the parents produced the presents, which consisted of wearing-apparel and jewelry, in which they proceeded to array them; they were then lifted up and placed upon the shoulders of two old men and women, who carried them to their future home, where they laid them on a bed, locked them in, and there left them securely married.[ ] among the mayas early marriage was a duty imposed by the spanish fathers, and if a boy or girl at the age of twelve or fourteen had not chosen a mate, the priest selected one of equal rank or fortune and obliged them to marry. the usual presents were dresses; and a banquet was prepared, of which all present partook. during the feast the parents of the parties addressed them in speeches applicable to the occasion, and afterwards the house was perfumed by the priest, who then blessed the company and the ceremony ended. previous to the wedding-day the parents fasted during three days. the young man built a house in front of that of his father-in-law, in which he lived with his wife during the first years of his servitude, for he was obliged to work for his father-in-law four or five years. if he failed to perform faithful service, his father-in-law dismissed him, and gave his daughter to another. widowers were exempt from this servitude, and could choose whom they pleased for a wife without the interference of relatives. it was forbidden a man to marry a woman of the same name as his father. they married but one wife, though the lords were permitted to make concubines of their slaves. mr stephens, in his description of the inhabitants of the village of schawill, says: "every member must marry within the rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it had ever occurred. they said it was impossible; it could not happen. they were in the habit of going to the villages to attend the festivals; and when we suggested a supposable case of a young man or woman falling in love with some village indian, they said it might happen; there was no law against it; but none could marry out of the rancho. this was a thing so little apprehended, that the punishment for it was not defined in their penal code; but being questioned, after some consultations, they said that the offender, whether man or woman would be expelled. we remarked that in their small community constant intermarriages must make them all relatives, which they said was the case since the reduction of their numbers by the cholera. they were in fact all kinsfolk, but it was allowable for kinsfolk to marry, except in the relationship of brothers and sisters." in divisions of property women could not inherit; in default of direct male heirs the estate went to the brothers or nearest male relatives. when the heir was a minor, one of his male relatives was appointed guardian, until the days of his minority should have passed, when the property was delivered up to him. the southern mexicans were particular to keep a strict chronology of their lineage. young children underwent a kind of baptismal ceremony. the mayas believed that ablution washed away all evil; and previous to the ceremony the parents fasted three days, and they were particular to select for it what they considered a lucky day. the age at which the rite was performed was between three and twelve years, and no one could marry until he had been baptized. habits of industry as well as respect for parents and aged people was strongly impressed upon the minds of the children.[ ] the southern mexicans are fond of singing and dancing, though there is not much variety either in their melancholy music or monotonous dances. their favorite instrument is the _marimba_, composed of pieces of hard wood of different lengths stretched across a hollowed-out canoe-shaped case. the pieces of wood or keys are played upon with two short sticks, one held in each hand. the sound produced is soft and pleasing, and not unlike that of a piano. another instrument is the _tunkul_ or drum, made of a hollow log with sheep-skin stretched over the end; it is struck with the fingers of the right hand, the performer holding it under his left arm. their movements during their dances are slow and graceful. the men are addicted to intoxication at their feasts, the liquor in common use among them being mescal and aguardiente, a colorless spirit made from the sugar-cane. many of the natives have a small still in their houses.[ ] [sidenote: customs in oajaca.] the zapotecs are exceedingly polite to one another in their common salutations, calling each other brother, and to the descendants of their ancient caciques or lords the utmost reverence is paid. it is related by a mexican writer that in a village not distant from the city of oajaca, whenever an aged man, the son of one of their ancient lords was seen by the natives out walking, with a majesty that well became his fine form, position, and age, they uncovered their heads, kissed his hands, which he held out to them, with much tenderness, calling him _daade_ (father), and remained uncovered until he was lost to sight. they are a theocratic people, much addicted to their ancient religious belief and customs. those who live in the vicinity of mitla entertain a peculiar superstition; they will run to the farthest villages and pick up even the smallest stones that formed a part of the mosaic work of that famous ruin, believing that such stones will in their hands turn into gold. some of them hold the belief that anyone who discovers a buried or hidden treasure has no right to appropriate to his own use any portion of it, and that if he does, death will strike him down within the year, in punishment of the sacrilege committed against the spirit of the person who hid or buried the treasure. one of the first priests that lived among the zapotecs says that after they had entered the pale of the church, they still clung to their old religious practices, and made offerings of aromatic gums, and living animals; and that when the occasion demanded a greater solemnity, the officiating priest drew blood from the under part of his tongue, and from the back part of his ears, with which he sprinkled some thick coarse straw, held as sacred and used at the sacrifices. to warm themselves, the chochos, or chuchones, of oajaca used, in cold weather, towards the evening, to burn logs and dry leaves close to the entrance of their caves, and blow the smoke into their dwellings, which being quite full, all the family, old and young, males and females, rushed in naked and closed the entrance. the natives of goazacoalco and other places practiced some of the jewish rites, including a kind of circumcision, which custom they claimed to have derived from their forefathers; hence have arisen innumerable analogies to prove the jewish origin of these peoples. the huaves still preserve ancient customs at their feasts. it is a remarkable fact that although nearly all these people are fishermen, very few of them can swim. the mijes have a habit of speaking in very loud tones; this is attributed by some to their haughty spirit, and by others to their manner of life in the most rugged portion of the mountains. when bound upon a journey, if they have no other load to carry, they fill their _tonates_, or nets, with stones. this is generally done by them on the return home from the market-place of tehuantepec. these loads rest upon their backs, and hang by a band from their foreheads. in ancient times, when they were in search of a new country to settle in, they subjected the places they had devastated to the fire proof. this was done by putting a firebrand over night into a hole, and if it was found extinguished in the morning, they considered that the sun desired his children (that is themselves) to continue their journey. they are much given, even at the present time, to idolatrous practices, and will make sacrifices in their churches, if permitted, of birds as offerings to the false gods they worshiped before their partial conversion to christianity. the natives attribute eclipses of the moon to an attempt by the sun to destroy their satellite, and to prevent the catastrophe make a frightful uproar, employing therefor everything they can get hold of.[ ] [sidenote: diseases and medical treatment.] the diseases most prevalent among the southern mexicans are fevers, measles, and severe colds. all these people possess an excellent knowledge of medicinal herbs, and make use of them in cases of pains and sickness. they still practice some of their mysterious ceremonies, and are inclined to attribute all complaints to the evil influence of bewitchments. father baeza, in the _registro yucateco_, says they consulted a crystal or transparent stone called _zalzun_, by which they pretended to divine the origin and cause of any sickness. when suffering with fever or other disorders, the disease is often much aggravated and death caused by injudicious bathing in the rivers. in ancient times tobacco was much used as a specific against pains arising from colds, rheumatism, and asthma; the natives found that it soothed the nerves and acted as a narcotic. they also practiced bleeding with a sharp flint or fish-bone. the zapotecs attempted cures by means of a blow-pipe, at the same time invoking the assistance of the gods.[ ] when a death occurs the body is wrapped in a cotton cloth, leaving the head and face uncovered, and in this condition is placed in a grave. very few of the ancient funeral usages remain at the present day, though some traces of superstitious ceremonies may still be observed among them; such as placing food in the grave, or at different spots in its immediate vicinity. sometimes a funeral is conducted with a certain degree of pomp, and the corpse carried to its last resting-place followed by horn-blowers, and tunkul-drummers. as in the case of the central mexicans, a memorial day is observed, when much respect is shown for the memory of the dead, at which times fruits, bread, and cakes are placed upon the graves.[ ] [sidenote: character of southern mexicans.] the character of the inhabitants of the tehuantepec isthmus and yucatan is at the present day one of docility and mildness. with a few exceptions they are kind-hearted, confiding, and generous, and some few of them evince a high degree of intelligence, although the majority are ignorant, superstitious, of loose morality as we esteem it, yet apparently unconscious of wrong. cayetano moro says they are far superior to the average american indian. the zapotecs are a bold and independent people, exhibit many intellectual qualities, and are of an impatient disposition, though cheerful, gentle, and inoffensive; they make good soldiers; they are fanatical and superstitious like their neighbors. the women are full of vivacity, of temperate and industrious habits, their manners are characterized by shyness rather than modesty, and they are full of intrigue. to this nation the mijes present a complete contrast; of all the tribes who inhabit the isthmus, they are the most brutal, degraded, and idolatrous; they are grossly stupid, yet stubborn and ferocious. the chontales and choles are barbarous, fierce, and quarrelsome, and greatly addicted to witchcraft. the cajonos and nexitzas, of oajaca, are of a covetous and malicious nature, dishonest in their dealings, and much inclined to thieving. the zoques are more rational in their behavior; although they are ignorant and intemperate in their habits, they are naturally kind and obliging, as well as patient and enduring. the huaves are deficient in intelligence, arrogant and inhospitable to strangers, and of a reticent and perverse disposition. the miztecs are grave and steady; they exhibit many traits of ingenuity, are industrious, hospitable, and affable in their manners, and retain an ardent love for liberty.[ ] the mayas exhibit many distinguished characteristics. although of limited intelligence, and more governed by their senses than their reason, their good qualities predominate. formerly they were fierce and warlike, but these characteristics have given place to timidity, and they now appear patient, generous, and humane; they are frugal and satisfied with little, being remarkably free from avarice. herrera describes them as fierce and warlike, much given to drunkenness and other sins, but generous and hospitable. doctor young, in his history of mexico, says: "they are not so intelligent or energetic, though far more virtuous and humane than their brethren of the north." the women are industrious, have pleasing manners, and are inclined to shyness. to sum it all up, i may say that the besetting vice of these nations is intemperance, but the habit of drinking to excess is found to be much more common among the mountain tribes than among the inhabitants of the lowlands. quarrels among themselves seldom occur, and there is abundant evidence to show that many of them possess excellent natural qualifications both for common labor, and artistic industry; and that there is no cause to prevent their becoming, under favorable circumstances, useful citizens.[ ] tribal boundaries. under the name wild tribes of mexico, i include all the people inhabiting the mexican territory from ocean to ocean, between latitude ° north and the central american boundary line south, including yucatan and tehuantepec. the southernmost point of this division touches the fifteenth degree of north latitude. a subdivision of this group is made and the parts are called the _central mexicans_, and the _southern mexicans_, respectively. in the former i include the nations north of an imaginary line, drawn from the port of acapulco, on the pacific coast, to vera cruz, on the gulf of mexico, and in the latter all those south of this line. going to the fountain-head of mexican history, i find mentioned certain names, of which it is now impossible to determine whether they are different names applied to the same people or different peoples, or whether they are mythical and apply to no really existing nations. still less is it possible to give these strange names any definite location; instance the toltecs and the chichimecs, and indeed almost all early designations, very common names used to denote very uncommon people. sahagun is the only one of the oldest writers who mentions the name of toltecs, which in later years was used by ixtlilxochitl and boturini, and after them bandied about more freely by modern writers. after the conquest, the name chichimecs was applied to all uncivilized and unsettled people north of the valley of mexico, extending to the farthest discovered region. of still other nations nothing further can be said than that they occupied the cities to which their name was applied; such were the mexicans, or aztecs, the tlascaltecs, the cholultecs, and many others. some general remarks respecting the location of the principal civilized nations, will be found in vol. ii., chap. ii., of this work; and all obtainable details concerning the many tribes that cannot be definitely located here are given in volume v. [sidenote: olmecs and xicalancas.] the _quinames_ or giants are mentioned as the first inhabitants of mexico. 'los quinametin, gigantes que vivian en esta rinconada, que se dice ahora nueva españa.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _hist. chichimeca_, in _id._, p. . 'los que hasta ahora se sabe, aver morado estas estendidas, y ampliadisimas tierras, y regiones, de la nueva españa, fueron vnas gentes mui crecidas de cuerpo, que llamaron despues otros, qainametin.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'les quinamés, la plus ancienne des races connues de ces contrées, étaient encore en possession de quelques localités de peu d'importance près des villes de huitzilapan, de cuetlaxcohuapan et de totomihuacan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . 'sa domination s'étendait sur les provinces intérieures du mexique et du guatémala, et, à l'époque du débarquement des olmèques et des xicalancas, les histoires nous la montrent encore en possession du plateau aztèque et des contrées voisines du fleuve tabasco.' _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clviii., p. . 'vivian hácia las riberas del rio atoyac, entre la ciudad de tlaxcala y la de la puebla de los angeles.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. , - . the _olmecs_ and _xicalancas_ were 'los que poseian este nuevo mundo, en esta tercera edad.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chichimeca_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'olmecas, vixtoti, y mixtecas. estos tales así llamados, están ácia el nacimiento del sol, y llámanles tambien _tenime_, porque hablan lengua bárbara, y dicen que son tultecas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'estos poblaron, donde aora està edificada, y poblada la ciudad de los angeles, y en totomihuacan.... los xicalancas, fueron tambien poblando, ácia cuathazualco (que es ácia la costa del norte) y adelante en la misma costa, está oi dia vn pueblo, que se dice xicalanco.... otro pueblo ai del mismo nombre, en la provincia de maxcaltzinco, cerca del puerto de la vera-cruz, que parece averlo tambien poblado los xicalancas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'atravesando los puertos del bolcan, y sierra-nevada, y otros rodeandolos por la parte de el mediodia, hasta que venieron à salir à vn lugar, que de presente se llama tochmilco. de alli, pasaron á atlixco, calpan, y huexotzinco, hasta llegar al parage, y tierras de la provincia de tlaxcallan; y haciendo asiento en el principio, y entrada de la dicha tierra, hicieron su fundacion en el pueblo, que aora se llama nuestra señora de la natividad (y en lengua mexicana yancuictlalpan.) de alli, pasaron à otro poblado, el referido, llamado huapalcalco, junto à vna hermita, que llaman de santa cruz, al qual llaman los naturales, texoloc, mizco, y xiloxuchitla, donde aora es la hermita de san vicente, y el cerro de la xochitecatl, y tenayacac, donde estàn otras dos hermitas, à poco trecho vna de otra, que las llaman de san miguél, y de san francisco, enmedio de las quales, pasa el rio, que viene de la sierra nevada de huexotzinco. y aqui en este sitio, hicieron los hulmecas, su principal asiento, y poblaçon.' _id._, p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'vlmecatlh poblo tambien muchos lugares en aquella parte, a do agora esta la ciudad de los angeles. y nombro los totomiuacan, vicilapan, cuetlaxcoapan, y otros assi. xicalancatlh anduuo mas tierra, llego a la mar del norte, y en la costa hizo muchos pueblos. pero a los dos mas principales llamo de su mesmo nombre. el vn xicalanco esta en la prouincia de maxcalcinco, que es cerca de la vera cruz, y el otro xicalanco esta cerca de tauasco.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'hácia atlisco y itzucan los xicalancas: y en el territorio de la puebla, chollolan y tlaxcallan los ulmecas, cuya primitiva y principal poblacion dicen haber sido la ciudad de chollolan.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _id._, _popol vuh_, introd., p. xxx.; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . the _coras_ constitute the north-westernmost nation of the central mexicans, inhabiting the district of 'nayarit ó reino de nuevo toledo.... al oeste tiene los pueblos de la antigua provincia de acaponeta; al este los de colotlan, y al sur quieren algunos que se extienda hasta las orillas del rio grande ó tololotlan ... el nayarit se extiende entre los ° ´ y ° de lat., y entre los ° y ° de long. occidental de méxico.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'en la sierra del nayarit.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'los indios que viven en el centro de la sierra, llamados muutzizti.... los llamados teakuaeitzizti viven en las faldas de la sierra que mira al poniente ... los coras que viven á la orilla del rio nayarit ó de jesus maría, conocidos por ateakari.' _id._, p. . the _tecoxines_ 'tenian su principal asiento en el valle de cactlan ... y se extendian à la magdalena, analco, hoxtotipaquillo y barrancas de mochitiltic.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _cocotlanes_ were at the missions of 'apozolco y en comatlan.' _id._, p. . the _maraveres_ reside in tlajomulco. _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. ii., p. . the _thorames_ and _tzayaquecas_ dwell near the town of zentipac. 'dos leguas apartado del mar, la nacion thorama ... diez leguas de zentipac habia otros indios de nacion tzayaqueca.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . 'la gran poblacion y valle de tzenticpac, cuyo pueblo principal está situado punto á la mar del sur, dos leguas antes á orillas del rio grande, y que la gente de esta provincia era de la nacion totorame.' _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . the _corarus_ 'habitaban ... hacia la parte del norte, diez leguas del dicho pueblo de tzenticpac.' _ib._ the _guicholas_ 'are settled in the village of san sebastian, which lies eighteen leagues to the westward of bolaños.' _lyon's journal_, vol. i., p. ; _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xl., p. . 'en santa catarina, s. sebastian, s. andres coamiat, soledad y tezompan, pertenecientes á colotlan.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _coronados_ 'son los del pueblo de tuito al sur del valle de banderas.' _id._, p. . the _tiaxomultecs_ 'habitaban en tlajomulco.' 'estos tecuexes ... llaman à los indios cocas de toda la provincia de tonalan, que no eran de su lengua, tlaxomultecas.' _id._, p. . the _cocas_ and _tecuexes_ 'eran los de la provincia de tonalan.... los tecuexes pasaban del otro lado de tololotlan hasta ocupar parte de zacatecas, derramándose por los pueblos de tecpatitlan, teocaltiche, mitic, jalostotitlan, mesticatan, yagualica, tlacotlan, teocaltitlan, ixtlahuacan, cuautla, ocotic y acatic.' _id._, pp. - . the _mazapiles_ are 'al n. e. de la zacateca.' _hervas_, in _id._, p. . the _cazcanes_ 'habitan hasta la comarca de zacatecas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. xiii.; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'ocupaba el terreno desde el rio grande, confinando con los tecuexes y los tepecanos.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , . the _mecos_ live in the pueblo soledad de las canoas, in the state of querétaro. _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. iv., p. . the _pames_ inhabit the state of querétaro, 'treinta leguas distante de la expresada ciudad de querétaro, y se estiende á cien leguas de largo, y treinta de ancho, en cuyas breñas vivian los indios de la nacion pame.' _paiou_, _vida de junípero serra_, p. . 'en la mision de cerro prieto del estado de méxico, se extiende principalmente por los pueblos de san luis potosí, y tambien se le encuentra en querétaro y en guanajuato.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , , , . 'en san luis de la paz, territorio de la sierra gorda ... en la ciudad del maiz, departamento de san luis potosí ... en la purísima concepcion de arnedo, en la sierra gorda.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . [sidenote: the otomÍs.] the _otomís_ are one of the most widely dispersed nations of mexico. 'todo lo alto de las montañas, ó la mayor parte, á la redonda de méxico, están llenas de ellos. la cabeza de su señorío creo que es xilotepec, que es una gran provincia, y las provincias de tollan y otompa casi todas son de ellos, sin contar que en lo bueno de la nueva españa hay muchas poblaciones de estos otomíes, de los quales proceden los chichimecas.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . the above is copied by torquemada, in his _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'estos teochichimecas son los que aora se llaman otomies.... tlaixpan, es de los que hablan esta lengua otomi.' _id._, p. . 'la grandisima provincia, ò reino de los otomies, que coge à tepexic, tula, xilotepec, cabeça de este reyno, chiapa, xiquipilco, atocpan, y queretaro, en cuio medio de estos pueblos referidos, ai otro inumerables, porque lo eran sus gentes.' _id._, p. . 'xilotepeque provincia otomiis habitata.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'la provincia degli otomiti cominciava nella parte settentrionale della valle messicana, e si continuava per quelle montagne verso tramontana sino a novanta miglia dalla capitale. sopra tutti i luoghi abitati, che v'erano ben molti, s'innalzava l'antica e celebre città di tollan [oggidì tula] e quella di xilotepec.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . in ancient times they 'occuparono un tratto di terra di più di trecento miglia dalle montagne d'izmiquilpan verso maestro, confinando verso levante, e verso ponente con altre nazioni parimente selvaggie.' later: 'fondarono nel paese d'anahuac, ed anche nella stessa valle di messico infiniti luoghi; la maggior parte d'essi, e spezialmente i più grandi, come quelli di xilotopec e di huitzapan nelle vicinanze del paese, che innanzi occupavano: altri sparsi fra i matlatzinchi, ed i tlascallesi, ed in altre provincie del regno.' _id._, p. . 'los indios de este pais (querétaro) eran por la mayor parte otomites.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. ii., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . 'sous le nom d'othomis, on comprenait généralement les restes des nations primitives, répandus dans les hautes vallées qui bornent l'anahuac à l'occident.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'les traditions les plus anciennes du mexique nous montrent les othomis en possession des montagnes et de la vallée d'anahuac, ainsi que des vastes contrées qui s'étendent au delà, dans le michoacan, jusqu'aux frontières de xalizco et de tonalàn; ils étaient également les maîtres du plateau de tlaxcallan.' _id._, tom. i., p. . 'ils occupaient la plus grande partie de la vallée d'anahuac, avec ses contours jusqu'aux environs de cholullan, ainsi que les provinces que s'étendent au nord entre la michoacan et tuilantzinco.' _id._, p. . 'otompan, aujourd'hui otumba, fut leur capitale.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., pp. xxx., cx. querétaro 'fue siempre domicilio de los esforzados othomites.... tienen poblado todo lo alto de las montañas, que circundan á mexico, siendo cabecera de toda la provincia othomí xilotepec, que la hacen numerosa los pueblos de tepexic, tula, huichiapan, xiquilpo, atocpan, el mexquital, s. juan del rio, y queretaro.' _espinosa_, _chrón. apostólica_, pp. - . the otomí language 'se le encuentra derramado por el estado de méxico, entra en san luis potosí, abraza todo querétaro y la mayor parte de guanajuato, limitándose al o. por los pueblos de los tarascos; reaparece confundido con el tepehua cerca del totonaco, y salpicado aquí y allá se tropieza con él en puebla y en veracruz.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , - , , - , - , . 'en todo el estado de querétaro y en una parte de los de san luis, guanajuato, michoacan, méxico, puebla, veracruz y tlaxcala.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . concurrent authorities: _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. , , - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, tom. iv., p. . 'habitait les bords du golfe du mexique, depuis la province de panuco jusqu'au nueces.' _domenech_, _jour._, p. . the _mazahuas_ 'furono tempo fa parte della nazione otomita.... i principali luoghi da loro abitati erano sulle montagne occidentali della valle messicana, e componevano la provincia di mazahuacan, appartenente alla corona di tacuba.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; copied in _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon de guadalupe_, p. . 'mazahua, mazahui, matzahua, matlazahua mozahui, en mexico y en michoacan. en tiempos del imperio azteca esta tribu pertenecia al reino de tlacopan; sus pueblos marcaban los límites entre su señorío y michoacan.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'parece que solo quedan algunos restos de la nacion mazahua en el distrito ixtlahuaca, perteneciente al departamento de méxico.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'au nord ils étendaient leurs villages jusqu'à peu de distance de l'ancien tollan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . the _huastecs_, huaxtecs, guastecs, or cuextecas inhabit portions of the states of vera cruz and tamaulipas. 'a los mismos llamaban panteca ó panoteca, que quiere decir hombres del lugar pasadero, los cuales fueron así llamados, y son los que viven en la provincia de panuco, que propiamente se llaman pantlan, ó panotlan.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'el huaxtecapan se extendió de veracruz á san luis potosí, y corria á lo largo de la costa del golfo, hácia el norte, prolongándose probablemente muy adentro de tamaulipas, por lugares en donde ahora no se encuentra ni vestigio suyo.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , . 'cuando llegaron los españoles, el lugar que ocupaban era la frontera norte del reino de texcoco, y parte de la del mexicano.... hoy se conoce su pais con el nombre de la huaxteca: comprende la parte norte del estado de veracruz y una fraccion lindante del de san luis, confinando, al oriente, con el golfo de méxico, desde la barra de tuxpan hasta tampico.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . further mention in _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _villa-señor_, _theatro_, tom. i., p. . [sidenote: totonacs and nahuatlacs.] the _totonacs_ occupy the country east of the valley of mexico down to the sea-coast, and particularly the state of veracruz and a portion of puebla. 'estos totonaques estan poblados á la parte del norte, y se dice ser guastemas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . 'totonachi. questa grande provincia, ch'era per quella parte l'ultima dell' imperio, si stendeva per ben centocinquanta miglia, cominciando dalla frontiera di zacatlan ... e terminando nel golfo messicano. oltre alla capitale mizquihuacan, quindici miglia a levante da zacatlan, v'era la bella città di cempoallan sulla costa del golfo.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'raccontavano dunque, que essendosi eglino da principio per qualche tempo stabiliti su le rive del lago tezcucano, quindi si portarono a popolare quelle montagne, che da loro presero il nome di totonacapan.' _id._, tom. iv., p. . 'en puebla y en veracruz. los totonacos ocupan la parte norte del departamento, formando un solo grupo con sus vecinos de veracruz; terminan sobre la costa del golfo, en toda la zona que se extiende entre los rios de chachalacas y de cazones ó s. márcos.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , . 'están estendidos, y derramados por las sierras, que le caen, al norte, à esta ciudad de mexico.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'in the districts of zacatlan, state of puebla, and in the state of vera cruz.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _villa-señor_, _theatro_, tom. i., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. . the _meztitlanecs_ inhabited the region north of tezcuco, between the sierra madre and the territory occupied by the huastecs. 'al norte de tetzcoco existia el señorío independiente de meztitlan, que hoy corresponde al estado de méxico.... obedecian á meztitlan, cabecera principal, las provincias de molango, malila, tlanchinolticpac, ilamatlan, atlihuetzian, suchicoatlan, tianguiztengo, guazalingo, yagualica. el señorío, pues, se extendia por toda la sierra, hasta el limite con los huaxtecos: en yahualica estaba la guarnicion contra ellos, por ser la frontera, comenzando desde allí las llanuras de huaxtecapan. xelitla era el punto mas avanzado al oeste y confinaba con los bárbaros chichimecas: el término al sur era zacualtipan y al norte tenia á los chichimecas.' _chavez_, _relacion de meztitlan_, quoted in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _nahuatlacs_ 'se diuiden en siete linajes.... los primeros fueron los suchimilcos, que quiere dezir, gente de sementeras de flores. estos poblaron a la orilla de la gran laguna de mexico hazia el mediodia, y fundaron vna ciudad de su nombre, y otros muchos lugares. mucho despues llegaron los del segundo linage llamados chalcas, que significa gente de las bocas, y tambien fundaron otra ciudad de su nombre, partiendo terminos con los suchimílcos. los terceros fueron los tepanecas, que quiere dezir, gente de la puente. y tambien poblaron en la orilla de la laguna al occidente.... la cabeça de su provincia la llamaron azcapuzàlco.... tras estos vinieron, los que poblaron a tezcùco, que son los de cùlhua, que quiere dezir, gente corua.... y assi quedò la laguna cercada de estas quatro naciones, poblando estos al oriente, y los tepanècas al norte.... despues llegaron los tlatluìcas, que significa gente de la sierra.... y como hallaron ocupados todos los llanos en contorno de la laguna hasta las sierras, passaron de la otra parte de la sierra.... y a la cabeça de su prouincia llamaron quahunahuàc ... que corrompidamente nuestro vulgo llama quernauaca, y aquella prouincia es, la que oy se dize el marquesado. los de la sexta generacion, que son los tlascaltècas, que quiere dezir gente de pan, passaron la serrania hazia el oriente atrauessando la sierra neuada, donde està el famoso bolcan entre mexico y la ciudad de los angeles ... la cabeça de su prouincia llamaron de su nombre tlascàla.... la septima cueua, o linage, que es la nacion mexicana, la qual como las otras, salio de las prouincias de aztlan, y teuculhuàcan.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . repeated in _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. x. also in _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , and in _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon de guadalupe_, p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the _acolhuas_ inhabited the kingdom of acolhuacan. 'su capital era tetzcoco, á la orilla del lago de su nombre.... la extension del reino era: desde el mar del n. á la del sur, con todo lo que se comprende á la banda del poniente hasta el puerto de la veracruz, salvo la cuidad de tlachcala y huexotzinco.' _pomar_, _relacion de texcoco_, quoted in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . 'juan b. pomar fija los límites del reino con toda la exageracion que puede infundir el orgullo de raza. por nuestra parte, hemos leido con cuidado las relaciones que á la monarquía corresponden, y hemos estudiado en el plano los lugares á que se refieren, y ni de las unas ní de los otros llegamos á sacar jamas que los reyes de aculhuacan mandaran sobre las tribus avecindadas en la costa del pacífico, no ya á la misma altura de méxico, sino aun á menores latitudes.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . see further: _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . the _ocuiltecs_ 'viven en el distrito de toluca, en tierras y terminos suyos.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . the _macaoaquez_ 'viven en una comarca de toluca, y están poblados en el pueblo de xocotitlan. _ib._ the _tarascos_ dwell chiefly in the state of michoacan. 'la provincia de estos, es la madre de los pescados, que es michoacan: llámase tambien quaochpanme.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . repeated in _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . their territory is bounded: 'au nord-est, le royaume de tonalan et le territoire maritime de colima eu sont séparés par le rio pantla et le fleuve coahuayana, auquel s'unit cette rivière, dix lieues avant d'aller tomber dans la mer pacifique, dont le rivage continue ensuite à borner le michoacan, au sud-ouest, jusqu'à zacatollan. là les courbes capricieuses du mexcala lui constituent d'autres limites, à l'est et au sud, puis, à l'est encore, les riches provinces de cohuixco et de matlatzinco.... plus au nord, c'étaient les mazahuas, dont les fertiles vallées, ainsi que celles des matlatzincas, s'étendent dans les régions les plus froides de la cordillère; enfin le cour majestueux du tololotlan et les rives pittoresques du lac chapala formaient une barrière naturelle entre les tarasques et les nombreuses populations othomies et chichimèques des états de guanaxuato et de queretaro.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. , . 'el tarasco se habla en el estado de michoacan, exceptuando la parte sur-oeste que linda con el pacífico donde se habla el mexicano, una pequeña parte al nor-este, donde se acostumbra el othomí ó el mazahua, y otra parte donde se usa el matlatzinca. tambien se habla en el estado de guanajuato, en la parte que linda con michoacan y guadalajara, limitada al oriente por una línea que puede comenzar en acámbaro, seguir á irapuato y terminar en san felipe, es decir, en los límites con san luis potosí.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'en michoacan, guerrero, guanajuato y jalisco.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , , , - , . concurrent authorities: _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. [sidenote: matlaltzincas and tlapanecs.] the _matlaltzincas_, pirindas, or tolucas inhabited the valley of toluca, situated between the valley of mexico and michoacan. 'la provincia dei matlatzinchi comprendeva, oltre la valle di tolocan, tutto quello spazio, che v'è infino a tlaximaloyan (oggi taximaroa) frontiera del regno di michuacan.... nelle montagne circonvicine v'erano gli stati di xalatlauhco, di tzompahuacan, e di malinalco; in non molta lontananza verso levante dalla valle quello d'ocuillan, e verso ponente quelli di tozantla, e di zoltepec.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , . 'antiguamente en el valle de toluca; pero hoy solo se usa en charo, lugar perteneciente al estado de michoacan.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'in the district of that name, sixty miles south-west of mexico.' _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, tom. i., p. . also in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . the _chumbias_ inhabit the pueblos ciutla, axalo, ihuitlan, vitalata, guaguayutla and coyuquilla in the state of guerrero. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _tlapanecs_, coviscas, yopes, yopis, jopes, yopimes, tenimes, pinomes, chinquimes, chochontes, pinotl-chochons, chochos, chuchones, popolocas, tecos, tecoxines, or popolucas are one and the same people, who by different writers are described under one or the other of these names. 'estos coviscas y tlapanecas, son unos ... y están poblados en tepecuacuilco y tlachmalacac, y en la provincia de chilapan.' 'estos yopimes y tlapanecas, son de los de la comarca de yopitzinco, llámenles yopes ... son los que llaman propiamente tenimes, pinome, chinquime, chochonti.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; quoted also in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - , , . 'la provincia de los yopes lindaba al oeste con los cuitlateques, al sur con el pacífico, al este con los mixtecos y al norte con los cohuixcas: la division por esta parte la representaria una linea de este à oeste, al sur de xocolmani y de amatlan, y comprendiera à los actuales tlapanecos.' _montufar_, in _id._, pp. - . 'confinava colla costa dei cohuixchi quella dei jopi, e con questa quella dei mixtechi, conosciuta ai nostri tempi col nome di xicayan.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. . 'tecamachalco era su poblacion principal, y se derramaban al sur hasta tocar con los mixtecos. durante el siglo xvi se encontraban aún popolocos en tlacotepec y en san salvador (unidos con los otomíes), pueblo sujeto á quecholac.... por la parte de tehuacan, el límite de esta tribu se hallaba en coxcatlan.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the chochos dwell in sixteen pueblos in the department of huajuapan in the state of oajaca. _id._, p. . the _cohuixcas_ dwelt in the province of the same name, which 'confinava a settentrione coi matlatzinchi, e coi tlahuichi, a ponente coi cuitlatechi, a levante coi jopi e coi mixtechi, ed a mezzogiornio si stendeva infino al mar pacifico per quella parte, dove presentemente vi sono il porto e la città d'acapulco.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'la provincia comenzaba en zacualpa, límite con los matlaltzincas, y que, por último, los confines de esa porcion antigua del imperio mexicano, eran al norte los matlaltzinques; los tlahuiques, al este los mixtecos y los tlapanecos, al sur los yopes, y al oeste los cuitlateques.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . their country lies 'between tesitzlan and chilapan.' _ker's travels_, p. . the _cuitlatecs_ inhabit the country between the cohuixcas and the pacific coast. 'i cuitlatechi abitavano un paese, che si stendeva più di dugento miglia da maestro a scirocco dal regno di michuacan infino al mar pacifico. la loro capitale era la grande e popolosa città di mexcaltepec sulla costa, della quale appena sussistono le rovine.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'en ajuchitlan, san cristóbal y poliutla en la municipalidad de ajuchitlan, distrito del mismo nombre, y en atoyac, distrito y municipalidad de tecpan. la provincia de los cuitlateques ó cuitlatecos, sujeta en lo antiguo á los emperadores de méxico, quedaba comprendida entre las de zacatula y de los cohuixques.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . proceeding southward, among the southern mexicans, we first encounter the _miztecs_, whose province, miztecapan, was in the present states of oajaca and guerrero. 'la mixtecapan, o sia provincia dei mixtechi si stendeva da acatlan, luogo lontano cento venti miglia dalla corte verso scirocco, infino al mar pacifico, e conteneva più città e villaggi ben popolati, e di considerabile commercio.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'le mixtecapan comprenait les régions occidentales de l'état d'oaxaca, depuis la frontière septentrionale d'acatlan, qui le séparait des principautés des tlahuicas et de mazatlan, jusque sur le rivage de l'océan pacifique. elles se divisaient en haute et basse mixtèque, l'une et l'autre également fertiles, la première resserrèe entre les montagnes qui lui donnaient son nom; la seconde, occupant les riches territoires des bords de la mer, ayant pour capitale la ville de tututepec (à l'embouchure du rio verde).' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'les mixtèques donnaient eux-mêmes à leur pays le nom de gnudzavui-gnuhu, terre de pluie, pour le haute mixtèque, et gnuundaa, côte de la mer, à la basse.' _id._, pp. - . 'en la antigua provincia de este nombre, situada sobre la costa del mar pacifico, que comprende actualmente, hácia el norte, una fraccion del estado de puebla; hácia el este, una del de oajaca, y al oeste, parte del estado de guerrero. divídese la mixteca en alta y baja, estando la primera en la serranía, y la segunda en las llanuras contiguas á la costa.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'westlich der zapotécos, bei san francisco huizo im norden und bei santa cruz miztepéc im süden des grossen thales von oajáca beginnen die mistéken, welche den ganzen westlichen theil des staats einnehmen, und südlich bis an die küste des austral-oceans bei jamiltepéc und tututepéc hinabreichen.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. , , - , - , - . also in _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . [sidenote: zapotecs and mijes.] the _zapotecs_ occupy the large valley of oajaca. 'fue la zapotecapan señora, y tan apoderada de las demas de su orizonte, que ambiciosos sus reyes, rompieron los terminos de su mando, y se entraron ferozes, y valientes, por chontales, mijes, y tierras maritimas de ambos mares del sur, y del norte ... y venciendo, hasta señorear los fertiles llanos de teguantepeque, y corriendo hasta xoconusco.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. , tom. ii., fol. . 'hasta tepeiac, techamachalco, quecholac y teohuacan, que por aquí dicen que hicieron sus poblaciones los zapotecas.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . 'a levante de' mixtechi erano i zapotechi, cosí chiamati dalla loro capitale teotzapotlan. nel loro distretto era la valle di huaxyacac, dagli spagnuoli detta oaxaca o guaxaca.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'en una parte del estado de oajaca, limitada al sur por el pacífico, exceptuando una pequeña fraccion de terreno ocupada por los chontales.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . see also: _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - ; _murguía y galardi_, in _soc. mex. geog._, _boletin_, tom. vii., pp. - . 'the zapotecs constitute the greater part of the population of the southern division of the isthmus (of tehuantepec).' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. . 'inhabit the pacific plains and the elevated table-lands from tarifa to petapa.' _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, pp. , - ; _garay's tehuantepec_, p. ; _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. , . 'zapotécos, welche die mitte des staates, das grosse thal von oajáca bewohnen, sich im osten über die gebirge von huixázo, iztlán und tanétze und die thäler los cajónos ausbreiten, und im süden, im partido quíechápa (depart. tehuantepéc) mit den mijes, im partido von pochútla (depart. ejútla) aber mit den chontáles, nachbaren jener, gränzen.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. , , - , - , , , , - ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'les zapotèques appelaient leur pays lachea.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _macgregor's progress of america_, p. . the _mijes_ dwell in the mountains of southern oajaca and in a small portion of tehuantepec. 'antérieurement à la ruine de l'empire toltèque ... les mijes occupaient tout le territoire de l'isthme de tehuantepec, d'une mer à l'autre.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. tehuantepec_, pp. - . 'toute cette région, comprenant, à l'est, les cimes de la sierra de macuilapa que domine le village actuel de zanatepec et les montagnes qui s'étendent, du côté opposé, vers lachixila, baignées par la rivière de tehuantepec, au sud, et, au nord, par celle de la villa-alta, jusqu'aux savanes, oú roulent les affluents de l'alvarado et du guazacoalco, appartenait à la même nation des mixi ou mijes ... les mijes vaincus demeurèrent soumis dès lors aux rois de la mixtèque et du zapotecapan, à l'exception d'un petit nombre qui, jusqu'à l'époque espagnole, continuérent dans leur résistance dans les cantons austères qui environnent le cempoaltepec. ce qui reste de cette nation sur l'isthme de tehuantepec est disséminé actuellement en divers villages de la montagne. entre les plus importants est celui de guichicovi que j'avais laissé à ma droite en venant de la plaine de xochiapa au barrio.' _id._, pp. - . 'les mixi avaient possédé anciennement la plus grande partie des royaumes de tehuantepec, de soconusco et du zapotecapan; peut-être même les rivages de tututepec leur devaient-ils leur première civilisation.' _id._, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . 'en algunos lugares del departamento de oajaca como juquila, quezaltepec y atilan.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'les indiens mijes habitent une contrée montagneuse, au sud-ouest du goatzacoalco et au nord-ouest de tehuantepec.... de la chaîne des monts mijes descend la rivière de sarrabia, qui traverse la belle plaine de boca-del-monte.' _fossey_, _mexique_, p. . 'the mijes, once a powerful tribe, inhabit the mountains to the west, in the central division of the isthmus, and are now confined to the town of san juan guichicovi.' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'the mijes constituted formerly a powerful nation, and they still occupy the land from the sierra, north of tehuantepec, to the district of chiapas. in the isthmus they only inhabit the village of guichicovi, and a small portion of the sierra, which is never visited.' _garay's tehuantepec_, p. . also _macgregor's progress of america_, p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the _huaves_, huavi, huabi, huabes, guavi, wabi, etc., live on the isthmus of tehuantepec. 'les wabi avaient été, dans les siècles passés, possesseurs de la province de tehuantepec.... ils avaient été les maîtres du riche territoire de soconusco (autrefois xoconochco ... espèce de nopal), et avaient étendu leurs conquêtes jusqu'au sein même des montagnes, où ils avaient fondé ou accru la ville de xalapa la grande (xalapa-del-marques).' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'the huaves are in all little more than three thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called san mateo, santa maria, san dionisio, and san francisco.' _garay's tehuantepec_, p. . 'scattered over the sandy peninsulas formed by the lakes and the pacific. at present they occupy the four villages of san mateo, santa maria, san dionisio, and san francisco.' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. . 'san francisco istaltepec is the last village, inhabited by the descendants of a tribe called huaves.' _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'habitent les villages du bord de la mer au sud de guichicovi.' _fossey_, _mexique_, p. . _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. . 'se extienden en tehuantepec, desde las playas del pacífico hasta la cordillera interior.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . the _beni-xonos_ 'composaient une province nombreuse, occupant en partie les routes qui conduisaient au mexique et aux montagnes des mixi.... leur ville principale, depuis la conquête, s'appelait san-francisco, à l. n. o. de la cité d'oaxaca.' 'habitant sur les confins des mixi et des zapotêques.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . 'les beni-xono sont appelés aussi nexicha et cajones.' _ib._ the _mazatecs_ live in the state of oajaca, near the puebla boundary. 'a tramontana dei mixtechi v'era la provincia di mazatlan, e a tramontana, e a levante dei zapotechi quella di chinantla colle loro capitali dello stesso nome, onde furono i loro abitanti mazatechi e chinantechi appellati.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'in den partidos teutitlán und teutíla, departement teutitlán del camíno.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. , , . 'en el departamento de teotitlan, formando una pequeña fraccion en el límite con el estado de veracruz.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . [sidenote: tribes of oajaca and chiapas.] the _cuicatecs_ dwell 'en una pequeña fraccion del departamento de oajaca.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'in den partidos teutitlán und teutíla, departement teutitlán del camíno.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. ; repeated in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . the _pabucos_ live in the 'pueblo de elotepec, departamento del centro.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. . the _soltecs_ are in the pueblo de sola. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the _pintos_ are a people inhabiting small portions of guerrero and tehuantepec. 'a l'ouest, sur le versant des cordillères, une grande partie de la côte baignée par le pacifique, habitée par les indiens pintos.' _kératry_, in _revue des deux mondes_, sept. , , p. . 'on trouve déjà dans la plaine de tehuantepec quelques échantillons de cette race toute particulière au mexique, appelée pinto, qui appartient principalement à l'état de guerrero.' _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, p. . the _chiapanecs_ inhabit the interior of the state of chiapas. 'dans l'intérieur des provinces bordant les rives du chiapan, à sa sortie des gouffres d'où il s'élance, en descendant du plateau de zacatlan.' (guatemalan name for chiapas,) and they extended over the whole province, later on. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'À l'ouest de ce plateau, entre les zotziles ou quélènes du sud et les zoqui du nord, habitaient les chiapanèques.' _id._, _popol vuh_, introd., pp. , . also in _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'en acala, distrito del centro, y en la villa de chiapa y en suchiapa, distrito del oeste.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'le principali città dei chiapanechi erano teochiapan, (chiamata dagli spagnuoli chiapa de indios), tochtla, chamolla, e tzinacantla.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . the _tzendales_ are in chiapas. 'de l'etat de chiapas.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. . 'the province called zeldales lyeth behind this of the zoques, from the north sea within the continent, running up towards chiapa and reaches in some parts near to the borders of comitlan, north-westward.' _gage's new survey_, p. . also in _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi.; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . the _zotziles_ inhabit a small district in chiapas. 'la ciudad de tzinacantlan, que en mexicano significa "lugar de murciélagos," fué la capital de los quelenes, y despues de los tzotziles quienes la llamaban zotzilhá, que significa lo mismo; de zotzil, murciélago.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . tzinacantan (quiche zotzilha) 'doit avoir été le berceau de la nation zotzil, l'une des nombreuses populations du chiapas.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . the _chatinos_ live in the 'departamentos del centro y de jamiltepee.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. - . the _chinantecs_, or tenez, are in the 'departamento de teotitlan.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. . 'in the partidos of quiechapa, jalalog, and chuapan.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _ahualulcos_ inhabit san francisco de ocuapa which 'es la cabeza de partido de los indios ahualulcos.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . the _quelenes_ occupied a district in chiapas near the guatemala boundary line. 'la nation des quelènes, dont la capitale était comitan, occupait la frontière guatémalienne.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'au temps de la conquête, la ville principale des quelènes était copanahuaztlan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., p. . 'Établies entre le haut plateau de ghovel ou de ciudad-real et les montagnes de soconusco au midi.' _ib._; and _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . the _zoques_ are scattered over portions of tabasco, chiapas, oajaca, and tehuantepec. 'se encuentran derramados en chiapas, tabasco y oaxaca; tienen al norte el mexicano y el chontal, al este el tzendal, el tzotzil y el chiapaneco, al sur el mexicano, y al oeste el huave, el zapoteco y el mixe.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'occupy the mountain towns of santa maria and san miguel, and number altogether about two thousand souls.' _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. . 'les zotziles et les zoqui, confinant, au sud-est, avec les mixi montagnards, au nord avec les nonohualcas, et les xicalancas, qui habitaient les territoires fertiles de tabasco.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'quorum præcipuum tecpatlan.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'the soques, who came originally from chiapas, inhabit in the isthmus only the villages of san miguel and santa maría chimalapa.' _garay's tehuantepec_, p. . 'la mayor de ellas está situada á tres leguas de tacotalpa, aguas arriba del rio de la sierra. ocupa un pequeño valle causado por el descenso de varios cerros y colinas que la circuyen.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. - ; _macgregor's progress of america_, pp. - . 'the zoques inhabit the mountainous region to the east, from the valley of the chiapa on the south, to the rio del corte on the north. originally occupying a small province lying on the confines of tabasco, they were subjugated by the expedition to chiapas under luis marin. at present they are confined to the villages of san miguel and santa maria chimalapa.' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. . 'near the arroyo de otates, on the road from tarifa to santa maria, stands a new settlement, composed of a few shanties, inhabited by zoques, which is called tierra blanca.' _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . the _choles_, _manches_, and _mopanes_ are scattered through small portions of chiapas and vera paz in guatemala. ' leagues from cahbón, in the midst of inaccessible mountains and morasses, dwell the chóls and manchés.' _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. - . residen en la 'provincia del manché.' _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. iii., p. . also in _boyle's ride_, vol. i., preface, p. ; _dunlop's cent. amer._, p. ; _gavarrete_, in _panamá star and herald_, _dec. , _. 'los choles forman una tribu establecida desde tiempos remotos en guatemala; dividos en dos fracciones ... la una se encuentra al este de chiapas, y la otra muy retirada en la verapaz.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'tenia por el sur la provincia del chòl: por la parte del oriente, y de el norte, de igual modo, las naciones de los itzaex petenes: y por el poniente, las de los lacandones, y xoquinoès.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. - . 'the nation of the chol indians is settled in a country about or leagues distant from cahabon, the last village in verapaz, and far removed from the manchés.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . [sidenote: mayas and itzas.] the _mayas_ inhabit the peninsula of yucatan. 'avant la conquête des espagnols, les mayas occupaient toute la presque'île d'yucatan, y compris les districts de peten, le honduras anglais, et la partie orientale de tabasco.... la seule portion de pure race restant de cette grande nation, se réduit à quelques tribus èparses, habitant principalement les bords des rivières usumasinta, san pedro et pacaitun; la totalitè de leur territoire fait, politiquement parlant, partie du peten.' _galindo_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. lxiii., pp. - , and in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, tom. iii., p. . 'en todo el estado de yucatan, isla del cármen, pueblo de montecristo en tabasco, y del palenque en chiapas.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. ; _crowe's cent. america_, pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - . the _itzas_ occupy a like-named district in the centre of yucatan. 'los que poblaron a chicheniza, se llaman los yzaes.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. 'tienen por la parte del mediodia, la provincia de la vera-paz, y reyno de guatimala; por el norte, las provincias de yucatán; por la parte del oriente, el mar; por la de el occidente, la provincia de chiapa; y al sueste, la tierra, y provincia de honduras.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . footnotes: [ ] otomí;--'_otho_ en la misma lengua othomí quiere decir _nada_, y _mi_, quieto, ó sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la palabra, significa nada-quieto, cuya idea pudiéramos expresar diciendo _peregrino ó errante_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . chichimecs;--'los demas indios les llamaban chichimecos (que hoy lo mismo es chichi que perros altaneros) por la ninguna residencia.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. . speaking of chichimecs, 'debaxo deste nombre estan muchas naciones con dierencias de lenguas como son pamies, capuzes, samues, zancas, maiolias, guamares, guachichiles, y otros, todos diferentes aunque semejantes en las costumbres.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xiv. for further etymology of tribes, see _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_. [ ] 'hanno d'altezza più di cinque piedi parigini.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iv., p. . 'de pequeña estatura [cuatro piés seis pulgadas, á cinco piés cuando mas.]' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . in yalisco 'casi en todo este reyno, son grandes, y hermosas.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'son de estatura alta, bien hechos y fornidos.' _ulloa_, _noticias americanas_, p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, p. ; _burkart_, _mexico_, tom. i., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . [ ] 'in complexion, feature, hair and eyes, i could trace a very great resemblance between these indians and the esquimaux.' _lyon's journal_, vol. i., p. , see also vol. ii., pp. , . 'son de la frente ancha, y las cabezas chatas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , . see further, _prichard's nat. hist. man_, vol. ii., p. ; _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. i., p. ; _almaraz_, _memoria_, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. , ; _rossi_, _souvenirs_, p. ; _viollet-le-duc._, in _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, p. ; _poinsett's notes on mex._, pp. - ; _ottavio_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. lix., pp. - ; _fossey_, _mexique_, p. ; _vigneaux_, _souv. mex._, p. ; _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _bonnycastle's span. am._, vol. i., pp. - ; _figuier's hum. race_, p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - ; _bullock's mexico_, vol. i., pp. , ; _mayer's mex. as it was_, pp. , , . [ ] in mexico in the costume was a 'short doublet and wide breeches. on their shoulders they wear a cloak of several colours, which they call _tilma_.... the women all wear the _guaipil_, (which is like a sack) under the _cobixa_, which is a fine white cotton cloth; to which they add another upon their back.... their coats are narrow with figures of lions, birds, and other creatures, adorning them with curious ducks' feathers, which they call _xilotepec_.' _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. . dress of a native girl of mexico, 'enaguas blanquísimas, el _quisquemel_ que graciosamente cubre su pecho y espalda ... dos largas trenzas color de ébano caen á los lados del cuello.' _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. , - , - . 'leur costume varie selon le terrain et le climat.' _löwenstern_, _mexique_, pp. , . [ ] see _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'usan de una especie de gran paño cuadrado, que tiene en el centro una abertura por donde pasa la cabeza.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . [ ] 'yuan muy galanes, y empenachados.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. i. 'señores ó principales, traían en el labio un bezote de chalchivite ó esmeralda, ó de caracol, ó de oro, ó de cobre.... las mugeres cuando niñas, tambien se rapaban la cabeza, y cuando ya mosas dejaban criar los cabellos ... cuando alguna era ya muger hecha y habia parido, tocabase el cabello. tambien traían sarcillos ó orejeras, y se pintaban los pechos y los brazos, con una labor que quedaba de azul muy fino, pintada en la misma carne cortándola con una navajuela.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , - . 'en el pueblo de juito salieron muchos yndios de paz con escapularios blancos al pecho, cortado el cabello en modo de cerquillo como religiosos, todos con unas cruces en las manos que eran de carrizos, y un yndio que parecia el principal ó cacique con un vestuario de tunica talan.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. , also, pp. , , , , , . for further description of dress and ornaments see _nebel_, _viaje_, plates, nos. xxvi., xxxi., xxxvi., xli., xlvi.; _thompson's recollections mexico_, p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , , ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. , ; _lyon's journal_, vol. ii., pp. , ; _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, pp. , ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. ; _vigneaux_, _souv. mex._, pp. , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. - ; _biart_, in _revue française_, dec. , pp. - ; _ottavio_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. lix., p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, p. ; _burkart_, _mexico_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'les cabanes sont de véritables cages en bambous.' _vigneaux_, _souv. mex._, p. ; _mayer's mex. as it was_, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., pp. , ; _bustamante_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. , , , , ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _beaufoy's mex. illustr._, p. ; _pagés travels_, vol. i., p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. . [ ] _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . 'estos otomies comian los zorrillos que hieden, culebras y lirones, y todo género de ratones, comadrejas, y otras sabandijas del campo y del monte, lagartijas de todas suertes, y abejones y langostas de todas maneras.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , - . in jalisco 'los indios de aquellas provincias son caribes, que comen carne humana todas las veçes que la pueden aver.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] in puebla 'los indios se han aplicado mas al cultivo de la tierra y plantío de frutas y legumbres.' in michoacan 'cultivan mucho maiz, frixoles y ulgodon.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. i., pp. , . in querétaro 'viven del cultivo de las sementeras.' _id._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'they boil the indian wheat with lime, and when it has stood a-while grind it, as they do the cacao.' _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. v., pp. , , ; _walton's span. col._, p. . for further account of food see _tylor's anahuac_, pp. - , ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , , , , ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. , ; _larenaudière_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xxiii., p. ; _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. - , ; _mex. in _, pp. , , ; _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _albornoz_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. , - ; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. , with plate; _mendoza_, _hist. de las cosas_, p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., pp. - . 'one would think the bath would make the indians cleanly in their persons, but it hardly seems so, for they look rather dirtier after they have been in the _temazcalli_ than before.' _tylor's anahuac_, p. . [ ] _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , - ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . 'el arco y la flecha eran sus armas en la guerra, aunque para la caza los caciques y señores usaban tambien de cervatanas.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'i saw some indians that kill'd the least birds upon the highest trees with pellets shot out of trunks.' _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. , and in _berenger_, _col. de voy._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , with plate; _cartas al abate de pradt_, p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _lyon's journal_, vol. i., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii.; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'una macana, á manera de porra, llena de puntas de piedras pedernales.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'en schilden uit stijve stokjens gevlochten, van welke sick verwonderens-waerdig dienen in den oorlog.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - , and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . [ ] 'siempre procuran de acometer en malos pasos, en tierras dobladas y pedregosas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. vii., lib. ii., cap. xii. 'tres mil yndios formaban en solo una fila haciendo frente á nuestro campo.' _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; see further, _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, p. . [ ] the chichimecs 'flea their heads, and fit that skin upon their own heads with all the hair, and so wear it as a token of valour, till it rots off in bits.' _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. , and _berenger_, _col. de voy._, tom. ii., p. . 'quitandoles los cascos con el pelo, se los llevan á su pueblo, para baylar el mitote en compañia de sus parientes con las cabezas de sus enemigos en señal del triunfo.' _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. , - . further reference in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _cassel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xlv., p. ; _vigneaux_, _souv. mex._, p. ; _prieto_, _viajes_, p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . [ ] 'the indians of this countrie doe make great store of woollen cloth and silkes.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., lib. vii., p. . the otomís 'sabian hacer lindas labores en las mantas, enaguas, y vipiles que tejian muy curiosamente; pero todas ellas labraban lo dicho de hilo de maguéy que sacaban y beneficiaban de las pencas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; see also, _tylor's anahuac_, p. ; _bustamante_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, p. ; _carpenter's trav. mex._, p. ; _mex. in _, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _lyon's journal_, vol. ii., p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. . [ ] _dale's notes_, p. . [ ] 'in those countreys they take neither golde nor silver for exchange of any thing, but onley salt.' _chilton_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; compare _lyon's journal_, vol. i., p. , and vol. ii., p. ; and _tylor's anahuac_, p. . [ ] _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, p. ; _ward's mexico_, vol. ii., p. ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _carpenter's trav. mex._, p. . 'les mexicains ont conservé un goût particulier pour la peinture et pour l'art de sculpter en pierre et en bois.' _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . 'lo particular de michoacan era el arte de pintar con las plumas de diversos colores.' _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . 'son muy buenos cantores y tañedores de toda suerte de instrumentos.' _mendoza_, _hist. de las cosas_, p. . [ ] _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, pp. , ; _ottavio_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. lix., p. . [ ] _mayer's mex., aztec, etc._, vol. ii., p. ; _villa_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. - . 'tenian uso y costumbre los otomíes, de que los varones siendo muy muchachos y tiernos se casasen, y lo mismo las mugeres.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . chichimecs 'casanse con las parientas mas cercanas, pero no con las hermanas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xv. [ ] _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _bullock's mexico_, vol. i., p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, pp. - ; _rittner_, _guatimozin_, p. . 'el amancebamiento no es deshonra entre ellos.' _zarfate_, in _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., pp. , . 'zlingerden de kinderen in gevlochte korven aen boomtakken.' _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . [ ] 'la mancebía, el incesto, y cuanto tiene de mas asquerosamente repugnante el desarreglo de la concupiscencia, se ha convertido en hábito.' _prieto_, _viajes_, p. ; _fossey_, _mexique_, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . [ ] _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, p. ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia_, pp. , ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. ii., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] _arlegui_, _chrón. de zacatecas_, pp. - ; _mayer's mex. as it was_, pp. - ; _mendoza_, _hist. de las cosas_, p. ; _prieto_, _viajes_, p. ; _apostólicos afanes_, p. . 'los indios, si no todos en su mayor parte, viven ligados por una especie de masonería.' _bustamante_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, p. . 'wenn mehrere in gesellschaft gehen, nie neben, sondern immer hinter einander und selten ruhig schreitend, sondern fast immer kurz trabend.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'l'indien enterre son argent, et au moment de sa mort il ne dit pas à son plus proche parent oú il a déposé son trésor, afin qu'il ne lui fasse pas faute quand il ressuscitera.' _cassel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xlv., p. . [ ] 'la petite vérole et la rougeole sont deux maladies très communes.' _chappe d'auteroche_, _voyage_, p. . the pintos 'marked with great daubs of deep blue ... the decoration is natural and cannot be effaced.' _tylor's anahuac_, p. . see further: _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. - , - . compare _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. , - , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _cassel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xlv., p. ; _löwenstern_, _mexique_, p. ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, pp. - ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . [ ] 'los indios son grandes herbolarios, y curan siempre con ellas.' _mendoza_, _hist. de las cosas_, p. . 'for fevers, for bad colds, for the bite of a poisonous animal, this (the temazcalli) is said to be a certain cure; also for acute rheumatism.' _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. i., p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. ; _menonville_, _reise_, p. ; _murr_, _nachrichten_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'notant barbari, folia parti affectæ aut dolenti applicata, de eventu morbi præjudicare: nam si firmiter ad hæreant, certum signum esse ægrum convaliturum, sin decidant, contra.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _villa_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. - . [ ] the remains of one of their ancient kings found in a cave is thus described; 'estaba cubierto de pedreria texida segun su costumbre en la manta con que se cubria desde los hombros hasta los pies, sentado en la misma silla que la fingieron el solio, con tahalí, brazaletes, collares, y apretadores de plata; y en la frente una corona de hermosas plumas, de varios colores mezcladas, la mano izquierda puesta en el brazo de la silla, y en la derecha un alfange con guarnicion de plata.' _alcedo_, _diccionario_, tom. iii., p. . see also: _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _apostólicos afanes_, p. ; _armin_, _das heutige mexiko_, p. . [ ] _d'orbigny_, _voy._, p. ; _calderon de la barca's life in mex._, vol. i., p. ; _mayer's mex. as it was_, pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. tehuantepec_, pp. , ; _larenaudière_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xxiii., p. ; _ottavio_, in _id._, , tom. lix., p. ; _rittner_, _guatimozin_, pp. - ; _villa_, in _prieto_, _viajes_, pp. - ; _arizcorreta_, _respuesta á_, pp. , ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _rossi_, _souvenirs_, p. ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia, ms._, p. ; _poinsett's notes mex._, pp. , ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. ; _berenger_, _col. de voy._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _bonnycastle's span. am._, vol. i., pp. - . 'l'indigène mexicain est grave, mélancolique, silencieux, aussi long-temps que les liqueurs enivrantes n'ont pas agi sur lui.' _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. , . 'the most violent passions are never painted in their features.' _mill's hist. mex._, pp. - , . 'of a sharpe wit, and good vnderstanding, for what soeuer it be, sciences or other arts, these people are very apt to learne it with small instructing.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] the pintos of guerrero are 'most ferocious savages.' _tylor's anahuac_, p. . the chichimecs are 'los peores de todos y los mayores homicidas y salteadores de toda la tierra.' _zarfate_, in _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. . see further, _almaraz_, _memoria_, p. ; _kératry_, in _revue des deux mondes_, sept., , p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. , ; _combier_, _voy._, p. ; _biart_, in _revue française_, dec., , pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. viii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; _ribas_, _hist. de los triumphos_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan, ms._, pp. , ; _pagés' travels_, vol. i., p. . [ ] the mayas, 'sie selbst nennen sich heute noch _macegual_, d. h. eingeborene vom maya-lande, nie yucatanos oder yucatecos, was spanischer ausdruck für die bewohner des staates ist.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - . see also _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , , , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, preface, p. clvii.; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; tom. ii., pt. i., pp. - ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. , - ; _remesal_, _hist. de chyapa_, pp. - ; _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . [ ] _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. , , ; _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., p. ; _macgregor's progress of america_, pp. , ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, pp. , - ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. ii., p. . zapotecs 'bien tallados,' mijes 'arrogantes, altiuos de condicion, y cuerpo,' miztecs 'linda tez en el rostro, y buena disposicion en el talle.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. , , , , tom. i., pt. ii., p. . 'tehuantepec women: jet-black hair, silky and luxuriant, enframes their light-brown faces, on which, in youth, a warm blush on the cheek heightens the lustre of their dark eyes, with long horizontal lashes and sharply-marked eyebrows.' _tempsky's mitla_, p. . the soques, 'short, with large chests and powerful muscles.... both men and women have very repulsive countenances.' _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. . [ ] 'es gente la de yucatan de buenos cuerpos, bien hechos, y rezios'.... the women 'bien hechas, y no feas ... no son blancas, sino de color baço.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv. see further: _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. de tehuantepec_, p. ; _palacios_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _leon_, in _id._, p. ; _museo mex._, tom. ii., p. . 'muchachos ya mayorcillos. todos desnudos en carnes, como nacieron de sus madres.... tras ellos venian muchos indios mayores, casi tan desnudos como sus hijos, con muchos sartales de flores ... en la cabeza, rebuxada una toca de colores, como tocado de armenio.' _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. . [ ] 'with their hair ty'd up in a knot behind, they think themselves extream fine.' _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. . 'muy empenachados y pintados.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. - , . [ ] 'their apparell was of cotton in manifold fashions and colours.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. . the maya woman's dress 'se reduce al hipil que cubre la parte superior del cuerpo, y al fustan ó enagua, de manta de algodon.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . of the men 'un calzoncillo ancho y largo hasta media pierna, y tal vez hasta cerca del tobillo, de la misma manta, un ceñidor blanco ó de colores, un pañuelo, y un sombrero de paja, y á veces una alpargata de suela, con sus cordones de mecate.' _registro yucateco_, tom. i., pp. - . see further: _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _galindo_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. iii., p. ; _wilson's amer. hist._, pp. , ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. , . [ ] 'tous portaient les cheveux longs, et les espagnols ont eu beaucoup de peine à les leur faire couper; la chevelure longue est encore aujourd'hui le signe distinctif des indiens insoumis.' _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. . 'las caras de blanco, negro, y colorado pintadas, que llaman embijarse, y cierto parecen demonios pintados.' _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, p. . compare above with _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'the buildings of the lower class are thatched with palm-leaves, and form but one piece, without window or chimney.' _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'cubrense las casas de vna cuchilla que los indios hazen de pajas muy espessas y bien assentadas, que llaman en esta tierra jacales.' _dávila padilla_, _hist. fund. mex._, p. . see also: _museo mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. , , with cut; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. . [ ] the chochos and chontales 'no tenian pueblo fundado, si no cobachuelas estrechas en lo mas escondido de los montes.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. . the chinantecs lived 'en rancherias entre barrancas, y espessuras de arboles.' _burgoa_, _palestra_, _hist._, pt. i., fol. ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, p. . [ ] zapotecs; 'se dan con gran vicio sus sementeras.' miztecs, 'labradores de mayz, y frizol.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. , and , - , , tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. - , , , , , , . zapotecs, 'grande inclinacion, y exercicio á la caza, y monteria de animales campesinos en especial de venados.' _burgoa_, _palestra hist._, pt. i., fol. . see further: _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. - , - ; _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. tehuantepec_, p. ; _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. , ; _galindo_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] tabasco: 'comen a sus horas concertadas, carnes de vaca, puerco, y aues, y beué vna beuida muy sana, hecha de cacao, mayz, y especia de la tierra, la qual llaman zocolate.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. tortillas, 'when they are baked brown, they are called "totoposti," and taste like parched corn.' _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. . the chontales, 'su alimento frecuente es el posole ... rara vez comen la carne de res.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. - . [ ] sr moro, speaking of the chintule, says: 'una infusion de estas raices comunica su fragancia al agua que los tehuantepecanos emplean como un objeto de lujo sumamente apreciado, tanto para labar la ropa de uso, como para las abluciones personales.' _moro_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'toutes les parties de leur vêtement sont toujours nouvellement blanchies. les femmes se baignent au moins une fois par jour.' _fossey_, _mexique_, p. . at chiapas, 'tous ces indiens, nus ou en chemise, répandaient dans l'atmosphère une odeur sui _generis_ qui soulevait le coeur.' _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, p. . the women are 'not very clean in their habits, eating the insects from the bushy heads of their children.' _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'no son muy limpias en sus personas, ni en sus casas, con quanto se laban.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'peleauan con lanças, armadas las puntas con espinas y huessos muy agudos de pescados.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi. 'usaban de lanzas de desmesurado tamaño para combatir.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . see also: _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, pp. - , , ; _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'tienen enfrente deste pueblo vn cerro altissimo, con vna punta que descuella soberviamente, casi entre la region de las nubes, y coronase con vna muy dilatada muralla de lossas de mas de vn estado de alto, y quentan de las pinturas de sus characteres historiales, que se retiraban alli, para defenderse de sus enemigos.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. . 'començaron luego á tocar las bozinas, pitos, trompetillas, y atabalejos de gente de guerra.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and lib. iv., cap. xi. also see _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, pp. , - ; _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _burgoa_, _palestra hist._, pt. i., fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. tehuantepec_, p. ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, p. . 'sobre vna estera si la tiene, que son muy pocos los que duermen en alto, en tapescos de caña ... ollas, ó hornillos de tierra ... casolones, ò xicaras.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. , . [ ] 'los zoques cultivan ... dos plantas pertenecientes á la familia de las _bromelias_, de las cuales sacan el _ixtle_ y la _pita_ cuyas hebras saben blanquear, hilar y teñir de varios colores. sus hilados y las hamacas que tejen con estas materias, constituyen la parte principal de su industria y de su comercio'.... the zapotecs, 'los tejidos de seda silvestre y de algodon que labran las mugeres, son verdaderamente admirables.' _moro_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , . of the miztecs it is said that 'las mugeres se han dado á texer con primor paños, y huepiles, assi de algodon como de seda, y hilo de oro, muy costosos.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. , and tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. . further reference in _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. - ; _chilton_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. ii., p. ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. , . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii., lib. iv., cap. xi.; _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. , ; _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. . 'their canoes are formed out of the trunk of a single mahogany or cedar tree.' _dale's notes_, p. . when grijalva was at cozumel 'vino una canoa.' _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. . the huaves 'no poseyendo embarcaciones propias para arriesgarse en aguas de algun fondo, y desconociendo hasta el uso de los remos, no frecuentan mas que los puntos que por su poca profundidad no ofrecen mayor peligro.' _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, p. . [ ] _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _palacios_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _voy. tehuantepec_, p. ; _hutchings' cal. mag._, vol. ii., p. ; _macgregor's progress of america_, vol. i., p. ; _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, p. ; _stephens' yucatan_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'les seigneurs de cuicatlan étaient, au temps de la conquête très-riches et très-puissants, et leurs descendants en ligne directe, décorés encore du titre de caciques.' _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. - . at etla 'herren des ortes waren caziken, welche ihn als eine art von mannlehen besassen, und dem könige einen gewissen tribut bezahlen mussten.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. . the miztecs 'tenian señalados como pregoneros, officiales que elegian por año, para que todas las mañanas al despuntar el sol, subidos en lo mas alto de la casa de su republica, con grandes vozes, llamasen, y exitasen á todos, diziendo salid, salid á trabajar, á trabajar, y con rigor executivo castigaban al que faltaba de su tarea.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. , also _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi. [ ] 'estava sujeta á diuersos señores, que como reyezuelos dominaban diuersos territorios ... pero antes auia sido toda sujeta á vn señor, y rey supremo, y asi gouernada con gouierno monarquico.' _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, p. . 'en cada pueblo tenian señalados capitanes a quienes obedecian.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-iv. for old customs and new, compare above with _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. , and _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . [ ] 'with other presents which they brought to the conqueror were twenty female slaves.' _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'vbo en esta juridicion grandes errores, y ritos con las paridas, y niños recien nacidos, lleuandolos á los rios, y sumergiendolos en el agua, hazian deprecacion á todos los animales aquatiles, y luego á los de tierra le fueran fauorables, y no le ofendieran.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. . 'consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida á la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere.' _museo mex._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'between husband and wife cases of infidelity are rare.... to the credit of the indians be it also said, that their progeny is legitimate, and that the vows of marriage are as faithfully cherished as in the most enlightened and favored lands. youthful marriages are nevertheless of frequent occurrence.' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. . women of the japateco race: 'their manners in regard to morals are most blameable.' _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . moro, referring to the women of jaltipan, says: 'son de costumbres sumamente libres: suele decirse ademas que los jaltipanos no solo no las celan, sino que llevan las ideas de hospitalidad á un raro exceso.' _garay_, _reconocimiento_, p. ; _ferry_, _costal l'indien_, pp. - ; _registro yucateco_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'iuntauanse en el capul, que es vna casa del comun, en cada barrio, para hazer casamientos, el cazique, el papa, los desposados, los parientes: estando sentados el señor, y el papa, llegauan los contrayentes, y el papa les amonestaua que dixessen las cosas que auian hecho hasta aquella hora.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi. [ ] _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _stephens' yucatan_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _dicc. univ._, tom. iv., p. ; _baeza_, in _registro yucateco_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'their amusements are scarcely worthy of note ... their liveliest songs are sad, and their merriest music melancholy.' _barnard's tehuantepec_, p. . 'afectos á las bebidas embriagantes, conocen dos particulares, el _chorote_, y el _balché ó guarapo_, compuesto de agua, caña de azúcar, palo-guarapo y maiz quemado.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . see also: _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. , ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., p. ; _stephens' yucatan_, vol. i., pp. - ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, pp. - . [ ] 'provinciæ guazacualco atque ylutæ nec non et cueztxatlæ indiginæ, multas ceremonias iudæorum usurpabant, nam et circumcidebantur, more à majoribus (ut ferebant) accepto, quod alibi in hisce regionibus ab hispanis hactenus non fuit observatum.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'they appear to regard with horror and avoid with superstitious fear all those places reputed to contain remains or evidences of their former religion.' _shufeldt's explor. tehuantepec_, p. . see further: _museo mex._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, pp. , ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. - , , , , - , ; _id._, _palestra hist._, fol. ; _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, pp. , ; _dicc. univ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. ; _baeza_, in _registro yucateco_, tom. i., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'ay en esta tierra mucha diuersidad de yeruas medicinales, con que se curan los naturales.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. the maya 'sabe las virtudes de todas las plantas como si hubiese estudiado botánica, conoce los venenos, los antídotos, y no se lo ocultan los calmantes.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. , , . [ ] _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _museo mex._, tom. ii., p. . 'en tamiltepec, los indios usan de ceremonias supersticiosas en sus sepulturas. se les ve hacer en los cementerios pequeños montones de tierra, en los que mezclan víveres cada vez que entierran alguno de ellos.' _berlandier y thovel_, _diario_, p. . [ ] the miztecs 'siempre de mayor reputacion, y mas políticos.' zapotecs 'naturalmente apazibles, limpios, lucidos, y liberales.' nexitzas 'astutos, maliciosos, inclinados á robos, y desacatos, con otros cerranos supersticiosos, acostumbrados á aleuosias, y hechizeros.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt. ii., fol. , tom. ii., pt. ii., fol. , , also fol. , , , , , , , . choles, 'nacion ... feroz, guerrera é independiente.' _balbi_, in _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'siendo los indios mixes de natural feroz, barbaro, y duro, que quieren ser tratados con aspereza, y rigor.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. . see further: _burgoa_, _palestra hist._, pt. i., fol. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - , - ; _torres_, in _id._, p. ; _museo mex._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _tempsky's mitla_, p. ; _hermesdorf_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. ; _barnard's tehuantepec_, pp. - ; _charnay_, _ruines américaines_, pp. - , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., p. ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. ii., pt. ii., pp. - ; _dávila padilla_, _hist. fund. mex._, p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . [ ] 'es el indio yucateco un monstruoso conjunto de religion é impiedad, de virtudes y vicios, de sagacidad y estupidez ... tiene ideas exactas precisas de lo bueno y de lo malo.... es incapaz de robar un peso, y roba cuatro veces dos reales.... siendo honrado en casi todas sus acciones ... se puede decir que el único vicie que le domina es el de la embriaguez.' _registro yucateco_, tom. i., pp. - ; _baeza_, in _id._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _moro_, in _garay_, _reconocimiento_, pp. - ; _müller_, _reisen_, tom. ii., p. . [illustration: native races of the pacific states central american group] chapter vii. wild tribes of central america. physical geography and climate--three groupal divisions; first, the nations of yucatan, guatemala, salvador, western honduras, and nicaragua; second, the mosquitos of honduras; third, the nations of costa rica and the isthmus of panamÁ--the popolucas, pipiles, and chontales--the descendants of the maya-quichÉ races--the natives of nicaragua--the mosquitos, poyas, ramas, lencas, towkas, woolwas, and xicaques of honduras--the guatusos of the rio frio--the caimanes, bayamos, dorachos, goajiros, mandingos, savanerics, sayrones, viscitas, and others living in costa rica and on the isthmus. of the wild tribes of central america, which territorial group completes the line of our pacific states seaboard, i make three divisions following modern geographical boundaries, namely, the aborigines of guatemala, salvador, and nicaragua, which i call _guatemalans_; the people of the mosquito coast and honduras, _mosquitos_; and the nations of costa rica and the isthmus of darien, or panamá, _isthmians_. [sidenote: physical geography of central america.] the territory occupied by this group of nations lies between the eighteenth and the seventh parallels of north latitude, that is to say, between the northern boundary of the central american states, and the river atrato, which stream nearly severs the isthmus from the south american continent. this continental tract is a narrow, irregular, indented coast-country of volcanic character, in which guatemala and honduras alone present any considerable breadth. the two cordilleras, running through mexico and meeting on the isthmus of tehuantepec, continue their course through guatemala, where they form a broken table-land studded with elevations, of less height than the plateaux of mexico. after sinking considerably at the isthmus formed by the gulf of honduras, this mountain range takes a fresh start and offers a formidable barrier along the pacific coast, which sends a number of transverse ranges into the interior of honduras, and gives rise to countless rivers, chiefly emptying into the atlantic. the chain passes at a diminished altitude through nicaragua, where it forms a large basin, which holds the lakes of nicaragua and managua; but on reaching costa rica it again becomes a bold, rugged range, capped by the volcano of cartago. seemingly exhausted by its wild contortions, it dwindles into a series of low ridges on entering veragua, and passes in this form through the isthmus of panamá, until it unites with the south american andes. the scenery of this region is extremely varied, uniting that of most countries of the globe; lakes, rivers, plains, valleys, and bays abound in all forms and sizes. the north-east trade winds blow the greater part of the year, and, meeting the high ranges, deposit their superabundant moisture upon the eastern side, which is damp, overgrown with rank vegetation, filled with marshes, and unhealthful. the summer here, is hot and fever-breeding. relieved of their moisture, and cooled by the mountains, the trade winds continue their course through the gaps left here and there, and tend materially to refresh the atmosphere of the pacific slope for a part of the year; while the south-west winds, blowing from may to october, for a few hours at a time, bring short rains to temper what would otherwise be the hot season on this coast. dew falls everywhere, except in the more elevated regions, and keeps vegetation fresh. palms, plantains, mahogany, and dye-woods abound in the hot district; maize flourishes best in the temperate parts, while cedars, pines, and hardier growths find a home in the tierra fria. the animal kingdom is best represented on the atlantic side, for here the puma, the tiger-cat, and the deer, startled only by the climbing opossum or the chattering monkey, find a more secure retreat. birds of brilliant plumage fill the forests with their songs, while the buzz of insects everywhere is heard as they swarm over sweltering alligators, lizards, and snakes. the manifold productions, and varied features of the country have had, no doubt, a great influence in shaping the destiny of the inhabitants. the fine climate, good soil, and scarcity of game on the pacific side must have contributed to the allurements of a settled life and assisted in the progress of nations who had for centuries before the conquest lived in the enjoyment of a high culture. it is hard to say what might have been the present condition of a people so happily situated, but the advent of the white race, bent only upon the acquirement of present riches by means of oppression, checked the advancement of a civilization which struck even the invaders with admiration. crossing to the atlantic side we find an over-abundant vegetation, whose dark recesses serve as a fitting shelter for the wild beast. here man, imbibing the wildness of his surroundings, and oppressed by a feverish climate, seems content to remain in a savage state depending upon natural fruits, the chase, and fishing for his subsistence. of a roaming disposition, he objects to the restraint imposed by government and forms. the natives of costa rica and the isthmus of darien escaped the civilizing influence of foreign intercourse,--thanks to their geographical isolation,--and remain on about the same level of culture as in their primitive days. [sidenote: central american nations.] under the name of guatemalans, i include the natives of guatemala, salvador, and nicaragua. i have already pointed out the favorable features of the region inhabited by them. the only sultry portion of guatemala is a narrow strip along the pacific; it is occupied by a few planters and fishermen, who find most of their requirements supplied by the palms that grow here in the greatest luxuriance. the chief part of the population is concentrated round the various lakes and rivers of the table-land above, where maize, indigo, cochineal, and sugar-cane are staple products. in the altos, the banana is displaced by hardier fruits sheltered under the lofty cedar, and here we find a thrifty and less humble people who pay some attention to manufactures. salvador presents less abrupt variation in its features. although outside of the higher range of mountains, it still possesses a considerable elevation running through its entire length, which breaks out at frequent intervals into volcanic peaks, and gives rise to an abundant and well-spread water system. such favorable conditions have not failed to gather a population which is not only the most numerous comparatively, but also the most industrious in central america. northern nicaragua is a continuation of salvador in its features and inhabitants; but the central and southern parts are low and have more the character of the guatemalan coast, the climate being hot, yet not unhealthful. its atlantic coast region, however, partakes of the generally unfavorable condition described above. the spanish rulers naturally exercised a great influence upon the natives, and their ancient civilization was lost in the stream of caucasian progress, a stream which, in this region, itself flowed but slowly in later times. oppressed and despised, a sullen indifference has settled upon the race, and caused it to neglect even its traditions. the greater portion still endeavor to keep up tribal distinctions and certain customs; certain tribes of lesser culture, as the cognate _manches_ and _lacandones_, retired before the spaniards to the north and north-east, where they still live in a certain isolation and independence. the name lacandones has been applied to a number of tribes, of which the eastern are described to be quite harmless as compared with the western. the _quichés_, a people living in the altos, have also surrounded themselves with a certain reserve, and are truer to their ancient customs than the _zutugils_, _cakchiquels_, and many others related by language to the quichés surrounding them. the _pipiles_, meaning children, according to molina, are the chief people in salvador, where their villages are scattered over a large extent of territory. in nicaragua we find several distinct peoples. the aboriginal inhabitants seem to have been the different peoples known as _chorotegans_, who occupy the country lying between the bay of fonseca and lake nicaragua. the _chontales_ (strangers, or barbarians) live to the north-east of the lakes, and assimilate more to the barbarous tribes of the mosquito country adjoining them. the _cholutecs_ inhabit the north from the gulf of fonseca towards honduras. the _orotiñans_ occupy the country south of the lake of nicaragua and around the gulf of nicoya. further information about the location of the different nations and tribes of this family will be found at the end of this chapter.[ ] [sidenote: physique and dress.] the guatemalans, that is to say the aborigines of guatemala, salvador, and nicaragua, are rather below the middle size, square and tough, with a finely developed physique. their hue is yellow-brown, in some parts coppery, varying in shade according to locality, but lighter than that of the standard american type. the full round face has a mild expression; the forehead is low and retiring, the cheek-bones protruding, chin and nose short, the latter thick and flat, lips full, eyes black and small, turned upwards at the temples, with a stoical, distrustful look. the cranium is slightly conical; hair long, smooth, and black, fine but strong, retaining its color well as old age approaches, though sometimes turning white. although the beard is scanty, natives may be seen who have quite a respectable moustache. the limbs are muscular, the calf of the leg being especially large; hands and feet small; a high instep, which, no doubt, partly accounts for their great endurance in walking. the women are not devoid of good looks, especially in nicaragua, where, in some districts, they are said to be stronger and better formed than the men. the custom of carrying pitchers of water upon the head, gives to the women an erect carriage and a firm step. the constitution of the males is good, and, as a rule, they reach a ripe old age; the females are less long-lived. deformed persons are extremely rare. guatemala, with its varied geographical aspects, presents striking differences in physique; the highlanders being lighter in complexion, and finer in form and features than the inhabitants of the lowlands.[ ] [sidenote: guatemalan dress and ornaments.] intercourse with spaniards seems to have produced little change in the dress of the guatemalans, which is pretty much the same as that of the mexicans. the poorer class wear a waist-cloth of white cotton, or of _pita_, which is a kind of white hemp, or a long shirt of the same material, with short sleeves, partly open at the sides, the ends of which are passed between the legs, and fastened at the waist; a strip of cotton round the head, surmounted by a dark-colored hat of straw or palm-leaves, with a very wide brim, completes the attire. this cotton cap or turban is an indispensable article of dress to the highlander, who passes suddenly from the cold air of the hilly country, to the burning plains below. sumptuary regulations here obtain, as aboriginally the lower classes were not allowed to wear anything better than pita clothing, cotton being reserved for the nobles. the primitive dress of the nobility is a colored waist-cloth, and a mantle ornamented and embroidered with figures of birds, tigers, and other designs, and, although they have adopted much of the spanish dress, the rich and fanciful stitchings on the shirt, still distinguish them from their inferiors. on feast-days, and when traveling, a kind of blanket, commonly known as _serape_, _manga_, or _poncho_, is added to the ordinary dress. the serape, which differs in style according to locality, is closer in texture than the ordinary blanket and colored, checked, figured, or fringed, to suit the taste. it has an opening in the centre, through which the head is passed, and hanging in loose folds over the body it forms a very picturesque attire. some fasten it with a knot on one shoulder, leaving it to fall over the side from the other. the serape also serves for rain-coat and wrapper, and, at night, it is wound round the head and body, serving for bed as well as covering, the other portion of the dress being made into a pillow. the carriers of guatemala use a rain-proof palm-leaf called _suyacal_. shepherds are distinguished by a black and white checked apron, somewhat resembling the scotch kilt. the hair, which, before the conquest of guatemala, was worn long, and hung in braids down the back, is now cut short, except in the remote mountain districts, where long loose hair is still the fashion. in salvador and nicaragua, on the other hand, the front part of the hair used to be shaved off, the brave often appearing perfectly bald. most natives go bare-footed, except when traveling; they then put on sandals, which consist of a piece of hide fastened by thongs. the women, when at home, content themselves with a waist-cloth, generally blue-checked, secured by a twisted knot; but, on going abroad, they put on the huipil, which is a piece of white cotton, having an opening in the middle for the head, and covering the breast and back, as far as the waist. some huipils are sewed together at the sides and have short sleeves. on this part of their dress the women--who, for that matter, attend to the manufacture and dyeing of all the clothing--expend their best efforts. they embroider, or dye, the neck and shoulders with various designs, whose outlines and coloring often do great credit to their taste. in guatemala, the colors and designs are distinct for different villages, so that it may at once be seen to which tribe the wearer belongs. the hair is plaited into one or two braids, interlaced with bright-colored ribbons, and usually wreathed turban-fashion round the head. the quichés, whose red turban-dress is more pronounced than others, sometimes vary it by adding yellow bands and tassels to the braids, which are permitted to hang down to the heels. thomas gage, who lived in guatemala from about to , relates that on gala-days the fair natives were arrayed in cotton veils reaching to the ground. the ancient custom of painting, and of piercing the ears and lip, to hold pendants, is now restricted to the remote hill country, and ornaments are limited to a few strings of beads, shells, and metal for the arms and neck, with an occasional pair of ear-rings; the women add flowers and garlands to their head-dress, especially on feast-days. some mountain tribes of guatemala wear red feathers in their cotton turbans--the nobles and chiefs using green ones--and paint the body black: the paint being, no doubt, intended for a protection against mosquitos. the apron worn by the women is made of bark, which, after being soaked and beaten, assumes the appearance of chamois leather. the lacandones also wore cotton sacks adorned with tassels, and the women had bracelets of cords with tassels. in nicaragua, tattooing seems to have been practiced, for oviedo says that the natives cut their faces and arms with flint knives, and rubbed a black powder obtained from pine gum into the scars. children wear no other dress than that provided by nature: here and there, however, the girls are furnished with a strip of cotton for the waist.[ ] [sidenote: guatemalan dwellings.] the conquerors have left numerous records of large cities with splendid palaces and temples of stone, but these exist now only in their ruins. the masses had, doubtless, no better houses than those we see at present. their huts are made of wooden posts and rafters supporting a thatched roof of straw or palm-leaves, the side being stockaded with cane, bamboo, or rush, so as to allow a free passage to the air. generally they have but one room; two or three stones in the centre of the hut compose the fireplace, and the only egress for the smoke is through the door. the room is scantily furnished with a few mats, a hammock, and some earthenware. their villages are generally situated upon rising ground, and, owing to the houses being so scattered, they often extend over a league, which gives some foundation to the statements of the conquerors reporting the existence of towns of enormous size. the better kind of villages have regular streets, a thing not to be seen in the ordinary hamlets; and the houses, which are often of _adobes_ (sun-burnt bricks), or of cane plastered over, containing two or three rooms and a loft, are surrounded by neatly kept gardens, enclosed within hedges. when a guatemalan wishes to build a hut, or repair one, he notifies the chief, who summons the tribe to bring straw and other needful materials, and the work is finished in a few hours; after which the owner supplies the company with chocolate. some of the vera paz tribes are of a roaming disposition. they will take great trouble in clearing and preparing a piece of ground for sowing, and, after one or two harvests, will leave for another locality. their dwellings, which are often grouped in hamlets, are therefore of a more temporary character, the walls being of maize-stalks and sugar-cane, surmounted by a slight palm-leaf roof. during an expedition into the country of the lacandones, the spaniards found a town of over one hundred houses, better constructed than the villages on the guatemalan plateau. in the centre of the place stood three large buildings, one a temple, and the other two assembly houses, for men and women respectively. all were enclosed with fences excellently varnished. the nicaraguan villages seem to be the neatest; the houses are chiefly of plaited cane or bamboo frame-work, raised a few feet from the ground, and standing in the midst of well-arranged flowers and shrubbery. dollfus describes a simple but ingenious method used by the guatemalans to cross deep rivers. a stout cable of aloe-fibres is passed over the stream, and fixed to the banks at a sufficient height from the surface of the water. to this rope bridge, called _garucha_, is attached a running strap, which the traveler passes round his body, and is pulled across by men stationed on the opposite side.[ ] these natives are essentially agricultural, but, like all who inhabit the warm zone, desire to live with the least possible labor. most of them are content with a small patch of ground round their huts, on which they cultivate, in the same manner as did their forefathers, the little maize, beans, and the banana and plantain trees necessary for their subsistence. there are, however, a number of small farmers, who raise cochineal, cacao, indigo, and cotton, thereby adding to their own and their country's prosperity. in the more thinly settled districts, hunting enables them to increase the variety of their food with the flesh of wild hogs, deer, and other game, which are generally brought down with stone-headed arrows. when hunting the wild hog, they stretch a strong net, with large meshes, in some part of the woods, and drive the animals towards it. these rush headlong into the meshes, and are entangled, enabling their pursuers to dispatch them with ease. [sidenote: food of the guatemalans.] beans, and tortillas of maize, with the inevitable chile for seasoning, and plantains or bananas are their chief food. to these may be added meat in small quantities, fish, eggs, honey, turtle, fowl, and a variety of fruit and roots. salt is obtained by boiling the soil gathered on the sea-shore. maize is prepared in several ways. when young and tender, the ears are boiled, and eaten with salt and pepper; or a portion of them are pressed, and the remainder boiled with the juice thus extracted. when ripe, the fruit is soaked and then dried between the hands, previous to being crushed to flour between two stones. it is usually made into tortillas, which are eaten hot, with a strong sprinkling of pepper and occasionally a slight addition of fat. _tamales_ is the name for balls of cooked maize mixed with beef and chile, and rolled in leaves. a favorite dish is a dumpling made of maize and frijoles. the frijoles, or beans, of which a stock is always kept, are boiled a short time with chile; they are then mixed with maize, and again put into the pot until thoroughly cooked, when they are eaten with a sauce made of salt, chile, and water. there are a number of fluid and solid preparations made chiefly from maize, and known as _atole_, to which name various prefixes are added to denote the other ingredients used. meat, which is usually kept jerked, is a feast-day food. gage describes the jerking process as follows: fresh meat is cut into long strips, salted, and hung between posts to dry in the sun for a week. the strips are then smoked for another week, rolled up in bundles, which become quite hard, and are called _tassajo_ or _cesina_. another mode of preparing meat is described by the same author: when a deer has been shot, the body is left until decay and maggots render it appetizing; it is then brought home and parboiled with a certain herb until the flesh becomes sweet and white. the joint is afterwards again boiled, and eaten with chile. the lacandones preserve meat as follows: a large hole is made in the ground, and lined with stones. after the hole has been heated, the meat is thrown in, and the top covered with leaves and earth, upon which a fire is kept burning. the meat takes four hours to cook, and can be preserved for eight or ten days. cacao forms an important article of food, both as a drink and as bread. the kernel is picked when ripe, dried on a mat, and roasted in an earthen pan, previous to being ground to flour. formerly, cacao was reserved for the higher classes, and even now the poor endeavor to economize it by adding _sapuyal_, the kernel of the _sapote_. they observe no regularity in their meals, but eat and drink at pleasure. when traveling, some roasted maize paste called _totoposte_, crumbled in boiling water with an addition of salt and pepper, and a cup of warm water, suffice for a repast. fire is obtained in the usual primitive manner, by rubbing two sticks together.[ ] most authorities agree that they are clean in their habits, and that frequent bathing is the rule, yet it is hinted that leprosy is caused partially by uncleanliness.[ ] [sidenote: war, weapons, and implements.] since the spaniards assumed control of the country, weapons, as applied to war, have fallen into disuse, and it is only in the mountain districts that we meet the hunter armed with bow and spear, and slung over his shoulder a quiver full of reed arrows, pointed with stone. in salvador and nicaragua, the natives are still very expert in the use of the sling, game often being brought down by it.[ ] i find no record of any wars among the aborigines since the conquest, and the only information relating to their war customs, gathered from the account of skirmishes which the spaniards have had with some of the tribes in eastern guatemala, is, that the natives kept in the back-ground, hidden by rocks or trees, waiting for the enemy to approach. as soon as the soldiers came close enough, a cloud of arrows came whizzing among them, and the warriors appeared, shouting with all their might. the lacandones occasionally retaliate upon the planters on their borders for ill-treatment received at their hands. a number of warriors set out at night with faggots of dry sticks and grass, which are lighted as they approach the plantation, and thrown into the enemy's camp; during the confusion that ensues, the proposed reprisal is made. one writer gives a brief description of the ceremonies preceding and following their expeditions. in front of the temple are burning braziers filled with odoriferous resin; round this the warriors assemble in full dress, their arms being placed behind them. a smaller brazier of incense blazes in front of each warrior, before which he prostrates himself, imploring the aid of the great spirit in his enterprise. on their return, they again assemble, disguised in the heads of various animals, and go through a war dance before the chief and his council. sentinels are always pacing the summit of the hills, and give notice to one another, by trumpet blast, of the approach of any stranger. if it is an enemy, they speedily form ambuscades to entrap him.[ ] i have already referred to the bare interior of their dwellings: a few mats, a hammock, and some earthenware being the only apology for furniture. the mats are plaited of bark or other fibres, and serve, among other purposes, as a bed for the children, the grown persons generally sleeping in hammocks attached to the rafters. scattered over the floor may be seen the earthen jar which the women so gracefully balance on their head when bringing it full of water from the well; the earthen pot for boiling plantains, with its folded banana-leaf cover; cups made from clay, calabash, cocoa-nut, or wacal shells, with their stands, often polished and bearing the marks of native sculpture; the metate for grinding the family flour; the _comal_, a clay plate upon which the tortilla is baked. a banana-leaf serves for a plate, and a fir-stick does the duty of a candle. their hunting or bag nets are made of pita or bark-fibres. the steel machete and the knife have entirely displaced their ancient silex tools, of which some relics may still be found among the lacandones. valenzuela mentions that in the meeting-house of this tribe, the conquerors found two hundred hanging seats.[ ] these natives still excel in the manufacture of pottery, and produce, without the aid of tools, specimens that are as remarkable for their fanciful forms, as for their elegance and coloring. water-jars are made sufficiently porous to allow the water to percolate and keep the contents cool; other earthenware is glazed by rubbing the heated vessel with a resinous gum. nor are they behind-hand in the art of weaving, for most of the fabrics used in the country are of native make. the aboriginal spinning machine is not yet wholly displaced, and consists, according to squier, of a thin spindle of wood, fifteen or sixteen inches in length, which is passed through a wheel of hard, heavy wood, six inches in diameter, and resembles a gigantic top. when used, it is placed in a hollowed piece of wood, to prevent it from toppling over. a thread is attached to the spindle just above the wheel, and it is then twirled rapidly between the thumb and forefinger. the momentum of the wheel keeps it in motion for half a minute, and meantime the thread is drawn out by the operator from the pile of prepared cotton in her lap. their mode of weaving is the same as that of the mexicans, and the fabrics are not only durable, but tastefully designed and colored to suit the quality and price. the dyes used are, indigo for blue, cochineal for red, and indigo mixed with lemon juice for black. the nicaraguans obtain a highly prized purple by pressing the valve of a shell-fish found on the sea-shore. baily says that they take the material to the seaside, and, after procuring a quantity of fresh coloring matter, dip each thread singly into it, and lay it aside to dry. from the aloe, and pita, or silk-grass, which are very strong and can easily be bleached, they obtain a very fine thread, suitable for the finest weaving. reeds and bark give material for coarser stuff, such as ropes and nets. mats and hammocks, which are made from any of the last-mentioned fibres, are often interwoven with gray colors and rich designs. some idea may be formed of the patient industry of the native when we learn that he will work for months upon one of the highly prized hats made from the fibre of the half-formed _carludovica palmata_ leaf. they drill holes in stones, for pipes and other objects, by twirling a stick rapidly between the hands in some sand and water placed upon the stone.[ ] [sidenote: guatemalan canoes.] canoes are the usual 'dug-outs,' made from a single cedar or mahogany log, cedar being liked for its lightness, mahogany for its durability. they are frequent enough on the coast, and even the north-eastern guatemalans used to muster fleets of several hundred canoes on their lakes and rivers, using them for trade as well as war. pim, when at greytown, particularly observed the hollowed-out boats, some upwards of fifty feet in length, and straight as an arrow. he says that they are very skillfully handled, and may be seen off the harbor in any weather. the paddles, which are used both for steering and propelling, are of light mahogany, four feet long, with very broad blades, and a cross at the handle.[ ] their wealth, which, since the conquest, mostly consists of household goods, is the product of their farms and industry mentioned under food, implements, and manufactures. the coast tribes, in salvador, have a source of wealth not yet referred to--balsam--and they are very jealous of their knowledge of obtaining it. the process, as described by dollfus, is to make several deep incisions in the trunk of the balsam-tree, and stuff the holes with cotton rags. when these have absorbed sufficient balm, they are placed in jars of water, and submitted to a moderate heat. the heat separates the substance from the rags, and the balsam rises to the surface to be skimmed and placed in well-closed jars for shipment. these people possess no written records to establish ownership to their property, but hold it by ancient rights transmitted from father to son, which are transferable. the right of first discovery, as applied to fruit-trees and the like, is respected, and can be transmitted. goods and lands are equally divided among the sons. there is a general interchange of products on a small scale, and as soon as the farm yield is ready, or a sufficient quantity of hammocks, mats, hats, and cups have been prepared, the native will start on a short trading-tour, with the load on his back--for they use no other mode of transport. the ancient custom of holding frequent markets in all towns of any importance has not quite disappeared, for masaya, among other places, continues to keep a daily _tianguez_. cacao-beans, which were formerly the chief currency, are still used for that purpose to a certain extent, and make up a large item in their wealth. the lacandones at one time drove a brisk trade on the rio de la pasion, employing several hundred canoes, but this has now greatly diminished, and they seem to grow less and less inclined to intercourse. hardcastle relates that two shy mountain tribes of guatemala "exchange dogs and a species of very sharp red pepper, by leaving them on the top of the mountain, and going to the spot in turn."[ ] [sidenote: art and government.] the native's aptitude for art is well illustrated by the various products of his industry, decorated as they are with fanciful designs, carvings, and coloring. the calabash cups are widely circulated, and the artistic carving of leaves, curious lines, and figures of all descriptions, in relief, with which the outside is ornamented, has been much admired. no less esteemed are the small guatemalan earthen figures, painted in natural colors, representing the various trades and occupations of the people, which may be said to rival european productions of the same character. the ornaments on their pottery bear some resemblance to the etruscan. they are equally advanced in painting, for many of the altar-pieces in central america are from the native brush, and their dishes are often richly colored in various designs. original lyric poetry seems to flourish among them, and is not wanting in grace, although the rendering of it may not be exactly operatic. the subject generally refers to victorious encounters with monsters, but contains also sarcasms on government and society.[ ] a reverential respect for authority is innate with these people, and the chief, usually a descendant of the ancient caciques, who is also the head of the municipal government introduced among them by the spaniards, receives the homage paid him with imperturbable gravity. these chiefs form a proud and powerful noblesse, who rule with an iron hand over their submissive followers. although governed to all appearance by the code of the country, they have their own laws based on custom and common sense, which are applied to civil as well as criminal cases. among the lacandones, the chief is elected by a council of old men, when death, misconduct, or the superior abilities of some one else call for such a step. pontelli adds that the new chief is invested with lion-skins and a collar of human teeth to represent his victories; a crown of feathers or a lion-skin is his usual distinctive head-dress. the wife of the chief is required to possess some rare qualities. these people are very strict in executing the law; the offender is brought before the old men, and if the crime is serious his relatives have often to share in his punishment. the people of salvador, according to dollfus, have frequent reunions in their council-house at night. the hall is then lighted up by a large fire, and the people sit with uncovered heads, listening respectfully to the observations and decisions of the _ahuales_--men over forty years of age, who have occupied public positions, or distinguished themselves in some way. gage makes a curious statement concerning the rio lempa that may be based upon some ancient law. any man who committed a heinous crime on the one side of the river, and succeeded in escaping to the other, was allowed to go unmolested, provided he did not return.[ ] [sidenote: marriage and childbirth.] marriages take place at an early age, often before puberty, and usually within the tribe. when the boy, in guatemala and salvador, has attained the age of nine, his parents begin to look around for a bride for him, the mother having a good deal to say in this matter. presents are made to the parents of the girl chosen, and she is transferred to the house of her future father-in-law, where she is treated as a daughter, and assists in the household duties, until she is old enough to marry. it sometimes happens that she has by this time become distasteful to the affianced husband, and is returned to her parents. the presents given for her are then demanded back, a refusal naturally follows, and feuds result, lasting for generations. gage states that when the parties to the betrothal are of different tribes, the chiefs are notified, and meet in solemn conclave to consult about the expediency of the alliance. the consultations often extend over a period of several months, during which the parents of the boy supply the council with refreshments, and make presents to the girl's family for her purchase. if the council disagree, the presents are returned, and the matter drops. when the youth has reached his sixteenth or eighteenth year, and the maid her fourteenth, they are considered able to take care of themselves; a house is accordingly built, and the father gives his son a start in life. the cacique and relations are summoned to witness the marriage ceremony, now performed by the priest, after which the pair are carried upon the shoulders of their friends to the new house, placed in a room, and shut in. the bride brings no dowry, but presents are made by the friends of the families. several tribes in guatemala are strictly opposed to marriages outside of the tribe, and destroy the progeny left by a stranger. the lacandones still practice polygamy, each wife having a separate house and field for her support. in nicaragua, where women are more independent, and fewer of the ancient marriage customs have been retained than elsewhere, the ceremony is often quickly disposed of, the husband and wife returning to their avocations immediately after. the life of the woman is one of drudgery; household duties, weaving, and the care of children keeping her constantly busy, while the husband is occupied in dolce far niente; yet their married life is not unhappy. although the female dresses scantily and is not over shy when bathing, she is by no means immodest or unchaste, but bears rather a better character than women of the superior race. childbirth is not attended with any difficulties, for it sometimes happens that the woman, after being delivered on the road, will wash the child and herself in the nearest stream, and proceed on her journey, as if nothing had occurred. the quichés, among others, still call in the sorcerer to take the horoscope of the new-born, and to appeal to the gods in its behalf. he also gives the infant the name of some animal, which becomes its guardian spirit for life. belly states that more boys are born to the natives, while the whites have more girls. the mother invariably nurses the child herself until its third year, and, when at work, carries it on her back in a cloth passed round her body; the movements of the mother in washing or kneading tending to rock the infant to sleep. otherwise the child is little cared for, and has to lie on the bare ground, or, at most, with a mat under it. as the boy grows older the father will take him into the field and forest, suiting the work to his strength, and instructing him in the use of tools, while the mother takes charge of the girl, teaching her to cook, spin, and weave. respect for parents and older people is inculcated, and children never presume to speak before a grown person unless first addressed. they remain under the parents' roof until married, and frequently after, several generations often living together in one house under the rule of the eldest. the native is fond of home, for here he escapes from the contempt of the other races, and reigns supreme over a family which is taught to respect him: patriotism has been replaced by love of home among this oppressed people.[ ] [sidenote: guatemalan music.] their amusements are less common and varied than among the whites, and are generally reserved for special occasions, when they are indulged in to excess. still, they have orderly gatherings round the hearth, at which wondrous and amusing stories form the chief part of the entertainment. songs follow in natural order, and are loudly applauded by the listeners, who join in repeating the last words of the verse. the subject, as given by some local poet, or transmitted from an ancient bard, is pleasing enough, but the rendering is in a plaintive, disagreeable monotone. their instrumental music is an improvement on the vocal, in some respects, and practice has enabled the player to execute pieces from memory with precision and accord. the _marimba_, a favorite instrument, consists of a series of vertical tubes of different length but equal diameter, fastened together in a line by bark fibre, and held firm between two pieces of wood. the tubes have a lateral opening at the base covered with a membrane, and the upper end is closed by a small, movable elastic plate, upon which the performer strikes with light drumsticks. the play of the plates causes a compression of air in the tube, and a consequent vibration of the membrane, which produces a sound differing in character according to the length of the tube. all the parts are of wood, the tube being, however, occasionally of terra-cotta, or replaced by calabash-shells. the marimba of usual size is over a yard in length, and consists of twenty-two tubes ranging from four to sixteen inches in length, forming three complete octaves. the pitch is regulated by a coating of wax on the key-plates. some drumsticks are forked to strike two plates at once. occasionally, several persons join in executing an air upon the instrument, or two marimbas are played in perfect accord with some song. their usual drum is called _tepanabaz_, described by gage as a smooth hollow trunk with two or three clefts on the upper side and holes at the ends. it is beaten with two sticks, and produces a dull heavy sound. other drums covered with wild goat skin, tortoise-shells, pipes, small bells, and rattles, are chiefly used at dances. the lacandones possess a kind of mandolin, a double-necked, truncated cone, with one string, made to pass four times over the bridge; also a clarionet-like instrument named _chirimiya_; their drum is called _tepanahuaste_. a dance is generally a grand affair with the native, combining as it does dress with dramatic and saltatory exhibitions. at the _tocontin_ dance, in guatemala, from twenty to forty persons dressed in white clothes richly embroidered, and bedecked with gaudy bands, colored feathers in gilt frames fastened on the back, fanciful helmets topped with feathers, and feathers, again, on their legs, in form of wings. the conductor stands in the centre beating time on the tepanabaz, while the dancers circle round him, one following the other, sometimes straight, sometimes turning half-way, at other times fully round, and bending the body to the ground, all the time shouting the fame of some hero. this continues for several hours, and is often repeated in one house after another. in another dance they disguise themselves with skins of different animals, acting up to the character assumed, and running in and out of the circle formed round the musicians, striking, shrieking, and hotly pursuing some particular performer. there are also several dances like those of the mexicans, in which men dress in women's clothes and other disguises. the nicaraguan dances vary but little from the above. several hundred people will gather in some well-cleared spot, their arms and legs ornamented with strings of shells, their heads with feathers, and with fans in their hands. the leader, walking backwards, commences some movements to be imitated by the dancers, who follow in threes and fours, turning round, intermingling, and again uniting. the musicians beat drums and sing songs to which the leader responds, the dancers taking up the refrain in their turn, and shaking their calabash rattles. after a while they pass round each other and perform the most curious antics and grimaces, crying, laughing, posturing, acting lame, blind, and so on. drinking is inseparable from these reunions, and they do not usually break up until all have attained the climax of their wishes--becoming helplessly drunk. the principal drinks are, atole made from maize, but which assumes different prefixes, according to the additional ingredients used, as _istatole_, _jocoatole_, etc.; pulque, chiefly used in the highlands; and, not least, _chicha_, made from maize and various fruits and roots, fermented with honey or sugar-cane juice. gage states that tobacco-leaves and toads were added to increase the flavor. the nicaraguans make their favorite drink from a wild red cherry. it takes several weeks to prepare these liquors, but by the generous aid of friends the stock is often consumed at one carousal.[ ] [sidenote: customs in guatemala and nicaragua.] ignorant and oppressed as they are, superstition is naturally strong among them, the evil eye, ominous import of animals and the like being firmly believed in. nicaraguans gave as a reason for speaking in whispers at night, that loud talking attracts mosquitos. the quichés, of istlávacan, among others, believe in certain evil and certain good days, and arrange their undertakings accordingly. when meeting a stranger, they present the forehead to be touched, thinking that a beneficial power is imparted to them by this means. they still adhere to their sorcerers, who are called in upon all important occasions, to predict the future, exorcise evil spirits and the like, with the aid of various decoctions and incantations. the chontales have diviners who, with the aid of drugs, taken after a fast, fall into a trance, during which they prophesy. they form a sort of guild, and live alone in the mountains with a few pupils, who support them in return for the instruction received. although idolatry proper is abolished, some ancient practices still live, blended with their christian worship, and it is said that tribes inhabiting the remote mountain regions still keep up their old rites in secret. dollfus is apparently inclined to believe that the songs he heard the natives chant every morning and evening may be the relic of some ancient religious ceremony. the itzas hold deer sacred, and these animals were consequently quite familiar with man, before the conquerors subdued the country. the lacandones are said to have been the last who publicly worshiped in their temple, and whose priests sacrificed animals to idols. by the side of the temple stood two other large buildings used as meeting-houses, one for men, the other for women. dogs and tame parrots formed part of their domestic establishment. the native is very taciturn before strangers, but on paying a visit to friends he will deliver long harangues full of repetition. it is almost impossible to obtain a direct answer from him to any question. another peculiarity with many is to hoard money at the expense of bodily comfort. it is buried in some secret place, and the owner dies without even caring to inform his kin of the whereabouts of his treasures. the favorite occupation of the people is to act as porters, and guatemala certainly possesses the most excellent carriers, who are trained for the business from an early age. they usually go in files, headed by a chief, all armed with long staffs and water-proof palm-leaf mats, and travel from twenty to thirty miles a day, for days in succession, without suffering any inconvenience. the weight varies from one hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds, according to road and distance, and is carried on the back, supported by straps passed over the forehead and shoulders. they are very moderate in eating, and never drink cold water if they can avoid it; when tired, they stretch themselves at full length on the ground, and are speedily refreshed. women are also accustomed to carry burdens, and may frequently be seen taking several filled pitchers to market in nets suspended from their forehead and shoulders. water they usually bring in jars balanced on the head.[ ] [sidenote: medical practice.] the ruling diseases are small-pox, which makes yearly havoc; dysentery, which is also not uncommon in the highlands during the summer; and leprosy, manifested by wounds and eruptions, and caused by filth, immoral habits, and bad food. in some parts of nicaragua, the latter disease breaks out in horny excrescences, similar in appearance to the tips of cow-horns. rheumatism and chest diseases are rare, in spite of their rough life. superstitious practices and empirical recipes transmitted from their ancestors are the remedies resorted to. hot bathing is the favorite treatment. they are skillful at blood-letting, making very small punctures, and applying a pinch of salt to them after the operation is ended. cauterizing wounds to prevent inflammation is not uncommon, and does not affect the patient much. the principal remedy of the chorotegans consists of a decoction from various herbs injected by means of a tube. some tribes of the highlands call in sorcerers to knead and suck the suffering part. after performing a variety of antics and grimaces, the wise man produces a black substance from the mouth, which he announces as the cause of the sickness; the friends of the patient take this matter and trample it to pieces amidst noisy demonstrations.[ ] their dead are washed, and dressed in a fresh suit; friends then assemble to express their regard and sorrow by burning copal and performing a wild dance round the corpse, which is buried with all its belongings, as well as food for sustenance on the long journey. the itzas, inhabiting the islands in the lake peten, are said to have thrown their dead into the lake, for want of room.[ ] the character of the guatemalans exhibits a number of excellent traits. they have always been a gentle race, and easily led by kindness, but centuries of oppression have thrown over them a timid, brooding spirit. far from warlike, they have nevertheless proved themselves efficient soldiers during the late civil wars. their honesty and faithfulness to a trust or engagement is universally admitted, and every traveler bears witness to their hospitality and obliging disposition. although taciturn before strangers, whom they naturally distrust, they are quite voluble and merry among themselves, especially the women; their mirth, however, wants the ring of true happiness. looking at the darker side, it is found that drunkenness stands preëminent, and if the native is not oftener drunk, it is because the means for carousing are wanting. surrounded by a bountiful nature, he is naturally lazy and improvident, whole days being passed in dreamy inaction, without a symptom of ennui. he is obstinate, and clings to ancient customs, yet he will not dispute with you, but tacitly forms his own opinion. taught to be humble, he does not possess much manliness, has a certain cunning, will weep at trifles, and is apt to be vindictive, especially if his jealousy is aroused. the highlanders form an exception to these general characteristics in many respects. the purer air of the mountain has infused in them a certain independent energy, and industry. nor are the women to be classed as lazy, for their position is rather that of slaves than of wives, yet they are vivacious and not devoid of coquetry, but of undisputed modesty. many of the remoter tribes are brave, and the manches, for instance, behaved lately in so spirited a manner as to compel the government to treat with them. the itzas are said to have been warlike and cruel, but their neighbors the lacandones are not so ferocious as supposed. the quichés bear a high character for industry, and intelligence, while those of rabinal excel in truthfulness, honesty, and morality. the vera paz tribes are less active and industrious than those of the plateau; this applies especially to the eastern nations who are also more stupid than the western. the salvador people are noted for their phlegmatic temperament, and the provoked stranger who seeks to hurry them, is merely laughed at; otherwise they, as well as the nicaraguans, are more docile and industrious than the guatemalans, but also more superstitious. scherzer thinks that they have all the inclination for becoming robbers, but want the energy. the aztec remnants in nicaragua are particularly patient and thrifty, but extremely shy and brooding. the chontales, on the other hand, are said to have been a savage and debased race, while the cholutecs were brave and cruel but subject to petticoat rule. opinions concerning the intelligence of the natives and their prospect of advancement are varied, some affirming that they are dull and spiritless, incapable of making any progress, while others assign them a high character and intelligence, which, properly directed, would give them a prominent position.[ ] [sidenote: the mosquitos.] [sidenote: mosquito nations.] the mosquitos, the second division of the central american group, are at the present day composed in part of an incongruous mixture of carib colonists and negro importations, and in part of a pure native element. owing to the independent spirit of the tribes along the central chain of mountains, which successfully resisted the attempts of spaniards to penetrate the territory, and to the unhealthy climate of the coast, this country, with the exception of the northern part of honduras, has as yet escaped subjection to the white race. the country, aside from the sea-shore, possesses many attractive features. the transverse ranges, radiating from the principal chain, form a series of terraces which gradually lessen in elevation, until they disappear in a low coast region. between them innumerable rivers, fed by the moisture-laden sea-winds, now rushing boisterously from heavily wooded heights, now sluggishly wending their way through luxuriant prairie-land, flow through a region of most pleasing variety, and at last empty into vast lagoons bordering the ocean. the aborigines still form the greater part of the population, and are composed of a large number of tribes which, while practicing agriculture to a limited extent, subsist chiefly on natural fruits and on the products of the chase. excepting the small tribes of the eastern mosquito country, mr squier, who has given much patient research to their languages, includes the natives of this sub-division among the lenca family, at the head of which stand the _guajiqueros_ in western honduras, essentially an agricultural people. east of these are the _xicaques_, and _poyas_, names given to a collection of closely related tribes, some of which have been brought under the subjugating influences of the missionary fathers, while others still keep their ancient customs intact. the _secos_ on black river are included by some writers with the poyas. south and west of these are the _moscos_, and in the western part of the mosquito coast, the _woolwas_, who still cherish a tradition of their emigration from the north-west. east of the latter live the _towkas_ and _cookras_, who extend to blewfields, and speak dialects varying little from the woolwa tongue, but stand lower in the scale of humanity. bell states that the towkas are merely a branch of the _smoos_, who have many points in common with the poyas, though differing from them in language. among other aborigines may be mentioned the _albatuinas_, _tahuas_, _panamekas_, _jaras_, _taos_, _gaulas_, _itziles_, _motucas_, and the _ramas_ on the blewfields lagoon; of several others the names are either lost or unknown. following the coast southward we meet the _caribs_, a strong, hardy, but crude race at present, of varied negro admixture, chiefly descended from the turbulent natives of san vicente island, whom the english transported in to the island of roatan, whence they were brought over to honduras. the caribs, who have within a few decades spread from a small colony over the whole northern coast, driving other nations into the interior and southward, appear to be superseding the aborigines, now fast disappearing under the annihilating effect of drink and disease. south of the caribs round cape gracias á dios are the _sambos_, or _mosquitos_ proper, said to have sprung from the union of native women with negro slaves wrecked on the coast during the seventeenth century. owing to their geographical position they were brought in contact with the buccaneers, and placed in a position to gain ascendancy over other tribes from the poyas southward, but were at the same time inoculated with the degrading vices and disorders which are now so rapidly bringing about their extinction. elated by their position as masters of the coast, they assumed the proud title of _waiknas_, or men, in which conceit they have been imitated by the subjected tribes, which are gradually adopting the sambo tongue. adjacent to them are the _toonglas_, a not very numerous offshoot of smoos and sambos.[ ] race-mixtures in certain localities have almost obliterated aboriginal types, which are portrayed as of medium stature, regular form, and varying in color from light brown to dark coppery. the people about cape gracias á dios are represented by the first voyagers to have been nearly as dark as negroes. the face is rather flat and oval, the head smaller than among europeans; forehead high and cheek-bones not very prominent; hair long, straight, coarse, and black; beard scanty; nose very small, thin, and usually aquiline among the coast people, but larger and broader toward the interior. the iris of the eye is generally black, but often verges toward brown; mouth broad, with thin lips and regular teeth. the women present a full bust and abdomen; they are called pretty, but early marriages soon make them old. it is suspected that infant murder has something to do with the rarity of deformed people. the towkas and ramas present the finest pure-blooded type, the former being very fair, while the latter are large, athletic, and stern-looking. the poyas are copper-colored, short, but muscular, broad-faced, with large forehead, bent nose, and small, mild eyes. the toonglas are duskier; the smoos approach the fair towkas in hue, though they have a flatter head, accompanied by a stolid look. the darkest of all are the woolwas, whose color seems a mixture of yellow ochre and india ink. proceeding to honduras, we meet the caribs, whose varied admixture of negro blood separates them into yellow and black caribs. the former are distinguished by a somewhat ruddy hue, with a hooked nose; while his duskier brother is taller, hardier, and longer-lived; with a nose inclining to aquiline. children are prettier as they approach the negro type. the hair varies in curl and gloss according to purity of blood. the mosquitos proper are more uniform in appearance, and buccaneers have no doubt assisted in bringing out many of the characteristics that have obtained for the sambo race the leading position on the coast. they are all well-built, raw-boned, nimble, and of a dull, dark, copper color. the face is oval, with a coarse, lustful expression, the hair rough, wavy, and black, eyes bright and remarkably strong; women pretty, with large eyes, and small feet and ankles.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito physique and dress.] [sidenote: mosquito head-flattening.] a piece of cloth fastened at the waist in a twist or by a cord, and reaching to the knee, constitutes the native male costume in these parts, that of the women being somewhat shorter. this cloth is either of cotton, sometimes woven with down, or of fibres from the inner bark of the caoutchouc tree, beaten on stones till they become soft, and is often large enough to serve for a covering at night. some are quite fanciful in color and design, and formerly they were painted. those of the woolwas are usually six feet long by three broad, striped blue and yellow; they are passed between the legs and fastened at the waist by a thong. the xicaques, on the contrary, wear the cloth serape-fashion, by passing the head through a slit in the centre, and tying the folds round the waist. even this scanty covering is often reduced to the smallest apron, and is dispensed with altogether in some parts, for modern travelers speak of natives in a naked state. women occasionally wear a small square cloth, having an opening for the head, one part of which covers the breast, the other the back. in some parts chiefs are distinguished by a cotton cap, and a long sleeveless robe, open in front and often nicely ornamented; in other places men of rank wear turbans decorated with plumes and feathers, and dress in skins of eagles, tigers, and other animals; these are also used by the common people on festive occasions. the smoos' head-dress is especially pretty, with its embroidery and feather-work. ordinarily the long loose hair is deemed sufficient to protect the head, and is kept sleek and shining by palm-oil, which they say furthers its growth. the women have longer hair than the men, and often dress it in ringlets, seldom in a knot or wreath. the people of northern honduras wear a lock hanging over the forehead; some highland chieftains, on the contrary, shave the front of the head, but allow the back hair to grow long, while the poyas part theirs in the middle, keeping it in position with a band. that of the religious men reaches to the waist, and generally falls in braids behind. in mourning, both sides of the head are shaved, a bushy comb being left along the middle. formerly all hair except that on the head, even eyebrows and lashes, was pulled out, because it was thought fit for animals only to have hair on the body. all go barefooted, and it is only where the native has to travel over a rough road that he puts on _alparagats_, or sandals of bark, wood, or skin, which are fastened by thongs round the foot. whatever is wanting in actual dress, however, is made up by paint and ornaments, of which both sexes are equally fond. the face and upper part of the body are either uniformly daubed over or tattooed with rays, fanciful lines, and designs representing animals and the like, chiefly in red and black. taste is not wanting in this adornment, for the tint is often delicate, and the black circles round the eyes indicate that they understand effect, increasing as they do the lustre of the orbs. esquemelin states that when visitors were expected, the men combed the hair, and smeared the face with an ointment of oil and black powder, the women using a red admixture. tattooing figures on the body by cauterization, as seen by columbus on the mosquito coast, is still practiced in certain parts of the interior. aboriginal mosquitos also perforated ears, lips, and cheeks, to hold pendants of fish-bones and green stones; the holes in the ears being as large as eggs. the natives of corn island not only carried large pieces of wood in the ears, but gradually enlarged the hole in the lower lip; at fifteen years of age the wood was removed and a tortoise-shell inserted. women wore a tight bandage round the ankle to increase the size of their calves. strings of tastefully arranged beads, bones, shells, and stones, and gaily colored bandages, were worn round the neck and wrist; the women adorning the legs and ankles in a similar manner, and also using feathers and flowers. certain interior tribes, as the smoos, esteem a round forehead as a reproach, and hence the head is flattened, the effect of which would be more noticeable, were it not for the thick bushy hair. this head-flattening fashion here appears for the first time since we left the columbian group; we shall see it once again further south, and that is all. the process here is essentially similar to that of the columbians. when the infant is a month old, it is tied to a board, and a flat piece of wood, kept firm by bands, is placed upon the forehead. the child remains in this painful position for several months, the pressure increasing as the head grows.[ ] towns there are none, except in certain parts; seldom do more than four or five houses stand in a group; the locality being changed at intervals for sanitary or superstitious purposes. a few upright posts planted in parallel lines, or in a circle, and occasionally interwoven with cane or leaves, support what may be called the hut proper, which is a sharply sloping, well-thatched palm-leaf roof with projecting eaves, reaching to within three or four feet of the ground. there is usually but one apartment, the floor of which is often coated with clay, and raised a little to avoid dampness. in the center is the fireplace, surrounded by household ware and cackling hens, and all round may be seen hammocks and nets suspended from the bamboo rafters. some sleep on a frame-work of bamboo placed upon posts. the better class of houses contain partitions for the several families occupying it, and stand in fields enclosed by stalk fences. a village with many of the interior tribes consists of one large building, often one hundred feet long by thirty feet wide. the front and end of these structures are open, but the back is partitioned off into small closets with the bark of the cabbage-palms, each serving as a bedroom for a married couple, or for unmarried women. a platform immediately under the roof is used as a sleeping-place for the boys, and an apartment at the end of the hut is set apart for women about to be confined. some of the guajiquero villages contain over a hundred substantial huts of mud, or of cane plastered over and whitewashed. the toonglas and cookras, erect temporary sheds near the streams, during the summer, but seek more secure huts in the winter. carib dwellings are the neatest of all; some are of cane, others of frame-work filled with mud. cockburn relates that, during his journey through honduras, he came across a bridge made of a net-work of cane, which was suspended between trees so that the centre hung forty feet above the surface of the stream. he found it very old and shaky, and concluded that it belonged to the remote past.[ ] [sidenote: food in honduras.] [sidenote: mosquito cookery.] redundant nature here leaves man so little to do, as scarcely to afford an opportunity for development. the people of northern honduras, according to herrera, cleared the ground with stone axes, and turned the sod by main strength with a forked pole or with sharp wooden spades, and by this means secured two or three yields every year; but the present occupants scarcely take so much trouble. on marrying, the men prepare a small field for a few beds of yams, beans, cassava, and squash, some pepper, and pine-apples, besides twenty to thirty plantain and cocoa-nut trees, leaving their wives to give it such further care as may be required. where maize is cultivated it is either sown two or three grains in holes two feet apart, or broadcast over freshly cleared woodland a little before the rainy season. the poyas are the only people who cultivate respectable farms. fishing is the favorite occupation of the coast tribes, and their dexterity with the spear and harpoon is quite remarkable. the proper time for catching the larger species of fish, such as the tarpom and palpa, is at night, when a fleet of pitpans, each with a pitch-pine torch in the bow, may be seen on the lagoon intermingling in picturesque confusion. one or two paddlers propel the boat, another holds the torch, while the harpooneer stands at the bow with a _waisko-dusa_, or staff, having a loosely fitting, barbed harpoon at one end, and a piece of light wood at the other. a short line attached to the harpoon, passes along the staff, and is rolled round this float for convenience. the glare of the torch attracts the fish and enables the bowman to spy his prey, which is immediately transfixed by the harpoon. away it darts, but the float retards its progress, and points out its whereabouts to the boatmen, who again seize the line, and drag it to the shore. occasionally the tarpom is taken in strong nets, the meshes of which require to be six inches square in order to entangle it. manatees or sea-cows are caught in the early morning, and to get within striking distance of the wary animal, it is necessary to deck the canoe with bushes and leaves, giving it the appearance of a floating tree. the line attached to the harpoon is in this case payed out from the canoe, which is often trailed by the manatee in a lively manner. it generally takes several harpoons as well as lances to kill it. smaller harpoons, without barb, with merely quadrangular points an inch and a half long and nearly as wide, are used for catching turtles so that the shell may not be damaged. as the canoe approaches, the turtle slides under the water; the bowman signalizes the oarsman how to steer, and when the turtle rises to breathe, it is speared, dragged into the canoes, and placed on its back. some fishermen will jump into the water after the animal, and bring it up in their hands, but this feat is attended with danger, from bites and sharp coral. the hawk-bill turtle is set free after the shell has been stripped of its scales, but the green species is eaten, and its eggs, which are esteemed a dainty, are sought for in the sand by poking suspected places with a stick. smaller fish are speared with the _sinnock_, a long pole with a fixed point. the river people take less pleasure in fishing, and resort thereto only as driven by necessity. weirs of branches and clay are constructed, with a small outlet in the middle, where men are stationed to catch the passing fish with nets and spears. the poyas employ a still surer method. the water is beaten with sticks for some distance above the weir, so as to drive the fish together; a quantity of juice extracted from a wild vine called _pequine_, which has a stupefying effect, is thrown into the water, and the men have merely to select the best looking, the smaller ones being allowed to float away and recover in the unadulterated waters below. the preserving of fish is the work of women, who cut them in slices,--sometimes rubbing them with salt,--and place the pieces on a framework of cane over the fire to be smoke-dried; after which they are exposed to the sun for a day or two. part of the fish is cooked, or baked in oil, and eaten at once. if we except the smoos and xicaques, who follow game with true precision and patience, the usual mode of hunting is as primitive as weir-fishing. a number of men assemble and set fire to the grass, which drives the terrified animals into a corner, where they are shot or struck down, or the game is entrapped in holes partly filled with water. the wild hog, the tapir, and deer supply most of the meat, which is cured in the same way as fish: some cutting the meat in strips, and curing it on the _buccan_, or grate of sticks, while others prefer the barbecue method which is to smoke-dry the whole animal. certain old writers state that human flesh was eaten, but this is discredited by others, who think that the error arose from seeing the natives feast on monkeys, which, skinned, have much the appearance of humans. the statement of their eating raw fish may also be wrong, for the natives of the present day are very careful about thoroughly cooking their food, and even avoid fruit not fully ripened. a well-known article of food is the carib bread, a sort of white hard biscuit made from cassava or mandioc roots, which are skinned, washed, and grated on a board set with sharp stones. the pulp is rinsed in water to extract the poisonous juice, and when it is sufficiently whitened by this means, the water is carefully pressed out, and the substance set to dry in the sun. the sifted flour is made into large round thin cakes, which, after being exposed to the sun for a while, are slowly baked over the fire. the poyas make large rolls, which are wrapped in leaves and baked in the ashes. these soon become sour, and are then eaten with a relish. others grind cassava or maize on the metate, and bake tortillas. a gruel is also made of the flour, and eaten with salt and chile, or syrup. one of their dainties is _bisbire_, the name given to plantains kept in leaves till putrid, and eaten boiled. scalding hot cacao mixed with chile is the favorite stimulant, of which large quantities are imbibed, until the perspiration starts from every pore. cacao-fruit is also eaten roasted. notwithstanding the richness of the soil and the variety of its productions, the natives are accused of resorting to insects for food, and of eating their own vermin. the coast people have the greater selection, but trust mostly to fishing, while the interior tribes after natural products depend upon the chase. the cookras subsist chiefly on the cabbage-palm. sambo girls have a peculiar fancy for eating charcoal and sand, believing that their charms are improved thereby. no regularity is observed in eating, but food is taken at any hour, and with voracity; nor will they take the trouble to procure more, until the whole stock is consumed, and hunger drives them from their hammocks. the poyas and guajiqueros seem to be the only tribes who have any idea of providing for the future; the latter laying up a common reserve.[ ] frequent bathing is the rule, yet the sambos, who have a better opportunity for this, perhaps, than other tribes, are described as dirty in their surroundings, and, when warmed by motion, emit a disagreeable odor, arising from the use of ointments and powders. the poyas, xicaques, secos, and especially the caribs are, on the contrary, very cleanly in their habits.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito weapons and war.] the bow and arrow figures as the chief weapon of the mosquitos, the former being usually of iron-wood, spanned with twisted mahoe-bark, and often six feet in length; the latter of reed or wood, hardened in fire, and pointed with hard wood, flint, fish-bones, or teeth. they not only handle the bow well, but some are expert in the art of defense. to attain this dexterity, children are taught to turn aside, with a stick, the blunt darts thrown at them, and in time they become sufficiently expert to ward off arrows in the same manner. they also fight with cane lances about nine feet long, with oblong diamond points, javelins, clubs, and heavy sharp-pointed swords made of a poisonous wood, a splinter from which causes first madness and then death. the milky juice of the manzanilla-tree is used to poison arrows and darts. blowpipes, whose light arrows surely and silently bring down birds at a hundred feet and over, are in great favor with the youth. armor is made of plaited reeds covered with tiger-skins, and ornamented with feathers; besides which, the northern mosquitos employ a breastplate of twisted cotton, like that of the mexicans. mosquito women are said to be as good archers as the men.[ ] aboriginal wars were continually waged in honduras without any other object than to avenge the death of an ancestor, or to retaliate on those who had carried away friends into slavery. neighboring tribes, however, agreed to a truce at certain times, to allow the interchange of goods. previous to starting on an expedition, turkeys, dogs, and even human beings were sacrificed to influence the gods; blood was drawn from tongue and ears, and dreams carefully noted, and their import determined. ambassadors were sent to challenge the enemy to a pitched battle, and, if they were not responded to, the country was ravaged. when prisoners were taken they were usually held as slaves, after having the nose cut off. forty thousand men sometimes composed an expedition, operating without chief or order, devising ambushes and stratagems as it suited them, and accompanied by women to act as porters. mosquito warriors blacken the face, and place themselves under the temporary command of the bravest and most experienced. the coast people are bold and unyielding, and usually kill their prisoners. when the sambos confederate with their neighbors, they expect their allies to pay for friends lost in battle.[ ] domestic utensils in the homes of the mosquitos consist of stones for grinding grain and roots, clay pots and plates for cooking purposes, and gourds, calabashes, and nets for holding food and liquids. the stone hatchet, which is fast becoming a relic, is ten inches long, four broad, and three thick, sharp at both ends, with a groove to hold the handle which is firmly twisted round its centre. besides the implements already referred to under fishing and weapons, may be mentioned the lasso, in the use of which they are very expert, and the _patapee_, a pretty water-tight basket that the caribs plait of reeds. the men usually sleep in hammocks, or on mats spread on the ground near the fire, with a stick for a pillow, while the women prefer a platform of cane raised a few feet from the ground, and covered with a mat or a skin.[ ] fibres of mahoe and ule bark, pisang-leaves and silk-grass furnish material for ropes, nets, mats, and coarse fabrics. most of the mosquitos grow a little cotton, which the women spin on a rude wheel, like that of the guatemalans, and weave on a frame loom into strong and neat cloths. the favorite blue color for dyeing is obtained from the _jiquilite_ plant; the yellow from the _achiolt_ tree. pottery is a very ancient art among them, as may be seen from the fine specimens discovered in the graves and ruins of honduras. their red cooking-pots are very light but strong, and the water-jars, which are only slightly burnt to permit percolation, show considerable taste in design.[ ] [sidenote: boats and fisheries.] nowhere do we find more daring and expert boatmen than the mosquitos, who will venture out upon the roughest sea in a boat barely large enough to hold a man and a boy. if the boat capsize it is at once righted, bailed out, and the voyage resumed, and seldom is any part of the cargo lost. the _dory_, or ordinary sea-boat is a hollowed-out tree, often twenty-five to fifty feet long, four to six wide, and four to five deep, round-bottomed, buoyant, and with good handling safe. the best are made by the up-river tribes, especially the towkas, who prepare them roughly with axe and fire, and sell them to the coast people to be finished according to fancy. after the dug-out has been trimmed, it is often soaked in water for a time, so that the sides may be stretched and secured with knees. the _pitpan_, which is used on rivers and lagoons, differs from the dory in being flat-bottomed, with broad and gradually rounded ends, and of less depth and width. cedar is chiefly used for pitpans on account of its lightness, and the stronger mahogany for dories; but the latter are, however, soon injured by worms if kept in the water. small boats are propelled by a single broad-bladed paddle; sails also are employed with the _crean_ or keeled canoe.[ ] harpoon and canoe are the basis of the mosquito's wealth, for with them he obtains his food and the tortoise-shell, the principal article of traffic. the season for catching hawk-bill turtles is from april to august, when fleets of canoes, each manned by about twelve men, proceed to different parts of the coast, as far south as chiriquí, and bring home ten thousand pounds of shell on an average. green turtles, which are caught near reefs, also find a good market in blewfields and elsewhere. all keep hogs, the caribs more than others; many possess cattle and horses, which are allowed to run wild over the prairies, the horses being lassoed whenever required for riding. their manner of breaking them is unique. one man leads the horse with the lasso into water, to a depth of three or four feet, when another jumps upon his back, and responds to buckings and skittishness with blows on the head, until in about half an hour the exhausted animal surrenders. a line of bark-fibre serves for reins, and a few plaited palm-leaves for saddle. preservation of wealth is little thought of, for cattle are most recklessly slaughtered at feasts and for offences, and fruit-trees, as well as other property are, as a rule, destroyed on the death of the owner. quite a trade is carried on in these parts, the inland tribes bringing rough canoes, calabashes, skins, cloth, honey, and cacao to the coast people, and receiving therefor turtles, salt, english fancy and useful articles; while many of the latter undertake lengthy coast trips to dispose of the bartered produce, as well as their own. the wankees deal heavily in _bisbire_, or decomposed plantains, while sarsaparilla and honey are the staple articles of the secos and poyas. a mixture of shrewdness and simplicity characterizes their dealings. a party wishing to dispose of hides, for instance, first produces the worst ones, which are thrown aside by the buyer until those of the standard quality are brought out; a sum is then offered for the whole, which is often unhesitatingly accepted by the native who is too dazzled by the apparently high price to consider the amount of produce given for it. very little value is placed upon labor, for canoes, which have taken a considerable time to prepare, are often bartered for a mere trifle. the people of honduras have always a stock of cloth and honey to pay taxes with, and set a high value on colored feathers obtained from yucatec coast traders, who take cacao for return cargoes.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito calendar and art.] although versatile enough in handicrafts, their mental faculties are exceedingly crude. with the aid of fingers and toes the sambo is able to count to twenty, but anything beyond that confuses him. time is reckoned by _kates_, or moons, thirteen of which make a _mani_, or year. when asked to fix the date of an event, he will say that it occurred so many sleeps or moons ago; but when the time exceeds a year or two, the answer is given in the rather indefinite term of "many, many years;" consequently he is unable to tell his age. his ideas of cosmology are equally vague; thus, stars are held to be glowing stones. the people of honduras call the year _iolar_, and divide it in the same manner as the mexicans, by whom the system has, no doubt, been introduced. they reckon time by so many nights or twilights, not by days, and determine the hour by the height of the sun. the song-language of the mosquitos differs greatly from that employed in conversation, a quaint old-time style being apparently preserved in their lyrics.[ ] the art of extracting and melting gold has long been known to them, but, although they wear a few ornaments of this metal, they do not seem to prize it very highly. at the time of cockburn's visit to honduras, dams were used in mining, and instruments of cane to sift the gold. the mode employed by the poyas to separate gold from sand is the one known in california as panning, and is thus described by squier: "scooping up some of the sand in his bowl, and then filling it with water, he whirled it rapidly, so that a feathery stream of mingled sand and water flew constantly over its edge. he continued this operation until the sand was nearly exhausted, and then filled the bowl again. after repeating this process several times, he grew more careful, balancing the bowl skillfully, and stopping occasionally to pick out the pebbles ... after the process was complete, the poyer showed me a little deposit of gold, in grains, at the bottom of the calabash." the gold dust passes into the hands of the white trader.[ ] [sidenote: government, slavery, polygamy.] the mosquitos proper are ruled by a hereditary king, who claims sovereignty over the interior tribes of the mosquito coast, which, in many cases, is merely nominal. before the english made their influence felt, this monarch, who, in these latter degenerate days, does not possess many prerogatives, seems to have had but a small extent of territory, for among the earlier travelers some assert that the inhabitants of this coast lived under a republican rule, while others observed no form of government. each village or community has a principal man, or judge, selected from the eldest and ablest, who settles minor grievances, referring weightier matters to the king, and superintends the contribution of canoes, tortoise-shells, and produce for the support of the monarch and chiefs--for regular taxes are not collected. among the poyas, the old men, who are highly respected by their juniors, assemble every evening to deliberate upon the duties of the following day; all members of the tribe take part in the work, and share alike in the results. according to young, the mosquitos had an officer, in whom was vested certain authority. the caribs are also ruled by elders, dignified by the title of captains. their laws are in some respects harsh: for instance, a woman who has had intercourse with a man of another race is whipped slowly to death. sambos are less particular in this matter, the adulterer being merely mulcted in a cow. if the decision of a chief be not satisfactory, the contestants resort to trial by combat. the xicaques live in communities of from seventy to one hundred persons ruled by chiefs elected for life. the insignia of a judge or ruler in honduras are a white staff, often elaborately ornamented with a golden head and tassels. formerly each town or province was ruled by an hereditary cacique, who administered justice with four nobles as counselors. theft was punished by confiscation of property, and in graver cases the ears and hands of the culprit were cut off; the adulterer caught in the act had his ear-rings forcibly torn out; then he was whipped by the relatives of the injured, and deprived of his possessions. the woman went free on the supposition that she, as the weaker party, was not responsible.[ ] one principal object of war among the ancient nations of honduras was to make slaves, but the mosquito coast was free from this scourge, according to all accounts.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito marriage customs.] [sidenote: mosquito courtship.] polygamy obtains, some men having six wives each, and the king yet more. the first wife, who as a rule, is betrothed from early infancy, is mistress commanding; her marriage is attended with festivities, and later additions to the harem are subject to her. the custom is to marry early, often before puberty, and it is not unusual to see a girl of thirteen with an offspring in her arms; but the marriage tie is not very binding, for the wife may be discarded or sold at will, on the slightest pretence, especially if children do not follow the union. the interior tribes, which are less given to plurality of wives, bear a pretty good character for female chastity. the cacique of ancient honduras married among his own class. on behalf of a suitor not previously engaged, an old man was dispatched with presents to the father of the chosen girl, before whom he made a long harangue on the ancestry and qualities of the youth. if this proved satisfactory, the presents were accepted, and bacchanalia followed. next morning the bride was closely wrapped in a gorgeously painted cloth, and, seated upon the shoulder of a man, was conveyed to the bridegroom, a number of friends accompanying her, dancing and singing along the road, drinking out of every rivulet, and feasting at every stopping-place. on arrival, she was received by the female friends of the groom, and subjected to a cleaning and perfuming process, lasting three days, during which the friends of the two families held a grand feast to celebrate the approaching union. she was then delivered to the husband, who kept her three nights at his home, and then proceeded to the house of his father-in-law, where the couple remained three other nights, after which they returned to their own house and renewed festivities. these were the ceremonies attending the marriage of nobles only. an old woman acted as messenger for common swains, and brought a present of cacao to the bride's parents, which was consumed at the preliminary feast. the girl was then delivered to the old woman, together with a return present of cacao to serve for two feasts, one taking place at the house of the bridegroom, the other at the bride's. relationship was no impediment to marriage, and widows were received among the wives of the late husband's brother. immorality ruled, and the most lascivious performances prevailed at their festivals. on the islands in the gulf of honduras and on the belize coast, the suitor had to undergo a preliminary examination by the proposed father-in-law as to his ability to perform the duties of husband; if satisfactory, a bow and arrow were handed him, and he at once presented himself before the object of his affection with a garland of leaves and flowers, which she placed upon her head instead of the wreath always worn by a virgin. friends thereupon met at the home of the bride to discuss the prospects of the couple, and to witness the act of giving her to the bridegroom, partaking, meanwhile, of some cheering liquid. the next day the bride appeared before the mother, and tore off her garland with much lamentation. among the sambos the betrothed suitor must give presents of food and other articles to the parents of his intended, as payment for their care of her until she attains the marriageable age, when he comes to claim her. should the parents then refuse to give up the girl, they are bound to refund the value of the presents twice or thrice told. the usual price paid for a wife is a cow or its equivalent, which is also exacted from any man infringing on the marital right, while the female for such offence is merely beaten. esquemelin adds that when the young man came to claim his bride, he was questioned as to his ability to make nets and arrows, and if all went well, the daughter was summoned to bring a calabash of wine, which the three drained between them in token of the new relationship. the widow was bound to supply the grave of her husband with provisions for a year, after which she took up the bones and carried them with her for another year, at last placing them upon the roof of her house, and then only was she allowed to marry again. the carib must provide a separate house and field for each of his wives, where she not only supports herself, her children, and her husband, but can, if she pleases, accumulate property. the husband is expected to spend his time equally between his wives, but not to assist in providing necessities after the marriage day; should his help be required, the wife must pay him the customary rate of wages. the several wives compete jealously with each other to provide the best for their husband, and are comparatively well-behaved, owing, perhaps, to the severe punishment of infidelity. among the smoos, wives of one husband generally live together, each wife bringing her share to make up her lord's dinner. widows are the property of the relatives of the husband, to whom 'widow-money' must be paid before they are allowed to marry again. the method of courtship among the woolwas is to place a deer's carcass and some firewood at the door of the intended; if accepted, marriage ensues. each wife has usually a separate establishment. the towkas, who are more inclined to monogamy, have an interesting marriage ceremony, of which squier gives a long account. on the betrothal of children a corresponding cotton band is fastened above the elbow or below the knee of each. these bands are selected by the old men so as to be distinct from others in color, and are renewed when worn out. they also wear necklaces to which a shell or bead is added every year, and when the boy has ten added to his string, he is called _muhasal_, or ten, signifying half a man; when the twentieth and final shell is added, he is considered a full man, and is called _all_, meaning twenty. if his intended has by this time attained her fifteenth year, preparations are at once made for the marriage. a general holiday is taken by the villagers, who clear from grass a circular piece of ground, which is defined by a ring of stones, and trampled smooth; a little hut is then erected in the centre having a small opening at the top, and another at the side facing the east. within the hut, the entrance of which is covered with a mat, is a heap of copal-twigs, and without, at the edge of the circle, a canoe filled with palm-wine is placed, having a large pile of white calabashes by its side. at noon the villagers proceed to the home of the bridegroom, who is addressed in turn by the old men; they then start with the youth for the house of the bride where the young man seats himself before the closed entrance on a bundle of presents intended for the bride. the father raps at the door which is partly opened by an old woman who asks his business, but the reply does not seem satisfactory, for the door is slammed in his face. the old men try their power of persuasion with the same result, and at last determine to call orpheus to their aid. music hath charms! the door is seen to open, and a female peeps timidly out: louder swells the music, and the bridegroom hastens to unroll his bundle containing beads and other articles. the door opens wider and wider as each present is handed in by the father, until it is entirely thrown back, revealing the bride arrayed in her prettiest, seated on a crickery, in the remotest corner. while all are absorbed in examining the presents, the bridegroom dashes in, shoulders the girl like a sack, and trots off for the mystic circle, which, urged on by the frantic cries of the women, he reaches before the crowd can rescue her. the females, who cannot pass the ring, stand outside giving vent to their despairing shrieks, while the men squat within the circle in rows, facing outward. the old men alone remain standing, and one of them hands a lighted stick to the couple inside the hut, with a short speech. soon an aromatic smoke curls up from the copal pile, whereat the women grow silent, but when it subsides, a sudden gayety takes possession of them, and the music is again heard. the reason for this is that the bridegroom, if he has any objections to the girl, may expel her while the gum is burning, but if it burns out quietly, the groom is supposed to be satisfied and the marriage complete. the women now pass filled calabashes to the men, who soon become excited and start a dance which increases in wildness with each additional cup, and does not end till most of them have bitten the dust. after dark the crowd proceeds with lighted torches to the hut, which is torn down, disclosing the married pair sitting demurely side by side. the husband shoulders his new baggage and is escorted to his home. the following day everybody presents a gift of some kind, so as to place the couple on an equal footing with the rest of the villagers.[ ] the position of a wife is not an enviable one, as the care of the household, the farm, and all hard and degrading work fall to her share, while her liege lord spends most of his time in idling. when about to be confined, she proceeds to a hut erected for this purpose in the forest, a short distance from the village, where she remains from a week to two months, according to the custom of the tribe, attended by female friends who supply all her wants, since she is not allowed to handle food herself. no one must pass to the windward of the hut, because an obstruction of the air might cause the death of the mother and child, and for thus offending the guilty party must pay the damages. in such seclusion it is easy to dispose of deformed children, and it is believed that this is done to avoid the disgrace of a nickname, which might otherwise attach to the family. at the expiration of the period of purification, the mother returns to the village carrying the infant tied to her back in a cloth. the village witch has in the meantime fastened round its neck, a _pew_ or charm, consisting of a bag of small seeds with which to pay old charon for ferriage across the river, in case of an early death. the child is suckled for about two years; yucca-root pap also forms a great part of its food in some parts, but otherwise it receives little care. the mother delivers herself, cutting the navel-string with her own hand; she also washes the infant's clothes, for it is believed that the child will die if this is done by another; after washing herself and suckling the child she returns to the village. formerly all children born within the year were taken to the temple by the parents, wrapped in a net and painted cloth, and laid to sleep under a cake made of honey and iguana-flesh. notice was taken of dreams, and if the child appeared well and happy, they augured riches and long life for it, if weak and sorrowful, it would be poor and unfortunate; if no dreams occurred, it betokened an early death. acting on this superstition, parents often became careless about the future of their children, and suffered them to grow up without attention. priests were not allowed to marry, and the care and education of the sons of prominent men were entrusted to them.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito diversions.] drinking is the chief amusement, and to become helplessly drunk is the sum of all enjoyment. frequent _sihkrans_ or feasts are held, lasting for days, at which large numbers assist to drain the canoeful of liquor prepared for the occasion. occasionally surrounding villagers are invited, and a drinking-bout is held, first in one house and then in another, until the climax is reached in a debauch by both sexes of the most revolting character. quarrels are generally put off for these occasions, but, as the wives have carefully hidden all weapons, recourse is had to the fist, with which the combatants exchange blows in turn until one has had enough. these trials of endurance are also held in sport; the smoo or woolwa, for instance, who wishes to be held most worthy of the fair sex, engages in a _lowta_ or striking-match with a rival, each one presenting his bent back to the other in turn, until the bravest stands declared. death is not unfrequently the result of such trials. even boys, carried away by emulation, hold lighted sticks to each other's skin. in early times the people of honduras held regular festivals at the beginning of each month, at the time of electing officers, at harvest time, and three other grand celebrations during the year, for which much food and drink were prepared. as the wine took effect, the participants were seized with a desire to move to the exhilarating sound of drum, flute, and rattle, and a simple dance was organized. that of the carib is merely a forward and backward movement of hands and feet, accompanied by a peculiar intonation of voice, and at their _seekroes_, or festivals in commemoration of the departed, they stalk in a circle, one following the other, and singing in a loud and uncouth tone. their pas seul is livelier, however, the performer skipping up and down, bending the body in different ways, and making the most grotesque movements. they are not satisfied with a mere drinking-bout at their reunions, but spread a good table, to which guests often bring their own liquor. the towkas and others prefer the circle dance, walking at a slow, swinging pace, beating their knuckles against emptied calabashes, and joining in a refrain, at the end of which they strike their cups one against another's. at each additional potation, the walk is increased in speed, until it assumes a trot and ends in a gallop, the calabashes rattling in accordance. the sambo dance is like a minuet, in which the performers advance and recede, making strange gesticulations. the women have also a dance among themselves,--for they are not allowed to join with the men,--in which they form a ring, holding each other round the waist with the left hand, bending, wriggling, shaking calabash rattles, and singing until exhausted. dramatic representations usually accompany these saltatory exhibitions, wherein the various phases of a lover's trials, comical sketches, or battles are depicted. the people of honduras are fond of disguising themselves with feather tufts, and skins of animals, whose actions and cries they imitate. the favorite entertainment of the sambos is to put on a head-dress of thin strips of wood painted in various colors to represent the beak of a sword-fish, fasten a collar of wood round the neck, from which a number of palm-leaves are suspended, and to daub the face red, black, and yellow. two men thus adorned advance toward one another and bend the fish-head in salute, keeping time with a rattle and singing, "shovel-nosed sharks, grandmother!" after which they slide off crab-like, making the most ludicrous gestures imaginable. this fun exhausted, fresh men appear, introducing new movements, and then the spectators join in a 'walk around,' flourishing white sticks in their hands, and repeating the above-mentioned refrain in a peculiar buzzing tone produced by placing in the mouth a small tube covered with the membrane of a nut.[ ] [sidenote: guajiquero dance.] the guajiqueros in an interesting performance described by squier, depict incidents from their history. a square piece of ground having a tree in the centre is marked off, and two poles adorned with feathers are erected in opposite corners, one bearing the head of a deer, the other that of a tiger. a dull, monotonous music is heard, and two parties of youth, fantastically dressed up and painted, move up to the square in a slow, but not ungraceful dance, and station themselves round the poles that bear their respective insignia. a man, stooping as if bent with age, starts out from the deers, dances round the ground, trying to arouse the mirth of the spectators with his grotesque movements. the tigers also dispatch a man, who does his best to excel the other one in contortions and grimaces. after a while they meet, and commence a discussion which ends in open rupture, the rising passions being well delineated. the two men who represent ambassadors then return to their party with an account of the mission, the result of which is a general excitement, both factions starting out, dancing backwards and forwards, up and down the square, until they meet under the tree, in the centre. the leader of each then steps out and recites the glories and prowess of his tribe, amidst the applause of his own men, and the disapproval of the others. as soon as they are worked up to the requisite pitch of irritation, the dialogue ceases, the music strikes up, and a mimic combat ensues, in which the armies advance and retreat, close and separate, using short canes for weapons. at last the tigers lose their standard and take to flight, whereat the victors execute a dance of triumph; but finding how dearly the victory has been bought, their joy is turned into sorrow, and they bend their head upon the knees, breaking out in loud lament. in a few moments one of them starts up and begins a panegyric on the fallen brave, which is followed by a mimic sacrifice and other ceremonies. the vanquished are now seen to approach with downcast eyes, bringing tribute, which they lay at the feet of the victors, who receive it with imperious bearing. the music at these entertainments is not of a very inspiring nature; drums, consisting of a section of hollow tree covered with skin, which are generally beaten with the hand, and flutes of bamboo with four stops on which eight notes are played with different degrees of speed for variety, being the usual instruments. the guajiqueros also use the _chirimaya_, two flutes joined in one mouthpiece; the _syrinx_, or pan's pipe; a long calabash with a narrow opening at the small end, into which the performer blows suddenly, at intervals, to mark time; and a sort of drum consisting of a large earthen jar, over the mouth of which a dressed skin is tightly stretched. to the centre of the skin, and passing through an opening in the bottom, is attached a string which the performer pulls, the rebound of the membrane producing a very lugubrious sound. in western honduras the so-called strum-strum is much used. this is a large gourd cut in the middle, and covered with a thin board having strings attached. the _marimba_, and the jews-harp which has been introduced by the trader, are, however, the favorite instruments for a quiet reunion, and the few tunes known to them are played thereon with admirable skill and taste. songs always accompany their dances and are usually impromptu compositions on suitable subjects, gotten up for the occasion by the favorite singers of the village, and rendered in a soft, but monotonous and plaintive tone. they have no national melodies, but on the receipt of any good or bad message, their feelings generally find vent in a ditty embodying the news. talking is a passion with them, and as soon as a piece of news is received at a village, two or three younger men will start with their women and children for the next hamlet, where it is discussed for hours by the assembled population, who in their turn dispatch a messenger to the next village, and thus spread the news over the whole country in a very short time. in story-telling, those who concoct the biggest lies receive the most applause. of course, the pipe must be smoked on these occasions, but as their own tobacco has become too mild for them, recourse is had to the vilest description of american leaf. when this is wanting, the smoke-dried leaves of the trumpet and papah-tree are used by men as well as women. the favorite drink is _mishla_, prepared chiefly from cassava-roots; but others from bananas, pine-apples, and other fruits are also used. a number of young women provided with good teeth, untiring jaws, and a large supply of saliva, are employed to chew about half of the boiled and peeled roots requisite to make a canoeful of liquor, the remainder being crushed in a mortar. this delectable compound is stirred with cold water, and allowed to ferment for a day or two, when it assumes a creamy appearance, and tastes very strong and sour. plantains are kneaded in warm water, and then allowed to stand for a few days till the mixture ferments, or the fruit is left in the water in small pieces, and the kneading performed in the cup previous to drinking. a fermented drink from powdered cacao and indigenous sugar-cane juice is called _ulung_, and _pesso_ is the name given to another made from crushed lime-rinds, maize and honey; in early times mead was a favorite drink in honduras. the cocoa-nut palm yields monthly a large quantity of liquor known as _caraca_. the tip of the undeveloped shoots are cut off, and the branch bent down so as to allow the fluid to drip into a calabash placed beneath. its seeds, when crushed and steeped in hot water give the _acchioc_.[ ] [sidenote: beverages of honduras.] [sidenote: mosquito customs.] no name for a supreme good spirit is found in the vocabulary of the mosquitos; all their appeals are addressed to wulasha, the devil, the cause of all misfortunes and contrarieties that happen. the intercessors with this dread being are the _sukias_, or sorceresses, generally dirty, malicious old hags, who are approached with gifts by the trembling applicant, and besought to use their power to avert impending evils. they are supposed to be in partnership with their devil, for whom they always exact the half of the fee before entering upon any exorcising or divination. these witches exercise a greater power over the people than the chief--a power which is sustained by the exhibition of certain tricks, such as allowing poisonous snakes to bite them, and handling fire, which they have learned from predecessors during their long preparation for the office, passed amidst exposure and fasts in the solitude of the wilderness. the people of honduras had also evil sorcerers who possessed the power of transforming men into wild beasts, and were much feared and hated accordingly; but their priests or hermits who live in communion with materialized gods, in small, elevated huts, apart from the villages, enjoyed the respect of all, and their advice was applied for on every matter of importance. none but the principal men could approach them without the necessary offering of maize and fowl, and they humbly knelt before them to receive their oracular answer. preparatory to important undertakings, dogs, cocks, and even men were sacrificed to obtain the favor of their idols, and blood was drawn from tongue, ears, and other members of the body. they thought it likewise necessary to their welfare to have _naguals_, or guardian spirits, whose life became so bound up with their own that the death of one involved that of the other. the manner of obtaining this guardian was to proceed to some secluded spot and offer up a sacrifice: with the beast or bird which thereupon appeared, in dream or in reality, a compact for life was made, by drawing blood from various parts of the body. caribs and woolwas assemble at certain periods every year, to propitiate controlling spirits with ceremonies transmitted from their forefathers. a variety of ghosts, as lewire, the spirit of the water, are supposed to play their pranks at night, and it is difficult to induce anyone to leave the hut after dark, unless in company. the belief in dreams is so firmly rooted that their very course of life is influenced by it. every dream has a direct or indirect meaning; thus, a broken calabash betokens loss of wife; a broken dish, the death of a mother. among other superstitions, it was believed that the lighting of an owl upon the house-top would be followed by the death of an inmate; when thunder roared, cotton-seed was burned; broken egg-shells and deer-bones were carefully preserved lest the chickens or the deer should die or disappear. aware of the peculiar influence of the moon on man and matter, they are careful not to sleep in its glare, nor to fish when it is up, and mahogany-cutters abstain from felling trees at certain periods for fear the wood may spoil. they are wonderfully good pathfinders, and will pass through the densest forest without guiding marks; as swimmers they are not to be surpassed. their mode of greeting a friend is very effusive, according to dampier. one will throw himself at the feet of another, who helps him up, embraces him, and falls down in his turn to be assisted up and comforted with a pressure. cockburn says that the honduras people bend one knee to the ground and clap their hands in token of farewell.[ ] [sidenote: mosquito medical treatment.] their licentious life, and fruit and fish diet, with limited use of salt, have left their constitution very susceptible to epidemics as well as other diseases. the most common disorders are affections of the bowels, such as dysentery and diarrhoea, but chills, rheumatism, consumption, and measles are not unfrequent. children suffer much from worms, and their abdomen is sometimes enormously swollen. a very painful, though not dangerous eye-disease termed _unkribikun_ is prevalent; and the burrowing of the tick in the skin causes wounds and inflammation if the fly be not speedily removed; the _chegoe_, or sand-flea, attacks the feet in the same manner. but small-pox and leprosy are the greatest scourges of this country, the former having here as elsewhere in america committed enormous ravages among the population. leprosy--that living death reflecting the sins of former generations, so capricious in the selection of its victims, taking the parent, yet leaving the child intact, or seizing upon the offspring without touching its mother--may certainly be less destructive, but it is nevertheless fearful in its effect; half of the natives of the mosquito country being more or less marked by it, either in the shape of white or livid spots, or red, white, and scabbed _bulpis_. all sickness and affliction is supposed to be the work of the evil spirit who has taken possession of the affected part; sukias must, therefore, be called in to use their incantations and herbs against the enemy. the witch appears with her face painted in hideous devices, and begins operations by placing some herbs beneath the pillow of the patient, blowing smoke over him, rubbing the body with the hands, and muttering strange words. if this is not effective, a decoction is made from the herbs, to be used as a drink or fomentation, and the patient is fenced in with painted sticks, with strict orders to let no one approach; the witch herself bringing the food to the patient, whistling a plaintive strain and muttering over the invalid for some time to chase away the evil. no pregnant woman, or person who has lately buried a friend, must come near the house during the illness, nor must any one pass to the windward of it, lest the sick be deprived of breath; any presumed breach of these injunctions leaving a safe loophole for the sorceress, in case her remedies fail. during epidemics, the sukias consult together and note their dreams, to ascertain the nature and disposition of the spirit. after muttering incantations all night, and invoking all sorts of terrible monsters, they plant small painted sticks, mounted by grotesque figures, to the windward of the village, and announce the expulsion of the evil. should the scourge continue, it is supposed that the spirits are obstinate, and the people remove to other parts, burning the village. the instructions of the sukia are always scrupulously followed, and the credulous native may be seen lying on the beach for days, exposed to all weathers, smeared with blood and waiting for restoration from ills. scarifications are much resorted to, and fever patients throw themselves into cold water, where they remain until dead or until the fever leaves them. in honduras, on the other hand, the patient is taken out of the water after a short immersion, and rolled to and fro before a fire, until half dead with fatigue, when he was left to be restored by sleep; blood is let from the thighs, legs, and shoulders; vomiting is promoted by certain herbs; vermin are administered for jaundice. in sickness a rigid diet is observed, the patient subsisting chiefly on iguana broth. snake-bites are cured by chewing the guaco-root, and poulticing the wound therewith; the caribs apply an oil obtained from the head of the tommy-goff as an antidote for its bite. herrera states that the comfort of a sick person was but little regarded; bread and drink were placed near the patient's head, and if strong enough to partake thereof, well and good, but if not he might die; nobody took any notice of him after this. the mosquitos are not entirely devoid of affection; but their grief seems to be reserved for the dead, not the dying.[ ] the corpse is wrapped in a cloth and placed in one half of a pitpan which has been cut in two; friends assemble for the funeral and drown their grief in mushla, the women giving vent to their sorrow by dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. as it is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep, while preparations are made for its removal; all at once four naked men, who have disguised themselves with paint, so as not to be recognized and punished by wulasha, rush out from a neighboring hut, and, seizing the rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods, followed by the music and the crowd. here the pitpan is lowered into the grave with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the departed in the land beyond; then the other half of the boat is placed over the body. a rude hut is constructed over the grave, serving as a receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other articles placed there from time to time by relatives. the water that disappears from the porous jars is thought to have been drunk by the deceased, and if the food is nibbled by birds it is held to be a good sign. on returning from the grave the property of the deceased is destroyed, the cocoa-palms being cut down, and all who have taken part in the funeral undergo a lustration in the river. relatives cut off the hair, the men leaving a ridge along the middle from the nape of the neck to the forehead; widows, according to some old writers, after supplying the grave with food for a year, take up the bones, and carry them on the back in the daytime, sleeping with them at night, for another year, after which they are placed at the door, or upon the house-top. on the anniversary of death, friends of the deceased hold a feast called _seekroe_, at which large quantities of liquor are drained to his memory. squier, who witnessed the ceremonies on an occasion of this kind, says that males and females were dressed in _ule_ cloaks fantastically painted black and white, while their faces were correspondingly streaked with red and yellow, and they performed a slow walk-around, the immediate relatives prostrating themselves at intervals, calling loudly upon the dead, and tearing the ground with their hands. at no other time is the departed referred to, the very mention of his name being superstitiously avoided. some tribes extend a thread from the house of death to the grave, carrying it in a straight line over every obstacle. froebel states that among the woolwas all property of the deceased is buried with him, and that both husband and wife cut the hair and burn the hut on the death of either, placing a gruel of maize upon the grave for a certain time.[ ] [sidenote: character of the mosquitos.] hospitality, a gentle and obliging disposition, faithfulness in the fulfilling of engagements, honesty and docility, balanced by an inaptness to make any avail of natural benefits, and a supineness in matters of veracity and judgment, by reason of which they fall into many excesses, especially in drink, characterize both mosquitos and caribs. the apathy and slowness of the unadulterated aboriginal are, however, in striking contrast to the vivacious and impressible nature of the caribs, whose versatility evidences a rather higher intelligence, which is again overshadowed by an inordinate vanity, based chiefly upon their greater strength and stature. both possess a certain industry, the one being more plodding, the other more energetic though less patient; this trait is also noticeable in their pastimes, where the native is far less exuberant and noisy than his darker neighbor. with regard to the effect of negro admixture on character, comparisons may be made among the caribs themselves, when it will be found that the black race is much more mercurial and vehement than the purer type, and possesses greater volubility. the severe discipline kept up, and the disposition, among the women at least, to provide for the morrow, augurs well for their future. the bravery and love of freedom which so long kept the spanish invaders at bay both on the western and northern borders and on the coast was subsequently subdued, instance the mild disposition of the independent xicaques, poyas, and secos, who are now inclined rather to peaceful diplomacy than to warlike demonstrations; yet the caribs manifested considerable spirit during a late conflict with the honduras government, and proved themselves efficient soldiers. the character given to the nations of this subdivision by ancient writers, contains many unenviable qualities, for not only are they described as lazy, vicious, lying, inconstant, but as cruel, void of affection, and of less intelligence than the mexicans; nevertheless they are obedient, peaceable, and quiet. the only characteristic we have concerning the albatuins is that they were savage, and until of late the ramas bore the same character. among the industrious towkas we find that gentle melancholy which characterizes some of the guatemalans; while their brothers, the smoos, have the reputation of being a very simple people whom the neighbors take delight in imposing upon, yet their women are said to be more ingenious than the sambo women. proceeding to the toonglas and sambos, we observe a preponderance of bad qualities, attributable, no doubt, to their intercourse with buccaneers and traders. by most writers they are characterized as a lazy, drunken, debauched, audacious race, given to thieving; capricious, quarrelsome, treacherous and exacting among themselves, though obliging to strangers, their only redeeming traits being hospitality, and a certain impulsiveness which is chiefly exhibited in grief, and indicates something good at heart. their want of energy, which deters them alike from household work and the commission of great crimes, will not prevent them from undertaking wearisome voyages to dispose of mere trifles; and their superstitious fears and puerility under affliction, are entirely lost when facing the raging surf or hungry shark. other writers take advantage of this trait to show that they are high-spirited enough to carry anything through when once aroused, and add that they have proved themselves faithful to their masters, are docile and intelligent, abhorring to appear mean and cowardly.[ ] [sidenote: the isthmians.] the isthmians, by which name i designate all the nations occupying the territory lying between the san juan river and the southern shore of lake nicaragua on the north, and the gulf of urabá, or darien, and the river atrato on the south, present several peculiarities when compared with the other nations of central america. the inhabitants of these regions are a hardy and active race, jealous of their independence and ever hostile to those who attempt to penetrate their country. their resoluteness in excluding all foreigners is materially strengthened by the rugged and malarious nature of the country, by its deep ravines, its miasmatic swamps, its abrupt heights, its rapid streams, its tangled undergrowth, and densely wooded districts. the air of the table-lands and valleys is hot and moist, the soil exceedingly fertile, but the interior and mountainous localities have a milder and more temperate climate with but little variation except that of the dry and wet seasons. in the lowlands of panamá, the swampy nature of the surface, with the great humidity of the atmosphere, produces a luxuriant vegetation, and the consequent quantity of decomposed vegetable matter under the influence of a vertical sun, engenders a miasma deadly to the unacclimated. the rich and marshy nature of the soil, however, sends forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives build their houses, thus obtaining a purer air and greater safety from the numerous wild animals and dangerous reptiles that infest that region. a great portion of the territory is rich in minerals which were once produced by the natives in great quantities, but which, unfortunately, were the loadstone that drew upon them the ruthless spanish plunderers. [sidenote: isthmian nations.] in the northern part of costa rica along the head waters of the rio frio the _guatusos_, or _pranzas_, are located. mr squier is inclined to think they are of the same stock as the nahuas. some striking physical peculiarities observed among them have given rise to various surmises and startling conclusions regarding their origin. dwelling in the western part of the state are the _terrabas_ and the _changuenes_, fierce and barbarous nations, at constant enmity with their neighbors. in the south-east and extending to the borders of chiriquí dwell the _talamancas_ composed of a number of different tribes and declared by some to be allied in race with the guatusos. besides these are the _buricas_, _torresques_, _toxas_, and others.[ ] in the mountains of chiriquí are the _valientes_, so called by the spaniards from their heroic resistance to the invaders. many of the warlike nations who occupied the country at the time of the discovery derived their names from the caciques that governed them. the people who dwell along the shore of the caribbean sea, between portobello and urabá, and occupy the limones, sasardi, and pinos islands are supposed to be a branch of the once powerful darien nations who to the present day remain unconquered. their province is situated on the western shore of the gulf of urabá, and their town was originally near the mouth of the river atrato. the town and the river as well as the province were called by the natives darien. this town was conquered in by a little band of shipwrecked spaniards under the bachiller enciso. vasco nuñez de balboa, francisco pizarro, and men of like metal were there, and this was the first successful conquest and settlement on tierra firme. whence, as the conquests of the spaniards widened, the name darien was at length applied to the greater part of the isthmus. still further westward were the once powerful province of _cueva_, and the site of the ancient city of panamá, discovered in by tello de guzman. this was a famous fishing-station, the word panamá signifying in the native tongue a place where many fish are taken. along the western shore of the bay of panamá dwelt several independent and warlike nations, those of _cutara_, _paris_, _escoria_, besides many others who waged continual war against each other with the object of increasing their territories and adding lustre to their names.[ ] slight differences only are observable in the isthmian physique. the people are generally well-built, muscular, and of average height, although old authorities, such as herrera, andagoya, and gomara, describe a tribe, whom they locate near escoria and quarecas, as being very tall--veritable giants. women, as a rule, are small and of delicate proportions, but after attaining a certain age, incline to obesity. the mountain tribes are generally shorter in stature, with more pleasing features than the coast-dwellers. a notable difference between the isthmians and the other aborigines of the pacific states, is the short, rather flat nose, in contradistinction to the almost universal aquiline cast. in color they are of a medium bronze tint, varying according to localities, the mountain tribes being the darker. black, straight, and very abundant coarse hair, black or dark eyes, and excellent teeth predominate.[ ] in costa rica, on the rio frio, is the frequently spoken of but never accurately described nation--the _guatusos_--whom somewhat mythical accounts describe as of fair complexions, with light hair and blue eyes. likewise albinos are spoken of by wafer, who relates having seen people "milk white, lighter than the colour of any europeans, and much like that of a white horse." furthermore, it is said that their bodies were covered with a milk-white down, which added to the whiteness of their skin; hair and eyebrows white, and eyes oblong, with the corners pointing downwards. during daylight they were weak-sighted, restive, and lacking energy, but after sundown, their cheerfulness, activity, and eyesight returned--the latter being apparently as good as that of other people.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the isthmians.] cotton textures and the bark of a certain tree, beaten in a wet state until soft and pliant, were the materials used by the isthmians to cover their nakedness, if, indeed, they covered it at all. where cotton was used, as in parts of costa rica, the costume was simply a small strip of cloth which both men and women wound round the loins or, as on the islands in the gulf of nicoya, the women passed it between the legs, and fastened it to a string round the waist. these latter ornamented their scanty raiment prettily with various designs painted in colors, and also with seeds and shells. near the bay of herradura the men wore a kind of mantle covering the whole front and back of the wearer, made of the above-mentioned bark, in the centre of which was a hole through which the head passed. the women of this locality only wrap themselves in a piece of bark, without taking the trouble to fashion a mantle of it. yet more simple was the dress of the men near cartago; a few cotton strings wound round the foreskin of their virile member, sufficed them.[ ] near panamá and darien, the caciques only wore long cotton mantles thrown over the shoulder and reaching nearly to the feet, the common people going naked, only encasing their privy parts in a kind of funnel made of gold, silver, shell, or bamboo, according to the wealth of the wearer, and which was held in place by a string fastened to two holes in the sides which was passed round the waist. women in the same localities wore cotton petticoats reaching to the knees, or, if ladies of quality, to the ankles. near the gulf of nicoya, women wore the long hair parted in the middle from the front to the back of the head, and plaited into two braids which hung down on either side over the ears. the men tied the hair up in a stiff queue with a cotton band, which was at times arranged so as to rise straight over the crown of the head. necklaces of colored beads or of tiger's teeth were worn as ornaments. like many nations of the hyperborean group, the chorotegans of nicoya pierced the lower lip and inserted a round piece of bone. their arms they painted with a mixture of their own blood and charcoal. in portions of veragua and behetrias even the funnel or cotton strings were omitted, and the gugures, mandingos, and many others on the pacific seaboard, like the people of veragua, went entirely naked, the chiefs only wearing long mantles. all of the isthmians were fond of ornaments; among those which deserve special notice is the nose-pendant. this was a crescent-shaped piece of gold or silver, of various sizes for different occasions, those used on holidays hanging down so as to cover the mouth, while those for ordinary use only reached the upper lip. besides the nose-pendant were ear-rings and a number of heavy necklaces of gold, silver, tiger's teeth, colored seeds, shells, and coral, according to the wealth of the wearer. under their breasts the richer women also wore gold bars as a support, which were held up by strings passed over the shoulders. _guanines_, or figures of animals made of gold, were worn around the neck by the men on the coast of veragua, chiriquí, and urabá; others again wore on their heads fillets or crowns of gold or of the claws of wild beasts, or of feathers. thus did these naked savages decorate themselves, often to the extent of several pounds weight. women considered it a mark of beauty to have thick legs, and to that end wore bandages round them. another hyperborean custom is here met with--the anointing of the body with oil--which in these tropics is extracted from the _bixa_ or seed of the _arnotto_, and over which they sprinkled down and feathers. painting the body was everywhere practiced, and was carried to a great extent, the different colors and figures employed each having its peculiar significance. [sidenote: isthmian body-painting.] on going to war, paint was used more freely than at other times, and the greater the warrior the thicker the paint. among the men of cueba painting had a double object; it served as an ornament to the person, and also as a mark of distinction of rank. the chief, when he inherited or attained his title, made choice of a certain device, which became that of all his house. freemen were painted from the mouth downward, and on the arms and chest, while slaves were only painted or tattooed from the mouth upward. all the lords, servitors, and vassals who were freemen, were painted in exactly the same manner. if the son of a chief adopted the ancestral totem, he could not afterward change it on coming into his inheritance, but if during his father's life-time he declined to use the distinctive badge of his house, he could, when he became chief, choose any new device he might fancy. a son who did not adopt his father's totem was always hateful to him during his lifetime. the natives on the northern coast of chiriquí painted the body in wavy lines, from the shoulders to the heels; through the cartilage of the nose they stuck a porcupine-quill, and in the chin the tooth of a wild beast. the women had holes made in their cheeks through which they stuck little bunches of feathers; they also wore tiger's claws in their ears. at san blas, some of the men painted themselves in black streaks, and the women in red. at porto belo, the king was painted black and all his subjects red. the natives of escoria tattooed breast and arms; the women of darien across the bridge of the nose from one cheek to the other; they also blacken their teeth. others have figures of birds, animals, or trees painted all over the body, according to fancy; their favorite colors being black, red, and yellow, which are laid on with pencils made of wood, chewed at the end till they become soft.[ ] all the isthmians pull out the hair from every part of the body except the head, and rub themselves with herbs, which prevent its further growth. both sexes pride themselves on the length of the hair, and most of them allow it to grow to its full length and hang loose over their shoulders, but keep it cut on the forehead as low as the eyebrows. the men of cariai and some parts of chiriquí, bind it with fillets and wind it in rolls round the head, fastening it with a comb made of the heart of the palm-tree; others wear round their head a band made of bark or certain fibres of plants, and at festivals they often wear high caps, made from the gaudy feathers of parrots. at tanela married women cut their hair short. it appears that head-flattening again crops out in these parts. las casas states that infants had their heads placed between two pads, one in front and another behind, in order to increase the length of the head and width of the forehead.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings on the isthmus.] in costa rica many of the natives live in small huts built of plaited rushes. in the year , diego gutierrez, governor of nueva cartago, in costa rica, attempted to explore that territory. arriving at the province of suere upon a river of that name at a point some twelve leagues distant from the north sea, he came to a village, and there occupied a house belonging to the chief of the district. the old milanese chronicler, girolamo benzoni, who accompanied the expedition, describing the dwelling of the cacique, says it was shaped like an egg and was forty-five paces in length and nine in breath. the sides were of reeds and the roof of palm-leaves all interlaced and well executed. there were but few other houses in the village and those of inferior character. padre zepeda, a jesuit, who in lived among the guatusos for several months, speaking of their towns and gardens, says that when the rains commence, they construct small huts in the trees, where they live safe from the danger of floods.[ ] unlike most other nations, the isthmians do not build their villages in squares, but generally form long streets, keeping the houses well apart from each other, probably as a precaution against conflagrations. on many parts of the coast of darien and on the gulf of urabá, the villages are built in the water. others are on the banks of rivers, and many of them are spacious and constructed with great skill and attention to details. the supporting posts of the roof are large bamboos or palm-trees. three or four of these are driven into the ground at equal distances, proportioned according to the intended length of the house, and across the top is laid the ridge-pole; on each side a number of shorter posts are sunk, from which long rafters are laid to the ridge-pole; the whole is then covered with palm-leaves, both roof and sides. other houses are plastered inside and outside with mud, and these have a flooring of open bamboo work, raised six or eight feet from the ground. the dwellings are divided into two or more rooms, having no doors to the entrances, which are reached by ladders. sometimes the house is built without walls, in which case the roof descends to below the level of the floor, and the structure is left open at both ends, having the appearance of an elevated platform. the savanerics and some others on the coast of veragua build circular or pyramidal dwellings, by driving strong posts into the ground sloping toward each other, so as to unite in a point where they are strongly bound with withes or vines, across which are tied small sticks, some peeled, others with the bark on, or blackened, thereby producing a pleasing effect. the walls inside are lined with reeds beautifully interwoven. the upper portion of the structure is thatched on the outside with straw and on the apex is placed an ornament of baked clay. in the centre of the dwelling is a spacious apartment, and round the walls are small rooms in which different families reside.[ ] each village has a public, town, or council house, or fort, one hundred or more feet in length, constructed in the same manner as the dwellings, but with no interior partitions; in the walls are loop-holes for the discharge of arrows. there is an entrance at each end, and thick doors, made of split palm-tree and bamboo strongly bound together with withes, are kept in readiness to shut out the enemy. the doors are kept in position by strong posts set in the ground behind them. in the province of veragua they build strong wooden fences or palisades round some of the villages, to protect them from attacks of enemies and wild beasts. during the expedition of gaspar de espinosa in , diego de albitez, who invaded the province of a cacique named tabraba, some distance south-west from panamá, found the inhabitants protected by strong fortifications. their forts are built with much skill. the ground is first enclosed by a deep trench, upon the inner bank of which trees are planted, and the interstices filled up with logs and rocks. in many parts of the country the inhabitants were found living in the tops of trees like birds, laying sticks across from one branch to another, and building their houses upon them. in , vasco nuñez de balboa surveyed several channels at the mouth of the river atrato in quest of gold and plunder. the surrounding country was low and marshy, but the soil sent forth immense palm-trees, in the branches of which the natives built their houses. vasco nuñez, entering an affluent of the rio negro, discovered a large tree-top village, the name of whose ruler was abieiba. the houses were divided into several apartments, each of a size sufficient to accommodate several families. they were built of wood and willows, and were so pliable and yet so strong, that the swaying to and fro of the branches, to which the elastic tenement yielded, did not in the least interfere with the safety of the occupants. ladders, made of a single large bamboo split in two, were used in making the ascent and descent. these were drawn up at night, or in case of the invasion of an enemy. on the coast of veragua columbus discovered similar dwellings, and he says that he could not account for the custom, unless it was through fear of griffins which abound in that country, or of enemies, each tribe being at war with every other tribe along the coast. the true cause, however, of their taking to trees for places of residence, is to place themselves beyond the reach of sudden and violent floods, which are caused by the swelling of streams after storms in the mountains, and also in order to be out of the reach of reptiles and wild beasts in which that country abounds.[ ] some of the isthmians built large enclosures for the chiefs, which early contemporary writers call the king's palace. vasco nuñez de balboa, on his march through the province of comagre, situated on the northern coast of darien about thirty leagues from the gulf of urabá, relates that he visited the dwelling or palace of the cacique comagre, which he describes as follows: it was one hundred and fifty by eighty paces in dimension, constructed upon heavy posts, which stood within a stone wall. the upper part of the building was beautifully finished with timbers, interlaced in such a manner as to strike the beholder with amazement. the building contained various apartments--chambers, pantry, and wine-cellar. in one very large apartment were sacredly kept the remains of the king's ancestors arranged round the walls.[ ] [sidenote: food of the isthmians.] the costa ricans live chiefly by hunting and fishing, and many of them cultivate maize, beans, and bananas; the talamancas, especially, are agriculturists. according to father zepeda, and others who penetrated some distance into the country of the guatusos, they had large fields under cultivation. salt is seldom used by any of these tribes, and none of them ever eat dogs, as they keep them for hunting purposes. their chief game is wild hogs and deer, but they are not very particular as to their animal diet, for they eat whatever they can catch, including reptiles. their mode of cooking fish renders them exceedingly palatable, which is by roasting them wrapped in plantain-leaves. bananas are usually pulled when green, and buried in sand to ripen.[ ] many of the other isthmians are agriculturists, and grow considerable quantities of maize, plantains, cacao, pimiento, and cocoa-nuts; their means of subsistence are further largely supplemented by game and fish. a staple article of food among the coast tribes is turtle, of which they capture large numbers. monkeys afford them a favorite meal, and they are especially fond of iguanas, young alligators, and their eggs. from the yucca as well as corn they make a good quality of bread. the doraches and guaimies of veragua subsist mainly on wild roots and a fruit called _pixbaex_, somewhat resembling dates, which toasted, makes an agreeable and wholesome food. most of their dishes are highly seasoned with pimiento, a kind of pepper produced by a small shrub which is very abundant on tierra firme. the toocan bird lives chiefly on the berry, which it discharges from the stomach almost immediately after swallowing it; the natives prefer it thus, as its bitterness is partly absorbed by the bird. it is said that the caribs ate human flesh whenever they had an opportunity. herrera says that some of the isthmians purchased slaves, whom they sold to the caribs for food, and the inhabitants of paria supplied boys to the natives of tubrabá for the same purpose. they cooked the flesh of their enemies, and ate it seasoned with salt and _ají_ (chile).[ ] when a piece of ground is to be planted, a number of the villagers collect and cut down the brushwood on a selected spot; the seed is then scattered among the wood as it lies. in due time the grain, which is well sheltered from the sun by the branches, springs up and overtops them, and when fit for harvesting the ears are gathered. after this, the underwood and corn-stalks are set on fire, and the ground continues to be used for agricultural purposes. in hunting deer and wild swine, dogs are used to drive them out of the dense forest; at other times they set fire to a part of the woods, and as the animals try to escape, they kill them with spears and arrows. birds are killed with a blow-pipe. when fishing they use nets made of mahoe-bark or silk-grass, and in places where rocks prevent their using a net, they catch them with their hands or shoot them with arrows. fishing by torchlight with spears is frequently practiced. the savanerics poison pools with pounded leaves of the barbasco, and thus obtain fish without much labor. for duck-hunting they also employ the often-described trick of placing a calabash on the head, and in this manner approach the game. the men of cueba are celebrated for making pure white salt from sea water--an article much used in this locality. in the same province a kind of communism obtained; all provisions were delivered to the chief, who distributed to each his share. part of the community were employed as agriculturists, and part as hunters and fishermen. at his meals the cacique was served by women, some of his principal men eating with him.[ ] in their personal habits the isthmians are cleanly; they bathe generally twice a day and sometimes oftener; but commonly at sunrise and sunset. the interior of their dwellings has a neat appearance, and order and cleanliness prevail in all their domestic arrangements.[ ] [sidenote: weapons of the isthmians.] bows and arrows, long spears, javelins, flint-edged clubs, and blow-pipes, are the weapons used in these parts. the bows are beautifully made, those of the costa ricans being about seven feet long, of a dark-colored, very hard wood, with the string of well-twisted silk-grass. arrows are of the same wood, very long, and pointed with a porcupine-quill or fish-bone. the bows and arrows of those farther south are much shorter, and of black palm-wood, as are also their lances and javelins. the arrows are pointed with flint or fish-bone, or are hardened in the fire and barbed; the shaft is of reed having a piece of hard wood eight or ten inches in length inserted in the end. the inhabitants of coiba and some of the tribes on the western shore of the gulf of urabá, do not use bows and arrows. in this respect, so far as i have observed, they form an exception; as among the almost innumerable tribes situated between the gulf of urabá and the arctic ocean i know of none others where bows and arrows are not used. these people in battle employ a long wooden sword, and wooden spears, the ends of which are hardened in the fire and tipped with bone; they also make use of slings and darts. their javelins are thrown with much force and dexterity by means of a stick slightly grooved to hold the projectile. it is called _estorica_ and is held between the thumb and two fingers, there being a small loop on the side, near the centre, in which the forefinger is placed; the dart is cast straight from the shoulder, while the projector is retained in the hand. i have noticed a somewhat similar contrivance employed by the aleutian islanders.[ ] the blow-pipe which is used with much effect, is about six or seven feet long, and the darts shot from it are made of mucaw-wood, very thin with an exceedingly sharp point, notched, so that when an object is struck it breaks off and it is almost impossible to extract the broken point; others are poisoned so that a slight wound causes death in a short time. one end is wrapped with a little cotton, until it fits the tube which is placed to the mouth and the dart blown out. it is quite effective for a distance of one hundred yards. different varieties of poison have been described by writers and travelers. herrera speaks of one which he says was made with certain grey roots found along the coast, which were burnt in earthen pipkins and mixed with a species of poisonous black ant; to this composition were added large spiders, some hairy caterpillars, the wings of a bat, and the head and tail of sea-fish called _tavorino_, very venomous, besides toads, the tails of snakes, and manzanillas. all these ingredients were set over a fire in an open field and well boiled in pots by a slave till they were reduced to a proper consistency. the unfortunate slave who attends to the boiling almost invariably dies from the fumes. another poisonous composition is spoken of as having been made of fourteen different ingredients and another of twenty-four, one that kills in three days, another in five, and another later, and when one was employed it was stated that sometimes the wounded lived as many days as the poison had been made. the natives said that fire, sea water, and continency were the antidotes against the venom, others affirmed that the dung of the wounded person taken in pills or otherwise was a cure. peter martyr writes that the poison was made by old women skilled in the art, who were shut up for two days in a house where they boiled the ingredients; if at the expiration of the time, the women were found in good health instead of being half dead, they were punished and the ointment was thrown away. captain cochrane in his _journal in colombia_, says that they obtain the poison from a small frog called the _rana de veneno_. these frogs are kept in a hollow cane and regularly fed. when required for use, they take one and pass a pointed stick down its throat and out at one of its legs. the pain brings to the back of the toad a white froth, which is a deadly poison and in it the darts are rubbed; below the froth a yellow oily matter is found which is carefully scraped off, as it is also a powerful poison, but not so lasting as the first substance, which will retain its deadly properties for a year while the yellow matter looses its strength after five or six months.[ ] the javelins used by the caribs were not made pointed but square at the end, they also have very long pikes and heavy clubs. when bartolomé hurtado in visited the island of caubaco he relates that the cacique presented him with a golden armor valued at one thousand castellanos. at the island of cabo seven leagues distant, the warriors wore a thick matted armor of cotton impervious to arrows; they were armed with pikes and in their march were accompanied with drums, conchs, and fifes.[ ] [sidenote: weapons, armor, and wars.] wars arise chiefly from the jealousies and ambition of rival chieftains. battles are frequent and sanguinary, often lasting for many days, and are fought with tenacious courage. throughout darien it is customary to place sentinels at night in the highest houses of the towns, to keep watch and give warning of the approach of an enemy. at the commencement of a campaign, chiefs and captains experienced in war are nominated by the head of the tribe, to lead the men in battle and conduct the operations; they wear certain insignia, so as to be distinguished from the rest of the men, lofty plumes on the head, and a quantity of golden ornaments and jewels, besides which they are painted in a different style. all, however, adorn themselves when going to battle, with a profusion of necklaces, bracelets, and golden corselets. the men are cheered on to battle and encouraged during the fight by the blowing of large shells and the beating of drums. in the province of cueba, women accompany the men, fighting by their side and sometimes even leading the van. the action is commenced with the slings and estoricas, but they soon meet at close quarters, when the heavy wooden swords and javelins are brought into use. certain rules and military regulations are observed whereby the brave are rewarded, and offenders against military discipline punished. nobility is conferred on him who is wounded in war, and he is further rewarded with lands, with some distinguished woman, and with military command; he is deemed more illustrious than others, and the son of such a father, following the profession of arms, may inherit all the father's honors. he who disobeys the orders of his chief in battle is deprived of his arms, struck with them, and driven from the settlement. all booty is the property of him who captured it. the prisoner is the slave of the captor; he is branded on the face and one of his front teeth knocked out. the caribs, however, used to kill and eat their prisoners. wafer mentions that upon some occasions, he who had killed an enemy cut off his own hair as a distinguishing mark of triumph, and painted himself black, continuing so painted until the first new moon.[ ] [sidenote: isthmian dishes and implements.] the isthmians sleep in hammocks, often beautifully made, and suspended between two trees or upright posts. owing to the material of which they are composed they are exceedingly cool and well adapted to the climate. gourds, calabashes, and cocoa-nut shells are employed for water-bowls and drinking-cups. their other household utensils consist of earthen jars, flint knives, stone hatchets and boxes ingeniously made of palm-leaves, and covered with deer or other skins. drums of different sizes, some very large, others small, are made of the hollow trunk of a tree covered at the ends with deer's hide. those of the largest size are kept at the chief's residence or at the town-house. hammocks are made of finely woven cloth, or more frequently of plaited grass of various colors and curiously ornamented. wooden mortars, made from the knotty part of a tree, are used to pound yucca, from which they make their cassava. the metate or rubbing-stone is also in use among them. they have nets of different kinds for both fishing and hunting. at night, as a light for their dwellings they use torches made from palm-wood dipped in oil and beeswax. the lords and principal men of the provinces of darien and urabá are reputed to have drunk from golden cups of rich and beautiful workmanship. peter martyr gives an account of golden trumpets and a great number of bells found by the spaniards in a town situated on the river dabaiba (atrato). the bells were used at ceremonies and festivals, giving forth a sweet and pleasant sound; the tongues or clappers were beautifully made, of fish-bones. in another part of the country, on the gulf of urabá, says peter martyr, as rendered by the ancient translator: "they founde also a great multitude of shetes, made of the silke or cotton of the gossampine tree; likewise diuers kindes of vessels and tooles made of wood, and many of earth; also many brest plates of gold, and ouches wrought after their manner."[ ] they manufacture strong cords from the bark of the mahoe-tree, which is taken off in long strips, beaten with sticks, cleaned, and then twisted. a finer description of thread is made from a species of pita, of which the leaves undergo a somewhat similar process in preparation as flax, being steeped in water for several days, then dried in the sun and afterwards beaten, producing fine silky threads, from which their hammocks and finer kinds of nets for catching small fish are made. from the same plant they make excellent baskets and matting; the materials are first dyed in different colors, prettily mixed and woven together so closely as to hold water. they are of a soft texture and exceedingly durable. the dorachos are famed for the manufacture of pottery, water-bottles, and other household utensils, elegantly shaped and prettily painted. cotton cloths are woven by women, and considering the rude and simple implements they work with, the fineness of texture and blending of colors present a marvel of skill and patience. the process of weaving is thus described by wafer: "the women make a roller of wood, about three foot long, turning easily about between two posts. about this they place strings of cotton, of or yards long, at most, but oftner less, according to the use the cloth is to be put to, whether for a hammock, or to tie about their waists, or for gowns, or for blankets to cover them in their hammocks, as they lie in them in their houses; which are all the uses they have for cloth: and they never weave a piece of cotton with a design to cut it, but of a size that shall just serve for the particular use. the threads thus coming from the roller are the warp; and for the woof, they twist cotton-yarn about a small piece of _macaw_-wood, notch'd at each end; and taking up every other thread of the warp with the fingers of one hand, they put the woof through with the other hand, and receive it out on the other side: and to make the threads of the woof lie close in the cloth, they strike them at every turn with a long and thin piece of _macaw_-wood like a ruler, which lies across between the threads of the warp for that purpose."[ ] [sidenote: isthmian boats and navigation.] the canoes and rafts of the isthmians are admirably adapted to the navigation of their rivers and gulfs, and the men who manage them are skillful boatmen. the canoes vary in size; some are dug out from the single trunk of a tree, others are constructed of bark. the largest are thirty-five feet in length by three in breadth, and are capable of carrying many persons, besides a considerable amount of cargo. they are so lightly built that little difficulty is experienced in passing them over obstructions, and those of smaller size are often carried on the head. they draw very little water, and are propelled with paddles by two persons, one in the stern, the other in the bow. when passing over rapids, palancas, or poles, are used, with crotchets attached, which answer the purpose of a boat-hook in laying hold of the bank or overhanging branches of trees, where the depth of water prevents the pole reaching the bottom. the rafts are made from an exceedingly light and soft timber similar to cork-wood. three or four logs are bound together with ropes and across them are laid smaller timbers of the same wood, fastened down with hard wooden pegs that are easily driven through. the rafts are chiefly employed for fishing or crossing large rivers. canoes are, however, quite as frequently used for fishing purposes.[ ] the native products are gold, pearls, tortoise-shell, ivory-nuts, cacao, caoutchouc, corozo-nuts, cocoa-nuts, dried venison, lard, and deer-skins; these are offered in considerable quantities to foreigners, and in exchange they receive salt and ironware, besides various trinkets and such domestic utensils as they are in need of. the value of the pearls was lessened on account of their practice of throwing oysters into the fire in order to open them, which partially destroyed their lustre. the natives of the coast carry into the interior dried fish and salt, which they barter for gold dust and other products. at pueblo nuevo sarsaparilla forms a principal article of trade. the native traders are very shrewd, and as a rule practice fair dealing. on his march through the country, vasco nuñez de balboa found the people in possession of large quantities of gold, jewelry, and pearls. everywhere along his route he received presents of gold; indeed, in some places he found this metal in greater abundance than food.[ ] the streams of this region are subject to frequent swellings, caused by heavy rains. after the subsiding of these floods, the natives procure gold from the river-beds; they also burn the grass in the mountains and pick up the metal left exposed on the surface in large quantities. in the district of veragua and in darien they have workers in gold, crucibles for melting metals, and implements of silversmiths. they understand the alloying of gold, from which they make vases and many kinds of ornaments in the shape of birds and different varieties of animals. the relics which from time to time have been exhumed in chiriquí and other parts of the isthmus, prove that the natives had an excellent knowledge of the art of working and also of sculpturing in gold and stone. painting and glazing on jars and other descriptions of pottery was an art in which the men of chiriquí were famous.[ ] the isthmians possessed only a very slight knowledge of the computation of time. they calculate the hour of the day by the height of the sun in the heavens, and have no division of time into years, months, or weeks. their enumeration is limited to twenty, and beyond that they count by twenties to one hundred; their knowledge of numbers does not go further.[ ] [sidenote: arts and government.] in the provinces of cueba, comagre, and other parts of darien the eldest son succeeded to the government upon the death of his father. as soon as the funeral ceremonies were over, the heir received the congratulations of the attendant nobles, the highest and most aged of whom conducted him to a chamber and laid him in a hammock. his subjects then came to offer their submission accompanied with presents, which consisted of large stores of edibles and fruits of every kind. they greeted him with triumphal songs in which they recounted the deeds of his ancestors, as well as those of other lords of the land, telling him who were his friends and who his enemies. much wine was consumed and the rejoicing lasted several days. afterwards ambassadors were dispatched to inform all the neighboring caciques of the new accession, desiring their good will and friendship for the future. in the province of panamá upon the death of the lord, the eldest brother succeeded him, and if there were no brothers the succession went to a nephew by the sister's side. the chiefs held undisputed authority over their people and were implicitly obeyed. they received no tribute but required personal service for house-building, hunting, fishing, or tilling the ground; men so employed were fed and maintained by the chief. in cueba the reigning lord was called _quebi_, in other parts he was called _tiba_. the highest in rank after the _tiba_ had the title of _sacos_, who commanded certain districts of the country. _piraraylos_ were nobles who had become famous in war. subject to the sacos were the _cabras_ who enjoyed certain lands and privileges not accorded to the common people. any one wounded in battle, when fighting in presence of the _tiba_, was made a cabra and his wife became an _espave_ or principal woman. a constable could not arrest or kill a cabra; this could be done only by the tiba; once struck by the tiba, however, any person might kill him, for no sooner was he wounded by his chief than his title and rank dropped from him. constables were appointed whose duty it was to arrest offenders and execute judgment on the guilty. justice was administered without form by the chief in person who decided all controversies. the cases must be stated truthfully, as the penalty for false testimony was death. there was no appeal from the decision of the chief. theft was punishable with death and anyone catching a thief in flagrante delicto, might cut off the offender's hands and hang them to his neck. murder was also punished by death; the penalty for adultery was death to both parties. in darien, he who defloured a virgin had a brier thrust up his virile member, which generally caused death. the facts had to be proved on oath, the form of taking which was to swear by their tooth. as i have said, a constable could not arrest or kill a noble; consequently if one committed a crime punishable with death, the chief must kill him with his own hand, and notice was given to all the people by beating the large war drum so that they should assemble and witness the execution. the chief then in presence of the multitude recited the offence, and the culprit acknowledged the justice of the sentence. this duty fulfilled, the chief struck the culprit two or three blows on the head with a macana until he fell, and if he was not killed, any one of the spectators gave him the finishing stroke. criminals who were executed were denied the right of burial. the caribs had no chiefs, every man obeyed the dictates of his own passions, unrestrained by either government or laws.[ ] [sidenote: punishments and slavery.] slavery was in force among the various nations inhabiting the isthmus, and every principal man retained a number of prisoners as bondsmen; they were called _pacos_, and, as i have already mentioned, were branded or tattooed with the particular mark of the owner on the face or arm, or had one of their front teeth extracted. when traveling, the slaves had to carry their lord's effects, and a dozen or more were detailed to carry his litter or hammock, which was slung on a pole and borne on the shoulders of two men at a time, who were relieved at intervals by two others, the change being made without stopping. on his march across the isthmus in , vasco nuñez found some negro slaves belonging to the cacique of quarecas, but the owner could give no information relative to them, except that there were more of that color near the place, with whom they were continually at war.[ ] [sidenote: family relations of the isthmians.] caciques and lords married as many wives as they pleased. the marriage of the first wife was celebrated with a great banquet, at the close of which the bride was handed over to her husband. subsequent wives were not married with ceremonies or rejoicings, but took the place of concubines, and were subject to the orders of the first wife. the number of wives was limited only by the wealth of the lord. vasco nuñez took prisoner the cacique tumanamá with all his family, among which were eighty wives. the children of the first wife were legitimate, while those of others were bastards and could not inherit. marriage was not contracted with strangers or people speaking a different language, and the tiba and lords only married with the daughters of noble blood. divorces were brought about by mutual consent and for slight causes, and sometimes wives were exchanged. if a woman was barren, they promptly agreed upon a separation, which took place when the woman had her menstrual period, in order that there might be no suspicion of pregnancy. when a maiden reached the age of puberty, she was kept shut up, sometimes for a period of two years. in some parts of darien, when a contract of marriage was made, all the neighbors brought presents of maize or fruits, and laid them at the door of the bride's father; when the offerings were all made, each one of the company was given a calabash of liquor; then followed speeches and dancing, and the bridegroom's father presented his son to the bride, and joined their hands; after which the bride was returned to her father, who kept her shut up in a house with him for seven days. during that time all the friends assisted in clearing a plantation and building a house for the couple, while the women and children planted the ground. the seven days having elapsed, another merrymaking took place, at which much liquor was drunk. the bridegroom took the precaution to put away all weapons which were hung to the ridge-pole of his house, in order to prevent any serious fighting during their drunken orgies, which lasted several days, or until all the liquor was consumed. if a man had several wives, he often kept each one in a separate house, though sometimes they all lived together; a woman who was pregnant always occupied a house to herself.[ ] women are easily delivered, and the young infant is tied to a board on its back or between two pillows, and is kept so confined until able to walk, the board being removed only to wash the child. male children are early accustomed to the use of weapons, and when able to carry a few provisions for themselves, they accompany their fathers on hunting expeditions. girls are brought up to household duties, cooking, weaving, and spinning. prostitution was not infamous; noble ladies held as a maxim, that it was plebeian to deny anything asked of them, and they gave themselves up to any person that wooed them, willingly, especially to principal men. this tendency to licentiousness carried with it extremes in the use of abortives whereby to avoid the consequence of illicit pleasures, as well that they might not be deprived of them, as to keep their breasts from softening; for, said they, old women should bear children, not young ones, who have to amuse themselves. sodomy was practiced by the nations of cueba, careta, and other places. the caciques and some of the head men kept harems of youths, who, as soon as destined to the unclean office, were dressed as women, did women's work about the house, and were exempt from war and its fatigues. they went by the name of _camayoas_, and were hated and detested by the women.[ ] [sidenote: intoxicating liquors.] their public amusements were called _areitos_, a species of dance very nearly resembling some in the northern provinces of spain. they took place upon occasions of a marriage or birth, or when they were about to go forth on a hunting expedition, or at the time of harvest. one led the singing, stepping to the measure, and the rest followed, imitating the leader. others again engaged in feats of arms and sham battles, while singers and improvisatori related the deeds of their ancestors and historical events of the nation. the men indulged freely in fermented liquors and wines, the drinking and dancing lasting many hours and sometimes whole days, until drunk and exhausted they fell to the ground. actors in appropriate costumes counterfeited the various pursuits of fishing, hunting, and agriculture, while others, in the guise of jesters and fools, assisted in enlivening the scene. their principal musical instruments were drums and small whistles made of reeds; they had also javelins with holes pierced in them near the end, so that when cast into the air a loud whistling noise was produced.[ ] they have various kinds of wines and liquors both sweet and sour. one is obtained from a species of palm-tree, by tapping the trunk near the top, and inserting a leaf into the cut. the liquor drawn off soon ferments, and in two or three days is fit to drink; or it is boiled with water and mixed with spices. another kind called _chicha_ is made from maize; a quantity of the grain is soaked in water, then taken out and left to sprout, when it is bruised and placed in a large vessel filled with water, where it is allowed to remain until it begins to turn sour. a number of old women then collect and chew some of the grain, which they spit out into large gourds until they have a sufficient quantity; this, as soon as it ferments, is added to the water in the vessel, and in a short time the whole undergoes fermentation. when the liquor is done working it is drawn off from the sediment, and a strongly intoxicating liquor is thus produced, which is their favorite beverage. they have another method of making chicha, by boiling the sprouted grain in water till the quantity is considerably reduced; it is then removed from the fire and left to settle and cool. in two days it becomes clear and fit to drink, but after five or six days it begins to acidify so that only a moderate quantity is made at a time. different varieties of wines and liquors are made from dates, bananas, pineapples, and other fruits, and we are told that the first spanish explorers of the country found large quantities of fermented liquors buried beneath the ground under their house-tree, because if stored in their houses the liquor became turbid from constant agitation. the cellar of the king comagre is described as being filled with great vessels of earth and wood, containing wine and cider. peter martyr, in his account of the visit of vasco nuñez and his company to the king, says "they drunke wines of sundry tastes both white and black." tobacco is much used by the isthmians; the natives of costa rica roll the leaf up in the form of a cigar, and tie it with grass threads; they inhale the smoke, and, retaining it for a short time, pass it out through the mouth and nostrils. the cigar used by the natives of the isthmus of panamá is much larger. mr wafer thus describes their manner of making and smoking it: "laying two or three leaves upon one another, they roll up all together side-ways into a long roll, yet leaving a little hollow. round this they roll other leaves one after another, in the same manner but close and hard, till the roll be as big as ones wrist, and two or three feet in length. their way of smoaking when they are in company together is thus: a boy lights one end of a roll and burns it to a coal, wetting the part next it to keep it from wasting too fast. the end so lighted he puts into his mouth, and blows the smoak through the whole length of the roll into the face of every one of the company or council, tho' there be or of them. then they, sitting in their usual posture upon forms, make, with their hands held hollow together, a kind of funnel round their mouths and noses. into this they receive the smoak as 'tis blown upon them, snuffing it up greedily and strongly as long as ever they are able to hold their breath, and seeming to bless themselves, as it were, with the refreshment it gives them." after eating heartily, more especially after supper, they burn certain gums and herbs and fumigate themselves to produce sleep.[ ] the isthmians are good walkers, their tread firm, but light and soft as a cat, and they are exceedingly active in all their movements. when traveling they are guided by the sun, or ascertain their course by observing the bark of the trees; the bark on the south side being always the thickest. when fatigued by travel they scarify their legs with a sharpened reed or snakes' teeth. they are very expert swimmers and the dwellers on the coast pass much of their time in the water. in salutation they turn their backs to each other. no one will accept a gift from a stranger unless with the especial permission of the chief.[ ] [sidenote: isthmian sorcerers.] they believe largely in spirits and divinations, and have sorcerers called _piaces_ who are held in much respect and awe. the piaces profess to have the power of foretelling the future and raising spirits. when putting in practice their arts they retire to a solitary place, or shut themselves up in a house, where, with loud cries and unearthly sounds they pretend to consult the oracle. boys destined to be piaces are taken at the age of ten or twelve years to be instructed in the office; they are selected for the natural inclination or the peculiar aptitude and intelligence which they display for the service. those so chosen are confined in a solitary place where they dwell in company with their instructors. for two years they are subjected to severe discipline, they must not eat flesh nor anything having life, but live solely on vegetables, drink only water, and not indulge in sexual intercourse. during the probationary term neither parents nor friends are permitted to see them; at night only are they visited by professional masters, who instruct them in the mysteries of the necromantic arts. in the province of cueba masters in these arts are called _tequinas_. it is asserted of the piaces that they could foretell an eclipse of the moon three months before the time. the people were much troubled with witches, who were supposed to hold converse with evil spirits, and inflicted many ills especially upon children.[ ] [sidenote: medical practice.] the isthmians are a healthful and long-lived race. the ills most common to them are fevers and venereal disease. the latter, as oviedo affirms, was introduced into europe from hayti, or española, where it was prevalent as well as throughout tierra firme. this is a subject that has given rise to much contention among authors, but the balance of testimony seems to indicate that the venereal disease in europe was not of american origin, although the disease probably existed in america before the coming of europeans. the remedies employed by the isthmians for the complaint were _guayacan_ wood, and other medicinal herbs known to them. they are much troubled with a minute species of tick-lice that cover their limbs in great numbers, from which they endeavor to free themselves by applying burning straw. another insect, more serious in its consequences and penetrating in its attacks, is the _chegoe_, or _pulex penetrans_; it burrows under the skin, where it lays its eggs, and if not extracted will in time increase to such an extent as to endanger the loss of the limb. the natives remove it with any sharp-pointed instrument. they are liable to be bitten by venomous snakes, which are numerous in the country and frequently cause death. whenever one is bitten by such a reptile, the sufferer immediately ties above the wounded part a ligature made from plants well known to the natives, and which they usually carry with them; this enables him to reach a village, where he procures assistance, and by means of herbal applications is often cured. some of them are subject to a skin disease somewhat similar in its appearance to ringworm; it spreads over the whole body until eventually the skin peels off. those who are thus afflicted are called _carates_. these people are generally very hardy and strong, with great powers of endurance. the piaces, as medicine-men, consult their oracles for the benefit of all those who require their services. the sucking cure obtains in these parts as well as northward. when summoned to attend a patient, if the pain or disease is slight, the medicine-man takes some herbs in his mouth, and applying his lips to the part affected, pretends to suck out the disorder; suddenly he rushes outside with cheeks extended, and feigns to spit out something, cursing and imprecating at the same time; he then assures his patient that he has effected a cure by extracting the cause of the pain. when the sickness is of a more serious nature, more elaborate enchantments are enacted, ending in the practitioner sucking it out from the sick person's body, not, however, without undergoing infinite trouble, labor, and contortions, till at last the piace thrusts a small stick down his own throat, which causes him to vomit, and so he casts up that which he pretends to have drawn out from the sufferer. should his conjurations and tricks not prove effectual, the physician brings to his aid certain herbs and decoctions, with which he is well acquainted; their knowledge of medicine is, however, more extensive in the treatment of external than of internal diseases. the compensation given to the piace is in proportion to the gravity of the case, and the ability of the individual to reward him. in cases of fever, bleeding is resorted to; their mode of practicing phlebotomy is peculiar and attended with much unnecessary suffering. the operator shoots a small arrow from a bow into various parts of the patient's body until a vein be accidentally opened; the arrow is gauged a short distance from the point to prevent its penetrating too far.[ ] oviedo tells us that in the province of cueba the practice of sucking was carried on to a fearful extent, and with dire consequences. the persons, men and women, who indulged in the habit were called by the spaniards _chupadores_. they belonged to a class of sorcerers, and the historian says they went about at night visiting certain of the inhabitants, whom they sucked for hours, continuing the practice from day to day, until finally the unfortunate recipients of their attentions became so thin and emaciated that they often died from exhaustion.[ ] [sidenote: isthmian graves and mourning.] [sidenote: funeral rites on the isthmus.] among certain nations of costa rica when a death occurs the body is deposited in a small hut constructed of plaited palm-leaves; food, drink, as well as the weapons and implements that served the defunct during life are placed in the same hut. here the body is preserved for three years, and upon each anniversary of the death it is redressed and attended to amidst certain ceremonies. at the end of the third year it is taken out and interred. among other tribes in the same district, the corpse after death is covered with leaves and surrounded with a large pile of wood which is set on fire, the friends dancing and singing round the flames until all is consumed, when the ashes are collected and buried in the ground. in veragua the dorachos had two kinds of tombs, one for the principal men constructed with flat stones laid together with much care, and in which were placed costly jars and urns filled with food and wines for the dead; those for plebeians were merely trenches, in which were deposited with the occupant some gourds of maize and wine and the place filled with stones. in some parts of panamá and darien only the chiefs and lords received funeral rites. among the common people a person feeling his end approaching either went himself or was led to the woods by his wife, family, and friends, who, supplying him with some cake or ears of corn and a gourd of water, there left him to die alone, or to be assisted by wild beasts. others with more respect for their dead, buried them in sepulchres made with niches where they placed maize and wine and renewed the same annually. with some, a mother dying while suckling her infant, the living child was placed at her breast and buried with her in order that in her future state she might continue to nourish it with her milk. in some provinces when the cacique became sick, the priests consulted their oracles as to his condition and if they received for answer that the illness was mortal, one half of his jewelry and gold was cast into the river as a sacrifice to the god they reverenced, in the belief that he would guide him to his final rest; the other half was buried in the grave. the relatives of the deceased shaved the head as a sign of mourning and all his weapons and other property were consumed by fire in order that nothing should remain as a remembrance of him. in panamá, nata, and some other districts, when a cacique died, those of his concubines that loved him enough, those that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants, killed themselves and were interred with him. this they did in order that they might wait upon him in the land of spirits. they held the belief that those who did not accompany him then, would, when they died a natural death, lose the privilege of being with him afterwards, and in fact that their souls would die with them. the privilege of attending on the cacique in his future state was believed to be only granted to those who were in his service during his lifetime, hence such service was eagerly sought after by natives of both sexes, who made every exertion to be admitted as servants in his house. at the time of the interment, those who planted corn for him during his lifetime had some maize and an implement of husbandry buried with them in order that they might commence planting immediately on arrival in the other world. in comagre and other provinces the bodies of the caciques were embalmed by placing them on a cane hurdle, hanging them up by cords, or placing them on a stone, or log; and round or below the body they made a slow fire of herbs at such a distance as to dry it gradually until only skin and bone remained. during the process of embalming, twelve of the principal men sat round the body, dressed in black mantles which covered their heads, letting them hang down to their feet; at intervals one of them beat a drum and when he ceased he chanted in monotonous tones, the others responding. day and night the twelve kept watch and never left the body. when sufficiently dried it was dressed and adorned with many ornaments of gold, jewels, and feathers, and set up in an apartment of the palace where were kept ranged round the walls the remains of his ancestors, each one in his place and in regular succession. in case a cacique fell in battle and his body could not be recovered, or was otherwise lost, the place he would have occupied in the row was always left vacant. among other tribes the body after being dried by fire was wrapped in several folds of cloth, put in a hammock, and placed upon a platform in the air or in a room. the manner in which the wives, attendants, and servants put themselves to death was, with some, by poison; in such case, the multitude assembled to chant the praises of their dead lord, when those who were to follow drank poison from gourds, and dropped dead instantly. in some cases they first killed their children. with others the funeral obsequies of a principal chief were conducted differently. they prepared a large grave twelve or fifteen feet square and nine or ten feet deep; round the sides they built a stone bench and covered it with painted cloth; in the middle of the grave they placed jars and gourds filled with maize, fruit, and wines, and a quantity of flowers. on the bench was laid the dead chief dressed, ornamented, and jeweled, while around him sat his wives gaily attired with ear-rings and bracelets. all being prepared the assembled multitude raised their voices in songs declaring the bravery and prowess of the deceased; they recounted his liberality and many virtues and highly extolled the affection of his faithful wives who desired to accompany him. the singing and dancing usually lasted two days and during its continuance wine was freely served to the performers and also to the women who were awaiting their fate. at the expiration of such time they became entirely inebriated and in a senseless condition, when the final act was consummated by throwing dead and doomed into the grave, and filling it with logs, branches, and earth. the spot was afterwards held in sacred remembrance and a grove of trees planted round it. at the end of a year funeral honors were celebrated in memory of the dead. a host of friends and relatives of equal rank with the deceased were invited to participate, who upon the day appointed brought quantities of food and wine such as he whose memory they honored delighted in, also weapons with which he used to fight, all of which were placed in a canoe prepared for the purpose; in it was also deposited an effigy of the deceased. the canoe was then carried on men's shoulders round the court of the palace or house, in presence of the deceased, if he was embalmed, and afterwards brought out to the centre of the town where it was burned with all it contained,--the people believing that the fumes and smoke ascended to the soul of the dead and was pleasing and acceptable to him.[ ] if the body had been interred they opened the sepulchre; all the people with hair disheveled uttering loud lamenting cries while the bones were being collected, and these they burned all except the hinder part of the skull, which was taken home by one of the principal women and preserved by her as a sacred relic. [sidenote: isthmian character.] the character of the costa ricans has ever been that of a fierce and savage people, prominent in which qualities are the guatusos and buricas, who have shown themselves strongly averse to intercourse with civilization. the talamancas are a little less untameable, which is the best, or perhaps the worst, that can be said. the terrabas, also a cruel and warlike nation, are nevertheless spoken of by fray juan domingo arricivita as endowed with natural docility. the natives of boca del toro are barbarous and averse to change. in chiriquí they are brave and intelligent, their exceeding courage having obtained for them the name of _valientes_ or _indios bravos_ from the early discoverers; they are also noted for honesty and fair dealing. the same warlike and independent spirit and fearlessness of death prevails among the nations of veragua, panamá, and darien. the inhabitants of panamá and cueba are given to lechery, theft, and lying; with some these qualities are fashionable; others hold them to be crimes. the mandingos and natives of san blas are an independent and industrious people, possessing considerable intelligence, and are of a docile and hospitable disposition. the inhabitants of darien are kind, open-hearted, and peaceable, yet have always been resolute in opposing all interference from foreigners; they are fond of amusements and inclined to indolence; the latter trait is not, however, applicable to all, a noticeable exception being the cunas and chocos of the atrato valley, who are of a gentle nature, kind, hospitable, and open-hearted when once their confidence is gained; they are likewise industrious and patient, and m. lucien de puydt says of the former: "theft is altogether unknown amongst the cunas." colonel alcedo, speaking of their neighbors, the idibaes, calls them treacherous, inconstant, and false. in the interior and mountain districts the inhabitants are more fierce than those from the coast; the former are shy and retiring, yet given to hospitality. on the gulf of urabá the people are warlike, vainglorious, and revengeful.[ ] thus from the icy regions of the north to the hot and humid shores of darien i have followed these wild tribes of the pacific states, with no other object in view than faithfully to picture them according to the information i have been able to glean. and thus i leave them, yet not without regret: for notwithstanding all that has been said i cannot but feel how little we know of them. of their mighty unrecorded past, their interminable intermixtures, their ages of wars and convulsions, their inner life, their aspirations, hopes, and fears, how little do we know of all this! and now as the eye rests upon the fair domain from which they have been so ignobly hurried, questions like these arise: how long have these backings and battlings been going on? what purpose did these peoples serve? whence did they come and whither have they gone?--questions unanswerable until omniscience be fathomed and the beginning and end made one. tribal boundaries. the wild tribes of central america, the last groupal division of this work, extend from the western boundary of guatemala, south and eastward, to the rio atrato. i have divided the group into three subdivisions, namely: the _guatemalans_, the _mosquitos_, and the _isthmians_. the guatemalans, for the purposes of this delineation, embrace those nations occupying the present states of guatemala, salvador, and portions of nicaragua. the _lacandones_ are a wild nation inhabiting the chammá mountains on the boundary of guatemala and chiapas. 'mountains of chammá, inhabited by the wild indians of lacandón ... a distinction ought to be drawn between the western and eastern lacandónes. all the country lying on the w., between the bishopric of ciudad real and the province of vera paz, was once occupied by the western lacandónes.... the country of the eastern lacandónes may be considered as extending from the mountains of chammá, a day and a half from cobán, along the borders of the river de la pasion to petén, or even further.' _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. - . upon the margin of the rio de la passion. _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . 'un tribu de mayas sauvages appelés lacandons, qui habitent un district immense dans le centre du continent, embrasse toute la partie occidentale du peten; erre sur les bords supérieurs de l'usumasinta et le pays qui se trouve au sud de l'endroit d'où j'écris.' _galindo_, in _antiq. mex._, tom. i., div. ii., p. . 'the vast region lying between chiapa, tabasco, yucatan, and the republic of guatemala ... is still occupied by a considerable body of indians, the lacandones and others.' _squier_, in _hist. mag._, vol. iv., p. , 'the vast region embracing not less than from to , square miles, surrounding the upper waters of the river usumasinta, in which exist the indomitable lacandones.' _id._, p. . 'mais la contrée qui s'étendait au nord de cahabon, siége provisoire des dominicains, et qui comprenait le pays de dolores et celui des itzas, était encore à peu près inconnue. là vivaient les choles, les belliqueux et féroces mopans, les lacandons et quelques tribus plus obscures, dont l'histoire a négligé les noms.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. , tom. i., p. . 'they are reduced to-day to a very insignificant number, living on and near passion river and its tributaries.' _berendt_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. . 'in the north of vera paz, to the west of peten, and all along the usumacinta, dwell numerous and warlike tribes, called generally lacandones.' _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xvi.; _fossey_, _mexique_, p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. . [sidenote: the mames of guatemala.] the _mames_ 'occupied the existing district of güegüetenango, a part of quezaltenango, and the province of soconusco, and in all these places the mam or pocoman language is vernacular. it is a circumstance not a little remarkable, that this idiom is also peculiar to places very distant from the country of the mams: viz. in amatitan, mixco, and petapa, in the province of sacatepeques; chalchuapa, in st. salvador; mita, jalapa, and xilotepeque, in chiquimula.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . 'el mame ó pocoman le usan los mames ó pocomanes, que parecen no ser mas que dos tribus de una misma nacion, la cual formaba un estado poderoso en guatemala. se extendió por el distritó de huehuetenango, en la provincia de este nombre, y por parte de la de quetzaltenango, así como por el distrito de soconusco en chiapas. en todos estos lugares se hablaba mame ó pocoman, lo mismo que en amatitlan, mixco y petapa, de la provincia de zacatepec ó guatemala; en chalchuapa, perteneciente á la de san salvador; y en mita, jalapa y jiloltepec, de la de chiquimula.' _balbi_, in _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . 'leur capitale était gueguetenango, au nord-est de la ville actuelle de guatemala, et les villes de masacatan, cuilco, chiantla et istaguacan étaient enclavées dans leur territoire.' _squier_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cliii., p. . 'a l'ouest, jusqu'aux frontières de chiapas, s'étendaient les mams, proprement dits mam-yoc, dans leurs histoires, partagés en plusieurs familles également puissantes qui gouvernaient souverainement cette contrée, alors désignée sous le nom commun d'otzoya (de otzoy, sortes d'écrevisses d'or): c'étaient d'un côté les chun-zak-yoc, qui avaient pour capitale qulaha, que son opulence et son étendue avaient fait surnommer nima-amag ou la grande-ville, dite depuis xelahun-quieh, ou xelahuh, et quezaltenango; les tzitzol, dont la capitale était peut-être chinabahul ou huehuetenango, les ganchebi (see note below under ganchebis) et les bamaq. ceux-ci, dont nous avons connu les descendants, étaient seigneurs d'iztlahuacan (san-miguel-iztlahuacan), dont le plateau est encore aujourd'hui parsemé de ruines au milieu desquelles s'élève l'humble bourgade de ce nom: au dessus domine, à une hauteur formidable, xubiltenam (ville du souffle).... ganchebi, écrit alternativement canchebiz, canchevez et ganchebirse. rien n'indique d'une manière précise où régnait cette famille: mais il se pourrait que ce fût à zipacapan ou à chivun, dont les ruines existent à trois lieues au sud de cette dernière localité; là était l'ancien oztoncalco.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., pp. - . 'habitaban el soconusco, desde tiempos remotos, y era un pueblo autócton; los olmecas que llegaron de la parto de méxico, les redujeron á la servidumbre, y una fraccion de los vencidos emigró hasta guatemala.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . the mamey, achi, cuaahtemalteca, hutateca, and chirichota 'en la de los suchitepeques y cuaahtemala.' _palacio_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. vi., p. . mame 'parlé dans les localités voisines de huehuetenango.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _ms. troano_, tom. ii., p. viii. 'on retrouve encore aujourd'hui leurs restes parmi les indiens de la province de totonicapan, aux frontières de chiapas et des lacandons, an nord-ouest de l'état de guatémala. la place forte de zakuléu (c'est-à-dire, terre blanche, mal à propos orthographié socoléo), dont on admire les vastes débris auprès de la ville de huéhuétenango, resta, jusqu'au temps de la conquête espagnole, la capitale des mems. cette race avait été antérieurement la maîtresse de la plus grande partie de l'état de guatémala.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . the _pokomams_, or pokonchis, lived in the district of vera paz in guatemala, 'sous le nom d'uxab et de pokomam, une partie des treize tribus de tecpan, dont la capitale était la grande cité de nimpokom, était maîtresse de la verapaz et des provinces situées au sud du motagua jusqu'à palin' ( leagues n. w. of rabinal). _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., p. . ils 'paraissent avoir occupé une grande partie des provinces guatémaliennes.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , . 'toute la rive droite du chixoy (lacandon ou haut uzumacinta), depuis coban (écrit quelquefois coboan) jusqu'au fleuve motagua, les montagnes et les vallées de gagcoh (san-cristoval), de taltic, de rabinal et d'urran, une partie des départements actuels de zacatépec, de guatémala et de chiquimulà, jusqu'au pied des volcans de hunahpu (volcans d'eau et de feu), devinrent leur proie.' _id._, pp. - . 'le pocomchi, le pokoman, le cakchi, semés d'amatitan à coban.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _ms. troano_, tom. ii., introd., p. viii. in 'la verapaz, la poponchi, caechi y colchi.' _palacio_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. vi., p. . 'la lengua pocomana se habla en amatitán, petapa, san chrisobal, pinula, y hermita ó llano de la culebra de guatemala.' _hervás_, _catálogo_, tom. i., p. . 'a la nacion poconchi pertenecen los lugares ó misiones ... llamadas santa cruz, san christobal, taktik, tucurú, y tomasiú.' _ib._ the _quichés_ inhabit the centre of the state of guatemala. 'quiché then comprehended the present districts of quiché, totonicapan, part of quezaltenango, and the village of rabinal; in all these places the quiché language is spoken. for this reason, it may be inferred with much probability, that the greater part of the province of sapotitlan, or suchiltepeques, was a colony of the quichées, as the same idiom is made use of nearly throughout the whole of it.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . 'les quichés, or utletecas, habitaient la frontière du sud, les chefs de sacapulus et uspatan à l'est, et les lacandones indépendants au nord. ils occupaient probablement la plus grande partie du district actuel de totonicapan et une portion de celui de quesaltenango.' _squier_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cliii., p. . 'leurs postes principaux furent établis sur les deux côtés du chixoy, depuis zacapulas jusqu'à zactzuy.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. , , . the _cakchiquels_ are south of the quichés. 'the territory of the kachiqueles was composed of that which now forms the provinces of chimaltenango and sacatepeques, and the district of sololá; and as the kachiquel language is also spoken in the villages of patulul, cotzumalguapan, and others along the same coast, it is a plausible supposition that they were colonies settled by the kachiquels, for the purpose of cultivating the desirable productions of a warmer climate than their own.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . 'la capitale fut, en dernier lieu, iximché ou tecpan-guatemala, lors de la déclaration de l'indépendence de cette nation.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., p. . 'der westliche theil der provinz [atitan] mit dörfern in kirchspielen, von nachkommen der kachiquelen und zutugilen bewohnt.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . 'los paises de la nacion cakchiquila son chimaltenango, zumpango, tejar, santo domingo, san pedro las huertas, san gaspar, san luis de las carretas, y otros diez lugares, todos pertenecientes á las misiones de los pp. dominicos; y á las de los pp. observantes de san francisco pertenecen isapa, pason, tepan-guatemalan comalapa, san antonio, san juan del obispo, y otros quince lugares á lo menos de la misma nacion cakchiquila, cuyas poblaciones estan al rededor de guatemala.' _hervás_, _catálogo_, tom. i., p. . the _zutugils_ dwelt near the lake of atitlan. 'the dominion of the zutugiles extended over the modern district of atitan, and the village of san antonio, suchiltepeques.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . 'la capital de los cachiqueles era patinamit ó tecpanguatemala, ciudad grande y fuerte; y la de los zutuhiles, atitan, cerca de la laguna de este nombre y que se tenia por inexpugnable.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. - . the _chortis_ live on the banks of the motagua river. the chiquimula 'indians belong to the chorti nation.' _gavarrete_, in _panamá star and herald_, dec. , ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . [sidenote: guatemalans.] brasseur de bourbourg describes quite a number of very ancient nations, of some of which he endeavors to fix the localities, and which i insert here. dan or tamub founded a monarchy on the guatemalan plateau. their 'capitale, amag-dan, existait, suivant toute apparence, entre les monts tohil et mamah, à trois lieues à peine au nord d'utlatlan.' _popol vuh_, introd., pp. , . 'ilocab étendait sa domination à l'ouest et au sud de tamub, et la cité d'uquincat, siége principale de cette maison, occupait un plateau étroit, situé entre les mêmes ravins qui ceignent un peu plus bas les ruines d'utlatlan.' 'la ville d'uquincat (forme antique). avec le filet (à mettre le maïs), était sur un plateau au nord-ouest de ceux d'utlatlan, dont elle n'était séparée que par ses ravins; on en voit encore les ruines connues aujourd'hui sous le nom de p'-ilocab, en ilocab.' _id._, p. . agaab, 'dont les possessions s'étendaient sur les deux rives du chixoy ou lacandon.' 'c'était une nation, puissante dont les principales villes existaient à peu de distance de la rive gauche du fleuve chixoy ou lacandon (rio grande de sacapulas). l'une d'elles était carinal, dont j'ai visité le premier, en , les belles ruines, situées sur les bords du pacalag, rivière qui se jette dans le lacandon, presque vis-à-vis l'embouchure de celle de rabinal, dans la vérapaz.' _ib._ cabinal, 'la capitale était à zameneb, dans les montagnes de xoyabah ou xolabah, [entre les rochers].' _id._, p. . ah-actulul, 'sept tribus de la nation ah-actulul, qui s'étaient établies sur des territoires dépendants de la souveraineté d'atitlan.' 'ces sept tribus sont: ah-tzuque, ah-oanem, manacot, manazaquepet, vancoh, yabacoh et ah-tzakol-quet ou queh.--ac-tulul peut-être pour ah-tulul.' _id._, p. . 'ah-txiquinaha, ceux ou les habitants de tziquinaha (nid d'oiseau), dont la capitale fut atitlan, sur le lac du même nom.' _id._, p. . acutee, 'nom aussi d'une ancienne tribu dont on retrouve le souvenir dans chuvi-acutec, au-dessus d'acutec, sur le territoire de chalcitan, près de malacatan et de huehuetenango.' _id._, pp. - . cohah, 'nom d'une tribu antique dans l'orient des quichés.' _id._, p. . the _chontales_ dwell in the mountain districts n.e. of lake nicaragua, besides having miscellaneous villages in guerrero, oajaca, tabasco, guatemala, and honduras. 'en el departamento de tlacolula ... y se encuentran chontales en guerrero, en tabasco y en guatemala.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . in san salvador, choluteca, honduras, nicaragua. _palacio_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. vi., pp. , , . 'quiéchápa leguas südöstlich von oajáca und leguas südwestlich von nejápa.... an den gränzen des landes der chontáles.' ... 'tlapalcatepéc. hauptort im lande der chontáles.' _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt. i., pp. - , , . 'les chontáles s'étaient vus en possession de toute la contrée qui s'étend entre la mer et la chaîne de quyecolani ... étaient en possession non seulement de nexapa, mais encore de la portion la plus importante de la montagne de quiyecolani.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. , . 'au nord-ouest du grand lac, les chondals occupaient le district montagneux appelé encore aujourd'hui chontales, d'après eux.' _holinski_, _la californie_, p. . 'inhabitants of the mountainous regions to the north-east of the lake of nicaragua.' _froebel's cent. amer._, p. . 'au nord des lacs, les chontales barbares habitaient la cordillère.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'the chontals covered chontales, northward of lake nicaragua, and lying between the tribes already given, and those on the caribbean sea.' _stout's nicaragua_, p. . 'bewohner der gebirgsgegenden nordöstlich vom see von nicaragua.' _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . 'in nicaragua die chontales im hochlande im n. des managua-sees.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'deste lugar [yztepeque] comiençan los chontales.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. 'the chondals or chontals, the third great division mentioned by oviedo, occupied the wide, mountainous region, still bearing the name of chontales, situated to the northward of lake nicaragua, and midway between the nations already named and the savage hordes bordering the caribbean sea.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . 'on the northern shores of the lake of nicaragua.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the lencas ... under the various names of chontals, and perhaps xicaques and payas, occupying what is now the department of san miguel in san salvador, of comayagua, choluteca, tegucigalpa, and parts of olancho and yoro in honduras, including the islands of roatan, guanaja, and their dependencies.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. . the _pipiles_ 'n'y occupaient guère quelques cantons sur les côtes de l'océan pacifique, dans la province d'itzcuintlan et ne s'internaient que vers les frontières de l'état de san-salvador, le long des rives du rio paxa.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'welche den ganzen westlichen theil des heutigen staates von s. salvador südlich vom rio lampa, das sogen. reich cozcotlan bewohnten.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. , . 'are settled along the coasts of the pacific, from the province of escuintla to that of st. salvador.... in a short time these pipiles multiplied immensely, and spread over the provinces of zonzonate, st. salvador, and st. miguel.' _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. , . among 'los izalcos y costa de guazacapan ... san salvador ... honduras ... nicaragua.' _palacio_, in _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. vi., p. . _nonohualcas._ 'Á la falda de un alto volcan (san vicente) están cuatro lugares de indios, que llaman los nunualcos.' _id._, p. . _tlascaltecs._ 'in mehreren puncten san salvadors, wie z. b. in isalco, mexicanos, nahuisalco leben noch jetzt indianer vom stamme der tlaskalteken.' _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. . [sidenote: nations of nicaragua.] the _cholutecs_ 'occupied the districts north of the nagrandans, extending along the gulf of fonseca into what is now honduras territory.' _stout's nicaragua_, p. . 'the cholutecans, speaking the cholutecan dialect, situated to the northward of the nagrandans, and extending along the gulf of fonseca, into what is now the territory of honduras. a town and river in the territory here indicated, still bear the name of choluteca, which however is a mexican name.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . these soconusco exiles settled 'dans les terres qui s'étendent au nord et à l'ouest du golfe de conchagua, aux frontières de honduras et de nicaragua.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'beyond them (nagrandans) on the gulf of fonseca, a nation called the cholutecans had their seats.' _froebel's cent. amer._, p. . _maribios_, a tribe formerly inhabiting the mountain region about leon. 'ihre wohnsitze bildeten die provinz maribichoa.' _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . 'ay en nicaragua cinco leguajes ... coribici ... chorotega ... chondal ... orotiña ... mexicano.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'hablauan en nicaragua, cinco lenguas diferentes, coribizi, que lo hablan mucho en chuloteca ... los de chontal, ... la quarta es orotina, mexicana es la quinta.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. 'in nicaragua there were fiue linages, and different languages: the coribici, ciocotoga, ciondale, oretigua, and the mexican.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . the _chorotegans_ 'occupied the entire country north of the niquirans, extending along the pacific ocean, between it and lake managua, to the borders, and probably for a distance along the shores of the gulf of fonseca. they also occupied the country south of the niquirans, and around the gulf of nicoya, then called orotina.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . 'welche die gegenden zwischen der südsee und dem managua-see von der fonseca-bai südwärts bis zu den aztekisch sprechenden indianern bewohnen und auch südlich von den niquirians bis zur bai von nicoya sich ausbreiten.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'north of the mexican inhabitants of nicaragua (the niquirans), between the pacific ocean, lake managua, and the gulf of fonseca.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . before the conquest they occupied 'les régions aujourd'hui à peu près désertes qui s'étendent entre le territoire de tehuantepec et celui de soconusco, sur les bords de l'océan pacifique.' ... to escape the olmec tyranny they emigrated to 'golfe de nicoya; de là, ils retournèrent ensuite, en passant les monts, jusqu'au lac de nicaragua et se fixèrent sur ses bords.' driven off by the nahuas 'les uns, se dirigeant au nord-ouest, vont fonder nagarando, au bord du lac de managua, tandis que les autres contournaient les rivages du golfe de nicoya, que l'on trouve encore aujourd'hui habités par leurs descendants.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., pp. cc., ccii. 'als die spanier nach nicaragua kamen, war diess volk an der küste verbreitet ... wohnten längs der küste des austroloceans.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - . the _dirians_ 'occupied the territory lying between the upper extremity of lake nicaragua, the river tipitapa, and the southern half of lake managua and the pacific, whose principal towns were situated where now stand the cities of granada, (then called salteba,) masaya, and managua, and the villages of tipitapa, diriomo and diriamba.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . 'groupés dans les localités encore connues de liria, de diriomé, de diriamba, de monbacho et de lenderi, sur les hauteurs qui forment la base du volcan de mazaya.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'occupied masaya, managua, tipitapa, diriomo, and diriamba.' _stout's nicaragua_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . the _nagrandans_. 'entre les dirias et la choluteca était située la province des mangnés ou nagarandas (torquemada dit que nagarando est un mot de leur langue. oviedo les appelle nagrandas), dont les fertiles campagnes s'étendaient, au nord et à l'ouest du lac de managua, jusqu'à la mer; on y admirait les cités florissantes de chinandéga, de chichigalpa, de pozoltega, de telica, de subtiaba, de nagarando, appelée aussi xolotlan, de matiares et une foule d'autres, réduites maintenant, pour la plupart, à de misérables bourgades.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'the nagrandans occupied the plain of leon between the northern extreme of lake managua and the pacific.' _stout's nicaragua_, p. . 'an welche sich weiter nordwestwärts (the last mention was dirians) die bewohner der gegend von leon, welche squier nagrander nennt ... anschlossen.' _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . 'chorotega tribe of the plains of leon, nicaragua.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . the _niquirans_ 'settled in the district of nicaragua, between the lake of nicaragua and the pacific ocean.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'au centre du pays, sur le lac nicaragua, appelé cocibolca par les indigènes, vivaient les niquirans.' _holinski_, _la californie_, p. . ometepec. 'this island was occupied by the niquirans.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . the _orotiñans_ occupied 'the country around the gulf of nicoya, and to the southward of lake nicaragua.' _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . 'am golfe von orotina oder nicoya.... unter den geographischen namen im lande der orotiner stösst man auf den vulkan orosi, im jetzigen costa rica, während einer der vulkane in der kette der maribios, bei leon, also im lande der nagrander, orota heisst.' _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . 'les orotinas, voisins du golfe de nicoya, dont les villes principales étaient nicoya, orotina, cantren et choroté.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. . 'settled the country south of lake nicaragua around the gulf of nicoya.' _stout's nicaragua_, p. . [sidenote: mosquito nations.] the mosquitos, as a subdivision of this group, inhabit the whole of honduras, the eastern portion of nicaragua, and all that part of the coast on the caribbean sea known as the mosquito coast. the _xicaques_ 'exist in the district lying between the rio ulua and rio tinto.... it seems probable that the xicaques were once much more widely diffused, extending over the plains of olancho, and into the department of nueva segovia, in nicaragua.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. . 'se rencontrent principalement dans le département de yoro ... (some) à l'embouchure de la rivière choloma, et le reste est dispersé dans les montagnes à l'ouest de la plaine de sula. dans le département de yoro, ils sont répandus dans le pays depuis la rivière sulaco jusqu'à la baie de honduras.' _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., pp. - . yoro department; 'welche am oberen lauf der flüsse und in dem berg- und hügellande zwischen der küste und dem thale von olancho wohnen.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . the _poyas_. 'in the triangle between the tinto, the sea, and the rio wanks, or segovia.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. . 'inhabit the poyer mountains, beyond the embarcadero on the polyer river.' _young's narrative_, p. . 'den westlichen theil des distrikts taguzgalpa, zwischen den flüssen aguan und barbo.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . 'inhabit the heads of the black and patook rivers.' _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . the _towkas_, 'bewohnen die südlichen gegenden des distrikts (taguzgalpa) und das gebirge.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - . 'their principal residence is at the head of patook river.' _young's narrative_, p. . 'they dwell along the twaka river which is a branch of the prinz awala.' _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . the '_toonglas_ inhabit along the other branch of the same river.' _ib._ the _smoos_ 'inhabit the heads of all the rivers from blewfields to patook.' _id._, p. . the _cookras_ 'reside about one hundred and thirty miles from its mouth' (the rio escondido). _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. . the _caribs_ 'now occupy the coast from the neighborhood of the port of truxillo to carataska lagoon.... their original seat was san vincent, one of what are called the leeward islands, whence they were deported in a body, by the english, in , and landed upon the then unoccupied island of roatan, in the bay of honduras.' they afterwards removed to the main land 'in the vicinity of truxillo, whence they have spread rapidly to the eastward. all along the coast, generally near the mouths of the various rivers with which it is fringed, they have their establishments or towns.' _bard's waikna_, p. . 'now settled along the whole extent of coast from cape gracias à dios to belize.' _froebel's cent. amer._, p. . 'dwell on the sea coast, their first town, cape town, being a few miles to the westward of black river.' _young's narrative_, pp. , , . in roatan: 'die volksmenge besteht aus caraiben und sambos, deren etwa , auf der insel seyn sollen.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . 'unter den caraibendörfern sind zu nennen: stanu creek ... unfern im s. von belize und von da bis zur südgrenze settee, lower stanu creek, silver creek, seven hills und punta gorda.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . see also: _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. , ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. . the _ramas_ extend from greytown to blewfields, a region 'uninhabited except by the scanty remnant of a tribe called ramas.' 'inhabit a small island at the southern extremity of blewfields lagoon; they are only a miserable remnant of a numerous tribe that formerly lived on the st. john's and other rivers in that neighbourhood. a great number of them still live at the head of the rio frio, which runs into the st. john's river at san carlos fort.' _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. , . 'rama cay, in blewfiels lagoon. this small island is the refuge of a feeble remnant of the once powerful rama tribe.' _pim and seemann's dottings_, p. . the _mosquitos_ inhabit 'the whole coast from pearl key lagoon to black river, and along the banks of the wawa and wanx, or wanks rivers for a great distance inland.' _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. . 'l'intérieur du pays est occupé par la nation sauvage et indomptable des mosquitos-sombos. les côtes, surtout près le cap gracias à dios, sont habitées par une autre tribu d'indiens que les navigateurs anglais ont appelés mosquitos de la côte.' _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . 'an dem ende dieser provinz (honduras), nahe bey dem cap, gratias-a-dios, findet man die berühmte nation der mosquiten.' _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. . 'nearly the whole coast of honduras; and their most numerous tribe exists near the cape gracios á dios.' _bonnycastle's span. amer._, vol. i., p. . 'ocupan el terreno de mas de sesenta leguas, que corren desde la jurisdiccion de comaniagua, hasta la de costa-rica.' _revista mex._, tom. i., p. . 'die sambo, oder eigentlichen mosquitoindianer welche den grössten theil der seeküste bis zum black river hinauf und die an derselben gelegenen savannen bewohnen.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, p. . 'inhabiting on the main, on the north side, near cape gratia dios; between cape honduras and nicaragua.' _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., p. . 'inhabit a considerable space of country on the continent of america, nearly extending from point castile, or cape honduras, the southern point of the bay of truxillo, to the northern branch of the river nicaragua, called usually st. juan's; and comprehending within these limits nearly leagues of land on the sea coast, from latitude to deg.' _henderson's honduras_, pp. - . the sambos 'inhabit the country from sandy bay to potook.' _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. . 'the sambos, or mosquitians, inhabit the sea coast, and the savannas inland, as far west as black river.' _young's narrative_, p. . 'the increase and expansion of the caribs has already driven most of the sambos, who were established to the northward and westward of cape gracias á dios, into the territory of nicaragua, southward of the cape.' _squier's honduras_ [lond., ,] p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. . [sidenote: isthmian nations.] the isthmians, the last sub-division of this group, embrace the people of costa rica, together with the nations dwelling on the isthmus of panamá, or darien, as far as the gulf of urabá, and along the river atrato to the mouth of the napipi, thence up the last-named river to the pacific ocean. 'the indian tribes within the territory of costarrica, distinguished by the name of parcialidades, are the valientes, or most eastern people of the state; the tiribees, who occupy the coast from bocatoro to the banana; the talamancas and blancos, who inhabit the interior, but frequent the coast between the banana and salt creek; the montaños and cabecares, who are settled in the neighbourhood of the high lands bounding veragua, and the guatusos, inhabiting the mountains and forest between esparsa and bagases, and towards the north of these places.' _galindo_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. vi., p. . from boca del toro towards the west coast dwell the viceitas, blancos, valientes, guatusos, tiribis, and talamancas. _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, p. . blancos, valientes, and talamancas 'entlang der ostküste zwischen dem rio zent und boca del toro, im staate costa rica.' _id._, p. . the _guatusos_ 'vom nicaragua-see an den rio frio aufwärts und zwischen diesem und dem san carlos bis zum hochlande.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. . 'inhabit a territory lying between the merivales mountains on the west, the lake of nicaragua and the san juan river on the north, the atlantic shore on the east, and the table land of san josé upon the south.' ... the rio frio 'head-waters are the favorite haunt or habitation of the guatusos ... occupy the north-east corner of costa rica.' _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xix., p. . they inhabit 'the basin of the rio frio.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cli., p. ; _id._, in _hist. mag._, vol. iv., p. ; _vigne's travels_, vol. i., p. . the _guetares_ 'viven ençima de las sierras del puerto de la herradora é se extienden por la costa deste golpho al poniente de la banda del norte hasta el confin de los chorotegas.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . the _blancos_ 'welche ungefähr tagereisen südöstlich von angostura in den bergen hausen.' _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, pp. , . the _valientes_ and _ramas_, 'zwischen dem punta gorda und der lagune von chiriqui.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, p. . inhabiting the isthmus were numerous tribes speaking different languages, mentioned by early writers only by the name of the chief, which was usually identical with that of both town and province. in the province of panamá there were 'quatro señores de lenguas diferentes.... de alli se baxaua a la prouincia de natá ... treynta leguas de panamá ... otro llamado escoria, ocho leguas de natá.... ocho leguas mas adelante, la buelta de panamá, auia otro cazique dicho chirú, de lengua diferente: y otras siete leguas mas adelante, házia panamá, estaua el de chamé, que era el remate de la lengua de coyba: y la prouincia de paris se hallaua doze leguas de natá, les hueste.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. westward from the gulf of urabá 'hay una provincia que se dice careta ... yendo mas la costa abajo, fasta cuarenta leguas desta villa, entrando la tierra adentro fasta doce leguas, está un cacique que se dice comogre y otro que se dice poborosa.' _balboa_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. . 'en la primera provincia de los darieles hay las poblaciones siguientes: seraque, surugunti, queno, moreri, agrazenuqua, occabayanti y uraba.' _hervás_, _catálogo_, tom. i., p. . 'treinta y tantas leguas del darien habia una provincia que se decia careta, y otra cinco leguas de ella que se dice acla.... la primera provincia desde acla hácia el ueste es comogre.... en esta tierra está una provincia que se llama peruqueta, de una mar á otra, y la isla de las perlas, y golfo de s. miguel, y otra provincia, que llamamos las behetrías por no haber en ella ningun señor, se llama cueva: es toda una gente y de una lengua.... desde esta provincia da peruqueta hasta adechame que son cerca de leguas todavía al ueste, se llama la provincia de coiba, y la lengua es la de cueva ... desde burica hasta esta provincia, que se dice tobreytrota, casi que cada señor es diferente de lengua uno de otro.... desde aquí tornando á bajar cerca de la mar, venimos á la provincia de nata ... está leguas de panamá ... tenia por contrario á un señor que se decia escoria, que tenia sus poblaciones en un rio grande ocho leguas de meta.... esta es lengua por sí. y ocho leguas de allí hácia panamá está otro señor que se dice chiru, lengua diferente. siete leguas de chiru, hácia panamá, está la provincia de chame: es el remate de la lengua de coiba ... chiman ... dos leguas de comogre ... desde esto chiman ... la provincia de pocorosa, y de allí dos leguas la vuelta del ueste ... la de paruraca, donde comienza la de coiba, y de allí la misma via cuatro leguas ... la de tubanamá, y de allí á ocho leguas todo á esta via ... la de chepo, y seis leguas de allí ... la de chepobar, y dos leguas delante ... la de pacora, y cuatro de allí ... la de panamá, y de allí otras cuatro ... la de periquete, y otras cuatro adelante ... la de tabore, y otras cuatro adelante ... la de chame, que es remate de la lengua y provincia de coiba ... de chame á la provincia del chiru hay ocho leguas ... y este chiru es otra lengua por sí.' _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - , - , . the _guaimies_. 'en la provincia de veraguas, situada á grados de latitud boreal, está la nacion de los guaimies ó huamies.' _hervás_, _catálogo_, tom. i., pp. - . 'los quales indios, segun decian, no eran naturales de aquella comarca: ántes era en antigua patria la tierra que está junto al rio grande de darien.' _cieza de leon_, in _id._, p. . 'the indians who at present inhabit the isthmus are scattered over bocas del toro, the northern portions of veraguas, the north-eastern shores of panamá, and almost the whole of darien, and consist principally of four tribes, the savanerics, the san blas indians, the bayanos, and the cholos. each tribe speaks a different language.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . 'les goajiros, les motilones, les guainetas et les cocinas, dans les provinces de rio-hacha, de upar et de santa-marta; et les dariens, les cunas et les chocoes, sur les rives et les affluents de l'atrato et les côtes du darien.' _roquette_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxlvii., pp. - . 'the _savanerics_ occupy the northern portion of veraguas.' _ib._ the _dorachos_ occupied western veragua. _id._, p. . the _manzanillo_, or san blas indians, 'inhabit the north-eastern portion of the province of panama.' _id._, p. . 'the chief settlement is about san blas, the rest of the coast being dotted over with small villages.' _gisborne's darien_, p. . 'their principal settlements are on the upper branches of the chepo, chiman, and congo, on the tuquesa, ucurganti, jubuganti, and chueti, branches of the chuquanaqua, and on the pucro and paya.' _cullen's darien_, p. . 'the whole of the isthmus of darien, except a small portion of the valley of the tuyra, comprising the towns of chipogana, pinogana, yavisa, and santa maria, and a few scattering inhabitants on the bayamo near its mouth, is uninhabited except by the san blas or darien indians.... they inhabit the whole atlantic coast from san blas to the tarena, mouth of the atrato, and in the interior from the sucubti to the upper parts of the bayamo.' _selfridge's darien surveys_, p. . the _mandingos_ 'occupy the coast as far as the bay of caledonia.' _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _reichardt_, _cent. amer._, p. ; _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . the _bayanos_, 'about the river chepo.' _id._, p. ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . the _cholos_, 'extending from the gulf of san miguel to the bay of choco, and thence with a few interruptions to the northern parts of the republic of ecuador.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . 'inhabiting part of the isthmus of darien, east of the river chuquanaqua, which is watered by the river paya and its branches in and about lat. ° ´ n., and long. ° ´ w.' _latham_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xx., p. . 'the _cunas_ have established themselves on the shores of the gulf of urabá, near the outlets of the atrato.' _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. . the _cunacunas_, 'on the south-easterly side of the isthmus.' _ludewig's ab. lang._, p. . 'the remnants of the chucunaquese who in dwelt on the banks of the river which bears their name ... have gone up towards the north.' _ib._ the _chocos_, 'on the leon and the different tributaries of the atrato.' _michler's darien_, p. . the _caimanes_, 'between punta arenas and turbo.' _ib._ the _urabás_, 'en las selvas y bosques de la provincia de urabá.' _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. v., p. . the _idibas_ 'del reyno de tierra-firme y gobierno de panamá, son confinantes con los chocoes y los tatabes.' _id._, tom. ii., p. . the _payas_ 'on the river of that name.' _selfridge's darien surveys_, p. . footnotes: [ ] the lacandones are of one stock with the manches, and very numerous. they were highly civilized only one hundred and fifty years ago. _boyle's ride_, vol. i., preface, pp. - . 'the old chontals were certainly in a condition more civilised.' _id._, pp. - , - . 'die chontales werden auch caraiben genannt.' _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - , , - , , , , , . it seems there existed in nicaragua: chorotegans, comprising dirians, nagrandans, and orotiñans; cholutecans and niquirans, mexican colonies; and chondals. _squier's nicaragua_, vol. ii., pp. - . examine further: _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., pp. - ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. del mondo nuovo_, fol. ; _malte-brun_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clviii., p. ; _berendt_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _crowe's cent. amer._, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - , ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. - ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. ii., pp. , , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , - ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. , - ; _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., pp. - . [ ] _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _squier's nicaragua_, pp. , - ; _froebel's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _dunn's guatemala_, pp. - ; _reichardt_, _nicaragua_, pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _belly_, _nicaragua_, tom. i., pp. - ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. - ; _foote's cent. amer._, p. . round leon 'hay más indios tuertos ... y es la causa el contínuo polvo.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . in guatemala, 'los hombres muy gruessos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., caps. xi., xii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv. 'ceux de la tierra fria sont petits, trapus, bien membrés, susceptibles de grandes fatigues ... ceux de la tierra caliente sont grands, maigres, paresseux.' _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , . 'kurze schenkel, langen oberleib, kurze stirne und langes struppiges haar.' _bülow_, _nicaragua_, p. . 'the disproportionate size of the head, the coarse harsh hair, and the dwarfish stature,' of the masayas. _boyle's ride_, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. , . in salvador, the women's 'only garment being a long straight piece of cotton cloth without a seam.' _foote's cent. amer._, pp. - . the nicaraguans 'se rasent la barbe, les cheueux, et tout le poil du corps, et ne laissent que quelques cheueux sur le sommet de la teste.... ils portent des gabans, et des chemises sans manches.' _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. ii., p. . 'the custom of tattooing, it seems, was practiced to a certain extent, at least so far as to designate, by peculiarities in the marks, the several tribes or caziques ... they flattened their heads.' _squier's nicaragua_, vol. ii., pp. , ; _id._, _nicaragua_, pp. - ; _valenzuela_, in _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _tempsky's mitla_, pp. - , ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. - , - , - ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. - ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _montgomery's guatemala_, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , , , , , ; _galindo_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. lxiii., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . [ ] the lacandones have 'floating gardens which can navigate the lagoons like bolsas,' and are often inhabited. they have stone sepulchres highly sculptured. _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. 'in these ancient chontales villages the houses were in the centre, and the tombs, placed in a circle around.... the indians who before the spanish conquest inhabited nicaragua did not construct any large temples or other stone buildings.' _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - . they live like their forefathers 'in buildings precisely similar ... some huts of a single room will monopolise an acre of land.' _boyle's ride_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. , , ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, pp. - ; _valois_, _mexique_, p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_., fol. , ; _froebel's cent. amer._, pp. , ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _berendt_, in _smithsonian rept._, , p. ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt. ii., pp. , ; _valenzuela_, in _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] they 'vivent le plus souvent de fruits et de racines.' _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , - , . 'tout en faisant maigre chère, ils mangent et boivent continuellement, comme les animaux.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , , , , , , tom. i., pp. - . nicaraguans 'essen auch menschenfleisch ... alle tag machet nur ein nachbar ein fewer an, dabei sie alle kochen, vnd dann ein anderer.' _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt. i., p. . 'perritos pequeños que tambien los comian, y muchos venados y pesquerías.' _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - , . hunting alligators: a man dives under, and fastens a noose round the leg of the sleeping monster; his companions then haul it on shore and kill it. _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. , . compare further: _findlay's directory_, vol. i., p. ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. - , ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. - ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii.-ix., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, pp. - . [ ] _dunlop's cent. amer._, p. ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. . [ ] the lacandones 'emploient des flèches de canne ayant des têtes de cailloux.' _galindo_, in _antiq. mex._, tom. i., div. ii., p. . see also, _bülow_, _nicaragua_, pp. - ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. , ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. , ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. ; _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , , _. [ ] _valois_, _mexique_, pp. , ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, p. ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, pp. - ; _valenzuela_, in _id._, _cent. amer._, p. . the lacandon hut contained 'des métiers à tisser, des sarbacanes, des haches et d'autres outils en silex.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , , . 'duermen en vna red, que se les entra por las costillas, o en vn cañizo, y por cabecera vn madero: ya se alumbran con teas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi. at masaya, 'leur mobilier se compose de nattes par terre, de hamacs suspendus, d'un lit de cuir et d'une caisse en cèdre, quelquefois ornée d'incrustations de cuivre.' _belly_, _nicaragua_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'le principe colorant est fixé an moyen d'une substance grasse que l'on obtient par l'ébullition d'un insecte nommé age.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , . consult further, _squier's nicaragua_, pp. - ; _baily's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii., ix., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. ; _squier_, in _hist. mag._, vol. v., p. ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, p. ; _dunlop's cent. amer._, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . [ ] _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. - . in their trade, the lacandones 'are said to have employed not less than canoes.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . [ ] the quichés 'portent jusqu'au nicaragua des hamacs en fil d'agave.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , - , , tom. i., pp. , , ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., cap. xii.; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. , , ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. , ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _hardcastle_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vi., p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. . [ ] among the nahuatls 'mechanical arts are little understood, and, of course, the fine arts still less practiced.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _id._, _nicaragua_, pp. - . the masayans have 'une caisse en cèdre, quelquefois ornée d'incrustations de cuivre.' _belly_, _nicaragua_, pp. - . see also, _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. , - ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. , ; _funnell's voy._, p. ; _dunn's guatemala_, p. ; _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. [ ] _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , - ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - , ; _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. 'chacun d'eux vint ensuite baiser la main du chef, hommage qu'il reçut avec une dignité imperturbable.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. - , . [ ] 'leur dernier-né suspendu à leurs flancs.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , tom. i., pp. - , . in salvador, the 'bridegroom makes his wife's trousseau himself, the women, strange to say, being entirely ignorant of needlework.' _foote's cent. amer._, p. . further reference in _valois_, _mexique_, pp. , ; _belly_, _nicaragua_, pp. - , ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - ; _revue brit._, , in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _bülow_, _nicaragua_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. - ; _tempsky's mitla_, p. ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. , ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. ; _id._, _die indianer von istlávacan_, p. . [ ] _gage's new survey_, pp. , - ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. - , - ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, p. ; _froebel's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , ; _valenzuela_, in _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. - ; _coreal_, _voyages_, tom. i., pp. - ; _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. - ; _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. 'les indiens ne fument pas.' _belly_, _nicaragua_, p. . 'ihr gewöhnliches getränke ist wasser.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. . 'je n'ai entendu qu'à flores, pendant le cours de mon voyage, des choeurs exécutés avec justesse.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. - , , tom. i., p. . [ ] the lacandon chief received me with 'the emblem of friendship (which is a leaf of the fan-palm).' _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. see _tempsky's mitla_, pp. - ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _thümmel_, _mexiko_, p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, p. ; _foote's cent. amer._, p. ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. - ; _scherzer_, _die indianer von istlávacan_, pp. - ; _reichardt_, _nicaragua_, pp. , ; _valenzuela_, in _squier's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , - , , ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., pp. - , . [ ] at masaya, 'the death-rate among children is said to be excessive.' _boyle's ride_, vol. ii., p. . 'alle glieder der familie hatten ein äusserst ungesundes aussehen und namentlich die kinder, im gesicht bleich und mager, hatten dicke, aufgeschwollene bäuche,' caused by yucca-roots. _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. , - ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., pp. - ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. , ; _escobar_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xi., p. ; _scherzer_, _die indianer von istlávacan_, pp. - . [ ] _scherzer_, _die indianer von istlávacan_, pp. - ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., p. ; _valois_, _mexique_, p. . [ ] 'la somme des peines est donc limitée comme celle des jouissances; ils ne ressentent ni les unes ni les autres avec beaucoup de vivacité.' _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. - , , tom. ii., pp. , , , , . 'when aroused, however, they are fierce, cruel, and implacable ... shrewd ... cringing servility and low cunning ... extreme teachableness.' _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. - . 'melancholy ... silent ... pusillanimous ... timid.' _dunn's guatemala_, p. . 'imperturbability of the north american indian, but are a gentler and less warlike race.' _foote's cent. amer._, pp. - . nicaraguans 'are singularly docile and industrious ... not warlike but brave.' _squier's nicaragua_, p. . for further reference concerning these people see _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _bülow_, _nicaragua_, pp. - ; _juarros' hist. guat._, pp. - ; _belly_, _nicaragua_, pp. , ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, pp. , - ; _t' kint_, in _id._, pp. - ; _fossey_, _mexique_, p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xiv., and p. ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - , ; _valois_, _mexique_, pp. - , , , , ; _dollfus and mont-serrat_, _voy. géologique_, pp. - , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, pp. , , , - ; _dunlop's cent. amer._, pp. , - . the lacandones are very laconic, sober, temperate and strict. _pontelli_, in _cal. farmer_, _nov. , _. [ ] the name mosquito is generally supposed to have arisen from the numerous mosquito insects to be found in the country; others think that the small islands off the coast, "which lie as thick as mosquitoes," may have caused the appellation; while a third opinion is that the name is a corruption of an aboriginal term, and to substantiate this opinion it is said that the natives call themselves distinctly misskitos. _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - . the carib name is pronounced "kharibees" on the coast. _macgregor's progress of america_, vol. i., pp. , . 'il existe chez eux des langues très différentes, et nous avons remarqué qu'à cent lieues de distance ils ne se comprennent plus les uns les autres.' _varnhagen_, _prem. voy. de amerigo vespucci_, p. . see further: _stout's nicaragua_, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, vol. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, pp. , - ; - ; _bülow_, _nicaragua_, p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, p. ; _galindo_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. iii., p. ; _bell_, in _id._, vol. xxxii., pp. - ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , - , ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - ; _young's narrative_, pp. , ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - , , - ; _henderson's honduras_, p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pp. xii-xiii., , ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. - , - . [ ] 'die backenknochen treten nicht, wie bei andern amerikanischen stämmen, auffallend hervor ... starke oberlippe.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. - , , , . consult also: _squier's cent. amer._, pp. , , - ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. - ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., pp. - ; _varnhagen_, _prem. voy. de amerigo vespucci_, pp. - . the pure type has 'schlichte, gröbere, schwarze haare und feinere lippen.' _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. , , , - ; _young's narrative_, pp. , - , , , , , , ; _uring's hist. voy._, p. ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. - ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. , , ; _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , , ; _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. . the natives of corn island are 'of a dark copper-colour, black hair, full round faces, small black eyes, their eye-brows hanging over their eyes, low foreheads, short thick noses, not high, but flattish; full lips, and short chins.' _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. - , - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, pp. - ; _squier_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xix., p. ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., p. ; _martin's brit. col._, vol. ii., p. ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - , , , , ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. , ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , - , ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. - , - ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. - ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , , , , , , , . 'alcuni vsano certe camiciuole com'quelle, che vsiamo noi, lunghe sino al belico, e senza manche. portano le braccia, e il corpo lauorati di lauori moreschi, fatti col fuoco.' _colombo_, _hist. del ammiraglio_, pp. - . [ ] _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. ; _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _id._, in _harper's mag._, vol. xix., p. ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., p. ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , - , ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. , , - ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. - ; _bard's waikna_, pp. - , - ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. , ; _cockburn's journey_, pp. , - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.-v.; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., pp. - ; _squier_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xix., p. ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , , , - , , , ; _bard's waikna_, pp. - , - , - , ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. - , , - . the woolwas had fish 'which had been shot with arrows.' _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. , - , - , , - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. - , - . [ ] _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., p. ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] of the people of las perlas islands it is said; 'aen't endt van haer geweer een hay-tandt, schieten met geen boogh.' _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, pp. , . also see: _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ix., cap. x., and dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. - ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii.; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, p. ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. . [ ] 'hammocks, made of a sort of rushes.' _cockburn's journey_, pp. , . 'el almohada vn palo, o vna piedra: los cofres son cestillos, aforrados en cueros de venados.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v. consult also: _young's narrative_, pp. - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , , , , . [ ] _sivers, mittelamerika_, p. ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , - . 'auf irgend eine zubereitung (of skins) verstehen sich die indianer nicht.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , . 'they make large jars here, one of which will hold ten gallons, and not weigh one pound.' _cockburn's journey_, p. . [ ] _young's narrative_, pp. , , , - ; _martin's west indies_, vol. i., pp. - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. , . 'der tuberose tree der engländer liefert die stärksten baumstämme, deren die indianer sich zur anfertigung ihrer grössten wasserfahrzeuge bedienen.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , , . [ ] the mosquitos have 'little trade except in tortoise-shells and sarsaparilla.' _squier's cent. amer._, p. . compare _bard's waikna_, p. ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. ; _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , - , , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - , . [ ] the mosquitos 'divisaient l'année en mois de jours, et ils appellaient les mois _ioalar_.' _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . 'dit konense reeckenen by de maen, daer van sy vyftien voor een jaer reeckenen.' _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, p. . 'für die berechnung der jahre existirt keine aera. daher weiss niemand sein alter.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - . see also _bard's waikna_, pp. - ; _young's narrative_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vi. [ ] _bard's waikna_, pp. - ; _cockburn's journey_, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . the natives of honduras had 'pedaços de tierra, llamada _calcide_, con la qual se funde el metal.' _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v.; _cockburn's journey_, p. ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. - ; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _crowe's cent. amer._, p. ; _winterfeldt_, _mosquito-staat_, p. ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , - ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, pp. - ; _squier_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xix., p. ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., p. ; _young's narrative_, pp. , ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. - . 'sie stehen unter eignen kaziken, die ihre anführer im kriege machen und welchen sie unbedingt gehorchen.' poyas, 'ihre regierungsform ist aristokratisch.' _hassel_, _mex. guat._, pp. , . mosquito 'conjurers are in fact the priests, the lawyers and the judges ... the king is a despotic monarch.' _bonnycastle's span. amer._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _bard's waikna_, pp. , - , - , , , - , - ; _strangeways' mosquito shore_, pp. , ; _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'they marry but one wife, with whom they live till death separates them.' _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., p. . 'doch besitzen in der that die meisten männer nur ein weib.' _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. - , - ; _salazar y olarte_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] esquemelin relates that the natives on the belize coast and adjacent islands carried the new-born infant to the temple, where it was placed naked in a hole filled with ashes, exposed to the wild beasts, and left there until the track of some animal was noticed in the ashes. this became patron to the child who was taught to offer it incense and to invoke it for protection. _zee-roovers_, pp. - , . the genitals are pierced as a proof of constancy and affection for a woman. _id._, pp. - . compare _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii.-vi.; _young's narrative_, pp. , , , ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. , - , - ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. , - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., vi.; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. - . the woolwas 'haben gewisse jahresfeste bei welchen weder ein fremder noch weiber und kinder des eignen stammes zugelassen werden. bei diesen festen führen sie mit lautem geschrei ihre tänze auf, "wobei ihnen ihr gott gesellschaft leistet."' _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _squier_, in _harper's mag._, vol. xix., pp. - , ; _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. - , - ; _martin's west indies_, vol. i., p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _uring's hist. voy._, pp. - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. , ; _bard's waikna_, pp. - , - , - , ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - , - , , - , ; _crowe's cent. amer._, p. ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. , ; _young's narrative_, pp. - , , - , , - ; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, pp. - . the natives of honduras kept small birds which 'could talk intelligibly, and whistle and sing admirably.' _cockburn's journey_, pp. - , , - , - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iv.-vi.; _cockburn's journey_, pp. , - ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., pp. - , ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. - ; _martin's brit. col._, vol. ii., p. ; _bard's waikna_, pp. - , - , - , - . sivers was thought possessed of the devil, and carefully shunned, because he imitated the crowing of a cock. _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v., dec. v., lib. i., cap. x.; _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _young's narrative_, pp. , , , , ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. , - ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - ; _bard's waikna_, pp. - . [ ] the dead 'are sewed up in a mat, and not laid in their grave length-ways, but upright on their feet, with their faces directly to the east.' _amer. span. settl._, p. . 'ein anderer religionsgebrauch der alten mosquiten war, dass sie bey dem tode eines hausvaters alle seine bedienten mit ihm begruben.' _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. . _bard's waikna_, pp. - , - ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., p. ; _froebel_, _aus amerika_, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. v.-vi.; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. viii., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. vi., lib. viii., cap. iii., v.; _young's narrative_, pp. - , , , , ; _bell_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxii., pp. - , - ; _bard's waikna_, pp. , , ; _mosquitoland_, _bericht_, pp. , - , - , ; _strangeways' mosquito shore_, p. ; _puydt_, _rapport_, in _amérique centrale_, p. ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - , , - ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., pp. , ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _crowe's cent. amer._, pp. , . [ ] the guatusos 'are said to be of very fair complexion, a statement which has caused the appellation of _indios blancos_, or _guatusos_--the latter name being that of an animal of reddish-brown colour, and intended to designate the colour of their hair.' _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _id._, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. . speaking of sir francis drake's mutineers and their escape from esparsa northward, he says: 'it is believed by many in costa rica that the white indians of the rio frio, called pranzos, or guatusos ... are the descendants of these englishmen.' _boyle's ride_, vol. ii., pp. , , and vol. i., pref., pp. xx-xxii. 'talamanca contains different tribes of indians; besides which there are several neighbouring nations, as the changuenes, divided into thirteen tribes; the terrabas, the torresques, urinamas, and cavecaras.' _juarros' hist. guat._, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'the indians who at present inhabit the isthmus are scattered over bocas del toro, the northern portions of veraguas, the north-eastern shores of panama and almost the whole of darien, and consist principally of four tribes, the savanerics, the san blas indians, the bayanos, and the cholos.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . 'at the time of the conquest of darien, the country was covered with numerous and well-peopled villages. the inhabitants belonged to the carribbee race, divided into tribes, the principal being the maudinghese, chucunaquese, dariens, cunas, anachacunas, &c. on the eastern shore of the gulf of uraba dwelt the immense but now nearly exterminated tribe of the caimans,--only a few remnants of the persecutions of the spaniards, having taken refuge in the choco mountains, where they are still found.... the dariens, as well as the anachacunas, have either totally disappeared or been absorbed in other tribes.' _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp. - ; _fitz-roy_, in _id._, vol. xx., pp. - ; _roquette_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cxlvii., p. ; _bateman_, in _n. y. century_, _ th decem., _; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, introd., p. ccii. see tribal boundaries. [ ] savanerics, 'a fine athletic race.' _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. . 'tienen los cascos de la cabeça gruessos.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'the chocós are not tall nor remarkable in appearance, but always look well conditioned.' _michler's darien_, p. . 'son apersonados.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. ii., fol. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , ; _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. , ; _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. vi; _gisborne's darien_, p. ; _cockburn's journey_, p. ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. ii., p. ; _winthrop's canoe and saddle_, p. ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _fransham's world in miniature_, p. . 'afirmaua pasqual de andagoya, auer visto algunos tan grandes, que los otros hombres eran enanos con ellos, y que tenian buenas caras, y cuerpos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. vi.; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _darien_, _defence of the scots' settlement_, pp. - ; _cullen's darien_, pp. , . [ ] golfo dulce. 'modicæ sunt staturæ, bene compositis membris, moribus blandis et non invenustis.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'it is a universal belief along the atlantic coast, from belize to aspinwall, that the frio tribe have white complexions, fair hair, and grey eyes.' _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pp. , , and pref., pp. xxi-xxii.; _squier_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cli., pp. , ; _id._, in _hist. mag._, vol. iv., p. ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. - . [ ] 'el miembro generativo traen atado por el capullo, haçiéndole entrar tanto adentro, que á algunos no se les paresçe de tal arma sino la atadura, que es unos hilos de algodon allí revueltos.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , . see also: _cockburn's journey_, pp. - , ; _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, pp. - ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . referring to vasco nuñez de balboa, 'la gente que hallo andaua en cueros, sino eran señores, cortesanos, y mugeres.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , , . urabá; 'ex gentibus ijs mares nudos penitus, foeminas uero ab umbilico gossampina contectas multitia repererunt.' _peter martyr_, dec. ii., lib. i., also dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. vi., viii.; _quintana_, _vidas de españoles_ (_balboa_), p. ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. , , , plate, - , - , plate; _wallace_, in _miscellanea curiosa_, vol. iii., p. ; _warburton's darien_, p. ; _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _andagoya_, in _id._, pp. - , , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., vi., and dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x.; _michler's darien_, pp. , - , . [ ] _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. , ; _porras_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. i., p. ; _colon_, in _id._, p. ; _cockburn's journey_, pp. - ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp. - ; _selfridge's darien surveys_, p. ; _cullen's darien_, pp. - ; _esquemelin_, _zee-roovers_, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxlii.-ccxliv. the women of cueba 'se ponian una barra de oro atravessada en los pechos, debaxo de las tetas, que se las levanta, y en ella algunos páxaros é otras figuras de relieve, todo de oro fino: que por lo menos pessaba çiento é çinqüenta é aun dosiçentos pessos una barreta destas.... destos caracoles grandes se haçen unas conteçicas blancas de muchas maneras, é otras coloradas, é otras negras, é otras moradas, é cañuticos de lo mesmo: é haçen braçaletes en que con estas qüentas mezclan otras, é olivetas de oro que se ponen en las muñecas y ençima de los tobillos é debaxo de las rodillas por gentileça: en espeçial las mugeres.... traen assimesmo çarçillos de oro en las orejas, é horádanse las nariçes hecho un agugero entre las ventanas, é cuelgan de allí sobre el labio alto otro çarçillo.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , . [ ] their hair 'they wear usually down to the middle of the back, or lower, hanging loose at its full length.... all other hair, except that of their eye-brows and eye-lids, they eradicate.' _wafer's new voy._, pp. - ; _gisborne's darien_, p. ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, p. ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. ; _squier_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cli., p. ; _froebel_, _aus amer._, tom. i., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, p. . [ ] _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. , - ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, p. ; _michler's darien_, p. ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. - ; _cockburn's journey_, pp. - . on the banks of the rio grande, the spaniards under johan de tavira found 'muchas poblaçiones en barbacoas ó casas muy altas, fechas é armadas sobre postes de palmas negras fortíssimas é quassi inexpugnables'.... 'hay otra manera de buhíos ó casas en nata redondos, como unos chapiteles muy altos.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , , . 'en otras muchas partes hacian sus casas de madera y de paja de la forma de una campana. estas eran muy altas y muy capaces que moraban en cada una de ellas diez y mas vecinos.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. . [ ] 'hallaron muchos pueblos cercados, con palenques de madera.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. ix., dec. i., lib. ix., cap. ii., vi. 'tengano le lor case in cima de gli alberi.' _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. . see also: _irving's columbus_, vol. iii., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. . [ ] of comagre's palace it is said, 'longitudinem dimensi passuum centum quinquaginta, latitudinem uero pedum octoginta, in uacuo dinumerarunt: laquearibus et pauimentis arte eximia laboratis.' _peter martyr_, dec. ii., lib. iii. compare further: _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - , ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. - , ; _darien_, _defence of the scots' settlement_, p. . [ ] _squier_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. cli., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., pp. xii., xxiii.; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _cockburn's journey_, pp. , - ; _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, pp. - . on the chara islands, 'comen los indios en estas islas muchos venados é puercos, que los hay en grandissima cantidad, é mahiz, é fésoles muchos é de diversas maneras, é muchos é buenos pescados, é tambien sapo ... é ninguna cosa viva dexan de comer por suçia que sea.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'hanno la maggior parte di questa costiera per costume di mangiar carne humana e quando mangiauano de gli spagnuoli, v'erano di coloro che ricusauano di cibarsene, temendo ancora che nel lor corpo, non gli facessero quelle carni qualche danno.' _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. . on the coast 'they live principally upon fish, plantains, and bananas, with indian corn and a kind of cassava.' _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. , . compare _colon_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. i., p. ; _balboa_, in _id._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. v., p. ; _cullen's darien_, pp. , - ; _colombo_, _hist. ammiraglio_, p. ; _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, pp. - . [ ] 'cogen dos y tres vezes al año maiz, y por esto no lo engraneran.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , . 'seguian mucho la caça de venados, y de aquellos puercos con el ombligo al espinazo.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., xv. for further details see _michler's darien_, pp. , , ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. , ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. , ; _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. vii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , , ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. , , - , - , - , - . [ ] _michler's darien_, p. ; _cockburn's journey_, p. . 'tienen por costumbre, assi los indios como las indias, de se bañar tres ó quatro veçes al dia, por estar limpios é porque diçen que descansan en lavarse.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] in cueva, 'no son flecheros, é pelean con macanas é con lanças luengas y con varas que arrojan, como dardos con estóricas (que son cierta manera de avientos) de unos bastones bien labrados.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , . 'sunt autem ipsorum arma, non arcus, non sagittæ uenenatæ, uti habere indígenas illos trans sinum orientales diximus. cominus hi certant ut plurimum, ensibus oblongis, quos macanas ipsi appellant, ligneis tamen, quia ferrum non assequuntur: et præustis sudibus aut osseis cuspidibus, missilibus etiam ad præluim utuntur.' _peter martyr_, dec. ii., lib. iii., also, dec. iv., lib. x., dec. v., lib. ix. compare further, _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. ix., cap. vi., lib. x., cap. i.; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _parras_, in _id._, tom. i., p. ; _cockburn's journey_, p. ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique._, p. ; _otis' panamá_, pp. - ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., pp. , . [ ] 'the pipe was made of two pieces of reed, each forming a half circle; these being placed together left a small hole, just large enough for the admission of the arrow.... the arrows are about eight inches long ... the point very sharp, and cut like a corkscrew for an inch up.... this is rolled in the poison.... the arrow will fly one hundred yards, and is certain death to man or animal wounded by it; no cure as yet having been discovered. a tiger, when hit, runs ten or a dozen yards, staggers, becomes sick, and dies in four or five minutes. a bird is killed as with a bullet, and the arrow and wounded part of the flesh being cut out, the remainder is eaten without danger.' _cochrane's journal in colombia_, vol. ii., pp. - . 'that poyson killeth him that is wounded, but not suddenly.... whoso is wounded, liues a miserable and strict life after that, for he must abstaine from many things.' _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. viii. 'some woorali (corova) and poisoned arrows that i obtained from the indians of the interior were procured by them from choco ... their deadly effect is almost instantaneous.' _cullen's darien_, p. . 'we inquired of all the indians, both men and boys, at caledonia bay and at san blas for the "curari" or "urari" poison ... they brought us what they represented to be the _bona-fide_ poison.... it turned out to be nothing but the juice of the manzanillo del playa. so, if this is their chief poison, and is the same as the "curari", it is not so much to be dreaded.' _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. - . see further, _fitz-roy_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xx., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi.; _michler's darien_, p. ; _dampier's voyages_, vol. i., p. . [ ] _acosta_, _n. granada_, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt. i., p. . 'traian suscoseletes fechos de algodon, que les llegaban é abaxaban de las espaldas dellos, é les llegaban á las rodillas é dende abaxo, é las mangas fasta los codos, é tan gruesos como un colchon de cama, son tan fuertes, que una ballesta no los pasa.' _pacheco_, _col. doc. inéd._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'cuando iban á la guerra llevaban coronas de oro en las cabezas y unas patenas grandes en los pechos y braceletes y otras joyas en otros lugares del cuerpo.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. lxv., ccxliv. 'el herido en la guerra es hidalgo, y goza de grandes franquezas.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'a los que pueden matar matan, é á los que prenden los hierran é se sirven dellos por esclavos.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , . see further: _quintana_, _vidas españoles_ (_balboa_), p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. , , ; _peter martyr_, dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. viii., lib. viii.; _wafer's new voy._, p. . [ ] 'la manta de la hamaca no es hecha red, sino entera é muy gentil tela delgada é ancha.... hay otras, que la manta es de paja texida é de colores é labores.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , , , . 'muy buenas redes con anzuelos de hueso que hacen de concha de tortuga.' _vega_, _hist. descub. amer._, p. . 'tenian los reyes y señores ricos y señalados vasos con que bebian.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. lxv. compare further: _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. i., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. i.; _peter martyr_, dec. ii., lib. i., dec. vii., lib. x.; _michler's darien_, pp. , ; _meyer_, _nach dem sacramento_, pp. - . [ ] _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., p. ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, p. ; _cockburn's journey_, pp. - , - ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. - , - . referring to chiriquí earthen relics; 'the vessels ... are neatly and sometimes very gracefully formed of clay.... several bear resemblance to roman, grecian, and etruscan jars.... dr. merritt mentioned that the natives of the isthmus now make their rude earthen utensils of a peculiar black earth, which gives them the appearance of iron.' _hist. mag._, vol. iv., p. . in veragua 'vide sábanas grandes de algodon, labradas de muy sotiles labores; otras pintadas muy sútilmente a colores con pinceles.' _colon_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'en estas islas de chara é pocosi no tienen canoas, sino balsas'.... in the province of cueba 'tienen canoas pequeñas, tambien las usan grandes ... hay canoa que lleva çinquenta ó sessenta hombres é mas.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , . see also: _michler's darien_, pp. , - ; _wafer's new voy._, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; and _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _acosta_, _n. granada_, p. . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , ; _balboa_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. vi.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. x., cap. iii.; _belcher's voyage_, vol. i., p. ; _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. - ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _gisborne's darien_, p. ; _otis' panamá_, p. ; _cullen's darien_, pp. - . 'quando los indios no tienen guerra, todo su exerciçio es tractar é trocar quanto tienen unos con otros ... unos llevan sal, otros mahiz, otros mantas, otros hamacas, otros algodon hilado ó por hilar, otros pescados salados; otros llevan oro.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. , tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'este cacique davaive tiene grand fundicion de oro en su casa; tiene cient hombres á la contina que labran oro.' _balboa_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - . 'hay grandes mineros de cobre: hachas de ello, otras cosas labradas, fundidas, soldadas hube, y fraguas con todo su aparejo de platero y los crisoles.' _colon_, in _id._, tom. i., p. . in panamá, 'grandes entalladores, y pintores.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. ii., fol. . compare further: _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. x.; _pim and seemann's dottings_, pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. iii., lib. iv.; _bidwell's isthmus_, p. . [ ] _wafer's new voy._, pp. - ; _lussan_, _jour. du voy._, p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. . [ ] 'besan los pies al hijo, o sobrino, que hereda, estando en la cama: que vale tanto como juramento, y coronacion.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. - , . 'todos tenian sus reies, y señores, á quien obedecian.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'los hijos heredauan a los padres, siendo auidos en la principal muger.... los caziques y señores eran muy tenidos y obedecidos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x. see also, _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , , - ; _quintana_, _vidas de españoles_, (_balboa_), p. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _wafer's new voy._, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _wallace_, in _miscellanea curiosa_, vol. iii., p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _funnell's voyage_, pp. - ; _selfridge's darien surveys_, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. . [ ] _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _macgregor's process of amer._, pp. - , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxliv. 'casauanse con hijas de sus hermanas: y los señores tenian muchas mugeres.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. x. 'de las mugeres principales de sus padres, y hermanas ó hijas guardan que no las tomen por mugeres, porque lo tienen por malo.' _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - . of wives: 'they may haue as many as they please, (excepting their kindred, and allies) vnlesse they be widdowes ... in some place a widdow marryeth the brother of her former husband, or his kinsman, especially if hee left any children.' _peter martyr_, dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. viii. [ ] the women 'observe their husbands with a profound respect and duty upon all occasions; and on the other side their husbands are very kind and loving to them. i never knew an indian beat his wife, or give her any hard words.... they seem very fond of their children, both fathers and mothers.' _wafer's new voy._, pp. - . 'tienen mancebias publicas de mugeres, y aun de hombres en muchos cabos.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . see also: _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , - ; _quintana_, _vidas de españoles_, (_balboa_), pp. - . [ ] 'pipes, or fluites of sundry pieces, of the bones of deere, and canes of the riuer. they make also little drummes or tabers beautified with diuers pictures, they forme and frame them also of gourdes, and of an hollowe piece of timber greater than a mannes arme.' _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. viii. see also: _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _darien_, _defence of the scots' settlement_, pp. - ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, pp. , ; _warburton's darien_, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxliii. [ ] in comagre, 'vinos blancos y tintos, hechos de mayz, y rayzes de frutas, y de cierta especie de palma, y de otras cosas: los quales vinos loauan los castellanos quando los beuian.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. ix., cap. ii. 'tenia vna bodega con muchas cubas y tinajas llenas de vino, hecho de grano, y fruta, blanco, tinto, dulce, y agrete de datiles, y arrope.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . 'hacian de maiz vino blanco i tinto.... es de mui buen sabor aunque como unos vinos bruscos ó de gascuña.' _las casas_, _hist. ind., ms._, tom. ii., cap. xxvi. see also: _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; tom. iv., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. , - , - , , - ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. . [ ] 'quando hablan vno con otro, se ponen do espaldas.' _colon_, _hist. almirante_, in _barcia_, _historiadores_, tom. i., p. ; _wafer's new voy._, pp. - . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _peter martyr_, dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. viii.; _wafer's new voy._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v.; _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. - ; _vega_, _hist. descub. amer._, p. . 'deste nombre tequina se haçe mucha diferençia; porque á qualquiera ques mas hábil y experto en algun arte, ... le llaman tequina, que quiere deçir lo mesmo que maestro: por manera que al ques maestro de las responsiones é inteligencias con el diablo, llámenle tequina en aquel arte, porque aqueste tal es el que administra sus ydolatrías é çerimonias é sacrifiçios, y el que habla con el diablo.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'tenian ó habia entre estas gentes unos sacerdotes que llamaban en su lengua "piachas" muy espertos en el arte mágica, tanto que se revestia en ellos el diabolo y hablaba por boca de ellos muchas falsedades, conque los tenia cautivos.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxlv. [ ] the priests 'comunmente eran sus médicos, é conosçian muchas hiervas, de que usaban, y eran apropriadas á diversas enfermedades.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , - , , tom. i., pp. - . 'according to the diuers nature, or qualitie of the disease, they cure them by diuers superstitions, and they are diuersly rewarded.' _peter martyr_, dec. viii., cap. viii. compare further; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxlv.; _wafer's new voy._, p. ; _selfridge's darien surveys_, p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'quédame de deçir que en aquesta lengua de cueva hay muchos indios hechiçeros é en espeçial un çierto género de malos, que los chripstianos en aquella tierra llaman chupadores.... estos chupan á otros hasta que los secan é matan, é sin calentura alguna de dia en dia poco á poco se enflaquesçen tanto, que se les pueden contar los huesos, que se les paresçen solamente cubiertos con el cuero; y el vientre se les resuelve de manera quel ombligo traen pegado á los lomos y espinaço, é se tornan de aquella forma que pintan á la muerte, sin pulpa ni carne. estos chupadores, de noche, sin ser sentidos, van á haçer mal por las casas agenas: é ponen la boca en el ombligo de aquel que chupan, y están en aquel exerçiçio una ó dos horas ó lo que les paresçe, teniendo en aquel trabaxo al paçiente, sin que sea poderoso de se valer ni defender, no dexando de sufrir su daño con silençio. É conosçe el assi ofendido, é vee al malhechor, y aun les hablan: lo qual, assi los que haçen este mal como los que le padesçen, han confessado algunos dellos; é diçen questos chupadores son criados é naborias del tuyra, y quél se los manda assi haçer, y el tuyra es, como está dicho, el diablo.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] 'ay muchos, que piensan, que no ay mas de nacer, y morir: y aquellos tales no se entierran con pan, y vino, ni con mugeres, ni moços. los que creen la immortalidad del alma, se entierra: si son señores, con oro, armas, plumas, si no lo son, con mayz, vino, y mantas.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , . 'huius reguli penetrale ingressi cameram reperiunt pensilibus repletam cadaueribus, gossampinis funibus appensis. interrogati quid sibi uellet ea superstitio: parentum esse et auorum atauorumque comogri regulea cadauera, inquiunt. de quibus seruandis maximam esse apud eos curami et pro religione eam pietatem haberi recensent: pro cuiusque gradu indu, menta cuique cadaueri imposita, auro gemmisque superintexta.' _peter martyr_, dec. ii., lib. iii., dec. iii., lib. iv., dec. vii., lib. x., dec. viii., lib. ix. 'viendo la cantidad é número de los muertos, se conosçe qué tantos señores ha avido en aquel estado, é quál fué hijo del otro ó le subçedió en el señorio segund la órden subçesiva en que están puestos.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , . for further accounts see _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, pp. , ; _cockburn's journey_, p. ; _seemann's voy. herald_, vol. i., pp. , , ; _pim and seemann's dottings_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. vii., cap. xvi., lib. ix., cap. ii., dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. v., dec. iv., lib. i., cap. xi.; _quintana_, _vidas de españoles_, (_balboa_), p. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt. i., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética, ms._, cap. ccxlii., ccxlvii.; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. . [ ] the terrabas 'naciones ... las mas braves é indómitas de todas ... indios dotados de natural docilidad y dulzura de genio.' _arricivita_, _crónica seráfica_, p. . speaking of the natives of panamá; 'muy deuotos del trabajo, y enemigos de la ociosidad.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. ii., p. . darien: 'son inclinados a juegos y hurtos, son muy haraganes.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . san blas tribes: 'they are very peaceable in their natures'.... chucunas and navigandis: 'the most warlike' ... coast tribes, 'from contact with foreigners, are very docile and tractable'.... the sassardis: 'as a whole, this tribe are cowardly, but treacherous.' _selfridge's darien surveys_, pp. - , . compare further, _froebel's cent. amer._, p. ; _squier_, in _nouvelles annales voy._, , tom. cli., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pref., p. xii.; _wagner and scherzer_, _costa rica_, p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _michler's darien_, p. ; _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. ii., p. ; _puydt_, in _lond. geog. soc., jour._, vol. xxxviii., p. ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, p. ; _otis' panamá_, p. ; _cullen's darien_, pp. - , - . end of the first volume. book was produced from images made available by the hathitrust digital library.) transcriber's notes: words in italics in the original are surrounded by _underscores_. words in bold in the original are surrounded by =equal signs=. ellipses match the original. poetry of the supernatural compiled by earle f. walbridge [illustration] the new york public library reprinted june from the branch library news of may printed at the new york public library form p- [vi- - m] poetry of the supernatural[ : ] lafcadio hearn, in his _interpretations of literature_ (one of the most valuable and delightful books on literature which has been written in our time), says: "let me tell you that it would be a mistake to suppose that the stories of the supernatural have had their day in fine literature. on the contrary, wherever fine literature is being produced, either in poetry or in prose, you will find the supernatural element very much alive. . . but without citing other living writers, let me observe that there is scarcely any really great author in european literature, old or new, who has not distinguished himself in the treatment of the supernatural. in english literature, i believe, there is no exception,--even from the time of the anglo-saxon poets to shakespeare, and from shakespeare to our own day. and this introduces us to the consideration of a general and remarkable fact,--a fact that i do not remember to have seen in any books, but which is of very great philosophical importance; there is something ghostly in all great art, whether of literature, music, sculpture, or architecture." feeling this, mr. walbridge has compiled the following list. it is not a bibliography, nor even a "contribution toward" a bibliography, nor a "reading list," in the usual sense, but the intelligent selection of a number of instances in which poets, major and minor, have turned to ghostly themes. if it causes you, reading one of its quotations, to hunt for and read the whole poem, it will have served its purpose. if it tells you of a poem you have never read--and so gives you a new pleasure--or if it reminds you of one you had forgotten, it will have been sufficiently useful. but for those who are fond of poetry, and fond of recollecting poems which they have enjoyed, it is believed that the list is not without interest in itself. its quotations are taken from the whole great range of english poetry, both before and after the time of him "who made prospero the magician, and gave him caliban and ariel as his servants, who heard the tritons blowing their horns round the coral reefs of the enchanted isle, and the fairies singing to each other in a wood near athens, who led the phantom kings in dim procession across the misty scottish heath, and hid hecate in a cave with the weird sisters." footnotes: [ : ] the picture on the front cover is from an illustration by mr. gerald metcalfe, for coleridge's "christabel," in _the poems of coleridge_, published by john lane. poetry of the supernatural compiled by earle f. walbridge _like one that on a lonesome road doth walk in fear and dread, and having once turned round, walks on, and turns no more his head; because he knows a frightful fiend doth close behind him tread._ --_rime of the ancient mariner._ the older poets =allingham=, william. a dream. (in charles welsh's the golden treasury of irish songs and lyrics.) i heard the dogs howl in the moonlight night. i went to the window to see the sight: all the dead that ever i knew going one by one and two by two. =arnold=, matthew. the forsaken merman. in its delicate loveliness "the forsaken merman" ranks high among mr. arnold's poems. it is the story of a sea-king, married to a mortal maiden, who forsook him and her children under the impulse of a christian conviction that she must return and pray for her soul.--_h. w. paul._ she sate by the pillar: we saw her clear; "margaret, hist! come quick, we are here! dear heart," i said, "we are long alone; the sea grows stormy, the little ones moan." but, ah, she gave me never a look, for her eyes were seal'd to the holy book. ---- st. brandan. . . . a picturesque embodiment of a strange mediaeval legend touching judas iscariot, who is supposed to be released from hell for a few hours every christmas because he had done in his life a single deed of charity.--_h. w. paul._ =barlow=, jane. three throws and one. (in walter jerrold's the book of living poets.) at each throw of my net there's a life must go down into death on the sea. at each throw of my net it comes laden, o rare, with my wish back to me. with my choice of all treasures most peerless that lapt in the oceans be. =boyd=, thomas. the king's son. (in padric gregory's modern anglo-irish verse.) who rideth through the driving rain at such a headlong speed? naked and pale he rides amain, upon a naked steed. =browning=, elizabeth barrett. the lay of the brown rosary. who meet there, my mother, at dawn and at even? who meet by that wall, never looking at heaven? o sweetest my sister, what doeth with thee the ghost of a nun with a brown rosary and a face turned from heaven? =browning=, robert. mesmerism. and the socket floats and flares, and the house-beams groan and a foot unknown is surmised on the garret stairs and the locks slip unawares. . . =buchanan=, robert. the ballad of judas iscariot. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) the beauty is chiefly in the central idea of forgiveness, but the workmanship of this composition has also a very remarkable beauty, a celtic beauty of weirdness, such as we seldom find in a modern composition touching religious tradition.--_lafcadio hearn._ the body of judas iscariot lay stretched along the snow. 'twas the soul of judas iscariot ran swiftly to and fro. =carleton=, william. sir turlough, or the churchyard bride. (in stopford brooke's a treasury of irish poetry.) the churchyard bride is accustomed to appear to the last mourner in the churchyard after a burial, and, changing its sex to suit the occasion, exacts a promise and a fatal kiss from the unfortunate lingerer. he pressed her lips as the words were spoken, killeevy, o killeevy! and his banshee's wail--now far and broken-- murmured "death" as he gave the token by the bonny green woods of killeevy. =chatterton=, thomas. the parliament of sprites. "the parliament of sprites" is an interlude played by carmelite friars at william canynge's house on the occasion of the dedication of st. mary redcliffe's. one after another the "antichi spiriti dolenti" rise up and salute the new edifice: nimrod and the assyrians, anglo-saxon ealdormen and norman knights templars, and citizens of ancient bristol.--_h. a. beers._ =coleridge=, samuel taylor. christabel. the thing attempted in "christabel" is the most difficult of execution in the whole field of romance--witchery by daylight--and the success is complete.--_john gibson lockhart._ ---- the rime of the ancient mariner. about, about, in reel and rout the death-fires danced at night; the water, like a witch's oils, burnt green, and blue, and white. =cortissoz=, ellen mackay hutchinson. on kingston bridge. (in stedman's american anthology.) 'twas all souls' night, and to and fro the quick and dead together walked, the quick and dead together talked, on kingston bridge. =crawford=, isabella valancy. the mother's soul. (in john garvin's canadian poets and poetry.) another elaborate variation on the theme of the return of a mother from her grave to rescue her children. miss crawford's mother does not go as far as the ghost in robert buchanan's "dead mother," who not only makes three trips to assemble her neglected family, but manages to appear to their delinquent father, to his great discomfort and the permanent loss of his sleep. =dobell=, sydney. the ballad of keith of ravelston. (in the oxford book of english verse.) a ballad unsurpassed in our literature for its weird suggestiveness.--_richard garnett._ she makes her immemorial moan, she keeps her shadowy kine; o, keith of ravelston, the sorrows of thy line! =drummond=, william henry. the last portage. (in wilfred campbell's the oxford book of canadian verse.) an' oh! mon dieu! w'en he turn hees head i'm seein' de face of my boy is dead. =eaton=, arthur wentworth hamilton. the phantom light of the baie des chaleurs. (in t. h. rand's a treasury of canadian verse.) this was the last of the pirate crew; but many a night the black flag flew from the mast of a spectre vessel sailed by a spectre band that wept and wailed for the wreck they had wrought on the sea, on the land, for the innocent blood they had spilt on the sand of the baie des chaleurs. =field=, eugene. the peter-bird. (in his songs and other verse.) these are the voices of those left by the boy in the farmhouse, when, with his laughter and scorn, hatless and bootless and sockless, clothed in his jeans and his pride, peter sailed out in the weather, broke from the warmth of his home into that fog of the devil, into the smoke of that witch brewing her damnable porridge! =freneau=, philip. the indian burying-ground. (in stedman's american anthology.) by midnight moons, o'er moistening dews, in habit for the chase arrayed, the hunter still the deer pursues, the hunter and the deer--a shade. =graves=, alfred perceval. the song of the ghost. (in padric gregory's modern anglo-irish verse.) o hush your crowing, both grey and red, or he'll be going to join the dead; o cease from calling his ghost to the mould and i'll come crowning your combs with gold. =guiney=, louise imogen. peter rugg, the bostonian. (in warner's library of the world's best literature, v. .) upon those wheels on any path the rain will follow loud, and he who meets that ghostly man will meet a thunder-cloud. and whosoever speaks with him may next bespeak his shroud. =harte=, francis bret. a greyport legend. still another phantom ship, a treacherous hulk that broke from its moorings and drifted with a crew of children into the fog. =hawker=, robert stephen. mawgan of melhuach. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) hard was the struggle, but at the last with a stormy pang old mawgan past, and away, away, beneath their sight, gleam'd the red sail at pitch of night. =hawthorne=, julian. were-wolf. (in stedman's american anthology.) dabbled with blood are its awful lips grinning in horrible glee. the wolves that follow with scurrying feet sniffing that goblin scent, at once scatter in terror, while it slips away, to the shore of the frozen sea. =herrick=, robert. the hag. the hag is astride, this night for to ride, the devil and she together. through thick, and through thin, now out, and then in, though ne'er so foul be the weather. =hood=, thomas. the haunted house. o'er all there hung a shadow and a fear a sense of mystery the spirit daunted and said, as plain as whisper in the ear, "the place is haunted!" =houghton=, george. the handsel ring. (in stedman's american anthology.) a man and maid are plighting their troth in the tomb of an old knight, the girl's father, when the man lucklessly drops the ring through a crack in the floor of the tomb. "let not thy heart be harried and sore for a little thing!" "nay! but behold what broodeth there! see the cold sheen of his silvery hair! look how his eyeballs roll and stare, seeking thy handsel ring!" =hugo=, victor. the djinns. (in charles a. dana's the household book of poetry.) ha! they are on us, close without! shut tight the shelter where we lie! with hideous din the monster rout, dragon and vampire, fill the sky! =joyce=, patrick weston. the old hermit's story. (in padric gregory's modern anglo-irish verse.) my curragh sailed on the western main, and i saw, as i viewed the sea, a withered old man upon a wave, and he fixed his eyes on me. =keats=, john. la belle dame sans merci. i saw pale kings, and princes too, pale warriors, death-pale were they all; who cry'd---"la belle dame sans merci hath thee in thrall." ---- lamia. "a serpent!" echoed he; no sooner said, than with a frightful scream she vanished: and lycius' arms were empty of delight, as were his limbs of life, from that same night. =kingsley=, charles. the weird lady. the swevens came up round harold the earl like motes in the sunnès beam; and over him stood the weird lady in her charmèd castle over the sea, sang "lie thou still and dream." =leconte de lisle=, charles. les elfes. (in the oxford book of french verse.) --ne m'arrête pas, fantôme odieux! je vais épouser ma belle aux doux yeux. --o mon cher époux, la tombe éternelle sera notre lit de noce, dit-elle. je suis morte!--et lui, la voyant ainsi, d'angoisse et d'amour tombe mort aussi. =lockhart=, arthur john. the waters of carr. (in t. h. rand's a treasury of canadian verse.) 'tis the indian's babe, they say, fairy stolen; changed a fay; and still i hear her calling, calling, calling, in the mossy woods of carr! =longfellow=, henry wadsworth. the ballad of carmilhan. for right ahead lay the ship of the dead the ghostly carmilhan! her masts were stripped, her yards were bare, and on her bowsprit, poised in air, sat the klaboterman. =macdonald=, george. janet. (in linton and stoddard's ballads and romances.) the night was lown and the stars sat still a glintin' down the sky; and the souls crept out of their mouldy graves a' dank wi' lying by. =mckay=, charles. the kelpie of corrievreckan. (in dugald mitchell's the book of highland verse.) and every year at beltan e'en the kelpie gallops across the green on a steed as fleet as the wintry wind, with jessie's mournful ghost behind. =mackenzie=, donald a. the banshee. (in the book of highland verse.) the linen that would wrap the dead she beetled on a stone, she stood with dripping hands, blood-red, low singing all alone-- "his linen robes are pure and white, for fergus more must die tonight." =mallet=, david. william and margaret. (in w. m. dixon's the edinburgh book of scottish verse.) the hungry worm my sister is, the winding sheet i wear. and cold and weary lasts our night, till that last morn appear. =moore=, thomas. the lake of the dismal swamp. they made her a grave too cold and damp for a soul so warm and true; and she's gone to the lake of the dismal swamp where all night long, by a firefly lamp, she paddles her birch canoe. =morris=, william. the tune of seven towers. no one walks there now; except in the white moonlight the white ghosts walk in a row, if one could see it, an awful sight. "listen!" said fair yolande of the flowers, "this is the tune of seven towers." =Österling=, anders. meeting of phantoms. (in charles wharton stork's anthology of swedish lyrics from to .) i in a vision saw my lost sweetheart, fearlessly toward me i saw her stray. so pale! i thought then; she smiled her answer: "my heart, my spirit, i've kissed away." =o'sullivan=, vincent. he came on holy saturday. (in padric gregory's modern anglo-irish verse.) to-night on holy saturday the weary ghost came back, and laid his hand upon my brow, and whispered me, "alack! there sits no angel by the tomb, the sepulchre is black." =poe=, edgar allan. the conqueror worm. through a circle that ever returneth in to the self-same spot, and much of madness, and more of sin, and horror the soul of the plot. ---- ulalume. and we passed to the end of a vista, but were stopped by the door of a tomb-- by the door of a legended tomb; and i said--"what is written, sweet sister, on the door of that legended tomb?" she replied--"ulalume--ulalume-- 'tis the vault of thy lost ulalume." =rossetti=, christina. she never doubts but she always wonders. again and again in imagination she crosses the bridge of death and explores the farther shore. her ghosts come back with familiar forms, familiar sensations, and familiar words.--_elisabeth luther cary._ ---- a chilly night. i looked and saw the ghosts dotting plain and mound. they stood in the blank moonlight but no shadow lay on the ground. they spoke without a voice and they leaped without a sound. ---- goblin market. "lie close," laura said, pricking up her golden head: "we must not look at goblin men. we must not buy their fruits; who knows upon what soil they fed their hungry thirsty roots?" =rossetti=, dante gabriel. eden bower. it was lilith the wife of adam. (eden bower's in flower) not a drop of her blood was human, but she was made like a soft sweet woman. ---- sister helen. its forty-two short verses unfold the whole story of the wronged woman's ruthless vengeance on her false lover as she watches the melting of the "waxen man" which, according to the old superstitions, is to carry with it the destruction, body and soul, of him in whose likeness it was fashioned.--_h. r. fox-bourne._ "ah! what white thing at the door has cross'd, sister helen? ah! what is this that sighs in the frost?" "a soul that's lost as mine is lost, little brother!" (o mother, mary mother, lost, lost, all lost, between hell and heaven!) =scott=, sir walter. child dyring. 'twas lang i' the night, and the bairnies grat. their mither she under the mools heard that. ---- the dance of death. a vision appearing to a scottish sentinel on the eve of waterloo. . . . down the destined plain 'twixt britain and the bands of france wild as marsh-borne meteor's glance, strange phantoms wheeled a revel dance and doom'd the future slain. =scott=, william bell. the witch's ballad. (in the oxford book of english verse.) drawn up i was right off my feet, into the mist and off my feet, and, dancing on each chimney top i saw a thousand darling imps keeping time with skip and hop. =shairp=, john campbell. cailleach bein-y-vreich. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) then i mount the blast, and we ride full fast, and laugh as we stride the storm, i, and the witch of the cruachan ben and the scowling-eyed seul-gorm. =shanly=, c. d. the walker of the snow. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) . . . i saw by the sickly moonlight as i followed, bending low, that the walking of the stranger left no footmarks on the snow. =sharp=, william. ("fiona mcleod.") cap'n goldsack. down in the yellow bay where the scows are sleeping, where among the dead men the sharks flit to and fro-- there cap'n goldsack goes creeping, creeping, creeping, looking for his treasure down below. =southey=, robert. the old woman of berkeley. i have 'nointed myself with infant's fat, the fiends have been my slaves. from sleeping babes i have sucked the breath, and breaking by charms the sleep of death, i have call'd the dead from their graves. and the devil will fetch me now in fire my witchcrafts to atone; and i who have troubled the dead man's grave will never have rest in my own. =stephens=, riccardo. the phantom piper. (in the book of highland verse.) but when the year is at its close right down the road to hell he goes. there the gaunt porters all agrin fling back the gates to let him in, then damned and devil, one and all, make mirth and hold high carnival. =swinburne=, algernon charles. after death. (in poems and ballads, first series.) the four boards of the coffin lid heard all the dead man did. the first curse was in his mouth, made of grave's mould and deadly drouth. =taylor=, william. lenore. the most successful rendering of bürger's much-translated "lenore," and the direct inspiration of scott's "william and helen." tramp, tramp across the land they speede, splash, splash across the sea: "hurrah! the dead can ride apace. dost fear to ride with me?" =watson=, rosamund marriott-. the farm on the links. (in the oxford book of victorian verse.) what is it cries with the crying of the curlews? what comes apace on those fearful, stealthy feet? back from the chill sea-deeps, gliding o'er the sand dunes, home to the old home, once again to meet? =whittier=, john greenleaf. the dead ship of harpswell. no foot is on thy silent deck, upon thy helm no hand, no ripple hath the soundless wind that smites thee from the land. ---- the old wife and the new. ring and bracelet all are gone, and that ice-cold hand withdrawn; but she hears a murmur low, full of sweetness, full of woe, half a sigh and half a moan: "fear not! give the dead her own." the younger poets _the darkness behind me is burning with eyes, it needs not my turning, i know otherwise: the air is a-quiver with rustle of wings and i feel the cold shiver of spiritual things!_ --_"instinct and reason" from "the book of winifred maynard."_ =benét=, william rose. devil's blood. (second film in "films," in "the burglar of the zodiac.") . . . down the path-- _is it but shadow?_--steals a thread of wrath, a red bright thread. it reaches him. he reels. _wet! warm!_ wily athwart his step it steals and stains his white court footgear, toes to heels. =brooke=, rupert. dead men's love. (in his collected poems. .) there was a damned successful poet. there was a woman like the sun. and they were dead. they did not know it. they did not know their time was done. ---- hauntings. so a poor ghost, beside his misty streams, is haunted by strange doubts, evasive dreams. =burnet=, dana. ballad of the late john flint. (in his poems. .) the bridegroom smiled a twisted smile, "the wine is strong," he said. the bride she twirled her wedding ring nor lifted up her head; and there were three at john flint's board, and one of them was dead. =campbell=, william wilfred. the mother. (in john w. garvin's canadian poets and poetry.) i dreamed that a rose-leaf hand did cling; oh, you cannot bury a mother in spring! . . . . . . . . i nestled him soft to my throbbing breast, and stole me back to my long, long rest. ---- the were-wolves. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) each panter in the darkness is a demon-haunted soul, the shadowy, phantom were-wolves that circle round the pole. =carman=, bliss. the nancy's pride. (in his ballads of lost haven.) her crew lean forth by the rotting shrouds with the judgment in their face; and to their mates' "god save you!" have never a word of grace. ---- the yule guest. (in ballads of lost haven.) but in the yule, o yanna, up from the round dim sea and reeling dungeons of the fog, i am come back to thee! =chalmers=, patrick r. the little ghost. (in his green days and blue days.) down the long path, beset with heaven-scented, haunting mignonette, the gardeners say a little grey ghost-lady walks! =colum=, padraic. the ballad of downal baun. (in wild earth and other poems.) "o dream-taught man," said the woman-- she stood where the willows grew, a woman from the country where the cocks never crew. =couch=, arthur quiller-. dolor oogo. (in john masefield's a sailor's garland.) thirteen men by ruan shore, dolor oogo, dolor oogo, drownèd men since 'eighty-four down in dolor oogo: on the cliff against the sky, ailsa, wife of malachi that cold woman-- sits and knits eternally. =de la mare=, walter. the keys of morning. (in his the listeners.) she slanted her small bead-brown eyes across the empty street and saw death softly watching her in the sunshine pale and sweet. ---- the listeners. but only a host of phantom listeners that dwelt in the lone house then stood listening in the quiet of the moonlight to that voice from the world of men: stood thronging the faint moonbeams on the dark stair that goes down to the empty hall, hearkening in an air stirred and shaken by the lonely traveller's call. ---- the witch. all of these dead were stirring each unto each did call, "a witch, a witch is sleeping under the churchyard wall." =dollard=, father. ballad of the banshee. (in j. w. garvin's canadian poets and poetry.) mother of mercy! there she sat, a woman clad in a snow-white shroud, streamed her hair to the damp moss-mat, white the face on her bosom bowed! =fletcher=, john gould. the ghosts of an old house. (in his goblins and pagodas.) yet i often wonder if these things are really dead. if the old trunks never open letting out grey flapping things at twilight. if it is all as safe and dull as it seems? =furlong=, alice. the warnings. (in padric gregory's modern anglo-irish verse.) i was weaving by the door-post, when i heard the death-watch beating; and i signed the cross upon me, and i spoke the name of three. high and fair, through cloud and air, a silver moon was fleeting, but the night began to darken as the death-watch beat for me. =gibson=, wilfrid wilson. the blind rower. (in his collected poems. .) some say they saw the dead man steer-- the dead man steer the blind man home-- though, when they found him dead, his hand was cold as lead. ---- comrades. as i was marching in flanders a ghost kept step with me-- kept step with me and chuckled, and muttered ceaselessly. ---- the lodging house. and when at last i stand outside my garret door i hardly dare to open it, lest when i fling it wide with candle lit and reading in my only chair i find myself already there. =hagedorn=, hermann. the last faring. (in poems and ballads.) the father into the storm he drives! full is the sail; but the wind blows wilder and shriller! the son 'tis the ghost of a sea-king, my father, rigid and pale, that holds so firm the tiller! ---- the cobbler of glamorgan. he coughed, he turned; and crystal-eyed he stared, for the bolted door stood wide, and on the threshold, faint and grand, he saw the awful gray man stand. his flesh was a thousand snails that crept, but his face was calm though his pulses leapt. =herford=, oliver. ye knyghte-mare. (in the bashful earthquake.) ye log burns dimme, and eke more dimme, loud groans each knyghtlie gueste, as ye ghost of his grandmother, gaunt and grimme, sits on each knyghte hys cheste. =kilmer=, joyce. the white ships and the red. (in w. s. braithwaite's anthology of magazine verse for .) the red ship is the lusitania. "she goes to the bottom all in red to join all the other dead ships, which are in white." =le gallienne=, richard. ballad of the dead lover. (in his new poems. .) she took his head upon her knee and called him love and very fair. and with a golden comb she combed the grave-dust from his hair. =lowell=, amy. the crossroads. (in her men, women, and ghosts.) in polyphonic prose. the body buried at the crossroads struggles for twenty years to free itself of the stake driven through its heart and wreak vengeance on its enemy. it is finally successful as the funeral cortège of this enemy comes down the road. "he wavers like smoke in the buffeting wind. his fingers blow out like smoke, his head ripples in the gale. under the sign post, in the pouring rain, he stands, and watches another quavering figure drifting down the wayfleet road. then swiftly he streams after it. . ." =marquis=, don. haunted. (in his dreams and dust.) drink and forget, make merry and boast, but the boast rings false and the jest is thin. in the hour that i meet ye ghost to ghost, stripped of the flesh that ye skulk within, stripped to the coward soul 'ware of its sin, ye shall learn, ye shall learn, whether dead men hate! =masefield=, john. cape horn gospel. (in his collected poems. .) "i'm a-weary of them there mermaids," says old bill's ghost to me, "it ain't no place for christians, below there, under sea. for it's all blown sands and shipwrecks and old bones eaten bare, and them cold fishy females with long green weeds for hair." ---- mother carey. she lives upon an iceberg to the norred 'n' her man is davy jones, 'n' she combs the weeds upon her forred with poor drowned sailors' bones. =maynard=, winifred. saint catherine. (in the book of winifred maynard.) . . . "saint catherine," in which the spotless virginity of the saint is made ashamed by the pitiful ghosts, who whisper their humanity to her in a dream.--_william stanley braithwaite._ =middleton=, jesse edgar. off heligoland. (in his seadogs and men-at-arms.) ghostly ships in a ghostly sea. . . =millay=, edna st. vincent. the little ghost. (in her renascence.) i knew her for a little ghost that in my garden walked; the wall is high--higher than most-- and the green gate was locked. =monroe=, harriet. the legend of pass christian. (in her you and i.) now we, who wait one night a year under these branches long, may see a flaming ship, and hear the echo of a song. =noyes=, alfred. the admiral's ghost. (in his collected poems. .) ---- a song of sherwood. the dead are coming back again, the years are rolled away, in sherwood, in sherwood, about the break of day. =scollard=, clinton. a ballad of hallowmass. (in his ballads patriotic and romantic.) it happed at the time of hallowmass, when the dead may walk abroad, that the wraith of ralph of the peaceful heart went forth from the courts of god. =seeger=, alan. broceliande. (in his poems. .) untroubled, untouched by the woes of this world are the moon-marshalled hosts that invade broceliande. =shorter=, dora sigerson. all souls' night. (in stedman's victorian anthology.) . . . deelish! deelish! my woe forever that i could not sever coward flesh from fear. i called his name and the pale ghost came; but i was afraid to meet my dear. =sterling=, george. a wine of wizardry. (in a wine of wizardry and other poems. .) and, ere the tomb-thrown mutterings have ceased, the blue-eyed vampire, sated at her feast, smiles bloodily against the leprous moon. =widdemer=, margaret. the forgotten soul. (in her the factories.) 'twas i that stood to greet you on the churchyard pave-- (o fire o' my heart's grief, how could you never see?) you smiled in pleasant dreaming as you crossed my grave and crooned a little love-song where they buried me! ---- the house of ghosts. out from the house of ghosts i fled lest i should turn and see the child i had been lift her head and stare aghast at me. =yeats=, william butler. the ballad of father gilligan. (in burton stevenson's the home book of verse.) how an angel obligingly took upon itself the form and performed the duties of father gilligan while the father was asleep at his post. ---- the host of the air. based upon a scrap of folklore in "the celtic twilight" and apparently among the simplest of his poems, nothing he has ever done shows a greater mastery of atmosphere, or a greater metrical mastery.--_forrest reid._ he heard, while he sang and dreamed, a piper piping away, and never was piping so sad, and never was piping so gay. the old ballads "_from ghaisties, ghoulies, and long-leggity beasties and things that go bump in the night-- good lord, deliver us._" the ballads that follow have all been selected from the oxford book of ballads, edited by sir arthur quiller-couch. clarendon press, oxford, . alison gross. she's turned me into an ugly worm and gar'd me toddle about the tree. clerk saunders. the most notable of the ballads of the supernatural, from the dramatic quality of its story and a certain wild pathos in its expression. "is there ony room at your head, saunders, is there ony room at your feet? or ony room at your side, saunders, where fain, fain i wad sleep?" the daemon lover. and aye as she turned her round about, aye taller he seemed to be; until that the tops o' that gallant ship nae taller were than he. king henry. o he has doen him to his ha' to make him bierly cheer, an' in it came a griesly ghost steed stappin' i' the fleer. the laily worm. for she has made me the laily worm, that lies at the fit o' the tree, and my sister masery she's made the machrel of the sea. a lyke-wake dirge. this ae nighte, this ae nighte, --every nighte and alle, fire and sleet and candle-lighte, and christ receive thy saule. tam lin. and pleasant is the fairy land for those that in it dwell, but ay at end of seven years they pay a teind to hell; i am sae fair and fu' of flesh i'm fear'd 'twill be mysell. transcriber's note: every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. some changes of spelling and punctuation have been made. they are listed at the end of the text. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. oe ligatures have been expanded. the augustan reprint society arbuthnotiana: the story of the st. alb-ns ghost ( ) a catalogue of dr. arbuthnot's library ( ) _introduction by_ patricia kÖster publication number william andrews clark memorial library university of california, los angeles general editors william e. conway, william andrews clark memorial library george robert guffey, university of california, los angeles maximillian e. novak, university of california, los angeles david s. rodes, university of california, los angeles advisory editors richard c. boys, university of michigan james l. clifford, columbia university ralph cohen, university of virginia vinton a. dearing, university of california, los angeles arthur friedman, university of chicago louis a. landa, princeton university earl miner, university of california, los angeles samuel h. monk, university of minnesota everett t. moore, university of california, los angeles lawrence clark powell, william andrews clark memorial library james sutherland, university college, london h. t. swedenberg, jr., university of california, los angeles robert vosper, william andrews clark memorial library curt a. zimansky, state university of iowa corresponding secretary edna c. davis, william andrews clark memorial library editorial assistant jean t. shebanek, william andrews clark memorial library introduction the two pieces here reproduced have long been unavailable; their connections with arbuthnot are rather complex. _the story of the st. alb-ns ghost_ has been ambiguously associated with arbuthnot since the year of its first publication, but it does not seem to have been reprinted since the nineteenth century when editors regularly included it among the minor works of swift. whoever wrote it, the _story_ is a lively and effective tory squib, whose narrative vigor can carry even the twentieth-century reader over the occasional topical obscurities. _a catalogue of the ... library of ... dr. arbuthnot_ has never been reprinted at all, and appears to be unknown by scholars who have thus far written about arbuthnot. _the story of the st. alb-ns ghost_, the first piece included, has always been of doubtful authorship, and must for the present so continue. two days after the _story_ first appeared, swift tantalizingly wrote to stella: "i went to ld mashams to night, & lady masham made me read to her a pretty penny pamphlet calld the st albans ghost. i thought i had writt it my self; so did they, but i did not" ( february ). whoever wrote it, the _story_ succeeded: it was pirated within a week, and had reached its third regular "edition" within three weeks of the first; it appeared in a fifth and apparently final edition on july .[ ] now just during these same months arbuthnot was producing his first political satires, five pamphlets later gathered under the title _history of john bull_. he published the first of these march and the last july .[ ] there are several thematic and methodological connections between _the story of the st. alb-ns ghost_ and the john bull pamphlets: as tory propaganda pieces, they attack leading whigs and make the usual suggestions about irreligion, moral turpitude and misuse of public funds. furthermore, they do so by means of vigorous if sometimes difficult reductive allegories which mock the victims by presenting them as farcical figures from low life. the connection as well as the difficulties must have appeared quite early, for some enterprising publisher (presumably curll)[ ] soon brought out _a complete key to the three parts of law is a bottomless-pit, and the story of the st. alban's ghost_. although the exact date of this is not known, it must lie between the _termini_ april and may , the dates of the third and fourth parts respectively of john bull. furthermore, a "second edition corrected" of the key appeared before the publication of pamphlet four. (the last pages of these two keys, concerning the _story of the st. alb-ns ghost_, are reproduced in the appendix.) the key ran through two further editions as _a complete key to the four parts of law is a bottomless-pit, and the story of the st. alban's ghost_, presumably before july , and came to a fifth (seemingly last) edition with a more general title referring to "all parts" of john bull, and still including the _story_. while the keys by association suggest arbuthnot as author, the only other contemporary document attributes the _story_ to a different physician and wit: the so-called _miscellaneous works of dr. william wagstaffe_ (london, ) reprint the fourth edition of the story. now the _miscellaneous works_ were printed some five months after the death of dr. wagstaffe and more than three months after that of the supposed editor dr. levett;[ ] it is possible that the contents are in part erroneous. in any case, arbuthnot, wagstaffe and swift remain the possible authors with whom scholars must deal until some further evidence is forthcoming. roscoe interprets swift's ambiguous remarks in the _journal to stella_ as an indirect acknowledgement, and dilke goes one step further in assuming that the so-called _miscellaneous works of dr. wagstaffe_ are a mystification, a means for swift to pass off works which he did not wish to include in the _miscellanies_ with pope. sir walter scott thinks that the _story_ is probably a collaboration between arbuthnot and swift, "judging from the style"; professor herbert davis dissociates wagstaffe material generally from the writings of swift, but does not specifically mention the _story_; however, "mr. granger thought st. alban's ghost, attributed to dr. wagstaffe, was [arbuthnot's]."[ ] although recent scholars seem to agree in selecting wagstaffe as author of the _story_, the evidence of the _works_ is implicitly contradicted by the keys. i have made two separate attempts to solve the question of authorship, neither of which has been fully satisfactory. the first of these, a computerized test based on the methods of professor louis t. milic for distinguishing works by swift from works by other authors, has given inconclusive results. in this test the _story_ was the chief unknown, and was compared with samples of similar length from swift, arbuthnot, wagstaffe and, as a control, mrs. manley, who wrote politically keyed narratives but has never been associated with the _story_. the _story_ turned out to be fairly similar to all four authors in the number of different three-word patterns (d), and unlike all of them in number of introductory connectives (ic), where wagstaffe stood the highest, and the _story_ by far the lowest. in the proportion of verbals (vb) the _story_ and wagstaffe were fairly close together and different from the other authors tested, who clustered near the swift figures. thus the test tends to exclude swift, arbuthnot and mrs. manley as possible authors, but does not encourage a full confidence in replacing them with wagstaffe. (it also tends to show that some of the other pieces included in the so-called _miscellaneous works of dr. wagstaffe_ differ considerably in the usages tested both from one another and from the patterns established by the signed works of dr. walstaffe.)[ ] my second attempt was based on textual changes among editions of the _story_. in the second edition there are three small changes from the first; the third and fourth editions seem to be line-for-line reprints of the second. (the "sham, imperfect sort" introduces a large number of variants, mainly errors.) in the fifth edition, however, somebody has altered the typography: many past forms of verbs are altered. thus at the bottom of p. _unbody'd_ becomes _unbodyed_, _carry'd_ and _deliver'd_ become _carryed_, _delivered_. the task of editing is not complete; particularly near the end of the fifth edition many verbs still carry the apostrophe of the earlier editions. the date of the attempt suggests that swift's _proposal for correcting, improving and ascertaining the english tongue_ (first published may , a week after the fourth edition of the _story_) could have provided the motivation, and also that swift himself could not have been the person who made the changes. a study of a few contemporaries shows that swift himself tried to eliminate the apostrophes from the _conduct of the allies_, first published november , and from other works published after that date, but not from works published before that date. oldisworth, apparently under the instructions of swift, tried to do the same during the first few months of the _examiner_, vol. (beginning december ), but by the time he reached volume , oldisworth had apparently given up the struggle against unwilling printers. arbuthnot, roper and manley are not very interested in the matter, and neither are other pamphleteers published by morphew during the months immediately following swift's _proposal_. the items included in the so-called _miscellaneous works of dr. wagstaffe_, on the other hand, fall into three groups chronologically: those which precede swift's _proposal_, and include many apostrophied verb forms; those which immediately follow swift's _proposal_, and include abnormally few apostrophied verb forms; the two "late" pieces ( , ), which are back to the proportion of apostrophied verbs to be found in the early items. if pseudo-wagstaffe was indeed a single writer, then he followed the same pattern as oldisworth, but began later and continued longer to use verbs with an _-ed_ ending. since the genuine signed prose works of dr. wagstaffe come "late" ( , ) and have a fairly large (i.e., normal) number of apostrophied verbs, there is no evidence here as to whether or not pseudo-wagstaffe is wagstaffe; at least there is no contradiction. in the light of these facts, we can see that neither swift nor arbuthnot is a probable author of the _story_; swift would presumably have altered verb typography in the first and all editions, and arbuthnot would not have altered it at all.[ ] in these two projects on authorship we find that authors other than wagstaffe tend to be eliminated, but that wagstaffe himself is not strongly confirmed. the authorship remains as problematic as before, and the _story_ may as well for this century continue with the arbuthnotiana, as it did during the nineteenth with the swiftiana. the device of using a ghost story as vehicle for political satire was by a well-established one. elias f. mengel jr. refers to "the 'ghost' convention, so popular in the restoration,"[ ] and an important poem of queen anne's reign shows some similarities with and perhaps provided a model for the _story_. in _moderation display'd_ (london, ) the recently deceased second earl of sunderland rises from hell to confound his guilty whig companions. tonson (bibliopolo) is the most terrified, and as in the _story_ wharton (clodio) is so wicked that he is not frightened at all. the _story_, however, is both more subtle and more flexible than most other satiric "ghost" narratives. it compresses the actual apparition into the last quarter of the narrative, despite the perhaps deliberately misleading title. nearly half of the _story_ deals with previous events; much of the rest is machinery, introduction of seemingly irrelevant details with a mischievous verisimilitude which actually advances the main satiric aims. the opening paragraph, for example, first denounces roman catholic superstition, a denunciation which almost every englishman could join, and then turns the fire toward "our sectarists." the war on heterodoxy continues in the references to dr. garth, the whig poet and physician noted for his scepticism in religion, to william whiston who during the winter of - was transcribing documents and writing elaborate treatises to uphold his view that christian churches and theologians had all been essentially heretical since the time of athanasius, and to the reverend and honourable lumley lloyd, a low-church minister whose sermons attracted at least two tory satires.[ ] none of these men belongs in the narrative, and only garth was even remotely connected with the marlboroughs, but all of them were whigs, and in various ways serve to "demonstrate" that whigs must be false brethren to the church of england. this charge, although a cliché of tory satires, is here made indirect and witty, as are the staple charges against the duke and duchess of marlborough. whereas, however, the wickedness of nonconformity had been attacked for decades, the duke of marlborough had been associated with the whigs for a relatively short time. as late as wagstaffe could generously declare that "_woodstock's_ too little" a reward (_ramelies, a poem_), but since swift's "bill of british ingratitude" in the _examiner_ ( november ) the tory press had begun to say that the rewards were too many and too great. the _story_ repeats the charge that avaro and haggite "grew richer than their mistress" (p. ), together with the ridiculous insinuations of cowardice and incompetence found constantly reiterated in the second volume of _examiners_. the duchess of marlborough attracted massive satire earlier than her husband, in such books as _the secret history of queen zarah_ (london, ),[ ] and her habit of saying "lawrd" with an affected drawl is mentioned in _the secret history of arlus and odolphus_ (n.p., ), pp. , , . although not so frequent as attacks on the duke and duchess of marlborough, attacks on mrs. jennings the mother of the duchess had already been made, and indeed the _story_ relies for part of its effect on the fact that mrs. jennings is already associated with witchcraft. in _memoirs of europe_ (london, )[ ] for example, she inherits a familiar spirit from sir kenelm digby, there reported the real father of the duchess (ii, - ). in _oliver's pocket looking-glass_ (n.p., ) mrs. jennings appears as "the famous mother shipton, who by the power and influence of her magick art, had plac'd a daughter in the same station at court [i.e., maid of honour] with _meretricia_ [arabella churchill] ..." (p. ). because the author of the story assumes that previous tory allegations are well-known, he is free to perform elegant variations or to allude indirectly. assuming the fact of witchcraft allows him to heap up an ambiguous burlesque of popular superstition which is in part entertainment and in part rebuttal of recent whig sneers at tory credulity during the jane wenham witch trial.[ ] here as throughout the pamphlet, the author demonstrates the virtuosity which even swift commends. since swift praises few pamphlets except those written by himself and arbuthnot (or occasionally mrs. manley), the _story_ enters a fairly select company. it is the only pseudo-wagstaffe piece mentioned by name in the _journal to stella_, the only one found worthy to stand beside the productions of swift and arbuthnot.[ ] the second document reproduced claims to be _a catalogue of the capital and well-known library of books, of the late celebrated dr. arbuthnot_. to the extent that the claim is true, the _catalogue_ will be important for studies of the scriblerian club generally, since arbuthnot is the member with the greatest reputation for learning. although the contents of a man's library do not correspond exactly with the contents of his mind, scholars can discover a good deal about the intellectual methods of dr. arbuthnot by examining the books which he owned. until now this has not been possible; the _catalogue_ is a recent acquisition of the british museum, not so much as mentioned in books thus far published about arbuthnot. for several reasons, however, the document must be used with caution. first of all, the compilers list a total of volumes, but they itemize only ,[ ] and even then often give inadequate information. furthermore, a xerox copy of the sale book records of the auction, very kindly sent to me by the present messrs. christie, manson and woods, shows that almost a quarter of the lots (items - , - , - , ), or volumes, belonged not to the arbuthnot estate but to other owners. finally, dr. arbuthnot died in , whereas the auction was not held until december , about three and a half months after the death of his bachelor son george. of the books belonging to the arbuthnot estate, almost % were printed after , and belonged not to the father but to the son, or perhaps in some cases to the daughter anne, who lived with her brother.[ ] the legal books are likely all to have been george arbuthnot's, and presumably some of the other books printed before also. despite these obscurities, the catalogue throws a good deal of new light upon the most learned scriblerian--and upon his family. dr. arbuthnot seems to have bought relatively few antiquarian books; about % of the itemized volumes belonging to his estate come before , the year when he first went to london. in selecting these older works arbuthnot has shown a catholic taste and linguistic ability: he bought grammars and dictionaries, besides works on medicine and science, literature, history and religion, written in english, french, italian, latin and greek, plus a solitary hebrew bible (item ); his copy of udall's _key to the holy tongue_ is dated (item ). less than a quarter of these earlier books are in english. the sole "cradle" date of the catalogue, for _rosa anglica_ (item ), may be a misprint: editions of and , among others, have been previously recorded, but none for .[ ] when compared with the antiquarian books, the list of titles from the arbuthnot estate either dated or first published after the death of dr. arbuthnot reveals a number of differences. english is the predominant language of the late group, with french a poor second. there is another hebrew bible ( ), a spanish cervantes ( ), an italian machiavelli ( ), but no greek book at all, and astonishingly only two latin: a dictionary ( ) and a horace ( ); cicero appears in a french translation ( ). in part, of course, the shift in languages accompanies the general decline of humanistic learning in the eighteenth century, but it also strengthens our knowledge of dr. arbuthnot's erudition. although apparently not interested in science, george arbuthnot read widely, however, in other areas (see for example , , , , , , , , ). similarly, the books from outside the arbuthnot estate are less learned than those of arbuthnot. they do include two greek testaments ( , ) and some recent scientific works (e.g. , * ), but lack the great greek writers whom arbuthnot collected, such as plato ( ), aristotle ( ), herodotus ( ) or aristophanes ( ). whereas arbuthnot read newton's treatises ( , , , ), one of the other owners read algarotti's simplification (* ). the subjects of the books in the arbuthnot estate can be variously divided. by sheer number of titles, literature is the most important subject, closely followed by science (including medicine as the biggest sub-group), and then by history. in number of volumes, however, the historical section is considerably larger than the literary, and science comes third. books on geography and travel, philosophical treatises, grammars and dictionaries, even a work on astrology ( ), attest to the breadth of arbuthnot's interests. a few works in the fine arts are listed, somewhat surprisingly only two of them on music ( , ). the military item ( ) may come from the doctor's brother george, who was in the army, or it may represent another aspect of the general interest in all human affairs. there is a fairly large number of religious works, including books by eusebius and sozomen ( ), spotswood ( ), huet ( ), charles leslie ( ), leibniz ( ), tillotson ( ) and jeremy taylor ( , ). the elaborately bound greek septuagint ( ) and greek new testament ( ) must be the ones which arbuthnot specified in his will (the only books there mentioned), calling them "the gift of my late royal mistress queen anne."[ ] as the _catalogue_ does not describe any other fine bindings, the other books seem to have been bought for use rather than for show. a study of the duplications among the books in the arbuthnot estate reinforces the opinion that the books were bought for use. the only items appearing three times are the works of pope ( , ) and pope's _iliad_ ( , , ). since two of the former were published after the death of arbuthnot, and must have belonged to the arbuthnot children, perhaps the extra _iliads_ were equally the property of arbuthnot's heirs. the duplicates of molière ( , ), prideaux ( , ), and veneroni ( , * ) could also have belonged to the children. however, the bulk of the duplications seem to involve obtaining a later edition or a necessary text, and thus to have a scholarly rationale. for example, the two editions of eustachius are dated , ( , ), those of livy are dated , ( , ), while both sets of sennertus seem to be broken ( , ). not surprisingly, arbuthnot owned a number of satirical works. in addition to pope and molière, already mentioned, he owned petronius ( ), juvenal and persius ( ), terence ( ), plautus ( ), boileau ( ), gay ( ) and swift's _tale of a tub_ ( ). he presumably bought or was given other works by swift, but no others are itemized; perhaps some were in the "large parcel of pamphlets" ( ). george arbuthnot added a copy of _the four last years of queen anne_ ( ), not published until . although literature bulks large among arbuthnot's books, english poetry is not very conspicuous. according to some of the dates, arbuthnot may have developed his interest in english poetry rather late in life. although he owned a spenser ( ), he did not buy the listed chaucer ( ) until . pope may have inspired the urge to acquire milton ( , ), but there seems to be no literary reason for wanting a milton in french ( ). some other member of the family was, however, sufficiently interested in milton to buy newton's edition in ( ). the minor poets listed are also late in date ( , ). the only dryden is the translation of virgil ( ), which could represent an interest in classical just as much as in english poetry. there are, however, two copies of prior's _poems_ in the large paper edition ( , ). as the compilers of the _catalogue_ have left many volumes unspecified, there must have been other poetic works, but the listed sample is rather small. characteristically uninterested in his personal fame, arbuthnot kept no copies of his own writings except the reissued _tables of ancient coins_ ( , ), associated with a favorite son. the reader revealed by this library is the same arbuthnot whom his contemporaries admired: witty, yet thoughtful and religious; deeply learned, yet modest. his children, although less learned than the father, continued to buy books on current topics, particularly literature, history and travel. aged over seventy, george arbuthnot was still ingesting such materials as laughton's _history of ancient egypt_ ( ) and raynal's comprehensive history of colonialism ( ). despite the obscurity of the word "more" under which the compilers listed half of the total volumes, even the sample of the library is a welcome addition to our knowledge about dr. arbuthnot. university of victoria notes to the introduction [ ] see advertisements in the _evening post_, , , february, march ; and in the _post-boy_, may and july . the research necessary for the present publication was supported by a grant from the university of victoria and by a leave fellowship from the canada council. [ ] the dates given by professor h. teerink in _the history of john bull for the first time faithfully re-issued from the original pamphlets_ (amsterdam, ), pp. - , are drawn from dates in the examiner, a weekly newspaper. three of these dates are correct, and the other two are close, but can be corrected by consulting papers published more often. the first pamphlet seems to have appeared on march (see _post-boy_ of that date), and the third may have appeared on april (see the _daily courant_ of and april; the _post-boy_, however, agrees with the _examiner_ on the date april). [ ] although no publisher is named on the title page of the keys, the fifth edition is advertised among "new pamphlets printed for e. curll" on the back of the half-title page to _the tunbridge-miscellany: consisting of poems, &c. written at tunbridge-wells this summer. by several hands_ (london, ). [ ] wagstaffe died may , levett july ; the _miscellaneous works_ were published on about october . dr. norman moore in his account of wagstaffe has shown that the "life" in the _miscellaneous works_ is substantially correct, and has suggested that dr. levett wrote it; see moore, _history of st. bartholomew's hospital_ (london, ), ii, - . [ ] thomas roscoe, ed., _the works of jonathan swift_ (london, ), i, ; [c.w. dilke], "dean swift and the scriblerians v. dr. wagstaffe," _notes and queries_, d ser., i, - ; sir walter scott, ed., _the works of swift_, d ed. (london, ), v, ; herbert davis, "introduction," prose works of swift, viii, xiv-xv; mark noble, _a biographical history of england, from the revolution to the end of george i's reign_ (london, ), iii, - . vinton a. dearing in his "jonathan swift or william wagstaffe?" _hlb_, vii ( ), - , makes a survey of previous discussions, and concludes that wagstaffe wrote all the pieces in the _miscellaneous works_. see also the article cited in footnote . [ ] "words and numbers: a quantitative approach to swift and some understrappers," _computers and the humanities_, iv ( ), - . this article has been reprinted with minor revisions in roy wisbey, ed., _the computer in literary and linguistic research_ (cambridge, ), pp. - . [ ] the question of verb typography will be further studied in a future article. [ ] _poems on affairs of state: augustan satirical verse_, ii (new haven, ), . [ ] _tint for taunt. the manager managed: or the exemplary moderation and modesty, of a whig low-church-preacher discovered, from his own mouth_ (london, ); _and punch turn'd critick, in a letter to the honourable and (some time ago) worshipful rector of covent-garden. with some wooden remarks on his sermon_ (n.p., ). neither squib is of much literary value, but the second acquires some interest by being associated with the _story of the st. alb-ns ghost_ and a third edition of _a learned comment on tom thumb_ (an earlier pseudo-wagstaffe piece) in the advertising column of _examiner_, vol. ii, no. ( february ). [ ] reproduced in _the novels of mary delariviere manley_, intro. by p. köster (gainesville, fla., ), vols. [ ] jane wenham was sentenced march . white kennet lists a number of pamphlets on both sides in _the wisdom of looking backwards_ (london, ), pp. - , but does not mention the _story_. the _protestant post-boy_ has a series of articles, stemming from the trial, on the improbability of witchcraft ( , , , april ), but predictably ignores the _story_. [ ] dr. moore, however, seems to include the _story_ in his condemnation of all the pseudo-wagstaffe pieces except the _comment upon ... tom thumb_ (now reproduced in augustan reprint no. ) as "abusive, coarse, or dull" (_history of st. bartholomew's hospital_, ii, ). [ ] mr. allan trumpour wrote a sorting program which provided the statistics here and below; mr. james carley and mrs. edna cox both gave considerable help in preparing the contents of the _catalogue_ for computer sorting. [ ] for biographical information see g.a. aitken, _the life and works of john arbuthnot_ (oxford, ), pp. - . [ ] see w. wulff, "introduction," _rosa anglica seu rosa medicinae_, irish texts society, xxv (london, ), p. xix. [ ] aitken, p. . bibliographical note the texts of these facsimiles of _the story of the st. alb-ns ghost_ (t. tract ) and _a catalogue of the capital and well-known library of books, of the late celebrated dr. arbuthnot_ (c. .dd. ) are reproduced from copies in the british museum. the two keys to _the story of the st. alb-ns ghost_ are reproduced from the first and second editions of _a complete key to the three parts of law is a bottomless-pit and the story of the st. alban's ghost_ (both editions ; e. tracts and ; both versos), also in the british museum. all items are reproduced with the kind permission of the trustees. the story of the st. alb-ns ghost, or the apparition of mother _haggy_. collected from the best manuscripts. _sola, novum, dictuq, nefas, harpyia celano prodigium canit, & tristes denuntiat iras._ virg. _london_: printed in the year . the story of the st. alb-ns ghost. i can scarcely say whether we ought to attribute the multitude of ghosts and apparitions, which were so common in the days of our forefathers, to the ignorance of the people, or the impositions of the priest. the romish clergy found it undoubtedly for their interest to deceive them, and the superstition of the people laid themselves open to receive whatsoever they thought proper to inculcate. hence it is, that their traditions are little else, than the miracles and atchievements of unbody'd heroes, a sort of spiritual romance, so artfully carry'd on, and delivered in so probable a manner, as may easily pass for truth on those of an uncultivated capacity, or a credulous disposition. our sectarists indeed still retain the credulity, as well as some of the tenets of that church; and apparitions, and such like, are still the bug-bears made use of by some of the most celebrated of their holders-forth to terrify the old women of their congregation, (who are their surest customers) and enlarge their quarterly subscriptions. i know one of these ambidexters, who never fails of ten or twenty pounds more than ordinary, by nicking _something wonderful_ in due time; he often cloaths his whole family _by the apparition of a person lately executed at_ tyburn; or, _a whale seen at_ greenwich, _or thereabouts_; and i am credibly inform'd, that his wife has made a visit with a brand new sable tippet on, since the death of the _tower lions_. but as these things will pass upon none but the ignorant or superstitious, so there are others that will believe nothing of this nature, even upon the clearest evidence. there are, it must be own'd, but very few of these accounts to be depended on; some however are so palpable, and testify'd by so good authority, by those of such undoubted credit, and so discerning a curiosity, that there is no room to doubt of their veracity, and which none but a sceptic can disbelieve. such is the following story of mother _haggy_ of st. _alb----ns_, in the reign of king _james_ the first, the mighty pranks she plaid in her life-time, and her apparition afterwards, made such a noise, both at home and abroad, and were so terrible to the neighbourhood, that the country people, to this day, cannot hear the mention of her name, without the most dismal apprehensions. the injuries they receiv'd from the sorceries and incantations of the mother, and the injustice and oppression of the son and daughter, have made so deep an impression upon their minds, and begot such an hereditary aversion to their memory, that they never speak of them, without the bitterest curses and imprecations. i have made it my business, being at st. _alb----ns_ lately, to enquire more particularly into this matter, and the helps i have receiv'd from the _most noted men of erudition in this city, have been considerable_, and to whom i make my publick acknowledgment. the charges i have been at in _getting manuscripts_, and labour in _collating them_, the reconciling the disputes about the most _material circumstances_, and adjusting the _various readings_, as they have took me up a considerable time, so i hope they may be done to the satisfaction of my reader. i wish i could have had time to have distinguish'd by an asterism the circumstances deliver'd by tradition only, from those of the manuscripts, which i was advis'd to do by my worthy friend the reverend mr. _wh----n_, who, had he not been _employ'd otherways_, might have been a very proper person to have undertaken such a performance. the best manuscripts are now in the hands of the ingenious dr. _g----th_, where they are left for the curious to peruse, and where any _clergyman_ may be welcome; for however he may have been abus'd by those who deny him to be the author of the _d----y_, and tax'd by others with principles and practices unbecoming a man of his sense and probity, yet i will be bold to say in his defence, that i believe he is as good a christian, as he is a poet, and if he publishes any thing on the late d----d _m----y_, i don't question but it will be interspers'd with as many precepts of reveal'd religion, as the subject is capable of bearing: and it is very probable, those _refin'd pieces_ that the doctor has been pleas'd to own, since the writing of the _d----y_, have been look'd upon, by the lewd debauch'd criticks of the town, to be dull and insipid, for no other reason, but because they are grave and sober; but this i leave for others to determine, and can say for his sincerity, that i am assur'd he believes the following relation as much as any of us all. mother _haggy_ was marry'd to a plain home-spun yeoman of st. _alb----ns_, and liv'd in good repute for some years: the place of her birth is disputed by some of the most celebrated moderns, tho' they have a tradition in the country, that she was never born at all, and which is most probable. at the birth of her daughter _haggite_, something happen'd very remarkable, and which gave occasion to the neighbourhood to mistrust she had a correspondence with _old nick_, as was confirm'd afterwards, beyond the possibility of disproof. the neighbours were got together a merry-making, as they term it, in the country, when the old woman's high-crown'd hat, that had been thrown upon the bed's tester during the heat of the engagement, leap'd with a wonderful agility into the cradle, and being catch'd at by the nurse, was metamorphos'd into a coronet, which according to her description, was not much unlike that of a _german_ prince; but it soon broke into a thousand pieces. _such_, cries old mother _haggy, will be the fortune of my daughter, and such her fall_. the company took but little notice what she said, being surpris'd at the circumstance of the hat. _but this is fact_, says the reverend and honourable l----y _l----d_, _and my grandmother, who was a person of condition, told me_, says he, _she knew the man, who knew the woman, who was_, said she, _in the room at that instant_. the very same night, i saw a comet, neither have i any occasion to tell a lye as to this particular, _says my author_, brandishing its tail in a very surprising manner in the air, but upon the breaking of a cloud, i could discern, _continues he_, a clergyman at the head of a body of his own cloth, and follow'd by an innumerable train of laity, who coming towards the comet, it disappear'd. this was the first time mother _haggy_ became suspected, and it was the opinion of the wisest of the parish, that they should petition the king to send her to be try'd for a witch by the _presbytery of scotland_. how this past off i cannot tell, but certain it is, that some of the great ones of the town were in with her, and 'tis said she was serviceable to them in their amours: she had a wash that would make the skin of a blackamore as white as alabaster, and another, that would restore the loss of a maidenhead, _without any hindrance of business, or the knowledge of any one about them_. she try'd this experiment so often upon her daughter _haggite_, that more than twenty were satisfy'd they had her virginity before marriage. she soon got such a reputation all about the country, that there was not a cow, a smock, or a silver spoon lost, but they came to her to enquire after it; all the young people flock'd to have their fortunes told, which, they say she never miss'd. she told _haggite_'s husband, he should grow rich, and be a great man, but by his covetousness and griping of the poor, should come to an ill end. all which happen'd so exactly, _that there are several old folks in our town, who can remember it, as if it was but yesterday_. she has been often seen to ride full gallop upon a broom-stick at noon-day, and swim over a river in a kettle-drum. sometimes she wou'd appear in the shape of a lioness, and at other times of a hen, or a cat; but i have heard, could not turn herself into a male creature, or walk over two straws across. there were never known so many great winds as about that time, or so much mischief done by them: the pigs gruntled, and the screech-owls hooted oftner than usual; a horse was found dead one morning with hay in his mouth; and a large overgrown jack was caught in a fish-pond thereabouts with a silver tobacco-box in his belly; several women were brought to bed of two children, some miscarry'd, and old folks died very frequently. these things could not chuse but breed a great combustion in the town, as they call it, and every body certainly had rejoyc'd at her death, had she not been succeeded by a son and daughter, who, tho' they were no conjurers, were altogether as terrible to the neighbourhood. she had two daughters, one of which was marry'd to a man who went beyond sea; the other, her daughter _haggite_, to _avaro_, whom we shall have occasion to mention in the sequel of this story. there liv'd at that time in the neighbourhood two brothers, of a great family, persons of a vast estate and character, and extreamly kind to their servants and dependants. _haggite_ by her mother's interest, was got into this family, and _avaro_, who was afterwards her husband, was the huntsman's boy. he was a lad of a fine complexion, good features, and agreeable to the fair sex, but wanted the capacity of some of his fellow servants: tho' he got a reputation afterwards for a man of courage, but upon no other grounds, than by setting the country fellows to cudgelling or boxing, and being a spectator of a broken head and a bloody nose. there are several authentic accounts of the behaviour of these two, in their respective stations, and by what means they made an advancement of their fortunes. there are several relations, i say, now extant, that tell us, how one of these great brothers took _avaro_'s sister for his mistress, which was the foundation of his preferment, and how _haggite_, by granting her favours to any one who would go to the expence of them, became extreamly wealthy, and how both had gain'd the art of getting money out of every body they had to do with, and by the most dishonourable methods. never perhaps, was any couple so match'd in every thing as these, or so fit for one another: a couple so link'd by the bonds of iniquity, as well as marriage, that it is impossible to tell which had the greatest crimes to answer for. it will be needless to relate the fortune of the brothers, who were their successive masters, and the favours they bestow'd on them. it is sufficient that the estate came at last to a daughter of the younger brother, a lady, who was the admiration of the age she liv'd in, and the darling of the whole country, and who had been attended from her infancy by _haggite_. then it was _avaro_ began his tyranny; he was entrusted with all the affairs of consequence, and there was nothing done without his knowledge. he marry'd his daughters to some of the most considerable estates in the neighbourhood, and was related by marriage to one _baconface_, a sort of bailiff to his lady. he, and _baconface_ and _haggite_ got into possession, as it were, of their lady's estate, and carry'd it with so high a hand, were so haughty to the rich, and oppressive to the poor, that they quickly began to make themselves odious; but for their better security, they form'd a sort of confederacy with one _dammyblood_, _clumzy_ their son-in-law, _splitcause_ an attorney, and _mouse_ a noted ballad-maker, and some others. as soon as they had done this, they began so to domineer, that there was no living for those who would not compliment, or comply with them in their villany. _haggite_ cry'd, _lord, madam_, to her mistress, _it must be so_; _avaro_ swore, _by_ g----d, and _baconface_ shook his head, and look'd dismally. they made every tenant pay a tax, and every servant considerably out of his wages toward the mounding their lady's estate, as they pretended, but most part of it went into their own pockets. once upon a time, the tenants grumbling at their proceedings, _clumzy_, the son-in-law, brought in a parcel of beggars to settle upon the estate. thus they liv'd for some years, till they grew richer than their mistress, and were, perhaps, the richest servants in the world: nay, what is the most remarkable, and will scarcely find belief in future ages, they began at last to deny her title to the estate, and affirm, she held it only by their permission and connivance. things were come to this pass, when one of the tenants sons from _oxf----rd_ preach'd up obedience to their lady, and the necessity of their downfall, who oppos'd it. this open'd the eyes of all the honest tenants, but enrag'd _avaro_ and his party, to that degree, that they had hir'd a pack of manag'd bull-dogs, with a design to bait him, and had done it infallibly, had not the gentry interpos'd, and the country people run into his assistance. these, with much ado, muzled the dogs, and petition'd their lady to discard the mismanagers, who consented to it. great were the endeavours, and great the struggles of the faction, for so they were call'd, to keep themselves in power, as the histories of those times mention. they stirr'd up all their ladies acquaintance to speak to her in their behalf, wrote letters to and fro, swore and curs'd, laugh'd and cry'd, told the most abominable and inconsistent lyes, but all to no purpose: they spent their money, lavish'd away their beef, pudding, and _october_, most unmercifully, and made several _jointed-babies_ to shew for sights, and please the tenants sons about _christmas_. old _drybones_ was then the parson of the parish, a man of the most notorious character, who would change his principles at any time to serve a turn, preach or pray _extempore_, talk nonsense, or any thing else, for the advancement of _avaro_ and his faction. he was look'd upon to be the greatest artist in _legerdemain_ in that country; and had a way of shewing the pope and little master in a box, but the figures were so very small, it was impossible for any body but himself to discern them. he was hir'd, as is suppos'd, to tax the new servants with popery, together with their mistress, which he preach'd in several churches thereabouts; but his character was too well known to make any thing credited that came from him. there are several particulars related, both by tradition and the manuscripts, concerning the turning out of these servants, which would require greater volumes than i design. it is enough, that notwithstanding their endeavours, they were discarded, and the lady chose her new servants out of the most honest and substantial of her tenants, of undoubted abilities, who were tied to her by inclination as well as duty. these began a reformation of all the abuses committed by _avaro_ and _baconface_, which discover'd such a scene of roguery to the world, that one would hardly think the most mercenary favourites could be guilty of. _avaro_ now began to be very uneasie, and to be affrighted at his own conscience; he found nothing would pacifie the enrag'd tenants, and that his life wou'd be but a sufficient recompence for his crimes. his money which he rely'd on, and which he lavish'd away to bribe off his destruction, had not force enough to protect him: he could not, as it is reported, sit still in one place for two minutes, never slept at all, eat little or nothing, talk'd very rambling and inconsistent, of _merit_, _hardships_, _accounts_, _perquisites_, _commissioners_, _bread_ and _bread-waggons_, but was never heard to mention any _cheese_. he came and made a confession in his own house to some people he never saw before in his life, and which shews no little disorder in his brain; _that, whatever they might think of him, he was as dutiful a servant as any his mistress had_. _haggite_ rav'd almost as bad as he, and had got st. _anthony's fire_ in her face; but it is a question, says dr. _g--th_, whether there was any thing ominous in that, since it is probable, the distemper only chang'd it's situation. mean while, it was agreed by _baconface_ and others, that a consultation should be call'd at _avaro_'s house, something decisive resolv'd on, in order to prevent their ruin; and accordingly _jacobo_ the messenger was sent to inform the cabal of it. dismal and horrid was the night of that infernal consultation, nothing heard but the melancholly murmuring of winds, and the croaking of toads and ravens; every thing seem'd wild and desert, and double darkness overspread the hemisphere: thunder and lightning, storms and tempest, and earthquakes, seem'd to presage something more then ordinary, and added to the confusion of that memorable night. nature sicken'd, and groan'd, as it were, under the tortures of universal ruine. not a servant in the house but had dreamt the strangest dreams, and _haggite_ her self had seen a stranger in the candle. the fire languish'd and burnt blue, and the crickets sung continually about the oven: how far the story is true concerning the warming-pan and dishes, i cannot say, but certain it is, a noise was heard like that of rolling pease from the top of the house to the bottom; and the windows creak'd, and the doors rattled in a manner not a little terrible. several of their servants made affidavit, that _haggite_ lost a red petticoat, a ruff, and a pair of green-stockings, that were her mother's, but the night before, and a diamond-cross once gave her by a _great man_. 'twas about midnight before this black society got together, and no sooner were they seated, when _avaro_ open'd to them in this manner. we have try'd, _says he_, my friends, all the artifices we cou'd invent or execute, but all in vain. our mistress has discover'd plainly our intentions, and the tenants will be neither flatter'd, nor frighted, nor brib'd into our interest. it remains therefore, and what tho' we perish in the attempt, we must perish otherwise, that once for all we make a push at the very life of----when, lo! _says the manuscript_, an unusual noise interrupted his discourse, and _jacobo_ cry'd out, _the devil, the devil at the door_. scarce had he time to speak, or they to listen, when the apparition of mother _haggy_ entred; but, who can describe the astonishment they were then in? _haggite_ sounded away in the elbow-chair as she sat, and _avaro_, notwithstanding his boasted courage, slunk under the table in an instant: _baconface_ screw'd himself into a thousand postures; and _clumzy_ trembled till his very water trickled from him. _splitcause_ tumbled over a joint-stool, and _mouse_ the ballad-maker broke a brandy-bottle that had been _haggite_'s companion for some years: but _dammyblood, dammyblood_ only was the man that had the courage to cry out g-d d-m your bl--d, what occasion for all this bustle? is it not the devil, and is he not our old acquaintance? this reviv'd them in some measure; but the ghastlyness of the spectacle made still some impression on them. there was an unaccountable irregularity in her dress, a wanness in her complexion, and a disproportion in her features. flames of fire issued from her nostrils, and a sulphurous smoak from her mouth, which together with the condition some of the company were in, made a very noisome and offensive smell; and _i have been told_, says a very grave alderman of _st. albans, some of them saw her cloven foot_. i come, _says she_, at length, (in an hollow voice, more terrible than the celebrated stentor, or the brawny _caledonian_) i come, o ye accomplices in iniquity, to tell you of your crimes, to bid you desist from these cabals, for they are fruitless, and prepare for punishment that is certain. i have, as long as i could, assisted you in your glorious execrable attempts, but time is now no more; the time is coming when you must be deliver'd up to justice. as to you, o son and daughter, _said she_, turning to them, 'tis but a few revolving moons, e'er you must both fall a sacrifice to your avarice and ambition, as i have told you heretofore, but your mistress will be too merciful, and tho' your ready money must be refunded, your estate in land will descend onto your heirs. but you, o _baconface_, you have merited nothing to save either your life or your estate, be contented therefore with the loss of both: and _clumzy, says she_, you must have the same fate, your insolence to your lady, and the beggars you brought in upon the tenants will require it. _dammyblood, continues she_, turning towards him, you must expect a considerable fine; but _splitcause_ and _mouse_ may come off more easily. she said, gave a shriek; and disappear'd; and the cabal dispers'd with the utmost consternation. _finis._ a catalogue of the capital and well-known library of books, of the late celebrated dr. arbuthnot, deceased; which will be sold by auction, by mess. christie and ansell, at their great room, the royal academy, pall mall, on tuesday, december , , and the two following days. to be viewed on friday the th, and to the time of sale (sunday excepted), which will begin each day exactly at o'clock. catalogues may then be had as above. *.* _conditions of sale as usual._ [illustration] a catalogue, &c. [illustration] first day's sale, tuesday, december , . octavo & duodecimo. a large parcel of pamphlets boerhaave praxis de medica, v. and more taylor's holy living and dying, and more gradus ad parnassum, and more vidæ de arte poetica, and more livsii opera omnia, v. fig. livii historia, v. oxonii virgilius in usum delphini, and more petroni arbitri satyricon, and more histoire philosophique et politique des etablissemens & du commerce des europees dans les deux indes, tom. haye pope's homer's iliad, v. gother's spiritual works, v. houstoun's history of ruptures, and more dr. arbuthnot's miscellaneous works, v. , and more tour through great britain, v. , , , and more dryden's virgil, v. , , vo. and more abridgment of the statutes, v. law french dictionary, , and more riverii praxis medica, v. and more blackmore's essays, glover's leonidas, and more oeuvres de scarron, t. amst. ---- moliere, t. and more ---- spirituelles de fenelon, t. ---- d'horace, par dacier, t. a spanish common-prayer book vida y hechos del don quixote, t. fig. lettres de ciceron a atticus, par mongault, t. paris avantures de telemaque, t. fig. par. , fables choisies, par fontaine, fig. t. and more abrege de l'histoire de france, par daniel, t. paris, , and more oeuvres de racine, t. amst. , and more littlebury's history of herodotus, v. hobbes's history of thucydides, v. malcolm's treatise of music, sewed shere's history of polybius, v. l. p. ulloa's voyage to south america, v. cuts grose's voyage to the east indies, v. sewed, and more drake's anatomy, v. cuts, , allen's practice of physic, v. hale's vegetable statics, v. cuts mitchell's poems, v. l. p. innes's essay on the ancient inhabitants of the northern parts of britain, or scotland, v. bolingbroke's letters on the study and use of history, v. sewed tournefort's history of plants, v. friend's history of physic, v. , and more sherwin's mathematical tables jones's introduction to the mathematics, , and more swift's life of swift, orrery remarks on the life and writings of swift jarvis' don quixote, v. cuts bishop sherlock's sermons, v. , &c. bailey's dictionary, , alvarado's spanish and english dialogues miller's gardener's kalender, , gibson's farrier's guide, , and more prideaux's connection of the old and new testament, v. lord clarendon's life, v. rapin's history of england, by tindal, v. with maps, plans, &c traite de la sphere, par rivard, l'homme détrompé t. psalms of david in verse, dr. young's works, v. la mere chretienne, t. la sainte bible, negociation du paix, la vie d'elizabeth reine d'angleterre abregé chronologique de l'histoire de france, traite du poeme epique par bossu, t. relation sur le quietism, par bofluet, avec la reponse de fenelon, quinte curce, t. lat. & francois histoire du patriotisme francois, par rossel, t. de la conversation des enfans, par raulin, le dictionaire chretien, legis d'un ancien medicine a sa patrie, panegyrique de louis xiv. le dictionaire apostolique, t. histoire de russie, par voltaire, t. ---- ecclesiastique de fleury, t. les pseaumes de david histoire sacrette de neron, traite methodique de la goutte & de rhumatisme, par ponsarte, memoires de la vie du president de thou, la sagesse de dieu par ray ---- du fanatisme par bruyes, t. de l'academic francoise par pelisson dictionaire neologique, l'homme dépéé ou le dictionaire du gentilhomme, sentimens des theologiens, pratique de l'humilite, par lamotte, memoires de mr. d'aubery les saturnales francoises, t. les lettres originales de m. la comtesse du barry quarto. wollaston's religion of nature, and more morley collectanea chymica leydensia, and more the scribleriad, an heroic poem, and more hooke's roman history, v. , , boards ramsay's travels of cyrus cumberland's laws of nature, by maxwell waller's works by fenton, boards pemberton's view of sir isaac newton's philosophy, boards bellamy's ethic amusements, v. cuts, boards addison's works, v. boards pope's works, v. and ---- homer's iliad, v. milton's paradise lost, by newton, v. gay's poems, v. milton's paradise lost, by bentley newton's chronology of ancient kingdoms heurnii opera omnia, and more morton opera medica, and more dr. arbuthnot's tables of ancient coins, weights, and measures, sewed newton's optics smart's tables of interest de moivre's doctrine of chances, , harris treatise of navigation sutherland's ship builder's assistant, and more ainsworth's latin dictionary, , littleton's ditto, dictionaire italien & francois, par veneroni, , and more longinus de sublimitate, gr. & lat. per pearce terentius, per hare, (semicomp) cellarii geographia antiqua, v. frezier's voyage to the south sea, cuts parkinson's voyage to the south seas, cuts, charts, &c. boards opere di machiavelli, t. lond. oeuvres diverses de rousseau, t. lond. ---- boileau, t. fig. amst. jugemens des savans, par baillet, t. par. histoire romaine, par catrou and rouille, avec fig. t. paris folio. skinner etymologicon linguæ anglicanæ lhuyd archoeologia britannica wood's institutes, , and more cay's abridgement of the statutes, v. domat's civil law, v. prior's poems, l. p. machiavel's works, , sydney on government, selden's titles of honor gadbury's doctrine of nativities, with his portrait, chaucer's works, by urry blome's cosmography damag'd, and more mariana's general history of spain, by stevens malpighii opera omnia, figuris elegantissimis willughbeii ornithologiæ, descriptiones iconibus elegantissimis, per ray. eustachii tabulæ anatomicæ romæ mayernii opera medica, , and more etmulleri opera omnia, v. medicæ artis principes, post hippocratem & galenum, v. maculat. apud hen. stephanus suidæ lexicon, gr. & lat. opera & studio porti, v. genevæ, , and more dictionaire universel de commerce, par savary, t. corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens, par dumont, t. amst. le grand dictionaire historique, par morery, t. bayle's historical and critical dictionary, v. dionysii halicarnas. gr. & lat. sylburgii, franc. platonis opera omnia, gr. & lat. ficino, franc. aristotelis opera omnia, per du val, v. gr. & lat. maculat. lutet. par. eusebii, sozomeni, &c. historiæ ecclesiasticæ, gr. & lat. per reading, v. cantab. mattaire corpus poetarum latinorum, v. poetæ græci veteres carminis heroici qui extant omnes gr. & lat. v. aur. allob. parker de antiquitate britannicæ, ecclesiasticæ, per drake lond. l'antiquite explique, et representee en figures, par montfaucon, t. boards and uncut, paris end of the first day's sale. [illustration] second day's sale, wednesday, december , . octavo & duodecimo. histoire comique de francion, and more voyage de cyrus, par ramsay, t, and more les vies des hommes illustres de plutarque, par dacier, t. amst. oeuvres de moliere, t. th. and more les poesies d'anacreon et de sapho, par dacier, and more entretiens de ciceron, t. and more la vie de l'admiral de ruyter, and more histoire de l'academie royale des sciences, t. avec fig. amst. lettres galantes, par fontenelle, and more essais de theodocice, sur la bonte de dieu, and more de la vie de richelieu & mazarine, and more ciceronis opera, notis lambini, v. and more sallustius notis var. et thysii, , and more taciti opera, not. var. & gronovii, bound in v. amst. quintiliani institutiones & declamationes, v. notis var. gronovii, &c. &c. lug. bat. horatii opera, v. cum fig. ch. max. apud sandby, euripedis tragoediæ canteri, gr. and more clavis homerica, per patrick, , and more phædri fabulæ, cum notis laurentii, fig. nitid. amst. natalis comitis mythologiæ, gr. & lat. and more raii synopsis methodica avium & piscium, cum fig. , and more cheselden's anatomy, cuts, , boerhaave's chemistry clifton's state of physic, and more tauvry's treatise of medicines, and more quincy's dispensatory, , and more cheyne's philosophical principles of religion, and more stanhope's thomas a kempis, cuts, , peters on the book of job bp. sherlock's discourses on prophecy, and more beattie's essay on truth, warburton's julian spinckes's sick man visited, and more rapin's critical works. v. and more cunn's euclid, and more davenant on the public revenues, and more gurdon's history of the court of parliament, v. torbuck's debates in parliament, odd v. history of marshal turenne, v. and more hennepin's discovery of america, cuts, , martin's descript. of the western islands of scotland, ball's antiquities of constantinople, cuts, , laughton's history of ancient egypt independent whig, and more bolingbroke's letter to windham, and more bp. berkeley's minute philosopher, v. , lee's plays, v. , and more chamberlayne's state of great britain, and more swift's four last years of queen anne, and more rooke's arrian's history of alexander's expedition, v. cooke's essay on the animal oeconomy, v. , and more bp. hurd's introduction to the study of the prophecies, v. hooper's state of the ancient measures, the attic' roman and jewish, , pancirollus's memorable things, and more swift's tale of a tub, hobbes's homer, and more dr. everard's discovery of the wonderful vertues of tobacco, with his portrait, , and more pope's works, v. vo. lord clarendon's history of the rebellion in england and ireland, with the appendix and heads, v. parliamentary history of england, v. neat udal's key to the holy tongue, , and more sewed la paradis perdu de milton, t. sewed, and more quarto. milton's paradise regained haym tesoro britannico, v. d, and more barber's poems ramsay's travels of cyrus chubb's collection of tracts, , baxter on the soul cumberland's laws of nature, by maxwell lord littleton's history of the life and reign of henry the d, v. boards fitzherbert's natura brevium dr. arbuthnot's tables of ancient coins, weights and measures, boards blackstone's charter and charter of the forest, sewed, tyson's anatomy of a pigmie, cuts, , blair's anatomy of the elephant, cuts boerhaave's chemistry by shaw, , and more lamy's introduction to the scriptures, by bundy, cuts, , newton on the prophecies of daniel, boards, holy bible, and more glas's history of the canary islands, boards, , dobbs's account of the countries near hudson's bay, boards cook's voyage to the south pole, and round the world, v. with maps, charts, &c. boards la henriade de voltaire, avec fig. oeuvres de mr. tourreil, t. paris histoire de la reformation, par courayer, t. nov. ephemerides motuum coelestium, e cassinianis, tabulis, a manfredio, v. , and more moeurs des sauvages ameriquains, par lasitau, t. enrichi de figures en taille, douce paris 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butler's english grammar and history of bees historia insectorum, a raio lond. osservazioni della pontificia, da bolseno, and more alpini de medicina methodica, lug. bat. , le clerc histoire de la medicine, , and more guillimanni de rebus helvetiorum, and more traite du commerce par ricard, amst. , and more tournefort institutiones rei herbariæ, v. tabulis eneis adornata paris lucretius de rerum natura, ap. benenatum lutet. , and more * dictionaire italien et francois, par veneroni, , and more juvenalis & persii satyræ, notis pratei, delp. paris, terentius notis cami ib. plautus, v. notis operarii ib. miscellanea curiosa sive ephemeridum medico-physicarum germanicarum academiæ, v. fig. biblia hebraica, v. paris ap car. steph. tijou's book of drawings for iron gates, &c. macqueen's essay on honour, morocco a treatise of specters or straunge sights, visions and apparitions appearing sensibly unto men a volume of plays and more fleury's ecclesiastical history, v. motte's abridgment of the 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lond. cowper's anatomy, much damaged oxford eustachii tabulæ anatominæ romæ mathiolus comment. in dioscoridem, cum iconibus, venet. hippocratis opera omnia gr. & lat. foesio gregorii astronomiæ, physicæ & geometricæ elementa hevelii machinæ coelestis apollonii pergæi conicorum euclidis elementa, gr. & lat. gregorii flamsted historiæ coelestis guillim's heraldry gordon's itinerarium septentrionale, cuts locke's works, v. barrow's works, v. histoire du concile de trente, par courayer, t. grabe septuaginta interpretam, v. corio morocco fol. deaurat. oxonii novum testamentum, gr. millii charta max. corio morocco, lin. rub. fol. deaurat. oxonii dugdale's monasticon anglicanum, by stevens, v. cuts, boards and uncut and l'antiquite explique et representee en figures et le supplement par montfaucon. t. paris end of the second day's sale. [illustration] third day's sale, thursday, december , . octavo & duodecimo. smollet's don quixote, v. history of lady frances s----, v. francis's horace, v. sowel's ovid, v. trapp's virgil, v. prior's poems harvey's meditations, v. beauties of history, v. plato's works, v. telemachus, v. pillars of priestcraft, v. new duty of man, fenelon on the existence of god, balsac's letters, quarle's emblems, greenwood's essay, cotton's visions, fenny on the globes, letter writer, rowe's exercises, webster's arithmetic, hudson's guide, coke on littleton, and others chinese spy, v. vicar of wakefield, v. woodbury, v. mariamne, v. cuckoldom triumphant, v. portrait of life, v. unhappy wife, v. placid man, v. les oraisons de ciceron, par villifore, t. entretiens de ciceron, t. tusculanes de ciceron, t. count de vaux, v. history of fanny seymour, cupid and hymen, nicol's poems, epistles to the ladies, v. fault was all his own, v. small friendship, v. world, v. persian letters, temple's miscellanies, and others telemachus, v. beaumont and fletcher's select plays, v. dialogues de platon, t. voltair's works, v. hull's letters, v. quevedo's visions, family instructor rowe's letters, v. lyttleton's dialogues of the dead, v. marmontel's moral tales, v. churchill's poems, v. byron's voyage, scougal's life of god, steel's christian hero, watts's poems, nettleton on virtue, charles xii. guthrie's trial addison's evidence, sherlock on death, religious courtship, rule of life, doddridge's rise and progress, gordon's young man's companion, hammouth's works, v. sherlock's discourses, sherlock on a future state addison's works, v. suckling's works, mills's agriculture, school of arts, v. play for its interest, rousseau's remarks, world to come, two rules for bad horsemen, and others echard's gazetteer, adventures of pomponius, english connoisseur, v. gent's history of york, v. coventry's history, travels into france and italy, and five others prælectiones poeticæ, t. luciani dialogus, erasmus 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book-keeping, female favorites, state of the british empire, history of the pyrites, tull's husbandry, hill's theophrastus, blundeville's exercises les saisons, a poem greek testament, urie, succession of colonels, exercise of foot, a pocket dictionary whichcote's aphorisms, v. history of gustavus, history of the indian nations, overley's gauger's instructor, martyn catalogus, roofe's book-keeping, fencing familiarized, hill on fruit trees, parliamentary register , portal's midwifery, gent's history of the cathedral of york observations on asia, africa and america, v. city remembrancer, v. hill's theophrastus, guthrie's cicero's morals, fitzosborne's letters, hawksby's experiments, falk on mercury * langveti epistolæ, newtonianissimo onaro dialoghi, ovidii epistolarum, virgil, florus, historiarum fabellum, chrysostomi de sacerdotio, dionysii geographia washington's abridgement, trials per pais, græcæ grammaticæ, and others dictionaire universel de bomare, t. brydon's tour, v. 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guardian, v. play-house dictionary, v. pope's homer's iliad, v. ---- works, v. to , bysshe's art of poetry, v. mariana historia de espana, t. castalio biblia sacra, t. de literis inventis, socraticas gr. historiarum delectus, ovidii metam. l'esprit de loix, t. memoires de bonneval, tom. ovidius, v. horatius, and more plutarch's lives, v. sm. edition whiston's works of josephus, v. rider's history of england, v. cuts, &c. baddam's memoirs of the royal society, v. cuts rapin's history of england, by tindal, v. with maps, &c. london magazine, v. , &c. quarto. bible, oxford, , wright's travels, v. anderson's history of mary queen of scots, v. collection of acts relating to the quakers, pennington's works, v. oldenburg's tables of exchange, , glover's leonidas, , paraphrase of the notes to st. paul, hill's vegetable system, v. horti malibarici, distiller of london * priestley's history and state of electricity, boards folio. heylyn's cosmography, , a concordance, usher's body of divinity stanley's history of philosophy, , prideaux's connection of the old and new testament, v. , fox's journal, d edit. cave's history of the apostles, , penn's works, v. , cotton's concordance fox's book of martyrs, , ---- journal, , elwood's sacred history, , ripa's iconologia, bible, bl. let. , sewel's history of the quakers, , epistles from the yearly meeting of the quakers le brun's voyage to the levant, snelling's view of the gold coin, , cowley's works postlethwayte's dictionary, v. d edit. chambers's dictionary, th edit. v. rapin's history of england, v. d edit. embassys to the emperor of japan, , acherley's britannic constitution cradock's harmony of the four evangelists, limbrochii historia inquisitiones, turtelliani opera inventory of the south sea directors estates, v. leybourne's mathematics burton's history of yorkshire, dryden's plays, v. churchill's collection of voyages, v. to , baker's chronicle, th edit. prideaux's connection of the old and new testament, v. religious ceremonies, large paper, v. entick's naval history, cuts metalick's history of king william, queen mary, queen anne, and george i. le nouveau theatre du monde, t. histoire du concile de trente, par courayer, t. dictionaire historique & critique, par bayle, t. rott. le grand dictionaire historique, par moreri, t. amst. echard's history of england, v. st. sammes's bittannia purcel's orpheus britannicus , and more ld. clarendon's tracts scott's history of scotland garth's ovid's metamorphoses, cuts makenzie's lives and characters of the writers of the scots nation, v. newman's concordance to the bible, , and more prideaux's connection of the old and new testament, v. keith's history of the church and state of scotland, , spotswood's history of the church of scotland (with his portrait, by hollar) dugdale's view of the troubles in england, and more buchanani opera omnia, v. huetii demonstratio evangelica, , and more dion cassius, gr. & lat. xylandri, ap. h. step. herodotus gr. et lat. sylburgii & jungermanni franc. livii. hist. rom. cum figs. franc. thucydidis gr. ap h. step. franc. , aristophanes gr. & lat. biseti. janssonii novus atlas terrarum, t. th architectura di scamozzi venet. d'architecture de vitruve, en maroquin, par. koeheorn's method of fortification, by savary, , and more browne's academy of drawing, painting, &c. with copper plates palladio's architecture, by leoni bp. smalridge's sermons, , ---- taylor's course of sermons cudworth's intellectual system of the universe, , tillotson's works, v. st. hammond on the new testament, and more laud's life and trial, v. , book of homilies, and more ross's silius italicus scarburgh's elements of euclid giannone's history of naples, v. d. boards, , rymer's foedera, v. th plempii fundamenta medicinæ, and more fousch l'histoire des plantes colorees, par. varandæi opera omnia, , and more gorræi opera medica, paris , and more boneti sepulchretum, five anatomia practica, v. sennerti opera, v. and , and more ditto, and more foresti opera omnia, and more avicennæ de medicinis cordialibus & cantica, and more le origini della langua italiana dal menagio, , howell's french and english dictionary histoire des troubles de la grande bretagne , and more le meme, and more barlæi panegyrus de laudibus card. richelii, cum fig. amst. traite de la peinture de l. de vinci, par. , in physionomica aristotelis comment. a baldo plinii hist. naturalis, , and more ortelii theatrum orbis terrarum, and more rosa anglica stokeley on the spleen, sewed, and more sallustii opera, , and more voyage d'Ægypt & de nubie, par norden, t. st, tallent's chronological tables bion's construction of mathematical instruments, by stone life of the duke of espernon, i. p. spenser's faerie queen a volume of dried plants atlas par sanson, colour'd a volume consisting of plates of the florentine gallery, and some of great estimation finis. appendix key to the story of the saint _alban_'s-ghost. mother haggy, mother _jen--gs_. haggite, _d----s of_ m---- avaro, _duke of_ m---- baconface, _earl of_ g----. dammy-blood, _lord_ w----. clumzy, _earl of_ s----. splitcause, _lord_ c----. mouse, _lord_ h----. jointed-babies, _the figures intended for the procession on queen_ elizabeth'_s_ birth-day. dry-bones, _b---- of_ s---- _jacobo_, jacob ton--n, senior, _door-holder to the_ kit-cat-club. _finis._ key to the story of the saint _alban_'s-ghost. mother haggy, mother _jen--gs_. haggite, _d----s of_ m----h. avaro, _duke of_ m----h. baconface, _earl of_ g----n. dammy­blood, _lord_ w----n. clumzy, _earl of_ s----d. splitcause, _lord_ c----r. mouse, _lord_ h----x. jointed-babies, _the figures intended for the procession on queen_ elizabeth'_s_ birth-day. dry-bones, _b----p of_ s----y. _jacobo_, jacob ton--n senior, _door-holder to the_ kit-cat-club. _finis._ william andrews clark memorial library university of california, los angeles [illustration] the augustan reprint society publications in print the augustan reprint society publications in print [illustration] - . henry nevil payne, _the fatal jealousie_ ( ). . nicholas rowe, _some account of the life of mr. william shakespear_ ( ). . anonymous, "of genius," in _the occasional paper_, vol. iii, no. ( ), and aaron hill, preface to _the creation_ ( ). - . susanna centlivre, _the busie body_ ( ). . lewis theobald, _preface to the works of shakespeare_ ( ). . samuel johnson, _the vanity of human wishes_ ( ), and two _rambler_ papers ( ). . john dryden, _his majesties declaration defended_ ( ). - . charles macklin, _the man of the world_ ( ). . thomas gray, _an elegy wrote in a country churchyard_ ( ), and _the eton college manuscript_. - . bernard mandeville, _a letter to dion_ ( ). - . selected hymns taken out of mr. herbert's _temple ..._ ( ). - . sir william temple, _an essay upon the original and nature of government_ ( ). . john tutchin, _selected poems_ ( - ). . anonymous, _political justice_ ( ). . robert dodsley, _an essay on fable_ ( ). . t. r., _an essay concerning critical and curious learning_ ( ). . _two poems against pope_: leonard welsted, _one epistle to mr. a. pope_ ( ), and anonymous, _the blatant beast_ ( ). - . daniel defoe and others, _accounts of the apparition of mrs. veal_. . charles macklin, _the covent garden theatre_ ( ). . sir roger l'estrange, _citt and bumpkin_ ( ). . henry more, _enthusiasmus triumphatus_ ( ). . thomas traherne, _meditations on the six days of the creation_ ( ). . bernard mandeville, _aesop dress'd or a collection of fables_ ( ). - . edmond malone, _cursory observations on the poems attributed to mr. thomas rowley_ ( ). . anonymous, _the female wits_ ( ). . anonymous, _the scribleriad_ ( ). lord hervey, _the difference between verbal and practical virtue_ ( ). - . lawrence echard, prefaces to _terence's comedies_ ( ) and _plautus's comedies_ ( ). . henry more, _democritus platonissans_ ( ). . walter harte, _an essay on satire, particularly on the dunciad_ ( ). - . john courtenay, _a poetical review of the literary and moral character of the late samuel johnson_ ( ). . john downes, _roscius anglicanus_ ( ). . sir john hill, _hypochondriasis, a practical treatise_ ( ). . thomas sheridan, _discourse ... being introductory to his course of lectures on elocution and the english language_ ( ). arthur murphy, _the englishman from paris_ ( ). - . [catherine trotter], _olinda's adventures_ ( ). . john ogilvie, _an essay on the lyric poetry of the ancients_ ( ). . _a learned dissertation on dumpling_ ( ) and _pudding burnt to pot or a compleat key to the dissertation on dumpling_ ( ). . selections from sir roger l'estrange's _observator_ ( - ). . anthony collins, _a discourse concerning ridicule and irony in writing_ ( ). . _a letter from a clergyman to his friend, with an account of the travels of captain lemuel gulliver_ ( ). . _the art of architecture, a poem. in imitation of horace's art of poetry_ ( ). - - . thomas shelton, _a tutor to tachygraphy, or short-writing_ ( ) and _tachygraphy_ ( ). - . _deformities of dr. samuel johnson_ ( ). . _poeta de tristibus: or, the poet's complaint_ ( ). . gerard langbaine, _momus triumphans: or, the plagiaries of the english stage_ ( ). publications of the first fifteen years of the society (numbers - ) are available in paperbound units of six issues at $ . per unit, from the kraus reprint company, east th street, new york, n.y. . publications in print are available at the regular membership rate of $ . for individuals and $ . for institutions per year. prices of single issues may be obtained upon request. subsequent publications may be checked in the annual prospectus. [illustration] the augustan reprint society william andrews clark memorial library university of california, los angeles cimarron street (at west adams), los angeles, california [illustration] _make check or money order payable to_ the regents of the university of california transcriber's note: every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. some changes of spelling and punctuation have been made. they are listed at the end of the text. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. oe ligatures have been expanded. pioneer imprints from fifty states by roger j. trienens _descriptive cataloging division, processing department_ library of congress washington library of congress cataloging in publication data trienens, roger j. pioneer imprints from fifty states. includes bibliographical references. . printing--history--united states. . united states. library of congress. . bibliography--early printed books. i. united states. library of congress. ii. title. z .t . ' - isbn - - - cover: _a standard tray (case) of type. frequency of a letter's use determined the size and position of the letter compartment._ for sale by the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office washington, d.c. .--price $ . stock number - preface _pioneer imprints from fifty states_ will enable readers to view the library of congress collections from an unaccustomed angle. it takes for its subject the library's earliest examples of printing from within present-day boundaries of each state in the union, providing for each in turn ) a brief statement about the origin of printing; ) identification of the library's earliest examples--among them broadsides, newspapers, individual laws, almanacs, primers, and longer works; and ) information, if available, about the provenance of these rarities. each of the sections may be consulted independently. to those who read it through, however, _pioneer imprints_ will give some idea of the movement of printers and presses across the nation, as well as insight into the nature and history of the library's holdings. the author wishes to express his indebtedness to frederick r. goff, chief of the library of congress rare book division from to , who has been constantly helpful and encouraging; to thomas r. adams, librarian of the john carter brown library, providence, r.i., who read the first sections before their publication under the title "the library's earliest colonial imprints" in the _quarterly journal of the library of congress_ for july ; and to marcus a. mccorison, director and librarian of the american antiquarian society, worcester, mass., who read the manuscript of the later sections. these scholars cannot, of course, be held responsible for any errors or faults in this bibliographical investigation. the author's indebtedness to printed sources is revealed to some extent by notes appearing at the end of each section. he is obliged for much of his information to the staffs of the library of congress, the national archives, and the smithsonian institution, as well as to the following correspondents: alfred l. bush, curator, princeton collections of western americana, princeton university library; g. glenn clift, assistant director, kentucky historical society; james h. dowdy, archivist, st. mary's seminary, baltimore; caroline dunn, librarian, william henry smith memorial library, indianapolis; joyce eakin, librarian, u.s. army military history research collection, carlisle barracks, pa.; arthur perrault, librarian, advocates' library, montreal; p. w. filby, librarian, maryland historical society; lilla m. hawes, director, georgia historical society; earl e. olson, assistant church historian, the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, salt lake city; and frank s. richards, piedmont, calif. contents _ massachusetts_ _ virginia_ _ maryland_ _ pennsylvania_ _ new york_ _ connecticut_ _ new jersey_ _ rhode island_ _ south carolina_ _ north carolina_ _ new hampshire_ _ delaware_ _ georgia_ _ louisiana_ _ vermont_ _ florida_ _ maine_ _ kentucky_ _ west virginia_ _ tennessee_ _ ohio_ _ michigan_ _ mississippi_ _ indiana_ _ alabama_ _ missouri_ _ texas_ _ illinois_ _ arkansas_ _ hawaii_ _ wisconsin_ _ california_ _ kansas_ _ new mexico_ _ oklahoma_ _ iowa_ _ idaho_ _ oregon_ _ utah_ _ minnesota_ _ washington_ _ nebraska_ _ south dakota_ _ nevada_ _ arizona_ _ colorado_ _ wyoming_ _ montana_ _ north dakota_ _ alaska_ pioneer imprints [illustration: _the lapwai press, brought to idaho in to produce the first book printed in the northwest--an indian primer. courtesy of the oregon historical society. see page ._] massachusetts stephen daye, the first printer of english-speaking north america, established his press at cambridge late in or early in and printed the famed _bay psalm book_ there in . this volume of pages is the first substantial book and the earliest extant example of printing from what is now the united states. mrs. adrian van sinderen of washington, conn., deposited an original copy of the _bay psalm book_ in the library of congress at a formal ceremony held in the librarian's office on may , . mrs. van sinderen retained ownership of the book during her lifetime; it became the library's property upon her death, april , . the book is properly entitled _the whole booke of psalmes faithfully translated into english metre_. of extant copies this was the last in private hands, and it filled the most serious single gap in the library's collection of early american printing. it is an imperfect copy, lacking its title page and leaves. bound in calfskin, it is one of the five copies in an original binding. zoltán haraszti's authoritative study _the enigma of the bay psalm book_ (chicago, ) includes information about all the surviving copies. mrs. van sinderen's copy was one of five that were collected by scholarly thomas prince of boston ( - ), who bequeathed his extensive library to old south church. it was from the church that the cambridge wool merchant and bible collector george livermore obtained it in . by an exchange agreement between livermore and the prominent bookseller henry stevens, leaves were removed from the volume to complete another copy, which stevens sold to james lenox in and which now belongs to the new york public library. livermore's collection, deposited at harvard after his death, was auctioned in in boston, his _bay psalm book_ realizing $ and going to mrs. van sinderen's father, alfred tredway white of brooklyn. [illustration: (richard mather's _the summe of certain sermons upon genes: . _, printed at cambridge in )] before the earliest massachusetts imprint, as well as the earliest imprint of the nation, in the library was richard mather's _the summe of certain sermons upon genes: . _, printed at cambridge in . its author was the progenitor of the powerful mather family of new england divines, and he was among the translators contributing to the _bay psalm book_. its printer, samuel green, operated the first massachusetts printing press after stephen daye's son matthew died in , stephen having retired from the press in . mather's book contains his revised notes for sermons preached at dorchester. [illustration: (_bay psalm book_)] the library of congress copy--one of four extant--is inscribed by an early hand, "james blake his booke." in the mid- th century this copy apparently came into the possession of henry stevens, whereupon it was bound in full morocco by francis bedford at london; and it presumably belonged to the extensive collection of mather family books that stevens sold in to george brinley, of hartford, conn.[ ] the library of congress obtained the volume with a $ bid at the first sale of brinley's great library of americana, held at new york in march . [footnote : see wyman w. parker, _henry stevens of vermont_ (amsterdam, ), p. - .] virginia [illustration: (_a collection of all the acts of assembly now in force, in the colony of virginia_ ( ) printed by william parks)] a press that william nuthead started at jamestown in was quickly suppressed, and nothing of its output has survived. it was william parks who established at williamsburg in virginia's first permanent press. here parks issued the earliest virginia imprint now represented in the library of congress: _a collection of all the acts of assembly now in force, in the colony of virginia_ ( ). printing of this book may have begun as early as . in a monograph on william parks, lawrence c. wroth cites evidence "in the form of a passage from markland's _typographia_, which indicates that its printing was one of the first things undertaken after parks had set up his williamsburg press."[ ] two library of congress copies of this imposing folio--one of them seriously defective--are housed in the law library; while yet another copy, which is especially prized, is kept with the jefferson collection in the rare book division since it belonged to the library which thomas jefferson sold to the congress in .[ ] the bookplate of the library of congress is preserved in this rebound copy, and jefferson's secret mark of ownership can be seen--his addition of his other initial to printed signatures i and t. a previous owner wrote "robert [?] lewis law book" on a flyleaf at the end, following later acts bound into the volume and extending through the year . he may well have been the same robert lewis ( - ) who served in the house of burgesses from to .[ ] the library possesses the only known copy of another early virginia imprint bearing the same date: charles leslie's _a short and easy method with the deists. the fifth edition_.... printed and sold by william parks, at his printing-offices, in williamsburg and annapolis, . inasmuch as an advertisement for this publication in the _maryland gazette_ for may - , , is headed "lately publish'd," it was most likely printed early in but dated old style, and so it probably followed the publication of the _acts of assembly_. the library purchased the unique copy for $ at the second brinley sale, held in march . [footnote : _william parks, printer and journalist of england and colonial america_ (richmond, ), p. .] [footnote : no. in u.s. library of congress, _catalogue of the library of thomas jefferson, compiled with annotations by e. millicent sowerby_ (washington, - ).] [footnote : see sarah travers lewis (scott) anderson's _lewises, meriwethers and their kin_ (richmond, ), p. - .] maryland after departing from virginia, william nuthead set up the first maryland press at st. mary's city sometime before august , . this press continued in operation until a few years after nuthead's widow removed it to annapolis about ; yet nothing more survives from it than a single broadside and some printed blank forms. in thomas reading began to operate a second press at annapolis, and his output in that year included a collection of laws which is the earliest maryland imprint now represented in the library of congress. since the library's is the only extant copy, it is particularly regrettable that its title page and considerable portions of the text are lacking. catalogers have supplied it with the title: _a complete body of the laws of maryland_.[ ] the copy was formerly in the possession of the lawyer and diplomat john bozman kerr ( - ). it might not have survived to this day were it not for his awareness of its importance, as shown in his flyleaf inscription: ? would this have been printed in m^d at so early a period as --in m^d or elsewhere in the colonies--it is dedicated to mr wm bladen father, it is presumed, of gov^r tho^s bladen, of whom _pope_, the poet, speaks so harshly--having given much attention to m^d history i know no book--calculated to throw more light upon _manners_ & _customs_ than this printed copy of the body of m^d law in --the language of the early acts of assembly was much modified in & --_here_ the exact words are preserved as in the original acts--unless in some old collection in england, five thousand dollars would not procure a like copy--many years ago there was extant, in ms, in charles co court records, as i have been told, a similar collection--this _printed_ copy is "the schedule annexed to . c & the act of . c -- sept ^d john bozman kerr--of easton, m^d law office, no. . st. pauls st. balt^o william bladen, to whom the book is dedicated, was then clerk of the upper house and had been instrumental in bringing thomas reading to maryland. in fact, the records indicate that he assumed the role of publisher. if john bozman kerr had had access to the proceedings of the lower house for the year , he would have been most interested to find there bladen's written proposal: that if the house are desirous the body of laws should be printed soe that every person might easily have them in their houses without being troubled to goe to the county court house to have recourse thereto. that the house made [sic] an order for printeing thereof and that every county be oblidged to take one faire coppy endorsed and titled to be bound up handsomely and that for the encouragement of the undertaker each county pay him therefore ^{lbs} of tob^o upon delivery the said booke of laws.... this was approved on may .[ ] the printing was not wholly satisfactory, for on may of the next year an errata list was ordered printed.[ ] [illustration: _john bozman kerr_, _from_ genealogical notes of the chamberlaine family of maryland (_baltimore, _).] [footnote : it is no. in lawrence c. wroth's _a history of printing in colonial maryland_ (baltimore, ). besides listing it in his bibliography, wroth discusses the book at length on p. - .] [footnote : _archives of maryland_, vol. ( ), p. - .] [footnote : ibid., p. .] pennsylvania like william nuthead, william bradford introduced printing in more than one colony, and he began his american career by establishing the first pennsylvania press at philadelphia in . here that same year he printed _good order established in pennsilvania & new-jersey in america_, the earliest pennsylvania imprint in the library of congress and the second known example of bradford's press. the author, thomas budd, was a successful quaker immigrant, who settled first at burlington, n.j., and later at philadelphia. he intended his description of the two colonies to stimulate further immigration, and he printed this statement on the title page verso: it is to be noted, that the government of these countries is so settled by concessions, and such care taken by the establishment of certain fundamental laws, by which every man's liberty and property, both as men and christians, are preserved; so that none shall be hurt in his person, estate or liberty for his religious perswasion or practice in worship towards god. because neither place nor printer is named in the book, it was long thought to have been printed at london, but typographical comparisons made during the latter part of the th century demonstrated conclusively that it issued from william bradford's press. [illustration: _the th-century bookseller henry stevens._] the library of congress copy was bound at london by william pratt for the bookseller henry stevens. f. j. shepard traces this much of its later provenance in his introduction to a reprint issued in cleveland in : a copy in full levant morocco, by pratt, belonging to john a. rice of chicago, was sold in march, , to sabin & sons for $ . the same copy fetched $ at the sale of the library of william menzies of new york ( ),[ ] when it was described in sabin's catalogue as "one of the rarest of books relating to pennsylvania." it was again, presumably, the same copy which at the sale in new york of s. l. m. barlow's books in brought $ , although it was still incorrectly described as printed in london. after passing through the hands of two dealers and one collector, it reached dodd, mead & co., who advertised it in their november, , catalogue for $ , and sold it at that price to a private collector whose name is not given. the copy was among several americana from the library of c. h. chubbock, a boston collector,[ ] which were sold at auction by c. f. libbie & co. on february and , , the library of congress obtaining it for $ . [footnote : sabin's catalog is dated , but the sale did not occur until november .] [footnote : see _american book-prices current_, vol. ( ), p. vii.] new york william bradford moved from pennsylvania to new york in the spring of , but what was the first product of his new york press has not been established.[ ] the library of congress owns two bradford imprints from this period, neither containing any indication of the place of publication. nevertheless, both are listed in wilberforce eames' bibliography of early new york imprints.[ ] one of them, entitled _new-england's spirit of persecution transmitted to pennsilvania, and the pretended quaker found persecuting the true christian-quaker, in the tryal of peter boss, george keith, thomas budd, and william bradford, at the sessions held at philadelphia the nineth, tenth and twelfth days of december, . giving an account of the most arbitrary procedure of that court_, has been conjectured to be the first new york imprint (eames ). eames states that the work "seems to be the joint production of george keith and thomas budd, including bradford's own account of the trial. as it mentions the next court session of march, , it could hardly have been printed before may...." he confesses that bradford may have printed it at philadelphia. the library of congress purchased its copy--one of six recorded in the national union catalog--for $ at the november auction of the library of americana formed by a new york collector, william menzies. the other bradford imprint conjecturally assigned to new york is governor benjamin fletcher's proclamation of april , , prohibiting "the _breaking of the lords day_, all _prophane swearing, cursing, drunkenness, idleness_ and _unlawful gaming_, and all manner of _prophaneness_ whatsoever" (eames ). eames gives no reason why this broadside should be listed as a later imprint. an eminent new yorker, stuyvesant fish, presented the unique copy to the library of congress in and in an accompanying letter to the librarian told how it had come into his possession: the broadside now sent you was given me by mrs. fish's mother, the late mrs. william henry anthon, with the statement that she had found it among the papers left by her brother-in-law, professor charles edward anthon (b. dec. , ; d. june , ). the latter was much given to collecting coins, manuscripts, &c., but no effort of mine has enabled me to learn where, when or how he became possessed of the paper. in view of the uncertain assignment of these two imprints to new york, the library's earliest imprints naming new york as the place of publication should also be mentioned. _a catalogue of fees established by the governour and council at the humble request of the assembly_ (new-york, william bradford, ) is an -page work printed sometime after september , . the library's copy, like others, is appended to bradford's printing of _the laws & acts of the general assembly_ (new-york, ), which in eames' opinion was itself probably begun in , perhaps as early as july or august. among the owners of the volume containing these early imprints was the bibliographer charles r. hildeburn, who gave the following history in a note prefixed to an facsimile edition of _the laws & acts_: this [copy], lacking a title-page, was formerly part of a volume of laws and other folio tracts printed by bradford between and , which was bought at a sale at bangs's, in new-york, about ten years ago, by the late dr. george h. moore, for $ . in dr. moore sold the volume as he bought it for $ to the writer, who, having supplied the title-page in facsimile, sold so much of "the laws of as issued" as it contained to the late mr. tower for $ . the volume then passed by the gift of mr. towers's widow, with the tower collection, to the historical society of pennsylvania, and, having been replaced by a perfect copy ..., was sold to dodd, meade & company, of new-york for $ . from the firm last mentioned it was purchased by mr. [abram c.] bernheim.[ ] now in a full morocco binding by bradstreet's, the volume contains the bookplates of abram c. bernheim, who lectured on new york history at columbia college, henry c. bernheim, and russell benedict. at the new york auction of judge benedict's library in halstead h. frost, jr., purchased it for $ , ; yet in at an auction by the same house of "rare americana including the collection of the late a. r. turner, jr. and selections from the collection of the late charles a. munn," the same copy drew only $ , . in the library of congress obtained it from the firm of lathrop c. harper for $ , . , and it was duly noted in the subsequent annual report as "the most precious acquisition of the year by the law library." [illustration: _a catalogue of fees established by the governour and council at the humble request of the assembly_ (new-york, william bradford, )] [footnote : alexander j. wall, jr., "william bradford, colonial printer," _proceedings of the american antiquarian society_, , vol. , p. .] [footnote : _the first year of printing in new-york_ (new york, ).] [footnote : p. clvii. the facsimile was made from the bernheim copy, which apart from its missing title page was considered to be the best preserved.] connecticut thomas short, who learned his trade at boston, became connecticut's first printer when he went to new london to do the official printing for the colony in . the library of congress owns two thomas short imprints dated , and one of them is believed to be the first book printed in connecticut: _the necessity of judgment, and righteousness in a land. a sermon, preached at the general court of election, at hartford in the colony of connecticut, on may th. . by eliphalet adams, pastor of the church in new-london_. eliphalet adams was an influential clergyman whose years of service at new london had just begun in . the work is an election sermon, of a type delivered annually at the opening of certain new england legislatures. although not especially worthy of remembrance, it manages to suggest the ceremony of the occasion. adams closes his sermon by addressing the governor, deputy governor, and magistrates, next turning to the assembled clergy, and finally concluding: shall i now turn my self to the _general assembly of the colony at present met together_. and even here i may promise my self an easie reception, while i plead for _judgment_ & _righteousness_. the welfare of the country is in a great measure intrusted in your hands and it is indeed a matter worthy of your best thoughts and chiefest cares. it should be ingraven, if not upon the walls of your house, yet upon each of your hearts, _ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat_, _let the common-wealth receive no damage_. it is in your power partly to frame laws for the direction & government of the people of the land. now too much care cannot be taken, that they may be strictly agreable to the standing rules of justice & equity, that they may not prove a grievance in stead of an advantage to the subject; if the rule be crooked, how shall our manners be regular?...[ ] the library of congress copy, in a th-century morocco binding, contains no evidence of provenance, but it was undoubtedly in the library's possession by , for the title is listed in the library catalog published that year. another copy sold at auction in for $ , , which was the largest amount ever paid for a connecticut imprint.[ ] the library's other connecticut imprint with a date of is entitled _a confession of faith owned and consented to by the elders and messengers of the churches in the colony of connecticut in new-england, assembled by delegation at saybrook september th. _.... herein is the historic saybrook platform, whereby individual congregations of the colony submitted to the firmer control of synods. there exists documentary evidence that the printing of this book did not begin until late in , and apparently it was not completed until .[ ] elizabeth short, the printer's widow, was paid £ in for binding all , copies in calfskin and birchwood covers.[ ] the library's copy retains the original binding. of further interest is the evidence supplied by the library's bookplate that the volume formerly belonged to peter force, the american historian and archivist, whose notable collection was obtained through a special congressional appropriation in . [illustration: _peter force. lithograph from life by charles fenderich._] [footnote : p. - .] [footnote : see _papers of the bibliographical society of america_, vol. ( ), p. .] [footnote : w. deloss love, _thomas short the first printer of connecticut_ ([hartford] ), p. - ; thomas w. streeter, _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ), p. - .] [footnote : love, p. - .] new jersey [illustration: _anno regni georgii regis magnæ britanniæ, franciæ & hiberniæ decimo, at a session of the general assembly of the colony of new jersey, begun the twenty fourth day of september, anno domini . and continued by adjournments to the th day of november following, at which time the following acts were published_. printed by william bradford in the city of perth-amboy, .] in william bradford is thought by some to have transported a press from new york to perth amboy, then the capital of new jersey, to print paper currency for the colony.[ ] if this is true he was the first new jersey printer, although printing was not established there on a permanent basis until three decades later. in any event, in bradford produced the first book with a new jersey imprint: _anno regni georgii regis magnae britanniae, franciae & hiberniae decimo, at a session of the general assembly of the colony of new jersey, begun the twenty fourth day of september, anno domini . and continued by adjournments to the th day of november following_.... douglas c. mcmurtrie distinguishes three variant issues of the edition in _a further note on the new jersey acts of _ (somerville, n.j., ); but the library of congress copy, containing numbered and four unnumbered pages, represents a fourth variant. it is one of two issues (the other bearing a new york imprint) in which the type for the later pages was reset. in the section on paper money, which has a prominent place in the new jersey laws, is an interesting sidelight on printing history: the text of an oath to be administered to the printer upon his delivery of the bills to those authorized to sign them, requiring him to declare that from the time the letters were set, and fit to be put in the press for printing the bills of credit now by me delivered to you, until the same bills were printed, and the letters unset and put in the boxes again, i went at no time out of the room in which the said letters were, without locking them up, so as they could not be come at, without violence, a false key, or other art then unknown to me; and therefore to the best of my knowledge no copies were printed off but in my presence; and that all the blotters and other papers whatever, printed by the said letters, which set for printing the said bills, to the best of my knowledge are here delivered to you together with the stamps for the indents, and arms. the library of congress copy is bound in the midst of a folio volume of early new jersey laws and ordinances that c. s. hook of atlantic city, a dealer in old law books, sold to the library in for $ , . . though dilapidated, the volume retains its original calf binding, and the names of two early owners are inscribed on its front flyleaf: "m^r bard" and "john wright esq:^r" the former may well be the same peter bard, a huguenot immigrant, who served as member of the council from to and who was one of those authorized to sign the above-mentioned bills. some authorities doubt that bradford would have moved a press to new jersey for only a short time and think it more likely that he actually printed the acts of in new york.[ ] in that case the earliest new jersey imprint in the library of congress would be an -page pamphlet containing an act passed on june , , which james parker printed at woodbridge on the first permanent press in the colony: ... _a supplementary act to the act, entitled, an act for better settling and regulating the militia of this colony of new-jersey; for the repelling invasions, and suppressing insurrections and rebellions; as_ [sic] _also, for continuing such parts and clauses of the said laws, as are not altered or amended by this act_. the library's copy, inscribed "capt. monrow" on its title page, probably belonged originally to john monrow, a resident of burlington county.[ ] the central book company of new york sold it to the library for $ in . [footnote : see lawrence c. wroth, _the colonial printer_ (portland, maine, ), p. - .] [footnote : see streeter, _americana--beginnings_, no. , where this view is attributed to r. w. g. vail.] [footnote : see _archives of the state of new jersey_, st series, vol. ( ), p. and ; h. stanley craig, _burlington county, new jersey, marriages_, merchantville, n.j. ( ), p. .] rhode island [illustration: (benjamin franklin's _rhode-island almanack for the year _)] after a stay in prison resulting from his publishing activities in boston, james franklin, elder brother of benjamin, chose to settle at newport, where he established the first rhode island press in . when the library of congress acquired its unique copy of franklin's _rhode-island almanack for the year _ in , it was thought to be the earliest book printed in rhode island. not until , when copies of two religious tracts by john hammett came to light, was it relegated to third place. those two tracts were printed before july , , while franklin's pseudonymous preface to his almanac is dated august of that year.[ ] * * * * * although it may no longer be regarded as the first rhode island book, this small almanac nevertheless is of exceptional interest. four years before benjamin franklin inaugurated _poor richard's almanack_ his elder brother presented himself in this wise: tho' i have not given you my _proper name_, yet i assure you i have had one the greatest part of half an hundred years; and i know of no necessity for parting with it at this time, since i presume my almanack will answer all the ends design'd without that expence. so, wishing you a happy new year; bid you adieu. _poor_ robin james franklin strove to make his almanac entertaining, and he did not refrain from injecting anticlerical gibes or a bit of ribaldry. he obviously relished such pithy sayings as "more religion than honesty" and "if you cannot bite, never show your teeth." the library of congress purchased its unique copy for $ at the brinley sale of . it then had seven leaves and seemed to lack an eighth leaf at the end. much later, george winship, librarian of the john carter brown library, reported a curious happening in an article that he contributed to _the providence sunday journal_, november , : a few weeks ago some one noticed that a leaf which was bound at the end of a book in the boston public library had nothing whatever to do with that book. it was apparently a leaf of an old almanac, and after some research alfred b. page of the massachusetts historical society library was successful in identifying it, not only as the last leaf of the almanac for , which was printed in newport toward the end of the preceding year, but as the identical leaf which originally formed a part of the copy now belonging to the library of congress. the officials in washington sent their book to boston to make certain of the identification, and in return they have been presented with the missing member, so long separated from its proper body. on its way back to washington, this precious little waif is making a visit to the state of its origin, and will be for a few days on exhibition at the john carter brown library, in company with various of its contemporary rivals, predecessors and followers. a reprint of the almanac with an introduction by mr. winship, signing himself as philohistoricus, was published at this time. and while at boston the copy was encased in a variegated morocco binding by the hathaway book binding company on beacon street. [footnote : see _rhode island history_, vol. ( ), p. - , - .] south carolina printing commenced in south carolina in when three competing printers migrated to charleston: george webb, eleazer phillips, jr., and thomas whitmarsh. they were attracted by an offer of monetary aid that the government announced in order to secure a printer for the colony. the earliest library of congress copies of south carolina imprints issued from the press of lewis timothy (otherwise louis timothée), a frenchman trained in holland and subsequently employed by benjamin franklin at philadelphia. through an arrangement with franklin he took over the press of thomas whitmarsh after the latter's death in , webb having either died or departed from charleston and phillips having died in . the library has three lewis timothy imprints dated : josiah smith's sermon, _the character and duty of minister and people_; the session laws for november , -may , , entitled _acts passed by the general assembly of south-carolina_; and nicholas trott's compilation of _the laws of the province of south-carolina_. the sermon, advertised in _the south-carolina gazette_ for may , , as just published, was completed first. still earlier printing, however, is contained in the first volume of trott's _laws_, though the volume was not completed until september . timothy began to print the laws shortly after november , , and the first sheets were ready in may .[ ] this publication in two folio volumes is a landmark of colonial printing; it was timothy's most ambitious undertaking by far, one he carried out with remarkable taste and skill. the title page, printed in black and red, is particularly striking. nicholas trott, the editor, was a learned jurist who played a leading role in south carolina's affairs, becoming chief justice in . in the preface he sets forth his guiding purpose in compiling the _laws_: thus i have endeavoured as much as in me lies, and have spared for no pains, to make this work not only useful, but plain and easy, even to the meanest capacity, wherein if i have obtained my end, i shall not think my labour ill bestowed: for as every man is a debtor to his country, and we are not born only for our selves, so i tho't i could not do a more useful service for the province in which it has pleased god to cast my lot for several years past, than to make such an _edition_ of the laws, as might be of general use to all the inhabitants thereof; that so every one being acquainted with the laws of the place, may readily give obedience to the same; in which (next to their religious duties to god) not only their duty, but also their safety and happiness doth consist. the library of congress owns three copies of this rare book, all lacking some pages. the copy most distinguished in its provenance bears on its title page the signature of william bull, jr., five times acting governor of south carolina between and . also on this title page is the late th-century signature of one thomas parker. another copy is inscribed "thomas farr jun^r. [another hand:] of st. andrew's parish ^{th}. may "; and in the following century it was given "with edward logan's kind regards to james parker esq. feb ." thomas farr can be identified as a merchant,[ ] but the later names have not been traced. the third library copy retains no marks of previous ownership. [illustration: (nicholas trott's compilation of _the laws of the province of south-carolina_.)] [footnote : douglas c. mcmurtrie, _the first decade of printing in the royal province of south carolina_ (london, ).] [footnote : a. s. salley, ed., _marriage notices in the south-carolina gazette and its successors_ (baltimore, ), p. .] north carolina the first printer active in north carolina was james davis, a native of virginia, who probably received his training from william parks at williamsburg.[ ] davis settled at new bern in , and in the same year he began printing _the journal of the house of burgesses_. the earliest north carolina imprint in the library of congress, printed by davis in , is carefully described in its title, _a collection of all the public acts of assembly, of the province of north-carolina: now in force and use. together with the titles of all such laws as are obsolete, expired, or repeal'd. and also, an exact table of the titles of the acts in force, revised by commissioners appointed by an act of the general assembly of the said province, for that purpose; and examined with the records, and confirmed in full assembly_. this collection is sometimes called "swann's revisal" after the commissioner william swann, who did a major part of the editing and wrote the dedication to governor gabriel johnston. one of the acts, passed on march , , begins with the preamble, "whereas for want of the laws of this province being revised and printed, the magistrates are often at a loss how to discharge their duty, and the people transgress many of them through want of knowing the same...." these words reflect not only a shortage of copies, but also the need to rectify discrepancies in the manuscript copies by publishing a uniform text. davis did not complete the volume until about november , , when he advertised it in his newspaper, _the north-carolina gazette_. four distinct issues of the edition can be identified;[ ] and of these, the library of congress owns both the third, in which the laws of and (not shown in the table) are added, and the fourth, which is like the third but with a title page dated and a new table. the library's copy of the third issue bears on the title page the signature of michael payne, a resident of edenton, n.c., who served in the state legislature during the 's. the library purchased it in from richard dillard dixon of edenton for $ . the copy of the fourth issue is signed "will cumming" in an early hand, and it is inscribed to samuel f. phillips, who was solicitor general of the united states from to and who appears to have been the latest owner of the book before its addition to the library in . [illustration: (_a collection of all the public acts of assembly, of the province of north-carolina: now in force and use. together with the titles of all such laws as are obsolete, expired, or repeal'd. and also, an exact table of the titles of the acts in force, revised by commissioners appointed by an act of the general assembly of the said province, for that purpose; and examined with the records, and confirmed in full assembly_. printed by james davis in .)] [footnote : see w. s. powell's introduction to _the journal of the house of burgesses, of the province of north-carolina, _ (raleigh, ), p. vii.] [footnote : douglas c. mcmurtrie, _eighteenth century north carolina imprints_ (chapel hill, ), p. .] new hampshire [illustration: (nathaniel ames' _an astronomical diary: or, an almanack for the year of our lord christ, _ printed by daniel fowle, .)] the boston printer daniel fowle felt himself unjustly punished by the massachusetts assembly for supposedly printing an objectionable pamphlet in . he consequently removed to portsmouth in new hampshire and started that colony's first press in . the first new hampshire book, preceded only by issues of _the new-hampshire gazette_, was printed by fowle in the same year. it is nathaniel ames' _an astronomical diary: or, an almanack for the year of our lord christ, _. the library of congress owns one of four known copies of a singularly interesting later issue or state of the edition, featuring on its next-to-last page a historical note printed within an ornamental border: "_the first_ printing press _set up in_ portsmouth new hampshire, _was on august_ ; _the_ gazette _publish'd the th of october; and this_ almanack _november following_." almanacs written by nathaniel ames of dedham, mass., were bestsellers in mid- th century america. this almanack for the year , evidently reprinted from the boston edition, is a somber one reflecting recent set-backs in england's conflict with france. a verse on the title page strikes the keynote: minorca's gone! oswego too is lost! review the cause: or britain pays the cost: these sad events have silenced my muse ... the rebound library of congress copy, which bears no marks of previous ownership, is listed in the library catalog of and presumably was obtained not long before then. at about the same time the library acquired and similarly rebound two other daniel fowle imprints of undetermined provenance, both of which are dated but were published later than the almanac. there is some question whether one of them, jonathan parsons' _good news from a far country_, was begun at boston or at portsmouth. in any event, fowle placed the following notice in the november , , issue of his _gazette_: "good news from a far country: in seven discourses by rev. jonathan parsons is soon to be published. five of the sermons have already been set up and lack of paper prevents completion until a supply of paper arrives from london which is probable at an early date." not until april did fowle advertise the book for sale.[ ] the other imprint dated is samuel langdon's _the excellency of the word of god, in the mouth of a faithful minister_,[ ] a sermon delivered on november and also delayed in printing for lack of suitable paper. both books were probably completed in the early months of but dated old style. there is a noticeable difference between the paper on which they are printed and the crude paper of the almanac, such as fowle used for his newspaper. [footnote : see _proceedings of the american antiquarian society_, , new series, vol. , p. .] [footnote : a library of congress stamp on this copy is dated .] delaware james adams of londonderry, ireland, after working more than seven years with franklin and hall in philadelphia, established delaware's first press at wilmington in . [illustration: (_the wilmington almanack, or ephemeries_, _for the year of our lord, . by thomas fox, philom_.)] the library of congress possesses one of two extant imprints out of four that adams is known to have issued at wilmington in the latter part of that year: _the wilmington almanack, or ephemeries_ [sic], _for the year of our lord, ... by thomas fox, philom_.[ ] copies, according to the title page, were also "to be had, in _philadelphia_, of william falkner." the publication is the first in an annual series of "wilmington almanacs," all printed by adams, that were prepared for the years to . the otherwise unknown author, thomas fox (possibly a pseudonym), brings himself to the reader's attention in this statement: kind reader, having for some years observed those almanacks published in america; and having formerly, in europe, learned the use of mr. thomas street's tables, with some others, and being willing to crowd in among the rest, i have calculated an almanack for the year .... more interesting than the colorless prose and verse selections accompanying the astronomical tables are the printer's advertisements, such as the following notice near the end of the book: bibles, testaments, psalters, spelling-books, primers, merchants blank books, writing-paper, ink, all sorts of blanks, _viz._, bills of lading, kerry bills, penal bills, bills of sale, arbitration bonds, apprentices indentures, bonds with and without judgment, to be sold at the printing-office in wilmington.--also, very good lampblack. * * * ready money for clean linen rags, at the above office. the library's copy of the almanac has been detached from a bound volume and bears no evidence of early ownership. it was acquired by exchange from dodd, mead & company in , at a valuation of $ . [footnote : no. in evald rink, _printing in delaware - _ (wilmington, ).] georgia [illustration: (_an act to prevent stealing of horses and neat cattle; and for the more effectual discovery and punishment of such persons as shall unlawfully brand, mark, or kill the same._ printed by james johnston.)] an act for the provision of printing, passed by the georgia legislature on march , , stated that "_james johnston_, lately arrived in this province from _great-britain_, recommended as a person regularly bred to and well skilled in the art and mystery of printing, hath offered to set up a printing press in the town of _savannah_." employed to print the colony's statutes, johnston had readied the first georgia press by april , , when he began to publish his newspaper, _the georgia gazette_. from the year the library of congress owns several official imprints bound up in a volume of georgia laws enacted from to and one unofficial imprint, _the south-carolina and georgia almanack, for the year of our lord, ... by john tobler, esq._ this almanac, which the distinguished collector wymberley jones de renne gave the library in , was published by december , , and probably printed very shortly before. the earliest of johnston's many official imprints, predating all his other work except _the georgia gazette_, are thought to be two acts advertised in that paper on june , . they are entitled _an act to prevent stealing of horses and neat cattle; and for the more effectual discovery and punishment of such persons as shall unlawfully brand, mark, or kill the same_ and _an act for ascertaining the qualifications of jurors, and for establishing the method of balloting and summoning of jurors in the province of georgia_. they had been passed on march , , and april , , and were printed in folio in four and six pages, respectively. both acts are represented in the library of congress bound volume of early georgia laws. only two other copies of each are known to be extant. various owners inscribed their name in this book. joseph stiles, who operated the vale royal plantation near savannah from until his death in , owned at least the latter part of it, where his signature and that of his son, the evangelist joseph c. stiles, may be seen. another owner of the same part was john c. nicholl ( - ), a prominent lawyer and jurist who served as mayor of savannah in and . a later owner of the entire volume was a certain s. h. mcintire, not known to have any savannah connections, who inscribed it in june . the library of congress purchased it in june from the statute law book company of washington, d.c. for $ , . louisiana [illustration: (extrait de régistres, des audiances du conseil supérieur, de la province de la loüisiane. du . may . entre l'abbe de l'isle dieu, vicaire général du diocèse de québec, & de cette province, demandeur en requête, le procureur général du roi, joint.)] only after printing penetrated the thirteen colonies did the french printer denis braud carry the art to louisiana. his earliest known work, an official broadside concerning the transfer of louisiana from french to spanish ownership, was printed at new orleans in . the earliest louisiana imprint in the library of congress is the second extant example of louisiana printing. the library's unique copy is a four-page, folio-sized document signed by garic, clerk of the superior council of louisiana, and headed, "extrait de régistres, des audiances du conseil supérieur, de la province de la loüisiane. du . may . entre l'abbe de l'isle dieu, vicaire général du diocèse de québec, & de cette province, demandeur en requête, le procureur général du roi, joint." it is a decree restricting the activities of the capuchin friar hilaire genoveaux and suppressing a catechism circulated by him which apparently had also been printed at new orleans. the title of the catechism, as preserved in the text of the decree, is _catechisme pour la province de la loüisianne, &c. rédigé par le r. p. hilaire, protonotaire du st. siége & supérieur général de la mission des capucins en ladite province, pour être seul enseigné dans sadite mission_. the contemporary importance of the surviving document lay in its connection with a far-reaching struggle between the jesuit and franciscan orders over ecclesiastical authority in louisiana. although it contains no imprint statement naming place of publication or printer, typographical features of the document serve to identify it as the work of denis braud.[ ] that this unique copy belonged to an official archive--presumably that of the superior council of louisiana--the following manuscript additions make apparent. there is first a notation: "joint a la lettre de m. aubry, command. a la louisianne du . may ." (aubry had succeeded d'abbadie as commandant, or governor, after the latter's death in february .) a second column in manuscript contains the same date as a filing guide and this descriptive title: "arrest du conseil superieur de la louisianne portant deffense au pere hilaire capucin de simississer [_i. e._ s'immiscer] dans aucune jurisdiction ecclesiastique autre que celle qui lui est permise par son seul titre de superieur de la mission des rr. pp. capucins de cette colonie." at the end of the column is a cross reference: "voyez les lettres de m. l'abbe de lisle dieu vicaire g[e]n[er]al de m. de quebek en et et sa correspond. a ce sujet." the subsequent history of this document has not been traced before october , , when c. f. libbie & co auctioned it off with the library of israel t. hunt, a boston physician. the library of congress was able to obtain it on that date for $ . . [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _early printing in new orleans_ (new orleans, ), p. - and . mcmurtrie mistakenly locates the original at the new york public library, which owns a photostat copy.] vermont formed as an independent republic in , vermont in the next year appointed the brothers alden and judah padock spooner of connecticut to be her official printers. publications under their imprint were issued at dresden, before and later named hanover, in and ; but in february this town, along with others east of the connecticut river, returned to the jurisdiction of new hampshire. the earliest printing from within the present borders of vermont came from the town of westminster, where judah padock spooner and timothy green, son of the state printer of connecticut, undertook the official printing late in . the library of congress possesses three dresden imprints dated . the first two listed here name alden spooner as printer, while the third names both brothers. they are ira allen's _a vindication of the conduct of the general assembly of the state of vermont, held at windsor in october , against allegations and remarks of the protesting members, with observations on their proceedings at a convention held at cornish, on the th day of december _; ethan allen's _a vindication of the opposition of the inhabitants of vermont to the government of new-york, and of their right to form into an independent state. humbly submitted to the consideration of the impartial world_; and _acts and laws of the state of vermont, in america_. the earliest of the three would appear to be ira allen's -page _vindication_, known from a printer's bill of february , , to have been produced by then in copies.[ ] the library's rebound copy is inscribed "from y^e author" beneath its imprint statement, and at the head of the title page is written, "nath^l peabody^s book." nathaniel peabody ( - ), a new hampshire legislator, served as a delegate to the continental congress in and . his book was ultimately listed in the _catalogue of books added to the library of congress during the year _. [illustration: _ira allen ( - ), miniature attributed to edward g. malbone, ca. - . courtesy of the robert hull fleming museum, the university of vermont, burlington._] the library holds the other two dresden imprints in duplicate. a copy of the _acts and laws_ was formerly in the hazard pamphlets, acquired with the collection of peter force (see p. , above). ebenezer hazard ( - ) was an early collector of americana. the two copies of ethan allen's _vindication_, both printed on blue paper, are in the hazard pamphlets, volume , number , and in colonial pamphlets, volume , number . the latter pamphlet volume originally formed part of thomas jefferson's library, obtained by the congress in (see p. , above).[ ] the earliest example of printing from present-day vermont in the library is a document printed by judah padock spooner at westminster in [ ]: _acts and laws, passed by the general assembly of the representatives of the state of vermont, at their session at windsor, april _. in four pages, it contains only "an act for the purpose of emitting a sum of money, and directing the redemption of the same." the act provides for a land tax, stating in justification that "the land is the great object of the present war, and receives the most solid protection of any estate, a very large part of which has hitherto paid no part of the great cost arisen in defending it, whilst the blood and treasure of the inhabitants of the state has been spent to protect it, who many of them owned but a very small part thereof." the library of congress copy bears the following inscription: "secry's office ^{th} august . the preceding is a true copy of an act passed by the legislature of the state of vermont april ^{th} --attest micah townsend, secry." although a loyalist, micah townsend served as secretary of state in vermont from october until .[ ] the library's copy also bears the autograph of a private owner, henry stevens of barnet, vt., first president of the vermont historical society. after his death in , his son henry stevens, the bookseller, wrote that he left his home "full of books and historical manuscripts, the delight of his youth, the companions of his manhood, and the solace of his old age."[ ] to judge from its present library binding, this thin volume has been in the library of congress collections since the th century. [footnote : see no. in marcus a. mccorison's _vermont imprints - _ (worcester, ).] [footnote : no. in u.s. library of congress, _catalogue of the library of thomas jefferson, compiled with annotations by e. millicent sowerby_ (washington, - ). see also no. .] [footnote : imprint information supplied in mccorison, no. .] [footnote : see chilton williamson, _vermont in quandary_ (montpelier, ), p. . on townsend's divulging secret intelligence to the british in april , see j. b. wilbur, _ira allen_ (boston and new york, ), p. - .] [footnote : see w. w. parker, _henry stevens of vermont_ (amsterdam, ), p. .] florida [illustration: florida gazette. vol. i. st. augustine, (e. f.) saturday, july , . no. .] dr. william charles wells, one of many american loyalists who took refuge in florida, introduced printing at st. augustine in . there he published a loyalist paper, _the east-florida gazette_, under the imprint of his elder brother, the charleston printer john wells, and with the assistance of a pressman named charles wright. apart from two books of bearing john wells' imprint and a document printed at amelia island in during the spanish rule, no other florida publications survive from the years preceding united states acquisition of the territory.[ ] richard w. edes, grandson of the boston printer benjamin edes, reestablished printing at st. augustine, issuing the first number of his weekly paper, the _florida gazette_, on the day of the transfer of florida's administration, july , . the library of congress holds issues, constituting the best surviving file of this paper. the earliest florida printing in the library is the third issue, published july and the earliest issue extant. this happens to be a very curious example of printing. of its four pages the second is half blank and the third is totally blank, the following explanation being given: to our patrons. we are under the disagreeable necessity of issuing this number of the gazette, in its present form, owing to a very lengthy advertisement, (occupying seven columns) being ordered out the moment the paper was ready for the press. it being a personal controversy between mr. _william robertson_, and messrs. _hernandez, kingsley_ and _yonge_, esquires, and a reply to mr. hernandez's publication of last week, our readers would not have found it very interesting. its publication was countermanded on account of an amicable arrangement being made by the parties about one o'clock this day. we hope this will be a sufficient apology to our subscribers for the manner in which the paper appears, as it is impossible for it to be issued this day in any other way, being short of hands. we pledge ourselves another instance of the kind shall never occur--and assure the public we feel much aggrieved at the imposition. the advertisement of mr. wm. robertson, headed "_caution_" and the reply by j. m. hernandez, esq. will be discontinued after this week, and no further altercation between the parties will be permitted thro' the medium of this press. the printed portions of this early issue include an installment of a "historical sketch of florida," extracts from various newspapers, and among others the printer's own advertisements: "commercial blanks, for sale at this office. _also_, blank deeds, mortgages, &c. &c." "blank bills of lading, for sale at the gazette office" and "book and job printing, of every description, executed at this office." in this century the library bound the issues into a single volume. those dated november and december are addressed in ink to the department of state at washington. from the same year the library of congress holds issues of _the floridian_, published at pensacola beginning august , some of which are also addressed to the department of state. from this year, too, the library possesses _ordinances, by major-general andrew jackson, governor of the provinces of the floridas, exercising the powers of the captain-general, and of the intendant of the island of cuba, over the said provinces, and of the governors of said provinces respectively_, printed at st. augustine by edes. this pamphlet-sized volume was advertised as "just published" in the september issue of the _florida gazette_; and the library's copy, one of two extant,[ ] was autographed twice by "john rodman esquire" at st. augustine. since he once added the designation "collector" to his name, he is readily identified as the person who placed the following announcement in the november issue of the _gazette_: "john rodman, attorney & counsellor at law, may be consulted on professional business, at his office in the custom-house." [illustration: (florida gazette ads)] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, "the beginnings of printing in florida," in _the florida historical quarterly_, vol. ( - ), p. [ ]- .] [footnote : see no. in thomas w. streeter's _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ).] maine [illustration: _the falmouth gazette and weekly advertiser_ (no. .) saturday, january , . (vol. .)] benjamin titcomb and thomas b. wait introduced printing in the district of maine, then part of massachusetts, with the first issue of _the falmouth gazette and weekly advertiser_, dated january , . titcomb was a native of falmouth, now portland, who had gained his experience at newburyport, and wait was formerly employed at boston.[ ] the library of congress possesses nine issues of _the falmouth gazette_ from this first year of printing in maine. of these the earliest is a partly mutilated copy of the second issue, dated january and featuring a moralistic essay "on entrance into life, and the conduct of early manhood." this issue contains one piece of news, relayed from a boston paper, that has importance for american printing history, namely, the arrival in this country from ireland, "that land of gudgeons," of mathew carey, destined to become a leading printer and publisher at philadelphia. since the library of congress copy is inscribed "mess^{rs} adams & nourse printers," it is interesting to note that one of the falmouth news items was reprinted in their boston paper, _the independent chronicle_, for january . similarly, the library's copy of the august issue of the _gazette_ is addressed in manuscript to the famous printer isaiah thomas at worcester, and it retains his editorial markings for the reprinting of two sections--a news item and a poem on atheism--that subsequently appeared in the september and september issues of _thomas's massachusetts spy; or, the worcester gazette_. it was largely by means of just such borrowing amongst themselves that most early american newspapers were put together. four of the library's nine issues, including the isaiah thomas copy, were purchased from goodspeed's book shop for $ . in . four of the remaining five, including the very earliest, appear from their physical condition to have a common provenance. the five were listed initially in the edition of _a checklist of american eighteenth-century newspapers in the library of congress_.[ ] [footnote : see r. webb noyes, _a bibliography of maine imprints to _ (stonington, maine, ), p. .] [footnote : the preface to this edition is dated june , . a sixth issue of the _gazette_ (march ) listed here was later replaced by a better copy from the purchase.] kentucky the printing history of kentucky begins with the august , , issue of a lexington newspaper, _the kentucke gazette_. john bradford of fauquier county, va., established this paper in partnership with his younger brother, fielding. they purchased their press at philadelphia in the spring of and transported it to lexington by way of pittsburgh, where the first press to cross the alleghenies had been active since the preceding summer.[ ] the earliest kentucky imprint in the library of congress is _the kentucke gazette_ for march , . like five other issues of the paper, available at the library in facsimile, this original issue opens with "extracts from the journals of a convention begun and held for the district of kentucky at danville in the county of mercer on the th day of september ." the extracts are resolutions looking towards the separation of kentucky from virginia, and the following one accounts for their publication in this paper: [resolved][ ] that full opportunity may be given to the good people of exercising their right of suffrage on an occasion so interesting to them, each of the officers so holding elections, shall continue the same from day to day, for five days including the first day, and shall cause these resolutions to be read immediately preceeding the opening of the election at the door of the courthouse, or other convenient place; and that mr. bradford be requested to publish the same in his kentucky gazette, six weeks successively, immediately preceeding the time of holding said elections. at a time for important decisions _the kentucke gazette_ served as a means of airing different opinions on statehood, independence, and constitutional questions. a long second portion of this march issue is an essay on liberty and equality signed by "republicus." critical of certain sections of the proposed federal constitution, he opposes a bicameral legislature, fears undue influence of the congress over state elections, and denounces any condoning of slavery. the remainder of the issue includes an announcement of the ice breaking up on the ohio river, a report of an indian raid, and an advertisement in this vein: "i have been told that a certain jordan harris asserted in a public and very positive manner, that i had acknowledged myself a liar and a scoundrel in a letter to maj. crittenden." the writer, humphrey marshall, concludes that if said letter is published, "the public will then see who is the liar and the scoundrel." this early issue bears the name of the subscriber richard eastin, one of the first justices of the peace in jefferson county.[ ] the library's only other examples of kentucky printing from are eight additional issues of the _gazette_, for november through december , which have been detached from a bound volume and are still joined together. these belonged to walter carr, who was serving as a magistrate in fayette county by and who in attended the convention to form the second constitution of kentucky.[ ] nothing more can be ascertained about the acquisition of these holdings than that the march issue is first listed in the edition and that the later issues are first listed in the edition of _a checklist of american eighteenth-century newspapers in the library of congress_. [illustration: (the kentucke gazette, march , .)] [footnote : see j. winston coleman, jr., _john bradford, esq._ (lexington, ky., ).] [footnote : brackets in text.] [footnote : j. stoddard johnston, _memorial history of louisville_ (chicago and new york [pref. ]), vol. , p. .] [footnote : c. r. staples, _the history of pioneer lexington_ (lexington, ), p. and .] west virginia late in nathaniel willis, grandfather of the writer nathaniel parker willis, established at shepherdstown the first press within the present boundaries of west virginia. for some years he had published _the independent chronicle_ at boston, and earlier in he had been printing at winchester, va. at shepherdstown willis published _the potowmac guardian, and berkeley advertiser_ from november at least through december .[ ] by april he had moved to martinsburg, where he continued publishing his newspaper under the same title. the earliest example of west virginia printing in the library of congress is a broadside printed at martinsburg in . entitled _charter of the town of woodstock_ [pa.], it consists of the printed text of a legal document in the name of one john hopwood and dated november , . the preamble of the document reveals its nature: whereas i john hopwood, of fayette-county, and commonwealth of _pennsylvania_, have surveyed and laid out into convenient lots or parcels, for the purpose of erecting a town thereon, the quantity of two hundred acres of land, being part of the tract of land on which i now live, situate in union township, and county aforesaid, on the great road leading from the town of union to fort cumberland, on the river potowmack; and for the purpose of encouraging the settlement, growth, and prosperity of the said town, as laid out agreeable to a plan and survey thereof, hereunto annexed and recorded, together with this instrument of writing, have determined to grant and confirm to all persons, who shall purchase or become proprietors of any lot or lots in the said town, and to their heirs and assigns, certain privileges, benefits, and advantages herein after expressed and specified.... access of the proposed town to the potomac river is the clue to why this broadside relating to an otherwise remote location in pennsylvania should have been printed in this part of west virginia. the _charter_ is the third recorded west virginia imprint apart from newspaper issues, and the library of congress has the only known copy. written on the verso is: col. morr[----] and other early hands have written there, "hopwoods deeds" and "no body will have his lotts." at the anderson galleries sale of americana held at new york on november , , the presumed same copy of the _charter_ was sold from the library of arthur delisle, m.d. ( - ), librarian of the advocates' library in montreal.[ ] it fetched $ . the library of congress obtained it in october from the aldine book shop in brooklyn for $ . [illustration: (charter of the town of woodstock.)] [footnote : the latest extant shepherdstown issue of _the potowmac guardian_, for december , , is reported in clarence s. brigham, _additions and corrections to history and bibliography of american newspapers - _ (worcester, mass., ), p. .] [footnote : according to his obituary in the montreal newspaper _la presse_, december , , arthur delisle obtained a degree in medicine but never practiced that profession. "m. delisle s'intéressait vivement à toutes les choses de l'histoire et, par des recherches patientes et continues il fit de la bibliothèque du barreau ce qu'elle est aujourd'hui, l'enrichissant sans cesse de livres et de documents précieux relatifs à l'histoire du droit, ainsi qu'à la biographie des juges et des avocats de montréal depuis ."] tennessee the printers george roulstone and robert ferguson introduced the first tennessee printing at hawkins court house, now rogersville, with the november , , issue of _the knoxville gazette_. both men came to the tennessee country, or southwest territory, by way of north carolina. their newspaper remained at hawkins court house until october , while knoxville, chosen as the seat of the territorial government, was being constructed. the earliest tennessee imprint in the library of congress is probably the eight-page official publication entitled _acts and ordinances of the governor and judges, of the territory of the united states of america south of the river ohio_, which according to douglas c. mcmurtrie "was certainly printed by roulstone at knoxville in , though it bears no imprint to this effect."[ ] its contents, relating principally to the definition of separate judicial districts within the territory, are dated from june , , to march , , and the printing could have been accomplished soon after the latter date. [illustration: _patch-repairs help to preserve not only the title page but the first page of the text, which is printed on the verso._] the library of congress copy is one of those afterwards prefixed to and issued with a much more extensive work printed by roulstone in : _acts passed at the first session of the general assembly of the territory of the united states of america, south of the river ohio, began and held at knoxville, on monday the twenty-fifth day of august, m,dcc,xciv_. the library's volume lost its title page at an early date, and it is the exposed second leaf, the title page of , that bears the inscription, "theodorick bland june st ." theodorick bland ( - ) was to be chancellor of maryland for many years. his correspondence preserved by the maryland historical society reveals that he practiced law in tennessee from to . from such evidence as its library of congress bookplate, the volume would appear to have entered the library around the late 's. the earliest dated example of tennessee printing in the library is the _knoxville gazette_ for june , , issued a month after ferguson retired from the paper. the issue begins with a lengthy selection by benjamin franklin, which is prefaced in this way: messrs. _printers_, i beg you to publish in your next number of the knoxville gazette, the following extracts, from a narrative of the massacres in lancaster county, pennsylvania; of a number of friendly indians, by persons unknown; written by the late dr. _benjamin franklin_, whose many benevolent acts, will immortalize his memory, and published in a british magazine,[ ] in april . i am your obedient servant, w.b. the subscriber was undoubtedly william blount, the territorial governor appointed by president washington in , who perhaps hoped that the sympathy towards indians expressed by franklin might temper public reaction against indian raids figuring so large in the local news. readers of the same june issue learned of such crimes as the scalping of a child near nashville, and they may have been moved by the following paragraph which the editor interjected in the news reports: the creek nation must be destroyed, or the south western frontiers, from the mouth of st. mary's to the western extremities of kentucky and virginia, will be incessantly harassed by them; and now is the time. [_delenda est carthago._][ ] both this issue and the june issue, the sole library of congress holdings of the _gazette_ for the year , are inscribed "claiborne watkins, esq^r." they probably belonged to the person of that name residing in washington county, va., who served as a presidential elector in .[ ] [footnote : _early printing in tennessee_ (chicago, ), p. .] [footnote : _the gentleman's magazine._ franklin's _a narrative of the late massacres_ was published separately at philadelphia in the same year.] [footnote : brackets in text. several issues carried this paragraph. see william rule, ed. _standard history of knoxville, tennessee_ (chicago, ), p. .] [footnote : see _calendar of virginia state papers_, vol. ( ), p. .] ohio william maxwell of new york, after failing to establish himself at lexington, ky., moved on to cincinnati in the northwest territory and thereby became the first ohio printer. his work at cincinnati began with the november , , issue of his newspaper, _the centinel of the north-western territory_.[ ] the earliest known ohio book, also printed by maxwell, is the earliest example of ohio printing to be found at the library of congress: _laws of the territory of the united states north-west of the ohio: adopted and made by the governour and judges, in their legislative capacity, at a session begun on friday, the xxix day of may, one thousand, seven hundred and ninety-five, and ending on tuesday the twenty-fifth day of august following_.... dated , "maxwell's code," as this book is sometimes called, was not the first publication of northwest territory laws, others having been printed at philadelphia in and . the printer set forth a "proposal" concerning the forthcoming work in the _centinel_ of july , : w. maxwell being appointed by the legislature to print for them copies of their laws, he thinks it would be greatly conducive towards the instruction and common benefit of all the citizens to extend the impression to copies.... the price, in boards, to subscribers, will be at the rate of nineteen cents for every pages, and to non-subscribers, thirty cents.[ ] [illustration: _pages from the first book printed in ohio._] he completed the volume in pages, with numerous printed sidenotes that make it easy to consult. an incidental reference to printing occurs in a law for land partition (p. - ) which states that land proprietors "may subscribe a writing, and publish the same in one or more of the public news-papers printed in the territory, in the state of kentucky, and at the seat of government of the united states, for twelve successive weeks" in order to announce the appointment of commissioners to divide their property into lots. subsequently, advertisements were to be placed in the newspapers for six weeks to announce a balloting or drawing for the subdivided lots. [illustration: (northwest territory laws)] the library of congress owns two copies of this cincinnati imprint. one, lacking the title page and final leaf, is bound in a volume of unknown provenance, possibly obtained about , containing four early editions of northwest territory laws. the other is a separate copy, lacking the last three leaves. this more interesting copy has two inscriptions on its title page, the words written uppermost posing some difficulty: "ex biblioth[eca] sem[inari]i [----] s[anc]ti sulp[icii] baltimoriensis"; but they make clear that this copy once belonged to the sulpician seminary founded at baltimore in and now named st. mary's seminary. a number of similarly inscribed books still retained by the seminary were once part of a special faculty library that merged with the regular seminary library about . many books from the faculty library bear signatures of individual priests who were their original owners. thus the second inscription "dilhet" refers to jean dilhet ( - ), a sulpician who spent nine years in this country and was assigned to the pastorate of raisin river (then in the northwest territory, in what is now monroe county, mich.) from to . during and he worked in detroit with father richard, who later established a press there (see next section).[ ] its absence from the library's early catalogs implies that the present copy was acquired sometime after . two date stamps indicate that the library had it rebound twice, in and . [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _pioneer printing in ohio_ (cincinnati, ).] [footnote : quoted from historical records survey, american imprints inventory, no. , _a check list of ohio imprints - _ (columbus, ), p. .] [footnote : see the short biography of dilhet in the preface to his _etat de l'église catholique ou diocèse des etats-unis de l'amérique septentrionale.... translated and annotated by rev. p. w. browne_ (washington, d.c., ).] michigan in john mccall, the earliest printer active in michigan, issued at detroit a -page act of congress relating to indian affairs. apart from blank forms printed on the same press before its removal to canada in , no other specimens of michigan printing survive antedating the press that father gabriel richard, the influential sulpician priest, established at detroit in . entry number in the _preliminary check list of michigan imprints - _ (detroit, )[ ] describes a -page publication said to exist in a unique copy at the library of congress: _to the honourable the senate and house of representatives of the united states. memorial of the citizens of the united states, situated north of an east and west line, extending thro' the southward bend of lake michigan, and by the act of congress of th april attached to, and made part of the indiana territory ..._ ([detroit? ?]). this entry is, in bibliographical parlance, a ghost. actually, the library of congress possesses the work only as a negative photostat of a manuscript document which is preserved at the national archives.[ ] the earliest _bona fide_ michigan imprint in the library of congress is _l'ame penitente ou le nouveau pensez-y-bien; consideration sur les ve'rite's eternelles, avec des histoires & des exemples ..._ printed at detroit in . the printer, james m. miller, of utica, n. y., was the first of three operators of father richard's press. this particular imprint is the fourth item in a standard bibliography of the press, which calls it "the first book of more than pages printed in detroit or michigan."[ ] as a matter of fact, it is a very substantial work of pages, albeit in a small duodecimo format. it is a reprint of a devotional book first published in france in the th century and attributed to a prolific jesuit author, barthélemy baudrand ( - ). as head of the catholic church in the area, father richard wanted to make such religious literature available to the largely french-speaking inhabitants. [illustration: (_l'ame penitente ou le nouveau pensez-y-bien; consideration sur les ve'rite's eternelles, avec des histoires & des exemples ..._ printed by james m. miller at detroit in .)] the library of congress copy of _l'ame penitente_, in a speckled calf binding of uncertain date, was obtained through a exchange with edward eberstadt & sons. it had been offered in one of the bookselling firm's catalogs earlier that year for $ .[ ] [footnote : historical records survey, american imprints inventory, no. .] [footnote : the original is in record group at the national archives; the library's photostat is in the manuscript division. the imaginary imprint recurs as no. in _american bibliography, a preliminary checklist for _, comp. by ralph r. shaw and richard h. shoemaker (new york, ).] [footnote : a. h. greenly, _a bibliography of father richard's press in detroit_ (ann arbor, ).] [footnote : catalogue , no. . two years later the same firm offered another copy for $ , in its catalogue , no. .] mississippi mississippi's first printer was andrew marschalk of new york, an army lieutenant stationed at walnut hills, close to the eventual site of vicksburg.[ ] there, probably in , he attracted attention by printing a ballad on a small press he had acquired in london. at the request of governor winthrop sargent, marschalk undertook in to print the laws of mississippi territory, and for that purpose he built a larger press at natchez. late in a second printer, ben m. stokes, purchased this press from marschalk and soon commenced a weekly paper, _the mississippi gazette_. on may , , james green, a printer from baltimore, introduced a rival paper at natchez, _green's impartial observer_. the library of congress earliest mississippi imprint was designed to controvert remarks by "the friend of the people" in _green's impartial observer_ for november , . it is a small broadside "from the office of j. green" that would seem to corroborate the printer's impartiality, at least in this particular dispute. captioned "to the public," dated november , , and signed by eight members of the new territorial house of representatives, it refers to "an exaggerated estimate of the supposed expence attending the second grade of government"; and it continues, "we therefore consider it our duty to counteract the nefarious and factious designs of the persons concerned" in the anonymous article. mississippi's second grade of territorial government had come about in with the creation of a legislature to enact the laws, theretofore enacted by the governor and three judges. the authors of this broadside itemize the maximum annual expenses for operating the legislature, concluding with a comparison of the total estimates: their $ , as opposed to the $ , of "the friend of the people." [illustration: "to the public," dated november , ] in addition the library of congress has a lengthy rebuttal to the november statement on a broadside also captioned "to the public," dated at natchez "november th, " (a misprint for ), and signed "the friend of the people." the writer begins: fellow-citizens, of all the extraordinary performances i ever beheld, the late hand-bill, signed by eight members of our house of representatives, is the _most_ extraordinary--and i doubt not that it will be considered by the country at large as the legitimate offspring of the subscribers; being replete with that unauthorized assumption of power, and those round assertions so truly characteristic--propagated for the avowed purpose of 'undeceiving the people' in a matter of the first moment, and yet not containing one authenticated fact for them to found an opinion on--but resting all upon their mere _dictum_, penetrating into future events, and proclaiming what _shall be_ the decisions of legislators not yet elected. his argument against his opponents' cost estimates touches upon certain fundamental issues, such as the threat of an aristocratic rule if the stipend for legislators is indeed kept very low. towards the end he notes an instance of intimidation: one thing more i would observe--a very threatening letter has been written to the printer denouncing vengeance on him, if he does not deliver up the author of "_the friend of the people_"--this i take to be an attempt to frighten and preclude further investigation, but it will be of little avail when the interests of my fellow citizens are so deeply concerned. that james green, although not named, is the printer of this second broadside can be demonstrated by typographical comparison with the january and february , issues of _green's impartial observer_, available at the library of congress. the two broadsides cited are the only copies recorded in douglas c. mcmurtrie's _a bibliography of mississippi imprints - _ (beauvoir community, miss., ).[ ] they bear manuscript notations, in an identical hand, that suggest use in an official archive; and the earlier broadside is stated to be "from m^r banks, nov^r ^{th} ." sutton bankes, one of the eight signers, is presumably referred to here. the second broadside has, besides a brief caption in this hand, a more elegantly written address: "his excellency winthrop sergent bellemont." bellemont was one of governor sargent's residences near natchez. it is interesting that at the time governor sargent expressed himself privately on the earlier broadside as follows: they [the members of the house of representatives] are undoubtedly the proper guardians of their own honour and conduct, but nevertheless, will not take it amiss, in a communication intended only for themselves, that i should observe it has always been considered derogatory to the dignity of public bodies, to notice anonymous writings, in the style and manner of the hand bills,--it opens a broad avenue to retort and satire, with many other obvious and unpleasant consequences.[ ] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _pioneer printing in mississippi_ (atlanta, ); and charles s. sydnor, "the beginning of printing in mississippi," _the journal of southern history_, vol. , , p. [ ]- .] [footnote : nos. and .] [footnote : from letter dated november , , in _the mississippi territorial archives_, compiled and edited by dunbar rowland, vol. ( ), p. - .] indiana elihu stout, whose family moved from new jersey to kentucky in , probably learned printing as an apprentice to kentucky's first printer, john bradford. he is known to have been in bradford's employ at lexington in , and later he worked at nashville. invited by governor william henry harrison to do the official printing for the indiana territory, stout settled at vincennes and began publishing his newspaper, the _indiana gazette_, on july , .[ ] the library of congress' indiana holdings begin with a copy of the second known imprint excepting newspaper issues, printed by stout late in : _laws for the government of the district of louisiana, passed by the governor and judges of the indiana territory, at their first session, uegun_ [sic] _and held at vincennes, on monday the first day of october, _.[ ] in march congress had divided the lands of the louisiana purchase into two parts, the southern part becoming the territory of orleans (ultimately the state of louisiana), the northern and larger part becoming the district of louisiana. as explained in the preamble to the first law in this collection, "the governor and judges of the indiana territory [were] authorized by an act of congress to make laws for the district of louisiana." they possessed this special authority from march until march . fifteen laws make up the -page work. they are written in plain language, and the th, "entitled a law, respecting slaves," is a particularly engrossing social document. to illustrate, its second provision is that no slave shall go from the tenements of his master, or other person with whom he lives without a pass, or some letter or token, whereby it may appear that he is proceeding by authority from his master, employer or overseer, if he does it shall be lawful for any person to apprehend and carry him before a justice of the peace to be by his order punished with stripes, or not, in his discretion. a subsequent compilation of laws made after the district became the territory of louisiana is described on p. , below. [illustration: (_laws for the government of the district of louisiana, passed by the governor and judges of the indiana territory, at their first session, uegun and held at vincennes, on monday the first day of october, _. printed by elihu stout late in .)] the library has handsomely rebound its copy in ruby morocco. formerly it must have been in a wretched state, evidenced by the extreme marginal deterioration of its now laminated pages. it contains the signature of james mackay ( - ), a scottish fur trader, surveyor, and explorer who was later remembered at st. louis as "the first english speaking white man who ever came west of the mississippi river," and who was appointed "commandant of the territory of upper louisiana" in .[ ] when the territory passed from spanish to american rule in , he became a judge of the court of quarter sessions,[ ] in which capacity he would have needed the volume of laws. the library's copy is one of six unrelated volumes that were purchased together for $ from the statute law book company of washington, d.c., in . [footnote : see v. c. (h.) knerr, _elihu stout, indiana's first printer_ (acrl microcard series, no. ; rochester, n.y., ).] [footnote : no. in c. k. byrd and h. h. peckham, _a bibliography of indiana imprints - _ (indianapolis, ).] [footnote : w. s. bryan and robert rose, _a history of the pioneer families of missouri_ (st. louis, ), p. - .] [footnote : _missouri historical society collections_, vol. , no. ( ), p. .] alabama the earliest extant alabama imprint is thought to be _the declaration of the american citizens on the mobile, with relation to the british aggressions. september, _, which was printed "on the mobile" at an unspecified date. no one has yet identified the printer of this five-page statement inspired by the _chesapeake-leopard_ naval engagement. the next surviving evidence is a bail bond form dated february , , and printed at st. stephens by p. j. forster, who is reported to have worked previously at philadelphia.[ ] a second st. stephens printer, thomas eastin, founded a newspaper called _the halcyon_ sometime in , after alabama newspapers had already appeared at fort stoddert ( ), huntsville ( ), and mobile ( ). eastin had formerly worked at nashville, at alexandria, la., and at natchez in association with mississippi's first printer, andrew marschalk.[ ] his work at st. stephens included a -page pamphlet, which is among the three or four earliest alabama imprints other than newspaper issues[ ] and is the first specimen of alabama printing in the library of congress. headed "to the citizens of jackson county," it is signed by joseph p. kennedy and has on its final page the imprint, "st. stephens (m.t.) printed by tho. eastin. ." here "m.t." denotes the mississippi territory, which in divided into the alabama territory and the state of mississippi. st. stephens was an early county seat of washington county, now part of alabama, whereas jackson county, to whose inhabitants the author addresses himself, lies within the present mississippi borders. [illustration: _james madison, president of the u--states----_ "st. stephens (m.t.) printed by tho. eastin. ."] joseph pulaski kennedy wrote this pamphlet after an election in which he ran unsuccessfully against william crawford of alabama to represent jackson county in the territorial legislature.[ ] his stated purpose is to refute "malicious falsehoods ... industriously circulated" against him before the election, foremost among them the charge that but for him mobile point "would never have been retaken"; and he summarizes his actions as an officer "in the command of the choctaws of the united states" during the dangerous final stage of the war of when the town of mobile nearly fell into british hands. the only recorded copy of this little-known pamphlet is inscribed to "james madison president of the u states." it owes its preservation to its inclusion among the madison papers in possession of the library of congress.[ ] [footnote : copies of both imprints are described under nos. and in _the celebrated collection of americana formed by the late thomas winthrop streeter_ (new york, - ), vol. . _the declaration_ was reprinted in _the magazine of history, with notes and queries_, extra no. ( ), p. [ ]- .] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _a brief history of the first printing in the state of alabama_ (birmingham, ), p. .] [footnote : no. in historical records survey. american imprints inventory, no. , _check list of alabama imprints, - _ (birmingham, ); no. in the section, "books, pamphlets, etc." in r. c. ellison, _a check list of alabama imprints - _ (university, ala., ).] [footnote : see cyril e. cain, _four centuries on the pascagoula_ ([state college? miss., - ]), vol. , p. - (naming crawford only).] [footnote : it is in vol. , leaf . this volume, containing printed material only, is in the rare book division.] missouri [illustration: _some of the subjects covered in_ the laws of the territory of louisiana.] joseph charless, with a background of printing experience in his native ireland, in pennsylvania, and in kentucky, became the first man to establish a printing press west of the mississippi river. meriwether lewis, governor of the territory of louisiana, was instrumental in bringing charless to st. louis, the territorial capital, and there the printer launched his weekly newspaper, the _missouri gazette_, on july , .[ ] his awareness of his place in history is demonstrated by a copy of _charless' missouri & illinois almanac, for _, printed in , which the state department library transferred to the library of congress in august . it is inscribed: "a tribute of respect from the first press that ever crossed the mississippi."[ ] the earliest example of missouri printing in the library of congress is _the laws of the territory of louisiana. comprising all those which are now in force within the same_, printed at st. louis by charless with the imprint date . besides newspaper issues this was long thought to be the first missouri imprint. a document of april , , appearing on p. proves that it was not completed until after that date, however, and recent authorities have relegated it to second or third place in terms of publication date.[ ] consisting of numbered pages with a -page index, the book is a compilation of the laws of and - . those of carry over from the compilation for the district of louisiana, which is the library's earliest indiana imprint, and the same law on slavery quoted on p. , above, is among those reprinted. typical of the later laws is "an act concerning strays," from which the following section is presented for its incidental reference to printing: sec. . every person taking up a stray horse, mare or colt, shall within two months after the same is appraised, provided the owner shall not have claimed his property during that time, transmit to the printer of some public newspaper printed within this territory, a particular description of such stray or strays and the appraisment thereof, together with the district and place of residence certified by the clerk, or by the justice before whom such stray was appraised, to be inserted in such paper three weeks succesively, for the advertising of which the printer shall receive his usual and stated price for inserting advertisements in his newspaper. in the _missouri gazette_ was still the only newspaper available to print these advertisements. the library of congress must have obtained its copy of this book during the final quarter of the th century, when the "law department" stamp on the title page was in use. [footnote : see david kaser, _joseph charless, printer in the western country_ (philadelphia [ ]). a printed form, surviving in a copy dated in manuscript july , , may have been printed by charless at st. louis; see no. in _the celebrated collection of americana formed by the late thomas winthrop streeter_ (new york, - ), vol. .] [footnote : see u.s. library of congress, _quarterly journal of current acquisitions_, vol. ( - ), p. and plate facing p. .] [footnote : see kaser, _joseph charless_, p. - ; v. a. perotti, _important firsts in missouri imprints, - _ (kansas city, ), p. - .] texas aaron mower of philadelphia set the type for volume , number , of the _gaceta de texas_, dated "nacogdoches, de mayo, de ," which is preserved at the national archives and is the earliest evidence of printing activity in texas. a political dispute forced the removal of mower's press and type from nacogdoches to natchitoches, in louisiana, where this spanish-language newspaper was actually printed and issued.[ ] other transient presses operated briefly at galveston in , at nacogdoches in , and at san antonio de bexar in .[ ] the permanent establishment of texas printing dates from september , when godwin b. cotten introduced a press at san felipe and founded the _texas gazette_. in march he relocated at brazoria. d. w. anthony purchased both the press and the paper in the summer of , and until july he continued to publish the paper at brazoria under a new name, _the constitutional advocate and texas public advertiser_. the earliest texas printing in the library of congress is the number of the paper dated june , , which offers news only from the united states and from overseas. "from the city of mexico," writes anthony, "we have heard nothing this week, except mere disjointed rumors from the interior. by the arrival of the next mail at san felipe, we may reasonably expect that some certain intelligence will be received, of what the legislatures have done." gathering news was one problem; he reveals another in the following paragraph: we are glad to be able at length, to present the advocate to our readers, on a sheet of its accustomed size. we stated before, that its being diminished two columns lately, was the consequence of a mistake made by our merchant in filling our order for paper. we now have an ample supply, and of excellent quality, so that we shall have no more apologies to offer on that score. these things, however, cost money, and that in hand, which we hope our good friends will not altogether forget. among the advertisements is the usual "job printing done at this office" and also an announcement of the "constitution of texas, with or without the memorial, for sale at this office and at the stores of w. c. white, san felipe: david ayres, montville: and t. w. moore, harrisburg." anthony printed these historic documents shortly after the texas convention held at san felipe in april, and the _advocate_ began to carry this advertisement on may , .[ ] the library's copy of the four-page newspaper has been removed from a bound volume. since it is inscribed "intelligencer, w. c.," it was obviously sent to the office of the _national intelligencer_ at washington city, as the capital was then called. it is slightly mutilated: an item has been cut from an outer column, affecting the third and fourth pages. there is no record of the issue in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ ( ), but its location does appear in the union list, _american newspapers - _ ( ). [illustration: _last page of_ the constitutional advocate and texas public advertiser, _june , _.] [footnote : see clarence s. brigham, _history and bibliography of american newspapers - _ (worcester, ), p. [ ].] [footnote : a reliable survey of early texas printing is in thomas w. streeter's _bibliography of texas - _ (cambridge [mass.] - ), pt. , vol. , p. xxxi-lxi.] [footnote : see nos. and in streeter's _bibliography of texas_.] illinois illinois' first printing took place at kaskaskia, the no longer existent territorial capital. in governor ninian edwards induced the kentucky printer matthew duncan to settle there, and probably in may of that year duncan founded a weekly newspaper, _the illinois herald_. the earliest illinois imprint in the library of congress, listed as number in cecil k. byrd's definitive bibliography, is _laws of the territory of illinois, revised and digested under the authority of the legislature. by nathaniel pope_, published by duncan in two volumes dated june and july , . nathaniel pope ( - ), who prepared this earliest digest of illinois statutes, went to kaskaskia upon being appointed secretary of the newly authorized illinois territory and did important organizational work there in the spring of before governor edwards' arrival. on december , , the legislature decreed that pope should receive $ "for revising the laws of this territory making an index to the same, and superintending the printing thereof."[ ] the work he produced was to a large extent based on an revision of the laws of the indiana territory, from which illinois had recently been separated.[ ] [illustration: (_laws of the territory of illinois, revised and digested under the authority of the legislature. by nathaniel pope_)] even though it paid him for his labor and authorized printing, the illinois legislature never enacted pope's digest into law. nevertheless, the work had a certain importance, as explained by its th-century editor, francis s. philbrick: "the first thing that anyone will notice who opens this volume is that pope began the practice of topical-alphabetical arrangement to which the lawyers of illinois have now been accustomed for more than a hundred years. at the time of its appearance the work's importance was increased by the fact that it collected, so far as deemed consistent and still in force, the laws of , , and . these enactments--though presumably all accessible in manuscript, for a time, at the county seats, and in many newspapers--had not all appeared in book form; nor did they so appear until fifteen years ago [i. e., in - ]."[ ] the library of congress set of two rebound volumes is seriously imperfect, with numerous missing leaves replaced in facsimile. the volumes were purchased in june from the statute law book company in washington together with a volume of illinois session laws of - for a combined price of $ . [footnote : see _collections of the illinois state historical library_, vol. , , p. .] [footnote : ibid., vol. , , p. xviii.] [footnote : ibid., p. xxi.] arkansas [illustration: (_laws of the territory of arkansas: comprising the organic laws of the territories of missouri and arkansas, with the amendments and supplements annexed; all laws of a general nature passed by the general assembly of the territory of missouri, at the session held in ; together with the laws passed by the general assembly of the territory of arkansas, at the sessions in and ._)] william e. woodruff, the first arkansas printer, was a long islander who served his apprenticeship at sag harbor with alden spooner, nephew of the early vermont printer of that name. woodruff transported printing equipment purchased at franklin, tenn., to the post of arkansas, and there, on november , , he began to publish _the arkansas gazette_. he later moved his press to little rock, where the newspaper has continued to the present day.[ ] in his _history and bibliography of american newspapers - _ (worcester, mass., ) clarence s. brigham locates the only complete file of early issues of the _gazette_ at the library of congress. it must be reported here, regretfully, that the library released these along with later issues for exchange in july as part of a space-saving operation, after making microfilm copies for retention. subsequently the same file, extending from to , was described at length under item in edward eberstadt and sons' catalog (americana) issued in . two copies of the first book published in arkansas, printed by woodruff at the post of arkansas and dated , now share the distinction of being the earliest specimens of arkansas printing in the library. the fact that arkansas officially separated from the missouri territory in july helps to explain the title of this book: _laws of the territory of arkansas: comprising the organic laws of the territories of missouri and arkansas, with the amendments and supplements annexed; all laws of a general nature passed by the general assembly of the territory of missouri, at the session held in ; together with the laws passed by the general assembly of the territory of arkansas, at the sessions in and _. in the initial issue of the _gazette_ woodruff claimed to have established his press entirely at his own expense. his imprint on these _laws_ discloses his eventual employment as official "printer to the territory," and among the resolutions of the new general assembly to be found in this volume is that of april , , appointing woodruff to the position. a resolution of the assembly, approved october , , directs how official documents printed by him were to be distributed: resolved ... that the governor be, and he is hereby, authorized to have printed in pamphlet form, a sufficient number of copies of the laws of the present general assembly, and all laws of a general nature passed by the general assembly of missouri, in eighteen hundred and nineteen, and also the laws passed by the governor and judges of this territory, which have not been repealed by this general assembly; and to distribute such laws on application of those entitled to copies, in the manner herein-after provided, to wit: to the governor and secretary each one copy; to the judges of circuit and county courts, to the clerk of superior court, to the sheriff of each county, to every justice of the peace, to every constable, to the prosecuting attorney in behalf of the united states, and circuit or county court prosecuting attornies, to the territorial auditor, to the territorial treasurer, to the coroner of each county, to every member of the general assembly, each one copy: _provided_, it shall be the duty of every officer, on his or their going out of office, to deliver the copy of the laws with [which][ ] he shall have been furnished, in pursuance of this resolution, to his successor in office. _resolved also_, that a sufficient number of copies shall be sent, by order of the governor, to the care of the several clerks of each county, in this territory, whose duty it shall be to distribute one copy to every officer or person allowed one in the foregoing part of this resolution. _resolved also_, that the governor be, and he is hereby, authorized to draw on the territorial treasurer for the amount of expenses arising thereon, which are not otherwise provided for by law. the two copies in possession of the library of congress carry no marks of previous ownership. one was recorded in the _catalogue of additions to the library of congress since december, _, dated december , .[ ] whether this was the copy which retains a late th-century bookplate or the copy which the library had rebound in is uncertain. [footnote : see _wilderness to statehood with william e. woodruff_ (eureka springs, ark., ); rollo g. silver, _the american printer - _ (charlottesville, ), p. .] [footnote : brackets in text.] [footnote : page (combined entry: "laws of arkansas, &c., &c., to , , and ").] hawaii [illustration: (hawaiian primer, printed by elisha loomis.)] hawaii's first printer was a young american named elisha loomis, previously employed as a printer's apprentice at canandaigua, n.y. he arrived at hawaii with a group of boston missionaries in ; but use of the printing press that he brought with him had to be delayed owing to the lack of a written hawaiian language, which the missionaries proceeded to devise. at a special ceremony held at honolulu on january , , a few copies of the earliest hawaiian imprint were struck off: a broadside captioned "lesson i." its text was afterwards incorporated in a printed primer of the hawaiian language.[ ] loomis printed copies of the primer in january, and in september he printed , copies of a second edition. the latter edition is the fifth recorded hawaiian imprint,[ ] as well as the earliest to be found among the library of congress holdings. in pages, without a title page or an imprint statement, it opens with a section headed "the alphabet" and includes lists of syllables, lists of words, and elementary hawaiian readings of a religious character consistent with their missionary purpose. the library's copy is shelved in a special hawaiiana collection in the rare book division. bound with it is another rare primer in only four pages, captioned "ka be-a-ba," which loomis printed in .[ ] the small volume is in a black, half leather binding, with an old library of congress bookplate marked "smithsonian deposit." since the final text page is date-stamped " aug., ," the volume was probably received or bound by the smithsonian institution in that year. the smithsonian transferred most of its book collection to the library of congress in - and has continued to deposit in the library quantities of material which it receives largely in exchange for its own publications. the hawaiian rarities in this particular volume were cataloged at the library in . [footnote : see t. m. spaulding, "the first printing in hawaii," _the papers of the bibliographical society of america_, vol. , , p. - ; r. e. lingenfelter, _presses of the pacific islands - _ (los angeles, ), p. - .] [footnote : see h. r. ballou and g. r. carter, "the history of the hawaiian mission press, with a bibliography of the earlier publications," _papers of the hawaiian historical society_, no. , , p. [ ]- .] [footnote : the penciled note on p. [ ], "second ed. spelling book," would appear to identify it with no. in the ballou and carter bibliography.] wisconsin [illustration: green-bay intelligencer. vol. i. navarino, wednesday december , . no. .] "with a handful of brevier and an ounce or two of printer's ink"--as he later recollected--wisconsin's first printer managed to produce , lottery tickets at navarino, now the city of green bay, in . the printer was albert g. ellis, who had previously worked as an apprentice at herkimer, n.y. he could not undertake regular printing at navarino before obtaining a printing press in ; then, in partnership with another young new yorker named john v. suydam, he began to publish the _green-bay intelligencer_.[ ] the first issue of this newspaper, dated december , , is the oldest example of wisconsin printing known to survive, and it is represented in the library of congress collections. neatly printed in fine type on a small sheet, the four-page issue shows professional competence. the publishers apologize for the type they use and for the necessity, owing to limited patronage, of commencing the _intelligencer_ on a semimonthly basis. their front page features an indian story entitled "the red head," chosen from some "fabulous tales ... politely furnished us by a gentleman of this place, who received them from the mouths of the native narrators." inclusion of the story accords with a stated editorial policy of giving faithful descriptions of the character and manners of the natives. some articles in this issue concern proposed improvements on the fox and wisconsin rivers that would open navigation between green bay and the upper mississippi. and the question where to locate the capital of an anticipated territory of wisconsin is another topic of the day. the territory was not actually created until . aside from its obviously having been detached from a bound volume, there is no visible evidence of the library of congress copy's past history. it does not figure in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ (washington, ); but it is registered in the union list, _american newspapers - _ (new york, ). the library of congress also owns the only known copy of _kikinawadendamoiwewin or almanac, wa aiongin obiboniman debeniminang iesos, _, printed at green bay on the _intelligencer_ press. its leaves, printed on one side only, are within an original paper cover bearing the manuscript title "chippewa almanac." a document held by the state historical society of wisconsin reveals that in the catholic mission at green bay charged "the menominee nation of indians" for "an indian almanac rendered by signs equally useful to those among the natives who are unable to read their language, published at green bay, copies, $ "; and that the bill went unpaid.[ ] since the almanac was intended for use in the year , it was likely printed before the end of ; yet there is no evidence to suggest that it predates the _intelligencer_. at the suggestion of douglas c. mcmurtrie, the library purchased its unique copy from the rosenbach company for "$ . less usual discount" in . [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _early printing in wisconsin_ (seattle, ).] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _the first known wisconsin imprint_ (chicago, ).] california [illustration: _conclusion of general vallejo's message to the governor of alta california, which was printed on a press that had been shipped from boston via hawaii._] as early as agustín v. zamorano, executive secretary of the mexican territory of alta california, was using limited printing equipment to produce official letterheads. zamorano later became proprietor of california's first regular printing press, which was shipped from boston (via hawaii) and set up at monterey about july . while he controlled this press--that is, until the uprising in november --zamorano appears to have employed two printers, whose names are unknown.[ ] under the revolutionary government the same press continued in operation at monterey and at sonoma, and the earliest california printing in the library of congress is the first known sonoma issue: _ecspocision_ [sic] _que hace el comdanante_ [sic] _general interino de la alta california al gobernador de la misma_. it is a small pamphlet having pages of text, preceded by a leaf bearing a woodcut of an eagle. the text is dated from sonoma, august , , and signed by mariano g. vallejo, beneath whose printed name is a manuscript flourish. don mariano guadalupe vallejo ( - ) held the highest military office of alta california at the time of writing, his headquarters then being at sonoma. in his communication to the governor, he advocates certain commercial reforms summarized as follows in hubert howe bancroft's _history of the pacific states of north america_ (san francisco, - ): his plan was to prohibit all coasting trade by foreign vessels, and to transfer the custom-house from monterey to san francisco. in defence of the first, he adduced the well known practice on the part of traders of presenting themselves at monterey with a few cheap articles for inspection, afterward taking on board from secure hiding-places the valuable part of the cargo, to be sold at other ports. thus the revenue was grossly defrauded, leaving the government without funds. by the change proposed not only would smuggling cease and the revenues be augmented, but californians would be encouraged to become owners of coasting vessels or to build up a system of inland communication by mule-trains.... the transfer of the custom-house was advocated on the ground of san francisco's natural advantages, the number and wealth of the establishments tributary to the bay, and the importance of building up the northern frontier as a matter of foreign policy.[ ] general vallejo was his own printer. in a manuscript "historia de california" he says of his pamphlet, "i wrote the attached statement of which i sent the original to the governor of the state and which i printed immediately in the small printing office that i had in sonoma and of which i was the only employee; i had the printed copies distributed throughout all parts of california and furthermore i gave some copies to the captains of merchant ships that were going to ports in the united states of america."[ ] the library of congress copy shows that the general left something to be desired as a printer, some pages being so poorly inked as to be scarcely legible. this copy--one of but four known to bibliographers--was previously in the possession of a. b. thompson of san francisco, and the library purchased it from him in february for $ . [footnote : see george l. harding, _don agustin v. zamorano_ (los angeles, ), p. - ; herbert fahey, _early printing in california_ (san francisco, ); h. p. hoyt, "the sandwich island story of california's first printing press," _california historical society quarterly_, vol. ( ), p. - .] [footnote : vol. ( ), p. - .] [footnote : quoted from herbert fahey, _early printing in california_, p. .] kansas [illustration: (_the annual register of indian affairs within the indian (or western) territory. published by isaac m'coy. shawanoe baptist mission house, ind. ter. january , _)] by introducing printing at the shawanoe mission station in the indian territory in march , jotham meeker became the first printer of what is now kansas. he had learned his trade at cincinnati and for some years had served as a baptist missionary and printer among various indian tribes. the library of congress' earliest example of kansas printing is the first number of _the annual register of indian affairs within the indian (or western) territory. published by isaac m'coy. shawanoe baptist mission house, ind. ter. january , _. isaac mccoy ( - ), publisher of four numbers of the _annual register_ between and , was a prominent baptist missionary, who also served as an indian agent and strongly advocated the colonization of western indians in a separate state. in this work he gives an account of the several mission stations operated by various denominations in the indian territory. the following passage from the first number of the _annual register_ deals with the printer: at the shawanoe station is a printing press in operation, under the management of jotham meeker, missionary for the ottawas. mr. meeker has invented a plan of writing (not like that of mr. guess, the cherokee), by which, indians of any tribe may learn to read in their own language in a few days. the first experiment was made with a sprightly chippewa boy, wholly ignorant of letters, and of the english language. he studied three hours each day for nine days; at the expiration of which time there was put into his hands a writing of about twenty lines, of the contents of which he had no knowledge. after looking over it a few minutes, without the aid of an instructer, the boy read off the writing, to the unspeakable satisfaction of the teacher. upon this plan elementary school books have been prepared, and printed, viz.--in delaware, two; in shawanoe, two; in putawatomie, one; and two in otoe, besides a considerable number of hymns, &c. the design succeeds well.[ ] jotham meeker's surviving journal, from which extracts have been published,[ ] affords an interesting view of his work from december , , when mccoy brought him the manuscript, until january , , when he wrote, "finish br. m'coy's ann. reg. a work of pages, including the cover. copies." another source of information about the _annual register_ is isaac mccoy's book, _history of baptist indian missions_ (washington, new york, and utica, ), wherein he states, i published it [the first number] at my own cost, and circulated it gratuitously. one was sent to each member of congress, and to each principal man in the executive departments of government.[ ] under the circumstances it is not surprising that three copies have made their way into the library of congress collections. on their respective title pages they are addressed in manuscript to "hon nathaniel silsbee u.s. sen," "hon jno. cramer h. reprs. u s," and "hon lucius lyon h.r.u.s." [footnote : p. .] [footnote : in douglas c. mcmurtrie and albert h. allen, _jotham meeker pioneer printer of kansas_ (chicago, ), p. - .] [footnote : p. .] new mexico the first press of new mexico was imported overland from the united states in to print _el crepúsculo de la libertad_, a short-lived newspaper supporting the election of its editor, antonio barreiro, to the mexican congress. it was operating at santa fe by august with ramón abreu as proprietor and with jesús maría baca as printer,[ ] the latter having learned his trade in durango, mexico.[ ] a broadside in the library of congress collections appears to be a genuine copy of the earliest extant issue of this press. entitled _lista de los ciudadanos que deberan componer los jurados de imprenta, formada por el ayuntamiento de este capital_, it lists, in accordance with mexican law, men qualified to be jurors in cases of what the law terms "denuncias de los escritos."[ ] the broadside is dated august , , signed by "juan gallego, precidente--domingo fernandez, secretario," and carries the ramón abreu imprint. this copy must be one of discovered in in a parcel marked "benjamin read papers" at the new mexico historical society. benjamin read ( - ) was an attorney who served in the new mexico legislature and who published a number of works on the state's history.[ ] before the find in only a single copy of the broadside was located. the authenticity of these copies has been questioned, but in the opinion of the late collector thomas w. streeter they are originals.[ ] the library obtained its copy by exchange from edward eberstadt & sons in may . the library also has the only known copy of new mexico's first book, issued by the same press and dated : _cuaderno de ortografia. dedicado a los niños de los señores martines de taos._ a metal cut on its title page, oddly depicting a moose, has been traced to a contemporary boston specimen book, which also displays a pica type identical or very similar to that used in early new mexican imprints.[ ] authorship of the book has been attributed to antonio josé martínez ( - ), the parish priest in taos, who arranged to have the press and the printer move there in . from to martínez taught reading, writing, and arithmetic in his parish,[ ] and he undoubtedly had this work printed for the use of his own pupils. it is divided into three sections: "de las letras," "de los diptongos, uso de letras mayusculas, acentos y signos de institucion para las citas," and "de la puntuacion de la clausula."[ ] the copy of this small book is soiled and worn from much thumbing. penciled on an inner page in an early, childlike hand is the name "jesus maria baldez." the library purchased the book in from aaron flacks, a chicago bookseller, for $ on the same day that it purchased its earliest wisconsin almanac (see p. , above) and likewise through the intervention of douglas c. mcmurtrie. [illustration: (_lista de los ciudadanos que deberan componer los jurados de imprenta, formada por el ayuntamiento de este capital_)] [footnote : see roby wentz, _eleven western presses_ (los angeles, ), p. - .] [footnote : see his obituary in _the daily new mexican_ (santa fe), april , .] [footnote : quoted from _coleccion de ordenes y decretos de la soberana junta provisional y soberanos congresos generales de la nacion mexicana_, vol. , , p. .] [footnote : see obituary in _new mexico historical review_, vol. , , p. - .] [footnote : see no. in his _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ).] [footnote : see _new mexico historical review_, vol. , , p. .] [footnote : ibid., p. .] [footnote : it is reproduced in its entirety in douglas c. mcmurtrie's _the first printing in new mexico_ (chicago, ).] oklahoma [illustration: (_istutsi in naktsokv. or the child's book._ by rev. john fleming.)] when the cherokee nation migrated from georgia to the newly formed indian territory, john fisher wheeler, who had been head printer of the cherokee press at new echota, proceeded to the union mission station on the grand river, near the present location of mazie, okla. there the american board of commissioners for foreign missions supplied him with a new press on which in august he did the first oklahoma printing. wheeler had served his apprenticeship at huntsville, ala.[ ] one of two or three extant copies of the third recorded issue of oklahoma's first press is present in the library of congress collections: _istutsi in naktsokv. or the child's book. by rev. john fleming. missionary of the american board of commissioners for foreign missions._ printed before october , , in an edition of copies, it is a -page primer with text in the creek language rendered in the pickering alphabet and with woodcut illustrations of animals and other subjects. a creek indian named james perryman or pvhos haco ("grass crazy") assisted with the translation.[ ] fleming's work among the indians has earned for him a notice in the _dictionary of american biography_, where his "chief claim to remembrance" is said to be "that he was the first to reduce to writing the muskoki or creek language, which was a task of peculiar difficulty on account of the numerous and puzzling combinations of consonants involved." the library of congress obtained the rare copy of its earliest oklahoma imprint through the smithsonian deposit (see p. , above) in . [footnote : see lester hargrett, _oklahoma imprints - _ (new york, ), p. ix-x, - .] [footnote : ibid., no. .] iowa [illustration: du buque visitor. "truth our guide, the public good our aim." vol. i. du buque (lead mines) wisconsin territory, wednesday, january , . no. ] the initial issue of the weekly _du buque visitor_, dated may , , is the oldest example of iowa printing. john king, the first proprietor of this four-page newssheet, acquired the press on which it was printed at chillicothe, ohio. he employed william cary jones of chillicothe to "perform the duties of foreman in the printing office ... and likewise such other duties in superintending the publication of the newspaper as may be required,"[ ] and he employed the virginia-born printer andrew keesecker, lately of galena, ill., to be the principal typesetter. the earliest iowa printing represented in the library of congress is its partial file of the _du buque visitor_, extending from january to may , .[ ] on december , , the proprietorship had passed to w. w. chapman, an attorney, and with the issue of february , , william h. turner became the owner. the paper maintained a high standard throughout these changes, its issues justly displaying the motto: "truth our guide, the public good our aim." a reduction in the size of certain issues furnishes evidence of the customary difficulty of operating a pioneer press. as the march issue explains, "within the last two months, so large an addition has been made to the subscription list of the visitor, that our stock of paper of the usual size is exhausted, and we are constrained to issue, for a week or two, a smaller sheet. by the first boat from st. louis we shall receive our spring and summer supply." the library's file dates from the period when iowa still belonged to the wisconsin territory. an editorial from the library's earliest issue advocates independent status: division of wisconsin territory it gives us pleasure to see that genl. jones, our delegate in congress, has introduced into the house of representatives a resolution, "to inquire into the expediency of establishing a seperate [sic] territorial government for that section of the present territory of wisconsin which lies west of the mississippi river," and the same resolution has been introduced into the senate of the united states by dr. linn of missouri. we sincerely hope that these resolutions will be acted upon, and sanctioned by congress--if sanctioned, they will have a most important bearing upon the future interest and prosperity of the people on this side of the mississippi. yes, we would rejoice that the 'father of waters' should be the boundary to a new territory. the present territory of wisconsin, is much too large, and embraces too many conflicting interests--the people on the east side of the mississippi are jealous of those on the west side, and the west, of those on the east. why not, under these circumstances, give to the people on each side of the mississippi separate territorial governments? we believe that such a measure would be highly satisfactory to the people throughout the whole of wisconsin territory. the reasons for dividing the present territory of wisconsin are, in our opinion, well founded, for unless the people governed can be united--unless their representatives legislate for the good of the whole territory, there will not be satisfaction--there will not be harmony, & the government instituted to protect the rights of the people, will become an engine in the hands of one part to oppress the other. it is, or should be, the policy of the united states, in the establishment of temporary governments over her territories, to adopt the best and most judicious means of guarding the happiness, liberty, and property of her foster children, so that when they enter the great family of the union, that they may be worthy of that exalted station. [illustration: (newspaper ads)] from later in the library possesses _iowa news_, which replaced the _du buque visitor_ after its expiration in may, in an imperfect file extending from june (the third number) to december . the library also has the _wisconsin territorial gazette and burlington advertiser_, printed at burlington, in another incomplete file from july to december . the library's three files of very early iowa newspapers have a common provenance, as most issues of each file are addressed in manuscript to the department of state, which was in charge of territorial affairs until . these newspapers were transferred to the library of congress sometime before the end of the th century.[ ] [footnote : the full contract is quoted in alexander moffit's article, "iowa imprints before ," in _the iowa journal of history and politics_, vol. , , p. - . for a biography of jones, see william coyle, ed. _ohio authors and their books_ (cleveland, , p. ).] [footnote : vol. , nos. - ; no. wanting. the may and may issues are both numbered .] [footnote : they are recorded in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ ( ). in the library's broadside collection (portfolio , no. ) is a printed notice of the des moines land company, with text dated from des moines, september , . this item cannot have been printed at des moines, since printing did not reach there until . it is not listed in alexander moffit's "a checklist of iowa imprints - ," in _the iowa journal of history and politics_, vol. , p. - .] idaho the first printing in idaho--in fact, in the entire pacific northwest--was done in at the lapwai mission station, by the clearwater river, in what is now nez perce county. the printer was edwin oscar hall, originally of new york, who on orders of the american board of commissioners for foreign missions brought to this wilderness site the same small press he had taken to the hawaiian islands in .[ ] henry harmon spalding ( - ), the missionary who had requested this press, was the author of its first issue in idaho, an eight-page primer of the native language with an english title: _nez-perces first book: designed for children and new beginners_. in may hall printed copies, of which no complete examples are known to survive. an alphabet of roman letters that spalding utilized to convey the indian language proved to be impractical, and in august the original edition was replaced by a revised -page edition of copies with the same title. the library of congress acquired this edition, then thought to be the first idaho book, in . a few years later the bibliographer wilberforce eames discovered pages of the earlier edition used as reinforcements in the paper covers of the later one,[ ] and on february , , another interested bibliographer, howard m. ballou, wrote to the librarian of congress: i have had your copy at the library of congress examined by a friend who reports that she can distinguish that pages and are pasted in the front cover. if you will have the covers of the nez perces first book soaked apart you will find you possess four pages of this original oregon book. (by oregon, of course, he meant the oregon country at large rather than the present state.) the library did soak apart the covers and found that it had two copies of the original leaf paged and . one of them, released for exchange in october , subsequently joined two other original leaves to form an almost complete copy in the coe collection at yale university.[ ] [illustration: _a page from the original edition of the_ nez perces first book.] the library made its fortunate acquisition with a bid of $ . at a philadelphia auction sale conducted by stan v. henkels on may - , . the item[ ] was among a group of books from the library of horatio e. hale ( - ), who served as philologist with the famed wilkes expedition of - . he probably obtained his copy about , the year the expedition reached oregon. [footnote : see roby wentz, _eleven western presses_ (los angeles, ), p. - .] [footnote : see _the quarterly of the oregon historical society_, vol. , , p. - .] [footnote : see no. (note) in thomas w. streeter's _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ).] [footnote : no. in the sale catalog.] oregon [illustration: oregon spectator. "westward the star of empire takes its way." vol. i oregon city, (oregon ter.) thursday, may , . no. .] medare g. foisy performed the first oregon printing in with type owned by the catholic mission at st. paul. apparently without the benefit of a permanent press, he printed at least two official forms, and there is evidence that he produced tickets for an election held on june , . foisy was a french canadian who had worked at the lapwai mission press for henry harmon spalding (see p. , above) during the fall and winter of - .[ ] later certain forward-looking settlers organized the oregon printing association, obtained a printing press, hired a printer named john fleming, who had migrated to oregon from ohio,[ ] and founded the _oregon spectator_ at oregon city on february , . this was the earliest english-language newspaper in north america west of the missouri river.[ ] the earliest oregon printing in the library of congress is the ninth semimonthly number of the _oregon spectator_, dated may , . it is a small four-page sheet presently bound with other numbers of the _spectator_ through may , . all bear the newspaper's motto: "westward the star of empire takes its way." when this ninth number was printed, the oregon country was still jointly occupied by the united states and great britain. shortly after, on june , , the u.s. senate ratified the oregon treaty, whereby the oregon country was divided at the th parallel. news of the ratification as reported in the new york _gazette and times_ of june reached honolulu in time to be printed in the _polynesian_ of august , and the information was reprinted from that paper in the november issue of the _spectator_, which is included in the library's file. the issue of may has a decidedly political emphasis because of impending local elections, and among its articles is an amusing account of a meeting at which several inexperienced candidates proved embarrassingly "backward about speaking." the difficulty of obtaining information for the paper is illustrated by a section headed "foreign news," consisting of a letter from peter ogden, governor of fort vancouver, in which he gives a brief account of the political upheaval in britain over the corn law question. he cites as the source of his information a letter he received via "an express ... from [fort] nesqually." he concludes, "in three or four days hence we shall receive newspapers, and i trust further particulars." the last page of this issue is given entirely to the printing of an installment of "an act to establish courts, and prescribe their powers and duties," which had been passed by the provisional legislature. in addition to its small volume of issues from and , the library of congress has an incomplete volume of _spectator_ issues from september , , to january , , when the paper had a larger format and appeared weekly. evidence for the provenance of the earlier volume is the inscription, "j. b. mcclurg & c.," on the issue of december , , designating a honolulu firm which carried this advertisement in the same _spectator_: j. b. mcclurg & co. ship chandlers, general and commission merchants. james b. mcclurg, } alexander g. abell, } honolulu, oahu, henry chever. } sandwich islands. several issues in the later volume are addressed either to the "state department" or to "hon. daniel webster," who was secretary of state at the time. the library's _a check list of american newspapers_, published in , records holdings only for december , , to february , , but all of the _spectator_ issues look as if they have been in the library from an early date. [illustration: (rules for house-wives.)] [footnote : see nos. - in george n. belknap's _oregon imprints - _ (eugene, ore. [ ]).] [footnote : see _the quarterly of the oregon historical society_, vol. , , p. .] [footnote : see roby wentz, _eleven western presses_ (los angeles, ), p. - .] utah [illustration: (_ordinances, passed by the legislative council of great salt lake city, and ordered to be printed_)] brigham young's nephew brigham hamilton young was the first printer within the present boundaries of utah. a manuscript "journal history" of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints records that on january , , "brigham h. young and thomas bullock were engaged in setting type for the fifty cent bills, paper currency. this was the first typesetting in the [salt lake] valley. the bills were to be printed on the press made by truman o. angell."[ ] the law library of the library of congress keeps in a small manila envelope a remarkable group of five very early examples of utah printing, some of which must have been issued in . the one that seems to be the earliest has the title _ordinances, passed by the legislative council of great salt lake city, and ordered to be printed_. this piece--like the others without indication of place or date of printing--may be assigned to a press from boston which reached salt lake city in august of and supplanted the original homemade press. listed as number in douglas c. mcmurtrie's _the beginnings of printing in utah, with a bibliography of the issues of the utah press - _ (chicago, ), it is a four-page leaflet containing nine ordinances passed between february and december , . among them are a "penalty for riding horses without leave, driving cattle off the feeding range, &c." and "an ordinance creating an office for the recording of 'marks and brands' on horses, mules, cattle, and all other stock." a -page pamphlet entitled _constitution of the state of deseret_ (not in mcmurtrie; sabin ) is obviously from the same press. appended to the constitution, which was approved november , , are several ordinances passed between march , , and march , . another issue of this press (not in mcmurtrie or sabin) is a slightly mutilated three-page leaflet: _rules and regulations for the governing of both houses of the general asse{mbly} of the state of deseret, when in joint session; and for each respective house, when in separate session. adopted by the senate and house of representatives, december , ._ of unspecified date is a single leaf, unrecorded and apparently unique, captioned _standing committees of the house_. finally, there is among these imprints a copy of the -page _ordinances. passed by the general assembly of the state of deseret_, known as the "compilation of " and listed as number by mcmurtrie, who writes, "a copy of the volume in the library of the church historian's office was used in for making a reprint, but the original has since disappeared.[ ] a copy is said to be in private ownership in california." the latter is undoubtedly the one now in the library of congress. the only one of these extremely rare imprints to show marks of previous ownership is the "compilation of ." it was autographed by phinehas richards, who served both as representative and as senator in the provisional legislature of the state of deseret. whether the other four pieces also belonged to him is not clear; in any event all five came into the hands of his son, franklin dewey richards ( - ), who for half a century was an apostle of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, becoming president of the apostles' quorum, and who served as church historian for the last years of his life.[ ] a library of congress purchase order dated october , , reveals that these imprints were contained in a bound volume labeled "laws of utah--f. d. richards"; that by agreement the library had them removed from the volume and subsequently returned it to mr. frank s. richards, in care of the san francisco bookseller john howell; and that the price paid for the detached items was $ , . frank s. richards, an attorney residing in piedmont, calif., is a great-grandson of franklin dewey richards, most of whose books he has given to the bancroft library of the university of california. [footnote : quoted from wendell j. ashton, _voice in the west, biography of a pioneer newspaper_ (new york, ), p. , note . this book is about utah's first newspaper, the _deseret news_, established june , , of which the earliest original issue in the library of congress is dated may , .] [footnote : it is now available again at the church historian's office. another copy is in the harvard law library.] [footnote : see franklin l. west, _life of franklin d. richards_ (salt lake city [ ]).] minnesota [illustration (_minnesota chronicle and register_ st. paul, minnesota territory, saturday, august , . vol. no. )] minnesota's first printer was james madison goodhue of hebron, n.h. an amherst college graduate, he had abandoned a legal career to run a pioneer newspaper at lancaster, wis. shortly after the establishment of the minnesota territory, he moved his printing equipment to st. paul, and on april , , he founded his weekly newspaper, _the minnesota pioneer_. it is reported that even though he brought along two printers, goodhue himself worked both as compositor and pressman, and further that the printing press he used at lancaster and st. paul was the same on which iowa's first printing had been performed.[ ] the library of congress' scattered file of this first minnesota newspaper contains just one issue, dated october . taking precedence as the library's earliest example of minnesota printing is the first issue, dated august , , of another st. paul paper, the _minnesota chronicle and register_, which resulted from the merger of two early rivals of the _pioneer_. in an introductory editorial the proprietors, james hughes and john phillips owens, make certain claims on behalf of this paper: our union bases us upon a foundation which renders our permanent success beyond a contingency. the combining of the two offices places us in possession of probably the best and most complete printing establishment on the mississippi, above st. louis. these advantages, with our practical experience in the art, the aid of health and a free good will, and a moderate share of the other requisites, we hope will enable us to give the chronicle and register a place in the front rank of well executed, useful and instructive newspapers.... we have two new washington printing presses, with all the recent improvements attached. we defy any establishment in the union to produce superior pieces of machinery in the way of hand presses. our assortment of book and job type is also of the newest and handsomest styles, and comprises larger quantities and greater varieties than can be found this side of st. louis. and we are happy to announce we have more coming. they also make an interesting statement of editorial policy: the chronicle and register have each a reputatation [sic] at home and abroad, gained during the few months of their separate existence. the views of the respective editors in regard to general politics, and the relation they bear upon these matters to our present administrations, national and territorial, has been a matter of no concealment on the part of either. and were it not for one reason, we would here let this subject rest. but the ground minnesota at present occupies is neutral. we have no vote in the legislative councils of the nation, no vote for president. why should we then divide and distract our people upon questions that they have no voice in determining? why array each other in separate bands as whigs and democrats when such a course can only show the relative strength of the two parties, without adding one iota to the prosperity and welfare of either? the measures of one or the other of the great parties of the country will receive the sanction of the next congress, and no thanks to minnesota for her votes. we as citizens, and as whigs, are willing to leave it for the future to determine which of these parties are to sway the destinies of our territory. the library has eight issues of the _chronicle and register_ from the year , as well as later ones through february , , all bearing its motto: "the greatest good for the greatest number." many of the earlier issues are addressed to john m. clayton, who was secretary of state until july , and some later issues are addressed to his successor, daniel webster. (the library's file of _the minnesota pioneer_ also has a state department provenance.) [illustration: (short newspaper items)] in addition the library of congress owns three official publications printed by james madison goodhue in : _message from the governor of minnesota territory to the two houses of the legislative assembly, at the commencement of the first session, september , _; _rules for the government of the council of minnesota territory, and joint rules of the council and house, adopted at a session of the legislature, commenced september , _; and _message of the governor, in relation to a memorial from half-breeds of pembina_.[ ] on september , the day after it authorized goodhue to do its printing, the newly formed legislature ordered the first two of these titles printed in editions of and copies, respectively.[ ] the library copies of both pamphlets are unbound, without marks of personal ownership. the first is an older acquisition of undetermined origin; the second a purchase from the rosenbach company in new york, at $ . the third title was ordered printed in copies on october , , the day the governor's message was delivered.[ ] it is a four-page leaflet, one of rare american imprints that the printing historian douglas c. mcmurtrie sold to the library for $ in . [footnote : see m. w. berthel, _horns of thunder, the life and times of james m. goodhue, including selections from his writings_ (st. paul, ).] [footnote : these are nos. , , and in esther jerabek's _a bibliography of minnesota territorial documents_ (st. paul, ). unrecorded in this bibliography are two early pamphlets printed by the _chronicle and register_: _courts of record in the territory of minnesota; approved nov. , --took effect dec. , _ and _law of the territory of minnesota; relative to the powers and duties of justices. approved november first, --took effect december first, _. the library's copies are inscribed to elisha whittlesey, comptroller, u. s. treasury department.] [footnote : see _journal of the council during the first session of the legislative assembly of the territory of minnesota_ (st. paul, ), p. .] [footnote : ibid., p. .] washington [illustration: (_acts of the legislative assembly of the territory of washington, passed at the second regular session, begun and held at olympia, december , , in the seventy-ninth year of american independence_)] [illustration: (_acts of the legislative assembly of the territory of washington, ..._ continued)] the earliest recorded example of washington printing is the first number of _the columbian_, published at olympia on september , . the founders of this newspaper were james w. wiley and thornton f. mcelroy, who purchased a press on which the portland _oregonian_ had for a short time been printed and which before that saw service in california.[ ] in the territory of washington was created from the northern part of the territory of oregon, and on april , , the new territorial legislature elected james w. wiley to be washington's first official printer. the earliest specimen of washington printing held by the library of congress appears to be the following example of his work, printed at olympia in : _acts of the legislative assembly of the territory of washington, passed at the second regular session, begun and held at olympia, december , , in the seventy-ninth year of american independence_. it includes an act passed at the second session, on february , , specifying the size and distribution of the original edition: sec. . _be it enacted by the legislative assembly of the territory of washington_, that the public printer be, and is hereby required to print in pamphlet form, six hundred copies of the laws of the present session, and a like number of the laws of the last session of the legislative assembly.... sec. . it shall be the duty of the secretary of the territory to forward to each county auditor in the territory fifteen copies of the laws of each session for the use of the county officers, and two copies for each member of the legislative assembly, and to each officer of the legislative assembly, one copy of said laws. the library owns three copies of this -page official document, all acquired probably during the last quarter of the th century. they are in old library bindings and bear no marks of prior ownership. among the library's collections are five other olympia imprints of the same year but from the press of the second official printer, george b. goudy, who was elected on january , . one of these, a work of more than pages, the library also holds in three copies: _statutes of the territory of washington: being the code passed by the legislative assembly, at their first session begun and held at olympia, february th, . also, containing the declaration of independence, the constitution of the united states, the organic act of washington territory, the donation laws, &c., &c._ the others are _journal of the council of the territory of washington: together with the memorials and joint resolutions of the first session of {the} legislative assembly ..._; _journal of the house of representatives of the territory of washington: together with the memorials and joint resolutions of the first session of the legislative assembly ..._; _journal of the council of the territory of washington, during the second session of the legislative assembly ..._; and _journal of the house of representatives of the territory of washington: being the second session of the legislative assembly ..._. most official printing in the territories was paid for by the federal government, and copies of many publications were sent to washington, d.c., to meet certain administrative requirements. in some copies now at the library of congress visible evidence to this effect remains, as in the above-mentioned council and house journals for the second legislative session, both inscribed to "library state dept." although the department of state continued to exercise broad supervision over the territories at this period, supervision of their official printing was assigned, as it had been since , to the treasury department. the cover or halftitle now bound in at the end of the above-mentioned house journal for the first legislative session bears notations made in the office of the treasury department's first comptroller, who exercised this particular responsibility.[ ] one is a barely legible record in pencil: "recd oct / in letter of sec mason of augt / "; and another is in ink: "finding enclosed to sec mason march / ." these notations refer to correspondence between the comptroller and the secretary of the territory of washington about remuneration for printing. part of the correspondence is still retained at the national archives (in record group ). [footnote : see roby wentz, _eleven western presses_ (los angeles, ), p. - .] [footnote : see w. a. katz, "tracing western territorial imprints through the national archives," _the papers of the bibliographical society of america_, vol. ( ), p. - . two minnesota documents inscribed to the comptroller are cited in footnote no. on page .] nebraska [illustration: (_laws, resolutions and memorials, passed at the regular session of the first general assembly of the territory of nebraska, convened at omaha city, on the th day of january, anno domini, . together with the constitution of the united states, the organic law, and the proclamations issued in the organization of the territorial government_)] scholarly investigation has revealed that a supposed early instance of nebraska printing--the mormon _general epistle_ "written at winter quarters, omaha nation, west bank of missouri river, near council bluffs, north america, and signed december d, "--actually issued from a st. louis press.[ ] the library of congress copy of this imprint is consequently disqualified for discussion here, as are also the library's three issues of the _omaha arrow_, beginning with the initial number dated july , , since these issues were printed in iowa, at council bluffs, before omaha acquired its own press. nebraska printing begins in fact with the th number of the _nebraska palladium_, issued at bellevue on november , . previously issued at st. mary's, iowa, the paper takes pride in introducing printing to the newly formed territory of nebraska and identifies the men responsible: the first printers in our office, and who have set up the present number, are natives of three different states--ohio, virginia, and massachusetts, namely: thomas morton, foreman, columbus, ohio (but mr. morton was born in england); a. d. long, compositor, virginia; henry m. reed, apprentice, massachusetts.[ ] the first nebraska books were printed at omaha by the territorial printers sherman & strickland in , and they are represented in the library of congress collections: _laws, resolutions and memorials, passed at the regular session of the first general assembly of the territory of nebraska, convened at omaha city, on the th day of january, anno domini, . together with the constitution of the united states, the organic law, and the proclamations issued in the organization of the territorial government; journal of the council at the first regular session of the general assembly, of the territory of nebraska, begun and held at omaha city, commencing on tuesday the sixteenth day january, a. d. , and ending on the sixteenth day of march, a. d. _; and _journal of the house of representatives, of the first regular session of the general assembly of the territory of nebraska ..._. these three official publications record quite fully the work of the first nebraska legislature, which consisted of a council of and a house of members. from later in the same year the library owns still another sherman & strickland imprint: _annual message of mark w. izard, governor of the territory of nebraska, addressed to the legislative assembly, december , _. the governor delivered this address at the convening of the second legislature. the press on which these four books were printed had been transported to omaha from ohio, and it was used to produce the initial number of the _omaha nebraskan_, january , .[ ] on march , with the approval of a joint resolution which may be read in the _laws, resolutions and memorials_, john h. sherman and joseph b. strickland became the official printers of the territory; and "an act to provide for printing and distributing the laws of nebraska territory," also approved on march , stipulated that a thousand copies of the laws and resolutions of the first legislature be printed. two of the thousand copies are listed as a "present" in _additions made to the library of congress, since the first day of november, . november , _ (washington, ).[ ] they are still on the library shelves, along with a third copy received by transfer from another government agency in . the library received its copy of the _journal of the council_ in and its copy of the _journal of the house of representatives_ probably not much later in the th century.[ ] the statute law book company sold the library governor izard's _annual message_ for $ in october . [footnote : see no. in thomas w. streeter's _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ). the library of congress possesses one copy, not two as here reported.] [footnote : quoted from douglas c. mcmurtrie's "pioneer printing in nebraska" in _national printer journalist_, vol. , no. (january ), p. - , - .] [footnote : ibid., p. .] [footnote : p. .] [footnote : the latter title is indicated as wanting in a collective entry for council and house journals in the _catalogue of books added to the library of congress, from december , , to december , _ (washington, ), p. .] south dakota in the dakota land company sent out from st. paul to sioux falls a newspaper editor named samuel j. albright, a printer named j. w. barnes, and a printing press which albright later insisted was the original goodhue press (see above, p. ), despite conflicting accounts of its history. if his testimony is correct, the same press introduced printing in iowa, minnesota, and south dakota. it appears to have been first used at sioux falls to print a small election notice dated september , ; in the following summer, it was used to print south dakota's first newspaper, _the democrat_.[ ] establishment of the territory of dakota in attracted a second dakota press to the new territorial capital at yankton. the earliest dakota, or south dakota, printing in the library of congress is from the newspaper associated with that press, _the dakotian_, first published on june , , by frank m. ziebach and william freney of sioux city, iowa. the library's earliest holding is the th number, which is dated april , , and exhibits the paper's motto: "'let all the ends thou aims't at, be thy country's, thy god's and truth's.'--_wolsey._" this number follows upon a transfer of the editorship and proprietorship to josiah c. trask of kansas, who announces, we have secured the interest which mr. ziebach, the former publisher of this paper, held in the office, and have made extensive additions for book work, &c.--we are now engaged in executing the incidental printing of the legislative assembly of this territory under peculiar disadvantages; yet we believe it will compare favorably with the work of many older territories. we are prepared to execute any style of printing to the satisfaction of patrons. by using fine print, trask was able to present much material in this four-page issue. among its contents are the text of the governor's message to the first territorial legislature and several u.s. laws passed by the first session of the th congress. the lead editorial, "what we mean to do," contains the following statement of policy regarding the civil war: at present, there is no room for disagreement in politics. so far as our knowledge extends, all parties join heartily in an indorsement of the truly patriotic and conservative course adopted by the president in the management of this war. he is not a patriot who will allow any slight disagreement te [sic] turn him from a straightforward opposition to the ambitious men who are now heading a rebellion to destroy the fairest government ever known. until this war is ended by a suppression of the rebellion, unless a change is forced upon us, we shall walk with men of all parties, in an earnest, honest purpose to do what we can to strengthen the arms of abraham lincoln, in whatever acts he may deem best for the people who have called him to his present proud position. in this determination we feel that all our patrons will sustain us. the editorial concludes with an appeal to support the paper: few persons can know the expense and care requisite for a publication like this so far west. we feel that our territory cannot support more than one or two papers. one of these must be at the capital, and we shall endeavor to make this one worthy the support of all. we expect to receive pecuniary encouragement from men of all parties and all parts. after a few weeks, when we are better acquainted and our paper is better known, we shall ask for the assistance which will be due us from those whom we labor to benefit. a library of congress bound volume contains an incomplete but substantial run of _the dakotian_ from april , , to december , , without any marks of provenance. in addition the library owns a file of south dakota's third newspaper, _the dakota republican_, beginning with volume , number , published at vermillion on april , . this newspaper has for its motto "our country if right, if wrong, god forgive, but our country still!" the library's issue of april , , is inscribed "wm h james"--this would be william hartford james of dakota city, nebr., who served as acting governor of nebraska in - --and some of its and issues are inscribed "dept of state." all of these papers are accounted for in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ ( ). [illustration: (_the dakotian_)] from the year the library also possesses four books printed at yankton all bearing the imprint of josiah c. trask, public printer: _council journal of the legislative assembly of the territory of dakota, to which is prefixed a list of the members and officers of the council, with their residence, post-office address, occupation, age, &c._; _house journal of the legislative assembly of the territory of dakota, to which is prefixed a list of the members and officers of the house_ ...; _general laws, and memorials and resolutions of the territory of dakota, passed at the first session of the legislative assembly, commenced at the town of yankton, march , and concluded may , . to which are prefixed a brief description of the territory and its government, the constitution of the united states, the declaration of independence, and the act of organizing the territory_; and _private laws of the territory of dakota, passed at the first session of the legislative assembly_....[ ] single copies of the council and house journals were in the library by . the library has four copies of the _general laws_ and _private laws_, bound together as issued; two copies are probably th-century accessions, the third came from the department of interior in , and the fourth was transferred from an unspecified government agency in . [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _the beginnings of the press in south dakota_ (iowa city, iowa, ). on the disputed history of the goodhue press, see m. w. berthel, _horns of thunder_ (st. paul, ), p. , note .] [footnote : these are nos. , , , and , respectively, in albert h. allen's _dakota imprints - _ (new york, ).] nevada [illustration: _joseph t. goodman, editor of the_ territorial enterprise. _courtesy of the new york public library._] nevada owes its first printing to w. l. jernegan, who in partnership with alfred james established a weekly newspaper, the _territorial enterprise_, at genoa, then in western utah territory, on december , . jernegan had transported his printing equipment across the sierras from yolo county, calif.[ ] the earliest nevada imprint in the library of congress dates from , the year after nevada's establishment as a separate territory: _second annual message of governor james w. nye, to the legislature of nevada territory, november , . together with reports of territorial auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction._ printed at carson city by j. t. goodman & co., territorial printers, this publication has pages, not including the title page printed on its yellow wrapper. joseph t. goodman was not only involved with official printing at this time, but he was also editing the _territorial enterprise_, which was then located at virginia city and had become a daily paper. he is perhaps best remembered for launching mark twain on a literary career when he employed him as a reporter in august .[ ] governor nye's _second annual message_ covers an important period of national history. strongly pro-union, it gives an optimistic account of the year's events in the civil war and bestows high praise on lincoln's preliminary emancipation proclamation of september , : "as an engine of war, its formidability is a powerful warrant of early peace, and as a measure of humanity, the enlightened world receives it with acclamations of unbounded joy." part of the message concerns expected consequences from a bill recently passed by congress authorizing construction of a pacific railroad, which would profoundly affect life in nevada: no state nor territory will derive such inestimable advantage from the road as the territory of nevada. situated, as we are, in what, during a great portion of the year, is an almost inaccessible isolation of wealth; with mountains covered with perpetual snow frowning down directly upon us at the west, and with a series of ranges, difficult to cross, at the east of us, with a wilderness fit only for the original inhabitants of the waste, stretching away a thousand miles, and intervening between us and the frontier of agricultural enterprise; and with no means of receiving the common necessaries of life, except through the expensive freightage of tediously traveling trains of wagons; the value of the road to us will be beyond calculation. the inscription "library depr state" on the library of congress copy indicates it must have been submitted to the department of state, which in was still in charge of the united states territories. a date stamp on its wrapper suggests that it was transferred to the library of congress by december , while a stamp on page reveals that it was in custody of the library's division of documents in september . [footnote : see richard e. lingenfelter, _the newspapers of nevada_ (san francisco, ), p. - .] [footnote : see ivan benson, _mark twain's western years_ (stanford university, calif. [ ]), chapters - .] arizona [illustration: (_the weekly arizonian_)] printing began in arizona with the establishment of _the weekly arizonian_, at the mining town of tubac, on march , . the santa rita mining company, which owned this newspaper, had imported the first press from cincinnati, and the first printers are said to have been employees of the company named jack sims and george smithson.[ ] the library of congress file of the _arizonian_ starts with the issue of august , , the earliest example of arizona printing now held by the library. the paper had removed from tubac to tucson shortly before that date under rather dramatic circumstances. edward e. cross, its first editor, vigorously opposed a movement in favor of separating arizona from new mexico and organizing it as an independent territory. in attacking population statistics put forward by sylvester mowry, the leader of that movement, cross impugned mowry's character, whereupon mowry challenged him to a duel, which was fought with rifles on july without injury to either party. mowry subsequently purchased the printing press and moved it to tucson. under a new editor, j. howard wells, the _arizonian_'s positions were completely reversed.[ ] the issue of august supports the candidacy of sylvester mowry for delegate to congress, in an election scheduled for september . in view of past events it was understandable that the paper should encourage a heavy vote, not only to demonstrate the unity of arizonians desiring territorial status, but also to indicate the extent of the population. the following short article relates to the recurrent topic of numbers: a slight mistake we understand col. bonneville says he has taken the names of all the americans, between the rio grande and the santa cruz, and they number only one hundred and eighty. come and pay us a longer visit, colonel, and count again. there are nearly that number in and around tucson alone, and there are a good many of us that dislike to be denationalized in so summary a manner. the overland mail company alone, employs some seventy five americans, between here and the rio grande, and they justly think, they have a right to be included, as well as the farmers living on the san pedro and the miembres rivers, it is hardly fair to leave them out. it is nearly as bad as cutting down the americans on the gila and colorado to twelve. when there are ten times that number. try it again colonel, for evidently there is a slight mistake, some where. in the same issue is a notice illustrating the production difficulties characteristic of a frontier press: we have to apologize to the readers of the arizonian, for the delay in issuing this our regular number; the detention has been unavoidably caused, by the indisposition of our printer. we hope it may not occur again, and will not as far as lays in our power to prevent it. when examined as recently as , a library of congress binding contained issues of the _arizonian_ from the year , beginning july ; however, that early issue has been missing from the binding at least since . one mark of provenance occurs among the remaining issues: an inscription on the issue of august , the upper half of which has been cut away but which unquestionably reads, "gov rencher." the recipient was abraham rencher ( - ), a distinguished north carolinian who was serving as governor of the territory of new mexico in . by whatever route, these issues reached the library early enough to be recorded in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ ( ). [illustration: (column from _arizonian_)] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _the beginnings of printing in arizona_ (chicago, ), p. , note .] [footnote : see estelle lutrell, _newspapers and periodicals of arizona - _ (tucson, ), p. - , - . for more on cross and mowry, see jo ann schmitt, _fighting editors_ (san antonio, ), p. - .] colorado the earliest examples of colorado printing are the first numbers of two competing newspapers, which were issued at denver on april , , only about minutes apart.[ ] taking precedence was the _rocky mountain news_, published by william n. byers & co. and printed with equipment purchased in nebraska. its printers were john l. dailey of ohio, a member of the company, and w. w. whipple of michigan.[ ] the library of congress recently acquired its earliest example of colorado printing, a broadside entitled _laws and regulations of the miners of the gregory diggings district_, attributed to the byers & co. press. printed sometime after july , , it is one of but two located copies of the first extant colorado imprint other than a newspaper or newspaper extra.[ ] the laws, passed at miners' meetings on june and july , apply to the district named for john gregory, whose successful prospecting helped to stimulate the famous pike's peak gold rush. they were placed in historical context by peter c. schank, assistant chief of the american-british law division in the library of congress, in an article announcing this acquisition: the laws themselves are intrinsically valuable because they served as a model for much succeeding legislation, not only for other mining districts, but for state and national enactments as well. despite the promulgation of california district laws years earlier, the gregory laws, perhaps because of the district's fame, the presence of prospectors with previous experience in other mining areas, and the imminent adoption of the first national mining statute, had a unique influence on the development of mining law in this country.[ ] the lower margin of the library's copy is inscribed, "favor of stiles e mills, july th ." neither the identity of mr. mills nor the intervening provenance has been established. in recent years this copy belonged to thomas w. streeter ( - ) of morristown, n. j., owner of the most important private library of americana assembled during the th century. the library of congress paid $ , for the broadside at that portion of the streeter sale held by parke-bernet galleries on april - , .[ ] previously the library's first example of colorado printing was the second issue of a small newspaper sheet, _the western mountaineer_, published at golden city on december , . this newspaper was printed on the same press, actually the first to reach colorado, that under different ownership had lost the close race to print the first newspaper at denver. gold is a prominent topic in this particular issue, which includes an interesting account of the prospector, george andrew jackson, based on information he himself supplied. the library's copy seems to have been detached from a bound volume, probably before its listing in _a check list of american newspapers in the library of congress_ ( ). penciled on its front page are the name "lewis cass [esquire?]" and what appears to be another name beginning with "amos." lewis cass was secretary of state at the time of publication. [illustration: (_laws and regulations of the miners of the gregory diggings district_)] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie and albert h. allen, _early printing in colorado_ (denver, ).] [footnote : see _history of the city of denver, arapahoe county, and colorado_ (chicago, ), p. and .] [footnote : see no. in thomas w. streeter's _americana--beginnings_ (morristown, n.j., ).] [footnote : u.s. library of congress, _the quarterly journal of the library of congress_, vol. ( ), p. .] [footnote : it is described under no. in _the celebrated collection of americana formed by the late thomas winthrop streeter_ (new york, - ), vol. .] wyoming the oldest relics of wyoming printing are june and july issues of the _daily telegraph_, published at fort bridger in what was then the territory of utah. the printer and publisher of this newspaper was hiram brundage, telegraph operator at the fort, who had previously been associated with the fort kearney _herald_ in the territory of nebraska.[ ] no printing is known to have been performed in wyoming between and , with the possible exception of a disputed imprint dated ,[ ] and the first permanent wyoming press dates from the founding of the _cheyenne leader_ in september . the earliest example of wyoming printing in the library of congress is a -page pamphlet printed at green river by "freeman & bro., book and job printers" in : _a vocabulary of the snake, or, sho-sho-nay dialect by joseph a. gebow, interpreter. second edition, revised and improved, january st, ._ it was printed on the press of the _frontier index_, a migratory newspaper which commenced when the freemans bought out the fort kearney _herald_ in nebraska. this press moved westward from place to place as the union pacific railroad penetrated into southern wyoming, and it stopped at green river for about two months in .[ ] the first edition of gebow's _vocabulary_ was printed at salt lake city in , and the first printing of the second edition at camp douglas, utah, in . the vocabulary proper is prefaced only by the following statement: mr. joseph a. gebow, having been a resident in the mountains for nearly twenty years, has had ample opportunity of acquiring the language of the several tribes of indians, and offers this sample of indian literature, hoping it may beguile many a tedious hour to the trader, the trapper, and to any one who feels an interest in the language of the aborigines of the mountains. even for those unfamiliar with the native dialect, the words and phrases in english can be beguiling. among the phrases chosen for translation are "go slow, friend, don't get mad" and "you done wrong." [illustration: (_a vocabulary of the snake, or, sho-sho-nay dialect by joseph a. gebow, interpreter. second edition, revised and improved, january st, ._)] the present library of congress copy is inscribed to the smithsonian institution, and to judge from a date stamp it was added to the smithsonian library by may . later it was transferred to the library of congress through the smithsonian deposit (see above, p. ). it is in an old library binding with the original printed wrappers bound in. [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _early printing in wyoming and the black hills_ (hattiesburg, miss., ), p. - .] [footnote : ibid., p. , note .] [footnote : ibid., p. . on p. mcmurtrie argues that the pamphlet was printed in the month of october.] montana authorities do not agree on when or by whom montana's first printing was undertaken. it was either at bannack or virginia city, both gold-mining towns, probably in october .[ ] the earliest montana imprints in the library of congress were printed at virginia city in by john p. bruce, who owned _the montana democrat_ and was designated public printer. of these, the first may be an eight-page pamphlet, _reports of the auditor, treasurer, and indian commissioner, of the territory of montana_. the latest document incorporated in the text is dated february , , and the pamphlet was printed in the office of _the montana democrat_ probably not long after that date. most likely the second montana imprint in the library is the _message of governor thomas francis meagher, to the legislature of montana territory, delivered on the th day of march, _. three thousand copies were ordered, according to a printed note on the eighth and final page of this work. neither of these two imprints bears any mark of provenance, and both appear to have entered the library before the turn of the century. another early example of montana printing in the library is the d number, dated april , , of _the montana democrat_, a sizable four-page sheet displaying the paper's motto: "be faithful in all accepted trusts." it is addressed in pencil to the state department. from about the same time the library can boast two copies of _laws of the teritory_ [sic] _of montana, passed at the second session of the legislature, . beginning march , , and ending april , _, a work of pages. although copy one is imperfect, lacking pages - , it is of interest for the penciled inscription on its title page: "president johnson." [illustration: (report of the auditor of the territory of montana.)] the library of congress also owns three copies of a celebrated montana book published at virginia city in the same year by the proprietors of _the montana post_ press, s. w. tilton & co.: _the vigilantes of montana, or popular justice in the rocky mountains. being a correct and impartial narrative of the chase, trial, capture and execution of henry plummer's road agent band, together with accounts of the lives and crimes of many of the robbers and desperadoes, the whole being interspersed with sketches of life in the mining camps of the "far west;" forming the only reliable work on the subject ever offered the public._ the author, prof. thos. j. dimsdale, was an englishman who served virginia city as a teacher and as editor of the _post_, where his work originally appeared in installments. this first edition in book form contains pages of text. the library date-stamped copy one in . copy two was deposited for copyright in , the year that d. w. tilton put out a second edition. copy three bears the signature of henry gannett ( - ), geographer of the u.s. geological survey and at the time of his death president of the national geographic society. it contains a "war service library" bookplate and an "american library association camp library" borrower's card (unused). the library of congress received the copy from an unknown source in .[ ] [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, _pioneer printing in montana_ (iowa city, iowa, ); the introduction to mcmurtrie's _montana imprints - _ (chicago, ); and roby wentz, _eleven western presses_ (los angeles, ), p. - .] [footnote : three virginia city imprints dated are excluded from the present account. one of them (mcmurtrie ) cannot have been issued before january , . the others (mcmurtrie and ) were actually printed in maine according to mcmurtrie's bibliography. none of the library of congress copies of these imprints has a notable provenance.] north dakota [illustration: frontier scout. capt. e. g. adams, editor. liberty and union. lieut. c. h. champney, publisher vol. . fort rice, d. t., august , no. .] as early as a printing press is said to have been at the st. joseph mission station, site of the present town of walhalla, but there is no evidence that the press was actually used there. the first confirmed north dakota printing was done on a press which company i of the th wisconsin volunteers brought to fort union in june . in july of that year a small newspaper, the _frontier scout_, made its appearance at the fort, and extant issues name the company as "proprietors" and identify (robert) winegar and (ira f.) goodwin, both from eau claire but otherwise unknown, as publishers.[ ] possibly antedating the _frontier scout_ is a rare broadside notice which either issued from the same press (not before june ) or else could be the first extant montana imprint.[ ] with its early north dakota newspapers the library of congress has a facsimile reprint of the _frontier scout_, volume , number (the first extant issue), dated july , . the library's earliest original specimen of north dakota printing is a copy of the _frontier scout_, volume , number in a new series of issues at the paper's second location, fort rice. dated august , , this issue names capt. e. g. adams as editor and lt. c. h. champney as publisher. the library's copy is printed on a four-page sheet of blue-ruled notebook paper. the contents of the august issue are almost entirely from the pen of captain adams, who saw fit to run the statement: "every article in the paper is original and sees the light for the first time." a long poem about columbus, which he entitled "san salvador," occupies most of the front page. more interesting is a second-page editorial headed "indian impolicy," rebuking the authorities in washington for not allowing general sully a free hand in his current operations against the indians (whom the editor calls "these miserable land-pirates"). from this issue one gains an impression that fort rice must have been a dreary post. the following is under date of august in a section captioned "local items": by the big horn and spray [vessels] the q. m. dept. at fort rice receive sacks of corn. the mail arrives. the wolves are howling on all sides tonight; we can see them, some of them are as large as year old calves. the first cat arrives at fort rice. there are so many rats and mice here it is a great field for feline missionaries. the library of congress obtained its copy of this issue of the _frontier scout_ through an exchange with the south dakota historical society in november . [footnote : see douglas c. mcmurtrie, "pioneer printing in north dakota," _north dakota historical quarterly_, vol. , - , p. - .] [footnote : see no. in _the celebrated collection of americana formed by the late thomas winthrop streeter_ (new york, - ), vol. .] alaska printing is not known to have been undertaken by the russians in alaska,[ ] nor can a broadside notice of printed by an english searching party aboard h.m.s. _plover_ at point barrow[ ] be properly considered as alaskan printing. the first printing in alaska evidently followed its transfer to united states rule on october , . despite the absence of a bibliography or trustworthy history of early alaskan printing, it seems safe to say that the earliest imprints were the orders issued by the military district of alaska beginning with general orders no. , dated october , .[ ] the district headquarters were at sitka. there is no statement on the orders about place of printing, but it is difficult to imagine how they could have been printed elsewhere than alaska and still have served their immediate purpose. the earliest alaskan printing in the library of congress is a series of general orders dating from april , , to july , . these orders, printed as small sheets and leaflets, are mostly of a routine character, the majority reporting courts-martial held at sitka. in the general orders no. , of april , , jefferson c. davis announces his assumption of command of the department of alaska, which superseded the military district of alaska on march , , and he names the members of his departmental staff. the orders are printed on different kinds of paper, including blue-ruled, and many of them carry official signatures in manuscript. general orders no. , of december , , is stamped: "received adjutant gen'ls office apr ." the whole series is bound into a volume, now destitute of both covers, which was weeded from the army war college library sometime after world war ii. the national war college transferred it to the library of congress in or about . since the facts surrounding the army press have yet to be documented, it may be well to consider the civilian printing of alaska also. this apparently began with the initial issue of _the alaskan times_, dated april , , and printed on a press obtained from san francisco.[ ] the _times_ ceased publication in . apart from the general orders of - , the earliest alaskan printing in the library is its file of _the sitka post_ beginning with the second issue, dated november , . the _post_, published in a small six-page format on the th and th of each month, was the second newspaper to be printed in alaska. neither the _times_ nor the _post_ identifies its printer. featured in the november issue is "the cavalry fight at brandy station," an extract from l. p. brockett's _the camp, the battle field, and the hospital_ (philadelphia, ). following this is a forceful editorial on "the indian campaign," which advocates committing a greater number of u.s. troops to the war against the sioux. certain advertisements in this issue are noteworthy because they relate to the paper itself. one is on the fourth page: we wish to call the attention of all business men who intend to trade in alaska to the fact that the sitka post is the only newspaper published in the territory. it is devoted entirely to the interests of alaska; will never be made the organ of any party [o]r ring, political, commercial, or otherwise; and will make it its object to give the news of the territory. all enterprising men who wish to bring their business before the public of alaska territory cannot do better than by advertising in the sitka post. another appears on the last page: men of enterprise! take notice! the sitka post is the only paper printed in alaska. it is the best medium of advertising. it circulates in sitka, wrangel, stikeen, kodiak; portland, oregon; san francisco, cal; baltimore, md, and washington, d. c. send your advertisements to j. j. daly editor, sitka post, sitka, a. and there is a brief appeal at the end of the last page: wanted--more subscribers and contributors to this paper. [illustration: (orders issued by the military district of alaska)] the library of congress file of the _post_ is in an old library binding and extends from number without break to the th and final number, dated june , . the first page in the volume bears a library date stamp of . also on the first page is the signature "m. baker," preceded by the words "purchased by" in a different hand. thus the file was apparently assembled by marcus baker ( - ), a noted cartographer and writer on alaska who was employed from to by the u.s. coast and geodetic survey. some issues are addressed in pencil to individual subscribers, three of whom can be positively identified from company muster rolls at the national archives as members of the th artillery, u.s. army, stationed at sitka. they are "ord[nance] serg[ean]t [george] go[l]kell"; "h[enry] train," a corporal in company g; and "w[illiam] j. welch," a bugler in company g. [footnote : see valerian lada-mocarski, "earliest russian printing in the united states," in _homage to a bookman; essays ... written for hans p. kraus_ (berlin, ), p. - .] [footnote : see no. in _the celebrated collection of americana formed by the late thomas winthrop streeter_ (new york, - ), vol. .] [footnote : see ibid., no. .] [footnote : photostat copy in the library of congress examined.] * * * * * transcriber's notes the images have not been cleaned up in order to keep the worn look of the old documents. the texts within the images have not been transcribed with the exception of some titles. image descriptions, added for convenience, are within parentheses below the images. captions found in the original book are not enclosed in parentheses. all [sic] notes were from the original book. retained spelling variations found in the original book. concerning lafcadio hearn [illustration: lafcadio hearn. _from a photograph by gutekunst, ._] _frontispiece._ concerning lafcadio hearn. by george m. gould, m.d. with a bibliography by laura stedman _with five illustrations_ t. fisher unwin london: adelphi terrace leipsic: inselstrasse [_all rights reserved_] contents chap. page i. heredity and the early life ii. in person iii. the period of the gruesome iv. the new orleans time v. at martinique vi. "getting a soul" vii. "in ghostly japan" viii. as a poet ix. the poet of myopia x. hearn's style xi. summary and conclusion xii. appreciations and epitomes bibliography list of illustrations _to face page_ lafcadio hearn, from a photograph by gutekunst in _frontispiece_ hearn at about the age of eight, from a photograph reduced first page of the first issue of "ye giglampz" lafcadio hearn, from a photograph taken at martinique, august , handwriting of hearn in preface there are as many possible biographies of a man as there are possible biographers--and one more! of lafcadio hearn there has been, and there will be, no excuse for any biography whatever. a properly edited volume of his letters, and, perhaps, a critical estimate of the methods and development of his imaginative power and literary character are, and still remain, most desirable. that some competent hand may yet be found to undertake this task is still hoped by those who recognize the value of a man's best work. to furnish material and help toward this end is my object in collecting the following pages. the life of a literary man interests and is of value to the world because of the literature he has created. without a bibliography, without even mention of the works he wrote, his biography would be useless. to correct many untrue and misleading statements and inferences of a serious nature that have been published concerning him and his life, should it ever be undertaken, will prove a labour so difficult and thankless that it will scarcely be entered upon by one who would do it rightly. that it will not be hazarded comes, as i have said, from the fact that it is not needed, because neither hearn himself, nor his real friends, nor again, a discriminating literary sense, have been, nor can be, under any illusion as to his "greatness." he has been spoken of as "a great man," which, of course, he was not. two talents he had, but these were far from constituting personal greatness. deprived by nature, by the necessities of his life, or by conscious intention, of religion, morality, scholarship, magnanimity, loyalty, character, benevolence, and other constituents of personal greatness, it is more than folly to endeavour to place him thus wrongly before the world. the irony of the situation is pathetically heightened by the fact that, supposing him to be very great, "the weaknesses of very great men," which he said should not be spoken of, are amazingly paraded in the letters. had he ever dreamed that his letters would be published, he would not, and could not, have so unblushingly exposed himself and his faults to the public gaze. the fact has now been writ exceeding large, or it would not be, and should not be, corrected and contradicted. a word to the wise suffices. there remains the question, truly pertinent, concerning the nature and progress toward perfection of his imagination, and of his literary execution. we know nothing, and doubtless we may never know anything definite, accurate and of value about the character either of his father or of his mother. any attempt, therefore, to estimate what effect heredity had in handing down the strange endowment we find in his early manhood is wholly futile. we may not be too sure concerning either the parentage or nationality ascribed to him. moreover, in the last analysis, hearn was no "product of his environment." in a certain sense, he was of the school of flaubert, gautier, maupassant, loti, and zola, but with such differences and variations that these teachers may not take much credit or flattery to themselves. the great, the distinctive, the dominating force which controlled and created hearn's literary makings, his morbid vision, was not "environment" as the critics and scientists mean by the term. these have not yet learned that art and life hang upon the perfection and peculiarities of the senses of the artist and of the one who lives, and that intellect and especially æsthetics are almost wholly the product of vision. conversely, the morbidities and individualisms of art and life often depend pre-eminently upon the morbidities of vision. character, lastly, is the action or reaction of personality against circumstance, not under and dominated by circumstance. to have character is to control circumstance; hearn was always its slave. except in one particular, the pursuit of literary excellence, hearn had no character whatever. his was the most unresisting, most echolike mind i have ever known. he was a perfect chameleon; he took for the time the colour of his surroundings. he was always the mirror of the friend of the instant, or if no friend was there, of the dream of that instant. the next minute he was another being, acted upon by the new circumstance, reflecting the new friend, or redreaming the old and new-found dream. they who blame him too sharply for his disloyalty and ingratitude to old friends do not understand him psychologically. there was nothing behind the physical and neurologic machine to be loyal or disloyal. he had no mind, or character, to be possessed of loyalty or disloyalty. for the most part, he simply dropped his friends, and rarely spoke ill of them or of his enemies. there was nothing whatever in him, except perhaps for the short time when he said his friend had given him a soul, to take the cast and function of loyalty or disloyalty, gratitude or ingratitude. one does not ask originality or even great consistency of an echo, and, of all men that have ever lived, hearn, mentally and spiritually, was most perfectly an echo. the sole quality, the only originality, he brought to the fact, or to the echo, was colour--a peculiar derivation of a maimed sense. he created or invented nothing; his stories were always told him by others; at first they were gruesome tales even to horror and disgust. he learned by practice to choose lovelier stories, ones always distant, sometimes infinitely distant, and he learned to retell or echo them with more artistic skill and even a matchless grace. his merit, almost his sole merit, and his unique skill lay in the strange faculty of colouring the echo with the hues and tints of heavenly rainbows and unearthly sunsets, all gleaming with a ghostly light that never was on sea or shore. so that, fused as he was with his work, he himself became that impossible thing, a chromatic voice, a multicoloured echo. we must, therefore, accept the facts as we find them, the young man as we find him, uneducated, friendless, without formed character, with a lot of heathenish and unrestrained appetites, crippled as to the most important of the senses, poverty-stricken, improvident, of peculiar and unprepossessing appearance and manners, flung into an alien world in many ways more morbid than himself. that he lived at all is almost astonishing, and that he writhed out, how he did it, and the means whereby he finally presented to the best artistic and literary intellects of the world prized values and enjoyments, is indeed worthy of some attention and study. from letters written to me just prior to his death by that veteran and discriminating critic, mr. edmund c. stedman, i quote a few sentences to show that the appreciation of hearn has by no means reached its full measure: "i passed an evening with your hearn manuscript and the supplementary matter by my granddaughter, and found them both well done and of deep interest. some of your passages are beautifully written and make me think that if you will give us more of the style which is so plainly at your command, you will gain, etc.... the publishers do not understand, as i do, that hearn will in time be as much of a romantic personality and tradition as poe now is. i strongly urged one publisher to buy those copyrights owned by three other firms on any terms and in the end bring out a definitive edition of his complete works." as to miss stedman's workmanlike bibliography, it should be said that the rule which has been followed in excluding less valuable reviews and notices, was based upon the effort to include doubtful ones only when of exceptional value, by a personal friend of hearn, etc. files of ordinary newspapers are not preserved even in local libraries, and, therefore, references to them have been excluded except under peculiar circumstances of authorship, opinions stated, etc. for their kind permission to make extracts from hearn's published works, grateful acknowledgments are due to messrs. little, brown and company, houghton, mifflin and company, harper brothers, and the macmillan company. should this volume bring in more money than the necessary expenses of compiling it, the excess will be sent to mrs. hearn through the japanese consul, or in some other way. george m. gould. chapter i.--heredity and the early life [illustration: hearn at about the age of eight. _from a photograph._] _to face page ._ many conflicting accounts have been given concerning hearn's parents and childhood. from his own statements made in , the notes of which, taken down at the moment, are before me, he was born on june , , at leucadia, in santa maura, one of the ionian islands. his father, he said, was an irishman, charles bush hearn, surgeon-major in the th english infantry regiment, which had been stationed at madras, calcutta. the regiment was later merged into the nd west riding battalion. his mother was a greek from cerigo, another of the ionian isles; her name he had forgotten. he spoke of his father and mother as having been married, and of a subsequent divorce, about or . allusion was made to a younger brother, named daniel, who was brought up by an artist, a painter, richard hearn, a brother of charles bush hearn, who lived in paris.[ ] hearn thought this brother was educated as a civil engineer. after the divorce his mother remarried, her second husband being a lawyer, a greek, name unknown, and living at smyrna, asia minor. lafcadio's father also remarried, taking his wife to india. three daughters were said to have been born there. lafcadio was put under the care of his aunt, mrs. sarah brenane, of dublin, no. upper leeson street. she was a widow without children. in a letter to me, written prior to , hearn says: "as for me, i have a good deal in me _not_ to thank my ancestors for; and it is a pleasure that _i cannot_, even if i would, trace myself two generations back, not even one generation on my mother's side. half these greeks are mixed with turks and arabs--don't know how much of an oriental mixture i have, or may have." and again, "i do not know anything about my mother, whether alive or dead. my father died on his return from india. there was a queer romance in the history of my mother's marriage." he told me later that this romance was said to have been that surgeon-major hearn was once set upon by the brothers of the young greek woman to whom he was paying attention, and that he was left supposedly dead, with about a score of dagger-made wounds in his body. [ ] in _the bookbuyer_, may, , hearn's friend, mr. j. s. tunison, speaks of the existence of a brother, "a busy farmer in northwestern ohio." in the dayton, ohio, _journal_, of december , , mr. tunison speaks authoritatively of the discrepant accounts given by many writers, and by hearn himself, concerning his parents, birth and early years. "hearn himself had misgivings, and sometimes associated his baptismal name with the not uncommon spanish name, leocadie." the boy, of course, could only repeat what he had been told by his relatives or friends. physiognomy can help little perhaps, but here its testimony is assuredly not confirmatory of the more common story. any attempt to secure definite information in ireland would scarcely be successful. one possibility remained: there is still living an irish gentleman to whom lafcadio was sent from ireland, and in whose care, at least to a limited extent, the boy was placed. i have not the right to mention his name. he was living in cincinnati, ohio, in , and through his brother-in-law in ireland, lafcadio was, as it were, consigned to my informant. the subject is an unpleasant one to him, and he answered my questions with reluctance. he did not like the boy and did not feel that he had any obligation toward him; in fact, he did not feel that he was in any way responsible for his care. besides, he had heavy duties toward his own children that absorbed all his energies. "i never had a letter from him. he came to the house three times. mrs. brenane sent me money, which i gave to him to pay his bills with. when he got work, he never came near me again." he was not sure that mrs. brenane was, in truth, hearn's aunt, and upon being pressed, answered repeatedly, "i know nothing, nobody knows anything true of hearn's life. he may have been related to my wife's family, but i never knew." asked why the lad was "shipped" to him, he replied, "i do not know." inquiries concerning the boy's schooling brought no more than, "i only know that he could never stay long in one school." "his father was irish, was he not?" "yes." "and his mother was greek?" "o yes, i suppose so," but with an indefinite inflection. the mystery, therefore, of hearn's parentage and boyhood years is probably not to be cleared up. he was, perhaps, a "bad boy," and expelled from several schools; his lifelong hatred and fear of catholics and jesuits doubtless dates from these youthful and irrational experiences; but it is useless to inquire whether or not they were in any sense justifiable. a little reflected light is thrown upon this period by an apocryphal anecdote in a letter to me, written while hearn was at my house, and which miss bisland in her "life and letters" kindly failed to put in its proper place,[ ] as well as omitted to say whence she obtained it: [ ] vol. i, pp. - , just prior to the last paragraph. this again reminds me of something. when i was a boy, i had to go to confession, and my confessions were honest ones. one day i told the ghostly father that i had been guilty of desiring that the devil would come to me in the shape of the beautiful woman in which he came to the anchorites in the desert, and that i thought that i would yield to such temptations. he was a grim man who rarely showed emotion, my confessor, but on that occasion he actually rose to his feet in anger. "let me warn you!" he cried, "let me warn you! of all things never wish that! you might be more sorry for it than you can possibly believe!" his earnestness filled me with fearful joy;--for i thought the temptation might actually be realized--so serious he looked ... but the pretty _succubi_ all continued to remain in hell. the necessary inference, therefore, is that the lad was an unwelcome charge upon those irish relations or friends of his father, in whose care he was placed. it is said that he always spoke with bitterness of his father, and with love of his mother. beyond a certain amount of money allotted (by his father?) for his support, neither parent was evidently concerned about his upbringing and welfare, and all who should have been interested in those things made haste to rid themselves of the obligations. if the stories of his boyish "badness" were true, the lad could not be blamed for putting into practice his inherited instincts, so that the pathos of his early misfortunes only increase our sympathy for the youth and his tragedies. (i reproduce a photograph of lafcadio and his aunt, mrs. justin, or sarah, brenane. the lad must have been at the time about eight years of age.) the "consignment" of the nineteen-year old youth to the distant relative of the family, who was then living in cincinnati, explains the reason why, landing in new york, he finally went to cincinnati. how long he lived in new york city and any details of his life there before he went west, may be held as beyond investigation. mr. tunison incidentally speaks of him during this time as "sleeping in dry-goods boxes on the street, etc.," and i have heard that he acted as a restaurant waiter. there have been published stories of a period of want and suffering endured in london before the emigration to new york city. others concerning great scholarship and the intimate knowledge of several languages, especially french, are surely not true. even in , after the new orleans and martinique periods, hearn could not speak french with ease or correctness. in cincinnati he secured the help of a french scholar in translating gautier's "Émaux et camées." his want of knowledge of the latin language is deplored in his letters and, to the last, after a dozen or more years in japan, his inability to read a japanese newspaper or speak the language was a source of regret to himself, of errors too numerous to mention, and of grievous limitations in his work as an interpreter. in the one field of which his taste, aptitude and function dictated a wide and stimulating acquaintance, folk-lore, he was lamentably wanting. it might seem unfitting to allude to this were it not well to be discriminating in all cases, and had not hearn sought to reach authoritativeness in a department wherein he had not gathered the fundamental data. chapter ii.--in person when, in , hearn appeared in my reception room, although i had not seen any photograph of him, and had not even known of his coming, i at once said, "you are lafcadio?" the poor exotic was so sadly out of place, so wondering, so suffering and shy, that i am sure he would have run out of the house if i had not at once shown him an overflowing kindness, or if a tone of voice had betrayed any curiosity or doubt. it was at once agreed that he should stay with me for awhile, and there was no delay in providing him with a seat at my table and a room where he could be at his work of proof-correcting. his "two years in the french west indies" was then going through the press, and an incident connected with the proof-reading illustrates how impossible it was for him, except when necessity drove, to meet any person not already known. he wished to give his reader the tune of the songs printed on pages - , but he knew nothing of music. i arranged with a lady to repeat the airs on her piano as he should whistle them, and then to write them on the music-staff. when the fatal evening arrived, hearn and i went to the lady's house, but as we proceeded his part in our chatting lapsed into silence, and he lagged behind. although he finally dragged himself to the foot of the doorstep, after i had rung the bell, his courage failed, and before the door was opened i saw him running as if for life, half a square away! even before this adventure i had learned that it was useless to try to get him to lunch or dinner if any stranger were present. i think he always listened to detect the possible presence of a stranger before entering the dining-room, and he would certainly have starved rather than submit to such an ordeal. it may be readily imagined that my attempt to secure his services as a lecturer before a local literary society was a ludricrous failure. he would have preferred hanging. i allude to this attitude of his mind from no idle or curious reason, but because it arose from logical and necessary reasons. when, later, he was in japan, i was once importuned, and should not have yielded, to give a friend, who was about to visit tôkyô, a note of introduction. as i warned my friend hearn refused to see visitors. that his extreme shyness depended upon his being unknown, and that it was united to a lack of humour, may be gathered from the fact that, when he came from martinique, he wore a clothing which inevitably made the passers-by turn and look and smile. long and repeated endeavours were necessary before i could get his consent to lay aside the outrageous tropical hat for one that would not attract attention. how little he recked of this appears from the tale i heard that a lot of street gamins in philadelphia formed a _queue_, the leader holding by hearn's coat-tails, and, as they marched, all kept step and sang in time, "where, where, where did you get that hat?" at once, upon first meeting hearn, i instinctively recognized that upon my part the slightest sign of a desire or attempt to study him, to look upon him as an object of literary or "natural" history, would immediately put an end to our relations. indeed, it never at that time entered my mind to think thus of him, and only since collections of his letters and biographies are threatened has it occurred to me to think over our days and months together, and to help, so far as advisable, toward a true understanding of the man and his art. in lafcadio was feet inches tall, weighed pounds, and had a chest girth of - / inches. the summer of made noteworthy changes in hearn's character. i suspect it was his first experience in anything that might be called home-life. to his beloved _pays des revenants_, martinique, his mind constantly reverted, with an _ahnung_ that he should never see it again. there are truth and pathos and keen self-knowledge, frankly expressed in the letters he would write me in the next room, immediately after we had chatted long together, and when he felt that the pen could better express what he shyly shrank from speaking: ah! to have a profession is to be rich, to have international current-money, a gold that is cosmopolitan, passes everywhere. then i think i would never settle down in any place; would visit all, wander about as long as i could. there is such a delightful pleasantness about the _first_ relations with people in strange places--before you have made any rival, excited any ill wills, incurred anybody's displeasure. stay long enough in any one place and the illusion is over; you have to sift this society through the meshes of your nerves, and find perhaps one good friendship too large to pass through. it is a very beautiful world; the ugliness of some humanity only exists as the shadowing that outlines the view; the nobility of man and the goodness of woman can only be felt by those who know the possibilities of degradation and corruption. philosophically i am simply a follower of spencer, whose mind gives me the greatest conception of divinity i can yet expand to receive. the faultiness is not with the world, but with myself. i inherit certain susceptibilities, weaknesses, sensitivenesses, which render it impossible to adapt myself to the ordinary _milieu_; i have to make one of my own wherever i go, and never mingle with that already made. true, i love much knowledge, but i escape pains which, in spite of all your own knowledge, you could wholly comprehend, for the simple reason that you _can_ mingle with men. i am really quite lonesome for you, and am reflecting how much more lonesome i shall be in some outrageous equatorial country where i shall not see you any more;--also it seems to me perfectly and inexplainably atrocious to know that some day or other there will be no gooley at ---- st. that i should cease to make a shadow some day seems quite natural, because hearney boy is only a bubble anyhow ("the earth hath bubbles"),--but you, hating mysteries and seeing and feeling and knowing everything,--you have no right ever to die at all. and i can't help doubting whether you will. you have almost made me believe what you do not believe yourself: that there are souls. i haven't any, i know; but i think you have,--something electrical and luminous inside you that will walk about and see things always. are you really--what i see of you--only an envelope of something subtler and perpetual? because if you are, i might want you to pass down some day southward,--over the blue zone and the volcanic peaks like a little wind,--and flutter through the palm-plumes under the all-putrefying sun,--and reach down through old roots to the bones of me, and try to raise me up.... the weakness and even exhaustion which the west indian climate had wrought in hearn were painfully apparent. his stay in philadelphia, warm as that summer was to us, brought him speedily back to physical health. the lesson was not unheeded, nor its implications, by his sensitive mind. i reproduce two photographs of hearn: the first taken in (facing page ); and the second, by mr. gutekunst, at my urgent solicitation, in , while hearn was stopping at my house (_frontispiece_). the first photograph, taken in martinique, brings out the habitual sadness and lack of vivacity in his physiognomy. in my picture of (the second) i was unable, despite all effort, to get hearn to present to the camera his entire face with naturally open eyes, and the customary expression. he resolutely refused, and consented to the compromise of a two-thirds view _with closed eyes_. and this to me is still the most truthful and hence the most expressive of all his photographs. it is so suggestive because of its negations, so expressive because non-expressive. but it indicates, silently and by inference, the most significant fact about the man. to those who are expert in such things, the stare of the highly myopic eye is known to be not that of mental action and seeing, but of not seeing. when we walk, we are forward-looking beings, and what goes on within the eye or brain and what may be behind us is totally ignored. but for a highly myopic person there is no outward or forward looking. hearn's closed eye gives, therefore, a decidedly more truthful lesson in physiognomy than does the open and protruding one, which cannot see the coming or future scene, or which sees it so vaguely that its hint of the scene is perhaps more useless than the imagined picture of the totally blind. his inability to see the presenting world had resulted in a renunciation of outlook and an absolute incuriosity as to the future. with weaklings this might have brought about introspection, the mental eye--the product of the physical eye--turned in upon itself. hearn was too much of an artist to fall into that death valley of all æsthetics, and there was a quick acceptance of the logical and inevitable, whence arose the wonder of poetic retrospection. chapter iii.--the period of the gruesome when hearn arrived in cincinnati, in or , he was twenty-one or twenty-two years of age. all other methods of making a livelihood except that by his pen had failed, or were soon to fail, and it is not long before the literary way is exclusively and permanently adopted. there was a brief first time of service with robert clarke and company as proof-reader. the exact uses of punctuation, the clearness which the proper marks give to writing, soon earned for him the sobriquet "old semicolon" among his fellow reporters. all his life hearn clung meticulously to his theories concerning the necessity and precise rules of punctuation. some of his later quarrels with periodical editors and proof-readers arose from differences of opinion in these things. there was a short engagement of hearn by the librarian, mr. thomas vickers, as private secretary or helper. among his early friends was a printer, mr. henry watkin, now residing at mcmillan street, who was kind to him, and who taught him to set type. "in ," mr. o. p. caylor[ ] writes, "col. cockerill of the _world_ was managing editor of the cincinnati _enquirer_. a few weeks previous to the 'tan-yard murder' mr. hearn came to the _enquirer_ office to sell a manuscript. upstairs he ventured, but there his courage failed him. it was not enough to induce him to brave the awful editorial presence. so he paced up and down the hall with his velvet restless tread until the awful door opened and the terrible giant came forth. hearn would, no doubt, have run away had he not been at the rear of the hall when mr. cockerill came out into the other end, and the stairway was between. [ ] a quotation in the _author_, january , , from an article by mr. caylor in the philadelphia _north american_. "thus it occurred that the author of 'chita' submitted his first manuscript. he came with others later, but never could he persuade himself to knock at that editorial door for admission. up and down, up and down the hall he would pace or glide until colonel cockerill came forth, whether the time consumed in waiting was ten minutes or two hours." in _current literature_, june, , colonel john a. cockerill, writing of hearn, tells the story thus: "some twenty years ago i was the editor in charge of a daily newspaper in a western city. one day there came to my office a quaint, dark-skinned little fellow, strangely diffident, wearing glasses of great magnifying power and bearing with him evidence that fortune and he were scarce on nodding terms. "in a soft, shrinking voice he asked if i ever paid for outside contributions. i informed him that i was somewhat restricted in the matter of expenditure, but that i would give consideration to what he had to offer. he drew from under his coat a manuscript, and tremblingly laid it upon my table. then he stole away like a distorted brownie, leaving behind him an impression that was uncanny and indescribable. "later in the day i looked over the contribution which he had left. i was astonished to find it charmingly written.... "he sat in the corner of my room and wrote special articles for the sunday edition as thoroughly excellent as anything that appeared in the magazines of those days. i have known him to have twelve and fifteen columns of this matter in a single issue of the paper. he was delighted to work, and i was pleased to have him work, for his style was beautiful and the tone he imparted to the newspaper was considerable. hour after hour he would sit at his table, his great bulbous eyes resting as close to the paper as his nose would permit, scratching away with beaver-like diligence and giving me no more annoyance than a bronze ornament. "his eyes troubled him greatly in those days. he was as sensitive as a flower. an unkind word from anybody was as serious to him as a cut from a whiplash, but i do not believe he was in any sense resentful.... he was poetic, and his whole nature seemed attuned to the beautiful, and he wrote beautifully of things which were neither wholesome nor inspiring. he came to be in time a member of the city staff at a fair compensation, and it was then that his descriptive powers developed. he loved to write of things in humble life. he prowled about the dark corners of the city, and from gruesome places he dug out charming idyllic stories. the negro stevedores on the steamboat-landings fascinated him. he wrote of their songs, their imitations, their uncouth ways, and he found picturesqueness in their rags, poetry in their juba dances." in january or february, , there was a horrible murder, "the famous tan-yard case," in cincinnati, and hearn's account of it in the _enquirer_, from the newspaper and reportorial standpoint was so graphic and so far beyond the power of all rivals that he was henceforth assured of employment and of a measure and kind of respect. his friend, mr. edward henderson, formerly city editor of the _commercial_, now city clerk in cincinnati, says that because of his startling report of this murder "his city editors kept him at the most arduous work of a daily morning paper--the night-stations, for in that field mostly developed the sensational events that were worthy of his pen. in these days his powers would be held in reserve to write up what others should discover.... his repertory was strongest in the unusual and the startling. he was never known to shirk hardship or danger in filling an assignment or following up his self-obtained pointer." the beginning of hearn's literary career was his report of the tan-yard murder case. it was published in the cincinnati _enquirer_, november, . i shall quote some parts of it in a footnote to illustrate his innate and studied ability to outfit with words and expressions of the most startling and realistic picturing quality, the most horrible and loathsome facts. keeping in mind the comparison with the illustrations from his later work in which he was equally capable of painting noble and beautiful things (all except those of a spiritual or religious nature), one is filled with admiration of a faculty so rare and perfect. those who are sensitive should not read the excerpts which i append, and which are given in obedience to a sense of duty.[ ] [ ] "an _enquirer_ reporter visited the establishment some hours later, accompanied by dr. maley, and examined all so far discovered of herman schilling's charred corpse. the hideous mass of reeking cinders, despite all the efforts of the brutal murderers to hide their ghastly crime, remain sufficiently intact to bear frightful evidence against them. "on lifting the coffin-lid, a powerful and penetrating odour, strongly resembling the smell of burnt beef, yet heavier and fouler, filled the room and almost sickened the spectators. but the sight of the black remains was far more sickening. laid upon the clean white lining of the coffin, they rather resembled great shapeless lumps of half-burnt bituminous coal than aught else at the first hurried glance; and only a closer investigation could enable a strong-stomached observer to detect their ghastly character--masses of crumbling human bones, strung together by half-burnt sinews, or glued one upon another by a hideous adhesion of half-molten flesh, boiled brains and jellied blood, mingled with coal. "the skull had burst like a shell in the fierce furnace heat, and the whole upper portion seemed as though it had been blown out by the steam from the boiling and bubbling brains. only the posterior portion of the occipital and parietal bones, and the inferior and superior maxillary, and some of the face bones remained,--the upper portion of the skull bones being jagged, burnt brown in some spots, and in others charred to black ashes. the brain had all boiled away, save a small waste lump at the base of the skull about the size of a lemon. it was crisped and still warm to the touch. on pushing the finger through the crisp, the interior felt about the consistency of banana fruit, and the yellow fibre seemed to writhe like worms in the coroner's hands. the eyes were cooked to bubbled crisps in the blackened sockets, and the bones of the nose were gone, leaving a hideous hole. "so covered were the jaws and the lower facial bones with coal, crusted blood and gummy flesh, that the coroner at first supposed that the lower maxillary had been burned away. on tearing away the frightful skull-mask of mingled flesh and coal and charred gristle, however, the grinning teeth shone ghastly white, and the jaws were found intact. they were set together so firmly that it was found impossible to separate them, without reducing the whole mass to ashes. so great had been the heat that the coroner was able to crumble one of the upper teeth in his fingers. "besides the fragments of the skull, have been found six ribs of the right side and four of the left; the middle portion of the spinal-column; the liver, spleen, and kidneys; the pelvic bones, the right and left humerus, the femoral bone and the tibia and fibula of both legs. the body had burnt open at the chest, and the heart and lungs had been entirely consumed. the liver had been simply roasted and the kidneys fairly fried. there is a horrible probability that the wretched victim was forced into the furnace alive, and suffered all the agonies of the bitterest death man can die, while wedged in the flaming flue. the teeth were so terribly clinched that more than one spectator of the hideous skull declared that only the most frightful agony could have set those jaws together. perhaps, stunned and disabled by the murderous blows of his assailants, the unconscious body of the poor german was forced into the furnace. perhaps the thrusts of the assassin's pitchfork, wedging him still further into the fiery hell, or perhaps the first agony of burning when his bloody garments took fire, revived him to meet the death of flames. fancy the shrieks for mercy, the mad expostulation, the frightful fight for life, the superhuman struggle for existence--a century of agony crowded into a moment--the shrieks growing feebler--the desperate struggle dying into feeble writhings. and through it all, the grim murderers, demoniacally pitiless, devilishly desperate, gasping with their exertions to destroy a poor human life, looking on in silent triumph, peering into the furnace until the skull exploded, and the steaming body burst, and the fiery flue hissed like a hundred snakes! it may not be true--we hope for humanity's sake it cannot be true; but the rightful secrets of that fearful night are known only to the criminals and their god. they may be brought to acknowledge much; but surely never so much as we have dared to hint at." "when his city editor, in compliance with the urgency of a steeple-climber, consented to send a reporter to take observations of the city from the top of the cross surmounting the spire of st. peter's cathedral in cincinnati, hearn was the man selected. in mentioning the assignment to him, the city editor handed him a valuable field-glass, with the suggestion that he might find it useful. on taking his departure with the climbers, hearn quietly handed back the glasses with the remark in undertone, 'perhaps i'd better not take these; something might happen.' he made the trip to the top of the spire, though the men found it necessary to haul him part of the way in mid-air and to bodily place and hold him on top of the cross. and he produced an account of that thrilling experience that went the round of the newspaper world."[ ] [ ] our wonder at the performance is heightened by the fact that hearn, of course, saw nothing of what he so vividly described. it is little wonder that his "vocabulary of the gruesome" became famous, since i have learned from his friend and associate, the artist, mr. farney, and also from others, certain facts which demonstrate that this vocabulary was gathered not only or chiefly because of the exigencies of his work as a reporter, or to express the revolting in thrilling words, but because he had a spontaneous lickerishness for the things themselves. he positively delighted in the gruesome. with his fingers he dug into the scorched flesh and the exuding brains of the murdered man's body when it was taken from the furnace, and in another murder case he slid on the floor, as if on ice, in the congealed blood of the victim. "he even drank blood at the abattoirs with the consumptives when that craze had fallen upon the people of cincinnati." there is more than an excuse for mentioning these things; it is necessary to do so in order to understand the origin and transformation of hearn's chief endowment as a writer. even more convincing, perhaps, than these offensive gloatings as regards his native love of the gruesome, is the unconscious testimony given in the history of an illustrated paper established by mr. farney and mr. hearn. mr. henderson has said of hearn that "very rarely was he known to throw a _soupçon_ of humour into his work." the newspaper venture demonstrates that even when humour was planned hearn had none to give. number one, volume one, of _ye giglampz_ was issued in cincinnati, ohio, on june , , and describes itself on the title-page as, "a weekly illustrated journal, devoted to art, literature and satire." the size of the pages was - / × - / inches. the subsequent issues were larger, about × - / inches. there were eight pages in each number, the first, third, fourth and eighth were illustrated by mr. h. f. farney; the others were made up of reading matter. the heading of the editorial page did not exactly repeat that of the title-page, but read as follows: "the giglampz." published daily, except week-days. terms, $ . per annum. address, "giglampz publishing co." west fourth st. [illustration: reduced first page of the first issue.] with the issue of number seven (august , ) appeared a notice that h. f. farney and company had purchased the _giglampz_ from its former proprietors, the new office being henceforth at the north-west corner of fourth and race streets. number eight was the last furnished subscribers. probably the only existing set of this periodical is that kindly lent to me by mr. farney at the request of mr. alexander hill of the robert clarke company, cincinnati. among the many significant things suggested in looking over the pages, is the fact that this bound file was hearn's personal copy, his name being written on the cover-leaf by himself--"l. hearn, "--and just below, this: "reminiscences of an editorship under difficulties." it is noteworthy that nowhere is it publicly announced that hearn was the editor, although the fact was probably an open secret in cincinnati at the time. the truth of the foregoing inscription in his handwriting is confirmed by the acknowledgment of his authorship of most of the articles, contributed as well as editorial, conveyed by his customary signature, penciled at the end or beginning of each paragraph or column which he had written. the very title of the paper itself was a witness in the same way, and shows that at that time, although hearn kept his name concealed, he was not, as later, sensitive concerning his ocular defect.[ ] it is plain that the word _giglampz_ refers to the large and conspicuous spectacles or eye-glasses which at that time (not later) were worn habitually by hearn. the proof of this comes out in the illustration occupying the full first page of the initial number, and entitled: "a prospect of herr kladderadatsch, introducynge mr. giglampz tu ye publycke." [ ] in the first number is an editorial paragraph, written by hearn, reading as follows:--"the public has indulged in speculation and no little levity, in regard to our name. in this as in the future conduct of this extraordinary sheet, we seek only to please ourselves. whether the publishing company will declare 'irish dividends' in six months, or not, does not concern us. we (the editorial corps) being on a salary, look on public favour with serene indifference. the name pleases us. we look upon it in the light of a conundrum, calculated to induce reflection in simple minds. we hope some one may solve it, as we have incontinently given it up." the scene is that of the stage of a theatre, and kladderadatsch proudly presents mr. giglampz to the wildly applauding audience. the head of the obsequious mr. giglampz is very large compared with his body, but most conspicuous is the enormous _pince-nez_ astride a nose of fitting proportions. mr. farney was even permitted to give a mere hint of the editor's facial expression. a curious and suggestive, even a pathetic, light is thrown upon hearn's character by the fact that this personal file of his journal with his own inscriptions, signatures, etc., was found in a second-hand book-store by mr. farney after hearn left cincinnati. although it is as much too long for our quoting as it was for introducing the journalistic venture, i cannot help reproducing hearn's first editorial, the "salutatory, by a celebrated french author, a friend of giglampz": it was a dark and fearsome night in the month of june, ; and the pavements of fourth street were abandoned to solitude. the lamps, dripping huge water-drops fire-tinged from their lurid glare, seemed monstrous yellow goblin-eyes, weeping phosphorescent tears. it was raining, and the funereal sky flamed with lightning. it was such a rain as in the primeval world created verdant seas of slimy mud, subsequently condensed into that fossiliferous strata where to-day spectacled geologists find imbedded the awful remains of the titanic _iguanodon_, the _plesiosaurus_, and the _icthyosaurus_. we sat motionlessly meditative in the shadows of a gothic doorway of medieval pattern, and ruefully observed the movements of a giant rat, slaking his thirst at a water-spout. suddenly we were aware of a pressure--a gentle pressure on our shoulder. a hurried glance convinced us that the pressure was occasioned by the presence of a hand. it was a long, bony, ancient hand, dried and withered to the consistency of india-rubber. it might have been compared to the hand of a mummy embalmed in the reign of rameses iii, but we felt a living warmth in its pressure, penetrating our summer linen. the oriental wizards occasionally need the assistance of a magic candle, in their groping amid ancient tombs--a candle which burns with a fuming stench so foul, that hungry ghouls flee dismayedly away. this candle is made of green fat--the fat of men long dead. for such a candle it is of course necessary to have a candlestick. to procure this candlestick it is necessary to cut off the right hand of a murderous criminal executed by impalement, and having carefully dried it, to insert the candle in its ghastly grasp. now the hand laid on our shoulder strongly resembled such a hand. the living warmth of its pressure alone restrained us from uttering a shriek of hideous fear. a cold sweat ravaged the starched bosom of our under-garment. suddenly a face peered out from the shadow, and the sickly glare of the flickering gas-lamp fell full upon it. the aspect of that face immediately reassured us. it was long to grotesqueness and meagre even to weirdness. it would have been strongly mephistophelic but for an air of joviality that was not wholly saturnine. the eyes were deep, piercing, but "laughter-stirred," as those of haroun alraschid. the nose was almost satanically aquiline, but its harsh outline was more than relieved by the long smiling mouth, and the countless wrinkles of merriment that intersected one another in crow's-feet all over the ancient face. the stranger's complexion was that of caout-chouc; and his long lank locks were blacker than the plumage of those yellow-footed birds that prey upon the dead. his whole aspect was that of one who, by some eerie, occult art of self-preservation, had been enabled to live through the centuries. "am i not addressing the celebrated author----?" said the voice of the uncouthly-featured. it was a half-merry, half-mocking voice--a deep voice that sounded as though conveyed from a vast distance through the medium of a pneumatic tube. it therefore resembled in its tone the dreamily-distant voices never-slumbering fancy hears in the hours devoted to darkness and slumber by moral people. an enormous drop of soot-tinged water fell upon our nose, incontestably proving that we were awake; and we murmured monosyllabic assent to the stranger's query. "it is well," replied the unknown, with a latitudinarian smile of joy. "i have been seeking you. i need your assistance, your talent, your mental vigour so enormously manifested in your cyclopean[ ] phrenological development." [ ] the contrast of this allusion to his large single eye with his morbid shyness about it of late years is noteworthy. "_sapristi_, monsieur!--permit me to inquire the nature of----" "attend a little, friend, and your curiosity shall be sated with ample satisfaction. i have existed as you see through all ages. i have lived under a thousand alias names, under the various régimes of a thousand civilizations, which flourished on ancient soil now covered by the mile-deep waters of foaming oceans. i have made my dwelling-place in the mighty palace-halls of egyptian kings, in the giant cities of dead assyria, in the residences of aztec monarchs and peruvian incas, in the snow-columned temples of the greek, and the lordly homes of the luxurious roman. in fact, i am rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun; and have been worshipped as a genius in far-sparkling planets ere this mundane sphere was first evolved from that flaming orb. in all time when individualized intelligent thought existed, i have inculcated in living beings the truth of that sublime and eternal maxim--laugh and grow fat. to-day men must be taught this glorious truth by the bullock press rather than the tongue. i want your pen, not your tongue. write me a salutatory for my new illustrated weekly--only five cents a copy." with these words he pressed a glazed bristol-board card into our trembling hand, and disappeared. by the light of the weeping street-lamps we read thereon this weird legend: giglampz the title itself, the introduction by "kladderadatsch," and the character of the contributions and cuts make it plain that the third object of the publication, called "satire," was designed to be much more prominent than "art" or "literature." unquestionably an american _kladderadatsch_ was planned, and by hearn and his friends it was supposed that the editor had a sense of humour sufficient to carry on the undertaking. i have quoted the salutatory to show that with the favouring of youth, ambition, opportunity and the best encouragement, hearn's mind from the first line drifted inevitably to the fearsome, the weird, the unearthly and far-away. by no power or necessity could his imagination be forced or bound to the task of producing things comic or even satiric, especially such humour and jokes as the cincinnati newspaper reader wanted in . of the twelve columns of reading in the first number of _giglampz_, hearn contributed about eight, made up of fifteen or twenty distinct paragraphs. in the second number his contributions number seven; in the third, six; in the fourth, three; in the fifth, four; in the sixth, two; in the seventh, one; in the eighth, one. in about a dozen of the first number, he somewhat unsuccessfully tried to be humorous or satiric, while six were frankly tragical, critical, bitter, etc. in the succeeding numbers hearn made little effort to be humorous; in the fifth number he describes with startling power a picture of "a hideous scene in the interior of a seraglio;" in number six he returns to the orient and in "the fantasy of a fan" mixes poetry, prose and fancy with a hinting of the subtle soft witchery of the hearn of twenty-five years later.[ ] in the second number is a full-page cut, in which beecher is depicted as standing before a crowd of jeerers prior to being placed in the stocks, with the scarlet letter "a" upon his breast. hearn especially requested mr. farney to make him one of the conspicuous spectators. the bespectacled face is easily recognizable in the copy given me by the artist. in the seventh number hearn describes in two columns the story he supposes behind the pictured gabriel max, called "the last farewell" (now in the metropolitan museum, new york). it shows so early suggestions of the manhood strength of the wordmaster that i copy it: [ ] mr. farney tells me that he had to compel hearn, even then, to moderate the boldness of sentences which would by their sensualism and licence shock their cincinnati readers. the tale a picture tells "_butchered to make a roman holiday_" the remarkably fine engraving from gabriel max's picture, "the last farewell," in a late issue of the berlin _illustrirte zeitung_ (and which the new york _graphic_ a few days since stole to spoil in the stealing), is worthy of the celebrated original at munich--a painting which will never be forgotten by those who have once beheld it. among modern painters, probably max has no superior in the art of harmoniously blending the horrible with the pathetic; and in none of his works is this peculiar power exhibited to better advantage than in "the last farewell:" a marvel of colour and composition, one of those rare pictures which seem to reflect the living shadows of a dead age with the weird truthfulness of a wizard's mirror. a beautiful roman girl is exposed in the flavian amphitheatre, to be devoured by wild beasts. she can scarcely be eighteen years old, judging from the slender delicacy of her limbs and the childish sweetness of the pretty little brown face which she has vainly been striving to screen from the rude gaze of the shameless populace with the remnants of a rich black veil--probably torn by the rough hands of some brutal lanista. she leans with her back to the great wall of stone, calmly awaiting her fate without any signs of fear, although the hot, foul breath of a panther is already warm upon her naked feet. to her right, but a few feet away, a leopard and a huge bear are tearing each other to pieces; on her left, another den has just been thrown open, and at its entrance appears the hideous head of an immense tiger, with eyes that flame like emeralds. you can almost feel the warmth of the fierce summer sun shining on that scene of blood and crime, falling on the yellow sands of the arena, drying the dark pools of human blood the wild beasts have left unlapped. you can almost hear the deep hum of a hundred thousand voices above, and the hideous growlings of the contending brutes below. you wonder whether there is one heart in all that vast crowd of cruel spectators wherein some faint impulse of humanity still lingers, one tongue charitable enough to exclaim: "poor little thing!" no: only wicked whispers followed by coarse laughter; monstrous indifference in the lower tiers, brutal yells of bloodthirsty impatience from the upper seats. two roman knights relieve the monotony of the scene by strange speculation. "one hundred sesterces that the tiger gets her first!" "two hundred on the panther!" "done, by the gods! where are the lions?" "why, that cursed barbarian killed the last three this morning, one after another. the finest lions of the lot, too." "who are you talking about?--that tall, dark thracian?" "no: he was killed the day before by the same gladiator that killed the lions. i mean that golden-haired giant--that goth. says he was chief in his own country, or something. he's killed everybody and everything pitted against him so far. and this morning they put him naked in the arena, with nothing but a mirmillo's shield, and a sword; and let the lions loose on him one after another. i bet a thousand sesterces on that little numidian lion; but the rascal killed him as he sprang, with one sword-thrust, and i lost my thousand sesterces. by hercules, that goth is a match for a dozen lions!" "brave fellow, by all the gods! did they give him the wooden sword?" "julius cortonus says they did. i didn't stay to see the rest of the games, for i was too angry about my thousand sesterces." "furies take that tiger!--i believe the brute's afraid of the girl!" * * * * * "why, it is madness to throw such a fine-limbed girl as that to the lions!" cries a greek merchant, lately arrived in rome. "eyes and hair, by zeus, like venus anadyomene. i could sell her for a fortune in a slave-market." "aedepol! not in a roman slave-market, you fool. why, i've known lucullus to throw better-looking girls than that into his fishpond, to fatten his lampreys with. may cerberus swallow that cursed tiger!" * * * * * the tiger has not yet moved; his vast head and flaming green eyes are just visible at the door of the den. the leopard and the bear are still tearing one another. the panther is gradually, stealthily, noiselessly approaching the poor, helpless girl. suddenly a fresh, bright-red rose is thrown from the seats above: it is the last earthly greeting, the last farewell token of some old friend--perhaps a brother, perhaps (o god!) a lover! it falls on the blood-stained sand, shattering itself in perfumed ruin at the maiden's feet. she starts as the red leaves scatter before her. she advances from the wall, and boldly withdrawing the fragments of her poor, torn veil, looks up into the mighty sea of pitiless visages--looks up with her sweet, childish, cherry-lipped face, and those great, dark, softly sad roman eyes--to thank him by a last look of love. "who can it be?" no one the maiden knows. she only sees a seemingly endless row of cruel and sensual faces, the faces of the wild beast populace of rome,--the faces which smile at the sight of a living human body, torn limb from limb by lions, and scattered over the sands in crimson shreds of flesh.... suddenly a terrible yet friendly eye meets and rivets the gaze of her own--an eye keen and coldly-blue as a blade of steel. a sternly handsome northern face it is, with flowing yellow hair. for an instant the iron lips seem to soften in a smile of pity, and the keen blue eyes become brighter. so do the soft dark ones they meet in that piteous farewell. she has found her unknown friend. ... a crash--a fierce growl--a faint, helpless cry--a spray of warm, bright blood. * * * * * "ah, caius! you've lost your hundred sesterces. the fates are against you to-day!" "curse the fates! did you see the fool who threw her the rose?" "that great tall titan of a fellow, with the yellow hair?" "yes. that's the goth." "what! the gladiator who killed the lions?" "the same who won his freedom this morning. see! the fool's wiping his eyes now. these goths can fight like hercules, but they whine like sick women when a girl is hurt. they think up in the north that women are to be worshipped like the immortal gods. i wish they'd make the great red-headed brute go down and kill that cursed tiger!" hearn's single contribution to the last number of the fated _giglampz_ was a four-column retelling of "the weird story of loki's evil children from the strange folk-lore of ancient scandinavia." it was thus blood, sensualism and fiendishness that still aroused hearn's interest when not only not compelled to the choice, but when they were contraindicated and wholly illogical. but it was all a little less revolting, less real, more artistic, than the tan-yard reporting, and it was drawn from more remote sources. mr. henderson suggests the same when he writes: "but it was not in this slavery for a living even to crush out of him the determination to advance and excel. in the small hours of morning, into broad daylight, after the rough work of the police rounds and the writing of perhaps columns, in his inimitable style, he could be seen, under merely a poor jet of gas, with his one useful eye close to book and manuscript, translating 'one of cleopatra's nights.' ... "an oriental warmth and glow pervaded him. while his lines were hard ones in the grime and soot and trying weather of cincinnati, from which his frail body shrank continually, his trend of thought was largely tropical. perhaps he saw beyond the dusky faces, rolling eyes and broad noses of the people of the cincinnati levee, the mixed people of the west indies and the beautiful little ones of japan, with whom he was destined to live before long. however that may be, his greatest pleasure, after a translation from gautier or an original tragedy where he could in his masterful way use his vocabulary of the gruesome, was to study and absorb the indolent, sensuous life of the negro race, as he found it in cincinnati and new orleans, and to steep them in a sense of romance that he alone could extract from the study. things that were common to these people in their everyday life, his vivid imagination transformed into a subtle melody of romance. the distant booming upon the midnight air of a river steamer's whistle was for him the roustabout's call to his waiting mistress at the landing, and his fruitful pen drew the picture of their watching and coming and meeting." the words _indolent and sensuous life_ are also significant. the tropics, their fatalism and the kind of life there lived were drawing him with secret but irresistible force. now begins to mix with and mollify the gruesome a softer element, also oriental, or what is much the same thing, tropical--sympathy with and study of the simple and unlettered, those who are the improvident slaves of fate, thoughtless impulse or heedless desire. to them, as we shall see, hearn's mind turned more and more. his was essentially an oriental mind and heart, an exotic weed (and weeds may become the loveliest of flowers) dropped by some migrating bird upon the strange crabbed soil of the crudest of occidentalism. never did hearn stop yearning for the warmth, the fatalism and the laziness of tropic semi-barbarism. the gruesome was not being killed, but was being modified and tamed by civilization. hearn had been discharged from the _commercial_, where his salary was $ a week, "on an ethical point of policy which need not be discussed here. the _commercial_ took him on at $ ." judge m. f. wilson, of cincinnati, tells me that his discharge was caused by his seeking a licence for and an open marriage with a coloured woman. the licence was refused, because illegal at that time. the law was repealed a little later. the marriage did not take place.[ ] [ ] mr. george mortimer roe, at that time a friend of hearn, now living at long beach, california, writes me: "hearn was quite persistent in his efforts to persuade me to assist him in getting the licence, but i told him i could not aid him in his ambition to be guilty of miscegenation. for many years we had been the best of friends, but from that time on he always avoided me, scarcely speaking to me if by accident we did meet." mr. henderson continues thus: "as hearn advanced in his power to write, the sense of the discomforts of his situation in cincinnati grew upon him. his body and mind longed for the congeniality of southern air and scenes. one morning, after the usual hard work of an unusually nasty winter night in cincinnati, in a leisure hour of conversation, he heard an associate on the paper describe a scene in a gulf state. it was something about a grand old mansion of an antebellum cotton prince, with its great white columns, its beautiful private drive down to the public road, whitewashed negro-quarters stretching away in the background, in the distance some cypress and live-oaks and spanish moss, and close by a grove of magnolias with their delightful odours and the melody of mocking-birds in the early sunlight. hearn took in every word of this, though he had little to say at the time, with great keenness of interest, as shown by the dilation of his nostrils. it was as though he could see and hear and smell the delights of the scene. not long after this, on leaving cincinnati for new orleans, he remarked: 'i have lost my loyalty to this paper, and change was inevitable. perhaps it isn't so much the lack of opportunity here or a lack of appreciation of associations as this beastly climate. i seem to shrivel up in this alternation of dampness, heat and cold. i had to go sooner or later, but it was your description of the sunlight and melodies and fragrance and all the delights with which the south appeals to the senses that determined me. i shall feel better in the south and i believe i shall do better.'" some of his cincinnati acquaintances speak of his obsequious, even fawning, manner ("timid and feline of approach," says henderson), of his "washing his hands with invisible water"--characteristics not dictated by the parentage ascribed to him, not consonant with his photographs, and not wholly with his gruesome traits. he wore heavy myopic spectacles at this time, not to see (because they were wholly discarded later), but probably in order not to be seen--_i.e._ to hide the double deformity of his eyes. one must remember that with or without spectacles the world a foot or two away was much of a mystery to hearn, and that one fears a surely existent and near-by mystery. one approaches it or comes within its power with doubt, dislike and caution. the play of facial expression was not to be seen by hearn. all uriah heeps may not be myopic, but all highly myopic persons will have slow, stealthy, careful, even catlike attitudes and manners; every step they take must be done with hesitation, bowed head and great care, in order not to fall or stumble against something. the wholly blind walk with more decision and quickness. of course this slow, soft carefulness of manner, "the velvet feline step," was hearn's all his life. it followed inexorably that, though possessed of a healthy and athletic body, there was possible for him no athletics which required accuracy of sight or sequent precision and celerity of movement. that with good eyes he would have been an utterly different man in character and in literature, is as certain as that he would have had a very different manner, movement and style of physical existence. with good eyes he would have been strong, athletic, bold, as is admirably illustrated by the fact that in the single sport in which little vision was required--swimming--he was most expert, and that he enjoyed this exercise to the fullest degree. to scale a steeple in order to describe the city from that unusual point of view was a task worthy of yellow journalism which cared little for accuracy but much for "scare" headlines. hearn saw little or nothing of the city, of course. the only letters written during the cincinnati period, known to exist, are those of , called, "letters to a lady," published in the volume, _letters from the raven_, milton bronner, editor.[ ] one other work, the origins of which date from this period, is "one of cleopatra's nights," and with this is demonstrated the beginning of the influence of the modern french school of story-writers. hearn was tiring of the worst brutality and coarseness of occidentalism, and seeking a way to the true home of his mind. the ghastly must become the ghostly. the frenchman's art was to become his half-way house. [ ] brentano's, . chapter iv.--the new orleans time i have somewhere read of a nomad child of the desert, born and rocked upon a camel, who was ever thereafter incapable of resting more than a day in one place. whether or not the wandering father gave the homeless son his illogical spirit of unrest, matters less than that hearn had it to a morbid degree. any place rather than cincinnati would have been better for the happiness and success of the emigrating boy, but his relatives had ridded themselves of the burden by assenting to his wish. excepting that to japan, the only sensible move he made was from cincinnati toward the tropics, to the half-way house thither--new orleans. the desire to seek the _au delà_ was present, his friends tell me, throughout the stay in cincinnati. perhaps the single city in the world which would satisfy his dream more nearly than could any other, was new orleans. being psychologically for the most part of degenerate latin stock, and especially of the french variety, with the requisite admixture of exotic and tropical barbarism; bathed, but not cooked, in the hot and brilliant sunshine he loved and hated; touched and energized by too little teutonic blood and influence, new orleans offered to the unhappy man the best possible surroundings for the growth of his talents. adding to this fortunate concensus of circumstance and partly a corollary of it was the most fortunate of all accidents that could have occurred to him--that is, the existence of a daily newspaper such as the _times-democrat_; of a paying mass of subscribers relishing hearn's translations from the most artistic french writers of the short-story; and, most important of all, the presence on the bridge of the noble captain of the newspaper enterprise, the veteran editor, mr. page m. baker. one shudders to think what would have been hearn's later career had it not been for the guidance and help of this wise, sympathetic and magnanimous friend. for the one thing needed by hearn in those who would be his friends rather than their own was magnanimity. it was his frequent misfortune in life to come under the influence of those as incapable of true unselfishness and real kindness as it was natural for them to be cunning and to use an assumed friendship for hidden flatteries and purposes of their own. most of these would not have dreamed of associating with the man for any reason other than to stand in the reflected light of his literary fame. most of them had as little care for his poetic prose, and as little appreciation or knowledge of good literature as they had of "the enclitic _de_." they had no magnanimity, only wile instead of it. as hearn was also deprived of large-mindedness in all affairs of the world, he was unhappily prone to accept the offered bribe. he wanted above all things to be flattered and to do as his imperious impulses and weak will suggested. any one who recognized these things in him and seconded the follies, remained his permitted "friend," but those who withstood them in the least and ran counter to his morbid trends and resolves--these were speedily "dropped," and insulted or grieved to silence. if they had magnanimity, they bore with the man in pity and answered his insults with kind words and kinder deeds. they recognized that they were responsible not to the man but to the carrier of a great talent, and although they might not forget, they gladly forgave, if possibly they might speed him on his predestined way. of this number was baker. directly or indirectly through him, came a long and happy period of life; came the congenial, educating work, without slavery, of the translations and other easy reportorial services. of equal importance were the financial rewards. before and after the new orleans time not the least of hearn's misfortunes was his intolerable and brutalizing improvidence and impecuniousness. under baker's friendship he came to what for such a person was affluence and independence. he found leisure to read and study and think outside of the journalistic pale, and better still, perhaps,--better to his thinking, at least--he secured the means to indulge his life-long desire for curious and out-of-the-way books. during this time it grew to consciousness with him that in everything, except as regards his beloved art, he had a little learned to recognize the worth of money. but within him grew ever stronger the plague of the unsatisfied, the sting of unrest, and he was compelled to obey. in a letter to me from martinique, after he had recognized his mistake, he admits and explains as follows: i seldom have a chance now to read or speak english; and english phrases that used to seem absolutely natural already begin to look somewhat odd to me. were i to continue to live here for some years more, i am almost sure that i should find it difficult to write english. the resources of the intellectual life are all lacking here,--no libraries, no books in any language;--a mind accustomed to discipline becomes like a garden long uncultivated, in which the rare flowers return to their primitive savage forms, or are smothered by rank, tough growths which ought to be pulled up and thrown away. nature does not allow you to think here, or to study seriously, or to work earnestly: revolt against her, and with one subtle touch of fever she leaves you helpless and thoughtless for months. but she is so beautiful, nevertheless, that you love her more and more daily,--that you gradually cease to wish to do aught contrary to her local laws and customs. slowly, you begin to lose all affection for the great northern nurse that taught you to think, to work, to aspire. then, after a while, this nude, warm, savage, amorous southern nature succeeds in persuading you that labour and effort and purpose are foolish things,--that life is very sweet without them;--and you actually find yourself ready to confess that the aspirations and inspirations born of the struggle for life in the north are all madness,--that they wasted years which might have been delightfully dozed away in a land where the air is always warm, the sea always the colour of sapphire, the woods perpetually green as the plumage of a green parrot. i must confess i have had some such experiences. it appears to me impossible to resign myself to living again in a great city and in a cold climate. of course i shall have to return to the states for a while,--a short while, probably;--but i do not think i will ever settle there. i am apt to become tired of places,--or at least of the disagreeable facts attaching more or less to all places and becoming more and more marked and unendurable the longer one stays. so that ultimately i am sure to wander off somewhere else. you can comprehend how one becomes tired of the very stones of a place,--the odours, the colours, the shapes of shadows, and the tint of its sky;--and how small irritations become colossal and crushing by years of repetition;--yet perhaps you will not comprehend that one can become weary of a whole system of life, of civilization, even with very limited experience. such is exactly my present feeling,--an unutterable weariness of the aggressive characteristics of existence in a highly organized society. the higher the social development, the sharper the struggle. one feels this especially in america,--in the nervous centres of the world's activity. one feels it least, i imagine, in the tropics, where it is such an effort just to live, that one has no force left for the effort to expand one's own individuality at the cost of another's. i clearly perceive that a man enamoured of the tropics has but two things to do:--to abandon intellectual work, or to conquer the fascination of nature. which i will do will depend upon necessity. i would remain in this zone if i could maintain a certain position here;--to keep it requires means. i can earn only by writing, and yet if i remain a few years more, i will have become (perhaps?) unable to write. so if i am to live in the tropics, as i would like to do, i must earn the means for it in very short order. i gave up journalism altogether after leaving n. o. i went to demerara and visited the lesser west indies in july and august of last year,--returned to new york after three months with some ms.,--sold it,--felt very unhappy at the idea of staying in new york, where i had good offers,--suddenly made up my mind to go back to the tropics by the same steamer that had brought me. i had no commission, resolved to trust to magazine-work. so far i have just been able to scrape along;--the climate numbs mental life, and the inspirations i hoped for won't come. the real--surpassing imagination--whelms the ideal out of sight and hearing. the world is young here,--not old and wise and grey as in the north; and one must not seek the holy ghost in it. i suspect that the material furnished by the tropics can only be utilized in a northern atmosphere. we will talk about it together. that he never thought to return to new orleans is demonstrated by the fact that when he left, he shipped his books to another good friend and great editor, mr. alden, to keep for him. when he came to the united states in , he fully intended returning to some tropical land. but it was otherwise ordered, and most fortunately, for a year or two more of life under such conditions would have killed both mind and body. upon hearn's arrival in new orleans, he began sending a series of charming letters to the cincinnati _commercial_, signed "ozias midwinter."[ ] they are, indeed, exquisite, and as certainly of a delicacy and beauty which must have made the reader of that time and newspaper wonder what strange sort of a correspondent the editor had secured. the first letter was about memphis, passed on his way south. i cite some parts to show how the gruesome was merging into or being supplanted by something larger and better, and also to illustrate hearn's growing interest in colours. [ ] kindly secured by mr. alexander hill, of cincinnati, ohio, from a friend and lent to me. the stranger, however, is apt to leave memphis with one charming recollection of the place--the remembrance of the sunset scene from the bluffs across the river over arkansas. i do not think that any part of the world can offer a more unspeakably beautiful spectacle to the traveller than what he may witness any fair evening from those rugged old bluffs at memphis. the first time i saw it the day had been perfectly bright and clear,--the blue of the sky was unclouded by the least fleecy stain of white cloud; and the sun descended in the west,--not in a yellow haze, or a crimson fog, but with the splendour of his fiery glory almost undimmed. he seemed to leave no trace of his bright fires behind him; and the sky-blue began to darken into night-purple from the east almost immediately. i thought at first it was one of the least romantic sunsets i had ever seen. it was not until the stars were out, and the night had actually fallen, that i beheld the imperial magnificence of that sunset. * * * * * i once thought, when sailing up the ohio one bright northern summer, that the world held nothing more beautiful than the scenery of the beautiful river--those voluptuous hills with their sweet feminine curves, the elfin gold of that summer haze, and the pale emerald of the river's verdure-reflecting breast. but even the loveliness of the ohio seemed faded, and the northern sky-blue palely cold, like the tint of iceberg pinnacles, when i beheld for the first time the splendour of the mississippi. "you must come on deck early to-morrow," said the kind captain of the _thompson dean_; "we are entering the sugar country." so i saw the sun rise over the cane-fields of louisiana. it rose with a splendour that recalled the manner of its setting at memphis, but of another colour;--an auroral flush of pale gold and pale green bloomed over the long fringe of cottonwood and cypress trees, and broadened and lengthened half-way round the brightening world. the glow seemed tropical, with the deep green of the trees sharply cutting against it; and one naturally looked for the feathery crests of cocoanut palms. then the day broke gently and slowly--a day too vast for a rapid dawn--a day that seemed deep as space. i thought our northern sky narrow and cramped as a vaulted church-roof beside that sky--a sky so softly beautiful, so purely clear in its immensity, that it made one dream of the tenderness of a woman's eyes made infinite. and the giant river broadened to a mile--smooth as a mirror, still and profound as a mountain lake. between the vastness of the sky and the vastness of the stream, we seemed moving suspended in the midst of day, with only a long, narrow tongue of land on either side breaking the brightness. yet the horizon never became wholly blue. the green-golden glow lived there all through the day; it was brightest in the south. it was so tropical, that glow;--it seemed of the pacific, a glow that forms a background to the sight of lagoons and coral reefs and "lands where it is always afternoon." below this glow gleamed another golden green, the glory of the waving cane-fields beyond the trees. huge sugar-mills were breathing white and black clouds into the sky, as they masticated their mighty meal; and the smell of saccharine sweetness floated to us from either shore. then we glided by miles of cotton-fields with their fluttering white bolls; and by the mouths of broad bayous;--past swamps dark with cypress gloom, where the grey alligator dwells, and the grey spanish moss hangs in elfish festoons from ancient trees;--past orange-trees and live-oaks, pecans and cottonwoods and broad-leaved bananas; while the green of the landscape ever varied, from a green so dark that it seemed tinged with blue to an emerald so bright that it seemed shot through with gold. the magnificent old mansions of the southern planters, built after a generous fashion unknown in the north, with broad verandas and deliciously cool porches, and all painted white or perhaps a pale yellow, looked out grandly across the water from the hearts of shadowy groves; and, like villages of a hundred cottages, the negro quarters dotted the verdant face of the plantation with far-gleaming points of snowy whiteness. and still that wondrous glow brightened in the south, like a far-off reflection of sunlight on the spanish main. "but it does not look now as it used to in the old slave days," said the pilot, as he turned the great wheel. "the swamps were drained, and the plantations were not overgrown with cottonwood; and somehow or other the banks usen't to cave in then as they do now." i saw indeed signs of sad ruin on the face of the great plantations; there were splendid houses crumbling to decay, and whole towns of tenantless cabins; estates of immense extent were lying almost unfilled, or with only a few acres under cultivation; and the vigorous cottonwood trees had shot up in whole forests over fields once made fertile by the labour of ten thousand slaves. the scene was not without its melancholy; it seemed tinged by the reflection of a glory passed away--the glory of wealth, and the magnificence of wealth; of riches and the luxury of riches. o fair paradise of the south, if still so lovely in thy ruin, what must thou have been in the great day of thy greatest glory! white steamboats, heavily panting under their loads of cotton, came toiling by, and called out to us wild greeting long and shrill, until the pilot opened the lips of our giant boat, and her mighty challenge awoke a thousand phantom voices along the winding shore. red sank the sun in a sea of fire, and bronze-hued clouds piled up against the light, like fairy islands in a sea of glory, such as were seen, perhaps, by the adelantado of the seven cities. "those are not real clouds," said the pilot, turning to the west, his face aglow with the yellow light. "those are only smoke clouds rising from the sugar mills of louisiana, and drifting with the evening wind." the daylight died away and the stars came out, but that warm glow in the southern horizon only paled, so that it seemed a little further off. the river broadened till it looked with the tropical verdure of its banks like the ganges, until at last there loomed up a vast line of shadows, dotted with points of light, and through a forest of masts and a host of phantom-white river boats and a wilderness of chimneys the _thompson dean_, singing her cheery challenge, steamed up to the mighty levee of new orleans. the letters descriptive of new orleans scenes and life deserve republishing had i space for them here. in a brief paragraph, a sentence perhaps, almost in a word, is given the photograph, chromatic and vitalized in hearn's unrivalled picturesque style, of the levees, the shipping, the sugar-landing, the cotton-shipping, the ocean steamers, the strange mixture of peoples from all countries and climes; the architecture, streets, markets, etc. the vendetta of the sicilian immigrants is described with a strength and vividness which bear eloquent witness to hearn's innate pleasure in such themes. there is also shown his beginning the study of creole character, grammar, and language. a peculiarly striking picture is painted of the new huge cotton-press, as a monster whose jaws open with a low roar to devour the immense bale of cotton and to crush it to a few inches of thickness. i cannot exclude this excerpt: do you remember that charming little story, "père antoine's date-palm," written by thomas bailey aldrich, and published in the same volume with "marjorie daw" and other tales? père antoine was a good old french priest, who lived and died in new orleans. as a boy, he conceived a strong friendship for a fellow student of about his own age, who, in after years, sailed to some tropical island in the southern seas, and wedded some darkly beautiful woman, graceful and shapely and tall as a feathery palm. père antoine wrote often to his friend, and their friendship strengthened with the years, until death dissolved it. the young colonist died, and his beautiful wife also passed from the world; but they left a little daughter for some one to take care of. the good priest, of course, took care of her, and brought her up at new orleans. and she grew up graceful and comely as her mother, with all the wild beauty of the south. but the child could not forget the glory of the tropics, the bright lagoon, the white-crested sea roaring over the coral reef, the royal green of the waving palms, and the beauty of the golden-feathered birds that chattered among them. so she pined for the tall palms and the bright sea and the wild reef, until there came upon her that strange homesickness which is death; and still dreaming of the beautiful palms, she gradually passed into that great sleep which is dreamless. and she was buried by père antoine near his own home. by and by, above the little mound there suddenly came a gleam of green; and mysteriously, slowly, beautifully, there grew up towering in tropical grace above the grave, a princely palm. and the old priest knew that it had grown from the heart of the dead child. so the years passed by, and the roaring city grew up about the priest's home and the palm-tree, trying to push père antoine off his land. but he would not be moved. they piled up gold upon his doorsteps and he laughed at them; they went to law with him and he beat them all; and, at last, dying, he passed away true to his trust; for the man who cuts down that palm-tree loses the land that it grows upon. "and there it stands," says the poet, "in the narrow, dingy street, a beautiful dreamy stranger, an exquisite foreign lady, whose grace is a joy to the eye, the incense of whose breath makes the air enamoured. may the hand wither that touches her ungently!" now i was desirous above all things to visit the palm made famous by this charming legend, and i spent several days in seeking it. i visited the neighbourhood of the old place d'armes--now jackson square--and could find no trace of it; then i visited the southern quarter of the city, with its numberless gardens, and i sought for the palm among groves of orange-trees overloaded with their golden fruit, amid broad-leaved bananas, and dark cypresses, and fragrant magnolias and tropical trees of which i did not know the names. then i found many date-palms. some were quite young, with their splendid crest of leafy plumes scarcely two feet above the ground; others stood up to a height of thirty or forty feet. whenever i saw a tall palm, i rang the doorbell and asked if that were père antoine's date-palm. alas! nobody had ever heard of the père antoine. then i visited the ancient cathedral, founded by the pious don andre almonaster, regidor of new orleans, one hundred and fifty years ago; and i asked the old french priest whether they had ever heard of the père antoine. and they answered me that they knew him not, after having searched the ancient archives of the ancient spanish cathedral. once i found a magnificent palm, loaded with dates, in a garden on st. charles street, so graceful that i felt the full beauty of solomon's simile as i had never felt it before: "thy stature is like to a palm-tree." i rang the bell and made inquiry concerning the age of the tree. it was but twenty years old; and i went forth discouraged. at last, to my exceeding joy, i found an informant in the person of a good-natured old gentleman, who keeps a quaint bookstore in commercial place. the tree was indeed growing, he said, in new orleans street, near the french cathedral, and not far from congo square; but there were many legends concerning it. some said it had been planted over the grave of some turk or moor--perhaps a fierce corsair from algiers or tunis--who died while sailing up the mississippi, and was buried on its moist shores. but it was not at all like the other palm-trees in the city, nor did it seem to him to be a date-palm. it was a real oriental palm; yea, in sooth, such a palm as solomon spake of in his love-song of love-songs. "i said, i will go up to the palm-tree; i will take hold of the boughs thereof." ... i found it standing in beautiful loneliness in the centre of a dingy woodshed on the north side of new orleans street, towering about forty feet above the rickety plank fence of the yard. the gateway was open, and a sign swung above it bearing the name, "m. michel." i walked in and went up to the palm-tree. a labourer was sawing wood in the back-shed, and i saw through the windows of the little cottage by the gate a family at dinner. i knocked at the cottage-door, and a beautiful creole woman opened it. "may i ask, madame, whether this palm-tree was truly planted by the père antoine?" "ah, monsieur, there are many droll stories which they relate of that tree. there are folks who say that a young girl was interred there, and it is also said that a sultan was buried under that tree--or the son of a sultan. and there are also some who say that a priest planted it." "was it the père antoine, madame?" "i do not know, monsieur. there are people also who say that it was planted here by indians from florida. but i do not know whether such trees grow in florida. i have never seen any other palm-tree like it. it is not a date-palm. it flowers every year, with a beautiful yellow blossom the colour of straw, and the blossoms hang down in pretty curves. oh, it is very graceful! sometimes it bears fruit, a kind of oily fruit, but not dates. i am told that they make oil from the fruit of such palms." i thought it looked so sad, that beautiful tree in the dusty woodyard, with no living green thing near it. as its bright verdant leaves waved against the blue above, one could not but pity it as one would pity some being, fair and feminine and friendless in a strange land. "_oh, c'est bien gracieux_," murmured the handsome creole lady. "is it true, madame, that the owner of the land loses it if he cuts down the tree?" "_mais oui!_ but the proprietors of the ground have always respected the tree, because it is so old, so very old!" then i found the proprietor of the land, and he told me that when the french troops first arrived in this part of the country they noticed that tree. "why," i exclaimed, "that must have been in the reign of louis xiv!" "it was in , i believe," he answered. as for the père antoine, he had never heard of him. neither had he heard of thomas bailey aldrich. so that i departed, mourning for my dead faith in a romance which was beautiful. next to his best japanese studies, i suspect it will finally come to recognition that hearn's greatest service to literature is his magnificent series of translations during the new orleans years. as a translator there were given him his data by creative minds. his own mental equipment prevented creation, and his clearly set limits as a translator added power to his ability and function as a colourist and word-artist. his was almost a unique expertness of entering into the spirit of his models, refeeling their emotions, reimagining their thought and art, and reclothing it with the often somewhat hard and stiff material of english weaving. all of their spirit philologically possible to be conveyed to us, we may be sure he re-presents. for his was the rare power of the instant, the iridescent, the wingèd word. i think it was innate and spontaneous with him, a gift of the inscrutable, illogic, and fantastically generous-niggard fates. all his studies and conscious efforts were almost unavailing either to hinder or to further its perfection. if to fate we may not be grateful, we can at least thank the weird lesser gods of life for the mysterious wonder of the gift. the wealth of loving labour silently offered in the or more translations published in the _times-democrat_ is marvellous. hearn brought to my house the loose cuttings from the files, and we got them into some order in "scrapbooks." but the dates of publication and other details are often characteristically wanting. elsewhere in the present volume the titles, etc., of the stories are listed. preceded by those of "one of cleopatra's nights," they form a body of literary values which should be rescued from the newspaper files and permanently issued in book-form for the pleasure and instruction of english readers. to do this i have most generously been given permission by hearn's ever helpful and discriminating friend, mr. page m. baker, editor of the _times-democrat_. hearn knew well the difficulties of the translator's art. "one who translates for the love of the original will probably have no reward save the satisfaction of creating something beautiful and perhaps of saving a masterpiece from less reverent hands." so anxious was he to do such work that he was willing to pay the publication expenses. as pertinent, i copy an editorial of his on the subject, which was published in the _times-democrat_, during the period in which he was so busy as a translator: the new york _nation_ has been publishing in its columns a number of interesting and severe criticisms upon translations from foreign authors. these translations are generally condemned, and with good specifications of reasons,--notwithstanding the fact that some of them have been executed by persons who have obtained quite a popular reputation as translators. one critic dwells very strongly upon the most remarkable weakness of all the renderings in question;--they invariably fail to convey the colour and grace of the original, even when the meaning is otherwise preserved. speaking of the translators themselves, the reviewer observes: "there is not one _artist_ among them." all this is very true; but the writer does not explain the causes of this state of affairs. they are many, no doubt;--the principal fact for consideration being that there is no demand for artistic work in translation. and there is no demand for it, not so much because it is rare and unlikely to be appreciated as because it is dear. artistic translators cannot afford to work for a song,--neither would they attempt to translate a five-hundred-page novel in three weeks or a month as others do. again, artistic translators would not care to attach their names to the published translation of a fourth-or fifth-class popular novel. finally, artistic translations do not obtain a ready market with first-class american publishers, who, indeed, seldom touch domestic translations of foreign fiction, and depend for their translations of european literature upon transatlantic enterprise. thus the artistic translator may be said to have no field. he may sell his work to some petty publisher, perhaps, but only at a price that were almost absurd to mention;--and the first-class publishers do not care to speculate in american translations at all. we might also add that the translator's task is always a thankless one,--that however superb and laborious his execution, it can never obtain much public notice, nor even so much as public comprehension. the original author will be admired,--the translator unnoticed, except by a few critics. moreover, the men capable of making the most artistic translations are usually better employed. the translator of a great french, german, or italian masterpiece of style, ought, in the eternal fitness of things, to be a man able to write something very artistic in his own tongue. no one seems to doubt that longfellow was the man to translate dante,--that tennyson could parallel homer (as he has shown by a wonderful effort) in the nineteenth-century english,--that carlyle re-created goethe's "wilhelm meister" by his rendering of it,--that austin dobson was the first to teach english readers some of the beauties of gautier's poetry,--that swinburne alone could have made françois villon adopt an english garb which exactly fitted him. but the same readers perhaps never gave a thought to the fact that the works of flaubert, of daudet, of droz, of hugo, of at least a score of other european writers, call for work of an almost equally high class on the part of the translator, and never receive it! what a translation of daudet could not henry james give us!--how admirably john addington symonds could reproduce for us the venetian richness of paul de saint victor's style! but such men are not likely to be invited, on either side of the atlantic, to do such work;--neither are they likely to do it as a labour of love! a splended translation of flaubert might be expected from several members of what is called "the new england school;" but what boston publisher would engage his favourite literary man in such pursuits? it is really doubtful whether the men most capable of making artistic translations could afford, under any ordinary circumstances, to undertake much work of the kind, except as a literary recreation. at all events, the english-reading world cannot hereafter expect to obtain its translations from other european languages through the labour of the best writers in its own. the only hope is, that the recklessness shown by publishers in their choice of translators will provoke a reaction, and that such work will be more generously remunerated and entrusted to real experts hereafter. it is unfortunately true that the translators who work for english publishers are far more competent than those who do similar work in the united states; forasmuch as transatlantic firms are glad to print cheap popular translations, while only inferior american firms care to undertake them. another obstacle to good translations in the united states is that none of the great literary periodicals will devote space to them. the english and the french magazines and reviews are less conservative, and some very wonderful translations have been published by them. artistic translation might be admirably developed in this country by the establishment of a new magazine-policy. the wise reader, if he is also a sincere friend of hearn, must wish that the correspondence published had been limited to the first volume. room aplenty in this could have been made for the dozen valuable paragraphs contained in the second. it is not strange that the letters of hearn worth saving were written before his departure for japan. he repeatedly had urged that letter-writing both financially and mentally was expensive to the writer. in japan he was so incessantly busy, much with his teaching and more with his real literary work, that time and will were wanting for that sort of letters which are of interest to the general reader. the interest of the person addressed is another affair. the dreary half-thousand pages of the correspondence of the japanese time are most disappointing to one who has been thrilled by almost every page of the incomparable letters to krehbiel and to a few others. besides the two reasons for this which i have suggested, there are others which may perhaps be evident to some judicious readers, but which at this time may scarcely be plainly stated. at present the trees are so thick that the forest cannot be seen, but some day an amused and an amusing smile of recognition and disgust will curl the lips of the literary critic. there are two other considerations which should be held in mind: one of them was brought to me by a correspondent of hearn who had frequently noted it; sometimes (has it happened before?) hearn used his "friend" to whom he was writing, as a sort of method of exercising his own fancy, as a gymnastics in putting his imagination through its paces, or for a preliminary sketching in of notes and reminders to be of possible use in later serious work. moreover, the plan was of service in rewarding his correspondents for their praise and appreciation. of a far more substantial character were the letters sometimes written in gratitude for money received. hearn flattered himself, as we know, that he was without "cunning," but there is at least one exquisitely ludicrous letter in existence which shows an inverted proof of it, in the execution of an indian war-dance, because of "the ways and means" furnished. as published, hearn's letters may be classified as follows: to krehbiel ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) hart ( ); ( ) ball ( ); ( ); ( ) o'connor ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) albee ( ); ( ) gould ( ); ( ); ( ) bisland ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) tunison ( ) chamberlain ( ); ( ); ( ) nishida ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) hirn ( ); ( ); ( ) baker ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) hendrick ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) otani ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ); ( ) ochiai ( ); ( ); ( ) mcdonald ( ); ( ); ( ) fenollosa ( ); ( ) blank foxwell yasuchochi tanabe crosby fujisaki --- besides these, the valuable series of "letters from a raven," and the sixteen in the same volume "to a lady" are noteworthy. the latter are of little value either for biography or literature. but the letters to watkin are so sincere, often childlike, indeed, that they will be prized by the discriminating. another admirable series, copies of which i have, is made up of letters to professor r. matas, of new orleans. to these it is hoped will sometime be added those which must exist, to mr. alden, who was an early and sincere friend. there are a number of unpublished letters to gould, and the published ones have been so mutilated that they should be correctly republished. almost anything written by hearn before he went to japan, or in some instances reflecting friendships and feelings existing before he sailed, may prove of as inestimable value as most letters written thereafter will probably be found valueless. it is noteworthy that the first series, edited by miss bisland, was commenced in , when hearn was twenty-seven years of age, and that for many years mr. krehbiel was almost his sole correspondent. but the inimitable perfection and preciousness of these fifty-six letters! they are well worth all his other set productions, published or burned, of the same years. many are singly worth all the rest of our letters. here the dreamer--and a dreamer he always was until he got out of his cocoon--was sincere, hopeful, planful, as playful as his sombre mind would permit, but always magnificently, even startlingly, unreserved. remembering that hearn's mind was essentially an echoing and a colouring mechanism, it is at once a glorious tribute to, and a superlative merit of mr. krehbiel to have given the primary and stimulating voice to the always listening dreamer. to have swerved him out of his predestined rôle so much as to make these pages so astonishingly full of _musical_ reverberations, is a tribute to his own musical enthusiasm and power as it is also a demonstration of the echo-like, but fundamentally unmusical, nature of his friend's mind. if only in the final edition of hearn's works, these letters with selections of some pages from a few others, could be made into a handy, small, and cheap volume for the delighting of the appreciators of literature and of literary character! comparison of the spiritual and almost _spirituelle_ flashings of these, with the ponderous and banal sogginess of hundreds upon hundreds of other pages of his letters, arouses the profound regret that hearn to the world was "impossible," that, as he says, he "could not mingle with men," that no other voices ever so intimately reached the heart of him, or of his dreaming. even here the amazing coloration furnished by "the dreamer," as he calls himself, makes us at times feel that the magic of the word-artist and colour-mixer was almost superior to the enduring and awakening reality of mr. krehbiel. to this friend, as he writes, he spoke of his thoughts and fancies, wishes and disappointments, frailties, follies, and failures, and successes--even as to a brother. and that was not all he saw and heard in "his enchanted city of dreams." the slavery to ignoble journalism, what he calls a "really nefarious profession," was to be resolutely renounced from the day of his arrival in new orleans. it is "a horrid life," he "could not stand the gaslight;" he "damned reportorial work and correspondence, and the american disposition to work people to death, and the american delight in getting worked to death;" he rebelled against becoming a part of the revolving machinery of a newspaper, because "journalism dwarfs, stifles, emasculates thought and style," and he was bound to "produce something better in point of literary execution." there was also a not frankly confessed resolve to become respectable in other ways, and to be done with a kind of entanglement of which he was painfully conscious in the cincinnati life. "i think i can redeem myself socially here! i have got into good society;" "it is better to live here in sackcloth and ashes, than to own the whole state of ohio," he writes, and he is proud of living in a latin city. he recognizes what mr. krehbiel calls his "peculiar and unfortunate disposition," and which he later sets forth as "a very small, erratic, eccentric, irregular, impulsive, variable, nervous disposition." hearn visits a few friends awhile and then disappears for six months, so that he wishes to be hidden in new york except to krehbiel and tunison; he will pay a visit to the others he must see just before leaving town--for he is a "demophobe." he tried a secret partnership in keeping a restaurant, and thought to carry on a little french bookstore. he resolved at different times to go to europe, to cuba, to texas, to cincinnati, and planned all sorts of occupations. the indications soon multiply that in more ways than in worldly matters he is at variance with his world. he "regards thought as a mechanical process;" he has "no faith in any faith;" "individual life is a particle of that eternal force of which we know so little;" "soul = cerebral activity = soul;" jesus is a legend and myth; he is "not a believer in free will, nor in the individual soul," etc. think of a man writing to a christian minister, think of a christian minister receiving without protest a personal letter with this in it: "nor can i feel more reverence for the crucified deity than for that image of the hindoo god of light holding in one of his many hands phallus, and yet wearing a necklace of skulls, etc." and hearn, as to ethics, has the courage to write his friend of his convictions: "passion was the inspiring breath of greek art and the mother of language; its gratification the act of a creator, and the divinest rite of nature's temple." in other letters, unpublished, that exist, hearn is morbidly frank as to sexual licence and practices. in tropical cities there is "no time for friendship--only passion for women, and brief acquaintance for men." without the influence of sexualism there can be no real greatness; "the mind remains arid and desolate," and he quotes approvingly:--"virginity, mysticism, melancholy--three unknown words, three new maladies brought among us by the christ," etc. "i do not find it possible to persuade myself that the 'mad excess of love' should not be indulged in by mankind," introduces a brilliant page upon the theme, ending with, "after all what else do we live for--ephemeræ that we are?" to my protest he wrote, "'moral' feelings are those into which the sexual instinct does not visibly enter;" and again, "the sexual sense never tells a _physical_ lie. it only tells an ethical one." there is, to be sure, no answer to a man who says such things. it is astonishing, how conscious and at the same time how careless hearn was of his characteristics and trends. in he could coldly prepare to attempt a get-rich-quick scheme, "a fraud, which will pay like hell, an advertising fraud," etc., because "there is no money in honest work." at this time also he knew that his own wandering passion was "the strongest of all," and that his deepest desire was "to wander forever here and there until he should get old and apish and grey and die." his misfortunes he confessed were of his own making because it was absolutely out of the question for him to "keep any single situation for any great length of time," hating the mere idea of it, "impossible to stay anywhere without getting into trouble." "no one ever lived who seemed more a creature of circumstance than i," he correctly avows. he recognizes that "the unexpected obstacle to success was usually erected by himself." he acknowledges his ignorance and escapes from it and from the labour, expense, and duty of scholarship by flying, as many others have done, to the world of imagination, which alone is left to him. "it allows of a vagueness of expression which hides the absence of real knowledge, and dispenses with the necessity of technical precision and detail." he "never reads a book which does not powerfully impress the imagination." knowing that he has not true and real genius, he "pledges himself to the worship of the odd, the queer, the strange, the exotic, the monstrous. it quite suits my temperament," and he "hopes to succeed in attracting some little attention." the monstrous, the enormous, and the lurid, is sought in the letters. the sentence at the bottom of page , volume one of the "life and letters," and the ghastly story, pages - , show the gruesome still much alive, and page that blood, fury, and frenzy haunt his nightmare dreams. "in history one should only seek the extraordinary, the monstrous, the terrible; in mythology the most fantastic and sensuous, just as in romance," and yet he defends himself as a lover of greek art, detests "the fantastic beauty that is gothic," yet prides himself on being arabesque. even the love of beaudelaire creeps in, and the brutal, horrible photograph of gautier is "grander than he imagined." of course to such a mind matthew arnold is a "colossal humbug"--and worse. with increasing frequency are repeated the complaints of disillusionment; he is frightened at the loss even of the love of the beautiful, and his friend tries in vain to rouse him from his ghost-life and dreaming. there are absurd excuses why he cannot work; when among beautiful things he cannot write of them, when he is away he is longing for them; there are months when he cannot do anything, and a little thing is produced with great pain and labour. "the old enthusiasm has completely died out of me." the people and the city are adequately cursed, and upon the debilitating climate is laid a proper and ever-repeated anathema. he loathes the north, especially new york city, "shudders at the bare idea of cold;" he yearns and pines for a still more tropical country which he knows may kill him, and which came near doing so. the _wanderlust_ is upon him as passages on pages , , , , , , , , of volume one of the "life and letters" illustrate. at last he is off for martinique, where work and even thought are still more impossible because of the benumbing heat. here follows a list of the unsigned editorials contributed by hearn to his paper. it is made up from two of the scrap-books left me, and is entitled: sunday and special editorials by lafcadio hearn for the times-democrat, - . . the "peronospora ferrani" and cholera vaccination. . literary pessimism. . "the song celestial." . the canonization of the mahdi. . "successor of tamerlane." . the world's journalism. . a scientific novelty. . the jewish question in europe (suppressed by the management). . russian literature abroad. . the european trouble. . missionaries as linguists. . courbet. . poetry and pay. . the present and future of india. . an archaeological novel. . an evolutional history. . a new pompeii. . archæology in cambodia. . the great "i-am." . a terrible novel. . the latin church in the east and bismarck. . english policy in china. . the fear of death. . a danger to egypt--the senousiya. . archaeological news from china. . icelandic prospects. . a great english physician. . academical triumphs. . the magician of paris. . tolstoi's vanity of wisdom. . "minos." . newspapers and religion. . minos. . a concord compromise. . de mercier on dante. . the origin of christmas. . "immortality" according to dr. holland. . the future of idealism. . "solitude." . dr. holland's defenders. . the religion of suffering. . the ruins of carthage. . a defence of pessimism. . over-education in germany. . decadence as a fine art. . use of the eye or the ear in learning languages. . the shadow of the "light of asia." . the jew upon the stage. . some theosophical iconoclasm. . "hamlet's note-book." . the invasion of the desert. . resurrected Æstheticism. . translations. . nihilistic literature in the united states. . some human frailty. . an art-reformer. . some notes on creole literature. . the scientific value of creole. . "l'oeuvre." . a havanese romance. . some supposed sanscrit translations. . the omnivorous newspaper. . a religious nightmare. . joaquin miller. . pictures vs. text. . "follow the donkey path." . a sketch of the creole patois. . in spain. . chinese belief in god. . "towards the gulf." . tennyson's locksley hall. . "doesn't want any progress." . the howard memorial library--a letter from charles dudley warner. . a definitive rossetti. . the chinese future. . artistic value of myopia. . colours and emotions. chapter v.--at martinique the lure of the sea and of the unknown was upon hearn during the entire stay at new orleans. how deeply it entered his heart is shown in a fragment rescued by his friend, dr. matas, which has been kindly sent me. the copy is in print, but when and where it was published we have been unable to learn. it was probably written in or . as it gives glimpses at once into hearn's mind, of his fateful desire to roam, of his nature-love, and, better, of his growing mastery of technic and imagery, i reproduce herewith the fragment, which he entitled: gulf winds golden oranges piled up in bins,--apples of the southern hesperides;--a medley of meridional tongues,--silky latin tongues and their silkier patois; chinese buyers yellow as bananas, quadroons with skin like dead gold; swarthy sailors from the antilles; sharp odours of fruit freshly disembarked;--all the semi-tropical sights and sounds of the french market. i stood beside an orange-bin; and priced the fruit. fifty cents a hundred! while wondering how much the fruit-vender's profit could possibly be, i was insensibly attracted by something unusual in his face--a shadow of the beauty of the antique world seemed to rest upon it. "are you not a greek?" i asked, for there was no mistaking the metoposcopy of that head. yes; he was from zante--first a sailor, now a fruit-vender; some day, perhaps, he would be a merchant. it is among those who sell, not among those who buy, that the most curious studies of human nature and of the human face are to be made in the french market. these dealers are by no means usually french, but they are mostly from the mediterranean coasts and the levant--from sicily and cyprus, corsica and malta, the ionian archipelago, and a hundred cities fringing the coasts of southern europe. they are wanderers, who have wandered all over the face of the earth to find rest at last in this city of the south; they are sailors who have sailed all seas, and sunned themselves at a hundred tropical ports, and finally anchored their lives by the levee of new orleans. the neapolitan italian, the spaniard, the corsican, the levantine greek, seek rest from storm here, in a clime akin to their own and under a sky as divinely blue, and at a port not far distant from their beloved sea. for these levantine sailors hate dusty inland cities and the dry air of the great west. if you, o reader, chance to be a child of the sea;--if, in early childhood, you listened each morning and evening to that most ancient and mystic hymn-chant of the waves, which none can hear without awe, and which no musician can learn;--if you have ever watched wonderingly the far sails of the fishing-vessels turn rosy in the blush of sunset, or silver under the moon, or golden in the glow of sunrise;--if you once breathed as your native air the divine breath of the ocean, and learned the swimmer's art from the hoary breakers, and received the ocean-god's christening, the glorious baptism of salt,--then, perhaps, you know only too well why these sailors of the levant cannot seek homes within the heart of the land. twenty years may have passed since your ears last caught the thunder of that mighty ode of hexameters which the sea has always sung and will sing forever, since your eyes sought the far line where the vaulted blue of heaven touches the level immensity of rolling water,--since you breathed the breath of the ocean, and felt its clear ozone living in your veins like an elixir. have you forgotten the mighty measure of that mighty song? have you forgotten the divine saltiness of that unfettered wind? is not the spell of the sea strong upon you still? so that when the long, burning summer comes, and the city roars dustily around you, and your ears are filled with the droning hum of machinery, and your heart full of the bitterness of the struggle for life, there comes to you at long intervals in the dingy office or the crowded street some memory of white breakers and vast stretches of wrinkled sand and far-fluttering breezes that seem to whisper, "come!" so that when the silent night comes,--you find yourself revisiting in dreams those ocean-shores thousands of miles away. the wrinkled sand, ever shifting yet ever the same, has the same old familiar patches of vari-coloured weeds and shining rocks along its level expanse: and the thunder-chant of the sea which echoes round the world, eternal yet ever new, is rolling up to heaven. the glad waves leap up to embrace you; the free winds shout welcome in your ears; white sails are shining in the west; white sea-birds are flying over the gleaming swells. and from the infinite expanse of eternal sky and everlasting sea, there comes to you, with the heavenly ocean-breeze, a thrilling sense of unbounded freedom, a delicious feeling as of life renewed, an ecstasy as of life restored. and so you start into wakefulness with the thunder of that sea-dream in your ears and tears of regret in your eyes to find about you only heat and dust and toil; the awakening rumble of traffic, and "the city sickening on its own thick breath." and i think that the levantine sailors dare not dwell in the midst of the land, for fear lest dreams of a shadowy sea might come upon them in the night, and phantom winds call wildly to them in their sleep, and they might wake to find themselves a thousand miles beyond the voice of the breakers. sometimes, i doubt not, these swarthy sellers of fruit, whose black eyes sparkle with the sparkle of the sea, and whose voices own the tones of ocean-winds, sicken when a glorious breeze from the gulf enters the city, shaking the blossoms from the magnolia-trees and the orange-groves. sometimes, i doubt not, they forsake their southern home when the dream comes upon them, and take ship for the spanish main. yet i think most men may wake here from the dreams of the sea, and rest again. it is true that you cannot hear the voice of the hoary breakers in the moonlight,--only the long panting of the cotton-presses, the shouting of the boats calling upon each other through the tropical night, and the ceaseless song of night-birds and crickets. but the sea-ships, with their white wings folded, are slumbering at the wharves; the sea-winds are blowing through the moon-lit streets, and from the south arises a wondrous pale glow, like the far reflection of the emerald green of the ocean. so that the greek sailor, awaking from the vision of winds and waves, may join three fingers of his right hand, after the manner of the eastern church, and cross himself, and sleep again in peace. hearn left new orleans in july, , and was soon settled at st. pierre, martinique. his letters to dr. matas form the principal sources of information concerning himself and his work during his stay there. from them i choose a few selections which bear upon his literary labours. at first, of course, all is perfection: i am absolutely bewitched, and resolved to settle down somewhere in the west indies. martinique is simply heaven on earth. you must imagine a community whose only vices are erotic. there are no thieves, no roughs, no snobs. everything is primitive and morally pure--except in the only particular where purity would be out of harmony with natural conditions. as for the climate, it is divine--though this is the worst season. and i have begun to hate all that is energetic, swift, rapid in thought or action, all rivalry, all competition, all striving in the race of success. it is just enough to live here: no, it is too much!--it is more than any ordinary human being deserves to enjoy. it makes one feel like crying for joy just to look about one. couldn't i induce you to abandon the beastly civilization of the u. s., and live somewhere down here forever more,--where everybody is honest and good-natured and courteous, and where everything is divine? man was not intended to work in this part of the world: while you are here, you cannot quite persuade yourself you are awake,--it is a dream of eternal beauty,--all the musky winds, all the flower-months of paradise! new orleans is the most infernal hole in the entire cosmos. don't live in it! confound fame and wealth and reputation and splendour. you don't need any of these things here; they are superfluous; they are obsolete; they are nuisances; they are living curses. settle here. humming-birds will fly into your chamber to wake you up. what on earth you can find to live for in the u.s. i am now at a loss to see. you'll get old there;--here you will remain eternally young: the palms distil elixir vitæ. but it is simply foolishness to write to you--because i can't write about this place. all ambition to write has been paralyzed--let nature do the writing--in green, azure and gold! [illustration: lafcadio hearn. _from a photograph taken at martinique, august th, ._] (letter from st. pierre, july , .) i am not at all sure of my literary future,--i do not mean pecuniarily, for i never allow that question to seriously bother me: to write simply to make money is to be a d----d fraud, so long as one can aim at higher things. but i do not feel the same impulses and inspirations and power to create;--i have been passing through a sort of crisis,--out of enthusiasm into reality and i do not feel so mentally strong as i ought. the climate had much to do with it in the beginning, causing a serious weakness of memory;--that is now passed; but i feel as if _mon âme avait perdu ses ailes_. perhaps something healthier and stronger may come of it; but in the meanwhile i suffer from great disquietude, and occasional very black ideas; and praise sounds to me like a malicious joke, because i feel that my work has been damnably bad. the fact that i _know_ it has been bad, encourages me to believe i may do better, and find confidence in myself. i have enough ms. for a volume of french colonial sketches, and do not think i will be able to do much more with martinique for the present; but i also have accumulated material out of which something will probably grow. i would now like to attempt some spanish studies. northern air will do me good, though i do not like the idea of living in it. but when, after all this stupid, brutal, never-varying heat, you steam north, and the constellations change, and the moon stands up on her feet instead of lying on her back lasciviously,--and the first grand whiff of cold air comes like the advent of a ghost,--lord! how one's brain suddenly clears and thrills into working order. it is like a new soul breathed into your being through the nostrils--after the creator's fashion of animating his adam of clay. perhaps you think i have been a poor correspondent. you can scarcely imagine the difficulties of maintaining a friendly chat by letter while trying to do literary work here. most people who attempt literature here either give it up after a short time, or go to the graveyard: there are a few giants,--like dr. rufz de lavison (who never finished his Études nevertheless), davey the historian; dessalles who suddenly disappeared leaving his history incomplete. but i fear i am no giant. at or . p.m. if you try to write, your head feels as if a heated feather pillow had been stuffed into your skull. to write at all one must utilize the morning;--that is given to make the pot boil: one can write letters only at intervals, paragraph by paragraph, or between solid chapters of downright wearing-out work. nevertheless, one learns to love this land so much as to be quite willing to abandon anything and everything to live in it. as in the old sunday-school hymn, "only man is vile:" nature and woman are unspeakably sweet. i suppose i will not be able to meet you in new york this fall: you will be too busy. next summer it will be possible, i hope. perhaps you will have the pleasure of a little book or two from me during the cold weather: i will revise things in new york. it has been a horrible agony to have my stuff printed without being able to see the proofs, and full of mistakes. "chita" has been a great literary success--contrary to expectation. i find success is not decided by the press, nor by first effect on the public: opinions of literary men count much more, and these have been better than i imagined they could be. ( ) well, i am caught! the tropics have me, for better or worse, so long as i live. life in a great northern city again would be a horror insupportable. yet i have had great pain here. i have been four months without a cent of money where nobody would trust me: you know what that means, if you have ever had a rough-and-tough year or two: otherwise you could not imagine it. i have had disillusions in number. i find worst of all, there is no inspiration in the tropics,--no poetry, no aspiration, no self-sacrifice, no human effort. now, that i can go where i like, do as i please--for i have won the fight after all,--i still prefer one year of martinique to a thousand years of new york. what is it? am i demoralized; or am i simply better informed than before? i don't really know. ( ) new york, september , .[ ] [ ] written during a brief stay in new york, whither he had gone in the fall of . dear friend matas:--i am going back to the tropics,--probably for many years. my venture has been more successful than i ever hoped; and i find myself able to abandon journalism, with all its pettinesses, cowardices, and selfishnesses, forever. i am able hereafter to devote myself to what you always said was my _forte_: the study of tropical nature--god's nature,--violent, splendid, nude, and pure. i never hoped for such fortune. it has come unasked. i am almost afraid to think it is true. i am afraid to be happy! _c/o_ dr. george m. gould, south seventeenth st., philadelphia, june , . dear friend matas:--your letter of march only reached me to-day, june th; but made me very glad to get it. i have been back from the west indies about three weeks--do not know how long i shall stay. it seemed like tearing my heart out to leave martinique; and though i am now in one of the most beautiful cities in the world, among dear friends, and with the splendid spectacle before me of man's grandest efforts--not a wild cyclone of electricity and iron like new york, but a great quiet peace--the tropical nature with all its memories haunts me perpetually,--draws my thought back again over the azure sea and under the turquoise sky to the great palms and the volcanic hills and the beautiful brown women. i know i shall have to go back to the tropics sooner or later. the effect of the climate, as you know, is deadly to mental work. physically, however, i felt better in it,--less nervous than i ever was before. only one's will to work is broken down; and it is better only to collect material there to work up elsewhere. that sort of work i am busy at just now. i have a signed contract for publication of "chita" in book-form; and the result of my two years' absence will be forthcoming in a volume of larger size. you know philadelphia, i suppose, the beautiful city; and i suppose you know that physicians here form the leaders of, and give the tone to, social life. it seems to me but just that they should,--representing the highest intellectual rank of civilization when they are really worthy of the profession. ... as for other people wondering what has become of me; that is just what i want. i do not care to have any one know what i am doing till it is done.... i have happily got over a sort of crisis, however, which isolated me more than i would have liked to be isolated from the world at large: the distrust of myself. [illustration: handwriting of hearn in . _face page ._] concerning the value of hearn's martinique work, i am permitted to quote from a letter written to him on may , , by the late edmund c. stedman,--and there could be no better judge and critic: "i will not leave without telling you how much i am your debtor for the fascinating copious record of your life in the windward islands, and for your 'youma'--both of which i take with me to 'kelp rock'--and which we shall know by heart ere long. the 'two years' came when i was 'moving' in new york, etc.,--so that books and letters, unacknowledged, perforce have piled up on my table. i am grateful for your remembrance and your gifts. _no_ book could please me more than your 'two years.' those islands are my hesperides--i had begun a series of poems and lyrics, cast in the caribees, but your prose poems put mine to shame--and i am glad to listen to your music and leave my own unsung." chapter vi.--"getting a soul" short though it was in time, the philadelphia visit in has a value long in significance, that deserves epitomization. to begin with, it was hearn's first experience of anything that might be called home-life. its result was a softening and normalizing of him both as to character and as to manner, which was most evident. secondly, and as he chose to put it, i "gave him a soul." by this poetic paraphrase he meant that i had succeeded in bringing to his recognition the existence of freedom in what he thought determinism;--that intelligence, purpose, and beneficence lie behind biology, and that human beings are not always, and may never be wholly, the slaves of the senses, and the dupes of desire. beauty itself, which he so widely sought, i asked him to note, is a needless, harmful, and even impossible thing in a world of adamantine logic and necessity. above all, i demonstrated the existence of duty, "stern daughter of the voice of god," not only in the abstract, but in concrete lives, in social and historic exemplifications, and that only by means of men and women who obey conscience is social and historic progress brought about. they who have not seen that can have no "soul;" they who do see it, have soul, durable or great according to the clearness of the seeing and the obedience to the implication. fully and freely hearn acknowledged the vision, and never afterward could he be wholly the same as he had been before. but the providence of the oriental and semi-barbarous is improvidence, and their god is fate. hearn came to hate, or to pretend to hate, the truth which had now slipped through his spiritual eyes, but he could not undo or outroot it entirely; "henceforth by the vision splendid is on his way attended." thirdly, this new viewpoint, this new spirit or soul, i got incorporated in a little art-work, or ethical study--"karma," published in _lippincott's magazine_, may, , after hearn had gone to japan. to the world and without the knowledge of its making, "karma" must have seemed an illogical and even impossible thing for hearn to have written. it is apparently the sole work which he ever wrote, created _de novo_ and without the data having been found or brought to him from without. but it was only a seeming creation. it was only the telling, the colouring, that was his, as in his other tales before or after. in our long walks and talks in the park at night, we wrought out the title, the datum, and the whole trend of the story. he rebelled, but i held him to the task, which he finally executed with frank and artistic loyalty. the pride or indifference, even the dislike, of its readers, the writer, or inspirer, is as nothing compared with the fact that by it and from it hearn learned something of love and duty that had never before been a living reality to him. what an infinite distance it was removed from anything dreamed during the cincinnati period, or to be derived from flaubert, gautier, or beaudelaire! after that his future work could never be, and never was, what it was from the writing, "_everything you feel you would not like me to know._" i do not think there is exaggeration of the importance of the story, and what led up to its writing, in saying that it was the greatest of the turning-points in his life, and that directly because of it the magnificent works of the japanese period were profoundly influenced through the attitude of mind thereby gained. concerning the heroine of the tale hearn wrote me: your objection to my idea is quite correct. i have already abandoned it. it would have to be sexual. never could find in the tropics that magnificent type of womanhood, which in the new england girl, makes one afraid even to think about sex, while absolutely adoring the personality. perfect natures inspire a love that is a fear. i don't think any love is noble without it. the tropical woman inspires a love that is half compassion; this is always dangerous, untrustworthy, delusive--pregnant with future pains innumerable. but, fourthly, that in which i feel as great a pride, is compelling him to go to japan. others could have reported for lurid yellow journalism, others might possibly have translated as well as he, others could have told the west indian stories, but--not even his beloved lowell--only hearn could have written of the japanese life and soul as hearn has done. he had no thought of the journey when i showed him his duty and his opportunity. by argument, pleading, almost compulsion, i at last wearied his opposition, and he went, with reluctance, after months of halting in detested new york city in which he learned by bitter experience that it was no place for him, and that his beloved tropics should not be again sought. how disappointed he was in his new york friends and prospects may be gathered from the following excerpt taken from one of his letters to me. i had used all my influence to keep him from a stay in the city. he wrote as follows: dear gooley, your advice is good from your way of looking at it; but i am much stronger in new york than you imagine, and my future in it is plain and perfect sailing if i keep good health. i am only embarrassed for the moment. i am quite a lion here, and could figure in a way you would hardly guess, if i were not such a man of tentacles. i am not afraid of the cold--though it disheartens fancy a little; but i shall leave fancy alone for a while. no, gooley, dear gooley, i shall make my way in new york--don't be afraid for me. he soon became convinced that i was right and finally resumed the journey unwillingly. the end has justified the means and the sacrifices. it is plain that the japanese period and work crown his life-labours splendidly, and that his masterful pictures of japanese characters, traditions, and religion now constitute one of our most precious literary treasures. they have also been of profound service to japan. when he left my home, he, of his own accord, asked me to care for his library, then in the home of mr. alden at metuchen, new jersey, who two years previously had consented to take charge of it, and had paid shipping expenses, insurance, etc. none can imagine anything ungenerous or unkind in mr. alden. an old cincinnati acquaintance characterizes hearn's action in the matter as "a swindle." i have no knowledge or hint how it was or could be of that nature. hearn wrote all the letters, and made all the arrangements to have the books sent to me. mr. alden authorizes me to say: "i was perfectly convinced at the time of the transfer of the library to dr. gould that he had no desire for its possession, and that the transfer was made solely in accordance with mr. hearn's request. i am quite sure that dr. gould fully explained the matter to me at the time. i feel sure that dr. gould acted precisely as i should have done if i had retained possession of the library; that is, readily giving it up to any legitimate claimant." i found the books of no value to me, and they surely have been an expense. i tried, later, to prevail upon hearn to allow me to ship them to him in japan, but i never received any replies to my letters. he asked for the catalogue, some of the old books, and beside these, at his request, a number of expensive new books were at various times bought and sent to him. i suspect that as there was not a book on japan in the collection, and as he had a plethora of data at hand such as he wanted, the library gathered with so much love and enthusiasm was no longer of use to him, especially under the conditions of his life there. hearn gained strength and power as regards both truth and art, in so far as he was true to the better in himself; all his trouble and his weakness were born out of the lower self he would not, or could not, sacrifice. his worship of the blood-curdling and revolting gave him some temporary vogue among the readers of yellow newspaperdom, but not until that was renounced for the compromise of the "odd and ghostly" did he begin to show an ability to reach something more worthy in human nature than the degenerate reporter catered to. the next step in advance was the cultivation of the artistic pornography of the sensualistic french story-writer. not until he renounced this did he once more come to the something of more use to the reading world which fills the martinique epoch. his disinclination to go to japan, i more than suspect, was owing to a half consciousness that there was in that nation too much civilization, too good character, and even too much religion to suit the tastes which had been uppermost in motiving his past literary labours. his going into utter, illogical, and absurd captivity to the atheistic and materialistic philosophy of herbert spencer was a sorry sacrifice of his nobler office and better destiny to the fate that relentlessly dogged his footsteps. he was forced into all the humanity and beneficence possible to him by japanese restraint, art, and truth. his cries of disillusion over the japanese were largely the anger of the semi-barbaric wanderer held by family ties, paternity, etc., when he found himself prevented from again seeking the faraway tropical pseudo-paradises of peoples but one remove from savagery. in the pre-japanese periods only the lurid, the monstrous, the enormous, only hot crime, and sexual passion, could excite his liveliest interest, and all great literature was as much ignored as if it did not exist. there is not a hint in all he did that he had read a line of the great creators of literature,--the greek dramatists, dante, goethe, shakespere, and a hundred more; he could not give time to read, much less study them. his pretension of ability to teach english literature was soon recognized even by the japanese, and it is well that over-zealous friends did not secure him a lectureship at cornell university. to be sure, he never had time to study even the history of his own science and art,--but he never would have done so, it is plain, if leisure and opportunity had been offered him. the ideal and the rewards of scholarship never entered his mind. perhaps it was best for his peculiar office and proficiency that he allowed all erudition to go unlooked-upon. and yet if he had been possessed of sufficient virility and objectivity of mind to have learned the japanese language, what would the labour not have been worth? that he could not read a japanese book or newspaper after fourteen years of life among the people is most disconcerting. it is a tribute to the amazing delicacy and receptiveness of his mind that while he could not speak to his wife or children in their own tongue, he should still have so accurately caught the japanese spirit and so admirably conveyed it to us. the history of hearn's ghoulish pleasure in the gruesome and sensualistic, runs from the tan-yard horror and cincinnati reportorial days, through the translated stories of the new orleans epoch, to his "st. anthony." in "stray leaves" it is but little softened, and yet the atmosphere is brightening. it glitters and flashes like vengeful lightning about the clouds of his mind with the martinique epoch, etc.; but in the japanese writing even the "mountain of skulls" and other stories are so far removed from reality that our disgust sinks to a smile of sighing wonder that the gruesome could still be so loved by him. it is only a few of the brutal and a small brutalized public that seeks such _contes drolatiques_ (without balzac's wit, satire, and power, of course), and so again perforce, hearn was weaned from his morbidities. dominated by his developing art and also by the need to sell his writings, he thus rose, partly by the command of his readers, to the choice of less and less repulsive themes and methods, and, awed by the japanese spirit of gentleness and beauty, he finally endowed their national soul-life with a prismatic glory which they themselves had hardly suspected. hearn deserted the god of religion, and, except in one respect, he was faithless to the god of ethics. he was, therefore, without any divinity. for a mind that had no creative ability, that _must_ have its _subjects_ furnished to it, a mind whose sole function was to colour the data chosen or given from without,--this inner emptiness could only be deceived by but could not be satisfied with the inner emptiness of spencerism. he acknowledged that religion was the mother of all civilization, arts, and laws, and that all social systems, arts, and laws, antique or modern, were begotten and nurtured by ethics,--and yet there was no reality in, no reason for the existence of either religion or ethics in this world of mechanics and of fatalism, grim and inexorable. hearn speaks somewhere of his aspiration to be considered a "thinker," and once he praises "science" as a source of data for working into the art forms of his beloved poetic prose. but science to him was as impossible as was he to polite society; spencer gave him leave, he thought, to consider his atheism, irreligion, and sensualisticism as scientifically authorized, and logically justified. he was always hankering after the old heathen, even savage, gods of his father and mother; and every time he went fantee with them, he came back to a saner world weakened and still more at war with himself. he always sought an impossible world where teutonic worth and honour could supply a decadent latin, with half-savage languor and never failing delights of the senses and of art,--art which, in the last analysis, was his only god. but his tragedy was that he always hastened to turn his god into a fetich, while even his mind caught disquieting glimpses of the awful truth that all genuine worship abjures fetichism. as sensualism is the superstition of love, so fetichistic art is the superstition of true æsthetics. for the most part, minds are mechanical not chemical compoundings, or if chemic, they are in very unstable equilibrium. there are strange and wayward traits, illogic and unfused to unity with the others. there may be psychopathic and isolation wards in the psyche, "retreats," and all manner of diseases of individual organs. most people go fantee, often or seldom, and are able to hide their fetichisms from even their best friends. if we observe ourselves at all, most of us wonder at the curious mix of self-contradictories in ourselves. the few whose souls and bodies are fused to clear-cut unity, the component metal melted to harmony in the foundry of fate and of purpose,--these clang loyally in absolute and precise tone-colour. in commoner folk the failure of the flux, and the flaws in the casting, have only a social significance, but with the hearns, with thinkers and writers, the affair has an infinite purport. hearn could never make his writings and his art impulses square with his beloved materialistic, deterministic philosophy. he did not believe in soul or in souls, and yet his soul was always treating of souls, and showing the invisible thread of continuity which links souls to soul. therefore he is always happiest when his _daimon_ breaks from the restraint of theory and fate and pictures the play of free spirit, of soul unconquered by fate, of life victorious over death in some sad way or bright. concerning hearn's treatment of friends, editors, and publishers, as it bears sharply upon his literary character and productivity, as little as may or must be said: he was under bonds to fate to abuse worst the majority of his friends who were most magnanimous, helpful, and kind to him personally, or who were most discriminating and encouraging toward his art and artistic ideals. to his former cincinnati comrades, except the old printer-friend, he scarcely ever wrote after he left them, and the most faithful of these recently writes me: "i never pretended to be a friend to him; i was merely one to whom he resorted when all the rest cast him out. he never found me wanting, but he got few letters from me, and none that were flattering." "i used to love matas" are hearn's pitiful words. it is with sorrow and pain that we note the sudden cessation in of the letters to krehbiel. this noble friend had drawn from hearn a beautiful world of play and enduring memories, and one may be more than sure that it was not krehbiel who should be blamed. baker had been his most helpful and best friend, and yet for a fancied wrong hearn wrote him a letter filled with insult and ruffianism which a gentleman could not answer, hardly forgive, and never forget. did hearn know anybody of character in the west indies? to the greatest of american editors, the one who "discovered" him and introduced him to a national and international audience, who treated him with a sweet and gracious benignity, even after a shamelessness that is indescribable--to this good man there is not a published letter, although many, and many more, must exist. one day while at my house, hearn rushed to his room, seized the man's picture on the wall, tore it in a hundred pieces, and danced and spat upon it in a furious rage. in subsequent letters to me he explained his hatred--how he broke his engagements, how he borrowed money from his loathed and insulted friend, how he got credit through him from his tailor, etc. gently the abused one bore it all and without the least remonstrance, writing me, "hearn has utterly cast me off; i was loath to part with him." professor chamberlain and others kindly explain the curious morbid psychology which hearn had exhibited towards them. to the last, love and trust breathed from hearn's letters to me, and yet i learn that to others long afterward he wrote of me with bitterness and malevolent injustice. and yet he had written me after i saw him for the last time, in this way: "please don't write me at all, or expect me to write, for some months. i do not need any money. i have a good deal on my mind, and am apt, in consequence, to do very stupid or very unkind things in an unlucky moment." and then he wrote: "no, dear gooley, i will never be indifferent to you! never think that; i understand better than you suppose. if i am silent at intervals, never doubt me, dear teacher and brother; and you will find everything come right." how often is the pathos of life sadly exaggerated by giving way to foolish, needless, and degrading inherited instincts at the expense of the higher life and usefulness! as to some who ludicrously boast of the long continuance of an intimate friendship, there are many letters of hearn extant and unpublished which blow out that vanity with an amusing smile. the matter, generally, might not have so real an importance were it not that the publishing of literature has a vast deal to do with literature, and, closely examined, hearn's quarrels with editors, publishers, and the public, is a matter that reaches out astonishingly both as regards himself, his books, and the interest in him, as well as beyond the question of hearn or of any or all of his friends. until one silent man consents to speak--which may never be--the discussion of the essence of the affair cannot be set forth in any detail. passages in hearn's letters relating thereto should never have been published, or a hundred other things should have been as frankly published. when such publicity shall exist the reasons will be manifest why one publisher destroyed an entire fresh edition of one book of hearn, why another acted differently, why one is praised or praises himself, why others are blamed, why some are silent although a word would end the injustice, etc. one phase may be noted in passing:--whatever hearn's rights or wrongs as to the author's relations with publishers and editors, it was beyond the ken of his mind that one who may gloriously sacrifice all his own temporal blessings in striving after artistic excellence, has no right to ask the same altruism of those engaged in the publishing business. hearn blamed the crude world, and, for him, its representatives in the persons of editors and their masters, the publishers, for wishing a certain kind of literature. as well blame the bookseller for not sending the book you had not ordered. he who deliberately chooses to give the world a literature he knows it does not want, must accept the rejection and editing of his manuscripts, and the absence of the world's cheques. he chose poverty and may not abuse them who allowed his choice to be realized. it is sad enough, but it is more than childish to grumble, more than ignoble to rail. the search for "inspiration," as he called it, was with hearn constant and lifelong. thus, early in his career, he wrote to his friend, dr. matas: so i wait for the poet's pentecost--the inspiration of nature--the descent of the tongues of fire. and i think they will come when the wild skies brighten, and the sun of the mexican gulf reappears for his worshippers--with hymns of wind and sea, and the prayers of birds. when one becomes bathed in this azure and gold air--saturated with the perfume of the sea, he can't help writing _something_. and he cannot help feeling a new sense of being. the soul of the sea mingles with his own, is breathed into him: the spirit that moveth over the deep is the creator indeed--vivifying, illuminating, strengthening. i really feel his religion--the sense of awe that comes to one in some great silent temple. you would feel it too under this eternal vault of blue, when the weird old sea is touching the keys of his mighty organ.... and again he wrote: i think i _must_ get inspiration. the real secret of art is feeling. the highest form of that feeling is that which the splendour of nature gives--the thrill and awe of terrible beauty. this is that inexplicable communication of the mind with the unknowable that has created the religious sense. said a friend to me yesterday, who is not a believer:--"i stood in the alps at sunrise, and i knew what religion meant." and i think that passage in wilson on fetichism superb where he says that the sight of the splendid sky first created the religious sense. terribly perverted this sense has been, no doubt; but it belongs, i fancy, to those things which are eternal, and will have many a glorious avatar before our planet floats off into the cemetery of dead worlds. it is, i believe, the most powerful possible motive for true modern poetry--in harmony with science and scientific faith; and that is what i am going to look for. such quotations could be multiplied indefinitely, but toward the end they become begging, and moaning in character. the "inspiration" is diligently hunted, hungrily waited for; at last the failure in its coming grows pitiful and tragic. for what is inspiration? if, with the fatal fashion of our fashionable fatalism, we think "we have outgrown all that," all that which was real and genuine inspiring, we at least cannot outgrow that which bred the belief in the inspiring, the trust in spirit and in spiritual truths and forces. is it all primitive childishness, this faith in a real breathing-in of the higher life into our more carnal hearts and minds? far from it! it is the veriest of verities, and the _deniers_ of the conditions of inspiration dry up the springs of that "inspiration" which they so hungrily seek. the semblance cannot be without the reality. it will not come, lasting and inexhaustible, by any trick of literary technic. out of the light of common day is not born that which never was on any sea or shore. place, time, circumstance, are not, as hearn thought, the gods of "inspiration." "the wind bloweth where it listeth," and even a heathen god would hardly visit the altar with his sacred fire if the priests mocked at the power and the very existence of the deity. it is most plain that hearn early and zealously studied the bible--hundreds of allusions bear witness of the fact--and that he learned from it the revivification of words, the use of phrase, metaphor, belief, something of the art of reaching in toward the depths of men's moral and religious nature and experience: but all, just so evidently, as a literary art, a _tour de force_, the skill of the expert workman, handling them as symbols for the sake of the skill, while smiling scornfully at any belief in their reality. language is the most spirit-like creation of man's mind, the thing nearest him, woven out of his own soul-substance, instinct with his life, haunted with his love, his hate, his suffering. playing with words, using them as art-stuff, regardless of the experience and love and suffering which gave them conceiving and gives them quickening, is likely to bring upon the artist a sad revenge. pleading in vain for "inspiration," hearn died a score or more of years before he should have died. it should be emphasized that hearn had but one possible way, chosen or compelled, to make a living. his terrible myopia shut him out from every calling except that of a writer. moreover, leaving aside the danger to his little vision from so much ocular labour, he had other and almost insurmountable handicaps as a poet or maker of literature: he had no original thing to say, for he was entirely without creative power, and had always to borrow theme and plot. then he had never seen form, knew almost nothing of it as it exists out there, so that his sole technic was that of a colourist, and also to endow our dead and dying words with life--a "ghostly" life it was, and as he chose it to be--but living it assuredly was. that he over-coloured his pictures, that he over-sensualized his words, of this there is no question--but monotones and senescents that we are, let us not smile too superciliously! let us learn; and above all let us enjoy! for, his alone was the palette of the painter of the afterglow of earth's last sunset. and his the unique miracle of clothing with the hues of a hopeless rainbow, the faint reverberations of bells far sunk in the wreck and wrack of ruined centuries; of reintoning the prayers of nirvâna-entering souls; of remoaning dear ancient and expiring griefs; of seeing with shut eyes the sad smiles of never-answered loves and never-meeting lovers. with him, hushed, we hearken to muezzin bilâl's call from his tower, to the broken sobs of a dancing-girl's passion, or to the plaintive beggings of dying babes for the cold breasts of dead mothers. chapter vii.--"in ghostly japan" perhaps i should not have succeeded in getting hearn to attempt japan had it not been for a little book that fell into his hands during the stay with me. beyond question, mr. lowell's volume had a profound influence in turning his attention to japan and greatly aided me in my insistent urging him to go there. in sending the book hearn wrote me this letter: gooley!--i have found a marvellous book,--a book of books!--a colossal, splendid, godlike book. you must read every line of it. tell me how i can send it. for heaven's sake don't skip a word of it. the book is called "the soul of the far east," but its title is smaller than its imprint. hearneyboy. p.s.--let something else go to h--, and read this book instead. may god eternally bless and infinitely personalize the man who wrote this book! please don't skip one solitary line of it, and don't delay reading it,--because something, much! is going to go out of this book into your heart and life and stay there! i have just finished this book and feel like john in patmos,--only a d----d sight better. he who shall skip one word of this book let his portion be cut off and his name blotted out of the book of life.[ ] [ ] mr. percival lowell's book soon reached me containing the inscription: "to george m. gould, with best love of his spiritual pupil, l. h." i have intentionally retained colloquialisms in these excerpts, the indications of our familiarity, etc., to give a glimpse into the heart of the affectionate and sweet-natured man. there is not much to say about the japanese period. the splendid books speak for themselves. there is little in the almost valueless letters that interest the literature-lover and give him concern about the literature-maker. there is one short page[ ] which is worth the remainder of the book. the development of inborn characteristics goes on, despite the grafted soul, almost as fatalistically as hearn would have wished, and in this instance in accordance with his theory of the unalterability of character. but this period is of surpassing interest solely because of the beautiful books and articles written. to analyze them is both impossible and undesirable. they are for our enjoyment, and after us generations will be delighted by them. [ ] _life and letters_, vol. ii, pp. and . hearn's views and practices as regards love and the feminine are not of sympathetic interest to those who think that monogamy is good and advisable. he hopes his son will not follow in his father's footsteps as regards every damozel in his path, and in this respect become the "disgraceful person he [the father] used to be." he "half suspects" the oriental husband is right in loving his wife least of all others related to or dependent upon him, and quotes approvingly unquotable things about the laws of (sexual) nature, managing, _more suo_, to make beautiful the pursuit of beauty "in vain." than the other, the woman-beauty of soul is the lesser. "it doesn't make a man any happier to have an intellectual wife. the less intellectual the more lovable,--for intellectual converse a man _can't_ have with women." when contemplating legal marriage with "his wife" in , he calculates shrewdly the advantages of the plan. he arrived in japan in and in less than two years "my little wife and i have saved nearly , japanese dollars between us." when he has made her independent he will quit teaching, and "wander about awhile and write 'sketches' at $ . per page." in he found difficulties in registering the birth of his son. hearn was still a british subject. if the boy should be a japanese citizen, the registry must be in the mother's name; if in the father's name, he would become a foreigner. to become a japanese citizen would mean for hearn a great reduction in his salary as a teacher under government pay. "why was i so foolish as to have a son?" "really _i_ don't know." in he "cuts the puzzle" by becoming a japanese citizen, "losing all chance of government employment at a living salary." immediately hearn "hopes to see a united orient yet bound into one strong alliance against our cruel western civilization," "against what is called society and what is called civilization." for those who boasted of being his friends, it seems an astonishing thing that they should make hearn portray his vices, his moral nakedness, so publicly. of course he did not dream of the _exposé_. it is to his merit, however, that he would place the truth boldly and baldly before his friends. he confesses that the scandalous parts of a book are what he likes best, that he is "a fraud," "a vile latin," etc.,--"_vive le monde antique!_" he is "_not respectable_." "carpets--pianos--windows--curtains--brass bands--churches! how i hate them!! would i had been born savage; the curse of civilized cities is upon me." he admits that he "cannot understand the moral side, of course," and urges that "the most serious necessity of life is not to take the moral side of it seriously. we must play with it, as with an _hetaira_." it is needless to add that in this composition and resolve lay hearn's weakness, his tragedy, and his missing of "greatness." a man so willed must finally see that it is the source of pitiful instabilities and waywardness. "i have been at heart everything by turns." he learns the old trick of blaming "fate" and "the other fellow;" he is hard-pushed, ignored, starved, morally humiliated:--"the less a man has to do with his fellow-men the better;" "it becomes plain why men cannot be good to one another;" character may not be bettered or changed; "no line exists between life and not-life;" "likes and dislikes never depart;" if spanish, italian, or french (instead of english, german, or american) he "can be at home with a villain," etc. finally there comes that burst of frankness:--"i have more smallness in me than you can suspect. how could it be otherwise! if a man lives like a rat for twenty or twenty-five years, he must have acquired something of the disposition peculiar to house-rodents,--mustn't he?" then increase the complaints of "treachery," the wish for "justice," the desire to go away, somewhere, anywhere; and the limit of the amazing is reached in praising _the conservator_ and _the whim_ for bravery and goodness, and in hating virchow thoroughly. was virchow so loathsome because this great scientist found an impassable demarcation between life and the not-life?--"all cells are derived from cells." is it surprising that his old imagined enemies, the jesuits, are believed to be hidden in every place, lurking to thwart every ambition or success, even to kill him?[ ] [ ] those who care may see how this suspicion obfuscates his mind in an article against some of hearn's statements, by henry thurston, in _the messenger_, january . no man is wholly bad who loves children, none wholly good who does not love them. in a nation of child-lovers, as hearn's japanese writings bear witness, he began to catch glimpses of truth hitherto unrecognized. concerning his eldest son (a fourth child was expected in ) hearn wrote: "no man can possibly know what life means until he has a child and loves it. and then the whole universe changes,--and nothing will ever again seem exactly as it seemed before." naturally he was drawn to the rich child-lore and fairy tales of japan. with great difficulty i have secured copies of a number of fairy stories edited by him and published in japan by t. hasegawa, tôkyô, in a style beautiful and dainty beyond superlatives. as mine are probably the only ones in our country, i have ventured to copy herewith two of the tales:-- the old woman who lost her dumpling long, long ago, there was a funny old woman, who liked to laugh and to make dumplings of rice-flour. one day, while she was preparing some dumplings for dinner, she let one fall; and it rolled into a hole in the earthen floor of her little kitchen and disappeared. the old woman tried to reach it by putting her hand down the hole, and all at once the earth gave way, and the old woman fell in. she fell quite a distance, but was not a bit hurt; and when she got up on her feet again, she saw that she was standing on a road, just like the road before her house. it was quite light down there; and she could see plenty of rice-fields, but no one in them. how all this happened, i cannot tell you. but it seems that the old woman had fallen into another country. the road she had fallen upon sloped very much; so, after having looked for her dumpling in vain, she thought it must have rolled farther away down the slope. she ran down the road to look, crying: "my dumpling, my dumpling! where is that dumpling of mine?" after a little while she saw a stone jizo standing by the roadside, and she said: "o lord jizo, did you see my dumpling?" jizo answered: "yes, i saw your dumpling rolling by me down the road. but you had better not go any farther, because there is a wicked oni living down there, who eats people." but the old woman only laughed, and ran on farther down the road, crying: "my dumpling, my dumpling! where is that dumpling of mine?" and she came to another statue of jizo, and asked it: "o kind lord jizo, did you see my dumpling?" and jizo said: "yes, i saw your dumpling go by a little while ago. but you must not run any farther, because there is a wicked oni down there, who eats people." but she only laughed, and ran on, still crying out: "my dumpling, my dumpling! where is that dumpling of mine?" and she came to a third jizo, and asked it: "o dear lord jizo, did you see my dumpling?" but jizo said: "don't talk about your dumpling now. here is the oni coming. squat down here behind my sleeve, and don't make any noise." presently the oni came very close, and stopped and bowed to jizo, and said: "good-day, jizo san!" jizo said good-day, too, very politely. then the oni suddenly snuffed the air two or three times in a suspicious way, and cried out: "jizo san, jizo san! i smell a smell of mankind somewhere--don't you?" "oh!" said jizo, "perhaps you are mistaken." "no, no!" said the oni, after snuffing the air again, "i smell a smell of mankind." then the old woman could not help laughing, "te-he-he!"--and the oni immediately reached down his big hairy hand behind jizo's sleeve, and pulled her out,--still laughing, "te-he-he!" "ah! ha!" cried the oni. then jizo said: "what are you going to do with that good old woman? you must not hurt her." "i won't," said the oni. "but i will take her home with me to cook for us." "very well," said jizo; "but you must really be kind to her. if you are not i shall be very angry." "i won't hurt her at all," promised the oni; "and she will only have to do a little work for us every day. good-bye, jizo san." then the oni took the old woman far down the road, till they came to a wide deep river, where there was a boat, and took her across the river to his house. it was a very large house. he led her at once into the kitchen, and told her to cook some dinner for himself and the other oni who lived with him. and he gave her a small wooden rice-paddle, and said: "you must always put only one grain of rice into the pot, and when you stir that one grain of rice in the water with this paddle, the grain will multiply until the pot is full." so the old woman put just one rice-grain into the pot, as the oni told her, and began to stir it with the paddle; and, as she stirred, the one grain became two,--then four,--then eight,--then sixteen,--thirty-two, sixty-four, and so on. every time she moved the paddle the rice increased in quantity; and in a few minutes the great pot was full. after that, the funny old woman stayed a long time in the house of the oni, and every day cooked food for him and for all his friends. the oni never hurt or frightened her, and her work was made quite easy by the magic paddle--although she had to cook a very, very great quantity of rice, because an oni eats much more than any human being eats. but she felt lonely, and always wished very much to go back to her own little house, and make her dumplings. and one day, when the oni were all out somewhere, she thought she would try to run away. she first took the magic paddle, and slipped it under her girdle; and then she went down to the river. no one saw her; and the boat was there. she got into it, and pushed off; and as she could row very well, she was soon far away from the shore. but the river was very wide; and she had not rowed more than one-fourth of the way across, when the oni, all of them, came back to the house. they found that their cook was gone, and the magic paddle too. they ran down to the river at once, and saw the old woman rowing away very fast. perhaps they could not swim: at all events they had no boat; and they thought the only way they could catch the funny old woman would be to drink up all the water of the river before she got to the other bank. so they knelt down, and began to drink so fast that before the old woman was half way over, the water had become quite low. but the old woman kept on rowing until the water had got so shallow that the oni stopped drinking, and began to wade across. then she dropped her oar, took the magic paddle from her girdle, and shook it at the oni, and made such funny faces that the oni all burst out laughing. but the moment they laughed, they could not help throwing up all the water they had drunk, and so the river became full again. the oni could not cross; and the funny old woman got safely over to the other side, and ran away up the road as fast as she could. she never stopped running until she found herself at home again. after that she was very happy; for she could make dumplings whenever she pleased. besides, she had the magic paddle to make rice for her. she sold her dumplings to her neighbours and passengers, and in quite a short time she became rich. the boy who drew cats a long, long time ago, in a small country-village in japan, there lived a poor farmer and his wife, who were very good people. they had a number of children, and found it very hard to feed them all. the elder son was strong enough when only fourteen years old to help his father; and the little girls learned to help their mother almost as soon as they could walk. but the youngest child, a little boy, did not seem to be fit for hard work. he was very clever,--cleverer than all his brothers and sisters; but he was quite weak and small, and people said he could never grow very big. so his parents thought it would be better for him to become a priest than to become a farmer. they took him with them to the village-temple one day, and asked the good old priest who lived there, if he would have their little boy for his acolyte, and teach him all that a priest ought to know. the old man spoke kindly to the lad, and asked him some hard questions. so clever were the answers that the priest agreed to take the little fellow into the temple as an acolyte, and to educate him for the priesthood. the boy learned quickly what the old priest taught him, and was very obedient in most things. but he had one fault. he liked to draw cats during study-hours, and to draw cats even when cats ought not to have been drawn at all. whenever he found himself alone, he drew cats. he drew them on the margins of the priest's books, and on all the screens of the temple, and on the walls, and on the pillars. several times the priest told him this was not right; but he did not stop drawing cats. he drew them because he could not really help it. he had what is called "the genius of an artist," and just for that reason he was not quite fit to be an acolyte;--a good acolyte should study books. one day after he had drawn some very clever pictures of cats upon a paper screen, the old priest said to him severely: "my boy, you must go away from this temple at once. you will never make a good priest, but perhaps you will become a great artist. now let me give you a last piece of advice, and be sure you never forget it: 'avoid large places at night;--keep to small.'" the boy did not know what the priest meant by saying, "avoid large places,--keep to small." he thought and thought, while he was tying up his little bundle of clothes to go away; but he could not understand those words, and he was afraid to speak to the priest any more, except to say good-bye. he left the temple very sorrowfully, and began to wonder what he should do. if he went straight home, he felt sure his father would punish him for having been disobedient to the priest: so he was afraid to go home. all at once he remembered that at the next village, twelve miles away, there was a very big temple. he had heard there were several priests at that temple; and he made up his mind to go to them and ask them to take him for their acolyte. now that big temple was closed up, but the boy did not know this fact. the reason it had been closed up was that a goblin had frightened the priests away, and had taken possession of the place. some brave warriors had afterwards gone to the temple at night to kill the goblin; but they had never been seen alive again. nobody had ever told these things to the boy; so he walked all the way to the village, hoping to be kindly treated by the priests. when he got to the village, it was already dark, and all the people were in bed; but he saw the big temple on a hill at the other end of the principal street, and he saw there was a light in the temple. people who tell the story say the goblin used to make that light, in order to tempt lonely travellers to ask for shelter. the boy went at once to the temple, and knocked. there was no sound inside. he knocked and knocked again; but still nobody came. at last he pushed gently at the door, and was quite glad to find that it had not been fastened. so he went in, and saw a lamp burning,--but no priest. he thought some priest would be sure to come very soon, and he sat down and waited. then he noticed that everything in the temple was grey with dust, and thickly spun over with cobwebs. so he thought to himself that the priests would certainly like to have an acolyte, to keep the place clean. he wondered why they had allowed everything to get so dusty. what most pleased him, however, were some big white screens, good to paint cats upon. though he was tired, he looked at once for a writing-box, and found one, ground some ink, and began to paint cats. he painted a great many cats upon the screens; and then he began to feel very, very sleepy. he was just on the point of lying down to sleep beside one of the screens, when he suddenly remembered the words: "avoid large places;--keep to small." the temple was very large; he was all alone; and as he thought of these words--though he could not quite understand them--he began to feel for the first time a little afraid; and he resolved to look for a small place in which to sleep. he found a little cabinet, with a sliding door, and went into it, and shut himself up. then he lay down and fell fast asleep. very late in the night he was awakened by a most terrible noise,--a noise of fighting and screaming. it was so dreadful that he was afraid even to look through a chink of the little cabinet: he lay very still, holding his breath for fright. the light that had been in the temple went out; but the awful sounds continued, and became more awful, and all the temple shook. after a long time silence came; but the boy was still afraid to move. he did not move until the light of the morning sun shone into the cabinet through the chinks of the little door. then he got out of his hiding-place very cautiously, and looked about. the first thing he saw, lying dead in the middle of it, an enormous monster rat,--a goblin-rat,--bigger than a cow! but who or what could have killed it? there was no man or other creature to be seen. suddenly the boy observed that the mouths of all the cats he had drawn the night before, were red and wet with blood. then he knew that the goblin had been killed by the cats which he had drawn. and then, also, for the first time, he understood why the wise old priest had said to him: "avoid large places at night;--keep to small." afterwards that boy became a very famous artist. some of the cats which he drew are still shown to travellers in japan. at once upon reaching japan (it is plain hearn never forgave me for compelling him to go) begin the complaints of the downright hard work of writing, consequent upon the loss of ideals. he breaks with publishers--an old-time story; he is losing his inspiration, and his only hope is that it will return to him again; in any latin country he could at once, he thinks, get back the much coveted "thrill," or _frisson_. he would at last even relish the hated united states. from the beginning he tires of the japanese character, and grows more and more tired the longer he stays; it has no depth, this thin soul-stream; it is incapable of long-sustained effort, prolonged study; he cannot much longer endure japanese officialism; and the official "is something a good deal lower than a savage and meaner than the straight-out western rough." he would wish never to write a line again about any japanese subjects. things finally came to such a pass that the only successful stimulus to work was that some one should do or say something horribly mean to him, and the force of the hurt could be measured in the months or years of resultant labour. as none ever did a mean thing to him, one may suspect that the psychology of his sudden enmities towards others was that he must perforce _imagine_ that he had been "horribly" treated. the old _wanderlust_, never wholly absent, returns strongly upon him; in less than a year he dreams of leaving japan and his wife, and of "wandering about awhile;" he projects "a syndicate" whereby he may go to java (rather than manila, where the jesuits were), or, "a french colony,--tonkin, noumea, or pondicherry." a tropical trip is planned for six months of every year. but the "butterfly-lives" dependent upon him prevent, of course. he always spoke of returning often. at the last there is a savage growl that after thirteen years of work for japan, in which he had sacrificed everything for her, he was "driven out of the service and practically banished from the country." hearn's nostalgia for the nowhere or the anywhere was only conquered by death. in the logic of his life, of his misfortune, and character, begins to grow plainer, and he "fears being blinded or maimed so as to prove of no further use." it seems that if he had been able to do what he tried so often, and longed so fervently to do, he would have run away into the known or unknown, leaving children, wife, and all the ties that bound him to any orderly life. his vision had become almost useless; he had lost his lectureship; more and more it grew impossible to coax or force out of his mind such beautiful things as in younger days; the furies of his atheism, pessimism, and lovelessness were close on his track; the hope of lectureships in the united states had failed,--nothing was left, nothing except one thing, which, chosen or not, came at the age of fifty-four. lessing has said that "raphael would have been the great painter he was even if he had been born without arms," and burke has told of a poet "blind from birth who nevertheless could describe visible objects with a spirit and justness excelled by few men blessed with sight." what irony of fate it is that one almost blind should teach us non-users of our eyes the wonder and glory of colour; that the irreligious one should quicken our faith in the immaterial and unseen; that a sensualist should strengthen our trust in the supersensual; that one whose body and life were unbeautiful should sing such exquisite songs of silent beauty that our straining ears can hardly catch the subtle and unearthly harmonies! for hearn is another of many splendid illustrations of the old truth that a man's spirit may be more philosophic than his philosophy, more scientific than his science, more religious than his creed, more divine than his divinity. chapter viii.--as a poet that hearn was a true poet none will deny, but it was one of the frequent seeming illogicalities of his character that he had no love of metric or rhymed poetry. i doubt if there is a single volume of such poetry in his library, and i never heard him repeat a line or stanza, and never knew him to read a page of what is called poetry. i suspect the simple reason was that his necessities compelled him rigidly to exclude everything from his world of thought which did not offer materials for the remunerating public. he had to make a living, and whence tomorrow's income should come was always a vital concern. poetry of the metric and rhymed sort does not make bread and butter; hence there was no time to consider even the possibility of "cultivating the muses on a little oatmeal." of poetry he once wrote:--"the mere ideas and melody of a poem seem to me of small moment unless the complex laws of versification be strictly obeyed." the dictum, considering its source, is exquisitely ludicrous; for hearn poetry could not be coined into dollars, even if he had had the mind and heart to learn anything of "the complex laws of versification." elsewhere he excused his manifest utter ignorance of poetry and want of poetic appreciation by saying that there is so little really good poetry that it is easy to choose. he confessed his detestation of wordsworth, shelley, and keats, preferring dobson, watson, and lang. "of wordsworth--well, i should smile!" "refined poetry" he held of little or no value, but he found the "vulgar" songs of coolies, fishermen, etc., very true and beautiful poetry. he vainly tried to translate some of gautier's poems. he attempted original verse-making but a few times, and from my scrap-book i reproduce one of the results, kindly furnished me by mr. alexander hill, of cincinnati, to whom it was given by mr. tunison. perhaps it was printed in _forest and stream_. a creole boat song hot shines the sun o'er the quivering land, no wind comes up from the sea, silent and stark the pine woods stand, and the mock-bird sleeps in the mayhaw tree, where, overhung with brier and vine, the placid waters slip and shine and dimple to thy lover's view-- la belle rivière de calcasieu. under the bending cypress trees, bedecked with pendulous cool grey moss that woos in vain the recreant breeze and silently mourns its loss. with drowsy eye, in my little boat i dreamily lie, and lazily float lulled by the thrush's soft te-rue-- on la belle rivière de calcasieu. a heron stands, like a ghost in grey, knee-deep 'mongst the bending water lilies, and yellow butterflies lightly play 'midst the blooms of fragrant amaryllis; the swift kingfisher winds his reel, saying his grace for his noonday meal, and a hawk soars up to the welkin blue o'er la belle rivière de calcasieu. across the point, where the ferry plies, i hear the click of the boatman's oar, and his creole song, with its quavering rise re-echoes soft from shore to shore; and this is the rhyme that he idly sings as his boat at anchor lazily swings, for the day is hot, and passers few on la belle rivière de calcasieu. "i ain't got time for make merry, me i ain't got time for make merry; my lill' gall waitin' at de river of death to meet her ole dad at de ferry. she gwine be dere wid de smile on her face, like the night she died, when all de place was lit by the moonbeams shiverin' troo la belle rivière de calcasieu. "o sing dat song! o sing dat song! i ain't got time for make merry! de angel come 'fore berry long, and carr' me o'er de ferry! he come wid de whirlwind in de night-- he come wid de streak of de morning light-- he find me ready--yass, dass true-- by la belle rivière de calcasieu. "den who got time for make merry, eh? den who got time for make merry? de fire burn up de light 'ood tree, de bird eat up de berry. long time ago i make voudoo, an' i dance calinda strong and true, but de lord he pierce me troo and troo on la belle rivière de calcasieu." in the watkin letters, hearn transcribes a poem of six stanzas written by himself for the decoration of the soldiers' graves at chalmette cemetery in . far more successful, for obvious reasons, was an attempt at echoing a bit of eastern fancy. a strange, gruesome, oriental being had caught his eye at new orleans, who translated for him some characteristic eastern verses. hearn thus rendered them in english:[ ] [ ] from hearn's manuscript copy through the kindness again of mr. tunison and mr. hill. the ruse from _amaron satacum_ late at night the lover returns unlooked-for, full of longing, after that cruel absence;-- finds his darling by her women surrounded; enters among them:-- only sees his beautiful one, his idol, speaks no word, but watches her face in silence, looks with eyes of thirst and with lips of fever burning for kisses. late it is; and, nevertheless, the women, still remaining, weary his ears with laughter, prattling folly, tantalizing his longing-- teasing his patience. love weaves ruse in answer to gaze beseeching;-- shrill she screams: "o heaven!--what insect stings so!" and with sudden waft of her robe outshaken, blows the vile light out. i find the following verses in his scrap-book of the new orleans period:[ ] [ ] dated july , . the mummy (after the french of louis bouilhet) startled,--as by some far faint din of azure-lighted worlds, from sleep, the mummy, trembling, wakes within the hypogeum's blackest deep,-- and murmurs low, with slow sad voice: "oh! to be dead and still endure!-- well may the quivering flesh rejoice that feels the vulture's gripe impure! "seeking to enter this night of death, each element knocks at my granite door:-- 'we are earth and fire and air,--the breath of winds,--the spirits of sea and shore. "'into the azure, out of the gloom, rise!--let thine atoms in light disperse!-- blend with the date-palm's emerald plume!-- scatter thyself through the universe! "'we shall bear thee far over waste and wold: thou shalt be lulled to joyous sleep by leaves that whisper in light of gold, by murmur of fountains cool and deep. "'come!--perchance from thy dungeon dark infinite nature may wish to gain for the godlike sun another spark, another drop for the diamond rain.' * * * * * "woe! mine is death eternal! ... and i feel them come, as i lie alone,-- the centuries, heavy as drifted sand heaping above my bed of stone! "o be accursed, ye impious race!-- caging the creature that seeks to soar; preserving agony's weird grimace, in hideous vanity, evermore!" * * * * * aux bruits lointains ouvrant l'oreille, jalouse encor du ciel d'azur, la momie en tremblant s'éveille au fond de l'hypogée obscur. oh, dit-elle, de sa voix lente, etre mort, et durer toujours. heureuse la chaire pantelante sous l'ongle courbé des vautours. pour plonger dans ma nuit profonde chaque element frappe en ce lieu. --nous sommes l'air! nous sommes l'onde! nous sommes la terre et le feu! viens avec nous, le steppe aride veut son panache d'arbres verts, viens sous l'azur du ciel splendide, t'éparpiller dans l'univers. nous t'emporterons par les plaines nous te bercerons à la fois dans le murmure des fontaines et la bruissement des bois. viens. la nature universelle cherche peut-être en ce tombeau pour de soleil une étincelle! pour la mer une goutte d'eau! * * * * * et dans ma tombe impérissable je sens venir avec affroi les siècles lourds comme du sable qui s'amoncelle autour de moi. ah! sois maudite, race impie, qui le l'être arrêtant l'essor gardes ta laideur assoupie dans la vanité de la mort. in one of hearn's letters to the cincinnati _commercial_, written soon after his arrival in new orleans, he writes: here is a specimen closely akin to the creole of the antilles. it is said to be an old negro love-song, and i think there is a peculiar weird beauty in several of its stanzas. i feel much inclined to doubt whether it was composed by a negro, but the question of its authorship cannot affect its value as a curiosity, and, in any case, its spirit is thoroughly african. unfortunately, without accented letters it is impossible to convey any idea of the melody, the liquid softness, the languor, of some of the couplets. my translation is a little free in parts. i dipi me vouer toue, adèle, ape danse calinda, mo reste pour toue fidèle, liberte a moin caba. mo pas soussi d'autt negresses, mo pas gagnin coeur pour yo; yo gagnin beaucoup finesses; yo semble serpent congo. ii mo aime toue trop, ma belle, mo pas capab resiste; coeur a moin tout comme sauterelle, li fait ne qu'appe saute. mo jamin contre gnoun femme qui gagnin belle taille comme toue; jie a ton jete la flamme; corps a toue enchene moue. iii to tant comme serpent sonnette qui connin charme zozo, qui gagnin bouche a li prette pour servi comme gnoun tombo. mo jamin voue gnoun negresse qui connin marche comme toue, qui gagnin gnoun si belle gesse; corps a toue ce gnoun poupe. iv quand mo pas vouer toue, adèle, mo sentt m'ane mourri, mo vini com' gnoun chandelle qui ape alle fini: mo pas vouer rien sur la terre qui capab moin fait plaisi; mo capab dans la rivière jete moin pour pas souffri. v dis moin si to gagnin n'homme; mo va fals ouanga pour li; mo fais li tourne fantome, si to vle moin pour mari. mo pas le in jour toue boudeuse; l'autt femme, pour moin ce fatras; mo va rende toue bien heureuse; mo va baill' toue bell' madras. translation i since first i beheld you, adèle, while dancing the _calinda_, i have remained faithful to the thought of you: my freedom has departed from me. i care no longer for all other negresses; i have no heart left for them: you have such grace and cunning: you are like the congo serpent. ii i love you too much, my beautiful one: i am not able to help it. my heart has become just like a grasshopper, it does nothing but leap. i have never met any woman who has so beautiful a form as yours. your eyes flash flame; your body has enchained me captive. iii ah, you are so like the serpent-of-the-rattles who knows how to charm the little bird, and who has a mouth ever ready for it to serve it for a tomb! i have never known any negress who could walk with such grace as you can, or who could make such beautiful gestures: your body is a beautiful doll. iv when i cannot see you, adèle, i feel myself ready to die; my life becomes like a candle which has almost burned itself out. i cannot, then, find anything in the world, which is able to give me pleasure;-- i could well go down to the river and throw myself in it that i might cease to suffer. v tell me if you have a man; and i will make an _ouanga_ charm for him; i will make him turn into a phantom, if you will only take me for your husband. i will not go to see you when you are cross; other women are mere trash to me; i will make you very happy, and i will give you a beautiful madras handkerchief. i think there is some true poetry in these allusions to the snake. is not the serpent a symbol of grace? is not the so-called "line of beauty" serpentine? and is there not something of the serpent in the beauty of all graceful women?--something of undulating shapeliness, something of silent fascination?--something of lilith and lamia? the french have a beautiful verb expressive of this idea, _serpenter_, "to serpent"--to curve in changing undulations like a lithe snake. the french artist speaks of the outlines of a beautiful human body as "serpenting," curving and winding like a serpent. do you not like the word? i think it is so expressive of flowing lines of elegance--so full of that mystery of grace which puzzled solomon; "the way of a serpent upon a rock." the allusion to voudooism in the last stanza especially interested me, and i questioned the gentleman who furnished me with the song as to the significance of the words: "i will make him turn into a phantom." i had fancied that the term _fantome_ might be interpreted by "ghost," and that the whole line simply constituted a threat to make some one "give up the ghost." "it is not exactly that," replied my friend; "it is an allusion, i believe, to the withering and wasting power of voudoo poisons. there are such poisons actually in use among the negro obi-men--poisons which defy analysis, and, mysterious as the poisons of the borgias, slowly consume the victims like a taper. he wastes away as though being dried up; he becomes almost mummified; he wanes like a shadow; he turns into a phantom in the same sense that a phantom is an unreal mockery of something real." thus i found an intelligent louisianan zealous to confirm an opinion to which i was permitted to give expression in the _commercial_ nearly three years ago--that a knowledge of secret septic poisons (probably of an animal character), which leave no trace discoverable by the most skilful chemists, is actually possessed by certain beings who are reverenced as sorcerers by the negroes of the west indies and the southern states, but more especially of the west indies, where much of african fetichism has been transplanted. ozias midwinter. chapter ix.--the poet of myopia the dependence not only of the literary character and workmanship of a writer, but even his innermost psyche, upon vision, normal or abnormal, is a truth which has been dimly and falteringly felt by several writers. concerning "madame bovary," and his friend flaubert, maxime du camp reflects some glintings of the truth. but these and others, lacking the requisite expert definiteness of knowledge, have failed to catch the satisfying and clear point of view. to illustrate i may quote the paragraph of du camp: "the literary procedure of flaubert threw everybody off the track and even some of the experts. but it was a very simple matter; it was by the accumulation and the superposition of details that he arrived at power. it is the physiologic method, the method of the myopes who look at things one after the other, very exactly, and then describe them successively. the literature of imagination may be divided into two distinct schools, that of the myopes and that of the hyperopes. the myopes see minutely, study every line, finding each detail of importance because everything appears to them in isolation; about them is a sort of cloud in which is detached the object in exaggerated proportions. they have, as it were, a microscope in their eye which enlarges everything. the description of venice from the campanile of st. mark, that of destitution in 'captain fracasse,' by gautier are the capital results of myopic vision. the hyperopes, on the other hand, look at the _ensemble_, in which the details are lost, and form a kind of general harmony. the detail loses all significance, except perhaps they seek to bring it into relief as a work of art.... besides, the myopes seek to portray sensations, while the hyperopes especially aim at analysis of the sentiments. if a hyperopic writer suddenly becomes myopic, his manner of thinking, and consequently of writing, at once is modified. what i call the school of the myopes, gautier names the school of the rabids. he said to mérimée: 'your characters have no muscles,' and mérimée answered, 'yours have no draperies.'" but there is one consequence, common both to flaubert and to hearn, a most strange unity of result flowing from a seemingly opposed but really identical cause in the two men. i have elsewhere set forth the reasons for my belief that the secret of flaubert's life, character, and literary art consisted in an inability to think and write at the same time. he was one of the most healthy and brilliant of men when he did not read or write, but his mind refused to act creatively whenever he wrote or read. from this resulted his epilepsy. fathered by the fear of this disease, mothered by opium, and reared by unhygiene and eye-strain, came the miserable "st. anthony" of the second remaking. in the failure of this pitiful work there was naught left except bottomless pessimism, the "cadenced phrase," and all the rest, called "madame bovary" and "art for art's sake." there never was a greater sufferer from eye-strain than flaubert, whose eyes were strikingly beautiful, and seemingly of extraordinary perfection as optical instruments. from this fact flowed the entire tragedy of the man's life and of his life-work. his friend du camp says that had it not been for his disease he would have been, not a writer of great talent, but a man of genius. hearn had the most defective eyesight, he was indeed nearly blind; but physically he suffered little from this cause,--and yet his choice of subjects and methods of literary workmanship, and every line he wrote, were dictated and ruled by his defect of vision. opium, with the impossibility of writing and creating at the same time, dominated flaubert's work and working, and the similar result was begot by hearn's enormous monocular myopia. from martinique, before i had met him, hearn wrote me: i am very near-sighted, have lost one eye, which disfigures me considerably; and my near-sightedness always prevented the gratification of a natural _penchant_ for physical exercise. i am a good swimmer, that is all. in reply to nearly all the questions about my near-sightedness i might answer, "yes." i had the best advice in london, and observe all the rules you suggest. glasses strain the eye too much--part of retina is gone. the other eye was destroyed by a blow at college; or, rather, by inflammation consequent upon the blow. i can tell you more about myself when i see you, but the result will be more curious than pleasing. myopia is not aggravating. in "shadowings," the chapter on "nightmare-touch," hearn describes with his gift of the living word the dreams and hauntings he endured when as a boy he was shut in his room in the dark. it is a pitiful history, and shows how a child may suffer atrociously from the combination of an abnormally exuberant fancy and eye-strain, probably with added ocular disease. the subjective sensations and images were alive and hearn's innate tendency to the horrible and hideous gave them the most awful of nightmarish realities. i have already given (facing page ) a copy of a little photograph of hearn at about the age of eight, standing by mrs. brenane. it will be seen that the right eyeball was at this time about as large and protruding as in later life. this leaves a doubt whether the destruction of the left was due to the blow at college at the age of sixteen. in one of my letters he uses the word "scrofulous" in alluding to himself. it was not only during the last years of his life, that, as he says, "it was now largely a question of eyes." it was always the most important of all questions; first, physically and financially, because all hung upon his ability to write many hours a day. how his little of visual power was preserved under the work done is a marvel of physiology. so unconscious was hearn of the influence of eye-strain in ruining the health of others (he himself had no eye-strain in the ordinary meaning of the term) that he wonders why the hard students about him were inexplainably dying, going mad, getting sick, and giving up their studies. this is hardly to be considered a fault of hearn when educators and physicians and oculists the world over, never suspect the reason. moved by sympathy, and perhaps by the vaguest feeling that to hearn's poor vision were due, in part at least, both his personal and literary characteristics, i early besought him to make use of scientific optical helps in order to see the world better, and to carry on his writing with greater ease, and with less danger to the little vision left him. he had but one eye, which was evidently enormously nearsighted. the other had been lost in youth. i found that he had about diopters of myopia, to use the jargon of the oculist, and that consequently he knew little about the appearance of objects even a few feet away. in writing he was compelled to place the paper or pen-point about three inches from his eye. with the proper lens it was possible to give him vision of distant objects about one-fourth as clear as that of normal eyes. for a minute my disappointment was equal to my surprise when i found that he did not wish to see with even this wretched indistinctness, and that he would not think of using spectacles or eyeglasses. later i found the reason for his action. he sometimes carried a little lens or monocle in his pocket, which somewhat bettered his vision, but in the several months he spent with me i saw him use it only once or twice, and then merely for an instant. i am almost sure that the reason for this preference for a world almost unseen, or seen only in colours, while form and outline were almost unknown, was never conscious with hearn, although his mind was alert in detecting such psychologic solutions in others. in studying his writings, this reason finally has become clear to me. when one chooses an artistic calling, fate usually, and to the artist unconsciously, dictates the kind of art-work and the method of carrying it to realization. the blind do not choose to be painters, but musicians; the deaf do not think of music, though nothing prevents them from being good painters. the dumb would hardly become orators or singers, but they might easily be sculptors, or painters, or designers. it is as evident that the poet is largely a visualizer, if one may so designate this psychic function, and without sight of the world of reality and beauty, poetry will inevitably lack the charm of the real and the lovely. every great writer, in truth, shows more or less clearly that the spring and secret of his imagination lie preponderantly in the exceptional endowment, training, or sensitiveness of one of the principal senses of sight, hearing, or touch. a thousand quotations might be made from each of a dozen great writers to prove the thesis. the man born blind, however, cannot become a poet, because true poetry must be conditioned upon things seen--"simple, sensuous, and passionate" demands the great critic; but interwoven and underrunning the simplicity, the passion, and the sense, is and must be the world as mirrored by the eye. all thinking, all intellectual activity, is by no means of the image and the picture; all words are the product of the imagining, and the very letters of the alphabet are conventionalized pictures. physiologically, or normally, the perfection of the artist and of his workmanship thus depends upon the all-round perfection of his senses, the fulness of the materials and of his experience which these work on and in, and the logical and æsthetic rightness of systematization. conversely, a new pathology of genius is coming into view which shows the morbidizing of art and literature through disease, chiefly of the sense-organs of the artist and literary workman, but also by unnatural living, selfishness, sin, and the rest. as hearn was probably the most myopic literary man that has existed, his own thoughts upon _the artistic_ _value of myopia_ are of peculiar interest. in one of his editorials in the _times-democrat_ runs as follows:-- probably more than one reader, on coming to page of philip gilbert hamerton's delightful book, "landscape," was startled by the author's irrefutable statement that "the possession of very good eyesight may be a hindrance to those feelings of sublimity that exalt the poetic imagination." the fact is, that the impressiveness of natural scenery depends a great deal upon the apparent predominance of _mass_ over _detail_, to borrow mr. hamerton's own words; the more visible the details of a large object,--a mountain, a tower, a forest wall, the less grand and impressive that object. the more apparently uniform the mass, the larger it seems to loom; the vaguer a shadow-space, the deeper it appears. an impression of weirdness,--such as that obtainable in a louisiana or florida swamp-forest, or, much more, in those primeval and impenetrable forest-deeps described so powerfully by humbolt,--is stronger in proportion to the spectator's indifference to lesser detail. the real effect of the scene must be a _general_ one to be understood. in painting, the artist does not attempt miscroscopic _minutiæ_ in treating forest-forms; he simply attempts to render the effect of the masses, with their characteristic generalities of shadow and colour. it is for this reason the photograph can never supplant the painting--not even when the art of photographing natural colours shall have been discovered. mr. hamerton cites the example of a mountain, which always seems more imposing when wreathed in mists or half veiled by clouds, than when cutting sharply against the horizon with a strong light upon it. half the secret of doré's power as an illustrator was his exaggerated perception of this fact,--his comprehension of the artistic witchcraft of _suggestion_. and since the perception of details depends vastly upon the quality of eyesight, a landscape necessarily suggests less to the keen-sighted man than to the myope. the keener the view, the less depth in the impression produced. there is no possibility of mysterious attraction in wooded deeps or mountain recesses for the eye that, like the eye of the hawk, pierces shadow and can note the separate quiver of each leaf. far-seeing persons can, to a certain degree, comprehend this by recalling the impressions given in twilight by certain unfamiliar, or by even familiar objects,--such as furniture and clothing in a half-lighted room. the suggestiveness of form vanishes immediately upon the making of a strong light. again, attractive objects viewed vaguely through a morning or evening haze, or at a great distance, often totally lose artistic character when a telescope is directed upon them. in the february number of _harper's magazine_ we find a very clever and amusing poem by the scholarly andrew lang upon this very theme. the writer, after describing the christening-gifts of various kindly fairies, tells us that the wicked one-- --said: "i shall be avenged on you. my child, you shall grow up nearsighted!" with magic juices did she lave mine eyes, and wrought her wicked pleasure. well, of all the gifts the fairies gave, _her's_ is the present that i treasure! the bore, whom others fear and flee, i do not fear, i do not flee him; i pass him calm as calm can be; i do not cut--i do not see him! and with my feeble eyes and dim, where _you_ see patchy fields and fences, for me the mists of turner swim-- _my_ "azure distance" soon commences! nay, as i blink about the streets of this befogged and miry city, why, almost every girl one meets seems preternaturally pretty! "try spectacles," one's friends intone; "you'll see the world correctly through them." but i have visions of my own and not for worlds would i undo them! this is quite witty and quite consoling to myopes, even as a cynical development of philip gilbert hamerton's artistic philosophy. still, it does not follow that the myope necessarily possesses the poetic faculty or feeling;--neither does it imply that the presbyope necessarily lacks it. if among french writers, for example, gautier was notably nearsighted, victor hugo had an eye as keen as a bird's. it is true that a knowledge of the effect of shortsightedness on the imagination may be of benefit to a nearsighted man, who, possessing artistic qualities, can learn to take all possible advantage of his myopia,--to utilize his physical disability to a good purpose; but the longsighted artist need not be at a loss to find equally powerful sources of inspiration--he can seek them in morning mists, evening fogs, or those wonderful hazes of summer afternoons, when the land sends up all its vapours to the sun, like a smoke of gold. beaudelaire, in his _curiosités esthétiques_, made an attempt to prove that the greatest schools of painting were evolved among hazy surroundings--dutch fogs, venetian mists, and the vapours of italian marsh-lands. the evolutionary tendency would seem to indicate for future man a keener vision than he at present possesses; and a finer perception of colour--for while there may be certain small emotional advantages connected with myopia, it is a serious hindrance in practical life. what effect keener sight will have on the artistic powers of the future man, can only be imagined--but an increasing tendency to realism in art is certainly perceptible; and perhaps an interesting chapter could be written upon the possible results to art of perfected optical instruments. the subject also suggests another idea,--that the total inability of a certain class of highly educated persons to feel interest in a certain kind of art production may be partly accounted for by the possession of such keen visual perception as necessarily suppresses the sensation of breadth of effect, either in landscape or verbal description. thus, according to flaubert, the myope looks at things one after another and describes details, while hearn says the exact opposite. both are wrong. the oculist will feel constrained to differ somewhat from hearn in the foregoing article. in may he reviews editorially an article of my own which i had sent him during the preceding year. again, because there has never been a literary artist with a colour-sense so amazingly developed as that of hearn, i venture to copy his commendation of my views: colours and emotions (may , ) the evolutionary history of the colour-sense, very prettily treated of by grant allen and others, both in regard to the relation between fertilization of flowers by insects, and in regard to the æsthetic pleasure of man in contemplating certain colours, has also been considered in a very thorough way by american thinkers. perhaps the most entertaining and instructive paper yet published on the subject was one in the _american journal of ophthalmology_ last september. it has just been reprinted in pamphlet form, under the title of "the human colour-sense as the organic response to natural stimuli;" and contains a remarkable amplification of these theories, rather suggested than laid down by the author of "physiological Æsthetics." of course, the reader whom the subject can interest, comprehends that outside of the mind no such thing as colour exists; and that the phenomena of colours, like those of sound, are simply the results of exterior impressions upon nerve apparatus specially sensitive to vibrations--in the one case of ether, in the other of air. everybody, moreover,--even those totally ignorant of the physiology of the eye--know that certain colours are called primary or elementary. but it has probably occurred to few to ask why,--except in regard to mixing of paints in a drawing-school. the theories of gladstone and magnus that the men of the homeric era were colour-blind, because of the absence from the homeric poems of certain words expressive of certain colours, have been disproved by more thorough modern research. the primitive man's sense of colour, or the sensitiveness of his retina to ether vibrations, may not have been as fine as that of the roman mosaic-worker who could select his materials of , different tints, nor as that of gobelin weavers, who can recognize , different shades of wool. but the evidence goes to show that the sense of colour is old as the gnawing of hunger or the pangs of fear,--old as the experience that taught living creatures to discern food and to flee from danger. there is, however, reason to suppose, from certain developmental phenomena observed in the eyes of children and newly-born animals, that the present condition of the colour-sense has been gradually reached--not so much in any particular species, as in all species possessing it,--just as vision itself must have been gradually acquired. also showy colours must have been perceived before tints could be discerned; and even now we know through the spectroscope, that the human eye is not yet developed to the fullest possible perceptions of colour. now the first colours recognized by the first eyes must have presumably been just those we call primary,--yellow, red, green, blue. yellow, the colour of gold, is also the colour of our sun; the brightest daylight has a more or less faint tinge even at noon, according to the state of the atmosphere;--and this tinge deepens at sunrise and sunset. red is the colour of blood,--a colour allied necessarily from time immemorial with violent mental impressions, whether of war, or love, or the chase, or religious sacrifice. green itself is the colour of the world. blue,--the blue of the far away sky,--has necessarily always been for man the colour mysterious and holy,--always associated with those high phenomena of heaven which first inspired wonder and fear of the unknown. these colours were probably first known to intelligent life; and their impressions are to-day the strongest. so violent, indeed, have they become to our refined civilized sense, that in apparel or decoration three of them, at least, are condemned when offered pure. even the armies of the world are abandoning red uniforms;--no refined people wear flaming crimsons or scarlets or yellows;--nobody would paint a house or decorate a wall with a solid sheet of strong primary colour. blue is still the least violent, the most agreeable to the artistic sense; and in subdued form it holds a place, in costume and in art, refused to less spiritual colours. it might consequently be expected there should exist some correlation between the primary colours and the stronger emotional states of man. and such, indeed, proves to be the case. emotionally the colours come in the order of red, yellow, green, blue. red still appeals to the idea of passion,--for which very reason its artistic use is being more and more restrained. very curious are the researches made by grant allen showing the fact of the sensual use of the red. in swinburne's "poems and ballads "(the same suppressed work republished in this country under its first title, "laus veneris"), the red epithets appear times, while gold, green and blue words occur respectively , and times. in tennyson's beautiful poem, "the princess," the red words occur only times, the gold , the green , the blue once. with all his exquisite sense of colour, tennyson is sparing of adjectives;--there is no false skin to his work; it is solid muscle and bone. next to red, the most emotional colour is yellow--the colour of life, and of what men seem to prize next to life,--gold. we fancy we can live without green sometimes; it comes third; but it is the hue associated with all the labours of man on the earth, since he began to labour. it is the colour of industry. blue has always been, since man commenced to think, and always will be, until he shall have ceased to think,--associated with his spiritual sense,--his idea of many gods or of one,--his hopes of a second life, his faith, his good purposes, his perception of duty. still, all who pray, turn up their faces toward the eternal azure. and with the modern expansion of the idea of god, as with the modern expansion of the idea of the universe, the violet gulf of space ever seems more mystical,--its pure colour more and more divine, and appeals to us as the colour of the unknowable,--the colour of the holy of holies. that hearn wrote not from his own experience, out of his own heart, and with its blood, was due to the fact that life had denied him the needed experience; the personal materials, those that would interest the imaginative or imagining reader, did not exist. he must borrow, at first literally, which for him meant translation or retelling. the kind of things chosen was also dictated by the tragedy and pathos of his entire past life. but as if this pitiful tangling of the strands of destiny were not enough, fate added a knot of still more controlling misfortune. his adult life was passed without the poet's most necessary help of good vision. indeed he had such extremely poor vision that one might say it was only the merest fraction of the normal. a most hazy blur of colours was all he perceived of objects beyond a foot or two away. there was left for him the memory of a world of forms as seen in his childhood; but that fact throws into relief the fact that it was a memory. it needs little psychologic acumen to realize how inaccurate would be our memories of trees, landscapes, mountains, oceans, cities, and the rest, seen only thirty years ago. how unsatisfying, how unreliable, especially for artistic purposes, must such memories be! to be sure, these haunting and dim recollections were, or might have been, helped out a little by pictures and photographs studied at the distance of three inches from the eye. the pathos of this, however, is increased by the fact that hearn cared nothing for such photographs, etchings, engravings, etc. i never saw him look at one with attention or interest. paintings, water-colours, etc., were as useless to him as the natural views themselves. another way that he might have supplemented his infirmity was by means of his monocle, but he made little use of this poor device, because he instinctively recognized that it aided so meagrely. one cannot be sure how consciously he refused the help, or knew the reasons for his refusal. at best it could give him only a suggestion of the accurate knowledge which our eyes give us of distant objects, and not even his sensitive mind could know that it minimized the objects thus seen, and almost turned them into a caricaturing microscopic smallness, like that produced when we look through the large end of an opera-glass. what would we think of the world if we carried before our eyes an opera-glass thus inverted? would not a second's such use be as foolish as continuous use? there was an optical and sensible reason for his refusal. with the subtle wisdom of the unconscious he refused to see plainly, because his successful work, his unique function, lay in the requickening of ancient sorrows, and of lost, aimless and errant souls. he supplemented the deficiencies of vision with a vivid imagination, a perfect memory, and a perfection of touch which gave some sense of solidity and content, and by hearing, that echo-like emphasized unreality; but his world was essentially a two-dimensional one. to add the _comble_ to his ocular misfortunes, he had but one eye, and therefore he had no stereoscopic vision, and hence almost no perception of solidity, thickness, or content except such as was gained by the sense of touch, memory, judgment, etc. the little glimpse of stereoscopic qualities was made impossible by the fact of his enormous myopia, and further by the comparative blindness to objects beyond a few inches or a few feet away from the eye. the small ball becomes flat when brought sufficiently near the eye. practically the world beyond a few feet was not a three-dimensional one; it was coloured it is true, and bewilderingly so, but it was formless and flat, without much thickness or solidity, and almost without perspective.[ ] moreover, hearn's single eye was divergent, and more of the world to his left side was invisible to him than to other single-eyed persons. most noteworthy also is another fact,--the slowness of vision by a highly myopic eye. it takes it longer to see what it finally does see than in the case of other eyes. so all the movements of such a myopic person must be slow and careful, for he is in doubt about everything under foot, or even within reach of the hands. hearn's myopia produced his manners. [ ] i have gathered, but must omit, a hundred illuminating quotations from hearn's writings, illustrating the truth of the formlessness and non-objectivity of his world, and how colour dominated his poorly seen universe. intellect, one must repeat, is largely, almost entirely, the product of vision,--especially the æsthetic part of intellect. and intellect, it should not be forgotten, is "desiccated emotion"; which brings us up sharply before the question of the effect upon æsthetic and general feeling, upon the soft swirl and lift and flitting rush of the emotional nature, in a psyche so sensitive and aerial as that of hearn. in this rare ether one loses the significance of words, and the limitations of logic, but it may not be doubted that in the large, the summarized effect of thirty years of two-dimensional seeing and living, of a flat, formless, coloured world, upon the immeasurably quick, sensitive plate of hearn's mind, was--well, it was what it was! and who can describe that mind! clearly and patently, it was a mind without creative ability, spring, or the desire for it. it was a mind improcreant by inheritance and by education, by necessity and by training, by poverty internal and external. to enable its master to live, it must write, and, as was pitifully evident, if it could not write in obedience to a creative instinct, it must do the next best thing. this residual second was to describe the external world, or at least so much of the externals of all worlds, physical, biological, or social, as romance or common-sense demanded to make the writing vivid, accurate, and bodied. any good literature, especially the poetic, must be based on reality, must at least incidentally have its running obligato of reality. for the poet, again emphasized, vision is the intermediary, the broad, bright highway to facts. prosaically, local colour requires the local seer. barred from this divine roadway to and through the actual universe, the foiled mind of hearn could choose but one course: to regarment, transform, and colour the world, devised and transmitted by others, and reversing the old [greek: o logos sarx egeneto] rewrite the history of the soul as [greek: sarx o logos egeneto], for in hearn's alembic the solidest of flesh was "melted" and escaped in clouds of spirit; it was indeed often so disembodied and freed that one is lost in wonder at the mere vision of the cloudland so eerie, so silent, so void, so invisibly far, and fading ever still farther away. but, chained to the _here_ hearn could not march on the bright road. he could never even see the road, or its ending. if freed to go, _there_ became _here_ with the intolerable limitation of his vision, the peculiarity of his unvision. the world, the world of the _there_ must be brought to him, and in the bringing it became the _here_. in the process, distant motion or action became dead, silent, and immobile being; distance was transformed to presence, and an intimacy of presence which at one blow destroyed scene, setting, and illumination. for, except to passionate love, nearness and touch are not poetical or transfiguring, and to hearn love never could come; at least it never did come. except in boyhood he never, with any accuracy of expression or life, saw a human face; at the best, he saw faces only in the frozen photographs, and these interested him little. with creative instinct or ability denied, with the poet's craving for open-eyed knowing, and with the poet's necessity of realizing the world out there, hearn, baldly stated, was forced to become the poet of myopia. his groping mind was compelled to rest satisfied with the world of distance and reality transported by the magic carpet to the door of his imagination and fancy. there in a flash it was melted to formless spirit, recombined to soul, and given the semblance of a thin reincarnation, fashioned, refashioned, coloured, recoloured. there, lo! that incomparable wonder of art, the haunting, magical essence of reality, the quivering, elusive protean ghost of the tragedy of dead pain, the smile of a lost universe murmuring _non dolet_ while it dies struck by the hand of the beloved murderer. chapter x.--hearn's style "the 'lovers of the antique loveliness,'" wrote hearn, "are proving to me the future possibilities of a long-cherished dream--the english realization of a latin style, modelled upon foreign masters, and rendered even more forcible by that element of _strength_ which is the characteristic of the northern tongues." "i think that genius must have greater attributes than mere creative power to be called to the front rank,--the thing created must be beautiful; it does not satisfy if the material be rich. i cannot content myself with ores and rough jewels, etc." "it has long been my aim to create something in english fiction analogous to that warmth of colour and richness of imagery hitherto peculiar to latin literature. being of a meridional race myself, a greek, i _feel_ rather with the latin race than with the anglo-saxon; and trust that with time and study i may be able to create something different from the stone-grey and somewhat chilly style of latter-day english or american romance." "the volume, 'chinese ghosts,' is an attempt in the direction i hope to make triumph some day, _poetical prose_." "a man's style, when fully developed, is part of his personality. mine is being shaped to a particular end." hearn advised the use of the etymological dictionary in order to secure "that subtle sense of words to which much that _startles_ in poetry and prose is due." but although always remaining an artist in words, he, at his best, came to know that artistic technique in ideas is a more certain method of arousing and holding the readers' interest. he also strongly urges a knowledge of science as more necessary to the formation of a strong style. in this, however, he never practised what he commended, because he had no mind for science, nor knowledge of scientific things. he spoke with pride of writing the scientific editorials for his paper, but they were few and may quickly be ignored. flaubert was hearn's literary deity; the technique of the two men was identical, and consisted of infinite pains with data, in phrase-building, sentence-making, and word-choosing. with no writer was the filing of the line ever carried to higher perfection than with both master and pupil; fortunately the younger had to make his living by his pen, and therefore he could not wreck himself upon the impossible task as did flaubert. for nothing is more certain to ruin style and content, form as well as matter, than to make style and form the first consideration of a writer. flaubert, the fashion-maker and supreme example of this school, came at last to recognize this truth, and wished that he might buy up and destroy all copies of "madame bovary;" and he summed up the unattainableness of the ideal, as well as the resultant abysmal pessimism, when he said that "form is only an error of sense, and substance a fancy of your thought." his ever-repeated "art has no morality," "the moment a thing is true it is good," "style is an absolute method of seeing things," "the idea exists only by virtue of its form," etc., led flaubert and his thousand imitators into the quagmire which zola, wilde, shaw, and decadent journalism generally so admirably illustrate. that hearn escaped from the bog is due to several interesting reasons, the chief being his poverty, which compelled him to write much, and his audience, which, being anglo-saxon (and therefore properly and thoroughly cursed), would not buy the elegant pornography of flaubert and the gentlemen who succeeded, or did not succeed, in the perfection of the worship and of the works of the master of them all. and then hearn was himself at least part anglo-saxon, so that he shrank from perfection in the method. there is a pathetic proof of the lesson doubly repeated in the lives of both flaubert and hearn. "st. anthony" was rewritten three times, and each time the failures might be called, great, greater, greatest. there lies before me hearn's manuscript translation of the third revision of the work, in two large volumes, with a printed pamphlet of directions to the printer, an introduction, etc.,--a great labour assuredly on hearn's part. no publisher could be found to give it to the world of english readers![ ] moreover, there was never in his life any personal happiness, romance, poetry, or satisfaction which could serve as the material of hearn's æsthetic faculty. almost every hour of that life had been lived in physical or mental anguish, denied desire, crushed yearnings, and unguided waywardness. born of a greek mother, and a roving english father, his childhood was passed in an absurd french school where another might have become a dwarfed and potted chinese tree. flung upon the alien world of the united states in youth, without self-knowledge, experience, or self-guiding power, he drank for years all the bitter poisons of poverty, banality, and the rest, which may not shatter the moral and mental health of strong and coarse natures. by nature and necessity shy beyond belief, none may imagine the poignant sufferings he endured, and how from it all he writhed at last to manhood and self-consciousness, preserved a weird yet real beauty of soul, a morbid yet genuine artist-power, a child-like and childish, yet most involuted and mysterious heart, a supple and subtle, yet illogical and contentless intellect. [ ] particulars concerning the manuscript translation of "st. anthony" are given in the bibliography of miss stedman, hearn's "argument" of the book being reprinted in full. the most striking evidence of the pathetic and unmatched endowment and experience is that, while circumstance dictated that he should be a romancer, no facts in his own life could be used as his material. there had been no romance, no love, no happiness, no interesting personal data, upon which he could draw to give his imagination play, vividness, actuality, or even the semblance of reality. so sombre and tragic, moreover, had been his own living that the choice of his themes could only be of unhealthy, almost unnatural, import and colouring. he therefore chose to work over the imaginings of other writers, and perforce of morbid ones. a glance at his library confirms the opinion. when hearn left for japan, he turned over to me several hundred volumes which he had collected and did not wish to take with him. his most-prized books he had had especially rebound in dainty morocco covers, and these, particularly, point to the already established taste, the yearning for the strange, the weird, and the ghost-like, the gathered and pressed exotic flowers of folklore, the banalities and morbidities of writers with unleashed imaginations, the love of antique religions and peoples, the mysteries of mystics, the descriptions of savage life and rites--all mixed with dictionaries, handbooks, systems of philosophy, etc. under the conditioning factor of his taste, it is true that his choice, or his _flair_, was unique and inerrant. he tracked his game with fatal accuracy to its lair. his literary sense was perfect, when he set it in action, and this is his unique merit. there has never been a mind more infallibly sure to find the best in all literatures, the best of the kind he sought, and probably his translations of the stories from the french are as perfect as can be. his second published volume, the "stray leaves from strange literature," epitomizes and reillumines this first period of his literary workmanship. the material, the basis, is not his own; it is drawn from the fatal orient, and tells of love, jealousy, hate, bitter and burning vengeance, and death, sudden and awful. over it is the wondrous mystical glamour in which he, like his elder brother coleridge, was so expert in sunsetting these dead days and deathless themes. his next book, "some chinese ghosts," was a reillustration of the same searching, finding, and illuminating. flaubert's choice of subjects, as regards his essential character, was of the most extreme illogicality; his cadenced phrase and meticulous technique were also not the product of his character or of his freedom. in the land of nowhere, hearn was likewise compelled to reside, and it was necessarily a land of colour and echo, not one of form. the suffering frenchman emptied of inhabitants or deimpersonalized his alien country, while the more healthy anglo-saxon peopled it with ghosts. "have you ever experienced the historic shudder?" asked flaubert. "i seek to give your ghost a ghostly shudder," said hearn. flaubert wrote:-- "the artist should be in his work, like god in creation, invisible and all-powerful; he should be felt everywhere and seen nowhere. "art should be raised above personal affections and nervous susceptibilities. it is time to give it the perfection of the physical sciences by means of pitiless method." and hearn's first and most beloved "avatar," and his most serious "st. anthony"--works dealing with the mysteries and awesomeness of disembodied souls and ideals--"could not get themselves printed." moreover, in all that he afterwards published there are the haunting far-away, the soft concealing smile, and the unearthly memories of pain, the detached spirits of muted and transmuted dead emotions, and denied yearnings, the formless colourings of half-invisible and evanishing dreams. for with hearn's lack of creative ability, married to his inexperience of happiness, he could but choose the darksome, the tragical elements of life, the [greek: pathos] even of religion, as his themes. his intellect being a reflecting, or at least a recombining and colouring faculty, his datum must be sought without, and it must be brought to him; his joyless and even his tragic experience compelled him to cull from the mingled sad and bright only the pathetic or pessimistic subjects; his physical and optical imprisonment forbade that objectivation and distinctive embodiment which stamp an art work with the seal of reality, and make it stand there wholly non-excusing, or else offering itself as its own excuse for being. true art must have the warp of materiality, interwoven with the woof of life, or else the coloration and designs of the imagination cannot avail to dower it with immortality. working within the sad limits his fates had set, hearn performed wonders. none has made tragedy so soft and gentle, none has rendered suffering more beautiful, none has dissolved disappointment into such painless grief, none has blunted the hurt of mortality with such a delightful anæsthesia, and by none have death and hopelessness been more deftly figured in the guise of a desirable nirvâna. the doing of this was almost a unique doing, the manner of the [greek: poiêsis] was assuredly so, and constitutes hearn's claim to an artist's "for ever." he would have made no claim, it is true, to this, or to any other endless existence, but we who read would be too indiscriminating, would be losers, ingrates, if we did not cherish the lovely gift he brings to us so shyly. restricted and confined as was his garden, he grew in it exotic flowers of unearthly but imperishable beauty. one will not find elsewhere an equal craftsmanship in bringing into words and vision the intangible, the far, fine, illusive fancy, the ghosts of vanished hearts and hopes. under his magic touch unseen spirit almost reappears with the veiling of materiality, and behind the grim and grinning death's-head a supplanting smile of kindness invites pity, if not a friendly whisper. as to literary aim, hearn distinctly and repeatedly confessed to me that his ideal was, in his own words, to give his reader "a ghostly shudder," a sense of the closeness of the unseen about us, as if eyes we saw not were watching us, as if long-dead spirits and weird powers were haunting the very air about our ears, were sitting hid in our heart of hearts. it was a pleasing task to him to make us hear the moans and croonings of disincarnate griefs and old pulseless pains, begging piteously, but always softly, gently, for our love and comforting. but it should not be unrecognized that no allurement of his art can hide from view the deeper pathos of a horrid and iron fatalism which to his mind moved the worlds of nature or of life, throttled freedom, steeled the heart, iced the emotions, and dictated the essential automatism of our own being and of these sad dead millions which crowd the dimly seen dreams of hearn's mind. it may be added that, accepting the command of his destiny, hearn consciously formed an ideal to which he worked, and even laboured at the technique of its realization. i have talked with him upon these and similar subjects for many long hours, or got him to talk to me. the conversations were usually at night, beneath trees, with the moonlight shimmering through and giving that dim, mystic light which is not light, so well suited to such a poet and to his favourite subjects. as to technique, there was never an artist more patient and persistent than he to clothe his thought in its perfect garment of words. sometimes he would be able to write with comparative ease a large number of sheets (of _yellow_ paper--he could write on no other) in a day. at other times the words did not suit or fit, and he would rewrite a few pages scores of times. once i knew him to labour over six lines an entire day, and then stop weary and unsatisfied. i had to supply a large waste-basket and have often wished i had kept for comparison and a lesson in practical æsthetics the half-bushel or more of wasted sheets thrown away nearly every day. just as those outfitted with good eyes must find hearn's world too formless and too magnificently coloured, so normal civilized persons will find it altogether too sexually and sensually charged. whenever able to do so he turns a description to the ghostly, but even then _c'est toujours femme!_ a mountain is like a curved hip, a slender tree takes the form of a young girl budding into womanhood, etc. colour, too, is everywhere, even where it is not, seemingly, to our eyes, and even colour is often made sensual and sexual by some strange suggestion or allusion. viewing merit as the due of conscious, honourable, unselfish, and dutiful effort, hearn's sole merit rises from his heroic pursuit of an ideal of workmanship. like glorious bursts of illuminating sunshine through the fogs and clouds of a murky atmosphere shine such sentences as these:-- what you want, and what we all want, who possess devotion to any noble idea, who hide any artistic idol in a niche of our heart, is that independence which gives us at least the time to worship the holiness of beauty,--be it in harmonies of sound, of form, or of colour. what you say about the disinclination to work for years upon a theme for pure love's sake, without hope of reward, touches me,--because i have felt that despair so long and so often. and yet i believe that all the world's art-work--all that which is eternal--was thus wrought. and i also believe that no work made perfect for the pure love of art, can perish, save by strange and rare accident.... yet the hardest of all sacrifices for the artist is this sacrifice to art,--this trampling of self under foot! it is the supreme test for admittance into the ranks of the eternal priests. it is the bitter and fruitless sacrifice which the artist's soul is bound to make,--as in certain antique cities maidens were compelled to give their virginity to a god of stone! but without the sacrifice, can we hope for the grace of heaven? what is the reward? the consciousness of inspiration only! i think art gives a new faith. i think--all jesting aside--that could i create something i felt to be sublime, i should feel also that the unknowable had selected me for a mouthpiece, for a medium of utterance, in the holy cycling of its eternal purpose; and i should know the pride of the prophet that had seen god face to face. * * * * never to abandon the pursuit of an artistic vocation for any other occupation, however lucrative,--not even when she remained apparently deaf and blind to her worshippers. so long as one can live and pursue his natural vocation in art, it is a duty with him never to abandon it if he believes that he has within him the elements of final success. every time he labours at aught that is not of art, he robs the divinity of what belongs to her. and the greatest of our satisfactions with hearn's personality is that these were not mere words, but that he consistently, resolutely, and persistently practised his preaching. this was the only religion or ethics he had, and praise god, he had it! that alone binds us to him in any feeling of brotherhood, that only makes us grateful to him. style has been too frequently and too long confounded with content. there is the matter, the thing to be said, the story to be told; and quite apart from this there is the method of telling it, which, properly viewed, is style. so long as the teller of the tale has only borrowed his message or story from others, there cannot be raised much question of originality, or discussion of the datum, except in so far as pertains to the _choice_ of material. and so long as the stylist fingers etymological dictionaries for "startling words," so long will his style remain of the lower kind and etymologically unstylish. when the technique becomes unconscious and perfect, there is style, or the art, merged into the content, and then, _le style c'est l'homme_, or, as hearn translated it, style becomes the artist's personality. in the best japanese works hearn accomplished this, and with his consummate choice of material there was the consummate art-work. subject, method, cunning handiwork, psychologic analysis, generous and loyal sympathy, colour (not form)--all were fused to a unity almost beyond disassociation, and challenging admiration. but it is not beyond our perfect enjoying. it is true that hearn has ignored, necessarily and wisely ignored, the objective and material side of japanese existence. mechanics, nationalism, economy, the materialism of his material, had obviously to be untouched in his interpretation, or in his "interpretation." it would have been absurd for him to have attempted any presentation or valuable phasing of this important aspect. that for him was in a double sense _ultra vires_. such work will not want for experts. but what hearn has done was almost wholly impossible to any other. his personal heredity, history, and physiology, highly exceptional, seem to have conspired to outfit him for this remarkable task. there is still another reason, at first sight a contradicting one, for both hearn's fitness and his success in giving us a literary incarnation of the spirit or soul of japan in the subjective sense: to his readers it must have appeared an insoluble enigma why this superlatively subjective and psychical "sensitive" should have been such an unrecking, _outré_, and enthusiastic follower of herbert spencer's philosophy, or that part of it given in the "first principles." it is told of an english wit that when asked if he was willing to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, he promptly replied, "oh, yes, forty of them if you wish." hearn was similarly minded--minus the fun,--and most unphilosophically he went into utter captivity, seemingly, to the unphilosophic philosopher. and yet the spirit of spencer's "first principles" was in reality as different from that of hearn as was the spirit of st. francis from that, for instance, of cecil rhodes. the contradiction and ludicrousness of this mismating is so easy of explanation that the incongruity is missed. the forest is not seen because of the trees. hearn did not have true scientific instinct, animus, or ability. neither had herbert spencer--so far as his "first principles" is concerned, and as regards an improved inductive method as shown in the "psychology," "biology," etc., hearn, according to a letter, found he could not interest himself enough to read one of these later works. the clear and well-drilled scientific intellect admits that if spencer had not published his "first principles," but had gathered the facts of his later works before publishing an epitomizing last principles, the matter would have been as differently phased as night and day. spencer cared infinitely more for the systematization than he did for the facts systematized. reduced to its last analysis, the "first principles" was the reverse of a close induction from the facts of nature and life. it presented the glitter of generalization without the logic. the reverberating echoes of its illogic, sweeping sonorously over the universe with an indiscriminate ignoring of the world-wide difference between matter and life, caught the fancy of the imprisoned poet soul; he thoughtlessly yielded a homage which, from his standpoint, was unjustified, and which objectively was an unscrutinizing lip-service. subjectively spencerism gave hearn warrant for an inborn atheism and materialism which had been heightened immoderately by the bitter teachings of experience into a pessimism so horrid that one shuddered when looking into the man's soul depths. _morne_ was a favourite word with hearn, and spencer's was a fateful philosophy for one whose birth and education were desolation, and whose sight of the world was more than _morne_, was the abomination of desolation, was in truth the sheer awfulness of despair. blindness were vastly preferable to hearn's affliction, but if that splendid poet st. francis had been so cursed, his face and his soul would have been ecstatic with smiles, with joy, with faith, with hope, and with love. so strange is the unaccountable allotment of fate in her endowments, gifts, and orderings. there is and there can be no blame--only a pity wholly beyond expression. the aloofness, far-awayness, the inapproachable distance and detachment of hearn's spirit is one of the characteristics felt in reading his best pages. everything is infinitely beyond our senses. to him everything was distant: the near was far, the far was at infinity. he thus truly became the poet of the _au delà_. his voice, itself an echo, comes to us as from the hush of an eerie height above the beat and wreck of the waves of our noisy shore. his personality as revealed in his writings is an echo, a memory, almost the memory of a memory, the thrill of the day-dream of a soul retreating from sense. each day the quiet grew more still within his soul, more shrank the will beyond the jar of sense, serene, behind the hurt of world or ill, where sleep hushed silences unseen. he ever insists on a haunting glimpse of the pain and the renunciation of others, of wasted and long-dead faces and loves, always shrinking from our gaze, pallid in the darkling light of the setting moon, of vanishing loves, grievous story, forgotten myth, and ruined religion. and yet, and yet, all that works to make hearn immortal in literature is, at last, not art _per se_. one might quote freely showing that his "filing of the line," like that of flaubert, led to nothing, if the thought and feeling to be put into the lines were not there. they were not there with his masters, flaubert, gautier, maupassant, and others, and so these men will not inherit literary immortality. they had no soul, and only the soul, the spirit, can be immortalized. hearn's good fortune is that unconsciously, even almost against his will, he was more than they, more than an artist as such. he had something else to do. if it had not been for his poverty, the necessity to sell what he wrote, he would surely have gone the same road to avernus as his masters. then, too, he had no original message to write, because he had no real soul, only a borrowed one. japan gave him her soul to rematerialize and recolour with literary life. without his japanese work hearn would have died as _littérateur_ in the year he died as a physical body. to tell her "ghostly" stories was his great office and function. when these were told his work was done. his old gloating over the clotted villainies of mediæval horror had been much outgrown, and it had no chance to be used in japan. the japanese character would not tolerate such things. the ghastly was transformed into the ghostly, and his oriental fancy was luckily turned to better duties and pleasures. this more than flaubert was something not to be got from modern atheistic french "art for art's sake," nor from modern levantine nonentity of character. how marvellous is his sympathy with his subject, loyalty to his literary duty, and to his literary ideal! his despised irish father perhaps had slipped into the otherwise invisible and limp threads of his fates a little mesh of spiritual reality, which, dormant, unrecognized, and even scorned by him, came finally to give him all his valour and worth. he could dower the insubstantial sigh of a long dead soul or people with the wingéd word. it was a word of colour, only,--and colour has no objective existence,--the rainbow is not out there. and because it is spiritual, not objective, the most beautiful, if the most evanescent of all earthly things, is colour. the hearers of soundless music, and the lovers of "the light that never was on sea or shore" will understand what is meant. for them hearn really wrote: they are few, and scattered far, but hearn will magnificently multiply the number. his amazing merit is that while without the great qualities which make the greatest writers, he wrought such miracles of winning grace and persuading beauty. that he wrought against his will, and by the overcoming of a seemingly cruel fate, puts him almost outside of our personal gratitude. we take the gift from a divinity he did not recognize, one that used the rebellious hand and the almost blind eye as a writing instrument. the lover of the gruesome, the spencerian scientist, the man himself, must have wondered at the message when he came out from under the influence of the pitiless inspiration. one of hearn's dangers was discursiveness, or want of conciseness and intensity. "chita" showed it, and the west indian work lost in value because of it. it is the danger of all those writers who lack creative ability, and who depend upon "local colour," and "style" for their effect. the story's the thing, after all! in hearn's translations, and especially in "stray leaves," he for the moment caught the view of the value of the content, saw how the fact, dramatic, intense, and passionate is the all-desirable; the art of its presentation is the art of letting it flash forth upon the reader with few, apt, and flamelike words, which reveal and not conceal the life and soul of the act and of the actor. he tended to forget this. in "karma," besides, or rather by reason of, the moral,--his newly got psyche,--he returned to a reliance upon essentials, upon the datum of the spirit, and not upon its reflections, refractions, and chromatics. the beautiful spectrum was there refocused into white light, and the senses disappeared to reveal behind them the divinity of soul. that art-lesson was never forgotten by hearn, and his japanese work had a purity and a reality, a white heat, which make his previous stories and sketches seem pale and weak. questions of style and form sometimes run inevitably into those of content and of logic. essentially wanting the rigorous training of form, without the content and method of the scientific intellect, all hearn's work shows a lack of system, order, and subordination of parts. in any single one of the japanese volumes the absence of logic is lamentably evident. he constantly repeats himself, and the warp of some of his themes is worn threadbare. his most ambitious work, "japan," is, in truth, a regathering and a restatement in more objective style, of his previous imaginative studies. almost the only added thought concerns the difference between shintôism and ancestor-worship and the truism that japan is to-day ruthlessly sacrificing the life of the individual to that of the nation. the lack of scholarship and of the scientific animus (even in a field, folk-lore, more nearly his own than any other) comes to view in his mistake of supposing spencer an authority on the subject of the origin of religion, and in the blunder that assumed ancestor-worship to be original in japanese history and religion. ancestor-worship, according to griffis, knox, and other distinguished authorities, was unknown to the ancient writers of nippon and was imported from china. how threadbare--and yet how deftly, even charmingly concealed!--was the wearing of his favourite themes, is shown by hearn's fateful return to the gruesome, especially in the later books, "kott" and "kwaidan." these stories of the dead and of morbid necrophilism are witnesses of hearn's primitive interest in the ghastly, impossible to be renounced or sloughed, not to be replaced by desire for the supersensual, or by resolve to transform the loathsome into the ghostly. hearn should never have been seduced into the delusion that he could become the spokesman of any scientific animus, methods or results. erudition, logic, systematization, were to him impossible. his function was another and of a different nature, and his peculiar ability was for other tasks. if we are adequately to appreciate the exquisiteness of the earlier japanese works, we will forget the "japan, an interpretation." if we look upon hearn as a painter, almost the sole colour of his palette was mummy brown, the powdered flesh of the ancient dead holding in solution their griefs, their hopes, their loves, their yearnings, which he found to sink always to pulselessness, and to end in eternal defeat! but the pallor and sadness for the brief moment of their resuscitation was divinely softened and atoningly beautified. then they disappeared again in the waste and gloom from which love and poesy had evoked them. felled in the struggle and defeat of the eternal battle with death, the vegetation of untold ages long ago drifted to an amorphous stratum of indistinguishable millionfold corpses. compression, deferred combustion and over-shrouding transmuted and preserved it for a long-after-coming time, for our warming, lighting, and delighting. this has a perfect analogy in the history and use of tradition, myth, folk-lore, custom, and religion, those symbolic and concrete epitomes of man's long ancestral growths and strivings, those true black diamonds of humanity's experiences, its successes and failures, of its ideals and disappointments. hearn's artistry consisted in catching up these gems, these extinguished souls washed from a world of graves to the threshold of his miracle-working imagination, and in making them flush for an instant with the semblance of life. with what exquisite skill and grace he was able to concentrate upon them the soft light-rays of a fancy as subtle and beautifying as ever has been given to mortal! chapter xi.--summary and conclusion concerning hearn's outfitting of character by his parents little or nothing is known. it is of comparative unimportance because only a slight judicial familiarity with his works, especially those of the pre-japanese periods, demonstrates that so far as concerns substratum and substance of character he had neither. there was an interior void, an absence of psychic reality, which mocked his friends and which likewise baulked at true creativeness. he never made a plot or blew the breath of life into a character; his datum was always provided from without and by another. he was a reflector only,--plus a colourist--but a colourist of unrivalled excellence and power. form he knew not, had never seen, and that is also his second conditioning weakness as an artist. even much of his philosophy was to justify the sensualism, sensualisticism, pessimism, and godlessness which are early manifest. but it was a product taken over from another, a hastily devoured meal without mastication, digestion, or assimilation. the interior emptiness was pathetically emphasized by the fact of a contentless experience which also worked to deprive his mind of spontaneous originality. he never loved, except in one sorry way, never suffered much, never lived much, for he was a hard worker, and he was always seeking the ever-postponed, ever-unsatisfying paradise, so vainly hunted for, and which none ever finds except in himself. _ihm fehlt die liebe,_ was said of heine,--how much truer is it of hearn! conspiring with a native lack of originality and want of normal experience, his enormous near-sightedness made his choice of material and method of handling it what we know. if anything was "inherited," it was a pseudo-orientalism, a love of the monstrous and gruesome, an astonishing indifference to occidental history and its conclusions as to sexual and social laws, a spontaneous faith in faithlessness, a belief in irreligion, and an almost hopeless trend toward fatalism and its inevitable consequent, pessimism. improvidence, financial as well as moral, and disloyalty, to his friends as well as to his higher nature, were his life-long, crippling, and condemning sins. two mysteries seem almost inexplainable. we know why others had to give him his themes, and whence and how he became a mirror, or an echo; and we understand how the echoing became also wondrously, even exaggeratedly, but beautifully, coloured. we can almost see why he was foolishly and absurdly disloyal to personal friends, often treating worst those who were the most kind to him; best, those who were sometimes most cunningly selfish. we may explain his ridiculous _wanderlust_. but two attributes are beyond all analysis:--one was a thing illogical with his character, his cleaving to an ideal of literary workmanship at the cost of selfishness, friendships, and temporary success; and the other was his marvellous literary and psychologic sympathy with whatever mind, people, circumstance, story, or tradition, accident or choice brought before the echoing or mirroring mind. if it were faint, ghostly, and far away, he was a true thaumaturgist in loving it into life, and living it into love. this beautiful sympathy and literary loyalty made it possible for hearn to use the words of faith and of religion, even of morality, as if they were his own, while with them he had no personal sympathy whatever. for instance, he could speak, as if from his heart out, of "a million astral lamps lighted in the vast and violet dome of god's everlasting mosque." he could praise as a sublime exhortation the command, "o ye that are about to sleep, commend your souls to him who never sleeps!" it is, of course, true that in hearn's mind, doubtless, the poorest heathen or savage virtue was sublimely virtuous, and any barbaric vice had more of virtue in it than of viciousness. surely the most paltry oriental excellence was far lovelier to him than any occidental heroism or beauty, however splendid. we are thus helped to understand how his mind could seem to flush with religious or ethical enthusiasm, while the mosque of his real heart was only a chasm of gloomy negation or a chaos of hideous death. this was due to the fact that he had no constructive mind, and as only one kind of doing, writing, was possible to him, because of his near-sightedness, he must needs hate occidentalism, and exalt with a somewhat ludicrous praise the vapid, and even pitiful childishness of semi-barbaric orientalism. the illogicality reaches its acme when hearn, atheistic, disloyal, and unethical, was compelled, as in some of his japanese pages, to put a morality and a religion behind the acts and in the hearts of his characters, which with his and with their atheism, was, dramatically, so out of place that the incongruity would make us smile if it were not all done with such a sweet and haunting grace. the culmination of the contradictory trends is in "karma." to put it bluntly, hearn had no spark of practical sexual virtue, and yet praise one shall, marvel at one must, the literary and dramatic honour which could, as in "karma," so sympathetically describe the almost unscalable summits of virtue,--there where in holy silence, passion gazes with awe at her divine master, duty. a negative condition of this sympathy was the interior voidness of his character, the non-existence of reality within him, which thus allowed the positive loyalty to his subject free play; yet that which gave it leave to be, did not explain the genesis or quality of life of the being. but have a care! do not ask the interest in any one subject to last for more than a fleeting moment! early and always he possessed the rare, the wonderful gift of the instant, the iridescent, the wingéd word. at last was presented to him what he called a "soul," and that, in conjunction with his growth in artistic technique, in his handling of colours, and in procuring nobler data, helped to give the japanese work a content and an enduring substance which distinguishes it from that of all others. this atones for all the hurt that precedes, and it is a benefaction and a delight to the entire world. in reward literature will place upon his head one of her loveliest crowns. chapter xii.--appreciations and epitomes taken as a whole, the criticisms upon hearn's work are complimentary. he has his warm admirers, and some who are not so enthusiastic; but those who criticize adversely do so with a gentleness,--i may say, almost a reluctance that is perhaps the reflection of the spirit of his work. and whatever else these may offer, all agree that his writings have a unique charm. following are a few excerpts which should give an average of opinions:-- "one great secret of his success in interpreting the japanese mind and temperament lay in his patience in seeking out and studying minutely the little things of a people said to be great in such. as amenomori says of hearn's mind, it 'called forth life and poetry out of dust.'" ( .)[ ] [ ] the numbers refer to the corresponding items in the bibliography. "as an interpreter of the japanese heart, mind, hand and soul, mr. hearn has no superior. but he will not convert those who in health of body and mind love the landmarks of the best faith of the race. it is very hard to make fog and miasmatic exhalations, even when made partly luminous with rhetoric, attractive to the intellect that loves headlands and mountain-tops. the product of despair can never compete in robust minds with the product of faith." ( .) "sympathy and exquisiteness of touch are the characteristics of mr. hearn's genius. he is a chameleon, glowing with the hue of outer objects or of inward moods, or altogether iridescent. he becomes translucent and veined like a moth on a twig, or mottled as if with the protective golden browns of fallen leaves. we may not look for architectonic or even plastic powers. his is not the mind which constructs of inner necessity, which weaves plots and schemes, or thinks of its frame as it paints. he attempts no epic of history. the delver for sociologic or theologic spoil must seek deeper waters.... "in his later books the all-potent influence of japanese restraint seems to have refined and subdued his wonderful style to more perfect harmonies.... "his chapters are long or short as are his moods. there is little organic unity in them; no scientific aim or philosophic grasp rounds them into form. even his paragraphs have little cohesion. speaking of the forming of his sentences, he himself has compared it to the focussing of an image, each added word being like the turn of a delicate screw." ( .) "the secret of the charm that we feel to such a marked degree in mr. lafcadio hearn's volumes is that, in contrast to other writers, he does take the japanese very seriously indeed." ( .) "to the details of life and thought in japan mr. hearn's soul seems everywhere and at all times responsive. he catches in his eye and on his pen minute motes scarcely noticeable by the keen natives themselves." ( .) "he has written nothing on japan equal in length to his tales of west indian life. but while we deplore this reserve of a writer who possesses every quality of style, except humour, we have reason to be grateful for whatever he gives us." ( .) "the matchless prose and the sympathy of mr. hearn." ( .) "mr. hearn has the sympathetic temperament, the minute mental vision, the subdued style peculiar to all that is good in japanese art and literature, needed for the accomplishment of a labour which to him has been a labour of love indeed. here we have no mawkish sentimentality, no excessive laudation, on the one hand; on the other, no occidental harshness, no occidental ignorance of the sweet mystery of eastern ways of life and modes of thought. what this most charming of writers on far eastern subjects has seen all may see, but only those can understand who are endowed with a like faculty of perception of unobtrusive beauty, and a like power, it must be added, of patient and prolonged study of common appearances and everyday events." ( .) "a man has just died, intelligent and generous, who had succeeded in reconciling in his heart, the clear, rational ideas of the west together with the obscure deep sense of extreme--asia: lafcadio hearn. in the hospitality of his recipient soul, high european civilization and high japanese civilization found a meeting-place; harmonized; completed, one in the other.... "in english-speaking countries, especially in the united states, lafcadio hearn already enjoys a just reputation. the lovers of the exotic, esteem him as equal to kipling or stevenson. in france, the _revue de paris_ has begun to make him known, by publishing some of his best articles, elegantly and faithfully translated. his budding fame is destined to increase, as europe takes a greater interest in the arts and the thoughts of the extreme-orient. his prose, exact and harmonious, will be admired as one of the finest since ruskin wrote: his very personal style, at the same time subtle and powerful, will be noted: he will be especially admired for his delicate and profound intelligence of that japanese civilization which, to us, remains so mysterious. what characterizes the talent of lafcadio hearn, that which gives it its precious originality, is the rare mixture of scientific precision and idealistic enthusiasm: his work might justly be entitled truth and poesy: 'in reading these essays,' says one of our best existing japanese scholars, professor chamberlain, 'one feels the truth of richard wagner's statement: "_alles verständniss kommt uns nur durch die liebe._" (all understanding comes to us only through love.) if lafcadio hearn understands japan best, and makes it better understood than any other writer, it is because he loves it best.' "lafcadio hearn describes with intelligence, with love all aspects of japanese life: nature and inhabitants; landscapes, animals and flowers; material life and life moral; classic art and popular literature; philosophies, religions and superstitions. he awakens in us an exquisite feeling of old aristocratic and feudal japan: he explains to us the prodigious revolution that modern japan has created in thirty years.... "hearn has consecrated to the study of japanese art some of his most curious psychological analyses. "lafcadio hearn takes a deep interest in the religious life of the japanese. he studies with the minutest exactness the ancient customs of shintôism, high moral precepts of buddhism, and also the popular superstitions that hold on, for instance, to the worship of foxes, and to the idea of pre-existence." ( .) "to a certain large class of his adopted countrymen, his hatred of christianity, which was pronounced long before he went to japan, and his fondness for oriental cults of all kinds, was recommendation. but it is still an open question whether he did harm or good to the japanese by his advocacy of their superstitions.... "hearn's books are little known to the multitude. but they are familiar to an influential class the world over. in him japan has lost a powerful and flattering advocate, and the english world one of its masters in style." ( .) "mr. hearn was not a philosopher or a judicial student of life. he was a gifted, born impressionist, with a style resembling that of the french pierre loti. his stories and descriptions are delicate or gorgeous word pictures of the subtler and more elusive qualities of oriental life." ( .) "his art is the power of suggestion through perfect restraint.... he stands and proclaims his mysteries at the meeting of three ways. to the religious instinct of india,--buddhism in particular,--which history has engrafted on the æsthetic sense of japan, mr. hearn brings the interpreting spirit of occidental science; and these three traditions are fused by the peculiar sympathies of his mind into one rich and novel compound.... in these essays and tales, whose substance is so strangely mingled together out of the austere dreams of india and the subtle beauty of japan and the relentless science of europe, i read vaguely of many things which hitherto were quite dark." ( .) "he brings to the study of all aspects of japanese life, intelligence, and love; he also sets sail in his descriptions and analyses towards a general theory on life; he is a japanizing psychologist: he is also a philosopher.... "at all events, lafcadio hearn has the merit of recalling powerfully to the europeans of europe the importance, often misunderstood, of eastern civilization. no one better than this japanizing enthusiast to make us feel what there is of narrowness in our habitual conception of the world, in our individualistic literature, misunderstanding too much the influence of the past in our anthropocentric art, neglecting nature too often, penetrated too 'singly' in our classic philosophy with greco-latin and christian influences. 'till now,' says lafcadio hearn very forcibly, 'having lived only in one hemisphere, we have thought but half thoughts.' we should enlarge our hearts and our minds by taking into our circle of culture, all the art and all the thought of the extreme east. "from the philosophical view-point, lafcadio hearn has the merit of calling attention to the high value of shintôism, and above all of buddhism. his work deserves to exercise an influence on the religious ideas of the west. if religion can no longer occupy any place in the intellectual life of humanity, more and more invaded by science, she can subsist a long time yet, perhaps always, in her sentimental life." ( .) "for that rôle [as interpreter of japan] he was eminently unfitted both by temperament and training. indeed he was not slow to recognize his lack of the judicial faculty, and on one occasion acknowledged that he is a 'creature of extremes.' ... but hearn often succeeds in reaching the heart of things by his faculty of sympathy, in virtue of which alone his books deserve perusal; when he fails it is because of a lack of the unimpassioned judicial faculty, a tendency to subordinate reason to feeling, an inclination to place sympathy in the position of judge rather than guide." ( .) "lafcadio hearn not only buried himself in the japanese world, but gave his ashes to the soil so often devastated by earthquake, typhoon, tidal wave and famine, but ever fertile in blooms of fancy which lies under the river of heaven. the air of nippon, poor in ozone, is overpopulated by goblins. no writer has ever excelled this child of greece and ireland in interpreting the weird fancies of peasant and poet in the land of bamboo and cherry flowers.... hearn's life seemed crushed under 'the horror of infinite possibility.' hence perhaps the weird fascination of his work and style." ( .) epitomes avatar ( ).--it was during the cincinnati period that hearn made this--his first translation from the french. writing of it in , he says:-- i have a project on foot--to issue a series of translations of archæological and artistic french romance--flaubert's "tentation de saint-antoine"; de nerval's "voyage en orient"; gautier's "avatar"; loti's most extraordinary african and polynesian novels; and beaudelaire's "petits poemes en prose." but three years later, he writes:-- the work of gautier cited by you--"avatar"--was my first translation from the french. i never could find a publisher for it, however, and threw the ms. away at last in disgust. it is certainly a wonderful story; but the self-styled anglo-saxon has so much--prudery that even this innocent phantasy seems to shock his sense of the "proper." la tentation de saint-antoine ( ) was probably translated at about the same time. hearn failed to find a publisher who would take it, but the manuscript is still in my possession. hearn's own complete _scenario_, together with a description of the manuscript, is given on another page. i quote from hearn about this work:-- the original is certainly one of the most exotically strange pieces of writing in any language, and weird beyond description. of his own translation, he writes:-- the work is audacious in parts; but i think nothing ought to be suppressed. that serpent-scene, the crucified lions, the breaking of the chair of gold, the hideous battles about carthage,--these pages contain pictures that ought not to remain entombed in a foreign museum. the winter of , the year hearn arrived in new orleans, he corresponded with the cincinnati _commercial_ under the name of "ozias midwinter" ( ). excerpts from this series of letters are given in the chapter, "the new orleans period." one of cleopatra's nights ( ) was the first book to be published. the translations were made during the latter part of the cincinnati period, but the volume did not appear until some years later, while hearn was in new orleans. it was prepared at the hour when his craving for the exotic and weird was at its height. from the opening word to the last the six stories are one long dionysian revel of an arabian night's dream, and within their pages it is not difficult to feel that "one is truly dead only when one is no longer loved." what an exotic group of names it is:--cleopatra, "she that made the whole world's bale and bliss;" clarimonde, "who was famed in her lifetime as the fairest of women;" arria marcella; the princess hermonthis; omphale; and the one "fairer than all daughters of men, lovelier than all fantasies realized in stone"--nyssia. it is a tapestry woven of the lights and jewels and passion of an antique world. "you will find in gautier," hearn writes, "a perfection of melody, a warmth of word colouring, a voluptuous delicacy;" "gautier could create mosaics of word jewellery without equals." hearn's "pet stories" are "clarimonde" and "arria marcella." is it strange that he should delight in these beautiful vampires? in this work, and in the tales to follow, we already perceive that colour is to become a sort of a fetich to be worshipped. here in the studio of another artist, he serves his first apprenticeship, and from the highly toned palette of gautier he learns how to mix and lay on the colours that he himself is later to use so richly. in speaking of this book, a critic says:-- "his learning and his inspiration were wholly french in these productions, as also in what was his first and in some ways his best book, "one of cleopatra's nights," and other tales translated from théophile gautier. while hearn was faithful to his original, he also improved upon it, and many a scholar who knows both french and english has confessed under the rose that gautier is outdone." ( .) of his work, hearn writes:-- you asked me about gautier. i have read and possess nearly all his works; and before i was really mature enough for such an undertaking i translated his six most remarkable short stories. the work contains, i regret to say, several shocking errors, and the publishers refused me the right to correct the plates. the book remains one of the sins of my literary youth, but i am sure my judgment of the value of the stories was correct. while preparing his next book, hearn published in the _century_, "the scenes of cable's romances" ( ). in this article he vivifies the quarters and dwellings that mr. cable in his delightful stories had already made famous. the first muezzin, bilÂl ( ), was written in the fall of , during the new orleans period. it is a beautiful, serious piece of work, and is written with the fine, sonorous quality that such a theme should inspire. that it was a labour of love is shown in hearn's letters written at its inception to mr. krehbiel, who was an invaluable aid to him in compiling its musical part. "bilâl" was probably published finally in the _times-democrat_, after being refused by _harper's_, the _century_, and some others. the traveller slumbering for the first time within the walls of an oriental city, and in the vicinity of a minaret, can scarcely fail to be impressed by the solemn beauty of the mohammedan call to prayer. if he have worthily prepared himself, by the study of book and of languages, for the experiences of eastern travel, he will probably have learned by heart the words of the sacred summons, and will recognize their syllables in the sonorous chant of the muezzin,--while the rose-coloured light of an egyptian or syrian dawn expands its flush to the stars. four times more will he hear that voice ere morning again illuminates the east:--under the white blaze of noon; at the sunset hour, when the west is fervid with incandescent gold and vermilion; in the long after-glow of orange and emerald fires; and, still later, when a million astral lamps have been lighted in the vast and violet dome of god's everlasting mosque. in four parts hearn tells the history of bilâl, who was an african black, an abyssinian,--famed for his fortitude as a confessor, for his zeal in the faith of the prophet, and for the marvellous melody of his voice, whose echoes have been caught up and prolonged and multiplied by all the muezzins of islam, through the passing of more than twelve hundred years.... and the words chanted by all the muezzins of the moslem world,--whether from the barbaric brick structures which rise above "the tunis of the desert," or from the fairy minarets of the exquisite mosque at agra,--are the words first sung by the mighty voice of bilâl. bilâl was the son of an abyssinian slave-girl, and himself began life as a slave. the first preaching of mahomet had deep effect upon the slaves of mecca, and bilâl was perhaps the earliest of these to become a convert. even under the tortures of the persecutors, he could not be made to apostatize--always he would answer, "_ahad! ahad_:" "_one_, one only god!" abu bekr, the bosom friend of the great prophet, observing bilâl, bought him, and set him free. then bilâl became the devoted servant of mahomet; and, in fulfilment of a dream, he was made the first muezzin to sound the _adzân_, the call to prayer. god is great! god is great! i bear witness there is no other god but god! i bear witness that mahomet is the prophet of god! come unto prayer! come unto salvation! god is great! there is no other god but god! * * * * * after the death of mahomet, bilâl ceased to sing the _adzân_:--the voice that had summoned the prophet of god to the house of prayer ought not, he piously fancied, to be heard after the departure of his master. yet, in his syrian home, how often must he have prayed to chant the words as he first chanted them from the starlit housetop in the holy city, and how often compelled to deny the petitions of those who revered him as a saint and would perhaps have sacrificed all their goods to have heard him but once lift up his voice in musical prayer!... but when omar visited damascus the chiefs of the people besought him that, as commander of the faithful, he should ask bilâl to sing the call in honour of the event; and the old man consented to do so for the last time.... to hear bilâl must have seemed to many as sacred a privilege as to have heard the voice of the prophet himself,--the proudest episode of a lifetime,--the one incident of all others to be related in long afteryears to children and to grandchildren. some there may have been whom the occasion inspired with feelings no loftier than curiosity; but the large majority of those who thronged to listen in silent expectancy for the _allah-hu-akbar!_ must have experienced emotions too deep to be ever forgotten. the records of the event, at least, fully justify this belief;--for when, after moments of tremulous waiting, the grand voice of the aged african rolled out amid the hush,--with the old beloved words,--the old familiar tones, still deep and clean,--omar and all those about him wept aloud, and tears streamed down every warrior-face, and the last long notes of the chant were lost in a tempest of sobbing. stray leaves from strange literature[ ] (i) is the second book. it was written also during the period in new orleans, many of the stories first appearing in the _times-democrat_, and the little volume is dedicated to its editor--mr. page m. baker. [ ] copyright, , by james r. osgood and company. these tales, as hearn tells us in his preface, are "reconstructions of what impressed me as most fantastically beautiful in the most exotic literature which i was able to obtain." in a letter he writes, "the language of 'stray leaves' is all my own, with the exception of the italic texts and a few pages translated from the 'kalewala.'" the tapestry he is weaving is of the same crimson threads as that of the earlier tales, but the colours of sunset are softening to the gentler hues of the after-glow, and interwoven sometimes are strands of pure moonlight. we read of the great book of thoth which contains a formula whosoever could recite might never know death, and we learn how the cunning magician noferkephtah obtained the book, which caused the wrath of the gods to fall upon him; later, how satni, of whom "there was not in all egypt so wise a scribe," yearned for the book, and took it from the tomb of noferkephtah, and of the magic wrought and the penance done. there is the exquisite tale of the fountain maiden, whom aki caught in his own fish-net, and whom he grew to love more than his own life. the story lingers of the sea-bird which fell into the hunter's hand, and when he looked more closely he found it had become transformed into a beautiful girl, "slender ... like a young moon," and pity rose in the hunter's heart, and then love. one day, when their children had become strong and swift, and while they were all hunting together, the bird-wife called to the little ones to gather feathers: then she covered their arms and her own shoulders with the feathers, and far away they flew. passing onward, we read of tilottama, and that by reason of her beauty "the great gods once became multiple-faced and myriad-eyed"; and that this beauty brought punishment to the wicked sounda and oupasounda. there is bakawali, for "whose history of love, human and superhuman, a parallel may not be found." for her great love of the mortal youth taj-ulmuluk each night she sacrificed herself to the fiercest purification of fire. and then to appease the gods, she suffered herself to be turned for ten long years into marble from her waist to her feet. her lover ministered to her and watched by her side through the terrible years until she was reincarnated for him. then we see the statue of natalika, who avenged the death of her people. and who shall answer the riddle of the corpse demon? and which one may not profit by the wisdom of the youth who knew nothing of science? perhaps our hearts stir with a soft regret for the atonement of pundari. and so we wander through a maze of colour and of magic, tarrying to listen to the voice of kalewala, for-- as he sang the fair sun paused in her course to hear him; the golden moon stopped in her path to listen; the awful billows of the sea stood still; the icy rivers that devour the pines, that swallow up the firs, ceased to rage; the mighty cataracts hung motionless above their abysses; the waves of juortana lifted high their heads to hear. "slender she was as the tulip upon its stalk, and in walking her feet seemed kisses pressed upon the ground. but hadst thou beheld her face unveiled, and the whiteness of her teeth between her brown lips when she smiled!" alas, she was a good christian maiden and he a good mussulman, and so in this legend of love each loyal heart dies pronouncing the faith of the other, lest they should not meet at the day of judgment. as we draw near the last figures on the tapestry, we find those two tender pictures of which hearn himself speaks: "your preference for boutimar pleases me: boutimar was my pet. there is a little jewish legend in the collection--esther--somewhat resembling it in pathos." these stories afford a glimpse into that gentle heart, which was later to respond to the exquisite faiths and loyalties of the japanese. now the creator sent unto solomon a cup which contained some of the waters of youth and of life without end. and solomon was asked: "wilt thou drink hereof and live divinely immortal through ages everlasting, or wilt thou rather remain within the prison of humanity?" and solomon dreamed upon these words; and he assembled in council a representative of all those over whom he held dominion. then solomon asked boutimar, the wild dove, most loving of all living creatures, whether he should drink of the magic waters, and thus learn the bliss of earthly immortality. when boutimar, the wild dove, learned that the cup held only enough water for one person, he made answer in the language of birds:-- "o prophet of god! how couldst thou desire to be living alone, when each of thy friends and of thy counsellors and of thy children and of thy servants and of all who loved thee were counted with the dead? for all of these must surely drink the bitter waters of death, though thou shouldst drink the water of life. wherefore desire everlasting youth, when the face of the world itself shall be wrinkled with age, and the eyes of the stars shall be closed by the black fingers of azrael? when the love thou hast sung of shall have passed away like a smoke of frankincense, when the dust of the heart that beat against thine own shall have long been scattered by the four winds of heaven, when the eyes that looked for thy coming shall have become a memory, when the voices grateful to thine ear shall have been eternally stilled, when thy life shall be one oasis in a universal waste of death, and thine eternal existence but a recognition of eternal absence,--wilt thou indeed care to live, though the wild dove perish when its mate cometh not?" and solomon, without reply, silently put out his arm and gave back the cup.... but upon the prophet-king's rich beard, besprinkled with powder of gold, there appeared another glitter as of clear dew,--the diamond dew of the heart, which is tears. esther, whose comeliness surpassed even that of sarah, and her rich husband had lived together ten years, but there was no happiness in the soul of the good man, for "the sound of a child's voice had never made sunshine within his heart." so esther and her husband sorrowed bitterly. and they brought the burden of their grief to rabbi simon ben yochai, and when they had told him, a silence as of the shechinah came upon the three, only the eyes of the rabbi seemed to smile. and it was agreed that the twain should part; thus the israelite could be known as a father in israel. a feast then was laid at the house, and before all the guests her husband spoke lovingly to esther, and in token of his affection and his grief bade her to take from the house "whatever thou desirest, whether it be gold or jewels beyond price." and the wine was passed, and the people made merry, and finally a deep sleep fell upon them all. then esther gave command that her husband sleeping should be carried to her father's house. in the morning her husband awakened, and confused he cried out, "woman, what hast thou done?" then, sweeter than the voice of doves among the fig-trees, came the voice of esther: "didst thou not bid me, husband, that i should choose and take away from thy house whatsoever i most desired? and i have chosen thee, and have brought thee hither, to my father's home ... loving thee more than all else in the world. wilt thou drive me from thee now?" and he could not see her face for tears of love; yet he heard her voice speaking on,--speaking the golden words of ruth, which are so old yet so young to the hearts of all that love: "whithersoever thou shalt go, i will also go; and whithersoever thou shalt dwell, i also will dwell. and the angel of death only may part us; for thou art all in all to me." ... and in the golden sunlight at the doorway suddenly stood, like a statue of babylonian silver, the grand grey figure of rabbi simon ben yochai, lifting his hands in benediction. "_schmah israel!_--the lord our god, who is one, bless ye with everlasting benediction! may your hearts be welded by love, as gold with gold by the cunning of goldsmiths! may the lord, who coupleth and setteth thee single in families, watch over ye! the lord make this valiant woman even as rachel and as lia, who built up the house of israel! and ye shall behold your children and your children's children in the house of the lord!" even so the lord blessed them; and esther became as the fruitful vine, and they saw their children's children in israel. forasmuch as it is written: "he will regard the prayer of the destitute." gombo zhÈbes[ ]( ) followed in the new orleans period. it is a compilation of proverbs selected from six dialects. according to the indexes, there are in the creole of french guyana; in the creole of hayti; in the creole of new orleans, louisiana; in the creole of martinique; in the creole of mauritius; in the creole of trinidad. most of the proverbs are similar to our own, but are translated into the simple homely language of the creole, reflecting its mode of thought. the same proverb often appears in the different dialects. although a proverb is of european origin, "the character of creole folk-lore is very different from european folk-lore in the matter of superstition." many proverbs are direct from the african. those in the creole of hayti are generally rough and coarse. the most popular subjects are, pot or kettle, rain, serpent or snake, of which there are six of each; devil, eggs, belly, horse, mothers, tail, of these there are seven of each; chicken, children, ox have eight of each; cat has nine; goat has eleven; talking has sixteen; monkey has seventeen; fine clothes has only four, idleness has five, and marriage has six. [ ] copyright, , by will h. coleman. hearn speaks of this book as a dictionary of proverbs. he made an extensive study of the subject and in later researches found it most helpful. "i have," he says, "quite a creole library embracing the creole dialects of both hemispheres." following are a selection of the proverbs chosen from the different dialects:-- no. . _bel tignon pas fait bel négresse. (le beau tignon ne fait pas la belle négresse.)_ "it isn't the fine head-dress that makes the fine negress." (_louisiana._) _tignon_ or _tiyon_, the true creole word, "is the famously picturesque handkerchief which in old days all slave-women twisted about their heads." no. . _Ça qui boudé manze boudin. (celui qui boude mange du boudin.)_ "he who sulks eats his own belly." that is to say, spites himself. the pun is untranslatable. (_mauritius_.) _boudin_ in french signifies a pudding, in creole it also signifies the belly. thus there is a double pun in the patois. no. . _quand diabe alle lamesse li caciétte so laquée. (quand le diable va à la messe, il cache sa queue.)_ "when the devil goes to mass he hides his tail." (_mauritius._) no. . _zozo paillenqui crié là-haut, coudevent vini. (le paille-en-cul crie la-haut, le coup de vent vient.)_ "when the tropic-bird screams overhead, a storm-wind is coming." (_mauritius._) no. . _quand milatt tini yon vié chouvral yo dit nègress pas manman yo. (quand les mulâtres ont un vieux cheval ils disent que les négresses ne sont pas leur mères.)_ "as soon as a mulatto is able to own an old horse, he will tell you that his mother wasn't a nigger." (_martinique._) no. . _toutt milett ni grand zaureilles. (tout les mulets ont des grandes oreilles.)_ "all mules have big ears." equivalent to our proverb: "birds of a feather flock together." (_martinique._) no. . _si coulev oûlé viv, li pas pronminée grand-chemin. (si la couleuvre veut vivre, elle ne se promène pas dans le grand chemin.)_ "if the snake cares to live, it doesn't journey upon the high-road." (_guyana._) no. . _si coulève pas té fonté, femmes sé pouend li fair ribans jipes. (si la couleuvre n'était pas effrontée les femmes la prendraient pour en faire des rubans de jupes.)_ "if the snake wasn't spunky, women would use it for petticoat strings." (_trinidad._) no. . _complot plis fort passé ouanga.[ ] (le complot est plus fort que l'ouanga.)_ "conspiracy is stronger than witchcraft." (_hayti._) [ ] _di moin si to gagnin homme! mo va fé ouanga pouli; mo fé li tourné fantôme si to vlé mo to mari...._ "tell me if thou hast a man (a lover) i will make a _ouanga_ for him--i will change him into a ghost if thou wilt have me for thy husband." this word, of african origin, is applied to all things connected with the voudooism of the negroes. in the song, "_dipi mo voué, toué adèle_," from which the above lines are taken, the wooer threatens to get rid of a rival by _ouanga_--to "turn him into a ghost." the victims of voudooism are said to have gradually withered away, probably through the influence of secret poison. the word _grigri_, also of african origin, simply refers to a charm, which may be used for an innocent or innocuous purpose. thus, in a louisiana creole song, we find a quadroon mother promising her daughter a charm to prevent the white lover from forsaking her: "_pou tchombé li na fé grigri._" "we shall make a _grigri_ to keep him." simultaneously with the publication of "gombo zhèbes," hearn contributed a series of articles[ ] to _harper's weekly._ ( - , , .) these papers, which are commonplace newspaper work, tell of new orleans, its expositions, its superstitions, voudooism, and the creole patois. he feels that the creole tongue must go, but while there is still time, he hopes that some one will rescue its dying legends and curious lyrics. [ ] copyright, , , , by harper and brothers. the unedited creole literature comprises songs, satires in rhymes, proverbs, fairy-tales--almost everything commonly included under the term folk-lore. the lyrical portion of it is opulent in oddities, in melancholy beauties. there are few of the younger generation of creoles who do not converse in the french and english languages. creole is the speech of motherhood, and "there is a strange naïve sorrow in their burdens as of children sobbing for lonesomeness in the night." there is an interesting account of jean montanet, "voudoo john"--the last of the voudoos. he was said to be a son of a prince of senegal. from a ship's cook he rose to own large estates. while he was a cotton-roller, it was noticed that he seemed to have some peculiar occult influence over the negroes under him. voudoo john had the mysterious _obi_ power. soon realizing his power, he commenced to tell fortunes, and thousands and thousands of people, white and black, flocked to him. then he bought a house and began as well to practise creole medicine. he could give receipts for everything and anything, and many a veiled lady stopped at his door. once jean received a fee of $ for a potion. "it was water," he said to a creole confidant, "with some common herbs boiled in it. i hurt nobody, but if folks want to give me fifty dollars, i take the fifty dollars every time!" it is said that jean became worth at least $ , . he had his horses and carriages, his fifteen wives, whom he considered, one and all, legitimate spouses. he was charitable too. but he did not know what to do with his money. gradually, in one way or another, it was stolen from him, until at the last, with nothing left but his african shells, his elephant's tusk, and the sewing-machine upon which he used to tell fortunes even in his days of riches, he had to seek hospitality of his children. hearn devotes several columns to voudooism, telling of its witchcrafts and charms and fetiches which work for evil, and also of the superstitions regarding the common occurrences of daily life. in a paper on mexican feather-work at the new orleans exposition, there is this paragraph which presages his later descriptions:-- as i write, the memory of a mexican landscape scene in feather-work is especially vivid--a vast expanse of opulent wheat-fields, whereof the blonde immensity brightens or deepens its tint with the tremor of summer winds; distance makes violet the hills; a steel-bright river serpentines through the plain, reflecting the feminine grace of palms tossing their plumes against an azure sky. i remember also a vision of marshes--infinite stretches of reed-grown ooze, shuddering in gusts of sea-wind, and paling away into bluish vagueness as through a miasmatic haze. in conjunction with these articles, hearn published in _harper's bazaar_ ( - ) two papers on the curiosities to be found at the new orleans exposition. some chinese ghosts[ ] ( ) was the next book of the new orleans period. the first publisher to whom it was submitted did not accept it, but roberts brothers finally brought it out. "there are only six little stories," writes hearn, "but each of them cost months of hard work and study, and represents a much higher attempt than anything in the 'stray leaves.'" the book is dedicated to his friend mr. krehbiel, and the dedication, which is given in the bibliography, is as unique as the tales themselves. [ ] copyright, , by roberts brothers. in the preface hearn says that while preparing these legends he sought for "weird beauty." the era of fierce passions and horror is waning, and in these six perfect tales there is a new-found restraint, a firmer handling of the brush in more normal colours. one of the earliest reviews of his work remarks:-- "in his treatment of the legend lore of the celestial empire, mr. hearn has, if possible, been even more delicate and charming than in the stories which go to make the previous volume, so much so, indeed, that one is persuaded to full belief in the beauty and witchery of the almond-eyed heroines of his pages." ( .) the opening story is of the beautiful ko-ngai, daughter of kouan-yu, whose divine loyalty to her father never faltered even at a hideous death. he was a great bellmaker, and the mandarin ordered that he should make a bell of such size that it would be heard for one hundred _li_, and further that the bell "should be strengthened with brass, and deepened with gold, and sweetened with silver." but the metals refused to mingle. again the bell was cast, but the result was even worse, and the son of heaven was very angry; and this word was sent to kouan-yu:-- "if thou fail a third time in fulfilling our command, thy head shall be severed from thy neck." when the lovely ko-ngai heard this, she sold her jewels, and paid a great price to an astrologer, and it was told to her:-- gold and brass will never meet in wedlock, silver and iron never will embrace, until the flesh of a maiden be melted in the crucible; until the blood of a virgin be mingled with the metals in their fusion. ko-ngai told no one what she had heard. the awful hour for the heroic effort of the final casting arrived. all the workmen wrought their tasks in silence; there was no sound heard but the muttering of the fires. and the muttering deepened into a roar of typhoons approaching, and the blood-red lake of metal slowly brightened like the vermilion of a sunrise, and the vermilion was transmuted into a radiant glow of gold, and the gold whitened blindingly, like the silver face of a full moon. then the workers ceased to feed the raving flame, and all fixed their eyes upon the eyes of kouan-yu; and kouan-yu prepared to give the signal to cast. but ere ever he lifted his finger, a cry caused him to turn his head; and all heard the voice of ko-ngai sounding sharply sweet as a bird's song above the great thunder of the fires,--"for thy sake, o my father!" and even as she cried, she leaped into the white flood of metal; and the lava of the furnace roared to receive her, and spattered monstrous flakes of flame to the roof, and burst over the verge of the earthen crater, and cast up a whirling fountain of many-coloured fires, and subsided quakingly, with lightnings and with thunders and with mutterings. of the lovely ko-ngai no trace remained save a little shoe, which was left in the hand of the faithful serving-woman who had striven to catch her as she leaped into the flame. and ever does the bell, whose tones are deeper and mellower and mightier than the tones of any other bell, utter the name of ko-ngai; and ever between the mighty strokes there is a low moaning heard, a sobbing of "_hiai!_" and that they say is ko-ngai crying for her little shoe. the next tale tells of ming-y and how it was that he did not heed the counsel of the words of lao-tseu, and so it befell that he was loved by the beautiful sië-thao, whose tomb had many years ago crumbled to ruins. the legend of tchi-niu is the queen flower of the nosegay of six. tong's father died, and as they were very poor, the only way that tong could obtain money to pay for the funeral expenses was to sell himself as a slave. the years passed, and he worked without rest or pay, but never a complaint did he utter. at length the fever of the ricefields seized him, and he was left alone in his sickness, for there was no one to wait on him. one noon he dreamed that a beautiful woman bent over him and touched his forehead with her hand. and tong opened his eyes, and he saw the lovely person of whom he had dreamed. "i have come to restore thy strength and to be thy wife. arise and worship with me." and reading his thoughts she said, "i will provide." "and together they worshipped heaven and earth. thus she became his wife." but all that tong knew of his wife was that her name was tchi. and the fame of the weaving of tchi spread far, and people came to see her beautiful work. one morning tchi gave to her husband a document. it was his freedom that she had bought. later the silk-loom remained untouched, for tchi gave birth to a son. and the boy was not less wonderful than his mother. now it came to the period of the eleventh moon. suddenly one night, tchi led tong to the cradle where their son slumbered, and as she did so a great fear and awe came over tong, and the sweet tender voice breathed to him:-- "lo! my beloved, the moment has come in which i must forsake thee; for i was never of mortal born, and the invisible may incarnate themselves for a time only. yet i leave with thee the pledge of our love,--this fair son, who shall ever be to thee as faithful and as fond as thou thyself hast been. know, my beloved, that i was sent to thee even by the master of heaven, in reward of thy filial piety, and that i must now return to the glory of his house: i am the goddess tchi-niu." even as she ceased to speak, the great glow faded, and tong, reopening his eyes, knew that she had passed away for ever,--mysteriously as pass the winds of heaven, irrevocably as the light of a flame blown out. yet all the doors were barred, all the windows unopened. still the child slept, smiling in his sleep. outside, the darkness was breaking; the sky was brightening swiftly; the night was past. with splendid majesty the east threw open high gates of gold for the coming of the sun; and, illuminated by the glory of his coming, the vapours of morning wrought themselves into marvellous shapes of shifting colour,--into forms weirdly beautiful as the silken dreams woven in the loom of tchi-niu. another tale is that of mara, who tempted in vain, for the indian pilgrim conquered. and still, as a mist of incense, as a smoke of universal sacrifice, perpetually ascends to heaven from all the lands of earth the pleasant vapour te, created for the refreshment of mankind by the power of a holy vow, the virtue of a pious atonement. like unto the tale of the great bell, pu, convinced that a soul cannot be divided, entered the flame, and yielded up his ghost in the embrace of the spirit of the furnace, giving his life for the life of his work,--his soul for the soul of his vase. and when the workmen came upon the tenth morning to take forth the porcelain marvel, even the bones of pu had ceased to be; but lo! the vase lived as they looked upon it: seeming to be flesh moved by the utterance of a word, creeping to the titillation of a thought. and whenever tapped by the finger, it uttered a voice and a name,--the voice of its maker, the name of its creator: pu. this same year, hearn contributed to _harpers bazaar_ the valiant legend of "rabyah's last ride"( )--rabyah upon whom no woman had ever called in vain, and who defended his women even after he was dead. this tale was copied in the _times-democrat_. chita[ ] ( ), although published after hearn left new orleans, properly belongs to that period. it first appeared in much shorter form in the _times-democrat_ under the title of "torn letters." this version met with many warm friends, and the author was urged to enlarge it. he did so, and harpers accepted the story, publishing it first as a serial in their magazine. with this book came hearn's first recognition, and because of its success, he was given a commission by harpers for further studies in the tropics, which eventuated in the volume, "two years in the french west indies." [ ] copyright, , by harper and brothers. "chita" is the first glimpse of what mr. hearn could write from out himself; for whereas, as always, the plot must be given to him, the thread here is so frail that what we admire and remember is the fabric itself which only hearn could have woven. in "chita" he recreates elemental nature. in "karma" he becomes the conscience of a human being. then, for the first time he realizes the spiritual forces which are stronger than life or death, and without which no beauty exists. a criticism of "chita" at the time of its publication says:-- "by right of this single but profoundly remarkable book, mr. hearn may lay good claim to the title of the american victor hugo ... so living a book has scarcely been given to our generation." ( .) concerning the story, hearn himself writes as follows:-- "chita" was founded on the fact of a child saved from the lost island disaster by some louisiana fishing-folk, and brought up by them. years after a creole hunter recognized her, and reported her whereabouts to relatives. these, who were rich, determined to bring her up as young ladies are brought up in the south, and had her sent to a convent. but she had lived the free healthy life of the coast, and could not bear the convent; she ran away from it, married a fisherman, and lives somewhere down there now,--the mother of multitudinous children. this slight structure of plot gave hearn the opportunity to paint a marvellous picture. hundreds of quotations could be given. he is delighted with the rich glory of the tropics, and by his power of word imagery he so reproduces it that with him we too can see and feel it. in this glowing nature the poisoned beauty of the orient is forgotten. take this description:-- the charm of a single summer day on these island shores is something impossible to express, never to be forgotten. rarely, in the paler zones, do earth and heaven take such luminosity: those will best understand me who have seen the splendour of a west indian sky. and yet there is a tenderness of tint, a caress of colour, in these gulf-days which is not of the antilles,--a spirituality, as of eternal tropical spring. it must have been to even such a sky that xenophanes lifted up his eyes of old when he vowed the infinite blue was god;--it was indeed under such a sky that de soto named the vastest and grandest of southern havens espiritu santo,--the bay of the holy ghost. there is a something unutterable in this bright gulf-air that compels awe,--something vital, something holy, something pantheistic and reverentially the mind asks itself if what the eye beholds is not the [greek: pneuma] indeed, the infinite breath, the divine ghost, the great blue soul of the unknown. all, all is blue in the calm,--save the low land under your feet, which you almost forget, since it seems only as a tiny green flake afloat in the liquid eternity of day. then slowly, caressingly, irresistibly, the witchery of the infinite grows upon you: out of time and space you begin to dream with open eyes,--to drift into delicious oblivion of facts,--to forget the past, the present, the substantial,--to comprehend nothing but the existence of that infinite blue ghost as something into which you would wish to melt utterly away for ever. so it is told that into this perfect peace one august day in , a scarlet sun sank in a green sky, and a moonless night came. then the wind grew weird. it ceased being a breath; it became a voice moaning across the world hooting,--uttering nightmare sounds,--_whoo!_--_whoo!_--_whoo!_--and with each stupendous owl-cry the mooing of the waters seemed to deepen, more and more abysmally, through all the hours of darkness. morning dawned with great rain: the steamer _star_ was due that day. no one dared to think of it. "great god!" some one shrieked,--"she is coming!" on she came, swaying, rocking, plunging,--with a great whiteness wrapping her about like a cloud, and moving with her moving,--a tempest-whirl of spray;--ghost-white and like a ghost she came, for her smoke-stacks exhaled no visible smoke--the wind devoured it. and still the storm grew fiercer. on shore the guests at the hotel danced with a feverish reckless gaiety. again the _star_ reeled, and shuddered, and turned, and began to drag away from the great building and its lights,--away from the voluptuous thunder of the grand piano,--even at that moment outpouring the great joy of weber's melody orchestrated by berlioz: _l'invitatiòn à la valse_,--with its marvellous musical swing. --"waltzing!" cried the captain. "god help them!--god help us all now!... the wind waltzes to-night, with the sea for his partner." ... o the stupendous valse-tourbillon! o the mighty dancer! one-two--three! from north-east to east, from east to south-east, from south-east to south: then from the south he came, whirling the sea in his arms.... and so the hurricane passed, and the day reveals utter wreck and desolation. "there is plunder for all--birds and men." at a fishing village on the coast on this same night of the storm carmen, the good wife of feliu, dreamed--above the terrors of the tempest which shattered her sleep--once again the dream that kept returning of her little concha, her first-born who slept far away in the old churchyard at barcelona. and this night she dreamed that her waxen virgin came and placed in her arms the little brown child with the indian face, and the face became that of her dead conchita. and carmen wished to thank the virgin for that priceless bliss, and lifted up her eyes; but the sickness of ghostly fear returned upon her when she looked; for now the mother seemed as a woman long dead, and the smile was the smile of fleshlessness, and the places of the eyes were voids and darknesses.... and the sea sent up so vast a roar that the dwelling rocked. * * * * * feliu and his men find the tide heavy with human dead and the sea filled with wreckage. through this floatage feliu detects a stir of life ... he swims to rescue a little baby fast in the clutch of her dead mother. to carmen it is the meaning of her dream. the child has been sent by the virgin. the tale leads on through the growing life of chita. finally one day dr. la brierre, whose wife and child had been lost in the famous storm, is summoned to viosca's point to the deathbed of his father's old friend, who is dying of the fever. it is feliu who brings him. but before they can reach the point the man has already died. the doctor remains at feliu's fishing smack. he feels the sickness of the fever coming over him. then he sees chita.... hers is the face of his dead adèle. through the fury of the fever, which has now seized him, the past is mingled with the present. he re-lives the agony of that death-storm, re-lives all the horror of that scene, when all that he held dear was swept away--until his own soul passes out into the night. the description of dr. la brierre in the throes of the fever is terrible. it is so realistic that one shudders. two years in the french west indies[ ] ( ) was the _pièce de résistance_ of the sojourn in the tropics. some of the papers appeared first in _harper's magazine_. they are marvellous colour-pictures of the country, its people, its life, its customs, with many of the picturesque legends and the quaintnesses that creep into the heart. [ ] copyright, , by harper and brothers. "there is not a writer who could have so steeped himself in this languorous creole life and then tell so well about it. trollope and froude give you the hard, gritty facts, and lafcadio hearn the sentiment and poetry of this beautiful island." ( .) more and more is hearn realizing the necessity of finding new colour. "i hope to be able to take a trip to new mexico in the summer just to obtain literary material, sun-paint, tropical colour, etc." it is always the intense that his fancy craves, and indeed _must_ have in order to work. "there are tropical lilies which are venomous, but they are more beautiful than the frail and icy white lilies of the north." "whenever i receive a new and strong impression, even in a dream, i write it down, and afterwards develop it at leisure.... there are impressions of blue light and gold and green, correlated to old spanish legend, which can be found only south of this line." "i will write you a little while i am gone,--if i can find a little strange bit of tropical colour to spread on the paper,--like the fine jewel-dust of scintillant moth-wings." "next week i go away to hunt up some tropical or semi-tropical impressions." he is bewitched by st. pierre--"i love this quaint, whimsical, wonderfully coloured little town." on opening the present volume we at once feel how thoroughly sympathetic this whole nature is to him, how ravished his senses are with all that she portrays. from pier , east river, new york, we travel with hearn through days of colour and beauty to the glorious caribbean sea, where we sail on to roseau and st. pierre. here the colour is becoming so intense that the eyes are blinded. the luminosities of tropic foliage could only be imitated in fire. he who desires to paint a west indian forest,--a west indian landscape,--must take his view from some great height, through which the colours come to his eye softened and subdued by distance,--toned with blues or purples by the astonishing atmosphere. ... it is sunset as i write these lines, and there are witchcrafts of colour. looking down the narrow, steep street opening to the bay, i see the motionless silhouette of the steamer on a perfectly green sea,--under a lilac sky,--against a prodigious orange light. over her memoried paths we wander with josephine, and then we pause before the lovely statue which seems a living presence. she is standing just in the centre of the savane, robed in the fashion of the first empire, with gracious arms and shoulders bare: one hand leans upon a medallion bearing the eagle profile of napoleon.... seven tall palms stand in a circle around her, lifting their comely heads into the blue glory of the tropic day. within their enchanted circle you feel that you tread holy ground,--the sacred soil of artist and poet;--here the recollections of memoir-writers vanish away; the gossip of history is hushed for you; you no longer care to know how rumour has it that she spoke or smiled or wept: only the bewitchment of her lives under the thin, soft, swaying shadows of those feminine palms.... over violet space of summer sea, through the vast splendour of azure light, she is looking back to the place of her birth, back to beautiful drowsy trois-islets,--and always with the same half-dreaming, half-plaintive smile,--unutterably touching.... "under a sky always deepening in beauty" we steam on to the level, burning, coral coast of barbadoes. then on past to demerara. we pass through all the quaint beautiful old towns and islands. we see their wonders of sky and sea and flowers. we see their people and all that great race of the mixed blood. with dear old jean-marie we wait for the return of les porteuses, and we hear his call:-- "_coument ou yé, chè? coument ou kallé?_" ... (how art thou, dear?--how goes it with thee?) and they mostly make answer, "_toutt douce, chè,--et ou?_" (all sweetly, dear,--and thou?) but some, over-weary, cry to him, "_ah! déchârgé moin vite, chè! moin lasse, lasse!_" (unload me quickly, dear; for i am very, very weary.) then he takes off their burdens, and fetches bread for them, and says foolish little things to make them laugh. and they are pleased and laugh, just like children, as they sit right down on the road there to munch their dry bread. again we follow on: this time to la grande anse, where we see the powerful surf-swimmers. with the population we turn out to witness the procession of young girls to be confirmed; we see the dances and games; we hear the chants, and the strange music on strange instruments. at st. pierre once more we listen to the history of père labat, who in twelve years made his order the richest and most powerful in the west indies. "eh, père labat!--what changes there have been since thy day!... and all that ephemeral man has had power to change has been changed,--ideas, morals, beliefs, the whole social fabric. but the eternal summer remains,--and the hesperian magnificence of azure sky and violet sea,--and the jewel-colours of the perpetual hills; the same tepid winds that rippled thy cane-fields two hundred years ago still blow over sainte-marie; the same purple shadows lengthen and dwindle and turn with the wheeling of the sun. god's witchery still fills this land; and the heart of the stranger is even yet snared by the beauty of it; and the dreams of him that forsakes it will surely be haunted--even as were thine own, père labat--by memories of its eden-summer: the sudden leap of the light over a thousand peaks in the glory of a tropic dawn,--the perfumed peace of enormous azure noons,--and shapes of palm, wind-rocked in the burning of colossal sunsets,--and the silent flickering of the great fire-flies, through the lukewarm darkness, when mothers call their children home.... '_mi fanal pè labatt!--mi pè labatt ka vini pouend ou!_'" then we see the lights of the shrines that will protect us from the zombi and the moun-mo, and all the terrible beings who are filled with witchcraft; and we listen to the tale of that zombi who likes to take the shape of a lissome young negress. by this time it is carnival week with its dances and games and maskers. but a little later we are shuddering at the horrible pestilence vérette that has seized the city. a gleam of the old love of horror is caught in the following quotation:-- she was the prettiest, assuredly, among the pretty shop-girls of the grande rue,--a rare type of _sang-mêlée_. so oddly pleasing, the young face, that once seen, you could never again dissociate the recollection of it from the memory of the street. but one who saw it last night before they poured quick-lime upon it could discern no features,--only a dark brown mass, like a fungus, too frightful to think about. at the beautiful savane du fort our eyes and hearts are gladdened by the quaint sight of the blanchisseuses with their snowy linen spread out for miles along the river's bank. their laughter echoes in our ears, and we try to catch the words of their little songs. one warm and starry, and to us unforgettable, september morning we make the ascent of mt. pelée by the way of morne st. martin, and on our way we come to know the country that lies all around. let me quote our sensation as we reach the summit:-- at the beginning, while gazing south, east, west, to the rim of the world, all laughed, shouted, interchanged the quick delight of new impressions: every face was radiant.... now all look serious; none speaks.... dominating all, i think, is the consciousness of the awful antiquity of what one is looking upon,--such a sensation, perhaps, as of old found utterance in that tremendous question of the book of job: "_wast thou brought forth before the hills?_" and the blue multitudes of the peaks, the perpetual congregation of the mornes, seem to chorus in the vast resplendence,--telling of nature's eternal youth, and the passionless permanence of that about us and beyond us and beneath,--until something like the fulness of a grief begins to weigh at the heart.... for all this astonishment of beauty, all this majesty of light and form and colour, will surely endure,--marvellous as now,--after we shall have lain down to sleep where no dreams come, and may never arise from the dust of our rest to look upon it. another day we are laughing at the little _ti canotié_ who in the queerest tiny boats surround a steamer as soon as she drops anchor. these are the boys who dive for coins. a sad tale is told of maximilien and stréphane. again our hearts are moved by the pathos and the tragedy of la fille de couleur; and in this chapter we find that characteristic description:-- i refer to the celebrated attire of the pet slaves and _belles affranchies_ of the old colonial days. a full costume,--including violet or crimson "petticoat" of silk or satin; chemise with half-sleeves, and much embroidery and lace; "trembling-pins" of gold (_zépingue tremblant_) to attach the folds of the brilliant madras turban; the great necklace of three or four strings of gold beads bigger than peas (_collier-choux_); the ear-rings, immense but light as egg-shells (_zanneaux-à-clous_ or _zanneaux-chenilles_); the bracelets (_portes-bonheur_); the studs (_boutons-à-clous_); the brooches, not only for the turban, but for the chemise, below the folds of the showy silken foulard or shoulder-scarf,--would sometimes represent over five thousand francs' expenditure. this gorgeous attire is becoming less visible every year: it is now rarely worn except on very solemn occasions,--weddings, baptisms, first communions, confirmations. the _da_ (nurse) or "_porteuse-de-baptême_" who bears the baby to church, holds it at the baptismal font, and afterwards carries it from house to house in order that all the friends of the family may kiss it, is thus attired: but now-a-days, unless she be a professional (for there are professional _das_, hired only for such occasions), she usually borrows the jewellery. if tall, young, graceful, with a rich gold tone of skin, the effect of her costume is dazzling as that of a byzantine virgin. i saw one young _da_ who, thus garbed, scarcely seemed of the earth and earthly;--there was an oriental something in her appearance difficult to describe,--something that made you think of the queen at sheba going to visit solomon. she had brought a merchant's baby, just christened, to receive the caresses of the family at whose house i was visiting; and when it came to my turn to kiss it, i confess i could not notice the child: i saw only the beautiful dark face, coiffed with orange and purple, bending over it, in an illumination of antique gold. what a _da_!... she represented really the type of that _belle affranchie_ of other days, against whose fascination special sumptuary laws were made: romantically she imaged for me the supernatural godmothers and cinderellas of the creole fairy-tales. still we have much to learn about the little creatures in the shapes of ants and scorpions and lizards. they form no small part of the population of martinique. and still more about the fruits and the vegetables do we learn from good cyrillia, ma bonne. one longs to have a housekeeper as loving and child-like and solicitous. we leave her gazing with love unutterable at the new photograph of her daughter, and wondering the while why they do not make a portrait talk so that she can talk to her beautiful daughter. and day by day the artlessness of this exotic humanity touches you more;--day by day this savage, somnolent, splendid nature--delighting in furious colour--bewitches you more. already the anticipated necessity of having to leave it all some day--the far-seen pain of bidding it farewell weighs upon you, even in dreams. but before we go, we must learn how nature must treat those who are not born under her suns. then at last reluctantly we board the _guadeloupe_, and with mademoiselle violet-eyes, who is leaving her country, perhaps for a very long time, to become a governess in new york, we realize that nowhere on this earth may there be brighter skies. farewell, fair city,--sun-kissed city,--many-fountained city!--dear yellow-glimmering streets,--white pavements learned by heart,--and faces ever looked for,--and voices ever loved! farewell, white towers with your golden-throated bells!--farewell, green steeps, bathed in the light of summer everlasting!--craters with your coronets of forests!--bright mountain paths upwinding 'neath pomp of fern and angelin and feathery bamboo!--and gracious palms that drowse above the dead! farewell, soft-shadowing majesty of valleys unfolding to the sun,--green golden cane-fields ripening to the sea!... dominica, guadeloupe, martinique, pelée--so they vanish behind us. shall not we too become _les revenants_? youma[ ] ( ) was written in martinique, and also belongs to the new orleans period. "i think you will like it better than 'chita.' it is more mature and exotic by far,"--so hearn wrote of the story in one of his letters. later on, when living in japan, he wrote:-- [ ] copyright, , by harper and brothers. it gave me no small pleasure to find that you like "youma": you will not like it less knowing that the story is substantially true. you can see the ruins of the old house in the quartier du fort if you ever visit saint-pierre, and perhaps meet my old friend arnoux, a survivor of the time. the girl really died under the heroic conditions described--refusing the help of the blacks and the ladder. of course i may have idealized her, but not her act. the incident of the serpent occurred also; but the heroine was a different person,--a plantation girl, celebrated by the historian rufz de lavison. i wrote the story under wretched circumstances in martinique, near the scenes described, and under the cross with the black christ. an english notice says:-- "it is an admirable little tale, full of local characteristics with curious fragments of creole french from martinique, and abundance of wide human sympathy. it deserves reprinting for english readers more than three-fourths of the fiction which is wont to cross the atlantic under similar circumstances." ( .) "youma" is the tale of the exquisite devotion and loyalty of a _da_. (a _da_ is the foster-mother and nurse of a creole child.) at the death of aimée, youma's playmate and rich foster-sister, little mayotte, her child, becomes youma's charge. an intimate description is given us of the creole life of mayotte and youma. the love of this _da_ is very beautiful. once with an extraordinary heroism youma saves mayotte from a serpent which has slipped into their room. with a still greater heroism she refuses to run away with gabriel, who has opened the world to her,--gabriel who has brought her love, and whom she can marry in no other way. no, above the pleadings of her lover, comes the voice of her dying mistress, begging, with such trust,-- "youma, o youma! you will love my child?--youma, you will never leave her, whatever happens, while she is little? promise, dear youma!" and she had--promised.... then comes the final test of youma's strength of devotion. there is an outbreak among the blacks, who have become inflamed by the dreams of coming freedom. the desrivières with many other families are forced to flee for refuge in safer quarters. under one roof all these people gather. youma is urged to leave and save herself. but she will not forsake mayotte or her master. the infuriated blacks surround the house, and horror follows. presently the house is set on fire. youma, with mayotte in her arms, appears at an upper window. gabriel, "daring the hell about him for her sake," puts up a ladder. youma hands him mayotte. "can you save her?" she asks. "gabriel could only shake his head;--the street sent up so frightful a cry.... "_non!--non!--non!--pa lè yche-béké--janmain yche-béké!_" "then you cannot save me!" cried youma, clasping the child to her bosom,--"_janmain! janmain, mon ami._" "youma, in the name of god...." "in the name of god, you ask me to be a coward!... are you vile, gabriel?--are you base?... save myself and leave the child to burn?... go!" "leave the _béké's yche_!--leave it!--leave it, girl!" shouted a hundred voices. "_moin!_" cried youma, retreating beyond the reach of gabriel's hand,--"_moin!_ ... never shall i leave it, never! i shall go to god with it." "burn with it, then!" howled the negroes ... "down with that ladder! down with it, down with it!" the ladder catches fire and burns. the walls quiver, and there are shrieks from the back of the house. unmoved, with a perfect calm, youma remains at the window. "there is now neither hate nor fear on her fine face." softly she whispers to mayotte, and caresses her with an infinite tenderness. never to gabriel had she seemed so beautiful. another minute--and he saw her no more. the figure and the light vanished together, as beams and floor and roof all quaked down at once into darkness.... only the skeleton of stone remained,--black-smoking to the stars. a stillness follows. the murderers are appalled by their crime. then, from below, the flames wrestled out again,--crimsoning the smoke whirls, the naked masonry, the wreck of timbers. they wriggled upward, lengthening, lapping together,--lifted themselves erect,--grew taller, fiercer,--twined into one huge fluid spire of tongues that flapped and shivered high into the night.... the yellowing light swelled,--expanded from promontory to promontory,--palpitated over the harbour,--climbed the broken slopes of the dead volcano leagues through the gloom. the wooded mornes towered about the city in weird illumination,--seeming loftier than by day,--blanching and shadowing alternately with the soaring and sinking of the fire;--and at each huge pulsing of the glow, the white cross of their central summit stood revealed, with the strange passion of its black christ. ... and at the same hour, from the other side of the world,--a ship was running before the sun, bearing the republican gift of liberty and promise of universal suffrage to the slaves of martinique. there are two little bits of description which are so characteristic that i quote them:-- then she became aware of a face ... lighted by a light that came from nowhere,--that was only a memory of some long-dead morning. and through the dimness round about it a soft blue radiance grew,--the ghost of a day. sunset yellowed the sky,--filled the horizon with flare of gold;--the sea changed its blue to lilac;--the mornes brightened their vivid green to a tone so luminous that they seemed turning phosphorescent. rapidly the glow crimsoned,--shadows purpled; and night spread swiftly from the east,--black-violet and full of stars. karma[ ] ( ) was written during the philadelphia period, but was not published in _lippincott's magazine_ until after hearn had sailed for japan. the story is concentrated, with its every word a shaft of light, and it seems a wrong to attempt to epitomize it. except in its entirety no adequate conception can be formed of this marvellous revelation of the anguish that a human soul may suffer; nor of the artistic power with which hearn has developed and perfected his study. many quotations could be gleaned from his subsequent books which reflect the inspiration of "karma." [ ] copyright, , by lafcadio hearn; and, copyright, by j. b. lippincott company. despite her unusual intellect, the heroine had a childlike simplicity and frankness which invited her lover's confidence, but he had never told her his admiration, for a dormant power beneath her girlishness made a compliment seem a rudeness. he was often alone with her, which is helpful to lovers, but her charm always confused him, and his embarrassment only deepened. one day she archly asked him to tell her about it. is there one who does not know that moment when the woman beloved becomes the ideal, and the lover feels his utter unworthiness? yet, if she is one of those rare souls, the illusion, however divine, is less perfect than is her worth. do you know what she truly is--how she signifies "the whole history of love striving against hate, aspiration against pain, truth against ignorance, sympathy against pitilessness? she,--the soul of her! is the ripened passion-flower of the triumph. all the heroisms, the martyrdoms, the immolations of self,--all strong soarings of will through fire and blood to god since humanity began,--conspired to kindle the flame of her higher life." and then you question yourself with a thousand questions, and then there are as many more of your duty to her, to the future, and to the supreme father. she was not surprised when he told her his wish, but she was not confident that he really loved her, nor whether she should permit herself to like him. finally she bade him go home and "as soon as you feel able to do it properly,--write out for me a short history of your life;--just write down everything you feel that you would not like me to know. write it,--and send it.... and then i shall tell you whether i will marry you." how easy the task seemed, and his whole being was joyous; but the lightness lasted for only a moment, and gradually all that her command meant crept over him.... "_everything you feel you would not like me to know._" surely she had no realization of what she had asked. did she imagine that men were good like women--how cruel to hurt her. then for a period he was uplifted with the desire to meet her truthfulness, but his courage failed again after he had written down the record of his childhood and youth. it was no slight task to make this confession of his sins. and how pale and trivial they had seemed before. was it possible that he had never before rightly looked at them? yet why should he so falter? surely she meant to pardon him. he must put everything down truthfully, and then recolour the whole for her gaze. but his face grew hot at the thought of certain passages. hour after hour he sat at his desk until it was past midnight, but no skill could soften the stony facts. finally he lay down to rest: his fevered brain tried to find excuses for his faults. he could forgive himself everything ... except--ah, how unutterably wicked he had been there. no, he could not tell her _that_: instead he must lose her for ever. and in losing her he would lose all the higher self which she had awakened. to lose her--when he of all men had found his ideal. "_everything you feel you would not like me to know._" perhaps when she had put this ban upon him, she suspected that there were incidents in his life which he dared not tell her. could he not deceive her? no, he might write a lie, but he could never meet her fine sweet eyes with a lie. what was he to do? and why had he always been so humble before that slight girl? "assuredly those fine grey eyes were never lowered before living gaze: she seemed as one who might look god in the face." slowly his senses became more confused, and a darkness came, and a light in the darkness that shone on her; and he saw her bathed in a soft radiance, that seemed of some substance like ivory. and he knew that she was robing for her bridal with him. he was at her side: all around them was a gentle whispering of many friends, who were dead. would they smile thus--_if they knew_? then there arose something within him, and he knew that he must tell her all. he commenced to speak, and she became transfigured, and smiled at him with the tenderness of an angel; and the more he told the greater was her forgiveness. and he heard the voices of the others lauding him for his self-sacrifice and his sincerity. yet as they praised a fear clutched him for one last avowal that he must make. and with the growing of this doubt all seemed maliciously to change, and even she no longer smiled. he then would have told her alone, but even as he tried to hush his voice, it seemed to pierce the quietude "with frightful audibility, like the sibilation of a possessing spirit." then with a reckless despair he shouted it aloud, and everything vanished, and the darkness of night was about him. for many restless days and nights he harried himself with bitter self-analysis; and day by day he tore up a certain page; yet without that page his manuscript was worthless. as the days grew into weeks a new fear seized him that his silence had betrayed him, and that already she had decided against him. in the face of this danger he became terrified, and one morning he feverishly copied the memorable page, and, addressing the whole, dropped it in the first letter-box, before he might change his mind. then an awful revelation of his act overcame him. should he telegraph her to return the manuscript unopened. no, it was already too late. what was done--was done for ever. he now vaguely realized what he feared in her--"a penetrating dynamic moral power that he felt without comprehending." he tried to steel himself for the worst, but he knew with a premonition that behind his imagined worst there were depths beyond depths of worse. the single word "come" which he received two days later confirmed his fears. when he reached the door of her apartment, she had already risen to take from a locked drawer an envelope which he knew was his. she proffered him no greeting, but asked in a cold voice if he wished her to burn the document. at his whispered _yes_, he met her eyes, and they seemed to strip him of the last remnant of his pride. "he stood before her as before god,--morally naked as a soul in painted dreams of the judgment day." the fire caught the paper, and he stood near, in fear of her next word, while she watched the flame. at last she asked if the woman was dead. he well knew to what she referred, and replied that almost five years had passed since her death. to the penetrating questions which followed he answered that the child--a boy--was well, and that his friend was still there--in the same place. she turned to him abruptly and coldly, angered that he could have believed that she would pardon such a crime. he must have had some hope, or he would not have sent the letter. had he measured her by his own moral standard? certainly he had placed her below the level of honest people. would he dare to ask their judgment of his sin? speechless, he writhed under the scorn of her words, and a knowledge of shame to which his former agony was as nothing burned within him. that in him which her inborn goodness had taught her, was now laid bare to himself. again she spoke after a silence--perhaps he would think she was cruel; but she was not, nor was she unjust, for transcendent sin that denies "all the social wisdom gained by human experience" cannot be pardoned, it can only be atoned. and that sin was his; and god would exact his expiation. and that expiation she now demanded in god's name, and as her right. he must go to the friend whom he had wronged, and tell him the whole truth. he must ask for the child, and fulfil his whole duty; also he must place even his life at the man's will. and she would rather see him dead than believe that he could be a coward as well as a criminal. this she requested not as a favour, but as her right. at her words he grew pale as if to death, and for a moment she feared that he might refuse, and that she must despise him. no! his colour rushed back, and her heart leaped, as with a calm resolve he answered, "i will do it." "then go!" she replied, betraying no gladness. a year went by. she knew that he had kept his promise. he wrote to her often, and passionately, but the letters were never answered. did she doubt him still?--or was she afraid of her own heart? he could not know the truth, so he waited with hopes and fears, and the seasons passed. then one day she was startled to receive a letter which told her that he was passing through her suburb, and he begged only to be permitted to see her. to his surprise the answer brought the happy words, "you may." from the shy, beautiful eyes of the child, whom he brought, there seemed to plead a woman's sorrow, until her own soul answered in forgiveness. and the boy and the father marvelled at the tenderness that had come upon her, and the father sobbed until her voice thrilled: that suffering was strength and knowledge, that always he must suffer for the evil he had wrought, but she would help him to bear the pain, and to endure his atonement. she would shield his frailty--she would love his boy. the crime of sylvestre bonnard ( ) was translated in new york, while hearn was finishing the proofs of "two years in the french west indies." of it he writes:-- as for the "sylvestre bonnard" i believe i told you that that was translated in about ten days and published in two weeks from the time of beginning it.... but the work suffers in consequence of haste. after his departure for the orient, two articles on west indian society appeared in the _cosmopolitan_ ( - ). they give a sympathetic study of the sad and pathetic tragedy of the race of the mixed blood. these articles bear a similarity to the chapter upon and the references to this subject, in "two years in the french west indies." glimpses of unfamiliar japan[ ] ( ) is the first of the series of japanese books. it was published after hearn had been in japan for four years; since six of the articles had appeared in the _atlantic monthly_ ( - ). also in , an article, "a winter journey to japan," was published in _harper's monthly_ ( ). this was his initial paper on japan. [ ] copyright, , by lafcadio hearn; and published by houghton, mifflin and company.] in many ways the present book on japan is his happiest, for the charm over everything is fresh and radiant. it is here that we learn the old graceful customs, the touching child-like ways, and the sacred appealing rites and beliefs that so endear to us the japanese. later we are to have studies more philosophical, more erudite, but none more penetrating in virtue of the very simplicity of subject. it is difficult to believe that the writer, bewitched with the warmth and colour of the tropics, giving his pen an unlicensed flow of word colour and enthusiasm, in a few years could have matured into this quiet, gentle thinker equally absorbed by the east. one finds scarcely a trace of the hearn of the tropics: therein lies his unique genius; just so admirably as he reflected the west indian life, does he now reflect that of the japanese. it is the old japan that hearn loves, and the passing of which he mourns even at the first. in his preface, he says, "my own conviction, and that of many impartial and more experienced observers of japanese life, is that japan has nothing whatever to gain by conversion to christianity, either morally or otherwise, but very much to lose." also in one of his letters he writes, "i felt, as never before, how utterly dead old japan is, and how ugly new japan is becoming." it is old japan that we find in the present volume. it is much as if we looked into a diary of his first days in the orient, giving his impressions and conclusions, as well as portraying the pictures themselves. one of the reviews of the book contains the following:-- "if japan is all that he says; if the japanese are so compounded of all the virtues, and so innocent of the ugly failings that mar our western civilization, then the poet's dream of a golden age has actually been realized in the remote east. much as we should like to believe that such a land and such a people actually exist, we cannot altogether conquer our doubts, or avoid the suspicion that the author's feeling sometimes gets the better of his judgment." ( .) and another says:-- "in volume one he is still the outside observer, remote enough to be amused with the little pretty, bird-like glances of the orient towards the occident, pleased at the happy chance which makes a blind shampooer's cry musical as she taps her way down the street, instead of giving her a voice raucous as that which hurts and haunts the unwilling ears of wayfarers down newgate street and on ludgate-hill; or complimentary to the cunning fancy which paints a branch of flowering cherry in a cleft bamboo on a square of faintly-coloured paper and calls the cherry blossom 'beauty' and the bamboo 'long life.' he notices the shapely feet of the people: 'bare brown feet of peasants, or beautiful feet of children wearing tiny, tiny _geta_, or feet of young girls in snowy _tabi_. the _tabi_, the white digitated stocking, gives to a small light foot a mythological aspect--the white cleft grace of the foot of a fauness.' "a little further on the leaven of witchcraft is working, and he cannot write so airily. it is not as a mere spectator that he talks of his visit to the buddhist cemetery, where the rotting wooden laths stand huddled about the graves, and one tomb bears an english name and a cross chiselled upon it. here he made acquaintance with the god, who is the lover of little children, jizô-sama, about whose feet are little piles of stones heaped there by the hands of mothers of dead children. he is not quite as much in earnest as volume two will find him, or he could not call the gentle god 'that charming divinity'; but the sight-seer is dying in him nevertheless. it was with a friend's hand that he struck the great bell at enoshima." ( .) but even here with a new world unfolding to his delighted eyes, it was colour that hearn really wanted. i am not easy about my book, of which i now await the proofs. it lacks colour--it isn't like the west indian book. but the world here is not forceful: it is all washed in faint blues and greys and greens. there are really _gamboge_, or saffron-coloured valleys,--and lilac fields; but these exist only in the early summer and the rape-plant season, and ordinarily japan is chromatically spectral. the opening chapter is his first day in the orient, "the first charm of japan is intangible and volatile as a perfume." everything seems to him elfish and diminutive. "cha," his kurumaya, takes him past the shops where it appears to him "that everything japanese is delicate, exquisite, admirable--even a pair of common wooden chop-sticks in a paper bag with a little drawing upon it." the money itself is a thing of beauty. but one must not dare to look, for there is enchantment in these wares, and having looked, one must buy. in truth one wishes to buy everything, even to the whole land, "with its magical trees and luminous atmosphere, with all its cities and towns and temples, and forty millions of the most lovable people." before the steps leading to a temple he stops. i turn a moment to look back through the glorious light. sea and sky mingle in the same beautiful pale clear blue. below me the billowing of bluish roofs reaches to the verge of the unruffled bay on the right, and to the feet of the green wooded hills flanking the city on two sides. beyond that semi-circle of green hills rises a lofty range of serrated mountains, indigo silhouettes. and enormously high above the line of them towers an apparition indescribably lovely,--one solitary snowy cone, so filmly exquisite, so spiritually white, that but for its immemorially familiar outline, one would surely deem it a shape of cloud. invisible its base remains, being the same delicious tint as the sky: only above the eternal snow-line its dreamy cone appears, seeming to hang, the ghost of a peak, between the luminous land and the luminous heaven,--the sacred and matchless mountain, fujiyama. passing to the temple garden he wonders why the trees are so lovely in japan. is it that the trees have been so long domesticated and caressed by man in this land of the gods, that they have acquired souls, and strive to show their gratitude, like women loved, by making themselves more beautiful for man's sake? assuredly they have mastered men's hearts by their loveliness, like beautiful slaves. that is to say, japanese hearts. apparently there have been some foreign tourists of the brutal class in this place, since it has been deemed necessary to set up inscriptions in english announcing that "it is forbidden to injure the trees." of hearn's first visit to a buddhist temple, i quote what one of his critics has to say:-- "the silence of centuries seems to descend upon your soul, you feel the thrill of something above and beyond the commonplace of this every-day world, even here, amidst the turmoil, the rush, the struggle of this monster city of the west, if you take up his 'glimpses of unfamiliar japan,' and turn to his description of his first visit to a buddhist temple. marvellous is his power of imparting the mystery of that strange land, of hidden meanings and allegories, of mists and legends. the bygone spirit of the race, the very essence of the heart of the people, that has lain sleeping in the temple gloom, in the shadows of the temple shrines, awakes and whispers in your ears. you feel the soft, cushioned matting beneath your feet, you smell the faint odour of the incense, you hear the shuffling of pilgrim feet, the priest sliding back screen after screen, pouring in light upon the gilded bronzes and inscriptions; and you look for the image of the deity, of the presiding spirit, between the altar groups of convoluted candelabra. and you see: only a mirror, a round, pale disc of polished metal, and my own face therein, and behind this mockery of me a phantom of the far sea. only a mirror! symbolizing what? illusion? or that the universe exists for us solely as the reflection of our own souls? or the old chinese teaching that we must seek the buddha only in our own hearts? perhaps some day i shall be able to find out. ( .) many more temples are visited in the following chapter. what impresses him the most is the joyousness of the people's faith: everything is bright and cheerful, and the air is filled with the sound of children's voices as they play in the courts. he sees the many representations of jizô, the loving divinity who cares for the souls of little children, who comforts them, and saves them from the demons. the face of jizô is like that of a beautiful boy, and the countenance is made "heavenly by such a smile as only buddhist art could have imagined, the smile of infinite lovingness and supremest gentleness." there is also kwannon, "the goddess of mercy, the gentle divinity who refused the rest of nirvâna to save the souls of men." her face is golden, smiling with eternal youth and infinite tenderness. and he sees emma dai-Ô, the unpitying, tremendous one. he learns many things of many gods and goddesses. there is the temple of kishibojin--the mother of demons. for some former sin she was born a demon and devoured her own children. but through the teaching of buddha she became a divine being, loving and protecting the little ones, and japanese mothers pray to her, and wives pray for beautiful boys. at her shrine what impresses the visitor are hundreds of tiny dresses, mostly of poor material, stretched between tall poles of bamboos. these are the thank-offerings of poor simple country mothers whose prayers to her have been answered. in another chapter hearn writes of the festival of the dead, for between the th and the th day of july the dead may come back again. every small and great shrine is made beautiful with new mats of purest rice straw, and is decorated with lotus flowers, _shikimi_ (anise) and _misohagi_ (lespedeza). food offerings, served on a tiny lacquered table--a _zen_--are placed before the altars. every hour, tea daintily served in little cups is offered to the viewless visitors. at night beautiful special lanterns are hung at the entrances of homes. those who have dead friends visit the cemeteries and make offerings there with prayers, and the sprinkling of water, and the burning of incense. on the evening of the th the ghosts of those, who in expiation of faults committed in a previous life are doomed to hunger, are fed. and also are fed the ghosts of those who have no friends. for three days everything is done to feast the dead, and on the last night there comes the touching ceremony of farewell, for the dead must then return. everything has been prepared for them. in each home small boats made of barley straw closely woven have been freighted with supplies of choice food, with tiny lanterns, and written messages of faith and love. seldom more than two feet in length are these boats; but the dead require little room. and the frail craft are launched on canal, lake, sea, or river,--each with a miniature lantern glowing at the prow, and incense burning at the stern. and if the night be fair, they voyage long. down all the creeks and rivers and canals the phantom fleets go glimmering to the sea; and all the sea sparkles to the horizon with the lights of the dead, and the sea wind is fragrant with incense. but alas! it is now forbidden in the great seaports to launch the _shôryôbune_, "the boats of the blessed ghosts." in kami-ichi, in the land of hôki, there is a glimpse into ancient japan, for there the bon-odori, the dance of the festival of the dead, is still maintained. no longer is it danced in the cities. in the temple court, in the shadow of the tomb, with the moonlight as a guide, long processions of young girls dance a slow ghostly dance while the vast audience of spectators keeps a perfect stillness. a deep male chant is heard, and the women respond. many songs follow, until the night is waning. then this seeming witchcraft ends, and with merry laughter and soft chatting all disperse. hearn spends a long happy day at matsue, the chief city of the province of the gods, where he gathers legends and impressions. of course it has its temples. the temple is the best place to see the life of the people. there it is that the children play all day long. in the summer evening, the young artisans and labourers prove their strength in wrestling-matches. the sacred dances are held there; and on holidays it is also the place where toys are sold. often at night your attention will be drawn to a large, silent, admiring group of people standing before some little booth. they will be looking at a few vases of sprays of flowers--an exhibition of skill in their arrangement. returning homeward, there is seen a poor woman scattering some white papers into a stream of water, and, as she throws each one in, murmuring something sweet in a low voice. she is praying for her little dead child, and these are little prayers that she has written to jizô. kitzuki is the most ancient shrine in japan, and it is the living centre of shintô. there the ancient faith burns as brightly as ever it did in the unknown past. buddhism may be doomed to pass away, but shintô "unchanging and vitally unchanged remains dominant, and appears but to gain in power and dignity." many of the wisest scholars have tried to define shintô. but the reality of shintô lives not in books, nor in rites, nor in commandments, but in the national heart, of which it is the highest emotional religious expression, immortal and ever young. far underlying all the surface crop of quaint superstitions and artless myths and fantastic magic, there thrills a mighty spiritual force, the whole soul of a race with all its impulses and powers and intuitions. he who would know what shintô is must learn to know that mysterious soul in which the sense of beauty and the power of art and the fire of heroism and magnetism of loyalty and the emotion of faith have become inherent, immanent, unconscious, instinctive. at kaka is the cave of the children's ghosts. no evil person may enter the shin-kukedo, for if he does, a large stone will detach itself and fall down upon him. here in this great vault, lifting forty feet above the water, and with walls thirty feet apart, is a white rock out of which drips a water apparently as white as the rock itself. this is the fountain of jizô, which gives milk to the souls of little dead children. and mothers suffering from want of milk come hither to pray that milk may be given unto them; and their prayer is heard. and mothers having more milk than their infants need come hither also, and pray to jizô that so much as they can give may be taken for the dead children; and their prayer is heard and their milk diminishes. at least thus the peasants of izumo say. in another cavern are countless little piles of stones and pebbles, which must have been made by long and patient labour. it is the work of the dead children. one must step carefully, for the sake of these little ones, for if any work is spoiled, they will cry. in the sand are prints of little naked feet, "_the footprints of the infant ghosts_." strewn here and there on the rocks are tiny straw sandals, pilgrims' offerings to keep the baby feet from being bruised by the stones. in the temple of hojinji of the zen sect at mionoseki, there is an altar which bears many images of kwannon, the goddess of mercy. before the altar, and hung from the carven ceiling, is a bright coloured mass of embroidered purses, patterns of silk-weaving and of cotton-weaving, also balls of threads and worsted and silk. these are the first offerings of little girls. as soon as a baby girl learns how to sew or knit or embroider, she brings to the maid-mother of all grace and sweetness and pity, the first piece that she has made successfully. even the infants of the japanese kindergarten bring their first work here,--pretty paper-cuttings, scissored out and plaited into divers patterns by their own tiny flower-soft hands. among the many notes on kitzuki which interest, is the annual festival of the divine scribe, the tenjin-matsuri, to which every school-boy sends a specimen of his best writing. the texts are in chinese characters, and are generally drawn from the works of confucius or mencius. and hearn remarks that the children of other countries can never excel in the art of japanese writing. the inner ancestral tendencies will not let them catch the secret of the stroke with the brush. it is the fingers of the dead that move the brush of the japanese boy. at every temple festival in japan there is a sale of toys. and every mother, however poor, buys her child a toy. they are not costly, and are charming. many of these toys would seem odd to a little english child. there is a tiny drum, a model of the drum used in the temples; or a miniature sambo table, upon which offerings are presented to the gods. there is a bunch of bells fastened to a wooden handle. it resembles a rattle, but it is a model of the sacred _suzu_ which the virgin priestess uses in her dance before the gods. then there are tiny images of priests and gods and goddesses. there is little of grimness in the faiths of the far east; their gods smile. "why religion should be considered too awful a subject for children to amuse themselves decently with never occurs to the common japanese mind." besides these, there are pretty toys illustrating some fairy-tale or superstition and many other playthings of clever devices, and the little doll, o-hina-san (honourable miss hina), which is a type of japanese girl beauty. the doll in japan is a sacred part of the household. there is a belief that if it is treasured long enough it becomes alive. such a doll is treated like a real child: it is supposed to possess supernatural powers. one had such rare powers that childless couples used to borrow it. they would minister to it, and would give it a new outfit of clothes before returning it to its owners. all who did this became parents. to the japanese a new doll is only a doll; but a doll that has received the love of many generations acquires a soul. a little japanese girl was asked, "how can a doll live?" "why," was the lovely answer, "_if you love it enough_, it will live!" never is the corpse of a doll thrown away. when it has become so worn out that it must be considered quite dead, it is either burned or cast in running water, or it is dedicated to the god kôjin. in almost every temple ground there is planted a tree called _enoki_, which is sacred to kôjin. before the tree will be a little shrine, and either there or at the foot of the sacred tree, the sad little remains will be laid. seldom during the lifetime of its owner is a doll given to kôjin. when you see one thus exposed, you may be almost certain that it was found among the effects of some poor dead woman--the innocent memento of her girlhood, perhaps even also of the girlhood of her mother and of her mother's mother. there is a sad and awful tradition in the history of the kengyôs, the oldest of the noble families of izumo. seven generations ago the daimyô of izumo made his first official visit to the temples of hinomisaki, and was entertained royally by the kengyô. as was the custom, the young wife served the royal visitor. her simple beauty unfortunately enchanted him, and he demanded that she leave her husband and go with him. terrified, but like a brave loving wife and mother, she answered that sooner than desert her husband and child she would kill herself. the lord of izumo went away, but the little household well knew the evil that now shadowed it. and shortly the kengyô was suddenly taken from his family; tried at once for some unknown offence, and banished to the islands of oki, where he died. the daimyô was exultant, for no obstacle was in the way of his desire. the wife of the dead kengyô was the daughter of his own minister, whose name was kamiya. kamiya was summoned before the daimyô, who told him that there was no longer any reason why kamiya's daughter should not enter his household, and bade kamiya bring her to him. the next day kamiya returned, and with the utmost ceremony announced that the command had been fulfilled--the victim had arrived. smiling for pleasure, the matsudaira ordered that she should be brought at once into his presence. the karô prostrated himself, retired, and presently returned, placed before his master a _kubi-oke_ upon which lay the freshly-severed head of a beautiful woman,--the head of the young wife of the dead kengyô,--with the simple utterance: "this is my daughter." dead by her own brave will,--but never dishonoured. "none love life more than the japanese; none fear death less." so it is that when two lovers find that they can never wed, they keep the love death together, which is _jôshi_ or _shinjû_. by dying they believe that they will at once be united in another world. they always pray that they may be buried together. (in other books are written additional stories illustrating the touching custom.) at the temple of yaegaki at sakusa, are the deities of wedlock and of love, and thither go all youths and maidens who are in love. hundreds of strips of soft white paper are knotted to the gratings of the doors of the shrine. these are the prayers of love. also there are tresses of girls' hair, love-sacrifices, and offerings of sea-water and of sea-weed. in the soil around the foundation of the shrine are planted quantities of small paper flags. all over japan there are little shintô shrines before which are images in stone of foxes. the rustic foxes of izumo have no grace: they are uncouth; but they betray in countless queer ways the personal fancies of their makers. they are of many moods,--whimsical, apathetic, inquisitive, saturnine, jocose, ironical; they watch and snooze and squint and wink and sneer; they wait with lurking smiles; they listen with cocked ears most stealthily, keeping their mouths open or closed. there is an amusing individuality about them all, and an air of knowing mockery about most of them, even those whose noses have been broken off. moreover, these ancient foxes have certain natural beauties which their modern tôkyô kindred cannot show. time has bestowed upon them divers speckled coats of beautiful colours while they have been sitting on their pedestals, listening to the ebbing and flowing of the centuries and snickering weirdly at mankind. their backs are clad with finest green velvet of old mosses; their limbs are spotted and their tails are tipped with the dead gold or the dead silver of delicate fungi. and the places they most haunt are the loveliest,--high shadowy groves where the _uguisu_ sings in green twilight, above some voiceless shrine with its lamps and its lions of stone so mossed as to seem things born of the soil--like mushrooms. it is difficult to define the fox superstition, chiefly because it has sprung from so many elements. the origin is chinese, and in japan it has become mixed with the worship of a shintô deity, and further enlarged by the buddhist belief of thaumaturgy and magic. the peasants worship foxes because they fear them. but there are good foxes and bad ones. the country holds legend after legend of goblin foxes and ghost foxes, and foxes that take the form of human beings. every japanese child knows some of them. seldom is a japanese garden a flower-garden: it may not contain a flower. it is a landscape garden, and its artistic purpose is to give the impression of a real scene. besides, it is supposed to express "a mood in the soul." such abstract ideas as chastity, faith, connubial bliss were expressed by the old buddhist monks who first brought the art into japan. little hills, and slopes of green, tiny river-banks, and little islands, together with trees, and stones, and flowering shrubs are combined by the artist. all these things have their poetry and legend, and sometimes have a special name signifying their position and rank in the whole design. in the ponds little creatures such as the frog and water-beetle live, and they too have their legends. the children make all of these creatures and the insects their playmates. then there are the _semi_, which are musicians, and lovely dragon-flies which skim over the ponds; and back on the hill above the garden are many birds. it is not necessary to have a garden outdoors, for there are indoor gardens too which can even be put into a _koniwa_, the size of a fruit-dish. the dead are never dead with the japanese; they become even more important members of the family, for the spirits of the dead control the lives of the living. each day there is some ceremony in memory of these blessed dead; and no home is so poor but it has its household shrine. and shintô, ancestor-worship, signifies character in the higher sense,--courage, courtesy, honour, and above all things loyalty. the spirit of shintô is the spirit of filial piety, the zest of duty, the readiness to surrender life for a principle without a thought of wherefore. it is the docility of the child; it is the sweetness of the japanese woman. it is conservatism likewise; the wholesome check upon the national tendency to cast away the worth of the entire past in rash eagerness to assimilate too much of the foreign present. it is religion,--but religion transformed into hereditary moral impulse,--religion transmuted into ethical instinct. it is the whole emotional life of the race,--the soul of japan. self-sacrifice, loyalty, the deepest spirit of shintô, is born with the child. if you ask any japanese student what his dearest wish is he will surely answer,--"to die for his majesty, our emperor." it is impossible in this limited space to give an adequate idea of all that shintôism implies. the dressing of the hair is a very important part of a japanese woman's toilet. it is dressed once in every three days, and the task takes probably two hours. the elaborateness of the coiffure changes with the growing age of the maiden. but when she is twenty-eight, she is no longer young, and so thereafter only one style is left, that worn by old women. of course, there are many superstitions about women's hair. it is the japanese woman's dearest possession, and she will undergo any suffering not to lose it. at one time it was considered a fitting vengeance to shear the hair of an erring wife, and then turn her away. only the greatest faith or the deepest love can prompt a woman to the voluntary sacrifice of her entire _chevelure_, though partial sacrifices, offerings of one or two long thick cuttings, may be seen suspended before many an izumo shrine. what faith can do in the way of such sacrifice, he best knows who has seen the great cables, woven of women's hair, that hang in the vast hongwanji temple at kyôto. and love is stronger than faith, though much less demonstrative. according to an ancient custom a wife bereaved sacrifices a portion of her hair to be placed in the coffin of her husband, and buried with him. the quantity is not fixed: in the majority of cases it is very small, so that the appearance of the coiffure is thereby no wise affected. but she who resolves to remain for ever faithful to the memory of the lost yields up all. with her own hand she cuts off her hair, and lays the whole glossy sacrifice--emblem of her youth and beauty--upon the knees of the dead. it is never suffered to grow again. the "diary of a teacher" gives a careful picture of the school-life in japan as hearn finds it. at the normal school, which is a state institute, the young man student has no expenses. in return for these kindnesses, when he graduates he serves as a teacher for five years. discipline is severe, and deportment is a demand. "a spirit of manliness is cultivated, which excludes roughness but develops self-reliance and self-control." the silence of study hours is perfect, and without permission no head is ever raised from a book. the female department is in a separate building. girls are taught the european sciences, and are trained in all the japanese arts, such as embroidery, decoration, painting; and of course that most delicate of arts--the arranging of flowers. drawing is taught in all the schools. by fifty per cent. do japanese students excel the english students in drawing. there is also a large elementary school for little boys and girls connected with the normal school. these are taught by the students in the graduating classes. noteworthy is the spirit of peace prevailing at the recesses that occur for ten minutes between each lesson. the boys romp and shout and race, but never quarrel. hearn says that among the scholars whom he has taught, he has never even heard of a fight, nor of any serious quarrel. the girls sing or play some gentle game, and the teachers are kind and watchful of the smaller scholars. if a dress is torn or soiled the child is cared for as carefully as if she were a younger sister. no teacher would ever think of striking a scholar. if he did so he would at once have to give up his position. in fact, punishments are unknown. "the spirit is rather reversed. in the occident the master expels the pupil. in japan it happens quite as often that the pupil expels the master." it takes the japanese student seven years to acquire the triple system of ideographs, which is the alphabet of his native literature. he must also be versed in the written and the spoken literature. he must study foreign history, geography, arithmetic, astronomy, physics, geometry, natural history, agriculture, chemistry, drawing. worst of all he must learn english,--a language of which the difficulty to the japanese cannot be even faintly imagined by any one unfamiliar with the construction of the native tongue,--a language so different from his own that the very simplest japanese phrase cannot be intelligibly rendered into english by a literal translation of the words or even the form of the thought. and he studies all this upon the slimmest of diets, clad in thin clothes in cold rooms. no wonder many fall by the way. the students have been trained to find a moral in all things. if the theme given to them for a composition is a native one, they will never fail to find it. for instance,--a peony is very beautiful, but it has a disagreeable odour; hence we should remember that "to be attracted by beauty only may lead us into fearful and fatal misfortune." the sting of the mosquito is useful, for "then we shall be bringed back to study." there is nothing distinctive about the japanese countenance, but there is an intangible pleasantness that is common to all. contrasted with occidental faces they seem "half-sketched." the outlines are very soft, there is "neither aggressiveness nor shyness, neither eccentricity nor sympathy, neither curiosity nor indifference.... but all are equally characterized by a singular placidity,--expressing neither love nor hate, nor anything save perfect repose and gentleness,--like the dreamy placidity of buddhist images." later, these faces become individualized. in another chapter hearn tells of two festivals: one the festival of the new year; and the other, the festival of setsubun, which is the time for the casting out of devils. on the eve of this latter festival, the yaku-otoshi, who is the caster-out of the demons, goes around, to any houses that may desire his services, and performs his exorcism, for which he receives a little fee. the rites consist of the recitation of certain prayers, and the rattling of a _shakujô_. the _shakujô_ is an odd-shaped staff. there is a tradition that it was first used by buddhist pilgrims to warn little creatures and insects to get out of the way. i quote from a french review for the description of one of hearn's stories:-- "but the most beautiful of all, 'a dancing girl,' is drawn from the chronicles of that far-off past, from which, say what one may, he is certainly wise in drawing his inspirations. it is the story of a courtesan in love. "at the height of her celebrity, this idol of a capital disappears from public life, and nobody knows why. leaving fortune behind, she flies with a poor youth who loves her. they build for themselves a little house in the mountains, and there exist apart from the world, one for the other. but the lover dies one cold winter, and she remains alone, with no other consolation than to dance for him every evening in the deserted house. for he loved to see her dance, and he must still take pleasure in it. therefore, daily, she places on the memorial altar the accustomed offerings, and at night she dances decked out in the same finery as when she was the delight of a large city. and the day comes, when old, decrepit, dying, reduced to beggary, she carries her superb costume faded with time, to a painter who had seen her in the days of her beauty, that he may accept it in exchange for a portrait made from memory, which shall be placed before the altar always bearing offerings, that her beloved may ever see her young, the most beautiful of the _shirabyashi_, and that he may forgive her for not being able to dance any more. "this _shirabyashi_, from the distance of time, appears to us here, clothed with i know not what of hieratical dignity, such as the modern _geisha_ could never possess. lafcadio hearn in no wise pretends in the pages he devotes to these latter, to idealize them beyond measure. they appear under his pen as pretty animals somewhat dangerous; but is it not their calling to be so? whatever be the rank of the japanese woman, he only speaks of her with an extreme discretion, and with a caution that one would look for in vain in the portrait of _mme. chrysanthème_. the subtle voluptuousness of his style is never extended to the scenes he reproduces; it is a style immaterial to a rare degree; he knows how to make us understand what he means, without one word to infringe those proprieties that are dear to the japanese, even more than virtue itself. and to believe him, the young, well-brought-up girl, the honest wife, are in japan the most perfect types of femininity that he has ever met in any part of the world;--he, who has travelled so much. opinions formed superficially by globe-trotters on this subject that he scarcely glances at because of respect, arouse as much indignation in him as could they in the japanese themselves. evidently he has penetrated into their inner life, into the mystery of their thoughts, into their hidden springs of action, to the point of participating in their feelings." ( .) from hôki to oki there is much to learn about the landscapes of western and central japan; and hearn gives many legends, and many more impressions and intimate glimpses. as there are only walls of thin paper separating the lives of these japanese people, no privacy can exist. really everything is done in public, even your thoughts must be known. and it never occurs to a japanese that there should be any reason for living unobserved. this must show a rare moral condition, and is understood only by those who appreciate the charm of the japanese character, its goodness, and its politeness. no one endeavours to expand his own individuality by belittling his fellow; no one tries to make himself appear a superior being: any such attempt would be vain in a community where the weaknesses of each are known to all, where nothing can be concealed or disguised, and where affectation could only be regarded as a mild form of insanity. hearn speaks of the strange public curiosity which his presence aroused at urago. it was not a rude curiosity; in fact, one so gentle that he could not wish the gazers rebuked. but so insistent did it become that he had to close his doors and windows to prevent his being watched while he was asleep. kinjurô, the ancient gardener, knows a great many things about souls. "no one is by the gods permitted to have more souls than nine." kinjurô also knows legends about ghosts and goblins. an essay penetrating the very heart of the japanese, is the chapter on the "japanese smile." it crowns hearn's work as a superb interpretation of japanese soul-life. this smile is the outward and visible sign of the inward and spiritual grace of self-sacrifice. it is metaphysically and psychologically exquisite. it is an etiquette which for generations has been cultivated. it was a smile, _in origin_, however, demanded by hard heathen gods of the victims they sacrificed; and, in history, it was demanded of the subject race by the early conquerors. if refused, then off came their heads! the smile is born with the japanese child, and is nurtured through all the growing years. the smile is taught like the bow; like the prostration; like that little sibilant sucking-in of the breath which follows, as a token of pleasure, the salutation to a superior; like all the elaborate and beautiful etiquette of the old courtesy. the japanese believe that one should always turn one's happiest face to people. it is a wrong to cause them to share your sorrow or misfortune, and so hurt or sadden them. one should never look serious. it is not only unkind but extremely rude to show one's personal griefs or anger: these feelings should always be hidden. even though it is death one must face, it is a duty to smile bravely. it was with such a smile that the dying boy shida wrote and pasted upon the wall over his bed:-- thou, my lord-soul, dost govern me. thou knowest that i cannot now govern myself. deign, i pray thee, to let me be cured speedily. do not suffer me to speak much. make me to obey in all things the command of the physician. this ninth day of the eleventh month of the twenty-fourth year of meiji. from the sick body of shida to his soul. the key to the mystery of the most unaccountable smiles is japanese politeness. the servant sentenced to dismissal for a fault prostrates himself, and asks for pardon with a smile. that smile indicates the very reverse of callousness or insolence: "be assured that i am satisfied with the great justice of your honourable sentence, and that i am aware of the gravity of my fault. yet my sorrow and my necessity have caused me to indulge the unreasonable hope that i may be forgiven for my great rudeness in asking pardon." the youth or girl beyond the age of childish tears when punished for some error, receives the punishment with a smile which means: "no evil feeling arises in my heart; much worse than this my fault has deserved." this quality, which has become as natural to the japanese as the very breath of his body, is the sweet tonic-note of his whole character. _sayônara!_ across the waters echoes the cry, _manzai, manzai!_ (ten thousand years to you! ten thousand years!). hearn is leaving. he is going far away. his pupils write expressing their sorrow and regret. he sends them a letter thanking them for their gift of a beautiful sword, and in a loving farewell says:-- may you always keep fresh within your hearts those impulses of generosity and kindliness and loyalty which i have learned to know so well, and of which your gift will ever remain for me the graceful symbol! and a symbol not only of your affection and loyalty as students to teachers, but of that other beautiful sense of duty expressed, when so many of you wrote down for me, as your dearest wish, the desire to die for his imperial majesty, your emperor. that wish is holy: it means perhaps more than you know, or can know, until you shall have become much older and wiser. this is an era of great and rapid change; and it is probable that many of you, as you grow up, will not be able to believe everything that your fathers believed before you, though i sincerely trust you will at least continue always to respect the faith, even as you still respect the memory, of your ancestors. but however much the life of new japan may change about you, however much your own thoughts may change with the times, never suffer that noble wish you expressed to me to pass away from your souls. keep it burning there, clear and pure as the flame of the little lamp that glows before your household shrine. out of the east[ ] ( ), followed "glimpses of unfamiliar japan." the charm of the first impression is waning. [ ] copyright, , by lafcadio hearn; and published by houghton, mifflin and company. in a letter hearn writes:-- every day, it strikes me more and more how little i shall ever know of the japanese. i have been working hard at a new book, which is now half finished, and consists of philosophical sketches chiefly. it will be a very different book from the "glimpses," and will show you how much the japanese world has changed for me. i imagine that sympathy and friendship are almost impossible for any foreigner to obtain,--because of the amazing difference in the psychology of the two races. we only guess at each other without understanding. in another letter, speaking of the title for this book, he continues:-- it was suggested only by the motto of the oriental society, "_ex oriente lux._" ... the simpler the title, and the vaguer--in my case--the better: the vagueness touches curiosity. besides, the book is a vague thing. the _academy_, writing of "out of the east," says:-- "each book marks a longer step towards the buddhist mysticism, wherein we have lost our poet. 'the stone buddha,' in the first mentioned book, is a dreamy dialogue between the wisdom of the west; science, with her theories of evolution, revolution and dissolution; buddhism, with its re-birth on re-rebirth; and nirvâna at the end. this thing also is vanity. as there can be no end, so there can be no beginning; even time is an illusion, and there is nothing new beneath a hundred million suns." ( .) the old charm of word colour sparkles in "the dream of a summer day." mile after mile i rolled along that shore, looking into the infinite light. all was steeped in blue,--a marvellous blue, like that which comes and goes in the heart of a great shell. glowing blue sea met hollow blue sky in a brightness of electric fusion; and vast blue apparitions--the mountains of higo--angled up through the blaze, like masses of amethyst. what a blue transparency! the universal colour was broken only by the dazzling white of a few high summer clouds, motionlessly curled above one phantom peak in the offing. they threw down upon the water snowy tremulous lights. midges or ships creeping far away seemed to pull long threads after them,--the only sharp lines in all that hazy glory. but what divine clouds! white purified spirits of clouds, resting on their way to the beatitude of nirvâna? or perhaps the mists escaped from urashima's box a thousand years ago? the gnat of the soul of me flitted out into that dream of blue, 'twixt sea and sun,--hummed back to the shore of suminoyé through the luminous ghosts of fourteen hundred summers. and hearn tells with charm why "the mists escaped from urashima's box a thousand years ago," and also of the old, old woman who drank too deeply of the magical waters of youth. reviewing the present volume, the _spectator_ remarks:-- "the main drift of his books, however, is to bring into view not so much the glories of japanese sunlight or the charms of animate or inanimate nature, on which it falls, as the prevalence, at any rate in extensive sections of japanese society, of modes of thought and standards of conduct which, though often widely apart from our own, demand the respect of every candid englishman. and certainly in this endeavour he meets with a large measure of success. his account of the essays written and the questions asked by the members of his class in english language and literature at the government college, or higher middle school, of kyûshû, discloses not only what must be regarded as a very good development of general intelligence among those young men, but a moral tone which in many respects is quite as high, though with interesting differences in point of view, as would be expected among english boys or young men in the upper forms of our great public-schools or at the universities. of course, what boys or young men write for or say to their masters and tutors cannot by any means always be taken as sure evidence of their inner feelings or of the character of their daily life. but, so far as one can judge, hearn's pupils appear to have given him their confidence, and what he tells us of them may therefore reasonably be taken without much discount. it certainly illustrates an attractive simplicity of character and thought, not untouched by poetic imagination, together with a high development of family affection and strong sense of family duty, and also a remarkably high level of patriotic feeling. this spirit is apparently inherited from the old military class of the island of kyûshû, and it is not surprising to hear that rich men at a distance are keen to give their sons the opportunity of acquiring the kyûshû 'tone.' towards the close of his book mr. hearn gives an extremely interesting account of a farewell visit paid him in the autumn of by an old pupil who had entered the army after leaving college, and had been placed, at his own request, in one of the divisions ordered for service in corea:-- "and now i am so glad," he exclaimed, his face radiant with a soldier's joy, "we go to-morrow." then he blushed again, as if ashamed of having uttered his frank delight. i thought of carlyle's deep saying, that never pleasures, but only suffering; and death are the lures that draw true hearts. i thought also--what i could not say to any japanese--that the joy in the lad's eyes was like nothing i had ever seen before, except the caress in the eyes of a lover on the morning of his bridal. "a beautiful thought, the reader will agree; but why could it not be uttered to a japanese? a good deal will be found on this subject in mr. hearn's book, and, as we have indicated, we do not think it all holds together. his class of students, we learn, professed to think it 'very, very strange' that there should be so much in english novels about love and marrying; and then he tells us that-- any social system of which filial piety is not the moral cement; any social system in which children leave their parents in order to establish families of their own; any social system in which it is considered not only natural but right to love wife and child more than the authors of one's being; any social system in which marriage can be decided independently of the will of the parents by the mutual inclination of the young people themselves ... appears, to the japanese student of necessity a state of life scarcely better than that of the birds of the air and the beasts of the field, or at best a sort of moral chaos. "now, of course, it is known here that in japan, as in other oriental countries, it is a rule for marriages to be family arrangements, as regards which it is expected that the young persons will conform to the wishes of their respective parents. * * * * * "but of course some inconsistencies are to be expected from an author enamoured of the whole country. he is very buddhist, and is anxious to show that buddhists have always held, in matters of faith, something very like the doctrines of modern science with regard to the perpetual sequence of evolution and dissolution. on this subject he argues cleverly and effectively; but when, by implication or expressly, he compares buddhism with christianity, it is evident that the latter faith has not received any very close study from him. none the less is his book, though dominated by a somewhat uncritical enthusiasm, full of interest and instruction as to the difference between the gifts, the motives, and the mental and moral attitude of the japanese and the peoples of the west, ourselves in particular. it is well worth while to study that remarkable people as they are seen by one who is so much captivated by them, and believes in them so strongly, as mr. lafcadio hearn." ( .) the _athenæum_ does not speak so cordially, and a review in the _atlantic monthly_ says:-- "mr. hearn is not at his best as a metaphysician.... but we can forgive him in that he stands forth a staunch champion, defying the west from the heart of the japanese people. he does this most clearly in his finest essay, 'jiujutsu.' here the very meaning of the martial exercise, to 'conquer by yielding' is taken as text to explain the phenomena or national awakening which foreign cities have denounced as a 'reversal.' japan has borrowed weapons of force from the west, in order successfully to resist its insidious influence. true progress is from within. mr. hearn writes:-- however psychologists may theorize on the absence or the limitations of personal individuality among the japanese, there can be no question at all that, as a nation, japan possesses an individuality stronger than our own." ( .) hearn further brings out in a conversation with a young japanese the fact that japan, in order to keep pace with the competition of other nations, must adopt the methods which are in direct variance to her old morality, and all that which has made the japanese what he is. japan's future depends upon her industrial development, and the fine old qualities of self-sacrifice, simplicity, filial piety, the contentment with little, are not the weapons for the modern struggle. in a postscript to this essay, written two years later, after the war with china, hearn adds that "japan has proved herself able to hold her own against the world.... _japan has won in her jiujutsu._" japan holds infinite legends of ghostly significance, and it is no wonder that hearn found so much that was sympathetic. every new town or new temple reveals some aspect of the odd. in this second book the joyousness is gone; he is now a philosopher, and his philosophy reflects much of the ghostly. the gruesome has been buried, but it is not dead: it will return reincarnated, not of the ghastly of real life, but of the dim, far-away, always more distant ghostly in the lives of the dead. a revelation of the nirvâna into which hearn is being slowly drawn appears in "at hakata." he has been telling the story of the sacred mirror that a mother in dying gave to her daughter, bidding her to look into it every morning and evening and there see her mother. and the girl looked and "having the heart of meeting her mother every day," knew not that the shadow in the mirror was her own face. one are we all,--and yet many, because each is a world of ghosts. surely that girl saw and spoke to her mother's very soul, while seeing the fair shadow of her own young eyes and lips, uttering love! and with this thought, the strange display in the old temple court takes a new meaning,--becomes the symbolism of a sublime expectation. each of us is truly a mirror, imaging something of the universe,--reflecting also the reflection of ourselves in that universe; and perhaps the destiny of all is to be molten by that mighty image-maker, death, into some great sweet passionless unity. how the vast work shall be wrought, only those to come after us may know. we of the present west do not know: we merely dream. but the ancient east believes here is the simple imagery of her faith. all forms must vanish at last to blend with that being whose smile is immutable rest,--whose knowledge is infinite vision. "the red bridal" is a story of _jôshi_--the joint suicide for love. these two young people had been playmates since their early school-days, and were deeply attached to each other. the girl's father, under the influence of an evil stepmother, agrees to sell his daughter to the richest and also the most disreputable man in the village. hearing this awful command, the maiden only smiles the brave smile--inheritance of her samurai blood. she knows what she must do.... together she and her lover quietly meet the tôkyô express. as its low roar draws nearer, they "wound their arms about each other, and lay down cheek to cheek, very softly and quietly, straight across the inside rail." we close the book with the memory of yuko, heroic little yuko, who, even as noble asakachi, who had his beautiful wish to die for his country fulfilled, proves that the japanese spirit of loyalty is far greater than our word implies. with all her country, yuko, a humble little serving-maid, whose name signifies "valiant," is sorrowing because of a japanese attack upon the czarevitch of the russians. her soul burns with the desire to give something that will soften the sorrow of the august one; for the heart of the girl, being that of a true japanese, grieves not alone for what has happened, but with a deeper sense of the grief caused to the august one. the cry goes from yuko asking how she, who has nothing, can give; and from the lips of the dead within her comes the answer: "give thyself. to give life for the august one is the highest duty, the highest joy." "and in what place?" she asks. "saikyô," answer the silent voices; "in the gateway of those who by ancient custom should have died." does she falter? no. for her the future holds no blackness. always she will see the rising of the holy sun above the peaks, the smile of the lady-moon upon the waters, the eternal magic of the seasons. she will haunt the places of beauty, beyond the folding of the mists, in the sleep of the cedar-shadows, through circling of innumerable years. she will know a subtler life, in the faint winds that stir the snow of the flowers of the cherry, in the laughter of playing waters, in every happy whisper of the vast green silences. but first she will greet her kindred, somewhere in shadowy halls awaiting her coming to say to her: "thou hast done well,--like a daughter of samurai. enter, child! because of thee to-night we sup with the gods!" it is daylight when yuko enters kyotô. she finds a lodging, and then goes to a skilful female hairdresser. her little razor is made very sharp. returning to her room, she writes a letter of farewell to her brother, and an appeal to the officials asking that the tenshi-sama may be begged to cease from suffering "seeing that a young life, even though unworthy, has been given in voluntary expiation of the wrong." at the dark hour before dawn she slips to the gate of the government edifice. whispering a prayer, she kneels. then with her long under-girdle of silk she binds her robes tightly about her knees, for the daughter of a samurai must always be found in death with limbs decently composed. then, with steady precision, she makes in her throat a gash, out of which the blood leaps in a pulsing jet.... at sunrise the police find her, quite cold, and the two letters, and a poor little purse containing five _yen_ and a few _sen_ (enough, she had hoped, for her burial); and they take her and all her small belongings away. kokoro[ ] ( ), the next book, could well be a continuation of "out of the east." hearn speaks of it as "terribly radical," and "rather crazy"; and he fears that his views, which are greatly opposed in the west, may not be well received. [ ] copyright, , by houghton, mifflin and company. "the fifteen chapters of which the book is composed," says a german review, "do not contain the results of any research into the domain of politics, art or religion. they are rather fragments from japanese life, and so clear is the language that the pictures given are brought home to us with wonderful effect. lafcadio hearn is a journalist in the best sense of the word. he is a writer who has something striking and original to say upon the events of the day, upon the conditions and institutions of a land, upon the possibilities of development in a people, upon deep philosophical, social and religious problems, upon the 'idea of pre-existence,' upon buddhism and shintôism, upon the difference between occidental and oriental culture, and who judges all things, all conditions that he sees, from lofty heights. he is besides a character, a man of great ideals; he has a fine artistic feeling and is, moreover, able to render in wonderfully sympathetic language tender moods which come to him at the sight of a landscape, a work of art. extraordinarily capable of assimilation, he, to whom japan has become a second home, has entirely fitted himself into the japanese life. he is so delighted with the customs, with the political and social conditions, with the simple family life, with the religion, the ceremonies, the ancestor-worship, and with the business intercourse carried on among themselves--which he assures us is characterized by exceptional probity--in short, he is so delighted with all the activities of this people that he thinks them the best possible because they spring from the inmost life of an ethical and never intellectual temperament. therefore he takes sides with them passionately against the modern tendencies of europe." ( .) in the opening story, which i think will be found one of his best, is portrayed the manner of a japanese crowd in dealing with a criminal; and how this criminal was brought to atonement by the gaze of a little child, the son of the man he murdered, while the little one was yet in his mother's womb. the next chapter is a discussion of japanese civilization. in hearn wrote:-- "the genius of japanese civilization" is a failure. i thought that it was true when i wrote it; but already japan has become considerably changed, and a later study of ancient social conditions has proved to me that i made some very serious sociological errors in that paper. he shows that in the wonderful development of japanese power, there is vitally no self-transformation. all that japan is, she always has been. nor is there any outward change. "the strength of japan, like the strength of her ancient faith, needs little material display: both exist where the deepest real power of any great peoples exists,--in the race ghost." he contrasts the noise and confusion and vastness of western cities. the construction of the west is endurance; of japan impermanency. the very land is a land of impermanence. but in this impermanency hearn finds the greatest excellence. he contrasts how little impedimenta the japanese have--by that means alone how independent they are. he shows with what a quiet simplicity japan has become a great commercial centre. he fears the new western spirit which threatens her:-- i confess to being one of those who believe that the human heart, even in the history of a race, may be worth infinitely more than the human intellect, and that it will sooner or later prove itself infinitely better able to answer all the cruel enigmas of the sphinx of life.--i still believe that the old japanese were nearer to the solution of those enigmas than are we, just because they recognized moral beauty as greater than intellectual beauty. it is the old spirit which found infinite meaning-- in the flushed splendour of the blossom-bursts of spring, in the coming and the going of the cicadæ, in the dying crimson of autumn foliage, in the ghostly beauty of snow, in the delusive motion of wave or cloud. the beautiful voice of a blind peasant woman fills hearn with gentle memories and an exquisite delight. he muses upon what the meaning of this charm can be; and he realizes that it is the old sorrows and loving impulses of forgotten generations. the dead die never utterly. they sleep in the darkest cells of tired hearts and busy brains,--to be startled at rarest moments only by the echo of some voice that recalls their past. the lovely spirit of showing only one's happiest face to the world is charmingly brought out in the little incident that, when in a railway carriage, a japanese woman finds herself becoming drowsy, before she nods she covers her face with her long kimono sleeve. sometimes one may recall the dead, and speak with them. so it happened that o-tayo heard once again the voice of her little child who begged her not to weep any more, for when mothers weep, the flood of the river of tears rises so high that the soul cannot pass, and must wander and wander. o-tayo never wept again, but softly she herself became as a little child. her good parents built a tiny temple and fitted it with miniature ornaments, and here all day long children came to play games with her. and when at last she died, the children still played there, for as a little girl of nine said, "we shall still play in the court of amida. she is buried there. she will hear us and be happy." the pathetic tale of haru gives an interesting picture of the relation in japan between man and wife; of the exquisite submission of the wife under the saddest conditions, even to the moment when the little grieved heart, which has never murmured, has the dying strength to utter only the single word, "_anata_." (thou.) "a glimpse of tendencies" analyzes many conditions in japan, with various predictions for her future, and speaks of her lack of sympathy for her foreign teachers. in "a conservative" hearn gives a searching study of how the evils of our civilization appear to a japanese youth. "in the chapter, 'the idea of pre-existence,' hearn makes the interesting attempt of bringing the teachings of the buddhistic religion and the conclusions of modern science into accord. the idea which differentiates the oriental mode of thinking from our own, which more than any other permeates the whole mental being of the far-east--'it is universal as the wash of air; it colours every emotion; it influences, directly or indirectly, almost every act'--which inspires the utterances of the people, their proverbs, their pious and profane exclamations, that is the idea of pre-existence. the expression, '_ingwa_,' which signifies the karma as inevitable retribution, serves as explanation for all suffering, all pain, all evil. the culprit says: 'that which i did i knew to be wicked when doing; but my _ingwa_ was stronger than my heart,' _ingwa_ means predestination, determinism, necessity." ( .) in his chapter on "ancestor-worship" it is further proved how important a part of the household are the dead. another delightful study is "kimiko,"--the story of one who turns dancing-girl out of filial piety. in the height of her fame she falls in love with a rich young man, and he with her. kimiko is so good a woman at heart, that the man's friends do not object to his marrying her. she refuses, however, for her life has made her unworthy to be wife or mother. the man hopes to change her, but one day she disappears and is utterly lost to sight. years pass and he marries. at last kimiko returns as a wandering nun, looks at her lover's little son, whispers a message for the father in his ear, and is gone once more. the grace with which the story is told is inimitable, and the sickly sentimentality that revolts us in the _dame aux camelias_ is absent. ( .) gleanings in buddha-fields[ ] ( ) is the third book of the japanese period, and was written at kobé. in this volume of essays, intermingled with sketches in lighter vein, hearn continues his philosophical studies. there are the unmistakable signs that even this ardour is losing zest. the charm of japan is going fast; and after this volume, until his final interpretation, which is a summary of all that has gone before, is reached, we find him seeking material in fairy-tales, legends, and even returning to old thoughts about the west indian life. [ ] copyright, , by houghton, mifflin and company. many of his critics feel that hearn is becoming too subjective to be quite trustworthy; others feel that he is still too charmed by japan to render a faithful picture. a review in _public opinion_ says:-- "but, this feature of almost pardonable exaggeration pointed out, there is little for the critic to carp at in the majority of the eleven essays that compose the book. the opening paper, 'a living god,' is a perfect specimen of the author's style, and evinces in a marked degree the influence of oriental environment on a sensitive mind. it treats of the temples, shrines, and worship of the people, and tells by legend how even a living individual may come to be worshipped as a god by his friends.... "the essay, however, that betrays most strongly the bent of the author's mental metamorphosis, and one, we venture to say, that will be generally challenged is that on 'faces in japanese art.' the contention it embodies, which he boldly fathers, is a flat denial of the truth and worth of our accepted schools of art,--of drawing especially." ( .) criticizing the chapters on buddhism in the present book, the _athenæum_ says:-- "they are finely written, but the buddhism is the buddhism of mr. hearn, not of china or japan, or of anywhere else. nevertheless, we think them the most attractive of these gleanings. laputa is placed not very far from japan; to a quasi-laputa mr. hearn has gone, and his laputian experiences are more interesting than any ordinary terrestrial experiences could have been." ( .) the _spectator_ says:-- "his chapter on nirvâna, which he describes as 'a study in synthetic buddhism,' will be read with very great interest by all who care for the problems involved. there have been plenty of studies of the doctrine of nirvâna more elaborate and complete, but few more suggestive and more taking.... mr. hearn begins by combating the popular western notion that the idea of nirvâna signifies to buddhist minds complete annihilation. the notion is, he declares, erroneous because it contains only half the truth, and a half of the truth which is of no value or interest or intelligibility except when joined to the other half. according to mr. hearn, and, indeed, according to 'the better opinion' generally, nirvâna means not absolute nothingness or complete annihilation, but only the annihilation of what constitutes individualism and personality,--'the annihilation of everything that can be included under the term "i".'" ( .) hearn makes an elaborate study of the varying stages of births and heavens that one must generally pass through before one rises into the "infinite bliss" of nirvâna. the chapter closes with this significant sentence:-- the only reality is one;--all that we have taken for substance is only shadow;--the physical is the unreal:--_and the outer-man is the ghost_. there are two short chapters devoted to the japanese songs. the first songs, "out of the street," are, as manyemon, who would not have the western people deceived, tells us, the vulgar songs, or those sung by the washermen, carpenters, and bamboo-weavers, etc. the theme always holds some glint of love. hearn has arranged certain ones in three groups forming a little shadow romance. to heaven with all my soul i prayed to prevent your going; already, to keep you with me, answers the blessed rain. things never changed since the time of the gods: the flowing of water, the way of love. the second chapter is devoted to folk-songs with buddhist allusions. nearly all the arts and the greater number of the industries show the influence of buddhism. a typical song is:-- even the knot of the rope tying our boats together knotted was long ago by some love in a former birth. another:-- even while praying together in front of the tablets ancestral, lovers find chance to murmur prayers never meant for the dead. on the "trip to kyôto" there is more to be learned about poor little yuko, who gave her life for her nation. to the japanese all the small details of her story are of the greatest importance, and are carefully treasured. hearn thinks that the western "refined feeling" might not care for the poor little blood-stained trifles; if so it is to be regretted. in "dust," with a dainty touch, he teaches again that we are but millions upon billions of dead people; that the cells and the souls are themselves recombinations of old welding of forces--forces of which we know nothing save that they belong "to the shadow-makers of universes." you are an individual--but also you are a population! this leads on to the end that in whatsoever time all human minds accord in thought and will with the mind of the teacher, there shall not remain even one particle of dust that does not enter into buddhahood. the last chapter, "within the circle," is of a philosophy so impermanent that it seems but shadow-play, and one may not behold a visible form, for--like all that which it symbolizes--it is but an illusion. exotics and retrospectives[ ] ( ) faithfully followed the ensuing year. the effort to write is manifest; even to himself hearn is admitting that the _frisson_ which japan gave him is passing. he is beginning to make copy; and the subjects are becoming more vague, vapoury, and ghostly. [ ] copyright, , by little, brown and company. i must eat some humble pie. my work during the past ten months has been rather poor. why, i cannot quite understand--because it costs me more effort. anyhow, i have had to rewrite ten essays: they greatly improved under the process. i am trying now to get a buddhist commentary for them--mostly to be composed of texts dealing with pre-existence and memory of former lives. i took for subjects the following:--beauty is memory--why beautiful things bring sadness;--the riddle of touch--_i. e._ the thrill that a touch gives;--the perfume of youth;--the reason of the pleasure of the feeling evoked by bright blue;--the pain caused by certain kinds of red;--mystery of certain musical effects;--fear of darkness and the feeling of dreams. queer subjects, are they not? i think of calling the collection "retrospectives. the _athenæum_, that wise critic, feels that in this book hearn "shows himself at his best. he is more subdued," it says, "than is his wont, and indulges less freely in excessive laudation and needless disparagement. the chapters on 'insect musicians,' on the 'literature of the dead,' and--oddly as it may sound to us--on 'frogs,' are among the most delightful of all his writings. the keynote of all is struck in the pretty stanza that heads the first of the three:-- _mushi, yo mushi, naïté ingwa ga tsukuru nara?_ (insect, o insect! singing fulfil you your fire-life and all life!) "the translation is ours. the fondness of the japanese for many kinds of chirping insects, which they keep in little bamboo-cages, is one of the prettiest of the surviving echoes of the past. the plaintive little cry satisfies the curious melancholy that characterizes the reflective moods of the lieges of mutsu. in the long series of changes that is to end in perfect buddha-forms, there is hope always, but always tinged with the sadness of vague memories of past pains, and the resigned dread of sorrows to come, one knows not how oft to be repeated ere in 'nirvâna' all earthly moods are lost. there is a regular trade in these tiny songsters, of the history of which mr. hearn tells the pleasant story." ( .) hearn leads us to a cemetery in a quaint lonesome garden, and teaches us something about the wonderful texts and inscriptions that are chiselled into the stone of the tombs, or painted on the wooden _sotoba_, and go to form the important literature of the dead. a suggestive _sotoba_-text is:-- the amida-kyô says: "all who enter into that country enter likewise into that state of virtue from which there can be no turning back." from the kaimyô which is engraved on the tomb, we may select:-- _koji_-- (bright-sun-on-the-way-of-the-wise, in the mansion of luminous mind.) _koji_-- (effective-benevolence-hearing-with-pure-heart-the-supplications -of-the-poor,--dwelling in the mansion of the virtue of pity.) the frog is another favourite of the japanese. there is one special variety called the kajika, or true singing-frog of japan, which is kept as a pet in a little cage. for over a hundred years the frog has been the subject of numerous poems. many of these little verses are love-poems, for the lovers' trysting-hour is also the hour when the frog-chorus is at its height. here is a quotation from the anthology called "kokinshû," compiled a.d. , by the poet ki-no-tsurayuki:-- the poetry of japan has its roots in the human heart, and thence has grown into a multiform utterance. man in this world, having a thousand million of things to undertake and to complete, has been moved to express his thoughts and his feelings concerning all that he sees and hears. when we hear the _uguisu_ singing among flowers, and the voice of the _kawazu_ which inhabits the waters, what mortal (_lit. "who among the living that lives"_) does not compose poems? a charming frog poem is:-- _té wo tsuité uta moshi-aguru, kawazu kana!_ (with hand resting on the ground, reverentially you repeat your poem, o frog!) and another:-- _tamagawa no hito wo mo yogizu naku kawazu, kono yû kikéba oshiku ya wa aranu?_ (hearing to-night the frogs of the jewel river--or tamagawa, that sing without fear of man, how can i help loving the passing moment?) a vivid chapter is hearn's description of his ascent of fuji-no-yama. here he may once again use his palette of many colours, but certainly not with the old _abandon_. brighter and brighter glows the gold. shadows come from the west,--shadows flung by cloud-pile over cloud-pile; and these, like evening shadows upon snow, are violaceous blue.... then orange-tones appear in the horizon; then smouldering crimson. and now the greater part of the fleece of gold has changed to cotton again,--white cotton mixed with pink.... stars thrill out. the cloud-waste uniformly whitens;--thickening and packing to the horizon. the west glooms. night rises; and all things darken except that wondrous unbroken world-round of white,--the sea of cotton. a lurking of the gruesome flashes out when the snow-patches against the miles of black soot and ashes on the mountain make him think "of a gleam of white teeth i once saw in a skull,--a woman's skull,--otherwise burnt to a sooty crisp." "retrospectives" is a group of gentle reveries, where we may muse with hearn on such elusive themes as the "sadness in beauty," for beauty has no real existence, it is the emotion of the dead within us. or there is the analysis of that favourite word _frisson_, "the touch that makes a thrill within you is a touch that you have felt before,--sense-echo of forgotten intimacies in many unremembered lives." "azure psychology" and "a red sunset" recall hearn's earlier criticisms on colour. in ghostly japan[ ] ( ) followed. the title is revelatory of the japan that is to people this book and those which are to come. in the opening chapter hearn crystallizes in a powerful sketch the sum of buddhist lore. of this the _academy_ writes:-- [ ] copyright, , by little, brown and company. "of nirvâna one carries away this one picture, painted in words curiously colourless and intangible--the picture of a mountain up whose steep side toil two creatures--the soul and his guide--toiling, stumbling upwards over a brittle and friable chaos of skulls. skulls crumbled into powder and skulls crumbling mark out the road; 'and every skull,' says the guide, 'is yours, and has been yours in some past incarnation; and the dust that rises round your present body is the dust of your past and deserted bodies that have served you well or ill as may be in your past lives.' in the fine and bewildering haze of this thought we lose our poet, and henceforward he is not a face nor a voice, but an echo of a living man's voice. we hear the echo, but the voice we do not hear. and we grudge the voice, even to nirvâna where all silences are merged in one." ( .) in a beautiful chapter hearn outlines all that might be written about the important subject of incense. he tells a good deal about its religious, luxurious, and ghostly uses. there is also a charming custom of giving parties where dainty games are played with it. sometimes there can be love between the living and the dead, or so it appears in the ghostly story of "a passional karma," or o-tsuyu, who died of love of shinzaburô and returns to be his bride. every night, by the light of their peony lanterns, she, accompanied by her maid, comes to keep the ghostly tryst. shinzaburô does not know that o-tsuyu is dead, but his servant tomozô, overhearing voices, gazes through a chink, and sees-- the face of a woman long dead,--and the fingers caressing were fingers of naked bone,--and of the body below the waist there was not anything: it melted off into thinnest trailing shadow. where the eyes of the lover deluded saw youth and grace and beauty, there appeared to the eyes of the watcher horror only, and the emptiness of death. now he whose bride is a ghost cannot live. no matter what force flows in his blood he must certainly perish. shinzaburô is warned and an amulet to protect him from the dead is given to him, but treachery is played, and the amulet is stolen; so one morning tomozô finds his master hideously dead;--and the face was the face of a man who had died in the uttermost agony of fear;--and lying beside him in the bed were the bones of a woman! and the bones of the arms, and the bones of the hands, clung fast about his neck. the gentle heart of the japanese shines in the chapter on "bits of poetry." you might find yourself, hearn says, in a community so poor that you could not even buy a cup of real tea, but no place could you discover "where there is nobody capable of making a poem." poems are written on all occasions and for all occasions. poems can be found upon almost any kind of domestic utensil;--for example, upon braziers, iron-kettles, vases, wooden-trays, lacquer-ware, porcelains, chopsticks of the finer sort,--even toothpicks! poems are painted upon shop-signs, panels, screens, and fans. poems are printed upon towels, draperies, curtains, kerchiefs, silk-linings, and women's crêpe-silk underwear. poems are stamped or worked upon letter-paper, envelopes, purses, mirror-cases, travelling-bags. poems are inlaid upon enamelled ware, cut upon bronzes, graven upon metal pipes, embroidered upon tobacco-pouches. a japanese artist would not think of elaborating a sketch, and a poem to be perfect must also only stir one's fancy. _ittakkiri_, meaning "entirely vanished" in the sense of "all told," is a term applied contemptuously to him who expresses all his thought. japan is rich in proverbs. hearn has translated one hundred examples of buddhist proverbs. _karu-toki no jizô-gao; nasu-toki no emma-gao._ (borrowing-time, the face of jizô; repaying-time, the face of emma.) _sodé no furi-awasé mo tashô no en._ (even the touching of sleeves in passing is caused by some relation in a former life.) a powerful relic of the old clinging love of the gruesome is the story of _ingwa-banashi_. the _daimyô's_ wife knew that she was dying; and she thought of many things, especially of her husband's favourite, the lady yukiko, who was nineteen years old. she begged her husband to send for the lady yukiko, whom, she said, she loved as a sister. after the dying wife had told lady yukiko it was her wish that she should become the wife of their dear lord, she begged that yukiko would carry her on her back to see the cherry-bloom. as a nurse turns her back to a child, that the child may cling to it, yukiko offered her shoulders to the wife, and said:-- "lady, i am ready: please tell me how i best can help you." "why, this way!" responded the dying woman, lifting herself with an almost superhuman effort by clinging to yukiko's shoulders. but as she stood erect, she quickly slipped her thin hands down over the shoulders, under the robe, and clutched the breasts of the girl, and burst into a wicked laugh. "i have my wish!" she cried--"i have my wish for the cherry-bloom, but not the cherry-bloom of the garden!... i could not die before i got my wish. now i have it!--oh, what a delight!" and with these words she fell forward upon the crouching girl, and died. when the attendants tried to lift the body from yukiko's shoulders, they found that the hands of the dead had grown into the quick flesh of the breasts of the girl. and they could not be removed. a skilful physician was called, and he decided that the hands could be amputated only at the wrists, and so this was done. but the hands still clung to the breasts; and there they soon darkened and dried up like the hands of a person long dead. yet this was only the beginning of the horror. withered and bloodless though they seemed, those hands were not dead. at intervals they would stir--stealthily, like great grey spiders. and nightly thereafter,--beginning always at the hour of the ox,--they would clutch and compress and torture. only at the hour of the tiger the pain would cease. yukiko cut off her hair, and became a mendicant-nun. every day she prayed to the dead for pardon, and every night the torture was renewed. this continued for more than seventeen years until yukiko was heard of no more. shadowings[ ] ( ) appeared the next year, . of this volume the _bookman_ says:-- [ ] copyright, , by little, brown and company. "he gives us several essays upon matters japanesque, which obviously involve no small amount of erudition and patient research. such are his papers upon the various species of _sémi_, or japanese singing-locusts, and on the complicated etiquette of japanese female names. but the distinctive feature of this volume is the first half, which is given up to a collection of curious tales by native writers, weird, uncanny, little stories, most of them, of ghouls and wraiths, and vampires, or at least the nearest japanese equivalents for such occidental spectres." ( .) the _athenæum_ does not find "shadowings" equal to the volume "exotics." it thinks that hearn is "perilously near exhausting his repertory of _kokin_ [one-stringed fiddle] themes." "the stories with which the present volume opens have no particular merit: they have lost their chief and real advantage--their local colour--in hearnesque translation, and seem to be little more than suggestions or drafts of 'nouvelles,' out of which skilful hands might perhaps have made something much better. a good example is the story of the screen maiden, which is a most lame presentment of a charming motif. the chapters on female names, on _sémi_, couplets and 'old japanese songs' are more interesting, but only to those who possess a considerable knowledge of old japanese life and literature.... of the 'old japanese songs'--where is the proof of their antiquity?--much the best is the dance-ballad of the dragon-maid, who bewitched a _yamabushi_, and chased him over moor and hill and river, until the temple of dojo was reached, under the great bell of which the trembling hill-warrior or outlaw (_yamabushi_ were such originally in all probability) hid himself, whereupon the dragon-maid wrapped her body round the bell once and again and the third time the bell melted and flowed away like boiling water. and with it, according to the legend, flowed away the ashes of the unwilling object of the dragon-maid's affections, consumed not through love, but through disdain." ( .) strange things happen in the group of tales, and not the least is the tale of the maiden in the screen whose loveliness so bewitches a youth that he becomes sick unto death. then an old scholar tells him that the person whom the picture represents is dead, but since the painter painted her mind as well as her form, her spirit lives in the picture and he may yet win her. so every day, tokkei, following out the old scholar's injunctions, sits before the portrait calling softly the maiden's name. and finally after many days the maiden answered, "_hai!_" and stepping down from out the screen, she kneels to take the cup of wine (which was to be so), whispering charmingly, "how could you love me so much?" also there is the tale of the corpse rider, in which the husband had to ride for one whole night, so far that he could not know the distance, the dead body of his divorced wife; and this was to save him from her vengeance. the gruesome gleams here, and again in the tale of "the reconciliation," when the repentant husband found that the wife he was holding in his arms is "a corpse so wasted that little remained save the bones, and the long black tangled hair." there is no small amount of etiquette in the prefixes and suffixes of the japanese female names. the majority of the _yobina_, or personal names, are not æsthetic. some are called after the flowers, and there are also place names, as for instance _miné_ (peak) _hama_ (shore); but the large proportion express moral or mental attributes. tenderness, kindness, deftness, cleverness, are frequently represented by _yobina;_ but appellations implying physical charm, or suggesting æsthetic ideas only, are comparatively uncommon. one reason for the fact may be that very æsthetic names are given to _geisha_ and to _jôro_, and consequently vulgarized. but the chief reason certainly is that the domestic virtues still occupy in the japanese moral estimate a place not less important than that accorded to religious faith in the life of our own middle ages. not in theory only, but in every-day practice, moral beauty is placed far above physical beauty; and girls are usually selected as wives, not for their good looks, but for their domestic qualities. i give a few names gleaned from hearn's lists:--_o-jun_--"faithful-to-death"; _o-tamé_--"for-the-sake-of,"--a name suggesting unselfishness; _o-chika_--"closely dear"; _o-suki_--"the beloved"--_aimée_; _o-taë_--"the exquisite"; _tokiwa_--"eternally constant." from the "fantasies," we read of the mystery of crowds, and the horrors of gothic architecture, the joys of levitation while one is asleep--with a moral attached; of noctilucæ. also, as we gaze with the adolescent youth into a pair of eyes we come to know that the splendour of the eyes that we worship belongs to them only as brightness to the morning-star. it is a reflex from beyond the shadow of the now,--a ghost-light of vanished suns. unknowingly within that maiden-gaze we meet the gaze of eyes more countless than the hosts of heaven,--eyes otherwhere passed into darkness and dust. thus, and only thus, the depth of that gaze is the depth of the sea of death and birth, and its mystery is the world-soul's vision, watching us out of the silent vast of the abyss of being. thus, and only thus, do truth and illusion mingle in the magic of eyes,--the spectral past suffusing with charm ineffable the apparition of the present;--and the sudden splendour in the soul of the seer is but a flash, one soundless sheet-lightning of the infinite memory. a japanese miscellany[ ] ( ) was the next book. what does the memory hold of these stories and sketches? surely that picture of old japan with its charming sentiment for dragon-flies, to which such delicate poems were written. [ ] copyright, , by little, brown and company. _tombô no ha-ura ni sabishi,-- aki-shiguré._ (lonesomely clings the dragon-fly to the under-side of the leaf--ah! the autumn-rains!) and that verse by the mother poet, who seeing many children playing their favourite pastime of chasing butterflies, thinks of her little one who is dead:-- _tombô-tsuri!-- kyô wa doko madé itta yara!_ (catching dragon-flies!... i wonder where _he_ has gone to-day!) then there are the children's songs about nature and her tiny creatures, and all their little songs for their plays; the songs which tell a story, and the sweet mother songs that lull the babies to sleep. how we pity poor misguided o-dai, who forgot loyalty to her ancestors to follow the teachings of the western faith. at its bidding even the sacred tablets and the scroll were cast away. and when she had forsaken everything, and had become as an outcast with her own people, the good missionaries found they needed a more capable assistant. poor little weak o-dai, without the courage to fill her sleeves with stones and then slip into the river, longing for the sunlight, and so "flung into the furnace of a city's lust." we hear the gruesome tinkle of the dead wife's warning bell, and we certainly shudder before the vision of her robed in her grave-shroud:-- "eyeless she came--because she had long been dead;--and her loosened hair streamed down about her face;--and she looked without eyes through the tangle of it; and spake without a tongue." then the hideous horror of the evil crime, as this dead wife in her jealousy tore off the head of the sleeping young wife. the terrified husband following the trail of blood found a nightmare-thing that chippered like a bat: the figure of the long-buried woman erect before her tomb,--in one hand clutching a bell, in the other the dripping head.... for a minute the three stood numbed. then one of the men-at-arms, uttering a buddhist invocation, drew, and struck at the shape. instantly it crumbled down upon the soil,--an empty scattering of grave-rags, bones, and hair;--and the bell rolled clanking out of the ruin. but the fleshless right hand, though parted from the wrist, still writhed; and its fingers still gripped at the bleeding head--and tore, and mangled,--as the claws of the yellow crab fast to a fallen fruit. who but hearn would have chosen this ghastly scene, and described it with such terrible reality? with the parents we have unravelled the mystery of kinumé, whose spirit belonged to one family, and whose body was the child of the other. perhaps we still see the famous picture of kwashin koji, which had a soul, for "it is well known that some sparrows, painted upon a sliding screen (_fusuma_) by hôgen yenshin, once flew away, leaving blank the spaces which they had occupied upon the surface. also it is well known that a horse painted upon a certain kakémono, used to go out at night to eat grass." so the water in the picture on the screen of kwashin overflowed into the room, and the boat thereon glided forth, but not a ripple from the oar was heard. then kwashin koji climbed into the boat, and it receded into the picture, and the water dried in the room. over the painted water slipped the painted vessel until all disappeared, and kwashin was heard of no more. and we remember too the strange brave way that umétsu chûbei won the gift of great strength for his children, and their children's children. the _athenæum_ finds the story of kwashin the best of this collection. speaking of the study, "on a bridge," it says:-- "the author narrates a personal experience of a _riksha_ man who drew him across an old bridge near kumamoto. it was in the time of the satsuma _muhon_ (rebellion), some twenty-two years earlier, that the _kurumaya_ (_riksha_ man) was stopped on the bridge by three men, who were dressed as peasants, but had very long swords under their raincoats. after a time a cavalry officer came along from the city. the moment the horse got on the bridge the three men turned and leaped:--and one caught the horse's bridle; and another gripped the officer's arm; and the third cut off his head--all in a moment.... i never saw anything done so quickly. "the seeming peasants then waited, and presently another cavalry officer came and was murdered in like manner. then came a third, who met a similar fate. lastly, the peasants went away, having thrown the bodies into the river, but taking the heads with them. the man had never mentioned the matter till long after the war--why? 'because it would have been ungrateful.' "no doubt this is a true story." ( .) it was probably during the ensuing year that hearn contributed to the japanese fairy tale series ( ), published in tôkyô, his renditions of four of these stories. kottÔ[ ] ( ) followed. says the _athenæum_:-- "the gem of this volume is 'a woman's diary,' purporting to be 'the history of a woman's married life recorded by herself, found in a small _haribako_ (work-box) which had belonged to her.' it is an ordinary story, not in the least sensational, yet pitiful and even touching in its record of poverty and suffering, showing the hardships and small enjoyment--according to our notions, at least--of the colourless existence led by the bulk of the japanese poorer classes upon a total family wage of twelve pounds a year or less." ( .) [ ] copyright, , by the macmillan company. except for "a woman's diary" and "fireflies" the tales in "kottô" are fragmentary. some are gruesome as the history of the gaki; or as the story of o-katsu-san, who was so bold as to go by night to yurei-daki, and who to win her bet brought back the little money-box of the gods. but when she came to give her baby his milk,-- out of the wrappings unfastened there fell to the floor a blood-soaked bundle of baby clothes that left exposed two very small brown feet, and two very small brown hands--nothing more. the child's head had been torn off! there is also the story of o-kamé, who returned each night to haunt her husband; of chûgorô, who was bewitched by a beautiful woman whom he married beneath the waters. but he sickened and died, for his blood had been drained by his circe, who was "simply a frog,--a great and ugly frog!" the literature and the significance of the fire-flies holds an important place with the japanese, and for more than a thousand years the poets have been making verses about these little creatures. a sketch in which hearn is most fortunate is "pathological," where tama, the mother-cat, dreams of her dead kittens-- coos to them, and catches for them small shadowy things,--perhaps even brings to them, through some dim window ofmemory, a sandal of ghostly straw.... beautiful is the "revery of mother-love":-- yet those countless solar fires, with their viewless millions of living planets, must somehow reappear: again the wondrous cosmos, self-born as self-consumed, must resume its sidereal whirl over the deeps of the eternities. and the love that strives for ever with death shall rise again, through fresh infinitudes of pain, to renew the everlasting battle. the light of the mother's smile will survive our sun;--the thrill of her kiss will last beyond the thrilling of stars;--the sweetness of her lullaby will endure in the cradle-songs of worlds yet unevolved;--the tenderness of her faith will quicken the fervour of prayers to be made to the hosts of another heaven,--to the gods of a time beyond time. and the nectar of her breasts can never fail: that snowy stream will still flow on, to nourish the life of some humanity more perfect than our own, when the milky way that spans our night shall have vanished for ever out of space. like unto the soul is a drop of dew for your personality signifies, in the eternal order, just as much as the especial motion of molecules in the shivering of any single drop. perhaps in no other drop will the thrilling and the picturing be ever exactly the same; but the dews will continue to gather and to fall, and there will always be quivering pictures.... the very delusion of delusions is the idea of death as loss. kwaidan[ ] ( ) was the book before "japan," which was published after hearn's death. it is a collection of old stories, many of them of the gruesome, and of careful studies of ants, mosquitoes, and butterflies. striking is the tale of yuki-onna, the snow-woman, as is also the incident of riki-baka. one bewitched by the dead is mimi-nashi-hôïchi, whose ears were torn off because the holy texts which were written everywhere else upon his body were there forgotten. sonjô, the hunter, killed the mate of a female _oshidori_, who after appearing to him in a dream as a beautiful woman, who rebukes him the following day as a bird, tears open her body, and dies before his eyes. o-tei is reborn in the shape of a woman that she may wed years later her promised husband--nagao chôsei of echigo. so loyal is the love of o-sodé, the milk-nurse, that the cherry-tree which is planted in commemoration of her, on the anniversary of her death, blossoms in a wonderful way. because of his selfish wickedness in thinking only of the gains in his profession, a priest was made to be reborn into the state of a _jikininki_, who had to devour the corpses of people who died in his district. other devourers of human flesh are the rokuro-kubi. the head of a rokuro-kubi separates itself from its body. [ ] copyright, , by houghton, mifflin and company. japan[ ] ( ): an attempt at interpretation is the last book that hearn published. he was reading its proofs at the time of his death. although a posthumous volume appeared, this may rightly be termed his final word. it is the crystallization and the summary of all that has been said before. it contains a group of twenty-one lectures, which hearn had expected at first to deliver at cornell university. his own words will best reveal their import:-- [ ] copyright, , by the macmillan company. they will form a book explaining japan from the standpoint of ancestor-worship. they are suited only to a cultivated audience. the substantial idea of the lectures is that japanese society represents the condition of ancient greek society a thousand years before christ. i am treating of religious japan,--not of artistic or economical japan except by way of illustration. "the history of japan is really the history of her religion," is the key to the book. the _academy_ remarks:-- "no one who wishes to understand the possibilities of the future of japan can afford to neglect the past, and no one who would grasp the meaning of the past can afford to neglect mr. hearn's fine and thoughtful work." ( .) in a review mr. griffis says:-- "they felt that he had done his best and was degenerating. yet here is a work which is a classic in science, a wonder of interpretation. it is the product of long years of thought, of keenest perception, or marvellous comprehension. "one cannot quote, one must read this work. it shows the japanese under his armour, modern science. the japanese, outwardly, are ruled by treaties, diplomacy, governments, codes, imperial diet, armies and battleships--all modern and external. inwardly they--that is, forty-nine millions of them--are governed by ghosts. the graveyard is the true dictator. it is ever their 'illustrious ancestors' who achieve victories. they, as a nation, are superbly organized for war. there is no originality, no personality, no individuality worth speaking of in the island empire. it is all done by the government, the community. in social evolution the japanese are even yet far behind the romans, and much as the pre-homeric greeks. "in a word, lafcadio hearn outdoes the missionaries in dogmatism, exceeds even the hostile propagandist in telling the naked truth. devoted friend of japan, he excels the sworn enemies of her religions in laying bare, though with admiration, the realities.... lafcadio hearn turns the white and searching beams on the ship and man.... his book is a re-reading of all japanese history, a sociological appraisement of the value of japanese civilization, and a warning against intolerant propaganda of any sort whatever. this book is destined to live, and to cause searchings of heart among those who imagine that the japanese soul has been changed in fifty years." ( .) from the _spectator_ i quote:-- "both the prose and poetry of japanese life are infused into mr. hearn's charming pages. nobody, so far as we know, has given a better description of the fascination which japanese life has at first for such as enter into its true spirit, and of its gradual disappearance.... of course it must be remembered that this charm of japan was something more than a beautiful mirage. 'old japan,' in the opinion of mr. hearn, 'came nearer to the achievement of the highest moral ideal than our far more evolved societies can hope to do for many a hundred years. curiously enough, it was under the shadow of the sword that the fascinating life of japan matured; universal politeness was nurtured by the knowledge that any act of rudeness might, and probably would, cause a painful and immediate death. this supremacy of the sword, governed by the noble rule of _bushi-do_, hardened the japanese temper into the wonderful spirit of self-sacrifice and patriotism which is now making itself apparent in the stress of war. all this is admirably portrayed in mr. hearn's pages,--the swan-song of a very striking writer." ( .) in _the american journal of sociology_ there is a review of this book, by edmund buckley of the university of chicago, which is so admirable and inclusive that i have obtained professor buckley's kind permission to quote it in its entirety. this review leaves small margin for further comment. but it is to be regretted that space will not permit citations of hearn's tributes to the japanese home, woman and character. "on p. of w. e. griffis' 'the mikado's empire,' is textual evidence that, so late as , intelligent men, and theologians at that--rather, in sooth, because they are theologians--could harbour such atrocious notions about shintôism, the ethnic faith of the japanese, as the following: 'shintô is in no proper sense of the term a religion.... in its lower forms it is blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates.' the present reviewer bears these christian apologists and heathen defamers 'witness that they have a zeal for god, but not according to knowledge.' they wrote in the days when hierology (comparative religion) was still inchoate, for c. p. ticle's 'elements' did not appear in its english dress until ; and when japan's abasement before the 'christian' powers was complete, and therefore everything japanese assumed to be worthless. but the reaction came, of course, and is now pretty well completed. japan's novel yet glorious art conquered the world; japan's new yet ever-victorious army has conquered russia's imposing array; and now mr. hearn completely routs the contemners of a people's sincere faith. the consensus of hierologists that no people was ever found without a religion had already been given; and the creed, cult, and ethics of shintôism had been correctly described; but it remained for mr. hearn to give a more complete and intimate account than had previously been done of the ancestorism in shintô and of its profound influence upon politics and morality. "it will surprise no one to learn that mr. hearn overdid his contention, just because such excess is the well-nigh inevitable reaction from the underestimate that he found current and sought to correct. as he states the case on p. : 'hitherto the subject of japanese religion has been written of chiefly by the sworn enemies of that religion; by others it has been almost entirely ignored.' but now that 'see-saw' has followed 'see,' we may hope to win a final equilibrium of correct appreciation. to this end several corrections are called for; but, before they are made, clearness will be secured by a concise analysis of the treatise; for in its course religion, politics, and morality are interwoven on a historic warp. the entire fabric runs about as follows: (chap. .) the real religion of the japanese is ancestorism, which showed in three cults--the domestic, the communal, and the state. the domestic arose first, but the primitive family might include hundreds of households. ancestorism in japan confirms spencer's exposition of religious origins. the greater gods were all evolved from ghost-cults. good men made good gods; bad men, bad ones. (chap. .) the domestic cult began in offerings of food and drink made at the grave; then, under chinese influence, was transferred to the home before tablets; where it was maintained until this present by buddhism. thin tablets of white wood, inscribed with the names of the dead, are placed in a miniature wooden shrine, which is kept upon a shelf in some inner chamber. tiny offerings of food, accompanied with brief prayer, must be made each day by some member of the household in behalf of all; for the blessed dead still need sustenance, and in return can guard the house. the buddhist rite, however, made prayer, not _to_, but _for_ these dead. the japanese scholar hirata is correct when he declares the worship of ancestors to be the mainspring of all virtues. (chap. .) the family was united only by religion. the father--not the mother--was supposed to be the life-giver, and was therefore responsible for the cult. hence the inferior position of woman. the ancestral ghost of an _uji_, or family of several households, became later the _ujigami_, or local tutelar god. subordination of young to old, of females to males, and of the whole family to its chief, who was at once ruler and priest, shows that the family organization was religious and not marital. both monogamy and the practice of parents selecting their child's spouse arose because best accordant with religion. later custom makes the decision, not of the father alone, but of the household and kindred, determinative of any important step. "(chap. .) the communal cult of the district ruled the family in all its relations to the outer world. the _ujigami_, or clan-god, was the spirit rather of a former ruler than of a common ancestor. hochiman was a ruler, but kasuga an ancestor. beside the _uji_ temple of a district, there may be a more important one dedicated to some higher deity. every _ujiko_ or parishioner is taken to the _ujigami_ when one month old and dedicated to him. thereafter he attends the temple festivals, which combine fun with piety; and he makes the temple groves his playground. grown up, he brings his children here; and, if he leaves home, pays his respects to the god on leaving and returning. thus the social bond of each community was identical with the religious bond, and the cult of the _ujigami_ embodied the moral experience of the community. the individual of such a community enjoyed only a narrowly restricted liberty. shintôism had no moral code, because at this stage of ancestor-cult religion and ethics coincide. "(chap. .) the great gods of nature were developed from ancestor-worship, though their real history has been long forgotten. (chap. .) rites of worship and of purification were many. (chap. .) the rule of the dead extended to moral conduct and even to sumptuary matters, language, and amusements. (chap. .) buddhism absorbed the native ancestor-cult, but prescribed that prayers be said for them, not to them. in accordance with its principle, 'first observe the person, then preach the law'--that is, accommodate instruction to the hearer's capacity--buddhism taught the masses metempsychosis instead of palingenesis, and the paradise of amida instead of the nirvâna of buddha. buddhism rendered its greatest service to japan by education in the learning and arts of china. (chap. .) the higher buddhism is a kind of monism. "(chap. .) japanese society was simply an amplification of the patriarchal family, and its clan-groups never united into a coherent body until . at first the bulk of the people were slaves or serfs, but from the seventh century a large class of freedmen--farmers and artisans--came into existence. the first period of japanese social evolution was based on a national head, the mikado, and a national cult, shintôism; it began in this seventh century, but developed to the limit of its type only under the tokugawa shoguns, in the seventeenth century. "next to the priest-emperor at the head came the _kugé_, or ancient nobility, from whose ranks most of the latter regents and shoguns were drawn. next ranked the _buké_ or _samurai_, which was the professional military class, and was ruled by nearly three hundred _daimyô_, or feudal lords of varying importance. next came the commonalty, _heimin_, with three classes--farmers, artisans, and tradesmen, the last being despised by the _samurai_, who also could cut down any disrespectful _heimin_ with impunity. lowest of all came the _chori_--pariahs, who were not counted japanese at all, but _mono_-'things.' but even among them distinctions arose according to occupation. the close care taken of the native religion by the government precluded rise of a church. nor was buddhism, divided into hostile sects and opposed by the _samurai_, ever able to establish a hierarchy independent of the government. personal freedom was suppressed, as it would be now under socialism, which is simply a reversion to an overcome type. "(chap. .) the second period of japanese social evolution lasted from the eleventh to the nineteenth century, and was marked by dominance over the mikadoate of successive dynasties of shoguns. the permanence of this mikadoate amid all perturbations of the shogunate was owing to its religious nature. (chap. .) following the lord in death, suicide, and vendetta were customs based on loyalty, and they involved the noblest self-sacrifice. (chap. .) catholic missions were suppressed lest they should lead to the political conquest of japan. (chap. .) the tokugawa shoguns exercised iron discipline, and now were brought to perfection those exquisite arts and manners of the japanese. (chap. .) a revival of learning, begun in the eighteenth century, slowly led to a new nationalist support of the mikado; and when by the shogun had resigned and the daimiates been abolished, the third period in japan's social evolution began. (chap. .) in spite of outward seeming, the ancient social conditions and ancestor-cult still control every action. (chap. .) the individual is still restrained by the conventions of the masses, by communistic guilds of craftsmen, and by the government's practice of taking loyal service in all its departments without giving adequate pecuniary reward. (chap. .) the educational system still maintains the old communism by training, not for individual ability, but for co-operative action. this is favoured, too, by the universal practice of rich men meeting the personal expenses of promising students. (chap. .) japanese loyalty and courage will support her army and navy, but industrial competition with other peoples calls for individual freedom. (chap. .) the japanese are not indifferent to religion, and can be understood only by a study of their religious and social evolution. future changes will be social, but ancestor-cult will persist, and offers an insuperable obstacle to the spread of christianity. "the critical reader will not have failed to meet in this summary many positions that challenge his previous knowledge, and whether these be correct or not can be determined only by an examination of the full text, which it eminently deserves. the reviewer, however, will confine himself to certain matters that seem to him the dominating errors of the whole. probably three greater errors were never compressed into a single sentence than in this from p. : 'the real religion of japan, the religion still professed in one form or another by the entire nation, is that cult which has been the foundation of all civilized religion and of all civilized society--ancestor-worship.' that ancestor-worship is still professed by the entire nation is negatived by all we know from other sources as well as all we should expect. the ancestor-worship native to japan had been appropriated by buddhism; and, since the revolution of with its disestablishment of that church, the butsudan, where the tablets were kept, has been largely sold as an art object or has been simply disused. the _mitamaya_ mentioned on p. , as if in extensive use for ancestor-worship, is found only in a few purist families, and is known to the mass of japanese only as the rear apartment or structure of a shintôist shrine. "that ancestor-worship is 'the real religion of japan' and 'has been the foundation of all civilized religion' are errors that mr. hearn owes to herbert spencer's influence, which is confessed here, and indeed is evident throughout the work. perhaps nothing has brought spencer into more discredit than the lengths he went to prove this basic nature of ancestorism in his 'principles of sociology,' and the reader of pp. - of mr. hearn's work will readily see how futile also is the attempt to show that the nature-deities of shintôism were only 'transfigured ghosts.' no, indeed, god did not make man and leave ghosts to make him religious. the heaven and the earth were here before ghosts, and man could personify them just as soon as he knew himself as a person, which he must have done long before he analyzed himself into a ghost-soul and a body. had mr. hearn not ignored réville, max müller, pfleiderer, and saussaye, while steeping himself in spencer, he might have observed, what is plainly visible in shintôism as elsewhere: that religion has _two_ tap roots, ancestorism indeed, but also naturism. "again, mr. hearn's sentence declares that ancestor-worship is 'the foundation of all civilized society.' this is the prevailing view throughout the work; for example, on pp. , , , , , and . but other passages imply the saner view that religion and morality are coordinate functions of one man. thus at p. , mr. hearn attributes japan's power to 'her old religious and social training.' the many and strong cases of influence of religion upon conduct that can really be shown in japan amount only to influence, of course, and not to 'foundation' or 'origination,' a quite transparent case of mr. hearn's error is where (p. ) he attributes the exceptional cleanliness of the japanese to their religion, which here, as usual, he sums up as ancestor-worship. one wonders, however, why this world-wide phenomenon of religion should determine a japanese cleanliness; why ancestor-worshippers are not always clean; as for example the chinese, who bathe most rarely. it seems saner to seek a cause for the unique daily bath of the japanese in their also uniquely numerous thermal springs, which occur in no less than different localities. symbolism did indeed in japan, as elsewhere, lead to religious bathing in rivers; but bathing in rivers, as in ocean, was never popular in japan until recently learned from the foreigner; whereas the thermal springs are crowded, and the daily baths at home are always taken exceedingly hot after the thermal pattern, for these have been found not only cleansing, but curing and warming, the last quality being a great merit where winters are cold and houses unheated. "finally, the reader need not expect to meet here any adequate reference to those vices that have been fostered by religion in japan. the concubinage, confirmed by ancestorism, is once mentioned; and the harlotry, promoted by phallicism (the phallos was frequently found in a brothel, though not exclusively there, of course), is relegated to a simple footnote. but such matters can be learned elsewhere, whereas the close and frequent points of influence which religion exercised upon politics and morality in japan can nowhere else be so well studied as here." ( .) the romance of the milky way[ ] ( ) is hearn's posthumous book. the last memories are of the "weaving lady of the milky way"; of "goblin poetry"; of "ultimate questions," which are called forth by the essay of that name written by the author of the "synthetic philosophy"; of the "mirror maiden" whom matsumura, the priest, saved from the well, and who repaid him by good-fortune. moreover, of the alluring maiden in the dream of itô norisuké--if one is to choose a ghost for a bride, who would not seek himégimi-sama? as a finale there is the picture of admiral tôgô sending to tôkyô "for some flowering-trees in pots--inasmuch as his responsibilities allowed him no chance of seeing the cherry-flowers and the plum-blossoms in their season." [ ] copyright, , by houghton, mifflin and company. bibliography i american and english editions[ ] original works (nos. - ) [ ] for the english editions, the english catalogue of books has been followed. no. . . stray leaves from strange literature. stories reconstructed from the anvari-soheïli, baitál, pachísí, mahabharata, pantchatantra, gulistan, talmud, kalewala, etc. boston: james r. osgood and company, , mo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. no. . . gombo zhÈbes. little dictionary of creole proverbs, selected from six creole dialects. translated into french and into english, with notes, complete index to subjects and some brief remarks upon the creole idioms of louisiana. new york: will h. coleman, , vo. no. . . some chinese ghosts. boston: roberts brothers, , mo. new edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. no. . . chita: a memory of last island. new york: harper and brothers, , mo. no. . . youma, the story of a west-indian slave. new york: harper and brothers, , mo. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. no. . . two years in the french west indies. new york: harper and brothers, , vo. the same. london: harper and brothers, , vo. new edition. new york and london: harper and brothers, , vo. no. . . glimpses of unfamiliar japan. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , vols., vo. the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , vols., vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vols., cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vols., cr. vo. no. . . "out of the east." reveries and studies in new japan. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , mo. the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , mo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. no. . . kokoro: hints and echoes of japanese inner life. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , mo. the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vo. no. . . gleanings in buddha-fields, studies of hand and soul in the far east. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , mo. the same. london: constable and company, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vo. no. . . exotics and retrospectives. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , mo. new edition. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vo. no. . . in ghostly japan. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. no. . . shadowings. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. no. . . a japanese miscellany. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. no. . . japanese fairy tales. tôkyô, japan: t. hasegawa ( vols.), mo. no. . . kottÔ. being japanese curios, with sundry cobwebs. new york: the macmillan company (london: macmillan and company, ltd.), , vo. reprinted, april, . no. . . kwaidan: stories and studies of strange things. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , mo. the same. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , mo. no. . . japan: an attempt at interpretation. new york: the macmillan company (london: macmillan and company, ltd.), , vo. no. . . the romance of the milky way, and other studies and stories. boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, , mo. the same. london: constable and company, , cr. vo. translations (nos. - ) no. . . one of cleopatra's nights, and other fantastic romances. by théophile gautier. faithfully translated by lafcadio hearn. new york: r. worthington, , vo. new edition. new york: brentano's, , mo. new edition. new york: brentano's, , mo. clarimonde. new york: brentano's, , mo. no. . . the crime of sylvestre bonnard (member of the institute). by anatole france. the translation and introduction by lafcadio hearn. new york: harper and brothers, , vo. ii foreign editions (nos. - ) danish no. . . fra skyggernes verden ("from the world of the shadows"). complete and translated by johanne münther. pages, one portrait. gyldendalske book-trade, copenhagen, , vo. french no. . . le japon inconnu. (esquisses psychologiques). par lafcadio hearn. traduit de l'anglais avec l'autorisation de l'auteur, par mme. léon raynal. in jésus, - p. mayenne, impr. colin, paris, lib. dujarric, . (selections from "glimpses of unfamiliar japan.") german no. . . kokoro. von lafcadio hearn. einzig autorisierte Übersetzung aus dem englischen von berta franzos. mit vorwort von hugo von hofmannsthal. buchschmuck von emil orlik. frankfurt a main: rütten und loening, , vo. no. . . lotus. blicke in das unbekannte japan. einzig autorisierte Übersetzung aus dem englischen von berta franzos. mit vorwort von hugo von hofmannsthal. buchschmuck von emil orlik. frankfurt a main: rütten und loening, , vo. (selections from "glimpses of unfamiliar japan.") no. . . lafcadio hearn's werke über japan in künstlerischer buchausstattung von emil orlik. band i. kokoro. band ii. lotus. band iii. izumo. frankfurt a main: rütten und loening, . swedish no. . . exotica. noveller och studier från japan, af lafcadio hearn. bemyndigad öfversättning af karin hirn; med några notiser om författaren af yrjö hirn. tredje upplagen. stockholm: wahlström & widstrand, , mo., end pages, pp. , decorated paper. (selections from "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," "out of the east," "kokoro," "exotics and retrospectives," "in ghostly japan," "shadowings.") reprint . no. . . exotica. noveller och studier från japan, af lafcadio hearn. ny samling. bemyndigad öfversättning af karin hirn. stockholm: wahlström & widstrand, , mo., p. l., pp. , decorated paper. (selections from "out of the east," "kokoro," "gleanings in buddha-fields," "exotics and retrospectives," "in ghostly japan," "shadowings," "a japanese miscellany," "kottô.") no. . . spÖken och drÖmmar frÅn japan. (exotica. tredje samlingen) af lafcadio hearn. bemyndigad öfversättning från engelskan af karin hirn. wahlström & widstrands, förlag, stockholm, mcmiv., mo., end page, pp. , decorated paper. (selections from "shadowings," "a japanese miscellany," "kottô," "kwaidan.") no. . . natalika. ("stray leaves from strange literature") af lafcadio hearn. bemyndigad öfversättning af karin hirn. stockholm: wahlström & widstrand, mo., pp. , decorated paper. ("runes from the kalewala" omitted.) iii list, with description, of separate published works in chronological order (nos. - ) original works no. . . stray leaves from strange literature. stories reconstructed from the anvari-soheïli, baitál pachísí, mahabharata, pantchatantra, gulistan, talmud, kalewala, etc. by lafcadio hearn. (publisher's monogram.) boston: james r. osgood and company, . mo., pp. ( ) , green cloth, black lettering, and decorations. ( ) dedication:-- to my friend page m. baker editor of the new orleans times-democrat ( - ) explanatory (_extract_). while engaged upon this little mosaic work of legend and fable, i felt much like one of those merchants told of in sindbad's second voyage, who were obliged to content themselves with gathering the small jewels adhering to certain meat which eagles brought up from the valley of diamonds. i have had to depend altogether upon the labour of translators for my acquisitions; and these seemed too small to deserve separate literary setting. by cutting my little gems according to one pattern, i have doubtless reduced the beauty of some; yet it seemed to me their colours were so weird, their luminosity so elfish, that their intrinsic value could not be wholly destroyed even by so clumsy an artificer as i. in short, these fables, legends, parables, etc., are simply reconstructions of what impressed me as most fantastically beautiful in the most exotic literature which i was able to obtain. with few exceptions, the plans of the original narratives have been preserved.... this little collection has no claim upon the consideration of scholars. it is simply an attempt to share with the public some of those novel delights i experienced while trying to familiarize myself with some very strange and beautiful literatures. ... my gems were few and small: the monstrous and splendid await the coming of sindbad, or some mighty lapidary by whom they may be wrought into jewel bouquets exquisite as those bunches of topaz blossoms and ruby buds laid upon the tomb of nourmahal. new orleans, . ( - ) bibliography. ( - ) contents:-- stray leaves the book of thoth. _from an egyptian papyrus._ the fountain maiden. _a legend of the south pacific._ the bird wife. _an esquimaux tradition._ tales retold from indian and buddhist literature the making of tilottama the brahman and his brahmani bakawali natalika the corpse-demon the lion the legend of the monster misfortune a parable buddhistic pundari yamaraja the lotos of faith runes from the kalewala the magical words the first musician the healing of wainamoinen stories of moslem lands boutimar, the dove the son of a robber a legend of love the king's justice traditions retold from the talmud a legend of rabba the mockers esther's choice the dispute in the halacha rabbi yochanan ben zachai a tradition of titus new edition. london: gay and bird's, , crown vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- charles w. coleman, jr., _harper's monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . no. . . gombo zhÈbes. little dictionary of creole proverbs, selected from six creole dialects. translated into french and into english, with notes, complete index to subjects and some brief remarks upon the creole idioms of louisiana. by lafcadio hearn. new york: will h. coleman, publisher, no. , business quarter, astor house, . vo., p. l., pp. , brown cloth, design on cover. ( - ) introduction (_extract_). any one who has ever paid a flying visit to new orleans probably knows something about those various culinary preparations whose generic name is "gombo"--compounded of many odds and ends, with the okra-plant, or true gombo for a basis, but also comprising occasionally "losé, zepinard, laitie," and the other vegetables sold in bunches in the french market. at all events, any person who has remained in the city for a season must have become familiar with the nature of "gombo filé," "gombo févi," and "gombo aux herbes," or as our coloured cook calls it "gombo zhèbes"--for she belongs to the older generation of creole _cuisinières_, and speaks the patois in its primitive purity, without using a single "r." her daughter, who has been to school, would pronounce it _gombo zhairbes_:--the modern patois is becoming more and more frenchified, and will soon be altogether forgotten, not only throughout louisiana, but even in the antilles. it still, however, retains originality enough to be understood with difficulty by persons thoroughly familiar with french; and even those who know nothing of any language but english, readily recognize it by the peculiar rapid syllabification and musical intonation. such english-speaking residents of new orleans seldom speak of it as "creole": they call it _gombo_, for some mysterious reason which i have never been able to explain satisfactorily. the coloured creoles of the city have themselves begun to use the term to characterize the patois spoken by the survivors of slavery days. turiault tells us that in the town of martinique, where the creole is gradually changing into french, the _bitacos_, or country negroes who still speak the patois nearly pure, are much ridiculed by their municipal brethren:--_Ça ou ka palé là, chè, c'est nèg;--Ça pas créole!_ ("what you talk is 'nigger,' my dear:--that isn't creole!") in like manner a young creole negro or negress of new orleans might tell an aged member of his race: _Ça qui to parlé ça pas créole; ça c'est gombo!_ i have sometimes heard the pure and primitive creole also called "congo" by coloured folks of the new generation. the literature of "gombo" has perhaps even more varieties than there are preparations of the esculents above referred to;--the patois has certainly its gombo févi, its gombo filé, its "gombo zhèbes"--both written and unwritten. a work like marbot's "bambous" would deserve to be classed with the pure "févi";--the treatises of turiault, baissac, st. quentin, thomas, rather resemble that fully prepared dish, in which crabs seem to struggle with fragments of many well-stewed meats, all strongly seasoned with pepper. the present essay at creole folklore, can only be classed as "gombo zhèbes"--(_zhèbes çé feuil-chou, cresson, laitie, bettrav, losé, zepinard_); the true okra is not the basis of our preparation;--it is a creole dish, if you please, but a salmagundi of inferior quality. * * * * * needless to say, this collection is far from perfect;--the most i can hope for is that it may constitute the nucleus of a more exhaustive publication to appear in course of time. no one person could hope to make a really complete collection of creole proverbs--even with all the advantages of linguistic knowledge, leisure, wealth, and travel. only a society of folklorists might bring such an undertaking to a successful issue;--but as no systematic effort is being made in this direction, i have had no hesitation in attempting--not indeed to fill a want--but to set an example. _gouïe passé, difil sivré_:--let the needle but pass, the thread will follow. l. h. ( ) creole bibliography. pages - indexes. articles and reviews:-- _nation, the_, april , , vol. , p. . no. . . some chinese ghosts. by lafcadio hearn. (chinese characters.) boston: roberts brothers, . mo., p. ( ) , brown cloth with chinese mask on cover, red top. facing title-page:-- _if ye desire to witness prodigies and to behold marvels, be not concerned as to whether the mountains are distant or the rivers far away._ kin-kou-ki-koan. ( ) dedication:-- to my friend, henry edward krehbiel the musician, who, speaking the speech of melody unto the children of tien-hia,-- unto the wandering tsing-jin, whose skins have the colour of gold,-- moved them to make strange sounds upon the serpent-bellied san-hien; persuaded them to play for me upon the shrieking ya-hien; prevailed on them to sing me a song of their native land,-- the song of mohlí-hwa, the song of the jasmine-flower. (sketch of chinaman's head.) (reverse) chinese character. ( - ) preface. i think that my best apology for the insignificant size of this volume is the very character of the material composing it. in preparing the legends i sought especially for _weird beauty_; and i could not forget this striking observation in sir walter scott's "essay on imitations of the ancient ballad": "the supernatural, though appealing to certain powerful emotions very widely and deeply sown amongst the human race, is, nevertheless, _a spring which is peculiarly apt to lose its elasticity by being too much pressed upon_." those desirous to familiarize themselves with chinese literature as a whole have had the way made smooth for them by the labours of linguists like julien, pavie, rémusat, de rosny, schlegel, legge, hervey-saint-denys, williams, biot, giles, wylie, beal, and many other sinologists. to such great explorers indeed, the realm of cathayan story belongs by right of discovery and conquest; yet the humbler traveller who follows wonderingly after them into the vast and mysterious pleasure-grounds of chinese fancy may surely be permitted to cull a few of the marvellous flowers there growing,--a self-luminous _hwa-wang_, a black lily, a phosphoric rose or two,--as souvenirs of his curious voyage. l. h. new orleans, march , . ( ) contents:-- the soul of the great bell the story of ming-y the legend of tchi-niu the return of yen tchin-king the tradition of the tea-plant the tale of the porcelain god appendix:-- notes. glossary. new edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. articles and reviews:-- charles w. coleman, jr., _harper's monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, may , , vol. , p. . no. . . chita: a memory of last island. by lafcadio hearn "_but nature whistled with all her winds, did as she pleased, and went her way._" --emerson. new york: harper & brothers, franklin square, . mo., p. l., pp. , terra-cotta cloth, decorated. (published first in _harper's monthly_, april, .) ( ) dedication:-- to my friend dr. rodolfo matas of new orleans ( ) contents:-- part i the legend of l'île dernière part ii out of the sea's strength part iii the shadow of the tide (reverse) _je suis la vaste mêlée,-- reptile, étant l onde; ailée, Étant le vent,-- force et fuite, haine et vie, houle immense, poursuivie et poursuivant._ --victor hugo. articles and reviews:-- _boston evening transcript, the_, november , . hutson, charles woodward, _poet-lore_, spring, , vol. , p. . no. . . youma. the story of a west-indian slave. by lafcadio hearn. (publisher's vignette.) new york: harper & brothers, franklin square, . mo., p. l., pp. , frontispiece illustration, red cloth. (published first in _harper's monthly_, january-february, .) ( ) dedication:-- to my friend joseph s. tunison. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, august , , p. . _nation, the_, may , , vol. , p. . no. . . two years in the french west indies. by lafcadio hearn. illustrated. (publisher's vignette.) new york: harper & brothers, franklin square, . vo., pp. ( ) , full-page illustrations, illustrations in the text, green cloth ornamental. (reverse) "_la facon d'être du pays est si agréable, la température si bonne, et l'on y vit dans une liberté si honnête, que je n'aye pas vu un seul homme, ny une seule femme, qui en soient revenus, en qui je n'aye remarqué une grande passion d'y retourner._"--le père dutertre ( ). ( ) dedication:-- À mon cher ami leopold arnoux notaire à saint pierre, martinique. _souvenir de nos promenades,--de nos voyages,--de nos causeries,--des sympathies échangées,--de tout le charme d'une amitié inaltérable et inoubliable,--de tout ce qui parle à l'âme au doux pays des revenants._ ( - ) preface (_extract_). the introductory paper, entitled "a midsummer trip to the tropics" consists for the most part of notes taken upon a voyage of nearly three thousand miles, accomplished in less than two months. during such hasty journeying it is scarcely possible for a writer to attempt anything more serious than a mere reflection of the personal experiences undergone; and, in spite of sundry justifiable departures from simple note-making, this paper is offered only as an effort to record the visual and emotional impressions of the moment. my thanks are due to mr. william lawless, british consul at st. pierre, for several beautiful photographs, taken by himself, which have been used in the preparation of the illustrations. l. h. philadelphia, . ( ) contents:-- a midsummer trip to the tropics (_harper's monthly_, july-september, ) martinique sketches:-- i. les porteuses (_harper's monthly_, july, ) ii. la grande anse (_harper's monthly_, november, ) iii. un revenant iv. la guiablesse v. la vérette (_harper's monthly_, october, ) vi. les blanchisseusses vii. la pelée viii. 'ti canotié ix. la fille de couleur x. bête-ni-pié xi. ma bonne xii. "pa combiné, chè!" xiii. yé xiv. lys. xv. appendix: some creole melodies ( - ) illustrations:-- the same. london: harper and brothers, , vo. articles and reviews:-- _new york times, the_, september , . no. . . glimpses of unfamiliar japan. by lafcadio hearn. in two volumes. (vignette.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company (the riverside press, cambridge), . vo., vols. pp. (x) , dull green cloth, silver lettering and design, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to the friends whose kindness alone rendered possible my sojourn in the orient,-- to paymaster mitchell mcdonald, u. s. n. and basil hall chamberlain, esq. _emeritus professor of philology and japanese in the imperial university of tôkyô_ i dedicate these volumes in token of affection and gratitude. (v-x) preface (_extract_). but the rare charm of japanese life, so different from that of all other lands, is not to be found in its europeanized circles. it is to be found among the great common people, who represent in japan, as in all countries, the national virtues, and who still cling to their delightful old customs, their picturesque dresses, their buddhist images, their household shrines, their beautiful and touching worship of ancestors. this is the life of which a foreign observer can never weary, if fortunate and sympathetic enough to enter into it,--the life that forces him sometimes to doubt whether the course of our boasted western progress is really in the direction of moral development. each day, while the years pass, there will be revealed to him some strange and unsuspected beauty in it. like other life, it has its darker side; yet even this is brightness compared with the darker side of western existence. it has its foibles, its follies, its vices, its cruelties; yet the more one sees of it, the more one marvels at its extraordinary goodness, its miraculous patience, its never-failing courtesy, its simplicity of heart, its intuitive charity. and to our own larger occidental comprehension, its commonest superstitions, however contemned at tôkyô, have rarest value as fragments of the unwritten literature of its hopes, its fears, its experience with right and wrong,--its primitive efforts to find solutions for the riddle of the unseen. contents:-- volume i. i. my first day in the orient ii. the writing of kôbôdaishi iii. jizô iv. a pilgrimage to enoshima v. at the market of the dead (_atlantic monthly_, september, ) vi. bon-odori vii. the chief city of the province of the gods (_atlantic monthly_, november, ) viii. kitzuki: the most ancient shrine in japan (_atlantic monthly_, december, ) ix. in the cave of the children's ghosts x. at mionoseki xi. notes on kitzuki xii. at hinomisaki xiii. shinjû xiv. yaegaki-jinja xv. kitsune volume ii. xvi. in a japanese garden (_atlantic monthly_, july, ) xvii. the household shrine xviii. of women's hair xix. from the diary of an english teacher xx. two strange festivals xxi. by the japanese sea xxii. of a dancing girl (_atlantic monthly_, july, ) xxiii. from hôki to oki xxiv. of souls xxv. of ghosts and goblins xxvi. the japanese smile (_atlantic monthly_, may, ) xxvii. sayônara! pages - index. the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , vols., vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , vols., cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vols., cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- bentzon, th., _revue des deux mondes_, june , , vol. , p. . brandt, m. von, _deutsche rundschau_, october, , vol. , p. . challayé, félicien, _revue de métaphysique et de morale_, , vol. , p. . challayê, félicien, _revue de paris_, december , vol. , p. . _literary world, the_, october , , vol. , p. . scott, mrs. m. mcn., _atlantic monthly_, june, , vol. , p. . _spectator, the_, november , , vol. , p. . no. . . "out of the east." reveries and studies in new japan. by lafcadio hearn. "_as far as the east is from the west_"-- (publisher's vignette.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company (the riverside press, cambridge), . mo., p. ., pp. , yellow cloth, silver lettering, yellow top. ( ) dedication:-- to nishida sentarÔ in dear remembrance of izumo days ( ) contents:-- i. the dream of a summer day ii. with kyûshû students iii. at hakata (_atlantic monthly_, october, ) iv. of the eternal feminine (_atlantic monthly_, december, ) v. bits of life and death vi. the stone buddha vii. jiujutsu viii. the red bridal (_atlantic monthly_, july, ) ix. a wish fulfilled (_atlantic monthly_, january, ) x. in yokohama xi. yuko: a reminiscence "the dream of a summer day" first appeared in the _japan daily mail_. the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , mo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, august , , p. . brandt, m. von, _deutsche rundschau_, october, , vol. , p. . challayé félicien, _revue de métaphysique et de morale_, , vol. , p. . challayé, félicien, _revue de paris_, december , , vol. , p. . _literary world, the_, april , , vol. , p. . scott, mrs. m. mcn., _atlantic monthly_, june, , vol. , p. . _spectator, the_, october , , vol. , p. . no. . . kokoro: hints and echoes of japanese inner life. by lafcadio hearn. (top of page "kokoro" in japanese.) (sketch of japanese head.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company (the riverside press, cambridge), . mo., p. l., pp. , green cloth, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to my friend amÉnomori nobushigÉ poet, scholar, and patriot ( ) note:-- (japanese character) the papers composing this volume treat of the inner rather than of the outer life of japan,--for which reason they have been grouped under the title, "kokoro" (heart). written with the above character, this word signifies also mind, in the emotional sense; spirit; courage; resolve; sentiment; affection; and inner meaning,--just as we say in english, "the heart of things." kobé, september , . ( ) contents:-- i. at a railway station ii. the genius of japanese civilization (_atlantic monthly_, october, ) iii. a street singer iv. from a travelling diary (_atlantic monthly_, december, ) v. the nun of the temple of amida vi. after the war (_atlantic monthly_, november, ) vii. haru viii. a glimpse of tendencies ix. by force of karma x. a conservative xi. in the twilight of the gods (_atlantic monthly_, june, ) xii. the idea of preëxistence xiii. in cholera-time xiv. some thoughts about ancestor-worship xv. kimiko appendix. three popular ballads the same. london: osgood, mcilvaine and company, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. popular edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, august , , p. . bentzon, th., _revue de deux mondes_, june , , vol. , p. . brandt, m. von, _deutsche rundschau_, october, , vol. , p. . challayé félicien, _revue de métaphysique et de morale_, , vol. , p. . challayé félicien, _revue de paris_, december , , vol. , p. . cockerill, col. john a., _current literature_, june, , vol. , p. . herzog, wilhelm, _die nation_, january , , vol. , p. . _literary world, the_, april , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, july , , vol. , p. . _spectator, the_, may , , vol. , p. . takayanagi, tozo, _the book buyer_, may, , vol. , p. . no. . . gleanings in buddha-fields, studies of hand and soul in the far east. by lafcadio hearn. lecturer on english literature in the imperial university of japan. (publisher's vignette.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company. (the riverside press, cambridge.) mo., pp. , blue cloth, gold lettering, gilt top. contents:-- i. a living god (_atlantic monthly_, december, ) ii. out of the street (_atlantic monthly_, september, ) iii. notes of a trip to kyôto (_atlantic monthly_, may, ) iv. dust (_atlantic monthly_, november, ) v. about faces in japanese art (atlantic monthly, august, ) vi. ningyô-no-haka vii. in Ôsaka viii. buddhist allusions in japanese folk-song ix. nirvâna x. the rebirth of katsugorô xi. within the circle the same. london: constable and company, , vo. new edition. london: gay and bird's, , cr. vo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vo. articles and reviews:-- _academy, the_, november , , vol. , p. . _athenæum, the_, november , , p. . challayé, félicien, _revue de métaphysique et de morale_, , vol. , p. _critic, the_, april , , vol. , p. . _independent, the_, november , , vol. , p. . _literary world, the_, november , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, february , , vol. , p. . _outlook, the_, october , , vol. , p. . _public opinion_, november , , vol. , p. . _spectator, the_, november , , vol. , p. . wagner, john harrison, _the book buyer_, june, , vol. , p. . no. . . exotics and retrospectives. by lafcadio hearn. lecturer on english literature in the imperial university, tôkyô. boston: little, brown and company, mdcccxcix. mo., p. l., pp. , full-page illustrations, illustrations in the text. green cloth, decorated, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to dr. c. h. h. hall, of yokohama (late u. s. navy) _in constant friendship_ ( ) (prefatory note) all but one of the papers composing this volume appear for the first time. the little essays, or rather fantasies, forming the second part of the book, deal with experiences in two hemispheres; but their general title should explain why they have been arranged independently of that fact. to any really scientific imagination, the curious analogy existing between certain teachings of evolutional psychology and certain teachings of eastern faith,--particularly the buddhist doctrine that all sense-life is karma, and all substance only the phenomenal result of acts and thoughts,--might have suggested something much more significant than my cluster of "retrospectives." these are offered merely as intimations of a truth incomparably less difficult to recognize than to define. tôkyô, japan, l. h. february , . ( ) contents:-- exotics: i. fuji-no-yama ii. insect-musicians iii. a question in the zen texts iv. the literature of the dead v. frogs vi. of moon-desire retrospectives: i. first impressions ii. beauty is memory iii. sadness in beauty iv. parfum de jeunesse v. azure psychology (_teikoku bungaku_, yokohama) vi. a serenade vii. a red sunset viii. frisson ix. vespertina cognitio x. the eternal haunter ( ) list of illustrations. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , mo. new edition. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, january , , p. . bentzon, th., _revue des deux mondes_, june , , vol. , p. . _dial, the_, july , , vol. , p. . _international studio, the_, , vol. , p. xl. _nation, the_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . . in ghostly japan. by lafcadio hearn. lecturer on english literature in the imperial university, tôkyô. boston: little, brown and company, mdcccxcix. mo., p. l., pp. , full-page illustrations, illustrations in the text. blue cloth, ornamented with white cherry-blossoms, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to mrs. alice von behrens _for auld lang syne_ ( ) in ghostly japan _yoru bakari miru mono nari to omou-nayo! hiru saë yumé no ukiyo nari-kéri._ _think not that dreams appear to the dreamer only at night: the dream of this world of pain appears to us even by day_. japanese poem. ( ) contents:-- fragment furisodé incense a story of divination silkworms a passional karma footprints of the buddha ululation bits of poetry japanese buddhist proverbs suggestion ingwa-banashi story of a tengu at yaidzu ( ) list of illustrations. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- inouye, jukichi, _atlantic monthly_, september, , vol. , pp. . _international studio, the_, , vol. , p. xl. _nation, the_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . . shadowings. by lafcadio hearn. lecturer on english literature in the imperial university, tôkyô, japan. boston: little, brown and company, . mo., pp. (iv) , cloth. (i.) dedication:-- to paymaster mitchell mcdonald u. s. navy my dear mitchell,-- herein i have made some attempt to satisfy your wish for "a few more queer stories from the japanese." please accept the book as another token of the writer's affection. lafcadio hearn (koizumi yakumo) tôkyô, japan, january , . (ii.) contents:-- stories from strange books:-- i. the reconciliation ii. a legend of fugen-bosatsu iii. the screen-maiden iv. the corpse-rider v. the sympathy of benten vi. the gratitude of the samébito japanese studies:-- i. sémi ii.japanese female names iii. old japanese songs fantasies:-- i. noctilucæ ii. a mystery of crowds iii. gothic horror iv. levitation v. nightmare-touch vi. readings from a dream-book vii. in a pair of eyes (iii.) illustrations. (iv.) bastard title-page:-- il avait vu brûler d'étranges pierres, jadis, dans les brasiers de lapensée. Émile verhaeren the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, january , , p. . bentzon, th., _revue des deux mondes_, june , , vol. , p. . f. t. c., _the bookman_, february, , vol. , p. . _dial, the_, january , , vol. , p. . _international studio, the_, , vol. , p. xl. kinnosuké, adachi, _the critic_, january, , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, november , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, january , , vol. , p. . _public opinion_, october , , vol. , p. . no. . . a japanese miscellany. by lafcadio hearn. lecturer on english literature in the imperial university of tôkyô. boston: little, brown and company, mdcccci. mo., p. l., pp. , full-page illustrations, plates, illustrations in the text. green cloth, decorated, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to mrs. elizabeth bisland wetmore ( ) contents:-- strange stories: i. of a promise kept ii. of a promise broken iii. before the supreme court iv. the story of kwashin koji v. the story of umétsu chûbei vi. the story of kôgi the priest folklore gleanings: i. dragon-flies (_illustrated_) ii. buddhist names of plants and animals iii. songs of japanese children (_illustrated_) studies here and there: i. on a bridge ii. the case of o-dai iii. beside the sea (_illustrated_) iv. drifting v. otokichi's daruma (_illustrated_) vi. in a japanese hospital ( ) illustrations. the same. london: sampson, low and company, , vo. new popular edition. boston: little, brown and company, , mo. new edition. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum_, december , , p. . _international studio, the_, , vol. , p. xl. _literary world, the_, december , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, january , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . . japanese fairy tales. rendered into english by lafcadio hearn. published by t. hasegawa, publisher and art-printer, tôkyô, japan. four mo. books on japanese folded crêpe paper, highly illustrated in colours. no. . the goblin spider no. . the boy who drew cats no. . the old woman who lost her dumpling no. . chin chin kobakama no. . . kottÔ (japanese characters). being japanese curios, with sundry cobwebs. collected by lafcadio hearn, lecturer on english literature in the imperial university of tôkyô, japan. with illustrations by genjiro yeto. new york: the macmillan company (london: macmillan & company, ltd.), . vo., p. l., pp. , brown cloth, decorated, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) dedication:-- to sir edwin arnold in grateful remembrance of kind words ( ) contents:-- old stories: i. the legend of yurei-daki ii. in a cup of tea iii. common sense iv. ikiryô v. shiryô vi. the story of o-kamé vii. story of a fly viii. story of a pheasant ix. the story of chûgorô a woman's diary heiké-gani fireflies a drop of dew gaki a matter of custom revery pathological in the dead of the night kusa-hibari the eater of dreams ( ) old stories _the following nine tales have been selected from the "shin-chomon-shû," "hyaku monogatari," "uji-jûi-monogatari-shô," and other old japanese books, to illustrate some strange beliefs. they are only curios._ the same. reprinted april, . articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, january , , p. . _book buyer, the_, december, , vol. , p. . more, paul elmer, _atlantic monthly_, february, , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, march , , vol. , p. . no. . . kwaidan: stories and studies of strange things.--lafcadio hearn, lecturer on english literature in the imperial university of tôkyô, japan ( - ). honorary member of the japan society, london. (japanese characters.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company, mdcccciv. (published april, .) mo., p. ., pp. , illustrated, plates, dark green cloth, decorated, gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) introduction by publisher:-- ( ) prefatory note:-- most of the following _kwaidan_, or weird tales, have been taken from old japanese books,--such as the _yasô-kidan_, _bukkyô-hyakkwa-zenshô_, _kokon-chomonshû_, _tama-sudaré_ and _hyaku-monogatari_. some of the stories may have had a chinese origin: the very remarkable "dream of akinosuké," for example, is certainly from a chinese source. but the japanese story-teller in every case, has so recoloured and reshaped his borrowing as to naturalize it.... one queer tale, "yuki-onna," was told me by a farmer of chôfu, nishitamagôri, in musashi province, as a legend of his native village. whether it has even been written in japanese i do not know; but the extraordinary belief which it records used certainly to exist in most parts of japan, and in many curious forms.... the incident of "riki-baka" was a personal experience; and i wrote it down almost exactly as it happened, changing only a family-name mentioned by the japanese narrator. tôkyô, japan, january , . l. h. ( ) contents:-- kwaidan the story of mimi-nashi-hôichi (_atlantic monthly_, august, ) oshidori the story of o-tei ubazakura diplomacy of a mirror and a bell jikininki mujina rokuro-kubi a dead secret yuki-onna the story of aoyagi jiu-roku-zakura the dream of akinosuké (_atlantic monthly_, march, ) riki-baka hi-mawari hôrai insect-studies butterflies mosquitoes ants ( ) notes on the illustrations the two drawings are by the japanese artist, keichû takénouche. the frontispiece illustrates the scene in the story "yuki-onna" described on page , and the drawing facing page illustrates the butterfly dance, described on page . the same. london: kegan paul, trench and company, , mo. articles and reviews:-- _athenæum, the_, september , , p. . _atlantic monthly_, june, , vol. , p. . _bookman, the_, november, , vol. , p. . no. . . (japanese characters.) japan: an attempt at interpretation. by lafcadio hearn. honorary member of the japan society, london; formerly lecturer in the imperial university of tôkyô ( - ), and fourteen years a resident of japan. "perhaps all very marked national characters can be traced back to a time of rigid and pervading discipline." --walter bagehot. new york: the macmillan company (london: macmillan and company, ltd.), . (published, september, .) vo., p. l., pp. , coloured frontispiece, brown cloth, black and gold lettering, gilt top. ( ) contents:-- i. difficulties ii. strangeness and charm iii. the ancient cult iv. the religion of the home v. the japanese family vi. the communal cult vii. developments of shintô viii. worship and purification ix. the rule of the dead x. the introduction of buddhism xi. the higher buddhism xii.the social organization xiii. the rise of the military power xiv. the religion of loyalty xv. the jesuit peril xvi. feudal integration xvii. the shintô revival xviii. survivals xix. modern restraints xx. official education xxi. industrial danger xxii. reflections bibliographical notes index the same. london: macmillan and company, ltd., , vo. articles and reviews:-- buckley, edmund, _the american journal of sociology_, january , vol. , p. . griffis, william elliot, _the critic_, february, , vol. , p. . griffis, william elliot, _the dial_, december , , vol. , p. . _independent, the_, october , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, december , , vol. , p. . _public opinion_, october , , vol. , p. . _review of reviews_, november, , vol. , p. . shore, w. teignmouth, _the academy_, december , , vol. , p. . _spectator, the_, january , , vol. , p. . thurston, s. j., herbert, _the messenger_, january, , vol. , p. . no. . . the romance of the milky way, and other studies and stories. by lafcadio hearn. houghton, mifflin and company: boston and new york, . (published october, .) mo., pp. (xiv) , decorated title-page, grey cloth with yellow trimmings, yellow top. (v) contents:-- the romance of the milky way (_atlantic monthly_, august, ) goblin poetry "ultimate questions" (_atlantic monthly_, september, ) the mirror maiden the story of itô norisuké (_atlantic monthly_, january, ) stranger than fiction (_atlantic monthly_, april, ) a letter from japan (_atlantic monthly_, november, ) (vii-xiv) introduction by f. g. the same. london: constable and company, , cr. vo. articles and reviews:-- _academy, the_, december , , vol. , p. . _athenæum, the_, march , , p. . _dial, the_, november , , vol. , p. . griffis, w. e., _the critic_, march, , vol. , p. . _independent_, the, december , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, december , , vol. , p. . _outlook, the_, november , , vol. , p. . translations no. . . one of cleopatra's nights, and other fantastic romances. by théophile gautier. faithfully translated by lafcadio hearn. contents:-- one of cleopatra's nights clarimonde arria marcella: a souvenir of pompeii the mummy's foot omphale: a rococo story king candaules new york: r. worthington, broadway, . vo., pp. (ix) , red cloth, gilt top. head gautier as frontispiece. (iii) _the love that caught strange light from death's own eyes, and filled death's lips with fiery words and sighs, and half asleep, let feed from veins of his, her close red warm snake's-mouth, egyptian-wise: and that great night of love more strange than this, when she that made the whole world's bale and bliss made king of the whole world's desire a slave and killed him in mid-kingdom with a kiss._ swinburne. "_memorial verses on the death of théophile gautier._" (v-ix) to the reader (_extract_). it is the artist, therefore, who must judge of gautier's creations. to the lovers of the loveliness of the antique world, the lovers of physical beauty and artistic truth,--of the charm of youthful dreams and young passion in its blossoming,--of poetic ambitions and the sweet pantheism that finds all nature vitalized by the spirit of the beautiful,--to such the first english version of these graceful fantasies is offered in the hope that it may not be found wholly unworthy of the original. new orleans, . l. h. pages - addenda. new edition. new york: brentano's, , mo. new edition. new york: brentano's, , mo. clarimonde. new york: brentano's, , mo. articles and reviews:-- brandt, m. von, _deutsche rundschau_, october, , vol. , p. . coleman, charles w., jr., _harper's monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . _dayton (ohio) journal_, september , . _literary world, the_, february , , vol. , p. . no. . . the crime of sylvestre bonnard (member of the institute). by anatole france. the translation and introduction by lafcadio hearn. (publisher's vignette.) new york: harper & brothers, franklin square, . vo., pp. (ix) , paper. (v-ix) introduction (_extract_). but it is not because m. anatole france has rare power to create original characters, or to reflect for us something of the more recondite literary life of paris, that his charming story will live. it is because of his far rarer power to deal with what is older than any art, and withal more young, and incomparably more precious: the beauty of what is beautiful in human emotion. and that writer who touches the spring of generous tears by some simple story of gratitude, of natural kindness, of gentle self-sacrifice, is surely more entitled to our love than the sculptor who shapes for us a dream of merely animal grace, or the painter who images for us, however richly, the young bloom of that form which is only the husk of being. l. h. ( ) contents:-- part i. the log. part ii. the daughter of clémentine. the fairy the little saint-george articles and reviews:-- _literary world_, the, february , , vol. , p. . iv translations published in the times-democrat[ ] [ ] hearn failed to give the years in which these translations were published, and often also the days and months. (nos. - ) no. . . crucifying crocodiles. by cousot. from _le figaro_, february . no. . . the last of the great moguls. by ali. from _le nouvelle revue_, march . no. . . killed by rollin's ancient history. by chas. baissac. no. . . mohammed fripouille. by guy de maupassant. from "yvette." no. . . the eldest daughter. by jules lemaitre. from _le figaro_. no. . . the burnt rock. by "carmen sylva," elizabeth, queen of roumania. from _le figaro_. no. . . the confession. by de maupassant. from _contes du jour et de la nuit_. no. . . in the mountain of marble. by pierre loti. no. . . a story of quinine. by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . how gerard resigned his tutorship. by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . a vendetta. by guy de maupassant. from _contes du jour et de la nuit_. no. . . a coward. by guy de maupassant. from _contes du jour et de la nuit_. no. . . the titaness. by jules lermina. from _le figaro_, april . no. . . reminiscences of gustave doré. by albert wolff. from _le figaro_, march . no. . . the return. by guy de maupassant. from "yvette." no. . . two friends. by guy de maupassant. no. . . moloch, the devourer. (the sacrifice.) by gustave flaubert. from "salambo," ed. . no. . . the ring. by n. de semenow. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . the phalanx in battle. by gustave flaubert. from "salambo," ed. . no. . . the little sister. by hector malot. novel. no. . . riri's rag-picking. by jean rameau. from _le figaro_, october . no. . . a divorced man's new year's day. by frantz jourdain. from _le figaro_, january . no. . . especially interesting apropos of the comet with the sodium tail. by camille flammarion. from _le voltaire_, september . no. . . eaten alive. by camille debans. from _le figaro_, september . no. . . the christmas tree. by theodore dostoievsky. from _le figaro_. no. . . "a madman?" by guy de maupassant. no. . . tourgueneff. by firmin javel. from _l'evénement_, september . tourgueneff. by maurice guillemot. from _le figaro_, september . no. . . a polish regiment under fire. by hendrik sienkiewicz. from _nouvelle revue_. no. . . in oran. by guy de maupassant. from _au soleil_. no. . . en voyage. by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . "la mère sauvage." by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . the adopted child. by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . the child. by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . the minuet. by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . my uncle jules. by guy de maupassant. from "miss harriet." no. . . the love chamber. by albert delpit, . no. . . the chair mender. by guy de maupassant. no. . . coco. by guy de maupassant. no. . . a parricide. by guy de maupassant. no. . . the red wolves. by henry leturque. from _le figaro_, april . no. . . suicides. by guy de maupassant. "les soeurs rondoli." no. . . the cross. by verax. from _le figaro_, october . no. . . the art of dancing. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, march . no. . . haikona's story. by quatrelles. from _le figaro_, january . no. . . forgotten on the battle field. from _le figaro_, december . no. . . the folly of armaments. by p. from _l'evénement_, june . no. . . japanese theatricals. by yedoko. from _le figaro_, august , . no. . . on the planet mars. by camille flammarion. from _le figaro_. no. . . the colonel's ideas. by guy de maupassant. from "yvette." no. . . waterloo. by léon cladel. from _l'evénement_, april . no. . . terrifying a king. by xxx. from _le figaro_, december . no. . . the secret of the scaffold. by comte de villiers de l'isle-adam. from _le figaro_, october . no. . . littre as a physician. by emile zola. from _le voltaire_, june . no. . . hugo and littre. by emile zola. from _le figaro_. no. . . a modern combat of the thirty. by vigeant. no. . . algerian warfare. by ferdinand hugonnet. no. . . orden's redoubt. by adam mickiewicz. from _le figaro_. no. . . lasker's romance. by aurelien scholl. from _l'evénement_, february . no. . . the duel. by aurelien scholl. from _l'evénement_, march . no. . . the wife of sobieski. from _le figaro_ supplement, february . no. . . redemption. by matilde serao. from _le figaro_. no. . . the rats of paris. by olivier de rawton. from _le figaro_ supplement. no. . . the story of tse-i-la. by comte de villiers de l'isle-adam. from _le figaro_ sunday supplement. no. . . cremation in paris. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, march . no. . . madame auguste's lion. by horace bertin. from _croquis de province_. no. . . the secret history of "madame bovary." by guy de maupassant. from _l'evénement_, january . no. . . nissa. by albert delpit. from _revue de deux mondes_. no. . . the soudanian marseillais. no. . . justice in the soudan. after de bisson. . no. . . eaten by a lion. by louis rousselet. from _la peau du tigre_. no. . . chanzy. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, january . no. . . notes on von moltke. by robert de bonnieres. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . the hunchback. by chas. richard. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . the pacha of audjelah. by h. georges. from _le figaro_, september . no. . . the umbrella. by guy de maupassant. no. . . gambling for a wife. by a. de colonne. from _le figaro_, january . no. . . happiness. by guy de maupassant. no. . . "schmah israel." by sacher masoch. from _revue politique et litteraire_, november . no. . . the alfa-gatherer. by lieutenant palat. ("marcel frescaly.") from _le figaro_, april . no. . . he. by guy de maupassant. no. . . 'toine. by guy de maupassant. no. . . the dowry. by guy de maupassant. no. . . the funeral of an indian prince. by guy de maupassant. from _le figaro_, september . no. . . the jewelry. by guy de maupassant. no. . . the five senses. by harry alis. from _revue politique et litteraire_, october . no. . . a bombshell. by leon tolstoi. no. . . a day at lahore. by robert de bonnieres. from _revue politique et litteraire_. no. . . mario, marquis of candia. by mario di candia. from _le figaro_, november . no. . . my tailor abrahamek. by sacher-masoch. from _revue politique et litteraire_, may . no. . . the flesh-eaters. by olivier de rawton. from _le figaro_. no. . . palabra suelta no tiene vuelta. by ricardo palma. (lima, .) no. . . the diva. by luigi gualdo. no. . . the story of the unfortunate merchant. by rene bassett. no. . . bamba. by eugene forgues. from _nouvelle revue_. no. . . "notre père qui etesaux cieux." by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . "red minette." by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . fight at the mill. by emile zola. no. . . leo xiii. by roman correspondent. from _le figaro_, february . no. . . the carp herder. by charles richard. from _le figaro_, december , . no. . . fanny elssler. by viennese correspondent. from _le figaro_. no. . . lola montes and ludwig i. of bavaria. by x. from _le figaro_. no. . . the art of being a bore. by "de ferney." from _le voltaire_, january . no. . . humanity of the japanese. from _l'illustration_. no. . . by the balloon post. by alexis bouvier. from _le figaro_, january . no. . . an extraordinary letter from von moltke. by count von moltke. from _le voltaire_, february . no. . . chinese women. by lydie paschkoff. from _le figaro_. no. . . a haul at madagascar in . by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . pierrot. by guy de maupassant. no. . . my aunt minon. by chas. baissac. from _récits créoles_. no. . . an episode of the war in soudan. by victor cherbuliez. from an address before the _cinq academies_. no. . . the punishment of the unfaithful lover. by sacher-masoch. from "the mother of god." no. . . the sorceress. the comte d'avesnes. by michelet. from "la sorcière." no. . . the great fiddler of the nineteenth century. by "l'homme masque." from _le voltaire_, october . no. . . the duello. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . how balzac found names for his novels. by léon gozlan. from _le figaro_. no. . . tchernyschevsky and the women of nihilism. by victor tissot. from "les pères du nihilisme," in _l'illustration_. no. . . emile zola on style. by emile zola. from _le figaro_. no. . . the man of the xvith century. by victorien sardou. from _le figaro_, february . no. . . the forest growing in the heart of paris. by camille flammarion. from _le voltaire_, june . no. . . the tomb of nichelet. by an old parisian. from _le figaro_, july . no. . . a master wizard. by un vieux parisien. from _le figaro_, october . no. . . by rail across the sahara. by charles de maurceley. from _le voltaire_, january and . no. . . in the house of mahomet. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, october . no. . . the chinese in pnom-penh, cambodia. by albert de chenclos. from _la revue liberale_. no. . . algeria. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, june . no. . . the drum. by guy de maupassant. from "contes de la bécasse." no. . . henry charles read. by maxime du camp. from "souvenirs litteraires." no. . . recollections of baudelaire. by maxime du camp. from "souvenirs litteraires." no. . . a converted libertine. by ricardo palma. (lima, .) no. . . women of fashionable paris society. by emile zola. from _le figaro_, june . no. . . la parisienne. by adrien marx. from _le figaro_, may . no. . . at sea. by guy de maupassant. from "contes de la bécasse." no. . . "aunt ess." by arnold mortier. from _le figaro's_ "contes d'Été," august . no. . . pasteur. from _le figaro_, november . no. . . a ghost. by parisis. from _le voltaire_, october . no. . . matrimonial agencies at paris. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, april . no. . . liszt. by ignotus. from _le figaro_, may . no. . . the stranglers of paris, etc. by george grison. from _le figaro_, may . no. . . the lights of the wedding. by r. m. from _la epoca_, january . no. . . the foundation of skadra (scutari). by w. stephanowitsch. from french translation. no. . . the last hideous days of the flatters mission. from _le figaro_, september . no. . . the two neighbours. by julia de asensi. from _la epoca_, april . no. . . candita. by "almaviva." from _la epoca_, october . no. . . a drunken lion. by hector de callias. from _le figaro_, june . no. . . the song of love triumphant. by ivan tourgueneff. from _le figaro._ no. . . a rich man's death. by emile zola. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . germanillo. by "juan manuel de capua." from _la epoca_, december . no. . . simon's papa. by guy de maupassant. from "la maison tellier." no. . . "las hechas y por hacer." by ricardo palma. (lima, .) no. . . the bishop's twenty thousand godos. by ricardo palma. no. . . "los postres del festin." by ricardo palma. from _la raza latina_, february . no. . . the blessed bread. by françois coppée. from _le figaro_, march . no. . . the invitation to sleep. by françois coppée. from _le figaro's_ "contes d'Été." no. . . cousin rosa. by "almaviva." from _la epoca_, march . no. . . the chemise of margarita pareja. by ricardo palma. from _la raza latina_. no. . . the just man. by f. luzel. from luzel's collection. no. . . saint peter's betrothed. by de luzel. no. . . fantic loho. by luzel. from "breton legends." no. . . the adventures of walter schnaffs. by guy de maupassant. from "contes de la bécasse." no. . . l'abandounado. by rené maizeroy. from "the love that bleeds." no. . . flaubert at sparta. by maxime du camp. from _revue des deux mondes_. no. . . daddy goat and daddy tiger. by pa lindor. from _le courrier des opelousas_. no. . . the great chinese vase. by edmond de l. from _le figaro_, february . no. . . the two porcelain vases. by charles richard. from _le figaro_. no. . . a bit of jewish folk lore. by leopold kompert. from "scenes du ghetto." no. . . a story of the ghetto. by leopold kompert. from "scenes du ghetto." no. . . a legend of rabbi loeb. by daniel stauben. no. . . loulou. by lucien griveau. no. . . the cabecilla; the story of the carlist war. by alphonse daudet. no. . . tried, condemned, executed. by p. didier. no. . . the man with the golden brain. by alphonse daudet. from "ballades en prose." no. . . the death of the dauphin, etc. by alphonse daudet. no. . . my first duel. by carle de perrières. from "paris-joyeux." no. . . my two cats. by emile zola. no. . . the khouans. by n. ney. from _l'illustration_, july . no. . . the dead wife. after s. juhens' french translation from chinese. no. . . scenes of polish life. by krazewski. from "jermola," _le figaro_. no. . . memory of algeria. by alphonse daudet. from "tartarin de tarascon," _nouvelle revue_. no. . . anecdote of baudelaire. "les fantaisites." by pierre quiroul. from _le figaro_, august . no. . . adelaide neilson. from _l'illustration_, august . no. . . a morning with baudelaire. by "theodore de grave." no. . . "l'enfant de la balle." by françois coppée. from _le figaro_. no. . . poetical illusions. by maxime du camp. from "souvenirs litteraires." no. . . the moon's blessings. by charles baudelaire. no. . . patti and her new home. by "adrien marx." from _le figaro_. no. . . the ghostly mass. by luzel. from "veillees bretonnes." no. . . solitude. by guy de maupassant. from "monsieur parent." no. . "fantastics." . "aida." . hiouen-thsang. . el vomito. (?) . the devil's carbuncle. . a hemisphere in a woman's hair. . the clock. . the fool and venus. . the stranger. no. . the winter of , mr. hearn contributed from new orleans, a series of letters to the cincinnati _commercial_ under the name of "ozias midwinter." v magazine stories and papers in chronological order[ ] [ ] if published also in book-form, the title of the book is given. (nos. - ) no. . the scenes of cable's romances. _the century magazine_, november, , vol. (n. s. vol. ), p. . no. . quaint new orleans and its habitants. _harper's weekly_, december , , vol. , p. . no. . new orleans exposition. _harper's weekly_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . the creole patois. _harper's weekly_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . the creole patois. _harper's weekly_, january , , vol. , p. . no. . new orleans exposition. _harper's weekly_, january , , vol. , p. no. . the east at new orleans. _harper's weekly_, march , , vol. , p. . no. . mexico at new orleans. _harper's weekly_, march , , vol. , p. . no. . the new orleans exposition. some oriental curiosities. _harper's bazaar_, march , , vol. , p. . no. . the new orleans exposition. notes of a curiosity hunter. _harper's bazaar_, april , , vol. , p. no. . the government exhibit at new orleans. _harper's weekly_, april , , vol. , p. . no. . the legend of tchi-niu. a chinese story of filial piety. _harper's bazaar_, october , , vol. , p. . "some chinese ghosts," . no. . the last of the voudoos. _harper's weekly_, november , , vol. , p. . no. . new orleans superstitions. _harper's weekly_, december , , vol. , p. . no. . rabyah's last ride. a tradition of pre-islamic arabia. _harper's bazaar_, april , , vol. , p. . no. . chita. _harper's monthly_, april, , vol. , p. . "chita," . no. . a midsummer trip to the west indies. _harper's monthly_, july-september, , vol. , pp. , , . "two years in the french west indies," . no. . la vérette and the carnival in st. pierre, martinique. _harper's monthly_, october, , vol. , p. . "two years in the french west indies," . no. . les porteuses. _harper's monthly_, july, , vol. , p. . "two years in the french west indies," . no. . at grand anse. _harper's monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . "two years in the french west indies," . no. . a ghost. _harper's monthly_, december, , vol. , p. . no. . youma. _harper's monthly_, january-february, , vol. , pp. , . "youma," . no. . karma. _lippincott's magazine_, may, , vol. , p. . no. . a study of half-breed races in the west indies. _the cosmopolitan_, june, , vol. , p. . no. . west indian society of many colourings. _the cosmopolitan_, july, , vol. , p. . no. . a winter journey to japan. _harper's monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . no. . at the market of the dead. _atlantic monthly_, september, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . the chief city of the province of the gods. _atlantic monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . the most ancient shrine in japan. _atlantic monthly_, december, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . in a japanese garden. _atlantic monthly_, july, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . of a dancing girl. _atlantic monthly_, march, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . the japanese smile. _atlantic monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," . no. . of the eternal feminine. _atlantic monthly,_ december, , vol. , p. . "out of the east," . no. . the red bridal. _atlantic monthly_, july, , vol. , p. . "out of the east," . no. . at hakata. _atlantic monthly_, october, , vol. , p. . "out of the east," . no. . from my japanese diary. _atlantic monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . no. . a wish fulfilled. _atlantic monthly_, january, , vol. , p. . "out of the east," . no. . in the twilight of the gods. _atlantic monthly_, june, , vol. , p. . "kokoro," . no. . the genius of japanese civilization. _atlantic monthly_, october, , vol. , p. . "kokoro," . no. . after the war. _atlantic monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . "kokoro," . no. . notes from a travelling diary. _atlantic monthly_, december, , vol. , p. . "kokoro," . no. . china and the western world. _atlantic monthly_, april, , vol. , p. . no. . a trip to kyôto. _atlantic monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . "gleanings in buddha-fields," . no. . about faces in japanese art. _atlantic monthly_, august, , vol. , p. . "gleanings in buddha-fields," . no. . out of the street: japanese folk-songs. _atlantic monthly_, september, , vol. , p. . "gleanings in buddha-fields," . no. . dust. _atlantic monthly_, november, , vol. , p. , "gleanings in buddha-fields," . no. . a living god. _atlantic monthly_, december, , vol. , p. . "gleanings in buddha-fields," . no. . notes of a trip to izumo. _atlantic monthly_, may, , vol. , p. . no. . the story of mimi-nashi hôïchi. _atlantic monthly_, august, , vol. , p. . "kwaidan," . no. . the dream of akinosuké. _atlantic monthly_, march, , vol. , p. . "kwaidan," . no. . a letter from japan. _atlantic monthly_, november, , vol. , p. . "the romance of the milky way," . no. . the story of itô norisuké. _atlantic monthly_, january, , vol. , p. . "the romance of the milky way," . no. . stranger than fiction. _atlantic monthly_, april, , vol. , p. . "the romance of the milky way," . no. . the romance of the milky way. _atlantic monthly_, august, , vol. , p. . "the romance of the milky way," . no. . ultimate questions. _atlantic monthly_, september, , vol. , p. . "the romance of the milky way," . no. . two memories of a childhood. _atlantic monthly_, october, , vol. , p. . * * * * * vi articles by hearn translated in foreign magazines (nos. - ) no. . le sourire japonais. traduction de madame léon raynal, _revue de paris_, july , , year , vol. , p. . no. . une danseuse japonais. traduction de madame léon raynal, _revue de paris,_ march , , year , vol. , p. . no. . le nirvâna, étude de bouddhisme synthétique. traduite par m. & mme. charles-marie garnier, _revue de métaphysique et de morale_, , year , p. . no. . kitsonné (superstition japonaise). traduction de madame léon raynal, _revue de paris_, november , , year , vol. , p. . no. . cimètieres et temples japonais (jizô). traduction de madame léon raynal, _revue de paris,_ april , , year , vol. , p. . * * * * * vii unpublished works (nos. - ) no. . . avatar. par gautier, translation by lafcadio hearn. unable to find a publisher, hearn destroyed the manuscript. no. . the temptation of st. anthony, by gustave flaubert; translated from the fifth paris edition, vols. i-ii. (manuscript copy in the possession of dr. gould.) the half-page containing, at one time, probably, the translator's name, is cut off. the title-page is preceded by a half-page, printed, of directions to the printer, regarding size of type, etc. the volumes are x - / inches, opening at the end. the writing is in pencil, and the letters large, even for an ordinary handwriting, but remarkably so for that of hearn, who, when writing with a pen, made his letters very small. the paper has the yellow tint habitually used by him. volume i contains pages; volume ii, numbered consecutively, the balance of a total of pages. five pages of _addenda_ follow, containing notes upon passages, with original texts, etc., which the american publisher would hardly dare to put forth. hearn's synopsis (printed) of the "st. anthony" accompanies the text of the translation, and is reproduced herewith:-- argument frailty sunset in the desert. enfeebled by prolonged fasting, the hermit finds himself unable to concentrate his mind upon holy things. his thoughts wander: memories of youth evoke regrets that his relaxed will can no longer find strength to suppress;--and, remembrance begetting remembrance, his fancy leads him upon dangerous ground. he dreams of his flight from home,--of ammonaria, his sister's playmate,--of his misery in the waste,--his visit to alexandria with the blind monk didymus,--the unholy sights of the luxurious city. involuntarily he yields to the nervous dissatisfaction growing upon him. he laments his solitude, his joylessness, his poverty, the obscurity of his life: grace departs from him; hope burns low within his heart. suddenly revolting against his weakness, he seeks refuge from distraction in the study of the scriptures. vain effort! an invisible hand turns the leaves, placing perilous texts before his eyes. he dreams of the maccabees slaughtering their enemies, and desires that he might do likewise with the arians of alexandria;--he becomes inspired with admiration of king nebuchadnezzar;--he meditates voluptuously upon the visit of sheba's queen to solomon;--discovers a text in the acts of the apostles antagonistic to principles of monkish asceticism,--indulges in reveries regarding the riches of the biblical kings and holy men. the tempter comes to tempt him with evil hallucinations for which the saint's momentary frailty has paved the way; and with the evil one comes also-- the seven deadly sins phantom gold is piled up to excite covetousness; shadowy banquets appear to evoke gluttony. the scene shifts to aid the temptations of anger and of pride.... anthony finds himself in alexandria, at the head of a wild army of monks slaughtering the heretics and the pagans, without mercy for age or sex. in fantastic obedience to the course of his fancy while reading the scriptures a while before, and like an invisible echo of his evil thoughts, the scene changes again. alexandria is transformed into constantinople. anthony finds himself the honoured of the emperor. he beholds the vast circus in all its splendour, the ocean of faces, the tumult of excitement. simultaneously he beholds his enemies degraded to the condition of slaves, toiling in the stables of constantine. he feels joy in the degradation of the fathers of nicæa. then all is transformed. it is no longer the splendour of constantinople he beholds under the luminosity of a greek day; but the prodigious palace of nebuchadnezzar by night. he beholds the orgies, the luxuries, the abominations;--and the spirit of pride enters triumphantly into him as the spirit of nebuchadnezzar.... awakening as from a dream, he finds himself again before his hermitage. a vast caravan approaches, halts; and the queen of sheba descends to tempt the saint with the deadliest of all temptations. her beauty is enhanced by oriental splendour of adornment; her converse is a song of witchcraft. the saint remains firm.... the seven deadly sins depart from him. the heresiarchs but now the tempter assumes a subtler form. under the guise of a former disciple of anthony,--hilarion,--the demon, while pretending to seek instruction seeks to poison the mind of anthony with hatred of the fathers of the church. he repeats all the scandals amassed by ecclesiastical intriguers, all the calumnies created by malice;--he cites texts only to foment doubt, and quotes the evangels only to make confusion. under the pretext of obtaining mental enlightenment from the wisest of men, he induces anthony to enter with him into a spectral basilica, wherein are assembled all the heresiarchs of the third century. the hermit is confounded by the multitude of tenets,--horrified by the blasphemies and abominations of elkes, corpocrates, valentinus, manes, cerdo,--disgusted by the perversions of the paternians, marcosians, serpentians,--bewildered by the apocryphal gospels of eve and of judas, of the lord and of thomas. and hilarion grows taller. the martyrs anthony finds himself in the dungeons of a vast amphitheatre, among christians condemned to the wild beasts. by this hallucination the tempter would prove to the saint that martyrdom is not always suffered for purest motives. anthony finds the martyrs possessed of bigotry and insincerity. he sees many compelled to die against their will; many who would forswear their faith could it avail them aught. he beholds heretics die for their heterodoxy more nobly than orthodox believers. he finds himself transported to the tombs of the martyrs. he witnesses the meeting of christian women at the sepulchres. he beholds the touching ceremonies of prayer change into orgie,--lamentations give place to amorous dalliance. the magicians then the tempter seeks to shake anthony's faith in the excellence and evidence of miracles. he assumes the form of a hindoo brahmin, terminating a life of wondrous holiness by self-cremation;--he appears as simon magus and helen of tyre,--as apollonius of tyana, greatest of all thaumaturgists, who claim superiority to christ. all the marvels related by philostratus are embodied in the converse of apollonius and damis. the gods hilarion reappears, taller than ever, growing more gigantic in proportion to the increasing weakness of the saint. standing beside anthony he evokes all the deities of the antique world. they defile before him a marvellous panorama;--gods of egypt and india, chaldæa and hellas, babylon and ultima thule,--monstrous and multiform, phallic and ithyphallic, fantastic and obscene. some intoxicate by their beauty; others appal by their foulness. the buddha recounts the story of his wondrous life; venus displays the rounded daintiness of her nudity; isis utters awful soliloquy. lastly the phantom of jehovah appears, as the shadow of a god passing away for ever. suddenly the stature of hilarion towers to the stars; he assumes the likeness and luminosity of lucifer; he announces himself as-- science and anthony is lifted upon mighty wings and borne away beyond the world, above the solar system, above the starry arch of the milky way. all future discoveries of astronomy are revealed to him. he is tempted by the revelation of innumerable worlds,--by the refutation of all his previous ideas of the nature of the universe,--by the enigmas of infinity,--by all the marvels that conflict with faith. even in the night of the immensity the demon renews the temptation of reason; anthony wavers upon the verge of pantheism. lust and death anthony, abandoned by the spirit of science, comes to himself in the desert. then the tempter returns under a two-fold aspect: as the spirit of fornication and the spirit of destruction. the latter urges him to suicide,--the former to indulgence of sense. they inspire him with strong fancies of palingenesis, of the illusion of death, of the continuity of life. the pantheistic temptation intensifies. the monsters anthony in reveries meditates upon the monstrous symbols painted upon the walls of certain ancient temples. could he know their meaning he might learn also something of the secret lien between matter and thought. forthwith a phantasmagoria of monsters commence to pass before his eyes:--the sphinx and the chimera, the blemmyes and astomi, the cynocephali and all creatures of mythologic creation. he beholds the fabulous beings of oriental imagining,--the abnormities described by pliny and herodotus,--the fantasticalities to be adopted later by heraldry,--the grotesqueries of future mediæval illumination made animate;--the goblinries and foulnesses of superstitious fancy,--the witches' sabbath of abominations. metamorphosis the multitude of monsters melts away; the land changes into an ocean; the creatures of the briny abysses appear. and the waters in turn also change; seaweeds are transformed to herbs, forests of coral give place to forests of trees, polypous life changes to vegetation. metals crystallize; frosts effloresce, plants become living things, inanimate matter takes animate form, monads vibrate, the pantheism of nature makes itself manifest. anthony feels a delirious desire to unite himself with the spirit of universal being.... the vision vanishes. the sun arises. the face of christ is revealed. the temptation has passed; anthony kneels in prayer. l. h. viii books about hearn (nos. - ) no. . . the life and letters of lafcadio hearn. by elizabeth bisland. with illustrations. in two volumes. (publisher's vignette.) boston and new york: houghton, mifflin and company (the riverside press, cambridge), . vo., vols., pp. (viii), , , black cloth, japanese characters on small red disc, gold lettering, gilt top. volume i. (v-viii) preface by e. b. contents:-- introductory sketch i. boyhood ii. the artist's apprenticeship iii. the master workman iv. the last stage letters list of illustrations. volume ii. list of illustrations. letters (continued) pages - appendix. pages - index. articles and reviews:-- _academy, the_, january , , vol. , p. . _athenæum, the_, february , , p. . _current literature_, january, , vol. , p. . dunbar, olivia howard, _north american review_, february , , vol. , p. . greenslet, ferris, _atlantic monthly_, february, , vol. , p. . godkin, f. w., _the dial_, december , , vol. , p. . huneker, james, _new york times, the_, december , , vol. , p. . _nation, the_, november , , vol. , p. . _new york evening post, the_, december , . _new york tribune, the_, december , . tunison, j. s., _dayton (ohio) journal, the_, december , . no. . . letters from the raven, being the correspondence of lafcadio hearn with henry watkin, with introduction and critical comment by the editor, milton bronner. (vignette drawing of the raven.) new york: brentano's, . mo., pp. , half cloth brown. ornamental black and gold back, gilt top. contents:-- introduction letters from the raven letters to a lady letters of ozias midwinter * * * * * ix articles and critical reviews about hearn (nos. - ) academy, the no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , vol. , p. . no. . "koizumi yakumo--lafcadio hearn," by n. c., april , , vol. , p. . no. . sketch and list of works, october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," by w. teignmouth shore, december , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," december , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," january , , vol. , p. . amenomori, nobushige no. . _atlantic monthly_, "lafcadio hearn, the man," october, , vol. , p. . american journal of sociology, the no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," by edmund buckley, of the university of chicago, january, , vol. , p. . american monthly review of reviews, the no. . "lafcadio hearn, interpretator of japan," november, , vol. , p. . athenÆum, the no. . a review of "youma," august , , p. . no. . a review of "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," november , , p. . no. . a review of "out of the east," august , , p. . no. . a review of "kokoro," august , , p. . no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , p. . no. . a review of "exotics and retrospectives," january , , p. . no. . a review of "shadowings," january , , p. . no. . a review of "a japanese miscellany," december , , p. . no. . a review of "kottô," january , , p. . no. . a review of "kwaidan," september , , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," march , , p. . no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," february , , p. . atlantic monthly, the no. . a review of "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," and "out of the east," by mrs. m. mcn. scott, june, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "in ghostly japan," by jukichi inouye, september, , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn: the meeting of three ways," by paul elmer more, february, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kwaidan," june, , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn: the man," by nobushige amenomori, october, , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn," by ferris greenslet, february, , vol. , p. . author, the no. . sketch by o. p. caylor (reprinted from an article in the _philadelphia north american_), january , , vol. , p. . bookbuyer, the no. . "lafcadio hearn," by j. s. tunison, may, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kokoro," by tozo takayanagi, may, , vol. , p. . no. . "through the medium of a temperament," by john harrison wagner, june, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kottô," december, , vol. , p. . bookman, the no. . a review of "shadowings," by f. t. c., february, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kwaidan," november, , vol. , p. . no. . "the late lafcadio hearn," november, , vol. , p. . buckley, edmund no. . _the american journal of sociology_, a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," january, , vol. , p. . caylor, o. p. no. . _the author_, january , , vol. , p. . chautauquan, the no. . short sketch of hearn, and reprints "fragment," "juiroku-zakura," "riki-baka," "yuki-onna," "the screen maiden," september, , vol. , p. . chicago evening post, the no. . "lafcadio hearn," by francis hackett. cockerill, colonel john a. no. . _current literature_, "lafcadio hearn: the author of 'kokoro.'" (reprinted from the new york _herald_.) june, , vol. , p. . coleman, jr., charles w. no. . _harper's monthly_, "the recent movement in southern literature," may, , vol. , p. . critic, the no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," april , , vol. , p. . no. . "mr. hearn's japanese shadowings," by adachi kinnosuké, january, , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn's funeral," by margaret emerson, january, , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," by wm. elliot griffis, february, , vol. , p. . no. . "hearn's stories of old japan," by w. e. griffis, march, , vol. , p. . no. . "letters of a poet to a musician," by henry e. krehbiel, april, , vol. , p. . current literature no. . "lafcadio hearn: the author of 'kokoro,'" by colonel john a. cockerill. (reprinted from the new york _herald_.) june, , vol. , p. . no. . "a glimpse of lafcadio hearn," october, , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn: a dreamer," by yone noguchi. (reprinted from the _national magazine_.) june, , vol. , p. . no. . "the mystic dream of lafcadio hearn," january, , vol. , p. . dayton, ohio, journal, the no. . editorial on lafcadio hearn, september , . no. . "lafcadio hearn," by j. s. tunison, december , . dial, the no. . a review of "exotics and retrospectives," july , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "shadowings," january , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," by wm. elliot griffis, december , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," november , , vol. , p. . no. . "self-revelation of lafcadio hearn," by f. w. godkin, december , , vol. , p. . dunbar, olivia howard no. . _north american review_, a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," february , , vol. , p. . emerson, margaret no. . _the critic_, "lafcadio hearn's funeral," january, , vol. , p. . evening sun, the new york no. . "a native's tribute to the dead american poet of japan," november , . evening post, the new york no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," december , . evening transcript, the boston no. . a review of "chita," november , . f. t. c. no. . _the bookman_, a review of "shadowings," february, , vol. , p. . fortnightly review, the no. . "lafcadio hearn: a study of his personality and art," by george m. gould, october-november, , vol. , pp. , . godkin, f. w. no. . _the dial_, "self-revelation of lafcadio hearn," december , , vol. , p. . gould, george m. no. . _putnam's monthly_, "lafcadio hearn: a study of his personality and art," october-november, , vol. , pp. , . the same, _fortnightly review_, october-november, , vol. , pp. , . greenslet, ferris no. . _atlantic monthly_, "lafcadio hearn," february, , vol. , p. . griffis, william elliot no. . _the dial_, a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," december , , vol. , p. . no. . _the critic_, a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," february, , vol. , p. . no. . _the critic_, "hearn's stories of old japan," march, , vol. , p. . hackett, francis no. . chicago _evening post_, "lafcadio hearn." harper's monthly no. . "the recent movement in southern literature," by charles w. coleman, jr., may, , vol. , p. . huneker, james no. . the new york _times_, "exotic lafcadio hearn: the life and letters of a master of nuance--elizabeth bisland's sympathetic biography," december , , vol. , p. . hutson, charles woodward no. . _poet-lore_ "the english of lafcadio hearn," spring, , vol. , p. . independent, the no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , vol. , p. . no. . "an interpreter of the east" (a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation"), october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," december , , vol. , p. . inouye, jukichi no. . _atlantic monthly_, a review of "in ghostly japan," september, , vol. , p. . international studio, the no. . a review of "stories and sketches of japan," , vol. , p. xl. kennard, nina h. no. . _nineteenth century and after_, "lafcadio hearn," january, , vol. , p. . kinnosukÉ, adachi no. . _the critic_, "mr. hearn's japanese shadowings," january, , vol. , p. . krehbiel, henry e. no. . _the critic_, "letters of a poet to a musician," april, , vol. , p. . no. . the new york _tribune_, "hearn and folk-lore music." literary world, the no. . a review of "the crime of sylvestre bonnard," february , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "one of cleopatra's nights," february , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "out of the east," april , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kokoro," april , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "a japanese miscellany," december , , vol. , p. . living age, the no. . "lafcadio hearn," by robert young, march , , vol. , p. . (reprinted from the _speaker_.) mather, jr., f. j. no. . _the nation_, "lafcadio hearn on style" (editorial), december , , vol. , p. . messenger, the no. . "mr. lafcadio hearn on the jesuit missions in japan," by herbert thurston, s. j., january, , vol. , p. . more, paul elmer no. . _atlantic monthly_, "lafcadio hearn: the meeting of three ways," february, , vol. , p. . nation, the no. . a review of "gombo zhèbes," april , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "some chinese ghosts," may , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "youma," may , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kokoro," july , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," february , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "shadowings," november , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "a japanese miscellany," january , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kottô," march , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," december , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "stories and sketches of japan," january , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," december , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," november , , vol. , p. . no. . "lafcadio hearn on style" (editorial), by f. j. mather, jr., december , , vol. , p. . nineteenth century and after, the no. . "lafcadio hearn," by nina h. kennard, january, , vol. , p. . noguchi, yone no. . _current literature_, "lafcadio hearn: a dreamer." (reprinted from the _national magazine_.) june, , vol. , p. . north american, the no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," by olivia howard dunbar, february , , vol. , p. . outlook, the no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "the romance of the milky way," november , , vol. , p. . poet-lore no. . "the english of lafcadio hearn," by charles woodward hutson, spring, , vol. , p. . public opinion no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "shadowings," october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," october , . vol. , p. . putnam's monthly no. . "lafcadio hearn: a study of his personality and art," by george m. gould, october-november, , vol. i, pp. , . scott, mrs. m. mcn. no. . _atlantic monthly_, a review of "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," and "out of the east," june, , vol. , p. . shore, w. teignmouth no. . _academy_, a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," december , , vol. , p. . spectator, the no. . a review of "glimpses of unfamiliar japan," november , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "out of the east," october , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "kokoro," may , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "gleanings in buddha-fields," november , , vol. , p. . no. . a review of "japan: an attempt at interpretation," january , , vol. , p. . takayanagi, tozo no. . _the book buyer_, a review of "kokoro," may, , vol. , p. . thurston, s. j., herbert no. . _the messenger_, "mr. lafcadio hearn on the jesuit missions in japan," january, , vol. , p. . times-democrat, the new orleans no. . "a strange career," august , . no. . "lafcadio hearn and his friends," august , . no. . "silken fetters," may , . times, the new york no. . a review of "two years in the french west indies," september , . no. . "exotic lafcadio hearn: the life and letters of a master of nuance--elizabeth bisland's sympathetic biography," by james huneker, december , , vol. , p. . tribune, the new york no. . a review of "the life and letters of lafcadio hearn," december , . no. . "hearn and folk-lore music," by h. e. krehbiel. tunison, j. s. no. . _the book buyer_, "lafcadio hearn," may, , vol. , p. . no. . _the dayton (ohio) journal_, "lafcadio hearn," december , . wagner, john harrison no. . _the book buyer_, "through the medium of a temperament," june, , vol. , p. . young, robert no. . _the living age_, "lafcadio hearn," march , , vol. , p. . * * * * * x foreign articles and critical reviews upon hearn (nos. - ) danish nya pressen no. . "ur en författares lif," af konni zilliacus, february , . french bentzon, th. no. . _revue des deux mondes_, "un peintre du japon: lafcadio hearn,"[ ] june , , vol. , p. . cahiers de la quinzaine no. . "impressions sur la vie japonaise," par félicien challayé, june, , rd series, th cahier. challayÉ, fÉlicien no. . _cahiers de la quinzaine_, "impressions sur la vie japonaise," june, , rd series, th cahier. no. . _revue de métaphysique et de morale_. "un philosophe japonisant, lafcadio hearn,"[ ] , vol. , p. . no. . _revue de paris_, "lafcadio hearn et le japon,"[ ] december , , vol. , p. . [ ] translations by m. b. easton, unpublished, in mss., in the possession of dr. gould. revue des deux mondes no. . "un peintre du japon: 'lafcadio hearn,'"[ ] par th. bentzon, june , , vol. , p. . revue de mÉtaphysique et de morale no. . "un philosophe japonisant, lafcadio hearn,"[ ] par félicien challayé, , vol. , p. . revue de paris no. . "lafcadio hearn et le japon,"[ ] par félicien challayé, december , , vol. , p. . german brandt, m. von no. . _deutsche rundschau_ "lafcadio hearn: volksglaube und volkssitte in japan," october, , vol. , p. . deutsche rundschau no. . "lafcadio hearn: volksglaube und volkssitte in japan," von m. von brandt, october, , vol. , p. . herzog, wilhelm no. . _die nation_, a review of "kokoro,"[ ] january , , vol. , p. . hirn, professor yriÖ no. . _neue freie presse_, "lafcadio hearn," march , , vol. , p. . nation, die no. . a review of "kokoro,"[ ] von wilhelm herzog, january , , vol. , p. . neue freie presse no. . "lafcadio hearn," von professor yrjö hirn, march , , vol. , p. . wage, die no. . "ein englischer japaner," von th. bentzon. (deutsche von leo fried.) a condensation of mme. bentzon's article in _revue des deux mondes_. october - , , year , nr. , , pp. , . swedish hirn, mrs. karin no. . _ord od bild_, . ord od bild no. . mrs. karin hirn, . * * * * * xi supplemental list (nos. - ) no. . the last of the new orleans fencing masters, _southern bivouac_, louisville, ky., new series, vol. , nov., . speaks of the story of jean louis, from vigeant's _un maître d'armes sous la restauration_, and tells the tale of don josé llulla. six double column, vo. pages, size and style of _atlantic monthly_. no. . the legend of skobeleff. looks like an editorial in t.-d.[ ] (no date, etc.) [ ] the new orleans _times-democrat_. no. . a voudoo dance. in style of t.-d. and of hearn; unsigned, undated, was evidently in t.-d. no. . the future of france in the orient. editorial, doubtless in t.-d., undated. no. . pierre loti. translation by hearn. "from the original manuscript," signed by "pierre loti" and "translated by lafcadio hearn." subheading: "fragments from my diary." undated. probably in t.-d. no. . death of the great danseuse of the century. unsigned and undated. not in type of editorial, but of contributed matter in t.-d. probably by hearn. no. . the first muezzin. with arabic sub-title, under which is "bilâl," and -line poetic excerpt from edwin arnold. contains a musical setting of prayer by villoteau, description de l'egypte: vol. xiv. probably in t.-d. without date, etc. no. . dorodom the last. editorial, probably in t.-d. undated. no. . the naval engagements of the future. translation from _le figaro_. no. . cable and the negroes. editorial, probably in t.-d. and by hearn. no date. no. . the most original of modern novelists (loti). editorial, probably in t.-d. undated. no. . heroic deeds at sea. editorial in t.-d. undated. no. . study and play. editorial in t.-d. undated. no. . arabian women. article contributed probably to t.-d. undated. no. . the roar of a great city. editorial contributed probably to t.-d. undated. no. . some fossil anthropology. editorial probably by hearn, and probably in t.-d. undated. no. . a word for the tramps. editorial possibly by hearn, and probably in t.-d. no. . torn letters. signed original story in t.-d. undated. later enlarged and published as "chita." no. . death and resurrection in the soudan. editorial, probably in t.-d. undated. no. . a memory of two fannies (fanny elssler, and fanny cerrito). editorial, probably in t.-d. undated. no. . shapira. editorial, probably in t.-d. undated. no. . to the fountain of youth. original, signed contribution: t.-d., may , . no. . the creole doctor. some curiosities of medicine in louisiana. from an occasional correspondent of _the tribune_, new orleans, dec. th. probably in new york _tribune_. undated. signed contribution. no. . a story of hands. the hand and its gestures. translation, eugene mouton, "from advance sheets." undated. no. . the legend of the tea-plant. original contribution, probably to the t.-d. undated. published later in "some chinese ghosts," . no. . academical triumphs. editorial, probably by hearn, t.-d., dec. , . richard clay & sons, limited, bread street hill, e.c., and bungay, suffolk. transcriber notes: some of the illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and so they correspond to the text, thus the page number of the illustration no longer matches the page number in the list of illustrations. throughout the document, vowels having macrons in japanese words are indicated by vowels having circumflexes. for example, english word for the japanese capital (currently written in japanese romanji as toukyou) used to be written as tokyo, but with macrons associated with each letter "o". in this text the japanese capital would be written as tôkyô. on page , "ludricrous" was replaced with "ludicrous". on page , "lokis'" was replaced with "loki's". on page , "an e volutional history" was replaced with "an evolutional history". on page , the [oe] ligature was replaced with "oe". on page , "as, mine are" was replaced with "as mine are". on page , "it it incapable" was replaced with "it is incapable". on page , the single quotation mark after "what insect stings so!" was changed to a double quotation mark. on page , "gnored" was replaced with "ignored". on page , "refocussed" was replaced with "refocused". on page , "la belle negrésse" was replaced with "la belle négresse". on page through , there is a long quotation that is marked by a single set of quotation marks, which differs than the quotation scheme used elsewhere in the book. this inconsistency was not corrected. on page , a quotation mark was removed from before "his book is a re-reading". on page , "karin kirn" was replaced with "karin hirn". on page , "n aye" was replaced with "n'aye". on page , the closing single quotation mark after "madame bovary" was replaces with a closing double quotation mark. on page , in the item no. , the period after "raynal" was replaced with a comma, to be in agreement with the previous item. on page , in the item , "p." was added before the page number. on page , in the item , a quotation mark was added after "exotics and retrospectives,". on page , in the item , a period was added after the date december , . on page , in the item , a stray comma was deleted after the word "february". on page , in the item , a single quotation mark was replaced with a double quotation mark. on page , in the item , the unmatched quotation marks were corrected. sometimes, a single footnote had multiple links to it. transcriber's notes several symbols appear in the left margin of certain catalogue entries: the equals sign (=), em-dash (--) and a circular "bullet" (o). no explanation is given in the book for the significance of these symbols which are reproduced as the original. a distinctive larger typeface is introduced on the title page and used to denote catalogue items donated by the boston philatelic society. in this plain text version of the e-book this typeface is distinguished by preceding and following dollar symbols: $thus$. other typeface conventions and symbol substitutions are as follows: bold typeface is represented by =equals signs=; italic typeface by _surrounding underscores_; superscripts by a preceding caret (^) symbol; and small caps typeface by upper case. [oe] represents an oe-ligature character. [asterism] represents a triangle of three stars. where changes or corrections have been made to the text, these are listed at the end of the book. * * * * * catalogue of books on philately in the public library of the city of boston. items printed in this style of type $(albrecht, r. f., and company, publishers. * . )$ were given by the boston philatelic society. january, . press of d. h. bacon & co., derby, conn. consult the card catalogue under headings: envelopes, perforation, penny postage, post, postage, postage stamps, postal ----, postal cards, postmarks, post office, revenue, revenue stamps, telegraph stamps. also public documents. catalogue. =adenaw, julius.= * . a complete catalogue of the revenue stamps of the united states, including all private and state issues, and giving all minor varieties, with the market value of every stamp. new york, scott stamp & coin co. [ ?] , ( ) pp ^o. $=albrecht, r. f.=, and company, publishers. * . $ $auction prices. an epitome of the prices realized for postage stamps at r. f. albrecht & co.'s auction sales during four seasons. ( - , sales - .)$ = $new york, . ( ), pp. ^o.$ $=american journal of philately.= * . $ $monthly, henry l. calman, editor, first series, vol. , .$ = $new york: scott stamp & coin co., second series, - , v., illus. plates, ^o. the issues for were edited by j. w. scott.$ =american philatelic association.= * . books on philately in the carnegie library of pittsburgh. [chicago] . pp. ^o. $=american philatelic association.= . $ $catalogue of the american philatelic association's loan exhibit of postage stamps to the united states post office department, at the world's columbian exposition, chicago, .$ $birmingham, conn. bacon & co., . pp. ^o.$ $=american philatelic association.= * a. $ $official circular. sept., -aug., .$ = $[st. louis, mo., - .] v. l. ^o.$ $=american philatelic publishing company.= a. $ $"our catalogue." the standard american catalogue of all the postal issues of the world. together with the revenue stamps of the united states and canada.$ = $new york. albrecht & co. [ ] ( ), pp. illus. ^o.$ $=american philatelist.= vol. - . * . $ $chicago. american philatelic association. - . v. in . ^o.$ $the annual number for dec., , is published as vol. . previous to vol. the periodical is called american philatelist and year book of the american philatelic association.$ $=bacon=, e. d. . $ $reprints of postal adhesive stamps and their characteristics.$ = $london. [ .] viii, pp. illus. [stanley gibbons' philatelic handbooks.] ^o.$ $=bacon=, e. d. * . $ $and francis john hamilton scott napier.$ $grenada: to which is prefixed an account of the perforations of the perkins-bacon printed stamps of the british colonies.$ $london. stanley gibbons, ( ) pp. illus. pls. [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks] ^o.$ =bacon=, e. d. and francis j. h. s. napier. . the stamps of barbadoes, with a history and description of the star-watermarked papers of perkins, bacon & co. london: . xi., pp. pls. [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks.] ^o. $=bartels, j. m.=, co., publishers. * a. $ $complete catalogue and reference list of the stamped envelopes, wrappers, and letter sheets regularly issued by the united states. - .$ $washington, , pp. illus pls. l. ^o.$ $=bartels=, j. m., co. a. $ $march, . j. m. bartels' second complete catalogue and reference list of the stamped envelopes, wrappers, letter sheets and postal cards, regularly issued by the united states. - .$ $washington ( ) unpaged. illus. f^o.$ $=bartels=, j. murray & co., publishers. a. $ $the standard price catalogue and reference list of the plate numbers of united states adhesive postage stamps, issued from to . d edition.$ $washington, , pp. ^o.$ $same. a. $ $stamps issued from to , th edition. with supplement, , , parts in v.$ =bazar=, der. * . für briefmarken-sammler, jahrgang , no. - . heidelberg: - , ^o. =bellars=, henry john, and ---- davie. . the standard guide to postage stamp collecting ... d edition. london. hotten. . pp. sm. ^o $=boston philatelic society.= * . $ $an historical reference list of the revenue stamps of the united states, including the private die proprietary stamps. compiled by george l. toppan, hiram e. deats and alexander holland, a committee of the ... society.$ $boston, , pp. l. ^o.$ $=boston stamp book=, the. * . $ $[monthly.] edited and published by john luther kilbon. vol. - . may, -may, .$ = $boston. cassino & co. [etc.] - . v. ^o.$ =bradt=, s. b. & co. * . catalogue of united states and foreign postage stamps, - , from july , -dec. . . sold at cobb's library. [chicago, , .] pphs. in v. ^o. $=bright & sons= * . $ $"a b c" descriptive priced catalogue of the world's postage stamps, envelopes, post cards, etc. d edition. revised up to date.$ -- $london. simpkin, marshall & co. [ .] parts in v. sm. ^o. london. simpkin, marshall & co. [ .]$ $=brown=, frank p., publisher. a. $ $the standard postage stamp catalogue. th edition.$ = $boston, . xxxvi, , ( ) pp. illus. ^o.$ $two copies.$ $=brown=, mount. . $ $catalogue of british, colonial, and foreign postage stamps. d edition.$ = $london. passmore. . vii, ( ), pp. ^o.$ $same. th edition. . xi, ( ), pp. . $ =brown=, walter lee. . = no. in * . descriptive catalogue of the revenue stamps of italy, from to . new york. j. j. pusey & co., prs. . ( ), , ( ) pp. ^o. $=brown=, william, of salisbury. a. $ $a reference list to the stamps of the straits settlements, surcharged for use in the native protected states.$ = $salisbury, author, . , ( ) pp. illus. plates. ^o. reprinted with additions and corrections from the philatelic journal of great britain.$ =chalmers=, patrick. * . the adhesive postage stamp. decision of the "encyclopædia britannica." james chalmers was the inventor of the adhesive stamps. also papers on the penny postage reform. london: e. wilson, , pp. ^o. chalmers, patrick. * . the american philatelic association and the adhesive postage stamp. london: e. wilson & co., , pp. sm. ^o. =chalmers=, patrick. . how james chalmers saved the penny postage scheme. letter of the dundee bankers and merchants to the lords of her majesty's treasury. london: e. wilson & co., , pp. ^o. [relates to the adhesive postage stamp first proposed by james chalmers.] =chalmers=, patrick. . mr. john francis, of the athenæum, on the plan of sir rowland hill, d ed. london: e. wilson & co., , pp. ^o. [relates to the adhesive postage stamp.] =chalmers=, patrick. * . submission of the sir rowland hill committee, d edition, with opinions from the press ( th series) on "the adhesive postage stamp." london: e. wilson, , pp. ^o. =chicago stamp news.= vol. . * . chicago, , . ^o. =collin=, henry, and henry l. calman. * . catalogue of the stamps, envelopes, wrappers and postal cards of mexico. including the provisional issues of campeche, chiapas, guadalajara, etc. = new york: scott stamp & coin co. [ ?] ( ), pp. illus. l. ^o. $=collin=, henry and others. * a. $ $catalogue of the stamps, envelopes and wrappers of the united states of america, and of the confederate states of america, by henry collin and henry l. calman, with the collaboration of john n. luff and george l. toppan.$ = $new york: scott stamp & coin co., . ( ), pp. illus. plates. sm. f^o.$ $=collin=, henry, and henry l. calman. * a. $ $a catalogue for advanced collectors of postage stamps, stamped envelopes and wrappers....$ $new york: the scott stamp & coin co. - . pp. illus. plates. ^o.$ $=coster=, charles h. * . $ $the united states locals and their history.$ $new york: scott & co., , pp. illus. ^o.$ $=coster=, charles h. * . $ $les postes privées des etats-unis d'amérique. bruxelles, moens, , , v. in . illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $[contents.-- . les timbres adhésifs. . les envelopes timbrées.]$ $=daily stamp item.= * a. $ $vol. , . january to june , .$ = $st. louis, mo. c. h. mekeel stamp & publishing co. , v. portraits. f^o.$ $=daniels=, j. h. . $ $a history of british postmarks, together with a list of numbers used in obliterations in great britain and certain colonial possessions. london: gill. ( ), pp. illus. sm^o.$ $=deutsche briefmarken-zeitung= a. $ $(periodical) iii.-v. ( vols.)$ =dexter,= george. . catalogue of postage stamps, american and foreign, and u. s. revenue stamps. (anon.) cambridge: sever and francis. two copies. , pp. ^o. $=deutsche illustrirte briefmarken-zeitung.= * . $ $[monatlich.], vol. , , leipzig: , pp., illus., ^o. on the completion of this volume the publication was merged in illustrirtes briefmarken-journal.$ $=diena, e.= . $ $i francobolli del ducato modena e della provincie modenesi, ^o.$ $=diena=, emilio. . $ $les timbres-postes des romagnes. suivi d'une étude sur leurs réimpressions par j.-b. moens.$ $= bruxelles. moens, , pp. illus. ^o.$ $=dominion philatelist=, . $ $(periodical) ii.-iv. ( vols.)$ $=durbin= and hanes. . $ $descriptive catalogue of the postage stamps and stamped envelopes of all nations. th edition.$ $= philadelphia: chambers printing house, , pp. portrait, plates. ^o.$ $=earee=, robert brisco. * . $ $album weeds; or, how to detect forged stamps. d edition, enlarged.$ $= london: gibbons [ ] xii., pp. illus. ^o.$ $=eastern philatelist=, the. * . $ $a monthly magazine in the interests of philately. vol. to date.$ $= newmarket, n. h. pinkham, to date. v. ^o & ^o. the title is on the cover.$ $=evans=, edward benjamin. * . $ $a description of the mulready envelope ... with an account of other illustrated envelopes of and following years.$ $london: gibbons, , , pp. illus. ^o.$ $=evans=, edward benjamin. * a. $ $the philatelic catalogue of postal stamps, envelopes, wrappers and cards, - . st. louis: mekeel, , ( ,) , ( ) pp., illus., portr., ^o.$ $=evans=, edward benjamin. . $ $stamps and stamp collecting. a glossary of philatelic terms and guide to the identification of the postage stamps of all nations. d edition.$ $london: stanley gibbons, , pp. illus. pls. ^o.$ $=ewen=, henry l'estrange. a. $ $standard priced catalogue of the stamps and postmarks of the united kingdom. no. , .$ $bournemouth: pardy, . v. illus. sm. ^o.$ $=fabri=, pio. . $ $timbres des etats de l'eglise.$ $bruxelles, moens, , ( ), , ( ) pp. illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $same. [in moens, jean baptiste. timbres des etats de toscana et saint marin. pp. - . bruxelles, .]$ =fellows=, eleanor c. * . truth _v._ fiction, _re_ the chalmers' claim. by the postal reformer's "home" secretary for years. london: r. forder, , pp. ^o. [on the claim of patrick chalmers that his father, james chalmers, was the inventor of the adhesive postage stamp. signed, eleanor c. fellows.] $=filatelic facts and fallacies.= * . $ $a monthly magazine for stamp collectors and dealers. [edited by s. louis.] vols. - . october, -september, .$ $= san francisco: sellschop & co., - . v. ^o.$ =firth=, oliver. * . postage stamps and their collection: a practical guide to philately for all collectors. -- london: gill, , ( ), pp. illus. sm. ^o. $=fiscal philatelist=, the, * . $ $and revenue stamp guide. a monthly journal, devoted to fiscal collectors. vol. . edited by fred geo. c. lundy, - .$ $london: morley & lundy ( ). illus. sm. ^o.$ $=friederich=, rudolf. * a. $ $die postwertzeichen spaniens und seiner kolonien.$ $= berlin: brendicke, , v. in . illus. plates. ^o. contents.-- . die postwertzeichen spaniens. . auflage. . die postwertzeichen der spanischen kolonien. benutzte bücher und zeitschriften, pp. xiii, xiv.$ $=fulcher=, lionel william. * . $ $catalogue of the revenue stamps of spain and colonies, including the american occupation and revolutionary issues.$ $= london: morley, , ( ), pp. illus. ^o.$ $=gelli, g.=, and r. tani, publishers. . $ $catalogue illustré de timbres-poste et télégraphe, e édition$ $= bruxelles [ ] ( ), , pp. illus. ^o.$ $bears date on the cover.$ =girsewald=, conway, freiherr von. a. the stamps of switzerland--translated from the german. st. louis: mekeel, , pp. illus. ^o. $=glasewald=, a. e. a. $ $die postwerthzeichen von griechenland. nach den neuesten forschungen bearbeitet.$ $gössnitz s.-a. glasewald, , pp. illus. pl ^o.$ $=gray=, john edward. . $ $the illustrated catalogue of postage stamps, th ed.$ $london: e. marlborough & co., , xvi., pp.$ $sm. ^o. same, do., do., th ed.$ same--revised by overy taylor, th ed. * . london: e. marlborough & co., , xv. ( ), pp. sm. ^o. $=gray=, john edward. . $ $a hand catalogue of postage stamps, d edition.$ $london: r. hardwicke, , xiv., pp. ^o.$ $=gremmel=, henry. * a. $ $henry gremmel's stamp catalogue of the western hemisphere, giving a full description ... of all the postage stamps, ... together with the present market value of every stamp.$ $= new york [ -.] pp. illus. ^o.$ $=handford=, j. t. . $ $the illustrated postage stamp catalogue of united states and foreign postage stamps, stamped envelopes, postal and money order cards.... [ th edition.]$ $new york: seebeck, , ( ), , ( ) pp. plates. ^o.$ =hardy=, william john, and e. d. bacon. . the stamp collector. a treatise on the issue and collecting of the postage stamps of all nations. with fac-similes. london: redway, , pp. pls. fac-similes. ^o. =harrison=, gilbert, . and francis john hamilton scott napier. portuguese india [handbook of its postal issues] with notes and publisher's prices. -- london: , pp., plates [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks] ^o. $=harrison=, gilbert. * a. $ $the nesbitt stamped envelopes and wrappers of the united states of america, with descriptions of the varieties of the dies.... edited and completed by e. d. bacon.$ $london: smith, , pp. plates. ^o.$ $published as a supplement to the london philatelist.$ =herrick=, william. * . catalogue of the russian rural stamps. -- new york: scott stamp & coin co., , pp. illus. l. ^o. =horner=, w. e. v. * . history and catalogue of the stamped envelopes of the united states. philadelphia: l. w. durbin, , pp. illus. sm. ^o. $=horner=, w. e. v. * . $ $the stamped envelopes of the united states, d edition.$ $revised and continued by e. b. hanes.$ $phila.: durbin and hanes, , pp. illus.$ $[an earlier edition entitled, history and catalogue of the stamped envelopes of the united states is on shelf-number * . .]$ $=howes=, c. a. * . $ $photographs of a collection of formosan stamps, the property of j. n. luff.$ $n. p. , photos. size, - / x - / inches. mounted.$ $=illustriertes briefmarken journal= . $ $(periodical) vol. xxii.$ $=illustriertes briefmarken-journal=. * a. $ $zeitschrift für postwertzeichen-kunde. jahrgang .$ $= leipzig: senf. [ .] v. illus. ^o.$ =international collector.= * . published monthly by the collector publishing company. vol. - . san francisco, - . v. in . sm. ^o. relates to postage stamps, coins, etc. the official organ of the philatelic society of america. $=internationaler philatelisten-verein=, * . $ $dresden.$ $vertrauliche mitteilung, no. , januar, .$ $dresden, hesse and becker ( ). ^o.$ =jioubukuro.= * . [envelopes ornamented in colors.] samples. l. ^o. $=kalckhoff=, f. a. $ $die postkarten der deutschen schutzgebiete und der deutschen postanstalten im auslande.$ $leipzig: [naumann] , pp. ^o.$ $berichtigter und ergänzter sonderabdruck aus der deutschen briefmarken-zeitung.$ =kenyon=, brewster c. . history of the postal issues of hawaii. a list of the adhesive postage stamps, stamped envelopes and postal cards of the hawaiian government. = n. p., , pp. portr. ^o. $=koefoed=, o. * . $ $danske postfrimærker, - . en historisk afhandling udarbejdet paa grundlag af originale aktstykker.$ $kobenhavn, jacobsen: , , ( ) pp., illus., portrs, pls. ^o. [some of the plates are colored.]$ $=kohl=, paul. * a. $ $freimarken-katalog, .$ $= chemnitz: , x, pp., illus. ^o.$ $=kropf=, h. a. $ $die postwertzeichen der oster.-ungar. monarchie. prag: , pp., ^o.$ $=koprovski=, samuel . $ $les timbres-poste ruraux de russie. nomenclature générale de tous les timbres connus jusqu'à ce jour, avec leurs prix de vente. précédé d'une introduction sur l'histoire des postes rurales, avec notes géographiques et historiques.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , xxii, - pp, illus., ^o.$ $=kroetzsch=, hugo. a. $ $illustrierter ausführlicher katalog über deutsche postfreimarken.... leipzig: krötzsch, , x., pp., illus., ^o.$ $=kroetzsch=, hugo. * . . $ $die postfreimarken der grossherzogthümer mecklenburg-schwerin und mecklenburg-strelitz. [leipzig, .] viii, , pp. plates. [permanentes handbuch der postfreimarkenkunde. theil , abschnitt .] ^o.$ $=kroetzsch=, hugo. * . . $ $die postfreimarken des nordeutschen postbezirks. [leipzig, .] ix., ( ), pp. plates. [permanentes handbuch der postfreimarkenkunde. theil , abschnitt .] ^o.$ =longcope=, e. m. a things taxable. stamp taxes under schedule a. arranged and compiled alphabetically.... [ d ed., enlarged.] houston: , pp. ^o. $=le grand=, a. . $ $les écritures et la légende des timbres du japon. bruxelles: moens, , pp, illus. [bibliothéque timbrolozique, .] ^o. [extrait du bulletin de la société francaise de timbrologie.]$ =le grand=, a. . le grand's manual for stamp collectors. a companion to the stamp album. from the french. trans., adapted and annotated by henri pène du bois. international ed. -- n. y.: hurst [ ] pp, ^o. two copies. $=lindenberg=, c. a. $ $die briefmarken von baden unter benutzung amtlicher quellen bearbeitet. berlin: brendicke, , vi., ( ), pp. ^o.$ $=lindenberg=, carl. * . $ $die briefumschläge der deutschen staaten, unter benutzung amtlicher quellen. heft - .$ $= berlin: brendicke, - , v. and unbound parts, illus, ^o. contents--_band _: heft , braunschweig , mecklenburg-schwerin und mecklenburg-strelitz , lübeck , thurn und taxis , norddeutscher postbezirk. _band _: heft , oldenburg , baden , hamburg und bremen , sachsen , hannover. _band _: heft , bayern , württemberg.$ $=lockyer=, gilbert e. . $ colonial stamps: also those of great britain. with geographical and other notes. = london: stanley gibbons & co. [ ] vii. ( ), pp., illus., sm. ^o. $=london philatelist=, * a. $ $the monthly journal of the philatelic society, london. editor, m. p. castle. vol. - , - , - , - .$ $= london: - , v. illus., plates, l. ^o.$ $=luff=, john n. * a. $ $the postage stamps of the united states.$ $= new york: the scott stamp & coin co., , ( ), pp., illus. ^o.$ =luff=, john n. . what philately teaches. -- new york: scott stamp & coin co., , pp., illus. ^o. =lundy=, frederick george c. . history of the revenue stamps of mexico. st. louis: mekeel, , pp., illus. map, ^o. $=lundy=, frederick george c., compiler. * . $ $handbook of the revenue stamps of germany and switzerland. glasgow, , pp ^o.$ $=lundy=, frederick george c., compiler. * . $ $hand-book of the revenue stamps of great britain and ireland. in commemoration of the bi-centenary of the first stamp duty act, th june, . london: morley, , pp., sm. ^o.$ =maclean=, [mclean], william seward. . mclean's stamp collector's guide, containing articles on leading subjects; also lists of philatelic societies, and of periodicals devoted to the science; also a directory of over two thousand united states and canadian collectors, . boston: w. s. mclean [ ] pp. ^o. $=martindale=, isaac c. * a. $ $catalogue of [his] valuable collection of postage stamps to be sold ... october th and ... th, . [and] list of prices realized at the sale.$ $= [philadelphia, ] ( ), , pp, ^o.$ =mason's monthly= * . coin and stamp collectors' magazine. vol. - , - . phila.: mason & co. [ - ] v. in , illus. ^o. $=masson=, david parkes. . $ $the stamps of jammu and kashmir.$ $= calcutta [& lahore] , , v., illus., plates. [philatelic society of india. publications, vol. , ] ^o.$ =mekeel=, charles haviland. . the history of the postage stamps of the st. louis postmaster, - . o saint louis, , pp., illus., portr., fac-similes ^o. from the philatelic journal of america [* a. . ]. =mekeel=, charles haviland. . descriptive priced catalogue of american postage stamps, including also a priced list of mexican revenue stamps, d edition. = st. louis: c. h. mekeel stamp and publishing co., , pp. l. ^o. =mekeel=, c. h. * . mekeel's complete standard catalogue of the postage stamps of the world, , . st. louis: - , v. ^o and ^o. =mekeel=, charles haviland. a. mekeel's stamp collector's maps of the world. from original designs. st. louis, , mekeel, ( ) pp. ^o. =mekeel=, charles haviland. a. a stamp collector's souvenir. st. louis, , pp. illus. portrs. ^o. =mekeel= (c. h.) stamp and publishing co. . mexico. [a description of mexican postage stamps, envelopes, etc.] -- st. louis [ ?] pp. illus., ^o. $=mekeel's weekly stamp news.= * . $ $edited by i. a. mekeel [and others]. vol. - . st. louis, - , v. and unbound parts, illus., portraits, map, f^o. two copies of vol. - , , . the incomplete set is kept in the children's room. vols. - were edited by i. a. mekeel; and by c. e. severn and s. b. hopkins; , by c. e. severn alone. nos. and of vol. are wanting in the regular set, and nos. - of vol. in the "a" copy.$ $=metropolitan philatelist=, the. * a. $ $[monthly.] vol. - , april, -sept. .$ $--new york, scott [etc.] - , v, in , illus., sq. ^o.$ =millington=, h. mackwood. . an exhaustive catalogue of the adhesive postage stamps of the british empire, up to january, . with a short descriptive article on each colony. = london, gibbons, , xi., ( ), pp. illus., sm. ^o. $=mirabaud=, paul, and a. de reuterskiöld. * a. $ $the postage stamps of switzerland, - .$ $= paris, motteroz, , ( ), xi, ( ), , ( ) pp., illus., plates, f^o. bibliography, pp. - .$ =mitchell=, william h., d.d.s. no. in . the standard reference list of the private local postage stamps of the united states, including those used in canada, hawaiian kingdom and mexico. = trenton: sterling, , xlii. pp. ^o. $=moens=, jean baptiste. * a. $ $catalogue prix-courant de timbres-poste, télégraphes, enveloppes at bandes, cartes, etc., etc. = bruxelles, moens, , , v., plates, l. ^o. contents-- . timbres-poste et télégraphes; . enveloppes, bandes, cartes and mandats; . atlas.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. * . $ $héligoland et ses timbres.$ $= bruxelles: bureau du journal le timbre-poste, , ( ) pp., illus., ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. * . $ $histoire des timbres-poste et de toutes les marques d'affranchissement employées en espagne, suivie de l'histoire des timbres fiscaux mobiles, depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, - .$ $= bruxelles: bureau du journal le timbre-poste, , pp., illus., l. ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $timbres d'egypte et de la compagnie du canal de suez.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. * . $ $les timbres de belgique depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours. bruxelles: moens, , v. in , illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $timbres de l'office tour et taxis, depuis leur origine jusqu'à leur suppression ( - ). bruxelles, moens, , pp., illus., coat of arms. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. * . $ $timbres de la république argentine et de ses diverses provinces.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , v. in , fac-similes, ^o. copies printed.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres de maurice depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, e édition, augmentée.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles,] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres de mecklenbourg-schwérin et strélitz. bruxelles: moens, , pp. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres de prusse.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres de russie. nomenclature générale de tous les timbres-poste, timbres locaux, ruraux timbres-téelégraphe, enveloppes, bandes, cartes & cartes-lettres.$ $= bruxelles: moens, ( ), pp., plates, ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres de saxe depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $timbres des duchés de schleswig, holstein & lauenbourg et de la ville de bergedorf.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus., plates. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $les timbres du wurtemberg ( - ).$ $= bruxelles: moens, , v. in , illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=moens=, jean baptiste. . $ $timbres des états de toscane et saint-marin par j. b. moens, et des etats de l'eglise par pio fabri. e édition augmentée.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , ( ), pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=mongeri=, f. . $ $croissant-toughra (armoiries de l'empire ottoman.) bruxelles: moens, , pp., illus., ^o. [especially in regard to this device on postage stamps.]$ $=morley=, walter. * . $ $walter morley's catalogue and price list of the revenue stamps of the british colonies, nov., . london: ( ) ^o.$ $=morley=, walter. * . $ $walter morley's catalogue and price list of the stamps of great britain, d edition, . [london], [ ] viii., pp., sm. ^o.$ $=morley=, walter. * . $ $walter morley's complete catalogue and price list of british railway letter fee stamps, sept., . london: [ ] v. sm. ^o$. $=morley=, walter, compiler. . $ $catalogue of the telegraph stamps of the world, feb., . london: ( ), ( ), pp., plates, sm. ^o.$ $=morley's philatelic journal=. * . $ $a monthly paper for collectors of postage, revenue, telegraph and railway stamps. edited by a. preston pearce. vol. - , , .$ $= catford: morley, - , v., illus., ^o.$ $=nankivell=, edward j. . $ $stamp collecting as a pastime. london: gibbons, , pp., illus. [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks.] ^o.$ =napier=, francis john hamilton scott, and e. d. bacon. . saint vincent. [handbook of its postal issues.] with notes and publishers' prices. -- london: , pp., plates [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks] ^o. =napier=, francis john hamilton scott, and gordon smith. . south australia [handbook of its postal issues] with notes and publishers' prices. -- london, , ( ), pp., plates [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks.] ^o. =nast=, f. a. . a tentative price list of entire u. s. envelopes, arranged according to j. w. scott's system, with the corresponding numbers, according to prof. horner. n. y.: the j. w. scott co. [ -.] pp., ^o. $=nast=, f. a. . $ $a tentative price list of entire u. s. envelopes, arranged according to j. w. scott's system, with the corresponding numbers, according to prof. horner. new york: the j. w. scott co. [ ?] pp., illus., ^o. the title on the cover is j. w. scott's catalogue....$ =ogilvie=, w. t. . handbook for the collector of postage stamps, illus. london: sonnenschein, , pp. [the young collector] sm. ^o. $=parker=, e. y., publisher. a. $ $the pocket standard catalogue of the revenue stamps of canada. toronto: , pp., ^o.$ =pemberton=, edward l. . the stamp collector's handbook, d ed. london: stanley gibbons & co., , x. ( ), pp., illus., sm. ^o. $=perlep=, a. . $ $katalog der stempelmarken aller staaten. kreuz a ostbahn: moersig [ ] vii., pp., plate [philatelistische bibliothek, band ], ^o.$ $=permanentes handbuch= der postfreimarkenkunde mit lichtdrucktafeln ... gleichzeitig beibuch zum permanente-sammelwerk in losen blätter von hugo krötzsch. [auch vierteljahrs nachträge.]$ $= leipzig: krötzsch, - , v. in , illus., plates, maps, ^o.$ $theil . deutsche staaten. abschnitt - , * . $ $theil . abschnitt . . auflage * . $ $theil .$ $theil . russland * . $ $vierteljahrs nachträge. * . $ $=permanentes handbuch der= * . $ $postfreimarkenkunde. vierteljahrs-nachträge zum permanenten handbuch der postfreimarkenkunde und dem permanent-sammelwerk in losen blättern von hugo krötzsch. jahrgang - , - .$ $= leipzig: krötzsch, , iv., pp., illus. plates, ^o.$ $the permanentes handbuch, theil , is on shelf-number * . ; theil , * . .$ $=philatelic californian=, the. * . $ $vol, , , october, -december, .$ $= san francisco: california philatelic press club, - , v., illus., ^o. a monthly publication.$ $=philatelic era=, the * . $ $a semi-monthly magazine devoted to stamp collecting. w. w. jewett, editor and publisher. vol. - , september, -august, .$ $= portland, me., - , v., illus., ^o. this magazine appeared monthly previous to september, . the philatelic literary review was published as a supplement to vol. of the philatelic era, from september, , to august, .$ =philatelic journal=, the, of america. * a. an illustrated monthly magazine in the interest of stamp collecting. edited by charles haviland mekeel. vol. - . philatelic publishing co., st. louis, - , v., ^o. =philatelic journal=, the, of america. * a. special ed., vol. , no. , feb., . ed. by chas. haviland mekeel. -- st. louis: philatelic pub. co., , pp., illus., portrs., ^o. $=philatelic journal= * . $ $of great britain, and philatelic review of reviews: official organ of the international philatelic union. ed. by percy c. bishop, vol. - . london: - , v., illus., portrs., ^o.$ $=philatelic journal=, the, of india. * a. $ $the monthly journal of the philatelic society of india. editor, c. stewart-wilson, vol. - , jan. -dec., .$ $= calcutta: thacker, spink & co., - , v., illus., plates, folded tables, l. ^o.$ $=philatelic monthly and world=, vol. - . * a. $ $= philadelphia, - , v., illus., ^o.$ $=philatelic record=, the. * . $ $vol. - , - , february, -december, .$ $= london: pemberton, wilson & co., - , v. in , illus., portraits, ^o. the portraits are photographs.$ $=philatelic record and stamp news=. * . $ $edited by edward j. nankivell. vol. - , - .$ $= london: buhl & co. [ - ]. v., illus., portraits, plates, ^o.$ $=philatelic society=, london. * . $ $the postage stamps, envelopes and post cards of australia and the british colonies of oceanica.$ $= london, , ( ), , ( ) pp., plates, l. ^o.$ $=philatelic society=, london. * a. $ $the postage stamps, envelopes, wrappers, post cards, and telegraph stamps of the british colonies, possessions and protectorates in africa, parts - . london: , , v., illus. pls., l. ^o.$ $=philatelic society=, london. * a. $ $the postage stamps, envelopes, wrappers, post cards and telegraph stamps of british india and ceylon. [with a supplement, by j. a. tilleard, entitled, "notes on the de la rue series of the adhesive postage and telegraph stamps of india."] london: , ( ) lvii., pp. pls., l. ^o.$ $=philatelic society=, london. * a. $ $the postage stamps, envelopes, wrappers, and post cards of the north american colonies of great britain.$ $= london, , pp., plates, l. ^o.$ =philatelic world=, the; vol. . n. y.: , ^o. * . $=philatelist, der= a. $ $(periodical) dresden: v.-xi. ( vols.)$ $=post office=, the. * a. $ $a monthly journal for stamp collectors. vol. - , - .$ $= new york [ - ] v. in , illus., portraits, ^o. edited by alvah davison, - , henry gremmel, - , crawford capen, - - - .$ $=postage stamps.= catalogues. * . $ $[priced catalogues of auction sales of postage stamps. march , -may , .]$ $= [chicago, etc., , ] pamphlets in v., plate, ^o.$ $=postwertzeichen-kunde= a. $ $(periodical) - .$ =rebellion envelopes.= * . [a collection of envelopes bearing patriotic pictures, issued during the civil war.] mounted in scrap books, v., f^o. [a few of these were issued in the confederate states.] same. *" th" . [four envelopes and pictures cut from envelopes] ^o. $=reinheimer=, a. . $ $illustrierter preiskatalog der deutschen postalischen entwertungsarten. dresden: internationaler philatelisten-verein, ( ), pp., illus., ^o.$ =revista filatelica=, la. * . publicación mensual. eduardo f. cottilla [y i. a. mekeel], editor [es] vol. , . st. louis: mekeel stamp and pub co., - , v. ^o. $=revue philatelique=, a. $ $(periodical) iv.-vi. ( vols.)$ =ribeiro=, joao pedro. **d. . dissertacoes chronologicas e criticas sobre a historia e jurisprudencia ecclesiastica e civil de portugal, publicadas por ordem da academia r. das sciencias de lisboa. lisboa: na typografia da mesma academia, - , v., sm. ^o. [contenta ... vol. iii., parte , sobra o uso do papel sellado nos documentos publicos de portugal.] =robert=, victor. * . catalogue illustré de tous les timbres-poste émis depuis jusqu'à ... et leur prix de vente, e éd. paris: robert [ ] , pp., illus., ^o. $=robie=, lewis, . $ $stamp hunting. chicago: donohue, henneberry & co., , pp. [the modern authors' library, no. ] ^o. this is a chatty account of a travelling drug salesman, who made a specialty of collecting revenue stamps.$ $=roggenstroh=, hermann. a. $ $die postwerthzeichen von rumänien. moldau, moldau-walachei, fürstenthum rumänien, königreich rumänien ... magdeburg [ ?] pp., plates. [verein für briefmarkenkunde.] f^o.$ $=rommel=, otto. a. $ $die postwertzeichen des bergedorfer postbezirkes.$ $= münchen: larisch, ( ), pp., illus., ^o. literatur, pp. ( , ).$ $=rothschild=, arthur de, baron. . $ $histoire de la poste aux lettres depuis ses origines les plus anciennes jusqu'à nos jours. paris: librairie nouvelle, , ( ), pp., ^o. a later edition is entitled, histoire de la poste aux lettres et du timbre-poste [ . ]$ $=rothschild=, arthur de, baron. . $ $histoire de la poste aux lettres et du timbre-poste depuis leurs origines jusqu'à nos jours. e édition.$ $= bruxelles: moens, , v., ^o. an earlier edition is entitled histoire de la poste aux lettres [ . ].$ =salefranque=, léon. . le timbre à travers l'histoire, avec dessins et fac-similés. rouen: imp. e. deshays et cie, , pp., ^o. $=schueller=, friedrich. . $ $die persische post und die postwerthzeichen von persien und buchara. döbling: im. selbstverlage des verfassers [ ] ( ) pp., plates, l. ^o.$ $=scott stamp and coin co.=, . $ $[catalogue] , [n. y., ,] illus. ^o.$ $=scott stamp and coin co.=, . $ $the standard postage stamp catalogue, th- st ed., - . n. y.: [ ]- . [several copies of recent editions.]$ $=scott=, j. walter. a. $ $standard stamp catalogue, th thousand.$ $= new york: the j. w. scott co. [ -] ( ), pp., illus., ^o.$ $=scott=, j. w. a. $ $standard stamp catalogue ... new york: the j. w. scott co. [ ] ( ), pp., illus., ^o.$ =seltz=, c. m. . the postage stamp collector's hand-book. a descriptive catalogue of all postage stamps issued from to the present time. boston: c. m. seltz, ( ), pp., ^o. $=senf=, richard, . $ $handbuch sämtlicher postmarken, briefumschläge und streifbänder. [ . auflage nebst einem nachtrag.]$ $= leipzig: senf [ , ] xvi., , pp [dr. moschkau's handbuch für postwertzeichen-sammler; band ] ^o.$ $=senf=, gebrueder. * a. $ $gebrüder senfs illustrierter postwertzeichen-katalog, .$ $= leipzig: , v., illus., ^o.$ =stamp-collector's magazine=, the, * . illus., vol. - . london: e. marlborough & co., - , v., sm. ^o $=stamp news annual=, a. $ $ - . ( nos. in vol. all that were published.)$ $=stamp news=, the. * a. $ $a monthly illustrated journal for stamp collectors and dealers, vol. , , ; , , .$ $= london: buhl & co., - , v., illus., portraits, ^o.$ $=stanley gibbons= & co. * . $ $descriptive catalogue and price list of british, colonial and foreign postage stamps, post cards, etc. london: , , pp., illus., sm. ^o.$ $=stanley gibbons=, limited, publishers. . $ $priced catalogue of stamps ( ), th edition, parts - .$ $--london: [ ] v. illus., /sm. ^o. contents-- . british empire; . foreign countries; . local postage stamps; . envelopes, post cards, etc. (two copies of pt. .)$ same. . $( - ) part , , th edition [ ] v.$ $same. .$ $=stanley gibbons monthly journal=. * a. $ $[a philatelic periodical] edited by edward b. evans, vol. - , july, -june, ; july, ; june, .$ $= london, - , v., illus. plates, l. ^o.$ $=sterling=, e. b., compiler. no. in . $ $sterling's standard descriptive and price catalogue of the adhesive postage and stamped envelopes of the united states, th edition.... also, the standard reference list of the private local postage stamps, by w. h. mitchell.$ $= trenton, n. j., , , xlii. pp., portrait, ^o.$ $=sterling=, e. b., compiler. . $ $sterling's standard descriptive and price catalogue of the revenue stamps of the united states, th edition. trenton, , pp., ^o.$ $=sternheim, carl= a. $ $catalogue deutsche privatpost-marken.$ $=sternheim=, carl. a. $ $katalog der deutschen privatpost-marken. schöneberg-berlin: im. verlage des verfassers [ ] vii. pp. ^o.$ $=suppantschitsch=, victor, * . $ $bibliographic, zugleich nachschlagebuch, der gisammten deutschen philatelistischen literatur seit ihrem entstehen bio ende, , nebst einem alriss der geschichte der philatelie mit besonderer berücksichtigung deutschland's und einerkurzen geschichte der philatelistischen literatur. münchen: larisch, - , ( ) pp., ^o.$ $=suppantschitsch=, victor. * . $ $die entstehung und entwicklung der philatelischen literatur in der zweiten hälfte des xix. jahrhunderts. wien: im. selbstverlage des verfassers, , pp. ^o.$ $=suppantschitsch=, victor. a. $ $grundzüge der briefmarkenkunde und des briefmarkensammelns.$ $= leipzig: weber, , vi., pp., portrait, illus. [webers illustrierte katechismen.] ^o.$ =thornhill=, w. b. . shanghai [handbook of its postal issues] with notes and publishers' prices. -- london: , pp., plates [the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks] ^o. =tiffany=, john kerr. * . a reference list of publications relating to postage stamps and their collection. compiled by request for the boston public library. [st. louis] , ( ), pp., mss. ^o. =tiffany=, john kerr. . history of the postage stamps of the united states of america. st. louis: c. h. mekeel, , pp. portr. ^o. =tiffany=, john kerr. * . the philatelic library. a catalogue of stamp publications. st. louis: privately printed. [cambridge: press of john wilson & son] , vi, +pp, ^o . p. [note-- copies printed, no. .] =tiffany=, john kerr. a. a st. louis symposium [of philatelists] st. louis: mekeel, [ ] pp., illus. ^o. [from the philatelic journal of america (* a . )] $=tiffany=, john kerr. * . $ $les timbres des etats-unis d'amérique depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours.$ $= bruxelles, moens, , v. in i., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o. contents-- . les timbres-poste. . timbres de journaux, officiels, taxe, administratifs et essais. . cartes postales et leurs essais; de la fabrication des timbres-poste.$ =tiffany=, john kerr, and others. * . the stamped envelopes, wrappers and sheets of the united states by john k. tiffany, r. r. bogert and joseph rechert, a committee of the national philatelic society. new york: scott stamp and coin co., , ( ), , ( ) pp. pls. l. ^o. $=tilleard=, john alexander. * a. $ $notes on the de la rue series of the adhesive postage and telegraph stamps of india. london: , pp., l. ^o. ["a supplement to the postage stamps, etc., of british india and ceylon, published by the philatelic society, london," with which it is bound.]$ $=timbre-poste.= * . $ $le, et le timbre fiscal. journal du collectionneur. paraissant le ier de chaque mois. [edité par j. b. moens.] année , - , - ; , - , - .$ $= bruxelles, moens, - , v., illus., ^o. le timbre fiscal appeared separately from - , and quarterly during . from to it was published as a supplement to le timbre-poste, with which it was incorporated in . le timbre-poste was discontinued with the issue of december, .$ =trifet=, ferdinand. [asterism] . descriptive price catalogue of postage stamps of all nations. appended a complete list of the russian rural-posts stamps th edition, illus. with engrs. boston: , pp., ^o. =trifet=, ferdinand. . descriptive price catalogue of the postage stamps of all nations, [with supplement] th ed., revised and corrected. boston: , , + pp., ^o. =united states= internal revenue office. * . -- law and regulations concerning documentary and proprietary stamps under the act of june , . august , . washington: , pp., ^o. =united states= post office department. * . a report of the third assistant postmaster general for - . - , washington, , , v., ^o (this report deals chiefly with the registration, stamp and classification of mail matter divisions.) earlier reports may be found in the annual reports of the post office department [* . ., , - ]. $=walker=, l. h. j., and jean baptiste moens. . $ $les timbres de natal.$ $= bruxelles, moens, , ( ), pp., illus. [bibliothèque des timbrophiles.] ^o.$ $=weekly philatelic era.= * a. $ $published every saturday in the interests of stamp collectors, vol. - , september , --september , .$ $= portland, me., jewett, - , v. in . f^o.$ $=western philatelist=, the. * . $ $vol. , (no. - ), january, --may, .$ $= chicago: western philatelic publishing co., - , v. in , illus, portraits, plate, ^o. no more was published.$ =westoby=, william amos scarborough. . the adhesive postage stamps of europe: a practical guide to their collection, identification and classification, vol . -- london, gill, , vi, ( ), pp., illus., sm ^o. =westoby=, william amos scarborough. . penny postage jubilee. a descriptive catalogue of all the postage stamps of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland issued during fifty years. london: low, marston, searle and rivington , xi, ( ), , ( ) pp. illus. ^o. same, new edition, with addenda, , xi, ( ), pp * . $=wilson=, charles stewart. . $ $british indian adhesive stamps surcharged for native states, part , .$ = calcutta, chakravarti, , , v., plates. [philatelic society of india, publications, vol. , ] ^o. contents-- . chamba, faridkot, gwalior. . jhind, nabha, patiala. the title is on the cover. $=wolsieffer=, p. m. * . $ $wolsieffer's auction sale[s] of rare stamps, january , -july , . held at the great northern hotel. [priced catalogues].$ --chicago: - . parts in v., plates, ^o. $=wright=, hastings elwin * a. $ $and anthony buck creeke, jr., compilers. a history of the adhesive stamps of the british isles available for postal and telegraph purposes, with an introduction by gordon smith. london philatelic society, , xxvi, pp., fac-similes, pls diagrams, l. ^o.$ $=yvert= and tellier a. $ $catalogue prix-courant de timbres-poste, e édition. amiens, , xxxi, ( ), pp., illus. ^o.$ =zschiesche=, alwin. a. $katalog über alle seit bis jan. ausgegeben briefmarken. leipz. zschiesche, , iv, pp, ^o.$ * * * * * boston philatelic society. organized march , . m. h. lombard, president. c. a. howes, secretary. l. l. green, treasurer. extract from the constitution: article i. section . this society is constituted to encourage and promote: ( ). the study of postage, telegraph and fiscal stamps, stamped envelopes, newspaper and other bands, and postal cards, their history, engraving, printing and other details. ( ). the detection and prevention of forgeries and frauds. ( ). the preparation and publication of papers and books bearing upon these subjects, and the undertaking of all such matters as may incidentally promote the above objects and contribute to the increase of the science and practice of philately. * * * * * _meeting, third tuesday of each month at elks' hall, hayward place, boston., p. m._ _visitors cordially welcomed._ list of members. * indicates charter member. * . gilmore, geo. l. lexington, mass. * . sprague, f. w., d. tremont st., room , boston. * . woodward, h. e. dunreath st., roxbury, mass. * . sircom, s. r. washington st., boston. * . humphrey, h. d. dedham, mass. * . van derlip, w. c. berwick park, boston. * . batchelder, a. w. salem, mass. . coburn, w. e. everett, mass. . woodward, c. e. dunreath st., roxbury, mass. . holton, e. a. summer st., boston. . king, h. f. p. o. box , boston. . robinson, w. e. appleton st., malden, mass. . richardson, f. p. salem, mass. . mason, e. h. kilby st., boston. . green, l. l. tremont st., boston. . harris, howard p. northey st., salem, mass. . quinby, h. c. wall st., new york city. . thayer, oliver, d. salem, mass. . corbett, h. washington st., boston. . brown, f. p. washington st., boston. . abbott, dr. chas. e. andover, mass. . mott, luther w. oswego, n. y. . deats, h. e. flemington, n. j. . phelps, e. s. west canton st., boston. . banks, wm., jr. state st., boston. . johnson, j. f. lexington st., auburndale, mass. . sturgis, elliot t. milk st., boston. . lebon, chas. p. waumbeck st., roxbury, mass. . olney, hon. frank f. providence, r. i. . cutter, chas. w. harvard st., brookline, mass. . dodge, frank f. high st., boston. . jewett, wm. w. congress st., portland, me. . pitman, fred h. dartmouth st., somerville, mass. . smith, fred s. south st., boston. . davis, a. d. palisade ave., yonkers, n. y. . burt, frank h. room , tremont bldg., boston. . ayer, f. w. bangor, me. . drew, b. l. oxford st., cambridge b., mass. . holland, alexander grace court, brooklyn, n. y. . linton, chas. e. franklin st., cambridge a., mass. . nolen, wm. w. manter hall, cambridge, mass. . nute, henry o. blue hill ave., dorchester, mass. . wolcott, chas. w. dedham, mass. . toppan, geo. l. main st., racine, wis. . pierce, wm. t. watertown, mass. . newell, warren dudley st., roxbury, mass. . macy, arthur h. dudley st., roxbury, mass. . andreini, j. m. west th st., new york city. . patten, frank w. box , west lynn sta., mass. . althen, edw. c. n. state st., elgin, ill. . frost, walter l. hancock st., boston. . peters, geo. e. west newton, mass. . smith, franklin e. fairmont ave., newton, mass. . rice, h. j. c/o blodgett, merritt & co., congress st., boston. . lyons, j. h. bromfield st., boston. . howes, clifton a. broadway, cambridge a., mass. . carpenter, ernest m. bromfield st., boston. . luff, john n. east d st., new york city. . lombard, benjamin, jr. beacon st., brookline, mass. . clark, david o. hingham, mass. . stevens, edwin a. magnolia st., boston. . barker, w. s., jr. medford, mass. . kidder, henry a. arlington, mass. . rockwell, j. w. medford, mass. . bogert, r. r. nassau st., new york city. . capron, j. f. bromfield st., boston. . wolsieffer, p. m. atwood bldg., chicago, ill. . rothfuchs, c. f. munroe st., roxbury, mass. . dutcher, frank j. hopedale, mass. . wylie, willard o. beverly, mass. . tent, frank oxford road, newton centre, mass. . lombard, m. h. lagrange st., winchester, mass. . dunning, a. w. newton, mass. . flagg, geo. a. fairmount ave., malden, mass. . tuttle, geo. r. nassau st., new york city. . drake, c. s. b warren st., roxbury, mass. . ireland, gordon holyoke house , cambridge, mass. . brown, walter l. pleasant st., worcester, mass. . cone, john j., jr. russell park st., new dorchester, mass. . mears, henry a. gray st., cambridge, mass. . loring, robert b. south market st., boston. . wayne, a. a. glendale st., dorchester, mass. . smith, h. dudley st., medford, mass. . burns, r. f. union st., boston. . marshall, w. h. washington st., cambridge a, mass. . dodge, frank a. franklin st., cambridge a, mass. . colson, warren h. crombie st., salem, mass. . sawyer, edwin f. washington st., brighton, mass. . mason, henry t. washington st., cambridge a, mass. . porter, h. l. columbus sq., boston. . putney, freeman, jr. bromfield st., boston. . wells, clinton g. n. calvert st., baltimore, md. . eldredge, wm. d. p. o. box , boston. . burleigh, dr. chas. pleasant st., malden, mass. . stone, chas. h. antrim st., cambridge a, mass. . barrett, louis g. phillips bldg., boston. . wall, james h. worcester, mass. . powers, chas. f. massachusetts ave., boston. . woodward, howard h. dunreath st., roxbury, mass. . foster, f. apthorp state st., boston. . schlenker, sam brenham texas. . nash, fred j. school st., somerville, mass. . stone, wm. c. union st., springfield mass. . gates, walter l. teaticket, mass. . porter, james m. water st., boston. . crehore, frederick m. newton lower falls, mass. . crosby, clifford f. summer st., west somerville, mass. . ingraham, john o st., south boston, mass. . parker, herman, newbury st., boston. . morgenthau, j. c. nassau st., new york city. . bartels, j. m. washington st., boston. . power, e. b. broadway, new york city. . massoth, f. n. marquette bldg., chicago, ill. . makins, j. h. market st., san francisco, cal. . gifford, t. merritt new bedford, mass. . waldron, george f. hudson st., somerville, mass. . butler, w. r. rosedale st., dorchester, mass. . crocker, henry j. crocker bldg., san francisco, cal. . rhodes, albert e. temple place, boston. . howe, louis p. pleasant st., marlboro, mass. . smith, robert belden pine st., new york city. . low, eugene e. burnside ave., west somerville, mass. . dennison, a. walnut st., neponset, mass. . severn, c. e. journal bldg., chicago, ill. . doncyson, s. t. s. west th st., chicago, ill. . oesch, john j. wabash ave., chicago, ill. . klemann, john a. broadway, new york city. . barnes, s. c. amesbury, mass. . taylor, john i. beacon st., boston. . sawtelle, chas. w. water st., boston. . scott, john w. john st., new york city. . hunt, james t. weymouth, mass. . foster, francis c. oxford st., cambridge, mass. . pickman, dudley l. beacon st., boston. . von pirch, rev. r. berlin, ontario, canada. . moffatt, frank d. keap st., brooklyn, n. y. . lovell, w. o. maple st., malden, mass. . weber, adolph h. sutter st., san francisco, cal. . marston, h. w. amesbury, mass. . jones, fred g. brook st., louisville, ky. . martin, eben s. north fourth st., minneapolis, minn. . brown, charles a. honolulu, hawaii. . capen, crawford miller ave., brooklyn, n. y. . rich, joseph s. manhattan ave., new york city. . simmons, samuel r., jr., alexander ave., new york city. . calman, henry l. east rd st., new york city. . dorchester, ernest dean velasco, texas. . roberts, hobart v. genesee st., utica, n. y. . chase, chas. n. stoughton, mass. . shaw, herbert m. hastings st., west roxbury, mass. . dunkhorst, h. f. th st., n. w., washington, d. c. . frasier, joseph a., m. d. new bedford, mass. . low, john f. portland st., boston. . viets, james r. greystone park, lynn, mass. . palmer, charles h. wellesley, mass. . ashenden, e. harold tudor terrace, auburndale, mass. . foster, douglass b. dana st., somerville, mass. . bruner, p. f. west th st., new york city. . gurley, wm. f. e. lexington ave., chicago, ill. . eaton, d. t. muscatine, iowa. . legg, h. w. hancock st., boston. . howard, robert g. newton, mass. . bernichon, jules rue rochambeau, paris ( e arrondt.) . ginn, frederick robert strand, london, w. c. . gascoyne, dr. w. j. south st., baltimore, md. . nevin, charles k. b. gardner st., allston, mass. . parker, charles w., jr., thorndike st., brookline, mass. . hart, h. l. gottingen st., halifax, n. s. . willadt, carl pforzheim, germany. . phillips, chas. j. strand, london, w. c. . kohl, paul chemnitz, germany. . swain, william n. merlin st., new dorchester, mass. . tarr, r. a. north broad st., philadelphia, pa. . gottesleben, r. m. box , denver, col. . brown, allen a. kilby st., room , boston. . loring, george f. state st., room , boston. . beddig, a. hanover, germany. . bartels, walter washington st., boston. . grimmons, chas. a. thurston st., somerville, mass. . prevost, john w. spencer ave., springfield, mass. . bartsch, rudolf c. temple st., west roxbury, mass. . crocker, james h. thorndike st., brookline, mass. . randall, w. h. medford, mass. . brown, clark w. ladd st., watertown, mass. . parker, frederick w. highland ave., somerville, mass. . kelley, edward de z. care adams express co., boston. . hills, isaac siasconset, nantucket, mass. . van malder, w. f. bourne st, roslindale, mass. . barton, chas. j. meridian st., melrose, mass. . cook, frederick s. sparhawk st., brighton, mass. . bigelow, chas. c. sargent ave., somerville, mass. . gelli, gustave rue des fripiers, brussels, belgium. . hanscom, a. p. pearl st., cambridge a, mass. . maynard, robert d. oak grove ave., springfield, mass. [illustration] * * * * * transcriber's notes page (title page): changed "* . " to "* . " (albrecht, r. f., ... * . ) page : changed "fur" to "für" (für briefmarken-sammler) page : changed comma after "patrick" to full stop (=chalmers=, patrick.... * . ) page : changed " p." to " pp." (leipzig: , pp., illus., ^o.) page : added missing full stop after " " ( . die postwertzeichen der spanischen kolonien.) page : added missing full stop ( ... , pp. l. ^o.) page : added missing opening bracket ([ ] viii., pp., sm. ^o.) page : changed "hand books" (with no hyphen at end of line) to "handbooks" (the stanley gibbons philatelic handbooks) page : added missing final full stop (plate [philatelistische bibliothek, band ], ^o.) page : added missing open bracket ([verein für briefmarkenkunde.]) page : added missing opening bracket ([several copies of recent editions.]) page : added missing final full stop ([ ] vii. pp. ^o.) page : added (suspected) missing colon (leipzig: weber, , vi., pp.) page : added missing final full stop (vol. - , september , --september , .) page : added missing close parenthesis in "... classification of mail matter divisions.)" the connoisseur's library general editor: cyril davenport fine books [illustration: deucalion et pyrrha repeuplant la terre, suivant l'oracle de themis.] fine books by alfred w. pollard [illustration: the connoisseur's library] new york: g. p. putnam's sons london: methuen & co. ltd. to sir edward maunde thompson, g.c.b. director and principal librarian of the british museum - preface if the mere taking of trouble ensured good work, this contribution to the _connoisseur's library_ should be entitled to the modest praise of being "superior to the rest" of its author's book-makings, since it has been ten years on the stocks and much of it has been written two or three times over, either because the writer's own information had increased or to take account of the successful researches of others. yet in the end defeat in one main point has to be acknowledged. the book was begun with a confident determination to cover the whole ground, from the beginnings of printing and printed book-illustration down to our own day, and in the case of printing the survey has been carried through, however sketchily. but the corresponding survey of book-illustration ends, with rather obvious marks of compression and fatigue, about , leaving the story of a hundred and thirty years of very interesting picture-work untold. pioneering is always so exciting that recognition of the impossibility of carrying out the full plan of the book within the limits either of the present volume or of the author's working life was not made without sincere regret. the subject, however, of the abandoned chapter was not only very large, but very miscellaneous, and the survey for it would have had to include at least three other countries (france, germany, and the united states) besides our own. to one section, moreover, that of illustrations in colour, a separate volume of this series has already been devoted. the author would, therefore, fain console himself with the hope that in one or more other volumes a competent account may be given by some other hand of the wood-engravings, etchings, steel-engravings, and lithographs, with which books have been decorated since . the poorness of paper and print with which these modern illustrated books have too often been handicapped has caused collectors to take little interest in them--it even suggested the unworthy excuse for the failure to write the missing chapter that these are not really _fine books_, but only books with fine pictures in them, and so are outside our subject. but both students and collectors have their duties as well as their delights, and in view of the high artistic value of quite a large proportion of these modern illustrations, the preservation of clean and uncropped copies of the books in which they occur and the tribute of careful cataloguing and description are certainly their due. while the desired completeness has not been attained the ground here covered is still very wide, and for the book as a whole no more can be claimed than that it is a compilation from the best sources--a list of these will be found in the bibliography--controlled by some personal knowledge, the amount of which naturally varies very much from chapter to chapter. the obligations incurred in writing it have thus been great, and a sad number of these are to fellow-workers and friends--proctor, john macfarlane, w. h. allnutt, konrad burger, dr. lippmann, anatole claudin, and the prince d'essling--who have died while the book has been in progress. among those still happily alive acknowledgment must specially be made to sir sidney colvin for help received from his masterly introduction to the great monograph on _early engravers and engraving in england_ published by the trustees of the british museum; to mr. a. m. hind for use made of the list of engravers and their works in the same book; to mr. campbell dodgson for dippings into the wealth of information in his _catalogue of german and flemish woodcuts in the print room of the british museum_ (vols. i and ii); to mr. gordon duff for help derived from his three series of sandars lectures on english printing, and to mr. evans for information obtained from his _american bibliography_. among other obligations the chief is to the writers (notably mr. h. r. plomer) of numerous papers contributed to the _transactions_ of the bibliographical society and to _the library_, and these are acknowledged with special pleasure. a. w. p. contents page chapter i. collectors and collecting " ii. block-books " iii. the invention of printing--holland " iv. the invention of printing--mainz " v. other incunabula " vi. the development of printing " vii. early german and dutch illustrated books " viii. early italian illustrated books " ix. early french and spanish illustrated books " x. later foreign books " xi. foreign illustrated books of the th century " xii. printing in england ( - ) " xiii. english books printed elsewhere than at london " xiv. english woodcut illustrations " xv. engraved illustrations " xvi. modern fine printing bibliography index list of plates i. deucalion and pyrrha repeopling the world. from ovid's _metamorphoses_, paris, _frontispiece_ to face page ii. an author (caxton?) presenting a book to margaret of burgundy. fifteenth century engraving inserted in the chatsworth copy of the _recuyell of the historyes of troye_ (from the plate made for the bibliographical society's edition of mr. seymour de ricci's _census of caxtons_.) iii. the "bona inspiratio angeli contra vanam gloriam." from a smaller version of the _ars moriendi_. block-book from the lower rhine, _c._ iv. leaf a of a fragment of the _doctrinale_ of alexander gallus. one of the so-called "costeriana" v. beginning, with printed capital, of the _rationale diuinorum officiorum_ of gulielmus duranti. mainz, fust and schoeffer, vi. leaf b of the first book printed at cologne, cicero, _de officiis_, ulrich zel, not later than the space left in the sixth line from the foot stands for the words _ab ostentatione_, which the printer apparently could not read in his manuscript. the word _vacat_ at the end was inserted to show that the space in the last line was accidental and that nothing had been omitted. vii. leaf a of cicero's _rhetorica_, venice, nicolas jenson, , showing spaces left for a chapter heading and capital viii. part of leaf a, with woodcut, from the _geschicht von dem seligen kind symon_ of tuberinus. augsburg, günther zainer, about ix. woodcuts of saracens and syrians from breidenbach's _sanctae peregrinationis in montem syon atque in montem sinai descriptio_. mainz, erhard reuwich, x. woodcut on leaf b of the _egloga theoduli_. leipzig, conrad kachelofen, xi. page (sig. h verso) from the _psalterium beatae mariae virginis_ of nitschewitz, showing the emperor frederick and his son maximilian. from a press at the cistercian monastery at zinna, _c._ xii. the harrowing of hell, with text, from leaf a of the _belial_ of jacobus de theramo. haarlem, bellaert, . (size of the original, ¼" × ") xiii. woodcut of the betrayal. from leaf b of the _meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore_ attributed to s. bonaventura. venice, geronimo di sancti, . (size of original, ¾" × ¼") xiv. woodcut, de atheniensibus petentibus regem, illustrating fable xxii. in the _aesop_ printed at naples, by francesco tuppo, xv. woodcut of lorenzo giustiniano preceded by a crucifer, from his _della vita religiosa_. venice, xvi. page with woodcut of the procession to calvary, from the _meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore_ attributed to s. bonaventura. florence, ant. miscomini, _c._ xvii. titlepage of _la festa di san giovanni_. florence, bart. di libri, _c._ xviii. leaf a, with woodcut of death seizing an archbishop and a chevalier, from the _danse macabre_. paris, gui marchant, . (size of original ¾" × ¼") xix. leaf a, with woodcut of adam and eve, from a _bible en francoys_. paris, antoine vérard, about . (size of original, ¾" × ") xx. page (sig. c verso), with woodcut of the massacre of the innocents, from the _grandes heures_. paris, antoine vérard, about . (size of original, ( / )" × ¼") xxi. page (sig. u verso) from the edition of _terence_, printed by j. trechsel at lyon, xxii. titlepage from the _improbratio alcorani_ of ricoldus. seville, stanislaus polonus, xxiii. hroswitha presenting her plays to the emperor otto i, leaf b of the _opera hrosvite_. nuremberg, sodalitas celtica, xxiv. titlepage of jornandes _de rebus gothorum_. augsburg, xxv. page (leaf b) of a _missale romanum_, printed at venice by gregorius de gregoriis, xxvi. title-cut from _les dix premiers livres de l'iliade d'homère, prince des poètes, traduictz en vers françois, par m. hugues salel_. paris, jehan loys for vincent sertenas, xxvii. page from the _fifteen oes_. westminster, caxton, about xxviii. first page of text from the first edition (left incomplete) of tyndale's _new testament_. cologne, xxix. part of sig. k recto, with woodcut of christ raising the centurion's daughter, from the _speculum vitae christi_ of s. bonaventura. westminster, w. caxton, about xxx. titlepage of bishop fisher's funeral sermon on henry vii. london, w. de worde, xxxi. woodcut of the translator presenting his book to the duke of norfolk, from alexander barclay's version of sallust's _jugurtha_. london, r. pynson, about xxxii. portrait of the author, from john heywood's _the spider and the flie_. london, t. powell, xxxiii. woodcut of queen elizabeth hawking, from turberville's _the booke of faulconrie_, xxxiv. engraving of christ in a mandorla from bettini's _monte santo di dio_. florence, nicolaus laurentii, . (size of original, " × ") xxxv. last page of preface, giving the arms of the bishop of würzburg, from the würzburg _agenda_. würzburg, g. reyser, xxxvi. titlepage of the _dialogus_ of amadeus berrutus. rome, gabriel of bologna, xxxvii. engraved portrait of the author by theodore de bry after j. j. boissard, from the _emblemata_ of denis le bey. frankfort, de bry, xxxviii. page from the _hieroglyphikes of the life of man_ by quarles, the engraving by w. marshall, london, xxxix. page, with engraving after eisen, from dorat's _les baisers_, la haye et se vend à paris, lambert, xl. engraving by w. w. rylands after samuel wale, from walton's _compleat angler_. london, t. hope, [illustration: _engraving of an author, possibly caxton, presenting a book to margaret, duchess of burgundy, prefixed to the chatsworth copy of the 'recuyell.'_] fine books chapter i collectors and collecting from the stray notes which have come down to us about the bibliophiles of the later roman empire it is evident that book-collecting in those days had at least some modern features. owing to the abundance of educated slave-labour books were very cheap, almost as cheap as they are now, and book-collectors could busy themselves about refinements not unlike those in which their successors are now interested. but in the middle ages books were by no means cheap, and until quite the close of the fourteenth century there were few libraries in which they could be read. princes and other very wealthy book-buyers took pleasure in possessing finely written and illuminated manuscripts, but the ruling ideals were mainly literary and scholastic, the aim (the quite right and excellent aim) being to have the best books in as many subjects as possible. after printing had been invented the same ideals continued in force, the only difference being that they could now be carried out on a larger scale. libraries like those formed in the sixteenth century by archbishop cranmer and lords arundel and lumley, or that gathered in france by the historian de thou, were essentially students' libraries, and the books themselves and the catalogues of them were often classified so as to show what books had been acquired in all the different departments of human knowledge. even in the sixteenth century, when these literary ideals were dominant, we find some examples of another kind. in jean grolier, for instance, we find the book-lover playing the part, too seldom assumed, of the discriminating patron of contemporary printing and bookbinding. instead of collecting more old books than he could find time to read, grolier bought the best of his own day, but of these sometimes as many as four or five copies of the same work that he might have no difficulty in finding one for a friend; and whatever book he bought he had bound and decorated with simple good taste in venice or at home in france. it would be an excellent thing if more of our modern collectors, instead of taking up antiquarian hobbies, were content to follow grolier's example. books always look best when clad in jackets of their own time, and this in the future will apply to the books of the twentieth century as much as to any others. moreover, there is more actual binding talent available in england just now than at any previous time, and it is much to be desired that modern groliers would give it scope, not in pulling about old books, but in binding beautifully those of our own day. grolier found a modest imitator in england in the person of thomas wotton, but with some at least of the elizabethan book-lovers the havoc wrought in the old libraries by the commissioners of henry viii and edward vi provoked an antiquarian reaction which led them to devote all their energies to collecting, from the unworthy hands into which they had fallen, such treasures of english literary and bookish art as still remained. putting aside john leland who worked (to what extent and with what success is not quite clear) for henry viii, matthew parker, archbishop of canterbury, was the earliest of these antiquaries, to the great benefit of the libraries of lambeth palace and of corpus christi college, cambridge, though as to how he came by his books perhaps the less said the better. parker was soon followed by sir robert cotton, whose success in gathering books and documents illustrating english history was so great that his library was sequestered and very nearly altogether taken from him, on the plea that it contained state papers which no subject had a right to possess. owing to the carelessness and brutality of the previous generation, cotton's opportunities were as great as his zeal in making use of them, and at the cost of his fortune he laid the foundations of a national library. humbler men imitated him without being able to secure the same permanence for their collections, more especially humphrey dyson, a notary, who seems to have acquired early printed books and proclamations, with the same zeal which cotton devoted to manuscripts. many of his treasures passed into the hands of richard smith, the secondary of the poultry compter, but at his sale they were scattered beyond recall, and the unity of one of the most interesting of english collections was thus unkindly destroyed. both these men, and some others of whom even less is known, worked with a public aim, and already sir thomas bodley had gone a step further by founding anew the university library at oxford on lines which at once gave it a national importance. this it preserved and developed for over a century and a half, and has never since lost, though no national help, unfortunately, has ever been given it, save the right already conceded by the stationers' company, of claiming a copy of any new english book offered for sale. bodley's munificent donation marked an epoch in the history of english book-collecting because its tendency was to make private book-collecting of the kind which was then admired incongruous and even absurd. when there were no public libraries open to scholars, for a great man to maintain a splendid library in his own house and allow students to read in it was worthy of aristotle's [greek: megalopsychos], the man who does everything on a scale that befits his dignity. but in proportion as public collections of books and facilities for obtaining access to them are increased, the preservation of a library on a large scale in a private house, where none of the inmates have any desire to use it, becomes an easy and justifiable object of satire. a man without literary instincts who inherits a fine library is indeed in a parlous state, for if he keeps it he is as a dog in the manger, and if he sells it he is held up to opprobrium. that considerations of this kind were beginning to have weight is shown by the rapidity with which during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries one private collection after another drifted into public ownership. in some cases there were intermediate stages. thus archbishop usher's books were not bequeathed to trinity college, dublin, but were purchased for it by the subscriptions of the soldiers of cromwell's army in ireland. the manuscripts of sir simeon d'ewes remained in the possession of his family for nearly a century, were then purchased by harley, and came to the british museum with harley's collection. stillingfleet's manuscripts were in the same temporary ownership; his printed books came to dublin through the public spirit of archbishop marsh. so again bishop moore's books were purchased for the university library at cambridge by george i. thus even when a collector was not inspired by, or could not afford to indulge, public motives, respect for his memory or desire to benefit an institution often brought his books to a safe haven. but more often the munificence was personal and direct. for some cause not quite easy to see the flow of benefactions to english libraries has dwindled sadly of late years,[ ] so that journalists with short memories write of gifts and bequests to american libraries as if they were unprecedented. even of late years, however, the foundation of the john rylands library, chancellor christie's gifts and bequest to the victoria university, the sandars legacy to the university library, cambridge, and mr. alfred huth's bequest to the british museum of any fifty books it might choose to select from his fine collection, show that the stream is not quite dried up, while for nearly two centuries and a half from the foundation of the bodleian it ran with splendid freedom. thus archbishop williams gave noble gifts of books to s. john's college, cambridge, and to the chapter house library at westminster abbey; selden's books enriched the bodleian; laud was a generous benefactor alike to the bodleian, to s. john's college, oxford, and to the library of lambeth palace; sir kenelm digby gave both to bodley and to harvard; ralph sheldon benefited the heralds' college; pepys (through his nephew) bequeathed his collection to magdalene college, cambridge; archbishop marsh founded a library at dublin; richard rawlinson gave his manuscripts to the bodleian, and harley arranged that his should be offered to the nation. the example of the men who bought under the influence of an intention to bestow their books on some public institution naturally affected others, and was responsible for a good deal of rather haphazard collecting in the eighteenth century. the private modern library was often confused with the antiquarian collection, and the antiquarian collection itself was seldom dominated by any central idea. yet collectors who devoted themselves to one subject and knew thoroughly well what they were aiming at were already coming into existence, and these also, when their work was done, were inspired by an honourable ambition to preserve it intact, and so the libraries were once more enriched. thus garrick, guided by his professional interest, devoted himself to early plays, and bequeathed his collection to the british museum. malone bought the books which were useful to him as a student of elizabethan literature, more especially of shakespeare, and bequeathed them to the bodleian, while capell left his similar collection to trinity college, cambridge. the library of natural history books brought together by sir joseph banks and bequeathed by him to the british museum is another example of well-defined collecting, though of a different sort. among men who were not themselves specialists the vogue lay in the direction of first editions of the greek and latin classics and of a few italian and english authors of special merit, together with books illustrating the history of printing down to about the year or . the early classics seem to have been the indispensable element in any collection of the first rank, and they appear with monotonous regularity in the libraries of george iii, of the rev. clayton mordaunt cracherode, and of thomas grenville, which all three passed to the british museum; in the spencer collection, now in the john rylands library, manchester; and in the sunderland library, sold at auction in - . when these prizes were secured the collector seems to have felt himself free to follow his individual taste in supplementary purchases, and the grenville library is a fine proof of the broader interests of its possessor. two notable collectors, heber, the last of the great book-gluttons, and william henry miller, founder of the famous christie-miller library at britwell, cut themselves free from the cult of the _editio princeps_, the latter (despite a taste for modern latin verse) devoting himself to english poetry, while heber added to this the literatures of france, italy, and spain. despite the exceptions we have mentioned, in almost all of the collections of the early years of the nineteenth century two different ideals were combined: the student's ideal of the best books in the best editions, and the antiquary's ideal of the books by which the history of printing and its kindred arts could be most vividly illustrated. the combination is still common, for one of à beckett's comic histories (though i am not prepared to assert that this is a "best book") still figures as the first entry in many sale catalogues which contain also incunabula assuredly not bought for their literary interest. it is more easy to defend such a medley on the ground of sentiment than of logic. whoever uses books has reason to be grateful to the men who invented or diffused the art of printing, and may be interested in learning something about them. yet it can hardly be denied that to collect various kinds of books from an antiquarian, æsthetic, or any other well-defined point of view, not directly literary, is an independent pursuit in its own right, just as to collect old or beautiful china or silver is an independent pursuit, whether or no the china or silver be used for eating or drinking from. it will be said, of course, that on this view books are no better than china (or postage stamps), and there are indeed some strange instances of men who have fallen below their possibilities and have collected books, and not without success, despite a most amazing indifference to their contents. this reduces the joy they can get from their hobby to the bare pleasure of collecting for the sake of collecting, an ignoble delight in indulging acquisitiveness, redeemed to some extent by the higher pleasure of overcoming difficulties and observing the rules of the game. but the ignorant book-collector, until he has educated himself, is like a rose-fancier who cannot distinguish one odour from another. by the time they attract the collector books have become, or are on the road to becoming, so precious that their primary usefulness has to be left dormant. to use them constantly for our daily reading would approach the fault which the greeks called [greek: hubris], the arrogance which makes a man esteem himself so highly that he thinks nothing too good for his own use. but even when this limitation is recognized, for those who can appreciate them they preserve all the associations of their primary use, and it is because these associations are so delightful and so various that the bookman claims that his form of collecting is the best of all. what then are the associations and qualities which give books value in the eyes of a collector? we may answer the question negatively in the first instance by reducing to their proper importance the two qualities which are popularly supposed to be the most attractive to the book-hunter--rarity and age. if a book is otherwise uninteresting, what is it the better for being rare? in passing it may be noted that unless a book is interesting for other reasons its rarity is necessarily an unknown quantity. sir sidney lee's census of the extant copies of the first folio shakespeare, a comparatively common book, but of supreme interest for its associations, is a striking example of the zeal with which every discoverable copy of a valuable book is now hunted down. those whose business it is to gather such information can tell in the case of dozens of books of much less importance exactly how many copies have been discovered and in whose possession they remain. but in the case of a book of little interest the most that can be said is that it is "undescribed," and it may be "undescribed" not in the least because it is really rare, but because no bibliographer has troubled himself to make a note of it. were some real point of interest discovered in it the chances are that the attention thus attracted would speedily bring to light other copies, as in the case of the school magazine to which mr. kipling was found to have contributed. of this the first set catalogued sold for over £ , with the result that so many others were unearthed that the price speedily sank to less than as many shillings. granted, however, that it could be proved that a dull book is not merely undescribed, but absolutely, what so few works are, unique, in what way does this make it of interest to the collector? a great library might buy it for a trifle out of compassion, or under the idea that its registration in a catalogue might help to piece out a genealogy, or that it might count as another unit in statistics (a poor reason), or justify its purchase in some other haphazard way. but considerations of this kind, such as they are, cannot affect private collectors. a really dull book is merely a nuisance, and whether only one copy of it, or many, can be proved to exist, nobody wants it. if this be so we are justified in saying that, although as soon as a book is found desirable for any other reason its rarity becomes of paramount importance in determining its price, rarity by itself is of no interest to collectors. the attractiveness bestowed by age cannot be treated quite so summarily, because although the same line of argument can be followed, it has to be helped out by an explanation arising from a particular case. no collector would value a dull sermon printed in any higher than a dull sermon printed in , and if we go back two centuries instead of one, in the case of a book printed in london its value is none the greater for the extra hundred years. if, however, the sermon chanced to have been printed in in some provincial town, its age would distinctly be an element of value. down to printing was only permitted in london, oxford, cambridge, and (after the outbreak of the civil war[ ]) at york. when the restraining act was dropped in printing made its way, not very rapidly, into one provincial town after another. hence a dull sermon with a provincial imprint may be dear to the heart of some local antiquary as the first-fruit of the press in his neighbourhood. if we go back another sixty years from we reach another typographic zone, as we may call it, within which some slight interest attaches to all examples of english printing, for the end of the year is the limit of the special catalogues of early books published by the british museum, the cambridge university library, and the john rylands library, manchester. the first and last of these have indexes of printers; in the second the primary arrangement is typographical. thus all books which are old enough to have been printed before the end of are thereby invested with some slight interest solely as products of english presses. when we get back to before we are in the period covered by the different editions of the _typographical antiquities_ of joseph ames. when we go back another hundred years we are within the fifteenth century; printing has been introduced into england for less than twenty-five years, and the smallest fragment of a book from one of the early presses at work at westminster, oxford, st. albans, or the city of london, is esteemed as of interest and importance. thus if we go far enough back age does add to the interest of a book, but only by bringing it under another influence, that the interest of an english fifteenth century book is due to its importance in the history of printing and not to its antiquity being easily demonstrated by the fact that a contemporary unadorned manuscript of the same work will probably have only a fraction of the value of the printed edition. there are, of course, other cases in which age may be said to have some secondary influence, as in the case of books dealing with social customs, ballads and the like. but here it is still more evident that the social or literary interest is the primary consideration, and that this cannot be created, though it is greatly enhanced, by age. having thus to the best of our ability abated the pride both of age and rarity, we come back to our original question as to what are the qualities and associations which give books value in the eyes of a collector. the only good qualities which a book can possess in its own right are those of strength and beauty of form. everything else about it is inherent in no single edition, though association of ideas may give greater dignity to one edition than to another. type, paper, ink, presswork, the arrangement of the page, and also (though not quite in the same way or to the same extent) the illustrations, are all part and parcel of the book itself, and may be combined, at least so bookmen believe, in a really beautiful unity. no doubt as to this students run some risk of losing their sense of proportion. i myself am conscious, for instance, that i have looked at so many fifteenth century woodcuts, as compared with other works of art, that i distinctly overrate them. mr. robert proctor, who knew more about fifteenth century books than any other man has ever known, or is ever likely to know, once said to me in all seriousness, that he did not think he had ever seen an ugly one. allowing, however, for this very human tendency to set up our own esoteric standard, there yet remains a more generally recognizable beauty of form which some books possess in a higher degree than others, and to collect such beautiful books independently of any other kind of attraction would be no unworthy pursuit. as a matter of fact, bookmen are more inclined to make beauty of form a secondary consideration to which, as to age and rarity, they pay attention, but without adopting it as the basis of their collection. as a secondary consideration the attention collectors pay to beauty can hardly be exaggerated in respect to the condition of copies, the ratio of an unusually good to an unusually bad copy of the same book, even if the bad copy have no leaves actually wanting, being often as ten to one. the unusually bad copy, indeed, would often have no selling value at all were it not that it may be useful to students and so win a purchaser at a small price. the collector should leave it severely alone, partly because such "working copies" are the rightful perquisite of poor scholars, partly because, as he presumably buys books for his pleasure, he defeats his own object if, except in the case of the very rarest, he buys copies at which he cannot look without regretting that their headlines are cut off or the paper rotten through bad cleaning. mr. frederick locker recorded in his catalogue that his copy of blake's _songs of innocence and of experience_ had been cut down by a previous owner to the dimensions of the old covers of a washing-book. i think it was his chivalry, his piety toward blake's memory, that induced him to rescue it from this dishonour. had he bought such a poor copy simply because it was cheap, he would have fallen far below his standard as a collector. putting on one side beauty of form, the interest of books in the eyes of a collector lies in their associations, historical, personal, or purely literary. for reasons touched on already but which we may now consider more fully, among historical associations those connected with the history of printing fill a very large place. as we have said before, the invention of an art by which books were so greatly cheapened and multiplied was an event of almost unique importance in the social history of europe, and everything which throws light on the first discovery, on the manner in which it was carried from one country and city to another, and on the methods and lives of the early printers, is of interest, and in its degree and measure, of importance. moreover, just as foxes are hunted because they show such good sport, so these early books are collected because the study of them combines in a singular degree the charms of scientific and historical discovery, with all sorts of literary, social, and human side-interests. the claim which henry bradshaw put forward that antiquarian bibliography must be studied scientifically has been perverted by the unwise into the assertion that bibliography is a science, or as they are sometimes pleased to put it, an exact science, till sensible people are wearied of the silly phrase. but the claim itself is absolutely true, and the gifts which enabled mr. proctor to classify, exactly or approximately, any fragment of early printing according to its country, place, printer, and date, if employed on any other field of scientific inquiry would easily have gained him a fellowship of the royal society, besides the european recognition which, in his own small field, was already his before he died. a large proportion of early printed books are without any indication whatever of their place of origin, printer, or date. the dates are obscured by the quickness or slowness of individual printers in adopting various improvements--sheet-numbering, leaf-numbering, printed capitals, titlepages, methods of imposition, etc.--which thus become uncertain and delusive landmarks. the place of origin is obscured by the existence of almost identical types in different cities and even in different countries. a fortiori the identity of the individual printer may baffle research from types being transferred or copied in all but one or two letters of the fount, which thus become the sole means of differentiating them. as helps the bibliographer has, in the first place, such a classification of the two or three thousand fifteenth century types as he is able to carry in his head. this, in proportion to its completeness, enables him to narrow down the field to be investigated. some small typographical peculiarity, the way in which the illuminator or rubricator has filled the blank spaces, the note which by good fortune he may have appended in this or some other known copy saying when he finished his work, similar notes by early purchasers which occasionally give the date of their bargain, these and other points may all help forward the happy moment of final identification. such a hunt as this may sound alarmingly difficult, as if it were all over five-barred gates and inconveniently hedged ditches. but facsimiles and other aids have been greatly multiplied of late years; many a book can be run down and the identification verified in a few minutes, and the possibility of hunting successfully in one's own library presupposes the purchase of many books giving full information as to their origin. these, while offering the means of identifying other books, will themselves raise no questions, so that the collector's life need not be unceasingly strenuous. the side-interests of these old books are very varied. many of them, at least to eyes trained to perceive it, are of great beauty. others, although the half century during which printing was in its infancy produced few masterpieces of literature, have real literary interest. more than any other single event the invention of printing hurried on the transition from the medieval world to the modern, but while many printers in italy nearly ruined themselves by the zeal with which they helped forward the classical renaissance, all over europe the medieval books which were still read were seized on for the press, so that in the books printed between and we are presented with a conspectus or summary of medieval literature. caxton printed the works of chaucer and gower and prose renderings of the old romances. the italian presses were busy with boccaccio, petrarch, and dante. the enormous size of the great speculum or encyclopædia of vincent de beauvais did not deter the printers of france and germany, and the ponderous tomes of medieval theology and law seem to have found a ready market. above all, the highest skill available in the best equipped workshops was employed almost ceaselessly in the production of beautiful and often magnificent editions of the service-books of the church for the use both of priests and laity, and it is hardly possible to dabble much in old books without acquiring an interest in liturgiology. owing to this fact, that the early presses were so largely occupied with printing the works of the previous three centuries, there is comparatively little human interest in incunabula on their literary side. instead of authors we have mostly to deal with editors, an assertive and depreciatory race, always vaunting their own accuracy and zeal and insisting on the incredible blunders by which previous editions had been deformed past recognition. we receive, however, no small compensation in the personal details which many of the early printers give us about themselves. titlepages, though they occur at haphazard in a few books of the early seventies (and there is one still earlier example), did not become common till about , and even twenty years later we find many books still without them. the information which we now expect to find on a titlepage was given in a paragraph, mostly at the end of the book, to which bibliographers have agreed to give the name "colophon," from [greek: kolophôn], the greek for a "finishing stroke." as we have already noted, in many books no information of this kind is given, but when printers, or their proof readers or editors, took the trouble to write a colophon at all, they had no reason to confine themselves to the severe brevity and simplicity of statement which marks the modern titlepage. it was in colophons that editors cast stones at their predecessors, or demanded sympathy for the severity of their own labours, and it is in colophons that we find the expressions of the printer's piety and pride, his complaints of his troubles with his workmen and rivals, his pleas for encouragement, and occasionally, penned by another hand, the record of how he was struck down by death in the midst of his work. i have never heard of any one making a representative collection of books with interesting colophons, but collecting has taken many worse forms. to lend grace to their colophons, or sometimes as a substitute for them, the early printers and publishers often used a woodcut containing their mark, sign, or device. like the colophon itself, this was printed as a token of the master's pride in his work and his desire that it might be recognized as his, and many printers' marks are very decorative and even beautiful. comparatively neglected until recently, within the last few years the devices used in various countries have been almost exhaustively reproduced in facsimile, thus leaving few chances of fresh discovery. the mention of devices brings us to a very interesting section of early printed books, and one which has attracted only too much attention of recent years, those decorated with the primitive cuts on wood or metal with which fifteenth century printers endeavoured to imitate the glories of illuminated manuscripts, or to increase the popularity of their books with not too critical readers. occasionally, as in the metal cuts in the best editions of the french horae, in the florentine and venetian woodcuts of the last ten years of the century, and in the best work of other countries, these early pictures possess real beauty. often they are badly spoilt by the incompetence of the cutters, who were working without the aid of modern gravers or modern methods of preparing the wood. the early german wood-cutters, whilst their outlines are often less graceful than those of their french and italian competitors, had a special gift for characterization, and the quality of their work is much more uniform, perhaps because even before the invention of printing with movable types they were an organized craft. but in almost all fifteenth century cuts there is a certain naive simplicity which captivates those who allow themselves to study it, until they are apt, as the present writer has confessed is probably true of himself, to rate it too highly. as is the case with the more ambitious artists in oils of the same periods, wherever there was any demand for book-illustrators a local school with strongly marked characteristics at once appears. the work of the augsburg cutters can be told at a glance from that executed at strassburg, and the styles predominant at venice and florence, at milan and naples are all absolutely distinct. with one or two exceptions we know nothing, until after , of the men who designed or cut these illustrations, and (except in the case of those of the low countries) hardly any attempt has been made, or seems possible, to subdivide the work done in any given locality so as to group it under individual masters. otherwise the problems of fifteenth century book-illustrations are much like the problems of the types with which they harmonize so well, and the collector can either devote himself to representing as fully as possible the work done in any single district, or range at large over the continent (as regards fifteenth century illustrations england may almost be left out of account) and collect a few good specimens of each school. it has been made a cause of complaint recently against bibliographers that they know more of the work done at any insignificant fifteenth century press than of the history of printing at any subsequent time. it is not easy to coerce men into taking up any sections of a subject beyond those in which they are interested, and the supposed culprits have at least this much justification for their neglect of the later work that very little of it repays examination. until , save for some possible dutch experiments, germany enjoyed the monopoly of printing. from to about she shared the primacy in it with italy, though during most of this period italy was slightly ahead; from to about france was far in advance of the rest of europe; after there was a higher technical level in the low countries than elsewhere, and plantin and the elzevirs gained individual reputations. but there was very little good taste even in the low countries, and from a typographical standpoint the seventeenth century is a sahara with hardly any oases. from this wilderness the eighteenth century, under the guidance of france and england, timidly felt its way back to a kind of trim neatness, but the positive experiments of baskerville and the didots, and in italy of bodoni, were not very exciting, and at present are quite out of fashion. in the nineteenth century the work of the whittinghams in england deserves more attention from collectors than it has received, and throughout the whole period any one working on historical lines, with the desire to illustrate the vicissitudes of the art of printing and not merely its successes, has an ample field. but for positive excellence, after the period of "origins," the french books of the middle of the sixteenth century offer almost the only hunting ground in which the fastidious collector is likely to find an attractive quarry, and it is no use to try to tell any other tale. of the later book illustrations a somewhat better account may be given. owing to the steady deterioration of paper and presswork, which was the real cause of the typographical decline, woodcuts by the end of the sixteenth century had gone quite out of fashion, the old simple style having been lost and no printer being able to do justice to the finer work on which designers insisted. but copper engravings throve in germany and the low countries, and when the fashion of engraved frontispieces and titles took root in england in the last years of the century it was pursued with considerable success for a couple of generations, while in the eighteenth century the french _livres à vignettes_ attained an extraordinary brilliancy and elegance, and gravelot and other french engravers bestowed some of their skill on english books. the use of wood, now worked with the graver and no longer with the knife, was revived in england by bewick about , and was pursued with varying success for over a century, great technical skill and, at least in the "sixties," very fine design being marred by the poverty and often the tawdriness of its typographical setting. despite these drawbacks, the collectors who are bestowing attention on all this wood-engraved work of the nineteenth century will probably reap their reward. when wood engraving was killed a few years ago by the extraordinary perfection attained, at a much smaller cost, by the process block, its fate was shared by the line-engraved illustrations which had appeared fitfully throughout the century, and had lingered on in the beautiful work of c. h. jeens, who died in , and in the use of old plates. as the wood engraving was killed by the half-tone block, so the line engraving disappeared before the photogravure, and the colour processes now being rapidly perfected threaten to reduce all black and white illustrations to unimportance. in so far, however, as the new processes necessitate the use of heavily loaded papers as a condition of their being even tolerably well printed, the least antiquarian of collectors may be forgiven for neglecting the books illustrated by them. some of them can only be preserved by every plate being backed with sound paper, and a hundred years hence of all this illustrated work, much of it really beautiful, which is now being produced in such quantities, very little will remain. the modern groliers whom we tried to call forth at the beginning of this chapter will need to be experts both in paper and in leather if they are to leave behind them any permanent record of their good taste. but this is only a crowning proof of how urgently they are needed. it would be pleasant to glance briefly at some of the more literary considerations which bring books within the collector's scope. but the scheme of this series restricts the subject of the present volume to books which are prized either for their typographical beauty, their place in the history of printing, or the charm of their illustrations. this is in itself so large a field that no more pages must be wasted on introducing it. footnotes: [ ] even mr. carnegie will only help to found new libraries, not to make old ones more efficient. [ ] during the civil war itself presses were also set up temporarily at newcastle-on-tyne, at shrewsbury, and perhaps elsewhere. chapter ii block-books the collector of the time of george iii, whose heart was set on typographical antiquities, and who was ambitious enough to wish to begin at the beginning, must have hungered after a block-book. even in the days of bagford, at the very outset of the eighteenth century, interest had been aroused in the block-printed editions of the _speculum humanae saluationis_, so that bagford himself travelled from amsterdam to haarlem on purpose to see a copy of one of the dutch editions, and set an english wood-cutter to work, with very poor success, to manufacture a bogus specimen of it, wherewith "to oblige the curious." this, with a similar imitation of a page in the _biblia pauperum_, was intended to illustrate the history of printing which bagford had the temerity to plan, although such of his smaller dissertations as have been preserved show conclusively that he was quite incapable of carrying it out. the interest thus early shown in block-books sprang from an entirely reasonable, but probably incorrect, view of the part which they had played in the development of printing with movable type. it was known that woodcuts without letterpress were printed in germany quite early in the fifteenth century, the cut of s. christopher, formerly in the spencer collection, now in the john rylands library, bearing the date .[ ] on the other hand, printing with movable type was practised at mainz in the fifties, and about albrecht pfister published at bamberg several books with woodcut illustrations and printed letterpress. in the logical order of development nothing could be more reasonable than the sequence: i. woodcut pictures. ii. woodcut pictures and woodcut text. iii. woodcut pictures and text printed from movable type. facts, however, do not always arrange themselves with the neatness which commends itself to an a priori historian, and the most recent students of block-books are unable to discover sufficient justification for the early dates which their predecessors assigned to them. on the old theory, in order to put it in front of the invention of printing with movable types, the _biblia pauperum_, which appears to be the oldest of the block-books, was placed about or , and the _ars moriendi_ and the other chief specimens of block-printing were all supposed to have been produced before , the main period of block-printing thus coinciding with the interval between the s. christopher of and pfister's activity at bamberg about . positive evidence in favour of this chronology there was none. it rested solely on the idea, at which bibliographers had jumped, that the block-books were necessary "steps towards the invention of printing," as they have often been called, and on what seemed the improbability that any one, when the art of printing with movable type had once been invented, would have troubled himself laboriously to cut letterpress on wood. so far from block-printing being unable to co-exist with printing from movable type, it was not till nearly a century after printing had been invented that block-books finally ceased to be produced. the example generally quoted as the latest[ ] is the _opera nova contemplativa per ogni fedel christiano laquale tratta de le figure del testamento vecchio: le quale figure sonno verificate nel testamento nuovo_. as its title implies, this, curiously enough, is an adaptation of the _biblia pauperum_, which was thus the last, as it may have been the first, of the block-books. it is undated, but has the name of its publisher, giovanni andrea vavassore, who worked at venice about . the _opera nova contemplativa_ was from one point of view a mere survival, but vavassore is not likely to have produced it solely to cause twentieth century antiquaries surprise. he must have had a business reason for having recourse to block-printing, nor is that reason very hard to find. from the frequency with which the early printers changed and recast their types, and the short intervals at which popular books printed with types were set up afresh, it is clear ( ) that the type-metal[ ] employed was much softer and less durable than that now in use, and that only small impressions[ ] could be taken from the same setting up; ( ) that only a small amount of type was cast at a time, and that type was quickly distributed and used again, never kept standing on the chance that another edition would be wanted. now when we come to the illustrations in printed books, we find the same woodblocks used for five or six successive editions, and then, in many cases, enjoying a second lease of life as job-blocks, used at haphazard by inferior printers. it is clear, therefore, that while it was a much more difficult and laborious business to cut the letterpress of a book on blocks of wood than to set it up with movable types, when the blocks were once made much more work could be got out of them. in a word, in the case of a small book for which there was a steady demand, a printer might be tempted to have it cut as a block-book for the same reasons as might cause a modern publisher to have it stereotyped. the labour of cutting the letterpress on wood was much greater than that now involved in stereotyping, and the result clumsier. hence it was only to short books intended for unexacting purchasers that the process was applied and with two or three exceptions it was used only for illustrated books with a small amount of text. but within this restricted field it had its own commercial possibilities, and there is thus nothing surprising in its coexistence with printing from movable type. when the theory that block-books were "steps towards the invention of printing" is thus opposed by the rival theory that they were forerunners of stereotyped plates, we are left free to consider, uncoerced by supposed necessities, such evidence as exists as to the dates of the specimens of block-printing still extant. putting aside the late italian block-book as a mere survival, we find two[ ] broadly distinguished groups, one earlier, the dates of members of which can only be conjectured, the other later, several of which can only be definitely connected with the years to . the characteristics of the earlier group are that they are printed ( ) with a watery brown ink; ( ) always on one side of the paper only; ( ) without mechanical pressure;[ ] ( ) two consecutive pages at a time, so that they cannot be arranged in quires, but must be folded and stitched separately, and the book thus formed[ ] begins and ends with a blank page and has a pair of blank pages between each pair of printed ones. this arrangement in some extant copies has been altered by modern binders, who have divided the sheets, mounted each leaf on a guard, and then gathered them, at their own will, into quires. the inconvenient intervention of the blank pages has also sometimes been wrestled with (at an early date) by gluing the leaves together, so that all the leaves, except the first and last, are double, and the printed pages follow each other without interruption. these expedients, however, are easily detected, and the original principle of arrangement is free from doubt. in the later block-books, on the other hand, we note one or more of the following characteristics: ( ) the use of the thick black ink (really a kind of paint) employed in ordinary printing; ( ) printing on both sides of the paper; ( ) marks of pressure, showing that the paper has been passed through a printing-press; ( ) the arrangement of the blocks in such a way as to permit the sheets to be gathered into quires. in the case of the more popular block-books which went through many issues and editions[ ] we can trace the gradual substitution of later characteristics for earlier ones. at what intervals of time these changes were made we have bibliographically no adequate grounds even for guessing. analogies from books printed with movable types may be quoted on both sides. on the one hand, we find the blocks for book-illustrations enjoying an amazingly long life. thus blocks cut at venice and florence between and continued in use for fifteen or twenty years, were then laid aside, and reappear between and , certainly the worse for wear, but yet capable by a lucky chance of yielding quite a fair impression. the fact that one issue of a block-book can be positively assigned to or , thus does not of itself forbid an earlier issue being placed as far back in the fifteenth century as any one may please to propose. on the other hand, when a printed book was a popular success editions succeeded each other with great rapidity, and one centre of printing vied with another in producing copies of it. the chief reason for the current disinclination to assume a date earlier than or for any extant block-book is the total absence of any evidence demanding it. if such evidence were forthcoming, there would be no inherent impossibility to set against it. but in the absence of such evidence twenty years seems an ample time to allow for the vogue of the block-books, and (despite the neatness of the a priori theory of development mentioned at the beginning of this chapter) this fits in better with the history both of printing and of book-illustration than any longer period. the first attempt to describe the extant block-books was made by carl heinrich von heinecken in , in his _idée générale d'une collection d'estampes_. this held the field until the publication in of samuel legh sotheby's _principia typographica: the block-books issued in holland, flanders and germany, during the fifteenth century_, a painstaking and well-illustrated work in three folio volumes. the most recent and probably the final treatment of the subject is that by dr. w. l. schreiber, in vol. iv of his _manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois et sur métal au xv^e siècle_, published in (facsimiles in vols. vii and viii, - ). dr. schreiber enumerates no fewer than thirty-three works as existing in the form of block-books, the number of extant issues and editions of them amounting to over one hundred. here it must suffice to offer brief notes on some of the more important. _biblia pauperum_ a series of forty composite pictures, the central compartment in each representing a scene from the life of christ, while on each side of it is an old testament type, and above and below are in each case two half-figures of prophets. the explanatory letterpress is given in the two upper corners and also on scrolls. schreiber distinguishes ten issues and editions, in addition to an earlier german one of a less elaborate design and with manuscript text, which belongs to a different tradition. the earlier of these ten editions appear to have been made in the netherlands. an edition with german text was published with the colophon, "friederich walther mauler zu nördlingen vnd hans hurning habent dis buch mitt einender gemacht," and a second issue of this (without the colophon) is dated . in the following year another edition, with copied cuts, was printed with the device of hans spoerer. _ars moriendi_ twenty-four leaves, two containing a preface, and the remaining twenty-two eleven pictures and eleven pages of explanatory letterpress facing them, showing the temptations to which the dying are exposed, and the good inspirations by which they may be resisted, and, lastly, the final agony. the early editions are ascribed to the netherlands or district of the rhine; the later to germany. there are also editions with german text, one of them signed "hanns sporer," and dated . a set of engravings on copper by the master e. s. (copied by the master of s. erasmus) may be either imitations or the originals of the earliest of these _ars moriendi_ designs. (see lionel cust's _the master e. s. and the ars moriendi_.) the designs were imitated in numerous printed editions in various countries. in addition to a copy of the edition usually regarded as the earliest extant, the british museum possesses one with the same characteristics, but of a much smaller size (the blocks measuring by mm. instead of by ), and from this, as much less known, a page is here given as an illustration. _cantica canticorum_ sixteen leaves, each containing two woodcuts, illustrating the song of songs as a parable of the blessed virgin. produced in the netherlands. _apocalypsis sancti johannis_ fifty leaves, or in some editions forty-eight, showing scenes from the life of s. john and illustrations of the apocalypse, mostly with two pictures on each leaf. the early editions are assigned to the netherlands, the later to germany. a copy of the edition regarded as the fourth, lately sold by herr ludwig rosenthal, bears a manuscript note, most probably as to the writer, just possibly as to the book, entering the household of the landgrave heinrich of hesse in . [illustration: iii. ars moriendi, blockbook, c. inspiratio contra vanam gloriam] _speculum humanae saluationis_ scenes from bible history, arranged in pairs, within architectural borders, with explanatory text beneath. no complete xylographic, or block-printed, edition is known, but twenty leaves printed from blocks are found in conjunction with forty-four leaves printed from type, and have not unreasonably been held to prove the previous production of a complete block-printed edition now lost. in like manner, the fact that two different types are used in different parts of a dutch printed edition has encouraged dr. hessels to believe that this "mixed edition" should be regarded as proving the production of two complete editions, one in each type. on this theory we have ( ) a hypothetical latin block-printed edition; ( - ) three dutch editions, each printed in a different type; ( ) a latin edition, entirely printed from type; ( ) a latin edition, printed partly from type, partly from some of the blocks of no. . the copy of this "mixed latin edition," as it is called, in the university library at munich, is dated in manuscript , and the hypothetical complete block-printed edition may be as much earlier than this as any one pleases to imagine. but other bibliographers recognize only four editions and arrange them differently. _antichristus_ thirty-eight leaves, with two pictures on each leaf, illustrating the legends relating to the coming of antichrist, and the fifteen signs which were to precede the last judgment. the text is in german, and the block-book was executed in germany, probably about . _franciscus de retza. defensorium inviolatae castitatis virginis mariae_ sixteen leaves, mostly with four pictures and four pieces of explanatory letterpress on each leaf, concerning marvels in the natural world which were supposed to be equally wonderful with that of the virgin birth, and therefore to render faith in this easier. unfortunately the marvels are so very marvellous that they do not inspire belief, e.g. one story relates how the sun one day drew up the moisture from the earth with such rapidity that an ox was drawn up with it and subsequently deposited out of a cloud in another field. one edition was issued by a certain f. w. in , another at ratisbon by johann eysenhut the following year. _johann mÜller (johannes regiomontanus). kalender_ thirty-two leaves, containing lunar tables, tables of the eclipses for fifty-six years ( - ), other astronomical information, and a figure of the human body with notes of the signs of the zodiac by which it was influenced. composed by the famous astronomer, johann müller, and sold by hans briefftruck, probably hans spoerer, about - , at nuremberg and elsewhere. _johann hartlieb. die kunst chiromantia_ forty-four figures of hands, with a titlepage and page of text and a printed wrapper. early issues are printed on one side of the paper only, later on both. the printer appears to have been jorg schaff, of augsburg, and the date of issue about . the date found in the book is that of composition, and it probably circulated in manuscript for many years before being printed. _mirabilia romae_ a german guide-book for visitors to rome. ninety-two leaves, printed with black ink on both sides of the leaf, with only a few illustrations. it was perhaps first published to meet the rush of german pilgrims to rome at the jubilee of pope sixtus iv, . the blocks were probably cut in germany, and the printing done at rome. some of the ornaments are said to have been used in type-printed editions by stephan plannck. this suggests that the book may have been published by his predecessor, ulrich han. * * * * * in addition to these block-books of low country and german origin, mention must also be made of a very curious italian one, a _passio domini nostri jesu christi_, fully described by the prince d'essling. the copy of this at berlin contains eighteen leaves, and was probably executed at venice about the middle of the fifteenth century. some of the blocks were subsequently used (after a scroll at the foot had been cut off) for an edition of the _devote meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore_ (attributed to s. bonaventura), published at venice in by jeronimo di sancti e cornelio suo compagno, and a page from this is reproduced as a frontispiece to our chapter on italian illustrated books. mention has already been made of the _opera nova contemplativa_, an adaptation of the _biblia pauperum_, printed as a block-book at venice about . the only extant french block-book, if it can be called one, is that of the "nine worthies" (_les neuf preux_). this consists of three sheets, the first showing three heathen worthies--hector, alexander, and julius cæsar; the second, three from the old testament--joshua, david, and judas maccabæus; the third, three from medieval romance--arthur, charlemagne, and godfrey of boulogne. under each picture are six lines of verse. these three triple woodcuts, with the woodcut text, are assigned to about . no english block-book has yet been discovered, nor is it in the least likely that one ever existed, though there are a few single woodcuts. * * * * * block-books possess two permanent attractions in addition to their supposed historical importance in the development of the invention of printing on which doubt is now cast--the attraction of popular literature and the attraction of the illustrated book. as we have seen, it would not have been worth any one's while to cause a block-book to be laboriously engraved, or cut, unless a large and speedy sale could be expected for it. the most famous block-books are nearly all of a religious character, and they prove a widespread desire for simple instruction as to the incidents of the life of christ and the events in the old testament history which were regarded as prefigurements of them, as to the dignity of the blessed virgin and the doctrine of the virgin birth, as to the end of the world and the coming of antichrist, and as to the spiritual dangers and temptations of the dying and the means by which they might be resisted. as early specimens of book-illustration the value of the block-books varies very greatly. the majority of them are more curious than beautiful, but the pictures of the _cantica canticorum_, the _speculum humanae saluationis_, and the _ars moriendi_ have all very great merit. the tall, slender figures in the song of songs have a charm as great as any dutch book-illustrations of the fifteenth century; the cuts of the _speculum_ are full of vigour, while the serene dignity of the scenes in the _ars moriendi_ illustrating the inspirations of the good angel is as impressive as the grotesque force used in depicting the diabolic suggestions. if we must grant, as the weight of authority now bids us, that these woodcuts are copies from the copper engravings of the master e. s., it can hardly be disputed that the wood-cutter was the better artist of the two. the block-books are a striking example of the difficulty of gleaning where the earlier collectors have reaped, a difficulty to which we shall often have to call attention. they vary greatly in positive rarity. of the _biblia pauperum_ and _ars moriendi_, which in their different issues and editions enjoyed the longest life and early attracted attention, dr. schreiber (if i have counted rightly) was able to enumerate in the one case as many as eighty-three copies--many of them, it is true, mere fragments--in the other sixty-one. of the _apocalypse_ fifty-seven copies were known to him, of the _speculum_ twenty-nine, of the _antichrist_ thirteen, of the _defensorium_ twelve, and of the _mirabilia romae_ six. but of these copies and fragments no fewer than are recorded as being locked up in public libraries and museums, the ownership of thirteen was doubtful, and only twenty-five are definitely registered as being in the hands of private collectors, viz. of the _apocalypse_, eight copies or fragments; of the _biblia pauperum_, six; of the _speculum_ and _ars moriendi_, four each; of the _defensorium_, two; and of the _cantica canticorum_, one. the chief owners known to dr. schreiber were the earl of pembroke, baron edmond de rothschild, and major holford, to whom must now be added mr. pierpont morgan and mr. perrins. no doubt the copies in public institutions are much more easily enumerated than those in private hands, and probably most of the untraced copies are owned by collectors. but when allowance has been made for this, it remains obvious that this is no field where an easy harvest can be reaped, and that the average collector may think himself lucky if he obtains one or two single leaves. the last great opportunity of acquiring such treasures was at the sale in of the wonderful collection formed by t. o. weigel,[ ] at which the british museum bought a very fine copy of the first edition of the _ars moriendi_, the first edition, dated , of the _biblia pauperum_, in german, a block-book illustrating the virtues of the hymn _salve regina_, and the compassion of the blessed virgin, printed at regensburg about , besides fragments and woodcut single sheets. the foundation of the museum collection of block-books had been laid by george iii, added to by mr. grenville, and completed by a series of purchases from to this final haul of , since when there have been few opportunities for new acquisitions. it is now quite adequate for purposes of study, though not so rich as that of the bibliothèque nationale at paris. footnotes: [ ] the authenticity of a still earlier date, , on a cut of the blessed virgin at brussels is disputed. [ ] the _libro di m. giovanbattista palatino_, printed at rome in , is spoken of by mr. campbell dodgson as a "belated specimen" of a block-book. but this was a writing-book, and hardly counts. [ ] numerous references in colophons show that the metal mostly used was brass, e.g. "_primus in adriaca formis impressit aenis vrbe libros spira genitus de stirpe johannes_," and the use of chalcographi as a name for printers. but there are one or two references to printing "_stanneis typis_," with types of tin. [ ] of the first book printed at venice only copies were struck off, but the number was trebled in the case of its immediate successors. at rome sweynheym and pannartz mostly printed copies, only in a few instances as many as . but at the end of the century pynson was printing at least copies of large books and as many as of small ones. [ ] a very small third group, earlier than either of these, consists of woodcuts with manuscript text. the most important of these is a german _biblia pauperum_ quite distinct from those started in the netherlands. [ ] some early woodcuts were printed by pressing the block down on the paper by hand; for the early block-books, however, the usual method seems to have been to press the paper on to the face of the block by rubbing it on the back with a burnisher. the paper was thus quite as strongly indented as if passed through a press, but the impression is usually less even. the friction on the back of the paper often gives it a polished appearance. as long as this method continued in use it was, of course, impossible to print on both sides of the paper. [ ] it is possible that the earliest specimens of block-printing were intended not to be bound in books but to be pasted on walls. in the case of the _biblia pauperum_, for instance, the space between the two woodcuts placed on each sheet is so small in some issues that the sheets cannot be bound without concealing part of the pictures. [ ] different issues are distinguished by the signs of wear in the blocks, or occasionally by their being differently arranged, or with changes made in the blocks. in a different edition we have to deal with a new set of blocks. [ ] since this was written the interesting collection formed by dr. schreiber himself has been dispersed. chapter iii the invention of printing--holland up to the year only one firm of printers evinced any appreciation of the uses of advertisement. in johann fust and peter schoeffer, of mainz, set their names at the end of the liturgical psalter which they were issuing from their press, and stated also the date of its completion, "in vigilia assumpcionis," on the vigil of the feast of the assumption, i.e. august th. save in the case of a few unimportant books this preference for publicity remained the settled practice of the firm until peter schoeffer's death early in the sixteenth century, and later still when it was in the hands of his son johann. with other printers at first the tendency was all the other way. albrecht pfister placed his name in one or two of the handful of popular illustrated books which he printed at bamberg about . no other book before contains its printer's name, and both at strassburg and at basel the practice of publishing anonymously continued in fashion throughout the 'seventies--in strassburg, indeed, for the best part of another decade. [illustration: iv. early dutch press alexander galles, doctrinale ( ^a)] while printing continued mainly anonymous chroniclers took no note of it, but in the ten years which began in the progress of the art was rapid and triumphant. printers, mostly germans, invaded the chief cities of europe, and boasted in their books of having been the first to practise it in this place or that. curiosity as to the beginnings of the invention was thus aroused, and from onwards we meet with numerous attempts, not always accurate, to satisfy it. the earliest of these attempts is in a letter from guillaume fichet, a professor at the sorbonne, who was mainly responsible for bringing the first printers to paris, to his friend robert gaguin. this is contained in one copy of the second paris book, the _orthographia_ of gasparinus barzizius, printed in , fichet having a fondness for giving individuality to special copies by additions of this kind. in this letter he speaks of the great light which he thinks learning will receive from the new kind of bookmen whom germany, like another trojan horse, has poured forth. ferunt enim illic, haut procul a ciuitate maguncia, ioannem quendam fuisse cui cognomen bonemontano, qui primus omnium impressoriam artem excogitauerit, qua non calamo (ut prisci quidem illi) neque penna (ut nos fingimus) sed æreis litteris libri finguntur, et quidem expedite, polite et pulchre. dignus sane hic uir fuit quem omnes musæ, omnes artes, omnesque eorum linguæ qui libris delectantur, diuinis laudibus ornent, eoque magis dis deabusque anteponant, quo propius ac presentius litteris ipsis ac studiosis hominibus suffragium tulit. si quidem deificantur liber et alma ceres, ille quippe dona liei inuenit poculaque inuentis acheloia miscuit uuis, hæc chaoniam pingui glandem mutauit arista. atque (ut poeta utamur altero) prima ceres unco glebam dimouit aratro, prima dedit fruges alimenta mitia terris. at bonemontanus ille, longe gratiora diuinioraque inuenit, quippe qui litteras eiusmodi exculpsit, quibus quidquid dici, aut cogitari potest, propediem scribi ac transcribi & posteritatis mandari memoriæ possit. the good fichet is absurdly rhetorical, but here in is a quite clear statement that, according to report, there (i.e. in germany), not far from[ ] the city of mainz, a certain john, surnamed gutenberg, first of all men thought out the printing art, by which books are fashioned not with a reed or pen, but with letters of brass, and thus deserved better of mankind than either bacchus or ceres, since by his invention whatever can be said or thought can forthwith be written and transcribed and handed down to posterity. four years later in his continuation of the _chronica summorum pontificum_, begun by riccobaldus, joannes philippi de lignamine, the physician of pope sixtus iv, who had set up a press of his own at rome, wrote as one of the events of the pontificate of pius ii ( - ), how "jakob gutenberg, a native of strassburg, and a certain other whose name was fust, being skilled in printing letters on parchment with metal forms, are known each of them to be turning out three hundred sheets a day at mainz, a city of germany, and johann mentelin also, at strassburg, a city of the same province, being skilled in the same craft, is known to be printing daily the same number of sheets."[ ] a little later de lignamine records the arrival at rome of sweynheym and pannartz, and also of ulrich han, and credits them also with printing three hundred sheets a day. other references follow in later books without adding to our knowledge, save by proving the widespread recognition in the fifteenth century that printing was invented at mainz; but there is nothing specially to detain us until the publication by johann koelhoff in of the cologne chronicle--_die cronica van der hilliger stat coellen_--in which occurs a famous passage about printing, which may be translated or paraphrased as follows:-- "this right worthy art was invented first of all in germany, at mainz, on the rhine. and that is a great honour to the german nation that such ingenious men are found there. this happened in the year of our lord , and from that time until the art and all that pertains to it was investigated, and in , which was a golden year, men began to print, and the first book that was printed was the bible in latin, and this was printed with a letter as large as that now used in missals. "although this art was invented at mainz, as far as regards the manner in which it is now commonly used, yet the first prefiguration (vurbyldung) was invented in holland from the donatuses which were printed there before that time. and from and out of these the aforesaid art took its beginning, and was invented in a manner much more masterly and subtler than this, and the longer it lasted the more full of art it became. "a certain omnibonus wrote in the preface to a quintilian, and also in other books, that a walloon from france, called nicolaus jenson, was the first inventor of this masterly art--a notorious lie, for there are men still alive who bear witness that books were printed at venice before the aforesaid nicolaus jenson came there, and began to cut and make ready his letter. but the first inventor of printing was a burgher at mainz, and was born at strassburg, and called yunker johann gutenberg. "from mainz the art came first of all to cologne, after that to strassburg, and after that to venice. the beginning and progress of the art were told me by word of mouth by the worshipful master ulrich zell of hanau, printer at cologne in this present year , through whom the art came to cologne."[ ] zell, or his interviewer, ignores the books printed anonymously at strassburg by mentelin and eggestein, and also the handful printed by albrecht pfister at bamberg; he also is misled by gutenberg's long residence at strassburg into calling him a native of that city; in other respects, so far as we are able to check this account, it is quite accurate. it tells us emphatically that "this right worthy art was invented first of all in germany, at mainz, on the rhine"; and again, that "the first inventor of printing was a burgher at mainz named junker johann 'gudenburch'"; but between these two unqualified statements is sandwiched a reference to a prefiguration which took shape in holland in _donatuses_, printed there before the mainz presses were at work, and much less masterly and subtle than the books which they produced. he connects no name with this "vorbildung," and, unhappily, he gives no clue as to how it foreshadowed, and was yet distinct from, the real invention. sixty-nine years[ ] after the appearance of this carefully balanced statement, the facts as to dutch "prefigurations" which had inspired it moved a dutch chronicler, hadrianus junius, in compiling his _batavia_ (not published till ), to write the well-known passage as to the invention of printing, which has been summarized as follows:-- there lived, about , at haarlem, in the market-place opposite the town hall, in a respectable house still in existence, a man named lourens janszoon coster, i.e. laurence, son of john coster. the family name was derived from the hereditary office of sacristan, or coster of the church--a post both honourable and lucrative. the town archives give evidence of this, his name appearing therein many times, and in the town hall are preserved his seal and signature to various documents. to this man belongs the honour of inventing printing, an honour of which he was unjustly robbed, and which afterwards was ascribed to another. the said laurence coster, one day after dinner, took a walk in the wood near haarlem. while there, to amuse himself, he began to cut letters out of some beech-bark. the idea struck him to ink some of these letters and use them as stamps. this he did to amuse his grandchildren, cutting them in reverse. he thus formed two or three sentences on paper. the idea germinated, and soon with the help of his son-in-law, and by using a thick ink, he began to print whole pages, and to add lines of print to the block-books, the text of which was the most difficult part to engrave. junius had seen such a book, called _spieghel onzer behoudenisse_. it should have been said that coster was descended from the noble house of brederode, and that his son-in-law was also of noble descent. coster's first efforts were of course very rude, and to hide the impression of the letters on the back, they pasted the leaves, which had one side not printed, together. his letters at first were made of lead, which he afterwards changed for tin. upon his death these letters were melted down and made into wine-pots, which at the time that junius wrote were still preserved in the house of gerrit thomaszoon, the grandson of coster. public curiosity was greatly excited by coster's discovery, and he gained much profit from his new process. his trade, indeed, so increased that he was obliged to employ several workmen, one of whom was named john. some say this was john faust, afterwards a partner with gutenberg, and others say he was gutenberg's brother. this man when he had learnt the art in all its branches, took the opportunity one christmas eve, when all good people are accustomed to attend church, to break into the rooms used for printing, and to pack up and steal all the tools and appliances which his master, with so much care and ingenuity, had made. he went off by amsterdam and cologne to mainz, where he at once opened a workshop and reaped rich fruit from this theft, producing several printed books. the accuracy of this story was attested by a respectable bookbinder, of great age but clear memory, named cornelis who had been a fellow-servant with the culprit in the house of coster, and indeed had occupied the same bed for several months, and who could never talk of such baseness without shedding tears and cursing the thief. written nearly a hundred and thirty years after the supposed events which it narrates, this story is damned by its circumstantiality. it is thus that legends grow, and it is not difficult to imagine haarlem bookmen picking up ideas out of colophons in old books and asking the "respectable bookbinder of great age" whether it was not thus and thus that things happened. many of the details of the story are demonstrably false; its one strong point is the bookbinder, cornelis, for a binder of this name is said to have been employed as early as and as late as to bind the account-books of haarlem cathedral, and in the two years named, and also in , to have strengthened his bindings by pasting inside them fragments of _donatuses_ printed on vellum in the type of the _speculum humanae saluationis_. the fragment in the account-book for is rubricated, and must thus either have been sold or prepared for selling, i.e. it is not "printer's waste," but may have been bought by cornelis for lining his covers in the ordinary way of trade. but we have here a possible link between zell's story of early dutch _donatuses_ and the story of junius about coster and his servant cornelis, since we find fragments of a _donatus_ in the possession of this particular man. there were plenty of such _donatuses_ in existence in the netherlands about . in dr. hessels, in his _haarlem the birthplace of printing, not mentz_, enumerated fragments of twenty different editions, printed in eight types, of which the type used in the _speculum humanae saluationis_ (see p. ) is one, while the other seven are linked to it, or to each other, in such a way that we may either suppose them to have all belonged to the same printer, or distribute them among two or more anonymous firms. besides these twenty editions of _donatus_ on the eight parts of speech, dr. hessels enumerated eight editions of the _doctrinale_ of alexander gallus[ ] (another school book popular in the fifteenth century), three of the distichs of dionysius cato (the work from which dame pertelote quoted to convince chantecleer of the futility of dreams), and one or two editions each of a few other works, the _facetiae morales_ of laurentius valla (twenty-four leaves), the _singularia juris_ of ludovicus pontanus, with a treatise of pope pius ii (sixty leaves), and the _de salute corporis_ of gulielmus de saliceto with other small works (twenty-four leaves). these latter books offer no very noticeable features; some of the _donatus_ fragments, on the other hand, have printing only on one side of the leaf (whence they are called by the barbarous term "anopisthographic," "not printed on the back") and have a very rude and primitive appearance. this may have been caused in part at least by their having been pasted down, and possibly scraped, by binders, for almost all of them have been found in bindings; but it counts for something. not one of the books or fragments of which we have been speaking makes any mention of its printer, or of the place or date at which it was produced. a copy of one of the later books, the _de salute corporis_ of gulielmus de saliceto, was purchased by conrad du moulin while abbot of the convent of s. james at lille, a dignity which he held from to . the earliest haarlem account-book which contained _donatus_ fragments was for the year . it is entirely a matter of opinion as to how much earlier than this any of the extant fragments can be dated. there is no reason why some of them should not be later. as to the place or places at which these books were printed, there is no evidence of any weight. but, as has been already said, the whole series can be closely or loosely connected with the types used in editions of the _speculum humanae saluationis_, and in jan veldener, a wandering printer, while working at utrecht, introduced into an edition of the epistles and gospels in dutch two woodcuts, each of which was a half of one of the double pictures in the _speculum_. two years later, when at kuilenburg, he printed a quarto edition of the _speculum_ itself (dutch version), in which he used a large number of the original _speculum_ blocks, all cut up into halves, so as to fit a small page. as veldener (as far as we know) used the _speculum_ blocks first at utrecht, it is supposed that it was at utrecht that he obtained them. if the blocks were for sale at utrecht, this may have been the place at which the earlier editions of the _speculum_ were issued, and thus, in the absence of any evidence which they were willing to recognize in favour of any other place, henry bradshaw and his disciples attributed the whole series of editions of the _speculum_, _donatus_, _doctrinale_, etc., to utrecht, about, or "not after," - . bradshaw himself clearly indicated that this attribution was purely provisional. he felt "compelled to leave" the books at utrecht, so he phrased it, i.e. the presumption that veldener found the blocks of the _speculum_ there constituted a grain of evidence in favour of utrecht; and if a balance is sufficiently sensitive and both scales are empty, a grain thrown into one will suffice to weigh it down. it would have been better, in the present writer's opinion, if the grain had been disregarded, and no attempt made to assign these books and fragments to any particular place. as it is, bradshaw's attribution of them to utrecht has been repeated without any emphasis on its entirely provisional character, even without any mention of this at all, and perhaps with a certain humorous enjoyment of the chance of prejudicing the claims of haarlem by an unusually rigorous application of the rules as to bibliographical evidence. in the eyes of dr. hessels, on the other hand, the legend narrated by junius offers a sufficient reason for assigning all these books to haarlem, and to lourens janszoon coster as their printer. dr. hessels was even ill-advised enough to point out that, as there are twenty editions of _donatus_ in this group of types, we have only to allow an interval of a year and a half between each to take back the earliest very close to , the traditional date of the invention of printing. this is perfectly true, but as no reason can be assigned for fixing on this particular interval the value of such a calculation is very slight. one result of all this controversy is that the whole series of books and fragments have been dubbed "costeriana," and the convenience of having a general name for them is so great that it has been generally adopted, even by those who have no belief in the theory which it implies. all that is known of lourens janszoon coster is that he resided at haarlem from to , and that contemporary references show him to have been a chandler and innkeeper, without making any mention of his having added printing to his other occupations. it is difficult to claim more for the story told by junius than that it represents an unknown quantity of fact with various legendary additions. it is difficult to dismiss it as less than a legend which must have had some element of fact as its basis. in so far as it goes beyond the statements of the cologne chronicle, it is supported only by the evidence that coster and the venerable bookbinder cornelis existed, and that the latter bound the account-books of haarlem cathedral. but no indiscretion of hadrianus junius writing in can affect the credit of the statements made in the cologne chronicle in on the authority of ulrich zell, and we have now to mention an important piece of evidence in favour of zell's accuracy. this is the entry in the diaries of jean de robert, abbot of saint aubert, cambrai, of the purchase in and again in of a copy of the _doctrinale_ of alexander gallus, _jeté en moule_, a phrase which, while far from satisfactory as a description of a book printed from movable type, cannot possibly refer to editions printed from woodblocks, even if these existed. the _doctrinale_, which was in verse, was a less popular school-book than the _donatus_. it is significant that among the so-called "costeriana" there are eight editions of the one against twenty of the other. where the _doctrinale_ was used we may be sure that the _donatus_ would be used also, and in greater numbers, so that this mention of a "mould-casted" _doctrinale_ as purchased as early as is a real confirmation of zell's assertion. we have no sufficient ground for believing that any of the fragments, either of the one book or the other, now in existence were produced as early as this. it is of the nature of school-books to be destroyed, and every improvement in the process of production would help to drive the earlier experiments out of existence. but taking zell's statement and the entries in the abbot's diaries together, it seems impossible to deny that there is evidence of some kind of printing being practised in holland not long after . an ingenious theory as to the form which these "prefigurements" may have taken has lately been suggested, viz. that the earliest types may have consisted simply of flat pieces of metal, without any shanks to them, and that they were "set up" by being glued upon wood or stiff paper in the order required. they would thus be movable, but with a very low degree of movability, so that we can easily understand why short books like the _donatus_ and _doctrinale_ were continually reprinted without any attempt being made to produce a large work such as the bible. it is curious, however, that in the description of a "ciripagus" by paulus paulirinus, of prag,[ ] "we have a reference" to a bible having been printed at bamberg "super lamellas," a phrase which might very well refer to types of this kind, though the sentence is usually explained as referring to either the latin or german edition of the _biblia pauperum_ issued by albrecht pfister. i think it just possible myself that the reference is really to the latin bible known as the thirty-six line bible, which seems certainly to have been sold, if not printed, at bamberg a little before , and that paulirinus, having seen books printed "super lamellas," supposed (wrongly) that this was printed in that way. but the statement that it was printed in four weeks is against this. whether the dutch "vorbildung" of the art of printing subsequently invented at mainz took the form of experiments with shankless types, or fell short of the fully developed art in some other way, does not greatly concern the collector. it is in the highest degree improbable that the claim put forward on behalf of the so-called "costeriana" will ever be decisively proved or disproved. they are likely to remain as perpetual pretenders, and as such will always retain a certain interest, and a specimen of them always be a desirable addition to any collection which aims at illustrating the history of the invention of printing. such a specimen will not be easy to procure, because many of the extant fragments have been found in public libraries, more especially the royal library at the hague, and have never left their first homes. on the other hand, the number of fragments known has been considerably increased by new finds. thus there is no reason to regard a specimen as unattainable. footnotes: [ ] dr. hessels supposes that this phrase indicates the monastery of saint victor, outside mainz, with which gutenberg was connected, and that the "report," therefore, can be traced to gutenberg himself. if so, we have the very important fact that gutenberg himself claimed to be the inventor. [ ] iacobus cognomento gutenbergo: patria argentinus, & quidam alter cui nomen fustus, imprimendarum litterarum in membranis cum metallicis formis periti, trecentas cartas quisque eorum per diem facere innotescunt apud maguntiam germanie ciuitatem. iohannes quoque mentelinus nuncupatus apud argentinam eiusdem prouincie ciuitatem: ac in eodem artificio peritus totidem cartas per diem imprimere agnoscitur.... conradus suueynem: ac arnoldus pannarcz vdalricus gallus parte ex alia teuthones librarii insignes romam uenientes primi imprimendorum librorum artem in italiam introduxere trecentas cartas per diem imprimentes. [ ] item dese hoichwyrdige kunst vursz is vonden aller eyrst in duytschlant tzo mentz am rijne. ind dat is der duytschscher nacion eyn groisse eirlicheit dat sulche synrijche mynschen syn dae tzo vynden. ind dat is geschiet by den iairen vns heren, anno domini. mccccxl. ind van der zijt an bis men schreue. l. wart vndersoicht die kunst ind wat dair zo gehoirt. ind in den iairen vns heren do men schreyff. mccccl. do was eyn gulden iair, do began men tzo drucken ind was dat eyrste boich dat men druckde die bybel zo latijn, ind wart gedruckt mit eynre grouer schrifft. as is die schrifft dae men nu mysseboicher mit druckt. item wiewail die kunst is vonden tzo mentz, als vursz vp die wijse, als dan nu gemeynlich gebruicht wirt, so is doch die eyrste vurbyldung vonden in hollant vyss den donaten, die dae selffst vur der tzijt gedruckt syn. ind van ind vyss den is genommen dat begynne der vursz kunst. ind is vill meysterlicher ind subtilicher vonden dan die selue manier was, vnd ye langer ye mere kunstlicher wurden. item eynre genant omnebonum der schrijfft in eynre vurrede vp dat boich quintilianus genoempt. vnd ouch in anderen meir boicher, dat eyn wale vyss vranckrijch, genant nicolaus genson haue alre eyrst dese meysterliche kunst vonden, mer dat is offenbairlich gelogen. want sij syn noch jm leuen die dat getzuigen dat men boicher druckte tzo venedige ee der vursz nicolaus genson dar quame, dair he began schrifft zo snijden vnd bereyden. mer der eyrste vynder der druckerye is gewest eyn burger tzo mentz. ind was geboren van straiszburch. ind hiesch joncker johan gudenburch. item van mentz is die vursz kunst komen alre eyrst tzo coellen. dairnae tzo straisburch, ind dairnae tzo venedige. dat begynne ind vortganck der vursz kunst hait myr muntlich vertzelt d' eirsame man meyster vlrich tzell van hanauwe. boich drucker zo coellen noch zertzijt. anno. mccccxcix. durch den die kunst vursz is zo coellen komen. [ ] the first trace of the legend is in a reference to coster as having "brought the first print into the world in " in a manuscript pedigree of the coster family compiled about . [ ] a page from a fragment of one of these in the british museum forms the frontispiece to this chapter (plate iv). [ ] et tempore mei pambergæ quidam scripsit integrum bibliam super lamellas, et in quatuor septimanis totam bibliam super pargameno subtili presignavit scriptura. chapter iv the invention of printing--mainz no contrast could be much greater than that between the so-called "costeriana" and the incunabula printed at mainz. annually as a small boy i used to be taken to the crystal palace, and there a recognized part of the programme in each visit was to spend half an hour in solemnly pedalling backwards and forwards on a semicircular track on a machine miscalled a velocipede. perhaps these clumsy toys really constituted a definite stage in the invention and perfection of the modern bicycle. on the other hand, whatever may be the historical facts, there is no reason in the nature of things why the modern bicycle should not have been invented quite independently of them. the relative positions of holland and germany as regards the invention of printing are very analogous to those of the old velocipede and the bicycle. even if it could be proved decisively that some dutch fragment of a _donatus_ was earlier than any experiment made at mainz or strassburg, it was at mainz that the possibility was first demonstrated of producing by print books as beautiful as any written by the scribes, and it was from germany, not from holland, that printers carried the art which they had proved to be practicable to all parts of europe, including holland itself. [illustration: v. mainz, fust and schoeffer, duranti, rationale divinorum officiorum ( ^a)] in the development of the art of printing at mainz three men had a share, though the precise part which each of them played is matter of conjecture rather than knowledge. the first of the three was johann gutenberg, the johannes bonemontanus whom fichet, as early as , acclaimed as the first of all men to think out the printing art, whom the popular verdict has recognized as the inventor, and whom patriotic german bibliographers delight to invest with every virtue that distinguishes themselves. gutenberg's real name was gänsfleisch, gutenberg being an addition to his mother's surname[ ] which he assumed for reasons not known to us. he was born about , and just when he attained manhood his family, which belonged to the patrician party at mainz, was banished and sought refuge at strassburg. at strassburg gutenberg remained till about , and legal and municipal records, so far as we can trust to their authenticity, offer us some tantalizing glimpses of his career there. when the town clerk of strassburg came to mainz the exile caused him to be arrested for a debt due to his family, and the matter had to be arranged to avoid a quarrel between the two cities. on the other hand, gutenberg was himself called to account for unpaid duties on wine, and was sued for a breach of promise of marriage. in he was the defendant in a much more interesting trial. he had admitted two partners to work an invention with him, and on one of these partners dying his brother claimed, unsuccessfully, to take his place in the partnership. the use of the words "presse," "forme," and "trucken" in connection with this invention leaves it hardly open to doubt that it was concerned with some kind of printing, and loans which gutenberg negotiated in and were presumably raised for the development of this. about the middle of the decade he returned to mainz and there also borrowed money, presumably again for the same object. at this point we are confronted with five fragmentary pieces of printing, all but one of them only recently discovered. the latest of these, according to german bibliographers, is a fragment of an astronomical calendar in german verse for an unspecified year, which might be , , or , but does not exactly fit any of them; the earliest is part of a leaf of a _sibyllenbuch_ (originally known as _das weltgericht_, because the text of this fragment deals with the last judgment). between these two are placed fragments of three editions of _donatus, de octo partibus orationis_, two found recently in copies of an edition of herolt's _sermones de tempore et sanctis_ printed at strassburg[ ] by martin flach in and now at berlin, the third one of the minor treasures of the bibliothèque nationale at paris, where it has lain for over a century. granting that the calendar was printed for use in (it has been argued, on the other hand, that its mention of movable festivals was intended to be only approximate), and that the other four pieces can be proved by typographical evidence to have preceded it, we may suppose the _sibyllenbuch_ to have been printed by gutenberg shortly after his return to mainz, i.e. about , or shortly before this at strassburg. soon after the supposed date of the calendar the second of the three protagonists in the development of printing at mainz comes on the scene. this was johann fust, a goldsmith, who in or about august, , lent gutenberg eight hundred guilders to enable him to print books, himself, nominally or truly, borrowing the money from another capitalist, and thereby gaining the right to charge interest on it without breaking the canon law. by about december, , the loan was exhausted, and fust made a fresh advance of the same amount. the inner history of the next four years is hid from us, and the undisputed facts which belong to them have consequently been interpreted in every variety of way that human ingenuity can devise. these facts are that-- (i) printing was continued with the fount of type used for the calendar attributed to , fragments of more than a dozen different editions of _donatus_ printed with it being still extant, also a prognostication, _manung widder die durken_, printed in december, , a bull of pope calixtus "widder die turcken" of , a medical calendar for , and an undated _cisianus_, another work of an astronomical character. (ii) when the pardoners employed by the proctor-general of the king of cyprus came to mainz in the autumn of to raise money by means of a papal indulgence, valid till april of the following year, they were able to substitute two typographically distinct editions for the manuscript copies which they had previously used, the text of each of these indulgences being printed in a separate fount of beautifully clear small type, while a larger type was used for a few words. in one of these indulgences the larger type belongs, with some differences, to the same fount as the books named in our last paragraph. this indulgence has thirty-one lines, and four issues of it have been distinguished, three of them dated (the earliest of these being the earliest dated piece of printing) and the fourth . in the other indulgence there are only thirty lines, the large type is neater, and three issues have been distinguished, one dated , the other two . (iii) in november, , an action brought by fust to recover the guilders which he had lent gutenberg, with the arrears of interest, reached its final stage. in this suit the third of the mainz protagonists, peter schoeffer, was a witness on the side of fust, and we hear also, as servants of gutenberg, of heinrich keffer and bertolf von hanau, who may apparently be identified with printers who worked subsequently at nuremberg and basel. the document which has come down to us and is now preserved at the university library at göttingen is that recording the oath taken by fust, as the successful plaintiff, in order to obtain judgment for the amount of his claim. (iv) in august, , heinrich cremer, vicar of the collegiate church at mainz, recorded his completion of the rubrication and binding of a magnificent printed bible in two volumes, now preserved in the bibliothèque nationale at paris, the type of which used to be thought identical with the larger type of the thirty-line indulgence mentioned above, but is now considered to be only closely similar. for this last undoubted date of rubrication, august, , german bibliographers have lately substituted a reference to a manuscript date, , in another copy of this printed bible, now preserved in the buchgewerbe-museum at leipzig, formerly owned by a well-known german collector of the last century, herr klemm. while, however, this date appears to have been written at a period approximating to that of the production of the book, its relevance as evidence of the date of printing is highly disputable, more especially as there appear to be signs of erasure near it. its owner, herr klemm, preserved a discreet silence as to its existence, and it is certainly not obligatory at present to accept it as valid evidence. in a work which does not pretend to the dignity of a history of printing it is impossible to discuss, or even to enumerate, the different theories as to the events of the years - , which have been formulated to account for these facts. the edition of the bible of which heinrich cremer rubricated the copy now at paris is so fine a book and so great a landmark in typographical history, that the desire to regard it as the production of the man who is credited with the invention of printing, johann gutenberg, easily becomes irresistible. to refuse to call it the gutenberg bible may, indeed, appear almost pedantic, though its old name, the "mazarine bible," which it gained from the accident of the copy in the mazarine library at paris being the first to attract attention, still survives, and it is also known among bibliographers as the "forty-two line bible," a safe uncontroversial title based on the number of lines in most of its columns. whoever printed it appears to have been possessed of ample means and to have been a master of detail and an excellent organizer. under the minute examination to which it has been subjected the book has yielded up some of its secrets, and we know that it was printed simultaneously on six different presses, that the body of the type was twice reduced, forty-two lines finally occupying slightly less space than the forty which had at first formed a column, that after the printing had begun it was resolved to increase the size of the edition, and that there is some reason to think that eventually a hundred and fifty copies were printed on paper and thirty on vellum,[ ] and that the paper was ordered in large quantities and not in small parcels as it could be paid for. to the present writer it appears that if gutenberg had possessed the financial means, the patience and the organizing power needed to push through this heavy piece of work in the way described, it is difficult to perceive any reason why the capitalist fust should have quarrelled with him, or to imagine how gutenberg exposed himself to such an action as that which fust successfully carried against him. on the supposition that the bible was completed in or soon after the difficulty becomes almost insuperable, for it is inconceivable that if gutenberg had produced the book within a few months of receiving his second loan from fust he should not, by the autumn of , have paid his creditor a single guilder, either for principal or interest. after his quarrel with fust, gutenberg apparently had dealings with two other men, with albrecht pfister who is found in possession of a later casting of the heavier fount of type in which the astrological calendar attributed to had been printed, and with a dr. homery. he ended his days as a pensioner at the court of the archbishop of mainz, while fust, with the aid of peter schoeffer, whom he made his son-in-law, developed a great business. the inventor who lacks organizing power and whose invention never thrives till it has passed into other hands is no unfamiliar figure, and such a conception of gutenberg perhaps accords better with the known facts of his career than that of a living incarnation of heroism and business ability such as his german eulogists love to depict. according to a theory developed by the present writer in an article in _the library_ for january, (second series, vol. viii), though no originality is claimed for it, the key to the situation lies in the assertion[ ] made on behalf of peter schoeffer that his skill in engraving had enabled him to attain results denied to the two johns, johann gutenberg and johann fust. according to this theory, it was schoeffer who engraved the two founts of small type used in the two sets of indulgences of - , and thus demonstrated that the new art could be applied to produce every kind of book and document which had previously circulated in manuscript. fust gave him his daughter christina in marriage, and johann schoeffer, the offspring of the alliance, distinctly tells us that this was in reward for his services. from the first, or almost the first, the firm adopted a policy of advertisement which other printers were slow to imitate, the partners giving their names in their earliest colophons and making no secret of the fact that they were using an "adinuentio artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi" which enabled them to dispense with the pen. in , in the _catholicon_ of that year, the work of an anonymous printer to which we shall have to recur (see p. _sqq._), the invention is distinctly claimed for mainz, and from this claim was taken over by peter schoeffer, who in the colophons of his subsequent books again and again celebrated mainz as the city singled out by divine favour to give the art to the world. the fact that for nearly forty years ( - ) these statements remained unchallenged, and passed into the contemporary history of the time, is the strongest evidence in favour of the substantial invention of the art at mainz that can be conceived. a single reference in [ ] to prefigurations of a humbler kind in _donatuses_ printed in holland and the presentation of a rival theory in cannot deprive of its due weight the evidence that during all the years when the facts were easily ascertainable judgment in favour of mainz was allowed to go by default. but the fust and schoeffer colophons tell us more than this, for while they make no mention of gutenberg they never claim the invention of printing as their own achievement. it is clear that fust could not claim this himself, and while he was alive his son-in-law did not think fit to put forward, or allow to be put forward, any claim on his own behalf. it was only in , when both gutenberg and fust were dead, that schoeffer's "corrector," or reader, magister franciscus, was permitted to assert on his behalf, in the _justinian_ of that year, that though two johns had the better in the race he, like his namesake s. peter, had entered first into the sepulchre, i.e. the inner mysteries of printing. the claim, thus irreverently put forward, is deprived of much of its weight by the moment at which it was made; nevertheless it can hardly have been baseless. the desire to credit gutenberg with some really handsome and important piece of printing has caused his name to be connected with two other large folios, a latin bible, of thirty-six lines to a column, printed in a variety of the type used for the _sibyllenbuch_ and the _kalendar_ of " ," and a latin dictionary known by the name _catholicon_, the work of a thirteenth century writer, joannes balbus, of genoa. the type of the thirty-six line bible passed into the hands of albrecht pfister, of bamberg, who printed a number of popular german books with it in and . there is considerable evidence, moreover, that a large number of copies of the bible itself were sold at bamberg about . the greater part of the text appears to have been set up from a copy of the forty-two line bible. where, when, and by whom it was printed we can only guess, but the place was more probably bamberg than mainz, and as the type is believed to have been originally gutenberg's, and there is evidence that pfister, when he began printing the popular books of - , was quite inexperienced, gutenberg has certainly a better claim to have printed this volume than any one else who can be suggested. the thirty-six line bible is a much rarer book than the forty-two line, but copies are known to exist at the british museum, john rylands library, bibliothèque nationale, and musée plantin, and at greifswald, jena, leipzig, stuttgart, vienna, and wolfenbüttel. a copy is also said to be in private hands in great britain, but has not been registered. none has been sold in recent times. besides the more complete copies mentioned above, various fragments have been preserved and some of these are on vellum. the vellum fragment of leaf now in the british museum was at one time used as a book-cover. the _catholicon_ is printed in a small type, not very cleanly cut. it was issued without printer's name, but with a long colophon, which has been translated: by the help of the most high, at whose will the tongues of infants become eloquent, and who oft-times reveals to the lowly that which he hides from the wise, this noble book catholicon, in the year of the lord's incarnation , in the bounteous city of mainz of the renowned german nation, which the clemency of god has deigned with so lofty a light of genius and free gift to prefer and render illustrious above all other nations of the earth, without help of reed, stilus, or pen, but by the wondrous agreement, proportion and harmony of punches and types has been printed and brought to an end. upon this follow four latin verses in honour of the holy trinity and the virgin mary and the words "deo gracias." we can imagine an inventor who, despite his invention, remained profoundly unsuccessful, writing the opening words of this colophon, and it is not easy to see their appropriateness to any one else. it is thus highly probable that gutenberg set up this book and refused to follow fust and schoeffer in their advertising ways. he may even have had a special reason for this, for among the forty-one copies registered (almost all in great libraries) two groups may be distinguished, one embracing the copies on vellum and the majority of the paper copies, the other the rest of the paper copies. the groups are distinguished by various differences, of which the most important is that in the one case the workmen used four and in the other two pins to keep the paper in its place while being printed. an attractive explanation of all this would be that while gutenberg set up the book and was allowed to print for himself a certain number of copies, there was a richer partner in the enterprise whose pressmen pulled the greater part of the edition. but dr. zedler, who has brought together all the available information about the book in his monograph _das mainzer catholicon_, has a different explanation. in the same type as the _catholicon_ are two small tracts of little interest, the _summa de articulis fidei_ of thomas aquinas, and the _dialogus_ of matthaeus de cracovia; also an indulgence of pope pius ii. in the type is found in the hands of heinrich bechtermünze at eltvil, who died while printing a vocabulary. this was completed by his brother nicholas, who also printed three later editions of it. during the years which precede , johann fust and peter schoeffer, the one a goldsmith, the other a clerk in minor orders of the diocese of mainz, are involved in the obscurity and uncertainty which surround gutenberg's career. reasons have been offered for believing that it was schoeffer who designed the small neat types used in the mainz indulgences of - , and that he with his skill and fust with his money pushed the forty-two line bible to a successful completion. if they printed this, they no doubt printed also a liturgical psalter in the same type, of which a fragment is preserved at the bibliothèque nationale at paris. but we do not touch firm ground until we come to the famous psalter of , the colophon of which leaves us in no doubt as to its typographical authorship. this runs: presens psalmorum[ ] codex venustate capitalium decoratus rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque calami ulla exaracione sic effigiatus, et ad eusebiam dei industrie est consummatus, per iohannem fust ciuem maguntinum, et petrum schoffer de gernszheim anno domini millesimo .cccc.lvij. in vigilia assumpcionis. the present book of the psalms, decorated with beautiful capitals and sufficiently marked out with rubrics, has been thus fashioned by an ingenious invention of printing and stamping without any ploughing of a pen, and to the worship of god has been diligently brought to completion by johann fust, a citizen of mainz, and peter schoeffer of gernsheim, in the year of the lord, , on the vigil of the assumption. thus in the psalter of we have the first example of a book informing us when and by whom it was manufactured; it also illustrates in a very remarkable way the determination of the new partners to produce a volume which should fully rival the best shop-made manuscripts. the effort to print rubrics had already been made in the forty-two line bible, but the red printing was abandoned in that instance as too troublesome. now it was revived with complete success, and with the printed rubrics came also printed capitals or initial letters in two colours, red and blue, and several different sizes. a good discussion of the manner in which these were printed will be found in the _catalogue of the manuscripts and printed books exhibited at the historical music loan exhibition_ ( ) by mr. w. h. j. weale. in an article in the first volume of _bibliographica_ mr. russell martineau showed that part of the edition was printed twice. when mr. martineau wrote nine copies were known, all on vellum, viz. (i) five of an issue of leaves containing the psalms and canticles only, these being at the british museum, royal library windsor, john rylands library, bibliothèque nationale paris, and royal library darmstadt; (ii) four of an issue of leaves, containing also the vigils of the dead, these being at the bibliothèque nationale paris, university library berlin, royal library dresden, and imperial library vienna. to these must now be added a copy of the larger issue, wanting five leaves, presented in by rené d'anjou to the franciscans of la baumette-les-angiers and now in the municipal library at angers. the distribution of the psalms in this edition is that of the general "roman use," but blank spaces were left for the insertion of the characteristic differences of the use of any particular diocese. two years later ( august, ) fust and schoeffer produced another psalter, in the same types and with the same capitals, with twenty-three instead of twenty lines to a page. this was stated in the colophon to have been printed "ad laudem dei ac honorem sancti jacobi," and was thus apparently commissioned by the benedictine monastery of s. james at mainz. its arrangement is that generally in use at the time in german monasteries. thirteen copies of this edition are preserved, all on vellum, viz. four in england (british museum, bodleian, john rylands library, and the earl of leicester's library at holkham), two at paris, one at the hague, five in germany, and one in mr. morgan's collection at new york. this last was bought by mr. quaritch at the sale of the library of sir john thorold for £ . between the production of these two psalters fust and schoeffer printed in the same types on twelve leaves of vellum the canon of the mass only, obviously that it might be bought by churches which owned missals otherwise in good condition, but with these much-fingered leaves badly worn. the unique copy of this edition of the canon was discovered at the bodleian library in a mainz missal of and identified by mr. gordon duff. it is described by mr. duff in his _early printed books_, and by dr. falk and herr wallau in part iii of the publications of the gutenberg gesellschaft, with facsimiles of ten pages. in october, , fust and schoeffer took an important step forward by printing in small type the _rationale diuinorum officiorum_ of gulielmus duranti, a large work explaining the meaning of the various services of the church and the ceremonies used in them. the text is printed in double columns with sixty-three lines in each column, and the type measures mm. to twenty lines. a copy at munich is printed partly on paper, partly on vellum. all the other forty-two copies described by mr. de ricci are entirely on vellum. the book has also one large and two smaller capitals printed in two colours, and the first of these has been reproduced as a frontispiece to this chapter, together with a piece of the neat small type which, by demonstrating the possibility of cheap printing, set up a real landmark. in fust and schoeffer gave another proof of their skill in their edition of the _constitutions_ of pope clement v with the commentary of joannes andreae. the text of the constitutions is printed in two columns in the centre of each page in a type measuring mm. to twenty lines, with the commentary completely surrounding it in the type used in the _duranti_. headings and colophon are printed in red, and the general effect is extremely rich and handsome. all the fourteen copies known to mr. de ricci are printed on vellum. in printing was put to a new use by the publication of a series of eight placards (one in two editions) relative to the struggle between the rival archbishops of mainz--a papal bull deposing diether von isenburg, the emperor's confirmation of this, papal briefs as to the election of adolf von nassau, a petition of diether's to the pope, and the manifestos of the two archbishops. all these, and also a bull of the same year as to a crusade against the turks, are printed in the neat type, and though we may be struck by the difficulty of reading the long lines unrelieved by any headings, these publications must have been a great advertisement for the new art. in the archiepiscopal struggle led to mainz being sacked, but on august there was completed there perhaps the finest of all the early bibles, printed throughout in the type, with headings in red and numerous two-line capitals and chapter-numbers in red and blue, though spaces were left for others to be supplied by hand. three different colophons to this book have been described, and examples of all of these are in the british museum. of the sixty-one extant copies registered by mr. de ricci at least thirty-six are printed on vellum. the lamoignon copy bequeathed to the museum by mr. cracherode has good painted capitals added by hand and is a singularly fine book. the bible of marks the close of the great period of printing at mainz. whether six, seven, or nine years separate it from the forty-two line bible the time had been splendidly employed. the capacity of the new art had been demonstrated to the full, and taken as a group these early fust and schoeffer incunabula have never on their own lines been surpassed. the disaster of the sack of mainz and perhaps the financial strain involved in the production of the bible almost reduced their press to silence until , and it was during these years that their workmen are said to have left them and begun carrying the art into other towns and countries.[ ] when the partners resumed active work in they struck out a new line in their _de officiis_ and _paradoxa_ of cicero, but attained no special excellence in such small folios and quartos. fust died about this time, and schoeffer, left to himself, displayed no further originality. the bible of , save for the absence of printed capitals, is a close copy of that of . the clementine constitutions of were reprinted, and similar editions were issued of the institutes and codex of justinian, decretals of pope gregory ix, etc. for his miscellaneous books schoeffer seems rather to have followed the lead of other printers at strassburg and rome than to have set new fashions himself. in he printed a breslau missal, and this was followed by two reprints and editions for the use of cracow, meissen, gnesen, and mainz itself. he also printed the _hortus sanitatis_ in , and in the first of several psalters in the style of the editions of and . in he was succeeded by his son johann. about - a few unimportant books were issued at mainz by an anonymous printer known as the "printer of the darmstadt prognostication," from the fact that the first copy of the prognostication in question to attract notice was that in the darmstadt library. the books of this press attained undeserved notoriety from the forged dates inserted in many of them about , in order to connect them with gutenberg. the work of three other printers, johann neumeister, erhard reuwich, and jacob meidenbach is chiefly important in the history of book-illustration, and will be found mentioned in chapter vii. the only other mainz printer in the fifteenth century was peter von friedberg, who is chiefly notable as having printed a little series of works by johannes trithemius (tritheim or trittenheim), the erudite abbot of spanheim. after about mainz was easily surpassed as a centre of printing by strassburg, cologne, augsburg, and nuremberg. but if no book had been printed there after the sack of the city ten years earlier, its fame as long as civilization lasts would still be imperishable. footnotes: [ ] her maiden name was elsa wyrich, but she lived at the hof zum gutenberg at mainz, and the name gutenberg thus came into the family. [ ] it will be noted that this connection with strassburg offers just a grain of evidence in favour of the _donatuses_ having been printed there rather than at mainz. [ ] according to the excellent _catalogue raisonné des premières impressions de mayence_ of mr. seymour de ricci, eleven copies on vellum and thirty on paper can now be located, but some of these have only one of the two volumes. the vellum copy belonging to mr. robert hoe sold in for $ , . [ ] in the verses by magister franciscus in the _justinian_ of , subsequently twice reprinted. [ ] in the cologne chronicle. see _supra_, p. . [ ] misprinted _spalmorum_. [ ] it seems reasonable to believe that ulrich zell, the first printer at cologne, who was a clerk of the diocese of mainz, and sweynheym and pannartz, who introduced printing into italy, owed their training to fust and schoeffer. chapter v other incunabula in august, , the struggle between its rival archbishops led to mainz being sacked. very little more printing was done there until , and we need not doubt the tradition that journeymen trained by gutenberg and fust and schoeffer, finding no work for them at mainz, carried such experience as they had gained to other towns and countries, where they appear, after a few years spent in manufacturing presses and types, in all the glory of "prototypographers." but even before two other cities possessed the art--bamberg and strassburg. at bamberg it was practised possibly by gutenberg, who may have printed there the thirty-six line bible about , certainly by albrecht pfister, who is found in possession of the type of this bible, and may himself have had copies for sale. the books he himself printed at bamberg are nine in number,[ ] and three or four bound volumes seem to have preserved all the remnants of them that we possess, and all of these have found their way to public libraries. the large and stately folios produced by the early strassburg printers have naturally resisted the ravages of time better than the bamberg popular books. certainly clumsier than the contemporary mainz books, they yet have a dignity and character of their own which command respect. the first strassburg printer, johann mentelin, was at work there in or before , and was helped during his life and succeeded after his death ( ) by his son-in-law, adolf rusch, who never put his name to a book, and most of whose impressions pass under the name of "the r-printer," from the peculiar form of that letter found in one of his types. mentelin himself did not place his name at the end of a book till he had been at work more than a dozen years; heinrich eggestein, who began work about , was equally reticent, and throughout the 'seventies and 'eighties a large proportion of the books printed at strassburg were anonymous. heinrich knoblochtzer, who started about , combines some of the charm of the earlier printers with greater literary interest and the attraction of illustrations and ornamental capitals and borders. of him we shall have to speak in a later chapter. but after the bulk of strassburg printing was dull and commercial. in the fifteenth century basel was not yet, as it became in , a member of the swiss confederacy, and typographically its relations with mainz, strassburg, nuremberg and other german towns were very close. in what year printing began there is not known. there is no dated book from a basel press until as late as , but the date of purchase, , in a book (s. gregory's _moralia in job_), printed by berthold ruppel, of hanau, takes us back six years, and it is possible that ruppel was at work even before this. he is identified with reasonable certainty with one of the servants of gutenberg mentioned in connection with the lawsuit ended in , and he printed latin bibles and other large works such as appealed to the ambition of the german prototypographers. [illustration: vi. cologne, ulrich zell, - cicero. de officiis ( ^b)] the second and more interesting basel printer, michael wenssler, seems to have taken schoeffer as his model, and reprinted many of schoeffer's editions, following the wording of his colophons and investing them with the same glories of red ink. whereas, however, from about schoeffer's activity was much less conspicuous, wenssler for the next ten years poured out edition after edition of all the heaviest legal and theological works, until he must have overstocked the market. then he devoted himself almost exclusively to liturgical printing, but his affairs became hopelessly involved, and in he fled from his creditors at basel, and became a wandering printer, finding commissions at cluny and maçon, and then settling for a time at lyon. many of the early printers in italy made this mistake of flooding the market with a single class of book, but wenssler is almost the only notable example in germany of this lack of business instinct. travelling along the rhine from mainz in the opposite direction we come to cologne, and here ulrich zell, like berthold ruppel, a native of hanau, but who calls himself in his books a "clerk of the diocese of mainz," enrolled his name on the register of the university in june, , doubtless for the sake of the business privileges which the senate had it in its power to confer. the first dated book from his press, s. john chrysostom, _super psalmo quinquagesimo_ (psalm li., according to our english reckoning), was issued in , but before this appeared he had almost certainly produced an edition of the _de officiis_ (see the frontispiece to this chapter, plate vi), the most popular of cicero's works in germany, which fust and schoeffer had printed in and reprinted the next year. avoiding the great folios on which the early printers of mainz, strassburg, and basel staked their capital, zell's main work was the multiplication of minor theological treatises likely to be of practical use to priests. of these he issued countless editions in small quarto, along with a comparatively few small folios, in which, however, his skill as a printer is seen to better advantage. he continued in active work until , gave, as we have seen (chapter iii.), his version of the origin of printing to the compiler of the cologne chronicle published in , and was still alive as late as . zell's earliest rival at cologne was arnold ther hoernen, who printed from to . he may very likely have been self-taught, for his early work is very uneven, but he developed into an excellent craftsman. he is the first notable example of a printer getting into touch with a contemporary author, and regularly printing all his works, the author in this case being werner rolewinck, a carthusian of cologne, who wrote sermons and historical works, including the _fasciculus temporum_, an epitome of history, which found much favour all over europe. ther hoernen used to be credited with the honour of having printed the first book with a titlepage, the _sermo ad populum predicabilis in festo presentacionis beatissime marie semper virginis_ of . schoeffer, however, had preceded him by some seven years by devoting a separate page to the title of each of his editions of a bull of pius ii (see p. ), and as neither printer continued the practice these isolated instances must be taken as accidental. in the same book, ther hoernen for the first time placed printed numbers on the leaves, but this improvement also was not followed up. the third cologne typographer, johann koelhoff the elder, was the first (in ) to place printed "signatures" on the quires of a book, so as to show the binder the order in which they were to be arranged. hitherto the quires had been marked by hand, and this improvement was not suffered to drop for a time like the others, but quickly spread all over europe. at augsburg günther zainer completed his first book, an edition of the latin meditations on the life of christ taken from the works of s. bonaventura, on the th march, . though he followed this with three heavy books which had found favour at mainz and strassburg, zainer had the wisdom to strike out a line for himself. augsburg had long been the chief centre of the craftsmen who cut and printed the woodcuts of saints, for which there seems to have been a large sale in germany, and also the pictures used for playing-cards. the cutters were at first inclined to regard the idea of book-illustrations with suspicion, as likely to interfere with their existing business. it was decided, however, by the local abbot of ss. ulrich and afra, an ecclesiastic with typographical tastes, that illustrated books might be printed so long as members of the wood-cutters' guild were employed in making the blocks. with this as a working agreement, illustrated books greatly prospered at augsburg, not only günther zainer, but johann bämler and anton sorg (a very prolific printer), turning them out with much success throughout the 'seventies. at nuremberg printing was introduced in by johan sensenschmidt, who for a short time had as his partner heinrich kefer, of mainz, another of gutenberg's servants. much more important, however, was the firm of anton koberger, who began work the next year, and speedily developed the largest business of any printer in germany. koberger was able to deal successfully in all the heavy books, which after other firms found it wiser to leave alone, and seems to have employed adolf rusch at strassburg and perhaps other printers elsewhere, to print for him. he also printed towards the end of the century some very notable illustrated books. next to koberger, friedrich creussner, who started in , had the largest business in nuremberg, and georg stuchs made himself a reputation as a missal printer, a special department from which koberger held aloof. at speier, after two anonymous firms had worked in and without much success, peter drach ( ) developed an important business. at ulm johann zainer, a kinsman of günther zainer, of augsburg, began in by printing illustrated books, which were subsequently taken up in the 'eighties by leonhard holle, conrad dinckmut, and johann reger, while zainer himself became a miscellaneous printer. at lübeck lucas brandis produced a universal history called the _rudimentum nouitiorum_ in and a fine _josephus_, important liturgical work being subsequently done by bartholomaeus ghotan, matthaeus brandiss and stephan arndes, similar work being also produced at magdeburg partly by some of these lübeck printers. fine liturgical work was also done at würzburg by georg reyser, who may previously have printed anonymously at speier, and who started his kinsman michel in a similar business at eichstätt. at leipzig, where marcus brandis printed one or two books in , and the following years, a sudden development took place about , and a flood of small educational works was poured out by some half a dozen printers, of whom conrad kachelofen and martin landsberg were the most prolific. presses were also set up in numerous other places, so that by the end of the century at least fifty german cities, towns and villages had seen a printer at work. in many of these the art took no root, and in some the printer was only employed for a short time to print one or more books for a particular purpose. but the total output of incunabula in germany was very large, and leaving out of count the fugitive single sheets, the scanty remnants of which can bear no relation to the thousands which must have been produced, out of about , different books and editions printed in the fifteenth century registered as extant at the time of writing probably nearly a third were produced in germany. if, as is likely, a large proportion of the eleven thousand undescribed incunabula (among which, however, there must be many duplicates and triplicates) reported to have been discovered by the agents of the german royal commission for a general catalogue of incunabula are german, this rough estimate must be largely increased, and it may be proved that germany was as prolific as italy itself. considerable as was this output of german printing at home, it was probably nearly equalled by the work done by german printers in the other countries of europe to which they hastened to carry the new art. turning first to italian incunabula we find that the first book printed in italy has perished utterly. the cruel little latin grammar which passed under the name of _donatus_ had, as we have seen, been frequently printed in holland and by the first mainz printers, and there are several later instances of an edition of it being produced as soon as a press was set up, merely to show the printer's types. this was done by conrad sweynheym and arnold pannartz, the two germans who began printing at the monastery of saint scholastica at subiaco, some forty miles from rome, in , or perhaps in the previous year. being a school-book, the _donatus_ was thumbed to pieces, so that no copy now survives, and it is only known from the printer's allusion to it as the book "_unde imprimendi initium sumpsimus_" in a list of their publications drawn up in . of the three other books printed by them at subiaco, cicero's _de oratore_ has no printed date, but a copy described by signor fumagalli bears a manuscript note dated pridie kal. octobres m.cccclxv., i.e. september, , the authenticity of which has, however, been challenged, though probably without good reason. the two others both bear printed dates, the works of _lactantius_, that of october, , and s. augustine's _de ciuitate dei_, june, . probably even before this last book was completed the printers were already moving some of their material to rome, where they found shelter in the palace of pietro de' massimi, for their edition of the _epistulae familiares_ of cicero was completed there in the same year, probably in or before november. even so it is not certain that this was the first book printed at rome, for ulrich han, a native of vienna and citizen of ingolstadt, whose later work, like that of michael wenssler at basel, shows a tendency to imitate schoeffer, completed an edition of the _meditationes de vita christi_ of cardinal turrecremata on the last day of the same year, and mr. proctor (after the publication of his _index_) assigned to han's press and to an even earlier date than the _meditationes_ a bulky edition of the epistles of s. jerome, which must certainly have taken a year to print. the career of sweynheym and pannartz in partnership at rome lasted but little over six years, their latest book bearing the date december, . already in march, , they were in difficulties, and printed a letter to pope sixtus iv begging for some pecuniary aid. they had printed, they said, no fewer than , volumes, and gave a list of the different books and of the numbers printed of each. four of these editions were of copies, the rest of , and we can see from the list that there had been three editions of the _lactantius_ and _de ciuitate dei_ and two each of cicero's _epistulae familiares_, _de oratore_, and _opera philosophica_, and also of virgil, so that clearly some of their books had shown a profit. but the list is entirely made up of latin classics, "profane" and theological, and by march, , printing had been introduced into at least ten other italian cities (venice, foligno, trevi, ferrara, milan, florence, treviso, bologna, naples, and savigliano), and in most, if not all of these, the one idea of the first printers was to produce as many latin classics as possible, as though no other firm in italy were doing the same thing. unable to obtain help from the pope, sweynheym and pannartz dissolved partnership, the former devoting himself to engraving maps for an edition of ptolemy's _geographia_, which he did not live to see (it was printed by arnold bucking in ), while pannartz resumed business on a somewhat smaller scale on his own account, and died in . at venice, the first printer, johann of speier, seems to have had some foreboding of what might happen, and thoughtfully protected himself against competition by procuring from the senate an exclusive privilege for printing at venice during the space of five years. this might seriously have retarded the development of the press at venice. johann, however, after printing two editions of cicero's _epistulae ad familiares_ and pliny's _historia naturalis_ in , was carried off by death while working on his fourth book, s. augustine's _de ciuitate dei_, in , and his brother wendelin, or vindelinus, who took over the business, had no privilege to protect him from competition. in , the way thus being left clear, a frenchman, nicolas jenson, set up the second press in venice, and by the beauty of his fine roman type speedily attained a reputation which has lasted to this day. another fine printer, christopher valdarfer, produced his first book in the same year. in three other firms (an italian priest, clemente of padua, and two germans, adam of ammergau and franz renner of heilbronn) began publishing, and in yet seven more (three germans and four italians). but the pace was impossible, and by this time men were rapidly falling out. as we have seen, sweynheym and pannartz, after their ineffectual attempt to obtain a subsidy from the pope, dissolved their partnership at rome after , and ulrich han in had taken a moneyed partner, with whose aid he weathered the storm. at venice wendelin, after producing thirty-one books in the previous two years, reduced his output to six in , and soon after seems to have ceased to work for himself. jenson's numbers sank from twenty-eight in - to six in - . valdarfer gave up after , and is subsequently found at milan. other venetian printers also dropped out, and only two new firms began work in . at florence after the first printer bernardo cennini and his sons had produced a virgil in , and johann petri of mainz boccaccio's _philocolo_ and petrarch's _trionfi_ in , printing ceased for some years. presses started at foligno, trevi, and savigliano came to a speedy end. at treviso, where gerardus lisa had published four books in , there was, according to mr. proctor, a gap from december in that year till the same month in , though dr. copinger quotes one book each for the intervening years. only one book was published at ferrara in . what happened at naples is hard to say, since sixtus riessinger, the first printer there, issued many books without dates. at bologna trade seems to have been stationary. at milan, where both antonius larotus in and philippus de lavagna in had begun with extreme caution, there was healthy progress, and these two firms continued issuing editions of the classics, and with the great falling off of competition may have found it profitable to do so. but of the reality of the crisis in the italian book trade in - , although little is said of it in histories of printing, there can be no doubt. when it was over there were symptoms of a similar over-production of some of the great legal commentaries. but this danger was avoided. there was a steady increase in the range of the literature published, and the bourgeois book-buyer was remembered as well as the aristocratic student. soon there came a great extension, not only of the home but of the foreign market, and italy settled down to supply the world with books, a task for which venice, both from its geographical position and its well-established commercial relations, was peculiarly fitted. but it is the books printed before that form the real italian incunabula. in the subsequent work within the limits of the fifteenth century rome took no very important part. ulrich han continued to print till . joannes philippi de lignamine, papal physician and native of sicily, produced some exceptionally interesting books between and , and again in - , and georg lauer, who worked from to , and completed an edition of s. jerome's letters, left unfinished by pannartz at the time of his death, showed himself a good craftsman. the later printers, especially stephan plannck and eucharius silber, had some good types, but produced few notable books, the bulk of the roman output after being editions in small quarto of official documents and speeches at the papal court. to devise any summary description of fifteenth century printing at venice is wellnigh impossible. some firms were at work there; at a low estimate some four thousand extant books and editions must be credited to them, and these embraced almost every kind of literature for which readers could be found in the fifteenth century, and many varieties of craftsmanship. from a decorative point of view, the firm of erhard ratdolt did exceptionally good work, and it is also remarkable for specializing mainly on astronomy, mathematics, and history. liturgical printing began somewhat late (there seems to have been a prejudice against printed service books in italy, and i can remember none printed at rome); in the fifteenth century johann hammann or herzog and johann emerich were its chief exponents. franz renner produced chiefly latin theology, a department much less predominant at venice than in germany. several firms, e.g. jacques le rouge, baptista de tortis, andreas torresanus (father-in-law of aldus and a very fine printer), and georgius arrivabene devoted themselves like jenson first mainly to latin classics and then to law; others, such as filippo di pietro mingled latin and italian classics. filippo's kinsman, gabriele di pietro, was one of the earliest vernacular printers. many firms, such as that of bonetus locatellus, who seems to have had a university connection, and printed all kinds of learned latin books, despised the vernacular altogether. the brothers giovanni and gregorio dei gregorii were perhaps the most prolific and miscellaneous printers in both latin and italian. johannes tacuinus, a learned printer towards the end of the century, is notable for adorning his books with pictorial capitals, mostly of boys at play. aldus manutius will be spoken of in a later chapter. while all this activity was displayed at venice other cities were not idle. at milan upwards of eight hundred incunabula were produced, mostly by its earliest printer, antonius zarotus, and two germans, leonhard pachel and ulrich scinzenzeler. ferrara seems to have been able to support only one press at a time, and at florence it was some years before printing flourished, but in the last quarter of the century many interesting books were printed there, both learned and vernacular, as to the illustrations in which much will have to be said later on. some of the early treviso books from the press of gerard lisa are distinctly pretty. bologna produced about three hundred incunabula. naples probably not so many, but of much better quality. altogether well over ten thousand italian incunabula must still be extant, and these were produced at no fewer than seventy different places, though many of these were of no typographical importance, and only find their way into histories of printing from having sheltered a wandering printer for a few weeks as he was on his way from one large town to another. in france also the earliest books were addressed to students of the classics, though they were produced on a much more limited scale. there the first printers, three germans, had been invited to set up their presses at paris in the sorbonne by two of its professors, guillaume fichet and jean heynlin, of stein, better known in his own day as johannes de lapide. between the summer of and the autumn of eighteen works were printed at the sorbonne, mostly of the kind which would be of use to its students. among them was sallust, three works of cicero, virgil's bucolics and georgics, the satires of juvenal and persius, terence, some text books, the _speculum humanae vitae_ of bishop roderic of zamora, and the orations of fichet's patron, cardinal bessarion. in august, , the cardinal arrived in france on a fruitless mission to rouse the king to a crusade against the turks. he was rebuffed and ordered to leave france. fichet accompanied him, and never returned to paris. as early as the previous march heynlin seems to have been called away, and now the imported german printers, michael freiburger, ulrich gering, and martin crantz, were left wholly to their own devices. thus abandoned they printed four books of a less special character, for which they sought princely instead of scholarly patronage, and then in april, , moved from the sorbonne and set up for themselves at the sign of the soleil d'or in the rue s. jacques. here they printed still in latin, but a much more popular class of books, and soon had to contend with two rival firms, that of pieter de keysere and johann stol, and the printers at the sign of the "soufflet vert" or green bellows. the finest of the subsequent printers was jean dupré, who used excellent capitals and issued many illustrated books, but three prolific printers, antoine caillaut, gui marchand, and pierre levet, along with many dull books issued some very interesting ones. towards the end of the century an enterprising publisher, antoine vérard, kept many of the paris printers busy, and paris became noted typographically for its fine illustrated editions of the hours of the blessed virgin, issued by vérard, dupré, pigouchet (and his publisher, simon vostre), and thielman kerver. but these with the publications of vérard belong to another chapter. at lyon printing was introduced by the enterprise of one of its citizens, barthélemi buyer, who engaged guillaume leroy (a native of liège) to print for him, and subsequently employed other printers as well. the first lyon book was a little volume of popular religious treatises, containing among other things the _de miseria humanae conditionis_ of pope innocent iii. it was completed september, . until nearly the books printed at lyon were mainly popular in character with a considerable proportion of french books, many of them illustrated. from onwards learned latin books occur more frequently, and printing rapidly became as general or miscellaneous as at paris itself, although only a single attempt was made, unsuccessfully, to rival the paris _horae_. the two cities between them probably produced more than three-fourths of the three thousand incunabula, which at a rough guess may be attributed to french presses, the share of paris being about twice as great as that of lyon. according to the stereotyped phrase, printing was introduced into no fewer than thirty-seven other french towns during the fifteenth century, but as a rule the printers were but birds of passage, and it was only at poitiers ( ) and rouen ( ) that it took root and flourished continuously, though on but a small scale. in other towns the struggle to maintain a press continued for several years, as at toulouse, or was abandoned after the fulfilment of a single commission. in holland the first books which bear the name of their printer and date and place of imprint are those produced at utrecht by nicolaus ketelaer and gerardus leempt, who began work in . it is tolerably certain, however, that some of the so-called "costeriana" (see chap. ii) preceded this date, and they are at least as likely to have been printed at haarlem as at utrecht, there being no decisive evidence in favour of either place. no namable printer appears at haarlem until the end of , when jacob bellaert set up a short-lived press there. for some seven years ( - ) excellent work was done at gouda by gerard leeu, who then moved to antwerp. at delft, where a fine bible was printed by jacob jacobszoen and mauricius yemantszoen in , printing was kept up continuously by jacobszoen, christian snellaert, and hendrik eckert till the end of the century, though there seems to have been only work enough for one firm at a time. at zwolle, pieter van os, who began work in , was able to maintain himself, with a brief interval about , till past the magic date . lastly, at deventer, where richardus pafraet started in the same year, an output was speedily attained greater than in any other dutch town, and for the latter years of the century a rival firm, that of jacobus de breda, shared pafraet's prosperity. the great majority of the deventer books, however, belong to the minor literature of ecclesiasticism and education, and are far from exciting. the beginnings of printing are much more interesting in the southern netherlands, which correspond roughly to what we now call belgium. here also the first positive date is , the year in which johann of paderborn in westphalia, best known to english collectors as john of westphalia, printed three books at alost. a fourth followed in may, , but by the following december john had removed to louvain, a university town, where he remained doing excellent and abundant work till nearly the end of the century. at louvain he had found another printer, jan veldener, already in the field, and seems to have hustled him away not very honourably. veldener, however, was not ruined, but is subsequently found at utrecht and kuilenburg, and again for a short time at louvain. at bruges the first printers were colard mansion and william caxton, names well known to english book-lovers, though not all the labours of mr. william blades and mr. gordon duff have made it quite clear which of the two was the leader. only two english books were printed, the _recuyell of the histories of troy_ and _the game and play of the chess_, when caxton returned to england and set up his presses in the almonry at westminster. whether he had any pecuniary interest in the french _recueil_ and the _quatre dernières choses_, and whether printings at bruges began with the _recuyell_, or, as mr. proctor contended, with the french boccaccio _de la ruine des nobles hommes et femmes_ of , are points of controversy. from till his flight from bruges to avoid arrest for debt in , mansion worked steadily by himself, and the total output of his press amounts to twenty-five french works and two in latin. at brussels the brothers of the common life, who worked also as printers in other places, published numerous popular latin works between and , about which time their press seems to have stopped. but the removal of gerard leeu's business from gouda to antwerp in soon gave that town a typographical importance which (except for a few years at the end of the century) it long maintained. the true incunabula of the netherlands are, of course, the "costeriana." whatever view we may take of their date and birthplace, they were undoubtedly home products, with a strongly marked individuality. ketelaer and leempt, however, at utrecht, veldener at louvain and elsewhere, caxton and mansion at bruges, were real pioneers. in a sense this is true also of john of westphalia and gerard leeu, notably of the former, who had learnt his art in italy and by the type which he had brought thence raised the standard of printing in his new home. it is, indeed, almost exclusively at deventer that we get the dull commercial work which has nothing primitive or individual about it, and thus, perhaps because their grand total is so much smaller than in the case of germany, italy, or even france, the special interest of incunabula attaches to rather a high proportion of the early books of the netherlands. if this be true of the netherlands, it is even truer of the two countries with which we have still to deal in this rapid survey, spain and england. of spanish incunabula about seven hundred are now registered; of english, three hundred is a fairly liberal estimate of the grand total still extant. within the limits of the fifteenth century neither country reached the purely mechanical stage of book production to which so many german and italian books belong after about . in england, indeed, this stage was hardly reached until the general downfall of good printing towards the end of the sixteenth century. the first book printed in spain was a thin volume of poems in honour of the blessed virgin, written by bernardo fenollar and others on the occasion of a congress held at valentia in march, . it offers no information itself on any bibliographical point, but it was presumably printed not long after the congress, at valentia where the congress was held, and by lambertus palmart (or palmaert), who on august, , completed there the third part of the _summa_ of s. thomas aquinas and duly described it as "impressa valentie per magistrum lambertum palmart alemanum, anno m.cccc.lxxvii, die vero xviii. mensis augusti." palmart is supposed to have been a fleming (a nationality to which the description _alemannus_ is often applied), but nothing is known of him. he printed a work called _comprehensorium_ and the _bellum jugurthinum_ of sallust in february and july, , without putting his name to them, and these with the fenollar and other anonymous books now attributed to him are in roman type. in he completed a catalan bible in conjunction with a native spaniard, alonzo fernandez de cordoba, and thereafter worked by himself until , using gothic types in these later books. seven other firms worked at valentia during the fifteenth century, but none of these attained much importance. another fleming, of the name of matthew or matthaeus, printed the _manipulus curatorum_ of guido de monte rotherii at saragossa in october, , and five other presses were established there before , that of paul hurus being the most prolific. at tortosa a single book (the _rudimenta grammaticae_ of perottus) was printed by nicolaus spindeler and pedro brun early in , and in august of the same year antonio martinez, alonso del puerto, and bartolome segura completed the first fully dated book (the _sacramental_ of sanchez de vercial) at seville, where printing subsequently throve as much as anywhere in spain. the following year spindeler and brun, having moved from tortosa, introduced printing into barcelona, a date mcccclxviii in a treatise by bartholomaeus mates, _pro condendis orationibus_, being obviously a misprint, though to what it should be corrected cannot positively be shown.[ ] at salamanca printing was introduced as early as , and continued more actively after , mainly for the production of educational works. at burgos friedrich biel, who had been trained under michael wenssler at basel, began printing in , and a native of the place, juan de burgos, brought out his first book in , both of these firms doing excellent work. altogether, twenty-four towns and places in spain possessed presses during the fifteenth century, but in many cases only for a short time. the outline of the story of printing in england during the fifteenth century may be very quickly sketched, fuller treatment being reserved for a later chapter. at michaelmas, , caxton rented premises in the almonry from the abbot of westminster, and here he stayed till his death in , printing, as far as we know, about a hundred books and documents. in a press was set up at oxford, presumably by theodoric rood of cologne, whose name, however, does not appear in any book until . by rood had been joined by an english stationer, thomas hunte, but in or the following year the press was closed after printing, as far as we know, only seventeen books. the few books printed at oxford were all more or less scholastic in character, and six out of eight works printed by caxton's second rival (apparently a friendly one), the schoolmaster-printer at st. albans, belonged to the same class, his two more popular books being caxton's _chronicles of england,_ with a new appendix, and the famous _book of st. albans_. of these eight works, the earliest bearing a date was issued in , the latest in . a more formidable competitor to caxton than either the oxford or the st. albans printer began work in the city of london in . this was john lettou, i.e. john the lithuanian, who, as mr. gordon duff notes, used type identical save in a single letter with a fount used at rome in by johann bulle of bremen. lettou appears to have been financed in the first instance by a londoner, william wilcock. in he was joined by william machlinia (presumably a native of malines), and after five law books had been printed in partnership, lettou dropped out, and machlinia continued working by himself, possibly until as late as or , when his stock seems to have been taken over by richard pynson, a norman, from rouen. on caxton's death in his business passed into the hands of his foreman, wynkyn de worde, a native of lorraine. the only other press started in the fifteenth century was that of julyan notary, who worked at first with two partners, i.b. and i.h. of these i.b. was certainly jean barbier, and i.h. probably jean huvin of rouen. we have no information as to the nationality of notary, but if, as seems probable, he was a frenchman, printing in england for some twenty years after caxton's death was wholly in the hands of foreigners. * * * * * meagre and bare of details as is this sketch of the beginnings of printing in the chief countries of europe, it should yet suffice to prove that the purely arbitrary date and the slang word _incunabula_, used to invest all fifteenth century impressions with a mystic value, are misleading nuisances. by the time that printing reached england it was beginning to pass into its commercial stage in germany and italy. in both of these countries, and in a less degree in france, scores and hundreds of books were printed during the last fifteen years of the century which have little more connection with the invention of printing, or the story of its diffusion, than english or spanish books a century later. from the point of view of the history of literature and thought there is much to be gained from the collection in large libraries of all books printed before . from the point of view of the history of printing every decade of book-production has its interest, and the decade to among the rest. incidentally it may be noted that in respect of book-illustration this particular decade in italy is one of exceptional interest. but books of the third generation of german or italian printers, men like flach, for instance, at strassburg, or plannck at rome, should not be collected under the idea that they are in any true sense of the word incunabula. what constitutes a true incunable cannot be defined in a sentence. we must consider the country or city as well as the book, the individual man as well as the art of which he was perhaps a belated exponent. the same piece of printing may have much more value and interest if we can prove that it was produced in one place rather than another. after the publication of his _index_, mr. proctor satisfied himself that some anonymous books in roman type which he had classed as the work of an unidentified press at naples were really among the earliest specimens of palmart's typography in spain, and one does not need to be a spaniard to appreciate the distinction thus added to them. if sentiment is to count for anything we must admit the interest of the first books printed in any country which possesses an important history and literature--if only because we may legitimately be curious to know on what books a printer, with all the extant literature to choose from, ventured his capital as likely in that particular country and time to bring him the quickest and most profitable return. that the first large book in germany was a bible, the first books in italy latin classics, the first produced for the english market one that we must call an historical romance, cannot be regarded as merely insignificant. nor are the differences in the types and appearance of the page unimportant, for these also help to illustrate national characteristics. if this is true of the early books printed in any country, it is also true in only slightly less degree of those which first appeared in any great city which afterwards became a centre of printing. strassburg, cologne, and nuremberg, rome, venice, and florence, paris and lyon, antwerp and london (if we may be permitted for once to ignore the separate existence of westminster), each has its own individuality, and in each case it is interesting to see with what wares, and in what form, the first printers endeavoured to open its purse-strings. but when we come to towns and townlets some distinction seems needed. i may be misled by secret sympathy with that often scholarly, too often impecunious figure, the local antiquary. to him the first book printed in his native townlet, though by a printer merely stopping on his way between one great city and another, must needs be of interest, and it is hard that its price should be forced beyond his reach by the competition between dealers keen to do business with a rich collector to whom the book will have none of the fragrance it would possess for him. typographical itinerancy, this printing by the roadside, as we may almost call it, must needs be illustrated in great collections, like any other habit of the early printers. but the ordinary private collector can surely dispense with buying books because they have been printed in places which have no associations for him, of which perhaps he has never heard. as for the individual man, if we would keep any oases green in what may easily become a sandy desert, we must surely treasure every trace of his personality. one large element in the charm of incunabula is the human interest of difficulties overcome, and wherever a craftsman began work by cutting a distinctive type to suit the calligraphic fashion of the neighbourhood, at whatever date he started, his books will still have some interest. when he becomes articulate and tells us of his difficulties, or boasts of how they have been overcome, we may value his work still higher. as the first book printed at florence, the commentary of servius on virgil needs no added attraction, and yet how much its charm is enhanced by its printers' addresses to the reader. here is the second of them roughly englished: to the reader. bernardino cennini, by universal allowance a most excellent goldsmith, and domenico his son, a youth of very good ability, have been the printers. pietro, son of the aforesaid bernardo, has acted as corrector, and has made a collation with many very ancient copies. his first anxiety was that nothing by another hand should be ascribed to servius, that nothing which very old copies showed to be the work of honoratus should be cut down or omitted. since it pleases many readers to insert greek words with their own hand, and in their own fashion, and these in ancient codices are very few, and the accents are very difficult to mark in printing he determined that spaces should be left for the purpose. but since nothing of man's making is perfect, it must needs be accounted enough if these books (as we earnestly hope) are found exceptionally correct. the work was finished at florence on october , . it is impossible to read a colophon such as this without feeling ourselves in the very atmosphere of the printing house, with the various members of the printer's family at work around us. blank spaces are found in many early books where greek quotations occurred in the manuscripts from which they were printed. but it was not every printer who took so much trouble as cennini to justify the omission. as many as twenty-one years later, when printing in the great towns was becoming merely mechanical, we find the same personal note in a little grammar-book printed at acqui. here the colophon tells us: the doctrinale of alexander of villedieu (god be praised!) comes to a happy end. it has been printed amid enough inconveniences, since of several things belonging to this art the printer, in making a beginning with it, could obtain no proper supply, owing to the plague raging at genoa, asti and elsewhere. now this same work has been corrected by the prior venturinus, a distinguished grammarian, and that so diligently that whereas previously the doctrinale in many places seemed by the fault of booksellers too little corrected, now by the application of his care and diligence it will reach men's hands in the most correct form possible. after this date books will be printed in type of another kind, and elegantly, i trow; for both artificers and a sufficiency of other things of which hitherto the putter forth has been in need he now possesses by the gift of god, who disposes all things according to the judgement of his will. late as he appeared and small as was the town at which he produced his one book--his hopes and promises as to others seem to have come to naught--this man had the true pioneer spirit, and deserves to be remembered for it. of a different kind, but no less, is the interest in what is perhaps my own favourite colophon, that recording the death of gerard leeu at antwerp, while engaged in printing an edition of _the chronicles of england_ for the english market. here ben endyd the cronycles of the reame of englond, with their apperteignaunces. enprentyd in the duchy of braband in the towne of andewarpe in the yere of our lord m.cccc.xciij. by maistir gerard de leew a man of grete wysedom in all maner of kunnyng: whych nowe is come from lyfe unto the deth, which is grete harme for many [a] poure man. on whos sowle god almyghty for hys hygh grace haue mercy. amen. leeu had been killed accidentally by one of his workmen in the course of a dispute, and this testimonial to him in the colophon, which reads as if the compositor had slipped it in of his own accord, is very gracious and touching in its simplicity. just as the possession of a personal colophon brings a book within a circle of interest to which it otherwise would not have approached, so we may justly value a piece of printing all the more if it chances, through any accident, to throw light on the printer's methods. i have felt a peculiar affection for an edition of valerius maximus, printed by schoeffer in , ever since i discovered that a change in the form of the punctuation at certain points of the book makes it possible to work out the number of presses on which it was being printed, the order in which the sheets were being set up, and how quickly the type of the worked pages was distributed. the slowness of the presswork in the simple form of press at first used obliged the printers to keep several presses, sometimes as many as six, occupied with different sections of the same book, and the trouble they were given to make the end of one section join neatly to the beginning of the next has left many traces. any book which thus lets us into the secrets of the early printing offices possesses in a very high degree the charm which should attach to an incunable, if that hardly used word is to retain, as it should, any reference to the infancy of printing. but more will be said as to this aspect of early books in our next chapter. footnotes: [ ] two editions of boner's _edelstein_, both illustrated with over a hundred woodcuts, one dated th february, (copy at wolfenbüttel), the other undated (royal library, berlin); _die historij von joseph, danielis, judith, hester,_ dated in rhyming verse "nat lang nach sand walpurgentag" (rylands library and bibliothèque nationale); the _belial seu consolatio peccatorum_ of jacobus de theramo (rylands and germanisches museum, nuremberg); two issues of a german _biblia pauperum_ with thirty-four woodcuts (both at the bibliothèque nationale, the first also at rylands and wolfenbüttel); the same work in latin (rylands); lastly two editions of a poem called _rechtstreit des menschen mit dem tode_ (both at wolfenbüttel, the second also at the bibliothèque nationale). [ ] in its colophon the book is said to have been "a docto viro bertolommeo mates conditus et per p. johannem matoses christi ministrum presbiterumque castigatus et emendatus sub impensis guillermi ros et mira arte impressa per johannem gherlinc alamanum." gherlinc is only heard of again in , and then not at barcelona. chapter vi the development of printing one great cause of changes of fashion in book-collecting is that after any particular class of book has been hotly competed for by one generation of book-lovers, all the best prizes gradually get locked up in great public or private collections, and come so seldom into the market that new collectors prefer to take up some other department rather than one in which it is impossible for them to attain any striking success. the first-fruits of printing, if reckoned strictly chronologically, are probably as nearly exhausted as any class of book which can be named. no matter how rich a man may be, the chances of his ever obtaining a copy of the thirty-six line bible, the psalter, or the first book printed at venice, are infinitesimally small. other incunabula, if not hopelessly out of reach even of the very rich, are only likely to be acquired after many years of waiting and a heavy expenditure when the moment of possible acquisition arrives. many of the books hitherto here mentioned belong to this class. and yet, from what may be called the logical as opposed to the chronological standpoint, incunabula little, if at all, less interesting are still to be obtained at quite small prices by any one who knows for what to look. any collector who sets himself to illustrate the evolution of the printed book from its manuscript predecessors, and the ways of the early printers, will find that he has undertaken no impossible task, though one which will need considerable pursuit and good taste and judgment in the selection of appropriate specimens. [illustration: vii. venice, jenson, cicero. rhetorica ( ^a)] roughly speaking, it took about a century for printed books to shake off the influence of manuscript and establish their own traditions. the earliest books had no titlepage, no head-title, no running title, no pagination, and no printed chapter-headings, also no printed initials or illustrations, blank spaces being left often for the one and occasionally for the other to be supplied by hand. at the time when printing was invented the book trade in many large cities had attained a high degree of organization, so that the work of the calligrapher or scribe was clearly distinguished from that of the luminer or illuminator, and even from that of the rubricator (rubrisher). take, for instance, this bury st. edmunds bill of for a psalter, preserved among the paston letters: for viij hole vynets, prise the vynet xij^d viij^s item for xxj demi-vynets ... prise the demi-vynett iiij^d vij^s item for psalmes letters xv^c and di' ... the prise of c. iiij^d vj^s ij^d item for p'ms letters lxiij^c ... prise of c. j^d v^s iij^d item for wrytynge of a quare and demi ... prise the quayr xx^d ij^s vj^d item for wrytenge of a calender xij^d item for iij quayres of velym, prise the quayr xx^d v^s item for notynge of v quayres and ij leves, prise of the quayr viij^d iii^s vij^d item for capital drawynge iij^c and di', the prise iij^d item for floryshynge of capytallis, v^c v^d item for byndynge of the boke xij^s ------------ li^s ij^d ------------ it is possible that the work in this case was all done by one man, though it is equally possible that several were engaged on it, under the direction of a master-scrivener, but in either case the fact that vignettes and demi-vignettes, psalter letters (i.e. the small red letters at the beginning of each verse of a psalm, sometimes called versals), the mysterious "p'ms letters" (possibly the dabs of colour bestowed on small initials), the writing of the text, the writing of the calendar, the musical notation, and the drawing and flourishing the capitals, were all charged separately, at so much a piece or so much a hundred, shows how distinct each operation was kept. partly, no doubt, from policy, so as not to rouse the wrath of more than one industry at a time, partly to save themselves trouble and expense, the earliest printers, with few exceptions, set themselves to supplant only the calligrapher, and sold their books with all the blanks and spaces, which the most modest or perfunctory scribe could have left to be filled by his kindred craftsmen. no better starting-point for a typographical collection could be desired than fine copies of two well-printed books in which the printer has confined himself severely to reproducing the text, leaving all headings, capitals, and ornaments to be supplied by hand. in one (as in the page from a book of jenson's, which forms the illustration to this chapter, plate vii) the blanks should remain blanks (as more especially in early books printed in italy they often did remain), in the other they should have been filled in with red ink or colours by a rubricator. the owner of two such volumes is really as much at the fountain-head as the possessor of the mainz indulgences of , or any still earlier document that may yet be found.[ ] this is the logical beginning, and the logic of history is quite as interesting as the chronology. from the starting-point of the book of which the printer printed nothing but the text the collector can advance in many different directions. there was no regular and unbroken progress in the development of the modern form of book, nor does it matter greatly that the examples of any particular improvement should be either absolutely or nearly the earliest. the main thing is that they should be good illustrations of the special feature for which they are acquired. the problem how to dispense with the aid of a rubricator had to be faced by countless printers in many different towns, for rubricating by hand must have added very considerably to the cost of a book. the obvious thing to do was to print in red all the headings, chapter-numbers, etc., which the rubricator used to add in that colour. but this was both expensive and troublesome, as it involved two printings and the placing of the paper in exactly the same position in the press in each. caxton and one or two other early printers tried to avoid this double printing and difficulty of registration by putting on both red and black ink at the same time--very probably, where they came close together, they were rubbed on with a finger--but this so often resulted in smudges and lines half of one colour, half of another, that it was soon abandoned. double printing was mostly soon abandoned also, except by the most expert men. it was tried and abandoned by the printer of the forty-two line bible, though subsequently fust and schoeffer completely mastered it. between and it was tried and abandoned by almost every printer in strassburg. the difficulty was generally[ ] overcome by substituting, for red ink used with type of the same size or face as the text, type of a larger size or heavier face, which could be printed in black ink with the text and yet stand out sufficiently clearly from it to catch the eye. the need for this differentiation accelerated the tendency to reduce the size of types, which was doubtless in the first place dictated by a desire for economy. the earlier german text-types for ordinary books very commonly measure about mm. a line. to enable small differences to be shown they are quoted in the british museum catalogue of incunabula by the measurements of twenty lines, and many of the early mainz and strassburg types range closely round the number . these large text-types are often the only ones used in a book, notes or other accompaniments of the text being clumsily indicated by brackets or spaces. the better printers, however, gradually imitated fust and schoeffer, and along with their text-types used smaller commentary types measuring about to ½ mm. a line, or from to mm. for twenty lines. in the great folio commentaries on the canon and civil law a very fine effect is produced by two short columns of text in large type being placed two-thirds way up the page and then completely surrounded by the commentary in smaller type, also in double columns. but the economy of using the smaller type for the text of books without commentary was quickly perceived, and along with to ½ mm. small text-types, heavy and often rather fantastic types of just twice this size ( to mm. a line, to mm. to twenty lines) came into use for headings, and the opening words of books and chapters. the same course was followed with respect to headlines, when it was desired to add these to a book without the aid of a scribe. eggestein printed one book with headlines in red, but the same heavy type which was used for chapter headings was soon used for headlines, and also, with very ugly effect, for numbering the leaves. in considering what specimens of printing to collect englishmen who have been accustomed for more than two centuries to nothing but roman types may well be bewildered, as they look through any volume of facsimiles, by the extraordinary variety of the founts. the main reasons for this variety may be sought ( ) in the dependence of the first printers on the styles of writing which they found in vogue at the time, and in the countries and towns where they made their ventures; and ( ) in the different styles considered appropriate to different classes of books--latin and vernacular, liturgical and secular, etc. even now, when bookhands can hardly be said to exist, the varieties of handwriting are endless, and there are strongly marked differences between those of one country and another. in the fifteenth century, when there was less intercommunication between distant countries, the differences were even greater. as to this, however, it is possible to make some distinctions. the unifying effect of the church is seen in the smaller range of variations in the books for liturgical use, and the fellowship of scholars exercised at least some influence in the same direction. in italy, the home of ancient learning, the aristocratic bookhand was the fine round minuscules which had been evolved, by a conscious antiquarian revival, from the bookhand of the twelfth century, itself a revival of the carlovingian bookhand of the eighth and ninth. sweynheym and pannartz, being germans, failed in the first instance to realize the hopelessness of seeking scholarly favour with any other kind of character, and their subiaco books are printed in a light and pleasing gothic much admired by william morris, and used by mr. st. john hornby for his splendid ashendene dante. when they started afresh at rome in they gave up their gothic fount and used instead a fine roman character noticeable for its use of the long _[s]_ at the end of words, a peculiarity often found in italian manuscripts of this period. the early printers at venice made no false start, but all used roman characters from the outset, venetian gothic type making its first appearance in . that gothic type was used at all in italy was due partly to the difficulty found in cutting very small roman type, so that gothic was used for economy, partly to the advantages of the heavy gothic face when a contrast was needed between text and commentary. in germany roman types were tried by adolf rusch (the r-printer) at strassburg about , and by both günther zainer at augsburg and johann zainer at ulm, but met with no favour until in the last years of the century they were reintroduced for the books written or edited by brant, locher, wimpheling, peter schott, and the other harbingers of the new learning. in the netherlands john of westphalia started with a round but rather thin roman type brought from italy. in france the scholarly ideals of the patrons of the first paris press were reflected in the use for the books printed at the sorbonne of a beautiful roman type, only injured by the excessive prominence of the serifs. in spain also the first books, those printed at valentia by lambert palmart, were in roman; but in both countries gothic types long commanded the favour of the general reader, while in england their supremacy was unchallenged for a third of a century, no book entirely in roman type appearing until . as regards the æsthetic value of the different roman types in use during the fifteenth century, the superiority of the italian is so marked that, with the exception of the first french type, the rest, from this point of view, may be neglected. almost all the roman types used in italy until late in the 'seventies are either beautiful or at least interesting, and it is remarkable that some of the most beautiful are found in small places like cagli, mondovi, viterbo, and aquila, or in the hands of obscure printers, such as the self-taught priest clemente of padua, who worked at venice in . the pre-eminence of jenson's fount is indisputable, though he often did it injustice by his poor presswork. but those used by john and wendelin of speier, and at a later date by antonio miscomini, were also good, as also were several of the founts used at rome and milan. at naples and bologna, on the other hand, some quite early roman founts are curiously hard and heavy. after about roman types in italy enter on a second stage. they no longer have the appearance of being founded directly on handwriting. doubtless the typecutters were so used to their work that they no longer needed models, but designed new types according to their own ideas. naturally the letters are more uniform and regular than in the earlier founts, but naturally also they have less charm, and the ordinary close-set venetian type of the end of the century is singularly dull. even the large roman type used by aldus to print the _hypnerotomachia poliphili_ is no real exception, as the letters are narrow for their height. a far finer fount is the large text type used by the silbers at rome, on both sides of . this is well proportioned and beautifully round, and it is surprising that it has not yet been imitated by any modern typecutter. when we pass from roman to gothic types there is a bewildering field from which to choose. here again dull commercialism gained the upper hand about , and towards the end of the century an ugly upright text-type of mm. to twenty lines, with a fantastic headline type of twice its size, or a little more, found its way all over germany. but types with a twenty-line measurement ranging round mm., such as those of peter schoeffer or the printer of henricus ariminensis, are often extraordinarily handsome. both of schoeffer's earlier small types and the small type of ulrich zell at cologne are engagingly neat, and at the opposite end there is the magnificently round gothic used by ulrich han at rome. most of the finest gothic types were used for latin books of law and theology, the peculiar appropriateness of roman type being considered to be confined to works appealing to classical scholars. in germany, for some time, not much distinction was observed, but there was a tendency in classical books to use an f and long [s] starting from the level of the line, whereas in most vernacular books the tails of these letters came below the line, giving a strangely different appearance to the type. in the 'nineties a distinctively cursive type called schwabacher, usually measuring mm. to twenty lines, makes its appearance all over germany. in italy, both at naples and by ulrich han at rome, a very small text type, which is certainly cursive in its affinities, was used at the very outset, but found no favour. the typical vernacular french types are also very often on a slope. the small cursive type cut for aldus in by francesco da bologna was thus not quite so great a revolution as is sometimes represented. its clearness in proportion to its size, its extreme compactness, and the handiness of the small octavos with which it was at first specially connected, gained for it a great success, and it gradually, though only gradually, usurped the name of italic, the upright italian bookhand being distinguished from it as roman. few treatises on printing or the development of books give any idea of the immense popularity of italics during the sixteenth century. about they seemed to have established themselves as the fashionable vernacular type both in italy and france, and even in england whole books were printed in them. in switzerland also and germany they gained some hold; but gradually the tide turned, the upright bookhand regained its predominance, and italics now survive chiefly for emphasis and quotations--in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they were often used for proper names--giving to the page on which they occur an unpleasantly spotty appearance. their occasional use in prefaces and dedicatory letters is much more appropriate. the completion of books at first by a colophon, afterwards by a titlepage, may be illustrated in the same way as that by which we have traced the evolution of the text from incompleteness to completeness and the development of different classes of types. at least one printer, johann mentelin of strassburg, seems to have considered the addition of colophons as the proper business of the rubricator. while printed colophons in his books are exceptionally rare, several copies have come down to us in which full colophons have been added by hand, e.g. in a vellum copy of the _speculum morale_ in the bibliothèque nationale, after praise of the book, we read: impressumque in inclyta vrbe argentinensium ac nitide terse emendateque resertum per honorandum dominum dominum iohannem mentelin artis impressorie magistrum famosissimum. anno a partu virginis salutifero millesimo quadringentesimo septuagesimo sexto. die mensis nouembris sexta. despite a few instances of this kind, however, it is certain that the majority of printers who omitted to print colophons to their books did so, not in the expectation that they would be supplied by hand, but in imitation of the manuscript books to which they were accustomed, in which it is distinctly exceptional to find any mention of the name of the scribe. but the men who took a pride in their new art, and who thought that their work was good enough to bring more custom to their press if their name were associated with it, took the opposite course, and so colophons from onwards are common in the best books, and may perhaps be found in about per cent of the incunables that have come down to us. by the men who were skilful in using red ink they were often thus printed, and whether in red or in black, they frequently had appended to them the printer's mark or device, which gave a very decorative finish to the book. nowadays, when we have been accustomed all our lives to the luxury of titlepages, it may well seem to us merely perverse to hide the title of a book, the name of the author, and information as to where, when, and by whom it was printed in a closely set paragraph at the end of the book. but if we think for a moment of how the manuscript books to which the early printers were accustomed had been produced we shall see that it was the most natural thing in the world. a scribe would take his quire of paper or vellum, and if he were a high-class scribe, mindful of the need of keeping his text clean, he would leave his first leaf blank and begin at the top of his second. but here he would begin to write straight away, sometimes with the first words of his text, sometimes with a preliminary paragraph, which may be called the _incipit_, from the important word in it. in this paragraph he would give either the name of his book or, almost as commonly, the name of the first section of it, introducing the title only incidentally. incipit racionale diuinorum officiorum. incipiunt constitutiones clementis pape v una cum apparatu ioannis andree. marci tullii ciceronis arpinatis consulisque romani ac oratorum maximi ad m. tullium ciceronem filium suum officiorum liber incipit. incipit epistola sancti hieronimi ad paulinum presbiterum de omnibus diuine historie libris. that it did not occur to him to devote his blank page to a displayed title of the book he was copying was due to the fact that every medieval manuscript was the direct descendant, through many or few stages, of the author's own original draft, and that this was the most pretentious way and least natural in which any author could begin to write a book. so the scribes imitated the author in his normal beginning, and the early printers imitated the scribes, and because an author was more inclined to relieve his feelings at the end of a book than to express them volubly at the beginning, it was only when books multiplied so greatly that purchasers wanted to see at a glance what was the name of the book at which they were looking that titlepages superseded colophons. the proof of this explanation being the true one is that titlepages become common just about the time ( to ) that book-production was beginning to be divided up between publishers and printers, and that the publisher very quickly claimed them for his own. the earliest titlepages, those of the mainz _bul zu deutsch des bapst pius ii_ ( ), rolewinck's sermon for the feast of the presentation (cologne: arnold ther hoernen, ), the _flores sancti augustini_ (cologne, ), and the _kalendarium_ of joannes de monteregio and its italian translation (venice: ratdolt and partners, ), were all more or less of the nature of "sports." when titlepages came to stay, a year or two later than the last of these precursors, they everywhere took the form of labels, a single sentence containing the short title of the book, printed sometimes in large, sometimes in small type, but with no other information. the label title, being usually printed high up on the page, left two-thirds, or thereabouts, blank beneath it, and this space was soon filled, sometimes by a pictorial woodcut, sometimes by a mark or device, which at first might be either that of the printer or publisher, but gradually came to be much more often the publisher's. the short title and device taken together filled the page sufficiently for decorative purposes, but they left room for a further paragraph of type to be added if desired, and the advantage of filling this with the name and address of the firm from whom the book might be obtained was so obvious that the "imprint," as it is rather loosely called, soon made its appearance and gradually became recognized as an essential part of the titlepage. when printers and publishers lost pride in their work and ceased to care to decorate their titlepages with pictures or devices, the title was displayed in a series of single lines and made to straggle down the page till it came nearly low enough to meet the imprint. if we go back to the habits of the scribes it is easy to understand another point in the early history of books, their make-up into quires and the marking of these quires by signatures and catchwords. the word _quaire_ or _quire_ is a shortened form of the latin _quaternio_, the name devised for four sheets of paper folded down the middle so as to form eight leaves. a gathering of five sheets making ten leaves was called a _quinternion_, and this, though it has yielded no modern word, was for generations such a popular form that _quinterniones_ was sometimes used as a general expression for manuscripts. gatherings of three sheets, making six leaves, were called _terniones_; gatherings of two sheets, making four leaves, _duerniones_. a few, but only a few, books exist--nearly all of those which i have seen are either block-books or thin folios of poetry of the reign of charles ii--which are made up in single sheets not placed one within the other, but following consecutively. but the system of gathering from two to five or more sheets together into quires was practically universal both before and after the invention of printing, and this for the excellent reason that it reduced the quantity of sewing necessary in binding a book, and reduced also the risk of the sewing cutting through the paper or vellum, as it would be very likely to do if there were only a single thickness to resist it. when the scribe had arranged his quire or gathering he wrote first page by page on all the leaves on the left hand until he came to the middle of the quire, when he proceeded to write page by page on all the leaves on the right hand. thus in a quire of four sheets the left half of the first sheet would be leaf , pages and , and the right half would be leaf , pages and , so that the same sheet formed the beginning and end of the quire. in the earliest printed books the quires were printed page by page exactly as the quires of a manuscript had been written. but early in the 'seventies (peter schoeffer can be proved to have adopted the practice between and september, ) the advantage was perceived of printing both the pages on the upper or lower side of a sheet at the same time, i.e. in a quaternion, page together with page . as soon as a printer had learnt to print two folio pages together, it became easy to print four quarto pages, or eight octavo pages, or sixteen sextodecimo pages. in each case the amount of type to be printed at a pull would be approximately the same. it thus ceased to be disadvantageous to print small books, whereas so long as each page had to be pulled separately it was obviously wasteful to make that page a very small one. even when the printers had learnt how to print two folio pages at the same time the presswork remained very laborious. the earliest presses were worked with only a single screw, and when the pressman had pulled the lever one way to bring the platen down on the type, he had to push the lever back again in order to raise the platen and release the paper. thus in order to print a large book quickly four or six sets of pressmen had to work on it at once, each at a different press. to avoid mistakes, therefore, the practice was to allot one section of the book to each press. thus if a book were calculated to run to leaves, six presses might begin simultaneously at leaves , , , , , and . what more often happened was that either to follow the natural sections of the book, or because some of the printers were engaged on other tasks and not ready to begin at once, the sections were of much less regular lengths, and we can sometimes prove that the first press was far advanced in its section before the fifth and sixth had begun. now in all these cases, unless they were reprinting an earlier book, page for page, it is obvious that some nice calculations would be needed to make each section end with the end of a quire so as to be able to join on with the beginning of the quire containing the next section without any gap or crowding. hence the striking irregularities in the make-up of many early books. instead of a book being printed in a succession of quinternions or a succession of quaternions we have many a make-up which can only be expressed by a cruelly mathematical formula, such as this, which represents the quiring of the forty-two line bible. a-i^ ; k^ + lm^ n^ + ; o-z^ [inverted ]^ [@]^ + ; a-f^ g^ : aa-nn^ ; oo pp^ qq^ + ; rr-zz aa-cc^ ; dd^ ee^ + ; ff gg^ hh^ + ii^ . in this the index-letter shows the number of leaves in the quire, a-i^ being a short way of stating that each of the nine quires a b c d e f g h i has ten leaves in it. in the tenth quire (k) there is an extra leaf, and again in the thirteenth (n) the printer found that he had too much copy for six leaves and not enough for eight, and was therefore obliged to put in an odd one, because another press had already printed off the beginning of the next quire (o). not infrequently it would happen that the odd amount of copy for a section was very difficult to fit exactly into a leaf even when the printer had compressed it by using as many contractions as possible, or eked it out by using no contractions at all. this accounts for the occurrence of a blank space, large or small, at the end of some sections without any break in the text, as the printer was sometimes careful to explain by the printed notice "hic nihil deficit," or as in our page from ulrich zell, "vacat." as has been already noted, in a moment of enthusiasm mr. proctor once said to the present writer that it was impossible to find a fifteenth century book that was really ugly. this was certainly putting the case for his beloved incunables a peg too high, for there were plenty of bad printers before , and even such a master as jenson was by no means uniformly careful as to the quality of his presswork. but one of the legacies which the early printers received from the scribes was the art of putting their text handsomely on the page, and the difference which this makes in the appearance of a book is very marked, little as many modern printers and publishers attend to it. but in the books of the best printers of our own day, as well as in those of the best of the fifteenth century, from per cent to per cent of the height of the page is devoted to the text, from per cent to per cent being reserved for the upper and lower margins, of which at least two-thirds is for the lower and not more than one-third for the upper. as compared with the height of a page of type the breadth is usually in the proportion of about to (a trifle more in a quarto), and here again the outer margin is at least twice as great as the inner. thus in a book with a page measuring by ¼ inches, the type-page should measure about by ¾ inches, with a lower margin of about inches, an upper of inch, an outer of ¾ inches, and an inner of ¾ inch. it will be greatly to the advantage of book-buyers to bear these proportions in mind, in order to measure how much a book offered to them has been cut down, and also to be able to instruct their binders as to how to reduce the absurd margins of some modern "large paper" copies to more artistic dimensions. whether it is legitimate further to reduce the margins of an old book which has already been mangled by a binder in order to get the proportions better balanced is a nice question of taste. if a two-inch lower margin has been halved and a one-inch upper margin left intact, if the upper margin is reduced, the book will become a pleasant "working copy" instead of an obviously mangled large one, and the collector must settle in his own conscience whether this be a sufficient justification for snipping off a centimetre of old paper. exactly why the proportions here laid down, with their limits of variation, are right for books cannot easily be set forth. it is easiest to see in the case of the relation between the inner and outer margins. as william morris was never tired of insisting, the unit in a book is, not a single page, but the two pages which can be seen at the same time. the two inner margins separate the two type-pages by a single band of white, which, if each inner margin were as large as the outer, would become insufferably conspicuous. as for the proportions between the lower and upper margins, the explanation may lie in the angle at which we habitually read books, or by the need for leaving room for the reader to hold the book in his hands. but whether it be a matter of inherent rightness or merely of long-established convention, the pleasure of handling a book with correct margins is very great, and a collector who secures an uncut copy of even a poorly printed book of the period when margins were understood, will find that it presents quite a pleasing and dignified appearance. and so in regard to other points, any book which illustrates the relations of the early printers to the scribes, the difficulties which they experienced in their work and the expedients by which they were surmounted deserves, whatever its date or present price, to be reckoned as a real incunable, and the collector who gets together a few dozen books of this kind will have far better sport for his outlay than he who is tied down too rigorously by chronology. footnotes: [ ] it will be so much the better if the collector can add to them a copy of one of the early books printed at rome (the german ones are too rare) in which there still survives the text of the rubrics, printed not in their appropriate places, but on a separate leaf or quire for the guidance of the rubricator. [ ] by jenson and many early printers in italy, and by husner and a few others in germany, the majuscules of the founts used in the text were massed together in headings with admirable effect. but for a time the heavy heading types carried all before them. chapter vii early german and dutch illustrated books [illustration: viii. augsburg, g. zainer, c. tuberinus. geschicht von dem seligen kind symon] the natural method of illustrating a book printed with type is by means of designs cut in relief, which can be locked up in the forme with the type, so that text and illustrations are printed together by a single impression[ ] without any special preparation of the paper. so long as the design to be printed stands out clearly on the block it matters nothing whether it be cut on wood or on soft metal. even as between the design cut by hand and the process line-block which has as its basis a photograph taken direct from a pen drawing, the difference can hardly be said to be one of better and worse. we lose the individuality of the wood-cutter or wood-engraver, but we are brought into closer touch with the individuality of the artist, and whether we gain or lose depends on the ability of the artist to dispense with a skilled interpreter. the one requisite for success is that either the artist, or an interpreter for him, should recognize the limits within which his work can be effective. the reproductions of the artist's designs will be looked at, not in isolation, but as part of an _ensemble_ made up of two pages printed in a type which, perhaps with a little trouble, can be ascertained beforehand, and they will be printed not as proofs on a special press by a special workman on paper chosen solely to suit them, but with average skill and care in an ordinary press and on paper the choice of which will be dictated by several considerations. whenever relief blocks have been used for any length of time as a method of book-illustration the rivalry of artists has tended to cause these restrictions to be forgotten. in our own day line-blocks have been almost driven out of the field by "half-tones," which cannot be printed without the aid of paper specially coated, or at least rolled or "calendared." shortly before the process line-block was perfected the extreme fineness of the american school of wood-engraving had induced a nearly similar result. the successors of bewick worked with equal disregard of the need for clearly defined lines, and when we travel back to the first half of the sixteenth century we find the holbeins, burgkmair, weiditz, and other artists producing designs far too delicate for the conditions under which they were to be reproduced. thus the charm of the woodcuts in books of the fifteenth century is by no means confined to that "quaintness" which is usually the first thing on which the casual observer comments. the "quaintness" is usually there, but along with it is a harmony between print, paper, and woodcut which has very rarely since been attained. the claim made in the last paragraph must be understood as applying only to books honestly illustrated with blocks specially made for them. books decorated with a job lot of cuts, as was often the case, especially after about , may accidentally be delightful and often possess some of the charm of a scrapbook. it is good sport, for instance, to take one of vérard's later books and trace the origin of the cuts with which that cheaply liberal publisher made his wares attractive. but the incongruity is mostly manifest, and collectors might well be more fastidious than they show themselves and refuse to waste the price of a good book with homogeneous illustrations in buying half a dozen dull little volumes with an old horae cut at the beginning and the end of each. a second exception must be recognized in the books illustrated by untrained wood-cutters. in germany and the low countries few, if any, quite untrained wood-cutters were employed, and this is true also of paris and florence. but at lyon and other provincial towns in france (the abbeville cutters, who probably came from paris, are strikingly good), in a few books printed at rome and venice, here and there in spain, and in one or two of caxton's and several of wynkyn de worde's books in england, the cutting is so bad that, though it is possible sometimes to see that excellent designs underlie it, the effect is either ludicrous or repellent. only fanatics could admire such pictures as we find in the early lyonnese _quatre fils d'aymon_ (_s.n._, but about ), in the _opuscula_ of philippus de barberiis printed by joannes de lignamine (rome, ), in a large number of the cuts of the malermi bible of (venice, g. ragazzo for l. a. giunta, ), in _los doze trabajos de ercules_ (zamora, ), in caxton's _aesop_ or in wynkyn de worde's _morte d'arthur_ ( ). books such as these (the malermi bible is on a different footing from the rest owing to the wonderful excellence of the good cuts) may be bought as curiosities, or for the light they throw on the state of the book trade when such work could be put on the market, but no artistic merit can be claimed for them. in germany good work began early, because, to supply the demand for playing-cards and pictures of saints, schools of wood-cutters had grown up, more especially at augsburg and at ulm. block-books also had come into existence in the district of the lower rhine, and these, which in their earliest forms can hardly be later than , must be divided between the low countries and germany and prove the existence of competent workmen. the earliest type-printed books which possess illustrations are the little handful printed by albrecht pfister at bamberg in and about , described in chapter v, but it was at augsburg in the early seventies that book-illustration first flourished. as has been mentioned in chapter v, trade difficulties at first stood in the way, but by the arbitration of melchior stanheim, abbot of the local monastery of ss. ulrich and afra, these were settled on the sensible basis that printers might have as many illustrations in their books as they chose to provide, but that they must be designed and cut by augsburg craftsmen. the series seems to have begun with some tolerably good column-cuts to an edition of the lives of the saints in german, of which the first part was issued in october, , and the second in april, . in _das guldin spiel_ of a dominican writer, ingold, finished on august of the latter year, we find for the first time real power of characterization. lovers of woodcuts owe some gratitude to the medieval trick of attaching edifying discourses to matters of everyday interest and amusement, for whereas the edifying discourses themselves could hardly carry illustrations, hunting, chess, or, as here, seven games which could be likened to the seven deadly sins, gave opportunities for showing pictures by which the natural man would be attracted. another important book of this year, only known to me in bämler's plagiarism of it, was the first edition of the _belial_, the amazing book which tells the story of christ being summoned for the trespass committed in harrowing hell. in the heavy gothic type which zainer used in these illustrated books was put at the disposal of the abbot of ss. ulrich and afra and used to print a _speculum humanae saluationis_, to which was added a summary in verse by frater johannes, an inmate of his monastery. this book was illustrated by different cuts of biblical subjects, of varying degrees of merit. in the same year, and again in , zainer printed an illustrated _plenarium_, i.e. the epistles and gospels for the round of the church's year. in or shortly after he printed and illustrated a narrative of great contemporary interest, the story, written by one tuberinus, of a child named simon, who was supposed to have been slain by the jews out of hatred of the christian faith and desire to taste christian flesh. the tale appears to contain internal evidence of its untruth, and the unhappy jews who were cruelly executed had much better claims to be regarded as martyrs than "das susses kind" simon. but some of the pictures are quite animated, especially one (see plate viii) of the hired kidnapper beguiling the child through the streets and then deftly hurrying him into the house of doom with a touch of his knee. in or , and again with the date , zainer produced editions of the german bible in large folio, illustrated with great pictorial capitals at the beginning of each book. but his greatest achievement was in an undated book of this period, the _speculum humanae vitae_ of rodericus bishop of zamora, in the german translation of heinrich steinhowel. if this mirror of man's life had been written by a man with his eyes open instead of by a vapid rhetorician it should have been one of the most valuable documents for the social life of the fifteenth century, since it professes to contrast the advantages and evils of every rank and occupation of life, from the pope and the emperor down to craftsmen and labourers. there is but little joy to be gained from its text, but the augsburg artist has atoned for many literary shortcomings by his vivid and charming pictures of scenes from the social life of his day, though it is not to be supposed that german judges took bribes quite so openly as he is pleased to represent. in addition to fifty-four woodcuts of this kind, there is a large genealogical tree of the house of hapsburg, which is a triumph of decorative arrangement. two other early augsburg printers devoted themselves to illustrated work, johann bämler and anton sorg. the former at first contented himself with prefixing a full-page frontispiece to his books, as in the _summa_ of johannes friburgensis and _die vier und zwanzig goldenen harfen_, both of , and again in the picture of s. gregory and peter the deacon in the dialogues of the former printed for the monastery of ss. ulrich and afra, and that of the dying empress in the _historie von den sieben weisen meistern_ of the following year. in the _belial_ of and _plenarium_ of bämler was content for most of the cuts to borrow or copy from the editions of zainer, but in the _alexander der grosse_ of the former year and _melusine_ and _sieben todsünden_ of the latter he himself led the way with some excellent sets of woodcuts, which were copied by others. again, in _das buch der natur_ of we find a dozen specially designed full-page cuts, one to each book, illustrating man, the spheres, beasts, birds, mermaids, serpents, insects, etc.; in the _chronica von allen kaisern and königen_ of there are four large cuts, showing christ in glory, the dream of the emperor sigismund, the vision of s. gregory at mass, and s. veronica holding before her the cloth with the imprint of christ's face. it was perhaps in this same year that bämler issued, without dating it, jacob sprenger's _die rosenkranz bruderschaft_, with two very striking cuts, one of the offering of garlands to our lady, the other of christ's scourgers looking back mockingly as they leave him. a dated edition appeared in . another book of with a good set of cuts was the romance of apollonius, king of tyre. in bämler issued a _buch der kunst_, which, like the _buch der natur_, went through several editions; it must be noted, however, that there is no such contrast between art and nature as the short title of this book might suggest, the full title being _buch der kunst geistlich zu werden_. the illustrations for the most part represent a soul in different situations, but there are also many of biblical subjects. the last book of bämler's which need be mentioned is the _turken-kreuzzüge_ of rupertus de sancto remigio, which has an effective frontispiece of the pope preaching to the crusaders and some vigorous smaller cuts. anton sorg began printing in and issued his first illustrated book the next year. he was a prolific printer, and issued many close imitations of books originated by günther zainer and others. the most famous work specially connected with his name is ulrich von reichenthal's _das conciliumbuch geschehen zu costencz_ ( ), illustrated with forty-four larger cuts, all in the first ninety leaves, and coats of arms of the various dignitaries present at the council. the larger cuts show the knighting of the burgermeister of constance, processions, a tournament, and the martyrdom of huss (despite his safe conduct) and the scattering of his ashes over a field. the later augsburg illustrated books, issued by the elder schoensperger, johann schobsser, peter berger, and hans schauer, though they maintain a respectable level of craftsmanship, have less interest and individuality than these earlier ones. one augsburg printer, erhard ratdolt, who had made himself a reputation by ten years' work at venice ( - ), shortly after his return issued a notable illustrated book, the _chronica hungarorum_ of thwrocz. his main business was the production of missals and other service books, in some of which he made experiments in colour-printing. at the neighbouring city of ulm, where also the wood-cutters had long been at work, illustrated books began to be issued in by johann zainer, no doubt a kinsman of günther zainer of augsburg. his chief books are ( ) latin and german editions of boccaccio's _de claris mulieribus_ ( ), with a fine borderpiece of adam and eve and numerous spirited little pictures which, though primitive both in conception and execution, are full of life, and ( ) an _aesop_ which was reprinted at augsburg and copied elsewhere in germany, and also in france, the netherlands, and england. from onwards he seems to have been in continual financial trouble. he was apparently able, however, to find funds to issue two rather notable books about , the _prognosticatio_ of lichtenberger, and a totentanz. the blocks of both of these passed to meidenbach at mainz. most of the forty books of a later printer, conrad dinckmut ( - ), have illustrations. his _seelenwurzgarten_ ( ) appears at first sight to be a most liberally decorated book, crowded with full-page cuts, but of its illustrations only seventeen are different, one, representing the tortures of the damned, being used as many as thirty-seven times, a deplorable waste of good paper, which the printer had the good sense to reduce in a later edition. dinckmut's most famous book is a german edition of the _eunuchus_ of terence "ain maisterliche vnd wolgesetzte comedia zelesen vnd zehören lüstig und kurtzwylig, die der hochgelert vnd gross maister und poet therencius gar subtill mit grosser kunnst und hochem flyss gesetzt hat." this has twenty-eight nearly full-page cuts in which the characters are well drawn, the setting for the most part showing the streets of a medieval town. a _chronik_, by thomas lirer, issued about the same time, was begun to be illustrated on a generous scale with eighteen full-page cuts in the first twenty-eight leaves, but was hastily finished off with only three more cuts in the remaining thirty-six. they are less carefully executed than those of the _eunuchus_, but show more variety, and are on the whole very pleasing. another ulm printer, who began work in , leonhard holl, printed in that year a magnificent edition of ptolemy's _cosmographia_, with woodcut maps (one signed "insculptum est per iohann[=e] schnitzer de armszheim") and fine capitals. the first of these, a pictorial n, shows the editor, nicolaus germanus, presenting his book to the pope. of later ulm books by far the most important are two by gulielmus caoursin, published by johann reger in , and both concerned with the knights of st. john of jerusalem at rhodes. one volume gives their _stabilimenta_ or constitution, the other _obsidionis urbis rhodiae descriptio_, an illustrated history of their defence of their island against the turks and their subsequent dealings with the infidel, who at one time were so complaisant as to present them with no less valuable a relic than the arm of their patron, which was duly honoured with processions and sermons. altogether the two books contain fifty-six full-page pictures, rather roughly cut, but full of vigour and bringing the course of the siege and the character of the wild turkish horsemen very vividly before the reader. william morris was even tempted to conjecture that the designs may have been made by erhard reuwich, the illustrator of the mainz _breidenbach_, of which we shall soon have to speak. at nuremberg book-illustration begins with the _ars et modus contemplatiuae vitae_, six leaves of which partake of the nature of a block-book. in or about johann müller of königsberg (whose variant names, johannes regiomontanus, johannes de monteregio, have trapped more bibliographers into inconsistencies than those of any other fifteenth century author) issued calendars and other works with astronomical diagrams, and prefixed to his edition of the _philalethes_ of maffeus vegius a woodcut (for which dr. schreiber suspects an italian origin) showing philalethes in rags and truth with no other clothing than a pair of very small wings. in june, , sensenschmidt and frisner illustrated their folio edition of justinian's _codex_, with ten charming little column-cuts; the following month sensenschmidt produced a _heiligenleben_, with more than illustrations, which, according to dr. schreiber, are very noteworthy as they stand, and would have been more so had not the wood-cutter been hurried into omitting the backgrounds in the later cuts, those to the "pars aestiualis." sensenschmidt also printed an undated german bible with pictorial capitals. in creussner issued the travels of marco polo with a woodcut of the traveller, and about the same time latin and german editions of the tract of tuberinus on the supposed fate suffered by "das kind simon" at the hand of the jews. in anton koberger published his first illustrated book, _postilla super bibliam_ of nicolaus de lyra, with forty-three woodcuts, which were imitated not only at cologne, but at venice, though their interest is not very great. in his german bible of he himself was content to acquire blocks previously used at cologne. the next year he prefixed to his edition of the _reformation der stadt nuremberg_ a notable woodcut of s. sebald and s. laurence in the style of michael wolgemut. the cuts in his _heiligenleben_ of are mainly improved rehandlings of previous versions; of his _schatzbehalter_ and schedel's chronicle we speak later on. at basel martin flach was the first printer of illustrated books, ornamenting his edition of the ackermann von böhmen with a woodcut of death, the labourer, and the dead woman, his _cato_ with the usual picture of a master and scholar, his _rosenkranz_ with a cut of a traveller beseeching the virgin's protection from robbers, and another of a scene in heaven, and his _streit der seele mit dem korper_ (these and the two preceding are undated) with eight illustrations of various moments in the dispute. more important than these are three profusely illustrated books from the press of bernhard richel. the first of these, his _spiegel menschlicher behaltnis_, has woodcuts, the work of two different hands, the earlier of the two showing less technical skill, but much more vigour and originality.[ ] the other two books are undated editions of the romance of _melusina_, with sixty-seven cuts, in which suggestions from the first augsburg edition have been improved on by an abler workman, and a _mandeville_ with cuts, most of which passed into the hands of m. hupfuff at strassburg, who used them in . after this richel turned his attention to liturgies, and is credited by dr. schreiber with being the first printer to insert in his missals the woodcut of the crucifixion, which thenceforth is so frequently found facing the first page of the canon. after the publication of these works illustration seems to have languished for some years at basel, but was taken up again about by johann von amerbach, lienhart ysenhut, and michael furter, the work of the two latter being mainly imitative. johann froben, who began work about this time, was too learned a publisher to concern himself with woodcuts, catering chiefly for students of the university. one of the professors, however, at the university was far from sharing this indifference to pictures. born at strassburg, sebastian brant was educated at basel, and it was while holding there the professorship of laws that he ensured the popularity of his _narrenschiff_ ( ) by equipping it with admirable illustrations. the original edition from the press of johann bergmann von olpe was published in february, and before the end of the year peter wagner at nuremberg, greyff at reutlingen, schoensperger at augsburg had all pirated it with copies of the basel cuts. when the latin translation by brant's friend, jakob locher, was published by bergmann in , the success of the book became european, and probably no other illustrated work of the fifteenth century is so well known. probably in the same year as the _narrenschiff_ was first issued, bergmann printed for brant his _in laudem gloriosae virginis mariae_, with sixteen woodcuts by the same hand. in brant supplied him with two works in honour of the emperor maximilian, one celebrating the alliance with pope alexander vi, illustrated with coats of arms, the other the _origo bonorum regum_, with two woodcuts, in which the emperor is shown receiving a sword from heaven. brant was now in high favour with maximilian, and his appointment as a syndic and imperial chancellor at strassburg led to his return and a consequent notable quickening of book-illustration in his native city. at strassburg johann mentelin had used woodcuts for diagrams in an undated edition of the _etymologiae_ of s. isidore, printed about , but the first producer of books pictorially illustrated was heinrich knoblochtzer, who worked from to , and issued over thirty books with woodcuts. most of these were copies from other men's work, e.g. his _belial_ and _melusina_ from bämler's, his _philalethes_ from the nuremberg edition of johann müller, his _aesop_ and _historie der sigismunda_ from johann zainer's, his _leben der heiligen drei königen_ probably from an anonymous edition by johann prüss. early in his career in he issued two books on the great subject of the hour, the death of charles the bold, _peter hagenbach und der burgundische krieg_ and the _burgunderkrieg_ of erhard tusch, in both of which he used eight woodcuts, most of them devoted to incidents of the duke's ill-fated campaign. an anonymous edition of the _euryalus und lucretia_ of aeneas sylvius (pope pius ii) has nineteen cuts, which were apparently commissioned by knoblochtzer, but he did not secure the services of a sufficiently skilled wood-cutter. it should be said, however, that his "historiated" or pictorial capitals are apparently original and mostly good. to johann prüss at strassburg are now assigned editions in high and low german of the lives of the fathers and of antichrist, which mr. proctor, though he had a shrewd suspicion of their origin, left floating about among the german "adespota." the cuts to the former reach the average of early work; those to the _antichrist_ vary greatly, that of antichrist preaching before a queen being extraordinarily successful as a presentation of a type of coarse spiritual effrontery. the acknowledged work of prüss includes editions of the travels of _mandeville_, of the _directorium humanae vitae_, and of the _flores musicae_ of hugo reutlingensis, with a rather famous cut showing how musical notes are produced by the wind, by a water wheel, by tapping stones, and hammering on an anvil. prüss also printed several illustrated editions of the _hortus sanitatis_. far more prolific than either of the foregoing strassburg printers was johann reinhard of grüningen, usually called grüninger after his birthplace. setting up his press in , he began book-illustration two years later with a german bible with woodcuts copied from those in the low german bibles printed at cologne and used in at nuremberg by koberger. some minor books followed, and in he issued the _antidotarius animae_ of nicolaus de saliceto, with rather rude borders to each page and a woodcut of the assumption. this, however, like some of his earlier illustrated books, appears to have been a commission, and in a reprint of the decorations disappear. it was not until , under the influence of sebastian brant, that he undertook any important original illustrated work on his own account. in that year he produced his first illustrated classic, the comedies of terence (_terentius cum directorio_), with a large woodcut of a theatre and eighty-seven narrow cuts of the dramatis personae, or of scenery, used five at a time in different combinations. critically examined, the cuts are rather unpleasing, and were regarded at the time as likely to provoke mirth otherwise than by expressing the humorous intent of the playwright, but another edition and a german translation similarly decorated appeared in , and grüninger issued on the same plan a _horace_ (edited by locher) in , and the _de consolatione philosophiae_ of boethius in . his full strength was reserved for the _virgil_ of the following year, which was superintended by brant, and is crowded with wonderful pictures, in which on the very eve of the renaissance virgil is thoroughly medievalized. besides these classics, grüninger printed many other illustrated editions, minor works by brant, medical treatises by brunschwig, an _evangelienbuch_, a _legenda s. katherinae_ in latin and also in german, editions of the _hortulus animae_, the romance of hug schapler, etc., in the fifteenth century, and in the sixteenth a sufficient number of illustrated books to bring his total up to about editions. these may be said to form a school by themselves, distinguished by a certain richness of effect partly due to heavy cutting, but with less power of characterization and fewer gleams of beauty than are to be found in the best work of other towns, the figures being often unpleasing and notably lean in the legs. martin scott, hupfuff, and kistler were other strassburg printers of the fifteenth century who also used illustrations. at cologne book-illustration began in with editions of the _fasciculus temporum_ of werner rolewinck, from the presses of ther hoernen and nicolaus götz. but with the notable exception of two great bibles issued by heinrich quentell, illustrated books before are neither important nor numerous. even in the edition of the _historia septem sapientum_ of johannes de hauteselve, issued by the elder koelhoff, was adorned with cuts obtained from gerard leeu at antwerp. quentell issued a few stock cuts in one book after another, and johann landen, martin von werden (if he be rightly identified with the printer "retro minores"), and cornelis von zierickzee all used a few cuts, some of the latter's having a curiously italian appearance. but the only important illustrated book, other than the bibles, is the cologne chronicle, issued (not to his profit, since he was imprisoned for it) by the younger koelhoff in , with armorial cuts and a few pictures of kings and queens somewhat too frequently repeated. quentell's bibles in high and low german are in curious contrast to all this work. they are illustrated with large oblong pictures, firmly if rather coarsely cut, and full of story-telling power, several successive incidents being sometimes brought into the same picture in true medieval fashion. the book was imitated at nuremberg and elsewhere, and the illustrators of the venetian malermi bible of , and even hans holbein himself, did not disdain to take ideas from it. at lübeck a finely decorated edition of the _rudimentum noviciorum_, a universal history, was issued by lucas brandis as early as , with some good pictorial capitals, and pictures beginning with the creation and coming down to the life of christ. in we come to a _levend s. jeronimi_, printed by bartholomaeus ghotan and illustrated by an anonymous artist whose work can be traced during the next ten years in other books of ghotan's, in several very interesting editions by the unidentified "poppy-printer" (so called from his mark), including a _dodendantz_ ( and ), _imitatio christi_, _bergitten openbaringe_ ( ), _reynke de vos_ ( ), _schakspil_, etc., and in the splendid low german bible printed in by stephan arndes, with cuts which improve on those in the cologne editions. [illustration: ix. mainz, erhard reuwich, breidenbach. peregrinatio in montem syon saracens and syrians] at mainz, which led the way so energetically in typography, book-illustration is not represented at all until , and then almost accidentally in the _meditationes_ of cardinal turrecremata, printed by johann neumeister "ciuem moguntinensem," with thirty-four curious metal-cuts imitating on a smaller scale the woodcuts in the editions printed at rome by ulrich han. two years later these metal-cuts were used by neumeister at albi, and they are subsequently found at lyon. that this book was printed at mainz was made practically certain by the type appearing subsequently in the possession of peter von friedberg, but that the cuts were executed at mainz seemed to me improbable until the publication of dr. schreibers work on german illustrated books acquainted me with the existence of an _agenda moguntinensis_ of june, , also attributed to neumeister's press, with a metal-cut of s. martin and the beggar, and the arms not only of archbishop diether and the province of mainz, but of canon bernhard von breidenbach, of whom we shall soon hear again. the _agenda_ and its metal-cuts are thus firmly fixed as executed at mainz, and the metal-cuts of the _meditationes_ must therefore be regarded as mainz work also. in mainz atoned for her long delay in taking up illustrated work, with the _peregrinationes in montem syon_ of the aforesaid canon bernhard von breidenbach, printed with type of schoeffer's, under the superintendence of erhard reuwich of utrecht, the illustrator. the text of breidenbach's book is full of interest, for he gives a vivid account of the voyage and of the hardships and extortions to which pilgrims were exposed. in his preface he states that reuwich was expressly taken on the expedition to illustrate the narrative, and he certainly had ample skill to justify the engagement. unfortunately, far too much of his labour was spent on great maps or views of venice, parenzo, rhodes and other places passed on the way. these are certainly interesting, as they mark all the chief buildings and are very decoratively drawn. but in the text of the book there are just a few sketches from the life, jewish moneylenders and groups of saracens, syrians (see plate ix), indians, etc., and these are so vivid and vigorous that we may well regret that the labour bestowed on the great maps left time for very few of them. they are interesting, moreover, not only as designs, but also for their cutting, as they introduce cross-hatching for the first time, and that very effectively, and are handled with equal firmness and freedom. at the end of the book is a jest, a full-page woodcut subscribed "hec sunt animalia veraciter depicta sicut vidimus in terra sancta," among the animals thus certified as having been seen personally in the holy land being a unicorn and a creature (name unknown--_non constat de nomine_) with a great mane of hair and long tail, which might well serve for the missing link between a man and a gorilla. the frontispiece of the book, on the other hand, is a striking design of a woman (symbolizing the city of mainz?) standing on a pedestal surrounded with the arms of breidenbach and the two friends who went with him, decoratively treated, while above her is a canopy of trelliswork amid which children are joyously climbing. with the mainz _breidenbach_ we feel that we have passed away from the naive craftsmanship of the earliest illustrated books into a region of conscious art. naturally craftsmanship was not extinguished by the arrival of a single artist. we find it at work again in the charming and little known cut to a leipzig edition of the eclogues of theodulus, printed in , which the delight of recent discovery tempts me to show here (see plate x), and at mainz itself in the simple cuts to the _hortus sanitatis_, printed by meidenbach, also in , though here again there is an advance, as instead of plants and animals drawn out of the illustrator's head merely for decorative effect we find in many of the cuts fairly careful copies made from the life. in conrad botho's _cronecken der sassen_, printed by schoeffer the following year, most of the armorial illustrations and pictures of the foundation of towns are merely decoratively treated, but in one cut in which a rather wild-looking charlemagne with lean legs is shown seated in a chair of state surmounted by an eagle, an idol crushed under his feet, the designer has given free play to his imagination. [illustration: x. leipzig, conrad kachelofen, theodulus. egloga (i^b)] the transition to different ideals of illustration thus begun at mainz was carried on at nuremberg, where michael wolgemut illustrated two important works, the _schatzbehalter_ in and the famous _nuremberg chronicle_ in , this latter with the help of his stepson, wilhelm pleydenwurff, and no doubt also of several inferior designers. the _schatzbehalter_, of which the text is ascribed to stephanus fridelinus, a nuremberg franciscan, is one of several examples of a too ambitious scheme of decoration perforce abandoned for lack either of time or of money. in the first half there are ninety-two different full-page woodcuts, mostly illustrating scripture history, but in some cases allegorical; in the second half the number is no more than two. the pictures executed before the scheme was thus cut down vary greatly in quality, from the fine design of christ kneeling before the throne of the father and pointing to the emblems of the passion, which prepares us for the work which dürer, who was then being trained in wolgemut's studio, was soon to execute, down to the amusing but uninspired craftsmanship of the picture of solomon and a selection of his wives banqueting. for the _liber chronicarum_ of hartman schedel plans had been much more carefully worked out than for the _schatzbehalter_, and by studying economy a seemingly profuse system of illustration was maintained to the end. the industry of mr. sydney cockerell has evolved for us the exact figures as to the illustration of this book. real liberality is shown in the large, double-page topographical cuts of twenty-six different cities, for many of which sketches must have been specially obtained, and not one of these is used a second time; but twenty-two other large cuts of cities and countries were made to serve for sixty-nine different subjects, and when we come to figures of emperors, kings, and popes we find ninety-six blocks used times, or on an average half a dozen times apiece. mr. cockerell's grand totals are pictures printed from different blocks, so that the repetitions number no fewer than . both in the designs and their execution there is great inequality, but no single picture can compare with that of christ kneeling before the father in the _schatzbehalter_, and both books, fine as their best work is, must be regarded rather as the crown of german medieval craftsmanship in book-building than as belonging to the period of self-conscious artistic aim which is heralded by the mainz _breidenbach_ but really begins with dürer. with this nuremberg work we may perhaps class that in the one book printed at the cistercian monastery at zinna, near magdeburg, the _psalterium beatae mariae virginis_, of hermann nitschewitz, the most richly decorated german book of the fifteenth century, executed in honour of the emperor frederick and his son maximilian, who in the page here shown (plate xi) are both represented. primitive dutch and flemish book-illustrations when compared with german ones exhibit just the general likeness and specific differences which we might expect in the work of such near neighbours. the low country wood-cutters are on the whole more decorative than the germans, they were more influenced by the work of the engravers on copper, and they were attracted by different types of the human figure, the faces and bodies of the men and women they drew being often long and thin, and often also showing a slightly fantastic touch rarely found in german work. unfortunately, these low country illustrated books are even rarer than the german ones, far fewer of them have found their way to england, and no attempt has been made to reproduce a really representative selection of them in facsimile. in sir w. m. conway, as the result of prolonged studies on the continent, wrote an excellent account of these illustrations and the makers of them under the title, _the woodcutters of the netherlands in the fifteenth century_, which was unhappily allowed to appear without any facsimiles to elucidate the text. thus the study of these low country illustrated books is still difficult. [illustration: xi. zinna. monasterium cisterciense, c. nitschewitz. psalterium beatae mariae virginis frederick and maximilian] in the production of the early block-books (see chapter ii) the low countries had played a principal part, and we meet again with traces of them in later illustrated books, cuts from the _biblia pauperum_ being used by peter van os at zwolle in his _episteln ende evangelien_ of january, , and one from the _canticum canticorum_ in his edition of mauberne's _rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium_ in . two cut-up pieces from the block-book _speculum humanae saluationis_ were used by veldener in his _episteln ende evangelien_ completed at utrecht april, , and all the old blocks, each divided in two, in a new edition of the _speculum_ printed at kuilenburg september, , with twelve new cuts added to them. sir w. m. conway has also shown that a set of sixty-four cuts used in a _boec van der houte_ or legend of the holy cross, issued by veldener at kuilenburg earlier in (on march), must have been obtained by dividing in a similar manner the double cuts of a block-book now entirely lost. the first printer in the low countries who commissioned a woodcut for a book printed with movable type was johann of paderborn (john of westphalia) at louvain, the cut being a curious little representation of his own head, shown in white on a black oval. this he used in his _institutiones_ of justinian of november, , and a few other books, and a similar but even better likeness of his kinsman, conrad, appeared the next year in the _formulae epistularum_ of maneken ( december, ). although johann of paderborn thus led the way in the use of cuts, he only resorted to them subsequently for a few diagrams, and towards the end of his career for some half-dozen miscellaneous blocks for devotional books. the portrait of johann of paderborn being used only as a device, book-illustration begins, though on a very small scale, with veldener's edition of the _fasciculus temporum_ ( december, ), with its handful of poor little cuts modelled on those of the cologne editions. five years later veldener reprinted the _fasciculus_ with a few new cuts, the originals of which have been found in the lübeck _rudimentum noviciorum_. the only picture which seems to have been specially designed for him was a folio cut in his _passionael_ (utrecht, september, ), where in delicate simple outline a variety of martyrdoms are shown as taking place in the hollows of a series of hills. mention has already been made of his two kuilenburg reprints of block-books. in the same place he issued dutch and latin herbals with cuts copied from schoeffer's mainz _herbarius_, and this completes the story of his illustrated ventures. [illustration: xii. haarlem, bellaert, jacobus de theramo. belial ( ^a) the harrowing of hell] we come now to gerard leeu, who on june, , issued at gouda the first completely illustrated book from a dutch press, the _dialogus creaturarum moralisatus_, a glorified version of the old bestiaries, full of wonderful stories of animals. this was illustrated with specially designed cuts (mostly about four inches by two), and leeu's liberality was rewarded by the book passing through nine editions, six in latin and three in dutch, in eleven years. the first page is decorated with a picture of the sun and moon, a large capital, and an ornamental border of foliage, but the merit of the book lies in the simple skill with which the craftsman, working entirely in outline, has reproduced the humour of the text. to the same hand are attributed ten cuts for leeu's vernacular _gesta romanorum_ ( april, ), four for an undated _historia septem sapientum_, and four others, of the four last things, which, to our puzzlement, appear first in a french edition printed by arend de keysere at audenarde, and then ( august, ) in a dutch one of leeu's. in the previous month he had brought out a _liden ende passie ons heeren_ with thirty-two quarto cuts, part of a set of sixty-eight made for editions of the _devote ghetiden_ or dutch version of the _horae_, the first of which (unless a gouda one has perished) appeared after his removal to antwerp. during the following nine years he made good use of his old blocks. for his dutch _aesop_ of october, , and latin edition of september, , he used cuts copied from the original ulm and augsburg set. these he bought from knoblochtzer of strassburg and sold to koelhoff of cologne. in he issued an illustrated _reynard the fox_, of which only a fragment survives, and the pleasant romance of _paris and vienne_, with twenty-five fairly successful cuts, with the help of which five editions were sold, the first in french, the next three in dutch, and the last ( june, ) in english. according to sir w. m. conway these _paris and vienne_ cuts were the work of a haarlem craftsman, who from to had worked for jacob bellaert, whose press was intimately connected with leeu's, type and cuts passing freely from one to the other. bellaert had begun by using some of leeu's passion cuts for a _liden ons heeren_, but seems soon to have discovered his haarlem wood-cutter, with whose aid he produced ( february, ) _der sonderen troest_, the sinners' trust, a dutch version of that remarkable work the _belial_ or _consolatio peccatorum_ of jacobus de theramo, of which the augsburg edition has already been mentioned. this begins with a full folio-page cut combining in one panorama the fall of angels and of adam and eve, the flood, the egyptians overtaken in the red sea, and the baptism of christ. six of the other cuts fill half-pages and show the harrowing of hell (here reproduced, plate xii), devils in consultation, satan kneeling before the lord, the last judgment, ascension and descent of the holy spirit. the remaining half-page pictures are all composite, made up of different combinations of eight centre-pieces and seventeen sidepieces. the centre-pieces for the most part represent the different judges before whom the trials are heard, the side-pieces the messengers and parties to the suit. the combinations are occasionally a little clumsy, but far less so than in the strassburg books printed by grüninger in which the same labour-saving device was adopted, and in excellence of design and delicacy of cutting this dutch _belial_ ranks high among illustrated incunabula. later in ( october) bellaert issued a _boeck des golden throens_ with four-column cuts, often repeated, of an elder instructing a maiden; in may, , le fèvre's _jason_, and a little earlier than this an undated edition of the same author's _recueil des histoires de troie_, both in dutch and both profusely illustrated; on christmas eve in the same year a dutch _de proprietatibus rerum_, and in versions of pierre michault's _doctrinal_, in which a dreamer is shown the schools of virtue and of vice, and of guillaume de deguilleville's _pélérinage de la vie humaine_, the medieval prototype of bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_. the _de proprietatibus_ is the only one of these books of - that i have seen, and its full-page cuts are notable both for their own sake and as having been widely copied, although they illustrate only eleven of the nineteen books. no other low country printer showed anything like the enterprise of leeu and bellaert in commissioning long sets of original woodcuts from competent craftsmen, but several fine illustrated books were produced by other firms. beginning in peter van os printed numerous illustrated books at zwolle, few of which attain excellence. yet one of the earliest of them, the sermons of s. bernard, has a frontispiece of the virgin and child and the saint gazing at them which is unequalled by any other single cut in the low country book in its large pictorial effect. at gouda, in , gottfried van os issued the _chevalier délibéré_ of olivier de la marche, with sixteen large cuts, in which the author's minute instructions for each picture are faithfully carried out with extraordinary freedom and spirit, though the ambitious designs are more suitable to frescoes than to book-illustrations. about the end of the century the book was reprinted at schiedam with the same cuts, from which facsimiles were made in by dr. lippmann and published by the bibliographical society. at louvain in egidius van der heerstraten issued the _de praeclaris mulieribus_ of boccaccio with copies of the cuts of the ulm edition of great interest for the differences in handling revealed when the two are compared. a little later than this another louvain printer, ludovicus de ravescot, published the _de anno die et feria dominicae passionis_ of petrus de rivo, with a title-cut of the author kneeling before the virgin and child, and three large cuts of the last supper, crucifixion, and resurrection, somewhat in the temper of the illustrations in the cologne bibles, but with characteristic low country touches. lastly, mention must be made of the clumsy outline cuts in the bruges edition of ovid's _metamorphoses_, issued in by caxton's partner colard mansion. mansion certainly, and possibly caxton also, were among the early experimenters with copperplate illustration, but the story of these will be told in chapter xv. footnotes: [ ] dr. schreiber, in the introduction to tome v of his _manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois au xv^e siècle_, dealing with german book-illustrations, shows that some little difficulty was found at first in effecting this. in boner's _edelstein_ (bamberg, ), probably the first illustrated book printed in germany, the cuts were printed after the text. in zainer's _heiligenleben_, the first illustrated book printed at augsburg, the cuts must have been printed first, as part of the text is sometimes printed over them. [ ] a set of proofs of cuts to this book, previously in the possession of the marquis of blandford and mr. perkins, was among the favourite possessions of william morris, and is now owned by mr. morgan. an illustrated _plenarium_, assigned by dr. copinger to richel, appears to be a "ghost," due to some confusion with this _spiegel_. chapter viii early italian illustrated books as a frontispiece to this chapter (plate xiii) we give a page from the edition of the _devote meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore_, printed at venice by "jeronimo di sancti e cornelio suo compagno," the woodcuts in which, as already mentioned, are cut down from those in a block-book of some twenty or five-and-twenty years earlier, and must thus rank as the earliest italian illustrations. the illustration of books printed in movable type began in italy as early as , ulrich han issuing that year at rome an edition of cardinal turrecremata's _meditationes_, decorated with thirty-one rude cuts chiefly from the life of christ. a few of these have a coarse vigour, but in the greater number any merit in the original designs (professedly taken from the frescoes with which the cardinal had decorated the cloisters of the church of santa maria sopra minerva) is lost in bad cutting. notwithstanding this the work went through at least three editions (three new pictures being added to the second and one omitted), and served as a model for the metal-cuts of neumeister's editions at mainz and elsewhere, and for the small neat woodcuts of one by plannck. but though han's venture was thus successful beyond its deserts, it took italy nearly twenty years to make up its mind to welcome printed illustrations. during this time nothing approaching a style of book-illustration emerges, though individual books of importance appeared at several towns. thus at verona the _de re militari_ of robertus valturius (written not later than ) was printed in by a certain joannes of that city, with over eighty woodcuts of weapons and implements of war, including a galley which looks more picturesque than seaworthy, chariots, and mangonels, all well drawn and well cut, but a little spoilt by paper and presswork much less good than was usual at this time. eleven years later latin and italian editions with practically the same cuts were printed, also at verona, by boninus de boninis. the only other early veronese book with illustrations is an italian version of one of the medieval collections of fables which sought shelter under the name of aesop. this, which has some spirited cuts, was printed by giovanni alvise in . [illustration: xiii. venice, geronimo di sancti, bonaventura. meditatione ( ^b reduced) the betrayal] at naples, sixtus riessinger printed boccaccio's _libro di florio et di bianzefiore chiamato filicolo_ in , and also (without date) an italian version of ovid's _heroides_, both with numerous cuts, some of them by no means devoid of charm. in an illustrated _aesop_ was produced at the expense of a book-loving jurist, francesco tuppo, probably from the press of certain "fidelissimi germani." the cuts in this, which are hard and heavy but of considerable merit (see plate xiv), may possibly be due to a mixture of italian and german influences, but are more probably the work of a spanish wood-cutter. a picture of an astronomer engaged on his calculations found in the _arte di astrologia_ of granollachs, probably also printed in , may be from the same hand. in the _aesop_ each picture is placed in an architectural frame, in the upper sections of which there are representations sometimes of hercules and a lion, sometimes of his wrestle with antaeus, sometimes of a battle of mounted pygmies. the first page of text also has a fine decorative border, the design being in white on a black ground. at florence an ornamental capital in a _psalter_ printed in is the earliest woodcut in any extant dated book. but engravings on copper had been employed as early as for three pictures in bettini's _monte santo di dio,_ and in for nineteen in a _divina commedia_; as to these something will be said in chapter xv. two books printed at milan in contain illustrations, the _summula di pacifica conscientia_ of fra pacifico di novara, being ornamented with three engravings; two of the degrees of consanguinity and the third of a crown bearing the names of the virtues of the madonna, while the _breuiarium totius juris canonici_ of paolo attavanti printed by pachel and scinzenzeler has a little woodcut, which purports to be a portrait of the author. in venice book-illustration appears to have begun in the office not of a printer, but of an illuminator. quite a number of books printed by various firms during the years to have a woodcut groundwork to their illuminated borders, and in the spencer copy of the italian bible (malermi's translation), printed in by adam of ammergau, the six miniatures of the creation, with which the blanks left on leaves and are filled, have in the same way rough woodcuts beneath their colouring.[ ] the workshop in which these decorated borders and miniatures were supplied seems to have closed or given up the practice in , and until erhard ratdolt and his partners löslein and maler began publishing in , no more woodcuts were produced at venice. the work of the new firm was decorative rather than pictorial, consisting mainly of the fine borders and capital letters with which they ornamented their calendars ( , , and ), their _appian, gesta petri mocenici_ of coriolanus cepio and _de situ orbis_ of dionysius periegetes, all in , _arte di ben morire_ of the following year, and _euclid_ of . with the exception of the earlier calendars, where the borders to the titlepage (the first so decorated) are of flower-vases, these consist of highly conventionalized foliage (jasmine? vine, oak, etc.) or strapwork, some of them unequalled in their own kind until william morris combined the same skill with a much bolder and richer treatment of his material. illustration properly so called begins with georg walch's edition ( ) of the _fasciculus temporum_, a chronological epitome by werner rolewinck of cologne. this has a quaint little view of the piazza of san marco and other pictures, which ratdolt, not at all handsomely, proceeded to copy the next year. in ratdolt adorned the _tractatus de actionibus_ oi baptista de sancto blasio with rather a graceful little figure of a woman holding the stem of a tree. in he produced an edition of the _poeticon astronomicon_ of hyginus with some figures of the planets which, rude as they were, served as models for many subsequent editions. in the same year the _oratoriae artis epitomata_ of jacobus publicius was ornamented with some figures including a chessboard, cut in white on black, designed to assist the memory. [illustration: xiv. naples, francesco tuppo, aesop. fabula xxii., de atheniensibus petentibus regem] in the later years of his stay at venice, ratdolt seems to have lost interest in book-decoration, but the popularity of woodcuts steadily increased throughout the 'eighties, and by the end of the decade was in full tide. in bernardinus benalius gave some rough illustrations to the _fioretti_ of saint francis; in pietro cremonese bestowed a formal but quite interesting decorated titlepage on the _doctrinale_ of alexander gallus, with the title inscribed in a cartouche, above which rise an urn and lamps. in the same year we have in the _supplementum chronicarum_ printed by bernardinus benalius a few cuts of some size "translated" into an italian style from those on the same subject in quentell's cologne bible (c. ), also a little view of venice copied in reverse from the _fasciculus temporum_. the _supplementum chronicarum_ was re-issued several times (the author, jacobus philippus bergomensis, bringing the statement of his age up to date in each edition which he revised), and changes were constantly made in the cuts. in also came an edition of the _libro de la divina lege_ of marco del monte s. maria, with cuts of mount sinai and its desert, notable as having been copied by a much more skilful wood-cutter at florence eight years later; produced the first of the venetian illustrated _aesops_, the cuts having borders of white scroll-work on a black ground and being influenced by the naples edition of . with this must be mentioned a _fior di virtu_, with a title cut of a friar plucking blossoms from a tree, which was thought good enough to be copied at milan, but was replaced at venice three years later by a delightful picture of a walled garden. it was in also that there appeared the edition of the _devote meditatione sopra la passione_, with cuts taken from the old block-book (see p. ). in subsequent editions (of , etc.) these were replaced by new woodcuts of varying merit. a later edition still ( ) has a fine picture of the entry into jerusalem which prince d'essling connects with the _hypnerotomachia_ of . in we come to the first illustrated edition of the _trionfi_ of petrarch, printed by bernardino de novara. this has six large cuts, showing respectively the triumphs of love, of chastity, death, fame, time, and the divinity. all are well designed, but spoilt by weak cutting. in the same year appeared two other illustrated books, a _sphaera mundi_, with a few cuts not in themselves of great importance, and the _de essent et essenta_ of s. thomas aquinas, with a striking little picture of a child lighting a fire by means of a burning-glass. by studying these books in conjunction prince d'essling has shown that they were designed by one of their printers, johann santritter, and executed by the other, hieronymus de sanctis, and that to the latter may thus be attributed the illustrations (one at least of them of unusual beauty) in an _officium beatae virginis_ which issued from his press april, . the information on the last two pages is all epitomized from the prince d'essling's great work _les livres à figures vénitiens_ ( , etc.), and is quoted here in some detail as showing that from the time of erhard ratdolt onwards book-illustrations are found with some frequency at venice, a fact for which, until the prince published the results of his unwearying researches, there was very little evidence available. the event of was the publication by lucantonio giunta of an edition of niccolo malermi's italian version of the bible, illustrated with cuts, many of them charming, measuring about three inches by two. the success of this set a fashion, and several important folio books in double columns similarly illustrated appeared during the next few years, a _vite di sancti padre_ in , boccaccio's _decamerone_, masuccio's _novellino_, and a _legendario_ translated from the latin of jacobus de voragine in , a rival italian bible and an italian livy in , a _morgante maggiore_ in , and an italian _terence_ in , while in quarto we have a _miracoli de la madonna_ ( ), _vita de la vergine_ and _trabisonda istoriata_ ( ), _guerrino meschino_ ( ), and several others. in some of these books cuts are found signed with f, in others with n, in others with i or ia; in the malermi bible and some other books we sometimes find the signature b or .b. such signatures, which at one time aroused keen controversy, are now believed to have belonged not to the designer, but to the workshop of the wood-cutters by whom the blocks were cut. in the case of the malermi bible of workmen of very varying skill were employed, some of the illustrations to the gospels being emptied of all delight by the rudeness of their cutting. where the designer and the cutter are both at their best the result is nearly perfect of its kind, and it is curious to think that some of these dainty little blocks were imitated from the large, heavy woodcuts in the cologne bibles printed by quentell some ten years earlier. in the rival bible of the best cuts are not so good, nor the worst so bad as in the original edition of . in the other books (i have not seen the masuccio) the cutting is again more even, but the designs, though often charming and sometimes amusing, are seldom as good as the best in the bible. most of these books have one or more larger cuts used at the beginning of the text or of sections of it, and these are always good. two editions of dante's _divina commedia_, both published in , one by bernardinus benalius and matheo codeca in march, the other by pietro cremonese in november, must be grouped with the books just mentioned, as they are also illustrated with small cuts (though those in the november edition are a good deal larger than the usual column-cuts), and these are signed in some cases with the letter .b. which appears in the malermi bible of . neither designer has triumphed over the monotonous effect produced by the continual reappearance of the figures of dante and his guide, and the little cuts in the march edition are far from impressive. on the other hand it has a good frontispiece, in which, after the medieval habit, the successive incidents of the first canto of the _inferno_ are all crowded into the same picture. popular as were the little vignettes, they were far from exhausting the energies of the venetian illustrators of this decade. at the opposite pole from them are the four full-page pictures in the and later editions of the _fascicolo de medicina_ of joannes ketham. these represent a physician lecturing, a consultation, a dissection, and a visit of a doctor to an infectious patient, whom he views by the light of two flambeaux held by pages, while he smells his pouncet-box. this picture (in the foreground of which sits a cat, afterwards cut out to reduce the size of the block) is perhaps the finest of the four, but that of the dissection has the interest of being printed in several colours. erhard ratdolt had made some experiments in colour-printing in the astronomical books which he printed at venice, and at augsburg completed the crucifixion cut in some of his missals partly by printed colours, partly by hand. in a venetian printer, johann herzog, had illustrated the _de heredibus_ of johannes crispus de montibus with a genealogical tree growing out of a recumbent human figure, and had printed this in brown, green, and red. but the dissection in the _fascicolo di medicina_ was the most elaborate of the venetian experiments in colour-printing and apparently also the last. with the illustrations to the ketham may be mentioned for its large pictorial effect, though it comes in a quarto, the fine cut of the author in the _doctrina della vita monastica_ of san lorenzo giustiniano, first patriarch of venice. the figure of san lorenzo as he walks with a book under his arm and a hand held up in benediction is imitated from that in a picture by gentile bellini, but he is here shown (plate xv) preceded by a charming little crucifer, whose childish face enhances by contrast the austerer benignity of the saint. [illustration: xv. venice, anonymous press, lorenzo giustiniano. della vita religiosa portrait of the author] however good the large illustrations in venetian books, the merits of them are rather those of single prints than of really appropriate bookwork. the little column-cuts, on the other hand, are almost playful in their minuteness, and even when most successful produce the effect of a delightful border or tailpiece without quite attaining to the full possibilities of book-illustration. the feverish production of these column-cuts began to slacken, though it did not cease, in , and about that date a few charming full-page pictures are found at the beginning and end of various small quartos. from the treatment of the man's hair and beard it is clear that the delightful frontispiece to the _fioretti della biblia_ of (prince d'essling, i, ) was the work of the illustrator of the second malermi bible from which the small cuts in the text are taken. the three cuts to the _fioretti_ of s. francis, completed june in the same year, that of the _chome l'angelo amaestra l'anima_ of pietro damiani, dated in the following november, of an undated _monte de la oratione,_ and again of the _de la confessione_ of s. bernardino of siena, all in the same style, form a group of singular beauty (see prince d'essling, i, _sqq._; ii, , , ). those of s. catherine's _dialogo de la divina providentia_, may, (d'essling, ii, _sqq._), were probably no less happily designed, but have lost more in their cutting, and with these must be grouped the picture of a venetian school in the _regulae sypontinae_ of nicolaus perottus, march, (d'essling, ii, ), used also in the _de structura compositionis_ of nicolaus ferettus, printed three years later at forlì. the style is continued in the _specchio della fede_ of robertus caracciolus, april, (d'essling, ii, ), in the headpiece of the _commentaria in libros aristotelis_ of s. thomas aquinas, sept., , and in the two admirable pictures of terence lecturing to his commentators, and of a theatre as seen from the back of the stage, found in the _terentius cum tribus commentariis_ of july, (d'essling, ii, , and _sqq._). still in the same style, but carelessly designed and poorly cut, are the illustrations to the well-known ovid of april, (d'essling, iii, _sqq._), and this leads us on to the still more famous _hypnerotomachia poliphili_ of francesco colonna, printed by aldus for leonardo crassus, a jurisconsult, in december, , and finally to the cut of christ entering jerusalem in the _devote meditatione_ of the following april (d'essling, i, ), where the hand of the artist of the _hypnerotomachia_ is clearly visible, though he has surrounded his picture with a frame in the florentine manner, which was then beginning to make its influence felt at venice. the primacy usually given to the _hypnerotomachia_ among all these books is probably in part due to considerations which have little to do with its artistic merit. the story is a kind of archaeological romance which appealed greatly to the dilettante, for whose benefit leonardo crassus commissioned aldus to print it, but which was far from exciting the popular interest which shows its appreciation for a book by thumbing it out of existence. the _hypnerotomachia_ is probably almost as common a book as the _nuremberg chronicle_ or the first folio shakespeare, and thus its merits have become known to all lovers of old books. it is impressive, moreover, from its size and the profusion of its illustrations of various sizes, while the extraordinary variety of these and the excellence of their cutting are further points in its favour. the initial letters of the successive chapters form the sentence poliam frater franciscus colvmna peramavit, and this with the colophon assigning the completion of the book to may-day, , at treviso, reveals the author as francesco colonna, a dominican, who had taught rhetoric at treviso and padua, and in , when his book was printed, was still alive and an inmate of the convent of ss. giovanni and paolo at venice. the polia whom he so greatly loved has been identified with lucretia lelio, daughter of a jurisconsult at treviso. the story of the _hypnerotomachia_, or "strife of love in a dream," as its english translator called it, is greatly influenced by the renaissance interest in antique architecture and art which is evident in so many of its illustrations. polifilo's dreams are full, as the preface-writer says, of "molte cose antiquarie digne di memoria, & tutto quello lui dice hauere visto di puncto in puncto & per proprii uocabuli ello descriue cum elegante stilo, pyramidi, obelisce, ruine maxime di edificii, la differentia di columne, la sua mensura, gli capitelli, base, epistyli," etc. etc. but he is brought also to the palace of queen eleuterylida, and while there witnesses the triumphs or festivals of europa, leda, danae, bacchus, vertumnus, and pomona, which provide several attractive subjects for the illustrator. the second part of the book is somewhat less purely antiquarian. lucrezia lelio had entered a convent after being attacked by the plague which visited treviso from to , and so here also polia is made to take refuge in the temple of diana, whence, however, she is driven on account of the visits of polifilo, with whom, by the aid of venus, she is ultimately united. one other point to be mentioned is that many of the full-page venetian illustrations, both in quartos and folios, have quasi-architectural borders to them, the footpiece being sometimes filled with children riding griffins or other grotesques, while school-books were often made more attractive to young readers by a border in which a master is flogging a boy duly horsed for the purpose on the back of a schoolfellow. in two of the most graceful of venetian borders, those to the _herodotus_ of (and also in the edition of s. jerome's epistles) and johann müller's epitome of ptolemy's _almagest_ (of ), the design is picked out in white on a black ground. a few florentine woodcut illustrations have borders of the kind just mentioned in which the design stands out in white on a black ground. in one of these borders there are rather ugly candelabra at the sides, at the top two lovers facing each other in a circle supported by cupids, at the foot a shield supported by boys standing on the backs of couchant stags. another has mermen at the top, a shield within a wreath supported by eagles at the foot, and floral ornaments and armour at the sides. in a third on either side of the shield in the footpiece boys are tilting at each other mounted on boars. in a fourth are shown saints and some of the emblems of the passion, supported by angels. but as a rule, while nearly all florentine woodcuts have borders these are only from an eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch in depth, and the pattern on them is a leaf or flower or some conventional design of the simplest possible kind. a very few cuts have only a rule round them, one of the largest a triple rule. a rude cut of the crucifixion is found in francesco di dino's edition of cavalca's _specchio di croce_ surrounded by a rope-work border two-fifths of an inch deep, and this border, partly broken away, also surrounds a really beautiful pietà (christ standing in a tomb, his cross behind him, his hands upheld by angels) in miscomini's edition of savonarola's _trattato dell' umiltà_. when the same publisher used dino's crucifixion cut, also in , for savonarola's _tractato dell' amore di gesù_, he left it without either border or rule round it, the only instance of a florentine cut so treated in the fifteenth century. dr. paul kristeller, whose richly illustrated monograph on _early florentine woodcuts_ (kegan paul, ) is the standard work on the subject, suggests with much plausibility that these two cuts, of the crucifixion and the pietà, were originally made for earlier books now lost, and belong to an older school of wood-cutting, more akin to that which produced the few extant florentine single prints. the earliest work of the new school of illustration is the magnificent cut of the virgin in a mandorla appearing to s. jacopone da todi as he kneels in prayer. this, surrounded by the triple rule already mentioned, is prefixed to an edition of jacopone's _laude_ printed by francesco buonacorsi and dated september, . apparently the earliest dated cut with a typical florentine border is that to the _lunare_ of granollachs printed by lor. morgiani and giovanni da magonza in september, . it measures more than inches by , and is copied, and transfigured in the process, from the heavy cut in a naples edition of . two months later the same firm issued the _soliloqui_i of s. augustine with an extraordinarily fine title-cut of the saint (the same picture did duty in for s. antonino) writing at a desk in his cell. this has a border, but with a white ground instead of a black. on january, - , still from the same firm, we have surely the prettiest arithmetic ever printed, that of filippo calandri, with delightful little pictures and border pieces, cut in simple outline, in the venetian rather than the florentine manner. on march, morgiani and his partner produced a new edition of bettini's _monte santo di dio_ with the three copperplates of (see chapter xv) skilfully translated into duly bordered woodcuts, the first two filling a folio page, the third somewhat shorter. a _mandeville_ with a single cut followed in june, and in december the _trattati_ of ugo pantiera, also with a single cut, perhaps by the designer of the calandri, since it employs the same trick of representing a master on a much larger scale than a disciple as is found in the picture of pythagoras in the earlier book.[ ] one of the earliest (and also most delightful) of the title-cuts of another prolific publisher, the picture of a lecturer and his pupils in antonio miscomini's edition of landini's _formulario_,[ ] measures about inches by . but after this the period of experiment was at an end, and with very few exceptions the woodcuts in florentine books for the rest of the century all measure either a little over or a little under inches by , and are all surrounded by a narrow border with some simple design in white upon a black ground. some pains have been taken to make clear both the experiments as to style, size, and borders in the florentine book-illustrations of - , and the external uniformity in size and borders in the great bulk of the work of the next few years, because in the first number of the _burlington magazine_ and subsequently in his fine book on florentine drawings, mr. bernhard berenson put forward with considerable confidence the theory that nine-tenths of the florentine book-illustrations of this period were made from designs supplied by a single artist whom he identifies with a certain bartolommeo di giovanni. this bartolommeo contracted in july, , with the prior of the innocents to paint before the end of october seven predelle (innocenti museum, nos. - ) for an altarpiece of the adoration of the magi, the commission for which had been given to domenico ghirlandajo. mr. berenson believes that in addition to these predelle (the only works with which bartolommeo is connected by any evidence other than that of style) he painted the massacre of the innocents, as an episode in ghirlandajo's altarpiece at the innocenti, that he must have been one of the more famous painter's apprentices in the years - , and subsequently helped him with altarpieces at lucca and at the accademia at florence, and painted a fresco for the church of s. frediano at lucca and numerous fronts to the cassonì or ornamental chests, which were at this period the most decorative articles of florentine furniture. as a minor painter bartolommeo di giovanni[ ] is pronounced by mr. berenson to have been "incapable of producing on the scale of life a figure that can support inspection": in predelle and cassone-fronts he is "feeble, if vivacious, and scarcely more than pleasant," yet with no authenticated work to build on except the predelle in the innocenti, mr. berenson does not hesitate to assert that "in florence between and few apparently, if any, illustrated books were published without woodcuts for which alunno di domenico[ ] furnished the designs," and on the strength of this assumption bestows on him the praise, amply deserved by the florentine school as a whole, that he was "a book-illustrator, charming as few in vision and interpretation, with scarcely a rival for daintiness and refinement of arrangement, spacing and distribution of black and white." mr. berenson's theories oblige him to credit bartolommeo with having copied at least from filippo lippi, botticelli, and piero di cosimo, as well as from ghirlandajo, and push the licence accorded to "connoisseurship" to its extreme limit. as i have already acknowledged elsewhere,[ ] if any one man is to be credited with the whole, or nearly the whole of the florentine book-illustrations of this decade, a minor artist used to painting predelle and cassone-fronts would be the right kind of man for the task, but on the very scanty evidence at present available i am personally more inclined to attribute such unity as can be traced in these florentine cuts to their having all come from one large wood-cutter's shop, without attempting to trace them back to a single designer. in the year , when the form of the florentine woodcuts had become fairly fixed, savonarola was called to the death-bed of lorenzo the magnificent, only to refuse him absolution. his _amore di gesù_ and _trattato dell' umiltà_ were printed in june of that year by miscomini, each decorated with a single cut. during the six years ending with his execution in may, , some twenty-three different tracts from his pen, illustrated with one or more woodcuts, were printed at florence, most of them in several different editions. in the _de simplicitate christianae vitae_ ( ) a friar is shown writing in his cell; in other cuts we see a friar preaching, or visiting the convent of the "murate" or recluses of florence, or talking with seven florentines under a tree, but in no case has any attempt been made at portraiture. this is true also of the _compendio di revelatione_ ( ), in which there are some charming cuts showing savonarola escorted by four holy women representing simplicity, prayer, patience, and faith, on an embassy to the blessed virgin. in the first of these they meet the devil attired as a hermit; in the second they arrive at the gate of the celestial city of which the wall is crowded with saints and angels; in the third they are ushered forth by s. peter. a tract by domenico benivieni in defence of savonarola, besides a cut of the usual size representing benivieni arguing with his opponents, has a full-page one of the river of blood flowing from christ's wounds and sinners cleansing themselves in it and marking their foreheads with the sign of the cross. one of the finest cuts in the savonarola series represents a citizen of florence in prayer before a crucifix. but almost all of them are good. besides the savonarola tracts the miscellaneous religious treatises illustrated with one or more woodcuts are very numerous. in some cases outside models were still sought. one of the most important of these books is the _meditatione sopra la passione_ attributed to s. bonaventura, of which two undated editions were issued, one with eight cuts, the other with twelve, three of the additional cuts in the second edition--the entry into jerusalem, christ before pilate, and procession to calvary (see plate xvi)--being exceptionally fine. the earlier designer probably had the venetian edition of before him, but used it quite freely. two of the three cuts in the florentine edition of the _libro delli commandamenti di dio_ of marco del monte s. maria are improved copies of those in the venetian edition of . the third cut, which appears also in the same author's _tabula della salute_ (also of ), representing the monte della pietà, is copied on a reduced scale from a large copper engraving attributed to baccio baldini, of which an example is in the print room of the british museum. of the thirty-four cuts in cardinal capranica's _arte del benmorire_, eleven are imitated from the well-known series in the german block-books. [illustration: xvi. florence, miscomini, c. bonaventura. meditatione. the procession to calvary] for the _rappresentazioni_ or miracle-plays in honour of various saints originality was more imperative, and numerous cuts were designed, only a few of which have come down to us in editions of the fifteenth century, most being known as they survive in reprints of the second half of the sixteenth. our example (plate xvii) is from an undated edition of _la festa di san giovanni_, in which, as on many other titlepages, an angel is shown above the title-cut as the speaker of the prologue. purely secular literature in the shape of _novelle_ was no doubt plentiful, despite the influence of savonarola, but most of it has perished, thumbed to pieces by too eager readers. a volume of _novelle_ at the university library, erlangen, is illustrated with delightful cuts, and others survive here and there in different libraries. of more pretentious quartos angelo politiano's _la giostra di giuliano di medici_ (first edition undated, second ) is very finely illustrated, and petrarch's _trionfi_ ( ) has good versions of the usual six subjects. many of the best of the quartos and all the illustrated folios were financed by a publisher, ser piero pacini of pescia, who was succeeded early in the sixteenth century by his son bernardo. pacini in began his career with a very ambitious venture, a folio edition of the _epistole et evangelii et lectioni_ as they were read in the mass throughout the year. this has a decorative frontispiece, in the centre of which stand ss. peter and paul, while small cuts of the four evangelists are placed in the corners. the text is illustrated with different woodcuts, besides numerous fancy portraits of evangelists, prophets, etc. a few of the cuts are taken from the _meditationes_ of s. bonaventura, and one or two, perhaps, from other books already published; but the enormous majority are new, and from the consistency of the portrait-types of christ, s. peter, s. john, etc., appear all to have been designed by the same man. some are less successful than others, but the average is exceptionally high, and the best cuts are full of movement and life. an _aesop_ followed in , pulci's _morgante maggiore_ in , and the _quatriregio_, a dull poem in imitation of dante by bishop frezzi, in . it has been conjectured, however, that an earlier edition of the _quatriregio_ may have been printed in the fifteenth century with the same illustrations, and there is considerable reason to doubt whether any fresh cuts in the old style were made at florence after the temporary cessation of publishing brought about by the political troubles of . on the other hand, the old cuts went on being used, sometimes in the originals, sometimes in copies, throughout the greater part of the sixteenth century, and it is only in these reprints that many of them are known to survive. at no other italian town was there any outburst of book-illustration at all comparable to those at venice and florence in the last decade of the fifteenth century. at ferrara, after a fine cut of s. george and a much ruder one of s. maurelius in a _legenda_ of the latter saint printed in ,[ ] no illustration appeared until , when the _compilatio_ of alfraganus was adorned with a picture of the astronomer instructing a diminutive hermit. after this, in we have a fine cut of the virgin and child in the _de ingenuis adolescentium moribus_, and in two important folio books, both from the press of lorenzo rossi, the _de claris mulieribus_ of jacobus philippus bergomensis ( april) and the epistles of s. jerome ( october). the former of these is distinctly native work, with the exception of an architectural border, decorated chiefly with _putti_ and griffins, etc., which is thoroughly venetian in style, and was used again in the s. jerome. there are two large illustrations, one showing the author presenting his book to the queen of hungary and bohemia, the other containing eight scenes from the life of the blessed virgin. fifty-six cuts in the text are made to serve as portraits of different women, and under the strain of such repetition individuality perforce disappears. but at the end of the book are seven cuts of italian ladies of the fifteenth century: bona of lombardy, bianca maria of milan, catherine countess of fréjus and imola, leonora duchess of ferrara, bianca mirandula, genebria sforza, and damisella trivulzia, and these, some of them fair, some rather forbidding, appear all to be genuine portraits. the cutting is mostly rather stiff and heavy (damisella trivulzia is exceptionally tenderly treated), and much use is made of black grounds. [illustration: xvii. florence, bart. di libri, c. la festa di san giovanni. (title)] in contrast to those in the _de claris mulieribus_, the cuts in the _epistulae_ of s. jerome are distinctly venetian in style. as one of the two architectural borders is dated , it is possible that the book was at first intended to be issued at venice, but was transferred to ferrara when venetian interest in small column-cuts was found to be on the wane. it possesses in all over of these, those illustrating conventual life in the second part of the book being much the most interesting. at milan the _theorica musicae_ of franchino gafori, printed in by philippus mantegatius, has a title-cut of a man playing the organ, and four coarsely cut pictures, together occupying a page, showing primitive musical experiments. four years later the same author's _practica musicae_ was issued by another printer, guillaume le signerre, with a title-cut illustrating the different measures and the muses and signs of the zodiac to which they belong, and with two fine woodcut borders surrounding the opening pages of books i and iii, and ii and iv. in le signerre produced two much more profusely illustrated books, the _specchio dell' anima_ of ludovicus besalii and an _aesop_, some of the cuts of the former being used again in in the _tesoro spirituale_ of johannes petrus de ferrariis. after this he migrated to saluzzo, and in produced there a fine edition of the _de veritate contritionis_ of vivaldus, with a frontispiece of s. jerome in the desert. at modena in dominicus rocociola printed a _legenda sanctorum trium regum_, with a rather pleasing cut of their adoration of the holy child; and two years later, at the same place, the _prognosticatio_ of johann lichtenberger, printed by pierre maufer, was illustrated with three full-page quarto cuts and forty-two half-page ones, careful directions for each picture being supplied in the text, but the cuts being modelled on those in the german editions at ulm and mainz. at aquila in an _aesop_ was produced, copied from the naples edition of . at pavia in the _sanctuarium_ of jacobus gualla was illustrated with seventy woodcuts and some excellent initials. at saluzzo in another work by vivaldus, printed by jacobus de circis and sixtus de somachis, was decorated with three large woodcuts of very exceptional merit: a portrait of the marquis ludovico ii (almost too striking for a book-illustration), a picture of s. thomas aquinas in his cell, and another of s. louis of france. the treatise of paulus de middelburgo on the date of easter, printed by petruzzi at fossombrone in , contains some very fine borders, and the _decachordum christianum_ of marcus vigerius, printed at fano in by hieronymus soncinus, has ten cuts by florio vavassore, surrounded with good arabesque borders. to multiply isolated examples such as these would turn our text into a catalogue. here and there special care was taken over the decoration of a book, and worthy results produced. but throughout italy the best period of illustration had come to an end when the sixteenth century was only a few years old. footnotes: [ ] in the masterly work of the prince d'essling on _les livres à figures vénitiens_, the discovery of this interesting fact is inadvertently ascribed to mr. guppy, the present librarian of the john rylands library. it was made by his predecessor, mr. gordon duff, a note by whom on the subject was quoted in my _italian book-illustrations_ (p. ), published in . [ ] the same trick is used in the _rudimenta astronomica_ of alfraganus, printed at ferrara by andreas bellfortis in . [ ] also used in an undated edition of the _flores poetarum_. [ ] mr. berenson prefers to call him "alunno di domenico," ghirlandajo's pupil. [ ] introduction to the roxburghe club edition (presented by mr. dyson perrins) of the _epistole et evangelii_ of . [ ] there were two issues or editions of this book in , one of which is said to have only the cut of s. maurelius. chapter ix early french and spanish illustrated books although interrupted by the death of its veteran author, claudin's magnificent _histoire de l'imprimerie en france_, in the three volumes which he lived to complete, made it for the first time possible for students to trace the early history of book-illustration at paris and lyon, the two great centres of printing in france. no illustrated books were printed at the sorbonne, nor by its german printers when they set up in the rue s. jacques, nor by their rivals there, keysere and stoll, and the french printers at the sign of the soufflet vert. in january, - , in the first french book printed at paris, the _chroniques de france_ or de _s. denis_, pasquier bonhomme so far recognized the possibility of illustration as to leave a space for a miniature on the first page of text,[ ] but he used no woodcuts himself, and his son jean suffered himself to be anticipated in introducing them by jean du pré. although he worked on rather narrow lines, du pré was the finest of the early parisian printers, and possessed far better taste than the prolific publisher, antoine vérard, of whom so much more has been written. his first book, a paris missal issued in partnership with didier huym, september, , has a large picture of the père Éternel and the crucifixion. although this is fairly well cut, it is baldly handled, and was far surpassed two months later ( november) in a similar missal for the diocese of verdun, by a really fine metal-cut of a priest and other worshippers at prayer at an altar. from the priest's uplifted hands a little figure of a man is rising up to a vision of the père Éternel, seen with his angels against the background of a sky full of stars. the little figure is the priest's soul, and the cut (often confused with pictures of the mass of s. gregory, in which the host is seen as a figure of christ) illustrates the opening words of the introit: "ad te levavi animam meam." in the same missal are a number of smaller cuts which look as if they had been prepared for a horae, and may indeed have been used for one now entirely lost. the "ad te levavi" cut reappears in many of the later missals of du pré, and subsequently of wolfgang hopyl. du pré's first secular book to be illustrated was an edition of boccaccio's _de la ruine des nobles hommes_, completed february, - , and of peculiar interest to english bookmen because the woodcuts were acquired by richard pynson, and used in his edition of lydgate's _falles of princes_, an english verse-rendering of the same work. they are well designed and clearly cut, if rather hard, and till their french origin was discovered were justly praised as "some of the very best" english woodcuts of the fifteenth century. only a few weeks later jean bonhomme ( may, ) issued maistre jacques millet's _l'histoire de la destruction de troye la grant_, illustrated with a number of cuts rather neater and firmer, but of much the same kind, and possibly from the same workshop. they passed almost at once into the possession of vérard, and cuts from the series illustrating battles, landings, councils, audiences, and other romantic commonplaces are found in his _végèce_ of and _les commentaires iules césar_ of about the same date (see macfarlane's _antoine vérard_, cuts vi-ix). a new edition of millet's book was printed by jean driard for vérard may, . two of the best of the cuts are those of the lamentation over the dead body of hector and the sacrifice of polyxena on the tomb of achilles. the only other illustrated book published by jean bonhomme was his edition of the _livre des ruraulx prouffitz du labeur des champs_, a french version of crescentius, with a frontispiece of the translator presenting his book to charles vii ( october, ). meanwhile, a new publisher of illustrated books had arisen, guyot marchant, who in september, , issued a _danse macabre_ which went through several editions. its grim fantastic pictures (executed with unusual skill and delicacy, see plate xviii) of death as a grinning skeleton claiming his prey from every class of society seem to have become quickly popular, and additional cuts were made for later editions, including one in latin ( october, ), in which the dance is called _chorea ab eximio macabro versibus alemanicis edita_. a _danse macabre des femmes_ followed ( may, ), but the figures in this are mostly less good, as are those of a third part (the debate between soul and body, and other pieces), despite the vivacity with which they represent the tortures of the damned. akin to the _danse macabre_ is the _compost et kalendrier des bergers_ (also of ), a medley of weather-lore, rules for health, and moral and religious instruction, liberally illustrated with cuts of shepherds, of moses, christ and the apostles, and of the tortures of the damned. this in its turn was followed, in , by a similar book for the shepherdesses, of which a new edition appeared in , with added pastoral cuts, some of which have unusual charm. besides guyot marchant, pierre levet began book-illustration in , but most of his work was done for vérard. his earliest venture, an _exposition de la salutation angélique_, has a cut of the annunciation, the shading in which suggests that he may have imported a cutter from lyon. [illustration: xviii. paris, marchand, danse macabre ( ^a). death and the archbishop. (reduced)] in jean du pré was very busy. at paris he completed in june a _vie des anciens saintz pères_, with a large cut of s. jerome writing in a stall and the holy fathers passing before him, also numerous very neat column-cuts and capital letters. meanwhile, at abbeville du pré was helping pierre gérard to produce one of the finest french books of the fifteenth century, the magnificent edition of s. augustine's _cité de dieu_. early in gérard had already printed there an edition of _la somme rurale_, but this had only a single woodcut, and it was probably mainly in connection with the illustrations that he now enlisted the help of du pré. in the first volume of the _cité de dieu_ (finished november, ) there are eleven woodcuts, in the second (finished april, - ) twelve, i.e. a woodcut at the beginning of each of the twenty-two books and a frontispiece of s. augustine writing, and the translator, raoul de preules, presenting his book to the king of france. the subjects and general design of the cuts correspond with greater or less closeness to those in royal ms. d. at the british museum (books i-xi only), so that the same original was probably followed by both. one of the most effective pictures is that to book xiv, which shows a man seated in a tree, offered a crown by an angel and a money-chest by a devil, while death is sawing the tree asunder, and two dragons wait at its foot. another shows s. augustine writing, while five devils play with his books, and an angel protects his mitre. the cutting throughout is excellent, and the pictures, though sometimes fantastic, are very effectively drawn. there can be little doubt that they were the work of paris craftsmen. as for pierre gérard, in he printed by himself, still at abbeville, an edition of _le triomphe des neuf preux_, with rather childishly conventional cuts of the legendary heroes, but for bertrand du guesclin a portrait which at least faithfully reproduces his bullet head. we find du pré forming a similar alliance two years later with jean le bourgeois of rouen, for whom he completed at paris the second volume of a _roman des chevaliers de la table ronde_, september, , while le bourgeois was still struggling at rouen with vol. i, which ultimately got finished november. this has some large cuts of the feast at the round table, etc. in du pré produced a _legende dorée_, a companion volume to his _vie des saintz pères_ of . but by this time he was already producing horae, which will be spoken of later on, and horae and missals were his main occupations for the rest of his career, though he produced a fine edition of the allegorical romance _le chevalier délibéré_ by olivier de la marche, bonnor's _arbre des batailles_ (in which he used some of the same cuts), , _les vigilles du roi charles vii_ and some other secular books. the great paris publisher antoine vérard started on his busy career in , and the history of book-illustration at paris is soon immensely complicated by his doings. many of the printers at paris printed for him; illustrations originally made for other men gravitated into his possession and were used occasionally for new editions of the book for which they had been made, much more often as stock cuts in books with which they had nothing to do; while if another firm brought out a successful picture-book, vérard imitated the cuts in it with unscrupulous and unblushing closeness. the monograph of my late friend and colleague john macfarlane[ ] describes some books published by vérard between and , and like most bibliographical work done at first hand by personal examination of the books themselves gets at the root of the matter, although the absence of information as to vérard's predecessors and contemporaries, such as has since been supplied by m. claudin, prevented the author from pressing home some of his points. thus in his estimate that sets of blocks had been "expressly cut to adorn some thirty editions," macfarlane did not make sufficient allowance for the cases in which these apparent sets were themselves not original, having been acquired by vérard from earlier owners. nevertheless, he had no difficulty in finding support for his contention that "the illustrations in vérard's books, when closely examined, hardly bear out their reputation." thus he showed that "besides being repeatedly used in book after book, it not uncommonly happens that the same cut is used again and again in the same book," and gave as an extreme instance of this the repetition no fewer than twenty times of the same cut in the _merlin_ of .[ ] he pointed out, moreover, that some far-fetched plea is nearly always needed to justify the presence of a cut in any but the work it was designed for. "for instance, in the _josephus_ of the spoliation of a country is represented by the burial of a woman, the death of samson by a picture of the temple, and the sacrifice of isaac helps the reader to conceive the execution of a malefactor, while a mention of the sea brings out a cut of noah's ark." however crowded a book may be with cuts, if the cuts are mostly irrelevant it cannot truly be said to be illustrated, and the number of vérard's books which a rigorous application of this principle would condemn is very large. an explanation of at least some of these incongruities may be found in vérard's early training as an illuminator, and his habit of preparing special copies on vellum for charles viii of france, henry vii of england, the comte d'angoulême, and other royal and noble patrons. a woodcut in itself quite inappropriate to the text might save an illuminator some trouble by suggesting the grouping of the figures in a picture, and a cut of saturn devouring his children was actually used in this way in one of the henry vii books in the british museum as a ground plan for an illumination of a holy family. if king henry ever held that illumination up to the light he would have had no difficulty in seeing the scythe of chronos and the limbs of a child protruding from saturn's mouth, but i have never seen a paper copy of this book, and can only wonder whether the same cut was allowed to appear in it. vérard's earliest book was the translation of boccaccio's _decamerone_ by laurent du premierfait, completed november, , and illustrated with a single cut of the author writing in an alcove looking out on a garden where the storytellers are seen seated. an edition of _les dits moraux des philosophes_ of guillaume de tignonville (caxton's _dicts and sayings of the philosophers_) followed in april, , and the _livre des ruraulx prouffitz_, translated from crescentius, with a few small cuts, not so good as those in the edition just issued by jean bonhomme, in the following july. his first important illustrated book was the _cent nouvelles nouvelles_, of christmas eve, , with two large cuts, very alike in style, of an author presenting his book to a king, and forty column-cuts, most of them used several times, occasionally with mutilations intended to erase features unsuitable to the later stories. the next important book was a _chevalier délibéré_ of august, , with some excellent cuts which reappear frequently in later books. passing over many inferior books, we come in to a really fine one, containing four separate treatises: ( ) _art de bien mourir_, illustrated with copies of the old german block-book; ( ) _traité des peines d'enfer_ (otherwise known as _l'aiguillon de crainte divine_), with grotesque but striking cuts of the tortures of the damned; ( ) _advenement de antichrist_ and fifteen tokens of judgment, very poorly illustrated compared with the other parts of the book; and ( ) _l'art de bien vivre_, copiously decorated with scenes from bible history, an oblong set, illustrating the adoration of the virgin and child, the lord's prayer, commandments, apostles, etc.; ( ) a very fine set of cuts illustrating the sacraments. in june, , vérard published in three large folio volumes, printed for him by jean morand, _les croniques de france_, with pictures of a coronation, royal entry into a town, a king sitting in judgment, etc. etc., the cutting being only of average delicacy, but good enough to do justice to the vigour of some of the designs. from this point onwards his interest seems more and more to have centred in his illuminated copies, and almost all the later vérard illustrations in m. claudin's great work are taken from these. along, however, with many old cuts in his undated _bible historiée_ there are two very fine ones specially made for the work, one of adam and eve in eden, a round cut placed, below the roots of a tree, in a square of black, from which it stands out with extraordinary vividness (see plate xix), and a picture of the trinity and the four evangelists. in an undated _terence en francois_, printed about , vérard availed himself of an idea already exploited by grüninger and some of the low country illustrators, the use of blocks made up of five or six pieces used in different combinations, so as to give an effect of great variety at very small expense. many of the individual blocks, though the figures are not at all terentian, are very charming, and a few of them were freely copied for the english market, where they may be traced for over a century. about the same time as this vérard published a _livre des ordonnances de la prevosté des marchans et eschevinage de la ville de paris_, with numerous small illustrations of different crafts and a most interesting picture of the court of the prevosté with its judges and officials. after the first few years of the sixteenth century vérard seems to have relied more than ever on his stock of old cuts, and does not seem to have produced any notable new books. [illustration: xix. paris, vÉrard, bible en francoys ( ^a). adam and eve. (reduced)] a few books printed or published by less prolific firms remain to be noticed before we speak of the horae which form so important a section among paris illustrated books as to require separate treatment. one of vérard's printers was pierre le rouge, a member of a family which worked also at chablis and at troyes. in july, , and february, - , le rouge printed "pour vincent commin marchand libraire" _la mer des histoires_ in two great folios with large cuts of the kind vérard subsequently used in his _chroniques de france_, and on the titlepage a particularly fine capital l. philippe pigouchet, mainly a printer of horae, produced in for his usual publisher, simon vostre, a charmingly illustrated edition of a dull poem, _le chasteau de labeur_, attributed to the playwright of victor hugo's _notre dame de paris_, pierre gringore. wolfgang hopyl printed some fine missals, mostly after ; le petit laurens, besides working for vérard, printed for g. marnef _la nef des folles_, with a few cuts by one of the most skilled of paris craftsmen, and these were rivalled by jean treperel in an undated _paris et vienne_; gillet couteau and jean ménard printed a _danse macabre_ in (not so good as gui marchant's) and a new version of the _biblia pauperum_ entitled _les figures du vieil testament et du nouveau;_ jean lambert, in , produced _la nef des folz du monde_, with cuts imitating those in the basel editions. it would be easy to mention other books, but not without turning our pages into a catalogue. we must turn now to the paris horae. as already noted, among the pictures in jean du pré's verdun missal of november, , there are a set of cuts which seem to have been designed for a horae, though if they were even put to this use no copy of the edition in which they appeared has been recorded. the earliest illustrated horae of which copies exist are three editions published by vérard, in february - , august , and july , all of them small and with insignificant cuts, and all known only from single copies, of which that of the earliest edition (in private hands) is imperfect, while the woodcuts in the other two, both at the bibliothèque nationale, are heavily coloured. vérard's horae of and are said to have been printed for him by jean du pré, and in the next group of editions du pré on his own account seems to have played the chief part, with levet and caillaut as subordinate actors. it is probable that the group may have been started by a psalter printed by levet september, , and reprinted february, - , the cuts of these appearing in an undated _horae ad usum romanum_, printed by du pré, now in the british museum. this measures about ( / ) × ¼ inches, and of the same size, but with different woodcuts, are another undated horae by du pré in the bodleian, and a third, with caillaut's mark at the end, in the bibliothèque nationale. the cuts in all three are delightfully simple and naive, and those in the bodleian du pré edition show really delicate work. the group, which comprised other editions only known from fragments, seems to be continued by two dated respectively may, , and february, - , each measuring about ( / ) × ( / ) inches, the illustrations in which are distinctly stated to have been cut on copper (_les vignettes de ces presentes heures imprimees en cuyvre_). the illustrations especially referred to are the borderpieces, which are of great importance as containing the earliest examples of a series of small horae cuts continued from page to page, in this case depicting incidents in the life of christ and their prefigurements, on the plan of the old block-book _biblia pauperum_. lastly, in , we have a du pré horae, with very fine cuts and with some of the miscellaneous borderpieces of the editions just mentioned, which is of exceptional interest in the history of french book-illustration and printing, since the cuts and borders in it are printed in different colours, faint red, blue and green, two colours (laid on the same block and printed at the same time) usually appearing together. the british museum possesses one of two known copies of this horae, and the late prince d'essling bought the other. [illustration: xx. paris, vÉrard, grandes heures (sig. c verso). massacre of the innocents] in the horae of the group we have been describing the subjects of the larger cuts became fairly well settled, in accordance with the normal contents of the prayer book. for the kalendar there is the figure of a man with an indication of the parts of his body presided over by the different planets: for the sequence of the gospels of the passion, sometimes a crucifixion, sometimes a picture of s. john; for the hours of the blessed virgin, the annunciation, visitation, nativity, shepherds, magi, circumcision, massacre of the innocents or flight into egypt, and assumption of the blessed virgin; for the hours of the cross, a crucifixion; for the hours of the holy spirit, his descent at pentecost; for the penitential psalms, david's fall (bathsheba bathing or the death of uriah) or repentance; for the office of the dead, either a funeral, dives and lazarus, or the three gallants and three skeletons (_les trois vifs et trois morts_); for the suffrages, small pictures of various saints. any edition might have one or more additional cuts with less usual subjects, but those named occur in almost all. passing on, we come now to vérard's countermove to du pré's group, horae measuring inches or a little under by about ½. editions of these were issued in april, - , and in january, february, and april of the following year. the last of these, completed april, - , i wrongly described, in an article in vol. iii of _bibliographica_, as having a titlepage bearing the words _les figures de la bible_. it has such a titlepage in the copy in the british museum, but i have now woke up to the fact that it is a modern fabrication, added either by an artful bookseller or an artless owner. in these horae the borders are made up of four pieces, one of which extends along most of the outer and lower margins, and shows children wrestling with each other, or playing with hobbies or go-carts. on july, , these are found in a horae issued by laurens philippe. vérard could the better afford to part with them, since in august, , perhaps earlier, he had substituted much larger borders, the subjects in which seem imitated from those of du pré's metal-cuts, the printed page now measuring about × inches, and thus winning for them the title grandes heures, by which they are generally known (see plate xx). the large cuts, of which, though not all appear in every edition, there seems to have been seventeen, illustrate the following subjects:-- . prayer to the virgin; . anatomical man; . a chalice the circumference of which represents the measurement of christ's wound; . fall of angels; . creation of eve and fall; . controversy in heaven between mercy, justice, peace, and reason, and annunciation; . reconciliation of joseph and mary, and visitation; . nativity and adoration by the shepherds; . angels and shepherds, shepherds dancing; . magi; . circumcision; . massacre of innocents; . coronation of the virgin; . david's choice of punishments; . hearse in a chancel; . invention of the cross; . pentecost. the cutting is good and the pictures are both quaint and decorative, their larger size enabling them to avoid the overcrowding which had damaged the effect of the earlier sets. these cuts continued in use till , successive editions in may, july, and october of that year, from the press of jean poitevin, showing their gradual replacement by copies of philippe pigouchet's second set. this famous printer-illustrator was certainly printing as early as , though mr. proctor in his "index" makes the horae for the use of paris, finished december, , his earliest book. although not his earliest book, i still believe that this was pigouchet's earliest book of hours, and regret that m. claudin, while rejecting supposed editions of and , should have accepted as authentic one of september, , said to have very rude and archaic cuts, while owning that he could not trace a copy. until the book can be produced i shall continue to believe that this edition of september, , is a ghost begotten of a double crime, a bookseller's manipulation of the date of one of pigouchet's best-known editions, that of "le xvi iour de septembre lan mil cccc.iiii.xx et xviii," by omitting the x in xviii, and a bibliographer's endeavour to make this imaginary edition of september, , more credible by assuming--and asserting--that its cuts were rude and archaic because over three years earlier than any authenticated horae from pigouchet's press. his edition of december, , was printed partly for sale by himself, partly for de marnef, who subsequently owned the blocks. besides the usual illustrations for the hours, it has pictures of s. john writing and of the betrayal for the gospels of the passion, of david's choice of punishments for the penitential psalms, and of les trois vifs et trois morts, and dives and lazarus for the office for the dead; also a small cut, with a criblé background of the vision of s. gregory, and numerous small cuts of saints. the sidepieces, which are marked with letters to indicate their sequence, illustrate the creation, the prophecies of the sibyls, and the subjects of the _biblia pauperum._ during the years and at least eight or ten horae for various uses were printed by pigouchet, mostly for simon vostre. of most of these a good many copies have survived printed on vellum and often illuminated for wealthy purchasers. the paper copies, which presumably formed the bulk of each edition, are now far rarer, and to students of book-illustration much preferable to the coloured vellum copies. good vellum copies with the pictures and borders uncoloured, but with their pages brightened by illuminated capitals and coloured paragraph marks, are the pleasantest to possess. at the end of or early in pigouchet began replacing the woodcuts of this series of editions with a new set much more graceful and less stiff, a few changes being made in the subjects. at the same time he substituted new borderpieces for the old, among the new blocks being a fine series of the dance of death, which were brought into use as they were completed, so that we can trace the increase of them from month to month, so frequent now were the editions. in and further additions were made to the large pictures by the addition of new metal cuts with criblé backgrounds for the anatomical man, chalice, stem of jesse, adoration by the shepherds, descent from the cross, death of uriah, and the church militant and triumphant. by the end of new criblé borderpieces had been added, illustrating the life of joseph, history of the prodigal son, history of susanna, fifteen tokens of judgment, christ seated in judgment, the cardinal virtues, and woodland and hunting scenes. from august, , to the end of pigouchet's editions were at their finest. meanwhile the cuts of his second set were slavishly copied in editions printed for vérard. from , moreover, he had to face serious competition from thielman kerver, who issued closely similar editions with pictures and borders by cutters little, if at all, inferior either in technical skill or charm. on april, , jean pychore and remy de laistre completed an edition, in which pigouchet probably had a hand, with three very large cuts of the annunciation, nativity, and adoration by the magi, and eight smaller ones surrounded by architectural framework, representing s. john before the latin gate, the crucifixion, the emperor octavian and the sibyl, the massacre of the innocents, descent of the holy spirit, death of the virgin, and raising of lazarus, some of them showing strong traces of the influence of dürer. from this point onwards the renaissance spirit became increasingly powerful in these prayer books, and while in almost all their advances to meet it the work of pigouchet himself, and of thielman kerver, continues interesting (though the mixture of old and new styles in their editions is often confusing), in the numerous editions poured forth by germain and gillet hardouyn, many of them printed for them by guillaume anabat, and again in those printed by nicolas higman for guillaume eustace, the cuts are very inferior, so that they look best when most heavily illuminated. in a few editions published by the hardouyns spaces appear to have been left for the illuminator to work unaided. in most of these late editions only the pages with cuts have borders, and these of the nature of picture frames, as contrasted with the old historiated borders. in geoffroi tory, a native of bourges (born about ), who at this period of his life was at once a skilled designer, a scholar, and a printer, completed a horae which, though somewhat thin and unsatisfying compared with the richer and more pictorial work of pigouchet at his best, far surpassed any edition produced at paris for the previous twenty years. part of the edition was taken up by the great publisher of the day, simon colines, and while the body of the book was only printed once, differences in the titlepages and colophons and in the arrangement of the almanac and privilege constitute altogether three different issues. whereas the best earlier editions had been printed in gothic letter this is in roman, and both the borders and the twelve illustrations aim at the lightness and grace necessary to match the lighter type. the vase-like designs of the borders are meaningless, but the pictures, despite the long faces and somewhat angular figures, have a peculiar charm. they were used again, with some additions, in a horae completed october, . an edition of october, , described by tory's chief biographer, auguste bernard, as printed, "chez simon de colines en caractères romains avec des vignettes de même genre, mais beaucoup plus petites," i have never seen. three weeks later tory printed in gothic letter a paris horae with borders of birds and fruits and flowers rather in the style of some of the flemish manuscripts. in february, , he produced a much smaller horae in roman type without borders, but with some very delicate little cuts, used again by olivier mallard, who married his widow, in . tory appears to have died in , and attributions of later work to him on the ground of its being marked with a "cross of lorraine" (i.e. a cross with two transverse strokes) should be received with caution, unless the cuts are found in books by tory's widow or her second husband. it is not quite clear that the cross is not the mark of a wood-cutter rather than a designer, and if it really marks the designer we must believe that it was used by others beside tory, so various is the work on which it is found. illustrated books were published at lyon somewhat earlier than at paris, and in point of numbers, if the comparison be confined to secular books with sets of cuts especially appropriated to them, the provincial city probably equalled, if it did not surpass, the metropolis. but if it must be reckoned to the credit of lyon that it had no antoine vérard, reckless in his use of unsuitable stock cuts, it must be noted, on the other hand, that strikingly good illustrations are rare and bad ones numerous. inasmuch as lyon, before it welcomed the art of printing, had established some reputation for the manufacture of playing-cards, the number of rude and badly cut illustrations is indeed surprisingly large. the first lyonnese printer to use pictorial woodcuts in a dated book was martin huss, who issued a _miroir de la rédemption_, august, , with the aid of blocks previously used ( ) by bernard richel at basel; cuts of surgical instruments appeared in the following march, - , in the _chirurgia_ of guido de cauliaco printed for barth. buyer by nicolaus philippi and marcus reinhart, and the same printers' undated _legende dorée_ with very rude pictures is probably contemporaneous with this. the earliest woodcut of any artistic interest and of lyonnese origin is a picture, occupying a folio-page, of the blessed virgin, with the holy child in her arms, standing in front of a curtain. this is found in the _histoire du chevalier oben qui vouloist acuplir le voiage de s. patrix_, printed by leroy about , of which the only known copy is at the british museum. after all the firms we have named continued to issue illustrated books of varying merit. on september, , leroy completed a _livre des eneydes_ with cuts which are often grotesque, though sometimes neat and sometimes giving evidence of a vigour of design too great for the wood-cutter's skill. in he found a lyonnese cutter able to copy for him the paris cuts of jean bonhomme's edition of the _destruction de troye la grant_ quite competently, though in a much heavier style. in may, , he printed a _livre des sainctz anges_ with a figure of christ in a mandorla (perhaps suggested by the engraving of the same subject in bettini's _monte santo di dio_), and this, despite a certain clumsiness in the face, is quite good. in the same year, in an edition of _fierabras_, leroy went back to cuts of incredible rudeness, while about in _les mysteres de la saincte messe_, we find him employing for a cut of the annunciation a skilled craftsman, signing himself i. d. (jean dalles?), whose work, though lacking in charm, is neatness itself. some shaded cuts in his romance of bertrand du guesclin (undated, but _c._ ) are among the best work in any book by leroy. among his other undated illustrated books are editions of _pierre de provence_, _melusine_, and the _roman de la rose_. nicolaus philippi and marcus reinhart in illustrated a _mirouer de la vie humaine_ (from the latin of rodericus zamorensis) with augsburg cuts purchased from the stock of günther zainer[ ], and copied a paris edition in their _vie des saintz pères hermites_ and german originals in their _mandeville_ and _aesop_. their edition of the _postilla guillermi_ (_c._ ) has rather a fine crucifixion and some primitive but vigorous illustrations of the gospels. martin huss issued an undated _exposition de la bible_ with rude cuts and a french _belial_ (version of pierre ferget), first printed in november, , and at least five times subsequently. after his death in his business was carried on by a kinsman, mathieu huss, who became a prolific publisher of illustrated books, with cuts of very varying merit. two of his earliest ventures were the _proprietaire des choses_ ( november, ), a french version of the _de proprietatibus rerum_ of bartholomaeus anglicus, and a _fasciculus temporum_ ( ), both with very rude cuts. during a partnership with johann schabeler he issued (about ) a french version of boccaccio's _de casibus illustrium virorum_, the pictures in which are hard, stiff, and a little grotesque, but not without character. of his later books several are illustrated with cuts borrowed or copied from other editions; but beyond a _legende dorée_ with shaded column-cuts, frequently reprinted, he does not seem to have commissioned any important illustrated book. while the pictorial work of the lyonnese presses was thus largely imitative, at least two very important books were first illustrated there. the earlier of these was the _roman de la rose_, of which the first printed edition, decorated with eighty-six cuts mostly small and rudely executed, but which at least have the merit of intelligently following the text, is now attributed to the press of ortuin and schenck at lyon about .[ ] these primitive pictures were quickly copied by a cutter of somewhat greater skill but much less intelligence, who "improved" the original designs without troubling to understand them. this new set of cuts was used twice at lyon, by jean syber (about ) and by leroy (about ), and was then acquired (less one of the two larger cuts) by jean du pré of paris, who issued an edition about . about , and again a few years later, new editions were issued in which most of the same cuts reappear, jean petit having a share in both editions and vérard in the first, despite the fact that he had issued a rival edition about .[ ] [illustration: xxi. lyon, trechsel, terence (sig. a verso)] the other famous lyonnese illustrated book was an annotated edition of _terence_ "with pictures prefixed to every scene" printed in by johann trechsel. this has a curious full-page picture at the beginning, giving the artist's idea of a roman theatre, with a box for the aediles at the side and a ground floor labelled "fornices." the text is illustrated by half-page cuts, a little hard, but with abundance of life (see plate xxi). these certainly influenced the strassburg edition of grüninger ( ), and through grüninger's that published at paris by vérard about , and to an even greater extent the illustrated editions issued at venice. how eagerly lyonnese publishers looked out for books to imitate may be seen from the rival lyonnese renderings of breidenbach's _peregrinationes_ and brant's _narrenschiff_. of the breidenbach, michel topie and jac. de herrnberg issued in november, , an adaptation by nicolas le huen with copies on copperplate of the maps and on wood of the smaller pictures, both very well executed. rather over a year later, in february, , a translation by "frere iehan de hersin" was published by jacques maillet with the original mainz blocks. as for the ship of fools, jacques sacon, the leading publisher at the end of the century, issued an edition of locher's latin version with close copies of the basel cuts in june, , and in the following august a french edition was published by guillaume balsarin with cuts so hastily executed that in many cases all the background has been omitted. a few illustrated incunabula were issued at chambéry, and isolated books elsewhere, but with the exception of lyon and abbeville no french provincial town produced any notable work. in spain the fine gothic types and frequent use of woodcut capitals give a very decorative appearance to most of the incunabula, but pictorial illustrations are rare, and of the few sets of cuts known to us several are borrowed or copied from french or german editions. the earliest spanish illustrated book known to me is a _fasciculus temporum_, printed by bart. segura and alfonsus de portu at seville in , with a dozen metal-cuts of the usual stock subjects; the earliest with original illustrations, the marquis of villena's _trabajos de hercules_, printed by antonio de centenera at zamora, january, , with eleven extraordinarily rude cuts of the hero's adventures. in and an unidentified printer at huete produced editions of the _copilacion de leyes_ of diaz de montalvo, with some striking metal-cut pictorial capitals, illustrating the subjects of the successive books. in one copy of the edition i have seen a very fine full-page cut, but could not satisfy myself as to whether this belonged to the book, or was an insertion. an edition of martorell's romance, entitled _tirant lo blanch_, printed at valentia in by nic. spindeler, has a decorative metal-cut border to the first page of text, and during the following decade illustrated books become fairly numerous. at saragossa paul hurus issued in a spanish version of the _speculum humanae vitae_ of rodericus zamorensis, with cuts copied from the augsburg edition, another in of boccaccio's _de claris mulieribus_, with seventy-two cuts, copied from the editions printed by johann zainer at ulm, and four from some other source, another in of breidenbach's _peregrinatio_, and other books, not known to me personally, but which from their titles almost certainly contain copies of foreign cuts. in , when his press had been taken over by three partners, coci, hutz, and appentegger, there issued from it an _officia quotidiana_, ornamented with some fifty pictures and many hundreds of fine capitals. [illustration: xxii. seville, stanislaus polonus, ricoldus. improbatio alcorani. (title)] at barcelona several illustrated books were printed by juan rosenbach, one of the earliest of them, the _carcel d'amor_ of diego de san pedro ( ), having sixteen original cuts, characteristically spanish in tone and showing good craftsmanship. in or about the same year friedrich biel of basel (usually quoted as fadrique de basilea, or fadrique aleman) headed an edition of the _passion de christo_ with a striking metal-cut of christ standing upright in the tomb, watched by the b. virgin and s. john. for his spanish _aesop_ of he presumably copied the german cuts, and he certainly did so for his _exemplario contra engaños_ of , the cuts of which are all careless copies of those in prüss's edition of the _directorium humanae vitae._ even when in (or about) the next year he was issuing the first edition of the _celestina_ or _tragicomedia de calisto y melibea_, he could not do so without german models, and based his sixteen little pictures on some of those in grüninger's _terence_, while for his _stultiferae naues_ of badius ascensius he went, of course, to the charming french cuts of de marnef. as a rule, these spanish versions of foreign cuts have the interest which always attaches to a free rehandling by a craftsman with a characteristic touch and style of his own. none the less it is refreshing to turn to more original work, and at least a little of this (though some one with wider knowledge than myself may further minimize the statement) is to be found at seville. here in ungut and stanislaus polonus issued a _regimiento de los principes_, translated from the latin of aegidius columna, with a fine title-cut of a young prince (his hair is long) seated in a chair of state, holding a sword and royal orb. the same partners were responsible for another striking titlepage in , that of the _lilio de medicina_, bernardus de gordonio, where two angels are seen upholding seven lilies in a pot; they also issued in the same year the _contemplaciones sobre el rosario de nuestra señora_, a fine and typically spanish book, printed in red and black, with good capitals, two large cuts and fifteen smaller ones, enclosed in borders of white tracery on a black ground. in the last year of the century they issued an _improbatio alcorani_ with a swart picture of a disputation on the titlepage, not easily forgotten (see plate xxii). it was at seville also that in pedro brun printed in quarto the romance of the emperor vespasian, illustrated with fourteen excellent cuts, some of them full of life and movement; but for these a foreign model is quite likely some day to be discovered. on the other hand, at valentia also there was at least a little work indisputably of native origin, as in the case of the title-cut to the _de regimine domus_ of s. bernard, printed by nic. spindeler about , and (less certainly) another to the _obra allaors de s. christofol_, issued by peter trincher in the same year. pictorial title-cuts are not so common in spanish books as in those of other countries, because of the spanish fondness for filling the titlepage with an elaborate coat of arms. but nearly all their early bookwork is strong and effective, and the printer who placed a cut on a titlepage nearly always secured a good one. is it too much to hope that dr. conrad haebler, who has already done such admirable work in recording spanish incunabula and printing facsimiles of their types, will some day complete his task by publishing a similar volume of facsimiles of spanish cuts? footnotes: [ ] similar spaces were left in the typographically anonymous french version of valerius maximus, printed about the same date. [ ] _antoine vérard._ by john macfarlane. illustrated monographs published by the bibliographical society. no. vii. printed at the chiswick press, september, . [ ] so in the _lucain suetonne et saluste_ of , five cuts of battle-scenes, all borrowed from the _mer des histoires_, printed by lerouge in , are made to do duty sixty-four times. [ ] in these are found at saragossa in an edition printed by hurus. [ ] it has also been attributed to jean croquet at geneva, but there is only a typographical argument for this ascription, whereas on the side of lyon, in addition to (rather weaker) typographical arguments, we have to reckon with lyonnese paper, the similarity of the illustrations to those of a cutter employed by martin huss, and the fact that the book was copied in two editions undoubtedly lyonnese. see f. w. bourdillon's _the early editions of the roman de la rose_ ( ). [ ] only a few of the cuts in this were specially designed for it, all the later ones being taken from stock in vérard's most haphazard fashion. chapter x later foreign books one of the chief charms of the books of the fifteenth century is that they are so unlike those of our own day. in the first year of its successor a great step was taken towards their modernization by the production of the first of the aldine octavos, and the process went on very rapidly. in the early days of printing all the standard works of the previous three centuries that could by any possibility be considered alive were put on the press. by men were thinking of new things. new editions of many of the old religious and didactic treatises, the old poems and romances, continued to be printed, though mostly in a form which suggests that they were now intended for a lower class of readers, but the new publishers would have little to do with them. scholarship, which till now had been almost confined to italy, spread rapidly to all the chief countries of europe, and amid the devastation which constant war soon brought upon italy, was lucky in being able to find new homes. with the new literary ideals came new forms for books, and new methods of housing them. before several publishers had found it worth their while to print editions in five huge volumes of the _speculum_ of vincent de beauvais, each volume measuring eighteen inches by thirteen and weighing perhaps a dozen pounds, though paper in those days was not yet made of clay. these great volumes had been cased in thick wooden boards, covered with stout leather and protected with bosses or centre-pieces and corner-pieces of metal. they were not intended to stand on shelves like modern books, but were laid on their sides, singly, on shelves and desks, and from pictures which have come down to us we can see that the library furniture of the day included a variety of reading-stands with the most wonderful of screws. the men for whom aldus catered wanted books which they could put in their pockets and their saddlebags, and it was not long before the publishers of paris and lyon outdid aldus in the smallness and neatness of their editions. of course large books continued to be issued. the _complutensian polyglott_ will not easily be got either into a pocket or a saddlebag, but it is a good deal smaller than the _speculum_ of vincent de beauvais, and, speaking generally, small folios took the place of large folios, and octavos the place of quartos, and in a little time the octavos themselves were threatened by the still smaller sextodecimos. there is, indeed, no stop till in the seventeenth century we come to the tiny elzevirs, which remained the last word in book-production until the diamond editions of didot and pickering. aldus manutius, who led the revolution, has often been wrongly praised. he can hardly be called a great printer. he burdened greek scholarship for three centuries with a thoroughly bad style in greek types, and the cursive substitute which he provided for the fine roman founts for which italy had been famous almost drove them from the field. both the greek type and the italics were the outcome of confused thinking. they were based upon styles of handwriting which aldus and his scholarly friends doubtless found more expeditious than the formal book-hands which had previously been in use. quickness in writing is an excellent thing. but a sloping type takes just as long to set up as an upright one, and absolutely nothing is gained by the substitution of an imitation of a quicker hand for the imitation of a slower one. aldus had begun publishing at venice early in [ ] with an edition of the greek grammar of lascaris, an earlier edition of which, issued at milan in , had been the first book wholly in greek to obtain the honour of print. the idylls of theocritus and the poem of hesiod called _works and days_ had been printed at the same place in and a greek psalter in . at florence the famous first edition of homer was printed (by bartolommeo libri) in , and was followed in the years - (i.e. about the time that aldus began work) by five books printed entirely in majuscules on the model of the letters used in inscriptions. among these books were the greek anthology, four plays of euripides, and an apollonius rhodius. the printing of the greek classics had thus made a start, although a slow one. aldus now greatly quickened the pace, producing his great aristotle in four (or, as it is sometimes reckoned, five) volumes, between the years and , and following it up with nine comedies of aristophanes in , thucydides, sophocles, and herodotus in , xenophon's _hellenics_, and the plays of euripides in and demosthenes in . the service which he thus rendered to greek scholarship was incalculable, but it was accompanied by a very serious drawback, the evil effects of which lasted for nearly three centuries. the greek quotations in many books printed in italy before this time had been printed in types imitating the writing in fairly old greek manuscripts, handsome in appearance and fairly free from contractions; aldus is said to have taken as his model the handwriting of his friend marcus musurus, with all its crabbed and often fantastic ligatures, and the simplicity of the greek alphabet was thus intolerably complicated. as we have seen, the introduction of the aldine italics, though in themselves a better fount than the greek type, was almost as mischievous in its effects. on the other hand, the service which aldus rendered to scholarship by his cheap and handy series of the latin and italian classics was very great. the first book which he printed in his new type was a virgil, and this was quickly followed by works by petrarch and dante and a whole series of similar editions. aldus had powerful supporters in these ventures, among them being jean grolier, the famous bibliophile, who for many years was resident in italy as treasurer of the duchy of milan. despite this encouragement he did not find printing very profitable, partly, no doubt, on account of the wars in which venice was at this time engaged. on the death of aldus in his business was for some time carried on by his father-in-law, andrea de torresani, an excellent printer, but with little of aldus's scholarship. in , at the age of twenty-one, paulus manutius, the youngest son of aldus, took over the management of the firm, and proved himself an even finer scholar than his father. financially he was no more successful, and when he was made printer to the pope the anxiety of carrying on business at rome as well as at venice only added to his difficulties. on his death in his son, aldus manutius the younger, succeeded him and worked till , but without adding anything to the reputation of the firm, perhaps because he had been pushed on prematurely in his boyhood, as is witnessed by his compilation of a volume of elegant extracts at the age of nine. the family of printers and publishers which came nearest to rivalling the fame of the aldi in italy during the sixteenth century was that of the giunta. springing originally from florence, members of it worked for some time simultaneously at florence and venice, and lucantonio giunta, the earliest member of it to rise into note, was already one of the foremost publishers at venice in the closing years of the fifteenth century, and subsequently printed for himself instead of always employing other men to print for him. the speciality of this venetian firm was at first illustrated books of all kinds, afterwards the production of large and magnificent missals and other service books of the roman church, and these they continued to publish until nearly the end of the sixteenth century. at florence, filippo giunta competed with aldus of venice in printing pretty little editions of the classics, his competition sometimes taking the form of unscrupulous imitation. at rome, eucharius silber and his successor marcellus were the chief printers from to . a little later the bladi took their place, and under the auspices of the council of the propaganda of the faith a press was set up for printing in syriac, armenian, and other oriental languages. the output also of the presses in other italian cities was still considerable. nevertheless, from the same causes which produced her political decay italy rapidly ceased to be the head-quarters of european printing, yielding this honour to france about the end of the first quarter of the century, and by some thirty or forty years later becoming quite uninfluential. to the german printing trade, also, the sixteenth century brought a notable decline of reputation. in its first two decades johann schoeffer (son of peter) produced some fine books at mainz; at strassburg grüninger poured forth illustrated books, and johann knoblouch and matthias schürer were both prolific. the importance of cologne diminished, though the sons of heinrich quentell had a good business. augsburg, on the other hand, came to the front, the elder and younger schoensperger, johann and silvanus otmar, erhard oglin, johann miller, and the firm of sigismund grim and marcus wirsung all doing important work. at nuremberg the chief printing houses were those of hieronymus hölzel, johann weissenburger, and friedrich peypus. leipzig and hagenau both greatly increased their output, and with the advent of luther, wittenberg soon became an important publishing centre. luther's activity alone would have sufficed to make the fortunes of any publisher had it not been for the fact that as each pamphlet from his pen was produced at wittenberg by hans lufft, or some other authorized printer, it was promptly pirated in other cities, often with the retention of the original imprint. many of these luther tracts had ornamental borders, and, as will be narrated in another chapter, the german book-illustrations of this period were often very finely designed, but the paper used, even in important books, was poor compared to that found in german incunabula, and the presswork too often careless. these defects are found intensified in almost all the german books published after this date, and german printing soon lost all its technical excellence, though the output of its presses continued to be large, and the great annual fair at frankfort during the course of the sixteenth century became the most important event in the book-trade of northern europe. a little before germany gave herself up to theological strife, the conjunction at basel of the great printer johann froben and the great scholar erasmus temporarily raised that city to importance as an intellectual centre. froben had begun printing at basel in , but until he formed his friendship with erasmus in published only a few editions of the bible, some of the papal decretals, the works of s. ambrose, and a few other books of no special interest. from onwards his output increased rapidly both in quantity and importance, so that by the time of his death in he had printed over three hundred books, including almost all the works of erasmus and many books in greek. during this period, also, border-pieces and initials were designed for him by the two holbeins (hans and ambrosius) and other skilful artists, and he was entitled to rank as the greatest printer-publisher in europe in succession to aldus. after his death in the supremacy of european printing rested for the next generation indisputably with france. during the fifteenth century printing in france had developed almost entirely on its own lines. vernacular books of every description had poured from the presses of paris and lyon, and many of them had been charmingly illustrated in a style worthy of the great french school of illustrators of manuscripts. in the first half of the sixteenth century the publication of these popular books--romances, poetry, and works of devotion--still continued, though with some loss of quality, the print and paper being less good and the illustrations often consisting of a medley of old blocks, or where new ones were made being executed in a coarser and heavier style. but to the vernacular literature there was now added a learned and scholarly literature which soon rose to great importance. as early as johann trechsel, a printer of lyon, had possessed himself of sufficient greek type to print quotations in that language, and in the following year he issued the profusely illustrated edition of _terence_, the cuts in which were imitated by grüninger at strassburg. trechsel's press corrector and general editor was a young scholar named josse bade, of asch, near ghent, better known by the latin form of his name as jodocus badius ascensius, or ascensianus. in , after trechsel's death, ascensius started business for himself in paris, and his editions of the classics, well known from the device of a printing-press found on many of their titlepages, obtained a considerable reputation. almost simultaneously, in , henri estienne, the first of a famous family of scholar-printers, had started in business by an expedient of which we hear a great deal in the annals of english printing, that of marrying a printer's widow. of henri estienne's three sons the eldest, françois, became a bookseller, robert a scholar-printer, and charles, in the first instance, a physician. in the technical side of his business henri had been helped by simon de colines, who, on his employer's death, in , became his widow's third husband, and carried on the business until , when he handed it over to robert estienne, and started on his own account in another house in the same street. thus, just as the co-operation of erasmus with froben, which began shortly before the death of aldus, brought the basel press into prominence, so this duplication, just before the death of froben, of the business of henri estienne with the two firms of robert estienne and simon de colines materially aided the rivalry of paris. greek printing, which by this time had become essential to a printer's reputation for scholarship, had at last begun there with the publication of a greek grammar in , and had increased somewhat, though not very rapidly. in françois i appointed robert estienne royal printer for latin and hebrew, and conrad neobar, a german from the diocese of cologne, his printer for greek. it was soon after this that plans were formed for the printing of greek texts from manuscripts in the royal library, and the preparation for this purpose of a special fount of greek type. neobar died from overwork the following year, and the office of royal printer in greek was added to robert estienne's other honours, and with it the supervision of the new greek type. for this angelus vergetius, a celebrated greek calligrapher, had probably already made the drawings, and the cutting of the punches was entrusted to claude garamond. by a fount of great primer had been completed and a book printed in it, the _praeparatio euangelica_ of eusebius. a smaller type, of the size known as pica, was next put in hand, and a pocket greek testament in sextodecimo printed with it in . lastly, a third fount, larger than either of the others, was produced and used for the text of a folio greek testament in , the other two founts appearing in the prefatory matter and notes. these royal greek types became very famous and served as a model to all designers of greek characters for nearly two centuries. technically, indeed, they are as good as they could be, showing a great advance in clearness and dignity upon those of aldus, from which nevertheless they inherited the fatal defect of being based on the handwriting of contemporary greek scholars, instead of on the book-hand of a nobler period of greek writing. while the name of robert estienne is thus connected with these royal greek types he was himself distinctly a latinist, and his own personal contribution to scholarship was a latin dictionary (_thesaurus linguae latinae_) published in , which remained a standard work for two centuries. he published, too, as did also simon de colines, many very pretty little editions of latin classics in sextodecimo, some in italics, others in roman type, thus carrying a step further the triumphant march of the small book, which aldus had only taken as far as octavos. simon de colines, while sharing in work of this kind, did not neglect other classes of literature, and, as has already been noted, joined with geoffroi tory, another scholar-printer, who was also a scholar-artist, in producing some remarkable editions of the hours of the blessed virgin. this scholar-artist, geoffroi tory, was a native of bourges, who had been a professor at several of the paris colleges and was at one time proof-reader to henri estienne. his career as a printer began in and ended with his death in , after which his business was carried on by olivier mallard, who married his widow. tory printed a few scholarly books and wrote and published a curious work, to which he gave the name _champfleury_, on the right forms and proportions of the letters of the alphabet. it is, however, by his books of hours that he is now chiefly remembered. while all this good work was going on in paris the printers at lyon were no less busy. at the beginning of the century aldus had been justly annoyed at the clever counterfeits of his italic octavos which were put on the market at lyon. but in sebastian gryphius (a german, born in at reutlingen) lyon became possessed of a printer who had no need to imitate even aldus. after printing one or two works in the four preceding years his press got into full swing in and, by the time of his death in he had issued very nearly a thousand different editions, mostly in latin, and many of them in the dainty format in sextodecimo which estienne and de colines were using in paris. in the luckless etienne dolet, soon to be burnt as a heretic, arrived at lyon, and with some friendly help from gryphius printed between and some seventy editions. in jean de tournes, who had been a journeyman in the office of gryphius, started business for himself, and soon proved a worthy rival to his master. meanwhile excellent popular work was being done by other printers, such as françois juste, claude nourry, macé bonhomme, and guillaume roville. from the old lyonnese firm of trechsel proceeded in two books illustrated by holbein (the _dance of death_ and _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_, see p. ), and numerous other lyonnese books were charmingly illustrated and also, it may be added, charmingly bound, a very pretty style of trade bindings being just then in vogue. against the pretty bindings and vignettes and the popular books to which they were applied little or no opposition was raised, and they continued to be issued till the taste for them died out about . but against all the scholarly work of the french presses the leaders of the church took up an attitude of unrelenting hostility. foremost in this opposition, regretful that their predecessors had introduced printing into france, were the theologians of the sorbonne, who forbade the study of hebrew as dangerous and likely to lead to heresy, and looked with eyes almost as unfriendly on that of greek. in (just after the iniquitous campaign against the vaudois) etienne dolet was hanged on a charge of atheism, and his body cut down and burnt amid a pile of his books. in , despite his position as a royal printer, robert estienne, who had just completed his fine folio edition of the greek testament, was obliged to seek safety by flying to geneva, and a generation later jean de tournes the younger, of lyon, was obliged to follow his example. the kings of france and their advisers at this period were determined to be rid of both huguenots and freethinkers at all costs, and french scholarship and french printing were both the recipients of blows from which it took them some generations to recover. when robert estienne fled to geneva, his brother, the physician, charles, was allowed to succeed to his office at paris, and he in turn was followed by a younger robert, who died in . meanwhile robert i had taken with him a set of matrices of the royal greek types, and with these and other founts printed at geneva until his death in . his son, henri estienne ii, then took over the business, but was of too restless and roving a disposition to conduct it with success. as a scholar he was even greater than his father, excelling in greek as robert had in latin, and producing in a greek dictionary (_thesaurus graecae linguae_) which became as famous as the latin one which robert had published forty years earlier. henri estienne the younger died in , but the estienne tradition was kept up by his son paul ( - ) and grandson antoine ( - ), the latter bringing back into the family the office of royal printer at paris, and printing an edition of the septuagint. under the discouraging conditions of the middle of the sixteenth century french printers gradually ceased to be scholars and enthusiasts, but christopher plantin, a frenchman, born in the neighbourhood of tours in , built up by his energy and industry a great business at antwerp, the memory of which is preserved in the famous plantin museum. he had started at antwerp in as a binder, but about six years later turned his attention to printing, in consequence (it is said) of an accident which disabled him for binding-work. the most famous of his books is the great antwerp polyglott edition of the bible in eight volumes, published between the years and . over this he came so near to ruining himself that the spanish government granted him special privileges for the production of service-books by way of compensation. the sack of antwerp by the spaniards in was another heavy financial blow, and for a time plantin removed to leyden, and also for a time kept a branch business at paris. but he ultimately returned to antwerp, and his premises remained in the possession of the descendants of one of his sons-in-law, joannes moretus, until they were purchased in for £ , as the musée plantin. after plantin's death the branch business which he had left at leyden was carried on by another of his sons-in-law, franciscus raphelengius, who printed some pretty little editions of the classics and other good books. plantin's own work as a printer was costly and pretentious rather than beautiful, and the bad style of his ornaments and initials exercised a powerful influence for evil on the printers of the ensuing century. the mention of plantin's antwerp polyglott may remind us that the first polyglott edition of the bible had been printed between and at alcalà, in spain, under the auspices of cardinal ximenes. the latin name of alcalà being complutum, this edition is generally quoted as the complutensian polyglott. among the notable features in it is the use of a singularly fine greek type in the new testament. absolutely different from the aldine and all the other greek types imitating the rapid handwriting of the greek scholars of the sixteenth century, this was based on the book-hand used in some early manuscript, possibly the one which the pope had lent from the vatican to aid cardinal ximenes in forming his text. it was on this greek type that mr. robert proctor, shortly before his death, based his own fount of greek, supplying the majuscules which (with a single exception) are wanting in the original and making other improvements, but keeping closely to his model and thus producing by far the finest greek type ever cast. this has been used to print notable editions of the _oresteia_ and _odyssey_, the former at the chiswick, the latter at the clarendon press. save for the complutensian polyglott there is nothing striking to record of the spanish printing of the sixteenth century, which retained its massive and archaic character for some decades, and then became as dull and undistinguished as the printing of all the rest of europe tended to be towards the end of the century. the enthusiasm with which the new art had at first been received had died out. printers were no longer lodged in palaces, monasteries, and colleges; church and state, which had at first fostered and protected them, were now jealous and suspicious, even actively hostile. thriving members of other occupations and professions had at one time taken to the craft. a little later great scholars had been willing to give their help and advice, and at least a few printers had themselves been men of learning. all this had passed or was passing. printing had sunk to the level of a mere craft, and a craft in which the hours appear to have been cruelly long and work uncertain and badly paid. in the eighteenth century the dutch journeymen were certainly better paid than our own, and it may be that it was through better pay that they did better work in the seventeenth century also. it seems certain, moreover, that the improvements in the construction of printing presses which were introduced in that century originated in holland. the primacy of the dutch is proved by the large amount of dutch type imported into england, and indeed the dutch books of the seventeenth century are neater and in better taste than those of other countries. it was in holland also that there worked the only firm of printers of this period who made themselves any abiding reputation. the founder of this firm, louis elzevir, was a bookseller and bookbinder at leyden, where, in , he began printing on his own account, and issued between that year and his death in over a hundred different books of no very special note. no fewer than five of his seven sons carried on his business, and the different combinations of these and of their successors in different towns are not a little bewildering. bonaventura elzevir with his nephew abraham issued pretty little editions of the classics in very small type in mo and mo, of which the most famous are the greek testament of and , the virgil, terence, livy, tacitus, pliny, and caesar of - , and a similar series of french historical and political works and french and italian classics. after the deaths of abraham and bonaventura in the business was carried on by their respective sons jean and daniel, who issued famous editions of the _imitatio christi_ and the psalter. meanwhile louis elzevir (another grandson of the founder) had been working at amsterdam, and in was joined there by daniel, the new partnership producing some fine folio editions. other members of the family went on working at utrecht and leyden until as late as , so that its whole typographical career extended over a hundred and thirty years. but it is only the little classical editions, and a french cookery book called _le pastissier françois_, that are at all famous, and the fame of these (the little classics being troublesome to read and having more than a fair share of misprints, though edited by david heinsius) probably rests on a misconception. these small classical editions were the last word for two centuries in that development of the small book which we have already traced in the aldine editions at venice, those of de colines and robert estienne of paris, of sebastian gryphius at lyons, and of the successors of plantin at antwerp. now the small books of the elzevirs were produced at a very important period in the history of bookbinding, and when we hear of large sums having been paid for an elzevir it will mostly turn out that the excellence of its binding has had a good deal to do with the price. the cookery book is an exception, the value of this, though often enhanced by a fine binding, being yet considerable, even in a shabby jacket. but the interest in this case is due to the antiquarian instincts of book-loving gourmets, and not in any way to the printing. the little classics, even when of the right date and with all the right little headpieces and all the right misprints, have never been worth on their own merits more than a few pounds, while shabby, cropped copies have no selling value whatever. footnote: [ ] he was born at bassiano in the papal states in . chapter xi foreign illustrated books of the sixteenth century [illustration: xxiii. nuremberg, sodalitas celtica. hroswitha. opera ( ^b). hroswitha and the emperor otho (attributed to dÜrer)] as we have already said, the charm of the woodcut pictures in incunabula lies in their simplicity, in their rude story-telling power, often very forcible and direct, in the valiant effort, sometimes curiously successful in cuts otherwise contemptibly poor, to give character and expression to the human face, and as regards form in the harmony between the woodcuts and the paper and type of the books in which they appear. in the book-illustrations of the sixteenth century the artist is more learned, more self-conscious, and his design is interpreted with far greater skill by the better trained wood-cutters of his day. more pains are taken with accessories, and often perhaps for this reason the cut does not tell its story so quickly as of old. it is now a work of art which demands study, no longer a signpost explaining itself however rapidly the leaf is turned. lastly, the artist seems seldom to have thought of the form of the book in which his work was to appear, of the type with which the text was to be printed, or even of how the wood-cutter was to interpret his design. book-illustration, which had offered to the humble makers of playing-cards and pictures of saints new scope for their skill, became to the artists of the sixteenth century a lightly valued method of earning a little money from the booksellers, their better work being reserved for single designs, or in some cases for the copperplates which at first they executed, as well as drew, themselves. thus the book-collector is conscious, on the one hand, that less pains have been taken to please him, and on the other that he is separating by his hobby one section of an artist's work from the rest, in connection with which it ought to be studied. he may even be in some doubt as to where his province ends, since many of the illustrated books of the sixteenth century, although they possess a titlepage and are made up in quires, are essentially not books at all, the letterpress being confined to explanations of the woodcuts printed either below them or facing them on the opposite pages. the bibliographer himself, it may be added, feels somewhat of an intruder in this field, which properly belongs to the student of art, although in so far as art is enshrined in books and thus brought within the province of the book-collector, bibliography cannot refuse to deal with it. although we have taken off our caps in passing to erhard reuwich and michael wolgemut for their admirable work, the one in the mainz _breidenbach_, the other in the _schatzbehalter_ and _nuremberg chronicle_, it is albrecht dürer who must be regarded as the inaugurator of the second period of german book-illustrations. during his wanderjahre dürer had produced at basel for an edition of s. jerome's epistles, printed by nicolaus kesler in (reprinted ), a rude woodcut of the saint extracting a thorn from his lion's foot. dürer's important bookwork begins in , when his fifteen magnificent woodcuts illustrating the apocalypse (which influenced all later treatments of this theme) were issued twice over at nuremberg, in one edition with german title and text, in the other with latin. stated in their colophons to have been "printed by albrecht dürer, painter," neither edition bears the name of a professional printer. the types used in each case were those of anton koberger, dürer's godfather, and the effect of the artist's personal superintendence, which the colophons attest, is seen in the excellence of the presswork. the following year koberger published an illustrated edition of the _reuelationes sanctae birgittae_ (german reprint in ), and dürer has been supposed to have helped in this, but the theory is now discredited. in he probably contributed two woodcuts to an edition of the comedies of hroswitha, a tenth century nun of the benedictine abbey at gandersheim. conrad celtes had unearthed these comedies some years previously in a ratisbon library, and they were now printed under his editorship for the _sodalitas celtica_ at nuremberg. the illustrations to the comedies themselves, which vie in heaviness with their subjects, are attributed by mr. campbell dodgson to wolfgang traut.[ ] one of the cuts assigned to dürer represents celtes offering the book to frederick iii, elector of saxony; the other shows hroswitha herself presenting her plays to the emperor otto i (see plate xxiii). in dürer designed another cut of a presentation and an illustration of philosophy (both very feebly rendered by the cutter) for the _quatuor libri amorum_ of celtes. in the latin apocalypse was reprinted, and three other sets of woodcuts by dürer appeared in book form, in each case with latin text by benedictus chelidonius. one of these commemorated in twenty designs the life of the blessed virgin (_epitome in diuae parthenices marie historiam ab alberto durero norico per figuras digestam cum versibus annexis chelidonii_), the other two the passion of christ, the great passion (_passio domini nostri jesu ex hieronymo paduano, dominico mancino, sedulio et baptista mantuano per fratrem chelidonium collecta cum figuris alberti dureri norici pictoris_, in folio) in twelve large woodcuts, the little passion (_passio christi ab alberto durer norembergensi effigiata c[=u] varij generis carminibus fratris benedicti chelidonij musophili_, in quarto) in thirty-seven smaller ones. after this dürer was caught up by the emperor maximilian and set to work on some of the various ambitious projects for illustrating his reign, as to which more will be said later. his later bookwork includes a crucifixion and s. willibald for an eichstätt missal (nuremberg, h. hölzel, ), some large designs for the _etliche vnderricht zu befestigung der stett schloss vnd flecken_ (nuremberg, ), and his own book on the proportion of the human body, which was issued both in german and in a latin translation by camerarius. several borders and illustrations formerly ascribed to dürer are now attributed to one of his pupils, hans springinklee, who lived in dürer's house at nuremberg, where he worked from about to . most of springinklee's bookwork was done for anton koberger, who published some of it at nuremberg, while some was sent to the lyon printers, clein, sacon, and marion, who were in koberger's employment. a border of his design bearing the arms of bilibaldus pirckheimer is found in several works which pirckheimer edited ( - ). in a _hortulus animae_, printed by j. clein for koberger at lyon, , fifty cuts are by springinklee. the _hortulus animae_ was as popular in germany as the illustrated _horae_ in france and england. in another edition appeared with erhard schön as its chief illustrator, and only a few of springinklee's cuts. the next year springinklee produced a new set of cuts, and schön's work was less used. springinklee and schön were also associated in bible illustrations printed for koberger by sacon at lyon, and to springinklee are now assigned two full-page woodcuts in an eichstätt missal (h. hölzel, nuremberg, ), and a border to the _reuelationes birgittae_ (f. peypus, nuremberg, ), formerly ascribed to dürer. a woodcut of johann tritheim presenting his _polygraphia_ to maximilian, formerly attributed to holbein as having been printed at basel (adam petri, ), is now also placed to the credit of springinklee, who, moreover, worked for the _weisskunig_ and probably for other of the artistic commemorations of himself which maximilian commissioned. hans sebald beham is best known as a book-illustrator from his work for christian egenolph at frankfurt am main, which began in . but he belonged to the nuremberg school, had worked for ten or twelve years for merckel, peypus, petreius and other nuremberg firms, and has had the honour of having some of his single cuts attributed to dürer. his most important books for egenolph were the _biblische historien_, a series of small illustrations to the bible, first printed in , which went through many editions in german and latin, and another series illustrating the apocalypse, of which the first edition appeared in , the texts of the latin _historiae_ and also to the apocalypse cuts being supplied by georgius aemilius. a set of medallion portraits of roman emperors by him also appeared in several german and latin chronicles published by egenolph. between the nuremberg book-illustrators and those of augsburg, to whom we must now turn, a connecting link may be found in the person of hans leonhard schäufelein, born about , soon after his father, a nördlingen wool merchant, had settled at nuremberg. he worked under dürer, and his earliest book-illustrations were made for dr. ulrich pinder, the owner of a private press at nuremberg. several unsigned cuts in _der beschlossen gart des rosenkrantz marie_ (pinder, ), and thirty out of thirty-four large cuts in a _speculum passionis_ (pinder, ), are ascribed to schäufelein, his associate in each book being hans baldung. about schäufelein removed to augsburg, and, despite his return to his paternal home at nördlingen where he took up his citizenship in , he worked for the chief augsburg publishers for the rest of his life, though between and nothing is known as to what he was doing. among the earlier augsburg books with illustrations attributed to schäufelein are tengler's _der neu layenspiegel_ ( ), henricus suso's _der seusse ( ), heiligenleben_ ( ), geiler's _schiff der penitentz_ ( ), and the _hystori und wunderbarlich legend katharine von senis_ ( ), all published by j. otmar. in he had illustrated for adam petri of basel a _plenarium_ or _evangelienbuch_, which went through several editions. another _evangelienbuch_, printed by thomas anshelm at hagenau in , contains several cuts with schäufelein's signature, but in a different style, probably partly due to a different wood-cutter; these were used again in other books. in the _theuerdank_ of about twenty cuts are assigned to schäufelein, some of them bearing his signature. the following year he illustrated leonrodt's _himmelwagen_ for otmar with twenty cuts, mostly signed, some of which were used afterwards on the titlepages of early luther tracts. after an interval schäufelein is found in working for heinrich steyner of augsburg, who employed him to illustrate his german editions of the classics, thucydides ( ), plutarch ( ), cicero ( ), apuleius ( ), etc. the blocks for some of his cuts subsequently passed into the possession of christian egenolph of frankfort. the first native augsburg artist whom we have to notice is hans burgkmair, who was born in , and began bookwork in by illustrating missals for erhard ratdolt with pictures of patron saints and of the crucifixion. the chief augsburg publisher for whom he worked in his early days was johann otmar, for whom he illustrated several books by the popular preacher, johann geiler von kaisersberg (_predigen teutsch_, and , _das buch granatapfel_, , _nauicula poenitentiae_, ), and other devotional and moral works. in hans schoensperger the younger employed him to supply a dedication cut and seven designs of the passion for a _leiden christi_, and to the _theuerdank_ published by schoensperger the elder at nuremberg in he contributed thirteen illustrations (only one signed). he had already been employed ( ) on a few of the cuts in the genealogy of the emperor maximilian, which a wholesome fear lest its accuracy should be doubted caused that self-celebrating monarch to withhold from publication, and much more largely ( - ) on the _weisskunig_, which was first printed, from the original blocks, at vienna in ; and he was the chief worker ( - ) on the woodcuts for the triumphal procession of maximilian printed by order of the archduke ferdinand in . while these imperial commissions were in progress burgkmair designed a few title-cuts for johann miller, notably the very fine one (see plate xxiv) to the _de rebus gothorum_ of jornandes ( ), showing kings alewinus and athanaricus in conversation, and subsequently worked for grimm and wirsung and for h. steiner, although not nearly to the extent which was at one time supposed, as most of the illustrations supplied to these firms with which he used to be credited are now assigned to hans weiditz. jörg breu, who was born and died ( ) some half-dozen years later than burgkmair, like him illustrated missals for ratdolt and contributed passion-cuts to mann's _leiden christi_. his most important piece of bookwork was the redrawing of the cuts in anton sorg's edition of reichenthal's _conciliumbuch_ for a reprint by steiner in . illustrations by him also occur in a _melusina_ ( ), and german versions of boccaccio's _de claris mulieribus_ and _de casibus illustrium virorum_ issued after his death by the same firm. leonhard beck contributed largely to the illustration of maximilian's literary ventures, especially the _theuerdank_, _weisskunig_, and saints of the house of austria (published at some date between and ). [illustration: xxiv. augsburg, j. miller, jornandes. de rebus gothorum. (title). attributed to burgkmair] we come now to hans weiditz, the immense extension of whose work by the attributions of recent years can only be compared to mr. proctor's raising of bartolommeo de' libri from one of the smallest to one of the most prolific of florentine printers. only two or three augsburg woodcuts bearing his initials are known, while scores and even hundreds are now assigned to him, most of which had previously been credited to burgkmair. weiditz began bookwork in or before , in which year he contributed a title-cut to the _nemo_ of ulrich von hutten, while in he made twelve illustrations to the same author's account of maximilian's quarrel with the venetians. in he had begun working for the firm of grimm and wirsung, and this, with a few commissions from other augsburg publishers, kept him busy till about , when he himself moved to strassburg, whence his family had come, while in the same year grimm and wirsung gave up business and sold their blocks to steiner. these included not only many title-borders by weiditz, twenty illustrations to two comedies of plautus and a set of cuts to the _deuotissime meditationes de vita et passione christi_, and another to a german _celestina_, all published in , but a series of some masterly illustrations to a german version of petrarch's _de remediis utriusque fortunae_. steiner used some of these cuts in a cicero _de officiis_ of , which has in addition sixty-seven important cuts by weiditz, presumably of the same period, and also in a _justinus_ of the same year, but the work for which they were specially designed did not appear until a year later. needless to say, selections from both the petrarch and the cicero sets appear in later work. after removing to strassburg, weiditz copied some wittenberg bible cuts and also holbein's apocalypse set for knoblauch in . in he illustrated for j. schott the _herbarium_ of brunfels, which went through several editions both in latin and german, and for this comparatively humble work was praised by name in both editions, so that until it was only as the illustrator of the herbal that he was known. many of his augsburg woodcuts subsequently passed to that persistent purchaser of old blocks, christian egenolph of frankfort. before passing away from the nuremberg and augsburg book-illustrators, it seems necessary to describe briefly, but in a more connected form, the literary and artistic enterprises of the emperor maximilian, to which so many incidental allusions have been made. the emperor's first attempt to glorify himself and his lineage took the form of a genealogy for which several antiquaries--mennel, sunthaim, tritheim, and stabius--made researches. burgkmair made designs of some ninety ancestors and their heraldic coats in - , and the wood-blocks were cut. it was apparently intended to print them in , but the whole project was abandoned, and the work is now only known from a few sets of proofs, no one of which is quite complete. after this failure maximilian planned a triumphal arch and procession, the programme for the arch being drawn up by stabius, that of the procession by treitzsaurwein. the plan of the arch was largely worked out by dürer, with help from springinklee, traut, and altdorfer, whose designs were carried out in woodblocks cut by hieronymus andrea and his assistants. when the impressions from these are put together they make a design measuring nearly twelve feet by ten. in the centre is the gate of honour, to the left and right the gates of praise and nobility. above the main gate rises a tower on which are displayed the emperor's ancestors and their arms, above the other gates a series of incidents of maximilian's life, surmounted by busts of his imperial predecessors and of contemporary princes. this was printed in - at nuremberg, and in - and at vienna. on the procession or triumph, dürer, springinklee, schäufelein, burgkmair, and beck were all engaged. the blocks composing it were cut by andrea and jost de negker in - , and it was printed by order of the archduke ferdinand in . a triumphal car designed by dürer in , in connection with the same project, was published in eight sheets in . a series of representations of saints of the house of hapsburg had been planned soon after the abandonment of the genealogy, and assumed shape in . from drawings now attributed to leonhard beck, woodblocks were made, and an edition in book form was printed some time after . the romance of _theuerdank_ was written by melchior pfintzing, under maximilian's direction, to celebrate his wooing of mary of burgundy and other exploits. the bulk (seventy-seven) of the illustrations in it are now ascribed to beck, seventeen to schäufelein, thirteen to burgkmair, and three, two, and one respectively to schön, traut, and breu. it was published as a sumptuous folio, several copies being struck on vellum by the elder schoensperger at nuremberg in , and reprinted two years later. the _weisskunig_, or white king, an account of maximilian's parentage, education, and exploits, was dictated by him in fragments to treitzsaurwein, but never fully edited. of the illustrations about half are by burgkmair, most of the others by beck. with the exception of thirteen the blocks were preserved at vienna, and the book was printed there for the first time in . lastly, the _freydal_, which was to have given an account of maximilian's tourneys and "mummereien," is known to us by the preservation of the original miniatures from which the illustrations were to have been made, but only five blocks out of were actually cut. the patronage of the emperor maximilian gives special importance to the work done during his lifetime at nuremberg and augsburg, but there was no lack of book-illustrations elsewhere. at tübingen some of the mathematical works of johann stöffler were curiously decorated, and the second edition of his _ephemerides_ ( ) has a fine portrait of the author in his seventy-ninth year. at ratisbon, albrecht altdorfer was the most important worker for the wood-cutters, and to him are now attributed thirty-eight cuts illustrating the fall and redemption of man, published at hamburg in , under the name of dürer, as "nunc primùm è tenebris in lucem editæ." their minute and rather niggling style renders the bad printing which they have mostly received peculiarly destructive to them. another ratisbon artist, michael ostendorfer, illustrated a few books published at ratisbon itself, and others printed at ingolstadt. at wittenberg, from a little before , the influence of martin luther made itself as much felt as that of maximilian at augsburg and nuremberg. hither, in , had come a franconian artist, lucas cranach, who had already illustrated some missals for winterburger of vienna. numerous pictures of saints, which he drew for the wittenberg _heiligthumsbuch_ of , are subsequently found dispersed in other works, such as the _hortulus animae_. a few title-cuts on tracts by luther and others are assigned to him, but a great mass of bookwork, including numerous fine borders, found in wittenberg books of the luther period, while showing abundant traces of the elder cranach's influence, is yet clearly not by him. it has recently been assigned, with some probability, to his eldest son, hans. his younger son, lucas cranach ii, also supplied a few borders and illustrations to the wittenberg booksellers. georg lemberger also produced borders for titlepages and some bible cuts, and two other wittenberg bible-illustrators of this school were erhard altdorfer, brother of albrecht, whose best bookwork is found in a fine danish bible printed at copenhagen in , and hans brosamer, bibles, or parts of the bible, with whose cuts appeared both at wittenberg and at frankfort. at strassburg, hans baldung grien, whose work shows the influence of dürer, illustrated the _granatapfel_ ( ) and other works by geiler of kaisersberg, the _hortulus animae_ printed by flach ( ), etc. johann wächtlin, who had contributed a resurrection to a set of passion cuts published by knoblauch in , illustrated a _leben christi_ for the same printer in . we find his work again in the _feldbuch der wundarznei_ of hans von gersdorff, printed by schott in . the work of hans weiditz for strassburg publishers has already been mentioned. it was here also that urs graf worked for some little time for knoblauch, to whose passion set of he contributed, and other publishers. in he is found at basel, where two years later he became a citizen, supplying ninety-five little woodcuts to an edition of the _postilla_ of guillermus, and also designing title borders. as a centre of printing basel was now rapidly increasing in importance, and when erasmus allied himself with the foremost basel printer, johann froben, for a time the city succeeded, in point of quality though not of quantity, to the typographical supremacy which venice was fast losing. scholarly works such as approved themselves to erasmus and froben offered, of course, very little scope for book-illustration properly so called, but the desire for beauty found vent, not only with them, but with the other basel printers of the day, valentin curio, johann bebel, adam petri, andreas cratander, etc., in elaborate borders to titlepages, headpieces and tailpieces, ornamental capitals and trade devices. the arrival of hans holbein (born at augsburg in ) at basel in on his wanderjahre supplied a decorator of a skill altogether outshining that shown in the rather tasteless architectural work, varied with groups of children, produced by urs graf, though holbein himself was content to begin in this style. in his most characteristic work the footpiece of the border illustrates some classical scene, mutius scaevola and porsenna, the death of cleopatra, or quintus curtius leaping into the abyss; less commonly a scriptural one, such as the death of john the baptist. the most elaborate of his titlepages was that to the _tabula_ of cebes ( ), in which little children crowd through the gate of life to meet all the varied fortunes which life brings. delightful humour is shown in an often used headpiece and tailpiece, showing villagers chasing a fox and returning home dancing. during and the following year, when hans holbein was absent from basel, his brother ambrosius worked there on the same lines, and decorated, among other books, more's _utopia_. after his return to basel in , hans holbein remained at work there until , and it was during this period that his book-illustrations, properly so called, were executed, including those to the apocalypse and his two most famous pieces of bookwork, his _dance of death_ and _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_, both of which were first published in at lyon by melchior and gaspar trechsel. these (with perhaps some exceptions) and many of his other designs[ ] were cut in wood by hans lutzelburger who signed a holbein titlepage to a german new testament printed by thomas wolff in , and who, if rightly identified with the hans formschneider with whose widow the trechsels were in correspondence in and , must have died about the time that holbein left basel. pen copies, moreover, of some of the cuts of the _dance of death_ are preserved at the berlin museum, and one of these is dated , so that there can be no question that the originals belong to this period of holbein's life, and the british museum possesses a set of proofs of forty out of the original series of forty-one, printed on four sheets, ten on a sheet. it has been conjectured that the occupations of some of the great personages whom death is depicted as seizing may have been considered as coming under the offence of _scandalum magnatum_ and so have caused the long delay before the blocks were used, but as this explanation does not apply to the illustrations to the old testament it seems inadequate. as published in by the trechsels the cuts are accompanied by french quatrains from the pen of gilles corrozet and other appropriate matter, and have prefixed to them a titlepage reading: _les simulachres & historiees faces de la mort, autant elegamm[=e]t pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginees. a lyon, soubz lescu de coloigne, m.d.xxxviii._ a second edition with latin instead of french verses was published by jean and françois frellon, and others followed, in one of which, that of , one, and in another, that of , eleven additional cuts were printed, while in , when the book was still in frellon's hands, five woodcuts of children make their appearance, though they have no connection with the original series. that holbein's old testament designs also belong to his basel period is shown by copies of them appearing in a bible printed by froschouer in , though the original cuts were not published till seven years later. as printed by the trechsels they are eighty-six in number, and while the cutting of the best is worthy of lutzelburger, their execution is too unequal for it to be certain that the whole series was executed by him. the cuts were also used by the trechsels in a bible of the same year, and both the bible and the cuts under their own title _historiarum veteris testamenti icones_ were republished by the frellons. considerations of space forbid more than a bare mention of the _bambergische halssgericht_ ( ), with its all too vivid representations of the cruel punishments then in use, and the illustrated classics published at later dates by johann schoeffer at mainz, or of the work of jakob köbel at oppenheim with its rather clumsy imitations of ratdolt's italian ornaments, or of the illustrated books printed by johann weissenburger at landshut, or of those from the press of hieronymus rodlich at siemen, the _thurnierbuch_ of , _kunst des messens_ of the following year, and _fierabras_ of . after about little original book-illustration of any importance was produced in other german cities, but in nuremberg and frankfurt it continued plentiful, virgil solis and jobst amman working assiduously for the booksellers in both places. in no other country did the first thirty years of the sixteenth century produce so much interesting work as in germany. interesting, moreover, as this german work is in itself, it is made yet more so by the fact that a sufficient proportion of it is signed to enable connoisseurs to pursue their pleasant task of distributing the unsigned cuts among the available artists. less intrinsically good, and with very few facilities for playing this fascinating game, the book-illustrations of other countries have been comparatively little studied. in italy the new century brought some evil days to the book trade. printing itself ceased for a time at brescia; at florence publishers for many years relied chiefly on their old stock of cuts; at milan, at ferrara and pavia a little new work was done. at venice the thin delicate outline cuts of the last decade of the fifteenth century ceased to be produced any longer, though the old blocks sometimes reappear. more often the old designs were either simply copied or imitated in the more heavily shaded style which was now coming into vogue. the interest of some of this shaded work is increased by the occasional appearance on it of a signature. thus in the _missale romanum_ of july, , published by stagninus, some of the cuts in this shaded style bear the same signature, "ia," as appears on the outline work in the ovid of . work done by "ia" is also sometimes found copied by another cutter calling himself vgo, whose name is also found on some copies of french horae cuts in a venice horae of . [illustration: xxv. venice. greg. de gregoriis, missale romanum ( ^b). the ascension] signatures which occur with some frequency between and are the z.a., z.a., and i.a. used by zoan andrea, i.e. johannes andreas vavassore. this zoan andrea was an assiduous copyist. early in his career ( - ) we find him imitating dürers large illustrations to the apocalypse; in his title-cut for the _de modo regendi_ of antonio cornazano imitates that of burgkmair on the _de rebus gothorum_ of jornandes. in he prefixed to a livy printed by giunta an excellent portrait modelled, as the prince d'essling has shown, on a sculpture set up at padua to the memory either of the historian himself or of one of his descendants; in he copied marcantonio raimondi's engraving of horatius cocles, and in the same year another by raimondi of quintus curtius. this was for an edition of boiardo, and for a later edition of zoan andrea copied yet another engraving, that of scipio africanus. in he imitated holbein's elaborate border to the _tabula cebetis_, applying it to a _dictionarium graecum_. about this time also he produced the well-known block-book (at least three editions known) _opera noua contemplatiua_, imitating dürer's little passion in some of the cuts. because of the rarity of signed woodcuts in italian books zoan andrea has attracted more attention than the quality of his work deserves. it seems probable that he was the head of a workshop, and the craftsmanship of the cuts bearing his signature is very unequal. turning to the general course of book-illustration in venice as it may be studied in the great work of the prince d'essling, unhappily left without the promised introduction at the time of his lamented death, we find several different influences at work. as has been already noted, the shaded work which had begun to make its appearance before , as in the frontispiece to the _epitome almagesti_ of regiomontanus ( ), rapidly became the predominant style. we find it combined with some of the charm of the earlier outline vignettes in the small pictures of a virgil of , and in some of those of another edition in , though the larger ones in this are heavy and coarse. the extreme of coarseness is found in an edition of the _legendario di sancti_ of , the woodcuts being more suited to a broadside for a cottage wall than to venetian bookwork. the style is seen at its best in the illustrations of a well-known horae printed by bernardinus stagninus in , and, generally speaking, it is in the missals, breviaries, and horae published by l. a. giunta, stagninus and the de gregoriis (see plate xxv) that the most satisfactory bookwork of this period is found. another style which may be traced in many books of the early years of the century is a rather coarse development of the characteristic florentine manner of the fifteenth century. the cuts are as a rule considerably larger than the florentine ones, and the ornamental borders which surround them are much deeper. as in many of the florentine cuts, more use is made of black spaces than was usual at venice, but the cutting as a rule is coarse, and there is none of the charm of the best florentine work. woodcuts in this style are found most frequently on the titlepages of popular books in small quarto, published by the sessas, who apparently did not see their way to commissioning more than a single illustration to each book. but the influence of the style affected the pictures in a few works of larger size--for instance, the edition of the _chronica chronicarum_ of bergomensis, and the well-known picture of a choir in the _practica musices_ of gafori ( ). despite his connection with the _hypnerotomachia_, which, however, was printed on commission, aldus concerned himself little with book-illustrations, and if the miserable cuts which he put into his edition of _hero and leander_ of musaeus are fair specimens of what he thought sufficiently good when left to himself, he was well advised in holding aloof from them. nevertheless, the popularity which he gained for the small octavos which he introduced in was an important factor in the development of book-illustration in the sixteenth century. although aldus did not illustrate them himself, it was impossible that the lightly printed handy books which he introduced should remain permanently unillustrated, and when italic type was ousting roman and small books taking the place of large, the introduction of smaller illustrations, depending for their effect on the delicacy of their cutting, became inevitable. if we take any popular book of the century, such as the _sonetti_ of petrarch, and note the illustrations in successive editions, we shall find them getting smaller and smaller and more and more lightly cut and lightly printed, in order to match better with the thin italic types. the new style is seen at its best in the books of - , the petrarch of printed by gabriel giolito, boccaccio's _decamerone_ printed by valgrisi in , ovid's _metamorphoses_ by giolito in . finally, book-illustration peters out at venice in pictorial capitals, which take as their subjects any heroes of greek and roman history and mythology whose names begin with the required letter, on the principle of the nursery alphabet in which "a was an archer who shot at a frog, b was a butcher who had a great dog." to an age which, not otherwise to its loss, neglects the study of lemprière's classical dictionary, many of these puzzle initials are bafflingly obscure, relieved only by a recurring q, which in almost all alphabets depicts quintus curtius leaping into the chasm at rome. some similar sets of old testament subjects are much easier. books decorated with capitals of this kind are found as late as the end of the seventeenth century. isolated initials designed on this plan are found also in other countries, but outside italy it is only seldom that we come across anything approaching a set. as to french book-illustrations of the sixteenth century, a competent historian should have much to say, but the present writer has made no detailed study of them, and in the absence of any monograph to steal from must be content with recording general impressions, only here and there made precise by references to books which he has examined. far more than those of germany or venice, french publishers of the sixteenth century relied on the great stock of woodcuts which had come into existence during the decades - . that they did so may be regarded as some compensation for the exceptional rarity of most of the more interesting french incunabula. we have spoken disrespectfully of the little devotional books printed about with an old horae cut on the back of the titlepage or at the end, but in the popular books printed by the lenoirs and other publishers as late as , and even later, cuts will be found from millet's _destruction de troie_ and other incunabula now quite unobtainable, and it is even possible at times from salvage of this kind to deduce the former existence of fifteenth century editions of which no copy can now be found. after about the french horae decline rapidly in beauty and interest, but many fine missals were issued by wolfgang hopyl and other firms, some with one or more striking pictures, almost all with admirable capitals. among non-liturgical books it is difficult to find any class for which new illustrations were made at all freely. several books of chronicles by monstrelet, robert gaguin, and others have one or more cuts at the beginning which may have been made for them, e.g. a folio cut of s. denis and s. rémy, with shields of arms found in the _compendium super francorum gestis_ by robert gaguin (this, however, dates back to ), a double cut of s. louis blessed by the pope and confronting the turks (found in gaguin's _sommaire historial de france, c._ , and elsewhere), another double cut of clovis baptized and in battle (gaguin's _mer des chronicques_, , but much earlier), a spirited battle scene (_victoire du roy contre les vénitiens_, ), etc. but wherever we find illustrations in the text, there we are sure to light on a medley of old cuts (e.g. in _les grands chronicques de france_, , gaguin's _chronicques_, , and the _rozier historial_, ), and it will be odds that millet's _destruction de troie_ will be found contributing its woodcuts of the trojan war as illustrations of french history. when an original cut of this period can be found, it seldom has the charm of the best work of the last five years of the fifteenth century, but is usually quite good; there is, for instance, a quite successful metal-cut with criblé background of justinian in council in an edition of his laws printed by bocard for petit in , and some of the liturgical cuts are admirable. there is thus no reason to impute the falling off in new cuts to lack of artists. it seems clear that the demand for illustrations had for the moment shifted to an uncritical audience who liked (small blame to them) the fifteenth century cuts which had delighted more educated people a generation earlier, and were not at all particular as to their appropriateness. meanwhile the educated book-buyers were learning greek and preparing themselves to appreciate the severe, unillustrated elegance of the books of the estiennes, and new cuts were not needed. the inception of a new style must certainly be connected with the name of geoffroi tory, whose best work is to be found in his books of hours, which have already been described in an earlier chapter. its predominant note is a rather thin elegance of outline, in which the height of the figures is usually somewhat exaggerated. tory is supposed to have brought home this style after his visit to italy, but its application to bookwork appears to have been his own idea. there is, indeed, a striking resemblance between the little cuts of tory's third horae set, dated february, , and those in an aldine horae of october of the same year, but to the best of my belief tory reckoned his year from january, not in the old french style from easter, and if so it was tory who supplied the aldine artist with a model, which indeed is a logical continuation of his editions of and . it is greatly to be regretted that his own _champfleury_ of is so slightly illustrated. the little picture of hercules gallicus which comes in it is quite delightful. if any guide were in existence to the illustrated french books of the thirties in the sixteenth century it would probably be possible to trace the spread of tory's influence. in simon colines illustrated jean ruel's _veterinaria medicina_ with a good enough cut in the old french style slightly modified. for the same author's _de natura stirpium_ of he provided a woodcut, of an alcove scene in a garden, the tone of which is quite new. it is evident that french publishers were waking up to new possibilities and sending their artists to foreign models, as a _perceforest_ printed for gilles gourmont in and a _meliadus de leonnoys_ for denis janot in , have both of them elaborate title borders in the style which the holbeins had made popular at basel. the latter is signed .f., a signature found in several later books in the new style. in we find wechel issuing a _valturius_ with neat adaptations of the old verona illustrations. doubtless there were many other interesting books, with cuts original or copied of this decade, but the only one of which i have a note is the _l'amant mal traicte de sa mye_ (translated from the spanish of diego de san pedro), printed by denis janot for v. sertenas in , in which the title is enclosed in a delicately cut border, the footpiece of which shows the lovers in a garden. not long after this janot printed (without putting his name or a date) _la touche naifue pour esprouver lamy and le flateur_ of antoine du saix, in which the rules enclosing the title cut into a pretty oval design of flowers and ribbons. in we find the new style fully established in the _hecatongraphie cest à dire les descriptions de cent figures & hystoires_, a book of emblems, by gilles corrozet, printed by denis janot, which i only know in the third edition, that of . here we find little vignettes, much smaller than those in the malermi bible, with a headline over them and a quatrain in italics beneath, the whole enclosed in an ornamental frame. the little cuts have the faults inevitable in emblems, and some of them are poorly cut, but the best of them are not only wonderfully delicate, but show a sense of movement and a skill in the manipulation of drapery never reached in the fifteenth century. [illustration: xxvi. paris, j. loys for v. sertenas, homer. l'iliade en vers francois. (title-cut)] in appeared, again from the press of denis janot, "imprimeur du roy en langue françoise," another emblem book, _le tableau de cebes de thebes, ancien philosophe & disciple de socrate: auquel est paincte de ses couleurs, la uraye image de la vie humaine, & quelle uoye l'homme doit élire, pour peruenir à vertu & perfaicte science. premierem[=e]t escript en grec & maintenant expose en ryme francoyse_. the french rhymester was again the author of the _hecatongraphie_, and the imprint, "a paris on les uend en la grand [_sic_] salle du palais en la boutique de gilles corrozet," shows that he not only wrote the verses and perhaps inspired the illustrations, but sold the books as well. in we find this same style of design and cutting on a larger scale in _les dix premiers livres de l'iliade d'homère, prince des poetes, traduictz en vers françois, par m. hugues salel_, and printed by iehan loys for vincent sertenas. the cuts are in two sizes, the smaller being surrounded with toryesque borders. it is difficult to pass any judgment other than one of praise on such delicate work. nevertheless, just as the _fanfare_ style of binding used by nicolas eve, with its profuse repetition of small tools, is much more effective on a small book cover than on a large, so here we may well feel that some bolder and clearer design would be better suited to the illustration of a folio. in the title-cut here shown (plate xxvi) a rather larger style is attempted with good results. the year after the homer there appeared at paris from the press of jacques kerver a french translation of the _hypnerotomachia_ by jean martin. this is one of the most interesting cases of the rehandling of woodcuts, the arrangement of the original designs being closely followed, while the tone is completely changed by the substitution of the tall rather thin figures which had become fashionable in french woodcuts for the short and rather plump ones of the venetian edition, and by similar changes in the treatment of landscape. in the second half of the century at paris excellent woodcut portraits, mostly in an oval frame, are sometimes found on titlepages, and in other cases decoration is supplied by a neatly cut device. where illustrations are needed for the explanation of works on hunting or any other subjects they are mostly well drawn and cut. but the use of woodcuts in books of imaginative literature became more and more rare. at lyon, as at paris, at the beginning of the century the store of fifteenth century cuts was freely drawn on for popular editions. considerable influence, however, was exercised at first by italian models, afterwards by germany, so that while in the early sixteenth century latin bibles the cuts are mostly copied from giunta's malermi bible, these were gradually superseded by german cuts, which anton koberger supplied to the lyonnese printers who worked for him. while in italy the small octavos popularized by aldus continued to hold their own, in france, from about , editions in ° came rapidly into fashion, and about the middle of the century these were especially the vogue at lyon, the publishers often casing them in very gay little trade bindings sometimes stamped in gold, but often with painted interlacements. the publication by the trechsels in of the two holbein books, the _dance of death_ and illustrations to the old testament, must have given an impetus to picture-making at lyon, but this was at first chiefly visible in illustrated bibles and new testaments. gilles corrozet, who had written the verses for both the holbein books, continued his career, as we have seen, at paris. the most typical lyonnese illustrated books were the rival editions of ovid's _metamorphoses_ in french, one printed by macé bonhomme in , with borders to every page and little cuts measuring about ½ in. by , and a similar edition (reissued in dutch and italian) of the next year from the press of jean de tournes, the borders and little pictures in which are attributed to bernard salomon. in de tournes issued also the _devises héroiques_ of claude paradin, and he was also the publisher of a _calendrier historial_, a memorandum book charmingly decorated with cuts of the seasons. partly owing to religious troubles the book trade at lyon soon after this rapidly declined, but the french style was carried on for a while at antwerp by christopher plantin, who printed paradin's _devises héroiques_ in and in , and the two following years three books of emblems, those of sambucus, hadrianus junius, and alciatus himself. his earlier horae are also illustrated with woodcuts, and in at least one edition we find the unusual combination of woodcut borders and copperplate pictures. but although plantin never wholly gave up the use of woodcuts, for his more sumptuous editions he developed a marked preference for copperplates, and by his example helped to complete the downfall of the woodcut, which by the end of the sixteenth century had gone almost completely out of fashion. footnotes: [ ] mr. dodgson also ascribes to traut the illustrations in the _legend des heyligen vatters francisci_ (nuremberg, ), and some of the cuts in the _theuerdank_ ( ). [ ] including perhaps the four sets of decorative capitals attributed to holbein, one ornamental, the others representing a dance of peasants, children, and a dance of death. chapter xii printing in england ( - )[ ] something has already been written about the earliest english books on the scale to which they are entitled in a rapid survey of european incunabula. we may now consider them more in detail as befits a book written in english. [illustration: xxvii. westminster, caxton, c. the fifteen oes.] william caxton, a kentishman, born about , had been brought up as a mercer in the city of london, and the relations between the english wooltraders and the clothmakers of flanders being very intimate, he had, as he tells us himself, passed thirty years of his life (in round numbers the years from twenty years of age to fifty) "for the most part in brabant, flanders, holland, and zealand." during the last few years of this time he had held the important position of governor of the english merchants at bruges, but about he surrendered this in order to become secretary to edward iv's sister, margaret, wife of charles the bold, duke of burgundy. some years before this, raoul lefèvre, chaplain to the duke's predecessor, had compiled an epitome of the histories of troy, _le recueil des histoires de troye_, and in march, , caxton amused himself by beginning to translate this into english. dissatisfied with the result he laid it on one side, but was bidden by his patroness, the duchess, to continue his work. this he finished on september, , while staying at cologne. according to a distinct statement by wynkyn de worde, whom (at least as early as ) he employed as his foreman, caxton printed at cologne "himself to avaunce" the first latin edition of the _de proprietatibus rerum_, a kind of encyclopaedia "on the properties of things," by an english friar of the thirteenth century named bartholomew. now the first edition of this work is undoubtedly one printed at cologne about or at an anonymous press which bradshaw called that of the printer of the edition of the _dialogi decem auctorum_, and mr. proctor, less happily, that of the printer of the _flores sancti augustini_, an undated book in the same type. the _de proprietatibus rerum_ is certainly slightly earlier than either of these, and there are some typographical differences which suggest that between the completion of the one book and the beginning of the other two the press may have changed masters. the _de proprietatibus_ is by far the largest book of the whole group, and being by, or credited to, an english author, it is highly probable that the well-to-do ex-governor of the english merchants became temporarily a member of the firm for its production and shared in the venture. this is the natural meaning of wynkyn de worde's statement that caxton was the "first prynter of this boke," and is quite as likely to be true as the supposition that he took part in printing it as a kind of amateur journeyman to advance himself in the art. it may be noted, moreover, that the books of this anonymous press belong to the less advanced school of printing at cologne, a school technically several years behind that of ulrich zell, and this takes the force out of the objection raised by william blades, that if caxton had learnt printing at cologne, he must have printed better when he made his start. caxton does not seem to have followed up this beginning at all quickly, and it was not till printing had been brought much nearer to bruges by the starting of presses at alost in and at louvain in that he was stirred to action. the first printer at louvain was jan veldener, who worked there from to , and mr. gordon duff conjectures that caxton may have received some help from him. there is no doubt, however, that his partner at bruges was colard mansion, a skilled calligrapher, who continued printing there till , when he fled from the town, leaving his rent unpaid. caxton's own account in the _recuyell of the histories of troye_ of how he came to start is that for as moche as in the wrytyng of the same my penne is worn, myn hande wery and not stedfast, myn eyen dimmed with ouer-moche lokyng on the whit paper ... and also because i haue promysid to dyuerce gentilmen and to my frendes to adresse to hem as hastily as i myght this sayd book. therfore i haue practysed & lerned at my grete charge and dispence to ordeyne this saide book in prynte after the maner & forme as ye may here see. there is nothing here to encourage the idea which mr. proctor seems to have entertained that colard mansion had already begun work on his own account, and that caxton obtained his help for his english books. it seems more likely that it was caxton who made the start, and that the first two books printed at bruges were both in english, the first being the _recuyell_, and the second _the game and pleye of the chesse_, a translation of a moral treatise in which the functions of the chessmen were used as texts for sermonizing, written in latin by jacobus de cessolis. after this a new type was cut and another didactic book, _les quatre derennières choses_, a treatise of the four last things (death, judgment, hell, and heaven) printed in it in french. these three books probably appeared in and the early months of . by this time charles the bold was picking a quarrel with the swiss, and his disastrous defeat at morat on june, , must have powerfully quickened the desire with which we may reasonably credit caxton, of being the first printer in his native land. he made arrangements to rent a shop in the sanctuary at westminster from the following michaelmas and departed for england, taking with him the newer of the two types and leaving the older one to colard mansion, who printed with it the original french of lefèvre's _recueil des histoires de troye_, and the same author's _les fais et prouesses du noble et vaillant cheualier jason_, and then abandoned it, having already cut a larger type for his own use. the first dated book produced by caxton in england was _the dictes or sayengis of the philosophers_, a translation by earl rivers (the brother of edward iv's queen) from a french version of an anonymous latin book of the fourteenth century. caxton was entrusted by the earl with the oversight of the translation, and contributed to it an amusing epilogue, in which he gives some unfavourable remarks about women attributed to socrates, with his own comments. the epilogue is dated , and in one copy more minutely, november. though this is the first dated english book, it cannot be said that it was the first book printed in england, as it was probably preceded both by caxton's english version of lefèvre's _jason_, and also by some of the thin quartos in the same type. among the earlier books printed by caxton after he set up his press at westminster was chaucer's _canterbury tales_, of which later on he printed a second edition which he imagined to be from a better text, and ornamented with clumsy pictures of the pilgrims. he printed also in separate volumes most of chaucer's other works, including his translation of boethius, _de consolatione philosophiae;_ also gower's _confessio amantis_, some of the shorter poems of lydgate, malory's _morte d'arthur_, and several translations of french romances (_charles the great_, _paris and vienne_, the _four sons of aymon_, etc.), translations of _aesop_ and of _reynard the fox_, higden's _polychronicon_, and the _chronicles of england_, the _golden legend_ (the name given to the great collection of lives of the saints by jacobus de voragine), several editions of the hours of the blessed virgin, a latin psalter, a decorative edition of the prayers called the _fifteen oes_ with a border to every page (see plate xxvii), numerous moral treatises and books of devotion, and several indulgences. in all just one hundred books and documents issued from his press, printed in eight different types (including that left behind at bruges). more than twenty of these books he had translated himself, and to others he contributed interesting prologues or epilogues. while many printers on the continent easily surpassed him in typographical skill, few published more books which can still be read with pleasure, and his prefaces and epilogues show a real love of good literature (especially of chaucer) and abundant good sense, kindliness, and humour. caxton died in while engaged on translating into english the latin lives of the fathers, and the account-books of the churchwardens of s. margaret's, westminster, show that he was buried in its churchyard, four torches being supplied at a cost of two shillings and sixpence, and another sixpence being charged for the bell. during caxton's lifetime only one other englishman set up a press, an anonymous schoolmaster at st. albans, who began work in (possibly in ) and printed till , producing first six scholastic books and then two english ones. he appears to have borrowed some type from caxton, so that it was presumably with the latter's goodwill that he reprinted his version of the _chronicles of england_, adding thereto an appendix entitled _fructus temporum_, or fruits of time. it is from wynkyn de worde's reprint of this edition in that we obtain our only knowledge of the printer, for we are there told that it was "compiled in a booke and also enprynted by one sometyme scolemayster of saynt albons, on whose soule god haue mercy." his other popular book was that famous trio of treatises _of haukyng and huntyng and also of cootarmuris_, commonly known as the _book of st. albans_. the second treatise, which is in metre, ends with the words "explicit dam julyan barnes in her boke of huntyng," and this is the only basis for the popular attribution of all three treatises to a hypothetical juliana bernes or berners, who is supposed to have been the daughter of sir james berners (executed in ), and prioress of the nunnery of sopwell, a dependency of st. albans, of which the list of prioresses has conveniently perished.[ ] between and or ' , some seventeen books were printed at oxford by theodoric rood of cologne, who towards the end of his career was in partnership with an english bookseller named thomas hunte. the earliest of his books,[ ] all of which are in latin, was an exposition on the apostles' creed wrongly attributed to s. jerome. by the accidental omission of an x this is dated mcccclxviii, i.e. , but such misprints are common in early books, and no one now maintains that it was printed until ten years later. among the other books printed at oxford we may note an edition of cicero's _pro milone_, the spurious letters of phalaris, and a very large folio, lyndewode's _provincial constitutions_ of the english church. that the oxford press came to an end so soon and that none was started at cambridge during the fifteenth century may be attributed to a statute of richard iii's permitting the free importation of books into england. although this measure was amply justified by the interests of learning, it made it practically impossible for any scholastic press to maintain itself in the limited english market against the competition of the fine editions which could be imported from italy. caxton's press was at westminster, which in the fifteenth century was much more sharply distinguished for business purposes from the city of london than it is now. the first press set up within the city itself was that of john lettou, whose surname shows him to have been a native of lithuania, which in caxton's time, as in chaucer's, was known in england as lettowe. mr. gordon duff thinks that john lettou must have learnt to print at rome and brought his punches with him to england, as the type with which he started to print here is indistinguishable from one used by a small printer at rome, who bore the curiously english name john bulle, though he came from bremen. lettou printed an indulgence in , and also a commentary on the metaphysics of aristotle, a curiously learned work for a city press, but which he was commissioned to print by a certain william wilcocks, for whom the next year he printed also a commentary on the psalms. after lettou was joined by william of mechlin, or malines, in belgium, usually known by the latin name of his birthplace, machlinia. lettou and machlinia printed five law books together, and then lettou disappears and machlinia in started working by himself, at first at a house near the bridge over the fleet, where he printed eight books, and then in holborn, where he printed fourteen. when working by himself he printed in addition to law books some works of a more popular character, a book of hours, the _revelation to a monk of evesham_,[ ] _speculum christiani_ (a devotional work interspersed with english verse), the _chronicles of england_, and several editions of "a little treatise against the pestilence" by a certain bishop canutus of aarhus. one of these editions was the first english book which has a titlepage. it is printed in two lines, and reads:-- "a passing gode lityll boke necessarye & behouefull agenst the pestilens." the exact date at which machlinia died, or gave up work, is not known. he was printing in , but his books after that are undated. we may take or a little earlier as the year of his disappearance, and it is practically certain that his stock of books was taken over by richard pynson from normandy, who probably began printing in or (his first dated book was finished in november of the latter year), and while he was getting his workshop ready commissioned guillaume le talleur of rouen to print two law books for him for sale in england. up to the death of caxton the only native english printer besides himself was the unidentified schoolmaster-printer at st. albans, thomas hunte, who joined theodoricus rood at oxford, being only a stationer. after his death, for over twenty years there was no native englishman at work as a master printer[ ] at all. two of the three presses at work were in the hands of wynkyn de worde of lorraine and richard pynson of normandy, and the third was worked for some time with two french partners by julyan notary, who was probably a frenchman himself, since in he spells his name as notaire. by far the most prolific of these three firms was that of wynkyn de worde, who was born, as his name implies, at worth, now in alsace, but formerly part of the duchy of lorraine. he probably came to england with caxton in , since we hear of him as early as in a legal document about a house. after caxton's death de worde made a cautious start, only issuing five books in the first two years and not putting his own name in an imprint until . by the end of the century, however, he had printed books of which copies or fragments survive, and by the time of his death in the number had risen to , an extraordinarily high total, more especially when it is remembered that the small quarto editions of romances and popular works of devotion, of which he printed a great many, were peculiarly likely to be thumbed to pieces, so that his actual output was probably much greater. as far as his choice of books was concerned he showed himself a mere tradesman, seldom printing an expensive book unless caxton's experience had shown it to be saleable. for two apparent exceptions to this lack of enterprise there were special reasons. the first, a translation of the _lives of the fathers_, he was almost bound in honour to take up, since caxton had completed it on his death-bed. the second book, a really fine edition (issued about ) of trevisa's version of the _de proprietatibus rerum_, was also, as we have seen, connected with caxton, who, de worde tells us, had acted as "the fyrst prynter of this boke in latin tongue at coleyn himself to avaunce." de worde's edition is itself notable as being the first book printed on english paper, the manufacturer being john tate of hertford. in de worde moved from caxton's house at westminster to the sign of the sun in fleet street, perhaps for the greater protection offered by the city against attacks by anti-alien mobs. in he was appointed printer to the countess of richmond and derby, mother of henry vii, a very old lady, who died the following year. de worde himself must have been a very old man at his death towards the end of or early in january, , as he had by that time been at work in england for between fifty and sixty years. towards the end of his life he seems to have had some of his books printed for him by john skot, and robert copland was also employed in his business. the output of richard pynson was only about half that of wynkyn de worde, and his taxable property amounted to only £ against over _£_ at which de worde was assessed. nevertheless the fact that for the last twenty-two years of his life ( - ) he was the king's printer helped to procure him a few important books, and also kept his workmanship at a considerably higher standard. as already mentioned, he probably came to england about and took over machlinia's stock, employing guillaume le talleur of rouen to print two law books for him while his own type was being made. he probably began work with a fine edition of chaucer's _canterbury tales_, but his first dated book is an ugly little edition of the _doctrinale_ of alexander gallus, issued in november, . a copy of this was unearthed a few years ago in the library of appleby grammar school, and to secure the first dated book printed by pynson the british museum had to pay over £ for it. in pynson brought out lydgate's poem on the _falles of princes_, translated from the latin of boccaccio, illustrating it with woodcuts borrowed from jean du pré's french edition of the same book.[ ] in he printed a _terence_. up to the close of the fifteenth century he had printed about eighty-eight books known to mr. gordon duff, against the printed by wynkyn de worde. in he moved from the parish of s. clement dane's, outside temple bar, to the sign of s. george, at the corner of chancery lane and fleet street, the change bringing him inside the city walls. among the best of the books printed by him after this are alexander barclay's _ship of fools_ ( ), a translation of sebastian brant's _narrenschiff_; fabyan's _chronicle_ ( ), barclay's translation of sallust (about ), henry viii's _assertio septem sacramentorum_ ( ), and lord berners' translation of froissart's _chronicles_ ( - ). he also printed some fine service-books, notably a sarum missal, called after cardinal morton who favoured it the morton missal ( ). mr. duff conjectures that in the latin books he printed from onwards pynson was aided by thomas berthelet.[ ] julian notary's business was on a far smaller scale than those of wynkyn de worde and pynson, for less than fifty books are known to have been printed by him. he began work in london about in partnership with jean barbier and another printer or bookseller whose initials were i. h., probably jean huvin of rouen. in i. h. had left the firm and notary and barbier were at westminster. in , like de worde and pynson, he changed houses, moving to just outside temple bar, possibly to pynson's old house, giving his new premises the sign of the three kings. at a later date he had also a bookstall in s. paul's churchyard, and ultimately moved his printing office into the city. notary's books were of much the same kind as de worde's--the golden legend, the chronicles of england, the shepherds' calendar, sermons, lives of the saints, etc. he has the distinction of having printed the smallest english incunable of which any trace has come down to us, an edition of the hours of the blessed virgin, finished in april, , measuring only an inch by an inch and a half. he seems to have ceased printing about , but was alive in . summing up the work of these printers who were active before , we may note that caxton printed books and editions that have come down to us; de worde before , about altogether; pynson before , nearly altogether; notary about before , and altogether; lettou and machlinia about , oxford , st. albans . thus the total number of english incunabula at present known is about , but pynson and wynkyn de worde were both large printers in the sixteenth century. as we have seen, pynson became king's printer in . he had been preceded in that office by william faques, who like himself was a norman, and was the first to hold the title. he was worthy of the distinction, for though he only printed eight books and documents that have come down to us, his work was very good. his dated books belong to the year , when he printed a proclamation against clipped money, with a fine initial h and some neat woodcuts of coins; also a beautiful little latin psalter. his business was in the heart of the city, in abchurch lane. after his death it passed to richard faques, who made his name more english by spelling it first fakes, then fawkes. richard worked in s. paul's churchyard, and among his publications were the _salus corporis salus anime_ of gulielmus de saliceto, a sarum horæ, skelton's _goodly ballad of the scottish king_ ( ), and _garland of laurell_ ( ), and lastly, _the myrroure of our lady_ ( ). with robert copland we come to the first native english printer after caxton and the schoolmaster of st. albans. copland is rather an interesting person, who made translations and wrote prefaces and addresses to the reader in verse, besides printing books. his name occurs in the imprints of only twelve books, spread over twenty-two years, - , the explanation being that he was probably working for de worde during this time, and only occasionally indulged in a private venture. after a long interval he printed two books for andrew borde in - , and appears to have died while the second was in progress. he was succeeded by william copland, probably his son, who printed numerous romances and other entertaining books, and died in or . at intervals during the years - , john rastell, an oxford graduate, barrister of lincoln's inn and brother-in-law of sir thomas more, issued nine dated law books. in he printed two jest books, in he became involved in religious controversy on the protestant side, and died in poverty and prison in . altogether some forty books are attributed to him, including some plays, which may perhaps rather have been printed by his son william. william rastell was also a lawyer, and not sharing his father's protestantism, became a judge of the queen's bench under mary, on whose death he fled to louvain. as a printer he worked only from to , printing over thirty books, including several works by his uncle, sir thomas more, and five plays by john heywood. between and henry pepwell printed a few popular books at the sign of the trinity in s. paul's churchyard; for the rest of his life he appears to have been only a stationer. john skot, who printed at four different addresses in the city of london between and , worked partly for de worde, partly on his own account, printing upwards of thirty books for himself, a few of them legal, the rest popular english books. two printers began to issue books in . robert bankes, who turned out a few popular books in his first six years, was then silent for a time, and reappears in the religious controversies of - , and robert redman, who seems to have followed in pynson's footsteps both in s. clement's without temple bar and at the sign of the george. in his office of royal printer pynson was succeeded by thomas berthelet, or bartlet, who had probably worked with him for upwards of ten years before starting on his own account in fleet street at the sign of lucrece in . we know of altogether about pieces of printing from his press, but a large proportion of these consists of editions of the statutes and proclamations. for the proclamations some of berthelet's bills survive, and we learn that he charged a penny a piece for them, and imported his paper from genoa. with his official printing must be reckoned his editions of the _necessary doctrine of a christian man_, issued with the royal sanction on may, . in order to produce sufficient copies of this he printed it simultaneously eight times over, all eight editions bearing the same date. of the books which he printed on his own account the place of honour must be given to his handsome edition of gower's _confessio amantis_ in an excellent black-letter type in , and the various works of sir john eliot, all of which came from his press. on the accession of edward vi berthelet ceased to be royal printer, the post being given to grafton. berthelet died in september, , leaving considerable property. he was buried as an esquire with pennon and coat armour and four dozen scutcheons, and all the craft of printers, stationers, and booksellers followed him to his grave. richard grafton, who succeeded berthelet as royal printer, had a very chequered career. he was originally a member of the grocers' company, and, in conjunction with edward whitchurch and anthony marler of the haberdashers' company, superintended the printing of the english bible of , probably at antwerp, and that of by françois regnault at paris. when bible-printing was permitted in england grafton and whitchurch shared between them the printing of the six editions of the great bible during and . but when cromwell, earl of essex, the chief promoter of bible-printing, was beheaded, grafton was himself imprisoned. in , on the other hand, he and whitchurch obtained an exclusive patent for printing primers, and before henry viii's death grafton was appointed printer to the prince of wales. thus when edward became king grafton displaced berthelet as royal printer, and henceforth had time for little save official work. five editions of the homilies and seven of injunctions, all dated july, , were issued from his presses; in he published halle's _union of lancaster and york_ and several editions of the order of communion and statutes; in came two bibles and five editions of the first prayer book of edward vi; in a reprint of halle and an edition of marbeck's book of common prayer noted; in wilson's _rule of reason_; in six editions of the second prayer book of edward vi, and more statutes. proclamation-work, of course, went on steadily throughout the reign, and on edward's death grafton printed the enormously long document by which the adherents of lady jane grey tried to justify her claim to the crown. he did his work very handsomely, but on the triumph of mary, though he impartially printed a proclamation for her nine days after "queen jane's," he naturally lost his post and might easily have lost his head also. for the rest of his life he was mainly occupied in writing his chronicle. but he printed a book of common prayer in , and (according to herbert) a bible in . he died in . while grafton was the king's printer for english books, the post of royal printer in latin, greek, and hebrew had been conferred in on reginald or reyner wolfe. wolfe, who had come to england from gelderland, was at first a bookseller, and was employed by various distinguished persons as a letter-carrier between england and germany. when he set up as a printer in , with type which he seems to have obtained from a relative at frankfort, he was employed by the great antiquary, john leland, and by john cheke, professor of greek at cambridge, for whom he printed in two homilies of s. chrysostom in greek and latin, this being the first greek work printed in england. during edward vi's reign he does not seem to have been given much to do in latin, greek, or hebrew, but printed cranmer's _defence of the sacrament_ and _answer unto a crafty cavillation_. after keeping quiet during mary's reign he enjoyed the patronage of elizabeth and archbishop parker, and lived, like grafton, till . though he never worked on a large scale, wolfe certainly raised the standard of printing in england. in john day it is pleasant to come to a native englishman who did equally good work, and that in a larger way of business. day was a suffolk man, born in at dunwich, a town over which the sea now rolls. he began printing in partnership with william seres as early as , but, save some fairly good editions of the bible, produced nothing of importance during this period. his first fine book, published in , is _the cosmographicall glasse_, a work on surveying, by william cunningham. this has a woodcut allegorical border to the titlepage, a fine portrait of cunningham, a map of norwich, and some good heraldic and pictorial capitals. its text is printed throughout in large italics. the book thus broke away entirely from the old black-letter traditions of english printing, and could compare favourably with the best foreign work. day printed other folios in this style, and in some of them instead of a device placed a large and striking portrait of himself. in he printed the first edition of _acts and monumentes of these latter and perillous days touching matters of the church_, better known as _foxe's book of martyrs_. this is a book of over two thousand pages, and is plentifully illustrated with woodcuts of varying degrees of merit. day by this time had attracted the patronage of archbishop parker, and in printed for him a book called _a testimony of antiquitie, showing the auncient fayth of the church of england touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of the lord here publikely preached and also receaved in the saxons tyme, above yeares agoe_. for this sermon, attributed to archbishop aelfric, some anglo-saxon type, the first used in england, was specially cut. later on day printed at lambeth palace parker's _de antiquitate britannicae ecclesiae_. he also printed ascham's _scholemaster_ and other important works. he appears, moreover, to have possessed a bookbinding business, or at least to have had binders in his employment who invented a very striking and dignified style of binding. altogether, day is a man of whom english bookmen may well be proud. he died in . richard tottell was another printer of some importance. the son of an exeter man, he began printing about , and early in his career received a patent which gave him a monopoly of the publication of law books. these, to do him justice, he printed very well, and he also published a number of works of literary interest. chief among these, and always associated with his name, is the famous _songs and sonnets_ of wyatt and surrey and other tudor poets, edited by nicholas grimald, but often quoted, for no very good reason, as _tottell's miscellany_. to his credit must also be placed editions of lydgate's _falles of princes_, hawes's _pastime of pleasure_, tusser's _five hundreth points of good husbandry_, the works of sir thomas more in folio pages, gerard legh's _accedens of armoury_, numerous editions of guevara's _diall of princes_, as translated by sir thomas north, and a version of cicero's _de officiis_, by nicholas grimald. in tottell petitioned unsuccessfully for a monopoly of paper-making in england for thirty years, in order to encourage him to start a paper-mill. he lived till . henry denham ( - ), henry bynneman ( - ), and thomas vautrollier ( - ), and the latter's successor, richard field, were the best printers of the rest of the century. denham was an old apprentice of tottell's, who gave him some important books to print for him. herbert remarks of him: "he was an exceeding neat printer, and the first who used the semicolon with propriety." among his more notable books were grafton's _chronicle_ (for tottell and toy, ), editions of the olynthiac orations of demosthenes in english ( ) and latin ( ), _an alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing foure sundrie tongues, namelie, english, latine, greeke, and french_, with a pleasing titlepage showing the royal arms and a beehive ( ), thomas bentley's _the monument of matrons: containing seuen seuerall lamps of virginitie_, a work in praise of piety and queen elizabeth ( ), hunnis's _seuen sobs of a sorrowfull soule for sinne_, a metrical version of the penitential psalms ( ), and the second edition of holinshed's _chronicles_ ( ). henry bynneman, though not so high in archbishop parker's favour as john day, was yet recommended by him to burghley in , and deserved his patronage by much good work. he printed an english version of epictetus, dr. caius's _de antiquitate cantabrigiensis academiæ_ ( ), a handsome book with the text in italics, according to the fashion of the day, van der noodt's _theatre of voluptuous worldlings_ ( ), a latin text of virgil believed to be the first printed in england ( ), the _historia brevis_ of thomas walsingham ( ), a handsome folio, several books by gascoigne and turberville, the first edition of holinshed's _chronicles_ ( , published by john harrison), and a few books in greek. thomas vautrollier, a french refugee, set up a press at blackfriars, at which he printed several editions of the prayer book in latin (_liber precum publicarum in ecclesia anglicana_), and of the new testament in beza's latin version, for which latter he was granted a ten years' privilege in . in he printed two very notable works, fenton's translation of the history of guicciardini and sir thomas north's _plutarch_, the latter being one of the handsomest of elizabethan books. in and again in he went to edinburgh, printing several books there in and . his second visit is said to have been due to trouble which came upon him for printing the _spaccio della bestia triomphante_ of giordano bruno. his press at blackfriars continued to work during his absence. his daughter jakin married richard field, who succeeded to his house and business in , and continued his excellent traditions. a company of stationers had existed in london since , and in this was reconstituted and granted a royal charter. the object of the crown was to secure greater control over printing, so that no inconvenient criticisms on matters of church or state might be allowed to appear. the object of the leading printers and booksellers, who formed the court of the company, was to diminish competition, both illegitimate and legitimate. both objects were to a very considerable degree attained. the quarter of a century which followed the grant of a charter witnessed a great improvement in the english standard of book production. up to this time it seems probable that few english printers, who had not the royal patronage, had found their craft profitable. caxton no doubt did very well for himself--as he richly deserved. he enjoyed the favour of successive kings, and received good support from other quarters. we may guess, moreover, that both as translator and publisher he kept his finger on the pulse of well-to-do book-buyers to an extent to which there is no parallel for the next two centuries. no one else in england possessed this skill, and certainly no one else enjoyed caxton's success. the act of richard iii permitting unrestricted importation of books quickly killed the presses at oxford and st. albans, which could not compete with the publications of the learned printers of italy, france, and switzerland. until more than half-way through the reign of elizabeth the united output of books from oxford and cambridge amounted to less than a couple of score. for more than twenty years after caxton's death there was no undoubted englishman as a master printer. mr. gordon duff has lately published[ ] the assessments of some of the chief stationers and printers from the lay subsidy rolls of - . by far the highest of them is the £ at which was assessed john taverner, a stationer who is only otherwise known as having bound some books for the royal chapel, and who was wise enough not to meddle with printing. wynkyn de worde, most commercial of printers, was assessed at £ s. d.; a practically unknown stationer named neale at £ ; pynson, who was royal printer and did really good work, at £ ; three other stationers, one of whom printed (henry pepwell), at £ apiece; julyan notary at £ s. d.; other printers at £ (robert redman), £ s. d. (john rastell), and £ (robert wyer). it is tolerably clear that there was absolutely no inducement to an english stationer to take up printing. in henry viii repealed the act of , on the plea that native printing was now so good that there was less need to import books from abroad, the king's real reason, no doubt, being to make it easier to check the importation of heretical works. mr. duff has written of the king's action: "the fifty years of freedom from to not only brought us the finest specimens of printing we possess, but compelled the native workman in self-protection to learn, and when competition was done away with his ambition rapidly died also. once our english printing was protected, it sank to a level of badness which has lasted, with the exception of a few brilliant experiments, almost down to our own day."[ ] as a rule, whatever mr. duff writes about english printing is incontrovertible, but this particular pronouncement seems curiously unfounded. whether we consider what they printed or how they printed it, the work of the english presses from - is better, not worse, than the work of the corresponding period, - . there is nothing in the earlier period to compare with the great bibles, and the books of berthelet and reyner wolfe are fairly equal to those of pynson. if we take as a fresh point of departure, the books issued from then to about present a still more remarkable advance. while the work of the rest of europe deteriorated, that of england, in the hands of such men as day, denham, and bynneman, improved, and alike for their typography, their illustrations and decorations and their scholarship, they surpass those of any previous period since the days of caxton, and deserve far more attention from collectors than they have yet received. footnotes: [ ] for english provincial printing after see chapter xiii. [ ] a fourth treatise, that on fishing with an angle, is often included in the attribution with even less reason. this was first printed by wynkyn de worde in , with the following curious explanation of its being tacked on to the _book of st. albans_: "and for by cause this present treatyse sholde not come to the hondys of eche ydle persone whyche wolde desire it yf it were enprynted allone by it self & put in a lytyll paunflet, therfore i haue compyled it in a greter volume of dyuerse bokys concernynge to gentyll & noble men, to the entent that the forsayd ydle persones whyche sholde haue but lytyll mesure in the sayd dysporte of fyshynge sholde not by this meane utterly destroye it." [ ] two points may be noted about rood: (i) he does not put his name in his earliest books, and as there is a change of type in his signed work, it is possible, though unlikely, that the books in type are from another press; (ii) he is not to be identified, as was once proposed, with a certain theodoricus of cologne, lately proved by dr. voullième to be theodoricus molner, a stepson of ther hoernen. [ ] the place-name here is an early misreading for "eynsham." [ ] this statement should perhaps be modified to admit of the possibility that julian notary was english rather than french, as is generally assumed. [ ] this and the _dives and pauper_ of (which, until the discovery of the _doctrinale_, was reckoned pynson's first dated book) and several other of his earliest editions were published partly at the expense of a merchant named john rushe, who took six hundred copies of the _dives_ and the _boccaccio_ at s. apiece. see _two lawsuits of richard pynson_, by h. r. plomer, in _the library_, second series, vol. x. [ ] see _the library_, second series, vol. viii, pp. _sqq._ [ ] in _the library_, second series, vol. ix, pp. - . [ ] "the printers, stationers, and bookbinders of westminster and london, - " (last paragraph). chapter xiii english books printed elsewhere than at london [illustration: xxviii. cologne, printer uncertain, tyndale's new testament, first page of text] during the fifteenth century presses were set up in more than fifty places in germany, in more than seventy in italy, in nearly forty in france, in more than twenty in the netherlands, in twenty-four in spain, in only three (counting london and westminster as one) in england. in london and westminster over books are known to have been printed; in oxford and st. albans only twenty-five. the reason for this paucity of provincial printing in england must be found by the social historian. the beginning of the sixteenth century brought no change in the facts. for thirty years from march, , there was no printing-press at oxford. in december, , a latin commentary on the posterior analytics of aristotle appeared with the imprint "academia oxonie," and in four subsequent books, printed in , the printer of this gave his name as johannes scolar. a fragment of a sixth book has lately been found at the british museum. in scolar's place was taken by carolus kyrforth, who printed a _compotus_, or small arithmetic book. a prognostication by jaspar laet may have been printed apparently either by scolar or kyrforth. after the appearance of these eight books there was no more printing at oxford until a press was started there in by joseph barnes, under the auspices of the university. the last book of the schoolmaster-printer appeared at st. albans in , and after this there was no more printing there until . in that year, at the request of abbot catton, a printer named john hertfort, or herford, printed there _the glorious lyfe and passion of seint albon_. robert catton was succeeded as abbot by richard stevenage, and in the years - three religious books were printed for him by hertfort, who also printed an arithmetic and two other books on his own account, making seven books in all. then, in october, , john hertfort fell under suspicion of having printed a "little book of detestable heresies,"[ ] and the abbot had to send him to london. the abbey itself was suppressed by the king the same year, and hertfort, deprived of his patron, had no inducement to return. he is next heard of as printing in london in . at york a _directorium_ was printed by hugo goes, and there is a seventeenth century reference to a _donatus minor_ and _accidence_ from his press. three small books are also known to have been printed by ursyn mylner in and . previous to this, in or about , an _expositio hymnorum et sequentiarum_ for use at york had been printed at rouen by pierre violette for a stationer named gerard freez (also known as gerard wandsforth), who died in . this gerard freez had a brother frederick, who is described not only as a bookbinder and stationer, but as a printer, and may therefore have printed books which have perished without leaving any trace behind them. but the only extant york books of the sixteenth century are the _directorium_ of , two small service-books of , and a little grammatical work in . after this there was no more printing in york until . at cambridge a stationer named john laer, of siberch, i.e. siegburg, near cologne, settled, in or about , and acted as publisher to an edition of croke's _introductiones in rudimenta græca_, printed at cologne by eucharius cervicornus. after this, in and , siberch himself printed nine small books at cambridge, the first of them being a latin speech by henry bullock addressed to cardinal wolsey. among the other books was a dialogue of lucian's ([greek: peri dipsadôn]), for which siberch had to use some greek type, and a work on letter-writing (_de conscribendis epistolis_) by erasmus, with whom he seems to have been on friendly terms. after no more books were printed at cambridge until . at tavistock in a monk named thomas richard printed a translation of boethius's _de consolatione philosophiae_ for "the ryght worschypful esquyer mayster robert langdon." nine years later, in , the same press printed the _statutes_ concerning the devonshire stannaries or tin mines. these are the only two early books known to have been printed at tavistock. at abingdon in , john scolar, presumably the same man who had previously worked a few miles off at oxford, printed a portiforium or breviary for the use of the monastery. no other early book is known to have been printed there. from , when john hertfort was summoned from st. albans, to the end of the reign of henry viii, we know of no provincial printing in england. but on the accession of edward vi the extreme protestants who had fled from england to the netherlands, germany, and switzerland, came flocking back, and some of them seem to have stopped at ipswich. two, or perhaps three printers, all in the protestant interest, worked there in the first few months of the new reign. the first of these, anthony scoloker, printed seven books at ipswich in and , and then went on to london. the second, john overton, brought over with him from wesel the text of bishop bale's latin bibliography of the illustrious writers of britain, printed there by theodoricus plateanus, otherwise dirick van der straten, and may or may not have printed at ipswich two additional sheets, which he dated there july, .[ ] the third printer, john oswen, printed at ipswich eleven tracts, mostly controversial, in or about , and then removed to worcester. on his arrival at worcester late in , or early in , john oswen obtained a special privilege from edward vi for printing service-books for use in the principality of wales, and produced there three editions of the first prayer book of edward vi and a new testament. besides these, from to he printed eighteen other books, mostly of controversial theology, calling himself in his imprints "printer appoynted by the kinges maiestie for the principalitie of wales and the marches of the same." on the accession of mary, it being no longer safe to print protestant theology, oswen's press ceased working. at canterbury in john mychell, or mitchell, who had moved there after producing a few books in london, printed an english psalter, "poynted as it shall be songe in churches." during edward's reign mychell printed at canterbury altogether some twenty books and tracts, mostly more or less controversial treatises on the protestant side. on the accession of mary he ceased publishing till , when his press was employed by cardinal pole to print his articles of visitation. the next year, by the charter granted to the stationers' company, printing outside london was forbidden, the prohibition being subsequently relaxed in favour of the two universities, although it was nearly thirty years before they availed themselves of their right. in the previous eighty years only about a hundred books[ ] had been produced at the provincial presses, and in the year in which the charter was granted it can hardly be said that any press outside london was in existence. the new regulation stood in the way of development, but it was a development for which there seems to have been little demand. we may see some slight confirmation of this view in the fact that during elizabeth's reign there was very little secret printing, though there had probably been a good deal under mary. the three elizabethan secret presses which have been chronicled were: ( ) a puritan press which printed various tracts on church government, written by thomas cartwright. these were printed secretly in and , first at wandsworth, afterwards at hempstead, near saffron walden, in essex. the press was seized in august, , and the type handed to henry bynneman, who, the next year, used it to reprint cartwright's attack, interpolating whitgift's replies in larger type. ( ) a jesuit press which printed for edmund campion and robert parsons in and , first at greenstreet house in east ham, afterwards at stonor park, near henley. the press was managed by stephen brinckley, who was ultimately captured and imprisoned for nearly two years. ( ) the puritan travelling press, from which issued the famous martin marprelate tracts in and . some of these were printed in east molesey, in surrey; others in the house of sir richard knightley at fawsley, near daventry, others in that of roger wigston of wolston priory, between coventry and rugby. the chief printer of them was robert waldegrave, who eventually fled first to la rochelle, where he may have printed one of the tracts, and then to edinburgh, where he became a printer of some importance. while there was thus very little secret printing in england, exiled protestants, catholics, and nonconformists all in turn made frequent recourse to foreign presses, and apparently succeeded in circulating their books in england. religious repression, however, though the chief, was not the only cause of english books being printed abroad. from a very early time the superior skill of foreign printers had procured them many commissions to print service-books for the english market, alike on account of their greater accuracy, their experience in printing in red and black, and the more attractive illustrations which they had at their disposal. not long after a sarum breviary was printed abroad, possibly at cologne. caxton employed george maynyal, of paris, to print a missal (and probably a _legenda_) for him in , and johann hamman or herzog printed a sarum missal in as far away as venice. when the paris printers and publishers had won the admiration of all europe by their pretty editions of the hours of the blessed virgin, they competed with each other for the english market. early in the sixteenth century wolfgang hopyl printed some magnificent sarum missals and also an antiphoner and _legenda_, besides some very fine editions of lyndewood's constitutions. breviaries, missals, and primers were also poured out for english use by françois regnault, and in lesser numbers by nearly a dozen other paris firms, and martin morin and other printers plied the same trade at rouen, while christoffel van remunde, of endhoven, was busy at antwerp. the predominance of the foreign editions of these books over those printed in england may be estimated from the fact that of sarum service-books printed before in the possession of the british museum, one was printed at basel, one at venice, eleven at rouen, twelve at antwerp, as many as fifty-six at paris, and only twenty-four in england.[ ] in addition to service-books, a good many of the smaller latin grammatical works were printed for the english market in france and the low countries, their destination being occasionally stated, but more often inferred from the appearance in them of english explanations of latin words or phrases. a few attempts were also made to issue popular english works in competition with those produced at home. the most formidable of these rivalries was that of gerard leeu at antwerp, who, after printing three entertaining books (_the history of jason_, _knight paris and the fair vienne_, and the _dialogue of salomon and marcolphus_), embarked on a more important work, _the chronicles of england_, and might have seriously injured the home trade had he not met his death in a quarrel with a workman while the _chronicles_ were still on the press.[ ] soon after another antwerp printer, adriaen von berghen, in addition to holt's _lac puerorum_, published the commonplace book of a london merchant which passes under the name of _arnold's chronicle_, and is famous as containing the earliest text of the _nutbrown maid_. a little later still, jan van doesborch was at work at the same place, and between and produced at least eighteen popular english books, including _tyll howleglas_, _virgilius the magician_, _robin hood_, and an account of recent discoveries entitled, "of the new landes and of the people found by the messengers of the kynge of portyngale named emanuel." doesborch's books are poorly printed and illustrated, but his texts are not noticeably worse than those in contemporary editions published in england. the reverse is the case with two english books produced ( ) by the famous paris publisher, antoine vérard, _the traitte of god lyuyng and good deying_ and _the kalendayr of shyppars_. these have the illustrations which book-lovers prize so highly in the _kalendrier des bergers_ and _art de bien viure et de bien mourir_, but the translations seem to have been made by a scot, only less ill equipped in scottish than in french. in a third translation, from pierre gringore's _chasteau de labeur_, vérard was more fortunate, for the _castell of labour_ was rendered into (for that unpoetical period) very passable verse by alexander barclay. vérard, however, had no cause to congratulate himself, for both pynson and de worde reprinted barclay's translation with copies of the woodcuts, and the other two books in new translations, so that in future he left the secular english market alone. it may be supposed that the act of , restricting the importation of foreign books into england, finally put an end to competition of the kind which leeu, vérard, and doesborch had attempted. but isolated english books have continued to appear abroad down to our own day, and form a miscellaneous, but curious and interesting appendix in the great volume of the english book trade. from onwards, however, until nearly the end of the seventeenth century, compared with the masses of theological books alternately by protestant and roman catholic english exiles, printed in the low countries, germany, switzerland, and france, the output of secular work sinks into insignificance. the stream begins with tyndale's new testament, of which a few sheets were printed at cologne (see plate xxviii), two editions at worms, and half a dozen or more at antwerp before it was suffered to appear in england. the first english bible is believed to have been printed ( ) by christopher froschauer at zurich, the second ( ) at antwerp, the third ( ) was begun at paris and completed in england. besides their new testaments, tyndale and george joy published a good many controversial works at antwerp. in the next generation the city became one of the strongholds of the romanist exiles after the accession of elizabeth, and hans de laet, john fouler, willem sylvius, and gillis van diest the younger were frequently called on in - to provide paper and print for stapleton, harding, william rastell, and the other antagonists of bishop jewel. in and the following year books by tyndale, roy, and frith appeared purporting to be printed by "hans luft at malborowe in the land of hesse." a later book with this imprint has been shown by mr. sayle to have been printed at antwerp; whether these earlier works were really produced at marburg, or, as has been conjectured, at cologne, or again at hamburg, is still uncertain. in the 'forties and 'fifties christopher froschauer printed several english protestant books at zurich, including _a faythfull admonycion of a certen trewe pastor and prophete sent unto the germanes_, translated from luther's _warnunge_, with the pleasing imprint "at grenewych by conrade freeman in the month of may ." in the 'fifties, again, jean crespin and other geneva printers worked for john knox, and the geneva new testament was produced there in and the bible in . in the 'sixties, as we have seen, many treatises attacking bishop jewel were issued at antwerp, others appeared at louvain, and about the same time ( ), at emden, g. van der erven was printing for exiled puritans some of their diatribes against the "popish aparrell" (i.e. the surplice) which elizabeth prescribed for the english church. in we encounter at amsterdam a curious group of nine little books "translated out of base-almayne into english," in which hendrik niclas preached the doctrines of the "family of love." from that time onwards a good deal of theological literature on the protestant side was published by amsterdam presses. richard schilders at middelburg was also an extensive publisher of this class of book. presses at leyden and dort made similar contributions, but on a smaller scale. on the roman catholic side the head-quarters of propagandist literature, as we have seen, were at first at antwerp and louvain, at both of which places john fouler had presses. in the 'eighties the existence of the english college at rheims caused several catholic books to be printed there, notably the translation of the new testament which was made in the college itself. for like reasons much catholic literature was published from onwards at st. omer, and from onwards at douai. books of the same class, though in smaller numbers, appeared also at paris and rouen. individually the books from the presses we have been naming, both on the romanist and the puritan side, are unattractive to look at and dull to read. collectively they form a very curious and interesting episode in english bibliography, which deserves more study than it has yet received, though mr. sayle has made an excellent beginning in his lists of english books printed on the continent in the third volume of his _early english printed books in the university library, cambridge_. since then mr. steele and mr. dover wilson have made important contributions to the subject, but much still remains to be done. it was doubtless the existence of these foreign safety-valves which rendered the course of english printing after the grant of a charter to the stationers' company so smooth and uneventful.[ ] two violations of the terms of the charter were winked at or authorized, in some way not known to us, by the crown. the first of these was the printing of a few books for the use of foreign refugees by antony de solempne at norwich. most of these books were in dutch, but in antony corranus, previously pastor of the spanish protestant congregation at antwerp, published through de solempne certain broadside tables _de operibus dei_ in latin, french, dutch, and english, of which copies only of the first and second have been traced. in another english broadside commemorated the execution at norwich of thomas brooke. archbishop parker seems to have resented the publication, unexamined, of the _de operibus dei_, but de solempne placed the royal arms and a loyal motto (godt bewaer de coninginne elizabeth) on some of his books, and seems in some way or another to have secured the queen's protection. mr. allnutt, to whose exhaustive articles on "english provincial printing" in the second volume of _bibliographica_ all subsequent writers on the subject must needs be indebted, conscientiously includes among his notes one on the edition of archbishop parker's _de antiquitate ecclesiae britannicae_ printed for him by john day, in all probability at lambeth palace, where a small staff of book-fashioners worked under the archiepiscopal eye. eton is a good deal farther "out of bounds" than lambeth, but the employment of the king's printer, john norton, and a dedication to the king saved sir henry savile from any interference when he started printing his fine edition of the works of s. john chrysostom in the original greek. the eight folio volumes of which this consists are dated from to , and in these and the two following years five other greek books were printed under savile's supervision. after this his type was presented to the university of oxford, where a fairly flourishing press had been at work since . that printing at oxford made a new start in was due no doubt to the example of cambridge, which two years earlier had at last acted on a patent for printing granted by henry viii in , the year, it will be remembered, in which restrictions were placed on the importation of foreign books on account of the proficiency in the art to which englishmen were supposed to have attained. in the interim printers to the university seem to have been appointed, but it was not till that a press was set up, whereupon, as soon as a single book had been printed, it was promptly seized by the stationers' company of london as an infringement of the monopoly granted by their charter. although the bishop of london seems to have backed up the stationers, lord burghley (the chancellor of the university) and the master of the rolls secured the recognition of the rights of the university. forty years later they were again attacked by the stationers, and the privy council forbade the cambridge printer to print bibles, prayer books, psalters, grammars, or books of common law, but in the judges pronounced strongly in favour of the full rights of the university, and the next year these were recognized with some modifications by the privy council. up to this time there had been three printers, thomas thomas ( - ), john legate ( - ), and cantrell legge ( - ), the university library possessing (in ) books and documents printed by the first, by the second, and by the third, or a total of for a period of forty-six years. from to the majority of cambridge books bear no individual names on them, but have usually the imprint "cantabrigiæ, ex academiæ celeberrimæ typographeo." but thomas and john buck and roger daniel, in various combinations, were responsible for a good many publications. while burghley was chancellor of cambridge, dudley, earl of leicester, held the oxford chancellorship, and doubtless felt that, charter or no charter, it concerned his honour to see that his university should be allowed all the privileges possessed by the other. under his auspices a press was started late in or early in by joseph barnes, an oxford bookseller, to whom the university lent £ to enable him to procure the necessary equipment, and on leicester's visiting the university on january, , a _carmen gratulatorium_ in four elegiac couplets was presented to him, printed on an octavo leaf at the new press. the first book to appear was a _speculum moralium quaestionum in uniuersam ethicen aristotelis_, by john case, a former fellow of s. john's, with a dedication to leicester by the author and another by the printer. in the latter the promise was made "ea solum ex his prælis in lucem venient que sapientum calculis approbentur & sybille foliis sint veriora," but the remaining publications of the year were a polemical treatise by thomas billson, two issues of a protestant adaptation of the _booke of christian exercise appertaining to resolution_, by robert persons, the jesuit, and two sermons. in no fewer than seventeen books were printed (a number not again attained for several years), and among them was an edition of six homilies of s. chrysostom, "primitiæ typographi nostri in græcis literis preli." after this the press settled down to an average production of from eight to a dozen books a year, including a fair number of classical texts and translations, with now and then a volume of verse which brings it into connection with the stream of elizabethan literature. among the more interesting books which it produced, mention may be made of the _sixe idillia_ of theocritus ( ), poems by nicholas breton and thomas churchyard ( ), richard de bury's _philobiblon_ ( ), the _microcosmus_ of john davies of hereford ( ), captain john smith's _map of virginia, with a description of the countrey_ ( ), and burton's _anatomy of melancholy_ ( ). in the 'twenties of the seventeenth century the average annual output was still only ; in the 'thirties, under the fostering care of laud, it had risen as high as . in it was but . then, on the outbreak of the civil war, the king came to oxford, and under the stress of official publications and royalist controversy the numbers shot up to about in , followed by in , about in , and in . then they become normal again, and in under the parliamentary _régime_ sink as low as seven. these statistics are taken from the various works of mr. falconer madan, mentioned in our bibliography, and from the same source we learn that until the nineteenth century the annual average of production, calculated by periods of ten years, never exceeded thirty-two. similar causes to those which brought about the sudden increase in the oxford output in led to the establishment of presses at newcastle and york. in , when charles i marched against the scots, his head-quarters were at newcastle, and the royal printer, robert barker,[ ] printed there a sermon by the bishop of durham, the _lawes and ordinances of warre_, and some proclamations. in march, , again barker was in attendance on the king at york, and printed there _his majesties declaration to both houses of parliament_, in answer to that presented to him at newmarket, and some thirty-eight other pieces. another london printer, stephen bulkley, was also given employment, and in the years - printed at york some twenty-eight different pieces. bulkley also attended the king at newcastle in , when he was in the hands of the scots, and remained printing there and at gateshead until the restoration, when he returned to york, where a puritan press had in the meantime been set up by thomas broad. charles i left york on august, , and six days later the royal standard was raised at nottingham. _his majesties instructions to his commissioners of array_, dated "at our court at nottingham, th august, ," were printed by barker at york. two days later the king ordered that the press should be brought to nottingham, but we next hear of barker at shrewsbury, where he served the king's immediate needs, and then remained at work for the rest of the year and the greater part of reprinting oxford editions and publishing other royalist literature. after the capture of bristol for the king on august he removed once more and printed there during and . during the confusion of the civil war an exeter stationer, thomas hunt (the local publisher of herrick's _hesperides_), had a book printed for him--thomas fuller's _good thoughts in bad times_--which is described in the dedication as the "first fruits of the exeter presse," and another is said to have been printed there in . but we hear of no other presses being set up. after the restoration printing was allowed to continue at york. otherwise provincial printing outside the universities was once more non-existent. the arrival of william of orange caused some broadsides to be printed at exeter in , and in the same year thomas tillier printed at chester, not only _an account of a late horrid and bloody massacre in ireland_ on a single leaf, but also a handsome folio, _the academy of armory_, for randall holme, who rewarded him for any risk he may have run by devising for him a fancy coat. nevertheless, despite the change of government, the act of parliament restricting printing to london, oxford, cambridge, and york was not allowed to expire till . a press was set up at bristol the same year. plymouth and shrewsbury followed in , exeter in , and norwich in , the first provincial newspaper, _the norwich post_, dating from september in that year. by about seventy-five provincial towns possessed presses, cities and small country places starting them at haphazard, not at all in the order of their importance. the dates for some of the chief are as follows (all on the authority of mr. allnutt): , newcastle-upon-tyne; , worcester; , nottingham; , chester; , liverpool; , salisbury; , birmingham; , canterbury; , ipswich, leeds, and taunton; , manchester and derby; , northampton; , coventry and hereford; , reading; , bath; , sheffield; , stratford-on-avon; , portsmouth. as a side-consequence of the lapsing of the licensing act in , it became possible for any private person to buy a printing press, hire a journeyman printer, and start printing any books he pleased. several private presses were thus set up during the second half of the eighteenth century, the most famous of them being that of horace walpole at strawberry hill, near twickenham. walpole started in by printing two of the odes of his friend gray, and at intervals during the next twenty-seven years printed several of his own works, and a few other books, of which an edition of grammont's _mémoires_ was the most important. walpole's example was followed by george allan, m.p. for durham, and francis blomefield, the historian of norfolk; also in the nineteenth century by thomas johnes, who printed his translation of froissart in four large quarto volumes at his own house at hafod in cardiganshire in - , and followed them up with a joinville in and a monstrelet in . between and sir egerton brydges caused a number of interesting literary reprints to be issued for him in limited editions from a press in or near his house at lee priory in kent. the work of both these presses, like that of walpole's, was perhaps equal to the best commercial printing of its day, but was not superior to it, and perhaps the same may be said of the few reprints manufactured, in still more jealously limited editions, by e. v. utterson between and at beldornie house, ryde. sir thomas phillipps, who printed numerous antiquarian documents between and at middle hill in worcestershire, and between and at cheltenham, set even less store by typographical beauty and accuracy. the other private presses of the first half of the nineteenth century are not more interesting, though that of gaetano polidori at park village east, near regent's park, - , has become famous as having printed gabriel rossetti's _sir hugh the heron_ in , and christina rossetti's first volume of verse four years later, polidori being the grandfather of the young authors on their mother's side. passing north of the tweed, where the most formidable competitors of the london printers now abide, we find the first scottish press at work at edinburgh in . in september of the previous year andrew myllar, a bookseller who had gained some experience of printing at rouen, and walter chapman, a merchant, had been granted leave to import a press, chiefly that they might print an aberdeen breviary, which duly appeared in - . the books which anticipated it in were a number of thin quartos, _the maying or disport of chaucer_, dated april, the _knightly tale of golagros and gawane_, dated april, the _porteous of noblenes_, "translated out of franche in scottis be maistir andrew cadiou," dated april, and eight undated pieces, three of them by dunbar (_the goldyn targe_, _the flyting of dunbar and kennedy_, and the _twa marrit wemen and the wedo_, with other poems), the others being the _ballad of lord barnard stewart_, _orpheus and eurydice_, the _buke of gude counsale_, _sir eglamoure of artoys_, and _a gest of robyn hode_. all these have survived (some of them much mutilated) in a single volume, and it is at the reader's pleasure to decide whether they represent the harvest of some careful person who bought up all chapman and myllar's fugitive pieces, or are merely the remnants of a much larger output. the aberdeen breviary, which the printers were encouraged to produce by protection against the importation of sarum books from england or abroad, is really handsomely printed in black and red. at the end of one of the four or five copies of it now known is an addendum, the _officium compassionis beatae virginis_ (commemorated on the wednesday in holy week), which bears the colophon "impressum edinburgi per johannem story nomine & mandato karoli stule," which scottish bibliographers assign to about . a fragment of a _book of the howlat_ may belong to the same period. thus although scottish writers, such as john vaus and hector boece of aberdeen, had to send their books to france to be printed, it is possible that presses were at work in edinburgh or elsewhere in scotland, of which nothing is now known. the next printer of whom we have certain information is thomas davidson, who in february, ( ), produced a handsome edition of _the new actis and constitutionis of parliament maid be the rycht excellent prince iames the fift_. this was his only dated book, but he issued also a fine edition of _the hystory and croniklis of scotland_, translated by "johne bellenden, archdene of murray, chanon of ros," from the latin of hector boece, and some smaller works. the next scottish printer is john scot, whom the best authorities, despite the fact that he is first heard of in edinburgh in , refuse to identify with the john skot who printed in london from to . whoever he was, he had no very happy existence, as notwithstanding some efforts to please the protestant party, the work he did for the catholics twice brought him into serious trouble. his first dated book, archbishop hamilton's _catechism_, did not appear till august, , and was printed not at edinburgh, but at st. andrews. how he had been employed between and this date we have no means of knowing. at st. andrews scot printed patrick cockburn's _pia meditatio in dominicam orationem_ ( ), and probably also lauder's _dewtis of kingis_ ( ). scot also printed controversial works on the catholic side by the abbot of crosraguell (quentin kennedy) and ninian winzet, and for the opposite party _the confessione of faith professit and belevit be the protestantes within the realme of scotland_ ( ). he issued also two editions ( and ) of the works of sir david lindesay, while his undated books include some of lindesay's single poems. since john scot printed mainly on the catholic side, the protestant general assembly in december, , started a printer in opposition to him, robert lekpreuik, lending him "twa hundreth pounds to help to buy irons, ink and papper and to fie craftesmen for printing." he had previously, in , like scot, printed the _confession of the faith_, also robert noruell's _meroure of an chr[i]stiane_ and an _oration_ by beza. the grant allowed him was in connection with an edition of the psalms, which eventually appeared in , together with the _form of prayer and ministration of the sacraments used in the english church at geneva_ and the catechism (dated ). lekpreuik continued active till , and after an interval issued three books in and perhaps one in . in mr. aldis's list he is credited with ninety-one publications (mostly controversial) as against four assigned to davidson and fifteen to scot. during he printed at stirling, and the next two years at st. andrews. like scot, he found printing perilous work, his intermission after the beginning of being due to imprisonment. thomas bassandyne, who had previously published books at edinburgh, began printing there in . he produced but ten (extant) books and documents in all, but his name is famous from its connection with the first scottish bible, of which he produced the new testament in , the old testament being added, and the whole issued by his successor, alexander arbuthnot, in . besides the bible, only five books were printed by arbuthnot. between and twenty-six were produced by john ross, and on his death henry charteris, a bookseller, took over his material, and by the time of his death in had printed forty more. but the best edinburgh work towards the end of the century was produced by two craftsmen from england, thomas vautrollier, who produced ten books in - , and robert waldegrave ( - ), who had to flee from england for his share in the marprelate tracts, and during his thirteen years in edinburgh issued books. when joseph ames was desirous of obtaining information about early printing in ireland he applied to a dr. rutty, of dublin (apparently a quaker), who could only furnish the name of a single book printed there before , this being an edition of the book of common prayer, which states that it is "imprinted by humphrey powell, printer to the kynges maiesti, in his highnesse realme of ireland dwellyng in the citie of dublin in the greate toure by the crane. cum privilegio ad imprimendum solum. anno domini mdli." we know from the records of the english privy council that humphrey powell, an inconspicuous english printer, was granted £ in july, , "towards his setting up in ireland," and this prayer book was doubtless the first fruits of his press. powell remained in dublin for fifteen years, but the only other products of his press still in existence are two proclamations, one issued in against shane o'neill, the other in against the o'connors, and _a brefe declaration of certein principall articles of religion_, a quarto of eight leaves set out by order of sir henry sidney in . in john o'kearney, treasurer of st. patrick's, was presented with a fount of irish type by queen elizabeth, and a catechism by him and a broadside poem on the last judgment, by philip, son of conn crosach, both in irish type, are still extant. but there seems to be no trustworthy information as to where they were printed, though it was probably at dublin. an almanac, giving the longitude and latitude for dublin, for the year , appears to have been printed at london. but in william kearney printed a proclamation against the earl of tyrone and his adherents in ireland "in the cathedrall church of the blessed trinitie, dublin." we reach continuous firm ground in when john francke, or franckton (as he called himself in and thenceforward), printed one or more proclamations at dublin. in franckton was appointed king's printer for ireland, and he continued at work till , when he assigned his patent to felix kyngston, matthew lownes, and thomas downes. some four-and-twenty proclamations and upwards of a dozen books and pamphlets from his press are extant, some of them in irish type. in the office of printer-general for ireland was granted for a period of twenty-one years to kingston, lownes, and downes, all of them members of the london stationers' company, and the usual imprint on the books they issued is that of the company ( - ) or society ( - ) of stationers. they seem to have appointed an agent or factor to look after their interests, and the last of these factors, william bladen, about took over the business. the earliest allusion to books printed in what afterwards became the united states of america occurs in the diary of john winthrop, governor of massachusetts bay, for march, : "a printing house was begun at cambridge by one stephen daye, at the charge of mr. glover, who died on sea hitherward. the first thing which was printed was the freemen's oath; the next was an almanac made for new england by mr. william pierce, mariner; the next was the psalms newly turned into metre." the mr. glover here mentioned was the rev. joseph glover, rector of sutton in surrey from to , who, after collecting funds for the benefit of harvard college at cambridge, mass., sailed with his family from england in the summer of , but died on the way. his widow (elizabeth glover), shortly after her arrival, married the rev. henry dunster, the first president of harvard, and thus, as had happened in paris, the first press in america was set up in a college under clerical auspices. stephen day, the printer whom glover had brought from england, is naturally supposed to have been a descendant of john day, the great elizabethan printer, but of this there is no evidence. he obtained some grants of land in consideration of his services to the colony, but did not greatly thrive, and in , or early in , was superseded by samuel green. of the specimens of his press mentioned by governor winthrop the _oath of a freeman_ and the _almanac_ have perished utterly. of the "bay psalter," or the "new england version of the psalms," as it was subsequently called, at least eleven copies are known to be extant, of which five are stated to be perfect.[ ] it is a small octavo of leaves, disfigured by numerous misprints, but with passable presswork. the translation was made by the massachusetts clergy, who prefixed to it "a discourse declaring not only the lawfullnes but also the necessity of the heavenly ordinance of singing scripture psalmes in the churches of god." its titlepage bears the name neither of printer nor of place, but merely "imprinted ." there is no doubt, however, that it was produced by day at cambridge, whereas the edition of appears to have been printed in london. the massachusetts records make it probable that day printed several books and documents now lost. an imperfect copy of harvard theses with the imprint "cantabrigiæ nov. ang., mens. " is the next production of his press still extant. after this comes an historical document of some interest: "_a declaration of former passages and proceedings betwixt the english and the narrowgansets, with their confederates, wherein the grounds and iustice of the ensuing warre are opened and cleared_. published by order of the commissioners for the united colonies. at boston the of the sixth month ." another broadside of harvard theses (for ) and a couple of almanacs for and , the first of which has the imprint "cambridge printed by matthew daye and to be solde by hez. usher at boston. ", are the only other remnants of this stage of the press. of matthew day nothing more is known. samuel green appears to have taken over day's business without any previous technical training, so that it is thought that day may have helped him as a journeyman. the first book ascribed to green is: a platform of church discipline gathered out of the word of god: and agreed upon by the elders: and messengers of the churches assembled in the synod at cambridge in new-england. to be presented to the churches and generals court for their consideration and acceptance in the lord. the eighth moneth, anno . printed by s.g. at cambridge in new-england and are to be sold at cambridge and boston anno dom. . his next extant piece of work is an almanac for , his next the third edition (the second, as noted above, had been printed at london in ) of the bay psalter, "printed by samuel green at cambridge in new-england, ." this was followed in by richard mather's _the summe of certain sermons upon genes_. . , a treatise on justification by faith, and then green seems to have begun to busy himself with work for the corporation in england for the propagation of the gospel amongst the indians in new england, or corporation for the indians, as it is easier to call it. a second press was sent over to enable this work to be undertaken, and a primer by john eliot ("the apostle to the indians") was printed in , and the books of genesis and matthew the next year, all three in the indian language, all three now known only from records. the same destruction has befallen an indian version of some of the psalms mentioned as having been printed in , but of another indian book of the same year, abraham peirson's _some helps for the indians, shewing them how to improve their natural reason to know the true god, and the true christian religion_, two issues have been preserved, one in the new york public library, the other at the british museum. another edition, dated the next year, is also at the museum, though it has escaped the notice of mr. evans, the author of the latest "american bibliography." by this time the corporation for the indians had sent over a skilled printer, marmaduke johnson, to aid green in his work. unfortunately, despite the fact that he had left a wife in england, johnson flirted with green's daughter, and this conduct, reprehensible anywhere, in new england brought down on him fines of £ and a sentence of deportation, which, however, was not carried out. johnson's initials appears in conjunction with green's in _a brief catechism containing the doctrine of godlines_, by john norton, teacher of the church at boston, published in , and the two men's names in full are in the indian new testament of and the complete bible of . of the new testament it is conjectured that a thousand, or perhaps fifteen hundred copies, were printed, of which five hundred were bound separately, and forty of these sent to england. how many copies were printed of the old testament is not known, but of the complete bible some forty copies are still extant in no fewer than eight variant states produced by the presence or absence of the indian and english titlepages, the dedication, etc., while of the new testament about half as many copies may be known. during the progress of the indian bible green had continued his english printing on his other press, and had produced among other things _propositions concerning the subject of baptism_ collected by the boston synod, and bearing the imprint "printed by s.g. for hezekiah vsher at boston in new england ." printing at boston itself does not appear to have begun until , when john foster, a harvard graduate, was entrusted with the management of a press, and during that and the six following years printed there a number of books by increase mather and other ministers, as well as some almanacs. on his death in the press was entrusted to samuel sewall, who, however, abandoned it in . meanwhile, samuel green had continued to print at cambridge, and his son, samuel green junior, is found working by assignment of sewall and for other boston booksellers. in his brother bartholomew green succeeded him, and remained the chief printer at boston till his death in . at philadelphia, within three years of its foundation in , a _kalendarium pennsilvaniense, or america's messinger: being and [sic] almanack for the year of grace _, by samuel atkins, was issued with the imprint, "printed and sold by william bradford, sold also by the author and h. murrey in philadelphia and philip richards in new york, ," and in the same year there was published anonymously thomas budd's _good order established in pennsilvania & new jersey in america, being a true account of the country; with its produce and commodities there made_. in bradford printed _an epistle from john burnyeat to friends in pensilvania_ and _a general epistle given forth by the people of the lord called quakers_; in william penn's _the excellent privilege of liberty and property being the birthright of the free-born subjects of england_; in a collection including böhme's _the temple of wisdom_, wither's _abuses stript and whipt_, and bacon's _essays_, edited by daniel leeds. in bradford began working for george keith, and three years later he was imprisoned for printing keith's _appeal from the twenty eight judges to the spirit of truth and true judgement in all faithful friends called quakers_. in consequence of this persecution bradford left philadelphia the next year and set up his press at new york. reinier jansen and jacob taylor are subsequently mentioned as printers at philadelphia, and in andrew bradford, son of william, came from new york and worked there until his death in . from he had as a competitor samuel keimer, and it was in keimer's office that benjamin franklin began printing in philadelphia. his edition of a translation of cicero's _cato major on old age_, by j. logan of philadelphia, is said to have been the first rendering of a classic published in america. meanwhile, william bradford had set up his press in new york in , and obtained the appointment of government printer. his earliest productions there were a number of official acts and proclamations, on which he placed the imprint, "printed and sold by william bradford, printer to king william and queen mary, at the city of new york." in he was apparently employed to print an anonymous answer to increase mather's _order of the gospel_, and a heated controversy arose as to whether the refusal of bartholomew green to print it at boston was due to excessive "awe" of the president of harvard or to a more praiseworthy objection to anonymous attacks. bradford remained new york's only printer until , when johann peter zenger set up a press which became notable for the boldness with which it attacked the provincial government. such attacks were not regarded with much toleration, nor indeed was the press even under official regulation greatly beloved by authority. in sir william berkeley, governor of virginia, in an official document remarked: "i thank god we have not free schools nor printing; and i hope we shall not have these hundred years. for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world; and printing has divulged them and libels against the government. god keep us from both." eleven years later ( february, ) there is an entry in the virginian records: "john buckner called before the l^d culpeper and his council for printing the laws of , without his excellency's license, and he and the printer ordered to enter into bond in £ not to print anything hereafter, until his majesty's pleasure shall be known." as a result there was no more printing in virginia till about , nor are any other towns than those here mentioned known to have possessed presses during the seventeenth century, the period within which american books may claim the dignity of incunabula. footnotes: [ ] mr. duff is no doubt right in his suggestion that this is _a very declaration of the bond and free wyll of man: the obedyence of the gospell and what the gospell meaneth_, of which a copy, with colophon, "printed at saint albans," is in the spencer collection at the john rylands library. this increases hertfort's total to eight. [ ] mr. duff plausibly suggests that overton's name in the colophon was merely a device for surmounting the restrictions on the circulation in england of books printed abroad. [ ] those recorded by mr. e. g. duff in his sandars lectures on "the english provincial printers, stationers, and bookbinders to ," by my reckoning number . [ ] this reckoning was made in , but the proportion has not been substantially altered. [ ] the colophon to the _chronicles_ which commemorates leeu has already been quoted (p. ). [ ] before the incorporation of the company brought english printing more easily under supervision, at least a few books had been issued by english printers with spurious foreign imprints, of which the most impudent was "at rome under the castle of st. angelo." [ ] robert barker himself was imprisoned for debt in the king's bench at london in , and died there in . what is here written applies to his deputy, who may have been his son of the same name. [ ] the assertion by mr. charles evans (_american bibliography_, p. ) that one of these, "the crowninshield copy, was privately sold by henry stevens to the british museum for £ s.," despite its apparent precision, is an exasperating error. chapter xiv english woodcut illustrations [illustration: xxix. westminster, caxton, c. bonaventura. meditationes. (part of sig. k recto) christ raising the daughter of jairus] a few illuminated manuscripts of english workmanship and a few with illustrations in outline have come down to us from the fifteenth century, but amid the weary wars with france and the still wearier struggles of yorkists and lancastrians, the artistic spirit which had been so prominent in england in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries seems to have died out altogether. until the reign of queen elizabeth, or perhaps we should rather say until the advent of john day, few english books were illustrated, and of these few quite a large proportion borrowed or copied their pictures from foreign originals. nevertheless, english illustrated books are rightly sought after by english collectors, and though we may wish that they were better, we must give the best account of them we can. as we shall see in a later chapter, there is some probability that an engraving on copper was specially prepared for the first book printed by caxton, _the recuyell of the histories of troye._ for the present, however, we must concern ourselves only with illustrations on wood, or on soft metal cut in relief after the manner of wood, a difference of more interest to the technical student than to book-lovers. the first english books thus illustrated appear in or about , the year in which jean du pré began the use of cuts in paris. england was thus fairly well to the front in point of time; it is the quality which is to seek. the first of these illustrated books was probably an undated edition of the _mirrour of the world_, a translation of a french version of a latin _speculum_ or _imago mundi_. besides some woodcut diagrams copied from drawings found in the french manuscripts, this has ten little cuts, seven of the masters of the seven liberal arts, one of the author, and two of the creation. two of the cuts illustrating the arts were used again almost at once in caxton's third edition of the _parvus et magnus cato_, a book of moral instruction for children in a series of latin distichs. in also caxton ornamented the second edition of the didactic treatise, _the game and play of the chess_ (from the latin of jacobus de cessolis), with sixteen woodcuts, representing the characters after which the different pieces and pawns were called. the pictures are clumsy and coarsely cut, comparing miserably with the charming little woodcuts in the italian edition printed at florence, but they illustrate the book, and may conceivably have increased its sales. in any case, caxton seems, in a leisurely way, to have set about producing some more, since by or about appeared three of his most important illustrated books, the _golden legend_, the second edition of chaucer's _canterbury tales_, and an _aesop_. the _golden legend_ is ornamented with eighteen large and thirty-two smaller woodcuts; the _aesop_ with a full-page frontispiece and one hundred and five smaller cuts; the _canterbury tales_ with a large cut of the pilgrims seated at a round table, and with some twenty smaller pictures of the different story-tellers on their horses, some of these being used more than once. for the _aesop_, like many other foreign publishers, caxton sent his illustrators to the designs made for the zainers at augsburg and ulm, and quickly imitated all over germany, and the copies he obtained are merely servile and so clumsy as occasionally to attain to unintended humour. foreign influence is also evident in some at least of the cuts in the _golden legend_; on the other hand, we may be sure that the device of the earl of arundel on leaf verso, a horse galloping past a tree, must have been made in england. original, too, of necessity, were the illustrations to the _canterbury tales_, for which no foreign models could have been found. but the succession of pilgrims, each decked with a huge string of praying-beads and mounted on a most ungainly horse, is grotesque in its cumulation of clumsiness, though when we find that the miller really has got a kind of bagpipe, we recognize that the illustrator had at least read his text. apparently caxton himself realized that these english-made woodcuts were a failure, for the only two important illustrated books which he issued after this, the _speculum vitae christi_, printed about (see plate xxix), and the _fifteen oes_ of a year or two later, both seem to be decorated with cuts of flemish origin. the _fifteen oes_ (a collection of fifteen prayers, each beginning with o), though i have called it important, is so mainly as proving that caxton must have printed a horae of the same measurements (of which it may, indeed, have formed a part), illustrated with a set of very spirited woodcuts, undoubtedly imported from flanders and subsequently found in the possession of wynkyn de worde. that the cuts in the _speculum vitae christi_ are also flemish is a degree less certain, but only a degree. some of these were used again in the _royal book_, the _doctrinal of sapience_, and the _book of divers ghostly matters_. but the seven books which we have named are the only ones for which caxton troubled to procure sets of cuts, and of these seven sets, as we have seen, one was certainly and another probably imported, one certainly and another probably copied, and only three are of english origin, and these the rudest and clumsiest. while our chief native printer made this poor record his contemporaries did no better. lettou and machlinia used no woodcuts which have come down to us save a small border, which passed into the possession of pynson; for use at oxford two sets of cuts were imported from the low countries, one which mr. gordon duff thinks was originally designed for a _legenda aurea_, the other clearly meant for a horae. these were used together in the oxford edition of mirk's _liber festivalis_, and the cut of the author of the _legenda aurea_ (jacobus de voragine) is used for lyndewood in an edition of his _constitutions_. at st. albans some poor little cuts were used in the _chronicles of england_, but from the point of view of illustration the anonymous schoolmaster-printer is chiefly memorable for having printed some cuts of coat-armour in the "book of st. albans" (_the boke of haukyng, huntyng and also of cote-armuris_) in colours. wynkyn de worde inherited caxton's stock of woodcuts, and early in his career used some of them again in reprints of the _golden legend_ and _speculum vitae christi_, and in his larger horae used the full set of cuts which, while in caxton's hands, is only known from those which appear in the _fifteen oes_. about he purchased some ornamental capitals (caxton had only used a single rather graceful rustic a) and one or more cuts from govaert van os of gouda. in his edition of walter hylton's _scala perfectionis_ (the first book in which he put his name) he used a woodblock consisting of a picture of christ suckled by his mother with a long woodcut inscription, part of which reads "sit dulce nomen domini nostri ihesu christi et nomen genitricis virginis marie benedictum," the whole surrounded by a graceful floral border. in came higden's _polychronicon_ with a few woodcut musical notes, the "hystorye of the deuoute and right renommed lyues of holy faders lyuynge in deserte" (usually quoted as the _vitas patrum_), with one large cut used six times and forty small ones used as , and about the same time a handsome edition of bartholomaeus anglicus's _de proprietatibus rerum_, with large cuts (two-thirds of the folio page) prefixed to each of the twenty-two books, apparently copied partly from those in a dutch edition printed at haarlem in , partly from the illustrations (themselves not original) in a french edition printed at lyon, of which caxton, who finished the translation on his death-bed, had made use. in , in reprinting the _book of st. albans_ de worde added a treatise on _fishing with an angle_, to which he prefixed a cut of a happy angler hauling up a fish which will soon be placed in a well-filled tub which stands beside him on the bank. this is quite good primitive work and was sufficiently appreciated to be used for numerous later editions, but soon after this de worde employed a cutter who served him very badly, mangling cruelly a set of rather ambitious designs for the _morte d'arthur_ of (several of them used again in the _recuyell_ of ), and also some single cuts used in different books. for the next half-dozen years de worde relied almost exclusively on old cuts, but at last found a competent craftsman who enabled him to bring out in january, - , an english version of the _art de bien vivre et de bien mourir_ with quite neat reductions of the pictures in vérard's edition of . it was, no doubt, the same workman who copied in the vérard-pigouchet cuts in pierre gringore's _chasteau de labeur_ as translated by alexander barclay, but from the frequent omission of backgrounds it is obvious that in these he was hurried, and they are by no means so good as those in the edition by pynson with which de worde was enviously hastening to compete. the _calendar of shepherds_ was another translation from the french, illustrated with copies of french cuts, while in the prose _ship of fools_, translated by henry watson from a french version of the german _narrenschiff_ of sebastian brant, basel originals were reproduced probably from intermediate copies. but when in henry vii died, de worde for once seems to have let his craftsman do a bit of original work for a title-cut to a funeral sermon by bishop fisher. in this (see plate xxx) the bishop is shown preaching in a wooden pulpit, immediately below which is the hearse covered by a gorgeous pall on which lies an effigy of the dead king, while beyond the hearse stands a crowd of courtiers. it is evident that perspective was not the artist's strong point, as the pavement seems climbing up the wall and the shape of the hearse is quite indeterminate, but the general effect of the cut is neat and pleasing. that it is an english cut is certain. a few months later bishop fisher preached another funeral sermon, over henry vii's aged mother, margaret duchess of richmond, and when de worde economically wished to use the same woodcut on the titlepage of his edition of this, there was a craftsman on the spot able to cut out the royal hearse from the block and plug in a representation of an ordinary one, and the similarity of touch shows that this was done by the original cutter. [illustration: xxx. london, wynkyn de worde, bishop fisher. funeral sermon on henry vii. (title)] as we have already noted in chapter xii, wynkyn de worde was singularly unenterprising as a publisher, and although he lived for nearly a quarter of a century after the accession of henry viii, during all this time he printed no new book which required copious illustration. on the other hand, he was a man of fixed habits, and one of these habits came to be the decoration of the titlepage of nearly every small quarto he issued with a woodcut of some kind or other, the title itself being sometimes printed on a riband above it. when a new picture was absolutely necessary for this purpose it was forthcoming and generally fairly well cut, but a few stock woodcuts, a schoolmaster holding a birch for grammatical books, a knight on horseback for a romance, etc., were used again and again, and often the block was picked out (we are tempted to say "at random," but that would be an exaggeration) from one of the sets already described, which de worde had commissioned in more lavish days. one of richard pynson's earliest books was an edition of chaucer's _canterbury tales_ with about a score of woodcuts of the pilgrims obviously influenced by those in caxton's second edition, but in no way an improvement on them. it is true that not only is the miller again allowed his bagpipe, but a little mill is placed in the corner of the cut to identify him beyond doubt. on the other hand, the knight's horse is bedecked with the cumbrous skirts used in the tilt-yard, but which would have become sadly draggled ere much progress had been made along the miry road to canterbury. the clerk, moreover, is made to carry a bow as if, instead of having his mind set on aristotle, he were of the lusty sort that loved to get venison where they should not. round most of the cuts there is a heavy edge of black, as if from an untrimmed block, which does not improve their appearance. altogether they are poor work, and it was doubtless his recognition of this that caused pynson in future to rely so largely on the purchase or imitation of foreign blocks. for his edition of lydgate's _falles of princes_, a verse rendering of boccaccio's _de casibus illustrium virorum_, issued in , he procured the woodcuts made for the fine french edition (_de la ruine des nobles hommes_), printed at paris by jean du pré in . before he brought out an _aesop_, copying as usual the german cuts. in he printed alexander barclay's version of pierre gringore's _chasteau du labeur_ with cuts closely and fairly skilfully copied from those in the pigouchet-vérard editions. in he went further and procured from vérard the blocks for a new edition of the _kalendar of shepherds_, which, however, he caused to be retranslated, with sundry remarks on the extraordinary english of the version published by vérard. in he produced in a fine folio barclay's free rendering of brant's _narrenschiff_, illustrating this english _ship of fools_ with cuts copied from the originals. in he procured from froben some border-pieces for small quartos, one showing in the footpiece a boy carried on the shoulders of his fellows, another an elephant, a third mutius scaevola and porsenna. [illustration: xxxi. london, pynson, c. barclay's version of sallust's jugurtha. the translator and the duke of norfolk. (reduced)] if pynson had dealt largely in illustrated books the borrowings and copyings here recited might seem insignificant. he published, however, very little english work which can be set against them, and even of the cuts which pass for english the native origin is not always sure. i should be sorry to pledge myself, for instance, as to the provenance of some neat but rather characterless column-cuts in his edition of the _speculum vitae christi_ (fifteenth century). the title-cut to the _traduction and mariage of the princesse_ (katherine), printed in , is almost certainly english in its heaviness and lack of charm, but despite the fact that they must have been produced in london we can hardly say as much of the two far prettier pictures which adorn the _carmen_ of petrus carmelianus on the treaty of marriage between the future charles v and the princess mary ( ). in the first of these the ambassadors are being received by henry vii, in the second by the princess who is attended by her maids, and the latter is perhaps the first english book-illustration with any touch of grace. unluckily there is a half spanish, half low-country look about it, which suggests that some member of the ambassadors' suite with an artistic turn may at least have supplied the design, so that one hesitates to claim it too vigorously as english work. we may be more confident about the one good cut (the rest are a scratch lot) in the edition of lydgate's _the hystory sege and dystruccion of troy_. in this henry v is shown seated in a large room, with his suite, while lydgate in his black habit as a benedictine presents him with his book. there is a general resemblance between this and another good piece of work, the picture in alexander barclay's translation of sallust's _jugurtha_ (undated) of this other black monk offering his book to the duke of norfolk (see plate xxxi). probably both were from the same hand. it may be noted that the cut of barclay was used again in the _myrrour of good maners conteyning the iiii. vertues called cardynall compyled in latin by domynicke mancyn_, of which he was the industrious translator. in pynson's edition of fabyan's _chronicle_, besides some insignificant column-cuts of kings and some decorative heraldic work, there is an excellent picture of a disembarkation. in other books we find cuts of a schoolmaster with his pupils, of an author, of a woman saint (s. bridget, though used also for s. werburga), etc. towards the end of his career in the collection of chaucer's works ( ) and reprint of lydgate's _falles of princes_ ( ), pynson drew on his stock of miscellaneous blocks rather than allow works with which illustrations had become associated to go forth undecorated.[ ] but with his purchase of the border-pieces from froben in , it would seem that he more or less definitely turned his back on pictorial illustration. mr. gordon duff has shown that a change comes over the character of his books about this time, and has suggested that during the latter years of his life his business was to some extent in the hands of thomas berthelet, who succeeded him as king's printer. berthelet himself in the course of his long and prosperous career eschewed illustrations altogether, while he took some trouble to get good capitals and had a few ornamental borders. it is thus hardly too much to say that from for some forty years, until in john day published cunningham's _cosmographicall glasse_, book-illustration in england can only be found lurking here and there in holes and corners. in peter treveris issued the _grete herbal_ with numerous botanical figures; in john rastell printed his own _pastime of people_ with huge, semi-grotesque cuts of english kings; a few of robert copland's books and a few of robert wyer's have rough cuts of no importance. but when we think of pynson's edition of lord berners' _froissart_, of berthelet's of gower's _confessio amantis_, of godfray's _chaucer_, and of grafton's edition of halle's _chronicle_, all illustratable books and all unillustrated, it is evident that educated book-buyers, wearied of rudely hacked blocks, often with no relevance to the book in which they were found, had told the printers that they might save the space occupied by these decorations, and that the reign of the primitive woodcut in english books, if it can be said ever to have reigned, was at an end. this emphatic discouragement of book-illustrations during so many years in the sixteenth century was perhaps the best thing that could have happened--next to an equally emphatic encouragement of them. there can have been no reason in the nature of things why english book-illustrations should continue over a long period of time to be third-rate. a little help and a little guidance would probably have sufficed to reform them altogether. nevertheless it can hardly be disputed that as a matter of fact they were, with very few exceptions, third-rate, the superiority of pynson's to wynkyn de worde's being somewhat less striking than is usually asserted. in the absence of the needed help and guidance it was better to make a sober dignity the ideal of book-production than to continue to deface decently printed books by the use of job lots of column cuts. the borders and other ornaments used by berthelet, reyner wolfe, and grafton, the three principal firms of this period, are at least moderately good. all three printers indulged in the pleasing heresy of pictorial or heraldic capitals, wolfe in the _homiliae duae_ of s. chrysostom ( ), grafton in halle's chronicle entitled _the union of the families of lancaster and york_ ( ), and berthelet in some of his later proclamations. as regards their devices, grafton's punning emblem (a tree grafted on a tun), though in its smallest size it may pass well enough, was not worthy of the prominence which he sometimes gave it; but wolfe's "charitas" mark, of children throwing sticks at an apple tree, is perhaps the most pleasing of english devices, while berthelet's "lucrece," despite the fact that her draperies have yielded to the renaissance temptation of fluttering in the wind rather more than a roman lady would have thought becoming at the moment of death, is of its kind a fine piece of work. as for pictures, from which berthelet, as far as i remember, was consistent in his abstinence--wolfe and grafton were wisely content to make an exception in favour of holbein, a little medallion cut after his portrait of sir thomas wyatt adorning wolfe's edition of leland's _naeniae_ ( ), and grafton owing to him the magnificent titlepage to the great bibles in which cranmer and cromwell, with a host of other worthies, are seen distributing bibles under the superintendence of henry viii. after the fall of cromwell his armorial bearings were cut out of the block, a piece of petty brutality on a level with that which compelled owners of prayer books and golden legends to deface them by scratching out the word "pope" and as much as they could of the service for the day of that certainly rather questionable saint, thomas à becket. [illustration: xxxii. london, t. powell, heywood. the spider and the fly. portrait of heywood] in we come across a definitely illustrated book, cranmer's _catechism_, published by walter lynne, with a delicately cut titlepage[ ] showing figures of justice, prudence, and victory, and also the royal arms, and in the text numerous small biblical pictures, two of which are signed "hans holbein," while others have been rashly attributed to bernard salomon. in we find heywood's _spider and the fly_ illustrated not only with various woodcuts of spiders' webs, but with a portrait of the author stiff and ungainly enough in all conscience, but carrying with it an impression of lank veracity (see plate xxxii). about this time, moreover, william copland was issuing folio and quarto editions of some of the poems and romances which had pleased the readers of the first quarter of the century, and some of these had the old cuts in them. it is evident that illustrations would have come back in any case--book-buyers can never abstain from them for long together. but it is only fair to connect this return with the name of john day, who made a strenuous effort, which only just failed of success, to bring up book-illustration to the high level at which he was aiming in printing. day had issued a few books during the reign of edward vi, notably a bible with an excellent pictorial capital showing the promoter of the edition, edmund becke, presenting a copy of it to the king. as a staunch protestant he had been in some danger under queen mary, but with the accession of elizabeth he came quickly to the front, thanks to the help of archbishop parker, and the edition of _the cosmographicall glasse_ of william cunningham, which he issued in , is thus, as we have already suggested, a real landmark in english book-production. in addition to its fine types, this book is notable for its woodcut diagrams and pictorial capitals, ornamental titlepage, large map of norwich and, most important of all, a strong and vigorous portrait of the author, his right hand on a globe, a _dioscorides_ with a diagram of a rose lying open before him, and a wooded landscape being seen in the distance. the whole is enclosed in an oval frame, round which runs a greek motto cut in majuscules, [greek: Ê megalÊ eudaimoniÊ oudeni phthonein] ("the great happiness is to envy no man"), with the author's age, "Ætatis " at the foot. the portrait measures about inches by ½, and occupies the whole folio page. it is only too probable that it was the work not of a native englishman, but of some dutch refugee, but here at last in an english book was a piece of living portraiture adequately cut on wood, and with better luck it should have been the first of a long series. john day himself did his best to promote a fashion by prefixing a small portrait of becon to that author's _pomander of prayer_, , and having a much larger one of himself cut the next year, "Ætatis svÆ xxxx," as the inscription tells us, adding also his motto, "liefe is deathe and death is liefe", the spelling in which suggests a dutch artist, though dutch spelling about this time was so rampant in england that we may hope against hope that this was english work. the oval portrait is surrounded with strap-work ornament, another fashion of the day, and at the foot of this are the initials i. d. on one interpretation these would lead us to believe not only that the work is english, but that day himself was the cutter. but bindings from his shop are sometimes signed i. d. p. (ioannes day pegit), and we must hesitate before attributing to him personal skill not only in printing, but in binding and wood-cutting as well. the portrait itself is taken side-face and shows a cropped head, keen eye, and long beard, the neck being entirely concealed by a high coat-collar within which is a ruff. the ground to the front of the face is all in deep shadow, that at the back of the head is left white, a simple contrast which perhaps makes the general effect more brilliant. day used this portrait as a device in some of his largest folio books--for instance, his three-volume edition of becon's works ( - ) and foxe's _book of martyrs_ ( ). the full title of the _book of martyrs_, which we have now reached, is _actes and monuments of these latter and perillous dayes, touching matters of the church, wherein ar comprehended and described the great persecutions and horrible troubles, that have bene wrought and practised by the romishe prelates, especially in this realm of england and scotlande, from the yeare of our lorde a thousande unto the tyme nowe present_. it bears an elaborate titlepage showing protestants and catholics preaching, protestants being burnt at the stake contrasted with catholics offering the sacrifice of the mass, and finally the protestant martyrs uplifted in heaven, while the catholic persecutors are packed off to hell. the text is very unevenly illustrated, but the total number of woodcuts even in the first edition ( ) is very considerable, and as many new pictures were added in the second ( ), the book was certainly the most liberally illustrated with cuts specially made for it which had yet been produced in england. one or two of the smaller cuts, mostly the head of a martyr praying amid the flames, are used several times; of the larger cuts only a very few are repeated, and, considering the monotonous subject of the book, it is obvious that some trouble must have been taken to secure variety in the illustrations. a few of these occupy a whole page, that illustrating the protestant legend of the poisoning of king john by a fanatic monk being divided into compartments, while others showing some of the more important martyrdoms are ambitiously designed. the drawing of some of the later pictures is coarse, but on the whole the designs are good and with a good deal of character in them. the cutting is careful and painstaking, but hardly ever succeeds in making the picture stand out boldly on the page, so that the general effect is grey and colourless. as to the personality of the designers and cutters we know nothing. day at one time was anxious to get leave to keep more than the permitted maximum of four foreigners in his employment, but we have really no sufficient ground for arguing either for an english or a foreign origin for these illustrations. a few years after this, in , when the new edition of the _book of martyrs_ was in preparation, day issued another illustrated book: _a christall glasse of christian reformation, wherein the godly maye beholde the coloured abuses used in this our present tyme. collected by stephen bateman_, better known as the "batman uppon bartholomew," i.e. the editor by whom the _de proprietatibus rerum_ of bartholomaeus anglicus was "newly corrected, enlarged, and amended" in . the _christall glasse of christian reformation_ is a dull book with dull illustrations, which are of the nature of emblems, made ugly by party spirit. a more interesting book by the same author and issued in the same year was _the travayled pylgrime, bringing newes from all partes of the worlde_, to which bateman only put his initials and which was printed not by day, but by denham. this, although i cannot find that the fact has been noted, is largely indebted both for its scheme and its illustrations to the _chevalier délibéré_ of olivier de la marche, though the woodcuts go back not to those of the gouda and schiedam incunabula, but to the antwerp edition of , in which these were translated into some of the most graceful of sixteenth century cuts. needless to say, much of the grace disappears in this new translation, although the cutting is more effective than in the _book of martyrs_. besides these two books by stephen bateman, saw the issue of the first edition of one of john day's most famous ventures, _a booke of christian prayers, collected out of the ancient writers and best learned in our time, worthy to be read with an earnest mind of all christians, in these dangerous and troublesome daies, that god for christes sake will yet still be mercifull vnto us_. from the presence on the back of the titlepage of a very stiff portrait of the queen kneeling in prayer (rather like a design for a monumental brass), this is usually quoted as _queen elizabeth's prayer book_. it was reprinted in (perhaps also earlier), , and , and the later editions, the only ones i have seen, ascribe the compilation to r. d., i.e. richard day, john day's clergyman son. the book is in appearance a kind of protestant horae, having borders to every page divided into compartments as in the paris editions, showing scenes from the life of christ, the cardinal virtues and their opposites, the works of charity, and a dance of death. compared with the best, or even the second best, of the horae of pigouchet or kerver, the book looks cold and colourless, but the rarity of the early editions shows that it must have been very popular. the only other book issued by day with borders to every page was the (supposititious) _certaine select prayers gathered out of s. augustines meditations, which he calleth his selfe-talks with god_, which went through several editions, of which the first is dated . this is a much less pretentious book, the borders being decorative instead of pictorial, but it makes rather a pretty little octavo. another book which has cuts is the edition of grafton's _chronicle_ of that year, printed by henry denham, but as the cuts look like a "job" lot, possibly of german origin, and are only placed at the beginnings of sections in the short first book, while all the history from onwards is left unillustrated, this speaks rather of decadence than progress. [illustration: xxxiii. london, c. barker, turberville. booke of faulconrie. queen elizabeth hawking] in , towards the close of his career, day was employed to print john derrick's _image of ireland_, giving an account of sir henry sidney's campaign against the irish "wood-karnes." in some few copies this work is illustrated with eight very large woodcuts, the most ambitious in some respects that had ever been attempted in england. the first four are wretchedly cut; the last four, showing sir henry's battle with the rebels and his triumphal return, are both well designed and well executed. meanwhile, other printers and publishers had produced a few more illustrated books in the 'seventies. thus in henry bynneman had printed turberville's _booke of faulconrie_ for christopher barker. the numerous excellent illustrations of hawks (and probably those of dogs also) are taken from french books, but there is a fairly vigorous picture of queen elizabeth hawking attended by her suite, badged, back and front, with large tudor roses, and this (see plate xxxiii) looks like english work. in a much later edition--that of --it is curious to note that the portrait of the queen was cut out and one of james i substituted. in a rather forbidding woodcut portrait of george gascoigne was printed (by r. smith) in that worthy's _steele glas_. in came a very important work, the famous _chronicle_, begun on a vast scale by reyner wolfe and completed for england, scotland, and ireland by raphael holinshed, now published by john harrison the elder. this has the appearance of being much more profusely illustrated than the _book of martyrs_ or any other english folio, but as the cuts of battles, riots, executions, etc., which form the staple illustrations, are freely repeated, the profusion is far less than it seems. the cuts, moreover, are much smaller than those in foxe's _martyrs_. as a rule they are vigorously designed and fairly well cut, and if it had come fifty years earlier the book would have been full of promise. but, as far as pictorial cuts in important books are concerned, we are nearing the end. in h. singleton published spenser's _shepheardes calender_ with a small cut of no great merit at the head of each "æglogue," and in the same year vautrollier illustrated north's _plutarch_ with insignificant little busts which derive importance only from the large ornamental frames, stretching across the folio page, in which they are set. woodcuts did not cease to be used after this date. they will be found in herbals (but these were mainly foreign blocks), military works, and all books for which diagrams were needed. they continued fashionable for some time for the architectural or other forms of borders to titlepages, some of them very graceful, as, for instance, that to the early folio editions of sidney's _arcadia_; also for the coats of arms of the great men to whom books were dedicated. they are found also at haphazard in the sixpenny and fourpenny quartos of plays and romances, and many of the old blocks gradually drifted into the hands of the printers of ballads and chapbooks, and appear in incongruous surroundings after a century of service. but i cannot myself call to mind any important english book after for which a publisher thought it worth his while to commission a new set of imaginative pictures cut on wood, and that means that woodcut illustration as a vital force in the making of books had ceased to exist. they needed good paper and careful presswork, and all over europe paper and presswork were rapidly deteriorating. they cost money, and book-buyers apparently did not care enough for them to make them a good investment. the rising popularity of copper engravings for book-illustration on the continent probably influenced the judgment of english book-lovers, and although, as we shall see, copper engraving was for many years very sparingly used in england save for portraits, frontispieces, and titlepages, woodcuts went clean out of fashion for some two centuries. footnotes: [ ] he had apparently returned the blocks borrowed from du pré for the _falles of princes_, as none of them is used in , although one or two are copied. i have not met with all the chaucer illustrations, and it is possible that a few of these are new. [ ] used again the same year in a treatise by richard bonner. chapter xv engraved illustrations the good bookman should have no love for "plates," and to do them justice bookmen have shown commendable fortitude in resisting their attractions, great as these often are. as a form of book-decoration the plate reached its highest development in the french _livres-à-vignettes_ of the eighteenth century, the charm of the best bookwork of moreau, eisen, and their fellows being incontestable. it would, indeed, have argued some lack of patriotism if french book-lovers had not yielded themselves to the fascination of a method of book-illustration which had thus reached its perfection in their own country, and they have done so. but as he reads the enthusiastic descriptions of these eighteenth century books by m. henri béraldi, a foreign book-lover may well feel (to borrow the phrase which jonson and herrick used of the over-dressed ladies of their day) that the book itself has become its "own least part." a book which requires as an appendix an album of original designs, or of proofs of the illustrations, or (worse still) which has been mounted on larger paper and guarded so that these proofs or designs can be brought into connection with the text, is on its way to that worst of all fates, the avernus of extra illustration or graingerism. when it has reached this, it ceases to be a book at all and becomes a scrap-album of unharmonized pictures. lack of means may make it easy for a bookman to resist the temptation to supplement the illustrations in a book with duplicates in proof or any like extravagances, but even then few books which have plates in them fail to bring trouble. if the plates are protected with "flimsies," the owner's conscience may be perturbed with doubts as to whether these may lawfully be torn out. if there are no flimsies, the leaf opposite a plate often shows a set-off from it and is sometimes specially badly foxed. moreover, not being an integral part of the book, the plate presents problems to publishers and binders which are too often left unsolved. it ought to be printed on paper sufficiently wide to allow of a flap or turn-over, so that the leaf can be placed in the quire and properly sewn. but the flap thus left is not pretty, and unless very thin may cause the book to gape. thus too often the plate is only glued or pasted into its place, with the result that it easily comes loose. hence misplacements, imperfections, and consequent woe. it is the charm of the earlier books illustrated with incised engravings that the impressions are pulled on the same paper as the rest of the book, very often on pages bearing letterpress, and almost always, even when they chance to occupy a whole page, the back of which is left blank, as part of the quire or gathering. the price, however, which had to be paid for these advantages was a heavy one, the trouble not merely of double printing, as in the case of a sheet printed in red and black, but of double printing in two different kinds, one being from a raised surface, the other from an incised. it is clear that this trouble was found very serious, as both at rome and florence in italy, at bruges in the low countries, at würzburg and eichstätt in germany, and at lyon in france, the experiment was tried independently and in every case abandoned after one or two books had been thus ornamented. [illustration: xxxiv. florence, nicolus laurentii, bettini. monte santo di dio. christ in glory. (reduced)] at rome, after the failure of his printing partnership with pannartz, conrad sweynheym betook himself to engraving maps to illustrate an edition of ptolemy's _cosmographia_, and this was brought out after his death by arnold buckinck, october, . thirteen months earlier nicolaus laurentii, of breslau, had published at florence the _monte santo di dio_ of antonio bettini, with two full-page engravings and one smaller one. the first of these shows the ladder of prayer and the sacraments up which, by the virtues which form its successive rungs, a cassocked youth is preparing to climb to heaven, where christ stands in a mandorla supported by angels. the second plate is given up entirely to a representation of christ in a mandorla, both drawing and engraving being excellent, and the little angels who are lovingly upholding the frame being really delightful (see plate xxxiv). the third picture, printed on a page with text, is smaller than these and represents the pains of hell. when a second edition of the _monte santo di dio_ was needed in the copperplates were replaced by woodcuts, a fact which may remind us that not only the trouble of printing, but the small number of impressions which could be taken from copperplates, must have been a formidable objection to their use in bookwork. but at the time the first edition may well have been regarded as a success. if so, it was an unlucky one, as nicolaus laurentii was thereby encouraged to undertake a much more ambitious venture, an annotated _divina commedia_ with similar illustrations, and this, which appeared in , can only be looked on as a failure. no space was left at the head of the first canto, and the engraving was printed on the lower margin, where it is often found cruelly cropped. in subsequent cantos spaces were sometimes left, sometimes not, but after the second the engravings are generally founded printed on separate slips and pasted into their places, and in no copy do they extend beyond canto xix. they used to be assigned to botticelli, but the discovery of his real designs to the _divina commedia_ has shown that these of were only slightly influenced by them. in germany the only copper engravings found in fifteenth century books are the coats of arms of the bishops and chapters of würzburg and eichstätt in the books printed for them at these places by georg and michel reyser respectively. in order more easily to persuade the clergy of these dioceses to buy properly revised service-books to replace their tattered and incorrect manuscript copies, the bishops attached certain "indulgences" to their purchase, and as a proof that the recital of these was not a mere advertising trick of the printer permitted him to print their arms at the foot of the notice. these arms, most charmingly and delicately engraved, are found in the würzburg missals of (this i have not seen) and , and the "agenda" of (see plate xxxv), and no doubt also in other early service-books printed by georg reyser. the eichstätt books of his kinsmen michel are similarly adorned--for instance, the _statuta synodalia eystettensia_ of , though neither the design nor the engraving is so good. in how many editions by the reysers these engraved arms appeared i cannot say, as the books are all of great rarity; but by , if not earlier, they had been abandoned, for in the würzburg _missale speciale_ of that year we find the delicate engraving replaced by a woodcut copy of nearly four times the size and less than a fourth of the charm. the only french book of the fifteenth century known to me as possessing copper engravings is a very beautiful one, the version of breidenbach's _peregrinatio ad terram sanctam_, by frère nicole le huen, printed at lyon by michel topie and jacob heremberck in , and adorned with numerous excellent capitals. in this all the cuts in the text of the mainz editions are fairly well copied on wood, but the large folding plans of venice and other cities on the pilgrims' route are admirably reproduced on copper with a great increase in the delicacy of their lines. [illustration: xxxv. wÜrzburg, g. reyser, wÜrzburg agenda. (end of preface)] we come now to a book bearing an earlier date than any of those already mentioned, but not entitled to its full pride of place because it is doubtful to what extent the engravings connected with it can be reckoned an integral part of it. this is the french version of boccaccio's _de casibus illustrium virorum_ ("des cas des nobles hommes"), printed at bruges by colard mansion and dated . as originally printed there was no space left for any pictorial embellishments; but in at least two copies the first leaf of the prologue has been reprinted so as to leave room for a picture; in another copy, which in belonged to lord lothian, spaces are left also at the beginning of each of the nine books into which the work is divided, except the first and sixth, and all the spaces have been filled with copper engravings coloured by hand; in yet another copy there is a space left also at the beginning of book vi. according to the monograph on the subject by david laing (privately printed in ), the subjects of the engravings are:-- ( ) prologue, the author presenting his work to his patron, mainardo cavalcanti. ( ) book i. adam and eve standing before the author as he writes. ( ) book ii. king saul on horseback, and lying dead. ( ) book iii. fortune and poverty. ( ) book iv. marcus manlius thrown into the tiber. ( ) book v. the death of regulus. ( ) book vi. not known. ( ) book vii. a combat of six men. ( ) book viii. the humiliation of the emperor valerian by king sapor of persia. ( ) book ix. brunhilde, queen of the franks, torn asunder by four horses. from the reproductions which laing gives in his monograph it is evident that the engraver set himself to imitate the style of the contemporary illuminated manuscripts of the bruges school, and that he used his graver rather to get the designs on to the paper than with any real feeling for the characteristic charm of his own art. my own inclination is to believe that we must look on these plates as a venture of colard mansion's rather in his old capacity as an illuminator, anxious to decorate a few special copies, than as a printer intent on embellishing a whole edition. the engravings may have been made at any time between and , when they were clearly used as models by jean du pré for his paris edition, the wood-blocks for which, as we have seen, were subsequently sold or lent to pynson. the variations in the number of spaces in different copies may quite as well be due to a mixing of quires as to successive enlargements of the plan, and the fact that more copies of the engravings have survived apart from than with the book draws attention once more to the difficulty found in printing these incised plates to accompany letterpress printed from type standing in relief. there is still one more engraving connected with an early printed book to be considered, and though the connection is not fully established, the facts that the book in question was the first from caxton's press, and that the engraving may possibly contain his portrait, invite a full discussion of its claims. the plate (see frontispiece to chapter i, plate ii) represents an author on one knee presenting a book to a lady who is attended by five maids-of-honour, while as many pages may be seen standing in various page-like attitudes about the room. a canopy above a chair of state bears the initials cm and the motto _bien en aveingne_, and it is thus clear that the lady represents margaret duchess of burgundy, and that the offering of a book which it depicts must have taken place after her marriage with charles the bold, july, , and before the latter's death at nancy, january, . during the greater part of this time caxton was in the service of the duchess; the donor of the book is represented as a layman, and a layman not of noble birth, since there is no feather in his cap; he appears also to be approaching middle-age. all these points would be correct if the donor were intended for caxton, and as we know from his own statement that before his _recuyell of the histories of troy_ was printed he had presented a copy of it (in manuscript) to the duchess, probably in or soon after , until some more plausible original is proposed the identification of the donor with our first printer must remain at least probable. unfortunately, although the unique copy of the engraving is at present in the duke of devonshire's copy of the _recuyell_, it is certain that it is an insertion, not an original part of the book, and beyond a high probability that it has occupied its present position since the book was bound for the duke of roxburghe some time before his sale in , nothing is known as to how it came there. a really amazing point is that although the connection of this particular copy with elizabeth, queen of edward iv, caused it to be shown at the caxton exhibition, until the appearance of mr. montagu peartree's article in the _burlington magazine_ for august, , no notice had ever been paid to the engraving. analogy with the _boccaccio_ suggests that caxton had the plate made before he realized the difficulties of impression, and that some prints were separately struck from it and one of these pasted inside the binding of the devonshire copy, whence it was removed to its present position when the book was rebound. it should be noted that the style of the engraving is quite unlike that of the _boccaccio_ prints, and suggests that caxton procured it from a dutch rather than a bruges engraver, possibly with the aid of veldener, from whom, or with whose help, according to mr. duff's suggestion, he procured his first type. for over a quarter of a century after the engraving of the plans in the lyon _breidenbach_ printers seem to have held aloof altogether from copperplates. in we find four engraved plans, of only slight artistic interest, printed as plates in a topographical work on _nola_ by ambrogius leo, the printer being joannes rubeus (giovanni rossi) of venice. three years later, in , a really charming print is found (set rather askew in the museum copy) on the titlepage of a thin quarto printed at rome, for my knowledge of which i am indebted to my friend, mr. a. m. hind. the book is a _dialogus_, composed by the right reverend amadeus berrutus, governor of the city of rome, on the weighty and still disputable question as to whether one should go on writing to a friend who makes no reply,[ ] and the plate shows the four speakers, amadeus himself, austeritas, amicitia, and amor, standing in a field or garden outside a building. the figures, especially that of austeritas, are charmingly drawn (see plate xxxvi); the tone of the little picture is delightful, and it is enclosed in a leafy border, which reproduces in the subtler grace of engraved work the effect of the little black and white frames which surround the florentine woodcuts of the fifteenth century. with the _dialogus_ of bishop berrutus copper engravings as book-illustrations came to an end, as far as i know, for a period of some forty years. i make this statement thus blankly in the hope that it may provoke contradiction, and at least some sporadic instances be adduced. but i have hunted through descriptions of all the books most likely to be illustrated--bibles, horae, editions of petrarch's _trionfi_ and ariosto's _orlando furioso_ and books of emblems, and outside england (the necessity of the exception is almost humorous) i have lighted on nothing. [illustration: xxxvi. rome, gabriel of bologna, berrutus. dialogus. (title)] we may, perhaps, trace the revival of engraved illustrations to the influence of hieronymus or jerome cock, an antwerp engraver, who in may, , issued a series of plates from the designs of f. faber, entitled _praecipua aliquot romanae antiquitatis ruinarum monimenta_, without any letterpress save the name of the subject engraved on each plate. cock followed this up in with twelve engravings from the designs of martin van veen illustrating the victories of charles v, which are also celebrated in verses in french and spanish. he issued also various other series of biblical and antiquarian plates, which do not concern us, and in a set of thirty-two illustrating the funeral of charles v. for this, aided by a subsidy, christopher plantin acted as publisher, and we thus get a connection established between engraving and printing. this did not, however, bear fruit at all quickly. plantin's four emblem-books of , , , and were illustrated not with copper engravings, but with woodcuts; so was his bible of , so were his earlier horae. that of has unattractive woodcut borders to every page and small woodcut illustrations of no merit. in he began the use of engravings for his horae, but in a copy in the british museum, printed on vellum almost as thick as cardboard, he was reduced to pulling the pictures on paper and pasting them in their places. in he illustrated the _humanae salutis monumenta_ of his friend arias montanus with some rather pretty copperplates, each surrounded with an effective engraved border of flowers and birds, but for a new horae (on paper) in , for which he had commissioned a set of full-page plates of some merit (printed with the text on their back), he had not troubled to procure borders. two years later he produced a really curious edition in which the engraved illustrations (some of them from the _humanae salutis monumenta_) are surrounded with woodcut borders, and in many cases have red underlines, so that each page must have undergone three printings.[ ] although woodcuts were considered sufficiently good for plantin's bible of , for his great polyglot it was indispensable to have titlepages engraved on copper, and to the first volume he prefixed no fewer than three, engraved by p. van der heyden after designs by p. van der borcht. all of them are emblematical, the first symbolizing the unification of the world by the christian faith and the four languages in which the old testament was printed in the polyglott, the second the zeal of philip ii for the catholic faith, the third the authority of the pentateuch. while some volumes had no frontispiece others contained a few illustrations, and the total number of plates was twenty-eight. some of these were used again in plantin's bible of , and raphelengius, into whose possession the whole set passed in , used sixteen of them three years later to illustrate the _antiquitates judaicae_ of arias montanus. for his missals and breviaries as for his horae plantin sometimes used woodcuts, sometimes copperplates. for his editions of the works of s. augustine and s. jerome ( ) he caused really fine portrait frontispieces to be engraved by j. sadeler from the designs of crispin van den broeck. as regards his miscellaneous secular books he was by no means given to superfluous illustrations, and, as we have seen, continued to use woodcuts contemporaneously with plates. probably his earliest secular engravings (published in , but prepared some years earlier) are the anatomical diagrams in imitation of those in the roman edition of _valverde_ mentioned below, to which he prefixed a better frontispiece than that of his model. in he produced a fine book of portraits of physicians and philosophers, _icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum philosophorumque_, in sixty-eight plates, with letterpress by j. sambucus. the next year he issued another illustrated book, the _de rerum usu et abusu_ of bernardus furmerius, sharing the expense of it with ph. gallus, a print-seller, for whom later on he published several books on commission. from onwards he printed for ortelius, the great cosmographer. in he published the _pegasides_ of y. b. houwaert, in waghenaer's _spieghel der zeevaerdt_, and other illustrated books followed. but none of them, little indeed that plantin ever produced, now excite much desire on the part of collectors. of what took place in other countries and cities in the absence of even tentative lists of the books printed after anywhere except in england it is difficult to say. in an anatomical book translated from the spanish of juan de valverde was published at rome with engraved diagrams of some artistic merit and a rather poorly executed frontispiece. in "in venetia appresso rampazetto," a very fine book of impresas, or emblematical personal badges, made its appearance under the title _le imprese illustre con espositioni et discorsi del s^or ieronimo ruscelli_, dedicated "al serenissimo et sempre felicissimo re catolico filippo d'austria." this has over a hundred engraved _imprese_ of three sizes, double-page for the emperor (signed g. p. f.), full-pagers for kings and other princely personages, half-pagers for ordinary folk (if any owner of an _impresa_ may be thus designated), and all these are printed with letterpress beneath, or on the back of them, and very well printed too. in another book of _imprese_, published in this same year , the text, consisting of sonnets by lodovico dolce, as well as the pictures, is engraved, or rather etched. this is the _imprese di diuersi principi, duchi, signori, etc., di batt^a pittoni pittore vicentino_. it exists in a bewildering variety of states, partly due to reprinting, partly apparently to the desire to dedicate it to several different people, one of the british museum copies being dedicated by pittoni to the earl of arundel and having a printed dedicatory letter and plate of his device preceding that of the emperor himself. another noteworthy venetian book, with engraved illustrations, which i have come across is an _orlando furioso_ of , "appresso francesco de franceschi senese e compagni," its engraved titlepage bearing the information that it has been "nuouamente adornato di figure di rame da girolamo porro," a little-known milanese engraver, who had reissued pittoni's _imprese_ in . the illustrations are far too crowded with incident to be successful, and their unity is often sacrificed to the old medieval practice of making a single design illustrate several different moments of the narrative. their execution is also very unequal. nevertheless, they are of interest to english collectors since, as we shall see, they served as models for the plates in sir john harington's version of the _orlando_ in . all of them are full-pagers, with text on the back, and the printer was also compliant enough to print at the head of each canto an engraved cartouche within which is inserted a type-printed "argomento." of sixteenth century engraved book-illustrations in france i have no personal knowledge. in germany, as might be expected, they flourished chiefly at frankfort, which in the last third of the century had, as we have seen, become a great centre for book-illustration. jost amman, who was largely responsible for its development in this respect, illustrated a few books with copper engravings, although he mainly favoured wood. but it is the work of the de brys, theodor de bry and his two sons johann israel and johann theodor, which is of conspicuous importance for our present purpose, for it was they who originated and mainly carried out the greatest illustrated work of the sixteenth century, that known to collectors as the _grands et petits voyages_. this not very happy name has nothing to do with the length of the voyages described, but is derived from the fact that the original series which is concerned with america and the west indies is some two inches taller (fourteen as compared with twelve) than a subsequent series dealing with the east indies. for the idea of such a collection of voyages theodor de bry was indebted to richard hakluyt, whose famous book _the principall navigations, voiages, and discoveries of the english nation_, published in , was in preparation when de bry was in england, where he worked in - . the first volume, moreover, was illustrated with engravings by de bry after some of the extraordinarily interesting water-colour drawings made by an englishman, john white, in virginia, and now preserved in the british museum.[ ] this first part was published in latin at frankfort by j. wechel in and a second edition followed the same year. a second part describing florida followed in , a third describing brazil in . by nine parts had been issued, all at frankfort, though by different publishers, the name of j. feyrabend being placed on the fourth, and that of m. becker on the ninth. after an interval of seventeen years two more parts of the latin edition (x. and xi.) were printed at oppenheim "typis h. galleri," and then an appendix to part xi. at frankfort in , where also were issued part xii. in and part xiii., edited by m. merian, in , this last being accompanied by an "elenchus," or index-volume, to the whole series. parallel with this latin series ran a german one with about the same dates. one or two parts were also issued in french and at least one in english. there is also an appendix of "other voyages" usually added, mostly french, and issued at amsterdam, and of nearly every volume of the whole series there were several issues and editions, all of them with differences in the plates. the "petits voyages" followed a similar course, beginning in and ending in . although the engravings, many of which are placed unpretentiously amid the text, vary greatly alike in the interest of their subjects, the value of the original designs, and the skill of the engraving, taken as a whole they have given to these _grands et petits voyages_ a unique position among books of travel, and a small literature has grown up round them to certify the collector as to the best state of each plate and what constitutes a complete set. while the illustrations to the voyages formed their chief occupation, the de brys found time to engrave many smaller plates for less important books. thus in theodor de bry issued an emblem book _emblemata nobilitati et vulgo scitu digna_ (text in latin and german), in which each emblem is enclosed in an engraved border, mostly quite meaningless and bad as regards composition, but of a brilliancy in the "goldsmiths' style" which to lovers of bookplates will suggest the best work of sherborn or french. the plates marked b and d, illustrating the lines "musica mortales divosque oblectat et ornat" and "cum cerere et baccho veneri solemnia fiunt," are especially fine and the "emblems" themselves more pleasing than usual. in there was printed, again with latin and german text, a _noua alphabeti effictio, historiis ad singulas literas correspondentibus_. the _motif_ is throughout scriptural. thus for a adam and eve sit on the crossbar on each side of the letter, the serpent rests on its peak amid the foliage of the tree of knowledge. in b abel, in c cain is perched on a convenient part of the letter, and so on, while from one letter after another, fish, birds, fruit, flowers, and anything else which came into the designer's head hang dangling on cords from every possible point. nothing could be more meaningless or lower in the scale of design, yet the brilliancy of the execution carries it off. the year after this had appeared theodor de bry engraved a series of emblems conceived by denis le bey de batilly and drawn by j. j. boissard. the designs themselves are poor enough, but the book has a pretty architectural titlepage, and this is followed by a portrait of le bey set in an ornamental border of bees, flowers, horses, and other incongruities, portrait and border alike engraved with the most brilliant delicacy (see plate xxxvii). in the following year, again, , the two younger de brys illustrated with line engravings the _acta mechmeti saracenorum principis_, and (at the end of these) the _vaticinia severi et leonis_ as to the fate of the turks, also the _david_ of arias montanus. the plates are fairly interesting, but in technical execution fall far below those of their father. [illustration: xxxvii. frankfort, de bry, le bey. emblemata. portrait of author by t. de bry, after j. j. boissard] turning now to england, we find engraving in use surprisingly early in some figures of unborn babies in _the birth of mankind_, translated from the latin of roesslin by richard jonas and printed in by thomas raynold, a physician, who five years later issued a new edition revised by himself, again with engravings. in there appeared a much more important medical work, a _compendiosa totius anatomie delineatio_ professedly by thomas geminus, a flemish surgeon and engraver attached to the english court. in reality this was a rather shameless adaptation of the _de fabrica humani corporis_ of vesalius (basel, ), with engravings copied by geminus from the woodcuts of his original. for us its chief interest lies in an elaborate engraved titlepage showing the royal arms surrounded by a wealth of architectural and strapwork ornament in the style, if not actually the work, of peter cock of alost, as has been shown by sir sidney colvin in the invaluable introduction to his _early engravings and engravers in england_ ( ). in an english translation of the anatomy was published by nicholas hyll, and in a second edition of this, printed in , a rather heavy and stiff portrait of elizabeth replaces the royal arms, which were burnished out to make room for it. geminus subsequently produced a much larger portrait of the queen, set in an architectural frame studded with emblematical figures, and a royal proclamation forbidding unauthorized "paynters, printers, and gravers" to meddle with so great a subject seems to have been provoked by his handiwork. in john shute for his work on _the first and chief groundes of architecture_ produced four amateurish engravings to illustrate four of the five "orders," a woodcut being considered good enough for the fifth. in we find the first edition of the "bishops'" bible adorned with an engraved titlepage in the centre of which, in an oval, is a not unpleasing portrait of the queen, holding sceptre and orb, set in a mass of strapwork, amid which are seated charity and faith with the royal arms between them, while below the portrait a lion and dragon support a cartouche enclosing a text. besides this titlepage, attributed by sir sidney colvin to franciscus hogenberg, before the book of joshua there is an engraved portrait of leicester, while the "blessed is the man" of the first psalm is heralded by another engraved portrait which shows lord burghley holding in front of him a great b. in remigius hogenberg, brother of franciscus, engraved after a picture by john lyne a stiff but rather impressive portrait of archbishop parker, prefixed to some copies of his _de antiquitate ecclesiae britanniae_. the year before this the second edition of the "bishops'" bible had been enriched with a decorative engraved map of the holy land, and in archbishop parker employed john lyne to engrave for the _de antiquitate academiae cantabrigiensis_ of dr. caius (printed by day) a plate of the arms of the colleges, a plan of the university schools, and a large map of the town. in there appeared a work which had occupied the intermediate five years, a series of maps of england from the drawings of christopher saxton, engraved by augustine ryther (like saxton a native of leeds), remigius hogenberg and others, and with a fine frontispiece showing the queen seated in state beneath an architectural canopy, which sir sidney colvin thinks may perhaps be the work of ryther. ryther was subsequently concerned with other maps, including the series illustrating the defeat of the armada (_expeditionis hispanorum in angliam vera descriptio_), and other cartographers got to work who hardly concern us here. two long engraved rolls, the first by marcus gheraerts, representing a procession of the knights of the garter ( ), the second by theodor de bry, from the designs of thomas lant, the funeral of sir philip sidney ( ), although most safely preserved when bound in book form, can hardly be reckoned as books. yet over the latter i must stop to confess a dreadful sin of my youth, when i jumped to the conclusion that the portrait on the first page stood for sidney himself, whereas it really represents the too self-advertising lant. that it appears in the sky, above the black pinnace which bore home sidney's body, and itself bears the suggestive motto "god createth, man imitateth, virtue flourisheth, death finisheth," may palliate but cannot excuse the crime which enriched an edition of _astrophel and stella_ with a portrait, not of sidney, but of the illustrator of his funeral. not until , when hugh broughton's _concent of scripture_ was accompanied by some apocalyptic plates engraved by jodocus hondius (subsequently copied by w. rogers), do we come across what can really be called engraved illustrations in an english book, and these, which are of little interest, were speedily eclipsed the next year by sir john harington's _orlando furioso in english heroical verse_ with its engraved titlepage and forty-six plates. of these the translator writes in his introduction: as for the pictures, they are all cut in brasse, and most of them by the best workemen in that kinde, that haue bene in this land this manie yeares: yet i will not praise them too much, because i gaue direction for their making, and in regard thereof i may be thought partiall, but this i may truely say, that (for mine owne part) i have not seene anie made in england better, nor (in deede) anie of this kinde in any booke, except it were in a treatise, set foorth by that profound man, maister broughton, the last yeare, upon the reuelation, in which there are some . or . pretie figures (in octauo) cut in brasse verie workemanly. as for other books that i haue seene in this realme, either in latin or english, with pictures, as liuy, gesner, alciats emblemes, a booke _de spectris_ in latin, & (in our tong) the chronicles, the booke of martyrs, the book of hauking and hunting, and m. whitney's excellent emblems, yet all their figures are cut on wood, & none in metall, and in that respect inferior to these, at least (by the old proverbe) the more cost, the more worship. the passage is of considerable interest, but hardly suggests, what is yet the fact, that, save for the addition on the titlepage of an oval portrait of the translator and a representation of his dog, all the plates in the book are closely copied from the engravings by girolamo porro in the venice edition of . the english titlepage was signed by thomas cockson. we are left to conjecture to whom harington was indebted for the rest of the plates. although, as we shall see, from this time forward a great number of english books contain engraved work, those which can be said to be illustrated during the next sixty years are few enough, a study of mr. a. m. hind's very useful _list of the works of native and foreign line-engravers in england from henry viii to the commonwealth_,[ ] tempting me to place the number at about a score. the year after the _orlando furioso_ came another curious treatise by hugh broughton, not printed with type, but "graven in brasse by j. h.," whom sir sidney colvin identifies with jodocus hondius, a fleming who lived in england from about to , and may have done the plates in the _concent of scripture_ and some at least of those in the _orlando_. six years later ( ) we find lomazzo's _tracte containing the artes of curious paintinge_ with an emblematical titlepage and thirteen plates by richard haydock, the translator, four of the plates being adapted from dürer's book on proportion, and all of them showing very slight skill in engraving. in came sir william segar's _honour, military and civil_, with eight plates showing various distinguished persons, english and foreign, wearing the robes and insignia of the garter, the golden fleece, s. michael, etc. three of the plates are signed by william rogers, the most distinguished of the english elizabethan engravers, and the others are probably his also. most of them are very dignified and effective in the brilliantly printed "first states" in which they are sometimes found, but ordinary copies with only the "second states" are as a rule disappointing. the beginning of the reign of james i was directly responsible for one ambitious engraved publication, stephen harrison's _the archs of triumph erected in honor of the high and mighty prince james, the first of that name king of england and the sixt of scotland, at his maiesties entrance and passage through his honorable city & chamber of london vpon the th day of march [ ] invented and published by stephen harrison joyner and architect and graven by william kip_. here an engraved titlepage, with dangling ornaments in the style of the de bry alphabet, is followed by seven plates of the seven arches, the most notable of which (a pity it was not preserved) was crowned with a most interesting model of jacobean london, to which the engraver has done admirable justice. in came robert glover's _nobilitas politica et civilis_, re-edited two years later by t. milles as the _catalogue of honour_, with engraved illustrations (in the text) of the robes of the various degrees of nobility, attributed by sir sidney colvin to renold elstracke, the son of a flemish refugee, and also two plates representing the king in a chair of state and in parliament. after this we come to two works illustrated by an english engraver of some note, william hole, tom coryat's _crudities_ ( ), with a titlepage recalling various incidents of his travels (including his being sick at sea) and five plates (or in some copies, six), and drayton's _polyolbion_ ( , reissued in with the portrait-plate in a different state), with a poor emblematic title, a portrait of prince henry wielding a lance, and eighteen decorative maps of england. in we come to a really well-illustrated book, the _relation of a journey_, by george sandys, whose narrative of travel in turkey, egypt, and the holy land, and parts of italy, is accompanied with little delicately engraved landscapes and bits of architecture, etc., by francis delaram. the work of the decade is brought to a close with two print-selling ventures, the _basili[omega]logia_ of and _her[omega]ologia_ of . the former of these works describes itself as being "the true and lively effigies of all our english kings from the conquest untill this present: with their severall coats of armes, impreses and devises. and a briefe chronologie of their lives and deaths. elegantly graven in copper. printed for h. holland and are to be sold by comp.[ton] holland over against the exchange." the full set of plates numbers thirty-two, including eight additions to the scheme of the book, representing the black prince, john of gaunt, anne boleyn, a second version of elizabeth, mary queen of scots, anne of denmark, prince henry, and prince charles. fourteen of the plates, mostly the earlier ones, are signed by elstracke, and simon passe and francis delaram each contributed four. it need hardly be said that they are of very varying degrees of authenticity as well as merit. several of the later plates are found in more than one state. with the second of the two ventures henry holland was also concerned, but the expenses of the book were shared by crispin passe and an arnhem bookseller named jansen. its title reads: "her[omega]ologia anglica: hoc est clarissimorum et doctissimorum aliquot anglorum qui floruerunt ab anno cristi md. usque ad presentem annum mdcxx." it is in two volumes, the first containing thirty-seven plates, the second thirty. two of these represent respectively queen elizabeth's tomb and the hearse of henry prince of wales. all the rest are portraits of the notable personages of the reigns of henry viii and his successors, some of them based on drawings by holbein, the majority on earlier prints, and all engraved by william passe (younger brother of simon) and his sister magdalena. [illustration: xxxviii. london. j. marriot, quarles. hieroglyphikes of the life of man. page engraved by w. marshall] the next decade was far from productive of works illustrated with more than an engraved titlepage and a portrait, but in appeared captain john smith's _true travels_ with several illustrations, one of them by martin droeshout; in - came wither's _emblems_, with plates by william marshall, and in thomas heywood's _hierarchie of the blessed angels_, with an engraved title by thomas cecill and plates representing the several orders, seraphim, cherubim, and thrones being entrusted to john payne, dominations to marshall, powers and principalities to glover, virtues to droeshout, etc. some of the plates record the name of the patron who paid for them, another suggestion that it was money which stood most in the way of book-illustrating. in marshall illustrated quarles's _hieroglyphikes of the life of man_, with engravings, most of which seem chiefly made up of a candle, but in one the candle is being extinguished by death egged on by time, and to this not very promising subject (plate xxxviii) marshall, the most unequal engraver of his day, has brought some of his too rare touches of delicacy and charm. in wenceslaus hollar, whom thomas earl of arundel had discovered at cologne (he was born at prague) and brought to england, published his charming costume book _ornatus muliebris anglicanus_, and his larger work, _theatrum mulierum_, must have been almost ready when charles i hoisted his standard at nottingham, since it was published in . after this the civil war interfered for some time with the book trade. while fully illustrated books were thus far from numerous in the half century which followed the _orlando furioso_ of , the output of engraved titlepages and portraits to be prefixed to books was sufficient to find work for most of the minor engravers. the earlier titlepages were mostly architectural and symbolical, their purport being sometimes explained in verses printed opposite to them, headed "the mind of the front." william rogers engraved a titlepage to gerard's _herbal_ ( ), which is never found properly printed, and others to linschoten's _discourse of voyages into y^e east and west indies_ ( ), camden's _britannia_ ( --a poor piece of work), and moffett's _theatrum insectorum_, this last having only survived in a copy pasted at the head of the author's manuscript at the british museum. william hole did an enlarged title for camden's _britannia_ ( ), titles for the different sections of chapman's _homer_, a portrait of john florio for the italian-english dictionary which he was pleased to call _queen anna's new world of words_, a charming titlepage to a collection of virginal music known as _parthenia_ ( - ), another to browne's _britannia's pastorals_, and much less happy ones to drayton's _polyolbion_ ( ), and the _works_ of ben jonson ( ). the best-known titlepages engraved by renold elstracke are those to raleigh's _history of the world_ ( ) and the _workes of the most high and mightie prince james_ ( ), the latter a good piece of work which when faced, as it should be, by the portrait of the king by simon van de passe, makes the most decorative opening to any english book of this period. passe himself was responsible for the very imaginative engraved title to bacon's _novum organum_ ( ), a sea on which ships are sailing and rising out of it two pillars with the inscription: "multi pertransibunt et augebitur scientia" (many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased). his son william, besides his work on the _her[omega]ologia_, already mentioned, engraved a complicated title for chapman's version of _the batrachomyomachia_ or battle of the frogs and mice, humorously called _the crowne of all homer's worckes_. after the old architectural and symbolical titlepages began to be replaced by titles in compartments, in which a central cartouche is surrounded by little squares, each representing some incident of the book. portraits of the author remained much in request, and nearly a hundred of these were done by william marshall, who was employed also on about as many engraved titlepages. as has been noted, his work was strangely uneven, and he fully deserved the scorn poured on him by milton for the wretched caricature of the poet prefixed to the _poems_ of . yet marshall could at times do a good plate, as, for instance, that in quarles's _hieroglyphikes_ already mentioned, a portrait of bacon prefixed to the oxford edition of his _advancement of learning_ and the charming frontispiece to brathwait's _arcadian princess_. marshall at his worst fell only a little below the work of thomas cross; at his best he rivalled or excelled the good work of thomas cecill and george glover. after cromwell's strong hand had given england some kind of settled government the book market revived, and some ambitiously illustrated books were soon being published. the too versatile john ogilby, dancing-master, poet, and publisher, appeared early in the field, his version of the fables of aesop, "adorned with sculpture," being printed by t. warren for a. crook in . the next year came benlowe's _theophila, or love's sacrifice_, a mystical poem, some copies of which have as many as thirty-six plates by various hands, with much more etching than engraving in them. in ogilby produced his translation of virgil, a great folio with plates dedicated to noble patrons by pierre lambart. ogilby's other important ventures were the large _odyssey_ of , and the aesop's _fables_ of the same year, with plates by hollar, d. stoop, and f. barlow, and two portraits of the translator engraved respectively by pierre lambert and w. faithorne. faithorne embellished other books of this period, e.g. the poems of the "matchless orinda" ( ), with portraits, and publishers who could not afford to pay faithorne employed r. white. the presence of a portrait by white in a copy of the first edition of bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_, to which it was very far indeed from certain that it really belonged,[ ] has once made the book sell for over £ , but save for the sake of completeness his handiwork is not greatly prized by collectors, nor is there any english illustrated book of this period after the restoration which is much sought after for the sake of its plates, although those of ogilby's _virgil_ were sufficiently well thought of to be used again for dryden's version in . meanwhile, books with illustrations _en taille douce_ were being issued in some numbers both at paris and at amsterdam. in the former city françois chauveau ( - ), in the latter jan and casper luyken are credited by mr. hind (_a short history of engraving and etching_, ) with having produced "hosts of small and undistinguished plates," and these damning epithets explain how it is that even patriotic french collectors like eugène paillet and henri béraldi thought it wise to leave the illustrated books of the seventeenth century severely alone. we meet the first advance guard of the brilliant french eighteenth century school of book-illustration in , when a pretty little edition of _les amours de daphnis et chloé_ (as translated by bishop amyot from the greek of longus) made its appearance with twenty-eight plates by benoît audran, after the designs of no less a person than the regent of france, and duly labelled and dated "philippus in. et pinx. ." the plates vary very much in charm, but that with the underline _chloé sauve daphnis par le son de sa flûte_ certainly possesses it, and one of the double-plates in the book, _daphnis prend ses oyseaux pendant l'hyver pour voir chloé_, is really pretty. we find no other book to vie with this until we come to a much larger and more pretentious one, the works of molière in six volumes, royal quarto, published in . this was illustrated with thirty-three plates, in the mixture of etching and engraving characteristic of the french school of the day, by laurent cars, after pencil drawings by françois boucher, and by nearly two hundred vignettes and tailpieces (not all different) after boucher and others by cars and françois joullain. another edition of this in four volumes with boucher's designs reproduced on a smaller scale was published in and reprinted three times within the decade. after the molière, books and editions which collectors take count of come much more quickly. there was an edition of montesquieu's _le temple de gnide_ in (imprint: londres), a _virgil_ in with plates by cochin, engraved by cochin père, the _contes_ of la fontaine (amsterdam, - ) also illustrated by cochin, guer's _moeurs et usages des turcs_, with plates after boucher ( ), an edition of the works of boileau in five volumes, with vignettes by eisen and tailpieces by cochin ( - ), and in a _manon lescaut_ (imprint: amsterdam) with some plates by j. j. pasquier, which are stiff, and others by h. gravelot, which are feeble. in the four-volume edition of the _fables_ of la fontaine ( - ) with illustrations after j. b. oudry, we come to a very ambitious piece of work, handsomely carried out, which a book-lover may yet find it hard to admire. oudry's designs are always adequate, and have more virility in them than is often found in the work of this school, and they are competently interpreted by a number of etchers and engravers, some of whom, it may be noted, worked together in pairs on the same plate, so that we find such signatures as "c. cochin aqua forti, r. gaillard cælo sculpsit," and "gravé à l'eau forte par c. cochin, terminé au burin par p. chenu"--a very explicit statement of the method of work. but adequate as the plates may seem, if they are judged not as book-illustrations but as engravings, no one could rate them high, and as a book what is to be said of an edition of la fontaine's _fables_, which fills four volumes, each measuring nearly nineteen inches by thirteen? the bookman can only regard such a work as a portfolio of plates with accompanying text, and if the plates as plates are only second rate, enthusiasm has nothing to build on. we return to book-form in , when boccaccio's _decamerone_ was published in italian (imprint: londra) in five octavo volumes, with charming vignettes and illustrations mostly by gravelot, although a few are by boucher and eisen. gravelot, who was more industrious than successful as an illustrator, is seen here to advantage, and deserves some credit for having made his designs not less but more reticent than the stories he had to illustrate. this praise can certainly not be given to the famous edition of the _contes_ of la fontaine, the cost of which was borne by the fermiers-généraux (imprint: amsterdam). the _fleurons_ by choffard are throughout delightful and the plates are brilliantly engraved, but the lubricity of eisen's designs is wearisome in the first volume and disgusting in the second, and possessors of the book are not to be envied. it is to be regretted that the next book we have to notice, the _contes moraux_ of marmontel ( vols., ), has very little charm to support its morality, the plates after gravelot being poor, while the head- and tailpieces, or rather the substitutes for them, are wretched. a much better book than either of these last is the edition in french and latin of ovid's _metamorphoses_ in four quarto volumes ( - ); with plates after boucher, eisen, gravelot, and moreau, and headpieces by choffard at the beginning of each book. the imprint, "a paris, chez leclerc, quai des augustins, avec approbation et privilège du roi," prepares us to find that the designers have kept their licence within bounds, and many of the plates have a combined humour and charm which are very attractive. if i had to choose a single plate to show gravelot at his best, i doubt if prolonged search would find any success more complete than that of the illustration to book i, xi., _deucalion et pyrrha repeuplant la terre, suivant l'oracle de themis_ (see the frontispiece to this volume, plate i), and though eisen was a much better artist than gravelot, his _apollon gardant les troupeaux d'admet, dans les campagnes de messene_ (ii, x.) is certainly one of his prettiest pieces. [illustration: xxxix. paris, lambert, . dorat. les baisers. page with engraved headpiece after eisen] during the next few years illustrated books became the fashion, so that in cazotte wrote _le diable amoureux, nouvelle d'espagne_, with the false imprint naples (paris, lejay) and six unsigned plates, said to be by moreau after marillier, on purpose to ridicule the craze for putting illustrations into every book. in the indefatigable gravelot had illustrated an edition of the works of voltaire, published at geneva, with forty-four designs. in _les saisons_, a poem by saint lambert, was published at amsterdam, with designs by gravelot and le prince and _fleurons_ by choffard. in the same year there was published at paris meunier de queslon's _les graces_, with an engraved title by moreau, a frontispiece after boucher, and five plates after moreau. in came voltaire's _henriade_ with ten plates and ten vignettes after eisen, and more highly esteemed even than this, dorat's _les baisers_ (la haye et paris), with a frontispiece and plate and forty-four head- and tailpieces, all (save two) after eisen, not easily surpassed in their own luxurious style (see plate xxxix). in gravelot, more indefatigable than ever, supplied designs for twenty plates and numerous head- and tailpieces for an edition of tasso's _gerusalemme liberata_, and was honoured, as eisen had been in the fermiers-généraux edition of la fontaine's _contes_, by his portrait being prefixed to the second volume. in a new edition of montesquieu's _le temple de gnide_, in which the text was engraved throughout, was illustrated with designs by eisen, brilliantly interpreted by le mire, and imbert's _le jugement de paris_ was illustrated by moreau, with, _fleurons_ by choffard. in _le temple de gnide_ was versified by colardeau, and illustrated by monnet, and selections from anacreon, sappho, bion, and moschus by eisen, while moreau and others illustrated the _chansons_ of laborde in four volumes and the works of molière in six. after this the pace slackened, and we need no longer cling to the methods of the annalist. moreau illustrated saint lambert's _les saisons_ and fromageot's _annales du règne de marie therèse_ (both in ), marmontel's _les incas_ ( ), the seventy-volume voltaire ( - ), _paul et virginie_ ( ), and many other works, living on to illustrate goethe's _werther_ in ; other books were adorned by marillier, cochin, duplessis, bertaux, desrais, saint quentin, fragonard, gérard, and le barbier, and the fashion survived the revolution and lingered on till about . we must go back now to england, where at the end of the seventeenth century the requirements of book-illustration were neglected, partly because of the growing taste for a neat simplicity in books, partly because the chief english engravers all devoted themselves to mezzotint. a few foreigners came over to supply their place, and michael burghers, of amsterdam, illustrated the fourth edition of _paradise lost_, a stately folio, in , with plates which enjoyed a long life and were also imitated for smaller editions. burghers also illustrated the oxford almanacs, and supplied frontispieces to the bibles and other large books issued by the university press up to about . another dutchman who came to england not much later (in about ) was michael van der gucht, who worked for the booksellers, as his children did after him. how low book-illustration had fallen in england at the beginning of the eighteenth century may be seen by a glance at the wretched plates which disfigure rowe's shakespeare in , the first edition on which an editor and an illustrator were allowed to work their wills. the year after this louis du guernier came to england, and was soon engaged in the not too patriotic task of helping claude du bosc to illustrate the victories of marlborough. in he and du bosc were less painfully, though not very successfully, employed in making plates for pope's _rape of the lock_. du bosc subsequently worked on the _religious ceremonies of all nations_ ( ), an english edition of a book of bernard picart's, and on plates for rapin's _history of england_ ( ), but he was far from being a great engraver. it is a satisfaction that the plates to the first edition of _robinson crusoe_ ( ) were engraved by two englishmen, and not very badly. their names are given as "clark and pine," the clark being presumably john clark ( - ), who engraved some writing-books, and the pine, john pine ( - ), who imitated some designs by bernard picart to the book of jonah in , and may have been a pupil of his at amsterdam. it should, perhaps, have been mentioned that two years before _crusoe_ an english engraver, john sturt ( - ), produced a book of common prayer, of which the text as well as the pictures was engraved. this is rather a curiosity than a work of art, the frontispiece being a portrait of george i made up of the creed, lord's prayer, ten commandments, prayer for the royal family, and psalm xxi. written in minute characters, instead of lines. sturt produced another engraved book, _the orthodox communicant_, in . in william hogarth began what might have proved a notable career as a book-illustrator had not he soon found more profitable work. he illustrated the travels of aubry de la mottraye in , briscoe's _apuleius_ ( ), cotterel's translation of _cassandra_ ( ), blackwell's _compendium of military discipline_ ( ), and (also in ) butler's _hudibras_, his plates to which, though grotesque enough, show plenty of character. for some years after this he worked on frontispieces, e.g. to leveridge's _songs_ ( ), cooke's _hesiod_ ( ), j. miller's comedy, _the humours of oxford_ ( ), theobald's _perseus and andromeda_ ( ), and in to a molière, fielding's _tragedy of tragedies_, and mitchell's _highland fair_. but the success of his set of prints on "the harlot's progress" diverted him from bookwork, although many years after he contributed frontispieces to vols. ii and iv of _tristram shandy_, and in a head-and tailpiece (engraved by grignion) to a catalogue of the society of arts. in hubert gravelot was invited from france by du bosc to help in illustrating picart's _religious ceremonies_. he illustrated gay's _fables_ in , richardson's _pamela_ in , theobald's _shakespeare_ in , and, mainly after hayman, hanmer's in - . neither of the sets of shakespeare plates deserves any higher praise than that of being neat and pretty, but at least they were a whole plane above those in rowe's edition. the year after gravelot came to england, in , pine produced the first volume of his _horace_, engraved throughout, and with head- and tailpieces in admirable taste. the second volume followed in , and in the first of an illustrated _virgil_ which pine did not live to complete. besides his work on hanmer's _shakespeare_, francis hayman designed illustrations to moore's _fables of the female sex_ ( ), which were well engraved, some of them by charles grignion, a pupil of gravelot's, born in england ( ), but of foreign parentage. hayman also illustrated the _spectator_ ( ), newton's _milton_ ( - ), and later on, with the aid of grignion, smollett's _don quixote_ ( ), and baskerville's edition of congreve's _poems_ ( ). the plates to the earlier edition of _don quixote_, that of , had been chiefly engraved by gerard van der gucht after vanderbank, but two are by hogarth. [illustration: xl. london, t. hope, walton, compleat angler w. w. rylands after s. wale] samuel wale (died ), a pupil of hayman, was also an illustrator, and in supplied sir john hawkins with fourteen drawings for his edition of walton's _angler_. these were engraved by the luckless w. w. rylands, who was hanged for forgery in , and the walton thus produced is one of the prettiest and least affected of the illustrated books of its day (see plate xl). wale also drew designs for wilkie's _fables_ ( ) and goldsmith's _traveller_ ( ). he also worked for the magazines which about the middle of the century made rather a feature of engravings, often as headpieces to music. a few of the isolated books may be named, thus paltock's _peter wilkins_ ( ) was illustrated very well by louis peter boitard, who had previously contributed numerous plates to spence's _polymetis_, and in supplied a frontispiece to each of the six books of the _scribleriad_ by r. o. cambridge. another book which, like _peter wilkins_, was concerned with flight, lunardi's _account of the first aerial voyage in england_ ( ), has a portrait of the author by bartolozzi and two plates. for baskerville's edition of the _orlando furioso_ (birmingham, ) recourse was had to plates by de launay, after moreau and eisen. footnotes: [ ] "in quo precipue tractat: an amico sepe ad scribendum prouocato ut scribat, non respondenti sit amplius scribendum." [ ] it was probably from his horae plates that plantin illustrated the _rerum sacrarum liber_ of laur. gambara in . they are printed with the text and are of average merit. [ ] they were bought to accompany the fine set of de bry collected by mr. grenville, but have since been transferred to the department of prints and drawings. [ ] contributed to the work by sir sidney colvin, _early engravers and engraving in england_, already quoted. [ ] this was an early proof of the portrait which is found in a slightly different state in copies of the third edition, and seemed to be an insertion in the first edition rather than an integral part of it. chapter xvi modern fine printing after the restoration, printing and the book trade generally in england became definitely modern in their character, and the printer practically disappears from view, his work, with here and there an exception, as in the case of robert foulis or john baskerville, being altogether hidden behind that of the publisher, so that it is of herringman and bernard lintott and dodsley that we hear, not of newcomb and roycroft. notwithstanding this decline in the printer's importance, there was a steady improvement in english printing. as an _art_ it had ceased at this time to exist. if a publisher wished to make a book beautiful he put in plates. if he wanted to make it more beautiful he put in more or larger plates. if he wanted to make it a real triumph of beauty he engraved the whole book, letterpress and all, as in the case of sturt's prayer books and pine's _horace_. that a printer by the selection and arrangement of type, by good presswork and the use of pretty capitals and tailpieces, could make a book charming to eye and hand, without any help from an illustrator--such an idea as this had nearly perished. there was little loss in this, since if any artistic work had been attempted it would assuredly have been bad, whereas the craftsmen, when set to do quite plain work, gradually learnt to do it in a more workmanlike way. in this they were helped by certain improvements in printing which rendered the task of the pressman less laborious. in the middle of the seventeenth century william blaew, of amsterdam, invented an improved press, "fabricated nine of these new fashioned presses, set them all on a row in his printing house and called each press by the name of one of the muses." clearly blaew was an enthusiast. his chronicler, joseph moxon, was a fairly good english printer, and his description of the equipment of a printing house in the second part of his _mechanick exercises_ ( ) contains much information still interesting. we gather from moxon that blaew's improvements were slowly copied in england, and we know that the english printers still continued to buy their best founts from holland. thus when bishop fell, about , was equipping the university press at oxford with better type, he employed an agent in holland to purchase founts for him. english founts of which we have any reason to be proud date from the appearance about of william caslon, who established a firm of type founders which has enjoyed a long and deservedly prosperous career. the next move came from the north. robert foulis (the name was originally spelt faulls), born in , the son of a glasgow maltster, had been originally apprenticed to a barber. he was, however, a man of bookish tastes, and, when already over thirty years of age, was advised to set up in business as a printer and bookseller. with his brother andrew, five years younger than himself and educated for the ministry, he went on a book-buying tour on the continent, and on his return started book-selling in , and printed in that year dr. william leechman's _temper, character, and duty of a minister of the gospel_, and four other books, including a phaedrus and a volume of cicero. in march, , he was appointed printer to the university of glasgow, and his edition of _demetrius phalerus de elocutione_ in greek and latin was the first example of greek printing produced at glasgow. a _horace_ which was hung up in proof in the university, with the offer of a reward for every misprint detected (in spite of which six remained), followed in , an _iliad_ in , an edition of _hardyknute_ in , and a _cicero_ in . in as many as thirty works were printed at the foulis press. the next two years were mainly spent in touring on the continent, and on his return robert foulis unhappily started an academy of art at glasgow, which he had neither the knowledge nor the taste to direct successfully, and which sapped his energies without producing any valuable results. an edition of the greek text of callimachus in was rewarded by an edinburgh society with a gold medal, and other greek and latin texts followed, including the _iliad_ in , _anacreon_ in , _virgil_ and the _odyssey_ in , and _herodotus_ in . among the more notable later books of the firm were an edition of gray's _poems_ in , and a _paradise lost_ in . the younger brother died in , and robert, after a mortifying experience in london, where he sold the "old masters" he had bought as models for his academy for less than a pound over the expenses incurred in the sale, followed him the next year. the two brothers had raised printing at glasgow from insignificance to an excellence which equalled, and perhaps surpassed, the standard attained at london, oxford or cambridge, or, indeed, for the moment, anywhere in europe. this was no small achievement, and their compatriots and fellow citizens may well show them honour. but they were content to work according to the best standards set by other men without making any positive advance upon them or showing any originality. they avoided the snare of bad ornaments by using none; their greek types were modelled on the french royal types associated with the name of the Étiennes; their roman types exhibit no special excellence. historically, their chief importance is that they proved that care and enthusiasm for fine printing was re-awakening, and that printers with high ideals would not lack support. meanwhile, in the english midlands an interesting and creditable, though wrong-headed, attempt to improve on existing founts had been made by john baskerville, a worcestershire man, born in , who worked at birmingham, and in printed there in his own types a quarto edition of _virgil_ which attracted considerable notice. the merit of baskerville's type is its distinctness; its fault is the reappearance in a slightly different form of the old heresy of aldus, that what is good, or is thought to be good, in penmanship must necessarily be good in type. in imitation of the writing-masters baskerville delighted in making his upstrokes very thin and his downstrokes thick, and his serifs--that is, all the little finishing strokes of the letters--sharp and fine. it is probable that his ideals were influenced in this direction by books like pine's _horace_ ( - ), in which, as already noted, the letterpress as well as the illustrations and ornament is engraved throughout. these contrasts of light and heavy lines would naturally please an engraver; but they have no advantage when transferred to type, only making the page appear restless and spotty. contemporary opinion in england was no more than lukewarm in their favour. the _virgil_ procured baskerville a commission from the university of oxford to cut a greek fount, but this was generally condemned, though it had the merit of being free from contractions. editions of milton's _paradise lost_ and _paradise regained_ ( ), and other classics, were more successful, and baskerville was appointed printer to the university of cambridge for ten years; but his profits were small, and when he died in , in default of an adequate english offer, his types were sold to a french society for £ , and used in printing a famous edition of the works of voltaire ( - ). the most conspicuous exponent of baskerville's methods was an italian, giovanni battista bodoni, born in piedmont in . bodoni settled at parma, and it was at parma that he did most of his printing. even more notably than baskerville, he tried to give to the pages which he printed the brilliancy of a fine engraving. he used good black ink (which is to his credit), exaggerated the differences between his thick strokes and his thin, and left wide spaces between his lines so as to let the elegance of his type stand out as brilliantly as possible against the white paper. the judgment of the best modern printers is against these vivid contrasts and in favour of a more closely set page, the two pages which face each other being regarded as an artistic whole which should not be cut into strips by a series of broad white spaces. bodoni's books, which used to be highly esteemed, are now perhaps unduly neglected, for his work in its own way, whether he used roman type, italics, or greek, is very good, and his editions of _virgil_, _homer_, and the _imitatio christi_ are very striking books, though built on wrong lines. bodoni died at padua in . while the names of caslon, the brothers foulis, and baskerville in great britain, and of bodoni in italy, stand out from amid their contemporaries, the premier place in french book-production was occupied by members of the didot family. the first of these was françois didot ( - ); his eldest son, françois ambroise ( - ), was a fine printer; his younger son, pierre ( - ), was also a typefounder and papermaker. in the third generation pierre's son henri ( - ) was famous for his microscopic type, while pierre ii ( - ), the eldest son of françois ambroise and nephew of pierre i, printed some fine editions of latin and french classics at the press at the louvre; and his brother firmin didot ( - ) won renown both as a typefounder and engraver, and also as a printer and improver of the art of stereotyping, besides being a deputy and writer of tragedies. in the fourth generation, the two sons of firmin didot, ambroise ( - ) and hyacinthe, carried on the family traditions. incidentally, ambroise wrote some valuable treatises on wood-engraving and amassed an enormous library, which, when sold at auction in - , realized nearly £ , . with the names of bodoni and the didots we may link that of the german publisher and printer georg joachim goeschen, grandfather of the late viscount goschen. he was born in , died in , and worked the greater part of his life at leipzig. he brought out pretty illustrated editions, made experiments with greek types, much on the same lines as bodoni, and devoted his life to the improvement of printing and bookmaking and the spread of good literature, enjoying the friendship of schiller and other eminent german writers. coming back to england, we may note the beginning of the chiswick press in , the year of the french revolution. charles whittingham was then only twenty-two (he had been born at coventry in ), and for his first years as his own master he was content to print hand-bills and do any other jobbing work that he could get. he began issuing illustrated books in , and after a time the care he took in making ready wood-blocks (the use of which had been revived by bewick) for printing gained him a special reputation. from about to his death in he left one branch of his business in the city under the charge of a partner, while he himself lived and worked at chiswick, whence the name the chiswick press by which the firm is still best known. his nephew, charles whittingham the younger, was born in , was apprenticed to his uncle in and worked with him until . then he set up for himself at tooks court off chancery lane, and came rapidly to the front, largely from the work which he did for william pickering, a well-known publisher of those days. on his uncle's death in the younger whittingham inherited the chiswick business also. four years after this, in , he led the way in the revival of old-faced types. the examples of baskerville at home and of bodoni and other printers abroad had not been without effect on english printing. brilliancy had been sought at all costs, and in the attempt to combine economy with it the height of letters had been increased and their breadth diminished so that, while they looked larger, more of them could be crowded into a line. the younger whittingham had the good taste to see that the rounder, more evenly tinted type, which caslon had made before these influences had come into play, was much pleasanter to look at and less trying to the eyes. he was already thinking of reviving it when he was commissioned by longmans to print a work of fiction, _so much of the diary of lady willoughby as relates to her domestic history and to the eventful period of the reign of charles the first_, and it occurred to him that the use of old-faced type would be especially in keeping with such a book. a handsome small quarto was the result, and the revival of old-faced type proved a great success. not content with reviving old type, the younger whittingham revived also the use of ornamental initials, causing numerous copies to be cut for him from the initials used in french books of the sixteenth century. some of these are good, some almost bad, or while good in themselves, suitable only for use with black-letter founts and too heavy for use with roman letter. still the attempt was in the right direction, and the books of this period with the imprint of the chiswick press are worth the attention of collectors interested in the modern developments of printing. during the succeeding forty years there is little by which they are likely to be attracted save the issues of the private press kept and worked by the rev. c. h. o. daniel of worcester college, oxford, of which he is now provost. while he was yet a lad mr. daniel had amused himself with printing, and a thin duodecimo is still extant entitled _sir richard's daughter, a christmas tale of olden times_, bearing the imprint "excudebat h. daniel: trinity parsonage, frome, ." in mr. daniel resumed his old hobby at oxford, printing _notes from a catalogue of pamphlets in worcester college library_, and in _a new sermon of the newest fashion by ananias snip_, of which the original is preserved in the library of worcester college. it was, however, in , by an edition of thirty-six copies of _the garland of rachel_ "by divers kindly hands," that the daniel press won its renown. rachel was mr. daniel's little daughter, and the eighteen contributors to her "garland" included frederick locker, robert bridges, austin dobson, andrew lang, edmund gosse, john addington symonds, lewis carrol, w. henley, and margaret woods. each poet was rewarded by a copy in which his name was printed on the titlepage, and the "garland" soon came to be regarded as a very desirable possession. mr. daniel subsequently printed numerous little books by interesting writers (robert bridges, walter pater, canon dixon, and others), and while neither his types nor his presswork were exceptionally good, succeeded in investing them all with a charming appropriateness which gives them a special place of their own in the affections of book-lovers. another venture in which a high literary standard was combined with much care for typography was _the hobby-horse_, a quarterly magazine edited by herbert p. horne and selwyn image between and , after which it appeared fitfully and flickered out. the change in the type, the setting it close instead of spaced, and the new initials and tailpieces which may be noted at the beginning of vol. iii ( ), constituted a landmark in the history of modern printing of an importance similar to that of the return to old-faced type in _lady willoughby's diary_. the progress of the movement can be followed (i) in the catalogue of the exhibition of arts and crafts exhibition society, held at the new gallery in the autumn of , with an article on printing by mr. emery walker; (ii) in three books by william morris, viz. _the house of the wolfings_, _the roots of the mountains_, and the _gunnlaug saga_, printed under the superintendence of the author and mr. walker at the chiswick press in and . in william morris gave an immense impetus to the revival of fine printing by setting up a press at no. upper mall, hammersmith, close to his own residence, kelmscott house. "it was the essence of my undertaking," he wrote subsequently, "to produce books which it would be a pleasure to look upon as pieces of printing and arrangement of type," and no one will be inclined to deny that the kelmscott press books fulfil this aim. the gothic type, whether in its larger or smaller size (the troy type designed for the reprint of caxton's _recuyell of the histories of troy_, and the chaucer type designed for the great _chaucer_), will hold its own against any gothic type of the fifteenth century. the golden type (designed for the reprint of caxton's _golden legend_) cannot be praised as highly as this. "by instinct rather than by conscious thinking it over," morris confessed, "i began by getting myself a fount of roman type," and it is no unfair criticism of it to say that it betrays the hand of a man whose natural expression was in gothic letter forcing roman into yielding some of the characteristic gothic charm. the _golden legend_ would have been a far finer book if it had been printed in the chaucer type, and the shelley, keats, herrick and other books which morris printed in it to please f. s. ellis or other friends cannot stand the test of comparison with _the wood beyond the world_ and the other romances which he printed entirely to please himself. but whether he used his roman or his gothic type the exquisite craftsmanship which he put into all his books enabled morris to attain his aim, and his wonderful borders and capitals crown them with the delight which this king of designers took in his work. no other printer since printing began has ever produced such a series of books as the fifty-three which poured from the kelmscott press during those wonderful seven years, and no book that has ever been printed can be compared for richness of effect with the chaucer which was the crowning achievement of the press. morris's example brought into the field a host of competitors and plagiarists and a few workers in the same spirit. by his side throughout his venture had stood mr. emery walker, who had no small part in starting the whole movement, whose help and advice for more than twenty years have been freely at the service of any one who has shown any inclination to do good work, and who, whenever good work has been achieved, will almost always be found to have lent a hand in it. after morris's death mr. walker joined with mr. cobden sanderson in producing the doves press books, printed, all of them, in a single type, but that type a fine adaptation of jenson's and handled with a skill to which jenson not only never attained but never aspired. the first book printed in it was the _agricola_ of tacitus, and this and mr. mackail's lecture on morris and other early books are entirely without decoration. woodcut capitals and borders, it was thought, had reached their highest possible excellence under the hand of william morris, and since not progress but retrogression would be the certain result of any fresh experiments, decoration of this sort must be abandoned. the reasoning was perhaps not entirely cogent, since the decoration appropriate to the doves type would hardly enter into any direct competition with morris's gothic designs. later on, however, it was more than justified by the use in the _paradise lost_, the bible, and most subsequent books (these later ones issued by mr. sanderson alone) of very simple red capitals, which light up the pages on which they occur with charming effect. similar capitals on a less bold scale, some in gold, others in red, others in blue, are a conspicuous feature in the masterpieces of the ashendene press belonging to mr. st. john hornby. this was started by mr. hornby at his house in ashendene, herts, in , and was for some time worked by mr. hornby himself and his sisters, with, as at least one colophon gratefully acknowledges, "some little help of cicely barclay," who subsequently, under a different surname, appears as a joint proprietor. the early books--the _journals_ of joseph hornby, _meditations_ of marcus aurelius, _prologue_ to the _canterbury tales_, etc.--are not conspicuously good, but in , in a type founded on that used by sweynheym and pannartz at subiaco, mr. and mrs. hornby produced the first volume of an illustrated _divina commedia_ which cannot be too highly praised. its story is told in the red-printed colophon, the wording of which is very prettily turned: fine della prima cantica appellata inferno della commedia di dante poeta eccellentissimo. impressa nella stamperia privata di ashendene a shelley house, chelsea, per opera e spesa di st. john & cicely hornby coll' aiuto del loro cugino meysey turton. le lettere iniziali sono l'opera di graily hewitt, le incisioni in legno di c. keates secondo disegni fatti da r. catterson smith sopra gli originali dell' edizione di . finita nel mese di dicembre dell' anno del signore mcmii, nel quale dopo dieci secoli di bellezza cadde il gran campanile di san marco dei veneziani. the third type happily inspired by the example of morris was the greek type designed by robert proctor on the model of that used for the new testament of the complutensian polyglott in , with the addition of majuscules and accents, both of them lacking in the original. an edition of the _oresteia_ of aeschylus in this type was being printed for mr. proctor at the chiswick press at the time of his death, and appeared in . in it was followed by an edition of the _odyssey_ printed at the clarendon press. like morris's gothic founts, this greek type may or may not be admired, but that it attains the effects at which it aims can hardly be denied. no page of such richness had ever before been set up by any printer of greek. to write of books printed in types which for one reason or another seem less successful than those already named is a less grateful task, but there are several designers and printers whose work approaches excellence, and who worked independently of morris, though with less sure touch. foremost among these must be placed mr. charles ricketts,[ ] whose vale type, despite a few blemishes, is not very far behind the golden type of the kelmscott press, and whose ornament at its best is graceful, and that with a lighter and gayer grace than morris's, though it cannot compare with his for dignity or richness of effect. in a later type, called the kinge's fount from its use in an edition of _the kinges quair_ ( ), mr. ricketts's good genius deserted him, for the mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms is most unpleasing. the eragny books printed by esther and lucien pissarro on their press at epping, bedford park, and the brook, chiswick, were at first ( - , nos. - ) printed by mr. ricketts's permission in the vale type. in june, , a "brook" fount designed by mr. pissarro was completed, and _a brief account of the origin of the eragny press_ printed in it. mr. pissarro's books are chiefly notable for their woodcuts, which are of very varying merit. in the united states, in addition to some merely impudent plagiarisms, several excellent efforts after improved printing were inspired by the english movement of which morris was the most prominent figure. mr. clarke conwell at the elston press, pelham road, new rochelle, new york, printed very well, both in roman and black letter, his edition of the _tale of gamelyn_ ( ) in the latter type being a charming little book. mr. berkeley updike of the merrymount press, boston, and mr. bruce rogers during his connection with the riverside press, boston, have also both done excellent work, which is too little known in this country. the artistic printing which mr. rogers did while working for the riverside press is especially notable because of the rich variety of types and styles in which excellence was attained. footnote: [ ] like proctor, mr. ricketts had no press of his own. his books were printed for him by messrs. ballantyne. select bibliography general works ferguson, j. _some aspects of bibliography._ edinburgh, . peddie, r. a. _a list of bibliographical books published since the foundation of the bibliographical society in _ (_bib. soc. transactions_, vol. x., pp. - ). london, . * * * * * bigmore and wyman. _a bibliography of printing._ with notes and illustrations, vols. london, . reed, t. b. _a list of books and papers on printers and printing under the countries and towns to which they refer._ (bibliographical society.) london, . * * * * * bibliographical society. _transactions._ london, , etc. edinburgh bibliographical society. _transactions._ edinburgh, , etc. * * * * * _le bibliographe moderne._ paris, , etc. _bibliographica._ vols. london, - . _centrallblatt für bibliothekswesen._ leipzig, , etc. _the library._ london, , etc. * * * * * _zeitschrift für bücherfreunde._ bielefeld, , etc. brunet, j. c. _dictionnaire de géographie ancienne et moderne à l'usage du libraire et de l'amateur de livre. par un bibliophile._ paris, . with notes on the introduction of printing into the places named. crane, w. _of the decorative illustration of books old and new._ second edition. london, . duff, e. g. _early printed books._ (_books about books._) london, . vo. humphreys, h. n. _masterpieces of the early printers and engravers_: series of facsimiles from rare and curious books, remarkable for illustrative devices, beautiful borders, decorative initials, printers' marks, and elaborate titlepages. fol. london, . kristeller, p. _kupferstich und holzschnitt in vier jahrhunderten._ to. berlin, . lang, a. _the library._ with a chapter on modern english illustrated books by austin dobson, london, . ---- second edition. london, . lippmann, f. _druckschriften des xv. bis xviii. jahrhunderts in getreuen nachbildungen herausgegeben von der direction der reichsdruckerei unter mitwirkung von dr. f. lippmann and dr. r. dohme._ fol. berlin, - . morgan, j. p. _catalogue of early printed books from the libraries of william morris, richard bennett, etc., now forming portion of the library of j. p. morgan._ [by s. aldrich, e. g. duff, a. w. pollard, r. proctor.] vols. large to. london, . with many facsimiles. rouveyre, e. _connaissances nécessaires à un bibliophile._ vols. paris, . i.--collectors and collecting elton, c. i. and m. a. _the great book collectors._ london, . fletcher, w. y. _english book-collectors._ london, . quaritch, b. _contributions towards a dictionary of english book collectors._ london, - . davenport, c. _english heraldic book-stamps._ london, . with biographical notes. guigard, j. _nouvel armorial du bibliophile. guide de l'amateur des livres armoriés._ tom. paris, . with biographical notices of many french collectors. * * * * * _book prices current._ london, , etc. _american book prices current._ new york, , etc. livingston, l. s. _auction prices of books._ - . vols. new york, . lawler, j. _book auctions in england in the seventeenth century._ london, . roberts, w. _catalogues of english book sales._ london, . ---- _rare books and their prices._ london, . wheatley, h. b. _prices of books_: an inquiry into the changes in the price of books which have occurred in england at different periods. london, . * * * * * brunet, j. c. _manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres, contenant ^o un nouveau dictionnaire bibliographique_, etc. cinquième Édition. vols. paris, - . graesse, j. g. t. _trésor de livres rares et précieux: ou nouveau dictionnaire bibliographique._ vols. dresde, - . these two books mark the close of the fashion of general collecting. ii.--block-books sotheby, s. l. _principia typographica._ the block-books issued in holland, flanders, and germany during the fifteenth century, etc. vols. fol. london, . schreiber, w. l. _livres xylographiques et xylo-chirographiques. fac-similés des livres xylographiques._ (_manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois et sur métal au xv^e siècle_, tomes , , .) vo and fol. leipzig, , , . pilinski, a. _monuments de la xylographie ... reproduits en fac-similé sur les exemplaires de la bibliothèque nationale, précédés des notices par gustave pawlowski._ fol. paris, - . . apocalypse. . ars moriendi. . bible des pauvres. . oraison dominicale. . ars memorandi. . cantica canticorum. biblia pauperum. _biblia pauperum. nach dem einzigen in darstellungen herausgegeben von p. heitz, w. l. schreiber._ to. strassburg, . cust, l. h. _the master e. s. and the ars moriendi._ to. oxford, . iii. and iv.--the introduction of printing--holland and mainz grolier club. _a description of the early printed books owned by the grolier club_, with a brief account of their printers and the history of typography in the fifteenth century. fol. new york, . quotes numerous early references to the invention of printing, and gives some facsimiles. enschedÉ, c. _laurens jansz. coster de uitvinder van de boekdrukkunst._ haarlem, . ---- _technisch onderzoek naar de uitvinding van de boekdrukkunst._ haarlem, . hessels, j. h. _gutenberg: was he the inventor of printing?_ london, . ---- _haarlem the birthplace of printing, not mentz._ london, . ---- article "typography" in the _encyclopædia britannica._ gutenberg gesellschaft. _veröffentlichungen._ mainz, , etc. to. i. zedler, g. _die älteste gutenbergtype._ . ii. schwenke, p. _die donat- und kalendertype._ . iii. _das mainzer fragment vom weltgericht. der canon missae vom jahre._ . iv. zedler. _das mainzer catholicon._ v-vi. _das mainzer fragment vom weltgericht. die type b^ im missale von . die missaldrucke p. und joh. schöffers. die bucheranzeigen p. schöffers._ viii-ix. seymour de ricci. _catalogue raisonné des premières impressions de mayence_ ( - ). dziatzko, c. _was wissen wir von dem leben und der person joh. gutenbergs?_ [ .] ---- _gutenberg's früheste druckerpraxis auf grund einer ... vergleichung des -zeiligen und -zeilgen bibel._ (sammlung, no. .) . hessels, j. h. _gutenberg: was he the inventor of printing?_ london, . ---- _the so-called gutenberg documents._ (reprinted from _the library._) london, . v.--other incunabula panzer, g. w. _annales typographici ab artis inventæ origine ad annum md._ (_ad annum mdxxxvi_). vols. to. norimbergæ, - . hain, l. _repertorium bibliographicum, in quo libri omnes ab arte typographica inventa usque ad annum md. typis expressi ordine alphabetico vel simpliciter enumerantur vel adcuratius recensentur._ stuttgartiæ et tubingæ, . ---- _indices uberrimi operâ c. burger._ lipsiæ, . copinger, w. a. _supplement to hain's repertorium bibliographicum._ (index by konrad burger.) vols. london, - . reichling, d. _appendices ad hainii copingeri repertorium bibliographicum. additiones et emendationes._ pt. monachii, - . pellechet, m. l. c. _catalogue général des incunables des bibliothèques publiques de france._ [continued by m. l. polain.] vols. i.-iii. paris, , etc. proctor, r. _an index to the early printed books in the british museum, with notes of those in the bodleian library, oxford._ vols. london, . british museum. _catalogue of books printed in the fifteenth century, now in the british museum._ vols. i-ii. [block-books and germany, mainz-trier.] to. london, , etc. providence, r.i. annmary brown memorial. _catalogue of books mostly from the presses of the first printers, showing the progress of printing with movable metal types through the second half of the fifteenth century._ collected by rush c. hawkins. catalogued by a. w. pollard. to. oxford, . burger, k. _monumenta germaniae et italiae typographica. deutsche und italienische inkunabeln in getreuen nachbildungen._ parts - . fol. berlin, , etc. gesellschaft fÜr typenkunde des . jahrhunderts. _veröffentlichungen._ fol. uppsala, , etc. type facsimile society. _publications._ ( - edited by r. proctor; - by g. dunn.) to. oxford, , etc. woolley photographs. _woolley photographs. photographs of fifteenth century types of the exact size of the originals, designed to supplement published examples, with references to robert proctor's index of books in the british museum and bodleian library._ [edited by george dunn, with a list of the photographs.] fol. woolley, - . haebler, k. _typenrepertorium der wiegendrucke._ vols. leipzig, , etc. vo. this supplies the measurement and some guide to the characteristics of every recorded fifteenth century type, with helps to the identification of the printers of unsigned books by means of the different forms of m, qu, etc. bernard, a. j. _de l'origine et des débuts de l'imprimerie en europe._ vols. paris, . valuable for its numerous references to notes and dates in individual copies. hawkins, rush c. _titles of the first books from the earliest presses established in different cities, towns, and monasteries in europe, before the end of the fifteenth century. with brief notes upon their printers._ to. new york, . claudin, a. _histoire de l'imprimerie en france._ vols. i.-iii. to. paris, , etc. thierry-poux, o. _premiers monuments de l'imprimerie en france au xv^e siècle._ [ sheets of facsimiles.] fol. paris, . holtrop, j. w. _monuments typographiques des pays-bas au quinzième siècle._ [ plates of facsimiles.] fol. la haye, . campbell, m. f. a. g. _annales de la typographie néerlandaise au xv^e siècle._ (with four supplements.) la haye, ( - ). fumagalli, g. _lexicon typographicum italiae. dictionnaire géographique d'italie pour servir à l'histoire de l'imprimerie dans ce pays._ florence, . haebler, k. _bibliografia iberica del siglo ._ la haya, . ---- _the early printers of spain and portugal._ [bibliog. soc. illust. monographs, .] to. london, . ---- _typographie ibérique du xv^e siècle. reproduction en fac-similé de tous les caractères typographiques employés en espagne et en portugal jusqu'à ._ fol. la haye, . vi.--the development of the printed book pollard, a. w. _an essay on colophons._ with specimens and translations, by a. w. pollard, and an introduction by r. garnett (caxton club). chicago, . ---- _last words on the history of the titlepage._ to. london, . roberts, w. _printers' marks: a chapter in the history of typography._ london, . bÜchermarken. _die büchermarken oder buchdrucker und verlegerzeichen._ to. strassburg, , etc. . _elsässische büchermarken bis anfang des . jahrhunderts._ herausgeg. von p. heitz, . . _die italienischen buchdrucker- und verlegerzeichen bis ._ herausgeg. von p. kristeller, . . _die basler büchermarken bis anfang des . jahrhunderts._ herausgeg. von p. heitz, . . _die frankfurter drucker und verlegerzeichen bis anfang des . jahrhunderts._ herausgeg. von p. heitz, . . _spanische und portugiesische bücherzeichen des xv. und xvi. jahrhunderts._ herausgeg. von. k. k. haebler, . . _kölner büchermarken bis zum anfang des xvii. jahrhunderts._ herausgeg. von dr. zaretzky, . . _genfer buchdrucker, und verlegerzeichen von xv. xvi. und xvii. jahrhundert._ von p. heitz, . silvestre, l. c. _marques typographiques, ou recueil des monogrammes ... des libraires et imprimeurs en france, depuis l'introduction de l'imprimerie jusqu'à la fin du xv^e siècle._ paris, - . jennings, o. _early woodcut initials._ london, . vii.--early german and dutch illustrated books dodgson, c. _catalogue of early german and flemish woodcuts preserved in the department of prints and drawings in the british museum._ vols. i.-ii. london, , . muther, r. _die deutsche bücherillustration der gothik und frührenaissance ( - )._ bde. to. münchen, . schreiber, w. l. _catalogue des incunables à figures imprimés en allemagne, en suisse en autriche-hongrie et en scandinavie, avec des notes critiques et bibliographiques._ (_manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois et sur métal au xv^e siècle_, tom. & .) leipzig, . cockerell, s. c. _some german woodcuts of the fifteenth century._ to. hammersmith, . conway, sir w. m. _the woodcutters of the netherlands in the fifteenth century._ cambridge, . viii.--early italian illustrated books lippmann, f. _the art of wood-engraving in italy in the fifteenth century._ london, . pollard, a. w. _italian book-illustrations, chiefly of the fifteenth century._ (portfolio monographs, .) london, . kristeller, p. _early florentine woodcuts._ with an annotated list of florentine illustrated books. london, . essling, prince d'. _les missels imprimés à venise de à . description, illustration, bibliographie. ouvrage orné de planches sur cuivre et de gravures._ fol. paris, . ---- _Études sur l'art de la gravure sur bois à venise. les livres à figures vénitiens de la fin du ^e siècle et du commencement du ^e._ fol. paris, , etc. ix.--early french and spanish illustrated books murray, c. f. _catalogue of a collection of early french books in the library of c. fairfax murray._ compiled by h. w. davies. to. london, . vindel, p. _bibliografia grafica_: reproduccion en facsimil de portadas, retratos, colofones y otras curiosidades útiles á los bibliófilos, que se hallan en obras únicas y libros preciosos ó raros. tom. madrid, . facsimiles of titlepages, illustrations, etc., of spanish books, unfortunately neither well selected, nor well arranged, but still useful. x.--later foreign books proctor, r. _an index to the early printed books in the british museum. part ii._ - . germany. london, . nijhoff, w. _bibliographie de la typographie néerlandaise des années à ._ la haye, , etc. ---- _l'art typographique dans les pays-bas, - _: reproduction en fac-similé des caractères, typographiques, des marques d'imprimeurs, etc. fol. la haye, , etc. renouard, a. a. _annales de l'imprimerie des aldes, ou histoire des trois manuces, et de leurs éditions. troisième édition, avec notes de la famille des juntes, etc._ vols. paris, . ---- _annales de l'imprimerie des estiennes ou histoire de la famille des estiennes et de ses éditions._ ^e édition. paris, . rooses, max. _christopher plantin, imprimeur anversois. biographie et documents._ ^e édition. fol. anvers, . willems, a. _les elzevier. histoire et annales typographiques._ bruxelles, etc., . goldsmid, e. m. _bibliotheca curiosa._ a complete catalogue of all the publications of the elzevir presses. edinburgh, . xi.--sixteenth century illustrations *** many of the books entered under vii, viii, and ix relate also to this period. butsch, a. f. _die bücherornamentik der renaissance, eine auswahl stylvoller titeleinfassungen, initialen, leisten, vignetten und druckerzeichen hervoragender italienischer, deutscher, und französischer officinen aus der zeit der frührenaissance._ to. leipzig, . xii.--english printing, - hazlitt, w. c. _handbook to the popular, poetical and dramatic literature of great britain, from the invention of printing to the restoration._ london, . hazlitt, w. c. _collections and notes._ three series with supplements. london, - . ---- _a general index to hazlitt's handbook and his bibliographical collections, - ._ by g. t. gray. london, . british museum. _catalogue of books in the library of the british museum printed in england, scotland, and ireland, and of books in english printed abroad, to the year ._ [mainly by g. w. eccles.] vols. london, . duff, e. g. _catalogue of books in the john rylands library, manchester, printed in england, scotland, and ireland, and of books in english printed abroad to the end of the year ._ to. manchester, . sayle, c. e. _early english printed books in the university library, cambridge, - ._ cambridge, - . the books are arranged under the printers. ames, j. _typographical antiquities_: being an historical account of printing in england; with some memoirs of our antient printers, and a register of the books printed by them, - . with an appendix concerning printing in scotland and ireland to the same time. to. london, . ---- considerably augmented.... by w. herbert. vols. to. london, - . ---- greatly enlarged, with copious notes and engravings by t. f. dibdin. vols. i.-iv. to. london, - . duff, e. g. _english printing on vellum to the end of ._ (bibliographical society of lancashire.) to. aberdeen, . ---- _a century of the english book trade_: short notices of all printers, stationers, bookbinders, and others connected with it, - . to. bibliographical society, london, . ---- _the printers, stationers, and bookbinders of westminster and london, - ._ (sandars lectures.) cambridge, . ---- _early english printing_: a series of facsimiles of all the types used in england during the fifteenth century. fol. london, . ---- (and others.) _handlists of english printers, - ._ parts - . to. bibliographical society, london, , etc. arber, e. _a transcript of the registers of the company of stationers of london, - ._ vols. to. london, - . blades, w. _the life and typography of william caxton._ vols. to. london, - . ---- _biography and typography of caxton._ london, . duff, e. g. _william caxton._ (caxton club of chicago.) to. chicago, . ricci, seymour de. _a census of caxtons._ (bibliographical society, illust. monographs, .) london, . * * * * * plomer, h. r. _a short history of english printing, - ._ (english bookman's library.) london, . reed, t. b. _history of the old english letter foundries._ to. london, . xiii.--early printing in english outside london allnutt, w. h. _english provincial presses._ (bibliographica, parts - .) london, . duff, e. g. _the english provincial printers, stationers, and bookbinders to ._ (sandars lectures.) cambridge, . bowes, r. _a catalogue of books printed at or relating to the university, town and county of cambridge, - ._ cambridge, . madan, f. l. oxford books. vol. . _the early oxford press_: a bibliography of printing and publishing at oxford " - ." ---- ---- vol. . _oxford literature, - , and - ._ oxford, , . ---- _a chart of oxford printing, " "- ._ with notes and illustrations. to. oxford, . ---- _a brief account of the university press at oxford._ with illustrations, together with a chart of oxford printing. to. oxford, . davies, r. _a memoir of the york press._ with notices of authors, printers, and stationers in the th, th, and th centuries. westminster, . dobson, a. _horace walpole: a memoir._ with an appendix of books printed at the strawberry hill press. new york, . aldis, h. g. _a list of books printed in scotland before , including those printed furth of the realm for scottish booksellers._ with brief notes on the printers and stationers. to. edinburgh bibliographical society, edinburgh, . dickson, r., and edmond, t. p. _annals of scottish printing: from the introduction of the art in to the beginning of the th century._ to. cambridge, . dix, e. r. mcc. _a list of irish towns and dates of earliest printing in each._ second edition. dublin, . ---- _the earliest dublin printing._ with list of books, etc., printed in dublin prior to . dublin, . gilbert, sir j. t. _irish bibliography._ two papers. with an introduction, notes, and appendices by e. r. mcc. dix. dublin, . watkins, g. t. _bibliography of printing in america_: books, etc., relating to the history of printing in the new world. boston, . evans, c. _american bibliography...._ a chronological dictionary of all books, pamphlets, and periodical publications printed in the united states from to . to. chicago, , etc. thomas, j. _the history of printing in america._ with a biography of printers, etc. second edition. vols. albany, . roden, r. f. _the cambridge press, - _: a history of the first printing press in english america, together with a bibliographical list of the issues. new york, . xiv.--english woodcut illustrations chatto and jackson. _a treatise on wood engravings_: historical and practical. second edition. london . linton, w. j. _the masters of wood-engraving._ folio. london, . xv.--engraved books--illustrations hind, a. m. _a short history of engraving and etching for the use of collectors and students._ with full bibliography, classified list, and index of engravers. second edition, revised. london, . colvin, sir s. _early engraving and engravers in england, - ._ fol. british museum. london, . hind, a. m. _list of the works of native and foreign line-engravers in england from henry viii to the commonwealth._ british museum. london, . reprinted from sir s. colvin's work. cohen, h. _guide de l'amateur de livres à gravure du ^e siècle, ^e édition, augmentée par seymour de ricci._ paris, . levine, j. _bibliography of the th century art and illustrated books._ london, . bÉraldi, j. h. _estampes et livres, - ._ to. paris, . a catalogue of the compiler's own collection of french illustrated books. xvi.--modern fine printing straus, r., and dent, r. k. _john baskerville: a memoir._ to. cambridge, . goschen, viscount. _the life and times of georg joachim goeschen, publisher and printer of leipzig, - ._ vols. london, . werelet, e. _Études bibliographiques sur la famille des didot, imprimeurs, etc., - ._ (extrait de l'histoire du livre en france.) paris, . warren, a. _the charles whittinghams, printers._ (grolier club.) new york, . morris, w. _a note by william morris on his aims in founding the kelmscott press._ with a short description of the press by s. c. cockerell, and an annotated list of the books printed thereat. hammersmith, . ricketts. _a bibliography of the books issued by hacon and ricketts._ (the vale press.) london, . steele, r. _the revival of printing._ london, . index abbeville, illustrated books, _sq._ aberdeen breviary, printed at edinburgh, _sq._ abingdon, printing at, acqui, colophon, _ad te levavi_ woodcut, aesop, illustrated editions, , , , , , , , , , , alcalà, cardinal ximenes' polyglott printed at, ; greek testament type imitated by proctor, aldus manutius. _see_ manutius. alexander gallus, early edition of his _doctrinale_ "jeté en moule," ; colophon of acqui ed. quoted, _sq._; venice ed. of, ; pynson's, alexander of villedieu. _see_ alexander gallus allan, george, private press, allnutt, w., on english provincial printing, , _alphabeti noua effictio._ de bry's, , altdorfer, albrecht, illustrator, _sq._ -- erhard, bible illustrated by, alunno di domenico. _see_ bartolommeo di giovanni american colonies, early printing in, - ammann, jost, book-illustrations, , amsterdam, english books printed at, ; engravings, , ; presses improved at, anabat, guil., his _horae_, andrea, hieronymus, wood-cutter, _antichristus_, block-book, antwerp, printing, , _sq._; woodcuts, _sq._; english books printed, _sqq._; engraved illustration, _sqq._ _apocalypsis s. johannis_, block-book, aquila, good roman type, ; illustrated _aesop_, arbuthnot, alexander, edinburgh printer, ariosto, lodovico, _orlando furioso_, illustrated editions, , , _ars moriendi_, block-book, _art de bien vivre et de bien mourir_, vérard's edition, , de worde's, arundel, earl of, caxton's cut of his device, ascensius. _see_ badius ascensius ashendene press, audran, benoît, engraver, augsburg printing, , ; book-illustration, _sqq._, _sqq._ augustine, s., abbeville edition of his _de ciuitate dei_, .b., woodcuts signed, _sq._ bacon, francis, engraved title to _novum organum_, badius ascensius, jodocus, printer at lyon and paris, bagford, john, his copies from block-books, bämler, johann, illustrated books, bankes, robert, london printer, banks, sir joseph, his natural history books, barbier, jean, partner of julyan notary, barcelona, early printing, ; illustration, barclay, alexander, translator of sallust, ; of gringore's _chasteau de labeur_, , , barker, robert, royal printer, _sq._ barnes, dam julyan, "her boke of huntyng," -- joseph, oxford printer, bartholomaeus anglicus, editions of his _de proprietatibus rerum_, , ; printed by caxton, ; by de worde, , ; edited by s. bateman, bartolommeo di giovanni, mr. berenson's attribution of florentine woodcuts to, bartolozzi, f., portrait of lunardi, basel printing, , , book-illustration, , _sq._ basiliologia engravings, baskerville, john, birmingham printer, _sq._ bassandyne, thomas, edinburgh printer, bateman, stephen, illustrated books by, _bay psalter_, first book printed in north america, _sq._ beck, leonhard, illustrator, , _sq._ beham, hans sebald, illustrator, belgium, early printing, _belial siue consolatio peccatorum. see_ theramo, jac. de bellaert, jacob, illustrated books, _sq._ bellini, gentile, woodcut after, benlowes, e., _theophila_, berenson, bernhard, attributes all early florentine cuts to "alunno di domenico," berghen, adriaen von, english books printed by, bergomensis, jac. phil., his _supplementum cronicarum_, ; _de claris mulieribus_, berkeley, sir william, on free schools and printing, berrutus, amadeus, engraving in his _dialogus_, berthelet, thomas, connection with pynson, , ; royal printer, , bettini, ant., illustrated editions of his _monte santo di dio_, , _sq._ bible, english, early editions, , _sq._, , ; french _bible historiée_, ; german, illustrated editions of, , , , ; indian (narraganset), _sq._; italian, illustrated editions of, , ; latin, the -line, _sqq._, ; the -line, _sq._, ; of , ; of , ; polyglott, , , ; scottish, _biblia pauperum_, block-book, , ; its plan imitated in _horae_ borders, , biel, fried., illustrated books, binneman. _see_ bynneman birmingham, baskerville's press at, _birth of mankind_, first english book with engravings, bladen, william, dublin printer, bladi, printers at rome, blaew, william, improves printing-press, block-books, - , blomefield, francis, private press, boccaccio, giov., _de casibus illustrium virorum_, , , , , , note, ; _de claris mulieribus_, , , , ; _decamerone_, bodleian library, effect of its foundation on private book-collecting, bodoni, giovanni battista, printer at parma, _boec von der houte. see_ cross, the holy boitard, peter, illustrator, bonaventura, s., illustrations to his _devote meditatione_, , , bonhomme, jean, his illustrated books, , book-illustration, natural method of, ; in germany and holland, - , - ; in italy, - , - ; in france and spain, - , - ; in england, - ; engraved, - borderpieces, stamped by illuminators, ; venetian, , ; florentine, ; other italian, , ; spanish, ; basel, ; london, , , _sq._, boston, mass., early printing, ; modern, boucher, françois, illustrator, bradford, andrew, printer at philadelphia, -- william, first printer at philadelphia, ; and at new york, bradshaw, henry, his claim for bibliography, ; on the printer of the _speculum_, brandis, lucas, first lübeck printer, , brant, sebastian, connected with book-illustration, , , , , , brass, types made of, note breidenbach, bernhard von, his arms on a mainz _agenda_, ; his _peregrinatio in montem syon_, , , , brinckley, stephen, jesuit printer, bristol printing, _sq._ british museum, bequests to, - ; block-books in, brosamer, hans, bibles illustrated by, broughton, hugh, plates in his _concent of scripture_, bruges early printing, , , _sq._; engravings in books printed at, - brussels early printing, brydges, sir egerton, private press, buckner, john, virginia printer, bulkley, stephen, printer at york, bulle, john, printer at rome, lettou's relation with, bunyan, john, portrait in _pilgrim's progress_, burghers, michael, engraver, burgkmair, hans, illustrator, _sq._, _sq._ burgundy, margaret duchess of. _see_ margaret bynneman, henry, london printer, , cagli, good roman type, _calendar of shepherds_, french editions, ; english, , cambridge, printing at, , _sq._, cambridge, mass., printing at, _sq._, _canon missae_, mainz edition of, ; crucifixion woodcut to, , canterbury, printing at, _canterbury tales. see_ chaucer _canticum canticorum_, block-book, , caoursin, gulielmus, woodcuts in books by, capell, edward, bequeaths his shakespeare books to trin. coll., camb., capitals, pictorial and heraldic, , , , _sqq._ carmelianus, petrus, pictures in his _carmen_, cartwright, thomas, his tracts printed at a secret press, caslon, william, typefounder, _catholicon_, possibly printed by gutenberg, caxton, william, , ; press at bruges, , _sq._; at westminster, , _sq._; method of printing in red, ; illustrated books, - ; possible engraved portrait of, _sq._ cazotte, j., his _le diable amoureux_, cecill, thomas, engraver, cennini, bernardo, first printer at florence, ; colophon of his _virgil_, cervicornus, eucharius, printer at cologne, chapman, walter, printer at edinburgh, charteris, henry, printer at edinburgh, chaucer, geoffrey, early editions, , , , chauveau, françois, engraver, _chess, game and play of the_, , chester, printing at, , etc. chiromantia, block-book, choffard, p. p., _fleurons_ by, _sq._ _christian prayers, book of_ (queen elizabeth's prayer book), christopher, s., early woodcut of, ciripagus, meaning of the word, civil war, its effects on oxford printing, clark, john, engraver, classics, first editions of the, claudin, anatole, his _histoire de l'imprimerie en france_, clement v, edition of his _constitutiones_, clemente of padua, self-taught printer at venice, , cochin, c., paris engraver, _sq._ cock, hieron, antwerp engraver, -- peter, alost engraver, cockson, thomas, london engraver, colines, simon, his _horae_, ; relations with the estiennes, ; illustrated books, collectors and collecting, - , cologne, printing at, , , , , ; book-illustration at, _cologne chronicle_, its story of the invention of printing, colonna, francesco. _see hypnerotomachia poliphili_ colophons, ; specimens quoted, _sq._; in manuscript, colour-printing in incunabula, _sq._, columna, aegidius, his _regimiento de los principes_, colvin, sir sidney, his _early engravings_ quoted, , complutensian polyglott. _see_ alcalà constance, _das conciliumbuch_, illustrated editions of, , conway, sir m., his _woodcutters of the netherlands_ conwell, clarke, american printer, copland, robert, london printer, , -- william, london printer, , cornelis, the bookbinder, of haarlem, _sq._, corrozet, gilles, his verses to holbein's cuts, ; other illustrated books by, _sq._ coryat, thomas, _crudities_, coster, lourens, legend of his inventing printing, _sqq._ "_costeriana_," group of books so called, - , cotton, sir robert, his collections, cranach, lucas, his bookwork at wittenberg, cremer, heinrich, copy of -line bible rubricated by, _sq._ creussner, f., nuremberg printer, , cromwell, thomas, earl of, arms on title of great bible, croquet, jean, of geneva, first edition of _roman de la rose_ attributed to, note cross, the holy, block-book history of, cunningham, william, his _cosmographicall glasse_, , dalles, jean, lyonnese wood-cutter, daniel, rev. c. h. o., private press, _danse macabre_, illustrations to, , dante alighieri, illustrated editions of _divina commedia_, , , _sq._ darmstadt prognostication, printer of the, forged dates in his books, davidson, thomas, edinburgh printer, _sq._ day, john, london printer, _sq._, ; illustrated books, _sq._ -- matthew, printer at cambridge, mass., -- stephen, first printer in north america, de bry, family of engravers, - , _defensorium inviolatae castitatis virginis mariae_, block-book, defoe, daniel, plates to _robinson crusoe_, delaram, francis, engraver, _sq._ delft, early printing at, denham, henry, london printer, derrick, john, _image of ireland_, deventer, early printing at, , d'ewes, sir simeon, fate of his manuscripts, _dialogus creaturum_, woodcuts in, _dictes or sayengis of the philosophers_, caxton's, didot, family of printers at paris, digby, sir kenelm digby, benefactions to libraries, dinckmut, conrad, illustrated books, _sq._ doesborg, jan van, english books printed by, dolet, etienne, printer at lyon, donatus, aelius, early editions of his _de octo partibus orationis_, , , , , douay, english catholic books printed at, dorat, c. j., _les baisers_, doves press, downes, thomas, english bookseller, patentee for irish printing, drach, peter, speier printer, drayton, michael, _polyolbion_, dublin, early printing at, _sq._ du bosc, claude, engraver, dudley, earl of leicester, encourages oxford printing, duff, e. g., on woodcuts in bible, note; on berthelet and pynson, ; on free trade in books, ; on a book printed at st. albans, du guernier, louis, engraver, du guesclin, bertrand, woodcut of, du moulin, conrad, buys a _de salute corporis_, dupré, jean, fine printer at paris, ; his illustrated books, _sqq._, ; his _horae_, _sq._ dürer, albrecht, book-illustrations by, _sq._, dutch printing and book-illustration. _see_ holland duranti, gulielmus, _rationale diuinorum officiorum_, edition, dyson, humphrey, book-collector, edinburgh printing, - editions, number of copies in early, edward vi, woodcut of, egenolph, christian, illustrated books, , eichstätt service-books, engravings in, eisen, c., illustrator, _sqq._ eliot, john, books by, printed at cambridge, mass., elizabeth, queen, portraits of, , , _sq._; her "prayer book," elston press, elstracke, renold, engraver, _sq._, elzevir, family of printers, _sqq._ emblem books, , emden, puritan books printed at, england, printing in, _sq._, - , - , - english books printed abroad, - english engraved illustrations, - , - english woodcut illustrations, - engraved illustrations, - _epistole ed evangelii_, illustrated florentine ed., , eragny press, erasmus, desiderius, his relations with froben, , erven, g. van der, printer at emden, e. s., the master, _ars moriendi_ engravings by, essling, prince d', his _livres à figures venitiens_ quoted, note, , _sq._ estienne, family of scholar-printers, _sqq._ eton, printing at, eustace, guil., his _horae_, exeter, early printing at, f, woodcuts signed, at venice, ; at paris, fabyan's _chronicle_, pynson's ed., faithorne, w., engraver, faques or fawkes, richard, london printer, faques, william, royal printer, fell, bishop, buys dutch types for oxford, ferrara, early printing at, , ; book-illustrations, fichet, guillaume, letter on invention of printing, , ; invites printers to the sorbonne, field, richard, london printer, _fifteen oes_, caxton's edition, first books printed in different countries and towns, their interest, _sq._ fisher, bishop, woodcuts to his funeral sermons, florence, early printing, , , book-illustration at, - , ; venetian imitation of florentine style, florio, john, engraved portrait, foliation, or leaf-numbers, first used by ther hoernen, foster, john, first printer at boston, mass., fouler, john, english printer at antwerp and louvain, foulis, robert and andrew, glasgow printers, foxe, john, his _actes and monuments_, or _book of martyrs_, , france, printing in, - , - , ; book-illustration, - , - , - franciscus, magister, schoeffer's corrector, francke (or franckton), john, dublin printer, frankfort am main, book-illustration at, , , _sqq._ franklin, benjamin, printer at philadelphia, freez (or wandsforth), gerard, york printer, freiburger, gering and crantz, first paris printers, _sq._ frezzi, bishop, _quatriregio_, illustrated editions, froben, johann, scholarly printer at basel, ; his book-decorations, front, the mind of the, froschauer, christopher, zurich printer, his english books, _sq._ fust, johann, dealings with gutenberg, _sqq._; books printed by, _sq._, gafori, francesco, illustrations to his music-books, , gaguin, robert, illustrations to his chronicles, _game and pley of the chesse_, garamond, claude, french royal greek types cut by, _garland of rachel_, garrick, david, his collection of plays, geiler, johann, of kaisersberg, illustrations to his books, , geminus, thomas, engraved work, geneva, english books printed at, gérard, pierre, first printer at abbeville, germany, printing in, - , _sq._, ; book-illustration, - , - giunta, family of printers at florence and venice, , _sq._, giustiniano, lorenzo, portrait of, glasgow, fine printing at, glover, rev. joseph, benefactor of harvard college, goes, hugo, york printer, goeschen, georg joachim, printer at leipzig, _golden legend_, caxton's editions, , gothic type, , _sq._ gouda, printing and illustration, , , graf, urs, book-decorations by, grafton, richard, royal printer, , ; his _chronicle_, gravelot, h., engraver at paris, _sqq._, and london, greek printing in italy, , ; in france, _sqq._; in spain, ; in england, , , , , , green, bartholomew, printer at boston, mass., _sq._ -- samuel, printer at cambridge, mass., _sqq._ gregorii, giov. and greg. dei, printers at venice, , grenewych by conrade freeman, spurious imprint, grenville, thomas, character of his collection, grien, hans baldung, illustrator, grignion, charles, engraver, gringore, pierre, _chasteau de labeur_, _sq._; english editions, _sq._, grolier, jean, example as a book-buyer, ; supports aldus, grüninger, johann, of strassburg, illustrated books, _sq._ gryphius, sebastian, lyon printer, gutenberg, johann, claims to the invention of printing, - , _sqq._; books he may have printed, _sq._ haarlem, its claims to be the birthplace of printing, _sqq._, hakluyt, richard, _voyages_, hamman, johann. _see_ herzog han, ulrich, early printer at rome, , _sq._, types, ; printed the first italian illustrated book, hardouyn, germain and gilles, their _horae_, harington, sir john, on the plates in his _orlando furioso_, harrison, stephen, _archs of triumph_, hartlieb, johann, block-book of _die kunst chiromantia_, harvard college, printing at, _sq._ haydock, richard, engraver, hayman, francis, illustrator, heber, richard, character of his collection, hempstead (essex), secret printing at, henry v, woodcut of lydgate offering book to, henry vii, books decorated by vérard for, ; woodcut of his funeral, henry viii "protects" english book-trade, , _heroologia_ engravings, hertfort or herford, john, printer at st. albans and london, _sq._ herzog, johann, prints sarum missal at venice, hessels, dr., his theories on the invention of printing, _sqq._ heynlyn, jean, superintends first paris press, heywood, thomas, woodcut of, ; engravings to his _hierarchie of the blessed angels_, higman, nicolas, _horae_, hind, a. m., quoted, , _hobby-horse_, experiments in printing in, hogarth, william, book-illustrations, _sq._ hogenberg, franciscus and remigius, engravers, _sq._ holbein, ambrosius, book-decorations, -- hans, book-decorations and illustrations, _sq._, _sq._ hole, william, engraver, , holinshed, raphael, _chronicle_, holland, claims to the invention of printing, - ; printing in, ; book-illustrations, - holland, h., print-seller, hollar, wenceslaus, engraver, homer, the florentine, ; in french, ; chapman's, ; ogilby's odyssey, ; proctor's, hondius, jodocus, engraver, _sq._ hopyl, wolfgang, missals by, , _horace_, pine's ed., _sq._, ; foulis, _horae_, paris editions, - , ; plantin's, hornby, c. st. john, private press, , hroswitha, illustrations to her comedies, hunte, thomas, oxford stationer, partner in rood's press, , hurning, hans. _see_ walther, f., and hans hurning hurus, paul, illustrated books, huss, martin, illustrated books, huvin, jean, probable partner (i. h.) of jul. notary, hylton, walter, _scala perfectionis_, de worde's ed., _hypnerotomachia poliphili_, , _sq._; french version of, i, ia., woodcuts signed, i.d., woodcut signed, _imprese_, engravings of, incipits of books, quoted, incunabula, study of, _sq._; the word misleading, ; points of, _sq._ indulgences, printed at mainz, ipswich, printing at, ireland, printing in, _sq._ italic type, , italy, printing in, - , - , ; book-illustration in, - james i, works and portrait, janot, denis, printer of french illustrated books, jenson, nicolas, printer at venice, , jesuit press ( ), jewel, bishop, books against, printed at antwerp and louvain, johnes, thomas, private press, johnson, marmaduke, printer at cambridge, mass., junius, hadrianus, his story of coster, _sq._ justinian, in council, metal-cut of, kearney, william, dublin printer, kefer, or keffer, heinrich, servant of gutenberg, , keimer, samuel, printer at philadelphia, keith, george, his _appeal from the twenty-eight judges_, kerver, thielmann, _horae_, ketham, johannes, _fascicolo di medicina_, illustrated, kipling, r., contribution to a school magazine, knoblochtzer, h., strassburg printer, ; illustrated books, köbel, jakob, printer at oppenheim, koberger, anton, largest nuremberg printer, ; illustrated books, , koelhoff, johann, father and son, printers at cologne, kyngston, felix, english bookseller, patentee for irish printing, kyrforth, samuel, oxford printer, laer, john, of siberch. _see_ siberch la fontaine, jean, illustrated editions of his _fables_ and _contes_, _sq._ laing, david, on the bruges _des cas des nobles hommes_, la marche, olivier de, illustrations to his _chevalier délibéré_, , , , lambeth palace, printing at, lant, thomas, engraver, la rochelle, marprelate tract printed at, laud, archbishop, benefactions to libraries, lauer, georg, early printer at rome, le bey, denis, his emblems, leeu, gerard, printer at gouda and antwerp, ; colophon recording his death quoted, ; sells cuts to koelhoff, , ; his illustrated books, _sq._; english books printed by, _sq._ legate, john, cambridge printer, legge, cantrell, cambridge printer, le huen, nicole, his adaptation of _breidenbach_, , leipzig printing, , ; book-illustrations, lekpreuit, robert, scottish printer, lemberger, georg, bookwork at wittenberg, le rouge, pierre, prints for vérard, leroy, guil., first printer at lyon, ; illustrated books, _sq._ le signerre, guil., illustrated books, le talleur, guil., printer at rouen, prints for pynson, _sq._ lettou, john, first printer in the city of london, , , leyden, printing at, , lignamine, joh. phil. de, on the invention of printing, ; his own press, lirer, thomas, _chronik_, illustrated ed., lisa, gerard, first printer at treviso, _sq._, locatellus, bonetus, venice printer, locker-lampson, f., his copy of blake's _songs of innocence and experience_, london, printing in the city of, longus, _daphnis et chloé_, louvain, early printing at, ; book-illustration, ; english books, lownes, matthew, english bookseller, patentee for irish printing, lübeck early printing, ; book-illustration at, _sq._ lucrece, berthelet's device of, lutzelburger, hans, holbein's wood-cutter, luyken, jan and casper, engravers, lydgate, john, woodcut of, . for his _falles of pryncis_, see boccaccio, _de casibus_ lyne, john, engraver, lyon, printing at, , , _sq._; illustration, - , macfarlane, john, monograph on antoine vérard, machlinia, william, printer at london, , , madan, falconer, on oxford printing, magdeburg early printing, mainz, printing as a practical art invented at, - ; book-illustration, _sq._ malborow in the land of hesse, doubtful imprint, malermi bible. _see_ bible, italian malone, e., bequeaths books to the bodleian, mansion, colard, bruges printer, , , _sq._, _sq._ manutius, aldus, his work, - ; large roman type, ; italic octavos, , , ; _hypnerotomachia_, _sq._; lyonnese counterfeits of his octavos, -- -- the younger, -- paulus, marchant, gui., illustrated books, margaret duchess of burgundy, caxton's patron, , -- duchess of richmond, woodcut of her funeral, margins, right proportions, marprelate press, marsh, archbishop, library founded by, - marshall, william, engraver, _sqq._ mary, princess, daughter of henry vii, woodcut of her reception of spanish embassy, master and pupil, method of depicting, and note maximilian, the emperor, illustrated books in his honour, _sq._, _sq._, _sq._ maynyal, george, prints service-books for caxton, mentelin, johann, first printer at strassburg, ; manuscript colophon of, _sq._ merrymount press, boston (mass.), middelburg, english books printed at, milan early printing, _sq._; book-illustration, , miller, w. h., character of his collection, millet, jacques, illustrations to his _destruction de troye la grant_, , , milton, john, portrait by marshall, _mirabilia romæ_, block-book, misprinted dates at barcelona, ; at oxford, mitchell, john. _see_ mychell molière, françois, illustrations to, , molner, theodoricus, confused with theod. rood, mondovi, good roman type, montanus, arias, relations with plantin, _sq._ monte regio, johannes de. _see_ müller montesquieu, _le temple de gnide_, , moore, bishop, fate of his books, moreau, french illustrator, morris, william, admired subiaco type, ; on the double page as the unit in a book, ; on the illustrator of caoursin, ; his set of proofs of richel's _spiegel_, note; his decorative bookwork, ; the kelmscott press, _sq._ moxon, joseph, his _mechanick exercises_, müller, johann, his calendars, , ; his work as a printer, musurus, marcus, aldus copies his greek script, mutius scaevola, border representing, mychell (or mitchell), john, printer at canterbury and london, myllar, andrew, first scottish printer, mylner, ursyn, york printer, n, woodcuts signed, naples early printing, ; book-illustration, negker, andrea and jost de, wood-cutters, neobar, conrad, printer of greek, netherlands. _see_ holland; belgium _neuf preux_, les, french block-book, neumeister, johann, printer at foligno, mainz, albi, etc., newcastle, printing at, _sq._; new testament, tyndale's, ; eliot's, niclas, hendrik, his books printed at amsterdam, nitschewitz, hermann, _psalterium b.m.v._, norwich, dutch books printed at, ; other printing at, notary, julyan, early printer at london, , _sq._, nuremberg, printing at, , ; book-illustration at, , _sq._, - , _nuremberg chronicle. see_ schedel _nut-brown maid_, the earliest text in arnold's _chronicle_, ogilby, john, illustrated books, o'kearney, john, irish printing by, _opera nova contemplativa_, venetian block-book, _sq._, oppenheim, book-decoration at, ortuin and schenck, printers of _roman de la rose_, os, pieter van, early printer at zwolle, ostendorfer, michael, illustrations by, oswen, john, printer at ipswich and worcester, _sq._ overton, john, printer (?) at ipswich, ovid, illustrations to his _metamorphoses_, oxford, printing at, , , , _sqq._, , _sq._ pacini, piero and bernardo, publishers of illustrated books at florence, paderborn, johann. _see_ westphalia, john of palmart, lambert, first printer in spain, , , paper, made at hertford, ; tottell seeks a monopoly for making, paris, printing in, _sqq._, _sqq._; book-illustration, - , - , - parker, archbishop, his efforts to rescue old books, ; patron of john day, ; and of bynneman, ; his _de antiquitate brit. eccl._ perhaps printed at lambeth, , ; engraved portrait, parma, baskerville's press at, passe family, engravers, , _passio domini nostri jesu christi_, venetian block-book, , paulirinus, paulinus, on the word _ciripagus_, pavia, book-illustration at, peartree, montagu, article on possible portrait of caxton, pepwell, henry, london printer, pepys, s., bequest of his books, petrarca, f., illustrated editions of his _trionfi_, , petri, johann, early printer at florence, pfister, albrecht, printer of illustrated books at bamberg, , , , philadelphia, first printing at, philippe, regent of france, engraved illustrations to longus, phillipps, sir thomas, private printing by, pigouchet, philippe, prints _le chasteau de labeur_, ; his _horae_, pinder, ulrich, private press at nuremberg, pine, john, engraver, _sqq._ plantin, christopher, printer at antwerp, _sq._; woodcut illustration, _sq._; engraved, _sqq._ plateanus, theodoricus (dirick van der straten), printer at wesel, plates, troubles arising from in books, pleydenwurff, wilhelm, book-illustrations by, poitiers, early printing at, polidori, gaetano, his private press, pope, erasure of the word, popish apparel, puritan tracts against, "poppy-printer" of lübeck, porro, girolamo, engraves plates for _orlando furioso_, , powell, humphrey, english printer in dublin, printing, changes in the primacy of, , , , ; invention of, - ; early progress of, in various countries, - ; its technical development, - ; in the sixteenth century, - ; in england, - ; in the provinces of england, - , - ; on the continent for the english market, - ; private, _sq._; in scotland, _sqq._; in ireland, _sq._; in the english colonies in america, _sqq._ private presses in england, _sq._, _sqq._ proctor, robert, found beauty in all incunabula, , ; classification of them, ; greek type, , provincial printing in england, , , _sq._, - , - prüss, johann, of strassburg, illustrated books, , psalms, the new england version of the, _sq._ psalter, latin, of , , ; of , ; cost of writing and illuminating a manuscript, ptolemy, _cosmographia_ (or _geographia_), illustrated editions of, , pynson, r., number of copies in his editions, ; work as a printer, , _sq._, ; book-illustrations, - quarles, francis, _hieroglyphikes of the life of man_, quentell, heinrich, of cologne, his illustrated books, ; his bible cuts copied, , , , quinterniones, a name for manuscripts, quire, origin of the word, quiring in old books, _sqq._; collection by, _sq._ r-printer, the, of strassburg, _rappresentazioni_, illustrated florentine editions, rarity, effect on value of books, _sq._ rastell, john, lawyer-printer, , , -- william, printed english plays, ratdolt, erhard, early printer at venice, ; titlepage to his calendar, ; his decorative work at venice, _sq._; at augsburg, ; colour-printing by, rawlinson, richard, gives manuscripts to the bodleian, raynold, thomas, his ed. of the _birth of mankind_, _recuyell of the histories of troye_, , ; engraving in chatsworth copy of caxton's, redman, robert, pynson's successor, , red printing, difficulty of, , _sq._; colophons in, regiomontanus. _see_ müller reinhard, johann. _see_ grüninger retza, fran. de, block-book of his _defensorium_, reuwich, erhard, illustrator of breidenbach's _peregrinatio_, , _sq._ reyser, georg, first würzburg printer, , _sq._ -- michel, first eichstätt printer, , _sq._ rheims, english catholic books printed at, richard iii, statute permitting free importation of books into england, , richard, thomas, printer at tavistock, richel, bernhard, early printer at basel, his illustrated books, , ricketts, charles, the vale press books, rodericus zamorensis, illustrated editions of his _speculum humanae vitae_, , , rodlich, hieronymus, his illustrated books, rogers, bruce, fine printer, -- william, engraver, , rolewinck, werner, all his books printed by ther hoernen, ; venice editions of his _fasciculus temporum_, ; seville ed., roman de la rose, early editions of, roman type, - rome, printing at, , ; book-illustration at, , , , rome under the castle of st. angelo, spurious imprint, rood, theodoricus, printer at oxford, ross, john, edinburgh printer, rouen early printing, , ; english books, , ruppel, berthold, of hanau, basel printer, , ruscelli, jerononimo, his _imprese_, rusch, adolf, the r-printer, ; roman type used by, rylands, w. h., engraver, ryther, augustine, engraver, saint albans, printing at, , , _sq._, saint andrews, printing at, saint omer, english catholic books printed at, saluzzo, book-illustration at, sanctis, hieronymus de, wood-cutter and printer at venice, sanderson, cobden, fine printing by, sandys, george, _relation of a journey_, santritter, johann, illustrator and printer at venice, saragossa, early printing at, ; illustration, sarum service-books mostly printed abroad, ; their importation into scotland forbidden, savonarola, girolamo, illustrated editions of his tracts, _sq._, savile, sir henry, his press at eton, saxton, christopher, maps by, sayle, c., his catalogue of english books in cambridge university library, schatzbehalter. _see_ stephan schaüfelein, hans leonhard, book-illustrations by, , _sq._ schedel, hartmann, his _liber chronicarum_, schilders, richard, english books printed by, _sq._ schoeffer, johann, printer at mainz, , -- peter, a witness on the side of fust, ; his share in the invention of printing, _sq._; books printed by him, - ; his method of printing, - , ; his type, schön, erhard, illustrations by, schreiber, w., his _manuel de l'amateur_, quoted, , note, ; his block-books, schwabacher type, scolar, johannes, printer at oxford, ; and at abingdon, scoloker, anthony, printer at ipswich and london, scot, john, scottish printer, _sq._ scotland, printing in, - secret printing in elizabeth's reign, segar, sir w., _honour, military and civil_, selden, w., his books go to the bodleian, sensenschmidt, johann, first printer at nuremberg, ; his illustrated books, sessa, family of printers, illustrated books, seville, early printing at, ; illustration, , shakespeare, first folio, ; illustrations to, _sqq._ shrewsbury, printing at, _sq._ siberch, john laer of, first cambridge printer, _sibyllenbuch_, early mainz fragment of, sidney, sir philip, title-border to ed. of his _arcadia_, ; engraving of his funeral, siemen, illustrated books published at, signatures of artists or wood-cutters in italian books, , ; in german books, ; in french books, , signatures (typographic), first used by joh. koelhoff, ; their origin, ; example of collation by, silber, eucharius, printer at rome, simon, "das süsses kind," woodcuts of his history, , small books, ; stages in their popularity, , , smith, richard, book-collector, solempne, antony de, dutch printer at norwich, sorbonne, first paris press at the, ; roman type used at, ; persecution of printers by its theologians, sorg, anton, of augsburg, illustrated books, spaces left blank for headings and capitals, ; for illustrations, spain, early printing in, - , _sq._, ; book-illustration, - spanish armada, engravings of, _speculum humanae saluationis_ partly block-printed, , ; fate of the blocks, , ; augsburg ed. of, ; basel ed. of (in german), , ; french ed. at lyons, _speculum humanae vitae. see_ rodericus zamorensis _speculum vitae christi_, caxton's edition, _sq._ speier, early printing at, -- johann of, first printer at venice, sq., -- wendelin of, successor of johann, , spenser, edmund, woodcuts to his _shepheardes calender_, spindeler, nic., illustrated books, _sq._ spoerer, hans, block-books printed by, springinklee, hans, illustrator, , stagninus, bernardinus, his illustrated service-books, stanheim, melchior, arbitrator on book-illustrating, , stationers' company, _sq._, , _sq._ steele, robert, on english books printed abroad, stephan, p., _schatzbehalter_, steyner, hans, illustrated books by, , stillingfleet, archbishop, fate of his library, stöffler, hans, mathematical works by, curiously decorated, story, john, edinburgh printer, strassburg, printing at, _sq._, ; book-illustration at, _sqq._, , _sq._ straten, dirick van der. _see_ plateanus strawberry hill, horace walpole's press at, stuchs, g., nuremberg printer, stule, karolus, edinburgh publisher, sturt, john, engraver, _sq._ subiaco, books printed at, sweynheym and pannartz, number of copies in their editions, note, ; early reference to, ; books printed by, _sq._; their types, -- conrad, engraves maps for ptolemy, , tacuinus, joannes, venice printer, tate, john, papermaker, taverner, john, london stationer, tavistock, printing at, terence, illustrated editions of, , , , , , , theramo, jacobus de, illustrated editions of his _belial_, ther hoernen, arnold, second cologne printer, thomas, thomas, cambridge printer, thomas à becket, erasure of the service for, tillier, thomas, chester printer, tin, types made of, note titlepage, early examples of, , , tortosa early printing, tory, geoffroi, printer at paris, ; his _horae_, _sq._, tottell, richard, london printer, tournes, jean de, father and son, printers at lyon, traut, wolfgang, illustrator, , trechsel family of printers at lyon, , , , _sq._ treviso, early printing at, _sq._, tuberinus, his account of the death of "das susses kind simon," , tübingen, book-decoration at, turberville, george, _booke of faulconrie_, turrecremata, cardinal, illustrated editions of his _meditationes_, , tyndale, w., editions of his new testament, types, characteristics of, in early books, _sq._ ugo (vgo), woodcuts signed, ulm early printing, _sq._; illustrated books, _sqq._ ungut and polonus, illustrated books of, united states of america, colonial printing in, - ; modern fine printing, updike, berkeley, fine printer, usher, archbishop, fate of his library, utrecht, "costeriana" attributed to, , utterson, e. v., private printing by, valdarfer, christopher, printer at venice and milan, valentia, early printing at, _sq._; illustration, valturius, r., _de re militari_, verona editions of, _sq._; french version of, van der gucht, michael, engraver, vautrollier, thomas, printer at london and edinburgh, , vavassore, giovanni andrea, block-printed _opera nova contemplativa_ by, ; woodcuts signed z.a., etc., by, _sq._ veldener, jan, early printer at louvain, kuilenburg and utrecht, , , , , venice early printing, _sq._; book-illustration, - , - , vérard, antoine, publisher at paris, - ; his _horae_, _sq._; his english books, ; his use of old cuts, , , vergetius, angelus, french royal greek types designed by, verona early book-illustration, _sq._ villena, marquis of, _trabajos de hercules_, vincent de beauvais, his _speculum_, violette, pierre, rouen printer, virgil, printed by b. cennini, colophon quoted, ; grüninger's, ; leroy's, ; aldine, ; first english, _sq._; ogilby's, ; baskerville's, virginia, early printing in, viterbo, good roman type, voltaire, edition of his works printed with baskerville's type, vostre, simon, books printed by pigouchet for, , _sqq._ wächtlin, johann, illustrator, waldegrave, robert, prints marprelate tracts, . _see_ prints at edinburgh, wale, samuel, illustrator, walker, emery, expert in printing, _sqq._ walpole, horace, private press, walther, f., and hans hurning, printers of a _biblia pauperum_, walton, izaak, illustrations to his _angler_, wandsforth, gerard. _see_ freez wandsworth, secret press at, weiditz, hans, illustrator, _sq._ wenssler, michael, basel printer, _sq._ wesel, bale's _catalogus_ printed there, westphalia, john of, early printer at alost and louvain, ; used roman type, ; his woodcut portrait, white, john, his drawings of virginia, -- robert., engraver, whittingham, charles (uncle and nephew), printers, _sq._ wilcocks, william, gave commissions to wynkyn de worde, williams, archbishop, gifts of books by, wilson, j. d., on english books printed abroad, winthrop, john, allusion to printing at cambridge, mass., wittenberg, printing at, ; illustrations, wolfe, reyner, royal painter, , wolgemut, michael, book-illustrator, woodcuts, early, their charm and distinctiveness, worde, wynkyn de, on caxton's printing the _de proprietatibus_, _sq._; on the st. alban's printer, ; on _fishing with an angle_, note; his work as a printer, _sq._; his assessment, ; book-illustrations, _sq._ würzburg, early printing at, -- missals, engravings in, wyer, robert, london printer, ximenes, cardinal, polyglott bible, york, printing at, , _sqq._ z.a., z.a., woodcuts signed, zainer, günther, first augsburg printer, _sq._; used roman type, ; his illustrated books, -- johann, first ulm printer, ; used roman type, ; his illustrated books, zarotus, antonius, first printer at milan, , zell, ulrich, his story of the invention of printing, ; the first printer at cologne, zenger, joh. peter, new york printer, zinna, the _psalterium b.v.m._ printed at, zoan andrea. _see_ vavassore, zurich, english books printed at, _sq._ zwolle early printing, ; book-illustrations at, printed by william brendon and son, ltd. plymouth de tribus impostoribus, a. d. . the three impostors translated (with notes and comments) from a french manuscript of the work written in the year , with a dissertation on the original treatise and a bibliography of the various editions by alcofribas nasier, the later. privately printed for the subscribers. . an index expurgatorius. the man who marks or leaves with pages bent the volume that some trusting friend has lent, or keeps it over long, or scruples not to let its due returning be forgot; the man who guards his books with miser's care, and does not joy to lend them, and to share; the man whose shelves are dust begrimed and few, who reads when he has nothing else to do; the man who raves of classic writers, but is found to keep them with their leaves uncut; the man who looks on literature as news, and gets his culture from the book reviews; who loves not fair, clean type, and margins wide-- or loves these better than the thought inside; who buys his books to decorate the shelf, or gives a book he has not read himself; who reads from priggish motives, or for looks, or any reason save the love of books-- great lord, who judgest sins of all degrees, is there no little private hell for these? edition copies. on large paper. introduction. this pamphlet in its present form is the result of an inquiry into the characters represented in a historical grade of the ancient accepted scottish rite, and the probability of their having existed at the date mentioned in the said grade. few appeared to have any very clear notion of the relation of the characters to the period--frederick ii. being confounded with his grand-father, frederick barbarossa--and the date of the supposed foundation of the order of teutonic knights, , being placed as the date of the papacy of oronata, otherwise honorius iii. inquiry being made of one in authority as to the facts in the case--he being supposed to know--elicited the reply that the matter had been called to his attention some months previous by an investigator--now deceased--but the matter had been dropped. it was also surmised by the same authority that an error might have been made by one of the committee having ritualistic matter in charge--but he, having also been gathered to his fathers, was not available for evidence. it is stated that the action took place when frederick ii. was emperor of germany, and honorius iii. presided over spiritual conditions; but this pope, according to haydn's dictionary of dates, reigned - , and the dissertation on the pamphlet names gregory ix., successor to honorius, ( - ) as the pope against whom the treatise was written. the infamous book mentioned in the representation no one seemed to have any knowledge of. inquiry made concerning the treatise at various libraries supposed to possess it, and of various individuals who might know something of it, elicited but the information that it was purely "legendary," that, "it had no existence except by title," and that "it was an item of literature entirely lost." having been a book collector and a close reader of book catalogs for over twenty-five years, i had never noted any copy offered for sale, but a friend with the same mania for books, had seen a copy mentioned in a german catalog, and being interested in "de tribus impostoribus" for reasons herein mentioned, had sent for and procured the same--an edition of a latin version compiled from a ms. , with a foreword in german. the german was familiar to him, but the latin was not available. about the same time i found in a catalog of a correspondent of mine at london, a book entitled "les trois imposteurs. de tribus impostoribus et dissertation sur le livre des trois imposteurs, sm. to. saec. xviii.," and succeeded in purchasing it. the manuscript is well written, and apparently by two different hands, which would be probable from the facts set forth in the "dissertation." a copy of the translation from the latin is probably deposited in the library of duke eugene de subaudio as set forth in the colophon at end of the manuscript. the manuscript is written in the french of the period, and is dated in the colophon as . the discovery of the original latin document is mentioned in the "dissertation" as about . it has been annotated by another hand, as shown by foot notes, and several inserted sheets containing notes in still another hand, were written evidently about , as one of the sheets is a portion of a letter postmarked e aout in latter year. i append a bibliography from weller's latin reprint of which will show that the pamphlet has "been done before"; but it will be noted that english versions are not so plenty as those in other tongues, and but one is known to have been printed in the united states. i must acknowledge my indebtedness to doctissimus vir harpocrates, col. f. montrose, and maj. otto kay for valued assistance in languages with which i am not thoroughly familiar, and also to mr. david hutcheson, of the library of congress, for favors granted. ample apologies will be found for the treatise in the several introductions quoted from various editions, and those fond of literary curiosities will certainly be gratified by its appearance in the twentieth century. a. n. bibliography. in , emil weller published "de tribus impostoribus," and also a later edition in , at heilbronn, from a latin copy of one of the only four known to be in existence and printed in . the copy from which it was taken, consisting of title and forty-six leaves, quarto, is at the royal library at dresden, and was purchased for one hundred gulden. the other three, according to ebert in his "bibliographical lexicon," are as follows: one in the royal library at paris, one in the crevanna library and the other in the library of renouard. an edition was published at rackau, in germany, in , and thomas campanella ( ), in his "atheismus triumphatus," gives the year of its first publication as . florimond raimond (otherwise louis richeome,) claims to have seen a copy owned by his teacher, peter ramus, who died in . all the talk of theological critics that the booklet was first printed in the seventeenth century, is made out of whole cloth. there is nothing modern about the edition of . it may be compared, for example, with martin wittel's print of the last decade of the sixteenth century, by which it is claimed that it could not have been printed then, as the paper and printing of that period closely resembles that of the eighteenth century. with the exception of the religious myths, few writings of the dark ages have had as many hypotheses advanced in regard to origin as there have been regarding this one. according to john brand it had been printed at krakau, according to others, in italy or hungary as a translation of an arabic original existing somewhere in france. william postel mentions a tract "de tribus prophetis," and gives michael servetus, a spanish doctor, as the author. the capuchin monk joly, in vol. iii of his "conference of mysteries," assures us that the huguenot, nic. barnaud, in , on account of an issue of "de tribus impostoribus," was excommunicated as its author. johann mueller, in his "besiegten atheismus," (conquered atheism), mentions a certain nachtigal who published at hague, in , "de trib. imp.," and was therefore exiled. mosheim and rousset accuse frederick ii as the author with the assistance of his chancellor, petrus de vineis. vineis, however, declares himself opposed even to the fundamental principles of the book, and in his "epist. lib. , ch. , p. ," says he never had any idea of it. others place the authorship with averroes, peter arretin and petrus pomponatius. heinrich ernst accuses the above mentioned postel. postel attributes it to servetus, who, in turn, places it at the door of the huguenot barnaud. the instigator of the treatise, it is claimed, should have been julius cesar vanini, who was burned at toulouse in , or ryswick, who suffered at the stake in rome in . other persons accused of the authorship are macchiavelli, rabelais, erasmus, milton (john, born ,) a mahometan named merula, dolet, and giordano bruno. according to campanella, to whom the authorship was attributed occasionally, muret, or joh. franz. poggio, were responsible. browne says it was bernhard ochini, and maresius lays it to johann boccaccio. the "three cheats" are moses, jesus and mahomet, but the tracts of each of the latter alleged authors treat only of moses, of whom they say that his assertions in genesis will not hold water, and cannot be proved. weller, in his edition of , speaking of the copy of , says that this issue should never be compared with any of the foregoing. many authors have written "de tribus impostoribus" because they had some special object in view; for instance, john bapt. morinus, when he edited, under the name of vincentius panurgius, in paris, , an argument against gassendi, neure, and bernier. joh. evelyn with a "historia de tribus hujus seculi famosis impostoribus," padre ottomano, mahomed bei, otherwise joh. mich. cigala, and sabbatai sevi (english , german ,) [ ] christian kortholt "de tribus impostoribus magnus," (kiel and hamburg ,) against herbert, hobbes and spinosa, hadrian beverland, perini del vago, equitis de malta, "epistolium ad batavum in brittania hospitem de tribus impostoribus," (latin and english .) finally, michael alberti, under the name of andronicus, published a "tractatus medico-historicus de tribus impostoribus," which he named the three great tempters of humanity: . tea and coffee. . laziness. . home apothecaries. cosmopoli bey (peter martin roman), issued at russworn in rostock in , and a new edition of same treatise--de trib. imp.-- and . for a long time scholars confused the genuine latin treatise with a later one. de la monnoye fabricated a long dissertation in which he denied the existence of the original latin edition, but received a well merited refutation at the hands of p. f. arpe. the false book is french--"la vie et l'esprit de mr. benoit spinoza." [ ] the author of the first part was hofrath vroes, in hague, and the second was written by dr. lucas. it made its first appearance at hague , and later in , under the title "de tribus impostoribus," des trois imposteurs. frankfort-on-the-main at the expense of the translator (i. e. rotterdam.) richard la selve prepared a third edition under the original title of "the life of spinoza," by one of his disciples. hamburgh (really in holland,) . in there was printed by m. m. rey, at amsterdam, a new edition called a "treatise of the three impostors;" immediately after another edition appeared at yverdoner , another in holland , and a later one in germany . the contents of "l'esprit de spinoza" (german) by spinoza ii, or subiroth sopim--rome, by widow bona spes --(vieweg in berlin ,) are briefly chap. i, concerning god. chap. ii, reasons why men have created an invisible being which is commonly called god. chap. iii, what the word religion signifies, and how and why so many of these religions have crept into the world. chap. iv, evident truths. chap. v, of the soul. chap. vi, of ghosts, demons, etc. then follows fifteen chapters which are not in the treatise (? edition .) the following became known by reason of peculiarities of their diction: . ridiculum et imposturae in omni hominum religione, scriptio paradoxa, quam ex autographo gallico victoris amadei verimontii ob summam rei dignitatem in latinum sermonem transtulit ��� . which according to masch consists of from five to six sheets and follows the general contents, but not in the order of the original edition. . a second. quaedam deficiunt, s. fragmentum de libro de tribus impostoribus. fifty-one pages is a fragment. . one mentioned by gottsched. de impostoris religionum breve. compendium descriptum ab exemplari msto. quod in bibliotheca jo. fried. mayeri, berolini ao. , publice distracta deprehensum et a principe eugenio de sabaudio imperialibus redemptum fuit. (forty-three pages.) the greater part of the real book in thirty-one paragraphs, the ending of which is communes namque demonstrationes, quae publicantur, nec certae, nec evidentes, sunt, et res dubias per alias saepe magias dubias probant, adeo ut exemplo eorum, qui circulum currunt, ad terminum semper redeant, a quo currere inceperunt. finis. [ ] a german translation of this is said to be in existence. . according to a newspaper report of , there also should exist an edition which begins: quamvis omnium hominem intersit nosse veritatem, rari tamen boni illi qui eam norunt, etc., [ ] and ends, qui veritatis amantes sunt, multum solatii inde capient, et hi sunt, quibus placere gestimus, nil curantes mancipia, quae praejudicia oraculorum--infallibilium loco venerantur. . straube in vienna made a reprint of the edition of in . . a new reprint is contained in a pamphlet edited by c. c. e. schmid and almost entirely confiscated, entitled: zwei seltene antisupernaturalistische manuscripte. two rare anti-supernaturalistic manuscripts. (berlin, krieger in giessen, .) . there recently appeared through w. f. genthe an edition, de impostura religionum compendium s. liber de tribus impostoribus, leipsic, . . finally, through gustav brunet of bordeaux an edition founded upon the text of the edition was produced with the title, de tribus impostoribus, mdiic. latin text collated from the copy of the duke de la valliere, now in the imperial library; [ ] enlarged with different readings from several manuscripts, etc., and philologic and bibliographical notes by philomneste junior, paris, (? ). only copies printed, and is out of print and rare. . an italian translation of the same appeared in by daelli in milan with title as above. . a spanish edition also exists taken from the same source and under the same title. london (burdeos) . note. all the preceding bibliography is from the edition of emil weller, heilbronn .--a. n. the only edition known to have been printed in the united states was entitled "the three impostors." translated (with notes and illustrations) from the french edition of the work, published at amsterdam, . republished by g. vale, beacon office, franklin square, new york, , pp. o. a copy is in the congressional library at washington. from this i transcribe the following notes: note by the american publisher. we publish this valuable work, for the reasons contained in the following note, of which we approve: note by the british publisher. the following little book i present to the reader without any remarks on the different opinions relative to its antiquity; as the subject is amply discussed in the body of the work, and constitutes one of its most interesting and attractive features. the edition from which the present is translated was brought me from paris by a distinguished defender of civil and religious liberty: and as my friend had an anxiety from a thorough conviction of its interest and value, to see it published in the english language, i have from like feelings brought it before the public, and i am convinced that it is eminently calculated to promote the cause of freedom, justice and morality. j. myles. preface by the translator. the translator of the following little treatise deems it necessary to say a few words as to the object of its publication. it is given to the world, neither with a view to advocate scepticism, nor to spread infidelity, but simply to vindicate the right of private judgment. no human being is in a position to look into the heart, or to decide correctly as to the creed or conduct of his fellow mortals; and the attributes of the deity are so far beyond the grasp of limited reason, that man must become a god himself before he can comprehend them. such being the case, surely all harsh censure of each other's opinions and actions ought to be abandoned; and every one should so train himself as to be enabled to declare with the humane and manly philosopher "homo sum, nihil humani me alienum puto." dundee, september . the vale production is evidently translated from an edition derived from the latin manuscript which is the basis of the translation given in this volume. the variations in the text of each not being important, but simply due to the different modes of expression of the translators--the ideas conveyed being the same. the treatise in vale's edition concludes with the following: "happy the man who, studying nature's laws, through known effects can trace the secret cause; his mind possessing in a quiet state, fearless of fortune, and resigned to fate." --dryden's virgil. georgics book ii, l. . there is also in the library of congress a volume entitled "traité des trois imposteurs." en suisse de l'imprimerie philosophique-- . boards / × / inches, containing the treatise proper pp. sentimens sur le traite des trois imposteurs, (de la monnaye) pp. response a la dissertation de m. de la monnaye pp. signed j. l. r. l. and dated at leyden jan., , to which this note is appended: "this letter is from sieur pierre frederic arpe, of kiel, in holstein, author of the apology of vanini, printed at rotterdam in o, ." the letter contains the account of the discovery of the original latin manuscript at frankfort-on-the-main, in substance much the same as the translation given in this edition. in the copy at the congressional library, i find the following manuscript notes which may be rendered as follows: "voltaire doubted the existence of this work, this was in . see his letter to his highness monseigneur the prince of ----. letter v, vol. of his works, p. ." see barbier dict. des ouv. anon. nos. , , . de tribus impostoribus. anon. l'esprit de spinosa trad. du latin par vroes. in connection with this latter note, and observing the name written at end of the colophon of the manuscript from which the present edition is translated, it is probable that this same vroese was the author of another translation. another remarkable copy is contained in the library of congress, the title page of which is displayed as follows: traitÉ des trois imposteurs des religions dominantes et du culte d'apres l'analyse conforme à l'histoire. contenant nombre d'observations morales, analogues à celles mises à l'ordre du jour, pour l'affermissement de la république, sa gloire, et l'édification des peuples de tous les pays. ornÉ de trois gravures. À philadelphie sous l'auspices du général washingthon et se trouve a paris chez le citoyen mercier, homme de lettres, rue du cocq honoré, no. , london, at m. miller, libryre, boon street, piccadelly. m.dcc.xcvi. note.--this edition has undoubtedly been translated from the original latin manuscript.--a. n. translation. treatise of the three impostors of the governing religions and worship, after an examination conformable to history, containing a number of moral observations, analogous to those placed in the order of the day for the support of the republic, its glory, and the edification of the people of all countries. ornamented with three engravings. at philadelphia under the auspices of general washington, and may be found at paris at the house of citizen mercier (claude francois xavier [ ]), man of letters, cocq honoré street, and at london at mr. miller's, bookseller, boon street, piccadelly, . on the following page may be found the following: le peuple franÇais reconnant l'Être suprÊme l'immortalitÉ de l'ame et la libertÉ des cultes ---- [ ] traitÉ des religions dominantes [ ] chapter i. concerning god, paragraphs. chapter ii. reasons, etc., paragraphs. chapter iii. religious, paragraphs. "les prêtres ne sont pas ce qu'un vain peuple pense notre crédulité fait toute leur science." priests are not what vain people think, our credulity makes all their science. chapter iv. moses, paragraphs. chapter v. jesus christ, paragraphs. paragraph . politics; paragraph . morals. chapter vi. mahomet, paragraphs. chapter vii. evident truths, paragraphs. chapter viii. the soul, paragraphs. chapter ix. demons, paragraphs. facing page twenty-seven is a medallion copper plate of moses, around which are these words (translated): "moses saw god in the burning bush," and beneath the following from voltaire's pucelle (translated): alone on the summit of the mysterious mount as he desired, he closed his fortieth year. then suddenly he appeared upon the plain with buck's horns [ ] shining on his forehead. which brilliant miracle in the mind of the philosopher created a prompt effect." in a note to par. ii. occur the following lines which translated read: "how many changes a revolution makes: heaven has brought us forth in happy time to see the world----here the weak italian is frightened at the sight of a stole: the proud frenchman astonished at nothing boldly goes to defy the pope at his capital and the grand turk in turban, like a good christian, recites the prayers of his faith and prays to god for the pagan arab, having no thought of any kind of expedient nor means to destroy altars and idol worship. the supreme being his only and sole support, does not exact for offering a single coin from any sect, from jew nor plebeian: what need has he of temple or archbishop? the heart of the just and the general good shines like a brilliant sun on the halo of glory." then follows a "bouquet for the pope": "thou whom flatterers have invested with a vain title, shalt thou at this late day become the arbiter of europe? charitable pontiff, and friend of humanity, having so many sovereigns as fathers of families, the successors of christ, in the midst of the sanctuary have they not placed unblushingly, incest and adultery? be this the last of imposture and thy last sigh. do thyself more honor, esteem and pleasure, than all the monuments erected to the glory of thy predecessors in the temple of memory. let them read on thy tomb 'he was worthy of love, the father of the church and oracle of the day.'" on the following page is a copper plate profile portrait of pius vi. surrounded by the words "senatus populus que romanus." at the side principis ecclesiae dotes vis cernere magni. (senate and people of rome--prince of the church endowed with power and great wisdom.) beneath: "the talents of the learned and the virtues of the wise, a noble and beneficent manner with which all are charmed, depict much better than this image the true portrait of pius vi." facing page fifty-one is a copper plate portrait of mahomet, and beneath this tribute: "know you not yet, weak and superb man, that the humble insect hidden beneath a leaf and the imperious eagle who flies to heaven's dome, amount to nothing in the eyes of the eternal. all men are equal: not birth but virtue distinguishes them apart." then there are inserted a number of verses, some of the titles reading: "homage to the supreme being." "voltaire admitted to heaven." "homage to the eternal father." "bouquet to the archbishop of paris." "infinite mercy--consolation for sinners." "lots of room in heaven." "the holy spirit absent from heaven," etc. concluding with "a picture of france at the time of the revolution." "nobility without souls, a fanatical clergy. frightful tax gatherers gnawing a plucked people. faith and customs a prey to designing persons. a price set upon the head of the chancellor (maupeou). the skeleton of a perfidious senate. not daring to punish a parricidal conspiracy. o, my country! o, france! thy miseries have even drawn tears from rome. [ ] if you have no republic, and no pure legislators like exist in america, to deliver you from the oppression of a tyrannous empire of knaves, brigands and robbers; like the british cabinet and the skillful pitt, chief of flatterers, who with his magic lantern fascinates even the wise ones. this clique will soon be seen to fall, if the french become the conquerors of this ancient slavery, and show themselves the proud protectors of their musical carmagnole. in the name of kings and emperors, how much iniquity and horror which are recorded in history, cause the reader to shudder with fright. the entrance of friends in belgium, to the eyes of those who know, is it not an unique epoch? and this most flattering tie, sustained by a heroic compact, will be the desire of all hearts." À boston under the protection of congress. bound in this volume is a pamphlet entitled "la fable de christ devoilée." paris: franklin press. rue de clery. nd year of the republic. also, "Éloge non-funèbre de jesus et du christianisme. printed on the débris of the bastille, and the funeral pile of the inquisition. nd year of liberty, and of christ ." another closes the volume: "lettres philosophique sur st. paul: sur sa doctrine, politique, morale, & réligieuse, & sur plusieurs points de la réligion chrétienne considerées politiquement." (j. p. brissot de warville.) translated from the english by the philosopher de ferney and found in the portfolio of m. v. his ancient secretary. neuchatel en suisse . note translated from the edition "en suisse, de l'imprimerie philosophique," . in a response to m. de la monnoye, who laboriously endeavored to refute the existence of the treatise entitled "the three impostors," and which reply in addition to m. de la monnoye's arguments appear in connection with some of the translations of the treatise, occurs the following introduction to the account of the discovery of the original manuscript: "i have by me a more certain means of overturning this dissertation of m. de la monnoye, when i inform him that i have read this celebrated little work and that i have it in my library. i will give you and the public an account of the manner in which i discovered it, and as it is in my possession i will subjoin a short but faithful description of it." here follows a summary of the contents and the dissertation, in substance the same as our manuscript; the response concluding as follows: "such is the anatomy of this celebrated work. i might have given it in a manner more extended and more minute; but besides that this letter is already too long, i think that enough has been said to give insight into the nature of its contents. a thousand other reasons which you will well enough understand, have prevented me from entering upon it to so great length as i could have done; "est modus in rebus." [ ] "now although this book were ready to be printed [ ] with the preface in which i have given its history, and its discovery, with some conjectures as to its origin, and a few remarks which may be placed at its conclusion, yet i do not believe that it will live to see the day when men will be compelled all at once to quit their opinions and their imaginations, as they have quitted their syllogisms, their canons, and their other antiquated modes. as for me i will not expose myself to the theological stylus [ ]--which i fear as much as fra-poula feared the roman stylus--to afford to a few learned men the pleasure of reading this little treatise; but neither will i be so superstitious, on my death bed, as to cause it to be thrown into the flames, which we are informed was done by salvius, the swedish ambassador, at the peace of munster. those who come after me may do what seems to them good--they can not disturb me in the tomb. before i descend to that, i remain with much respect, your most obedient servant, j. l. r. l. "leyden, st january, ." this letter was written by mr. pierre frederick arpe, of kiel, in holstein; the author of an apology for vanini, printed in octavo at rotterdam, . dissertation on the book of the three impostors. more than four hundred years have elapsed since this little treatise was first mentioned, the title of which has always caused it to be qualified as impious, profane and worthy of the fire. i am convinced that none of those who have mentioned it have read it, and after having examined it carefully, it can only be said that it is written with as much discretion as the matter would allow to a man persuaded of the falsehood of the things which he attacked, and protected by a powerful prince, under whose direction he wrote. there have been but few scholars whose religious beliefs were dubious, who have not been credited with the authorship of this treatise. averroes, a famous arabian commentator on aristotle's works, and celebrated for his learning, was the first to whom this production was attributed. he lived about the middle of the twelfth century when the "three impostors" were first spoken of. he was not a christian, as he treated their religion as "the impossible," nor a jew, whose law he called "a religion for children," nor a mahometan, for he denominated their belief "a religion for hogs." he finally died a philosopher, that is to say, without having subscribed to the opinions of the vulgar, and that was sufficient to publish him as the enemy of the law makers of the three religions that he had scorned. jean bocala, an italian scholar of a happy disposition, and consequently not much imbued with bigotry, flourished in the middle of the fourteenth century. a fable that he ventured in one of his works, concerning "three rings," has been regarded as evidence of this execrable book whose author was looked for, and this was considered sufficient to attribute the authorship to him long after his death. michael servetus, burned at geneva ( ) by the pitiless persecution of mr. john calvin, he not having subscribed to either the trinity or the redeemer, it became proper to attribute to him the production of this impious volume. etienne dolit, a printer at paris, and who ranked among the learned, was led to the stake--to which he had been condemned as a calvinist in --with a courage comparable to that of the first martyrs. he therefore merited to be treated as an atheist, and was honored as the author of the pamphlet against the "three impostors." lucilio vanini, a neapolitan, and the most noted atheist of his time, if his enemies may be believed, fairly proved before his judges--however he may have been convinced--the truth of a providence, and consequently a god. it sufficed however for the persecution of his enemies, the parliament of toulouse, who condemned him to be burned as an atheist, and also to merit the distinction of having composed, or at least having revived, the book in question. i am not sure but what ochini and postel, pomponiac and poggio the florentine, and campanella, all celebrated for some particular opinion condemned by the church of their time, were for that reason accused as atheists, and also adjudged without trouble, the authors of the little truth for whom a parent was sought. all that famous critics have published from time to time of this book has excited the curiosity of the great and wise to determine the author, but without avail. i believe that several treatises printed with the title "de tribus impostoribus," such as that of kortholt against spinosa, hobbes and the baron cherbourg; that of the false panurge against messieurs gastardi, de neure and bernier have furnished many opportunities for an infinity of half-scholars who only speak from hearsay, and who often judge a book by the first line of the title. i have, like many others who have examined this work, done so in a superficial manner. though i am a delver in antiquities, and a decipherer of manuscript, chance having caused the pamphlet to fall into my hands at one time, i avow that i gave neither thought to the production nor to its author. some business affairs having taken me to frankfort-on-the-main about the month of april, ( ), that is about fifteen days after the fair, i called on a friend named frecht, a lutheran theological student, whom i had known in paris. one day i went to his house to ask him to take me to a bookseller where he could serve me as interpreter. we called on the way on a jew who furnished me with money and who accompanied us. being engaged in looking over a catalog at the book store, a german officer entered the shop, and said to the bookseller without any form of compliment, "if among all the devils i could find one to agree with you, i would still go and look for another dealer." the bookseller replied that " rix dollars was an excessive price, and that he ought to be satisfied with the that he offered." the officer told him to "go to the devil," as he would do nothing of the sort, and was about to leave. frecht, who recognized him as a friend, stopped him and having renewed his acquaintance, was curious to know what bargain he had concluded with the bookseller. the officer carelessly drew from his pocket a packet of parchment tied by a cord of yellow silk. "i wanted," said he, " rix dollars to satisfy me for three manuscripts which are in this package, but mr. bookseller does not wish to give but ." frecht asked if he might see the curiosities. the officer took them from his pocket, and the jew and myself who had been merely spectators now became interested, and approached frecht, who held the three books. the first which frecht opened was an italian imprint of which the title was missing, and was supplied by another written by hand which read "specchia della bestia triomphante." the book did not appear of ancient date, and had on the title neither year nor name of printer. we passed to the second, which was a manuscript without title, the first page of which commenced "othoni illustrissimo amico meo charissimo. f. i. s. d." this embraced but two lines, after which followed a letter of which the commencement was "quod de tribus famosissimis nationum deceptoribus in ordinem. justu. meo digesti doctissimus ille vir, que cum sermonem de illa re in museo meo habuisti exscribi curavi atque codicem illum stilo aeque, vero ac puro scriptum ad te ut primum mitto, etenim ipsius per legendi te accipio cupidissimum." the other manuscript was also latin, and without title like the other. it commenced with these words--from cicero if i am not mistaken: "an. i. liber de nat. deor. qui deos esse dixerunt tantu sunt in varietate et dissentione constituti ut eorum molestum sit dinumerare sententias. altidum freri profecto potest ut eorum nulla, alterum certi non potest ut plus unum vera fit. summi quos in republica obtinnerat honores orator ille romanus, ea que quam servare famam studiote curabat, in causa fuere quod in concione deos non ansus sit negare quamquam in contesta philosophorum, etc." we paid but little attention to the italian production, which only interested our jew, who assured us that it was an invective against religion. we examined several phrases of the latter by which we mutually agreed that it was a system of demonstrated atheism. the second, which we have mentioned, attracted our entire attention, and frecht having persuaded his friend, whose name was tausendorff, not to take less than rix dollars, we left the bookseller's shop, and frecht, who had his own ideas, took us to his inn, where he proposed to his friend to empty a bottle of good wine together. never did a german decline a like proposition, so frecht immediately ordered the wine, and asked tausendorff to tell us how these manuscripts fell into his possession. after enjoying his portion of six bottles of old moselle, he told us that after the victory at hochstadt [ ] and the flight of the elector of bavaria, he was one of those who entered munich, and in the palace of his highness, he went from room to room until he reached the library. here his eyes fell by chance on the package of parchments with the silk cord, and believing them to be important papers or curiosities, he could not resist the temptation of putting them in his pocket. he was not deceived when he opened the package and convinced himself. this recital was accompanied by many soldier-like digressions, as the wine had a little disarranged the judgment of tausendorff. frecht, who, during the story, perused the manuscript, took the chance of a refusal by asking his friend to allow him to take the book until the next day. tausendorff, whom the wine had made generous, consented to the request of frecht, but he exacted a terrible oath that he would neither copy it or cause it to be done, promising to come for it on sunday and empty some more bottles of wine, which he found to his taste. this obliging officer had no sooner left than we commenced to decipher it. the writing was so small, full of abbreviations, and without punctuation, that we were nearly two hours in reading the first page, but as soon as we were accustomed to the method we commenced to read it more easily. i found it so accurate and written with so much care, that i proposed to frecht an equivocal method of making a copy without violating the oath which he had taken: which method was to make a translation. the conscience of a theologian did not but find difficulties in such proposal, but i removed them as i could, assuming the sin myself, and in the end he consented to work on the translation which was finished before the time fixed by tausendorff. this is the way in which this book came into our hands. many would have desired to possess the original but we were not rich enough to buy it. the bookseller had a commission from a prince of the house of saxony, who knew that it had been taken from the library at munich, and he was to spare no effort to secure it, if he found it, by paying the rix dollars to tausendorff who went away several days after, having regaled us in his turn. passing to the origin of the book, and its author, one can hardly give an account of either only by consulting the book itself in which but little is found except for the base of conjecture. there is only a letter at the beginning, and which is written in another character from the rest of the book, which gives any light. we find it addressed othoni, illustrissimo. the place where the manuscript was found, and the name otho put together warrants the belief that it was addressed to the illustrious otho, lord of bavaria. this prince was grandson of otho, the great; count of schiren and witelspach from whom the house of bavaria and the palatine had their origin. the emperor frederick barbarossa [ ] had given him bavaria for his fidelity, after having taken it from henry the lion to punish him for his inconsistency in taking the part of his enemies. louis i. succeeded his father, otho the great, and left bavaria--in the possession of which he had been disturbed by henry the lion--to his son otho, surnamed the illustrious, who assured his possession by wedding the daughter of henry. this happened about the year , when frederick ii., emperor of germany, returned from jerusalem, where, at the solicitation of pope gregory ix., he had pursued the war against the saracens, and from whence he returned irritated to excess against the holy father who had incensed his army against him, as well as the templars and the patriarch of jerusalem, until the emperor refused to obey the pope. otho the illustrious recognizing the obligations that his family were under to the family of the emperor, took his part and remained firmly attached to him, notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of fortune of frederick. why these historical reminiscences? to sustain the conjecture that it was to this otho the illustrious that this copy of the pamphlet of the three impostors was addressed. by whom? this is why we are led to believe that the f. i. s. d. which follows l'amico meo carissimo, and which we interpret fredericus. imperator salutem domino. thus this would be by the emperor frederick ii., son of henry iv. and grandson of frederick barbarossa, who, succeeding to their empire, had at the same time inherited the hatred of the roman pontiffs. [ ] those who have read the history of the church and that of the empire, will recall with what pride and arrogance the indolent alexander iii. placed his foot on the neck of frederick barbarossa, who came to him to sue for peace. who does not know the evil that the holy see did to his son henry vi., against whom his own wife took up arms at the persuasion of the pope? at last frederick ii. uniting in himself all the resolution which was wanting in his father and grandfather, saw the purpose of gregory ix., who seemed to have marshalled on his side all the hatred of alexander, innocent and honorius against his imperial majesty. one brought the steel of persecution, and the other the lightning of excommunication, and furiously they vied with each other in circulating infamous libels. this, it seems to me, is warrant sufficient to apply these happenings to the belief that this book was by order of the emperor, who was incensed against religion by the vices of its chief, and written by the doctissimus vir, who is mentioned in the letter as having composed this treatise, and which consequently owes its existence not so much to a search for truth, as to a spirit of hatred and implacable animosity. this conjecture may be further confirmed by remarking that this book was never mentioned only since the régime of that emperor, and even during his reign it was attributed him, since pierre des vignes, his secretary, endeavored to cast this false impression on the enemies of his master, saying that they circulated it to render him odious. now to determine the doctissimus vir who is the author of the book in question. first, it is certain that the epoch of the book was that which we have endeavored to prove. second, that it was encouraged by those accused of its authorship, possibly excepting averroes, who died before the birth of frederick ii. all the others lived a long time, even entire centuries after the composition of this work. i admit that it is difficult to determine the author only by marking the period when the book first made its appearance, and in whatever direction i turn, i find no one to whom it could more probably be attributed than pierre des vignes whom i have mentioned. if we had not his tract "de poteste imperiali," his other epistles suffice to show with what zeal he entered into the resentment of frederick ii. (whose secretary he was) against the holy see. those who have spoken of him, ligonius, trithemus and rainaldi, furnish such an accurate description of him, his condition and his spirit, that after considering this i cannot remark but that this evidence favors my conjecture. again, as i have remarked, he himself spoke of this book in his epistles, and he endeavored to accuse the enemies of his master to lessen the clamor made to encourage the belief that this prince was the author. as he had taken the greater part, he did not greatly exert himself to lessen the injurious noise, so that if the accusation was strengthened by passing for a long time from mouth to mouth it would not fall from the master on his secretary, who was probably more capable of the production than a great emperor, always occupied with the clamors of war and always in fear of the thunders of the vatican. in one word, the emperor, however valiant and resolute, had no time to become a scholar like pierre des vignes, who had given all the necessary attention to his studies, and who owed his position and the affection of his master entirely to his learning. i believe that we can conclude from all this, that this little book tribus famosissimus nationum deceptoribus, for that is its true title, was composed after the year by command of the emperor frederick ii. in hatred of the court of rome: and it is quite apparent that pierre des vignes, secretary to the emperor, was the author. [ ] this is all that i deem proper for a preface to this little treatise, and as it contains many naughty allusions, to prevent that in the future, it may not be again attributed to those who perhaps never entertained such ideas. frederick emperor to the very illustrious otho my very faithful friend, greeting: i have taken the trouble to have copied the treatise which was made concerning the three famous impostors, by the learned man by whom you were entertained on this subject, in my study, and though you have not requested it, i send you the manuscript entire, in which the purity of style equals the truth of the matter, for i know with what interest you desired to read it, and also i am persuaded that nothing could please you more. it is not the first time that i have overcome my cruel enemies, and placed my foot on the neck of the roman hydra whose skin is not more red than the blood of the millions of men that its fury has sacrificed to its abominable arrogance. be assured that i will neglect nothing to have you understand that i will either triumph or perish in the attempt; for whatever reverses may happen to me, i will not, like my predecessors, bend my knee before them. i hope that my sword, and the fidelity of the members of the empire; your advice and your assistance will contribute not a little. but nothing would add more if all germany could be inspired with the sentiments of the doctor--the author of this book. this is much to be desired, but where are those capable of accomplishing such a project? i recommend to you our common interests, live happy. i shall always be your friend. f. i. treatise of the three impostors. [ ] chapter i. of god. i. however important it may be for all men to know the truth, very few, nevertheless, are acquainted with it, because the majority are incapable of searching it themselves, or perhaps, do not wish the trouble. thus we must not be astonished if the world is filled with vain and ridiculous opinions, and nothing is more capable of making them current than ignorance, which is the sole source of the false ideas that exist regarding the divinity, the soul, and the spirit, and all the errors depending thereon. the custom of being satisfied with born prejudice has prevailed, and by following this custom, mankind agrees in all things with persons interested in supporting stubbornly the opinions thus received, and who would speak otherwise did they not fear to destroy themselves. ii. what renders the evil without remedy, is, that after having established these silly ideas of god, they teach the people to receive them without examination. they take great care to impress them with aversion for philosophers, fearing that the truth which they teach will alienate them. the errors in which the partisans of these absurdities have been plunged, have thrived so well that it is dangerous to combat them. it is too important for these impostors that the people remain in this gross and culpable ignorance than to allow them to be disabused. thus they are constrained to disguise the truth, or to be sacrificed to the rage of false prophets and selfish souls. iii. if the people could comprehend the abyss in which this ignorance casts them, they would doubtless throw off the yoke of these venal minds, since it is impossible for reason to act without immediately discovering the truth. it is to prevent the good effects that would certainly follow, that they depict it as a monster incapable of inspiring any good sentiment, and however we may censure in general those who are not reasonable, we must nevertheless be persuaded that truth is quite perverted. these enemies of truth fall also into such perpetual contradictions that it is difficult to perceive what their real pretensions are. in the meanwhile it is true that common sense is the only rule that men should follow, and the world should not be prevented from making use of it. we may try to persuade, but those who are appointed to instruct, should endeavor to rectify false reasoning and efface prejudices, then will the people open their eyes gradually until they become susceptible of truth, and learn that god is not all that they imagine. iv. to accomplish this, wild speculation is not necessary, neither is it required to deeply penetrate the secrets of nature. only a little good sense is needed to see that god is neither passionate nor jealous, that justice and mercy are false titles attributed to him, and that nothing of what the prophets and apostles have said constitutes his nature nor his essence. in effect, to speak without disguise and to state the case properly, it is certain that these doctors were neither more clever or better informed than the rest of mankind, but far from that, what they say is so gross that it must be the people only who would believe them. the matter is self-evident, but to make it more clear, let us see if they are differently constituted than other men. v. as to their birth and the ordinary functions of life, it is agreed that they possessed nothing above the human; that they were born of man and woman and lived the same as ourselves. but for mind, it must be that god favored them more than other men, for they claimed an understanding more brilliant than others. we must admit that mankind has a leaning toward blindness, because it is said that god loved the prophets more than the rest of mankind, that he frequently communicated with them, and he believed them also of good faith. now if this condition was sensible, and without considering that all men resembled each other, and that they each had a principle equal in all, it was pretended that these prophets were of extraordinary attainments and were created expressly to utter the oracles of god. but further, if they had more wit than common, and more perfect understanding, what do we find in their writings to oblige us to have this opinion of them? the greater part of their writings is so obscure that it is not understood, and put together in such a poor manner that we can hardly believe that they comprehended it themselves, and that they must have been very ignorant impostors. that which causes this belief of them is that they boasted of receiving directly from god all that they announced to the people--an absurd and ridiculous belief--and avowing that god only spoke to them in dreams. dreams are quite natural, and a person must be quite vain or senseless to boast that god speaks to him at such a time, and when faith is added, he must be quite credulous since there is no evidence that dreams are oracles. suppose even that god manifested himself by dreams, by visions, or in any other way, are we obliged to believe a man who may deceive himself, and which is worse, who is inclined to lie? now we see that under the ancient law they had for prophets none more esteemed than at the present day. then when the people were tired of their sophistry, which often tended to turn them from obedience to their legitimate ruler, they restrained them by various punishments, just as jesus was overwhelmed because he had not, like moses, [ ] an army at his back to sustain his opinions. added to that, the prophets were so in the habit of contradicting each other that among four hundred not one reliable one was to be found. [ ] it is even certain that the aim of their prophecies, as well as the laws of the celebrated legislators were to perpetuate their memories by causing mankind to believe that they had private conference with god. most political objects have been projected in such manner. however, such tricks have not always been successful for those, who--with the exception of moses--had not the means of providing for their safety. vi. this being determined, let us examine the ideas which the prophets had of god, and we will smile at their grossness and contradictions. to believe them, god is a purely corporeal being. micah sees him seated. daniel clothed in white and in the form of an old man, and ezekiel like a fire. so much for the old testament, now for the new. the disciples of j. c. imagined the holy spirit in the figure of a dove; the apostles, in the form of tongues of fire, and st. paul, as a light which dazzled the sight unto blindness. to show their contradictory opinions, samuel, (i. ch. , v. ), believed that god never repented of his own resolution. again, jeremiah, (ch. , v. ), says that god repented of a resolve he had taken. joel, (ch. , v. ), says that he only repents of the evil he has done to mankind. genesis, (ch. , v. ), informs us that man is prone to evil, but that he has nothing for him but blessings. on the contrary, st. paul, (romans, ch. , v. ), says that men have no command of concupiscence except by the grace and particular calling of god. these are the noble sentiments that these good people have of god, and what they would have us believe. sentiments, however, entirely sensible, and quite material as we see, and yet they say that god has nothing in common with matter, is a sensible and material being, and that he is something incomprehensible to our understanding. i should like to be informed how these contradictions may be harmonized, and how, under such visible and palpable conditions it is proper to believe them. again, how can we accept the testimony of a people so clownish that they, notwithstanding all the artifices of moses, should imagine a calf to be their god! but not considering the dreams of a race raised in servitude, and among the superstitious, we can agree that ignorance has produced credulity, and credulity falsehood, from whence arises all the errors which exist today. chapter ii. reasons which have caused mankind to create for themselves an invisible being which has been commonly called god. i. those who ignore physical causes have a natural fear born of doubt. where there exists a power which to them is dark or unseen, from thence comes a desire to pretend the existence of invisible beings, that is to say their own phantoms which they invoke in adversity, whom they praise in prosperity, and of whom in the end they make gods. and as the visions of men go to extremes, must we be astonished if there are created an innumerable quantity of divinities? it is the same perceptible fear of invisible powers which has been the origin of religions, that each forms to his fashion. many individuals to whom it was important that mankind should possess such fancies, have not scrupled to encourage mankind in such beliefs, and they have made it their law until they have prevailed upon the people to blindly obey them by the fear of the future. ii. the gods having thus been invented, it is easy to imagine that they resembled man, and who, like them, created everything for some purpose, for they unanimously agree that god has made nothing except for man, and reciprocally that man is made only for god. [ ] this conclusion being general, we can see why man has so thoroughly accepted it, and know for that reason that they have taken occasion to create false ideas of good and evil, merit and sin, praise and blame, order and confusion, beauty and deformity--and similar qualities. iii. it should be agreed that all men are born in profound ignorance, and that the only thing natural to them is a desire to discover what may be useful and proper, and evade what may be inexpedient to them. thence it follows first, that we believe that to be free it suffices to feel personally that one can wish and desire without being annoyed by the causes which dispose us to wish and desire, because we do not know them. second, it consequently occurs that men are contented to do nothing but for one object, that is to say, for that object which is preferable above all, and that is why they have a desire only to know the final result of their action, imagining that after discovering this they have no reason to doubt anything. now as they find in and about themselves many means of procuring what they desire: having, for example, ears to hear, eyes to see, animals to nourish, a sun to give light, they have formed this reasoning, that there is nothing in nature which was not made for them, and of which they may dispose and enjoy. then reflecting that they did not make this world, they believe it to be a well-founded proposition to imagine a supreme being who has made it for them such as it is, for after satisfying themselves that they could not have made it, they conclude that it was the work of one or several gods who intended it for the use and pleasure of man alone. on the other hand, the nature of the gods whom man has admitted, being unknown, they have concluded in their own minds that these gods susceptible of the same passions as men, have made the earth only for them, and that man to them was extremely precious. but as each one has different inclinations it became proper to adore god according to the humor of each, to attract his blessings and to cause him to make all nature subject to his desires. iv. by this method this precedent becomes superstition, and it is implanted so that the grossest natures are believed capable of penetrating the doctrine of final causes as if they had perfect knowledge. thus in place of showing that nature has made nothing in vain, they show that god and nature dream as well as men, and that they may not be accused of doubting things, let us see how they have put forth their false reasoning on this subject. experience causing them to see a myriad of inconveniences marring the pleasure of life, such as storms, earthquakes, sickness, famine and thirst, they draw the conclusion that nature has not been made for them alone. they attribute all these evils to the wrath of the gods, who are vexed by the offences of man, and they cannot be disabused of these ideas by the daily instances which should prove to them that blessings and evils have been always common to the wicked and the good, and they will not agree to a proposition so plain and perceptible. the reason for that is, it is more easy to remain in ignorance than to abolish a belief established for many centuries and introduce something more probable. v. this precedent has caused another, which is the belief that the judgments of god were incomprehensible, and that for this reason, the knowledge of truth is beyond the human mind; and mankind would still dwell in error were it not that mathematics and several other sciences had destroyed these prejudices. vi. by this it may be seen that nature or god does not propose any end, and that all final causes are but human fictions. a long lecture is not necessary since this doctrine takes away from god the perfection ascribed to him, and this is how it may be proved. if god acted for a result, either for himself or another, he desires what he has not, and we must allow that there are times when god has not the wherewith to act; he has merely desired it and that only creates an impotent god. to omit nothing that may be applied to this reasoning, let us oppose it with those of a contrary nature. if, for example, a stone falls on a person and kills him, it is well known they say, that the stone fell with the design of killing the man, and that could only happen by the will of god. if you reply that the wind caused the stone to drop at the moment the man passed, they will ask why the man should have passed precisely at the time when the wind moved the stone. if you say that the wind was so severe that the sea was also troubled since the day before while there appeared to be no agitation in the air, and the man having been invited to dine with a friend, went to keep his appointment. again they ask, for the man never got there, why he should be the guest of his friend at this time more than another, adding questions after questions, finally avowing that it was but the will of god, (which is a true "asses bridge") and the cause of this misfortune. again when they note the symmetry of the human body, they stand in admiration and conclude how ignorant they are of the causes of a thing which to them appears so marvelous, that it is a supernatural work, in which the causes known to us could have no part. thence it comes that those who desire to know the real cause of supposed miracles and penetrate like true scholars into their natural causes without amusing themselves with the prejudice of the ignorant, it happens that the true scholar passes for impious and heretical by the malice of those whom the vulgar recognize as the expounders of nature and of god. these mercenary individuals do not question the ignorance which holds the people in astonishment, upon whom they subsist and who preserve their credit. vii. mankind being thus of the ridiculous opinion that all they see is made for themselves, have made it a religious duty to apply it to their interest, and of judging the price of things by the profit they gain. thence proceed the ideas they have formed of good, and evil, of order and confusion, of heat and cold, of beauty and ugliness, which serve to explain to them the nature of things, which in the end are not what they imagine. because they pride themselves in having free will they judge themselves capable of deciding between praise and blame, sin and merit, calling everything good which redounds to their profit and which concerns divine worship, and to the contrary denominate as evil that which agrees with neither. because the ignorant are not capable of judging what may be a little abstruse, and having no idea of things only by the aid of imagination which they consider understanding, these folk who know not what represents order in the world believe all that they imagine. man being inclined in such a manner that they think things well or ill ordered as they have the facility or trouble to conclude when good sense would teach differently. some are more pleased to be weary of the means of investigation, being satisfied to remain as they are, preferring order to confusion, as if order was another thing than a pure effect of the imagination of man, so that when it is said that god has made everything in order, it is recognizing that he has that faculty of imagination as well as man. if it was not so, perhaps to favor human imagination they pretend that god created this world in the easiest manner imaginable, although there are an hundred things far above the force of imagination, and an infinity which may be thrown into disorder by reason of weakness. viii. for other ideas, they are purely the effect of the same imagination, which have nothing real, and which are but the different modes of which this power is capable. for example, if the movement which objects impress upon the nerves by the means of the eyes is agreeable to the senses, we say that these objects are beautiful, that odors are good or bad, that tastes are sweet or bitter, that which we touch hard or soft, sounds, harsh or agreeable. according as odors, tastes or sounds strike and penetrate the senses, just so we find a belief that god is capable of taking pleasure in melody, that the celestial movements are a harmonious concert, proof evident that each one believes that things are such as they are imagined, or that the world is purely imaginary. that is why we should not be surprised if we rarely found two men of the same opinion, and some who glorify themselves in doubting everything. for while men have bodies which resemble each other in many particulars, they differ in some others, and it should not astonish us that what seems good to one appears bad to another: what pleases this one displeases the other, from which we may infer that opinions only differ by fancy, that understanding passes for little, and to conclude, things which happen every day are purely the effects of imagination. if one should consult the lights of understanding of philosophers he would have faith that everybody would agree to the truth, and that judgments would be more uniform and reasonable than they are. ix. it is then evident that all the reasons of which men are accustomed to avail themselves when they endeavor to explain nature, are only methods of imagination which prove nothing less than they pretend, and because they have given to these reasons names so real that if they existed otherwise than in imagination i would not call them reasonable beings, but purely chimerical, seeing nothing more easy than to respond to arguments founded on these vulgar notions and which we oppose as follows. if it was true that the universe was a chance happening, and a necessary sequel of divine nature, whence come the imperfections and faults which we remark? for example, corruption which fills the air with bad odor, many disagreeable objects, so many disorders, so much evil, so many crimes and other like occurrences. nothing is more easy than to refute these objections, for one cannot judge of the perfection of ancient existence only by knowing its essence and nature, and we deceive ourselves in thinking that a thing is more or less perfect, as it pleases or displeases, is useful or useless to human nature; and to close the mouths of those who ask why god has not created all men without exception that they might be guided by the light of reason, it is enough to say that it was because the material was not sufficient to give each being the degree of perfection that was most suitable for him, or to speak more proper, because the laws of nature were so ample and extensive that they could suffice for the production of all things of which an infinite understanding is capable. chapter iii. what god is. i. until now we have fought the popular idea concerning the divinity, but we have not yet said what god is, and if we were asked, we should say that the word represents to us an infinite being, of whom one of his attributes is to be a substance of extent and consequently eternal and infinite. the extent or the quantity not being finite or divisible, it may be imagined that the matter was everywhere the same, our understanding not distinguishing parts. for example, water, as much as water is imagined, is divisible, and its parts separable from one another, though as much as a corporeal substance it is neither separable nor divisible. [ ] thus neither matter or quantity have anything unworthy of god, for if all is god, and all comes surely from his essence, it follows quite absolutely that he is all that he contains, since it is incomprehensible that beings quite material should be contained in a being who is not. that we may not think that this is a new opinion, tertullian, one of the foremost men among the christians, has pronounced against apelles, that, "that which is not matter is nothing," and against praxias, that "all substance is matter," without having this doctrine condemned in the four first councils of the christian church, oecumenical and general. [ ] ii. these sentiments are plain and the only ones that good and sound judgment can form of god. however, there are but few who are satisfied with such simplicity. boorish people, who are accustomed to adulation of opinion, demand a god who resembles earthly kings. the pomp and circumstance surrounding them so fascinates, that to take away all hope of going after death to increase the number of heavenly courtiers enjoying the same pleasure which attaches to the court of kings, is to take away the consolation and the only things which prevent them from going to despair over the miseries of life. they want a just and avenging god, who rewards and punishes after the manner of kings, a god susceptible of all human passions and weaknesses. they give him feet, hands, and ears, and yet they do not regard a god so constituted as material. they say that man is his masterpiece, and even his own image, but do not allow that the copy is like the original. in a word, the god of the people of today is subject to as many forms as jupiter of the pagans, and what is still more strange, these follies contradict each other and shock good sense. the vulgar reverence them because they firmly believe what the prophets have said, although these visionaries among the hebrews, were the same as the augurs and the diviners among the pagans. [ ] they consult the bible as if god or nature was therein expounded to them in a special manner, however this book is only a rhapsody of fragments, gathered at various times, selected by several persons, and given to the people according to the fancy of the rabbins, who did not publish them until after approving some, and rejecting others, and seeing if they were conformable or opposed to the law of moses. [ ] yes, such is the malice and stupidity of men that they prefer to pass their lives disputing with one another, and worshipping a book received from ignorant people; a book with little order or method, which everyone admits as confused and badly conceived, only serving to foment divisions. christians would rather adore this phantom than listen to the law of nature which god--that is to say, nature, which is the active principle--has written in the heart of man. all other laws are but human fictions, and pure illusions forged, not by demons or evil spirits, which are fanciful ideas, but by the skill of princes and ecclesiastics to give the former more warrant for their authority, and to enrich the latter by the traffic in an infinity of chimeras which sell to the ignorant at a good price. all other laws are not supported save on the authority of the bible, in the original of which appear a thousand instances of extraordinary and impossible things, [ ] and which speaks only of recompenses or punishments for good or bad actions, but which are wisely deferred for a future life, relying that the trick will not be discovered in this, no one having returned from the other to tell the news. thus, men kept ever wavering between hope and fear, are held to their duty by the belief they aver that god has created man only to render him eternally happy or unhappy, and which has given rise to the infinity of religions which we are about to discuss. chapter iv. what the word religion signifies, and how and why such a great number have been introduced in the world. i. before the word religion was introduced in the world mankind was only obliged to follow natural laws and to conform to common sense. this instinct alone was the tie by which men were united, and so very simple was this bond of unity, that nothing among them was more rare than dissensions. but when fear created a suspicion that there were gods, and invisible powers, they raised altars to these imaginary beings, so that in putting off the yoke of nature and reason, which are the sources of true life, they subjected themselves by vain ceremonies and superstitious worship to frivolous phantoms of the imagination, and that is whence arose this word religion which makes so much noise in the world. men having admitted invisible forces which were all-powerful over them, they worshipped them to appease them, and further imagined that nature was a being subordinate to this power, thence they had the idea that it was a great mace that threatened, or a slave that acted only by the order that such power gave him. since this false idea had broken their will they had only scorn for nature, and respect only for those pretended beings that they called their gods. thence came the ignorance in which mankind was plunged, and from which the well-informed, however deep the abyss, could have rescued them, if their zeal had not been extinguished by those who led them blindly, and who lived by imposture. but though there was but little appearance of success in the enterprise, it was not necessary to abandon the party of truth, and only in consideration of those who were afflicted with the symptoms of so great an evil, were generous souls available to represent matters as they were. ii. fear which created gods, made also religion, and when men imbibed the notion that there were invisible agencies which were the cause of their good and bad fortune, they lost their good sense and reason substituting for their chimeras so many divinities who had care of their conduct. after having forged these gods they were curious to know of what matter they consisted, and finally imagined that they should be of the same substance as the soul. then being persuaded that the latter resembled the shadows which appear in a mirror, or during sleep, they believed that some gods were real substances but so thin and subtile that to distinguish them from bodies they called them spirits. so that bodies and spirits were in effect the same thing, and differed neither more nor less, and to be both corporeal and incorporeal is a most incomprehensible thing. the reason given is that each spirit has a proper form, and is included within some limit, that is to say that it has some boundaries, and consequently must be a body however thin and subtile it might be. [ ] iii. the ignorant, that is, the greater part of mankind having settled in this manner the substance of their gods, tried also to determine by what methods these invisible powers produced their effects. not being able to do this definitely by reason of their ignorance, they put faith in their conjectures, blindly judging the future by the past, while seeing neither cohesion nor dependence. in all that they undertook they saw but the past, and foretold good or evil for the future according as the same enterprise had at another time turned out either good or bad. phormion having defeated the lacedaemonians at the battle of naupacte, the athenians, after his death, chose another general of the same name: hannibal having succumbed to the arms of scipio africanus, the romans, remembering this great success, sent another scipio to the same country against cesar, which acts gained nothing for either the athenians or the romans. so after two or three experiences, good or bad fortune is made synonymous with certain names or places; others make use of certain words called enchantments, which they believe to be efficacious; some cause trees to speak, create man from a morsel of bread, and transform anything that may appear before them. (hobbes' leviathan de homine. cap. , p. - .) iv. invisible powers being established in this way, straightway men revere them only as they do their rulers, that is to say, by tokens of submission and respect, as witness offerings, prayers, and similar things, i say at first, for nature has not yet learned to use on such occasions sacrifices of blood, which have only been instituted for the benefit of the sacrificers and the ministers called to the service of these beautiful gods. v. these causes of religion, that is, hope and fear, leaving out the passions, judgments and various resolutions of mankind, have produced the great number of extravagant beliefs which have caused so much evil, and the many revolutions which have convulsed the nations. the honor and revenue which attaches to the priesthood, and which has since been accorded to the ministry of the gods, and those having ecclesiastical charges, inflame the ambition and the avarice of cunning individuals who profit by the stupidity of the people, who readily submit in their weakness, and we know how insensibly is caused the easy habit of encouraging falsehood and hating truth. vi. the empire of falsehood being established, and the ambitious ones encouraged by the advantage of being above their fellows, the latter endeavor to gain repute by a pretense of being friendly with the invisible gods whom the vulgar fear. for better success, each schemes in his own way, and multiplies deities so that they are met at every turn. vii. the formless matter of the world they term the god chaos, and the same honor is accorded to heaven, earth, the sea, the wind, and the planets, and they are made both male and female. further on we find birds, reptiles, the crocodile, the calf, the dog, the lamb, the serpent, the hog, and in fact all kinds of animals and plants constitute the better part. each river and fountain bears the name of a god, each house had its own, each man his genius; in fact all space above and beneath the earth was occupied by spirits, shades and demons. it was not sufficient to maintain a divinity in all imaginable places, but they feared to offend time, day, night, concord, love, peace, victory, contention, mildew, honor, virtue, fever, and health, or to insult these charming divinities whom they always imagined ready to discharge lightning on the heads of men, provided temples and altars were not erected to them. as a sequel, man commenced to fear his own special genius, whom some invoked under the name of muses, and others under the name of fortune adored their own ignorance. the latter sanctified their debauches in the name of cupid, their rage in the name of furies, and their natural parts under the name of priapus, in a word, there was nothing which did not bear the name of a god or a demon. (hobbes' de homine, chap. , p. .) viii. the founders of religion having based their impostures on the ignorance of the people, took great care to maintain them by the adoration of images which they pretended were inhabited by the gods, and this caused a flood of gold and benefactions called holy things, to pour into the coffers of the priests. these gifts were regarded as sacred, and designed for the use of these holy ministers, and none were so audacious as to pretend to their office, or even to touch them. to allure the people more successfully, these priests made prophecies and pretended to penetrate the future by the commerce which they boasted of having with the gods. there is nothing so natural as to know destiny. these impostors were too well informed to omit any circumstance so advantageous for their designs. some were established at delos, others at delphos and elsewhere, where by ambiguous oracles they replied to the demands made of them. women even were engaged in these impostures, and the romans in their great calamities had recourse to the sybilline books; fools and lunatics passed for enthusiasts, and those who pretended to converse with the dead were called necromancers. others read the future by the flight of birds, or by the entrails of beasts. indeed the eyes, the hands, the face, or an extraordinary object, all seemed to them to possess a good or bad omen, so it is true that the ignorant will receive any desired impression when the secret of their wish is found. (hobbes' de homine, chap. , pp. - .) chapter v. of moses. i. the ambitious, who have always been grand masters of the art of trickery, have always followed this method in expounding their laws, and to oblige the people to submit to them they have persuaded them that they had received them either from a god or a goddess. although there was a multitude of divinities, those who worshipped them called pagans had no general system of religion. each republic, each state and city, each particular place had its own rites and thought of the divinity as fancy dictated. following this came legislators more cunning than these first tricksters, and who employed methods more studied and more certain for the propagation and perpetuity of their laws, as well as the culture of such ceremonies and fanaticism as they deemed proper to establish. among the great number arabia and its frontiers has given birth to three who have been distinguished as much by the kind of laws and worship which they established, as by the idea they have given of a divinity to their followers, and the means they have taken to cause this idea to be received and their laws to be approved. moses is the most ancient; jesus coming after labored after his manner in preserving the foundation of his laws while abolishing the remainder; and mahomet appearing later on the scene has taken from one and the other religion to compose his own, and therefore he is declared the enemy of all the gods. let us see the character of these three legislators, examine their conduct, and then judge afterwards who are the best founded: those who revered them as holy men and gods, or those who treated them as schemers and impostors. ii. the celebrated moses, grandson of a great magician, [ ] by the account of justin martyr, had all the advantages proper for what he afterwards became. it is well known that the hebrews, of whom he became the chief, were a nation of shepherds whom king pharaoh orus i. received in his country in consideration of services that he had received from one of them in the time of a great famine. he gave them some lands in the east of egypt in a country fertile in pasturage, and consequently adapted for their flocks. during years they rapidly increased, because, being considered foreigners they were not required to serve in the armies of pharaoh, and because of the natural advantages of the lands which orus had granted them. some bands of arabs came to join them as brothers, for they were of a similar race, and they increased so astonishingly that the land of goshen not being able to contain them they spread all over egypt, giving pharaoh memnon ii. good reason to fear that they might be capable of some dangerous attempt in case egypt was attacked (as happened soon after) by their active enemies, the ethiopians. thus a policy of state compelled this prince to curtail their privileges, and to seek means to weaken and enslave them. pharaoh orus ii. surnamed busiris because of his cruelty, and who succeeded memnon, followed his plan regarding the jews. wishing to perpetuate his memory by the erection of the pyramids and building the city of thebes, he condemned the hebrews to labor at making bricks, the material in the earth of their country being adapted for this purpose. during this servitude the celebrated moses was born, in the same year that the king issued an edict to cast all the male hebrew children into the nile, seeing that he had no surer means of exterminating this rabble of foreigners. moses was exposed to perish in the waters in a basket covered with pitch, which his mother placed in the rushes on the banks of the river. it chanced that thermitis, daughter of orus, was walking near the shore and hearing the cries of the child, the natural compassion of her sex inspired her to save it. orus having died, thermitis succeeded him, and moses having been presented to her, she caused him to be educated in a manner befitting the son of a queen of the wisest and most polished nation of the universe. in a word he was tutored in all the science of the egyptians, and it is admitted, and they have represented moses to us as the greatest politician, the wisest philosopher and the most famous magician of his time. it followed that he was admitted to the order of priesthood, which was in egypt what the druids were in gaul, that is to say--everything. those who are not familiar with what the government of egypt was, will be pleased to know that the famous dynasties having come to an end, the entire country was dependent upon one sovereign who divided it into several provinces of no great extent. the governors of these countries were called monarchs, and they were ordinarily of the powerful order of priests, who possessed nearly one-third of egypt. the king named these monarchs, and if we can believe the authors who have written of moses and compare what they have said with what moses himself has written, we may conclude that he was monarch of the land of goshen, and that he owed his elevation to thermitis, who had also saved his life. we see what moses was in egypt, where he had both time and means to study the manners of the egyptians, and those of his nation: their governing passions, their inclinations, and all that would be of service to him in his effort to excite the revolution of which he was the promoter. thermitis having died, her successor renewed the persecution against the hebrews, and moses having lost his previous favor, and fearing that he could not justify several homicides that he had committed, took the precaution to flee. he retired to arabia petrea, on the confines of egypt, and chance brought him to the home of a tribal chief of the country. his services, and the talents that his master remarked in him, merited his good graces and one of his daughters in marriage. it is here to be noted that moses was such a bad jew, and knew so little of the redoubtable god whom he invented later, that he wedded an idolatress, and did not even think of having his children circumcised. it was in the arabian deserts, while guarding the flocks of his father-in-law and brother-in-law, he conceived the design of avenging the injustice which had been done him by the king of egypt, by bringing trouble and sedition in the court of his states; and he flattered himself that he could easily succeed in this by reason of his talents, as by the disposition which he knew he would find in his nation already incensed against the government by reason of the bad treatment that they had been caused to suffer. it appears by the history which he has told of this revolution, or at least by the author of the books attributed to moses, that jethro, his brother-in-law, was in the conspiracy, as well as his brother aaron and his sister mary, who had remained in egypt, and with whom he could arrange to hold correspondence. as may be seen by the sequel he had formed a vast plan in good politics, and he could put in service against egypt all the science he had learned there, and the pretended magic in which he was more subtle and skillful than all those at the court of pharaoh who possessed the same accomplishments. it was by these pretended miracles that he gained the confidence of those of his nation that he caused to rebel. he joined to them thousands of mutinous egyptians, ethiopians and arabs. boasting the power of his divinity and the frequent interviews he held with him, and causing him to intervene in all the measures he took with the chiefs of the revolt, he persuaded them so well that they followed him to the number of , combatants--besides the women and children--across the deserts of arabia, of which he knew all the windings. after a six days march on a laborious retreat, he commanded his followers to consecrate the seventh to his god by a public rest, to make them believe that this god favored him, that he approved his sway, and that no one could have the audacity to contradict him. there were never any people more ignorant than the hebrews, and consequently none more credulous. to be convinced of this profound ignorance, it is only necessary to recall the condition of these people in egypt when moses made them revolt. they were hated by the egyptians because of their pastoral life, persecuted by the sovereign and employed in the vilest labor. among such a populace it was not very difficult for moses to avail himself of his talents. he made them believe that his god (whom he sometimes simply called an angel)--the god of their fathers--appeared to him, that it was by his order that he took care to lead them, that he had chosen him for governor, and that they would be the favored people of this god, provided they believed what he said on his part. he added to his exhortations on the part of his god, the adroit use of his prestige, and the knowledge that he had of nature. he confirmed what he said to them by what might be called miracles, always easy to perform, and which made a great impression on an imbecile populace. it may be remarked above all, that he believed he had found a sure method for holding this people submissive to his orders, in making accessory of the statement that god himself was their leader: by night a column of fire and a cloud by day. but it can be proved that this was the grossest trick of this impostor, and that it might serve him for a long time. he had learned during his travels that he had made in arabia, a country vast and uninhabited, that it was the custom of those who traveled in companies to take guides who conducted them in the night by means of a brazier, the flame of which they followed, and in the day time by the smoke of the same brazier which all the members of the caravan could see, and consequently not go astray. this custom prevailed among the medes and assyrians, and it is quite natural that moses used it, and made it pass for a miracle, and a mark of the protection of his god. if i may not be believed when i say that this was a trick, let moses himself be believed, who in numbers, chap. x. v. - , asks his brother-in-law, hobab, to come with the israelites, that he may show them the roads, because he knew the country. this is demonstrative, for if it was god who marched before israel night and day in the cloud and the column of fire could they have a better guide? meanwhile here is moses exhorting his brother-in-law by the most pressing motives of interest to serve him as guide. then the cloud and the column of fire was god only for the people, and not for moses, who knew what it was. these poor unfortunates thus seduced, charmed at being adopted by the master of god, as they were told, emerging from a hard and cruel bondage, applauded moses and swore to obey him. his authority was thus confirmed. he sought to perpetuate it, and under pretext of establishing divine worship, or of a supreme god of whom he said he was the lieutenant, he made his brother and his children chiefs of the royal palace, that is to say, of the place where miracles were performed out of the sight and presence of the people. so he continued these pretended miracles, at which the simple were amazed and others stupefied, but which caused those who were wise and who saw through these impostures to pity them. however skillful moses was, and how many clever tricks he knew how to do, he would have had much trouble to secure obedience if he had not a strong army. [ ] deceit without force has rarely succeeded. it was in order to have assured means to maintain obedience against the discerning that he continued to place in his own faction those of his tribe, giving them all the important charges and exempting them from the greater part of the labors. he knew how to create jealousies among the other tribes, some of whom took his part against the others. finally assuring adroitly to his interest those who appeared the most enlightened, by placing them in his confidence, he secured them by giving them employment of distinction. after that he found some of these idiots had the courage to reproach his bad faith; that under his false pretense of justice and equity he was seizing everything. as the sovereign authority was vested in his blood in such manner that no one had a right to aspire to it, they considered finally that he was less their father than their tyrant. on such occasions moses by cunning policy confounded these free-thinkers and spared none who censured his government. with such precautions, and cloaking his punishments under the name of divine vengeance, he continued absolute, and to finish in the same way he began, that is to say by deceit and imposture, he chose an extraordinary death. he cast himself in an abyss in a lonely place where he retired from time to time under pretext of conferring with god, and which he had long designed for his tomb. his body never having been found, it was believed that his god had taken him, and that he had become like him. he knew that the memories of the patriarchs who preceded him were held in great veneration when their sepulchres were found, but that was not sufficient for an ambition like his. he must be revered as a god for whom death had no terrors, and to this end all his efforts were directed since the beginning of his reign when he said that he was established of god--to be the god of pharaoh. elijah [ ] gave his example, also romulus [ ], empedocles [ ] and all those who from a desire to immortalize their names, have concealed the time and place of their death so that they would be deemed immortal. chapter vi. of numa pompilius. to return to the law-givers, there were none who, having attributed their laws to divinity, did not endeavor to encourage the belief that they themselves were more than human. numa, having tasted the delights of solitude, did not wish to leave it for the throne of rome, but being forced by public acclamation, he profited by the devotion of the romans. he informed them that he had talked with god, and if they desired him for king they must observe the divine laws and institutions which had been dictated to him by the nymph egeria. [ ] alexander wished to be considered a son of jupiter. perseus pretended to be a son of the same god and the virgin danae; plato, of apollo, and a virgin, which, perhaps, is the cause of the belief among the egyptians that the spirit of god lne [ ] could get a woman with child as the wind did the iberian mares. [ ] chapter vii. of jesus christ. jesus christ, who was not unacquainted with the maxims and science of the egyptians, among whom he dwelt several years, availed himself of this knowledge, deeming it proper for the design which he meditated. considering that moses was renowned because he commanded an ignorant people, he undertook to build on a similar foundation, and his followers were only some idiots whom he persuaded that the holy spirit was his father, and his mother a virgin. [ ] these good people being accustomed to be satisfied with dreams and fancies, adopted this fable, believed all that he wished, and even more willingly that a birth out of the natural order was not so marvelous a circumstance for them to believe. to be born of a virgin by the operation of the holy spirit [ ] was, in their estimation, as wonderful as what the romans said of their founder, romulus, who owed his birth to a vestal and a god. this happened at a time when the jews were tired of their god, as they had been of their judges, [ ] and wished to have a visible god like other nations. as the number of fools is infinite, he found followers everywhere, but his extreme poverty was an invincible obstacle to his elevation. the pharisees, delighted with the boldness of a man of their sect, [ ] while startled at his audacity, elevated or depressed him according to the fickle humor of the populace, so that when it became noised about concerning his divinity, it was impossible--he being possessed of no power--that his design could succeed. no matter how many sick he cured, nor how many dead he raised, having no money and no army, he could not fail to perish, and with that outlook it appears that he had less chance of success than moses, mahomet, and all those who were ambitious to elevate themselves above others. if he was more unfortunate, he was no less adroit, and several places in his history give evidence that the greatest fault in his policy was not to have sufficiently provided for his own safety. so it may be seen that he did not manage his affairs any better than those two other legislators, of whose memory exists but the remains of the belief that they established among the different nations. chapter viii. of the policy of jesus christ. i. is there anything, for example, more dextrous than the manner in which he treated the subject of the woman taken in adultery? (st. john, c. viii.) the jews having asked if they should stone this unfortunate, instead of replying definitely, yes or no, by which he would fall in the trap set by his enemies: the negative being directly against the law, and the affirmative proving him severe and cruel, which would have alienated the saints. instead of replying as any ordinary person but him would have done, he said, "whoever is without sin, let him cast the first stone," a skillful response, which shows us his presence of mind. ii. another time being asked if it was lawful to [ ] pay tribute to cesar, and seeing the image of the prince on the coin that they showed him, he evades the difficulty by replying that they should "render unto cesar what belongs to cesar, and unto god what belongs to god." the difficulty consisted in that he would be guilty of lèse majesté if he had said it was not permitted, and by saying that it was, he would reverse the law of moses which he always protested he would not do, because he felt that he was either too weak, or that he would be worsted in the endeavor. so he made himself more popular, by acting with impunity after the manner of princes, who allowed the privileges of their subjects to be confirmed while their power was not well established, but who scorned their promises when they were well enthroned. iii. he again skillfully avoided a trap that the pharisees had set for him. they asked him--having in their minds thoughts which would only tend to convict him of lying--by what authority he pretended to instruct and catechise the people. whether he replied that it was by human authority because he was not of the sacred body of levites, or whether he boasted of preaching by the express command of god, his doctrine was contrary to the mosaic law. to relieve this embarrassment, he availed himself of the questioners themselves by asking them in the name of whom they thought john baptized? the pharisees, who for policy opposed the baptism by john, would be condemned themselves in avowing that it was of god. if they had not admitted it they would have been exposed to the rage of the populace, who believed the contrary. to get out of this dilemma, they replied that they knew nothing of it, to which jesus answered that he was neither obliged to tell them why, nor in the name of whom he preached. iv. such were the skillful and witty evasions of the destroyer of the ancient law and the founder of the new. such were the origins of the new religion which was built on the ruins of the old, or to speak disinterestedly, there was nothing more divine in this than in the other sects which preceded it. its founder, who was not quite ignorant, seeing the extreme corruption of the jewish republic, judged it as nearing its end, and believed that another should be revived from its ashes. the fear of being prevented by one more ambitious than himself, made him haste to establish it by methods quite opposed to those of moses. the latter commenced by making himself formidable to other nations. jesus, on the contrary, attracted them to him by the hope of the advantages of another life, which he said could be obtained by believing in him, while moses only promised temporal benefits as a recompense for the observation of his law. jesus christ held out a hope which never was realized. the laws of one only regarded the exterior, while those of the other aimed at the inner man, influencing even the thoughts, and entirely the reverse of the law of moses. whence it follows that jesus believed with aristotle that it is with religion and states, as with individuals who are begotten and die, and as nothing is made except subject to dissolution, there is no law which can follow which is entirely opposed to it. now as it is difficult to decide to change from one law to another, and as the great majority is difficult to move in matters of religion, jesus, in imitation of the other innovators had recourse to miracles, which have always been the peril of the ignorant, and the sanctuary of the ambitious. v. christianity was founded by this method, and jesus profiting by the faults of the mosaic policy, never succeeded so happily anywhere, as in the measures which he took to render his law eternal. the hebrew prophets thought to do honor to moses by predicting a successor who resembled him. that is to say, a messiah, grand in virtue, powerful in wealth, and terrible to his enemies; and while their prophecies have produced the contrary effect, many ambitious ones have taken occasion to proclaim themselves the promised messiah, which has caused revolts that have endured until the entire destruction of their republic. jesus christ, more adroit than the mosaic prophets, to defeat the purpose of those who rose up against him predicted (matthew xxiv. - - - - . ii. thessalonians ii. - . john ii. - ) that such a man would be a great enemy of god, the delight of the devil, the sink of all iniquity and the desolation of the world. after these fine declarations there was, to my mind, no person who would dare to call himself anti-christ, and i do not think he could have found a better way to perpetuate his law. there was nothing more fabulous than the rumors that were spread concerning this pretended anti-christ. st. paul said (ii. thessalonians xi. ) of his existence, that "he was already born," consequently was present on the eve of the coming of jesus christ while more than twelve hundred years have expired since the prediction of this prophet was uttered, and he has not yet appeared. i admit that these words have been credited to cherintus and ebion, two great enemies of jesus christ, because they denied his pretended divinity, but it also may be said that if this interpretation conforms to the view of the apostle, which is not credible; these words for all time designate an infinity of anti-christ, there being no reputable scholar who would offend by saying that the [ ]history of jesus christ is a fable, and that his law is but a tissue of idle fancies that ignorance has put in vogue and that interest preserves. vi. nevertheless it is pretended that a religion which rests on such frail foundations is quite divine and supernatural, as if we did not know that there were never persons more convenient to give currency to the most absurd opinions than women and idiots. it is not strange, then, that jesus did not choose philosophers and scholars for his apostles. he knew that his law and good sense were diametrically opposed. [ ] that is the reason why he declaims in so many places against the wise, and excludes them from his kingdom, where were to be admitted the poor in spirit, the silly and the crazy. again, rational individuals did not think it unfortunate to have nothing in common with visionaries. chapter ix. of the morals of jesus christ. i. as for his morals, we see nothing more divine therein than in the writings of the ancients, or rather we find only what are only extracts or imitations. st. augustin (ch. and v. of the confessions, book ,) even admits that he has found in some of their works nearly all of the beginning of the gospel according to st. john. as far as may be seen, that apostle is believed, in many places, to have stolen from other authors, and that it was not difficult to rob the prophets of their enigmas and visions to make his apocalypse. whence comes the conformity which we find between the doctrine of the old testament and that of plato? to say nothing of what the rabbins have done, and those who have fabricated the holy writings from a mass of fragments stolen from this grand philosopher. certainly the birth of the world has a thousand times more probability in his timaeus than in genesis, and it cannot be said that that comes from what plato had read in the books of the jews during his travels in egypt, for according to st. augustin himself, (confessions, book , ch. , v. ,) ptolemy had not yet translated them. the description of the country of which socrates speaks to simias in the phaedon (?) has infinitely more grace than the terrestrial paradise (of eden) and the androgynus [ ] is without comparison, better conceived than what genesis says of the extraction of eve from one of the sides of adam. is there anything that more resembles the two accidents of sodom and gomorrah than that which happened to phaeton? is there anything more alike than the fall of lucifer and that of vulcan, or that of the giants cast down by the lightnings of jupiter? anything more similar than samson and hercules, elijah and phaeton, joseph and hippolitus, nebuchadnezzar and lycaon, tantalus and the tormented rich man (luke xvi, ), the manna of the israelites and the ambrosia of the gods? st. augustin--quoted from god, book , chap. ,--st. cyrile and theophylactus compare jonah with hercules, surnamed trinsitium (?trinoctius), because he had dwelt three days and three nights in the belly of a whale. the river of daniel, spoken of in the prophets, ch. vii, is a visible imitation of periphlegeton, which is mentioned by plato in the dialogue on the "immortality of the soul." original sin has been taken from pandora's box, the sacrifice of isaac and jephthah from the story of iphigenia, although in the latter a hind was substituted. what is said of lot and his wife is quite like the tale which is told of baucis and philemon. in short, it is unquestionable that the authors of the scriptures have transcribed word for word the works of hesiod and homer. ii. but it seems that i have made quite a digression which, however, may not be unprofitable. let us return then to jesus, or rather, to his morals. celsus proves, by the account of origen (book vi, against celsus), that he had taken from plato his finest sentiments, such as that which says (luke, c. xviii, v. ), that a camel might sooner pass through the eye of a needle than a rich man should enter the kingdom of god. it was the sect of pharisees of which he was, and who believed in him, which gave birth to this. what is said of the immortality of the soul, of the resurrection, of hell, and the greater part of his morals, i see nothing more admirable than in the works of epictetus, epicurus and many others. in fact, the latter was cited by st. jerome (book viii, against jovian, ch. viii), as a man whose virtue puts to the blush better christians, observing that all his works were filled with but herbs, fruits and abstinence, and whose delights were so temperate that his finest repasts were but a little cheese, bread and water. with a life so frugal, this philosopher, pagan as he was, said that it was better to be unlucky and rational, than rich and opulent without having good sense, adding, that it is rare that fortune and wisdom are found in the same individual, and that one could have no knowledge of happiness nor live with pleasure unless felicity was accompanied by prudence, justice and honesty, which are qualifications of a true and lasting delight. as for epictetus i do not believe that any man, not excepting jesus himself, was more austere, more firm, more equitable, or more moral. i say nothing but what is easy to prove, and not to pass my prescribed limit i will not mention all the exemplary acts of his life, but give one single example of constancy which puts to shame the weakness and cowardice of jesus in the sight of death. being a slave to a freeman named epaphroditus, captain of the guards of nero, it took the fancy of this brute to twist the leg of epictetus. epictetus perceiving that it gave him pleasure said to him, smiling, that he was well convinced that the game would not end until he had broken his leg; in fact, this crisis happened. "well," said epictetus with an even smiling face, "did i not say that you would break my leg?" was there ever courage equal to that? and could it have been said of jesus christ had he been the victim? he who wept and trembled with fear at the least alarm, and who evinced at his death a lack of spirit that never was witnessed in the majority of his martyrs. i doubt not but what it might be said of this action of epictetus what the ignorant remark of the virtues of the philosophers, that vanity was their principle, and that they were not what they seemed. but i say also that those who use such language are people who, in the pulpit, say all that comes into their heads--either good or evil--and they want the privilege of telling it all. i know also that when these babblers, sellers of air, wind and smoke, have vented all their strength against the champions of common sense they think they have well earned the revenues of their livings: that they have not merited a call to instruct the people unless they have declared against those who know what common sense and true virtue is. so it is true that nothing in the world approaches so little to the manners of true scholars as the actions of the ignorant who decry them and who appear to have studied only to procure preferment which gives them bread; and which preferment they worship and magnify when this height is attained, as if they had reached a condition of perfection, which, to those who succeed, is a condition of self-love, ease, pride and pleasure, following nothing less than the maxims of the religion which they profess. but let us leave these people who know not what virtue is, and examine the divinity of their master. chapter x. of the divinity of jesus christ. i. after having examined his policy and morals we have seen nothing more divine than in the writings and conduct of the ancients. let us see if the reputation which followed him after his death is an evidence that he was god. mankind is so accustomed to false reasoning that i am astonished that any one can reach a sane conclusion from their conduct. experience shows that there is nothing they followed that is in any wise true, and that nothing has been done or said by them which gives any evidence of stability. in the meanwhile it is certain that common opinions are continually surrounded with chimeras notwithstanding the efforts of the learned, which have always opposed them. whatever care has been taken to extirpate follies the people have never abandoned them only after having been surfeited with them. moses was proud to boast himself the lieutenant of the lord of lords, and to prove his mission by extraordinary signs. if ever so little he absented himself (which he did from time to time to confer, as he said, with his god, as numa and other lawgivers also did) he only found on his return traces of the worship of the gods which the israelites had seen in egypt. he successfully held them forty years in the wilderness that they might lose the idea of those they had abandoned, and not being yet satisfied they obeyed him who led them, and bore firmly whatever hardship they were caused to suffer in this regard. only the hatred which they had conceived for other nations, by an arrogance of which most idiots are susceptible, made them insensibly forget the gods of egypt and attach themselves to those of moses whom they adored, and sometimes with all the circumstance marked in the laws. but when they quitted these conditions little by little to follow those of jesus christ, i cannot see what inconstancy caused them to run after the novelty and change. ii. the most ignorant hebrews having given the most vogue to the law of moses were the first to run after jesus, and as their number was infinite and they encouraged each other, it is not marvellous that these errors spread so easily. it is not that novelty does not always beget suffering, but it is the glory that is expected that one hopes will smooth the difficulties. thus the disciples of jesus, miserable as they were, reduced at times to nourish themselves with grains of corn which they gathered from the fields (luke vi., ), and seeing themselves shamefully excluded from places where they thought to enter to ease their fatigue (luke ix., - ) they began to be discouraged with living; their master being without the pale of the law and unable to give them the benefits, glory and grandeur which he had promised them. after his death his disciples, in despair at seeing their hopes frustrated, and pursued by the jews who wished to treat them as they had treated their master, made a virtue of necessity and scattered over the country, where by the report of some women (john xx, ) they told of his resurrection, his divine affiliation and the rest of the fables with which the gospels are filled. [ ] the trouble which they had to make progress among the jews made them resolve to pass among the gentiles, and try to serve themselves better among them; but as it was necessary to have more learning for that than they possessed--the gentiles being philosophers and too much in love with truth to resort to trifles--they gained over a young man (saul or st. paul) of an active and eager mind and a little better informed than the simple fishermen or than the greater babblers who associated with them. a stroke from heaven made him blind, as is said (without this the trick would have been useless) and this incident for a time attracted some weak souls. [ ] by the fear of hell, taken from some of the fables of the ancient poets, and by the hope of a glorious resurrection and a paradise which is hardly more supportable than that of mahomet; all these procured for their master the honor of passing for a god, which he himself was unable to obtain while living. in which this kind of jesus was no better than homer: six cities which had driven the latter out with contempt and scorn during his life, disputed with each other after his death to determine with whom remained the honor of having been his birth-place. by this it may be seen that christianity depends, like all other things, on the caprice of men, in whose opinion all passes either for good or bad, according as the notion strikes them. further, if jesus was god, nothing could resist him, for st. paul (romans, v. ), is witness that nothing could overcome his will. yet this passage is directly opposed to another in genesis (iv, ), where it is said that as the desires and appetites of man belong to him, who is the master, so it is agreed to accord free-will to the master of animals, that is to say, man, for whom it is said god has created the universe. but without wandering in a maze of errors and positive contradictions, of which we have discoursed sufficiently, let us say something of mahomet, who founded a law upon maxims totally opposed to those of jesus christ. chapter xi. of mahomet. i. hardly had the disciples of jesus abandoned the mosaic law to introduce the christian, than mankind, with their usual caprice and ordinary inconstancy, suddenly changed their sentiments, and all the east was seen embracing the sentiments of the celebrated arius, who had the boldness to oppose the fable of jesus, and prove that he was no more a god than any other man. thus christianity was almost abolished, and there appeared a new law-giver, who, in less than ten years time, formed a considerable sect. this was mahomet. [ ] to be well acquainted with him, it must be known that the part of arabia where he was born, was commonly called "the happy," by reason of its fertility, and being inhabited by people who formed several republics, each republic being a family called a "tribe," and having for its head the chief of the principal family, among those which composed the "tribe." that in which mahomet was born was named the tribe of koreish, of which the principal family was that of hashem, of which the chief was then a certain abdul motallab, [ ] grandfather of mahomet, whose father, eldest son of abdul motallab, was named abdallah. [ ] this tribe inhabited the shores of the red sea, and abdul motallab was high priest of the temple of mecca where were worshipped the idols of the country. as chief of his tribe he was prince of this country in which quality he had sustained the war against the king of persia and the emperor of ethiopia, which shows that mahomet was not of the riff-raff of the people. his father dying before his grandfather, his tender years caused him to lose the rights he had to the sovereignty, which one of his uncles usurped. it was for this reason, not being able to succeed to the title of prince, that he was reduced to the humble condition of shop-boy in the employ of a wealthy widow for whom he became afterwards factor. having found him to her liking she married him and made him one of the richest citizens of mecca. he was then about years of age, and seeing at hand the means to enforce his rights, his ambitions awakened, and he meditated in what manner he could re-establish himself in the dignity of his grandfather. the correspondence that he had had with christians in egypt and jews in judea, where he had traded a long time for his wife while he was only her factor, gave him an opportunity of knowing who moses was and also jesus christ. he also had remarked into how many different sects their religion was divided, and which produced such diversity of opinions, and the zeal of each sect. by this he profited, and he believed he could better succeed in the interest of establishing a new religion. the conditions of the time when he formed this design were very favorable to him, for nearly all of the arabs, disgusted with the worship of their idols, were fallen into a species of atheism. thus mahomet began by leading a retired life, being exemplary, seeking solitude, and passing the greater part of the day in prayers and meditations. he caused himself to be admired for his modest demeanor, and commenced to speak of revelations and visions. by such action is gained the credence of the populace, and by such methods moses and jesus commenced. he called himself a prophet and an envoy of god, and having as much skill as his predecessors in working miracles, he soon gained attention, then admiration, and soon after the confidence of the people. a jew and a christian monk who were in his conspiracy aided him in his dextrous moves, and he soon became powerful enough to resist a vigorous man named corais, a learned arab, who endeavored to expose his imposture. during this time his uncle, the governor of mecca, died, and not being yet strong enough to assume the authority of sovereign, he was obliged to yield to one of his kinsmen who, penetrating his designs, obliged him to flee from mecca and take refuge at medina, where one party in the city who were arian christians joined him. then he ceased to support his authority by argument, and persuaded his disciples to plant the mussulman faith at the point of the sword. having strengthened his party by alliances, marrying his daughters to four of the principal citizens of medina, he was in condition to place armies in the field who subjugated the various tribes, one after the other, and with whom he finally seized mecca. he did not die until after he had accomplished his purpose by his hypocrisy and imposture, which elevated him to the dignity of sovereign, which he transmitted to his successors, and his faith so well established that there has been no evidence of its failure for six hundred years, and yet it may be upon the eve of its destruction. ii. thus mahomet was more fortunate than jesus christ. after having labored during twenty-three years in the establishment of his law and religion, he saw its progress before his death, and having an assurance which jesus christ had not, that it would exist a long time after his death, since he prudently accommodated the genius and passions of his followers. such was the last of these three impostors. moses threw himself into an abyss by an excess of ambition to cause himself to be believed immortal. jesus christ was ignominiously hung up between two thieves, being covered with shame as a recompense for his imposture, and lastly, mahomet died in reality in his own bed, and in the midst of grandeur, but with his bowels consumed by poison given him by a young jewess, to determine if he really was a prophet. this is all that can be said of these four [ ] celebrated impostors. they were just as we have painted them after nature, and without giving any false shading to their portraits, that it may be judged if they merited any confidence, and if it is excusable to be led by these guides, whom ambition and trickery have elevated, and whom ignorance has destroyed. sensible and obvious truths. i. it is not sufficient to have discovered the disease if we do not apply a remedy. it would be better to leave the sick man in ignorance. error can only be cured by truth, and since moses, jesus and mahomet were what we have represented them, we should not seek in their writings for the veritable idea of the divinity. the apparitions and the divine conformation of the former and the latter, and the divine filiation of the second, are sufficient to convince us that all is but imposture. ii. god is either a natural being or one of infinite extent who resembles what he contains, that is to say, that he is material without being, nevertheless, neither just nor merciful, nor jealous, nor a god in any way as may be imagined, and as a consequence is neither a punisher nor a remunerator. this idea of punishment and recompense only exists in the minds of the ignorant who only conceive that simple being called god, under images which by no means represent him. those who use their understanding without confounding its operations with those of the imagination, and who are powerful enough to abandon the prejudice of a limited education, are the only ones who have sound, clear and distinct ideas. they consider him as the source of all beings which are produced without distinction: one being no more than another in his regard, and man no more difficult to produce than a worm or a flower. iii. that is why it is not to be believed that this natural and infinite being which is commonly called god, esteems man more than an ant, or a lion more than a stone, or any other being more than a phantasy, or who has any regard for beauty or ugliness, for good or bad, for the perfect or imperfect. or that he desires to be praised, prayed, sought for or caressed, or that he cares what men are, or say, whether susceptible of love or hate, or in a word that he thinks more of man than of any other creatures of whatever nature they be. all these distinctions are only the invention of a narrow mind, that is to say, ignorance has created them and interest keeps them alive. iv. thus there is no good sensible man who can be convinced of hell, a soul, spirits or devils, in the manner of which they are commonly spoken. all these great senseless words have only been contrived to delude or intimidate the people. let those then who wish to know the truth read what follows, with a liberal spirit and an intention to only give their judgment with deliberation. v. the myriads of stars that we see above us are allowed to be so many solid bodies which move, and among which there is not one designed as the court divine where god is like a king in the midst of his courtiers; which is the abode of the blest, and where all good souls fly after leaving this body and world. but without burdening ourselves with such a rude and ill-conceived opinion, and that it may not be entertained by any man of good sense, it is certain that what is called heaven is nothing but the continuation of our atmosphere, more subtile and more refined, where the stars move without being sustained by any solid mass more than the earth on which we live, and which like the stars is suspended in the midst of space. vi. as may be imagined, a heaven intended for the eternal abode of the happy and of god, was the same among the pagans. gods and goddesses were also represented in the same way, also a hell or a subterranean place where it was pretended that the wicked souls descended to be tormented. but this word "hell" taken in its proper and natural signification means nothing but a "lower place," which poets have invented to oppose the dwelling of the celestial inhabitants, who are said to be very sublime and exalted. that is what the latin word infernus or inferi signifies, and also the greek word admc"> [ ], that is to say, an obscure place like the sepulchre, or any other low and hidden place. all the rest of what has been said is only pure fiction and the invention of poets whose symbolical discourses are taken literally by feeble, timid and melancholy minds, as well as by those who are interested in sustaining this opinion. of the soul. i. the soul is something more delicate and more difficult to treat of than either heaven or hell. that is why it is proper to satisfy your majesty's curiosity, to speak of it a little more at length. before saying what i desire on this subject, i will recall in a few words what the most celebrated philosophers have thought of it. ii. some have said that the soul is a spirit or an immaterial substance; others, a kind of divinity; some, a very subtile air, and others a harmony of all parts of the body. again, others have remarked that it is the most subtile and fine part of the blood, which is separated from it in the brain and is distributed by the nerves: so that the source of the soul is the heart where it is produced, and the place where it performs its noblest function is the brain, because there it is well purified from the grosser parts of the blood. these are the principal opinions which have been held concerning the soul, but to render them more perceptible let us divide them into material and spiritual, and name the supporters of each theory that we may not err. iii. pythagoras and plato have said that the soul is spiritual, that is to say, a being capable of existence without the aid of the body, and can move itself: that all the particular souls of animals are portions of the universal soul of the world: that these portions are spiritual and immortal, and of the same nature, as we may conceive that one hundred little fires are of the same nature as the great fire at which they have been kindled. iv. these philosophers believed the animated universe a substance, spiritual, immortal and invisible, pursuing always that which attracts, which is the source of all movements, and of all souls which are small particles of it. now, as souls are very pure, and infinitely superior to the body, they do not unite immediately, but by means of a subtile body, such as flame, or that subtile and extensive air which the vulgar take for heaven. afterwards they take a body less subtile, then another a little more impure, and always thus by degrees, until they can unite with the sensible bodies of animals, whence (sic) they descend like into dungeons or sepulchres. the death of the body, they say, is the life of the soul wherein it was buried, and where it exercises but weakly its most beautiful functions. thus at the death of the body the soul comes out of its prison untrammelled by matter, and reunites with the soul of the universe, from whence it came. thus, following this thought, all the souls of animals are of the same nature, and the diversity of their functions comes only from the difference in the bodies that they enter. aristotle admits further, a universal understanding common to all beings, and which acts in regard to particular intelligences as light does in regard to the eyes; and as light makes objects visible, the universal understanding makes objects intelligible. this philosopher defines the soul as that which makes us live, feel, think and move, but he does not say what the being is that is the source and principle of these noble functions, and consequently we must not look to him to dispel the doubt which exists concerning the nature of the soul. v. dicearchus, asclesiade (? esculapius), and in some ways galen, have also believed the soul to be incorporeal, but in another manner, for they have said that it is nothing more than the harmony of all parts of the body, that is to say, that which results in an exact blending and disposition of the humors and spirits. thus, they say, health is not a part of him who is well, however it be his condition, so that, however, the soul be in the animal, it is not one of its parts, but a mutual accord of all of which it is composed. on which it is remarked that these authors believe the soul to be incorporeal, on a principle quite opposed to their intent, by saying that it is not a body, but only something inseparably attached to a body, that is to say, in good reasoning, that it is quite corporeal, since corporeality is not only that which is a body, but all which is form or accident that cannot be separated from matter. these are the philosophers who have believed the soul incorporeal or immaterial, who, as you see, are not in accord with themselves, and consequently do not merit any belief. let us now consider those who have avowed it to be a body. vi. diogenes believed that it was formed of air, from which he has inferred the necessity of breathing, and defines it as an air which passes from the mouth through the lungs to the heart, where it is warmed, and from whence it is distributed through the entire body. leucippus and democritus have claimed that it was fire, as that element is composed of atoms which easily penetrate all parts of the body, and makes it move. hippocrates has said that it is a composition of water and fire. empedocles says that it includes the four elements. epicurus believed like democritus, that the soul is composed of fire, but he adds that in that composition there enters some air, a vapor, and another nameless substance of which is formed a very subtile spirit, which spreads through the body and and which is called the soul. vii. not to shuffle, as all these philosophers have done, and to have as perfect an idea as is possible of the souls of animals, let us admit that in all, without excepting man, it is of the same nature, and has no different functions, but by reason of the diversity of organs and humors; hence we must believe what follows. it is certain that there is in the universe a very subtile spirit, or a very delicate matter, and always in motion, the source of which is in the sun, and the remainder is spread in all the other bodies, more or less, according to nature or their consistency. that is the soul of the universe which governs and vivifies it, and of which some portion is distributed among all the parts that compose it. this soul, and the most pure fire which is in the universe does not burn of itself, but by the different movements that it gives to the particles of other bodies where it enters, it burns and reflects its heat. the visible fire has more of this spirit than air, the latter more than water, and the earth much less than the latter. among the mixed bodies, plants have more than minerals, and animals more than either. to conclude, this fire being enclosed in the body, it is rendered capable of thought, and that is what is called the soul, or what is called animal spirits, which are spread in all parts of the body. now, it is certain that this soul being of the same nature in all animals, disperses at the death of man in the same manner as in other animals, from whence it follows that what poets and theologians sing or preach of the other world, is a chimera which they have invented, and which they narrate for reasons that are easy to guess. of spirits which are called demons. i. we have fully commented on how the belief in spirits was introduced among men, and how these spirits were but phantoms which existed in their imagination. the ancient philosophers were not sufficiently clear to explain to the people what these phantoms were, and did not allow themselves to say that they could raise them. some seeing that these phantoms dissolved and had no consistency, called them immaterial, incorporeal, forms without matter, or colors and figures, without being, nevertheless, bodies either colored or defined, adding that they could cover themselves with air like a mantle when they wished to render themselves visible to the eyes of men. others said that they were animated bodies, but were composed of air, or some other more subtile matter which condensed at their will when they wished to appear. ii. these two kinds of philosophers being opposed in the opinion which they had of phantoms, agreed in the name which they gave them, for all called them demons, in which they were but little more enlightened than those who believed they saw in their sleep the souls of the dead, and that it is their soul which they see when they look in a mirror, and who also believed that they saw (reflected) in the water the souls of the stars. after this foolish fancy they fell into an error which is hardly less supportable, that is, the current idea that these phantoms had infinite power. an absurd but ordinary belief with the ignorant who imagined that whatever they did not understand was an infinite power. iii. this ridiculous opinion was no sooner published than the sovereigns began to use it to support their power. they established a belief concerning spirits which they called religion, so that the fear which the people possessed for invisible powers would hold them to their obedience. to have it carry more influence they distinguished the demons as good and bad. the latter to encourage men to obey their laws, and the former to restrain and prevent them from infringing them. now to learn what these demons were it is only necessary to read the greek poets and their histories, and above all what hesiod says in his theogony where he fully treats of the origin and propagation of the gods. iv. the greeks were the first who invented them, and by them they were propagated through the medium of their colonies, and their conquests in asia, egypt and italy. the jews who were dispersed in alexandria and elsewhere got their acquaintance with them from the greeks. they used them as effectively as the other peoples but with this difference, they did not call them demons like the greeks, but good and bad spirits; reserving for the good demons the name of spirit of god, and calling those prophets who were said to possess this good spirit called the divine, which they held as responsible for great blessings, and cacodaemons or evil spirits on the contrary those which were provocative of great evil. v. this distinction of good and evil made them name as demoniacs those whom we call lunatics, visionaries, madmen and epileptics, and those who spoke to them in an unknown tongue. a man ill-shaped and of evil look was to their notion possessed of an unclean spirit, and a mute of a dumb spirit. now, these words spirit and demon became so familiar to them that they spoke of them on all occasions, so that it is evident that the jews believed like the greeks, that these phantoms were not mere chimeras and visions, but real beings that existed independent of imagination. vi. so it happens that the bible is quite filled with these words spirits, demons and fiends, but nowhere is it said when they were first known, nor the time of their creation, which is hardly pardonable in moses, who is earnest in depicting the creation of heaven, earth and man. no more then is jesus christ who had such close intimacy with them, who commanded them so absolutely according to the gospel, and who spoke so often of angels and good and bad spirits, but without saying whether they were corporeal or spiritual; which makes it plain that he knew no more than the greeks had taught other nations, in which he is not less culpable than for denying to all men the virtue of faith and piety which he professed to be able to give them. but to return to the spirits. it is certain that the words demon, satan and devil, are not proper names which designated any individual, and which never have any credence but among the ignorant; as much among the greeks who invented them, as among the jews where they were tolerated. so the latter being overrun by them gave them names--which signified enemy, accuser, inquisitor,--as well to invisible powers as to their own adversaries, the gentiles, whom they said inhabited the kingdom of satan; there being none but themselves, in their own opinion, who dwelt in that of god. vii. as jesus christ was a jew, and consequently imbued with these silly opinions, we read everywhere in the gospels, and in the writings of his disciples, of the devil, of satan and hell as if they were something real and effective. while it is true, as we have shown, that there is nothing more imaginary, and when what we have said is not sufficient to prove it, but two words will suffice to convince the most obstinate. all christians agree unanimously that god is the first principle and the foundation of all things, that he has created and preserves them, and without his support they would fall into nothingness. following this principle it is certain that god must have created what is called the devil, and satan, as well as the rest, and if he has created both good and evil, why not all the balance, and if by this principle all evil exists, it can only be by the intervention of god. now can one conceive that god would maintain a creature, not only who curses him unceasingly, and who mortally hates him, but even who endeavors to corrupt his friends, to have the pleasure of being cursed by a multitude of mouths. how can we comprehend that god should preserve the devil to have him do his worst to dethrone him if he could, and to alienate from his service his elect and his favorites? what would be the object of god in such conduct? now what can we say in speaking of the devil and hell. if god does all, and nothing can be done without him how does it happen that the devil hates him, curses him, and takes away his friends? now he is either agreeable, or he is not. if he is agreeable, it is certain that the devil in cursing him only does what he should, since he can only do what god wills. consequently, it is not the devil, but god in person who curses himself; a situation to my idea more absurd than ever. if it is not in accord with his will then it is not true that he is all powerful. thus there are two principles, one of good, the other of evil, one which causes one thing and the other that does quite the contrary. to what does this reasoning lead us? to avow without contradiction that there is no god such as is conceived, nor devil, nor soul, nor paradise, such as has been depicted, and that the theologians, that is to say, those who relate fables for truth, are persons of bad faith who maliciously abuse the credulity of the ignorant by telling them what they please, as if the people were capable of nothing but chimera or who should be fed with insipid food in which is found only emptiness, nothingness and folly, and not a grain of the salt of truth and wisdom. centuries have passed, one after the other, in which mankind has been infatuated by these absurd imaginations which have been combatted; but during all the period there have also been found sincere minds who have written against the injustice of the doctors in tiaras, mitres and gowns, who have kept mankind in such deplorable blindness which seems to increase every day. finis. by permission of the lord baron de hohendorf i have compiled this epitome out of the manuscript library of his most august highness, duke eugene of sabaudio, in the year . appendicitis. a disease common to nearly all works of this character, and which condition is past all surgery. another sketch of mahomet translated from the "edition en suisse," , and which may interest worshippers of arabian mysteries evolved from imaginative brains, tinctured with extracts from "thory's ada latomorum," and similar works, and embellished with effects from "michael strogoff." xxii. of mahomet. hardly had the disciples of christ abolished the mosaic law to introduce the christian dispensation, than mankind, carried away by force, and by their ordinary inconstancy, followed a new law-giver, who advanced himself by the same methods as moses. he assumed, like him, the title of prophet, and envoy of god, like him he performed miracles and knew how to profit by the passions of the people. first he was accompanied by an ignorant rabble, to whom he explained the new oracles of heaven. these unfortunates, seduced by the promises and fables of this new impostor, spread his renown and exalted him to a height that eclipsed his predecessors. mahomet was not a man who appeared capable of founding an empire, as he excelled neither in politics [ ] nor philosophy; in fact, could neither read nor write. he had so little firmness that he would often have abandoned his enterprise had he not been forced to persist in his undertaking by the skill of one of his followers. from that time he commenced to rise and become celebrated. corais, a powerful arab, jealous that a man of his birth should have the audacity to deceive the people, declared himself his enemy, and attempted to cross his enterprise, but the people persuaded that mahomet had continual conferences with god and his angels caused him to prevail over his enemy. the tribe of corais were at a disadvantage and mahomet seeing himself followed by a crazy crowd who thought him a divine man, thought he would have no need of a companion, but fearing that the latter (corais) might expose his impostures he tried to prevent it, and to do it more certainly he overwhelmed him with promises, and swore to him that he wished only to become great by sharing the power to which he had contributed. "we have reached," said he, "the moment of our elevation, we are sure of the great multitude we have gained, and we must now assure ourselves by the artifice you have so happily conceived." at the same time he induced him to hide himself in the cave of oracles. there was a dried-up well from which he made the people believe that the voice of god declared himself for mahomet, who was in the midst of his proselytes. deceived by the caresses of this traitor, his associate went into the well to counterfeit the oracle as usual; mahomet then passing by at the head of an infatuated multitude a voice was heard saying: "i who am your god, declare that i have established mahomet as the prophet of all nations: from him you will learn my true law which has been changed by the jews and the christians." for a long time this man played this game, but in the end he was paid by the greatest and blackest ingratitude. mahomet hearing the voice which proclaimed him a divine being, turned towards the people and commanded them in the name of the god who recognized him as his prophet, to fill with stones the ditch from whence had issued such authentic testimony in his favor, in memory of the stone which jacob raised to mark the place where god appeared to him. [ ] thus perished the unfortunate person who had contributed to the elevation of mahomet; it was on this heap of stones that the last of the celebrated prophets established his law. this foundation is so stable and founded in such a way that after a thousand years of reign it has no appearance of being overthrown. a literal translation de tribus impostoribus. anno mdiic. zweite mit einem neuen vorwort versehene auflage von emil weller. heilbronn verlag von gebr. henninger. many maintain that there is a god, and that he should be worshipped, before they understand either what a god is, or what it is to be, as far as being is common to bodies and spirits, according to the distinction they make; and what it is to worship god, although they regard the worship of god according to the standard of the honor given to ruling men. what god is, they describe according to the confession of their own ignorance. for it is inevitable that they declare how he differs from other things by the denial of former conceptions. they cannot comprehend that there is an infinite being; that is, one of whose limits they are ignorant. there is a creator of heaven and earth, they say, but who is his creator they do not say, because they do not know; because they do not understand. some say that he is the origin of himself and maintain that he comes from nothing but himself. we do not understand his origin they say, therefore he has none (why so? if we do not understand god himself, is there, therefore, no god?) and this is the first principle of their ignorance. there is no progression into infinity; why not? because the human intellect must have some foundation? because it is accustomed to this belief? because it cannot imagine anything beyond its own limits? as if, indeed, it followed, that if i do not comprehend infinity, therefore there is no infinity. and nevertheless as is known from experience, some among the members of the sects of christ, think there is an infinite progression of divine properties or persons, concerning the limitations of which, however, there has hitherto been dispute, and so indeed they think that there is a progression into infinity. for the son is begotten from infinity, and the holy spirit is breathed from infinity. this begetting and this procession goes on to infinity. for if that begetting or that breathing of the spirit had begun or should once have ceased, the conception of eternity would be destroyed. but if you should agree with them on this point also, that the creation of man can not be prolonged to infinity, which they infer, however, on account of their finite minds, it will not yet be evident whether other beings have not been begotten among the higher powers, in a peculiar manner and in great number, as well as among men on earth; and who of this great number should especially be accepted as god. for every religion admits that there are gods who are mediators, although they are not all under equal limitations, whence that principle, that there must be one being only, raised above men by his own nature, is evidently demolished. and so it will be possible to say that from a diversity of gods as creators, a diversity of religions, and a variety of kinds of worship afterwards arose: which the religious feeling of the heathen especially employed. but as to the objection which is raised about the murders and the concubinage of the pagan gods, aside from the fact that the pagans have long since shown that these things must be understood as mysteries, similar things will be found in other religions. the slaughter of many tribes was perpetrated by moses and joshua at the command of god. even human sacrifice the god of israel demanded of abraham, but it was not carried into effect in this remarkable case. but he could either not have given a command, or abraham could not have believed that it had been given in earnest, which would have been in itself utterly at variance with the nature of god. mahomet promises the whole world as the reward offered by his religion, and christians talk about the universal slaughter of their enemies and the subjugation of the foes of the church, which indeed has not been insignificant, from the fact that the church had the entire control of public affairs. was not polygamy also permitted by (mohammed) moses, and as some maintain, even in the new testament, by christ? did not the holy spirit beget the son of god by a peculiar union with a betrothed virgin? as for other objections which are made to the pagans about their ridiculous idols, and their misuse of worship, they are not so weighty that similar ones can not be made to the members of other sects; nevertheless it can easily be proved that these abuses have proceeded from the subordinates rather than from the leaders, from the disciples, rather than from the masters of religions. but to return to the former argument. this being,--since the intellect limits its extent,--is what some call nature and others god. on these points some agree, others disagree. some fancy that the worlds have existed from eternity, and call the connection of things god; certain ones call god an individual being, which can be neither seen or known, although among these disputes are not infrequent. religion, as far as it concerns worship, some attribute to the fear, some to the love, of invisible powers. but if the invisible powers are false, idolatry is just as the principles of each worshipper demand. they will have it that love springs from kindness and refer it to gratitude; although nevertheless it chiefly arises from the sympathy of humors. the kind deeds of enemies inspire especially violent hatred although no one of the hypocrites has dared to confess it. but who would suppose that love arises from the kindness of him who gave to man the characteristics of a lion, a bear and other wild beasts that he might assume a nature contrary to the will of the creator? who, well knowing the weakness of human nature, placed before [our progenitors] a tree, by which he was sure they would bring a fatal sentence upon themselves and their descendants (as some will have it)? and yet the latter are bound to worship and to perform deeds of gratitude, as if for a great favor, forsooth! so the ithacan may have it, etc. take deadly arms, a sword for instance, and if you had the most certain foreknowledge (which some claim for god also in this very case, inasmuch as there can be no chance with god) of the very purpose that he, before whose eyes you place it, will seize it and inflict on himself and all his descendants the most dreadful death. (he who has still one drop of the milk of human kindness will shudder to do such a deed). take, i say, a sword, you who are a father, for instance, or you who are a friend; and if you are a father, if you are a real friend, present it to your friend, or your children, with the command that they should not run upon it, you foreseeing beyond all doubt, nevertheless, that he will run upon it, and inflict on his children and those hitherto innocent, the most dreadful death. consider, you who are a father, would you do such a thing? what is it to make a command a mockery, if this is not? and nevertheless god must have given such a command. but they maintain that god should be worshipped for his kindness, saying: if god is, he must be worshipped; just as they make this inference, the great mogul is, therefore he must be worshipped. his own people do indeed worship him, but why? assuredly that his unbridled pride and that of all great men may be gratified, and for no other reason. for he is worshipped chiefly on account of the fear of his visible power (hence at his death the worship ceases), and then too on account of the hope of rewards. this same reason exists for the reverence shown parents and other people in power; and since invisible powers are considered more important and greater than visible ones, therefore, they will have it that still more should they be worshipped. and this god should be worshipped on account of his love, they say. and what kind of love is it to expose innocent posterity to infinite suffering on account of the fall of one man, certainly foreseen and therefore foreordained (foreordained as far at least as being permitted). but, you say, they are to be redeemed. but how? the father exposes his only son to extreme suffering, that he may deliver the other man from tortures no greater, because of the redemption offered by the former. the barbarians had no such silly idea. but why should god be loved, why worshipped? because he created us? but to what end? that we should fall! because assuredly he had foreknowledge that [our progenitors] would fall, and set before them the medium of the forbidden fruit, without which they could not have fallen. granted, however, that he should be worshipped because on him all things depend for their creation; some, nevertheless, add, for their continued existence also, and their preservation. why should god be worshipped? does he himself delight in worship? certainly. parents and benefactors are honored among us. but why is this honor given? human nature has regard for mutual wants and, the bestowal of honor is due to the idea that we can be aided by a greater and more enduring power. no one wishes to aid another unless his own wants are satisfied in turn. that is called a person's recognition of kindness and gratitude, which demands a greater recognition of his own kindness; and in order that his reputation may be spread abroad, it demands that the other be ready, as a handmaid, so to speak, to inspire in others an idea of his fame and nobility. doubtless the idea others may entertain of our ability to be of service to general or individual needs, tickles us, and raises plumes for us like those of a peacock, wherefore generosity is found among the virtues. but who does not see the imperfection of our nature? who, however, would say that god, the most perfect of all beings, wants anything? or that he wishes for any such thing if he is perfect and already self-sufficient and honored without any external honors. who would say that he wants honor except those who persist in honoring him? the desire for honor is a sign of imperfection and lack of power. the consensus of opinion among all races on this subject, is urged by those who have talked with scarcely all even of their own friends, or have examined three or four books treating of the testimony of the world, not even carefully considering how far the authors had knowledge of the customs of the world; but those excellent authors were not familiar with all customs. notice, however, that when one is considering the matter, the objection here arises, that the fundamental reasons for worship are connected with god himself and his works, and not with the elementary constitution of any society. for there is no one who is not aware that worship is due to the custom, prevalent among the ruling and rich classes especially, of maintaining some external form of religion in order to calm the passions of the people. but if you are concerned about the former reason, who would believe that in the principal seat of the christian religion,--italy,--there are so many free-thinkers, or to speak more meaningly, atheists, and if he should believe it, would say that there is a consensus of opinion among all races. god is, therefore should he be worshipped? because, forsooth, the wiser men at least say so? who, pray, are the wiser? the high priest, the augurs, the soothsayers of the ancients, cicero, caesar, the leading men and their priestly adherents, etc. would they let it be known that such practices were to their interests? doubtless those in control of public affairs, deriving their profits from the credulity of the people, told fear-inspiring stories of the power and vengeance of the invisible gods, and lied about their own occasional meetings and association with them; and demanded in proportion to their own luxury beings suitable for or even surpassing themselves. for it is not to be wondered at that priests promulgate such teachings, since this is their method of maintaining their own lives. and such are the teachings of the wiser men. this world may depend on the control of a prime mover; this is certainly the fact--that the dependence will be only at the start. for why might there not have been a first command of god, such that everything would go in a foreordained course to a fixed end, if he wished to fix one. there would no longer be need of new care, dependence or support, but he might at first have endowed every one with sufficient powers. and why should it not be said that he did this? for it is not to be supposed that he visits all the elements and parts of the universe as a physician does a sick man. what then is to be said of the testimony of conscience? and whence would come those fears of the mind because of wrong-doing, were it not evident that there is near us a higher power who sees and punishes us, whom wrong-doing displeases just as it is altogether at variance with worship of him? it is not now my purpose to inquire more deeply into the nature of good and evil nor the dangers of prejudice and the folly of great fear which springs from preconceived ideas. this merely i say. whence did they arise? especially since all evil-doing depends on the corruption and destruction of the harmony resulting from the interchange of services in the wants to which the human race is subject, and since the idea about one who wishes to increase rather than to be of aid in those wants, renders him an object of hatred. whence it happens that he himself may fear lest he may incur the hatred and contempt of others, or a like refusal to satisfy his wants; or may lose his power of being of service not only to others but to himself, in so far indeed as he needs to fear any harm from being wronged by others. and so, they say, those who do not have the light of holy scriptures, follow the natural light in accordance with the dictates of their consciences, which proves to be sure, that god has endowed the intellect of all men with some sparks of his own knowledge and will, and if they act according to these it must be said that they have done right. for what reason of theirs can be a command to worship god if this is not? but it is maintained on many grounds that beasts act according to the guide of reason, and this matter has not yet been decided; nevertheless i do not urge this. who has said anything to you to prove that this does not occur, or that a trained animal does not at times surpass an ignorant and uneducated man in intellect and powers of judgment? but to speak to the point, the majority of men of leisure who have had time to consider subtile ideas and those beyond the comprehension of the ordinary intellect, in order to gratify their own pride and promote their own advantage, have devised many subtile principles for which alexis and thyrsis, prevented by their pastoral and rustic duties, could have had no leisure. wherefore, the latter have placed confidence in the philosophers of leisure, as if they were wiser, while they are more fitted to impose on the foolish. hence, good alexis, go to, worship the sylvan pans, satyrs and dianas, etc. for the great philosophers will tell you about the dream of numa pompilius, and narrate to you the story of his concubinage with the nymph aegeria, and they will wish by this very account to bind you to his worship, and as a reward for this pious work, because of the reconciliation and favor of those invisible powers, they will demand for their own support, the flower of your flock and your labor as a sacrifice. and hence, since titius worshipped pan, alexis, the fauns, rome, the gods of war, athens, the unknown gods, is it to be supposed that those good men learned from the light of reason certain tales which were the idle inventions and ideas of philosophers? not to attack too harshly the religion of others. and why did not this reason also tell that they were mistaken in their worship, in foolishly worshipping statues and stones, as if they were the dwelling places of their gods? but is it indeed to be supposed that since good women bestowed such worship on francis, ignatius and dominicus and such men, reason teaches that at least some one among holy men should be worshipped? that they learn from the light of nature the worship of some superior power no longer visible, although, nevertheless, such are the fabrications of our priests of leisure for the more splendid increase of their own means of support. therefore, there is no god? suppose there is (a god.) therefore, should he be worshipped? but this does not follow, because he desires worship as far as he has inscribed it in the heart. what more then? we should then follow the guide of our nature. but this is known to be imperfect. in what respects? for is it sufficient enough to maintain the society of men peacefully? because other religious people, following revelation, do not pass more tranquil lives? but is it rather because god demands of us especially a more precise idea of god? but nevertheless you who promise this of any religion whatsoever, do not supply it. for any revelation of what god is, is far more unintelligible than before. and how will you make this clearer by the conception of the intellect, since he limits every intellect? what do you think of these things? no one, i say, has a knowledge of god, moreover eye has not seen him, and he dwells in unapproachable light, and from the time of revelation till now, in allegory. but i suppose every one knows how clear an allegory is. wherefore do you indeed believe that god makes such demands? or is it from the desire of the intellect to surmount the limitations of its own capacity in order to comprehend everything more perfectly than it does, or from something else? who of you is there who speaks from special revelation? good god! what a hodge-podge of revelations. do you point to the oracles of the heathen? antiquity has already held them up to ridicule. to the testimony of your priests? i can show you priests who will contradict them. you may protest in your turn, but who will be the judge? who will put an end to these disputes? do you call attention to the writings of moses, the prophets and apostles? i bring to your notice the koran, which says that, according to a new revelation, these are corrupt and its author boasts of having settled by the sword the corruptions and altercations of christians as did moses those of the heathen. for by the sword mahomet and moses subjugated palestine, each instructed by great miracles. and the writings of the sectarians as well as of the vedas and the brahmins years back, are in opposition, to say nothing of the sinenses. [ ] you, who in some remote spot in europe are disputing about such things disregard or deny these writings. you yourself should see very clearly that with equal ease they deny your writings. and what proofs not miraculous, would be sufficient to convince the inhabitants of the world, if it were evident from the first three books of veda, that the world was contained in and came from an egg of a scorpion, and that the earth and first elements of things was placed on the head of a bull, if some envious son of the gods had not stolen these first three volumes. in our times this would be laughed at; and among those people there would not be this strange argument to establish their religion if it did not have its origin in the brains of these priests. and whence else came those many immense volumes concerning the gods of the pagans and those wagon loads of lies? moses acted very wisely in first becoming skilled in the arts of the egyptians, that is in the mastery of astrology and magic, and then by cruel war driving from their homes the petty kings of palestine, and pretending a conference like that of numa pompilius. leading his army, confident of their fortunes, into the possessions of peaceful men; in order that he, forsooth, might be a great general and his brother high priest, and that he himself might be a leader and dictator. but of what a people! others by milder means and by pulling the wool over the eyes of the people under cover of profound sanctity (i am afraid to mention other things,) and by the pious deceits of members of their sect in secret assemblies, first got control of the ignorant country people and then, because of the growing strength of the new religion, they got control of those who feared for themselves, and hated a leader of the people. at length another eager for war, by feigning miracles attached to himself the more ferocious people of asia, who had suffered ill treatment at the hands of commanders of the christians, and who, like moses, with the promise of many victories and favors, he subjugated the warring and peaceful leaders of asia, and established his religion by the sword. the first is considered the reformer of the heathen, the second of judaism and the third the reformer of both. it remains to be seen who will be the reformer of mahomet and mahometanism. doubtless then, the credulity of men is likely to be imposed on, and to take advantage of this under the pretense of some gain to be derived, is rightly called imposture. it would be too long and tedious to show more at length in this place, the nature and forms of what goes under the name of imposture, but we must observe, that, even if natural religion is granted and the worship of god is right as far as it is said to be commanded by nature; that up to this time the leader of every new religion has been suspected of imposture, especially since it is evident to all and is obvious from what has been said or can be said, how many deceptions have been used in propagating any religion. it remains then unanswerable according to the previous argument, that religion and the worship of god according to the promptings of natural light, is consistent with truth and justice; but if any one wishes to establish any new principles in religion, either new or displeasing, and that by the authority of invisible powers, it will evidently be necessary for him to show his power of reforming, unless he wishes to be considered by all an impostor. since, not under the conclusions of natural religion, nor under the authority of special revelation, he offers opposition to the ideas of all. moreover he should be so upright in life and character that the people may believe him worthy of being associated with so high and holy a power, who does not approve of anything impure. nor can merely his own confession, nor the holiness of a past life, nor any miracles--that is extraordinary deeds--prove this; for this is common rather among the skillful and the deceivers of men, lying hypocrites who pursue their own advantage and glory in this way. for it is not worth considering that some reached such a degree of madness that they voluntarily sought death, in order that it might be supposed that they despised and conquered everything, like different ones among the ancient philosophers. nor is it to be supposed that they were upheld by special divine powers in that which they did because of foolish fancies and fond hopes of mountains of gold, rising from a defective judgment. for they did not give the matter the proper consideration, nor did the real teachers, for in order that you may come to a fair decision about them, i have said not only is their own testimony not sufficient, but in order to reach the truth of the matter, they must be compared with one another; and other witnesses with them, and then their acquaintances and friends, and then strangers, then friends and enemies; and then after the testimony is all gathered in, that of each teacher concerning himself, and then that of others must be compared. and if we do not know the witnesses, we must consult the witnesses of the witnesses, and so on; besides instituting an investigation as to your powers of distinguishing from the true and the false involved in such or other circumstances. especially in similar ones, inquiring, moreover, whence you desired data to learn the truth, for this purpose comparing the judgment of others, as to what they infer from such an investigation or from the testimony of witnesses. and from these data it will be permissible to infer whether he who makes this claim, is a true messenger of the revelation of divine will and whether his teachings should be gradually adopted. but at this point we must be very careful not to get into a circle. whenever the nature of important religions may be such that one supplants another, as that of moses, paganism, that of mahomet, christianity,--the later one may not always nor in every particular cast aside the earlier, but only in certain parts, to such an extent that the latter is founded on the former, it will be necessary to investigate carefully not only either the last, or the middle, or the first, but all, especially since the charge of imposture is brought by every sect. so the ancients were charged with it by christ, because they corrupted the law; the christians by mahomet, because they corrupted the gospels, a fact not to be wondered at, inasmuch as one sect of christians charges the other with corrupting texts of the new testament, so that it can [not] be ascertained whether he who is offered as an example is a teacher of a true religion or how far those who claim to have been given authority, should be listened to. for in an investigation no sect must be overlooked, but each must be compared with the rest without any prejudice. for if one is overlooked, that perhaps, is the very one which is nearer the truth. thus, those who followed moses, have followed the truth according to the christians also, but they ought not to have paused at that point, but should examine the truth of the christian religion also. each sect maintains that its own teachers are the best and that it has had and is daily having proof of this, and that there are no better ones, so that either every one must believe it, which would be absurd, or no one, which is the safer plan, until the true way is known, though no sect should be disregarded in a comparison. there is no need of presenting the objection that it is known that all mathematicians agree that twice two is four. for it is not a similar case, since no one has been known to doubt whether twice two is four, while on the contrary religions agree neither in end, beginning nor middle. suppose that i do not know the true way of salvation; i follow, however, the brahmins or the koran. will not moses and the rest say: what wrong have we done you that you thus reject us, though we are better and nearer the truth? what reply shall we make? i believed in mahomet or the gymnosophistes [ ], in whose teachings i was born and brought up, and from them i learned that your religion and that of the christians which followed, have long since decayed and grown corrupt, and are still misleading. will they not reply that they do not know anything about the others and that these do not know anything about the true guide to salvation, since they know that those who are corruptors of the people are impostors, feigning miracles, or by lies pulling the wool over the eyes of the people. nor should faith be thus simply given to one man or one sect, rejecting all others without a complete and proper investigation. for with equal right the ethiopian, who has not left his own land, says that there are no men under the sun except those of a black color. moreover, this precaution also should be taken in the investigation of other sects, that equal care should be used in an investigation of all, and while one is explained with great pains, the other should not be slighted, because one claim or another at first sight seems to be wrong, or because of the evil reports of gossip concerning the leader of that sect, while other reports are cast aside. for that should not be set down as doctrine or indubitable testimony, which the first vagabond that comes along asserts about a hostile religion. indeed, with equal right on account of common gossip and the mere mention of a name, the christian religion was to some an object of horror, and to others an object of scorn. with the latter because the christians worshipped the head of an ass, and with the former because they ate and drank their god, so that at length the report became current that to be a christian was to be a deadly enemy of god and men; when, nevertheless, such tales were either things which had been misunderstood or skillfully told lies, which were then confirmed, and having some foundation, spread abroad because an enemy of that religion had absolutely no intercourse, or no proper intercourse, with the christians themselves, or the more learned among them, but believed the first ignorant person or deserter or enemy of that religion. such a method of investigation being decided upon, it would always be a matter of great difficulty. what shall we say about women, what about children, what about the majority of the masses of the people? all children will be excluded from a feeling of security in regard to their religion, and the majority of women to whom even those matters which have been most clearly explained by the leaders of any religion, as far as can be done, are obscure: also from their manner of life you rightly perceive that with the exception of a very few superior ones, they have no accurate powers of comprehending mysteries of such a character, to say nothing of the countless numbers of insignificant persons and country people for whom the question of their own support is the most important subject for the exercise of their powers of reason, while other matters they accept or reject in good faith. doubtless there is only a very small part of the world, who weigh all religions, compare their own carefully with others and correctly distinguish true reasons from false, in details in which deception may creep in; but the majority rather adopt the faith of others, of teachers of sacred matters especially, whose knowledge and powers of judgment in sacred matters are considered noteworthy. and so in any religion this is done, especially by those who can not read and write or do not have anything to read. but it should have been observed that in this matter it is not sufficient that the teachers of any religion should have the power, because of very exact powers of judgment and avowed experience, of distinguishing the true from the false. indeed it ought to be very certain to others, with powers of judgment no less exact, that those teachers have not only the ability to distinguish the true from the false, but the desire as well, and indeed we ought to be especially certain that he who professes such a knowledge and desire is neither deceived nor wishes to be. and what choice shall we make here among so many teachers so much at variance in even one eminent sect? for when we look at our comrades and associates, who disagree on many subjects, although they are most friendly in other respects, one of the two disputants will maintain his opinion on account of some defect, either because he has not a correct understanding of the matter, and lacks the power of judgment, or because he does not wish to give up, and so does not desire to confess the truth. but although it might be matters of secondary importance in which this happened, nevertheless the result will be that they will be mistrusted in other matters also. each doubtless is in possession of one truth, and he who gives this up in one place, either from a defect of judgment or a wrong desire is deservedly mistrusted of doing the same thing in other cases. therefore, that you may judge of the ability and honesty of any teacher in religion, first, it is necessary for you to be just as able as he; for otherwise he will be able to impose on you very easily, and, moreover, if he is unknown to you, he will need the testimony of others, and these again of others, and so on indefinitely; not only in regard to his truthfulness, that he really taught such doctrines, but in regard to his honesty, that he did this without deceit. and the same method must at once be employed in regard to the witnesses of his honesty and his teachings. but where will you place an end to this? it is not enough that such discussions have already taken place among others; you must consider how well this has been done. for the ordinary proofs which are set forth are neither conclusive nor manifest, and prove doubtful matters by others more doubtful, so that, like those who run in a circle, you return to the starting point. in order that it may be manifest whether any one is a teacher of a true religion or an impostor, there is need either of personal knowledge, which we can not have in the case of the three great founders of the religions of judaism, christianity and mahometanism, inasmuch as they lived in far distant places and died long before our time; or of the knowledge of others, which, if any one imparts it to you, we call testimony. between these, there is still another way of knowing any one, namely through his own writings, which may be called one's own testimony concerning himself. and concerning christ, there is no such testimony; concerning moses, it is doubtful whether there is; concerning mahomet, there is the koran. the testimony of others is of two classes--that of friends and that of enemies. between these extremes there is no third class, according to the saying, "who is not with me is against me." mahomet in his writings assumes and attributes to himself the same divine qualities as did moses and another. moreover the friends of mahomet and members of his sect wrote the same things concerning him as did the members of the sects of the others concerning their masters, and the enemies of the others wrote just as disparagingly of them as their friends did of mahomet. as for the rest, the testimony of any one concerning himself is too unreliable to inspire implicit confidence, and is of no consequence except, perchance, to perplex a thoughtless hearer. the assertions of friends, who doubtless unanimously repeat the sayings of their masters, are of the same nature. nor should the enemies of any one be heeded on account of their prejudices. but as it is, in spite of these facts, it is for such trivial reasons, which are confirmed only by the master's own boasts, the assertions of friends, or the calumnies of enemies, that every follower of any one of the three assumes that the claims of his enemy are based wholly on imposture, while the teachings of his master are founded wholly on truth. nevertheless mahomet is undoubtedly considered an impostor among us; but why? not from his own testimony or that of his friends but from that of his enemies. then, on the contrary, among the mahometans he is considered a most holy prophet; but why? from his own testimony, but especially from that of his friends. whoever considers moses an impostor or a holy teacher employs the same method of reasoning. and there is equal reason in the case of mahomet as in the case of the others, either for charging him with imposture or for answering that charge, although, nevertheless, the former are considered holy, while he is considered a scoundrel, contrary to all the demands of justice. to put it in the scholastic manner, then, the following conclusions are most firmly established: whenever there is the same reason as in the case of mahomet for charging any person with imposture or for answering that charge, they should be placed in the same category. and for example, in the case of moses, there is the same reason, therefore justice should be demanded just as in the case of mahomet, nor should he be considered an impostor. proof of minor premise. (a.) in regard to the rebuttal of the charge of imposture: this is based on the above-mentioned testimony not only of mahomet concerning himself in his well-known writings, but on that of every one of his friends concerning their master, and hence, it logically follows: (i.) whatever value the testimony of moses' friends has in defending him on the charge of imposture, the testimony of mahomet's friends ought to have the same value. and whatever the value of the acquittal, though their favorable testimony, etc., etc. therefore, etc. (ii.) and whatever value the books of moses have for this purpose, the same value the koran has also. and so, etc. therefore, etc. moreover, the mussulmen, from the very books of the new testament (although according to these very persons, these books have been much corrupted in other respects,) draw various arguments even in support of their mahomet, and especially that prediction of christ concerning the future paraclete. [ ] they maintain that he came and exposed the corruption of the christians, and established a new covenant. and although at other times the koran is charged with many silly, nay impious tales, all these nevertheless, can be explained in a spiritual sense or smoothed over in other ways, since the rest of the teachings insist on nothing but extreme sanctity and a stringent mode of morals, but especially on temperance and abstinence from wine. and to the objection frequently raised that wine is the gift of god, the reply can be made that so also are poisons, and yet we are not supposed to drink them. the further objection often made that the spirit of the koran is too carnal, and fills eternal life with pleasures of the world and the flesh, polygamy moreover being so indiscriminately permitted, it is not of such weight that it can not be confuted, since moses also permitted polygamy and in the new testament life eternal admits of banquets, e. g., you will sit down with abraham and isaac, etc., etc. again, i shall not taste wine except in the kingdom of my father. it is said that all those pleasures mentioned in the song of solomon, which is, of course, also instanced, are not wrong, and when explained in a spiritual sense imply no wrong, although the same thing is not said of the koran. and if we are too severely critical of the words of the koran, we ought to employ the same severity of criticism against the writings of moses and others. moreover the arguments which are offered from moses himself in answer to the charge of imposture, do not seem reasonable nor of sufficient weight. (i.) our knowledge of the intercourse moses had with god depends on his own testimony and that of his friends, and hence such evidence can have no more weight than similar arguments of the mussulmen concerning the conference that mahomet had with gabriel; and what is more, this intercourse of moses, according to moses himself (if all those sayings are moses', which are commonly attributed to him) is open to the suspicion of imposture, as is to be shown below. (ii.) no one indeed who is acquainted with the many very grave crimes of moses, will be able to say easily or at least justly, that his holiness of life can not easily be matched. his crimes then are the following: (a.) fraud, which none but his friends have palliated, but they are not impartial judges of the matter; nor does that commendatory passage of luke in the acts of the apostles form any apology, for there is dispute as to the honesty and veracity of that witness. (b.) the stirring up of rebellion; for it can not be proved that this was due to a command of god, nay, the contrary is clear, since elsewhere moses is urged to forbid resistance to tyrants. (c.) wars, although murder is contrary to the v. and vii. (?vi.) [ ] commandments of moses himself, unrestrained plunder, etc., etc.; just as the high priest in india, or mahomet in his land, offering the command of god as a pretext, drove from their territory the former possessors. moses slew thousands and gave them over to slaughter in order to insure salvation to himself and his people. (d.) the teaching concerning the taking of the property of others under the pretense of a loan. (e.) the prayer to god in which moses desired to die eternally for his people, although this petition asked of god such things as would destroy his essence. see exodus xxxii, , . [ ] (f.) neglect of the commands of god in regard to circumcision (exodus iv, , , ,) [ ] and finally, (g.) the chief of moses' crimes, the extreme and stupid incredulity of one who was chosen to perform so many miracles by the power of god, and who nevertheless on account of his wavering faith was censured by god himself severely and with the threat of punishment. (numbers xx, ). [ ] as to (b.) the proof of the other argument, namely, the charge of imposture, it can be said: we believe that mahomet was an impostor, not from our personal knowledge, as was pointed out above, but from the testimony, not of his friends, but of his enemies. but all such are anti-mahometans, according to the saying "who is not with me is against me," etc., etc.: hence follows the conclusion: whatever weight the testimony of enemies has in the case of one, that it ought to have in the case of the other also. otherwise we shall be unjust in condemning one from the testimony of enemies and not the other; if this were done, all justice would be at an end. and in the case of mahomet, the testimony of enemies has such weight, that he is considered an impostor, therefore, etc., etc. furthermore, i say that reasons for suspecting moses of imposture can be elicited not only from external, but from internal evidence, whereby imposture can be proved by his own testimony as well as by that of others, albeit, his followers, although there is still dispute. (i.) whether the books, which are said to be those of moses, are his or (ii.) those of compilers, (iii.) or those of esdras, especially, and (iv.) whether they were written in the samaritan, or (v.) the real hebrew language; and (vi.) if the latter, whether we can understand that language. all these matters are doubtful for many reasons, and especially it can be shown from the first chapters of genesis that we can not correctly interpret that language. i confess i am unwilling to concern myself with these points, but i wish to discuss the man. i. from moses' own testimony and indeed (a.) concerning his life and character which we have considered above, and which, if any blame is attached to mahomet on account of the fierce wars he waged, especially against the innocent, is equally blamable, and in other respects does not seem at all different from mahomet's. (b.) concerning the authority of his own teaching. and here applies what was said above about moses' intercourse with god, which moses indeed boasted of but evidently with too great exaggeration. for if any one boasts of intercourse with god of an impossible nature, his intercourse is properly doubted and moses, etc. therefore, etc. it is proved because he boasts of having seen that of which in the old and in the new testament afterward, it is very often said that no eye has seen (namely) god face to face. exodus xxxii. . numbers xii. . [ ] thus he saw god ( ) in his own form, not in a vision nor in a dream ( ), but face to face as friend to friend when he spoke directly to him. but any vision, which ( ) is like that of friends speaking face to face, directly to one another, ( ) like that of the blessed in the other life, is properly called and considered a vision of god. and moses, etc. therefore, etc. the minor premise is proved from the passages previously cited and from the words of the apostle: then indeed face to face, etc., and there is the same argument in the passages of moses and in that of the apostle. and yet among christians the belief is most firmly established that no unjust person can see god in this life. and in the above passage of exodus xxxiii. , [ ] it is expressly added: you will not be able to see my face. these words god addressed to moses and they are in direct contradiction to the passages previously cited, so that these claims can be explained in no other way than by saying that they were added by a thoughtless compiler, but by so doing the whole is rendered doubtful. (c.) concerning the teachings of moses, which relate either to the laws or the gospel. among the laws, all of which for the sake of brevity i can not now consider, the decalogue is most important, being called the special work of god and said to have been written on mount horeb. but it is evident it was devised by moses before it was written by god, because these commands are not in themselves characterized by the perfection of god, since ( ) they are either superfluous, namely the last three, arguing from the words of christ in math. v, [ ] undoubtedly relating to the former, while the ix should not be separated from the x, and they will likewise be superfluous ( ) or they are defective. for where are these commandments: thou shalt not desire to have other gods, nor desire to curse god, nor desire to desecrate the sabbath, nor to injure thy parents, and similar ones? and is it to be presumed that god would forbid the lesser sins of coveting a neighbor's house, land and property especially, and in an order so extraordinary, and not the greater? as to the teaching of moses concerning the gospel, he establishes a very foolish and untrustworthy sign of the future great prophet, or christ. deut. xviii, , , [ ] since this sign makes faith impossible for a long time. from this dictum it follows that christ, having predicted the fall of jerusalem, ought not to have been considered a true prophet while that prophecy was as yet unfulfilled (nor should daniel, until his prophecy had been fulfilled), and so those who lived in the interval between the time of christ and the overthrow of judea, can not be blamed for not believing in him, although paul hurled anathemas at those who did not attach themselves to christ before the fall. whatever sign, then, permits people for a long time to believe what they please with impunity, can not proceed from god, but is justly subject to suspicion. and this sign was given, etc., therefore, etc. what is said concerning the fulfillment of other prophecies is no objection. for it is the special and genuine sign of that great prophet, that his predictions are fulfilled. wherefore, naturally, previous to this fulfillment he could not have been considered such a prophet. the other absurd conclusion which evidently follows from this passage, is this: that although this sign ought to have been the proof of the divine inspiration of all prophets, in the case of certain prophets who made predictions, indefinite indeed, but in words not admitting a moral interpretation (such as soon, swiftly, near, etc.,) that sign can by no means be found, e. g. many predict the last day of the world and peter said that that day was at hand; therefore, so far, until it comes it will be impossible to consider him a true prophet. for such is the express requirement moses makes in the passage cited. (d.) concerning the histories of moses. but if the koran is charged with containing many fables, doubtless in genesis there are many stories to arouse the suspicions of the thoughtful reader: as the creation of man from the dust of the earth, the inspiration of the breath of life, the creation of eve from the rib of the man, serpents speaking and seducing human beings, who were very wise and well aware that the serpent was possessed by the father of lies, the eating of an apple which was to bring punishment upon the whole world, which would make finite one of the attributes of god, namely his clemency (the attributes of god being identical with his essence), as the redemption of the fallen would make finite the wrath of god, and so god himself: for the wrath of god is god himself; men eight or nine hundred years old; the passage of the animals into the ark of noah, the tower of babel, the confusion of tongues, etc., etc. these and a thousand other stories can not fail to impress the investigating freethinker as being similar to the fables, especially of the rabbins since the jewish race is very much addicted to the use of fables; nor at all inconsistent with other works, to mention those of ovid, the vedas, those of the sinenses and the brahmins of india, who tell that a beautiful daughter born from an egg bore the world, and similar absurdities. but moses especially seems to arrest our attention because he represents god as contradicting himself, namely, saying that all things were good and yet that it was not good for adam to be alone. whence it follows that there was something apart from adam that was not good and so could injure the good condition of adam, while, nevertheless, the solitude of adam itself was the work of god, since he had created goodness not only of the essences but also of the qualities. for all things were good in that quality in which god had created them. i adduce as proof: it is impossible for any work created by god not to be good. and the solitude of adam, etc., etc. therefore, etc. whoever enters upon the study of the genealogies of the old testament finds many difficulties in moses. i shall not now cite all, contenting myself with merely this one example, since paul, i. tim. i., , [ ] has taught that genealogies are useless, and the study of them unprofitable, nay, to be avoided. of what use were so many separate, nay, so oft times repeated, genealogies? and there is a remarkable example to arouse suspicion at least of the corruption of the text or of the carelessness of compilers, in the case of the wives of esau and the different things said of them. wives of esau. [ ]genesis xxvi, : judith, daughter of berit, the hittite. basnath, daughter of elon, the hittite. genesis xxviii, : mahalaad, daughter of ishmael, sister of nabajoth, who is mentioned after the two former. genesis xxxvi, : ada, daughter of elon, the hittite. akalibama, c. i. basnath, daughter of ishmael, sister of nabajoth. the one who is called ada in genesis xxxvi, is called basnath in gen. xxvi, namely, the daughter of elon, the hittite, and the one who is called basnath in gen. xxxvi, is called mahalaad in gen. xxviii, namely, the sister of nabajoth, although, nevertheless, mahalaad, in the passage cited in gen. xxviii, is said to have been married after judith and basnath, previously mentioned in gen. xxvi. i do not yet see how these names are to be reconciled. and these and similar passages increase the suspicion that the writings of moses which we have, have been put together by compilers and that errors in writing have crept in at some time. finally the most conclusive argument against the authenticity of moses is the excessive tautology and useless repetition, with always the same amount of difference, as if different passages had been collected from different authors. (ii.) to prove that moses is subject to suspicion from the testimony, not of his enemies only, but from that of those who openly professed to be his followers and disciples. and this testimony is (g.) of peter, acts xv. , [ ] calling the yoke of moses insupportable: and hence either god must be a tyrant, which would be inconsistent with his nature, or peter speaks falsely, or the laws of moses are not divine. (h.) of paul always speaking slightingly of the laws of moses, which he would not do if he considered them divine. thus gal. iv. [ ] he calls them (a.) bondage v. , , but who would have so called the laws of god. (b.) beggarly commands v. . [ ] (c.) v. , [ ] he writes: cast out the bondwoman and her son. hagar, the bondwoman, is the covenant of mount sinai, which is the law of moses according to v. . [ ] but who would tolerate the saying, cast out the law of god and its children, and followers, although paul himself, as he asserts here and in the following chapter gal. iv. , , [ ] does not permit timothy to be circumcised. act xvi. [ ] (d.) he calls the law a dead letter, and what else does he not call it? ii. cor. iii., - [ ] and following. likewise he did not consider its glory worth considering. c. v., . who would say such things of the most holy law of god? if it is just as divine as the gospel it ought to have equal glory, etc., etc. the testimony of those who are outside of the jewish or christian church, is etc., etc. tantum. cornell university library. in the library of cornell university, at ithaca, n. y., is a large collection of spinoza manuscripts and printed books by the same author. the collection was left to the library, and is known as the "strauss collection." in the collection is a manuscript copy of "la vie et l'esprit de m. benoit de spinosa," which includes "le traité des trois imposteurs." this particular manuscript is much longer than any of the printed editions of traité des trois imposteurs, and includes several more chapters than another manuscript which is in same library. the printed editions usually contain six chapters, although the edition à philadelphie, , alluded to on pages - , contains nine chapters. none of the printed editions that i have seen contains a chapter entitled numa pompilius. the manuscript in cornell library has six additional chapters more than our manuscript, , which chapters are entitled: . religions. . of the diversity of religions. . divisions of christians. . the superstitious,--of the superstition and credulity of the people. . of the origin of monarchies. . of legislators and politicians, and how they serve themselves with religion. these chapters being but an elaboration of the matters and ideas contained in our english translation.--a. n. translations of latin found in the text. p. , paragraph , "atheismus triumphatus." atheism destroyed. p. , paragraph , "perini del vago, equitis de malta, epistolium ad batavum in brittania hospitem de tribus impostoribus," ( greek words omitted). epistle to batavus, a friend in britain, about the three impostors (the pamphleteers, sycophants and so-called doctors). p. , line , "ridiculum et imposturae in omni hominum religione, scriptio paradoxa, quam ex autographo gallico victoris amadeo verimontii ob summam rei dignitatem in latinum sermonem transtulit." what is ridiculous, and the impostures in every religion of mankind, a strange writing, which he translated into latin from the original french of victor amadeus verimontius, on account of the great worth of the subject matter. p. , line , "quaedam deficiunt s. fragmentum de libro de tribus impostoribus." certain things are missing. his fragment of the book about the three impostors. p. , line , "de imposturis religionum breve. compendium descriptum ab exemplari manuscripto quod in bibliotheca j. fred. mayeri, berolini, publice distracta deprehensum et a principe eugenio de sabaudio, imperialibus redemtum fuit." an abstract about the impostures of religions. an abridgment copied from the original manuscript which, at the dispersal of the library of j. fred. mayer of berlin, was discovered and repurchased by prince eugene de sabaudio for imperials. p. , line , "communes namque demonstrationes, quae publicantur, nec certae, nec evidentes, sunt, et res dubias per alias saepe magias dubias probant, adeo ut exemplo eorum, qui circulum currunt, ad terminum semper redeant, a quo currere inceperant. finis." for the ordinary arguments which are set forth, are not established, nor are they evident, and prove doubtful matters by others often much more doubtful, just like those who run in a circle, and always return to the starting point. end. p. , last lines, "quamvis omnium hominem intersit nosse veritatem, rari tamen boni illi qui eam norunt," etc. although it is to the interest of all men to know the truth, nevertheless those few good men who know it, etc. "qui veritates amantes sunt, multum solatii inde capient, et hi sunt, quibus placere gestimus, nil curantes mancipia, quae prejudicia oraculorum--infallibilium loco venerantur." those who are lovers of the truth will derive much comfort from this, and those are the ones whom we are anxious to please, not caring for those servile persons who reverence prejudices as infallible oracles. p. , paragraph , "de impostura religionum compendium s. liber de tribus impostoribus." treatise about the imposture of religions. his book about the three impostors. p. , paragraph , "homo sum, nihil humania me alienum puto." i am a man, i consider nothing human alien to me. page , th paragraph. latin orthography corrected: "quod de tribus famosissimis nationum deceptoribus in ordinem. jussu. meo digessit doctissimus ille vir, quocum sermonem de illa re in museo meo habuisti exscribi curavi atque codicem illum stilo aeque, vero ac puro scriptum ad te ut primum mitto, etenim ipsius perlegendi te accipio cupidissimum." this treatise about the three most famous impostors of the world, in accordance with my instructions was put in order by that scholar with whom you had the conversation concerning that matter in my library, i had it copied, and that ms. written in a style equally genuine and simple. i send you as soon as possible, for i am sure you are very eager to read it. p. - , last paragraph, (latin orthography corrected), "i. liber de nat. deor. qui deos esse dixerunt tanta sunt in varietate et dissentione constituti ut eorum molestum sit dinumerare sententias. alterum fieri profecto potest ut eorum nulla, alterum certe non potest ut plus unum vera fit. summi quos in republica obtinuerat honores orator ille romanus, eaque quam servare famam studiote curabat, in causa fuere quod in condone deos non ausus sit negare quamquam in contesta philosophorum, etc." i. book about the nature of the gods. "those who have said that there are gods, are characterized by such a variety of ideas and difference of belief, that it would be difficult to enumerate their opinions. "on the one hand it might indeed happen that not one of their opinions was true, but on the other hand, certainly not more than one can be true." the great honors which that famous roman orator had gained in the state, and that reputation, which he took the most zealous care to maintain, were the reason why in a public speech he dared not deny the gods, although in a discussion of philosophers, etc. p. , last paragraph, "de poteste imperiali,"--of the imperial power. p. , tantum--so far. quixotism. did you ever attend a meeting of the society for the--perhaps i had better not mention the name of the society, lest i tread on your favorite quixotism. suffice it to say that it has a noble purpose. it aims at nothing less than the complete transformation of human society, by the use of means which, to say the least, seem quite inadequate. after the minutes of the last meeting have been read, and the objects of the society have been once more stated with much detail, there is an opportunity for discussion from the floor. "perhaps there is some one who may give some new suggestions, or who may desire to ask a question." you have observed what happens to the unfortunate questioner. what a sorry exhibition he makes of himself! no sooner does he open his mouth than every one recognizes his intellectual feebleness. he seems unable to grasp the simplest ideas. he stumbles at the first premise, and lies sprawling at the very threshold of the argument. "if what i have taken for granted be true," says the chairman, "do not all the fine things i have been telling you about follow necessarily?" "but," murmurs the questioner, "the things you take for granted are just what trouble me. they don't correspond to my experience." "poor, feeble minded questioner!" cry the members of the society, "to think that he is not able to take things for granted! and then to set up his experience against our constitution and by-laws!" the gentle reader--quixotism--samuel m. crothers. contents. page. introduction bibliography dissertation letter of frederic the emperor, to otho, the illustrious treatise. god, of (originally secs. - , later, chap. i.) reasons which have caused mankind to create for themselves an invisible being which has been commonly called god (originally secs. - and x-xi, later chap. ii.) god, what is (originally secs. x-xi, later, secs. - , chap. iii.) religions, what the word signifies, and how and why such a great number have been introduced in the world (originally secs. i-xxiii, later, secs. - , chap. iv.) moses, of (originally secs. ix-x, later, secs. - , chap. v.) numa pompilius, of (originally secs. xi, later, chap. vi.) jesus christ, of (originally secs. xii, later, chap. vii.) jesus christ, of the policy of (originally secs. xiii-xvi, later, secs. - , chap. viii.) jesus christ, of the morals of (originally secs. xvii-xviii, later, secs. - , chap. ix.) jesus christ, of the divinity of (originally secs, xix-xxi, later, secs. - , chap. x.) mahomet (originally secs. xxii-xxiii, later, secs. - , chap. xi.) truths, sensible and obvious (original secs. i-vi.) soul, of the (original secs. i-vii.) demons, of spirits called (original secs. i-vii.) appendicitis mahomet, edition "en suisse," de tribus impostoribus, edition mdiic (a literal translation of latin reprint by e. weller, .) cornell university translations of latin in the text the gentle reader--quixotism errata. p. , d paragraph, st line, werner should read weller. p. , line , sermonen should read sermonem. original mss., a. d. , contains-- dissertation, pp. - , words french. treatise, pp. - , words french. ----- total, words. weller's reprint, , edition, contains words latin. notes [ ] the history of the three infamous impostors of this age. . padre ottomano, a pretended son of the sultan of turkey who flourished about , and who latterly, under the above title, became a dominican friar. . mahomed bei, alias joannes michael cigala, who masqueraded as a prince of the ottoman family, a descendant of the emperor solyman the magnificent, and in other characters about . . sabbatai sevi, the pretended messiah of the jews, "the only and first-borne son of god," who amused the jews and turks about . [ ] la vie et l'esprit de m. benoit de spinosa was published without the author's name, in amsterdam . in the "preface du copiste" it is stated that the author of it is not known, but that if a conjecture might be permitted it might be said, perhaps with certitude, that the book is the work of the late mr. lucas, so famous for his quintessences and for his manners and way of living. kuno fischer, in his descartes und seine schule. zweiter theil, heidelberg, , p. , says: "the real author of the work is not known with entire certainty; probably the author was lucas, a physician at the hague, notorious in his own day; others name as author a certain vroese." freudenthal, in his die lebensgeschichte spinoza's. leipzig, , writing of the various conjectures as to the authorship of the book, states that w. meyer has lately sought to prove that johan louckers, a hague attorney, was the author, but that the authorship had not been settled. oettinger in his bibliographie biographie universelle, bruxelles , p. , gives lucas vroese as the author. it has also been suggested that lucas and vroese were two men and together wrote the book. the authority for ascribing the book to vroese, of whose life no particulars seem to have been recorded, appears to be the following passage in the dictionnaire historique, par prosper marchand, à la haye, , v. ., p. : "a la fin d'une copie manuscrit de ce traité que j'ai vûe et lûe, on lui donne pour véritable auteur a mr. vroese, conseiller de la cour de brabant à la haie, dont aymon et rousset retouchèrent le langage; et que ce dernier y ajouta la dissertation ou réponse depuis imprimée chez scheurleer." the name "vroese" appears at the side of the colophon at end of our translation, but probably as a reference only. [ ] this is probably a latin edition of the original manuscript from which our translation was made.--ed. [ ] see translation chap. "of god," first two lines. [ ] disraeli's curiosities of literature. title, "literary forgeries." "the duc de la valliere and the abbe de st. leger, once concerted together to supply the eager purchaser of literary rarities with a copy of "de tribus impostoribus," a book, by the date, pretended to have been printed in , though probably a modern forgery of . the title of such a book had long existed by rumor, but never was a copy seen by man. works printed with this title have all been proved to be modern fabrications--a copy however of the 'introuvable' original was sold at the duc de la valliere's sale. the history of this volume is curious. the duc and the abbe having manufactured a text had it printed in the old gothic character, under the title 'de tribus impostoribus.' they proposed to put the great bibliopobet, de bure, in good humor, whose agency would sanction the imposition. they were afterwards to dole out copies at louis each, which would have been a reasonable price for a book which no one ever saw! they invited de bure to dinner, flattered and cajoled him, and, as they imagined at the moment they had wound him up to their pitch, they exhibited their manufacture--the keen-eyed glance of the renowned cataloguer of the 'bibliographie instructive' instantly shot like lightning over it, and like lightning, destroyed the whole edition. he not only discovered the forgery but reprobated it! he refused his sanction; and the forging duc and abbe, in confusion suppressed the 'livre introuvable'; but they owed a grudge to the honest bibliographer and attempted to write down the work whence the de bures derive their fame." [ ] the names are noted on title page in pencil. [ ] the french nation recognize the supreme being, the immortality of the soul, and the freedom of worship. [ ] treatise of the dominant religions. [ ] in old prints moses is always depicted with horns on his forehead. [ ] when they weep at rome, they do not laugh in paris. [ ] there is a measure in everything. [ ] as to the printing of the book they can bring forward no proof whatever of its having being done prior to this date ( ) and it is impossible to conceive that frederick, surrounded as he was by enemies, would have circulated a work which gave a fair opportunity of proclaiming his infidelity. it is probable therefore that there were only two copies, the original one and that sent to otho of bavaria. j. l. r. l. [ ] this phrase is frequently employed to express ecclesiastical criticism. its first application however had a more pungent meaning. the individual here alluded to having boldly assailed the errors of the church was attacked one evening by an assassin. fortunately the blow did not prove fatal; but the weapon (a stylus, or dagger, which is also the latin name for a pen) having been left in the wound, on his recovery he wore it in his girdle labelled, "the theological stylus," or pen of the church. the trenchant powers of this instrument have more frequently been employed to repress truth, than to refute argument. [ ] sep. , . [ ] frederick barbarossa was emperor of germany in and was drowned during crusade in syria june , . he created henry the lion (? henry vi.) duke of bavaria in , expelled him in , and henry died . otho the great, count of witelspach, was made duke of bavaria , and died . he was the grandfather of otho the illustrious, who gained the palatinate and was assassinated in . he married the daughter of henry the lion about . henry vi succeeded to the empire on death of his father, frederick barbarossa, , and died --that is if henry the lion and henry vi are identical. frederick ii, son of henry vi, began to reign (?) , and was living . the succession of popes during the period - (haydn's dict. of dates), was as follows: anastasius iv, , adrian iv, , (nicholas brakespeare, the only englishman elected pope. frederick i. prostrated himself before him, kissed his foot, held his stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he rode.) alexander iii. , (canonized thomas à becket and resisted frederick i.) victor v. , pascal iii. , calixtus iii. , lucius iii. . urban iii. , (opposed frederick i.) gregory viii. ( months) . clement iii. , proclaimed third crusade. celestin iii. . innocent iii. , excommunicated john, king of england. honorius iii. , learned and pious. gregory ix. , preached new crusade. celestine iv. . innocent iv. - (opposed frederick ii.). if frederick ii. caused pamphlet to be written about , it could not have been burned by honorius iii., who reigned as pope - , but by gregory ix., who reigned - , who sent frederick ii. to the crusades, upset his affairs while he was gone, and against whom the "dissertation" says the pamphlet was written. [ ] carlyle, in his "history of frederick ii. of prussia, called frederick the great," mentions hermann von der saltza, a new sagacious teutschmeister or hochmeister (so they call the head of the order) of the teutonic knights, a far-seeing, negotiating man, who during his long mastership (a. d. - ,) is mostly to be found at venice and not at acre or jerusalem. he is very great with the busy kaiser, frederick ii., barbarossa's grandson, who has the usual quarrels with the pope, and is glad of such a negotiator, statesman as well as armed monk. a kaiser not gone on the crusade, as he had vowed: kaiser at last suspected of free thinking even:--in which matters hermann much serves the kaiser.--people's edition, boston, , vol. , p. . [ ] pierre des vignes, suspected of having conspired against the life of the emperor, was condemned to lose his eyes, and was handed over to the inhabitants of pisa, his cruel enemies: and where despair hastened his death in an infamous dungeon where he could hold intercourse with no one. [ ] in "volney's lectures on history," it is said: "if a work be translated it always receives a colouring which is more or less faint or is vivid according to the opinions and ability of the translator." from an examination of other translations of this treatise, i am assured that volney's statement above has actuated and governed all who have been previously engaged with this work. i can assure the readers hereof, that the treatise contained herein is a literal translation of the manuscript and the notes found therein, and no liberties have been taken with the text. any additional notes from other sources are so marked. a. n. [ ] moses killed at one time , men for opposing his law. [ ] it is written in the first book of kings, ch. , v. , that ahab, king of israel, consulted prophets, and found them entirely false in the success of their predictions. [ ] man is the noblest work of god--but nobody ever said so but man.--fra elbertus. [ ] so of water, however, it may be subject to generation and corruption, as long as it is substance it is not subject to separation and division. [ ] the four first councils were . that of nice in the year , under the emperor constantine the great, and under pope sylvester i.; . that of constantinople in the year , under the emperors gratian, valentinian and theodore and the pope damase i.; . that of ephesus in the year , under the emperor theodore, the younger, and valentinian and under the pope celestin; . that of chalcedon in the year , under valentinian and martian, and under pope leo i. [ ] these, among us, are the astrologers and fanatics. [ ] the talmud remarks that the rabbins deliberated whether they should omit the book of proverbs and that of ecclesiastes from the number of canonicals, and would have done so had they not found in several places that they eulogized the mosaic law. they would have done the same with the prophecies of ezekiel had not a certain chananias undertook to harmonize them with the same law. [ ] the versions that we have differ greatly in a thousand places, one with another, until the end of the book. [ ] see tertullian ante, also hobbes' leviathan, c. , p. . [ ] this word must not be taken in the ordinary sense, for what is called a magician among learned people means an adroit man, a skillful charlatan, and a subtle juggler whose entire art consists in dexterity and skill, and not in any compact with the devil as the common people believe. [ ] he remained from time to time in a solitary place under pretext of privately conferring with god, and by this pretended intercourse with the divinity he taught them a respect and obedience which was, in the meanwhile, unlimited. [ ] see book of kings, chapter ii. [ ] romulus drowned himself in the morass of cherres, and his body not being found, it was believed that he was raised to heaven and deified. when romulus was reviewing his forces in the plain of caprae there suddenly arose a thunderstorm during which he was enveloped in so thick a cloud that he was lost to the view of his army: nor thereafter on this earth was romulus seen. livy i. , c. . [ ] empedocles, a celebrated philosopher, threw himself into the crater of mount etna, to cause the belief that, like romulus, he was raised to heaven. [ ] it is recorded by livy (liber ii., c. ,) that there is a grove through which flowed a perennial stream, taking its origin in a dark cave, in which numa was accustomed to meet the goddess, and to receive instructions as to his political and religious institutions. [ ] breath or inspiration of the gods. [ ] the tartars assert that genghis khan was born of a virgin, and that foh, according to the chinese belief, derived his origin from a virgin rendered pregnant by the rays of the sun. since the introduction of the umbrella or sun-shade into the central flowery kingdom occurrences like the latter have been infrequent. [ ] celsus says, in origen, that jesus christ was a native of a little hamlet in judea, and that his mother was a poor villager who only existed by her labor. having been convicted of adultery with a soldier named pandira, she was induced to flee by her betrothed, who was a carpenter by trade, who condoned their offence, and they wandered miserably from place to place. she was secretly delivered of jesus, and finding themselves in want, they were constrained to flee to egypt. after several years, his services being of no value to the egyptians, he returned to his own country, where, quite proud of the miracles he knew how to perform, he proclaimed himself god. human nature was at those times not fundamentally different from what it is now, and we need, therefore, not be surprised to hear that one of the stalwart roman warriors, whose name was pandira, fell in love with one of the dark-eyed daughters of nazareth, and that the fruit of their "illegitimate" union was a son whom they called jehoshua, and who inherited from his father the manly pride of the roman, and from his jewish mother his almost feminine beauty and modesty. of jehoshua's mother, little is to be said. * * * * * ignorant, innocent, and of modest manners, uneducated but kind, sympathetic and beautiful, stada, like many others of her sex, was guided more by the decision of her heart than by the calculations of her intellect. her heart yearned for love and she hoped to find in pandira the realization of her ideal.--life of jehoshua, the prophet of nazareth, an occult study and a key to the bible. franz hartmann, m. d., boston, . [ ] a beautiful dove overshadowed a virgin; there is nothing surprising in that. it happened frequently in lydia, and the swan of leda is the counterpart of the dove of mary. qu'un beau pigeon a tire d'aile when a pretty dove under her wing vienne abombrer une pucelle, happens to conceal a virgin, rien n'est suprenant en cela; there is nothing surprising in that. l'on en vit autant en lydie. the same thing is known in lydia, et le beau cygne de leda for the beautiful swan of leda vaut bien le pigeon de marie. is just as good as mary's pigeon. [ ] in the book of samuel, chap. vii, it is related that the israelites being discontented with the sons of samuel who judged them, demanded a king, the same as other nations, with whom they wished to conform. [ ] jesus christ was of the sect of the pharisees, or the poor, who were opposed to the sadducees, who formed the sect of the rich. [ ] by this norman reply he eluded the question. a norman never says yes, or no. blason populaire de la normandie. [ ] vide boniface viii. ( ) and leo x. ( ) boniface said that men had the same souls as beasts, and that these human and bestial souls lived no longer than each other. the gospel also says that all other laws teach several virtues and several lies; for example, a trinity which is false, the child-birth of a virgin which is impossible, and the incarnation and transubstantiation which are ridiculous. i do not believe, continued he, other than that the virgin was a she-ass, and her son the issue of a she-ass. leo x. went one day to a room where his treasures were kept, and exclaimed "we must admit that this fable of jesus christ has been quite profitable to us." [ ] the belief in the christian doctrine is strange and wild to reason and human judgment. it is contrary to all philosophy and discourse of truth, as may be seen in all the articles of faith which can neither be comprehended nor understood by human intellect, for they appear impossible and quite strange. mankind, in order to believe and receive them, must control and subject his reason, submitting his understanding to the obedience of the faith. st. paul says that if man considers and hears philosophy and measures things by the compass of truth, he will forsake all, and ridicule it as folly. that is the avowal made by charron in a book entitled "the three truths," page . edition of bordeaux, . (this inserted note is written on the back of a portion of a letter addressed to "prince graaft by de spiegelstraat. a amsterdam," postmarked "ce e. aout. .") [ ] hermaphrodites. [ ] which determined the emperor julian to abandon the sect of nazarenes whose faith he regarded as a vulgar fiction of the human mind, which he found based solely on a simple tale of perdiccas. [ ] also his belief in visions and the legend of his translation to heaven. [ ] a friend of the celebrated golius having asked what the mahometans said of their prophet, this wise professor sent him the following extract which contains an abridgement of the life of that impostor taken from a manuscript in the turkish language: "the lord mahomet mustapha, of glorious memory, the greatest of the prophets, was born in the fortieth year of the empire of anal schirwan, the just. his holy nativity happened the twelfth day in the second third of the month rabia. now, after the fortieth year of his age had passed, he was divinely inspired, received the crown of prophecy and the robe of legation, which were brought him from god by the faithful messenger gabriel, with instructions to call mankind to islamism. after this inspiration from god was received, he dwelt at mecca for thirteen years. he left there aged fifty-three years the eighth day of the month rabia, which was a friday, and took refuge at medina. now, it was there, after his retreat the twentieth day of the eleventh month, and the sixty-third year of his blessed life, he succeeded to the enjoyment of the divine presence. some say that he was born while abelaka, [ ] his father, was yet living, others say after his death. lady amina, a daughter of the wahabees, gave him for nurse lady halima, of the tribe of beni-saad. abdo imutalib, [ ] his grandfather, gave him the blessed name of mahomet. he had four sons and four daughters. the sons were kasim, ibrahim, thajib and thahir, and the daughters, fatima, omokeltum, rakia and zeineb. the companions of this august envoy of god were abulekir, omar, osman and ali, all of sacred memory. [ ] these names, abdul-motallab and abdallah, in arabic, seem to be rendered abdo-imutalib and abelaka in the turkish language.--a. n. [ ] this includes numa pompilius.--a. n. [ ] hades. [ ] "mahomet," says the count de boulainvilliers, "was ignorant of common knowledge, as i believe, but he assuredly knew much of what a great traveler might acquire with much native wit, when he employed it usefully. he was not ignorant of his own language, the use of which, and not by reading, taught him its nicety and beauty. he was not ignorant of the art of knowing how to render odious what was truly culpable, and to portray the truth with simple and lively colors in a manner which could not be forgotten. in fact, all that he has said is true in comparison with the essential dogmas of religion, but he has not said all that is true. it is in that particular alone that our religion differs from his." he adds further on, "that mahomet was neither rude nor barbarous, that he conducted his enterprise with all the art, delicacy, constancy, intrepidity, and all the other great qualities which would have actuated alexander or cesar were they in his place." life of mahomet, by count de boulainvilliers. book ii., pp. - - . amsterdam edition, . [ ] genesis ch. xxviii., v. . [ ] (?)those holding sinecures. [ ] a sect of east indian philosophers who went about almost naked, ate no flesh, renounced all bodily pleasures, and simply contemplated nature. the "pre-adamite doctrine," similar to the above, was published by isaac de peyrere about . these fanatics believed that mankind lost none of their innocence by the fall of adam. both men and women made their appearance in the streets of munster, france, in puris naturalibus, as did our first parents in the garden of eden, before the fruit incident, which brought so much trouble into the world. the magistrates failed to put them down, and the military had some difficulty in abolishing this absurdity.--a. n. [ ] an intercessor, applied to the holy spirit. [ ] average seems to indicate the vi. commandment.--a. n. [ ] exodus xxxii, , . and moses returned unto the lord, and said, oh, this people have sinned a great sin, and have made them gods of gold. yet now, if thou wilt forgive their sin, and if not, blot me, i pray thee, out of thy book which thou hast written. [ ] exodus iv, , , . then zipporah took a sharp stone, and cut off the foreskin of her son, and cast it at his (?the lord's) feet, and said, surely a bloody husband art thou to me. so he (the lord) let him (moses) go: then she said, a bloody husband thou art, because of the circumcision. [ ] numbers xx, . and the lord spake unto moses and aaron, because ye believed me not, to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of israel, therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which i have given them. [ ] exodus xxxii. . and moses besought the lord his god, and said, lord why doth thy wrath wax hot against thy people, which thou hast brought forth out of the land of egypt, with great power, and with a mighty hand? numbers xii. . with him (moses) will i speak mouth to mouth, even apparent and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the lord shall he behold: wherefore then were ye not afraid to speak against my servant moses? [ ] exodus xxxiii. . behold, i send an angel before thee, to keep thee in the way, and to bring thee in the place which i have prepared. [ ] matthew v. sermon on the mount, . think not that i am come to destroy the law, etc. matt. x, ? names apostles. [ ] deuteronomy xviii, , . and if thou say in thine heart, how shall we know the word which the lord hath not spoken? when a prophet speaketh in the name of the lord, if the thing follow not, nor come to pass, that is the thing which the lord hath not spoken, but the prophet hath spoken it presumptuously: thou shalt not be afraid of him. [ ] paul to timothy (i.) i. . neither give heed to fables and endless genealogies, etc. [ ] genesis xxvi, , . and esau was forty years old when he took to wife judith the daughter of beeri, the hittite, and bashemath the daughter of elon, the hittite, which were a grief of mind unto isaac and rebekah. genesis xxviii, . then went esau unto ishmael, and took unto the wives which he had, mahalath, the daughter of ishmael, abraham's son, the sister of nabajoth, to be his wife. genesis xxxvi, , . esau took his wives of the daughters of canaan, adah, the daughter of elon, the hittite, and aholibamah, the daughter of anah, the daughter of zibeon, the hivite, and bashemath, ishmael's daughter, sister of nabajoth. [ ] acts xv. . now therefore why tempt ye god, to put a yoke upon the neck of the disciples, which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear? [ ] galatians , . even so we when we were children, were in bondage under the elements of the world: but when the fulness of the time was come, god sent forth his son, made of a woman, made under the law. v. . but now after that ye have known god, or rather are known of god, how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly elements, whereunto ye desire again to be in bondage. v. . nevertheless what saith the scripture? cast out the bond-woman and her son: for the son of the bond-woman shall not be heir with the son of the free-woman. v. . which things are an allegory: for these are the two covenants; the one from the mount of sinai, which gendereth to bondage, which is agar. galatians v. , . behold, i paul say unto you, that if ye be circumcised, christ shall profit you nothing. for i testify again to every man that is circumcised, that is a debtor to do the whole law. [ ] ii. cor. iii., - . who also hath made us able ministers of the new testament, not of the letter, but of the spirit; for the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life. but if the ministration of death, written and engraven in stones, was glorious, so that the children of israel could not steadfastly behold the face of moses for the glory of his countenance; which glory was to be done away: how shall not the ministration of the spirit be rather glorious? for if the ministration of condemnation be glory, much more doth the ministration of righteousness exceed in glory. for even that which was made glorious had no glory in this respect, by reason of the glory that excelleth. ii. cor. v. . for we must all appear before the judgment seat of christ; that everyone may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad. [ ] acts xvi, , , . then came he to derbe and lystra, and behold, a certain disciple was there, named timotheus, the son of a certain woman which was a jewess, and believed, but his father was a greek; which was well reported of by the brethren that were at lystra and iconium. him would paul have to go forth with him, and took and circumcised him, because of the jews which were in those quarters, for they knew all that his father was a greek. notes on the bibliography of yucatan and central america; comprising yucatan, chiapas, guatemala (the ruins of palenque, ocosingo, and copan), and oaxaca (ruins of mitla.) a list of some of the writers on this subject from the sixteenth century to the present time. by ad. f. bandelier. from proceedings of the american antiquarian society, october , . worcester: press of chas. hamilton, main street. . notes on the bibliography of yucatan and central america.[ ] by ad. f. bandelier. yucatan. _writers of the sixteenth century._ juan diaz, chaplain to juan de grijalva. "itinerario de l' armata del re catholico in india verso la isola de iuchathan del anno m. d. xviii."--printed first (in the italian language) as an appendix to the "itinerario de ludovico varthema," in the edition of , and subsequently in the editions of , and of the latter book. it was also translated into the english language by richard eden, in the "historie of travayles," london, , but i am not sure whether the report of diaz is contained in it. the most popular translation is that by h. ternaux-compans, in his first "recueil de pièces relatives à la conquéte du méxique," (vol. x. of his "voyages, relations et mémoires originaux pour servir á l' histoire de la découverte de l' amérique,") and the latest and best reprint, together with a splendid spanish translation, is contained in vol. i. of "coleccion de documentos para la historia de méxico," , by s^r j. g. icazbalceta, of méxico. * * * * * petrus martyr ab angleria. "enchiridion de insulis nuper repertis simulatque incolarum moribus," basel, . (separate print of the th decade, which contains the first items about yucatan ever published in europe after diaz's report). "de orbe novo decades petri martyris ab angleria, mediolaneusis, protonotarii, cesarei senatoris.--compluti apud michaelem de eguia," in december, . alcalá. "opus epistolarum petri martyris anglerii, mediolanensis, &c., &c." also printed by miguel de eguia. alcalá. of further reprints, and of translations of peter martyr's works (the reports on yucatan are contained in the th and th decades), i merely quote: "novus orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum, &c." by simon grynæus, basel, , embodying dec's , , , _and_ . [footnote : the absence of mr. bandelier in mexico, precludes a submission of the proof to his revision, and will account for any errors that may be discovered in the text. publishing committee.] (also the edition of .)--a french translation of the th decade, by simon de colines, paris, .--a german version, by hôniger of kônigshofen.--hackluyt's reprint of . "de orbe novo petri martyris anglerii, &c., &c.," and finally the complete english translation by michael lok and richard eden: "de novo orbe, or the historie of the west indies, &c., &c.," london, . i need not dwell on the great importance of martyr's book, for yucatan. hernan cortÉs. (his first letter is lost: in place of it the letter of the "municipality of vera cruz," dated th july, , contains a short statement about yucatan. this letter is printed in vol. i. of "coleccion de documentos inéditos para la historia de españa," and in vol. i. of "historiadores primitivos de indias," by enrique de vedia, madrid, .--folsom's translation of . "despatches of hernan cortés, the conqueror of mexico, &c." substitutes an introduction by the translator himself.--the earliest mention of this report is found in robertson: "history of america," vol. iii., p. , edition of , and an abstract is found in prescott: "conquest of mexico," appendix ii., d vol.) "fifth letter to the emperor charles vii.," noticed by robertson and prescott; contained, in full, in "historiadores primitivos de indias," vol. i., by vedia. a full english translation, by pascual de gayangos, was published in , by the "hackluyt society," vol. . juan cristÓbal calvet de estrella. "de rebus gestis ferdinandii cortèsii," written between and , and printed with a spanish translation: "vida de cortés," by sr. icazbalceta in vol. i. of "col. de documentos para la hist. de méxico."--short and meagre. andrÉs de tapia. "relacion hecha por el señor andrés de tapia, sobre la conquista de méxico." (icazbalceta's "coleccion de documentos, &c." vol. ii. méxico, .) benedetto bordone. "libro di benedetto bordone.--nel qual si ragione tutte l'isole del mondo con li loro nomi antichi e moderni," .--later editions also. girolamo benzoni. "historia del mondo nuovo," venice, .--translated into german by nicolaus hoeniger: "die neue welt und indianischen kônigreichs, neue und wahrhaffte geschichte, &c., &c.," basel, .--incorporated in théodore de bry "grosse reisen," parts , , and .--of other prints i but mention the latest english translation, published by the hackluyt society in (vol. ,) under the title of "history of the new world, by girolamo benzoni," edited as well as translated by rear-admiral w. h. smyth. there are italian versions of , french of , and latin of . bernal diez del castillo. "historia verdadera de la conquista de nueva españa," madrid, . (there may be two editions of the same year). of the spanish reprints i mention here (also contained in "historiadores primitivos de indias," vedia, , vol. ii.), the one of , paris, vols. ^o, and the other of , méxico, vols. also.--two english translations are known to me at present: "the true history of the conquest of mexico, by captain bernal diez del castillo," translated by maurice keatings, london, .--"the memoirs of the conquistador, bernal diez del castillo," translated by john ingram lockhart, london, .--there is also a german translation, by p. j. rehfuss, bonn, .--bernal diez (not diaz) is very valuable as eye-witness, having been to yucatan with cordoba ( ), grijalva ( ), cortés ( ),--and finally with the latter to honduras, passing through peten. fray lorenzo de bienvida. letter to the infanto philip (ii.), dated yucatan, february, . original in ms. french translation by h. ternaux-compans in " ^{er} recueil de piéces concernant le méxique," vol. x. , of his collection of "mémoires et documents originaux, &c., &c." gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdÉs. "historia general y natural de las indias," composed of books.--the first books, and part of the th, were published by the author as early as ,--and the first books as early as ,--but the entire work has only been printed in , at madrid, vols. folio.--it is full of details concerning yucatan. francisco lopez de gomara. "historia general de las indias, y todo lo acaescido en ellas dende que se ganaron hasta agora. y la conquista de méxico, y de la nueva españa, &c." zaragoza, .--of this book i quote--e. g.--the following spanish editions: medina del campo, , antwerp, prints, --zaragoza, ,--and it is also contained in "historiadores primitivos de indias," by andrés gonzalez barcia, madrid, , vol. ii.--and in "historiadores primitivos de indias," by vedia, madrid, , vol. i.--there is an italian version, by augustino de cravaliz, rome, , ("la histoirie generale delle indie occidentali. &c., &c."), and french translations published respectively in , , , and .--finally, juan bautista de san anton muñoz chimalpain guauhtlehuanitzin made a translation into the mexican, or "nahuatl" language, which c. m. bustamante published at mexico, in .--i know of no english translation of the work.--it actually consists of two parts, the "historia general," and the "conquista de méxico."--the former contains a short, but fair, description of yucatan, and the latter a report on cortés' doings there and matters relating thereto. bartolomÉ de las casas. of the numerous (over forty) writings of the bishop of chiapas, i select only "historia de las indias," published "at last," madrid, and , by the marquis de la fuensanta del valle and don josé sancho rayon, in vols. the th vol. contains the famous "apologética historia."--another publication of the "historia de las indias," though not as complete, has appeared in mexico in vols., as the first series of sr. j. m. vigel's "biblioteca mexicana," and .--it does not contain the "apologética."--fragments of the latter are found in lord kingsborough's "antiquities of mexico," vol. viii. "brevissima relacion de la destruycion de las indias," sevilla, . of this polemic and strongly tinged memoir there are innumerable versions.--i know of spanish publications besides the above, and those of london, ,--philadelphia, ,--both due to dr. de mier,--madrid, j. a. llorente, , and méxico, .--latin translations: francfort, ; oppenheim, ; heidelberg, .--french translations: antwerp, ; amsterdam, ; rouen, ; lyon, ; paris, ; amsterdam, . (the last two contain each five papers of las casas), and paris, . "oeuvres de don bartolomé de las casas," by j. a. llorente.--of italian translations (with spanish text). i allude to those of . venice.-- , id.:-- , id., and also of .--there is a german translation of .--dutch translations: amsterdam, and , and .--i know of but one english translation, which bears the title "a relation of the first voyages and discoveries made by the spaniards in america, &c., &c." london, ,--although dr. robertson mentions one of .--las casas must be used with great caution. diego de landa. "relacion de las cosas de yucatan." bishop landa was born in , and died in ; his work must therefore have been written between and the latter date. it was published by the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, in , with a french translation opposite to the spanish text, and under the title of "relation des choses de yucatan."--republished again in , with some other matter. the merits of landa are certainly very great, but the real import of his so-called "a. b. c." ("de sus letras forme aqui un a. b. c." pp. - ), has been misunderstood and correspondingly misrepresented. the picture which landa gives us of the customs and organization of the mayas is completely at variance with some of his other statements. much close attention is required. "cartas de indias." vol. i. madrid, . these contain several letters and reports on yucatan, from the th century. i only refer to one, a complaint of four indian "gobernadores," dated april, , against the bishop diego de landa, designating him as "principal author of all these evils and troubles...." joseph de acosta. "historia natural y moral de indias," sevilla, . i merely mention this author, without entering into further bibliographical details about his work. it has been translated into many languages, and--in part or wholly--incorporated in many general collections of "americana." he says but little about yucatan, still his book is indispensable to any one studying yucatecan antiquities. i also advert here to his former publication, which is but little known: "de promulgatione evangelii apud barbaros, sive de procuranda indorum salute," libros ; printed in . gerÓnimo de mendieta. "historia ecclesiástica indiana," written about , but printed for the first time, by sr. j. g. icazbalceta, at mexico, in --contains much and valuable information.--mendieta has been extensively copied by torquemada. fray toribio de paredes, surnamed "motolinia." "historia de los indios de nueva-españa," written about , but published in full only by sr. icazbalceta in vol. i. of "coleccion de documentos, &c."--mentions yucatan incidentally.--a large part of the work had been printed before in the "documentos inéditos, &c." under the title of "ritos antiguos, sacrificios é idolatrias de las indias de la nueva-españa,"--also in vol. ix. of lord kingsborough.--a latin version, under the title of "de moribus indorum" may have existed once. * * * * * yucatan is, furthermore, mentioned in many works of a more general character, embodying information gathered mostly from the sources already referred to. i do not, therefore, enter into any lengthy bibliographical sketches of them. simon grynaeus. "novus orbis," . already noticed under petrus martyr. petrus apianus. "cosmographia," , , (dutch version), &c. abraham ortelius. "theatrum orbis terrarum," , , &c. thomaso porcacchi. "l'isole pio famose del mondo," , , , &c., &c. g. mercator. "atlas, six cosmographical meditations." duisburg, . conrad loew. "meer oder see-ansicht buch." cologne, . sebastian munster. "cosmographey," , &c. andrÉ thevet. "les singularites de la france antarctique, autrement nommé amérique, et de plusieurs terres et isles decouvertes de notre temps."--paris, ; antwerp, ; in italian, at venice, . i forbear further mention of the polemic works on the origin of the american indians,--and now turn to some writers whose works are probably lost, or at least not accessible, although there is positive evidence of their former existence. fray gerÓnimo roman. "republica indiana"--certainly existed as late as , or "república de las indias occidentales." fray alonzo solana. "noticias sagradas y profanas de las antigüedades y conversion de los indios de yucatan." (written before ). don francisco montejo. "carta al rey sobre la fundacion de la villa de san francisco de campeche, y de la ciudad de mérida," june, . (still at sevilla, leg. . "cartas de indias"). in the above list i have not included any grammar, vocabulary, sermonary, "doctrina," &c., &c., for the use of the indians of yucatan, or written in the maya language, of which several are known. in conclusion, i beg to add the maya writing, entitled: "series of katunes," published, with an english translation, by mr. j. l. stephens, in "incidents of travels in yucatan," and by brasseur de bourbourg, in "rel. d. ch. de y." _writers of the seventeenth century._ antonio de herrera. "historia general de los hechos de los castellanos en las islas y la tierra firme del mar océano," madrid, , , vols. folio. there are two other editions in the original language: madrid, and , and antwerp, . of this most important book, several translations have appeared, embodying either the whole or only a part.--thus a french translation of the "descripcion de las indias occidentales," appeared at amsterdam in twice, and a french translation of the st, d and d decades, at paris, .--a latin version of the "descripcion" was also published in , by colin, at amsterdam, and a very unreliable english rendering by john stephens, in vols. ^o, appeared at london in . herrera is one of the most important authorities on every subject of which he treats. gregorio garcia. "orígen de los indios del nuevo mundo é indias occidentales." st edition, ; second edition, madrid, , by barcia.--a very important and valuable work. juan de torquemada. "los veinte y uno libros rituales y monarchia indiana, con el orígen y guerras de los indios occidentales." st edition, madrid, ; d edition, madrid, . barcia. augustin de vetancourt. "teatro mexicano." méxico, .-- d edition, in "biblioteca de la iberia," méxico, .--treats of yucatan incidentally, speaking of cortés, &c. the work consists properly of three books: the "teatro," the "crónica de la provincia del santo evangelio de méxico," and the "menologio franciscano." antonio de remesal. "historia general de las indias occidentales, y particular de la gobernacion de chiapas y guatemala."--this book has also another title: "historia de la provincia de san vicente de chyapa y guatemala de la orden de san domingo."--madrid, and .--treats of yucatan also, following las casas generally. an important work. bernardo lizana. (lizama or lizaba?) "devocionario de nuestra señora de itzmal, historia de yucatan é de conquista espiritual," , according to the abbé brasseur and leon y pinelo.--e. g. squier speaks of two works: one "historia de la provincia de yucatan, y su conquista espiritual," valladolid, , and the other "historia de nuestra señora de izamal."--whichever way may be right, there remains accessible as yet, but a fragment published in spanish, with a french translation by the abbé brasseur in his "relation des choses de yucatan," . the fragment is entitled: "del principio y fundacion destos cuyos omules deste sitio y pueblo de ytzmal...."--lizana is of the highest importance and value, and it is much to be regretted that the _entire_ book is of such difficult access. diego lopez de cogolludo. "historia de yucatan."-- st edition, madrid, ; d edition, mérida, ; d edition, .--cogolludo has always been regarded as the historian of yucatan "par excellence." he is indeed indispensable for any study of yucatan antiquities, but, like all other authors, he must never be implicitly followed. the closest criticism possible is absolutely required. gil gonzalez dÁvila. "teatro ecclesiástico de la primitiva iglesia de los indios occidentales." madrid, . juan diaz de la calle. "memorial y resûmen breve de noticias de las indias occidentales." madrid, . * * * * * these constitute the most important sources on yucatan written during the th century. nearly all of them are of _special_ value, and we would call particular attention to cogolludo, lizana, torquemada, herrera, and remesal. among such authors, who wrote upon the subject and whose writings are not now accessible, i name here: pedro sanchez aguilar. "relacion de las cosas de yucatan, y informe contra los idólatras del obispado de yucatan, &c." . francisco cÁrdenas. "relacion de la conquista y succesos de yucatan," . (if existing, probably in spain). nicolÁs lizarraga. "representacion al rey pidiéndole la conquista de itzá y lacandon, con unas noticias y mapa de dichas tierras." nicolÁs de valenzuela. an account of the expedition against the lacandones, written , and comprising pages. i would further call attention to the land titles, such as deeds, grants, donations, &c., &c., in yucatan, some of which go back to the th century. these contain occasional references to the indian settlements, some of which are certainly of great value and importance. finally, i refer to some general works, treating of yucatan: samuel purchas. "his pilgrimage, &c., &c." london, , and . (this forms the th volume of purchas' great works).--the great work of purchas, also known as "hackluytus posthumous," appeared in , and treats also of yucatan. o. dapper. "die unbekannte neue welt, oder beschreibung des welt-theils amerikas, &c." amsterdam, . this is in fact but a translation of the following: arias montanus. "de nieuvre en onbekende weereld: of beschryving van america en t' zuid lande." amsterdam, . mathias quad. "enchiridion cosmographicum: dass ist, ein handbüchlein, der gantzen welt gelegenheit, &c." cologne, and . joannes petrus maffei. "... historiarum indicarum libri xvi., &c." antwerp, --frequently reprinted and translated. jacobus viverus. (van de vijvere). "handbook: of cort begrijp der caerten ende beschryvinghen van allen landen des werelds." amsterdam, . (this is the d edition of an anonymous atlas). cornelius wytflict et anthoine magin. "histoire universelle des indes occidentales et orientales," douay, . gaspard ens. "west und ost-indischer lustgart.:...." cologne, . aubertus miraeus. "de statu religionés christianae...." cologne, . athanasius inga. "west-indische spiegel, &c." amsterdam, . johann philipp abelin. (gottfriedt). "neue welt und americanische historien." francfort, a. m. . a. o. exquemelin. "de amerikaensche zee-roovers." amsterdam, . (innumerable translations, &c. &c). eberhard werner happel. "thesaurus exoticorum." hamburg, . (indifferent compilation). i do not include in this hasty bibliographical list any linguistical works whatever,--or writings on the plants and medicinal herbs of spanish-america. purposely i omit also antonio de solis, whose history of the conquest of mexico has a great literary, but hardly any scientific, value. _writers of the eighteenth century._ juan de villagutierre y sotomayor. "historia de la conquista y reducciones de los itzaes y lacandones en la américa septentrional." madrid, . the first part only, composed of books,--the second part may not have been completed,--at least it has remained unknown till now. the work is of the highest importance, especially for that part of yucatan which has since hardly been explored. abbate francesco saverio clavigero. s. j. "storia antica del messico." cesena, , . spanish translations: london, ; méxico, , id. . english translation: london, . german version: leipzig, . (the english copy by sir charles cullen),--all these works mention yucatan also. antonio de alcedo. "diccionario geográfico-histórico de las indias occidentales ó américa...." madrid, - . vols. ^o.--english translation by g. a. thompson. london, - . joseph antonio de villa-seÑor y sanchez. "teatro americano." méxico, .--of indirect value for yucatan. ( vols. folio). j. lafitan. s. j. "moeurs des sauvages américains, comparées aux moeurs des premiers temps." paris, . (there is a dutch translation: "de zeden der wilden van amerika," but i have no access to its date at present).--the best ethnological work previous to . abbÉ guillaume thomas raynal. "histoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des européens dans les deux indes." paris, , and other editions. english translation. edinburgh, . william robertson. "history of america." (numberless editions and translations, all too well known to require special mention here).--highly important. chevalier de pauw. "recherches philosophiques sur les américains." london, . a strongly negative, and through its exaggerations in that direction, very injudicious work. still it should be read attentively, as well as the rejoinder to it by dom pernetty. gemelli carreri. (properly belongs to the th century). "giro del mondo...." naples, .--french: "voyage du tour du monde." paris, . * * * * * in the library of the cathedral of mexico there still exists: arturo o'neil. "descripcion, poblacion, y censo de la provincia de yucatan en la nueva españa." . * * * * * we have also notice of the former existence of the following works, by: fray andrÉs avendaÑo. "diccionario de nombres de personas, ídolos, danzas, y otras antiqüedades de los indios de yucatan." "explicacion de varios vaticinios de los antiguos indios de yucatan." * * * * * to take notice of all the geographical works, cyclopædias, &c., &c., published in the th century, and which contain notices of yucatan, would be a task exceeding far the time and limits of this list. it can easily be proved, however, that the works on especially yucatecan topics are not numerous. this may be due, in part, to the rigorous exclusion of foreigners from spanish america, and the consequent decline of intellectual activity towards the close of spanish domination. the great collection of juan bautista muñoz contains hardly anything on yucatan. _writers of the nineteenth century._ here the number of publications increases so rapidly, that i cannot attempt to notice all. besides, many of the authors are so well known that a mere mention of their names and the titles of their works will suffice. periodicals containing papers on yucatan, will be mentioned generally, but detailed reference to special articles can be given only in a few exceptional instances. the latest works will only be alluded to. alexander von humboldt. "essai politique sur le royaume de la nouvelle-espagne." paris, , vols. ^o.--id. paris, , vols. ^o.--paris, - , vols. ^o. spanish translation: madrid, . english translation by john black. london, . also translated into the german. references to yucatan and its inhabitants may also be found in "ansichten der natur," (notes), and even in "kosmos." friedrich von waldeck. "voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province de yucatan." paris, . splendid, but the drawings are mostly restorations,--therefore suspicious. antonio del rio. (the date of this report is: "palenque june, ," and i shall refer to it more particularly under the heading of "chiapas,"--still, as it contains the report of the franciscan, thomas de soza, on yucatecan ruins, i place it here also). "description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near palenque, in the kingdom of gautemala, in central america; translated from the original manuscript report of captain don antonio del rio." london, .--there are two german translations: one "huehuetlapallan, amerika's grosse urstadt, &c." meiningen, , and v. minutoli's "beschreibung einer alten stadt in guatemala." .--a french translation, by d. b. warden, in "antiquités méxicaines." vol. ii. and, finally, the spanish original, in "diccionario universal de geografia, &c." vol. viii.--see also abstract in "mosaico mexicano." vol. ii. lorenzo de zavala. report on uxmal, published in vol. i. of "antiquités méxicaines." john l. stephens. "travels in central america, chiapas, and yucatan." n. york, . "incidents of travel in yucatan." n. york, . f. catherwood. "views of ancient monuments in central america, chiapas and yucatan." n. york, . b. m. norman. "rambles in yucatan." n. york, . charles st. john fancourt. "the history of yucatan." london, .--not of great value. emmanuel von friedrichsthal. letter of april, , in "registro yucateco," vol. ii., and "diccionario universal," vol. x.--"les monuments de l'yucatan," in "nouvelles annales des voyages," , vol. .--these papers are not very valuable. juan galindo. report on the antiquities of lake peten. "antiquités méxicaines," vol. i. modesto mendez. report on tikal. "zeitschrift für allgemeine erdkunde," vol. i.; ; also in siver's "mittelamerika" and other places. he is, as yet, the only authority on tikal. julius froebel. "aus amerika, erfahrungen, reisen, und studien." leipzig.--english translation: "seven years travel in central america." london, . carl bartholomÂus heller. "reisen in mexico." leipzig, .--rather fair and moderate. dÉsirÉ charnay, and viollet le duc. "cités et ruines américaines." paris, .--invaluable for its photographs. arthur morelet. "voyage dans l'amérique centrale, l'ile de cuba, et la yucatan." paris, . english translation by mrs. e. g. squier. "itza, or the unexplored regions of central america." london, .--a very attractive and valuable work. charles etienne brasseur de bourbourg. "histoire des nations civilisées du méxique et de l'amérique centrale." paris, - . "rapport sur les ruines de mayapan et d'uxmal," in "archives de la cômission scientifique du méxique," vol. ii. "relation des choses de yucatan." paris, . (see landa and lizana). "quatre lettres sur le méxique." paris, . "manuscrit troano." paris, - . the late abbé brasseur was certainly the greatest of all modern travellers in mexico and central america, as far as extent of travel and long duration of stay are concerned. he knew those countries better, and had easier access to the natives, than any other similar traveller of this century. his works are therefore, actual mines of wealth so far as old documents are concerned: he has collected and brought to light more manuscripts than any other student. but his honest zeal and unrestrained enthusiasm have led him into paths on which he has wandered lamentably astray. his works are indispensable, though very little of his own conclusions can be believed. juan pio perez. "cronología antigua de yucatan," in "relation des choses de yucatan." . diccionario de la lengua haya. mérida, . manuel orozco y berra. "geografia de las lenguas y carta etnogrática de méxico." méxico, . american antiquarian society, worcester, mass. _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . report of s. f. haven, ll.d. _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . report of s. f. haven, ll.d. _proceedings no. ._ april, , page . report of s. f. haven, ll.d. _proceedings no. ._ april, , page . "the mayas," by stephen salisbury, jr. _proceedings no. ._ april. , page . "dr. le plongeon in yucatan," by stephen salisbury, jr. _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . report of s. f. haven, ll.d. _proceedings no. ._ april, , page . "terra cotta figure from isla mujeres," by stephen salisbury, jr. page , "the mexican calendar stone," by philipp j. j. valentini, ph.d. _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . "archæological communication on yucatan," by augustus le plongeon, m.d. page , "notes on yucatan," by mrs. alice d. le plongeon. proceedings no. ._ april, , page . "mexican copper tools," _by philipp j. j. valentini, ph.d. page , "letter from dr. augustus le plongeon." _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . "the katunes of maya history," by philipp j. j. valentini, ph.d. _proceedings no. ._ april, , page . "the landa alphabet," by philipp j. j. valentini, ph.d. _proceedings no. ._ oct. , page . "mexican paper," by philipp j. j. valentini, ph.d. page , "notes on the bibliography of yucatan and central america," by ad. f. bandelier. philipp j. j. valentini. "a new, and an old map of yucatan," in "magazine of american history," . albert gallatin. "notes on the semi-civilized nations of mexico, yucatan, and central america," in vol. i. of "transactions of the american ethnological society." n. york, . a. aubin. "mémoire sur la peinture didactique et l'écriture figurative des anciens méxicaines." paris, - . ( papers, published also in the "revue américaine et orientale." st series, vols. iii., iv. and v.) lÉon de rosny. "les écritures figuratives et hiéroglyphiques des peuples anciens et modernes." paris, . "mèmoire sur la numération dans la langue et dans l'écriture sacrée des anciens mayas." (compte-rendu du "congrés international des américanistes." , vol. ii.) "essai sur le déchiffrement de l'écriture hiératique de l'amérique centrale." paris, .--still continued. francisco pimentel. "cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las lenguas indígenas de méxico." méxico, . german translation, by isidor epstein. n. york, . hyacinthe de charency. "recherches sur le codex troano." paris, . d. geronimo castillo. "diccionario historico, biografico y monumental de yucatan." mérida, . vols. serapio baqueiro. "ensayo historico sobre las revoluciones de yucatan, -- ." mérida, . vols. gustav klemm. "allgemeine culturgeschichte der menschheit." vols. leipzig, - . heinrich wÜttke. "die enstehung der schrift." edward king, lord kingsborough. "antiquities of mexico." - , london, vols. folio. special value of plates. de larenandiere. "méxique et guatemala," in "univers pittoresque." paris, . wm. h. prescott. "history of the conquest of mexico." (too well known to need any remarks). lewis h. morgan. "systems of consanguinity and affinity of the human family." . (no. of "smithsonian contributions to knowledge.") "american aboriginal architecture." johnson's encyclopedia, vol. i. "ancient society." new york, . hubert howe bancroft. "the native races of the pacific states." vols. n. york, . john d. baldwin. "ancient america." new york, . josÉ m. melgar y serrano. "exámen comparativo entre los signos simbólicos, &c." vera cruz, . gustav brÜhl. "die culturvölker alt-amerika's." new york, cincinnati, and st. louis, , , and . adolph bastian. "die culturlaender des alten america's." berlin, . vols. john t. short. "the north americans of antiquity." new york, . * * * * * i further refer to papers in "nouvelles annales des voyages." . by h. ternaux-compans. "registro yucateco." vols. i. and ii. and to the publications of crescencio carrillo, licenciado. (i have but glanced at one of his works). eligio ancona. "historia de yucatan." mérida, . vols. manuel larrainzar. "estudios sobre la historia de américa, sus ruinas y antigüedades." méxico, . vols. * * * * * on most of the works like those of prescott, bancroft, baldwin, and others, i need not comment, having already expressed my opinion in "art of war and mode of warfare of the ancient mexicans," and "tenure and distribution of lands, and customs with respect to inheritance among the ancient mexicans."--( th and th reports of the peabody museum). in regard to yucatecan paintings and carvings, i have expressed my convictions in "sources for aboriginal history of spanish america," vol. of the "proceedings of the american association for advancement of science." . i repeat it, this attempt at a bibliography on yucatecan antiquities is far from being complete,--many works of greater or less importance having probably been overlooked. chiapas. this district or state contains the well known ruins of palenque and ocosingo. still, but very few of the works hereafter mentioned relate to these places. it is therefore a bibliography of chiapas and of its aborigines:--zendal, zoques, zotzil, chiapanecos, &c., and not a special bibliography of palenque, &c., which i intend to present,--convinced that our lack of knowledge on the aborigines of chiapas in general is a chief cause of our ignorance about the past history of these remains. a large number of authors treating of chiapas have already been noticed in regard to yucatan, and in such cases i merely give the author's name, without the title or any other reference to his works, except when there are special reasons for it. _writers of the sixteenth century._ diego de godoy. "relacion á hernando cortez, en que trata del descubrimiento de diversas ciudades i provincias, i guerra que tuvo con los indios, &c., de la provincia de chamula."--first incorporated in the "historia general" of oviedo y valdés, again in barcia's "historiadores primitivos de indias," and in "historiadores primitivos de indias" of vedia.--french translation by ternaux-compans, in ^{st}, "recueil de pièces concernant la méxique, &c."--also italian in "ramusio," vol. iii. gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdÉs. hernan cortÉz.--"carta quinta." francisco lopez de gomara. bernal diez del castillo. (eye-witness of the conquest of chiapa.) bartolomÉ de las casas. (especially the "apologética historia.") gerÓnimo de mendieta. (incidental mention.) in the d "_recueil de piecés concernant le méxique_," of ternaux-compans, there is a complaint or letter of an anonymous author against las casas, dated chiapas.--i also refer to "_cartas de indias_," vol. i., containing several letters of las casas himself. * * * * * there is, in fact, but very little published about the antiquities of chiapas, during the th century. i do not even mention any of the general collections which have an occasional reference to the name. but few vocabularies are noticed. still we are informed of the following works, which may yet be in existence, or which at all events have existed once, and were written during the th century. fray tomÁs torre. "historia de los principios de la provincia de chiapas y guatemala, del orden de santo domingo." fray domingo vico. "historia de los indios, sus fábulas, supersticiones, costumbres, &c., &c." the library of the "museo nacional" of the city of guatemala, contains a number of fragments of a "_historia de la provincia de san vicente ferrer de chiapas y guatemala_," the third book of which is superscribed: "isagoge histórico apologético general de todas las indias."--there is no date nor name of author, but it can be conjectured that it was written in the th century.--gregorio garcía also quotes: _fray estévan de salazar_. "discurs. symb. apost." who in turn is said to refer to a book entitled "_historia, i relacion de la teología de los indios mexicanos_," said book being lost in a shipwreck, . _writers of the seventeenth century._ gregorio garcia. antonio de herrera. juan de torquemada. antonio de remesal. augustin de vetancourt. gil gonzalez dÁvila. juan diaz de la calle. augustin dÁvila-padilla. "historia de la fundacion y discurso de la provincia de santiago de méxico." st edition, madrid, ; d edition, brussels, .--mentions chiapas only in connection with the biography of las casas.--the first edition has almost disappeared, so that it is practically a book of the th century. augustin cano. "historia de la provincia de predicadores de san-vicente de chiapas y guatemala."--fragment of a ms. at the "museo nacional" of guatemala. * * * * * the following books are known to have existed once: fray juan zapata y sandoval. "cartas al conde de gomera ... sobre los indios de chiapas." "cartas al rey sobre el estado dulce diócesis de chiapas." * * * * * i make no mention of the compilations and general collections containing references to chiapas. they are not numerous.--gregorio garcía in his book, "origen de los indios," has probably the earliest mention of the ruins of ocosingo, and even perhaps, some indication about those of palenque.--cortez who, accompanied by bernal diez, passed very near palenque in , did not take any notice of the pueblo,--which at that time was certainly not inhabited. _writers of the eighteenth century._ nuÑez de la vega. "constituciones diocesanas del obispado de chiapas." rome, . important for its reports on the idolatrous rites and the traditions of the aborigines. lorenzo boturini bernaducci. "idea de una nueva historia general de la america septentrional." madrid, . valuable for his mention of the calendar of chiapas. mariano fernandez de veytia y echeverria. "historia del origen de las gentes que poblaron la america septentrional que llaman la nueva-españa, con noticia de los primeros que establecieron la monarquía que en ella floreció de la nacion tolteca."--this work has been published as lately as , at mexico, by c. f. ortega, under the title of "historia antigua de méxico."--it contains notices of the calendar of chiapas. f. x. clavigero. s. j. (abbate.) antonio de alcedo. joseph antonio de villa-seÑor y sanchez. francisco ximenez. "crónica de la provincia de chiapas y guatemala,"--of which part of the th book is at the "museo nacional" of guatemala. "historia de la provincia de predicadores de san vicente de chiapas y guatemala." written about ,--and possibly the same work as the above.--according to brasseur de bourbourg, volumes which did not suit or fit together and were the remnants of two mss. copies of the original, existed at the university of guatemala in . toribio cosio. "relacion histórica de la sublevacion y pacificacion de la provincia de los tzendales." (may still exist at mexico.) francisco vasquez. "crónica de la provincia del ill'mo nombre de jesús, del orden de san francisco de guatemala."--guatemala, and , vols.--the library of guatemala ("museo nacional") still contains an anonymous ms. of leaves, "notas y advertencias" to the above work.--whether the "crónica" itself is at guatemala, i am unable to say. the book is very scarce. mr. squier owned the first volume only. anonymous. "relacion de la sublevacion de los zendales, en el año de ." ms. perhaps still at the city of guatemala. ramon de ordoÑez y aguiar. "historia de la creacion del cielo y de la tierra, conforme al sistema de la gentilidad americana." ms. at the "museo nacional" of the city of mexico.--very important for the traditions of chiapas. "memoria relativa á las ruinas de nachán, en las inmediaciones del pueblo de santo domingo del palenque." ms. formerly belonged to brasseur de bourbourg. it was written about , and is the first authentic report on the celebrated ruins. d. nÁxera. "vida portentosa del v. p. fr. antonio margil de jesús." méxico, . h. vilaplana. "vida portentosa del americano septentrional apóstol antonio margil de jesús...." méxico, . (margil was one of the earliest missionaries in chiapas.) _documents relative to the explorations of palenque._ besides the "memoria" of ordoñez already quoted, which first directed attention to the ruined pueblo, there exist the following documents: josÉ de estacheria. "expediente sobre el descubrimiento de una gran ciudad en la provincia de chiapas, distrito de guatemala." nov. . (archives of the royal academy, at madrid).--it is directed to the lieutenant "alcalde mayor" of chiapas, at s^{to} domingo del palenque, directing him to survey the ruins. josef antonio calderon. "informe, fecho en de diciembre de ." description of the ruins. mss. translated and published by brasseur in "ruines de palenque," . antonio bernasconi. other reports on the ruins, accompanied by plans and drawings. ms. in spain. date, june, . juan bautista muÑoz. letter to the marquis de sonora, written . translated by brasseur: "ruines de palenque." . antonio del rio. "descripcion del terreno y poblacion antigua nuevamente descubierta en las inmediaciones del pueblo del palenque."--i have already referred to it under "yucatan." whether the plates of the english edition are genuine, is yet doubtful. * * * * * i must add here, that until about , the state of chiapas pertained, not to mexico, but to the captain-generalcy of guatemala, and consequently all the authorities treating of the latter country may be supposed to contain information about chiapas also. _writers of the nineteenth century._ (explorations of palenque.) juan garrido. _said_ to have written about palenque in . guillermo dupaix and luciano castaÑeda. "relacion hecha al rey, sobre tres expediciones, &c." in , , and . they visited palenque late in .--their reports and drawings were first published in , in vols. iv. and v. of lord kingsborough's "antiquities of mexico," and an english translation in vol. vi.--a french and spanish version, together with all the plates, is contained in "antiquités mexicaines." paris, .--the drawings of castañeda are by far the most complete which we have, although they disagree with many of those of other travellers. this disagreement will be referred to hereafter. juan galindo. "palenque et autres lieux circonvoisins." letter dated april, , in "antiquités méxicaines," vol. i.--english translation in the "literary gazette," no. , london, .--col. galindo visited palenque himself, but he is so enthusiastic that all his statements and even measurements should be taken with many allowances. friedrich von waldeck. "description des ruines de palenque," with large plates, in "monuments anciens du méxique." paris, .--m. de waldeck had spent two years at palenque ( - ,)--his plates are magnificent, but they restore far too much. john l. stephens. "travels in central america, chiapas, and yucatan." n. york, . "incidents of travel in yucatan." . f. catherwood. (see yucatan.) arthur morelet. (see yucatan.) visited p. in . dÉsirÉ charnay. (see yucatan.) in . charles etienne brasseur de bourbourg. "ruines de palenque," in "monuments anciens du méxique," , paris.--valuable for the historical introductions and for the numerous references to authorities. the historical essay is a confused and disorderly jumble, barely readable.--the abbé visited palenque subsequently--in . to these reports i finally add: charles rau. "the palenque tablet in the united states national museum," washington, d. c., . (no. of "smithsonian contributions to knowledge.") * * * * * aside from the numberless historical, archæological, and ethnological works, several of which i have already noticed under "yucatan," i beg to refer to some specifically central-american and mexican sources treating of chiapas in general, with some occasional mention of palenque and of ocosingo, or even without any particular reference to them. domingo juarros. "compendio de la historia de guatemala," -- .--english translation by j. bailly, london, . francisco de paula garcia l'elaez. "memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de guatemala." vols. guatemala, .--an excellent work, full of valuable and reliable information. hyacinthe de charency. "le mythe de votan." alençon, .--ingenious speculations. fÉlix cabrera. "teatro crítico-americano."--published with the different editions of del rio.--abstract from nuñez de la vega, with more or less hypothetical speculations about the origin, life, and doings of "votan" in chiapas. mariano robles dominguez de mazariegos. "memoria histórica de la provincia de chiapas...." cadiz, . emilio pineda. "descripcion geógráfica del departamento de chiapas y soconusco." in the "boletin de la sociedad de geografia y estadística de méxico." vol. iii. also, méxico, . josÉ de garay. "reconocimiento del istmo de tehuantepec." méxico, . francisco pimentel. "cuadro descriptivo de las lenguas indígenas, &c." (see yucatan.) manuel orozco y berra. "geografia de las lenguas." (see yucatan.) * * * * * in the imperfect list herewith submitted i have frequently included works of which nothing is known save that they once existed. this is done for the purpose of calling attention to them, should any one of them be found in the hands of book owners and collectors here or abroad. libraries like those of mr. lenox or of mr. john carter-brown should be searched for such writings, and copies at least should be secured. the plan of palenque, made by bernasconi, in , should also be copied without delay. a copy can be obtained from madrid, by application to the royal academy of spain. guatemala. (copan and chiapas included.) _writers of the sixteenth century._ hernan cortÉs. ( th and th letter. casual mention.) pedro de alvarado. seventeen letters to hernan cortés, the first of which is dated: utlatlan, april, . only two of those letters were printed, the remaining fifteen are yet in mss. mr. e. g. squier owned ms. copies of the whole, but whither they went at his sale i do not know. the two which were published ( april and july), appeared in the following works: "delle navigationi et viaggi, &c." by gian battista ramusio. venice, italian version. the "due lettere de pietro d' alvarado," are contained in the d volume, editions of , , and . oviedÓ. "historia y natural de las indias." vol. iii. written between and , but printed only . madrid. andrÉs gonzalez barcia. "historiadores primitivos de indias." madrid, , vol. i. h. ternaux-compans. "premier recueil de piéces relatives à la conquéte du méxique." paris, .--french translation. enrique de vedia. "historiadores primitivos de indias." madrid, . (vol. i.) these letters, from the conqueror of guatemala, are very important, and the unpublished ones should be printed at the earliest possible moment. francisco lopez de gomara. (quite full, and mentions the earliest author giving the etymology--or rather, an etymology--of the word "cuauhtemallan"--this is the earliest _printed_ notice about it.) gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdÉs. (has other information besides alvarado's letters.) bartolomÉ de las casas. (very important, particularly on the interior provinces pertaining or adjacent to his bishopric of chiapas.) girolamo benzoni. (visited guatemala himself, and although brief, he still is valuable.) petrus martyr, ab angleria. (brief notice, in connection with the movements of alvarado, in the last decade, cap's v. and x.--earliest reports on guatemala in general, received in europe.) fray toribio de paredes, surnamed motolinia. (not only the "historia de las indias de nueva-españa," contains incidental reference to guatemala,--but there is a trace of a "viaje á guatemala."--yet the latter is still in doubt.) fray gÊronimo de mendieta. bernal diez del castillo. (although a citizen of spanish guatemala, his reports are not very full.) "requeto de plusieurs chefs d'atitlan." addressed, under date of feb'y, , to philip ii. published in french, by h. ternaux-compans, in ^{st} "recueil de piecés concernant le méxique," .--it is valuable. pascual de andagoya. "relacion de los sucesos de pedrarias dávila en las provincias de tierra firme ó castilla del oro, y de lo ocurrido en el descubrimiento de la mar del sur y costas del perú y nicaragua." about .--original at sevilla, printed for the first time by don martin fernandez de navarrete, in . vol. iii. of "coleccion de los viajes y descubrimientos, &c."--english translation, by c. r. markham, published under the title of "the narrative of pascual de andagoya," by the hackluyt society, vol. , .--slight mention is made of guatemala. alonzo de zurita. (Çorita?) "breve y sumaria relacion de los señores, y maneras y diferencias que habia de ellos en la nueva-españa...."--this important official document, written about , has been published but once in spanish,--in vol. ii. of "coleccion de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las posesiones españolas en américa y oceanía," .--the text is, however, imperfect.--a better original had been used by ternaux-compans for his french translation: "rapport sur les diffirentes classes de la nouvelle-espagne."--zurita is very important on the organization of the quiché tribes of guatemala, and he has been almost verbally copied by herrera. diego garcia de palacio. "carta dírigida al rey de españa," , march th.--the chief importance of this report, in connection with this list, consists in its being the earliest notice of the ruins of copan. herrera made extensive use of palacio's writings, but he omitted that part which referred to copan because it was not confirmed (at his time) by any other testimony. the first publication of palacio was by ternaux-compans, in , "recueil de documents et mémoires originaux sur l'histoire des possessions espagnoles, &c."--french translation: fluent, but not always reliable. a spanish copy appeared in , in vol. vii. of "coleccion de documentos inéditos...."--a spanish copy, with english translation, by e. g. squier, in , as vol. i. of his "collection of rare and original documents, relations, &c., &c."--finally. dr. alexander von frantzius published a german translation in , under the heading of "san salvador and honduras im jahre, ,"--which is particularly valuable on account of the notes by the translator, as well as by dr. c. h. berendt.--palacio must have visited copan about , and the fact is established through him that its buildings were in ruins at the time of the spanish conquest, that is about , and no distinct traditions of their origin left. * * * * * passing over all general collections and geographical works, &c., &c., of the sixteenth century, i will mention: "cartas de indias." (see yucatan.) and the miscellaneous collections like _"colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de españa," begun by navarrete_, miguel salvá, and pedro saing de barada, in , and still continued. "_colección de documentos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las posesiones españolas en américa y oceanía._" commenced in , and still continued. (these collections contain chiefly documents from the "real archivo de indias," and although they are of recent date, the papers are all from the earlier times of spanish conquest and settlement.) * * * * * the library of the "museo nacional" at the city of guatemala (la nueva), contains the following: rafael arÉvalo. "libro de actas del ayuntamiento de la ciudad de guatemala." (town book or record, from to .) "colección de documentos antiguos del archivo del ayuntamiento de la ciudad de guatemala."--(both bound in one volume and published in and .) manuscripts. "libro segundo del cabildo de la ciudad de santiago de la provincia del guatemala." ( to .) "libro tercero de cabildo." ( to .) "historia de la provincia de san vicente de chiapa y guatemala." (fragmentary.) francisco hernandez, cacique of solola. (francisco ernandez arana xahila.) "memorial," written about .--original owned by brasseur de bourbourg, who quotes it under the heading of "memorial de tèc-pan-atitlan."--it is one of the most important and valuable documents existing on aboriginal topics,--embodying, as it does, a statement of the conquest of guatemala, written by a native in his own language. "documentos antiguos de la casa de ixcuinte-nèhàib." in addition to these, i must lay particular stress on the "territorial titles" land grants, cessions, leases, or deeds to lands, still held in guatemala,--or to whatever (if anything) may be left of their records.--such papers contain frequently interesting, if not important references to antiquities, traditions and historical facts, also to the customs and manners of the indians. among the other authorities still perhaps existing, or known to have existed, though of difficult access, i refer to those below, avoiding, of course, linguistical works, unless they are of direct bearing on other subjects also. juan estrada de ravago (or juan strada salvago.) "descripcion de las provincias de costa rica, guatemala, honduras, nicaragua y tierra-firme y cartagena, &c., &c." may, . (ms. copy of it belonging to e. g. squier.) "memorial de las advertencias i cosas que la c. cath, r'l m. del rey i su re. consejo de indias manda hacer, &c., &c." (ms. of e. g. squier.) . francisco montero de miranda. "relacion dírigida al ill'mo señor palacio, &c., &c., sobre la provincia de la verapaz ó tierra de guerra." . (ms. of e. g. squier.) frayles: francisco viana, lucas gallego, and guillermo cadena. "relacion de la provincia y tierra de la vera paz," . (ms. of squier.) fray tomÁs cÁrdenas. "representaciones al rey sobre el estado de los pueblos de la vera-paz." fray tomÁs castelar. "tratado de los idolos de guatemala." "triunfos de los mártires del orden de predicadores en las indias." printed . fray tomÁs torre. "historia de los principios de la provincia de chiapas y guatemala, del orden de santo domingo."--written prior to . fray domingo vico. "historia de los indios, sus fábulas, supersticiones, costumbres, &c." "teologia para los indios, en lengua de vera paz." vols. (still existing.) gerÓnimo roman. "república indiana." (see yucatan.) this list is certainly far from complete, and it may be that among the vocabularies, grammars, and such works now lost, although we know of their former existence, there were some,--perhaps even many,--which contained historical and ethnological matter of great value.--it is hardly possible to avoid all allusions to such subjects in any work on linguistics. but the number of books of that class is too great for the purpose of the present list. _writers of the seventeenth century._ augustin davila-padilla. (see yucatan. first edition appeared in .) gregorio garcia. (plain and well informed, though brief.) juan de torquemada. (important on organization and government, also myths.) antonio de herrera. (very full and important.) antonio de remesal. (not as full on antiquities as might be expected.) augustin de vetancourt. (very slight mention.) enrico martinez. (casual mention.) gil gonzalez dÁvila. juan diez de la calle. fernando de alba ixtlilxochitl. "relaciones históricas."--of these, the thirteenth, "de la venida de los españoles," is of particular interest for guatemala,--since it relates in detail cortés' trip to honduras. the "relaciones" are printed in full in vol. ix. of lord kingsborough's collection,--the th however, was published under the title of "horribles crueldades de los conquistadores de méxico," as appendix to sahagun's "hist-general," vol. iii., in . from this, m. ternaux made a french translation, published by him in , as "cruautés horribles des conquérants du méxique,"--in the first series of his "voyages et mémoires originaux, &c." "historia de los chichimecos, o' reyes antiguos de tezcuco."--casual mention of guatemala.--published in kingsborough, vol. ix., and translated by ternaux and printed in french as "histoire des chichiméques ou des anciens rois de tezcuco," in .--( d series.)--besides these, there are found references to guatemala in the "sumaria relacion, de los toltecas." (kingsb. ix.)--ixtlilxochitl, though full of details, is always a very suspicious source.--he is the representative of _one tribe exclusively_. francisco antonio fuentes y guzman. "recordacion florida; discurso histórico, natural, material, militar, y político del reyno de guatemala." ms. of . original in the municipal archives of the city of guatemala. copy at the "museo nacional."--fuentes is like ixtlilxochitl--both have the same tendency to extol their native tribes--still both must be carefully studied and critically examined.--a publication of fuentes, well and judiciously annotated, would be highly useful. fernando espino. "historia de la reduccion y conversion de la provincia de taguzgalpa, con la vida de los tres mártires."--printed at guatemala, .--whether and where it still exists i do not know. lionel wafer. "a new voyage and description of the isthmus of america."--london, . fray thomas gage. "new survey of the west indies." (a work which is looked upon with great suspicion, because the author, although he evidently went to guatemala from mexico, misrepresents a great many facts. still he cannot be overlooked.)--this book appeared first prior to .--robertson quotes an english edition of , and that of is the fourth edition. there are french editions of , - , , . dutch of , . german of . spanish, .--yet this list is evidently still incomplete, as further material is out of my reach. antonio de leon y pinelo. "tratado de confirmaciones reales de encomiendas, oficios, y casos en que se requieren para las indias occidentales." madrid, .--this work is one of the best on many vital points of spanish administration,--and since the latter is so intimately connected with the past and present condition of the aborigines as to make its knowledge absolutely necessary,--it must be attentively studied.--i shall, for this reason, add below the books of solòrzano: "epítome de la biblioteca oriental i occidental, náutica y geográfica." madrid, . d edition, by barcia, and . (important bibliographically.) "relácion que en el consejo real de las indias hizo el licenciado ..., sobre la pacificacion de las provincias del manché y lacandon," . ms. of e. g. squier. juan de solÓrzano-pereyra. "disputationem de indiarum jure, sive de mixta indiarum occidentalium inquisitione, acquisitione, et retentione tribus libris compehensam." (this is the title of the first volume only, the second volume bears the heading "de indiarum gubernatione, &c.") madrid, - .-- d edition, . "política indiana." madrid, .--subsequent editions, , - , . the latter work is but a spanish transcription or version of the first. the importance of both is in their clear "exposé" of the principles of right and law, according to which the spanish indies were governed.--we are thereby enabled to judge of the true relations existing between the conquering and conquered races, and to detect, how far the original condition of the latter was understood or misunderstood by the former--(and misrepresented?) * * * * * the "museo nacional," at guatemala, has the following manuscripts besides those already mentioned: "historia de la provincia de predicadores de san vicente de chiapa y guatemala."--a fragment, possibly by _fray augustin cano_. "solicitud que el padre fray augustin cano hizo al ill'mo s^r obispo de guatemala ... que se hallaba de visita en el pueblo de cajabon pidiendo amparo para reducir á los indios choles." "informé dado al rey por el _padre fray augustin cano_ sobre la entrada que por la parte de la verapaz se hizo al peten en ." "suma de los capítulos generales y principales, ordenaciones, &c., de la provincia de predicadores de chiapa y guatemala." by _fray lope de montoya_. "vidas de varios padres de la provincia de chiapa y guatemala del orden de indicadores," by _fray antonio de molina_. whether the "noticia ó relacion de los padres de la orden de predicadores que florecian en la provincia de los zoques" (anonymous ms.), belongs to the th century, i am unable to say. * * * * * notice of the following books or writings has been communicated to me from various sources: fray antonio arochena. "catálogo y noticia de los escritores del orden de san francisco de la provincia de guatemala." (a very important bibliographical composition, to judge from its plan.) fray estevan aviles. "historia de guatemala desde los tiempos de los indios, hasta la fundacion de la provincia de los franciscanos; poblacion de aquellas tierras, propagacion de los indios, sus ritos, ceremonias, polícia, y gobierno." (said to have been printed at guatemala in .) fray salvador cipriana. "libro de los idolos de la provincia de zacatula." "hechos de los padres fray levis cancer, fray bartolomé de las casas, y fray pedro de angulo, en la predicacion del evangelio." "historia de la entrada de los españoles en zacatula." nicolas lizarraga. (see yucatan.) fray melchor de jesus lopez. "relacion de la conversion á la fé de los indios de salamanca." . "relacion de la pacificacion de los indios de vera-paz." fray pedro sotomayor. "informacion de los varones ilustres del orden de san francisco del reino de guatemala." diego de unzueta. "relacion de guatemala,"--handed to juan diez de la calle in . nicolas de valenzuela. (wrote about the expedition against lacandon,--in .) fray estevan verdelete. "noticias de la provincia de teguzigalpa." (written between and .) juan zapata y sandoval. (see chiapas.) fray pedro daza. "memorias históricas de la fundacion y predicacion de los religiosos de la merced de la redencion de cautivos en guatemala." fray josÉ morera. "noticias de la provincia de guatemala, con un tratado de la mísion y martirio de los p. p. misioneros, verdelete y montragudo." (ms. said to be at guatemala.) fray pablo rebullida. "informe á la audiencia de guatemala sobre el estado actual de la cristiandad de la provincia de talamanca." . "cartas sobre el caracter de los indios terrabas, talamancas, y changenes." fray pedro de urtiaga. "diario del viaje de los cinco misioneros desde querétaro hasta guatemala."--printed in , at guatemala. alonzo duarte. "relacion de lo que yo (a. d.) vecino desta ciudad de santiago de guatemala entendí y vide quando d. francisco valverde vino a sondar el puerto de cavallos." . ms. pertaining to e. g. squier. these are certainly not all,--perhaps only a minority of the documents relating to guatemala,--which originated during the th century. in regard to the ruins of copán,--fuentes is perhaps (because a number of the last enumerated authors i have not seen) the only one who mentions its ruins, and even gives an enthusiastic description of them,--but torquemada as well as herrera relates the tradition of comizahual, which also relates to copán. the latter place is, besides, commonly regarded as belonging properly to _honduras, and only of late has been added_ to guatemala. i add the following, although they are of scarcely any value for the purpose in view: josÉ monroy. "estado del convento de guatemala, del orden de nuestra señora de la merced." printed, . diego rodriguez de ribas. "disertacion canónica sobre los justos motivos que representa el reyno de guatemala, para que el consejo se serva de erigir en metropolí ecclesiástica la s. iglesia catedral, &c." printed, . _writers of the eighteenth century._ antonio de alcedo. f. x. clavigero. (very slight mention.) the following mss. are yet at guatemala "museo nacional." pedro cortÉs y larraz. "descripcion geográfico moral de la diócesis de guatemala." - . fray francisco ximenez. "historia de la provincia de san vicente de chiapa y guatemala de la orden de los predicadores." vols. josÉ sanchez. "apuntaciones para la historia de guatemala." fernando velasquez de guzman. "relacion de los obispos de guatemala." there is, besides, a ms.: "efemérides de guatemala desde su fundacion hasta la ruina de ."--anonymous. printed works: fray isidro fÉlix de espinosa. "el peregrino septentrional atlante." (life of fray antonio margil.) méxico, . fray cÁrlos cadena. "breve descripcion de la noble ciudad de santiago de los caballaros de guatemala, &c." mexico, .-- d edition, guatemala, . juan de villagutierre y sotomayor. (on vera paz.) francisco nuÑez de la vega. (on chiapas.) toribio cosio. (in the university library of mexico.) fray josÉ diez. "noticia de las misiones de guatemala." fray ildefonso joseph flores. "teología de los indios." fray francisco vasquez. (see chiapas.) fray francisco ximenez. (see chiapas.) it is said that ximenez wrote two large historical works, one in five volumes, of which but three were finished.--this is a mistake, the entire edition of five volumes is still at guatemala. the other work, secured by dr. scherzer, bears the title "las historias del orígen de los indios de esta provincia de guatemala....," and published by him at vienna in . (anonymous ms. said to exist at guatemala.) "informe del provincial de la orden de santo domingo guatemala, tocante á los negocios de la vera-paz." . "relacion de la sublevacion de los zendales." . antonio rodriguez campas. "diario histórico de guatemala." fray juan cartajena. "la s^{ta} iglesia de guatemala, madre fecundísima de hijos ilustrissimos." méxico, . ramon ordoÑez y aguiar. (see chiapas.) at mexico. (a number of the above works may be lost.) _writers of the nineteenth century._ all general works, archæological, historical, and geographical, are left out. i even omit, as abundantly known, kingsborough, bancroft, baldwin, short, the "antiquites méxicaines," the "cités et ruines méxicaines" of waldeck,--brasseur de bourbourg, &c., &c.--reference to these sources is self-understood. domingo juarrez. "compendio de la historia de guatemala." - , guatemala. (relies too much on fuentes.) english translation by bailey. london, . "a statistical and commercial history of the kingdom of guatemala, in spanish america."--a second spanish edition appeared in . francisco de paula garcia pelaez. (see chiapas.). "memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de guatemala." . charles etienne brasseur de bourbourg. "popol vuh. le livre sacré et les mythes de l'antiquité américaine, avec les livres héroiques et historiques des quichés." paris, . hardly any work of this century has created such a "mixed" sensation of a serious nature, as this book.--it could be seen at a glance, that no mystification was possible,--but there was a wide field open for discussion on the point of origin, as far as the document itself, the "popol vuh," was concerned.--still the "sensation" has not resulted in much active critical examination, and i think (if i may be permitted to commit such a breach of modesty,) myself the only person attempting a criticism of the "popol vuh" on the basis of documentary evidence. unfortunately, i was unable to prepare my annotations in time for the publication of the th volume of proceedings of the american association for the advancement of science, in .--thus only the text of "sources for aboriginal history of spanish america," appeared without any documentary evidence attached. one thing is evident, that the "popol vuh" was _written_. now it is a fact very easily proven, that the aborigines of guatemala had no phonetic alphabet whatever, consequently _that they did not write_.--therefore the "popol vuh" must have been composed, as an instrument in writing, since the conquest; or after .--this is developed utterly independent of the fact that the document hints at two data (p. ,) indicating the time of its composition to have been after , and prior to .--therefore it was written in our letters, or perhaps with the aid of the "five characters" invented by fray francisco de la parra, previous to , to indicate sounds for which our alphabet had no signs.--at all events, it was written in the native quiché idiom, and was only met with incidentally by fray francisco ximenez at the town of chichicastenango, towards the close of the th century.--this dominican monk translated it into the spanish language and incorporated both text and translation in the first volume of his "historia de la provincia de predicadores, &c."--according to brasseur de bourbourg's really silly and irritatingly confused bibliography--(p. xiii., "notice bibliographique.") dr. scherzer certainly deserves credit for having published a spanish text rendering approximatively the "popol vuh," in , and there is no doubt but that it is as correct a rendering of the original quiché as the french translation of brasseur de bourbourg. the filiation of the text being thus established as far back as to , it remains to investigate the question: how much of it was originally indian;--if all of it or not? there is no doubt but that the greater part of it is indian songs, preserved for centuries, and indian myths and tales--historical traditions--which were recorded by the compiler in the form now before us. but this compiler, or rather--recorder--has given to these tales a chronological sequence,--at least in the first part,--which may hereafter prove conjectural.--actions are made to succeed to each other, which may yet prove to be without any connection at all.--i do not insist upon this point--since a new translation of the "popol vuh" should precede its investigation--but i particularly insist upon a careful and critical study of its first so-called "chapters." these first chapters give us cosmological ideas and notions, purporting to be originally indian, which, at their very inception, show a singular admixture of foreign elements. the first sentences appear to be transcriptions from the book of genesis. they are not aboriginally american.--we are therefore led to investigate whether, prior to , european influences could have been brought to bear upon the recollection and the imagination of the natives.--there is very positive evidence to that effect.--the monks, at the earliest stages of conversion, used paintings of their own, to impress upon the natives the notions of a creation of the world, of the deluge and salvation of a single pair therefrom, &c., &c.--the dominican father gonzalo lucero travelled about with painted charts representing such striking events, which he displayed in confirmation of his teachings. fray jacobo testera (he died aug. , ) used similar means. fray pedro de angulo, who went with las casas to guatemala and was made provincial of chiapas in , wrote three dissertations in the zutuhil language, one on the creation of the world, one on adam's fall, and one on the expulsion of our first fathers from paradise.--fray luis cancer wrote similar pages in the language of oajaca, previous to .--fray domingo vico, who was killed by the indians of lacandon, in , wrote his "teologia para los indios," in the quiché language, also a dissertation on the "eternal paradise," in the language of vera-paz.--but there is also indisputable proof that _songs were composed on the subject of the creation of the world_ and other parts of the hebrew genesis, in the quiché language, which songs were used as the means of conversion of the natives of vera-paz in . (remesal. lib. iii., cap. xi., p. .) they had been composed by las casas, fray rodrigo de ladrada, fray pedro de angulo, and probably fray luis cancer. many other similar ones were composed afterwards. thus we see that, prior to , ecclesiastics had commenced to write upon cosmological subjects with our letters and in the languages of guatemala, and that, on the other hand, christian cosmogony had become a text for indian songs. the "popol vuh" has therefore nothing extraordinary in its origin; it is but a child of its time, like the "memorial de tecpan-atitlan," by the chief of sololá, only anonymous,--and preceded by a cosmological introduction made up of christian and indian tales confusedly intermingled, and therefore apocryphal so far. these criticisms, however, apply merely to the "first part,"--the rest of the "popol vuh" appears to be original, and therefore of the greatest value. this however cannot be said of the translation, only of the ms. a new translation, supervised by a native, should be obtained at any price. "grammaire quichée, et le drame rabinal-aché." paris, . of the "rabinal-aché," a new translation is absolutely requisite. mr. brasseur, like all translators of indian songs, has so disfigured it by the introduction of a foreign terminology, as to render it useless for any one who has no access to vocabularies, &c. john l. stephens. (see yucatan), also frederick catherwood. juan galindo. (see yucatan and chiapas.) what i have seen of his reports has left upon my mind the impression that he means to be truthful, but in his zeal and eagerness saw "too big," and again "too often." "the ruins of copan in central america." transactions of the american antiquarian society, vol. ii., pp. - . . "notions sur palenque," &c., &c., "transmises à la société géographique de france," in "antiquités méxicaines," vol. i., pp. - .--published also in the "bulletin" of the french geographical society, and in the "literary gazette" of london. e. g. squier. "the serpent-symbol, and the worship of the reciprocal principles of nature in america." n. york, . "the states of central america: their geography, topography, &c., &c. aborigines," n. york, . "notes on central américa, particularly the states of honduras and san salvador." n. york, .--german translation, leipzig, .--french version, paris, .--spanish, paris, , (two different translations.) "honduras, descriptive, historical and statistical." london, . "honduras and guatemala." "the national intelligencer." n. york, . "the ruins of tenampua." although in honduras, they appear traditionally connected with copan. n. york, , in "proceedings of the historical society of new york." "monograph of authors who have written on the languages of central america." albany, .--a very valuable and important contribution to bibliography. * * * * * carl scherzer. "wanderungen durch die mittel-amerikanischen freistaaten." braunschweig, .--english version, london, . "narrative of the circumnavigation of the globe by the austrian frigate novara." london, . (the official reports on the results of the circumnavigation, &c., are very rare.) "die indianer von ixtlahuacan." vienna, . "ein besuch bei den ruinen von quirigua." vienna, . i omit here his linguistical writings, and his publication of the "historia del origen de los indios, &c.," in .--see ximenez. moritz wagner, and carl scherzer. "die republik costa-rica in central amerika." leipzig, .--describes the ruins of quirigua. manuel galvan rivera. "historia de méxico, guatemala, estados-unidos del norte, perú, &c." méxico, . "gaceta de guatemala." (from .) contains interesting notices, historical and ethnological. "periodico de la sociedad econÓmica de guatemala." (only numbers published in and .) may, , to april, . the padres: chica, abella, and escoto, and aguilar. "informes, al ill'mo señor arzobispo de guatemala, tocantes á la vera-paz." and . mss. dominguez de mazariegos. (see chiapas.) domingo fajardo. "informe dirigido al gobierno supremo de méxico, relativo á su mision á vera-paz y peten." campeche, . orlando n. roberts. "narrative of voyages and excursions on the east coast and in the interior of central america." edinburgh, . carl hermann berendt. "report of explorations in central america." smithsonian report, . "collection of historical documents on guatemala." smithsonian report, . "die indianer des isthmus von tehuantepec."--zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, , vol. v. "_analytical alphabet_ for the mexican and central american languages." published by the american ethnological society. new york, . "_cartilla en lengua maya_ para la enseñanza de los niños indigenes." mérida, . _el ramie._ tratado sobre el cultivo y algunas noticias de esta planta. mérida de yucatan, . (ed. de la revista de mérida.) _los escritos de d. joaquin garcia icazbalceta._ ed. de la revista de mérida. tomo ii., . "_articulo sobre el méxico_," se halla en el "deútsch amerikanisches conversations lexicon, barbeitet von. prof. alex. i. schem. lieferung , band vii., seite , pp. . (n. y. .) "_remarks on the centres of ancient civilization in central america_, and their geograpical distribution." address read before the am. geogr. society, n. y., july th, , with map. _zur ethnologie von nicaragua._ articulo publicado en correspondenz-blatt der deutschen gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. redigirt von n. a. v. frantzius in heidelberg, no. , september, . in "geographische mittheilungen" von a. petermann, gotha. (the above makes no pretension to be a full list of the eminent linguist's publications.) alexander von frantzius. (see palacio.) "san salvador and honduras im iahre, ."--annotated also by berendt. gustav bernoulli. "reisen in der republik guatemala."--in "petermann's mittheilungen," - . baron der theil. "le guatemala." in "l'explorateur," vol. iii. . j. laferrier. "de paris au guatémala." paris, . george williamson. "antiquities in guatemala." smithsonian reports, . (very interesting and of great value for archæological studies.) j. w. boddam-wetham. "across central america." london, . adolph bastian. "die monumenta in santa lucia cozumalguapa."--"zeitschrift für ethnologie," . "die culturlaender des alten amerikas." (see yucatan.) gustav brÙhl. (see yucatan.) h. w. bates. "central america, west indies, and south america." london, . a. boncard. "le guatèmala."--in "l'explorateur," . no. . francisco pimentel. (see yucatan and chiapas.) manuel orozco y berra. (see yucatan, &c.) s. habel. "the sculptures of santa lucia cozumalguapa."--smithsonian contributions, no. .--washington, . in closing this list, i must again distinctly state, that it is very imperfect,--and that no one acquainted with the literature of central america can fail to notice many omissions.--but i had neither time, nor opportunity to do better, owing to the state of my health. in conclusion, i wish to advert to a few books of an exclusively bibliographical tenor, which every student of american history must at least attempt to consult.--some of them are, unfortunately, extremely rare: nicolÁs antonio. "bibliotheca hispana nova, &c." st edition, rome, . d edition, madrid, - . juan josÉ de eguiara y eguren. "biblioteca mexicana." méxico, . incomplete: only the first volume published. antonio de alcedo. "biblioteca americana." ms. original belonged to mr. jared sparks. méxico, . j. mariano bÈristain de souza. "biblioteca hispana americana. septentrional." méxico, and , volumes. (exceedingly rare.) brasseur de bourbourg. "bibliothéque méxico-guatemalienne." paris, . * * * * * i forbear quoting here at length the bibliographical works of harrisse, rich, ludewig, ternaux-compans, sabin, and others.--they are deservedly well known, and of easy access to any student. oajaca. ("huaxyacac.") _writers of the sixteenth century._ hernan cortÉs. ( d letter.) bernal diez del castillo. (casual notice.) francisco lopez de gomara. ("conquista de méxico.") fray toribio de parades, surnamed motolinia. ("historia de los indios de la nueva-españa." see bibliography of yucatan.)--this is probably the earliest mention of the ruins of mitla, which were, however, inhabited at that time. motolinia has been entirely overlooked by bancroft, although his description of mitla is truly excellent. gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdÉs. (casual notice.) codex chimalpopoca. now in process of publication, in the "anales del museo nacional de méxico." vol. ii., by mendoza, sanchez solís, and chavero. juan de tobar. "códice ramirez,"--published by s^r j. m. vigil, as an anonymous chronicle, in . also "historia de los indios mexicanos." original in possession of the estate of sir thomas phillips, at cheltenham, england. copy of a fragment, privately printed, at the lenox library, new york. (written between and .) diego durÁn. "historia de las indias de nueva-españa, é yslas de tierra firme."--(written between and , but only the first part of it printed, at mexico, , by s^r josé f^r ramirez.)--very important; mentions again mitla as a settlement inhabited about . "apéndice" por alfredo chavaro, méxico, . fernando de alvarado tezozomoc. "crónica mexicana."--written . printed for the first time in vol. ix. of kingsborough, and again (though not complete) in the "biblioteca mexicana" of s^r vigil, with notes by s^r orozco y berra.--a french translation has been made by ternaux-compans, under the title of "histoire du méxique, par alvarado tezozomoc," paris, , vols. it is utterly unreliable. fray gerÓnimo de mendieta. (copies textually from motolinia.) fray bernardino sahagun. "historia universal de las cosas de nueva-españa," in vols. and of kingsborough.--the same book, under the title of "historia general, &c., &c." appeared at mexico, in vols., , edited by c. m. de bustamante. only very slight and casual mention of oajaca. _writers of the seventeenth century._ augustin dÁvila-padilla. juan de torquemada. (important.) antonio de herrera. (important.) gregorio garcia. (important.) francisco de burgoa. "palestra historiale de virtudes y exemplares apostólicos." méxico, . "geográfica descripcion de la parte septentrional del polo artico de la américa." méxico, . this work is regarded (especially by such as have not seen it), as the leading work on oajaca.--i have never even seen it--it is exceedingly rare. _writers of the eighteenth century._ mariano veytia. f. x. clavigero. antonio de alcedo. lorenzo boturini bernaducci. joseph joaquin granados y galvez. "tardes americanas." méxico, --a work considerably over-estimated,--containing casual mention of oajaca,--fluently written. _writers of the nineteenth century._ i forbear mentioning here _all_ the writers on oajaca,--more particularly avoiding all the general works,--those excepted which contain plates of special value. the first who called attention to mitla was certainly alexander von humboldt. "vues des cordilléres et monuments des peuples indigénes de l'amérique." paris, . royal folio.--same, vols. ^o paris, . english version, by helen m. williams, london, . "essai politique sur la nouvelle-espagne." (see "yucatan.") mathieu de fossey. "le méxique." paris, .--very fair. eduard mÛhlenpfordt. "versuch einer getreuen schilderung der republik mejico." hannover, . vols. arthur von tempsky. "mitla, a narrative of incidents and personal adventures." london, .--of small scientific value. guillermo dupaix, and castaÑeda. (in "antiquités méxicaines," also in lord kingsborough's "antiquities of mexico.") dÉsirÉ charnay. (saw the ruins in . his photographs are very important.) josÉ maria garcia. (visited mitla in , according to "boletin de la sociedad mexicana de geografia y estadistica." vol. vii., pp. and .) brantz-mayer. "mexico as it was and as it is." new york, . very fair. "mexico, aztec, spanish and republican." hartford, . very good. "observations on mexican history and archæology." (smithsonian contributions. no. , washington, .) contains sawkins' drawings of mitla. j. w. von mÜller. "beitrage zur geschichte und ethnographie von mexico." leipzig, . "reisen in den vereinigten-staaten, canada, and mexico." leipzig, . carlos maria de bustamante. "memoria estadística de oajaca, y descripcion del valle del mismo nombre." vera-cruz, . murguia. "estadistica antigua y moderna de la provincia de guajaca." "boletin, &c." vol. ii. juan b. carriedo. the writings of this author are, unfortunately, but little known.--in the "ilustracion mexicana," vol. ii., he has given an essay on "los palacios antiguos de mitla."--but he has published other papers and even books on the same subject. "estudios históricos, y estadísticos del estado oaxaqueño." oajaca, . the astor library of new york has an incomplete copy of a work of carriedo on oajaca, with colored drawings by him,--unfinished. copious notes by the author's own hand accompany the text. in historical questions carriedo mostly follows and cites burgoa. francisco pimentel. "cuadro descriptivó de las lenguas indígenas de méxico." (see yucatan and chiapas.) manuel orozco y berra. in "geografia de las lenguas."--reference is made to a number of very important papers on oajaca, the title of one, among others, "estado que comprende el número de parroquias de la diócesis de oajaca, con expresion de sus nombres, estado ó territorio en que están situadas, número de pueblos, &c., &c." further, certain official reports are quoted,--the originals of which are in the hands of my friend s^r j. g. icazbalceta,--s^r orozco mentions the following: pedro de ledesma. "relacion de oajaca, por el alcalde...." . hernando de cervantes. "relacion de teotzacualco y amoltepec...." . augustin de salazar. "relacion del vicario de chilapa." juan lopez. "relacion del corregidor...." . finally, i must call attention to a linguistical work, known to me only through s^r orozco y berra's citation, and through references given by s^r pimentel--to wit: antonio de los reyes. "arte en lengua mixteca." méxico, . numerous grammars, vocabularies, "doctrinas," sermonaries, &c., &c., were written in the course of the th century, of and in the language of oajaca. emilio hÉrbrÜger. "album de vistas fotográficas de las antiguas ruinas de los palacios de mitla." oaxaca, . text and valuable photographs. * * * * * in conclusion, i would merely beg to add,--that there can hardly be any doubt as to the fact that mitla was _inhabited_ when the spaniards first visited the place. it therefore becomes a point of special interest. ( st-hand-history.org) transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. italic text is denoted by _underscores_. the character e-breve (e with a small curved line over) is represented in the text by [)e]. the character m-macron is represented in the text by [|m]. italics in the footnote citations were inconsistently applied by the typesetter. on page , a word is possibly missing in the phrase "we will pass over third force, 'la race';" in footnote , the citation for herrera is missing a book name. on the fold-out chart between pages and , clavigero, month may be "xocohuetzl". in footnote , a reference to leon y gama, dos piedras, is incomplete. the works of hubert howe bancroft. volume ii. the native races. vol. ii. civilized nations. san francisco: a. l. bancroft & company, publishers. . entered according to act of congress in the year , by hubert h. bancroft, in the office of the librarian of congress, at washington. _all rights reserved._ contents of this volume. chapter i. savagism and civilization. page. definition of the terms -- the universal soul of progress -- man the instrument and not the element of progress -- origin of progressional phenomena -- the agency of evil -- is civilization conducive to happiness? -- objective and subjective humanity -- conditions essential to progress -- continental configurations -- food and climate -- wealth and leisure -- association -- war, slavery, religion, and government -- the development of progressional law chapter ii. general view of the civilized nations. the american civilization of the sixteenth century -- its disappearance -- the past, a new element -- dividing line between savage and civilized tribes -- bounds of american civilization -- physical features of the country -- maya and nahua branches of aboriginal culture -- the nahua civilization -- the aztecs its representatives -- limits of the aztec empire -- ancient history of anáhuac in outline -- the toltec era -- the chichimec era -- the aztec era -- extent of the aztec language -- civilized peoples outside of anáhuac -- central american nations -- the maya culture -- the primitive maya empire -- nahua influence in the south -- yucatan and the mayas -- the nations of chiapas -- the quiché empire in guatemala -- the nahuas in nicaragua and salvador -- etymology of names chapter iii. government of the nahua nations. system of government -- the aztec confederacy -- order of succession -- election of kings among the mexicans -- royal prerogatives -- government and laws of succession among the toltecs, and in michoacan, tlascala, cholula, huexotzinco, and oajaca -- magnificence of the nahua monarchs -- ceremony of anointment -- ascent to the temple -- the holy unction -- address of the high-priest to the king -- penance and fasting in the house called tlacatecco -- homage of the nobles -- general rejoicing throughout the kingdom -- ceremony of coronation -- the procuring of sacrifices -- description of the crown -- coronation feasts and entertainments -- hospitality extended to enemies -- coronation speech of nezahualpilli, king of tezcuco, to montezuma ii. of mexico -- oration of a noble to a newly elected king chapter iv. palaces and households of the nahua kings. extent and interior of the great palace in mexico -- the palace of nezahualcoyotl, king of tezcuco -- the zoölogical collections of the nahua monarchs -- montezuma's oratory -- royal gardens and pleasure-grounds -- the hill of chapultepec -- nezahualcoyotl's country residence at tezcozinco -- toltec palaces -- the royal guard -- the king's meals -- an aztec cuisine -- the audience chamber -- after-dinner amusements -- the royal wardrobe -- the king among his people -- meeting of montezuma ii. and cortés -- the king's harem -- revenues of the royal household -- policy of aztec kings chapter v. the privileged classes among the nahuas. titles of the nobility and gentry -- the power of the nobles -- the aristocracy of tezcuco -- the policy of king techotlalatzin -- privileges of the nobles -- montezuma's policy -- rivalry between nobles and commons -- the knightly order of tecuhtli -- ceremony of initiation -- origin of the order -- the nahua priesthood -- the priests of mexico -- dedication of children -- priestesses -- priesthood of miztecapan -- the pontiff of yopaa -- tradition of wixipecocha -- the cave of yopaa -- the zapotec priests -- toltec priests -- totonac priests -- priests of michoacan, puebla, and tlascala chapter vi. plebeians, slaves, tenure of lands, and taxation. influence of the commoners -- oppression by nobles -- deprived of office by montezuma ii. -- classes of slaves -- penal slaves -- voluntary slavery -- slave market at azcapuzalco -- punishment and privileges of slaves -- division of lands -- crown lands -- lands of the nobles -- municipal property -- property of the temples -- tenure of lands in zapotecapan, miztecapan, michoacan, tlascala, cholula, and huexotzinco -- similarity to feudal system of europe -- system of taxation -- municipal taxes -- lice tribute -- tribute from conquered provinces -- revenue officers -- injustice of montezuma ii. chapter vii. education, marriage, concubinage, childbirth, and baptism. education of the nahua youth -- manner of punishment -- marriage preliminaries -- nuptial ceremony -- observance after marriage -- mazatec, otomí, chichimec, and toltec marriages -- divorce -- concubinage -- ceremonies preliminary to childbirth -- treatment of pregnant women -- proceedings of midwife -- superstitions with regard to women who died in childbed -- abortion -- baptism -- speeches of midwife -- naming of children -- baptism among the tlascaltecs, mixtecs, and zapotecs -- circumcision and scarification of infants chapter viii. nahua feasts and amusements. excessive fondness for feasts -- manner of giving feasts -- serving the meal -- professional jesters -- parting presents to guests -- royal banquets -- tobacco smoking -- public dances -- manner of singing and dancing -- the neteteliztli -- the drama among the nahuas -- music and musical instruments -- nahua poetry -- acrobatic feats -- the netololiztli, or 'bird dance' -- professional runners -- the game of tlactli -- games of chance -- the patoliztli, or 'bean game' -- totoloque, montezuma's favorite game chapter ix. public festivals. frequent occurrence of religious feasts -- human sacrifices -- feasts of the fourth year -- monthly festivals -- sacrifice of children -- feast of xipe -- manner of sacrifice -- feasts of camaxtli, of the flower dealers, of centeotl, of tezcatlipoca, and of huitzilopochtli -- festival of the salt makers -- the sacrifice by fire -- feast of the dead -- the coming of the gods -- the footprints on the mat -- hunting feast -- the month of love -- hard times -- nahua lupercalia -- feasts of the sun, of the winter solstice -- harvest and eight-year festivals -- the binding of the sheaf chapter x. food of the nahua nations. origin of agriculture -- floating gardens -- agricultural products -- manner of preparing the soil -- description of agricultural implements -- irrigation -- granaries -- gardens -- the harvest feast -- manner of hunting -- fishing -- methods of procuring salt -- nahua cookery -- various kinds of bread -- beans -- pepper -- fruit -- tamales -- miscellaneous articles of food -- eating of human flesh -- manufacture of pulque -- preparation of chocolatl -- other beverages -- intoxicating drinks -- drunkenness -- time and manner of taking meals chapter xi. dress of the nahua nations. progress in dress -- dress of the pre-aztec nations -- garments of the chichimecs and toltecs -- introduction of cotton -- the maxtli -- the tilmatli -- dress of the acolhuas -- origin of the tarascan costume -- dress of the zapotecs and tabascans -- dress of women -- the huipil and cueitl -- sandals -- manner of wearing the hair -- painting and tattooing -- ornaments used by the nahuas -- gorgeous dress of the nobles -- dress of the royal attendants -- names of the various mantles -- the royal diadem -- the royal wardrobe -- costly decorations chapter xii. commerce of the nahua nations. the main features of nahua commerce -- commerce in pre-aztec times -- outrages committed by aztec merchants -- privileges of the merchants of tlatelulco -- jealousy between merchants and nobles -- articles used as currency -- the markets of anáhuac -- arrangement and regulations of the market-places -- number of buyers and sellers -- transportation of wares -- traveling merchants -- commercial routes -- setting out on a journey -- caravans of traders -- the return -- customs and feasts of the merchants -- nahua boats and navigation chapter xiii. war-customs of the nahuas. importance of the military profession -- indications of rank -- education of warriors -- rewards for valor -- military orders and their dress -- gorgeous war-dresses of montezuma and the aztec nobility -- dress of the common soldiers -- armor and defensive weapons -- offensive weapons -- standards -- ambassadors and couriers -- fortifications -- the military council -- articles of war -- declaration of war -- spies -- order of march and battle -- war customs of the tlascaltecs and tarascos -- return of the conquering army -- celebration of feats of arms chapter xiv. nahua laws and law courts. general remarks -- the cihuacoatl, or supreme judge -- the court of the tlacatecatl -- jurisdiction of the tecuhtlis -- the centectlapixques and topillis -- law courts and judges of tezcuco -- eighty-day council -- tribunal of the king -- court proceedings -- lawyers -- witnesses -- remuneration of judges -- justice of king nezahualpilli -- he orders his son's execution -- montezuma and the farmer -- jails -- laws against theft, murder, treason, kidnapping, drunkenness, witchcraft, adultery, incest, sodomy, fornication, and other crimes -- story of nezahualcoyotl and the boy chapter xv. nahua arts and manufactures. metals used and manner of obtaining them -- working of gold and silver -- wonderful skill in imitating gilding and plating -- working in stone -- lapidary work -- wood carving -- manufacture of pottery -- various kinds of cloth -- manufacture of paper and leather -- preparation of dyes and paints -- the art of painting -- feather mosaic work -- leaf-mats -- manner of kindling fire -- torches -- soap -- council of arts in tezcuco -- oratory and poetry -- nezahualcoyotl's odes on the mutability of life, and the tyrant tezozomoc -- aztec arithmetical system chapter xvi. the aztec calendar. astronomical knowledge of the aztecs -- contradictions of authors respecting the calendar -- value of the researches of various writers -- the first regular calendar -- the mexican cycle -- the civil year -- the aztec months -- names of the days and their signification -- the commencement of the aztec year -- the ritual calendar -- gama's arrangement of the months -- the calendar-stone -- the four destructions of the world -- the calendar of michoacan -- reckoning of the zapotecs chapter xvii. the aztec picture-writing. hieroglyphic records -- the native books -- authorities -- destruction of the native archives by zumárraga and his confrères -- picture-writings used after the conquest for confession and law-suits -- value of the records -- documents sent to spain in the sixteenth century -- european collections -- lord kingsborough's work -- picture-writings retained in mexico -- collections of ixtlilxochitl, sigüenza, gemelli careri, boturini, veytia, leon y gama, pichardo, aubin, and the national museum of mexico -- process of hieroglyphic development -- representative, symbolic, and phonetic picture-writing -- origin of modern alphabets -- the aztec system -- specimen from the codex mendoza -- specimen from gemelli careri -- specimen from the boturini collection -- probable future success of interpreters -- the nepohualtzitzin chapter xviii. architecture and dwellings of the nahuas. architecture of the ancient nations -- general features of nahua architecture -- the arch -- exterior and interior decorations -- method of building -- inclined planes -- scaffolds -- the use of the plummet -- building materials -- position and fortification of towns -- mexico tenochtitlan -- the great causeways -- quarters and wards of mexico -- the market place -- fountains and aqueducts -- light-houses and street-work -- city of tezcuco -- dwellings -- aztec gardens -- temple of huitzilopochtli -- temple of mexico -- other temples -- teocalli at cholula and tezcuco chapter xix. medicine and funeral rites among the nahuas. mexican contributions to medical science -- the botanical gardens -- longevity -- prevalent diseases -- introduction of small-pox and syphilis -- medical treatment -- the temazcalli -- aboriginal physicians -- the aztec faculty -- standard remedies -- surgery -- superstitious ceremonies in healing -- funeral rites of aztecs -- cremation -- royal obsequies -- embalming -- the funeral pyre -- human sacrifice -- disposal of the ashes and ornaments -- mourners -- funeral ceremonies of the people -- certain classes buried -- rites for the slain in battle -- burial among the teo-chichimecs and tabascans -- cremation ceremonies in michoacan -- burial by the miztecs in oajaca chapter xx. government, social classes, property, and laws of the maya nations. introductory remarks -- votan's empire -- zamná's reign -- the royal families of yucatan, cocomes, tutul xius, itzas, and cheles -- titles and order of succession -- classes of nobles -- the quiché-cakchiquel empire in guatemala -- the ahau ahpop and succession to the throne -- privileged classes -- government of the provinces -- the royal council -- the chiapanecs -- the pipiles -- nations of nicaragua -- the maya priesthood -- plebeian classes -- slaves -- tenure of lands -- inheritance of property -- taxation -- debtors and creditor -- laws and the administration of justice chapter xxi. education and family matters among the mayas. education of youth -- public schools of guatemala -- branches of study in yucatan -- marrying-age -- degrees of consanguinity allowed in marriage -- preliminaries of marriage -- marriage ceremonies -- the custom of the droit du seigneur in nicaragua -- widows -- monogamy -- concubinage -- divorce -- laws concerning adultery -- fornication -- rape -- prostitution -- unnatural crimes -- desire for children -- childbirth ceremonies -- rite of circumcision -- manner of naming children -- baptismal ceremonies chapter xxii. feasts and amusements of the mayas. special observances -- fixed feasts -- sacrifice of slaves -- monthly feasts of the yucatecs -- renewal of the idols -- feast of the chacs -- hunting festival -- the tuppkak -- feast of the cacao-planters -- war feast -- the maya new year's day -- feasts of the hunters, fishers, and apiarists -- ceremonies in honor of cukulcan -- feast of the month of mol -- feasts of the years kan, muluc, ix, and cauac -- yucatec sacrifices -- the pit of chichen -- sacrifices of the pipiles -- feast of victory -- feasts and sacrifices in nicaragua -- banquets -- dances -- musical instruments -- games chapter xxiii. food, dress, commerce, and war customs of the mayas. introduction of agriculture -- quiché tradition of the discovery of maize -- maize culture -- superstitions of farmers -- hunting and fishing -- domestic animals, fowl, and bees -- preservation and cooking of food -- meals -- drinks and drinking -- habits -- cannibalism -- dress of the mayas -- maxtlis, mantles, and sandals -- dress of kings and priests -- women's dress -- hair and beard -- personal decoration -- head-flattening, perforation, tattooing, and painting -- personal habits -- commerce -- currency -- markets -- superstitions of travelers -- canoes and balsas -- war -- military leaders -- insignia -- armor -- weapons -- fortifications -- battles -- treatment of captives chapter xxiv. maya arts, calendar, and hieroglyphics. scarcity of information -- use of metals -- gold and precious stones -- implements of stone -- sculpture -- pottery -- manufacture of cloth -- dyeing -- system of numeration -- maya calendar in yucatan -- days, weeks, months, and years -- indictions and katunes -- perez' system of ahau katunes -- statements of landa and cogolludo -- intercalary days and years -- days and months in guatemala, chiapas, and soconusco -- maya hieroglyphic system -- testimony of early writers on the use of picture-writing -- destruction of documents -- specimens which have survived -- the dresden codex -- manuscript troano -- tablets of palenque, copan, and yucatan -- bishop landa's key -- brasseur de bourbourg's interpretation chapter xxv. buildings, medicine, burial, physical peculiarities, and character of the mayas. scanty information given by the early voyagers -- private houses of the mayas -- interior arrangement, decoration, and furniture -- maya cities -- description of utatlan -- patinamit, the cakchiquel capital -- cities of nicaragua -- maya roads -- temples at chichen itza and cozumel -- temples of nicaragua and guatemala -- diseases of the mayas -- medicines used -- treatment of the sick -- propitiatory offerings and vows -- superstitions -- dreams -- omens -- witchcraft -- snake-charmers -- funeral rites and ceremonies -- physical peculiarities -- character [illustration: native races of the pacific states showing the location of the civilized nations] the native races of the pacific states. civilized nations. chapter i. savagism and civilization. definition of the terms -- force and nature -- the universal soul of progress -- man the instrument and not the element of progress -- origin of progressional phenomena -- the agency of evil -- is civilization conducive to happiness? -- objective and subjective humanity -- conditions essential to progress -- continental configurations -- food and climate -- wealth and leisure -- association -- war, slavery, religion, and government -- morality and fashion -- the development of progressional law. the terms savage and civilized, as applied to races of men, are relative and not absolute terms. at best these words mark only broad shifting stages in human progress; the one near the point of departure, the other farther on toward the unattainable end. this progress is one and universal, though of varying rapidity and extent; there are degrees in savagism and there are degrees in civilization; indeed, though placed in opposition, the one is but a degree of the other. the haidah, whom we call savage, is as much superior to the shoshone, the lowest of americans, as the aztec is superior to the haidah, or the european to the aztec. looking back some thousands of ages, we of to-day are civilized; looking forward through the same duration of time, we are savages. nor is it, in the absence of fixed conditions, and amidst the many shades of difference presented by the nations along our western seaboard, an easy matter to tell where even comparative savagism ends and civilization begins. in the common acceptation of these terms, we may safely call the central californians savage, and the quichés of guatemala civilized; but between these two extremes are hundreds of peoples, each of which presents some claim for both distinctions. thus, if the domestication of ruminants, or some knowledge of arts and metals, constitute civilization, then are the ingenious but half-torpid hyperboreans civilized, for the eskimos tame reindeer, and the thlinkeets are skillful carvers and make use of copper; if the cultivation of the soil, the building of substantial houses of adobe, wood, and stone, with the manufacture of cloth and pottery, denote an exodus from savagism, then are the pueblos of new mexico no longer savages; yet in both these instances enough may be seen, either of stupidity or brutishness, to forbid our ranking them with the more advanced aztecs, mayas, and quichés. we know what savages are; how, like wild animals, they depend for food and raiment upon the spontaneous products of nature, migrating with the beasts and birds and fishes, burrowing beneath the ground, hiding in caves, or throwing over themselves a shelter of bark or skins or branches or boards, eating or starving as food is abundant or scarce; nevertheless, all of them have made some advancement from their original naked, helpless condition, and have acquired some aids in the procurement of their poor necessities. primeval man, the only real point of departure, and hence the only true savage, nowhere exists on the globe to-day. be the animal man never so low--lower in skill and wisdom than the brute, less active in obtaining food, less ingenious in building his den--the first step out of his houseless, comfortless condition, the first fashioning of a tool, the first attempt to cover nakedness and wall out the wind, if this endeavor spring from intellect and not from instinct, is the first step toward civilization. hence the modern savage is not the pre-historic or primitive man; nor is it among the barbarous nations of to-day that we must look for the rudest barbarism. [sidenote: definition of the terms.] often is the question asked, what is civilization? and the answer comes, the act of civilizing; the state of being civilized. what is the act of civilizing? to reclaim from a savage or barbarous state; to educate; to refine. what is a savage or barbarous state? a wild uncultivated state; a state of nature. thus far the dictionaries. the term civilization, then, popularly implies both the transition from a natural to an artificial state, and the artificial condition attained. the derivation of the word civilization, from _civis_, citizen, _civitas_, city, and originally from _coetus_, union, seems to indicate that culture which, in feudal times, distinguished the occupants of cities from the ill-mannered boors of the country. the word savage, on the other hand, from _silva_, a wood, points to man primeval; _silvestres homines_, men of the forest, not necessarily ferocious or brutal, but children of nature. from these simple beginnings both words have gradually acquired a broader significance, until by one is understood a state of comfort, intelligence, and refinement; and by the other, humanity wild and bestial. guizot defines civilization as an "improved condition of man resulting from the establishment of social order in place of the individual independence and lawlessness of the savage or barbarous life;" buckle as "the triumph of mind over external agents;" virey as "the development more or less absolute of the moral and intellectual faculties of man united in society;" burke as the exponent of two principles, "the spirit of a gentleman and the spirit of religion." "whatever be the characteristics of what we call savage life," says john stuart mill, "the contrary of these, or the qualities which society puts on as it throws off these, constitute civilization;" and, remarks emerson, "a nation that has no clothing, no iron, no alphabet, no marriage, no arts of peace, no abstract thought, we call barbarous." men talk of civilization and call it liberty, religion, government, morality. now liberty is no more a sign of civilization than tyranny; for the lowest savages are the least governed of all people. civilized liberty, it is true, marks a more advanced stage than savage liberty, but between these two extremes of liberty there is a necessary age of tyranny, no less significant of an advance on primitive liberty than is constitutional liberty an advance on tyranny. nor is religion civilization, except in so far as the form and machinery of sacerdotal rites, and the abandonment of fetichism for monotheism become significant of intenser thought and expansion of intellect. no nation ever practiced grosser immorality, or what we of the present day hold to be immorality, than greece during the height of her intellectual refinement. peace is no more civilization than war, virtue than vice, good than evil. all these are the incidents, not the essence, of civilization. that which we commonly call civilization is not an adjunct nor an acquirement of man; it is neither a creed nor a polity, neither science nor philosophy nor industry; it is rather the measure of progressional force implanted in man, the general fund of the nation's wealth, learning, and refinement, the storehouse of accumulated results, the essence of all best worth preserving from the distillations of good and the distillations of evil. it is a something between men, no less than a something within them; for neither an isolated man nor an association of brutes can by any possibility become civilized. [sidenote: civilization a working principle.] further than this, civilization is not only the measure of aggregated human experiences, but it is a living working principle. it is a social transition; a moving forward rather than an end attained; a developing vitality rather than a fixed entity; it is the effort or aim at refinement rather than refinement itself; it is labor with a view to improvement and not improvement consummated, although it may be and is the metre of such improvement. and this accords with latter-day teachings. although in its infancy, and, moreover, unable to explain things unexplainable, the science of evolution thus far has proved that the normal condition of the human race, as well as that of physical nature, is progressional; that the plant in a congenial soil is not more sure to grow than is humanity with favorable surroundings certain to advance. nay, more, we speak of the progress of civilization as of something that moves on of its own accord; we may, if we will, recognize in this onward movement, the same principle of life manifest in nature and in the individual man. to things we do not understand we give names, with which by frequent use we become familiar, when we fancy that we know all about the things themselves. at the first glance civilization appears to be a simple matter; to be well clad, well housed, and well fed, to be intelligent and cultured are better than nakedness and ignorance; therefore it is a good thing, a thing that men do well to strive for,--and that is all. but once attempt to go below this placid surface, and investigate the nature of progressional phenomena, and we find ourselves launched upon an eternity of ocean, and in pursuit of the same occult cause, which has been sought alike by philosophic and barbaric of every age and nation; we find ourselves face to face with a great mystery, to which we stand in the same relation as to other great mysteries, such as the origin of things, the principle of life, the soul-nature. when such questions are answered as what is attraction, heat, electricity; what instinct, intellect, soul? why are plants forced to grow and molecules to conglomerate and go whirling in huge masses through space?--then we may know why society moves ever onward like a river in channels predetermined. at present, these phenomena we may understand in their action partially, in their essence not at all; we may mark effects, we may recognize the same principle under widely different conditions though we may not be able to discover what that principle is. science tells us that these things are so; that certain combinations of certain elements are inevitably followed by certain results, but science does not attempt to explain why they are so. nevertheless, a summary of such few simple thoughts as i have been able to gather upon the subject, may be not wholly valueless. * * * * * [sidenote: force and matter.] and first, to assist our reflections, let us look for a moment at some of the primal principles in nature, not with a view to instruct in that direction, but rather to compare some of the energies of the material world with the intellectual or progressional energy in man; and of these i will mention such only as are currently accepted by latter-day science. within the confines of the conceivable universe one element alone is all-potential, all-pervading,--force. throughout the realms of space, in and round all forms of matter, binding minutest atoms, balancing systems of worlds, rioting in life, rotting in death, under its various aspects mechanical and chemical, attractive and repulsive, this mighty power is manifest; a unifying, coalescing, and flowing power, older than time, quicker than thought, saturating all suns and planets and filling to repletion all molecules and masses. worlds and systems of worlds are sent whirling, worlds round worlds and systems round systems, in a mazy planetary dance, wherein the slightest tripping, the least excess of momentum or inertia, of tension or traction, in any part, and chaos were come again. every conceivable entity, ponderable and imponderable, material and immaterial, is replete with force. by it all moving bodies are set in motion, all motionless bodies held at rest; by it the infinitesimal atom is held an atom and the mass is held concrete, vapory moisture overspreads the land, light and heat animate senseless substance; by it forms of matter change, rocks grow and dissolve, mountains are made and unmade, the ocean heaves and swells, the eternal hills pulsate, the foundations of the deep rise up, and seas displace continents. one other thing we know, which with the first comprises all our knowledge,--matter. now force and matter are interdependent, one cannot exist without the other; as for example, all substance, unless held together--which term obviously implies force--would speedily dissolve into inconceivable nothingness. but no less force is required to annihilate substance than to create it; force, therefore, is alike necessary to the existence or non-existence of matter, which reduces the idea of a possible absence of either force or matter to an absurdity; or, in other words, it is impossible for the human mind to conceive of a state of things wherein there is no matter, and consequently no force. force has been called the soul of nature, and matter the body, for by force matter lives and moves and has its being. force like matter, is divisible, infinitely so, as far as human experience goes; for, though ultimates may exist, they have never yet been reached; and it would seem that all physical phenomena, endlessly varied and bewildering as they may appear, spring from a few simple incomprehensible forces, the bases of which are attraction and repulsion; which may yet, indeed, derive their origin from one only source. in the morphological and geometrical displays of matter these phenomena assume a multitude of phases; all are interactive and interdependent, few are original or primary,--for example, heat and electricity are the offspring of motion which is the result of attractive and repulsive force. what is force and what matter, whether the one is the essence of a self-conscious creator and the other his handiwork, or whether both are the offspring of a blind chance or fate--which latter hypothesis is simply unthinkable--it is not my purpose here to consider. i propose in this analysis to take things as i find them, to study the operations rather than the origin of phenomena, to determine what man does rather than what he ought to do, and to drop the subject at the confines of transcendentalism. when, therefore, i speak of force as the life of matter, it no more implies a self-existant materialism in man, than the soul of man implies a pantheistic self-existant soul in nature. omnipotence can as easily create and sustain a universe through the media of antagonistic and interdependent forces as through any other means, can as easily place nature and man under the governance of fixed laws as to hold all under varying arbitrary dispensations, and can reconcile these laws with man's volition. wells of bitterness are dug by disputants under meaningless words; scientists are charged with materialism and religionists with fanaticism, in their vain attempts to fathom the ways of the almighty and restrict his powers to the limits of our weak understanding. it has been said that, in the beginning, the sixty and odd supposed several elements of matter were in a chaotic state; that matter and force were poised in equilibrium or rioted at random throughout space, that out of this condition of things sprang form and development; regular motion and time began; matter condensed into revolving masses and marked off the days, and months, and years; organization and organisms were initiated and intellectual design became manifest. the infinitesimal molecules, balanced by universal equilibrium of forces, which before motion and time were but chaotic matter and force, were finally supposed to have been each endowed with an innate individuality. however this may be, we now see every atom in the universe athrill with force, and possessed of chemical virtues, and, under conditions, with the faculty of activity. as to the force behind force, or how or by what means this innate energy was or is implanted in molecules, we have here nothing to do. it is sufficient for our purpose that we find it there; yet, the teachings of philosophy imply that this innate force is neither self-implanted nor self-operative; that whether, in pre-stellar times, infinitesimal particles of matter floated in space as nebulous fluid or objectless vapor without form or consistence, or whether all matter was united in one mass which was set revolving, and became broken into fragments, which were sent whirling as suns and planets in every direction; that in either case, or in any other conceivable case, matter, whether as molecules or masses, was primordially, and is, endowed and actuated by a creative intelligence, which implanting force, vitality, intellect, soul, progress, is ever acting, moving, mixing, unfolding, and this in every part and in all the multitudinous combinations of matter; and that all forces and vitalities must have co-existed in the mass, innate in and around every atom. [sidenote: theories of newton and laplace.] thus, in his great theory of the projectile impulse given to heavenly bodies in counteraction of the attractive impulse, sir isaac newton assumes that both impulses were given from without; that some power foreign to themselves projected into space these heavenly bodies and holds them there. so, too, when laplace promulgated the idea that in pre-planetary times space was filled with particles and vapors, solar systems existing only in a nebulous state and this nebula set revolving in one mass upon its own axis from west to east, and that as the velocity of this mass increased suns and planets were, by centrifugal force, thrown off and condensed into habitable but still whirling worlds, some impulse foreign to the revolving mass setting it in motion is implied. with organization and motion, the phases of force, called heat, light, electricity and magnetism, hitherto held dormant in molecules are engendered; composition and decomposition ensue; matter assumes new and varying forms; a progressional development, which is nothing but intelligently directed motion, is initiated, and motion becomes eternal. it is a well-established principle of physics that force cannot be created or lost. the conservation of force is not affected by the action or energies of moving bodies. force is not created to set a body in motion, nor when expended, as we say, is it lost. the sum of all potential energies throughout the universe is always the same, whether matter is at rest or in motion. it is evident that so long as every molecule is charged with attractive force no atom can drop out into the depths of unoccupied and absolute space and become lost or annihilated; and so long as force is dependent on matter for its perceivable existence, force cannot escape beyond the confines of space and become lost in absolute void. not only are forces interdependent, but they are capable of being metamorphosed one into another. thus intellectual energy invents a machine which drives a steamship across the ocean. this invention or creation of the mind is nothing else than a vitalization or setting at liberty of mechanical forces, and without this vitalization or applied intellectual force such mechanical force lies dormant as in so-called dead matter. gravitation is employed to turn a water-wheel, caloric to drive a steam-engine, by means of either of which weights may be raised, heat, electricity, and light produced, and these new-created forces husbanded and made to produce still other forces or turned back into their original channels. and so in chemical and capillary action, the correlation of forces everywhere is found. [sidenote: intimacy of mind and matter.] between mind and matter there exists the most intimate relationship. immateriality, in its various phases of force, life, intellect, so far as human consciousness can grasp it, is inseparable from materiality. the body is but part of the soil on which it treads, and the mind can receive no impressions except through the organs of the body. the brain is the seat of thought and the organ of thought; neither can exist in a normal state apart from the other. as a rule, the power of the intellect is in proportion to the size and quality of the brain. among animals, those of lowest order have the least brains; man, the most intellectual of animals, has relatively, if not absolutely, the largest brain. true, in some of the largest animals the cerebral mass is larger than in man, but, in its chemical composition, its convolutions, shape, and quality, that in man is superior; and it is in the quality, rather than in the quantity of the nervous tissues, that their superiority consists. intelligence enters the brain by the organs of the senses, and through the nervous system its subtle influence radiates to every part of the body. all human activities are either mental or mechanical; nor will it be denied that mental activity is produced by mechanical means, or, that mechanical activity is the result of mental force. corporeal motion is mental force distributed to the various parts of the body. the action of immaterial forces on the material substances of the human body manifestly accords with the action of immaterial forces elsewhere. all the physical and mechanical actions of the human body accord with the physical and mechanical forces elsewhere displayed. man, we are told, was the last of all created things, but in the making of man no new matter was employed; nor in setting the body in motion can we discover that any new force was invented. thus the heart beats upon mechanical principles; the eye sees, and the voice speaks in accordance with the general laws of optics and acoustics. to the observer, organic activity is but the product of combined inorganic forces. the same processes are at work, and in the same manner, in living and in so-called dead matter. life, to all appearance, is but the result of combined chemical and mechanical processes. assimilation, digestion, secretion, are explainable by chemistry, and by chemistry alone. the stomach is a chemical retort, the body a chemical laboratory. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, combine and separate in the body as out of the body. the blood circulates upon purely mechanical principles; all muscular action is mechanical. in the phenomena of life, the only perceptible difference is in the combinations of fundamental elements; yet chemistry and mechanics cannot produce a live body. with the foregoing well-recognized principles before us, let us now notice some few parallelisms between mechanical and social energetics. man, like every other natural substance, is a compound of force and matter. "respiration," says liebig, "is the falling weight, the bent spring, which keeps the clock in motion; the inspirations and respirations are the strokes of the pendulum which regulates." atoms of matter, through the instrumentality of living force, cohere and coalesce under endless complex conditions into endless varieties of form and substance; so also the activities of man, corporeal and intellectual, result in vast accumulations of experiences, which accumulations become the property of the whole society. society, like matter, is composed of units, each possessing certain forces, attractive and repulsive; societies act upon each other, like celestial bodies, in proportion to their volume and proximity, and the power of the unit increases with the increase of the mass. in association there is a force as silent and as subtle as that which governs atoms and holds worlds in equipoise; its grosser forms are known as government, worship, fashion, and the like; its finer essence is more delicate than thought. it is this social force, attractive and repulsive, that binds men together, tears them asunder, kneads, and knits, and shapes, and evolves; it is the origin of every birth, the ultimate of every activity. mechanical forces are manifest in machines, as the lever, the wheel, the inclined plane; professional force is manifest in intellectual ingenuity, literature, art, science, which are the machines of human progress. [sidenote: materiality acting on the mind.] how many of all our joys and sorrows, our loves and hates, our good and evil actions, spring from physical causes only? even material substances display moods and affections, as when heated, electrified, decomposed, or set in motion; the sea at rest presents a different mood from the sea raging. jean-jacques rousseau's idea that the soul might be governed for its good by material things working through the media of the senses, is not so extravagant after all. "the gospel according to jean-jacques," as carlyle puts it, runs as follows on this point--and, indeed, the great genevan evangelist at one time intended to devote a book to the subject under the title of _la morale sensitive_:--"the striking and numerous observations that i had collected were beyond all dispute; and, in their physical origin, they appeared to me proper for furnishing an exterior regimen, which, varied according to circumstances, should be able to place or maintain the soul in the state most favorable to virtue. how many wanderings one might save the reason, how many vices might be hindered birth, if one could but force the animal economy to favor the moral order that it troubles so often. climates, seasons, sounds, colors, darkness, light, the elements, food, noise, silence, movement, repose, all act on our bodily frame, and, by consequence, on our soul; all offer us a thousand firm holds to govern, in their origin, those sentiments by which we allow ourselves to be dominated." in contemplating the numerous activities by which we are surrounded, again and again we are called upon to wonder at the marvelous regularity which characterizes all their movements. so regular are these movements, so sure are certain conditions to accompany certain results, that in physics, in chemistry, in physiology, and even in society, facts are collected and classified, and from them laws are discovered as fixed and irrevocable as the facts themselves, which laws, indeed, are themselves facts, no less than the facts from which they are deduced. highly cultivated nations frame laws that provide for many contingencies, but the code of nature has yet finer provisions. there are conditions that neither political nor social laws reach, there are none not reached by physical law; in society, criminals sometimes evade the law; in nature, never. so subtle are the laws of nature, that even thought cannot follow them; when we see that every molecule, by virtue of its own hidden force, attracts every other molecule, up to a certain point, and then from the same inherent influence every atom repels every other atom; when by experiments of physicists it has been proved that in polarization, crystallization, and chemical action, there is not the slightest deviation from an almost startling regularity, with many other facts of like import, how many natural laws do we feel to be yet unrevealed and, from the exquisite delicacy of their nature, unrevealable to our present coarse understanding. it would be indeed strange, if, when all the universe is under the governance of fixed laws--laws which regulate the motion of every molecule, no less than the revolutions of suns--laws of such subtle import, as for instance, regulate the transformations of heat, the convertibility and correlation of force; it would be strange, i say, if such laws as these, when they reached the domain of human affairs should pause and leave the world of man alone in purposeless wanderings. [sidenote: analogies between man and nature.] to continue our analogies. as, latent in the atom, or in the mass, there are energies releasable only by heat or friction,--as in charcoal, which holds, locked up, muriatic acid gas equivalent to ninety times its volume; or in spongy platinum, which holds in like manner oxygen, equal to eight hundred times its volume; so, latent in every individual, are numberless energies, which demand the friction of society to call them out. force comprises two elements, attraction and repulsion, analagous to the principles commonly called good and evil in the affairs of human society; take away from mechanical force either of these two oppugnant elements, and there could be neither organism nor life, so without both good and evil in human affairs there could be no progress. if none of the forces of nature are dissipated or lost, and if force can no more be extinguished than matter, and like matter passes from one form into another, we may conclude that intellectual force is never dissipated or lost, but that the potential energies of mind and soul perpetually vibrate between man and nature. or, again, if, as we have seen, energy of every kind is clothed in matter, and when employed and expended returns again to its place in matter; and if the mind draws its forces from the body, as it appears to do, both growing, acting, and declining simultaneously; and if the body draws its energy from the earth, which is no less possible; then may not intellectual and progressional force be derived from man's environment, and return thither when expended? every created being borrows its material from the storehouse of matter, and when uncreated restores it again; so every individual born into society becomes charged with social force, with progressional energy, which, when expended, rests with society. winslow's opinion on this subject is, that "all electric and magnetic currents originate in--are inducted from--and radiate either directly or indirectly out of the globe as the fountain of every form and constituency of mechanical force, and that abstract immaterial mechanical energy, as we have thus far discussed and developed its dual principles, is absolutely convertible through molecular motion into every form and expansion of secondary force, passing successively from heat through electricity, magnetism, etc., and _vice versa_, it follows that this same mechanical energy itself, as hypostatical motive power, must proceed out of the globe also." thus is loaded with potential energy the universe of matter, generating life, mind, civilization, and hence we may conclude that whatever else it is, civilization is a force; that it is the sum of all the forces employed to drive humanity onward; that it acts on man as mechanical force acts on matter, attracting, repelling, pressing forward yet holding in equilibrium, and all under fixed and determined laws. * * * * * from all which it would appear that nothing is found in man that has not its counterpart in nature, and that all things that are related to man are related to each other; even immortal mind itself is not unlike that subtle force, inherent in, and working round every atom. in this respect physical science is the precursor of social science. nature produces man; man in his earlier conception of nature, that is in his gods, reproduces himself; and later, his knowledge of intrinsic self depends upon his knowledge of extrinsic agencies, so that as the laws that govern external nature are better understood, the laws that govern society are more definitely determined. the conditions of human progress can be wrought into a science only by pursuing the same course that raises into a science any branch of knowledge; that is, by collecting, classifying, and comparing facts, and therefrom discovering laws. society must be studied as chemistry is studied; it must be analyzed, and its component parts--the solubilities, interactions, and crystallizations of religions, governments and fashions, ascertained. as in the earlier contemplations of physical nature, the action of the elements was deemed fortuitous, so in a superficial survey of society, all events appear to happen by chance; but on deeper investigation, in society as in physics, events apparently fortuitous, may be reduced to immutable law. to this end the life of mankind on the globe must be regarded as the life of one man, successions of societies as successions of days in that life; for the activities of nations are but the sum of the activities of the individual members thereof. [sidenote: physical laws and social laws.] we have seen that man's organism, as far as it may be brought under exact observation, is governed by the same processes that govern elemental principles in inorganic nature. the will of man attempting to exert itself in antagonism to these laws of nature is wholly ineffectual. we are all conscious of a will, conscious of a certain freedom in the exercise of our will, but wholly unconscious as to the line of separation between volition and environment. part of our actions arise from fixed necessity, part are the result of free will. statistics, as they are accumulated and arranged, tend more and more to show that by far the greater part of human actions are not under individual control, and that the actions of masses are, in the main, wholly beyond the province of the human will. take the weather for a single day, and note the effect on the will. the direction of the wind not unfrequently governs one's train of thought; resolution often depends upon the dryness of the atmosphere, benevolence upon the state of the stomach; misfortunes, arising from physical causes, have ere now changed the character of a ruler from one of lofty self-sacrifice, to one of peevish fretfulness, whereat his followers became estranged and his empire lost in consequence. in the prosecution of an enterprise, how often we find ourselves drifting far from the anticipated goal. the mind is governed by the condition of the body, the body by the conditions of climate and food; hence it is that many of our actions, which we conceive to be the result of free choice, arise from accidental circumstances. it is only in the broader view of humanity that general laws are to be recognized, as dr draper remarks: "he who is immersed in the turmoil of a crowded city sees nothing but the acts of men; and, if he formed his opinion from his experience alone, must conclude that the course of events altogether depends on the uncertainties of human volition. but he who ascends to a sufficient elevation loses sight of the passing conflicts, and no longer hears the contentions. he discovers that the importance of individual action is diminishing as the panorama beneath him is extending; and if he could attain to the truly philosophical, the general point of view, disengage himself from all terrestrial influences and entanglements, rising high enough to see the whole at a glance, his acutest vision would fail to discern the slightest indication of man, his free will, or his works." * * * * * let us now glance at some of the manifestations of this progressional influence; first in its general aspects, after which we will notice its bearing on a few of the more important severalties intimately affecting humanity, such as religion, morality, government, and commerce,--for there is nothing that touches man's welfare, no matter how lightly, in all his long journey from naked wildness to clothed and cultured intelligence, that is not placed upon him by this progressional impulse. [sidenote: manifestations of progressional impulse.] in every living thing there is an element of continuous growth; in every aggregation of living things there is an element of continuous improvement. in the first instance, a vital actuality appears; whence, no one can tell. as the organism matures, a new germ is formed, which, as the parent stock decays, takes its place and becomes in like manner the parent of a successor. thus even death is but the door to new forms of life. in the second instance, a body corporate appears, no less a vital actuality than the first; a social organism in which, notwithstanding ceaseless births and deaths, there is a living principle. for while individuals are born and die, families live; while families are born and die, species live; while species are born and die, organic being assumes new forms and features. herein the all-pervading principle of life, while flitting, is nevertheless permanent, while transient is yet eternal. but above and independent of perpetual birth and death is this element of continuous growth, which, like a spirit, walks abroad and mingles in the affairs of men. "all our progress," says emerson, "is an unfolding, like the vegetable bud. you have first an instinct; then an opinion, then a knowledge, as the plant has root bud and fruit." under favorable conditions, and up to a certain point, stocks improve; by a law of natural selection the strongest and fittest survive, while the ill-favored and deformed perish; under conditions unfavorable to development, stocks remain stationary or deteriorate. paradoxically, so far as we know, organs and organisms are no more perfect now than in the beginning; animal instincts are no keener, nor are their habitudes essentially changed. no one denies that stocks improve, for such improvement is perceptible and permanent; many deny that organisms improve, for if there be improvement it is imperceptible, and has thus far escaped proof. but, however this may be, it is palpable that the mind, and not the body, is the instrument and object of the progressional impulse. man in the duality of his nature is brought under two distinct dominions; materially he is subject to the laws that govern matter, mentally to the laws that govern mind; physiologically he is perfectly made and non-progressive, psychologically he is embryonic and progressive. between these internal and external forces, between moral and material activities there may be, in some instances, an apparent antagonism. the mind may be developed in excess and to the detriment of the body, and the body may be developed in excess and to the detriment of the mind. the animal man is a bundle of organs, with instincts implanted that set them in motion; man intellectual is a bundle of sentiments, with an implanted soul that keeps them effervescent; mankind in the mass, society,--we see the fermentations, we mark the transitions; is there, then, a soul in aggregated humanity as there is in individual humanity? the instincts of man's animality teach the organs to perform their functions as perfectly at the first as at the last; the instincts of man's intellectuality urge him on in an eternal race for something better, in which perfection is never attained nor attainable; in society, we see the constant growth, the higher and yet higher development; now in this ever-onward movement are there instincts which originate and govern action in the body social as in the body individual? is not society a bundle of organs, with an implanted soul of progress, which moves mankind along in a resistless predetermined march? nations are born and die; they appear first in a state of infancy or savagism; many die in their childhood, some grow into manhood and rule for a time the destinies of the world; finally, by sudden extinction, or a lingering decrepitude, they disappear, and others take their place. but in this ceaseless coming and going there is somewhere a mysterious agency at work, making men better, wiser, nobler, whether they will or not. this improvement is not the effect of volition; the plant does not will to unfold, nor the immature animal to grow; neither can the world of human kind cease to advance in mind and in manners. development is the inevitable incident of being. nations, under normal conditions, can no more help advancing than they can throw themselves into a state of non-existence; than can the individual stop his corporeal growth, or shut out from the intellect every perception of knowledge, and become a living petrification. and in whatever pertains to intellectual man this fundamental principle is apparent. it underlies all moralities, governments, and religions, all industries, arts, and commerce; it is the mainspring of every action, the consequence of every cause; it is the great central idea toward which all things converge; it is the object of all efforts, the end of all successes; it absorbs all forces, and is the combined results of innumerable agencies, good and evil. before the theory of dr von martius and his followers, that the savage state is but a degeneration from something higher, can become tenable, the whole order of nature must be reversed. races may deteriorate, civilized peoples relapse into barbarism, but such relapse cannot take place except under abnormal conditions. we cannot believe that any nation, once learning the use of iron would cast it away for stone. driven from an iron-yielding land, the knowledge of iron might at last be forgotten, but its use would never be voluntarily relinquished. and so with any of the arts or inventions of man. societies, like individuals, are born, mature, and decay; they grow old and die; they may pause in their progress, become diseased, and thereby lose their strength and retrograde, but they never turn around and grow backward or ungrow,--they could not if they would. [sidenote: brutes cannot progress.] in the brute creation this element of progress is wanting. the bird builds its nest, the bee its cell, the beaver its dam, with no more skill or elaboration to-day, than did the bird or bee or beaver primeval. the instinct of animals does not with time become intellect; their comforts do not increase, their sphere of action does not enlarge. by domestication, stocks may be improved, but nowhere do we see animals uniting for mutual improvement, or creating for themselves an artificial existence. so in man, whose nature comprises both the animal and the intellectual, the physical organism neither perceptibly advances nor deteriorates. the features may, indeed, beam brighter from the light of a purer intellectuality cast upon them from within, but the hand, the eye, the heart, so far as we know, is no more perfect now than in the days of adam. as viewed by mr bagehot, the body of the accomplished man "becomes, by training, different from what it once was, and different from that of the rude man, becomes charged with stored virtue and acquired faculty which come away from it unconsciously." but the body of the accomplished man dies, and the son can in no wise inherit it, whereas the soul of his accomplishments does not die, but lives in the air, and becomes part of the vital breath of society. and, again, "power that has been laboriously acquired and stored up as statical in one generation" sometimes, says maudsley, "becomes the inborn faculty of the next; and the development takes place in accordance with that law of increasing speciality and complexity of adaption to external nature which is traceable through the animal kingdom; or, in other words, that law of progress, from the general to the special, in development, which the appearance of nerve force amongst natural forces and the complexity of the nervous system of man both illustrate." on the other side john stuart mill is just as positive that culture is not inherent. "of all vulgar modes," he remarks, "of escaping from the consideration of the effect of social and moral influences on the human mind, the most vulgar is that of attributing the diversities of conduct and character to inherent natural differences;" and, says mr buckle, "we cannot safely assume that there has been any permanent improvement in the moral or intellectual faculties of man, nor have we any decisive ground for saying that those faculties are likely to be greater in an infant born in the most civilized part of europe, than in one born in the wildest region of a barbarous country." whether or not the nervous system, which is the connective tissue between man's animality and his intellectuality, transmits its subtle forces from one generation to another, we may be sure that the mind acts on the nerves, and the nerves on every part of the system, and that the intelligence of the mind influences and governs the materialism of the body, and the consequences in some way are felt by succeeding generations; but that the mind becomes material, and its qualities transmitted to posterity, is an hypothesis yet unestablished. [sidenote: improvement purely intellectual.] moreover we may safely conclude that the improvement of mankind is a phenomenon purely intellectual. not that the improvement of the mind is wholly independent of the condition of the body; for, as we shall hereafter see, so intimate is the connection between the mind and the body, that the first step toward intellectual advancement cannot be taken until the demands of the body are satisfied. nervous phenomena are dependent upon the same nutritive processes that govern physical development; and that this nerve force, through whose agency the system is charged with intellectuality, as the molecule is charged with mechanical force, does exist, is capable, to some extent, of transmitting acquirements or artificial instincts from parent to child, we have every reason to believe; but, so far as we know, intellectual force, _per se_, is no more a transmittable entity than is the flesh-quivering of the slain ox life. the strangest part of it all is, that though wrought out by man as the instrument, and while acting in the capacity of a free agent, this spirit of progress is wholly independent of the will of man. though in our individual actions we imagine ourselves directed only by our free will, yet in the end it is most difficult to determine what is the result of free will, and what of inexorable environment. while we think we are regulating our affairs, our affairs are regulating us. we plan out improvements, predetermine the best course and follow it, sometimes; yet, for all that, the principle of social progress is not the man, is not in the man, forms no constituent of his physical or psychical individual being; it is the social atmosphere into which the man is born, into which he brings nothing and from which he takes nothing. while a member of society he adds his quota to the general fund and there leaves it; while acting as a free agent he performs his part in working out this problem of social development, performs it unconsciously, willing or unwilling he performs it, his baser passions being as powerful instruments of progress as his nobler; for avarice drives on intellect as effectually as benevolence, hate as love, and selfishness does infinitely more for the progress of mankind than philanthropy. thus is humanity played upon by this principle of progress, and the music sometimes is wonderful; green fields as if by magic take the place of wild forests, magnificent cities rise out of the ground, the forces of nature are brought under the dominion of man's intelligence, and senseless substances endowed with speech and action. it is verily as carlyle says; "under the strangest new vesture, the old great truth (since no vesture can hide it) begins again to be revealed: that man is what we call a miraculous creature, with miraculous power over men; and, on the whole, with such a life in him, and such a world round him, as victorious analysis, with her physiologies, nervous systems, physic and metaphysic, will never completely name, to say nothing of explaining." thus, to sum up the foregoing premises: in society, between two or more individuals, there is at work a mysterious energy, not unlike that of force between molecules or life in the organism; this social energy is under intelligent governance, not fortuitous nor causeless, but reducible to fixed law, and capable of being wrought into a science; is, moreover, a vital actuality, not an incident nor an accident, but an entity, as attraction and repulsion are entities; under this agency society, perforce, develops like the plant from a germ. this energy acts on the intellect, and through the intellect on the organism; acts independently of the will, and cannot be created or destroyed by man; is not found in the brute creation, is not transmittable by generation through individuals, is wrought out by man as a free-will agent, though acting unconsciously, and is the product alike of good and evil. * * * * * [sidenote: causes of man's development.] as to the causes which originate progressional phenomena there are differences of opinion. one sees in the intellect the germ of an eternal unfolding; another recognizes in the soul-element the vital principle of progress, and attributes to religion all the benefits of enlightenment; one builds a theory on the ground-work of a fundamental and innate morality; another discovers in the forces of nature the controlling influence upon man's destiny; while yet others, as we have seen, believe accumulative and inherent nervous force to be the media through which culture is transmitted. some believe that moral causes create the physical, others that physical causes create the moral. thus mr buckle attempts to prove that man's development is wholly dependent upon his physical surroundings. huxley points to a system of reflex actions,--mind acting on matter, and matter on mind,--as the possible culture-basis. darwin advances the doctrine of an evolution from vivified matter as the principle of progressive development. in the transmution of nerve-element from parents to children, bagehot sees "the continuous force which binds age to age, which enables each to begin with some improvement on the last, if the last did itself improve; which makes each civilization not a set of detached dots, but a line of color, surely enhancing shade by shade." some see in human progress the ever-ruling hand of a divine providence, others the results of man's skill; with some it is free will, with others necessity; some believe that intellectual development springs from better systems of government, others that wealth lies at the foundation of all culture; every philosopher recognizes some cause, invents some system, or brings human actions under the dominion of some species of law. as in animals of the same genus or species, inhabiting widely different localities, we see the results of common instincts, so in the evolutions of the human race, divided by time or space, we see the same general principles at work. so too it would seem, whether species are one or many, whether man is a perfectly created being or an evolution from a lower form, that all the human races of the globe are formed on one model and governed by the same laws. in the customs, languages, and myths of ages and nations far removed from each other in social, moral, and mental characteristics, innumerable and striking analogies exist. not only have all nations weapons, but many who are separated from each other by a hemisphere use the same weapon; not only is belief universal, but many relate the same myth; and to suppose the bow and arrow to have had a common origin, or that all flood-myths, and myths of a future life are but offshoots from noachic and biblical narratives is scarcely reasonable. it is easier to tell what civilization is not, and what it does not spring from, than what it is and what its origin. to attribute its rise to any of the principles, ethical, political, or material, that come under the cognizance of man, is fallacy, for it is as much an entity as any other primeval principle; nor may we, with archbishop whately, entertain the doctrine that civilization never could have arisen had not the creator appeared upon earth as the first instructor; for, unfortunately for this hypothesis, the aboriginals supposedly so taught, were scarcely civilized at all, and compare unfavorably with the other all-perfect works of creation; so that this sort of reasoning, like innumerable other attempts of man to limit the powers of omnipotence, and narrow them down to our weak understandings, is little else than puerility. [sidenote: society essential to intellect.] nor, as we have seen, is this act of civilizing the effect of volition; nor, as will hereafter more clearly appear, does it arise from an inherent principle of good any more than from an inherent principle of evil. the ultimate result, though difficult of proof, we take for granted to be good, but the agencies employed for its consummation number among them more of those we call evil than of those we call good. the isolated individual never, by any possibility, can become civilized like the social man; he cannot even speak, and without a flow of words there can be no complete flow of thought. send him forth away from his fellow-man to roam the forest with the wild beasts, and he would be almost as wild and beastlike as his companions; it is doubtful if he would ever fashion a tool, but would not rather with his claws alone procure his food, and forever remain as he now is, the most impotent of animals. the intellect, by which means alone man rises above other animals, never could work, because the intellect is quickened only as it comes in contact with intellect. the germ of development therein implanted cannot unfold singly any more than the organism can bear fruit singly. it is a well-established fact that the mind without language cannot fully develop; it is likewise established that language is not inherent, that it springs up between men, not in them. language, like civilization, belongs to society, and is in no wise a part or the property of the individual. "for strangely in this so solid-seeming world," says carlyle, "which nevertheless is in continual restless flux, it is appointed that sound, to appearance the most fleeting, should be the most continuing of all things." and further, as remarked by herbert spencer: "now that the transformation and equivalence of forces is seen by men of science to hold not only throughout all inorganic actions, but throughout all organic actions; now that even mental changes are recognized as the correlatives of cerebral changes, which also conform to this principle; and now that there must be admitted the corollary, that all actions going on in a society are measured by certain antecedent energies, which disappear in effecting them, while they themselves become actual or potential energies from which subsequent actions arise; it is strange that there should not have arisen the consciousness that these higher phenomena are to be studied as lower phenomena have been studied--not, of course, after the same physical methods, but in conformity with the same principles." we may hold then, a priori, that this progressional principle exists; that it exists not more in the man than around him; that it requires an atmosphere in which to live, as life in the body requires an atmosphere which is its vital breath, and that this atmosphere is generated only by the contact of man with man. under analysis this social atmosphere appears to be composed of two opposing principles--good and evil--which, like attraction and repulsion, or positive and negative electricity, underlie all activities. one is as essential to progress as the other; either, in excess or disproportionately administered, like an excess of oxygen or of hydrogen in the air, becomes pernicious, engenders social disruptions and decay which continue until the equilibrium is restored; yet all the while with the progress of humanity the good increases while the evil diminishes. every impulse incident to humanity is born of the union of these two opposing principles. for example, as i have said, and will attempt more fully to show further on, association is the first requisite of progress. but what is to bring about association? naked nomads will not voluntarily yield up their freedom, quit their wanderings, hold conventions and pass resolutions concerning the greatest good to the greatest number; patriotism, love, benevolence, brotherly kindness, will not bring savage men together; extrinsic force must be employed, an iron hand must be laid upon them which will compel them to unite, else there can be no civilization; and to accomplish this first great good to man,--to compel mankind to take the initial step toward the amelioration of their condition,--it is ordained that an evil, or what to us of these latter times is surely an evil, come forward,--and that evil is war. [sidenote: evil as a stimulant of progress.] primeval man, in his social organization, is patriarchal, spreading out over vast domains in little bands or families, just large enough to be able successfully to cope with wild beasts. and in that state humanity would forever remain did not some terrible cause force these bands to confederate. war is an evil, originating in hateful passions and ending in dire misery; yet without war, without this evil, man would forever remain primitive. but something more is necessary. war brings men together for a purpose, but it is insufficient to hold them together; for when the cause which compacted them no longer exists, they speedily scatter, each going his own way. then comes in superstition to the aid of progress. a successful leader is first feared as a man, then reverenced as a supernatural being, and finally himself, or his descendant, in the flesh or in tradition, is worshiped as a god. then an unearthly fear comes upon mankind, and the ruler, perceiving his power, begins to tyrannize over his fellows. both superstition and tyranny are evils; yet, without war superstition and tyranny, dire evils, civilization, which many deem the highest good, never by any possibility, as human nature is, could be. but more of the conditions of progress hereafter; what i wish to establish here is, that evil is no less a stimulant of development than good, and that in this principle of progress are manifest the same antagonism of forces apparent throughout physical nature; the same oppugnant energies, attractive and repulsive, positive and negative, everywhere existing. it is impossible for two or more individuals to be brought into contact with each other, whether through causes or for purposes good or evil, without ultimate improvement to both. i say whether through causes or for purposes good or evil, for, to the all-pervading principle of evil, civilization is as much indebted as to the all-pervading principle of good. indeed, the beneficial influences of this unwelcome element have never been generally recognized. whatever be this principle of evil, whatever man would be without it, the fact is clearly evident that to it civilization, whatever that may be, owes its existence. "the whole tendency of political economy and philosophical history," says lecky, "which reveal the physiology of society, is to show that the happiness and welfare of mankind are evolved much more from our selfish than what are termed our virtuous acts." no wonder that devil-worship obtains, in certain parts, when to his demon the savage finds himself indebted for skill not only to overthrow subordinate deities, but to cure diseases, to will an enemy to death, to minister to the welfare of departed friends, as well as to add materially to his earthly store of comforts. the world, such as it is, man finds himself destined for a time to inhabit. within him and around him the involuntary occupant perceives two agencies at work; agencies apparently oppugnant, yet both tending to one end--improvement; and night or day, love or crime, leads all souls to the good, as emerson sings. the principle of evil acts as a perpetual stimulant, the principle of good as a reward of merit. united in their operation, there is a constant tendency toward a better condition, a higher state; apart, the result would be inaction. for, civilization being a progression and not a fixed condition, without incentives, that is without something to escape from and something to escape to, there could be no transition, and hence no civilization. had man been placed in the world perfected and sinless, obviously there would be no such thing as progress. the absence of evil implies perfect good, and perfect good perfect happiness. were man sinless and yet capable of increasing knowledge, the incentive would be wanting, for, if perfectly happy, why should he struggle to become happier? the advent of civilization is in the appearance of a want, and the first act of civilization springs from the attempt to supply the want. the man or nation that wants nothing remains inactive, and hence does not advance; so that it is not in what we have but in what we have not that civilization consists. these wants are forced upon us, implanted within us, inseparable from our being; they increase with an increasing supply, grow hungry from what they feed on; in quick succession, aspirations, emulations, and ambitions spring up and chase each other, keeping the fire of discontent ever glowing, and the whole human race effervescent. the tendency of civilizing force, like the tendency of mechanical force, is toward an equilibrium, toward a never-attainable rest. obviously there can be no perfect equilibrium, no perfect rest, until all evil disappears, but in that event the end of progress would be attained, and humanity would be perfect and sinless. man at the outset is not what he may be, he is capable of improvement or rather of growth; but childlike, the savage does not care to improve, and consequently must be scourged into it. advancement is the ultimate natural or normal state of man; humanity on this earth is destined some day to be relatively, if not absolutely, good and happy. the healthy body has appetites, in the gratification of which lies its chiefest enjoyment; the healthy mind has proclivities, the healthy soul intuitions, in the exercise and activities of which the happiest life is attainable; and in as far as the immaterial and immortal in our nature is superior to the material and mortal, in so far does the education and development of our higher nature contribute in a higher degree to our present benefit and our future well-being. [sidenote: labor a civilizing agent.] there is another thought in this connection well worthy our attention. in orthodox and popular parlance, labor is a curse entailed on man by vindictive justice; yet viewed as a civilizing agent, labor is man's greatest blessing. throughout all nature there is no such thing found as absolute inertness; and, as in matter, so with regard to our faculties, no sooner do they begin to rest than they begin to rot, and even in the rotting they can obtain no rest. one of the chief objects of labor is to get gain, and dr johnson holds that "men are seldom more innocently employed than when they are making money." human experience teaches, that in the effort is greater pleasure than in the end attained; that labor is the normal condition of man; that in acquisition, that is progress, is the highest happiness; that passive enjoyment is inferior to the exhilaration of active attempt. now imagine the absence from the world of this spirit of evil, and what would be the result? total inaction. but before inaction can become more pleasurable than action, man's nature must be changed. not to say that evil is a good thing, clearly there is a goodness in things evil; and in as far as the state of escaping from evil is more pleasurable than the state of evil escaped from, in so far is evil conducive to happiness. the effect of well-directed labor is twofold; by exercise our faculties strengthen and expand, and at the same time the returns of that labor give us leisure in which to direct our improved faculties to yet higher aims. by continual efforts to increase material comforts, greater skill is constantly acquired, and the mind asserts more and more its independence. increasing skill yields ever increased delights, which encourage and reward our labor. this, up to a certain point; but with wealth and luxury comes relaxed energy. without necessity there is no labor; without labor no advancement. corporeal necessity first forces corporeal activity; then the intellect goes to work to contrive means whereby labor may be lessened and made more productive. [sidenote: evil tends to disappear.] the discontent which arises from discomfort, lies at the root of every movement; but then comfort is a relative term and complete satisfaction is never attained. indeed, as a rule, the more squalid and miserable the race, the more are they disposed to settle down and content themselves in their state of discomfort. what is discomfort to one is luxury to another; "the mark of rank in nature is capacity for pain"; in following the intellectual life, the higher the culture the greater the discontent; the greater the acquisition, the more eagerly do men press forward toward some higher and greater imaginary good. we all know that blessings in excess become the direst curses; but few are conscious where the benefit of a blessing terminates and the curse begins, and fewer still of those who are able thus to discriminate have the moral strength to act upon that knowledge. as a good in excess is an evil, so evil as it enlarges outdoes itself and tends toward self-annihilation. if we but look about us, we must see that to burn up the world in order to rid it of gross evil--a dogma held by some--is unnecessary, for accumulative evils ever tend towards reaction. excessive evils are soonest remedied; the equilibrium of the evil must be maintained, or the annihilation of the evil ensues. institutions and principles essentially good at one time are essential evils at another time. the very aids and agencies of civilization become afterward the greatest drags upon progress. at one time it would seem that blind faith was essential to improvement, at another time skepticism, at one time order and morality, at another time lawlessness and rapine; for so it has ever been, and whether peace and smiling plenty, or fierce upheavals and dismemberments predominate, from every social spasm as well as fecund leisure, civilization shoots forward in its endless course. the very evils which are regarded as infamous by a higher culture were the necessary stepping-stones to that higher life. as we have seen, no nation ever did or can emerge from barbarism without first placing its neck under the yokes of despotism and superstition; therefore, despotism and superstition, now dire evils, were once essential benefits. no religion ever attained its full development except under persecution. our present evils are constantly working out for humanity unforeseen good. all systems of wrongs and fanaticisms are but preparing us for and urging us on to a higher state. if then civilization is a predestined, ineluctable, and eternal march away from things evil toward that which is good, it must be that throughout the world the principle of good is ever increasing and that of evil decreasing. and this is true. not only does evil decrease, but the tendency is ever toward its disappearance. gradually the confines of civilization broaden; the central principle of human progress attains greater intensity, and the mind assumes more and more its lordly power over matter. the moment we attempt to search out the cause of any onward movement we at once encounter this principle of evil. the old-time aphorism that life is a perpetual struggle; the first maxim of social ethics 'the greatest happiness to the greatest number'; indeed, every thought and action of our lives points in the same direction. from what is it mankind is so eager to escape; with what do we wrestle; for what do we strive? we fly from that which gives pain to that which gives pleasure; we wrestle with agencies which bar our escape from a state of infelicity; we long for happiness. [sidenote: is civilization conducive to happiness?] then comes the question, what is happiness? is man polished and refined happier than man wild and unfettered; is civilization a blessing or a curse? rousseau, we know, held it to be the latter; but not so virey. "what!" he exclaims, "is he happier than the social man, this being abandoned in his maladies, uncared for even by his children in his improvident old age, exposed to ferocious beasts, in fear of his own kind, even of the cannibal's tooth? the civilized man, surrounded in his feebleness by affectionate attention, sustains a longer existence, enjoys more pleasure and daily comforts, is better protected against inclemencies of weather and all external ills. the isolated man must suffice for himself, must harden himself to endure any privation; his very existence depends upon his strength, and if necessity requires it of him, he must be ready to abandon wife and children and life itself at any moment. such cruel misery is rare in social life, where the sympathies of humanity are awakened, and freely exercised." continue these simple interrogatories a little farther and see where we land. is the wild bird, forced to long migrations for endurable climates and food, happier than the caged bird which buys a daily plentiful supply for a song? is the wild beast, ofttimes hungry and hunted, happier than its chained brother of the menagerie? is the wild horse, galloping with its fellows over the broad prairie, happier than the civilized horse of carriage, cart, or plow? may we not question whether the merchant, deep in his speculating ventures, or the man of law, poring over his brain-tearing brief, derives a keener sense of enjoyment than does the free forest-native, following the war-path or pursuing his game? as i have attempted to show, civilization is not an end attained, for man is never wholly civilized,--but only the effort to escape from an evil, or an imaginary evil--savagism. i say an evil real or imaginary, for as we have seen, the question has been seriously discussed whether civilization is better or worse than savagism. for every advantage which culture affords, a price must be paid,--some say too great a price. the growth of the mind is dependent upon its cultivation, but this cultivation may be voluntary or involuntary, it may be a thing desired or a thing abhorred. every nation, every society, and every person has its or his own standard of happiness. the miser delights in wealth, the city belle in finery, the scholar in learning. the christian's heaven is a spiritual city, where they neither marry, nor are given in marriage; the norse-man's a valhalla of alternate battle and wassail; the mahometan's, a paradise of houris and lazy sensuality. the martyr at the stake, triumphant in his faith, may be happier than the man of fashion dying of ennui and gout; the savage, wandering through forest and over plain in pursuit of game, or huddled in his hut with wives and children, may be happier than the care-laden speculator or the wrangling politician. content, the essence of all happiness, is as prevalent among the poor and ill-mannered, as among the rich, refined and civilized. _ubi bene, ibi patria_, where it is well with me, there is my country, is the motto of the indian,--and to be well with him signifies only to be beyond the reach of hunger and enemies. ask the savage which is preferable, a native or a cultured state, and he will answer the former; ask the civilized man, and he will say the latter. i do not see any greater absurdity in the wild man saying to the tamed one: give up the despotisms and diseases of society and throw yourself with me upon beauteous, bounteous nature; than in the european saying to the american: if you would find happiness, abandon your filth and naked freedom, accept christianity and cotton shirts, go to work in a mission, rot on a reservation, or beg and starve in civilized fashion! of all animals, man alone has broken down the barriers of his nature in civilizing, or, as rousseau expresses it, in denaturalizing himself; and for this denaturalization some natural good must be relinquished; to every infringement of nature's law, there is a penalty attached; for a more delicate organism the price is numberless new diseases; for political institutions the price is native freedom. with polished manners the candidate for civilization must accept affectation, social despotism; with increasing wealth, increasing wants; civilization engenders complexity in society, and in its turn is engendered thereby. peoples the most highly cultured are moved by the most delicate springs; a finer touch, the result of greater skill, with a finer tone, the result of greater experience, produces music more and yet more exquisite. [sidenote: subjective and objective humanity.] were man only an animal, this denaturalization and more, would be true. the tamed brute gives up all the benefits of savagism for few of the blessings of civilization; in a cultured state, as compared to a state of wild freedom, its ills are numberless, its advantages infinitesimal. but human nature is twofold, objective and subjective, the former typical of the savage state, the latter of the civilized. man is not wholly animal; and by cultivating the mind, that is, by civilizing himself, he is no more denaturalized than by cultivating the body, and thereby acquiring greater physical perfection. we cannot escape our nature; we cannot re-create ourselves; we can only submit ourselves to be polished and improved by the eternal spirit of progress. the moral and the intellectual are as much constituents of human nature as the physical; civilization, therefore, is as much the natural state of man as savagism. another more plausible and partially correct assertion is, that by the development of the subjective part of our nature, objective humanity becomes degenerated. the intellectual cannot be wrought up to the highest state of cultivation except at the expense of the physical, nor the physical fully developed without limiting the mental. the efforts of the mind draw from the energies of the body; the highest and healthiest vigor of the body can only be attained when the mind is at rest, or in a state of careless activity. in answer to which i should say that beyond a certain point, it is true; one would hardly train successfully for a prize fight and the tripos at the same time; but that the non-intellectual savage, as a race, is physically superior, capable of enduring greater fatigue, or more skillful in muscular exercise than the civilized man is inconsistent with facts. civilization has its vices as well as its virtues, savagism has its advantages as well as its demerits. the evils of savagism are not so great as we imagine; its pleasures more than we are apt to think. as we become more and more removed from evils their magnitude enlarges; the fear of suffering increases as suffering is less experienced and witnessed. if savagism holds human life in light esteem, civilization makes death more hideous than it really is; if savagism is more cruel, it is less sensitive. combatants accustomed to frequent encounter think lightly of wounds, and those whose life is oftenest imperiled think least of losing it. indifference to pain is not necessarily the result of cruelty; it may arise as well from the most exalted sentiment as from the basest. civilization not only engenders new vices, but proves the destroyer of many virtues. among the wealthier classes energy gives way to enjoyment, luxury saps the foundation of labor, progress becomes paralyzed, and with now and then a noble exception, but few earnest workers in the paths of literature, science, or any of the departments which tend to the improvement of mankind, are to be found among the powerful and the affluent, while the middle classes are absorbed in money-getting, unconsciously thereby, it is true, working toward the ends of civilization. that civilization is expedient, that it is a good, that it is better than savagism, we who profess to be civilized entertain no doubt. those who believe otherwise must be ready to deny that health is better than disease, truth than superstition, intellectual power than stupid ignorance; but whether the miseries and vices of savagism, or those of civilization are the greater, is another question. the tendency of civilization is, on the whole, to purify the morals, to give equal rights to man, to distribute more equally among men the benefits of this world, to melioriate wholesale misery and degradation, offer a higher aim and the means of accomplishing a nobler destiny, to increase the power of the mind and give it dominion over the forces of nature, to place the material in subservience to the mental, to elevate the individual and regulate society. true, it may be urged that this heaping up of intellectual fruits tends toward monopoly, toward making the rich richer and the poor poorer, but i still hold that the benefits of civilization are for the most part evenly distributed; that wealth beyond one's necessity is generally a curse to the possessor greater than the extreme of poverty, and that the true blessings of culture and refinement like air and sunshine are free to all. civilization, it is said, multiplies wants, but then they are ennobling wants, better called aspirations, and many of these civilization satisfies. if civilization breeds new vices, old ones are extinguished by it. decency and decorum hide the hideousness of vice, drive it into dark corners, and thereby raise the tone of morals and weaken vice. thus civilization promotes chastity, elevates woman, breaks down the barriers of hate and superstition between ancient nations and religions; individual energy, the influence of one over the many, becomes less and less felt, and the power of the people becomes stronger. civilization in itself can not but be beneficial to man; that which makes society more refined, more intellectual, less bestial, more courteous; that which cures physical and mental diseases, increases the comforts and luxury of life, purifies religions, makes juster governments, must surely be beneficial: it is the universal principle of evil which impregnates all human affairs, alloying even current coin, which raises the question. that there are evils attending civilization as all other benefits, none can deny, but civilization itself is no evil. * * * * * [sidenote: conditions essential to progress.] if i have succeeded in presenting clearly the foregoing thoughts, enough has been said as to the nature and essence of civilization; let us now examine some of the conditions essential to intellectual development. for it must not be forgotten that, while every department of human progress is but the unfolding of a germ; while every tendency of our life, every custom and creed of our civilization finds its rudiment in savagism; while, as man develops, no new elements of human nature are created by the process; while, as the organism of the child is as complex and complete as the organism of the man, so is humanity in a savage state the perfect germ of humanity civilized,--it must not be forgotten in all this, that civilization cannot unfold except under favorable conditions. just as the plant, though endowed with life which corresponds to the mind-principle in progress, requires for its growth a suitable soil and climate, so this progressional phenomenon must have soil and sunshine before it yields fruit; and this is another proof that civilization is not in the man more than around him; for if the principle were inherent in the individual, then the hyperborean, with his half year of light and half year of underground darkness, must of necessity become civilized equally with the man born amidst the sharpening jostles of a european capital, for in all those parts that appertain solely to the intrinsic individual, the one develops as perfectly as the other. a people undergoing the civilizing process need not necessarily, does not indeed, advance in every species of improvement at the same time; in some respects the nation may be stationary, in others even retrograde. every age and every nation has its special line of march. literature and the fine arts reached their height in pagan greece; monotheism among the hebrews; science unfolded in egypt, and government in rome. in every individual there is some one talent that can be cultivated more advantageously than any other; so it is with nations, every people possesses some natural advantage for development in some certain direction over every other people, and often the early history of a nation, like the precocious proclivities of the child, points toward its future; and in such arts and industries as its climate and geographical position best enable it to develop, is discovered the germ of national character. seldom is the commercial spirit developed in the interior of a continent, or the despotic spirit on the border of the sea, or the predatory spirit in a country wholly devoid of mountains and fastnesses. it cannot be said that one nation or race is inherently better fitted for civilization than another; all may not be equally fitted for exactly the same civilization, but all are alike fitted for that civilization which, if left to itself, each will work out. mankind, moreover, advances spasmodically, and in certain directions only at a time, which is the greatest drawback to progress. as lecky remarks: "special agencies, such as religious or political institutions, geographical conditions, traditions, antipathies, and affinities, exercise a certain retarding, accelerating, or deflecting influence, and somewhat modify the normal progress." perfect development only is permanent, and that alone is perfect which develops the whole man and the whole society equally in all its parts; all the activities, mental, moral, and physical, must needs grow in unison and simultaneously, and this alone is perfect and permanent development. should all the world become civilized there will still be minor differences; some will advance further in one direction and some in another, all together will form the complete whole. civilization as an exotic seldom flourishes. often has the attempt been made by a cultivated people to civilize a barbarous nation, and as often has it failed. true, one nation may force its arts or religion upon another, but to civilize is neither to subjugate nor annihilate; foreigners may introduce new industries and new philosophies, which the uncultured may do well to accept, but as civilization is an unfolding, and not a creation, he who would advance civilization must teach society how to grow, how to enlarge its better self; must teach in what direction its highest interests lie. * * * * * thus it appears that, while this germ of progress is innate in every human society, certain conditions are more favorable to its development than others,--conditions which act as stimulants or impediments to progress. often we see nations remain apparently stationary, the elements of progress evenly balanced by opposing influences, and thus they remain until by internal force, or external pressure, their system expands or explodes, until they absorb or are absorbed by antagonistic elements. the intrinsic force of the body social appears to demand extrinsic prompting before it will manifest itself. like the grains of wheat in the hand of belzoni's mummy, which held life slumbering for three thousand years, and awoke to growth when buried in the ground, so the element of human progress lies dormant until planted in a congenial soil and surrounded by those influences which provoke development. this stimulant, which acts upon and unfolds the intellect, can be administered only through the medium of the senses. nerve force, which precedes intellectual force, is supplied by the body; the cravings of man's corporeal nature, therefore, must be quieted before the mind can fix itself on higher things. the first step toward teaching a savage is to feed him; the stomach satisfied he will listen to instruction, not before. cultivation of at least the most necessary of the industrial arts invariably precedes cultivation of the fine arts; the intellect must be implanted in a satisfied body before it will take root and grow. the mind must be allowed some respite from its attendance on the body, before culture can commence; it must abandon its state of servitude, and become master; in other words, leisure is an essential of culture. as association is the primal condition of progress, let us see how nature throws societies together or holds them asunder. in some directions there are greater facilities for intercommunication (another essential of improvement) than in other directions. wherever man is most in harmony with nature, there he progresses most rapidly; wherever nature offers the greatest advantages, such as a sea that invites to commerce, an elevated plateau lifting its occupants above the malaria of a tropical lowland, a sheltering mountain range that wards off inclement winds and bars out hostile neighbors, there culture flourishes best. * * * * * [sidenote: objective and subjective stimulants.] so that humanity, in its twofold nature, is dependent for its development upon two distinct species of stimulants, objective and subjective. material causations, or those forces which minister to the requirements of man's material nature but upon which his intellectual progress is dependent, are configurations of surface, soil, climate, and food. those physical conditions which, when favorable, give to their possessors wealth and leisure, are the inevitable precursors of culture. immaterial causations are those forces which act more directly upon man's immaterial nature, as association, religion, wealth, leisure, and government. continuing the analysis, let us first examine physical stimulants. admitting readily two of m. taine's primordial humanity-moving forces, 'le milieu' or environment, and his 'le moment' or inherited impulse, we will pass over the third force 'la race';--for inherent differences in race, in the present stage of science, are purely hypothetical; it remains yet to be proved that one nation is primarily inherently inferior or superior to another nation. that man once created is moulded and modified by his environment, there can be no doubt. even a cursory survey of the globe presents some indications favorable and unfavorable to the unfolding of the different forms of organic being. great continents, for instance, appear to be congenial to the development of animal life; islands and lesser continents to the growth of exuberant vegetation. thus, in the eastern hemisphere, which is a compact oval, essentially continental, with vast areas far removed from the influence of the ocean, flourish the elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, the courageous lion, the fierce tiger, the largest and lordliest of animal kind, while in the more oceanic western hemisphere inferior types prevail. cold and dryness characterize the one; heat and humidity the other; in one are the greatest deserts, in the other the greatest lakes and rivers. warm oceanic currents bathe the frosty shores of the northern extremities of the continents and render them habitable; the moisture-laden equatorial atmosphere clothes the adjacent islands and firm land in emerald verdure. upon the same parallel of latitude are the great sahara desert of africa, and the wilderness of luxuriant billowy foliage of the american isthmus. in warm, moist climates, such species of animal life attain the fullest development as are dependent upon the aqueous and herbous agencies. in tropical america are seen the largest reptiles, the most gorgeous insects,--there the inhabitants of warm marshes and sluggish waters assume gigantic proportions, while only upon the broad inland prairies or upon elevated mountain ranges, away from the influences of warm waters and humid atmospheres, are found the buffalo, bear, and elk. the very complexion and temperament of man are affected by these vegetative and umbrageous elements. unprotected from the perpendicular rays of the sun, the african is black, muscular, and cheerful; under the shadow of primeval forest, man assumes a coppery hue, lacking the endurance of the negro, and becomes in disposition cold and melancholy. and again, if we look for the natural causes which tend to promote or retard association, we find in climates and continental configurations the chief agencies. the continent of the two americas, in its greatest length, lies north and south, the eastern continental group extends east and west. primitive people naturally would spread out in those directions which offered the least change of climate from that of the primitive centre. obviously, variations of climate are greater in following a meridian than along a parallel of latitude. thus, the tropical man passing along a meridian is driven back by unendurable cold, while a continent may be traversed on any parallel, elevations excepted, with but little variation in temperature. a savage, exposed and inexperienced, not knowing how to protect himself against severe changes of climate, could not travel far in a northerly or southerly direction without suffering severely from the cold or heat; hence, other things being equal, the inhabitants of a country whose greatest length lay east and west, would intermingle more readily than those whose territory extended north and south. [sidenote: climate and mountain ranges.] that the eastern hemisphere attained a higher degree of civilization than the western, may be partly due to the fact, that the former presents wider spaces of uniform climate than the latter. the climatic zones of the new world, besides being shorter, are intersected by mountain barriers, which tend to retard the intercourse that would otherwise naturally follow. thus the mexican table-land, the seat of aztec civilization, is a _tierra fria_ situated above the insalubrious _tierra caliente_ of either coast and the healthful _tierra templada_ of the slopes, but below the mountain ranges which rise from this table-land, forming a _tierra frígida_, a region of perpetual snow. to this day, the natives of the mexican plateau cannot live on the sea-coast, though less than a day's journey distant. between the climatic zones which extend through europe and asia, there are contrasts as marked and changes as sudden, but these differences are between the different zones rather than between longitudinal sections of the same zone. hence, in the old world, where climatic zones are separated by mountain ranges which make the transition from one to the other sudden and abrupt, we see a greater diversity of race than in america, where the natural barriers extend north and south and intersect the climatic zones, thereby bringing the inhabitants along a meridian in easier communication than those who live in the same latitude but who are separated by mountains, table-lands and large rivers. that is, if color and race are dependent on climate, america should offer greater varieties in color and race than europe, for america traverses the most latitudes; but the mountain barriers of america extend north and south, thereby forcing its people to intermingle, if at all, in that direction, while the chief ranges of the eastern continent extend east and west, parallel with climatic zones, thereby forming in themselves distinctly marked lines between peoples, forcing the african to remain under his burning sun, and the northmen in their cooler latitudes; so that in the several climatic zones of the old world, we see the human race distinctly marked, aryan, semitic, and turanian--white, black, and yellow--while throughout the two americas, from alaska to tierra del fuego, type and color are singularly uniform. * * * * * who can picture the mighty tide of humanity, which, while the eastern hemisphere has been developing so high a state of culture, in america has ebbed and flowed between barbarisms and civilizations? through what long and desperate struggles, continuing age after age through the lives of nations, now advancing, now receding, have these peoples passed? asia, from its central position and favorable climate, would seem naturally to encourage a redundant population and a spontaneous civilization; the waters of the mediterranean invite commerce and intercommunication of nations, while the british isles, from their insular situation and distance from hypothetical primitive centres, would seem necessarily to remain longer in a state of barbarism. in the pacific states of north america we find the densest population north along the shores of the ocean, and south on the cordillera table-land, from the fact that the former offers the best facilities for food and locomotion until the latter is reached, when the interior presents the most favorable dwelling-place for man. climate affects both mental and moral endowments, the temperament of the body, and the texture of the brain; physical energy, and mental vigor. temperate climates are more conducive to civilization, not for the reason given by mr harris, "as developing the higher qualities, and not invigorating the baser feelings", for the hyperborean is as unchaste and as great a slave to passion as the sub-equatorial man--but because a temperate climate, while it lures to exertion, rewards the laborer. * * * * * [sidenote: the influence of food.] next, let us consider the agency of food in human development. the effect of food is to supply the body with caloric, which is essential to its life, and to repair the muscular fibres which are constantly undergoing waste in our daily activities. these two effects are produced by two different kinds of diet; carbonized food, such as animal flesh, fish, oils and fats, and oxidized food, which consists chiefly of vegetables. in hot climates, obviously, less carbonized food is required to keep up the necessary temperature of the body than in cold climates. hence it is, that hyperborean nations subsist on whale's blubber, oil, and flesh, while the tropical man confines himself almost exclusively to a vegetable diet. it is not my purpose here to enter into the relative effects of the different kinds of food on physiological and mental development; i desire, however, to call attention to the comparative facility with which carbonized and oxidized food is procured by man, and to note the effect of this ease or difficulty in obtaining a food supply, upon his progress. in warm, humid climates vegetation is spontaneous and abundant; a plentiful supply of food may, therefore, be obtained with the smallest expenditure of labor. the inhabitants of cold climates, however, are obliged to pursue, by land and water, wild and powerful animals, to put forth all their strength and skill in order to secure a precarious supply of the necessary food. then, again, besides being more difficult to obtain, and more uncertain as to a steady supply, the quantity of food consumed in a cold climate is much greater than that consumed in a hot climate. now as leisure is essential to cultivation, and as without a surplus of food and clothing there can be no leisure, it would seem to follow naturally that in those countries where food and clothing are most easily obtained culture should be the highest; since so little time and labor are necessary to satisfy the necessities of the body, the mind would have opportunity to expand. it would seem that a fertile soil, an exuberant vegetation, soft skies and balmy air, a country where raiment was scarcely essential to comfort, and where for food the favored inhabitant had but to pluck and eat, should become the seat of a numerous population and a high development. is this the fact? "wherever snow falls," emerson remarks, "there is usually civil freedom. where the banana grows, the animal system is indolent, and pampered at the cost of higher qualities; the man is sensual and cruel;" and we may add that where wheat grows, there is civilization, where rice is the staple, there mental vigor is relaxed. heat and moisture being the great vegetative stimulants, tropical lands in proximity to the sea are covered with eternal verdure. little or no labor is required to sustain life; for food there is the perpetually ripening fruit, a few hours' planting, sometimes, being sufficient to supply a family for months; for shelter, little more than the dense foliage is necessary, while scarcely any clothing is required. but although heat and moisture, the great vegetative stimulants, lie at the root of primitive progress, these elements in superabundance defeat their own ends, and in two ways: first, excessive heat enervates the body and prostrates the mind, languor and inertia become chronic, while cold is invigorating and prompts to activity. and in tropical climates certain hours of the day are too hot for work, and are, consequently, devoted to sleep. the day is broken into fragments; continuous application, which alone produces important results, is prevented, and habits of slackness and laxity become the rule of life. satisfied, moreover, with the provisions of nature for their support, the people live without labor, vegetating, plant-like, through a listless and objectless life. secondly, vegetation, stimulated by excessive heat and moisture, grows with such strength and rapidity as to defy the efforts of inexperienced primitive man; nature becomes domineering, unmanageable, and man sinks into insignificance. indeed the most skillful industry of armed and disciplined civilization is unable to keep under control this redundancy of tropical vegetation. the path cleared by the pioneer on penetrating the dense undergrowth, closes after him like the waters of the sea behind a ship; before the grain has time to spring up, the plowed field is covered with rank weeds, wild flowers, and poisonous plants no less beautiful than pernicious. i have seen the very fence-posts sprouting up and growing into trees. so destructive is the vegetation of the central american lowlands, that in their triumphal march the persistent roots penetrate the crevices of masonry, demolish strong walls, and obliterate stupendous tumuli. the people whose climate makes carbonized food a necessity, are obliged to call into action their bolder and stronger faculties in order to obtain their supplies, while the vegetable-eater may tranquilly rest on bounteous nature. the eskimo struggles manfully with whale, and bear, and ice, and darkness, until his capacious stomach is well filled with heat-producing food, then he dozes torpidly in his den while the supply lasts; the equatorial man plucks and eats, basks in the open air, and sleeps. [sidenote: unmanageableness of redundant nature.] here we have a medley of heterogeneous and antagonistic elements. leisure is essential to culture; before leisure there must be an accumulation of wealth; the accumulation of wealth is dependent upon the food-supply; a surplus of food can only be easily obtained in warm climates. but labor is also essential to development, and excessive heat is opposed to labor. labor, moreover, in order to produce leisure must be remunerative, and excessive cold is opposed to accumulation. it appears, therefore, that an excess of labor and an excess of leisure are alike detrimental to improvement. again, heat and moisture are essential to an abundant supply of oxidized food. but heat and moisture, especially in tropical climates, act as a stimulant upon other rank productions, engendering dense forests, tangled brush-wood, and poisonous shrubs, and filling miasmatic marshes with noxious reptiles. these enemies to human progress the weaponless savage is unable to overcome. it is, therefore, neither in hot and humid countries, nor in excessively cold climates, that we are to look for a primitive civilization; for in the latter nature lies dormant, while in the former the redundancy of nature becomes unmanageable. it is true that in the tropics of america and asia are found the seats of many ancient civilizations, but if we examine them one after the other, we shall see, in nearly every instance, some opposite or counteracting agency. thus, the aztecs, though choosing a low latitude in proximity to both oceans, occupied an elevated table-land, in a cool, dry atmosphere, seven or eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. the river nile, by its periodic inundations, forced the ancient egyptians to lay by a store of food, which is the very first step toward wealth. the rivers of india are, some of them, subject to like overflowings, while the more elevated parts are dry and fertile. egypt was the cradle of european development. long before the advent of christianity, the fertile banks of the nile, for their pyramidal tombs, their colossi, their obelisks and catacombs and sphinxes and temples, were regarded by surrounding barbarians as a land of miracles and marvels. thence greece derived her earliest arts and maxims. the climate of egypt was unchangeable, and the inundations of the nile offered a less uncertain water-supply than the rains of many other districts, and thus agriculture, while offering to the laborer the greater part of the year for leisure, was almost certain to be remunerative. common instincts and common efforts, uniformity of climate and identity of interests produced a homogeneous people, and forty centuries of such changeless coming and going could not fail to result in improvement. [sidenote: mr buckle's theory.] mr buckle, in his attempt to establish a universal theory that heat and moisture inevitably engender civilization, and that without those combined agencies no civilization can arise, somewhat overreaches himself. "in america, as in asia and africa," he says, "all the original civilizations were seated in hot countries; the whole of peru, proper, being within the southern tropic, the whole of central america and mexico within the northern tropic." the fact is, that cuzco, the capital city of the incas, is in the cordilleras, three hundred miles from and eleven thousand feet above the sea. for the latitude the climate is both cold and dry. the valley of mexico is warmer and moister, but cannot be called hot and humid. palenque and copan approach nearer mr buckle's ideal than cuzco or mexico, being above the tierra caliente proper, and yet in a truly hot and humid climate. the hawaiian islands,--an isolated group of lava piles, thrown up into the trade winds on the twentieth parallel, and by these winds deluged on one side with rain, while the other is left almost dry, with but little alluvial soil, and that little exceedingly fertile,--at the time of their discovery by captain cook appeared to have made no inconsiderable advance toward feudalism. systems of land tenure and vassalage were in operation, and some works for the public weal had been constructed. here were the essentials for a low order of improvement such as was found there, but which never, in all probability, would have risen much higher. again, mr buckle declares that, "owing to the presence of physical phenomena, the civilization of america was, of necessity, confined to those parts where alone it was found by the discoverers of the new world." an apparently safe postulate; but, upon any conceivable hypothesis, there are very many places as well adapted to development as those in which it was found. once more: "the two great conditions of fertility have not been united in any part of the continent north of mexico." when we consider what it is, namely, heat and humidity, upon which mr buckle makes intellectual evolution dependent, and that not only the mexican plateau lacked both these essentials, in the full meaning of the term, but that both are found in many places northward, as for instance, in some parts of texas and in louisiana, a discrepancy in his theory becomes apparent. "the peculiar configuration of the land," he continues, "secured a very large amount of coast, and thus gave to the southern part of north america the character of an island." an island, yes, but, as m. guyot terms it, an "aerial island;" bordered on either side by sea-coast, but by such sea-coast as formed an almost impassable barrier between the table-land and the ocean. "while, therefore," adds mr buckle, "the position of mexico near the equator gave it heat, the shape of the land gave it humidity; and this being the only part of north america in which these two conditions were united it was likewise the only part which was at all civilized. there can be no doubt, that if the sandy plains of california and southern columbia, instead of being scorched into sterility, had been irrigated by the rivers of the east, or if the rivers of the east had been accompanied by the heat of the west, the result of either combination would have been that exuberance of soil, by which, as the history of the world decisively proves, every early civilization was preceded. but inasmuch as, of the two elements of fertility, one was deficient in every part of america north of the twentieth parallel, it followed that, until that line was passed, civilization could gain no resting place; and there never has been found, and we may confidently assert never will be found, any evidence that even a single ancient nation, in the whole of that enormous continent, was able to make much progress in the arts of life, or organize itself into a fixed and permanent society." this is a broad statement embodying precipitate deductions from false premises, and one which betrays singular ignorance of the country and its climate. these same "sandy plains of california" so far from being "scorched into sterility", are to-day sending their cereals in every direction--to the east and to the west--and are capable of feeding all europe. [sidenote: why were californians not civilized?] i have often wondered why california was not the seat of a primitive civilization; why, upon every converging line the race deteriorates as this centre is approached; why, with a cool, salubrious seaboard, a hot and healthful interior, with alternate rainy and dry seasons, alternate seasons of labor and leisure which encourage producing and hoarding and which are the primary incentives to accumulation and wealth, in this hot and cool, moist and dry, and invigorating atmosphere, with a fertile soil, a climate which in no part of the year can be called cold or inhospitable, should be found one of the lowest phases of humanity on the north american continent. the cause must be sought in periods more remote, in the convulsions of nature now stilled; in the tumults of nations whose history lies forgotten, forever buried in the past. theories never will solve the mystery. indeed, there is no reason why the foundations of the aztec and maya-quiché civilizations may not have been laid north of the thirty-fifth parallel, although no architectural remains have been discovered there, nor other proof of such an origin; but upon the banks of the gila, the colorado, and the rio grande, in chihuahua, and on the hot dry plains of arizona and new mexico, far beyond the limits of mr buckle's territory where "there never has been found, and we may confidently assert never will be found" any evidence of progress, are to-day walled towns inhabited by an industrial and agricultural people, whose existence we can trace back for more than three centuries, besides ruins of massive buildings of whose history nothing is known. thus, that california and many other parts of north america could not have been the seat of a primitive civilization, cannot be proved upon the basis of any physical hypothesis; and, indeed, in our attempt to elucidate the principles of universal progress, where the mysterious and antagonistic activities of humanity have been fermenting all unseen for thousands of ages, unknown and unknowable, among peoples of whom our utmost knowledge can be only such as is derived from a transient glimpse of a disappearing race, it is with the utmost difficulty that satisfactory conclusions can in any instance be reached. it is in a temperate climate, therefore, that man attains the highest development. on the peninsulas of greece and italy, where the mediterranean invites intercourse; in iran and armenia, where the climate is cold enough to stimulate labor, but not so cold as to require the use of all the energies of body and mind in order to acquire a bare subsistence; warm enough to make leisure possible, but not so warm as to enervate and prostrate the faculties; with a soil of sufficient fertility to yield a surplus and promote the accumulation of wealth, without producing such a redundancy of vegetation as to be unmanageable by unskilled, primitive man--there it is that we find the highest intellectual culture. it sometimes happens that, in those climates which are too vigorous for the unfolding of the tender germ, cultivation is stimulated into greater activity than in its original seats. it sometimes happens that, when the shell of savagism is once fairly broken, a people may overcome a domineering vegetation, and flourish in a climate where by no possibility could their development have originated. even in the frozen regions of the north, as in scandinavia, man, by the intensity of his nature, was enabled to surmount the difficulties of climate and attain a fierce, rude cultivation. the regions of northern europe and northern america, notwithstanding their original opposition to man, are to-day the most fruitful of all lands in industrial discoveries and intellectual activities, but in the polar regions, as in the equatorial, the highest development never can be reached. the conditions which encourage indigenous civilization are not always those that encourage permanent development, and vice versa. thus, great britain in her insulation, remained barbarous long after greece and italy had attained a high degree of cultivation, yet when once the seed took root, that very insulation acted as a wall of defense, within which a mighty power germinated and with its influence overspread the whole earth. thus we have seen that a combination of physical conditions is essential to intellectual development. without leisure, there can be no culture, without wealth no leisure, without labor no wealth, and without a suitable soil and climate no remunerative labor. now, throughout the material universe, there is no object or element which holds its place, whether at rest or in motion, except under fixed laws; no atom of matter nor subtle mysterious force, no breath of air, nor cloudy vapor nor streak of light, but in existing obeys a law. the almighty fiat: be fruitful and multiply, fruitful in increase, intellectual as well as physical, was given alike to all mankind; seeds of progress were sown broadcast throughout all the races human; some fell on stony places, others were choked with weeds, others found good soil. when we see a people in the full enjoyment of all these physical essentials to progress yet in a state of savagism, we may be sure that elements detrimental to progress have, at some period of their history, interposed to prevent natural growth. war, famine, pestilence, convulsions of nature, have nipped in the bud many an incipient civilization, whose history lies deep buried in the unrecorded past. * * * * * [sidenote: association an element of progress.] the obvious necessity of association as a primary condition of development leaves little to be said on that subject. to the manifestation of this soul of progress a body social is requisite, as without an individual body there can be no manifestation of an individual soul. this body social, like the body individual, is composed of numberless organs, each having its special functions to perform, each acting on the others, and all under the general government of the progressional idea. civilization is not an individual attribute, and though the atom, man, may be charged with stored energy, yet progress constitutes no part of individual nature; it is something that lies between men and not within them; it belongs to society and not to the individual; man, the molecule of society, isolate, is inert and forceless. the isolated man, as i have said, never can become cultivated, never can form a language, does not possess in its fullness the faculty of abstraction, nor can his mind enter the realm of higher thought. all those characteristics which distinguish mankind from animal-kind become almost inoperative. without association there is no speech, for speech is but the conductor of thought between two or more individuals; without words abstract thought cannot flow, for words, or some other form of expression, are the channels of thought, and with the absence of words the fountain of thought is in a measure sealed. at the very threshold of progress social crystallization sets in; something there is in every man that draws him to other men. in the relationship of the sexes, this principle of human attraction reaches its height, where the husband and wife, as it were, coalesce, like the union of one drop of water with another, forming one globule. as unconsciously and as positively are men constrained to band together into societies as are particles forced to unite and form crystals. and herein is a law as palpable and as fixed as any law in nature; a law, which if unfulfilled, would result in the extermination of the race. but the law of human attraction is not perfect, does not fulfill its purpose apart from the law of human repulsion, for as we have seen, until war and despotism and superstition and other dire evils come, there is no progress. solitude is insupportable, even beasts will not live alone; and men are more dependent on each other than beasts. solitude carries with it a sense of inferiority and insufficiency; the faculties are stinted, lacking completeness, whereas volume is added to every individual faculty by union. [sidenote: coÖperation and the division of labor.] but association simply, is not enough; nothing materially great can be accomplished without union and coöperation. it is only when aggregations of families intermingle with other aggregations, each contributing its quota of original knowledge to the other; when the individual gives up some portion of his individual will and property for the better protection of other rights and property; when he entrusts society with the vindication of his rights; when he depends upon the banded arm of the nation, and not alone upon his own arm for redress of grievances, that progress is truly made. and with union and coöperation comes the division of labor by which means each, in some special department, is enabled to excel. by fixing the mind wholly upon one thing, by constant repetition and practice, the father hands down his art to the son, who likewise, improves it for his descendants. it is only by doing a new thing, or by doing an old thing better than it has ever been done before, that progress is made. under the régime of universal mediocrity the nation does not advance; it is to the great men,--great in things great or small, that progress is due; it is to the few who think, to the few who dare to face the infinite universe of things and step, if need be, outside an old-time boundary, that the world owes most. originally implanted is the germ of intelligence, at the first but little more than brute instinct. this germ in unfolding undergoes a double process; it throws off its own intuitions and receives in return those of another. by an interchange of ideas, the experiences of one are made known for the benefit of another, the inventions of one are added to the inventions of another; without intercommunication of ideas the intellect must lie dormant. thus it is with individuals, and with societies it is the same. acquisitions are eminently reciprocal. in society, wealth, art, literature, polity, and religion act and react on each other; in science a fusion of antagonistic hypotheses is sure to result in important developments. before much progress can be made, there must be established a commerce between nations for the interchange of aggregated human experiences, so that the arts and industries acquired by each may become the property of all the rest, and thus knowledge becomes scattered by exchange, in place of each having to work out every problem for himself. thus viewed, civilization is a partnership entered into for mutual improvement; a joint stock operation, in which the product of every brain contributes to a general fund for the benefit of all. no one can add to his own store of knowledge without adding to the general store; every invention, and discovery, however insignificant, is a contribution to civilization. in savagism, union and coöperation are imperfectly displayed. the warriors of one tribe unite against the warriors of another; a band will coöperate in pursuing a herd of buffalo; even one nation will sometimes unite with another nation against a third, but such combinations are temporary, and no sooner is the particular object accomplished than the confederation disbands, and every man is again his own master. the moment two or more persons unite for the accomplishment of some purpose which shall tend permanently to meliorate the condition of themselves and others, that moment progress begins. the wild beasts of the forest, acting in unison, were physically able to rise up and extirpate primitive man, but could beasts in reality confederate and do this, such confederation of wild beasts could become civilized. [sidenote: the savage hates civilization.] but why does primitive man desire to abandon his original state and set out upon an arduous never-ending journey? why does he wish to change his mild paternal government, to relinquish his title to lands as broad as his arm can defend, with all therein contained, the common property of his people? why does he wish to give up his wild freedom, his native independence, and place upon his limbs the fetters of a social and political despotism? he does not. the savage hates civilization as he hates his deadliest foe; its choicest benefits he hates more than the direst ills of his own unfettered life. he is driven to it; driven to it by extraneous influences, without his knowledge and against his will; he is driven to it by this soul of progress. it is here that this progressional phenomenon again appears outside of man and in direct opposition to the will of man; it is here that the principle of evil again comes in and stirs men up to the accomplishment of a higher destiny. by it adam, the first of recorded savages, was driven from eden, where otherwise he would have remained forever, and remained uncivilized. by it our ancestors were impelled to abandon their simple state, and organize more heterogeneous complex forms of social life. and it is a problem for each nation to work out for itself. millions of money are expended for merely proselyting purposes, when if the first principles of civilization were well understood, a more liberal manner of teaching would prevail. every civilization has its peculiarities, its idiosyncrasies. two individuals attempting the same thing differ in the performance; so civilization evolving under incidental and extraneous causes takes an individuality in every instance. this is why civilizations will not coalesce; this is why the spaniards could make the aztecs accept their civilization only at the point of the sword. development engendered by one set of phenomena will not suit the developments of other circumstances. the government, religion, and customs of one people will not fit another people any more than the coat of one person will suit the form of another. thought runs in different channels; the happiness of one is not the happiness of another; development springs from inherent necessity, and one species cannot be engrafted on another. * * * * * let us now examine the phenomena of government and religion in their application to the evolution of societies, and we shall better understand how the wheels of progress are first set in motion,--and by religion i do not mean creed or credulity, but that natural cultus inherent in humanity, which is a very different thing. government is early felt to be a need of society; the enforcement of laws which shall bring order out of social chaos; laws which shall restrain the vicious, protect the innocent, and punish the guilty; which shall act as a shield to inherent budding morality. but before government, there must arise some influence which will band men together. an early evil to which civilization is indebted is war; the propensity of man--unhappily not yet entirely overcome--for killing his fellow-man. [sidenote: government and religion.] the human race has not yet attained that state of homogeneous felicity which we sometimes imagine; upon the surface, we yet bear many of the relics of barbarism; under cover of manners, we hide still more. war is a barbarism which civilization only intensifies, as indeed civilization intensifies every barbarism which it does not eradicate or cover up. the right of every individual to act as his own avenger; trial by combat; justice dependent upon the passion or caprice of the judge or ruler and not upon fixed law; hereditary feuds and migratory skirmishes; these and the like are deemed barbarous, while every nation of the civilized world maintains a standing army, applies all the arts and inventions of civilization to the science of killing, and upon sufficient provocation, as a disputed boundary or a fancied insult, no greater nor more important than that which moved our savage ancestors to like conduct, falls to, and after a respectable civilized butchery of fifty or a hundred thousand men, ceases fighting, and returns, perhaps, to right and reason as a basis for the settlement of the difficulty. war, like other evils which have proved instruments of good, should by this time have had its day, should have served its purpose. standing armies, whose formation was one of the first and most important steps in association and partition of labor, are but the manifestation of a lingering necessity for the use of brute force in place of moral force in the settlement of national disputes. surely, rational beings who retain the most irrational practices concerning the simplest principles of social life cannot boast of a very high order of what we are pleased to call civilization. morality, commerce, literature, and industry, all that tends toward elevation of intellect, is directly opposed to the warlike spirit. as intellectual activity increases, the taste for war decreases, for an appeal to war in the settlement of difficulties is an appeal from the intellectual to the physical, from reason to brute force. despotism is an evil, but despotism is as essential to progress as any good. in some form despotism is an inseparable adjunct of war. an individual or an idea may be the despot, but without cohesion, without a strong central power, real or imaginary, there can be no unity, and without unity no protracted warfare. in the first stages of government despotism is as essential as in the last it is noxious. it holds society together when nothing else would hold it, and at a time when its very existence depends upon its being so held. and not until a moral inherent strength arises sufficient to burst the fetters of despotism, is a people fit for a better or milder form of government; for not until this inherent power is manifest is there sufficient cohesive force in society to hold it together without being hooped by some such band as despotism. besides thus cementing society, war generates many virtues, such as courage, discipline, obedience, chivalrous bearing, noble thought; and the virtues of war, as well as its vices, help to mould national character. slavery to the present day has its defenders, and from the first it has been a preventive of a worse evil,--slaughter. savages make slaves of their prisoners of war, and if they do not preserve them for slaves they kill them. the origin of the word, _servus_, from _servare_, to preserve, denotes humane thought rather than cruelty. discipline is always necessary to development, and slavery is another form of savage discipline. then, by systems of slavery, great works were accomplished, which, in the absence of arts and inventions, would not have been possible without slavery. and again, in early societies where leisure is so necessary to mental cultivation and so difficult to obtain, slavery, by promoting leisure, aids elevation and refinement. slaves constitute a distinct class, devoted wholly to labor, thereby enabling another class to live without labor, or to labor with the intellect rather than with the hands. primordially, society was an aggregation of nomadic families, every head of a family having equal rights, and every individual such power and influence as he could acquire and maintain. in all the ordinary avocations of savage life this was sufficient; there was room for all, and the widest liberty was possessed by each. and in this happy state does mankind ever remain until forced out of it. in unity and coöperation alone can great things be accomplished; but men will not unite until forced to it. now in times of war--and with savages war is the rule and not the exception--some closer union is necessary to avoid extinction; for other things being equal, the people who are most firmly united and most strongly ruled are sure to prevail in war. the idea of unity in order to be effectual must be embodied in a unit; some one must be made chief, and the others must obey, as in a band of wild beasts that follow the one most conspicuous for its prowess and cunning. but the military principle alone would never lay the foundation of a strong government, for with every cessation from hostilities there would be a corresponding relaxation of government. [sidenote: government forced upon man.] another necessity for government here arises, but which likewise is not the cause of government, for government springs from force and not from utility. these men do not want government, they do not want culture; how then is an arm to be found sufficiently strong to bridle their wild passions? in reason they are children, in passion men; to restrain the strong passions of strong non-reasoning men requires a power; whence is this power to come? it is in the earlier stage of government that despotism assumes its most intense forms. the more passionate, and lawless, and cruel the people, the more completely do they submit to a passionate, lawless, and cruel prince; the more ungovernable their nature, the more slavish are they in their submission to government; the stronger the element to be governed, the stronger must be the government. the primitive man, whoever or whatever that may be, lives in harmony with nature; that is, he lives as other animals live, drawing his supplies immediately from the general storehouse of nature. his food he plucks from a sheltering tree, or draws from a sparkling stream, or captures from a prolific forest. the remnants of his capture, unfit for food, supply his other wants; with the skin he clothes himself, and with the bones makes implements and points his weapons. in this there are no antagonisms, no opposing principles of good and evil; animals are killed not with a view of extermination, but through necessity, as animals kill animals in order to supply actual wants. but no sooner does the leaven of progress begin to work than war is declared between man and nature. to make room for denser populations and increasing comforts, forests must be hewn down, their primeval inhabitants extirpated or domesticated, and the soil laid under more direct contribution. union and coöperation spring up for purposes of protection and aggression, for the accomplishment of purposes beyond the capacity of the individual. gradually manufactures and commerce increase; the products of one body of laborers are exchanged for the products of another, and thus the aggregate comforts produced are doubled to each. absolute power is taken from the hands of the many and placed in the hands of one, who becomes the representative power of all. men are no longer dependent upon the chase for a daily supply of food; even agriculture no longer is a necessity which each must follow for himself, for the intellectual products of one person or people may be exchanged for the agricultural products of another. with these changes of occupation new institutions spring up, new ideas originate, and new habits are formed. human life ceases to be a purely material existence; another element finds exercise, the other part of man is permitted to grow. the energies of society now assume a different shape; hitherto the daily struggle was for daily necessities, now the accumulation of wealth constitutes the chief incentive to labor. wealth becomes a power and absorbs all other powers. the possessor of unlimited wealth commands the products of every other man's labor. but in time, and to a certain extent, a class arises already possessed of wealth sufficient to satisfy even the demands of avarice, and something still better, some greater good is yet sought for. money-getting gives way before intellectual cravings. the self-denials and labor necessary to the acquisition of wealth are abandoned for the enjoyment of wealth already acquired and the acquisition of a yet higher good. sensual pleasure yields in a measure to intellectual pleasure, the acquisition of money to the acquisition of learning. where brute intelligence is the order of the day, man requires no more governing than brutes, but when lands are divided, and the soil cultivated, when wealth begins to accumulate and commerce and industry to flourish, then protection and lawful punishment become necessary. like the wild horse, leave him free, and he will take care of himself; but catch him and curb him, and the wilder and stronger he is the stronger must be the curb until he is subdued and trained, and then he is guided by a light rein. the kind of government makes little difference so that it be strong enough. * * * * * [sidenote: the supernatural in civilization.] granted that it is absolutely essential to the first step toward culture that society should be strongly governed, how is the first government to be accomplished; how is one member of a passionate, unbridled heterogeneous community to obtain dominion absolute over all the others? here comes in another evil to the assistance of the former evils, all for future good,--superstition. never could physical force alone compress and hold the necessary power with which to burst the shell of savagism. the government is but a reflex of the governed. not until one man is physically or intellectually stronger than ten thousand, will an independent people submit to a tyrannical government, or a humane people submit to a cruel government, or a people accustomed to free discussion to an intolerant priesthood. at the outset, if man is to be governed at all, there must be no division of governmental force. the cause for fear arising from both the physical and the supernatural must be united in one individual. in the absence of the moral sentiment the fear of legal and that of spiritual punishments are identical, for the spiritual is feared only as it works temporal or corporal evil. freedom of thought at this stage is incompatible with progress, for thought without experience is dangerous, tending towards anarchy. before men can govern themselves they must be subjected to the sternest discipline of government, and whether this government be just or humane or pleasant is of small consequence so that it be only strong enough. as with polity so with morality and religion; conjointly with despotism there must be an arbitrary central church government, or moral anarchy is the inevitable consequence. at the outset it is not for man to rule but to obey; it is not for savages, who are children in intellect to think and reason, but to believe. and thus we see how wonderfully man is provided with the essentials of growth. this tender germ of progress is preserved in hard shells and prickly coverings, which, when they have served their purpose are thrown aside as not only useless but detrimental to further development. we know not what will come hereafter, but up to the present time a state of bondage appears to be the normal state of humanity; bondage, at first severe and irrational, then ever loosening, and expanding into a broader freedom. as mankind progresses, moral anarchy no more follows freedom of thought than does political anarchy follow freedom of action. in germany, in england, in america, wherever secular power has in any measure cut loose from ecclesiastical power and thrown religion back upon public sentiment for support, a moral as well as an intellectual advance has always followed. what the mild and persuasive teachings and lax discipline of the present epoch would have been to the christians of the fourteenth century, the free and lax government of republican america would have been to republican rome. therefore, let us learn to look charitably upon the institutions of the past, and not forget how much we owe to them; while we rejoice at our release from the cruelty and ignorance of mediæval times, let us not forget the debt which civilization owes to the rigorous teachings of both church and state. [sidenote: morality and creed.] christianity, by its exalted un-utilitarian morality and philanthropy, has greatly aided civilization. indeed so marked has been the effect in europe, so great the contrast between christianity and islamism and the polytheistic creeds in general, that churchmen claim civilization as the offspring of their religion. but religion and morality must not be confounded with civilization. all these and many other activities act and react on each other as proximate principles in the social organism, but they do not, any or all of them, constitute the life of the organism. long before morality is religion, and long after morality religion sends the pious penitent to his knees. religious culture is a great assistant to moral culture as intellectual training promotes the industrial arts, but morality is no more religion than is industry intellect. when christianity, as in the early settlement of mexico and central america, falls into the hands of unprincipled adventurers or blind zealots who stand up in deadly antagonism to liberty, then christianity is a drag upon civilization; and therefore we may conclude that in so far as christianity grafts on its code of pure morality the principle of intellectual freedom, in so far is civilization promoted by christianity, but when christianity engenders persecution, civilization is retarded thereby. then protestantism sets up a claim to the authorship of civilization, points to spain and then to england, compares italy and switzerland, catholic america and puritan america, declares that the intellect can never attain superiority while under the dominion of the church of rome; in other words, that civilization is protestantism. it is true that protestation against irrational dogmas, or any other action that tends toward the emancipation of the intellect, is a great step in advance; but religious belief has nothing whatever to do with intellectual culture. religion from its very nature is beyond the limits of reason; it is emotional rather than intellectual, an instinct and not an acquisition. between reason and religion lies a domain of common ground upon which both may meet and join hands, but beyond the boundaries of which neither may pass. the moment the intellect attempts to penetrate the domain of the supernatural all intellectuality vanishes, and emotion and imagination fill its place. there can be no real conflict between the two, for neither, by any possibility, can pass this neutral ground. before the mind can receive christianity, or mahometanism, or any other creed, it must be ready to accept dogmas in the analysis of which human reason is powerless. among the most brilliant intellects are found protestants, romanists, unitarians, deists, and atheists; judging from the experiences of mankind in ages past, creeds and formulas, orthodoxy and heterodoxy, have no inherent power to advance or retard the intellect. some claim, indeed, that strong doctrinal bias stifles thought, fosters superstition, and fetters the intellect; still religious thought, in some form, is inseparable from the human mind, and it would be very difficult to prove that belief is more debasing than non-belief. * * * * * [sidenote: development of the religious ideal.] religion at first is a gross fetichism, which endows every wonder with a concrete personality. within every appearance is a several personal cause, and to embody this personal cause in some material form is the first effort of the savage mind. hence, images are made in representation of these imaginary supernatural powers. man, of necessity, must clothe these supernatural powers in the elements of some lower form. the imagination cannot grasp an object or an idea beyond the realms of human experience. unheard-of combinations of character may be made, but the constituent parts must, at some time and in some form, have had an existence in order to be conceivable. it is impossible for the human mind to array in forms of thought anything wholly and absolutely new. this state is the farthest remove possible from a recognition of those universal laws of causation toward which every department of knowledge is now so rapidly tending. gods are made in the likeness of man and beast, endowed with earthly passions, and a sensual polytheism, in which blind fate is a prominent element, becomes the religious ideal. religious conceptions are essentially material; all punishments and rewards are such as effect man as a material being; morality, the innate sense of right and wrong, lies stifled, almost dormant. thrown wholly upon himself, without experience to guide him, the savage must, of necessity, invest nature with his own qualities, for his mind can grasp none other. but when experience dispels the nearer illusions, objects more remote are made gods; in the sun and stars he sees his controlling destinies; the number of his gods is lessened until at last all merge into one god, the author of all law, the great and only ruler of the universe. in every mythology we see this impersonation of natural phenomena; frost and fire, earth and air and water, in their displays of mysterious powers, are at once deified and humanized. these embodiments of physical force are then naturally formed into families, and their supposed descendants worshiped as children of the gods. thus, in the childhood of society, when incipient thought takes up its lodgment in old men's brains, shadows of departed heroes mingle with shadows of mysterious nature, and admiration turns to adoration. next arises the desire to propitiate these unseen powers, to accomplish which some means of communication must be opened up between man and his deities. now, as man in his gods reproduces himself, as all his conceptions of supernatural power must, of necessity, be formed on the skeleton of human power, naturally it follows that the strongest and most cunning of the tribe, he upon whom leadership most naturally falls, comes to be regarded as specially favored of the gods. powers supernatural are joined to powers temporal, and embodied in the chieftain of the nation. a grateful posterity reveres and propitiates departed ancestors. the earlier rulers are made gods, and their descendants lesser divinities; the founder of a dynasty, perhaps, the supreme god, his progeny subordinate deities. the priesthood and kingship thus become united; religion and civil government join forces to press mankind together, and the loose sands of the new strata cohere into the firm rock, that shall one day bear alone the wash of time and tide. hence arise divine kingship, and the divine right of kings, and with the desire to win the favor of this divine king, arise the courtesies of society, the first step toward polish of manners. titles of respect and worship are given him, some of which are subsequently applied to the deity, while others drop down into the common-place compliments of every-day life. here then, we have as one of the first essentials of progress the union of church and state, of superstition and despotism, a union still necessarily kept up in some of the more backward civilizations. excessive loyalty and blind faith ever march hand in hand. the very basis of association is credulity, blind loyalty to political powers and blind faith in sacerdotal terrors. in all mythologies at some stage temporal and spiritual government are united, the supernatural power being incarnated in the temporal chief; political despotism and an awful sanguinary religion,--a government and a belief, to disobey which was never so much as thought possible. see how every one of these primary essentials of civilization becomes, as man advances, a drag upon his progress; see how he now struggles to free himself from what, at the outset, he was led by ways he knew not to endure so patiently. government, in early stages always strong and despotic, whether monarchical, oligarchical, or republican, holding mankind under the dominion of caste, placing restrictions upon commerce and manufactures, regulating social customs, food, dress,--how men have fought to break loose these bonds! religion, not that natural cultus instinctive in humanity, the bond of union as well under its most disgusting form of fetichism, as under its latest, loveliest form of christianity; but those forms and dogmas of sect and creed which stifle thought and fetter intellect,--how men have lived lives of sacrifice and self-denial as well as died for the right to free themselves from unwelcome belief! [sidenote: relation of government to civilization.] in primeval ages, government and religion lay lightly on the human race; ethnology, as well as history, discloses the patriarchal as the earliest form of government, and a rude materialism as the earliest religious ideal; these two simple elements, under the form of monsters, became huge abortions, begotten of ignorance, that held the intellect in abject slavery for thousands of years, and from these we, of this generation, more than any other, are granted emancipation. even wealth, kind giver of grateful leisure, in the guise of avarice becomes a hideous thing, which he who would attain the higher intellectual life, must learn to despise. * * * * * government, as we have seen, is not an essential element of collective humanity. civilization must first be awakened, must even have passed the primary stages before government appears. despotism, feudalism, divine kingship, slavery, war, superstition, each marks certain stages of development, and as civilization advances all tend to disappear; and, as in the early history of nations the state antedates the government, so the time may come in the progress of mankind when government will be no longer necessary. government always grows out of necessity; the intensity of government inevitably following necessity. the form of government is a natural selection; its several phases always the survival of the fittest. when the federalist says to the monarchist, or the monarchist to the federalist: my government is better than yours, it is as if the eskimo said to the kaffir: my coat, my house, my food, is better than yours. the government is made for the man, and not the man for the government. government is as the prop for the growing plant; at first the young shoot stands alone, then in its rapid advancement for a time it requires support, after which it is able again to stand alone. what we term the evils of government are rather its necessities, and are, indeed, no evils at all. the heavy bit which controls the mouth of an untamed horse is to that horse an evil, yet to the driver a necessity which may be laid aside as the temper of the animal is subdued. so despotism, feudalism, slavery, are evils to those under their dominion, yet are they as necessary for the prevention of anarchy, for the restraint of unbridled passions, as the powerful bit to the horse, and will as surely be laid aside when no longer required. shallow-minded politicians talk of kingcraft, arbitrary rule, tyrants, the down-trodden masses, the withholding of just rights; as though the government was some independent, adverse element, wholly foreign to the character of the people; as though one man was stronger than ten thousand; as though, if these phases of society were not the fittest, they would be tolerated for a moment. the days of rigorous rule were ever the best days of france and spain, and so it will be until the people become stronger than the strength of rulers. republicanism is as unfit for stupid and unintellectual populations, as despotism would be for the advanced ideas and liberal institutions of anglo-saxon america. the subject of a liberal rule sneeringly crying down to the subject of an absolute rule his form of government, is like the ass crying to the tiger: leave blood and meat; feed on grass and thistles, the only diet fit for civilized beasts! our federal government is the very best for our people, when it is not so it will speedily change; it fits the temper of american intelligence, but before it can be planted in japan or china the traditions and temper of the asiatics must change. we of to-day are undergoing an important epoch in the history of civilization. feudalism, despotism, and fanaticism have had each its day, have each accomplished its necessary purpose, and are fast fading away. ours is the age of democracy, of scientific investigation, and freedom of religious thought; what these may accomplish for the advancing intellect remains to be seen. our ancestors loved to dwell upon the past, now we all look toward the future. [sidenote: latter-day progression.] the sea of ice, over which our forefathers glided so serenely in their trustful reliance, is breaking up. one after another traditions evaporate; in their application to proximate events they fail us, history ceases to repeat itself as in times past. old things are passing away, all things are becoming new; new philosophies, new religions, new sciences; the industrial spirit springs up and overturns time-honored customs; theories of government must be reconstructed. thus, says experience, republicanism, as a form of government, can exist only in small states; but steam and electricity step in and annihilate time and space. the roman republic, from a lack of cohesive energy, from failure of central vital power sufficient to send the blood of the nation from the heart to the extremities, died a natural death. the american republic, covering nearly twice the territory of republican rome in her palmiest days, is endowed with a different species of organism; in its physiological system is found a new series of veins and arteries, the railway, the telegraph, and the daily press,--through which pulsates the life's blood of the nation, millions inhaling and exhaling intelligence as one man. by means of these inventions all the world, once every day, are brought together. by telegraphic wires and railroad iron men are now bound as in times past they were bound by war, despotism, and superstition. the remotest corners of the largest republics of to-day, are brought into closer communication than were the adjoining states of the smallest confederations of antiquity. a united germany, from its past history held to be an impossibility, is, with the present facilities of communication, an accomplished fact. england could as easily have possessed colonies in the moon, as have held her present possessions, three hundred years ago. practically, san francisco is nearer washington than was philadelphia when the foundations of the capitol were laid. what is to prevent republics from growing, so long as intelligence keeps pace with extension? the general of an army may now sit before his maps, and manoeuvre half a score of armies a hundred or a thousand miles apart, know hourly the situation of every division, the success of every battle, order an advance or a retreat, lay plots and make combinations, with more exactness than was once possible in the conduct of an ordinary campaign. * * * * * [sidenote: morals, manners, and fashion.] a few words about morals, manners, and fashion, will further illustrate how man is played upon by his environment, which here takes the shape of habit. in their bearing on civilization, these phenomena all come under the same category; and this, without regard to the rival theories of intuition and utility in morals. experience teaches, blindly at first yet daily with clearer vision, that right conduct is beneficial, and wrong conduct detrimental; that the consequences of sin invariably rest on the evil-doer; that for an unjust act, though the knowledge of it be forever locked in the bosom of the offender, punishment is sure to follow; yet there are those who question the existence of innate moral perceptions, and call it all custom and training. and if we look alone to primitive people for innate ideas of morality and justice i fear we shall meet with disappointment. some we find who value female chastity only before marriage, others only after marriage,--that is, after the woman and her chastity both alike become the tangible property of somebody. some kindly kill their aged parents, others their female infants; the successful apache horse-thief is the darling of his mother, and the hero of the tribe; often these american arabs will remain from home half-starved for weeks, rather than suffer the ignominy of returning empty-handed. good, in the mind of the savage, is when he steals wives; bad, is when his own wives are stolen. where it is that inherent morality in savages first makes its appearance, and in what manner, it is often difficult to say; the most hideous vices are everywhere practiced with unblushing effrontery. take the phenomena of shame. go back to the childhood of our race, or even to our own childhood, and it will be hard to discover any inherent quality which make men ashamed of one thing more than another. nor can the wisest of us give any good and sufficient reason why we should be ashamed of our body any more than of our face. the whole man was fashioned by one creator, and all parts equally are perfect and alike honorable. we cover our person with drapery, and think thereby to hide our faults from ourselves and others, as the ostrich hides its head under a leaf, and fancies its body concealed from the hunter. what is this quality of shame if it be not habit? a female savage will stand unblushingly before you naked, but strip her of her ornaments and she will manifest the same appearance of shame, though not perhaps so great in degree, that a european woman will manifest if stripped of her clothes. it is well known how civilized and semi-civilized nations regard this quality of propriety. custom, conventional usage, dress and behavior, are influences as subtle and as strong as any that govern us, weaving their net-work round man more and more as he throws off allegiance to other powers; and we know but little more of their origin and nature than we do of the origin and nature of time and space, of life and death, of origin and end. every age and every society has its own standard of morality, holds up some certain conduct or quality as a model, saying to all, do this, and receive the much-coveted praise of your fellows. often what one people deem virtue is to another vice; what to one age is religion is to another superstition; but underlying all this are living fires, kindled by omnipotence, and destined to burn throughout all time. in the spartan and roman republics the moral ideal was patriotism; among mediæval churchmen it took the form of asceticism; after the elevation of woman the central idea was female chastity. in this national morality, which is the cohesive force of the body social, we find the fundamental principle of the progressional impulse, and herein is the most hopeful feature of humanity; mankind must progress, and progress in the right direction. there is no help for it until god changes the universal order of things; man must become better in spite of himself; it is the good in us that grows and ultimately prevails. as a race we are yet in our nonage; fearful of the freedom given us by progress we cling tenaciously to our leading-strings; hugging our mother, custom, we refuse to be left alone. liberty and high attainments must be meted out to us as we are able to receive them, for social retchings and vomitings inevitably follow over-feedings. hence it is, that we find ourselves escaped from primeval and mediæval tyrannies only to fall under greater ones; society is none the less inexorable in her despotisms because of the sophistry which gives her victims fancied freedom. for do we not now set up forms and fashions, the works of our own hands, and bow down to them as reverently as ever our heathen ancestors did to their gods of wood and stone? who made us? is not the first question of our catechism, but what will people say? * * * * * [sidenote: origin and significance of dress.] of all tyrannies, the tyranny of fashion is the most implacable; of all slaveries the slavery to fashion is the most abject; of all fears the fear of our fellows is the most overwhelming; of all the influences that surround and govern man the forms and customs which he encounters in society are the most domineering. it is the old story, only another turn of the wheel that grinds and sharpens and polishes humanity,--at the first a benefit, now a drag. forms and fashions are essential; we cannot live without them. if we have worship, government, commerce, or clothes, we must have forms; or if we have them not we still must act and do after some fashion; costume, which is but another word for custom, we must have, but is it necessary to make the form the chief concern of our lives while we pay so little heed to the substance? and may we not hope while rejoicing over our past emancipations, that we shall some day be free from our present despotisms? dress has ever exercised a powerful influence on morals and on progress; but this vesture-phenomenon is a thing but imperfectly understood. clothes serve as a covering to the body of which we are ashamed, and protect it against the weather, and these, we infer, are the reasons of our being clothed. but the fact is, aboriginally, except in extreme cases, dress is not essential to the comfort of man until it becomes a habit, and as for shame, until told of his nakedness, the primitive man has none. the origin of dress lies behind all this; it is found in one of the most deep-rooted elements of our nature, namely, in our love of approbation. before dress is decoration. the successful warrior, proud of his achievement, besmears his face and body with the blood of the slain, and straightway imitators, who also would be thought strong and brave, daub themselves in like manner; and so painting and tattooing become fashionable, and pigments supply the place of blood. the naked, houseless californian would undergo every hardship, travel a hundred miles, and fight a round with every opposing band he met, in order to obtain cinnabar from the new almaden quicksilver mine. so when the hunter kills a wild beast, and with the tail or skin decorates his body as a trophy of his prowess, others follow his example, and soon it is a shame to that savage who has neither paint, nor belt, nor necklace of bears' claws. and so follow head-flattenings, and nose-piercings, and lip-cuttings, and, later, chignons, and breast-paddings, and bustles. some say that jealousy prompted the first benedicks to hide their wives' charms from their rivals, and so originated female dress, which, from its being so common to all aborigines, is usually regarded as the result of innate modesty. but whatever gave us dress, dress has given much to human progress. beneath dress arose modesty and refinement, like the courtesies that chivalry threw over feudalism, covering the coarse brutality of the barons, and paving the way to real politeness. [sidenote: etiquette, morality, laws.] from the artificial grimaces of fashion have sprung many of the natural courtesies of life; though here, too, we are sent back at once to the beginning for the cause. from the ages of superstition and despotism have descended the expressions of every-day politeness. thus we have sir, from _sieur_, _sire_, _seigneur_, signifying ruler, king, lord, and aboriginally father. so madam, _ma dame_, my lady, formerly applied only to women of rank. in place of throwing ourselves upon the ground, as before a god or prince, we only partially prostrate ourselves in bowing, and the hat which we touch to an acquaintance we take off on entering a church in token of our humility. again, the captive in war is made a slave, and as such is required to do obeisance to his master, which forms of servility are copied by the people in addressing their superiors, and finally become the established usage of ordinary intercourse. our daily salutations are but modified acts of worship, and our parting word a benediction; and from blood, tomahawks, and senseless superstitions we turn and find all the world of humanity, with its still strong passions and subtle cravings, held in restraint by a force of which its victims are almost wholly unconscious,--and this force is fashion. in tribunals of justice, in court and camp etiquette, everywhere these relics of barbarism remain with us. even we of this latter-day american republicanism, elevate one of our fellows to the chieftainship of a federation or state, and call him excellency; we set a man upon the bench and _plead_ our cause before him; we send a loafer to a legislature, and straightway call him honorable,--such divinity doth hedge all semblance of power. self-denial and abstinence lie at the bottom of etiquette and good manners. if you would be moral, says kant, you must "act always so that the immediate motive of thy will may become a universal rule for all intelligent beings," and goethe teaches that "there is no outward sign of courtesy that does not rest on a deep, moral foundation." fine manners, though but the shell of the individual, are, to society, the best actions of the best men crystallized into a mode; not only the best thing, but the best way of doing the best thing. good society is, or ought to be, the society of the good; but fashion is more than good society, or good actions; it is more than wealth, or beauty, or genius, and so arbitrary in its sway that, not unfrequently, the form absorbs the substance, and a breach of decorum becomes a deadly sin. thus we see in every phase of development the result of a social evolution; we see men coming and going, receiving their leaven from the society into which by their destiny they are projected, only to fling it back into the general fund interpenetrated with their own quota of force. meanwhile, this aggregation of human experiences, this compounding of age with age, one generation heaping up knowledge upon another; this begetting of knowledge by knowledge, the seed so infinitesimal, the tree now so rapidly sending forth its branches, whither does it tend? running the eye along the line of progress, from the beginning to the end, the measure of our knowledge seems nearly full; resolving the matter, experience assures us that, as compared with those who shall come after us, we are the veriest barbarians. the end is not yet; not until infinity is spanned and eternity brought to an end, will mankind cease to improve. * * * * * out of this conglomeration of interminable relationships concordant and antagonistic laws are ever evolving themselves. like all other progressional phenomena, they wait not upon man; they are self-creative, and force themselves upon the mind age after age, slowly but surely, as the intellect is able to receive them; laws without law, laws unto themselves, gradually appearing as from behind the mists of eternity. at first, man and his universe appear to be regulated by arbitrary volitions, by a multitude of individual minds; each governs absolutely his own actions; every phenomenon of nature is but the expression of some single will. as these phenomena, one after another, become stripped of their mystery, there stands revealed not a god, but a law; seasons come and go, and never fail; sunshine follows rain, not because a pacified deity smiles, but because the rain-clouds have fallen and the sun cannot help shining. proximate events first are thus made godless, then the whole host of deities is driven farther and farther back. finally the actions of man himself are found to be subject to laws. left to his own will, he wills to do like things under like conditions. as to the nature of these laws, the subtle workings of which we see manifest in every phase of society, i cannot even so much as speak. an infinite ocean of phenomena awaits the inquirer; an ocean bottomless, over whose surface spreads an eternity of progress, and beneath whose glittering waves the keenest intellect can scarcely hope to penetrate far. the universe of man and matter must be anatomized; the functions of innumerable and complex organs studied; the exercise and influence of every part on every other part ascertained, and events apparently the most capricious traced to natural causes; then, when we know all, when we know as god knoweth, shall we understand what it is, this soul of progress. chapter ii. general view of the civilized nations. the american civilization of the sixteenth century--its disappearance--the past, a new element--dividing line between savage and civilized tribes--bounds of american civilization--physical features of the country--maya and nahua branches of aboriginal culture--the nahua civilization--the aztecs its representatives--limits of the aztec empire--ancient history of anÁhuac in outline--the toltec era--the chichimec era--the aztec era--extent of the aztec language--civilized peoples outside of anÁhuac--central american nations--the maya culture--the primitive maya empire--nahua influence in the south--yucatan and the mayas--the nations of chiapas--the quichÉ empire in guatemala--the nahuas in nicaragua and salvador--etymology of names. in the preceding volume i have had occasion several times to remark that, in the delineation of the wild tribes of the pacific states, no attempt is made to follow them in their rapid decline, no attempt to penetrate their past or prophesy a possible future, no profitless lingering over those misfortunes that wrought among them such swift destruction. to us the savage nations of america have neither past nor future; only a brief present, from which indeed we may judge somewhat of their past; for the rest, foreign avarice and interference, european piety and greed, saltpetre, steel, small-pox, and syphilis, tell a speedy tale. swifter still must be the hand that sketches the incipient civilization of the mexican and central american table-lands. for although here we have more past, there is still less present, and scarcely any future. those nations raised the highest by their wealth and culture, were the first to fall before the invader, their superior attainments offering a more shining mark to a rapacious foe; and falling, they were the soonest lost,--absorbed by the conquering race, or disappearing in the surrounding darkness. although the savage nations were rapidly annihilated, traces of savagism lingered, and yet linger; but the higher american culture, a plant of more delicate growth and more sensitive nature, withered at the first rude touch of foreign interference. instead of being left to its own intuitive unfoldings, or instead of being fostered by the new-comers, who might have elevated by interfusion both their own culture and that of the conquered race, the spirit of progress was effectually stifled on both sides by fanatical attempts to substitute by force foreign creeds and polities for those of indigenous origin and growth. and now behold them both, the descendants of conquerors and of conquered, the one scarcely less denaturalized than the other, the curse inflicted by the invaders on a flourishing empire returning and resting with crushing weight on their own head. scarce four centuries ago the empire of charles the fifth, and the empire of montezuma the second, were brought by the force of progress most suddenly and unexpectedly face to face; the one then the grandest and strongest of the old world as was the other of the new. since which time the fierce fanaticism that overwhelmed the new world empire, has pressed like an incubus upon the dominant race, and held it fast while all the world around were making the most rapid strides forward. [sidenote: the past, a new element.] no indigenous civilization exists in america to-day, yet the effects of a former culture are not altogether absent. the descendant of the aztec, maya, and quiché, is still of superior mind and haughtier spirit than his roving brother who boasts of none but a savage ancestry. still, so complete has been the substitution of foreign civil and ecclesiastical polities, and so far-reaching their influence on native character and conduct; so intimate the association for three and more centuries with the spanish element; so closely guarded from foreign gaze has been every manifestation of the few surviving sparks of aboriginal modes of thought, that a study of the native condition in modern times yields, by itself, few satisfactory results. this study, however, as part of an investigation of their original or normal condition, should by no means be neglected, since it may furnish illustrative material of no little value. back of all this lies another element which lends to our subject yet grander proportions. scattered over the southern plateaux are heaps of architectural remains and monumental piles. furthermore, native traditions, both orally transmitted and hieroglyphically recorded by means of legible picture-writings, afford us a tolerably clear view of the civilized nations during a period of several centuries preceding the spanish conquest, together with passing glances, through momentary clearings in the mythologic clouds, at historical epochs much more remote. here we have as aids to this analysis,--aids almost wholly wanting among the so-called savage tribes, antiquities, tradition, history, carrying the student far back into the mysterious new world past; and hence it is that from its simultaneous revelation and eclipse, american civilization would otherwise offer a more limited field for investigation than american savagism, yet by the introduction of this new element the field is widely extended. nor have we even yet reached the limits of our resources for the investigation of this new world civilization. in these relics of architecture and literature, of mythology and tradition, there are clear indications of an older and higher type of culture than that brought immediately to the knowledge of the invaders; of a type that had temporarily deteriorated, perhaps through the influence of long-continued and bloody conflicts, civil and foreign, by which the more warlike rather than the more highly cultured nations had been brought into prominence and power. but this anterior and superior civilization, resting largely as it does on vague tradition, and preserved to our knowledge in general allusions rather than in detail, may, like the native condition since the conquest, be utilized to the best advantage here as illustrative of the later and better-known, if somewhat inferior civilization of the sixteenth century, described by the conqueror, the missionary, and the spanish historian. antique remains of native skill, which have been preserved for our examination, may also be largely used in illustration of more modern art, whose products have disappeared. these relics of the past are also of the highest value as confirming the truth of the reports made by spanish writers, very many, or perhaps most, of whose statements respecting the wonderful phenomena of the new world, without this incontrovertible material proof, would find few believers among the sceptical students of the present day. these remains of antiquity, however, being fully described in another volume of this work, may be referred to in very general terms for present purposes. [sidenote: origin of american civilization.] of civilization in general, the nature of its phenomena, the causes and processes by which it is evolved from savagism, i have spoken sufficiently in the foregoing chapter. as for the many theories respecting the american civilization in particular, its origin and growth, it is not my purpose to discuss them in this volume. no theory on these questions could be of any practical value in the elucidation of the subject, save one that should stand out among the rest so preëminently well-founded as to be generally accepted among scientific men, and no one of all the multitude proposed has acquired any such preëminence. a complete résumé of all the theories on the subject, with the foundations which support them, is given elsewhere in connection with the ancient traditionary history of the aboriginal nations. it is well, however, to remark that our lack of definite knowledge about the origin of this civilization is not practically so important as might appear at first thought. true, we know not for certain whether it is indigenous or exotic; and if the former, whether to ascribe its cradle to the north or south, to one locality or many; or if the latter, whether contact with the old world was effected at one or many points, on one occasion or at divers epochs, through the agency of migrating peoples or by the advent of individual civilizers and teachers. yet the tendency of modern research is to prove the great antiquity of the american civilization as well as of the american people; and if either was drawn from a foreign source, it was at a time probably so remote as to antedate any old-world culture now existing, and to prevent any light being thrown on the offspring by a study of the parent stock; while if indigenous, little hope is afforded of following rationally their development through the political convulsions of the distant past down to even a traditionally historic epoch. i may then dispense with theories of origin and details of past history as confusing rather than aiding my present purpose, and as being fully treated elsewhere in this work. neither am i required in this treatment of the civilized races to make an accurate division between them and their more savage neighbors, to determine the exact standard by which savagism and civilization are to be measured, or to vindicate the use of the word civilized as applied to the american nations in preference to that of semi-civilized, preferred by many writers. we have seen that civilization is at best only a comparative term, applied to some of the ever-shifting phases of human progress. in many of the wild tribes already described some of its characteristics have been observed, and the opposite elements of savagism will not be wanting among what i proceed to describe as the civilized nations. there is not a savage people between anáhuac and nicaragua that has not been influenced in its institutions by intercourse, warlike, social, or commercial, with neighbors of higher culture, and has not exerted in its turn a reflex influence on the latter. the difficulty of drawing division-lines between nations thus mutually acting on each other is further increased in america by the fact that two or three nations constitute the central figure of nearly all that has been observed or written by the few that came in actual contact with the natives. this volume will, therefore, deal rather with the native civilization than with the nations that possessed it. while, however, details on all the points mentioned, outside of actual institutions found existing in the sixteenth century, would tend to confusion rather than to clearness, besides leading in many cases to endless repetition, yet a general view of the whole subject, of the number, extent, location, and mutual relations of the nations occupying the central portions of the continent at its discovery, as well as of their relations to those of the more immediate past, appears necessary to an intelligent perusal of the following pages. in this general view i shall avoid all discussion of disputed questions, reserving arguments and details for future volumes on antiquities and aboriginal history. * * * * * [sidenote: home of the american culture.] that portion of what we call the pacific states which was the home of american civilization within historic or traditionally historic times, extends along the continent from north-west to south-east, between latitudes ° and °. on the atlantic side the territory stretches from tamaulipas to honduras, on the pacific from colima to nicaragua. not that these are definitely drawn boundaries, but outside of these limits, disregarding the new mexican pueblo culture, this civilization had left little for europeans to observe, while within them lived few tribes uninfluenced or unimproved by contact with it. no portion of the globe, perhaps, embraces within equal latitudinal limits so great a variety of climate, soil, and vegetation; a variety whose important bearing on the native development can be understood in some degree, and which would doubtless account satisfactorily for most of the complications of progressional phenomena observed within the territory, were the connection between environment and progress fully within the grasp of our knowledge. all the gradations from a torrid to a temperate clime are here found in a region that lies wholly within the northern tropic, altitudinal variations taking the place of and producing all the effects elsewhere attributable to latitude alone. these variations result from the topography of the country as determined by the conformation given to the continent by the central cordillera. the sierra madre enters this territory from the north in two principal ranges, one stretching along the coast of the pacific, while the other and more lofty range trends nearer the atlantic, the two again uniting before reaching the isthmus of tehuantepec. this eastern branch between ° ´ and ° ´ opens out into a table-land of some seventy-five by two hundred miles area, with an altitude of from six to eight thousand feet above the sea level. this broad plateau or series of plateaux is known as the tierra fria, while the lower valleys, with a band of the surrounding slopes, at an elevation of from three to five thousand feet, including large portions of the western lands of michoacan, guerrero, and oajaca, between the two mountain branches, constitute the tierra templada. from the surface of the upper table-land rise sierras and isolated peaks of volcanic origin, the highest in north america, their summits covered with eternal snow, which shelter, temper, and protect the fertile plateaux lying at their base. centrally located on this table-land, surrounded by a wall of lofty volcanic cliffs and peaks, is the most famous of all the valley plateaux, something more than one hundred and sixty miles in circuit, the valley of mexico, anáhuac, that is to say, 'country by the waters,' taking its name from the lakes that formerly occupied one tenth of its area. anáhuac, with an elevation of , feet, may be taken as representative of the tierra fria. it has a mean temperature of °, a climate much like that of southern europe, although dryer, and to which the term 'cold' can only be comparatively applied. the soil is fertile and productive, though now generally presenting a bare and parched surface, by reason of the excessive evaporation on lofty plains exposed to the full force of a tropical sun, its natural forest-covering having been removed since the spanish conquest, chiefly, it is believed, through artificial agencies. oak and pine are prominent features of the native forest-growth, while wheat, barley, and all the european cereals and fruits flourish side by side with plantations of the indigenous maize, maguey, and cactus. from may to october of each year, corresponding nearly with the hot season of the coast, rains or showers are frequent, but rarely occur during the remaining months. trees retain their foliage for ten months in the year, and indeed their fading is scarcely noticeable. southward of °, as the continent narrows, this eastern table-land contracts into a mountain range proper, presenting a succession of smaller terraces, valleys, and sierras, in place of the broader plateaux of the region about anáhuac. trending south-eastward toward the pacific, and uniting with the western sierra madre, the chain crosses the isthmus of tehuantepec at a diminished altitude, only to rise again and expand laterally into the lofty guatemalan ranges which stretch still south-eastward to lake nicaragua, where for the second time a break occurs in the continental cordillera at the southern limit of the territory now under consideration. from this central cordillera lateral subordinate branches jut out at right angles north and south toward either ocean. as we go southward the vegetation becomes more dense, and the temperature higher at equal altitudes, but the same gradations of 'fria' and 'templada' are continued, blending into each other at a height of , to , feet. the characteristics of the cordillera south of the mexican table-land are lofty volcanic peaks whose lower bases are clothed with dense forests, fertile plateaux bounded by precipitous cliffs, vertical fissures or ravines of immense depth torn in the solid rock by volcanic action, and mountain torrents flowing in deep beds of porphyry and forming picturesque lakes in the lower valleys. indeed, in guatemala, where more than twenty volcanoes are in active operation, all these characteristic features appear to unite in their highest degree of perfection. one of the lateral ranges extends north-eastward from the continental chain, forming with a comparatively slight elevation the back-bone of the peninsula of yucatan. [sidenote: the tierra caliente.] at the bases of the central continental heights, on the shores of either ocean, is the tierra caliente, a name applied to all the coast region with an elevation of less than , feet, and also by the inhabitants to many interior valleys of high temperature. so abruptly do the mountains rise on the pacific side that the western torrid band does not perhaps exceed twenty miles in average width for its whole length, and has exerted comparatively little influence on the history and development of the native races. but on the atlantic or gulf coast is a broad tract of level plain and marsh, and farther inland a more gradual ascent to the interior heights. this region presents all the features of an extreme tropical climate and vegetation. in the latitude of vera cruz barren and sandy tracts are seen; elsewhere the tierra caliente is covered with the densest tropical growth of trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers, forming in their natural state an almost impenetrable thicket. cocoa, cotton, cacao, sugar-cane, indigo, vanilla, bananas, and the various palms are prominent among the flora; while the fauna include birds in infinite variety of brilliant plumage, with myriads of tormenting and deadly insects and reptiles. the atmosphere is deadly to all but natives. the moist soil, enriched by the decay of vegetable substances, breathes pestilence and malaria from every pore, except during the winter months of incessant winds, which blow from october to march. southern vera cruz and tabasco, the tierra caliente par excellence, exhibit the most luxuriant display of nature's prodigality. of alluvial and comparatively recent formation this region is traversed by the goazacoalco, alvarado, usumacinta, and other noble rivers, which rise in the mountains of guatemala, chiapas, and tehuantepec. river-banks are crowded with magnificent forest-trees, and the broad savanas farther back marked off into natural plantations of the valuable dye-woods which abound there, by a network of branch streams and canals, which serve both for irrigation and as a medium of transport for the native products that play no unimportant rôle in the world's commerce. each year inundations are expected between june and october, and these transform the whole system of lagoons into a broad lake. farther up the course of the rivers on the foothills of the cordillera, are extensive forests of cedar, mahogany, zapote, brazil, and other precious woods, together with a variety of medicinal plants and aromatic resins. the whole of yucatan may, by reason of its temperature and elevation above the sea, be included in the tierra caliente, but its climate is one of the most healthful in all tropical america. the whole north and west of the peninsula are of fossil shell formation, showing that at no very distant date this region was covered by the waters of the sea. there are no rivers that do not dry up in winter, but by a wonderful system of small ponds and natural wells the country is supplied with water, the soil being moreover always moist, and supporting a rich and vigorous vegetation. * * * * * [sidenote: the nahua and maya elements.] notwithstanding evident marks of similarity in nearly all the manifestations of the progressional spirit in aboriginal america, in art, thought, and religion, there is much reason for and convenience in referring all the native civilization to two branches, the maya and the nahua, the former the more ancient, the latter the more recent and wide-spread. it is important, however, to understand the nature and extent of this division, and just how far it may be considered real and how far ideal. of all the languages spoken among these nations, the two named are the most wide-spread, and are likewise entirely distinct. in their traditional history, their material relics, and, above all, in their methods of recording events by hieroglyphics, as well as in their several lesser characteristics, these two stocks show so many and so clear points of difference standing prominently out from their many resemblances, as to indicate either a separate culture from the beginning, or what is more probable and for us practically the same thing, a progress in different paths for a long time prior to the coming of the europeans. very many of the nations not clearly affiliated with either branch show evident traces of both cultures, and may be reasonably supposed to have developed their condition from contact and intermixture of the parent stocks with each other, and with the neighboring savage tribes. it is only, however, in a very general sense that this classification can be accepted, and then only for practical convenience in elucidating the subject; since there are several nations that must be ranked among our civilized peoples, which, particularly in the matter of language, show no maya nor nahua affinities. nor is too much importance to be attached to the names maya and nahua by which i designate these parallel civilizations. the former is adopted for the reason that the maya people and tongue are commonly regarded as among the most ancient in all the central american region, a region where formerly flourished the civilization that left such wonderful remains at palenque, uxmal, and copan; the latter as being an older designation than either aztec or toltec, both of which stocks the race nahua includes. the civilization of what is now the mexican republic, north of tehuantepec, belonged to the nahua branch, both at the time of the conquest and throughout the historic period preceding. very few traces of the maya element occur north of chiapas, and these are chiefly linguistic, appearing in two or three nations dwelling along the shores of the mexican gulf. in published works upon the subject the aztecs are the representatives of the nahua element; indeed, what is known of the aztecs has furnished material for nine tenths of all that has been written on the american civilized nations in general. the truth of the matter is that the aztecs were only the most powerful of a league or confederation of three nations, which in the sixteenth century, from their capitals in the valley, ruled central mexico. this confederation, moreover, was of comparatively recent date. these three nations were the acolhuas, the aztecs, and the tepanecs, and their respective capitals, tezcuco, mexico, and tlacopan (tacuba) were located near each other on the lake borders, where, except mexico, they still are found in a sad state of dilapidation. within the valley, in general terms, the eastern section belonged to tezcuco, the southern and western to mexico, and a limited territory in the north-west to tlacopan. at the time when the confederation was formed, which was about one hundred years before the advent of the spaniards, tezcuco was the most advanced and powerful of the allies, maintaining her precedence nearly to the end of the fifteenth century. tlacopan was far inferior to the other two. her possessions were small, and according to the terms of the compact, which seem always to have been strictly observed, she received but one fifth of the spoils obtained by successful war. while keeping within the boundaries of their respective provinces, so far as the valley of mexico was concerned, these three chief powers united their forces to extend their conquests beyond the limits of the valley in every direction. thus under the leadership of a line of warlike kings mexico extended her domain to the shores of either ocean, and rendered the tribes therein tributary to her. during this period of foreign conquest, the aztec kings, more energetic, ambitious, warlike, and unscrupulous than their allies, acquired a decided preponderance in the confederate councils and possessions; so that, originally but a small tribe, one of the many which had settled in the valley of anáhuac, by its valor and success in war, by the comparatively broad extent of its domain, by the magnificence of its capital, the only aboriginal town in america rebuilt by the conquerors in anything like its pristine splendor, and especially by being the people that came directly into contact with the invaders in the desperate struggles of the conquest, the aztecs became to europeans, and to the whole modern world, the representatives of the american civilized peoples. hence, in the observations of those who were personally acquainted with these people, little or no distinction is made between the many different nations of central mexico, all being described as aztecs. indeed, many of the lesser nations favored this error, being proud to claim identity with the brave and powerful people to whose valor they had been forced to succumb. while this state of things doubtless creates some confusion by failing to show clearly the slight tribal differences that existed, yet the difficulty is not a serious one, from the fact that very many of these nations were unquestionably of the same blood as the aztecs, and that all drew what civilization they possessed from the same nahua source. i may therefore continue to speak of the aztecs in their representative character, including directly in this term all the nations permanently subjected to the three ruling powers in anáhuac, due care being taken to point out such differences as may have been noticed and recorded. [sidenote: the aztecs the nahua representatives.] to fix the limits of the aztec empire with any approximation to accuracy is exceedingly difficult, both by reason of conflicting statements, and because the boundaries were constantly changing as new tribes were brought under aztec rule, or by successful revolt threw off the mexican yoke. clavigero, followed by prescott, gives to the empire the territory from ° to ° on the atlantic, and ° to ° on the pacific, exclusive, according to the latter author, of the possessions of tezcuco and tlacopan. but this extent of territory, estimated at nearly twice that of the state of california, gives an exaggerated idea of anáhuac, even when that term is applied to the conquered territory of the whole confederacy. the limits mentioned are in reality the extreme points reached by the allied armies in their successful wars, or rather, raids, during the most palmy days of aztec rule. within these bounds were several nations that were never conquered, even temporarily, by the arms of anáhuac, as for example the tlascaltecs, the tarascos, and the chiapanecs. many nations, indeed most of those whose home was far from the central capitals, were simply forced on different occasions by the presence of a conquering army to pay tribute and allegiance to the aztec kings, an allegiance which they were not slow to throw off as soon as the invaders had withdrawn. such were the nations of northern guatemala and soconusco, whose conquest was in reality but a successful raid for plunder and captives; such the nations of tehuantepec, such the miztecs and zapotecs of oajaca, the latter having completely regained their independence and driven the aztecs from their soil before the coming of the spaniards. other nations were conquered only in the years immediately preceding the spanish conquest; instance the matlaltzincas just west of anáhuac, and the huastecs and totonacs of vera cruz. by their successful raids among these latter peoples, the aztecs only sealed their own doom, making inveterate foes of the coast nations, whose services would have been most efficacious in resisting the fatal progress of the castilian arms. but other tribes less warlike and powerful, or nearer the strongholds of their conquerors, were, by means of frequent military expeditions made to check outbreaking rebellion, kept nominally subject to the aztecs during fifty years, more or less, preceding the coming of the spaniards, paying their annual tribute with some regularity. outside the rocky barriers of their valley, the mexicans maintained their supremacy only by constant war; and even within the valley their sway was far from undisputed, since several tribes, notably the chalcas on the southern lake, broke out in open rebellion whenever the imperial armies were elsewhere occupied. [sidenote: extent of the aztec empire.] the aztec empire proper, not restricting it to its original seat in the valley of mexico, nor including within its limits all the nations which were by the fortunes of war forced at one time or another to pay tribute, may then be said to have extended from the valley of mexico and its immediate environs, over the territories comprised in the present states of mexico (with its modern subdivisions of hidalgo and morelos), puebla, southern vera cruz, and guerrero. of all the nations that occupied this territory, most of them, as i have said, were of one blood and language with their masters, and all, by their character and institutions, possessed in greater or less degree the nahua culture. of many of the multitudinous nations occupying the vast territory surrounding the valley of mexico, nothing is known beyond their names and their likeness, near or remote, to the aztecs. for a statement of their names and localities in detail, the reader is referred to the tribal boundaries following the chapter on the central mexicans in the first volume of this work. let it be understood, therefore, that the description of aztec institutions contained in this volume applies to all the nations of the empire as bounded above, except where special limitation is indicated; besides which it has a general application to a much wider region, in fact to the whole country north of the isthmus of tehuantepec. [sidenote: the nahuas in anÁhuac.] in this connection, and before attempting a description of the mexican nations beyond the limits of the empire, nations more or less independent of aztec sway, a glance at ancient mexican history seems necessary, as well to throw light on the mutual relations of the peoples of anáhuac, as to partially explain the broad extent of the nahua civilization and of the aztec idiom. the old-time story, how the toltecs in the sixth century appeared on the mexican table-land, how they were driven out and scattered in the eleventh century, how after a brief interval the chichimecs followed their footsteps, and how these last were succeeded by the aztecs who were found in possession,--the last two, and probably the first, migrating in immense hordes from the far north-west,--all this is sufficiently familiar to readers of mexican history, and is furthermore fully set forth in the fifth volume of this work. it is probable, however, that this account, accurate to a certain degree, has been by many writers too literally construed; since the once popular theory of wholesale national migrations of american peoples within historic times, and particularly of such migrations from the north-west, may now be regarded as practically unfounded. the sixth century is the most remote period to which we are carried in the annals of anáhuac by traditions sufficiently definite to be considered in any proper sense as historic records. at this period we find the nahua civilization and institutions established on the table-land, occupied then as at every subsequent time by many tribes more or less distinct from each other. and there this culture remained without intermixture of essentially foreign elements down to the sixteenth century; there the successive phases of its development appeared, and there the progressional spirit continued to ferment for a period of ten centuries, which fermentation constitutes the ancient mexican history. during the course of these ten centuries we may follow now definitely now vaguely the social, religious, and political convulsions through which these aboriginals were doomed to pass. from small beginnings we see mighty political powers evolved, and these overturned and thrown into obscurity by other and rival unfoldings. religious sects in like manner we see succeed each other, coloring their progress with frequent persecutions and reformations, not unworthy of old-world mediæval fanaticism, as partisans of rival deities shape the popular superstition in conformity with their creeds. wars, long and bloody, are waged for plunder, for territory, and for souls; now, to quell the insurrection of a tributary prince, now to repel the invasion of outer barbarian hordes. leaders, political and religious, rising to power with their nation, faction, city, or sect, are driven at their fall into exile, and thereby forced to seek their fortunes and introduce their culture among distant tribes. outside bands, more or less barbarous, but brave and powerful, come to settle in anáhuac, and to receive, voluntarily or involuntarily, the benefits of its arts and science. i have no disposition unduly to magnify the new world civilization, nor to under-rate old world culture, but during these ten centuries of almost universal mediæval gloom, the difference between the two civilizations was less than most people imagine. on both sides of the dark sea humanity lay floundering in besotted ignorance; the respective qualities of that ignorance it is hardly profitable to analyze. the history of all these complicated changes, so far as it may be traced, separates naturally into three chronologic periods, corresponding with what are known as the toltec, the chichimec, and the aztec empires. prior to the sixth century doubtless there were other periods of nahua greatness, for there is little evidence to indicate that this was the first appearance in mexico of this progressive people, but previous developments can not be definitely followed, although affording occasional glimpses which furnish interesting matter for antiquarian speculation. at the opening then, of the historic times, we find the toltecs in possession of anáhuac and the surrounding country. though the civilization was old, the name was new, derived probably, although not so regarded by all, from tollan, a capital city of the empire, but afterward becoming synonymous with all that is excellent in art and high culture. tradition imputes to the toltecs a higher civilization than that found among the aztecs, who had degenerated with the growth of the warlike spirit, and especially by the introduction of more cruel and sanguinary religious rites. but this superiority, in some respects not improbable, rests on no very strong evidence, since this people left no relics of that artistic skill which gave them so great traditional fame; there is, however, much reason to ascribe the construction of the pyramids at teotihuacan and cholula to the toltec or a still earlier period. among the civilized peoples of the sixteenth century, however, and among their descendants down to the present day, nearly every ancient relic of architecture or sculpture is accredited to the toltecs, from whom all claim descent. in fact the term toltec became synonymous in later times with all that was wonderful or mysterious in the past; and so confusing has been the effect of this universal reference of all traditional events to a toltec source, that, while we can not doubt the actual existence of this great empire, the details of its history, into which the supernatural so largely enters, must be regarded as to a great extent mythical. [sidenote: the toltec empire.] there are no data for fixing accurately the bounds of the toltec domain, particularly in the south. there is very little, however, to indicate that it was more extensive in this direction than that of the aztecs in later times, although it seems to have extended somewhat farther northward. on the west there is some evidence that it included the territory of michoacan, never subdued by the aztecs; and it probably stretched eastward to the atlantic, including the totonac territory of vera cruz. of the tribes or nations that made up the empire none can be positively identified by name with any of the later peoples found in anáhuac, though there can be little doubt that several of the latter were descended directly from the toltecs and contemporary tribes; and indeed it is believed with much reason that the semi-barbarous otomís of anáhuac, and several nations beyond the limits of the valley, may date their tribal history back to a period even preceding the toltec era. during the most flourishing period of its traditional five centuries of duration, the toltec empire was ruled by a confederacy similar in some respects to the alliance of later date between mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan. the capitals were culhuacan, otompan, and tollan, the two former corresponding somewhat in territory with mexico and tezcuco, while the latter was just beyond the limits of the valley toward the north-west. each of these capital cities became in turn the leading power in the confederacy. tollan reached the highest eminence in culture, splendor, and fame, and culhuacan was the only one of the three to survive by name the bloody convulsions by which the empire was at last overthrown, and retain anything of her former greatness. long-continued civil wars, arising chiefly from dissensions between rival religious factions, resulting naturally in pestilence and famine, which in the aboriginal annals are attributed to the direct interposition of irate deities, gradually undermine the imperial thrones. cities and nations previously held in subjection or overshadowed by the splendor and power of tollan, take advantage of her civil troubles to enlarge their respective domains and to establish independent powers. distant tribes, more or less barbarous, but strong and warlike, come and establish themselves in desirable localities within the limits of an empire whose rulers are now powerless to repel invasion. so the kings of tollan, culhuacan, and otompan lose, year by year, their prestige, and finally, in the middle of the eleventh century, are completely overthrown, leaving the mexican table-land to be ruled by new combinations of rising powers. thus ends the toltec period of ancient anáhuac history. the popular account pictures the whole toltec population, or such part of it as had been spared by war, pestilence, and famine, as migrating en masse southward, and leaving anáhuac desolate and unpeopled for nearly a half century, to be settled anew by tribes that crowded in from the north-west when they learned that this fair land had been so strangely abandoned. this account, like all other national migration-narratives pertaining to the americans, has little foundation in fact or in probability. the royal families and religious leaders of the toltecs were doubtless driven into perpetual exile, and were accompanied by such of the nobility as preferred, rather than content themselves with subordinate positions at home, to try their fortunes in new lands, some of which were perhaps included in the southern parts of the empire concerning which so little is known. that there was any essential or immediate change in the population of the table-land beyond the irruption of a few tribes, is highly improbable. the exiled princes and priests, as i have said, went southward, where doubtless they played an important part in the subsequent history of the maya-quiché nations of central america, a history less fully recorded than that of anáhuac. that these exiles were the founders of the central american civilization, a popular belief supported by many writers, i cannot but regard as another phase of that tendency above-mentioned to attribute all that is undefined and ill-understood to the great and wonderful toltecs; nor do i believe that the evidence warrants such an hypothesis. if the pioneer civilizers of the south, the builders of palenque, copan, and other cities of the more ancient type, were imbued with or influenced by the nahua culture, as is not improbable, it certainly was not that culture as carried southward in the eleventh century, but a development or phase of it long preceding that which took the name of toltec on the mexican plateaux. with the destruction of the empire the term toltec, as applied to an existing people, disappeared. this disappearance of the name while the institutions of the nation continued to flourish, may indicate that the designation of the people--or possibly of the ruling family--of tollan, was not applied contemporaneously to the whole empire, and that in the traditions and records of later times, it has incidentally acquired a fictitious importance. of the toltec cities, culhuacan, on the lake border, recovered under the new political combinations something of her old prominence; the name culhuas applied to its people appears much more ancient than that of toltecs, and indeed the mexican civilization as a whole might perhaps as appropriately be termed culhua as nahua. [sidenote: the chichimec empire.] the new era succeeding the toltec rule is that of the chichimec empire, which endured with some variations down to the coming of cortés. the ordinary version of the early annals has it, that the chichimecs, a wild tribe living far in the north-west, learning that the fertile regions of central mexico had been abandoned by the toltecs, came down in immense hordes to occupy the land. numerous other tribes came after them at short intervals, were kindly received and granted lands for settlement, and the more powerful of the new comers, in confederation with the original chichimec settlers, developed into the so-called empire. now, although this occupation of the central table-lands by successive migrations of foreign tribes cannot be accepted by the sober historian, and although we must conclude that very many of the so-called new comers were tribes that had occupied the country during the toltec period,--their names now coming into notice with their increasing importance and power,--yet it is probable that some new tribes, sufficiently powerful to exercise a great if not a controlling influence in building up the new empire, did at this time enter anáhuac from the immediately bordering regions, and play a prominent part, in conjunction with the rising nations within the valley, in the overthrow of the kings of tollan. these in-coming nations, by alliance with the original inhabitants, infused fresh life and vigor into the worn-out monarchies, furnishing the strength by which new powers were built up on the ruins of the old, and receiving on the other hand the advantages of the more perfect nahua culture. if one, and the most powerful, of these new nations was, as the annals state, called the chichimec, nothing whatever is known of its race or language. the chichimecs, their identity, their idiom, and their institutions, if any such there were, their name even, as a national appellation, were merged into those of the nahua nations that accompanied or followed them, and were there lost. the ease and rapidity with which this tribal fusion of tongue and culture is represented to have been accomplished would indicate at least that the chichimecs, if a separate tribe, were of the same race and language as the toltecs; but however this may be, it must be conceded that, while they can not have been the wild cave-dwelling barbarians painted by some of the historians, they did not introduce into anáhuac any new element of civilization. [sidenote: no such nation as the chichimec.] the name chichimec at the time of the spanish conquest, and subsequently, was used with two significations, first, as applied to the line of kings that reigned at tezcuco, and second, to all the wild hunting tribes, particularly in the broad and little-known regions of the north. traditionally or historically the name has been applied to nearly every people mentioned in the ancient history of america. this has caused the greatest confusion among writers on the subject, a confusion which i believe can only be cleared up by the supposition that the name chichimec, like that of toltec, never was applied as a tribal or national designation proper to any people, while such people were living. it seems probable that among the nahua peoples that occupied the country from the sixth to the eleventh centuries, a few of the leading powers appropriated to themselves the title toltecs, which had been at first employed by the inhabitants of tollan, whose artistic excellence soon rendered it a designation of honor. to the other nahua peoples, by whom these leading powers were surrounded, whose institutions were identical but whose polish and elegance of manner were deemed by these self-constituted autocrats somewhat inferior, the term chichimecs, barbarians, etymologically 'dogs,' was applied. after the convulsions that overthrew tollan and reversed the condition of the nahua nations, the 'dogs' in their turn assumed an air of superiority and retained their designation chichimecs as a title of honor and nobility. the names of the tribes represented as entering anáhuac after the chichimecs, but respecting the order of whose coming there is little agreement among authors, are the following: matlaltzincas, tepanecs, acolhuas, teo-chichimecs (tlascaltecs), malinalcas, cholultecs, xochimilcas, chalcas, huexotzincas, cuitlahuacs, cuicatecs, mizquicas, tlahuicas, cohuixcas, and aztecs. some of these, as i have said, may have entered the valley from the immediate north. which these were i shall not attempt to decide, but they were nearly all of the same race and language, all lived under nahua institutions, and their descendants were found living on and about the aztec plateau in the sixteenth century, speaking, with one or two exceptions, the aztec tongue. in the new era of prosperity that now dawned on anáhuac, culhuacan, where some remnants even of the toltec nobility remained, under chichimec auspices regained to a great extent its old position as a centre of culture and power. among the new nations whose name now first appears in history, the acolhuas and tepanecs soon rose to political prominence in the valley. the acolhuas were the chichimecs par excellence, or, as tradition has it, the chichimec nation was absorbed by them, giving up its name, language, and institutions. the capitals which ruled the destinies of anáhuac down to the fifteenth century, besides culhuacan, were tenayocan, xaltocan, coatlychan, tezcuco, and azcapuzalco. these capitals being governed for the most part by branches of the same royal chichimec family, the era was one of civil intrigue for the balance of power and for succession to the throne, rather than one of foreign conquest. during the latter part of the period, tezcuco, the acolhua capital under the chichimec kings proper, azcapuzalco the capital of the tepanecs, and culhuacan held the country under their sway, sometimes allied to meet the forces of foreign foes, but oftener plotting against each other, each, by alliance with a second against the third, aiming at universal dominion. at last in this series of political manoeuvres culhuacan was permanently overthrown, and the chichimec ruler at tezcuco was driven from his possessions by the warlike chief of the tepanecs, who thus for a short time was absolute master of anáhuac. but with the decadence of the culhua power at culhuacan, another of the tribes that came into notice in the valley after the fall of the toltecs, had been gradually gaining a position among the nations. this rising power was the aztecs, a people traditionally from the far north-west, whose wanderings are described in picture-writings shown in another part of this volume. their migration is more definitely described than that of any other of the many who are said to have come from the same direction, and has been considered by different writers to be a migration from california, new mexico, or asia. later researches indicate that the pictured annals are intended simply as a record of the aztec wanderings in the valley of mexico and its vicinity. whatever their origin, by their fierce and warlike nature and bloody religious rites, from the first they made themselves the pests of anáhuac, and later its tyrants. for some centuries they acquired no national influence, but were often conquered, enslaved, and driven from place to place, until early in the fourteenth century, when mexico or tenochtitlan was founded, and under a line of able warlike kings started forward in its career of prosperity unequaled in the annals of aboriginal america. at the fall of culhuacan, mexico ranked next to tezcuco and azcapuzalco, and when the armies of the latter prevailed against the former, mexico was the most powerful of all the nations that sprang to arms, and pressed forward to humble the tepanec tyrant, to reïnstate the acolhua monarch on his throne, and to restore tezcuco to her former commanding position. the result was the utter defeat of the tepanecs, and the glory of azcapuzalco departed forever. [sidenote: the aztec era.] thus ended in the early part of the fifteenth century the chichimec empire,--that is, it nominally ended, for the chichimec kings proper lost nothing of their power,--and, by the establishment of the confederacy already described, the aztec empire was inaugurated. under the new dispensation of affairs, mexico, by whose aid chiefly azcapuzalco had been humbled, received rank and dominion at least equal to that of tezcuco, while from motives of policy, and in order, so far as possible, to conciliate the good will of a strong though conquered people, tlacopan, under a branch of the tepanecs, with a less extensive domain, was admitted to the alliance. the terms of the confederacy seem, as i have said, never to have been openly violated; but in the first years of the sixteenth century the aztecs had not only excited the hatred of the most powerful nations outside the bounds of anáhuac by their foreign raids, but by their arrogant overbearing spirit had made themselves obnoxious at home. their aim at supreme power was apparent, and both tezcuco and the independent republic of tlascala began to tremble at the dangerous progress of their mighty neighbor. a desperate struggle was imminent, in which the aztecs, pitted against all central mexico, by victory would have grasped the coveted prize of imperial power, or crushed as were the tepanecs before them by a coalition of nations, would have yielded their place in the confederacy to some less dangerous rival. at this juncture cortés appeared. this renowned chieftain aided montezuma's foes to triumph, and in turn fastened the shackles of european despotism on all alike, with a partial exception in favor of brave tlascala. the nations which formed the aztec empire proper, were the tribes for the most part that have been named as springing into existence or notice in anáhuac early in the chichimec period, and the names of most of them have been preserved in the names of modern localities. it will be seen, in treating of the languages of the pacific states, that the aztec tongue, in a pure state, in distinct verbal or grammatical traces, and in names of places, is spread over a much wider extent of territory than can be supposed to have ever been brought under subjection to anáhuac during either the toltec, chichimec, or aztec phases of the nahua domination. to account for this we have the commercial connections of the aztecs, whose traders are known to have pushed their mercantile ventures far beyond the regions subjected by force of arms; colonies which, both in toltec and aztec times, may be reasonably supposed to have sought new homes; the exile of nobles and priests at the fall of the toltec empire, and other probable migrations, voluntary and involuntary, of princes and teachers; the large detachments of aztecs who accompanied the spaniards in the expeditions by which the continent was brought under subjection; and finally, if all these are not sufficient, the unknown history and migrations of the nahua peoples during the centuries preceding the toltec era. [sidenote: the tarascos of michoacan.] i will now briefly notice the civilized nations beyond the limits of anáhuac, and more or less independent of the aztec rule, concerning whose institutions and history comparatively little or nothing is known, except what is drawn from the aztec annals, with some very general observations on their condition made by their spanish conquerors. westward of the mexican valley was the flourishing independent kingdom of michoacan, in possession of the tarascos, whose capital was tzintzuntzan on lake patzcuaro. their country, lying for the most part between the rivers mexcala and tololotlan, is by its altitude chiefly in the tierra templada, and enjoys all the advantages of a tropical climate, soil, and vegetation. topographically it presents a surface of undulating plains, intersected by frequent mountain chains and by the characteristic ravines, and well watered by many streams and beautiful lakes; hence the name michoacan, which signifies 'land abounding in fish.' the lake region of patzcuaro, the seat of the tarasco kings, is described as unsurpassed in picturesque beauty, while in the variety of its agricultural products and in its yield of mineral wealth, michoacan was equaled by few of the states of new spain. if we may credit the general statements of early authors, who give us but few details, in their institutions, their manners, wealth, and power, the tarascos were at least fully the equals of the aztecs, and in their physical development were even superior. that they successfully resisted and defeated the allied armies of anáhuac is sufficient proof of their military prowess, although they yielded almost without a struggle to the spaniards after the fall of mexico. with respect to their civilization we must accept the statements of their superiority as the probably correct impression of those who came first in contact with this people, notwithstanding which i find no architectural or artistic relics of a high culture within their territory. all that is known on the subject indicates that their civilization was of the nahua type, although the language is altogether distinct from the aztec, the representative nahua tongue. the history of michoacan, in the form of any but the vaguest traditions, does not reach back farther than the thirteenth century; nevertheless, as i have said, there is some reason to suppose that it formed part of the toltec empire. the theory has even been advanced that the tarascos, forming a part of that empire, were not disturbed by its fall, and were therefore the best representatives of the oldest nahua culture. their reported physical superiority might favor this view, but their distinct language on the contrary would render it improbable. a careful study of all that is known of this people convinces me that they had long been settled in the lands where they were found, but leaves on the mind no definite idea of their earlier history. their later annals are made up of tales, partaking largely of the marvelous and supernatural, of the doings of certain demi-gods or priests, and of wars waged against the omnipresent chichimecs. branches of the great and primitive otomí family are mentioned as having their homes in the mountains, and there are traditions that fragments of the aztecs and other tribes which followed the chichimecs into anáhuac, lingered on the route of their migration and settled in the fertile valleys of michoacan. between the tarascos and the aztecs, speaking a language different from either but allied more or less intimately with the former, were the matlaltzincas, whose capital was in the plateau valley of toluca, just outside the bounds of anáhuac. this was one of the tribes that have already been named as coming traditionally from the north-west. for a long time they maintained their independence, but in the last quarter of the fifteenth century were forced to yield to the victorious arms of axayacatl, the aztec warrior king. immediately below the mouth of the mexcala, on the border of the pacific, were the lands of the cuitlatecs, and also the province or kingdom of zacatollan, whose capital was the modern zacatula. of these two peoples absolutely nothing is known, save that they were tributary to the aztec empire, the latter having been added to the domain of tezcuco in the very last years of the fifteenth century. the provinces that extended south-westward from anáhuac to the ocean, belonging chiefly to the modern state of guerrero and included in what i have described as the aztec empire proper, were those of the tlahuicas, whose capital was cuernavaca, the cohuixcas, capital at acapulco, the yoppi on the coast south of acapulco, and the province of mazatlan farther inland or north-east. the name tlapanecs is also rather indefinitely applied to the people of a portion of this territory in the south, including probably the yoppi. of the names mentioned we have met those of the tlahuicas and cohuixcas among the tribes newly springing into notice at the beginning of the chichimec period. it is probable that nearly all were more or less closely allied in race and language to their mexican masters, their political subjection to whom dates from about the middle of the fifteenth century. [sidenote: miztecs and zapotecs.] the western slope of the cordillera still farther south-west, comprising in general terms the modern state of oajaca, was ruled and to a great extent inhabited by the miztecs and zapotecs, two powerful nations distinct in tongue from the aztecs and from each other. western oajaca, the home of the miztecs, was divided into upper and lower miztecapan, the latter toward the coast, and the former higher up in the mountains, and sometimes termed cohuaixtlahuacan. the zapotecs in eastern oajaca, when first definitely known to history, had extended their power over nearly all the tribes of tehuantepec, besides encroaching somewhat on the miztec boundaries. the miztecs, notwithstanding the foreign aid of tlascaltecs and other eastern foes of the aztec king, were first defeated by the allied forces of anáhuac about ; and from that date the conquerors succeeded in holding their stronger towns and more commanding positions down to the conquest, thus enforcing the payment of tribute and controlling the commerce of the southern coast, which was their primary object. tehuantepec and soconusco yielded some years after to the conquering axayacatl, and zapotecapan still later to his successor ahuitzotl; but in the closing years of the fifteenth century the zapotecs recovered their country with tehuantepec, leaving socunusco, however, permanently in aztec possession. the history of the two nations takes us no farther back than the fourteenth century, when they first came into contact with the peoples of anáhuac; it gives a record of their rulers and their deeds of valor in wars waged against each other, against the neighboring tribes, and against the mexicans. prior to that time we have a few traditions of the vaguest character preserved by burgoa, the historian of oajaca. these picture both miztecs and zapotecs as originally wild, but civilized by the influence of teachers, priests, or beings of supernatural powers, who came among them, one from the south, and others from the direction of anáhuac. their civilization, however received, was surely nahua, as is shown by the resemblances which their institutions, and particularly their religious rites, bear to those of the aztecs. being of the nahua type, its origin has of course been referred to that inexhaustible source, the dispersion of the toltecs, or to proselyting teachers sent southward by that wonderful people. indeed, the miztec and zapotec royal families claimed a direct toltec descent. it is very probable, however, that the nahua element here was at least contemporaneous in its introduction with the same element known as toltec in anáhuac, rather than implanted in oajaca by missionaries, voluntary or involuntary, from tollan. i have already remarked that the presence of nahua institutions in different regions is too often attributed to the toltec exiles, and too seldom to historical events preceding the sixth century. the oajacan coast region or tierra caliente, if we may credit the result of researches by the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, was sometimes known as anáhuac ayotlan, as the opposite coast of tabasco was called anáhuac xicalanco. both these anáhuacs were inhabited by enterprising commercial peoples, whose flourishing centres of trade were located at short intervals along the coast. material relics of past excellence in architecture and other arts of civilization abound in oajaca, chief among which stand the remarkable structures at mitla. [sidenote: nations of tehuantepec.] although tehuantepec in the later aboriginal times was subject to the kings of zapotecapan, yet within its limits, besides the chontales,--a name resembling in its uncertainty of application that of chichimecs farther north,--were the remnants of two old nations that still preserved their independence. these were the mijes, living chiefly by the chase in the mountain fastnesses of the north, and the huaves, who held a small territory on the coast and islands of the lagoons just east of the city of tehuantepec. the mijes, so far as the vague traditions of the country reveal anything of their past, were once the possessors of zapotecapan and the isthmus of tehuantepec, antedating the zapotecs and perhaps the nahua culture in this region, being affiliated, as some believe, in institutions and possibly in language, with the maya element of central america. while this connection must be regarded as somewhat conjectural, we may nevertheless accept as probably authentic the antiquity, civilization, and power of this brave people. the huaves were traditionally of southern origin, having come to tehuantepec by sea from nicaragua or a point still farther south. in navigation and in commerce they were enterprising, as were indeed all the tribes of this southern-coast anáhuac, and they took gradually from the mijes, whom they found in possession, a large extent of territory, which as we have seen they were finally forced to yield up to their zapotec conquerors. crossing now to the atlantic or gulf shores we have from the past nothing but a confused account of olmecs, xicalancas, and nonohualcas, who may have been distinct peoples, or the same people under different names at different epochs, and who at some time inhabited the lowlands of tehuantepec and vera cruz, as well as those of tabasco farther south. at the time of the conquest we know that this region was thickly inhabited by a people scarcely less advanced than those of anáhuac, and dotted with flourishing towns devoted to commerce. but neither in the sixteenth nor immediately preceding centuries can any one civilized nation be definitely named as occupying this anáhuac xicalanco. we know, however, that this country north of the goazacoalco river formed a portion of the aztec empire, and that its inhabitants spoke for the most part the aztec tongue. these provinces, known as cuetlachtlan and goazacoalco, were conquered, chiefly with a view to the extension of the aztec commerce, as early as the middle of the fifteenth century, notwithstanding the assistance rendered by the armies of tlascala. [sidenote: the tlascaltecs.] the plateau east of anáhuac sometimes known as huitzilapan was found by the spaniards in the possession of the independent republics, or cities, of tlascala, huexotzinco, and cholula. the people who occupied this part of the table-land were the teo-chichimecs, of the same language and of the same traditional north-western origin as the aztecs, whom they preceded in anáhuac. late in the thirteenth century they left the valley of mexico, and in several detachments established themselves on the eastern plateau, where they successfully maintained their independence of all foreign powers. as allies of the chichimec king of tezcuco they aided in overturning the tepanec tyrant of azcapuzalco; but after the subsequent dangerous development of aztec ambition, the tlascaltec armies aided in nearly every attempt of other nations to arrest the progress of the mexicans toward universal dominion. their assistance, as we have seen, was unavailing except in the final successful alliance with the forces of cortés; for, although secure in their small domain against foreign invasion, their armies were often defeated abroad. tlascala has retained very nearly its original bounds, and the details of its history from the foundation of the city are, by the writings of the native historian camargo, more fully known than those of most other nations outside of anáhuac. this author, however, gives us the annals of his own and the surrounding peoples from a tlascaltec stand-point only. before the teo-chichimec invasion of huitzilapan, cholula had already acquired great prominence as a toltec city, and as the residence of the great nahua apostle quetzalcoatl, of which era, or a preceding one, the famous pyramid remains as a memento. outside of cholula, however, the ancient history of this region presents but a blank page, or one vaguely filled with tales of giants, its first reputed inhabitants, and of the mysterious olmecs, from some remaining fragments of which people the tlascaltecs are said to have won their new homes. these olmecs seem to have been a very ancient people who occupied the whole eastern region, bordering on or mixed with the xicalancas in the south; or rather the name olmec seems to have been the designation of a phase or era of the nahua civilization preceding that known as the toltec. it is impossible to determine accurately whether the xicalancas should be classed with the nahua or maya element, although probably with the former. the coast region east of tlascala, comprising the northern half of the state of vera cruz, was the home of the totonacs, whose capital was the famous cempoala, and who were conquered by the aztecs at the close of the fifteenth century. they were probably one of the ancient pre-toltec peoples like the otomís and olmecs, and they claimed to have occupied in former times anáhuac and the adjoining territory, where they erected the pyramids of the sun and moon at teotihuacan. their institutions when first observed by europeans seem to have been essentially nahua, and the abundant architectural remains found in totonac territory, as at papantla, misantla, and tusapan, show no well-defined differences from aztec constructions proper. whether this nahua culture was that originally possessed by them or was introduced at a comparatively late period through the influence of the teo-chichimecs, with whom they became largely consolidated, is uncertain. the totonac language is, however, distinct from the aztec, and is thought to have some affinity with the maya. north of the totonacs on the gulf coast, in the present state of tamaulipas, lived the huastecs, concerning whose early history nothing whatever is known. their language is allied to the maya dialects. they were a brave people, looked upon by the mexicans as semi-barbarous, but were defeated and forced to pay tribute by the king of tezcuco in the middle of the fifteenth century. * * * * * [sidenote: nations of central america.] the difficulties experienced in rendering to any degree satisfactory a general view of the northern nations, are very greatly augmented now that i come to treat of the central american tribes. the causes of this increased difficulty are many. i have already noticed the prominence of the aztecs in most that has been recorded of american civilization. during the conquest of the central portions of the continent following that of mexico, the spaniards found an advanced culture, great cities, magnificent temples, a complicated system of religious and political institutions; but all these had been met before in the north, and consequently mere mention in general terms of these later wonders was deemed sufficient by the conquerors, who were a class of men not disposed to make minute observations or comparisons respecting what seemed to them unimportant details. as to the priests, their duty was clearly to destroy rather than to closely investigate these institutions of the devil. and in the years following the conquest, the association between the natives and the conquerors was much less intimate than in anáhuac. these nations in many instances fought until nearly annihilated, or after defeat retired in national fragments to the inaccessible fastnesses of the cordillera, retaining for several generations--some of them permanently--their independence, and affording the spaniards little opportunity of becoming acquainted with their aboriginal institutions. in the south, as in anáhuac, native writers, after their language had been fitted to the spanish alphabet, wrote more or less fully of their national history; but all such writings whose existence is known are in the possession of one or two individuals, and, excepting the popol vuh translated by ximenes as well as brasseur de bourbourg, and the perez maya manuscript, their contents are only vaguely known to the public through the writings of their owners. another difficulty respecting these writings is that their dependence on any original authority more trustworthy than that of orally transmitted traditions, is at least doubtful. the key to the hieroglyphics engraved on the stones of palenque and copan, and painted on the pages of the very few ancient manuscripts preserved, is now practically lost; that it was possessed by the writers referred to is, although not impossible, still far from proven. again, chronology, so complicated and uncertain in the annals of anáhuac, is here, through the absence of legible written records, almost entirely wanting, so that it is in many cases absolutely impossible to fix even an approximate date for historical events of great importance. the attempts of authors to attach some of these events, without sufficient data, to the nahua chronology, have done much to complicate the matter still further. the only author who has attempted to treat of the subject of central american civilization and antiquity comprehensively as a whole is the abbé brasseur de bourbourg. the learned abbé, however, with all his research and undoubted knowledge of the subject, and with his well-known enthusiasm and tact in antiquarian engineering, by which he is wont to level difficulties, apparently insurmountable, to a grade which offers no obstruction to his theoretical construction-trains, has been forced to acknowledge at many points his inability to construct a perfect whole from data so meagre and conflicting. such being the case, the futility must be apparent of attempting here any outline of history which may throw light on the institutions of the sixteenth century. i must be content, for the purposes of this chapter, with a mention of the civilized nations found in possession of the country, and a brief statement of such prominent points in their past as seem well-authenticated and important. [sidenote: the ancient maya empire.] closely enveloped in the dense forests of chiapas, guatemala, yucatan, and honduras, the ruins of several ancient cities have been discovered, which are far superior in extent and magnificence to any seen in aztec territory, and of which a detailed description may be found in the fourth volume of this work. most of these cities were abandoned and more or less unknown at the time of the conquest. they bear hieroglyphic inscriptions apparently identical in character; in other respects they resemble each other more than they resemble the aztec ruins--or even other and apparently later works in guatemala and honduras. all these remains bear evident marks of great antiquity. their existence and similarity, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, would indicate the occupation of the whole country at some remote period by nations far advanced in civilization, and closely allied in manners and customs, if not in blood and language. furthermore, the traditions of several of the most advanced nations point to a wide-spread civilization introduced among a numerous and powerful people by votan and zamná, who, or their successors, built the cities referred to, and founded great allied empires in chiapas, yucatan and guatemala; and moreover, the tradition is confirmed by the universality of one family of languages or dialects spoken among the civilized nations, and among their descendants to this day. i deem the grounds sufficient, therefore, for accepting this central american civilization of the past as a fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient race, but to the direct ancestors of the peoples still occupying the country with the spaniards, and applying to it the name maya as that of the language which has claims as strong as any to be considered the mother tongue of the linguistic family mentioned. as i have said before, the phenomena of civilization in north america may be accounted for with tolerable consistency by the friction and mixture of this maya culture and people with the nahua element of the north; while that either, by migrations northward or southward, can have been the parent of the other within the traditionally historic past, i regard as extremely improbable. that the two elements were identical in their origin and early development is by no means impossible; all that we can safely presume is that within historic times they have been practically distinct in their workings. there are also some rather vague traditions of the first appearance of the nahua civilization in the regions of tabasco and chiapas, of its growth, the gradual establishment of a power rivalling that of the people i call mayas, and of a struggle by which the nahuas were scattered in different directions, chiefly northward, to reappear in history some centuries later as the toltecs of anáhuac. while the positive evidence in favor of this migration from the south is very meagre, it must be admitted that a southern origin of the nahua culture is far more consistent with fact and tradition than was the north-western origin, so long implicitly accepted. there are no data by which to fix the period of the original maya empire, or its downfall or breaking-up into rival factions by civil and foreign wars. the cities of yucatan, as is clearly shown by mr stephens, were, many of them, occupied by the descendants of the builders down to the conquest, and contain some remnants of wood-work still in good preservation, although some of the structures appear to be built on the ruins of others of a somewhat different type. palenque and copan, on the contrary, have no traces of wood or other perishable material, and were uninhabited and probably unknown in the sixteenth century. the loss of the key to what must have been an advanced system of hieroglyphics, while the spoken language survived, is also an indication of great antiquity, confirmed by the fact that the quiché structures of guatemala differed materially from those of the more ancient epoch. it is not likely that the maya empire in its integrity continued later than the third or fourth century, although its cities may have been inhabited much later, and i should fix the epoch of its highest power at a date preceding rather than following the christian era. a maya manuscript fixes the date of the first appearance in yucatan of the tutul xius at a. d. the abbé brasseur therefore makes this the date of the nahua dispersion, believing, on apparently very slight foundation, the tutul xius to be one of the nahua fragments. with the breaking-up of this empire into separate nations at an unknown date, the ancient history of central america as a whole ceases, and down to a period closely preceding the conquest we have only an occasional event preserved in the traditions of two or three nations. [sidenote: maya nations of yucatan.] yucatan was occupied in the sixteenth century by the mayas proper, all speaking the same language, and living under practically the same institutions, religious and political. the chief divisions were the cocomes, tutul xius, itzas, and cheles, which seem to have been originally the designations of royal or priestly families, rather than tribal names proper of the peoples over whom they held sway. each of these had their origin-traditions of immigrating tribes or teachers who came in the distant past to seek new homes, escape persecution, or introduce new religious ideas, in the fertile maya plains. some of these stranger apostles of new creeds are identified by authors with toltec missionaries or exiles from anáhuac. the evidence in favor of this identity in any particular case is of course unsatisfactory, but that it was well-founded in some cases is both probable,--commercial intercourse having undoubtedly made the two peoples mutually acquainted with each other,--and is supported by the presence of nahua names of rulers and priests, and of nahua elements in the yucatec religion, the same remark applying to all central america. the ancient history of yucatan is an account of the struggles, alliances, and successive domination of the factions mentioned. to enumerate here, in outline even, these successive changes so vaguely and confusedly recorded would be useless, especially as their institutions, so far as can be known, were but slightly affected by political changes among people of the same blood, language, and religion. the cocomes were traditionally the original maya rulers of the land, and the tutul xius first came into notice in the second century, the itzas and cheles appearing at a much later date. one of the most prosperous eras in the later history of the peninsula of yucatan is represented to have followed the appearance of cuculcan, a mysterious stranger corresponding closely in his teachings, as in the etymology of his name, with the toltec quetzalcoatl. he became the head of the cocome dynasty at mayapan, and ruled the country as did his successors after him in alliance with the tutul xius at uxmal, the itzas at chichen itza, and the cheles at izamal. but later the cocomes were overthrown, and mayapan destroyed by a revolution of the allies. the tutul xius now became the leading power, a position which they held down to the time, not long before the conquest, when the country was divided by war and civil dissensions into numerous petty domains, each ruled by its chief and independent of the rest, all in a weak and exhausted condition compared with their former state, and unable to resist by united effort the progress of the spanish invaders whom individually they fought most bravely. three other comparatively recent events of some importance in yucatec history may be noticed. the cocomes in the struggle preceding their fall called in the aid of a large force of xicalancas, probably a nahua people, from the tabascan coast region, who after their defeat were permitted by the conquerors to settle in the country. a successful raid by some foreign people, supposed with some reason to be the quichés from guatemala, is reported to have been made against the mayas with, however, no important permanent results. finally a portion of the itzas migrated southward and settled in the region of lake peten, establishing their capital city on an island in the lake. here they were found, a powerful and advanced nation, by hernan cortés in the sixteenth century, and traces of their cities still remain, although it must be noted that another and older class of ruins are found in the same region, dating back perhaps to a time when the glory of the maya empire had not wholly departed. [sidenote: chiapas and guatemala.] chiapas, politically a part of the mexican republic, but belonging geographically to central america, was occupied by the chiapanecs, tzendales, and quelenes. the tzendales lived in the region about palenque, and were presumably the direct descendants of its builders, their language having nearly an equal claim with the maya to be considered the mother tongue. the chiapanecs of the interior were a warlike tribe, and had before the coming of the spaniards conquered the other nations, forcing them to pay tribute, and successfully resisting the attacks of the aztec allies. they also are a very old people, having been referred even to the tribes that preceded the establishment of votan's empire. statements concerning their history are numerous and irreconcilable; they have some traditions of having come from the south; their linguistic affinity with the mayas is at least very slight. the quelenes or zotziles, whose past is equally mysterious, inhabited the southern or guatemalan frontier. guatemala and northern honduras were found in possession of the mames in the north-west, the pocomams in the south-east, the quichés in the interior, and the cakchiquels in the south. the two latter were the most powerful and ruled the country from their capitals of utatlan and patinamit, where they resisted the spaniards almost to the point of annihilation, retiring for the most part after defeat to live by the chase in the distant mountain gorges. guatemalan history from the votan empire down to an indefinite date not many centuries before the conquest is a blank. it recommences with the first traditions of the nations just mentioned. these traditions, as in the case of every american people, begin with the immigration of foreign tribes into the country as the first in the series of events leading to the establishment of the quiché-cakchiquel empire. assuming the toltec dispersion from anáhuac in the eleventh century as a well-authenticated fact, most writers have identified the guatemalan nations, except perhaps the mames by some considered the descendants of the original inhabitants, with the migrating toltecs who fled southward to found a new empire. i have already made known my scepticism respecting national american migrations in general, and the toltec migration southward in particular, and there is nothing in the annals of guatemala to modify the views previously expressed. the quiché traditions are vague and without chronologic order, much less definite than those relating to the mythical aztec wanderings. the sum and substance of the quiché and toltec identity is the traditional statement that the former people entered guatemala at an unknown period in the past, while the latter left anáhuac in the eleventh century. that the toltecs should have migrated en masse southward, taken possession of guatemala, established a mighty empire, and yet have abandoned their language for dialects of the original maya tongue is in the highest degree improbable. it is safer to suppose that the mass of the quichés and other nations of guatemala, chiapas, and honduras, were descended directly from the maya builders of palenque, and from contemporary peoples. yet the differences between the quiché-cakchiquel structures, and the older architectural remains of the maya empire indicate a new era of maya culture, originated not unlikely by the introduction of foreign elements. moreover, the apparent identity in name and teachings between the early civilizers of the quiché tradition and the nahua followers of quetzalcoatl, together with reported resemblances between actual quiché and aztec institutions as observed by europeans, indicate farther that the new element was engrafted on maya civilization by contact with the nahuas, a contact of which the presence of the exiled toltec nobility may have been a prominent feature. after the overthrow of the original empire we may suppose the people to have been subdivided during the course of centuries by civil wars and sectarian struggles into petty states, the glory of their former greatness vanished and partially forgotten, the spirit of progress dormant, to be roused again by the presence of the nahua chiefs. these gathered and infused new life into the scattered remnants; they introduced some new institutions, and thus aided the ancient people to rebuild their empire on the old foundations, retaining the dialects of the original language. [sidenote: nicaraguans and pipiles.] in addition to the peoples thus far mentioned, there were undoubtedly in nicaragua, and probably in salvador, nations of nearly pure aztec blood and language. the former are known among different authors as nicaraguans, niquirans, or cholutecs, and they occupied the coast between lake nicaragua and the ocean, with the lake islands. their institutions, political and religious, were nearly the same as those of the aztecs of anáhuac, and they have left abundant relics in the form of idols and sepulchral deposits, but no architectural remains. these relics are moreover hardly less abundant in the territory of the adjoining tribes, nor do they differ essentially in their nature; hence we must conclude that some other nicaraguan peoples, either by aztec or other influence, were considerably advanced in civilization. the nahua tribes of salvador, the ancient cuscatlan, were known as pipiles, and their culture appears not to have been of a high order. both of these nations probably owe their existence to a colony sent southward from anáhuac; but whether in aztec or pre-aztec times, the native traditions, like their interpretation by writers on the subject, are inextricably confused and at variance. for further details on the location of central american nations i refer to the statement of tribal boundaries at the end of chapter vii., volume i., of this work. * * * * * i here close this general view of the subject, and if it is in some respects unsatisfactory, i cannot believe that a different method of treatment would have rendered it less so. to have gone more into detail would have tended to confuse rather than elucidate the matter in the reader's mind, unless with the support of extensive quotations from ever-conflicting authorities, which would have swollen this general view from a chapter to a volume. as far as antiquity is concerned, the most intricate element of the subject, i shall attempt to present--if i cannot reconcile--all the important variations of opinion in another division of this work. in the treatment of my subject, truth and accuracy are the principal aim, and these are never sacrificed to graphic style or glowing diction. as much of interest is thrown into the recital as the authorities justify, and no more. often may be seen the more striking characteristics of these nations dashed off with a skill and brilliance equaled only by their distance from the facts; disputed points and unpleasing traits glossed over or thrown aside whenever they interfere with style and effect. it is my sincere desire, above all others, to present these people as they were, not to make them as i would have them, nor to romance at the expense of truth; nevertheless, it is to be hoped that in the truth enough of interest will remain to command the attention of the reader. my treatment of the subject is essentially as follows: the civilized peoples of north america naturally group themselves in two great divisions, which for convenience may be called the nahuas and the mayas respectively; the first representing the aztec civilization of mexico, and the second the maya-quiché civilization of central america. in describing their manners and customs, five large divisions may be made of each group. the first may be said to include the systems of government, the order of succession, the ceremonies of election, coronation, and anointment, the magnificence, power, and manner of life of their kings; court forms and observances; the royal palaces and gardens. the second comprises the social system; the classes of nobles, gentry, plebeians and slaves; taxation, tenure, and distribution of lands; vassalage and feudal service; the inner life of the people; their family and private relations, such as marriage, divorce, and education of youth; other matters, such as their dress, food, games, feasts and dances, knowledge of medicine, and manner of burial. the third division includes their system of war, their relations with foreign powers, their warriors and orders of knighthood, their treatment of prisoners of war and their weapons. the fourth division embraces their system of trade and commerce, the community of merchants, their sciences, arts, and manufactures. the fifth and last considers their judiciary, law-courts, and legal officials. i append as more appropriately placed here than elsewhere, a note on the etymological meaning and derivation, so far as known, of the names of the civilized nations. etymology of names. acolhuas;--possibly from _coloa_, 'to bend,' meaning with the prefix _atl_, 'water-colhuas,' or 'people at the bend of the water.' not from _acolli_, 'shoulder,' nor from _colli_, 'grandfather.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. , . '_coloa_, encoruar, o entortar algo, o rodear yendo camino.' '_acolli_, ombro.' '_culhuia_, lleuar a otro por rodeos a alguna parte.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _colli_, 'grand-father,' plural _colhuan_. _colhuacan_, or _culiacan_, may then mean 'the land of our ancestors.' _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - . 'el nombre de _aculhuas_, ó segun la ortografía mexicana, _aculhuaque_, en plural, y no _aculhuacanes_, ni _aculhues_.' _dicc. univ._, tom. i., p. . 'col, chose courbe, faisant _coloa_, _colua_, ou _culhua_, nom appliqué plus tard dans le sens d'ancêtre, parce que du _colhuacan_ primitif, des îles de la courbe, vinrent les émigrés qui civilisèrent les habitants de la vallée d'anahuac.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, p. . '_colhua_, ou _culhua_, _culua_, de _coltic_, chose courbée. de là le nom de la cité de _colhuacan_, qu'on traduit indifféremment, ville de la courbe, de choses recourbées (des serpents), et aussi des aïeux, de _coltzin_, aïeul.' _id._, _popol vuh_, p. xxix. aztecs;--from _aztlan_, the name of their ancient home, from a root _aztli_, which is lost. it has no connection with _azcatl_, 'ant,' but may have some reference to _iztac_, 'white.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. - . 'de _aztlan_ se deriva el nacional _aztecatl_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . '_az_, primitif d'_azcatl_, fourmi, est le mot qui désigne, à la fois, d'une manière générale, la vapeur, le gaz, ou toute chose légère, comme le vent ou la pluie; c'est l'aile, _aztli_ qui désigne aussi la vapeur, c'est le héron dans _aztatl_. il se retrouve, avec une légère variante, dans le mot nahuatl composé, _tem-az-calli_, bain de vapeur, dans _ez-tli_, le sang ou la lave; dans les vocables quichés _atz_, bouffée du fumée, épouvantail, feu-follet.... ainsi les fourmis de la tradition haïtienne, comme de la tradition mexicaine, sont à la fois des images des feux intérieurs de la terre et de leurs exhalaisons, comme du travail des mines et de l'agriculture. du même primitif _az_ vient _aztlan_ "le pays sur ou dans le gaz, _az-tan_, _az-dan_, la terre sèche, soulevée par les gaz ou remplie de vapeurs."' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, p. . chalcas;--'il nome _chalcho_ vale, nella gemma. il p. acosta dice, che _chalco_ vuol dire, nelle bocche.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . buschmann believes acosta's definition 'in the mouths' to be more correct. _ortsnamen_, p. . 'chalca, ce qui est le calcaire; c'est l'examen de tous les vocables mexicains, commençant en _chal_, qui m'a fait découvrir le sens exact de ce mot; il se trouve surtout dan _chal-chi-huitl_, le jade, littéralement ce qui est sorti du fond du calcaire.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, pp. , . cheles;--'le _chel_ dans la langue maya est une espèce d'oiseaux particuliers à cette contrée.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . chiapanecs;--_chiapan_, 'locality of the chia' (oil-seed). _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_chiapanèque_, du nahuatl _chiapanecatl_, c'est-à-dire homme de la rivière chiapan (eau douce), n'est pas le nom véritable de ce peuple; c'est celui que lui donnèrent les mexicains.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . chichimecs;--'_chichi_, perro, o perra.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _chichi_, 'dog'; perhaps as inhabitants of _chichimecan_, 'place of dogs.' _mecatl_ may mean 'line,' 'row,' 'race,' and _chichimecatl_, therefore 'one of the race of dogs.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. , . 'chichimèque veut dire, à proprement parler, homme sauvage.... ce mot désigne des hommes qui mangent de la viande crue et sucent le sang des animaux; car _chichiliztli_ veut dire, en mexicain, sucer; _chichinaliztli_, la chose que l'on suce, et _chichihualli_, mamelle.... toutes les autres nations les redoutaient et leur donnaient le nom de suceurs, en mexicain, _chichimecatechinani_. ... les mexicains nomment aussi les chiens chichime, parce qu'ils lèchent le sang des animaux et le sucent.' _camargo_, _hist. tlaxcallan_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . '_teuchichimecas_, que quiere decir _del todo barbados_, que por otro nombre se decian cacachimecas, ó sea hombres silvestres.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . '_chichimec_ ou _chichimetl_, suceur de maguey, et de là les chichimèques.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , . other derivations are from _chichen_, a city of yucatan, and from _chichiltic_ 'red,' referring to the color of all indians. _id._, _popol vuh_, p. lxiii. '_chi_ ... selon vetancourt, c'est une préposition, exprimant ce qui est tout en bas, au plus profond, comme _aco_ signifie ce qui est au plus haut.... _chichi_ est un petit chien (_chi-en_), de ceux qu'on appelle de chihuahua, qui se creusent des tanières souterraines.... _chichi_ énonce tout ce qui est amer, aigre ou âcre, tout ce qui fait tache: il a le sens de sucer, d'absorber; c'est la salive, c'est le poumon et la mamelle. si maintenant ... j'ajoute _me_, primitif de _metl_, aloès, chose courbée, vous aurez _chichime_, choses courbes, tortueuses, suçantes, absorbantes, amères, âcres ou acides, se cachant, comme les petits chiens terriers, sous le sol où elles se concentrent, commes des poumons ou des mamelles.... or, puisqu'il est acquis, d'après ces peintures et ces explications, que tout cela doit s'appliquer à une puissance tellurique, errante, d'ordinaire, comme les populations nomades, auxquelles on attacha le nom de _chichimeca_.' _id._, _quatre lettres_, pp. - . cholultecs;--from _choloa_, meaning 'to spring,' 'to run,' 'to flee,' or 'place where water springs up,' 'place of flight,' or 'fugitives.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . 'c'est du lieu d'où ils étaient sortis primitivement, ou plutôt à cause de leur qualité actuelle d'exilés, qu'ils prirent ensuite le nom de _cholutecas_.' '_cholutecas_, mieux _cholultecas_, c'est-à-dire, exilés, et aussi, habitants de cholullan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . chontales;--'_chontalli_, estrangero o forastero.' _molina_, _vocabulario_; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . cocomes;--'_cocom_ signifie écouteur, croyant.' _landa_, _rel. de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . 'cocom est un nom d'origine nahuatl; il est le pluriel de cohuatl, serpent.... dans la langue maya, le mot cocom a la signification d'écouteur, celui qui entend; cette étymologie nous paraît plus rationnelle que la première.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . cohuixcas;--ayala translates the name of their province cuixca, 'tierra de lagartijas.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . cuitlahuacs;--'_cuitlatl_, excremento, y genéricamente cosa sucia.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . '_cuitlahuac_, dans celui qui a les excréments, de cuitlatl, excrément, déjection de l'homme ou de l'animal, mais que le chroniste mexicain applique ici aux déjections du volcan voisin de la grande-base ... de là le nom de _teo-cuitlatl_, excréments divins, donné aux métaux précieux, l'or avec l'adjectif jaune, l'argent avec l'adjectif blanc.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, p. . cuitlatlan, 'locality of dirt.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_cuitlatl_, mierda.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. the name of the cuitlatecs seems to have no separate etymological meaning. culhuas;--see acolhuas. the two people are not supposed to have been the same, but it is probable that they are identical in the derivation of their names. huastecs;--'_huaxtlan_ es una palabra mexicana que significa, "donde hay, ó abunda el _huaxi_," fruto muy conocido en méxico con el nombre castellanizado de _guaje_. compónese aquella palabra de _huaxin_, perdiendo _in_ por contraccion, muy usada en mexicano al componerse las palabras, y de _tlan_, partícula que significa "donde hay, ó abunda algo," y que sirve para formar colectivos. de _huaxtlan_ es de donde, segun parece, viene el nombre gentilicio _huaxtecatl_, que los españoles convirtieron en _huaxteca_ ó _huaxteco_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., pp. - ; _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. - . 'el que es inhábil ó tosco, le llaman ... _cuextecatl_.' from the name of their ruler, who took too much wine. 'así por injuria, y como alocado, le llamaban de cuextecatl.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , - . huexotzincas;--diminutive of _huexotla_, 'willow-forest.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . itzas;--from the name of zamná, the first yucatan civilizer. 'le llamaban tambien ytzamná, y le adoraban por dios.' _cogolludo_, _hist. de yucathan_, p. . '_itzmat-ul_, que quiere dezir el que recibe y posee la gracia, ó rozio, ó sustancia del cielo.' '_ytzen caan, ytzen muyal_, que era dezir yo soy el rozio ó sustancia del cielo y nubes.' _lizana_, in _landa_, _rel. de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . 'suivant ordoñez, le mot itza est composé de itz, doux, et de hà, eau.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . malinalcas;--'_malina_, nitla, torcer cordel encima del muslo.' '_malinqui_, cosa torcida.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. '_malinal_ est le nom commun de la liane, ou des cordes tordues.' '_malina_, tordre, qui fait _malinal_, liane ou corde. ou bien plus littéralement de choses tournées, percée à jour, de _mal_, primitif de _mamali_, percer, tarauder, et de _nal_, de part en part, tout autour.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, pp. - . mames;--'el verdadero nombre de la lengua y de la tribu es mem, que quiere decir tartamudos porque los pueblos que primero les oyeron hablar, encontraron semejanza entre los tardos para pronunciar, y la manera con que aquellos decian su lengua.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. . 'a esta lengua llaman _mame_, é indios _mames_ á los de esta sierra, porque ordinariamente hablan y responden con esta palabra _man_, que quiere decir _padre_.' _reynoso_, in _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., pp. - . '_mem_ veut dire bègue et muet.' '"mem", mal à propos défiguré dans mame par les espagnols, servit depuis généralement à désigner les nations qui conservèrent leur ancienne langue et demeurèrent plus ou moins indépendantes des envahisseurs étrangers.' mam 'veut dire ancien, vieillard.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . mam sometimes means grand-son. _id._, _popol vuh_, p. . matlaltzincas;--'el nombre _matlalcincatl_, tomóse de _matlatl_ que es la red con la cual desgranaban el maiz, y hacian otras cosas.... tambien se llaman _matlatzincas_ de hondas que se dicen _tlematlate_, y así _matlatzincas_ por otra interpretacion quiere decir, honderos ó fondibularios; porque los dichos _matlatzincas_ cuando muchachos, usaban mucho traer las hondas, y de ordinario las traían consigo, como los _chichimecas_ sus arcos, y siempre andaban tirando con ellas. tambien les llamaban del nombre de red por otra razon que és la mas principal, porque cuando à su idolo sacrificaban alguna persona, le echaban dentro en una red, y allí le retorcian y estrujaban con la dicha red, hasta que le hacian echar los intestinos. la causa de llamarse _coatl_ (ramirez) dice que "debe leerse _cuaitl_ (cabeza). coatl significa culebra," cuando es uno, y _qüaqüatas_ cuando son muchos és, porque siempre traían la cabeza ceñida con la honda; por lo cual el vocablo se decia _qüa_ por abreviatura, que quiere decir _quaitl_ que es la cabeza, _yta_ que quiere decir _tamatlatl_ (molina says 'honda para tirar es _tematlatl, tlatematlauiloni_') ques es la honda, y así quiere decir _quatlatl_ hombre que trae la honda en la cabeza por guirnalda: tambien se interpreta de otra manera, que quiere decir hombre de cabeza de piedra.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. , and _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . '_matlatzinia_, dar palmadas.' '_matlatepito_, red pequeña.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. from _matlatl_, 'net', meaning therefore 'small place of nets'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . 'de _matlatl_, le filet, les mailles.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, p. . '_matlatzinco_ es una palabra mexicana que significa "lugarcito de las redes", pues se compone de _matlat_, red, y la partícula _tzinco_ que expresa diminucion. fácilmente se comprende, pues, que _matlatzinca_ viene de _matlatzinco_, y que la etimología exige que estas palabras se escriban con _c_ (mejor _k_) y no con _g_ como hacen algunos autores', _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . mayas;--'"_mai_", une divinité ou un personnage des temps antiques, sans doute celui à l'occasion duquel le pays fut appelé _maya_.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _rel. de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . '_maya_ ou _maïa_, nom antique d'une partie du yucatan, paraît signifier aussi la terre.' _id._, p. lxx. 'maayhà, non adest aqua, suivant ordoñez, c'est-à-dire, terre sans eau.' _id._, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . the terminations _a_ and _o_ of this name are spanish. _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . mizquicas;--'_mizquitl_, arbol de goma para tinta.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _mizquitl_, a tree yielding the pure gum arabic, a species of acacia. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . miztecs;--'la palabra mexicana _mixtecatl_, es nombre nacional, derivado de _mixtlan_, lugar de nubes ó nebuloso, compuesto de _mixtli_, nube, y de la terminacion _tlan_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . _mixtlan_, 'place of clouds.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_mixtecapan_ ... pays des brouillards.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . nahuas;--'todos los que hablan claro la lengua mexicana que les llaman _nahóas_, son descendientes de los tultecas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . '_nahoatl_ ó _nahuatl_, segun el diccionario de molina, significa _cosa que suena bien_, de modo que viene à ser un adjetivo que aplicado al sustantivo _idioma_, creo que puede traducirse por _armonioso_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . something of fine, or clear, or loud sound; _nahuatlato_ means an interpreter; _nahuati_, to speak loud; _nahuatia_, to command. the name has no connection whatever with _anáhuac_. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. - . 'molina le traduit par ladino, instruit, expert, civilisé, et lui donne aussi un sens qui se rapporte aux sciences occultes. on n'en trouve pas, toutefois, la racine dans le mexicain. la langue quichée en donne une explication parfaite: il vient du verbe _nao_ ou _naw_, connaître, sentir, savoir, penser; _tin nao_, je sais; _naoh_, sagesse, intelligence. il y a encore le verbe radical _na_, sentir, soupçonner. le mot _nahual_ dans son sens primitif et véritable, signifie donc littéralement "qui sait tout"; c'est la même chose absolument que le mot anglais _know-all_, avec lequel il a tant d'identité. le quiché et le cakchiquel l'emploient fréquemment aussi dans le sens de mystérieux, extraordinaire, merveilleux.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - , . nonohualcas;--the tutul-xius, chiefs of a nahuatl house in tulan, seem to have borne the name of _nonoual_, which may have given rise to _nonohualco_ or _onohualco_. '_nonoual_ ne serait-il pas une altération de _nanaual_ ou _nanahuatl_?' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _rel. de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . olmecs;--olmecatl was the name of their first traditionary leader. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . _olmecatl_ may mean an inhabitant of the town of _olman_; but as _mecatl_ is also used for 'shoot', 'offspring', 'branch', the word probably comes from _olli_, and means 'people of the gum'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . otomÍs;--'el vocablo _otomitl_, que es el nombre de los _otomies_, tomáronlo de su caudillo, el cual se llamaba _oton_.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . not a native word, but mexican, derived perhaps from _otli_, 'road', and _tomitl_, 'animal hair', referring possibly to some peculiar mode of wearing the hair. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. - . '_otho_ en la misma lengua othomí quiere decir _nada_, y _mi_, quieto, ó sentado, de manera que traducida literalmente la palabra, significa nada-quieto, cuya idea pudiéramos expresar diciendo _peregrino_ ó _errante_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. ; _náxera_, _disertacion_, p. . 'son étymologie mexicaine, otomitl, signifie la flèche d'oton.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . pipiles;--a reduplication of _pilli_, which has two meanings, 'noble' and 'child', the latter being generally regarded as its meaning in the tribal name. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, pp. - . so called because they spoke the mexican language with a childish pronunciation. _juarros' hist. guat._, p. . pokomams;--'_pokom_, dont la racine _pok_ désigne une sorte de tuf blanc et sablonneux.... la termination _om_ est un participe présent. de _pokom_ vient le nom de pokomam et de pokomchi, qui fut donné à ces tribus de la qualité du sol où ils bâtirent leur ville.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . quichÉs;--'la palabra _quiché_, _kiché_, ó _quitze_, significa _muchos árboles_.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . 'de _quï_ beaucoup, plusieurs, et de _che_, arbre, ou de _queche_, _quechelah_, _qechelah_, la forêt.' _ximenez_, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. cclxv. tarascos;--'tarasco viene de _tarhascue_, que en la lengua de michoacan significa suegro, ó yerno segun dice el p. lagunas en su gramática.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . '_taras_ en la lengua mexicana se dice _mixcoatl_, que era el dios de los _chichimecas_.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'Á quienes dieron el nombre de tarascos, por el sonido que les hacian las partes genitales en los muslos al andar.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. des nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . tepanecs;--_tepan_, 'stony place', from _tetl_, or _tecpan_, 'royal palace'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_tecpantlan_ signifie auprès des palais.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. cx. 'cailloux roulés sur la roche, _te-pa-ne-ca_, littéralement ce qui est mêlé ensemble sur la pierre; ou bien _te-pan-e-ca_, c'est-à-dire avec des petites pierres sur la roche ou le solide, _e_, pour _etl_, le haricot, frijol, étant pris souvent dans le sens d'une petite pierre sur une surface, etc.' _id._, _quatre lettres_, p. . tlahuicas;--from _tlahuitl_, 'cinnabar', from this mineral being plentiful in their country. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . _tlahuilli_, 'poudres brillantes.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, p. . '_tlauia_, alumbrar a otros con candela o hacha.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. tlapanecs;--'y llámanlos tambien tlapanecas que quiere decir _hombres almagrados_, porque se embijaban con color.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . from _tlalpantli_, 'ground'; may also come from _tlalli_, 'land'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . _tlapallan_, 'terre colorée'. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. lxiii. tla, 'feu'. _id._, _quatre lettres_, p. . '_tlapani_, quebrarse algo, o el tintorero que tiñe paños.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. probably a synonym of yoppi, q. v. _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . tlascaltecs;--'_tlaxcalli_, tortillas de mayz, o pan generalmente.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _tlaxcalli_, 'place of bread or tortillas', the past participle of _ixca_, 'to bake or broil'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . toltecs;--'_toltecayotl_, maestria de arte mecanica. _toltecatl_, official de arte mecanica. _toltecauia_, fabricar o hazer algo el maestro.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. 'los _tultecas_ todos se nombraban _chichimecas_, y no tenian otro nombre particular sino este que tomaron de la curiosidad, y primor de las obras que hacian, que se llamaron obras _tultecas_ ó sea como si digesemos, oficiales pulidos y curiosos como ahora los de flandes, y con razon, porque eran sutiles y primorosos en cuanto ellos ponian la mano, que todo era muy bueno.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . toltecs, 'people of tollan'. tollan, 'place of willows or reeds', from _tolin_, 'willow, reed.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_toltecatl_ était le titre qu'on donnait à un artiste habile.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . tollan: 'elle est frappante ... par l'identité qu'elle présente avec le nom de _metztli_ ou le croissant. en effet, ce qu'elle exprime, d'ordinaire, c'est l'idée d'un "pays recourbé" ou incliné. sa première syllabe _tol_, primitif de _toloa_, "abaxar, inclinar la cabeça," dit molina, "entortar, encorvar," dit-il ailleurs, signifie donc baisser, incliner la tête, se tortuer, courber, ce qui, avec la particule locale _lan_ pour _tlan_ ou _tan_, la terre, l'endroit, annonce une terre ou un pays recourbé, sens exact du mot _tollan_. du même verbe vient _tollin_, le jonc, le roseau, dont la tête s'incline au moindre vent; de là, le sens de jonquière, de limné, que peut prendre _tollan_, dont le hiéroglyphe représente précisément le son et la chose, et qui paraît exprimer doublement l'idée de cette terre fameuse de la courbe ou du croissant, basse et marécageuse en beaucoup d'endroits suivant la tradition.... dans sa (the word _toloa_) signification active, molina le traduit par "tragar", avaler, engloutir, ce qui donne alors pour _tollan_, le sens de terre engloutie, abîmée, qui, comme vous le voyez, convient on ne peut mieux dans le cas présent. mais si _tollan_ est la terre engloutie, si c'est en même temps le pays de la courbe, metztli ou le croissant, ces deux noms, remarquez-le, peuvent s'appliquer aussi bien au lieu où il a été englouti, à l'eau qui se courbait le long des rivages du croissant, soit à l'intérieur des grandes golfes du nord et du midi, soit au rivage convexe, tourné comme le genou de la jambe, vers l'orient. c'est ainsi qu'on retrouve l'identification continuelle de l'idée mâle avec l'idée femelle, du contenu et du contenant, de _tollan_, le pays englouti, avec _tollan_, l'océan engloutisseur, de l'eau qui est contenue et des continents qui l'enserrent dans leurs limites. ajoutons, pour compléter cette analyse, que _tol_, dans la langue quichée, est un verbe, dont _tolan_ est le passé, et qu'ainsi que _tulan_ il signifie l'abandon, la nudité, etc. de _tol_, faites _tor_, dans la même langue, et vous aurez avec _toran_, ce qui est tourné ou retourné, comme en mexicain, de même que dans _turn_ (touran) vous trouverez ce qui a été renversé, bouleversé de fond en comble, noyé sous les eaux, etc. dans la langue maya, _tul_ signifie remplir, combler, et _an_, comme en quiché, est le passé du verbe: mais si à _tul_ on ajoute _ha_ ou _a_, l'eau, nous avons _tuhla_ ou _tula_, rempli, submergé d'eau. en dernière analyse, _tol_ ou _tul_ paraît avoir pour l'origine _ol_, _ul_, couler, venir, suivant le quiché encore; primitif d'_olli_, ou bien d'_ulli_, en langue nahuatl, la gomme élastique liquide, la boule noire du jeu de paume, qui devient le hiéroglyphe de l'eau, remplissant les deux golfes. le préfixe _t_ pour _ti_ serait une préposition; faisant _to_, il signifie l'orbite de l'oeil, en quiché, image de l'abîme que la boule noire remplit comme sa prunelle, ce dont vous pouvez vous assurer dans la figure de la page suivante; _to_ est, en outre, l'aide, l'instrument, devenant _tool_; mais en mexicain, _to_, primitif de _ton_, est la chaleur de l'eau bouillante. _tol_, contracté de _to-ol_, pourrait donc avoir signifié "le liquide bouillant", ou la venue de la chaleur bouillante, de l'embrasement. avec _teca_, étendre, le mot entier _tolteca_, nous aurions donc, étendre le courbé, etc., et _tol-tecatl_, le toltèque, serait ce qui étend le courbé ou l'englouti, on bien l'eau bouillante, etc. ces étymologies rentrent donc toutes dans la même idée qui, sous bien des rapports, fait des toltèques, une des puissances telluriques, destructrices de la terre du croissant.' _id._, _quatre lettres_, pp. - . totonacs;--from _tototl_ and _nacatl_, 'bird-flesh'; or from _tona_, 'to be warm'. _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_totonaco_ significa á la letra, tres corazones en un sentido, y tres panales en otro,' from _toto_, 'three', and _naco_, 'heart', in the totonac language. _dominguez_, in _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., pp. - . '_totonal_, el signo, en que alguno nasce, o el alma y espiritu.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. tutul-xius;--'le nom des tutul-xiu paraît d'origine nahuatl; il serait dérivé de _totol_, _tototl_, oiseau, et de _xíuitl_, ou _xíhuitl_, herbe.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _rel. de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . xicalancas;--'_xicalli_, vaso de calabaça.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _xicalli_, 'place of this species of calabash or drinking-shell.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . 'xicalanco, la ville des courges ou des tasses faites de la courge et appelée xicalli dans ces contrées, et dont les espagnols ont fait xicara.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . xochimilcas;--from _xochitl_, 'flower', and _milli_, 'piece of land', meaning 'place of flower-fields.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . '_xochimicque_ captiuos en guerra.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. '_xochimilca_, habitants de _xochimilco_, lieu où l'on sème tout en bas de la base, nom de la terre végétale et fertile où l'on ensemençait, _m'il_, qu'on retourne, d'où le mot _mil_ ou _milli_, champ, terre ensemencée, et sans doute aussi le latin _milium_, notre _míl_ et _millet_.' 'j'ajouterai seulement que ce nom signifie dans le langage ordinaire, ceux qui cultivent de fleurs, de _xochitl_, fleur, littéralement, ce qui vit sous la base.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _quatre lettres_, pp. - . yoppi;--'llámanles _yopes_ porque su tierra se llama _yopinzinco_.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'inferimos ... que yope, yopi, jope, segun se encuentra escrita la palabra en varios lugares, es sinónimo de tlapaneca.' _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . _yopaa_, 'land of tombs.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . zapotecs;--'_tzapotl_, cierta fruta conocida.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. _tzapotlan_, 'place of the zapotes, trees or fruits.' _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, p. . 'derivado de la palabra mexicana _tzapotlan_, que significa "lugar de los _zapotes_", nombre castellanizado de una fruta muy conocida.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. i., p. . '_zapotecapan_ est le nom que les mexicains avaient donné à cette contrée, à cause de la quantité et de la qualité supérieure de ses fruits.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . zotziles;--'_zotzil_, murciélago.' _pimentel_, _cuadro_, tom. ii., p. . zotzilha 'signifie la ville des chauves-souris.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . chapter iii. government of the nahua nations. system of government--the aztec confederacy--order of succession--election of kings among the mexicans--royal prerogatives--government and laws of succession among the toltecs and in michoacan, tlascala, cholula, huexotzinco, and oajaca--magnificence of the nahua monarchs--ceremony of anointment--ascent to the temple--the holy unction--address of the high-priest to the king--penance and fasting in the house called tlacatecco--homage of the nobles--general rejoicing throughout the kingdom--ceremony of coronation--the procuring of sacrifices--description of the crown--coronations, feasts, and entertainments--hospitality extended to enemies--coronation-speech of nezahualpilli, king of tezcuco, to montezuma ii. of mexico--oration of a noble to a newly elected king. the prevailing form of government among the civilized nations of mexico and central america was monarchical and nearly absolute, although some of the smaller and less powerful states, as for instance, tlascala, affected an aristocratic republican system. the three great confederated states of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan were each governed by a king, who had supreme authority in his own dominion, and in matters touching it alone. where, however, the welfare of the whole allied community was involved, no one king could act without the concurrence of the others; nevertheless, the judgment of one who was held to be especially skilful and wise in any question under consideration, was usually deferred to by his colleagues. thus in matters of war, or foreign relations, the opinion of the king of mexico had most weight, while in the administration of home government, and in decisions respecting the rights of persons, it was customary during the reigns of the two royal sages of tezcuco, nezahualcoyotl and nezahualpilli, to respect their counsel above all other.[ ] the relative importance of these three kingdoms must, however, have shown greater disparity as fresh conquests were made, since in the division of territory acquired by force of arms, tlacopan received only one fifth, and of the remainder, judging by the relative power and extent of the states when the spaniards arrived, it is probable that mexico took the larger share.[ ] [sidenote: election of kings.] [sidenote: order of succession.] in tezcuco and tlacopan the order of succession was lineal and hereditary, in mexico it was collateral and elective. in the two former kingdoms, however, although the sons succeeded their fathers, it was not according to birth, but according to rank; the sons of the queen, or principal wife, who was generally a daughter of the royal house of mexico, being always preferred to the rest.[ ] in mexico, the eldest surviving brother of the deceased monarch was generally elected to the throne, and when there were no more brothers, then the nephews, commencing with the eldest son of the first brother that had died; but this order was not necessarily observed, since the electors, though restricted in their choice to one family, could set aside the claims of those whom they considered incompetent to reign; and, indeed, it was their particular duty to select from among the relatives of the deceased king the one best fitted to bear the dignity and responsibility of supreme lord.[ ] during the early days of the mexican monarchy the king was elected by vote of the whole people, who were guided in their choice by their leaders; even the women appear to have had a voice in the matter at this period.[ ] afterwards, the duty of electing the king of mexico devolved upon four or five of the chief men of the empire. the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan were also electors, but with merely an honorary rank; they ratified the decision of the others, but probably took no direct part in the election, although their influence and wishes doubtless carried great weight with the council. as soon as the new king had been chosen the body of electors was dissolved, and others were appointed in their place, whose duties also terminated with their first electoral vote.[ ] this plan of election was not without its advantages. as the persons to whom the choice was entrusted were great ministers or lords who lived at court, they had better opportunities of observing the true character of the future candidates for the throne than the common people, who are ever too apt to judge, by pleasing exterior rather than by real merit, those with whose private life they can have no acquaintance. in the next place, the high private rank of the mexican electors placed them beyond the ordinary influence of bribery or threats; and thus the state was in a measure free from that system of corruption which makes the voice of the people a mockery in more democratic communities, and which would have prevailed to a far greater extent in a country where feudal relations existed between lord and vassal. then again, the freedom of choice accorded to electors enabled them to prevent imbeciles from assuming the responsibilities of kingship, and thus the most conspicuous evil of an hereditary monarchy was avoided. [sidenote: power of the mexican kings.] the almost absolute authority vested in the person of the sovereign rendered great discrimination necessary in his selection. it was essential that the ruler of a people surrounded by enemies and continually bent upon conquest, should be an approved and valiant warrior; having the personal direction of state affairs, it was necessary that he should be a deep and subtle politician; the gross superstition and theocratic tendencies of the governed required the governor to be versed in religion, holding the gods in reverence; and the records of the nation prove that he was generally a man of culture, and a patron of art and science. in its first stages the mexican monarchy partook rather of an aristocratic than of an absolute nature. though the king was ostensibly the supreme head of the state, he was expected to confer with his council, which was composed of the royal electors, and other exalted personages, before deciding upon any important step;[ ] and though the legislative power rested entirely in his hands, the executive government was entrusted to regularly appointed officials and courts of justice. as the empire, owing to the able administration of a succession of conquering princes, increased in greatness, the royal power gradually increased, although i find nothing of constitutional amendments or reconstructions until the time of montezuma ii., when the authority of all tribunals was reduced almost to a dead letter, if opposed to the desires or commands of the king. the neighboring independent and powerful kingdom of michoacan was governed by an absolute monarch, who usually resided at his capital, on lake patzcuaro. over each province was placed a governor, chosen from the first ranks of the nobility, who ruled with great if not absolute authority, in the name of the king, and maintained a court that was in almost every respect a miniature of that of his sovereign. the order of succession was hereditary and lineal, the eldest son generally succeeding to the throne. the selection of a successor, however, was left to the reigning king, who, when he felt himself to be near his end, was at liberty to choose from among his sons the one whom he thought best fitted to govern. in order to test his capability and accustom him to handling the reigns of government, and that he might have the old monarch's advice, the chosen heir immediately began to exercise the functions of king. a custom similar to this existed among the ancient toltecs. their kings were only permitted to reign for a _xiuhmolpilli_, that is to say an 'age,' which was fifty-two years, after which time the eldest son was invested with royal authority and commenced to reign.[ ] when the old michoacan monarch fell sick, the son who had been nominated as his successor immediately dispatched messengers to all the grandees of the kingdom, with orders to repair immediately to the capital. none was exempt from being present, and a failure to comply with the summons was held to be lèse-majesté. having assembled at the palace, if the invalid is able to receive them, the nobles pass one by one through his chamber and with words of condolence and encouragement seek to comfort him. before leaving the palace each mourner deposits in the throne-room certain presents, brought for the occasion as a more substantial testimonial of his sorrow. if, however, the physicians pronounce the royal patient beyond hope of recovery, no one is allowed to see him.[ ] [sidenote: government in tlascala.] [sidenote: the pontiff of yopaa.] he who reads the romantic story of the conquest, feels his heart warm towards that staunch little nation of warriors, the tlascaltecs. there is that about the men who ate their meat saltless for fifty years rather than humble themselves before the mighty despots of mexico, that savors of the same material that defied the persian host at thermopylæ. had the tlascaltecs steadily opposed the spaniards, cortés never could have gone forward to look upon the face of king montezuma, nor backward to king charles as the conqueror of new spain; the warriors who routed their allied enemies on the bloody plains of poyauhtlan, assuredly could have offered the hearts of the invaders an acceptable sacrifice to the gods of tlascala. the state of tlascala, though invariably spoken of as a republic, was certainly not so in the modern acceptation of the term. at the time of the conquest it was governed by four supreme lords, each independent in his own territory, and possessed of equal authority with the others in matters concerning the welfare of all.[ ] a parliament or senate, composed of these four lords and the rest of the nobility, settled the affairs of government, especially those relating to peace and war. the law of succession was much the same as in michoacan. the chief before his death named the son whom he wished to succeed him, who, however, did not, as in michoacan, commence to govern until after his father's death. the old chief's choice was restricted in two ways: in the first place the approval of his three colleagues was necessary; and secondly, legitimate sons, that is the sons of a wife to whom he had been united according to certain forms, must take precedence of his other children. in default of sons, the brothers of the deceased chief succeeded.[ ] in any event the property of the late ruler was inherited by his brothers, who also, according to a custom which we shall find to be almost universal among the civilized peoples of the new world, married his widows.[ ] such information as i find upon the subject ascribes the same form of government to cholula and huexotzinco, that was found in tlascala.[ ] the miztecs and zapotecs acknowledged one supreme chief or king; the law of inheritance with them was similar to that of tlascala, except that in default of sons a daughter could inherit.[ ] the zapotecs appear, at least in the more ancient times, to have been, if possible, even more priest-ridden than their neighbors; the orders of priests existing among them were, as will be seen elsewhere, numerous, and seem to have possessed great power, secular as well as sacerdotal. yopaa, one of their principal cities, was ruled absolutely by a pontiff, in whom the zapotec monarchs had a powerful rival. it is impossible to overrate the reverence in which this spiritual king was held. he was looked upon as a god, whom the earth was not worthy to hold, nor the sun to shine upon. he profaned his sanctity if he so much as touched the ground with his foot. the officers who bore his palanquin upon their shoulders were members of the first zapotec families; he scarcely deigned to look upon anything about him. he never appeared in public, except with the most extraordinary pomp, and all who met him fell with their faces to the ground, fearing that death would overtake them were they to look upon the face of the holy wiyatao, as he was called. the most powerful lords never entered his presence except with eyes lowered and feet bared, and even the zapotec princes of the blood must occupy a seat before him lower than his own. continence was strictly imposed upon the zapotec priests, and especially was it incumbent upon the pontiff of yopaa, from the eminence of his position, to be a shining light of chastity for the guidance of those who looked up to him; yet was the pontifical dignity hereditary in the family of the wiyatao. the way in which this paradox is explained is as follows: on certain days in each year, which were generally celebrated with feasts and dances, it was customary for the high-priest to become drunk. while in this state, seeming to belong neither to heaven nor to earth, one of the most beautiful of the virgins consecrated to the service of the gods was brought to him. if the result of this holy debauch proved to be a male infant, the child was brought up with great care as a prince of the royal family. the eldest son of the reigning pontiff inherited the throne of yopaa, or in default of children, the high-priest's nearest relative succeeded. the younger children devoted themselves to the service of the gods, or married and remained laymen, according to their inclination or the paternal wish; in either case the most honorable and important positions usually fell to their lot.[ ] * * * * * the pomp and circumstance which surrounded the aztec monarchs, and the magnificence of their every-day life was most impressive. from the moment of his coronation the aztec sovereign lived in an atmosphere of adulation unknown to the mightiest potentate of the old world. reverenced as a god, the haughtiest nobles, sovereigns in their own land, humbled themselves before him; absolute in power, the fate of thousands depended upon a gesture of his hand. [sidenote: ceremony of anointment.] the ceremony of anointment, which preceded and was entirely distinct from that of coronation, was an occasion of much display. in mexico, as soon as the new king was elected, which was immediately after the funeral of his predecessor, the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan were sent for to be present at the ceremony of anointment; all the great feudatory lords, who had been present at the funeral of the late king, were also invited to attend. when all are assembled the procession sets out for the temple of huitzilopochtli, the god of war. the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan, surrounded by all the most powerful nobles of the realm, bearing their ensigns and insignia of rank, lead the van. next comes the king elect, naked, excepting only the maxtli, or cloth about the loins; following these are the lesser nobles, and after them the common people. silently the procession wends its way along the streets; no beat of drum nor shout of people is heard above the tramping. the road in advance is as free from obstruction as a corridor in the royal palace; no one moves among the multitude that string along its edges, but all stand with bended head and eyes downcast until the solemn pageant has passed, when they close in with the jostling and whispering crowd that follows. arrived at the temple the king and that part of the procession which precedes him ascend to the summit. during the ascent he is supported on either side by a great lord, and such aid is not superfluous, for the staircases, having in all one hundred and fourteen steps, each a foot high, are so arranged that it is necessary to go completely round the building several times before reaching the top. on the summit the king is met by the high-priest and his colleagues, the people meanwhile waiting below. his first action upon reaching the summit is to pay reverence to the image of the god of battles by touching the earth with his hand and then carrying it to his mouth. the high-priest now anoints the king throughout his entire body with a certain black ointment, and sprinkles him with water which has been blessed at the grand feast of huitzilopochtli, using for this purpose branches of cedar and willow and leaves of maize;[ ] at the same time he addresses a few words of counsel to him. the newly anointed monarch is next clothed with a mantle, on which are represented skulls and bones, to remind him, we are told, that even kings are mortal; his head is covered with two cloths, or veils, one blue and the other black, and decorated in a similar manner; about his neck is tied a small gourd, containing a certain powder, which is esteemed a strong preservative against disease, sorcery, and treason. a censer containing live coals is put into his right hand, and into his left a bag of copal, and thus accoutred and provided he proceeds to incense the god huitzilopochtli.[ ] this act of worship he performs on his knees, amid the cheers of the people below, and the playing of musical instruments. he has concluded now, and the high-priest again addresses a short speech to him. consider well, sire, he says, the great honor which your subjects have conferred upon you, and remember now that you are king, that it is your duty to watch over your people with great care, to look upon them as your children, to preserve them from suffering, and to protect the weak from the oppression of the strong. behold before you the chiefs of your kingdom together with all your subjects, to whom you are both father and mother, for it is to you they turn for protection. it is now your place to command and to govern, and most especially is it your duty to bestow great attention upon all matters relating to war, to search out and punish criminals without regard to rank, to put down rebellion, and to chastise the seditious. let not the strength of religion decline during your reign, see that the temples are well cared for, let there be ever an abundance of victims for sacrifice, and so will you prosper in all your undertakings and be beloved of the gods. gomara affirms that the high-priest imposed an oath upon the king that during his reign he would maintain the religion of his ancestors, and observe their laws; that he would give offence to none, and be valiant in war; that he would make the sun to shine, the clouds to give rain, the rivers to flow, and the earth to bring forth fruits in abundance.[ ] the allied kings and the nobles next address him to the same purpose; to which the king answers with thanks and promises to exert himself to the utmost of his power for the happiness of the state. the speeches being ended the procession again winds round the temple until, following terrace after terrace, it finally reaches the ground in the same order that it went up. the king now receives homage and gifts from the rest of the nobility, amidst the loud acclaims of the people. he is next conducted to a temple called tlacatecco, where during four days he remains alone, doing penance and eating but once a day, with the liberty, however, of choosing his own food. twice in each twenty-four hours he bathes, once at noon and once at midnight, and after each bath he draws blood from his ears and offers it, together with some burnt copal, to huitzilopochtli. the remainder of his time during these four days he occupies in praying the gods to endow him with the wisdom and prudence necessary to the ruler of a mighty kingdom. on the fifth day he is conducted in state to the royal palace, where the feudatory lords come to renew the investiture of their feifs. then follow great public rejoicings, with games, feasts, dances, and illuminations. * * * * * [sidenote: coronation ceremony.] the coronation was, as i have stated, a ceremony distinct from the anointment. to prepare for it, it was necessary that the newly elected king should go out to war, to procure victims for the sacrifices necessary on such an occasion. they were never without enemies upon whom war might be made; either some province of the kingdom had rebelled, or mexican merchants had been unjustly put to death, or insult had been offered to the royal ambassadors, or, if none of these excuses was at hand, the importance of the occasion alone rendered war justifiable. of the manner in which war was waged, and of the triumphal return of the victorious army, i shall speak in another place. it appears that when a king of mexico was crowned, the diadem was placed upon his head by the king of tezcuco. the crown, which was called by the mexicans _copilli_, was in shape like a small mitre, the fore part of which stood erect and terminated in a point, while the hinder part hung down over the neck. it was composed of different materials, according to the pleasure of the wearer; sometimes it was of thin plates of gold, sometimes it was woven of golden thread and adorned with beautiful feathers.[ ] accounts of the particular ceremonies used at the coronation are wanting, but all agree that they were of unparalleled splendor. the new king entertained most sumptuously at his own palace all the great nobles of his realm; honors were conferred with a lavish hand, and gifts were made in profusion both by and to the king. splendid banquets were given in which all the nobility of the kingdom participated, and the lower classes were feasted and entertained with the greatest liberality. the fondness of the aztecs for all kinds of public games and festivals is evidenced in the frequency of their feasts, and in no way could a newly elected monarch better secure a place in the affections of his subjects than by inaugurating his reign with a series of splendid entertainments. the strange fascination which this species of enjoyment possessed for them is shown by the fact that strangers and foreigners came from afar to witness the coronation feasts, and it is related that members of hostile nations were frequently discovered disguised among the crowd, and were not only allowed by the clemency of the king to pass unmolested, but were provided with seats, from which they could obtain a good view of the proceedings and where they would be secure from insult.[ ] one of the principal features of the day was the congratulatory speech of one monarch to another, which was courteous and flattering and filled with good advice; the following address of nezahualpilli, king of tezcuco, to montezuma ii., on the occasion of the accession of the latter to the throne of mexico, will illustrate. [sidenote: address to the king.] the great good fortune, most mighty lord, which has befallen this kingdom in deserving thee for its monarch, is plainly shown by the unanimity with which thou wast elected, and by the general rejoicing of thy people thereat. and they have reason to rejoice; for so great is the mexican empire that none possessed of less wisdom, prudence, and courage, than thou, were fit to govern it. truly is this people beloved of the gods, in that they have given it light to choose that which is best; for who can doubt that a prince who, before he came to the throne, made the nine heavens his study,[ ] will, now that he is king, obtain the good things of the earth for his people? who can doubt that his well-tried courage will be even greater now that it is so much needed? who can believe that so mighty and powerful a prince will be found wanting in charity toward the orphan and the widow? who can doubt that the mexican people are favored of the gods, in having for a king one to whom the great creator has imparted so much of his own glory that by simply looking upon his face we are made to partake of that glory? rejoice, o happy land! for the gods have given thee a prince who will be a firm pillar for thy support, a father and a refuge for thy succor, a more than brother in pity and mercy toward his people. verily thou hast a king who will not avail himself of his high place to give himself up to sloth and pleasure, but who, rather, will lie sleepless through the night, pondering thy welfare. tell me, then, most fortunate land, have i not reason for saying, rejoice and be happy! and thou most noble and puissant lord, be of good heart, for as the high gods have appointed thee to this office, so will they grant thee strength to fill it; and be well assured that the gods who have been so gracious to thee during these many years, will not now fail in their goodness; by them hast thou been raised to thy present exalted position; we pray that with their help thou mayest continue to hold it during many happy years to come.[ ] it is probable that the orations used upon those occasions by the aztecs were, like their prayers, not spoken ex tempore, nor even prepared beforehand by the speaker; most likely they were in the form of a fixed ritual, each being prepared to suit a special occasion, such as the coronation or burial of a monarch, and repeated as often as such an occasion occurred. some orations must be delivered by particular persons; others needed only an eloquent speaker. sahagun gives us a speech which was addressed to a newly elected king. it could be delivered, he says, by one of the high-priests, or by a noble noted for his eloquence, or by some delegate from the provinces who was an eloquent speaker, or possibly by some learned senator, or other person well versed in the art of speech-making. the language is constrained and quaint, and possibly tiresome, but as a specimen of aztec oratory i give it in full, adhering to the sense, and as clearly as possible to the words of the original: o king, most pitiful, most devout, and best beloved, more worthy to be esteemed than precious stones or choice feathers, thou art here by the will of the lord our god, who has appointed thee to rule over us in the place of the kings thy ancestors, who, dying, have let fall from their shoulders the burden of government under which they labored, even as one who toils up a hill heavy-laden. perchance these dead ones still remember and care for the land which they governed, now, by the will of god, a desert, in darkness, and desolate without a king; peradventure they look with pity upon their country, which is become a place of briars and barren, and upon their poor people who are orphans, fatherless and motherless, knowing not nor understanding those things which are best; who are unable to speak for dumbness, who are as a body without a head. he who has lately left us was strong and valorous: for a few short days he was lent to us, then like a vision he slipped from our midst, and his passing was as a dream, for the lord our god hath called him to rest with the dead kings, his ancestors, who are to-day in a manner shut from our sight in a coffer. thus was he gathered to his people, and is even now with our father and mother, the god of hell, who is called mictlantecutli. will he, peradventure, return from the place to which he is gone? may it not be that he will come back to us? gone is he forever, and his kingdom has lost him. never again, through all coming time, may we see his face, nor those who come after us. he is gone from our sight forever. our light is put out; we, whom he illumined, whom he carried, as it were, upon his shoulders, are abandoned, and in darkness, and in great peril of destruction. behold he has left his people and the throne and seat whereon our lord god placed him, and which he made it his constant aim to hold in peace and quietness. he did not cover his hands and feet with his mantle for laziness, but with diligence did he work for the good of his people. in thee, o most compassionate king, we have a great solace and joy; in thee hath the lord god given us a sun-like glory and splendor. god points at thee with his finger, he hath written down thy name in red letters. it is fixed above and below, in heaven and in hell, that thou shalt be king and possess the throne and seat and dignity of this kingdom, the root of which was deep planted long ago by thine ancestors, they themselves being its first branches. to thee, sire, is entrusted the care of the seignory. thou art the successor of the lords, thy predecessors, and must bear the burden they bore; upon thy back must thou place the load of this kingdom; to the strength of thy thighs and thine arms does the lord god entrust the government of the common people, who are capricious and hard to please. for many years must thou support and amuse them as though they were young children; during all thy life must thou dandle them in thine arms, nurse them on thy lap and soothe them to sleep with a lullaby. o, our lord, most serene and estimable, this thing was determined in heaven and in hell; this matter was considered and thou wast signaled out, upon thee fell the choice of the lord our god. was it possible that thou couldst hide thyself or escape this decision? in what esteem dost thou hold the lord god? with what respect dost thou consider the kings and great nobles who have been inspired by god to choose thee for our father and mother, whose election is divine and irrevocable? this being so, o our lord, see that thou girdest thyself for thy task, that thou puttest thy shoulder to the burden which has been imposed upon thee. let the will of god be obeyed. perchance thou wilt carry this load for a space, or it may be that death will cut thee off, and thy election be as a dream. take heed, therefore, that thou art not ungrateful, setting small store by the benefits of god. be assured that he sees all secret things, and that he will afflict thee in such manner as may seem good to him. peradventure he will send thee into the mountains and waste places, or he will cast thee upon dirt and filthiness, or some fearful and ugly thing will happen to thee; perchance thou shalt be defamed and covered with shame, or discord and revolt shall arise in thy kingdom, so that thou shalt fall into contempt and be cast down; perhaps other kings, thine enemies, may rise up against thee and conquer thee; or possibly the lord may suffer famine and want to desolate thy kingdom. what wilt thou do if in thy time thy kingdom should be destroyed, and the wrath of our god should visit thee in a pestilence? or if the light of thy splendor should be turned into utter darkness, and thy dominions laid waste? or if death should come upon thee while thou art yet young, or the lord god should set his foot upon thee before thou hast fully gathered up the reins of government? what wilt thou do if god on a sudden should send forth armies of enemies against thee, from the wilderness or from the sea, from the waste and barren places where men wage war and shed blood that the thirst of the sun and the earth may be slaked? manifold are the punishments of god for those that offend him. wherefore, o our king, it behoves thee with all thy strength to do that which is right in the fulfilment of thine office, taking care that this be done with tears and sighs, and continual prayer to the lord our god, the invisible, the impalpable. draw near to him, sire, weeping, and in all sincerity, that he may help thee to govern in peace. beware that thou receivest with kindness and humility those that approach thee in grief and despair. neither speak nor act rashly, but hear calmly and to the end all complaints brought before thee; do not harshly interrupt the words of the speaker, for thou art the image of the lord god, in thee is represented his person, thou art his reliance, with thy mouth he speaks, with thine ear he listens. be no respecter of persons, sire, but punish all alike, and justly, for thou hast thy power of god, thy right hand to punish is as the claws and teeth of god, for thou art his judge and executioner. do justice, therefore, heeding the wrath of none; this is the command of god, who hath given the doing of these things into thine hand. take care that in the high places of the lords and judges there be nothing done snatchingly nor in haste, that there be no hot words nor deeds done in anger. say not now in thine heart, i am the lord, my will is law, but rather let this be an occasion for the humbling of thy valor and the lowering of thy self-esteem. look to it that thy new dignities be not the means of puffing thee up with pride and haughtiness, but in place thereof ponder often on thy former lowly estate, from which, without desert, thou wast taken and placed where thou now art. say to thine heart, who was i? who am i? not by mine own deserts did i attain this high place, but by the will of god; verily all this is a dream, and not sober truth. be watchful, sire, that thou dost not rest free from care, that thou dost not grow heedless with pleasure, and become a glutton and wine-bibber, spending in feasting and drunkenness that which is earned by the sweat of thy subjects; let not the graciousness which god has shown in electing thee king, be repaid with profanity, folly, and disturbances. o king and grandchild of ours, god watches over those that govern his kingdoms, and when they do wrong he laughs at them; he mocks and is silent; for he is the lord our god, he does what he pleases, he scoffs at whom he pleases; we are the work of his hand, in the hollow of his palm he tosses us to and fro even as balls and playthings, he makes a mockery of us as we stumble and fall, he uses us for his ends as we roll from side to side. strive hard, o king, to do what thou hast to do little by little. perchance the number of our sins has rendered us unworthy, and thy election will be to us a vision that passes; or perchance it may be the will of the lord that thou possess the royal dignity for a time; perchance he will prove thee, and put thee to the test, and, if thou art found wanting will set up another in thy place. are not the friends of the lord great in number? art thou the only one whom he holds dear? many are the friends of the lord; many are those that call upon him; many are those that lift up their voices before him; many are those that weep before him; many are those that tearfully pray to him; many are those that sigh in his presence; verily all these are uncountable. there are many generous and prudent men of great ability and power, who pray to the lord and cry aloud to him; behold, therefore, there are not lacking others beside thyself on whom to confer the dignity of king. peradventure as a thing that endures not, as a thing seen in sleep, the lord gives thee this great honor and glory; peradventure he gives thee to smell of his tender sweetness, and passes it quickly over thy lips. o king, most fortunate, bow down and humble thyself; weep with sadness and sigh; pray fervently and do the will of the lord by night as well as by day, during the time he sees fit to spare thee. act thy part with calmness, continually praying on thy throne with kindness and softness. take heed that thou givest none cause for pain or weariness or sorrow, that thou settest thy foot upon none, that thou frightest none with angry words or fierce looks. refrain also, o our king, from all lewd jests and converse, lest thou bring thy person into contempt; levity and buffoonery are not fit for one of thy dignity. incline not thine ear to ribaldry, even though it come from a near relative, for though as a man thou art mortal, yet in respect to thine office thou art as god. though thou art our fellow-creature and friend, our son and our brother, yet are we not thine equals, nor do we look upon thee as a man, in that thou now art the image of the lord god; he it is that speaks within thee, instructing us and making himself heard through thy lips; thy mouth is his mouth, thy tongue is his tongue, thy face is his face. already he has graced thee with his authority, he has given thee teeth and claws that thou mayest be feared and respected. see to it, sire, that thy former levity be now laid aside, that thou take to thyself the heart of an old man, of one who is austere and grave. look closely to thine honor, to the decency of thy person, and the majesty of thine office; let thy words be few and serious, for thou art now another being. behold the place on which thou standest is exceeding high, and the fall therefrom is perilous. consider that thou goest on a lofty ridge and upon a narrow path having a fearful depth sheer down on either side, so that it is impossible to swerve to the right or to the left without falling headlong into the abyss. it also behoves thee, sire, to guard thyself against being cross-grained and fierce and dreaded as a wild beast by all. combine moderation with rigor, inclining rather to mercy than to pitilessness. never show all thy teeth nor put forth the full length of thy claws. never appear startled or in fear, harsh or dangerous; conceal thy teeth and claws; assemble thy chief men together, make thyself acceptable to them with gifts and kind words. provide also for the entertainment of the common people according to their quality and rank; adapt thyself to the different classes of the people and ingratiate thyself with them. have a care and concern thyself about the dances, and about the ornaments and instruments used at them, for they are the means of infusing a warlike spirit into men. gladden the hearts of the common people with games and amusements, for thus wilt thou become famous and be beloved, and even after death thy fame will live and the old men and women who knew thee will shed tears of sorrow for thine absence. o most fortunate and happy king, most precious treasure, bear in mind that thou goest by a craggy and dangerous road, whereon thou must step with firmness, for in the path of kings and princes there are many yawning gulfs, and slippery places, and steep, pathless slopes, where the matted thorn-bushes and long grass hide pitfalls having pointed stakes set upright in them. wherefore it behoves thee to call upon thy god with moanings and lamentations, to watch constantly, and to shun the harlot, who is a curse and a sickness to man. sleep not lightly in thy bed, sire, but rather lie and ponder the affairs of thy kingdom; even in thy slumbers let thy dreams be of the good things in thy charge, that thou mayest know how best to distribute them among thy lords and courtiers, for there are many who envy the king, and would fain eat as he eats and drink as he drinks, wherefore is it said that kings 'eat the bread of grief.' think not, sire, that the royal throne is a soft and pleasant seat, for there is nothing but trouble and penitence. o blessed and most precious king, it is not my wish to cause pain to thine heart nor to excite thy wrath and indignation; it is sufficient for me that i have many times stumbled and slipped, aye, and have even fallen, during this discourse of mine; enough for me are the faults of the speech which i have spoken, going, in a manner, with jumps like a frog before our lord god, the invisible, the impalpable, who is here and listening to us, who has heard distinctly the slightest of the words which i have spoken stammeringly and with hesitation, in bad order and with unapt gestures; but in doing this i have complied with the custom which obliges the aged men of the state to address a newly elected king. in like manner have i done my duty to our god who hears me, to whom i make an offering of this my speech. long mayest thou live and reign, o lord and king. i have spoken. footnotes: [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi.; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] ixtlilxochitl, for whose patriotism due allowance must be made, writes: 'es verdad, que el de mexico y tezcuco fueron iguales en dignidad señorío y rentas; y el de tlacopan solo tenia cierta parte como la quinta, en lo que era rentas y despues en los otros dos.' _hist. chichimeca_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . zurita also affirms this: 'dans certaines, les tributs étaient répartis en portions égales, et dans d'autres on en faisait cinq parts: le souverain de mexico et celui de tezcuco en prélevaient chacun deux, celui de tacuba une seule.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. . 'quedó pues determinado que á los estados de tlacopan se agregase la quinta parte de las tierras nuevamente conquistadas, y el resto se dividiese igualmente entre el príncipe y el rey de méjico.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . brasseur de bourbourg agrees with and takes his information from ixtlilxochitl. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . torquemada makes a far different division: 'concurriendo los tres, se diese la quinta parte al rei de tlacupa, y el tercio de lo que quedase, à neçalhualcoiotl; y los demas, à itzcohuatzin, como à cabeça maior, y suprema.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . as also does clavigero: 'si diede quella corona (tlacopan) a totoquihuatzin sotto la condizione di servir con tutte le sue truppe al re di messico, ogni volta che il richiedesse, assegnando a lui medesimo per ciò la quinta parte delle spoglie, che si avessero dai nemici. similmente nezahualcojotl fu messo in possesso del trono d'acolhuacan sotto la condizione di dover soccorrere i messicani nella guerra, e perció gli fu assegnata la terza parte della preda, cavatane prima quella del re di tacuba, restando l'altre due terze parti pel re messicano.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . prescott says it was agreed that 'one fifth should be assigned to tlacopan, and the remainder be divided, in what proportion is uncertain, between the other powers.' _mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] torquemada writes: 'esta fue costumbre de estos mexicanos, en las elecciones, que hacian, que fuesen reinando sucesivamente, los hermanos, vnos despues de otros, y acabando de reinar el vltimo, entraba en su lugar, el hijo de hermano maior, que primero avia reinado, que era sobrino de los otros reies, qui à su padre avian sucedido.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'los reies (of mexico) no heredaban, sino que eran elegidos, y como vimos en el libro de los reies, quando el rei moria, si tenia hermano, entraba heredando; y muerto este, otro, si lo avia; y quando faltaba, le sucedia el sobrino, hijo de su hermano maior, à quien, por su muerte, avia sucedido, y luego el hermano de este, y así discurrian por los demas.' _id._, tom. ii., p. . zurita states that in tezcuco and tlacopan, and their dependent provinces, 'le droit de succession le plus ordinaire était celui du sang en ligne directe de père en fils; mais tous les fils n'héritaient point, il n'y avait que le fils aîné de l'épouse principale que le souverain avait choisie dans cette intention. elle jouissait d'une plus grande considération que les autres, et les sujets la respectaient davantage. lorsque le souverain prenaient une de ses femmes dans la famille de mexico, elle occupait le premier rang, et son fils succédait, s'il était capable.' then, without definitely stating whether he is speaking of all or part of the three kingdoms in question, the author goes on to say, that in default of direct heirs the succession became collateral; and finally, speaking in this instance of mexico alone, he says, that in the event of the king dying without heirs, his successor was elected by the principal nobles. in a previous paragraph he writes: 'l'ordre de succession variait suivant les provinces; les mêmes usages, à peu de différence prés, étaient reçus à mexico, à tezcuco et à tacuba.' afterward we read: 'dans quelques provinces, comme par exemple à mexico, les frères étaient admis à la succession, quoiqu'il y eût des fils, et ils gouvernaient successivement.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - . m. l'abbé brasseur de bourbourg, taking his information from zurita, and, indeed, almost quoting literally from the french translation of that author, agrees that the direct line of succession obtained in tlacopan and tezcuco, but asserts, regarding mexico, that the sovereign was elected by the five principal ministers of the state, who were, however, restricted in their choice to the brothers, nephews, or sons of the deceased monarch. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . pimentel also follows zurita. _memoria_, p. . prescott affirms that 'the sovereign was selected from the brothers of the deceased prince, or, in default of them, from his nephews.' _mex._, vol. i., p. . sahagun merely says: 'escogian uno de los mas nobles de la linea de los señores antepasados,' who should be a valiant, wise, and accomplished man. _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . 'per non lasciar troppa libertà agli elettori, e per impedire, quanto fosse possibile, gl'inconvenienti de' partiti, o fazioni, fissarono la corona nella casa d'acamapitzin; e poi stabilirono per legge, che al re morto dovesse succedere uno de'suoi fratelli, e mancando i fratelli, uno de'suoi nipoti, e se mai non ve ne fossero neppur di questi, uno de'suoi cugini restando in balìa degli elettori lo scegliere tra i fratelli, o tra i nipoti del re morto colui, che riconoscessero più idoneo pel governo, schivando con sí fatta legge parecchj inconvenienti da noi altrove accennati.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . leon carbajal quotes this almost literally. _discurso_, pp. - . that the eldest son could put forward no claim to the crown by right of primogeniture, is evident from the following: 'quando algun señor moria y dexava muchos hijos, si alguno se alzava en palacio y se queria preferir á los otros, aunque fuese el mayor, no lo consentia el señor á quien pertenecia la confirmacion, y menos el pueblo. antes dexavan pasar un año, ó mas de otro, en el qual consideravan bien que era mejor para regir ó governar el estado, y aquel permanecia por señor.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii. señor carbajal espinosa says that from the election of chimalpopoca, who succeeded his brother huitzilihuitl, and was the third king of mexico, 'quedó establecida la ley de elegir uno de los hermanos del rey difunto, y á falta de éstos un sobrino, cuya práctica se observó constantemente, como lo harémos ver, hasta la ruina del imperio mexicano.' _hist. de mex._, tom. i., p. . 'el imperio era monárquico, pero no hereditario. muriendo el emperador los gefes del imperio antiguamente se juntaban y elegian entre sí mismos al que creian mas digno, y por el cual la intriga, el manejo, la supersticion, eran mas felizmente reconocidas.' _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., p. . 'tambien auia sucession por sangre, sucedia el hijo mayor, siendo para ello, y sino el otro: en defeto de los hijos sucedian nietos, y en defeto dellos yua por elecion.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xv. as the order in which the mexican kings actually did follow each other should be stronger proof of what was the law than any other evidence, i take from the codex mendoza the following list: acamapichtli, who is usually spoken of as the first king, succeeded tenuch, although it is not stated that he was related to him in any way; then came huicilyhuitl, son of acamapichtli; chimalpupuca, son of huicilyhuitl, yzcoaci, son of acamapichtli; huehuemoteccuma, son of huicilyhuitl; axayacaci, son of tecocomochtli, and grandson of yzcoaci; tiçoçicatzi, son of axayacaci; ahuiçoçin, brother of tiçoçicatzi; motecçuma, son of axayacaci; thus, according to this author, we see, out of nine monarchs, three succeeded directly by their sons, and three by their brothers. _esplicacion_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - . see further, _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, and _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._ these writers differ slightly from the collection above quoted, but in no important respect. [ ] after the death of acamapichtli, the first king of mexico, a general council was held, and the people were addressed as follows: 'ya es fallido nuestro rey acamapichtli, á quien pondremos en su lugar, que rija y gobierne este pueblo mexicano? pobres de los viejos, niños y mugeres viejas que hay: que será de nosotros á donde irémos á demandar rey que sea de nuestra patria y nacion mexicana? hablen todos para de cual parte elegirémos rey, é ninguno puede dejar de hablar, pues á todos nos importa para el reparo, y cabeza de nuestra patria mexicana esté.' upon huitzilihuitl being proposed, 'todos juntos, mancebos, viejos y viejas respondieron á una: que sea mucho de enhorabuena, que á él quieren por señor y rey.' _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . sahagun's description of their manner of electing kings, appears also to be more appropriate to this early period than to a later date: 'cuando moria el señor ó rey para elegir otro, juntábanse los senadores que llamaban _tecutlatoque_, y tambien los viejos del pueblo que llamaban _achcacauhti_, y tambien los capitanes soldados viejos de la guerra que llamaban _iauiequioaque_, y otros capitanes que eran principales en las cosas de la guerra, y tambien los sátrapas que llamaban _tlenamacazque ó papaoaque_: todos estos se juntaban en las casas reales, y allí deliberaban y determinaban quien habia de ser señor.' _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . [ ] the exact number and rank of these electors is hard to determine. 'si le souverain de mexico mourait sans héritier, les principaux chefs lui choisissaient un successeur dont l'élection était confirmée par les chefs supérieurs de tezcuco et tacuba.' _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - . pimentel follows this, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. : 'tutti e due i re (of tezcuco and tlacopan) furono creati elettori onorarj del re di messico, il qual onore soltanto riducevasi a ratificare l'elezion fatta da quattro nobili messicani, ch'erano i veri elettori.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'despues en tiempo de izcoatl quarto rey, por consejo y orden de vn sabio y valeroso hombre, que tuuieron a llamado tlacaellèl se señalaron quatro electores, y a estos juntamente con dos señores, o reyes sujetos al mexicano, que eran el de tezcùco, y el de tacuba, tocaua hazer la elecion.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . these four electors 'de ordinario eran hermanos, o parientes muy cercanos del rey. llamauan a estos tlacohecalcàtl, que significa el príncipe de los lanças arrojadizas, que era vn genero de armas que ellos mucho vsauan.' _id._, p. . 'seis electores elegian el emperador, dos de cuales eran siempre los príncipes de tescuco á de acolhuacan y de tacuba, y un príncipe de la sangre real.' _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., p. . 'four of the principal nobles, who had been chosen by their own body in the preceding reign, filled the office of electors, to whom were added, with merely an honorary rank however, the two royal allies of tezcuco and tlacopan.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . brasseur de bourbourg gives the style and title of each elector, and says they were five in number, but does not state his authority: 'les principaux dignitaires du royaume, le cihuacohuatl ou ministre suprême de la justice et de la maison du roi, le tlacochcalcatl, généralissime ou maître de la maison des armes, l'atempanecatl, ou grand-maître des eaux, l'ezhuahuacatl, ou le maître du sang, et le tlillancalqui, ou chef de la maison-noire, composant entre eux le conseil de la monarchie, élisaient celui qui leur paraissait le plus apte aux affaires publiques, et lui donnaient la couronne.... il est douteux que les rois de tetzcuco et de tlacopan aient jamais pris une part directe à ce choix.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . at the foot of the same page is the following note: 'si havia duda ó diferencia quien debia de ser rey, averiguase lo mas aina que podian, y sino poco tenian que hacer (los señores de tetzcuco y tlacapan).' _gomara_, _crónica de nueva-españa, ap. barcia_, cap. . this quotation is not to be found, however in the place indicated. 'crearon cuatro electores, en cuya opinion se comprometian todos los votos del reino. eran aquellos funcionarios, magnates y señores de la primera nobleza, comunmente de sangre real, y de tanta prudencia y probidad, cuanta se necesitaba para un cargo tan importante.' _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'fue el quinto rey, motezuma primero deste nombre; y porque, para la elecion auia quatro eletores, con los quales interuenian los reyes tezcuco y de tacuba. se juntò con ellos tlacaellel como capitan general, y saliò elegido su sobrino motezuma.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xiii. after the king in rank, 'eran los quatro electores del rey, que tambien sucedian por elecion, y de ordinario eran hermanos, o parientes cercanos del rey, y a estos llamauan en su lengua, principes de las lanças arrojadizas, armas que ellos vsauan.' _id._, cap. xix. [ ] acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , gives the names of three military orders, of which the four royal electors formed one; and of a fourth, which was of a sacerdotal character. all these were of the royal council, and without their advice the king could do nothing of importance. herrera helps himself to this from acosta almost word for word: dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix. sahagun implies that this supreme council was composed of only four members: 'elegido el señor, luego elegian otros cuatro que eran como senadores que siempre habian de estar al lado de él, y entender en todos los negocios graves de reino, (estos cuatro tenian en diversos lugares diversos nombres).' _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . according to ixtlilxochitl the council whose duties corresponded to this in tezcuco, was composed of fourteen members. _hist. chichimeca_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. de mechoacan_, pp. , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. raza indígena_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . in the _west-indische spieghel_, pp. - , we read: 'dese stadt ende provincie wierden voor de comste der spaenjaerden soo treffelick gheregeert, als eenighe van die landen, daer was een cacique die absolutelick regeerde, staende onder de ghehoorsaemheydt van de groote heere van tenoxtitlan.' the old chronicler is mistaken here, however, as the kingdom of michoacan was never in any way subject to mexico. [ ] clavigero says that the city of tlascala was divided into four parts, each division having its lord, to whom all places dependent on such division were likewise subject. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. ii., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii.; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. raza indígena_, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. brasseur de bourbourg writes: 'dans les divers états du mixtecapan, les héritages passaient de mâle en mâle, sans que les femmes pussent y avoir droit.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; this may, however, refer merely to private property. [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, cap. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , writes: 'pusieronle corona real, y vngieronle, como fue costumbre hazerlo con todos sus reyes, con vna vncion que llamauan diuina, porque era la misma con que vngian su ydolo.' torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , says that acosta is mistaken, for, he observes that 'la corona que llamaba copilli, no se daba en esta ocasión, sino que en lugar de ella, le ponían las mantas dichas sobre la cabeça, ni tampoco era la vncion la misma que la de los idolos; porque la divina, que èl [acosta] nombra, era de ulli, y sangre de niños, con que tambien vngian al sumo sacerdote;' but torquemada here directly contradicts a previous statement of his own, tom. i., p. , where he says that immediately after the election, having seated the king elect upon a throne, 'le pusieron la corona real en su cabeça, y le vntaron todo el cuerpo, con la vncion, que despues acostumbraron, que era la misma con que vngian à su dios,' thus using almost the same words as acosta. leon y gama, _dos piedras_, says that the water used at the anointing was drawn from the fountain tozpalatl, which was held in great veneration, and that it was first used for this purpose at the anointment of huitzilihuitl, second king of mexico. [ ] sahagun states that the king was dressed upon this occasion in a tunic of dark green cloth, with bones painted upon it; this tunic resembled the huipil, or chemise of the women, and was usually worn by the nobles when they offered incense to the gods. the veil was also of green cloth ornamented with skulls and bones, and in addition to the articles described by other writers, this author mentions that they placed dark green sandals upon his feet. he also affirms that the four royal electors were confirmed in their office at the same time as the king, being similarly dressed, save that the color of their costume was black, and going through the same performances after him, except, of course, the anointment. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., p. . gomara says they hung upon the king's neck 'vnas correas coloradas largas y de muchos ramales: de cuios cabos colgauan ciertas insignias de rei, como pinjantes.' _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] the crown used by the early chichimec sovereigns was composed of a herb called _pachxochitl_, which grew on the rocks, surmounted by plumes of the royal eagle, and green fathers called _tecpilotl_, the whole being mounted with gold and precious stones, and bound to the head with strips of deer-skin. _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chichimeca_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. xi., p. . in another place, _relaciones_, in _id._, p. , the same writer says that the crown differed according to time and season. in time of war it was composed of royal eagle feathers, placed at the back of the head, and held together with clasps of gold and precious stones; in time of peace the crown was made of laurel and green feathers of a very rare bird called quezaltotolc; in the dry season it was made of a whitish moss which grew on the rocks, with a flower at the junction called _teoxuchitl_. [ ] concerning anointment and coronation, see _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; tom. ii., pp. , - ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xv.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. , - , ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _tezozomoc_, _crón. mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. - . in addition to the numerous works of acknowledged authority on the subject of aboriginal american civilization there are a number of others, chiefly of modern date, that treat more or less completely of the matter. many of these are mere compilations, put together without regard to accuracy or consistency; others are works which deal ostensibly with other spanish american matters and only refer to the ancient civilization in passing; their accounts are usually copied bodily from one or two of the old writers; some few profess to exhaust the subject; in these latter, however, the authors have failed to cite their authorities, or at best have merely given a list of them. to attempt to note all the points on which these writers have fallen into error, or where they differ from my text, would prove as tiresome to the reader as the result would lie useless. it will therefore be sufficient to refer to this class of books at the conclusion of the large divisions into which this work naturally falls. about the system of government, laws of succession, ceremonies of election, anointment and coronation, of the aztecs and other nations included in this division, see: _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mexicain_, pp. , - , - , ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _poinsett's notes mex._, _app._, pp. - ; _macgregor's progress of america_, p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, pp. - , - ; _hassel_, _mex. guat._, p. ; _dilworth_, _conq. mex._, p. ; _pradt_, _cartas_, pp. , ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. , - , - , - , ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , ; _cortés_, _aventuras_, _pref._, pp. - ; _chamber's jour._, vol. iv., p. ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, p. . [ ] 'que antes de reinar avia investigado los nueve dobleces de el cielo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . ortega, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. , writes: 'quel el que siendo particular supo penetrar los secretos del cielo;' 'that he who, being a private individual, could penetrate the secrets of heaven,' which appears more intelligible. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - . chapter iv. palaces and households of the nahua kings. extent and interior of the great palace in mexico--the palace of nezahualcoyotl, king of tezcuco--the zoÖlogical collections of the nahua monarchs--montezuma's oratory--royal gardens and pleasure-grounds--the hill of chapultepec--nezahualcoyotl's country residence at tezcozinco--toltec palaces--the royal guard--the king's meals--an aztec cuisine--the audience chamber--after-dinner amusements--the royal wardrobe--the king among his people--meeting of montezuma ii. and cortÉs--the king's harem--revenues of the royal household--policy of aztec kings. [sidenote: reliability of authorities.] in the preceding chapter we have seen how the monarchs were chosen, and anointed, and crowned, and feasted, and lectured; now let us follow them to their homes. and here i must confess i am somewhat staggered by the recitals. it is written that as soon as the new king was formally invested with the right of sovereignty, he took possession of the royal palaces and gardens, and that these abodes of royalty were on a scale of magnificence almost unparalleled in the annals of nations. how far we may rely on these accounts it is difficult to say; how we are to determine disputed questions is yet more difficult. in the testimony before us, there are two classes of evidence: one having as its base selfishness, superstition, and patriotism; the other disaffection, jealousy, and hatred. between these contending evils, fortunately, we may at least approximate to the truth. to illustrate: there can be no doubt that much concerning the aztec civilization has been greatly exaggerated by the old spanish writers, and for obvious reasons. it was manifestly to the advantage of some, both priests and adventurers, to magnify the power and consequence of the people conquered, and the cities demolished by them, knowing full well that tales of mighty realms, with countless man-eaters and fabulous riches, would soonest rouse the zeal and cupidity of the spaniards, and best secure to them both honors and supplies. gathered from the lips of illiterate soldiers little prone to diminish the glory of their achievements in the narration, or from the manuscripts of native historians whose patriotic statements regarding rival states no longer in existence could with difficulty be disproved, these accounts passed into the hands of credulous writers of fertile imagination, who drank in with avidity the marvels that were told them, and wrote them down with superhuman discrimination--with a discrimination which made every so-called fact tally with the writings of the fathers. these writers possessed in an eminent degree the faculty called by latter-day scholars the imaginative in history-writing. whatever was told them that was contrary to tradition was certainly erroneous, a snare of the devil; if any facts were wanting in the direction pointed out by doctrines or dogmas, it was their righteous duty to fill them in. thus it was in certain instances. but to the truth of the greater part of these relations, testimony is borne by the unanimity of the authors, though this is partly owing to their copying each from the writings of the others, and, more conclusively, by the architectural remains which survived the attacks of the iconoclastic conquerors, and the golden and bejeweled ornaments of such exquisite workmanship as to equal if not surpass anything of the kind in europe, which ornaments were sent to spain as proofs of the richness of the country. at this distance of time it is impossible to draw a definite line between the true and the false; nor do i feel it my duty to dogmatize in these matters, but rather to tell the tale as i find it, at the same time laying every shade of evidence before the reader. * * * * * [sidenote: royal palace at mexico.] the principal palace in the city of mexico was an irregular pile of low buildings, enormous in extent, constructed of huge blocks of _tetzontli_, a kind of porous stone common to that country, cemented with mortar. the arrangement of the buildings was such that they enclosed three great plazas or public squares, in one of which a beautiful fountain incessantly played. twenty great doors opened on the squares, and on the streets, and over these was sculptured in stone the coat of arms of the kings of mexico,--an eagle gripping in his talons a jaguar.[ ] in the interior were many halls, each of immense size, and one in particular is said by a writer who accompanied cortés, known as the anonymous conqueror, to have been of sufficient extent to contain three thousand men; while upon the terrace that formed its roof thirty men on horseback could have gone through the spear exercise.[ ] in addition to these there were more than one hundred smaller rooms, and the same number of marble baths, which together with the fountains, ponds, and basins in the gardens, were supplied with water from the neighboring hill of chapultepec. there were also splendid suites of apartments retained for the use of the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan, and their attendants, when they visited mexico, and for the ministers and counselors, and the great lords and their suites, who constantly resided at the capital. besides these, the private attendants of the king--and their name was legion--had to be provided for; so that when we consider the other extensive buildings, such as the harem, in which, according to some authorities, were nearly three thousand women; the armory, the granaries, storehouses, menageries, and aviaries, which either formed part or were in the immediate vicinity of the palace buildings, we are prepared somewhat to credit the anonymous conqueror aforesaid when he affirms that, although he four times wandered about the palace until he was tired, with no other purpose than to view its interior, yet he never succeeded in seeing the whole of it.[ ] the walls and floors of halls and apartments were many of them faced with polished slabs of marble, porphyry, jasper, obsidian, and white tecali;[ ] lofty columns of the same fine stones supported marble balconies and porticoes, every niche and corner of which was filled with wondrous ornamental carving, or held a grinning grotesquely sculptured head. the beams and casings were of cedar, cypress, and other valuable woods, profusely carved and put together without nails. the roofs of the palace buildings formed a suite of immense terraces, from which a magnificent view of the whole city could be obtained. superb mats of most exquisite finish were spread upon the marble floors; the tapestry that draped the walls and the curtains that hung before the windows were made of a fabric most wonderful for its delicate texture, elegant designs and brilliant colors; through the halls and corridors a thousand golden censers, in which burned precious spices and perfumes, diffused a subtle odor.[ ] the palace built by nezahualcoyotl, king of tezcuco, even surpassed that of montezuma in many respects. the tezcucan historian, ixtlilxochitl, has given a full description of it, which i partially translate. the collection of buildings, which composed not only the royal residence, but also the public offices and courts of law, extended from east to west twelve hundred and thirty-four and a half yards, and from north to south, nine hundred and seventy-eight yards. these were encompassed by a wall made of adobes strongly cemented together, and standing on a foundation of very hard mortar, six feet in width at the base. on its southern and eastern sides the wall was three times a man's stature in height; on the western side, towards the lake, and on the northern side it rose to the height of five times a man's stature.[ ] for one third of the distance from the base to the top, the wall grew gradually thinner, while the remainder was of one thickness.[ ] within this inclosure were the royal dwelling, the council-chambers, and other halls and apartments. there were also two large plazas, the outer one of which served as the public market-place. the inner court-yard was surrounded by the various courts of justice, and other halls where matters relative to science, art, and the army were judicially and otherwise considered, all of which will be described in their place, and also a hall where the archives of the kingdom were preserved. in the centre of the court-yard, which was also used as a market-place, was a tennis-court; on the west side were the apartments of the king, more than three hundred in number, all admirably arranged; here were also storehouses for tribute, and splendid suites of apartments reserved for the use of the kings of mexico and tlacopan when they visited tezcuco. these apartments led into the royal pleasure-gardens, which were artistically laid out with labyrinthian walks winding through the dark foliage, where often the uninitiated would lose themselves; then there were sparkling fountains, and inviting baths, and shady groves of cedar and cypress, and ponds well stocked with fish, and aviaries filled with birds of every hue and species, besides extensive menageries.[ ] the city of mexico, however, furnished the largest collection of animals, or at all events it is more fully described by the conquerors than others. the aztec monarchs took special pleasure in maintaining zoölogical collections on an immense scale, which fancy was probably more fully indulged by montezuma ii. than by any other. that prince caused to be erected in the city of mexico an immense edifice, surrounded by extensive gardens, which was used for no other purpose than to keep and display all kinds of birds and beasts. [sidenote: montezuma's menagerie.] one portion of this building consisted of a large open court, paved with stones of different colors, and divided into several compartments, in which were kept wild beasts, birds of prey, and reptiles. the larger animals were confined in low wooden cages made of massive beams. they were fed upon the intestines of human sacrifices, and upon deer, rabbits, and other animals. the birds of prey were distributed according to their species, in subterranean chambers, which were more than seven feet deep, and upwards of seventeen feet in length and breadth. half of each chamber was roofed with slabs of stone, under which perches were fixed in the wall, where the birds might sleep and be protected from the rain; the other half was covered only with a wooden grating, which admitted air and sunlight. five hundred turkeys were daily killed for food for these birds. alligators were kept in ponds walled round to prevent their escape, and serpents in long cages or vessels, large enough to allow them to move about freely. these reptiles were also fed on human blood and intestines. mr prescott tells us that the whole of this menagerie "was placed under the charge of numerous keepers, who acquainted themselves with the habits of their prisoners, and provided for their comfort and cleanliness." thomas gage, the shrewd old english heretic, takes another view. in his quaint though free and slashing style he writes: "but what was wonderful to behold, horrid to see, hideous to hear in this house, was the officers' daily occupations about these beasts, the floor with blood like a gelly, stinking like a slaughter-house, and the roaring of the lions, the fearful hissing of the snakes and adders, the doleful howling and barking of the wolves, the sorrowful yelling of the ownzes and tigres, when they would have meat. and yet in this place, which in the night season seemed a dungeon of hell, and a dwelling place for the devil, could a heathen prince pray unto his gods and idols; for near unto this hall was another of a hundred and fifty foot long and thirty foot broad, where was a chappel with a roof of silver and gold in leaf, wainscotted and decked with great store of pearl and stone, as agats, cornerines, emeralds, rubies, and divers other sorts; and this was the oratory where montezuma prayed in the night season, and in that chappel the devil did appear unto him, and gave him answer according to his prayers, which as they were uttered among so many ugly and deformed beasts, and with the noise of them which represented hell it self, were fitted for a devil's answer."[ ] [sidenote: zoÖlogical collection of montezuma.] in another part of the building was an immense hall which served as an aviary, in which were collected specimens of all the birds in the empire, excepting those of prey. they were of infinite variety and splendid plumage; many specimens were so difficult to obtain that their feathers brought almost fabulous prices in the mexican market; while some few, either because of their extreme rarity or their inability to live in confinement, did not appear even in the royal aviary, except in imitation, for we are told that, both in mexico and tezcuco, all kinds of birds and animals that could not be obtained alive were represented in gold and silver so skillfully that they are said to have served the naturalist hernandez for models. but to attain this honor, a bird must indeed have been a rara avis, a very phoenix, for it is related by torquemada and many others, on the authority of a spanish eye-witness, that the emperor montezuma ii. happening one day to see a sparrow-hawk soaring through the air, and "taking a fancy to its beauty and mode of flight," ordered his followers to catch it without delay and bring it alive to his hand; and such were the efforts made and care used, that in an incredibly short space of time "they captured that fierce and haughty hawk as though it had been but a gentle domestic pigeon, and brought it to the king."[ ] marble galleries, supported upon jasper pillars, all of one piece, surrounded this building, and looked out upon a large garden, wherein were groves of rare trees, choice shrubbery and flowers, and fountains filled with fish. but the prominent feature of the garden was ten large ponds for the use of water-fowl, some of which were filled with fresh and some with salt water, according to the nature of the birds that frequented them. each pond was surrounded with tessellated marble pavement and shaded by clumps of trees. as often as the water began to stagnate it was drained off and renewed. montezuma is said to have passed much of his time here, alone or with his women, seated in the shade, amid the plashing of fountains and odor of flowers, musing upon affairs of state or diverting his mind from such cares by watching the motions of the strange birds upon the water. no less than three hundred persons were employed in attending upon the water-fowl and the birds in the aviary; feeding them and in the moulting season carefully gathering the gorgeous plumes, which served as material for the celebrated aztec feather-work. the habits of the birds were closely studied, and great care was taken that every species should be supplied with the food best suited to its taste, whether it consisted of worms, insects, or seeds. the fish with which the water-fowl were supplied amounted to one hundred and fifty pounds daily. in another hall a collection of human monstrosities was kept. as we shall presently see, many of these unfortunate creatures were trained to play the part of jesters at the royal table. yet another hall contained a number of albinos, or white indians, who were considered a great curiosity. in addition to these city palaces the aztec monarchs had numerous equally splendid country residences, besides whole tracts of country set apart as royal hunting-grounds. in these parts timber was not allowed to be cut nor game disturbed, which regulations were enforced with great rigor. [sidenote: the hill of chapultepec.] the principal country villa of montezuma ii., and the only one of which any signs are yet visible, was situated upon the hill of chapultepec, which stood in a westerly direction from the city of mexico. in the days of the aztec kings, the lake of tezcuco washed the base of the hill, round which the royal grounds stretched for miles in every direction. the gardens were laid out in terraces, that wound down the hillside amid dense groves of pepper-trees, myrtles, and cypresses, innumerable fountains and artificial cascades. little of the ancient glory of either palace or gardens is now left, except the natural beauty of the foliage that clothes the hill, and the magnificent view to be obtained from the summit. two statues of montezuma ii. and his father, cut in bas relief on the porphyry rock, were still to be seen, gama tells us, in the middle of the last century, but these are now gone, swept away by the same ruthless hands that laid waste the hanging gardens and tore down halls and monuments until the groves of gigantic cypresses are all that is left standing in the gardens of chapultepec that ministered to the pleasure of the ancient owners. peter martyr, describing the palace at iztapalapan, writes, in the language of an early translator: "that house also hath orchardes, finely planted with diuers trees, and herbes, and flourishing flowers, of a sweete smell. there are also in the same, great standing pooles of water with many kindes of fish, in the which diuers kindes of all sortes of waterfoule are swimminge. to the bottome of these lakes, a man may descend by marble steppes brought farr of. they report strange thinges of a walke inclosed with nettinges of canes, least any one should freely come within the voyde plattes of grounde, or to the fruite of the trees. those hedges are made with a thousande pleasant deuises, as it falleth out in those delicate purple crosse alleyes, of mirtle, rosemary, or boxe, al very delightfull to behold."[ ] nezahualcoyotl, the tezcucan solomon, was no whit behind his royal brother of mexico in the matter of splendid country residences and gardens. not content with the royal pleasure-grounds called huectecpan, writes the chichimec historian,[ ] this great king made others, such as the forest so famous in tezcotzincan history, and those called cauchiacac, tzinacamoztoc, cozcaquauhco, cuetlachatitlan, or tlateitec, and those of the lake acatelelco, and tepetzinco; he likewise marked out a large tract, where he might pass his leisure moments in hunting. these gardens were adorned with fountains, drains, sewers, ponds, and labyrinths, and were planted with all kinds of flowers and trees, both indigenous and foreign. but nezahualcoyotl was not one to overlook utility in laying out his grounds. five large patches of the most fertile lands lying near the capital were brought under cultivation and the products appropriated exclusively to the use of the royal household. certain towns and provinces in the vicinity of the court furnished attendants and laborers for the palaces, gardens, and plantations. in return for such service said towns and provinces were exempt from taxation and enjoyed certain privileges. the manner of service was divided; thus twenty-eight towns supplied those who attended to the cleanliness and order of the royal buildings and waited upon the king and his suite; fourteen of these towns[ ] did service during one half of the year and the remainder[ ] during the other half. five towns provided attendants for the king's chamber,[ ] and eight provinces,[ ] with their dependent towns, furnished, each in its turn, foresters, gardeners, and agricultural laborers for the woods and gardens, ornamental or otherwise. [sidenote: summer palace at tezcozinco.] king nezahualcoyotl's favorite country residence, some remains of which are still visible, was at tezcozinco, on a conical hill lying about two leagues from tezcuco. a broad road, running between high hedges, and probably winding spirally round the hill, appears to have led up to the summit,[ ] which, however, could be reached in a shorter time by means of a flight of steps, many of which were cut into the living rock, and the remainder made of pieces of stone firmly cemented together. dávila padilla, who wrote in the latter part of the sixteenth century, says that he counted five hundred and twenty of these steps, without reckoning those that had already crumbled to pieces.[ ] he furthermore adds that for the last twelve steps in the ascent the staircase was tunneled through the solid rock, and became so narrow that only one person could pass at a time. dávila padilla inquired the reason of this of the natives, and was told by them, as they had heard it from their fathers, that this narrow passage enabled the tezcucan monarch to assert his rank by taking precedence of his royal visitors when they went in a body to worship the idol that stood upon the summit; not a very polite proceeding certainly.[ ] water was brought over hill and dale to the top of the mountain by means of a solid stone aqueduct. here it was received in a large basin, having in its centre a great rock, upon which were inscribed in a circle the hieroglyphics representing the years that had elapsed since nezahualcoyotl's birth, with a list of his most noteworthy achievements in each.[ ] within this circle the royal coat of arms was sculptured, the elaborate device of which it is almost impossible to imagine from the clumsy description of it given by ixtlilxochitl. as nearly as i can make it out, certain figures representing a deer's foot adorned with feathers and having a precious stone tied to it, a hind supporting an arm which grasps a bow and arrows, and a corseleted warrior, wearing a helmet with its ear-pieces, formed the centre; these were flanked by two houses, one in flames and falling to pieces, the other whole and highly ornamented; two tigers of the country, vomiting fire and water, served as supporters; the whole was surrounded by a border composed of twelve heads of kings and great nobles. from this basin the water was distributed through the gardens in two streams, one of which meandered down the northern side of the hill, and the other down the southern side. dávila padilla relates that there also stood upon the summit an image of a coyote, hewn from the living rock, which represented a celebrated fasting indian.[ ] there were likewise several towers or columns of stone, having their capitals made in the shape of a pot, from which protruded plumes of feathers, which signified the name of the place. lower down was the colossal figure of a winged beast, called by ixtlilxochitl a lion,[ ] lying down, with its face toward the east, and bearing in its mouth a sculptured portrait of the king; this statue was generally covered with a canopy adorned with gold and feather-work.[ ] [sidenote: ornamental gardens at tezcozinco.] a little lower yet were three basins of water, emblematic of the great lake, and on the borders of the middle one three female figures were sculptured on the solid rock, representing the heads of the confederated states of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan.[ ] upon the northern side of the hill was another pond; and here upon the rock was carved the coat of arms of the city of tollan, which was formerly the chief town of the toltecs; upon the southern slope of the hill was yet another pond, bearing the coat of arms and the name of the city of tenayuca, which was formerly the head town of the chichimecs. from this basin a stream of water flowed continually over the precipice, and being dashed into spray upon the rocks, was scattered like rain over a garden of odorous tropical plants.[ ] in the garden were two baths, dug out of one large piece of porphyry,[ ] and a flight of steps also cut from the solid rock, worked and polished so smooth that they looked like mirrors, and on the front of the stairs were carved the year, month, day, and hour in which information was brought to king nezahualcoyotl of the death of a certain lord of huexotzinco, whom he esteemed very highly, and who died while the said staircase was being built.[ ] the garden is said to have been a perfect little paradise. the gorgeous flowers were all transplanted from the distant tierra caliente; marble pavilions, supported on slender columns, with tesselated pavements and sparkling fountains, nestled among the shady groves and afforded a cool retreat during the long summer days. at the end of the garden, almost hidden by the groups of gigantic cedars and cypresses that surrounded it, was the royal palace,[ ] so situated that while its spacious halls were filled with the sensuous odors of the tropics, blown in from the gardens, it remained sheltered from the heat.[ ] [sidenote: toltec palaces.] if the ancient traditions may be believed, the toltec monarchs built as magnificent palaces as their aztec successors. the sacred palace of that mysterious toltec priest-king, quetzalcoatl, had four principal halls, facing the four cardinal points. that on the east was called the hall of gold, because its halls were ornamented with plates of that metal, delicately chased and finished; the apartment lying toward the west was named the hall of emeralds and turquoises, and its walls were profusely adorned with all kinds of precious stones; the hall facing the south was decorated with plates of silver and with brilliant-colored sea-shells, which were fitted together with great skill. the walls of the fourth hall, which was on the north, were red jasper, covered with carving and ornamented with shells. another of these palaces or temples, for it is not clear which they were, had also four principal halls decorated entirely with feather-work tapestry. in the eastern division the feathers were yellow; in the western they were blue, taken from a bird called xiuhtototl; in the southern hall the feathers were white, and in that on the north they were red.[ ] the number of attendants attached to the royal houses was very great. every day from sunrise until sunset the antechambers of montezuma's palace in mexico were occupied by six hundred noblemen and gentlemen, who passed the time lounging about and discussing the gossip of the day in low tones, for it was considered disrespectful to speak loudly or make any noise within the palace limits. they were provided with apartments in the palace,[ ] and took their meals from what remained of the superabundance of the royal table, as did, after them, their own servants, of whom each person of quality was entitled to from one to thirty, according to his rank. these retainers, numbering two or three thousand, filled several outer courts during the day. [sidenote: montezuma at table.] [sidenote: the royal wardrobe.] the king took his meals alone, in one of the largest halls of the palace. if the weather was cold, a fire was kindled with a kind of charcoal made of the bark of trees, which emitted no smoke, but threw out a delicious perfume; and that his majesty might suffer no inconvenience from the heat, a screen ornamented with gold and carved with figures of the idols[ ] was placed between his person and the fire. he was seated upon a low leather cushion, upon which were thrown various soft skins, and his table was of a similar description, except that it was larger and rather higher, and was covered with white cotton cloths of the finest texture. the dinner-service was of the finest ware of cholula, and many of the goblets were of gold and silver, or fashioned of beautiful shells. he is said to have possessed a complete service of solid gold, but as it was considered below a king's dignity to use anything at table twice, montezuma with all his extravagance, was obliged to keep this costly dinner-set in the temple. the bill of fare comprised everything edible of fish, flesh, and fowl, that could be procured in the empire or imported from beyond it. relays of couriers were employed in bringing delicacies from afar, and as the royal table was every day supplied with fresh fish brought, without the modern aids of ice and air-tight packing, from a sea-coast more than two hundred miles distant, by a road passing chiefly through a tropical climate, we can form some idea of the speed with which these couriers traveled. there were cunning cooks among the aztecs, and at these extravagant meals there was almost as much variety in the cooking as in the matter cooked. sahagun[ ] gives a most formidable list of roast, stewed, and boiled dishes of meat, fish, and poultry, seasoned with many kinds of herbs, of which, however, the most frequently mentioned is chile.[ ] he further describes many kinds of bread, all bearing a more or less close resemblance to the modern mexican tortilla,[ ] and all most tremendously named; imagine, for instance, when one wished for a piece of bread, having to ask one's neighbor to be good enough to pass the totanquitlaxcallitlaquelpacholli; then there were tamales of all kinds,[ ] and many other curious messes, such as frog-spawn, and stewed ants cooked with chile, but more loathsome to us than even such as these, and strangest of all the strange compounds that went to make up the royal carte, was one highly seasoned, and probably savory-smelling dish, so exquisitely prepared that its principal ingredient was completely disguised, yet that ingredient was nothing else than human flesh.[ ] each dish was kept warm by a chafing-dish placed under it. writers do not agree as to the exact quantity of food served up at each meal, but it must have been immense, since the lowest number of dishes given is three hundred,[ ] and the highest three thousand.[ ] they were brought into the hall by four hundred pages of noble birth, who placed their burdens upon the matted floor and retired noiselessly. the king then pointed out such viands as he wished to partake of, or left the selection to his steward, who doubtless took pains to study the likes and dislikes of the royal palate. this steward was a functionary of the highest rank and importance; he alone was privileged to place the designated delicacies before the king upon the table; he appears to have done duty both as royal carver and cup-bearer, and, according to torquemada, to have done it barefooted and on his knees.[ ] everything being in readiness, a number of the most beautiful of the king's women[ ] entered, bearing water in round vessels called xicales, for the king to wash his hands in, and towels that he might dry them, other vessels being placed upon the ground to catch the drippings. two other women at the same time brought him some small loaves of a very delicate kind of bread made of the finest maize-flour, beaten up with eggs. this done, a wooden screen, carved and gilt, was placed before him, that no one might see him while eating.[ ] there were always present five or six aged lords, who stood near the royal chair barefooted, and with bowed heads. to these, as a special mark of favor, the king occasionally sent a choice morsel from his own plate. during the meal the monarch sometimes amused himself by watching the performances of his jugglers and tumblers, whose marvelous feats of strength and dexterity i shall describe in another place; at other times there was dancing, accompanied by singing and music; there were also present dwarfs, and professional jesters, who were allowed to speak, a privilege denied all others under penalty of death, and, after the manner of their kind, to tell sharp truths in the shape of jests. the more solid food was followed by pastry, sweetmeats, and a magnificent dessert of fruit. the only beverage drank at the meal was chocolate,[ ] of which about fifty jars were provided;[ ] it was taken with a spoon, finely wrought of gold or shell, from a goblet of the same material. having finished his dinner, the king again washed his hands in water brought to him, as before, by the women. after this, several painted and gilt pipes were brought, from which he inhaled, through his mouth or nose, as suited him best, the smoke of a mixture of liquid-amber, and an herb called tobacco.[ ] his siesta over, he devoted himself to business, and proceeded to give audience to foreign ambassadors, deputations from cities in the empire, and to such of his lords and ministers as had business to transact with him. before entering the presence-chamber, all, no matter what their rank might be, unless they were of the blood-royal, were obliged to leave their sandals at the door, to cover their rich dresses with a large coarse mantle, and to approach the monarch, barefooted and with downcast eyes, for it was death to the subject who should dare to look his sovereign in the face.[ ] the king usually answered through his secretaries,[ ] or when he deigned to speak directly to the person who addressed him, it was in such a low tone as scarcely to be heard;[ ] at the same time he listened very attentively to all that was communicated to him, and encouraged those who, from embarrassment, found difficulty in speaking. each applicant, when dismissed, retired backward, keeping his face always toward the royal seat. the time set apart for business having elapsed, he again gave himself up to pleasure, and usually passed the time in familiar badinage with his jesters, or in listening to ballad-singers who sang of war and the glorious deeds of his ancestors, or he amused himself by looking on at the feats of strength and legerdemain of his jugglers and acrobats; or, sometimes, at this hour, he would retire to the softer pleasures of the harem. he changed his dress four times each day, and a dress once worn could never be used again. concerning this custom, peter martyr, translated into the quaintest of english, writes: "arising from his bed, he is cloathed after one maner, as he commeth forth to bee seene, and returning backe into his chamber after he hath dined, he changeth his garments: and when he commeth forthe againe to supper, hee taketh another, and returning backe againe the fourth which he weareth vntill he goe to bed. but concerning . garments, which he changeth euery day, many of them that returned haue reported the same vnto me, with their owne mouth: but howsoeuer it be, all agree in the changing of garmentes, that being once taken into the wardrope, they are there piled vp on heaps, not likely to see the face of muteczuma any more: but what manner of garmentes they be, we will elswhere declare, for they are very light. these things being obserued, it wil not be wondred at, that we made mention before concerning so many garments presented. for accounting the yeares, and the dayes of the yeares, especially, wherein muteczuma hath inioyed peace & howe often he changeth his garments euery daye, all admiration will cease. but the readers will demand, why he heapeth vp so great a pile of garments, & that iustly. let them knowe that muteczuma vsed to giue a certeine portion of garments to his familiar friends, or well deseruing soldiers, in steed of a beneuolence, or stipend, when they go to the wars, or returne from ye victory, as augustus cæsar lord of the world, a mightier prince than muteczuma, commanded only a poore reward of bread to be giuen ouer & aboue to such as performed any notable exployt, while being by maro admonished, that so smal a larges of bread was an argument yet he was a bakers son: then although it be recorded in writing that cæsar liked ye mery conceit, yet it is to be beleued yet he blushed at that diuination, because he promised virgil to alter his disposition & that hereafter he would bestow gifts worthy a great king, & not a bakers son."[ ] [sidenote: the king out of doors.] the kings did not often appear among their people,[ ] though we are told that they would sometimes go forth in disguise to see that no part of the religious feasts and ceremonies was omitted, to make sure that the laws were observed, and probably, as is usual in such cases, to ascertain the true state of public opinion with regard to themselves.[ ] whenever they did appear abroad, however, it was with a parade that corresponded with their other observances. upon these occasions the king was seated in a magnificent litter, overshadowed by a canopy of feather-work, the whole being adorned with gold and precious stones, and carried upon the shoulders of four noblemen. he was attended by a vast multitude of courtiers of all ranks, who walked without speaking, and with their eyes bent upon the ground. the procession was headed by an official carrying three wands, whose duty it was to give warning of the king's approach, and by others who cleared the road of all obstructions.[ ] all who chanced to meet the royal party, instantly stopped, and remained motionless with heads bent down, like friars chanting the gloria patri, says father motolinia, until the procession had passed. when the monarch alighted, a carpet was spread upon the ground for him to step on. the meeting of montezuma ii. and cortés, as described by bernal diaz, will show the manner in which the aztec kings were attended when out of doors: "when we arrived at a spot where another narrow causeway led towards cuyoacan, we were met by a number of caciques and distinguished personages, all splendidly dressed. they had been sent by montezuma to meet us and welcome us in his name; and as a sign of peace each touched the earth with his hand and then kissed it.[ ] while we were thus detained, the lords of tezcuco, iztapalapa, tacuba, and cuyoacan, advanced to meet the mighty montezuma, who was approaching seated on a splendid litter, and escorted by a number of powerful nobles. when we arrived at a place not far from the capital, where were certain fortifications, montezuma, descending from his litter, came forward leaning on the arms of some of the attendant lords, while others held over him a canopy of rich feather-work ornamented with silver and gold, having an embroidered border from which hung pearls and chalchihuis stones.[ ] montezuma was very sumptuously dressed, according to his custom, and had on his feet a kind of sandals, with soles of gold, the upper part being studded with precious stones. the four grandees[ ] who supported him were also very richly attired, and it seemed to us that the clothes they now wore must have been held in readiness for them somewhere upon the road, for they were not thus dressed when they first came out to meet us. and besides these great lords there were many others, some of whom held the canopy over the king's head, while others went in advance, sweeping the ground over which he was to walk, and spreading down cotton cloths that his feet might not touch the earth. excepting only the four nobles upon whose arms he leaned, and who were his near relatives, none of all his followers presumed to look in the king's face, but all kept their eyes lowered to the ground in token of respect."[ ] [sidenote: the royal harem.] besides the host of retainers already mentioned there were innumerable other officers attached to the royal household, such as butlers, stewards, and cooks of all grades, treasurers, secretaries, scribes, military officers, superintendents of the royal granaries and arsenals, and those employed under them. a great number of artisans were constantly kept busy repairing old buildings and erecting new ones, and a little army of jewelers and workers in precious metals resided permanently at the palace for the purpose of supplying the king and court with the costly ornaments that were eventually such a windfall for the conquerors, and over the description of which they one and all so lovingly linger. nor was the softer sex unrepresented at court. the aztec sovereigns were notorious for their uxoriousness. montezuma ii. had in his harem at least one thousand women, and this number is increased by most of the historians to three thousand, including the female attendants and slaves. of these we are told on good authority that he had one hundred and fifty pregnant at one time, all of whom killed their offspring in the womb;[ ] yet notwithstanding this wholesale abortion, he had more than fifty sons and daughters. his father had one hundred and fifty children, of whom montezuma ii. killed all his brothers and forced his sisters to marry whom he pleased;--at least such is the import of oviedo's statement.[ ] nezahualpilli, of tezcuco, had between seventy and one hundred children.[ ] camargo tells us that xicotencatl, one of the chiefs of tlascala had a great number of sons by more than fifty wives or concubines.[ ] these women were the daughters of the nobles, who thought themselves honored by having a child in the royal harem. occasionally the monarch presented one of his concubines to some great lord or renowned warrior, a mark of favor which thenceforth distinguished the recipient as a man whom the king delighted to honor. the seraglio was presided over by a number of noble matrons, who kept close watch and ward over the conduct of their charges and made daily reports to the king, who invariably caused the slightest indiscretion to be severely punished. whether eunuchs were employed in the aztec harems is uncertain; this, however, we read in motolinia: "moteuczomatzin had in his palace dwarfs and little hunchbacks, who when children were with great ingenuity made crook-backed, ruptured,[ ] and disjointed, because the lords in this country made the same use of them as at the present day the grand turk does of eunuchs."[ ] the enormous expenditure incurred in the maintenance of such a household as this, was defrayed by the people, who, as we shall see in a future chapter, were sorely oppressed by over-taxation. the management of the whole was entrusted to a head steward or majordomo, who, with the help of his secretaries, kept minute hieroglyphic accounts of the royal revenue. bernal diaz tells us that a whole apartment was filled with these account-books.[ ] in tezcuco, writes ixtlilxochitl, the food consumed by the court was supplied by certain districts of the kingdom, in each of which was a gatherer of taxes, who besides collecting the regular tributes, was obliged to furnish the royal household, in his turn, with a certain quantity of specified articles, for a greater or less number of days, according to the wealth and extent of his department. the daily supply amounted to thirty-one and a quarter bushels of grain; nearly three bushels and three quarters of beans;[ ] four hundred thousand ready-made tortillas; four xiquipiles[ ] of cocoa, making in all thirty-two thousand cocoa-beans;[ ] one hundred cocks of the country;[ ] twenty loaves of salt; twenty great baskets of large chiles, and twenty of small chiles; ten baskets of tomatoes; and ten of seed.[ ] all this was furnished daily for seventy days by the city of tezcuco and its suburbs, and by the districts of atenco, and tepepulco; for sixty-five days by the district of quauhtlatzinco; and for forty-five days by the districts of azapocho and ahuatepec.[ ] [sidenote: aztec kings and their subjects.] such, as full in detail as it is handed down to us, was the manner in which the aztec monarchs lived. the policy they pursued toward their subjects was to enforce obedience and submission by enacting laws that were calculated rather to excite awe and dread than to inspire love and reverence. to this end they kept the people at a distance by surrounding themselves with an impassable barrier of pomp and courtly etiquette, and enforced obedience by enacting laws that made death the penalty of the most trivial offenses. there was little in common between king and people; as is ever the case between a despot and his subjects. the good that the kings did by their liberality and love of justice, and the success they nearly all achieved by their courage and generalship, merited the admiration of their subjects. on the other hand, the oppression which they made their vassals feel, the heavy burdens they imposed upon them, their own pride and arrogance, and their excessive severity in punishments, engendered what we should now call a debasing fear, but which is none the less an essential element of progress at certain stages.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ix. though it is more than probable that gomara means the same thing, yet the manner in which he expresses it leaves us in some doubt whether the tiger might not have been standing over the eagle. 'el escudo de armas, que estaua por las puertas de palacio y que traen las vanderas de motecçuma, y las de sus antecessores, es vna aguila abatida a vn tigre, las manos y vñas puestas como para hazer presa.' _conq. mex._, fol. . 'het wapen dat boven de poorte stont, was een arent die op een griffioen nederdaelde, met open clauwen hem ghereet maeckende, om syn roof te vatten.' _west-indische spieghel_, p. . [ ] _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] _ib._ [ ] 'le tecali paraît être la pierre transparente semblable à l'albâtre oriental, dont on faisait un grand usage à mexico, et dont les réligieux se servirent même pour faire une espèce de vitres à leurs fenêtres. on en trouve encore de ce genre dans plusieurs couvents de la puebla de los angeles.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] incense-offering among the mexicans, and other nations of anáhuac, was not only an act of religion towards their gods, but also a piece of civil courtesy to lords and ambassadors. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . cortés during his march to the capital was on more than one occasion met by a deputation of nobles, bearing censers which they swung before him as a mark of courtesy. [ ] prescott, _mex._, vol. i., p. , makes in both cases the 'estado' the same measure as the 'vara,' that is three feet, a clumsy error certainly, when translating such a sentence as this: 'que tenia de grueso dos varas, y de alto tres estados.' [ ] 'Á manera de estribo,' writes ixtlilxochitl. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. - . [ ] _gage's new survey_, p. . concerning this oratory, see _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., tom. i., cap. l. torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , asserts that the gold and silver plates with which the walls and roof were coated, were almost as thick as a finger, and that the first conquerors did not see this chapel or oratory, because montezuma always went to the temple to pray, and probably, as the natives declared, knowing the covetousness of the spaniards, he purposely concealed all this wealth from them; it is also said that when mexico was taken the natives destroyed this chapel, and threw its treasures into the lake. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - . [ ] their names, as given by ixtlilxochitl, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , were: huexotla, coatlichan, coatapec, chimalhuacan, ytztapalocan, tepetlaoztoc, acolman, tepechpan, chiuhnauhtlan, teioiocan, chiauhtla, papalotlan, xaltocan, and chalco. [ ] otompan, teotihuacan, tepepolco, cempoalon, aztaquemecan, ahuatepec, axapochoc, oztoticpac, tizayocan, tlalanapan, coioac, quatlatlauhcan, quauhtlacca, and quatlatzinco. _ib._ [ ] 'para la recámara del rey,' namely: calpolalpan, mazaapan, yahualiuhcan, atenco, and tzihuinquilocan. _ib._ it is unreasonable to suppose that these so-called 'towns' were really more than mere villages, since the kingdoms proper of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan, of which they formed only a fraction, were all contained in a valley not two hundred miles in circumference. [ ] tolantzinco, quauhchinanco, xicotepec, pauhatla, yauhtepec, tepechco, ahuacaiocan, and quauhahuac. _ib._; see also _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'la cerca tan grande que tenia para subir á la cumbre de él y andarlo todo.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'para subir hasta esta cumbre se passan quinientos y veynte escalones, sin algunos que estan ya deshechos, por auer sido de piedras sueltas y puestas à mano: que otros muchos escalones ay, labrados en la propia peña con mucha curiosidad. el año pasado los anduue todos, y los contè, para deponer de vista.' _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . prescott, _mex._, vol. i., p. , citing the above author, gives five hundred and twenty as the whole number of steps, without further remark. [ ] torquemada also mentions this staircase. _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'esculpida en ella en circunferencia los años desde que habia nacido el rey nezahualcoiotzin, hasta la edad de aquel tiempo.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . prescott says that the hieroglyphics represented the 'years of nezahualcoyotl's reign.' _mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . 'this figure was, no doubt, the emblem of nezahualcoyotl himself, whose name ... signified "hungry fox."' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. , note . [ ] 'un leon de mas de dos brazas de largo con sus alas y plumas.' _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] these figures were destroyed by order of fr juan de zumárraga, first bishop of mexico. _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . the injury wrought by this holy iconoclast is incalculable. blinded by the mad fanaticism of the age, he saw a devil in every aztec image and hieroglyph; his hammers did more in a few years to efface all vestiges of aztec art and greatness than time and decay could have done in as many centuries. it is a few such men as this that the world has to thank for the utter extinction in a few short years of a mighty civilization. in a letter to the franciscan chapter at tolosa, dated june , , we find the old bigot exulting over his vandalism. 'very reverend fathers,' he writes: 'be it known to you that we are very busy in the work of converting the heathen; of whom, by the grace of god, upwards of one million have been baptized at the hands of the brethren of the order of our seraphic father saint francis; five hundred temples have been leveled to the ground, and more than twenty thousand figures of the devils they worshiped have been broken to pieces and burned.' and it appears that the worthy zealot had even succeeded in bringing the natives themselves to his way of thinking, for further on he writes: 'they watch with great care to see where their fathers hide the idols, and then with great fidelity they bring them to the religious of our order that they may be destroyed; and for this many of them have been brutally murdered by their parents, or, to speak more properly, have been crowned in glory with christ.' _dicc. univ._, app., tom. iii., p. . [ ] there is a singular confusion about this passage. in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , ixtlilxochitl is made to write: 'un poquito mas abajo estaban tres albercas de agua, y en la del medio estaban en sus bordos tres damas esculpidas y labradas en la misma peña, que significaban la gran laguna; y las _ranas_ los cabezas del imperio.' in _prescott's mex._, app., vol. iii., pp. - , ixtlilxochitl's description of tezcozinco is given in full; the above-quoted passage is exactly the same here except that for _ranas_, frogs, we read _ramas_, branches. either of these words would render the description incomprehensible, and in my description i have assumed that they are both misprints for _damas_. mr prescott, _mex._, vol. i., pp. - , surmounts the difficulty as follows: 'on a lower level were three other reservoirs, _in each of which stood a marble statue of a woman_, emblematic of the three states of the empire.' this is inaccurate as well as incomplete, inasmuch as the figures were not statues, each standing in a basin, but were all three cut upon the face of the rock-border of the middle basin. [ ] i have no doubt that this is the basin known to modern travelers as the 'baths of montezuma,' of which ward says that it is neither of the proper shape, nor large enough for a bath, but that it more probably 'served to receive the waters of a spring, since dried up, as its depth is considerable, while the edge on one side is formed into a spout.' _mexico_, vol. ii., p. . of late years this excavation has been repeatedly described by men who claim to have visited it, but whose statements it is hard to reconcile. bullock mentions having seen on this spot 'a beautiful basin about twelve feet long by eight wide, having a well about five feet by four deep in the centre, surrounded by a parapet or rim two feet six inches high, with a throne or chair, such as is represented in ancient pictures to have been used by the kings. there are steps to descend into the basin or bath; the whole cut out of the living porphyry rock with the most mathematical precision, and polished in the most beautiful manner.' _mexico_, vol. ii., pp. - . latrobe says there were 'two singular basins, of perhaps two feet and a half in diameter, not big enough for any monarch bigger than oberon to take a duck in.' _rambler_, p. ; _vigne's travels_, vol. i., p. , mentions 'the remains of a circular stone bath ... about a foot deep and five in diameter, with a small surrounding and smoothed space cut out of the solid rock.' brantz mayer, who both saw it and gives a sketch of it, writes: 'the rock is smoothed to a perfect level for several yards, around which, seats and grooves are carved from the adjacent masses. in the centre there is a circular sink, about a yard and a half in diameter, and a yard in depth, and a square pipe, with a small aperture, led the water from an aqueduct, which appears to terminate in this basin.' _mex. as it was_, p. . beaufoy says that two-thirds up the southern side of the hill was a mass of fine red porphyry, in which was an excavation six feet square, with steps leading down three feet, having in the centre a circular basin four and a half feet in diameter and five deep also with steps. _mex. illustr._, p. . 'on the side of the hill are two little circular baths, cut in the solid rock. the lower of the two has a flight of steps down to it; the seat for the bather, and the stone pipe which brought the water, are still quite perfect.' _tylor's anahuac_, p. . [ ] 'tras este jardin se seguian los baños hechos y labrados de peña viva, que con dividirse en dos baños era de una pieza.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _ib._ [ ] dávila padilla says that some of the gateways of this palace were formed of one piece of stone, and he saw one beam of cedar there which was almost ninety feet in length and four in breadth. _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . [ ] concerning the royal buildings, gardens, &c., of the aztecs, compare _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., tom. i., cap. l.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , - ; _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, pp. - ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _acosta's hist. nat. ind._, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ix.-xi.; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. - , ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii., iv., x.; _chevalier_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _raza indígena_, p. ; _tápia_, _relacion_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., pp. - . other works of no original value, which touch on this subject, are: _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. , , - , - ; _ranking's hist. researches_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mexicain_, pp. - , ; _macgregor's progress of america_, p. ; _dilworth's conq. mex._, pp. , ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt i., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . [ ] close to the great audience hall was a very large court-yard, 'en que avia çient aposentos de veynte é çinco ó treynta piés de largo cada uno sobre sí en torno de dicho patio, é allí estaban los señores prinçipales apossentados, como guardas del palacio ordinarias.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'vna como tabla labrada con oro, y otras figuras de idolos.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - . [ ] this pungent condiment is at the present day as omnipresent in spanish american dishes as it was at the time of the conquest; and i am seriously informed by a spanish gentleman who resided for many years in mexico, and was an officer in maximilian's army, that while the wolves would feed upon the dead bodies of the french that lay all night upon the battle-field, they never touched the bodies of the mexicans, because the flesh of the latter was completely impregnated with chile. which, if true, may be thought to show that wolves do not object to a diet seasoned with garlic. [ ] described too frequently in vol. i., of this series, to need repetition. [ ] the tamale is another very favorite modern mexican dish. the natives generally make them with pork; the bones are crushed almost to powder; the meat is cut up in small pieces, and the whole washed; a small quantity of maize paste, seasoned with cinnamon, saffron, cloves, pimento, tomatoes, coarse pepper, salt, red coloring matter, and some lard added to it, is placed on the fire in a pan; as soon as it has acquired the consistency of a thick gruel it is removed, mixed with the meat, some more lard and salt added, and the mass kneaded for a few moments; it is then divided into small portions, which are enveloped in a thin paste of maize. the tamales thus prepared are covered with a banana-leaf or a corn-husk, and placed in a pot or pan over which large leaves are laid. they are allowed to boil from one hour and a half to two hours. game, poultry, vegetables, or sweetmeats are often used instead of pork. [ ] torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , regrets that certain persons, out of the ill-will they bore the mexicans, have falsely imputed to montezuma the crime of eating human flesh without its being well seasoned, but he admits that when properly cooked and disguised, the flesh of those sacrificed to the gods appeared at the royal board. some modern writers seem to doubt even this; it is, however, certain that cannibalism existed among the people, not as a means of allaying appetite, but from partly religious motives, and there seems no reason to doubt that the king shared the superstitions of the people. i do not, however, base the opinion upon oviedo's assertion, which smacks strongly of the 'giant stories' of the nursery, that certain 'dishes of tender children' graced the monarch's table. _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . bernal diaz, _hist. conq._, fol. , also cannot withstand the temptation to deal in the marvelous, and mentions 'carnes de muchachos de poca edad;' though it is true the soldier-like bluntness the veteran so prided himself upon, comes to his aid, and he admits that perhaps after all montezuma was not an ogre. [ ] _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] bernal diaz, _hist. conq._, fol. , says there were four of these women; torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , says there were twenty. [ ] 'e ya que començaua á comer, echauanle delante vna como puerta de madera muy pintada de oro, porque no le viessen comer.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'luego que se sentaba à la mesa, cerraba el maestre-sala vna varanda de madera, que dividia la sala, para que la nobleça de los caballeros, _que acudia à verle comer_, no embaraçase la mesa.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'tosto che il re si metteva a tavola, chiudeva lo scalco la porta della sala, acciocchè nessuno degli altri nobili lo vedesse mangiare.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'a potation of chocolate, flavored with vanilla and other spices, and so prepared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which gradually dissolved in the mouth.' _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . 'this was something like our chocolate, and prepared in the same way, but with this difference, that it was mixed with the boiled dough of maise, and was drunk cold.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, [lockhart's translation lond., , vol. i., note, p. ]. 'la bebida es agua mezclada con cierta harina de unas almendras que llaman _cacao_. esta es de mucha sustancia, muy fresca, y sabrosa y agradable, y no embriaga.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi. [ ] 'entonces no mirauamos en ello; mas lo que yo vi, que traian sobre cincuenta jarros grandes hechos de buen cacao con su espuma, y de lo que bebia.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . oviedo, as usual, is content with no number less than three thousand: 'É luego venian tres mill _xícalos_ (cántaros ó ánforas) de brevage.' _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . las casas makes it three hundred: 'a su tiempo, en medio ò en fin de los manjares segun la costumbre que tenian, entravan otros trescientos pajes, cada uno con un vaso grande que cabia medio azumbre, (about a quart), y aun tres quartillos de la bebida en el mismo, y servia el un vaso al rey el maestresala, de que bebia lo que le agradava.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi. [ ] 'vnas yervas que se dize tabaco.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] only five persons enjoyed the privilege of looking montezuma ii. in the face: the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan, and the lords of quauhtitlan, coyouacan, and azcapuzalco. _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi. bernal diaz says that all who approached the royal seat made three reverences, saying in succession, 'lord,' 'my lord,' 'sublime lord.' _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] this custom of speaking through a secretary was adopted by the other aztec monarchs as well as montezuma, and was also imitated by many of the great tributary lords and governors of provinces who wished to make as much display of their rank and dignity as possible. see _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'lo que los señores hablaban y la palabra que mas ordinariamente decian al fin de las pláticas y negocios que se les comunicaban, eran decir con muy baja voz _tlaa_, que quiere decir "sí, ó bien, bien."' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv. [ ] torquemada writes of montezuma ii.: 'su trato con los suios era poco: raras veces se dejaba vèr, y estabase encerrado mucho tiempo, pensando en el govierno de su reino.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] picking up straws, says las casas: 'É iban estos oficiales delante quitando las pajas del suelo por finas que fuesen.' _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi. [ ] this was the aztec manner of salutation, and is doubtless what bernal diaz means where he writes: 'y en señal de paz tocauan con la mano en el suelo, y besauan la tierra con la mesma mano.' _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] green stones, more valued than any other among the aztecs. [ ] cortés himself says that the king was supported by two grandees only; one of whom was his nephew, the king of tezcuco, and the other his brother, the lord of iztapalapa. _cartas_, p. . [ ] _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ix.; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. . clavigero disbelieves the report that montezuma had one hundred and fifty women pregnant at once. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . oviedo makes the number of women four thousand. _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . [ ] 'quebraban,' which probably here means 'castrated.' [ ] 'tenia moteuczomatzin en su palacio enanos y corcobadillos, que de industria siendo niños los hacian jibosos, y los quebraban y descoyuntaban, porque de estos se servian los señores en esta tierra como ahora hace el gran turco de eunucos.' _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , uses nearly the same words. [ ] _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] 'otros tres tlacopintlix de frisoles.' the tlacopintlix was one 'fanega,' and three 'almudes,' or, one bushel and a quarter. [ ] 'xiquipilli, costal, talega, alforja, o bolsa.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. [ ] 'treinta y dos mil cacaos,' possibly cocoa-pods instead of cocoa-beans. [ ] 'cien gallos.' probably turkeys. [ ] probably pumpkin or melon seed. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] concerning the king's manner of living and the domestic economy of the royal household, see: _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. - , - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxi.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - , - , - , , tom. ii., p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii., iv.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - , - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. v., vii., ix., xii-xiii., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xiv.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _ortega_, in _id._, pp. - ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. ; _gage's new survey_, pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iv., pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., pp. - . other works of more or less value bearing on this subject are: _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - , - , ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. , - , - ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _dufey_, _résumé_, tom. i., pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. , - ; _ranking's hist. researches_, pp. - , - , - , ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., pp. - ; _cooper's hist. n. amer._, pp. - ; _dilworth's conq. mex._, pp. - , - ; _hawks_, in _hakluyt's voy._, vol. iii., p. ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. , - ; _incidents and sketches_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , - , , ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pp. - . chapter v. the privileged classes among the nahuas. titles of the nobility and gentry--the power of the nobles--the aristocracy of tezcuco--the policy of king techotlalatzin--privileges of the nobles--montezuma's policy--rivalry between nobles and commons--the knightly order of tecuhtli--ceremony of initiation--origin of the order--the nahua priesthood--the priests of mexico--dedication of children--priestesses--priesthood of miztecapan--the pontiff of yopaa--tradition of wixipecocha--the cave of yopaa--the zapotec priests--toltec priests--totonac priests--priests of michoacan, puebla, and tlascala. [sidenote: the aztec aristocracy.] descending in due order the social scale of the aztecs, we now come to the nobility, or, more properly speaking, the privileged classes. the nobles of mexico, and of the other nahua nations, were divided into several classes, each having its own peculiar privileges and badges of rank. the distinctions that existed between the various grades, and their titles, are not, however, clearly defined. the title of tlatoani was the highest and most respected; it signified an absolute and sovereign power, an hereditary and divine right to govern. the kings, and the great feudatory lords who were governors of provinces, and could prove their princely descent and the ancient independence of their families, belonged to this order. the title of tlatopilzintli was given to the eldest son of the king, and that of tlatoque to all the princes in general. tlacahua signified a lord without sovereignty, but who had vassals under his orders, and was, to a certain extent, master of his people. the appellation of pilli was given to all who were noble, without regard to rank. axcahua, was a rich man, a proprietor of wealth in general, and tlaquihua, a landed proprietor, or almost the same thing as an english country gentleman. the title of tlatoani was invariably hereditary, but many of the others were conferred only for life, as a reward for important military or other services to the state. of the tenure by which they held their lands i shall have occasion to speak hereafter. the power of the nobles, as a body, was very great; according to some accounts there were, in montezuma's realms, thirty great lords who each controlled one hundred thousand vassals, and three thousand other lords also very powerful. a number of nobles possessing such formidable power as this, would, if permitted to live on their estates, some of which were a long distance from the capital, have been a constantly threatening source of danger to the crown; at any moment an aztec runnimede might have been expected. to guard against any such catastrophe, the more powerful nobles were required to reside in the capital, at least during the greater part of each year; and permission to return to their homes for a short time, could only be obtained on condition that they left a son or brother as a guarantee of good faith during their absence.[ ] in the kingdom of tezcuco were twenty-six great fiefs,[ ] each independent of the rest and having several fiefs of less importance subjected to it. the greater part of these great chiefs bore the sovereign title of tlatoani, or a similar one. they recognized no prerogative of the king except his right to preside at their grand assemblies, to receive their homage upon his accession to the throne, to levy certain tributes in their provinces, and to call upon them to appear in the field with a contingent of troops in case of war. for the rest, each tlatoani was perfectly independent in his own domain, which he governed with the same omnipotence as the king of tezcuco himself. notwithstanding the precautions taken, it frequently happened that one of these great feudatories would feel himself strong enough to set the authority of the king at defiance, but as their private feuds generally prevented any number of the tlatoanis from uniting their forces against the crown, the rebels were in most instances speedily reduced to subjection; in which event the leaders either suffered death or were degraded from their rank. they were an unruly family, these overgrown vassals, and the aztec monarchs were often at their wit's end in endeavors to conciliate and keep them within bounds. torquemada tells us that techotlalatzin, king of tezcuco, was sorely harassed by the powerful nobles of his realm. he accordingly set about remedying the evil with great prudence and perseverance. his first step was to unite, by strong bonds of interest, the less important nobles to the crown. to this end he heaped favors upon all. the vanity of some he flattered by conferring the dignity and title of tlatoani upon them, to others he gave wealth and lands. by this means he weakened the individual power of the great vassals by increasing their number, a policy the efficiency of which has been frequently proved in the old world as well as in the new. techotlalatzin next proceeded to summon them one after another to court, and then under pretense of being in constant need of their advice, he formed twenty-six of their number into a council of state, obliging them by this means to reside constantly in the capital. with this council he conferred upon all grave and difficult questions, whatever might be their nature. it was the duty of its members to draw up and issue ordinances, both for the general government and for the administration of affairs in particular provinces; and to enact laws for enforcing good order in towns and villages, as well as those relating to agriculture, science and art, military discipline, and the tribunals of justice. [sidenote: orders of nobility.] at the same time techotlalatzin created a large number of new offices and honorary trusts, which were dependent on the crown. four of the most powerful nobles were invested with the highest dignities. the first, with the title tetlahto, was made commander-in-chief of the army, and president of the military council. the second was entitled yolqui; his office was that of grand master of ceremonies; it was his duty to receive and introduce the ambassadors and ministers of foreign princes, to conduct them to court, to lodge them and provide for their comfort, and to offer them the presents appointed by the king. the third lord received the title of tlami or calpixcontli; he was master of the royal household, and minister of finance, and was assisted in his functions by a council of other nobles. it was the duty of this body to keep strict account of all taxes paid by the people; its members were required to be well informed as to the exact condition of each town and province, with the nature of its produce, and the fertility of its soil; they had also to distribute the taxes with equality and justice, and in proportion to the resources of the people. the care and management of the interior of the palace was also intrusted to them, and it was their place to provide all the food for the consumption of the royal household. the fourth great officer was styled amechichi; he acted as grand chamberlain, and attended to the king's private apartments. like the tlami, he was assisted by other nobles. a fifth officer was afterward appointed, who bore the title of cohuatl, and superintended the workers in precious metals, jewels, and feathers, who were employed by the court. at first sight it may appear that such duties as these would be below the dignity of a haughty aztec grandee, yet we find the nobles of europe during the middle ages not only filling the same positions, but jealous of their right to do so, and complaining loudly if deprived of them. sismondi tells us that the count of anjou, under louis vi., claimed the office of grand seneschal of france; that is, to carry dishes to the king's table on state days. the court of charlemagne was crowded with officers of every rank, some of the most eminent of whom exercised functions about the royal person which would have been thought fit only for slaves in the palace of augustus or antonine. the free-born franks saw nothing menial in the titles of cup-bearer, steward, marshal, and master of the horse, which are still borne by some of the noblest families in many parts of europe. as soon as habits of submission and an appreciation of the honors showered upon them had taken root among his great vassals, techotlalatzin subdivided the twenty-six provinces of his kingdom into sixty-five departments. the ancient lords were not by this measure despoiled of all their authority, nor of those estates which were their private property; but the jurisdiction they exercised in person or through their officials was greatly diminished by the nomination of thirty-five new governors, chosen by the king, and of whose fidelity he was well assured. this was a mortal blow to the great aristocrats, and a preliminary step toward the total abolition of feudal power. but the master-stroke was yet to come. the inhabitants of each province were carefully counted and divided into sections. they were then changed about from place to place, in numbers proportioned to the size and population of the territory. for example, from a division containing six thousand people, two thousand were taken and transported into the territory of another lord, from the number of whose vassals two thousand were also taken and placed upon the vacated land in the first lord's possessions; each noble, however, retained his authority over that portion of his vassals which had been removed. by this means, although the number of each lord's subjects remained the same, yet as a large portion of each territory was occupied by the vassals of another, a revolt would be difficult. nor could two nobles unite their forces against the crown, as care was taken that the interchange of dependents should not be effected between two estates adjoining each other. these measures, despotic as they were, were nevertheless executed without opposition from either nobles or people,--such was the awe in which the sovereign was held and his complete ascendancy over his subjects.[ ] [sidenote: privileges of the nobles.] the privileges of the nobles were numerous. they alone were allowed to wear ornaments of gold and gems upon their clothes, and, indeed, in their entire dress, as we shall presently see, they were distinguished from the lower classes. the exact limits of the power they possessed over their vassals is not known, but it was doubtless nearly absolute. fuenleal, bishop of santo domingo, writes to charles v. of the lower orders, that "they were, and still are, so submissive that they allow themselves to be killed or sold into slavery without complaining."[ ] in mexico their power and privileges were greatly augmented by montezuma ii., who we are told ousted every plebeian that held a position of high rank, and would allow none who were not of noble birth to be employed in his palace or about his person. at the time of this monarch's accession there were many members of the royal council who were men of low extraction; all these he dismissed and supplied their places with creatures of his own. it is related that an old man who had formerly been his guardian or tutor had the boldness to remonstrate with him against such a course; telling him with firmness that he acted contrary to his own interests, and advising him to weigh well the consequences of the measures he was adopting. to banish the plebeians from the palace, added the old man, was to estrange them forever from the king; and the time would come when the common people would no longer either wish or dare to look upon him. montezuma haughtily made answer, that this was precisely what he wished; it was a burning shame, he said, that the low and common people should be allowed to mix with the nobles in the royal service; he was astonished and indignant that his royal predecessors had so long suffered such a state of things to be.[ ] by these measures the services of many brave soldiers, promoted, as a reward for their gallantry, from the ranks of the people, were lost to the crown; nor were such men likely to be slow to show their discontent. the new policy, incited by a proud aristocracy, struck exactly those men who had the best right to a share in the government. it was the officers promoted for their merits from the ranks who had contributed most to the success of the mexican arms; it was the great merchants who, by their extended commerce, had made the wealth of the country. a spirit of rivalry had long existed between the poor well-born nobles, and the wealthy base-born merchants. during many successive reigns the importance of the latter class had been steadily increasing, owing to the valuable services they had rendered the state. from the earliest times they were permitted a certain degree of familiarity with the kings, who took great delight in hearing them recount the wonderful adventures they had met with while on their long expeditions into strange parts. doubtless the royal ear did not always meet the truth unembellished, any more than did that of haroun alraschid upon similar occasions, but probably the monarchs learned many little secrets in this way that they could never know by other means. afterward these merchants were admitted to the royal councils, and during the latter years of the reign of ahuitzotl we find them enjoying many of the exclusive privileges hitherto reserved to the warrior aristocracy. [sidenote: class conflicts.] the merchants appear to have partly brought upon themselves the misfortunes which subsequently overtook them, by aggravating the envious feelings with which they were already regarded. not content with being admitted to equal privileges with the nobles, and vexed at not being able to vie with them in brilliant titles and long lines of illustrious ancestry, they did their utmost to surpass them in the magnificence of their houses, and in the pomp which they displayed upon every occasion. at the public feasts and ceremonies these parvenus outshone the proudest nobles by the profuseness of their expenditure; they strove for and obtained honors and exalted positions which the aristocracy could not accept for lack of wealth; they were sparing of money in no place where it could be used for their own advancement. it is easy to conceive the effect such a state of things had on the proud and overbearing nobles of mexico. on several occasions they complained to their kings that their order was losing its prestige by being obliged to mix on equal terms with the plebeians; but the services that the great commercial body rendered every day to the crown were too material to allow the kings to listen patiently to such complaints. during the reign of ahuitzotl, the pride of the merchants had reached its zenith; it is not therefore surprising that the leaders of the aristocratic party, when that monarch was dead, elected as his successor montezuma ii., a prince well known for his partiality for the higher classes. his policy, as events proved, was a far less wise one than that of techotlalatzin of tezcuco, of which we have already spoken. by not restraining his overweening pride he prepared the way for disaffection and revolt; he furnished his enemies with weapons which they were not slow to use; he alienated the affections of his subjects, so that when aid was most needed there was none to help him, and when, fettered and a prisoner in the hand of the spaniards, he called upon his people, the only replies were hoots and missiles. the generals of the army and military officers of the higher ranks, must of course be included among the privileged classes; usually, indeed, they were noble by birth as well as influential by position, and in mexico, from the time of montezuma's innovations this was always the case. there were several military orders and titles which were bestowed upon distinguished soldiers for services in the field or the council. of those which were purely the reward of merit, and such as could be attained by a plebeian, i shall speak in a future chapter. there was one, however, the membership of which was confined to the nobility; this was the celebrated and knightly order of the tecuhtli. to obtain this rank it was necessary to be of noble birth, to have given proof in several battles of the utmost courage, to have arrived at a certain age, and to have sufficient wealth to support the enormous expenses incurred by members of the order. [sidenote: ceremony of initiating a tecuhtli.] for three years before he was admitted, the candidate and his parents busied themselves about making ready for the grand ceremony, and collecting rich garments, jewels, and golden ornaments, for presents to the guests. when the time approached, the auguries were consulted, and a lucky day having been fixed upon, the relations and friends of the candidate, as well as all the great nobles and tecuhtlis that could be brought together, were invited to a sumptuous banquet. on the morning of the all-important day the company set out in a body for the temple of camaxtli,[ ] followed by a multitude of curious spectators, chiefly of the lower orders, intent upon seeing all there is to see. arrived at the summit of the pyramid consecrated to camaxtli, the aspirant to knightly honors bows down reverently before the altar of the god. the high-priest now approaches him, and with a pointed tiger's bone or an eagle's claw perforates the cartilage of his nose in two places, inserting into the holes thus made small pieces of jet or obsidian,[ ] which remain there until the year of probation is passed, when they are exchanged for beads of gold and precious stones. this piercing the nose with an eagle's claw or a tiger's bone, signifies, says torquemada, that he who aspires to the dignity of tecuhtli must be as swift to overtake an enemy as the eagle, as strong in fight as the tiger. the high-priest, speaking in a loud voice, now begins to heap insults and injurious epithets upon the man standing meekly before him. his voice grows louder and louder; he brandishes his arms aloft, he waxes furious. the assistant priests are catching his mood; they gather closer about the object of the pontiff's wrath; they jostle him, they point their fingers sneeringly at him, and call him coward. for a moment the dark eyes of the victim gleam savagely, his hands close involuntarily, he seems about to spring upon his tormentors; then with an effort he calms himself and is passive as ever. that look made the taunters draw back, but it was only for a moment; they are upon him again; they know now that he is strong to endure, and they will prove him to the uttermost. screaming insults in his ears, they tear his garments piece by piece from his body until nothing but the maxtli is left, and the man stands bruised and naked in their midst. but all is useless, their victim is immovable, so at length they leave him in peace. he has passed safely through one of the severest ordeals of the day, but that fierce look a while ago was a narrow escape; had he lifted a finger in resistance, he must have gone down from the temple to be scorned and jeered at by the crowd below as one who had aspired to the dignity of tecuhtli, yet who could restrain his temper no better than a woman. the long months of careful preparation would have been all in vain, his parents would have spat upon him for vexation and shame, perchance he would have been punished for sacrilege. but he is by no means a member of the coveted order yet. he is next conducted to another hall of the temple,[ ] where he commences his noviciate, which is to last from one to two years, by four days of penance, prayer, and fasting. as soon as he is conducted to this hall the banquet which has been prepared for the guests commences, and after a few hours of conviviality each returns to his home. during these first four days the candidate's powers of endurance are sorely taxed. the only articles of furniture allowed him are a coarse mat and a low stool; his garments are of the coarsest description. when night comes, the priests bring him a black preparation, with which to besmear his face, some spines of the maguey-plant to draw blood from his body with, a censer and some incense. his only companions are three veteran warriors, who instruct him in his duties and keep him awake, for during the four days he is only allowed to sleep for a few minutes at a time, and then it must be sitting upon his stool. if, overcome by drowsiness, he exceed this time, his guardians thrust the maguey-thorns into his flesh, crying: awake, awake! learn to be vigilant and watchful; keep your eyes open that you may look to the interests of your vassals. at midnight he goes to burn incense before the idol, and to draw blood from different parts of his body as a sacrifice. he then walks round the temple, and as he goes he burns paper and copal in four holes in the ground, which he makes at the four sides of the building, facing the cardinal points; upon each of these fires he lets fall a few drops of blood drawn from his body. these ceremonies he repeats at dawn and sunset. he breaks his fast only once in twenty-four hours, at midnight: and then his repast consists merely of four little dumplings of maize-meal, each about the size of a nut, and a small quantity of water; but even this he leaves untasted if he wishes to evince extraordinary powers of endurance. the four days having elapsed, he obtains permission from the high-priest to complete his time of probation in some temple of his own district or parish; but he is not allowed to go home, nor, if married, to see his wife during this period. [sidenote: final ceremonies.] for two or three months preceding his formal admission into the order, the home of the postulant is in a bustle of preparation for the coming ceremony. a grand display is made of rich stuffs and dresses, and costly jewels, for the use of the new knight when he shall cast off his present chrysalis-husk of coarse nequen and emerge a full-blown tecuhtli. a great number of presents are provided for the guests; a sumptuous banquet is prepared, and the whole house is decorated for the occasion. the oracles are again consulted, and upon the lucky day appointed the company assemble once more at the house of the candidate, in the same manner as at the commencement of his noviciate. in the morning the new knight is conducted to a bath, and after having undergone a good scrubbing, he is again carried, in the midst of music and dancing, to the temple of camaxtli. accompanied by his brother tecuhtlis he ascends the steps of the teocalli. after he has respectfully saluted the idol, the mean garments he has worn so long are taken off, and his hair is bound up in a knot on the top of his head with a red cord, from the ends of which hang some fine feathers; he is next clad in garments of rich and fine materials, the principal of which is a kind of tunic, ornamented with a delicately embroidered device, which is the insignia of his new rank; in his right hand he receives some arrows and in his left a bow. the high-priest completes the ceremony with a discourse, in which he instructs the new knight in his duties, tells him the names which he is to add to his own, as a member of the order; describes to him the signs and devices which he must emblazon on his escutcheon, and impresses upon his memory the advantages of being liberal and just, of loving his country and his gods. as soon as the newly made tecuhtli has descended into the court of the temple, the music and dancing recommence, and are kept up until it is time to begin the banquet. this is served with great magnificence and liberality, and, to the guests at least, is probably the most interesting feature of the day. in front of each person at table are placed the presents intended for him, consisting of costly stuffs and ornaments in such quantity that each bundle was carried with difficulty by two slaves; each guest is also given a new garment, which he wears at table. the value of the gifts was proportioned to the rank of the receiver, and such distinctions must be made with great care, for the aztec nobility were very jealous of their rights of precedence. the places of such nobles as had been invited to the feast but were from illness or other cause unable to attend were left vacant, and their share of presents and food was placed upon the table exactly as if they had been present; torquemada tells us, moreover, that the same courtesy was extended to the empty seat as to the actual guest.[ ] upon these occasions the absent noble generally sent a substitute, whose seat was placed next to that of the person he represented. on the following day the servants and followers of the guests were feasted and presented with gifts, according to the means and liberality of the donor. the privileges of the tecuhtlis were important and numerous. in council they took the first places, and their votes outweighed all others; in the same manner at all feasts and ceremonies, in peace or in war, they were always granted preëminence. as before remarked, the vast expenses entailed upon a tecuhtli debarred the honor from many who were really worthy of it. in some instances, however, when a noble had greatly distinguished himself in war, but was too poor to bear the expenses of initiation, these were defrayed by the governor of his province, or by the other tecuhtlis.[ ] [sidenote: origin of the order.] the origin of the order of tecuhtli is not known. both the toltecs and the tlascaltecs claim to have established it. veytia, however, asserts that this was not the case, but that it was first instituted by xolotl, king of the chichimecs.[ ] m. l'abbé brasseur de bourbourg infers from ancient toltec history that the ceremony of initiation and the probation of the candidate derive their origin from the mysterious rites of which traces are still found among the nations of mexico and central america. the traditions relating to votan and quetzalcoatl, or gucumatz, evidently allude to it. the birth of ceacatl-quetzalcoatl is celebrated by his father, mixcohua-camaxtli, at culhuacan, with great rejoicings and the creation of a great number of knights; it is these same knights who are afterwards sent to avenge his death upon his assassins at cuitlahuac, a town which appears, since that time, to have been always the principal place of residence of the order. after the separation of cholula from the rest of the toltec empire by ceacatl-quetzalcoatl, that town, together with huexotzinco and tlascala, appears to have had special privileges in this particular. it is in these places that after the conquest of the aztec plateau by the teo-chichimecs, we find most of their chiefs bearing the title of tecuhtli; it may be that the priests were forced into confirming their warlike conquerors in the honor, or it may be that they did so voluntarily, hoping by this means to submit the warriors to their spiritual power. this, however, is certain, that the rank of tecuhtli remained to the last the highest honor that a prince or soldier could acquire in the states of tlascala, cholula, and huexotzinco.[ ] [sidenote: the mexican priesthood.] the priesthood filled a very important place among the privileged classes, but as a succeeding volume has been set apart for all matters relating to religion, i will confine myself here to such an outline of the sacerdotal system as is necessary to make our view of aztec social distinctions complete. the learned abbé, m. brasseur de bourbourg, gives us a very correct and concise account of the mexican priesthood, a partial translation of which will answer the present purpose. among the nations of mexico and central america, whose civilization is identical, the priesthood always occupied a high rank in the state, and up to the last moment its members continued to exercise a powerful influence in both public and private affairs. in anáhuac the priestly offices do not appear to have been appropriated exclusively by an hereditary caste; all had an equal right to fill them, with the exception of the offices about the temple of huitzilopochtli, at mexico, which were granted to some families dwelling in certain quarters of that city.[ ] the ministers of the various temples, to be fitted for an ecclesiastical career, must be graduates of the calmecac, colleges or seminaries to which they had been sent by their parents in their infancy. the dignities of their order were conferred by vote; but it is evident that the priests of noble birth obtained almost invariably the highest honors. the quarrels between the priest and warrior classes, which, in former times, had brought so much harm to the mexican nation, had taught the kings to do their best to effect a balance of power between the rival bodies; to this end they appropriated to themselves the privilege of electing priests, and placed at the head of the clergy a priest or a warrior of high rank, as they saw fit; this could be all the more easily done, as both classes received the same education in the same schools. the august title of topiltzin, which in ancient times expressed the supreme military and priestly power, came to mean, in after years, a purely ecclesiastical authority. in tezcuco and tlacopan, where the crown was inherited in a direct line by one of the sons of the deceased monarch, the supreme pontiff was usually selected from among the members of the royal family; but in mexico, where it involved, almost always, the duties of tlacochcalcatl, or commander-in-chief of the army, and, eventually, succession to the throne, the office of high-priest, like that of king, was elective. the election of the spiritual king, for so we may call him, generally followed close upon that of the temporal monarch, and such was the honor in which the former was held, that he was consecrated with the same sacred unguent with which the king was anointed. in this manner axayacatl, montezuma ii., and quauhtemoc, were each made pontiff before the royal crown was placed upon their head. the title of him who held this dignity was mexicatl-teohuatzin, that is to say, the 'mexican lord of sacred things;' he added also, besides a great number of other titles, that of teotecuhtli, or 'divine master,' and he was, by right, high-priest of huitzilopochtli; he was the 'head of the church,' and of all its branches, not only at mexico, but in all the provinces of the mexican empire; he had absolute authority over all priests, of whatever rank, and the colleges and monasteries of every class were under his control. he was elected by the two dignitaries ranking next to himself in the aboriginal hierarchy. the mexicatl-teohuatzin was looked upon as the right arm of the king, particularly in all matters of war and religion, and it rarely happened that any important enterprise was set on foot without his advice. at the same time it is evident that the high-priest was, after all, only the vicar and lieutenant of the king, for on certain solemn occasions the monarch himself performed the functions of grand sacrificer. the quetzalcoatl, that is, the high-priest of the god of that name, was almost equal in rank to the mexicatl-teohuatzin; but his political influence was far inferior. the ordinary title of the priests was teopixqui, or 'sacred guardian;' those who were clothed with a higher dignity were called huey-teopixqui, or 'great sacred guardian.' the huitznahuac-teohuatzin and the tepan-teohuatzin followed, in priestly rank, the high-priest of huitzilopochtli; they were his vicars, and superintended the colleges and monasteries in every part of his kingdom. the tlaquimilol-tecuhtli, or 'grand master of relics,'[ ] took charge of the ornaments, furniture, and other articles specially relating to worship. the tlillancalcatl, or 'chief of the house of tlillan,' exercised the functions of principal sacristan; he took care of the robes and utensils used by the high-priest. the choristers were under the orders of the ometochtli, the high-priest of the god so named, who had, as director of the singing-schools, an assistant styled tlapitzcatzin; it was this latter officer's duty to instruct his pupils in the hymns which were chanted at the principal solemnities. the tlamacazcatlotl, or 'divine minister' overlooked the studies in the schools; another priest discharged the duties of grand master of the pontifical ceremonies; another was archdeacon and judge of the ecclesiastical courts; the latter had power to employ and discharge the attendants in the temples; besides these there was a crowd of other dignitaries, following each other rank below rank in perfect order. [sidenote: sacerdotal offices.] in mexico and the other towns of the empire, there were as many complete sets of priests as there were temples. besides the seventy-eight sanctuaries dedicated to huitzilopochtli, which were in part directed by the priests we have already enumerated, the capital contained many others. each had jurisdiction in its own section, which corresponded to our parish; the priests and their pupils dwelling in a school or college which adjoined the temple. it was the province of the priests to attend to all matters relating to religion and the instruction of youth. some took charge of the sacrifices, others were skilled in the art of divination; certain of them were entrusted with the arrangement of the festivals and the care of the temple and sacred vessels, others applied themselves to the composition of hymns and attended to the singing and music. the priests who were learned in science superintended the schools and colleges, made the calculations for the annual calendar, and fixed the feast-days; those who possessed literary talent compiled the historical works, and collected material for the libraries. to each temple was attached a monastery, or we might call it a chapter, the members of which enjoyed privileges similar to those of our canons. the tlamacazqui, 'deacons' or 'ministers' and the quaquacuiltin, 'herb-eaters,' were those who dedicated themselves to the service of the gods for life. they led a very ascetic life; continence was strictly imposed upon them, and they mortified the flesh by deeds of penance in imitation of quetzalcoatl, who was their patron deity. the name of tlamacazcayotl, signifying 'government of the religious,' was given to these orders, and they had monasteries for the reception of both sexes. the high-priest of the god quetzalcoatl was their supreme lord; he was a man of great authority, and never deigned to put his foot out of doors unless it was to confer with the king. when a father of a family wished to dedicate one of his children to the service of quetzalcoatl, he with great humility advised the high-priest of his intention. that dignitary deputed a tlamacazqui to represent him at the feast which was given in his honor, and to bring away the child. if at this time the infant was under four years of age, a slight incision was made on his chest, and a few drops of blood were drawn as a token of his future position. four years was the age requisite for admission into the monastery. some remained there until they were of an age to enter the world, some dedicated their whole lives to the service of the gods; others vowed themselves to perpetual continence. all were poorly clothed, wore their hair long, lived upon coarse and scanty fare, and did all kinds of work. at midnight they arose and went to the bath; after washing, they drew blood from their bodies with spines of the maguey-plant; then they watched and chanted praises of the gods until two in the morning. notwithstanding this austerity, however, these monks could betake themselves alone to the woods, or wander through the mountains and deserts, there in solitude to spend the time in holy contemplation. [sidenote: mexican priestesses.] females were consecrated to the service of the gods in several ways. when a girl was forty days old, the father carried her to the neighboring temple; he placed in her little hands a broom and a censer, and thus presented her to the teopixqui, or priest; who by accepting these symbols of his future state, bound himself to perform his part of the engagement. as soon as the little one was able to do so in person, she carried a broom and a censer to the temple, with some presents for the priest; at the required age she entered the monastery. some of the girls took an oath of perpetual continence; others, on account of some vow which they had made during sickness, or that the gods might send them a good husband, entered the monastery for one, two, three, or four years. they were called cihuatlamacasque, 'deaconesses,' or cihuaquaquilli, 'eaters of vegetables.' they were under the surveillance of a number of staid matrons of good character; upon entering the monastery each girl had her hair cut short.[ ] they all slept in one dormitory, and were not allowed to disrobe before retiring to rest, in order that they might always be ready when the signal was given to rise. they occupied themselves with the usual labors of their sex; weaving and embroidering the tapestry and ornamental work for the temple. three times during the night they rose to renew the incense in the braziers, at ten o'clock, at midnight, and at dawn.[ ] on these occasions a matron led the procession; with eyes modestly bent upon the ground, and without daring to cast a glance to one side or the other, the maidens filed up one side of the temple, while the priests did the same on the other, so that all met before the altar. in returning to the dormitory the same order was observed. they spent part of the morning in preparing bread and confectionery, which they placed, while warm, in the temple, where the priests partook of it after sacrifice.[ ] the young women, for their part, fasted strictly; they first broke their fast at noon, and with the exception of a scanty meal in the evening, this was all they ate during the twenty-four hours. on feast-days they were permitted to taste meat, but at all other times their diet was extremely meagre. while sweeping the temple they took great care never to turn their back to the idol, lest the god should be insulted. if one of these young women unhappily violated her vows of chastity she redoubled her fasting and severity, in the fear that her flesh would rot, and in order to appease the gods and induce them to conceal her crime, for death was the punishment inflicted on the mexican vestal who was convicted of such a trespass. the maiden who entered the service of the gods for a certain period only, and not for life, did not usually leave the monastery until she was about to be married. at that time the parents, having chosen a husband for the girl, and gotten everything in readiness, repaired to the monastery, taking care first to provide themselves with quails, copal, hollow canes filled with perfume, which torquemada says they called _poquietl_, a brassier for incense, and some flowers. the girl was then clothed in a new dress, and the party went up to the temple; the altar was covered with a cloth, upon which were placed the presents they had brought with them, accompanied by sundry dishes of meats and pastry. a complimentary speech was next made by the parents to the tequaquilli, or chief priest of the temple, and when this was concluded the girl was taken away to her father's house. but of those young men and maidens who stayed in the temple-schools for a time only, and received a regular course of instruction at the hands of the priests, it is my intention to speak further when treating of the education of the mexican youth. the original accounts are rather confused on this point, so that it is difficult to separate with accuracy those who entered with the intention of becoming permanent priests from those who were merely temporary scholars. [sidenote: dress of the mexican priests.] the ordinary dress of the mexican priests differed little from that of other citizens; the only distinctive feature being a black cotton mantle, which they wore in the manner of a veil thrown back upon the head. those, however, who professed a more austere life, such as the quaquaquiltin and tlamacazqui before mentioned, wore long black robes; many among them never cut their hair, but allowed it to grow as long as it would; it was twisted with thick cotton cords, and bedaubed with unctuous matter, the whole forming a weighty mass, as inconvenient to carry as it was disgusting to look at. the high-priest usually wore, as a badge of his rank, a kind of fringe which hung down over his breast, called xicolli; on feast-days he was clothed in a long robe, over which he wore a sort of chasuble or cope, which varied in color, shape, and ornamentation, according to the sacrifices he made and the divinity to which he offered them.[ ] among the miztecs and zapotecs the priests had as much or even more influence than among the mexicans. in briefly reviewing the sacerdotal system of these nations, let us once more take m. brasseur de bourbourg for our guide. the kingdom of tilantongo, which comprised upper miztecapan, was spiritually governed by the high-priest of achiuhtla; he had the title of taysacaa,[ ] and his power equalled, if it did not surpass, that of the sovereign. this office, it appears, was reserved for the royal family, and was transmitted from male to male; a member of any free family could, however, become a sacaa, or simple priest. all, even to the successor of the taysacaa, had to submit to a vigorous noviciate of one year's duration, and to this rule no exceptions were made. up to the time of commencing his noviciate, and for four years after it was ended, the candidate for the priesthood was supposed to have led a perfectly chaste life, otherwise he was judged unworthy to be admitted into the order. his only food during the year of probation was herbs, wild honey, and roasted maize; his life was passed in silence and retirement, and the monotony of his existence was only relieved by waiting on the priests, taking care of the altars, sweeping the temple, and gathering wood for the fires. when four years after his admission to the priesthood had elapsed, during which time he seems to have served a sort of apprenticeship, he was permitted to marry if he saw fit, and at the same time to perform his priestly functions. if he did not marry he entered one of the monasteries which were dependent on the temples, and while performing his regular duties, increased the austerity of his life. those priests who were entrusted with the higher and more important offices, such as the instruction of youth or a seat in the royal council, were selected from the latter class. the king, or the nobles, each in his own state, provided for their wants, and certain women, sworn to chastity, prepared their food. they never left the monastery except on special occasions, to assist at some feast, to play at ball in the court of their sovereign lord, to go on a pilgrimage for the accomplishment of a vow made by the king or by themselves, or to take their place at the head of the army, which, on certain occasions, they commanded. if one of these monks fell sick, he was well cared for in the monastery; if he died he was interred in the court of the building. if one of them violated his vow of chastity, he was bastinadoed to death. [sidenote: the pontiff of yopaa.] [sidenote: the cave of yopaa.] in zapotecapan the supreme pontiff was called the wiyatao;[ ] his residence was in the city of yopaa,[ ] and there he was from time immemorial spiritual and temporal lord, though, indeed, he made his temporal power felt more or less throughout the whole kingdom; and he appears in the earliest history of this country as master and lord of both the princes and the people of those nations who acknowledged him as the supreme head of their religion. the origin of the city of yopaa is not known; it was situated on the slope of mount teutitlan,[ ] which in this place formed a valley, shut in by overshadowing rocks, and watered by a stream which lower down flowed into the river xalatlaco. the original inhabitants of this region were the disciples and followers of a mysterious, white-skinned personage named wixipecocha. what race he belonged to, or from what land he came when he presented himself to the zapotecs, is not known; a certain vague tradition relates that he came by sea from the south, bearing a cross in his hand, and debarked in the neighborhood of tehuantepec;[ ] a statue representing him is still to be seen, on a high rock near the village of magdalena. he is described as a man of a venerable aspect, having a bushy, white beard, dressed in a long robe and a cloak, and wearing a covering upon his head resembling a monk's cowl. the statue represents him seated in a pensive attitude, apparently occupied in hearing the confession of a woman who kneels by his side.[ ] his voice, to accord with his appearance, must have been of remarkable sweetness. wixipecocha taught his disciples to deny themselves the vanities of this world, to mortify the flesh with penance and fasting, and to abstain from all sensual pleasures. adding example to precept, he utterly abjured female society, and suffered no woman to approach him except in the act of auricular confession, which formed part of his doctrine.[ ] this extraordinary conduct caused him to be much respected; especially as it was an unheard-of thing among these people for a man to devote his life to celibacy. nevertheless, he was frequently persecuted by those whose vices and superstitions he attacked. passing through one province after another he at length arrived in the zapotec valley, a large portion of which was at that time occupied by a lake named rualo. afterwards, being entered into the country of the miztecs, to labor for their conversion, the people sought to take his life. those who were sent to take him prisoner, overtook him at the foot of cempoaltepec, the most lofty peak in the country; but at the moment they thought to lay hands upon him, he disappeared suddenly from their sight, and soon afterwards, adds the tradition, his figure was seen standing on the summit of the highest peak of the mountain. filled with astonishment, his persecutors hastened to scale the rocky height. when after great labor they arrived at the point where they had seen the figure, wixipecocha appeared to them again for a few instants, then as suddenly vanished, leaving no traces of his presence save the imprints of his feet deeply impressed upon the rock where he had stood.[ ] since then we do not know that wixipecocha reappeared in the ordinary world, though tradition relates that he afterwards showed himself in the enchanted island of monapostiac, near tehuantepec, whither he probably went for the purpose of obtaining new proselytes. in spite of the silence which history maintains concerning the time of his advent and the disciples which he left behind him, there can be no doubt that the priests of yopaa did not continue to promulgate his doctrines, or that the wiyatao, the supreme pontiff in zapotecapan, was not there as the vicar and successor of the prophet of monapostiac. like the ancient brahmans of hindustan, the first disciples of wixipecocha celebrated the rites of their religion in a deep cave, which m. de bourbourg thinks was most probably hollowed out in the side of the mountain by the waters of the flood. this was afterwards used as a place of worship by the wiyataos, who, as the number of their proselytes increased, brought art to the aid of nature, and under the hands of able architects the cave of yopaa was soon turned into a temple, having halls, galleries, and numerous apartments all cut in the solid rock. it was into the gloomy recesses of this temple that the priests descended on solemn feast-days to assist at those mysterious sacrifices which were sacred from the profane gaze of the vulgar, or to take part in the burial rites at the death of a king.[ ] the classes of religious men were as numerous and their names and duties as varied among the zapotecs as elsewhere. a certain order of priests who made the interpreting of dreams their special province were called colanii cobee pécala. each form of divination was made a special study. some professed to foretell the future by the aid of stars, earth, wind, fire, or water; others, by the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificial victims, or by magic signs and circles. among other divinities a species of parroquet, with flaming plumage, called the _ara_,[ ] was worshiped in some districts. in this bird a god was incarnate, who was said to have descended from the sky like a meteor. there were among the zapotecs hermits or fakirs, who passed their entire lives in religious ecstasy and meditation, shut up in dark caves, or rude huts, with no other companion but an ara, which they fed respectfully upon a species of altar; in honor of the bird they lacerated their flesh and drew blood from their bodies; upon their knees they kissed it morning and evening, and offered it with their prayers sacrifices of flowers and copal. [sidenote: zapotec priests.] priests of a lower order were styled wiyana and wizaechi, and the monks copapitas. the influence which they were supposed to have with the gods, and the care which they took to keep their number constantly recruited with scions of the most illustrious families, gained them great authority among the people. no noble was so great but he would be honored by having a son in the temple. they added, also, to the credit of their profession by the strict propriety of their manners, and the excessive rigor with which they guarded their chastity. parents who wished to consecrate one of their children to the service of the gods, led him, while still an infant, to the chief priest of the district, who after carefully catechizing the little one, delivered him over to the charge of the master of the novices. besides the care of the sanctuary, which fell to their lot, these children were taught singing, the history of their country, and such sciences as were within their comprehension. these religious bodies were looked upon with much respect. their members were taught to bear themselves properly at home and in the street, and to preserve a modest and humble demeanor. the least infraction of the rules was severely punished; a glance or a sign which might be construed into a carnal desire, was punished as criminal, and those who showed by their actions a strong disposition to violate their vow of chastity were relentlessly castrated. the wiyanas were divided into several orders, but all were ruled in the most absolute manner by the pontiff of yopaa. i have already spoken of the veneration in which this spiritual monarch was held, and of the manner in which he surmounted the difficulty of having children to inherit the pontifical chair, when continence was strictly imposed upon him.[ ] the ordinary dress of the zapotec priests was a full white robe, with openings to pass the arms through, but no sleeves; this was girt at the waist with a colored cord. during the ceremony of sacrifice, and on feast-days, the wiyatao wore, over all, a kind of tunic, with full sleeves, adorned with tassels and embroidered in various colors with representations of birds and animals. on his head he wore a mitre of feather-work, ornamented with a very rich crown of gold; his neck, arms, and wrists were laden with costly necklaces and bracelets; upon his feet were golden sandals, bound to his legs with cords of gold and bright-colored thread.[ ] [sidenote: priests of michoacan.] the toltec sacerdotal system so closely resembled the mexican already described that it needs no further description in this volume. their priests wore a long black robe reaching to the ground; their heads were covered with a hood, and their hair fell down over their shoulders and was braided. they rarely put sandals on their feet, except when about to start on a long journey.[ ] among the totonacs six great ecclesiastics were elected, one as high-priest, one next to him in rank, and so on with the other four. when the high-priest died, the second priest succeeded him. he was anointed and consecrated with great ceremony; the unction used upon the occasion was a mixture of a fluid called in the totonac tongue _ole_, and blood drawn at the circumcision of children.[ ] there existed also among these people an order of monks devoted to their goddess centeotl. they lived a very austere and retired life, and their character, according to the totonac standard, was irreproachable. none but men above sixty years of age, who were widowers of virtuous life and estranged from the society of women, were admitted into this order. their number was fixed, and when one of them died another was received in his stead. they were so much respected that they were not only consulted by the common people, but likewise by the great nobles and the high-priest. they listened to those who consulted them, sitting upon their heels, with their eyes fixed upon the ground, and their answers were received as oracles even by the kings of mexico. they were employed in making historical paintings, which they gave to the high-priest that he might exhibit them to the people. the common totonac priests wore long black cotton robes with hoods; their hair was braided like the other common priests of mexico, and anointed with the blood of human sacrifices, but those who served the goddess centeotl were always dressed in the skins of foxes or coyotes.[ ] at izacapu, in michoacan, there was a pontiff named curinacanery, who was looked upon with such deep veneration that the king himself visited him once a year to offer him the first-fruits of the season, which he did upon his knees, having first respectfully kissed his hand. the common priests of michoacan wore their hair loose and disheveled; a leathern band encircled their foreheads; their robes were white, embroidered with black, and in their hands they carried feather fans.[ ] in puebla they also wore white robes, with sleeves, and fringed on the edges.[ ] the papas, or sacrificing priests of tlascala, allowed their hair to grow long and anointed it with the blood of their victims.[ ] much more might be written concerning the priests of these countries, but as it does not strictly come within the province of this volume, it is omitted here.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. , makes the number twenty-seven. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , _et seq._; see also _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. , _et seq._; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , _et seq._; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , _et seq._; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xii. [ ] _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] camaxtli was the tlascaltec god of war, corresponding with and probably the same as the mexican huitzilopochtli. the order of tecuhtli being held in higher esteem in tlascala than elsewhere, the ceremony of initiation is generally described as it took place in that state. [ ] 'unas piedras chequitas de piedra negra, y creo eran de la piedra de que hacen las navajas.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvii. [ ] 'se iba à vna de las salas, ò aposentos de los ministros que servian al demonio, que se llamaba tlamacazcalco.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . it seems unlikely, however, that the candidate would be taken to another temple at this juncture. brasseur explains the name of the hall to which he was taken as 'le lieu des habitations des ministres, prêtres de camaxtli.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'y à las sillas solas que representaban las personas ausentes, hacian tanta cortesia, y le captaban benevolencia, como si realmente estuvieran presentes los señores que faltaban.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] concerning the ceremony of initiation see: _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvii.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. - . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xv. [ ] the tlaquimilloli, from whence the title is derived, was a sacred package or bundle, containing relics of gods and heroes. [ ] clavigero asserts that the hair of such only as entered the service on account of some private vow, was cut. [ ] clavigero says that only a part of them rose upon each occasion. 's'alzavano alcune due ore incirca innanzi alla mezza notte, altre alla mezza notte, ed altre allo spuntar del di per attizzar, e mantener vivo il fuoco, e per incensare gl'idoli.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'elles passaient une partie de la matinée à preparer le pain en galette et les pâtisseries qu'elles présentaient, toutes chaudes, dans le temple, où les prêtres allaient les prendre après l'oblation.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . clavigero says they prepared the offering of provisions which was presented to the idols: 'tutte le mattine preparavano l'obblazioni di commestibili da presentarsi agl'idoli.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] clavigero writes: 'l'insegna de' sommi sacerdoti di messico era un fiocco, o nappa di cotone pendente dal petto, e nelle feste principali vestivansi abiti sfarzosi, ne' quali vedevansi figurate le insegne di quel dio, la cui festa celebravano.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . the most important works that can be consulted concerning the mexican priesthood are: _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; from which i have principally taken my account; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, caps. cxxxiii., cxxxix., cxl.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. et seq., - , tom. iii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xv-xvii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. et seq. [ ] this is the title given by the spanish authors; it is probably derived from _tay_, a man, and _sacaa_, a priest. _vocabul. en lengua mixteca, etc._, according to _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , note. [ ] wiyatao, burgoa writes _huijatoo_, and translates, 'great watchman;' the zapotec vocabulary translates it by the word _papa_, or priest. [ ] yopaa, burgoa also writes lyobaa and yobaa; it signifies the place of tombs, from _yo_, place, or ground, and _paa_, tomb, in the zapotec tongue, 'the centre of rest.' [ ] teutitlan was its name in the nahuatl language. its zapotecan name was xaquiya. [ ] _rasgos y señales de la primera predicacion en el nuevo-mundo_, ms. de don isidro gondra; _carriedo_, _estudios históricos y estadísticos del estado oaxaqueño_, _mexico_, , tom. i., cap. i.; quoted in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., cap. lxxii. [ ] _rasgos y señales de la primera predicacion en el nuevo-mundo_, ms. de don isidro gondra; quoted in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., cap. lxxii. [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., cap. liii. [ ] so called from the cry of _ara_, _ara_, which it constantly repeats. [ ] see this vol., pp. - . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., cap. liii. of the miztec high-priest torquemada writes: 'se vestia, para celebrar sus fiestas, de pontifical, de esta manera. unas mantas mui variadas de colores, matiçadas, y pintadas de historias acaecidas à algunos de sus dioses: poniase vnas como camisas, ò roquetes, sin mangas (à diferencia de los mexicanos) que llegaban mas abajo de la rodilla, y en las piernas vnas como antiparas, que le cubrian la pantorrilla; y era esto casi comun à todos los sacerdotes sumos, y calçado, con que adornaban las estatuas de los dioses; y en el braço izquierdo, vn pedaço de manta labrada, à manera de liston, como suelen atarse algunos al braço, quando salen à fiestas, ò cañas, con vna borla asida de ella, que parecia manipulo. vestia encima de todo vna capa, como la nuestra de coro, con vna borla colgando à las espaldas, y vna gran mitra en la cabeça, hecha de plumas verdes, con mucho artificio, y toda sembrada, y labrada de los mas principales dioses, que tenian. quando bailaban, en otras ocasiones, y patios de los templos (que era el modo ordinario de cantar sus horas, y reçar su oficio) se vestian de ropa blanca pintada, y vnas ropetas, como camisetas de galeote.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxiii. [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxi.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. xiv. [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; herrera says of the priests of mechoacan: 'trahian los cabellos largos, y coronas abiertas en la cabeça, como los de la yglesia catolica, y guirnaldas de fluecos colorados.' _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . [ ] less important, or more modern, authorities that treat of the privileged classes among the aztecs, are: _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - , ; _dilworth's conq. mex._, p. ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. - , - ; _hazart_, _kirchen-geschichte_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , - , - ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt i., pp. - , - ; _cortés_, _aventuras_, pref., p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , - , - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. - . chapter vi. plebeians, slaves, tenure of lands, and taxation. influence of the commoners--oppression by nobles--deprived of office by montezuma ii.--classes of slaves--penal slaves--voluntary slavery--slave market at azcapuzalco--punishment and privileges of slaves--division of lands--crown lands--lands of the nobles--municipal property--property of the temples--tenure of lands in zapotecapan, miztecapan, michoacan, tlascala, cholula, and huexotzinco--similarity to feudal system of europe--system of taxation--municipal taxes--lice tribute--tribute from conquered provinces--revenue officers--injustice of montezuma ii. [sidenote: plebeians and slaves.] no writer seems to have thought it worth while to define the exact condition of the lower orders of free citizens among the aztecs. in mexico, under the earlier kings, they appear to have enjoyed considerable privileges. they were represented in the royal councils, they held high offices at court and about the king's person, their wishes were consulted in all affairs of moment, and they were generally recognized as an important part of the community. gradually, however, their power lessened as that of the nobles increased, until, in the time of montezuma ii., they were, as we have seen, deprived of all offices that were not absolutely menial, and driven from the palace. still, there is no doubt that from the earliest times the plebeians were always much oppressed by the nobles, or that, as the bishop of santo domingo, before quoted,[ ] remarks, "they were, and still are, so submissive that they allow themselves to be killed or sold into slavery without complaining." father acosta, also, writes that "so great is the authority which the caciques have assumed over their vassals that these latter dare not open their lips to complain of any order given them, no matter how difficult or disagreeable it may be to fulfill; indeed, they would rather die and perish than incur the wrath of their lord; for this reason the nobles frequently abuse their power, and are often guilty of extortion, robbery, and violence towards their vassals."[ ] camargo tells us that the plebeians were content to work without pay for the nobles, if they could only insure their protection by so doing.[ ] of those who stood below the macehuales, as the plebeians were called, and lowest of all in the social scale, the slaves, we have more definite information. slavery was enforced and recognized by law and usage throughout the entire country inhabited by the nahua nations. there were in ancient mexico three classes of slaves; namely, prisoners of war, persons condemned for crime to lose their freedom, and those who sold themselves, or children sold by their parents. the captor of a prisoner of war had an undisputed right to doom his prize to be sacrificed to the gods; this power he almost invariably exerted, and it was held a punishable crime for another to deprive him of it by rescuing the prisoner or setting him free.[ ] sahagun tells us that the captor could, if he chose, either sell or hold his prisoners as slaves; and if among them any man or woman showed unusual ability in music, embroidering, weaving, or other domestic occupation, he or she was frequently purchased by the king or some noble or wealthy man, and employed in his house, and thus saved from the sacrifice.[ ] the offences which the aztecs punished with slavery were the following: firstly, failure on the part of any relation of a person convicted of high treason, to give timely information of the plot to the proper authorities, provided he or she had knowledge of it, the wives and children of the traitor being also enslaved; secondly, the unauthorized sale of a free man or woman or of a free child kidnapped or found astray, the kidnapper fraudulently asserting such person to be a slave, or such child to be his own; thirdly, the sale or disposal, by a tenant or depositary, of another's property, without the permission of the owner or his representative, or of a proper legal authority; fourthly, hindering a collared slave from reaching the asylum of the sovereign's palace, provided it was the act of one who was not the owner or the owner's son; fifthly, stealing things of value, or being an inveterate thief; sixthly, stealing from a field a certain number of ears of corn or of useful plants, exception being made to this law when the act was committed by a child under ten years of age, or when the stolen property was paid for; seventhly, the impregnating, by a free man, of another's female slave, if the woman died during her pregnancy, or in consequence of it. this latter statement is contradicted by torquemada, upon the strength of information given him, as he alleges, by aztecs well acquainted with the laws of their country.[ ] gomara asserts, though he allows that others deny it, that when a man died insolvent, his son or his wife became the property of his creditors.[ ] torquemada affirms that it was customary for a creditor to look for payment of his claim to the estate, real or personal, if any there was, but no member of the debtor's family was awarded to him to cancel the debt.[ ] it sometimes happened that persons too poor to pay their taxes were put up for sale, but this mostly occurred in conquered provinces. penal slaves did not become the property of the king or the state, but were publicly sold to private persons, or assigned to the parties whom they had injured; nor were such offenders held to be slaves, or their punishment considered to have commenced until they had been formally delivered to the new owner. [sidenote: penal and voluntary slavery.] among those who voluntarily surrendered their freedom for a consideration, besides such as were driven by extreme poverty to do so, were the indolent who would not trust to their own exertions for a livelihood, gamesters, to obtain the wherewithal to satisfy their passion for gambling,[ ] and harlots, to provide themselves with showy clothing and finery. the two latter classes were not obliged to go into service until after the expiration of a year from the time of receiving the consideration for which they sold themselves. slaves were continually offered for sale in the public market-place of every town, but the principal slave-mart in the mexican empire seems to have been the town of azcapuzalco, which was situated about two leagues from the city of mexico; it occupied the site of the ancient capital of the tepanec kingdom, which was destroyed by king nezahualcoyotl of tezcuco. great numbers of slaves were brought to azcapuzalco from all the provinces; and it is said that the merchants who traded in them had to adopt great precautions to prevent their property from being stolen or rescued on the journey. with a view to advantageous sales the slaves thus exposed in the public markets were kept well clothed and fed, and were forced to dance and look cheerful. parents could pawn, or sell a son as a slave, but were allowed to take him back on surrendering another son to serve in his stead; on such occasions the master was wont to show his generosity by allowing an extra compensation for the new servant. there was yet another kind of slavery, called by the mexicans _huehuetlatlacolli_, meaning 'ancient servitude.' when one or more families were entirely destitute and famine-stricken, they sold a son to some noble, and bound themselves to always 'keep that slave alive,' that is to say, to supply another to fill his place if he died or became incapacitated. this obligation was binding upon each member of the families making the contract, but was null and void if the man who was actually serving died in his master's house, or if his employer took from him anything that he had lawfully acquired; therefore, to prevent this forfeiture of ownership, the master neither took from his slave anything but personal service, nor allowed him to dwell in his house. it frequently happened that as many as four or five families were bound in this manner to supply a noble and his heirs with a slave. but in or , a year of famine in the country, nezahualpilli of tezcuco, foreseeing the evils that this system of perpetual contract would entail upon his subjects if the scarcity of food continued long, repealed the law, and declared all families exempt from its obligations; it is recorded that montezuma ii. soon after followed his example.[ ] [sidenote: condition and treatment of slaves.] slavery in mexico was, according to all accounts, a moderate subjection, consisting merely of an obligation to render personal service, nor could that be exacted without allowing the slave a certain amount of time to labor for his own advantage. slaves were kindly treated and were allowed far greater privileges than any in the old world; they could marry and bring up families, hold property, including other slaves to serve them, and their children were invariably born free. there is, however, some obscurity on this point, as sahagun tells us that in the year ce tochtli, which came round every fifty-two years, there was generally a great famine in the land, and at that time many persons, driven to it by hunger, sold not only themselves as slaves, but also their children and descendants for countless generations.[ ] very young or poor slaves lived at the home of their master, and were treated almost as members of the family; the other slaves lived independently, either on their owner's land, or upon their own. it frequently happened that a master succumbed to the charms of one of his female slaves and made her his wife, or that a comely bondman found favor in the sight of his mistress, and became her lord; nor was this so strange as it may at first appear, there being no difference of race or color to make such alliances repugnant or shameful. feelings of affection and respect existed, as a rule, between master and servant. a slave who had served long and faithfully was often entrusted with the stewardship of his owner's household and property, and, on the other hand, if the master through misfortune should become poor, his bondmen would cheerfully labor for his support. no well-behaved slave could be sold without his consent unless his owner could prove that poverty or debt made such sale unavoidable; nor could such faults as laziness, disobedience, or running away, be punished without due warning, which the master for his own justification usually gave in the presence of respectable witnesses. if after this had occurred two or three times the slave continued refractory, a wooden collar was placed on his neck, and then his master was authorized to transfer him against his will. purchasers of a collared slave always inquired how many times he had been so disposed of before, and if after two or three such sales he continued incorrigible, he could be sold for the sacrifice. but even yet he has one chance left; if he can escape from his master's premises and gain the courtyard of the royal palace, he not only avoids punishment, but he is from that day forth a free man; moreover, no person, save his owner or his owner's sons, is allowed in any manner to prevent him from reaching the asylum, under penalty of being made the slave of him whom he attempts to deprive of his chance for freedom. the sale of a slave was conducted with much formality, and must be made in the presence of at least four respectable witnesses; in cases of self-sale the witnesses acted as conscientious arbitrators to secure the highest price and most favorable conditions for him who sold himself. the usual price for an average slave was twenty mantles, equivalent to one load of cotton cloth; some were worth less, while others brought as many as forty mantles. slavery among the nahua nations appears, then, to have been only a partial deprivation of a freeman's rights. as a slave was permitted to possess property and even other slaves of his own, and as his children were born free and he had complete control of his own family, we can scarcely say he lost his citizenship, although it is true he was not eligible for public office. it was a common practice for a master during his lifetime, or on his death-bed, to emancipate his slaves, but if no such provision were made they went to the heirs with the rest of the property. murder of a slave, even by his master, was a capital offence. yet in spite of all this testimony in favor of the mildness of slavery among the nahua nations, there is still room for some reasonable doubt concerning the patriarchal character of the system; inasmuch as we are told that many slaves, not mentioned as being prisoners of war or criminals, as well as servants, dwarfs, or deformed persons, and purchased children, were put to death at religious feasts and royal funerals.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: tenure of lands.] the lands were divided between the crown, the nobility, the various tribes or clans of the people, and the temples. the division, however, was by no means equal, by far the greater portion being appropriated by the king and the aristocracy.[ ] all landed property was duly surveyed, and each estate was accurately marked out on maps, or paintings, kept on file by a competent officer in the district where they were situated. the crown lands were painted in purple, those of the nobility in scarlet, and those of the _calpullis_, or wards, in light yellow. certain portions of the crown property called _tecpantlalli_, or 'lands of the palace,' were granted to nobles of the rank of tecuhtli, who were called _tecpanpouhque_ or _tecpantlaca_, 'people of the palace.' they had the free use and enjoyment of such lands, and in return certain services were expected of them. it was their duty to attend to the repairs and proper arrangement of the royal residences, and to cultivate and keep in order the royal gardens, for all of which they had to provide the necessary number of workmen; besides this they were obliged to wait on the king and accompany him whenever he appeared in public. although in consideration of these services the 'people of the palace' paid no rent, yet the eminent domain of their lands was vested in the sovereign. when one of them died his eldest son inherited his privileges, subject to the same obligations, but if he changed his residence to another part of the country, or died without male issue, the usufruct was forfeited and the land reverted to the sovereign, who transferred it to another usufructuary, or left the choice of one to the community in whose district the property was situated.[ ] the produce of other lands belonging to the crown was set apart for the support of the royal household, and for benevolent purposes. [sidenote: landed property of the nobles.] in conquered provinces, the habits and customs and established form of government of the vanquished were usually respected. the sovereigns of anáhuac retained the native princes in power, and allowed the people to keep their property; but they invariably set apart a certain part of the territory, proportioned to the conquest, which became the property of the conquering monarch. these lands, called _yaotlalli_, which means 'war lands,' were cultivated by the conquered people for the benefit of their conqueror. if they belonged to mexico their name was _mexica-tlalli_; if to acolhuacan, _acolhua-tlalli_, and so on.[ ] [sidenote: inheritance of estates.] the lands of the nobility were called _pillalli_, and were either ancient possessions of the nobles transmitted by inheritance from father to son, or were rewards of valor granted by the king. they were held by various tenures; some of them could be alienated at the will of the owner, subject only to the restriction that they should not pass into the hands of a plebeian; others were entailed upon the eldest male issue and could not be otherwise disposed of. many of the aztec estates were of very ancient origin. after the chichimecs obtained undisputed possession of the valley of mexico, their chief or sovereign xolotl made grants of land to his own people, and to others who acknowledged him as their supreme lord, under the condition that the grantees should render service to the crown with their persons, vassals, and estates, whenever he should require it of them, and the same policy was adopted by his successors.[ ] sons generally inherited their father's estates by right of primogeniture, but if the eldest son was judged incapable of taking proper care of the property, the father left it to whichever son he pleased, stipulating, however, that the heir should insure a competency to him he had supplanted.[ ] in the republic of tlascala daughters could not inherit an estate, the object being to prevent landed property from going into the hands of strangers. in the kingdoms of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan it is probable that the law was the same in this respect, but the authorities give us no information concerning the matter.[ ] these feudatories paid no rent for their lands, but were bound to assist their suzerain, the king, with their persons, vassals, and fortunes in all cases of foreign or civil war. each king, on his accession, confirmed the investiture of estates derived from the crown.[ ] the lands of the people were called _calpulli_, and every city was divided into as many of these as there were wards in it, and the whole number of calpulli being collectively named _altepatlalli_. the calpulli, as well as the _tlaxicalli_, or streets, were all measured out and their boundaries marked, so that the inhabitants of one ward or street could not invade the possessions of another. each of these divisions belonged to its respective community, and was of greater or less extent and importance according to the partition which had been made by the first settlers in anáhuac. the owners of a calpulli were all members of the same clan or tribe, and their district bore their name. the right of tenure was perpetual and inalienable, and was the common property of the community and not of individuals. any member of the community not possessed of any land, had the right to ask for a portion suitable to his position and requirements, which was granted him. this portion he was entitled to hold as long as he cultivated and improved it, and he could transmit it to his heirs; he had no authority to sell his portion, but he could let it to another for a number of years. if he neglected to cultivate it for two years the head man of the calpulli remonstrated with him; if he paid no heed to this warning he was ousted the following year in favor of some other person; a reasonable excuse for such neglect was, however, always accepted. if the land assigned to anyone proved unfruitful and barren, he was at liberty to abandon it and another portion was granted him. under no pretext whatever could any person settle upon the land lawfully occupied by another, nor could the authorities of the calpulli deprive the latter of his right. if a land-owner died without heirs, his portion was considered vacant and assigned to the first applicant for it. if a calpulli was in great need the authorities were allowed to lease its lands, but under no circumstances were the inhabitants permitted to work on the lands of another district. the elders of the tribe formed the council of the calpulli; this body elected a principal, called _calpullec_, whose duty it was to watch over the interests of the community; he acted only with the advice and consent of the council. each city set apart a piece of land in the suburbs wherefrom to supply the needs of the army in time of war. these portions were called _milchimalli_, or _cacalomilli_, according to the kind of grain they produced, and were cultivated jointly by all the calpullis. it was not unusual for the kings to make a life-grant of a portion of the people's property to some favorite noble, for though there is no doubt that the calpulli lands of right belonged to the people, yet in this respect as in others, the kings were wont to usurp a power not their own.[ ] every temple, great and insignificant, had its own lands and country estates, the produce of which was applied to the support of the priests and of public worship; the tenants who occupied these lands were looked upon as vassals of the temples. the chief priests, who, on the temple lands, exercised a power similar to that of the royal governors, frequently visited these estates to inspect their condition and to administer justice to their tenants. the temple of huitzilopochtli was considered the wealthiest in mexico. torquemada says that in tezcuco fifteen large cities furnished the temples of that kingdom with wood, provisions, and other necessaries.[ ] clavigero makes the number of towns twenty-nine.[ ] throughout zapotecapan and miztecapan landed property was invariably transmitted from male to male, females being excluded from the succession. no one had the right to sell his land in perpetuity; the law forbade its transfer out of a family either by marriage or otherwise; and if a proprietor was compelled by the force of necessity to dispose of his real estate, it returned after the lapse of some years to his son or his nearest relative, who paid to the holder the consideration for which it had been pledged or its equivalent.[ ] in miztecapan the first-born son, before taking possession of his inheritance, had to do penance for a year; he was confined in a religious house, clothed in rags, daubed with india-rubber juice, and his face and body rubbed with fetid herbs; during that time he had to draw blood repeatedly from his body and limbs, and was subjected to hard labor and privation. at the expiration of the year he was washed with odorous water by four girls, and then conducted by friends to his house with great pomp and festivity.[ ] [sidenote: estates in michoacan.] early writers say nothing about the tenure of lands among the tarascos of michoacan, but merely state in general terms that the sovereign's power over the lives and property of his subjects was unlimited.[ ] the tenure of lands in the republic of tlascala had its origin in the division made at the time when the country was first settled; which was as follows: any tecuhtli who established an entail, called _teccalli_, or _pilcalli_, took for his own use the best and largest part of the lands that fell to his lot or were awarded to him in the partition, including woods, springs, rivers, and lakes; of the remainder a fair division was made among his servitors and vassals, or, in other words, his soldiers, friends, and kinsmen. all were bound to keep the manor-house in repair and to supply their lord with game, flowers, and other comforts, and he in his turn, was expected to entertain, protect, and feed them in his house. to these kinsmen, friends, and servitors, was given the name of _teixhuihuan_, meaning the 'grand-children of the manor-house.' in this manner all the nobles divided their land. all were greatly respected by their vassals. they derived their income from the taxes that their tenants paid them out of what they obtained from the chase, from the soil, and by raising domestic animals.[ ] no information has reached us respecting the provisions under which land was held in cholula and huexotzinco, or among the totonacs. in the province of pánuco, the eldest son was the sole inheritor of land and, therefore, the only one that paid tribute; the other sons had to rent land from those who were in possession of it.[ ] there can be no doubt that in all this there is, as so many writers have observed, a strong resemblance to the feudal systems of europe. the obligation of military service, and other relations of lord and vassal smack strongly of the institutions of the middle ages, but, as mr prescott says, the minor points of resemblance "fall far short of that harmonious system of reciprocal service and protection, which embraced, in nice gradation, every order of a feudal monarchy. the kingdoms of anáhuac were, in their nature, despotic, attended, indeed, with many mitigating circumstances, unknown to the despotisms of the east; but it is chimerical to look for much in common--beyond a few accidental forms and ceremonies--with those aristocratic institutions of the middle ages, which made the court of every petty baron the precise image in miniature of that of his sovereign." i have no inclination to draw analogies, believing them, at least in a work of this kind, to be futile; and were i disposed to do so, space would not permit it. nations in their infancy are almost as much alike as are human beings in their earlier years, and in studying these people i am struck at every turn by the similarity between certain of their customs and institutions and those of other nations; comparisons might be happily drawn between the division of lands in anáhuac and that made by lycurgus and numa in laconia and rome, or between the relations of aztec master and slave and those of roman patron and client, for the former were nearly as mild as the latter; but the list of such comparisons would never be complete, and i am fain to leave them to the reader. [sidenote: system of taxation.] the people of anáhuac and of the surrounding countries paid taxes to the crown and to the temples, either with personal service or with the productions or results of their labor; in short, with everything useful. we have seen that in the kingdom of tezcuco twenty-nine cities were appointed to provide the king's household with everything requisite of food, furniture, and so forth, and were, consequently, exempt from all other taxes. fourteen of these cities served in this manner during one half of the year, and fifteen during the other half. they likewise furnished the workingmen and laborers, such as water-carriers, sweepers, tillers of the palace lands, and gardeners. boys who were too young to do men's work were required to provide annually four hundred armfuls of wood for the fires which were kept up day and night in the principal rooms of the palace. the young men of tollantzinco, either themselves or through their servants supplied fine rushes for mats, stools, or seats, called _icpalli_, pine-wood splinters for lighting fires, other wood for torches, _acayetl_, or pipes with tobacco, various kinds of dyes, liquid amber both in cakes and in vessels, copal incense in their golden cylinders, and a large quantity of other articles, which it is unnecessary to specify.[ ] manufacturers paid their taxes with the objects produced by their industry. journeymen mechanics, such as carpenters, masons, workers in feathers and precious metals, and musicians, were, according to oviedo, exempt from such tax, and in lieu thereof rendered personal service to the sovereign without remuneration.[ ] merchants paid their taxes with such articles as they traded in. the last class of tribute-payers were the _tlamaitl_, tenants attached to a nobleman's land, who tilled the same for their own benefit. they were obliged to do a certain amount of work every year for the landlord, and to render military service when it was required of them by the sovereign. brasseur says that these tenants paid no tribute to the king, but his statement is contradicted by clavigero.[ ] taxes paid in fruit and grain were collected immediately after harvest; other tributes were collected at different times through the year. in each town there was a magazine for storing the revenues, from which supplies were drawn as required. in the vicinity of mexico it was customary to convey the agricultural produce into the capital, in order that the inhabitants, who, being surrounded with the waters of the lake, had no land of their own to cultivate, might be regularly supplied with food. there was no uniform system of collecting taxes from the merchants and manufacturers. payments were made by them in accordance with their circumstances and the nature of the articles they contributed. there were about three hundred and seventy tributary towns in the mexican empire, some of which paid their taxes every twenty days, and some every four days, while others only did so once in six months, or even only once a year. the people of tlatelulco, says purchas,[ ] "were charged for tribute, alwayes to repaire the church called huiznahuac. item, fortie great baskets (of the bignesse of half a bushell) of cacao ground, with the meale of maiz (which they called _chianpinoli_,) and euery basket had sixteene hundred almonds of cacao. item, other fortie baskets of chianpinoli. item, eight hundred burthens of great mantels. item, eightie pieces of armour, of slight feathers, and as many targets of the same feathers, of the deuices & colours as they are pictured. all the which tribute, except the said armes and targets they gaue euery . dayes,[ ] and the said armes and targets they gaue for tribute but once in the whole yeere. the said tribute had his beginning since the time of quauhtlatoa and moquihuix, which were lords of tlatilulco. the lords of mexico, which first enioyned to those of tlatilulco, to pay tribute, and to acknowledge their subiection, were yzcoatçi and axiacaçi." sometimes merchants' guilds or individuals did not pay their taxes at the regular assessment of the town in which they lived, but did so according to prior arrangement made with the revenue officers. [sidenote: taxes paid by cities.] [sidenote: taxes paid in vermin.] in addition to the taxes levied upon private individuals, each town contributed a large number of cotton garments, with a certain quantity of breadstuffs and feathers and such other productions as were a specialty of the province in which it was situated. mazatlan, xoconocho, huehuetlan, and other towns on the pacific coast, paid, besides the cotton garments, four thousand bundles of fine feathers of divers colors, two hundred sacks of cocoa, forty tiger-skins, and one hundred and sixty birds of a certain species. coyolapan, atlacuechahuaxan, huaxyacac, and other towns of the zapotecs, forty pieces of gold of a specified size, and twenty sacks of cochineal. tlachquiauhco, ayotlan, and teotzapotlan, twenty vessels of a fixed size filled with gold dust. tochtepec, otlatitlan, cozamalloapan, michapan and other places on the gulf of mexico, besides cotton garments, cocoa, and gold, paid twenty-four thousand bundles of exquisite feathers of various qualities and colors, six necklaces, two of which were of the finest emerald, and four of the commoner description, twenty ear-rings of amber set in gold, and an equal number made of crystal rock, one hundred pots of liquid amber, and sixteen thousand loads of india-rubber. tepeyacac, quecholac, tecamachalco, acatzinco and other towns of that region of country, each contributed four thousand sacks of lime, four thousand loads of solid reed for building purposes, with as many of smaller reed for making darts, and eight thousand loads of reeds filled with aromatic substances. malinaltepec, tlalcozauhtitlan, olinallan, ichcatlan, qualac, and other southern towns situated in the warm region, paid each six hundred measures of honey, forty large jars of yellow ochre for paint, one hundred and sixty copper shields, forty round plates of gold of fixed dimensions, ten small measures of fine turquoises, and one load of smaller turquoises. quauhnahuac, panchimalco, atlacholoayan, xiuhtepec, huitzilac, and other towns of the tlahuicas, paid each sixteen thousand large leaves of paper, and four thousand _xicalli_, or gourds, of different sizes. quauhtitlan, tehuilloyocan, and other neighboring towns, each gave eight thousand mats and eight thousand _icpalli_, or stools. some cities paid their taxes with fire-wood, stone, and beams for building; others with copal-gum; others sent to the royal houses and forests a certain number of birds and animals, such as xilotepec, michmaloyan, and other cities of the otomís, which were each compelled to furnish yearly forty live eagles to the king. after the matlaltzincas were made subject to the mexican crown by king axayacatl, they were required not only to pay a heavy tax in kind, but also to keep under cultivation a field of seven hundred _toesas_[ ] by three hundred and fifty, for the benefit of the army. as the saxon king imposed a tax of wolves' heads upon his subjects for the purpose of ridding his kingdom of those ravenous animals, so did the mexican monarchs exact from those who were too poor to pay the regular taxes a certain quantity of snakes, scorpions, centipedes and other obnoxious creatures. lice, especially, were contributed in large numbers in mexico.[ ] it is related that soon after cortés arrived in the city of mexico, certain cavaliers of his force, among whom were alonso de ojeda and alonso de mata, were roaming through the royal palace, admiring its great extent and all its wonders, doubtless with an eye to plunder, when they came across some bags, filled with some soft, fine, and weighty material; never doubting but that it must be valuable, they hastened to untie the mouth of one of the sacks, when to their disgust and disappointment they found its contents to consist of nothing but lice, which, as they afterwards ascertained, had been paid as tribute by the poor.[ ] duties were levied upon property, manufactures, and articles exposed for sale in the market-places, in proportion to the wealth of the person taxed or the value of the merchandise sold. produce and merchandise of every description, carried into the city of mexico, was subject to toll duties, which were paid into the royal treasury. the proportion in which taxes were paid is stated at from thirty to thirty-three per cent., or about one third of everything made and produced. oviedo affirms that each taxpayer, in addition to one third of his property, delivered one out of every three of his children, or in lieu thereof a slave, for the sacrifice; if he failed to do this he forfeited his own life.[ ] the government had in the head town of each province large warehouses for the storage of breadstuffs and merchandise received by the tax-gatherers; also auditing offices to which the _calpixques_, or stewards of the revenue, were required to render a very strict account of their collections, and such as were convicted of embezzlement, were immediately put to death and their property confiscated.[ ] in the royal treasury were paintings by which were recorded the tributary towns, and the quantity and kind of tribute paid by each. in the codex mendoza may be seen thirty-six such paintings, each one of which represents the principal towns of one or of several provinces of the empire, together with the quantity and quality of the taxes and the time when they were paid.[ ] the personal and ordinary service consisted in providing every day the water and wood needed at the chiefs' houses; this was distributed from day to day among the towns or wards, and thus each individual was occupied in rendering such service once or twice in the year at the utmost. residents in the vicinity were the only ones so subjected, and then, in consideration of such service, were exempted from paying a portion of the imposts. other labor was mostly done by slaves, of whom there were large numbers. foreign provinces subjected by the empire without having made any resistance, were not required to pay a fixed tribute, but sent several times in the year whatever they thought proper, as a present to the king, who showed himself more or less gracious according to the value of the presents. no calpixques or tax-gatherers were placed in such provinces by the mexican sovereign, but they continued under the rule of their own chiefs. such countries as were reduced by war, had to submit to the rigorous conditions imposed by the conqueror, and bore the name of _tequitin tlacotl_, which means 'paying tribute like slaves.' over them were stationed stewards and calpixques, who had authority even over the lords of the country, and who besides recovering the tributes forced men to cultivate land, and women to spin, weave, and embroider for their private benefit; indeed, so great was their tyranny, that whatever they coveted they were sure to obtain by fair means or foul. the kings of tezcuco and tlacopan, and other sovereign lords, allies of the king of mexico, shared these tributes if they aided in the conquest.[ ] [sidenote: taxation under montezuma ii.] the sovereigns selected the calpixques from among the aztec _pilli_, or nobles of inferior rank. they were under the supervision of the chief treasurers or _hueycalpixques_, who resided at the several capitals, and it was their duty to gather the tributes or taxes, and to see that the lands belonging to the municipalities or to private persons were kept under cultivation. the duties of these calpixques were not very arduous at first, as the people generally hastened to pay their taxes before being called upon; but during the reign of montezuma ii. the taxes increased so enormously, owing to the great extravagance of the court, that this commendable zeal cooled down very considerably. the bulk of the immense wealth which the conquerors saw with so much admiration at montezuma's court was the result of this excessive taxation, and it was one of the main causes of that alienation of the people from their sovereign which rendered the conquest a possible achievement. notwithstanding the easy disposition of the taxpayers, they could not submit patiently to a yoke so onerous. the merchants, whose trading expeditions had been so useful to the state in former times, were no less overwhelmed by the taxes than the inhabitants of conquered provinces by the tributes. it was among that powerful class that the first symptoms of defection were noticed. to the main grievance was added the tyranny and harshness exhibited by the revenue officers in collecting the taxes. they carried a small rod in one hand and a feather fan in the other, and, accompanied by a large retinue of understrappers, went through cities and fields, unmercifully maltreating the unfortunate beings who could not promptly comply with their demands, and even selling them into slavery; at least it is certain that such sales occurred in conquered provinces. [sidenote: selfishness of montezuma ii.] from the first years of his reign montezuma ii. began to oppress the merchants with heavy taxation, even upon the most trifling things. the greatest sufferers were the retail dealers, who had to pay excessive duties upon the merchandise they introduced into the principal _tianguez_, or market-place, from which such merchandise was taken to the lesser market-places. but the king and his creatures finding that this did not directly injure the wholesale traders, among whom were the judges of the mercantile court,--that is to say, the consuls and syndics, so to name them, of the company of tlatelulco,--witnesses were soon found to trump up charges of high treason against them, which ended in their being put to death, and their goods and chattels confiscated and distributed among the people of the royal household. a very large portion of the taxes and tributes was expended in supporting the army, the public employees, the poor and destitute, such as widows, orphans, and the aged, and also in providing food for the people in times of great scarcity, but almost as large a portion was appropriated by the king to his own uses.[ ] it was by such acts as these that montezuma ii. undid the work of his fathers, and spoiled the harmony of his realm by caring only for his own glory and that of his court. footnotes: [ ] see page of this volume. [ ] _acosta_, _de procuranda, indorum salute_; quoted in _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. . [ ] _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _cortés_, _carta inéd._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. i., pp. - ; see also, tom. ii., lib. vii., pp. - , lib. ix., pp. , . the anonymous conqueror agrees with sahagun: 'tutti quei che si pigliauano nella guerra, ò erano màgiati da loro, ò erano tenuti per schiaui.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . motolinia, however, asserts that _all_ prisoners of war were sacrificed: 'por que ningun esclavo se hacian en ellas, ni rescataban ninguno de los que en las guerras prendian, mas todos los guardavan para sacrificar.' _carta al emperador cárlos v._, jan. , , in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . gomara also confirms this with a grim joke: 'los catiuos en guerra no siruian de esclauos, sino de sacrificados: y no hazian mas de comer para ser comidos.' _conq. mex._, fol. - ; see also fol. . [ ] 'algunos quisieron decir, que si vn libre tenia acceso à alguna esclava, y quedaba preñada de la copula, era esclavo el varon que cometiò acto con esclava, y servia al señor de la esclava; pero esto no fue asi, segun confesion de los mismos indios sabios, que sabian sus leies, y las practicaban.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. xxii., xxiii. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . brasseur de bourbourg asserts that these contracts remained in force down to the time of the spanish conquest. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'y cuando acontecia la dicha hambre, entónces se vendian por esclavos muchos pobres hombres y mugeres, y comprábanlos los ricos que tenian muchas provisiones allegadas, y no solamente los dichos pobres se vendian a sí mismos, sino que tambien vendian á sus hijos, y á sus descendientes, y á todo su linaje, y así eran esclavos perpetuamente, porque decian que esta servidumbre que se cobraba en tal tiempo, no tenia remedio para acabarse en algun tiempo, porque sus padres se habian vendido por escapar de la muerte, ó por librar su vida de la última necesidad.' _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vii., pp. - . [ ] 'vendian niños recien nacidos, y de dos años, para cumplir sus promesas, y ofrecer en los templos, como nosotros las candelas, y sacrificarlos para alcançar sus pretensiones.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvi. 'porque como andaban todos los reinos, con sus mercancias, traìan de todos ellos muchos esclavos, los quales, si no eran todos, à lo menos, los mas, sacrificaban.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'porque casi todos los que sacrificaban á los idolos eran los que prendian en las guerras ... mui poquitos eran los otros que sacrificavan.' _motolinia_, _carta al emperador cárlos v._, jan. , , in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. , . 'luego proponian un parlamento á los esclavos, enanos y corcobados, diciendo: hijos mios, id á la buena ventura con vuestro señor axayaca á la otra vida.... luego le abrieron el pecho, teniendolo seis ó siete sacerdotes, y el mayoral le sacaba el corazon, y todo el dia y toda la noche ardía el cuerpo del rey, con los corazones de los miserables esclabos que morian sin culpa.' _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , . 'sacrificando en sus honras doscientos esclavos, y cien esclavas.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chichimeca_, in _id._, pp. , . 'quando moria algun principal, matavan juntamente con él un esclavo, y enterravan con él para que le fuese á servir.' _codex telleriano-remensis_, in _id._, vol. v., p. . 'avec lui, de jeunes filles, des esclaves et des bossus.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'se quemaba junto con sus cuerpos y con los corazones de los cautivos y esclavos que mataban.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. , - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. , ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; among those who in later times have treated of slavery among the nahua nations are the following: _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, pp. - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _simon's ten tribes_, p. . [ ] _toribio and olarte_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . [ ] _boturini_, _idea_, p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , - , ; _id._, _relaciones_, in _id._, pp. - , , , - , , , ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, ms., pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro, mex._, pt ii., pp. - . [ ] herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii., says that brothers inherited estates and not sons; but this assertion is not borne out by any other authority. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _fuenleal_, _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _witt_, _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - , ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro, mex._, pt ii., pp. - . [ ] 'ce n'est pas qu'ils eussent ces terres en propre; car, comme les seigneurs exerçaient un pouvoir tyrannique, ils disposaient des terrains et des vassaux suivant leur bon plaisir. les indiens n'étaient donc, proprement dit, ni propriétaires ni maîtres de ces villages; ils n'étaient que les laboureurs ou les amodiateurs des seigneurs terriers, de telle façon que l'on pourrait dire que tout le territoire, soit des plaines, soit des montagnes, dépendait du caprice des seigneurs et qu'il leur appartenait, puisqu'ils y exerçaient un pouvoir tyrannique, et que les indiens vivaient au jour le jour; les seigneurs partageant entre eux tous leurs produits.' _simancas_, _de l'ordre de succession_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _id._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _fuenleal_, _lettre_, in _id._, tom. v., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _variedades civ._, tom. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - . [ ] _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . see further: _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. - . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _witt_, _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. - . [ ] _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , - . [ ] 'nè i vasalli de' feudatari erano esenti da' tributi, che pagavano al re gli altri vassalli della corona.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] in the _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. , we read that it was paid every eighty days. [ ] the toesa is the same thing as the french toise, which is . english feet, or seven castilian feet. [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _cortés_, _hist. n. españa_, p. . [ ] torquemada adds: 'ai quien diga, que no eran piojos, sino gusanillos; pero alonso de ojeda en sus memoriales, lo certifica de vista, y lo mismo alonso de mata.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'dábanle sus vassallos en tributo ordinario de tres hijos uno, y el que no tenia hijos avia de dar un indio ó india para sacrificar á sus dioses, é si no lo daban, avian de sacrificarle á él.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . nowhere else do i find mention of such a custom, although in michoacan the despotic power of the king, and his tyrannous abuse of it, led to almost the same results. in michoacan: 'tributauan al rey quanto tenian y el queria, hasta las mugeres y hijos, si los queria; de manera que eran mas que esclauos, y viuian en terrible seruidumbre.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x., dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiii. 'si bien todas las atenciones dedicadas á los decorosos mugeriles privilegios destruian la sujecion del tributo á sus monarcas, sirviendolos en la ceguedad de ofrecerles no solo la hacienda, y la vida, sino á sus proprias mugeres, en caso de discurrir aceptable el vergonzoso obsequio.' _salazar y olarte_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . [ ] _codex mendoza_, in _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _id._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - , vol. i., plates xix-lvii; _cortés_, _hist. n. españa_, p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _tápia_, _relacion_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , , , tom. ii., pp. - , ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxli.; _toribio and olarte_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _fuenleal_, in _id._, pp. - ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _id._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _simancas_, in _id._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , - ; _witt_, _lettre_ in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , , , , - , , tom. ii., p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _dicc. univ._, tom. x., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. , - , ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, pp. , , - , ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., p. ; _lang's polynesian nat._, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - , ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. , . chapter vii. education, marriage, concubinage, childbirth, and baptism. education of the nahua youth--manner of punishment--marriage preliminaries--nuptial ceremony--observance after marriage--mazatec, otomÍ, chichimec, and toltec marriages--divorce--concubinage--ceremonies preliminary to childbirth--treatment of pregnant woman--proceedings of midwife--superstitions with regard to women who died in childbed--abortion--baptism--speeches of midwife--naming of children--baptism among the tlascaltecs, miztecs, and zapotecs--circumcision and scarification of infants. in examining the domestic customs of the nahua nations it will be as well to first inquire how their children were reared and instructed. the education of a child was commenced by its parents as soon as it was able to walk, and was finished by the priests. aside from the superstitious and idolatrous flavor with which everything aztec was more or less tainted, the care taken to mold aright the minds of the youth of both sexes is worthy of admiration. both parents and priests strenuously endeavored to inspire their pupils with a horror of vice and a love of truth. respect for their elders and modesty in their actions was one of their first lessons, and lying was severely punished. [sidenote: education of youth.] in a series of ancient aztec paintings, which give a hieroglyphical history of the aztecs, are represented the manner in which children were brought up, the portion of food allowed them, the labors they were employed in, and the punishments resorted to by parents for purposes of correction. purchas relates that the book containing this picture-history with interpretations made by natives, was obtained by the spanish governor, who intended it for a present to the emperor charles v. the ship on which it was carried was captured by a french man-of-war, and the book fell into the hands of the french king's geographer, andrew thevet. at his death it was purchased for twenty french crowns by richard hakluyt, then chaplain to the english ambassador at the french court, and was left by him in his last will and testament to samuel purchas, who had woodcut copies made from the original and published them, with explanatory text, for the benefit of science and learning. in that part of the work which relates to the bringing up and education of children,--a specimen page of which is given in the chapter of this volume which treats of hieroglyphics,--a boy and girl with their father and mother are depicted; three small circles, each of which represents one year, show that the children are three years of age, while the good counsel they are receiving issues visibly from the father's lips; half an oval divided in its breadth shows that at this age they were allowed half a cake of bread at each meal. during their fourth and fifth years the boys are accustomed to light bodily labor, such as carrying light burdens, while the girl is shown a distaff by her mother, and instructed in its use. at this age their ration of bread is a whole cake. during their sixth and seventh years the pictures show how the parents begin to make their children useful. the boy follows his father to the market-place, carrying a light load, and while there occupies himself in gathering up grains of corn or other trifles that happen to be spilt about the stalls. the girl is represented as spinning, under the close surveillance of her mother, who lectures and directs her at the same time. the allowance of bread is now a cake and a half, and continues to be so until the children have reached their thirteenth year. we are next shown the various modes of punishing unruly children. when eight years old they are merely shown the instruments of punishment as a warning. at ten, boys who were disobedient or rebellious were bound hand and foot and pricked in different parts of the body with thorns of the maguey; girls were only pricked in the hands and wrists; if this did not suffice they were beaten with sticks. if they were unruly when eleven years old they were held over a pile of burning chile, and forced to inhale the smoke, which caused great pain.[ ] at twelve years of age a bad boy was bound hand and foot and exposed naked in a damp place during an entire day; the naughty girl of the same age was obliged to rise in the night and sweep the whole house.[ ] from the age of thirteen years the allowance of bread was increased to two cakes. between the ages of thirteen and fifteen the boys were employed in bringing wood from the mountains by land or in canoes, or in catching fish; the girls spent their time in grinding corn, cooking, and weaving. at fifteen, the boys were delivered to the priests to receive religious instruction, or were educated as soldiers by an officer called achcauhtli.[ ] [sidenote: schools for youth.] the schools and seminaries were annexed to the temples, and the instruction of the young of both sexes was a monopoly in the hands of the priests. in general boys were sent to the colleges between the ages of six and nine years; they were dressed in black, their hair was left uncut,[ ] and they were placed under the charge of priests specially appointed for that purpose, who instructed them in the branches most suitable to their future calling. all were instructed in religion and particular attention was given to good behavior and morals. no women were permitted to enter the college, nor could the youths on any account have communication with the other sex. at certain seasons they were required to abstain from various kinds of food. the schools, or colleges, were of two distinct classes. those attended by the common people were called _telpochcalli_, or 'houses of the youths;' there was one of these in each quarter of the city, after the manner of our public schools, and the parents of the district were required to enter their children at the age of four or five years. the telpochtlato, or 'chief of youth,' instructed them how to sweep the sanctuary, to replenish the fire in the sacred censers, to clean the schoolhouse, to do penance, more or less severe according to their age, and to go in parties to the forest to gather wood for the temple. each pupil took his meals at the house of his parents, but all were obliged to sleep in the seminary. at nightfall all assembled in the _cuicacalco_, or 'house of song,' and were there taught the arts of singing and dancing, which formed part of a mexican education; they were also exercised here in the use of arms.[ ] at the age of fifteen or sixteen, or sometimes earlier, it was customary for the parents to withdraw their children from the telpochcalli that they might follow a trade or profession, but this was never done without first making a present to the telpochtlato. the schools at which the sons of the nobility and those destined to be priests were educated, were called _calmecac_, which means a college, or monastery. the pupils did not do as much manual labor as those educated in the telpochcalli, nor did they take their meals at home, but in the building. they were under the supervision of priests of the tlamacazqui order, who instructed them in all that the plebeians learned, besides many of the arts and sciences, such as the study of heroic songs and sacred hymns, which they had to learn by heart, history, religion, philosophy, law, astronomy, astrology, and the writing and interpreting of hieroglyphics. if not quick and diligent, they were given less food and more work; they were admonished to be virtuous and chaste, and were not allowed to leave the temple, until with their father's permission they went out from it to be married, or, in the case of a youth of strength and courage, to go to the wars; those who showed qualities fitted for a military life were exercised in gymnastics and trained to the use of weapons, to shoot with the bow, manage the shield, and to cast darts at a mark. their courage, strength, and endurance underwent severe tests; they were early afforded opportunities of realizing the hardships of camp life, and, while boys, were sent to carry provisions to the soldiers, upon which occasions their behavior was closely watched, and a display of courage met with suitable promotion and reward.[ ] [sidenote: female seminaries.] annexed to the temples were large buildings used as seminaries for girls. the maidens who were educated in them were principally the daughters of lords and princes. they were presided over by matrons or vestal priestesses, brought up in the temple, who watched over those committed to their care with great vigilance. day and night the exterior of the building was strictly guarded by old men, to prevent any intercourse between the sexes from taking place; the maidens could not even leave their apartments without a guard; if any one broke this rule and went out alone, her feet were pricked with thorns till the blood flowed. when they went out, it was together and accompanied by the matrons; upon such occasions they were not allowed to raise their eyes, or in any way take notice of anyone; any infringement of these rules was visited with severe punishment. the maidens had to sweep those precincts of the temple occupied by them, and attend to the sacred fire; they were taught the tenets of their religion and shown how to draw blood from their bodies when offering sacrifice to the gods. they also learned how to make feather-work, and to spin, and weave mantles; particular attention was given to their personal cleanliness; they were obliged to bathe frequently, and to be skilful and diligent in all household affairs. they were taught to speak with reverence, and to humble themselves in the presence of their elders, and to observe a modest and bashful demeanor at all times. they rose at day-break, and whenever they showed themselves idle or rude, punishment was inflicted. at night the pupils slept in large rooms in sight of the matrons, who watched them closely. the daughters of nobles, who entered the seminaries at an early age, remained there until taken away by their parents to be married.[ ] children brought up in the house of their parents were taught the worship of the gods, and were frequently conducted to the temple in order that they might witness the religious performances. military men instructed their sons in the use of weapons and the art of war, and lost no opportunity of inuring them to danger, always endeavoring to inspire courage and daring. laborers and artisans usually taught their children their own trade. the sons of the nobles who were placed in the seminaries were never permitted to go out unless accompanied by one of the superiors of the temple; their food was brought to them by their parents. the punishments inflicted were excessively severe. liars had thorns thrust into their lips; and sometimes, if the fault was frequent, their lips were slightly split. those who were negligent or disobedient were bound hand and foot, and pricked with thorns or badly pinched. a girl who was detected looking at or speaking to a man was severely punished; and if addicted to walking the streets, her feet were tied together, and pricked with sharp thorns.[ ] there was in tezcuco, during the reign of nezahualcoyotl, a large seminary, built upon the west side of the temple, which consisted of several spacious halls and rooms, with a courtyard, and was called the _tlacoteo_. here the king's sons were brought up and instructed. the guardians and tutors who had charge of them took much pains to instruct them in everything becoming their high estate. besides the use of arms, they were taught all the arts and sciences as far as then known, and were made fully acquainted with the practical working of precious metals and stones. separate rooms were devoted to the use of the king's daughters, where they were given an education fitting their station. in accordance with a law of the realm, the king, his children and relatives, with their guardians and masters, and the grandees of the kingdom, came together every eighty days, in a large hall of the tlacoteo; all were seated according to rank; the males on one side, and the females on the other. all the men, even those of royal blood, were dressed in coarse garments of _nequen_, or maguey-fibre. an orator ascended a sort of pulpit and commenced a discourse, in which he censured those who had done badly during the last eighty days, and praised those who had done well; this he did without favor, not even hesitating to blame the king if he saw fit. the discourse was delivered with such eloquence and feeling as generally to move the audience to tears.[ ] [sidenote: a parent's discourse to his sons.] sahagun, motolinia, mendieta, and other early writers, who were well acquainted with the mexican language, give us specimens of the exhortations delivered by parents to their children. i select one from the first-mentioned author, as an example: "give ear unto me and hearken, o my sons," says the mexican parent, "because i am your father; and i, though unworthy, am chosen by the gods to rule and govern this city. thou who art my first-born and the eldest of thy brothers; and thou the second, and thou the third, and thou the last and least--know that i am anxious and concerned, lest some of you should prove worthless in after life; lest, peradventure, not one among you should prove worthy to bear my dignities and honors after me; perhaps it is the will of the gods that the house which i have with so great labor built up, shall fall to the ground and remain a ruin and a dung-hill; that my name shall be no more remembered among men; that after my death no man shall speak well of me. hear now the words that i shall speak unto you, that you may learn how to be of use in the world, and how to draw near unto the gods that they may show favor to you; for this i say unto you, that those who weep and are grieved; those who sigh, pray and ponder; those who are watchful at night, and wakeful in the morning; those who diligently keep the temples cleanly and in order; those who are reverent and prayerful--all these find favor with the gods; to all such the gods give riches, honor, and prosperity, even as they give them to those who are strong in battle. it is by such deeds the gods know their friends, and to such they give high rank and military distinctions; success in battle, and an honorable place in the hall of justice; making them parents of the sun, that they may give meat and drink not only to the gods of heaven, but also to the gods of hell; and such as are thus honored are revered by all brave men and warriors: all men look on them as their parents, because the gods have shown them favor; and have rendered them fit to hold high offices and dignities and to govern with justice; they are placed near the god of fire, the father of all the gods, whose dwelling is in the water surrounded by turreted walls of flowers, and who is called ayamictlan and xiuhtecutli; or they are made lords of the rank of tlacatecutli or tlacochtecutli, or they are given some lower post of honor. perchance they are given some such office as i now hold, not through any merit of my own, but because the gods know not my unworthiness. i am not what i am by my own asking; never did i say, i wish to be so and so, i desire this or that honor; the gods have done me this honor of their own will, for surely all is theirs, and all that is given comes from their hand; nor shall any one say, i desire this or that honor, for the gods give as they please and to whom they please, and stand in need of counsel from none. harken, my sons, to another sorrow that afflicts me when i arise at midnight to pray and do penance. then i ponder many things, and my heart rises and sinks even as one who goes up and down mountains, for i am satisfied with no one of you. thou, my eldest son, dost not give any sign of improvement, i see in thee nothing manly, thou remainest ever a boy, thy conduct does not become an elder brother. and thou, my second son, and thou, my third, i see in you no discretion or manliness; peradventure it is because you are second and third that you have become careless. what will become of you in the world? lo, now, are you not the children of noble parents? your parents are not tillers of the soil or wood-cutters. what, i say again, will become of you? do you wish to be nothing but merchants, to carry a staff in your hands and a load on your backs? will you become laborers and work with your hands? harken, my sons, and give heed unto my words, and i will point out to you those things which you shall do. see to the proper observance of the dances, and the music, and the singing, for thus will you please both the people and the gods; for with music and singing are favors and riches gained. endeavor to learn some honorable trade or profession, such as working in feathers or precious metals; for by such means bread can be obtained in time of necessity. pay attention to every branch of agriculture, for the earth desires not food or drink, but only to bring forth and produce. your fathers sought to understand these things, for though they were gentlemen and nobles they took care that their estate should be properly cultivated. if you think only of your high rank and are unmindful of these things, how will you support your family, in no part of the world does anyone support himself by his gentility only. but above all study well to provide all those things which are necessary for the sustenance of the body, for these are the very foundation of our being, and rightly are they called _tonacaiutltomio_, that is to say our flesh and bones, because it is by them that we work, live, and are strong. there is no man in the world but what eats, for each one has a stomach and intestines. the greatest lords need food, the most valiant warrior must carry a bag of victuals. by the sustenance of the body life is upheld, by it the world is peopled. see, therefore, my sons, that you be careful to plant the corn and the magueys, for do we not know that fruit is the delight of children; truly it cools and quenches the thirst of the little ones. and you, boys, do you not like fruit? but how will you get it if you do not plant and grow it. give heed, my sons, to the conclusion of my discourse, and let it be written upon your hearts. many more things could i say, but my task would never be ended. a few more words only will i add that have been handed down to us from our forefathers. firstly, i counsel you to propitiate the gods, who are invisible and impalpable, giving them your whole soul and body. look to it that you are not puffed up with pride, that you are neither obstinate, nor of a weak, vacillating mind, but take heed to be meek and humble and to put your trust in the gods, lest they visit your transgressions upon you, for from them nothing can be hidden, they punish how and whom they please. secondly, my sons, endeavor to live at peace with your fellow-men. treat all with deference and respect; if any speak ill of you answer them not again; be kind and affable to all, yet converse not too freely with any; slander no man; be patient, returning good for evil, and the gods will amply avenge your wrongs. lastly, my children, be not wasteful of your goods nor of your time, for both are precious; at all seasons pray to the gods and take counsel with them; be diligent about those things which are useful. i have spoken enough, my duty is done. peradventure you will forget or take no heed of my words. as you will. i have done my duty, let him profit by my discourse who chooses."[ ] [sidenote: marriage.] the customary marrying-age for young men was from twenty to twenty-two, and for girls from eleven to eighteen.[ ] marriages between blood relations or those descended from a common ancestor were not allowed. a brother could, and was enjoined to, marry his deceased brother's wife, but this was only considered a duty if the widow had offspring by the first marriage, in order that the children might not be fatherless.[ ] when a youth reached a marriageable age, he or his parents asked permission of his teacher. he seldom was allowed any choice of his own, but was expected to abide by the selection of his parents. it rarely happened that a marriage took place without the sanction of parents or relatives, and he who presumed to choose his own wife, or married without such consent, had to undergo penance, and was looked upon as ungrateful, ill-bred, and apostate. in some parts the high priest commanded them to marry when they arrived at the proper age, and he who refused to comply was obliged to remain continent through life, and dedicate the remainder of his days to the service of the gods. should he afterward repent and desire to marry, he was despised by all his friends and publicly denounced as infamous, inasmuch as he had shown himself to be devoid of firmness, and unable to keep the vow of chastity to which he had voluntarily bound himself; nor would any respectable woman afterward accept him as a husband. in tlascala, if any one carelessly allowed the time to pass by without taking a wife, or deciding upon a life of chastity, his hair was cut short and he was driven out from the company of the youths with whom he was educated. cutting the hair formed a part of the marriage ceremony, but the mode of cutting was different from that of the penalty.[ ] when the time came for the parents to choose a wife for their son, all the relations were called together and informed by the father that the youth had now reached an age when he should be provided with a wife; for that he was now a man, and must learn how to perform the duties of a man, and refrain from boyish tricks and promiscuous intercourse with women. the youth was then summoned before his parents, and his father addressed him, saying: "my son, thou art now a man, and it seems to us proper to search among the maidens for a wife for thee. ask thy tutors for permission to separate thyself from thy friends, the youths with whom thou hast been educated. make known our wishes to those called telpuchtlatoque, who have the charge of thee." the youth in answer expressed his willingness and desire to enter into their plans. the parents then set about preparing a quantity of food, such as tamales, chocolate, and other dishes; and also provided a small axe, which was to bear a part in the next proceeding. the repast being prepared, an invitation was sent to the priests who were instructors of the youth, accompanied with presents of food and pipes of tobacco; all the relations were also invited. when the meal was finished, the relations, and guardians of the ward in which the parents of the pair lived, seated themselves. then one of the youth's relations, addressing the priestly instructors of the youth said: "here, in the presence of all, we beg of you not to be troubled because this lad, our son, desires to withdraw from your company, and to take a wife; behold this axe, it is a sign that he is anxious to separate from you; according to our mexican custom, take it, and leave us the youth." then the priest answered: "i, and the young men with whom your son has been educated have heard how that you have determined to marry him and that from henceforward, forever, he will be parted from us; let everything be done as you wish." the tutor of the youth next addressed him, entreating him to persevere in the paths of virtue, not to forget the teachings he has received, and to continue to be a zealous servant of the gods; he advised him that as he was now about to take a wife he must be careful to provide for her support, and to bring up and instruct his children in the same manner as he had been educated. he adjured him to be courageous in battle, to honor and obey his parents, to show respect to his seniors and all aged persons; and so the speaker ambled morally along at some length, but i spare the reader the remainder of the discourse.[ ] the priests then took their leave, bearing the axe with them, and the young man remained in his father's house. [sidenote: preliminaries to marriage ceremony.] soon after this the parents called the relations together once more to consult upon the selection of a maiden suitable to be the wife of their son. their first act, and one that was of paramount importance, was to ascertain the day and sign of his birth. if they were unable to remember or calculate the sign they called in the aid of astrologers, or soothsayers, who by certain reckonings and ceremonies interpreted all they sought to know. the birthday and sign of the damsel were in like manner ascertained. if the horoscope of both was favorable, the astrologers predicted a happy union with prosperity and good fortune to both, but if the signs did not agree they foretold adversity and evil fortune, and it became necessary to choose another maiden. once assured of a favorable combination according to the auguries, steps were taken to obtain the consent of the girl's parents. for this purpose the parents and relatives of the youth commissioned two old women, chosen from among the most discreet and virtuous of the district, who were to act as negotiators in the affair; these were called _cihuatlanque_. they went on the part of the bridegroom and conveyed the message to the parents or nearest relatives of the young girl. their first visit was made shortly after midnight or upon the following morning, upon which occasion they took with them some presents to offer to the girl's parents. upon their arrival they commenced a suitable address, in which they formally solicited the hand of the girl in marriage. the first overture was invariably rejected and some frivolous excuse given, even though the girl's relatives might be more desirous of the match than those who solicited it. the embassy was told that the girl was not yet of an age to marry, or that she was not worthy of the honor offered her. after some few more such compliments had been paid, the matrons returned to those who had sent them. a few days having elapsed, the old women were sent back bearing more presents, and with instructions to again solicit the alliance, and to define clearly the position of the suitor, his qualifications and riches. upon this second interview the negotiations assumed a more business-like aspect; the conversation turned upon the portion that each would bring to the other, and finally the relatives of the girl consented to consider the affair; yet they still maintained a semblance of reluctance, insisting that the girl was not worthy to become the wife of so estimable a young man; but adding that, as the matter was urged with so much importunity, they would on the morrow assemble all the relations of the young woman, that they might consult together about the affair; they then closed the conference by inviting their visitors to be present on that occasion and receive their final decision. [sidenote: marriage ceremonies.] the next day the parents of the girl called a meeting of all her relatives, at which the proposed alliance was discussed with due deliberation; and the girl being called before them, much good advice was given her; her duties as a wife were defined, she was charged to serve and please her husband, and not bring disgrace upon her parents. information of their decision was then sent to the parents of the young man, and preparations for a fitting celebration of the wedding commenced. the augurs were consulted and requested to name a lucky day for the ceremony; the signs _acatl_, _ozomatli_, _cipactli_, _quauhtli_, or _calli_, were deemed most favorable, and one or other of them was generally selected for the celebration of the nuptials. several ensuing days were spent by both families in preparing for the marriage celebration, and in issuing invitations to friends and relations. the ceremony was always performed at the house of the bridegroom's parents, where the best room was put in order for the occasion; the roof and walls were festooned with green branches and garlands of flowers, disposed with great taste, and the floor was strewn with the same. in the centre stood a brazier containing fire. when all the arrangements were completed, certain of the bridegroom's friends and relatives went to the house of his intended to conduct her to the room. if the distance was great, or the bride the daughter of a lord or great personage, she was borne upon a litter, otherwise she was carried on the back of the bride's-woman, or sponsor, accompanied by a large concourse of people, disposed in two rows and bearing torches. the bride occupied the centre of the procession, and immediately about her walked her nearest relatives. as the procession passed, many of the lookers-on profited by the occasion, to point her out to their own daughters as an example worthy of emulation. [sidenote: consummation of marriage.] [sidenote: dancing the chemise.] the bridegroom met his betrothed at the entrance of his house, preceded by four women bearing lighted torches; in his hands he carried a censer with burning incense, and another was given to the bride; with these they at once perfumed each other, and the groom, taking her by the hand, led her into the room prepared for the ceremony. they were then seated upon an ornamented and painted mat spread close to the fireplace, the woman being placed on the left of the man.[ ] the bridegroom's mother then came forward with presents for her daughter-in-law, and dressed her in a _huipil_, or short chemise, at the same time laying at her feet a _cuatli_, or skirt, richly embroidered and worked. next the bride's mother gave presents to the bridegroom; she covered him with a mantle, which she fastened at the shoulder, and placed a maxtli or breech-clout at his feet. the most important part in the ceremony was next performed by the priest, who made a long address to the betrothed couple, in which he defined the duties of the married state, and pointed out to them the obedience a wife should observe towards her husband, and the care and attention the latter should give to her, how that he was bound to maintain and support her, and the children they might have. he was enjoined to bring up and educate his children near him, teaching all according to their abilities, to make them useful members of society, and to instruct them in habits of industry. a wife's duties, he said, were to labor and aid her husband in obtaining sustenance for their family. both were exhorted to be faithful to one another, to maintain peace and harmony between themselves, to overlook each other's failings, and to help one another, ever bearing in mind that they were united for life by a tie which only death could sever. the rites of marriage were always conducted with much solemnity, and during the ceremony nothing was said or done contrary to the rules of modesty and decorum. at the conclusion of the address the couple stood up, and the priest tied the end of the man's mantle to the dress of the woman; they then walked seven times round the fire, casting therein copal and incense, and giving presents to each other, while their friends and relatives threw chains of flowers about their necks and crowned them with garlands.[ ] the mother-in-law of the bride now brought some food, and gave four mouthfuls to the bride to eat and afterwards gave the same quantity to the bridegroom. they then received the congratulations of their friends, while at the same time a dance was performed to the sound of musical instruments. accompanied by the dancers and musicians, the newly wedded pair was conducted to the temple, at the door of which the tlamacaxques, or priests, appeared to receive them. while the company remained below, the wedded couple with their sponsors and parents ascended the steps of the temple. the priest wore his robes of ceremony, and carried in his hand an incensory filled with incense, with which he proceeded to perfume them. he then placed himself between the two, with the man on his right and the woman on his left, and taking them by the hands led them to the altar of the idol, muttering prayers as he went. the altar reached, he placed upon each of the parties a very fine and showy shawl woven and variegated with many colors, in the centre of which was painted a skeleton, as a symbol that death only could now separate them from each other. he then perfumed them again with the incensory, and led them back to the door of the temple, where they were received by the assemblage and accompanied to their home with dancing and music. the marriage ceremonies being finished, the relatives and friends partook of a banquet, and amidst much rejoicing congratulated each other on the new relations they had acquired. in the feasting, drinking, and dancing the bridal pair took no part; they had now to enter upon a season of fasting and penance, which lasted four days, in the strict retirement of their room, where they were closely guarded by old women; on no account were they permitted to leave their room except for the necessary calls of nature, or to offer sacrifice to the gods; the time was to be passed in prayer, and on no account were they to allow their passions to get the better of them or indulge in carnal intercourse. such weakness on their part would, they believed, bring discord or death or some other dire misfortune between them. the close confinement, the watchful guard and imposed penances were intended to calm their passions and purify their minds, whereby they would be more fitted to undertake the duties before them, and not be led astray by unruly desires. what small supply of sustenance they received in the four days of their retirement was carried to them by the old women who had charge of them, and during this time they neither washed nor bathed themselves; they were dressed in new garments and wore certain charms and regalia pertaining to their patron idol. at midnight they came forth to offer sacrifice and burn incense on the altar in their house, in front of which they also left food offerings for their god; this they did during the four days of abstinence, while their friends and relatives continued their rejoicings, festivities, and dancing.[ ] upon the fourth night, when the marriage was to be consummated, two priests of the temple prepared a couch of two mats, between which were placed some feathers and a stone somewhat the color of an emerald, called _chalchiuite_; underneath they put a piece of tiger-skin, and on top of all they spread some cotton cloths. at the four corners of the bed were placed green reeds perfumed, and thorns of the maguey with which the pair were to draw blood from their tongues and ears when they sacrificed to the gods.[ ] the following morning the bridal pair took the bed on which they had lain, with the cloths, reeds, and food they had offered to their god during the four days of penance, to the temple and left them as a thanksgiving offering.[ ] if any charcoal or ashes were found in the bridal chamber they considered it an evil omen, but if, on the other hand, a grain of corn or other seed was found, they considered it a sign of a long and prosperous life and a happy union. a baptismal ceremony was next performed, the wedded pair being placed on green reed mats, while the priests poured water over them. nobles received four ablutions with water in honor of _chalchihuitlicue_, the goddess of waters, and four of wine, in reverence to _tezcatzoncatl_, the god of wine. after the bath they were dressed in new vestments, the bride's head was adorned with white feathers and her hands and feet with red. to her husband was given a thurible, filled with incense wherewith to perfume his household gods. at the conclusion of these ceremonies a further distribution of dresses and presents was made, and the company partook of food and wine, while the scene was enlivened with songs and dances. some more good advice, of which the aztecs seem to have had a never-failing store, was then given to the wedded pair by the mothers-in-law or nearest relatives, and thus ended the nuptial ceremonies, which were conducted in accordance with the means of the principal parties concerned.[ ] in some places, proof of the maiden's virginity was required on the morning following the consummation of the marriage. in such case the sponsors entered the room where the wedded pair had passed the night and demanded the bride's chemise; if they found it stained with blood they brought it out, placed it on a stick, and exhibited it to all present as an evidence that the bride was a virgin; then a dance was formed and the procession went through all the place, carrying the chemise on a stick, dancing and expressing their joy, and this was called 'dancing the chemise.' if it happened that the chemise was unstained, tears and lamentations took the place of rejoicing, abuse and insults were heaped upon the bride, and her husband was at liberty to repudiate her.[ ] in the kingdom of miztecapan, before the ceremony of tying their mantles together was performed it was customary to cut a lock of hair from the bridegroom's head and from the bride's, after which they took each other by the hand and their dresses were tied by the ends. the man then took the girl on his back and carried her a short distance; which proceeding terminated the nuptials. in ixcatlan, he who desired to get married presented himself before the priests, and they took him to the temple, where in presence of the idols he worshiped they cut off some of his hair, and showing it to the people, shouted "this man wishes to get married." from thence he was obliged to descend and take the first unmarried woman he met, in the belief that she was especially destined for him by the gods. they were then married according to the customary mexican rites. the mazatec bridegroom abstained for the first fifteen days of his wedded life from carnal knowledge of his wife, and both spent the time in fasting and penance. among the otomís it was not considered an offence for an unmarried man to deflour a single woman. the husband was permitted to repudiate the woman the day following his marriage if she did not please him; but if he remained satisfied upon that occasion he was not afterwards allowed to send her away. they had then to undergo a period of penance and abstinence and remain secluded for twenty or thirty days, during which time they were to abstain from all sexual intercourse, to draw blood from themselves as a sacrifice, and to bathe frequently. the chichimecs, although they contracted marriage at a very early age, could not have legitimate connection with their wives until the woman was forty years old. after their intercourse with the toltecs this custom began to be abolished, although the princes and nobles observed it rigorously for some time longer. marriage with near relatives was never permitted among them, and polygamy was strictly prohibited.[ ] [sidenote: divorce and division of property.] among the mexicans divorce was permitted, but as a general rule was discouraged. in the event of discord arising between man and wife so that they could not live together peacefully, or where one or other of the parties had just cause of complaint, they applied to a judge for permission to separate. such permission was not granted unless good and sufficient cause was shown in support of the application. the judge investigated the case with much care and attention, closely examining the parties in reference to their marital relations; whether they had been married with the consent of their parents, and if all the ceremonies of marriage had been fully observed. if the answers proved that the parties had not been married according to the usual rites and ceremonies, or if they had been living together in a state of fornication, the judge refused to interfere between them; but if he found they had properly complied with the regulations governing marriage, he used his best efforts to reconcile them; he reminded them of the solemn obligations appertaining to the marriage contract, and warned them not to bring disgrace upon themselves and their parents by breaking the bonds by which they were united, thereby creating a scandal in the community. if his endeavors to effect a reconciliation were of no avail, and he found that one or other of the parties had just cause of complaint, a license to separate could be issued, but more frequently the judge refused to interfere in the matter, and dismissed them with a stern reproval. marriage was looked upon as a solemn and binding tie only to be dissolved by death, and any attempt or desire to annul the contract was deemed a disgrace and a bad example. under these circumstances divorce was always discouraged both by the magistrates and the community. a judge was generally unwilling to sanction with the authority of the law the annulment of so binding an engagement; therefore only a tacit consent was given by the court, by which the whole onus of the disgrace attending a separation was thrown upon the parties themselves. when a dissolution took place between man and wife, they could not again under any circumstances be united; the divorce once effected, no subsequent condonation could authorize their living together.[ ] we have no information how or on what terms a division of property was made in the event of a dissolution of marriage, or to which of the parties the custody of the children belonged. the ancient historians throw no light upon the subject. as much deference and respect was shown to old age, it is probable that the decision of such matters was left to the influence and wisdom of the friends and relatives, and that through their intervention equitable arrangements were made. [sidenote: concubines in mexico.] concubinage, of which there were three classes, was permitted throughout the mexican empire. the first class was the union of young men with unmarried women, before they arrived at the age when they were expected to marry. all young men, with the exception of those who were consecrated to a perpetual chastity, were allowed to have concubines. the youth usually asked his parents to select a girl for him, and the one upon whom their choice fell cohabited with him. such women were called _tlacacavili_. no contract was made nor any ceremony performed; the connection was a simple private arrangement of the relatives on both sides. when a girl lived with an unmarried man as his concubine without the consent of her parents she was called _temecauh_, which had a more general signification. it does not appear, however, that concubinage among the unmarried men was common; on the contrary, the manner in which parents are reputed to have brought up their children, and the care taken by the priests in their education would seem to show that such a practice was discouraged, or rather tolerated than allowed, and it is probable the custom was chiefly confined to the sons of nobles and wealthy men. when a young man arrived at the age when he should marry, he was expected to dispense with his concubine that he might marry the girl selected by his parents to be his lawful wife. he could, however, legitimatize the connection between his concubine and himself by notifying his parents of his wishes and having the usual marriage ceremonies performed; she then became his lawful wife and was called _ciuatlantli_. if while they lived together in concubinage the woman had a child, her parents then required that he should at once restore her to them, or make her his wife, as they considered it proper that having a child she should also have a husband as a legal protector. young women were not dishonored by living in a state of concubinage, nor were their chances of contracting advantageous marriages in any degree lessened. the second order of concubines might rather be termed, perhaps, the less legitimate wives of married men; with them the tying of garments constituted the entire marriage ceremony; the husband could not repudiate them without just cause and the sanction of the courts, but neither they nor their children could inherit property; in this respect they were treated as concubines, but nevertheless they were called _ciuatlantli_, which corresponds with the latin word _uxor_, and was the title borne by the first and legitimate wife. the third class of concubines were merely kept mistresses; with them no marriage rite of any kind was performed. they were kept usually by the nobles and chief men who could afford to maintain large establishments; they occupied a third rank in the domestic circle after the principal wife and less legitimate ones, and were called _ciuanemactli_, or _tlaciuantli_, if their master had obtained them from their parents; those whom he took without such permission were called _tlaciuaantin_.[ ] the toltec kings could only marry one woman, and in case of her death could not marry again or live in concubinage with any woman; the same rule held good with their queens in the event of the king dying first. prostitution among the mexicans was tolerated, but at the same time was restrained within certain bounds; that is, the law took cognizance of the practice as regarded the women engaged in such traffic. it was looked upon as a necessary evil, and the law did not interfere with men who consorted with prostitutes; but the latter, if they plied their traffic too openly, or with too great frequency, so as to create a public scandal and become a nuisance, were punished according to the extent of the offence.[ ] * * * * * we may suppose that, the marriage ceremonies being concluded, the young couple were left in peace, and that for a time there was a truce to the speech-making and ever-ready advice of anxious parents and meddling relatives. but this respite was generally of brief duration. as soon as the woman found herself to be pregnant, all her friends and relations were immediately upon the tiptoe of expectation and interest again. the parents were at once informed of the interesting event, and a feast was prepared, of which all who had been present at the wedding partook. after the repast the inevitable speeches commenced. an old man, squatting on his hams, first spoke in behalf of the husband, referring to the precious burden carried by the pregnant woman and to the future prospects of the child; after a while another relieved the speaker and pursued the subject in the same strain; the man and his wife then responded, dwelling upon the pleasure in store for them, and expressing their hopes that, with the favor of the gods, it might be realized. the parents of the pair were next addressed directly by one of the guests upon the same theme and made a reply. certain elderly relatives then seized the opportunity to admonish and instruct the young woman, to which she made a suitable answer, thanking them for their solicitude on her behalf.[ ] [sidenote: pregnancy and childbirth.] during the months of her pregnancy the mother was very careful to insure the safety and health of the child, though many of the rules observed for this purpose were of a partly superstitious nature. thus, sleeping in the day-time would contort the child's face; approaching too near the fire or standing in the hot sun would parch the foetus; hard and continued work, lifting weights, running, mental excitement, such as grief, anger, or alarm, were particularly avoided; in case of an earthquake all the pots in the house were covered up or broken to stop the shaking; eating _tzictli_, or _chicle_, was thought to harden the palate of the unborn child, and to make its gums thick so that it would be unable to suck, and also to communicate to it a disease called _netentzzoponiztli_; neither must the edible earth, of which, as we shall see in a future chapter, the mexicans were very fond, be eaten by the mother, lest the child should prove weak and sickly; but everything else the woman fancied was to be given her, because any interference with her caprices might be hurtful to her offspring.[ ] moderation in sexual connection with her husband was recommended to a woman from one to three months advanced in pregnancy, but total abstinence in this respect was thought to be injurious to the unborn child; during the later stages of the woman's pregnancy, however, the husband abstained entirely from having intercourse with her.[ ] when the time for the confinement drew near another feast was prepared and the usual invitations were issued. when all were gathered an old man was the first to speak, on behalf of the married couple. by virtue of his long experience in these matters he recommended that the pregnant woman be placed in the _xuchicalli_, or bath, under the protection of xuchicaltzin, the god of the bath, and of yoalticitl, goddess of the bath and of childbirth. he further advised the parents to select a competent _ticitl_, or midwife. this functionary having been named, a female relative of the husband addressed her, asking her to accept the trust, praising her qualifications, and exhorting her to exert her utmost skill and care. the mother and relatives of the wife also made brief speeches to the same purpose. the midwife-elect then expressed her wish and intention to do all in her power.[ ] wealthy people frequently employed several midwives, who for some days prior to the birth busied themselves in waiting on their patient and putting everything in readiness for the important hour. zuazo states that some of these acted merely as witnesses to the fact of the birth.[ ] the 'hour of death,' as the time of confinement was named, having arrived, the patient was carried to a room previously set in order for the purpose; here her hair was soaped and she was placed in a bath to be washed. care was taken that the water should not be too hot, lest the foetus should be scalded; in some cases the woman was beaten on the back with maize leaves which had been boiled in the water used for the bath. the midwife next proceeded to rub and press the abdomen of the patient in order to set the child in place. if the pain grew worse, soothing remedies were administered. a decoction of _cihoapatli_ herbs was given to promote the delivery; should this not prove effective, however, a small piece, about an inch and a half long, of the tail of the _tlaquatzin_, or _tlaquatl_, was given, which is a very powerful emetic. if after all the woman got no ease, it was concluded that she would die. in cases of great danger prayers were addressed to cioacoatl, quilaztli, yoalticitl, and other deities. should the child die in the womb it was removed piecemeal, unless the parents objected, in which case the mother was left to die. [sidenote: ghastly talismans.] mocioaquezqui, 'brave woman,' was the name given to her who died in childbed. after death the body was washed, dressed in good, new clothes, and buried with great ceremony in the courtyard of the temple dedicated to the 'celestial women.'[ ] talismanic virtues were supposed to reside in the corpse; thus, the middle fingers of the left hand, and the hair, were thought to make their possessor irresistible in battle; soldiers, therefore, sought by every means, fair or foul, to procure them. thieves believed that the left hand and arm of the corpse would strike terror into their victims, and they therefore engaged sorcerers to procure it. the birth of twins was believed to foretell the death of one of the parents at the hands of their child; to prevent this, one of the infants was killed.[ ] abortion was not unusual, and was procured by taking a decoction of certain herbs; the crime was nevertheless punished with death.[ ] if everything went well, and the woman was easily delivered, the midwife gave a loud cry of triumph. she next addressed some words of counsel to the child, and then proceeded to wash it. turning to the water, she addressed the goddess of waters, chalchihuitlicue, asking her favor and protection for the child. then taking some water, the midwife breathed upon it, gave some to the infant to taste, and then touched its head and chest therewith, saying: "come, my son (or daughter) to chalchihuitlicue; it is for her to bear you on the back and in her arms throughout this life!" then, placing the infant in the water, she continued: enter thou into the water called _metlalac_ and _tuspalac_; may it wash thee, and may the omnipotent cleanse from thee all ill that is inherent in thee from the beginning of the world and from before the beginning. begone, all evil imparted to thee by thy father and thy mother.[ ] having washed the child, the midwife clothed it, addressing it meanwhile in whispers of welcome and admonition. then, raising her voice, she complimented the mother on her bravery and endurance.[ ] a female relative next praised the fortitude of the patient, who in her response dilated on the trouble and pain she had gone through, and expressed her joy at the treasure vouchsafed her by the gods. the midwife then closed the ceremony by congratulating the grandparents and assembled friends. a few days after the confinement the mother took a bath in the temazcalli, and indulged in rich food and wine; on this occasion a feast was also tendered to invited friends, who partook of it near the spot where the woman bathed. all these elaborate preparations and midwife ceremonies at birth could, however, only have been in vogue among the well-to-do classes, for the mexican women, were, as a rule, little affected by the troubles of child-bearing; their training and manner of life were not calculated to make them delicate. motolinia, and many with him, say, for instance, that the tlascaltec women delivered themselves, the mother applying to a neighbor only at the birth of her first child.[ ] [sidenote: casting the nativity of infants.] it was now time to cast the nativity of the infant. for this purpose the services of a _tonalpouhqui_, or horoscopist, were engaged. these tonalpouhquis were a highly respected class, and were therefore approached with much respect and liberally fed with mantles, food, and other articles. having been told the hour of birth, the horoscoper consulted his book for the sign of the day on which the infant was born.[ ] if the birth had taken place exactly at midnight, the signs for the closing and breaking day were combined. comparing the birthday sign with the other twelve signs, as well as with the principal sign of the group, he deduced the required fortune, and, if the augury was favorable, dwelt on the honors and happiness in store for the infant. should the augury prove unfavorable, as well as the sign for the fifth day after birth, which was the occasion of the second bath, or baptism, this ceremony was postponed to another day, generally the most favorable of the thirteen, in order to moderate, if possible, the threatened misfortune. the fortune-teller dilated upon the troubles in store for the infant and the vices it would develop, but 'hedged' his oracle by adding that the adjoining signs contained certain redeeming features which might have power to counterbalance the evil import of the birthday sign.[ ] [sidenote: baptism of infants.] preparations are now made for the baptism. the portals of the dwelling are decorated with green branches, flowers, and sweet-smelling herbs are scattered over the floors and courtyard, and the approaches to the house are carefully swept; tamales are cooked, maize and cacao ground, and delicacies of every description prepared for the table, not forgetting the liquors; for any shortcoming in this respect would reflect severely on the hospitality of the host.[ ] the relatives of the family assemble before sunrise, and other friends drop in as the day advances; each, as he congratulates the host, presents a gift of clothing for the infant, and receives in his turn a present of mantles, flowers, and choice food.[ ] in the course of the morning the midwife carries the infant to the courtyard, and places it upon a heap of leaves, beside which are set a new _apaxtle_, or earthenware vessel, filled with clear water, and several miniature implements, insignia of the father's trade or profession. if he is a noble or a warrior, the articles consist of a small shield, and a bow with arrows of a corresponding size, placed with their heads directed toward the four cardinal points. another set of arms made from dough of amaranth-seed, and bound together with the dried navel-string of the child, is also prepared. if the child is a girl, there are placed beside it, instead of the little weapons, a spindle and distaff, and some articles of girl's clothing. when the sun rises the midwife sets her face and the face of the child toward the west, and addressing the infant, says: "o eagle, o tiger, o brave little man and grandson of mine, thou hast been brought into the world by thy father and mother, the great lord and the great lady. thou wast created in that house which is the abode of the supreme gods that are above the nine heavens. thou art a gift from our son quetzalcoatl, the omnipresent; be joined to thy mother, chalchihuitlicue, the goddess of water." then placing her dripping fingers on the lips of the child, she continues: "take this, for upon it thou hast to live, to wax strong, and flourish; by it we obtain all necessary things; take it!" then touching the child on the breast with her moistened fingers, she says: "take this holy and pure water that thine heart may be cleansed." then the midwife pours water on the child's head, saying: "receive, o my son, the water of the lord of the world, which is our life, with which we wash and are clean; may this celestial light-blue water enter into thy body, and there remain; may it destroy and remove from thee all evil and adverse things that were given thee before the beginning of the world; behold, all of us are in the hands of chalchihuitlicue, our mother." she now washes the body of the child, exclaiming: "evil, wheresoever thou art, begone, avaunt; for the child liveth anew and is born again; once more it is purified; a second time is it renewed of our mother, chalchihuitlicue." then lifting up the little one toward heaven, she addresses ometochtli and omecioatl:[ ] "behold, o lord, the creature which thou hast sent to this place of sorrow, affliction, and anguish, to this world; give it, o lord, of thy gifts and inspiration, for thou art the great god and the great goddess." then stooping as if to set the child down, she raises it a second time, crying upon the goddess of the waters:[ ] "o lady goddess, mother of the gods, inspire this child with thy virtue." a third time she stoops and raising the child toward heaven, addresses the gods: "o lords celestial, and gods who dwell in heaven, behold this creature whom ye have sent among men, fill it with your spirit and mercy, that it may live." a fourth time she sets down and raises the babe, and calling now upon the sun and the earth she says:[ ] "o our lord, sun, father of all, and thou, o earth, our mother, take ye this child for your own, and, as it is born for war,[ ] so let it die defending the cause of the gods, and be permitted to enjoy the delights prepared in heaven for the brave." the midwife now takes the implements and prays to the patron deity of the trade or profession they represent on behalf of the child; then she places the mantle upon the shoulders of the infant, girds on the little maxtli, and asks the boys present to give the child a name. this was, however, merely a matter of form; the parents really had the choosing of the name and told it to the boys. it was usually taken either from the sign of the day, or from a bird or animal, in the case of a boy; the girls were named from flowers, and this rule was especially observed by the toltecs and miztecs. sometimes a child took its name from some important event which occurred at the time of its birth; as when the tlascaltec chief citlalpopoca, 'smoking star,' was so named because at his birth a flaming comet was seen in the sky. sometimes children were named after the feast held at the time of their nativity; thus, boys born during the festival of the renewal of the sacred fire, called _toxilmolpilia_, were named _molpilli_, 'a tied object,' and girls _xiuhnenetl_, 'little doll of the year of fire.' occasionally a child was named after some renowned ancestor. a second name could be acquired by valiant deeds in battle. motolinia adds that sons of prominent men took a surname from the dignity or office held by the father, either in youth or manhood; or they inherited it with the estate at the death of the parent. children born during the last five days of the year, called _nemontemi_, 'unlucky days,' were considered unfortunate; boys born under such circumstances were often named _nemoquichtli_, 'unlucky man,' and girls _nencihuatl_, 'unlucky woman.'[ ] the midwife, having baptized the child, now calls upon it three times by its new name; admonishing it to make good use of the implements or weapons placed in its hands.[ ] it is thereupon carried into the house, preceded by torch-bearers, and placed in the cradle, before which the midwife offers prayers to yoalticitl, 'goddess of the cradle,' commending the child to her care, and beseeching her to nourish and protect it; then, turning to the cradle, she adds: "o thou, the mother of the child, receive this babe with gentleness, taking heed not to injure it." then she places the child in the cradle, the parents meanwhile calling upon yoalticitl to protect it, and upon yoaltecutli, 'the god of night,' to lull it to sleep. during this ceremony, which is termed _tlacoculaquilo_, or 'the act of placing the child in the cradle,' the boys of the village, dressed to imitate soldiers, enter the house, seize certain food previously prepared for them, called the 'child's navel,' scatter the rest, and rush forth, munching and shouting the child's name and future destinies. the lights, called _ocote_, which have been used during the ceremonies, must be left to burn out, and the fire that was lighted on the birthday must be kept brightly burning until after the baptizing, nor is any one allowed to borrow from its flame, for that would injure the prospects of the child. the umbilical cord is buried with the mimic weapons in a place where a battle may be expected to take place on a future day. the girl's instruments and navel-string are buried under a metate. the afterbirth is interred in a corner of the house. after the cradling ceremony the guests proceed to the banqueting-room, where they seat themselves according to age and rank. the festivities lasted twenty days,[ ] or even longer, if the father was wealthy, during which time the house was kept open to all comers. each visitor presented his gifts and made a speech to the infant on the duties, honors, and happiness in store for it, and adorning his discourse according to the rank of the parents, or his own courtesy. he next congratulated the mother, then the midwife, urging her further care of the infant, and lastly the father, referring to his character and services, and wishing him joy. if the father was a lord, the neighboring princes sent an embassy, preceded by numerous presents, and a chosen orator delivered a congratulatory address before the father and those present, to which an old man responded on behalf of all, commenting upon the good wishes of the neighboring nobles. the orator of the embassy then begged that the shortcomings of his former speech might be excused, and was answered by the oldest or most respected person present, on the parent's behalf. the female friends who came to inspect the infant, rubbed the joints of the body, especially the knees, with ashes, thinking that this would strengthen them and prevent the bones from becoming loose. the same was done to the children who accompanied them.[ ] in some parts the baptismal ceremony consisted in putting some quicklime upon the child's knee, and saying to it: "o thou little one, that hast come into the world to suffer, suffer and be silent. thou livest, but thou shalt die; much pain and anguish shall come upon thee; thou shalt become dust, even as this lime, which was once stone."[ ] if a boy, an arrow or dart was then placed in the child's left hand, to indicate that he must be brave and defend his country; if a girl, she was given a distaff, as a sign that she must become industrious in all womanly pursuits.[ ] in tlascala and miztecapan the infant was bathed in a sacred spring, which, it was thought, would avert misfortune. mendieta says that the midwife merely sprinkled the child a certain number of times, first with wine and then with water.[ ] among the zapotecs both mother and child were washed in a river, and invocations were addressed to all land and aquatic animals, entreating their favor and deprecating their anger;[ ] it was also customary to assign some animal or bird to a child, as its _nagual_, or tutelary genius, and with the fortune of such creature its fate was supposed to be so intimately connected, that the death of one involved the death of the other.[ ] burgoa adds further that this was assigned by lot, but it is stated elsewhere, and with greater probability if we may judge by similar superstitions in the old world, that the first bird or beast that appeared after the birth of the child was appointed its spiritual protector.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: circumcision and scarification.] whether the custom of circumcision, which has been the great prop of argument in favor of the jewish origin of the aztecs, really obtained among these people, has been doubted by numerous authors. although circumcision was certainly not by any means general, yet sufficient proof exists to show that it was in use in some form among certain tribes. las casas and mendieta state that the aztecs and totonacs practiced it, and brasseur de bourbourg has discovered traces of it among the mijes. las casas affirms that the child was carried to the temple on the twenty-eighth or twenty-ninth day after birth; there the high-priest and his assistant placed it upon a stone, and cut off the prepuce at the root; the part amputated they afterward burned to ashes. girls of the same age were defloured by the finger of the priest, who ordered the mother to repeat the operation at the sixth year. zuazo adds that these rites were only performed upon the children of great men, and that there was no compulsion in the matter, the parents having the option of having their children defloured or circumcised at any time within five years.[ ] in the fifth month, at huitzilopochtli's festival, all children born during the year were scarified on the breast, stomach, or arms, and by this means received as followers of their god.[ ] at the festival in honor of teteionan or toci, 'mother of the gods,' in the eleventh month, the women delivered during the year underwent purification and presented their children. in the evening a signal was sounded from the temple, and the mothers, dressed in their best, accompanied by friends, and preceded by torch-bearers and servants carrying the babes, made the tour of the town or quarter; a halt was made at every temple to leave an offering and a lighted torch for the presiding goddess. at the temple of toci extra offerings were made, including _tzocoyotl_, cakes of flour and honey; and here the priest performed the ceremony of purification by pronouncing certain prayers over the women.[ ] in the eighteenth month of every fourth year, the children born since the last corresponding feast, were taken to the temple, where their ears were pierced with a sharp bone, and macaw-feathers, _tlachcayotl_, inserted; the god-father and god-mother, or, as they are termed, uncles and aunts, whose duty it was to initiate the children into the service of the gods, holding them during the operation.[ ] an offering of flour of the _chian_ seed was made, and the god-father was presented with a red robe, the god-mother with a huipil. each child was then passed through the flames of a fire prepared for the purpose; the priest next took its head between his hands, and in that manner lifted it bodily from the ground. everyone thereupon went home to feast, but at noon the god-father and god-mother returned to the temple and executed a dance, holding the children on their backs, and giving them pulque to drink, in very small cups. this went on till dusk, when they retired to their houses to continue the dancing and drinking. this feast and month, itzcalli, 'growth,' obtained its name from the ceremony of squeezing the heads of children, which, it was thought, would make them grow; but it was also called the 'feast of the intoxication of boys and girls.'[ ] [sidenote: head-flattening.] among the miztecs, the mother took hot baths for twenty days after delivery, at the end of which time a feast was held in honor of the goddess of the bath, the child sharing in the honors of the occasion.[ ] they also gave the child a feast on its first birthday. great care was exercised to make children hardy and strong, and no mother, however high in rank, allowed her child to be given to a nurse, unless her own health demanded such a step. the test of a wet nurse was to press out a drop of milk upon the nail, when if it did not run the milk was considered good.[ ] no food was given to the child the first day, in order to create an appetite.[ ] it was suckled for three years, in some places much longer;[ ] and, during this time the mother adhered to a diet that would keep up the quality of the milk; many abstained from intercourse with their husbands for the same period, to prevent the possibility of another child interfering with the proper nurture of the first one. another feast was given at the weaning of the child. gomara mentions that a kind of head-flattening was practiced; he says that the infants were so placed in the cradle as not to allow the occiput to grow, for such a development was considered ugly.[ ] humboldt, however, says that the aztecs never flattened the head. that it was practiced to a considerable extent in remote times by people inhabiting the country, seems to be shown by the deformed skulls found in their graves, and by the sculptured figures upon the ruins. klemm states that the cradle consisted of a hard board to which the infant was bound in such a manner as to cause the malformation. the cradle among the poor aztecs was generally of light cane, and could be tied to the back of the mother.[ ] footnotes: [ ] clavigero writes: 'nella dipintura cinquantesimaseconda si rappresentano due ragazzi d'undici anni, ai quali per non essersi emendati con altri gastighi, fanno i lor padri ricevere nel naso il fumo del _chilli_, o sia peverone.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . but this is a mistake; in this picture we see a girl being punished by her mother in the manner described, and a boy by his father. [ ] clavigero mentions this girl as 'una putta ... cui fa sua madre spazzar la notte tutta la casa, e parte della strada.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] for these picture-writings and the interpretations of them, see: _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _codex bodleian_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., plates - ; _codex mendoza_, in _id._, vol. i., and vol. v., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'tenian estas gentes tambien por ley que todos los niños llegados à los seis años hasta los nueve habian de enviar los padres à los templos para ser instruidos en la doctrína y noticia de sus leyes las cuales contenian casi todas las virtudes esplicadas la en ley natural.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxv., ccxv. 'todos estos religiosos visten de negro y nunca cortan el cabello ... y todos los hijos de las personas principales, así señores como ciudadanos honrados, estan en aquellas religiones y hábito desde edad de siete ú ocho años fasta que los sacan para los casar.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . 'cuando el niño llegaba á diez ó doce años, metíanle en la casa de educacion ó _calmecac_.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] a native author asserts that this 'house of song' was frequently the scene of debauch and licentiousness. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'los hijos de los nobles no se libraban tampoco de faenas corporales, pues hacian zanjas, construian paredes y desempeñaban otros trabajos semejantes, aunque tambien se les enseñaba á hablar bien, saludar, hacer reverencias y, lo que es mas importante, aprendian la astronomía, la historia y demas conocimientos que aquellas gentes alcanzaban.' _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . [ ] 'iban tan honestas que no alzaban los ojos del suelo, y si se descuidaban, luego les hacian señal que recogiesen la vista ... las mujeres estaban por si en piezas apartadas, no salian las doncellas de sus aposentos á la huerta ó verjeles sin ir acompañadas con sus guardas.... siendo las niños de cinco años las comenzaban á enseñar á hilar, tejer y labrar, y no las dejaban andar ociosas, y á la que se levantaba de labor fuera de tiempo, atábanle los piés, porque asentase y estuviese queda.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - . [ ] see further, for information on the education of the mexicans: _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix.; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _fuenleal_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv.; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. - . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . a literal translation of sahagun would be unintelligible to the reader. i therefore have merely followed as closely as possible the spirit and sense of this discourse. for further exhortations and advice to children see _id._, pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] although gomara says 'casan ellos a los veinte años, y aun antes: y ellas á diez.' _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. . [ ] 'por otro respecto no era pena trasquilar los tales mancebos, sino ceremonia de sus casamientos: esto era, por que dejando la cabellera significaba dejar la lozania y liviandad de mancebo; y asi como desde adelante habia de criar nueva forma de cabellos, tuviese nueva seso y cordura para regir su muger y casa. bien creo que debia de haber alguna diferencia en estos trasquilados cuando se trasquilaban por ceremonia ó por pena.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxix.; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i. p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxix. [ ] 'venian los de la casa del mozo á llevar á la moza de parte de noche: llevábanla con gran solemnidad _acuestas_ de una matrona, y con muchas hachas de teas encendidas en dos rencles delante de ella.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. , . 'pronuba, quam _amantesam_ vocabant, sponsam tergo gestans, quatuor foeminis comitantibus quæ pineis tædis, prælucerent, illam post solis occasum, ad limen domus in qua parentes sponsi manebant, sistebat.' _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . 'la celebracion era que la desposada la llevaba á cuestas á prima noche una amanteca, que es medica, é hiban con ellas cuatro mujeres con sus achas de pino resinado encendidas, con que la hiban alumbrando, y llegada á casa del desposado, los padres del desposado la salian á recibir al patio de la casa, y la metian en una sala donde el desposado la estava aguardando.' _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. . [ ] 'un sacerdote ataba una punta del _hueipilli_, ó camisa de la doncella, con otra del _tilmatli_, ó capa del jóven.' _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'al tiempo que los novios se avian de acostar é dormir en uno, tomaban la halda delantera de la camisa de la novia, é atábanla á la manta de algodon que tenia cubierta el novio.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'unas viejas que se llaman titici, ataban la esquina de la manta del mozo, con la falda del vipil de la moza.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . 'hechos los tratados, comparecian ambos contrayentes en el templo, y uno de los sacerdotes examinaba su voluntad con preguntas rituales; y despues tomaba con una mano el velo de la muger, y con otra el manto del marido, y los añudaba por los extremos, significando el vínculo interior de las dos voluntades. con este género de yugo nupcial volvian á su casa, en compañia del mismo sacerdote: donde ... entraban á visitar el fuego doméstico, que á su parecer, mediaban en la paz de los casados, y daban siete vueltas á él siguiendo al sacerdote.' _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'quedando los esposos en aquella estancia durante los cuatro dias siguientes, sin salir de ella, sino á media noche para incensar á los ídolos y hacerles oblaciones de diversas especies de manjares.' _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'Á la media noche y al medio dia salian de su aposento á poner encienso sobre un altar que en su casa tenian.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . 'los padrinos llevaban á los novios á otra pieza separada, donde los dejaban solos, encerrándolos por la parte de afuera, hasta la mañana siguiente, que venian á abrirles, y todo el concurso repetia las enhorabuenas, suponiendo ya consumado el matrimonio.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] the position of the tiger-skin is doubtful: 'ponian tambien vn pedaço de cuero de tigre, debajo de las esteras.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'ponian un pedazo de cuero de tigre encima de las esteras.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . 'la estera sobre que habian dormido, que se llamaba _petatl_, la sacaban al medio del patio, y allí la sacudian con cierta ceremonia, y despues tornaban á ponerla en el lugar donde habian de dormir.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., p. . [ ] 'otra ceremonia, casi como esta, vsaban los del pueblo de israèl, acerca del acostar los novios, la primera noche de sus bodas, que les ponian vna sabana, ó lienço, para que en èl se estampase el testimonio de la virginidad, que era la sangre, que del primer acto se vertìa, la qual se quitaba de la cama delante de testigos, que pudiesen afirmar haverla visto, con la señal de la sangre, que comprobaba la corrupcion de la doncella y embuelta, ó doblada, la ponian en cierto lugar, diputado para esto, donde quedaba guardada, en memoria de la limpieça, y puridad, con que la dicha doncella venia á poder de su marido. seria posible, que quisiese significar entre estos indios lo mismo, este cuidado de los viejos, de traer manta, ó sabana, y tenderla sobre la cama de los desposados, para los primeros actos matrimoniales; y es creible, que seria este el intento, pues la ropa, y esteras, que sirvieron en este sacrificio, se llevaban al templo, y no servian mas en casa, como ni mas, ni menos la ceremonia antigua de guardar la sabana, con sangre, entre los hebreos, en lugar particular, y seguro.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] for further information relating to marriage ceremonies and customs see _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , , - , - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - , tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxix., clxxv.; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _relaciones_, in _id._, pp. , , , ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , tom. iii., pp. , - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvi., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xvii.; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. ; _alegre_, _hist. comp. de jesus_, tom. i., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _simon's ten tribes_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , . [ ] 'nunca sentenciaban en disfavor del matrimonio, ni consentian, que por autoridad de justicia, ellos se apartasen; porque decian ser cosa ilicita, y de mucho escandalo para el pueblo, favorecer, con autoridad publica, cosa contraria à la raçon; pero ellos se apartaban de hecho, y este hecho se toleraba, aunque no en todos, segun el mas, ò menos escandalo, que se engendraba en el pueblo. otros dicen, que por sentencia difinitiva, se hacia este repudio, y divorcio ... los jueces sentenciaban (si acaso concedemos, que havia sentencia) que se apartasen, y quedasen libres, y sin obligacion el vno, al otro; pero no de la murmuracion del pueblo, que buelto contra ellos, decian ser dignos de grandisima pena, por haver quebrado la fè è integridad del matrimonio, y haver dado tan mal exemplo à la republica.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _monglave_, _résumé_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'tengono molte moglie, & tante quante ne possono mantenere come i mori, però come si è detto, vna è la principale & patrona & i figliuoli di qsta hereditano, & quei dell'altre no, che non possono anzi son tenuti per bastardi. nelle nozze di questa patrona principale fanno alcune cirimonie, il che non si osserua nelle nozze dell'altre.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . see further, _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, cap. ccxiii., ccxiv., in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv., dec. v., lib. x. [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, cap. ccxiii., ccxiv., in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] i have thought it unnecessary to give these speeches in full, but the reader can find them all together in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . [ ] sahagun adds: 'mandaba que á la preñada la diesen de comer suficientemente y buenos manjares, calientes y bien guisados, con especialidad cuando á la preñada le viene su purgacion, ó como dicen la regla, y esto llaman que la criatura se laba los pies, porque no se halle ésta en vacio, ó haya alguna vaciedad ó falta de sangre ó humor necesario, y así reciba algun daño.' _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., p. . [ ] sahagun's original ms. contains twenty-four additional lines on this subject, but these his editor deems too indelicate to print. _id._, p. . [ ] for these addresses see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . [ ] 'se llegan algunas mujeres como parteras, y otras como testigos para ver si el parto es supuesto ó natural; y al tiempo del nacer no permiten que la criatura llegue á la tierra con la vida; é antes que se la cortenle hacen ciertas señales en el corpezuelo.' _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _cihuapipiltin_, or _ciuapipilti_. a long description of the burial rites upon these occasions in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . these will, however, be described in a future chapter. [ ] motolinia, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. , and torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , who seems to have copied from him, are the authorities for this, but the custom could not have been very general, for it is said that in tlascala the mother assigned a breast to each of the twins. [ ] the principal authority on the matter of pregnancy and childbirth, and the one whom i have thus far followed, is sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . [ ] clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , differs from sahagun in these prayers or invocations; torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , klemm, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. , and brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , follow clavigero more or less closely. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] the teochichimec husband undertook the office of midwife when the birth took place on the road. he heated the back of his wife with fire, threw water over her in lieu of a bath, and gave her two or three kicks in the back after the delivery, in order to promote the issue of superfluous blood. the new-born babe was placed in a wicker basket, and thrown over the back of the mother, who proceeded on her journey. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; also _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , , etc. the utensils which served at the birth of the child were, according to las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxix., offered at the fountain or river where the mother washed herself. [ ] by sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - , and duran, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. ii., the signs of the calendar and their subdivisions are described at length. each sign had thirteen sub-signs, representing the same number of days, by whom its good or bad import was moderated to a certain extent. under certain signs the child was liable to become a drunkard, under another a jester, under a third a warrior, and so on. brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , and espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , state that the sign which had been most frequent at this period during the past thirteen years was also considered by the astrologer. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] a long description of this feast, the table, attendance, etc., is given by sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - , and by torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . i shall have occasion to describe it in a future chapter of this volume, devoted to such matters. [ ] the poorer classes contented themselves with an interchange of flowers and food. [ ] a dual deity, uniting both sexes in one person. [ ] sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., p. , makes the midwife, in this instance, call upon citlalatonac. this goddess was, however, identical with ometochtli and omecioatl (see, more especially, _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ), to whom the preceding prayer was directed. clavigero and torquemada assert that the prayer was addressed to the water-goddess. [ ] sahagun addresses the sun-god only. [ ] we may presume that the midwife is here addressing the child of a warrior. [ ] clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , and brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , translate nemoquichtli and nencihuatl 'useless man' and 'useless woman.' torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. - , discusses names, why and how they were applied, in mexico and elsewhere. motolinia, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. , states that the name given at baptism was discarded for one applied by the priest, when the parents carried the child to the temple in the third month. see also _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , says that the name given by the priest was the surname, nobles sometimes taking a third name. brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , says that several additional names could be taken under various circumstances. in _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. , it is stated that the name was given by three boys who sat by eating _yxcue_. [ ] boturini states that the infant is thereupon passed four times through the fire. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; but this ceremony is described elsewhere in this volume as taking place in the temple. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - . [ ] it was believed, says torquemada, that this rubbing of their own limbs had a strengthening effect upon the new-born. _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., fol. . [ ] _id._, fol. . [ ] the following are contradictory accounts of baptism. on the fourth day the child and mother took a purification bath, and the assembled guests were feasted on zamorra, a dish made from maize and the flesh of hens, deer, etc. three days after, the mother carried the child to the adjoining ward, accompanied by six little boys, if it was a male child, otherwise six girls went with her, to carry the implements or insignia of the father's trade. here she washed the child in a stream, and then returned home. two years after a feast was served in the house of the most intimate neighbor, who was asked to name the child, and with him it remained and was held as a member of his family. _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - . the infant was carried to the temple, where the priest made an oration on the miseries to be endured in this world, and placed a sword in the right hand of the child and a buckler in the left; or, if it was destined to be a mechanic, an artisan's tool; if a girl it received a distaff. the priest then took the child to the altar and drew a few drops of blood from its body with a maguey-thorn or knife, after which he threw water over it, delivering certain imprecations the while. _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - . the implements were placed in the hands of the child by the priest before the idol. _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . also _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xvii. the child underwent three baptisms or baths. _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . on the seventh day the baptism took place, and a dart was placed in the hand of the child to signify that he should become a defender of his country. _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _id._, p. . in _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), tav. xxxi., in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. , it is stated that the child was sprinkled with a bunch of ficitle dipped in water, and fumigated with incense before receiving its name. offerings were made at the temple which the priest divided among the school children. tylor, in his _anahuac_, p. , and _primitive culture_, vol. ii., pp. - gives short reviews of the baptismal ceremony and its moral import. [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , reviews the subject of circumcision and denies that it was ever practiced. ternaux-compans, _voy._, série i., p. , tom. x., referring to diaz' statement that all indians of the vera cruz islands are circumcised, says that he must have confounded the custom of drawing blood from the secret organs with circumcision. cogolludo, _hist. yuc._, p. , says circumcision was unknown to the indians of yucatan. duran and brasseur evidently consider the slight incisions made for the purpose of drawing blood from the prepuce or ear, in the eleventh month, as the act. carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , following clavigero, holds the scarification of breast, stomach and arms to be the circumcision referred to by other authors. herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., and especially acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , consider the incision on the prepuce and ear to have been mistaken for circumcision, and state that it was chiefly performed upon sons of great men; they do not state when the ceremony took place. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] this rite was followed by another, which usually took place in the temple of huitzilopochtli. the priest made a slight incision on the ear of the female child, and on the ear and prepuce of the male, with a new obsidian knife handed to him by the mother, then, throwing the knife at the feet of the idol, he gave a name to the infant, at the request of the parent, after duly considering the horoscope and signs of the time. _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. iii., quoted by _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . duran really states that these ceremonies took place in the fourth month, but as toci's festival occurs in the eleventh month, brasseur alters the evident mistake. the naming of the infant may have been a mere confirmation of the name given by the midwife. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii. p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - . sahagun translates itzcalli by 'growth,' but other authors differ from him, as we shall see in a future chapter on the calendar. [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] the authorities on childbirth, baptism, and circumcision are: _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , lib. iv., pp. - , tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - , tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , , , - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., lib. iii., cap. xii., lib. iv., cap. xvi.; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxv., clxxix.; _codex mendoza_, pp. - , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v.; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - , , ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _id._, pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - , ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., fol. , ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., pp. , - , - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. ii., p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _ritos antiguos_, pp. - , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix.; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _adair's amer. ind._, p. ; _müller_, _reisen_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - , ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. iii.; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _morton's crania amer._, p. ; _delafield's antiq. amer._, p. . chapter viii. nahua feasts and amusements. excessive fondness for feasts--manner of giving feasts--serving the meal--professional jesters--parting presents to guests--royal banquets--tobacco smoking--public dances--manner of singing and dancing--the neteteliztli--the drama among the nahuas--music and musical instruments--nahua poetry--acrobatic feats--the netololiztli, or 'bird dance'--professional runners--the game of tlactli--games of chance--the patoliztli, or 'bean game'--totoloque, montezuma's favorite game. [sidenote: feasts and entertainments.] the excessive fondness of the aztecs for feasts and amusements of every kind seems to have extended through all ranks of society. every man feasted his neighbor and was himself in turn feasted. birthdays, victories, house-warmings, successful voyages or speculations, and other events too numerous to enumerate were celebrated with feasts. every man, from king to peasant, considered it incumbent upon him to be second to none among his equals in the giving of banquets and entertainments, and as these involved the distribution of costly presents among his guests, it often happened that the host ruined himself by his hospitality; indeed, it is said that many sold themselves into slavery that they might be able to prepare at least one feast that would immortalize their memory.[ ] moreover the priests, with the subtle policy characteristic of their class, took advantage of this disposition to ordain long and frequent celebrations in honor of innumerable gods; in short, it is difficult to conceive what part of the year could have been saved for business from what seems to have been a continual round of merry-making. the grandeur of the feast depended, of course, upon the wealth of the host, the rank of the guests, and the importance of the event celebrated. for many days before a noble or wealthy man entertained his friends, an army of servants were employed in sweeping the approaches to the house, decorating the halls and courts with branches and garlands, erecting _chinamas_, or arbors, and strewing the floors with flowers and sweet herbs; others prepared the table service, killed and dressed dogs, plucked fowls, cooked tamales, baked bread, ground cacao, brewed drinks, and manufactured perfumed cigarettes. invitations were in the meantime sent to the guests. these on their arrival were presented with flowers as a token of welcome. those of a superior condition to the host were saluted after the aztec fashion by touching the hand to the earth and then carrying it to the lips. on some occasions garlands were placed upon the heads of the guests and strings of roses about their necks, while copal was burnt before those whom the host delighted specially to honor. while waiting for the meal the guests employed their time in walking freely about the place, complimenting their host on the tasteful manner in which the house was decorated, or admiring the fine shrubbery, green grass plats, well-kept flower-beds, and sparkling fountains in the gardens. dinner being announced, all took their seats, according to rank and age, upon mats or _icpalli_, stools, ranged close along the walls.[ ] servants then entered with water and towels, with which each guest washed his hands and mouth. smoking-canes were next presented on _molcaxetes_, or plates, to stimulate the appetite. the viands, kept warm by chafing dishes, were then brought in upon artistically worked plates of gold, silver, tortoise-shell, or earthenware. each person before beginning to eat threw a small piece of food into a lighted brazier, in honor of xiuhtecutli, the god of fire,[ ] probably by way of grace. the numerous highly seasoned dishes of meat and fish having been duly discussed, the servants cleared the tables and feasted upon the remains of the banquet in company with the attendants of the guests.[ ] vessels called _teutecomatls_, filled with chocolate, each provided with a spoon to stir the fluid with, were then brought on, together with water for washing the hands and rinsing the mouth. the women who were present on these occasions, although they sat apart from the men, received a kind of spiced gruel instead of cacao. the old people, however, were plied with _octli_, a very potent beverage, until they became drunk, and this was held to be an indispensable part of the ceremony. the smoking-canes were now once more produced, and while the guests reclined luxuriously upon their mats enjoying the grateful influence of the fragrant leaf which we are told by bernal diaz they called 'tobacco,' and sipping their drinks, the music suddenly struck up, and the young folks, or perhaps some professionals, executed a dance, singing at the same time an ode prepared for the occasion, as well as other songs. dwarfs, deformed beings, and curious objects were also introduced to vary the entertainment; but the professional jesters were the favorites, and the jokes made by them raised many a laugh, though this was rather forced perhaps by those at whose expense said jokes were cracked, for these fools were fully as privileged as their contemporary european brothers of motley, and sometimes spoke very biting truths in the shape of a jest; in some cases they were disguised in the costume of a foreign nation, whose dialect and peculiarities they imitated; at other times they would mimic old women, well-known eccentric individuals, and so forth. the nobles kept a number of these jesters for their own amusement, and often sent them to a neighboring brother-noble to propound riddles; taking care to provide them with means to pay forfeit should the riddle be solved.[ ] these private banquets generally lasted till midnight, when the party broke up. each guest received at parting presents of dresses, gourds, cacao-beans, flowers, or articles of food. should any accident or shortcoming have marred the pleasure of the party, the host would sooner repeat the entertainment than have any slur rest upon his great social venture. in any case it was doubtless difficult for the good man to escape censure either for extravagance or stinginess. at the royal feasts given when the great vassals came to the capital to render homage to their sovereign, the people flocked in from the provinces in great numbers to see the sights, which consisted of theatrical representations, gladiatorial combats, fights between wild beasts, athletic sports, musical performances, and poetical recitations in honor of kings, gods, and heroes. the nobles, in addition to this, partook daily of banquets at the palace, and were presented by the monarch with costly gifts.[ ] [sidenote: tobacco in the new world.] to the tobacco-loving reader it will be interesting to learn how the weed was smoked in the new world before it was introduced into the old by the immortal jean nicot, whose name be forever blessed. the habit of smoking did not possess among the nahuas the peculiar character attached to it by the north american natives, as an indispensable accessory to treaties, the cementing of friendship, and so forth, but was indulged in chiefly by the sick, as a pastime and for its stimulating effect. the origin of the custom among the nahuas may be traced to the use of reed-grass, filled with aromatic herbs, which was lighted and given to guests that they might diffuse the perfume about them; gradually they came to puff the reeds and swallow the smoke, pretending to find therein a remedy against headache, fatigue, phlegm, sleeplessness, etc. three kinds of tobacco were used, the _yetl_, signifying tobacco in general, obtained from a large leaved plant, the _picyetl_, from a small but stronger species, and _quauyetl_, a less esteemed kind known later on as wild tobacco. clavigero asserts that the _picyetl_ and _quauyetl_ were the only species known among the mexicans. it was generally smoked after dinner in the form of paper, reed, or maize-leaf cigarettes, called _pocyetl_, 'smoking tobacco,' or _acayetl_, 'tobacco-reed,' the leaf being mixed in a paste, says veytia, with _xochiocotzotl_, liquid amber, aromatic herbs, and pulverized charcoal, so as to keep smouldering when once lighted, and shed a perfume. the picyetl tobacco was smoked later in the day, without admixture, and somewhat in the shape of cigars. the smoke was inhaled, and the nose closed, in order that none of the grateful qualities should be lost. wooden, metal, or bamboo tubes were sometimes used instead of cigarettes. snuffing the pulverized leaf is an ancient custom which we owe to them.[ ] dancing was the favorite aztec amusement, and the fanciful arrangement of their dances, as well as the peculiar grace of their motions, is highly praised by all the old chroniclers. dancing, and especially religious dances, formed an important part of an aztec youth's education, and much trouble was taken by the priests to instruct them in it. [sidenote: the mitote and ribbon dance.] the preparations for the great public dances, when the performers numbered thousands,[ ] were on an immense scale. the choirs and bands attached to the service of the various temples were placed under the supervision of a leader, usually a priest, who composed the ode of the day, set it to music, instructed the musicians, appointed the leaders of the dance, perfected the arrangements generally, observed that all did their duty, and caused every fault or negligence to be severely punished.[ ] the _neteteliztli_ dance took place either in the plaza or in the courtyard of the temple, in the centre of which mats were spread for the musicians. the nobles and aged men formed a circle nearest to the drums, the people of less importance formed another circle a little distance behind, and the young people composed the third ring. two leading dancers directed the movements, and whatever steps they made were imitated by the performers. when all was ready, a whistle gave the signal and the drums were beaten lightly to a well-known tune started by the leaders and taken up by the dancers, who at the same time began to move their feet, arms, heads and bodies in perfect accord. each verse or couplet was repeated three or four times, the dancers keeping time with their _ayacachtli_, or rattles. each must keep his relative position in the circle, and complete the circuit at the same time; the inner circle, therefore, moved at a slow, dignified pace, suited to the rank and age of the men composing it; the second proceeded somewhat faster, while the dancers in the outer circle approached a run as the dance became livelier. the motions were varied; at one time the dancers held one another by the hand, at another, round the waist; now they took the left hand neighbor for partner, now the right, sometimes facing one way, sometimes another. the first song ended, which referred to the event of the day, a popular ode, treating of their gods, kings, or heroes, was taken up and sung in a higher scale and to a livelier measure, the dance meanwhile constantly increasing in animation. this was the case with all the succeeding songs, each one becoming higher and shriller as it proceeded; flutes, trumpets, and sharp whistles were sometimes added to the band to increase the effect. when one set of dancers became tired, another took its place, and so the dance continued through the whole day, each song taking about an hour. jesters and clowns in various disguises circulated between the lines, cutting capers, cracking jokes, and serving refreshments. herrera states that the solemn _mitote_ was danced by twos in the outer circle.[ ] at private dances, two parallel lines were usually formed, the dancers turning in various directions, changing partners, and crossing from line to line.[ ] sometimes one stepped from each line, and performed a pas de deux while the others looked on. the 'ribbon dance,' resembled the english may-pole dance to a certain extent. a pole, fifteen to twenty feet high, was erected on a smooth piece of ground, and twenty or more persons, each seizing the end of a colored ribbon attached to its summit, began to dance about the mast, crossing each other and winding in apparent confusion, until the pole was covered with a motley texture of a certain design. when the band became too short, the plaiting was unwound by reversing the order of the dance. they had a number of other mitotes, or dances, varying chiefly in the colors worn by the dancers, the finery, painting, and disguises, and conforming to the text of the songs, such as the _huexotzincaiutl_, _anaoacaiutl_, _cuextecaiutl_, _tocotin_, and others to be described under religious festivals.[ ] children from four to eight years of age, the sons of nobles, took part in some dances and sang the soprano, and the priests joined in the solemn performances. certain dances, as the _netecuitotoli_,[ ] could only be performed by the king and nobles,[ ] a space being always set apart for the sovereign when he danced. women joined the men in some dances, but generally danced apart. certain dancing-houses of bad repute termed _cuicoyan_, 'great joy of women,' were open to females at night, and were then scenes of unmitigated debauch.[ ] great pains was taken to appear as fine as possible at the dances; noted warriors appeared magnificently dressed, and occasionally bearing shields set with feathers; nobles in court dress of rich mantles knotted at the shoulders, fanciful maxtlis round the loins, tassels of feathers and gold in the hair, lip-ornaments of gold and precious stones, gold rings in the ears, bracelets of the same metal set with plumes, or strings of chalchiuites and turquoises round the wrists and other parts of the arms, and some had gold bells attached to the ankles; the gaily colored dresses of the lower class were decorated with feathers and embroidery; garlands and flowers encircled the head, necklaces of shells and beans hung about the neck, bracelets clasped the arms and legs, and all carried nosegays. the women also shone in huipiles, gaily colored, fancifully embroidered, and set with fringes.[ ] [sidenote: the aboriginal drama.] the drama scarcely equaled in excellence the choral dance, yet in this respect, as in others, the nahuas showed considerable advancement. thalia presided more frequently than melpomene over the play, which generally took the character of a burlesque. the performers mostly wore masks of wood, or were disguised as animals. no special building was devoted to the drama, but the lower porch of a temple usually served as the stage; some large towns, however, boasted of a permanent stage, erected in the centre of the plaza. the principal of these was at tlatelulco, and consisted of a terrace of stone and lime, thirteen feet high, by thirty in breadth. when in use it was decorated with foliage, and mats of various colors, whereon was emblazoned the coat of arms of the city, were hung all round it. at cholula the porch of the temple of quetzalcoatl served as a stage; this was whitewashed and adorned with arches of branches, feathers, and flowers, from which hung birds, rabbits, and other curious objects. here the people congregated after dinner on gala-days to witness the performance, in which deaf, lame, blind, deformed, or sick people, or, sometimes, merchants, mechanics, or prominent citizens, were mimicked, burlesqued, and made fun of. each actor endeavored to represent his rôle in the most grotesque manner possible. he who was for the moment deaf gave nonsensical answers to questions put to him; the sick man depicted the effects of pain, and so forth. when these had exhausted their stock of jokes, others entered as beetles, frogs, or lizards, croaking, whistling, and skipping about the stage after the manner of the creatures they represented. the boys from the temples also appeared as birds and butterflies, and flocked into the trees in the courtyard. each performer rehearsed his part before appearing in public, and great care was taken that no blunder should mar the beauty of the plot. the priests added to the fun by blowing mud-balls at the actors through wooden tubes, and praising or censuring the performance in a jocular manner. the entertainment concluded with a ball, which was attended by all the actors.[ ] some authors have spoken very favorably of the dramatic skill of the nahuas. clavigero is not inclined to indorse this opinion, although he thinks a great advance would have been made in this direction had the mexican empire survived another century; a very natural conclusion, certainly. the ceremonies at the religious festivals often partook of a dramatic character, as will be seen presently.[ ] music, a principal attraction at our theatrical entertainments, did not play an important part on the nahua stage, and, though we hear of singers appearing, instrumental concert is not mentioned. aside from this, the high importance attached to music is evident from the myth of its origin. according to this myth no less a personage than tezcatlipoca[ ] brought, or sent for, music from the sun, and constructed a bridge of whales and turtles, symbols of strength, by which to convey it to the earth. [sidenote: musical instruments.] drums, horns, shells, trumpets, and shrill whistles made from cleft bones were the instruments most used. the drum was the favorite, and the beating of several in nice accord sufficed alone for an accompaniment to the song and the dance. two kinds of drum are mentioned; of these, the _huehuetl_[ ] was a hollow cylinder of wood, about three feet high, and a foot and a half in diameter, curiously carved and painted, and having its upper end covered with a dressed deer-skin, tightened or loosened in tuning, and played upon with the hands. the other kind of drum was called the _teponaztli_, 'wing of the stone-vapor;' this was entirely of wood, and had no opening but two parallel slits in one side, the enclosed piece being divided in the centre so as to form two tongues, each of which increased in thickness towards its extremity; the drum was placed in a horizontal position and the sound was produced by beating the tongues with sticks tipped with rubber balls. this drum varied in length from a toy of a few inches to five feet. sometimes it was carved in the shape of a man, woman, or animal, and lay lengthways on trestles. the huehuetl gave forth a dull sound resembling that of the east indian tom-tom. these drums, when of the largest size, could be heard at a distance of two miles.[ ] the teponaztli produced a melancholy sound, which is considered by brasseur de bourbourg to have been a symbol of the hollow warning noise preceding the annihilation of earth, which was symbolized by the instrument itself.[ ] the _tetzilacatl_ was a kind of gong made of copper and struck with a hammer of the same material. the _ayacachtli_ was a rattle of copper, perforated and filled with pebbles, used by dancers. the ancient writers unite in praising the perfect unison and good time observed by the singers, both in solo and quartette, with chorus and responses, and they mention particularly the little boys of from four to eight years of age, who rendered the soprano in a manner that reflected great credit on the training of their priestly tutors. each temple, and many noblemen kept choirs and bands of professional musicians, usually led by a priest, who composed odes appropriate to every occasion, and set them to music. bass singers were rare, and were prized in proportion to their rarity. they had a great number of popular songs or ballads, which were well known in all classes. young people were obliged to learn by heart long epics, in which were recounted the glorious deeds of heroes in battle and the chase; or didactic pieces, pointing some moral and inculcating a useful lesson; or hymns of praise and appeal for sacred festivals. clavigero, pimentel, and other authors extol the aboriginal muse highly, and describe the language used as pure, brilliant, figurative, and interwoven with allusions to the beauties of nature; unmeaning interjections scattered here and there to assist the metre, evince a lack of finish, however, and the long, compound words, a single one of which often formed a whole verse, certainly did not add to the harmony, yet they observed good metre and cadence.[ ] the art of music was under royal protection, and singers as well as musicians were exempt from taxation. nezahualcoyotl, the great tezcucan patron of art, himself composed a number of odes and elegies, and founded an academy of sciences and music, where the allied kings of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan presided, and distributed prizes to the successful competitors. toltec songs are highly praised for their beauty and variety. the totonacs and tepanecs are said to have been as far advanced in music and singing as the aztecs;[ ] but concerning these arts i shall speak more at length in a future chapter. [sidenote: gymnastic performances.] the acrobatic feats performed by the nahuas excited the surprise and admiration of the conquerors, and the court of spain, before which some of these athletes were introduced, was no less astounded at the grace, daring, and strength displayed by them. some of these gymnastic performances have only of late become known to us; thus, the so-called chinese foot-balancing trick, in which a man lying on his back spins a heavy pole on the soles of his raised feet, throws it up, catches it, and twirls it in every direction, was a common feat with the nahua acrobat, who, indeed, excelled the circus-man of to-day, in that he twirled the pole while a man sat at each end of it. another feat was performed by three. one having braced himself firmly, another mounted on his shoulders, while the third climbed up and stood upon the head of the second. in this position the human column moved slowly about, the man on the top performing a kind of dance at the same time. again, a man would dance on the top of a beam, the lower end of which was forked and rested upon the shoulders of two other dancers. some raised a stick from the ground while a man balanced at the end of it; others leaped upon a stick set upright in the ground, or danced upon the tight-rope. another game involving an equal display of grace and daring was the _netotoliztli_, or 'bird dance,' known to the spaniards as the 'flying-game,' and performed especially during the laymen's feast. in the centre of an open place, generally a public square, a lofty pole was erected. on the top of this pole was placed a wooden, moveable cap, resembling an inverted mortar; to this were fastened four stout ropes which supported a wooden frame about twelve feet square. four other, longer ropes were carefully wound thirteen times about the pole just below the cap, and were thence passed through holes made one in each of the four sides of the frame. the ends of these ropes, while wound about the pole, hung several feet below the frame. four gymnasts, who had practiced some time previously, and were disguised as birds of different form, ascended by means of loops of cord tied about the pole, and each having fastened one of the ropes round his waist, they started on their circular flight with spread wings. the impulse of the start and the weight of the men set the frame in motion, and the rope unwound quicker and quicker, enabling the flyers to describe larger and larger circles. a number of other men, all richly dressed, sat perched upon the frame, whence they ascended in turn to the top of the revolving cap, and there danced and beat a drum, or waved a flag, each man endeavoring to surpass his predecessor in daring and skill.[ ] as the flyers neared the ground, and the ropes were almost untwisted, the men on the frame glided down the ropes so as to gain the ground at the same time, sometimes passing from one rope to the other in their descent and performing other tricks. the thirteen turns of the rope, with the four flyers, represented the cycle with its four divisions of thirteen years. running was practiced, not only for exercise, but as a profession; as the government employed a large number of couriers to run with messages, who were trained for the purpose from early childhood. to these i shall have occasion to refer again. races were held at the chief temple in mexico under the auspices of the priests,[ ] at which prizes were awarded to the four competitors who succeeded in first gaining the topmost of the one hundred and twenty steps. the nahuas must have been able swimmers, too, for it is said that travelers usually took to the water when crossing rivers, leaving the bridges to those who carried burdens. there were also sham fights and public reviews, both for the exercise of the army and the delectation of the masses. at these times the soldiers competed for prizes in shooting with the arrow or throwing the dart.[ ] on grand occasions, such as the coronation of a king, soldiers fought with wild beasts, or wrestled with one another, and animals were pitted against each other in fenced enclosures.[ ] [sidenote: the tlachtli, or national game.] [illustration: h] the national game of the nahuas was the _tlachtli_, which strongly resembled in many points our game of football, and was quite as lively and full of scuffle. it was common among all the nations whose cult was similar to the toltec, and was under special divine protection, though what original religious significance it had is not clear. indeed, for that matter, nearly every game enjoyed divine patronage, and _ometochtli_, 'two rabbits,' the god of games, according to duran, was generally invoked by athletes as well as gamblers, in conjunction with some special god. instruments of play, and natural objects were also conjured to grant good luck to the applicant. as an instance of the popularity of the game of tlachtli,[ ] it may be mentioned that a certain number of towns contributed annually sixteen thousand balls in taxes, that each town of any size had a special play-ground devoted to the game, and that kings kept professionals to play before them, occasionally challenging each other to a game besides. the ground in which it was played, called the _tlachco_,[ ] was an alley whose shape is shown in the cut; one hundred feet long[ ] and half as wide, except at each end where there were rectangular nooks, which doubtless served as resting-places for the players. the whole was enclosed by smooth whitewashed walls, from nine to twelve feet high on the sides, and somewhat lower at the ends, with battlements and turrets, and decreasing in thickness toward the top.[ ] at midnight, previous to the day fixed for the game, which was always fixed favorably by the augurs, the priests with much ceremony placed two idols--one representing the god of play, the other the god of the tlachtli[ ]--upon the side walls, blessed the edifice, and consecrated the game by throwing the ball four times round the ground, muttering the while a formula. the owner of the tlachco, usually the lord of the place, also performed certain ceremonies and presented offerings, before opening the game. the balls, called _ullamaloni_, were of solid india-rubber, three to four inches in diameter. the players were simply attired in the maxtli, or breech-clout, and sometimes wore a skin to protect the parts coming in contact with the ball, and gloves; they played in parties, usually two or three on each side. the rule was to hit the ball only with knee, elbow, shoulder, or buttock, as agreed upon, the latter was however the favorite way, and to touch the wall of the opposite side with the ball, or to send it over, either of which counted a point. he who struck the ball with his hand or foot, or with any part of his body not previously agreed upon, lost a point; to settle such matters without dispute a priest acted as referee. on each side-wall, equidistant from the ends, was a large stone, carved with images of idols, pierced through the centre with a hole large enough to just admit the passage of the ball;[ ] the player who by chance or skill drove the ball through one of these openings not only won the game for his side, but was entitled to the cloaks of all present, and the haste with which the spectators scrambled off in order to save their garments is said to have been the most amusing part of the entertainment. a feat so difficult was, of course, rarely accomplished, save by chance, and the successful player was made as much of as a prize-winner at the olympic games, nor did he omit to present thank offerings to the god of the game for the good fortune vouchsafed him. the possession of much property depended upon the issue of the game; the rich staked their gold and jewels, the poor their dresses, their food, or even their liberty.[ ] [sidenote: ball-playing and gambling.] gambling, the lowest yet most infatuating of amusements, was a passion with the nahuas, and property of all kinds, from ears of corn or cacao-beans, to costly jewelry and personal liberty, were betted upon the issue of the various games. professional gamesters went from house to house with dice and play-mats, seeking fresh victims. all gambling tools were formally charmed, and this charm was renewed and strengthened at intervals by presenting the instruments in the temple, with prayers that the blessing of the idol might descend upon them. [sidenote: popular amusements.] _patoliztli_, which somewhat resembled our backgammon, appears to have been the most popular game of chance. _patolli_, or large beans marked with dots, like dice, were shaken in the hand and thrown upon a mat, upon which was traced a square marked with certain transverse and diagonal lines. the thrower of the beans marked his points on these lines according to the number of spots which fell upward. he who first gained a certain score won the game. the players were usually surrounded by a crowd of interested spectators, who betted heavily on the result, and called loudly for the favor of macuilxochitl, the patron deity of the game. golden and jewelled dice were often used instead of beans by the rich.[ ] they had another game in which reeds took the place of dice. two players, each with ten pebbles by his side, shot split reeds in turn towards small holes made in the ground, by bending them between the fingers; if a reed fell over a hole a marker was placed on a square; this continued until the markers were all exhausted by the winner.[ ] montezuma's favorite game was called _totoloque_, and consisted in throwing small golden balls at pieces of the same metal set up as targets at a certain distance. five points won the stakes. peter martyr jumps at the conclusion that chess must have been known to the nahuas, because they possessed checkered mats.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. [ ] the highest in rank or consideration sat on the right side, and those of inferior degree on the left; young men sat at the ends on both sides, according to their rank. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., pp. - . [ ] speaking of this xiuhtecutli, torquemada says: 'honrabanlo como à dios, porque los calentaba, cocia el pan y guisaba la carne, y por esto en cada casa le veneraban; y en el mismo fogòn, ò hogar, quando querian comer, le daban el primer bocado de la vianda, para que alli se quemase; y lo que avian de beber, lo avia de gustar primero, hechando en el fuego parte de el licor.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . sahagun says the morsel of food was thrown into the fire in honor of the god tlaltecutli: 'antes que comenzasen á comer los convidados la comida que les habian puesto, tomaban un bocado de la comida, y arrojábanlo al fuego á honra del dios tlaltecutli, y luego comenzaban á comer.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . [ ] for description of feasts see: _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - , tom. ii., lib. ix., pp. - , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clix., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . _hernandez_, _nova plant._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] 'iuntauanse a este bayle, no mil hombres, como dize gomara, pero mas de ocho mil.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. viii. [ ] sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. , ever prepared with capital punishment, states that 'el señor les mandaba prender, y otro dia los mandaba matar.' [ ] _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] netecuhytotiliztli, according to _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'i plebei si travestivano in varie figure d'animali con abiti fatti di carta, e di penne, o di pelli'--no doubt to distinguish them from the gentry when they joined in the dance. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , and others who follow him. in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , is a long description of feast-day dress. for description of dances see _id._, tom. ii., lib. viii. pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. ii., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. viii., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix., and translation, lond. , vol. iii., p. , with cut. [ ] klemm, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , has it that the audience also attended this ball. [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] for an account of tezcatlipoca see vol. iii. of this work. [ ] called _tlapanhuehuetl_ by tezozomoc and brasseur de bourbourg. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , etc. [ ] _quatre lettres_, p. . [ ] gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , states, 'y esto va todo en copla por sus consonantes,' but it is not likely that they were anything else than blank verse, for such a thing as rhyme is not mentioned by any other writer. [ ] concerning music and singing see: _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., pp. , , - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _ranking's hist. researches_, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - , ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, p. ; _dupaix_, _rel., de expéd._, pl. - , in _antiq. mex._, tom. iii.; _fuenleal_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - . [ ] espinosa seems to think that one man did all the dancing on the summit, and brasseur says that each of the flyers performed on the top of the mast before taking their flight. [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] sahagun calls it _tlaxtli_, or _tlachtl_; and tezozomoc _tlachco_, but this is shown by others to be the name of the play-ground. [ ] gomara says _tlachtli_, or _tlachco_; herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. viii., _tlachtli_. [ ] duran makes it one hundred to two hundred feet, espinosa fifty varas, brasseur, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , sixty to eighty feet. [ ] carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , says that the side walls are lowest, 'de ménos altura los laterales que los dos de los extremos,' but this agrees neither with other statements, nor with the requirements of the play. sahagun's description of the tlachco gives two walls, forty to fifty feet long, twenty to thirty feet apart, and about nine feet high. [ ] carbajal espinosa thinks that one of them was _omeacatl_, 'the god of joy.' [ ] carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , states that the stones were in the centre of the ground, 'en el espacio que mediaba entre los jugadores,' but no other author confirms this. it is not unlikely that these stones are the idols placed upon the walls by the priests, for they are described as being decorated with figures of idols. for description and cuts of the ruins of what seem to have been similar structures in yucatan, see vol. iv., pp. , - , of this work. [ ] veytia, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. , says that the ball had to be kept up in the air a long time, and he who let it drop lost, which is unlikely, since the point was to drive it against the opponent's wall; it is possible, however, that this trial of skill formed a part of the play, at times. he also states that in the centre of the play-ground was a hole filled with water, and the player who sent the ball into it lost his clothes and had opprobrious epithets hurled at him, among which 'great adulterer' was the most frequent; moreover, it was believed that he would die by the hand of an injured husband. a hole filled with water does not, however, seem appropriate to a nice play-ground; besides, the ball would be very likely to roll into the pool, for the opponents would not prevent it. camargo, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. , and brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , say that nobles only were allowed to play the game, which can only refer to certain play-grounds or occasions, for the number of the balls paid in taxes proves the game too general to have been reserved for nobles. [ ] gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , is the authority for the names of the game and beans. torquemada affirms, however, 'y dicenle juego patolli, porque estos dados, se llaman asi.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . clavigero, on the other hand, says: 'patolli è un nome generico significante ogni sorta di giuoco.' carbajal espinosa translates him. referring to the dice, sahagun says that they were 'cuatro frisoles grandes, y cada uno tiene un ahugero;' afterwards he contradicts this by saying that they consisted of three large beans with 'ciertos puntos en ellos.' _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. , . brasseur de bourbourg describes the playing process as follows: 'ils jetaient les dés en l'air avec les deux mains, marquant les cases avec de petits signaux de diverses couleurs, et celui qui retournait le premier dans les cases gagnait la partie,' which agrees with torquemada's account. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'hacian encima de un encalado unos hoyos pequeñitos ... y con unas cañuelas hendidas por medio daban en el suelo y saltaban en alto, y tantas cuantas en las cañuelas caian lo hueco por arriba tantas casas adelantaba sus piedras.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. xxii. [ ] for nahua games and amusements, see: _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - , - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. vii-viii.; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x.; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt i., pp. - ; _cortés_, _aven. y conq._, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _dilworth's conq. mex._, p. ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - , quoting _picart_, _cérémonies relig._, tom. ii., p. . chapter ix. public festivals. frequent occurrence of religious feasts--human sacrifices--feasts of the fourth year--monthly festivals--sacrifice of children--feast of xipe--manner of sacrifice--feasts of camaxtli, of the flower-dealers, of centeotl, of tezcatlipoca, and of huitzilopochtli--festival of the salt-makers--the sacrifice by fire--feast of the dead--the coming of the gods--the footprints on the mat--hunting feast--the month of love--hard times--nahua lupercalia--feasts of the sun, of the winter solstice--harvest and eight-year festivals--the binding of the sheaf. [sidenote: religious festivals.] the amusements described in the preceding chapter were chiefly indulged in during the great religious festivals, when the people flocked together from all quarters to propitiate or offer up thanks to some particular god. these festivals were of very frequent occurrence. the nahuas were close observers of nature; but like other nations in a similar or even more advanced stage of culture, the greeks and northmen for example, they entirely misunderstood the laws which govern the phenomena of nature, and looked upon every natural occurrence as the direct act of some particular divinity. the coming of the rains was held to be the coming of the rain-gods, with their heralds the thunder and lightning; the varying condition of the crops was ascribed to their ceres; drought, storms, eclipses, all were considered the acts of special deities. the religious machinery required to propitiate the anger, humor the whims, and beseech the favor of such a vast number of capricious divinities, was as intricate as it was ponderous. besides the daily services held in the various temples, prayers were offered several times during each day in that of the sun, special rites attended every undertaking, from the departure of a private traveler to the setting forth of an army for war, and fixed as well as movable feasts were held, the number of which was continually increased as opportunity offered. the priests observed fasts among themselves, attended with penance, scarifications, and mutilations sometimes so severe as to result fatally. thus, at the festival in honor of camaxtli, the priests fasted one hundred and sixty days, and passed several hundred sticks, varying in thickness from half an inch to an inch and a half through a hole freshly made in the tongue.[ ] the people imitated these penances in a less degree, and scarified the members of their bodies that had been the means of committing a sin. blood was drawn from the ears for inattention, or for conveying evil utterances to the mind; from the tongue for giving expression to bad words; the eyes, the arms, the legs, all suffered for any reprehensible act or neglect. the people of each province, says las casas, had a manner of drawing blood peculiar to themselves.[ ] at the public festivals each private person brought such offering to the god as his means allowed. the poor had often nothing to give but a flower, a cake, or personal service, but the wealthy gave rich robes, jewels, gold, and slaves. but no great feast seems to have been complete without human sacrifice. this was always the great event of the day, to which the people looked eagerly forward, and for which victims were carefully preserved. most of these miserable beings were captives taken in war, and it was rarely that the supply failed to be sufficient to the occasion, especially among the mexicans, since, as i have before said, there was nearly always trouble in some part of the empire, if not, a lack of victims for sacrifice was held good cause for picking a quarrel with a neighboring nation; besides, if the number of war prisoners was not sufficient there were never wanting refractory slaves to swell the number. we have it upon good authority that upon almost every monthly feast, and upon numerous other grand celebrations, several hundred human hearts were torn hot from living breasts as an acceptable offering to the nahua gods and a pleasant sight to the people.[ ] the grandest festivals were celebrated during the fourth year, called teoxihuitl, or 'divine year,' and at the commencement of every thirteenth year. on these occasions a greater number of victims bled and the penances were more severe than at other times. the nahuas also observed a grand festival every month in the year; but, as these feasts were closely connected with their religion, and therefore will be necessarily described at length in the next volume, i will confine myself here to such an outline description of them as will suffice to give the reader an idea of what they were.[ ] [sidenote: religious feasts.] the aztec feast that is mentioned first by the old writers, namely that of the month atlcahualco, 'the diminishing of the waters,' or, as it was called in some parts, quahuitlehua, 'burning of the trees or mountains,' was celebrated in honor of the tlalocs, gods of rains and waters. at this feast a great number of sucking infants were sacrificed, some upon certain high mountains, others in a whirlpool in the lake of mexico. the little ones were mostly bought from their mothers, though sometimes they were voluntarily presented by parents who wished to gain the particular favor of the god. those only who had two curls on the head, and who had been born under a lucky sign were thought acceptable to the gods. the sacrifices were not all made in one place, but upon six several mountains and in the lake. these were visited one after another by a great procession of priests attended by the music of flutes and trumpets, and followed by a vast multitude of people thirsting for the sight of blood; nay, more, literally hungering for the flesh of the babes, if we may credit the assertion of some authors, that the bodies were actually brought back and the flesh eaten as a choice delicacy by the priests and chief men. but of cannibalism more anon. the little ones were carried to their death upon gorgeous litters adorned with plumes and jewels, and were themselves dressed in a splendid manner in embroidered and jeweled mantles and sandals, and colored paper wings. their faces were stained with oil of india-rubber, and upon each cheek was painted a round white spot. no wonder that, as the old chroniclers say, the people wept as the doomed babes passed by; surely there was good cause for weeping in such a sight. gladiatorial combats and sacrifice of prisoners of war at the temple completed this feast.[ ] the next feast, that in the month of tlacaxipehualiztli, 'the flaying of men,' was held in honor of xipe, who was especially the patron deity of the goldsmiths.[ ] this god was thought to inflict sore eyes, itch, and other diseases upon those who offended him, and they were therefore careful to observe his feast with all due regularity and honor. on this occasion thieves convicted for the second time of stealing gold or jewels[ ] were sacrificed, besides the usual number of prisoners of war. the vigil of the feast, on the last day of the preceding month, began with solemn dances. at midnight the victims were taken from the chapel, where they had been compelled to watch, and brought before the sacred fire. here the hair was shaven from the top of their heads, the captors at the same time drawing blood from their own ears in honor of the idol; the severed topknot of each war prisoner was afterwards hung up at the house of his captor as a token and memorial of the father's bravery. towards daybreak some of the prisoners were taken up to the great temple to be sacrificed. but before we proceed farther it will be necessary to see how these human offerings were made. [sidenote: sacrificial rites.] sacrifices varied in number, place, and manner, according to the circumstances of the festival. in general the victims suffered death by having the breast opened, and the heart torn out; but others were drowned, others were shut up in caves and starved to death, others fell in the gladiatorial sacrifice, which will be described elsewhere. the customary place was the temple, on the topmost platform of which stood the altar used for ordinary sacrifices. the altar of the great temple at mexico, says clavigero, was a green stone, probably jasper, convex above, and about three feet high and as many broad, and more than five feet long. the usual ministers of the sacrifice were six priests, the chief of whom was the topiltzin, whose dignity was preëminent and hereditary; but at every sacrifice he assumed the name of that god to whom it was made. when sacrificing he was clothed in a red habit, similar in shape to a modern scapulary, fringed with cotton; on his head he wore a crown of green and yellow feathers, from his ears hung golden ear-ornaments and green jewels, and from his under lip a pendant of turquoise. his five assistants were dressed in white habits of the same make, but embroidered with black; their hair was plaited and bound with leather thongs, upon their foreheads were little patches of various-colored paper; their entire bodies were dyed black. the victim was carried naked up to the temple, where the assisting priests seized him and threw him prostrate on his back upon the altar, two holding his legs, two his feet, and the fifth his head; the high-priest then approached, and with a heavy knife of obsidian cut open the miserable man's breast; then with a dexterity acquired by long practice the sacrificer tore forth the yet palpitating heart, which he first offered to the sun and then threw at the foot of the idol; taking it up he again offered it to the god and afterwards burned it, preserving the ashes with great care and veneration. sometimes the heart was placed in the mouth of the idol with a golden spoon. it was customary also to anoint the lips of the image and the cornices of the door with the victim's blood. if he was a prisoner of war, as soon as he was sacrificed they cut off his head to preserve the skull, and threw the body down the temple steps, whence it was carried to the house of the warrior by whom the victim had been taken captive, and cooked and eaten at a feast given by him to his friends; the body of a slave purchased for sacrifice was carried off by the former proprietor for the same purpose. this is clavigero's account. the same writer asserts that the otomís having killed the victim, tore the body in pieces, which they sold at market. the zapotecs sacrificed men to their gods, women to their goddesses, and children to some other diminutive deities. at the festival of teteionan the woman who represented this goddess was beheaded on the shoulders of another woman. at the feast celebrating the arrival of the gods, the victims were burned to death. we have seen that they drowned children at one feast in honor of tlaloc; at another feast of the same god several little boys were shut up in a cavern, and left to die of fear and hunger.[ ] [sidenote: sacrifices in honor of xipe.] let us now proceed with the feast of xipe. we left a part of the doomed captives on their way to death. arrived at the summit of the temple each one is led in turn to the altar of sacrifice seized by the grim, merciless priests, and thrown upon the stone; the high priest draws near, the knife is lifted, there is one great cry of agony, a shuffle of feet as the assistants are swayed to and fro by the death struggles of their victim, then all is silent save the muttering of the high-priest as high in air he holds the smoking heart, while from far down beneath comes a low hum of admiration from the thousands of upturned faces. the still quivering bodies were cast down the temple steps, as at other times, but on this occasion they were not taken away until they had been flayed, for which reason these victims were called _xipeme_, 'flayed,' or _tototecti_, 'one who dies in honor of totec.' the remains were then delivered over to the captor by certain priests, at the chapel where he had made his vow of offering, a vow which involved a fast of twenty days previous to the festival. a thigh was sent to the king's table, and the remainder was cooked with maize and served up at the banquet given by the captors, to which their friends were invited. this dish was called _tlacatlaolli_; the giver of the feast, says sahagun, did not taste the flesh of his own captive, who was held, in a manner, to be his son, but ate of others. [sidenote: ghastly beggars.] [sidenote: the feast of camaxtli.] the next day another batch of prisoners, called _oavanti_, whose top hair had also been shaved, were brought out for sacrifice. in the meantime a number of young men also termed _tototecti_, began a gladiatorial game, a burlesque on the real combat to follow; dressing themselves in the skins of the flayed victims, they were teased to fight by a number of their comrades; these they pursued and put to flight, and thereupon turned against one another, dragging the vanquished to the guard-house, whence they were not discharged until a fine had been paid. a number of priests, each representing a god, now descended from the summit of the temple, and directed their steps to the stone of sacrifice, which stood below and must not be confounded with the altar, and seated themselves upon stools round about it, the high-priest taking the place of honor. after them came four braves, two disguised as eagles, and two as tigers, who performed fencing tactics as they advanced, and were destined to fight the captives. a band of singers and musicians, who were seated behind the priests, and bore streamers of white feathers mounted on long poles which were strapped to their shoulders, now began to sound flutes, shells, and trumpets, to whistle and to sing, while others approached, each dragging his own captive along by the hair. a cup of pulque was given to each of these poor wretches, which he presented toward the four quarters of the earth, and then sucked up the fluid by means of a tube. a priest thereupon took a quail, cut off its head before the captive, and taking the shield which he carried from him he raised it upwards, at the same time throwing the quail behind him--a symbol, perhaps, of his fate. another priest arrayed in a bear-skin, who stood as god-father to the doomed men, now proceeded to tie one of the captives to a ring fixed in the elevated flat stone upon which the combat took place; he then handed him a sword edged with feathers instead of flint, and four pine sticks wherewith to defend himself against the four braves who were appointed to fight with him, one by one. these advanced against him with shield and sword raised toward the sky, and executing all manner of capers; if the captive proved too strong for them, a fifth man who fought both with the right and left hand was called in.[ ] those who were too faint-hearted to attempt this hopeless combat, had their hearts torn out at once, whilst the others were sacrificed only after having been subdued by the braves. the bleeding and quivering heart was held up to the sun and then thrown into a bowl, prepared for its reception. an assistant priest sucked the blood from the gash in the chest through a hollow cane, the end of which he elevated towards the sun, and then discharged its contents into a plume-bordered cup held by the captor of the prisoner just slain. this cup was carried round to all the idols in the temples and chapels, before whom another blood-filled tube was held up as if to give them a taste of the contents; this ceremony performed, the cup was left at the palace. the corpse was taken to the chapel where the captive had watched, and there flayed, the flesh being consumed at a banquet as before.[ ] the skin was given to certain priests, or college youths, who went from house to house dressed in the ghastly garb, with the arms swinging, singing, dancing, and asking for contributions; those who refused to give anything received a stroke in the face from the dangling arm. the money collected was at the disposal of the captor, who gave it to the performers, and, no doubt, it eventually found its way to the temple or school treasury.[ ] after the sacrifice, the priests, chiefs, and owners of the captives commenced to dance the _motzontecomaitotia_, circling round the stone of combat, weeping and lamenting as if going to their death, the captors holding the heads of the dead men by the hair in their right hands, and the priests swinging the cords which had held them toward the four quarters of the compass, amid many ceremonies. the next morning solemn dances were held everywhere, beginning at the royal palaces, at which everybody appeared in his best finery, holding tamales or cakes in his hands in lieu of flowers, and wearing dry maize, instead of garlands, as appropriate to the season. they also carried imitations of amaranths made of feathers and maize-stalks with the ears. at noon the priests retired from the dance, whereupon the lords and nobles arranged themselves in front of the palace by threes, with the king at their head, holding the lord of tezcuco by the right hand and the lord of tlacopan by the left, and danced solemnly till sunset. other dances by warriors, and women, chiefly prostitutes, followed at the temple and lasted till midnight, the motions consisting of swinging of arms and interwinding. the festivities were varied by military reviews, sports, and concerts, and extended over the whole month. it was held incumbent upon everyone at this time to eat a kind of uncooked cake called _huilocpalli_. the tlascaltecs called this month cohuailhuitl, 'feast of the snake,' a name which truly indicates rejoicings, such as carnivals, sports, and banquets, participated in by all classes. celebrations in honor of camaxtli were also held at this time here as well as in huexotzinco and many other places, for which the priests prepared themselves by a severe fast. the ceremonies when they took place in the fourth year, called 'god's year,' were especially imposing. when the time came for the long fast which preceded the feast to begin, those of the priests who had sufficient courage to undergo the severe penance then exacted from the devout were called upon to assemble at the temple. here the eldest arose and exhorted them to be faithful to their vows, giving notice to those who were faint-hearted to leave the company of penance-doers within five days, for, if they failed, after that time by the rules of the fast they would be disgraced and deprived of their estates. on the fifth day they again met to the number of two or three hundred, although many had already deserted, fearing the severity of the rules, and repaired to mount matlalcueje, stopping half-way up to pray, while the high-priest ascended alone to the top, where stood a temple devoted to the divinity of this name. here he offered chalchiuite-stones and quetzal-feathers, paper and incense, praying to matlalcueje and camaxtli to give his servants strength and courage to keep the fast. other priests belonging to various temples in the meantime gathered loads of sticks, two feet long and as thick as the wrist, which they piled up in the chief temple of camaxtli. these were fashioned to the required form and size and polished by carpenters who had undergone a five days' fast, and were, in return for their services, fed outside the temple. flint-cutters, who had also undergone a fast to ensure the success of their work, were now summoned to prepare knives, which were placed upon clean cloths, exposed to the sun and perfumed; a broken blade was held as a sign of bad fasting, and the one who broke it was reprimanded. at sunset, on the day of the great penance, the _achcauhtli_, 'eldest brothers,' began chanting in a solemn tone and playing upon their drums.[ ] on the termination of the last hymn, which was of a very lugubrious character and delivered without accompaniment, the self-torture commenced. certain penance-doers seized each a knife and cut a hole in the tongue of each man, through which the prepared sticks were inserted, the smaller first and then the stouter, the number varying according to the piety and endurance of the penitent. the chief set the example by passing four hundred and fifty through his tongue,[ ] singing a hymn at the same time in spite of all. this was repeated every twenty days during the fast, the sticks decreasing in size and number as the time for the feast drew near. the sticks which had been used were thrown as an offering to the idol within a circle formed in the courtyard of the temple with a number of poles, six fathoms in height, and were afterwards burnt. after the lapse of eighty days, a branch was placed in the temple-yard, as a sign that all the people had to join in the fast for the remaining eighty days, during which nothing but maize-cakes, without chile--a severe infliction, indeed, for this people--were to be eaten, no baths taken and no communion with women indulged in.[ ] fires were to be kept alight the whole time, and so strict was this rule that the life of the slaves in great houses depended upon the proper attention paid to it. the chief achcauhtli went once more to the matlalcueje mountain[ ] escorted by four others, where, alone and at night, he offered copal, paper, and quails; he also made a tour round the province, carrying a green branch in his hand, and exhorting all to observe the fast. the devout seized this opportunity to make him presents of clothes and other valuables. shortly before the end of the fast all the temples were repaired and adorned, and three days previous to the festival the achcauhtlis painted themselves with figures of animals in various colors, and danced solemnly the whole day in the temple-yard. afterwards they adorned the image of camaxtli, which stood about seventeen feet high, and dressed the small idol by his side in the raiments of the god quetzalcoatl, who was held to be the son of camaxtli. this idol was said to have been brought to the country by the first settlers. the raiment was borrowed from the cholultecs, who asked the same favor when they celebrated camaxtli's feast. camaxtli was adorned with a mask of turquoise mosaic,[ ] green and red plumes waved upon his head, a shield of gold and rich feathers was fastened to his left arm, and in his right hand he held a dart of fine workmanship pointed with flint. he was dressed in several robes and a _tecucxicolli_, like a priest's vestment, open in front and finely bordered with cotton and rabbit-hair, which was spun and dyed like silk. a number of birds, reptiles, and insects were killed before him, and flowers offered. at midnight, a priest dressed in the vestments of the idol lighted a new fire, which was consecrated with the blood of the principal captive, called the son of the sun. all the other temples were supplied from this flame. a great number of captives were thereupon sacrificed to camaxtli as well as to other gods, and the bodies consumed at the banquets that followed. the number killed in the various towns of the province amounted to over one thousand, a number greatly increased by the numerous sacrifices offered at the same time in other places where camaxtli was worshiped.[ ] [sidenote: feast of the flower-dealers.] the next feast, which was that of the month called tozoztontli, or 'short vigil,' was characterized by a constant night watch observed by the priests in the various temples, where they kept fires burning and sounded the gongs to prevent napping. more of the children bought in the first month were now sacrificed, and offerings of fruit and flowers were made to induce the tlalocs to send rain.[ ] the chief event, however, of this month, was a fast given in honor of cohuatlicue, or coatlantona, by the _xochimanques_, or flower-dealers, of mexico. the celebration took place in the temple of yopico, which was under the special care and protection of the people of xochimilco and quauhnahuac, whose lands were renowned for the beauty and abundance of their flowers. here were offered the first flowers of the season, of which hitherto none might inhale the perfume, and here the people sat down and chanted hymns of praise to the goddess. cakes made of wild amaranth or savory, called _tzatzapaltamale_, were also offered. in this temple of yopico was a grotto in which the skins of the victims sacrificed at the feast of the preceding month were now deposited by the priests who had worn them continuously until this time. these marched in solemn procession to the grotto, accompanied by a number of people whom the angered xipe had smitten with itch, or eye diseases; this act of devotion would, it was thought, induce the god to relent and remove the curse. the owners of the captives to whom the skins had belonged, and their families, of whom none was permitted to wash his head during the month, in token of sorrow for the slain, followed the procession. the priests doffed their strange and filthy attire and deposited it in the grotto; they were then washed in water mixed with flour, their bodies at the same time being belabored and slapped with the moist hands of their assistants, to bring out the unhealthy matter left by the rotting skins. this was followed by a lustration in pure water. the diseased underwent the same washing and slapping. on returning home feasting and amusements broke out anew. among other sports the owners of the late prisoners gave the paper ornaments which had been worn by them to certain young men, who, having put them on, took each a shield in one hand and a bludgeon in the other; thus armed they ran about threatening to maltreat those whom they met. everybody fled before them, calling out "here comes the _tetzonpac_." those who were caught forfeited their mantles, which were taken to the house of the warrior, to be redeemed, perhaps, after the conclusion of the game. the paper ornaments were afterwards wrapped in a mat and placed upon a tripod in front of the wearer's house. by the side of the tripod a wooden pillar was erected, to which the thigh-bone of a victim, adorned with gaudy papers, was attached amid many ceremonies, and in the presence of the captor's friends. both these trophies commemorated the bravery of the owner. this lasted six days. about this time, says duran, certain old diviners went about provided with talismans, generally small idols, which they hung round the necks of boys by means of colored thread, as a security against evil, and for this service received presents from the parents.[ ] [sidenote: feast of centeotl.] the following month, which was called huey-tozoztli, 'great vigil,'[ ] a feast was celebrated in honor of centeotl, the god of cereals, and chicomecoatl, goddess of provisions. at this time both people and priest fasted four days. offerings of various kinds were made to the gods of the feast, and afterwards a procession of virgins strangely and gaudily attired carried ears of corn to be used as seed, to the temple to be blessed.[ ] the first half of the succeeding month, called toxcatl, was, among the mexicans, taken up with a continuous series of festivals in honor of tezcatlipoca; the latter half of the month was devoted to the worship of his brother-god huitzilopochtli. ten days before the feast began, a priest, arrayed in the vestments of tezcatlipoca, and holding a nosegay in one hand and a clay flute in the other, came out from the temple, and turning first to the east and then to the other three quarters, blew a shrill note on his instrument; then, stooping, he gathered some dust on his finger and swallowed it, in token of humility and submission. on hearing the whistle all the people knelt, ate dust, and implored the clemency and favor of the god. on the eve of the festival the nobles brought to the temple a present of a new set of robes, in which the priests clothed the idol, adorning it besides with its proper ornaments of gold and feathers; the old dress was deposited in the temple coffers as a relic. the sanctuary was then thrown open to the multitude. in the evening certain fancifully attired priests carried the idol on a litter round the courtyard of the temple, which was strewn with flowers for the occasion. here the young men and maidens devoted to the service of the temple formed a circle round the procession, bearing between them a long string of withered maize as a symbol of drought. some decked the idol with garlands, others strewed the ground with maguey-thorns, that the devout might step upon them and draw blood in honor of the god. the girls wore rich dresses, and their arms and cheeks were dyed; the boys were clothed in a kind of net-work, and all were adorned with strings of withered maize. two priests marched beside the idol, swinging their lighted censers now towards the image, now towards the sun, and praying that their appeals might rise to heaven, even as the smoke of the burning copal; and as the people heard and saw they knelt and beat their backs with knotted cords. as soon as the idol was replaced, offerings poured in of gold, jewels, flowers, and feathers, as well as toasted quails, corn, and other articles of food prepared by women who had solicited and obtained the privilege. this food was afterwards divided among the priests, who, in fact, seem to have really reaped the benefit on most religious occasions. it was carried to them by a procession of virgins who served in the temple. at the head of the procession marched a priest strangely attired in a white-bordered surplice, reaching to the knee, and a sleeveless jacket of red skin, with a pair of wings attached, to which hung a number of ribbons, suspending a gourd filled with charms. the food was set down at the temple stairway, whence it was carried to the priests by attendant boys. after a fast of five days these divine viands were doubtless doubly welcome. [sidenote: feast of tezcatlipoca.] among the captives brought out for sacrifice at the same festival a year before, the one who possessed the finest form, the most agreeable disposition, and the highest culture, had been selected to be the mortal representative of the god till this day. it was absolutely necessary, however, that he should be of spotless physique, and, to render him still more worthy of the divine one whom he personated, the calpixques, under whose care he was placed, taught him all the accomplishments that distinguished the higher class. he was regaled upon the fat of the land, but was obliged to take doses of salted water to counteract any tendency toward obesity; he was allowed to go out into the town day and night, escorted by eight pages of rank dressed in the royal livery, and received the adoration of the people as he passed along. his dress corresponded with his high position; a rich and curiously bordered mantle, like a fine net, and a maxtli with wide, embroidered margin, covered his body; white cock-feathers, fastened with gum, and a garland of _izquixuchitl_ flowers, encircled the helmet of sea-shells which covered his head; strings of flowers crossed his breast; gold rings hung from his ears, and from a necklace of precious stones about his neck dangled a valuable stone; upon his shoulders were pouch-like ornaments of white linen with fringes and tassels; golden bracelets encircled the upper part of his arms, while the lower part was almost covered with others of precious stones, called _macuextli_; upon his ankles golden bells jingled as he walked, and prettily painted slippers covered his feet. twenty days before the feast he was bathed, and his dress changed; the hair being cut in the style used by captains, and tied with a curious fringe which formed a tassel falling from the top of the head, from which two other tassels, made of feathers, gold, and _tochomitl_, and called _aztaxelli_, were suspended. he was then married to four accomplished damsels, to whom the names of four goddesses, xochiquetzal, xilonen, atlatonan, and huixtocioatl were given, and these remained with him until his death, endeavoring to render him as happy as possible. the last five days the divine honors paid to him became still more imposing, and celebrations were held in his honor, the first day in the tecanman district, the second in the ward where the image of tezcatlipoca stood, the third in the woods of the ward of tepetzinco, and the fourth in the woods of tepepulco; the lords and nobles gave, besides, solemn banquets followed by recreations of all kinds. at the end of the fourth feast, the victim was placed with his wives in one of the finest awning-covered canoes belonging to the king, and sent from tepepulco to tlapitzaoayan, where he was left alone with the eight pages who attended him during the year. these conducted him to the tlacochcalco, a small and plain temple standing near the road, about a league from mexico,[ ] which he ascended, breaking a flute against every step of the staircase. at the summit he was received by the sacrificing ministers, who served him after their manner, and held up his heart exultingly to the sun; the body was carried down to the courtyard on the arms of priests, and the head having been cut off was spitted at the tzompantli, or 'place of skulls;' the legs and arms were set apart as sacred food for the lords and people of the temple. this end, so terrible, signified that riches and pleasures may turn into poverty and sorrow; a pretty moral, truly, to adorn so gentle a tale. after the sacrifice, the college youths, nobles, and priests commenced a grand ball for which the older priests supplied the music; and at sunset the virgins brought another offering of bread made with honey. this was placed upon clay plates, covered with skulls and dead men's bones, carried in procession to the altar of tezcatlipoca, and destined for the winners in the race up the temple steps, who were dressed in robes of honor, and, after undergoing a lustration, were invited to a banquet by the temple dignitaries. the feast was closed by giving an opportunity to boys and girls in the college, of a suitable age, to marry. their remaining comrades took advantage of this to joke and make sport of them, pelting them with soft balls and reproving them for leaving the service of the god for the pleasures of matrimony.[ ] tezcatlipoca's representative was the only victim sacrificed at this festival, but every leap-year the blood flowed in torrents. [sidenote: feast of huitzilopochtli.] [sidenote: incensing of huitzilopochtli.] after this celebration commenced the festival in honor of the younger brother of tezcatlipoca, huitzilopochtli, the mexican god of war. the priests of the god prepared a life-size statue like his original image, the bones of which were composed of mezquite-wood, the flesh of _tzoalli_, a dough made from amaranth and other seeds. this they dressed in the raiments of the idol, viz: a coat decorated with human bones, and a net-like mantle of cotton and nequen, covered by another mantle, the _tlaquaquallo_, adorned with feather-work, and bearing a gold plate upon its front; its wide folds were painted with the bones and members of a human being, and fell over a number of men's bones made of dough, which represented his power over death. a paper crown, very wide at the top and set with plumes, covered this head, and attached to its feather-covered summit was a bloody flint-knife, signifying his fury in battle. the image was placed upon a stage of logs, formed to resemble four snakes whose heads and tails protruded at the four corners, and borne by four of the principal warriors[ ] to the temple of huitznahuac, attended by a vast number of people, who sang and danced along the road. a sheet of maguey-paper, twenty fathoms in length, one in breadth, and one finger in thickness, upon which were depicted the glorious deeds of the god, was carried before the procession on the points of darts ornamented with feathers, the bearers singing the praises of the deity to the sound of music.[ ] at sunset the stage was raised to the summit of the temple by means of ropes attached to the four corners, and placed in position. the paper painting was then rolled up in front of it, and the darts made into a bundle. after a presentation of offerings consisting of tamales and other food, the idol was left in charge of its priests. at dawn the next morning similar offerings, accompanied with incense, were made to the family image of the god at every house. that day the king himself appeared in the sacerdotal character. taking four quails, he wrenched their heads off one after another, and threw the quivering bodies before the idol; the priests did the same, and then the people. some of the birds were prepared and eaten by the king, priest, and principal men at the feast, the rest were preserved for another occasion. each minister then placed coals and _chapopotli_ incense[ ] in his _tlemaitl_,[ ] and wafted the disagreeable odor towards the idol. the ashes were then emptied from the censers into an immense brazier, called the _tlexictli_, or 'fire-navel.' this ceremony gave the name to the festival, which was known as the 'incensing of huitzilopochtli.' the girls devoted to the service of the temple now appeared, having their arms and legs decorated with red feathers, their faces painted, and garlands of toasted maize on their heads; in their hands they held split canes, upon which were flags of paper or cloth painted with vertical black bars. linking hands they joined the priests in the grand dance called _toxcachocholoa_. upon the large brazier, round which the dancers whirled, stood two shield-bearers with blackened faces, who directed the motions. these men had cages of candlewood tied to their backs after the manner of women. the priests who joined in the dance wore paper rosettes upon their foreheads, yellow and white plumes on their heads, and had their lips and their blackened faces smeared with honey. they also wore undergarments of paper, called _amasmaxtli_, and each held a palm wand in his hand, the upper part of which was adorned with flowers, while the lower end was tipped with a ball, both balls and flowers being made of black feathers; the part of the wand grasped in the hand was rolled in strips of black-striped paper. when dancing, they touched the ground with their wands as if to support themselves. the musicians were hidden from view in the temple. the courtiers and warriors danced in another part of the courtyard, apart from the priests, with girls attired somewhat like those already described. at the same time that the representative of tezcatlipoca was chosen, the year before, another youth was appointed to represent huitzilopochtli, to whom was given the name of ixteocale, that is, 'eyes of the lord of the divine house.'[ ] he always associated with the other doomed one of tezcatlipoca, and shared his enjoyments; but, as the representative of a less esteemed god, he was paid no divine honors. his dress was characteristic of the deity for whom he was fated to die. papers painted with black circles covered his body, a mitre of eagle-feathers, with waving plumes and a flint knife in the centre adorned his head, and a fine piece of cloth, a hand square, with a bag called _patoxin_ above it, was tied to his breast; on one of his arms he had an ornament made of the hair of wild beasts, like a maniple, called _imatacax_, and golden bells jingled about his ankles. thus arrayed he led the dance of the plebeians,[ ] like the god conducting his warriors to battle. this youth had the privilege of choosing the hour of his death, but any delay involved the loss to him of a proportionate amount of glory and happiness in the other world. when he delivered himself up to the sacrificers, they raised him on their arms, tore out his heart, beheaded him, and spitted the head at the place of skulls. after him several other captives were immolated, and then the priests started another dance, the _atepocaxixilihua_, which lasted the remainder of the day, certain intervals being devoted to incensing the idol. on this day the male and female children born during the year were taken to the temple and scarified on the chest, stomach, and arms, to mark them as followers of the god. the feast in honor of quetzalcoatl, as it was celebrated during this month in cholula, and the feast of the following month, called etzalqualiztli, dedicated to the tlalocs, or rain gods, the reader will find fully described in the next volume.[ ] [sidenote: small feast of the lords.] the next month was one of general rejoicing among the nahuas, and was for this reason called tecuilhuitzintli, or tecuilhuitontli, 'small feast of the lords.' the nobles and warriors exercised with arms to prepare for coming wars; hunting parties, open-air sports, and theatricals divided the time with banquets and indoor parties; and there was much interchanging of roses out of compliment. yet the amusements this month were mostly confined to the lower classes, the more imposing celebrations of the nobility taking place in the following month. the religious celebrations were in honor of huixtocihuatl, the goddess of salt, said to have been a sister to the rain gods, who quarreled with her, and drove her into the salt water, where she invented the art of making salt. her chief devotees were, of course, the salt-makers, mostly females, who held a ten-days' festival in her temple, singing and dancing every evening from dusk till midnight in company with the doomed captives. they were all adorned with garlands of a sweet-smelling herb called _iztauhiatl_, and danced in a ring formed by cords of flowers, led by some of their own sex; the music was furnished by two old men. the female who represented the goddess and was to die in her honor danced with them, generally in the centre of the circle, and accompanied by an old man holding a beautiful plume, called _huixtopetlacotl_; if very nervous she was supported by old women.[ ] she was dressed in the yellow robes of the goddess, and wore on her head a mitre surmounted by a number of green plumes; her huipil and skirt with net covering were worked in wavy outlines, and bordered with chalchiuites; ear-rings of gold in imitation of flowers hung from her ears; golden bells and white shells held by straps of tiger-skin, jingled and clattered about her ankles; her sandals were fastened with buttons and cords of cotton. on her arm she bore a shield painted with broad leaves, from which hung bits of parrot-feathers, tipped with flowers formed of eagle-plumage; it was also fringed with bright quetzal-feathers. in her hand she held a round bludgeon, one or two hands broad at the end, adorned with rubber-stained paper, and three flowers, at equal distances apart, filled with incense and set with quetzal-feathers; this shield she flourished as she danced. the priests who performed the sacrifice were dressed in an appropriate costume; on the great day, the priests performed another and solemn dance, devoting intervals to the sacrifice of captives, who were called huixtoti in honor of the deity. finally, towards evening, the female victim was thrown upon the stone by five young men, who held her while the priests cut open her breast, pressing a stick or a swordfish-bone against her throat to prevent her from screaming. the heart was held up to the sun and then thrown into a bowl. the music struck up and the people went home to feast.[ ] [sidenote: great feast of the lords.] the feast of the following month, hueytecuilhuitl, or 'great feast of the lords,' occurred at the time of the year when food was most scarce, the grain from the preceding harvest being nearly exhausted and the new crop not yet ripe for cutting. the nobles at this time gave great and solemn banquets among themselves, and provided at their personal expense feasts for the poor and needy. on the eleventh day a religious celebration took place in honor of centeotl, under the name of xilonen, derived from _xilotl_, which means a tender maize-ear, for this goddess changed her name according to the state of the grain. on this occasion, a woman who represented the goddess and was dressed in a similar manner, was sacrificed. the day before her death a number of women took her with them to offer incense in four places, which were sacred to the four characters of the divisions of the cycle, the reed, the flint, the house, and the rabbit. the night was spent in singing, dancing, and praying before the temple of the goddess.[ ] on the day of sacrifice certain priestesses and lay women whirled in a ring about the victim, and a number of priests and principal men who danced before her. the priests blew their shells and horns, shook their rattles and scattered incense as they danced, the nobles held stalks of maize in their hands which they extended toward the woman. the priest who acted as executioner wore a bunch of feathers on his shoulders, held by the claws of an eagle inserted in an artificial leg. towards the close of the dance this priest stopped at the foot of the temple, shook the rattle-board before the victim, scattered more incense, and turned to lead the way to the summit. this reached, another priest seized the woman, twisted her shoulders against his, and stooped over, so that her breast lay exposed. on this living altar she was beheaded and her heart torn out. after the sacrifice there was more dancing, in which the women, old and young, took part by themselves, their arms and legs decorated with red macaw-feathers, and their faces painted yellow and dusted with marcasite. the whole pleasantly finished with a feast. offerings were also presented to the household gods. this festival inaugurated the eating of corn.[ ] during the next month, which was called tlaxochimaco, or 'the distribution of flowers,'[ ] gifts of flowers were presented to the gods and mutually interchanged among friends. at noon on the day of the great feast, the signal sounded and a pompous dance was begun in the courtyard of the temple of huitzilopochtli, to whom the honors of the day were paid, in which the performers consisted of various orders of warriors led by the bravest among them. public women joined these dances, one woman going hand in hand with two men, and the contrary, or with their hands resting on each other's shoulders, or thrown round the waist.[ ] the musicians were stationed at a round altar, called _momuztli_. the motions consisted of a mere interwinding walk, to the time of a slow song. at sunset, after the usual sacrifices, the people went home to perform the same dance before their household idol; the old indulging in liquor as usual. the festival in honor of iyacacoliuhqui, the god of commerce, was, however, the event of the month, owing to the number and solemnity of the sacrifices of slaves, brought from all quarters by the wealthy merchants for the purpose, and the splendor of the attendant banquets. the tlascaltecs called this month miccailhuitzintli, 'the small festival of the dead,' and gathered in the temples to sing sorrowful odes to the dead, the priests, dressed in black mantles, making offerings of food to the spirit of the departed. this seems to have been a commemoration of the ordinary class only, for the departed heroes and great men were honored in the following month. duran and others assert, however, that the festival was devoted to the memory of the little ones who had died, and adds that the mothers performed thousands of superstitious ceremonies with their children, placing talismans upon them and the like, to prevent their death.[ ] [sidenote: feast of the fall of fruit.] the feast of the next month, called xocotlhuetzin, 'fall, or maturity of fruit,' was dedicated to xiuhtecutli, the god of fire. at the beginning of the month certain priests went out into the mountains and selected the tallest and straightest tree they could find. this was cut down and trimmed of all except its top branches.[ ] it was then moved carefully into the town upon rollers, and set up firmly in the courtyard of the temple, where it stood for twenty days. on the eve of the feast-day the tree was gently lowered to the ground; early the next morning carpenters dressed it perfectly smooth, and fastened a cross-yard five fathoms long, near the top, where the branches had been left. the priests now adorned the pole with colored papers, and placed upon the summit a statue of the god of fire, made of dough of amaranth-seeds, and curiously dressed in a maxtli, sashes, and strips of paper. three rods were stuck into its head, upon each of which was spitted a tamale, or native pie. the pole was then again hoisted into an erect position. those who had captives to offer now appeared, dancing side by side with the victims, and most grotesquely dressed and painted. at sunset the dance ceased, and the doomed men were shut up in the temple, while their captors kept guard outside, and sang hymns to the god. about midnight every owner brought out his captive and shaved off his top hair, which he carefully kept as a token of his valor. at dawn the human offerings were taken to the tzompantli, where the skulls of the sacrificed were spitted, and there stripped by the priests of their dress and ornaments. at a certain signal each owner seized his captive by the hair and dragged or led him to the foot of the temple-steps. thereupon those priests who were appointed to execute the fearful sacrifice descended from the temple, each bearing in his hand a bag filled with certain stupefying powder extracted from the _yiauhtli_ plant, which they threw into the faces of the victims to deaden somewhat the agony before them. each naked and bound captive was then borne upon the shoulders of a priest up to the summit of the temple, where smoldered a great heap of glowing coal. into this the bearers cast their living burdens, and when the cloud of dust was blown off the dull red mass could be seen to heave, human forms could be seen writhing and twisting in agony, the crackling of flesh could be distinctly heard.[ ] but the victims were not to die by fire; in a few moments, and before life was extinct, the blackened and blistered wretches were raked out by the watching priests, cast one after another upon the stone of sacrifice, and in a few moments all that remained upon the summit of the temple was a heap of human hearts smoking at the feet of the god of fire. these bloody rites over, the people came together and danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple. presently all adjourned to the place where the pole before mentioned stood. at a given signal the youths made a grand scramble for the pole, and he who first reached the summit and scattered the image and its accoutrements among the applauding crowd below, was reckoned the hero of the day. with this the festival ended, and the pole was dragged down by the multitude amid much rejoicing. [sidenote: feasts of tepanecs and tlascaltecs.] the tepanecs, according to duran, had a very similar ceremony. a huge tree was carried to the entrance of the town, and to it offerings and incense were presented every day during the month preceding the festival. then it was raised with many ceremonies, and a bird of dough placed at the top. food and wine were offered, and then the warriors and women, dressed in the finest garments and holding small dough idols in their hands, danced round the pole, while the youths struggled wildly to reach and knock down the bird image. lastly, the pole was overthrown.[ ] the tlascaltecs called the same month hueymiccailhuitl, 'the great festival of the dead,' and commemorated the event with much solemnity, painting their bodies black and making much lamentation. both here and in other parts of mexico the priests and nobles passed several days in the temple, weeping for their ancestors and singing their heroic deeds. the families of lately deceased persons assembled upon the terraces of their houses, and prayed with their faces turned towards the north, where the dead were supposed to sojourn. heroes who had fallen in battle, or died in captivity, defunct princes, and other persons of merit were, in a manner, canonized, and their statues placed among the images of the gods, whom, it was believed, they had joined to live in eternal bliss.[ ] the festival of the next month, called ochpaniztli, was held in honor of centeotl, the mother-goddess. fifteen days before the festival began those who were to take part in it commenced a dance, which they repeated every afternoon for eight days. at the expiration of this time the medical women and midwives brought forth the woman who was to die on this occasion, and dividing themselves into two parties, fought a sham battle by pelting each other with leaves. the doomed woman, who was called 'the image of the mother of the gods,' placed herself at the head of one party of the combatants, supported by three old women who guarded and attended upon her continually. this was repeated during four successive days. on the fifth day the unfortunate creature was conducted by her guardians and the medical women through the market-place. as she walked she scattered maize, and at the end of her journey she was received by the priests, who delivered her again to the women that they might console her (for it was necessary that she should be in a good humor, say the old chroniclers) and adorn her with the ornaments of the mother-goddess. at midnight she was carried to the summit of the temple, caught up upon the shoulders of a priest, and in this position beheaded. the body while yet warm was flayed, and the skin used in certain religious ceremonies which will be described at length elsewhere.[ ] in this month the temples and idols underwent a thorough cleansing and repairing, a sacred work in which everyone was eager to share according to his means and ability, believing that divine blessings would ensue. to this commendable custom is no doubt to be attributed the good condition in which the religious edifices were found by the conquerors. roads, public buildings, and private houses also shared in this renovation, and special prayers were offered up to the gods for the preservation of health and property. the festival of the succeeding month, called teotleco, 'coming of the gods,' was sacred to all the deities, though the principal honors were paid to tezcatlipoca as the supreme head. fifteen days of the month being passed, the college-boys prepared for the great event by decorating the altars in the temples, oratories, and public buildings, with green branches tied in bunches of three. in the same manner they decked the idols in private houses, receiving from the inmates, as their reward, baskets containing from two to four ears of maize; this gift was called _cacalotl_. [sidenote: footsteps of the gods.] tezcatlipoca, being younger and stronger than the other gods, and therefore able to travel faster, was expected to arrive during the night of the eighteenth. a mat, sprinkled with flour, was therefore placed on the threshold of his temple, and a priest set to watch for the footprints which would indicate the august arrival.[ ] he did not, however, remain constantly close to the mat; had he done so he would probably never have seen the longed-for marks, but he approached the spot from time to time, and immediately on perceiving the tracks he shouted: "his majesty has arrived;" whereupon the other priests arose in haste, and soon their shells and trumpets resounded through all the temples, proclaiming the joyful tidings to the expectant people. these now flocked in with their offerings, each person bringing four balls made of roasted and ground amaranth-seed kneaded with water; they then returned to their homes to feast and drink pulque. others beside the old people appear to have been permitted to indulge in libations on this occasion, which they euphoniously called 'washing the feet of the god' after his long journey. on the following day other deities arrived, and so they kept coming until the last divine laggard had left his footprints on the mat. every evening the people danced, feasted, 'washed the feet of the gods,' and made a sacrifice of slaves, who were thrown alive upon a great bed of live coal which glowed on the _tecalco_.[ ] at the head of the steps leading up to the place of sacrifice stood two young men, one of whom wore long, false hair, and a crown adorned with rich plumes; his face was painted black, with white curved stripes drawn from ear to forehead, and from the inner corner of the eye to the cheek; down his back hung a long feather, with a dried rabbit attached to it. the other man was dressed to resemble an immense bat, and held rattles like poppy-heads in his hands. whenever a victim was cast into the fire these weird figures danced and leaped, the one whistling with his fingers and mouth, the other shaking his rattles.[ ] after the sacrificing was ended, the priests placed themselves in order, dressed in paper stoles which crossed the chest from shoulder to armpit, and ascended the steps of the small edifice devoted to fire sacrifices; hand in hand they walked round, and then rushed suddenly down the steps, releasing each other in such a manner as to cause many to tumble. this game, which certainly was not very dignified for priests to play at, was called _mamatlavicoa_, and gave rise to much merriment, especially if any of the reverend players should lose his temper, or limp, or make a wry face after a fall. the festival closed with a general dance, which lasted from noon till night. at this season all males, young and old, wore feathers of various colors gummed to the arms and body, as talismans to avert evil.[ ] the festival of the next month, called tepeilhuitl, was sacred to the tlalocs, and is fully described elsewhere.[ ] the mexican bacchus, centzontotochtin, was also especially honored during this month, according to torquemada, and slaves were sacrificed to him. a captive was also sacrificed by night to a deity named nappatecutli.[ ] [sidenote: festival of the month quecholli.] the festivals of the ensuing month, which was called quecholli,[ ] were devoted to various deities, though mixcoatl, god of the chase, seems to have carried the honors in most parts of mexico. the first five days of the month were passed in repose, so far as religious celebrations were concerned, but on the sixth day the authorities of the city wards ordered canes to be gathered and carried to the temple of huitzilopochtli; there young and old assembled during the four days following, to share in the sacred work of making arrows. the arrows, which were all of uniform length, were then formed into bundles of twenty, carried in procession to the temple of huitzilopochtli, and piled up in front of the idol. the four days were, moreover, devoted to fasting and penance, involving abstinence from strong liquors, and separation of husbands from wives. on the second day of the fast, the boys were summoned to the temple, where, having first blown upon shells and trumpets, their faces were smeared with blood drawn from their ears. this sacrifice, called _momacaico_, was made to the deer which they proposed to hunt. the rest of the people drew blood from their own ears, and if any one omitted this act he was deprived of his mantle by the overseers. on the second day following, darts were made to be used in games and exercises, and shooting matches were held at which maguey-leaves served for targets. the next day was devoted to ceremonies in honor of the dead by rich and poor. the day after, a great quantity of hay was brought from the hills to the temple of mixcoatl. upon this certain old priestesses seated themselves, while mothers brought their children before them, accompanied by five sweet tamales. on this day were also ceremonies in honor of the god of wine, to whom sacrifices of male and female slaves were made by the pulque-dealers. on the tenth day of the month a number of hunters set out for mount cacatepec, near tacubaya, to celebrate the hunting festival of mixcoatl, god of the chase. on the first day they erected straw huts, in which they passed the night. the next morning, having broken their fast, they formed themselves into a great circle, and all advancing toward a common centre, the game was hemmed in and killed with ease. the spirits of the children sacrificed to the rain-gods, whose dwelling was upon the high mountains, were supposed to descend upon the hunters and make them strong and fortunate. having secured their game, the hunters started for home in grand procession, singing songs of triumph, and hymns to the mighty mixcoatl. after a solemn sacrifice of a portion of the game to the god, each took his share home and feasted upon it.[ ] the tlascaltecs sacrificed to the god at the place where the hunt took place, which was upon a neighboring hill. the way leading to the spot was strewn with leaves, over which the idol was carried with great pomp and ceremony.[ ] towards the close of the month male and female slaves were sacrificed before mixcoatl.[ ] in tlascala and the neighboring republics this was the 'month of love,' and great numbers of young girls were sacrificed to xochiquetzal, xochitecatl, and tlazolteotl, goddesses of sensual delights. among the victims were many courtesans, who voluntarily offered themselves, some to die in the temple, others on the battle-field, where they rushed in recklessly among the enemy. as no particular disgrace attended a life of prostitution, it seems improbable that remorse or repentance could have prompted this self-sacrifice; it must therefore be attributed to pure religious fervor. as a recompense for their devotion, these women before they went to their death had the privilege of insulting with impunity their chaster sisters. it is further said that a certain class of young men addicted to unnatural lusts, were allowed at this period to solicit custom on the public streets. at quauhtitlan, every fourth year, during this month, a festival was celebrated in honor of mitl, when a slave was bound to a cross and shot to death with arrows.[ ] the feast of the next month, called panquetzaliztli, was dedicated to huitzilopochtli, god of war; that of the following month, called atemoztli, was sacred to the tlalocs. both these festivals will be described elsewhere.[ ] [sidenote: feast of the month of hard times.] the ensuing month was named tititl, or the month of 'hard times,' owing to the inclement weather. the celebrations of this period were chiefly in honor of an aged goddess, named ilamatecutli, to whom a female slave was sacrificed. this woman represented the goddess and was dressed in white garments decorated with dangling shells and sandals of the same color; upon her head was a crown of feathers; the lower part of her face was painted black, the upper, yellow; in one hand she carried a white shield ornamented with feathers of the eagle and the night-heron, in the other she held a knitting stick. before going to her death she performed a dance, and was permitted, contrary to usual custom, to express her grief and fear in loud lamentations. in the afternoon she was conducted to the temple of huitzilopochtli, accompanied by a procession of priests, among whom was one dressed after the manner of the goddess ilamatecutli. after the heart of the victim had been torn from her breast, her head was cut off and given to this personage, who immediately placed himself at the head of the other priests and led them in a dance round the temple, brandishing the head by the hair the while. as soon as the performers of the _vecula_, as this dance was named, had left the summit of the temple, a priest curiously attired descended, and, proceeding to a spot where stood a cage made of candlewood adorned with papers, set fire to it. immediately upon seeing the flames the other priests, who stood waiting, rushed one and all up again to the temple-top; here lay a flower, which was secured by the first who could put hands upon it, carried back to the fire, and there burned. on the following day a game was played which resembled in some respects the roman lupercalia. the players were armed with little bags filled with paper, leaves, or flour, and attached to cords three feet long. with these they struck each other, and any girl or woman who chanced to come in their way was attacked by the boys, who, approaching quietly with their bags hidden, fell suddenly upon her, crying out: "this is the sack of the game." it sometimes happened, however, that the woman had provided herself with a stick, and used it freely, to the great discomfiture and utter rout of the urchins.[ ] a captive was sacrificed during this month to mictlantecutli, the mexican pluto, and the traders celebrated a grand feast in honor of yacatecutli.[ ] during the last aztec month, which was called itzcalli, imposing rites were observed throughout mexico in honor of xiuhtecutli, god of fire;[ ] in the surrounding states, such as tlacopan, coyuhuacan, azcapuzalco,[ ] quauhtitlan,[ ] and tlascala,[ ] ceremonies more or less similar were gone through, accompanied by much roasting and flaying of men and women. [sidenote: miscellaneous feasts.] besides these monthly festivals there were many others devoted to the patron deities of particular trades, to whom the priests and people interested in their worship made offerings, and, in some cases, human sacrifices. there were also many movable feasts, held in honor of the celestial bodies, at harvest time, and on other like occasions. these sometimes happened to fall on the same day as a fixed festival, in which case the less important was either set aside or postponed. it is related of the culhuas that on one occasion when a movable feast in honor of tezcatlipoca chanced to fall upon the day fixed for the celebration of huitzilopochtli, they postponed the former, and thereby so offended the god that he predicted the destruction of the monarchy and the subjugation of the people by a strange nation who would introduce a monotheistic worship.[ ] one of the most solemn of the movable feasts was that given to the sun, which took place at intervals of two or three hundred days, and was called netonatiuhqualo, or 'the sun eclipsed.' another festival took place when the sun appeared in the sign called nahui ollin tonatiuh,[ ] a sign much respected by kings and princes, and regarded as concerning them especially. at the great festival of the winter solstice, which took place either in the month of atemoztli or in that of tititl, all the people watched and fasted four days, and a number of captives were sacrificed, two of whom represented the sun and moon.[ ] about the same time a series of celebrations were held in honor of iztacacenteotl, goddess of white maize; the victims sacrificed on this occasion were lepers and others suffering from contagious diseases.[ ] whenever the sign of ce miquiztli, or one death, occurred, mictlantecutli, god of hades, was fêted, and honors were paid to the dead.[ ] of the heavenly bodies, they esteemed next to the sun a certain star, into which quetzalcoatl was supposed to have converted himself on leaving the earth. it was visible during about two hundred and sixty days of the year, and on the day of its first appearance above the horizon, the king gave a slave to be sacrificed, and many other ceremonies were performed. the priests, also, offered incense to this star every day, and drew blood from their bodies in its honor, acts which many of the devout imitated.[ ] at harvest-time the first-fruits of the season were offered to the sun. the sacrifice on this occasion was called tetlimonamiquian, 'the meeting of the stones.' the victim, who was the most atrocious criminal to be found in the jails, was placed between two immense stones, balanced opposite each other; these were then allowed to fall together. after the remains had been buried, the principal men took part in a dance; the people also danced and feasted during the day and night.[ ] every eight years a grand festival took place, called atamalqualiztli, 'the fast of bread and water,' the principal feature of which was a mask ball, at which people appeared disguised as various animals whose actions and cries they imitated with great skill.[ ] [sidenote: the binding of the years.] the most solemn of all the mexican festivals was that called xiuhmolpilli, that is to say, 'the binding-up of the years.' every fifty-two years was called a 'sheaf of years,' and it was universally believed that at the end of some 'sheaf' the world would be destroyed. the renewal of the cycle was therefore hailed with great rejoicing and many ceremonies.[ ] footnotes: [ ] see the totonac daily temple service, in _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxv. 'luego aquel viejo mas principal metia y sacaba por su lengua en aquel dia cuatro cientos y cincuenta palos de aquellos ... otros no tan viejos sacaban trescientos.... estos palos que metian y sacaban por las lenguas eran tan gordos como el dedo pulgar de la mano ... y otros tanto gruezos como las dos dedos de la mano pulgar y él con que señalamos podian abrazar.' _id._, cap. clxxii. [ ] 'en cada provincia tenian diferente costumbre porque unos de los brazos y otros de los pechos y otros de los muslos, &c. y en esto se cognoscian tambien de que provincia eran.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxx. [ ] 'en esta fiesta, y en todas las demàs, donde no se hiciere mencion de particulares sacrificios de hombres, los avia, por ser cosa general hacerlos en todas las festividades, y no era la que carecia de ello.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'le feste, che annualmente si celebravano, erano più solenni nel _teoxihuitl_, o anno divino, quali erano tutti gli anni, che aveano per carattere il coniglio.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'en cada principio del mes en el dia que nombramos cabeza de sierpe celebraban una fiesta solemnisima ... la cual era tan guardada y festejada que ni aun barrer la casa ni hacer de comer no se permitia.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. ii. [ ] sahagun in his short résumé of the festival states that some hold this celebration to have been in honor of chalchihuitlicue, the water-goddess, and others in honor of quetzalcoatl; but thinks that it might have been in honor of all these deities, namely, the tlalocs, chalchihuitlicue, and quetzalcoatl. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , - . see also _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , . [ ] although sahagun states that huitzilopochtli also received honors this month, yet no direct ceremonies were observed before his image. the large number of captives sacrificed, however, the universality and length of the festivities, the royal dance, etc., would certainly point to a celebration in honor of a greater deity than xipe. he also says: 'en esta fiesta mataban todos los cautivos, hombres, mugeres, y niños,' which is not very probable. _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] thieves convicted the second time of stealing gold articles were sacrificed. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . the same author says with regard to the number of sacrifices made annually in the mexican empire, that he can affirm nothing, as the reports vary greatly. 'zumárraga, the first bishop of mexico, says, in a letter of the th of june, , addressed to the general chapter of his order, that in that capital alone twenty thousand human victims were annually sacrificed. some authors quoted by gomara, affirm that the number of the sacrificed amounted to fifty thousand. acosta writes that there was a certain day of the year on which five thousand were sacrificed in different places of the empire; and another day on which they sacrificed twenty thousand. some authors believe, that on the mountain tepeyacac alone, twenty thousand were sacrificed to the goddess tonantzin. torquemada, in quoting, though unfaithfully, the letter of zumárraga, says, that there were twenty thousand infants annually sacrificed. but, on the contrary, las casas, in his refutation of the bloody book, wrote by dr. sepulveda, reduces the sacrifices to so small a number, that we are left to believe, they amounted not to fifty, or at most not to a hundred. we are strongly of opinion that all these authors have erred in the number, las casas by diminution, the rest by exaggeration of the truth.' _id._, translation, lond. , vol. i., p. . [ ] this farce differed from the regular gladiatorial combat which will be described elsewhere. [ ] 'quedauan las cabeças coraçones para los sacerdotes.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'guardaban alguno que fuese principal señor para este dia; el cual dessolaban para que se vestiese montezuma gran rey de la tierra y con él baylaba con sus reales contenencias.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxx. 'embutian los cueros de algodon o paja, y, o los colgauan en el templo, o en palacio,' in the case of a prisoner of rank. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . it is not stated that the persons who wore the skins and made the collection were connected with the temple, but this was no doubt the case, especially as many authors mention that priests had to dress themselves in the ghastly garb for a certain time. for representation of priest dressed in a flayed skin see _nebel_, _viaje_, pl. xxxiv. [ ] 'cuatro de ellos cantaban á las navajas.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'estos palos que metian y sacaban por las lenguas eran tan gordos como el dedo pulgar de la mano, y otros como el dedo pulgar del pie: y otros tanto gruezos como los dos dedos de la mano pulgar y él con que señalamos podian abrazar.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxii. [ ] motolinia conveys the idea that the people also performed the infliction on the tongue: 'aquella devota gente ... sacaban por sus lenguas otros palillos de á jeme y del gordor de un cañon de pato.' _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'cada dia de estos iba el viejo de noche á la sierra ya dicha y ofrecia al demonio mucho papel, y copalli, y cordonices.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'la cual decian que habia venido con el ídolo pequeño, de un pueblo que se dice tollan, y de otro que se dice poyauhtlan, de donde se afirma que fué natural el mismo ídolo.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] see also _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - , . [ ] 'echaban por el pueblo cierto pecho ó derrama recogiendo tanto haber que pudiesen comprar cuatro niños esclavos de cinco á seis años. estos comprados ponianlos en una cueva y cerrabanla hasta otro año que hacian otro tanto.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxx. [ ] duran adds that all male children under twelve years of age were punctured in the ears, tongue, and leg, and kept on short allowance on the day of festival, but this is not very probable, for other authors name the fifth month for the scarification of infants. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii. for particulars of the feast see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - . [ ] boturini, _idea_, p. , translates this name as 'the great bleeding,' referring to the scarifications in expiation of sins. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - . according to duran, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii., the tlalocs were worshiped this month also, and this involved bloody rites. _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vii., pp. - . motolinia states that food was offered to the stalks: 'delante de aquellas cañas ofrecian comida y atolli.' _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . for a more detailed description of this feast see vol. iii. of this work, pp. - . [ ] 'le tlacochcalco, ou maison d'armes, était un arsenal, consacré à huitzilopochtli, dans l'enceinte du grand temple. il se trouvait à côté un teocalli où l'on offrait des sacrifices spéciaux à ce dieu et à tetzcatlipoca.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . this sanctuary outside the town was also dependent on the great temple, and, as the fate of the youth was to illustrate the miserable end to which riches and pleasures may come, it is, perhaps, more likely that this poor and lonely edifice was the place of sacrifice. clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , says 'conducevanlo ... al tempio di tezcatlipoca.' [ ] brasseur de bourbourg indicates that the race in the temple, and the liberation of the marriageable took place in leap-years only, but he evidently misunderstands his authority. prescott, _mex._, vol. i., pp. - , gives an account of this festival. [ ] contrary to the statement of others, brasseur de bourbourg says that the stage was borne by temple officers; surely, warriors were the fit persons to attend the god of war. [ ] 'llevábanle entablado con unas saetas que ellos llamaban _teumitl_, las cuales tenían plumas en tres partes junto el casquillo, y en el medio, y el cabo, iban estas saetas una debajo, y otra encima del papel; tomábanlas dos, uno de una parte, y otro de otra, llevándolas asidas ambas juntas con las manos, y con ellas apretaban el papelon una por encima, y otra por debajo.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'el incienso no era del ordinario, que llaman copal blanco, ni de el incienso comun ... sino de vna goma, ò betun negro, à manera de pez, el qual licor se engendra en la mar, y sus aguas, y olas, lo hechan en algunas partes à sus riberas, y orillas, y le llaman chapopotli, el qual hecha de sì mal olor, para quien no le acostumbra à oler, y es intenso, y fuerte.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] a kind of perforated and ornamented censer, shaped like a large spoon. [ ] clavigero writes: '_ixteocale_, che vale, savio signor del cielo.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . several other names are also applied to him. [ ] 'mischiavasi nel ballo de'cortigiani.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] pp. - , - . [ ] 'se juntauan todos los caualleros y principales personas de cada prouincia ... vestian vna muger de la ropa y insignias de la diosa de la sal, y baylauan con ella todos.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'era esta fiesta de muy poca solemnidad y sin ceremonias, ni comidas, y sin muertes de hombres; en fin no era mas de una preparacion para la fiesta venidera del mes que viene.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] duran says that the women took the victim to mount chapultepec, to the very summit, and said, 'my daughter, let us hasten back to the place whence we came,' whereupon all started back to the temple, chasing the doomed woman before them. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , says: 'les rois eux-mêmes prenaient alors part à la danse, qui avait lieu dans les endroits où ils pouvait s'assembler le plus de spectateurs.' [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'salian los hombres nobles, y muchas mugeres principales, y asianse de las manos los vnos, de los otros, mezclados hombres, y mugeres mui por orden, y luego se hechaban los braços al cuello, y asi abraçados, començaban à moverse mui paso à paso.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , - . [ ] 'cortaban un gran árbol en el monte, de veinte y cinco brazas de largo.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . 'l'emportaient (the tree) processionnellement au temple de huitzilopochtli, sans rien lui enlever de ses rameaux ni de son feuillage.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] clavigero says that the captors sprinkled the victims and threw them into the fire. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., appendix, tom. iii., cap. iii. [ ] 'c'était l'époque où la noblesse célébrait la commémoration des princes et des guerriers qui les avaient précédés.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , - ; _codex telleriano-remensis_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] see volume iii., of this work, pp. - , where a detailed description of this festival is given. [ ] sahagun writes: 'Á la media noche de este mismo dia, molian un poco de harina de maíz, y hacian un montoncillo de ella bien tupida: y lo fabricaban de harina, redondo como un queso, sobre un petate. en el mismo veían cuando habian llegado todos los dioses, porque aparecia una pisada de un pie pequeño sobre la harina.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] these sacrifices by fire appear to have been made upon the summit of a small temple which stood within the courtyard of the larger one. [ ] 'ballavano attorno ad un gran fuoco molti giovani travestiti in parecchie forme di mostri, e frattanto andavano gettando de'prigionieri nel fuoco.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] the burning and dancing took place on the first two days of the following month, according to sahagun. 'estos dos dias postreros eran del mes que se sigue.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] see vol. iii., p. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] the name of a bird with red and blue plumage. [ ] 'al undécimo dia de este mes, iban á hacer una casa á aquella sierra que estaba encima de _atlacuioayan_, y esta era fiesta por sí, de manera que en este mes habia dos fiestas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . 'no sacrificaban este dia hombres sino caza, y asi la caza servia de victimas á los dioses.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., appendix, tom. iii., cap. iii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xv. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] see vol. iii. of this work, pp. - , - , - . [ ] gomara says men and women danced two nights with the gods and drank until they were all drunk. _conq. mex._, fol. . according to duran, camaxtli was fêted in this month, and a bread called _yocotamally_ was eaten exclusively on the day of the festival. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] see vol. iii. of this work, pp. - . [ ] see _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxi. [ ] see _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxi.; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] see _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxi.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] '_nahui ollin tonatiuh_, esto es, el sol en sus cuatro movientos, acompañado de la _via lactea_.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. . [ ] 'mataban quatro cautivos de los que se llamaban chachame, que quiere decir: tontos; y mataban tambien la imagen del sol, y de la luna, que eran dos hombres.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'on immolait ensuite un grand nombre de captifs, dont les principaux, appelés chachamé, figuraient le soleil et la lune.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'creen que topilcin su rey primero se conuertio en aquella estrella.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxiv. [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - . 'papahua-tlamacazqui, ou ministres aux longs cheveux. c'est par leurs mains que passaient les prémices des fruits de la terre qu'on offrait aux astres du jour et de la nuit.... on immolait un grand nombre de captifs et, à leur défaut, les criminels.... sur leur sépulture on exécutait un ballet.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - . for description of zapotec harvest-feast see _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - . [ ] for description of this feast see vol. iii. of this work, pp. - . the authorities on aztec festivals are: _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , lib. i., pp. - ; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxix-clxxvii.; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii.,; _leon_, _camino del cielo_, pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - , - , - , - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pt i., pp. - , - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xv-xvii.; _purchas his pilgrimes_, tom. iv., pp. - ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , , - ; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt i., pp. - ; _codex telleriano-remensis_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - , - , tom. ii., pp. - , tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - . chapter x. food of the nahua nations. origin of agriculture--floating gardens--agricultural products--manner of preparing the soil--description of agricultural implements--irrigation--granaries--gardens--the harvest feast--manner of hunting--fishing--methods of procuring salt--nahua cookery--various kinds of bread--beans--pepper--fruit--tamales--miscellaneous articles of food--eating of human flesh--manufacture of pulque--preparation of chocolatl--other beverages--intoxicating drinks--drunkenness--time and manner of taking meals. [sidenote: agriculture and civilization.] hunting, fishing, and agriculture furnished the nahua nations with means of subsistence, besides which they had, in common with their uncivilized brethren of the sierras and forests, the uncultivated edible products of the soil. among the coast nations, the dwellers on the banks of large streams, and the inhabitants of the lake regions of anáhuac and michoacan, fish constituted an important article of food. but agriculture, here as elsewhere, distinguished savagism from civilization, and of the lands of the so-called civilized nations few fertile tracts were found uncultivated at the coming of the spaniards. cultivation of the soil was doubtless the first tangible step in the progressive development of these nations, and this is indicated in their traditionary annals, which point, more or less vaguely, to a remote period when the quinames, or giants, occupied the land as yet untilled; which means that the inhabitants were savages, whose progress had not yet exhibited any change sufficiently marked to leave its imprint on tradition. at a time still more remote, however, the invention of bows and arrows is traditionally referred to.[ ] the gradual discovery and introduction of agricultural arts according to the laws of development, were of course unintelligible to the aboriginal mind; consequently their traditions tell us wondrous tales of divine intervention and instruction. nevertheless, the introduction of agriculture was doubtless of very ancient date. the olmecs and xicalancas, traditionally the oldest civilized peoples in mexico, were farmers back to the limit of traditional history, as were the lineal ancestors of all the nations which form the subject of this volume. indeed, as the nahua nations were living when the spaniards found them, so had they probably been living for at least ten centuries, and not improbably for a much longer period. it was, however, according to tradition, during the toltec period of nahua culture that husbandry and all the arts pertaining to the production and preparation of food, were brought to the highest degree of perfection. many traditions even attribute to the toltecs the invention or first introduction of agriculture.[ ] but even during this toltec period hunting tribes, both of nahua and other blood, were pursuing their game in the forests and mountains, especially in the northern region. despised by their more civilized, corn-eating brethren, they were known as barbarians, dogs, chichimecs, 'suckers of blood,' from the custom attributed to them of drinking blood and eating raw flesh. many tribes, indeed, although very far from being savages, were known to the aristocratic toltecs as chichimecs, by reason of some real or imaginary inferiority. by the revolutions of the tenth century, some of these chichimec nations, probably of the nahua blood and tillers of the soil, although at the same time bold hunters and valiant warriors, gained the ascendancy in anáhuac. hence the absurd versions of native traditions which represent the valley of mexico as occupied during the chichimec period by a people who, until taught better by the acolhuas, lived in caverns and subsisted on wild fruits and raw meat, while at the same time they were ruled by emperors, and possessed a most complicated and advanced system of government and laws. their barbarism probably consisted for the most part in resisting for a time the enervating influences of toltec luxury, especially in the pleasures of the table.[ ] [sidenote: chinampas, or floating gardens.] the aztecs were traditionally corn-eaters from the first, but while shut up for long years on an island in the lake, they had little opportunity for agricultural pursuits. during this period of their history, the fish, birds, insects, plants, and mud of the lake supplied them with food, until floating gardens were invented and subsequent conquests on the main land afforded them broad fields for tillage. as a rule no details are preserved concerning the pre-aztec peoples; where such details are known they will be introduced in their proper place as illustrative of later nahua food-customs. the _chinampas_, or floating gardens, cultivated by the aztecs on the surface of the lakes in anáhuac, were a most extraordinary source of food. driven in the days of their national weakness to the lake islands, too small for the tillage which on the main had supported them, these ingenious people devised the chinampa. they observed small portions of the shore, detached by the high water and held together by fibrous roots, floating about on the surface of the water. acting on the suggestion, they constructed rafts of light wood, covered with smaller sticks, rushes, and reeds, bound together with fibrous aquatic plants, and on this foundation they heaped two or three feet of black mud from the bottom of the lake. thus the broad surface around their island home was dotted with fertile gardens, self-irrigating and independent of rains, easily moved from place to place according to the fancy of the proprietor. they usually took the form of parallelograms and were often over a hundred feet long. all the agricultural products of the country, particularly maize, chile, and beans were soon produced in abundance on the chinampas, while the larger ones even bore fruit and shade trees of considerable size, and a hut for the convenience of the owner, or gardener. the floating gardens have remained in use down to modern times, but since the waters of the lakes receded so much from their former limits, they have been generally attached to the shore, being separated by narrow canals navigated by the canoes which bear their produce to the markets. in later times, however, only flowers and garden vegetables have been raised in this manner.[ ] on the mainland throughout the nahua territory few fertile spots were left uncultivated. the land was densely populated, and agriculture was an honorable profession in which all, except the king, the nobility, and soldiers in time of actual war, were more or less engaged.[ ] [sidenote: aboriginal agriculture.] agricultural products in the shape of food were not a prominent feature among articles of export and import, excepting, of course, luxuries for the tables of the kings and nobles. each province, as a rule, raised only sufficient supplies for its own ordinary necessities; consequently, when by reason of drought or other cause, a famine desolated one province, it was with the greatest difficulty that food could be obtained from abroad. the mexicans were an improvident people, and want was no stranger to them.[ ] the chief products of nahua tillage were maize, beans, magueyes, cacao, chian, chile, and various native fruits.[ ] the maize, or indian corn, the dried ears of which were called by the aztecs _centli_, and the dried kernels separated from the cob, _tlaolli_,[ ] was the standard and universal nahua food. indigenous to america, in the development of whose civilization, traditionally at least, it played an important part, it has since been introduced to the world. it is the subject of the new world traditions respecting the introduction of agriculture among men. tortillas, of maize, accompanied by the inevitable frijoles, or beans, seasoned with chile, or pepper, and washed down with drinks prepared from the maguey and cacao, were then, as now, the all-sustaining diet, and we are told that corn grew so strong and high in the fields that covered the surface of the country in some parts, as to seriously embarrass the conqueror cortés in his movements against the natives hidden in these natural labyrinths.[ ] [sidenote: cornfields and granaries.] respecting the particular methods of cultivation practiced by the nahuas, except in the raising of corn, early observers have left no definite information.[ ] the valleys were of course the favorite localities for cornfields, but the highlands were also cultivated. in the latter case the trees and bushes were cut down, the land burned over, and the seed put in among the ashes. such lands were allowed to rest several years--torquemada says five or six--after each crop, until the surface was covered with grass and bushes for a new burning. no other fertilizer than ashes, so far as known, was ever employed. fields were enclosed by stone walls and hedges of maguey, which were carefully repaired each year in the month of panquetzaliztli. they had no laboring animals, and their farming implements were exceedingly few and rude. three of these only are mentioned. the _huictli_ was a kind of oaken shovel or spade, in handling which both hands and feet were used. the _coatl_, or _coa_ (serpent), so called probably from its shape, was a copper implement with a wooden handle, used somewhat as a hoe is used by modern farmers in breaking the surface of the soil. another copper instrument, shaped like a sickle, with a wooden handle, was used for pruning fruit-trees. a simple sharp stick, the point of which was hardened in the fire, or more rarely tipped with copper, was the implement in most common use. to plant corn, the farmer dropped a few kernels into a hole made with this stick, and covered them with his foot, taking the greatest pains to make the rows perfectly straight and parallel; the intervals between the hills were always uniform, though the space was regulated according to the nature and fertility of the soil. the field was kept carefully weeded, and at a certain age the stalks were supported by heaping up the soil round them. at maturity the stalks were often broken two thirds up, that the husks might protect the hanging ear from rain. during the growth and ripening of the maize, a watchman or boy was kept constantly on guard in a sheltered station commanding the field, whose duty it was to drive away, with stones and shouts, the flocks of feathered robbers which abounded in the country. women and children aided the men in the lighter farm labors, such as dropping the seeds, weeding the plants, and husking and cleaning the grain. to irrigate the fields the water of rivers and of mountain streams was utilized by means of canals, dams, and ditches. the network of canals by which the cacao plantations of the tierra caliente in tabasco were watered, offered to cortés' army even more serious obstructions than the dense growth of the maizales, or cornfields. granaries for storing maize were built of _oyametl_, or _oxametl_, a tree whose long branches were regular, tough, and flexible. the sticks were laid in log-house fashion, one above another, and close together, so as to form a tight square room, which was covered with a water-tight roof, and had only two openings or windows, one at the top and another at the bottom. many of these granaries had a capacity of several thousand bushels, and in them corn was preserved for several, or, as brasseur says, for fifteen or twenty, years. besides the regular and extensive plantations of staple products, gardens were common, tastefully laid out and devoted to the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, medicinal herbs, and particularly flowers, of which the mexicans were very fond, and which were in demand for temple decorations and bouquets. the gardens connected with the palaces of kings and nobles, particularly those of tezcuco, iztapalapan, and huaxtepec, excited great wonder and admiration in the minds of the first european visitors, but these have been already mentioned in a preceding chapter.[ ] we shall find the planting and growth of maize not without influence in the development of the nahua calendars, and that it was closely connected with the worship of the gods and with religious ideas and ceremonies. father burgoa relates that in oajaca, the cultivation of this grain, the people's chief support, was attended by some peculiar ceremonies. at harvest-time the priests of the maize god in quegolani, ceremonially visited the cornfields followed by a procession of the people, and sought diligently the fairest and best-filled ear. this they bore to the village, placed it on an altar decked for the occasion with flowers and precious chalchiuites, sang and danced before it, and wrapped it with care in a white cotton cloth, in which it was preserved until the next seed-time. then with renewed processions and solemn rites the magic ear with its white covering was wrapped in a deer-skin and buried in the midst of the cornfields in a small hole lined with stones. when another harvest came, if it were a fruitful one, the precious offering to the earth was dug up and its decayed remains distributed in small parcels to the happy populace as talismans against all kinds of evil.[ ] [sidenote: the chase in anÁhuac.] the game most abundant was deer, hare, rabbits, wild hogs, wolves, foxes, jaguars, or tigers, mexican lions, coyotes, pigeons, partridges, quails, and many aquatic birds. the usual weapon was the bow and arrow, to the invention of which tradition ascribes the origin of the chase; but spears, snares, and nets were also employed, and the sarbacan, a tube through which pellets or darts were blown, was an effective bird-killer. game in the royal forests was protected by law, and many hunters were employed in taking animals and birds alive for the king's collections. among the peculiar devices employed for taking water-birds was that already mentioned in connection with the wild tribes; the hunter floating in the water, with only his head, covered with a gourd, above the surface, and thus approaching his prey unsuspected. young monkeys were caught by putting in a concealed fire a peculiar black stone which exploded when heated. corn was scattered about as a bait, and when the old monkeys brought their young to feed they were frightened by the explosion and ran away, leaving the young ones an easy prey. the native hunters are represented as particularly skillful in following an indistinct trail. according to sahagun, a superstition prevailed that only four arrows might be shot at a tiger, but to secure success a leaf was attached to one of the arrows, which, making a peculiar whizzing sound, fell short and attracted the beast's attention while the hunter took deliberate aim. crocodiles were taken with a noose round the neck and also, by the boldest hunters, by inserting a stick sharpened and barbed at both ends in the animal's open mouth. it is probable that, while a small portion of the common people in certain parts of the country sought game for food alone, the chase among the nahuas was for the most part a diversion of the nobles and soldiers. there were also certain hunts established by law or custom at certain periods of the year, the products of which were devoted to sacrificial purposes, although most likely eaten eventually. in the month quecholli a day's hunt was celebrated by the warriors in honor of mixcoatl. a large forest--that of zacatepec, near mexico, being a favorite resort--was surrounded by a line of hunters many miles in extent. in the centre of the forest various snares and traps were set. when all was ready, the living circle began to contract, and the hunters with shouts pressed forward toward the centre. to aid in the work, the grass was sometimes fired. the various animals were driven from their retreats into the snares prepared for them, or fell victims to the huntsmen's arrows. immense quantities of game were thus secured and borne to the city and to the neighboring towns, the inhabitants of which had assisted in the hunt, as an offering to the god. each hunter carried to his own home the heads of such animals as he had killed, and a prize was awarded to the most successful. in the month tecuilhuitontli also, while the warriors practiced in sham fights for actual war, the common people gave their attention to the chase. large numbers of birds were taken in nets spread on poles like spear-shafts. in earlier times, when the chase was more depended on for food, the first game taken was offered to the gods; or, by the chichimecs and xochimilcas, to the sun, as ixtlilxochitl informs us.[ ] [sidenote: fisheries and salt.] fish was much more universally used for food than game. torquemada tells us that the aztecs first invented the art of fishing prompted by the mother of invention when forced by their enemies to live on the lake islands; and it was the smell of roasted fish, wafted to the shore, that revealed their presence. this tradition is somewhat absurd, and it is difficult to believe that the art was entirely unknown during the preceding toltec and olmec periods of nahua civilization. besides the supply in lake and river, artificial ponds in the royal gardens were also stocked with fish, and we have seen that fresh fish from the ocean were brought to mexico for the king's table. respecting the particular methods employed by the nahua fishermen, save that they used both nets and hooks, the authorities say nothing. the tarascos had such an abundance of food in their lakes that their country was named michoacan, 'land of fish'; and the rivers of huastecapan are also mentioned as richly stocked with finny food.[ ] the nahuas had, as i have said, no herds or flocks, but besides the royal collections of animals, which included nearly every known variety of quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, the common people kept and bred _techichi_ (a native animal resembling a dog), turkeys, quails, geese, ducks, and many other birds. the nobles also kept deer, hares, and rabbits.[ ] next to chile, salt, or _iztatl_, was the condiment most used, and most of the supply came from the valley of mexico. the best was made by boiling the water from the salt lake in large pots, and was preserved in white cakes or balls. it was oftener, however, led by trenches into shallow pools and evaporated by the sun. the work would seem to have been done by women, since sahagun speaks of the women and girls employed in this industry as dancing at the feast in honor of the goddess of salt in the month tecuilhuitontli. a poor quality of salt, _tequizquitl_, brick-colored and strongly impregnated with saltpetre, was scraped up on the flats around the lakes, and largely used in salting meats. las casas mentions salt springs in the bed of fresh-water streams, the water of which was pumped out through hollow canes, and yielded on evaporation a fine white salt; but it is not certain what part of the country he refers to. the aztec kings practically monopolized the salt market and refused to sell it to any except tributary nations. in consequence of this disposition, republican tlascala, one of the few nations that maintained its independence, was forced for many years to eat its food unsalted; and so habituated did the people become to this diet, that in later times, if we may credit camargo, very little salt was consumed.[ ] [sidenote: the nahua cuisine.] we now come to the methods adopted by the nahuas in preparing and cooking food. maize, when in the milk, was eaten boiled, and called _elotl_; when dry it was often prepared for food by simply parching or roasting, and then named _mumuehitl_. but it usually came to the aztec table in the shape of _tlaxcalli_, the spanish tortillas, the standard bread, then as now, in all spanish america. it would be difficult to name a book in any way treating of mexico in which tortillas are not fully described. the aborigines boiled the corn in water, to which lime, or sometimes nitre, was added. when sufficiently soft and free from hulls it was crushed on the _metlatl_, or metate, with a stone roller, and the dough, after being kneaded also on the metate, was formed by the hands of the women into very thin round cakes which were quickly baked on earthen pans, or _comalli_, and piled up one on another that they might retain their warmth, for when cold they lost their savor. peter martyr speaks of these tortillas as "bread made of maizium." they were sometimes, but rarely, flavored with different native plants and flowers. there was, however, some variety in their preparation, according to which they bore different names. for example _totanquitlaxcallitlaquelpacholli_ were very white, being folded and covered with napkins; _huietlaxcalli_ were large, thin, and soft; _quauhtlaqualli_ were thick and rough; _tlaxcalpacholli_, grayish; and _tlacepoallitlaxcalli_ presented a blistered surface. there were many other kinds. in addition to the tlaxcalli, thicker corn-bread in the form of long cakes and balls were made. _atolli_ varied in consistency from porridge, or gruel, to mush, and may consequently be classed either as a drink or as food. to make it, the hulled corn was mashed, mixed with water, and boiled down to the required consistency; it was variously sweetened and seasoned, and eaten both hot and cold. according to its condition and seasoning it received about seventeen names; thus _totonquiatolli_ was eaten hot, _nequatolli_ was sweetened with honey, _chilnequatolli_ was seasoned with chile, and _quauhnexatolli_ with saltpetre. beans, the _etl_ of the aztecs, the frijoles of the spaniards, were while yet green boiled in the pod, and were then called _exotl_; when dry they were also generally boiled; but ixtlilxochitl mentions flour made from beans. _chilli_, chile, or pepper, was eaten both green and dry, whole and ground. a sauce was also made from it into which hot tortillas were dipped, and which formed a part of the seasoning in nearly every nahua dish. "it is the principal sauce and the only spice of the indias," as acosta tells us. flesh, fowl, and fish, both fresh and salted, were stewed, boiled, and roasted, with the fat of the techichi, and seasoned with chile, _tomatl_ (since called tomatoes), etc. the larger roasted game preserved for eating from the sacrifices in the month of itzcalli is termed _calpuleque_ by sahagun. _pipian_ was a stew of fowl with chile, tomatoes, and ground pumpkin-seeds. deer and rabbits were barbecued. peter martyr speaks of "rost and sodden meates of foule." fruits, for the most part, were eaten as with us, raw, but some, as the plantain and banana, were roasted and stewed. so much for the plain nahua cookery. into the labyrinthine mysteries of the mixed dishes i shall not penetrate far. it is easier for the writer, and not less satisfactory to the reader, to dismiss the subject with the remark that all the articles of food that have been mentioned, fish, flesh, and fowl, were mixed and cooked in every conceivable proportion, the product taking a different name with each change in the ingredients. the two principal classes of these mixed dishes were the pot-stews, or cazuelas, of various meats with multitudinous seasonings; and the _tamalli_, or tamales, meat pies, to make which meats were boiled, chopped fine, and seasoned, then mixed with maize-dough, coated with the same, wrapped in a corn-husk, and boiled again. these also took different names according to the ingredients and seasoning. the tamale is still a favorite dish, like tortillas and frijoles. miscellaneous articles of food, not already spoken of, were _axayacatl_, flies of the mexican lakes, dried, ground, boiled, and eaten in the form of cakes; _ahuauhtli_, the eggs of the same fly, a kind of native caviar; many kinds of insects, ants, maguey-worms, and even lice; _tecuitlatl_, 'excrement of stone,' a slime that was gathered on the surface of the lakes, and dried till it resembled cheese; eggs of turkeys, iguanas, and turtles, roasted, boiled, and in omelettes; various reptiles, frogs, and frog-spawn; shrimps, sardines, and crabs; corn-silk, wild-amaranth seeds, cherry-stones, tule-roots, and very many other articles inexpressible; yucca flour, potoyucca, tunas; honey from maize, from bees, and from the maguey; and roasted portions of the maguey stalks and leaves. the women did all the work in preparing and cooking food; in tlascala, however, the men felt that an apology was due for allowing this work to be done by women, and claimed, as sahagun says, that the smoke of cooking would impair their eye-sight and make them less successful in the hunt. all these articles of food, both cooked and uncooked, were offered for sale in the market-places of each large town, of which i shall speak further when i come to treat of commerce. eating-houses were also generally found near the markets, where all the substantials and delicacies of the nahua cuisine might be obtained.[ ] [sidenote: eating of human flesh.] one article of nahua food demands special mention--human flesh. that they ate the arms and legs of the victims sacrificed to their gods, there is no room for doubt. this religious cannibalism--perhaps human sacrifice itself--was probably not practiced before the cruel-minded aztec devotees of huitzilopochtli came into power, or at least was of rare occurrence; but during the aztec dominion, the custom of eating the flesh of sacrificed enemies became almost universal. that cannibalism, as a source of food, unconnected with religious rites, was ever practiced, there is little evidence. the anonymous conqueror tells us that they esteemed the flesh of men above all other food, and risked their lives in battle solely to obtain it. bernal diaz says that they sold it at retail in the markets; and veytia also states that this was true of the otomís. father gand assures us that there were many priests that ate and drank nothing but the flesh and blood of children. but these ogreish tales are probably exaggerations, since those who knew most of the natives, sahagun, motolinia, and las casas, regard the cannibalism of the nahuas rather as an abhorrent feature of their religion than as the result of an unnatural appetite. that by long usage they became fond of this food, may well be believed; but that their prejudice was strong against eating the flesh of any but their sacrificed foes, is proven, as gomara says, by the fact that multitudes died of starvation during the siege of mexico by cortés. even the victims of sacrifice seem only to have been eaten in banquets, more or less public, accompanied with ceremonial rites. a number of infants sacrificed to the tlalocs were eaten each year, and the blood of these and of other victims was employed in mixing certain cakes, some of which were at one time sent as a propitiatory offering to cortés.[ ] [sidenote: drinks and drunkenness.] the most popular nahua beverages were those since known as pulque and chocolate. the former, called by the natives _octli_--pulque, or pulcre, being a south american aboriginal term applied to the liquor in some unaccountable way by the spaniards--was the fermented juice of the maguey. one plant is said to yield about one hundred pounds in a month. a cavity is cut at the base of the larger leaves, and allowed to fill with juice, which is removed to a vessel of earthen ware or of skin, where it ferments rapidly and is ready for use. in a pure state it is of a light color, wholesome, and somewhat less intoxicating than grape wine; but the aborigines mixed with it various herbs, some to merely change its color or flavor, and others to increase its intoxicating properties. this national drink was honored with a special divinity, ometochtli, one of the numerous nahua gods of wine. according to some traditions the quinames, or giants, knew how to prepare it, but its invention is oftener attributed to the toltecs, its first recorded use having been to aid in the seduction of a mighty monarch from his royal duties.[ ] _chocolatl_--the foundation of our chocolate--was made by pounding cacao to a powder, adding an equal quantity of a seed called _pochotl_, also powdered, and stirring or beating the mixture briskly in a dish of water. the oily foam which rose to the surface was then separated, a small quantity of maize flour was added, and the liquid which was set before the fire. the oily portion was finally restored and the beverage was drunk lukewarm, sweetened with honey and often seasoned with vanilla. this drink was nutritious, refreshing, and cooling, and was especially a favorite with those called upon to perform fatiguing labor with scant food.[ ] miscellaneous drinks were water, plantain-juice, the various kinds of porridge known as _atolli_, already mentioned, the juice of maize-stalks, those prepared from chian and other seeds by boiling, and fermented water in which corn had been boiled--a favorite tarasco drink. among the ingredients used to make their drinks more intoxicating the most powerful was the _teonanacatl_, 'flesh of god,' a kind of mushroom which excited the passions and caused the partaker to see snakes and divers other visions.[ ] the aztec laws against drunkenness were very severe, yet nearly all the authors represent the people as delighting in all manner of intoxication, and as giving way on every opportunity to the vice when the power of their rulers over them was destroyed by the coming of the spaniards. drinking to excess seems to have been with them a social vice, confined mostly to public feasts and private banquets. it may have been chiefly against intemperance among the working classes, and officials when on duty, that the stringent laws were directed. mendieta speaks of the people as very temperate, using pulque only under the direction of the chiefs and judges for medicinal purposes chiefly. the nobles made it a point of honor not to drink to excess, and all feared punishment. but motolinia and other good authorities take an opposite view of the native character in this respect.[ ] [sidenote: meals of the common people.] concerning the manner of serving the king's meals, as well as the banquets and feasts of nobles and the richer classes, enough has been already said. of the daily meals among the masses little is known. the nahuas seem to have confined their indulgence in rich and varied viands to the oft-recurring feasts, while at their homes they were content with plain fare. this is a peculiarity that is still observable in the country, both among the descendants of the nahuas and of their conquerors. the poorer people had in each house a metate for grinding maize, and a few earthen dishes for cooking tortillas and frijoles. they ate three meals a day, morning, noon, and night, using the ground for table, table-cloth, napkins, and chairs, conveying their tlaxcalli and chile to the mouth with the fingers, and washing down their simple food with water or atole. the richer nahuas were served with a greater variety on palm-mats often richly decorated, around which low seats were placed for their convenience; napkins were also furnished.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'dicen que en aquellos principios del mundo se mantenian los hombres solamente con frutas y yerbas, hasta que uno á quien llaman tlaominqui, que quiere decir, _el que mató con flecha_ halló la invencion del arco y la flecha, y que desde entónces comenzaron á ejercitarse en la caza y mantenerse de carnes de los animales que mataban en ella.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . the giants lived 'mas como brutos que como racionales: su alimento eran las carnes crudas de las aves y fieras que cazavan sin distincion alguna, las frutas y yerbas silvestres porque nada cultivaban;' yet they knew how to make pulque to get drunk with. _id._, p. . [ ] the olmecs raised at least maize, chile, and beans before the time of the toltecs. _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . the toltec 'comida era el mismo mantenimiento que ahora se usa del maíz que sembraban y beneficiaban así el blanco como el de mas colores.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . to the toltec agriculture 'debitrici si riconobbero le posteriori nazioni del frumentone, del cotone, del peverone, e d'altri utilissimi frutti.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . the toltecs 'truxeron mays, algodon, y demas semillas.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . 'tenian el maiz, algodon, chile, frijoles y las demas semillas de la tierra que hay.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. , - . [ ] 'su comida era toda especie de caza, tanto cuadrúpeda como volátil, sin distincion ni otro condimento que asada, y las frutas ... pero nada sembraban, ni cultivaban.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. . 'no sembraban, ni cocian, ni asaban las carnes de la caza.' their kings and nobles kept forests of deer and hare to supply the people with food, until in nopaltzin's reign they were taught to plant by a descendant of the toltecs. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , - , , . they were the first inhabitants of the country and 'solo se mantenian de caça.' 'caçauan venados, liebres, conejos, comadrejas, topos, gatos monteses, paxaros, y aun inmundicias como culebras, lagartos, ratones, langostas, y gusanos, y desto y de yeruas rayzes se sustentauan.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . and to the same effect _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . they began to till the ground in hotzin's reign, but before that they roasted their meat and did not, as many claim, eat it raw. _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _id._, _relaciones_, p. . agriculture introduced in nopaltzin's reign. _id._, p. . but sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. , says some of the chichimecs 'hacian tambien alguna sementerilla de maíz.' [ ] 'sobre juncia y espadaña se echa tierra en tal forma, que no la deshaga el agua, y allí se siembra, y cultiua, y crece, y madura, y se lleua de vna parte á otra.' the products are maize, chile, wild amaranth, tomatoes, beans, chian, pumpkins, etc. _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . 'la lor figura regolare è quadrilunga: la lunghessa, e la larghezza son varie; ma per lo più hanno, secondo che mi pare, otto pertiche in circa di lunghezza, non più di tre di larghezza, e meno d'un piede d'elevazione sulla superficie dell'acqua.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . produce not only plants useful for food, dress, and medicine, but flowers and plants that serve only for decoration and luxury. _id._, tom. iv., p. . carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , translates clavigero's description. 'fairy islands of flowers, overshadowed occasionally by trees of considerable size.' 'that archipelago of wandering islands.' or feet long, or feet deep. _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. , - . the black mud of the chinampas is impregnated with muriate of soda, which is gradually washed out as the surface is watered. _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. - . mention by gayangos in _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, pp. - . 'camellones, que ellos llaman chinampas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., pp. - . [ ] 'es esta provincia (tlascala) de muchos valles llanos y hermosos, y todos labrados y sembrados.' in cholula 'ni un palmo de tierra hay que no esté labrado.' _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , . 'tout le monde, plus ou moins, s'adonnait à la culture, et se faisait honneur de travailler à la campagne.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'hasta los montes y sierras fragosas las tenian ocupadas con sembrados y otros aprovechamientos.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] a full list and description of the many edible mexican plants which were cultivated by the nahuas in the sixteenth and earlier centuries, as they have been ever since by their descendants, is given by the botanist, hernandez, in his _nova plantarum_; see also _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; repeated in _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , et seq. maize, maguey, cacao, bananas, and vanilla. _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . the totonacs raised fruits, but no cacao or _veinacaztli_. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . the people of michoacan raised 'maíz, frisoles, pepitas y fruta, y las semillas de mantenimientos, llamados _oauhtli, y chian_.' _id._, p. . the matlaltzincas also raised the _hoauhtli_. _id._, p. . besides corn, the most important products were cotton, cacao, maguey (metl), frijoles, chia, and chile. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'les mexicains cultivaient non-seulement toutes les fleurs et toutes les plantes que produit leur pays, mais encore une infinité d'autres qu'ils y avaient transplantées des contrées les plus éloignées.' _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . _id._, _crónica_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'hay frutas de muchas maneras, en que hay cerezas, y ciruelas que son semejables á las de españa.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . fruit was more abundant among the huastecs than elsewhere. _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'they haue also many kindes of pot herbes, as lettice, raddish, cresses, garlicke, onyons, and many other herbes besides.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii. edible fruits. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . [ ] _molina_, _diccionario_. 'centli, o tlaulli, que otros dizen mayz.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . in tlascala 'no tienen otra riqueza ni granjeria, sino centli que es su pan.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] peter martyr and the anonymous conqueror say, however, that cacao-trees were planted under larger trees, which were cut down when the plant gained sufficient strength. dec. v., lib. iv.; _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] on the culture of maize and other points mentioned above see _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , , tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , tom. iv., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii.; _gagern_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] on hunting see _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. , tom. iii., lib. xi., pp. - , including a full list and description of mexican animals; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii.; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . list of mexican animals in _id._, tom. i., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , - , with same list; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. ii., p. , with list and description of mexican fishes, of which over varieties fit for food are mentioned; repeated in _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii., iii.; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . list of fishes in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. xi., pp. - . [ ] 'crian muchas gallinas ... que son tan grandes como pavos.' 'conejos, liebres, venados y perros pequeños, que crian para comer castrados.' _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , , , . 'young whelpes flesh is vsuall there ... which they geld and fatte for foode.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii. the same author, dec. v., lib. iii., gives some queer information respecting the turkeys. 'the femalles sometimes lay . or . egges, so that it is a multiplying company. the males, are alwayes in loue, and therefore they say, they are very light meate of digestion.' a certain priest reports that 'the male is troubled with certayne impedimentes in the legges, that he can scarse allure the henne to treade her, vnlesse some knowne person take her in his hand, and hold her.... as soone as hee perceiueth the henne which he loueth, is held, hee presently commeth vnto her, and performes his businesse in the hand of the holder,' see _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , tom. iv., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. v.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _albornoz_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] on the preparation of food, and for mention more or less extensive of miscellaneous articles of food, see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , - , tom. ii., lib. vii., p. , tom. viii., pp. , - , tom. iii, lib. x., pp. - , , ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - , - , , - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , , - ; _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii., iii.; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , , etc., tom. iv., p. ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , , , , - ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , - ; _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _id._, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., pp. , - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , - . [ ] 'oi dezir, que le (for montezuma) solian guisar carnes de muchachos de poca edad.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. , , . a slave 'elaborately dressed' was a prominent feature of the banquet. _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . they ate the arms and legs of the spaniards captured. _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. . 'they draw so much blood, as in stead of luke warme water may suffice to temper the lumpe, which by the hellish butchers of that art, without any perturbation of the stomacke being sufficiently kneaded, while it is moyst, and soft euen as a potter of the clay, or a wax chandler of wax, so doth this image maker, admitted and chosen to be maister of this damned and cursed worke.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv., i. 'cocian aquella carne con maíz, y daban á cada uno un pedazo de ella en una escudilla ó cajete con su caldo, y su maíz cocida, y llamaban aquella comida _tlacatlaolli_.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. , , , , . 'la tenian por cosa, como sagrada, y mas se movian à esto por religion, que por vicio.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . see also _albornoz_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _id._, pp. , ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _id._, pp. - , ; _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _id._, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _gand_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _bologne_, in _id._, p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. iii.; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , tom. iv., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. - . [ ] _texcalcevia_, _texcalcevilo_, and _mataluhtli_ are some of the names given to pulque according to its hue and condition. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. , , . pulque from chilian language. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . see _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , tom. i., pp. - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. xxii.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . 'antes que á su vino lo cuezan con unas raices que le echan, es claro y dulce como aguamiel. despues de cocido, hácese algo espeso y tiene mal olor, y los que con él se embeodan, mucho peor.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; and _ritos antiguos_, pp. - , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. 'no hay perros muertos, ni bomba, que assi hiedan como el haliento del borracho deste vino.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'esta bebida es el mas sano y mas sustancioso alimento de cuantos se conocen en el mundo, pues el que bebe una taza de ella, aunque haga una jornada, puede pasarse todo el dia sin tomar otra cosa; y siendo frio por su naturaleza, es mejor en tiempo caliente que frio.' _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'la mejor, mas delicada y cara beuida que tienen es de harina de cacao y agua. algunas vezes le mezclan miel, y harina de otras legumbres. esto no emborracha, antes refresca mucho.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'of certaine almondes ... they make wonderfull drinke.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii., iv. 'cierta bebida hecha del mismo cacao, que dezian era para tener acceso con mugeres.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . red, vermilion, orange, black, and white. _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - . see _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _chicha_ and _sendechó_, fermented drinks. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . sendechó, an otomí drink, for a full description see _mendoza_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. ii., pp. - . 'ale, and syder.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv. 'panicap que es cierto brebaje que ellos beben.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . see besides references in note ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - . 'comunmente comenzaban á beber despues de vísperas, y dábanse tanta prisa á beber de diez en diez, ó quince en quince, y los escanciadores que no cesaban, y la comida que no era mucha, á prima noche ya van perdiendo el sentido, ya cayendo ya asentado, cantando y dando voces llamando al demonio.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. , . 'beben con tanto exceso, que no paran hasta caer como muertos de puro ebrios, y tienen á grande honra beber mucho y embriagarse.' _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _id._, pp. , . drinkers and drunkards had several special divinities. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . drank less before the conquest. _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., cap. xxii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'comen en el suelo, y suziamente ... parten los hueuos en vn cabello que se arrancan,' whatever that operation may be. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'es gente que con muy poco mantenimiento vive, y la que menos come de cuantas hay en el mundo.' _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . 'molto sobrj nel mangiare.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'it is not lawfull for any that is vnmaried to sit at table with such as are maried, or to eate of the same dish, or drinke of the same cup, and make themselues equall with such as are married.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv. the nobles gave feasts at certain periods of the year for the relief of the poor. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . see also _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . additional references for the whole subject of nahua food are:--_montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , , , ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. , , - , ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , - , , , - , , ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, pp. - ; _tylor's anahuac_, pp. , , - , - ; _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. , , - ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. - , ; _delaporte_ _reisen_, tom. x., pp. , - ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien y mod._, pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pp. - ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _gibbs_, in _hist. mag._, vol. vii., p. ; _hazart_, _kirchen-geschichte_, tom. ii., p. ; _helps' span. conq._, tom. ii., p. ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - , , ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, p. ; _long, porter, and tucker's america_, p. ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - . chapter xi. dress of the nahua nations. progress in dress--dress of the pre-aztec nations--garments of the chichimecs and toltecs--introduction of cotton--the maxtli--the tilmatli--dress of the acolhuas--origin of the tarascan costume--dress of the zapotecs and tabascans--dress of women--the huipil and cueitl--sandals--manner of wearing the hair--painting and tattooing--ornaments used by the nahuas--gorgeous dress of the nobles--dress of the royal attendants--names of the various mantles--the royal diadem--the royal wardrobe--costly decorations. with but few exceptions the dress of all the civilized nations of mexico appears to have been the same. the earliest people, the historians inform us, went entirely naked or covered only the lower portion of the body with the skins of wild animals. afterwards, as by degrees civilization advanced, this scanty covering grew into a regular costume, though still, at first, made only of skins. from this we can note a farther advance to garments manufactured first out of tanned and prepared skins, later of maguey and palm-tree fibres, and lastly of cotton. from the latter no further progress was made, excepting in the various modes of ornamenting and enriching the garments with feather-work, painting, embroidery, gold-work, and jewelry. the common people were obliged to content themselves with plain clothing, but the dress of the richer classes, nobles, princes, and sovereigns, was of finer texture and richer ornamentation.[ ] the descriptions of the dresses of the nations which occupied the valley of mexico before the aztecs vary according to different authors. while some describe them as gorgeously decked out in painted and embroidered garments of cotton and nequen, others say, that they went either wholly naked or were only partially covered with skins. thus sahagun and brasseur de bourbourg describe the toltecs as dressed in undergarments and mantles on which blue scorpions were painted,[ ] while the latter author in another place says that they went entirely naked.[ ] veytia goes even farther than sahagun, affirming that they knew well how to manufacture clothing of cotton, that a great difference existed between the dress of the nobles and that of the plebeians, and that they even varied their clothing with the seasons. he describes them as wearing in summer a kind of breech-cloth or drawers and a square mantle tied across the breast and descending to the ankles, while in winter in addition to the above they clothed themselves in a kind of sack, which reached down as far as the thighs, without sleeves but with a hole for the head and two others for the arms.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the aztecs, tarascos, and huastecs.] the chichimecs, generally mentioned as the successors of the toltecs, are mostly described as going naked, or only partly dressed in skins.[ ] this appears, however, only to relate to the people spoken of as wild chichimecs; those who inhabited tezcuco and others in that neighborhood as civilized as the aztecs, dressed probably in a similar fashion to theirs; at least, as we shall presently see, this was the case with their sovereigns and nobles. all the nahuas, with the exception of the tarascos and huastecs, made use of the breech-cloth, or maxtli.[ ] this with the mexicans in very early times is said to have been a kind of mat, woven of the roots of a plant which grew in the lake of mexico, and was called _amoxtli_.[ ] later, the fibre of the palm-tree and the maguey furnished the material for their clothing, and it was only during the reign of king huitzilihuitl that cotton was introduced.[ ] the maxtli was about twenty-four feet long and nine inches wide, and was generally more or less ornamented at the ends with colored fringes and tassels, the latter sometimes nine inches long. the manner of wearing it was to pass the middle between the legs and to wind it about the hips, leaving the ends hanging one in front and the other at the back, as is done at this day by the malays and other east indian natives. it was at the ends usually that the greatest display of embroidery, fancy fringes, and tassels was made.[ ] [sidenote: garments of the tarascos.] as a further covering the men wore the _tilmatli_, or _ayatl_, a mantle, which was nothing more than a square piece of cloth about four feet long. if worn over both shoulders, the two upper ends were tied in a knot across the breast, but more frequently it was only thrown over one shoulder and knotted under one of the arms. sometimes two or three of these mantles were worn at one time. this, however, was only done by the better classes. the older spanish writers generally compare this mantle to the moorish albornoz. it was usually colored or painted, frequently richly embroidered or ornamented with feathers and furs. the edges were scalloped or fringed with tufts of cotton and sometimes with gold. rich people had, besides these, mantles made of rabbit or other skins, or of beautiful feathers, and others of fine cotton into which was woven rabbit-hair, which latter were used in cold weather.[ ] in only one instance garments with sleeves are mentioned. ixtlilxochitl, in describing the dress of the acolhuas, says that they wore a kind of long coat reaching to the heels with long sleeves.[ ] the dress of the tarascos differed considerably from that of the other nahua nations. this difference is said to have originated in ancient times, when they together with other tribes, as the legend relates, immigrated into mexico. while on their wanderings being obliged to cross a river, and having no ropes with which to construct rafts, they used for this purpose their maxtlis and mantles. not being able to procure other clothing immediately, they were under the necessity of putting on the _huipiles_, or chemises, of the women, leaving to the latter only their _naguas_, or petticoats. in commemoration of this event, they later adopted this as their national costume, discarding the maxtli and wearing the huipil and a mantle.[ ] the tilmatli, or ayatl, was by the tarascos called _tlanatzi_. it was worn over one shoulder and was knotted under the other arm. they frequently trimmed it with hare-skins and painted it gaudily. the young wore it considerably shorter than old people. the manufacture of feather garments seems to have been a specialty of the tarascos.[ ] the zapotecs chiefly dressed in skins, while others in oajaca are said to have worn small jackets, and cortés reports these people to have been better dressed than any he had previously seen.[ ] in tabasco but little covering was used, the greater part of the population going almost naked.[ ] [sidenote: dress of women.] there was no difference in the dress of the women throughout anáhuac. the huipil and _cueitl_ were the chief articles, and were universally used. besides these, mantles of various shapes and materials were worn. the huipil was a kind of chemise, with either no sleeves at all or very short ones; it covered the upper part of the body to a little below the thighs. the lower part of the body was covered by the cueitl, a petticoat, reaching to about half-way between the knees and ankles, and often nicely embroidered and ornamented. skins, _ixcotl_, or palm-fibre, nequen, and cotton were the materials used for these garments. out of doors they frequently put on another over-dress similar to the huipil, only longer and with more ornamental fringes and tassels. sometimes they wore two or three of these at the same time, one over the other, but in that case they were of different lengths, the longest one being worn underneath. a mantle similar in size and shape to that used by the men, white and painted in various designs on the outside, was also used by the females. to the upper edge of this, on that portion which was at the back of the neck, a capuchin, like that worn by the dominican and other monks, was fastened, with which they covered their head.[ ] to protect their feet they used sandals, by the aztecs called _cactli_, which were made of deer or other skins, and frequently also of nequen and cotton. the strings or straps used to fasten them were of the same material.[ ] i do not find any description of the manner in which they were fastened, but in an old mexican manuscript on maguey paper, in which some of the natives are painted in various colors, i find that the sandals were fastened in three places; first by a strap running across the foot immediately behind the toes, then another over the instep and running toward the heel, and lastly by a strap from the heel round the ankle. [sidenote: hair-dressing and painting.] as a general thing mexicans wore the hair long, and in many parts of the empire it was considered a disgrace to cut the hair of a free man or woman.[ ] unlike most of the american natives they wore moustaches, but in other parts of the body they eradicated all hair very carefully.[ ] there were public barber-shops and baths in all the principal cities.[ ] the aztecs had various ways of dressing the hair, differing according to rank and office. generally it was left hanging loose down the back. the women also frequently wore it in this way, but oftener had it done up or trimmed after various fashions; thus some wore it long on the temples and had the rest of the head shaved, others twisted it with dark cotton thread, others again had almost the whole head shaved. among them it was also fashionable to dye the hair with a species of black clay, or with an herb called _xiuhquilitl_, the latter giving it a violet shade. unmarried girls wore the hair always loose; they considered it as especially graceful to wear the hair low[ ] on the forehead. the virgins who served in the temples had their hair cut short.[ ] the otomís shaved the fore part of the heads of children, leaving only a tuft behind, which they called _piochtli_, while the men wore the hair cut short as far as the middle of the back of the head, but left it to grow long behind; and these long locks they called _piocheque_. girls did not have their hair cut until after marriage, when it was worn in the same style as by the men.[ ] the tarascos, or as they were also called quaochpanme, derived this last name from an old fashion of having their heads shaved, both men and women.[ ] later they wore the hair long, the common people simply letting it hang down the back, while the rich braided it with cotton threads of various colors.[ ] the miztecs wore the hair braided, and ornamented with many feathers.[ ] the nahua women used paint freely to beautify their person, and among some nations they also tattooed. among the aztecs they painted their faces with a red, yellow, or black color, made, as sahagun tells us, of burnt incense mixed with dye. they also dyed their feet black with the same mixture. their teeth they cleaned and painted with cochineal; hands, neck, and breast were also painted.[ ] among the tlascaltecs the men painted their faces with a dye made of the _xagua_ and _bixa_.[ ] the otomís tattooed their breasts and arms by making incisions with a knife and rubbing a blue powder therein. they also covered the body with a species of pitch called _teocahuitl_, and over this again they applied some other color. their teeth they dyed black.[ ] the nahuas, like all semi-barbarous people, had a passion for loading themselves with ornaments. those worn by the kings, nobles, and rich persons, were of gold or silver, set with precious stones; those of the poorer classes were of copper, stone, or bone, set with imitations in crystal of the rarer jewels. these ornaments took the shape of bracelets, armlets, anklets, and rings for the nose, ears, and fingers. the lower lip was also pierced, and precious stones, or crystals, inserted. the richer classes used principally for this purpose the chalchiuite, which is generally designated as an emerald. there existed very stringent laws regarding the class of ornaments which the different classes of people were allowed to wear, and it was prohibited, on pain of death, for a subject to use the same dress or ornaments as the king. duran relates that to certain very brave but low-born warriors permission was accorded to wear a cheap garland or crown on the head, but on no account might it be made of gold.[ ] gomara tells us that the claws and beaks of the eagle and also fish-bones were worn as ornaments in the ears, nose, and lips.[ ] the otomís used ear-ornaments made of burned clay, nicely browned, and others of cane.[ ] the tarascos chiefly relied on feathers for their personal adornment.[ ] of the natives encountered by cortés when he landed at vera cruz, peter martyr tells us that in the "hole of the lippes, they weare a broad plate within fastened to another on the outside of the lippe, and the iewell they hang thereat is as great as a siluer caroline doller and as thicke as a mans finger."[ ] in oajaca more ornaments were worn than in any other part of the country, owing, perhaps, as the abbé brasseur de bourbourg remarks, to the plentiful supply of precious metals in that state.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the nobles.] the dress of the nobles and members of the royal household differed from that of the lower classes only in fineness of material and profusion of ornaments. the kings appear to have worn garments of the same shape as those of their subjects, but, in other respects, a particular style of dress was reserved for royalty, and he who presumed to imitate it was put to death. on occasions, however, when the monarch wished to bestow a special mark of favor upon a brave soldier or distinguished statesman, he would graciously bestow upon him one of his garments, which, even though the recipient were a great noble, was received with joy, and the wearer respected as a man whom the king delighted to honor.[ ] in tlascala differences of rank among the nobles were easily recognized by the style of dress. the common people were strictly forbidden to wear cotton clothes with fringes or other trimmings, unless with special permission, granted in consideration of services rendered.[ ] the court laws of etiquette prescribed the dress to be worn by the royal attendants, who could only appear without sandals, barefooted, and in coarse mantles before the king, and even the apparel of the sovereign was in like manner fixed by custom, if not by law. the different kinds of tilmatlis, or mantles, had each its appropriate name, and varied in material as well as in ornament and color. the cotton mantles are described as being of exceeding fineness of texture, so much so that it required an expert to determine whether they were cotton or silk.[ ] the mantle worn as every-day dress in the palace was white and blue and called the _xiuhtilmatli_.[ ] there were many other kinds of mantles, of which the following are the principal: a yellowish, heavily fringed mantle, on which monstrous heads were painted, was called _coazayacaiotilmatli_; another, blue, ornamented with red shells, with three borders, one light, another dark blue, and a third of white feather-work, and fringed with the same kind of shells, was named _tecuciciotilmatli_; another, dark yellow, with alternate black and white circles painted on it, and a border representing eyes, was the _temalcacaiotilmatlitenisio_; a similar one, differing only in the figures and shape of the ornaments, was the _itzcayotilmatli_; a very gaudy one, worked in many colors, was the _umetechtecomaiotilmatli_; another, with a yellow ground, on which were butterflies made of feathers, and with scalloped edges, was called _papaloiotilmatlitenisio_; the _xaoalquauhiotilmatlitenisio_, was embroidered with designs representing the flower called _ecacazcatl_, and further ornamented with white feather-work and feather edges; the _ocelotentlapalliyiticycacocelotl_ was an imitation of a tiger-skin, also ornamented with an edge of white feathers; the _ixnextlacuilolli_ was worked in many colors, and had a sun painted on it.[ ] other mantles, differing mainly in their style of ornamentation, were the _coaxacayo_ and _tlacalhuaztilmatli_, the latter worn when the king went into his gardens or to the chase. in the same manner there are also various kinds of maxtlis mentioned, such as the _ynyaomaxaliuhqui_, _ytzahuazalmaxtlatl_ and _yacahualiuqui_.[ ] in fact there appears to have been a different dress for every occasion. we are told, for instance, that when going to the temple the king wore a white mantle, another when going to preside at the court of justice, and here he again changed his dress, according as the case before the court was a civil or criminal suit.[ ] the sandals of the kings were always richly ornamented with precious stones, and had golden soles.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the kings.] whenever the sovereign appeared in public he wore the royal crown, called _copilli_, which was of solid gold, and is described by most writers as having been shaped like a bishop's mitre; but in the hieroglyphical paintings, in which the mexican kings are represented, it is simply a golden band, wider in front than at the back, the front running up to a point; on some occasions it was ornamented with long feathers.[ ] the following description of ornaments, worn by the mexican kings and nobles, i extract from sahagun:-- [sidenote: aboriginal dress.] the _quetzalalpitoai_ consisted of two tassels of fine feathers garnished with gold, which they wore bound to the hair on the crown of the head, and hanging down to the temples. the _tlauhquecholtzontli_ was a handsome garment of feathers worn on the shoulders. on the arms they placed gold rings; on the wrists a thick black strap made soft with balsam, and upon it a large chalchiuite or other precious stone. they also had a _barbote_, or chin-piece, of chalchiuite or other precious stone, set in gold, inserted in the chin. these chin-ornaments were made long, of crystal, with some blue feathers in the centre, which made them look like sapphire. the lip had a hole bored in it, from which precious stones or gold crescents were suspended. the great lords likewise had holes in their nose, and placed therein very fine turquoises or other precious stones, one on each side of the nose. on their necks they wore strings of precious stones, or a medal suspended by a gold chain, with pearl pendants hanging from its edge, and a flat jewel in the centre of it. they used bracelets of mosaic work made with turquoises. on their legs they wore, from the knee down, greaves of very thin gold. they carried in the right hand a little golden flag with a tuft of gaudy feathers on the top. upon their heads they wore a bird made of rich feathers, with its head and beak resting on the forehead, its tail toward the back of the head, its wings falling over the temples.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'la gente pobre vestia de nequen, que es la tela que se haze del maguey, y los ricos vestian de algodon, con orlas labradas de pluma, y pelo de conejos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ii. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . 'maxtli enrichi de broderies, et ... tunique d'une grande finesse.' _id._, p. . 'en tiempo de calor con sus mantas y pañetes de algodon, y en tiempo de frio se ponian unos jaquetones sin mangas que los llevaban hasta las rodillas con sus mantas y pañetes.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'nu suivant la coutume des indigènes qui travaillaient aux champs.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'algodon, que sabian beneficiar y fabricar de él las ropas de que se vestian.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'su vestuario eran las pieles ... que las ablandaban y curaban para el efecto, trayendo en tiempo de frios el pelo adentro, y en tiempo de calores ... el pelo por la parte afuera.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'por lo frio de su clima vestian todos pieles de animales adobadas y curtidas, sin que perdiesen el pelo, las que acomodaban á manera de un sayo, que por detras les llegaba hasta las corvas, y por delante á medio muslo.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. , tom. i., p. . 's'habillaient ... de peaux de bêtes fauves, le poil en dehors durant l'été, vieillard en hiver.... chez les classes aisées ... ces peaux étaient tannées ou maroquinées avec art; on y usait aussi des toiles de nequen, et quelquefois des cotonnades d'une grande finesse.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'maxtlatl, bragas, o cosa semejante.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. the tarascos 'n'adoptèrent jamais l'usage des caleçons.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . the maxtli is frequently spoken of as drawers or pantaloons. the huastecs 'no traen maxtles con que cubrir sus vergüenzas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'cominciarono in questo tempo a vestirsi di cotone, del quale erano innanzi affatto privi per la loro miseria, nè d'altro vestivansi, se non delle tele grosse di filo di maguei, o di palma salvatica.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . 'les mexicains, les tecpanèques et les autres tribus qui restèrent en arrière, conservèrent l'usage des étoffes de coton, de fil de palmier, de maguey ixchele, de poil de lapin et de lièvre, ainsi que des peaux d'animaux.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'non aveano lana, nè seta comune, nè lino, nè canapa; ma supplivano alla lana col cotone, alla seta colla piuma, e col pelo del coniglio, e della lepre, ed al lino, ed alla canapa coll' _icxotl_, o palma montana, col _quetzalichtli_, col _pati_, e con altre spezie di maguei.... il modo, che avevano di preparar questi materiali, era quello stesso, che hanno gli europei nel lino, e nella canapa. maceravano in acqua le foglie, e poi le nettavano, le mettevano al sole, e le ammaccavano, finattantochè le mettevano in istato di poterle filare.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . ycçotl, palma montana. 'non videtur filendum, è folijs huius arboris fila parari, linteis, storisq. intexendis perquam accommoda, politiora, firmioraq. eis quæ ex metl passim fieri consueuere, madentibus in primis aqua, mox protritis, ac lotis, iterumq. et iterum maceratis, et insolatis, donec apta reddantur, vt neri possint, et in usus accommodari materies est leuis, aclenta.' _hernandez_, _nova plant._, p. . [ ] '_maxtles_, c'est ainsi qu'on nomme en langue mexicaine des espèces _d'almaysales_ qui sont longues de quatre brasses, larges d'une palme et demie et terminées par des broderies de diverses couleurs, qui ont plus d'une palme et demie de haut.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'cuoprono le loro parti vergogno se cosi di dietro come dinanzi, con certi sciugatoi molto galanti, che sono come gran fazzuoli che si legano il capo per viaggio, di diuersi colori, e orlati di varie foggie, e di colori similmente diuersi, con i suoi fiocchi, che nel cingersegli, viene l'un capo dauanti e l'altro di dietro.' _relatione fatta par vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . in meztitlan, 'les uns et les autres couvraient leur nudités d'une longue bande d'étoffe, semblable à un almaizar, qui leur faisait plusieurs fois le tour du corps et passait ensuite entre les jambes, les extrémités retombant par-devant jusqu'aux genoux.' _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . 'los vestidos que traen (totonacs) es como de almaizales muy pintados, y los hombres traen tapadas sus verguenzas.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . in oajaca, 'maxtles conque se cubrian sus vergüenzas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , , . the miztecs 'por çaraguelles trahian matzles; que los castellanos dizen mastiles.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'il tilmatli era un mantello quadro, lungo quattro piedi in circa; due estremità d'esso annodavano sul petto, o sopra una spalla.... gli uomini solevano portar due, o tre mantelli.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , and plate, p. . 'i vestimenti loro son certi manti di bambagia come lenzuola, ma non cosi grande, lauoratori di gentili lauori di diuerse maniere, e con le lor franze e orletti, e di questi ciascun n 'ha duoi ò tre e se gli liga per dauanti al petto.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'todos traen albornoces encima de la otra ropa, aunque son diferenciados de los de africa, porque tienen maneras; pero en la hechura y tela y los rapacejos son muy semejables.' _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , . 'leur vêtement consistait anciennement dans deux ou trois manteaux d'une vare et demi en carré, noués, par en haut, le noeud se mettant pour les uns sur la poitrine, pour les autres à l'épaule gauche, et souvent par derrière.' _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - . 'ningun plebeyo vestia de algodon, con franja, ni guarnicion, ni ropa rozagante, sino senzilla, llana, corta, y sin ribete, y assi era conocido cada vno en el trage.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . 'otras hacian de pelo de conejo, entretexido de hilo de algodon ... con que se defendian del frio.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . the totonacs; 'algunos con ropas de algodon, ricas a su costumbre. los otros casi desnudos.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . huastecs 'andan bien vestidos: y sus ropas y mantas son muy pulidas y curiosas con lindas labores, porque en su tierra hacen las mantas que llaman _centzontilmatli, cenzonquaehtli_, que quiere dezir, mantas _de mil colores_: de allá se traen las mantas que tienen unas cabezas de monstruos pintadas, y las de remolinos de agua engeridas unas con otras, en las cuales y en otras muchas, se esmeraban las tejedoras.' _id._, p. . 'una manta cuadrada anudada sobre el pecho, hácia el hombro siniestro, que descendia hasta los tobillos; pero en tiempo de invierno cubrian mas el cuerpo con un sayo cerrado sin mangas, y con una sola abertura en la sumida para entrar la cabeza, y dos á los lados para los brazos, y con él se cubrian hasta los muslos.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'vestíanse, unas túnicas largas de pellejos curtidos hasta los carcañales, abiertas por delante y atadas con unas á manera de agugetas, y sus manos que llegaban hasta las muñecas, y las manos.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. - ; _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix. [ ] 'el trage de ellos era de diversas maneras, unos traían mantas, otros como unas xaquetillas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'era mas vestida que estotra que habemos visto.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . 'la mayor parte andauan en cueros.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiv. the miztecs 'vestian mantas blancas de algodon, texidas, pintadas, y matizadas con flores, rosas, y aves de diferentes colores: no trahian camisas.' _id._, cap. xii. [ ] 'andan casi desnudos.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'traen camisas de medias mangas.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . in jalisco they had 'vn huipilillo corto, que llaman ixquemitl, ò teapxoloton.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'una sopravvesta ... con maniche più lunghe.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. , tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . in michoacan 'no traían vipiles.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii.; _id._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix., xii.; _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'aveano a disonore l'esser tosati.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . 'ni bien baruados, porque se arrancan y vntan los pelos para que no nazcan.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . the mistecs 'las barbas se arrancauan con tenazillas de oro.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'hazen lo negro con tierra por gentileza y porque les mate los piojos. las casadas se lo rodean a la cabeça con vn ñudo a la frente. las virgines y por casar, lo traen suelto, y echado atras y adelante. pelan se y vntan se todas para no tener pelo sino en la cabeça y cejas, y assi tienen por hermosura tener chica frente, y llena de cabello, y no tener colodrillo.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - , tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , , tom. xi., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . the chichimecs wore it, 'largo hasta las espaldas, y por delante se lo cortan.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . [ ] 'llámase tambien quaochpanme, que quiere decir hombres de cabeza rapada ó raida, porque antiguamente estos tales no traían cabellos largos, antes se rapaban la cabeza así los hombres, como las mugeres.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiv. [ ] 'se raiaban las caras.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . [ ] _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxvi. [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii.; clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , describes the ornaments, but in his accompanying plate fails to show any of them. _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. pp. - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'de barro cocido bien bruñidas, ó de caña.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . [ ] _id._, p. . the totonacs 'traian vnos grandes agujeros en los beços de abaxo, y en ellos vnas rodajas de piedras pintadillas de azul, y otros con vnas hojas de oro delgadas, y en las orejas muy grandes agujeros, y en ellos puestas otras rodajas de oro, y piedras.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. vii. [ ] the miztecs 'traen imán, axorcas muy anchas de oro, y sartales de piedra á las muñecas, y joyeles de éstas y de oro al cuello.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'ninguna persona (aunque fuesen sus propios hijos) podia vestirlo, so pena de la vida.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxvi. [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . [ ] 'tan delgadas y bien texidas que necesitaban del tacto para diferenciarse de la seda.' _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp - . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'para salir de palacio los reies à visitar los templos, se vestian de blanco; pero para entrar en los consejos, y asistir en otros actos publicos, se vestian de diferentes colores, conforme la ocasion.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'les rois s'habillaient tantôt de blanc, tantôt d'étoffes d'un jaune obscur ornées de franges de mille couleurs.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iv., pp. - . 'mantas de á dos haces, labradas de plumas de papos de aves, tan suaves, que trayendo la mano por encima á pelo y á pospelo, no era mas que una marta cebellina muy bien adobada: hice pesar una dellas, no pesó mas de seis onzas.' _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'vestidos de pelo de conejo y de algodon de mucha curiosidad, y estas eran vestiduras de caciques y de gente muy principal' in michoacan. _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , ; _id._, _relaciones_, in _id._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . description of montezuma's dress when meeting cortés, in _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iii., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . representations of the dresses of the mexican kings and nobles are also in the _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i. [ ] 'traia calçados vnos como cotaras, que assi se dize lo que se calçan, las suelas de oro, y muy preciada pedreria encima en ellas.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'portoit une chaussure de peau de chevreuil.' _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xxiv., p. . 'Çapatos de oro, que ellos llaman zagles, y son a la manera antigua de los romanos, tenian gran pedreria de mucho valor, las suelas estauan prendidas con correas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. v. 'cotaras de cuero de tigres.' _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. - , . [ ] 'la corona de rey, que tiene semejança a la corona de la señoria de venecia.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . 'unas tiaras de oro y pedrería.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'en la cabeça vnos plumajes ricos, que ataban tantos cabellos de la corona, quanto toma el espacio de la corona clerical: estos plumajes prendian y ataban con vna correa colorada, y de ella colgaban con sus pinjantes de oro, que pendian à manera de chias de mitra de obispo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'era di varie materie giusta il piacere dei re, or di lame sottili d'oro or tessuta di filo d'oro, e figurata con vaghe penne.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , tom. iii., p. . 'before like a myter, and behinde it was cut, so as it was not round, for the forepart was higher, and did rise like a point.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, tom. iv., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. vii., lib. ii., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _id._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. . further mention of ornaments in the enumeration of presents given by montezuma to cortés in _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iii., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. v.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , , , , ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - , ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. , , , - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . among the modern authors who have written upon the subject of dress may be mentioned: _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , tom. ii., pp. , - , with numerous cuts; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. - ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , , , ; _monglave_, _résumé_, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. , ; _baril_, _mexique_, p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. . chapter xii. commerce of the nahua nations. the main features of nahua commerce--commerce in pre-aztec times--outrages committed by aztec merchants--privileges of the merchants of tlatelulco--jealousy between merchants and nobles--articles used as currency--the markets of anÁhuac--arrangement and regulations of the market-places--number of buyers and sellers--transportation of wares--traveling merchants--commercial routes--setting out on a journey--caravans of traders--the return--customs and feasts of the merchants--nahua boats and navigation. [sidenote: commerce in pre-aztec times.] traditional history tells us but little respecting american commerce previous to the formation of the great aztec alliance, or empire, but the faint light thrown on the subject would indicate little or no change in the system within the limits of nahua history. the main features of the commercial system in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were: markets in one or more of the public squares of every town, where eatables and other articles of immediate necessity were daily sold--shops proper being unknown; frequently recurring fairs in each of the large towns, where the products of agriculture, manufacture, and art in the surrounding country were displayed before consumers and merchants from home and from abroad; similar fairs but on a grander scale in the great commercial centres, where home products were exchanged for foreign merchandise, or sold for export to merchants from distant nations who attended these fairs in large numbers; itinerant traders continually traversing the country in companies, or caravans; and the existence of a separate class exclusively devoted to commerce. from the earliest times the two southern anáhuacs of ayotlan and xicalanco, corresponding to what are now the southern coast of oajaca and the tierra caliente of tabasco and southern vera cruz, were inhabited by commercial peoples, and were noted for their fairs and the rich wares therein exposed for sale. these nations, the xicalancas, mijes, huaves, and zapotecs even engaged to some extent in a maritime coasting trade, mostly confined, however, as it would appear, to the coasts of their own territories and those immediately adjacent; and in this branch of commerce little or no advance had been made at the time when the spaniards came.[ ] the toltecs are reported to have excelled in commerce as in all other respects, and the markets of tollan and cholula are pictured in glowing colors; but all traditions on this subject are exceedingly vague.[ ] in the new era of prosperity that followed the toltec disasters cholula seems to have held the first place as a commercial centre, her fairs were the most famous, and her merchants controlled the trade of the southern coasts on either ocean. after the coming of the teo-chichimec hordes to the eastern plateau, tlascala became in her turn the commercial metropolis of the north, a position which she retained until forced to yield it to the merchants of the mexican valley, who were supported by the warlike hordes of the aztec confederacy. before the aztec supremacy, trade seems to have been conducted with some show of fairness, and commerce and politics were kept to a great extent separate. but the aztecs introduced a new order of things. their merchants, instead of peaceful, industrious, unassuming travelers, became insolent and overbearing, meddling without scruple in the public affairs of the nations through whose territory they had to pass, and trusting to the dread of the armies of mexico for their own safety; caravans became little less than armed bodies of robbers. the confederate kings were ever ready to extend by war the field of their commerce, and to avenge by the hands of their warriors any insult, real or imaginary, offered to their merchants. the traveling bands of traders were instructed to prepare maps of countries traversed, to observe carefully their condition for defence, and their resources. if any province was reported rich and desirable, its people were easily aggravated to commit some act of insolence which served as a pretext to lay waste their lands, and make them tributary to the kings of anáhuac. within the provinces that were permanently and submissively tributary to mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan, traffic may be supposed to have been as a rule fairly conducted. the merchants had in turn to pay into the royal treasury a large percentage of their gains, but this, under the circumstances, they could well afford. tlatelulco while an independent city was noted for her commerce, as was tenochtitlan for the prowess of her warriors, and when mercantile enterprise was forced to yield to the power of arms, tlatelulco, as a part of mexico, retained her former preëminence in trade, and became the commercial centre of anáhuac. her merchants, who were a separate class of the population, were highly honored, and, so far as the higher grades were concerned, the merchant princes, the _pochtecas_, dwellers in the aristocratic quarter of pochtlan, had privileges fully equal to those of the nobles. they had tribunals of their own, to which alone they were responsible, for the regulation of all matters of trade. they formed indeed, to all intents and purposes, a commercial corporation controlling the whole trade of the country, of which all the leading merchants of other cities were in a sense subordinate members. jealousy between this honored class of merchants and the nobility proper, brought about the many complications during the last years of the aztec empire, to which i have referred in a preceding chapter. throughout the nahua dominion commerce was in the hands of a distinct class, educated for their calling, and everywhere honored both by people and by kings; in many regions the highest nobles thought it no disgrace to engage in commercial pursuits. [sidenote: the tlatelulcan company.] besides the pochtecas, two other classes of merchants are mentioned in tlatelulco, the _nahualoztomecas_, those who made a specialty of visiting the lands of enemies in disguise, and the _teyaohualohuani_ or traders in slaves.[ ] the merchants were exempt from military and other public service, and had the right not only to make laws for the regulation of trade, but to punish even those who were not of their class for offenses against such laws. sahagun gives an account of the gradual development and history of the tlatelulcan company, stating the names of the leading merchants under the successive kings, with details respecting the various articles dealt in at different periods, all of which is not deemed of sufficient interest to be reproduced in these pages. nahua trade was as a rule carried on by means of barter, one article of merchandise being exchanged for another of equivalent value. still, regular purchase and sale were not uncommon, particularly in the business of retailing the various commodities to consumers. although no regular coined money was used, yet several more or less convenient substitutes furnished a medium of circulation. chief among these were nibs, or grains, of the cacao, of a species somewhat different from that employed in making the favorite drink, chocolate. this money, known as _patlachté_, passed current anywhere, and payments of it were made by count up to eight thousand, which constituted a _xiquipilli_. in large transactions sacks containing three xiquipilli were used to save labor in counting. _patolquachtli_ were small pieces of cotton cloth used as money in the purchase of articles of immediate necessity or of little value. another circulating medium was gold-dust kept in translucent quills, that the quantity might be readily seen. copper was also cut into small pieces shaped like a t, which constituted perhaps the nearest approach to coined money. cortés, in search of materials for the manufacture of artillery, found that in several provinces pieces of tin circulated as money, and that a mine of that metal was worked in taxco. sahagun says the mexican king gave to the merchant-soldiers, dispatched on one of their politico-commercial expeditions, sixteen hundred _quauhtli_, or eagles, to trade with. bustamante, sahagun's editor, supposes these to have been the copper pieces already mentioned, but brasseur believes, from the small value of the copper and the large amount of rich fabrics purchased with the eagles, that they were of gold. the same authority believes that the golden quoits with which montezuma paid his losses at gambling also served as money.[ ] [sidenote: the markets of anÁhuac.] the nahuas bought and sold their merchandise by count and by measures both of length and capacity, but not by weight; at least, such is the general opinion of the authorities. sahagun, however, says of the skillful merchant that he knows "the value of gold and silver, according to the weight and fineness, is diligent and solicitous in his duty, and defrauds not in weighing, but rather gives overweight," and this too in the "time of their infidelity." native words also appear in several vocabularies for weights and scales. brasseur de bourbourg regards this as ample proof that scales were used. clavigero thinks weights may have been employed and mention of the fact omitted in the narratives.[ ] the market, _tianquiztli_, of tlatelulco was the grandest in the country and may be taken as a representative of all. its grandeur consisted, however, in the abundance and variety of the merchandise offered for sale and in the crowd of buyers and sellers, not in the magnificence of the buildings connected with it; for the market-place was simply an open plaza, surrounded as all the authorities say with 'porticoes' where merchandise was exhibited. what these porticoes were we are left to conjecture. probably they were nothing more than simple booths arranged in streets and covering the whole plaza, where merchants and their wares were sheltered from the rays of a tropical sun. whatever may have been the nature and arrangement of these shelters, we know that the space was systematically apportioned among the different industries represented. fishermen, hunters, farmers, and artists, each had their allotted space for the transaction of business. hither, as torquemada tells us, came the potters and jewelers from cholula, the workers in gold from azcapuzalco, the painters from tezcuco, the shoe-makers from tenayocan, the huntsmen from xilotepec, the fishermen from cuitlahuac, the fruit-growers of the tierra caliente, the mat-makers of quauhtitlan, the flower-dealers of xochimilco, and yet so great was the market that to each of these was afforded an opportunity to display his wares. all kinds of food, animal and vegetable, cooked and uncooked, were arranged in the most attractive manner; eating-houses were also attached to the tianquiztli and much patronized by the poorer classes. here were to be found all the native cloths and fabrics, in the piece and made up into garments coarse and fine, plain and elaborately embroidered, to suit the taste and means of purchasers; precious stones, and ornaments of metal, feathers, or shells; implements and weapons of metal, stone, and wood; building material, lime, stone, wood, and brick; articles of household furniture; matting of various degrees of fineness; medicinal herbs and prepared medicines; wood and coal; incense and censers; cotton and cochineal; tanned skins; numerous beverages; and an infinite variety of pottery; but to enumerate all the articles noticed in the market-place by the conquerors would make a very long list, and would involve, beside, the repetition of many names which have been or will be mentioned elsewhere. cortés speaks of this market as being twice as large as that of salamanca, and all the conquistadores are enthusiastic in their expressions of wonder not only at the variety of products offered for sale, but at the perfect order and system which prevailed, notwithstanding the crowd of buyers and sellers. the judges of the commercial tribunal, twelve in number according to torquemada, four, according to zuazo, held their court in connection with the market buildings, where they regulated prices and measures, and settled disputes. watchmen acting under their authority, constantly patrolled the tianquiztli to prevent disorder. any attempt at extortionate charges, or at passing off injured or inferior goods, or any infringement on another's rights was immediately reported and severely punished. the judges had even the right to enforce the death penalty. other markets in the nahua regions were on a similar plan, those of tlascala and tezcuco coming next to that of tlatelulco in importance.[ ] [sidenote: buyers and sellers.] trade was carried on daily in the tianquiztli, chiefly for the convenience of the inhabitants of the city, but every fifth day was set apart as a special market-day, on which a fair was held, crowded not only by local customers, but by buyers and sellers from all the country round, and from foreign lands. in tlatelulco these special market-days were those that fell under the signs calli, tochtli, acatl, and tecpatl. in other large cities, days with other signs were chosen, in order that the fairs might not occur on the same day in neighboring towns. las casas says that each of the two market-places in the city of mexico would contain , persons, , being present each fifth day; and cortés tells us that more than , persons assembled daily in the tlatelulco market. according to the same authority , was the number of daily visitors to the market of tlascala. perhaps, however, he refers to the fair-days, on which occasion at tlatelulco, the anonymous conqueror puts the number at , , limiting the daily concourse to about , .[ ] considering the population of the cities and surrounding country, together with the limited facilities for transportation, these accounts of the daily attendance at the markets, as also of the abundance and variety of the merchandise, need not be regarded as exaggerations. on the lakes about the city of mexico merchandise of all kinds was transported to and from the markets by boats, , of which, as zuazo tells us, were employed daily in bringing provisions to the city.[ ] the heavier or more bulky articles of trade, such as building material, were often offered for sale in the boats to save the labor of repeated handling. boats were also used for transportation on the southern coasts, to some extent on navigable rivers, and also by traveling merchants in crossing such streams as could not conveniently be bridged. the only other means of transportation known in the country was that afforded by the carriers. large numbers of these carriers, or porters, were in attendance at the markets to move goods to and from the boats, or to carry parcels to the houses of consumers. for transportation from town to town, or to distant lands, merchandise was packed in bales, wrapped in skins and mats, or in bamboo cases covered with skin, known as _petlacalli_. cases, or cages, for the transportation of the more fragile wares were called _cacaxtli_. the _tlamama_, or regular carriers, were trained to their work of carrying burdens from childhood, seventy or eighty pounds was the usual burden carried, placed on the back and supported by the _mecapalli_, a strap passing round the forehead; twelve or fifteen miles was the ordinary day's journey. the tlamama, clad in a maxtli, carried on long trips, besides his bale of merchandise, a sort of palm-leaf umbrella, a bag of provisions, and a blanket. [sidenote: traveling merchants.] expeditions to distant provinces were undertaken by the company of tlatelulco for purposes of commercial gain; or by order of the king, when political gains were the object in view, and the traders in reality armed soldiers; or more rarely by individual merchants on their own private account. for protection large numbers usually traveled in company, choosing some one of the company to act as leader. previous to departure they gave a banquet to the old merchants of the town, who by reason of their age had ceased to travel; at this feast they made known their plans, and spoke of the places they intended to visit and roads by which they would travel. the old merchants applauded the spirit and enterprise of those who were going on the expedition, and, if they were young and inexperienced, encouraged them and spoke of the fame they would gain for having left their homes to undertake a dangerous journey and suffer privations and hardships. they reminded them of the wealth and honored name acquired by their fathers in similar expeditions, and gave them advice as to the best manner of conducting themselves on the road.[ ] on the route the carriers marched in single file, and at every camping-place the strictest watch was kept against enemies, and especially against robbers, who then as now infested the dangerous passes to lie in wait for the richly laden caravans. rulers of the different friendly provinces, mindful of the benefits resulting from such expeditions, constructed roads and kept them in repair; furnished bridges or boats for crossing unfordable streams; and at certain points, remote from towns, placed houses for the travelers' accommodation. expeditions in hostile provinces were undertaken by the nahualoztomecas, who disguised themselves in the dress of the province visited, and endeavored to imitate the manners and to speak the language of its people, with which it was a qualification of their profession to make themselves acquainted. extraordinary pains was taken to guard against robbers on the return to mexico, and it is also said to have been customary for the merchants on nearing the city, to dress in rags, affecting poverty, and an unsuccessful trip. the motive for this latter proceeding is not very apparent, nor for the invariable introduction of goods into the city by night; they had not even the hope of evading the payment of taxes which in later times prompts men to similar conduct, since merchandise could only be sold in the public market, where it could not be offered without paying the royal percentage of duties. the usual route of commercial expeditions was south-eastward to tochtepec near the banks of the rio alvarado, whence the caravans took separate roads according as their destination was the coast region of goazacoalco, the miztec and zapotec towns on the pacific, or the still more distant regions across the isthmus of tehuantepec. the southern limit reached by the traders of the aztec empire, it is impossible accurately to determine. the merchants of xicalanco furnished cortés, when about to undertake the conquest of honduras, tolerably correct maps of the whole region as far south as the isthmus of panamá;[ ] the raiders from anáhuac are known to have penetrated to chiapa, soconusco, and guatemala; it is by no means improbable that her merchants reached on more than one occasion the isthmus.[ ] the preceding pages contain all that has been preserved concerning nahua trade and traders except what may be termed the mythology of commerce, a branch of the subject not without importance, embracing the ceremonies, sacrifices, and superstitions connected with the setting-out, journey, and return of the tlatelulcan caravans. commerce, like every other feature of nahua civilization, was under the care of a special deity, and no merchant dared to set out on an expedition in quest of gain, without fully complying with all the requirements of the god as interpreted by the priesthood. the particular divinity of the traders was iyacatecutli, or iyacacoliuhqui, 'lord with the aquiline nose'--that nasal type being, as the abbé brasseur thinks, symbolic of mercantile cunning and skill. services in his honor were held regularly in the month of tlaxochimaco; but the ceremonies performed by traveling merchants, seem to have been mostly devoted to the god of fire and the god of the roads. [sidenote: setting-out of the merchants.] first a day was selected for the start whose sign was deemed favorable--ce cohuatl, 'one serpent,' was a favorite. the day before they departed the hair was cropped close, and the head soaped; during all their absence, even should it last for years, these operations must not be repeated, nor might they wash more than the neck, face, and hands, bathing the body being strictly prohibited. at midnight they cut flag-shaped papers for xiuhtecutli, the god of fire, fastened them to sticks painted with vermilion, and marked on them the face of the god with drops of melted _ulli_, or india-rubber. other papers also marked with ulli, were cut in honor of tlaltecutli, to be worn on the breast. others, for the god of the merchants, were used to cover a bamboo stick, which they worshiped and carried with them. the gods of the roads, zacatzontli and tlacotzontli, also had their papers ornamented with ulli-drops and painted butterflies; while the papers for cecoatlutlimelaoatl, one of the signs of the divining art, were decorated with snake-like figures. when all the papers were ready, those of the fire-god were placed before the fire in the house, the others being arranged in systematic order in the courtyard. then the merchants, standing before the fire, offered to it some quails which they first beheaded, and forthwith, drawing blood from their own ears and tongue, they repeated some mystic word and sprinkled the blood four times on the fire. blood was then sprinkled in turn on the papers in the house, towards the heavens and cardinal points, and finally on the papers in the courtyard. the fire-god's papers, after a few appropriate words to the deity, were burned in a brazier with pure white copal. if they burned with a clear flame, it was a good omen; otherwise ill fortune and disaster were betokened. the papers left outside were burned together--save those of the merchants' god--in a fire which was kindled in the court, and the ashes were carefully buried there. all this at midnight. at early dawn the principal merchants of the city or of the neighborhood, or simply friends and relatives of the party about to set out on the journey, according to the wealth of the party, with youths and old women, were invited to assemble and, after a washing of mouths and hands, to partake of food. after the repast, concluded by another washing and by smoking of pipes and drinking of chocolate, the host spoke a few words of welcome to the guests, and explained his plans. to this some one of the chief merchants briefly responded with wishes for the success of the expedition, advice respecting the route to be followed and behavior while abroad, applause for the spirit and enterprise shown, and words of encouragement to those about to undertake their first commercial journey, picturing to them in vivid colors both the hardships and the honors that were before them. then the merchandise and provisions for the trip were made ready in bales and placed in the canoes, if the start was to be made by water, under the direction of the leader who, after attending to this matter, made a farewell address of thanks for advice and good wishes, recommending to the care of those that remained behind their wives and children. the friends again replied briefly and all was ready for the departure. a fire was built in the courtyard and a vase of copal was placed near it. as a final parting ceremony each of the departing merchants took a portion of the copal and threw it on the fire, stepping at once toward his canoe. not another word of farewell must be spoken, nor a parting glance be directed backward to friends behind. to look back or speak would be a most unpropitious augury. [sidenote: caravans of traders.] thus they set out, generally at night, as sahagun implies. on the journey each merchant carried continually in his hand a smooth black stick representing his god iyacatecutli--probably the same sticks that have been mentioned as being covered with papers in honor of this god the night before the departure from home. when they halted for the night the sticks of the company were bound together in a bundle, forming a kind of combination divinity to whose protecting care the encampment was piously entrusted. to this god offerings of ulli and paper were made by the leaders, and to the gods of the roads as well. blood must also be drawn and mingled with the offering, else it were of no avail; and, a most inconvenient rule for poor weak humanity, the sacrificial offering had to be repeated twice again each night, so that one or another of the chiefs must be continually on the watch. the caravans, when their destination was a friendly province, usually bore some presents from the sovereigns of mexico as tokens of their good will, and they were received by the authorities of such provinces with some public ceremonies not definitely described. when the merchants returned home, after consultation with a _tonalpouhqui_, they awaited a favorable sign, such as ce calli, or chicome calli, 'one, or seven house,' and then entered the city under shade of night. they repaired immediately to the house of the leading merchant of the corporation, or to that of the merchant under whose direction their trip had been made, formally announcing their safe arrival, and also their intention to invite all the merchants on the following day to partake of "a little chocolate in their poor house," that is, to be present at a most sumptuous banquet. papers were then cut and at midnight offered with ulli, much after the manner already described, to the gods as a thank-offering for their protection. the feast that took place next day, when all the guests were assembled, was accompanied by additional offerings to the gods of fire and trade, and, of course, by speeches of the returned travelers and their guests, but presented no particularly noticeable contrasts with the many feasts that have been described. not only was the traveler obliged, according to the nahua superstition, to abstain from baths during his absence, but even his family during the same period, while allowed to bathe the body, must not wash the head or face oftener than once in eighty days; thus were the gods propitiated to watch kindly over their absent relative wandering in distant lands. if a merchant died while on a journey, his body, at least if he belonged to the highest rank, was neither buried nor burned, but, clad in fine apparel, and decorated with certain mystical papers and painted devices, it was put in a wooden cage, or cacaxtli, and secured to a tree on the top of a high mountain. advice of the death was forwarded to the old merchants, who in turn informed the family of the deceased, and regular funeral ceremonies were performed either immediately or on the return of the caravan. if the deceased met his death at the hands of an enemy, a wooden image was prepared, dressed in the clothing of the dead merchant, and made the subject of the usual funeral rites. [sidenote: feasts of the merchants.] besides the regular feasts attending the departure and return of caravans, many others took place under the auspices of the mercantile class. we have noticed the fondness of the nahua people for entertainments of this kind, and it is natural that the merchants, as the richest class in the community, should have been foremost in contributing to this popular taste. each merchant, when he had acquired great wealth by good fortune in his trading ventures, deemed it, as sahagun tells us, a most disgraceful thing "to die without having made some splendid expenditure" by entertaining his friends and fellow-merchants in a banquet, which should be remembered as _the_ event of his career. a long time was devoted to making ready for the feast, to the purchase of provisions and decorations, and to engaging dancers and singers, that no item might be neglected, nor any oversight be allowed to mar the perfect enjoyment of the invited guests. all being ready, a propitious sign was selected, and invitations issued. the object of the display of hospitality being not only the entertainment of friends, but a thanksgiving to the gods for favors shown to the host, the first ceremonies were naturally in honor of the deities. these began in the night preceding the feast-day, with offerings of flowers in the shrine of huitzilopochtli, in the chapels of other gods, and finally in the courtyard of the host, where were placed drums and two plates, on which perfumed canes were burning. those officiating whistled in a peculiar manner, and all, stooping, put some earth in their mouth, crying "our lord has sounded." then all burned perfumed copal, and a priest beheaded a quail before the drum, throwing it on the ground and watching in what direction it might flutter. if northward, it was a bad omen, foretelling sickness, or perhaps death. but the west and south were fortunate directions, indicating a peaceful and friendly disposition on the part of the gods. incense was burned toward the cardinal points, the burning coals were thrown from the censer into the fire, and then the performers engaged for the _areito_, including, it would seem, soldiers of several classes, led by the _tlacatecatl_, began to dance and sing. neither the host nor merchant guests joined in the dance, but remained in the house to receive the company and present them with bouquets of flowers. at midnight ulli-marked paper was offered to the gods, and its ashes buried to promote the prosperity of future generations. before the light of day chocolate was drunk and the _nanacatl_, or intoxicating mushroom, was eaten, which caused some to dance, others to sing, and yet others to sit pensive in their rooms dreaming dreams and seeing visions of horrid import, whose narration at a later hour, when the effects of the drug had passed away, formed a prominent feature of the entertainment. at the appearance of the morning star all the ashes of the sacrifices, the flowers, the burning canes, and all the implements used in the foregoing ceremonies, were buried, that they might not be seen by any visitor polluted by any kind of vice or uncleanness. the rising sun was greeted with songs, dancing, and beating of the teponaztli. the day was passed in feasting and music, and at the close of the day's banquet food was distributed to the common people. the banquet was often continued more than one day, and if after the first day's feast the provision of food was exhausted, it was regarded by the guests as a bad sign--a very sensible superstition truly. [sidenote: sacrifice of slaves.] there was another merchant's feast in the month of panquetzaliztli, in which a number of slaves were killed and eaten. the victims were purchased sometime beforehand at the slave mart in azcapuzalco, kept clean,--being therefore called _tlaaltilzin_, 'washed'--and fattened for the occasion. the male slaves meantime had no work but to dance daily on the housetop, but the women had to spin. the articles collected for this feast embraced large numbers of rich mantles, maxtlis, and huipiles, which were to be presented to guests. not only the residents of mexico were invited but members of the tlatelulcan company who lived in other towns. the giver of the feast went personally to many towns, especially to tochtepec, to issue invitations and distribute gifts. on his arrival he went first to the shrine of iyacatecutli, before whose image he performed certain ceremonies and left some offerings. then he went to the house of the tlatelulcan company, prepared a feast and summoned the rich traders, who came at midnight. washing of the hands and mouth preceded and followed the eating, presents were made, chocolate drunk, pipes smoked, quails offered in the courtyard, and incense burned. one of the best speakers then announced the purpose of their visitor to kill a few slaves in honor of huitzilopochtli, and in his name invited the company to be present at the pleasing spectacle, and partake of the human flesh and other choice viands. another speaker responded in a speech of acceptance, and the feast-giver directed his steps homeward to mexico. after resting awhile the merchant ceremonially invited those of his own city to be present at the feast, and the latter, after many precautions, including an inspection by the older merchants to satisfy themselves that food enough had been provided and that the affair could not be a failure, deigned to accept, although they warned the would-be host of the fearful responsibility he would incur should the feast be in any respect improperly managed, through his unwillingness to spend money enough. ce calli, ome xochitl, and ome ozomatli, were good signs for this feast. on the first day the male slaves, richly attired and decorated, were made to dance and perform the areito, carrying garlands of flowers and also pipes from which they were continually puffing smoke. the females, in equally rich attire were stationed with plenty of food in one of the rooms where all could readily see them. the eating, drinking, and distribution of gifts were kept up all night. the following day's feast was a repetition of the first, and was called _tlaixnexia_; that of the third day was called _tetevaltia_, and on this day they made many changes in the dress of the slaves, putting on wigs of many-colored feathers, painted ear-flaps, stone nose-ornaments like butterflies, jackets with fringed borders and death's heads for decoration, hawks' wings, _tlomaitl_, on the shoulders, rings, _matacaxtli_, on the arms, stained sandals, and girdles called _xiuhtlalpilli_. from this time forward strict guard was kept over them day and night until their death. on yet a fourth occasion, apparently some days, or perhaps weeks, later, the merchant assembled his guests, and then just before sunset the victims were made drunk with _teuvetli_, and carried to huitzilopochtli's temple, where they were made to dance and sing, and kept awake all night. at midnight they were placed on a mat before the fire, and the master of the banquet, dressed much like the slaves themselves, put out the fire, and in the darkness gave to each four mouthfuls of a dough moistened with honey, called _tzoalli_. then a man dancing before them played upon an instrument called _chichtli_, hairs were pulled out of the top of each slave's head and put in a plate, _quacaxitl_, held by the dancer, and the master threw incense toward the east, west, north, and south. the slaves were offered food, but could not be induced to eat, expecting each moment the messenger of death. they were first taken to the ward of coatlan, and in the courtyard of the temple of huitzcalco were forced to fight against certain persons, the most valiant of whom were called _tlaamaviques_. if by force of arms these persons captured any of the slaves, they were entitled to receive their full value from the owner, or in default of such payment to take the bodies after the sacrifice and eat the same. after the contest the victims were sacrificed on the shrine of huitzilopochtli, the complicated details of the ceremonies which followed differing only very slightly from those of similar sacrifices already several times described. the bodies were thrown down the steps as usual, carried home by the owner, cooked with maize, seasoned with salt without chile, and were finally eaten by the guests. with this horrible repast the great feast of the month of panquetzaliztli ended; but he who had given it carefully preserved the clothing, and other relics of the slaughtered slaves, guarding them in a basket as most precious and pleasant souvenirs all the days of his life; and after his death the basket and its contents were burned at his obsequies. acosta tells us that in cholula the merchants, especially those that dealt in slaves, furnished each year a slave of fine physique to represent their god quetzalcoatl, in whose honor he was sacrificed, with appropriate and complicated ceremonies, his flesh being afterwards eaten in a banquet.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: boats and navigation.] the little to be said of nahua watercraft may be as appropriately inserted here as elsewhere. i have already referred to the important use made of canoes in the transportation of merchandise upon the lakes of anáhuac. in the art of navigation, however, no progress was made by the nahuas at all in proportion to their advancement in other respects. as navigators they were altogether inferior to their savage brethren of the columbian and hyperborean groups on the north-west coasts, whose skill in the manufacture and management of boats has been described in a preceding volume of this work. the reason is obvious: their progress in agriculture enabled them to obtain a food supply without risking their lives habitually on the sea; their sunny clime obviated the necessity of whale-blubber and seal-skins. in the earlier stages of civilization men make progress only when impelled by some actual necessity; consequently among the nahuas, when means were supplied of crossing streams, and of transporting goods on the lakes and for short distances along the coast at the mouth of large rivers, progress in this direction ceased. clavigero's investigations led him to believe that the use of sails was unknown, and although brasseur de bourbourg in one place speaks of such aids to navigation, yet he gives no authority for his statement.[ ] rafts and 'dug-out' canoes were the vessels employed; the former were used for the most part in crossing streams and were of various material and construction. those of the ruder kind were simply a number of poles tied together with strings.[ ] those called by the spaniards _balsas_ were of superior construction, made of _otlatl_ reeds, or _tules_, and rushes of different kinds in bundles. the best balsas were about five feet square, made of bamboos and supported by hollow gourds closed by a water and air tight covering. the rafts were propelled by swimmers, one in front and another behind.[ ] the canoes--_acalli_, 'water-houses' among the aztecs, called also _tahucup_ in tabasco--were hollowed out from the trunk of a single tree, were generally flat-bottomed and without keel, somewhat narrower at the bow than at the stern as las casas says, and would carry from two to sixty persons. as to the instruments employed in hollowing out and finishing the acalli we have no information, neither do we know whether fire was one of the agents made use of.[ ] [sidenote: boats used in war.] the use of boats was not altogether confined to traffic, but extended to war and the transportation of troops. fierce conflicts on the waters of the lakes are recorded in the ancient annals of anáhuac; canoe fleets of armed natives came out to meet the spaniards at various points along the coast; and we read of the vain efforts to defend the approaches to the aztec capital, by thousands of boats which could offer little resistance to the advance of cortés' brigantines.[ ] these fleets, so inefficient against spanish vessels and arms, must have been of great service to the aztecs in maintaining their domination over the many towns on the lake shores. to increase the efficiency of boats and boatmen, races and sham fights were established, which, besides affording useful training to paddlers and warriors, furnished an additional means of entertainment to the people who gathered in crowds to watch the struggles of the competitors, applaud the ducking of each vanquished boat's crew, and to reward the victors with honors and prizes.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'teyaoyaualoani, el que cerca a los enemigos.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. [ ] the toltecs 'usaban de una cierta moneda de cobre de largo de dos dedos y de ancho uno á manera de achitas pequeñas, y de grueso, como un real de á ocho. esta moneda no ha mucho tiempo que la han dejado los de tutupec del mar del sur.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'no saben que cosas es moneda batida de metal ninguno.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , . the cacao nibs 'val ciascuno come vn mezzo marchetto (about three cents) fra noi.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . see _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _id._, _quatre lettres_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . salt used as money. _chaves_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . i omit a long list of references to authors who merely mention cacao and the other articles as used for money. [ ] 'no tenian peso (que yo sepa) los mexicanos, falta grandissima para la contratacion. quien dize que no lo vsauan por escusar los engaños, quien por que no lo auian menester, quien por ignorancia, que es lo cierto. por donde parece que no auian oido como hizo dios todos las cosas en cuento, peso, y medida.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] on the nahua markets and the articles offered for sale, see: _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - , tom. ix., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxx.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. , - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - , - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xv., xvi.; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii., iv.; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . 'es tanta la gente que concurre á vender y comprar, que no puede facilmente declararse.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxx. [ ] _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'sobre cincuenta mill canoas y cient mill segun se cree.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxx. 'the lake day and night is plyed with boates going and returning.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii. [ ] for specimens of the exhortations of old merchants to young men see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. vi., cap. xii.; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] a very full account of the nahua commerce is given in _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , and the same is translated with slight changes, in _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , and in _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clix., pp. - . see also _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - . see also note . [ ] on merchants' feasts, ceremonies, and superstitions, see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., pp. - , tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . see also account of a feast of flower-dealers in this volume, p. , and account of the cholultec feast in honor of quetzalcoatl in vol. iii., pp. - of this work. [ ] clavigero's description of nahua boats and navigation is in his _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'leurs barques, dont les plus grandes mesuraient jusqu'à soixante pieds de longueur, couvertes et abritées contre le mauvais temps, marchaient à la voile et à la rame,' probably referring to a boat met by columbus some distance out at sea. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] invented, according to tradition, by the tarascos of michoacan during their early migrations. _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. - . [ ] 'mettevansi a sedere in questa macchina quattro, o sei passaggieri alla volta.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'ces radeaux sont fort légers et très-solides; ils sont encore en usage dans l'amérique, et nous avons passé ainsi plus d'une rivière.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxx: 'en cada vna cabian sesenta hombres.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , and _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. viii., cap. iv. 'the canowes are litle barkes, made of one tree.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iii. called _acates_. _id._, dec. v., lib. ii. 'estas acallis ó barcas cada una es de una sola pieza, de un arbol tan grande y tan grueso como lo demanda la longitud, y conforme al ancho que le pueden dar, que es de lo grueso del árbol de que se hacen, y para esto hay sus maestros como en vizcaya los hay de navíos.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'the sides of the indian boats were fortified with bulwarks.' _prescott's mex._, vol. iii., p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] 'spesso s'esercitavano in questo genere di combattimenti.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. . , canoes on the lake about mexico. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . see also note of this chapter. additional notes on nahua boats. 'habia en méxico muchas acallis ó barcas para servicio de las casas, y otras muchas de tratantes que venian con bastimentos á la ciudad, y todos los pueblos de la redonda, que están llenos de barcas que nunca cesan de entrar y salir á la ciudad, las cuales eran innumerables.' 'con estas salen á la mar, y con las grandes de estas acallis navegan de una isla á otra, y se atreven á atravesar algun golfo pequeño.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. , . 'lo mas del trato, y camino de los indios, en aquella tierra, es por agua, en acales, ò canoas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. viii., cap. iv.; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . chapter xiii. war customs of the nahuas. importance of the military profession--indications of rank--education of warriors--rewards for valor--military orders and their dress--gorgeous war-dresses of montezuma and the aztec nobility--dress of the common soldiers--armor and defensive weapons--offensive weapons--standards--ambassadors and couriers--fortifications--the military council--articles of war--declaration of war--spies--order of march and battle--war customs of the tlascaltecs and tarascos--return of the conquering army--celebration of feats of arms. [sidenote: the military profession.] as might be expected from a people so warlike and ambitious as the nahuas, the profession of arms ranked high above all other callings, save that of the priests. this was especially the case in the later days, under the aztec kings, whose unscrupulous ambition and passion for conquest could only be gratified by their warriors. huitzilopochtli, god of war, protector of the empire, was glorified and honored above all other gods; his altars must be red with blood, for blood alone could extort his favor, and wars were frequently waged solely for his propitiation; valor was the loftiest virtue, the highest honors were paid to those who distinguished themselves in battle; no dignities, positions, or decorations, under the government, were given to any but approved soldiers. children were taught by parent and priest the chivalrous deeds of their ancestors, whom they were urged to emulate in daring; titles, rewards, and posts of honor were offered to stimulate the ambition of the young men. the king might not receive his crown until with his own hand he had taken captives to be sacrificed at the feast of his coronation. the priests were the foremost inciters to war and carnage. all wars were religious crusades. the highest earthly rewards were in store for the victor, while the soul of him that fell in battle took immediate flight to heaven. only defeat and cowardice were to be dreaded. the nahua warrior's services were rewarded only by promotion, since no paid troops were employed. but promotion was sure to follow brilliant exploits performed by even the humblest soldier, while without such daring deeds the sons of the highest nobles could hope for no advancement. dress and ornaments were the indications of rank, and were changed in some detail for every new achievement. to escape from the coarse nequen garments of the common soldier, and to put on successively the decorative mantles of the higher grades, was deemed a sufficient reward and incentive. the costume of each warrior indicated the exact number of prisoners captured by the wearer. especial care was taken, however, with the sons of lords intended for the profession of arms. at an early age their heads were shaved, except a tuft on the back of the head called _mocuexpaltia_, a designation changed to _cuexpatchicuepul_ when the boy was fifteen years old. at this age he was sent to war in charge of veteran warriors, and if with their aid he took a prisoner, the tuft was cut off and another given to be worn over the ear with feather plumes; on his return he was addressed after the following manner by his grandparents or uncles: "my child, the sun and the earth have washed and renewed thy face, because thou didst dare to attempt the capture of an enemy in company with others. lo, now it were better to abandon thee to the mercies of the enemy than that thou shouldst again take a prisoner with the aid of others, because, should it so happen, they will place another tuft over thine other ear and thou wilt appear like a girl; truly, it were better thou shouldst die than that this should happen to thee." if after a fair trial the youth failed to take a captive, he was disgraced, and ceased to be a warrior in the eyes of his comrades: but if, unaided, he was successful, he was called a warlike youth, _telpuchtlitaquitlamani_, and was presented to the king, whose stewards dyed his face red, his temples and body yellow, and bestowed upon him mantles and maxtlis of the colors and designs which his achievements gave him the right to wear. if he took two captives, the honors were of course greater; three entitled him to a command over others; four made him a captain who might wear long lip-ornaments, leathern ear-rings, and gaudy tassels. with five prisoners the young man became a _quauhiacatl_, 'eagle that guides,' with corresponding insignia, a head-plume with silver threads, the mantle called _cuechintli_, another called _chicoapalnacazminqui_ of two colors, and still another decorated with straps. the prisoners must, however, be from nations of acknowledged prowess, such as those of atlixco, the huexotzincas, or tlascaltecs; double or triple the number of cuextecas or tenimes must be captured, and no number of these could entitle a youth to the highest honors.[ ] in the mexican picture-writings are delineated the successive grades by which a graduate from the temple school advanced, with the costumes and defensive armor he was permitted to wear. first we see him leaving for the war, carrying the _impedimenta_ of the chief priest, who goes into the field to embolden the troops, enforce orders, and perform other duties. the pictures that follow portray the devices on the shields, manner of painting, armor, head-dresses, and ornaments they were allowed to assume, according to the number of captives each had taken. the warrior-priests were rewarded, in like manner, with accoutrements and insignia of peculiar designs, and with important commands in the army.[ ] [sidenote: three military orders.] three military orders were established by the aztec monarchs, the members of which were granted certain privileges, and entitled to wear badges of distinction; they also had apartments allotted to them in the royal palace and formed the royal guard. promotion to the order was open to all, but could only be won by some notable feat of arms. the members of the first of these three orders were called achcauhtin, or princes, of the second, quauhtin, or eagles, of the third, ocelome, or tigers. the distinctive mark of the princes was their manner of dressing the hair, which was tied on the crown of the head with a red thong, and worked into as many braids, each terminating in a cotton tassel, as were the deeds of valor performed by the wearer; the eagles wore a kind of casque, in the form of an eagle's head; the tigers wore a particular armor, spotted like the skin of the animal whose name they bore. these insignia were only used in war; at court all military officers wore the _tlachquauhyo_, a dress of many colors. the members of these three military orders had the privilege of wearing garments of much finer texture than the common people, as well as such feathers and jewels as they could afford to buy. an inferior order of knighthood appears also to have existed, the members of which had their hair cropped close about their ears, and wore skull-caps and split collars; these were only armed for defence from the girdle upwards, whereas their superiors fought in complete armor. all these privileged warriors were permitted to use painted and gilt vessels, but the common soldiers might use none but plain earthen ones.[ ] montezuma, who was a member of the order of princes, when he went in person against the enemy, wore upon his legs greaves of gold, and upon his arms thin plates of the same metal, as well as bracelets; about his neck were a collar and chains of gold and precious stones; from his ears and lower lip hung ornaments of gold set with precious chalchiuites; and from the back of his head to his waist was suspended the glittering decoration of royalty, only worn by kings, the _quachictli_. this was an ornament of exquisite workmanship, wrought with great labor of costly feathers and jewels, and shaped somewhat like a butterfly. in addition to this he was distinguished from his retinue by a shield upon which was displayed the royal coat of arms in feather-work; and he carried also a small drum, upon which he beat the signal for battle.[ ] [sidenote: military dress and ornaments.] on the occasion when the sovereigns and nobility of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan came out to receive cortés, there was little, so far as dress was concerned, by which king might be distinguished from subject; the only difference was that the monarchs wore crowns of gold and precious stones, bejeweled sandals with golden soles, and tassels at the end of the ribbon with which their hair was bound.[ ] a prince of the blood-royal, on his début upon the battle-field, was clad in plain white; his behavior was closely watched, and after the action such insignia and colors as he had merited by his conduct were bestowed upon him. sahagun gives an extended description of the gorgeous war-costumes of the noble aztec warriors, with the native name for each fraction of the equipments. here are described head-dresses composed of rich feathers, prominent among which were the quetzal; corselets of red and green feathers, worked with gold thread; head-dresses of green feathers set in gold bands, or of tiger-skin; helmets of silver; a garment called _tocivitl_ reaching to the knees, made of yellow macaw-feathers, embroidered with gold, and worn with a golden casque plumed with quetzal-feathers; and other equally gorgeous attire. as a means of directing their men some officers bore small drums, painted and ornamented with feathers so as to correspond with their dress, in a net at their backs; others carried little flags made of feathers held together with bands of gold or silver. many noble warriors had their armorial bearings, devils, monsters, and what not, painted or embroidered upon their backs. truly such _spolia opima_ were worthy of a hero's toil.[ ] the rank and file of the aztec army wore no clothing but the maxtli in battle, but by painting their faces and bodies in grotesque patterns with brilliant colors, and covering their heads with raw cotton, they presented a sufficiently fierce and gaudy appearance.[ ] the tlascaltec leaders wore a quilted cotton tunic two fingers in thickness that fitted closely to the body and also protected the shoulders and thighs; the wealthier class wore over the tunic a cuirass of thin gold or silver plates, and over all they threw a rich mantle of feather-work elegantly embroidered; to protect their legs they put on leathern boots or wooden greaves ornamented with gold. on their heads they wore a morion made of hide or wood representing the head of some animal, bird, or serpent. from the crown waved a magnificent tuft of richly variegated plumes, a conspicuous mark, that served to denote the warrior's rank. [sidenote: armor and defensive weapons.] the armor and defensive weapons of the nahua knights, though of little service against the firearms and swordsmanship of the spaniards, yet were admirably suited for protection from the weapons in use among themselves. the _chimalli_, or mexican shield, was made of various materials and in divers forms; sometimes it was round, sometimes oval, sometimes rounded only on the lower side; it was commonly constructed of flexible bamboo canes, bound firmly together, and covered with hide. the face of the shield was ornamented according to the rank and taste of the bearer; that of a noble was generally covered with thin plates of gold, with a heavy boss in the centre. in tabasco, and along the coast, tortoise-shells, inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, were commonly used as shields. reed-grass, hides, or nequen-cloth, coated with india-rubber, served to protect an aztec common soldier. some shields were of an ordinary size, others were intended to cover the entire body, and were so constructed that when not in use they could be folded up and carried under the arm. the body-armor of the nobles and higher grades of warriors consisted of a breast-piece made of quilted cotton, one or two fingers in thickness, called _ichcahuepilli_; over this was a thick cotton coat, which covered part of the arms and thighs, made in one piece, fastened behind, and decorated with feathers of whatever colors the uniform of the company to which the wearer belonged might be. this cotton armor was completely arrow-proof, and was of great service to the spanish conquerors, who lost no time in adopting it in place of their heavy steel armor. arm and leg guards made of wood covered with leather or gold plates and trimmed with feathers, and morions of the same material shaped and painted to represent the head of a tiger, serpent, or monster, with mouth open and teeth bared, complete the defensive equipment. over a cuirass of gold and silver plates some lords wore a garment of feathers which is said to have been proof against arrows and javelins. nobles and officers also wore lofty plumes so as to present the appearance of increased stature.[ ] the shields used by the toltecs were made of skins ornamented with feathers of various colors; on their heads they wore helmets of gold, silver, or skins. the body-armor worn by the principal warriors was made of double cloth padded with cotton; it differed from that of the aztecs inasmuch as it reached down to the ankles and was worn over a thin white tunic. the private soldiers, like those of the aztec army, also painted the upper part of the body to represent armor, but from the waist to the thighs they wore short drawers and over them, fastened round the waist, a kind of kilt that reached to the knees and availed them somewhat for defence. across the body was a sash made of feathers that passed from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. they wore sandals on their feet and had feather-ornaments upon their heads, more or less rich according to the quality of the warrior. when going to battle they adorned their necks, breasts, arms, and legs with their most valuable trinkets of gold or precious stones.[ ] tezozomoc mentions that the tarascos wore steel helmets, but, as i have already stated, none of these nations were acquainted with the use of iron in any shape.[ ] some of the armor in use among the tabascans must have been exceedingly rich, judging by that which was presented to juan de grijalva by the cacique of that province. it consisted of greaves for the knees and legs made of wood and covered with sheets of gold, head-pieces covered with gold plates and precious stones, among which was a visor, of which the upper half was of jewels linked together, and the lower half of gold plates; then there were cuirasses of solid gold, besides a quantity of armor-plates sufficient to cover the whole body.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: offensive weapons.] the offensive weapons of the aztecs consisted of bows and arrows, slings, clubs, spears, light javelins, and swords; and in the use of all of these the soldiers were well skilled. the bows were made of tough, elastic wood, and were about five feet in length; for strings they used the sinews of animals or stags' hair twisted. the arrows were light canes, with about six inches of oak or other hard wood inserted in the end; at the extremity a piece of iztli was fastened with twisted nequen-fibre, and further secured by a paste of resin or other adhesive substance. sometimes instead of iztli they used the bones of animals or fish; the bone of a fish called _libisa_ is said to have caused by its venomous properties[ ] a wound very difficult to heal. it is well known that none of the nahua nations used poisoned arrows; such weapons would have defeated the object for which they often engaged in war, namely that of taking their enemies alive for the purpose of immolating them upon the altars of their gods. it is reasonable to believe that many of them attained to great accuracy in shooting with the bow, but there is room to doubt the assertion that some of them were able to shoot with three or four arrows at a time; or to throw an ear of corn into the air and pierce every kernel before it reached the ground; or to throw up a coin of the size of half a dollar, and keep it in the air as long as they pleased with their arrows.[ ] the sling was a braid of pita-thread or other fibre, broader in the middle than at the ends, with which stones were thrown with much force and accuracy; the missiles were carried in a pouch filled with stones and suspended from the waist in front. the _maza_ was a club similar to the roman _clava_, tapering from the handle towards the end and terminating in a knotty head, filled with points of iztli or tempered copper.[ ] the _macana_, or _macuahuitl_, called by the spaniards _espada_, a sword, was made of tough wood, about three and a half feet long, with a flat blade four fingers in width armed upon both sides with sharp pieces of iztli about three fingers long by three wide, which were inserted into the grooved edge at intervals, and cemented with some adhesive compound.[ ] this weapon, when not in immediate use, was carried slung to the arm with a cord. many of these swords were two-handed and very heavy, and it is asserted that with them the aztec warrior could at one blow cut a man in two or sever a horse's head. the one with which the famous tlascaltec commander tlahuicol fought was so weighty that a man of ordinary strength could hardly raise it from the ground.[ ] the mexican spears were very strong, and were pointed with iztli or copper. spears were the principal weapon used by the zapotecs and other tribes of oajaca. the _tlacochtli_, or mexican javelin, was like a long arrow made of otlatl or bamboo; the point was usually hardened in the fire or armed with iztli, copper, or bone; many had three points, thus inflicting a very severe wound; they were hurled with great force, and had a cord attached, so that when thrown they could be recovered for another cast. some writers mention a ballista as being used with which to launch the javelin, but i do not find any description of its form or of the manner of using it;[ ] certainly the javelin was projected with great velocity, if it be true, as asserted, that they would pass through a man's body; they were much dreaded by the spanish conquerors. [sidenote: the blow-pipe and standards.] when the chichimecs first settled in the valley of anáhuac the only weapons were the bow and arrow and blow-pipe, in the use of which they were very expert. the blow-pipe was a long hollow tube through which clay pellets were projected, and it is affirmed that with them the chichimecs could kill a man or wild beast at a moderate distance; afterwards this weapon came to be generally used by other nations, but was only employed for shooting small birds. among other things, cortés was presented by montezuma with a dozen blow-pipes beautifully ornamented and painted with figures of birds and animals; the mouth-piece of each was made of gold, five or six inches long; they were also ornamented in the centre with gold, and accompanying them were gold net-work pouches to carry the pellets.[ ] the matlaltzincas and tabascans used weapons similar to those of the nations of the anáhuac valley; the former were especially dexterous in their practice with the sling, which, when not in actual use, was carried wound about the head.[ ] the fighting men among the jaliscans were similarly armed, but the lords and captains carried only long staves with which to urge their men to fight and punish any who were disorderly or showed symptoms of cowardice.[ ] each nation had its own particular standard on which were painted or embroidered the armorial bearings of the state. that of the mexican empire, as we have seen, bore an eagle in the act of seizing a tiger, or jaguar. that of the republic of tlascala, a bird with its wings spread as in the act of flying, which some authors call an eagle, others a white bird or crane. each of the four lordships of the republic had also its appropriate ensign; tizatlan had a crane upon a rock, tepeticpac a wolf with a bunch of arrows in his paws, ocotelulco a green bird upon a rock, and quiahuiztlan a parasol made of green feathers.[ ] each company or command had also a distinct standard, the colors of which corresponded to that of the armor and plumes of the chief. the great standard of the tlascaltec army was carried by the general commanding, and the smaller banners of the companies by their respective captains; they were carried on the back and were so firmly tied there that they could not be detached without great difficulty.[ ] when upon a march and not in presence of the enemy the standard of the tlascaltecs was carried in the van, but in action it was always placed in the rear. the mexican standard was borne in the centre of the army. instruments of music, consisting of drums, horns, and large sea-shells, were sounded while fighting to encourage and animate the men. [sidenote: ambassadors and couriers.] the office of ambassador was one of much consequence, and persons of the highest rank, selected for their courteous manners and oratorical powers, were appointed to the position. their persons were held sacred and they were usually received by those to whom they were sent with honor and respect, perfumed with incense, presented with flowers, and well lodged and entertained; in case any insult or indignity was offered them, it constituted a sufficient cause of war. such an instance occurred when the tepanecs, during the reign of their king maxtlaton, invited the mexican monarch itzcoatl and his chiefs to visit their province and partake of their hospitality. itzcoatl declined at the advice of his chiefs, but the latter went, carrying presents. they were accepted by the tepanecs and the chiefs sent back in women's apparel, which they were compelled to wear; the indignity brought about a war between the two nations. the proper courtesy and protection due to their position was, however, only accorded them when on the high road that led to their destination; if they deviated from it they lost their rights and privileges as ambassadors. when on duty they wore a special garb that denoted their office; it consisted of a green habit resembling a scapulary, or small cloak; handsome feathers were twisted in the hair with tufts of divers colors; in the right hand they carried an arrow with the point towards the ground, and in the left a shield; a small net containing provisions hung from the left arm. a complete courier-system was established throughout the empire; these couriers were employed to carry messages in peace and war, and fresh provisions for the king's table; as we have seen in a former chapter, it is asserted that montezuma had fresh fish brought to his palace daily from the gulf coast. they were exceedingly swift runners, being exercised from childhood and encouraged by rewards to excel in speed. stations were fixed at distances of about six miles apart, where small towers were built, in which dwelt one or more couriers ready at all times to set out with dispatches. as soon as a courier arrived at one of these towers, one of those waiting received from him the message he bore, usually expressed in paintings, and at once started for the next stage, and thus the tidings were conveyed to the capital in an incredibly short time. when the dispatches were of an important nature, the courier wore some badge or was dressed in a manner indicative of the intelligence entrusted to him. for instance, if it related to a defeat in battle, he traveled with hair dishevelled, preserving a strict silence until the message was delivered to the person to whom it was directed; on the other hand, if he brought news of a victory, his hair was neatly tied with a colored string, about his body was wrapped a white cotton cloth, on his left arm he carried a shield and in his right hand a sword which he brandished as if in combat, singing at the same time the glorious deeds of the victors.[ ] [sidenote: nahua fortifications.] the mexicans and other nahua nations, favored by the general features of the country, adopted a system of fortifications and entrenchments admirably adapted to secure them from the attacks of internal enemies, though insufficient as a defense against the superior tactics and indomitable perseverance of cortés. the position of the city of tenochtitlan, or mexico, gave it all the advantages of a fortified town. there was no avenue of approach to it but the causeways, which were defended by towers and ditches spanned by draw-bridges; it was the untimely raising of one of these draw-bridges that caused such destruction to the spaniards and their allies on the 'noche triste.' besides this, the inhabitants prepared themselves to defend their city by means of boats, and were frequently exercised in sham naval engagements. the temples of mexico served all the purposes of citadels, especially the great temple built by the emperor tizoc. it occupied the centre of the city and was surrounded by a stone wall eight feet high and very thick, having turrets and stone figures upon it; the wall was pierced by four principal entrances, over each of which were fortified apartments, well stocked with weapons, offensive and defensive, ready for immediate service; here, in case of a revolt or sudden alarm, the garrison went and armed themselves.[ ] one of the royal palaces also contained a large armory where great quantities of arms were kept and armorers employed in their manufacture. the peculiar architecture of the temple rendered the ascent to its top very slow and difficult; during the battles of the mexicans with cortés' troops after montezuma's death, five hundred mexican nobles took possession of this summit, whence they hurled darts, arrows, and stones against the spaniards, many of whom lost their lives during the assault before the position was taken by cortés in person. in his dispatch to the emperor charles the fifth he says: "so arduous was the attempt to take this tower that if god had not broken their spirits, twenty of them would have been sufficient to resist the ascent of a thousand men, although they fought with the greatest valor even unto death."[ ] besides the arsenal and general rendezvous there were many turreted towers and strong buildings throughout the city, from the top of which men could shoot their arrows and hurl darts and stones with great effect. the lofty teocalli served as watch-towers, whence the movements of the enemy could be observed. naturally impregnable localities, such as the vicinity of impassable rivers or ravines were selected as sites for cities, which they further strengthened with forts or surrounded with stone walls. the city of guacachula, taken by cortés shortly after his retreat from mexico on the 'noche triste,' is thus described by him in his letter to charles the fifth: "this city of guacachula is situated upon a plain bounded upon one side by some very lofty and craggy hills; encircling the plain, on the other sides, about two cross-bow shots apart, are two rivers that run through large and deep ravines. there are but few means of entrance to the city, and those extremely difficult both in the ascent and descent so that they can hardly be passed on horseback. the whole city is surrounded by a very strong wall of stone and lime about twenty-two feet high on the outside and almost level with the ground upon the inside. around the whole wall runs a battlement, half the height of a man, as a protection when fighting; it has four entrances of sufficient width to admit a man on horseback, and in each entrance are three or four curves in the wall that lap one over the other and in the course of the curves, on the top of the wall are parapets for fighting. in the whole circuit of the wall is a large quantity of stones large and small and of different shapes for use in action." four leagues distant from guacachula was another city called izucan, also strongly fortified with breastworks, towers, and a deep river that encircled a great part of the city.[ ] one of the most celebrated structures built for defence was the stone wall erected by the tlascaltecs to secure themselves from the incursions of the mexicans. this wall was six miles long, extending across a valley from one mountain to another; it was nearly nine feet high and twenty feet thick, surmounted along its whole length by a breastwork that enabled its defenders to fight in comparative security from the top. there was only one entrance, about ten paces wide, where one part of the wall overlapped the other in curvilinear form in the manner of a ravelin for a distance of forty paces. bernal diaz and cortés differ as to the materials of which the wall was built. the former affirms that it was built of stones cemented together with lime and a bitumen so strongly that it was necessary to use pick-axes to separate them, while the latter says it was built of dry stone. cortés, describing the residence of the cacique of iztacmaxtitlan, a garrison of the mexicans, says it was situated on a lofty eminence, with a better fortress than there was in half spain, defended by a wall, barbican, and moats.[ ] in many other parts of the country were stone fortifications, wooden stockades and intrenchments. a short distance from the village of molcaxac stood a strong fortress built on the top of a mountain; it was surrounded by four walls, erected at certain intervals between the base of the mountain and the top. twenty-five miles from córdova was the fortress of quauhtochco, now guatusco, encircled by high stone walls in which were no entrance gates; the interior could only be gained by means of steep narrow steps, a method commonly adopted in the country.[ ] the nations of michoacan and jalisco employed heavy tree-trunks in fortifying their positions against the spanish invaders, or cut deep intrenchments in which they fixed sharpened stakes. previous to an attack led by pedro alvarado against the inhabitants of jalisco, the latter took up a strong position on a hill which they fortified by placing large stones in such a manner, that upon cutting the cords that held them they would be precipitated upon the assailants; in the assault many spaniards were killed and alvarado was thrown from his horse with such violence that he died two days afterwards.[ ] * * * * * under the tripartite treaty made by the kingdoms of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan, a military council was established consisting of a president and twenty-one members. during the reign of the emperor nezahualcoyotl their deliberations were held in a hall of his palace in tezcuco. the president belonged to the highest rank of the nobility and commanders of the army, the other members were composed of six of the principal men of tezcuco, three nobles and three commoners, and fifteen selected from the other chief provinces. all were veteran officers of recognized courage and good conduct. to this court were referred all matters relating to war. the council assembled when required, to discuss and decide all affairs of the service, whether for the punishment of offenses subversive of military discipline, or to transact the business relative to a declaration of war against other powers. in the latter case the consultation always took place in presence of the sovereign, or of the three heads of the empire. all ambassadors and soldiers were subject to this tribunal, which meted out reward as well as punishment. the following were the articles of war: [sidenote: articles of war.] first: any general or other military officer who, accompanying the king on a campaign, should forsake him, or leave him in the power of the enemy, thereby failing in his duty, which was to bring back his sovereign dead or alive, suffered death by decapitation. second: any officer who formed the prince's guard and deserted his trust, suffered death by decapitation. third: any soldier who disobeyed his superior officer, or abandoned his post, or turned his back upon the enemy, or showed them favor, suffered death by decapitation. fourth: any officer or soldier who usurped the captive or spoil of another, or who ceded to another the prisoner he himself had taken, suffered death by hanging. fifth: any soldier who in war caused injury to the enemy without permission of his officer, or who attacked before the signal was given, or who abandoned the standard or headquarters, or broke or violated any order issued by his captain, suffered death by decapitation. sixth: the traitor who revealed to the enemy the secrets of the army or orders communicated for the success thereof, suffered death by being torn to pieces; his property was forfeited to the crown and all his children and relations were made slaves in perpetuity. seventh: any person who protected or concealed an enemy in time of war, whether noble or plebeian, suffered death by being torn to pieces in the middle of the public square, and his limbs were given to the populace to be treated as objects of derision and contempt. eighth: any noble or person of distinction who, in action, or at any dance or festival, exhibited the insignia or badges of the kings of mexico, tezcuco, or tlacopan, suffered death and forfeiture of property. ninth: any nobleman who, being captured by the enemy fled from prison and returned to his country suffered death by decapitation; but, if he fought and vanquished seven soldiers in gladiatorial combat previous to return, he was free and was rewarded as a brave man. the private soldier who fled from an enemy's prison and returned to his country was well received. tenth: any ambassador who failed to discharge his trust in accordance with the orders and instructions given to him or who returned without an answer, suffered death by decapitation.[ ] as i have already stated, the primary object of most wars was to procure victims for sacrifices to huitzilopochtli and other gods, and the mexicans were never at a loss for an excuse to pick a quarrel. the refusal of a neighboring power to receive in its temple one of the mexican gods, neglect to pay tribute demanded, insults offered to ambassadors or traveling merchants, or symptoms of rebellion in a city or a province, furnished sufficient pretext to take up arms. the rulers of mexico, however, always endeavored to justify their conduct before they made war, and never commenced hostilities without sending due notice of their intention to the adversary. before an actual challenge was sent or war declared against any nation, the council met in presence of the three heads of the empire, and gravely discussed the equity of the case. if the difficulty lay with a province subject to the empire, secret emissaries were sent to inquire whether the fault originated solely with the governor or if he was sustained by his subjects. if it appeared that the whole blame rested with the governor, a force was sent to arrest him, and he was publicly punished, together with all others implicated; but if the rising was with the consent of the people, they were summoned to submit and place themselves in obedience to the king whose vassals they were, and a fine, proportionate to the magnitude of the case, was imposed. it was customary for the rulers of mexico or tezcuco to send messengers to distant provinces with a demand that they should receive one or more of their gods and worship them in their temples. if the messenger was killed or the proposed god rejected, a war ensued. [sidenote: declaration of war.] as i have said, it was a breach of international etiquette to proceed to war without giving due notice to the enemy, and military law prescribed that three embassies should be despatched before commencing hostilities. the number of ambassadors varied according to the circumstances and rank of the princes against whom war was to be made, for the higher his rank the fewer in number were the envoys. if he was a great king only one was sent, and he was generally of the blood-royal or a famous general. sometimes the ambassadors were instructed to deliver their message directly to the hostile prince, at other times to the people of the province. in the first case upon entering into the prince's presence they paid their respects with reverence, and having seated themselves in the centre of the audience-hall, waited till permission was given them to speak. the signal made, the principal among them delivered his message in a low tone of voice and with a studied address, the audience preserving a decorous silence, and listening attentively. as a general thing, in all embassies an interchange of presents was made, and if the message was from one friendly power to another, a refusal of such gifts was a serious affront. if, however, it was to an enemy, the ambassador could not receive a present without express orders from his master. when the three powers of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan acted in unison, in the event of a difficulty with another nation, the first ambassadors sent were of the mexican nation and were called _quaquauhnochtzin_. upon arriving at the capital of the kingdom or province they proceeded at once to the public square and summoned before them the ministers and aged men, to whom they made known the several circumstances of the case, warning them that, in case their lord refused to accede to their propositions, upon them and their families would fall the evils and hardships produced by war, and exhorting them to counsel and persuade their lord to maintain the good will and protection of the empire; for this purpose they granted twenty days, within which time they would expect an answer, and in order that there might be no complaint of being surprised and taken unprepared they left a supply of weapons and then retired outside the town to await the answer. if within the twenty days it was decided to accept the terms of the ambassadors, the ministers went to the place where they were in waiting and conducted them into the city, where they were received with every mark of respect, and in a short time were sent back to their own country, accompanied by other ambassadors, bearing costly presents in token of friendship and esteem. if, however, twenty days passed without a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulty, a second set of ambassadors, held in readiness for the occasion, who had to be of the kingdom of tezcuco and were called _achcacauhtzin_, were sent into the city. these carried with them a quantity of arms, some feathers of a bird called _tecpilotl_, and a small earthenware jar containing a certain balsamic and aromatic ointment, compounded of various herbs and gums. they went directly to the palace of the prince and in presence of the gentlemen of his court delivered their message. they then represented to him the miseries of war, and warned him, that if within the space of twenty days he did not agree to their terms, in the event of his being taken captive during the war which would ensue he would be put to death under the penalty of the law, which sentenced him to have his head smashed with a club, and that his vassals would be chastised in proportion to the offence each had committed. if the refractory prince or noble refused immediate compliance, the ambassadors anointed his right arm and his head with the ointment brought with them, telling him to be strong and of good courage and to fight bravely against the troops of the empire, whose valor in war they greatly extolled. they then tied the tecpilotl-plumes at the back of his head with red strings, handed him the weapons they had brought with them, and retired to the place where the first ambassadors were, to await the expiration of the twenty days. if he surrendered within the time, he was required to pay a stipulated annual tribute of small amount, but if he refused to surrender, there came a third set of ambassadors, who were of the kingdom of tlacopan; they appeared before the lord in the presence of his ministers and court, and delivered their message with stronger threats and warnings, to the effect that if he did not surrender at the expiration of a further twenty days, the army of the empire would march against his territory and punish the inhabitants regardless of age or sex, and that although they might implore its clemency they would not be heard; they then gave them a larger supply of arms than on the preceding occasions, telling them to avail themselves of them and not to say at a future time that they had been assailed unprepared. if the lord of the province surrendered within the last twenty days, he was punished according to the pleasure of the three powers, but not with death nor with the confiscation of his rank or property; he was usually condemned to pay an extraordinary tribute out of his own revenues; should he continue rebellious, war broke out, and the army of the empire, already prepared on the frontiers, commenced its operations.[ ] it was usual to send a formal challenge or declaration of war, accompanied by some presents, either of arms, clothing, or food, as it was held to be a discreditable act to attack any unarmed or defenseless people. a notable instance of this spirit was shown by the tlascaltecs when they confronted the army of cortés; their general is reported to have exclaimed: "who are these presumptuous men, so few in number that they attempt to enter our country in spite of us? lest they think we want to take them by hunger rather than by force of arms, let us send them food, that we may find them savory after the sacrifice, for they come starved and worn out." before the battle they sent three hundred turkeys and two hundred baskets of centli or tamales, each basket weighing about twenty-five pounds, a gift most acceptable to the castilians.[ ] when war against another nation was decided upon, the first care of the mexicans was to investigate the character and resources of the region they were about to invade. certain spies called _quimichtin_, who were selected for their knowledge of the language and customs of the enemy's country, were sent thither, dressed after the manner of the inhabitants. these spies were directed to prepare maps of the districts they passed through, showing the plains, rivers, mountains, and dangerous passes as well as the most practicable routes, and were to take notice of all means of defense possessed by the enemy. the sketches and information thus obtained were given to the chiefs of the army to guide them in their march and enable them to make the best disposition of their forces. such spies as brought valuable news were rewarded with the grant of a piece of land, and if one came over from the enemy's side and gave advice of their preparations and force, he was well paid and given presents of mantles.[ ] when a war was to be conducted jointly by the three allied powers, proclamation was made by heralds in the public thoroughfares of the capital cities. commissariat officers called _calpixques_ collected the necessary stores and provisions for the campaign, and distributed weapons and coarse mantles of nequen to the army. the troops then went to the temple and performed the ceremony of scarifying their bodies, while the customary sacrifices were offered by the priests to huitzilopochtli. [sidenote: order of march and battle.] if the expedition was an important one and the army large, it was composed of several divisions, called _xiquipilli_, each consisting of eight thousand men under their respective commanders. when all was in readiness the order of march was thus formed: the priests with their idols started one day's march in advance; next came the captains and flower of the army, followed by the soldiers of mexico; after them the tezcucans, and then those of tlacopan, the rear being closed by the troops of other provinces; one day's march separated each division. perfect order was maintained on the route, and when near the enemy's country the chiefs traced out the camping-ground each division should occupy, and directed all to entrench and fortify their positions.[ ] the battle was sometimes fought on a piece of neutral ground lying between the confines of two territories. such a place was known by the name _yauhtlalli_, and was especially reserved for the purpose, and always left uncultivated.[ ] before the action commenced each soldier received from the royal magazine a handful of pinole and a kind of cake called _tlaxcaltotopochtli_; afterwards the high-priest or chief addressed the troops, reminding them of the glory to be gained by victory, and the eternal bliss in store for those who fell, and concluded by counseling them to place their trust in huitzilopochtli and fight valiantly. if the king was present on the field the signal for attack was given by him. the mexican monarch issued his orders to commence the action by sounding on a large shell making a noise like a trumpet; the lords of tezcuco beat upon a small drum, and lords of other provinces struck two bones together. the signals for retreat were given upon similar instruments. when the battle commenced, the shrieking of musical instruments, the clashing of swords against bucklers, and shouting of the combatants made a noise so great as to strike terror into those unused to it. while fighting the warriors shouted the names of their respective towns or districts to enable them to recognize each other and prevent confusion.[ ] in fighting there appears to have been no special tactics; the commanders of divisions and the captains used every effort to keep their men together, and were very careful to protect the standard, as, if that was taken, the battle was considered lost and all fled. they observed the wise policy of keeping a number of men in reserve to replace any who were wearied or had exhausted their weapons. the archers, slingers, and javelin men commenced the action at a distance and gradually drew nearer, until they came to close quarters, when they took to their swords and spears. all movements, both in advance and retreat, were rapidly executed; sometimes a retreat was feigned in order to draw the enemy into an ambuscade which had been prepared beforehand. the chief object was to take prisoners and not to slay; when an enemy refused to surrender, they endeavored to wound them in the foot or leg so as to prevent escape, but they never accepted a ransom for a prisoner. certain men were attached to the army whose duty it was to remove the killed and wounded during the action, so that the enemy might not know the losses and take fresh heart.[ ] [sidenote: tlascaltecs and tarascos.] the tlascaltecs formed their army into battalions, each having its appointed chief, the whole being under the command of a general-in-chief, who was elected from among those of the four seigniories into which the republic was divided. their mode of fighting differed little from that of the mexicans, with the exception of a certain practice which they observed upon first coming in contact with the enemy. this consisted in carrying with them two darts which they believed would presage victory or defeat according to the result of their delivery into the hostile ranks. according to motolinia the tradition among them in regard to this belief was, that their ancestors came from the north-west, and that in order to reach the land they navigated eight or ten days; from the oldest among them they then received two darts which they guarded as precious relics, and regarded as an infallible augury by which to know whether they would gain a victory or ought to retreat in time.[ ] when a victory was won the great standard was brought to the front and placed upon a rising ground or in some conspicuous position, and all were obliged to assemble around it; he who neglected to do so was punished. the tarascos fought with great courage to the sound of numerous horns and sea-shells, and carried to battle banners made of feathers of many colors. their skill and valor is best proven by the fact that the mexicans were never able to subdue them. they showed especial strategy in luring the foe into ambush. like the mexicans their chief object in battle was to take prisoners to sacrifice to their gods.[ ] among the mexicans, when the battle was over, the first prisoners taken were given to the priests to be sacrificed before the idols they carried with them. an account was taken of the losses sustained and of the number of prisoners and other booty gained. rewards were distributed to all who had distinguished themselves and punishment inflicted on any who had misbehaved. all disputes relative to the capture of prisoners were inquired into and adjusted. if a case arose where neither of the disputants could prove their title, the prisoner was taken from them and given to the priests to be sacrificed. those inhabitants of the conquered province who could prove that they had taken no active part in the war were punished at the discretion of their conqueror; usually they were condemned to pay a certain annual tribute, or to construct public works; meantime, the vanquished province was supplied with a governor and officers, appointed from among the conquerors.[ ] when the king or a feudatory lord captured a prisoner for the first time, his success was made the occasion of much rejoicing. the captive, dressed in showy apparel and mounted on a litter, was borne to the town in great triumph, accompanied by a host of warriors shouting and singing; at the outskirts of the city the procession was met by the inhabitants, some playing on musical instruments, others dancing and singing songs composed for the occasion. the prisoner was saluted with mimic honors, and his captor greatly extolled and congratulated. numbers of people arrived from the adjoining towns and villages to assist in the general hilarity, bringing with them presents of gold, jewels, and rich dresses. upon the day appointed for the sacrifice a grand festival was held, previous to and after which the lord fasted and performed certain prescribed ceremonies. the victim was usually dressed for the occasion in the robes of the god of the sun, and sacrificed in the usual manner. with some of the blood that flowed, the priest sprinkled the four sides of the temple; the remainder was collected in a vessel and sent to the noble captor, who with it sprinkled all the gods in the court yard of the temple as a thank-offering for the victory he had gained. after the heart was taken out the body was rolled down the steps and received below; the head was then cut off and placed upon a high pole, afterwards the body was flayed, and the skin stuffed with cotton and hung up in the captor's house as a memento of his prowess.[ ] [sidenote: gladiatorial combat.] when a renowned captain or noble was made prisoner, the right of fighting for his liberty was granted him--an honor not permitted to warriors of an inferior rank. near the temple was an open space capable of containing a large multitude; in the middle was a circular mound built of stone and mortar, about eight feet high, with steps leading to the top, where was fixed a large round stone, three feet high, smooth, and adorned with figures. this stone was called the _temalacatl_; upon it the prisoner was placed, tied at the ankle with a cord, which passed through a hole in the centre of the stone. his weapons consisted of a shield and macana.[ ] he who had taken him prisoner then mounted the stone, better armed, to combat with him. both the combatants were animated with the strongest motives to fight desperately. the prisoner fought for his life and liberty, and his adversary to sustain his reputation. if the former was conquered, a priest, called _chalchiuhtepehua_, immediately seized him, hurried him dead or alive to the sacrificial stone and tore out his heart. the victor was then publicly congratulated and rewarded with military honors. if, however, the prisoner vanquished his first opponent and six others, by whom, in succession, he was attacked, he was granted his freedom, all spoil taken from him in battle was restored to him, and he returned to his country covered with glory. a notable violation of this law is recorded of the huexotzincas. in a battle between them and the cholultecs, the leader of the latter nation became separated from his own people during the heat of battle, and was, after a gallant resistance, made prisoner and conducted to the capital. being placed on the gladiatorial stone he conquered the seven adversaries that were brought against him, but the huexotzincas, dreading to liberate so famous a warrior, contrary to their universal law, put him to death, and thereby covered themselves with ignominy.[ ] [sidenote: prisoners of war.] if the prisoner was a person of very high rank, he was taken before the king, who ordered that he should be sumptuously fed and lodged for forty days. at the end of that time he was accorded the right of combat, and if conquered, after the usual sacrificial ceremonies the body was cut into small pieces; these were sent to the relations and friends of the deceased, who received them as relics of great value and acknowledged the favor by returning gold, jewels, and rich plumes.[ ] if we are to believe gomara and others, the number of victims, chiefly prisoners of war, sacrificed at some of the festivals, was enormous. the historians relate that in front of the principal gate of the temple there was a mound built of stone and lime with innumerable skulls of prisoners inserted between the stones. at the head and foot of the mound were two towers built entirely of skulls and lime; on the top of the mound were seventy or more upright poles, each with many other sticks fastened crossways to it, at intervals, from top to bottom; on the points of each cross stick were five skulls. they go on to say that two soldiers of cortés counted these skulls and found them to amount to one hundred and thirty-six thousand. those that composed the towers they could not count.[ ] the nations contiguous to the mexicans imitated to a great extent their manner of disposing of prisoners of war, and kept them to be sacrificed at their festivals. the first prisoner taken in battle by the tlascaltecs was flayed alive and he who captured him dressed himself in the horrid trophy, and so covered served the god of battles during a certain number of days. he paraded from one temple to another followed by a crowd that shrieked for joy; but had, however, to run from his pursuers, for if they caught him they beat him till he was nearly dead. this ceremony was called _exquinan_, and was sometimes observed by two or three at the same time.[ ] at one of their festivals they bound their prisoners to high crosses and shot them to death with arrows; at other times they killed them with the bastinado. they had also solemn banquets, at which they ate the flesh of their prisoners. at the taking of mexico, the tlascaltec soldiery feasted upon the bodies of the slain mexicans, and cortés, although shocked at the revolting practice, was unable to prevent it.[ ] the mexicans, tlascaltecs, and neighboring nations always made the return of a successful army the occasion of great festivity and rejoicing; the loud sound of drums and musical instruments greeted the entry of the victorious troops into the capital; triumphal arches were erected in the streets and the houses decorated with flowers; an abundance of copal was burned and sumptuous banquets were prepared; all were dressed in their gayest attire, and the warriors put on all the insignia of their rank; gifts were distributed to those who had performed any deed of gallantry, and minstrels sung or recited poems in their praise. many went to the temples to observe especial acts of devotion to the gods, and numbers of the prisoners were then sacrificed. all these ceremonies tended to inspire the youths with courage and make them ambitious to gain distinction in war.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - . [ ] _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., pl. lxiv-lxvi. in explanation of plate lxv., no. , it is stated that the warrior was called quachic by reason of having taken five prisoners in war. 'haber cautivado en la guerra cinco, demas de que en otras guerras a cautivado otros muchos de sus enemigos.' explanation of _id._, vol. v., p. ; while purchas says such a one was 'called quagchil ... shewing that hee had taken fiue at the wars of guexo, besides that in other wars he tooke many of his enemies.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. - . [ ] torquemada and brasseur speak of a yet higher rank among the princes. 'vna de las maiores grandeças, à que llegaba, era atarse el cabello, que era demonstracion de gran capitan, y estos se llamaban quachictin, que era el mas honroso nombre, que à los capitanes se los daba, y pocos lo alcançaban.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'dont les membres se nommaient "quachictin," c'est-à-dire, couronnés. leurs insignes consistaient dans la courroie écarlate dont nous avons parlé plus haut, mais dont le bout, avec sa houppe de plumes, pendait alors jusqu'à la ceinture.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . herrera and acosta both mention a fourth order: 'auia otros como caualleros pardos, que no eran de tanta cuenta, como estos, los quales tenian vnas coletas cortadas por encima de la oreja en redondo.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix.; _west und ost indischer lustgart_, pt i., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] the greaves were called _cozehuatl_, the brachials _matemecatl_, the bracelets _matzopetztli_, the lip ornament _tentetl_, the ear-rings _nacochtli_, and the collar or necklace _cozcapetlatl_. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvi.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. ii.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . for further reference to defensive weapons and armor, see: _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _mexique_, _Études hist._, p. ; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt ii., p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xi.; _gage's new survey_, pp. - . [ ] 'i tehuacanesi erano singolarmente rinomati per la lor destrezza nel tirar tre, o quatro frecce insieme.... la destrezza di quei popoli nel tirar le frecce non sarebbe credibile, se non fosse accertata per la deposizione di centinaja di testimonj oculati. radunatisi parecchj frecciatori gettano in sù una pannocchia di frumentone, e si mettono a saettarla con una tal prontezza, e con una tal desterità, che non la lasciano venite a terra, finattantochè non le hanno levati tutti i grani. gettano similmente una moneta d'argento non più grande d'un giulio, e saettandola la trattengono in aria, quanto voglioni.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] ixtlilxochitl mentions clubs studded with iron, but it is well known that the aztec nations had no knowledge of that mineral, although it is said they possessed the art of being able to temper copper to the hardness of steel, 'porras claveteadas de hierro, cobre y oro.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] according to gomara it was made of 'cierta rayz que llaman çacotl, y de teuxalli, que es vna arena rezia, y como de vena de diamantes, que mezclan y amassan con sangre de morcielagos, y no se que otras aues.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] in reference to the macana, which all assert to have been a most formidable weapon, i quote only a few authorities. 'sus espadas de palo largas, de un palo muy fuerte, engeridas de pedernales agudísimos, que de una cuchillada cortaban á cercen el pescuezo de un caballo.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . bernal diaz describing a battle with the tlascaltecs where pedro de moron was wounded and had his horse killed, says 'dieron vna cuchillada â la yegua, que le cortaron el pescueço redondo, y alli quedó muerta.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'taglia come vn rasoio di tolosa. io viddi che combattendosi vn di, diede vn indiano vna cortellata a vn cauallo sopra il qual era vn caualliero con chi combatteua, nel petto, che glielo aperse fin alle interiora, et cadde incontanente morto, & il medesimo giorno viddi che vn'altro cortellata a vn'altro cauallo su il collo che se lo gettò morto a i piedi.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . the anonymous conqueror does not say the head was cut off, but that one horse was killed with a cut on the breast that opened it to the entrails, and the other from a cut on the neck was laid dead at his feet. 'lo que podrán efectuar con aquella espada en el pescuezo del caballo sera de la herida cuanto entraren los filos en la carne, que no pasarán de un canto de real de plata, porque todo lo otro es grueso, por tener el lomo que arriba referimos las navajas.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvi.; _hernandez_, _nova plant._, p. ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] it may be that this ballesta was a somewhat similar implement to that used by the aleuts and isthmians. see vol. i., pp. , . 'dardi che essi tirano con vn manga no fatto di vn'altro bastone.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] in regard to the armorial ensign of the tlascaltecs, authors differ. it is admitted that the general-in-chief carried the standard of the republic, and important authorities say that the one borne by xicotencatl in his battle with cortés had emblazoned upon it a white bird resembling an ostrich or heron, but clavigero and prescott incline to the opinion that the emblem was an eagle. in regard to this we have the following accounts. bernal diaz, an actor in the battle, says the tlascaltec army was ranged under the banner of xicotencatl, 'qua era vn aue blanca tendidas las alas, como que queria bolar, que parece como auestruz.' _hist. conq._, fol. . 'lleuaua el estandarte de la ciudad, que es vna grua de oro con las alas tendidas.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'esta bandera de tascaltecle es una grua que trae por divisa, ó armas al natural, de oro, é tendidas las alas.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'xicotencatl ... llevaba el estandarte de la republica, que era vn aguila de oro, con las alas estendidas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. . [ ] 'ha ogni compagnia il suo alfiere con la sua insegna inhastata, & in tal modo ligata sopra le spalle, che non gli da alcun disturbo di poter combattere ne far ciò che vuole, & la porta cosi ligata bene al corpo, che se non fanno del suo corpo pezzi, non se gli puo sligare, ne torgliela mai.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] 'respetaban à los embaxadores de sus mortales enemigos, como à dioses, teniendo por mejor violar qualquier rito de su religion, que pecar contra la fee dada à los embaxadores.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'los correos, ò mensageros, que se despachaban de las guerras, tambien pasaban seguros, por todas partes.' _ib._; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'a cada parte y puerta de las cuatro del patio del templo grande ya dicho habia una gran sala con muy buenos aposentos altos y bajos en rededor. en estos tenian muchas armas, porque como los templos tengan por fortalezas de los pueblos tienen en ellos toda su municion.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li. [ ] 'si dios no les quebrara las alas.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . see also _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , . [ ] 'una gran cerca de piedra seca.' _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. - . 'una fuerça bien fuerte hecha de cal y canto, y de otro betun tan rezio, que con picos de hierro era forçoso deshazerla.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. i.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] las casas says that very old women were admitted to war councils. 'nunca movian guerra sin dar parte al pueblo, y sin mucho consejo de los mas ancianos y caballeros ejercitados en la guerra, al cual consejo se admitian las mujeres muy viejas como personas que habian visto y oido muchas cosas y asi esperimentadas de lo pasado.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvi. according to the chevalier boturini the first ambassadors were accredited to the king or lord of the province, the second were dispatched to the nobility requiring them to persuade their lord, and the third convoked the people and advised them of the motives their monarch had for waging war against them. _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - . see also _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _id._, pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. vi. [ ] 'a estas espias, que embiaban delante, llamaban ratones, que andan de noche, ò escondidos, y à hurtadillas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] camargo says: 'l'armée était divisée par bataillons de cent hommes.' _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'quando l'esercito era numeroso, si contava per _xiquipilli_: ed ogni _xiquipilli_ si componeva d'otto mila uomini.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] also spelt _quiahtlale_, _jaotlalli_, meaning a place for war. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , , . [ ] for further account of their manner of conducting a war, see: _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. , - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvii. [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] camargo says the prisoner was given his choice of every kind of offensive and defensive weapons. _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. - , but all other authors state that he was only given a short sword and shield. boturini says a servant who was under the stone drew the cord and so controlled the prisoner that he could not move. _idea_, p. . duran says: 'el modo que en celebrarlo tenian; que era atar á los presos con una soga al pie por un ahugero que aquella piedra tenia por medio, y desnudo en cueros le daban una rodela y una espada de solo palo emplumado en las manos, y unas pelotas de palo con que se defendian de los que salian á combatir con él, que eran cuatro muy bien armados.' _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. . [ ] _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xviii.; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . for further reference to treatment of prisoners, see: _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _id._, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _fossey_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. viii. [ ] instances of how the mexicans received their victorious armies are given in _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . see further, _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . chapter xiv. nahua laws and law courts. general remarks--the cihuacoatl, or supreme judge--the court of the tlacatecatl--jurisdiction of the tecuhtlis--the centectlapixques and topillis--law courts and judges of tezcuco--eighty-day council--tribunal of the king--court proceedings--lawyers--witnesses--remuneration of judges--justice of king nezahualpilli--he orders his son's execution--montezuma and the farmer--jails--laws against theft, murder, treason, kidnapping, drunkenness, witchcraft, adultery, incest, sodomy, fornication, and other crimes--story of nezahualcoyotl and the boy. it has already been stated that among the nahuas the supreme legislative power belonged to the king; the lawful share that he took in the administration of justice we shall see as we examine the system of jurisprudence adopted by them. when treating of the nahua judiciary the majority of historians have preferred to discuss almost exclusively the system in vogue at tezcuco, partly, perhaps, because it presents a nicer gradation of legal tribunals, and consequently a closer resemblance to european institutions than did the more simple routine of the mexicans, but mainly because the materials of information were more accessible and abundant. many writers, however, have not followed this rule, but throwing all the information they could obtain into a general fund, they have applied the whole indiscriminately to the 'mexicans,' by which term they mean all the inhabitants of the regions conquered by cortés. las casas, speaking of the allied kingdoms of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan, says that "their government and laws scarcely differed, so that whatever may be said of those parts concerning which the most information can be obtained, may be understood, and perhaps it is best to say it, as applying to all."[ ] although the number and jurisdiction of the law-courts of mexico and tezcuco differed, there is reason to believe that the laws themselves and the penalties inflicted were the same, or nearly so. [sidenote: the cihuacoatl, supreme judge.] in mexico, and in each of the principal cities of the empire, there was a supreme judge, called _cihuacoatl_,[ ] who was considered second only to the king in rank and authority. he heard appeals in criminal cases from the court immediately below him, and from his decision no appeal was allowed, not even to the king.[ ] whether or not the cihuacoatl pronounced judgment in civil cases is uncertain. according to clavigero he did;[ ] prescott,[ ] brasseur de bourbourg,[ ] and carbajal espinosa[ ] agree with clavigero, and leon carbajal[ ] cites torquemada as an authority for this statement, but the fact is torquemada distinctly affirms the contrary,[ ] as does las casas,[ ] from whom torquemada takes his information. it appears, however, reasonable to suppose that in some exceptional cases, as, for instance, where the title to large possessions was involved, or when the litigants were powerful nobles, the supreme judge may have taken cognizance of civil affairs. whether the jurisdiction of the cihuacoatl was ever original, as well as final, as prescott[ ] asserts it to have been, i do not find stated by the earlier authorities, although this may have happened exceptionally, but in that case there could have been but one hearing, for the king, who was the only superior of the supreme judge, had no authority to reverse the decisions of the latter. the cihuacoatl was appointed by the king, and he in turn appointed the inferior judges. he held his office for life, and in addition to his regular judicial duties had charge of the most important affairs of government, and of the royal revenues. he was without a colleague, and must administer justice in person. such was the respect paid to this exalted personage, that whoever had the audacity to usurp his power or insignia suffered death, his property was confiscated and his family enslaved.[ ] the next court was supreme in civil matters and could only be appealed from to the cihuacoatl in cases of a criminal nature. it was presided over by three judges, the chief of whom was styled _tlacatecatl_, and from him the court took its name; his colleagues were called _quauhnochtli_ and _tlanotlac_.[ ] each of these had his deputies and assistants. affairs of importance were laid in the first instance before this tribunal, but appeals from the inferior courts were also heard. sentence was pronounced by a crier entitled _tecpoyotl_ in the name of the tlacatecatl, and was carried into execution by the quauhnochtli with his own hands. the office of tecpoyotl was considered one of high honor because he declared the will of the king as represented by his judges. [sidenote: the tecuhtli and centectlapixque.] in each ward of the city there was a magistrate called _tecuhtli_ who was annually elected by the inhabitants of his district; he judged minor cases in the first instance only, and probably the office somewhat resembled that of our police judge. appeal lay from him to the tlacatecatl.[ ] it was the duty of the tecuhtlis to give a daily report of affairs that had been submitted to them, and of the judgments they had rendered thereon, to the tlacatecatl, who reviewed their proceedings. whether the tlacatecatl could reverse the decision of a tecuhtli when no appeal had been made, is uncertain, but it appears improbable, inasmuch as a failure to exercise the right of appeal would imply recognition of justice in the judgment passed by the lower tribunal. in each ward, and elected in the same manner as the tecuhtlis, were officers whose title was _centectlapixque_, whose province it was to watch over the behavior and welfare of a certain number of families committed to their charge, and to acquaint the magistrates with everything that passed. although the centectlapixques could not exercise judicial authority, yet it is probable that petty disputes were often submitted to them for arbitration, and that their arbitrament was abided by. in case the parties could not be brought to any friendly settlement, however, the centectlapixque immediately reported the matter to the tecuhtli of his district, and a regular trial ensued. the tecuhtlis had their bailiffs, who carried their messages and served summonses. in addition to these there were constables styled _topilli_, who arrested prisoners and enforced order.[ ] [sidenote: the eighty-day council.] in tezcuco, although the kingdom was divided into many provinces,[ ] the higher courts of justice were placed in six of the principal cities only.[ ] each of these tribunals was presided over by two judges, who were very high magnates and usually relatives of the king, and from these an appeal lay to two supreme judges who resided at the capital.[ ] these twelve judges were assisted by twelve sheriffs,[ ] whose duty it was to arrest prisoners of exalted rank in their own district, or to go in search of offenders in other provinces. the peculiar badge of these officers was a certain ornamented mantle; wherever they went they were held in great awe and respect, as representatives of the king, and seldom encountered resistance in the exercise of their functions. there were also constables in attendance on the courts, who acted with great diligence in carrying messages or making arrests. every ten or twelve days all the judges met in council with the king,[ ] when cases of importance were discussed, and either finally settled, or laid over for decision at a grand council which convened every four mexican months, making in all eighty days. on these occasions all the judges, without exception, met together, the king presiding in person. all being seated according to their order of precedence, an orator opened the proceedings with a speech, in which he praised virtue and severely reprimanded vice; he reviewed all the events of the past eighty days, and commented very severely even upon the acts of the king himself. in this council all suits were terminated, the sentences being carried out on the spot,[ ] and affairs of state and policy were discussed and transacted; it generally sat during eight or ten days.[ ] in addition to these judges there were magistrates of a lower order in all the provinces, who took cognizance of cases of minor importance, and who also heard and considered those of greater consequence preparatory to laying them before the eighty-day council.[ ] the historian ixtlilxochitl gives a somewhat different account of the tezcucan tribunals, which, as it contains the only description given by the ancient writers of the halls in which the judges sat, i translate in full. in the palace were two principal courtyards, the larger of which served as the market-place. the second courtyard was smaller than the first, and was situated more in the interior of the palace; in the centre of it a fire was kept continually burning. here were the two most important tribunals in the kingdom. to the right of this courtyard, writes ixtlilxochitl, was the supreme tribunal, which was called _teohicpalpan_, meaning, tribunal of god. here was a throne of gold, set with turquoises and other precious stones; before the throne stood a stool, upon which were a shield, a macana, and a bow with its quiver of arrows; upon these was placed a skull, surmounted by an emerald of a pyramidal shape, in the apex of which was fixed a plume of feathers and precious stones; at the sides, serving as carpets, were the skins of tigers and lions (tigres y leones), and mats (mantas) made of the feathers of the royal eagle, where a quantity of bracelets and anklets (grevas) of gold were likewise placed in regular order.[ ] the walls were tapestried with cloth of all colors, made of rabbits' hair, adorned with figures of divers birds, animals, and flowers.[ ] attached to the throne was a canopy of rich plumage, in the centre of which was a glittering ornament of gold and precious stones. [sidenote: the tribunal of the king.] the other tribunal was called that of the king; it also had a throne, which was lower than that of the tribunal of god, and a canopy adorned with the royal coat of arms. here the kings transacted ordinary business and gave public audience; but when they rendered decisions upon grave and important cases, or pronounced sentence of death, they removed to the tribunal of god, placing the right hand upon the skull, and holding in the left the golden arrow which served as a sceptre, and on these occasions they put on the tiara (tiara) which they used, which resembled a half mitre. there were on the same stool three of these tiaras; one was of precious stones set in gold, another of feathers, and the third woven of cotton and rabbit-hair, of a blue color. this tribunal was composed of fourteen grandees of the kingdom, who sat in three divisions of the hall, according to their rank and seniority. in the first division was the king; in the second division were seated six grandees; the first of these six, on the right hand, was the lord of teotihuacan, the second the lord of acolman, the third the lord of tepetlaoztoc; on the left side sat, first, the lord of huexotla, second, the lord of coatlichan, third, he of chimalhuacan. in the third division of the hall, which was the exterior one, sat eight other lords, according to their rank and seniority; on the right side the first was the lord of otompan, the second was the lord of tollantzinco, the third the lord of quauhchinanco, the fourth the lord of xicotepec, and on the left side were, first, the lord of tepechpan, second, the lord of chiauhtla, third, the lord of chiuhnauhtla, and fourth, he of teiotocan. there followed, also, another hall, which adjoined this on the eastern side, and was divided into two parts; in the inner and principal division, were eight judges, who were nobles and gentlemen, and four others who were of the citizen class;[ ] these were followed by fifteen provincial judges, natives of all the cities and chief towns of tezcuco; the latter took cognizance of all suits, civil or criminal, which were embraced in the eighty laws that nezahualcoyotl established; the duration of the most important of these cases was never more than eighty days. in the other, or exterior, division of the hall, was a tribunal composed of four supreme judges, who were presidents of the councils; and there was a wicket, through which they entered and went out to communicate with the king.[ ] [sidenote: court proceedings.] besides these various tribunals for the general administration of justice, there were others that had jurisdiction in cases of a peculiar nature only. there was a court of divorce, and another which dealt only with military matters; by it military men were tried and punished, and it had also the power to confer rewards and honors upon the deserving; the especial jurisdiction of another tribunal extended over matters pertaining to art and science, while a fourth court had charge of the royal exchequer, of taxes and tributes, and of those employed in collecting them. of some of these institutions i have already had occasion to speak. the mode of procedure, or daily routine, in the law courts of mexico and tezcuco was strict and formal. at sunrise, or as some say, at daybreak, the judges took their places in court, squatting upon mats spread for the purpose, usually upon an elevated platform. here they administered justice until noon, when they partook of a meal supplied from the royal kitchen. when this was over and they had rested for a short space, business was resumed, and carried on during the greater part of the afternoon. punctuality on the part of the judges was strictly enforced, and he who absented himself from court without good cause, such as illness, or royal permission, was severely punished. this order was observed every day, except when the presence of the judges was required at the public sacrifices or solemn festivities, at which time the courts of justice remained closed.[ ] [sidenote: examination of witnesses.] minor cases were conducted verbally, the parties producing their witnesses, who testified under oath for the complaint or the defence. the testimony, under oath, of the principals was also admitted as evidence; and one writer even asserts that the defendant could clear himself by his oath;[ ] but it is plain that if such were the case conviction would be very rare. in cases of greater importance, especially in civil suits where the possession of real estate was involved, paintings, in which the property in dispute was represented, were produced as authentic documents, and the whole of the proceedings, such as the object of the claim, the evidence, the names of the parties and their respective witnesses, as well as the decision or sentence, were recorded in court by notaries, or clerks, appointed for that purpose.[ ] a witness in an aztec court of law occupied a serious position. in the first place the judges are by all writers said to have been particularly skillful in cross-examination. they seem to have made it an especial study to harass witnesses with pertinent questions and minute details; in the next place the punishment for perjury was death, and perjury among these people consisted in making a false statement when under oath, without the possibility of being saved by a legal quibble; in addition to this, superstition attached great weight to the oath which every witness was obliged to take, and which consisted in touching the forefinger to the earth and then to the tongue, as if to say, as las casas expresses it: by the goddess earth, who supports and affords me sustenance, i swear to speak truth. this oath was considered to be very sacred and binding, and is said to have been rarely violated. whether counsel or advocates were employed is a disputed point, some writers asserting distinctly that they were, and others that they were not.[ ] veytia states that the complainant and defendant were sometimes confronted with each other, and compelled to argue the case before the court, no other person being allowed to speak the while. the judges heard and passed sentence by a majority of votes,[ ] each giving his decision aloud. if the trial took place in an inferior court, a disagreement sent the matter on appeal to a higher court; if it took place in the first instance before a superior tribunal, it was appealed to the great council of the emperor. the same writer also says that where a serious public offense had been committed, the witnesses were examined, and sentence was immediately passed without giving the accused time to defend himself.[ ] we have already seen that the duration of suits was limited to eighty days, and generally they terminated much sooner than this, all possible expedition being always used. the better to avoid bribery and corruption, it was expressly forbidden for a judge to receive presents, no matter how trifling, and he who violated this rule was deposed from office, and otherwise punished with exceeding rigor. the way in which the judges were paid for their services was peculiar. a certain portion of land was set apart for their exclusive benefit, which was cultivated and harvested by tenants, who doubtless were allowed to retain a part of the produce in return for their labor. these lands were not inherited by the son on the death of the father, but passed to the judge appointed in the place of the latter.[ ] veytia does not mention these lands; he says that the judges had no fixed salary, but were paid according to the king's pleasure, more or less, in proportion to the size of their families, besides which the king made valuable presents when the eighty-day council met, to those who had performed their duty to his satisfaction.[ ] the allowance was in all cases made amply sufficient, that there might be no excuse on the ground of poverty for a judge receiving presents or bribes. they held their office for life, and were selected from the higher classes, especially the superior judges, who were generally relatives of the king, or even members of the royal family. none were eligible for the office who were not sober, upright men, brought up in the temples, and who were well acquainted with court life and manners. a judge who became drunk, or received a bribe, was three times severely reprimanded by his fellow-judges; if the offense was repeated, his head was shaved publicly, a great disgrace among the aztecs, and he was deprived of his office with ignominy. a judge making a false report to the king, or convicted of receiving a large bribe, or of rendering a manifestly unjust decision, was punished with death.[ ] all this machinery of the law was dispensed with in tlascala, where all disputes and difficulties were promptly settled by certain old men appointed for that purpose.[ ] [sidenote: anecdotes of nezahualpilli.] a love of impartial justice seems to have characterized all the aztec monarchs, and, as we have seen, the laws they enacted to ensure this to their subjects were severe in the extreme. no favoritism was allowed; all, from the highest to the lowest were held amenable to the law. a story, illustrating this, is repeated by nearly all the old writers. in the reign of nezahualpilli, the son of nezahualcoyotl, who were accounted the two wisest kings of tezcuco, a suit sprang up between a rich and powerful noble and a poor man of the people. the judge decided against the poor man, who thereby lost what little he had, and was in danger of having to sell himself as a slave to procure subsistence for his family. but suspicion of foul play having been aroused, the king ordered the matter to be thoroughly investigated, when it transpired that the judge had been guilty of collusion with the rich man; so the king commanded that the unjust judge should be hanged at once, and that the poor man's property should be restored to him. neither were the rulers themselves, nor their families, exempt from observance of the law, and instances are not wanting where fathers have, brutus-like, condemned their children to death, rather than allow the law to be violated, and the offender to go unpunished. nezahualcoyotl caused four of his own sons to be publicly executed because they had sinned with their step-mothers, the wives of their father.[ ] a very touching incident is narrated by torquemada, showing to what an extent this love of impartial justice was carried by a tezcucan sovereign. nezahualpilli, king of tezcuco, had married two sisters, whom he dearly loved, and especially did he dote upon the younger, whose name was xocotzincatzin. by her he had several children, the eldest being a son, named huexotzincatzin, who was beloved by all who knew him, on account of his amiable disposition and noble qualities, and who was besides a very valiant young man and a great warrior. no wonder that he was the king's pride, and beloved even more than his brothers and sisters, for his own and his mother's sake. so much had huexotzincatzin distinguished himself, that, although he was but a young man, his father determined to bestow upon him the office and title of tlacatecatl, which was a post of the highest honor and importance.[ ] for this purpose the king one day ordered that the prince be sent for and brought into his presence. with a light heart, and much elated, huexotzincatzin, accompanied by his suite, and the nobles who were his tutors, set out for the royal palace. as he was about to enter, the prince met one of his father's concubines, attended by her ladies. this concubine was a very beautiful and proud woman, yet withal of a free and easy carriage, that encouraged huexotzincatzin, who perhaps did not know who she was, to address her in a familiar and disrespectful manner. the woman, who, the historian remarks, could not have been possessed of much sense, either because she felt offended at his conduct towards her, or because she dreaded the consequence if the king should discover what had happened, turned from the prince without a word, and entered the palace. the king's concubines, as we have seen in a former chapter, were always accompanied by certain elderly women, whose duty it was to instruct them in discreet behavior and to watch continually over their actions. one of these women, who had been with the concubine at the time of her meeting with huexotzincatzin, and had overheard the prince's remarks, went straightway to the king, and informed him of all that had happened. the king immediately sent for his concubine, and inquired of her if the prince had spoken lewdly to her publicly and in the presence of the ladies and courtiers, or if he had intended his words to reach her ear alone; for nezahualpilli would fain have discovered some excuse for his son, the punishment for speaking lewdly in public to the king's concubines being, according to law, death; but the frightened woman replied that huexotzincatzin had spoken openly to her, before all that were present. then the king dismissed the concubine, and retired, mourning, into certain apartments which were called the 'rooms of sorrow.' [sidenote: punishment of the king's son.] when these things came to the ears of the friends and tutors of the prince, they were much troubled on his account, because the severity of the king, and his strict adherence to the law were as a proverb among the people, and their apprehensions increased when, upon arriving at the royal apartments, the prince was denied admission, although his attendants were ordered to appear at once before the king. there they were closely questioned by him, and although they would willingly have saved the prince from the consequences of his folly, yet they dared not speak anything but truth, for he who was convicted of wilfully deceiving the king, suffered death. all they could do was to make excuses for the prince, and ask pardon for his crime, and this they did with many prayers and entreaties, advancing, as extenuating circumstances, his youth, his previous good conduct, and his possible ignorance of the fact that the lady was his father's concubine. the king listened patiently to the end, answering nothing, and then he commanded that huexotzincatzin be forthwith arrested and placed in confinement. later in that same day he pronounced sentence of death against his son. when it became known that huexotzincatzin was to die, all the powerful nobles who were at court went in a body to the king and earnestly conjured him not to insist upon carrying out his sentence, telling him that it was barbarous and unnatural, and that future generations would hold in horror and hatred the memory of the man who had condemned his own son to death. their prayers and arguments seemed, however, to render the old king only the more implacable, and he dismissed them, saying that if the law forbade such things, and if that law was inviolably observed throughout the kingdom, how could he justify his conduct to his subjects, were he to allow the same to be infringed upon in his own palace, and the offender to remain unpunished merely because he was his son; that it should never be said of him that he made laws for his subjects which did not apply to his own family. when xocotzincatzin, the prince's mother, heard that he was condemned to death, she gathered the rest of her sons about her, and coming suddenly before her husband, she fell on her knees and besought him with many tears, to spare the life of her darling son, the first pledge of love that she, his favorite wife had given him. finding all her entreaties fruitless, she then implored him for the sake of the love he had once borne her, to slay her and her other sons with huexotzincatzin, since life without her first-born was unbearable. but the stern old king still sat to all appearance unmoved and immovable, and coldly directed the attendant ladies to convey the wretched mother to her apartments. the execution of the prince was delayed in every possible manner by those who had charge of it, in the hope that the king might even yet relent; but nezahualpilli having been informed of this, immediately ordered that the sentence should be carried out without further delay. so huexotzincatzin died. as soon as the news of his son's death was carried to the king, he shut himself up in certain apartments called the 'rooms of sorrow,' and there remained forty days, mourning for his first-born and seeing no one. the house of the late prince was then walled up, and none were allowed to enter it, and so all tokens of the unhappy young man were destroyed.[ ] [sidenote: montezuma and the farmer.] another anecdote, which is written in execrable spanish by the native historian, tezozomoc, may not be out of place here. it is told of the emperor montezuma of mexico, and the reader will at once recognize a resemblance between this and many other anecdotes with which he is familiar, where a bold and merited rebuke from a subject to his sovereign is received with respect and even favor. it happened one summer, that the king, being wearied with the cares of government, went for rest and recreation to his country palace at tacubaya. one day, when out shooting birds, he came to an orchard, and having told his attendants to remain outside, he entered alone. he succeeded in killing a bird, and as he was returning, bearing his game in his hand, he turned aside into a field where a remarkably fine crop of corn was growing. having plucked a few ears, he went towards the house of the owner of the field, which stood hard by, for the purpose of showing him the ears that he had plucked, and of praising his crop, but as by law it was death to look upon the king's face, the occupants of the house had fled, and there was no one therein. now the owner of the field had seen the king pluck the corn from afar off, and, notwithstanding it was against the law, he ventured to approach the monarch in such a way as to make the meeting appear accidental. making a deep obeisance, he thus addressed the king: "how is it, most high and mighty prince, that thou hast thus stolen my corn? didst thou not thyself establish a law that he who should steal one ear of corn, or its value, should suffer death?" and montezuma answered: "truly i did make such a law." then said the farmer: "how is it then, that thou breakest thine own law?" and the king replied: "here is thy corn, take back that which i have stolen from thee." but the owner of the field began to be alarmed at his own boldness, and tried to excuse himself, saying that he had spoken merely in jest, for, said he: "are not my fields, and myself, and my wife, and my children, all thine, to do with as thou wilt;" and he refused to take back the ears of corn. then the king took off his mantle of net-work and precious stones, which was called _xiuhayatl_ and was worth a whole city, and offered it to the farmer, who at first was afraid to accept so precious a gift, but montezuma insisted, so he took the mantle, promising to preserve it with great care as a remembrance of the king. when montezuma returned to his attendants, the precious mantle was at once missed, and they began to inquire what had become of it; which the king perceiving, he told them that he had been set upon by robbers, when alone, who had robbed him of his mantle, at the same time he ordered them, upon pain of death, to say nothing more about the matter. the next day, having arrived at his royal palace in mexico, when all his great nobles were about him, he ordered one of his captains to repair to tacubaya, and inquire for a certain xochitlacotzin, whom they should at once bring to his presence, but under penalty of death they should not injure or abuse him in any way. when the king's messengers told xochitlacotzin their errand, he was greatly alarmed, and tried to escape, but they caught him, and telling him to fear nothing, for that the king was kindly disposed towards him, they brought him before montezuma. the king, having bidden him welcome, asked him what had become of his mantle. at this the nobles who were present became much excited, but montezuma quieted them, saying: "this poor man has more courage and boldness than any of you who are here, for he dared to speak the truth and tell me that i had broken my laws. of such men have i greater need, than of those who speak only with honeyed words to me." then having inquired what principal offices were vacant, he ordered his attendant lords to shelter and take care of xochitlacotzin, who was henceforth his relative and one of the chief men of the realm. afterwards he who had so lately been a poor farmer was given a principal house of olac for his own, and it was long the boast of his descendants that they were relatives of montezuma.[ ] [sidenote: punishment of crimes.] the aztecs adopted numerous ways of punishing offenders against the law, as we shall see presently, but i do not think that imprisonment was largely resorted to. they had prisons, it is true, and very cruel ones, according to all accounts, but it appears that they were more for the purpose of confining prisoners previous to their trial, or between their condemnation and execution, than permanently, for punishment. these jails were of two classes, one called _teilpiloyan_ for those imprisoned on a civil charge, another called _quauhcalco_,[ ] for prisoners condemned to death. the cells were made like cages, and the prison was so constructed as to admit very little light or air;[ ] the food was scanty and of a bad quality, so that, as las casas expresses it, the prisoners soon became thin and yellow, and commenced at the prison to suffer the death that was afterwards adjudged them. clavigero, however, asserts that those condemned to the sacrificial stone were well fed in order that they might appear in good flesh at the sacrifice.[ ] a very close watch was kept upon the captives, so much so, indeed, that if through the negligence of the guard a prisoner of war escaped from the cage, the community of the district, whose duty it was to supply the prisoners with guards, was obliged to pay to the owner of the fugitive, a female slave, a load of cotton garments, and a shield.[ ] mendieta says that these prisons were only used for persons awaiting trial on very grave charges; for, he writes, in the case of one held to answer on an ordinary charge, "it was sufficient for the minister of justice to place the prisoner in a corner with a few light sticks before him; indeed, i believe that to have merely drawn a line and told him not to pass it would have sufficed, even though he might have reason to believe that there was a heavy punishment in store for him, because to flee from justice, and escape, was an impossibility. at all events, i with my own eyes have seen a prisoner standing entirely unguarded save for the before-mentioned sticks."[ ] like most semi-barbarous nations, the aztecs were more prone to punish crime than to recompense virtue, and even when merit was rewarded, it was of the coarser and more material kind, such as valor in war or successful statesmanship. the greater part of their code might, like dracon's, have been written in blood--so severe were the penalties inflicted for crimes that were comparatively slight, and so brutal and bloody were the ways of carrying those punishments into execution. in the strongest sense of the phrase the aztecs were ruled with a rod of iron; but that such severity was necessary i have no doubt, inasmuch as whatever form of government exists, be it good or bad, that form of government is the necessary one, or it could have no existence. all young states must adopt harsh laws to secure the peace and well-being of the community, while as yet the laws of habit and usage are unestablished; and as that community progresses and improves, it will of itself mold its system of government to fit itself. the code of dracon was superseded by that of solon when the improved state of the athenian community warranted a mitigation of the severity of the former, and in like manner the laws of montezuma and nezahualcoyotl would have given place to others less harsh had aztec civilization been allowed to progress. [sidenote: code of laws.] the laws of the several aztec kingdoms were essentially the same; some slight differences existed, however, and in these instances the code of tezcuco proves the most rigid and severe, while more of lenience is exhibited in that of mexico. i have before remarked that the majority of writers treat of the legislation of tezcuco, but, as in other matters, many authorities who should be reliable surmount the difficulty of distinguishing that which belongs to one system of jurisprudence from that which belongs to another, by speaking generally of the code that existed in nueva españa, or among 'these people.' most of the subjected provinces adopted the laws of the state to which they became subject. but this was by no means obligatory, because as conquered nations were not compelled to speak the language of their conquerors, neither were they forced to make use of their laws.[ ] let us now see what these laws were. [sidenote: punishment of theft.] theft was punished in various ways, and, it appears, not at all in proportion to the magnitude of the crime. thus he who stole a certain number of ears of corn,[ ] suffered death, while he who broke into the temples and stole therefrom, was enslaved for the first offence and hanged for the second, and it is distinctly stated[ ] that in order to merit either of these punishments the theft must be an extensive one. in cases not specially provided for, it appears that a petty thief became the slave of the person from whom he had stolen; according to ortega, however, the injured party had the privilege of refusing to accept the thief as a slave, in which case the latter was sold by the judges, and with the proceeds of the sale the complainant was reimbursed. the same writer states that in some cases a compromise could be effected by the offended party agreeing to be indemnified by the thief, in which case the latter paid into the treasury a sum equal to the amount stolen. this statement is somewhat obscure, inasmuch as it would be but poor satisfaction to the party robbed to see the equivalent of that robbery paid into the public treasury; but i understand the writer to mean that the loser had his loss made good, and that for the satisfaction of justice an equal amount was imposed as a fine upon the prisoner.[ ] theft of a large amount was almost invariably punished with death, which was inflicted in various ways. usually the culprit was dragged ignominiously through the streets and then hanged;[ ] sometimes he was stoned to death.[ ] he who robbed on the highway was killed by having his head smashed with a club;[ ] he who was caught in the act of pilfering in the market-place, no matter how trivial the theft, was beaten to death with sticks on the spot by the assembled multitude, for this was considered a most heinous sin; but notwithstanding the fearful risk incurred, it is asserted that many were so light-fingered that it was only necessary for a market woman to turn her head away, and her stall would be robbed in a trice. there was a regular judicial tribunal established for the settling of disputes in the general government of the market-place, of which i have had occasion to speak before; but this tribunal does not appear to have troubled itself much with persons who were caught in the act of stealing, as it seems to have been tacitly allowed to the people assembled in the market-place to exercise lynch law upon the culprit.[ ] besides these general laws for the prevention of theft, there were others which prescribed special penalties for those who stole certain particular articles. for instance, ortega tells us that the thief of silver or gold was skinned alive and sacrificed to xipe, the tutelary divinity of the workers in precious metals, such a theft being considered a direct insult to the god.[ ] in some of these cases fines were imposed. among a collection of laws given by las casas, for the authenticity of which he does not vouch, "because," he says, "they were taken out of a little indian book of no authority," we find the following relating to theft: if any one stole the plants, called maguey, from which they manufactured more than twenty articles, and which were used for making syrup, he was compelled to pay as a fine as many cotton cloths as the judges might decree, and if he was unable to pay the fine imposed, or if he had stolen more than twenty plants, he was enslaved. whoever stole a fishing-net or a canoe was punished in the same manner. whoever stole corn to the amount of twenty ears or upward, died for it, and if he took a less quantity, he paid that which he was sentenced to pay. he that plucked the corn before it had formed seed, suffered death. whoever stole a tecomatl, "which is a little gourd tied at the top with strips of red hide, and having feather tassels at the end, used by the lords for carrying a green powder, from which they take in smoke through the mouth, the powder being called in the island of española 'tabacos'--whoever stole one of these died for it." he that stole precious stones, and more especially the stone called chalchiuite, no matter from whence he took it, was stoned to death in the market-place, because no man of the lower orders was allowed to possess this stone.[ ] in mexico, a distinction seems to have been made between the thief who reaped the benefit of his crime and him who did not; in other words, if the stolen property was recovered intact from the thief he was only enslaved, but if he had already disposed of his plunder he suffered death.[ ] whether the ultimate recovery of the property after it had passed from the thief's hands, would answer the same end, we are not told, but if not, then it would appear that according to aztec jurisprudence the culprit was punished not so much in proportion to the actual injury he inflicted upon others, as in accordance with the actual extent of the crime he committed. in michoacan, the first theft was not severely punished, but for the second offence the thief was thrown down a precipice and his carcass left to the birds of prey.[ ] the murderer suffered death even though he should be a noble and his victim but a slave.[ ] in michoacan, we are told by herrera,[ ] that there was no punishment for murder, since, through fear, the crime was never committed. beaumont allows that for a time there were no murders, but says that afterwards they became frequent, and then the criminal was dragged along the ground until he died.[ ] he who administered poison to another, thereby causing death, died for it, and the same punishment was awarded to him who furnished the poison.[ ] [sidenote: the fate of traitors and conspirators.] traitors, conspirators, and those who stirred up sedition among the people or created ill feeling between nations, were broken to pieces at the joints, their houses razed to the ground, their property confiscated, and their children and relations made slaves to the fourth generation. the lord of vassals who rebelled, unless taken captive in battle, was killed by having his head smashed with a club; the common rebel was tied to an oaken spit and roasted alive.[ ] in tezcuco, he who kidnapped a child and sold it into slavery, was hanged; in mexico, the kidnapper was himself sold as a slave, and of the price he brought one half was given to the stolen child, or its parents, and the other half became the property of the purchaser; if several persons were implicated in the crime, they were all sold as slaves.[ ] [sidenote: laws against intoxication.] drunkenness was punished with excessive rigor; indeed, intoxicating liquor was not allowed to be drunk, except by express permission from the judges, and this license was only granted to invalids and persons over fifty years of age, who, it was considered, needed strong drink in order to warm their blood; and even they were only permitted to partake of a limited quantity, at each meal,[ ] though according to the explanation of mendoza's collection old men of seventy years were allowed to drink as much as they pleased.[ ] moderate conviviality at weddings and public feasts, was not forbidden, and upon these occasions the young people were allowed to partake of the wine-cup sparingly;[ ] the same license was granted to those whose daily occupation necessitated great bodily exertion, such as masons, carpenters, and the like.[ ] women in childbed were allowed to use strong drink as a stimulant, but only during the first days of their confinement. with these exceptions, the law against drinking was strictly enforced. the young man who became drunk was conveyed to the jail, and there beaten to death with clubs; the young woman was stoned to death. in some parts, if the drunkard was a plebeian, he was sold for a slave for the first offence, and suffered death for the second; at other times the offender's hair was cut off in the public market-place, he was then lashed through the principal streets, and finally his house was razed to the ground, because, they said, one who would give up his reason to the influence of strong drink, was unworthy to possess a house, and be numbered among respectable citizens. cutting off the hair was, as we shall see, a mode of punishment frequently resorted to by these people, and so deep was the degradation supposed to be attached to it, that it was dreaded almost equally with death itself. should a military man, who had gained distinction in the wars, become drunk, he was deprived of his rank and honors, and considered thenceforth as infamous. conviction of this crime rendered the culprit ineligible for all future emoluments, and especially was he debarred from holding any public office. a noble was invariably hanged for the first offence, his body being afterwards dragged without the limits of the town and cast into a stream used for that purpose only. but a mightier influence than mere fear of the penal law restrained the aztec nobility and gentry from drinking to excess; this influence was social law. it was considered degrading for a person of quality to touch wine at all, even in seasons of festivity when, as i have said, it was customary and lawful for the lower classes to indulge to a certain extent. wine-bibbing was looked upon as a coarse pleasure, peculiar exclusively to the common people, and a member of the higher orders, who was suspected of practicing the habit, would have forfeited his social position, even though the law had suffered him to remain unpunished.[ ] these heathens, however, seem to have recognized the natural incongruity existing between precept and practice, fully as much as the most advanced christian.[ ] he who employed witchcraft, charms, or incantations for the purpose of doing injury to the community or to individuals, was sacrificed to the gods, by having his breast opened and his heart torn out.[ ] [sidenote: miscellaneous laws.] whoever made use of the royal insignia or ensigns, suffered death, and his property was confiscated.[ ] the reader will recollect that the same penalty was inflicted upon him who should usurp the insignia or office of the mexican cihuacoatl, or supreme judge. whoever maltreated an ambassador, minister, or courier, belonging to the king, suffered death; but ambassadors and couriers were on their part forbidden to leave the high road, under pain of losing their privileges.[ ] he who by force took possession of land not belonging to him, suffered death.[ ] he who sold the land of another, or that which he held in trust, without judicial authority, or permission from such as had power to grant it to him, was enslaved.[ ] if a piece of land was fraudulently sold twice over, the first purchaser held it, and the vendor was punished.[ ] he who squandered his patrimony suffered death.[ ] the son that raised his hand against his father or mother, suffered death, and his children were prevented from inheriting the property of their grand-parents. in the same manner a father could disinherit a son who was cowardly or cruel.[ ] he who removed boundary-marks, died for it.[ ] those who disturbed the peace by engaging in petty fights and squabbles, without using weapons, were confined in jail for a few days, and obliged to make good whatever damage they had done; for, says las casas, they generally revenged themselves by breaking something. if any one was wounded in a brawl, he who made the assault had to defray all the expenses of curing the injured party. but those who fought in the market-place, were dealt with far more severely.[ ] slanderers were treated with great severity. in mexico, he who wilfully calumniated another, thereby seriously injuring his reputation, was condemned to have his lips cut off, and sometimes his ears also. in tezcuco, the slanderer suffered death. the false witness had the same penalty adjudged to him that would have been awarded to the accused, if convicted. so great a lover of truth was king nezahualcoyotl, that he is said to have made a law prescribing the death penalty to historians who should record fictitious events.[ ] whoever obtained goods on credit and did not pay for them, was enslaved, and the delinquent taxpayer met with the same punishment.[ ] [sidenote: penalty for adultery.] concerning the way in which adulterers were treated scarcely two of the ancient writers agree,[ ] and it is probable that the law on this point differed more or less in various parts of the aztec kingdoms; indeed, we have clavigero's testimony that in some parts of the mexican empire the crime of adultery was punished with greater severity than in others, and las casas and mendieta both speak of several penalties attaching to the offence in different localities. according to what can be gathered on this point, it appears that adulterers taken in flagrante delicto, or under circumstances which made their guilt a moral certainty, were stoned to death. a species of trial was granted to the culprits, but if, as some writers assert, confession of guilt was extorted by torture,[ ] this trial must have been as much a mockery of justice as were the proceedings of most european courts of law at that period. the amount of evidence necessary to convict is uncertain. veytia says that accusation by the husband was in itself sufficient proof.[ ] las casas and torquemada, however, who are both far older authorities, tell us that no man or woman was punished for adultery upon the unsupported testimony of the husband, but that other witnesses, and the confession of the defendants were necessary to procure their conviction.[ ] usually if the condemned adulterers were of the lower orders, they were taken out into a public place and there stoned to death by the assembled multitude, and few of the old writers omit to remark that this manner of death was almost painless, since no sooner was the first stone thrown than the poor wretch was immediately covered with a pile of missiles, so great was the number of his executioners, and so eager was each to take a hand in the killing. another common mode of execution consisted in placing the head of the condemned upon a stone, and smashing his skull by letting another stone fall upon it.[ ] the noble convicted of the same crime was not killed in this public manner, but was strangled in jail; and as a mark of respect to his rank, his head, after death, was adorned with plumes of green feathers, and the body was then burned. adulterers who were found guilty merely upon circumstantial evidence also suffered death by strangulation. it was strictly forbidden for a husband to take the law into his own hands, and he who should seek to avenge his honor by slaying his wife or her paramour, even though he took them in the act of adultery, suffered death; in the same manner should the criminal endeavor to save himself by killing the injured husband, his fate was to be roasted alive before a slow fire, his body being basted with salt and water that death might not come to his relief too soon.[ ] an adulterer could not escape the law on the plea of drunkenness,[ ] and, indeed, had such an excuse been held admissible, little would have been gained by exchanging the fate of the adulterer for that of the drunkard. the trespass of a married man with a free unmarried woman was not considered to constitute adultery, nor punished as such, so that the husband was not bound to so much fidelity as was exacted from the wife. i have before remarked that although the crime of adultery was punished in all parts of the aztec empire, yet the penalty inflicted differed in point of severity and in manner of execution. thus, in the province of ixcatlan, if we may believe clavigero, a woman accused of this crime was summoned before the judges, and if the proofs of her guilt were satisfactory, she was there and then torn to pieces, and her limbs were divided among the witnesses, while in itztepec the guilty woman's husband cut off her ears and nose, thus branding her as infamous for life.[ ] in some parts of the empire the husband who cohabited with his wife after it had been proved that she had violated her fidelity, was severely punished.[ ] [sidenote: unnatural crimes.] carnal connection with mother, sister, step-mother or step-sister, was punished by hanging; torquemada says the same penalty was incurred by him who had connection with his mother-in-law, because they considered it a sin for a man to have access to both mother and daughter. intercourse between brother-in-law and sister-in-law was, however, not criminal, and, indeed, it was customary for a man to raise up seed to his deceased brother by marrying his widow.[ ] he who attempted to ravish a maiden, whether in the field, or in her father's house, suffered death.[ ] in michoacan, the ravisher's mouth was split from ear to ear with a flint knife, and he was afterwards impaled.[ ] in mexico, those who committed sodomy were hanged; in tezcuco, the punishment for unnatural crime was characteristically brutal. the active agent was bound to a stake, completely covered with ashes and so left to die; the entrails of the passive agent were drawn out through his anus, he also was then covered with ashes, and, wood being added, the pile was ignited.[ ] in tlascala, the sodomite was not punished by law, but was scouted by society, and treated with scorn and contempt by all who knew him.[ ] from the extreme severity of the laws enacted by the later sovereigns for the suppression of this revolting vice, and from the fact that persons were especially appointed by the judicial authorities to search the provinces for offenders of this class, it is evident that unnatural love had attained a frightful popularity among the aztecs. father pierre de gand, or, as he is sometimes known, de mura, bears terrible testimony to this; he writes: "un certain nombre de prêtres n'avaient point de femmes, _sed eorum loco pueros quibus abutebantur_. ce péché était si commun dans ce pays, que, jeunes ou vieux, tous en étaient infectés; ils y étaient si adonnés, que mêmes des enfants de six ans s'y livraient."[ ] las casas relates that in several of the more remote provinces of mexico unnatural vice was tolerated, if not actually permitted,[ ] and it is not improbable that in earlier times this was the case in the entire empire. inexpressibly revolting as the sin must appear to a modern mind, yet we know that pederasty has obtained among peoples possessed of a more advanced civilization than the aztecs. in ancient greece this unnatural passion prevailed to such an extent that it was regarded as heroic to resist it. plutarch, in his _life of agesilaus_, cannot praise too highly the self-control manifested by that great man in refraining from gratifying a passion he had conceived for a boy named megabates, which maximus tyrius says deserves greater praise than the heroism of leonidas; diogenes laertius, in his _life of zeno_, the founder of stoicism, the most austere of all ancient sects, praises that philosopher for being but little addicted to this vice; sophocles, the tragic homer, and the attic bee, is said by athenæus to have been especially addicted to it. moralists were known to praise it as the bond of friendship, and it was spoken of as inspiring the enthusiasm of the heroic legion of epaminondas. the defeat of the romans by hannibal at cannæ was said to be caused by the jealousy of juno, because a beautiful boy had been introduced into the temple of jupiter. las casas tells us that pederasty was tolerated because they believed that their gods practiced it.[ ] in precisely the same manner did the ancient greeks make the popular religion bend to the new vice, and, by substituting ganymede for hebe as heavenly cup-bearer, make the head of all olympus set an example of unnatural love. [sidenote: laws respecting chastity.] the priest who violated his vow of chastity was banished; his house was demolished and his property confiscated.[ ] pimps were publicly disgraced in the market-place, by having their hair burnt off so close to the head that the drops of resin falling from the burning pitch-pine chips fell upon and seared the scalp; if the persons for whom the panderage was committed were of high rank, a greater penalty was inflicted upon the pander.[ ] this was the law in mexico; in tezcuco, according to the historian of the chichimecs, the pimp suffered death in all cases.[ ] simple fornication was not punished, unless it was committed by a noble lady, or with a maiden consecrated to the service of the gods, in which cases it was death. fornication with the concubine of another also went unpunished, unless they had been living a long time together, and were in consequence, according to custom, considered man and wife. if any one had connection with a slave, and the woman died during her pregnancy, or in giving birth to the child, then the offender became a slave; but if she was safely delivered, the child was free and was taken care of by the father.[ ] the woman who took any drug to procure an abortion, and she who furnished the drug, both suffered death.[ ] if one woman sinned carnally with another, both died for it.[ ] the man who went about the streets dressed as a woman, or the woman who dressed as a man, was slain.[ ] in this account are comprised nearly all the special laws of the aztecs which have been preserved, with the exception of those relating to military matters, marriage, divorce, and slavery, all of which i have already had occasion to consider. that the aztec code was a severe and brutal one there can be no denial, but that it was more severe and brutal than was necessary, is, as i have before remarked, doubtful. we have already seen that a horrible death was the inevitable fate of those detected stealing in the market-place, yet we are told that did the owner of a stall but turn away his head for a moment, his wares would be pilfered. a people accustomed almost daily to see human blood poured out like water in sacrifice to their gods, must of necessity have been hardened to the sight of suffering, and upon such none but an execution of the most revolting description could create an impression of awe or fear. it appears remarkable that punishments involving only disgrace should have been adopted by such a people, yet it is doubtful whether slavery was not considered a lighter punishment than having the hair burned off in the public market. some of the aztec monarchs evinced a desire to be as lenient as the stubborn nature of their subjects would allow, but the yoke upon the people, if it were in any degree to control them, must at best be a heavy one; in short, despotism of the harshest was necessary and indispensable to them in their stage of civilization. [sidenote: nezahualcoyotl and the boy.] nezahualcoyotl, king of tezcuco, was especially merciful and considerate towards his subjects. for instance, he ordered that corn should be planted, at the expense of government, by the roadside, in order that none who were guilty of stealing from the fields, might excuse themselves on the ground of hunger.[ ] it is related that this monarch went frequently among his people in disguise, for the purpose of discovering their grievances and general condition, and some of the adventures he met with on these occasions are as entertaining as any told by sheherezade of the good caliph. i select one, not because it is the best, but because it points more particularly to nezahualcoyotl's benevolence and love of justice. during the reign of this monarch, owing to the immense consumption of wood, the use of oil and tallow being then unknown, the forests began to grow thin, and the king foreseeing that unless some precautions were taken, there would soon be a scarcity of wood in the kingdom, ordered that within certain limits no wood should be touched. now it happened one day, when the king was abroad in disguise, and accompanied only by his brother quauhtlehuanitzin, that they passed by the skirts of a forest wherein it was prohibited to cut or gather wood. here they found a boy who was engaged in picking up the light chips and twigs that had been carried by the wind outside of the enclosure, because in this locality the inhabitants were very numerous, and had exhausted all the timber that was not reserved by law. nezahualcoyotl, seeing that under the trees of the forest there lay a great quantity of fallen wood, asked the boy why he contented himself with dry leaves and scattered twigs when so great an abundance of fuel lay close at hand. the boy answered that the king had forbidden the people to gather wood in the forest, and therefore he was obliged to take whatever he could get. the king told him to go, nevertheless, into the forest and help himself to fuel, and none would be the wiser, for that he and his companion would say nothing of the matter. but the boy rebuked them, saying that they must be traitors to the king who would persuade him to do this thing, or that they sought to avenge themselves upon his parents by bringing misfortune upon their son, and he refused to enter the forbidden ground. then was the king much pleased with the boy's loyalty, and seeing the distress to which the people were reduced by the severity of the forest laws, he afterwards had them altered.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'el govierno y las leyes quasi no diferian, por manera que por lo que de unas partes dijeremos, y adonde tuvimos mayor noticia, se podra entender, y quiza sera mejor, decirlo en comun y generalmente.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii. it is also stated that many mexican cases, presenting more than ordinary difficulty, were tried in the tezcucan law-courts; see _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . speaking of mexico, tezcuco, and tlacopan, zurita says: 'les lois et la procédure étaient les mêmes dans ces trois états, de sorte qu'en exposant les usages établis dans l'un d'eux, on fera connaître ce qui se passait dans les autres.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - . [ ] the title cihuacoatl, meaning 'serpent-woman,' appears incomprehensible as applied to a judge, but m. l'abbé brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , sees reason to believe that the mexicans, when they succeeded to the rights of the toltec kings of culhuacan, adopted also the titles of the court, and that the name cihuacoatl had been given to the prime minister in memory of cihuacoatl, the sister of camaxtli, who cared for the infancy of quetzalcoatl. the learned abbé translates cihuacoatl, _serpent femelle_, which is literally a serpent of the female sex. molina, however, in his _vocabulario_, gives 'ciua' as a substantive, meaning 'women' (mugeres), and 'coatl' as another substantive, meaning 'serpent' (culebra), the two as a compound he does not give. i translate the word 'serpent-woman,' because the sister of camaxtli would more probably be thus distinguished among women, than among serpents as the 'woman-serpent.' [ ] although all other historians agree that the judgment of the cihuacoatl was final, the interpreter of mendoza's collection states that an appeal lay from the judges (he does not state which) to the king. _explicacion de la coleccion de mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. . _prescott_, _mex._, vol. i., p. , attributes this to the changes made during montezuma's reign, the period which the mendoza paintings represent, and leon carbajal, _discurso_, p. , totally denies the truth of the statement. [ ] 'dalle sentenze da lui pronunziate o nel civile, o nel criminale, non si poteva appellare ad un altro tribunale,' &c. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _discurso_, p. . [ ] 'oìa de causas, que se debolvian, y remitian à èl, por apelacion; _y estas eran solas las criminales, porque de las civiles no se apelaba de sus justicias ordinarias_.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . it is possible that señor carbajal may have read only a subsequent passage in the same chapter, where torquemada, speaking of the tribunal of the tlacatecatl, says: 'de este se apelaba, para el tribunal, y audiencia del cihuacohuatl, que era juez supremo, despues del rei.' from what has gone before, it is, however, evident that the author here refers only to the criminal cases that were appealed from the court of the tlacatecatl. [ ] _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii. [ ] _mex._, vol. i., p. . _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , also affirms, indirectly, that cases were sometimes laid in the first instance before the supreme judge, inasmuch as he first says that the cihuacoatl took cognizance of both civil and criminal cases, and afterwards, when speaking of the court of the tlacatecatl, he writes: 'se la causa era puramente civile, non v'era appellazione.' the same applies to brasseur de bourbourg. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] herein lies the only difference between las casas and torquemada on the subject of the cihuacoatl. the former writes: 'qualquiera que este oficio para si usurpara, ó lo concediera á otro, avia de morir por ello, _y sus padres y deudos eran desnaturados del pueblo donde acaeciese hasta lo quarta generación_. allende que todos los bienes avian de ser confiscados, y aplicados para la republica.' _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii. torquemada says: 'era tan autoriçado este oficio, que el que lo vsurpara para si, ò lo comunicàra à otro en alguna parte del reino, muriera por ello, _y sus hijos, y muger fueran vendidos, por perpetuos esclavos_, y confiscados sus bienes por lei, que para esto havia.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . notwithstanding all other historians distinctly affirm that the cihuacoatl was, in the exercise of his functions perfectly independent of the king, brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , makes the following extraordinary statement: 'il jugeait en dernier ressort et donnait des ordres _en lieu et place du souverain, chaque fois que celui-ci ne le faisait pas directement et par lui-même_.' this must be from one of the original manuscripts in the possession of m. l'abbé. [ ] las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii., spells these names tacatecatl, acoahunotl, and tlaylotlat; torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , tlacateccatl, quauhnuchtli, and tlaylotlac; and clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , tlacatecatl, quauhnochtli, and tlanótlac, or tlaiíotlac, a defect in the impression makes it difficult to tell which. scarcely two of the old writers follow the same system of orthography, and in future i shall follow the style which appears simplest, endeavoring only to be consistent with myself. [ ] clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , writes 'egiornalmente si portava al cihuacoatl, od al tlacatecatl per avvertirlo di tutto ciò, che occorreva, e ricever gli ordini da lui;' but it would probably be only in cases of great importance that the reports of the tecuhtli would be carried to the cihuacoatl. [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , says that there were fifteen provinces subject to the king of tezcuco. [ ] the english edition of clavigero reads: 'the judicial power was divided amongst _seven_ principal cities,' p. ; but the original agrees with the other authorities: 'nel regno d'acolhuacan era la giurisdizione compartita tra _sei_ città principali.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii. torquemada, however, asserts that there were 'en la ciudad de tetzcuco (que era la corte) dentro de la casa real dos salas de consejo ... y en cada sala dos jueces. havia diferencia entre los dichos jueces; porque los de la vna sala eran de mas autoridad, que los de la otra; estos se llamaban jueces maiores, y esotros menores; los maiores oìan de causas graves, y que pertenecian à la determinacion del rei; los segundos, de otras, no tan graves, sino mas leves, y livianas.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the lower of these two probably either formed one of the six superior courts above mentioned, or corresponded with them in jurisdiction. according to zurita, 'chacune des nombreuses provinces soumises à ces souverains entretenait à mexico, à tezcuco et à tlacopan, qui étaient les trois capitales, deux juges, personnes de sens choisies à cet effet, et qui quelquefois étaient parents des souverains,' and adds: 'les appels étaient portés devant _douze autres juges supérieurs_ qui prononçaient d'après l'avis du souverain.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. , . [ ] torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , writes: 'tenia cada sala de estas dichas otro ministro, que hacia oficio de alguacil maior,' &c., while other writers assign one to each judge, of whom there were two in each court. [ ] clavigero differs on this point from other writers, in making this meeting occur every mexican month of twenty days. zurita, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. , writes: 'tous les douze jours il y avait une assemblée générale des juges présidée par le prince;' to this the editor attaches the following note: 'il est évident, comme on le verra page , qu'il y a ici une erreur, et que ces assemblées, dont les sessions duraient douze jours, ne se tenaient que tous les quatre-vingts jours.' it is, however, the learned editor who is mistaken, because, as we have seen above, there were two distinct meetings of the judges; a lesser one every ten or twelve days, and a greater every eighty days, and it is of the latter that zurita speaks on p. . [ ] 'al que él sentenciava le arrojava una flecha de aquellas.' _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . 'a capital sentence was indicated by a line traced with an arrow across the portrait of the accused.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] it is probable that as matters of government, as well as legal affairs, were discussed at their eighty-day council, it was not exclusively composed of judges, but that nobles and statesmen were admitted to membership. torquemada is, however, the only writer who distinctly states this: 'tenian audiencia general, que la llamaban napualtlatolli, como decir, palabra ochentena, que era dia, en el qual se juntaban todos los de la ciudad, y los asistentes de todas las provincias, con todo el pueblo, asi nobles, como comunes, y plebeios,' &c. _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; ixtlilxochitl, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , says that the king was accompanied by all his sons and relatives, with their tutors and suites. [ ] concerning this judicial system of tezcuco, see: _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. , et seq.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] this sentence reads as follows in the original: 'Á los lados serbian de alfombras unas pieles de tigres y leones, y mantas hechas de plumas de águila real, en donde asimismo estaban por su orden cantidad de braceletes, y grevas de oro.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . it is difficult to imagine why 'braceletes, y grevas de oro' should be placed upon the floor, but certainly the historian gives us to understand as much. prescott, who affects to give ixtlilxochitl's description 'in his own words,' and who, furthermore, encloses the extract in quotation marks, gets over this difficulty by omitting the above-quoted sentence entirely. _mex._, vol. i., p, ; and veytia, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. , adopts the same convenient but somewhat unsatisfactory course. this latter author's version of the whole matter is, however, like much other of his work, inextricably confused, when compared with the original. [ ] 'las paredes estaban entapizadas y adornadas de unos paños hechos de pelo de conejo, de todos colores, con figuras de diversas aves, animales y flores.' this is rendered by prescott: 'the walls were hung with tapestry, made of the hair of different wild animals, of rich and various colors, _festooned by gold rings_, and embroidered with figures of birds and flowers.' a few lines above, 'la silla y espaldar era de oro,' is construed into 'a throne of pure gold.' it seems scarcely fair to style the ancient chichimec's description one 'of rather a poetical cast,' at the same time making such additions as these. [ ] ixtlilxochitl, _ubi supra_, writes: 'en los primeros puestos ocho jueces que eran nobles y caballeros, y los otros cuatro eran de los ciudadanos.' veytia says: 'los cuatro primeros eran caballeros de la nobleza de primer órden, los cuatro siguientes ciudadanos de tezcuco.' _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. p. - . the whole of the above description is very difficult to translate literally, owing to the confused style in which it is written; and if in places it is somewhat unintelligible, the reader will recollect that i translate merely what ixtlilxochitl says, and not what he may, or may not, have _meant_ to say. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] prescott, _mex._, vol. i., p. , says: 'the paintings were executed with so much accuracy, that, in all suits respecting real property, they were allowed to be produced as good authority in the spanish tribunals, very long after the conquest; and a chair for their study and interpretation was established at mexico in , which has long since shared the fate of most other provisions for learning in that unfortunate country.' boturini thus describes the paper used by the aztecs: 'el papel indiano se componìa de las pencas del _maguèy_, que en lengua nacional se llama _mètl_, y en castellano _pita_. las echaban à podrir, y lavaban el hilo de ellas, el que haviendose ablandado estendian, para componer su papel gruesso, ò delgado, que despues bruñian para pintar en èl. tambien hacian papel de las hojas de palma, y yo tengo algunos de estos delgados, y blandos tanto como la seda.' _catálogo_, in _id._, _idea_, pp. - . [ ] veytia writes very positively on this point: 'habia tambien abogados y procuradores; á los primeros llamaban tepantlatoani, que quiere decir _el que habla por otro_, y á los segundos _tlanemiliani_, que en lo sustancial ejercian sus ministerios casi del mismo modo que en nuestros tribunales.... daban términos á las partes para que sus abogados hablasen por ellas, y estos lo hacian del mismo modo que en nuestros tribunales.' _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - . sahagun relates the qualities which were supposed by the aztecs to constitute a good or bad _procurador_ or _solicitador_, and describes their duties: 'el procurador favorece à una banda de los pleyteantes, por quien en su negocio vuelve mucho y apela, teniendo poder, y llevando salario por ello. el buen procurador es vivo y solícito, osado, diligente, constante, y perseverante en los negocios, en los cuales no se deja vencer; sino que alega de su derecho, apela, tacha los testigos, ni se cansa hasta vencer á la parte contraria y triunfar de ella. el mal procurador es interesable, gran pedigüeño, y de malicia suele dilatar los negocios: hace alharacas, es muy negligente y descuidado en el pleito, y fraudulento de tal modo, que de entrambas partes lleva salario. el solicitador nunca para, anda siempre solícito y listo. el buen solicitador es muy cuidadoso, determinado, y solícito en todo, y por hacer bien su oficio, muchas veces deja de comer y de dormir, y anda de casa en casa solicitando los negocios, los cuales trata de buena tinta, y con temor ó recelo, de que por su descuido no tengan mal suceso los negocios. el mal solicitador es flojo y descuidado, lerdo, y encandilador para sacar dineros, y facilmente se deja cohechar, porque no hable mal el negocio ó que mienta, y así suele echar á perder los pleitos.' _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . clavigero takes the opposite side of the question: 'nei giudizj dei messicani facevano la parti da per se stesse le loro allegazioni: almeno non sappiamo, che vi fossero avvocati.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'no counsel was employed; the parties stated their own case, and supported it by their witnesses.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . 'l'office d'avocat était inconnu; les parties établissaient elles-mêmes leur cause, en se faisant accompagner de leurs témoins.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] the reader will have remarked in a previous note that veytia assigns more judges to each court than any other writer. [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv., ccxii.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. viii., pp. , ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - . torquemada says the unjust judge was warned twice, and shaved at the third offense. _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . see also _id._, p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] torquemada translates tlacatecatl, captain general, (capitan general). we have already seen that it was the title of the presiding judge of the second mexican court of justice, but it was probably in this case a military title, both because military promotion would be more likely to be conferred upon a renowned warrior than a judgeship, and because the prince is spoken of as a young man, while only men of mature years and great experience were entrusted with the higher judicial offices. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . [ ] these names are spelled _tlelpiloia_ and _quahucalco_ by las casas, and _teïlpiloyan_ and _quauhcalli_, by brasseur de bourbourg. [ ] las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii., says that the jails called quahucalco resembled the stocks; the other writers do not notice this difference. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _boturini_, _idea_, p. . the number of ears of corn varies according to the different writers from three or four to seven, except las casas, who makes the number twenty-one or over, stating, however, that this and some other laws that he gives are possibly not authentic. _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. the anonymous conqueror writes: 'quando altri entrauano nelle possessioni altrui per rubbare frutti, ò il grano che essi hanno, che per entrar in vn campo, e rubbare tre ò quattro mazzocche ò spighe de quel loro grano, lo faceuano schiauo del patrone di quel campo rubbato.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . clavigero agrees with the anonymous conqueror, that the thief of corn became the slave of the owner of the field from which he had stolen, and adds in a foot-note: 'torquemada aggiunge, che avea pena di morte; ma ciò fu nel regno d'acolhuacan, non già in quello di messico.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] ortega's statement reads: 'casi siempre se castigaba con pena de muerte, á ménos de que la parte ofendida conviniese en ser indemnizada por el ladron, en cuyo caso pagaba este al fisco una cantidad igual á la robada.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _explicacion de la coleccion de mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii., says that he who stole in the market-place was hanged there and then by order of the judges of the place, and in cap. cxv., he writes: 'el que en el mercado algo hurtava, era ley que luego publicamente alli en el mismo mercado lo matasen á palos.' again in the same chapter he gives a law, for the authenticity of which he does not vouch, however, which reads as follows: 'el que en el mercado hurtava algo, los mismos del mercado tenian licencia para lo matar á pedradas.' [ ] _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x.; _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] 'l'omicida pagava colla propria vita il suo delitto, quantunque l'ucciso fosse uno schiavo.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . the manner of putting the murderer to death is differently stated: 'el homicidio, bien fuese ejecutado por noble ó plebeyo, bien por hombre ó muger, se castigaba con pena de muerte, depedazando al homicida.' _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . 'al que mataba à otro, hacian degollar.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'al matador lo degollaban.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . other writers merely say that the murderer suffered death, without stating the manner of execution. see, _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . diego duran, in his inedited 'history of new spain,' asserts that the murderer did not suffer death, but became the slave for life of the wife or relatives of the deceased. _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - . [ ] _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x. [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii. in cap. ccxv., among his unauthenticated laws, we read that if the victim of poison was a slave, the person who caused his death was made a slave, in the place of suffering the extreme penalty, but the opposite to this is expressly stated by clavigero and implied by ortega. [ ] _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . ixtlilxochitl writes that the children and relations of the traitor were enslaved till the _fifth_ generation, and that salt was scattered upon his lands. _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . 'il traditore del re, o dello stato, era sbranato, ed i suoi parenti, che consapevoli del tradimento non lo aveano per tempo scoperto, erano privati della libertà.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv., among the collection of unauthenticated laws so frequently mentioned heretofore, gives the following: 'si algunos vendieron algun niño por esclavo, y despues se sabe, todos los que entendieron en ello eran esclavos, y dellos davan uno al que lo compró, y los otros repartian entre la madre del niño y entre él que lo descubrió.' in the same chapter, among another list of laws which, says las casas, 'son tenidas todas por autenticas y verdaderas,' we read: 'era ley, y con rigor guardada, que si alguno vendia por esclavo algun niño perdido, que se hiciese esclavo al que lo vendia, y su hacienda se partiese en dos partes, la una era para el niño, y la otra al que lo havia comprado, y si quizas lo avian vendido y eran muchos, á todos hacian esclavos.' [ ] zurita writes: 'ils n'avaient droit d'en prendre que trois petites tasses à chaque repas.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xvi. [ ] _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., pl. ; _esplicacion_, in _id._, vol. v., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xvi.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'dans les noces publiques et les fêtes, les hommes âgés de plus de trente ans étaient ordinairement autorisés à en boire deux tasses.' _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xvi. [ ] ortega says that the privilege was also extended to private soldiers. _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . zurita, however, writes 'les guerriers regardaient comme un déshonneur d'en boire.' _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii., ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii, p. ; _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., pl. ; _esplicacion_, in _id._, vol. v., pp. - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _id._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _relaciones_, p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. xvi. [ ] see this vol. pp. - . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv., gives two laws on this point. to the first, which is among the collection of unauthenticated laws, adds: 'y si era plebeyo ó de baja suerte hacian lo esclavo.' ixtlilxochitl also gives two laws: 'a los hijos de los señores si malbarataban sus riquezas, ó bien muebles que sus padres tenian, les daban garrote.' _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'si algun principal mayorazgo fuese desbaratado, ó travieso, ó si entre dos de estos tales hubiese alguna diferencia sobre tierras ú otras cosas, el que no quisiese estarse quedo con la averiguacion que entre ellos se hiciese por ser soberbio y mal mirado, le fuesen quitados sus bienes y mayorazgo, y fuese puesto en depósito en alguna persona que diese cuenta de ello para el tiempo que le fuese pedido, de cual mayorazgo estubiese desposeido todo el tiempo que la voluntad del señor fuese.' _relaciones_, in _id._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. [ ] concerning adultery see: _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii., ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _relaciones_, in _id._, p. ; _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., pl. ; _esplicacion_, in _id._, vol. v., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _bologne_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _zurita_, _rapport_, in _id._, série ii., tom. i., pp. - ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _duran_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. viii., pp. - ; _valades_, _rhetorica christiana_, in _id._, p. , note. [ ] _las casas_ and _mendieta_, as in preceding note. [ ] 'para la justificacion fuese bastante la denuncia del marido.' _ibid._ [ ] las casas writes: 'a ninguna muger ni hombre castigavan por adulterio, si solo el marido della los acusaba, sino que havia de haver testigos y confesion dellos.' _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv. torquemada uses almost the same words. [ ] father francisco de bologne says that this mode of punishment was only resorted to in the case of the man, and that the female adulterer was impaled. _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . [ ] this statement is made by ixtlilxochitl and veytia, _ubi sup._ [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _mendieta_, _ubi sup._ [ ] _ibidem._ among the miztecs, when extenuating circumstances could be proved, the punishment of death was commuted to mutilation of ears, nose, and lips. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _ubi sup._ [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii., ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x.; _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _ortega_, in _id._, p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. . carbajal espinosa differs from these in saying: 'al pasivo le arrancaban las entrañas, se llenaba su vientre de ceniza y el cadáver era quemado.' _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . carli is therefore mistaken in saying this crime was punished with death. _cartas_, p. . [ ] _lettre_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . [ ] _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii. clavigero writes: 'appresso tutte le nazioni di anahuac, fuorchè appresso i panuchesi, era in abbominazione sì fatto delitto, e da tutte si puniva con rigore.' this writer is very bitter against m. de pauw for stating that this pederasty was common among the mexicans, and adds: 'ma della falsità di tal calunnia, che con troppa, ed assai biasimevole facilità addottarono parecchj autori europei, ci consta per la testimonianza di molti altri autori imparziarli, e meglio informati.' clavigero does not, however, state who these 'more impartial and better informed writers' are. that the crime of sodomy was prevalent in tabasco, we have the testimony of oviedo, who writes that among the idols that the christians saw there 'dixeron que avian hallado entre aquellos çemís ó yolos, dos personas hechas de copey (que es un árbol assi llamado), el uno caballero ó cabalgando sobre el otro, en figura de aquel abominable y nefando pecado de sodomia, é otro de barro que tenia la natura asida con ambas manos, la qual tenia como çircunçiso ... y no es este pecado entre aquellas mal aventuradas gentes despresçiado, ni sumariamente averiguado: antes es mucha verdad quanto dellos se puede deçir é culpar en tal caso.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . zuazo, speaking of the mexicans, says: 'estas gentes tienen la _tria peccatela_ que decia el italiano: no creen en dios; _son casi todos sodomitas_: comen carne humana.' _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii. [ ] las casas, among his unauthentic laws has one which prescribes death in this case, but in another list, which he says is composed of authentic laws, banishment and confiscation of property is given as the penalty. _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . ortega adds that their heads were rubbed with ashes; 'se les untaba con ceniza caliente.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _duran_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxv.; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxiii., ccxv.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _las casas_, _ibid._; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. - . [ ] _las casas_, _ibid._; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . in the following works more or less mention is made of the system of jurisprudence that existed among the nahua peoples. _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , - , - , - , , ; _cortés_, _aven. y conq._, pref., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., pp. - ; _incidents and sketches_, pp. - ; _simon's ten tribes_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _chambers' jour._, , vol. iv., p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., p. . chapter xv. nahua arts and manufactures. metals used and manner of obtaining them--working of gold and silver--wonderful skill in imitating--gilding and plating--working in stone--lapidary work--wood carving--manufacture of pottery--various kinds of cloth--manufacture of paper and leather--preparation of dyes and paints--the art of painting--feather mosaic work--leaf-mats--manner of kindling fire--torches--soap--council of arts in tezcuco--oratory and poetry--nezahualcoyotl's odes on the mutability of life and the tyrant tezozomoc--aztec arithmetical system. gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead were the metals known to and used by the nahuas. the latter, however, is merely mentioned, and nothing is known about where it was obtained or for what purposes it was employed. we have only very slight information respecting the processes by which any of the metals were obtained. gold came to the cities of anáhuac chiefly from the southern nahua provinces, through the agency of traders and tax-gatherers; silver and tin were taken from the mines of taxco and tzompanco; copper was obtained from the mountains of zacatollan, the province of the cohuixcas, and from michoacan. nuggets of gold and masses of native copper were found on the surface of the ground in certain regions; gold was chiefly obtained, however, from the sand in the bed of rivers by divers. it was kept, in the form of dust, in small tubes or quills, or was melted in small pots, by the aid of hollow bamboo blow-pipes used instead of bellows, and cast in small bars. prescott tells us that these metals were also mined from veins in the solid rock, extensive galleries being opened for the purpose. quicksilver, sulphur, alum, ochre, and other minerals were collected to a certain extent and employed by the natives in the preparation of colors and for other purposes.[ ] the use of iron, though that metal was abundant in the country, was unknown. such metals as they had they were most skillful in working, chiefly by melting and casting, and by carving, but also to some extent by the use of the hammer. we have no details of the means employed to melt the harder metals, besides the rude blow-pipe and furnace mentioned in connection with gold. for cutting implements copper was the only metal used, but it was hardened with an alloy of tin until it sufficed to cut the hardest substances nearly as well as steel.[ ] the pure and softer metal was used to make kettles and other vessels. copper tools were, however, rare compared with those of stone, and seem to have been used chiefly in working wood where a sharp and enduring edge was required. such tools usually took the form of axes and chisels. sticks for working the ground, the nearest nahua approach to the plow, were also often tipped with copper, as we have seen. metal was not much used in making weapons, not being found in swords or arrow-heads, but employed with obsidian in spearheads and on the _maza_, or club. both copper and tin dishes and plates are mentioned but were not in common use. in the manufacture of implements of copper and tin these metals were wrought by means of stone hammers and not cast.[ ] [sidenote: gold and silver smiths.] no branch of nahua art was carried to a higher degree of perfection than the ornamental working of gold and silver. the conquerors were struck with admiration on beholding the work of the native goldsmiths; they even in some cases frankly acknowledge that they admired the work more than the material, and saved the most beautiful specimens from the melting furnace, the greatest compliment these gold-greedy adventurers could pay to native art. many of the finer articles were sent as presents and curiosities to european princes, who added their testimony to that of the conquerors, pronouncing the jewelry in many instances superior to the work of old-world artists. azcapuzalco was the headquarters of the workers in gold and silver.[ ] the imitation of natural objects, particularly animals, birds, and fishes, was a favorite field for the display of this branch of nahua talent. the conqueror cortés tells us that montezuma had in his collection a counterfeit in gold, silver, stones, or feathers, of every object under heaven in his dominions, so skillfully made, so far as the work in metal was concerned, that no smith in the world could excel them. this statement is repeated by every writer on the subject. dr hernandez, the naturalist, in preparing a treatise on mexican zoology for philip ii., is said to have supplied his want of real specimens of certain rare species by a resort to these imitations.[ ] the native artists are said to have fashioned animals and birds with movable heads, legs, wings, and tongues, an ape with a spindle in its hands in the act of spinning and in certain comic attitudes; and what particularly interested and surprised the spaniards was the art--spoken of by them as a lost art--of casting the parts of an object of different metals each distinct from the rest but all forming a complete whole, and this, as the authorities say, without soldering. thus a fish was molded with alternate scales of gold and silver, plates were cast in sections of the same metal, and loose handles were attached to different vessels.[ ] [sidenote: gilding and plating.] after the spaniards came, the native artisans had a new and wide field for the display of their skill, in imitating the numerous products of european art. a slight examination, often obtained by stealthily looking into the shop windows, enabled them to reproduce and not unfrequently to improve upon the finest articles of jewelry and plate.[ ] clavigero says that vessels of copper or other inferior metal were gilded, by employing an unknown process in which certain herbs were used, and which would have made the fortune of a goldsmith in spain and italy. oviedo also tells us that various ornamental articles were covered with thin gold plate.[ ] to enumerate the articles manufactured by the nahua gold and silver smiths, and included in the long lists of presents made by montezuma and other chieftains to their conquerors is impracticable; they included finely modeled goblets, pitchers, and other vessels for the tables of the kings and nobility; frames for stone mirrors and rich settings for various precious stones; personal ornaments for the wealthy, and especially for warriors, including rings, bracelets, eardrops, beads, helmets and various other portions of armor; small figures in human form worn as charms or venerated as idols; and finally the most gorgeous and complicated decorations for the larger idols, and their temples and altars.[ ] little is known of the methods or implements by which the workers in gold accomplished such marvelous results. the authors tell us that they excelled particularly in working the precious metals by means of fire; and the furnaces already mentioned are pictured in several of the aztec picture-writings as simple vessels, perhaps of earthen ware, various in form, heaped with lumps of metal, and possibly with wood and coal, from which the tongues of flame protrude, as the workman sits by his furnace with his bamboo blow-pipe. how they cast or molded the molten gold into numerous graceful and ornamental forms is absolutely unknown. the process by which these patient workers carved or engraved ornamental figures on gold and silver vessels by means of their implements of stone and hardened copper, although not explained, may in a general way be easily imagined. they worked also to some extent with the hammer, but as gold-beaters they were regarded as inferior workmen, using only stone implements. the art of working in the precious metals was derived traditionally from the toltecs, and the gold and silversmiths formed in mexico a kind of corporation under the divine guidance of the god xipe.[ ] [sidenote: working in stone.] stone was the material of most nahua implements. for this purpose all the harder kinds found in the country were worked, flint, porphyry, basalt, but especially obsidian, the native _iztli_. of this hard material, extensively quarried some distance north of mexico, nearly all the sharp-edged tools were made. these tools, such as knives, razors, lancets, spear and arrow heads, were simply flakes from an obsidian block. the knives were double-edged and the best of them slightly curved at the point. the maker held a round block of iztli between his bare feet, pressed with his chest and hands on a long wooden instrument, one end of which was applied near the edge of the block, and thus split off knife after knife with great rapidity, which required only to be fitted to a wooden handle to be ready for use. the edge thus produced was at first as sharp as one of steel, but became blunted by slight use, when the instrument must be thrown away. thus las casas tells us that ten or fifteen obsidian razors were required to shave one man's beard. stone knives seem rarely if ever to have been sharpened by grinding.[ ] of obsidian were made the knives used in the sacrifice of human victims, and the lancets used in bleeding for medicinal purposes and in drawing blood in the service of the gods. for bleeding, similar knives are said to be still used in mexico.[ ] the use of stone in the manufacture of weapons has been mentioned in another chapter. masks and even rings and cups were sometimes worked from obsidian and other kinds of stone. axes were of flint, jade, or basalt, and were bound with cords to a handle of hard wood, the end of which was split to receive it.[ ] torquemada says that agricultural implements were made of stone.[ ] mirrors were of obsidian, or of _margajita_,--spoken of by some as a metal, by others as a stone,--often double-faced, and richly set in gold.[ ] the quarrying of stone for building and sculpture was done by means of wooden and stone implements, by methods unknown but adequate to the working of the hardest material. stone implements alone seem to have been used for the sculpture of idols, statues, and architectural decorations. a better idea of the excellence of the nahuas in the art of stone-carving may be formed from the consideration of antiquarian relics in another volume than from the remarks of the early chroniclers. most of the sculptured designs were executed in soft material, in working which flint instruments would be almost as effective as those of steel; but some of the preserved specimens are carved in the hardest stone, and must have taxed the sculptor's patience to the utmost even with hard copper chisels. the idols and hieroglyphics on which the native art was chiefly exercised, present purposely distorted figures and are a poor test of the artists' skill; according to traditional history portrait-statues of the kings were made, and although none of these are known to have survived, yet a few specimens in the various collections indicate that the human face and form in true proportions were not beyond the scope of american art; and the native sculptors were, moreover, extremely successful in the modeling of animals in stone.[ ] [sidenote: working of precious stones.] the nahuas were no less skillful in working precious stones than gold and silver. their toltec ancestors possessed the same skill and used to search for the stones at sunrise, being directed to the hidden treasure by the vapor which rose from the place that concealed it. all the stones found in the country were used for ornamental purposes, but emeralds, amethysts, and turquoises were most abundant. the jewels were cut with copper tools with the aid of a silicious sand. single stones were carved in various forms, often those of animals, and set in gold, or sometimes formed into small cups or boxes. pearls, mother of pearl, and bright-colored shells were used with the precious stones in the formation of necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings, and other decorations for the nobles or for the idols. various articles of dress or armor were completely studded with gems tastefully arranged, and a kind of mosaic, with which wooden masks for the idols were often covered, attracted much attention among the spaniards. mirrors of rock crystal, obsidian, and other stones, brightly polished and encased in rich frames, were said to reflect the human face as clearly as the best of european manufacture.[ ] trees were felled with copper hatchets, hewn with the same instruments into beams, and dragged by slaves over rollers to the place where they were needed for building. some of the chief idols, as for instance that of huitzilopochtli, according to acosta, were of wood, but wood-carving was not apparently carried to a high degree of perfection. some boxes, furnished with lids and hinges, also tables and chairs, were made of wood, which was the chief material of weapons and agricultural implements. the authorities devote but few words to the workers in wood, who, however, after the conquest seem to have become quite skillful under spanish instruction, and with the aid of european tools. fire-wood was sold in the markets; and las casas also tells us that charcoal was burned.[ ] [sidenote: manufacture of pottery.] at cholula the best pottery was made, but throughout the whole country nearly all the dishes used were of clay. pots, kettles, vases, plates for domestic use, as well as censers and other utensils for the temple service, also idols, beads, and various ornaments were modeled from this material. the early spaniards were enthusiastic in praising the native potters' skill, but beyond the statement that vessels of earthen ware were glazed and often tastefully decorated, they give no definite information respecting this branch of manufactures. many small earthen trumpets, or flageolets, capable of producing various sounds, and of imitating the cries of different birds, have been found in different parts of the mexican republic. fortunately relics of pottery in every form are of frequent occurrence in the museums, and from the description of such relics in another volume the excellence of aztec pottery may be estimated. besides the earthen dishes, and vessels of metal and carved wood, some baskets were made, and drinking-cups or bowls of different sizes and shapes were formed from the hollow shells of gourds. these were known as _xicalli_, later jicaras, and _tecomatl_.[ ] seashells were also used as dishes to some extent.[ ] the finer kinds of cloth were made of cotton, of rabbit-hair, of the two mixed, or of cotton mixed with feathers. the rabbit-hair fabrics were pronounced equal in finish and texture to silk, and cotton cloths were also fine and white. fabrics of this better class were used for articles of dress by the rich, nobles, and priests; they were both woven and dyed in variegated colors. the cloths in the manufacture of which feathers were employed often served for carpets, tapestry, and bed-coverings. maguey-fibre, and that of the palm-leaves _icxotl_ and _izhuatl_ were woven into coarse cloths, the maguey-cloth being known as _nequen_. this nequen and the coarser kinds of cotton were the materials with which the poorer classes clothed themselves. the palm and maguey fibres were prepared for use in the same manner as flax in other countries, being soaked in water, pounded, and dried. the same material served also for cords, ropes, and mats. a coarser kind of matting was, however, made of different varieties of reeds. all the work of spinning and weaving was performed by the women, forming indeed their chief employment. the spindle used in spinning, shown in many of the aztec manuscripts, was like a top, which was set whirling in a shallow dish, the fibre being applied to its pointed upper extremity until the impetus was exhausted. all we know of the native process of weaving is derived from the native paintings, a sample of which from the mendoza collection, showing a woman engaged in weaving, may be seen in chapter xvii. of this volume.[ ] [sidenote: making of cloth and paper.] paper, in aztec _amatl_, used chiefly as a material on which to paint the hieroglyphic records to be described in a future chapter, was made for the most part of maguey-fibre, although the other fibres used in the manufacture of cloth were occasionally mixed with those of this plant. the material must have been pressed together when wet, and the product was generally very thick, more like a soft paste-board than our paper. the surface was smooth and well adapted to the painting which it was to bear. certain gums are said to have been used for the more perfect coherence of the fibre, and the amatl was made in long narrow sheets suitable for rolling or folding. humboldt describes certain bags of oval form, the work of a species of caterpillars, on the trees in michoacan. they are white and may be separated into thin layers, which, as the author states, were used by the ancient inhabitants in the manufacture of a superior kind of paper.[ ] the skins of animals killed by the nahua hunters were tanned both with and without the hair, by a process of which the authorities say nothing, although universally praising its results. the leather was used in some cases as a sort of parchment for hieroglyphic writings, but oftener for articles of dress, ornament, or armor.[ ] [sidenote: dyeing and painting.] in the preparation of dyes and paints, both mineral, animal, and vegetable colors were employed, the latter extracted from woods, barks, leaves, flowers, and fruits. in the art of dyeing they probably excelled the europeans, and many of their dyes have since the conquest been introduced throughout the world. chief among these was the cochineal, _nochiztli_, an insect fed by the nahuas on the leaves of the nopal, from which they obtained beautiful and permanent red and purple colors for their cotton fabrics. the flower of the _matlalxihuitl_ supplied blue shades; indigo was the sediment of water in which branches of the _xiuhquilipitzahuac_ had been soaked; seeds of the _achiotl_ boiled in water yielded a red, the french _roucou_; ochre, or _tecozahuitl_, furnished yellow, as did also the plant _xochipalli_, the latter being changed to orange by the use of nitre; other shades were produced by the use of alum; the stones _chimaltizatl_ and _tizatlalli_ being calcined, produced something like spanish white; black was obtained from a stinking mineral, _tlaliac_, or from the soot of a pine called _ocotl_. in mixing paints they used chian-oil, or sometimes the glutinous juice of the _tzauhtli_. the numerous dye-woods of the tierra caliente, now the chief exports from that region, were all employed by the native dyers. it is probable that many of the secrets of this branch of nahua art were never learned by the spaniards.[ ] the nahua paintings showed no great artistic merit, being chiefly noticeable for the excellence of the colors. very few specimens have been preserved for modern examination, except the hieroglyphic paintings in which most of the figures are hideously and, as it is supposed, purposely distorted, and consequently no criterion of the artist's skill. it is not known that the nahuas ever attempted to paint natural scenery, except that they prepared maps of sections of their territory on which they rudely represented the mountains, rivers, and forests, indicating the lands of different owners or lords by the use of different colors. they sometimes made portraits of the kings and nobles, but the spanish chroniclers admit that they exhibited much less skill in picturing the human form and face than in drawing animals, birds, trees, and flowers. some modern critics of lively imagination have, however, detected indications of great artistic genius in the awkward figures of the picture-writings. native painters, when cortés arrived on the coast, painted his ships, men, horses, cannon, in fact everything new and strange in the white men's equipment, and hurried with the canvas to montezuma at the capital. very little is known of ornamental painting on the walls of private dwellings, but that on the temples naturally partook to a great extent of a hieroglyphic character. the durability of the paintings on cloth and paper, especially when rubbed occasionally with oil, was remarked by many observers, as was also the skill displayed by the natives later under spanish instruction.[ ] [sidenote: feather-mosaic.] the mixture of feathers with cotton and other fibres in the manufacture of clothing, tapestry, carpets, and bed-coverings has already been mentioned. for such fabrics plain colors from ducks and other aquatic birds were generally employed, brighter hues being occasionally introduced for ornamental purposes. feathers also played an important part in the decoration of warriors' armor, the tail-feathers of the bright-hued quetzal being the favorites. these were formed into brilliant plumes, often tipped with gold and set in precious stones. beautiful fans were made of the same material. but the art which of all those practiced by the nahuas most delighted and astonished the europeans, was the use of feathers in the making of what has been called feather-mosaic. the myriads of tropical birds in which the forests of the tierra caliente abounded, chief among which were the quetzal, many varieties of the parrot kind, and the _huitzilin_, or humming-bird, supplied feathers, fine and coarse, of every desired color and shade. it was for this use chiefly that the royal and other collections of birds, already described, were so carefully kept. these captive birds were plucked each year at the proper season, and their plumage sorted according to color and quality. some shades only to be obtained from the rarest birds, were for ordinary feather-work artificially produced by dyeing the white plumage of more common birds. to prepare for work the _amanteca_, or artist, arranged his colors in small earthen dishes within easy reach of his hand, stretched a piece of cloth on a board before him, and provided himself with a pot of glue--called by clavigero tzauhtli,--and a pair of very delicate pincers. the design he wished to execute was first sketched roughly on the cloth, and then with the aid of the pincers feather after feather was taken from its dish and glued to the canvas. the spanish writers marvel at the care with which this work was done; sometimes, they say, a whole day was consumed in properly choosing and adjusting one delicate feather, the artist patiently experimenting until the hue and position of the feather, viewed from different points and under different lights, became satisfactory to his eye. when a large piece was to be done, many workmen assembled, a part of the work was given to each, and so skillfully was the task performed that the parts rarely failed at the end to blend into an harmonious whole; but if the effect of any part was unsatisfactory it must be commenced anew. by this method a great variety of graceful patterns were wrought, either fanciful, or taken from natural objects, flowers, animals, and even the human face, which latter the native artists are said to have successfully portrayed. las casas tells us they made these feather-fabrics so skillfully that they appeared of different colors according to the direction from which they were viewed. the spaniards declare that the feather-pictures were fully equal to the best works of european painters, and are at a loss for words to express their admiration of this wonderful nahua invention; specimens of great beauty have also been preserved and are to be seen in the museums. besides mantles and other garments, tapestry, bed-coverings, and other ornamental fabrics for the use of the noble and wealthy classes, to which this art was applied, the feather-mosaic was a favorite covering for the shields and armor of noted warriors. by the same process masks were made representing in a manner true to nature the faces of fierce animals; and even the whole bodies of such animals were sometimes counterfeited, as zuazo says, so faithfully as to deceive the ignorant observer. the tarascos of michoacan were reputed to be the most skillful in feather-work.[ ] the feather-workers were called amantecas from amantla, the name of the ward of mexico in which they chiefly lived. this ward adjoined that of pochtlan, where lived the chief merchants called pochtecas, and the shrine of the amantecas' god ciotliahuatl, was also joined to that of the merchants' god iyacatecutli. the feather-workers and merchants were closely united, there was great similarity in all their idolatrous rites, and they often sat together at the same banquet.[ ] another art, similar in its nature to that of the feather-mosaics, was that of pasting leaves and flowers upon mats so as to form attractive designs for temporary use on the occasion of special festivals. the natives made great use of these flower-pictures after the conquest in the decoration of the churches for catholic holidays.[ ] the nahuas kindled a fire like their more savage brethren by friction between two pieces of wood, achiotl being the kind of wood preferred for this purpose. boturini, followed by later writers, states that the use of the flint was also known. once kindled, the flames were fanned by the use of a blow-pipe. for lights, torches of resinous wood were employed, especially the _ocotl_, which emitted a pleasing odor. the use of wicks with oil or wax was apparently unknown until after the coming of europeans. substitutes for soap were found in the fruit of the _copalxocotl_ and root of the _amolli_. [sidenote: the council of arts in tezcuco.] all the branches of art among the nahuas were placed under the control of a council or academy which was instituted to favor the development of poetry, oratory, history, painting, and also to some extent of sculpture and work in gold, precious stones, and feathers. tezcuco was the centre of all high art and refinement during the palmy days of the chichimec empire, and retained its preëminence to a great extent down to the coming of the spaniards; consequently its school of arts is better known than others that probably existed in other cities. it was called the council of music, although taking cognizance of other arts and sciences, chiefly by controlling the education of the young, since no teacher of arts could exercise his profession without a certificate of his qualifications from the council. before the same body all pupils must be brought for examination. the greatest care was taken that no defective work of lapidary, goldsmith, or worker in feathers should be exposed for sale in the markets, and that no imperfectly instructed artists should be allowed to vitiate the public taste. but it was above all with literary arts, poetry, oratory, and historical paintings, that this tribunal, composed of the best talent and culture of the kingdom, had to do, and every literary work was subject to its revision. the members, nominated by the emperor of tezcuco, held daily meetings, and seats of honor were reserved for the kings of the three allied kingdoms, although a presiding officer was elected from the nobility with reference to his literary acquirements. at certain sessions of the council, poems and historical essays were read by their authors, and new inventions were exhibited for inspection, rich prizes being awarded for excellence in any branch of learning.[ ] [sidenote: oratory and poesy.] speech-making is a prominent feature in the life of most aboriginal tribes, and in their fondness for oratory the nahuas were no exceptions to the rule. many and long addresses accompanied the installation of kings and all public officers; all diplomatic correspondence between different nations was carried on by orators; prayers to the gods were in aboriginal as in modern times elaborate elocutionary efforts; the departing and returning traveler was dismissed and welcomed with a speech; condolence for misfortune and congratulation for success were expressed in public and private by the friends most skillful in the art of speaking; social intercourse in feasts and banquets was but a succession of speeches; and parents even employed long discourses to impart to their children instruction and advice. consequently children were instructed at an early age in the art of public speaking; some were even specially educated as orators. they were obliged to commit to memory, and taught to repeat as declamations, the speeches of their most famous ancestors, handed down from father to son for many generations. specimens of the orations delivered by nahua speakers on different occasions are so numerous in this and the following volume, that the reader may judge for himself respecting their merit. it is impossible, however, to decide how far these compositions have been modified in passing through spanish hands, although it is probable, according to the judgment of the best critics, that they retain much of the original spirit of their reputed authors.[ ] poets, if somewhat less numerous, were no less honored than orators. their compositions were also recited, or sung, before the council of music in tezcuco, and the most talented bards were honored with prizes. the heroic deeds of warlike ancestors, national annals and traditions, praise of the gods, moral lessons drawn from actual events, allegorical productions with illustrations drawn from the beauties of nature, and even love and the charms of woman were the common themes. the emperor nezahualcoyotl, the protector and promoter of all the arts and sciences, was himself a poet of great renown. several of his compositions, or fragments of such, have been preserved; that is, the poems were written from memory in aztec with roman letters after the conquest, and translated into spanish by ixtlilxochitl, a lineal descendant of the royal poet. they have also been translated into other languages by various authors. the following will serve as specimens.[ ] [sidenote: nezahualcoyotl's odes.] song of nezahualcoyotl, king of tezcuco; on the mutability of life. now will i sing for a moment, since time and occasion offer, and i trust to be heard with favor if my effort proveth deserving; wherefore thus i begin my singing, or rather my lamentation. o thou, my friend, and beloved, enjoy the sweet flowers i bring thee; let us be joyful together and banish each care and each sorrow; for although life's pleasures are fleeting, life's bitterness also must leave us. i will strike, to help me in singing, the instrument deep and sonorous; dance thou, while enjoying these flowers, before the great lord who is mighty; let us grasp the sweet things of the present, for the life of a man is soon over. fair acolhuacán thou hast chosen as thy dwelling-place and thy palace; thou hast set up thy royal throne there, with thine own hand hast thou enriched it; wherefore it seems to be certain that thy kingdom shall prosper and flourish. and thou, o wise prince oyoyotzin, mighty monarch, and king without equal, rejoice in the beauty of spring-time, be happy while spring abides with thee, for the day creepeth nearer and nearer when thou shalt seek joy and not find it. a day when dark fate, the destroyer, shall tear from thine hand the proud sceptre, when the moon of thy glory shall lessen, thy pride and thy strength be diminished, the spoil from thy servants be taken, thy kingdom and honor go from thee. ah, then in this day of great sorrow the lords of thy line will be mournful, the princes of might will be downcast, the pride of high birth will avail not; when thou, their great head, hast been smitten the pains of grim want will assail them. then with bitterness will they remember the glory and fame of thy greatness, thy triumphs so worthy of envy, until, while comparing the present with years that are gone now forever, their tears shall be more than the ocean. the vassals that cluster about thee and are as a crown to thy kingdom, when thine arm doth no longer uphold them, will suffer the fate of the exile; in strange lands their pride will be humbled, their rank and their name be forgotten. the fame of the race that is mighty, and worthy a thousand fair kingdoms, will not in the future be heeded; the nations will only remember the justice with which they were governed in the years when the kingdom was threefold. in mexico, proudest of cities, reigned the mighty and brave montezuma, nezahualcoyotl, the just one of blest culhuacán was the monarch, to strong totoquíl fell the portion of acatlapán, the third kingdom. but yet thou shalt not be forgotten, nor the good thou hast ever accomplished; for, is not the throne that thou fillest the gift of the god without equal, the mighty creator of all things, the maker of kings and of princes! nezahualcoyotl, be happy with the pleasant things that thou knowest, rejoice in the beautiful garden, wreathe thy front with a garland of flowers, give heed to my song and my music, for i care but to pleasure thy fancy. the sweet things of life are but shadows; the triumphs, the honors, what are they but dreams that are idle and last not though clothed in a semblance of being? and so great is the truth that i utter, i pray thee to answer this question. cihuapán, the valiant, where is he, and quauhtzintecomtzin, the mighty, the great cohuahuatzin, where are they? they are dead, and have left us no token, save their names, and the fame of their valor; they are gone from this world to another. i would that those living in friendship, whom the thread of strong love doth encircle, could see the sharp sword of the death-god. for, verily, pleasure is fleeting, all sweetness must change in the future, the good things of life are inconstant. ode on the tyrant tezozomoc by nezahualcoyotl the king. give ear unto the lamentation which i, nezahualcoyotl the king, make within myself for the fate of the empire, and set forth for an example unto others. o king, unstable and restless, when thou art dead then shall thy people be overthrown and confounded; thy place shall be no more; the creator, the all-powerful shall reign. who could have thought, having seen the palaces and the court, the glory and the power of the old king tezozomoc, that these things could have an end? yet have they withered and perished. verily, life giveth naught but disappointment and vexation; all that is, weareth out and passeth away. who will not be sorrowful at the remembrance of the ancient splendor of this tyrant, this withered old man; who, like a thirsty willow, nourished by the moisture of his ambition and avarice, lorded it over the lowly meadows and flowery fields while spring-time lasted, but at length, dried up and decayed, the storms of winter tore him up by the roots and scattered him in pieces upon the ground. but now, with this mournful song, i bring to mind the things that flourish for an hour, and present, in the fate of tezozomoc, an example of the brevity of human greatness. who, that listens to me, can refrain from weeping? verily, the enjoyments and pleasures of life are as a bouquet of flowers, that is passed from hand to hand until it fades, withers, and is dead. hearken unto me, ye sons of kings and of princes, take good heed and ponder the theme of my mournful song, the things that flourish for an hour, and the end of the king tezozomoc. who is he, i say again, that can hear me and not weep? verily, the enjoyments and pleasures of life are as a handful of flowers, blooming for a space, but soon withered and dead. let the joyous birds sing on and rejoice in the beauty of spring, and the butterflies enjoy the honey and perfume of the flowers, for life is as a tender plant that is plucked and withereth away. granados tells us that nezahualcoyotl's poems were all in iambic verse, resembling in style the works of manilius, seneca, pomponius, euripides, and lilius. in one of his songs he compared the shortness of life and of its pleasures with the fleeting bloom of a flower, so pathetically as to draw tears from the audience, as clavigero relates. ixtlilxochitl narrates that a prisoner condemned to death obtained pardon by reciting a poem before the king. there is not much evidence that verses were ever written in rhyme, but the authors say that due attention was paid to cadence and metre, and that some unmeaning syllables were added to certain lines to accommodate the measure. by their system of combination a single word often sufficed for a line in the longest measure. many of their poetical compositions were intended for the dramatic representations which have been spoken of elsewhere.[ ] [sidenote: aztec arithmetical system.] the nahua system of numeration was very simple and comprehensive, there being no limit to the numbers that could be expressed by it. the following table will give a clear idea of the method as employed by the aztecs: one, _ce_, or _cen_. two, _ome_. three, _yey_, or _ei_. four, _nahui_. five, _macuilli_,--signifying the 'clenched hand,' one finger having been originally doubled, as is supposed, for each unit in counting from one to five. six, _chico a ce_. seven, _chic ome_. eight, _chico ey_. nine, _chico nahui_,--these names from six to nine are simply those from one to four, with a prefix whose meaning is not altogether clear, but which is said to be composed of _chico_, 'at one side,' and _ihuan_ or _huan_, meaning 'near another,' 'with,' or simply 'and.' these names may consequently be interpreted perhaps, 'one side (or hand) with one,' 'one hand with two,' etc., or one two, etc., 'with the other side.' ten, _matlactli_--that is the upper part of the body, or all the fingers of the hands. eleven, _matlactli oc ce_, ten and one. twelve, _matlactli om ome_, ten and two. thirteen, _matlactli om ey_, ten and three. fourteen, _matlactli o nahui_, ten and four. in these names _oc_, _om_, _o_, or _on_ as molina gives it, seems to be used as a connective particle, equivalent to 'and,' but i am not acquainted with its derivation. fifteen, _caxtolli_, a word to which the authorities give no derivative meaning. sixteen, _caxtolli oc ce_, fifteen and one, etc. twenty, _cem pohualli_, once twenty. the word _pohualli_ means 'a count,' the number twenty being in a sense the foundation of the whole numerical system. twenty-one, _cem pohualli oc ce_, once twenty and one, etc. thirty, _cem pohualli, ihuan_ (or _om_ as molina has it) _matlactli_, once twenty and ten. thirty-five, _cem pohualli ihuan_ (or _on_) _caxtolli_, once twenty and fifteen, etc. forty, _ome pohualli_, twice twenty, etc. one hundred, _macuil pohualli_, five times twenty. two hundred, _matlactli pohualli_, ten times twenty. four hundred, _cen tzontli_, once four hundred, 'the hair of the head.' eight hundred, _ome tzontli_, twice four hundred. one thousand, _ome tzontli ihuan matlactli pohualli_, twice four hundred and ten times twenty. eight thousand, _xiquipilli_, a purse or sack, already mentioned as containing eight thousand cacao-nibs. sixteen thousand, _ome xiquipilli_, twice eight thousand. it will be seen from the table that the only numbers having simple names are one, two, three, four, five, ten, fifteen, twenty, four hundred, and eight thousand; all the rest are compounds of these constructed on the principle that when the smaller number follows the larger the sum of the two is expressed, but when the smaller precedes the larger, their product is indicated. molina and leon y gama are the chief authorities on the nahua arithmetical system. all the writers agree perfectly respecting its details, but differ considerably in orthography. molina writes each compound name together as a single word, while gama often separates a word into its parts as i have done in every case, following his spelling. [sidenote: system of numeration.] the manner in which the numbers were written was as simple as the system itself. a point or small circle indicated a unit, and these points sufficed for the numbers from one to nineteen. twenty was indicated by a flag, four hundred by a feather, and eight thousand by a purse. one character placed above another indicated that the product was to be taken; for instance, , might be expressed either by twenty purses, or by a flag over a purse. to avoid the excessive use of the unit points in writing large and fractional numbers, each flag, feather, and purse was divided into four quarters, and only those quarters which were colored were to be counted. thus five might be expressed by five points or by a flag with but one quarter colored; three hundred and fifty-six would be indicated by a feather with three quarters colored, two complete flags, three quarters of another flag, and one point. we have seen that twenties were used, much as dozens are by us, as the foundation of all numeration, but strangely enough these twenties took different names in counting different classes of articles. the regular name, as given in the table, is _pohualli_; in counting sheets of paper, tortillas, small skins, and other thin objects capable of being packed one above another in small parcels, each twenty was called _pilli_; in counting cloths and other articles usually formed into large rolls, _quimilli_ was the name applied to twenty; and in counting persons, lines, walls, and other things ranged in order, the term _tecpantli_ was sometimes employed. in reckoning birds, eggs, fruits, seeds, and round or plump objects, generally _tetl_, 'a stone,' was affixed to each one of the numerals in the table; _pantli_ was in the same way added for objects arranged in regular order, and also for surface measurements; _tlamantli_ likewise was joined to the numerals for articles sold in pairs or sets, as shoes, dishes, etc.; while ears of corn, cacao in bunches, and other bulky articles required the termination _olotl_. among all the nahua nations, so far as known, the arithmetical system was practically the same, and was essentially decimal. nearly all gave great prominence to the number twenty; the huastec language had simple names for the numbers from one to ten, twenty, and one thousand; the otomí approached still nearer our modern system by making one hundred also one of its fundamental numbers with an uncompounded name as well as a compounded one.[ ] astrology, soothsaying, the interpretation of dreams, and of auguries such as the flight or song of birds, the sudden meeting of wild animals, or the occurrence of other unlooked-for events, were regarded by the nahuas as of the greatest importance, and the practice of such arts was entrusted to the _tonalpouhqui_, 'those who count by the sun,' a class of men held in high esteem, to whom was attributed a perfect knowledge of future events. we have seen that no undertaking, public or private, of any importance, could be engaged in except under a suitable and propitious sign, and to determine this sign the tonalpouhqui was appealed to. the science of astrology was written down in books kept with great secrecy and mystery, altogether unintelligible to the common crowd, whose good or bad fortune was therein supposed to be painted. the details of the methods employed in the mysterious rites of divination are nowhere recorded, and the continual mention of the seer's services throughout the chapters of this and the following volume render this paragraph on the subject sufficient here. [sidenote: authorities on nahua arts.] in addition to the miscellaneous arts described in the preceding pages, separate chapters will be devoted to the nahua calendar, hieroglyphics, architecture, and medicine.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'tambien las minas de plata y oro, cobre, plomo, oropel natural, estaño y otros metales, que todos los sacaron, labraron, y dejaron señales y memoria.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . to obtain gold 'se metian al fondo del agua y sacaban las manos llenas de arena, para buscar luego en ella los granos, los que se guardaban en la boca.' _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . in michoacan 'trabajaban minas de cobre.' _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . 'the traces of their labors furnished the best indications for the early spanish miners.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. et seq. [ ] 'whether a man desire the rude mettall, or to haue it molten, or beaten out, and cunningly made into any kinde of iewell, hee shall find them ready wrought.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv. gomara and gama state that they mixed gold and silver, as well as tin, with copper, for the manufacture of gimlets, axes, and chisels. _conq. mex._, fol. ; _dos piedras_, pt ii., p. . clavigero states that in zacatollan two kinds of copper were found, hard and soft, so that there was no need of any hardening process. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] 'porras claveteadas de hierro, cobre y oro.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'nous avons eu entre les mains de beaux outils de cuivre rosette.' _viollet-le-duc_, in _charnay_, _ruines amér._, pp. - . 'hazen muchas cosas, como los mejores caldereros del mundo.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix. some had plates and other vessels of tin. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'contuttociò si sa, che lavoravano bene il rame, e che piacquero assai agli spagnuoli lo loro scuri, e le loro picche.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . peter martyr speaks of large copper stands or candlesticks which supported pine torches to light the courts of the better houses. dec. v., tom. x. 'il existait de si grands vases d'argent qu'un homme pouvait à peine les entourer de ses bras.' _baril_, _mexique_, p. ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _edinburgh review_, july . [ ] 'todo variadizo, que en nuestra españa los grandes plateros tienen que mirar en ello.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'los plateros de madrid, viendo algunas piezas, brazaletes de oro, con que se armaban en guerra los reyes, y capitanes indianos, confessaron que eran inimitables en europa.' _boturini_, _idea_, p. . 'non sarebbero verisimili le maraviglie di cotal arte, se oltre alla testimonianza di quanti le videro, non fossero state mandate in europa in gran copia sì fatte rarità.' 'finalmente erano tali sì fatte opere, che anche que' soldati spagnuoli, che si sentivano travagliati dalla sacra fame dell'oro, pregiavano in esse più l'arte, che la materia.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , - . in the collection of nezahualcoyotzin 'no faltava alli ave, pez ni animal de toda esta tierra, que no estuvìese vivo, ó hecho figura y talle, en piedras de oro y pedrería.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'there is no fourefooted beast, no foule, no fyshe, which their artificers have once seene, but they are able to drawe, and cutte in mettall the likenesse and proportion thereof, euen to the lyfe.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x., iv. eight gold shrimps of much perfection. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. . [ ] 'sacan un ave, como un papagayo que se le anda la lengua como si vivo la menease y tambien la cabeza y las alas. un rostro de aguila lo mismo, una rana, y un pescado, señalada muchas escamas una de plata y otra de oro, todo de vaciado, que espanta à todos nuestros oficiales.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxiii. 'funden vna mona, que juegue pies y cabeça, y tenga en las manos vn huso, que parezca que hila, o vna mançana, que come. esto tuuieron a mucho nuestros españoles, y los plateros de aca no alcançan el primor.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'y lo que mas es, que sacaban de la fundicion vna pieça, la mitad de oro, y la mitad de plata.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - . 'sacauan al mercado los oficiales deste arte, platos, ochauados de vn quarto de oro, y otro de plata, no soldados, sino fundidos, y en la fundicion pegado, cosa dificultosa de entender. sacauan vna caldereta de plata, con excelentes labores, y su assa de vna fundicion, y lo que era de marauillar que la asa estaua suelta.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xv. [ ] 'acaeciales á los principios estar un indio envuelto en una manta que no se le parecian si no los ojos, como ellos se ponen no muy cerca de una tienda de algun platero de los nuestros disimuladamente, como no pretendia mirar nada y el platero estar labrando de oro y de plata alguna joya ó pieza de mucho artificio y muy delicada, y de solo verle hacer alguna parte della irse á su casa y hacello tanto y mas perfecto y traello desde á poco en la mano para lo vender.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxiii. zuazo, however, pronounces some of the native work inferior to the european. 'yo vi algunas piezas y no me parecieron tan primamente labradas como las nuestras.' _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iv., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'vna rueda de hechura de sol, tan grande como de vna carreta, con muchas labores, todo de oro muy fino, gran obra de mirar; ... otra mayor rueda de plata, figurada la luna, con muchos resplandores, y otras figuras en ella.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - . 'espejos hechos de margajita, que es vn metal hermosissimo, como plata muy resplandeciente y estos grandes como vn puño redondos como vna bola, engastados en oro.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. v. 'doze zebratanas de fusta y plata, con que solia el tirar. las unas pintadas y matizadas de aves, animales, rosas, flores, yarboles.... las otras eran variadas, y sinzeladas con mas primor y sotileza que la pintura.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxii. [ ] 'vnas fundidas, otras labradas de piedra.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xv. 'y lo que mas las hace admirables, es que las obran y labran con solo fuego y con una piedra ó pedernal.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxiii. hammered work inferior to that of european artisans. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'los oficiales que labran oro son de dos maneras, unos de ellos se llaman martilladores ó amajadores, porque estos labran oro de martillo majándolo con piedras ó con martillos, para hacerlo delgado como papel: otros se llaman _tlatlaliani_, que quiere decir, que asientan el oro ó alguna cosa en él, ó en la plata, estos son verdaderos oficiales ó por otro nombre se llaman _tulteca_; pero están divididos en dos partes, porque labran el oro cada uno de su manera.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., p. , et seq. for pictures of furnaces and of some manufactured articles from the hieroglyphic mss., see _ewbank_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., p. , et seq. 'they cast, also, vessels of gold and silver, carving them with their metallic chisels in a very delicate manner.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] 'siéntanse en el suelo y toman un pedazo de aquella piedra negra.... aquel pedazo que toman es de un palmo ó poco mas largo, y de grueso como la pierna ó poco menos, y rollizo. tienen un palo del grueso de una lanza y largo como tres codos ó poco mas, y al principio de este palo ponen pegado y bien atado un trozo de palo de un palmo, grueso como el molledo del brazo, y algo mas, y este tiene su frente llana y tajada, y sirve este trozo para que pese mas aquella parte. juntan ambos piés descalzos, y con ellos aprietan la piedra con el pecho, y con ambas las manos toman el palo que dije era como vara de lanza (que tambien es llano y tajado) y pónenlo á besar con el canto de la frente de la piedra (que tambien es llana y tajada), y entonces aprietan hácia el pecho, y luego salta de la piedra una navaja con su punta y sus filos de ambas partes.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; repeated in nearly the same words in _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxii., lxvi; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . [ ] _tylor's researches_, p. . 'tienen lancetas de azabache negro, y vnas nauajas de axeme, hechas como puñal, mas gordas en medio que á los filos, con que se jassan y sangran de la lengua, braços, y piernas.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . [ ] _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - . 'in the beginning of this so rare inuention, i gotte one of them, which christophorus colonus, admirall of the sea gaue mee. this stone was of a greene darkishe colour, fastened in most firme and harde woode, which was the handle or helue thereof. i stroke with all my force vpon iron barres and dented the iron with my strokes without spoyling or hurting of the stone in any part thereof. with these stones therefore they make their instruments, for hewing of stone, or cutting of timber, or any workemanship in gold or siluer.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv. [ ] _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxii. see note of this chapter. [ ] 'sculptured images were so numerous, that the foundations of the cathedral in the _plaza mayor_, the great square of mexico, are said to be entirely composed of them.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . two statues in likeness of montezuma and his brother cut in the cliff at chapultepec. _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. iii. the idols destroyed by cortés 'eran de manera de dragones espantables, tan grandes como becerros, y otras figuras de manera de medio hombre, y de perros grandes, y de malas semejanças.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'sapevano esprimere nelle loro statue tutti gli atteggiamenti, e positure, di cui è capace il corpo, osservavano esattamente le proporzioni, e facevano, dove si richiedeva, i più minuti, e dilicati intaglj.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'habia entre ellos grandes escultores de cantería, que labraban cuanto querian en piedra, con guijarros ó pedernales, tan prima y curiosamente como en nuestra castilla los muy buenos oficiales con escodas y picos de acero.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . portrait-statues of the tezcucan kings. _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _relaciones_, p. . statues of montezuma and brother. _bustamante_, in _cavo_, _tres siglos_, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'gli smeraldi erano tanto comuni, che non v'era signore, che non ne avesse.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'esmaltan assi mesmo, engastan y labran esmeraldas, turquesas, y otras piedras, y agujeran perlas pero no tambien como por aca.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'ambar, cristal, y las piedras llamadas _amatista_ perlas, y todo género de ellas, y demas que traían por joyas que ahora se usan.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , - . 'un encalado muy pulido, que era de ver, y piedras de que estaban hechas, tambien labradas y pegadas, que parecia ser cosa de musaico.' _id._, p. . shields adorned with 'perlas menudas como aljofar, y no se puede dezir su artificio, lindeza, y hermosura.' sandals having 'por suelas vna piedra blanca y azul, cosa preciosa y muy delgada.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. v. guariques of blue stones set in gold; a stone face surrounded with gold; a string of stone beads. 'dos mascaras de piedras menudas, como turquesas, sentadas sobre madera de otra musáyca.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. - , tom. iii., pp. , . idol covered with mosaic work of mother of pearl, turquoises, emeralds, and chalcedonies. _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxii. 'excellent glasses may bee made thereof by smoothing and polishing them, so that we all confessed that none of ours did better shewe the naturall and liuely face of a manne.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x. 'ils avaient des masques garnis de pierres précieuses, représentant des lions, des tigres, des ours, etc.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . emerald altar to the miztec god. _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. . 'y lo de las piedras, que no basta juicio á comprehender con qué instrumentos se hiciese tan perfecto.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] huitzilopochtli's idol 'era vna estatua de madera entretallada en semejança de vn hombre sentado en vn escaño azul.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . large chests 'hechas de madera con sus tapaderas que se abren y cierran con unos colgadizos.' _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . 'i falegnami lavoravano bene parecchie spezie di legni co'loro strumenti di rame, d' quali se ne vedono alcuni anche oggidì.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , - . 'los carpinteros y entalladores labraban la madera con instrumentos de cobre, pero no se daban á labrar cosas curiosas como los canteros.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . 'labravan lazos, y animales tan curiosos que causaron admiracion à los primeros españoles.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . 'with their copper hatchets, and axes, cunnyngly tempered, they fell those trees, and hewe them smooth, taking away the chyppes, that they may more easily be drawne. they haue also certayne hearbes, with the which, in steed of broome, and hempe, they make ropes, cordes, and cables: and boaring a hole in one of the edges of the beame, they fasten the rope, then sette their slaues vnto it, like yoakes of oxen, and lastly insteede of wheels, putting round blocks vnder the timber, whether it be to be drawn steepe vp, or directly downe the hill, the matter is performed by the neckes of the slaues, the carpenters onely directing the carriage.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x. 'hazen caxas, escritorios, mesas, escriuanias, y otras cosas de mucho primor.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix. 'they made cups and vases of a lackered or painted wood, impervious to wet and gaudily colored.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] molina, _diccionario_, says, however that, the tecomatl was an earthen vase. see also p. of this volume. [ ] 'siete sartas de quentas menudas de barro, redondas y doradas muy bien.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , . 'i pentolai facevano d'argilla non solo gli stoviglj necessarj per l'uso delle case, ma eziandío altri lavori di mera curiosità.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , tom. iv., pp. - . 'la loza tan hermosa, y delicada como la de faenza en italia.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ii., vii. 'los incensarios con que incensaban eran de barro, à manera de cuchara, cuio remate era hueco, y dentro tenían metidas pelotillas del mismo barro, que sonaban como cascaveles, à los golpes del incienso, como suenan las cadenas de nuestros incensarios.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the jicara was of gold, silver, gourd-shells, or fish-shells. 'aunque estèn cien años en el agua, nunca la pintura se les borra.' _id._, p. . 'para coger la sangre tienen escudillas de calabaça.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - . 'many sorts also of earthen vessels are sold there, as water pots, greate iuggs, chargers, gobblets, dishes, colenders, basens, frying pans, porringers, pitchers.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iv. 'vasos que llaman xicalli, y tecomatl, que son de vnos arboles, que se dan en tierras calientes.' 'À estas les dan vn barniz con flores, y animales de diversos colores, hermoseadas, que no se quita, ni se despinta aunque estè en el agua muchos días.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . [ ] 'non aveano lana, nè seta comune, nè lino, nè canapa; ma supplivano alla lana col cotone, alla seta colla piuma, e col pelo del coniglio, e della lepre, ed al lino, ed alla canapa coll' _icxotl_, o palma montana, col _quetzalichtli_, col pati, e con altre spezie di maguei.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , . 'en todo el mundo no se podia hacer ni tejer otra tal, ni de tantas ni tan diversas y naturales colores ni labores.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . 'una vestidura del gran sacerdote _achcauhquitlinamacàni_ se embiò à roma en tiempo de la conquista, que dexò pasmada aquella corte.' _boturini_, _idea_, p. . the olmecs used the hair of dogs and other animals. _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. , - . 'incredible matters of cotton, housholde-stuffe, tapestry or arras hangings, garments, and couerlets.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. iii. humboldt states that silk made by a species of indigenous worms was an article of commerce among the miztecs, in the time of montezuma. _essai pol._, tom. ii., p. . 'hilan teniendo el copo en vna mano, y el huso en otra. tuercen al reues que aca, estando el huso en vna escudilla. no tiene hueca el huso, mas hilan a prissa y no mal.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. ii., pp. - . maguey-paper 'resembling somewhat the egyptian papyrus.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . some paper of palm-leaf, as thin and soft as silk. _boturini_, _catálogo_, in _id._, _idea_, pp. - . native paper called _cauhamatl_. _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . they made paper of a certain species of aloe, steeped together like hemp, and afterwards washed, stretched, and smoothed; also of the palm _icxotl_, and thin barks united and prepared with a certain gum. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , tom. iv., p. . torquemada speaks of a sheet fathoms long, one wide, and as thick as the finger. _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'habia oficiales de curtir cueros y muchos de adovarlos maravillosamente.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxii. 'cueros de venado, tigres, y leones ... con pelo, y sin pelo, de todos colores.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'tan suaves que de ellos se vestian, y sacaban correas.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . cortés found the skins of some of his horses slain in battle 'tan bien adobados como en todo el mundo lo pudieran hacer.' _cartas_, p. . red skins resembling parchment. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . 'no se puede bien dezir su hermosura, y hechura.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. v. 'los tarascos curtian perfectamente las pieles de los animales.' _payno_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., p. . 'des tapis de cuir maroquinés avec la dernière perfection.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . method of raising cochineal. _id._, pp. - . 'en parcourant le palais de montézuma les castillans furent très-étonnés d'y voir des sacs de punaises dont on se servait à teindre et même à badigeonner les murs.' _rosny_, in _comité d'arch. amér._, - , pp. - . see p. of this volume. they possessed the art of dyeing a fabric without impairing its strength, an art unknown to europeans of the th century. _carli_, _cartas_, pt ii., pp. - . [ ] 'y pintores ha habido entre ellos tan señalados, que sobre muchos de los señalados donde quiera que se hallasen se podian señalar.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxii. the same author speaks of their skill in reducing or enlarging drawings. 'havia pintores buenos, que retrataban al natural, en especial aves, animales, arboles, flores, y verduras, y otras semejantes, que vsaban pintar, en los aposentos de los reies, y señores; pero formas humanas, asi como rostros, y cuerpos de hombres, y mugeres, no los pintaban al natural.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , tom. i., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . 'dans leur grotesque et leur raccourci, on trouve encore cependant une délicatesse de pinceau, fort remarquable, une pureté et une finesse dans les esquisses, qu'on ne saurait s'empêcher d'admirer; on voit, d'ailleurs, un grand nombre de portraits de rois et de princes, qui sont évidemment faits d'après nature.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . 'wee sawe a mappe of those countreyes . foote long, and little lesse in breadth, made of white cotton, wouen: wherein the whole playne was at large described.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x., iii., v. [ ] 'la natura ad essi somministrava quanti colori fa adoperar l'arte, e alcuni ancora, que essa non è capace d'imitare.' the specimens made after the conquest were very inferior. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'hazense las mejores ymagines de pluma en la prouincia de mechoacan en el pueblo de pascaro.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . 'vi ciertos follajes, pájaros, mariposas, abejones sobre unas varas temblantes, negras é tan delgadas, que apenas se veian, é de tal manera que realmente se hacian vivas á los que las miraban un poquito de lejos: todo lo demas que estaba cerca de las dichas mariposas, pájaros é abejones correspondia naturalmente á boscajes de yerbas, ramos é flores de diversas colores é formas.' _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'figuras, y imagenes de principes, y de sus idolos, tan vistosas, y tan acertadas, que hazian ventaja a las pinturas castellanas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xv. 'muchas cosas de pluma, como aves, animales, hombres, y otras cosas mui delicadas, capas, y mantas para cubrirse, y vestiduras para los sacerdotes de sus templos, coronas, mitras, rodelas, y mosqueadores.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxii. 'acontece les no comer en todo vn dia, poniendo, quitando y assentando la pluma, y mirando à una parte, y à otra, al sol, a la sombra,' etc. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - . mention of the birds which furnished bright-colored feathers. _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - . 'ils en faisaient des rondaches et d'autres insignes, compris sous le nom d' "apanecayotl," dont rien n'approchait pour la richesse et le fini.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . mention of some specimens preserved in europe. _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l. [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . [ ] 'avvegnachè i lor più celebri aringatori non sieno da paragonarsi cogli oratori delle nazioni culte dell'europa, non può peraltro negarsi, che i loro ragionamenti non fossero gravi, sodi, ed eleganti, come si scorge dagli avanzi che ci restano della loro eloquenza.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'les raisonnements y sont graves, les arguments solides, et pleins d'élégance.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . montezuma's speech to cortés, in _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - . 'the spaniards have given us many fine polished indian orations, but they were certainly fabricated at madrid.' _adair_, _amer. ind._, p. . [ ] four poems or fragments are given in spanish, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - . no. has for its subject the tyrant tezozomoc; no. is an ode on the mutability of life; no. is an ode recited at a feast, comparing the great kings of anáhuac to precious stones; no. was composed for the dedication of the author's palace and treats of the unsatisfactory nature of earthly honors. nos. and are also found in _doc. hist. mex._, serie iii., tom. iv., pp. - . no. is given in _prescott's mex._, vol. iii., pp. - , in spanish and english verse. a french translation of no. is given by brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , who also gives an additional specimen from carochi's grammar, in aztec and spanish. nos. , , and in french, in _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - . no. is to be found in _granados y galvez_, _tardes amer._, pp. - . nos. and , in german, in _müller_, _reisen_, tom. iii., pp. - , where are also two additional odes. no. is also given in german by klemm, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - . the language of their poetry was brilliant, pure, and agreeable, figurative, and embellished with frequent comparisons to the most pleasing objects in nature. _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . nezahualcoyotl left sixty hymns composed in honor of the creator of heaven. _id._, tom. i., pp. , - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. , - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . 'cantauan lamentaciones, y endechas. tenian pronosticos, especialmente que se auia de acabar el mundo, y los cantauan lastimosamente: y tambien tenian memoria de sus grandezas, en cantares y pinturas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _molina_, _vocabulario_; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt ii., pp. - ; _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iv., sept., ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] my authorities for the matter in this chapter are: _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., pp. - , - , tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , - , , , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l., lxii-lxiii., lxv., cxxi., cxxxii., clxxii., ccxi.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. - , , - , , , ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. , , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., pp. - ; _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - , - ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv., dec. v., tom. i.-v., x., dec. viii., lib. iv.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , , - , , - , - , , - , - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. iii.; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt ii., pp. , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. , - , tom. ii., pp. - , - , - , - , tom. iv., pp. - , , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , - , , - , tom. ii., pp. , - , - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , ; _id._, _relaciones_, pp. , , - , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. iv., v., lib. vi., cap. xi., xvi., lib. vii., cap. ii., vii., ix., xv., dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix.; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , , , , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. - , - , , tom. iii., pp. , , - , - , , - , ; _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. , - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - , - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. , , - , tom. iii., pp. - , ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _id._, p. ; _relacion de algunas cosas_, in _id._, pp. - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _id._, pp. , ; _hernandez_, _nova plant._, p. ; _granados y galvez_, _tardes amer._, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - , - , - , - , vol. iii., pp. - ; _ewbank_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _müller_, _reisen_, tom. iii., pp. - , ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , , - , , - , - , - , - , - , - , tom. ii., pp. , - , , - , , - ; _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., p. , tom. iv., sept. ; _rosny_, in _comité d'arch. amér._, - , pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _tylor's researches_, pp. , , , ; _id._, _anahuac_, pp. - , - ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. ii., pp. , ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt ii., pp. - ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. , , , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , - , - , , tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clix., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - , - ; _cavo_, _tres siglos_, tom. iii., p. ; _viollet-le-duc_, in _charnay_, _ruines amér._, pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _edinburgh review_, july, ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , , - , - , - , ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - , , , - ; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. viii., pp. - ; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. , , - , - , , - , ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. , , - ; _mill's hist. mex._, p. ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, pp. , ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., pp. - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. , ; _fransham's world in miniature_, vol. ii., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, pp. - ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., pp. , ; _dupaix_, _rel., de expéd._, pp. , ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _wappäus_, _geog. u. stat._, p. ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. , , ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _gordon_, _hist. and geog. mem._, p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., pp. - , ; _alzate y ramirez_, _mem. sobre grana._, ms. chapter xvi. the aztec calendar. astronomical knowledge of the aztecs--contradictions of authors respecting the calendar--value of the researches of various writers--the first regular calendar--the mexican cycle--the civil year--the aztec months--names of the days and their signification--the commencement of the aztec year--the ritual calendar--gama's arrangement of the months--the calendar-stone--the four destructions of the world--the calendar of michoacan--reckoning of the zapotecs. perhaps the strongest proof of the advanced civilization of the nahuas was their method of computing time, which, for ingenuity and correctness, equaled, if it did not surpass, the systems adopted by contemporaneous european and asiatic nations. the nahuas were well acquainted with the movements of the sun and moon, and even of some of the planets, while celestial phenomena, such as eclipses, although attributed to unnatural causes, were nevertheless carefully observed and recorded. they had, moreover, an accurate system of dividing the day into fixed periods, corresponding somewhat to our hours; indeed, as the learned sr leon y gama has shown, the aztec calendar-stone which was found in the plaza of the city of mexico, was used not only as a durable register, but also as a sun-dial. [sidenote: the aztec calendar.] although the system of the aztec calendar as a whole is clear and easily understood, yet it is extremely difficult to describe with certainty many of its details, owing to the contradictory statements of nearly all the earlier writers, who visited mexico and there in different localities picked up scraps of what they afterwards described as being the 'calendar of the mexicans,' not taking into consideration that the many and distinct kingdoms surrounding the aztec territory, although using essentially the same system, differed on many important points, such as the names of years, months, days, the season of beginning the year, etc. this difficulty increases when we attempt to make mexican dates agree with our own. even boturini, who gathered his information in mexico, makes many mistakes; and veytia, although we must accord him the credit of having thoroughly studied the subject, and of having reduced it to a clear system, is at fault in many points. of the older writers, such as sahagun, las casas, duran, motolinia, and others, no one is explicit enough on all points to enable us to follow him; and such details as they unite in giving are mostly contradictory. torquemada, who draws a great portion of his material from motolinia, contradicts himself too frequently to be reliable. leon y gama, although he spent much labor in trying to clearly expound the system, has also fallen into some errors, attributable, perhaps, to his not having the valuable aid of sahagun's writings, and to his having placed too much trust in the writings of torquemada and the manuscript of the indian cristóbal del castillo, as is shown in the review of gama's work by sr josé antonio alzate in the _gacetas de literatura_. baron von humboldt's description, valuable as it is on account of the extended comparisons which he draws between the mexican, asiatic and egyptian calendars, is on that account too intricate to be easily understood. from all these descriptions gallatin, mcculloh, and müller, with perhaps a few others, have each given us a very good résumé, but without attempting to reconcile all the contradictions. the first notice we have of any regular calendar is given by ixtlilxochitl, who states that in the year from the creation of the world, an assembly of learned men met at the city of huehuetlapallan, and determined the reckoning of the years, days, and months, leap years and intercalary days, in the order in which they were found at the time of the conquest.[ ] previous to this time it is said that the only reckoning kept was regulated by the yearly growth of the fresh grass and herbs from which the name of the mexican year _xihuitl_, 'new grass,' is derived. it is also said that a rough computation of time was made by the moon, from its appearance to its disappearance, and that this period called _metztli_, 'the moon,' was divided into two equal parts, named respectively _mextozolitzli_, the time when the moon was awake or visible, and _mecochiliztli_, the sleep of the moon, or the time when it was invisible.[ ] of the larger divisions of time, accounts are very conflicting. two, three, four, and five ages are said by various writers to have existed, at the end of each of which the world was said to have been destroyed, and recreated at the beginning of the age next following. the common aboriginal belief was, however, that at the time of the conquest, the world had passed through three ages, and was then in the fourth. the first age, or 'sun,' as it is also called, was the sun of water, _atonatiuh_; the second, the sun of earth, _tlalchitonatiuh_; the third, the sun of air, _ehecatonatiuh_.[ ] this is about all we know of any division of time, before the assembly at huehuetlapallan which is said to have introduced the regular calendar. [illustration: the aztec cycle.] [sidenote: the mexican cycle.] the mexican calendar contains the following divisions of time: the 'age,' consisting of two periods of fifty-two years each, was called _huehuetiliztli_; the 'cycle,' consisting of four periods of thirteen years each, was named _xiuhmolpilli_, _xiuhmolpia_ or _xiuhtlalpilli_, meaning the 'binding up of the years.' each period of thirteen years or, as it was called by the spanish historians, 'indiccion,' was known as a _tlalpilli_, or 'knot,' and, as stated above, each single year was named _xihuitl_, or 'new grass,' the age was not used in the regular reckoning, and is only rarely mentioned to designate a long space of time. the numeral prefixed to the name of any year in the cycle, or xiuhmolpilli, never exceeded four, and to carry out this plan, four signs, respectively named _tochtli_, 'rabbit,' _calli_, 'house,' _tecpatl_, 'flint,' and _acatl_, 'cane,' were used. thus the aztecs commenced to count the first year of their first cycle with the name or hieroglyphic ce tochtli, meaning 'one (with the sign of) rabbit;' and the second year was ome acatl, 'two, cane;' the third, yey tecpatl, 'three, flint;' the fourth, nahui calli, 'four, house;' the fifth, macuilli tochtli, 'five, rabbit;' the sixth, chicoace acatl, 'six, cane;' the seventh, chicome tecpatl, 'seven, flint;' the eighth, chico ey calli, 'eight, house;' the ninth, chico nahui tochtli, 'nine, rabbit;' the tenth, matlactli acatl, 'ten, cane;' the eleventh, matlactli occe tecpatl, 'eleven, flint;' the twelfth, matlactli omome calli, 'twelve, house;' and the thirteenth, matlactli omey tochtli, 'thirteen, rabbit.' this numeration continued in the same manner, the second tlalpilli commencing again with 'one, cane,' the third tlalpilli with 'one, flint,' the fourth with 'one, house,' and so on to the end of the cycle of fifty-two years. it will easily be seen that during the fifty-two years none of these four signs could be accompanied by the same number twice, and therefore no confusion could arise. instead, therefore, of saying an event happened in the year , as we do in our reckoning, they spoke of it as happening, for instance, in the year of 'three, rabbit' in the twelfth cycle.[ ] still, some confusion has been caused among different writers by the fact that the different nations of anáhuac did not all commence their cycles with the same hieroglyphic sign. thus the toltecs commenced with the sign tecpatl, 'flint;' and the mexicans, or aztecs, with tochtli, 'rabbit;' while some again used acatl, 'cane;' and others calli, 'house,' as their first name.[ ] a cycle was represented in their paintings by the figures of tochtli, acatl, tecpatl, and calli, repeated each thirteen times and placed in a circle, round which was painted a snake holding its tail in its mouth, and making at each of the four cardinal points a kink with its own body, as shown in the plate on the opposite page, which served to divide the cycle into four tlalpillis.[ ] these four signs, rabbit, cane, flint, and house were also, according to boturini, used to designate the four seasons of the year, the four cardinal points, and lastly, the four elements. thus, for instance, tecpatl also signified south; calli, east; tochtli, north; and acatl, west. in the same manner tecpatl was used to designate fire; calli, earth; tochtli, air; and acatl, water.[ ] the civil year was again divided into eighteen months and five days. each month had its particular name, but the five extra days were only designated as _nemontemi_ or 'unlucky days,' and children born at this time, or enterprises undertaken, were considered unlucky. in hieroglyphical paintings these months were also placed in a circle, in the middle of which a face, representing either the sun or moon, was painted. this circle was called a _xiuhtlapohualli_, or 'count of the year.' concerning the order in which these months followed one another, and the name of the first month, hardly two authors agree; in the same manner we find three or four various names given to many of the months. it would appear reasonable to suppose that the month immediately following the nemontemi, which were always added at the end of the year, would be the first, and the only difficulty here is to know which way the aztecs wrote; whether from right to left or from left to right. on the circle of the month given by veytia, and supposed to have been copied from an original, these five days are inserted between the months panquetzaliztli and atemoztli, and counting from left to right, this would make atemoztli the first month, which would agree with veytia's statement. but gama and others decidedly dissent from this opinion, and name other months as the first. i reserve further consideration of this subject for another place in this chapter, where in connection with other matters it can be more clearly discussed, and content myself with simply inserting here a table of the names of the months as enumerated by the principal authors, in order to show at a glance the many variations. i also append to it the different dates given for the first day of the year, in which there are as many contradictions as in the names and position of the months. names of mexican months according to various authors. +==================================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |sahagun. | atlacahualco, or | tlacaxipeoaliztli. | | | quavitleloa. | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gomara. | tlacaxipeualiztli. | tozçuztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| atlcahualo. | tlacaxipehualiztli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |duran. | xuchitzitzquilo, or | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | | quauitlehua, or | | | | atlmotzacuaga, | | | | or xilomaniztly. | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | atlcaualo. | tlacaxipeualiztli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |torquemada. | atlacahualco, or | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | | quahuitlehua. | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |vetancvrt. | atlachualco, or | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | | quahuilchua. | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |vetancvrt | xilomatihuitztli. | coylhuitl. | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | tlacaxipehualitztli. | tozoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |laet. | tlacaxipenaliztli. | toxcactli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |veytia. | atemoztli. | tititl. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |lorenzana. | atemoztli. | tititl. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |clavigero. | atlacahualco. | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gama.[ ] | tititl, | itzcalli, or | | | or itzcalli. | xochilhuitl. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |klemm. | acahualco. | tlacaxipehualitztli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |mueller. | tlacaxipehualiztli, | tozoztontli. | | | or cohuailhuitl. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |brasseur | atlacahualco. | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | atlacahualco. | tlacaxipehualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |codex telleriano- | | | | remensis. | | | +==================================================================+ +===============================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |sahagun. | tozoztontli. | veytocoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |gomara. | hueitozçuztli. | toxcatl, or | | | | tepupochuiliztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]|toçoztontli. | hueitoçoztontli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |duran. | tozoztontly. | ochpaniztly, or | | | | cueytozoztly. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | tocozintli. | veitozcoztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |torquemada. | toçoztontli. | hueytoçoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |vetancvrt. | tocoztontli. | hueytocoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |vetancvrt | | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | hueytozoztli. | toxcatl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |laet. | hueitozcuztli. | toxcatl, or | | | | tepupochuiliztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |veytia. | itzcalli. | xilomaniztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |lorenzana. | yzcalli. | xilomanizte. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |clavigero. | tozoztontli. | hueitozoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |gama.[ ] | xilomanalixtli, or | tlacaxipehualiztli, | | | atlcahualco, or | or cohuailhuitl. | | | quahuitlehua, or | | | | cihuailhuitl. | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |klemm. | tozozontli. | hueitozoptli. | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |mueller. | huey tozoztli. | toxcatl, or | | | | tepopochuiliztli. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |brasseur | tozoztontli. | huey-tozoztli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | tozoztontli. | hueitozoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+ |codex telleriano- | | | | remensis. | | | +===============================================================+ +===============================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |sahagun. | toxcatl. | etzacualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |gomara. | eçalcoaliztli. | tecuilhuicintli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| tochcatl. | etzalcualiztli. | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |duran. | toxcatl. | etzalcualiztly. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | toxcatl. | hetzalqualiztl. | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |torquemada. | toxcatl. | etzalqualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |vetancvrt. | teoxcalt. | etzaqualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |vetancvrt | | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | etzalcualiztli. | ticuyilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |laet. | ezalioalixtli. | tecuilhuicintli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |veytia. | cohuailhuitl. | tozcotzintli. | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |lorenzana. | cohuailhuitl. | tozcotzintli. | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |clavigero. | toxcatl. | etzalcualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |gama.[ ] | tozoztontli. | huey tozoztli. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |klemm. | texcatl. | etzalqualitztli. | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |mueller. | etzalqualiztli. | tecuilhuitzintli. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |brasseur | toxcatl. | etzacualiztli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | toxcatl, or coxcatl. | etzalcualiztli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+ |codex telleriano- | | | | remensis. | | | +===============================================================+ +=============================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |sahagun. | tecuilhuitontli. | veytecuilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |gomara. | hueitecuilhuitl. | miccailhuicintli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| tecuilhuitontli. | hueiteucyilhuitl. | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |duran. | tecuiluitontly, or | hueytecuilhuitl. | | | tlaxochimaco. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | tecuilvitontl. | veitecuiluitl. | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |torquemada. | tecuhilhuitontli. | hueytecuhilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |vetancvrt. | tecuylhuitontli. | hueytecuyilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |vetancvrt | | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | hueytecuilhuitl. | micaylhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |laet. | huehtecuilhuitl. | miccathuicintli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |veytia. | hueytozcoztli. | toxcatl. | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |lorenzana. | huey tozcoztli. | toxcatl. | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |clavigero. | tecuilhuitontli. | hueitecuilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |gama.[ ] | toxcatl, or | etzalqualiztli. | | | tepopochuiliztli. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |klemm. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |mueller. | hueytecuilhuitl. | miccailhuitzintly, | | | | or tlalxochimaco. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |brasseur | tecuilhuitontli. | huey tecuilhuitl. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | teucuilhuitontli. | hueituecuilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+ |codex telleriano- | tecuiluitontl. | veytecuiluitl. | | remensis. | | | +==============================================================+ +=============================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |sahagun. | tlaxochimaco. | xocohuetzl. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |gomara. | veymiccailhuitl. | vchpaniztli, or | | | | tenauatiliztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| tlaxochimanco. | xocotlhuetzi. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |duran. | miccailhuitontly. | tocotluetz. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | miccailhuitl. | veymiccailhuitl. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |torquemada. | tlaxuchimaco, or | xocotlhuetzi. | | | hueymiccaylhuitl. | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |vetancvrt. | tlaxochimaco. | xocotlhuetzi. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |vetancvrt | micaylhuitzintli. | hueymicaylhuitl. | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | hueymicailhuitl. | ochpaniztli. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |laet. | veimiccailhuitl. | vchpaniztli, or | | | | tenavatiliztli. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |veytia. | exolqualiztli. | tecuilhuitzintli. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |lorenzana. | ezalqualliztli. | tecuilhuitzintli. | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |clavigero. | tlaxochimaco. | xocohuetzi. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |gama.[ ] | tecuilhuitzintli. | hueytecuilhuitl. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |klemm. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |mueller. | hueymiccailhuitl, | ochpaniztli, or | | | or xolotlhuetzin. | tenahuatiliztli. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |brasseur | tlaxochimaco. | xocohuetzi. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | tlaxochimaco. | xocotlhuetzi. | | | | | +--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |codex telleriano- | michaylhuitl. | hueymiccaylhuitl. | | remensis. | | | +=============================================================+ +==================================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |sahagun. | ochpaniztli. | teotleco. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gomara. | pachtli, or | hueipachtli, or | | | heçoztli. | pachtli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| ochpaniztli. | teotlèco. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |duran. | ochpaniztly. | pachtontly. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | ochpaniztl. | pachtontl. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |torquemada. | uchpaniztli. | teutleco. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |vetancvrt. | ochpaniztli. | teotleco. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |vetancvrt | | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | pachtli. | hueypachtli. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |laet. | pachtli, or | hueipachtli. | | | hecoztli. | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |veytia. | hueytecuilhuitl. | micailhuitzintli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |lorenzana. | huey tecuilhuitl. | mictailhutlzintli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |clavigero. | ochpaniztli. | teotleco. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |gama.[ ] | miccailhuitzintli, | hueymiccailhuitl, | | | or tlaxochimaco. | or xocotlhuetzi. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |klemm. | ochpanitztli. | pachtli. | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |mueller. | pachtli, or ezoztli, | hueypachtli, or | | | or teotleco. | pachtli, | | | | or tepeilhuitl. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |brasseur | ochpaniztli. | teotleco. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | tlachpanaliztli. | teotleco. | | | | | +--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+ |codex telleriano- | ochpaniztli. | pactontly. | | remensis. | | | +==================================================================+ +==========================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |sahagun. |tepeilhuitl. | quecholli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |motolinia. | | panquetzaliztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |gomara. |quecholli. | panqueçaliztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]|tepeilhuitl. | quechulli. | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |duran. |veypachtly, or | quecholli. | | | coailhuitl. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |codex vaticanus. |veipachtli. | quecholi. | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |torquemada. |tepeilhuitl. | quecholli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |vetancvrt. |tepeylhuitl. | quecholli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |vetancvrt |pachtzintli. | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |gemelli carreri. |checiogli. | panchetzaliztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |laet. |quecholli. | panquecaliztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |veytia. |hueymicailhuitl. | huepaniztli. | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |lorenzana. |hueymictailhuitl. | ochpaniztli. | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |clavigero. |tepeilhuitl. | quecholli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |gama.[ ] |ochpaniztli, or | pachtli, or | | | tenahuatiliztli. | ezoztli, or | | | | teotleco. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |klemm. | | tepeilhuitl. | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |mueller. |quecholli. | panquetzaliztli. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |brasseur |tepeilhuitl. | quecholli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. |tepeilhuitl. | quecholli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+------------------+ |codex telleriano- |veypactli. | quecholi. | | remensis. | | | +==========================================================+ +=======================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |sahagun. | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |gomara. | hatemuztli. | tititlh. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| panquetzaliztli. | atemuztli. | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |duran. | panquetzaliztly. | atemoztli. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |codex vaticanus. | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |torquemada. | panquetzaliztli. | atemuztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |vetancvrt. | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztlique. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |vetancvrt | | | |(tlascaltec names). | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |gemelli carreri. | atemoztli. | tititl. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |laet. | hatemuztli. | tititl. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |veytia. | pachtzintli. | hueypachtli. | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |lorenzana. | pachtlizintli. | hueypachtli. | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |clavigero. | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |gama.[ ] | hueypachtli, or | quecholli. | | | pachtli, or | | | | tepeilhuitl. | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |klemm. | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |mueller. | atemoztli. | tititl, or | | | | itzcalli. | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |brasseur | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+---------------+ |codex telleriano- | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | remensis. | | | +=======================================================+ +============================================================+ | | | | |authors. | . | . | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |sahagun. | tititl. | yzcalli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |motolinia. | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |acosta. | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |gomara. | izcalli. | coauitleuac, or | | | | ciuailhuilt. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| tititl. | ytzcali. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |duran. | tititl. | yzcalli, or | | | | xilomaniztly, or | | | | queuitleua. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | tititl. | yzcalli. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |torquemada. | tititl. | izcalli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |vetancvrt. | titzotl. | izcalli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |vetancvrt | | | | (tlascaltec names).| | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | izcagli. | atlacoalo. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |laet. | izcalli. | coavitlevac. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |veytia. | quecholli. | panquetzaliztli. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |lorenzana. | quecholli. | panquetzalliztli. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |clavigero. | tititl. | izcalli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |gama.[ ] | panquetzaliztli. | atemoztli. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |klemm. | tititl. | izcalli. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |mueller. | itzcalli, or | xilomanaliztli, or | | | xochilhuitl. | atlcahualco, or | | | | quahuitlehua, or | | | | cihuailhuitl. | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |brasseur | tititl. | izcalli. | | de bourbourg. | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | tititl. | izcalli. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------+--------------------+ |codex telleriano- | tititl. | yzcatli. | | remensis. | | | +============================================================+ +=============================================+ | | commencement of | |authors. | the mexican year, | | | according to our | | | reckoning. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |sahagun. | d february. | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |motolinia. | commencement | | | of march. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |acosta. | th february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |gomara. | | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |martin de leon.[ ]| d february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |duran. | st march. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |codex vaticanus. | th february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |torquemada. | st february. | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |vetancvrt. | february. | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |vetancvrt | | |(tlascaltec names). | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |gemelli carreri. | first year of century, | | | th april. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |laet. | march, or th | | | of february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |veytia. | d february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |lorenzana. | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |clavigero. | first year of century, | | | th february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |gama.[ ] | th january. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |klemm. | th february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |mueller. | th march. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |brasseur | | | de bourbourg. | | +--------------------+------------------------+ |carbajal espinosa. | first year of century, | | | th february. | +--------------------+------------------------+ |codex telleriano- | th february. | | remensis. | | +=============================================+ [sidenote: names of the aztec month.] each month, as before stated, was represented by its proper hieroglyph, having a certain meaning, and generally referring to some feast or natural event, such as the ripening of fruit, or falling of rain, happening during the month, although in this case also there are many differences between authors regarding the meaning of the names. [illustration: the aztec year.] tititl, which according to gama was the first month, is translated by boturini as 'our mother,' or 'mother of the gods,' while cabrera calls it 'fire.'[ ] itzcalli, according to boturini, means 'regeneration;' the codex vaticanus translates it 'skill;' and veytia, 'the sprouting of the grass.'[ ] atlcahualco means the 'abating of the waters.' the tlascaltec name of this month, xilomanaliztli, signifies the 'offering of green maize.' in other localities this month was also known by the name of quahuitlehua, the 'burning of the mountains,' or rather of the trees on the mountains, previous to sowing.[ ] tlacaxipehualiztli means the 'flaying of the people;' the other name of this month, cohuailhuitl, is the 'feast of the snake.' tozoztontli, tozcotzintli, and hueytozoztli are respectively the small and great fast or vigil; while some translate these words by 'pricking of veins,' 'shedding of blood,' or 'great and small penance.'[ ] toxcatl is a 'collar' or 'necklace.'[ ] etzalqualiztli is translated by boturini 'bean stew,' or 'the eating of beans,' while veytia calls it 'the eating of maize gruel.' tecuilhuitzintli and hueytecuilhuitl mean respectively the small and great 'feast of the lord.' miccailhuitzintli is explained both as 'the feast of dead children,' and 'the small feast of the dead;' another name for this month is tlaxochimaco, meaning 'distribution of flowers.' hueymiccailhuitl is either 'the feast of dead adults,' or 'the great feast of the dead.' xocotlhuetzin, another name for this month, means 'the ripening of the fruit.' ochpaniztli is 'the cleaning of streets.' teotleco, or 'the arrival of the gods,' was the next month, and was also named pachtli, or pachtontli, the latter being translated by 'humiliation,' and the former by 'moss hanging from trees.' hueypachtli was 'the great feast of humiliation,' also called tepeilhuitl, or 'feast of the mountains.' quecholli means 'peacock,' but the interpreter of the _codex telleriano-remensis_ calls it the 'serpent of the clouds.' panquetzaliztli is 'the raising of flags and banners.' atemoztli, the last month, means the 'drying up of the waters.'[ ] the plate on the preceding page shows the order of the months and the pictures by which they were represented. [illustration: the aztec month.] [sidenote: names of the aztec days.] each month contained twenty days, which were divided into four groups or weeks, as we may for convenience call them; and at the end of each group a public market or fair was held. there is no difference of opinion as to the names of the days or the order in which they follow one another, but it is very difficult, and in many cases impossible, to reconcile one with another the different hieroglyphic signs denoting these days given in the codices or in the various representations of the calendar. the names of the days are: cipactli, a name of which it is almost impossible to give the correct meaning, it being variously represented as an animal's head with open mouth armed with long tusks, as a fish with a number of flint knives on its back, as a kind of lizard with a very long tail curled up over its back, and in many other monstrous shapes. it is called the 'sea-animal,' the 'sword-fish,' the 'serpent armed with harpoons,' and other names. ehecatl is 'wind;' calli, 'house;' cuetzpalin, 'lizard;' coatl, 'snake;' miquiztli, 'death;' mazatl, 'deer;' tochtli, 'rabbit;' atl, 'water;' itzcuintli, 'dog;' ozomatli, 'monkey;' malinalli, 'brushwood,' or 'tangled grass;' acatl, 'cane;' ocelotl, 'tiger;' quauhtli, 'eagle;' cozcaquauhtli, a species of vulture, known in mexico as 'rey de los zopilotes;' ollin, 'movement;' tecpatl, 'flint;' quiahuitl, 'rain;' and xochitl, 'flower.' it will be seen that the days having the names or signs of the years,--namely: tochtli, calli, tecpatl, and acatl--stand first in each week. the five nemontemi had no particular name. the cut given above shows the method by which the aztecs represented their month, with the hieroglyphic names of each day.[ ] [sidenote: intercalary days.] as three hundred and sixty-five days do not make the year complete, the mexicans added the missing thirteen days at the end of the cycle of fifty-two years. but gama asserts that they came still nearer to our more correct calculations, and added only twelve days and a half.[ ] it has been frequently attempted to fix accurately the time when the mexican year commenced according to our dates, but there is no agreement on this point between the old historians, as will be seen from the table given, and although many elaborate calculations have been made for the purpose of verifying the one or the other statement, the result is in no two cases the same. gama calculated, and humboldt and gallatin confirmed his statement, that the first year of a mexican cycle commenced on the st day of december, old style, or on the th day of january, new style, with the month tititl and the day cipactli.[ ] [sidenote: the ritual calendar.] we come now to another mode of reckoning known as the ritual calendar, which, as its name implies, was used for adjusting all religious feasts and rites and everything pertaining thereto. the previously described reckoning was solar, while that of the ritual calendar was lunar. the periods into which it was divided were of thirteen days each, thus representing about half the time that the moon was visible. the year contained as many days as the solar calendar, but they were divided into entirely different periods. thus, in reality there were no months at all, but only twenty weeks of thirteen days each; and these not constituting a full year, the same kind of reckoning was continued for one hundred and five days more, and at the end of a tlalpilli thirteen days were intercalated to make up for the lost days. the names of the days were the same as in the solar calendar but they were counted as follows. to the first day the number one was prefixed, to the second, two, to the third, three, and so on to thirteen; when the fourteenth name was again called one, the fifteenth, two, and so on to thirteen again, after which the same count was continued to the end of the year. but as in this reckoning it naturally happens that one name has the same number twice, accompanying signs were added to the regular names, which were called _quecholli_, 'lords or rulers of the night.' of these there were nine, _xiuhtecutli_, _tletl_, 'lord of the year, fire;' _tecpatl_, 'flint;' _xochitl_, 'flower;' _centeotl_, 'goddess of maize;' _miquiztli_, 'death;' _atl_, 'water,' represented by the goddess chalchihuitlicue; _tlazolteotl_, 'goddess of love;' _tepeyollotli_, a deity supposed to inhabit the centre of the mountains; _quiahuitl_, 'rain,' represented by the god tlaloc.[ ] as stated above, one of these signs was understood to accompany the regular name of each day, commencing with the first day of the year; but they were never written or mentioned with the first two hundred and sixty days, but only with the last one hundred and five days, to distinguish them from the former.[ ] for the purpose of making this system more comprehensible, i insert a few months of the mexican calendar, showing the solar and lunar system together, as arranged by gama. +===========+===============+====================+===================+ | |months and days| | | |months and | of the mexican|days and weeks of |accompanying signs,| |days of | civil or solar|the mexican ritual, |or 'lords of the | |our era | calendar. |or lunar, calendar. |night.' | +-----------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+ | january |tititl | cipactli |tletl | | | | ehecatl |tecpatl | | | | calli |xochitl | | | | cuetzpalin |centeotl | | | | coatl |miquiztli | | | | miquiztli |atl | | | | mazatl |tlazolteotl | | | | tochtli |tepeyollotli | | | | atl |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | itzcuintli |tletl | | | | ozomatli |tecpatl | | | | malinalli |xochitl | | | | acatl |centeotl | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | ocelotl |miquiztli | | | | quauhtli |atl | | | | cozcaquauhtli |tlazolteotl | | | | ollin |tepeyollotli | | | | tecpatl |quiahuitl | | | | | | | | | quiahuitl |tletl | | | | xochitl |tecpatl | | |---------------| | | | |itzcalli | cipactli |xochitl | | | | ehecatl |centeotl | | | | calli |miquiztli | +===========+===============+====================+===================+ +===========+===============+====================+===================+ |months and |months and days|days and weeks of |accompanying signs,| |days of |of the mexican |the mexican ritual |or 'lords of | |our era |civil calendar.|calendar. |the night.' | +-----------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+ |february | | cuetzpalin |atl | | | | coatl |tlazolteotl | | | | miquiztli |tepeyollotli | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | mazatl |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | tochtli |tletl | | | | atl |tecpatl | | | | itzcuintli |xochitl | | | | ozomatli |centeotl | | | | malinalli |miquiztli | | | | acatl |atl | | | | ocelotl |tlazolteotl | | | | quauhtli |tepeyollotli | | | | cozcaquauhtli |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | ollin |tletl | | | | tecpatl |tecpatl | | | | quiahuitl |xochitl | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | xochitl |centeotl | | |---------------| | | | |atlcahualco | cipactli |miquiztli | | | | ehecatl |atl | | | | calli |tlazolteotl | | | | cuetzpalin |tepeyollotli | | | | coatl |quiahuitl | | | | -- | | | | miquiztli |tletl | | | | mazatl |tecpatl | | | | tochtli |xochitl | | | | atl |centeotl | | | | itzcuintli |miquiztli | | | | ozomatli |atl | |-----------| | | | |march | | malinalli |tlazolteotl | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | acatl |tepeyollotli | | | | ocelotl |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | quauhtli |tletl | | | | cozcaquauhtli |tecpatl | | | | ollin |xochitl | | | | tecpatl |centeotl | | | | quiahuitl |miquiztli | | | | xochitl |atl | | |---------------| | | | |tlacaxipe | cipactli |tlazolteotl | | | -hualiztli | ehecatl |tepeyollotli | | | | calli |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | cuetzpalin |tletl | | | | coatl |tecpatl | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | miquiztli |xochitl | | | | mazatl |centeotl | | | | tochtli |miquiztli | | | | atl |atl | | | | itzcuintli |tlazolteotl | | | | ozomatli |tepeyollotli | | | | malinalli |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | acatl |tletl | | | | ocelotl |tecpatl | | | | quauhtli |xochitl | | | | cozcaquauhtli |centeotl | | | | ollin |miquiztli | | | | tecpatl |atl | | | |--------------------|-------------------| | | | quiahuitl |tlazolteotl | | | | xochitl |tepeyollotli | | |---------------| | | | |tozoztontli | cipactli |quiahuitl | | | | | -- | | | | ehecatl |tletl | +===========+===============+====================+===================+ the five nemontemi were counted in this calendar as other days, that is, they received the names which came in the regular order, but, nevertheless, they were believed to be unlucky days and had no accompanying signs. [illustration: the calendar-stone.] [sidenote: the aztec calendar-stone.] besides the preceding cuts of the mexican calendar systems, as they were represented by gemelli careri, veytia, and others, the calendar-stone is the most reliable source by which the extent of the astronomical science of the aztecs can be shown. gama, and after him gallatin, give very accurate descriptions of this stone; i insert here a résumé from the latter author. on this stone there is engraved in high-relief a circle, in which are represented by certain hieroglyphics the sun and its several motions, the twenty days of the month, some principal fast-days, and other matters. the central figure represents the sun as it is usually painted by the mexicans. around it, outside of a small circle, are four parallelograms with the signs of the days, nahui ocelotl, nahui ehecatl, nahui quiahuitl, and nahui atl. between the two upper and lower parallelograms are two figures, which gama explains as being two claws, which are the hieroglyphics representing two eminent astrologers, man and wife. gama further explains these four signs of the days in this place, as having reference to the four epochs of nature, of which the aztec traditions speak. the first destruction of the sun is said to have taken place in the year ce acatl and on the day nahui ocelotl. the second sun was supposed to have died in the year ce tecpatl and on the day nahui ehecatl; the third destruction occurred also in the year ce tecpatl and on the day nahui quiahuitl; and lastly, the fourth destruction took place in the year ce calli, on the day nahui atl. but mr gallatin thinks that these four parallelograms had yet some other purpose; for on the twenty-second of may and on the twenty-sixth of july, which days are nahui ocelotl and nahui quiahuitl, if we accept the thirty-first of december as the first day of the mexican cycle, the sun passed the meridian of the city of mexico. but in this case the other two days, nahui ehecatl and nahui atl cannot be explained in connection with any other astronomical event. between the lower parallelograms are two small squares, in each of which are five oblong marks, signifiying the number ten; and as the central figure is the _ollin tonatiuh_, or sun, the number ten in these two squares is supposed to mean the day matlactli ollin. below this again are the hieroglyphics ce quiahuitl, and ome ozomatli. the day matlactli ollin in the first year of the cycle is the twenty-second of september; ce quiahuitl in the year matlactli omey acatl, which year is inscribed at the head of the stone, is our twenty-second of march; and ome ozomatli in the same year would be our twenty-second of june. here are therefore designated three of the principal phenomena as they happened in the first year of the cycle, viz: two transits of the sun by the zenith and the autumnal equinox. in the year designated on the stone matlactli omey acatl, there are given the spring equinox and summer solstice. in a circle surrounding these figures are represented the twenty days of the months. from the central figure of the sun there runs upward, as far as the circle of days, a triangle, the upper and smallest angle of which points between the days cipactli and xochitl, thus confirming the idea that cipactli was always the first day of the month. gama, gallatin, humboldt, dupaix, and others have given correct pictures of the stone as is proved by recent photographs; but in my cut the figures are reversed. it is a copy from charnay, whose photographs were in the best authority accessible; and i failed to notice that this, unlike charnay's other plates, was a photo-lithograph reversed in printing. not only did i fall into this error, but in my earlier editions charged other writers with having made a similar one. the cut does not otherwise mislead, but it must be noted that instead of running from left to right, the days really run from right to left. from the circle of days, four triangles, or rays, project, exactly dividing the stone into four quarters, each of which has ten visible squares, and, as the rays cover twelve more, there would be fifty-two in all. in each square are five oblong marks, which multiplied by fifty-two, give two hundred and sixty, or the first period of the mexican ritual year. outside of the circle of these squares the four quarters are each again divided by a smaller ray, and, as stated before, at the head of the stone, over the principal triangle is the sign of the year matlactli omey acatl. round the outer edge are a number of other figures and hieroglyphics, which have not yet been deciphered, or whose interpretations by different writers present so many contradictions that they would have no value here.[ ] [sidenote: calendar of the tarascos.] the only information we have of the calendar used in michoacan is furnished by veytia, and this is only fragmentary. enough is known, however, to show that their system was the same as that of the aztecs. instead of the four principal signs of the aztecs, tecpatl, calli, tochtli, and acatl, in mechoacan the names _inodon_, _inbani_, _inchon_, and _intihui_ were used. of the eighteen months only fourteen are mentioned by name. these are: intacaci, indehuni, intecamoni, interunihi, intamohui, inizcatolohui, imatatohui, itzbachaa, intoxihui, intaxihui, intechaqui, intechotahui, inteyabchitzin, intaxitohui. the five intercalary days were named _intasiabire_.[ ] the days of the month, divided into four equal parts by the above-mentioned four principal signs, were called: inodon, inicebi, inettuni, inbeari, inethaati, inbani, inxichari, inchini, inrini, inpari, inchon, inthahui, intzini, intzoniabi, intzimbi, inthihui, inixotzini, inichini, iniabi, intaniri.[ ] the zapotecs in oajaca, according to the description of burgoa, used the same calendar as the aztecs, with this difference, that the year always commenced on the twelfth day of march, and that the bissextile year was corrected every fourth year, by adding, instead of five, six intercalary days.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., p. . 'en un año que fué señalado con el geroglifico de un pedernal, que segun las tablas parece haber sido el de del mundo, se convocó una gran junta de astrólogos ... para hacer la correcion de su calendario y reformar sus cómputos, que conocian errados segun el sistema que hasta entónces habian seguido.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _id._, pp. - . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _relaciones_, in _id._, pp. - , ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. ; _ternaux-compans_, in _id._, , tom. lxxxvi., pp. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _s'il existe des sources de l'hist. prim._, pp. - ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - ; _explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis_, in _id._, pp. - . 'cinco soles que son edades ... el primer sol se perdio por agua.... el segundo sol perecio cayendo el cielo sobre la tierra.... el sol tercero falto y se consumio por fuego.... el quarto sol fenecio con aire.... del quinto sol, que al presente tienen.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'le ciel et la terre s'étaient faits, quatre fois.' _codex chimalpopoca_, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . 'creyeron que el sol habia muerto cuatro veces, ó que hubo cuatro soles, que habian acabado en otros tantos tiempos ó edades; y que el quinto sol era el que actualmente les alumbraba.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. . 'hubo cinco soles en los tiempos pasados.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. , repeated literally by _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, pp. - . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. et seq.; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. et seq. [ ] 'no todos comenzaban á contar el ciclo por un mismo año: los tultecos lo empezaban desde _tecpatl_: los de teotihuacan desde _calli_; los mexicanos desde _tochtli_; y los tezcocanos desde _acatl_.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . 'so begannen die aculhuas von texcoco ihre umläufe mit dem zeichen ce tecpatl, die mexicaner dagegen im ce tochtli.' _müller_, _reisen_, tom. iii., p. ; _boturini_, _idea_, p. . [ ] 'esto circulo redondo se dividia en cuatro partes.... la primera parte que pertenecia á oriente llamabanle los trece años de las cañas, y asi en cada casa de los trece tenian pintada una caña, y el número del año corriente.... la segunda parte aplicaban al septentrion, que era de otras trece casas, á las cuales llamaban las trece casas del pedernal; y asi tenian pintado en cada casa un pedernal.... a la tercera ... parte occidental, llamabanle las trece casas, y asi verémos en cada parte de las trece una casilla pintada.... a la cuarta y última parte que era de otros trece años, llamabanla las trece casas del conejo; y asi en cada casa de aquellas verémos pintada una cabeza de conejo.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. i. [ ] gemelli careri gives these names in a different order, calling tochtli south, acatl east, tecpatl north, and calli west; further, tochtli earth, acatl water, tecpatl air, and calli fire. _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., pp. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - . the above are only figurative names, as the words for the cardinal points and also for the elements are entirely different in the mexican language. [ ] boturini repeats martin de leon and gemelli carreri. [ ] humboldt and gallatin repeat leon y gama. [ ] 'itetl, ititl, barriga o vientre.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. 'vientre, la madre, á excepcion del padre.' _salva_, _nuevo dicc._ 'titl ... significa fuego. tititl escrito en dos sílabas y seis letras nada significa en el idioma mexicano' _cabrera_, in _ilustracion mex._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'izcalia, abiuar, tornar en si, o resuscitar.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. [ ] 'quiahuitl-ehua ... significa _la lluvia levanta_.' _cabrera_, in _ilustracion mex._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'toçoliztli vela, el acto de velar o de no dormir.' _molina_, _vocabulario_. [ ] 'garganta totuzcatlan, tuzquitl.' _ib._ [ ] for the various etymologies of the names of months, see: _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - ; _explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis_, in _id._, pp. - ; _leon_, _camino del cielo_, fol. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] this order is varied by a few authors. veytia gives the following entirely different system: 'si el año era del carácter tecpatl, con este se señalaba el primer dia de cada mes, y seguian anotándose los demas con los geroglificos siguientes en el órden en que los he puesto; de manera que el vigésimo dia de cada mes se hallaba ollin.... si el año era del segundo geroglifico calli, por este se comenzaba á contar, y á todos los dias primeros de cada mes se les daba este nombre.' the same method he contends is followed also in those years of each tlalpilli which commence with tochtli and acatl. for _cozcaquauhtli_ he uses the name _temeztlatl_, or metate. _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - . gemelli careri states that cipactli was not always the first day of the month. _churchill's col. voyages_, tom. iv., p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. iii., appendix, cap. ii.; _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix.; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . boturini adds to ollin the word tonatiuh, and translates it 'movement of the sun.' _idea_, p. . gama places ollin between atl and itzcuintli. _dos piedras_, pt i., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . see also hieroglyphics in _codex telleriano-remensis_, pl. ix., in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., and _codex borgian_, in _id._, vol. iii., pl. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . in nicaragua where the aztec language was spoken by a large portion of the population, the calendar and the names of the days were the same as aztec, with but some slight differences in spelling. oviedo gives the names of the days as follows: '_agat_, _oçelot_, _oate_, _coscagoate_, _olin_, _tapecat_, _quiaüit_, _sochit_, _çipat_, _acat_, _cali_, _quespal_, _coat_, _misiste_, _maçat_, _toste_, _at_, _izquindi_, _ocomate_, _malinal_, _acato_.... un año ... tiene diez çempuales, é cada çempual es veynte dias.' _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] sahagun, and after him several others, do not agree with this, but pretend that one day was added every fourth year, on which occasion a certain feast was celebrated, but gama has clearly demonstrated that this is a mistake. 'el año visiesto, que era de cuatro en cuatro años.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . 'otra fiesta hacian de cuatro en cuatro años á honra del fuego, en la que ahugeraban las orejas á todos los niños; y la llamaban _pillabanaliztli_, y en esta fiesta es verosimil, y hay congeturas que hacian su visiesto contando seis dias de _nemontemi_.' _id._, tom. iv., pp. - . boturini expresses the same opinion. 'determinaron cada quatro años añadir un dia mas, que recogiesse las horas, que se desperdiciaban, lo que supongo executaron contando dos veces uno de los symbolos de el ultimo mes de el año, á la manera de los romanos.' _idea_, p. . 'el año de visiesto que era de quatro à quatro años.' _leon_, _camino del cielo_, fol. . 'they order'd the bissextile, or leap-year, after this manner. the first year of the age began on the tenth of _april_, and so did the second and third, but the fourth or leap-year, on the ninth, the eighth on the eighth, the twelfth on the seventh, the sixteenth on the sixth, till the end of the age, which was on the twenty-eighth of _march_, when the thirteen days of the leap-years, till the tenth of _april_, were spent in rejoicing.' _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. . veytia following boturini adds one day every fourth year by repeating the last day. _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - . 'la correccion no se hacia hasta el fin del ciclo, en que se intercalaban juntos los dias.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., p. . 'les mexicains ont évidemment suivi le système des perses: ils conservoient l'année vague jusqu'à ce que les heures excédantes formassent une demilunaison; ils intercaloient, par conséquent, treize jours toutes les _ligatures_ ou cycles de cinquante-deux ans ... à chaque année du signe _tochtli_, les mexicains perdoient un jour; et, par l'effet de cette _rétrogradation_, l'année _calli_ de la quatriéme indiction commençoit le décembre, et finissoit au solstice d'hiver, le décembre, en ne faisant pas entrer en ligne de compte les cinq jours inutiles ou complémentaires. il en résulte que ... treize jours intercalaires ramènent le commencement de l'année au janvier.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'non frammettevano un giorno ogni quattro anni, ma tredici giorni ... ogni cinquanta due anni.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'they waited till the expiration of fifty-two vague years, when they interposed thirteen days, or rather twelve and a half, this being the number which had fallen in arrear.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . in this connection i also give the remarkable statement of pedro de los rios in his interpretation of the codex vaticanus: '_item_, si ha da notare, che il loro bisesto andava solo in quattro lettere, anni, o segni che sono canna, pietra, casa, e coniglio, perchè come hanno bisesto delli giorni a fare di quattro in quattro anni un mese di quelli cinque giorni morti che avanzavano di ciascun anno, cosi avevano bisesto di anni perchè di cinquantadue in cinquantadue anni, che è una loro età, aggiungevano un anno, il quale sempre veniva in una di queste lettere o segni perchè come ogni lettera o segno di questi vinti habbia tredici del suo genere che le servano, _verbi gratiâ_.' _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - . in the explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis we read: 'Á de fevrero los cinco dias muertos que no avia sacrificios; estos eran los dias que sobravan de los de veynte en veynte del año: y siempre en cumpliendose los dias, dexavan pasar estos, y luego tornavan a tomar el año en la letra que entrava.' _id._, p. . to this lord kingsborough adds in a note: 'the mexicans reckoned days to their year; the last five of which had no sign or place appropriated to them in the calendar; since, if they had been admitted, the order of the signs would have been inverted, and the new year would not always have commenced with ce cipactli. these days, therefore, although included in the computation of the year, were rejected from the calendar, until at the expiration of four years an intercalation of twenty corresponding signs might be effected without producing any confusion in it. it would appear, however, that this intercalation did not actually take place till at the expiration of years; for it is impossible, except on this supposition, to understand the _intercalation of years_ mentioned in the vatican ms. as occurring at the expiration of every period of years, when an entire year was intercalated: but admitting the postponement of an intercalation of a month every four years during a period of years, such an intercalation would then become quite intelligible; since thirteen mexican months, of days each, exactly constitute a ritual year of the mexicans which contained days, and was shorter than the civil year by days; and this is the precise number of months of which the intercalation would have been postponed.' _mex. antiq._, vol. vi., pp. - . [ ] _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - . veytia's reason for commencing the year with atemoztli is, that on the calendar circle which he saw, and of which i insert a copy, this was the month following the five nemontemi. this appears very reasonable, but nevertheless gama and gallatin's calculations show it to be an error. see _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] boturini gives the rulers of the night as follows: xiuhteucyòhua, señor de el año; ytzteucyòhua, señor de el fuego; piltzinteucyòhua, señor de los niños; cinteucyòhua, señor de el maiz; mictlanteucyòhua, señor de el infierno; chalchihuitlicueyòhua, señor de el agua; tlazolyòhua, señor de el amor deshonesto; tepeyoloyòhua, señor de los entrañas de los montes; quiauhteucyòhua, señor de las lluvias. _idea_, p. . [ ] _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., pp. - , - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., pp. - . further description, and mention of the astronomical system will be found in _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - , and tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxli.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - , tom. iv., pp. - , - , tom. ii., lib. vii., pp. - , - ; _explanation of the codex vaticanus_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vi., pp. , ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - , - , - , - , - ; _id._, _catálogo_, pp. - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, tom. iv., pp. - ; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _nebel_, _viaje_, pl. l.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xviii.; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _müller_, _reisen_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _mcculloh's researches in amer._, pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _tylor's researches_, pp. - ; _id._, _anahuac_, p. ; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. viii., pp. - ; _baril_, _mexique_, pp. - , - ; _morton's crania amer._, p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., pp. , ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _chambers' jour._, , vol. iv., p. ; _lafond_, _voyages_, tom. i., p. ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _poinsett's notes mex._, pp. , - ; _simon's ten tribes_, pp. - ; _kendall's nar._, vol. ii., p. ; _prichard's nat. hist. man_, tom. ii., p. ; _cabrera_, in _ilustracion mex._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, pp. - ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _thompson's mex._, p. ; _falliés_, _Études hist. sur les civilisations_, paris, (n. d.) pp. - . [ ] 'los cuatro meses que faltan son los que corresponden á nuestro enero, febrero y marzo, porque al manuscrito le falta la primera hoja, y solo comienza desde el dia de marzo, y concluye en diciembre, confrontando sus meses con los nuestros.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. . 'il est dit que l'année commençait au mars avec le premier jour in thacari.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. , ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] 'dabanle diez y ocho meses de à . dias, y otro mas de cinco, y este al cabo de quatro años como nuestro bisiesto lo variaban à seis dias, pos las seis horas que sobran cada año.' _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. . chapter xvii. the aztec picture-writing. hieroglyphic records--the native books--authorities--destruction of the native archives by zumÁrraga and his confrÈres--picture-writings used after the conquest for confession and law-suits--value of the records--documents sent to spain in the sixteenth century--european collections--lord kingsborough's work--picture-writings retained in mexico--collections of ixtlilxochitl, siguËnza, gemelli careri, boturini, veytia, leon y gama, pichardo, aubin, and the national museum of mexico--process of hieroglyphic development--representative, symbolic, and phonetic picture-writing--origin of modern alphabets--the aztec system--specimen from the codex mendoza--specimen from gemelli careri--specimen from the boturini collection--probable future success of interpreters--the nepohualtzitzin. the nahua nations possessed an original hieroglyphic system by which they were able to record all that they deemed worthy of preservation. the art of picture-writing was one of those most highly prized and most zealously cultivated and protected, being entrusted to a class of men educated for the purpose and much honored. the written records included national, historic, and traditional annals, names and genealogical tables of kings and nobles, lists and tribute-rolls of provinces and cities, land-titles, law codes, court records, the calendar and succession of feasts, religious ceremonies of the temple service, names and attributes of the gods, the mysteries of augury and soothsaying, with some description of social customs, mechanical employments, and educational processes. the preparation and guardianship of records of the higher class, such as historical annals and ecclesiastical mysteries, were under the control of the highest ranks of the priesthood, and such records, comparatively few in number, were carefully guarded in the temple archives of a few of the larger cities. these writings were a sealed book to the masses, and even to the educated classes, who looked with superstitious reverence on the priestly writers and their magic scrolls. it is probable that the art as applied to names of persons and places or to ordinary records was understood by all educated persons, although by no means a popular art, and looked upon as a great mystery by the common people. the hieroglyphics were painted in bright colors on long strips of cotton cloth, prepared skins, or maguey-paper--generally the latter--rolled up or, preferably, folded fan-like into convenient books called _amatl_, and furnished often with thin wooden covers. the same characters were also carved on the stones of public buildings, and probably also in some cases on natural cliffs. the early authorities are unanimous in crediting these people with the possession of a hieroglyphic system sufficiently perfect to meet all their requirements.[ ] [sidenote: destruction of aboriginal records.] unfortunately the picture-writings, particularly those in the hands of priests--those most highly prized by the native scholar, those which would, if preserved, have been of priceless value to the students of later times--while in common with the products of other arts they excited the admiration of the foreign invaders, at the same time they aroused the pious fears of the european priesthood. the nature of the writings was little understood. their contents were deemed to be for the most part religious mysteries, painted devices of the devil, the strongest band that held the people to their aboriginal faith, and the most formidable obstacle in the way of their conversion to the true faith. the destruction of the pagan scrolls was deemed essential to the progress of the church, and was consequently ordered and most successfully carried out under the direction of the bishops and their subordinates, the most famous of these fanatical destroyers of a new world's literature being juan de zumárraga, who made a public bonfire of the native archives. the fact already noticed, that the national annals were preserved together in a few of the larger cities, made the task of zumárraga and his confrères comparatively an easy one, and all the more important records, with very few probable exceptions, were blotted from existence. the priests, however, sent some specimens, either originals or copies, home to europe, where they attracted momentary curiosity and were then lost and forgotten. many of the tribute-rolls and other paintings of the more ordinary class, with perhaps a few of the historical writings, were hidden by the natives and thus saved from destruction. of these i shall speak hereafter.[ ] after the zeal of the priests had somewhat abated, or rather when the harmless nature of the paintings was better understood, the natives were permitted to use their hieroglyphics again. among other things they wrote down in this way their sins when the priests were too busy to hear their verbal confessions. the native writing was also extensively employed in the many lawsuits between aztecs and spaniards during the sixteenth century, as it had been employed in the courts before the conquest. thus the early part of the century produced many hieroglyphic documents, not a few of which have been preserved, and several of which i have in my library. during the same period some fragments that had survived the general destruction were copied and supplied with explanations written with european letters in aztec, or dictated to the priests who wrote in spanish. the documents, copies, and explanations of this time are of course strongly tinctured with catholic ideas wherever any question of religion is involved, but otherwise there is no reason to doubt their authenticity.[ ] [sidenote: value of the native records.] to discuss the historical value of such aztec writings as have been preserved, or even of those that were destroyed by the spaniards, or the accuracy of the various interpretations that have been given to the former, forms no part of my purpose in this chapter. here i shall give a brief account of the preserved documents, with plates representing a few of them as specimens, and as clear an idea as possible of the system according to which they were painted. respecting the theory, supported by a few writers, that the aztecs had no system of writing except the habit common to all savage tribes of drawing rude pictures on the rocks and trees, that the statements of the conquerors on the subject are unfounded fabrications, the specimens handed down to us mere inventions of the priests, and their interpretations consequently purely imaginary, it is well to remark that all this is a manifest absurdity. on the use of hieroglyphics the authorities, as we have seen, all agree; on their destruction by the bishops they are no less unanimous; even the destroyers themselves mention the act in their correspondence, glorying in it as a most meritorious deed. the burning was moreover perfectly consistent with the policy of the church at that time, and its success does not seem extraordinary when we consider the success of the priests in destroying monuments of solid stone. the use of the aboriginal records in the spanish courts for a long period is undeniable. the priests had neither the motive nor the ability to invent and teach such a system. respecting the historical value of the destroyed documents, it is safe to believe that they contained all that the aztecs knew of their past. having once conceived the idea of recording their annals, and having a system of writing adequate to the purpose, it is inconceivable that they failed to record all they knew. the aztecs derived their system traditionally from the toltecs, whose written annals they also inherited; but none of the latter were ever seen by any european, and, according to tradition, they were destroyed by a warlike aztec king, who wished the glory of his own kingdom to overshadow that of all others, past, present, or future. if the hieroglyphics of the nahua nations beyond the limits of anáhuac differed in any respect from those of the aztecs, such differences have not been recorded.[ ] [sidenote: european collections.] i have said that many hieroglyphic manuscripts, saved from the fires kindled by zumárraga's bigotry, or copied by ecclesiastical permission before serving as food for their purifying flames, were sent to spain by the conquerors. after lying forgotten for a few centuries, attention was again directed to these relics of an extinct civilization, and their importance began to be appreciated; search was made throughout europe, and such scattered remnants as survived their long neglect were gathered and deposited in public and private libraries. eight or ten such collections were formed and their contents were for the most part published by lord kingsborough. the _codex mendoza_ was sent by the viceroy mendoza to charles v., and is now in the bodleian library at oxford. it is a copy on european paper, coarsely done with a pen, and rolled instead of folded. another manuscript in the escurial library is thought by prescott to be the original of this codex, but humboldt calls it also a copy. an explanation of the codex in aztec and spanish accompanies it, added by natives at the order of mendoza. it has been several times published, and is divided in three parts, the first being historical, the second composed of tribute-rolls, and the third illustrative of domestic life and manners.[ ] the _codex vaticanus_ (no. ) is preserved at rome in the vatican library, and nothing is known of its origin further than that it was copied by pedro de los rios, who was in mexico in . it is divided into two parts, mythological and historical, and has a partial explanation in italian. another manuscript, (no. ) preserved in the same library, is written on skin, has been interpreted to some extent by humboldt, and is supposed to pertain to religious rites. the _codex telleriano-remensis_, formerly in the possession of m. le tellier, and now in the royal library at paris, is nearly identical with the codex vaticanus (no. ), having only one figure not found in that codex, but itself lacking many. it has, however, an explanation in aztec and spanish.[ ] the _codex borgian_ was deposited in the college of the propaganda at rome by cardinal borgia, who found it used as a plaything by the children in the gustiniani family. it is written on skin, and appears to be a ritual and astrologic almanac very similar to the vatican manuscript (no. ). it is accompanied by an interpretation or commentary by fabrega. the _codex bologna_, preserved in the library of the scientific institute, was presented in to the marquis de caspi, by count valerio zani. it is written on badly prepared skin, and appears to treat of astrology. a copy exists in the museum of cardinal borgia at veletri. of the _codex vienna_ nothing is known except that it was given in to the emperor leopold by the duke of saxe-eisenach, and that its resemblance to the manuscripts at rome and veletri would indicate a common origin. four additional manuscripts from the bodleian library at oxford, and one belonging to m. de fejérvary in hungary, are published by kingsborough. nothing is known of the origin of these, nor has any interpretation been attempted, although the last-named seems to be historical or chronological in its nature.[ ] [sidenote: picture-writings preserved in mexico.] i have said that many manuscripts, mostly copies, but probably some originals, were preserved from destruction, and retained in mexico. material is not accessible for a complete detailed history of these documents, nor does it seem desirable to attempt here to disentangle the numerous contradictory statements on the subject. the surviving remnants of the tezcucan archives, with additions from various sources, were inherited by ixtlilxochitl, the lineal descendant of tezcuco's last king, who used them extensively if not always judiciously in his voluminous historical writings. the collection of which these documents formed a nucleus may be traced more or less clearly to the successive possession of sigüenza, the college of san pedro y san pablo, boturini benaduci, the vice-regal palace, veytia, ortega, leon y gama, pichardo, sanchez, and at last to the national museum of the university of mexico, its present and appropriate resting-place. frequent interventions of government and private law-suits interrupted this line of succession, and the collection by no means passed down the line intact. under the care of several of the owners large portions of the accumulation were scattered; but on the other hand, several by personal research greatly enlarged their store of aboriginal literature. while in sigüenza's possession the documents were examined by the italian traveler gemelli careri, through whose published work one of the most important of the pictured records was made known to the world. this latter has been often republished and will be given as a specimen in this chapter.[ ] clavigero studied the manuscripts in the jesuit college of san pedro y san pablo in .[ ] boturini was a most indefatigable collector, his accumulation in eight years amounting to over five hundred specimens, some of them probably antedating the spanish conquest. he published a catalogue of his treasures, which were for the most part confiscated by the government and deposited in the palace of the viceroy, where many of the documents are said to have been destroyed or damaged by dampness and want of care. those retained by the collector were even more unfortunate, since the vessel on which they were sent to europe was taken by an english pirate, and the papers have never since been heard of. only a few fragments from the boturini collection have ever been published, the most important of which, a history of the aztec migration, has been often reproduced, and will be given in this chapter. the original was seen by humboldt in the palace of the viceroy, and is now in the mexican museum.[ ] the confiscated documents passed by order of the spanish government into the hands of veytia, or at least he was permitted to use them in the preparation of his history,[ ] and after his death and the completion of his work by ortega, they passed, not without a lawsuit, into the possession of leon y gama, the astronomer.[ ] on the death of gama a part of his manuscripts were sold to humboldt to form the berlin collection published by kingsborough;[ ] the rest came into the hands of pichardo, gama's executor, who spent his private fortune in improving his collection, described by humboldt as the richest in mexico. many of pichardo's papers were scattered during the revolution, and the remainder descended through his executor sanchez to the museum.[ ] it is not unlikely either that the french intervention in later years was also the means of sending some picture-writings to europe. of the documents removed from the mexican collections on different occasions and under different pretexts, m. aubin claims to have secured the larger part, which are now in his collection in paris, with copies of such manuscripts as he has been unable to obtain in the original form.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: hieroglyphic development.] in order to form a clear idea of the aztec system of picture-writing, it will be well to consider first the general principles of hieroglyphic development, which are remarkably uniform and simple, and which may best be illustrated by our own language, supposing it, for convenience, to be only a spoken tongue. it is evident that the first attempt at expressing ideas with the brush, pencil, or knife, would be the representation of visible objects by pictures as accurately drawn as possible; a house, man, bird, or flower are drawn true to the life in all their details. but very soon, if a frequent repetition of the pictures were needed, a desire to save labor would prompt the artist to simplify his drawing, making only the lines necessary to show that a house, man, etc., were meant,--a retrograde movement artistically considered, but intellectually the first step towards an alphabet. the representation of actions and conditions, such as a house on fire, a dead man, a flying bird, or a red flower would naturally follow. the three grades of development mentioned belong to what may be termed representative picture-writing. it is to be noted that this writing has no relation to language; that is, the signs represent only visible objects and actions without reference to the words by which the objects are named or the actions expressed in our language. the pictures would have the same meaning to a frenchman or german as to the painter. the next higher phase of the art is known as symbolic picture-writing. it springs from the need that would soon be experienced of some method by which to express abstract qualities or invisible objects. the symbolic system is closely analogous in its earlier stages to the representative, as when the act of swimming is symbolized by a fish, a journey by a succession of footprints, night by a black square, light by an eye, power by a hand, the connection between the picture and the idea to be expressed being more or less obvious. such a connection, real or imaginary, must always be supposed to have existed originally, since it is not likely that purely arbitrary symbols would be adopted, but nearly all the symbols would be practically arbitrary and meaningless to a would-be interpreter ignorant of the circumstances which originated their signification. we have seen that the symbolic and representative stages of development are in many respects very like one to the other, and there are many hieroglyphic methods between the two, which it is very difficult to assign altogether to either. for instance, when a large painted heart expresses the name of a chief 'big heart;' or when a peculiarly formed nose is painted to represent the man to whom it belongs; or when the outlines of the house, man, bird, or flower already mentioned are so very much simplified as to lose all their apparent resemblance to the objects represented. it is also to be noted that the symbolic writing, as well as the representative, is entirely independent of language. [sidenote: representative and symbolic writing.] picture-writing of the two classes described has been practiced more or less, probably, by every savage tribe. by its aid records of events, such as tribal migrations, and the warlike achievements of noted chiefs, may be and doubtless have been made intelligible to those for whose perusal they were intended. but the key to such hieroglyphics is the actual acquaintance of the nation with each character and symbol, and it cannot long survive the practice of the art. in only two ways can the meaning of such records be preserved,--the study of the art while actually in use by a people of superior culture, or its development into a hieroglyphic system of a higher grade. neither of these conditions were fulfilled in the case of our wild tribes, but both were so to some extent, as we shall see, in the case of the civilized nations. throughout the pacific states rock-carvings and painted devices will be noted in a subsequent volume of this work; most of them doubtless had a meaning to their authors, although many may be attributed to the characteristic common to savages and children of whiling away time by tracing unmeaning sketches from fancy. all are meaningless now and must ever remain so. full of meaning to the generation whose work they were, they served to keep alive in the following generation the memory of some distinguished warrior, or some element of aboriginal worship, but to the third generation they became nothing but objects of superstitious wonder. even after coming into contact with europeans the savage often indicates by an arrow and other figures carved on a forest-tree the number of an enemy and the direction they have taken, or leaves some other equally simple representative record. the next and most important step in hieroglyphic development is taken when a phonetic element is introduced; when the pictures come into a relation, not before attained, with sounds or spoken language; when a picture of the human form signifies _man_, not _homme_ or _hombre_; a painted house, _house_, not _casa_ or _maison_. of this phonetic picture-writing in its simplest form, the illustrated rebuses--children's hieroglyphics--present a familiar example; as when charity is written by drawing in succession a chair, an eye, and a chest of tea, 'chair-eye-tea.' in pronouncing the whole word thus written, the sounds of the words represented by the pictures are used without the slightest reference to their meaning. to the frenchman the same pictures 'chaise-oeil-thé' would have no meaning. in the example given the whole name of each word pictured is pronounced, but the number of words that could be produced by such combinations is limited, and the first improvement of the system would perhaps be to pronounce only the leading syllable or sound of the pictured word, and then charity might be painted 'cha (pel)-ri (ng)-tee (th).' by this system the same word might be written in a great many ways, and the next natural improvement would be the conventional adoption of certain easily pictured words to represent certain sounds, as 'hat,' 'hand,' or 'ham,' for the sound _ha_, or simply the aspirated _h_. the next development would be effected by simplifying the outlines of the numerous pictures employed, which have now become too complicated and bulky for rapid writing. for a time this process of simplification would still leave a rude resemblance to the original picture; but at last the resemblance would become very faint, or only imaginary, and perhaps some arbitrary signs would be added--in other words, a phonetic alphabet would be invented, the highest degree of perfection yet achieved in this direction. to recapitulate briefly: picture-writing may be divided, according to the successive stages of its development, into three classes, representative, symbolic, and phonetic, no one of which except the last in its highest or alphabetic, and the first in its rudest, state, would be used alone by any people, but rather all would be employed together. in the representative stage a [illustration: hand] might express a human hand, or as the system is perfected, a large, small, closed, black, or red hand; and finally 'big hand,' an indian chief; and all this would be equally intelligible to american or asiatic, savage or civilized, without respect to language. [sidenote: hieroglyphic writing.] symbolic picture-writing indicates invisible or abstract objects, actions, or conditions, by the use of pictures supposed to be suggestive of them; the symbols are originally in a manner representative, and rarely, if ever, arbitrarily adopted. as a symbol the [illustration: hand] might express power, a blow, murder, the number one or five. these symbols are also independent of language. phonetic picture-writing represents not objects, but sounds by the picture of objects in whose names the sound occurs; first words, then syllables, then elementary sounds, and last--by modification of the pictures or the substitution of simpler ones--letters and an alphabet. according to this system the [illustration: hand] signifies successively the word 'hand,' the syllable 'hand' in handsome, the sound 'ha' in happy, the aspiration 'h' in head, and finally, by simplifying its form or writing it rapidly, the [illustration: hand] becomes [illustration: stylized hand], and then the 'h' of the alphabet. the process of development which i have attempted to explain by imaginary examples and illustrations in our own language, is probably applicable to a greater or less extent to all hieroglyphic systems; yet such hieroglyphics as have been preserved are of a mixed class, uniting in one word, or sentence, or document, all the forms, representative, symbolic, and phonetic; the egyptians first spelled a word phonetically and then, to make the meaning clear, represented the word by a picture or symbol; the chinese characters were originally pictures of visible objects, though they would not now be recognized as such, if the originals were not in existence. what proportion of the letters in modern alphabets are simplified pictures, or representative characters, and what arbitrary, it is of course impossible to determine; many of them, however, are known to be of the former class.[ ] in the aztec picture-writings all the grades or classes of pictures are found, except the last and highest--the alphabet. a very large part of the characters employed were representative; many conventional symbols are known; and the aztecs undoubtedly employed phonetic paintings, though perhaps not very extensively in the higher grades of development. [sidenote: specimen from codex mendoza.] the plate on the opposite page is a reproduction of a part of the _codex mendoza_ from kingsborough's work. its four groups describe the education of the aztec child under the care of its parents. in the first group the father (fig. ) is punishing his son by holding him over the fumes of burning chile (fig. ); while the mother threatens her daughter with the same punishment. figures and represent, like , , , , and in the other groups, the child's allowance of tortillas at each meal. in the second group the son is punished by being stretched naked on the wet ground, having his hands tied, while the girl is forced to sweep, or, as she has no tear in her eye, perhaps is merely being taught to sweep instead of being punished. in the third group the father employs his boys in bringing wood (fig. ) or reeds either on the back or in a canoe; and the mother teaches her daughter to make tortillas (fig. ) and the use of the metate and other household utensils (figs. , , , ). in the last group the son learns the art of fishing, and the daughter that of weaving. [illustration: education of aztec children.] thus far all the pictures are purely representative; the remainder are more or less symbolic. the small circles (fig. , , , ) are numerals, as explained in a preceding chapter, and indicate the age of the children, eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen years respectively; the character issuing from the mouth of the parents is the symbol of speech, and indicates that the person to whom it is attached is speaking; the tears in the children's eyes, are symbols of the weeping naturally caused by the punishment inflicted; and figure is interpreted to be a symbol of night, indicating that the child was forced to sweep at night.[ ] many of the aztec symbols are of clearly representative origin, as foot-prints, symbols of traveling; tongues, of speech; a man sitting on the ground, of an earthquake; painted drops, of water; and other signs for day, night, air, movement, etc., which are more or less clear. but of others, as the serpent, symbol of time, the origin is not affirmed. to define the extent to which the symbolic writing prevailed is very difficult, because many of the characters which were, originally at least, representative, would appear to the uninitiated purely arbitrary; and it is not improbable that many signs may have had a double meaning according to the connection in which they were employed. the system is capable of indefinite expansion in the hands of the priesthood for purposes of religious mystification; and the fact that the religious and astrologic documents seem to contain but few of the representative and phonetic signs by which other paintings are interpreted, lends some probability to the theory that the priests had a partially distinct symbolic system of their own. the abbé brasseur goes so far as to say that all the historical documents had a double meaning, one for the initiated, another for the masses. the use of symbols doubtless accounts for the difficulty experienced in the interpretation of the picture-writings which have been preserved, and for the variety of extravagant theories that have been founded on them. the intermediate method already mentioned as coming between the purely representative and the symbolic, was very extensively employed by the aztecs in writing the names of places and persons, nearly all of which were derived from natural objects. examples of this method are: itzcoatl, 'stone (or obsidian) serpent;' chapultepec, 'hill of the grasshopper;' tzompanco, 'place of skulls;' chimalpopoca, 'smoking shield;' acamapitzin, 'hand holding reeds;' macuilxochitl, 'five flowers;' quauhtinchan, 'house of the eagle;' all written by the simple pictures of the objects named. the picture expressing a person's name was attached by a fine line to his head. [sidenote: aztec phonetic writing.] the use of the phonetic element by the aztecs was first noticed by the early missionaries in their efforts to teach church forms. the natives, eager or obliged to learn the words so essential to their salvation but so new to their ear, aided their memory by writing phonetically in a rude way the strange words. amen was expressed by the symbol of water, _atl_, joined to a maguey, _metl_, forming the sounds _atl-metl_ or _a-m[)e]_, sufficiently accurate for their purpose. pater noster was likewise written with a flag, _pantli_, and a prickly pear, _nochtli_; or sometimes a stone, _tetl_, was introduced before and after the prickly pear, the whole reading _pa(ntli)-te(tl)-noch(tli)-te(tl)_. here it will be observed that the sound only of the objects employed is considered, with no reference to their meaning. the name is an excellent specimen of the syllabic-phonetic writing. it is written in one of the manuscripts of the boturini collection by a pictured pair of lips, _tentli_, for the syllable _te_; footsteps, symbolic of a road, _otli_, for _o_; a house, _calli_, for _cal_; and teeth, _tlantli_, for _tlan_, _ti_ being a common connective syllable. the termination _coatl_ is a very frequent one in aztec words, and is often written phonetically by a 'pot,' _comitl_, surmounted by the symbol of water, _atl_, _co-atl_; but _coatl_ means 'serpent' and is also written representatively by a simple picture of that reptile. matlatlan 'net-place,' is written by pictured teeth, _tlantli_, phonetic, and a net, _matla_, representative. mixcoatl, 'cloudy serpent,' is expressed by the representative sign of a cloud, _mixtli_, and by the word _coatl_ phonetically written as before explained. these examples suffice to illustrate the system. there is no evidence that the aztecs ever reached the highest or alphabetic stage of hieroglyphics, and so far as is known they only used the syllabic method in writing names, and foreign words after the coming of the spaniards. still there is some reason to suspect that the phonetic element was much more in use than has been supposed, and that many characters which, hitherto considered by students as representative and symbolic signs, have yielded no meaning, may yet prove to be phonetic, and may throw much light on a complex and mysterious subject.[ ] [sidenote: record of an aztec migration.] on the two following pages is a copy of the painting already referred to as having been published by gemelli careri, humboldt, kingsborough, prescott, and others, and which i take from the work of ramirez as being probably the most reliable source.[ ] this painting, preserved in the national museum, is about twenty by twenty-seven inches, on maguey paper of the finest quality, now mounted on linen. i do not propose to attempt in this chapter any interpretation of the painting, to discuss the interpretations of others, or to investigate its historical importance. i simply present the document as an illustration of the aztec picture-writing, with interpretations of some of the figures as given by señor ramirez, leaving to another volume all consideration of the old absurd theory that a part of the painting (fig. - ) pictures the flood, the preservation of coxcox, the aztec noah, and the confusion of tongues. [illustration: the aztec migration.] [sidenote: picture-writing from gemelli careri.] the winding parallel lines, with frequent foot-prints, by which the different groups of figures are united, are symbols of a journey, and there is little doubt that the whole painting describes the migrations or wanderings of the aztec people. the square at the right represents the place from which they started. fig. , , perhaps express phonetically its name, but their interpretation is doubtful. it was evidently a watery region, probably a lake island in the valley of mexico. fig. is a _xiuhmolpilli_, 'bundle of grass,' symbol of the aztec cycle of fifty-two years; fig. is a 'curved mountain,' or the city of culhuacan, on the borders of the lake; fig. is a bird speaking to the people (fig. ), the tongues issuing from its mouth being, as i have said, the usual symbols of speech. it was a popular tradition among the aztecs that the voice of a bird started them on their wanderings. the fifteen human forms (fig. , ,) are the chiefs of the migrating tribes, whose names are hieroglyphically expressed by the figures connected with their heads. at their first stopping-place they completed another 'sheaf' of fifty-two years (fig. ), and perhaps built a temple (fig. ). the stay at cincotlan (fig. ) was ten years as indicated by the ten circles; fig. is interpreted by gemelli careri tocolco, 'humiliation,' and fig. , oztotlan, 'place of caves.' at the next stopping-place fig. represents a body wrapped in the mexican manner for burial; his name as shown by the character over his head is that of the central figure in the group shown in fig. . as this name does not appear again, the meaning is perhaps that one of the tribes here became extinct. fig. is tetzapotlan, 'place of the tree _tetzapotl_.' the generic name of the tree is _tzapotl_ (modern _zapote_), but a particular species is _tetzapotl_, and the prefix _te_ is phonetically expressed by the stone, _tetl_, at the base of the tree. fig. is tzompanco, 'place of skulls,' representing supposably a skull impaled on a stick; fig. is apazco, 'earthen vase;' fig. , quauhtitlan 'place of the eagle,' and here one of the chiefs of tribes, the right hand figure of group , separates from the rest to form a settlement at fig. . the time of stopping at each place and the completion of each fifty-two years are clearly indicated and need not be mentioned here. fig. is azcapuzalco, 'the anthill;' fig. is chalco, 'the chalchiuite-stone;' fig. , tlecohuatl, _tletl-cohuatl_, or 'fire-serpent;' fig. , chicomoztoc, _chicome-oztotl_, 'seven caves;' the lower part of fig. is the symbol of water; fig. , teozomaco, 'the monkey of stone.' fig. is chapultepec, 'hill of the locust or grasshopper.' after the arrival at chapultepec a great variety of events, most of which can be identified with traditional occurrences in the early history of the aztecs, are pictured. i shall not attempt to follow them. the route seems to continue towards fig. , tlatelolco; but five tribes (fig. ), all but one identical with those of the group in fig. , , return as fugitives or prisoners (fig. ) to culhuacan (fig. ), the original starting-point. fig. , and one of the characters of fig. , are the symbols of combat or war. fig. is inixiuhcan, 'birth-place,' the picture representing a woman who has just given birth to a child. fig. is tenochtitlan, 'place of _tenochtli_,' the tenochtli being a species of nopal represented in the figure, and being also the sign of the name of tenoch, one of the original chiefs of the group in fig. , and also seen in the group in fig. . six of the original tribes seem to have reached tenochtitlan, afterwards mexico, with the tribe that joined them at chapultepec; nine having perished or been scattered on the way, which agrees with the historical tradition. the preceding brief sketch will give an idea of a document whose full description and interpretation, even if possible, would require much space and would not be appropriately included here. [sidenote: chronologic record.] the picture-writing shown on the following pages is the one already mentioned as having formed part of the boturini collection, is equally important with the one already described, and is preserved like the former in the national museum. this painting, like the other, describes a migration, indicated by the line of foot-prints. starting from an island, a passage by boat is indicated to culhuacan, 'the curved mountain,' on the mainland. in this painting we have not only the number of years spent in the migration, and at each stopping-place, but the years are named according to the system described in the last chapter, and the migration began in the year ce tecpatl. the character within that of culhuacan is the name of huitzilopochtli, the great aztec god. next we have in a vertical line the names of the eight tribes, hieroglyphically written, who started on the migration, the chalcas, matlaltzincas, tepanecs, etc., agreeing with the tradition, except three which cannot be accurately interpreted. the first stopping-place after culhuacan was coatlicamac, the first figure in the lower column of the first page. here they remained twenty-eight years from ome calli to yey tecpatl as indicated by the squares connected by a line. the last but one of these years completed the cycle and is represented by a picture showing the process of kindling fire by friction, instead of the bundle of grass as before. between the groups of small squares are the hieroglyphic names of the stopping-places, which are in the following order, beginning with the second column of the first page, coatlicamac, tollan, atlicalaquiam, tlemaco, atotonilco, apazco, tzompanco, xaltocan, acolhuacan, ehecatepec, tolpetlac, coatitlan (where they first cultivated the maguey), huixachtitlan (where they made pulque from the maguey), tecpayocan, pantitlan, 'place of the flag,' amalinalpan, azcapuzalco, pantitlan, acolnahuac, popotla, ----, atlacuihuayan (tacubaya), chapultepec, acocolco, and culhuacan (as prisoners). the migration is not brought down to the arrival in tenochtitlan, but the chronology is perfectly recorded. several of the names of places are indicated by the same hieroglyphic signs as in the other painting. it will be observed that there is nothing to locate the starting-place in the north-west. it was probably either on the lakes of anáhuac, or in the south beyond what is now the isthmus of tehuantepec. both of these paintings will be noticed in the historical investigations to be given in volume v. of this work. [sidenote: the aztec migration.] [illustration: picture-record of the aztec migration. from the boturini collection.] the hieroglyphic paintings afford no test of the aztec painter's skill; in an artistic point of view the picture-writing had probably been nearly stationary for a long time before the conquest. the pictures were in most cases conventionally distorted; indeed, to permit different painters to exercise their skill and fancy in depicting the various objects required would have destroyed the value of the paintings as records. the first progressional steps had taught the native scribes to paint only so much of representative and symbolic objects as was necessary to their being understood; convenience and custom would naturally tend to fix the forms at an early period. bold outlines, and bright contrasted colors were the desiderata; elegance was not aimed at. hence no argument respecting the aztec civilization can be drawn from the rude mechanical execution of these painted characters. the american hieroglyphics contain no element to prove their foreign origin, and there is no reason to look upon them as other than the result of original native development. whether enough of the painted records have been preserved to throw much additional light on aboriginal history, may well be doubted; but it is certain that great progress will be made in the art of interpreting such as have been saved, when able men shall devote their lives to a faithful study of this indigenous american literature as they have to the study of old-world hieroglyphics.[ ] [sidenote: the nepohualtzitzin.] i will in conclusion call attention to boturini's statement that knotted cords, similar to the aboriginal peruvian _quipus_, but called in aztec _nepohualtzitzin_, were also employed to record events in early times, but had gone out of use probably before the aztec supremacy. this author even claims to have found one of these knotted records in a very dilapidated condition in tlascala. his statement is repeated by many writers; if any information on the subject is contained in the old authorities, it has escaped my notice.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'todas las cosas que conferimos me las dieron por pinturas, que aquella era la escritura que ellos antiguamente usaban: los gramáticos las declararon en su lengua, escribiendo la declaracion al pie de la pintura. tengo aun ahora estos originales.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. iv. 'aunque no tenian escritura como nosotros tenian empero sus figuras y caracteres que todas las cosas qui querian, significaban; y destas sus libros grandes por tan agudo y sutil artificio, que podriamos decir que nuestras letras en aquello no les hicieron mucha ventaja.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxxxv. 'tenian sus figuras, y hieroglyficas con que pintauan las cosas en esta forma, que las cosas que tenian figuras, las ponian con sus proprias ymagines, y para las cosas que no auia ymagen propria, tenian otros caracteres significatiuos de aquello, y con este modo figurauan quanto querian.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . 'letras reales de cosas pintadas, como eran las pinturas, en que leiò eneas la destruicion de troya.' 'y esto que afirmo, es tomado de las mismas historias mexicanas, y tetzcucanas, que son las que sigo en este discurso, y las que tengo en mi poder.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , also pp. - , , , tom. ii., pp. , - . 'i haue heeretofore sayde, that they haue books whereof they brought many: but this ribera saith, that they are not made for the vse of readinge.... what i should thinke in this variety i knowe not. i suppose them to bee bookes.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x., dec. iii., lib. viii. 'y entre la barbaridad destas naciones (de oajaca) se hallaron muchos libros à su modo, en hojas, ò telas de especiales cortesas de arboles.... y destos mesmos instrumentos he tenido en mis manos, y oydolos explicar à algunos viejos con bastante admiracion.' _burgoa_, _palestra hist._, pt i., p. . 'pintaban en vnos papeles de la tierra que dan los arboles pegados vnos con otros con engrudos, que llamaban _texamaltl_ sus historias, y batallas.' _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . 'lo dicho lo comprueban claramente las historias de las naciones tulteca y chichimeca, figuradas con pinturas, y geroglíficos, especialmente en aquel libro, que en tula hicieron de su origen, y le llamaron teomaxtli, esto es, libro divino.' _lorenzana_, in _cortés_, _hist. n. españa_, pp. , - . 'it is now proven beyond cavil, that both mexico and yucatan had for centuries before columbus a phonetic system of writing, which insured the perpetuation of their histories and legends.' _brinton's myths._ see also _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , , ; _id._, _relaciones_, in _id._, p. ; _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _id._; _garcia_, in _id._, vol. viii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. , ; _fuenleal_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. . [ ] 'aunque por haverse quemado estos libros, al principio de la conversion ... no ha quedado, para aora, mui averiguado todo lo que ellos hicieron.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , tom. i., prólogo. some of them burned by order of the monks, in the fear that in the matter of religion these books might prove injurious. _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxxxv. royal archives of tezcuco burned inadvertently by the first priests. _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . 'principalmente habiendo perecido lo mejor de sus historias entre las llamas, por no tenerse conocimiento de lo que significaban sus pinturas.' _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., pp. , . 'por desgracia los misioneros confundieron con los objetos del culto idolátrico todos los geroglíficos cronológicos é históricos, y en una misma hoguera se consumia el ídolo ... y el manuscrito.' _alaman_, _disertaciones_, tom. ii., p. . see also _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _bustamante_, _mañanas_, tom. ii., prólogo; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., p. ; _wilson's conq. mex._, p. . [ ] 'it is to this transition-period that we owe many, perhaps most, of the picture-documents still preserved.' _tylor's researches_, p. . 'there was ... until late in the last century, a professor in the university of mexico, especially devoted to the study of the national picture-writing. but, as this was with a view to legal proceedings, his information, probably, was limited to deciphering titles.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . 'l'usage de ces peintures, servant de pièces de procès, c'est conservé dans les tribunaux espagnols long-temps après la conquête.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - . 'escriben toda la doctrina ellos por sus figuras y caracteres muy ingeniosamente, poniendo la figura que correspondia en la voz y sonido á nuestro vocablo. asi como si dijeremos amen, ponian pintada una como fuente y luego un maguey que en su lengua corresponde con amen, porque llamada _ametl_, y así de todo lo demas.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ccxxxv. see also _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix.; _ramirez_, _proceso de resid._; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'au mexique, l'usage des peintures et celui du papier de maguey s'étendoient bien au delà des limites de l'empire de montezuma, jusqu'aux bords du lac de nicaragua.' 'on voit que les peuples de l'amèrique étoient bien éloignés de cette perfection qu'avoient atteinte les Égyptiens.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. , - . 'clumsy as it was, however, the aztec picture-writing seems to have been adequate to the demands of the nation.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - , . 'the mexicans may have advanced, but, we believe, not a great way, beyond the village children, the landlady (with her ale-scores), or the bosjesmans.' _quarterly review_, , vol. xv., pp. , . 'the _picture writings_ copied into the monster volumes of lord kingsborough, we have denounced as spanish fabrications.' _wilson's conq. mex._, pp. - . 'until some evidence, or shadow of evidence, can be found that these quasi records are of aztec origin, it would be useless to examine the contradictions, absurdities and nonsense they present.... the whole story must be considered as one of zumárraga's pious frauds.' _id._, pp. - . 'las pinturas, que se quemaron en tiempo del señor de méxico, que se decia _itzcóatl_, en cuya época los señores, y los principales que habia entónces, acordaron y mandaron que se quemasen todas, para que no viniesen á manos del vulgo, y fuesen menospreciadas.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . see also _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; _mayer's mex. aztec_, etc., vol. i., p. . [ ] see _mexican mss._, in the list of authorities in vol. i. of this work, for the location of this and other codices in kingsborough's work. this codex was published also in _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv.; _thevenot_, _col. de voy._, , tom. ii.; and by _lorenzana_, in _cortés_, _hist. n. españa_. 'd'après les recherches que j'ai faites, il paroît qu'il n'existe aujourd'hui en europe que six collections de peintures mexicaines: celles de l'escurial, de bologne, de veletri, de rome, de vienne et de berlin.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., p. . see also on the codex mendoza: _id._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _robertson's hist. amer._, (lond., ), vol. ii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vi., p. . [ ] _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. , - ; _atlas_, pl. , , , - . , tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. , , - ; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vi., pp. , ; _wilson's conq. mex._, p. . 'the fiction of some spanish monk.' _quarterly review_, , vol. xv., p. . [ ] _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - , - , with portions of the borgian codex in plates , , . some pages of the vienna codex were published in _robertson's hist. amer._, (lond., ), vol. ii., p. . [ ] _careri_, _giro del mondo_, (naples, - ), tom. vi.; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. ii., pp. - , _atlas_, pl. xxxii.; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. iv.; _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. i., p. ; _prescott's hist. conq. mex._, (mex. ), tom. iii.; _garcía y cubas_, _atlas_; _simon's ten tribes_, frontispiece; gallatin, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. , pronounces it an imitation and not a copy of a mexican painting, whose authenticity may be doubted. [ ] _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _boturini_, _catálogo_, in _id._, _idea_; _aubin_, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. xxxiii.; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - ; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. xxi., et seq., p. . that portion of the codex mendoza given in _cortés_, _hist. n. españa_, was from a copy in the boturini collection. the manuscript describing the aztec migration was published in kingsborough, schoolcraft, prescott, (mex. ), humboldt's _atlas_, delafield's _antiq. amer._, garcía y cubas' _atlas_, and i have in my library two copies on long strips of paper folded in the original form. [ ] ortega, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. xxii-xxiv., says they were not given to veytia as boturini's executor, but simply entrusted to him for use in his work, and afterwards returned to the archives. [ ] gondra, in _prescott_, _hist. conq. mex._ (mex., ), tom. iii., p. ii., says that gama was sigüenza's heir. [ ] _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. , - . [ ] _bustamante_, in _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt i., pp. ii-iii. [ ] see list of part of m. aubin's manuscripts in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. lxxvi-lxxviii.; also a very complete account of the different collections of aztec picture-writings in the introductory chapter of _domenech_, _manuscrit pictographique_. [ ] in the egyptian development, a pictured mouth first signified the word _ro_, then the syllable _ro_, and finally the letter or sound _r_, although it is doubtful if they made much use of the third stage, except in writing some foreign words. many of the chinese pictures are double, one being determinative of sound, the other of sense; as if in english we should express the sound _pear_ by a picture of the fruit of that name, the fruit _pear_ by the same picture accompanied by a tree, the word _pare_ by the same picture and a knife, the word _pair_ by the picture and two points, etc. _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - ; _tylor's researches_, pp. - . [ ] _codex mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. i., pl. lxi. explanation, vol. v., pp. - . see p. of this volume. [ ] 'on trouve même chez les mexicains des vestiges de ce genre d'hiéroglyphes que l'on appelle phonétiques, et qui annonce des rapports, non avec la chose, mais avec la langue parlée.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., p. , also pp. - . 'but, although the aztecs were instructed in all the varieties of hieroglyphical painting, they chiefly resorted to the clumsy method of direct representation.' _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. , also pp. - . 'it is to m. aubin, of paris, a most zealous student of mexican antiquities, that we owe our first clear knowledge of a phenomenon of great scientific interest in the history of writing. this is a well-defined system of phonetic characters, which clavigero and humboldt do not seem to have been aware of.' _tylor's researches_, p. , also pp. - . 'dans les compositions grossières, dont les auteurs se sont presque exclusivement occupés jusqu'ici, elle (l'écriture aztèque) est fort semblable aux rébus que l'enfance mêle à ses jeux. comme ces rébus elle est généralement phonétique, mais souvent aussi confusément idéographique et symbolique. tels sont les noms de villes et de rois, cités par clavigero, d'après purchas et lorenzana et d'après clavigero, par une foule d'auteurs.' _aubin_, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. xliv., xxx-lxxiv. see also on aztec hieroglyphics and their explanation: _buschmann_, _ortsnamen_, tom. i., pp. - ; _gondra_, in _prescott_, _hist. conq. mex._, (mex. ), tom. iii.; _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt ii., pp. - ; _ewbank_, in _schoolcraft's arch._, vol. iv., pp. - ; _mendoza_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., pp. - ; _ramirez_, in _id._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _boturini_, _idea_, pp. , - , , - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien. et mod._, pp. - , ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. , ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. , - ; _ramirez_, _proceso de resid._; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - ; _lubbock's pre-hist. times_, p. ; _n. amer. review_, , vol. xlviii., p. , , vol. xxxii., pp. - ; _amer. quart. review_, june , vol. i., p. . [ ] in _garcía y cubas_, _atlas_, with an interpretation. [ ] 'on distingue dans les peintures mexicaines des têtes d'une grandeur énorme, un corps excessivement court, et des pieds qui, par la longueur des doigts, ressemblent à des griffes d'oiseau.... tout ceci indique l'enfance de l'art, mais il ne faut pas oublier que des peuples qui expriment leurs idées par des peintures ... attachent aussi peu d'importance à peindre correctement que les savans d'europe à employer une belle écriture dans leurs manuscrits.' _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . valades in gave an american phonetic alphabet, representing each letter by an object of whose name it was the initial in some language not the aztec. nothing is known of it. _id._, tom. i., p. lxx. borunda gives a _clave general de geroglíficos americanos_, in _voz de la patria_, , tom. iv., no. iii.--an extract in _leon y gama_, _dos piedras_, pt ii., p. . sr eufemio mendoza, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., p. , attaches some importance to borunda's efforts. on the difficulty of interpretation see _boturini_, _idea_, p. ; _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. vi., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _boturini_, _idea_, pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . some additional references on hieroglyphics are: _id._, pp. , - , - , tom. ii., p. ; _norman's rambles in yuc._, pp. - ; _domenech's deserts_, vol. i., pp. - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _dapper_, _neue welt_, p. ; _delafield's antiq. amer._, p. ; _bonnycastle's span. amer._, vol. i., p. . chapter xviii. architecture and dwellings of the nahuas. architecture of the ancient nations--general features of nahua architecture--the arch--exterior and interior decorations--method of building--inclined planes--scaffolds--the use of the plummet--building-materials--position and fortification of towns--mexico tenochtitlan--the great causeways--quarters and wards of mexico--the market-place--fountains and aqueducts--light-houses and street-work--city of tezcuco--dwellings--aztec gardens--temple of huitzilopochtli--temple of mexico--other temples--teocalli at cholula and tezcuco. i shall describe in this chapter the cities, towns, temples, palaces, dwellings, roads, bridges, aqueducts, and other products of nahua architectural and constructive art, as they were found and described by the spaniards in the sixteenth century. monuments of this branch of nahua art chiefly in the form of ruined temples, or _teocallis_, are still standing and have been examined in detail by modern travelers. the results of these later observations will be given in volume iv. of this work, and i have therefore thought it best to omit them altogether here. in order to fully comprehend the subject the reader will find it advantageous to study and compare the two views taken from different standpoints. it is for a general and doubtless exaggerated account of the grandeur and extent of the nahua structures, rather than any details of their construction that we must look to the spanish chronicles; and it is also to be noted that the descriptions by the conquerors are confined almost entirely to the lake region of anáhuac, the buildings of other regions being dismissed with a mere mention. in this connection, therefore, the supplementary view in another volume will be of great value, since the grandest relics of nahua antiquity have been found outside of anáhuac proper, while the oft-mentioned magnificent temples and palaces of the lake cities have left no traces of their original splendor. the olmecs, totonacs, and others of the earlier nahua nations are credited by tradition with the erection of grand edifices, but the toltecs, in this as in all other arts, far surpassed their predecessors, and even the nations that succeeded them. i have in a preceding chapter sufficiently explained the process by which this ancient people has been credited with all that is wonderful in the past, and it will be readily understood how a magnifying veneration for past glories, handed down from father to son with ever accumulating exaggeration, has transformed the toltec buildings into the most exquisite fairy structures, incomparably superior to anything that met the spanish gaze. with architectural as with other traditions, however, i have little or nothing to do in this chapter, but pass on to a consideration of this branch of art in later times. respect for the gods made it necessary that the temples should be raised above the ordinary buildings, besides which their height made them more conspicuous to the immense multitudes which frequently gathered about them on feast-days, rendering them also more secure from desecration and easier of defence when used as citadels of refuge, as they often were. but as the primitive ideas of engineering possessed by the aztecs and their insufficient tools did not permit them to combine strength with slightness, the only way the required elevation could be attained was by placing the building proper upon a raised, solid, pyramidal substructure. the prevalence of earthquakes may also have had something to do with this solid form of construction. in the vicinity of the lake of mexico, the swampy nature of the soil called for a broad, secure foundation; here, then, the substructure was not confined to the temples, but was used in building public edifices, palaces, and private dwellings. [sidenote: nahua architecture.] another general feature of nahua architecture was the small elevation of the buildings proper, compared with their extent and solidity. these rarely exceeded one story in height, except some of the chapels, which had two or even three stories, but in these cases the upper floors were invariably of wood. whether the aztecs were acquainted with our arch, with a vertical key-stone, is a mooted point. clavigero gives plates of a semi-spherical _estufa_ constructed in this manner, and asserts, further, that an arch of this description was found among the tezcucan ruins, but i find no authority for either picture or assertion. the relics that have been examined in modern times, moreover, seem to show conclusively that key-stone arches were unknown in america before the advent of the europeans, though arches made of overlapping stones were often cut in such a manner as to resemble them. the chaplain diaz, who accompanied grijalva, mentions an 'arc antique' on the east coast, but gives no description of it. nevertheless, as the 'antique' would in this connection imply a peculiar, if not a primitive, construction, it is not probable that the arch he saw had a key-stone.[ ] as decorations, we find balconies and galleries supported by square or round pillars, which were often monoliths; but as they were adorned with neither capital nor base the effect must have been rather bare. battlements and turrets, doubtless first used as means of defense, became later incorporated with decorative art. the bareness of the walls was relieved by cornices and stucco-work of various designs, the favorite figures being coiled snakes, executed in low relief, which probably had a religious meaning. sometimes they were placed in groups, as upon the temple walls at mexico, at other times one serpent twined and twisted round every door and window of an apartment until head and tail met. carved lintels and door-posts were common, and statues frequently adorned the court and approaches. glossy surfaces seem to have had a special attraction for the nahuas, and they made floors, walls, and even streets, extremely smooth. the walls and floors were first coated with lime, gypsum, or ochre, and then polished. no clear accounts are given of the method of erecting houses. brasseur de bourbourg thinks that because the natives of vera paz were seen by him to use scaffolds like ours, that these were also employed in mexico in former times, and that stones were raised on inclined beams passing from scaffold to scaffold, which is not very satisfactory reasoning.[ ] however this may be, we are told by torquemada that the aztecs used derricks to hoist heavy timbers with.[ ] others, again, say that walls were erected by piling earth on both sides, which served both as scaffolds and as inclined planes up which heavy masses might be drawn or rolled,[ ] but although this was undoubtedly the method adopted by the miztecs, it was too laborious and primitive to have been general,[ ] and certainly could not have been employed in building the three-story chapels upon huitzilopochtli's pyramid. the perfectly straight walls built by the nahuas would seem to indicate the use of the plummet, and we are told that the line was used in making roads.[ ] trees were felled with copper and flint axes, and drawn upon rollers to their destination,[ ] a mode of transport used, no doubt, with other cumbrous material. the implements used to cut stone blocks seem to have been entirely of flint.[ ] [sidenote: building material.] the wood for roofs, turrets, and posts, was either white or yellow cedar, palm, pine, cypress, or oyametl, of which beams and fine boards were made. nails they had none; the smaller pieces must therefore have been secured by notches, lapping, or pressure.[ ] the different kinds of stone used in building were granite, alabaster, jasper, porphyry, certain 'black, shining stones,' and a red, light, porous, yet hard stone, of which rich quarries were discovered near mexico in ahuitzotl's reign.[ ] after the overflow of the lake, which happened at this time, the king gave orders that this should be used ever after for buildings in the city.[ ] _tecali_, a transparent stone resembling alabaster, was sometimes used in the temples for window-glass.[ ] adobes, or sun-dried bricks, were chiefly used in the dwellings of the poorer classes, but burnt bricks and tiles are mentioned as being sold in the markets.[ ] roofs were covered with clay, straw, and palm-leaves. lime was used for mortar, which was so skillfully used, say the old writers, that the joints were scarcely perceptible,[ ] but probably this was partly owing to the fact that the walls were almost always either whitewashed, or covered with ochre, gypsum, or other substances. frequent wars and the generally unsettled state of the country, made it desirable that the towns should be situated near enough each other to afford mutual protection, which accounts for the great number of towns scattered over the plateau. the same causes made a defensible position the primary object in the choice of a site. thus we find them situated on rocks accessible only by a difficult and narrow pathway, raised on piles over the water, or surrounded by strong walls, palisades, earth-works and ditches.[ ] although they fully understood the necessity of settling near lakes and rivers to facilitate intercourse, yet the towns on the sea-coast were usually a league or two from the shore, and, as they had no maritime trade, harbors were not sought for.[ ] the towns extended over a comparatively large surface, owing to the houses being low and detached, and each provided with a court and garden. the larger cities seem to have been layed out on a regular plan, especially in the centre, but the streets were narrow, indeed there was no need of wider ones as all transportation was done by carriers, and there were no vehicles. at intervals a market-place with a fountain in the centre, a square filled with temples, or a line of shady trees relieved the monotony of the long rows of low houses. [sidenote: mexico tenochtitlan.] the largest and most celebrated of the nahua cities was mexico tenochtitlan.[ ] it seems that about the year the aztecs, weary of their unsettled condition and hard pressed by the culhuas, sought the marshy western shore of the lake of mexico. here, on the swamp of tlalcocomocco, they came upon a stone, upon which it was said a mexican priest had forty years before sacrificed a certain prince copil. from this stone had sprung a nopal, upon which, at the time it was seen by the mexican advance guard, sat an eagle, holding in his beak a serpent. impelled by a divine power, a priest dived into a pool near the stone, and there had an interview with tlaloc, god of waters,[ ] who gave his permission to the people to settle on the spot.[ ] another legend relates that huitzilopochtli appeared to a priest in a dream, and told him to search for a nopal growing out of a stone in the lake with an eagle and serpent upon it, and there found a city.[ ] the temple, at first a mere hut, was the first building erected, and by trading fish and fowl for stone, they were soon enabled to form a considerable town about it. piles were driven into the soft bottom of the lake, and the intermediate spaces filled with stones, branches, and earth, to serve as a foundation for houses.[ ] each succeeding ruler took pains to extend and beautify the city. later on, tlatelulco,[ ] which had early separated from mexico tenochtitlan, was reunited to it by king axayacatl, which greatly increased the size of the latter city. tezcuco is said to have exceeded it in size and in the culture of its people, but from its important position, imposing architecture, and general renown, mexico tenochtitlan stood preëminent. a number of surrounding towns and villages formed the suburbs of the city, as aztacalco, acatlan, malcuitlapilco, atenco, iztacalco, zancopinco, huitznahuac, xocotitlan or xocotlan, coltonco, necatitlan, huitzitlan, etc.[ ] the circumference of the city has been estimated at about twelve miles, and the number of houses at sixty thousand, which would give a population of three hundred thousand.[ ] it was situated in the salty part of the lake of mexico, fifteen miles west of its celebrated rival tezcuco, about one mile from the eastern shore, and close to the channel through which the volumes of the sweet water lake pour into the briny waters of the lake of mexico, washing, in their outward flow, the southern and western parts of the city. the waters have, however, evaporated considerably since the time of the aztecs, and left the modern mexico some distance from the beach.[ ] [sidenote: cities of anÁhuac.] fifty other towns, many of them consisting of over three thousand dwellings, were scattered on and around the lake, the shallow waters of which were skimmed by two hundred thousand canoes.[ ] four grand avenues, paved with a smooth, hard crust of cement,[ ] ran east, west, north, and south, crosswise, forming the boundary lines of four quarters; at the meeting-point of these was the grand temple-court. three of these roads connected in a straight line with large causeways leading from the city to the lake shores; constructed by driving in piles, filling up the intervening spaces with earth, branches, and stones, and covering the surface with stone secured by mortar. they were broad enough to allow ten horsemen to ride abreast with ease, and were defended by drawbridges and breastworks.[ ] the southern road, two leagues in length, commenced half a league from iztapalapan, and was bordered on one side by mexicaltzinco, a town of about four thousand houses, and on the other, first by coyuhuacan with six thousand, and further on by huitzilopochco with five thousand dwellings. half a league before reaching the city this causeway was joined by the xoloc road, coming from xochimilco, the point of junction being defended by a fort named acachinanco, which consisted of two turrets surrounded by a battlemented wall, eleven or twelve feet high, and was provided with two gates, through which the road passed.[ ] the northern road led from tepeyacac, about a league off; the western, from tlacopan, half a league distant; this road was bordered with houses as far as the shore.[ ] a fourth causeway from chapultepec served to support the aqueduct which supplied the city with water.[ ] [sidenote: quarters and wards of mexico.] the names of the four quarters of the city, which were thus disposed according to divine command, were tlaquechiuhcan, cuecopan, or quepopan, now santa maría, lying between the northern and western avenues; atzacualco, now san sebastian, between the eastern and northern; teopan, now san pablo, between the eastern and southern; and moyotlan, or mayotla, now san juan, between the western and southern; these, again, were divided into a number of wards.[ ] owing to the position of the city in the midst of the lake, traffic was chiefly conducted by means of canals, which led into almost every ward, and had on one or both sides quays for the reception and landing of goods and passengers. many of these were provided with basins and locks to retain the water within them;[ ] while at the mouth were small buildings which served as offices for the custom-house officials. bridges, many of which were upwards of thirty feet wide, and could be drawn up so as to cut off communication between the different parts, connected the numerous cross-streets and lanes, some of which were mere dry and paved canals.[ ] the chief resort of the people was the levee which stretched in a semi-circle round the southern part of the city, forming a harbor from half to three quarters of a league in breadth. here during the day the merchants bustled about the cargoes and the custom-houses, while at night the promenaders resorted there to enjoy the fresh breezes from the lake. the construction of this embankment was owing to an inundation which did serious harm during the reign of montezuma i. this energetic monarch at once took steps to prevent a recurrence of the catastrophe, and called upon the neighboring towns to assist with people and material in the construction of an outer wall, to check and turn aside the waters of the fresh lake, which, after the heavy rains of winter, rushed in volumes upon the city as they sought the lower salt lake. the length of the levee was about three leagues, and its breadth thirty feet. in , fifty-two years after its construction, it was further strengthened and enlarged.[ ] although the spaniards met with no very imposing edifices as they passed along to the central part of the city where the temple stood, yet they must have found enough to admire in the fine smooth streets, the neat though low stone buildings surmounted by parapets which but half concealed the flowers behind them, the elegantly arranged gardens, gorgeous with the flora of the tropics, the broad squares, the lofty temples, and the canals teeming with canoes. among the public edifices, the markets are especially worthy of note. the largest, in mexico tenochtitlan, was twice as large as the square of salamanca, says cortés, and was surrounded by porticoes, in and about which from sixty thousand to one hundred thousand buyers and sellers found room.[ ] the market-place at tlatelulco was still larger, and in the midst of it was a square stone terrace, fifteen feet high and thirty feet long, which served as a theatre.[ ] [sidenote: fountains and aqueducts.] the numerous fountains which adorned the city were fed by the aqueduct which brought water from the hill of chapultepec, about two miles off, and was constructed upon a causeway of solid masonry five feet high and five feet broad, running parallel to the tlacopan road.[ ] this aqueduct consisted of two pipes of masonry, each carrying a volume of water equal in bulk to a man's body,[ ] which was conducted by branch pipes to different parts of the town to supply fountains, tanks, ponds, and baths. at the different canal-bridges there were reservoirs, into which the pipes emptied on their course, and here the boatmen who made it a business to supply the inhabitants with water received their cargoes on the payment of a fixed price. a vigilant police watched over the distribution of the water and the care of the pipes, only one of which was in use at a time, while the other was cleansed.[ ] the supply was obtained from a fine spring on the summit of mount chapultepec, which was guarded by two figures cut in the solid stone, representing montezuma and his father, armed with lances and shields.[ ] the present aqueduct was partly reconstructed by montezuma ii. on the old one erected by the first king of that name. its inauguration was attended by imposing ceremonies, offerings of quails, and burning of incense.[ ] during ahuitzotl's reign, an attempt was made to bring water into the city from an immense spring at coyuhuacan. the lord of that place consented, as became a loyal vassal, to let the water go, but predicted disastrous consequences to the city from the overflow which would be sure to follow if the water were taken there. this warning, however, so enraged the king that he ordered the execution of the noble, and immediately levied men and material from the neighboring towns to build the aqueduct. the masons and laborers swarmed like ants and soon finished the work. when everything was ready, a grand procession of priests, princes, nobles, and plebeians marched forth to open the gates of the aqueduct and receive the waters into the city. speeches were made, slaves and children were sacrificed, the wealthy cast precious articles into the rolling waters with words of thanks and welcome. but the hour of sorrow was at hand. the prediction of the dead lord was fulfilled; the waters, once loosed, could not be fettered again; a great part of the city was inundated and much damage was done. then the distracted king called once more upon the neighboring towns to furnish men, but this time to tear down instead of to build up.[ ] [sidenote: lighthouses and street-work.] among the arrangements for the convenience of the public may be mentioned lighthouses to guide the canoes which brought supplies to the great metropolis. these were erected at different points upon towers and heights; the principal one seems to have been on mount tocitlan, where a wooden turret was erected to hold the flaming beacon.[ ] the streets were also lighted by burning braziers placed at convenient intervals, which were tended by the night patrol. a force of over a thousand men kept the canals in order, swept the streets and sprinkled them several times a day.[ ] public closets were placed at distances along the canals.[ ] the care of buildings also received the attention of the government, and every eleventh month was devoted to repairing and cleaning the temples, public edifices, and roads generally.[ ] a number of towns on the lake were built on piles, in imitation of mexico, chiefly for the sake of security. thus, iztapalapan stood half on land, half over the water, and ayotzinco was founded entirely on piles, and had canals instead of streets.[ ] other towns had recourse to strong walls and deep ditches to secure their protection. tlascala especially was well defended from its ancient aztec enemy, by a wall of stone and mortar[ ] which stretched for six miles across a valley, from mountain to mountain, and formed the boundary line of the republic. this wall was nine feet high, twenty feet broad,[ ] and surmounted by a breastwork a foot and a half in thickness, behind which the defenders could stand while fighting. the only entrance was in the centre, where the walls did not meet, but described a semi-circle, one overlapping the other, with a space ten paces wide and forty long between them.[ ] the other side also was defended by breastworks and ditches.[ ] the city itself stood upon four hills, and was crossed by narrow streets,[ ] the houses being scattered in irregular groups. in size it was even larger than granada, says cortés, which is not unlikely, for the market had accommodation for thirty thousand people, and in one of the temples four hundred spaniards with their attendants found ample room.[ ] at huejutla there was a curious wall of masonry, the outside of which was faced with small blocks of tetzontli, each about nine inches in diameter on the face, which was rounded; the end of each block was pointed, and inserted in the wall.[ ] [sidenote: the city of tezcuco.] the city next in fame and rank to mexico tenochtitlan was tezcuco,[ ] which torquemada affirms contained one hundred and forty thousand houses within a circumference of from three to four leagues.[ ] it was divided into six divisions, and crossed by a series of fine straight streets lined with elegant buildings. the old palace stood on the border of the lake upon a triple terrace, guarding the town, as it were; the newer structure, in the construction of which two hundred thousand men had been employed, stood at the northern end; it was a magnificent building and contained three hundred rooms. this city was the seat of refinement and elegance, and occupied relatively the same position in mexico as paris does in europe.[ ] [sidenote: dwellings of the richer classes.] the style of architecture for houses did not exhibit much variety; the difference between one house and another being chiefly in extent and material.[ ] the dwellings of the nobles were situated upon terraces of various heights, which in swampy places like mexico, rested upon tiers of heavy piles.[ ] they were usually a group of buildings in the form of a parallelogram, built of stone or in mexico of tetzontli, joined with fine cement, and finely polished and whitewashed.[ ] every house stood by itself, separated from its neighbor by narrow lanes, and enclosed one or more courts which extended over a large space of ground.[ ] one story was the most common form, and there are no accounts of any palaces or private houses exceeding two stories.[ ] broad steps led up the terrace to two gates which gave entrance to the courts; one opening upon the main street, the other upon the back lane, or canal, that often lay beneath it. the terrace platform of the houses of chiefs often had a wide walk round it and was especially spacious in front, where there was occasionally a small oratorio facing the entrance. this style was particularly noticed on the east coast.[ ] the court was surrounded by numerous porticoes decorated with porphyry, jasper, and alabaster ornaments, which, again, led to various chambers, and halls, lighted by large windows. two great halls and several reception-rooms were situated in front; the sleeping-chambers, kitchen, baths, and store-rooms were in the rear, forming at times quite a complicated labyrinth.[ ] the court was paved with flags of stone, tessellated marble, or hard cement, polished with ochre or gypsum,[ ] and usually contained a sparkling fountain; occasionally there was a flower-garden, in which a pyramidal altar gave an air of sanctity to the place.[ ] the stairway which led to the second story or to the roof, was often on the outside of the house, and by its grand proportions and graceful form contributed not a little to the good appearance of the house.[ ] the roof was a flat terrace of beams, with a slight slope towards the back,[ ] covered with a coat of cement or clay,[ ] and surrounded by a battlemented parapet, surmounted at times by small turrets.[ ] there were generally flowers in pots upon the roofs, or even a small garden; and here the members of the household assembled in the cool of the evening to enjoy the fresh air and charming prospect.[ ] some houses had galleries, which, like most work added to the main structure, were of wood,[ ] though supported upon columns of marble, porphyry, or alabaster. these pillars were either round or square, and were generally monoliths; they were without base or capital, though ornamented with figures cut in low relief. buildings were further adorned with elegant cornices and stucco designs of flowers and animals, which were often painted with brilliant colors. prominent among these figures was the coiling serpent before mentioned. lintels and door-posts were also elaborately carved.[ ] the interior displayed the same rude magnificence. the floors were covered with hard, smooth cement like the courtyard and streets, rubbed with ochre or gypsum, and polished.[ ] the glossy walls were painted and hung with cotton or feather tapestry, to which las casas adds silver plating and jewels. the furniture was scanty. it consisted chiefly of soft mats and cushions of palm-leaves or fur, low tables, and small stools with palm-leaf backs. the beds were mats piled one upon another, with a block or a palm-leaf or cotton cushion for a pillow; occasionally they were furnished with coverlets and canopies of cotton or feather-work.[ ] vases filled with smoldering incense diffused their perfume through the chambers. the rooms which were used in winter were provided with hearths and fire-screens, and were lighted by torches.[ ] there were no doors, properly called such, to the houses, but where privacy was required, a bamboo or wicker-work screen was suspended across the entrance, and secured at night with a bar. to this was attached a string of shells, which the visitor rattled to call the host or his attendants to the entrance. the interior rooms were separated by hangings, which probably also served to cover the windows of ordinary dwellings,[ ] although the transparent _tecali_ stone, as before stated, answered the purpose of window-glass in certain parts of some of the temples.[ ] [sidenote: houses of the lower classes.] the houses of the poorer classes were built of adobe, wood, cane, or reeds and stones, mixed with mud, well plastered and polished,[ ] and, in mexico, raised on stone foundations, to prevent dampness,[ ] though the elevation was less than that of the houses of the richer people. they were generally of an oblong shape, were divided into several apartments, and occasionally had a gallery in front. they could not afford a central court, but had instead a flower or vegetable garden wherever space permitted. terrace roofs were not uncommon in the towns, but more generally the houses of the poorer people were thatched with a kind of long thick grass, or with overlapping maguey-leaves.[ ] besides the oratory and storehouse with which most houses were provided, a _temazcalli_, or bath, was generally added to the dwelling. this, according to clavigero, consisted of a hemisphere of adobe, having a slightly convex paved floor sunk a little below the level of the surrounding ground. the entrance was a small hole just large enough to admit a man. on the outside of the bath-house, and on the opposite side to the entrance, was a furnace made of stone or brick, separated from the interior by a thin slab of _tetzontli_, or other porous stone, through which the heat was communicated. on entering, the door was closed, and the suffocating vapors were allowed to escape slowly through a small opening in the top. the largest bath-houses were eight feet in diameter, and six feet in height. some were mere square chambers without a furnace, and were doubtless heated and the fire raked out before the bather entered.[ ] the storehouses and granaries which were attached to farms, temples, and palaces, were usually square buildings of oxametl-wood, with thatched roofs. the logs had notches near the ends to give them a secure hold. two windows, or doors, one above the other, gave access to the interior, which was often large enough to contain many thousand bushels of grain.[ ] [sidenote: aztec gardens.] love of flowers was a passion with the aztecs, and they bestowed great care upon the cultivation of gardens. the finest and largest of these were at iztapalapan and huastepec. the garden at iztapalapan was divided into four squares, each traversed by shaded walks, meandering among fruit-trees, blossoming hedges, and borders of sweet herbs.[ ] in the centre of the garden was an immense reservoir of hewn stone, four hundred paces square, and fed by navigable canals. a tiled pavement,[ ] wide enough for four persons walking abreast, surrounded the reservoir, and at intervals steps led down to the water, upon the surface of which innumerable water-fowl sported. a large pavilion, with halls and corridors, overlooked the grounds.[ ] the huastepec garden was two leagues in circuit, and was situated on a stream; it contained an immense variety of plants and trees, to which additions were continually made.[ ] the _chinampas_, or floating gardens, have been described elsewhere.[ ] the mexicans required no solid roads for heavy traffic, since goods were carried upon the shoulders of slaves, but a number of pathways crossed the country in various directions, which underwent repair every year on the cessation of the rains. here and there country roads crossed streams by means of suspension-bridges, or fixed structures mostly of wood, but sometimes of stone, with small spans. the suspension-bridges were made of ropes, twisted canes, or tough branches, attached to trees and connected by a netting. the spaniards were rather fearful of crossing them, on account of their swinging motion when stepped upon and the gaping rents in them.[ ] almost the only specimen of nahua architecture which has withstood the ravages of time until our day is the temple structure, _teocalli_, 'house of god,' or _teopan_, 'place of god,' of which torquemada asserts there were at least forty thousand in mexico. clavigero regards this as a good deal below the real number, and if we consider the extremely religious character of the people, and accept the statements of the early chroniclers, who say that at distances of from a quarter to half a league, in every town and village, were open places containing one or more temples,[ ] and on every isolated rock or hill, along the country roads, even in the fields, were substantial structures devoted to some idol, then clavigero's assertion may be correct.[ ] the larger temples were usually built upon pyramidal parallelograms, square, or oblong, and consisted of a series of superimposed terraces with perpendicular or sloping sides.[ ] the celebrated temple at mexico forms a fair type of the latter kind and its detailed description will give the best idea of this class of edifices. [sidenote: temple of huitzilopochtli.] [sidenote: the great temple of mexico.] [sidenote: the sacrificial stone.] when the aztecs halted on the site of mexico after their long wanderings, the first care was to erect an abode for their chief divinity huitzilopochtli. the spot chosen for the humble structure, which at first consisted of a mere hut, was over the stone whereon the sacred nochtli grew that had been pointed out by the oracle. a building more worthy of the god was soon erected, and, later on, ahuitzotl constructed the edifice from whose summit cortés looked down upon the scenes of his conquest. the labor bestowed upon it was immense, and notwithstanding that the material had to be brought from a distance of three or four leagues--a serious matter to a people who were supplied with no adequate means of transport--the temple was completed in two years.[ ] the inauguration took place in , in the presence of the chief princes and an immense concourse of people from all quarters, and , captives, arranged in two long files, were sacrificed during the four days of its duration.[ ] the site of the building was indeed worthy of its character, standing as it did in an immense square forming the centre of the town, from which radiated the four chief thoroughfares.[ ] the idea of thus keeping the god before the people at all times had, doubtless, as much to do with this arrangement as that of giving him the place of honor. a square wall[ ] about four thousand eight hundred feet in circumference, from eight to nine feet in height and of great thickness, with its sides facing the cardinal points, formed the courtyard of the temple.[ ] it was built of stone and lime, plastered and polished,[ ] crowned with battlements in the form of snails, and turreted and adorned with many stone serpents,--a very common ornament on edifices in egypt as well as anáhuac--for which reason it was called _coatepantli_, 'wall of snakes.'[ ] at the centre of each wall stood a large two-story building, divided into a number of rooms, in which the military stores and weapons were kept. these faced the four chief thoroughfares of the town, and their lower stories formed the portals of the gateways which gave entrance to the courtyard.[ ] this was partly paved with large smooth flag-stones, partly with cement, plastered and polished, and so slippery that the horses of the spaniards could scarcely keep their footing.[ ] in the centre stood the great temple, an oblong, parallelogramic pyramid, about three hundred and seventy-five feet long and three hundred feet broad at the base, three hundred and twenty-five by two hundred and fifty at the summit, and rising in five superimposed, perpendicular terraces to the height of eighty-six feet.[ ] the terraces were of equal height,[ ] the lowest, according to tezozomoc, having a foundation a fathom or more in depth, and each receded about six feet from the edge of the one beneath it, leaving a flat ledge round its base.[ ] at the north-west corner the ledges were graded to form a series of steps, one hundred and fourteen in all, and each about nine inches high, which led from terrace to terrace, so that it was necessary to walk completely round the edifice to gain the succeeding flight.[ ] this style of building was probably devised for show as well as for defence, for by this means the gorgeously dressed procession of priests was obliged to pass in sight of the entire multitude gathered on all sides of the temple, winding at a solemn pace round each terrace. the structure was composed of well-rammed earth, stones, and clay, covered with a layer of large square pieces of tetzontli, all of equal size, hewn smooth and joined with a fine cement, which scarcely left a mark to be seen; it was besides covered with a polished coating of lime, or gypsum.[ ] the steps were of solid stone and the platform of the same slippery character as the court.[ ] at its eastern end stood two three-story towers, fifty-six feet in height,[ ] separated from the edge by a walk barely wide enough for one person. the lower story was of masonry with the floor raised a few feet above the platform and an entrance on the west; the two upper stories were of wood, with windows, to which access was had by movable ladders.[ ] a wooden cupola well painted and adorned formed the roof.[ ] the sanctuaries were in the lower story, the one on the right hand dedicated to huitzilopochtli with his partner and lieutenant, the other to tezcatlipoca.[ ] the gigantic images of these gods rested upon large stone altars three to four feet high,[ ] their monstrous grandeur shielded from the vulgar gaze of the multitude by rich curtains hung with tassels and golden pellets like bells, which rattled as the hangings moved. before the altar stood the terrible stone of sacrifice, a green block about five feet in length, and three in breadth and height, rising in a ridge on the top so as to bend the body of the victim upwards and allow the easy extraction of the heart.[ ] the walls and ceilings were painted with monstrous figures, and ornamented with stucco and carved wood-work, and, according to las casas, the gold and jewel-decked interior exceeded even thebe's famed temple in beauty,[ ] but the venerable bishop was evidently led away by his well-known enthusiasm for whatever concerned the natives, for bernal diaz and others state that the floors and walls were steeped with blood, diffusing a fetid odor which made the visitors glad to escape to the fresh air.[ ] the upper stories were used as receptacles for the ashes of deceased kings and lords,[ ] and for the instruments connected with the service of the temple, but diaz also noticed idols, half human, half monstrous in form, and found the rooms blood-stained like the lower apartment.[ ] before each chapel stood a stone hearth of a man's height, and of the same shape as the piscina in catholic churches, upon which a fire was continually kept burning by the virgins and priests, and great misfortunes were apprehended if it became extinguished.[ ] here was also the large drum covered with snake-skins,[ ] whose sombre notes resounded over a distance of two miles on feast-days and other extraordinary occasions--many a death-knell it struck for the spaniards before they became masters of it. from this height the spaniards gazed down upon between seventy and eighty other edifices within the enclosure, with their six hundred braziers of stone, some round, some square, and from two to five feet high,[ ] whose bright fires flared in perpetual adoration of their idols, and turned the night into day. about forty of these were temples, each with its idols, scattered round the court and facing the great pyramid as if in adoration.[ ] they were considerably smaller than the central temple, and differed chiefly in the form of the roof which was round, square, or pyramidal, according to the character of the idol.[ ] the largest was that of tlaloc, which stood nearest the pyramid, and was ascended by fifty steps.[ ] quetzalcoatl's was the most singular in form, being circular and surmounted by a dome, symbolic of the abode of the god of air; a snake's jaws with exposed fangs formed the low entrance, and made the stranger shudder as he stooped to pass in.[ ] among other notable edifices were the _tezcacalli_, or 'house of mirrors,' so called from the mirrors which covered its walls, and the _teccizcalli_, 'house of shells,' to which the king retired at certain times to perform penance. the high-priest also had a house of retirement called _poiauhtla_, and there were several others for the use of certain other priests. among these was a splendid building, provided with baths, fountains, and every comfort, in which notable strangers who visited the temple or the court were entertained. the ilhuicatitlan temple, dedicated to the planet venus, contained a large column painted or sculptured with the image of the star, before which captives were sacrificed on the appearance of the planet. another temple took the form of a cage, in which the idols of conquered nations were confined, to prevent them from assisting their worshipers in regaining their liberty.[ ] the _quauhxicalco_ was used as a receptacle for the bones of victims sacrificed at various sanctuaries. the skulls of those killed at the great temple were deposited in the _tzompantli_,[ ] which stood just outside the court, near the western or main gate. this consisted of an oblong sloping parallelogram of earth and masonry, one hundred and fifty-four feet at the base, ascended by thirty steps, on each of which were skulls.[ ] round the summit were upwards of seventy raised poles about four feet apart, connected by numerous rows of cross-poles passed through holes in the masts, on each of which five skulls were filed, the sticks being passed through the temples.[ ] in the centre[ ] stood two towers, or columns, made of skulls and lime, the face of each skull being turned outwards, and giving a horrible appearance to the whole. this effect was heightened by leaving the heads of distinguished captives in their natural state, with hair and skin on. as the skulls decayed, or fell from the towers or poles, they were replaced by others, so that no vacant place was left. the spaniards are said to have counted one hundred and thirty-six thousand skulls on the steps and poles alone, but this number is, no doubt, greatly exaggerated.[ ] in the court was a large open space, which stretched to the foot of the stairway of the great temple. here the great dances were held in which thousands took part,[ ] and here, in full view of the multitude gathered to join in the festive ring, stood the gladiatorial stone, the _temalacatl_, upon which the captives were placed to fight with aztec warriors, for their liberty as it was termed, but rather for the delectation of the masses, for their chance of victory, as we have seen, was very small. it consisted of an immense flat circular stone, three feet in height, very smooth, with sculptured edge, placed upon a small pyramid eight feet in height.[ ] in another part of the court were three large halls with flat roofs and plastered walls, painted on the inside, which contained a number of low, dark chambers, each the abode of an idol; the walls were covered with blood, two fingers in thickness, and the floors to the depth of a foot almost.[ ] the court also contained a grove in which birds were raised for sacrifices, and whence the procession started on the day devoted to the great hunt in honor of mixcoatl; there were also a number of gardens, where flowers and herbs for offerings were grown. there were several bathing-places, one of which, the _tetzaapan_, 'cleansing water,'[ ] was set apart for those who had made vows of penance, and another, at mixcoatl's temple, filled with black water, for the priests. the _toxpalatl_ was a fine fountain, the waters of which were only drunk at solemn festivals. it was supposed to have been the identical spring in which the aztec priest had the interview with tlaloc and obtained permission for the nation to settle. the care of all the temple buildings devolved upon a perfect army of priests, monks, nuns, school children, and other people, estimated at from five to ten thousand, who all slept within the sacred precincts.[ ] the passing and repassing of such numbers must have made the place teem with life, yet everything was in such perfect order and kept so scrupulously clean, says diaz, that not a speck or a straw could he discover.[ ] besides this there were several other temples and public oratories in the city, situated either in groups within a square, or scattered throughout the wards, and attended to by their special priests and servants. torquemada thinks that their number equaled the days in the aztec year, namely, three hundred and sixty, and clavigero believes that there were two thousand chapels besides.[ ] the temples in other towns were pretty much like the foregoing, three being usually grouped around a central pyramid in a square, each with its idol and one or two braziers. others were mounds of earth cased with stone, with one broad stairway in the centre of the western side, or with steps on three sides, sometimes at each corner.[ ] the chapels on the platform were usually two or three stories in height, often provided with balconies, the whole edifice being plastered and polished.[ ] [sidenote: teocalli at cholula and tezcuco.] the pyramid at mexico, large as it was, did not equal that at cholula, which humboldt estimates at five thousand seven hundred and sixty feet in circumference and one hundred and seventy-seven feet in height. it consisted of four square terraces facing the cardinal points, which seem to have been composed of alternate layers of adobe and clay, and was surrounded by a double wall, according to diaz. on the top stood the semi-spherical chapel of quetzalcoatl, with its door made low so that all who entered should bend in humility.[ ] this city contained, besides, a great number of smaller temples, the total equaling the number of days in the mexican year.[ ] the temple at tezcuco was also several steps higher than the mexican pyramid.[ ] king nezahualcoyotl, who is said to have believed in one supreme god, erected in his honor a nine-story building, to indicate the nine heavens, the roof of which was studded with stars and surmounted by three pinnacles; the interior was decorated with gold and feather-work and precious stones. the upper floor was a receptacle for musical instruments, from one of which, the _chililitli_, the edifice was named.[ ] the traditional temples of early times, very fairy creations according to the accounts of the natives, were far superior to the later ones; but these relations are little more than supernatural fables.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iv., p. ; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . sahagun, in describing how the people raised a mast to the god of fire, says: 'atábanle diez maromas por la mitad de él ... y como le iban levantando, ponianle unos maderos atados de dos en dos, y unos puntales sobre que descanzase.' _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, (translation, lond. ), vol. iii., p. . [ ] _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'with their copper hatchets, and axes cunnyngly tempered, they fell those trees, and hewe them smooth ... and boaring a hole in one of the edges of the beame, they fasten the rope, then sette their slaues vnto it ... putting round blocks vnder the timber.' _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x.; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] peter martyr, dec. v., lib. x., states that they bored holes in beams. they may therefore have known the use of wooden bolts, but this is doubtful. [ ] 'le _tetzontli_ (pierre de cheveux), espèce d'amygdaloïde poreuse, fort dure, est une lave refroidie. on la trouve en grande quantité auprès de la petite ville de san-agostin tlalpan, ou de las cuevas, à l. s. de mexico.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . cortés mentions a 'suelo ladrillado' at iztapalapan, _cartas_, p. , and herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xii., both _adobes_ and _ladrillos_ in speaking of building-material. [ ] _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'l'ignorante ricercatore nega a' messicani la cognizione, e l'uso della calcina; ma consta per la testimonianza di tutti gli storici del messico, per la matricola de' tributi, e sopratutto per gli edifizj antichi finora sussistenti, che tutte quelle nacioni faceano della calcina il medecimo uso, che fanno gli europei.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , tom. iv., pp. - . both cortés, _cartas_, p. , and herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. iv., mention walls of dry stone, which would show that mortar was sometimes dispensed with, in heavy structures; but bernal diaz, _hist. conq._, fol. , contradicts this instance. [ ] at sienchimalen. _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - . [ ] mexico is generally taken to be derived from mexitl, or mexi, the other name of huitzilopochtli, the favorite god and leader of the aztecs; many, however, think that it comes from _mexico_, springs, which were plentiful in the neighborhood. tenochtitlan comes from _teonochtli_, divine nochtli, the fruit of the nopal, a species of wild cactus, and _titlan_, composed of _tetl_, stone or rock, and _an_, an affix to denote a place, a derivation which is officially accepted, as may be seen from the arms of the city. others say that it is taken from _tenuch_, one of the leaders of the aztecs, who settled upon the small island of pantitlan, both of which names would together form the word. 'ce nom, qui veut dire _ville de la tuna_.... le fruit de cet arbre est appelé _nochtli_ en mexicain, car le nom de tuna ... est tiré de la langue des insulaires de l'île de cuba.... on a aussi prétendu que le véritable nom de mexico était quauhnochtitlan, ce qui veut dire _figuier de l'aigle_.... d'autres, enfin, prétendent que ce figuier d'inde n'était pas un _nochtli_ proprement dit, mais d'une espèce sauvage qu'on appelle _tenochtli_, ou de celle que les naturels nomment _teonochtli_ ou figure divine.' 'elle avait pris du dieu mexix celui de mexico.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., pp. - . 'los indios, dezian; y dizen oy mexico tenuchtitlan; y assi se pone en las prouisiones reales.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiv. 'tenoxtitlàn, que significa, tunal en piedra.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . the natives 'ni llaman mexico, sino tenuchtitlan.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . 'tenuchtitlan, que significa fruta de piedra.' 'tambien dizen algunos, que tuuo esta ciudad nombre de su primer fundador, que fue tenuch, hijo segundo de iztacmixcoatl, cuyos hijos y decendientes poblaron ... esta tierra.... tampoco falta quien piense que se dixo de la grana, que llaman nuchiztli, la qual sale del mesmo cardon nopal y fruta nuchtli.... tambien afirman otros que se llama mexico de los primeros fundadores que se dixeron mexiti.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - . '_tenochtitlan_, c'est-à-dire, auprès des nopals du rocher.' 'ti-tlan est pris pour le lieu.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] he is also termed god of the earth in the fable. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . see also _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - . nearly all the authors give the whole of the above meanings, without deciding upon any one. [ ] _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, p. . [ ] it means islet, from _tlatelli_, island. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiv. veytia says it is a corruption of _xaltelolco_, sandy ground. _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] the anonymous conqueror says two and a half to three leagues in circumference, which is accepted by most authors. _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . but as the embankment which formed a semi-circle round the town was three leagues in length, the circumference of the city would not have been less. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . cortés says that it was as large as seville or cordova. _cartas_, p. . aylon, in _id._, p. , places the number of houses as low as , . las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l., who is usually so extravagant in his descriptions, confines himself to 'mas de cincuenta mil casas.' gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , , , each of which contained two to ten occupants. torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , places the number as high as , , which may include outlying suburbs. the size and business of the markets, the remains of ruins to be seen round modern mexico, and its fame, sustain the idea of a very large population. [ ] see _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., pp. - , on former and present surroundings. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiv.; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'erano ... di terra come mattonata.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'fueron hechas à mano, de tierra, y cespedes, y mui quajadas de piedra; son anchas, que pueden pasar por cada vna de ellas, tres carretas juntas, ò diez hombres à caballo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. . 'tan ancha como dos lanzas jinetas.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . he mentions four causeways or entrances, but this must include either the branch which joins the southern road, or the aqueduct. 'pueden ir por toda ello ocho de caballo á la par.' _id._, p. . the view of mexico published in the luxemburg edition of _cortés_, _cartas_, points to four causeways besides the aqueduct, but little reliance can be placed on these fanciful cuts. helps thinks, however, that there must have been more causeways than are mentioned by the conquerors. _span. conq._, vol. ii., pp. , . 'entrano in essa per tre strade alte di pietra & di terra, ciascuna larga trenta passi.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . 'las puentes que tenian hechas de trecho á trecho.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] 'dos puertas, una por do entran y otra por do salen.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. , which means, no doubt, that passengers had to pass through the fort. he calls the second town along the road niciaca, and the third huchilohuchico. brasseur de bourbourg states that within the fort was a teocalli dedicated to toci, on which a beacon blazed all night to guide travelers. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - . but this is a mistake, for tezozomoc, _hist. mex._, pt ii., p. , his authority for this, says that the beacon was at a hill 'avant d'arriver à acuchinanco.' [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . the anonymous conqueror calls them two leagues, one league and a half, and a quarter of a league long respectively. _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. , makes the shortest a league. [ ] 'habia otra algo mas estrecha para los dos acueductos.' _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] in tezcuco the wards were each occupied by a distinct class of tradespeople, and this was doubtless the case in mexico also, to a certain extent. 'cada oficio se vsase en barrios de por sì; de suerte, que los que eran plateros de oro, avian de estàr juntos, y todos los de aquel barrio, lo avian de ser, y no se avian de mezclar otros con ellos; y los de plata, en otro barrio,' etc. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'al rededor de la ciudad habia muchos diques y esclusas para contener las aguas en caso necesario ... no pocas que tenian en medio una acequia entre dos terraplenes.' _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'hay sus puentes de muy anchas y muy grandes vigas juntas y recias y bien labradas; y tales, que por muchas dellas pueden pasar diez de caballo juntos á la par.' in case of necessity 'quitadas las puentes de las entradas y salidas.' with this facility for cutting off retreat, cortés found it best to construct brigantines. _cartas_, p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'otra calle avia ... mui angosta, y tanto, que apenas podian ir dos personas juntas, son finalmente vnos callejones mui estrechos.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiii. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - . it is here said to be four fathoms broad. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. ; mühlenpfordt, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt ii., p. , says: 'reste des ... gegen , fuss langen and fuss breiten dammes aus steinen in lehm, zu beiden seiten mit pallisaden verbrämt.' [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'cosi grande come sarebbe tre volte la piazza di salamanca.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] the anonymous conqueror states that this road carried the aqueduct which was three quarters of a league in length. _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'los caños, que eran de madera y de cal y canto.' _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . other writers make the pipes larger. 'tan gordos como vn buey cada vno.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'tan anchas como tres hombres juntos y mas.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l. [ ] cortés, _cartas_, p. , says 'echan la dulce por unas canales tan gruesas como un buey, que son de la longura de las dichas puentes.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiii. [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. ii., cap. xlviii., xlix. [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , tom. iv., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . 'en todos los caminos que tenian hechos de cañas, ò paja, ò yervas, porque no los viessen los que passasen por ellos, y alli se metian, si tenian gana de purgar los vientres, porque no se les perdiesse aquella suciedad.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the authorities for the description of the city are: _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. , and in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. - , with plans; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , - , - , ; _id._, _despatches_, p. , plan; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i. pp. - , , - , - , - , - , ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - , - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - , - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , , ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. ii., p. ; _ortega_, in _id._, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xiii., xiv., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xi.; _id._, (translation, lond. ), vol. ii., p. , vol. iii., p. , view and plan; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , tom. iii., pp. - , , tom. iv., pp. - , - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , , tom. ii., pp. - , with plan; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., pp. - , vol. ii., pp. , - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. ii., pt ii., p. ; _alaman_, _disertaciones_, tom. i., p. - ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., pp. - , , - , - , with plans; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x. [ ] _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] cortés says 'piedra seca.' _cartas_, p. , but this is contradicted by bernal diaz, who found it to be of stone and mortar. _hist. conq._, fol. . 'sin mezcla de cal ni barro.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. iv. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , gives the measurement at eight feet in height and eighteen in width. [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. - . _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , with a cut. [ ] _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. . [ ] delaporte says that streets met on the hills. _reisen_, tom. x., p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xii. [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . see _warden_, _recherches_, pp. - , on fortifications. in michoacan, some towns had walls of planks two fathoms high and one broad. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. iii. [ ] meaning place of detention, because here the immigrating tribes used to halt, while deciding upon their settlement. _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix., says that it was nearly as large as mexico. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . motolinia, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. , gives it a league in width and six in length. peter martyr, dec. viii., lib. iv., gives it , houses. carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , estimates it at , houses, and thinks that torquemada must have included the three outlying towns to attain his figure. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - , - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - . for further references to mexican towns, forts, etc., see: _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , - , - , - , - , , , , ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. , , - , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - , , - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. v., cap. viii., lib. vi., cap. iv., xii., xvi., lib. vii., cap. iv., dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. iii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , with cut; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv., vii., dec. viii., lib. iv.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. , - ; _bologne_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , , , tom. ii., pp. , ; _warden_, _recherches_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. , . [ ] las casas states that when a warrior distinguished himself abroad he was allowed to build his house in the style used by the enemy, a privilege allowed to none else. _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lxvi. [ ] 'i fondamenti delle case grandi della capitale si gettavano a cagione della poca sodezza di quel terreno sopra un piano di grosse stanghe di cedro ficcate in terra.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . 'porque la humedad no les causase enfermedad, alzaban los aposentos hasta un estado poco mas ó menos, y así quedaban como entresuelos.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . speaking of cempoalla, peter martyr says: 'vnto these houses or habitations they ascend by . or . steppes or stayres.' dec. iv., tom. vii. the floor of the palace at mitla consisted of slabs of stone three feet thick, which rested on ten feet piles. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . houses with elevated terraces were only allowed to chiefs. _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix. this mode of whitewashing the walls and polishing them with gypsum seems to have been very common in all parts of mexico, for we repeatedly meet with mentions of the dazzling white walls, like silver, which the spaniards noticed all through their march. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] in cempoalla, says peter martyr, 'none may charge his neighbours wall with beames or rafters. all the houses are seperated the distance of . paces asunder.' dec. iv., lib. vii. cortés, _cartas_, p. , mentions as many as five courts. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, p. . 'n'avaient guère qu'un étage, à cause de la fréquence des tremblement de terre.' _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . the palace at tecpeque, says las casas, was a very labyrinth, in which visitors were liable to lose themselves without a guide. in the palace allotted to cortés at mexico he found comfortable quarters for of his own men, allies, and a number of attendants. _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lii., l. 'auia salas con sus camaras, que cabia cada vno en su cama, ciento y cincuenta castellanos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. v. 'intorno d'una gran corti fossero prima grandissime sale & stantie, però v'era vna sala cosi grande che vi poteano star dentro senza dar l'un fastidio all'altro piu di tre mila persone.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] tezozomoc, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , says that chiefs were permitted to erect towers pierced with arrows in the courtyard. _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . the houses were often quite surrounded with trees. _west-indische spieghel_, p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _tylor's anahuac_, pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l., says: 'encalados por encima, que no se pueden llover.' 'couered with reede, thatch, or marish sedge: yet many of them are couered with slate, or shingle stone.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. vii., dec. v., lib. x. [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv., dec. v., lib. x.; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _helps' span. conq._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , . [ ] 'eran los patios, y suelos de ellos, de argamasa, y despues de encalados, cubrian la superficie, y haz, con almagre, y despues bruñianlos, con vnos guijarros, y piedras mui lisas, y quedaban con tan buena tèz, y tan hermosamente bruñidos, que no podia estarlo mas vn plato de plata; pues como fuese de mañana, y el sol començase à derramar, y esparcir la lumbre de sus raios, y començasen à reberverar en los suelos, encendianlos de manera, que à quien llevaba tan buen deseo, y ansia de haber oro, y plata, le pudo parecer, que era oro el suelo; y es mui cierto, que los suelos de las casas, y de los patios (en especial, de los templos, y de los señores, y personas principales) se hacian, y adereçaban, en aquellos tiempos, tales, que eran mui de vèr, y algunos de estos hemos visto tan lisos, y limpios, que sin asco se podia comer en ellos, sin manteles, qualquier manjar.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix. [ ] 'toldillos encima.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. l.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. v., vii.; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , - . klemm, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , mentions stools of cane and reed; and firebugs which were used for lights. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'no ay puertas ni ventanas que cerrar, todo es abierto.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xii.; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x.; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix-l.; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. x. [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , with cut; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , with cut. the poorer had doubtless resort to public baths; they certainly existed in tlascala. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvi.; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . for description of houses, see: _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. - , , tom. ii., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xii., xvi., lib. vii., cap. v.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , - , - , with cut; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix.-lii.; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. , ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iv., vii., dec. v., cap. x.; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. , , , - , iv., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. - , ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - , ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , - , with cut, tom. ii., p. ; _tylor's anahuac_, pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - . [ ] 'el anden, hácia la pared de la huerta, va todo labrado de cañas con unas vergas.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] 'un anden de muy buen suelo ladrillado.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] see this vol., p. . [ ] 'hay sus puentes de muy anchas y muy grandes vigas juntas y recias y bien labradas; y tales, que por muchas dellas pueden pasar diez de caballo juntos á la par.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , says that stone bridges were most common, which is doubtless a mistake. speaking of swinging bridges, klemm says: 'manche waren so fest angespannt, dass sie gar keine schwankende bewegung hatten.' _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'en los mismos patios de los pueblos principales habia otros cada doce ó quince teocallis harto grandes, unos mayores que otros.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . 'entre quatro, ó cinco barrios tenian vn adoratorio, y sus idolos.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , , cuts; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, (translation, lond. ), vol. ii., pp. , , cuts. [ ] _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. . other authors give the number at , , and the attendance at , , . _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'recibia dentro de su hueco todo el suelo en que aora està edificada la iglesia maior, casas del marquès del valle, casas reales, y casas arçobispales, con mucha parte de lo que aora es plaça, que parece cosa increìble.' _sahagun_, quoted in _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . to-day the cathedral stands upon the plaza, and many houses occupy the spot; see _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., pp. - , - . opposite the south gate was the market and 'en face du grand temple se trouvait le palais.' _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'dos cercas al rededor de cal, y canto.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - . [ ] 'mayores que la plaça que ay en salamanca.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . cortés, _cartas_, p. , states that a town of houses could be located within its compass. torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li., and herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xvii., agree upon a length to each side of one cross-bow or musket shot, and this, according to las casas, cap. cxxxii., is paces; in the same places he gives the length at four shots, or paces, an evident mistake, unless by this is meant the circumference. hernandez estimates it at about perches, or , feet. sahagun, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. , who seems to have investigated the matter more closely, places it at fathoms, which cannot be too high, when we consider that the court enclosed or more edifices, besides the great temple. carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. , gives a length of varas. [ ] 'era todo cercado de piedra de manposterìa mui bien labrado.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'estaban mui bien encaladas, blancas, y bruñidas.' _id._, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., p. . 'era labrada de piedras grandes a manera de culebras asidas las vnas a las otras.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , says an idol stood over each gate, facing the road. it is not stated by any author that the arsenals formed the gateway, but as they rose over the entrance, and nearly all mention upper and lower rooms, and as buildings of this size could not have rested upon the walls alone, it follows that the lower story must have formed the sides of the entrance. 'a cada parte y puerta de las cuatro del patio del templo grande ya dicho habia una gran sala con muy buenos aposentos altos y bajos en rededor.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . tezozomoc, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , mentions three gates. 'À l'orient et à l'occident d'une petite porte et d'une grande vis-à-vis de l'escalier méridional.' [ ] 'y el mismo patio, y sitio todo empedrado de piedras grandes de losas blancas, y muy lisas: y adonde no auia de aquellas piedras, estaua encalado, y bruñido.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . the white stones had no doubt received that color from plaster. 'los patios y suelos eran teñidos de almagre bruñido, y incorporado con la misma cal.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix. the dimensions given by the different authors are extremely varied; the anonymous conqueror, as the only eye-witness who has given any measurements, certainly deserves credit for those that appear reasonable, namely the length and width; the height seems out of proportion. [ ] 'cento & cinquanta passi, ò poco piu di lunghezza, & cento quindici, ò cento & venti di larghezza.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . this would give the length and breadth of the base in the text, assuming two and a half feet to the pace. with a decrease of two good paces for each of the four ledges which surround the pyramid, the summit measurement is arrived at. the terraces are stated by the same author to be two men's stature in height, but this scarcely agrees with the height indicated by the or steps given. bernal diaz, _hist. conq._, fol. , counted steps, and as most authors estimate each of these at a span, or nine inches in height, this would give an altitude of feet. clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , gives about fathoms (perches, he calls them) by to the base, and, allowing a perch to the ledges, he places the summit dimensions at by fathoms. the height he estimates at fathoms, giving the height of each step as one foot. to prove that he has not over-estimated the summit dimensions, at least, he refers to the statements of cortés, who affirms that he fought mexicans on the top platform, and of diaz, who says that over , men garrisoned the temple. torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , who follows sahagun, states it to be feet square at the base, and over at the top; the steps he says are 'vna tercia, y mas' in height, which closely approaches a foot. las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li., says: 'una torre triangular ó de tres esquinas de tierra y piedra maciza; y ancha de esquina á esquina de ciento y viente pasos ó cuasi ... con un llano ó plaza de obra de setenta pies.' in cap. cxxxii. he calls it men's stature in height. gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , says fathoms square at the base and at the top. ixtlilxochitl, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , describes a temple which seems to be that of mexico, and states it to be fathoms square, with a height of men's stature. herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xvii., places the dimensions as low as varas square at the base and from to at the top. of modern authors brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , gives the dimensions at by feet for the base, and feet for the summit, after allowing from to feet for the ledges, a rather extraordinary computation; unless, indeed, we assume that the terraces were sloping, but there is no reliable cut or description to confirm such a supposition. humboldt, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. - , has mètres for the square, and for the height. ortega, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - , is positive that the height was certainly no less than varas. prescott, _mex._, vol. ii., p. , remarks that there is no authority for describing the temple as oblong, except the _contemptible_ cut of the anonymous conqueror. this may be just enough as regards the cut, but if he had examined the description attached to it, he would have found the dimensions of an oblong structure given. we must consider that the anonymous conqueror is the only eye-witness who gives any measurement, and, further, that as two chapels were situated at one end of the platform the structure ought to have been oblong to give the space in front a fair outline. [ ] 'alto come due stature d'vn huomo.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] 'lasciano vna strada di larghezza di duo passi.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . see note ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] the anonymous conqueror, _relatione, etc._, ubi supra, las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv., gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , and torquemada, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. , all say that there was no ledge on the west side, merely steps, but this is, doubtless, a careless expression, for steps allotted to each terrace would scarcely have extended over a length of about feet, the breadth of the pyramid. nearly all agree upon the number of the steps, namely . ixtlilxochitl, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , however, gives steps; oviedo, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , steps; and acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , steps, fathoms wide, but the latter author has evidently mixed up the accounts of two different temples. tezozomoc, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , states that the temple had three stairways, with steps in all, one for every day in the mexican year. according to _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. , the steps are on the south corner, but there is no authority for this statement; in the cuts they appear on the north. [ ] 'de tierra y piedra, mezclada con cal muy macizada.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xvii. 'por la parte de fuera iba su pared de piedra: lo de dentro henchíanlo de piedra todo, ó de barro y adobe; otros de tierra bien tapiada.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . 'hecha de manposteria.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the pyramid of teotihuacan, which, according to some authors, has been a model for others, is built of clay mixed with small stones, covered by a heavy wall of tetzontli, which is coated with lime. _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . 'todas las piedras estauan assentadas de tal suerte, que la mezcla casi no parecia, sino todas las piedras vna.' _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . the whitewash may, however, have given it this solid appearance. 'todos aquellos templos, y salas; y todas sus paredes que los cercaban, estaban mui bien encaladas, blancas, y bruñidas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the mortar was mixed with precious stones and gold-dust. _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , states that three sides of the platform were protected by a balustrade of sculptured stone, and this is not unlikely when we consider the slippery nature of the floor and the dizzy height. see _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix., cxxiv., and note on polished floors. carbajal espinosa, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , states that the summit was paved with marble. [ ] 'in alto dieci, ò dodici stature d'huomo.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . this is followed by clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , who says feet, or about perches. no other dimensions are mentioned by the old chroniclers; brasseur de bourbourg, however, gives them a base of feet square, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , but this becomes absurd when we consider the height of the buildings, and the accommodation required for the gigantic idols they contained. this author hazards the opinion that the chapels were placed close to the edge, to enable the people to see the idols from below, but there is no mention of any doors on the east side, and it is stated that the chapels were placed at this end so that the people in praying might face the rising sun. _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li. [ ] 'que se mandaban por la parte de adentro, por unas escaleras de madera movedizas.' _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . acosta states that the towers were ascended by steps. _hist. de las ynd._, p. . the towers were made of 'artesones.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . brasseur de bourbourg states that the outside of the walls was painted with various figures and monsters, but this seems to be a misinterpretation of gomara, who places the paintings on the inside. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . bernal diaz says, besides, that the towers were 'todas blanqueando.' _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] the eaves or the domes of the temples were decorated with fine red and white pillars, set with jet black stones and holding two figures of stone with torches in their hands, which supported a battlement in form of spiral shells; the torches were adorned with yellow and green feathers and fringes. _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . [ ] most of the old authors say that tlaloc occupied the second chapel, but as the next largest temple in the court is dedicated to this god, i am inclined to think, with clavigero, that tezcatlipoca shared the chief pyramid with huitzilopochtli. another reason for this belief is that tezcatlipoca was held to be the half-brother of huitzilopochtli, and their feasts were sometimes attended with similar ceremonies. tezcatlipoca was also one of the highest if not the highest god, and, accordingly, entitled to the place of honor by the side of the favorite god of the aztecs. tlaloc, on the other hand, had nothing in common with huitzilopochtli, and the only possible ground that can be found for his promotion to the chief pyramid is to be seen in the fable of the foundation of mexico, in which tlaloc, as the lord of the site, gives the aztecs permission to settle there. we have, besides, the testimony of bernal diaz, who saw tezcatlipoca, adorned with the _tezcatl_, or mirror ornament, seated in the left hand temple. _hist. conq._, fol. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , thinks it possible that the second temple was occupied by different idols, in turn, according to the festival. [ ] 'no eran mas altos que cinco palmos.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] clavigero thinks that the stone was of jasper. _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , with cut. it is difficult to define the position of this stone; some place it before the idol within the chapel, others at the western extremity of the platform. referring to the idols in the chapel, sahagun says: 'delante de cada una de estas estaba una piedra redonda á manera de tajon que llaman _texcatl_, donde mataban los que sacrificaban á honra de aquel dios, y desde la piedra hasta abajo un _regaxal_ de sangre de los que mataban en él'--he describes the stone as round. _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . and this i am inclined to accept as correct, especially as several points indicate that the stones stood inside the chapel. their floor, we are told, were steeped in blood that must have flown from the victims; further, we know that the reeking heart was held up before or thrown at the feet of the idol, immediately after being torn out. the act of sacrifice was in itself a ceremony which could only have been performed before the idol. acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , and solis, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. , place it in the middle of the platform. prescott, _mex._, vol. ii., p. , states that the stone (one only) stood near the head of the stairway, but this is most likely a hasty interpretation of diaz' vague account. there may, however, have been a large stone at this place, which was used for the great and general sacrifices. _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv. brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , manages very dexterously to place the two stones before the chapel, and at the same time near the head of the steps. klemm, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., p. , mentions one stone with a hollow in the middle. [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxii.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . it is also stated that certain chapels in the streets were used for burial places by the lords. 'inde straten waren veel cappellen, die meest diendeden tot begravinghe van de groote heeren.' _west-indische spieghel_, p. . [ ] 'dezian, que era el dios de las sementeras' (called centeotl). _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; on p. , he says, in contradiction: 'delante de los altares en estos templos avia vnos braseros hechos de piedra, y cal, de tres quartas en alto, de figura circular, ò redonda, y otros quadrados, donde de dia, y de noche ardia continuo fuego, tenian sus fogones, y braseros todas las salas de los dichos templos, donde encendian fuego, para calentarse los señores, quando iban à ellos, y para los sacerdotes.' 'tan altos como tres palmos y cuatro.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv. [ ] _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] see note ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . las casas, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li., and motolinia, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. , say that they face in all directions, which tends to prove that they must have faced the temple of the supreme and patron gods. 'estando encontrados, y puestos vnos contra otros,' adds _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , . gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , states that they were turned against all points but the east, so as to differ from the chief temple. 'tenian la cara ácia el occidente.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. . acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , states that the court held eight or nine temples facing all quarters. [ ] 'todos eran vnos; pero diferenciabanse en el asiento, y postura.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'la cubierta ... era de diversas, y varias formas, que aunque eran vnas de madera, y otras de paja, como de centeno, eran mui primamente labradas, vnas coberturas piramidales, y quadradas, y otras redondas, y de otras formas.' _ib._ _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] 'la menor dellas tiene çinqüenta escalones para subir al cuerpo de la torre.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , calls it hueitzompan. [ ] 'en los escalones habia tambien un cráneo entre piedra y piedra.' _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . but this is unlikely. see also _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'estos palos hazian muchas aspas por las vigas, y cada tercio de aspa o palo, tenia cinco cabeças ensartadas por las sienes.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - . acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , places the masts a fathom apart, and twenty skulls upon each cross-pole, which is, to say the least, very close packing. [ ] at each end of the platform. _warden_, _recherches_, p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xviii.; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . the account of the latter author is so mixed up with that of the chief temple as to be of little value; montanus, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - , follows him. [ ] acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , says that , to , persons could dance with joined hands in this place. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. , with cut; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] 'residen en el a la contina cinco mil personas, y todas duermen dentro, y comen a su costa del.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'v'hauea vna guarnigione di dieci mila homini di guerra.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] the authorities on the temple of mexico are: _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. , , and in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - , - , with cuts; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix., li., cxxiv.; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. ii., pp. - , - , with cuts made up from the various descriptions of diaz and others; see his remarks, p. . _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; this author mixes up the descriptions of the chief temple and the tzompantli, and represents this account as that of huitzilopochtli's sanctuary; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xvii., xviii.; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _ortega_, in _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _tezozomoc_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - , ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , - ; _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - , with cuts; _warden_, _recherches_, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . gomara, _conq. mex._, fol. , says that there were idols, each of which is supposed to have had a separate chapel. _cavo_, _tres siglos_, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxii.; in cap. cxxiv., he adds that of these were great temples. [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . some temple pyramids, says dávila padilla, formed a perfect cone, the casing being composed of large stones at the bottom; as the wall rose, the stones decreased in size; the summit was crowned with a precious stone. _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'los grandes tenian tres sobrados encima de los altares, todos _de terrados y_ bien altos.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv.; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . bernal diaz counted steps, which scarcely agrees with the height of the pyramid. _hist. conq._, fol. . acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - , mentions steps only. 'alto bien mas de quarenta estados: fue hecho de adove, y piedra.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . montanus adds that on the summit stood a square structure, supported by pillars, within which were thousands of skulls; he mentions two chapels. _nieuwe weereld_, p. . it had steps; in the wall was a large diamond. _west-indische spieghel_, p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlix. some of these had two chapels, which would make the number of towers about . _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. ii. [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . the description of the temple as given by this writer is almost identical with that of the great temple at mexico. _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . further authorities on mexican buildings: _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. iv-v., viii-xi., xiii-xviii., dec. iii., lib. i., cap. viii., lib. ii., cap. xi., xv.; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. ii-iii., viii., x., dec. viii., lib. iv.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. - , ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. , ; _west-indische spieghel_, pp. - ; _munster_, _cosmographia_, p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - , - , - ; _cortés_, _aven. y conq._, pp. , - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - , - , - , - , ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - , , - , - , - ; _monglave_, _résumé_, pp. - , - , - ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _cooper's hist. n. amer._, pt ii., p. ; _lafond_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, pp. - ; _ranking's hist. researches_, pp. - ; _domenech_, _mexique_, pp. - ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _dilworth's conq. mex._, pp. , - ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, pp. - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. , - , . chapter xix. medicine and funeral rites among the nahuas. mexican contributions to medical science--the botanical gardens--longevity--prevalent diseases--introduction of small-pox and syphilis--medical treatment--the temazcalli--aboriginal physicians--the aztec faculty--standard remedies--surgery--superstitious ceremonies in healing--funeral rites of aztecs--cremation--royal obsequies--embalming--the funeral pyre--human sacrifice--disposal of the ashes and ornaments--mourners--funeral ceremonies of the people--certain classes buried--rites for the slain in battle--burial among the teo-chichimecs and tabascans--cremation ceremonies in michoacan--burial by the miztecs in oajaca. writers on mexico have paid but slight attention to aboriginal medical science, although the greatest benefit which europe derived from that part of the new world came doubtless in the form of medicinal substances. most of the additions to the world's stock of remedies since the sixteenth century were indigenous to tropical america, and in few instances, if any, were their curative properties unknown or unfamiliar to the native doctors. jalap, sarsaparilla, tobacco, with numerous gums and balsams, were among the simples of american origin. dr hernandez, physician to phillip ii., was sent to mexico by his king to investigate the natural history of the country. the results of his researches, in which he was assisted by native experts, were published in a large work, which contains long lists of plants with their medicinal properties, and which has been much used by later writers. i shall not, however, attempt in this chapter to give any catalogue of medicinal plants.[ ] the healing art was protected by royalty, and the numerous rare plants in the royal gardens, collected at great expense from all parts of the country, were placed at the disposal of the doctors in the large cities, who were ordered to experiment with each variety, that its curative or injurious properties might be utilized or shunned. thus the court physicians derived from these constantly increasing collections all the advantages of travel through distant provinces.[ ] the nahuas were a healthy race; naturally so with their fine climate, their hardy training, active habits, frequent bathing, and temperate diet. the extraordinary statements respecting the great age attained by their kings in the earlier periods of nahua history are of course absurdly exaggerated; but as centenarians are often met with among their descendants at the present day, there is no doubt that they were a long-lived race, and that those who did not attain a hundred years, succumbed for the most part to acute diseases.[ ] indigestion and its accompanying ills were unknown, and deformed people were so rare that montezuma kept a collection of them as a curiosity. the diseases most prevalent were acute fevers, colds, pleurisy, catarrh, diarrhea, and, in the coast districts, intermittent fever, spasms, and consumption, aggravated by exposure.[ ] [sidenote: epidemics and their ravages.] deadly epidemics swept the country at intervals, the traditional accounts of which are so intermingled with fable that we can form no idea of their nature. one of the most fatal and wide-spread recorded was that brought on by famine, war, and the anger of the gods at the breaking-up of the toltec empire.[ ] the _matlazahuatl_ was a pestilence said to be confined entirely in its ravages to the natives, and which made great havoc even after the spaniards came. it is thought by some to have attacked the people periodically in former times, and to have been similar in its nature to the yellow fever. while the aztecs were shut up in their island home, a curious malady, consisting of a swelling of the eyelids, followed by a violent dysentery ending in death, or, as others say, by a swelling of the throat and body, attacked the nations on the main land, especially the tepanecs. the popular tradition was that the fumes of roasted fish and insects wafted from the island to the shore, created a powerful longing for this new and, to them, unobtainable food, and that the pangs of an unsatisfied appetite originated the pestilence.[ ] ixtlilxochitl relates that a catarrhic scourge fell upon the people during the unusually severe winter of and carried off large numbers, especially of the aged.[ ] the vices introduced by the spaniards, their oppression of the natives, and the consequent disregard of the ancient regulations respecting cleanliness and the use of liquors, prepared the way for new maladies. with the spaniards came the small-pox, measles, and as some believe, the syphilis. small-pox is said to have been introduced by a negro from one of narvaez' ships and spread with frightful rapidity over the whole country, destroying whole households who died and found no other graves than their houses. measles were introduced some ten or eleven years later also from the spanish ships. the yellow fever has never prevailed to any great extent among the natives.[ ] respecting syphilitic diseases and their origin there has been much discussion. the first appearance of the malady has been attributed to the old world and the new, and to many localities in the former. but naturally neither continent, nor any nation has been willing to accept the so-regarded dishonor of inflicting on the world this loathsome plague. the discussion of the subject seems unprofitable and i shall not reopen it here. the testimony in the matter appears to me to prove that syphilis existed in europe long before the discovery of america; but there are also some indications in the traditional history of the nahua peoples that the disease in some of its forms was not unknown to the aboriginal americans before their intercourse with foreigners.[ ] [sidenote: attentions to the sick.] accustomed to look on death in its most terrible form in connection with their oft-recurring religious festivals, the people seem to have become somewhat callous to its dread presence, and to have met its approach with less fear of the dark and unknown hereafter than might have been expected from their superstitious nature. an attack of illness did not necessarily produce great anxiety, or an immediate recourse to the doctor's services; but the common people resorted for the most part to simple home cures, which were the more effective as the curative properties of herbs and their modes of application were generally well known.[ ] the unconcern with which they regarded sickness did not result from want of affection, for the aztecs are said to have been very attentive to their sick, and spent their wealth without stint to save the life of friends. yet the tlascaltecs, a hardier race, are reported by motolinia to have been less attentive, and some other teo-chichimec tribes did not hesitate to kill a patient whose malady did not soon yield to their treatment, under pretense of putting him out of his misery, but really to get him off their hands. this work of charity was performed by thrusting an arrow down the throat of the invalid, and old people were especially the recipients of such favors.[ ] the favorite remedy for almost every ill of the flesh was the vapor-bath, or _temazcalli_. no well-to-do citizen's house was complete without conveniences for indulging in these baths, and the poorer families of each community owned one or more temazcalli in common. the reader is already sufficiently familiar with the general features of these baths, a confined space with facilities for converting water into steam being all that was required. clavigero describes and pictures a very graceful structure for this purpose, for which, as it seems to involve the then-unknown principle of the arch, he probably drew somewhat upon his imagination. it is of adobes, semi-globular in form, about eight feet in diameter, six feet high, with a convex floor a little below the level of the ground. on one side was an opening sufficiently large to admit a man's body, on the opposite side a square furnace separated from the interior by a slab of tetzontli, and at the top an air-hole. most of the bath-houses, however, were simply square or oblong chambers with no furnace attached, in which case the fire had of course to be removed before the apartment was ready for use. when the apparatus was properly heated a mat was spread on the floor, and the patient entered, sometimes accompanied by an assistant, bearing a dish of water to be thrown on the floor and walls to produce steam, and a bunch of maize-leaves with which his body, and especially the part affected, was to be beaten. a plunge into cold water after a profuse perspiration was frequently but not always resorted to. as i have said, there were scarcely any maladies for which this treatment was not recommended, but it was regarded as particularly efficacious in the case of fevers brought on by costiveness, bites of venomous serpents and insects, bruises, and unstrung nerves, and to relieve the pains and purify the system of child-bearing women. the steam-baths were also much used to promote cleanliness and to refresh the weary bodies of those in good health.[ ] the beneficial effects of a change of climate upon invalids seem to have been appreciated, if we may credit herrera, who states that michoacan was much resorted to by the sick from all parts of the country.[ ] for severe cases, the expenses of treating which could not be borne except by the wealthy classes, hospitals were established by the government in all the larger cities, endowed with ample revenues, where patients from the surrounding country were cared for by experienced doctors, surgeons, and nurses well versed in all the native healing arts.[ ] medical practitioners were numerous, who attended patients for a small remuneration; the jealousy of spanish physicians, however, brought them into disrepute soon after the conquest, and the healing art, like others, greatly degenerated. it is related that a famous medicine-man of michoacan was summoned before the college of physicians in mexico on the charge of being a quack. in reply to the accusation he asked his judges to smell a certain herb, which produced a severe hemorrhage, and then invited them to check the flow of blood. seeing that they were unable to do this promptly, he administered a powder that immediately had the desired effect. "these are my attainments," he exclaimed, "and this the manner in which i cure the ailings of my patients."[ ] [sidenote: the nahua esculapius.] the esculapius of the nahuas was embodied in the persons of oxomococipactonatl and tlatecuinxochicaoaca, who were traditionally the inventors of medicine and the first herbalists among the toltecs. soon after its invention the healing profession became one of the most highly honored, and its followers constituted a regular faculty, handing down their knowledge and practice from generation to generation, according to the nahua caste-system, according to which the son almost invariably adopted the profession of his father, by whom he was educated. this system of education from early childhood under the father's guidance, the opportunities for practice in the public hospitals, free access to the botanical gardens, and the numerous subjects for anatomical dissection supplied by sacrificial rites, certainly offered to the nahua doctor abundant opportunities of acquiring great knowledge and skill. the profession was not altogether in the hands of the sterner sex; for female physicians were in high repute, especially on the eastern coast. in certain cases, as of childbirth, we find the patient attended by none but women, who administer medicines and baths and render other necessary assistance, even going so far as to cut out the infant in order to save the mother's life.[ ] medicines were given in all the usual forms of draught, powder, injection, ointment, plaster, etc.; the material for which was gathered from the three natural kingdoms in great variety. many of the herbs were doubtless obtained from the gardens, but large quantities were obtained in the forests of different provinces by wandering collectors who brought their herbs to the market-places for sale, or even peddled them, it is said, from house to house. each ailment had its particular corrective, the knowledge of which was not entrusted to the memory alone, but was also recorded in painted books.[ ] doubtless many of the vegetable and other medicines employed were mere nostrums administered to give an exalted opinion of the doctor's knowledge and skill rather than with any hope of effecting a cure. [sidenote: treatment of various diseases.] sahagun gives page after page of native recipes for every ailment of the human body, which cannot be reproduced here. many of the remedies and methods of application are as absurd as any of those which have been noticed among the wild tribes. for diseases of the scalp a wash of urine, an ointment of soot, and an application of black clay were prescribed, together with vegetable specifics too numerous to mention. the white of an egg was much used in mixing remedies for wounds and bruises; a certain animal _tapaiaxin_ was eaten for a swollen face; the broth of a boiled fowl was recommended for convalescents. cataracts on the eye were rasped and scraped with certain roots; for bloodshot eyes the membrane was cut, raised with a thorn, and anointed with woman's milk; clouded eyes were treated with lizard's dung. morning dew cured catarrh in newly born children. hoarseness was treated by drinking honey, and an external application of india-rubber. wounds in the lips must be sewn up with a hair; a certain insect pounded and hot pepper were among the remedies for toothache, and great care of the teeth was recommended. stammering in children was supposed to be caused by too long suckling. remedies for a cold were nearly as numerous as in our day. copper-filings were applied to bubos, which may or may not have been syphilitic sores. for looseness of the bowels in infants, the remedy was given not only to the child but to the nurse. for a severe blow on the chest, urine in which lizards had been boiled must be drunk. the necessity of regulating the bowels to sustain health was well understood, and the doctor usually effected his purpose by injecting a herbal decoction from his mouth through the leg-bone of a heron. purgatives in common use were jalap, pine-cones, _tacuache_, _amamaxtla_, and other roots; diuretics, _axixpatli_ and _axixtlacotl_; emetics, _mexochitl_ and _neixcotlapatli_. _izticpatli_, and _chatalhuic_, are mentioned among the remedies for fevers. balsams were obtained from the _huitziloxitl_ by distillation, from the _huaconex_ by soaking the bark in water, and from the _maripenda_, by boiling the fruit and tender stones. oils were made from _tlapatl_, _chile_, _chian_, _ocotl_ (a kind of pine), and the india-rubber tree. _octli_, or wine, was often prescribed to strengthen the system, and was also mixed with other medicines to render them more palatable, for which latter purpose cacao was also much used. several stones possessed medicinal properties: the _aztetl_, held in the hand or applied to the neck, stopped bleeding at the nose; the _xiuhtomoltetl_, taken in the form of a powder, cured heartburn and internal heat. this latter stone fell from the clouds in stormy weather, sunk into the earth, and grew continually larger and larger, a solitary tuft of grass alone indicating to the collector its whereabouts. the bones of giants dug up at the foot of the mountains, were collected by their dwarfish successors, ground to powder, mixed with cacao, and drunk as a cure for diarrhea and dysentery. persons suffering from fever, or wishing to allay carnal desires, ate jaguar's flesh; while the skin, bones, and excrement of the same animal, burnt, powdered, and mixed with resin, formed an antidote for insanity. certain horny-skinned worms, similarly powdered and mixed, were a specific for the gout, decayed teeth, and divers other ailments. [sidenote: superstitious curative rites.] surgery was no less advanced than other branches of the healing art, and cortés himself had occasion to acknowledge the skill and speed with which they cured wounds. snake-bites, common enough among a barefooted people, were cured by sucking and scarifying the wound, covering it with a thin transparent pellicle from the maguey-plant. rubbing with snuff, together with heat, was another treatment, and the _coanenepilli_ and _coapatli_ were also considered antidotes. fractures were treated with certain herbs and gums, different kinds for different limbs, and bound up with splints; if the healing did not progress satisfactorily the bone was scraped before the operation of resetting. for painful operations of this nature it is possible that narcotics were administered, for at certain of the sacrifices it is related that the victims were sprinkled with _yauhtli_ powder to render them less sensitive to pain. mendieta states that a stupefying drink was given on similar occasions; and acosta mentions that _oliliuhqui_ was taken by persons who desired to see visions. this latter was a seed, which was also an ingredient of the _teopatli_, or divine medicine, composed besides of india-rubber gum, ocotl-resin, tobacco, and sacred water. this medicine could only be obtained from the priests. blood-letting was much in vogue for various ills, the lancets used being iztli knives, porcupine-quills, or maguey-thorns. ulli-marked papers were burned by the recovered patient as a thank-offering to the gods. veterinary surgeons are mentioned by oviedo as having been employed in the zoölogical gardens of montezuma.[ ] the medicines, though prepared and applied by the doctors themselves, were not deemed sufficient for the patient; superstitious ceremonies were held to be indispensable to effect a cure, and to enhance the value of professional services. evil beings and things had to be exorcised, the gods must be invoked, especially the patron deity, known chiefly by the name of teteionan, who was esteemed the inventor of many valuable specifics, as the ocotl-oil and others, and confessions were extorted to ease the conscience and appease the offended deity. the affected parts were rubbed and pressed amid mutterings and strange gestures, and to work the more upon the simple-minded patient, they pretended to extract a piece of coal, bone, wood, or other object, the supposed cause of the ailment. a favorite treatment in certain prostrating cases was to form a figure of corn dough, which was laid upon a prickly maguey-leaf and placed in the road, with the view of letting the first passer-by carry away the disease--a charitable hope that seems to have afforded much relief to the afflicted. however absurd this jugglery may appear, it no doubt gave a powerful stimulus to the imagination, which must have aided the working of the medicine. in critical cases, chance was often consulted as to the fate of the sufferer. a handful of the largest grains or beans were thrown on the ground, and if any happened to fall upright it was regarded as a sure sign that the patient would die, and he received little or no attention after that; otherwise prescriptions and encouraging words were not spared. sometimes a number of cord rings were thrown in the same manner, and if they fell in a heap, death was expected to result; but if any fell apart, a change for the better was looked for. to encounter a snake or lizard was held to be a sign of death for the person himself or for his sick friend. although no curative process, probably, in the case of a serious illness was altogether free from superstitious rites, yet it is surprising that these played so unimportant a rôle. among a people so addicted on every occasion to complicated ceremonies, the most complicated might naturally be sought in their efforts to combat disease; but it is just here that the least reliance seems to have been placed in supernatural agencies.[ ] [sidenote: funeral rites of kings.] the aztecs were very particular about the disposal of their dead, and conducted funeral rites with the pomp that attended all their ceremonials. the obsequies of kings were especially imposing, and their description, embracing as it does nearly all the ceremonies used on such occasions by these nations, will present the most complete view of the proceedings. [sidenote: preparation for future existence.] when the serious condition of the monarch became apparent, a veil[ ] was thrown over the face of the patron god, to be removed on his death, and notice was sent to all the friendly princes, the grandees and nobles of the empire, to attend the obsequies; those who were unable to attend in person sent representatives to deliver their condolence and presents. as soon as the king had breathed his last, certain masters of ceremonies, generally old men whose business it was to attend on these occasions, and who were doubtless connected with the priesthood,[ ] were summoned to prepare the body for the funeral. the corpse was washed with aromatic water, extracted chiefly from trefoil,[ ] and occasionally a process of embalming was resorted to. the bowels were taken out and replaced by aromatic substances, but the method does not seem to have been very complete, and may only have been intended to serve while the body lay in state, for no remains of embalmed mummies have been found. the art was an ancient one, however, dating from the toltecs as usual, yet generally known and practiced throughout the whole country. a curious mode of preserving bodies was used by the lord of chalco who captured two tezcucan princes, and, in order that he might feast his eyes upon their hated forms, had them dried and placed as light-holders in his ball-room.[ ] when the invited guests had arrived the body was dressed in many mantles, often to the number of fifteen or twenty, such as the king had worn on the most solemn occasions, and consequently richly embroidered and glittering with jewels.[ ] while some were shrouding the body, others cut papers of different colors into strips of various forms, and adorned the corpse therewith. water was then poured upon its head with these words: "this is the water which thou usedst in this world;"[ ] and a jug of water was placed among the shrouds, the priest saying: "this is the water wherewith thou art to perform the journey." more papers were now delivered to the deceased in bunches, the priest explaining the import of each, as he placed it with the body. on delivering the first bunch he said: "with these thou art to pass between two mountains that confront each other." the second bunch, he was told, would pass him safely over a road guarded by a large snake; the third would conduct him by a place held by an alligator, _xochitonal_; the fourth would protect and aid him in traversing the 'eight deserts;' other papers would facilitate the passage of the 'eight hills,' and still others afford protection against the cutting winds termed _itzehecayan_, which were so strong as to tear out rocks and cut like very razors; here the wearing-apparel buried with him would also be of great service. a little red dog was thereupon slain by thrusting an arrow down its throat, and the body placed by the side of the deceased, with a cotton string about its neck. the dog was to perform the part of charon, and carry the king on his back across the deep stream called chicunahuapan, 'nine waters,'[ ] a name which points to the nine heavens of the mexicans. it will thus be seen that the dead had a difficult road to travel before reaching their future abode, which was on the fifth day after the burial, and that they needed the articles of comfort and necessity, as food, dresses, and slaves, which affectionate friends provided for their use. the ideas entertained by the nahuas respecting a future life belong to another department of my work, and will only be alluded to incidentally in this chapter. after the defunct had received his passports, he was covered with a mantle like that of the god which his condition and mode of death rendered appropriate, and decorated with its image. as most kings were warriors, he would be dressed in a mantle of huitzilopochtli, and would, in addition, wear the mantle of his favorite god.[ ] a lock of hair was cut off and placed, with one that had been cut at his birth, as well as small idols, in a casket painted inside and out with the images of the patron deity. the casket used for this purpose in the case of some of the chichimec kings is described to have been of emerald or other fine stone, three feet square, and covered by a gold lid set with precious stones. a mask either painted, or of gold, or of turquoise mosaic was placed over the face,[ ] and a chalchiuite, which was to serve for a heart, between the lips. according to tezozomoc and duran a statue was placed with the king, dressed in royal insignia by the hands of princes. the chiefs of the senate redressed it in other robes after painting it blue. it was then honored with addresses and presents, and again undressed, painted black, and arrayed in a robe of quetzalcoatl; a garland of heron-feathers was placed upon its head, bracelets and jewelry about its body, a small gilded shield by its side, and a stick in the hand. this figure shared the honors given to the body and was burned with it.[ ] [sidenote: royal obsequies.] the arrayed corpse was either laid upon a litter covered with rich cloths, or seated upon a throne, and watched over by a guard of honor, while princes and courtiers came to pay their last respects.[ ] they approached with great manifestations of grief, weeping, lamenting, clapping their hands, bending the body or exhibiting neglect of person, and addressed the defunct, referring to his present happiness, the loss his departure had caused, his goodness and bravery, and begged his acceptance of the presents they had brought. this performance was enacted by all, those of higher rank taking precedence and leaving offerings of ten slaves, a hundred robes, and other things, while others brought gifts of less value. then came the women, and while they were leaving their presents of food, the aged courtiers intoned the funeral chant, the _miccacuicatl_. addresses of condolence were also made to the royal family or the senate. the human sacrifices were inaugurated at this time by the immolation of the sacerdotal slave under whose charge the household idols stood.[ ] on the fifth day, before daybreak, a grand procession formed for the temple, preceded by an enormous paper banner, four fathoms in length, and richly adorned with feathers, on which the deeds of the defunct were doubtless inscribed, and attended by priests who wafted incense and chanted his glory, though in mournful strains, and without instrumental accompaniment.[ ] the corpse was borne upon the state litter by the most trusted of the noble servitors, while at the sides walked the chief lords and princes dressed in mourning, their attire consisting of long, square mantles of dark color, trailing on the ground, without any ornaments; some, however, were painted with figures of skulls, bones, and skeletons. behind them came the ambassadors of absent princes, the grandees and nobles from all parts of the country, each carrying some insignia, weapons, or jewels to be offered on the pyre.[ ] in the procession were also a large number of slaves, all newly attired in the royal livery,[ ] and carrying clothes, implements, and other articles, according to the duties assigned them. on reaching the courtyard of the temple, the priest who directed the burning came to receive the procession, and conducted it to the altar devoted to cremation, all chanting the while a moral song, in which they reminded the mourners that as they were now carrying a senseless body to its last resting-place, so would they be carried; they also reminded them that good deeds alone would remain to keep their remembrance green, and pictured the glories in store for the deserving. these priests were called _coacuiles_, and their office was held to be of such importance that they prepared for it by fasting and confession. they appeared in the same idol dress as the dead king, though with more elaborate ornaments. we find them on one occasion as demons with faces at different parts of their dress, set with eyes of mirrors and gaping mouths; and at another time with blackened or dyed bodies and paper maxtlis, swinging the yellow sticks used to stir the ashes. according to ixtlilxochitl, the high-priest of cihuacoatl, who was supposed to gather the dead, came out to receive the procession.[ ] [sidenote: cremation and interment.] the opinions as to the introduction of cremation are extremely varied, but it seems to have been practiced in very ancient times by the migrating tribes, who took this means to secure the remains of honored chiefs from desecration; their ashes could thus be carried along and serve as talismanic relics. ixtlilxochitl gives an instance of this in the case of a chichimec king who died in battle and whose body was burned, so that the ashes might be carried home with convenience and safety. brasseur de bourbourg also holds that cremation was an ancient toltec custom, but the first recorded case is that of the last toltec king, topiltzin.[ ] others assert that the toltecs who remained in the country after the destruction of their empire adhered to interment, as did the early chichimecs. veytia affirms that ixtlilxochitl or tezozomoc was the first to be deposited according to the forms instituted by topiltzin and used by the mexicans, namely, burning; torquemada distinctly states that the chichimecs used cremation, and clavigero agrees with him.[ ] veytia also thinks that the first aztec kings were buried, but this is contrary to all other reliable accounts. the custom may not have been very general, for sahagun states that during itzcoatl's reign it was resolved by the chiefs that all should be burned, indicating at the same time that cremation was then already in use. the later established usage was to burn all except those who died a violent death, or of incurable diseases, and those under seventeen years of age, who were all interred. the tlascaltecs and tarascos practiced burning like the aztecs.[ ] the altar devoted to the burning was doubtless one attached to the temple consecrated to the deity to whose abode the deceased was supposed to go. chaves describes it as three feet in height and the same in width,[ ] on which a heap of ocotl was piled. upon this pyre the body was laid in full array, together with the dog, and, as the fire flared up, the mourners added insignia, jewels, weapons, food, and other tributes. two of the demon-like coacuiles stirred the fire while others stood by chanting appropriate songs and sprinkling blessed water and incense upon the remains, as well as upon the mourners. now began the sacrifice of those doomed to follow the deceased to the other world and there administer to his wants and pleasure. these were at first but few in number, but during the bloody dominion of the aztecs they increased to several hundred, as at the funeral of nezahualpilli, when two hundred males and one hundred females were immolated; they consisted chiefly of slaves and deformed beings from the royal retinue, and such as had been presented. duran says that all slaves and deformed persons belonging to the household were killed, and acosta goes so far as to state that the whole royal household was dispatched, including the favorite brother of the king; but this must be taken with a grain of allowance, for, at this rate, the nobles, who crowded the service of the monarch, even in menial positions, would soon have been exterminated. some courtiers were, no doubt, expected to prove the sincerity of their life-long adulations by either offering themselves as victims, or submitting to a selection made from their number. sometimes a chief would signify his preference for those among his concubines whom he wished to have with him, a mark of favor often received with great joy, for they would thus be sure of entering into the supreme heaven, where the warlike lords usually went, while they might otherwise be doomed to dark mictlan. self-immolation of wives was, accordingly, not uncommon, although not prescribed by law as in india. brasseur says that captives were sacrificed, but duran states that they were not offered except to the gods. persons born during the last five days of the year--the unlucky days--were, however, reserved for royal obsequies.[ ] [sidenote: disposition of the remains.] this array of victims was harangued by a relative of the deceased, who dilated on the happiness before them in being allowed to join their master, and admonished them to serve him as faithfully in the next world as they had done here. they were then consigned to the priests, who laid them upon a teponaztli,[ ] cut open the breast and tore out the heart, which was thrown upon the pyre, while the bodies were cast upon another blazing hearth near by.[ ] gomara and others state that the bodies were interred, but as the dog and the property were burned, it is not likely that the more important and useful human servants were buried.[ ] when the body had been thoroughly burned, the fire was quenched, the blood collected from the victims being used for this purpose, according to duran, and the ashes, sprinkled with holy water, were placed with the charred bones, stones, and melted jewelry in the urn, or casket, which contained also the hair of the deceased. on the top of this was placed a statue of wood or stone, attired in the royal habiliments, and bearing the mask and insignia, and the casket was deposited at the feet of the patron deity, in the chapel.[ ] on the return of the procession a grand banquet was given to the guests, ending, as usual, with a presentation of gifts. for four days the mourners paid constant visits to the shrine to manifest their sorrow and to present the offerings of food, clothes, or jewels, termed _quitonaltia_, 'to give good luck.' these were either placed by the urn or upon the altar of the god, and removed by the priests, who ate the food and sent the valuables to the temple treasury. these ceremonies closed with the sacrifice of ten to fifteen slaves, and then the casket was deposited in that part of the temple appointed for its permanent reception.[ ] among the chichimecs the royal casket often remained forty days on view in the palace, whence it was carried in procession to its final resting-place.[ ] [sidenote: nahua sepulchres.] in cases of interment the deceased was deposited in the grave, seated on a throne in full array, facing the north,[ ] with his property and victims around him. in early times, when the practice of interment was more general, the victims were few, if not dispensed with entirely, and consisted usually of two favorite concubines, placed one on each side of their master, who, it is said, were entombed alive, though it is more probable that they were stupefied by narcotic drinks, or clubbed, as in michoacan. this practice of burying alive is ascribed to the toltecs.[ ] the graves were usually large subterranean vaults of stone and lime, situated in the temple court, palace, or some favorite spot near the city, as chapultepec. it is related that the temple pyramid in mexico was the superstructure of royal graves, the remains being deposited on the summit, and the successor to the crown erecting upon this another platform. on destroying the temple, the spaniards found several vaults, one beneath the other, with their valuable contents of jewelry.[ ] the toltecs also buried their dead in and near the temples, and, according to some authors, the mounds at teotihuacan, to the number of several hundred, which will be described in vol. iv. of this work, are the graves of toltec chiefs.[ ] the chichimec kings were usually buried in round holes, five to six feet deep, situated in caves beneath the palace or in the mountains; in later times, however, they chose the temples.[ ] twenty days after the burial further offerings were made, together with a sacrifice of from four to five slaves; on the fortieth day two or three more died; on the sixtieth, one or two; while the final immolation consisting of ten to twelve slaves took place at the end of eighty days, and put an end to the mourning. motolinia adds, however, that testimonials of sorrow accompanied by offerings continued to be made every eightieth day for the space of a year.[ ] [sidenote: plebeian funeral rites.] the obsequies of the subjects were, of course, on a scale of much less grandeur, though the rich and nobles ventured to exhibit a certain pomp. the common man, after having been washed in aromatic waters, was dressed in his best garments; a cheap stone called the _tentetl_, 'mouth-stone,' was inserted between the lips; the passport papers for the dark journey were handed to him with the usual address; and by his side were placed the water, the dog, the insignia of his trade, as arms, spade, or the like--spindle or broom in the case of a woman--with the dresses and other things required for comfort. lastly the mantle of the god which his condition in life and manner of death rendered appropriate, was placed upon him; thus, a warrior would wear the mantle of huitzilopochtli with the image of the war god upon it; a merchant the mantle of iyacatecutli; the artisan that of the patron deity of his trade. a drunkard would, in addition, be covered with the robe of the god of wine; a person who had died by drowning, with that of the water gods; the man executed for adultery, with that of the god of lasciviousness; and so on.[ ] according to zuazo, the corpse was further decorated with feathers of various colors, and seated in a chair to receive the expressions of sorrow and respect of friends, and their humble offerings of flowers, food, or dresses. after a couple of hours a second set of shrouders removed the garments, washed the body again, re-dressed it in red mantles, with feathers of the same color, and left it to be viewed for an hour or more, according to the number of the visitors. a third time the body was washed, by a fresh corps of attendants, and arrayed, this time, in black garments, with feathers of the same sombre color. these suits were either given to the temple or buried with the body.[ ] nobles had the large banner borne in their procession, and seem to have been allowed the use of sacrifices.[ ] according to chaves the common people were also burned in their own premises or in the forest, a statement which acosta and others indirectly confirm by saying that they had no regular burial-places, but their ashes were deposited in the yards of their houses, in the temple courts, in the mountains, or in the field. upon the graves were placed flags, ornaments, and various offerings of food during the four days of mourning. visits of condolence with attendant feasting extended over a period of several days, however.[ ] people who had died a violent death, by lightning or other natural causes or of incurable diseases, such as leprosy, tumors, itch, gout, or dropsy, were not burned but interred in special graves. branches or shoots of amaranth were placed upon their cheeks, the brow was rubbed with _texutli_, certain papers were laid over the brain, and in one hand was placed a wooden rod which was supposed to become green and throw out branches in the other world. the bodies of women who died in childbed were also buried; and the burial was attended by great difficulty, since warriors and sorcerers fought bravely to obtain possession of some part of her body, as has been stated in a preceding chapter.[ ] a trader of the rank of pochteca, who died on a journey, was dressed in the garb of his class, with eyes painted black, red circles round the mouth, and with strips of paper all over his person. the body was then deposited in a cacaxtli, or square basket, well secured by cords, and carried to the top of a mountain, where it was fixed to a tree, or pole driven into the ground, and left to wither. the spirit was supposed to have entered the abode of the sun.[ ] on the return of the caravan the death was reported to the guild, who broke the news to the family of the deceased. a puppet made of candlewood, and adorned with the usual paper ornaments, was left at the temple for a day, during which the friends mourned over it as if the body was actually before them. at midnight the puppet was burned in the quauhxicalco and the ashes buried in the usual manner. funeral ceremonies were held for four days, after which the relatives washed the faces, that had remained untouched by water during the absence of the trader, and put an end to the mourning. the practice of paying honors to the dead in effigy was especially in vogue among the warrior class.[ ] [sidenote: honors to the slain in battle.] besides funeral honors to individuals, ceremonies for all those who died in a battle or war were of frequent occurrence, as that ordered by the first montezuma in memory of the slain in the campaign against chalco. a procession of all the relatives and friends of the dead, headed by the fathers bearing decorated arms and armor, and terminated by the children, marched through the streets, dancing and chanting mournful songs in honor of those who had fallen fighting for their country and their gods, and for each other's mutual consolation. towards evening presents were distributed by the king's officials, clothing to the common people, ornaments to the chiefs, and food to all. an effigy was then prepared, the details of whose dress and decoration are minutely described, and before it, placed in the _cihuacalli_, war songs were chanted, instruments were played, women danced and cried for four days; then the image was burned before the temple, the ceremony being called _quitlepanquetzin_, 'burning the dead of the last war.' some of the ashes were scattered upon the relatives, who fasted for eighty days, the remaining ashes being in the meantime buried; but after the eighty days had passed they were dug up and carried to the hill of yahualiuhcan, on the boundaries of chalco, where they were left. five days later a feast took place, during which the garments of the dead warriors were burned, more offerings were made, and as a final honor to the memory of the departed all became intoxicated with pulque. very distinguished warriors were sometimes honored with the funeral rites of royalty.[ ] the ceremonies during the period of mourning were not the last honors paid to deceased friends. every year during the four years that the souls were supposed to live in a preparatory state in the heavens,[ ] offerings of choice viands, wine, flowers, and reeds of perfume were placed before the casket or upon the grave; songs extolling the merits of the departed were sung, accompanied by dances, the whole closing with feasting and drinking. after this the dead were left to oblivion.[ ] these commemorations took place in the months of tlaxochimaco and xocotlhuetzin. the former was termed 'the small festival of the dead,' and seems to have been devoted to the common people and children, but at the celebration in the latter month great demonstrations were observed by all; and certain royal personages and warriors who had died for their country were awarded divine honors, their statues being placed among those of the gods, to whose presence they had gone. while the priests were burning incense and making other offerings to the dead, the people stood with blackened bodies on the roofs of their houses, and, facing north, prayed to their dead relatives, calling on them to visit their former homes.[ ] in the month of quecholli another celebration took place, which seems to have been chiefly intended for warriors who had perished in battle. on the fifth day certain small arrows from five to nine inches in length, and torches, were tied in bundles of four each and placed upon the graves, together with a pair of sweet tamales. at sunset the bundles were set on fire, and the ashes interred with the dead. the shield of the dead, with arrow, mantle, and maxtli attached, was afterwards fastened to a stalk of maize of nine joints, mounted by two paper flags, one of which reached the length of the stalk. on the small flag was a cross, worked in red thread, and on the other an ornamentation of red and white thread, from the white part of which a dead humming-bird was suspended. bunches of white _aztatl_ feathers, tied in pairs, were also attached to the stalk by a thread covered with white hen-feathers. this was burned at the quauhxicalco.[ ] [sidenote: funeral rites of the tarascos.] among the peoples whose funeral ceremonies differ from those described, may be mentioned the teo-chichimecs, who interred their dead, and danced and sang for several days after.[ ] in tabasco interment seems also to have prevailed, for grijalva found a grave in the sand, containing a boy and a girl wrapped in cotton cloth and adorned with jewelry.[ ] in goazacoalco it was the custom to place the bones in a basket, as soon as the flesh was gone, and hang them up in a tree, so that the spirit of the defunct might have no trouble in finding them.[ ] [sidenote: cremation of the tarascan kings.] in michoacan the funeral rites were of a very exacting character. when the king lay on his death-bed it was incumbent on all vassals and courtiers to attend at the palace, and those who stayed away were severely punished. while awaiting the final breath they were royally entertained, but none could enter the death-chamber. when the corpse was ready for shrouding, the lords entered to dress it in festive robes, each attending to a particular part of the attire; the emerald brooch was put between the lips, and the body was laid upon a litter covered with cloths of different colors. on one side of the body were placed a bow and quiver, on the other was a doll made up of fine mantles and dressed exactly like the king.[ ] while the courtiers were giving vent to lamentations and tendering their respects, the new king proceeded to select those among the servitors, who, according to the inviolable law of the country, were doomed to follow the dead prince. seven of these were noble women, to whom various duties were assigned; one was appointed to carry the precious lip-ornament, another to keep the rest of the jewels, a third to be cup-bearer, and the others to attend at table and to cook. among the male victims, who seem to have been slaves for the most part, every trade and profession was represented,[ ] as valets, hair-dressers, perfumers, fan-holders, chair-bearers, wood-cutters, boatmen, sweepers, doorkeepers, and artisans; also clowns, and some of the physicians who had failed to save the life of the monarch. occasionally some enthusiast would offer to join his beloved master of his own accord, but this seems to have been prohibited; besides, the new king had, doubtless, selected all that were obnoxious to him, and could not afford to lose good servants. at midnight the litter was carried on the shoulders of the chief men to the temple, followed by vassals, warriors, and courtiers, some blowing trumpets, others chanting the glories of the dead. in the van of the procession were the victims, who had been bathed in aromatic waters and adorned with garlands stripped of their leaves and branches, and with yellow streaks over the face, who marched in files, sounding whistles, rattling bones, and beating tortoise-shell drums. torch-bearers attended the party, and ahead went a number of men who swept the road, singing at the same time: "lord, here thou hast to pass, see that thou dost not miss the road!"[ ] four turns were made round the pyre before depositing the corpse upon it. while the flames shot up, and the funeral chants fell from the lips of the mourners, the victims were stupefied with drinks and clubbed; the bodies were thrown into holes behind the temple, by threes or fours, together with the ornaments and other belongings of the deceased. the ashes and valuables were gathered from the smoking pyre, and made into a figure, which was dressed in royal habiliments, with a mask for its face, a golden shield on its back, bows and arrows by its side; this was set upon a throne facing the east, the whole being placed in a large urn, which was deposited upon a bed of golden shields and silver articles in a grave with stone walls, lined with mats, about twelve feet square, and equally deep, situated at the foot of the temple. the urn was covered with a number of valuable mantles, and around it were placed various implements, food, drink, and boxes filled with feather-work and ornaments; the grave was finally bridged with varnished beams and boards, and covered with a coating of earth and clay. after the funeral, all who had taken an active part in the ceremonies went to bathe, in order to prevent any injury to their health,[ ] and then assembled at the palace to partake of a sumptuous repast. at the close of the banquet a cotton cloth was given to each guest wherewith to wipe his face, but all remained seated for five days with lowered heads, without uttering a word, except the grandees, who went in turn by night to watch and mourn at the grave. during this period the mourning was general, no corn was ground, no fires lighted, no business transacted; the streets were deserted, and all remained at home, mourning and fasting. the obsequies of the people bore a general resemblance to the above, the ceremonies being regulated by the rank and means of the deceased. the graves were usually situated in the fields or on the slope of a hill.[ ] [sidenote: sepulchres in oajaca.] among the miztecs, in oajaca, where cremation does not seem to have obtained, compliments and addresses were presented to the corpse of a chief, just as if he were alive. a slave arrayed in the same splendid garments worn by his master, with mask, mitre, and other insignia, was placed before it; and while the funeral procession accompanied the body to burial, he represented the chief, and received the honors paid to royalty. at midnight four priests carried the body to the forest, where it was placed, in the presence of the mourners, in a cave, with the feet to the east, and surrounded with various weapons and implements. two male and three female slaves, who had in the meantime been made drunk and strangled, were also placed in the grave, together with idols to serve as guides. burgoa was told by the natives that devoted servants used to follow their lord alive into the grave. on the return of the funeral cortège, the slave who represented the deceased was sacrificed and deposited in a hole, which was left unclosed. the cave selected for the grave of the chief was supposed to be the gate to paradise. burgoa found two of these resting-places. one was situated in a hill and lighted by loopholes from above. along the sides were stone benches, like troughs, upon which lay the bejeweled skeletons, and here and there were niches occupied by idols. another was a stone vault, with plastered walls, arranged like the former; a stone block closed the entrance.[ ] some authors state that when the flesh was consumed, the bones were taken out and placed in graves in the houses or in the temples; this may, however, only have applied to certain chiefs, for burgoa found skeletons, as we have seen, in the caves which he explored. every year, on the anniversary of the birth of the last defunct lord, not on that of his death, great ceremonies were held in his honor.[ ] like the aztecs, they believed that the soul wandered about for a number of years before entering into perfect bliss, and visited its friends on earth once a year.[ ] on the eve of that day the house was prepared as if for a festive occasion, a quantity of choice food was spread upon the table, and the inmates went out with torches in their hands, bidding the spirits enter. they then returned and squatted down round the table with crossed hands and eyes lowered to the ground, for it was thought that the spirits would be offended if they were gazed upon. in this position they remained till morning, praying their unseen visitors to intercede with the gods in their favor, and then arose, rejoiced at having observed due respect for the departed. the food, which the spirits were supposed to have rendered sacred by inhaling its virtue, was distributed among the poor, or deposited in some out-of-the-way place. during the day further ceremonies, accompanied by offerings, were made at the temples, and a table was spread for the priests.[ ] [sidenote: physical peculiarities.] the nahuas were physically a fine race. they are described by all the old writers as being tall,[ ] well-formed, and of an olive or light copper color; as having thick, black, coarse, though soft and glossy hair, regular teeth, low, narrow, retreating foreheads,[ ] black eyes, scant beards,[ ] and very little hair on their bodies. their senses were very acute, especially that of sight, which they enjoyed unimpaired to the most advanced age.[ ] their bodies they kept in training by constant exercise. they were wonderful runners and leapers, and, as we have seen, some of their athletic and acrobatic feats were looked upon by the conquerors as nothing short of the work of the devil. it was no unusual thing to meet with people who from their color could scarcely be distinguished from europeans. the people of michoacan enjoy the reputation of having been the tallest and handsomest among the nahuas.[ ] the women of jalisco found great favor in the eyes of the reverend father torquemada. he was shown one there, he says, who might be considered a miracle of beauty; indeed, so fair was her skin, so well-proportioned her body, and so regular her features, that the most skillful portrait-painter would have been put to it to do her justice.[ ] deformed people were very uncommon; indeed, as we have seen, their rarity made them valuable as objects of curiosity, and kings and princes kept collections of them.[ ] [sidenote: character of the nahuas.] the character of the nahuas, although the statements of the best authors are nearly unanimous concerning it, is in itself strangely contradictory. we are told that they were extremely frugal in their habits, that wealth had no attractions for them, yet we find them trafficking in the most shrewd and careful manner, delighting in splendid pageants, gorgeous dresses, and rich armor, and wasting their substance in costly feasts; they were tender and kind to their children, and solicitous for their welfare, yet the punishments they inflicted upon their offspring were cruel in the extreme;[ ] they were mild with their slaves, and ferocious with their captives; they were a joyous race, fond of feasting, dancing, jesting, and innocent amusements, yet they delighted in human sacrifices, and were cannibals; they possessed a well-advanced civilization, yet every action of their lives was influenced by gross superstition, by a religion inconceivably dark and bloody, and utterly without one redeeming feature; they were brave warriors, and terrible in war, yet servile and submissive to their superiors; they had a strong imagination and, in some instances, good taste, yet they represented their gods as monsters, and their religious myths and historical legends are absurd, disgusting, and puerile. that the nahuas were a most ingenious people is abundantly proven by their work as well as by the statements of those who knew them. it has been said that they were not inventive, but this clavigero indignantly denies.[ ] it is certain that their power of imitation was very great,[ ] and that they were very quick to learn the new arts introduced among them by the spaniards.[ ] they were generous and remarkably free from avarice.[ ] they are said to have been very temperate in their habits,[ ] but judging from the vast number of dishes served up at the tables of the rich, and the stringent laws which were necessary to prevent drunkenness, this appears doubtful. although terrible to their enemies, and naturally warlike, they were peaceable among themselves, and seldom quarreled. las casas says that when a difficulty arose between two of them, the disputants did not come at once to blows, but contented themselves with such personal abuse as: "go to, thou hast bad eyes; thou art toothless;" or they threw handfuls of dirt in each other's faces and then separated and washed themselves. on rare occasions they pushed and elbowed each other, or even had a scuffle, in which hair was pulled out, clothes were torn, and bloody noses received, but deadly weapons were never used, nor even worn except by soldiers on duty. the same writer relates that two women were put to death by order of the king of tezcuco for fighting in the public market-place, a scandalous outrage upon public decency, the like of which had never been heard of before. he says, further, that when two young men became enamored of the same woman, or when one carried off the other's mistress, the rivals were allowed to fight a duel for the possession of the woman. the combat did not take place, however, until the army went forth to war, when upon the first engagement they sought out each other, and fought with their weapons until one was vanquished.[ ] they seem to have been very strict and jealous in all matters relating to their women.[ ] the tlascaltecs were great lovers of liberty, and were always ready to fight for it; they were, besides, quick to take offence, otherwise they are said to have been of a peaceable, domestic disposition, content to stay at home and listen to or tell stories in their own families, an amusement of which they were very fond. they are further described as truthful, just, frugal, and industrious.[ ] the cholultecs, so celebrated for their pottery, are reported to have been very peaceful, industrious, and shrewd traders, yet brave withal, and capable of defending their rights.[ ] the zapotecs were a fierce people, always at war with their neighbors.[ ] the miztecs are said by herrera to have been the bravest people in all new spain; the same writer asserts that they were lazy and improvident, while espinosa speaks of them as an industrious race.[ ] the natives of vera cruz are spoken of as affable and shrewd.[ ] the people of jalisco were witty and slothful, yet they willingly carried burdens for the spaniards, herrera tells us.[ ] the tarascos were exceedingly valorous, great liars, and industrious.[ ] footnotes: [ ] _hernandez_, _nova plantarum_, etc. the mss., comprising books of text and books of plates, were sent to the escurial in spain, and from them abridged editions were published in mexico, , and rome, . the latter edition is the one in my collection. sahagun also devotes considerable space to a description of herbs and their properties. _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., xi. [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xi.; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'É da maravigliare, che i messicani, e massimamente i poveri, non fossero a molte malattie sottoposti atteso la qualità de' loro alimenta.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'las principales enfermedades que corrian entre esta gente, eran de abundancia de colera, y flema, o otros malos humores, causados de mala comida, y falta de abrigo.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. x., cap. xxi. [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crón. mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'hacia malparir las mugeres, de antojo de comer de aquello que asaban ... daban camazas á los viejos de deseo de comer de aquello; y á las mugeres se los hinchaban los brazos, las manos, y las piernas, que adolecian mucho, y morian con aquel deseo.' _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. x. torquemada qualifies this by 'esto dicho, pase por cuento.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _tezozomoc_, _crón. mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , . [ ] _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. iv., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. x., cap. xxi.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _pauw_, _rech. phil._, tom. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _prescott's mex._, vol. ii., pp. - ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vii., p. . [ ] 'both men, women, and children, had great knowledge in herbs.... they did spend little among physicians.' _gage's new survey_, p. . 'casi todos sus males curan con yeruas.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'no se guardauan de males contagiosos, y enfermedades, y bestialmente se dexavan morir.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvi. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . 'si algun médico entre ellos (tlascaltecs) fácilmente se puede haber, sin mucho ruido ni costa, van lo á ver, y si no, mas paciencia tienen que job.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , with cuts, copied in _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. xi., pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. ix. [ ] 'en las ciudades principales ... habia hospitales dotadas de rentas y vasallos donde se resabian y curaban los enfermos pobres.' _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxli. 'de cuando en cuando van por toda la provincia á buscar los enfermos.' _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, pp. - . [ ] _bustamante_, in _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. xi., p. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. vii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'hay calle de herbolarios donde hay todas las raíces y yerbas medicinales que en la tierra se hallan. hay casas como de boticarios donde se venden las medicinas hechas, así potables como ungüentos emplastos.' _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . they 'possédaient des livres dans lesquels étaient consignées minutieusement toutes leurs observations relatives aux sciences naturelles.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . see also _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . 'tenian siete, o ocho maneras de rayzes de yeruas y flores: de yeruas y arboles, que eran las que mas comunmente vsauan para curarse.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. x., cap. xxi. [ ] acosta adds that the ashes of divers poisonous insects were mixed with the teopatli composition, which benumbed the part to which it was applied. 'aplicado por via de emplasto amortigua las carnes esto solo por si, quanto mas con tanto genero de ponçoñas, y como les amortiguaua el dolor, pareciales efecto de sanidad, y de virtud diuina.' _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - . for details of medical practice see _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - , , tom. xi., pp. , - , tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxli., ccxiii.; _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _oviedo_, _hist. ind._, tom. iii., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., tom. ii-iii.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. x., cap. xxi., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. viii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. , - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , tom. iii., pp. - , tom. iv., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxli.; _id._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . 'lanzábanlos (unos cordeles como llavero) en el suelo, y si quedaban revueltos, decian que era señal de muerte. y si alguno ó algunos salian extendidos, teníanlo por señal de vida, diciendo: que ya comenzaba el enfermo á extender los piés y las manos.' _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. vii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . other authorities on medicine are: _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _west-indische spieghel_, p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. , vol. ii., pp. - , , - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _mühlenpfordt_, _mejico_, tom. i., pp. - ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mex., ancien et mod._, p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. . i further have in my possession a very rare and curious medical work by dr monardes, treating of the various medicinal plants, etc., found in mexico and central america, printed in seville in . [ ] 'ponen mascaras a tezcatlipuca, o vitzilopuchtli, o a otro idolo.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . as the idols wore masks, it is more likely that a veil was thrown over the face, than that another mask should have been put on. 'suivant une coutume antique attribuée à topiltzin-acxitl, dernier roi de tollan, on mettait un masque au visage des principales idoles, et l'on couvrait les autres d'une voile.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'mettevan una maschera all' idolo di huitzilopochtli, ed un'altra aquello di tezcatlipoca.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'ciertas mujeres y hombres que están salariados de público.' _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . brasseur de bourbourg thinks that they were only employed by the common people. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . tezozomoc states that princes dressed the body. _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] zuazo says that the corpse was held on the knees of one of the male or female shrouders, while others washed it. _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiv. [ ] the chapter on dress furnishes all the information respecting the royal wardrobe. it is not unlikely that princes assisted in robing the king, for such was the custom in michoacan, and that the mantles brought by them were used for shrouding, but authors are not very explicit on this point. [ ] brasseur de bourbourg uses the expression 'c'est cette eau que tu as reçue en venant au monde.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . gomara says the dog served as guide: 'vn perro que lo guiasse adonde auia de yr.' _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'le ponian los vestidos del dios, que tenia por mas principal en su pueblo, en cuia casa, ò templo, ò patio se havia de enterrar.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . duran mentions an instance where a king was dressed in the mantles of four different gods. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] 'sobre la mortaja le ponian vna mascara pintada.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . perhaps he confounds the idol image on the robe with the mask, for it is unlikely that the mask should be placed upon the shroud. 'visage découvert.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . speaking of the obsequies of tezozomoc of azcapuzalco, ixtlilxochitl says that a turquoise mask was put over his face, 'conforme lo fisonomía de su rostro. esto no se usaba sino con los monarcas de esta tierra; á los demas reyes les ponian una máscara de oro.' _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . veytia states that it was a gold mask 'garnecida de turquezas.' _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . the hair, says gomara, 'quedaua la memoria de su anima.' _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix. 'on plaçait sur le lit de parade la statue que l'on faisait toujours à l'image du roi.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . the only statue referred to by other authors is that made of the ashes after the cremation. [ ] some of the early chichimec kings lay five days in state, and tlaltecatzin, forty days, his body being buried on the eightieth day. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , . [ ] acosta, _hist. de las ynd._, p. , among others, calls this slave a priest. [ ] although acosta says, 'tañendo tristes flautas y atambores.' _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xviii. 'on faisait deux grandes bannières de papier blanc.' _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - . duran states that kings bore the corpse and that the mourners were dressed as water-goddesses. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix., xl., tom. ii., cap. li. acosta says that the arms and insignia were carried before the body by knights. _hist. de las ynd._, p. . [ ] tezozomoc, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , states that they were dressed in royal insignia and jewels, which is not very likely; a number of them, however, were loaded with the royal wardrobe, which fact may have given rise to this statement. [ ] _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _id._, vol. v., pp. - ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xl. 'salia el gran sacerdote, con los otros ministros, à recibirlo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , , , . [ ] 'el (the mode) que estos chichimecas vsaron, fue quemarlos.' _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. ix., pp. , ; _id._, _hist. chich._, pp. , , - . veytia, who introduces some arguments on this point, thinks that tezozomoc introduced burning, yet he describes ceremonial cremations in the case of several kings before him. _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - , tom. ii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , . 'la gente menuda comunmente se enterraua.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . 'sabia por las pinturas, que se quemaron en tiempo del señor de méxico que se decia _itzcóatl_, en cuya época los señores, y los principales que habia entónces, acordaron y mandaron que se quemasen todas, para que no viniesen á manos del vulgo.' _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. - . [ ] _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix., xl.; _bologne_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix., tom. ii., cap. li. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . camargo indicates that the bodies were thrown upon the same pyre together with the presents. _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . 'sacándoles los corazones, y la sangre de ellos en una batea ó gran xícara, con la cual rociavan á huitzilopochtli, á quien le presentaron los corazones de todos los muertos.' _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _tezozomoc_, ubi sup. [ ] 'la colocaron en el mismo lugar en que ardió la pira.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . this author says that the mouth-stone of the deceased together with the mask, robes, and ornaments were taken off before the body was placed upon the pyre; this could only have been for the purpose of dressing the wooden statue therein; the stone was, however, placed inside the urn. _ixtlilxochitl_, ubi sup. brasseur de bourbourg calls this bundle of bones _tlaquimilolli_, which he says was sacredly preserved, whether of kings or braves. _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. clx., p. . in the case of nauhyotl of culhuacan, the bones were exhumed and placed in a statue, which was made in his honor, and deposited in a temple consecrated to him. _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix. [ ] 'al cuarto dia, al anochecer, cargaron los sacerdotes la arca de las cenizas y la estatua, y la colocaron en una especie de nicho, dentro del templo.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., p. . 'sous le pavé même du sanctuaire, devant la statue du dieu.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . duran mentions that the ashes of one king were deposited at the foot of the stone of sacrifice. _hist. indias_, ms., tom. ii., cap. li.; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. li. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , ; _bologne_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. , . [ ] 'la muerte se hacian enterrar en la más alta grada, é despues el subcessor subia otras dos gradas.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. . 'los príncipes necesitaban de gran sepultura, porque se llevaban tras sí la mayor parte de sus riquezas y familia.' _solis_, _hist. conq. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'io aiutai a cauar d'vna sepoltura tre mila castigliani poco piu ò meno.' _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _id._, _relaciones_, pp. , ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _ritos antiguos_, p. , in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix. ixtlilxochitl, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. , states that the sacrifices on the fourth day consisted of five to six slaves, on the tenth of one, on the eightieth of three. 'le cinquième on sacrifiait plusieurs esclaves, et cette immolation se répétait encore quatre fois, de dix en dix jours.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . duran, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xiv., xxxix., mentions a fast of eighty days, at the end of which a statue was made, like one which he states was burned with the corpse, and to this exactly the same ceremonies were paid as to the defunct, the statue being burned with an equally large number of slaves as before. the fullest descriptions of royal obsequies are given in _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xxxix., xl., tom. ii., cap. xlviii.; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , . [ ] after describing the robing of drunkards and others, gomara says: 'y finalmente a cada oficial dauan el traje del idolo de aquel oficio,' which certainly indicates that a drowned or besotted artisan would wear the mantle due to his position in life as well as that due to his manner of death. _conq. mex._, fol. . clavigero, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - , uses the following expression: 'vestivanlo d'un abito corrispondente alla sua condizione, alle sue facoltà, _ed_ alle circostanze della sua morte.' [ ] _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] camargo says, with reference to sacrifices and pompous ceremonies, 'tout cela avait lieu, plus ou moins, à toutes les funérailles, selon la richesse du défunt.' _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. ; _prescott's mex._, vol. i., p. . [ ] _zuazo_, _carta_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _chaves_, _rapport_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série ii., tom. v., p. ; 'durauan las exequias diez dias.' _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. . 'on passait vingt ou trente jours au milieu des fêtes et des festins.' _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., p. . _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xviii.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. - . see p. of this volume. [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. ii., lib. ix., p. . [ ] sahagun intimates that the puppet was for those who were slain by enemies, but adds, afterwards, that a puppet was burned with the same ceremonies in the court of the house, if they died at home. _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. iv., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . see this vol., p. . [ ] _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , - , - ; _duran_, _hist. indias_, ms., tom. i., cap. xviii., tom. ii., cap. xlviii.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - , - . [ ] _explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _id._, p. . [ ] _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., pp. - . 'los tres dias ultimos de este mes ayunavan todos los vivos á los muertos.' _explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. . see this vol., pp. , . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . brasseur de bourbourg says that this celebration was of a general character, and dilutes the meagre and doubtful information of his authority considerably. the arrows and food, 'après qu'elles y avaient demeuré un jour et une nuit, on les enlevait et on brûlait le tout ensemble en l'honneur de mixcohuatl et de ses compagnons d'armes.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. . [ ] _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. ix., cap. vii. [ ] _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'esta figura se la ponian encima al difunto.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . it is not likely, however, that a life-size figure, as gomara calls it, or any figure, for that matter, should have been placed over the ornaments of the king and pressed upon the body. beaumont says: 'lo cubrian con una manta, en que estaba pintado ó realzado el cadaver con los mismos adornos.' _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . 'au-dessus on asseyait une poupée de la taille du défunt.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] 'matauan vno, y aun mas de cada oficio.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . the slaves, he says, 'los embadurnaban todo el cuerpo, con vna tinta amarilla.' 'yban las andas ó atahud en hombros de los tres principales.' _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] 'todos los que habian tocado el caltzontzi y á los demas cuerpos se iban á bañar por preservarse de alguna enfermedad.' _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. - ; _gage's new survey_, pp. - , with a cut; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _payno_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _geog. descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. - , tom. ii., pt ii., fol. . [ ] _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiii.; _explicacion del codex telleriano-remensis_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. ; _spiegazione delle tavole del codice mexicano_ (vaticano), in _id._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] 'au douzième mois de l'année zapotèque.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _burgoa_, _geog. descrip._, tom. ii., pt ii., fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . additional references to funeral ceremonies are: _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , - , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, pt ii., pp. , , ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. - , - , - , - ; _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. iv., pp. - , - ; _gemelli careri_, in _churchill's col. voyages_, vol. iv., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, pp. - ; _d'avity_, _l'amérique_, tom. ii., p. ; _adair_, _amer. ind._, p. ; _touron_, _hist. gén._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., pp. - ; _lenoir_, _parallèle_, pp. - , , ; _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xxiv., pp. - ; _fransham's world in miniature_, vol. ii., p. ; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , - , tom. ii., pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , tom. iii., pp. - , , - , - , - ; _carli_, _cartas_, pt i., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _simon's ten tribes_, pp. - ; _monglave_, _résumé_, p. ; _cooper's hist. n. amer._, vol. ii., p. ; _baril_, _mexique_, p. ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, pp. - ; _ranking's hist. researches_, pp. - ; _brownell's ind. races_, p. ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. , - , , ; _carbajal_, _discurso_, p. . [ ] except the zapotecs, who, carbajal espinosa says, were of low stature and broad-shouldered. _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . [ ] gomara says they had wide foreheads. _conq. mex._, fol. . 'la forma, ò figura de las cabeças, comunmente las tienen proporcionadas à los cuerpos, y à los otros miembros de èl, y derechas; algunos las tienen empinadas, y las frentes quadradas, y llanas; otros (como son estos mexicanos, y algunos del pirù) las tenian, y tienen de mejor forma, algo de hechura de martillo, ò navio, que es la mejor forma de todas.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. - . 'the aztec skulls are described as being remarkable for the shortness of their axis, their large flattened occiput obliquely truncated behind, the height of the semicircular line of the temples, and the shortness and trapezoidal form of the parietal plane. they present an elevation or ridge along the sagittal suture; the base of the skull is very short, and the face slightly prognathic, as among the mongol-kalmucs. they bear a strong analogy to the skulls of a peruvian brachycephali delineated by morton.' _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. . 'the aboriginal mexicans of our own time are of good stature and well proportioned in all their limbs. they have narrow foreheads, black eyes, white, well-set, regular teeth, thick, coarse and glossy black hair, thin beards, and are in general without any hair on their legs, thighs, or arms. their skin is olive coloured, and many fine young women may be seen among them with extremely light complexions. their senses are very acute, more especially that of sight, which they enjoy unimpaired to the most advanced age.' _figuier's hum. race_, p. . for remarks on mexican crania, descriptions and measurements of skulls with cuts, see _morton's crania amer._, pp. - , - , - , , and plates xvi-xviii., lix.-lxi. [ ] according to herrera, _hist. gen._, (lond. ,) vol. iv., p. , and brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. , the miztecs had long beards. [ ] 'en los sentidos exteriores (como son los de el vèr, oìr, oler, y gustar) los alcançan admirables; porque vèn mui de lejos, y no vsan de antojos, si no son mui pocos, despues que los han visto, en nuestros españoles, y eso es en la vejez, y tienen comunmente los ojos buenos, y hermosos, oien mucho, huelen tambien qualquier cosa de mui lejos; lo mismo es el gusto; el sentido del tacto, comunmente es delicado, lo qual se verifica en ellos, porque qualquier cosa, que pueda lastimarlos, como es frio, calor, açotes, ù otra exterior afliccion, los aflige mui facilmente, y en mucho grado, y qualqueira enfermedad los adelgaça, mas presto los enflaquece, y mata, que à otra nacion, asi española, como otra alguna, como es notorio, à todos los que los conocemos, y son para sufrir mui poco trabajo.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] he adds further: 'y esto (aunque no en tanto extremo) corre, mui en general, por todos estos reinos, y en especial en aquel de xalisco, en la nacion, que llaman coca, y tecuex, que son los tonaltecos, y por acà en la de tlaxcalla, y otras muchas, que por escusar enfado, callo.' _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; see also tom. i., p. . [ ] 'sonovi così rari i deformi, che tutti quegli spagnuoli, e creogli, che nel , vennero dal messico in italia, restarono allora, e sono anche oggidì maravigliati dall'osservare nelle città di questa coltissima penisola un sì gran numero di ciechi, di gobbi, di zoppi, d'attratti ec.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. iv., p. . see farther, concerning the physical peculiarities of the nahuas and earlier peoples: _ixtlilxochitl_, _relaciones_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., pp. , - , , - , ; _vetancvrt_, _teatro mex._, tom. ii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. , , , ; _sahagun_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., p. , , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. ii., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, tom. i., p. ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - , tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. x., cap. xix.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. iv., pp. - ; _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , , tom. iii., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. ii., pp. , ; _dupaix_, _rel., de expéd._, p. ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, pp. - ; _dillon's hist. mex._, p. ; _macgregor's progress of amer._, vol. i., p. ; _cooper's hist. n. amer._, vol. ii., p. . [ ] see this volume, p. . [ ] 'vi sono molti, che accordano ai messicani una grande abilità per l'imitazione; ma lor contrastano quella dell' invenzione. error volgare, che trovasi smentito nella storia antica di questa nazione.' _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., p. . [ ] see this volume, pp. - . [ ] 'los niños de los indios no son molestos con obstinacion ni porfia à la fè catholica, como lo son los moros y indios; antes aprenden de tal manera las verdades de los christianos, que no solamente salen con ellas, sino que las agotan, y es tanta su facilidad que parece que se las beuen. aprenden mas presto que los niños españoles; y con mas contento los articulos de la fè por su orden, y las demas oraciones de la doctrina christiana, reteniendo en la memoria fielmente lo que se les enseña.' _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . 'il n'était rien que les indiens n'apprissent avec une rapidité surprenante, et s'il arrivait quelque nouveau métier dont ils n'eussent aucune connaissance, ils s'appliquaient à le voir faire avec tant d'intelligence, que, malgré les soins de l'ouvrier à leur cacher son secret, ils le lui enlevaient au bout de quelques jours.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'son muy ladrones, mentirosos, y holgazanes. la fertilidad de la tierra deue causar tanta pereza, o por no ser ellos codiciosos.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'la liberalità e lo staccamento da qualsiasi interesse sono dei principali attributi del loro carattere. l'oro non ha presso i messicani tutta quella stima, che gode presso altri. danno senza dispiacere quello, che si procacciano con somma fatica. questo loro staccamento dall'interesse, ed il poco amore, che portano a quei che gli governano, ii fa rifiutare quelle fatiche, a cui sono da essi costretti, e questa è appunto la tanto esagerata pigrizia degli americani.' _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - . 'estavan libres de la enfermedad de la codicia, y no pensauan en la vanidad del oro, y plata, ni hazian estimacion dello.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. . 'segun lo que aquella edad permite, son inclinadissimos à ser liberales. tanto monta que lo que se les da, se de à vno como à muchos: porque lo que vno recibe, se reparte luego entre todos.' _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. . [ ] the most sober people known. _relatione fatta per vn gentil'huomo del signor fernando cortese_, in _ramusio_, _navigationi_, tom. iii., fol. . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - . [ ] 'son celosissimosmos, y assi las aporrean mucho.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . we have seen in a former chapter, that nezahualcoyotl put his dearest son to death for speaking lewdly to his father's concubine. see this volume, pp. , et seq.; see further concerning the character of the mexicans, about whom the above remarks, though doubtless applicable to many other of the nahua nations, are more particularly made: _esplicacion de la coleccion de mendoza_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. v., p. ; _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, pp. - ; _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. iii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, pp. - ; _padilla_, _conq. n. galicia_, ms., p. ; _zorita_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _tezozomoc_, _crónica mex._, in _id._, vol. ix., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xliv., xlv., lxvii., cxl.; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. i., pp. - , tom. iv., pp. - ; _soden_, _spanier in peru_, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., pp. - , ; _edinburgh review_, ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., pp. - ; _gordon's hist. and geog. mem._, pp. - ; _chevalier_, _mexique_, pp. - . [ ] for the character of the tlascaltecs see: _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcviii., pp. - , tom. xcix., pp. , , ; _motolinia_, _hist. indios_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _alcedo_, _dicc._, tom. v., p. ; _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. v., lib. i.; _pradt_, _cartas_, pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. ii., pp. , , ; _klemm_, _cultur-geschichte_, tom. v., pp. - ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. ; _dillon_, _hist. mex._, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _pradt_, _cartas_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iv., p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., pp. , . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiv.; _dávila padilla_, _hist. fvnd. mex._, p. ; _delaporte_, _reisen_, tom. x., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiii.; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ii. [ ] _beaumont_, _crón. mechoacan_, ms., pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _ixtlilxochitl_, _hist. chich._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. ix., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . chapter xx. government, social classes, property, and laws of the maya nations. introductory remarks--votan's empire--zamnÁ's reign--the royal families of yucatan; cocomes, tutul xius, itzas, and cheles--titles and order of succession--classes of nobles--the quichÉ-cakchiquel empire in guatemala--the ahau ahpop and succession to the throne--privileged classes--government of the provinces--the royal council--the chiapanecs--the pipiles--nations of nicaragua--the maya priesthood--plebeian classes--slaves--tenure of lands--inheritance of property--taxation--debtors and creditors--laws and the administration of justice. my reasons for dividing the civilized nations of our territory into two groups, the nahuas and the mayas, whose institutions are separately described, have been stated in the general view, to which a preceding chapter has been devoted. in the same place was given an outline sketch of the nations composing each group, and their mutual relations,[ ] which may serve as an introduction to the remainder of this volume. without further preliminary remarks i may therefore enter at once upon the subject-matter of this second division of my topic, a description of maya institutions, or the manners and customs of the civilized nations whose home was south of the isthmus of tehuantepec. it will be evident to the reader from what has been said that this account must be not only much briefer, but also less complete and satisfactory than that of the nahua nations. concerning the aztecs and kindred peoples about the lakes of the mexican valley, as we have seen, a large amount of information has been preserved; i have consequently been able, in treating of the northern peoples, to take these nations of the valley as a nucleus, adding in their proper places such fragments of knowledge as are extant respecting tribes outside the limits of anáhuac. in the south, fragmentary information is all we have; there is no nucleus round which to group it; the matter of the following chapters will, therefore, be very similar in its nature to what that of the preceding would have been, had i undertaken to describe the tarascos, totonacs, zapotecs, etc., without the aztecs. in this branch of my subject i shall follow as nearly as possible the same order as in the preceding, bringing together into one chapter, however, the topics before treated in several. i shall also include the civilized nations of nicaragua in this division, although one at least of them was of nahua blood and language. in the days of ancient maya glory when votan and his successors reigned over mighty and perhaps confederated empires in chiapas, guatemala, and yucatan, the kings played rôles to a great extent mythical, being pictured by tradition as combining the character and powers of legislators, teachers, high-priests, and monarchs. details of the system by which they governed are altogether wanting,[ ] but after a long term of prosperity this government in guatemala and chiapas became weakened and at last practically destroyed; the country was divided among petty chiefs, concerning whose rule even less is known than of that of their predecessors, but who not improbably based their forms of authority on the ideas handed down from votan. from these governmental relics there sprung up in later years, under new and perhaps foreign leaders, the quiché and cakchiquel empires, of whose government some details are known, since these nations came into direct contact with the spaniards at the conquest. leaving these nations for the present, i will speak first of another branch of the primitive maya empire. [sidenote: votan's maya empire.] yucatan received its culture traditionally from zamná, who came from abroad, governed the mayas through a long life, and left the throne as an heritage to his successors. he was doubtless a companion or a descendant of votan, and founded institutions similar to those of the western kingdoms whence he came. the government and institutions established in yucatan met to a certain extent the same fate as those of chiapas; that is, the country was finally split up by civil wars into numerous petty independent sovereignties; but this division was at a much later date than that of votan's western empire,--not long preceding the spanish conquest--and the government of the independent chieftains was substantially that of their ancestors, many of whom claimed to be of the royal family founded by zamná. consequently some scraps of information are extant respecting the form of government, as well as other institutions, in yucatan; and from these we may form a faint idea of the earlier institutions of guatemala and chiapas. zamná, like votan, united in himself the qualities of ruler, law-giver, educator, and priest; he founded the city of mayapan, and divided the whole country among the chiefs of the leading families who came with him, making them vassals of the king whom he left on the throne at mayapan. the nobles of the royal family were of course the highest, a family which was perhaps that known later as the cocomes, and which lasted to the coming of the spaniards. each of the vassal princes had to live in the capital during a certain part of every year; and brasseur de bourbourg, following ordoñez, thinks that mayapan may have formed a confederacy with tulhá and palenque in chiapas.[ ] [sidenote: the royal families of yucatan.] another royal family, the tutul xius, sprung up later and became very powerful as allies and vassals of the king reigning in mayapan; and still another family, the itzas, built up a strong government of theocratic nature at chichen itza. then came cukulcan with some new religious teachings--a famous personage bearing a striking resemblance in his traditional career and in the etymology of his name to the quetzalcoatl of the nahuas. being finally called to the throne at mayapan, he formed a confederacy, making the princes of the tutul xius and itzas his associate monarchs, subordinate nominally in rank but practically independent except where mutual assistance was required. cukulcan left the throne to the cocomes, seven of whom ruled during a period of great prosperity, the succession being from father to son, down to about the eleventh century. afterward the cocomes, becoming tyrannical, were deposed from their high position, mayapan destroyed, and a new confederacy established with the tutul xius at the head, uxmal being at first their capital, the itzas second, and the cheles at izamal third. the tutul xiu rule was no less glorious than that of the cocomes. they rebuilt mayapan and made it once more the capital, but the unfortunate city was again sacked, this time by foreigners--perhaps the quichés--in the thirteenth century; and was finally destroyed in the middle of the fifteenth century by the vassal lords of the realm, who revolted, overthrew the tutul xiu dynasty, obtained their complete independence, and ruled each his petty province with sovereign power. this was their condition when the spaniards came, but before that time by civil war, and by famine and pestilence also, as tradition tells us, the power of the rulers and the population of the country had been greatly diminished and the ancient maya glory had departed forever. shortly before the final destruction of the monarchy a portion of the itzas had left chichen and migrated southward to found a small but powerful nation in what is now the province of peten, belonging politically to guatemala. it is from traditionary accounts of the kingdom under the tutul xius, and from the meagre observations of the spaniards in the sixteenth century that our slight knowledge of maya institutions in the peninsula is gained. the highest title of the king at mayapan was ahtepal, which signifies in the maya tongue 'majestic,' or 'august.' his power was absolute, but he rarely acted in matters of importance without consulting his lords, and, in accordance with their advice and that of the chief priests, he appointed all officials, secular and religious, in the kingdom, possessing moreover the right to organize all courts and to condemn to death any of his subjects. the succession to the throne was confined to the royal family, to the male line, and to the sons of noble wives; the eldest son seems to have been the acknowledged heir to the throne, and landa tells us that if the king died during the childhood of his heir, then his eldest or most capable brother ruled not only during the son's minority but during all his own life; and in case there were no brothers the priests and nobles chose a suitable person to reign.[ ] one author speaks of the king as having the right to appoint a council which should name his successor, and remesal mentions that in the province of campeche, a woman who came in the direct line of succession received high honors, but the most capable of her male relatives ruled the state.[ ] [sidenote: court etiquette in yucatan.] whenever the king appeared in public, he was always attended by a large company and wore a long white flowing robe decorated with ornaments of gold and precious stones, bracelets, a magnificent collar, and sandals of gold. his crown was a plain golden circle somewhat wider on the forehead than behind, and surmounted with a plume of quetzal-feathers. this bird was reserved for the king and highest nobles, death being the penalty, according to ordoñez, for one of lower rank who should capture the bird or wear its plumage. the monarch was borne on the shoulders of his nobles reclining in a palanquin, shaded by a feather canopy, and constantly fanned by attendants of high rank. any person who came into the presence of the king or other high official, was expected to bring some gift proportioned to his means, and herrera informs us that the highest mark of respect was to place the right hand, anointed with spittle, on the ground and then to rub it over the heart. villagutierre mentions without description a kind of small throne among the itzas, and states that the king of this southern realm bore the title of canek, the name of the leader of their migration. our only knowledge of the royal palaces of yucatan is derived from their examination, when more or less in ruins, by modern explorers; consequently i refer the reader to the chapter on maya buildings for a general description of these grand stone structures, and to another volume of this work for a detailed account with illustrative plates. the nobility of the highest class belonged to members of the royal families, the cocomes, tutul xius, cheles, and itzas, those of the reigning king's own blood taking naturally the highest rank. ahau was the ordinary title of the princes, and halach winikel, 'most majestic men,' was a high title among the tutul xius. from nobles of the royal families mentioned, governors of provinces, and all the highest officials were chosen. their positions were nominally at the king's disposal, but practically they descended hereditarily in the same manner as the royal power, the king interfering with new appointments only on extraordinary occasions. these rulers were almost absolute in matters concerning their own provinces, and exacted great honors, ceremonial attendance, and implicit obedience from all their subjects; but they were not exempt in matters of crime from the penalties of the law, and were obliged to reside during a part of each year in the capital, to render personal service to the monarch, and to take part in the supreme council by which he was guided in the administration of public affairs. they were, however, exempt from all tribute except that of personal service, and lived on the product of portions of the public domain assigned them. cogolludo tells us that the nobles of mayapan were also required to perform certain services in the temples, and to assist at the religious festivals. they not only had the exclusive right to the government of provinces, but also to the command of armies. nobles of a lower class, with the title batab, governed cities, villages, or other subdivisions of provinces. they were not of royal blood, or at least were only connected with the reigning family through the female branch. their position was also practically hereditary, although the heir could not assume his inherited rank without the royal sanction. no government officials received any salary, but they were obliged to maintain themselves and the poor and disabled of their respective communities from the products of their inherited estates.[ ] [sidenote: the quichÉ-cakchiquel empires.] the most powerful kingdoms in guatemala at the coming of the spaniards were, that of the quichés, whose capital was gumarcaah, or utatlan, near the site of the modern santa cruz del quiché; and that of the cakchiquels, capital iximché, or patinamit, near tecpan guatemala. these two nations were independent of and hostile to each other in the sixteenth century, but they had been united in one empire during the days of guatemala's greatest glory, their separation dated back only about a century, and their institutions were practically identical, although they were traditionally distinct tribes in the more remote past. the same remark may be made respecting the institutions of the other nations in guatemala which were wholly or partially independent of the powers mentioned above. all the aboriginal powers had greatly deteriorated by wars, one with another, and their mutual hatred made their defeat by foreigners possible, as had been the case in the conquest of the nahua nations farther north. there is little doubt that the quiché-cakchiquel peoples were direct descendants of votan's subjects, but the line of traditional history that unites the two empires is broken at many points and cannot be satisfactorily followed. there are evidences also of foreign, chiefly nahua, influences in the molding of quiché institutions, exerted before or after the toltec era in anáhuac, probably at both periods. the traditional history of the quiché empire for three or four centuries before the conquest, rests almost entirely on manuscripts written in the native languages with the roman alphabet, which have only been consulted by one modern writer. into the labyrinth of this complicated record of wars and political changes i shall not attempt to enter, especially since the general nature of quiché institutions does not seem to have been perceptibly modified by the events recorded. an aristocratic monarchy, similar in nearly every feature to that i have described in yucatan, seems to have been the basis of quiché government from the first. all high positions, judicial, military, or sacerdotal, were hereditary and restricted to noble families, who traced their genealogy far back into the mythic annals of the nations. between noble and plebeian blood the lines were sharply defined. the nobles were practically independent and superior in their own provinces, but owed tribute, allegiance, and military aid to the monarch. at the time of guatemala's highest prosperity and glory, when king qikab from his throne in utatlan ruled over all the country, the monarch, if we may credit the traditional account, made an effort to diminish the power of the nobles, by conferring military commands and other high positions on the ablest men of plebeian blood. thus a new class of nobles, called achihab was created. this newly conferred power became, acting with the alienation of the old hereditary nobility, too great to be restrained by the monarch who created it. the achihab became ambitious and insubordinate; they were at last put down, but the dissolution of the empire into several states was the indirect result of their machinations. [sidenote: succession to the quichÉ throne.] respecting the order of succession to the quiché throne torquemada and juarros state that the king's brother was the king elect, and the direct heir to the throne; the king's oldest son was the senior captain and the next heir; and the latter's first cousin, the nephew of the king, was junior captain and third heir. when the king died each heir was promoted one degree, and the vacant post of junior captain was filled by the nearest relative--_whose_ nearest relative the authors neglect to say. whoever may have been elevated to the vacant position the whole system as a regular order of succession would be a manifest absurdity. brasseur de bourbourg agrees with the authors cited and gives to the king, the elect, and the two captains the titles of ahau ahpop, ahau ahpop camha, nim chocoh cawek, and ahau ah tohil, respectively; but when the last position was left vacant by the death of the king, the abbé tells us that "it was conferred upon the eldest son of the new monarch,"--that is, upon the same man who held it before! padre ximenez implies perhaps that the crown descended from brother to brother, and from the youngest brother to a nephew who was a son of the oldest brother. i have no authorities by the aid of which to throw any light upon this confused subject; it is evident, however, that if the last-mentioned system, identical with that which obtained among some of the nahua nations, be not the correct one, nothing whatever is known of the matter in question.[ ] all the authorities state that this remarkable system of succession was established to prevent the power from coming into the hands of young and inexperienced men; and that an incompetent person in the regular line could not succeed to the throne, but retained throughout his life the rank to which he was born. it is not clearly explained how the heir's competency was decided upon, but it seems probable that the matter was settled by the reigning king with the advice of his council of princes. the king's children by his first wife were preferred above the rest, though all received high honors. at rabinal the ahau, or ruling prince, was regularly chosen by the nobles, from the royal family, but was not necessarily a son or brother of the last ruler. among the cakchiquels the succession alternated between two royal families. the king's title was ahpozotzil; the next heir from the other branch bore the title ahpoxahil; their eldest sons, the elder of which became ahpoxahil on the king's death, had the titles ahpop qamahay and galel xahil. inferior titles were galel qamahay, atzih winak, and ahuchan xahil, the bearers of which succeeded to the throne in default of nearer heirs. it will be noticed that this plan of succession is but little clearer than that attributed to the quichés.[ ] [sidenote: coronation in guatemala.] the ceremonies of coronation in the kingdom of rabinal, and, so far as can be known, in the other kingdoms of guatemala, consisted of an assemblage of all the nobles at the capital,--each being obliged to attend or send a representative--the presentation of gifts and compliments to the new king, a discourse of congratulation and advice addressed to him by one of the ancients, and finally a splendid feast which lasted several days and usually degenerated into a drunken orgy. the quichés and cakchiquels also bathed the new king and anointed his body with perfumes before seating him on the throne, which was a seat, not described, placed on a carpet or mat, and surmounted by four canopies of feather-work placed one above another, the largest at the top; the seats of the three lower princes already mentioned were also shaded by canopies, three, two, and one, respectively. whenever he appeared in public the monarch was borne in a palanquin on the shoulders of the nobles who composed his council.[ ] the machinery of government was carried on in the provinces by lieutenants of the king's appointment, and the monarch was advised in all matters of state by a council of nobles. juarros tells us that the supreme quiché council was composed of twenty-four grandees, who enjoyed great privileges and honors, personally attended the king, and managed the administration of justice and the collection of the royal revenue, but were liable to severe punishment if they committed crime. brasseur de bourbourg speaks of a supreme council, giving the names of the princes that composed it, and also of an ordinary council whose members were called _alchaoh_, or 'judges,' and were entrusted with the collection of tribute. the other authorities, torquemada and ximenez, state that the councils were not permanent, but were summoned by the king and selected for their peculiar fitness to give advice upon the subject under consideration. the lieutenants had also their provincial councils to advise them in matters of local importance, but all cases of national import, or affecting in any way the nobles of high rank, were referred to the royal council. so great was the power of the nobles assembled in council, that they might, under certain conditions, depose a tyrannical sovereign and seat the next heir on the throne. no person unless of noble blood could hold any office whatever, even that of doorkeeper to the council-chamber, if we may credit juarros; consequently the greatest pains was taken to insure a lineage free from any plebeian stain. a noble marrying a woman of the common people was degraded to her rank, took her name, and his estate was forfeited to the crown. ximenez states that traveling officials visited from time to time the different provinces, to observe the actions of the regular judges, and to correct abuses.[ ] [sidenote: the quichÉ nobility.] the following is the abbé brasseur's account of the grades of nobility taken from the quiché manuscript published under the title of popol vuh: "three principal families having a common origin constituted the high nobility of quiché, modeled on the ancient imperial family of the toltecs. the first and most illustrious was the house of cawek, the members of which composed the royal family proper; the second was that of nihaïb; and the third that of ahau quiché. each of these houses had its titles and charges perfectly distinct and fixed, which never left it, like the hereditary offices of the english court at the present time; and to each of these offices were attached fiefs, or particular domains, from which the titularies drew their revenue, their attendants, and their vassals, and a palace where they lived during their stay in the capital. the house of cawek, or royal house proper, included only princes of the blood, like the eldest branch of the bourbons in france. it was composed of nine _chinamital_, or great fiefs, whose names corresponded to those of the palaces occupied by these princes in the capital, and whose titles were as follows:--i. ahau ahpop, or 'lord of the princes,' title of the king, corresponding nearly to 'king of kings,' whose palace was called _cuha_; ii. ahau ahpop camha, or 'lord of the princes and seneschal' (_camha_, he who cares for the house, majordomo), whom the spaniards called the second king, and whose palace was called _tziquinaha_, or 'house of birds;' iii. nim chocoh cawek, or 'grand elect of cawek;' iv. ahau ah tohil, or 'lord of the servants of tohil,' priests of tohil, the principal quiché god; v. ahau ah gucumatz, or 'lord of the servants of gucumatz,' (priests of quetzalcoatl); vi. popol winak chituy, or president of the counsellors; vii. lolmet quehnay, the principal receiver of royal tributes, or minister of finance; viii. popol winak pahom tzalatz xcaxeba, or 'grand master of the hall of the council of the game of ball;' ix. tepeu yaqui, 'chief or lord of the yaquis' (toltecs, or mexicans). "the house of nihaïb, the second in rank, had also nine chinamital, with names corresponding to their palaces, and titles as follows: i. ahau galel, 'lord of the bracelets,' or of those who have the right to wear them, and chief of the house of nihaïb; ii. ahau ahtzic winak, 'lord of those who give,' or of those who made presents (especially to ambassadors, who were introduced by him); iii. ahau galel camha, 'lord of the bracelets, and seneschal;' iv. nimah camha, 'grand seneschal;' v. uchuch camha, 'mother of the seneschals;' vi. nima camha nihaïb, 'grand seneschal of nihaïb;' vii. nim chocoh nihaïb, 'grand elect of nihaïb;' viii. ahau awilix, 'lord of awilix' (one of the gods of the quiché trinity); ix. yacol atam, 'grand master of feasts.' "the third house, that of ahau quiché, had only four chinamital with the following titles: i. ahtzic winak ahau, 'great lord of givers;' ii. lolmet ahau, 'grand receiver;' iii. nim chocoh ahau, 'lord grand elect;' iv. ahau gagawitz, 'lord of gagawitz' (one of the gods of the quiché trinity)."[ ] [sidenote: pipiles and nicaraguans.] respecting the chiapanecs, who are not generally considered as the descendants of the peoples who inhabited the country in votan's time, we have no knowledge of their government save a probably unfounded statement by garcía that they were ruled by two chiefs, elected each year by the priests, and never had a king.[ ] the pipiles in salvador, although traditionally among the partially civilized nations, seem to have been governed in the sixteenth century by local chieftains only, like most of the wild tribes already described. these chiefs handed down their power, however, to their sons or nearest relatives. palacio tells us that to regulate marriages and the planting of crops was among the ruler's duties. squier concludes that all these petty chiefs were more or less allied politically, and acted together in matters affecting the common interests.[ ] nicaragua, when first visited by europeans, was divided into many provinces, inhabited by several nations linguistically distinct one from another, one of them, at least, speaking the aztec tongue; but in respect to their government and other institutions, the very meagre information preserved by oviedo enables us to make little or no distinction between the different tribes. in many of the provinces we are told the people lived in communities, or little republics, governed by certain _huehues_, or 'old men,' who were elected by the people. these elective rulers themselves elected a captain-general to direct their armies in time of war, which official they had no hesitation in putting to death when he exhibited any symptoms of insubordination or acquired a power over the army which seemed dangerous to the public good. in other and probably in most provinces a chieftain, or _teite_, ruled the people of his domain with much the same powers and privileges as we have noticed in yucatan and guatemala. these teites had their petty vassals and lords to execute their orders, and to accompany them in public displays, but it seems they could claim no strictly personal services in their palaces from any but members of their own household. peter martyr speaks of a 'throne adorned with rich and princely furniture.' these rulers affected great state, and insisted on a strict observance of court etiquette. they would receive no message, however pressing the occasion, except through the regularly appointed officials; and one of them, in an interview with the spaniards, would not condescend to open his royal mouth to the leader until a curtain was held between him and his foreign hearers. on several occasions they met the spaniards in a procession of men and women gaily decked in all their finery, marching to the sound of shell trumpets, and bearing in their hands presents for the invaders. but even in the provinces nominally ruled by the teites, all legislative power was in the hands of a council called _monexico_, composed of old men, who were elected every four moons. without the consent of the monexico the chief could take action in no public matter whatever, not even in war. the council could decide against the teite, but he had the right to assemble or dissolve it, and to be present at all its meetings. the decisions of the monexico were made known in the market-place by a crier, whose badge of office was a rattle. the lords also, in sending an ambassador or messenger on any public business, gave him a fan, bearing which credential he was implicitly trusted wherever he might go. two members of the council were chosen as executive officers, and one of them must be always present in the market-place to regulate all dealings of the buyers and sellers. squier says that the council-houses were called _grepons_, and its corridors or porticos _galpons_; oviedo in one place terms the buildings _galpones_, and in another applies the name to a class of vassal chiefs.[ ] [sidenote: the maya priesthood.] it is only of the priesthood as connected with the government, as an order of nobility, as a class of the community, that a mention is required here: in their quality of priests proper, religious teachers, oracles of the gods, leaders of ceremonious rites, confessors, and sacrificers, they will be treated of elsewhere. their temporal power, directly exercised, or indirectly through their influence upon kings and chieftains, was perhaps even greater than we have found it among the nahua nations. votan, zamná, cukulcan, and all the other semi-mythical founders of the maya civilization, united in their persons the qualities of high-priest and king, and from their time to the coming of the spaniards ecclesiastical and secular authority marched hand in hand. in yucatan, the itzas at chichen were ruled in the earlier times by a theocratic government, and later the high-priest of the empire, of the royal family of the cheles, became king of izamal, which became the sacred city and the headquarters of ecclesiastical dignitaries. the gigantic mounds still seen at izamal are traditionally the tombs of both kings and priests. the office of chief priest was hereditary, the succession being from father to son--since priests and even the vestal virgins were permitted to marry--but regulated apparently by the opinions of kings and nobles, as well as of ecclesiastical councils. the king constantly applied to the high-priest for counsel in matters of state, and in turn gave rich presents to the head of the church; the security of the temples was also confided to the highest officers of the state. the rank of ixnacan katun, or superior of the vestals, was founded by a princess of royal blood. in guatemala the high-priests who presided over the temples of the quiché trinity, tohil, awilix, and gucumatz, were all princes of the three royal families; their titles have been given in the lists of the quiché nobility; and one of the most powerful kings is said to have created two priestly titles for the family of zakik, to each of which he attached a province for its support. ximenez tells us that in vera paz the chief priest, next in power to the king, was elected from a certain lineage by the people. in the province of chiquimula, mictlan is described as a great religious centre, and a shrine much visited by pilgrims. here the power was in the hands of a sacerdotal hierarchy, hereditary in one family, whose chief bore the title teoti and was aided by an ecclesiastical council of five members, which controlled all the priesthood, and from whose number a successor to the teoti was appointed by the chief of the pipiles, or, as some authorities state, was chosen by lot. thus we see that while the priesthood had great power over even the highest secular rulers in all the maya nations, yet the system by which the high-priests were members of the royal families, rendered their power a support to that of royalty rather than a cause of fear. the fear which kings experienced towards the priests seems consequently to have been altogether superstitious on account of their supernatural powers, and not a jealous fear of any possible rivalry. ordinary priests were appointed by the higher authorities of the church, but whether the choice was confined to certain families, we are not informed. it is altogether probable, however, that such was the case in nations whose lowest secular officers must be of noble blood.[ ] [sidenote: plebeians and slaves.] in the south as in the north, the status of the lower classes, or plebeians, has received no attention at the hands of the spanish observers. we know that in yucatan the nobles were obliged to support from their revenues such of the lower classes as from sickness, old age, or other disabling cause were unable to gain a livelihood. it has been seen also that none of plebeian blood could hold any office, the only exception noted being the attempt of one of the quiché kings to humiliate the aristocracy by raising plebeian soldiers to the new rank of achihab, 'men' or 'heroes.' the lower classes of freemen were doubtless for the most part farmers, each tilling the portion of land allotted him in the domain of a noble; and beyond the obligation to pay a certain tax from the product of their labor, and to render military service in case of necessity, they were probably independent, and often wealthy.[ ] lowest in the scale among the mayas as elsewhere in america were the slaves. slavery was an institution of all the nations in the sixteenth century, and had been traditionally for some centuries. in yucatan, tradition speaks of a time when slavery was unknown; its introduction by a powerful cocome king was one of the acts of oppression which brought about a revolution and deposed him from the throne. during the power of the tutul xius which followed, slavery is said to have been abolished, but must--if indeed the tradition be not altogether unfounded--have been re-introduced at a still later period.[ ] in the annals of other maya nations no time seems to be noted when slaves were not held. this unfortunate class was composed chiefly of captives in war, or of those whose parents had been such; the condition was hereditary, but, in yucatan at least, the children had the right to redeem themselves by settling on unoccupied lands and becoming tribute-payers. foreign slaves were also brought into the country for sale; and cortés speaks of acalan, a city of guatemala, as a place where an extensive trade in human kind was carried on.[ ] in nicaragua a father might sell himself or his children into bondage, when hard pressed by necessity; but in such cases he seems to have had the right of redemption.[ ] in nicaragua and yucatan the thief was enslaved by the owner of stolen property, until such time as he paid its value; he could even be sold to other parties, but it is added that he could only be redeemed in nicaragua with the consent of the cacique. in yucatan, if a slave died or ran away soon after his sale the purchaser was entitled to receive back a portion of the price paid.[ ] [sidenote: treatment of slaves.] kidnapping, according to las casas, was common in guatemala, but the laws against the offence were very severe. he who sold a free native into slavery was clubbed to death, his own wife and children were sold, and a large part of the price received went to fill the public exchequer.[ ] pimentel concludes that slaves were more harshly treated in yucatan than in mexico; gomara and herrera state that no punishment was decreed to him who killed a slave in nicaragua; but in yucatan the killer of another's slave must pay the full value of the property destroyed, and was also amenable to punishment if the murdered slave was his own. in guatemala if a freeman had sexual intercourse with the female slave of another he had to pay the owner her full value or purchase for him another of equal value; but if the woman were a favorite of the owner, the penalty, though still pecuniary, was much increased. in the province of vera paz, as las casas states, if slaves committed fornication with women of their own condition, both parties were slain by having their heads broken between two stones, or by a stick driven down the throat, or by the garrote; the man, however, being sometimes sold for sacrifice. among the pipiles a freeman cohabiting with a slave was himself enslaved, unless pardoned by the high-priest for services rendered in war. in yucatan, as it is expressly stated, and elsewhere probably, the master was permitted to use his female slaves as concubines, but the offspring of such connection could not inherit. thomas gage tells us of a town in guatemala whose inhabitants in the olden time were all slaves and served the people of amatitlan as messengers. the only distinguishing marks of slaves that are mentioned were the shearing of the hair in yucatan, and marks of powdered pine charcoal, called _tile_, in nicaragua.[ ] respecting the tenure of landed property among the maya nations the little information extant applies chiefly to yucatan. the whole country, as we have seen, was divided into many domains, or fiefs, of varying extent, ruled over by nobles, or lords, of different rank. although each lord had, under the king, nearly absolute authority over his domain, yet he does not seem to have been regarded as in any sense the owner of the lands, or to have had a right to sell or in any way alienate them. a certain portion of these lands were set apart for the lord's support, and were worked by his people in common; the rest of the land seems to have been divided among the people, the first occupant being regarded in a certain sense as its owner, and handing it down as an inheritance from generation to generation, but having no right to sell it, and being also obliged to contribute a certain part of its products to the lord of the domain. cogolludo and landa speak of the land as being common property, yet by this they probably do not mean to imply that any man had a right to trespass on the cultivated fields of another, but simply that unoccupied lands might be appropriated by any one for purposes of cultivation. game, fish, and the salt marshes were likewise free to all, but the hunter, fisherman, or salt-maker must pay a tribute to the lords and to the king. in nicaragua land could not be sold, and if the owner wished to change his residence he had to leave all his property to his relatives, since nothing could be removed.[ ] [sidenote: inheritance and taxation.] at a man's death his property, in yucatan, was divided between his sons equally, except that a son who had assisted his father to gain the property might receive more than the rest. daughters inherited nothing, and only received what might be given from motives of kindness by the brothers. in default of sons, the inheritance went to the brothers or nearest male relatives. minor heirs were entrusted to tutors who managed the estate, and from it received a recompense for their services. according to oviedo, property in nicaragua was inherited by the children, but if there were no children, it went to the relatives of both father and mother. squier states that in the latter case all personal property was buried with the deceased.[ ] taxes and tribute paid by the people for the support of the kings and nobles consisted of the products of all the different industries. the merchant contributed from the wares in which he dealt; the farmer from the products of the soil, chiefly maize and cacao; the hunter and fisherman from the game taken in forest and stream. cotton garments, copal, feathers, skins, fowl, salt, honey, and gold-dust composed a large part of the tribute, and slaves are also mentioned in the lists. personal labor in working the lands of the lords, and in supplying his household with wood and water, was also an important element of taxation in the provinces. officials were appointed to assess and collect taxes from all subjects. in yucatan the tribute of the king and that of the local lords were kept separate and were attended to by different officials; but in guatemala it is implied that all taxes were collected together and then distributed to the king and several classes of nobles according to their rank. in the ancient times those who lived in mayapan were exempt from all taxation. in nicaragua, we are told that the teite received no tribute or taxes whatever from his subjects, but in the case of a war or other event involving extraordinary expense, the council decided upon the amount of revenue needed, and chose by lot one of their number to assess and collect it. taxation among the mayas does not seem to have been oppressive, and the attempt to extort excessive tribute contributed largely to the overthrow of the cocome power in the twelfth century.[ ] a sale of property or other contract was legalized in yucatan by the parties drinking before witnesses. a strict fulfillment of all contracts was required both by the law and by public sentiment. heirs and relatives were liable, or at least assumed the liability, for debts; and often paid, as did the lords of the province, the pecuniary penalty incurred by some poor man, especially if the crime had been committed involuntarily or without malice.[ ] [sidenote: administration of justice.] the administration of justice and the execution of the laws were among the mayas entrusted to the officials that have been mentioned in what has been said respecting government. serious crimes or other important matters affecting the interests of the king, of the state, or of the higher ranks of nobility, were referred directly to the royal council presided over by the monarch. the king's lieutenants, or lords of royal blood who ruled over provinces, took cognizance of the more important cases of provincial interest; while petty local questions were decided by subordinate judges, one of whom was appointed in each village or hamlet. but even in the case of the local judges the advice of a council was sought on every occasion, and persons were appointed to assist both judges and parties to the suit in the character of advocates. although these judges had the right to consult with the lord of their province, and the latter, probably, with the royal council, yet after a decision was rendered, there was apparently no right of appeal in any case whatever; but we are told that in yucatan at least a royal commissioner traveled through the provinces and reported regularly on the manner in which the judges performed their duties, and on other matters of public import. both judges and advocates might receive presents from all the parties to a suit, according to cogolludo, and no one thought of applying for justice without bringing some gift proportioned to his means. in guatemala, as las casas states, the judge received half the property of the convicted party; this is probably only to be understood as applying to serious crimes, which involved a confiscation of all property. in vera paz the tax-collectors served also as constables, being empowered to arrest accused parties and witnesses, and to bring them before the judges. very little is known of the order of procedure in the maya courts, but great pains was apparently taken to ascertain all the facts bearing on the case, and to render exact justice to all concerned. court proceedings, testimony, arguments, and decisions are said to have been altogether verbal, there being no evidence that written records were kept as they were by the nahuas, although the maya system of hieroglyphic writing cannot be supposed to have been in any respect inferior to that of the northern nations. nothing in the nature of an oath was exacted from a witness, but to guard against false testimony in yucatan a terrible curse was launched against the perjurer, and a superstitious fear of consequences was supposed to render falsehood impossible. in guatemala so much was the perjurer despised that a fine and a reprimand from the judge were deemed sufficient punishment. torture, if we may credit las casas, by tying the hands, beating with clubs, and the inhalation of smoke, was resorted to in vera paz to extort confession from a person suspected of adultery or other serious crimes. great weight seems to have been attached to material evidence; for instance, it was deemed important to take the thief while in actual possession of the stolen property; and a woman to convict a man of rape must seize and produce in court some portion of his wearing-apparel. the announcement of the judge's decision was, as i have said, delivered verbally, and sometimes, when the parties to the suit were numerous, cogolludo informs us that all were invited to a banquet, during which the verdict was made known. as there was no appeal to a higher tribunal, so there seems to have been no pardoning power, and the judge's final decision was always strictly enforced. except a mention by herrera that the nicaraguan ministers of justice bore fans and rods, i find no account of any distinguishing insignia in the maya tribunals. [sidenote: maya punishments.] punishments inflicted on maya criminals took the form of death, slavery, and pecuniary fines; imprisonment was of rare occurrence, and apparently never inflicted as a punishment, but only for the retention of prisoners until their final punishment was legally determined. cogolludo states that culprits were never beaten, but villagutierre affirms that, at least among the itzas, they were both beaten and put in shackles; and the same author speaks of imprisonment for non-payment of taxes at coban. the death penalty was inflicted by hanging, by beating with the garrote, or club, and by throwing the condemned over a precipice. ximenez mentions burning in guatemala; oviedo speaks of impalements in yucatan; those condemned to death in nicaragua seem to have been sacrificed to the gods by having their hearts cut out; and throwing the body from a wall or precipice is the only method attributed to the pipiles. at a town in yucatan called cachi, oviedo mentions a sharp mast standing in the centre of a square and used by the people for impaling criminals alive. the method of imprisonment, as described by cogolludo, consisted in binding the hands behind the back, placing about the neck a collar of wood and cords, and confining the culprit thus shackled in a wooden cage. at campeche a place of punishment is mentioned by peter martyr and torquemada as having been seen by the early voyagers. three beams or posts were fixed in the ground, to them were attached three cross-beams, and scattered about were blood-stained arrows and spears. this apparatus would indicate, if it was really a place of punishment, a method of inflicting the death-penalty not elsewhere mentioned; and a stone structure adjoining, covered with sculptured emblems of punishment is suggestive of ceremonial rites in connection with executions. the death sentence generally involved the confiscation of the criminal's property and the enslaving of his family. all but the most heinous offences could be expiated by the payment of a fine consisting of slaves or other property, and the whole or a large part of this fine went to the judges, the lords, or the king. murder was punished in all the nations by death, but in yucatan and nicaragua if there were extenuating circumstances, such as great provocation or absence of malice, the crime was atoned by the payment of a fine. in yucatan a minor who took human life became a slave; the killing of another's slave called for payment of the value destroyed; the killing of one's own slave involved a slight penalty or none at all. in nicaragua no penalty was decided upon for the murder of a chief, such a crime being deemed impossible. theft was atoned by a return of the stolen property and the payment of a fine to the public treasury. in case the criminal could not pay the full value he was sold as a slave until such time as he might be able to redeem his freedom. in some cases the amount seems to have been paid with the price he brought as a slave, and in others he served the injured party. fines, however, in most cases seem to have been paid by the relatives and friends of the guilty party, so that the number of persons actually enslaved was perhaps not very large. in guatemala stolen articles of trifling value went with the fine to the public treasury, since the owner would not receive them. the incorrigible thief, when his friends refused to pay his fine, was sometimes put to death; and death was also the penalty for stealing articles of value from the temple. in nicaragua the thief who delayed too long the payment of his fine was sacrificed to the gods; and in salvador, banishment was the punishment for trifling theft, death for stealing larger amounts. landa informs us that in yucatan a noble who so far forgot his position as to steal had his face scarified, a great disgrace. [sidenote: criminal code.] adultery was punished in yucatan and guatemala with death; in the latter if the parties were of the common people they were thrown from a precipice. fornication was atoned by a fine, or if the affronted relatives insisted, by death. a woman who was unchaste was at first reprimanded, and finally, if she persevered in her loose conduct, enslaved. rape in guatemala was punished by death; an unsuccessful attempt at the same, by slavery. marriage with a slave, as already stated, reduced the freeman to a slave's condition; sexual connection with one's own slave was not regarded as a crime. he who committed incest in yucatan was put to death. treason, rebellion, inciting to rebellion, desertion, interference with the payment of royal tribute, and similar offences endangering the well-being of the nations, were sufficient cause for death. in guatemala he who kidnapped a free person and sold him into slavery, lost his life. for an assault resulting in wounds a fine was imposed. he who killed the quetzal, a bird reserved for the kings, was put to death; and the same fate was that of him who took game or fish from another's premises, if the injured party was an enemy and insisted on so severe a penalty. the pipiles condemned a man to be beaten for lying; but the same offence in time of war demanded capital punishment, as did any disrespect shown for the sacred things of religion. ximenez states that in guatemala the _balam_, or sorcerer, was burned; the same offence in vera paz, according to torquemada, caused the guilty party to be beaten to death or hanged. a strict payment of all just debts was enforced, and in guatemala he who bought many things on credit and failed to pay for them was finally enslaved or even killed. both here and in nicaragua the borrower was obliged to return or pay for borrowed articles, and, if the articles were products of the soil, the lender might repay himself from the borrower's field. he who injured another's property, even servants in the lord's palace who broke dishes or furniture, must make good all damage. in yucatan, we are told that a man could not be taken for debt unaccompanied by crime. some additional laws and regulations of the maya nations will appear in their appropriate places in other chapters.[ ] footnotes: [ ] see pp. - of this volume, and especially pp. - , on the maya nations. [ ] although brasseur de bourbourg, on the authority of some of his original mss. perhaps, states that xibalba in the height of its glory was ruled by thirteen princes, two of whom were kings, the second being subordinate to the first; and also that there was a council of twelve, presided over by the king. he also mentions a succession of seventeen kings after votan. _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , , - . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _ordoñez_, _hist. del cielo y de la tierra_, ms.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'si moria el señor, aunque le succediesse el hijo mayor, eran siempre los demas hijos muy acatados, y ayudados y tenidos por señores.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'si quando el señor moria no eran los hijos para regir y tenia hermanos, regia de los hermanos el mayor o el mas desenbuelto y al heredero mostravan sus costumbres y fiestas para quando fuesse hombre y estos hermanos, aunque el eredero fuesse para regir, mandavan toda su vida, y sino avia hermanos, elegian los sacerdotes y gente principal un hombre sufficiente para ello.' _id._, p. . brasseur de bourbourg, in his french translation of this passage, gives a different meaning from what i deem the correct one as given in my text. he understands that the brother succeeded in any case. 'ce n'étaient pas ses fils qui succédaient au gouvernement, mais bien l'aîné de ses frères,' and also that the person appointed by the priests if there was no brother, ruled only during the heir's minority, 'jusqu'à la majorité de l'héritier,' all of which may be very reasonable, but certainly is not found in the spanish text. [ ] 'organisait les conseils de la religion et de l'état qui devaient, après lui, nommer son successeur.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii, pp. - ; _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. . [ ] 'todos los señores tenian cuenta con visitar, respetar, alegrar a cocom, acompañandole y festejandole y acudiendo a el con los negocios arduos.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . a kind of mayordomo called caluac, whose badge of office was a thick short stick, was the agent through whom the lord performed the routine duties of his position. _ib._ 'concertavan las cosas, y negocios principalmente de noche.' _id._, p. . 'fuè todo el reyno de yucatàn, y sus provincias, con el nombre de mayapàn, desde que los indios fueron à èl y le poblaron, sujeto à vn solo rey, y señor absoluto, con govierno monarquico. no durò esto poco tiempo, sino por muchos años.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . among the itzas cortés was visited by 'el canek, con treinta y dos principales.' _id._, p. . 'despues llamó el canek à consejo à todos sus capitanes, y principales.' _id._, p. . 'vno, como à modo, ò forma de trono pequeño, en que èl solia estar.' _id._, p. . 'vna corona de plumas, de varios colores.' _id._, p. . yucatan 'regido de señores particulares, que es el estado de los reies: governavanse por leies, y costumbres buenas; vivian en paz, y en justicia, que es argumento de su buen govierno.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . brasseur refers to torquemada, tom. xi., cap. xix., on yucatan government, but that chapter relates wholly to guatemala. 'quando los señores de la ciudad de mayapàn dominaban, toda la tierra les tributaba.' in later times they attached much importance to their royal blood. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . 'dizese, que vn señor de la ciudad de mayapàn, cabeça de el reyno, hizo matar afrentosamente à vn hermano suyo, porque corrompió vna doncella.' _id._, p. . see also on the system of government in yucatan: _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-iv.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , , , - , ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - , ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, pp. - , - . [ ] 'it was ordained that the eldest son of the king (that is, of the first king who founded the monarchy) should inherit the crown; upon the second son the title of _elect_ was conferred, as being the next heir to his elder brother; the sons of the eldest son received the title of captain senior, and those of the second captain junior. when the king died, his eldest son assumed the sceptre, and the elect became the immediate inheritor; the captain senior ascended to the rank of elect, the captain junior to that of captain senior, and the next nearest relative to that of captain junior.' _juarros_, _hist. guat._, pp. - . 'luego el capitan menor, entraba por maior, y metian otro en el que avia vacado del capitan menor, que ordinariamente era el pariente mas cercano.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'restait alors la charge d'ahau-ah-tohil; elle était conférée au fils aîné du nouveau monarque.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , , . 'luego que el primero subió al reino, mandó el padre (the first king) que el segundo fuese capitain, y mandó por ley, que si fuesen cuatro, que el primero reinase, el segundo fuese como principe, el tercero capitan general, y el cuarto capitan segundo, y que muerto el primero, reinasen todos por su órden, si se alcanzasen en vida.' note, 'bien clara está la descendencia de padres á hijos de todos tres hermanos.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, _escolios_, pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , , with reference to _roman_, _repub. de los indios_, tom. ii., cap. viii. titles in atitlan. _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . 'las prouincias de tazulatlan, gente belicosa y braua, si bien con pulicia, porque viuian en poblaciones formadas, y gouierno de republica.' _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. . tazulatlan, or tuzulutlan, was the province of rabinal. _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. . [ ] 'aqui havia muy grandes, y sumptuosas comidas, y borracheras.' 'sentaban al nuevo electo en vna estera mui pintada.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , - . 'in one of the saloons stood the throne, under four canopies of plumage, the ascent to it was by several steps.' _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. . the twenty-four counsellors 'carried the emperor on their shoulders in his chair of state whenever he quitted his palace.' _id._, p. . 'no se diferenciaba el rey de guatemala ó de utatlán de los otros en el trage, sino en que él traia horadadas las orejas y narices, que se tenia por grandeza.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. , . [ ] 'tenia el rey ciertos varones de gran autoridad y opinion, que eran como oidores, y conocian de todos los pleitos y negocios que se ofrecian;' they collected the royal revenues and attended to the expenses of the royal family. 'tenia en cada pueblo grande sus cancillerias con sus oidores, que eran las cabezas de calpul; pero no era muy grande la comision que tenian.' 'poderosos señores, los quales esperaban su confirmacion de sus estados del dicho rey.' 'aun en las cosas pequeñas y de poca importancia entraban en consulta.' 'unos como alquaciles que servian de llamar y convocar al pueblo.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - , - . the king's lieutenants 'tenian su jurisdicion limitada, la qual no era mas, que la que el señor, ò rei les concedia, reservando para si, y su consejo las cosas graves.' these lieutenants held their positions for life if they were qualified and obedient, but to hold them they must have been promoted from lower offices. 'el consejo no era de qualesquiera personas, sino de aquellas, que mas cursadas estaban en la misma cosa, de que se trataba.' they sometimes called in the aid of foreign nations to depose a tyrant. _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , , . 'there was no instance of any person being appointed to a public office, high or low, who was not selected from the nobility.' _juarros_, _hist. guat._, pp. - . some members of the councils were priests when religious interests were at stake. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec iv., tom. viii., cap. x. 'les personnes ou officiers qui servaient le souverain à la cour se nommaient lolmay, atzihunac, calel, ahuchan. c'étaient les facteurs, les contador, et trésoriers.' _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . 'de l'assemblée des princes des maisons de cawek, d'ahau-quiché et de nihaïb, réunis avec le galel-zakik, et l'ahau-ah-tzutuha, se composait le conseil extraordinaire du monarque.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . the king 'constitua vingt-deux grandes dignités, auxquelles il éleva les membres de la haute aristocratie.' _id._, pp. - . [ ] lists of the nobility. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, pp. - ; _id._, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'nunca tuvieron rei, sino solo elegian los sacerdotes cada año dos capitanes, que eran como governadores, à quien todos obedecian, aunque era maior el respeto, i veneracion, que tenian à los sacerdotes.' _garcía_, _orígen de los ind._, p. ; a statement repeated in _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; and _heredia y sarmiento_, _sermon_, p. . garcía refers to _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xi., where the only statement on the subject is that 'son muy respetados los principales.' [ ] 'no doubt there were individual chiefs who possessed a power superior to the others, exercising a great influence over them, and perhaps arrogating a qualified authority.' _squier's cent. amer._, pp. - ; _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. - , , , , , , tom. iii., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. iii.; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. . [ ] on the status of the priesthood see: _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , , , , , ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x., lib. x., cap. ii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxxiii.; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. , ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. ii., pp. , , , , , , , - . [ ] 'l'idée de la supériorité de caste est tellement évidente dans le _popol-vuh_, par example, que le _peuple_, c'est-à-dire la masse étrangère aux tribus quichées, n'est jamais désigné que sous des nommes d'animaux; ce sont les fourmis, les rats, les singes, les oiseaux, etc.' _viollet-le-duc._, in _charnay_, _ruines amér._, p. . 'acostumbravan buscar en los pueblos los mancos y ciegos y que les davan lo necesario.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'y los señores dauan gouernadores a los pueblos, a los quales encomendauan mucho la paz, y buen tratamiento de la genta menuda.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. '_achih_ ... signifie régulièrement héros, guerrier; il semble toutefois s'appliquer à ceux qui n'appartenaient point à l'aristocratie, mais à une classe intermédiaire entre la noblesse et les serfs ou paysans.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, pp. - , - ; _id._, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . among the pipiles 'los que no eran para la guerra, cultivaban las tierras millpas del cazique i papa i sacerdotes, i de las propias suyas davan un tanto para la gente de guerra.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. . beggars mentioned in nicaragua. _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , , . 'cocom fue primero el que hizo esclavos pero por deste mal se siguio usar las armas con que se defendieron para que no fuessen todos esclavos.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'en las guerras, que por su ambicion hazian vnos à otros, se cautiuaban, quedando hechos esclauos los vencidos, que cogian. en esto eran rigurosissimos, y los trataban con aspereza.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . in nicaragua, helps tells us that only the common captives were enslaved, the chiefs being killed and eaten. _span. conq._, vol. iii., p. . [ ] 'acaesçe que venden los padres á los hijos, é aun cada uno se puede vender á sí proprio, si quiere é por lo que quisiere.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. .) vol. ii., p. . bienvenida says that in yucatan as soon as the father dies the strongest of those who remain enslave the others. in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. , ; _herrera_, _gomara_, and _pimentel_, ubi sup. [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _las casas_, ubi sup.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x., lib. x., cap. iv.; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _gage's new survey_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'las tierras por aora es de comun, y assi el que primero las ocupa las possee.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'las tierras eran comunes, y assi entre los pueblos no auia terminos, ò mojones, que las dividiessen: aunque si entre vna provincia, y otra, por causa de las guerras.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . las casas, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. , speaks of boundary marks between the property of different owners. 'les habitations était pour la plupart dispersées sans former de village.' _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. . 'leur qualité de seigneurs héréditaires ne les rendait pas, pour cela, maîtres du sol ni propriétaires des habitants.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . 'property was much respected (in nicaragua); but ... no man could put up his land for sale. if he wished to leave the district, his property passed to the nearest blood relation, or, in default, to the municipality.' _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. [ ] 'los indios no admittian las hijas a heredar con los hermanos sino era por via de piedad o voluntad.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . 'mejorauan al que mas notablemente auia ayudado al padre, a ganar el hazienda.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _squier_, in _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] 'hanno abondanza di cottone, & ne fanno manti che sono come lenzuoli, e camisette senza maniche, e questo s'è il principal tributo che danno à suoi patroni.' _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. . 'el tributo era mantas pequeñas de algodon, gallinas de la tierra, algun cacao, donde se cogia, y vna resina, que seruia de incienso en los templos, y todo se dize era muy poco en cantidad.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . 'allende de la casa hazian todo el pueblo a los señores sus sementeras, y se las beneficiavan y cogian en cantidad que le bastava a el y a su casa.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , - . 'sus mayordomos ... que recibian los tributos, y los dauan a los señores.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. some authors speak of a tribute of virgins and of a coin called _cuzcas_. _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. . 'jamais l'impôt n'était réparti par tête, mais par ville, village ou hameau.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , , . in guatemala, 'en lo tocante á las rentas del rey y señores, habia este órden, que todo venia á un montón, y de allí le daban al rey su parte, despues daban á los señores, segun cada uno era, y despues daban á los oficiales, y á quienes el rey hacia mercedes.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - . 'ils possédaient les esclaves mâles ou femelles que ces sujets leur payaient en tribut.' _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., p. . [ ] on the maya laws see: _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , - ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., pp. - , tom. iv., pp. - ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. ii.; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, pp. - ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , - ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - ; _id._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. iii., pp. - ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, pp. - ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, pp. - . chapter xxi. education and family matters among the mayas. education of youth--public schools of guatemala--branches of study in yucatan--marrying age--degrees of consanguinity allowed in marriage--preliminaries of marriage--marriage ceremonies--the custom of the droit du seigneur in nicaragua--widows--monogamy--concubinage--divorce--laws concerning adultery--fornication--rape--prostitution--unnatural crimes--desire for children--childbirth ceremonies--rite of circumcision--manner of naming children--baptismal ceremonies. the maya nations appear to have been quite as strict and careful in the education of youth as the nahuas. parents took great pains to instruct their children to respect old age, to reverence the gods, and to honor their father and mother.[ ] they were, besides, encouraged while mere infants to amuse themselves with warlike games, and to practice with the bow and arrow. as they grew older, the children of the poor people were taught to labor and assist their parents. the boys were in their childhood educated by the father, who usually taught them his own trade or calling; the girls were under the especial care of the mother, who, it is said, watched very closely over the conduct of her daughters, scarcely ever permitting them to be out of her sight. children of both sexes remained under the immediate control of their parents until they were of an age to be married, and any disobedience or contumacy was severely punished, sometimes even with death. the boys in guatemala slept under the portico of the house, as it was thought improper that they should observe the conduct and hear the conversation of married people.[ ] in yucatan, also, the young people were kept separate from their elders. in each village was an immense whitewashed shed, under the shelter of which the youths of the place amused themselves during the day, and slept at night.[ ] the various little events in a child's life which among all peoples, savage or civilized, are regarded as of so great importance by anxious mothers, such as its being weaned, its first step, or its first word, were celebrated with feasts and rejoicing; the anniversaries of its birthday were also occasions of much merry-making. the first article that a child made with its own hands was dedicated to the gods.[ ] in yucatan children went naked until they were four or five years old, when the boys were given a breech-clout to wear and a piece of cloth to sleep under; girls began at the same age to wear a petticoat reaching from the waist downward.[ ] in guatemala children were left naked till they were eight or ten years of age, at which time they were required to do light labor.[ ] as soon as a child reached the age of seven years, it was taken by its father to the priest, who foretold its future destiny and instructed it how to draw blood from its body, and perform other religious observances.[ ] [sidenote: education of children.] the mayas entrusted the more advanced education of youth entirely to the priesthood. in guatemala the youths assisted the priests in their duties, and received, in turn, an education suited to their position in life. there were schools in every principal town, at which youths were instructed in all necessary branches by competent teachers. the principal of these was a seminary in which were maintained seventy masters, and from five to six thousand children were educated and provided for at the expense of the royal treasury.[ ] girls were placed in convents, under the superintendence of matrons who were most strict in their guardianship. it is said that they entered when eight years old, and were not free until about to be married.[ ] in yucatan, social distinctions seem to have been more sharply defined than in guatemala. here, the schools of learning were only open to the children of the nobility; a poor man was content to teach his son his own trade or profession. the children of the privileged classes were, however, very highly educated. the boys were initiated, we are told, into the mysteries and strange rites of their religion; they studied law, morals, music, the art of war, astronomy, astrology, divination, prophecy, medicine, poetry, history, picture-writing, and every other branch of knowledge known to their people. the daughters of the nobles were kept in strict seclusion, and were carefully instructed in all the accomplishments required of a maya lady.[ ] in yucatan, the young men usually married at the age of twenty years.[ ] in guatemala, las casas tells us that the men never married until they were thirty, notwithstanding he has previously made the extraordinary assertion that the great prevalence of unnatural lusts made parents anxious to get their children wedded as early as possible.[ ] girls among the higher classes must have been married at a very early age in guatemala, since it is related that when a young noble espoused a maiden not yet arrived at the age of puberty, her father gave him a female slave, to lie with him until the wife reached maturity. the children of this slave could not inherit his property, however.[ ] the guatemalans recognized no relationship on the mother's side only, and did not hesitate to marry their own sister, provided she was by another father.[ ] thus, if a noble lady married an inferior in rank or even a slave, the children belonged to the order of the father, and not of the mother.[ ] torquemada adds that they sometimes married their sisters-in-law and step-mothers.[ ] [sidenote: degrees of kindred.] among the pipiles, of salvador, an ancestral tree, with seven main branches, denoting degrees of kindred, was painted upon cloth, and within these seven branches, or degrees, none were allowed to marry, except as a recompense for some great public or warlike service rendered. within four degrees of consanguinity none, under any pretext, might marry.[ ] in yucatan there was a peculiar prejudice against a man marrying a woman who bore the same name as his own, and so far was this fancy carried that he who did this was looked upon as a renegade and an outcast. here, also, a man could not marry the sister of his deceased wife, his step-mother, or his mother's sister, but with all other relatives on the maternal side, no matter how close, marriage was perfectly legitimate. a yucatec noble who wedded a woman of inferior degree, descended to her social level, and was dispossessed of a part of his property, and deprived of his rank.[ ] in nicaragua no one might marry within the first degree of relationship, but beyond that there was no restriction.[ ] the question of dowry was settled in guatemala by the relatives of the young couple.[ ] the yucatec son-in-law served his father-in-law for four or five years, and the omission of such service was considered scandalous;[ ] while in nicaragua the dower was usually paid in fruit or land.[ ] each of the maya nations seems to have had a method of arranging marriages peculiar to itself. in guatemala the whole affair was managed by the nearest relatives of the betrothed pair, who were kept in profound ignorance of the coming event, and did not even know each other until the day of the wedding. it seems incredible that the young men should have quietly submitted to having their wives picked out for them without being allowed any voice or choice in the matter. yet we are told that so great was their obedience and submission to their parents, that there never was any scandal in these things. if this be the case, what a strange phenomenon guatemalan society must have been, with no love affairs, no wooing permitted, and cupid a banished boy. but, for all that, many a guatemalan youth may have looked coldly upon his bride as he thought of another and, to him, fairer face, and many a loyal young wife may have been sometimes troubled with the vision of a comely form that she had admired before she saw her lord. [sidenote: preliminaries of marriage.] when a man of rank wished to marry his son, he sent a number of his friends with presents to the parents of the young girl upon whom his choice had fallen. if the presents were refused it was a sign that the offer of alliance was declined, and no farther steps were taken in the matter; but if they were accepted it showed that the match was thought a desirable one. in the latter case, a few days having elapsed, another embassy, bearing more costly gifts than before, was dispatched to the parents of the girl, who were again asked to give their consent to the marriage. finally, a third deputation was sent, and this generally succeeded in satisfactorily arranging the affair. the two families then commenced to treat each other as relations, and to visit each other for the purposes of determining the day of the wedding and making preparations for the event. among the lower classes the father usually demanded the bride of her parents in person.[ ] it was customary among the pipiles of salvador for the father of the boy, after having obtained the consent of the girl's parents to the match, to take her to his house when she was twelve years of age, and his son fourteen, and there educate and maintain her as if she were his own child. in return he was entitled to her services and those of his son, until they were able to sustain themselves, and of a suitable age to marry. the parents of the couple then jointly made them a present of a house and gave them the means to start in life. thereafter, if the young man met his father-in-law in the street, he crossed to the other side of the way, and the girl paid the same courtesy to her mother-in-law.[ ] in the greater part of nicaragua matches were arranged by the parents, but there were certain independent towns in which the girls chose their husbands from among the young men, while the latter were sitting at a feast.[ ] i have already alluded to the fact that if in guatemala or yucatan a young man married into a rank lower than his own he lost caste in consequence, hence his parents were the more careful to select for him a bride from among the maidens of his own standing in society. among the mayas of yucatan when the day appointed for a marriage ceremony arrived, the invited friends assembled at the house of the bride's father, where the betrothed couple with their parents and the officiating priest were already waiting. for the joyful occasion a great feast was prepared, as it was customary to incur a large expense in food and wine for the entertainment of invited guests. when all were present, the priest called the bride and bridegroom with their parents before him and delivered to them an address concerning the duties of the wedded state. he then offered incense and certain prayers to the gods, concluding the ceremony by asking a blessing from heaven for the newly wedded couple.[ ] no ceremonies took place when a widow or widower was married; in such case a simple repast or the giving of food and drink one to another was deemed sufficient to solemnize the nuptials.[ ] [sidenote: marriage ceremonies.] it was customary in guatemala, when all preliminaries of a marriage had been settled and the day fixed for the wedding, for the bridegroom's father to send a deputation of old women and principal men to conduct the bride to his house. one of those sent for this purpose carried her upon his shoulders, and when they arrived at a certain designated point near the bridegroom's home, she was met by other men also chosen by her father-in-law, who offered incense four or five times before her and sacrificed some quail or other birds to the gods, at the same time giving thanks for her safe arrival. as soon as she came to the house she was seated with much ceremony upon a couch covered with mats or rich carpets; immediately a number of singers began a song suited to the occasion; musicians played on their instruments; dancers came forth and danced before her.[ ] the consent of the cacique had to be obtained to all marriages that were celebrated in his territory; before the ceremony the priest desired the young man and his bride to confess to him all the sins of their past life. no person was allowed to marry in yucatan until the rite of baptism had been administered.[ ] in guatemala, if the betrothed belonged to the higher classes of society, the cacique joined their hands and then tied the end of the man's mantle to a corner of the woman's dress, at the same time advising them to be faithful and loving toward each other. the ceremony ended, all partook of the wedding feast and the bride and bridegroom were carried to the house intended for them, upon the shoulders of some of those who had assisted at the marriage; they were then conducted to the bridal chamber and, as ximenez tells us, received instructions from two of the most honored old women respecting certain marital duties.[ ] the marriage ceremonies of the pipiles were simple and unique; matches were made by the cacique and carried into effect under his direction. at the appointed time the kinsfolk of the bride proceeded to the house of the bridegroom, whence he was borne to the river and washed. the relatives of the bride performed the same act of cleansing upon the person of the bride. the two parties with their respective charges then repaired to the house of the bride. the couple were now tied together by the ends of the blankets, in which they were enfolded naked and laid away--married.[ ] after the ceremony an interchange of presents took place between the relatives of the newly married couple and they all feasted together. among the civilized nations of nicaragua, when a match was arranged to the satisfaction of the parents, some fowls were killed, cacao was prepared, and the neighbors were invited to be present. the father, mother, or whoever gave away the bride, was asked in presence of the assembled guests whether or not she came as a virgin; if the answer was in the affirmative, and the husband afterwards found that she had been already seduced, he had the right to return her to her parents and she was looked upon as a bad woman; but if the parents answered that she was not a virgin, and the man agreed to take her for a wife, the marriage was valid.[ ] when they were to be united the cacique took the parties with his right hand by the little fingers of their left hands and led them into the house set apart for marriages, leaving them, after some words of advice, in a small room, where there was a fire of candlewood. while the fire lasted they were expected to remain perfectly still, and not until it was burned out did they proceed to consummate the marriage. the following day if the husband made no objection in respect to the girl's virginity, the relations and friends assembled and expressed their gratification with loud cries of joy, and passed the day in feasting and pleasure.[ ] [sidenote: droit de seigneur.] notwithstanding the disgrace attached to a woman who had lost her virginity before marriage and concealed the fact, we are assured by andagoya that in nicaragua a custom similar to the european 'droit du seigneur' was practiced by a priest living in the temple, who slept with the bride during the night preceding her marriage.[ ] a widow was looked upon as the property of the family of her deceased husband, to whose brother she was invariably married, even though he might have a wife of his own at the time. if she had no brother-in-law, then she was united to the nearest living relative on her husband's side.[ ] in yucatan, the widow could not marry again until after a year from her husband's death.[ ] monogamy seems to have been the rule among the maya nations, and many authors assert positively that polygamy did not exist. it was only in the border state of chiapas that the custom is mentioned by remesal. to compensate for this, concubinage was largely indulged in by the wealthy. the punishment for bigamy was severe, and consisted, in nicaragua, of banishment and confiscation of the entire property for the benefit of the injured wife or husband, who was at liberty to marry again, a privilege which was not, however, accorded to women who had children. landa tells us that the chichen itza kings lived in a state of strict celibacy, and diaz relates that a tower was pointed out to him on the coast of yucatan, which was occupied by women who had dedicated themselves to a single life.[ ] with their loveless marriages it was fortunate that divorce could be obtained on very slight grounds. in yucatan, says landa, the father would, after a final separation, procure one wife after another to suit the tastes of his son. if the children were still of tender age at the time the parents separated, they were left with the mother; if grown up, the boys followed the father, while the girls remained with the mother. it was not unusual for the husband to return to the wife after a while, if she was free, regardless of the fact that she had belonged to another in the meantime.[ ] in guatemala the wife could leave her husband on the same slight grounds as the man, and if she refused to return to him after being requested to do so, he was allowed to marry again; she was then considered free, and held of no little consequence. in nicaragua the husband decided whether the children were to remain with him or the divorced wife.[ ] [sidenote: intercourse of the sexes.] the mayas seem to have dealt more leniently with adulterers than the nahuas. in guatemala, the married man who committed adultery with a maiden was, upon complaint of the girl's relations, compelled to pay as a fine from sixty to one hundred rare feathers. it generally happened, however, that the friends of the woman were careful to keep the matter secret, as such a scandal would cause great injury to her future prospects. if a married man was known to sin with a married woman or a widow, both were for the first or even the second offence merely warned, and condemned to pay a fine of feathers; but if they persevered in their crime, then their hands were bound behind their backs, and they were forced to inhale the smoke of a certain herb called _tabacoyay_, which, although very painful, was not a fatal punishment. the single man who committed adultery with a married woman was obliged to pay to the parents of the latter the amount which her husband had paid for her; doubtless this fine was handed over to the injured husband, who, in such a case, repudiated his wife. it sometimes happened, however, that the husband did not report the matter to the authorities, but gave his unfaithful wife a bird of the kind which was used in sacrifices, and told her to offer it to the gods, and, with her companion in crime, to confess and be forgiven. such a husband was regarded as a most virtuous and humane man.[ ] a noble lady taken in adultery was reprimanded the first time, and severely punished or repudiated for the second offence. in the latter case she was free to marry again.[ ] it was a capital crime to commit adultery with a lord's wife; if he who did so was a noble, they strangled him, but if he was a plebeian, they flung him down a precipice.[ ] cogolludo says that among the itzas the man and woman taken in adultery were put to death. the woman was taken beyond the limits of the town to a place where there were many loose stones. there she was bound to a post, and the priest who had judged her having cast the first stone, and the injured husband the second, the crowd that was never missing on such occasions joined so eagerly in the sport that the death of their target was a speedy one. the male adulterer, according to the same account, was also bound to a post, and shot to death in the same manner with arrows.[ ] [sidenote: adultery and fornication.] in vera paz, incorrigible adulterers were enslaved.[ ] in nicaragua, the faithless wife was repudiated by her husband, and not allowed to marry again, but she had the right of retaining her dowry and effects. the adulterer was severely beaten with sticks, by the relations of the woman he had led astray. the husband appears to have taken no part in the matter.[ ] in yucatan, adultery was punished with death. according to cogolludo, offenders of both sexes were shot to death with arrows; landa tells us that the man was killed with a stone by the husband of his paramour, but the woman was punished with disgrace only. it is said that in more ancient times adulterers were impaled or disemboweled. but so great was the horror in which the yucatecs held this crime, that they did not always wait for conviction, but sometimes punished a suspected person by binding him, stripping him naked, shaving off his hair, and thus leaving him for a time.[ ] among the pipiles of salvador he who made advances to a married woman, and did nothing worse, was banished, and his property was confiscated. the adulterer, if we may believe palacio,[ ] was put to death; squier says he became the slave of the dishonored husband.[ ] simple fornication was punished with a fine, to be paid in feathers of a certain rare bird, which, by the laws of vera paz at least, it was death to kill without express permission, as its plumage formed a most valuable article of trade with the neighboring provinces.[ ] but if any complaint was raised, such as by a father in behalf of his daughter, or by a brother for his sister, the seducer was put to death, or at least made a slave.[ ] in yucatan, death seems to have been the inevitable fate of the seducer.[ ] in guatemala and salvador, consummated rape was punished with death. he who merely attempted rape was enslaved.[ ] in nicaragua, the penalty for this crime was not so severe, since he who committed it was only obliged to compensate pecuniarily the parents of his victim; though if he could not do this he became their slave. he who ravished the daughter of his employer or lord was, however, always put to death.[ ] incest is said to have been an unknown crime.[ ] public prostitution was tolerated, if not encouraged, among all the maya nations. in every nicaraguan town there were establishments kept by public women, who sold their favors for ten cocoa-nibs, and maintained professional bullies to protect and accompany them at home and abroad. parents could prostitute their daughters without shame; and it is said, further, that during a certain annual festival, women, of whatever condition, could abandon themselves to the embrace of whomever they pleased, without incurring any disgrace.[ ] it was no unusual thing for parents of the lower orders to send their daughters on a tour through the land, that they might earn their marriage portion by prostitution.[ ] [sidenote: unnatural vices.] all the old writers appear anxious to clear the civilized aborigines from the charge of sodomy, yet the fact that no nation was without strict laws regarding this unnatural vice, combined with the admissions reluctantly made by the reverend fathers themselves, seems to show that pederasty certainly was not unknown. thus, las casas says that sodomy was looked upon as a great and abominable sin in vera paz, and was not known until a god,[ ] called by some chin, by others cavil, and again by others maran, instructed them by committing the act with another deity. hence it was held by many to be no sin, inasmuch as a god had introduced it among them. and thus it happened that some fathers gave their sons a boy to use as a woman; and if any other approached this boy he was treated as an adulterer. nevertheless, if a man committed a rape upon a boy, he was punished in the same manner as if he had ravished a woman. and, adds the same writer, there were always some who reprehended this abominable custom.[ ] in yucatan certain images were found by bernal diaz which would lead us to suppose that the natives were at least acquainted with sodomy,[ ] but here again the good father[ ] takes up the cudgels in behalf of his favorites. in nicaragua sodomites were stoned to death.[ ] the desire to possess children seems to have been very general, and many were the prayers and offerings made by disappointed parents to propitiate the god whose anger was supposed to have deferred their hopes. to further promote the efficacy of their prayers, the priest enjoined upon man and wife to separate for a month or two, to adhere to a simple diet, and abstain from salt.[ ] several superstitious observances were also regarded; thus, among the pipiles, a husband should avoid meeting his father-in-law, or a wife her mother-in-law, lest issue fail them.[ ] these observances tend the more to illustrate their longing to become parents, since the women are said to have been very prolific. the women were delivered with little difficulty or pain,[ ] yet a midwife was called in, who attended to the mother's wants, and facilitated parturition by placing a heated stone upon the abdomen. in yucatan an image of _ixchel_, the goddess of childbirth, was placed beneath the bed. among the pipiles and in guatemala, the woman was confessed when any difficulty arose, and it not unfrequently happened that an officer of justice took advantage of such opportunities to obtain criminating evidence. if the wife's confession alone did not have the desired effect, the husband was called upon to avow his sins; his maxtli was besides laid over the wife, and sometimes blood was drawn from his tongue and ears, to be scattered towards the four quarters with various invocations.[ ] after delivery a turkey hen was immolated, and thanks rendered to the deity for the happy issue. the midwife thereupon washed the child, placed a bow and arrow in its hands, if a boy, a spindle, if a girl, and drew a mark upon its right foot, so that it might become a good mountaineer. [sidenote: childbirth and circumcision.] the birth of a son was celebrated with especial rejoicings, and extensive invitations issued for the feasts that took place on or about the day when the umbilical cord was to be cut,[ ] a ceremony which seems to have borne the same festive character as baptism among the nahuas and other nations. the _ahgih_, astrologer, was asked to name a favorable day for the rite. the cord was then laid upon an ear of maize to be cut off with a new knife and burned. the grains were removed from the cob and sown at the proper season; one half of the yield to be made into gruel and form the first food of the child aside from the mother's milk, the other half to be sent to the ahgih, after reserving a few grains for the child to sow with his own hands when he grew up, and make an offering thereof to his god. at the same time a kind of circumcision may have been performed, a rite which could not, however, have been very general, if indeed it ever existed, for cogolludo positively asserts that it never was practiced in yucatan, and landa thinks that the custom of slitting the foreskin, which the devout performed before the idol, may have given rise to the report. palacio asserts that certain indians in salvador are known to have scarified themselves as well as some boys in the same manner.[ ] [sidenote: naming the children.] the naming of the child was the next important affair. among the pipiles it was taken to the temple on the twelfth day, over a road strewn with green branches,[ ] and here the priest gave it the name of its grandfather or grandmother, after which offerings of cacao and fowl were presented to the idol, and some gifts to the minister. in guatemala the child was named after the god to whom the day of its birth was dedicated, for it was not thought desirable to call it after the parents; other names were, however, applied afterwards, according to circumstances.[ ] las casas adds that the parents lost their name on the birth of the first son and daughter, the father being called 'father of ek,' or whatever might be the name of the son, and the mother receiving the cognomen of 'mother of can,' etc.[ ] the itzas gave their children a name formed of the combined names of the father and mother, that of the latter standing first; thus, in canek, _can_ is taken from the mother's name, _ek_ from the father's. in yucatan, the former home of this people, the custom was almost the same, except that _na_ was prefixed to the names of the parents; thus, na-chan-chel denoted son of chel and chan, but as the name of the father, according to landa, was perpetuated in the son only, not in the daughter, it follows that the girl could not have been named in the same order; it is possible that the mother's name was placed last, and served as surname in their case. in later years this name was not usually imposed until the time of baptism; but in earlier times a distinctive name was given by the priest at the time of taking the horoscope, shortly after birth. the name of the father was borne till the marriage day, the names of both parents being assumed after that event.[ ] on the conclusion of the above ceremonies, the guatemalan or pipile infant and mother were taken to a fountain or river, near a fall if possible, to be bathed, and during the bath incense, birds, or cacao were offered to the water, apparently with a view of gaining the good will of the god of that element. the utensils which had served at the birth, such as warming stone, cups, and knife, were thrown into the water at the same time.[ ] the mothers were good and patient nurses, suckling their infants for over three years, for the habit of taking warm morning drinks, the exercise of grinding maize, and the uncovered bosom, all tended to produce large breasts and an abundant supply of milk. otherwise the children received a hardy training, clothing being dispensed with, and the bare ground serving for a couch. when working, the mother carried them on her back; in yucatan, however, they were usually borne across the hip, and for this reason a large number became bow-legged. landa also mentions another deformity, that produced by head-flattening, which is to be noticed on the sculptures of the maya ruins.[ ] [sidenote: baptismal ceremonies.] it is related by all the old spanish historians, that when the spaniards first visited the kingdom of yucatan they found there traces of a baptismal rite; and, strangely enough, the name given to this rite in the language of the inhabitants, was _zihil_, signifying 'to be born again.' it was the duty of all to have their children baptized, for, by this ablution they believed that they received a purer nature, were protected against evil spirits and future misfortunes. i have already mentioned that no one could marry unless he had been baptised according to their customs; they held, moreover, that an unbaptised person, whether man or woman, could not lead a good life, nor do anything well. the rite was administered to children of both sexes at any time between the ages of three and twelve years. when parents desired to have a child baptised they notified the priest of their intentions. the latter then published a notice throughout the town of the day upon which the ceremony would take place, being first careful to fix upon a day of good omen. this done, the fathers of the children who were to be baptised, selected five of the most honored men of the town to assist the priest during the ceremony. these were called _chacs_.[ ] during the three days preceding the ceremony the fathers and assistants fasted and abstained from women. when the appointed day arrived, all assembled with the children who were to be baptised, in the house of the giver of the feast, who was usually one of the wealthiest of the parents. in the courtyard fresh leaves were strewn, and there the boys were ranged in a row in charge of their godfathers, while in another row were the girls with their godmothers. the priest now proceeded to purify the house with the object of casting out the devil. for this purpose four benches were placed one in each of the four corners of the courtyard, upon which were seated four of the assistants holding a long cord that passed from one to the other, thus enclosing part of the yard; within this enclosure were the children and those fathers and officials who had fasted. a bench was placed in the centre, upon which the priest was seated with a brazier, some ground corn, and incense. the children were directed to approach one by one, and the priest gave to each a little of the ground corn and incense, which, as they received it, they cast into the brazier. when this had been done by all, they took the cord and brazier, with a vessel of wine, and gave them to a man to carry outside the town, with injunctions not to drink any of the wine, and not to look behind him; with such ceremony the devil was expelled.[ ] the yard was then swept clean, and some leaves of a tree called _cihom_, and of another called _copo_, were scattered over it. the priest now clothed himself in long gaudy-looking robes, consisting, according to landa, of a jacket of red feathers with flowers of various colors embroidered thereon; hanging from the ends were other long feathers, and on his head a coronet of plumes. from beneath the jacket long bands of cotton hung down to the ground. in his hand he held some hyssop fastened to a short stick. the chacs then put white cloths upon the children's heads and asked the elder if they had committed any sins; such as confessed that they had, were then placed apart. the priest then ordered the people to sit down and be silent; he next blessed the boys, and offering up some prayers, purified them with the hyssop with much solemnity. the principal officer who had been elected by the fathers, now took a bone, and having dipped it in a certain water, moistened their foreheads, their features, and their fingers and toes.[ ] after they had been thus sprinkled with water the priest arose and removed the cloths from the heads of the children, and then cut off with a stone knife a certain bead that was attached to the head from childhood; they were then given by one of the assistants some flowers to smell, and a pipe through which they drew some smoke, after which they were each presented with a little food, and a vessel full of wine was brought as an offering to the gods, who were entreated to receive it as a thanksgiving from the boys; it was then handed to one of the officials, who had to drink it at one draught. a similar ceremony took place with the female children, at the conclusion of which their mothers divested them of a cord, which was worn during their childhood, fastened round the loins, having a small shell that hung in front. the removal of this signified that they could marry as soon as their parents permitted.[ ] the children were then dismissed, and their fathers distributed presents among those who had assisted at the ceremony. a grand banquet called _emku_, or 'the descent of god,' was then held, and during the nine succeeding days the fathers of the children fasted, and were not to approach their wives.[ ] [sidenote: domestic discipline.] the nicaraguan husbands are said to have been so much under the control of their wives that they were obliged to do the housework while the women attended to the trading. the latter were, moreover, great shrews, and would on the slightest provocation drive their offending husbands out of the house; we are told that it was no unusual occurrence for the neighbors to be suddenly called in to appease some unfortunate man's xanthippe.[ ] the women of yucatan were renowned for their modesty and conjugal faithfulness. landa, one of the first bishops of yucatan, relates an anecdote illustrating this trait. alonso lopez de avila, during the war against bacalar, took prisoner a very beautiful indian girl. struck by her beauty the captor endeavored by all means to induce her to gratify his desires, but in vain. she had promised her warrior-husband, who during those perilous times was constantly face to face with death, that none but he should ever call her wife; how then, while perhaps he yet lived, could she become another's mistress. but such arguments did not quench the spaniard's lust, and as she remained steadfast, he ordered her to be cast among the bloodhounds, who devoured her--a martyr at the hands of the men who pretended to preach jesus christ, and him crucified.[ ] footnotes: [ ] they were taught, says las casas, 'que honrasen á los padres y les fuesen obedientes; que no tuviesen codicia de muchos bienes; que no adulterasen con muger agena; que no fornicasen, ni llegasen á muger, sino á la que fuese suya; que no mirasen á las mugeres para codiciarlas, diciendo que no traspasasen umbral ageno; que si anduviesen de noche por el pueblo, que llevasen lumbre en la mano; que siguiesen su camino derecho, que no bajasen de camino, ni subiesen tampoco del; que á los ciegos no les pusiesen ofendiculo para que cayesen; á los lisiados no escarneciesen y de los locos no se riesen, porque todo aquello era malo; que trabajen y no estubiesen ociosos; y para esto desde niños les enseñavan como havian de hacer las sementeras y como beneficiallas y cogellas.' _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . brasseur de bourbourg remarks that the respectful term of _you_ instead of _thou_, is frequently used by children when addressing their parents, in the popol vuh. _popol vuh_, p. . the old people 'eran tan estimados en esto que los moços no tratavan con viejos, sino era en cosas inevitables, y los moços por casar; con los casados sino muy poco.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'dormian en los portales no solo cuando hacian su ayuno, mas aun casi todo el año, porque no les era permitido tratar ni saber de los negocios de los casados, ni aun sabian cuando habian de casarse, hasta el tiempo que les presentaban las mugeres, porque eran muy sujetos y obedientes á sus padres. cuando aquestos mancebos iban á sus casas a ver á sus padres ... tenian su cuenta de que no hablasen los padres cosa que fuese menos honesta.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxix.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., says that in later times they married at twelve or fourteen. [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . this is the same passage that brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , cites as _roman_, _rep. ind._, tom. ii., cap. x. [ ] 'los indios de la vera-paz muchas veces, segun el parentesco, que vsaban, era fuerça que casasen hermanos con hermanas, y era la raçon esta: acostumbraban no casar los de vn tribu, ò pueblo, con las mugeres del mismo pueblo, y las buscaban, que fuesen de otro; porque no contaban por de su familia, y parentesco los hijos que nacian en el tribu ò linage ageno, aunque la muger huviese procedido de su mismo linage; y era la raçon, porque aquel parentesco se atribuìa à solo los hombres. por manera, que si algun señor daba su hija à otro de otro pueblo, aunque no tuviese otro heredero este señor, sino solos los nietos, hijos de su hija, no los reconocia por nietos, ni parientes, en raçon de hacerlos herederos, por ser hijos del otro señor de otros pueblos y asi se le buscaba al tal señor, muger que fuese de otro pueblo, y no de el proprio. y asi sucedia, que los hijos de estas mugeres, no tenian por parientes à los deudos de su madre, por estàr en otro pueblo, y esto se entiende, en quanto à casarse con ellas, que lo tenian por licito, aunque en lo demàs se reconocian. y porque la cuenta de su parentesco era entre solos los hombres, y no por parte de las mugeres. y por esto no tenian impedimento, para casarse, con los tales parientes; y asi se casaban con todos los grados de consanguinidad, porque mas por hermana tenian qualquiera muger de su linage, aunque fuese remotisima, y no tuviese memoria del grado, en que le tocaba, que la hija de su propia madre, como fuese havida de otro marido, y por este error se casaban, con las hermanas de madre, y no de padre.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'en lo que tocava al parentesco, tenian un arbol pintado, i en el siete ramos que signifacava siete grados de parentesco. en estos grados no se podia casar nadie, i esto se entendia por linea recta si no fuese que alguno huviese fecho algun gran fecho en armas, i havia de ser del tercero grado fuera; i por linea traversa tenia otro arbol con quatro ramos que significaban el quarto grado, en estos no se podia casar nadie.... qualquiera que tenia quenta carnal con parienta en los grados susodichos morian por ello ambos.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x.; _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . 'los dotes eran de vestidos, y cosas de poca sustancia, lo mas se gastaua en los combites.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'haziase vna platica de como se auia tratado, y mirado aquel casamiento, y que quadraua: hecha la platica el sacerdote sahumaua la casa; y con oraciones bendezia a los nouios, y quedauan casados.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _ib._; _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'llegada á casa, luego la ponian y asentaban en un tálamo bien aderezado, y comenzaban grandes bailes y cantares y otros regocijos muchos, con que la fiesta era muy solemne.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'sin él ninguno se casaba.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. . [ ] 'a la noche, dos mugeres honradas y viejas metíanlos en una pieza, y enseñàbanlos como habian de haberse en el matrimonio.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] palacio says they were each wrapped in a new white mantle. 'ambos los enbolvian cada qual en su manta blanca nueva.' _carta_, p. . see also _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x.; _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] 'si la tomo por virgen, y la halla corrompida, desecha la, mas no de otra manera.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'los novios se están quedos, mirando cómo aquella poca tea se quema; é acabada, quedan casados é ponen en efetto lo demás.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . 'en muriendose la lumbre, quedan casados.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . [ ] 'la noche ántes habia de dormir con la novia uno que tenian por papa.' _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., cap. xii. oviedo perhaps alludes to this custom when he says: 'muchos hay que quieren más las corrompidas que no las vírgenes.' _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . [ ] 'comunmente estas gentes compraban la muger, y aquellos dones que llevaban, era el precio, y así la muger jamas volvía á casa de sus padres aunque enviudase; porque luego el hermano del muerto la tomaba por muger _aunque él fuese casado_, y si el hermano no era para ello, un pariente tenia derecho á ella. los hijos de las tales mugeres no tenian por deudos á los tales abuelos, ni á los demas deudos de las madres, porque la cuenta de su parentesco venia por linea de varones, y así no tenian impedimentos para casarse con los parientes de sus madres, esto se entiende para contraer matrimonio; que en lo demas amábanse y queríanse unos à otros.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] 'no se casavan despues de viudos un año, por no conocer hombre a muger en aquel tiempo, y a los que esto no guardavan, tenian por poco templados y que les vendria por esso algun mal.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . 'todos toman muchas mugeres, empero vna es la legitima,' says gomara, _hist. ind._, fol. , in speaking of nicaragua. 'comunmente cada uno tiene una sola muger, é pocos son los que tienen más, exçepto los prinçipales ó el que puede dar de comer á más mugeres; é los caçiques quantas quieren.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . the word 'muger' evidently means women who lived with the man, the wife and concubines, for, on p. , it is stated that only one legitimate wife was allowed. the punishment for bigamy helps to bear this out. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , . 'nunca los yucataneses tomaron mas de una.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . this view is also taken by cogolludo, _hist. yuc._, p. , who adds, however: 'contradize aguilar en su informe lo de vna muger sola, diziendo, que tenian muchas;' but this may refer to concubines. brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , says: 'la pluralité des femmes étant admises par la loi,' and gives _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., as his authority; but this author merely refers to concubinage as being lawful. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . 'tenian grandes pendencias, y muertes sobre ello,' says herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., referring to their married life. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . 'acontecio quexarse vn indio contra vn alcalde de su nacion, que sin pedimento suyo hauia castigado a su muger por ocho adulterios, y hechole pagar a el la condenacion, de manera que aliende de su afrenta, le lleuaua su dinero.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. viii. 'cuando queria que la muger se huia y se iba con otro, ó por sencillas se volvia en casa de sus padres, requeríala el marido que volviese, y si no queria, él se podia casar luego con otra, porque en este caso las mugeres eran poderosas y libres. algunos sufrian un año aguardándolas; pero lo comun era casarse luego, porque no podian vivir sin mugeres, á causa de no tener quien les guisese de comer.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] 'quando las mugeres eran halladas en adulterio, la primera vez eran corregidas de palabra; y si no se enmendaban, repudiábanlas; y si era señor, hermano ó pariente del señor de la tierra, luego en dejándola, se podia casarse con quien quisiere. los vasallos hacian tambien esto muchas veces, pero tenian un poco de mas paciencia, porque las corregian dos y cinco veces, y llamaban á sus parientes para que las reprehendiesen. pero si eran incorregibles, denunciaban ellas delante del señor, el cual las mandaba comparecer ante sí y hacianlas esclavas, y la misma pena se daba á las que no querian hacer vida con sus maridos.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - . [ ] oviedo asserts that the husband avenged his own honor. the friar asks: '¿qué pena le dan al adúltero, que se echa con la muger de otro?' the indian answers: 'el marido della riñe con él é le da de palos; pero no lo mata.' _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . squier, _nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. , says that the woman was also severely flogged, but this does not seem to have been the case. see _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii.; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] _carta_, p. . [ ] _cent. amer._, p. . [ ] _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. , ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x.; _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , , tom. iv., pp. , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _müller_, _amerikanische urreligionen_, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., pp. - ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . 'dado que e vido que en otras partes de las indias usavan del nefando peccado en estas tales casas, en esta tierra (yucatan) no e entendido que hiziessen tal, ni creo lo hazian, porque los llagados desta pestilencial miseria dizen que no son amigos de mugeres como eran estos, ca a estos lugares llevavan las malas mugeres publicas, y en ellos usavan dellas, y las pobres que entre esta gente acertava a tener este officio no obstante que recibian dellos gualardon, eran tantos los mocos que a ellas acudian que las traian acossadas y muertas.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. v., cap. xii.; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., pp. - . [ ] a demon, las casas calls him, but these monks spoke of all the new world deities as 'demons.' [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . before this he writes: 'y es aqui de saber, que tenian por grave pecado el de la sodomia como abajo dirémos, y comunmente los padres lo aborrecian y prohibian á los hijos. pero por causa de que fuesen instruidos en la religion, mandavanles dormir en los templos donde los mozos mayores en aquel vicio á los niños corrompian. y despues salidos de alli mal acostumbrados, dificil era librarlos de aquel vicio. por esta causa eran los padres muy solicitos de casarlos quan presto podian, por los apartar de aquella corrupcion vilissima aunque casallos muchachos contra su voluntad y forzados, y solamente por aquel respeto lo hacian.' _id._, pp. - . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] 'otro acerrimo infamador de estas naciones, que dios nuestro señor haya, en cuya historia creo yo que tuvo dios harto poca parte, dixo ser indicio notorio de que aquellas gentes eran contaminadas del vicio nefando por haver hallado en cierta parte de aquella tierra, hechos de barro ciertos idolos uno encima de otro. como si entre nuestros pintores ó figulos no se finjan cada dia figuras feas y de diversos actos, que no hay sopecha por nadie obrarse, condenarlos todos por aquello, haciendolos reos de vicio tan indigno de se hablar, no carece de muy culpable temeridad, y asi lo que ariba dije tengo por la verdad, y lo demas por falsos testimonios dignos de divino castigo.' _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] 'que comiesen el pan seco ó solo maiz, ó que estuviesen tantos dias en el campo metidos en alguna cueva.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] in vera paz 'las mugeres paren como cabras, muchas vezes a solas, tendidas en el suelo: otras por los caminos, y luego se van a lauar al rio.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'le hazian dezir sus pecados i si no paria, hazia que se confesase el marido, i si no podia con esto, si havia dicho i confesado que conofia alguno, ivan á casa de aquel i traian de su casa la manta é pañetes i ceiñola á la preñada paraque pariese.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] it would seem that the child remained with the navel-string attached to it until a favorable day was selected for performing the ceremony of cutting it. 'echaban suertes para ver que dia seria bueno para cortar el ombligo.' and further on: 'muchos tribus de indios de centro-america conservan hasta hoy al nacimiento de un niño el uso de quemarle el ombligo; costumbre barbara de que mueron muchos niños.' this would indicate that the cord was burned while attached to the infant. _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] in cezori 'ciertos indios idolatraron en un monte en sus terminos, i entre ellos que uno se harpó i hendió su miembro, i que circuncidaron quatro muchachos de doze años para arriba al uso judaico, i la sangre que salio dellos la sacrificaron á un idolo.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. . 'se harpavan el superfluo del miembro vergonçoso, dexandolo como las orejas, de lo qual se engaño el historiador general de las indias, diziendo que se circumcidian.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . 'ni aquellos religiosos dominicos, ni el obispo de chiapa, haziendo tan particular inquisicion, hazen memoria de auer hallado tal cosa ... los indios, ni estos tienen tradicion de que vsassen tal costumbre sus ascendientes.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . 'they are circumcised, but not all.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. i. circumcision was 'un usage général dans l'yucatan, observé de temps immémorial: elle était pratiquée sur les petits enfants dès les premiers jours de leur naissance.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . this positive and isolated assertion of the abbé must be founded upon some of his mss., as usual. [ ] 'cortarban ramos verdes en que pisase.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , refers only to the first-born. 'dabanle el nombre del dia, en que havia nacido, ò segun lo que precediò en su nacimiento.' _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxix. [ ] 'a sus hijos y hijas siempre llamavan del nombre del padre y de la madre, el del padre como propio y de la madre apellativo.' the pre-baptismal name was abandoned when the father's name was assumed. _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . only the few who were destined to receive the baptism obtained the distinctive name. _medel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. . palacio, _carta_, p. , states that this ceremony was performed after the twelfth day, and that the mother only was taken to be bathed. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x., and _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'allanarles las frentes y cabeças.' 'comunmente todos estevados, porque ... van ahorcajados en los quadriles.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , ; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. . [ ] _chác_ or _chaac_, was the title given to certain laymen who were elected to assist the priest in some of his religious duties. also the name of a divinity, protector of the water and harvests. see _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] who was selected to take the wine, brazier, and cord outside the town, or what he did with it afterwards, we are not told. cogolludo says: 'daban à vn indio vn vaso del vino que acostumbraban beber, y embiabanle fuera del pueblo con èl, mandandole, que ni lo bebiesse, ni mirasse atràs, con que creìan quedaba totalmente expulso el demonio.' _hist. yuc._, p. . 'en un vaso enviaban vino fuera del pueblo, con órden al indio que no lo bebiese ni mirase atras, y con esto pensaban que habian echado al demonio.' _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] 'esta agua hazian de ciertas flores y de cacao mojado y desleido con agua virgen que ellos dezian traida de los concavos de los arboles o de los montes.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'los varoncillos usavanles siempre poner pegada a la cabeça en los cabellos de la coronilla una contezuela blanca, y a las muchachas traian ceñidas por las renes muy abaxo con un cordel delgado y en el una conchuela asida que les venia a dar encima de la parte honesta, y destas dos cosas era entre ellos peccado y cosa muy fea quitarla de las mochachas antes del baptismo.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . [ ] brasseur de bourbourg says they feasted nine days: 'tous ensemble, prêtres et parents, festoyaient après cela, pendant neuf jours, les pères étant obligés, durant cet intervalle, de s'abstenir de leurs femmes.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . he appears to have misunderstood cogolludo, to whom he refers, since that author's words are, 'acabando la fiesta en banquetes, y en los nueve dias siguientes no auian de llegar à sus mugeres los padres de los niños.' _hist. yuc._, p. . 'allende de los tres dias que se avia, como por ayuno, abstenido, se avia de abstener nueve mas y lo hazian inviolablemente.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . see further: _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., pp. - ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - . [ ] _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., lib. v., cap. xii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , , ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. . in guatemala 'il est à remarquer ici que quand il s'agit simultanément d'hommes et de femmes dans le discours, les femmes ont presque toujours la préséance sur les hommes.' 'c'est peut-être en mémoire de la mère de hun-ahpu que les femmes-chefs en bien des contrées devaient leurs prérogatives.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, pp. - . in yucatan the women 'son zelosas y algunas tanto que ponian las manos a las de quien tenian zelos, y tan colericas, enojadas, aunque harto mansas, que solian dar buelta de pelo algunas a los maridos con hazerlo ellos pocas vezes.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . the women of yucatan had, however, their duties to perform. 'son grandes travajadoras y vividoras, porque dellas cuelgan los mayores y mas trabajos de la sustentacion de sus casas y educacion de sus hijos, y paga de sus tributos y con todo esso si es menester llevan algunas vezes mayor carga, labrando y sembrando sus mantenimientos. son a maravilla grangeras, velando de noche el rato que de servir sus casas les queda, yendo a los mercados a comprar y vender sus cosillas.'... the women joined and aided one another in the work, as weaving, etc. 'elles avaient leurs saillies et leurs bons mots pour railler et conter des aventures et par moment aussi pour murmurer de leurs maris.' _id._, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . chapter xxii. feasts and amusements of the mayas. special observances--fixed feasts--sacrifice of slaves--monthly feasts of the yucatecs--renewal of the idols--feast of the chacs--hunting festival--the tuppkak--feast of the cacao-planters--war feast--the maya new year's day--feasts of the hunters, fishers, and apiarists--ceremonies in honor of cukulcan--feast of the month of mol--feast of the years kan, muluc, ix, and cauac--yucatec sacrifices--the pit of chichen--sacrifices of the pipiles--feast of victory--feasts and sacrifices in nicaragua--banquets--dances--musical instruments--games. though the information concerning the feasts, religious and otherwise, of the maya nations, is not so full as that touching the nahuas, yet there is no doubt that the former people were quite as fond of such matters as the latter. the quichés had many festivals and special observances, in some of which the whole people took part, while others were performed by private persons through excess of piety. they always made a sacrifice before commencing any work of importance. there were four special things for which they besought the gods; namely, long life, health, progeny, and the necessaries of life. they had particular oratories where they went upon occasions of great distress, and drew blood from several parts of their body. when they desired to have sons they sacrificed at fountains. they had oratories in thick groves, and if they found a spot where a large tree grew over a spring, they held the place to be divine, because two divinities met in the tree and in the pool.[ ] [sidenote: sacrificial festivals.] the religious feasts in which all the people took part were held on certain fixed days of the calendar. one of their most notable and solemn festivals was more a time of penance and vigil than of feasting. when the season of its celebration approached, the lord of a province with the principal men held a council and sent for a diviner, and advised with him concerning the day upon which the sacrifice should take place. the wise man at once began his sorceries, and cast lots in order to ascertain what day would be the most propitious. when the day was fixed, all men had from that time to sleep in houses apart from their wives during a period of sixty or eighty days, or even longer, according to the severity demanded. upon each of these days every one had to offer sacrifice by drawing blood from his arms, thighs, tongue, and other parts of his body. this they did at certain hours of the day and night, and also burned incense. they could not bathe while the observances lasted. from the day when this lent began, the slaves who were to be sacrificed were allowed a certain freedom, and permitted to go about the town wheresoever they pleased. on the neck of each, however, was fastened a ring of gold, silver, or copper, through which a stick was passed, and as a further precaution against escape each was accompanied by a guard of three or four men. they were at liberty to enter any house, whether it was that of the supreme lord or of the poorest man, and wherever they applied for food or drink it was given them. the same liberty was accorded to the guard. when the day of sacrifice arrived, the high-priest attired himself in his finest vestments. these consisted of certain cloaks, with crowns of gold, silver, or other metal, adorned with precious stones. the idols were placed upon a frame ornamented with gold, silver, and gems, and decked with roses and other flowers. the slaves were then brought in procession to the temple yard amid songs, music, and dancing; and the idols were set upon altars, before which were the sacrificial stones. as the hour of sacrifice drew near, the supreme lord, and principal men with him, repaired to the room where the slaves were waiting; each then seized his slave by the hair and carried him before the god, crying with a loud voice: o god our lord, remember thy servants, grant them health, offspring, and prosperity, so that they may increase and serve thee. give us rain, o lord, and seasonable weather to support us, that we may live, hearken to our prayers, aid us against our enemies, give us comfort and rest. on reaching the altar the sacrificing priest stood ready, and the lord placed the victim in his hands. he then, with his ministers, opened the breast with the sacrificial knife, tore out the heart and offered it to the idol, at the same time anointing it with the blood. each idol had its holy table; the sun, the moon, the east, the west, the north, and the south had each one. the heads of the sacrificed were put on stakes. the flesh was seasoned, cooked, and partaken of as a holy thing. the high-priest and supreme lord were given the hands and feet, as the most delicate morsels, and the body was distributed among the other priests. all through the days of the sacrificing great liberty was permitted to the people, grand banquets were held, and drunken revels ensued.[ ] concerning the religious feasts and observances of the yucatecs, landa is the best and most complete authority, and i will therefore take from his work such scattered notices as he gives. in the month of chen they worked in fear and trembling, making new idols. and when these were finished, those for whom they were made gave presents of the best they had to those who had modeled and carved them. the idols were then carried from the building in which they had been made to a cabin made of leaves, where the priest blessed them with much solemnity and many fervent prayers, the artists having previously cleansed themselves from the grease with which they had been besmeared, as a sign of fasting, during the entire time that they remained at work. having then driven out the evil spirit, and burned the sacred incense, the newly made images were placed in a basket, enveloped in a linen cloth, and delivered to their owners, who received them with every mark of respect and devotion. the priest then addressed the idol-makers for a few moments on the excellence and importance of their profession, and on the danger they would incur by neglecting the rules of abstinence while doing such sacred work. finally, all partook of an abundant repast, and made amends for their long fast by indulging freely in wine. in one of the two months called chen and yax, on a day determined by the priest, they celebrated a feast called _ocna_, which means the renovation of the temple in honor of the chacs, whom they regarded as the gods of the fields. during this festival, they consulted the oracle of the bacabs.[ ] this feast was celebrated every year. besides this, the idols of baked clay and the braziers were renewed at this season, because it was customary for each idol to have its own little brazier, in which incense was burned before it; and, if it was necessary, they built the god a new dwelling, or renovated the old one, taking care to place on the walls an inscription commemorating these things, in the characters peculiar to them. [sidenote: festivals of zac and mac.] in the month of zac, on a day appointed by the priest, the hunters held a feast similar to that which, as we shall presently see, took place in the month of zip. this was for the purpose of averting the anger of the gods from them and the seed they had sown, because of the blood which had been shed in the chase; for they regarded as abominable all spilling of blood, except in sacrifice.[ ] they never went out to hunt without first invoking their gods and burning incense before them; and on their return from a successful hunt they always anointed the grim visages of the idols with the blood of the game. on another day of this month a great feast was held, which lasted for three days, attended with incense-burning, sacrifices, and general orgies. but as this was a movable feast, the priests took care to give notice of it in advance, in order that all might observe a becoming fast. during the month of mac, the old people celebrated a feast in honor of the chacs, gods of the cornfields, and of another deity named yzamna. some days before this the following ceremony, called in their language _tuppkak_,[ ] was observed. having brought together all the reptiles and beasts of the field that could be procured in the country, they assembled with them in the court of the temple, in the corners of which were the chacs and the priests, to drive away the evil spirit, each having by his side a jug filled with water. standing on end, in the centre, was an enormous bundle of dry and fine wood, which was set on fire after some incense had been burned. as the wood burned, the assembled crowd vied with each other in tearing out the hearts of the victims they had brought with them and casting them into the flames. if it had been impossible to procure such large game as jaguars, pumas, or alligators, they typified the hearts of these animals by incense, which they threw into the fire; but if they had them, they were immolated like the rest. as soon as all the hearts were consumed, the chacs[ ] put out the fire with the water contained in their pitchers. the object of this feast and of that which followed was to obtain an abundance of water for their cornfields during the year. this feast was celebrated in a different manner from others, because no one fasted before it, with the exception of the beadle (muñidor) of the occasion. on the day of the feast called tuppkak, the people and the priests met once more in the courtyard of the temple, where was erected a platform of stone, with steps leading up to it, the whole tastefully decorated with foliage. the priest gave some incense to the beadle, who burned in a brazier enough to exorcise the evil spirit. this done, the first step of the platform was with great solemnity smeared with mud taken from a well or cistern; the other steps were stained a blue color. as usual, they ended these ceremonies by eating and drinking and making merry, full of confidence in the efficacy of their rites and ceremonies for this year. in the month of muan the cacao-planters held a festival in honor of the gods ekchuah, chac, and hobnil, who were their patron deities.[ ] to solemnize it, they all went to the plantation of one of their number, where they sacrificed a dog having a spot on its skin of the color of cacao. they burned incense to their idols, and made offerings of blue iguanas, feathers of a particular kind of bird, and game. after this they gave to each of the officials[ ] a branch of the cacao-plant. the sacrifice being ended, they all sat down to a repast, at which, it is said, no one was allowed to drink more than three glasses of wine. all then went into the house of him who had given the feast, and passed the time pleasantly together. [sidenote: war-feast in the month of pax.] in the month of pax, a feast was held, called pacumchac, which was celebrated by the nobles and priests of the villages, together with those of the great towns. having assembled, they passed five nights in the temple of cit chac coh,[ ] praying and offering incense. at the beginning of these five days, they went all together to the house of the general of their armies, whose title was nacon, and carried him in state to the temple, where, having placed him on a seat, they burned incense before him as though he had been a god. but though they prayed during these five nights, they did not by any means fast in the day-time, but ate and drank plentifully, and executed a kind of grand war-dance, which they called _holkan okot_, which is to say, 'dance of the warriors.' the five days being passed, the real business of the feast began, which, as it concerned matters of war and victory, was a very solemn affair. it was commenced with ceremonies and sacrifices similar to those already described as taking place in the month of mac. then the evil spirit was expelled in the usual manner, after which were more prayers, offerings, and incensing. while all this was going on, the nobles once more took the nacon upon their shoulders, and carried him in procession round the temple. on their return a dog was sacrificed, its heart being torn out and presented to the idol between two dishes. every one present then shattered a large jug filled with some beverage, which completed this part of the festival. the usual banquet followed, after which the nacon was again placed upon the shoulders of the nobles and carried to his house. there, the nobles and priests partook of a grand banquet, at which all got drunk, except the nacon; the people, meanwhile, returning to their homes. on the morrow, having slept off the effects of the wine, the guests of the nacon received from him large presents of incense which had been previously blessed. he also took advantage of this opportunity to deliver a long discourse, in which he recommended his hearers to observe scrupulously in both town and country the feasts of the gods, in order to obtain a prosperous and abundant year. as soon as the nacon had finished speaking, there was a general and noisy leave-taking, and the guests separated, and set out for their respective homes. there they occupied themselves in celebrating the festivals proper to the season, keeping them up sometimes until the month of pop. these feasts were called zabacilthan, and were observed as follows. the people of each place or district sought among the richest of their number for some who were willing to defray the expenses of the celebration, and recommended them to take the matter into consideration, because it was customary to make merry during the three last months of the year. this having been settled, all met in the house of one of these prominent men, after having driven away the evil spirit as usual. copal was burned, offerings were made, and the wine-cup, which seems to have been the chief attraction on these occasions, was not neglected. and all through these three months, the excesses in which the people indulged were pitiful to see; cuts, bruises, and eyes inflamed with drink were plentiful amongst them; to gratify their passion for drink they cast themselves away. [sidenote: the maya new year's day.] during the last five days of the month of cumhu, which were the last days of the year, the people seldom went out of their houses, except to place offerings in the temples, with which the priests bought incense to be burned in honor of the gods. they neither combed their hair nor washed themselves during these five days; neither men nor women cleansed themselves; they did no work of any kind lest some misfortune should befall them. [sidenote: festivities in yucatan.] the first day of the month of pop, the maya new year's day, was a season of rejoicing, in which all the nation took part. to give more importance to the event, they renewed at this time all the articles which they used, such as plates, cups, baskets, clothes, and the dresses of the idols; they swept their houses and cast everything into the place where they put their rubbish; and no one dared to touch what was cast away, even though greatly in need of it. to prepare for this feast, princes, priests, and nobles, and all who wished to show their devotion, fasted and abstained from their wives for a longer or shorter period, some for three months preceding it, some for two, according to their ideas of propriety, but none for less than thirteen days. during this season of abstinence, they ate their meat unseasoned, which was considered severe discipline. at this time, also, they elected the officers who were to assist the priest at the ceremony. the priest prepared a number of little balls of fresh incense on small boards made for the purpose, for those who fasted to burn before the idols. great care was taken not to break the fast after it had been once commenced; for if this were done it was thought that misfortune must inevitably ensue. new year's day having arrived, all the men assembled in the courtyard of the temple. women could assist at no feast which was celebrated within the temple, except those who went to take part in particular dances; on other occasions, however, the women were allowed to be present. on the day in question the men came alone, adorned with paint, and cleansed from the grease with which they had been bedaubed during the days of penance. when all were assembled, with offerings of food and newly fermented wine, the priest purified the temple and seated himself in the centre of the court, clothed in his robes of office, and having by his side a brazier and the balls of incense before mentioned. after the evil spirit had been expelled, all present offered up prayers, while the assistants kindled the new fire for the year. the priest now cast one of the balls of incense into the brazier, and then distributed the remainder among the assembled worshipers. the nobles came first in the order of their rank, and as each received a ball from the priest, who gave it with great solemnity, he dropped it gently into the brazier and stood still until it was consumed. the inevitable banquet and orgies terminated the ceremonies. this was the manner in which they celebrated the birth of the new year. during the month, some of the most devout among them repeated the feast in their own homes, and this was particularly done by the nobles and priests, who were ever foremost in religious observances. during the month of uo the priests and sorcerers began to prepare for a festival called _pocam_, which was solemnized by the hunters and fishers on the seventh day of the next month, which was zip. having assembled, clothed in their ornaments, at the house of the prince, they expelled the evil spirit, and then uncovered their books and exposed them upon a carpet of green leaves and branches, which had been prepared for this purpose. they next invoked with reverence a deity named cinchau yzamna, who had been, they said, the first priest.[ ] to him they offered various gifts, and burned balls of incense in his honor. in the meantime others took a vessel and a little verdigris with some pure water, which had to be procured from a wood into whose recesses no woman had ever penetrated. they now cleaned the leaves of their books by moistening them; this done, the wisest among them opened a volume and examined the prospects of the coming year, which he declared aloud to all present. he concluded with a brief discourse, in which he advised them how to avoid coming evils. jollity now reigned and the wine flowed freely--a consummation which many of the old priest's hearers had doubtless been long looking forward to impatiently. the solemnities on this occasion were varied at times by performing a dance called _okot uil_. on the following day the doctors and sorcerers with their wives came together in the house of one of their number. the priests, having driven away the evil spirit, brought to view their medicine-bags, in which they kept a number of charms, some little images of ixchel, goddess of medicine, from whom the feast was named _ihcil ixchel_, and some small stones called _am_, which they used in their sorceries. then with great devotion the doctors and sorcerers invoked the gods of medicine, yzamna, citbolontum, and ahau chamahez, while the priests burned incense, and the assistants painted themselves blue, the color of the books used by the priests. bearing their medicine bags in their hands, they then joined in a dance called _chantunyab_, after which the men seated themselves in a row on one side, and the women on the other; a day was appointed for holding the feast during the ensuing year, and then the usual drunken orgies commenced. it is said that the priests abstained from wine on this occasion, perhaps because the women were present; but they took their share, nevertheless, and reserved it for a more private opportunity. on another occasion the hunters, with their wives, assembled in the house of one of their number, and performed there certain ceremonies. the first proceeding was, of course, to expel the evil influence; then the priests, who were never absent from these meetings, placed in the middle of the room some incense, a brazier, and some blue coloring material. next, the huntsmen prayed with great devotion to the gods of the chase, acanum, zuhuy zipi, tabai, and others, and cast incense into the brazier. while this was burning, each took an arrow and a deer's head, which the priest's assistants had painted blue; thus equipped, some danced, holding hands; others pierced their ears or their tongue, and passed through the holes which they made seven leaves of an herb called _ac_. then priests and their assistants made offerings to the gods and joined in the dance. finally, the festivities closed by all present becoming, to quote the words of bishop landa, 'as drunk as baskets.' the next day it was the turn of the fishermen to celebrate a feast, which they did in the same manner as the hunters, except that instead of a deer's head, they smeared their fishing implements with color; neither did they pierce their ears, but cut round about them, and after doing this they executed a dance called _chohom_. then they consecrated a large tree, which they left standing. after the feast had been duly celebrated in the towns, it was customary for the nobles and many of the people to go down to the coast on a grand fishing expedition. the patron divinities of the fishermen were ahkak nexoi, ahpua, ahcitz, and amalcum.[ ] [sidenote: feast of the apiarists.] in the month of tzoz, the apiarists prepared for a feast which was to take place in the next month, called tzec, by a fast, which was, however, optional with all except the priests who were to officiate, and their assistants. the day of celebration having arrived, the participants came together in the house of him who gave the feast, and performed nearly the same ceremonies as the hunters and fishermen, except that they drew no blood from their bodies. the apiarists had for their patron deities the bacabs, and particularly hobnil. they made many propitiatory offerings at this time, especially to the four gods of abundance, to whom they presented four dishes adorned with figures of honey. the usual drunken bout was not omitted. after the mysterious departure of cukulcan,[ ] the maya quetzalcoatl, from yucatan, the people, convinced that he had gone to the abode of the gods, deified him, and built temples and instituted feasts in his honor. these latter were scrupulously observed throughout the entire country up to the time of the destruction of mayapan; but after that event they were neglected by all the provinces but that of mani.[ ] in remembrance, however, of the respect shown of old to cukulcan, these provinces sent annually, by turn, to mani four or five magnificent feather banners, which were used in the ceremonies there. on the sixteenth day of the month of xul, all the nobles and priests of mani, being prepared by fast and penance for the occasion, came together, and with them came a considerable multitude of people. in the evening all set out in procession from the house of the lord, and, accompanied by a large number of professional actors, proceeded slowly towards the temple of cukulcan, which had already been decorated in a suitable manner. upon arriving they placed the banners on high in the temple, offered prayers, and going into the courtyard spread out their idols upon green leaves and branches; then they burned incense in many places, and made offerings of meat cooked without pepper or salt, bean-soup, and calabashes. after this, those who had observed the fast did not go home, but passed five days and five nights in the temple, praying, burning copal, and executing sacred dances. during this time the actors went from one house to another, representing their plays and receiving gifts from those whom they entertained. at the end of the five days they carried all their earnings to the temple and distributed them among the watchers there. afterwards all returned to the prince's palace, taking with them the banners and the idols. thence each betook himself to his home. they said, and confidently believed, that cukulcan descended from heaven on the last day of the feast and received personally the gifts which were presented to him. this festival was called _chic kaban_. during the month of yaxkin it was the custom to prepare for a general festival, called _olohzabkamyax_, held in the month of mol, in honor of all the gods. at this feast, after the usual preliminary rites, they smeared with blue coloring matter the instruments used in every profession, from the sacred implements of the priests to the distaffs of the women, and even the doors of their houses. children of both sexes were daubed in the same manner, but instead of coloring their hands they gave them each nine gentle raps on the knuckles. the little girls were brought to the feast by an old woman, who for that reason was called _ixmol_, conductress. the blows were given to the children in order that they might become skilled workmen in the profession of their fathers or mothers. the usual conclusion ensued. during the month of mol the apiarists had another festival similar to that of the month of tzec, in order to induce their patron gods to cause the flowers to grow, from which the bees gathered honey. [sidenote: festival to insure a crop.] the mayas depended so much upon the produce of the soil for their sustenance that a failure of the crops was one of the heaviest misfortunes that could fall upon them. to avoid this they made four idols, named chichac chob, ek balam chac, ahcan uolcab, and ahbuluc balam.[ ] having placed them in the temple, and, according to custom, burned incense before them, they presented them with two pellets of a kind of resin called _kik_, some iguanas, some bread, a mitre, a bouquet of flowers, and a stone upon which they set great value. besides this, they erected a great wooden arch in the court, which they filled with wood, taking care to leave openings through which to pass backwards and forwards. the greater part of the men then took each a long stick of dry wood, and while a musician mounted on the top of the pile sang and beat a drum, all danced reverently and in good order, as they did so passing in and out the wood-pile. this they kept up until evening, when, leaving their sticks behind them, they went home to eat and rest. during the night they returned, and each taking his faggot, lit it and applied it to the pile, which burned fiercely and rapidly.[ ] as soon as the heap was reduced to red-hot ashes, those who had danced gathered about it, and passed barefooted over the coals, some without injury, and some with; this they believed would avert misfortune and appease the anger of the gods.[ ] it was customary in all the towns of yucatan to erect at the limits of each of the four quarters, east, west, north, and south, two heaps of stones, facing each other, and intended to be used during the celebration of two solemn festivals, which were as follows. in the year of which the dominical letter was _kan_, the sign was _hobnil_, and, according to the yucatecs, these both ruled in the south. they made this year, of baked earth, an idol which they called kanu uayeyab, and having made it they carried it out to the heaps of stones which lay towards the south. they then selected a principal man of the place, and in his house they celebrated the feast. for this purpose they made another image, of the god bolon zacab,[ ] and placed it in the chosen house, in a prominent place, so that all who arrived might see it. this done, the nobles, priests, and people came together, and set out by a road swept clean, ornamented with arches, and strewed with foliage, to the southern heaps of stones, where they gathered about the idol kanu uayeyab. the priest then incensed the god with forty-nine grains of maize, ground up and mixed with copal; the nobles next placed incense in the brazier, and burned it before the idol. the incense burned by the priest was called _zacah_, that used by the nobles, _chahalté_. when these rites were completed the head of a fowl was cut off and offered to the idol, which was now placed on a litter called _kanté_,[ ] and upon its shoulders were placed other little images, as signs of abundance of water and a good year, and these images were frightful to behold. amid dances and general rejoicing the idol was carried towards the house where the statue of bolon zacab had been placed, and while the procession was on the road, the nobles and priests partook of a beverage made from four hundred and fifteen grains of roasted maize, which they called _picula kakla_. arrived at their destination, they placed the image that they carried opposite the idol which they found there, and made many offerings of food and drink, which were afterwards divided among the strangers who were present, the officiating priest receiving only the leg of a deer. some of the devotees drew blood from their bodies, scarified their ears, and anointed with the blood a stone idol named kanal acantun. they modeled a heart of dough of maize and of calabash-seeds, and offered it to the idol kanu uayeyab. and in this manner they honored both the idols during the entire time of the feast, burning before them incense of copal and ground maize, for they held it certain that misfortune would overwhelm them if they neglected these rites. finally, the statue of bolon zacab was carried to the temple, and the other image to the western entrance of the town, where it remained until the next celebration of the feast. [sidenote: maya festivals.] the ceremonies of the new year, under the sign of _muluc_, were very similar to those just described, though held in honor of other deities. a dance performed upon a high scaffolding, attended with sacrifices of turkeys; another executed by the old people, holding little baked-clay images of dogs in their hands; and the sacrifice of a peculiarly marked dog, were, however, additional features. the same may be said of the new year under the sign of _yx_, and of the new year under the sign of _cauac_, when the rites which were performed were sufficiently like those which have gone before to need no further description.[ ] the gods of the yucatecs required far fewer human lives at the hands of their worshipers than those of the nahuas. the pages of yucatec history are not marred by the constant blood-blots that obscure the nahua record. an event which in mexico would be the death-signal to a hecatomb of human victims, would in yucatan be celebrated by the death of a spotted dog. the office of sacrificer which in mexico was one of the highest honors to which a priest could attain, was in yucatan regarded as unclean and degrading.[ ] nevertheless, the yucatec religion was not free from human sacrifice, and although captives taken in war were used for this purpose, yet it is said that such was their devotion, that should a victim be wanting they would dedicate their children to the altar rather than let the gods be deprived of their due.[ ] but it seldom happened that more than one victim was sacrificed at a time, at least in earlier days, and even then he was not butchered as by the nahuas, but was shot through the heart with arrows before being laid upon the sacrificial stone.[ ] [sidenote: sacrifices at chichen itza.] at chichen itza human sacrifices were made in a peculiar manner. in the centre of the city was an immense pit, containing water, and surrounded on all sides by a dense grove, which served to render the spot silent and solitary, in spite of its position. a circular staircase, rudely cut in the rock, descended to the edge of the water from the foot of an altar which stood upon the very brink of the pit.[ ] at first, only animals and incense were offered here, as the teachings of cukulcan forbade the sacrifice of human victims, but after the departure of the great maya apostle the yucatecs returned to the evil of their ways,[ ] and the pit of chichen was once more polluted with human bodies. at first one victim sufficed, but the number gradually increased, until, during the later years of maya independence, hundreds were immolated at a time. if some calamity threatened the country, if the crops failed or the requisite supply of rain was wanting, the people hastened to the pit of horror, to offer prayers and to appease the wrath of the gods with gifts of human life. on the day of sacrifice, the victims, who were generally young virgins, were taken to the temple, clothed in the garments appropriate to the occasion, and conducted thence to the sacred pit, accompanied by a multitude of priests and priestesses of all ranks. there, while the incense burned on the altar and in the braziers, the officiating priest explained to them the things for which they were to implore the gods into whose presence they were about to be introduced. a long cord was then fastened round the body of each victim, and the moment the smoke ceased to rise from the altar, all were hurled into the gulf. the crowd, which had gathered from every part of the country to see the sacrifice, immediately drew back from the brink of the pit and continued to pray without cessation for some time. the bodies were then drawn up and buried in the neighboring grove.[ ] the pipiles had two idols, one in the figure of a man, called quetzalcoatl, the other in the shape of a woman, called itzqueye. certain days of their calendar were specially set apart for each of the deities, and on these the sacrifices were made. two very solemn sacrifices were held in each year, one at the commencement of summer, the other at the beginning of winter. at these, herrera says, only the lords were present.[ ] the sacrifice was made in the interior of the temple, and the victims were boys between the ages of six and twelve years, bastards, born among themselves. for a day and a night previous to the sacrifice, drums and trumpets were sounded and on the day following the people assembled. four priests then came out from the temple, each bearing a small brazier with burning incense; together they turned in the direction of the sun, and kneeling down offered up incense and prayers; they then did the same toward the four cardinal points.[ ] their prayers finished, they retired within four small chapels built at the four corners of the temple, and there rested. they next went to the house of the high-priest, and took thence the boy who was to be sacrificed and conducted him four times round the court of the temple, dancing and singing. when this ceremony was finished, the high-priest came out of his house, with the diviner and guardian of the sanctuary, and ascended the steps of the temple, with the cacique and principal men, who, however, remained at the door of the sanctuary. the four priests now seized the boy by the arms and legs, and the guardian of the temple coming out with little bells on his wrists and ankles, opened the left breast of the victim, tore out the heart, and handed it to the high-priest, who placed it in a small embroidered purse which he carried. the four priests received the blood of the victim in four jicaras, or bowls, made from the shell of a certain fruit, and descending one after the other to the courtyard, sprinkled the blood with their right hands in the direction of the cardinal points. if any blood remained over they returned it to the high-priest, who placed it with the purse containing the heart in the body of the victim through the wound that had been made, and the body was interred in the temple. this was the ceremony of sacrifice at the beginning of each of the two seasons. [sidenote: pipile feast of victory.] when information was received from their war chief that he had gained a victory, the diviner ascertained to which of the gods sacrifice was to be made. if to quetzalcoatl, the ceremony lasted fifteen days; if to itzqueye, five days; and upon each day they sacrificed a prisoner. these sacrifices were made as follows: all those who had been in the battle returned home in procession, singing and dancing, bringing with them the captives who were to be sacrificed, their wrists and ankles decorated with feathers and chalchiuites, and their necks with strings of cacao-nibs. the high-priests and other ministers went out at the head of the populace to meet them with music and dancing, and the caciques and captains delivered over those who were to be sacrificed to the high-priest. then they all went together to the courtyard of their _teupa_, or temple, where they continued dancing day and night during the time the sacrifices lasted. in the middle of the court was a stone bench on which the victim was stretched, four priests holding him by the feet and hands. the sacrificing priest then came forward, adorned with many feathers and loaded with little bells, holding in his hand a flint knife, with which he opened the breast of the victim, tore out the heart, brandished it toward the cardinal points, and finally threw it into the air with sufficient force to cause it to fall directly in the middle of the court, saying: "receive, oh god, this thank-offering for the victory."[ ] this sacrifice was public and beheld by all the people. the men drew blood from their private parts, and the women from their ears, tongue, and other parts of the body; as the blood flowed it was taken up with cotton and offered by the men to quetzalcoatl, by the women to itzqueye. when the pipiles were about to undertake any hunting or fishing expedition, they first made an offering to their gods. for this purpose they took a living deer,[ ] and leading it to the temple yard, they there strangled and afterwards flayed it, saving the blood in a vessel. the liver, lungs, and stomach were chopped in small pieces, which were afterwards laid aside with the heart, head, and feet. the remainder of the deer was cooked by itself, and the blood likewise, and while this was being done the people danced. the high-priest with his assistant next took the head by the ears, and each of the four priests one of the feet, while the guardian of the sanctuary put the heart into a brazier and burnt it with copal and ulli to the god who was the protector of hunting. after the dance, the head and feet were scorched in the fire before the idol and given to the high-priest to be eaten. the flesh and blood were eaten by the other ministers of the temple before the idol, and the same was done with other animals sacrificed. the entrails of fish were burned before the idol.[ ] [sidenote: sacrifices in nicaragua.] among the civilized nations of nicaragua, it would appear there were eighteen distinct festivals, corresponding with the eighteen months in their calendar.[ ] these were proclaimed by the priest, holding the instrument of sacrifice in his hand, from the steps leading to the sacrificial altar in the court of the temple. he made known who and how many were to be sacrificed, and whether they were to be prisoners taken in battle or individuals reared among themselves for the purpose.[ ] when the victim was stretched upon the stone, the officiating priest walked three times round him, singing in a doleful tone; he then opened the victim's breast, plucked out his heart, and daubed his face with the blood. he next dismembered the body and gave the heart to the high-priest, the feet and hands to the king, the thighs to him who had captured him, the entrails to the trumpeters, and the remainder to the people, that all might eat.[ ] the heads of those sacrificed were set as trophies on trees appointed for the purpose.[ ] if the person sacrificed had been bought, they buried the entrails, hands, and feet, in a gourd, and burned the heart and all the rest.[ ] as it was lawful for a father to sell his own children, and each person himself, they therefore did not eat the flesh of such sacrifices because they were their own countrymen and relations. when they ate the flesh of foreigners sacrificed, they held exciting dances, and passed the days in drunken revels and smoking, but had no sexual intercourse with their wives while the festival lasted.[ ] at certain feasts they offered blood drawn from their own bodies, with which they rubbed the beard and lips of the idol. the priests wore white cotton cloaks, some short and small, others hung from the shoulders to the heels, with bands having bags attached, in which they carried sharp stone knives, papers, ground charcoal, and certain herbs. the lay brothers bore in their hands little flags with the idol they held most in veneration painted thereon, and small purses containing powder and awls; the youths had bows and arrows, darts and shields. the idol, in form and appearance very frightful, was set upon a spear and carried by the eldest priest. the ascetics marched in file, singing, to the place of worship. they spread mantles and strewed roses and flowers, that the standards might not touch the ground. the procession halted; the singing ceased; they fell to prayer. the prelate clapped his hand; some drew blood from the tongue, others from the ears, from the privy member, or from whatever part their devotion led them. they took the blood on paper or on their fingers and smeared the idol's face. in the meantime the youths danced, leaped about, and shook their weapons. those who had gashed themselves, cured their wounds by an application of powdered charcoal and herbs that they carried for the purpose. in these observances they sprinkled maize with the blood from their privy parts, and it was distributed and eaten as blessed bread.[ ] [sidenote: banquets of the people.] like the mexicans the mayas had a great predilection for entertaining each other at banquets, and it is related of them that they often spent on one such occasion a sum that it had taken them many months to earn. seasons of betrothal and marriage were always enlivened by sumptuous feasts. whenever any contract had to be arranged, a feast was given and the act of eating and drinking together in public and before witnesses sufficed to make such contract valid.[ ] the lords and principal men gave feasts to each other, and as it was incumbent upon all the guests to return the compliment, there must have been a continual round of feasting. cogolludo states that meat was eaten at banquets only, and this may in some measure account for the frequency with which they occurred, and the etiquette that required the invitation to be returned. they observed a certain formality at their entertainments, seating themselves either in twos or fours. each of the guests received a roasted fowl, some bread, and an abundance of cacao. when the meal was finished, presents were distributed to the guests, each being presented with a mantle, a small stool, and a handsome cup. beautiful women acted as cup-bearers, and when one of these presented a cup of wine to a guest, she turned her back to him while he drank. the feast lasted until all were intoxicated, and then the wives led their drunken husbands home. when a marriage banquet, or one in commemoration of the deeds of their ancestors, was given, no return invitation was expected.[ ] their entertainments were usually enlivened by a company of dancers and musicians, who performed dramatic representations under the leadership of one who was called _holpop_, or master of the ceremonies; he gave instructions to the actors, directed the singers and musicians, and from him all had to take their cue. the actors were called _balzam_, a name corresponding to jester or mimic. as women were not permitted to take part in the mummeries, their places were supplied by men. their movements during the play were grave and monotonous, yet they were clever in mimicry and caricature, which they frequently made use of as a means of reproving their chief men.[ ] the plays were generally of a historical character, having for their subject the great deeds of their ancestors; their songs consisted of ballads founded upon local traditions and legendary tales.[ ] [sidenote: music and dances.] a favorite dance of the mayas was one called _colomche_; a large number of men took part in it, sometimes as many as eight hundred. these formed a ring, and were accompanied during their movements by a number of musicians. when the dancing began, two of the actors, still keeping step with the rest, came out from the ring, one holding in his hand a bunch of wands and dancing upright, while the other cowered down, still dancing. then he who had the wands threw them with all his force at his companion, who with great dexterity parried them with a short stick. when the two had finished, they returned to their former position in the circle, and two others took their place and went through the same performance, the rest following in their turn. they had also war dances, in which large numbers joined, the performers holding small flags in their hands.[ ] they had a variety of musical instruments, prominent among which was the _tunkul_, which was almost the same thing as the teponaztli of the mexicans.[ ] they had other drums made of a hollow trunk and covered at one end with deer-skin, tortoise shells that they struck with deer's horns, trumpets,--some of marine shells and others of hollow canes with a calabash at the end,--whistles and flutes made from bone and cane, besides various kinds of rattles.[ ] landa says that in every village there was a large house or rather shed, for it was open on all sides, in which the young men met for amusement.[ ] oviedo, who witnessed some dances and games among the nicaraguans, thus describes one he saw at tecoatega after the harvesting of the cacao. as many as sixty persons, all men, though a number of them represented women, took part in a dance. they were painted of various colors and patterns, and wore upon their heads beautiful tufts of feathers, and about their persons divers ornaments, while some wore masks like birds' heads. they performed the dance going in couples and keeping at a distance of three or four steps between pair and pair. in the centre of a square was a high pole of more than sixty feet in height driven firmly into the ground; on the top was seated a gaudily painted idol which they called the god of the _cacaguat_, or cacao; round the top were fixed four other poles in the form of a square, and rolled upon it was a thick grass rope at the ends of which were bound two boys of seven or eight years of age. one of them had in one hand a bow and in the other a bunch of arrows; the other boy carried a beautiful feather fan and a mirror. at a certain step of the dance the boys came out from the square and the rope began to unroll; they went round and round in the air, always going further out and counterbalancing one another, the rope still unrolling. while they were descending, the sixty men proceeded with their dance to the sound of singers beating drums and tabors. the boys passed through the air with much velocity, moving their arms and legs to present the appearance of flying. when they reached the ground the dancers and singers gave some loud cheers and the festival was concluded.[ ] another favorite amusement was a performance on a swinging bar. for this two tall forked posts were firmly planted in the ground; across them and resting in the forks a pole was strongly bound. this pole passed at right angles through a hole in the centre of a thick bar, made to revolve upon it and of very light wood; near the end of the bar were cross sticks for the performers to take hold of. a man placed himself at each end, and when the bar was set in motion they went tumbling round and round, to the delight of the spectators.[ ] footnotes: [ ] 'los universales sacrificios se ofrecian ordinariamente cuando venian las fiestas, las cuales habia en unas provincias cinco, y en otras seis, ó se ofrecian por necesidad particular, por uno de estos dos respectos.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxix. [ ] 'aquel dia era libertado para hacer grandes banquetes y borracheras, y así se mataban infinitas aves, mucha caza y vinos muy diferentes, hacian muchas danzas y bailes en presencia de los ídolos. duraban aquestas fiestas, tres, cinco y siete dias, segun lo que ordenaban los ministros, y lo decian cuando habian de comenzar. en estos dias, en cada tarde andaban en procesion con grandes cantos y músicas, llevando al ídolo por las calles y plazas, y donde habia lugar preeminente, hacian altares y ponian mesas, y allí paraban, y como nosotros representamos farsas, así ellos jugaban á la pelota delante de sus dioses.' _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxvii. [ ] the manner in which this was done will be described elsewhere in this chapter. [ ] 'ce qui, d'accord avec divers autres indices, annoncerait bien que l'effusion du sang, et surtout du sang humain, dans les sacrifices, était d'origine étrangère, nahuatl probablement.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] meaning 'quenching of fire.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . yzamna is otherwise called zamná. [ ] this word _chacs_, which before was interpreted as the 'gods of the cornfields,' probably here means the priests of those deities. in a former chapter we have seen the word applied to those who assisted at the rite of baptism. [ ] '_ekchuah_, écrit ailleurs _echuah_, était le patron des marchands et naturellement des cacaos, marchandise et monnaie à la fois.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'officiales;' this may mean officiating priests, or overseers on the plantations, or almost anything else. [ ] '_cit_ paraît être une sorte de cochon sauvage; _chac_ est le nom générique des dieux de la pluie, des campagnes, des fruits de la terre, etc. _coh_ est le puma ou lion américain; suivant d'autres, _chac-coh_ est le léopard.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] '_cinchau-yzamná_ est une orthographe erroné, si l'on en juge après les leçons précédentes; c'est probablement une mauvaise abréviation de _kinich-ahau-ytzamná_, donné, d'ailleurs, comme l'inventeur des lettres et de l'écriture, l'auteur de tous les noms imposés au yucatan.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] 'c'étaient là sans doute les dieux de la pêche, à propos desquels cogolludo dit les paroles suivantes: "on dit aussi que bien après la conquête, les indiens de la province de titz imin, quand ils allaient pêcher le long de la côte de choáca, avant de se mettre à la pêche, commençaient par des sacrifices et des oblations à leurs faux dieux, leur offrant des chandelles, des réaux d'argent et des _cuzcas_, qui sont leurs émeraudes, et d'autres pierres précieuses, en certain endroits, au _ku_ et oratoires qui se voient encore dans les bras de mer (estuaires) et les lagunes salées qu'il y a sur cette côte vers le _rio de lagartos_."' (_hist. yuc._, tom. iv., cap. iv.); _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] '_cuculcan_, écrit quelquefois _kukulcan_, vient de _kuk_, oiseau qui paraît être le même que le quetzal; son déterminatif est _kukul_ qui uni à _can_, serpent, fait exactement le même mot que _quetzal cohuatl_, serpent aux plumes vertes, ou de quetzal.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'la province de mani avait été colonisée par les tutul-xius, dont l'origine était toltèque ou nahuatl; les fêtes de kukulcan se bornant à cette province après la destruction de mayapan, ne laissent point de doute sur l'origine de ce personnage, et donnent lieu de penser que le reste du yucatan, tout en vénérant jusqu'à un certain point ce mythe ou ce prophète, avait gardé au fond la religion qui avait précédé celle des toltèques. ce serait un point d'histoire d'une grande importance au point de vue philosophique. nous trouverons plus loin d'autres indices du culte primitif des mayas.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] '_ek-balam-chac_ signifie tigre noir dieu des champs: ce sont du reste des noms donnés au tigre encore aujourd'hui. _ahcan_ est le serpent mâle en général. _ahbuluc-balam_ signifie celui des onze tigres.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] 'ne croirait-on pas lire la description de cette fête des scythes, rapportée par hérodote, et que m. viollet-leduc a insérée dans ses _antiquités mexicaines_, formant l'introduction de l'ouvrage de m. désiré charnay: _cités et ruines américaines_, page .' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] '_bolon_ est l'adjectif numéral neuf, _zacab_, dont la racine est _zac_, blanc, est le nom d'une sorte de maïs moulu, dont on fait une espèce d'orgeat. cette statue était-elle une image allégorique de cet orgeat offert en cette occasion?' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] '_kanté_, bois jaune; c'est probablement le cèdre.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] 'la charge de _nacon_ était double; l'un était perpétuel et peu honorable, parce que c'était lui qui ouvrait la poitrine aux victimes humaines qu'on sacrifiait.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'el oficio de abrir el pecho a los sacrificados, que en mexico era estimado, aqui era poco honroso.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _ib._ [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, ubi sup. [ ] the present appearance of the pit is thus described by stephens: 'setting out from the castillo, at some distance we ascended a wooded elevation, which seemed an artificial causeway leading to the senote. the senote was the largest and wildest we had seen; in the midst of a thick forest, an immense circular hole, with cragged, perpendicular sides, trees growing out of them and overhanging the brink, and still as if the genius of silence reigned within. a hawk was sailing around it, looking down into the water, but without once flapping its wings. the water was of a greenish hue. a mysterious influence seemed to pervade it, in unison with the historical account that the well of chichen was a place of pilgrimage, and that human victims were thrown into it in sacrifice. in one place, on the very brink, were the remains of a stone structure, probably connected with ancient superstitious rites; perhaps the place from which the victims were thrown into the dark well beneath.' _yucatan_, vol. ii., p. . [ ] we have seen that even the memory of cukulcan was neglected in all the provinces of yucatan but one. [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. i.; _medel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. [ ] 'ivanse derechos todos quatro juntos á do sale el sol, i se hincavan de rodillas ante el, i le zaumavan diciendo palabras é invocaciones, i esto fecho se dividian hacia quatro partes, lest, oest, norte, sur, i predicavan sus rictos i ceremonias.' _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] 'yua el sacristan y sacauale con la nauaja el coraçon, y arrojauale al dios, o a la diosa, y dezia, toma el fruto desta vitoria.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. [ ] brasseur de bourbourg says: 'cerf blanc.' _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'le sacrifice du cerf blanc, d'abord un des plus augustes, devint, plus tard, l'offrande commune et exclusive des chasseurs qui désiraient se rendre favorables les dieux protecteurs de la chasse et des forêts.' _id._, p. ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - . [ ] 'echauan las fiestas que eran diez y ocho, como los meses subidos en el gradario, o sacrificadero que tenian los patios de los templos.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. in the evidence taken by fray françisco de bobadilla the number of festivals is given as twenty-one and eleven; i must therefore leave the reader to decide for himself which is correct. 'y.--en un año tenemos veynte é un dias de fiestas (é no juntos estos dias).... f.--en el tiempo de aquellas onçe fiestas, que deçis que teneys cada año.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , . [ ] 'for there are two kindes of humane sacrifices with them: the one, of enemies taken in the warres, the other of such as are brought vp and maintained at home.' _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. vi. [ ] 'and whosoeuer should haue no parte nor portion of the sacrificed enemie, would thinke he shoulde bee ill accepted that yeere.' _ib._ [ ] 'euery king nourisheth his appointed trees in a fielde neere vnto him, obseruing the names of euery hostile country, where they hange the heads of their sacrificed enemies taken in the warres.' _ib._ [ ] herrera gives a similar account of the disposal of the body, but adds: 'saluo que ponian la cabeça en los arboles.' _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. i think it improbable that the heads were treated in the same manner as those of their enemies. peter martyr says nothing distinctly of the disposal of the head, but, speaking of the sacrifice, says 'they reuerence all parts thereof, and partly bury them beefore the dores of their temples, as the feete, handes, and bowels, which they cast together into a gourde, the rest (together with the hartes, making a great fire within the view of those hostile trees, with shril hyms, and applauses of the priestes) they burne among the ashes of the former sacrifices, neuer thence remooued, lying in that fielde.' dec. vi., tom. vi. [ ] 'en aquellas fiestas no trabaxamos ni entendemos en más de emborracharnos; pero no dormimos con nuestras mugeres, é aquellos dias, por quitar la ocasion, duermen ellas dentro en casa é nosotros fuera della: é al que en tales dias se echa con su muger, nuestros dioses les dan dolençia luego, de que mueren; é por esso ninguno lo osa haçer, porque aquellos dias son dedicados á nuestros dioses.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. vi., vii.; _squier_, in _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] 'en las ventas, y contratos, no auia escritos que obligassen, ni cartas de papago, que satisfaciessen, pero quedaba el contrato valido con que bebiessen publicamente delante de testigos.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] 'son graciosos en los motes, y chistes, que dizen à sus mayores, y iuezes: si son rigurosos, ambiciosos, auarientos, representando los sucessos que con ellos les passan, y aun lo que vèn à su ministro doctrinero, lo dizen delante dèl, y à vezes con vna sola palabra.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] see _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., pp. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . [ ] 'el timbal yucateco (_tankul ó tunkul_,) es el instrumento mas notable de la música yucateca, y en general de la música americana, que acompañaban las danzas ó bailes sagrados, y el nombre maya de ese notable instrumento, nos revela hasta hoy el carácter sagrado de aquellas fiestas, pues el nombre de _tunkul ó tankul_, significa ligeramente la hora de la adoracion.' _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., p. . i have one of these instruments in my possession. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] this is very similar to the nahua game, described on page , et seq., of this volume. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. - , - , pl. v., fig. i., ii. chapter xxiii. food, dress, commerce, and war customs of the mayas. introduction of agriculture--quichÉ tradition of the discovery of maize--maize culture--superstitions of farmers--hunting and fishing--domestic animals, fowl, and bees--preservation and cooking of food--meals--drinks and drinking-habits--cannibalism--dress of the mayas--maxtlis, mantles, and sandals--dress of kings and priests--women's dress--hair and beard--personal decoration--head-flattening, perforation, tattooing, and painting--personal habits--commerce--currency--markets--superstitions of travelers--canoes and balsas--war--military leaders--insignia--armor--weapons--fortifications--battles-- treatment of captives. the tierra caliente and the low forest-clad foothills of the usumacinta region on the confines of yucatan, guatemala, chiapas, and tabasco, present claims as strong at least as those of any other locality to be considered the birth-place of american civilization. here apparently votan and gucumatz, demi-gods or civilizers, won their first triumphs over the powers of barbarism. in the most remote times to which we are carried by vague tradition and mythic fable, gods with strangely human attributes, or men of wonderful supernatural powers, newly arrived in this land, took counsel one with another how they might subject to their power and reclaim from barbarism the native bands of savages, or 'animals,' who roamed naked through the forests, and subsisted on roots and wild fruits. the discussion of the tradition with reference to its historic signification, is foreign to my present purpose, but as the story includes the traditional origin of agriculture and the discovery of maize under the form of a new creation, it is an appropriate introduction to the present chapter on the food, dress, and commerce of the maya nations. the story runs as follows in the aboriginal quiché annals:[ ] behold how they began to think of man, and to seek what must enter into the flesh of man. then spake he who begets, and he who gives being, tepeuh, gucumatz, the creator and the former, and said: "already the dawn is nigh; the work is finished; behold the support, the foster-father, is ennobled; the son of civilization, man, is honored, and humanity on the face of the earth." they came, and in great numbers they assembled; in the shadows of the night they joined their wise counsel. then sought they and consulted in sadness, meditating; and thus the wisdom of these men was manifest; they found and were made to see what must enter into the flesh of man; and the dawn was near. [sidenote: discovery of maize.] in paxil, or cayala ('land of divided and stagnant waters') as it is called, were the ears of yellow maize and of white. these are the names of the barbarians who went to seek food; the fox, the jackal, the paroquet, and the crow,--four barbarians who made known to them the ears of the white maize and of the yellow, who came to paxil and guided them thither. there it was they obtained at last the food that was to enter into the flesh of man, of man created and formed; this it was that was his blood, that became the blood of man--this maize that entered into him by the provision of him who creates, of him who gives being. and they rejoiced that they had at last arrived in this most excellent land, so full of good things, where the white and yellow maize did abound, also the cacao, where were sapotes and many fruits, and honey; all was overflowing with the best of food in this country of paxil, or cayala. there was food of every kind; there were large and small plants, to which the barbarians had guided them. then they began to grind the yellow and white maize, and of them did xmucané make nine drinks, which nourishment was the beginning of strength, giving unto man flesh and stature. such were the deeds of the begetter and giver of being, tepeuh, gucumatz. thereupon they began to speak of creating our first mother and our first father. only yellow maize and white maize entered into their flesh, and these alone formed the legs and arms of man; and these were our first fathers, the four men who were formed, into whose flesh this food entered. and from this time of its traditional discovery by gucumatz, or quetzalcoatl, down to the conquest by the spaniards and even down to the present time, the yellow and white maize, in their several varieties, have been the chief reliance of the maya as of the nahua nations for daily food. every year during the latter months of the dry season, from march to may, the farmer busied himself in preparing his _milpa_, or cornfield, which he did by simply cutting or uprooting the dense growth and burning it. the ashes thus produced were the only fertilizer ever employed, and even this was probably never needed in this land of tropical fertility. just before the first rain fell, equipped with a sack of seed-maize on his shoulder and a sharpened stick in his hand, he made holes at regular intervals among the ashes, and in each deposited five or six grains, covering it with the same instrument, aided perhaps by the foot. in yucatan the planters united in bands of twenty for mutual assistance, working together until the land of all the club was properly seeded. it was not customary to plant very large fields, but rather many in different localities, to guard against a possible partial failure of the crops from local causes. hedges, ditches, and fences were constructed to enclose the milpas, so effective in the lacandone country that the spaniards' horses were unable to leap them. the corn was carefully kept free from weeds while growing, and watched by boys after it had begun to ripen. in nicaragua, where, oviedo tells us, more attention was paid to agriculture than in any other region visited by him, the boys took their station in trees scattered over the field, or sometimes on raised covered scaffolds of wood and reeds, called _barbacoas_, where they kept up a continual shouting to drive away the birds. irrigation was practiced when the rains were backward, and if we may credit oviedo, by thus artificially forcing the crop in nicaragua, well-filled corn was plucked only forty days after planting the seed. villagutierre states that the itzas spent most of their time in worship, dancing, and getting drunk, trusting to uncultivated fruits and the fertility of their soil for a subsistence, and contenting themselves with very small milpas. [sidenote: cultivation of the soil.] after maize, cacao was perhaps the crop to which most attention was paid. it grew in hot and shady localities, and where there was no natural shade, trees were set out for the purpose. it was called _cacaguat_ in nicaragua, and was gathered from february to april. several varieties, of a somewhat inferior quality, grew wild, and were much used by the natives. the cultivation of beans, pepper, cotton, and of numerous native fruits, was carried on extensively, but we have no details respecting the methods employed.[ ] in connection with the planting and growth of the various cultivated plants, the mayas entertained some peculiar superstitions. far from understanding the simplest laws of nature, they recognized only supernatural agencies in the growth or blighting of their crops. in yucatan, cogolludo states that no meat was eaten while cotton was growing, from fear that it would fail to mature. the nicaraguans, according to dávila, ate no salt or pepper, nor did they drink any intoxicating beverage, or sleep with their women during the time of planting. oviedo also observed certain bundles of sticks placed at the corners of each field, as well as leaves, stones, and cotton rags, scattered over the surface by ugly and deformed old hags, for some unknown but doubtless superstitious purpose. palacio tells us that the pipiles before beginning to plant gathered in small bowls specimens of all the seeds, which, after performing certain rites with them before the idol, they buried in the ground, and burned copal and ulli over them. blood was drawn freely from different parts of the body, with which to anoint the idol; and, as ximenez states, the blood of slain fowls was sprinkled over the land to be sown. in the case of cacao the finest grains of seed were exposed to the moonlight during four nights; and whatever the seed to be planted, the tillers of the soil must sleep apart from their wives and concubines for several days, in order that on the night before planting they might indulge their passions to the fullest extent; certain persons are even said to have been appointed to perform the sexual act at the very moment when the first seeds were deposited in the ground. before beginning the operation of weeding, they burned incense at the four corners of the field, and uttered fervent prayers to the idols. when the corn was ripe they plucked the finest ears and offered them to the gods, to the priests, and sometimes also to the poor. at harvest time the corn was heaped up in the field, and was not moved until the grain itself gave the signal that it was ready; the signal was, as brasseur states it, the springing up of a fresh blade, or, according to ximenez, the falling of an ear from the heap.[ ] the home of the mayas in nearly every part abounded in many varieties of game, and the authors report the natives to have been expert hunters and fishermen, but respecting the particular methods employed in capturing food from forest, ocean, and river, little information has been preserved. the people of yucatan used the bow and arrow; were especially skillful at throwing a kind of arrow or dart by means of a piece of wood three fingers thick, pierced with a hole at one third its length; and, according to cogolludo, they bred hunting dogs which were trained to follow and seize deer, tigers, and boars, as well as badgers, rabbits, armadillos, and iguanas. the latter animal was, as it still is, a favorite food. tradition relates that the tutul xius when they first came to yucatan used no weapons, but were famous for their skill in taking game by means of snares, traps, and similar devices. in guatemala, a blow-pipe and earthen bullets were sometimes used to shoot birds. a portion of all game taken had to be given to the rulers of town and province, and also a large portion--half, las casas tells us, in guatemala--must be offered to the god of hunting, or, in other words, furnished for the priests' tables. fish and turtles were the chief articles of food in some coast regions, and the nicaraguans are described by oviedo as expert fishermen, who took fish from ocean and river by means of rods, lines, and flies, also in cotton nets, and by pens and embankments in the tide waters. they are said to have had a plant, the _baygua_, a decoction of which being put in the water brought the fish senseless to the surface. the itzas and probably others used the harpoon. young alligators just hatched were esteemed as delicacies in vera paz, and large fleets of canoes were sent at the proper season to take them. the tapir was also a favorite article of food. toads and other reptiles seem to have been eaten when other supplies were not at hand.[ ] [sidenote: use of meat as food.] as an article of daily food, meat was comparatively little used; cogolludo even goes so far as to say it was never eaten in yucatan except at feasts. besides the game-supply, dogs of a certain species were raised for food. they were of small size, without hair, could not bark, and when castrated became immensely fat. they were called _xulos_ in nicaragua, and _tzomes_ in yucatan, but were probably the same as the _techichis_ already mentioned in mexico. turkeys, ducks, geese, and other fowl were domesticated; and pigs, rabbits, and hares are mentioned as having been bred. multitudes of bees were kept for their honey and wax, and hives are spoken of by las casas without description. gomara says the bees were small and the honey somewhat bitter. the only methods of making salt that i find particularly mentioned were to bake tide-washed earth, boiling down the brine made of the product, and also to boil the lye produced by leeching the ashes of a palm called _xacxam_. the former method was practiced in guatemala, at great cost of labor and wealth, as herrera says; the second is referred to yucatan. many roots were of course utilized for food, and a peculiar herb, called _yaat_, was mixed with lime and carried constantly in the mouth by the nicaraguans on the march or journey, as a preventive of fatigue and thirst.[ ] respecting the preservation and cooking of food, as well as the habits of the people in taking their daily meals, there are no differences to be recorded from what has been said of the nahuas. the inevitable tortillas and tamales were the standard dish, made in the same way as at the north; meat was dried, salted, roasted, and stewed, with pepper for the favorite seasoning. fruits were perhaps a more prominent article of food, and were eaten for the most part raw.[ ] cogolludo informs us that the yucatecs eat regularly once a day, just before sunset; and we are also told that they took great pains to keep their bright-colored table-cloths and napkins in a state of perfect cleanliness. in nicaragua, they were accustomed to wash the hands and mouth after eating; and the chiefs, who sat in a circle on wooden benches and were served by the women, also washed at the commencement of the meal. the men and women eat always separately, the latter taking their food from the ground, or sometimes from a palm-leaf basket-work platter. very little food sufficed for the mayas and they could bear hunger for a long time, but like all the aboriginal inhabitants of america they eat plentifully when well supplied, taking no heed for a time in the future when food might be lacking.[ ] [sidenote: drinks prepared from maize.] we have seen that in the beginning, according to the tradition, xmucané invented nine drinks, which were prepared from maize. the exact composition of these famous beverages of antiquity is not given; but landa speaks of at least six, in the preparation of which maize was used, at least as an ingredient. to make the first, the corn was half-boiled in lime-water, coarsely ground, and preserved in small balls, which were simply mixed with water for use; this beverage was much used on journeys, and was often the only provision, serving for food as well. the second was made of the same hulled corn ground fine and mixed in water so as to form a gruel, which was heated and thickened over the fire, and was a favorite drink taken hot in the morning. the third was parched corn ground, mixed in water, and seasoned with pepper or cacao. the fourth was composed of ground maize and cacao, and was designed especially for public festivals. for the fifth a grease, much like butter, was extracted from cacao and mixed with maize. the sixth was prepared from raw maize ground. the fermented liquor, made of maize and cacao, which was drunk by the itzas, was called _zaca_. native wines were made of honey and water, of figs, and of a great variety of fruits; that made of the native fruit called _jacote_, and one of red cherries, were very popular in nicaragua. _chicha_ was a fermented drink made of pine-apple juice, honey or sugar, and water. pulque made from the maguey is mentioned, but this plant does not seem to have played so important a rôle in the south as in the north; at least there is very little said of it. a very strong and stinking wine is also mentioned as being prepared from a certain root. herrera tells us that the maize-wines resembled beer, and andagoya that their intoxicating properties were not very lasting. benzoni complains that the native wines failed to comfort the spirit, warm the stomach, and sooth to sleep like those of castile. chocolate and other drinks prepared from cacao were universal favorites, and were prepared both from wild and cultivated varieties. oviedo states that in nicaragua none but the rich and noble could afford to drink it, as it was literally drinking money. he describes the manner of preparing the cacao, _coco_, or _cacaguat_. it was picked from the trees from february to april, dried in the sun, roasted, ground in water, mixed with a quantity of _bixa_ until it was of a bright blood-color, and the dried paste was preserved in cakes. with this paste the natives delighted to bedaub their faces. to prepare the drink, they do not seem to have employed heat, at least in this part of the country, but simply dissolved the paste in water, and poured it from one dish into another to raise a froth. the mayas seem to have been a people greatly addicted to the vice of drunkenness, which was much less disgraceful and less severely punished by the laws than among the nahuas. it was quite essential to the thorough enjoyment of a feast or wedding to become intoxicated; the wife even handed the tempting beverages to her husband, modestly averted her head while he drank, kindly guided him home when the festivities were over, and even became intoxicated herself occasionally, if landa may be believed. the same authority represents the natives of yucatan as very brutal and indecent when drunk, and oviedo says that he who dropped down senseless from drink in a banquet was allowed to remain where he fell, and was regarded by his companions with feelings of envy.[ ] [sidenote: eating human flesh.] the custom of eating the flesh of human victims who were sacrificed to the gods, was probably practiced more or less in all the maya regions; but neither this cannibalism nor the sacrifices that gave rise to it were so extensively indulged in as by the mexicans. some authors, as gomara, deny that human flesh was ever eaten in yucatan, but others, as herrera, villagutierre, and peter martyr, contradict this, although admitting that cases of cannibalism were rare, and the victims confined to sacrificed enemies. las casas states that in guatemala the hands and feet were given to the king and high-priest, the rest to other priests, and that none was left for the people. in nicaragua the high-priest received the heart, the king the feet and hands, he who captured the victim took the thighs, the tripe was given to the trumpeters, and the rest was divided among the people. the head was not eaten. the edible portions were cut in small pieces, boiled in large pots, seasoned with salt and pepper, and eaten together with cakes of maize. at certain feasts also maize was sprinkled with blood from the genitals. according to herrera some spaniards were eaten in yucatan, but albornoz tells us that the natives of honduras found the foreigners too tough and bitter to be eaten.[ ] [sidenote: dress of the mayas.] by reason of the warmer climate in the southern lands, or of a difference in the popular taste, somewhat less attention seems to have been paid to dress and personal adornment by the mayas than by the nahuas, or rather the maya dress was much more simple and more uniform among the different classes of society; and, so far as can be determined from the very scanty information extant, there was only a very slight variation in the dress of the different nations--much less, indeed, than would naturally be expected between the tribes of the low yucatan plains and of the guatemalan highlands. very little of the information that has been preserved, however, relates to the people of guatemala. men wore almost universally the garment known in mexico as the maxtli, a long strip of cotton cloth, wound several times round the loins and passing between the legs. this strip was often twisted so as to resemble a cord, and the higher the class or the greater the wealth of the wearer, the greater the length of the cord and the number of turns about the body. among the itzas and other tribes of yucatan, instead of passing this garment between the legs, its ends were often allowed to hang, one in front and the other behind, being in such cases more or less embroidered or otherwise decorated.[ ] in more modern times the maxtli seems to have been, in some cases at least, replaced by cotton drawers, fastened with a string round the waist, and having the legs rolled up to the middle of the thigh.[ ] a large proportion of the mayas, especially of the poorer classes, wore commonly no other garment than the one mentioned; but very few were without a piece of cotton cloth about four or five feet square, which was used as a covering at night and was often worn in the daytime, by tying two corners on the same side over the shoulders and allowing the cloth to hang down the back. the spaniards uniformly apply the somewhat indefinite term 'mantle' to this garment. these mantles are still worn.[ ] the only other garment mentioned, and one not definitely stated to have been worn except in yucatan, was a kind of loose sleeveless shirt reaching to the knees. these shirts as well as the mantles were worn both white and dyed in brilliant and variegated colors.[ ] i find no mention of other material than cotton used for clothing, except in the case of the cakchiquels, who, according to brasseur, wore both bark and maguey-fibre.[ ] there is nothing to indicate that the dress of nobles, priests, or kings, differed essentially from that of the common people, except in fineness of material or richness and profusion of ornaments. it is probable, however, that the higher classes were always clad in the garments which have been described, while a majority of the plebeians wore only the maxtli, which was sometimes only a single strip of cloth passing once round the waist and between the legs. as rulers and priests are often spoken of as dressed in 'large white mantles' or 'flowing robes,' it is probable that the mantle worn by them was much larger, as well as of finer stuff, than that described. landa speaks of a priest in yucatan who wore an upper garment of colored feathers, with strips of cotton hanging from its border to the ground. palacio tells us of priestly robes in salvador of different colors, black, blue, green, red, and yellow. according to remesal the priests of guatemala were filthy, abominable, and ugly, in fact very hogs in dress. in nicaragua, herrera describes white cotton surplices, and other priestly vestments, some small, others hanging from the shoulders to the heels, with hanging pockets, in which were carried stone lancets, with various herbs and powders, indispensable in the practice of sacerdotal arts. ximenez represents the guatemalan king's dress as like that of the people, except that he had his ears and nose pierced, of which more anon.[ ] [sidenote: dress of women and children.] the women universally wore a skirt formed by winding a wide piece of cotton cloth round the body and fastening it at the waist. this garment reached from the waist to the knee, as worn by the plebeian women, but those of a higher class covered with it their legs as low as the ankles. in some parts of nicaragua, especially on the islands, herrera says that except this skirt, which was so scanty as hardly to merit a better name than breech-clout, the women were naked; but elsewhere they were always particular to cover their breasts from sight. this they accomplished in some cases by a piece of cloth round the neck, and fastened under the arms; but they also often wore a kind of chemise, or loose sack, with holes for the head and arms, and sometimes with short sleeves. the latter garment was always worn on feast-days by those who had it to wear. andagoya mentions a sort of cape worn in nicaragua, which had a hole for the head, and covered the breasts and half of the arms. herrera speaks of a sack open at both ends, and tightened at the waist, worn in nicaragua; and landa mentions the same garment in yucatan. the women, like the men, used a square mantle to sleep under, and carried it with them on journeys. children were allowed to remain naked in yucatan till they were four or five years old, and in guatemala to the age of eight or nine years; but in yucatan, landa tells us, that a boy at the age of three years, had a white ornament tied in his hair, and a girl at the same age had a shell fastened by a string in such a manner as to cover certain parts of her person.[ ] it is very difficult to form any definite idea of the maya methods of dressing the hair, save that all allowed it to grow long, and most persons separated it into tresses, winding some of them about the head and allowing others to hang down the back. landa informs us that the yucatecs burned the hair on the crown, allowing it to remain short there, but permitted the rest to grow as long as it would, binding it round the head except a queue behind. in nicaragua, the forehead was shaved, and sometimes the whole head except a tuft at the crown. the women everywhere and men generally took great pains with the hair; the former often mixed feathers with their raven locks, which were dressed differently according as the owners were married or single, and particular care was devoted to the coiffure of a bride. all the authorities agree that the priests in yucatan wore the hair long, uncombed, and often saturated with sacrificial blood. plumes of feathers seem to have been their usual head-dress. palacio and herrera mention a colored head-dress, mitre, or diadem with hanging plumes worn by a priest in salvador. over the hair a piece of cloth was usually worn by females, in which the abbé brasseur finds a resemblance to the egyptian _calantica_. a tuft of hair hanging over the face of children often made them cross-eyed; indeed, mothers are said to have arranged it with a view to this very effect, deemed by them a desirable thing, or to have attached to the forehead a small hanging plaster for the same purpose. the number of 'bizcos' treated by dr cabot, who accompanied mr stephens in his excursion through yucatan, shows that though squinting eyes are still common in the country, the defect has at least lost its charm to the maya mothers.[ ] no beard was worn, and the few hairs that made their appearance on the face were immediately extracted. according to landa, mothers are said to have burned the faces of young children with hot cloths to prevent the growth of a beard in later years. after the conquest many of the natives grew beards, which, though sometimes long, were always thin and coarse. something like a beard is also to be seen on some of the sculptured faces among the maya ruins. oviedo met in nicaragua a man about seventy years of age, who had a long flowing white beard.[ ] the mayas, when they covered the feet at all, wore a kind of sandal of coarse cloth, or more frequently of dry deer-skin. these sandals were simply pieces of skin, often double, covering and fitting somewhat the sole, and fastened by cotton strings from the ankle to the toes and perhaps also to the heel. i find no account of hand-coverings except in the popol vuh, where gloves are spoken of as being used in the game of ball.[ ] [sidenote: disfigurement of the physique.] having provided for their comfort by the use of the articles of dress already described, the mayas, like most other american aborigines, deemed it essential to modify and improve their physique by artificial means. this they accomplished by head-flattening, teeth-filing, perforation of the ears, nose, and lips, tattooing, and painting; yet it is not probable that all these methods of disfigurement were practiced by all the natives. in nicaragua, the heads of infants were flattened; the people believed that the custom had been originally introduced by the gods; that the compressed forehead was the sign of noble blood and the highest type of beauty; and besides that the head was thus better adapted to the carrying of burdens. in yucatan, according to landa, the same custom obtained. four or five days after birth the child was laid with the face down on a bed and the head was compressed between two pieces of wood, one on the forehead and the other on the back of the head, the boards being kept in place for several days until the desired cranial conformation was effected. so great was the pressure that the child's skull was sometimes broken. i find no account of forehead-flattening in guatemala and chiapas, though mr squier, following fuentes' unpublished history, says that among the quichés, cakchiquels, and zutugils the back of the head was flattened by the practice of carrying infants tied closely to a straight board. yet from the frequent occurrence of this cranial type in the sculptured profiles in chiapas, honduras, and yucatan, there can be no doubt that in the most ancient times a flattened forehead was the ideal of manly beauty, and i think we have sufficient reason to believe that the artificial shaping of the skull was even more universally practiced in ancient than in modern times. the origin of the custom is a most interesting topic for study and speculation.[ ] the practice of filing the teeth prevailed to a certain extent among the women of yucatan, whose ideal of dental charms rendered a saw-teeth arrangement desirable. the operation was performed by certain old women, professors of the art, by means of sharp gritty stones and water.[ ] the piercing of ears, nose, and lips was practiced among all the nations by both men and women apparently, except in guatemala, where, ximenez tells us, it was confined to the kings, who perforated the nose and ears as a mark of rank and power. we have no authority for supposing that persons of any class in yucatan and nicaragua were restrained from this mutilation of their faces, or from wearing in the perforated features any ornaments they could afford to purchase. such ornaments were small sticks, bones, shells, and rings of amber or gold. other ornaments besides those inserted in the ears, nose, and lips, were bracelets, rings, gold beads, and medals, shell necklaces, metallic and wooden wands, gilded masks, feathers and plumes, and pearls. besides this piercing for ornamental purposes, it should be noted that perforation of cheeks and tongues, and scarifyings of other parts of body and limbs, were common in connection with religious rites and duties.[ ] [sidenote: tattooing and painting.] tattooing was effected in yucatan and nicaragua by lacerating the body with stone lancets, and rubbing the wounds with powdered coal or black earths, which left indelible marks. stripes, serpents, and birds seem to have been favorite devices for this kind of decoration. the process was a slow and painful one, and to submit to it was deemed a sign of bravery. the tattooing was done by professors who made this art a specialty. cogolludo says the itzas had the whole body tattooed, but landa and herrera tell us that neither in yucatan nor in nicaragua were the breasts of the women subjected to this decorative mutilation.[ ] painting the face and body was universal, but little can be said respecting the details of the custom, save that red and black were apparently the favorite colors, and colored earths the most common material of the paints. bixa was, however, much used for red, and cacao tinted with bixa to a blood-red hue was daubed in great profusion on the faces of the nicaraguans. in yucatan young men generally restricted themselves to black until they were married, indulging afterwards in varied and bright-colored figures. black was also a favorite color for war-paint. odoriferous gums were often mixed with the paints, especially by the women, which rendered the decoration durable, sticky, and most disagreeable to foreign olfactories. it appears that in guatemala, and probably elsewhere, a coat of paint was employed, not only for ornamental purposes, but as a protection against heat and cold. at certain nicaraguan feasts and dances the naked bodies were painted in imitation of the ordinary garments, cotton-fibre being mixed with the paint.[ ] [sidenote: personal habits.] all were fond of perfumes, and besides the odoriferous substances mixed by the ladies in their paint, copal and other gums were burned on many occasions, not only in honor of the gods, but for the agreeable odor of the smoke; sweet-smelling barks, herbs, and flowers were also habitually carried on the person.[ ] all the mayas, especially females, were rather neat than otherwise in their personal habits, taking great pains with their dress and so-called decorations. they bathed frequently in cold water and sometimes indulged in hot baths, perhaps in steam-baths; but of the latter very little is said, although brasseur says it was used in guatemala under the name of _tuh_. the women were very modest and usually took much pains to prevent the exposure of their persons, but in bathing and on certain other occasions both sexes appear to have been somewhat careless in this respect. in both yucatan and nicaragua mirrors were employed by the men, but the women required or at least employed no such aids.[ ] although such disfigurements as have been described, painting, tattooing, and perforation, are reported by all the authors, and were all doubtless practiced, yet one can hardly avoid forming the idea in reading the narratives of the conquerors, that such hideous mutilations were confined to certain classes and certain occasions, and that the mass of the people in every-day life presented a much less repulsive aspect. * * * * * i have already spoken of the tenure of landed property and the laws of inheritance among the mayas. to the accumulation of wealth in the form of personal property they do not seem to have attached much importance. they were content for the most part with a supply of simple food for their tables, the necessary household utensils, and such articles of dress and ornament as were required by their social rank; with these and a sufficient surplus to entertain their friends in a fitting style, they took little care for the future. yet traders were a class much honored, and their profession was a lucrative one. an active trade was carried on in each town, as also between different towns, provinces, and nations, in order that the people of each locality might be supplied with the necessary commodities both of home and foreign production. few details have been preserved respecting the manner of conducting trade, but what is known on the subject indicates that the commercial system was identical with that of the nahuas, to which a preceding chapter has been devoted. commodities of every class, food, dress, ornaments, weapons, and implements, were offered for sale in the market-place, or plaza, of every village, where all transactions between buyers and sellers were regulated by an official who had full authority to correct abuses and punish offences against the laws of trade. fairs were held periodically in all the larger towns, which were crowded by buyers and sellers from abroad. traveling merchants traversed the country in every direction busied in the exchange and transport of varied local products. yucatan did a large foreign trade with tabasco and honduras, from both of which regions large quantities of cacao were imported. other international routes of commerce doubtless existed in different directions; we have seen that the nahua merchants crossed the isthmus of tehuantepec to traffic in maya lands, and the southern merchants were doubtless not unrepresented in the northern fairs. transportation was effected for the most part by carriers overland, and in many parts of the country, as in yucatan, magnificent paved roads offered every facility to the traveler; quite an extensive coasting-trade was also carried on by water. the ordinary mercantile transactions were effected by exchange, or barter, of one commodity for another; but where this was inconvenient cacao passed current as money among all the nations. thus a rabbit in nicaragua sold for ten cacao-nibs, and one hundred of these seeds would buy a tolerably good slave. notwithstanding the comparatively small value of this cacao-money, oviedo tells us that counterfeiting was sometimes attempted. according to cogolludo, copper bells and rattles of different sizes, red shells in strings, precious stones, and copper hatchets often served as money, especially in foreign trade. doubtless many other articles, valuable and of compact form were used in the same way. landa speaks of net-work purses in which the money of the natives was carried. [sidenote: market regulations.] we are informed that in yucatan articles of ordinary consumption, like food, were sold always at a fixed price, except maize, which varied slightly in price according to the yield. maize was sold by the carga, or load, which was about one half of the castilian fanega. in nicaragua the matter of price was left altogether to the contracting parties. the mayas of all nations were very strict in requiring the exact fulfilment of contracts, which, in yucatan, as has been said, and in guatemala also, according to brasseur de bourbourg, were legalized by the parties drinking together, the beverage being generally colored with certain leaves called _max_. in the nicaraguan markets some extraordinary regulations were enforced. men could not visit the market-place of their own towns, either to buy, sell, or for any other purpose; they even incurred the risk of receiving a sound beating, if they so much as peeped in to see what was going on. all the business was transacted by the women; but boys, into whose minds, by reason of their tender years, carnal thoughts were supposed not to have entered, might be present to assist the women, and even men from other towns or provinces, were welcome, provided they did not belong to a people of different language. no peculiar ceremonies are mentioned as accompanying the setting-out or return of trading caravans, but some customs observed by travelers, a large proportion of whom were probably merchants, are recorded. in yucatan all members of a household prayed often and earnestly for the safe return of the absent member; and the traveler himself, when he chanced to come in contact with a large stone which had been moved in opening the road, reverently laid upon it a green branch, brushing his knees with another at the same time as a preventive of fatigue. he also carried incense on his journey, and at each nightfall, wherever he might be, he stood on end three small stones, and on three other flat stones placed before the first he burned incense and uttered a prayer to ekchua, god of travelers, whose name signifies 'merchant.' when the traveler was belated, and thought himself likely to arrive after dark at his proposed stopping-place, he deposited a stone in a hollow tree, and pulled out some hairs from his eyebrows, which he proceeded to blow towards the setting sun, hoping thereby to induce that orb to retard somewhat its movements. in guatemala, small chapels were placed at short intervals on all the lines of travel, where each passer halted for a few moments at least, gathered a handful of herbs, rubbed with them his legs, spat reverently upon them, and placed them prayerfully upon the altar with a small stone and some trifling offering of pepper, salt, or cacao. the offering remained untouched, no one being bold enough to disturb the sacred token.[ ] [sidenote: maya boats and navigation.] oviedo states that in nicaragua, or at least in certain parts of that country, the people had no canoes, but resorted to balsas when it became necessary to cross the water. the balsa in this region was simply a raft of five or six logs tied together at the ends with grass, and covered with cross-sticks. the author referred to saw a fleet of these aboriginal vessels which bore fifteen hundred warriors. on the coast of yucatan and in the lakes of peten, the natives had many canoes for use in war and commerce, and were very skillful in their management. these canoes were 'dug-outs' made from single trunks, capable of carrying from two to fifty persons, and propelled by paddles. cogolludo tells us that canoes with sails were seen by córdova during his voyage up the coast, and some modern writers speak of the famous canoe met by columbus off the honduras coast as having been fitted with sails; but in the latter case there seems to be no authority for the statement, and that sails were ever employed may well be considered doubtful. the boat seen by columbus was eight feet wide, "as long as a galley," bore twenty-five men, and an awning of mats in the centre protected the women and children. all the information we have respecting boats in guatemala is the statement of peter martyr that the 'dug-outs' were also in use there, and of juarros that the lacandones had a large fleet of boats; guatemala was a country, however, whose physical conformation would rarely call for navigation on an extensive scale. villagutierre says that the chiapanecs used gourd balsas, or 'calabazas.'[ ] * * * * * wars among the maya nations were frequent,--more so probably during the century preceding the spanish conquest, when their history is partially known, than in the more glorious days of the distant past,--but they were also, as a rule, of short duration, partaking more of the character of raids than of regular wars. one campaign generally decided the tribal or national dispute, and the victors were content with the victory and the captives taken. landa and herrera report that the nations of yucatan learned the art of war from the mexicans, having been an altogether peaceful people before the nahua influence was brought to bear on them. the latter also suspects that the yucatec war-customs, as observed by the spaniards, may have been modified by the teaching of guerrero and aguilar, white men held for several years as prisoners before the invaders came; but neither theory seems to have much weight. the profession of arms was everywhere an honorable one, but military preferment and promotion seem to have been somewhat more exclusively confined to the nobility than among the nahuas. according to landa, a certain number of picked men were appointed in each town, who were called _holcanes_, must be ready to take up arms whenever called for, and received a small amount of money for their services while in actual war. this is the only instance of a paid soldiery noted in the limits of our territory.[ ] in nicaragua tapaligui was the most honorable title a man could win by bravery, and from the number of those who bore the title the war-captain was in most provinces appointed either by the monexico, or council, or by the cacique. this captain was for the most part independent of the civil ruler in time of war, but boyle speaks of certain cities where the cacique himself commanded the army. the civil chief, however, if he possessed the requisite bravery, often accompanied the troops to the field to take command at the captain's death, or appoint his successor.[ ] in yucatan they had two war-captains, one of whom held his position by inheritance, while the other was chosen for a term of three years. the title of the latter was nacon, and his office seems to have been attended with some inconveniences, since during the three years he could know no woman, eat no meat, indulge in no intoxication, and have but little to do with the public. fish and iguana-flesh were allowed him, but it must be served on dishes used by no one but himself, and must not be served by women. in vera paz the captains were chosen from among the most distinguished braves, and seem to have held their position for life.[ ] [sidenote: insignia of warriors.] in yucatan skins and feathers, worn according to fixed rules, not recorded, were among the most prominent insignia of warriors. the face was painted in various colors; and tattooing the hands was a privilege accorded to the brave. the itzas fought naked, but painted face, body, and limbs black, the brave tattooing the face in stripes. feather plumes are the only insignia mentioned in connection with guatemalan warriors; but the grade of a pipile's prowess was indicated by the number of holes he had in ears, nose, and other features. all officers in the nicaraguan armies had distinguishing marks, which they wore both in time of war and of peace; the tapaligui was allowed to shave his head except on the crown, where the hair was left a finger long, with a longer tuft projecting from the centre. the arrangement of the feathers on the shield also indicated to the soldiers an officer's rank.[ ] the universal maya armor was a thick quilted sack of cotton, which fitted closely over the body and arms, and reached generally to the middle of the thighs, although alvarado found the guatemalans clad in similar sacks reaching to the feet. in yucatan, according to landa, a layer of salt was placed between the thicknesses of cotton, making the garment very hard and impenetrable. as the guatemalan armor is described as being three fingers thick and so heavy that the soldiers could with difficulty run or rise after falling, we may suppose that salt or some similar material was also used by the quichés. squier mentions, apparently without sufficient authority, short breeches worn to protect the legs. the spaniards were not long in recognizing the advantages of the native cotton armor, and it was commonly adopted or added to their own armor of steel. the head-armor, when any was worn, seems to have been ordinarily a kind of cap, also of quilted cotton. landa says that in yucatan a few leaders wore wooden helmets; they are also mentioned by gomara and las casas. peter martyr speaks of golden helmets and breast-plates as worn in nicaragua. shields were made of split reeds, were round in form, and were covered generally with skins and decorated with feathers, though a cotton covering was also used in nicaragua.[ ] [sidenote: aboriginal weapons.] bows and arrows, lances, and darts were used as weapons of war by all the maya tribes, the projectiles being usually pointed with flint, but often also with fish-bone or copper. arrows were carried in quivers and were never poisoned. the yucatec bow, as landa informs us, was a little shorter than the man who carried it, and was made of a very strong native wood; the string was made of the fibres of certain plants. the arrows were light reeds with a piece of hard wood at the end. oviedo tells us of lances, or pikes, in nicaragua, which were thirty spans long, and others in yucatan fifteen spans long; herrera says they were over twenty feet long in guatemala, and that their heads were poisoned; though oviedo denies that poison was used. in nicaragua and yucatan heavy wooden swords, called by the mexicans _macuahuitl_, were used, but i find no special mention of these weapons in guatemala. a line of sharp flints were firmly set along the two edges, and, wielded with both hands they were a most formidable weapon. waldeck found in modern times the horn of a sawfish covered with skin and used as a weapon. he thinks the aboriginal weapon may have been fashioned after this natural model. slings were extensively used in yucatan, and also copper axes to some extent, but these are supposed to have been imported from mexico, as no metals are found in the peninsula.[ ] the quichés, cakchiquels, and other tribes inhabiting the high lands of guatemala, chose the location of their towns in places naturally well nigh inaccessible, strengthening them besides with artificial fortifications in the shape of massive stone walls and deep ditches. ruins of these fortified towns are very numerous and will be described elsewhere; a few words respecting utatlan, the quiché capital, and one of the most securely located and guarded cities, will suffice here. standing on a level plateau, the city was bounded on every side by a deep ravine, believed to have been at some points artificial, and which could only be crossed at one place. guarding this single approach a line of massive stone structures connected by ditches extends a long distance, and within this line of fortifications, at the entrance of the pass, is el resguardo, a square-based pyramidical structure, one hundred and twenty feet high, rising in three terraces, and having its summit platform inclosed by a stone wall, covered with hard cement. a tower also rises from the summit. the spaniards under alvarado found their approach obstructed at various points in guatemala by holes in which were pointed stakes fixed in the ground, and carefully concealed by a slight covering of turf; palisades, ditches, and walls of stone, logs, plants, or earth, were thrown across the road at every difficult pass; and large stones were kept ready to hurl or roll down upon the invaders. numerous short pointed sticks were found on at least one occasion fixed upright in the ground, apparently a slight defense, but really a most formidable one, since the points were poisoned. doubtless all these methods of defence had been practiced often before in their international wars against american foes. strong defensive works are also mentioned in chiapas, and andagoya tells us of a town in nicaragua fortified by a high and impenetrable hedge of cacti. in yucatan the spaniard's progress was frequently opposed, at points favorable for such a purpose, by temporary trenches, barricades of stone, logs, and earth, and protected stations for bowmen and slingers; but in the selection of sites for their towns, notwithstanding the generally level surface of their country, facilities for defence seem to have been little or not at all considered. one, only, of the many ruined cities which have been explored, tuloom, on the eastern coast, stands on an eminence overlooking the ocean, in a very strong natural position; but strangely enough it is just here, where artificial defenses were least needed, that we find a massive wall surrounding the chief structures,--the only city wall standing in modern times, though mayapan was traditionally a walled town, and a few slight traces of walls have been found about other cities.[ ] [sidenote: declaration of war.] the ambition of the native rulers to increase their dominions by encroachments upon their neighbors' territory was probably the cause of most wars among the maya nations; but raids were also undertaken occasionally, with no other object than that of obtaining victims for sacrifice. in the consultations preceding the declaration of war the priesthood had much to say, and played a prominent part in the accompanying ceremonies. in salvador the high-priest with four subordinates decided on the war by drawing of lots and by various other sorceries, and even gave directions how the campaign was to be carried on. the high-priest was generally on the ground, in charge of certain idols, when an important battle was to be fought. supplies were carried, in yucatan at least, on the backs of women, and the want of adequate means of transportation is given as one reason why the maya wars were usually of short duration. the nicaraguan soldier, as oviedo states, regarded a calabash of water and a supply of the herb _yaat_ already mentioned, as the most indispensable of his supplies. respecting their ceremonies before giving battle we only know that on one occasion in yucatan they brought a brazier of burning perfume which they placed before the spanish forces, with the intimation that an attack would be made as soon as the fire went out; and also that alvarado noticed in guatemala the sacrifice of a woman and a bitch as a preliminary of battle. all fought bravely, with no apparent fear of death, endeavoring to capture the enemy alive, rather than to kill them, and at the same time to avoid being captured themselves by the sacrifice of life if necessary. in most nations it was deemed important to terrify the enemy by shouting, clanging of drums, sticks, and shells, and blowing of whistles. the armies of yucatan are said to have exhibited somewhat better order in their military movements than those of other nations. they formed their forces into two wings, placing in the centre a squadron to guard the captain and high-priest. the nicaraguans fought desperately until their leader fell, but then they always ran away. he who from cowardice failed to do his duty on the battle-field was by the nicaraguan code disgraced, abused, insulted, stripped of his weapons, and discharged from the service, but was not often put to death. as has been stated in a preceding chapter treason and desertion were everywhere punished with death. all booty except captives belonged to the taker, and to return from a campaign without spoil was deemed a dishonor. [sidenote: pipile war festival.] captives, if of noble blood or high rank, were sacrificed to the gods, and were rarely ransomed. the captor of a noble prisoner received high honors, but was punished if he accepted a ransom, the penalty being death in nicaragua. the heads of the sacrificed captives were in yucatan suspended in the branches of the trees, as memorials of victory, a separate tree being set apart for each hostile province. the bones, as landa tells us, were kept by the captors, the jaw-bone being worn on the arm, as an ornament. we read of no actual torture of prisoners, but the cakchiquels danced about the victim to be sacrificed, and loaded him with insults. among the pipiles it was left to the priests to decide whether the sacrifice should be in honor of a god or goddess; if the former, the festival lasted, according to palacio, fifteen days; the captives were obliged to march in procession through the town, and one was sacrificed each day; if the feast was dedicated to a deity of the gentler sex, five days of festivities and blood sufficed. prisoners of plebeian blood were enslaved, or only sacrificed when victims of higher rank were lacking. they were probably the property of the captors. at the close of a campaign in which no captives were taken, the nicaraguan captains went together to the altar, and there wept ceremonial tears of sorrow for their want of success. the authorities record no details of the methods by which peace was ratified; the yucatecs, however, according to cogolludo, expressed to the spaniards a desire for a suspension of hostilities, by throwing away their weapons, and by kissing their fingers, after touching them to the ground.[ ] footnotes: [ ] this history, written with roman characters, but in the quiché language, in the early years of the conquest, was quoted by brasseur de bourbourg as the _ms. quiché de chichicastenango_, in his _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. - ; a translation into spanish by ximenez appeared in , _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; and a translation into french by brasseur de bourbourg in , _popol vuh_, pp. - . brasseur's rendering is followed for the most part in my text, but so far as this extract is concerned there are only slight verbal differences between the two translations. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _id._, p. . on the coast of yucatan, 'des racines dont ils font le pain, et qu'ils nomment maïs.' _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. . the lacandones applied themselves 'al trabajo de sus milpas, y sementeras de maiz, chile, y frixoles, entre que sembravan piñas, platanos, batatas, xicamas, xacotes, zapotes, y otras frutas;' their milpas were large, and were cleared with stone hatchets. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. - . the itzas had 'mucha grana, cera, algodòn, achiote, baynillas, y otras legumbres.' _id._, pp. , . many varieties of beans raised in nicaragua. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . 'vi muchos destos perales en la provinçia de nicaragua, puestos á mano en las heredades é plaças ó assientos de los indios, é por ellos cultivados. É son tan grandes árboles como nogales algunos dellos.' _id._, p. . planting of maize, _id._, pp. - ; tom. iv., pp. - . see also on agriculture: _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, pp. - ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., pp. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, pp. , ; _viollet-le-duc_, in _charnay_, _ruines amér._, p. ; _humboldt_, _essai pol._, tom. i., p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] in the province of campeche the spaniards were feasted on 'peacockes and crammed foule both of the mountaynes, woods, and water, as patryches, quayles, turtles, duckes, geese, and fourefooted wilde beastes, as boores, hartes, and hares: besides wolfes, lyons, tygers, and foxes.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. ii. 'juntanse tambien para la caça de l en l, mas o menos, y la carne del venado assan en parillas, porque no se les gaste, y venidos al pueblo, hazen sus presentes al señor, y distribuyen como amigos y el mesmo hazen en la pesca.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , . in vera paz 'tejones, que tienen buena carne, el bilab es mejor que carnero: venadillos vermejos, y otros bayos, y muchos otros que los indios flechan, y comen algunos desollados, otros ahumados, y assados, en barbocoa, y en charque, y todo malguisado.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiii., xiv., ii. at cozumel 'el pescado es su casi principal manjar.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . see also _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. iv., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. , - , ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. - , , , , tom. iii., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. vi., ii., dec. vi., lib. iii.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. v., cap. v., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. viii.; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _id._, _hist. ind._, fol. - ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] cortés, _cartas_, p. , tells us that no bread was made in yucatan, but that maize was eaten roasted. the best tortillas in nicaragua were called _tascalpachon_. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , , , , , , tom. iii., p. . see also _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiii. [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. ; _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , , ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. v., cap. v., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ix., lib. x., cap. iv.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , - , tom. iv., p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. - , ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxvii.; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. ; _cortés' despatches_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , . [ ] in yucatan: 'these barbarians eate onely their enemies, or such strangers as come vnto them, otherwise they abstaine from mans flesh.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. vi. in guatemala the heads and tripe were seasoned with wine. _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. clxxvii.; _id._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vi., vii., lib. vii., cap. iii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , - , , ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. , ; _albornoz_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _helps' span. conq._, vol. iii., p. ; _pimentel_, _mem. sobre la raza indígena_, p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. . [ ] the itzas, men and women, wore 'faxas' varas long and / vara wide. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , , . at campeche, a strip of cotton one hand wide, twisted and wound or times about the body. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. - . this garment called _mastate_. _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . ends embroidered and decorated with feathers. _landa_, _relacion_, p. . _almayzares_, called in new spain _mastil_; otherwise naked. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. v., cap. v., dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _cortés' despatches_, p. . the chiapanecs naked except this cloth about the loins. _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, pp. , . [ ] plate showing the costume of an indian of the interior. _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, pl. v. trowsers of cotton in salvador. _squier's cent. amer._, p. . [ ] called _tilmas_ or _hayates_, a yard and a half square. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . mantles called _zuyen_. _id._, p. . 'mantas pintadas.' _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] cotton robes of bright colors. _squier's cent. amer._, p. . 'tuniques.' _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. . 'sacks.' _fancourt's hist. yuc._, pp. - . 'camisetas de colores.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . 'xaquetas de algodon.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . 'camisette senza maniche.' _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, pp. , . [ ] _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . mayas dress like the mexicans. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii.; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] 'l'étoffe rayée d'une ou de plusieurs couleurs que les femmes se roulent encore autour du corps en la serrant à la ceinture comme un jupon, descendant plus ou moins bas au-dessous du genou, se trouve être exactement la même que l'on voit aux images d'isis et aux femmes égyptiennes des époques pharaoniques.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . skirt from the waist to feet, called _pic_. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - , . 'ropas de algodon, que llaman naguas.' _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , , - , . [ ] 'es lo mas dificultoso en los indios el reduzirlos à cortarles el pelo.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , . in guatemala somewhat less attention seems to have been paid to the hair. 'trayanlo encrespado, ò rebujado en la cabeça como estopas, à causa de que no se lo peynauan.' _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. ; cogolludo, _hist. yuc._, p. , speaks of straw and palm-leaf hats, but he probably refers to his own time. hair of priests filled with blood. _id._, p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _squier's cent. amer._, pp. , . in nicaragua 'traen rapadas las cabeças de la mitad adelante é los aladares por debaxo, é déxanse una coleta de oreja á oreja por detrás desde la coronilla.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii., lib. viii., cap. x. aguilar wore a 'corona y trença de cabellos, como los naturales.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _id._, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _palacio_, _carta_, p. . [ ] _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, p. ; _charnay_, _ruines amér._, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'traian sandalias de cañamo o cuero de venado por curtir seco.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . they generally went barefoot. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . sandals in nicaragua called _gutaras_. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. - ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii.; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _id._, in _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , , . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] a war party: 'agujeradas narizes, y orejas con sus narigeras, y orejeras de cuzcas, y otras piedras de diuersos colores.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . the itzas wore in the nose 'una baynilla olorosa,' and in the ears, 'vn palo labrado.' _id._, p. . 'sartales de caracoles colorados,' much prized by the itzas. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . small sticks in the ears, and little reeds or amber rings, or grains of vanilla, in the nose. _id._, pp. , . a few silver and gold ear-ornaments. _id._, pp. - . on the peninsula of yucatan, 'trayan las orejas horadadas para çarcillos.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . the priest carried 'un isopo en la mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y por barbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son como caxcaveles.' _id._, pp. - . women pierced nose and ears. _id._, p. . in nicaragua 'traen sajadas las lenguas por debaxo, é las orejas, é algunos los miembros viriles, é no las mugeres ninguna cosa destas, y ellos y ellas horadadas las orejas de grandes agujeros.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. - , tom. i., p. . king in yucatan wore 'des bracelets et des manchettes d'une élégance égale à la beauté de la matière.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . '_tecaüh_, qui est le bijou que les chefs indiens portaient fréquemment à la lèvre inférieure ou au cartilage du nez.' _id._, p. . see also _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _camargo_, _hist. tlax._, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcix., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., lib. vii., cap. ix., dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iii., lib. x., cap. iii., iv.; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. , , ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] 'los oficiales dello labravan la parte que querian con tinta, y despues sejavanle delicadamente las pinturas, y assi con la sangre y tinta quedavan en el cuerpo las señales, y que se labran poco a poco por el tormento grande, y tambien se ponen despues malos, porque se les enconavan los labores, y haziase materia, y que con todo esso se mofavan de los que no se labravan.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , ; _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, pp. , ; _bussierre_, _l'empire mex._, p. . [ ] _remesal_, _hist. chyapa_, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , - , , ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , , , ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. iv., p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, pp. - , . [ ] 'eran amigos de buenos olores y que por esto usan de ramilletes de flores y yervas olorosas, muy curiosos y labrados.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'des roseaux longs de deux palmes, et qui répandaient une excellente odeur quand on les brûlait.' _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _valois_, _mexique_, p. . [ ] 'se vañavan mucho, no curando de cubrirse de las mugeres, sino quando podia cubrir la mano.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'se lavan las manos y la boca despues de comer.' _id._, p. . the women stripped naked in the wells where they bathed; they took hot baths rather for health than cleanliness. _id._, p. . the women 'tienen poco secreto, y no son tan limpias en sus personas ni en sus cosas con quanto se lavan como los ermiños.' _id._, p. . 'los hombres haçen aguas puestos en cluquillas, é las mugeres estando derechas de piés á dó quiera que les viene la gana.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii., iv.; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _carbajal espinosa_, _hist. mex._, tom. i., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] the following are my authorities on the maya commerce, many references to simple mentions of articles bought and sold and to the use of cacao as money being omitted. _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec i., lib. v., cap. v., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., lib. v., cap. xii., lib. vii., cap. ix., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. iii., ix.; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , - , - ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., p. , tom. iv., pp. - , , , ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. i.; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. , ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - , , ; _id._, _popol vuh_, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_ (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _id._, _cent. amer._, p. ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _id._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , , , ; _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. v.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. ; _juarros' hist. guat._, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. i., lib. v., cap. v.; _folsom_, in _cortés' despatches_, pp. - ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, pp. - . see vol. i., p. , of this work. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., lib. iii., cap. iii. the chiapanecs were among the boldest warriors. _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iv., cap. viii., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., lib. v., cap. x., lib. vii., cap. iii., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x.; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , - ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. . [ ] cotton armor called in some places _escaupiles_. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iii. both white and colored. _id._, dec. iii., lib. v., cap. x., lib. iv., cap. vi., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., lib. iii., cap. i. called by the quichés _achcayupiles_. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iii., p. , tom. iv., p. ; _alvarado_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . [ ] macanas used as weapons in nicaragua. _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , , tom. i., pp. - , tom. iii., pp. , . crystal-pointed arrows used by the itzas, and chiefs had short flint knives, with feathers on the handles. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , , . hardened rods, or pikes. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , . darts thrown from a 'tiradera.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap, xvii., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vi., lib. v., cap. x., lib. vii., cap. iii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. a bat was the sign of a cakchiquel armory. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _popol vuh_, p. . see also maya weapons. _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. , ; _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. v.; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. ; _scherzer_, _wanderungen_, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. , with cut; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., pp. , ; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _id._, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. . [ ] see vol. iv., chap. iv., v., for a full description of maya ruins, with plates. see _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _alvarado_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. , ; _godoi_, in _id._, p. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. - ; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., pp. - ; _fuentes_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iii., lib. x., cap. iii.; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. ii., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , , , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iii., lib. viii., cap. x., lib. x., cap. iv.; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. - , , , ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , , ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. , ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , - , , tom. iii., pp. , , tom. iv., pp. - ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. , ; _juarros' hist. guat._, p. , etc.; _peter martyr_, dec. viii., lib. v.; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. , , - ; _alvarado_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. , ; _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _id._, pp. - ; _squier's cent. amer._, pp. , ; _id._, _nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , - ; _ternaux-compans_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _boyle's ride_, vol. i., p. ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, pp. , . chapter xxiv. maya arts, calendar, and hieroglyphics. scarcity of information--use of metals--gold and precious stones--implements of stone--sculpture--pottery--manufacture of cloth--dyeing--system of numeration--maya calendar in yucatan--days, weeks, months, and years--indictions and katunes--perez' system of ahau katunes--statements of landa and cogolludo--intercalary days and years--days and months in guatemala, chiapas, and soconusco--maya hieroglyphic system--testimony of early writers on the use of picture-writing--destruction of documents--specimens which have survived--the dresden codex--manuscript troano--tablets of palenque, copan, and yucatan--bishop landa's key--brasseur de bourbourg's interpretation. our knowledge of maya arts and manufactures, so far as it depends on the statements of the early spanish writers is very slight, and may be expressed in few words; especially as most of these arts seem to have been very nearly identical with those of the nahuas, although many of them, at the time of the conquest at least, were not carried to so high a grade of perfection as in the north. some branches of mechanical art have indeed left material relics, which, examined in modern times, have extended our knowledge on the subject very far beyond what may be gleaned from sixteenth-century observations. but a volume of this work is set apart for the consideration of material relics with numerous illustrative plates, and although the temptation to use both information and plates from modern sources is particularly strong in some of the topics of this chapter and the following, a regard for the symmetry of the work, and the necessity of avoiding all repetition, cause me to confine myself here almost exclusively to the old authors, as i have done in describing the nahua arts. [sidenote: knowledge of metals.] iron was not known to the mayas, and it is not quite certain that copper was mined or worked by them. the boat so often mentioned as having been met by columbus off the coast, and supposed to have come from yucatan, had on board crucibles for melting copper, and a large number of copper hatchets. similar hatchets together with bells, ornaments, and spear and arrow points of the same metal were seen at various points, and were doubtless used to a considerable extent throughout yucatan, chiapas, and guatemala. but there are no metallic deposits on the peninsula, and the copper instruments used there, or at least the material, must have been brought from the north, as it is indeed stated by several authors that they were. no metallic relics whatever have been found among the ruins of yucatan, and only very few in other maya regions. copper implements are not mentioned by the early visitors to nicaragua, and although that country abounds in ore of a variety easily worked, yet there is no evidence that it was used, and squier's statement that the nicaraguans were skillful workers in this metal, probably rests on no stronger basis than the reported discovery of a copper mask at ometepec. godoi speaks of copper in chiapas, and also of a metallic composition called _cacao_! small articles of gold, intended chiefly for ornamental purposes, were found everywhere in greater or less abundance by the spaniards, the gold being generally described as of a low grade. cortés speaks of the gold in yucatan as alloyed with copper, and the same alloy is mentioned in guatemala by herrera, and in nicaragua by benzoni. the latter author says that gold was abundant in nicaragua but was all brought from other provinces. he also states that there were no mines of any kind, but oviedo, on the contrary, speaks of 'good mines of gold.' articles of gold took the form of animals, fishes, birds, bells, small kettles and vases, beads, rings, bracelets, hatchets, small idols, bars, plates for covering armor, gilding or plating of wooden masks and clay beads, and settings for precious stones. peter martyr speaks of gold as formed in bars and stamped in nicaragua, and villagutierre of silver 'rosillas' in use among the itzas. we have but slight information respecting the use of precious stones. oviedo saw in nicaragua a sun-dial of pearl set on jasper, and also speaks of wooden masks covered with stone mosaic and gold plates in tabasco. martyr tells us that the natives of yucatan attached no value to spanish counterfeited jewels, because they could take from their mines better ones of genuine worth.[ ] [sidenote: stone carving.] the few implements in common use among the mayas, such as knives, chisels, hatchets, and metates, together with the spear and arrow heads already mentioned, were of flint, porphyry, or other hard stone. there is but little doubt that most of their elaborate sculpture on temples and idols was executed with stone implements, since the material employed was for the most part soft and easily worked. the carvings in the hard sapote-wood in yucatan must have presented great difficulties to workmen without iron tools; but the fact remains that stone implements, with a few probably of hardened copper, sufficed with native skill and patience for all purposes. villagutierre informs us that the lacandones cut wood with stone hatchets. cogolludo speaks of the remarkable facility which the natives displayed in learning the mechanical arts introduced by spaniards, in using new and strange tools or adapting the native implements to new uses. all implements whether of the temple or the household, seem to have been ceremonially consecrated to their respective uses. oviedo speaks of deer-bone combs used in guatemala, and of another kind of combs the teeth of which were made of black wood and set in a composition like baked clay but which became soft on exposure to heat. the early writers speak in general terms of idols of various human and animal forms, cut from all kinds of stone, and also from wood; martyr also mentions an immense serpent in what he supposed to be a place of punishment in yucatan, which was 'compacted of bitumen and small stones.' the itzas constructed of stone and mortar the image of a horse, modeled on an animal left among them by cortés. the spanish authors say little or nothing of the sculpture of either idols or architectural decorations, except that it was elaborate, and often demon-like; but their observations on the subject would have had but little value, even had they been more extended, and fortunately architectural remains are sufficiently numerous and complete, at least in yucatan, honduras, and chiapas, to supply information that, if not entirely satisfactory, is far more so than what we possess respecting other branches of maya art. brasseur de bourbourg speaks of vases exquisitely worked from alabaster and agate in yucatan; there is some authority for this in modern discoveries, but little or none, so far as i know, in the writings of the conquerors. earthenware, shells, and the rind of the gourd were the material of maya dishes. all speak of the native pottery as most excellent in workmanship, material, and painting, but give no details of its manufacture. herrera, however, mentions a province of guatemala, where very fine pottery was made by the women, and palacio tells us that this branch of manufactures was one of the chief industries of aguachapa, a town of the pipiles. all that is known of cloths and textile fabrics has been given in enumerating the various articles of dress; of any differences that may have existed between the nahua and maya methods of spinning and weaving cotton we know nothing. it is probable that the native methods have not been modified essentially in modern times among the same peoples. we are told that in yucatan the wife of a god invented weaving, and was worshiped under the name of ixazalvoh; while another who improved the invention by the use of colored threads was yxchebelyax, also a goddess. spinning and weaving was for the most part women's work, and they are spoken of as industrious and skillful in the avocation. bark and maguey-fibre were made into cloth by the cakchiquels, and oviedo mentions several plants whose fibre was worked into nets and ropes by the nicaraguans. the numerous dye-woods which are still among the richest productions of the country in many parts, furnished the means of imparting to woven fabrics the bright hues of which the natives were so fond. bright-colored feathers were highly prized and extensively used for decorative purposes. garments of feathers are spoken of, which were probably made as they were in mexico by pasting the plumage in various ornamental figures on cotton fabric.[ ] [sidenote: system of numeration.] the following table will give the reader a clear idea of the maya system of numeration as it existed in yucatan; the definitions of some of the names are taken from the maya dictionary, and may or may not have any application to the subject: hun, 'paper' ca, 'calabash' ox, 'shelled corn' can, 'serpent' or 'count' ho, 'entry' uac uuc uaxac, 'something standing erect' bolon, _bol_, 'to roll or turn' lahun, _lah_, 'a stone' buluc, 'drowned' lachá, (lahun-ca), + oxlahun, + canlahun, + holhun, (ho-lahun), + uaclahun, + , etc. hunkal, _kal_, 'neck,' or a measure, × huntukal, + catukal, + , etc. uaxactukal, or hunkal catac uaxac, + , or + _catac_, 'and' luhucakal, × - (?) buluctukal, + lahcatukal, + oxlahutukal, + , etc. cakal, × huntuyoxkal catuyoxkal lahuyoxkal buluctuyoxkal oxhal, × huntucankal lahucankal buluctucankal cankal, × hutuyokal catuyokal lahuyokal ho-kal, × huntu uackal catu uackal lahu uackal holhu uackal uackal, × lahu uuckal buluc tu uuckal uuckal, × huntu uaxackal uaxackal, × , etc. lahuncal, × holhukal, × hunbak, × hotubak lahutubak cabak, × hotu yoxbak , lahuyoxbak or hunpic (modern) , oxbak, × , oxbak catac lahuyoxkal, × + , capic (modern) , hunpic (ancient) , ca pic (ancient) , calab , , kinchil or huntzotzceh , , hunalau thus the mayas seem to have had uncompounded names for the numerals from to , , , and , , and to have formed all numbers by the addition or multiplication of these. the manner in which the combinations were made seems clear up to the number . thus we have and , and , etc., up to ; is _hun-kal_, is _hun-tu-kal_, etc., indicating that _tu_, which i do not find in any dictionary, is simply 'and' or a sign of addition. the composition of _lahu-ca-kal_ is clear only in the sense of _ten_ from _twice twenty_; is two twenties, is three twenties, and so on regularly by twenties up to , for which a new word _bak_ is introduced; after which the numbers proceed, twice , thrice , etc., to , , _pic_, corresponding to the nahua _xiquipilli_. but while the composition is intelligible so far as the multiples of and are concerned, it is far from clear in the case of the intermediate numbers. for instance, is _ca-kal_, and forming , , etc., as was formed from , we should have _hun-tu-ca-kal_, _ca-tu-ca-kal_, etc., instead of the names given, _hun-tu-yox-kal_, etc., or, interpreting this last name as the former were interpreted we should have instead of . the same observation may be made respecting every number, not a multiple of , up to ; that is, each number is less by than the composition of its name would seem to indicate. if we gave to _tu_ the meaning 'towards,' then _hun-tu-yox-kal_ might be interpreted ' (from ) towards ,' or ; but in such a case the word for , _hun-tu-kal_, must be supposed to be a contraction of _hun-tu-ca-kal_, ' (from ) towards .' other irregularities will be noticed by the reader in the numbers above . i have thought it best to call attention to what appears a strange inconsistency in this system of numeration, but which may present less difficulties to one better acquainted than i with the maya language.[ ] [sidenote: the maya calendar.] authorities on the maya calendar of yucatan, the only one of which any details are known, are bishop landa and don juan pio perez. the latter was a modern writer who devoted much study to the subject, was perfectly familiar with the maya language, and had in his possession or consulted elsewhere many ancient manuscripts. there are also a few scattered remarks on the subject in the works of other writers.[ ] the maya day was called _kin_, or 'sun'; _malik ocok kin_ was the time just preceding sunrise; _hatzcab_ was the time from sunrise to noon, which was called _chunkin_ or 'middle of the day'; _tzelep kin_ was the declining sun, or about three o'clock p. m.; _oc na kin_ was sunset. the night was _akab_, and midnight was _chumuc akab_. other hours were indicated by the position of the sun in the daytime, and by that of some star--the morning star, the pleiades, and the gemini as landa says--during the night. [illustration: days of the maya calendar.] the following table shows the names of the twenty days with the orthography of different writers, and the meaning of the names so far as known: kan 'henequen string,' 'yellow,' 'serpent.' chicchán _chichan_ would be 'small,' a thing that grows or increases slowly. cimi (quimi, cimij) preterite of _cimil_, 'to die.' manik possibly 'passing wind.' lamat possibly 'abyss of water,' found as _lambat_ in oajaca calendar. muluc possibly 'reunion,' also in chiapas calendar. oc 'what may be held in the palm of the hand,' 'foot,' 'leg.' chuen 'board,' or name of a tree, perhaps _chouen_ of quiché calendar. eb 'stairway' or 'ladder.' ben (been) perhaps been, an ancient prince, or 'to spend with economy.' ix (hix, gix) possibly 'roughness.' the quiché _itz_ is 'sorcerer.' men 'builder.' cib (quib) 'wax' or 'copal.' caban ezanab (ecnab, edznab) cauac ahau (ajau) 'king,' beginning of the period of (or ) years. ymix _imox_, in quiché calendar is the mexican cipactli. ik (yk) 'wind' or 'breath.' akbal in quiché, 'vase.' the hieroglyphics by which the names of the days were expressed are shown in the accompanying cut in their proper order of succession,--kan, chicchan, etc., to akbal; but it is to be noted that although this order was invariable, yet the month might begin with any one of the four days kan, muluc, ix, and cauac. the month, made up as i have said of twenty days, was called _u_, or 'moon,' indicating perhaps that time was originally computed by lunar calculations. it was also called _uinal_, a word whose signification is not satisfactorily given. the year contained eighteen months, whose names with the hieroglyphics by which they were written, are shown in the cut on the opposite page, in their order, pop, uo, zip, etc., to cumhu. not only did the months succeed each other always in the same order, but pop was always the first month of the year, which began on a date corresponding to july of our calendar, a date which varies only forty-eight hours from the time when the sun passes the zenith--an approximation as accurate as could be expected from observations made without instruments. [sidenote: months of the maya calendar.] [illustration: months of the maya calendar.] the following table shows the names of the months, their meaning, and the day on which each began, according to our calendar: pop (poop, popp) 'mat' july uo (woo, voo) 'frog' aug. zip (cijp) name of a tree, 'defect,' 'swollen' aug. tzoz (zoc, zotz) 'bat' sept. tzec (zeec) possibly 'discourse,' 'skull' oct. xul 'end' oct. yaxkin (dze-yaxkin, tze yaxkin) 'beginning of summer' nov. mol (mool) 'to reunite'. dec. chen (cheen) 'well' dec. yax (yaax) 'green' or 'blue' or 'first' jan. zac (zak) 'clear,' 'white' feb. ceh (qeh, quej, queh) 'deer' feb. mac, 'to close,' 'lid,' a measure mar. kankin, 'yellow sun' apr. muan (moan) 'showery day,' the bird called 'ara' apr. pax (paax) a musical instrument may kayab, 'singing' june cumhu (cumkú) noise of an explosion, as of thunder june [ ] [sidenote: intercalary days.] the year was called _haab_, and consisted of the eighteen months already named,--which would make days,--and of five supplementary, or intercalary days, to complete the full number of . these intercalary days were called _xma kaba kin_, or 'nameless days,' and also _uayab_ or _nayeb haab_, _u na haab_, _nayab chab_, _u yail kin_, _u yail haab_, _u tuz kin_, or _u lobol kin_, which may mean 'bed' or 'chamber' of the year, 'mother of the year,' 'bed of creation,' 'travail of the year,' 'lying days,' or 'bad days,' etc. they were added at the end of each year, after the last day of cumhu, and although they are called nameless, and were perhaps never spoken of by name, yet they were actually reckoned like the rest;--that is, if the last day of cumhu was akbal, the five intercalary days would be reckoned as kan, chicchan, cimi, manik, and lamat, so that the new year, or the month of pop, would begin with the day muluc. besides this division of time into years, months, and days, there was another division carried along simultaneously with the first, into twenty-eight periods of thirteen days each,[ ] which may for convenience be termed weeks, although the natives did not apply any name to the period of thirteen days, and perhaps did not regard it as a definite period at all, but used the number thirteen as a sacred number from some superstitious motives;[ ] yet its use produces some curious complications in the calendar, of which it is a most peculiar feature. the name of each day was preceded by a numeral showing its position in the week, and these numerals proceeded regularly from one to thirteen and then began again at one. thus kan meant 'kan, the first day of the week'; cauac, 'cauac, the twelfth day of the week,' etc. it is probable also that the days of the month were numbered regularly from to , as events are spoken of as occurring on the th of zip, etc., but the numeral relating to the week was the most prominent. the table shows the succession of days and weeks for several months: ========================================= | | | | | | a | pop. | b | a | uo. | b | ---+----------+----+----+----------+----+ | kan | | | kan | | | chicchán | | | chicchán | | | cimi | | | cimi | | | manik | | | manik | | | lamat | | | lamat | | | muluc | | | muluc | | | oc | | | oc | | | chuen | | | chuen | | | eb | | | eb | | | ben | | | ben | | | ix | | | ix | | | men | | | men | | | cib | | | cib | | | caban | | | caban | | | ezanab | | | ezanab | | | cauac | | | cauac | | | ahau | | | ahau | | | ymix | | | ymix | | | ik | | | ik | | | akbal | | | akbal | | ========================================= a: day of week. b: day of month. ========================================= | | | | | | a | zip. | b | a | tzoz. | b | ---+----------+----+----+----------+----+ | kan | | | kan | | | chicchán | | | chicchán | | | cimi | | | cimi | | | manik | | | manik | | | lamat | | | lamat | | | muluc | | | muluc | | | oc | | | oc | | | chuen | | | chuen | | | eb | | | eb | | | ben | | | ben | | | ix | | | ix | | | men | | | men | | | cib | | | cib | | | caban | | | caban | | | ezanab | | | ezanab | | | cauac | | | cauac | | | ahau | | | ahau | | | ymix | | | ymix | | | ik | | | ik | | | akbal | | | akbal | | ========================================= of the twenty days only four,--kan, muluc, ix, and cauac--could begin either a month or a year. whatever the name of the first day of the first month, every month in the year began with the same day, accompanied, however, by a different numeral. the numeral of the first day for the first month being , that of the second would be , and so on for the other months in the following order: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . to ascertain the numeral for any month must be added to that of the preceding month, and subtracted from the sum if it be more than . [sidenote: succession of the years.] by extending the table of days and months over a period of years,--an extension which my space does not permit me to make in these pages,--the reader will observe that by reason of the intercalary days, and of the fact that weeks of days each make only instead of days, if the first year began with the day kan, the second would begin with muluc, the third with ix, the fourth with cauac, the fifth with kan, and so on in regular order; therefore the years were named by the day on which they began, kan, muluc, ix, etc., since the year would begin with any one of these combinations only once in years. thus the four names of the days kan, muluc, ix, and cauac served as signs for the years, precisely as the signs _tochtli_, _calli_, _tecpatl_, and _acatl_ with their numerals served among the aztecs. in the circle in which the mayas are said to have inscribed their calendar, these four signs are located in the east, north, west, and south respectively, and are considered the 'carriers of the years.' it will be seen that, starting from kan, although every fifth year began with the day, or sign, kan, yet the numeral did not occur again in connection with any first day until thirteen years had passed away; so that kan or kan alone not only named the year which it began, but also a period of thirteen years, which is spoken of as a 'week of years' or an 'indiction.' the first indiction of thirteen years beginning with kan, the second began with muluc, the third with ix, and the fourth with cauac. after the indiction whose sign was cauac, the next would begin again with kan; that is years would have elapsed, and this period of years was called a katun, corresponding with the aztec cycle, as explained in a preceding chapter. thus we see that the four signs kan, muluc, ix, and cauac served to name certain days of the month; they also named the years of the indiction, since in connection with certain numerals they were the first days of these years; they further named the indictions of the katun, of which with the numeral they were also the first days; and finally they named, or may have named, the katun itself which they begun, also in connection with the numeral . how the katuns were actually named we are not informed. the completion of each katun was regarded by the mayas as a most critical and important epoch, and was celebrated with most imposing religious ceremonies. also a monument is said to have been raised, on which a large stone was placed crosswise, also called _katun_ as a memorial of the cycle that had passed. it is unfortunate that some of these monuments cannot be discovered and identified among the ruins. thus far the maya calendar is, after a certain amount of study, sufficiently intelligible; and is, except in its system of nomenclature, essentially identical with that of the nahuas. the calendars of the quichés, cakchiquels, chiapanecs, and the natives of soconusco, are also the same so far as their details are known. the names of months and days in some of these calendars will be given in this chapter. [sidenote: the ahau katunes.] another division of time not found in the nahua calendar, was that into the ahau katunes. the system according to which this division was made is clear enough if we may accept the statements of sr perez; several of which rest on authorities that are unknown to all but himself. according to this writer, the ahau katun was a period of years, divided into two parts; the first part of years was enclosed in the native writings by a square and called _amaytun_, _lamayte_, or _lamaytun_; and the second, of the other four years, was placed as a 'pedestal' to the others, and therefore called _chek oc katun_, or _lath oc katun_. these four years were considered as intercalary and unfortunate, like the five supplementary days of the year, and were sometimes called _a yail haab_, 'years of pain.' this katun of years was called ahau from its first day, and the natives began to reckon from ahau katun, because it began on the day ahau, on which day some great event probably took place in their history. the day ahau at which these periods began was the second day of such years as began with cauac; and ahau, the first day of the first period, was the second of the year cauac; ahau was the second day of the year cauac, etc. if we construct a table of the years from cauac in regular order, we shall find that if the first period was ahau katun because it began with ahau, the second, years later, was ahau katun, beginning with ahau; the third was ahau katun, etc. that is, the ahau katunes, instead of being numbered , , , etc., in regular order was preceded by the numerals , , , , , , , , , , , , and . of these ahau katunes, making years, constituted a great cycle, and we are told that it was by means of the ahau katunes and great cycles of years that historical events were generally recorded. sr perez states that the year of our era was the maya year cauac, 'according to all sources of information, confirmed by the testimony of don cosme de burgos, one of the conquerors, and a writer (but whose observations have been lost).' therefore the ahau katun began on the second day of that year; the ahau katun, years later, in ; the ahau in ; the , in ; the , in ; the , in ; the , in ; the , in ; the , in ; the , in , etc. as a test of the accuracy of his system of ahau katunes, the author says that he found in a certain manuscript the death of a distinguished individual, ahpulá, mentioned as having taken place in the th year of ahau katun, when the first day of the year was kan, on the day of ix, the th day of the month zip. now the ahau began in the year cauac, or ; the th year from was , or kan; if the month of pop began with kan, then the d month, zip, began with kan, and the th of that month fell on ix, or sept. . all this may be readily verified by filling out the table in regular order. on the other hand we have landa's statement that the ahau katun was a period of years; he gives however the same order of the numerals as perez,--that is , , , , , , , , , , , , . he also states that the year was the beginning of ahau; but if ahau was the second day of , that year must have been cauac, and , years later, would have been cauac, the second day of which would have been ahau; which does not agree at all with the order of numerals. in fact no other number of years than for each ahau katun will produce this order of numerals, which fact is perhaps the strongest argument in favor of sr perez' system. cogolludo also says that the mayas counted their time by periods of years called katunes, each divided into sub-periods of four years each. sr perez admits that other writers reckon the ahau katun as years, but claims that they have fallen into error through disregarding the _chek oc katun_, or unlucky years of the period. a maya manuscript furnished and translated by perez is published by stephens and in landa's work, and repeatedly speaks of the ahau katun as a period of years. again, this is the very manuscript in which the death of ahpulá was announced, and the date of that event is given as years _before the completion of ahau_, instead of the sixth year of that period as stated in the calculations of sr perez; and besides, the date is distinctly given as , instead of , which dates will in nowise agree with the system explained, or with the date of given as the beginning of ahau. moreover, as i have already said, several of the statements on which perez bases his computations are unsupported by any authority save manuscripts unknown to all but himself. such are the statements that the ahau katun began on the d day of a year cauac; that ahau was reckoned as the first; and that ahau began in . these facts, together with various other inaccuracies in the writings of sr perez are sufficient to weaken our faith in his system of the ahau katunes; and since the other writers give no explanations, this part of the maya calendar must remain shrouded in doubt until new sources of information shall be found.[ ] the following quotation made by sr perez from a manuscript, contains all that is known respecting what was possibly another method of reckoning time. "there was another number which they called _ua katun_, and which served them as a key to find the katunes, according to the order of its march, it falls on the days of the _uayeb haab_, and revolves to the end of certain years: katunes , , , , , , , , , , , , ." [sidenote: bissextile additions.] we have seen that the maya year by means of intercalary days added at the end of the month cumhu was made to include days. how the additional six hours necessary to make the length of the year agree with the solar movements were intercalated without disturbing the complicated order already described, is altogether a matter of conjecture. the most plausible theory is perhaps that a day was added at the end of every four years, this day being called by the same name and numeral as the one preceding it, or, in other words, no account being made of this day in the almanac, although it was perhaps indicated by some sign in the hieroglyphics of these days. the nicaraguan calendar was practically identical with that of the aztecs, even in nomenclature although there were naturally some slight variations in orthography. the following table shows the names of the months in several other maya calendars, whose system so far as known is the same as that in yucatan. chiapas quiché.[ ] cakchiquel.[ ] and soconusco.[ ] ------------------------+---------------------------+-------------- nabe tzih ' st word' | i bota 'rolls of mats' | tzun u cab tzih ' d word' | qatic 'common seed' | batzul rox tzih ' d word' | izcal 'sprouts' | sisac che 'tree' | pariche 'firewood' | muetasac tecoxepual | tocaxequal 'seeding time' | moc tzibe pop | nabey tumuzuz | olati 'painted mat' | ' st flying ants' | | rucab tumuzuz | ulol zak 'white' | ' d flying ants' | chab 'bow' | cibixic 'time of smoke' | oquinajual huno bix gih | uchum 'resowing time' | veh ' st song of sun' | | nabe mam | nabey mam ' st old man' | elech ' st old man' | | u cab mam | ru cab mam ' d old man' | nichqum ' d old man' | | nabe ligin ga | ligin ka 'soft hand' | sbanvinquil ' st soft hand' | | u cab ligin ga | nabey togic ' st harvest' | xchibalvinquil ' d soft hand' | | nabe pach | ru cab togic ' d harvest' | yoxibalvinquil ' st generation' | | u cab pach | nabey pach | xchanibalvinquil ' d generation' | ' st generation' | tziquin gih | ru cab pach | poin 'time of birds' | ' d generation' | tzizi lagan | tziquin gih | mux 'to sew the standard'| 'time of birds' | cakam 'time of | cakam | yaxquin red flowers' | 'time of red flowers' | [sidenote: days in guatemala and chiapas.] the names of the days in the same calendars are as follows: quiché and cakchiquel.[ ] chiapas (tzendal?) soconusco.[ ] ---------------------------------+------------------------------------ imox 'sword-fish' | imox or mox ig 'spirit' or 'breath' | igh or ygh akbal 'chaos' | votan qat 'lizard' | chanan or ghanan can 'snake' | abah or abagh camey 'death' | tox quieh 'deer' | moxic ganel 'rabbit' | lambat toh 'shower' | molo or mulu tzy 'dog' | elab or elah batz 'monkey' | batz ci or balam, 'broom,' 'tiger' | evob or enob ah 'cane' | been yiz or itz 'sorcerer' | hix tziquin 'bird' | tziquin ahmak 'fisher,' 'owl' | chabin or chahin noh 'temperature' | chic or chiue tihax 'obsidian' | chinax caok 'rain' | cahogh or cabogh hunahpu 'shooter of blowpipe' | aghual i shall treat of the maya hieroglyphics by giving first the testimony of the early writers respecting the existence of a system of writing in the sixteenth century; then an account of the very few manuscripts that have been preserved, together with illustrative plates from both manuscripts and sculptured stone tablets; to be followed by bishop landa's alphabet, a mention of brasseur de bourbourg's attempted interpretation of the native writings, and a few speculations of other modern writers on the subject. the statements of the early writers, although conclusive, are not numerous, and i will consequently translate them literally. landa says that "the sciences which they taught were--to read and write with their books and characters with which they wrote, and with the figures which signified (explained, or took the place of?) writings. they wrote their books on a large leaf, doubled in folds, and inclosed between two boards which they made very fine (decorated); and they wrote on both sides in columns, according to the folds; the paper they made of the roots of a tree, and gave it a white varnish on which one could write well; these sciences were known by certain men of high rank (only), who were therefore more esteemed although they did not use the art in public." "these people also used certain characters or letters with which they wrote in their books their antiquities and their sciences; and by means of these and of figures and of certain signs in their figures they understood their things, and made them understood, and taught them. we found among them a great number of books of these letters of theirs, and because they had nothing in which there were not superstitions and falsities of the devil, we burned them all, at which they were exceedingly sorrowful and troubled."[ ] according to cogolludo, "in the time of their infidelity the indians of yucatan had books, made of the bark of trees, with a white and durable varnish, ten or twelve yards long, which by folding were reduced to a span. in these they painted with colors the account of their years, wars, floods, hurricanes, famines, and other events." "the son of the only god, of whose existence, as i have said, they were aware, and whom they called ytzamná, was the man, as i believe, who first invented the characters which served the indians as letters, because they called the latter also ytzamná."[ ] the itzas, as villagutierre tells us, had "characters and figures painted on the bark of trees, each leaf, or tablet, being about a span long, as thick as a real de à ocho (a coin), folded both ways like a screen, which they called _analtees_."[ ] mendieta states that the mexicans had no letters, "although in the land of champoton it is said that such were found, and that they understood each other by means of them, as we do by means of ours."[ ] acosta says that in yucatan "there were books of leaves, bound or folded after their manner, in which the learned indians had their division of their time, knowledge of plants and animals and other natural objects, and their antiquities; a thing of great curiosity and diligence."[ ] the maya priests "were occupied in teaching their sciences and in writing books upon them."[ ] in guatemala, according to benzoni, "the thing of all others at which the indians have been most surprised has been our reading and writing.... nor could they imagine among themselves in what way white paper painted with black, could speak."[ ] peter martyr gives quite a long description of the native wood-bound books, which he does not refer particularly to yucatan, although brasseur, apparently with much reason, believes they were the maya _analtés_ rather than the regular aztec picture writings. the description is as follows in the quaint english of the translator. "they make not their books square leafe by leafe, but extend the matter and substance thereof into many cubites. they reduce them into square peeces, not loose, but with binding, and flexible bitumen so conioyned, that being compact of wooden table bookes, they may seeme to haue passed the hands of some curious workman that ioyned them together. which way soeuer the book bee opened, two written sides offer themselues to the view, two pages appeare and as many lye vnder, vnlesse you stretch them in length: for there are many leaues ioyned together vnder one leafe. the characters are very vnlike ours, written after our manner, lyne after lyne, with characters like small dice, fishookes, snares, files, starres, & other such like formes and shapes. wherein they immitate almost the egyptian manner of writing, and betweene the lines they paint the shapes of men, & beasts, especially of their kings & nobles.... they make the former wooden table bookes also with art to content and delight the beholder. being shut, they seeme to differ nothing from our bookes, in these they set downe in writing the rites, and the customes of their laws, sacrifices, ceremonies, their computations, etc."[ ] [sidenote: maya hieroglyphic system.] respecting hieroglyphic records in chiapas and guatemala, we have the statement of ordoñez that "votan wrote a work upon the origin of the indians," and that he, ordoñez, had a copy of the book in his possession; a complaint in the quiché annals known as the popol vuh, that the 'national book' containing the ancient records of their people had been lost; and finally the reported discovery and destruction in soconusco of archives on stone by nuñez de la vega in . all this amounts to little save as indicating the ancient use of hieroglyphics by the followers of votan, a fact sufficiently proven, as we shall see, by the engraved tablets of palenque and copan.[ ] the nicaraguans at the time of the conquest had records painted in colors upon skin and paper, undoubtedly identical in their figures with those of the nahuas, to whom the civilized people of nicaragua were nearly related in blood and language. no specimens of these southern hieroglyphics have, however, been preserved. oviedo and herrera slightly describe the paintings and later writers have followed them.[ ] [sidenote: maya manuscripts.] of the aboriginal maya manuscripts three specimens only, so far as i know, have been preserved. these are the _mexican manuscript, no. _, of the imperial library at paris; the _dresden codex_; and the _manuscript troano_. concerning the first we only know of its existence and the similarity of its characters to those of the other two and of the sculptured tablets. the document was photographed in by order of the french government, but i am not aware that the photographs have ever been given to the public. the _dresden codex_ is preserved in the royal library of dresden. a complete copy was published in lord kingsborough's collection of mexican antiquities, and fragments were also reproduced by humboldt. it was purchased in vienna by the librarian götz in , but beyond this nothing whatever is known of its history and origin. it was published by kingsborough as an aztec picture-writing, although its characters present little if any resemblance to those of its companion documents in the collection. its form was also different from all the rest, since it is written on both sides of five leaves of maguey-paper. at the time of its publication, however, the existence of any but aztec hieroglyphics in america was unknown. mr stephens in his antiquarian exploration of central america, at once noticed the similarity of its figures to those of the sculptured hieroglyphics found there, but he used this similarity to prove the identity of the northern and southern nations, since it did not occur to him that the aztec origin of the dresden document was a mere supposition. mr brantz mayer, fully aware of the differences between this and other reputed mexican picture-writings, went so far as to pronounce it the only genuine aztec document that he had seen. there can be no reasonable doubt, however, at this day, that the maya and nahua (or maya and aztec, since some authors will not agree with my use of the term nahua) hieroglyphic systems were practically distinct, although it would be hardly wise to decide that they are absolutely without affinities in some of their details. the accompanying cut from stephens' work shows a small fragment of the dresden codex.[ ] [illustration: fragment of the dresden codex.] [sidenote: the manuscript troano.] the _manuscript troano_ was found about the year in madrid by the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, and was reproduced in fac-simile by a chromo-lithographic process by the commission scientifique du mexique, under the auspices of the french government. its name comes from that of its possessor in madrid, sr tro y ortolano, and nothing whatever is known of its origin; two or three other old american manuscripts are reported to have been brought to light in spain since the publication of this. the original is written on a strip of maguey-paper about fourteen feet long and nine inches wide, the surface of which is covered with a whitish varnish, on which the figures are painted in black, red, blue, and brown. it is folded fan-like into thirty-five folds, presenting when shut much the appearance of a modern large octavo volume. the hieroglyphics cover both sides of the paper, and the writing is consequently divided into seventy pages, each about five by nine inches, having been apparently executed after the paper was folded, so that the folding does not interfere with the written matter. one of the pages as a specimen is shown in the following plate, an exact copy, save in size and color, of the original. the regular lines of written characters are uniformly in black, while the pictorial portions, or what may perhaps be considered representative signs, are in red and brown, chiefly the former, and the blue appears for the most part as a background in some of the pages. a few of the pages are slightly damaged, and all the imperfections are, as it is claimed, faithfully reproduced in the published copy, which with the editor's comments fills two quarto volumes in the series published by the commission mentioned.[ ] [sidenote: maya inscriptions in stone.] the plates on the following pages from the works of stephens and waldeck i present as specimens of the maya writing, as it is found carved in stone in yucatan, honduras, and chiapas. for particulars respecting the ruins in connection with which they were discovered, i refer the reader to volume iv. of this work. fig. represents the hieroglyphics sculptured on the top of an altar at copan, in honduras, the thirty-six groups cover a space nearly six feet square. fig. is a tablet set in the interior wall of a building in chichen, yucatan. the tablet is placed over the doorways and extends the whole length of the room, forty-three feet; only a part, however, is shown in the cut. fig. is a full-size representation of the carving on a green stone, or chalchiuite, found at ococingo, chiapas. i take it from the english translation of morelet's travels. many of the monoliths of copan have a line of hieroglyphics on their side. plates representing specimens of these monuments will be given in volume iv. fig. shows a portion of the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the famous 'tablet of the cross' at palenque.[ ] [illustration: page of manuscript troano.] [illustration: fig. .--altar inscription from copan.] [illustration: fig. .--tablet from chichen.] [illustration: fig. .--chalchiuite from ococingo.] [illustration: fig. .--tablet from palenque.] * * * * * [sidenote: bishop landa's alphabet.] i have given on a preceding page in this chapter, the signs by which the natives of yucatan expressed the names of their days and months, taken from the work of bishop landa. the same author has also preserved a maya alphabet. on account of landa's failure to appreciate the importance of the native hieroglyphics, or to comprehend the system, and also very likely on account of his copyist's carelessness--for the original manuscript of landa's work has not been found--the passage relating to the alphabet is very vague, unsatisfactory, and perhaps fragmentary; but it is of the very highest importance, since the alphabet here given in connection with the calendar signs already spoken of, furnish apparently the only ground for a hope that the veil of mystery which hangs over the maya inscriptions may one day be lifted. i therefore give landa's description as nearly as possible in his own words, copying also the original spanish in a note. "of their letters i give here (see alphabet on the next page) an a, b, c, since their heaviness (number and intricacy?) permits no more; because they use one character for all the aspirations of the letters, and another in the pointing of the parts (punctuation), and thus it goes on to infinity, as may be seen in the following example: _lé_ means 'a snare' or to hunt with it; to write it with their characters, we having given them to understand (although we gave, etc.) that they are two letters, they wrote it with three, placing after the aspiration _l_ the vowel _e_, which it has before it, and in this they do not err, although they make use, if they wish, of their curious method. example: [illustration: _e l e lé_] then at the end they attach the adjoined part. _ha_ which means 'water,' because the _haché_ (sound of the letter _h_) has _a_, _h_, before it, they put it at the beginning with _a_, at the end in this manner: [illustration: _ha_] they also write it in parts but in both ways. i would not put (all this) here, nor treat of it, except in order to give a complete account of the things of this people. _ma in kati_ means 'i will not'; they write it in parts after this manner."[ ] [illustation: _ma i n ka ti_] [illustration: a a a a b b c(q?) t È h h i ca(?) k l l m n o o p pp cu ku x x u(?) u (dj or dz?) z ha ma to sign of (me, mo?) aspiration.] respecting this alphabet landa adds: "this language lacks the letters that are missing here; and has others added from ours for other necessary things; and they already make no use of these characters, especially the young who have learned ours." it will be noticed that there are several varying characters for the same letter, and several syllabic signs. the characters of landa's alphabet, and the calendar signs can be identified more or less accurately and readily with some of those of the hieroglyphic inscriptions in stone, the manuscript troano, and the dresden codex. the resemblance in many cases is clear, in others very vague and perhaps imaginary, while very many others cannot apparently be identified. although landa's key must be regarded as fragmentary, i believe there is no reason to doubt its authenticity. but one attempt has been made to practically apply this key to the work of deciphering the maya documents, that of the abbé brasseur de bourbourg. this writer, after a profound study of the subject, devotes one hundred and thirty-six quarto pages to a consideration of the maya characters and their variations, and fifty-seven pages to the translation of a part of the manuscript troano. the translation must be pronounced a failure, especially after the confession of the author in a subsequent work that he had begun his reading at the wrong end of the document,[ ]--a trifling error perhaps in the opinion of the enthusiastic abbé, but a somewhat serious one as it appears to scientific men. his preliminary examinations doubtless contain much valuable information which will lighten the labors and facilitate the investigations of future students; but unfortunately, such is their nature that condensation is impracticable. a long chapter, if not a volume, would be required to do them anything like justice, and they must be omitted here. brasseur de bourbourg devoted his life to the study of american primitive history. in actual knowledge of matters pertaining to his chosen subject, no man ever equaled or approached him. besides being an indefatigable student he was an elegant writer. in the last decade of his life he conceived a new and complicated theory respecting the origin of the american people, or rather the origin of europeans and asiatics from america, made known to the world in his _quatre lettres_. his attempted translation of the manuscript troano was made in support of this theory. by reason of the extraordinary nature of the views expressed, and the author's well-known tendency to build magnificent structures on a slight foundation, his later writings were received for the most part by critics, utterly incompetent to understand them, with a sneer or, what seems to have grieved the writer more, in silence. now that the great _américaniste_ is dead, while it is not likely that his theories will ever be received, his zeal in the cause of antiquarian science and the many valuable works from his pen will be better appreciated. it will be long ere another shall undertake with equal devotion and ability the well nigh hopeless task. [sidenote: interpretation of maya records.] i close the chapter with a few quotations from modern writers respecting the maya hieroglyphics and their interpretation. tyler says "there is even evidence that the maya nation of yucatan, the ruins of whose temples and palaces are so well known from the travels of catherwood and stephens, not only had a system of phonetic writing, but used it for writing ordinary words and sentences."[ ] wuttke suggests that landa's alphabet originated after the conquest, a suggestion, as schepping observes, excluded by mendieta's statement, but "otherwise very probable in consideration of the phoneticism developed in mexico shortly after the conquest."[ ] and finally wilson says, "while the recurrence of the same signs, and the reconstruction of groups out of the detached members of others, clearly indicate a written language, and not a mere pictorial suggestion of associated ideas, like the mexican picture-writing." "in the most complicated tablets of african hieroglyphics, each object is distinct, and its representative significance is rarely difficult to trace. but the majority of the hieroglyphics of palenque or copan appear as if constructed on the same polysynthetic principle which gives the peculiar and distinctive character to the languages of the new world. this is still more apparent when we turn to the highly elaborate inscriptions on the colossal figures of copan. in these all ideas of simple phonetic signs utterly disappear. like the _bunch-words_, as they have been called, of the american languages, they seem each to be compounded of a number of parts of the primary symbols used in picture-writing, while the pictorial origin of the whole becomes clearly apparent. in comparing these minutely elaborated characters with those on the tables, it is obvious that a system of abbreviation is employed in the latter. an analogous process seems dimly discernible in the abbreviated compound characters of the palenque inscription. but if the inference be correct, this of itself would serve to indicate that the central american hieroglyphics are not used as phonetic, or pure alphabetic signs; and this idea receives confirmation from the rare recurrence of the same group.... the palenque inscriptions have all the characteristics of a written language in a state of development analogous to the chinese, with its word-writing; and like it they appear to have been read in columns from top to bottom. the groups of symbols begin with a large hieroglyphic on the left-hand corner; and the first column occupies a double space. it is also noticeable that in the frequent occurrence of human and animal heads among the sculptured characters they invariably look toward the left; an indication, as it appears to me, that they are the graven inscriptions of a lettered people, who were accustomed to write the same characters from left to right on paper or skins. indeed, the pictorial groups on the copan statues seem to be the true hieroglyphic characters; while the palenque inscriptions show the abbreviated hieratic writing. to the sculptor the direction of the characters was a matter of no moment; but if the scribe held his pen, or style, in his right hand, like the modern clerk, he would as naturally draw the left profile as we slope our current hand to the right. arbitrary signs are also introduced, like those of the phonetic alphabets of europe. among these the t repeatedly occurs: a character which, it will be remembered, was also stamped on the mexican metallic currency."[ ] footnotes: [ ] two spindles with golden tissue. _cortés_, _cartas_, pp. , . six golden idols, each one span long, in nicaragua. _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. v. golden hatchets, carats fine, weighing over lbs. _id._, lib. iv., cap. vi. houses of goldsmiths that molded marvellously. _id._, cap. vii. see also _id._, dec. i., lib. v., cap. v. little fishes and geese of low gold at catoche. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . golden armor and ornaments at tabasco river. _id._, pp. - . idols of unknown metals among the itzas. _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , . gilded wooden mask, gold plates, little golden kettles. _diaz_, _itinéraire_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x. pp. , . vases of chiseled gold in yucatan. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _id._, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. , , tom. i., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. i., dec. vi., lib. ii., vi.; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. ; _godoi_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., p. . respecting a copper mask from nicaragua and two copper medals from guatemala, see vol. iv. of this work. [ ] for slight notices of the various mechanical arts of the mayas see the following authorities: _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. , , , tom. iv., pp. , , - ; _torquemada_, _monarq. ind._, tom. i., p. , tom. ii., p. ; _laet_, _novus orbis_, p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , , , ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. ix., lib. x., cap. ii., xiv.; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , , - ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , - , , - ; _remesal_, _hist. chyapa._, p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. ii., dec. vi., lib. iii.; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. , - ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _cortés_, _cartas_, p. ; _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viajes_, tom. iii., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv.; _id._, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - ; _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., pp. , ; _foster's pre-hist. races_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , , . [ ] _beltran de santa rosa maría_, _arte_, pp. - ; _id._, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, ms. _troano_, tom. ii., pp. - . 'el modo de contar de los indios es de cinco en cinco, y de quatro cincos hazen veinte.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; _perez_, _cronologia antigua de yuc._, with french translation, in _id._, pp. - ; english translation of the same in _stephens' yucatan_, vol. i., pp. - ; original spanish also in the _registro yucateco_; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - , - ; _veytia_, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - ; _id._, ms. _troano_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] cogolludo omits the month tzoz, and inserts a month vaycab, vtuz kin, or vlobol kin, between cumhu and pop. he also in one place puts cuchhaab in the place of kan. _hist. yuc._, p. - . see also _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - ; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. . the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, in his attempted interpretation of the manuscript troano, gives the following curious etymologies of the names of these months. 'le vocable _pop_, que beltran écrit long, _poop_, signifie la natte, "estera ò petate," dit pio perez, qui donne encore à _pop_ le sens d'un arbrisseau ou d'une plante qu'il ne décrit point, mais qui, fort probablement, doit être de la nature des joncs dont on fait les différentes espèces de nattes connues au yucatan. en prenant ce vocable avec l'orthographe de beltran, _poop_ se composerait de _po_, primitif inusité, exprimant l'enflure, la vapeur, l'expansion par la chaleur d'une matière dans une enveloppe, et de _op_, briser, rompre pour sortir, crevasser par la force du feu.... beltran ajoute que _uo_ désigne en outre le têtard, une sorte de petit crapaud et un fruit indigène, appelé _pitahaya_ aux antilles ... _uo_, au rapport du même auteur énonce l'idée des caractères de l'écriture, en particulier des voyelles.... cet hiéroglyphe paraît assez difficile à expliquer. sa section inférieure renferme un caractère qui semble, en raccourci, celui de la lettre _h_, et la section supérieure est identique avec le signe que je crois une variante du _ti_, localité, lieu. ce qu'on pourrait interpréter par "le possesseur enfermé du lieu," indice du têtard, de l'embryon dans son enveloppe. (?) l'ensemble de l'idée géologique, qui a présidé à la composition du calendrier maya, se poursuit dans les noms des mois, ainsi que dans ceux des jours. après le marécage, déjà crevassé par le chaleur, apparaît le têtard, l'embryon de la grenouille, laissé au fond de la bourbe, symbole de l'embryon du feu volcanique couvant sous la terre glacée et qui ne tardera pas à rompre son enveloppe, ainsi qu'on le verra dans les noms des mois suivants.... _zip_, analysé, donne _zi ip_, bois à brûler qui se gonfle outre mesure, sens intéressant qui rappelle le grand arbre du monde, gonflé outre mesure par les gaz et les feux volcaniques, avant d'éclater.... j'inclinerais à penser que landa a voulu exprimer par _tzoz_, non la chauve-souris _zos_, mais _tzotz_, la chevelure, vocable qui dans toutes les langues du groupe mexico-guatémalien indique symboliquement la chevelure de l'eau, la surface ondoyante, remuante de la mer, d'un lac ou d'une rivière: c'est à quoi semblent correspondre les signes de la glace qui se présentent dans l'image du mois _tzoz_. il s'agirait donc ici de la chevelure, de la surface des eaux gelées au-dessus de la terre et que la force du feu volcanique commence à rider, à faire grimacer, ainsi que l'énonce le nom du mois suivant.... tzec.... ce que l'auteur du calendrier a voulu exprimer, c'est bien probablement une tête de mort de singe, aux dents grimaçantes, image assez commune dans les fantaisies mythologiques de l'amérique centrale et qu'on retrouve sculptée fréquemment dans les belles ruines de copan.... une intention plus profonde encore se révèle dans ces têtes de singes. car si les danses et les mouvements de ces animaux symbolisent, dans le sens mystérieux du _popol vuh_, le soulèvement momentané des montagnes à la surface de la mer des caraìbes, leurs têtes, avec l'expression de la mort, ne sauraient faire allusion, probablement, qu'à la disparition de ces montagnes sous les eaux, où elles continuèrent à grimacer, dans les récifs et les _ronfleurs_, comme elles avaient fait grimacer la glace, en se soulevant.' as it would occupy too much space to give the abbé's explanations of all the months, the above will suffice for specimens. see _ms. troano_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] landa says, however, 'vingt-sept trezaines et neuf jours, sans compter les supplémentaires.' _relacion_, p. . [ ] the number may come from the original reckoning by lunations, days being about the time the moon is seen above the horizon in each revolution, days of increase, and of decrease. _perez_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . or it may have been a sacred number before the invention of the calendar, being the number of gods of high rank. _brasseur de bourbourg_, _ib._ [ ] 'contaban sus eras, y edades, que ponian en sus libros de veinte en veinte años, y por lustros de quatro en quatro.... llegando estos lustros a cinco, que ajustan veinte años, llamaban _katùn_, y ponian vna piedra labrada sobre otra labrada, fixada con cal, y arena en las paredes de sus templos, y casas de los sacerdotes, como se vè oy en los edificios.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . 'llaman a esta cuenta en su lengua uazlazon katun que quiere dezir la _gerra_ de los katunes.' _landa_, _relacion_, p. . 'para cuenta de veintenas de años en calendarios de los indios yucatecos, lo mismo que las indicciones nuestras; pero de mas años que estas, eran trece _ahaues_ que contenian años, que era para ellos un siglo.' _beltran de santa rosa maría_, _arte_, p. . brasseur de bourbourg is disposed to reject the system of sr perez, but he in his turn makes several errors in his notes on the subject. in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - , . the maya ms. referred to in the text is found with its translation in _id._, pp. - , and _stephens' yucatan_, vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] the quiché year, according to basseta, began on december , of our calendar. following an anonymous ms. history of guatemala, the cakchiquel year began on january ; and the st of parichè in was on january . _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] 'algunos de estos nombres estan en lengua zotzil, y los demas se ignora en qué idioma se hallan.' _pineda_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, tom. iii., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, ubi sup.; _boturini_, _idea_, p. ; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. ii., pp. - ; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _orozco y berra_, _geografía_, p. ; veytia, _hist. ant. mej._, tom. i., p. , makes votan the first month; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. ; _pineda_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, tom. iii., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , . the same author quotes fuensalida to the effect that the itza priests still kept in his time a record of past events in a book 'like a history which they call analte.' _id._, p. . [ ] _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. - . 'analtehes, ò historias, es vna misma cosa.' _id._, p. . [ ] _mendieta_, _hist. ecles._, p. . [ ] _acosta_, _hist. de las ynd._, p. ; _clavigero_, _storia ant. del messico_, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec, iv., lib. x., cap. ii. [ ] _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, fol. - . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. viii., or latin edition of cologne, , p. ; also quoted in _brasseur de bourbourg_, ms. _troano_, tom. i., pp. - ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. . carli tells us that the inhabitants of amatitlan in guatemala were especially expert in making palm-leaf paper for writing. _cartas_, pt ii., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. . references to modern authors who, except possibly medel, have no other sources of information than those i have quoted, are as follows: 'dans le yucathan, on m'a montré des espèces de lettres et de caractères dont se servent les habitants.... ils employaient au lieu de papier l'écorce de certaines arbres, dont ils enlevaient des morceaux qui avaient deux aunes de long et un quart d'aune de large. cette écorce était de l'épaisseur d'une peau de veau et se pliait comme un linge. l'usage de cette écriture n'était pas généralement répandu, et elle n'était connue que des prêtres et de quelques caciques.' _medel_, in _nouvelles annales des voy._, , tom. xcvii., pp. - ; _waldeck_, _voy. pitt._, p. ; _squier's cent. amer._, p. ; _morelet_, _voyage_, tom. i., p. ; _fancourt's hist. yuc._, p. ; _carrillo_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, da época, tom. iii., pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _ordoñez_, _hist. cielo, etc._, ms., and _nuñez de la vega_, _constit. diæces._, quoted by _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., pp. , ; _id._, _popol vuh_, p. ; _juarros_, _hist. guat._, p. ; _pineda_, in _soc. mex. geog., boletin_, tom. iii., pp. - . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _gallatin_, in _amer. ethno. soc., transact._, vol. i., p. ; _malte-brun_, _précis de la géog._, tom. vi., p. ; _squier's nicaragua_, (ed. ,) vol. ii., pp. - . [ ] _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. iii., no. ; _humboldt_, _vues_, tom. ii., pp. - , pl. xvi. mr prescott, _mex._, vol. i., pp. - , says that this document bears but little resemblance to other aztec mss., and that it indicates a much higher stage of civilization; but he also fails to detect any stronger likeness to the bas-reliefs of palenque, of which latter, however, he probably had a very imperfect idea. it cannot be interpreted, for 'even if a rosetta stone were discovered in mexico, there is no indian tongue to supply the key or interpreter.' _mayer_, _mex. as it was_, pp. - . 'le codex de dresde, et un autre de la bibliothèque nationale à paris, bien qu'offrant quelque rapport avec les rituels, échappent à toute interprétation. ils appartiennent, ainsi que les inscriptions de chiappa et du yucatan à une écriture plus élaborée, comme incrustée et calculiforme, dont on croit trouver des traces dans toutes les parties très-anciennement policées des deux amériques.' _aubin_, in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. i., p. lxxi. see _stephens' cent. amer._, vol. ii., pp. , - ; _id._, _yucatan_, tom. ii., pp. , . [ ] _brasseur de bourbourg_, _ms. troano; Études sur le système graphique et la langue des mayas_, paris, - , º, vols., colored plates. [ ] _waldeck_, _palenqué_, pl. ; _stephen's cent. amer._, vol. i., pp. - , - ; _id._, _yucatan_, vol. ii., pp. - ; _morelet's trav._, p. ; vol. iv., pp. - , - , , and chap. vi., of this work. [ ] the spanish text is as follows: 'de sus letras porne aqui un _a_, _b_, _c_, que no permite su pesadumbre mas porque usan para todas las aspiraciones de las letras de un caracter, y despues, al puntar de las partes otro, y assi viene a hazer _in infinitum_, como se podra ver en el siguiente exemplo. _lé_, quiere dezir laço y caçar con el; para escrivirle con sus carateres, haviendoles nosotros hecho entender que son dos letras, lo escrivian ellos con tres, puniendo a la aspiracion de la _l_ la vocal _é_, que antes de si trae, y en esto no hierran, aunque usense, si quisieren ellos de su curiosidad. exemplo: _e l e lé_. despues al cabo le pegan la parte junta. _ha_ que quiere dezir agua, porque la _haché_ tiene _a_, _h_, antes de si la ponen ellos al principio con _a_, y al cabo desta manera: _ha_. tambien lo escriven a partes pero de la una y otra manera, yo no pusiera aqui ni tratara dello sino por dar cuenta entera de las cosas desta gente. _ma in kati_ quiere dezir no quiero, ellos lo escriven a partes desta manera: _ma i n ka ti_.' _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; also in _brasseur de bourbourg_, _ms. troano_, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] _bibliothèque mexico-guatémalienne_, paris, , p. xvii. [ ] _tylor's researches_, pp. - . [ ] _wuttke and schepping_, in _spencer's descriptive sociology_, no. ., div. ii., pt -b, p. . see note of this chapter. [ ] _wilson's pre-historic man_, p. , et seq. chapter xxv. buildings, medicine, burial, physical peculiarities, and character of the mayas. scanty information given by the early voyagers--private houses of the mayas--interior arrangement, decoration, and furniture--maya cities--description of utatlan--patinamit, the cakchiquel capital--cities of nicaragua--maya roads--temples at chichen itza and cozumel--temples of nicaragua and guatemala--diseases of the mayas--medicines used--treatment of the sick--propitiatory offerings and vows--superstitions--dreams--omens--witchcraft--snake-charmers --funeral rites and ceremonies--physical peculiarities--character. a full résumé of the principles of maya architecture, gathered from observations of ruins made by modern travelers, will be given in another part of this work.[ ] i shall, therefore, without regard to the inevitable scantiness and unsatisfactory nature of such information, confine myself in this chapter to the descriptions furnished by the old writers, who saw the houses and towns while they were occupied by those who built them and the temples before they became ruins, or at least were contemporaries of such observers. the accounts given of the dwellings of the mayas are very meagre. the early voyagers on the coast of yucatan, such as grijalva and córdova, saw well-built houses of stone and lime, with sloping roofs thatched with straw or reeds; or, in some instances, with slates of stone;[ ] but this is all they tell us, and, indeed, they had little opportunity for close examination; the natives of those parts were fierce and warlike, and little disposed to submit to invasion, so that the handful of adventurers had barely time to look hastily about them after effecting a landing before they were driven back wounded to their boats. here, as elsewhere, too, the temples and larger buildings naturally attracted their sole attention, both because of their strangeness and of the treasures which they were supposed to or did contain. these men were soldiers, gold-hunters; they did not travel leisurely; they had no time to examine the architecture of private dwellings; they risked and lost their lives for other purposes. bishop landa, however, has something to say on the subject of maya dwellings. the roof, he says, was covered with straw, which they had in great abundance, or with palm-leaves, which answered the purpose admirably. a considerable pitch was given to the roof, that the rain might run off easily. the house was divided in its length, that is, from side to side, by a wall, in which several doorways were left as a means of communication with the back room where they slept. the front room where guests were received was carefully whitewashed, or in the houses of nobles, painted in various colors or designs; it had no door but was open all the length of the front of the house, and was sheltered from sun and rain by the eaves which usually descended very low.[ ] there was always a doorway in the rear for the use of all the inmates. the fact of there being no doors made it a point of honor among them not to rob or injure each other's houses. the poor people built the houses of the rich.[ ] a new dwelling could not be occupied until it had been formally blessed and purged of the evil spirit.[ ] [sidenote: nicaraguan dwellings.] in nicaragua, the dwellings were mostly made of canes, and thatched with straw. in the large cities the houses of the nobles were built upon platforms several feet in height, but in the smaller towns the residences of all classes were of the same construction, except that those of the chiefs were larger and more commodious. some, however, appear to have been built of stone.[ ] of the dwellings in guatemala, still less is said. villagutierre mentions a lacandone village in which were one hundred and three houses with sloping thatched roofs, supported upon stout posts. the front of each house was open, but the back and sides were closed with a strong stockade. the interior was divided into several apartments. cogolludo says that their houses were covered with plaster, like those of yucatan.[ ] the house, or rather shed, near the gulf of dulce, in which cortés stayed, had no walls, the roof resting upon posts.[ ] in other parts of guatemala he saw 'large houses with thatched roofs.'[ ] gage does not give a glowing account of their dwellings. "their houses," he writes, "are but poor thatched cottages, without any upper rooms, but commonly one or two only rooms below, in the one they dress their meat in the middle of it, making a compass for fire, with two or three stones, without any other chimney to convey the smoak away, which spreading it self about the room, filleth the thatch and the rafters so with sut, that all the room seemeth to be a chimney. the next unto it, is not free from smoak and blackness, where sometimes are four or five beds according to the family. the poorer sort have but one room, where they eat, dress their meat and sleep."[ ] las casas tells us that when the guatemalans built a new house they were careful to dedicate an apartment to the worship of the household gods; there they burned incense and offered domestic sacrifices upon an altar erected for the purpose.[ ] [sidenote: household furniture.] little is said about the interior appointment and decoration of dwellings. landa mentions that in yucatan they used bedsteads made of cane,[ ] and the same is said of nicaragua by oviedo, who adds that they used a small four-legged bench of fine wood for a pillow.[ ] in guatemala, there was in each room a sort of bedstead large enough to accommodate four grown persons, and other small ones for the children.[ ] brasseur de bourbourg gives a description of gorgeous furniture used in the houses of the wealthy in yucatan, but unfortunately the learned abbé has for his only authority on this point the somewhat apocryphal ordoñez' ms. the stools, he writes, on which they seated themselves cross-legged after the oriental fashion, were of wood and precious metals, and were often made in the shape of some animal or bird; they were covered with deer-skins, tanned with great care, and embroidered with gold and precious stones. the interior-walls were sometimes hung with similar skins, though they were more frequently decorated with paintings on a red or blue ground. curtains of finest texture and most brilliant colors fell over the doorways, and the stucco floors were covered with mats made of exquisite workmanship. rich hued cloths covered the tables. the plate would have done honor to a persian satrap. graceful vases of chased gold, alabaster or agate, worked with exquisite art, delicate painted pottery, excelling that of etruria, candelabra for the great odorous pine torches, metal braziers diffusing sweet perfumes, a multitude of _petits riens_, such as little bells and grotesquely shaped whistles for summoning attendants, in fact all the luxuries which are the result of an advanced civilization, were, according to brasseur de bourbourg, to be found in the houses of the maya nobility.[ ] [sidenote: maya fortifications.] of the interior arrangement of the yucatec towns we are told nothing except that the temples, palaces, and houses of the nobility were in the centre, with the dwellings of the common people grouped about them, and that the streets were well kept.[ ] some of them must, however, have been very large and have contained fine buildings. during córdova's voyage on the coast of yucatan a city was seen which, says peter martyr, "for the hugenesse thereof they call cayrus, of cayrus the metropolis of Ægipt: where they find turreted houses, stately tenples, wel paued wayes & streets where marts and faires for trade of merchandise were kept."[ ] during grijalva's voyage a city, the same one perhaps, was seen, which diaz, the chaplain of the expedition, says was as 'large as the city of seville.'[ ] none of the yucatec cities appear to have been located with any view to defense, or to to have been provided with fortifications of any description.[ ] the towns of guatemala, on the other hand, were very strongly fortified, both artificially and by the site selected. juarros thus describes the city of utatlan in guatemala: "it was surrounded by a deep ravine that formed a natural fosse, leaving only two very narrow roads as entrances to the city, both of which were so well defended by the castle of _resguardo_, as to render it impregnable. the centre of the city was occupied by the royal palace, which was surrounded by the houses of the nobility; the extremities were inhabited by the plebeians. the streets were very narrow, but the place was so populous, as to enable the king to draw from it alone, no less than , combatants, to oppose the progress of the spaniards. it contained many very sumptuous edifices, the most superb of them was a seminary, where between and children were educated; they were all maintained and provided for at the charge of the royal treasury; their instruction was superintended by masters and professors. the castle of the atalaya was a remarkable structure, which being raised four stories high, was capable of furnishing quarters for a very strong garrison. the castle of resguardo was not inferior to the other; it extended paces in front, in depth, and was stories high. the grand alcazar, or palace of the kings of quiché, surpassed every other edifice, and in the opinion of torquemada, it could compete in opulence with that of montezuma in mexico, or that of the incas in cuzco. the front of this building extended from east to west geometrical paces, and in depth ; it was constructed of hewn stone of different colors; its form was elegant, and altogether most magnificent; there were principal divisions, the first contained lodgings for a numerous troop of lancers, archers, and other well disciplined troops, constituting the royal body guard; the second was destined to the accommodation of the princes, and relations of the king, who dwelt in it, and were served with regal splendour, as long as they remained unmarried; the third was appropriated to the use of the king, and contained distinct suits of apartments, for the mornings, evenings, and nights. in one of the saloons stood the throne, under four canopies of plumage, the ascent to it was by several steps; in this part of the palace were, the treasury, the tribunals of the judges, the armory, the gardens, aviaries, and menageries, with all the requisite offices appending to each department. the th and th divisions were occupied by the queens and royal concubines; they were necessarily of great extent, from the immense number of apartments requisite for the accommodation of so many females, who were all maintained in a style of sumptuous magnificence, gardens for their recreation, baths, and proper places for breeding geese, that were kept for the sole purpose of furnishing feathers, with which hangings, coverings, and other similar ornamental articles, were made. contiguous to this division was the sixth and last; this was the residence of the king's daughters and other females of the blood royal, where they were educated and attended in a manner suitable to their rank."[ ] patinamit, the cakchiquel capital, was nearly three leagues in circumference. it was situated upon a plateau surrounded by deep ravines which could be crossed at only one point by a narrow causeway which terminated in two gates of stone, one on the outside and the other on the inside of the thick wall of the city. the streets were broad and straight, and crossed each other at right angles. the town was divided from north to south into two parts by a ditch nine feet deep, with a wall of masonry about three feet high on each side. this ditch served to divide the nobles from the commoners, the former class living in the eastern section, and the latter in the western.[ ] peter martyr says of the cities of nicaragua: "large and great streetes guarde the frontes of the kinges courts, according to the disposition and greatnes of their village or towne. if the town consist of many houses, they haue also little ones, in which, the trading neighbours distant from the court may meete together. the chiefe noble mens houses compasse and inclose the kinges streete on euery side: in the middle site whereof one is erected which the goldesmithes inhabite."[ ] the mayas constructed excellent and desirable roads all over the face of the country. the most remarkable of these were the great highways used by the pilgrims visiting the sacred island of cozumel; these roads, four in number, traversed the peninsula in different directions, and finally met at a point upon the coast opposite the island.[ ] diego de godoi, in a letter to cortés, states that he and his party came to a place in the mountains of chiapas, where the smooth and slippery rock sloped down to the edge of a precipice, and which would have been quite impassable had not the indians made a road with branches and trunks of trees. on the side of the precipice they erected a strong wooden railing, and then made all level with earth.[ ] [sidenote: maya temples.] of the maya temples very little is said. there was one at chichen itza which had four great staircases, each being thirty-three feet wide and having ninety-one steps, very difficult of ascent. the steps were of the same height and width as ours. on both sides of each stairway was a low balustrade, two feet wide, made of good stone, like the rest of the building. the edifice was not sharp-cornered, because from the ground upward between the balustrades the cubic blocks were rounded, ascending by degrees and elegantly narrowing the building. there was at the foot of each balustrade a fierce serpent's head very strangely worked. on the top of the edifice there was a platform, on which stood a building forty-three feet by forty-nine feet, and about twenty feet high, having only a single doorway in the centre of each front. the doorways on the east, west and south, opened into a corridor six feet wide, which extended without partition walls round the three corresponding sides of the edifice; the northern doorway gave access to a corridor forty feet long and six and a third feet wide. through the centre of the rear wall of this corridor a doorway opened into a room twelve feet nine inches by nineteen feet eight inches, and seventeen feet high; its ceiling was formed by two transverse arches supported by immense carved beams of zapote-wood, stretched across the room and resting, each at its centre, on two square pillars.[ ] the island of cozumel was especially devoted to religious observances, and was annually visited by great numbers of pilgrims; there were therefore more religious edifices here than elsewhere. among them is mentioned a square tower, with four windows, and hollow at the top; at the back was a room in which the sacred implements were kept; it was surrounded by an enclosure, in the middle of which stood a cross nine feet high, representing the god of rain.[ ] other temples so closely resembled those of mexico as to need no further description here.[ ] [sidenote: nicaraguan temples.] the temples of nicaragua were built of wood and thatched; they contained many low, dark rooms, where the idols were kept and the religious rites performed. before each temple was a pyramidal mound, on the flat top of which the sacrifices were made in the presence of the whole people.[ ] in guatemala, cortés saw temples like those of mexico.[ ] the temple of tohil, at utatlan, was, according to brasseur de bourbourg, a conical edifice, having in front a very steep stairway; at the summit was a platform of considerable size upon which stood a very high chapel, built of hewn stone, and roofed with precious wood. the walls were covered within and without with a very fine and durable stucco. upon a throne of gold, enriched with precious stones, was seated the image of the god.[ ] * * * * * the particular diseases to which the mayas were most subject are not enumerated, but there is no reason to doubt that they suffered from the same maladies as their neighbors the nahuas. they seem to have been greatly afflicted with various forms of syphilis,[ ] and in winter, with catarrh and fever.[ ] they were much troubled, also, with epidemics, which not unfrequently swept the country with great destruction.[ ] [sidenote: treatment of the sick.] medicinal practitioners were numerous. their medicines, which were mostly furnished by the vegetable kingdom, were administered in the usual forms,[ ] and their treatment of patients involved the customary mummeries. clysters were much used.[ ] for syphilis they used a decoction of a wood called _guayacan_, which grew most plentifully in the province of nagrando in nicaragua.[ ] for rheumatism, coughs, colds, and other complaints of a kindred nature, they used various herbs, among them tobacco,[ ] and a kind of dough made of 'stinking poisonous worms.'[ ] sores arising from natural causes they washed in a decoction of an herb called _coygaraca_, or poulticed it with the mashed leaves of another named _mozot_.[ ] wounds taken in battle they always treated with external applications.[ ] cacao, after the oil had been extracted was considered to be a sure preventive against poison.[ ] when a rich man or a noble fell sick a messenger was dispatched with gifts to the doctor, who came at once and staid by his patient until he either got well or died. if the sickness was not serious the physician merely applied the usual remedies, but it was thought that a severe illness could only be brought on by some crime committed and unconfessed. in such cases, therefore, the doctor insisted upon the sick man making a clean breast of it, and confessing such sin even though it had been committed twenty years before. this done, the physician cast lots to see what sacrifices ought to be made, and whatever he determined upon was always given even though it amounted to the whole of the patient's fortune.[ ] in yucatan the practitioner sometimes drew blood from those parts of the patient's body in which the malady lay.[ ] lizana mentions a temple at izamal to which the sick were carried that they might be healed miraculously.[ ] in guatemala, as elsewhere, propitiatory offerings of birds and animals were made in ordinary cases of sickness, but if the patient was wealthy and dangerously ill he would sometimes strive to appease the anger of the gods and atone for the sins which he was supposed to have committed by sacrificing male or female slaves, or, in extraordinary cases, when the sick man was a prince or a great noble, he would even vow to sacrifice a son or a daughter in the event of his recovery; and although the scapegoat was generally chosen from among his children by female slaves, yet so fearful of death, so fond of life were they, that there were not wanting instances when legitimate children, and even only sons were sacrificed. and it is said, moreover, that they were inexorable as jephthah in the performance of such vows, for it was held to be a great sin to be false to a bargain made with the gods.[ ] [sidenote: practice of sorcery.] the mayas, like the nahuas, were grossly superstitious. they believed implicitly in the fulfillment of dreams, the influence of omens, and the power of witches and wizards. no important matter was undertaken until its success had been foretold and a lucky day determined by the flight of a bird or some similar omen. whether the non-fulfilment of the prediction was provided against by a _double entendre_, after the manner of the sibyls, we are not told. the cries or appearance of certain birds and animals were thought to presage harm to those who heard or saw them.[ ] they as firmly believed and were as well versed in the black art as their european brethren of a hundred years later, and they appear to have had the same enlightened horror of the arts of gramarye, for in guatemala, at least, they burned witches and wizards without mercy. they had among them, they said, sorcerers who could metamorphose themselves into dogs, pigs, and other animals, and whose glance was death to their victims. others there were who could by magic cause a rose to bloom at will, and could bring whomsoever they wished under their control by simply giving him the flower to smell. unfaithful wives, too, would often bewitch their husbands that their acts of infidelity might not be discovered.[ ] all these things are gravely recounted by the old chroniclers, not as matters unworthy of credence, but as deeds done at the instigation of the devil to the utter damnation of the benighted heathen. cogolludo, for instance, speaking of the performances of a snake-charmer, says that the magician took up the reptile in his bare hands, as he did so using certain mystic words, which he, cogolludo, wrote down at the time, but finding afterwards that they invoked the devil, he did not see fit to reproduce them in his work. the same writer further relates that upon another occasion a diviner cast lots, according to custom, with a number of grains of corn, to find out which direction a strayed child had taken. the child was eventually found upon the road indicated, and the narrator subsequently endeavored to discover whether the devil had been invoked or not, but the magician was a poor simple fool, and could not tell him.[ ] nor does there seem to have been any great difference between the credulity and superstition of conquerors and conquered in other respects. the spanish fathers, if we may judge from their writings, believed in the aztec deities as firmly as the natives; the only difference seems to have been that the former looked upon them as devils and the latter as gods. when the spaniards took notes in writing of what they saw, the costa ricans thought they were working out some magic spell; when the costa ricans cast incense towards the invaders telling them to leave the country or die,[ ] the spaniards swore that the devil was in it, and crossed themselves as a counter-spell. the yucatecs observed a curious custom during an eclipse of the moon. at such times they imagined that the moon was asleep, or that she was stung and wounded by ants. they therefore beat their dogs to make them howl, and made a great racket by striking with sticks upon doors and benches; what they hoped to accomplish by this, we are not told.[ ] * * * * * [sidenote: funeral rites.] the mayas disposed of the bodies of their dead by both burial and cremation. the former, however, appears to have been the most usual way. in vera paz, and probably in the whole of guatemala, the body was placed in the grave in a sitting posture, with the knees drawn up to the face. the greater part of the dead man's property was buried with him, and various kinds of food and drink were placed in the grave that the spirit might want for nothing on its way to shadow-land.[ ] just before death took place, the nearest relation, or the most intimate friend of the dying man, placed between his lips a valuable stone, which was supposed to receive the soul as soon as it passed from the body. as soon as he was dead, the same person removed the stone and gently rubbed the face of the deceased with it. this office was held to be a very important one, and the person who performed it preserved the stone with great reverence. when the lord of a province died, messengers were sent to the neighboring provinces to invite the other princes to be present at the funeral. while awaiting their arrival the body was placed in a sitting posture, in the manner in which it was afterwards to be interred,[ ] and clothed in a great quantity of rich clothing.[ ] on the day of the funeral the great lords who had come to attend the ceremony, brought precious gifts and ornaments, and placed them by the side of or on the person of the corpse. each provided also a male or female slave, or both, to be sacrificed over the grave of the deceased. the body was then placed in a large stone chest,[ ] and borne with great solemnity to its last resting-place, which was generally situated on the top of a hill. the coffin having been lowered into the grave with its ornaments, the doomed slaves were immolated, and also cast in along with the implements which they had used in life, that they might follow their accustomed pursuits in the service of their new master in the other world. finally, the grave was filled up, a mound raised over it, and a stone altar erected above all, upon which incense was burned and sacrifices were made in memory of the deceased. the common people did not use coffins, but placed the body in a sitting posture and wrapped up in many cloths, in an excavation made in the side of the grave, burying with it many jars, pans, and implements. they raised a mound over the grave of a height in proportion to the rank of the defunct.[ ] only the poorer classes of the yucatecs buried their dead. these placed corn in the mouth of the corpse, together with some money as ferriage for the maya charon. the body was interred either in the house or close to it. some idols were thrown into the grave before it was filled up. the house was then forsaken by its inmates, for they greatly feared the dead.[ ] the books of a priest were buried with him, as were likewise the charms of a sorcerer.[ ] the itzas buried their dead in the fields, in their every-day clothes. on the graves of the males they left such implements as men used, on those of the females they placed grinding-stones, pans, and other utensils used by the women.[ ] in nicaragua, property was buried with the possessor if he or she had no children; if the contrary was the case, it was divided among the heirs. nicaraguan parents shrouded their children in cloths, and buried them before the doors of their dwellings.[ ] among the pipiles the dead were interred in the house they had lived in, along with all their property. a deceased high-priest was buried, clad in the robes and ornaments appertaining to his office, in a sepulchre or vault in his own palace, and the people mourned and fasted fifteen days.[ ] cremation or partial cremation seems to have been reserved for the higher classes. in yucatan, an image of the dead person was made, of wood for a king, of clay for a noble. the back part of the head of this image was hollowed out, and a portion of the body having been burned, the ashes were placed in this hollow, which was covered with the skin of the occiput of the corpse. the image was then placed in the temple, among the idols, and was much reverenced, incense being burned before it, almost as though it had been a god. the remainder of the body was buried with great solemnity. when an ancient cocome king died, his head was cut off and boiled. the flesh was then stripped off, and the skull cut in two crosswise. on the front part of the skull, which included the lower jaw and teeth, an exact likeness of the dead man was molded in some plastic substance. this was placed among the statues of the gods, and each day edibles of various kinds were placed before it, that the spirit might want for nothing in the other life, which, by the way, must have been a poor one to need such terrestrial aliment.[ ] when a great lord died in nicaragua, the body was burned along with a great number of feathers and ornaments of different kinds, and the ashes were placed in an urn, which was buried in front of the palace of the deceased. as usual, the spirit must be supplied with food, which was tied to the body before cremation.[ ] [sidenote: mourning for the dead.] according to the information we have on the subject, the mourning customs of the mayas appear to have been pretty much the same everywhere. for the death of a chief or any of his family the pipiles lamented for four days, silently by day, and with loud cries by night. at dawn on the fifth day the high-priest publicly forbade the people to make any further demonstration of sorrow, saying that the soul of the departed was now with the gods. the guatemalan widower dyed his body yellow, for which reason he was called _malcam_. mothers who lost a sucking child, withheld their milk from all other infants for four days, lest the spirit of the dead babe should be offended.[ ] * * * * * the mayas, like the nahuas, were mostly well-made, tall, strong, and hardy. their complexion was tawny. the women were passably good-looking, some of them, it is said, quite pretty, and seem to have been somewhat fairer-skinned than the men. what the features of the mayas were like, can only be conjectured. their sculpture would indicate that a large hooked nose and a retreating forehead, if not usual, were at least regarded with favor, and we know that head-flattening was almost universal among them. beards were not worn, and the yucatec mothers burned the faces of their children with hot cloths to prevent the growth of hair. in landa's time some of the natives allowed their beard to grow, but, says the worthy bishop, it came out as rough as hog's bristles. in nicaragua it would seem that they did not even understand what a beard was; witness the following 'pretie policy' of Ægidius gonsalus: "all the barbarians of those nations are beardlesse, and are terribly afraide, and fearefull of bearded men: and therefore of . beardlesse youthes by reason of their tender yeres, Ægidius made bearded men with the powlinges of their heades, the haire being orderly composed, to the end, that the number of bearded men might appeare the more, to terrifie the[|m] if they should be assailed by warre, as afterwarde it fell out."[ ] squinting eyes were, as i have said before, thought beautiful in yucatan.[ ] [sidenote: character of the mayas.] of all the maya nations, the yucatecs bear the best character. the men were generous, polite, honest, truthful, peaceable, brave, ingenious, and particularly hospitable, though, on the other hand, they were great drunkards, and very loose in their morals. the women were modest, very industrious, excellent housewives, and careful mothers, but, though generally of a gentle disposition, they were excessively jealous of their marital rights; indeed, bishop landa tells us that upon the barest suspicion of infidelity on the part of their husbands they became perfect furies, and would even beat their unfaithful one.[ ] the guatemalans are spoken of as having been exceedingly warlike and valorous, but withal very simple in their tastes and manner of life.[ ] arricivita calls the lacandones thieves, assassins, cannibals, bloody-minded men, who received the missionaries with great violence.[ ] the fact that the lacandones strove to repel invasion, without intuitively knowing that the invaders were missionaries, may have helped the worthy padre to come to this decision, however. the nicaraguans were warlike and brave, but at the same time false, cunning, and deceitful. their resolute hatred of the whites was so great that it is said that for two years they abstained from their wives rather than beget slaves for their conquerors.[ ] * * * * * next after the collecting of facts in any one direction comes their comparison with other ascertained facts of the same category, by which means fragments of knowledge coalesce and unfold into science. this fascinating study, however, is no part of my plan. if in the foregoing pages i have succeeded in collecting and classifying materials in such a manner that others may, with comparative ease and certainty, place the multitudinous nations of these pacific states in all their shades of savagery and progress side by side with the savagisms and civilizations of other ages and nations, my work thus far is accomplished. but what a flood of thought, of speculation and imagery rushes in upon the mind at the bare mention of such a study! isolated, without the stimulus of a mediterranean commerce, hidden in umbrageous darkness, walled in by malarious borders, and surrounded by wild barbaric hordes, whatever its origin, indigenous or foreign, there was found on mexican and central american table-lands an unfolding humanity, unique and individual, yet strikingly similar to human unfoldings under like conditions elsewhere. europeans, regarding the culture of the conquered race first as diabolical and then contemptible, have not to this day derived that benefit from it that they might have done. it is not necessary that american civilization should be as far advanced as european, to make a perfect knowledge of the former as essential in the study of mankind as a knowledge of the latter; nor have i any disposition to advance a claim for the equality of american aboriginal culture with european, or to make of it other than what it is. as in a work of art, it is not a succession of sharply defined and decided colors, but a happy blending of light and shade, that makes the picture pleasing, so in the grand and gorgeous perspective of human progress the intermediate stages are as necessary to completeness as the dark spectrum of savagism or the brilliant glow of the most advanced culture. [sidenote: conclusion.] this, however, i may safely claim; if the preceding pages inform us aright, then were the nahuas, the mayas, and the subordinate and lesser civilizations surrounding these, but little lower than the contemporaneous civilizations of europe and asia, and not nearly so low as we have hitherto been led to suppose. whatever their exact status in the world of nations--and that this volume gives _in esse_ and not _in posse_--they are surely entitled to their place, and a clear and comprehensive delineation of their character and condition fills a gap in the history of humanity. as in every individual, so in every people, there is something different from what may be found in any other people; something better and something worse. one civilization teaches another; if the superior teaches most, the inferior nevertheless teaches. it is by the mutual action and reaction of mind upon mind and nation upon nation that the world of intellect is forced to develop. taking in at one view the vast range of humanity portrayed in this volume and the preceding, with all its infinite variety traced on a background of infinite unity, individuality not more clearly evidenced than a heart and mind and soul relationship to humanity everywhere, the wide differences in intelligence and culture shaded and toned down into a homogeneous whole, we can but arrive at our former conclusion, that civilization is an unexplained phenomenon whose study allures the thoughtful and yields results pregnant with the welfare of mankind. footnotes: [ ] see vol. iv., pp. , et. seq. [ ] 'a todo lo largo tenian los vecinos de aquel lugar muchas casas, hecho el cimiento de piedra y lodo hasta la mitad de las paredes, y luego cubiertas de paja. esta gente del dicho lugar, en los edificios y en las casas, parece ser gente de grande ingenio: y si no fuera porque parecia haber allí algunos edificios nuevos, se pudiera presumir que eran edificios hechos por españoles.' _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. ; see also _id._, pp. , . 'las casas son de piedra, y ladrillo con la cubierta de paja, o rama. y aun alguna de lanchas de piedra.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . 'the houses were of stone or brick, and lyme, very artificially composed. to the square courts or first habitations of their houses they ascended by ten or twelue steps. the roofe was of reeds, or stalkes of herbs.' _purchas his pilgrimes_, vol. v., p. ; _bernal diaz_, _hist. conq._, fol. - ; _bienvenida_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. ii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. , tom. iii., p. ; _montanus_, _nieuwe weereld_, p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. i. [ ] 'c'est encore aujourd'hui de cette manière que se construisent à la campagne les maisons non seulement des indigènes, mais encore de la plupart des autres habitants du pays, au yucatan et ailleurs.' _brasseur de bourbourg_, in _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] 'their houses of bricke or stone, are couered with reedes, where there is a scarcitie of stones, but where quarries are, they are couered with shindle or slate. many houses haue marble pillars, as they haue with vs.' _peter martyr_, dec. iv., lib. iii., dec. vi., lib. v.; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii.; _benzoni_, _hist. mondo nuovo_, p. . [ ] _hist. yuc._, p. . 'las casas eran ciento y tres, de gruessos, y fuertes maderos, en que se mantenian los techos, que eran de mucha paja, reziamente amarrada, y con su corriente, y descubiertos todos los frontispicios, y tapados los costados, y espaldas, de estacada, con sus aposentos, donde las indias cozinavan, y tenian sus menesteres.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. - . [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _id._, pp. , . [ ] _new survey_, p. . [ ] _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. cxxiv. [ ] _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'Á la parte oriental, á siete ú ocho passos debaxo deste portal, está un echo de tres palmos alto de tierra, fecho de las cañas gruessas que dixe, y ençima llano é de diez ó doçe piés de luengo é de cinco ó seys de ancho, é una estera de palma gruessa ençima, é sobre aquella otras tres esteras delgadas é muy bien labradas, y ençima tendido el caçique desnudo é con una mantilla de algodon blanco é delgada revuelta sobre sí; é por almohada tenia un banquito pequeño de quatro piés, algo cóncavo, quellos llaman duho, é de muy linda é lisa madera muy bien labrado, por cabeçera.' _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] 'y en cada aposento vn tapesco, sobre maderos fuertes, que en cada vno cabian quatro personas; y otros tapesquillos aparte, en que ponian las criaturas.' _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . gage writes: they have 'four or five beds according to the family.... few there are that set any locks upon their doors, for they fear no robbing nor stealing, neither have they in their houses much to lose, earthen pots, and pans, and dishes, and cups to drink their chocolatte, being the chief commodities in their house. there is scarce any house which hath not also in the yard a stew, wherein they bath themselves with hot water.' _new survey_, p. . [ ] _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii., iii. [ ] dec. iv., lib. i. [ ] _diaz_, _itinerario_, in _icazbalceta_, _col. de doc._, tom. i., p. . [ ] see vol. iv. of this work, pp. - . [ ] _juarros_, _hist. guat._, pp. - ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. lii.; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - . [ ] _juarros_, _hist. guat._, pp. - ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] dec. vi., lib. vi.; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. [ ] _lizana_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., pp. , - . [ ] _godoi_, in _ternaux-compans_, _voy._, série i., tom. x., pp. - . at the lake of masaya in nicaragua, boyle noticed a 'cutting in the solid rock, a mile long, and gradually descending to depth of at least three hundred feet! this is claimed as the work of a people which was not acquainted with blasting or with iron tools. nature had evidently little hand in the matter, though a cleft in the rock may perhaps have helped the excavators. the mouth of this tunnel is about half a mile from the town.' _ride_, vol. ii., p. . herrera, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. vii., mentions the same thing in a very different manner: 'la subida y baxada, tan derecha como vna pared, que como es de peña viua, tiene en ella hechos agujeros, adonde ponen los dedos de las manos, y de los pies.' [ ] for description of ruins of this building as they now exist, and cuts of staircase, ground plan, and ornamentation, see vol. iv., pp. - . bishop landa thus describes it: 'este edificio tiene quatro escaleras que miran a las quatro partes del mundo: tienen de ancho a xxxiii pies y a noventa y un escalones cada una que es muerte subirlas. tienen en los escalones la mesma altura y anchura que nosotros damos a los nuestros. tiene cada escalera dos passamanos baxos a ygual de los escalones, de dos piez de ancho de buena canteria como lo es todo el edificio. no es este edificio esquinado, porque desde la salida del suelo se comiençan labrar desde los passemanos al contrario, como estan pintado unos cubos redondos que van subiendo a trechos y estrechando el edificio por muy galana orden. avia quando yo lo vi al pie de cada passamano una fiera boca de sierpe de una pieça bien curiosamente labrada. acabadas de esta manera las escaleras, queda en lo alto una plaçeta llana en la qual esta un edificio edificado de quatro quartos. los tres se andan a la redonda sin impedimento y tiene cada uno puerta en medio y estan cerrados de boveda. el quarto del norte se anda por si con un corredor de pilares gruessos. lo de en medio que avia de ser como el patinico que haze el orden de los paños del edificio tiene una puerta que sale al corredor del norte y esta por arriba cerrado de madera y servia de quemar los saumerios. ay en la entrada desta puerta o del corredor un modo de armas esculpidas en una piedra que no pude bien entender. tenia este edificio otros muchos, y tiene oy en dia a la redonda de si bien hechos y grandes, y todo en suelo del a ellos encalado que aun ay a partes memoria de los encalados tan fuerte es el argamasa de que alla los hazen. tenia delante la escalera del norte algo aparte dos teatros de canteria pequeños de a quatro escaleras, y enlosados por arriba en que dizen representavan las farsas y comedias para solaz del pueblo. va desde et patio en frente destos teatros una hermosa y ancha calçada hasta un poço como dos tiros de piedra. en este poço an tenido, y tenian entonces costumbre de echar hombres vivos en sacrificio a los dioses en tiempo de seca, y tenian no morian aunque no los veyan mas. hechavan tambien otros muchas cosas, de piedras de valor y cosas que tenían depciadas.... es poço que tiene largos vii estados de hondo hasta el agua, hancho mas de cien pies y redondo y de una peña tajada hasta el agua que es maravilla. parece que tiene al agua muy verde, y creo lo causan las arboledas de que esta cercado y es muy hondo. tiene en cima del junto a la boca un edificio pequeño donde halle yo idolos hechos a honra de todos los edificios principales de la tierra, casi como el pantheon de roma. no se si era esta invencion antigua o de los modernos para toparse con sus idolos quando fuessen con ofrendas a aquel poço. halle yo leones labrados de bulto y jarros y otras cosas que no se como nadie dira no tuvieron herramiento esta gente. tambien halle dos hombres de grandes estaturas labrados de piedra, cado uno de una pieça en carnes cubierta su honestidad como se cubrian los indios. tenian las cabeças por si, y con zarcillos en las orejas como lo usavan los indios, y hecha una espiga por detras en el pescueço que encaxava en un agujero hondo para ello hecho en el mesmo pescueço y encaxado quedava el bulto cumplido.' _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] 'vieron algunos adoratorios, y templos, y vno en particular, cuya forma era de vna torre quadrada, ancha del pie, y hueca en lo alto con quatro grandes ventanas, con sus corredores, y en lo hueco, que era la capilla, estauan idolos, y a las espaldas estaua vna sacristia, adonde se guardauan las cosas del seruicio del templo: y al pie deste estaua vn cercado de piedra, y cal, almenado y enluzido, y en medio vna cruz de cal, de tres varas en alto, a la qual tenian por el dios de la lluuia.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. iii., cap. i. 'junto à vn templo, como torre quadrada, donde tenian vn idolo muy celebrado, al pie de ella auia vn cercado de piedra, y cal muy bien luzido, y almenado, en medio del qual auia vna cruz de cal tan alta, como diez palmos,' to which they prayed for rain. _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . it is doubtless the same structure of which gomara writes: 'el templo es como torre quadrada, ancha del pie, y con gradas al derredor, derecha de medio arriba, y en lo alto hueca, y cubierta de paja, con quatro puertas o ventanas con sus antepechos, o corredores. en aquello hueco, que parece capilla, assientan o pintan sus dioses.' _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. . [ ] the pyramids are of different size: 'aunque todos de vna forma. son al modo de los que de la nueua españa refiere el padre torquemada en su monarquia indiana: leuantado del suelo vn terrapleno fundamento del edificio, y sobre èl vàn ascendiendo gradas en figuras piramidal, aunque no remata en ella, porque en lo superior haze vna placeta, en cuyo suelo estàn separada (aunque distantes poco) dos capillas pequeñas en que estaban los idolos (esto es en lo de vxumual) y alli se hazian los sacrificios, assi de hombres, mugeres, y niños, como de las demàs cosas. tienen algunos de ellos altura de mas de cien gradas de poco mas de medio pie de ancho cada vno.' _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . landa describes a pyramidal structure which differs from others: 'ay aqui en yzamal un edificio entre los otros de tanta altura que espanta, el qual se vera en esta figura y en esta razon della. tiene xx gradas de a mas de dos buenos palmos de alto y ancho cada un y terna, mas de cien pies de largo. son estas gradas de muy grandes piedras labradas aunque con el mucho tiempo, y estar al agua, estan ya feas y maltratadas. tiene despues labrado en torno como señala esta raya, redonda labrado de canteria una muy fuerte pared a la qual como estado y medio en alto sale una ceja de hermosas piedras todo a la redonda y desde ellas se torna despues a seguir la obra hasta ygualar con el altura de la plaça que se haze despues de la primera escalera. despues de la qual plaça se haze otra buena placeta, y en ella algo pegado a la pared esta hecho un cerro bien alto con su escalera al medio dia, donde caen las escaleras grandes y encima esta una hermosa capilla de canteria bien labrada. yo subi en lo alto desta capilla y como yucatan es tierra llana se vee desde ella tierra quanto puede la vista alcançar a maravilla y se vee la mar. estos edificios de yzamal eran por todos xi o xii, aunque es este el mayor y estan muy cerca unos de otros. no oy memoria de los fundadores, y parecen aver sido los primeros. estan viii leguas de la mar en muy hermoso sitio, y buena tierra y comarca de gente.' _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. v. [ ] _cortés_, _cartas_, p. . [ ] _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . see also _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. . [ ] 'y en estas partes é indias pocos chripstianos, é muy pocos digo, son los que han escapado deste trabajoso mat (buboes) que hayan tenido partiçipaçion carnal con las mugeres naturales desta generaçion de indias; porque á la verdad es propria plaga desta tierra, é tan usada á los indios é indias como en otras partes otras comunes enfermedades.' _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'comiença el inuierno de aquella tierra desde san francisco, quando entran los nortes, ayre frio, y que destiempla mucho a los naturales: y por estar hechos al calor, y traer poca ropa, les dan rezios catarros, y calenturas.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. iv. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - . [ ] ay infinitos generos de cortezas, rayzes, y hojas de arboles, y gomas, para muchas enfermedades, con que los indios curauan en su gentilidad, con soplos, y otras inuenciones del demonio.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. xiv.; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., p. . [ ] 'curan viejas los enfermos ... y echan melezinas con vn cañuto, tomando la decoccion en la boca, y soplando. los nuestros les hazian mil burlas, desuenteando al tiempo, que querian ellas soplar, o riendo del artificio.' _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] 'ay en esta terra mucha diuersidad de yeruas medicinales, con que se curan los naturales: y matan los gusanos, y con que restriñen la sangre, como es el piciete, por otro nombre tabaco, que quita dolores causados de frio, y tomado en humo es prouechoso para las reumas, asma, y tos; y lo traen en poluo en la boca los indios, y los negros, para adormecer, y no sentir el trabajo.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. vii., cap. iii. [ ] 'hazen en el (atiquizaya) vna massa de gusanos hediondos y ponçoñosos, que es marauillosa medicina para todo genero de frialdades, y otras indisposiciones.' _id._, dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., pp. - . [ ] 'curauan los heridos con poluos de yeruas, o carbon que lleuauan para esto.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. i., p. . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. viii., p. ; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] 'otro altar y templo sobre otro cuyo levantaron estos indios en su gentilidad á aquel su rey ó falso dios _ytzmat-ul_, donde pusieron la figura de la mano, que les servia de memoria, y dizen que alli le llevavan los muertos y enfermos, y que alli resucitavan y sanavan, tocandolos la mano; y este era el que está en la parte del puniente; y assi se llama y nombra kab-ul que quiere dezir mano obradora.' _lizana_, in _landa_, _relacion_, p. . [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - , - . [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - . [ ] _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, tom. viii., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _gomara_, _hist. ind._, fol. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] _ib._ [ ] in campeche the priests 'lleuauan braserillos de barro en que echauan anime, que entre ellos dizen copal, y sahumauan a los castellanos, diziendoles que se fuessen de su tierra, porque los matarian.' _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii. [ ] _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] cogolludo says that a calabash filled with _atole_, some large cakes, and some maize bran, were deposited in the grave. the first, for the soul to drink on its journey; the second, for the dogs which the deceased had eaten during his life, that they might not bite him in the other world; and the last to conciliate the other animals that he had eaten. _hist. yuc._, p. . [ ] brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , says that the body was embalmed; but ximenez, from whom his account is evidently taken, is silent on this point. [ ] ximenez, _hist. ind. guat._, p. , et seq., affirms that wealthy people, when they began growing old, set about collecting a vast number of clothes and ornaments in which to be buried. [ ] brasseur de bourbourg, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. , says that the body was deposited in the grave seated upon a throne. [ ] _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, pp. - ; _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. - . [ ] unless a great number of people were living in it, when they seem to have gathered courage from each other's company, and to have remained. [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _villagutierre_, _hist. cong. itza_, p. . [ ] _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . [ ] _palacio_, _carta_, p. ; _brasseur de bourbourg_, _hist. nat. civ._, tom. ii., p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. [ ] _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., pp. - . in the island of ometepec the ancient graves are not surrounded by isolated stones like the calputs of the modern indians, but are found scattered irregularly over the plain at a depth of three feet. urns of burnt clay are found in these graves, filled with earth and displaced bones; and vases of the same material, covered with red paintings and hieroglyphics, stone points of arrows, small idols, and gold ornaments. _sivers_, _mittelamerika_, pp. - . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; id. lib. viii., cap. x.; _ximenez_, _hist. ind. guat._, p. ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. ; _palacio_, _carta_, pp. - . [ ] _peter martyr_, dec. vi., lib. v. [ ] _andagoya_, in _navarrete_, _col. de viages_, tom. iii., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _gomara_, _conq. mex._, fol. ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, p. ; _landa_, _relacion_, pp. - ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, p. ; _de laet_, _novus orbis_, p. . [ ] _landa_, _relacion_, pp. , , - ; _villagutierre_, _hist. conq. itza_, pp. , ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv.; _cogolludo_, _hist. yuc._, pp. , - ; _gomara_, _hist. ynd._, fol. ; _las casas_, in _kingsborough's mex. antiq._, vol. viii., pp. - . [ ] _gomara_, _hist. ynd._, fol. ; _dávila_, _teatro ecles._, tom. i., p. ; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. ; _las casas_, _hist. apologética_, ms., cap. xlvi. [ ] _crónica seráfica_, pp. - . [ ] _herrera_, _hist. gen._, dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. ii.; _oviedo_, _hist. gen._, tom. iv., p. . end of the second volume. vol. viii. . nos. - . united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. washington, d.c. w. h. lowdermilk & co. publishers. transcriber's note: printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation have been retained. characters with macrons are indicated by being preceded by an equal sign and enclosed in brackets, e.g., [=e]. a caret (^) is used to indicate that the character following it is printed as superscript, e.g., ^o. notice. we will endeavor to supply any of the publications named in this or previous issues of this catalogue. in some cases the prices are given. where they are omitted a reasonable charge will be made for the time and expense incurred in procuring such items as may be called for. in ordering, care should be taken to give title as fully as convenient. w. h. lowdermilk & co., washington, d.c. - f st. united states government publications. a monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. . washington, d.c. w. h. lowdermilk & co. . united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., january, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. this catalogue contains the titles of all the current official publications of the united states, including the reports and papers issued by departments, bureaus, commissions, and other organizations of the government; all the documents printed by order of congress--that is to say, the executive documents, reports of committees, miscellaneous documents, journals, and debates of both houses; and in addition, the titles of all public acts, treaties, and maps. the arrangement of the titles is alphabetical, under authors' names as regards special treatises, and under topics as regards congressional documents. at the same time the departments, bureaus, commissions, etc., are credited with the works issued under their supervision. a valuable feature of the work consists in the separate entry of every paper or contribution contained in reports, bulletins, or other publications of the government. a general index at the end of the volume. subscription price $ . per annum. _note_: all correspondence relating to the catalogue or to the publications of the united states government should be addressed to the publishers, w. h. lowdermilk & co., - f street, washington, d.c. we beg to announce that we have purchased all the rights in this periodical, and will issue it hereafter regularly and promptly early in each month. mr. hickcox will compile and edit the work as heretofore, and no change will be made in its general character. as rapidly as the matter can be prepared we shall print all the numbers necessary to complete the back volumes and send them to the subscribers of those volumes. the importance of this catalogue as a systematic and accurate record of the vast, varied, and important number of books and documents issued annually by congress and the departments must be apparent to every person who has occasion to consult such publications. the irregularity of its appearance in the past was due to want of support sufficient to pay its working expenses, and we trust that such reason may not again discourage its prompt appearance, or worse, its discontinuance entirely. the enterprise is not likely to prove very remunerative, but we hope at least to command enough patronage to repay the actual outlay of money. w. h. lowdermilk & co. the above announcement will be gratifying to the patrons of this publication. the undersigned desires to congratulate those who having been loyal under adverse circumstances have at last a guarantee that the catalogue will hereafter reach them regularly, and that the unfinished volumes will be speedily completed. the seven years of hard, but unsuccessful, labor are in a measure redeemed through the enterprise, intelligence, and liberality of messrs. lowdermilk & co. it is earnestly requested that former subscribers will promptly and cordially co-operate with the new publishers in supplying the key, and the only key to the varied and comprehensive publications of the united states government. j. h. hickcox. catalogue. january, . _note_: the publications described in this number are octavo in size, unless otherwise mentioned. abbe, cleveland. report on the international conference of meteorologists in munich. august, . pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . abbott, d. p., and or's. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of d. p. abbott and others, sureties. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- john t., _u.s. minister._ trade with the san blas coast. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- w. l. descriptive catalogue of the abbott collection of ethnological objects from kilima-njaro, east africa. from report of the nat. mus. , pp. - . washington, . pp. adams, ephraim d. the historical development of the budget in the united states. (abstract.) p. am. hist. ass'n rep. , p. . ---- henry c. transportation on railways in group vii. statistics for the ten years ended . ^o. pp. u.s. census ; bulletin, no. . ---- transportation on railways in group viii. statistics for the ten years ending . ^o. pp. u.s. census ; bulletin, no. . ---- transportation of railways in group ix and x. statistics for the ten years ending . ^o. + pp. u.s. census ; bulletin, nos. - . ---- herbert b., _editor._ contributions to american educational history, no. . higher education in indiana. by j. a. woodburn. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information, no. , . ---- _same._ no. . higher education in michigan. by a. c. mclaughlin. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information, no. , . ---- _same._ no. . higher education in ohio. by g. w. knight and j. r. commons. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information, no. , . ---- _same._ no. . higher education in massachusetts. by g. g. bush. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information, no. , . adamson, thomas, consul-general. the panama railroad. pp. u.s. consular reports, no. , pp. - . african slave trade. memorial of friends against. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. agricultural colleges. letter from the secretary of the interior relative to action under the law to apply a portion of the proceeds of the public lands to the support of agricultural colleges. march , . pp. sen. ex doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. agricultural department. report of the secretary of agriculture, . washington, . pp. . ---- report of the secretary of agriculture. . washington, . pp., pls., maps. . contents. report of the secretary of agriculture. special report of the assistant secretary. report of the chief of the bureau of animal industry. report of the chemist. report of the chief of the division of forestry. report of the entomologist. report of the ornithologist and mammalogist. report of the statistician. report of the botanist. report of the chief of the division of vegetable pathology. report of the pomologist. report of the microscopist. report of the special agent in charge of the fiber investigation. report of the special agent in charge of the artesian and underflow investigations, and of the irrigation inquiry. report of the chief of the seed division. report of the superintendent of garden and grounds. report of the chief of the division of illustrations. report of the chief of the division of records and editing. report of the superintendent of the document and folding room. report of the director of the office of experiment stations. report of the chief of the weather bureau. ---- special report of the assistant secretary upon the coöperation of the department of agriculture with the educational forces in the united states relating to agriculture. washington, . pp. ---- recent facts regarding the ramie industry in america, with brief statements relating to manufacture in europe, etc. by c. r. dodge. washington, . pp. . ---- report of the special agent in charge of the fiber investigations. washington, . pp., pls., cuts. . ---- report of the special agent in charge of the artesian and underflow investigations, and of the irrigation inquiry. . pp., map. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ---- a report on irrigation and the cultivation of the soil thereby, with physical data, conditions, and progress within the u.s. for . by r. j. hinton. part . washington, . pp., pls. sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; d cong., st sess. ---- artesian and underflow investigation. final report of the chief engineer, e. s. nettleton, to the secretary of agriculture. part . washington, . pp., fold. l., plates. sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; d cong., st sess. ---- final geological reports of the artesian and underflow investigation between the th meridian of longitude and the foot-hills of the rocky mountains, to the secretary of agriculture. by prof. r. hay. part . washington, . pp., pls. sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; d cong., st sess. ---- final report on the mid-plains division of the artesian and underflow investigation between the th meridian of longitude west, and the foot-hills of the rocky mountains. by j. w. gregory. and a special report on certain artesian conditions in south dakota. by f. f. b. coffin. part . washington, . pp., pls. parts for $ . sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on printing, in the matter of printing the final report of artesian and underflow investigation. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on agriculture to accompany bill (h.r. ) to supply deficiencies in fund for the inspection of cattle, etc. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified civil service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of expenditures for the department of agriculture for the year ending june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on agriculture, etc., to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the department of agriculture for -' . june and , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- farmers' bulletin no. . treatment of smuts of oats and wheat. washington, . pp., pl. ---- _same._ no. . tobacco. instructions for its cultivation and curing. by j. m. estes. washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . spraying fruits for insect pests and fungous diseases, with a special consideration of the subject in its relation to the public health. washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . results of experiments with inoculation for the prevention of hog cholera. by d. e. salmon. washington, . pp. ---- bureau of animal industry. report of the chief of the bureau of animal industry, . washington, . pp. ---- ---- report (administrative) of the bureau of animal industry for . pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- sixth and seventh annual reports of the bureau of animal industry for the years and . washington, . pp. . ---- division of botany. annual report of the botanist. . washington, . pp., pls. ---- ---- grass and forage experiment station at garden city, kansas. by dr. j. a. sewall. coöperative branch stations in the south. by s. m. tracy. reprinted from the annual report of the secretary of agriculture for . pp. ---- ---- contributions from the u.s. national herbarium. vol. , no. . issued june , . manual of the _phanerogams_ and _pteridophytes_ of western texas. by j. m. coulter. _gamopetalæ._ washington, . v, - , xpp. . ---- ---- _same._ vol. , no. . issued february , . monograph of the grasses of the united states and british america. by dr. george vasey. washington, . vi, - , vii-xivpp. . ---- division of chemistry. report of the chief of the division of chemistry for . washington, . pp. . _note_: relates to sorghum sugar; sugar beets; sugar bounty; muck lands of florida; natural phosphate deposits; meat preservatives; tea, coffee, and cocoa adulterations. ---- ---- bulletin no. , part . foods and food adulterants. investigations made under the direction of h. w. wiley. part vi. sugar, molasses and sirup, confections, honey, and beeswax. washington, . l., pp. - +ix. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , part . foods and food adulterants. tea, coffee, and cocoa preparations. by g. l. spencer and e. e. ewell. washington, . vii, - , vi pp., plates, - . . ---- ---- _same._ no. . proceedings of the eighth annual convention of the association of official agricultural chemists held at washington, august , , , . methods of analysis of commercial fertilizers, foods, and feeding stuffs, dairy products, fermented liquors, and sugars. edited by h. w. wiley. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . special report on the extent and character of food adulterants, including state and other laws relating to foods and beverages. by a. j. wedderburn. washington, . pp. . ---- division of entomology. annual report of the entomologist, . washington, . pp. ---- ---- bulletin no. . reports of observations and experiments in the practical work of the division. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . reports on the damage by destructive locusts during the season of . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _insect life._ periodical bulletin. vol. iv, nos. and . issued april, . washington, . - pp. ---- division of forestry. annual report of the chief of the division, . washington, . pp., pls. . _note_: poisoning of street trees; bamboo as a substitute for wood; forest-planting experiments; southern lumber pines. ---- ---- bulletin no. . timber physics. part . preliminary report. compiled by b. e. fernow. washington, . ^o. iii, - , ivpp. pls. . ---- division of illustrations. annual report (the d), of the chief of the division, . pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ---- division of microscopy. annual report (the th) of the chief of the division, . washington, . pp., pls. _note_: relates to improved methods for distinguishing between pure and fictitious lard. four edible mushrooms. ---- ---- food products, ii. eight edible and twelve poisonous mushrooms of the united states, with directions for the culture and culinary preparation of the edible species. by t. taylor, m.d., washington, . pp., pls. . ---- division of ornithology and mammalogy. annual report (the th) of chief of the division, . washington, . pp. ---- division of pomology. annual report (the th) of the pomologist. . washington, . pp., col. pls. ---- division of records and editing. report of the chief of the division, . by geo. w. hill. pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ---- division of seeds. report of the chief of the division, . washington, . pp. ---- division of statistics. report (the d) of the statistician, for . by j. r. dodge. washington, . +v pp. . ---- ---- report no. . miscellaneous series. report on the agriculture of south america, with maps and latest statistics of trade. by a. barnes. washington, . pp., maps. . ---- ---- report no. . new series. report upon the numbers and values of farm animals, and on freight rates of transportation companies. january and february, . washington, . pp. ---- ---- _same._ no. . march, . report on the distribution and consumption of corn and wheat, and on freight rates of transportation companies. washington, . pp. - . ---- ---- _same._ no. . april, . washington, . pp. - . ---- ---- _same._ no. . may, . washington, . pp. - . ---- ---- _same._ no. . june, . washington, . pp. - . ---- division of vegetable pathology. annual report of the chief of the division, . washington, . pp., pls. ---- ---- bulletin no. . additional evidence on the communicability of peach yellows and peach rosette. by e. f. smith. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- circular no. . circular of inquiry on grape diseases and their treatment. p. ---- ---- circular no. . circular of inquiry on rust of cereals. p. ---- ---- farmers' bulletin no. . treatment of smuts of oats and wheat. [by w. t. swingle.] washington, . pp., pl. ---- ---- _journal of mycology._ vol. vii, no. . issued march , . washington, . pp. - , pls. - . ---- office of experiment stations. report of the director of the office for . washington, . pp., map. . ---- ---- experiment station bulletin no. . proceedings of the fifth annual convention of the association of american agricultural colleges and experiment stations held at washington august - , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . six lectures on the investigations at rothamsted experimental station delivered under the provisions of the lawes agricultural trust by robert warington before the association of american agricultural colleges and experiment stations at washington, d. c, august - , . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. i. the rothamsted experimental station. ii. the circumstances which determine the rise and fall of nitrogenous matter in the soil. iii. nitrification. iv. nitrification and denitrification. v. nitrification of soils and manures. vi. drainage and well waters. ---- ---- _same._ no. . the fermentations of milk. by h. w. conn. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . meteorological work for agricultural institutions. m. w. harrington, chief, etc. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _experiment station record_ [monthly]. vol. , nos. - , january-april, . washington, , pp. - . . ---- superintendent of gardens and grounds. annual report for . washington, . pp., pls. _note_: contains, notes on horticultural and kindred subjects; and, trees in cities and on streets. ---- weather bureau. report of the chief of the bureau for [the last six months of] . by mark w. harrington. washington, . iii, +iiipp., pls. . ---- ---- special report of the chief of the weather bureau to the secretary of agriculture, . washington, . pp. ---- ---- instructions for voluntary observers. prepared under direction of the chief of the weather bureau by t. russell. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _monthly weather review._ vol. xx. january-april, . washington, . ^o. ---- ---- weather map. [issued twice daily.] january-june, . size x inches. ---- ---- weather crop bulletin. [issued weekly from march to october, and monthly throughout the year.] uniform with weather map in size and form. alameda, calif. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building in alameda. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. alaska. report of the governor of alaska for the fiscal year . washington, . pp. . ---- estimate of an appropriation to complete the survey of the boundary line between alaska and british columbia. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the agent in charge of seal islands asking for an appropriation to supply the inhabitants with food, fuel, etc. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. alcoholic liquor traffic. report from the committee on education and labor to accompany bill (s. ) to provide for a commission on the subject of alcoholic liquor traffic. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. allen, darling, and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of d. allen, preston chavis, w. p. dowdy, j. g. flowers, t. j. hargiss, j. i. mccown, j. g. newlee, m. patrick, n. potter, mary quarles, j. a. roe, w. sloan, and j. g. thurman, respectively, v. u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- george a. manners and customs of the mohaves. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . ---- h. n. cattle disease in korea. pp. u.s. consular reports, no. , pp. - . allentown, penn. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill to erect a public building at allentown. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. american ephemeris and nautical almanac for the year . washington, . viii, - pp., pls. . american historical association. annual report for . washington, . x, - pp. . sen. mis. doc. no. ; st cong., d sess. ames, herman v. amendments to the constitution of the united states. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. ass'n rep. , pp. - . ---- john g. list of congressional documents from the th to the st congress, and of government publications containing debates and proceedings of congress, together with miscellaneous lists of public documents, with historical and bibliographical notes. washington, . pp. . ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print , copies of list of congressional documents. may , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. anderson, david b. findings of the court of claims in the case of anderson v. u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- mary t. findings of the court of claims in the case of anderson _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- t. h., _u.s. minister._ gold mines of bolivia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- the silver mines of bolivia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . andrews, charles m. theory of village community. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . appropriations. report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for certain urgent deficiencies. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) to provide for most urgent deficiencies in appropriations for -' . april and may , . + pp. h.r. reps. nos. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the legislative, executive, and judicial expenses of the government for -' . june , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. arizona. report of the acting governor of arizona to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. . ---- memorial of the constitutional convention requesting the survey of lands in the limit of the grant in arizona to the atlantic & pacific railroad company. december , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on territories favoring bill (h.r. ) to ratify an act of the legislature of arizona, making an appropriation of $ , for arizona's exhibit at the world's fair. february and march , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on territories favoring bill for the admission of arizona as a state into the union. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. armories. letter from the secretary of war transmitting statement of expenditures at the springfield armory during -' . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. armstrong, edward s. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of e. s. armstrong (breach of contract). february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. army. list of all civilian employés of the army, with the amount paid to each. january , . pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the expenditures of the appropriations for the contingent expenses of the military establishment for the fiscal year ended june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (s. ) to facilitate the settlement of claims for arrears of pay and bounty. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (s. ) relative to the hospital corps of the army. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to provide for the settlement of officers' or soldiers' accounts or claims in certain cases. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (s. ) to amend "an act to promote the administration of justice in the army," approved oct. , . february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs on bills (h.r. and ) concerning lineal promotion of officers in the army. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs to accompany bill (h.r. ) concerning pay of privates of the hospital corps. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war transmitting additional communications relative to the promotions of lieutenants in line. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war with draft of a bill with reference to the retirement of enlisted men of the army. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs to accompany a bill to reorganize the artillery and infantry of the army, etc. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war relative to the rank and promotion of first lieutenants. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the military establishment for -' . march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- petition of prominent officers of the army for the repeal of a certain law relating to the uniforms and title of brevetted officers. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the adjutant-general recommending appropriation to pay for such of the post traders' buildings remaining at permanent military posts as may be suitable for army service. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the adjutant-general inclosing a draft of bill to modify act of , relating to desertions. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war recommending an amendment to act of as to brevet rank on certain officers of the army. june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. army register. _see_ war dep't, adjutant general's office. ash, john, and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of j. ash, john beck, susan brown, j. l. nicodemus, j. nicodemus, j. c. lee, j. f. miller, b. welck, respectively, _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. assay commission. proceedings, ; also laws of the united states relating to the annual assay and rules for the organization and government of the board. [washington, .] pp. association of american agricultural colleges and experiment stations. proceedings of the fifth annual convention held at washington, d.c., august - , . washington, . pp. . agr'l dep't, experiment station: bulletin no. . association of official agricultural chemists. proceedings of the th annual convention . _see_ agr'l dep't, division of chemistry, bulletin no. . ---- official methods of analysis adopted by the association of official agricultural chemists at its meeting august - , . pp. . agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . attorney-general. annual report for . washington, . xxxi, pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. atwater, wilbur olin. the chemical composition and nutritive values of food-fishes and aquatic invertebrates. [extracted from the report of the u.s. fish commission for .] washington, . pp., pls. . australia. statistics of . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . babcock, a. d. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of a. d. babcock and wife. (for use and occupancy of land.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. badley, henry. findings of the court of claims in the case of badley and others _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. baggs, george t. tariff legislation in new south wales. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . bagshaw, george. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of g. bagshaw. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bailey, henry t. historic ornament and design in the public schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- john c. findings of the court of claims in the case of bailey _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. baker, e. l., _consul._ trade and finances of the argentine republic. pp., map. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- frank. the ascent of man. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . ---- s. k. t. findings of the court of claims in the case of baker _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. balmer, charles. findings of the court of claims in the case of balmer _v._ u.s. pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. bancroft, cecil f. p. the andover theological seminary, mass. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . bandinel, fred., _consul._ commerce of new-chwang. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . bane, moses m. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of m. m. bane. (office rent.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bankruptcy. addresses, memorials, indorsements, petitions, and resolutions advocating the enactment of the torrey bankrupt bill. january , . pp. . sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of a special committee, etc., of the national board of trade concerning the torrey bankruptcy bill. june , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- petition of the denver chamber of commerce in favor of the torrey bankruptcy bill. june , . pp. sen mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. barnard's american journal of education. analytical index to vols., - . washington, . pp. . u.s. bureau of education: catalogue of educational literature, part . barnes, almont. report of agriculture of south america, with maps and latest statistics of trade. washington, . pp., maps. . agr'l dep't, division of statistics: report no. , miscellaneous series. barus, carl. the viscosity of solids. washington, . xii, pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . batcheller, george s., _consul-general._ commerce of portugal. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . battle, h. b. report on potash. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- on the loss of moisture in bottled fertilizer samples when closed with cork. p. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , p. . ---- the effect of finer grinding in the preparation of fertilizer samples. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . bedell, ossian, _consul._ farm statistics of ontario. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . bedford city, va. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill for a public building at bedford city, va. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bedloe, edward, _consul._ labor in amoy. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . belcher, d. p. findings of the court of claims in the case of belcher v. u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. benedict, james e. preliminary descriptions of new species of hermit crabs of the genus _eupagurus_ in the u.s. nat. mus. from proceedings of the u.s. nat. mus. v. xv, pp. - (no. ). washington, . pp. benton, frank. bees of great value to fruit and seed growers. pp. insect life v, nos. - , pp. - . bering sea. messages from the president of the united states transmitting the convention of february , , between the u.s. and great britain, submitting to arbitration the questions which have arisen between those governments concerning the jurisdictional rights of the u.s. in the waters of bering sea, etc.; and also transmitting recent correspondence upon that subject with the british government. washington, . pp., map. . sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of an appropriation for the expenses of the steamer _albatross_ in the bering sea. march , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. betts, nichols & co. report from the committee on finances favoring bill for the relief of b., n. & co. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of betts, nichols & co. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bevins, samuel. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of s. bevins. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bibb, e. c. findings of the court of claims in the case of e. c. bibb _v._ u.s. february , , pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. biddle, jerome h. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove charge of desertion against j. h. biddle. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. birch-hirschfelder, dr.--. the value of instruction in manual dexterity as regards bodily development and hygiene. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . birnie, rogers, _u.s. a._ the resistance and shrinkages of built-up cannon, with application to united states army ordnance. supplementary to notes on the construction of ordnance no. . . ^o. pp., pls. notes on the construction of ordnance, no. . blackburn, i. w., _m. d._ a study of nineteen cases of general paralysis of the insane. pp., pls. gov't hospital for the insane report, , pp. - . blair, henry w. message from the president transmitting the correspondence in relation to the non-acceptance of mr. blair as minister to china; together with the memorial of mr. blair. washington, . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. blake, charles m. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to pay c. m. blake full pay as chaplain in the army from to . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- john w. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of j. w. blake. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. blankenship, john r. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of j. r. blankenship. (confirming an entry.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. blue book. _see_ official register. boat railway. report from the committee on transportation routes to the seaboard favoring bill for the construction of a boat railway at the dalles and celilo falls and ten-mile rapids of the columbia river, etc. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bond, william, & co. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. bond & co. (overpayment for stamps.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bonham, john m. an indictment against the american system of free common schools. [followed by] mr. bonham's indictment and criticisms considered. by i. edwards clarke. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, part ii, pp. - . booth, james c. report from the committee on finance favoring bill for the relief of heirs of j. c. booth. (for silver stolen from the mint.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. c. booth. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bourinot, j. g. canada and the united states from historical points of view. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- responsible government in canada. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . bourn, augustus o., _consul-general._ italian statistics. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . bovell, john v. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of j. v. bovell. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. bowen, herbert w., _consul._ spanish wine. p. u.s. consular reports no. ., p. . ---- the bank of spain. pp. u.s. consular reports no. ., pp. - . boyd, augustus. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to place the name of a. boyd on the retired list. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. boys, c. v. quartz fibers. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . bradford, john s., consul. imports and exports of antigua during . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . bradford, penn. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill for a public building at bradford, penn. january , . p. sen rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. briggs, warren r. the hygienic construction of the bridgeport high school. pp., inc. cuts. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . brown, s. w., and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of s. w. brown, t. farrell, a. j. mcallister, w. mcclintic, j. w. ott, w. vaughn, and r. t. wilson, respectively, _v._ the u.s. march , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. bruce, wallace, _consul._ commerce of edinburg and leith. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- exports of iceland. . p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . bruner, lawrence. report on destructive locusts [in colorado, wyoming, dakotas, montana, idaho, utah, and manitoba, during ]. pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- report upon insect depredations in nebraska for . pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . burdette, john c. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of j. c. burdette. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. burgess, w., _consul._ english pottery and pottery trade. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . burlington, iowa. report from the committee on interstate commerce and foreign commerce favoring bill to amend "an act to authorize the construction of a bridge at burlington," approved august , . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. burns, william w. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. w. burns. (royalty on sibley tents.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. burr, george l. the fate of detrich flade. p. am. hist. assoc. rep. , p. . bush, george gary. history of higher education in massachusetts. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dept., bureau of education: circular of information no. , . bushnell horace, _d. d._ common schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . butler, nicholas murray. the argument against manual training. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . calder, fannie l. practical cooking in elementary schools. [and discussion.] pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . california. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to reimburse california, oregon, and nevada for moneys expended in the suppression of the rebellion. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on mines and mining in the matter of mining débris in the rivers of california. february , . p. h.r. rep. no ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the interior relative to certain lands in the yosemite valley granted to california. march , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. cameron, alexander, _consul._ fertilizers in new south wales. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . campbell, douglas. how the written ballot came into the united states. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- john p. biological teaching in the colleges of the united states. washington, . pp. . interior dept., bureau of education: circular of information no. , . canada. partial report from the committee on finance on the effect of the tariff upon trade between the u.s. and canada. may and june , . + pp. . sen. reps. nos. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- message from the president of the united states relative to negotiations for reciprocal trade with canada. june and july , . + pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. cape of good hope. census. . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . capen, e. h., _d. d._ tufts college. sketch. pp. interior dept., bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . capitol. report of the architect of the united states capitol to the secretary of the interior. . washington, . pp. ---- senator butler's resolution for an expert examination of the sanitary condition of the capitol. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. carmack, joseph w. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of j. w. carmack. (for pay and allowances.) january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. carman, irvine. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of i. carman. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. carpenter, thomas h. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to restore the name of t. h. carpenter to the army rolls. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; cong., st sess. carr, william a. findings of the court of claims in the case of carr _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. carroll, henry k. statistics of churches. ^o. + pp. u.s. census, : bulletins nos. and . carter, charles m. a practical programme for a course of industrial drawing in public schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- r. brudenell. color-vision and color-blindness. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . casey, peter. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of p. casey. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- robert. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of r. casey. (charge of desertion.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. cemeteries. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to improve the road to the national cemetery near pensacola, fl. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. census. a permanent census bureau. letter from the secretary of the interior transmitting a report of the superintendent of the census together with a draft of a bill, in response to senate resolution of february , . washington, . pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _see_, also, interior dept., census office. centennial board of finance. reports from the committee on the judiciary to accompany bill (s. ) providing for the disposition of the remaining funds, etc. february and april , . + pp. sen. rep. no. , and h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. chamber of commerce of the state of n. y. memorial in behalf of the maintenance of the standard of value. march , . pp. sen mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. chambers, james c., _consul._ general and petroleum trade of batoum. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- thomas. report from the committee onpost-offices, &c., favoring bill for the relief of t. chambers. (for losses as contractor.) january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. champlain and st. lawrence railroad co. report from the committee on military affairs on bill granting to the c. & st. l. r.r. co. right of way across the fort montgomery reservation. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. chatard, thomas marean. an apparatus for the determination of water in mineral analysis. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- the separation of titanium, chromium, aluminum, iron, barium, and phosphoric acid in rock analysis. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analysis of rocks from california collected by j. s. diller. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analysis of brown hornblende, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analysis of sandstone from flagstaff, arizona, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- keratophyr from marblehead neck, mass. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . cheatham, adelicia. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of representatives of a. cheatham. refund of income taxes. january and february , . + pp. sen. rep. no. , and h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. chelan, washington. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of inhabitants of the town of chelan, wash. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. cherrie, geo. k. description of two apparently new fly-catchers from costa rica. from proceedings u.s. nat. mus. v. xv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. chile. message of the president of the united states respecting the relations with chile, together with diplomatic correspondence; the correspondence with naval officials; the inquiry into the attack on the seamen of the u.s. s. _baltimore_, etc. washington, . pp., map. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- message from the president of the united states transmitting further correspondence respecting the relations with chile. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print , copies of ex. doc. . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. : d cong., st sess. chinese exclusion. letter from the secretary of the treasury with draft of a bill to prohibit the coming of chinese persons into the u.s. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on immigration and naturalization to accompany bill (h.r. ) relating to the exclusion of the chinese. february and , . + pp. [and minority views.] h.r. rep. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on foreign affairs to accompany bill (h.r. ) relating to chinese exclusion. [and views of the minority.] february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the universal peace union against the chinese exclusion bill. april , . pp. sen. mis doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. church, a. w., and smith, h. h. tables showing the contents of the several volumes comprising the annals of congress, congressional debates, congressional globe, congressional record, statutes-at-large, u.s. supreme court reports, and succession of supreme court justices; arranged by years and congresses. [washington, .] pp. . claims. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend sec. r. s., relating to transfers and assignments of claims against the u.s. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. clallam, washington. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill granting to clallam county certain public lands in trust. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. clark, j. a., and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of j. a. clark, a. l. and w. g. keithley, f. g. shipp, respectively, _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- john s. drawing in public education, practical suggestions for courses in primary, grammar, and high schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- william bullock. correlation papers. eocene. washington, . pp., pls. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . clarke, frank wigglesworth. report of work done in the division of chemistry and physics mainly during the fiscal year -' . washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- the relative abundance of the chemical elements. pp. u.s. geol. survey; bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- w., and schneider, e. a. experiments upon the constitution of the natural silicates. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., february, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. catalogue. february, . clarke, isaac edwards. art and industry. instruction in drawing applied to the industrial and fine arts as given in the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts and in the public schools, etc., in the united states. part ii. industrial and manual training. washington, . cxlviii, - pp. . interior dep't, bureau of education. also, sen. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; th cong., d sess. ---- the swedish slojd instruction. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, part , pp. - . ---- the industrial education movement as contemplated by prof. walter smith. a brief plea for the retention of the "art ideal." pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- _see_ bonham, j. m. clift, william. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. clift, of tenn., an old soldier, for wood taken by the army. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. clute, o. the state agricultural college of michigan. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . coast defenses. memorial of the port townsend chamber of commerce on the subject of coast defenses. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. coffin, fred. f. b. a special report of work in the artesian and underflow investigation, and views of certain conditions existing in south dakota. pp., pls. agr'l dep't: irrigation inquiry, , pt. , pp. - . cohn, adolphe. the formation of the french constitution. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. ass'n rep. , pp. - . coinage. report from the committee on coinage, weights and measures to accompany bill h.r. , entitled "a bill for the free coinage of gold and silver, for the issue of coin notes, and for other purposes." february , . pp. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- testimony before the committee on coinage, weights and measures, h.r., in january and february, . + pp. ---- _see_, also, treasury department. collard, thaddeus, and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of t. collard, s. gilbreath, f. mercer, j. l. walls, h. m. withers, h. t. woody, and g. w. yuckley, respectively, _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. collins, j. w. report on the fisheries of the pacific coast of the united states. [extracted from the report of the commissioner for fish and fisheries for .] washington, . pp., pls. . ---- the fishing vessels and boats of the pacific coast. [extracted from the bulletin of the u.s. fish commission for , pp. - .] washington, . pp., pls. . colorado. memorial of the legislature for grant of public lands in the state for the purpose of aiding reclamation of irrigable lands. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of general assembly for a donation of part of fort lyon reservation for a home for disabled soldiers. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the legislature opposing the conger lard bill, etc. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. columbia institution for the deaf and dumb. thirty-fourth annual report to the secretary of the interior. . washington, . pp. columbian historical exposition, madrid. communication from the secretary of state regarding the representation of the united states. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (h.r. ) providing representation of the u.s. at the columbian historical exposition at madrid. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. commercial travellers. report from the committee on interstate commerce to accompany bill (h.r. ) to permit railway companies to grant concessions to commercial travellers. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. commons, john r. _see_ knight, g. w. compton, h. w. testimony as to the practical value of drawing and clay modelling in primary schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . comptroller of the currency. annual report to the st session, d congress. december , . washington, . vols. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. congressional directory. fifty-second congress, first session. by w. h. michael. st edition corrected to december , . washington, . pp., pls. . sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ d edition. corrected to january , . washington, . pp., pls. . sen. mis. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ d edition. corrected to may , . ^o. washington, . pp., pls. . sen. mis. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on printing in reference to the appendix of maps of congressional districts in the congressional directory. february , . p. each . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. congressional record. d congress, st session, -' . vol. , parts - . washington, . ^o. conn, h. w. the fermentations of milk. washington, . pp. . agr'l dep't, office of experiment stations: bulletin no. . constitution. report from the committee on the judiciary adversely on h. res. to amend the constitution. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. contested elections. digest of contested-election cases in the st congress. compiled by c. h. rowell. washington, . pp. sheep. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; st cong., d sess. contract-labor. letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to expenditures for the enforcement of the contract-labor law. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of state calling attention to a certain error in the immigration act of march , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. cook, a. j. report of apicultural experiments in . pp. agr'l dep't, div. of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . cooke, w. w. report on dairy products. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analysis of sour milk. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . cope, e. d. a critical review of the characters and variations of the snakes of n. america. from proceedings of the u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv. pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. coquillett, d. w. report of the locust invasion of california in . pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- notes on the habits of some california coleoptera. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . ---- report on the scale insects of california. pp. agr'l dep't, div. of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . cossigny, m. j. c. de. agricultural hydraulics. chapters on water, its management, climate, intermittent irrigation, and that of plants usually cultivated. translated by mrs. a. f. wood. pp., pls. agr'l dep't: irrigation inquiry, , pt. ; pp. - . cotton. senate resolutions relative to the appointment of a committee to inquire into the low price of cotton, etc. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. coulter, john m. manual of the _phanerogams_ and _pteridophytes_ of western texas. _gamopetalæ._ washington, . v, - , xpp. . agr'l dep't, division of botany: contributions from u.s. nat. herbarium, v. , no. . courchaine, daniel b. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove charge of desertion against d. b. courchaine. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. court of claims. adverse report from the committee on the judiciary on bill to restrict the jurisdiction of the court, etc. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. courts of the u.s. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill to change the time of holding the courts of the u.s. at oshkosh from july to june. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to change the time of holding court in the eastern district of texas. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ adversely on bill providing for two additional associate justices of the supreme court of utah. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill relating to sales of property under orders and decrees of u.s. courts. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to limit the jurisdiction of the district and circuit courts of the u.s. [with views of the minority.] february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to authorize the appointment of an additional clerk for the district and circuit courts of the eastern districts of arkansas. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to provide the times and places for holding u.s. courts in idaho. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of a deficiency appropriation for the circuit courts of appeals. february , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill fixing the time for holding u.s. courts in the northern district of iowa. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to provide terms of the u.s. circuit and district courts of cumberland, md. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill disqualifying justices, judges, etc., in certain cases. [and views of the minority.] february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) relating to fees of jurors and witnesses in u.s. courts. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. cowden, john. memorial showing not only the utter worthlessness but the absurdity of the work of the mississippi river commission. april , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. cox, william van zandt. report upon the exhibit of the smithsonian institution, including the u.s. nat. museum at the centennial exposition, marietta, ohio. july to , . pp. u.s. nat. mus. rep., -' , pp. - . craig _v._ stewart. reports [majority and minority] from the committee on elections in the case of the th congressional district of pennsylvania. february , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. cramer, delos. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to amend the military record of d. cramer. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. crangle, henry. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove charge of desertion against h. crangle. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. crawford, j. m., _consul-general._ the sunflower industry of russia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- russian farm products in . pp. u.s. consular reports, no. , pp. - . ---- linseed crop of russia in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . crenshaw, a. b., and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of a. b. crenshaw, j. h. humphrys, and john kannell, respectively, _v._ u.s. january , . pp. croffut, william augustus. suggestions for the preparation and illustrations for publication by the u.s. geological survey. january, . [washington.] pp. croft, c. i., _consul._ american interests in colombia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . crozier, william, _u.s. a._ design for an experimental carriage for a -inch b. l. siege howitzer. . ^o. pp., pl. . notes on the construction of ordnance no. . cullum, george w. letter from the attorney-general relative to a bequest of general cullum for a memorial hall at west point. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. culver, garvey e. report on artesian investigation in south dakota. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry , pt. , pp. - . curtis, george f. memorial for the preparation and printing of a catalogue of the law library of congress. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. customs regulations. customs regulations of the united states provided for the instruction and guidance of officers of customs. washington, . xi, - pp., pls. . cutter, charles a. rules for a dictionary catalogue. d edition, with corrections and additions and an alphabetical index. washington, . pp. . dabney, richard heath. is history a science? (abstract.) p. am. hist. assoc. rep. , p. . dabney, simmons & co. report from the committee on claims on bill for the relief of d., s. & co., (for refund). february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. dall, william healey. geographical explorations. early expeditions to the region of bering sea and strait. from the reports and journal of bering. appendix no. , u.s. coast and geodetic survey report for . washington, . ^o. pp., maps. . _note:_ d [half] title. notes on an original manuscript chart of bering's expedition of - , and on an original manuscript chart of his second expedition, together with a summary of a journal of the first expedition, kept by peter chaplin, and now first rendered into english from bergh's russian version. daniels, byron g., _consul._ fishing industry of the united kingdom. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- joseph s. olivet college, olivet, mich. sketch. pp., pl. interior dept., bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . darling, c. w. state historical societies. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep., , pp. - . darton, nelson horatio. records of north american geology for to , inclusive. washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- records of north american geology for . washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . davenport-hill, rosamond. technical education in board-schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . davidson, george. geodesy. international geodetic association, th conference. address by george davidson. appendix no. , u.s. coast and geodetic survey report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . davis, alexander. findings of the court of claims in the case of davis _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- j. m. rio grande college. ohio. sketch. pp. int. dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . ---- l. a. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of l. a. davis. (mail contractor.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. decorations. letter from the secretary of state with draft of a bill to empower admiral george brown, capt. g. c. remey, lieut. g. s. dyer and o'rs to accept decorations from the government of hawaii. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. dekay, charles. on a bronze buddha in the u.s. nat. museum. from report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. denby, charles, _u.s. minister._ american citizens resident in china. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . depew, chauncey m. the common schools of america the hope of the republic. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . derby, s. c. antioch college, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . detroit, mich. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring resolution to release the claim of the u.s. to a certain lot in detroit. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. dette, john f. w. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. f. w. dette. (loss on contract.) january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. dewey, frederic perkins. a preliminary descriptive catalogue of the systematic collections in economic geology and metallurgy in the u.s. nat. museum. washington, . xviii, pp., pls. . u.s. national museum; bulletin no. . dewey, l. h. characteristic vegetation of the desert region from western texas to central arizona. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . dickson, almar f. trade and industries of gaspé basin. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . dickson, david. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of d. dickson and or's. (rents for army purposes.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. diller, joseph silas. a late volcanic eruption in northern california and its peculiar lava. washington, . pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey; bulletin no. . dimmick, e. a., _consul._ commerce and industries of barbados. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . diplomatic and consular service. report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the diplomatic and consular service for -' . june , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. district of columbia. report of the electrical commission [andrew rosewater, h. a. rowland, and f. b. shunk] appointed to consider the location, arrangement, and operation of electric wires in the district of columbia. washington, . pp., pls., maps. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the superintendent of charities for the year ending june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. ---- expenditures for the collection of garbage, etc. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on the district of columbia favoring bill (s. ) for the preservation of the public peace, etc. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ to accompany bill (s. ) to prevent bookmaking and poolselling. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to provide a girl's reform school. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend the general incorporation law of the district approved may , . february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) for an inspector of plumbing, etc. february , . p. sen. rep. no. : d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to prevent frauds on the water revenues of the district. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to empower the commissioners to grant respites and pardons in certain cases. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to change the name of the national safe deposit company. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to provide a permanent system of highways in the district outside of cities. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to rebuild the bridge across rock creek at m st. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to prevent the building of houses along certain alleys in washington. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to authorize the commissioners to grant pardons and respites in certain cases. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to incorporate d.c. suburban railway company. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ to accompany bill (s. ) to incorporate the eclectic medical society of the district. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) for the relief of holders of drawback certificates. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to the extension of north capitol street to the soldiers' home. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the support of the government of the district for -' . march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on military affairs favoring joint resolution (h. res. ) to loan flags, etc., for street decoration during the grand army encampment in september, . march and , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to the condition of the various public bridges in said district. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the expenses of the government of the district for -' . april , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on the district of columbia favoring bill (s. ) to repeal the license tax of $ on produce dealers in the markets. april , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations on the senate amendments to the district appropriation bill for -' . april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to change of motive power, etc., of railroads operated in the district. may , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- supplemental estimates of deficiencies in appropriations for the district of columbia. may , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to the washington market company. may , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to the occupancy of the river front. may , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- assessment of taxes in the district of columbia. may , . mr. johnson from the select committee to investigate tax assessments in the district submitted the following report. [and testimony.] pp., map. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimates of deficiencies submitted by the commissioners, for -' . june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the anacostia and potomac railroad company for . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. , and h.r. mis. doc. no. , d cong., st sess. ---- report of the brightwood railway company. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners of the district transmitting certain information in regard to the brightwood railway company. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of the operations of the capitol, north o street and south washington railway company for -' . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on the district of columbia favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend the charter of the eckington and soldiers' home railway company. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of stockholders of the georgetown and tennallytown railway company. . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commissioners in regard to the georgetown and tennallytown railway company. may , . pp. sen. mis doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- annual report of the georgetown barge, dock, elevator and railway company for . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of the receipts and disbursements of the metropolitan railroad company for o-' . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the rock creek railway company for . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- annual report of the washington and georgetown railroad company for . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. dixon, george o. findings of the court of claims in the case of dixon _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. dodge, charles richards. recent facts regarding the ramie industry in america, with brief statements relating to manufacture in europe, etc. reprinted from the report of the statistician for may, . washington, . pp. . ---- report of the special agent (of the department of agriculture) in charge of the fibre investigations, . washington, . pp., pls., cuts. . dorsey, bennett. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to grant an honorable discharge to b. dorsey. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. dorsey, james owen. the cegiha language. washington, . ^o. xviii+ pp. . u.s. geog. and geol. survey of the rocky mountain regions: contributions to n. america ethnology, vol. vi. ---- omaha and ponka letters. washington, . pp. . smithsonian institution: bureau of ethnology. ---- _see_ riggs, s. j. dakota-english dictionary, . dougherty, c. a. rights of foreigners in mexico. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . drill regulations. letter from the secretary of war recommending the printing of cavalry and artillery drill regulations for sale. june , . pp. h.r. ex doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. dry dock. report from the committee on naval affairs favoring bill for establishment of a dry-dock near algiers, la. january and february , . + pp. sen. rep. no. and h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. duluth and manitoba railroad co. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill granting right of way across the fort pembina reservation in n. dakota. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. dutton, clarence edward, _u.s. a._ [project for a nicaraguan canal, with observations thereon.] . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. eakins, lincoln grant. seven new meteorites. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analysis of astrophylite. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analyses of five chereokee limestones. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analyses of ores of iron from virginia, in or near craig county, north and south carolina, georgia and alabama, kentucky. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analyses of ores of manganese from tennesee, from barton county, georgia. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analyses of two coals from west virginia, in barbour county. p. u.s. geol. survey; bulletin no. , p. . eakins, chatard, t. m., and stokes, h. n. analysis of kaolin from arkansas, alabama, and georgia. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . earll, robert edward. report upon the exhibit of the smithsonian institution, including the u.s. nat. museum, at the centennial exposition of the ohio valley and central states, held at cincinnati in . pp. u.s. nat. mus. rep. -' , pp. - . eastman, j. r. meteorological observations and results at the u.s. naval observatory, - . ^o. pp. . u.s. naval observatory: observations, ; appendix . eastport, me., letter from the secretary of the treasury asking an appropriation to complete the public building at eastport. january , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. eckerson, george w. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of g. w. eckerson. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. edwards, richard m. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to amend the record of r. m. edwards. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- w. h., _consul-general._ corn-bread in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . eight-hour law. resolution from the committee on labor favoring an inquiry into the working of the eight-hour law. p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- preliminary report from the committee on labor to accompany h.r. mis. doc. no. . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. electrical commission. _see_ district of columbia. electric wire underground conduits. consular reports on underground conduits in foreign countries. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . elgin, j. h. findings of the court of claims in the case of j. h. elgin _v._ u.s. pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ellis, j. b., and everhart, b. m. new species of fungi. pp. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . ericsson, john. report from the committee on naval affairs to accompany bill (s. ) for the relief of the estate of john ericsson. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. escambia lodge. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill to relinquish the interest of the u.s. to certain land in pensacola, fl., to escambia lodge. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. estes, john m. tobacco: instructions for cultivation and curing. washington, . pp. agr'l dep't, farmers' bulletin no. . evans, john. the antiquity of man. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . evermann, barton w. a reconnaissance of the streams and lakes of western montana and northwestern wyoming. ( ) a report upon investigations made in texas in . pp., pls. u.s. fish com., report on establishment of fishcultural stations in rocky mountains and gulf regions, . ewell, ervin e. cocoa preparations. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , part , pp. - . experiment station record. _see_ agricultural department, office of experiment stations. eycheshymer, a. c. club-root in the united states. pp., pls. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . fechet, eugene o., _consul._ the state of durango, mexico. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . fernandina, fl. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill to erect a public building at fernandina. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fernow, bernard eduard. timber physics. part . preliminary report. washington, . ^o. iii, - , ivpp., pls. agr'l dep't, forestry division: bulletin no. . ferron, utah. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of the inhabitants of the town of ferron. february , . p. field, thomas p. a brief history of amherst college. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . fisheries. memorial of the maine commission of sea and shore fisheries against the use of purse seines in the menhaden and mackerel fisheries. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. fiske, l. r., _d. d._ history of albion college, albion, mich. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . fitzgibbon, thomas. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to grant an honorable discharge to t. fitzgibbon. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fleischer, heinrich lebarecht. memoir of, by a. müller. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . fling, frederick m. mirabeau's speech of may , . (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. , pp. - . florida. report from the committee on claims favoring bill to pay balance found to be due florida. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on claims favoring bill (h.r. ) for settling the claim of florida for suppressing indian hostilities. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ford, paul leicester, and clark, a. howard. bibliography of the writings of the members of the american historical association for . pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- ---- supplementary bibliography of the writings of the members of the american historical association. [_see_ annual report am. hist. assoc. for .] pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- r. l., and o'rs. findings of the court of claims in the case of r. l. ford, p. kelly, o. walker, t. h. webb, j. w. wesson, respectively, _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. fort greene, brooklyn, n. y. report from the committee on the library favoring bill for a monument to the memory of the victims of the prison ship. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fort walla walla. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the improvement of fort walla walla. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fort wayne, mich. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to provide for the enlargement of the military post at fort wayne. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fox, howard, _consul._ commerce and industries of cornwall. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- thomas w., _consul._ trade and commerce of plymouth. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . francke, kuno. karl fallen and the liberal movement in germany. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . freedman's hospital. report of c. b. purvis, surgeon-in-chief, to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. freedman's savings and trust company. annual report of the commissioner of. washington, . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. fresno, calif: report from the committee on public buildings and grounds, favoring the erection of a public building at fresno. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. fuller, homer t. worcester polytechnic institute. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . gainsville, mccallister and st. louis railway co. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill granting to the g., mcc. & st. l. r.r. co. right of way through indian territory. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gainsville, oklahoma and gulf railway co. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill granting to the g., o. & g. railway co. right of way through the indian territory. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. galloway, beverly thomas. suggestions in regard to the treatment of _cercosfora circums-cissa_. pp. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . gannett, henry. a dictionary of altitudes in the united states. (second edition.) washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . gardner, walter e., _consul._ american oleo oil in the netherlands. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . gaugers, etc. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of certain gaugers and other internal revenue employés who rendered service before qualification. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gauger's manual. _see_ treasury dep't, internal revenue. geikel, james. glacial geology. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . gendron iron wheel co. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the gendron iron wheel company of toledo, ohio. (for excess of duty.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. georth, frederick augustus. the minerals of north carolina. washington, . pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . germain, v. j. on the teaching of domestic economy and needlework. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . giddings, napoleon b. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of n. b. giddings. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gilbert, charles h. scientific results of explorations by the u.s. fish commission steamer _albatross_. xxii. descriptions of new species of fishes collected in and , principally among the santa barbara islands and in the gulf of california. from proceedings of the u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- grove karl. the history of the niagara river. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . gill, theodore. note on the genus _hiatula_ of lacépède or _tautoga_ of mitchell. from proceedings nat. mus., v. xiv, p. . [no. .] p. ---- notes on the _tetraodontoidea_. from proceedings u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp., pl. ---- notes on the genus _chonerhinus_ or _xenopterus_. from proceedings u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. ---- on the genus _gnathanacanthus_ of bleeker. from proceedings u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. goldschmidt, julius, _consul-general_. the international statistical congress at vienna in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . goode, george brown. bibliographies of american naturalists. v. the published writings of dr. charles girard. washington, . vi, pp., portrait. . u.s. national museum: bulletin no. . ---- report on the condition and progress of the u.s. nat. museum during the year ending june , . from the report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- the museums of the future. from the report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. . goose lake, oregon. letter from the attorney-general in relation to the effort to drain goose lake in the states of oregon and california. may , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. gordy, j. p. rise and growth of the normal school idea in the united states. washington, . pp. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . gosehorn, sarah. findings of the court of claims in the case of gosehorn _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. government hospital for the insane. report to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp., pls. grand army. communication from the commissioners of the district of columbia recommending an appropriation for the reception and entertainment of the grand army of the republic. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of g. h. thomas post no. in relation to certification of veterans by the u.s. civil service commission. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. grant, chester f. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to grant an honorable discharge to c. f. grant. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gray, asa. plates prepared between the years and to accompany a report on the forest trees of n. america. washington, . ^o. pp., col. pls. smithsonian pub. no. . ---- james g. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove charge of desertion against j. g. gray. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. greely, adolphus washington, _u.s. a._ international pressure and storm charts. pp., charts. war dep't, signal office: annual report , appendix no. . ---- diurnal fluctuations of atmospheric pressure at twenty-nine selected stations in the united states. washington, . v, pp. ^o. war dep't, signal office. ---- report on the climatic conditions of the state of texas. washington, . ^o. pp., charts. . sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report on the climatology of the arid regions of the united states with reference to irrigation. washington, . pp., maps and pls. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; st cong., d sess. ---- charts showing the "probability of rainy days" prepared from observations of eighteen years. washington, . charts, folio. war dep't, signal office. ---- normal temperature charts by decades for the united states and the dominion of canada. washington, . charts, folio. war dep't, signal office. ---- discussion of the international simultaneous meteorological observations - with reference to monthly mean barometric pressures, prevailing winds, change of pressures from month to month, and monthly storm frequency of the northern hemisphere, with charts. war dep't, signal office report , appendix no. . ---- charts showing "average monthly cloudiness" in the united states. washington, . charts, folio. war dep't, signal office. ---- charts showing "isobars, isotherms, and wind" in the united states for each month from january, , to december, . washington, . charts. ^o. war dep't, signal office. ---- international monthly charts of mean pressures and wind directions at a. m. washington mean time for and . washington, . charts, folio. war dep't, signal office. greene, nathaniel. report from the committee on the library favoring bill to erect a monument to gen. greene. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gregory, j. w. the underwaters of the great plains. pp. pls. agr'l dep't: irrigation inquiry, , pt. , pp. - pp. grice, john, and o'rs. findings of the court of claims in the causes of j. grice, j. wysong, b. k. white, and elizabeth gunnell, respectively, _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. griffin, appleton prentiss clark. bibliography of the historical societies of the united states. pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- walter t. barnyard manures. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . griffiths, g. s. antarctic explorations. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. smithsonian pub. no. . grinnell, william f. american hard woods in england. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . groat, abram. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of a. groat. (desertion.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. _gross, charles._ a plea for reform in the study of english municipal history. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . grow, galusha a., and randall, samuel j. addresses on the presentation of portraits of speakers grow and randall, in the h.r., d congress, st sess. washington, . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. grunsky, c. e. methods of applying water to land, as practiced in the central portions of california. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry, , t. , pp. - . guenther, richard, _consul-general_. mexican development and commerce. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . guild, marion pelton. historical sketch of wellesley college. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . guinean, thomas. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of t. guinean. (refund of purchase money for land sold by u.s.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. gurley, r. w. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the estate of r. w. gurley. (arrearages of salary.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hale, j. h. tropic and semitropic fruits and nuts. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . hall, asaph. observations of double stars made at the u.s. naval observatory. part second, - . washington, . ^o. pp. u.s. naval observatory: washington observations, , appendix . _note_: part was published in as appendix vi, washington obs. for . hallock, william. preliminary note on the coefficients of thermal expansion of certain rocks. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ham, james s. report from the committee on finance favoring bills for the relief of heirs of j. s. ham and j. w. vose. (to redeem stolen u.s. bonds.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hanna, philip c., _consul._ american trade in venezuela. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . hanson, willis f. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of w. f. hanson. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. harrington, louisa. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of louisa harrington. (for wood.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. harrington, mark w. meteorological work for agricultural institutions. washington, . pp. agr'l dep't, experiment station bulletin no. . harris, william t., _ll. d._ the influence of the public schools. do the public schools educate children beyond the position which they must occupy in life? pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- historic ornament. why drawing teachers should teach historic ornament. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- the psychology of manual training. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- the intellectual value of tool work. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . haskell, samuel, _d. d._ kalamazoo college, kalamazoo, mich. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . haskins, charles h. the yazoo land companies. (abstract.) p. am. hist. ass'n rep. , p. . havens, ezra s. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of e. s. havens. (for pay and allowances.) january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hawes, john b., _consul_. the streets and roads of bohemia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . haxthausen, joseph. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. haxthausen. (for overpaid special taxes.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hay, robert. final geological reports of the artesian and underflow investigation between the th meridian of longitude and the foothills of the rocky mountains, to the secretary of agriculture. washington, . pp., pls. . agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry , pt. , pp. - . hayford, john fillmore. physical hydrography. on the use of observations of currents for prediction purposes. appendix no. . report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . pp. . ---- physical hydrography. tides at sandy hook, observed and predicted times and heights during the year . washington, . pp, charts. . hazen, g.m. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of g. m. hazen, and o'rs. (rents for army purposes.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. healy, john f., _consul_. orchilla weed in madeira. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . heard, augustine, _consul-general_. korean paper. p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . ---- the new currency of korea, p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . hearrell, l. b. findings of the court of claims in the case of hearrell _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. helmholtz, robert von. memoir of gustav robert kerchoff. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . hemmick, roland j., _consul_. labor in geneva. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . hennessy, henry. on the physical structure of the earth. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . henshaw, samuel. report upon the gipsey moth in massachusetts. pp. agr'l dep't, div. of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . herr, austin h. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of a. h. herr. (for use and occupation.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hershe, benjamin f. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of b. f. hershe. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hicks, l. e. on the underflow and sheet waters, irrigable lands and geological structure of nebraska, with its effect upon the water supply. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry, , pt. . pp. - . hill, frank d., _consul_. the vine in uruguay. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- robert thomas. on the occurrence of artesian and other underground waters in texas, eastern new mexico, and indian territory west of the th meridian. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry, , pt. , pp. - . hillebrand, william francis. on the occurrence of nitrogen in uraninite, and on the composition of uraninite in general. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analysis of kyanite from clip, arizona. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analysis of picrullumogene, from las vegas, new mexico, [and] of brochantite from arizona. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analysis of feldspars from minnesota gabros. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- analysis of brass used in standards of the u.s. bureau of weights and measures. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- and howard, e. l. analysis of water from webster grove, mo. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- ---- analysis of liebenerite? a massive white mineral from the brown tin mine, rapid city, south dakota, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . hinton, richard j. a report on irrigation and the cultivation of the soil thereby, with physical data, conditions, and progress within the u.s. for . part . washington, . pp., pls. . sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; d cong., st sess. _note:_ part of this report is by e. s. nettleton; part , by robt. hay; part , by j. w. gregory and f. f. b. coffin. ---- report of the special agent in charge of the artesian and underflow investigations and of the irrigation inquiry, . washington, . pp., map. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ---- facts and conditions relating to irrigation in various countries. pp., pl. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry, , pt. , pp. - . hoffman, walter james. the mid[=e]'wi-win or "grand medicine society" of the ojibwa. pp., pls. smithsonian institution: bureau of ethnology, th annual report, pp. - . hollcroft, e. p. t. report from the committee on claims favoring the issue of duplicate bonds of the u.s. to e. p. t. hollcroft, guardian of b. j. barr. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hollis, george f., _consul_. south african sheep and goats. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . holloway, j. b. digest of claims referred by congress to the court of claims, from the th to the st congress, inclusive, for a finding of facts under the provisions of the "bowman act" of march , . washington, . pp. . holman, silas w. massachusetts institute of technology. sketch. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . holmes, george k.. and lord, john s. statistics of farms, homes, and mortgages. ownership of debt in kansas, and ohio and nebraska. + pp. u.s. census, : extra bulletin nos. and . hoogewerff, j. a., <sc>_u.s. n._</sc> magnetic observations at the u.s. naval observatory, . ^o. pp., pls. . u.s. naval observatory: observations, ; appendix . hopkins, a. d. some bred west virginia _braconidæ_. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . horn, fritz. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of f. horn. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. horne, samuel b., _consul_. foreign trade of santa cruz. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . horsfall, t. c. the use of pictures and other works of art in elementary schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . hosack, w. s. adverse report from the committee on claims on bill for the relief of dr. w. s. hosack. (for difference in pay.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hot springs reservation. report of the superintendent to the secretary of the interior . washington, . pp. house of representatives. alphabetical list of members and delegates of the house of representatives, and the standing and select committees of which they are members. d congress, st session; -' . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- standing and select committees of the house of representatives, d congress, st sess. pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on accounts in the matter of clerks to house committees. january , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on accounts on resolution to appoint special messengers for the house. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on accounts on rent of branch folding room. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., march, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. catalogue. march, . house of representatives--_continued._ ---- report from the committee on accounts on resolution to appoint w. f. halleck an assistant doorkeeper. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- clerk. report of the clerk of the house of representatives. employés and expenditures, july, , to december, . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- communication from the clerk of the h.r., with an inventory of the property of the u.s. in his possession. december , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the clerk reporting that he has completed the indexing of private claims presented to the th- st congresses. january , . p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the clerk transmitting a list of contests for seats in the d congress. january , . p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the clerk of the house showing the condition of the contingent fund. april , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- doorkeeper. communication from the doorkeeper (h.r.) transmitting inventory of books, maps, etc., in the folding room of the house. december , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the doorkeeper (h.r.) with a report of the sales of waste paper, etc. december , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the doorkeeper (h.r.) with a statement of the property in his charge belonging to the u.s. december , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the sergeant-at-arms (h.r.) with an account of property of the u.s. in his possession. december , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. houston, william. the legislative work of the first parliament of upper canada. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . howland, leland o. the biology of the hymenopterous insects of the family _chalcididæ_. from proceedings of the u.s. nat. mus., v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- the habits of _elasmus_. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . ---- ernest lincoln. analysis of hematite nodule from new mexico, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- walter e. the british tin-plate trade. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . howard university. report of the secretary and treasurer to the secretary of the interior. . washington, . pp. hubbard, royal m. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of r. m. hubbard, postmaster, for clerk-hire. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hunt, samuel f. the university of cincinnati, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . hunting, george t., _d. d._ alma college, alma, mich. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . hutchinson and southern railroad. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill to amend "an act granting the right of way to the hutchinson and southern railroad company to construct a railroad from anthony, kans., through the indian territory to some point in grayson county, texas." january , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. hyde, john. flax [and] hemp production. pp. ^o. u.s. census : bulletin no. . immigration. report from the committee on immigration favoring resolution for immigration investigation. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. indian territory. report from the committee on territories favoring bill (h.r. ) to regulate mines and mining in the indian territory. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. insect life. _see_ agricultural department, division of entomology. intercontinental railway commission. minutes. [dec. , , to april , .] washington . ^o. pp., map. . _note:_ in english and spanish. intercontinental railway. estimate of an appropriation to pay salaries of the three u.s. commissioners. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. interior department. report of the secretary of the interior for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . ---- report of the secretary of the interior; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five vols. vol. . washington, . pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , pt. , v. ; d cong., st sess. _note:_ contains reports of commissioner of pensions; superintendent of the census; commissioner of patents; commissioner of railroads; territorial governors, etc. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of the expenditures of the contingent appropriations for the department for the fiscal year ended june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- additional estimates of deficiencies in appropriations for -' and prior years. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- bureau of education. annual statement of the commissioner of education to the secretary of the interior. . w. t. harris, commissioner. washington, . pp. ---- ---- report of the commissioner of education for the year -' . washington, . vols. . ---- ---- publications of the u.s. bureau of education, from to , with subject-index. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- a catalogue of educational literature, part . analytical index to barnard's journal of education. [ vols. - . edited by henry barnard, ll. d.] washington, . pp. . ---- ---- special report on public libraries, part . rules for a dictionary catalogue by c. a. cutter. d edition, with corrections and additions. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- art and industry. instruction in drawing applied to the industrial and fine arts, as given in the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts, and in the public schools, etc., in the u.s. by isaac edwards clarke. part ii. industrial and manual training in public schools. washington, . cxlviii, - pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. , part ; th cong., d sess. ---- ---- circular of information no. , . contributions to american educational history. edited by h. b. adams. no. . higher education in indiana. by j. a. woodburn. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . the fourth international prison congress, st. petersburg, russia. by c. d. randall. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . sanitary conditions for schoolhouses. by a. p. marble. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . contributions to american educational history, edited by h. b. adams. no. . history of higher education in michigan. by a. c. mclaughlin. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . contributions to american educational history, edited by h. b. adams. no. . the history of higher education in ohio. by g. w. knight and j. r. commons. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . contributions to american educational history, edited by h. b. adams. no. . history of higher education in massachusetts. by g. g. bush. washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . promotions and examinations in graded schools. by e. e. white. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . rise and growth of the normal school idea in the united states. by j. p. gordy. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . biological teaching in the colleges of the united states. by j. p. campbell. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. , . southern women in the recent educational movement in the south. by a. d. mayo. washington, . pp. . ---- census office. a permanent census bureau. letter from the secretary of the interior transmitting a report from the superintendent of the census. december , . washington, . iv+ pp. ---- ---- communication from the secretary of the interior asking immediate action upon the estimate for an appropriation of $ , , for the eleventh census. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- report from the committee on appropriations favoring bill appropriating $ , to continue work of the th census. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- census bulletin no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of manufacture: . district of columbia. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of churches. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. transportation: railway statistics. group vii. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. horticulture.--tropic and semi-tropic fruits and nuts. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. finances of maine. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. agriculture: irrigation in nevada. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. transportation: railway statistics. group viii. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. population of places having , inhabitants or more in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . february , . ^o. pp. contents. mineral product of the united states. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. fisheries of the pacific states. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. manufactures.--iron and steel. production of the cast-iron pipe foundries. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of manufactures.--the wool industry. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of manufactures: . city of st. louis, missouri. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. transportation: railway statistics. group ix. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . ^o. pp. contents. transportation: railway statistics. group x. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . pp. ^o. contents. fisheries of the great lakes. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . march , . pp. ^o. contents. statistics of churches. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. population by color, sex, and general nativity: . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. summary of national, state, and local indebtedness. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: flax and hemp. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. agriculture: irrigation in oregon. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. transportation. transportation by water in the u.s. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. agriculture: cereal production . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. population by color, sex, and general nativity. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cereal production in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cereal production in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cereal productions in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. population by color, sex, and general nativity, . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cereal production in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cereal production in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . june , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cotton production. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . june , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: cotton production. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . june , . pp. ^o. contents. assessed valuation of property, . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . june , . pp. ^o. contents. agriculture: artesian wells for irrigation. ---- ---- extra census bulletin. no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. insurance business in the united states. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of farms, homes, and mortgages. ownership of debt in kansas and ohio. ---- ---- _the same._ no. . april , . ^o. pp. contents. dwellings and families in . ---- ---- _the same._ no. . may , . ^o. pp. contents. statistics of farms, homes and mortgages. mortgages in nebraska. ---- indian office. report of the commissioner of indian affairs to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- sixtieth annual report of the commissioner of indian affairs to the secretary of the interior, . [with appendices.] washington, . vols. . ---- ---- estimate of an appropriation for transcribing in the indian office. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- estimates of deficiencies in appropriations for the indian service for -' . february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- communication from the commissioner as to the importance of a chief clerk for the office of indian affairs. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- land office. annual report of the commissioner of the general land office for the fiscal year ended june , : dated september , . washington, . pp., map. . ---- ---- _the same._ with appendices. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- rules of practice in cases before the united states district land offices, the general land office, and the department of the interior. approved august , . [reprint.] washington, . pp., l. . ---- ---- digest of decisions of the department of the interior and general land office in cases relating to public lands, vols. to , inclusive. prepared by s. v. proudfit, reporter. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- circular from the general land office showing the manner of proceeding to obtain title to public lands under the pre-emption, homestead, and other laws. issued february , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- united states mining laws and regulations thereunder. approved december , . [washington, .] pp. . ---- ---- regulations concerning railroads claiming right of way over the public lands; also, concerning right of way of ditch or canal owners over the public lands and reservations for the purpose of irrigation. approved march , . washington, . pp. . ---- patent office. annual report of the commissioner of patents to congress for the year ending december , . washington, . pp., fol. l., pls. . ---- ---- rules of the united states patent office. revised april , . [washington, .] pp., pl. . ---- ---- united states statutes concerning the protection of trade-marks and labels, with the rules of the patent office relating thereto. edition of january , . [washington, .] pp. . ---- ---- specifications and drawings of patents issued by the united states patent office during january-may, . ( vols. each month.) washington, . vols. impl. ^o. per vol. . ---- ---- _official gazette_ [weekly] of the united states patent office, vols. - . january-june, . washington, . vols. impl. ^o. per vol. . ---- ---- letter from the secretary of the interior relative to the condition of the rooms occupied by the patent office. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- pension office. report of the commissioner of pensions to the secretary of the interior for the year ended june , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- pensions and pension appeals. report of assistant secretary bussey to the secretary of the interior for . pp. ---- ---- report from the committee on rules favoring resolution to investigate alleged charges against the pension bureau. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- additional estimate of deficiency in appropriation for fees and expenses of examining surgeons. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- u.s. geographical and geological survey of the rocky mountain region. contributions to n. american ethnology, vol. . washington, . xviii+ pp. . contents. the cehiga language. by j. o. dorsey. ---- _same._ contributions to n. american ethnology, v. . washington, . ^o. x, - pp. . contents. a dakota english dictionary. by s. r. riggs. edited by j. o. dorsey. washington, . ---- u.s. geological survey. tenth annual report. -' . part i. geology. [part ii, irrigation.] washington, . vols. . ---- --- eleventh annual report. -' . part ii, irrigation. washington, . xiv+ pp., pls. . ---- ---- monographs. vol. xvi. washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . ---- ---- bulletins nos. - . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ no. . washington, . l., v+ pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ nos. - . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; st cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ no. . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ nos. - . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. --; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ nos. and . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ [separate.] nos. - and . [for contents _see_ u.s. geological survey.] washington, . ---- ---- suggestions for the preparation of manuscript and illustrations for publication by the survey. by w. a. croffut. january, . pp. internal revenue. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend the internal revenue laws. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. international prison congress. _see_ randall, c. d. interstate commerce commission. fifth annual report of the commission. december , . washington, . pp., map. . , cloth . sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- additional estimate of appropriation for the commission. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés of the commission, not specifically appropriated for. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. irrigation. report from the select committee on irrigation of arid lands to accompany bill (h.r. ) for the reclamation of arid lands of the u.s. [with views of the minority.] march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _see_, also, agricultural dep't; also, war dep't, signal office. irrigation congress. memorial of a convention held at salt lake in to consider matters pertaining to the reclamation of arid lands. pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. irving, roland duer, and van hise, charles richard. the penokee iron-bearing series of michigan and wisconsin. pp., pls. u.s. geol. survey, tenth annual report, -' , pp. - . irwin, j. c., & co. adverse report from the committee on claims on bill for the relief of j. c. irwin & co., and c. a. perry & co. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. italy. changes in customs tariff. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . jay, john. the demand for education in american history. pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . johnson, joseph. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of j. johnson. january , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- w. h. denison university. sketch. pp. int. dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . jones, aquilla. reports from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of aquilla jones. february and , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , pts. - ; d cong., st sess. ---- john h., and harris, thomas d. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the representatives of jones and harris. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. jordan, david starr, and davis, b. m. a preliminary review of the apodal fishes or eels inhabiting the waters of america and europe. [extracted from the report of the u.s. fish commission for .] washington, . pp., pls. journal of mycology. _see_ agricultural department, division of vegetable pathology. judge, henry. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of h. judge. january , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. justice department. estimate of a deficiency appropriation for the department of justice. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimates of deficiencies on account of appropriations under the control of the department. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified civil service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. keach, albert. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove the charge of desertion from a. keach. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. keefe, michael. report from the committee on military affairs favoring removal of the charge of desertion against m. keefe. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. keightley, william w. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of w. w. keightley. (compensation as postmaster.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. kellogg, james c., _consul._ beet sugar manufacture in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . keltie, j. scott. stanley and the map of africa. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . klamath river reservation. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill (h.r. ) providing for the sale of lands known as the klamath river reservation. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. knight, george w., and commons, john r. the history of higher education in ohio. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . knowles, horace g., _consul._ the beet-sugar industry of france. p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . ---- french wine crop of . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . kummell, charles hugo. mathematics. on approximate method of computing probable error. by c. h. kummell. ( ) on the determination by least squares of the relation between two variables. by m. merriman. appendix no. . report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . ^o. pp. . kurtz, philip. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to grant an honorable discharge to p. kurtz. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. labor department. sixth annual report of the commissioner of labor, . cost of production: iron, steel, coal, etc. washington, . x, - pp. . _note:_ "this report relates to the cost of producing iron and steel and the materials of which iron is made, in the united states and in europe." ---- list of employés not specifically appropriated for. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of all moneys expended in the department for -' . p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. lagerheim, g. de. remarks on the fungus of a potato scab. pp. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . langley, samuel pierpont. experiments in aerodynamics. washington, . ^o. ii, - pp., pls. . smithsonian pub. no. . laws, public. [passed at the st session of the d congress, -' ] viz: ---- no. . an act fixing the times for holding the district and circuit courts of the united states in the northern district of iowa. approved january , . p. ---- no. . an act providing for the completion of the allotment of lands to the cheyenne and arapahoe indians. approved january , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act granting the right of way to the hutchison and southern railroad company through the indian territory. approved february , . p. ---- no. . to amend an act entitled "an act to amend the general incorporation law of the district of columbia," approved may , . approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to detach montgomery county from the western and add it to the eastern district of arkansas. approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for the creation of a fourth judicial district in the territory of utah. approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act for the construction of a railroad and wagon bridge across the mississippi river at south saint paul, minnesota," approved april , . approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to change the corporate name of the national safe deposit company, of washington. approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to extend the privileges of the transportation of dutiable merchandise without appraisement to the port of sandusky, ohio. approved february , . p. ---- no. . an act to constitute newark, new jersey, a port of immediate transportation. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act making appropriations to supply a deficiency in the appropriation for the expenses of the eleventh census, and for other purposes. approved march , . pp. ---- no. . an act to provide an additional mode of taking depositions of witnesses in causes pending in the courts of the united states. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for a term of the circuit and district court at littleton, new hampshire. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act ratifying the act of the th legislative assembly of arizona, approved march , , making appropriation in aid of arizona's exhibit at the world's columbian exposition. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act making appropriations to supply a deficiency in the department of agriculture, and for other purposes. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for certain of the most urgent deficiencies in the appropriations for the service of the government for the fiscal year ending june , . approved march , . pp. ---- no. . an act to prevent fraudulent transactions on the part of commission merchants and other consignees of goods and other property in the district of columbia. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for terms of the united states circuit and district courts at cumberland, maryland. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act for the relief of the inhabitants of the town of chelan, in okanogan county, state of washington. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to set apart a tract of land in the state of california for the use of the lick observatory of the astronomical department of the university of california. approved march , . ---- no. . an act to provide for the establishment of a port of delivery at council bluffs, iowa. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend section of the revised statutes, relative to certificates of merit to the enlisted men of the army. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to determine the sessions of the circuit and district courts of the united states for the eastern district of wisconsin. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to change the name of the customs collection district and port of wilmington, california, to los angeles, and for other purposes. approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act making appropriations to provide for the expenses of the government for the district of columbia for the fiscal year ending june , , and for other purposes," approved march , . approved march , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize the appointment of clerk for the circuit and district courts in the texarkana division of the eastern district of arkansas. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act granting to the state of south dakota section numbered thirty-six in township numbered ninety-four north of range numbered fifty-six west, in the county of yankton, in said state, for the purpose of an asylum for the insane, to correct an act approved june , , attempting to make such grant to the territory of dakota, and for other purposes. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to prevent fraud upon the water revenues of the district of columbia. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to protect foreign exhibitors at the world's columbian exposition from prosecution for exhibiting wares protected by american patents and trade marks. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act changing the time for holding the circuit and district courts in the district of west virginia. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act establishing a port of delivery at des moines, iowa. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act to authorize the construction of a railroad, wagon, and foot-passenger bridge at burlington, iowa, approved august , ," as amended by act approved february , . approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to change the time of holding the courts in the eastern judicial district of texas. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend the act concerning officers of the national home for disabled volunteer soldiers, and for other purposes. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to repeal the provisions of an act entitled "an act to amend sections and of the revised statutes, requiring life-saving appliances on steamers," approved march , , so far as they relate to steamers plying exclusively upon any of the lakes, bays, or sounds of the united states. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act extending the privileges of the first and seventh sections of the act approved june , , governing the transportation of merchandise without appraisement, to the port of ogdensburg, of n. y. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to extend to marquette, michigan, the privilege of immediate transportation of unappraised merchandise. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize the construction of a bridge across the missouri river, between the city of chamberlain, in brulé county, and lyman county, south dakota. approved april , . pp. ---- no. . an act authorizing the velasco terminal railway company to construct a bridge across the brazos river, in the state of texas. approved april , . pp. ---- no. . an act making velasco a sub-port of entry. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act to authorize the oregon & washington bridge company to construct and maintain a bridge across the columbia river, between the state of oregon and the state of washington, and to establish it as a post-road." approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to change the times for holding the circuit and district courts of the united states for the western district of missouri. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to establish a military post near little rock, arkansas. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize the appointment of an inspector of plumbing in the district of columbia, and for other purposes. approved april , . pp. ---- no. . an act to extend the time for making an assessment of real estate in the district of columbia, outside the cities of washington and georgetown. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to empower the commissioners of the district of columbia to grant respites and pardons in certain cases. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend the act giving the approval and sanction of congress to the route and termini of the anacostia & potomac river railroad in the district of columbia. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend the charter of the rock creek railroad company. approved april , . p. ---- no. . an act to create a third division of the district of kansas for judicial purposes, and to fix the time for holding court therein. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act to prohibit the coming of chinese persons into the united states. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act authorizing the leavenworth & platte county bridge company to sell, transfer, and assign to the leavenworth terminal railway and bridge company the rights and franchises as granted by acts of congress approved february , and march , , and by act of congress approved july , . approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for the permanent preservation and custody of the records of the volunteer armies, and for other purposes. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to encourage american shipbuilding. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act making appropriations for expenses that may be incurred under the treaties between the united states and great britain, concluded at washington, february , and april , . approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to punish false swearing before trial boards of the metropolitan police force and fire department of the district of columbia, and for other purposes. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to establish sub-ports of entry and delivery at superior, wisconsin, and at ashland, wisconsin, in the superior collection district of michigan and wisconsin. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize the construction of a bridge across the missouri river at de witt, carroll county, missouri, and to establish it as a post-road. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act to authorize the construction of a bridge across the osage river, between the town of warsaw and the mouth of turkey creek, in benton county, missouri. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act to incorporate the national union insurance company, of washington," approved february , . approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to establish a military post at or near the city of helena, in lewis and clarke county, in montana. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize a national bank at chicago, illinois, to establish a branch office upon the grounds of the world's columbian exposition. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to provide for certain of the most urgent deficiencies in the appropriations for the service of the government for the fiscal year ending june , , and for other purposes. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act to authorize the construction of a telephone line on the coast of virginia from cape charles to assateague island, in aid of the preservation of life and property. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to amend an act entitled "an act relating to tax sales and taxes in the district of columbia." approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act authorizing the construction of a wagon and motor bridge over the missouri river at saint charles, missouri. approved may , . pp. ---- no. . an act to provide for a term of the united states circuit and district courts at evanston, wyoming. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act to vacate that part of madison street, georgetown, west of back street, and extend y street in burleith, in the district of columbia. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act for the relief of holders of drawback certificates issued under an act of congress approved june , . approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act for the protection of livery-stable keepers and other persons keeping horses at livery within the district of columbia. approved may , . p. ---- no. . an act making laredo, texas, a sub-port of entry. approved june , . p. ----no. . an act to amend sections and of the revised statutes. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act to repeal the license tax of twenty-five dollars per year now imposed upon produce-dealers in the markets of the district of columbia. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act to establish west point, virginia, a sub-port of entry and delivery in the collection district of richmond, virginia. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act for the regulation of the practice of dentistry in the district of columbia and for the protection of the people from empiricism in relation thereto. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to establish a railway bridge across the illinois river, between a point at or near the city of havana, in mason county, and a point on the opposite side of said river, in fulton county, in the state of illinois. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to enable the centennial board of finance, incorporated by an act approved june , , to close its affairs, and dissolving said corporation. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act granting to the topeka water and electric power company of kansas the right to erect and maintain a dam or dams across the kansas river, within shawnee county, in the state of kansas. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize building a bridge over tennessee river. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to authorize the illinois and iowa railway and terminal company to build a bridge across the mississippi river at moline, illinois. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act donating twenty acres of land from the fort sidney military reservation, on the northeast corner thereof, to the city of sidney, nebraska, for cemetery purposes. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act making appropriations to supply deficiencies in the appropriations for the payment of pensions for the fiscal year , and other purposes. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act granting the use of certain lands to the city of new bedford, massachusetts, for a public park. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act to authorize the glen echo railroad company to cross the washington aqueduct. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to provide for the disposition and sale of lands known as the klamath river indian reservation. approved june , . p. ---- no. . an act granting the right and authority to the mexican gulf, pacific and puget sound railroad company, to build one bridge over each of the following named rivers in the state of alabama, namely: the alabama river, the warrior river, the sipsey river, and the tennessee river; the said bridges to be used by the mexican gulf, pacific and puget sound railroad company in carrying freight and passengers by rail and otherwise. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to authorize the construction of a bridge across the missouri river at the city of yankton, south dakota. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act authorizing the continental bridge company to construct a bridge across the rio grande river at or near brownsville, texas. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act authorizing the quincy pontoon bridge company to construct and maintain a pontoon bridge across the mississippi river at the city of quincy, illinois. approved june , . pp. ---- no. . an act to include lot numbered fifty-three in block eighty-nine at hot springs, arkansas, in the public reservation at that place. approved june , . p. leech, edward o. a brief history of coinage legislation in the united states. washington, . pp. . treasury dep't, doc. no. . legg, a. c. findings of the court of claims in the case of legg _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. lewis, john w. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of j. w. lewis. (compensation.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- mary f. findings of the court of claims in the case of lewis v. u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. library of congress building. list of persons employed on, not specifically appropriated for. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. lien. report from the committee on the judiciary adversely on bill providing that judgments rendered in a u.s. court shall not be a lien on real estate in any other county than the one in which the court is situate, unless a transcript of the judgment be first filed in said county. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. life saving service. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to establish a life-saving station at gay head, mass. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to amend and re-enact sec. of an act entitled "an act to promote the efficiency of the life-saving service;" approved may , . january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring bill to establish a life-saving station at gay head, mass. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. light houses. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to establish a beacon light on breakwater at bridgeport, conn. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to establish a light near butler flats, new bedford, mass. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to establish additional aids to navigation in tampa bay, fl. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. line-carrying projectiles. letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to line-carrying projectiles and the means of propelling them. january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury transmitting proceedings of the inspectors of steam vessels at their meeting in september, , in relation to the use of line-carrying projectiles on vessels. january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce to accompany bill (s. ) to repeal the requirement to carry line-carrying projectiles on lake, bay, and sound steamers. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. : d cong., st sess. little, john, and williams, h. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill for the relief of little and williams. (damages under a cancelled mining lease on an indian reservation.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. little rock, ark. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to establish a military fort near little rock. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. local transportation. consular reports on local transportation in foreign cities. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . lockwood, chauncy m. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of representatives of c. m. lockwood. (mail contractor.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. logan, john s. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. s. logan. (for money advanced.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. loomis, elias. a memoir of. by h. a. newton. [with a list of prof. loomis's writings.] from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . loomis, francis b. the french market for american products. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- pensions for french workingmen. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- electricity and the looms of st. etienne. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- accidents to work people. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . los angeles, calif. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building at los angeles. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. louisiana state university. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill (s. ) to increase the endowment of the university. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. lowe, virginia. findings of the court of claims in the case of lowe v. u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. lucus, frederick augustus. animals recently extinct or threatened with extermination as represented in the collections of the u.s. nat. museum. from report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. ---- explorations in newfoundland and labrador in , made in connection with the cruise of the u.s. fish commission schooner _grampus_. from report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. lugger, otto. migratory locusts in minnesota in . pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . lynch, david. findings of the court of claims in the case of lynch _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. lyon, john. adverse report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove the charge of desertion against j. lyon. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mace, william harrison. organization of historical material. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . mccaskey, james f., _consul._ acapulco-american trade in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . mcclure, daniel. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of d. mcclure. february and , . + p. sen. rep. no. , and h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mccoal, wells c. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of w. c. mccoal. (correction of his record.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mcdaniel, orin r. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of o. r. mcdaniel. january , . p. sen. rep. no. : d cong., st sess. mcelroy, g. b., _d. d._ adrian college, mich. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . mcfarland, james a. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of j. a. mcfarland. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mcgarrahan, william. report from the committee on mines and mining favoring bill (h.r. ) for the relief of wm. mcgarrahan. (title to mining lands.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mack, w. s. hand and eye training in the public schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, part ii, pp. - . mackinac national park. letter from the secretary of war transmitting a report on the condition of the mackinac national park. january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. mclaughlin, andrew c. history of higher education in michigan. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . ---- thomas a. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of t. a. mclaughlin. (correction of record.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mcmahon, john. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the honorable discharge of major john mcmahon. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. magruder, nathaniel. report from the committee on the district of columbia favoring bill for the relief of the heirs of n. magruder. (damages to property.) february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mally, f. w. report of progress in the investigation of the cotton boll worm. pp. agr'l dep't, div. of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . marble, albert p. sanitary conditions for schoolhouses. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . ---- industrial education as a part of the common-school course. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . marine board. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to establish a marine board for the advancement of the interests of the merchant marine. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. marinette and western railroad. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill to authorize the m. and w. railroad company to construct a railroad through the menomonee reservation, wis. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. maritime canal company of nicaragua. report. dec. , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. marsh, c. c. report upon some of the magnetic observatories of europe. ^o. pp., pls. u.s. naval observatory: observations, ; appendix . marston, s. w. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill to settle the claims of s. w. marston. (services and expenses as indian agent.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. martinsburg, w. va. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the methodist episcopal church of martinsburg. (for use and occupancy.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. marvin, c. f., _u.s. a._ experimental studies on vapor pressure measurements. pp. war dep't, signal office, annual report , appendix no. , pp. - . ---- on the construction of a normal barometer. pp., pls. war dep't, signal office, annual report , appendix no. , pp. - . ---- experimental studies on vapor pressure measurements. pp. war dep't, signal office, annual report , appendix no. , pp. - . ---- experimental studies on wind pressures and wind velocities. pp. war dep't, signal office, annual report , appendix no. , pp. - . mason, edward campbell. congressional demands upon the executive for information. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . ---- border land between the historian and the archæologist. (abstract.) p. am. hist. assoc. rep. , p. . ---- frank h., _consul-general_. close of the frankfort electrical exhibition. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- beet sugar in hesse-nassau. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- german plate-glass manufacture. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- desulphuration of pig iron by manganese. pp., pl. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- scientific fertilization of tobacco lands. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- over-production of sugar. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- otis tufton. aboriginal skin dressing. a study based on material in the u.s. nat. museum. from report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. ---- progress of anthropology in . from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . smithsonian pub. no. . mathews, f. a., _consul-general_. american trade opportunities in morocco. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . mayo, a. d. southern women in the recent educational movement in the south. washington, . pp. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . ---- the normal school in the united states. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . meldola, raphael. the photographic image. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . melville, william harlow. metacinnabarite from new almaden, california. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analyses of rocks from california. series from mount diablo. p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . merchant marine. report of the board to consider the recommendations of the u.s. delegates to the international marine conference regarding matters pertaining to the merchant marine. january , . pp., pls. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. merchant vessels. twenty-third annual list of merchant vessels of the u.s., with the official numbers and signal letters awarded them by the commissioner of navigation, etc., for the year ended june , . washington, . lviii, - pp., pl. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution (s. r. ) to print , extra copies of the d annual list of merchant vessels. may , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. merrill, george perkins. preliminary handbook of the department of geology of the u.s. nat. museum. from report of the nat. mus., -' . appendix, pp. - . washington, . pp. ---- samuel, _consul-general_. sheep and wool in british india. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- selah, _consul_. jews and jewish colonies in palestine. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- palestine in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . merriman, mansfield. on the determination by least squares of the relation between two variables. _see_ kummell, c. h. metcalf, horace, _consul_. the world's ship-building. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . mexican claims commission. report of the secretary of state regarding certain claims provided for by a convention between the u.s. and mexico in . january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. meyer, victor. the chemical problems of to-day. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., april, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. catalogue. april, . middlekauff, john c. findings of the court of claims in the case of middlekauff _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. military affairs. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to establish a military post on the line of railway between burlington and highgate, vt. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. military records. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to provide for the collection, custody, and arrangement of the records of the revolution, etc. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. militia. an abstract of the militia force of the united states for . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (h.r. ) to promote the efficiency of the militia. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. miller, david. findings of the court of claims in the case of d. miller v. u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- howard. preliminary report on the possibilities of the reclamation of the arid regions of kansas and colorado by utilizing the underlying waters. pp., map. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry , pt. , pp. - . miners. petition from coal miners in indian territory for an inspector under act of for the protection of the lives of miners. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of appropriation for carrying into effect the act of for the protection of the lives of miners. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. mining dÉbris. memorial of miners and farmers at san francisco praying such legislation as will protect navigable waters from mining débris. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. minot, charles-sedgwick. morphology of the blood corpuscles. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pl. smithsonian pub. no. . missimer, h. c. facts _versus_ theories. shown by the records kept for twenty-two years by the principal of a high school, giving the subsequent occupations pursued by the graduates. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . mississippi river. report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring bill to amend "an act for the construction of a railroad bridge across the mississippi at south st. paul, minne." january , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mobile and girard railroad co. letter from the secretary of the interior relative to lands claimed by the m. & g. r.r. co. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc no. ; d cong., st sess. money-lending. senator peffer's resolution asking an investigation of the expenses attending the business of money-lending. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. monroe correspondence. message from the president relative to the proposed purchase of the unpublished correspondence of president monroe. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. montana. memorial of the legislature against the conger lard bill. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the legislature relating to brig. gen. john gibson. december, . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial for the removal of the mineral restrictions upon school lands, etc. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. montelius, oscar. the age of bronze in egypt. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls., l. smithsonian pub. no. . montgomery, r. h. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of r. h. montgomery. (longevity pay.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mooney, james. the sacred formulas of the cherokees. pp., pls. smithsonian institution, bureau of ethnology: th annual report, pp. - . morgan, daniel. report from the committee on the library favoring bill to preserve the grave of daniel morgan and erect a monument. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- edwin vernon. slavery in new york.--the status of the slave under the english colonial government. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . morrison, thomas. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove charge of desertion against t. morrison. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. moses, thomas freeman., _m. d._ urbana university, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education; circular of information no. , , pp. - . moss, william. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the estate of w. moss. (mail contractor.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. mullan, a. j. e. boston college. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education; circular of information no. , , pp. - . munich art exposition. letter from the secretary of state recommending an appropriation to enable the u.s. to be properly represented. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. murdock, george h. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of g. h. murdock. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. murphy, dennis. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the sureties of dr. d. murphy. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. murray, joseph. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of j. murray. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. murtefeldt, mary e. entomological notes for the season of . pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . mussey, reuben delavan. bills of rights in state constitutions. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . muzean, e. effects of fire on gun carriages. translated by lieut. f. p. peck. . ^o. pp. . notes on the construction of ordnance, no. . myers, levi n., _consul._ commerce and products of british columbia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . myers, p. v. n. belmont college, college hill, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . national banks. report from the committee on banking and currency to accompany bill (h.r. ) for the better control of and safety of national banks. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on rules favoring resolution to investigate failures of keystone, spring garden and maverick national banks. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. national farmers' congress. petition. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. national museum. _see_ united states national museum. nautical almanac. _see_ american ephemeris. navy department. report of the secretary of the navy, being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. washington, . pp. . ---- alphabetical catalogue of the navy department library. authors. washington, . pp. . ---- letter from the secretary of the navy requesting that the navy department library be designated as a depository for government publications. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés of the navy department during . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on naval affairs to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the naval service for -' . march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., d sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the navy relative to bids for building certain types of war ships on the great lakes. may , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- bureau of navigation. annual report of the chief of the bureau, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- hydrographic office. annual report of the hydrographer to the bureau of navigation for the fiscal year ending january , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- ---- _notices to mariners._ [weekly.] nos. - . january to june , . ---- ---- ---- _hydrographic bulletin._ [weekly.] january to june , . _broadsides._ ---- ---- ---- pilot chart of the north atlantic ocean. [monthly.] january to june, . sheets. each, . ---- bureau of ordnance. report of the chief of the bureau for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. ---- bureau of construction and repair. report of the chief of the bureau for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. ---- bureau of yards and docks. annual report of the chief of the bureau of yards and docks. . washington, . pp. ---- bureau of equipment. annual report of the chief of the bureau of equipment. . washington, . pp. ---- ---- nautical almanac office. annual report of the superintendent of the nautical almanac. . washington, . pp. ---- ---- naval inspector of electric lighting. annual report, . washington, . pp. ---- ---- superintendent of compasses. annual report, . washington, . pp. ---- bureau of steam engineering. annual report of the chief of the bureau for the year . washington, . pp. . ---- bureau of provisions and clothing. report of the paymaster-general of the navy for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. ---- bureau of medicine and surgery. annual report of the chief of the bureau for . washington, . pp. ---- marine corps. annual report of the commandant, . washington, . pp. ---- u.s. naval academy. annual report of the superintendent of the naval academy, . pp. ---- ---- annual report of the visitors to the u.s. naval academy, . washington, . pp. ---- war records office. naval war records office memorandum no. . chronological tables. december , . november , . washington, . pp. ---- ---- _same._ no. . list of united states naval vessels, - , including the ellet ram fleet and mississippi marine brigade, etc. washington, . pp. ---- ---- _same._ no. . list of log books of united states vessels, - , on file in the navy department. washington, . pp. navy register. register of the commissioner and warrant officers of the navy of the u.s. and of the marine corps to january , . washington, . pp. . nebraska. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill to survey and mark the boundary between nebraska and s. dakota embraced in the pine ridge and rosebud reservations. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- resolution of state beet sugar convention favoring an appropriation of $ , for school of instruction. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. neet, john s., jr. report from the committee on military affairs, favoring bill for the relief of j. s. neet, jr. (for horse.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. negley, charles, _consul._ commerce of rio grande do sul. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . nettleton, edward s., _c. e._ artesian and underflow investigation. final report to the secretary of agriculture. washington, . pp., fold. l. plates. agr'l dep't, irrigation inquiry, , pt. . nevada. report from the committee on claims favoring bill to reimburse certain persons for repelling invasions by indians in nevada. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. newark, n. j. report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring bill extending the privileges of secs. and , act of june , , to the port of newark. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. new, john c., _consul-general. _ english hops. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . newberry, john strong. the paleozoic fishes of north america. pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey: monograph no. xvi. . newell, frank h.<b> irrigation in oregon. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . ---- irrigation in nevada. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . ---- artesian wells for irrigation. pp. ^o. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . ---- william, _consul._ wages in nicaragua. p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . new mexico. report of the governor of new mexico to the secretary of the interior. . washington, . pp. ---- report from the committee on territories favoring bill (h.r. ) to enable the people of new mexico to form a constitution and state government and to be admitted into the union. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. new orleans. memorial asking an appropriation of $ , for the improvement of the harbor of. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. newport news, va. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill to erect a public building at newport news. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. newsom, a. j. findings of the court of claims in the case of newsom v. u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- t. m., _consul._ malaga and its surroundings. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . nicaragua canal. resolution of the legislature of california urging prompt construction of the nicaragua canal. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the traffic association of california favoring the prompt construction of the canal. january , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- senator higgins' resolution in reference to the nicaragua canal company. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war transmitting a report by maj. c. e. dutton on the nicaragua canal. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- see maritime canal company. noble, noah. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of heirs of n. noble. (balance due him.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. north, s. n. d. statistics of wool manufacture. ^o. pp. u.s. census : bulletin no. . northern pacific railroad. petition in behalf of settlers between wallula, washington, and portland, oregon, whose lands and homes are claimed by the n.p r.r. co. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the blalock wheat-growing company for authority to purchase of the government at $ . an acre land purchased by them of the n.p.r.r. co. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. norton, w. s. hillsdale college, hillsdale, mich. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . notes on the construction of ordnance. _see_ war department, ordnance office. oakland, calif. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building at oakland. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. oaths. letter from the secretary of war with draft of a bill to authorize the administration of oaths by certain officers. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. official register of the united states, containing a list of the officers and employés in the civil, military and naval service on the first of july, , together with a list of vessels belonging to the u.s. vol . legislative, executive and judicial. washington, . vi, pp. . ogden, utah. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill to erect a public building at ogden. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ogdensburg, n. y. report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring bill extending the privileges of sections and , act of june , , to the port of ogdensburg. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. oklahoma. report of the governor of oklahoma to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. oliver, aaron j. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of a. j. oliver. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. omaha, neb. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to construct a military storehouse at omaha. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. osborn, herbert. report on a trip to kansas to investigate reported damages from grasshoppers. pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- insects of the season in iowa. pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . osgood, herbert l. the political ideas of the puritans. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep., , pp. - . otis, george k. report from the committee onpost-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of g. k. otis. (loss on contract.) january , , pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. otting, b. j. history of detroit college, mich. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . paddock, sarah sands. industrial and technological training. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . palmer, aulick, _consul._ beet sugar in the dresden district. p. u.s. consular reports no. , p. . pammel, l. h. new fungous diseases of iowa. pp. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . pankey, james. finding of the court of claims in the case of pankey _v._ u.s., march , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. parish, madison. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove the charge of desertion against m. parish. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. parker, jacob w. adverse report from the committee on public lands on bill for the relief of j. w. parker. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- william kitchin. memoir of. (from _nature._) from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . parsons, eben burt, _d. d._ williams college. sketch, pp. pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . patents. report from the committee on patents favoring bill (s. ) to refer to the court of claims the claim of w. e. woodbridge for the use of projectiles. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on patents favoring bill (s. ) for the relief of sarah e. holroyd for use of hook and eye tackleblocks. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. patton, s. k. n. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of s. k. n. patton. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. payne, john howard. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the heirs of john howard payne. (balance due him for consular services.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. peace congress. letter from the secretary of state relating to a peace conference of governments in chicago in connection with the columbian exposition. may , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. peale, albert charles, and chatard, s. m. analysis of eruptive rock from montana, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . pease, henry, _consul._ orchilla in cape verde. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . pendergrass, moses. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of m. pendergrass. (mail contractor.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. pensacola, fl. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building at pensacola. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. pensions. report from the committee on invalid pensions favoring bill to pension obe sutherland. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension eliza k. starr. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to increase the pension of j. h. osgood. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension john chamberlin. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring granting a pension to sarah l. henderson. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring granting a pension to esther doolittle. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension adelia s. ferris. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring granting a pension to margaret turner. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring granting a pension to jane shierry. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension kate p. mitchell. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension bridget maloy. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension james mccammon. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension jane allen. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension jennie vaughn. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension caroline e. quigg. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension levenia d. athon. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension bertha test. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to increase the pension of t. m. chile. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring an increase of pension to a. b. carlton. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to increase the pension to s. d. smith. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension r. w. nason. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension martha n. brainerd. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension the widow of gen. c. s. hamilton. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension marrilla parsons. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension michael o'brien. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for increase of pension to g. r. allen. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on pensions favoring bill (s. ) to increase the rate of pensions for certain cases of deafness. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to amend act of march , , relating to total helplessness, etc. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to remove disability of those who having participated in the rebellion have since enlisted in the navy and become disabled. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to amend sec. of act of june , . february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on invalid pensions favoring bill to increase the pension to jane a. ward. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension margaret christian. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension elizabeth crawford. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension noah staley. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension a. j. jones. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension j. a. davis. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension lucy haskell. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension mrs. e. fays. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pay accrued pension of e. s. smith to his mother. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension d. l. truex. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension mary j. telford. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension w. s. woodward. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension betsey worthington. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension jonathan ramey. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension h. h. mcelvey. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension eliza m. boatright. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension mary gatlin. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension d.c. barrow. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to increase the pension of a. v. hamilton. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pension frederick meredith. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on pensions favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend sec. of the pension act of june , , relating to widows and children of soldiers. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on invalid pensions favoring bill (h.r. ) to establish an intermediate rate of pension between $ and $ per month. march , and may , . + p. h.r. rep. nos. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the payments of pensions for -' . march , and june , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on invalid pensions favoring bill (h.r. ) in relation to the execution of declarations and other papers in pension claims. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) concerning the burden of proof of soundness, and forbidding discriminations against evidence of witnesses on account of want of official rank. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ to accompany bill (s. ) relating to the widow or minor children of deceased soldiers. may , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ adversely on bill (s. ) to increase the rate of pension for certain cases of deafness. may , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (s. ) to amend an act amending the pension laws of march , , extending to those who enlisted in the navy the same privileges as to those who enlisted in the army. may , . p. h.r. rep. no ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) to supply a deficiency in appropriations for pensions for -' . june , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. peters, j. l. findings of the court of claims in the case of peters _v._ u.s. february , . p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. peterson, james j., _consul._ mining companies in honduras. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . pfoatner, michael. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to grant an honorable discharge to m. pfoatner. january , . p. sen. rep. no ; d cong., st sess. philadelphia, penn. report from the committee on commerce favoring resolution for the improvement to the harbor at philadelphia, penn. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. pidgin, charles f., and smith, hugh m. fisheries of the pacific states. ^o. pp. u.s. census : bulletin no. . ---- and fesler, bert. fisheries of the great lakes. pp., ^o. u.s. census : bulletin no. . pierce, newton b. a disease of almond trees. pp., pls. journal of mycology, vol. vii, no. , pp. - . pilling, james constantine. bibliography of the algonquin languages. washington, . x+ pp., facsimiles. . smithsonian institution: bureau of ethnology. pilotage. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill (s. ) to exempt american coastwise sailing vessels from the obligation to pay state pilots. march , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. playfair, _sir_ r. l. the mediterranean, physical and historical. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. smithsonian pub. no. . plumacher, e. h., _consul_. steamship and railway traffic in venezuela. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . pond, adeline valentine. influence of the study of drawing in the development of character. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- in paris galleries. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . port hudson. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill providing medals to the survivors of the forlorn-hope storming party of port hudson. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. port townsend, washington. memorial of the chamber of commerce asking that the fishery laws in operation on the north atlantic be extended to the north pacific. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. post-office department. annual report of the postmaster-general for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp., pls., map. . ---- report of the postmaster-general; being part of the message and documents, d congress, st session. washington, . pp., fold. l., map, plates. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of appropriation for ocean mail service now under contract for -' . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the postmaster-general giving information relative to ocean mail service between foreign ports. washington, . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter of the chief of salary and allowance division relative to third-class presidential post-offices. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimates of deficiencies on account of the postal service. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified civil service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on post-office and post-roads, etc., to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the service of the p. o. department for -' . april and june , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- additional arguments by the postmaster-general in favor of the establishment of postal savings depositories. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of deficiencies on account of the postal service. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the postmaster-general submitting observations upon bill making appropriations for the service of the department for -' . may , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the postmaster-general transmitting a statement showing buildings rented for the department in the district of columbia. may , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ass't attorney-general for p. o. dep't. annual report for . washington, . pp. . ---- chief inspector. report of the post-office inspector for . washington, . pp., fold. l. . ---- first ass't postmaster-general. report for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . ---- second ass't postmaster-general. report for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . ---- third ass't postmaster-general. report for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . ---- money order system. report of the superintendent for the fiscal year ended june , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- estimate of an appropriation for an increase of force in the office of superintendent of the money-order system. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- foreign mails. report of the superintendent for . washington, . pp. . ---- railway mail service. report of the general superintendent for the fiscal year ended june , . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- daily bulletin of orders affecting the postal service. january to july, . folio. ---- topographer. report of the topographer, . pp. . ---- dead letter office. report of the superintendent for the fiscal year ended june , . washington, . pp. . ---- auditor. annual report of the [ th] auditor of the treasury for the post-office department for the fiscal year ended june , . washington, . pp. . postal savings bank. an additional argument by the postmaster-general in favor of the establishment of postal savings depositories, with appendices. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. postmasters. letters from the postmaster-general concerning the conference of postmasters at washington in . april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. potts, howard d. report from the committee on naval affairs favoring bill for the relief of h. d. potts. (increase of pay on the retired list.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. powell, john wesley. indian linguistic families of america, north of mexico. pp., map. smithsonian institution: bureau of ethnology, th annual report, pp. - . president. message of the president of the united states communicated to the two houses of congress at the beginning of the first session of the d congress. washington, . pp. ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print , extra copies of the annual message. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. presidential succession. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend the act of . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. preston, erasmus darwin. geodesy. determination of gravity and on the magnetic elements in connection with the u.s. expedition to the west coast of africa, - . appendix no. , report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . prison congress--( th). _see_ randall, c. d. public documents. letter from the secretary of the interior transmitting the report regarding the receipt, distribution and sale of public documents on behalf of the government by the department of the interior, -' . pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on labor favoring resolution to distribute public documents to land-grant colleges. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of congressional documents from the th to the st congress, and of government publications containing debates and proceedings of congress, together with miscellaneous lists of public documents, etc. by j. g. ames. washington, . pp. . public lands. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill (h.r. ) relating to the disposal of timber and stone lands, &c. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to amend sec. of act approved may , , "for the relief of settlers on public lands." february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. public printing. mr. manderson's report from the committee on printing to accompany senate bill providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. [with testimony.] january , . pp. . sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on printing to accompany bill (s. ) providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. : d cong., st sess. public printer. annual report for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the public printer, submitting estimates of deficiencies for public printing. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the public printer with a list of employés not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. puget sound. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to amend "an act to reorganize and establish the customs collection district of puget sound," approved aug. , . january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. pullman, william. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove charge of desertion against w. pullman. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. quinn, william h. report from the committee on claims favoring bills for the relief of w. h. quinn. (compensation.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. radau, r. photography in the service of astronomy. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . rainy lake river, minn. report of special agent r. w. de lambert relative to the establishment of a permanent government port at rainy lake river. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ramsey, f. y. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of heirs of joseph ramsey. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. rand, benjamin. new england settlements in acadia. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . randall, c. d. the fourth international prison congress, st. petersburg, russia. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . randolph, fanny b., and stark, d. l. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of randolph and stark. (for stores and supplies.) february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. rawicz, joseph, _consul._ trade and industries of poland. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . read, henry a. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of h. a. read. (amend record.) feb. , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- john b. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. b. read. (for use of patent projectile.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. red cross conference. estimate of an appropriation for the expenses of two delegates to represent the u.s. at the th international conference at rome in . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. regan, james. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of lieut. regan. (adjustment of his accounts.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. reid, alexander j., _consul._ brewing in ireland. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . reuleaux, f. technology and civilization. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. smithsonian pub. no. . revenue marine service. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to provide two revenue cutters for service on the pacific coast. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on commerce favoring bill for the construction of two revenue cutters for service on the great lakes. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring bill to provide a revenue cutter for the harbor of san francisco. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the proposed transfer of the revenue marine service. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the navy submitting his views as to the advisability of the transfer of the revenue cutter service from the treasury to the navy department. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. rhoades, henry e. report from the committee on naval affairs favoring bill for the relief of h. e. rhoades. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. richardson, john b., consul. the lower rio grande in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . riggs, stephen return. a dakota-english dictionary. edited by j. o. dorsey. washington, . x, - pp. . u.s. geog. and geol. survey of the rocky mountain regions: contributions to ethnology, v. . riley, charles valentine. the larger digger-wasp. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . rising, w. b. report on analysis of fermented liquors. p. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , p. . risum, otto a. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of o. a. risum, postmaster, for loss of money package. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. rivers and harbors. report from the committee on rivers and harbors to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for public works on rivers and harbors. april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the committee on commerce (u.s. senate) on the bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors for the year ending june , . washington, . pp. . sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. robinson, jehu. findings of the court of claims in the case of jehu robinson _v._ u.s. march , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- tracy, _consul._ the banana food company. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . rockefellow, b. f. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of b. f. rockefellow, postmaster, for clerk hire. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. romanes, george j. weismann's theory of heredity. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . roosevelt, george w., _consul._ plate-glass manufacture in belgium. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ropes pass. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill for the construction of jetties, piers, and breakwaters at private expense in the gulf of mexico at the mouth of ropes pass, texas. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. rose, j. n. two weeds new to the united states. pp., pls. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ross, mary l. report from the committee on post-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of mary l. ross, post-mistress, for disbursements. january , . pp. h.r. rep. no. --; d cong., st sess. rowell, chester h. _see_ contested elections, st congress. rowena. report from the committee on claims favoring reference to court of claims the case of the scow _rowena_, lost by reason of a false light. february , . pp., pl. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. rubles, william a., _consul._ bohemian industrial exhibition. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- hop growing in bohemia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . russell, thomas, _u.s. a._ report of professor in charge of the river and flood division, . pp., map. war dep't, signal office: annual report , appendix no. . ---- practical rules for prediction of flood stages of rivers in the united states. _see_ war dep't, signal office: annual report , appendix no. , p. , &c. ---- instructions for voluntary observers. prepared under the direction of the chief of the weather bureau. washington, . pp. . agr'l dep't, weather bureau. russian famine. message from the president of the united states recommending that a vessel be chartered to transport supplies to russia. january , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ryder, henry b., _consul._ danish-english subsidized steam communication. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- fruit and vegetable canning in denmark. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . st. mary's falls canal. report of the commerce passing through the canal during the season of . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. salicis, gustave adolphe. manual training in france. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . salmon, daniel elmer. results of experiments with inoculation for the prevention of hog cholera. pp. agr'l dep't: farmers' bulletin no. . salt. letter from the secretary of the treasury containing certain information relative to the importation of salt. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. sampson, a. j. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of a. j. sampson. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _m. d., consul._ new brunswick-american trade. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . san diego, calif. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building at san diego, jan. , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sandusky, ohio. report from the committee on ways and means on bill to extend transportation of dutiable merchandise without appraisement to the port of sandusky. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. santo domingo. statement of imports and exports to and from the united states to santo domingo and puerto rico, from - . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. saratoga, n. y. report from the committee on the library favoring bill appropriating $ , for the completion of the monument commemorating the surrender of burgoyne at saratoga. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. saunders, william. papers on horticultural and kindred subjects. reprinted from reports of the department of agriculture, - . washington, . pp. . sawtelle, charles g. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of col. sawtelle. (adjustment of accounts.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sayce, a. h. the primitive home of the aryans. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . scaife, walter b. geographical latitude. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian mis. pub. no. . schillinger patents. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the owners of the schillinger pavement patents. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. schneider, edward adolph. analysis of ores from kettle island, ky. from tennessee, claiborne county. from kentucky, bell county. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- and chatard, t. m. analysis of websterite from north carolina and maryland, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . ---- and eakins, l. g. analysis of ores of manganese from virginia, p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . schodde, george h. capital university, columbus, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . schott, charles anthony. terrestrial magnetism. results of magnetic observations recorded at los angeles, california, - . part . absolute measures. part . differential measures. observations by m. baker, c. terry jr., and r. e. halter. appendix nos. and , report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . + pp., pls. . united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., may, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. catalogue. may, . schouler, james. webster's seventh of march, ( ) speech. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . schubert, hermann. the squaring of the circle. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . schweinitz, e. a. von. investigation of the effects of bacterial products in the prevention of diseases. pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . scott, charles, _d. d._ hope college, holland, mich. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . scovel, sylvester f. the university of wooster, ohio. sketch. pp. int. dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . scudder, samuel hubbard. index to the known fossil insects of the world including myriapods and arachnids. washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . seabird. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill to provide an american register for the barge _seabird_. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. seal, william p. observations on the aquaria of the u.s. fish commission at central station, washington, d.c. [extracted from the bulletin of the u.s. fish commission for , pp. - .] washington, . pp., pls. seamen. report from the committee on commerce favoring bill (s. ) for the protection of wages of seamen. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sears, rebecca. findings of the court of claims in the case of sears v. u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. sellmer, charles. petition for his retirement as a captain. december , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. selma and meridian railroad. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of the s. and m. railroad company. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. senate. annual report of the secretary of the senate. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report of the sergeant-at-arms. december , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- annual report of the secretary of the senate for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- senator aldrich's proposed amendment to the rules. december , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the architect of the capitol relating to ventilation, &c., of the senate wing. january , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on privileges and elections in the matter of the validity of the appointment of hon. horace chilton to a seat in the senate from texas. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on privileges and elections in the matter of walkinson call and r. h. m. davidson claiming title to a seat in the senate from florida. january , . p. sen. rep. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on printing to accompany resolution to print , copies of the revised senate manual. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on privileges and elections in the matter of w. h. clagett and fred. t. dubois, claiming title to a seat in the senate from idaho. february and , . [and views of the minority.] + pp. . sen. rep. no. , pts. and ; d cong., st sess. senators. report from the select committee on the election of president and vice-president to accompany resolutions providing for the election of senators by the people. [with views of the minority.] february and june , . pp. h.r. rep. no. , pts. and , and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sequoia national park. report of the acting superintendent to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp., map. setzer, henry. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of h. setzer. (refund of tax.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sewall, j. a. grass and forage experiment station at garden city, kansas. operations for , the d year. pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . shacklett, h. w. findings of the court of claims in the case of shacklett _v._ u.s. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. shaffer, c. m. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of c. m. shaffer. (for occupancy.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. shaler, nathaniel southgate. general account of the fresh-water morasses of the united states, with a description of the dismal swamp district of virginia and north carolina. pp., pls. u.s. geol. survey, tenth annual report, -' , pp. - . shaw, edmund, _consul._ paraguay. situation, resources, products, government, people, commerce, etc. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . sheehy, michael. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of m. sheehy. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. shepard, charles h., _consul_. new harbor at malmo. pp. pl. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ship-canal. report from the committee on railways and canals to accompany bill (h.r. ) for ascertaining the feasibility and probable cost of constructing a ship canal from the great lakes to the navigable waters of the hudson river. april , . pp. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. shipley, e. r. report from the committee onpost-offices and post-roads favoring bill for the relief of e. r. shipley, post-master, for moneys lost. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- h. w. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of e. r. shipley. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of h. w. shipley. (loss on contract.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. shoemaker, david. findings of the court of claims in the case of d. shoemaker _v._ u.s. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. sibley, henry h. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of heirs of henry h. and c. k. sibley. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sill, j. m. b. the michigan state normal school, ypsilanti, michigan. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . silver coinage. message from the president of the united states relative to a proposed international conference on the subject of silver coinage. april , . p. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. ---- _see_, also, coinage. skrainka construction company. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. slums. report from the committee on labor favoring house resolution relative to the investigation of slums of cities. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. smith, charles b. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of the heirs of c. b. smith. (adjustment of his accounts.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- erwin f. field notes [on fungous diseases, etc.]. pp. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp - . ---- additional evidence on the communicability of peach yellows and peach rosette. washington, . pp., pls. agr'l dep't, division of vegetable pathology: bulletin no. . ---- g. w. findings of the court of claims in the case of g. w. smith v. u.s. march , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. smith, james h. the phylloxera in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- beet sugar in hesse. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- the german vintage for . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- trade situation in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- incomes in prussia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- cellulose for bottle shells. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- nicholas, _consul._ commerce of three rivers in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- trade and industries of three rivers. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- theobald. investigation of infectious diseases of domesticated animals. pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . ---- thomas j. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of t. j. smith. (for expenses as pension examiner.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- walter. industrial education, and drawing as its basis. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- william, and o'rs. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of w. smith and o'rs. (for allowances.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. smithers, e. j., _consul._ japanese floor matting. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . smithsonian institution. annual report of the board of regents of the smithsonian institution, showing the operations and expenditures, and condition of the institution to july, . washington, . xli, - pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. , pt. ; st cong., d sess. ---- report from the committee on the library to accompany joint resolution (s. res. ) to fill vacancies in the board of regents. january , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of subordinates employed under the smithsonian institution. march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- smithsonian publications. no. . geographical latitude. by walter b. scaife. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . bibliography of the chemical influence of light. by alfred tuckerman. washington. . iii, - pp. . ---- _same._ no. . report upon the condition and progress of the u.s. national museum during the year ending june , . by g. brown goode. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- _same._ no. . lists of institutions and foreign and domestic libraries to which it is desired to send future publications of the nat. museum. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . memoir of heinrich leberecht fleischer. by a. müller. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . on aerial locomotion. by f. h. wenham. from smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . photographs in the service of astronomy. by r. radau. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . a memoir of gustav robert kirchoff. by robert von helmholtz. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . the museums of the future. by g. brown goode. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . te pito te henua, or easter island. by w. j. thomson. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . pp., pls. ---- _same._ no. . aboriginal skin dressing. by o. t. mason. from report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp., pls. ---- _same._ no. . the puma or american lion. by f. w. true. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp., pl. ---- _same._ no. . animals recently extinct or threatened with extermination, as represented in the collections of the u.s. nat. museum. by f. a. lucas. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp., pls. ---- _same._ no. . the development of the american rail and track, as illustrated by the collection in the u.s. nat. museum. by j. e. watkins. from report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . explorations in newfoundland and labrador in . by f. a. lucas. from report of the national museum, -' . washington. . pp., pl. ---- _same._ no. . preliminary handbook of the department of geology of the u.s. nat. museum. by g. p. merrill. from the report of the nat. museum, -' . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . plates prepared between the years and to accompany a report on the forest trees of north america. by asa gray. washington, . ^o. pp., col. pls. ---- _same._ no. . experiments in aerodynamics. by s. p. langley. washington, . ^o. iii, - pp., pls. . ---- _same._ no. . proceedings of the regents and report of the executive committee for -' , etc. from smithsonian report . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the squaring of the circle. by herman schubert. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . the progress of astronomy for - . by william c. winlock. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . mathematical theories of the earth. by robert simpson woodward. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . on the physical structure of the earth. by henry hennessy. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . glacial geology. by james geikie, f.r.s. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the history of the niagara river. by g. k. gilbert. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the mediterranean, physical and historical. by sir r. l. playfair. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . stanley and the map of africa. by j. scott keltie. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . antarctic explorations. by g. s. griffiths. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the history of geodetic operations in russia. by b. witskowski and j. h. gore. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . quartz fibers. by c. v. boys. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . d. koenig's researches on the physical basis of musical harmony, and timbre. by sylvanus p. thompson. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the chemical problems of to-day. by victor meyer. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- <i>same.</i. no. . the photographic image. by raphael meldola, f.r.s. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . a tropical botanic garden. by m. treub. translated. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . temperature and life. by henry de varigny. translated. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . morphology of the blood corpuscles. by charles sedgwick minot. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pl. . ---- _same._ no. . weismann's theory of heredity. by george j. romanes. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the ascent of man. by frank baker. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the antiquity of man. by john evans, f.r.s. from the smithsonian report for . washington, , pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the primitive home of the aryans. by a. h. sayce. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the pre-historic races of italy. by isaac taylor. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the age of bronze in egypt. by oscar montélius. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls., l. . ---- _same._ no. . progress of anthropology in . by o. t. mason. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- _same._ no. . a primitive urn buried. by dr. j. f. snyder. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- _same._ no. . manners and customs of the mohaves. by george a. allen. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . criminal anthropology. by thomas wilson. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . color-vision and color-blindness. by r. brudenell carter. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . technology and civilization. by f. reuleaux. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . the ramsden dividing engine. by j. e. watkins. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- _same._ no. . a memoir of elias loomis. by h. a. newton. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . _note:_ with a list of prof. loomis' writings. ---- _same._ no. . a memoir of william kitchin parker, f.r.s. (from _nature_.) from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ no. . sale list of publications of the smithsonian institution, january, . washington, . pp. ---- _same._ no. . report of s. p. langley, secretary of the smithsonian institution for the year ending june , . washington, . iii, - pp. ---- bureau of ethnology. seventh annual report of the bureau of ethnology to the secretary of the smithsonian institution -' . by j. w. powell, director. washington, . xliii, pp., pls. paper . cloth . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. accompanying papers. indian linguistic families of america, north of mexico, by j. w. powell. the mind[=e]'wiwin or "grand medicine society" of the ojibway, by w. j. hoffman. the sacred formulas of the cherokees, by james mooney. ---- ---- bibliography of the algonquian languages. by j. c. pilling. washington, . x+ pp., facsimiles. . ---- ---- omaha and ponka letters. by j. o. dorsey. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- catalogue of prehistoric works east of the rocky mountains. by cyrus thomas. washington, . pp., pls. . snyder, j. f. a primitive urn burial. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . smithsonian pub. no. . society of american florists. report from the committee on agriculture favoring bill (h.r. ) to incorporate the society. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. society of colonial dames of america. report from the committee on the library favoring bill to incorporate the society. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. soldiers' homes. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (h.r. ) concerning appointment of officers in national home for disabled volunteers. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sorsby, william b. orchilla in ecuador. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . south dakota. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill granting land to s. dakota for an asylum for the insane, etc. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. spain. population of spain and its colonies. report by consul bowen. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . spencer, guilford lawson. foods and food adulterants. tea, coffee and cocoa preparations. washington, . vii, - , vipp., pls. - . . agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , part . ---- william c. findings of a board of officers upon the physical condition of w. c. spencer at the time of his resignation. december , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for restoration of w. c. spencer to the army. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. spokane falls, wash. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill for erection of a public building at spokane falls. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sprague, horatio j., _consul._ gibraltar in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- affairs in gibraltar. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . springer, adams j. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill to remove charge of desertion against a. j. springer. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. starkloff, hugo m., _consul._ marine insurance in bremen. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . state banks. senator butler's resolution favoring repeal of taxes on state bank circulation. january , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. state department. letter from the secretary of state requesting authority to dispose of useless papers. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- message from the president showing the duties collected by venezuela and colombia upon the imports of products of the u.s. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of state in reference to unbound and bound public documents for the use of the state department. april , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of an appropriation to execute the treaty stipulations between the u.s. and great britain concluded february and april , , in relation to the tribunal of arbitration at paris. april , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- bureau of statistics. reports from consuls of the u.s. vol. xxxvi. nos. - . may-august, . washington, . +xpp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ vol. xxxvii. nos. - . sep.-dec., . washington, . +xiiipp. . ---- ---- _same._ vol. xxxviii. nos. - . jan.-april, . washington, . xvi+ pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . may, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- special consular reports. vol. iii. streets and highways. washington, . pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ vol. iv. port regulations. washington, . pp. . ---- ---- _same._ vol. v. canals and irrigation. washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ vol. vi. coal and coal consumption in spanish america. gas in foreign countries. india rubber. washington, . l., pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- special consular reports. india rubber. washington, . pp. - . . ---- ---- _same._ the slave trade in foreign countries. washington, . pp. . ---- bureau of american republics. first annual report, . washington, . pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- bulletin no. . brazil. washington, . pp., pls., map. . sen. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ no. . mexico. [historical, political and statistical sketch.] by a. w. ferguson. washington, [ .] + pp., pls., map. . sen. ex. doc no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ no. . costa rica. washington, . iv+ pp., pls. . sen. ex. doc. no. , pt. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- _same._ no. . january, . colombia. [washington, .] pp., pls., map. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . march, . breadstuffs in latin america. (compiled from official returns to october , .) washington, . pp. . statistical abstract. letters from the secretary of the treasury with draft of a bill to provide for the printing of the annual volume entitled "statistical abstract of the u.s." january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. statistical abstract. _see_ treasury department, bureau of statistics. steam vessels. report from the committee on commerce to accompany bill (s. ) to amend sec. rev. stat., concerning the regulation of steam vessels. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury recommending an amendment to the law for the regulation of steam vessels. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. steele, j. and j. findings of the court of claims in the case of j. and j. steele _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. stevenson, james. biographical notice of. pp. u.s. nat. mus. rep. -' , pp. - . stiles, c. w., and hassall, a. the color of a host and its relation to parasitism. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . <b>stimson, hiram. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to correct the military record of h. stimson. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. stokes, henry newlin. on a petroleum from cuba. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- on a supposed mineral resin from livingston, montana. pp. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- analysis of limestone from kansas p. u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. , p. . william b., and or's. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of stokes and others (as sureties). january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. stout, henry, _consul._ fertilizers in japan. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . stowe, mrs. sarah d. (locke). mount holyoke seminary and college, mass. sketch. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . street, harlow l. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of h. l. street. (restoration to rank.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sugar trust. resolution reported from the committee on the judiciary requesting the attorney-general to ascertain whether the sugar trust has violated the act of july , . may , . p. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the attorney-general transmitting information as to whether the sugar trust has violated the act of july , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. suits. report from the committee on the judiciary favoring bill to regulate the revival of suits in certain cases (i. e., the change of persons holding office at the time of commencement of action). february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sullivan, john. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of j. sullivan. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sutton, s. j., and or's. findings of the court of claims in the causes of s. j. sutton, h. williams, and a. r. thomas, respectively, v. u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. swamp-land grants. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill (h.r. ) to adjust the swamp-land grants, to fix a limitation for the filing of claims thereunder, &c. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. sweet, chester b. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of c. b. sweet. (error in price of land.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- william m. cast-iron pipe industry in the united states. ^o. pp. u.s. census : bulletin no. . swingle, w. t. some peronosporaceæ in the herbarium of the division of vegetable pathology. pp. journal of mycology, vol. iv, , no. , pp. - . ---- treatment of smuts of oats and wheat. washington, . pp., pl. agr'l dep't, farmers' bulletin no. . tacoma, wash. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring bill to erect a public building at tacoma. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. talkington, isaac w. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of i. w. talkington for money erroneously paid for lands. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. talley, robert.<b> findings of the court of claims in the case of robert talley _v._ the u.s. march , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. tampa, fl. report from the committee on public buildings and grounds favoring the erection of a public building at tampa, fl. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. tapp, w. j., and co. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. j. tapp & co. (for rebate of duty.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. tariff. memorial of nat. association of wool manufacturers against any change in the tariff act. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on ways and means to accompany bill (h.r. ) to place wool on the free list and reduce the duties on woolen goods. [with views of the minority.] march , . pp. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on ways and means to accompany bill (h.r. ) to place binding twine on the free list. [with views of the minority.] march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on ways and means to accompany bill (h.r. ) to admit free of duty bagging for cotton, machinery for manufacturing bagging, cotton ties and cotton gins. [with views of the minority.] march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on ways and means to accompany bill (h.r. ) relating to the import duty on tin plate, terne plate, and taggers tin. [with views of the minority.] april and , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. , pts. & ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on ways and means to accompany bill (h.r. ) to limit the amount of wearing apparel and personal effects which may be imported free of duty. june , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on finance (under sen. res. of march , ) on the effect of the tariff laws upon imports and exports, growth, production, prices, wages, etc. [with views of the minority, and testimony.] may and june , . [effect of tariff on trade between the u.s. and canada.] + pp. sen. reps. nos. and ; d cong., st sess. taylor, isaac. the pre-historic races of italy. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . ---- john w. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to correct the military record of j. w. taylor. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- thomas, _m. d._ food products. . eight edible and twelve poisonous mushrooms of the united states, with directions for the culture and culinary preparation of the edible species. reprinted from the report of the secretary of agriculture for . washington, . pp., pls. ---- william g. bismarck the typical german. (abstract.) p. am. hist. assoc. rep. , p. . tenement house labor. mr. hoar's resolution for an inquiry into the so-called sweating system of tenement labor. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on manufactures to accompany h.r. mis. doc. no. . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. terne, bruno. on sources of errors in the determination of potash. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . thomas, cyrus. catalogue of prehistoric works east of the rocky mountains. washington, . pp., pls. . smithsonian institution: bureau of ethnology. thompson, james m. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove charge of desertion against j. m. thompson. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- sylvanus p. dr. koenig's researches on the physical basis of musical harmony and timbre. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . ---- the present position of the technical instruction question. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- william j., _u.s. n._ te pito te henua, or easter island. from report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. tibbits, john a., _consul._ weavers' wages in bradford. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . tice, isaac p. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for relief of estate of j. p. tice. (use of spirit-meter.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. tillotson, w. d., _consul-general._ foreign commerce of japan in . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . tin plate. letter from the secretary of the treasury transmitting information as to drawbacks on tin plate. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. tittmann, otto hilgard. weights and measures. the relation of the yard to the metre. appendix no. , report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . pp. . ---- weights and measures. the national photo-types of the standard metre and kilogramme, u.s. customary and metric standards. transportation of the national prototypes from paris to washington, their official certification and their deposit in the office of weights and measures. appendix no. , report of the u.s. coast and geodetic survey for . washington, . ^o. pp., pl. . townshend, charles hervey. geographical explorations. notes of an early chart of long island sound and its approaches. appendix no. , u.s. coast and geodetic report for . washington, . ^o. pp., map. . tracy, s. m. coöperative branch stations for special work with grasses and forage plants in the south. pp. agr'l dep't, annual report , pp. - . trade marks. report from the committee on patents to accompany bill (h.r. ) to amend the trade mark act of . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. trail, charles b., _consul._ american pork in france. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . travis, m. m. adverse report from the committee on indian affairs on bill for the relief of rev. m. m. travis. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. treasury department. annual report of the secretary of the treasury . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- annual report of the secretary of the treasury on the state of the finances for the year . washington, . cxxxviii + pp., folded leaves. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. and treasury dep't doc. no. , d ed. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury, transmitting estimates of appropriations required for the service of the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . ^o. pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. also treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- catalogue of title-entries of books and other articles entered in the office of the librarian of congress at washington, under the copyright law, from january to july , : wherein the copyright has been completed by the deposit of two copies in this office. [nos. to .] ^o. subscription, . ---- customs regulations of the u.s., provided for the instruction and guidance of officers of customs. washington, . xi, - pp., pls. . ---- abstract of official emoluments of officers of the customs service received by them during the fiscal year ending june , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- detailed statement of the refunds of customs duties, etc., for the fiscal year ending june , . --pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- a brief history of coinage legislation in the united states. washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- statement of the public debt and of the cash in the treasury of the united states for the month of january, . _same._ for february, . _same._ for march, . _same._ for april, . _same._ for may, . _same._ for june, . _broadsides._ ---- synopsis of decisions of the treasury department and of the board of u.s. general appraisers on the construction of the tariff, navigation and other laws in the months of december, , and january, . +xvipp. each, . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- _same._ in january and february, . pp. - +xiv. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- _same._ in february and march, . pp. - +xiv. treasury dep't, doc. no. . ---- _same._ march and april, . pp. - +xviii. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- _same._ april and may, . pp. - +xv. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- index-reference catalogue of the library of the treasury department. washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- report of the contingent expenses of the treasury department for -' . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the pay of the surveyor of customs at sioux city, iowa. january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement showing the value of trade in merchandise between the u.s. and brazil, cuba, puerto rico and santo domingo since reciprocity treaties went into effect, compared with preceding periods. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of deficiency appropriation for printing for the treasury department. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- additional estimates of deficiencies in appropriations for -' . february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury concerning - / per cent. bonds. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury concerning the repeal of laws relating to permanent and indefinite appropriations. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury recommending an appropriation for distinctive paper for checks and drafts. march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the amount of gold and silver certificates issued since january , . march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the effects of the coinage act of july , . march , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- additional estimate of appropriation for paper for checks for the treasurer, etc., for -' . march , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury respecting the amount of gold and silver coinage in -' . march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury submitting a request from the director of the mint for an immediate appropriation of $ , for recoinage of subsidiary coin. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified civil service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the purchase of silver under the act of july , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury relative to the purchase of silver under the law of . may , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- auditor, first. annual report of the first auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- auditor, second. annual report of the second auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- auditor, third. annual report of the third auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp., folded leaves. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- auditor, fourth. annual report of the fourth auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- auditor, fifth. annual report of the fifth auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- auditor, sixth. annual report of the sixth auditor for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- bureau of engraving and printing. report of the chief of the bureau of engraving and printing for the fiscal year -' . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- memorial of employés of the bureau asking an additional leave of fifteen days per annum. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on education and labor favoring bill (s. ) to allow thirty days leave of absence to employés of the bureau. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- report from the committee on labor favoring bill (h.r. ) granting thirty days leave of absence to employés. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- bureau of navigation. twenty-third annual list of merchant vessels of the u.s., for the year ended june , . washington, . lviii, - pp., pl. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- bureau of statistics. annual report in regard to imported merchandise entered for consumption in the united states, with rates of duty and amounts of duty collected during the year ending june , . washington, . xxxvi _a_, - pp. . ---- ---- annual report and statements of the chief of the bureau on the foreign commerce and navigation, immigration and tonnage of the u.s. for the year ending june , . washington, . cxiii+ pp. . ---- ---- quarterly report [no. , -' ] relative to the imports, exports, immigration and navigation of the united states for the three months ending september , . washington, . vi, - pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- _same._ [no. , -' .] for the three months ending december , . washington, . v, - pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- summary statement [no. , january, -' ] of the imports and exports of the united states for january, , and for seven months ending the same, compared with the corresponding periods of . (corrected to february , .) ^o. pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- summary statement [no. , february, -' ] of the imports and exports of the u.s. for the month ending february , , and for the eight months ending the same, compared with the corresponding periods of . (corrected to march , .) ^o. pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- summary statement [no. , -' ] of the imports and exports of the united states for the month ending march , , and for nine months ending the same, compared, etc. (corrected to may , .) ^o. pp. ---- ---- summary statement [no. , april, -' .] for the month ending april , , and for ten months ending same. (corrected to may , .) ^o. pp. ---- ---- statement of foreign commerce and immigration for january, . (corrected to february , .) pp. ---- ---- _same._ for february, . (corrected to march , .) pp. ---- ---- _same._ for march, . (corrected to april , .) pp. ---- ---- _same._ for april, . (corrected to may , .) pp. ---- ---- _same._ for may, . (corrected to june , .) pp. ---- ---- exports of mineral oils and cotton. january, . _same._ february, . _same._ march, . _same._ april, . _same._ may, . _same._ june, . _broadsides._ ---- ---- exports of breadstuffs, january, . _same._ february, . _same._ march, . _same._ april, . _same._ may, . _same._ june, . broadsides. ---- ---- exports of the principal articles of domestic provisions. january, . _same._ february, . _same._ march, . _same._ april, . _same._ may, . _same._ june, . _broadsides._ ---- statistical abstract of the united states, . fourteenth number. washington, . xiii+ pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- communication from the chief of the bureau asking an appropriation for an additional clerk for his office. may , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- commissioner of customs. report of the commissioner of customs for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- comptroller, first. annual report of the first comptroller for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- comptroller, second. annual report of the second comptroller for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- comptroller of the currency. [twenty-ninth] annual report of the comptroller of the currency to the st session of the th congress of the united states, december , . washington, . ( )+ pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. , st ed. ---- ----annual report of the comptroller of the currency to the st session of the d congress. december , . washington, . vols. . ---- internal revenue. report of the commissioner of internal revenue for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- report of the commissioner of internal revenue for the fiscal year ended june , . [ d edition, with tables.] washington, . pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. also treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- series , no. . revised supplement no. . gaugers' weighing manual, embracing regulations and tables for determining the taxable quantity of distilled spirits by weighing. january , . washington, . ^o. + pp. . ---- light-house board. statement relative to the appropriation for salaries of light keepers. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- marine hospital. annual report of the supervising surgeon general of the marine hospital service for the fiscal year . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- abstract of sanitary reports. vol. , nos. - . january -july , . pp. - . ---- mint. [nineteenth] annual report of the director of the mint to the secretary of the treasury for the fiscal year ended june , . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- report of the director of the mint upon the production of the precious metals in the united states during the calendar year . washington, . pp. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- request of the director for $ , to continue the re-coinage of uncurrent coins. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- miscellaneous division. report on immigration to the chief of the miscellaneous division, . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- register. report of the register of the treasury for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury submitting a proposed amendment to the appropriation bill, relating to the office of asst. register. june , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- supervising architect. annual report for the year ending september , . washington, . pp., pls. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- supervising special agent. annual report of the supervising special agent for . washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. ---- treasurer. annual report of the treasurer of the united states for the fiscal year ending june , . washington, . pp. . treasury dep't doc. no. . ---- ---- fourteenth annual report of the treasurer of the u.s. on the sinking fund and funded debt of the district of columbia. washington, . pp. treasury dep't doc. no. . tremain, mary. slavery in the district of columbia. the policy of congress and the struggle for abolition. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep., , pp. - . trent, william peterfield. a virginia bill of attainder. the case of josiah philips. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . treub, m. a tropical botanic garden. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . treutlen, john r. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. r. treutlen. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. tripler, eunice. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of e. tripler, widow of c. s. tripler. (compensation for "tripler's manual.") january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. true, frederick william. the puma or american lion. (_felis concolor_ of linnæus.) from report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., june, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c. catalogue. june, . tuckerman, alfred. bibliography of the chemical influence of light. washington, . iii, - pp. smithsonian pub. no. . union pacific railway company. report of the government directors of, to the secretary of the interior. . washington, . pp. united states board on geographic names. report of the board. . washington, . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. _note:_ appendix a and b contain decisions of the board. ---- reports from the committee on printing, on the report of the u.s. board on geographic names. january and february and , . + + pp. sen. rep. nos. and , and h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states bureau of education. _see_ interior dep't, bureau of education. united states civil service commission. eighth annual report, july , , to june , . washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print , copies of the th report of the commission. march , and may , . + pp. h.r. rep. no. and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the commission as to persons employed not specifically appropriated for. april , . p. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- schedule of examinations for . departmental, railway mail, and indian services, with instructions to applicants. . washington, . pp. ---- information relating to the appointment of stenographers in the various departments. june , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states coast and geodetic survey. report of the superintendent showing the progress of the work during the fiscal year ending with june, . washington, . ^o. xxix, pp., plates and charts. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- changes made in the force of employés in the coast and geodetic survey during . march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- statement of expenditures for the fiscal year -' . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- tide tables for the atlantic coast of the united states, together with stations on the atlantic coast of british america, for the year . washington, . pp. . ---- pacific coast pilot. alaska. part . dixon entrance to yakutat bay, with inland passage from strait of fuca to dixon entrance. d edition. washington, . folio. pp., pls. . ---- terrestrial magnetism. results of magnetic observations recorded at los angeles, california, - . part . absolute measures. observations by m. baker, c. terry, jr., and r. e. halter. discussion and report by c. a. schott. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- _same._ part . differential measures. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . ---- physical hydrography. the gulf stream. methods of the investigation and results of the research. by j. e. pillsbury. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . ---- geodesy. determinations of gravity and of the magnetic elements in connection with the u.s. expedition to the west coast of africa. -' . a report by e. d. preston. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . ---- mathematics. on an approximate method of computing probable error. by c. h. kummell. on the determination by least squares of the relation between two variables. by m. merriman. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- physical hydrography. on the use of observations of currents for prediction purposes. by j. f. hayford. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- physical hydrography. tides at sandy hook, observed and predicted times and heights during . by j. f. hayford. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., charts. . ---- weights and measures. the relation of the yard to the metre. by o. h. tittmann. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- geodesy. international geodetic association. ninth conference. address of george davidson. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- weights and measures. the national prototypes of the standard metre and kilogramme. u.s. customary and metric standards. transportation of the national prototypes from paris to washington, their official opening and certification and the deposit in the office of weights and measures. by o. h. tittmann. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., pl. . ---- geographical explorations. early expeditions to the region of bering sea and strait. from reports and journals of v. i. bering. translated by w. h. dall. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., maps. . ---- geographical explorations. notes on an early chart of long island sound and its approaches. by c. h. townshend. appendix no. , report for . washington, . ^o. pp., map. . united states consular reports. reports from the consuls of the united states. vol. xxxvi, nos. - , may-august, . washington, . pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ vol. xxxvii, nos. - , september-december, . washington, . +xiiipp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ vol. xxxviii, nos. - . january-april, . washington, . xvi, - pp. . _note:_ no. contains "local transportation" and "underground conduits." ---- _same._ may, , no. . washington, . pp. . ---- special consular reports. vol. iii. streets and highways in foreign countries. washington, . pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ vol. iv. port regulations in foreign countries, . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ vol. v. canals and irrigation in foreign countries, . washington, . pp. . ---- _same._ vol. vi. coal and coal consumption in spanish-america. gas in foreign countries. india rubber. washington, . l., pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ gas in foreign countries. washington, . pp. - +iiipp. . ---- _same._ the slave trade in foreign countries. washington, . pp. . _united states fish commission._ report of the commissioner respecting the establishment of fish-cultural stations in the rocky mountain region and gulf states. february , . washington, . iv+ pp., pls. . ---- report on the fisheries of the pacific coast of the united states. by j. w. collins. [extracted from the report of the commissioner for .] washington, . pp., pls. . ---- the chemical composition and nutritive value of food-fishes and aquatic invertebrates. by w. o. atwater. [extracted from the report of the u.s. fish commission for .] washington, . pp., pls. . ---- a preliminary review of the apodal fishes or eels inhabiting the waters of america and europe. by d. s. jordan and b. m. davis. [extracted from the report of the u.s. fish commission for .] washington, . pp., pls. . ---- the fishing vessels and boats of the pacific coast. by j. w. collins. [extracted from the bulletin of the u.s. fish commission for , pp. - .] washington, . pp., pls. . ---- observations on the aquaria of the u.s. fish commission at central station, washington, d.c. by w. p. seal. [extracted from the bulletin of the u.s. fish commission for , pp. - .] washington, . pp., pls. ---- statement showing expenditures during the year ending june , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of an appropriation to reimburse the fish commission for use of steamer _albatross_ in conveying agents of the u.s. to bering sea. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the commissioner submitting estimates of appropriations in connection with the urgent deficiency bill. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of appropriation for the completion of the fish hatchery in vermont. june , . pp. h. r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states geographical and geological survey of the rocky mountain region. contributions to north american ethnology, vol. . washington, . ^o. xviii+ pp. . contents. the cegiha language. by j. o. dorsey. ---- contributions to n. american ethnology, vol. . washington, . ^o. x, - pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. contents. dakota-english dictionary. by s. r. riggs. edited by j. o. dorsey. washington, . united states geological survey. tenth annual report of the united states geological survey to the secretary of the interior, -' . by j. w. powell, director. part i.--geology. [part ii.--irrigation.] washington, . vols. xv, - : viii, - pp., pls. . accompanying papers. general account of the fresh water morasses of the u.s., with a description of the dismal swamp district of virginia and north carolina. by n. s. shaler. the penokee iron-bearing series of michigan and wisconsin. by r. d. irving and c. a. van hise. the fauna of the lower cambrian olenellus zone. by c. d. wolcott. ---- eleventh annual report of the u.s. geological survey to the secretary of the interior, -' . by j. w. powell, director. part ii, irrigation. washington, . xiv, - pp., pls. . ---- monographs, vol. xvi. washington, . ^o. pp., pls. . contents. the paleozoic fishes of north america. by j. s. newbury. ---- bulletin no. . washington, . pp. . contents. index to the known fossil insects of the world, including myriapods and arachnids, by samuel hubbard scudder. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. altitudes between lake superior and rocky mountains, by warren upham. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . xii, pp., pls. . contents. the viscosity of solids, by carl barus. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. the minerals of north carolina, by fred'k augustus georth. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. record of north american geology for to inclusive, by nelson horatio darton. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. a dictionary of altitudes in the united states (second edition), by henry gannett. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. the texan permean and its mesozoic types of fossils, by charles a. white. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. report of work done in the division of chemistry and physics mainly during the fiscal year -' . frank wigglesworth clarke, chief chemist. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. a late volcanic eruption in northern california and its peculiar lava, by joseph silas diller. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. correlation papers. devonian and carboniferous, by henry shaler williams. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. correlation papers. cambrian, by charles doolittle wolcott. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. correlation papers. cretaceous, by charles a. white. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp., pls. . contents. correlation papers. eocene, by william bullock clark. ---- _same._ no. . washington, . pp. . contents. record of north american geology for , by nelson horatio darton. ---- bulletins nos. to . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ no. . [contents already noted.] washington, . l., v+ pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ nos. to . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ no. . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp. . h.r. mis. doc. no. --; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ nos. to . [contents already noted.] washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. --; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ nos. and . [contents already noted]. washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the interior relative to reports of the geological survey [and census bureau] upon irrigation and the reclamation of lands. may , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. _note:_ information as to reports and maps printed and in progress. ---- suggestions for the preparation of manuscript and illustrations for publication by the u.s. geological survey. by w. a. croffut. january, . pp. united states military academy. annual report of the superintendent of the u.s. military academy, . washington, . pp. . ---- report of the board of visitors to the west point academy. december , . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print , copies of the report of the visitors to the military academy, . december , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations to accompany bill (h.r. ) making appropriations for the support of the u.s. military academy for -' . march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- reports from the committee on military affairs, etc., on bill making appropriations for the military academy for -' . + pp. h.r. rep. no. and sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states national museum. bulletin no. . bibliographies of american naturalists. . the published writings of dr. charles girard. by g. brown goode. washington, . vi, pp., portrait. . ---- _same._ no. . a preliminary descriptive catalogue of the systematic collections in economic geology and metallurgy in the u.s. nat. museum. by f. p. dewey. washington, . xviii, pp., pls. . ---- scientific results of explorations of the u.s. fish commission steamer _albatross._ xxii. descriptions of new species of fishes collected in and principally among the santa barbara islands and in the gulf of california. by c. h. gilbert. from proceedings of the u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- the biology of the hymenopterous insects of the family _chalcididæ_. by l. o. howard. from proc. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- a critical review of the characters and variations of the snakes of n. america. by e. d. cope. from proc. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- note on the genus _hiatula_ of lacépède or _tautoga_ of mitchell. by t. gill. from proc. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, p. . [no. .] p. ---- notes on the genus _chonerhinus_ or _xenopterus._ by t. gill. from proceed. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. ---- on the genus _gnathanacanthus_ of bleeker. by t. gill. from proceed. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. ---- notes on the _tetraodontoidea._ by t. gill. from proceed. u.s. nat. mus. v. xiv, pp. - . [no. .] washington. pp., pl. ---- preliminary descriptions of new species of hermit crabs of the genus _eupagurus_ in the u.s. nat. mus. by j. e. benedict. from proc. u.s. nat. mus. v. xv, pp. - . [no. .] washington, . pp. ---- description of two apparently new fly catchers from costa rica. by g. k. cherrie. from proc. u.s. nat. mus. v. xv, pp. - . [no. .] pp. ---- report upon the condition and progress of the u.s. nat. museum during the year ending june , . by g. b. goode. from the report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- list of institutions and foreign and domestic libraries to which it is desired to send future publications of the nat. museum. from the report of the nat. museum, -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. ---- the museums of the future. by g. b. goode. from the report of the nat. museum, -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. . ---- te pito te henua, or easter island. by w. j. thomson. from report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. pls. ---- aboriginal skin dressing; a study based on material in the u.s. nat mus. by o. t. mason. from the report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. ---- the puma or american lion. (_felis concolor_ of linnæus.) by f. w. true. from report of the nat. mus. for -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. ---- animals recently extinct or threatened with extermination, as represented in the collections of the u.s. nat. museum. by f. a. lucas. from report of the nat. mus. for -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pls. ---- the development of the american rail and track, as illustrated by the collection in the u.s. nat. museum. by j. e. watkins. from report of the nat. mus. -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. ---- explorations in newfoundland and labrador in , made in connection with the cruise of the u.s. fish commission schooner _grampus_. by f. a. lucus. from report of the nat. museum, -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. ---- on the bronze buddha in the u.s. nat. museum. by c. dekay. from the report of the nat. museum, -' , pp. - . washington, . pp., pl. ---- preliminary handbook of the department of geology of the u.s. nat. museum. by g. p. merrill. from report of the nat. museum, -' . appendix, pp. - . washington, . pp. ---- descriptive catalogue of the abbott collection of ethnological objects from kilima-njaro, east africa; collected and presented to the u.s. nat. museum by dr. w. l. abbott. from report of the nat. mus. for , pp. - . washington, . pp. united states naval academy. annual register, -' . [with historical sketch.] washington, . ^o. pp. united states naval observatory. observations made during . with three appendices. washington, . ^o. lxxxix+ + + + pp., pls. . h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. appendices. . report upon some of the magnetic observatories of europe. by c. c. marsh, u.s.n. pp., pls. . magnetic observations at the u.s. naval observatory, . by j. a. hoogewerff, u.s.n. pp., pls. . meteorological observations and results at the u.s. naval observatory, - . [by j. r. eastman.] pp. ---- washington observations, . appendix . observations of double stars made at the u.s. naval observatory. part d, - . by asaph hall, washington, . ^o. pp. . _note:_ part was published in as appendix vi to washington observations for . ---- report of the superintendent for the year ending june , . washington, . pp. ---- memorial from practical astronomers for a change of management of the observatory. january , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on naval affairs, adversely on bill (h.r. ) providing for a change in the management of the naval observatory. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. university of california. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill (h.r. ) to set apart land for the use of the lick observatory, etc. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. university of missouri. report from the committee on military affairs to accompany bill (s. ) for the relief of the university of missouri. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. unsell, david. findings of the court of claims in the case of unsell _v._ u.s. january , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. upham, warren. altitudes between lake superior and rocky mountains. washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . upton, j. k. finances of maine. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . ---- summary of national, state, and local indebtedness. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . ---- assessed valuation of property, . pp. ^o. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . utah. report of the governor of utah to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. ---- report on the industrial christian home association of utah. february , . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report [ th] of the commissioner of schools, . pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on territories [and views of the minority] to accompany bill h.r. , entitled a bill for the local government of the territory of utah, and to provide for the election of certain officers in said territory. april , . pp. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. utah commission. report to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. van fossen, john. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove charge of desertion against j. van fossen. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. varigny, henry de. temperature and life. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . vasey, george. monograph of the grasses of the united states and british america. washington, . vi, - , vii-xivpp. . agr'l dep't, division of botany: contributions to nat. herbarium, vol. , no. . venezuela steam transportation company. message from the president of the united states relative to the claim of the venezuela steam transportation company. april , . pp. . sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. viosca, james, _consul._ orchilla in lower california. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . vivian, thomas j. transportation by water in the united states. ^o. pp. u.s. census, : bulletin no. . wadsworth, m. e. michigan mining school, houghton, mich. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . waite, merton benway. description of two new species of _peronospora._ pp., pl. journal of mycology, v. , no. , pp. - . walcott, charles doolittle. correlation papers. cambrian. washington, . pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- the fauna of the lower cambrian or olenellus zone. pp., pls. u.s. geol. survey, tenth annual report, -' , pp. - . wallace, george h., _consul-general._ superphosphates in australia. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- australian wool season of -' . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . walston, louise. historical sketch of smith college. pp., pls. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . wamer, william d., _consul._ the beat-sugar industry of germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . war claims. report from the committee on war claims favoring bill (h.r. ) to authorize the secretary of war to investigate and provide for all claims for the use of church and school buildings for government purposes during the late war. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of louisa q. lovell. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of samuel howard. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of andrew j. duncan. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of stephen moore, admr. of w. hopper. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of cumberland female college of mcminnville, tenn. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of herain johnson. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of book agents of the methodist episcopal church, south. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of heirs of h. cothes. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of estate of d. b. sanders. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of widow of j. w. leftwich. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lagrange synodical college. (for property destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- same. favoring bill for the relief of p. c. montgomery. (for steamer.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of alex'r moffitt. (for property destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of legatees of mark davis. (for property destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of anthony koons. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of estate of f. m. murray. (for coal.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. w. hildreth. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same. favoring bill for the relief of h. m. henson. (for pipe stav_es.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of henry ware. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. h. crider. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for allowance of certain claims reported by the accounting officers of the treasury under act of july , . february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. filhoil _et al._(for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mobile marine dock company. (for use of dock.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of b. & g. cazes. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. h. stovall and w. hughes. (for pipe staves.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of allard and crozier. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ----_ same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. p. chouteau. (for construction of light-draft monitors.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mary h. s. robertson. (for rent.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. a. hall. (for commissions on sales.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of warren hall. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of eliza e. hebert. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of anna c. livingston. (for use of property.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for relief of heirs of wm. pitcher and a. hayford and or's. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for relief of the owners of brig _abby ellen_. (for loss of brig.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for relief of jane l. taylor. (for rails and lumber.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of payne, james & co. (for use of storehouse.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for relief of the representatives of r. r. vandiver. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. a. lynch. (for services.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. d. matthews. (for pay and emolument.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. e. morgan. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mrs. c. n. graves. (for damages to property.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of susannah p. swoope. (for destruction of house.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of randolph wesson. (for a mule.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of henry s. french. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of odon deucatte. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mrs. a. shirley. for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. w. and m. h. glassie and j. c. nash. (for wood.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the union national bank of new orleans. (for seizure of deposits.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of valentine sauppe. (for supplies.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of margaret kennedy. (for timber, etc.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. f. kolbe. (expenses of recruiting.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the heirs of w. d. wilson. (for rent.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. h. jones and t. d. harris. (for use of rolling mill.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of sarah g. smith, executrix of f. l. smith. (for use of ground.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of nemiah garrison, assignee of moses perkins. (for timber.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. l. h. crenshaw. (for mules.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. b. webster. (for services prior to muster.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. s. havens. (for pay and allowance.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. o. donnell. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. galland. (for money expended in raising troops.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of certain persons in nevada. (for money and services in repelling invasions.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of heirs of miguel salinas. (for occupancy of plantation.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. f. brott. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of heirs of s. t. austin. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. mcnairy, executor of a. c. thomson. (for coffins.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief j. h. bugg. (for services prior to muster.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief a. w. pollard. (for services prior to muster.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. b. ennis. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. c. m. travis. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. f. crider. (expenses of recruiting.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of sarah k. t. baker. (for rent of estate.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of heirs of catherine morin. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of samuel fels. (for seized tobacco.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. s. frizell. (for a horse.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of james bishop. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. n. dorr. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of matilda cook. (for a mule.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. g. groom. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. d. and a. s. frobel. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of andrea lutz. (for recruiting expenses.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. c. rudd. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of ann e. heiskell. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of john rhodes and wife. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. s. sammis. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. d. thorne. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of sally s. tate. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. b. mcclintock. (for horse.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of julia a. humphries. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. h. mastin. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of samuel marsh. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of jane linn. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of estate of m. l. broadwell. (for horses.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of merritt rose. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. h. vaughan. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. a. gregory. (for mules.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. v. stirman. (for horses.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to amend the record of alvis beshears. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to pay pennsylvania damages sustained from troops during the war. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to indemnify pennsylvania for money expended in for militia. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. e. woodbridge. (for use of invention.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for relief of st. joseph's catholic church at martinsburg, w. va. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of german evangelical church of martinsburg, w. va. (destruction of property.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the methodist episcopal church of martinsburg, w. va. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. m. shaffer. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. h. strickland. (for pay and allowances.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to examine and settle accounts of certain states and the city of baltimore for moneys expended for military purposes during the war of . february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. j. worcester. (for rank and pay.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of n. b. giddings. (for seized gunpowder.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. f. gibson. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of f. a. bliss. (for property destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of emma c. lovelace and s. d. clark. (for live stock.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the settlement of claims of officers and crews of the navy to certain moieties. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the estate of f. h. nichols. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of b. f. rogers. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to reimburse california, oregon and nevada for moneys expended in the suppression of the rebellion. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. b. payne. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of executors of l. r. marshall. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of rachel dyer. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of alex. stoddart. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the methodist church of huntsville, ala. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of robert spaugh. (for confiscated note.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. m. clapp. february , , pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of sarah a. clapp. (for services as surgeon.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. l. higgins. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of catherine caine. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. f. smith, admr. of d. smith. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of enoch davis. (for balance of bounty.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st. sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of b. f. moody & co. (for balance on contract.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. r. wyrick. (for a mule.) february , . p. h. r rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. s. lee. (for rent.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. b. morrow. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. j. ockerson. (for travel pay.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. j. aldrich. (for cotton.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mary e. atkinson. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of robert travilla. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lucy a. and a. g. lee. (for supplies.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of james regan. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. j. alexander. (for pay for services.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of battelle and evans. (for supplies.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the catholic church at dalton, ga. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the first baptist church of cartersville, ga. (for property destroyed.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. s. saunders. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. m. nalley. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of emeline e. musgrave. (for nursing her stepsons.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of hiram somerville. (for supplies.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. a. spaulding, admr. of s. blue. (for cattle.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of fannie pemberton. (for a boat.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to refer the claim of the cumberland presbyterian church of athens, ala. (for occupancy) to the court of claims. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the presbyterian church of bethel springs, tenn. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. b. bazell. (for expenses of recruiting.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of col. s. k. n. patton. (for pay and allowance.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. d. o'brien. (for supplies.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. p. hartman. (for services.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of george turner. (for services as scout.) february , . p. h.r. rep., no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of nelson mclaughlin. (expenses of recruiting.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. s. johnson. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. m. henry. (for services.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. l. bradley. (for property destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of b. r. hackney. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. h. hoffman. (for property burned.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lydia a. magill adm'r. (for cattle.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. b. beard, and o'rs. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. b. carter. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. donats, and o'rs. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. moore, and o'rs. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the overton hotel company, of memphis, tenn. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of o. f. montgomery, and o'rs. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. l. mclemore. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to authorize the court of claims to hear and determine the claim of the citizens' bank, of louisiana. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the mobile and girard railroad company. (for services.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of n. j. bigley. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. w. schaumburg. (for pay and allowance.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of hamilton crews. (for property destroyed.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mrs. c. b. meeha. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. h. adams. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the surviving partners of j. & o. p. cobb & co., and o'rs. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of o. p. cobb, and or's. (to court of claims.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. l. rhea. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of francis millet. (for supplies.) february , ; d cong., st sess. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the crew of the _wyoming_. (for bounty.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. united states government publications. monthly catalogue. john h. hickcox, editor. vol. viii. washington, d.c., july, . no. . entered as second-class matter at the post office, washington, d.c.\ catalogue. july, . war claims. _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william kendall. (for sutlers' supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of certain citizens of jefferson county, ky. (damages to property.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- same. favoring bill for the relief of g. d. hamilton. (compensation for services.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. grivot. (money taken from louisiana state bank by military order.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of james s. clark. (for cotton.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of o. p. phillips. (for forage.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. antisell. (for timber.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. s. brantly. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. b. cunningham. (for cotton.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. dickson and o'rs. (for rent.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of l. d. sugg. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. poland. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. large. (for horse, &c.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. m. matheny. (for pay as scout.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. a. urquhart. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. gomez. (for loss on patents.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. m. pritchard. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mrs. a. a. h. richards. (for destruction of property.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. h. huson. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the odd fellows' hall assoc. of new orleans. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of gerard wood. (surgeon's pay.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of creditors of the bank of louisiana. (for money seized.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d.c. isgrig. (for a horse.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for a commission to ascertain facts concerning property taken at cynthiana, ky. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. p. poullain. (for cotton.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of james sims. (for stores.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. j. mcconnell. (for horses.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. dittlinger. (for property seized.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. w. handlin. (for salary as judge.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. w. webb. (for restoration and retirement.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. h. montgomery. (for relief from judgment.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the trustees of the methodist episcopal church of martinsburg, w. va. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of st. joseph's catholic church of martinsburg, w. va. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to refund w. virginia the money paid for services during the rebellion. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of l. w. washington. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. s. wilcoxen. (for substitute furnished.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lester noble. (for occupancy, &c.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to facilitate the settlement of claims for arrears of pay and bounty. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the first methodist church of jackson, tenn. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. g. w. brooks. (forfeit of a bond.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of cummings, doyle & co. (for occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. h. hughes, _admr._ of d. unsell. (for a ferry boat.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william bushby. (for board of prisoners.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the representatives of h. w. archer. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of st. charles college. (for occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. l. cousens. (for property seized.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of john sullivan. (for prize money.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. p. alsbury. (for property destroyed.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. s. neet, jr. (horse claim.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. w. carmack. (for pay and allowances.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of alfred smith. (for a mule.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st. sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. burke, admr. of p. kelly. (for supplies.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. w. parish. (for ice furnished hospitals.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. w. boutwell. (for services as scout.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of soloman lusk. (for property destroyed.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. s. priest. (for special service.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of first michigan cavalry. (for expenses.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the heirs of edmund wolf. (for foundry and fixtures destroyed.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief mount zion society. (for use and occupancy.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. h. wyatt. (for medicines, etc.) february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. p. ward. (for stores.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. f. wilson. (for use and occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the estate of a. h. herr. (for use and occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. m. shaffer. (for use and occupancy.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. c. mccool. (for services.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of charles marklein. (for goods seized.) february , . p. h.r. rep no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of f. s. whitney. (for supplies.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- same. favoring bill for the relief of frederick, md. (refund of ransom levied.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of george denny, sr. (for corn.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. m. newman. (for supplies.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of z. turner. (for stores.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. t. bruen. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. s. cameron. (for fuel.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of a. s. core. (settlement of his accounts as collector of revenue.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill (h.r. ) to settle and adjust the claims of any state for defence of the u.s. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of levi starn. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of cyrus martin. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to reimburse the several states for interest on moneys expended in raising troops. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. worthington. (for steamboat.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of i. h. wheat. (for a horse.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. w. white. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william and mary college. (for destruction of property.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. and h. short. (for supplies.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ adversely on bill for the relief of j. w. eppes. (for stores and supplies.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the sureties of d. murphy. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief e. cahalan. (for use of steamboat.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bills for the relief of s. f. engs and a. m. randolph, _et al_. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of dr. nathan fletcher. (for cotton.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of florence masonic lodge, ala. (for building destroyed.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to reimburse kansas for moneys expended. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. w. shacklett. (for stores.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. m. higgins. (for stores.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. k. kirchner. (for stock of goods destroyed.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of e. a. buder. (for goods seized.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. herberer. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. p. randolph. (for supplies.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of h. p. carson. (pay as scout.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. f. jocknick. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. l. peters. (for musical instruments.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ adversely on bill for the relief of s. g. mitchell and e. j. mahon. (for cotton.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of sarah grisson. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. a. field. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. a. danolds. (for care of horses.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. a. swart. (for supplies.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of james miller. (for supplies.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of l. d. allen. (for property seized.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of jackson briscoe. (horse claim.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of l. d. allen. (for stores.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. e. simerley. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william wolfe. (for loss of schooner.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. l. young. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill to settle claims of missouri militia organizations. march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the berks co., pa., agricultural society. (for use of buildings.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. f. rowland. (loss on contract.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of john roach. (balance due on _dolphin_.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of atlantic works, boston. (loss on contract.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of charles gallagher. (loss of vessel and cargo.) march , . + p. h.r. reps. nos. and ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. r. hathaway. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. h. jones and t. d. harris. (for property seized.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william clift. (for wood.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of v. hernandez. (for transportation.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of hagerstown, md. (refund of ransom.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of middletown, md. (refund of ransom.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of william doyle and hudson cooper. (for logs seized.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the owners of columbia bridge, penn. (bridge destroyed.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. k. ponder. (for supplies.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. l. walls. (for supplies.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. t. hundley. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of daniel mcleod. (for loss on contract.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the william boardman. (for loss on contract) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of carr, rogers & co. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of benjamin wilkes. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the methodist church of point pleasant, w. va. (for occupancy.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of thomas moonlight. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mrs. w. h. scanlan. march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess/. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. f. alsup. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ;. d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of t. o. harter. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of s. m. honeycutt. (for services.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. keating. march . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of little rock and memphis r. r. co. (for iron.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of laura e. maddox. (for tobacco seized.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of dabney walker. (for services.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. and e. s. cameron. (for fuel.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of r. and a. e. johnson. (for tobacco seized.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the roman catholic church, jackson, miss. (for property destroyed.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of g. m. hazen and o'rs. (for rent.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of d. dickson and o'rs. (for rent.) march , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of m. v. maddox. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. t. brown. (for services.) april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of j. a. bates. (for cotton.) april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. r. sautter. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ adversely on bill for the relief of john reilly. april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lewis thompson. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. v. neidlinger. (for supplies.) april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of lewis deems. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess/. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of w. a. quarles. (for supplies.) april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of f. a. brown. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of z. j. white. april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of c. c. taggart. (for a substitute.) april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of mary barron (for prize money.) april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of loyal citizens of loudoun co., va. (property destroyed.) april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- _same._ favoring bill for the relief of the christian church of savannah, mo. (for occupancy.) april , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. war department. annual report of the secretary of war, . washington, . pp. . ---- report of the secretary of war; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five volumes. vol. . washington, . pp., maps, pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. contents. annual reports of the military departments, . ---- report of the secretary of war; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five volumes. vol. in parts. washington, . . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. contents. report of the chief of engineers, . vols. ---- report of the secretary of war; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five volumes. vol . washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. contents. report of the chief of ordinance, . ---- report of the secretary of war; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five volumes. vol. iv. washington, . pp., charts, pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. contents. report of the chief signal officer, . ---- report of the secretary of war; being part of the message and documents, st session, d congress. in five vols. vol. . washington, . pp., fol. l. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. contents. reports of the inspector-general of the army. ---- light artillery drill regulations, united states army. adopted october , . washington, . pp., sq. ^o. . ---- infantry drill regulations, united states army. adopted october , . washington, . pp. sq. ^o. . ---- cavalry drill regulations, united states army. adopted october , . washington, . pp. sq. ^o. . ---- alphabetical list of additions made to the war department library from june, , to june, . washington, . pp. . ---- register of the war department, january , . washington, . pp. . ---- supplemental estimates submitted by the secretary of war for - . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill authorizing the secretary of war to lease certain public property. february , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of an appropriation for the purchase of machine guns of small-arms caliber for the fiscal year - . february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- communication from the secretary of war requesting authority to relieve certain officers of the pay department of the army of checkages against their accounts. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimate of deficiency in appropriation for printing and binding for the war department for -' . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of war requesting that the war department library be designated as a depository for government publications. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- list of employés in the department who are not employed as laborers, nor as members of the classified civil service, and who are not specifically authorized by law. april , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the adjutant-general representing the necessity for additional room for the division of military information. may , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- adjutant-general. annual report of the adjutant-general, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- official army register for january, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- compendium of general orders from the adjutant-general's office amending army regulations, . washington, . pp., ^o. ---- ---- the resistance of guns to tangential rupture. washington, . ^o. pp. . ---- board of ordnance and fortifications. report of the board. january , . washington, . pp., pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- report from the committee on printing favoring resolution to print additional copies of the report of the board of ordnance and fortifications. may , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- commissary-general. annual report of the commissary-general of subsistence, . washington, . pp. ---- engineers. annual report of the chief of engineers, . [without appendices.] washington, . xxiii, - pp. . ---- ---- annual report of the chief of engineers, . [with appendices.] vols. washington, . . ---- ---- statement showing the names, etc., of each civilian engineer employed from july, , to june , , in the work of improving rivers and harbors. pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- inspector-general. annual report of the inspector-general to the major-general commanding the army for the year . washington, . pp., fol. l. . ---- ---- annual report of the inspector-general to the secretary of war, for the year . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- report of the inspector-general of the army to the major-general commanding the army. . ( ) report of the inspector-general of the army to the secretary of war. . ( ) report of an inspection of the soldiers' home. washington, . pp., fol. l. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the inspector-general in reference to clothing allowance for ordnance-sergeants. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- judge-advocate-general. annual report of the acting judge-advocate-general. . washington, . pp. . ---- major-general. report of the major-general commanding the army, . washington, . pp, maps. . ---- ordnance officer. annual report of the chief of ordnance, . washington, . pp., pls. . ---- ---- report of the chief of ordnance showing the cost of type guns and other guns. january , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- letter from the chief of ordnance in regard to the disposition of obsolete and unserviceable arms, etc. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- notes on the construction of ordnance. no. . january , . design for an experimental carriage for a -inch b. l. siege howitzer. by capt. william crozier. ^o. pp., pl. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . june , . effects of fire on gun carriages. by e. muzeau. translated by lieut. f. p. peck, ordnance dept. ^o. pp. . ---- ---- _same._ no. . july , . the resistance and shrinkages of built up cannon, with application to united states army ordnance. supplementary to notes on the construction of ordnance no. . by capt. r. birnie. ^o. pp., pls. . ---- paymaster-general. annual report of the paymaster-general of the army. . washington. pp. . ---- quartermaster-general. annual report of the quartermaster-general, . washington, . pp. . ---- signal office. annual report of the chief signal officer to the secretary of war for the year . washington, . pp. ---- ---- annual report of the chief signal officer for the year ending june , . washington, . pp., charts, pls. . h.r. ex. doc. no. , part , v. ; d cong., st sess. appendices. no. . report of the officer in charge of the division of military signaling. p. no. . report of the officer in charge of telegraph division. pp. no. . report of the officer in charge of the verification of official forecasts. pp. no. . report of forecasts of cold waves. pp. no. . report of the professor in charge of the river and flood division. pp., chart. [this appendix contains "practical rules for prediction of flood stages of rivers."] no. . report of officer in charge of state weather services. pp. no. . report of the officer in charge of the stations division. pp. no. . annual report of data division. pp., pls. no. . farewell order of the chief signal officer, june , . pp. no. . report of assistant professor in charge of the instrument division. pp., pls., chart. no. . report of bibliographer and librarian. pp. [includes a list of publications of the u.s. signal service from to july , .] no. . report of supply and miscellaneous division. pp. no. . changes in signal service stations, and annual meteorological summaries for . pp. no. . temperature data, , from signal service and voluntary observers. pp. no. . precipitation data, , from signal service and voluntary observers. pp. no. . dates of the first and last killing frosts for the season -' . pp. no. . international pressure and storm charts. by a. w. greely. pp., charts. ---- ---- charts showing "average monthly cloudiness" in the united states. prepared under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . charts, folio. ---- ---- charts showing "isobars, isotherms, and winds" in the united states for each month from january, , to december, . prepared under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . charts, ^o. ---- ---- charts showing the "probability of rainy days," prepared from observations of eighteen years. prepared under the direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . charts, folio. ---- ---- diurnal fluctuations of atmospheric pressure at twenty-nine selected stations in the united states. by a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . v+ pp., ^o. ---- ---- international monthly charts of mean pressures and wind directions at a. m., washington mean time, for and . prepared under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . charts, folio. ---- ---- mean temperature and their corrections in the united states. prepared under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer, by a. mcadie. washington, . x+ pp., ^o. ---- ---- letter from the secretary of war transmitting a report of the chief signal officer of the army on the climatic conditions of the state of texas. washington, . ^o. pp., charts. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- ---- normal temperature charts by decades for the united states and the dominion of canada. prepared under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . charts, folio. ---- ---- charts showing average velocity and direction of the wind, prepared from observations for seventeen years. [washington, .] charts, folio. ---- ---- charts showing maximum and minimum temperatures by decades for all years. [washington, .] charts, folio. ---- ---- summaries of international meteorological observations. january to june, . washington, june, . [discontinued.] ---- ---- instructions for the use of the rain gauge. washington, . pp. ---- ---- index of meteorological observations in the united states. compiled in records division under direction of a. w. greely, chief signal officer. washington, . pp. ^o. _milliograph_. ---- ---- extracts from the u.s. statutes at large affecting the signal corps of the army. (december, , to march, .) washington, . pp. ---- ---- special orders. -' . washington. ^o. ---- ---- general orders. -' . washington. ^o. ---- ---- circulars. -' . washington. ^o. ---- ---- publications of the u.s. signal service from to july , . pp. war dep't, signal office: annual report , appendix no. . ---- surgeon-general. annual report of the surgeon-general of the army, . washington, . pp. . ---- ---- communication relative to bookbinding for the library of the surgeon-general's office. march , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. warington, robert. six lectures on the investigations at rothamsted experimental station delivered under the provisions of the lawes agricultural trust. washington, . pp., pls. . agr'l dep't, office of experiment stations: bulletin no. . war of the rebellion. a compilation of the official records of the union and confederate armies. published under the direction of the secretary of war. series , vol. in parts. part , reports. parts , , , correspondence. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter xlvi. operations in louisiana and trans-mississippi and territories. january -june , . ---- _same._ series , vol. in parts. part , reports, correspondence, etc. part , correspondence. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter xlvii. operations in south carolina and florida, and on the georgia coast. january -november , . ---- _same._ series , vol. , in parts. part , reports. part , correspondence. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter xlviii. operations in southeastern virginia and in north carolina. may -june , . ---- _same._ series , vol. , in parts. part , reports, correspondence, etc. part , correspondence. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter xlix. operations in northern virginia, maryland, and pennsylvania. may -august , . ---- _same._ series , vol. , in parts. parts - , reports. parts - , correspondence, etc. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter . the atlanta, ga., campaign. may -september , . ---- _same._ series , vol. , in parts. part , reports. part , correspondence, etc. washington, . vols. . contents. chapter li. operations in kentucky, southwest virginia, tennessee, mississippi, alabama, and north georgia (the atlanta campaign excepted). may -november , . ---- _same._ atlas to accompany the official records of the union and confederate armies. compiled by capt. calvin d. cowles. parts - . washington, -' , folio. . _note:_ this atlas is issued in parts of five plates each. ---- estimate of an appropriation for battle lines, and sites for tablets at antietam. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. warfield, e. d. miami university. sketch. pp., pl. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . warren, john. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of john warren. (to amend record.) march , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. washburn, albert h. beet culture in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- german cereal and live-stock statistics. and . pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- fishery legislation in germany. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . washington. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill granting lands to the state of washington for a fish hatchery. january , . p. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- memorial of the legislature favoring an appropriation for the construction of a ship canal from salmon bay, on puget sound, to lake union, etc. march , , pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. washington, lewis w. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of l. w. washington. (for stores.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. waterway. report from the committee on interstate and foreign commerce favoring joint resolution to promote the improvement of the waterway from the head of lake superior to the sea. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. watkins, john elfreth. the development of the american rail as illustrated by the collection in the u.s. nat. museum. from the report of the nat. mus., -' , pp. - . washington, . pp. ---- the ramsden dividing engine. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp., pls. . smithsonian pub. no. . webb, alexander r., _consul._ commerce of the philippine islands. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . webster, f. m. notes on the grain toxoptera. pp. insect life, v. . nos. - , pp. - . ---- early published references to some of our injurious insects. pp. insect life, v. , nos. - , pp. - . ---- report of entomological work of the season of . pp. agr'l dep't, division of entomology: bulletin no. , pp. - . ---- william. report from the secretary of state upon the claim of webster against great britain. january , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. wedderburn, alexander j. special report on the extent and character of food adulterants, including state and other laws relating to foods and beverages. washington, . pp. . agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. . wedgwood, william w. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill granting an honorable discharge to w. w. wedgwood. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. weeks, stephen b. raleigh's settlement on roanoke island. an historical survival. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep., , pp. - . welsh, william. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of william welsh. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. wernham, f. h. on aerial locomotion. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . wertheim, nicholas, _consul_. the imperial moscow technical school. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . west, bluford. report from the committee on indian affairs favoring bill for the relief of the estate of b. west. (for use of salt works by cherokee nation.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. west virginia. report from the committee on claims to accompany s. res. in relation the refunding a portion of the direct tax of to w. va. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on claims favoring bill to refund w. virginia money paid reg't w. va. militia. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. western paving and supply company. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for payment of claim of the western paving and supply company. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. wheaton, w. r., and chamberlain, c. h. report from the committee on public lands favoring bill for the relief of wheaton and chamberlain. (clerk hire advanced in land office.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. white, charles abiathar. the texan permean and its mesozoic types of fossils. washington, . pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- correlation papers. cretaceous. washington, . pp., pls. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- emerson e., _ll. d._ promotions and examinations in graded schools. washington, . pp. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . ---- technical training in american schools. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . ---- f. f. report from the committee on claims favoring bill to pay white for a horse taken by the government. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. wigfall, f. h., _consul_. labor in leeds. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . willard, a., _consul_. commerce and mines of sonora. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . willits, edwin. the coöperation of the department of agriculture with the educational forces in the united states relating to agriculture. washington, . pp. williams, charles p., _consul._ navigation from paris to the sea. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . ---- henry shaler. correlation papers. devonian and carboniferous. washington, . pp. . u.s. geol. survey: bulletin no. . ---- w. a., _d. d._ franklin college, new athens, ohio. sketch. pp. interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , , pp. - . willoughby, william f. state activities and politics. (abstract.) pp. am. hist. assoc. rep. , pp. - . wilson, ezra a. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of e. a. wilson. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- thomas. criminal anthropology. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . ---- william f. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. f. wilson. (for use and occupancy.) january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. winder, william a. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to restore w. a. winder to the u.s. army, etc. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. winlock, william crawford. the progress of astronomy for , . from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . winn, d. m. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of d. m. winn, former postmaster. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. winton, a. l. on the use of sodium chlorine in the lindo-gladding method of determining potash. pp. agr'l dep't, division of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . wise, curtis p. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to remove charge of desertion against c. p. wise. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. witskowski, b., and gore, j. h. the history of geodetic operations in russia. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . woodburn, james albert. higher education in indiana. washington, . pp., pls. . interior dep't, bureau of education: circular of information no. , . woodman, george e. the proper place of form study in education. pp. clarke, i. e., art and industry, pt. , pp. - . woodruff, henry. memorial.--claim against venezuela in respect to first mortgage bonds of "ferro-carril del este." march , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. woods, c. d. feeding stuffs low in carbohydrates. pp. agr'l dep't, div. of chemistry: bulletin no. , pp. - . woodward, robert simpson. mathematical theories of the earth. from the smithsonian report for . washington, . pp. . smithsonian pub. no. . worcester, alfred j. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill for the relief of a. j. worcester. (for pay and grade.) january , . pp. sen. rep, no. ; d cong., st sess. workman, thomas c. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of t. c. workman. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. world's fair, chicago. mr. henderson's resolution of inquiry concerning the world's fair. pp. h.r. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st. sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations favoring resolution for inquiry touching the management of the world's fair and expenditures therefor. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (h.r. ) authorizing the secretary of war to detail certain army officers to special duty in connection with the world's fair. february , . p. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- annual report of the world's fair columbian commission, and other papers relating to the exposition. february , . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- letter from the secretary of the treasury requesting an appropriation for the government exhibit. march , . p. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on banking and currency favoring bill (h.r. ) to authorize a national bank at chicago to establish a branch office upon the grounds of the exposition. april , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- estimates for appropriations for the board of lady managers for -' . pp. h.r. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. ---- report from the committee on appropriations on the management of the world's fair, and expenditures, etc. [with testimony.] may , . xv+ pp., pl. . h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. worthington, john, _consul_. the electric lighting of malta. pp. u.s. consular reports no. , pp. - . wright, henry h. adverse report from the committee on military affairs on bill for the relief of h. h. wright. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. wyoming. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill (s. ) granting to wyoming certain lands in the fort d. a. russell military reservation for fairgrounds. february , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. yaquina bay, or. letter from the secretary of war transmitting report of improvements the entrance of yaquina bay. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. yellowstone national park. report of the superintendent, to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. ---- letter from the secretary of the interior relative to certain settlers within the yellowstone national park. february , . pp. sen. ex. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. yosemite national park. report of the acting superintendent to the secretary of the interior, . washington, . pp. yosemite valley and mariposa big tree grove. memorial. february , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. young, wm. f. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of w. f. young. february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. zanone, julius c. report from the committee on claims favoring bill for the relief of j. c. zanone. (for rent of building.) february , . pp. h.r. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. zell, henry. report from the committee on military affairs favoring bill to retire h. zell. january , . pp. sen. rep. no. ; d cong., st sess. zoological park. letter from the secretary of the smithsonian institution recommending an increase of appropriation for maintenance of the park. april , . pp. sen. mis. doc. no. ; d cong., st sess. life-size portrait etching of george washington by henri le fort, of paris. this great work by the president of the french society of etchers has been pronounced everywhere to be a masterpiece of art. both the french and american governments promptly gave it the stamp of their approval by becoming early purchasers. we have bought from the artist all the copies remaining in his possession, and offer them as follows: signed artist's remarque proof, on japan paper $ . ordinary prints . henri le fort's george washington. between the two windows of the late general grant's library is a large portrait bust of washington, engraved by henri le fort, said by mr. mclane and others to be the best presentment they had seen of the great founder of american independence. mr. huntington, a well-known amateur, possesses three hundred portraits of washington, and he claims that henri le fort's etching is the best. this celebrated french aquafortist obtained the following rewards: a medal at the paris salon in ; a medal at the boston exposition in ; a diploma of honor at caen.; a medal at amsterdam, and one this year at antwerp. all these medals were awarded on henri le fort's life-size etching of george washington.--_daily news_ (_philadelphia_), _december , _. life-size portrait etching of christopher columbus. by f. focillon, of paris. this is a companion picture to le fort's washington by le fort's great rival, whose etchings are well known in america. his work has not quite the boldness of le fort, but it excels in attention to fine detail, and has received unqualified approval from critics. there have been printed twenty-five special remarque proofs and double remarque proofs on parchment. later on will be printed remarque proofs on japan paper and on holland paper. we can supply at present-- special proofs on parchment, signed, remarques (the centre remarque being a pen sketch) $ . double remarque proofs, parchment, signed . address, w. h. lowdermilk & co., washington, d.c. - f street. a manual of congressional practice (the u.s. red book). by thomas h. mckee. being an outline of the legislative and parliamentary proceedings, or review of daily practice in the senate and house of representatives, showing the actual method of work from the organization to the close of a congress. royal vo, pages, red roan binding. postpaid, $ . . life of abraham lincoln. by ward h. lamon. vo, cloth, with portraits. postpaid, $ . . we have a few copies of this book, which has long been out of print and rare, and now offer it at the original published price, although it has commanded a premium. on account of the interesting particulars of lincoln's early life this work will always be valuable, and this is a chance which should not be neglected. a most valuable contribution to the science of anthropology. scatalogic rites of all nations. a dissertation upon the employment of excrementitious remedial agents in religion, therapeutics, divination, love philters, etc., in all parts of the globe. by captain john g. bourke, u.s. army, author of "the snake dance of the moquis," etc. vo, pp., cloth, gilt top, uncut. postpaid, $ . brief synopsis of contents. urine dance of the zuñis--feast of fools in europe--human excrement used in food by the insane and others--urine in human food--ordure of the grand lama of thibet--the stercorauistes--bacchic orgies of the greeks--the mushroom in connection with the faries--the onion adored by the egyptians--sacred intoxication and phallism-- druidical use of the mistletoe--cow dung and cow urine in religion --excrement gods of romans and egyptians--obscene tenures--obscene survivals in the games of english rustics--urine and ordure as signs of mourning--urine in ceremonial observances--initiation of warriors--hunting and fishing--divination--omens--dreams--ordeals and punishments--insults--mortuary ceremonies--myths--amulets and talismans--witchcraft--sorcery--charms--spells--incantations--magic --temple or sacred prostitution--phallic superstition in france and elsewhere--worship of cocks and hens--persistence of filth remedies--easter eggs, etc. any of the above sent on receipt of price by-- w. h. lowdermilk & co., washington, d.c. - f street. file was produced from images generously made available by the posner memorial collection (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/posner/)) transcriber's note led by the belief that the spelling and punctuation of each entry is based directly on the original title pages no intentional 'corrections' have been made to the content. the text in this e-book is as close to the original printed text as pgdp proofing and postprocessing could get it. in some entries larger spaces are used as spacers between bibliographic fields instead of punctuation. these have been retained to the best of our ability and are represented as non-breaking spaces. a catalogue of books in english later than , forming a portion of the library of robert hoe new york ex libris robert hoe volume ii catalogue volume ii one hundred copies only, including three upon imperial japanese vellum--printed by the university press, cambridge a catalogue of books in english later than forming a portion of the library of robert hoe [illustration] volume ii privately printed new york · this catalogue was compiled by carolyn shipman the catalogue haden, sir francis seymour.--the etched work of rembrandt critically considered. by francis seymour haden, . . . .    copies privately printed for the author. [london, metchim & son] _ to, paper._ first edition. three photogravure plates. haden, sir francis seymour.--about etching. part i. notes by mr. seymour haden on a collection of etchings and engravings by the great masters lent by him to the fine art society to illustrate the subject of etching. part ii. an annotated catalogue of the examples exhibited of etchers and painter-engravers' work. illustrated with an original etching by mr. seymour haden, and fifteen facsimiles of etchings. [london] the fine art society . . . . _ to, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. haebler, konrad.--the early printers of spain and portugal   by konrad haebler   london printed for the bibliographical society at the chiswick press   march for . _royal to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ woodcut frontispiece and thirty-three plates. no. iv. of illustrated monographs issued by the bibliographical society. hafiz.--the d[=i]v[=a]n, written in the fourteenth century, by [persian name] khw[=a]ja shamsu-d-d[=i]n muham-mad-i [h.][=a]fi[z:]-i-sh[=i]r[=a]z[=i] otherwise known as lis[=a]nu-l-[.gh=]aib and tarjum[=a]nu-l-asr[=a]r. translated for the first time out of the persian into english prose, with critical and explanatory remarks, with an introductory preface, with a note on s[=u]f[=i],ism, and with a life of the author, by lieut.-col. h. wilberforce clarke, . . . [calcutta] . _ to, two volumes, cloth._ haggard and lang.--the world's desire by h. rider haggard and andrew lang. london: longmans, green, and co. . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. haliburton, thomas chandler.--the letter bag of the great western; or, life in a steamer. . . . by the author of "the sayings and doings of samuel slick." london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first english edition. haliburton, thomas chandler.--the attaché; or, sam slick in england. by the author of "the clockmaker; or, sayings and doings of sam slick," &c. . . . second edition. [first series] london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ haliburton, thomas chandler.--the attaché; or, sam slick in england. by the author of "the clockmaker; or, sayings and doings of sam slick," . . . second and last series. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of the second series. haliburton, thomas chandler.--the clockmaker; or the sayings and doings of samuel slick, of slickville. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . [-m. dccc. xl.] _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ these sketches, as far as chapter xxi., originally appeared in "the nova scotian" newspaper. volume iii, third series, is the first edition, dated . three frontispieces drawn and etched by a. hervieu. haliburton, thomas chandler.--the old judge; or, life in a colony. by the author of "sam slick, the clock maker," &c . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first english edition. haliburton, thomas chandler.--rule and misrule of the english in america. by the author of "sam slick, the clockmaker," . . . london: colburn and co., . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ presumably the first issue of the first english edition, published under the same title as the first new york edition of the same date. as the title-page of the following issue omits the words "rule and misrule," it is probable that the alteration to "the english in america" was made in deference to english sensibilities. the half-titles in both issues are the same, "the english in america." haliburton, thomas chandler.--the english in america. by the author of "sam slick, the clockmaker," &c . . . london: colburn and co., . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ presumably the second issue of the first english edition. haliburton, thomas chandler.--sam slick's wise saws and modern instances; or, what he said, did, or invented. . . . second [english] edition. . . . london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ haliburton, thomas chandler.--nature and human nature. by the author of "sam slick, the clockmaker," &c. . . . london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. halifax, charles montague, earl of.--poems on several occasions. by the right honourable charles earl of halifax. london: printed [for e. curll &c] in the year m d c c x v. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ portrait by m. van der gucht. collation: title, a (verso blank). "on the earl of halifax's poems. by mr. addison," (verses). a , dedication "to the right honourable george, earl of halifax," the author's nephew, by the editor. a (misprinted a )-a (verso blank). preface, a , repeated. poems, etc., pages - . memoirs, pages - . copy of the will of lord halifax, pages i-viii. halifax, charles montague, earl of.--(i.) the works and life of the right honourable charles, late earl of halifax. including the history of his lordship's times. london: printed for e. curll, . . . j. pemberton, . . . and j. hooke, . . . m dccxv. . . . (ii.) [same title as in the preceding item.] _ vo, cambridge calf._ portrait by m. van der gucht. another issue of the same edition, with a general title-page and without the verses by addison. the sheets of the text are the same as in the other issue. collation: general title (i. above), a (verso blank). dedication to george, earl of halifax, a -a (verso blank). preface, a . second title (ii. above), a , repeated. the remainder of the volume is like the preceding issue. hall, h. byng.--the adventures of a bric-a-brac hunter, by major h. byng hall . . . london: tinsley brothers . . . . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ hallam, henry.--introduction to the literature of europe, in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. by henry hallam . . . london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxvii. [-xxxix.] _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. illustrated by the insertion of four hundred and fifty portraits, the majority being proofs, of which one hundred and five are on india paper. the portraits include fine examples of engraving by faithorne, hollar, marshall, crispin de pass, delaram, nanteuil, ficquet, vertue, and others, and a drawing of sir john davies. hallam, henry.--introduction to the literature of europe, in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. by henry hallam, . . . third edition. . . . london; john murray, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, boards, uncut edges._ hallam, henry.--the constitutional history of england from the accession of henry vii. to the death of george ii. by henry hallam. fifth edition . . . . london; john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ hallam, henry.--view of the state of europe during the middle ages. [and supplemental notes] by henry hallam. . . . ninth edition. . . . london: john murray, . . . . [- ] _ vo, three volumes, boards, uncut edges._ halleck, fitz-greene.--fanny. . . . new york: published by c. wiley & co. . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original paper covers, by rivière._ first edition, with the half-title. halleck, fitz-greene.--alnwick castle, with other poems. new york: published by g. & c. carvill, . . . elliott & palmer, printers, . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original brown paper wrappers bound in, by david._ first edition. halleck, fitz-greene.--alnwick castle, with other poems. by fitz-greene halleck. new york: harper & brothers, . . . . _ mo, brown satin covers._ engraved title. halleck, fitz-greene.--the poetical works of fitz-greene halleck. now first collected. illustrated with steel engravings, from drawings by american artists. second edition. new york: d. appleton & company . . . mdcccxlviii. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait, engraved title, and five plates by durand, huntington, leutze, and others. halleck and drake.--the poetical writings of fitz-greene halleck, with extracts from those of joseph rodman drake. edited by james grant wilson. new york: d. appleton and company, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed on large paper. two portraits, one by j. cheney after c. l. elliott, engraved title-page, and six other plates after leutze, durand, weir, and others. halleck, fitz-greene.--see drake, j. r. halliwell-phillipps, james orchard, _editor_.--the jokes of the cambridge coffee-houses in the seventeenth century. edited by james orchard halliwell, esq. cambridge; thomas stevenson; . . . . _ mo, red morocco, gilt top, by alfred matthews._ j. payne collier's copy, with his autograph on the title-page. halliwell-phillipps, james orchard.--the life of william shakespeare. including many particulars respecting the poet and his family never before published. by james orchard halliwell . . . london: john russell smith . . . mdcccxlviii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with seventy-six illustrations. halliwell-phillipps, james orchard.--palatine anthology; a collection of ancient poems and ballads, relating to lancashire and cheshire. edited by james orchard halliwell, . . . london: for private circulation only, [c. and j. adlard] m. d.ccc.l. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ one of ten copies printed upon thick paper. halliwell-phillipps and halpin.--illustrations of the fairy mythology of shakespeare. by j. o. halliwell. and oberon's vision. (in "a midsummer night's dream.") illustrated by a comparison with lylie's "endymion." by rev. n. j. halpin. [london]. printed for the shakespeare society, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ the first sub-title is dated , the second, . halliwell-phillipps, james orchard, _editor_.--the nursery rhymes of england. collected chiefly from oral tradition. edited by james o. halliwell, esq. the sixth edition. london: john russell smith [n. d.] _ mo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece, engraved title, and woodcuts. halpin, nicholas john.--see halliwell and halpin. halsey, r. t. haines.--pictures of early new york on dark blue staffordshire pottery together with pictures of boston and new england philadelphia, the south and west by r. t. haines halsey [coloured bust of washington] dodd, mead and company new york . . . m dccc xcix. _imperial vo, vellum boards, decorated, uncut edges._ one of thirty copies printed on imperial japan paper. one hundred and sixty-six coloured illustrations. halsey, r. t. haines.--the boston port bill as pictured by a contemporary london cartoonist by r. t. h. halsey [coloured medallion portrait] new york the grolier club [gilliss press] m cmiv. _ vo, original calf, uncut edges._ three hundred and twenty-five copies printed. thirty-three illustrations. hamerton, philip gilbert.--the isles of loch awe and other poems. by philip gilbert hamerton . . . london: w. e. painter and sons . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. sixteen illustrations, some tinted. hamerton, philip gilbert.--a painters camp. in three books . . . in england . . . scotland . . . france. london: macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hamerton, philip gilbert.--contemporary french painters. an essay by philip gilbert hamerton, . . . with sixteen photographic illustrations. seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . london. m dccc lxviii. _royal to, decorated cloth, gilt edges._ hamerton, philip gilbert.--etching and etchers. by philip gilbert hamerton   london. macmillan & co. . _imperial vo, brown levant morocco, the back panels, side border and centre ornament of a grolier pattern inlaid with red morocco, gilt over untrimmed edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition, and one of the few copies left untrimmed. thirty-five etchings after seymour haden, cope, redgrave, rembrandt, daubigny, jacquemart, etc. hamerton, philip gilbert.--etching and etchers. . _imperial vo, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ another copy. hamerton, philip gilbert.--etching & etchers by philip gilbert hamerton . . . third edition london. macmillan and co. . _ to, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ forty-eight plates. hamerton, philip gilbert.--painting in france after the decline of classicism. an essay by philip gilbert hamerton, . . . with fourteen photographic illustrations. seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . london. mdccclxix. _royal to, half maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ hamerton, philip gilbert.--the unknown river by philip gilbert hamerton. illustrated by the author, [vignette] seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . london. mdccclxxi. _ vo, cloth, gilt edges._ title-vignette and thirty-six plates by the author, on india paper. hamerton, philip gilbert.--chapters on animals. by philip gilbert hamerton, . . . with twenty etchings by j. veyrassat and karl bodmer. seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . london, mdccclxxiv. _ to, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hamerton, philip gilbert.--the etcher's handbook. by philip gilbert hamerton . . . giving an account of the old processes, and of processes recently discovered. illustrated by the author . . . second edition. charles robertson & co . . . london . _crown vo, cloth._ six etchings. hamerton, philip gilbert.--the sylvan year. leaves from the note-book of raoul dubois. by philip gilbert hamerton, . . . with twenty etchings by the author and other artists . . . seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . london, mdccclxxvi. _ to, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hamerton, philip gilbert.--round my house. notes of rural life in france in peace and war by philip gilbert hamerton . . . seeley, jackson, and halliday . . . london. mdccclxxvi. _crown vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. hamerton, philip gilbert.--modern frenchmen. five biographies. by philip gilbert hamerton . . . seeley, jackson, and halliday . . . london. mdccclxxviii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. the "five frenchmen" are victor jacquemont, henri perreyve, françois rude, jean jacques ampère, and henri regnault. hamerton, philip gilbert.--the life of j. m. w. turner, r. a. by philip gilbert hamerton . . . with nine illustrations, etched by a. brunet-debaines. seeley, jackson, & halliday . . . london. mdccclxxix. _post vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ in addition to the nine plates, numerous other illustrations are interspersed in the text. hamerton, philip gilbert.--the intellectual life.   by philip gilbert hamerton.   with a portrait of leonardo da vinci, etched by leopold flameng . . . third edition.   london: macmillan and co.    . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ hamerton, philip gilbert.--the graphic arts   a treatise on the varieties of drawing, painting, and engraving in comparison with each other and with nature   by philip gilbert hamerton . . . london seeley, jackson, and halliday, . . . .   _royal to, vellum boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy of the first edition, with fifty-four illustrations. hamerton, philip gilbert.--human intercourse   by philip gilbert hamerton . . . london   macmillan and co.    . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hamerton, philip gilbert.--drawing and engraving   a brief exposition of technical principles & practice   by philip gilbert hamerton . . . with numerous illustrations selected or commissioned by the author   london and edinburgh   adam and charles black    .   _ to, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ coloured frontispiece, twenty-two other plates, and numerous illustrations in the text. hamerton, philip gilbert.--man in art studies in religious and historical art, portrait, and genre by philip gilbert hamerton, . . . with forty-six plates in line-engraving, mezzotint, photogravure, hyalography, and wood engraving   london   macmillan and co . . . . _royal to, vellum boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy of the first edition, with plates on japan paper. hamilton, alexander.--observations on certain documents contained in no. v & vi. of "the history of the united states for the year " in which the charge of speculation against alexander hamilton, late secretary of the treasury is fully refuted.   written by himself.   philadelphia: printed for john fenno, by john bioren .   _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ first edition, almost the whole of which was destroyed by hamilton's friends. hamilton, lady anne.--secret history of the court of england, from the accession of george the third to the death of george the fourth; including, among other important matters, full particulars of the mysterious death of the princess charlotte.   by the right honorable, lady anne hamilton . . . london: william henry stevenson . . . . _ vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of count grammont, by count a. hamilton.   translated from the french, with notes and illustrations. second edition, revised. . . . london: printed by t. bensley, . . . for j. white, &c . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, olive levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges._ first octavo edition.   thirty-nine portraits by gardiner, bocquet, and others, and one view. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of count grammont, by anthony hamilton.   a new edition. to which are prefixed, a biographical sketch of count hamilton, and a translation of the epistle to count grammont. illustrated by sixty-four portraits, engraved by edward scriven, &c. . . . london: printed for james carpenter, . . . and william miller, . . . .   _ to, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy.   over one hundred portraits added, including proofs of the scriven plates, rare old copper-plates, brilliant mezzotints, and steel engravings.   many of the plates are in two states, and one is printed in colours. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of count grammont, by count a. hamilton.   translated from the french, with notes and illustrations. a new edition.   london: w. h. reid . . . .   _royal vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ sixty-eight portraits engraved by bocquet, bartolozzi, and others. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of the court of charles the second, by count grammont, with numerous additions and illustrations, as edited by sir walter scott.   also: the personal history of charles, including the king's own account of his escape and preservation after the battle of worcester, as dictated to pepys.   and the boscobel tracts, or, contemporary narratives of his majesty's adventures, from the murder of his father to the restoration.   carefully edited, with additional illustration.   london: henry g. bohn, . . . .   _post vo, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of nell gwyn. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of the court of charles the second. .   _post vo, half rose levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by hardy-mennil._ another copy, without the portrait of nell gwyn, but with eight inserted plates. hamilton, count anthony.--memoirs of count grammont by anthony hamilton edited, with notes, by sir walter scott   with a portrait of the author and thirty-three etchings by l. boisson on india paper from original compositions by c. delort.   in two volumes.   london   john c. nimmo . . . mdccclxxxix. _ to, two volumes, blue levant morocco, filleted back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ the only copy printed on special hand-made paper, with the etchings in five and six states from the original outline to the finished proof. hamilton, count anthony.--fairy tales and romances, written by count anthony hamilton . . . translated from the french by m. lewis, h. t. ryde, and c. kenney.   london:   henry g. bohn . . . mdcccxlix.   _post vo, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ portrait of count hamilton by hinchliff after harding. hamilton, edward.--a catalogue raisonné of the engraved works of sir joshua reynolds, p. r. a. from to .   to which is added a short biographical sketch of each engraver.   by edward hamilton, . . . london: p. & d. colnaghi and co., . . . . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ hamilton, emma, lady.--memoirs of lady hamilton; with illustrative anecdotes of horatio, lord viscount nelson, and many other of her friends and contemporaries.   third edition.   london: printed for henry colburn.    .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of lady hamilton by meyer after romney. hamilton, walter.--french book-plates   a handbook for ex-libris collectors, by walter hamilton, . . . london: george bell & sons, . . . [chiswick press] m dccc xcij.   _ vo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   frontispiece and numerous other full-page cuts and illustrations in the text. no. of thirty-six copies printed on japanese vellum. hamilton, walter.--french book-plates   by walter hamilton, . . . london: george bell & sons, . . . [chiswick press]   mdcccxcvi.   _ vo, japanese paper boards, uncut edges._ no. of thirty-eight copies printed on japanese vellum, with numerous woodcuts. hamilton, william.--poems on several occasions.   by william hamilton of bangour, esquire. edinburgh:   printed for w. gordon . . . mdcclx. _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ portrait. hancock, john.--an oration; delivered march , , at the request of the inhabitants of the town of boston: to commemorate the bloody tragedy of the fifth of march .   by the honorable john hancock, esq; . . . boston: printed by edes and gill, in queen street, m, dcc, lxxiv. _ to, brown morocco, gilt back._ inserted are three portraits of hancock, an engraving of the massacre in king street, and a manuscript document dated october , , and signed by joseph jackson, john hancock, samuel pemberton, and jonathan mason, selectmen of boston. handel and smith.--anecdotes of george frederick handel, and john christopher smith.   with select pieces of music, composed by j. c. smith, never before published.   london: printed by w. bulmer and co. . . . .   _folio, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of handel by e. harding after denner and of smith by harding after zoffany, and thirty-four pages of music score. hansard, george agar.--trout and salmon fishing in wales.   by george agar hansard.   london: printed for longman, . . . .   _post vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ hansard, thomas curson.--typographia: an historical sketch of the origin and progress of the art of printing; with practical directions for conducting every department in an office: with a description of stereotype and lithography.   illustrated by engravings, biographical notices, and portraits.   by t. c. hansard.   printed for baldwin, cradock, and joy: london.    .   _royal vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ hansard, thomas curson.--treatises on printing and type-founding; by t. c. hansard . . . edinburgh: adam and charles black . . . mdcccxli. _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ harding, j. d.--the principles and practice of art.   by j. d. harding.    with illustrations drawn and engraved by the author.   london: chapman and hall, . . . m dccc xlv.   _folio, cloth, uncut edges._ twenty-three plates. harding, j. d.--the guide and companion to the "lessons on art."   by j. d. harding, . . . london: day and son, . . . [n. d.]   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fifteen plates, some tinted, and illustrations in the text. hardy, thomas.--the hand of ethelberta   a comedy in chapters by thomas hardy . . . with eleven illustrations . . . london smith, elder, & co., . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. hardy, thomas.--the woodlanders   by thomas hardy . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hardy, thomas.--tess of the d'urbervilles   a pure woman faithfully presented by thomas hardy james r. osgood, m^{c}ilvaine and co., . . . london .   _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hardy, w. j.--book-plates   by w. j. hardy, . . . london kegan paul, trench, trübner & co., . . . mdcccxciii.   _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed: with woodcut title, and forty illustrations on japan paper. harford, john s.--the life of michael angelo buonarotti.   with translations of many of his poems and letters.   also memoirs of savonarola, raphael, and vittoria colonna.   by john s. harford . . . second edition   london: longman &c . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ twenty-one steel portraits, etc. harley pamphlets.--(i.) a dialogue between louis le petite, [erasmus lewis] and harlequin le grand. [harley] containing, many s----e riddles, c----t intrigues, welch witticisms, pedagogue puns, s----y quibbles, and occasional conundrums. . . . sold by the booksellers.   [n. d.] (ii.) a short history of the parliament. . . . [by robert walpole] london: printed for t. warner, . . . .   price d.   (iii.) neck or nothing: in a letter to the right honourable the lord ---- being a supplement to the short history of the parliament.   also the new scheme (mention'd in the foresaid history) which the english and scotch jacobites have concerted for bringing in the pretender, popery and slavery.   with the true character or secret history of the present ministry.   written by his grace john duke . . . [john dunton] . . . london, printed by t. warner . . . .   price d.   (iv.) queen robin: or the second part of neck or nothing.   detecting the secret reign of the four last years.   in a familiar dialogue between mr. truman (alias mr. john dunton) and his friend, meeting accidentaly at the proclaiming king george. . . . [by john dunton]   london: printed for m. brudenell, . . .   [n. d.]   (v.) the pudding plot detected: in a letter to mr. j----n d--t--n, author of neck or nothing. . . . london: printed, and sold by james bettenham, . . . m dcc xviii.   (price two-pence.)   _ vo, five works in one volume, half red levant morocco, uncut edges._ "neck or nothing" is a violent attack on harley and bolingbroke by john dunton, who got himself into trouble for writing it, and was some time in hiding. in another pamphlet, "impeachment, or great britain's charge . . . ," published some months later, dunton describes himself on the title as "the unknown author of 'neck or nothing,' who being buried alive [i.e., forced to abscond] for daring to call a spade a spade." harley, william.--the harleian dairy system; and an account of the various methods of dairy husbandry pursued by the dutch.   also, a new and improved mode of ventilating stables.   with an appendix, containing useful hints (founded on the author's experience) for the management of hedge-row fences, fruit trees, &c.; and the means of rendering barren land fruitful.   by william harley. . . . london: james ridgway, . . . m. dccc xxix.   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by r. scott, and six other plates, two folded and two coloured. harrison, frederic.--the choice of books and other literary pieces   by frederic harrison   london macmillan and co. . . . .   _ vo, buckram, uncut edges._ first edition. one of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. harrison, william.--the pilgrims, or the happy converts.   a new dramatick entertainment. written by w. h. [six lines from wesley's epistle to a friend]   london:   printed for richard harrison . . . .   _ to, flexible red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by mansell-smith._ first edition. a-h in fours, title on a . harrisse, henry.--notes on columbus,   [facsimiles]   new york privately printed [by samuel l. m. barlow] mdccclxv.   _folio, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ ninety-nine copies printed, of which fifteen were destroyed by fire in . harrisse, henry.--notes on columbus.    . _folio, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by mansell._ another copy, one of two printed on india paper, and without facsimiles. harrisse, henry.--christopher columbus and the bank of saint george (ufficio di san giorgio in genoa)   two letters addressed to samuel l. m. barlow, esquire . . . new york   privately printed mdccclxxxviii. _ to, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece and facsimiles. one hundred and fifty copies printed, of which twenty-one were destroyed by fire in . harrisse, henry.--the discovery of north america   a critical, documentary, and historic investigation, with an essay on the early cartography of the new world, including descriptions of two hundred and fifty maps or globes existing or lost, constructed before the year ; to which are added a chronology of one hundred voyages westward, projected, attempted, or accomplished between and ; biographical accounts of the three hundred pilots who first crossed the atlantic; and a copious list of the original names of american regions, caciqueships, mountains, islands, capes, gulfs, rivers, towns, and harbours.   by henry harrisse. [twenty-three plates]   london: henry stevens and son, . . . m dccc xcii.   _ to, brown pigskin, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of ten copies printed on japanese paper. hart, charles henry, _editor_.--catalogue of the engraved portraits of washington by charles henry hart   the grolier club of the city of new york mcmiv.   _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of four hundred and twenty-five copies printed. twenty-one illustrations. harte, bret.--poems.   by bret harte.   boston: fields, osgood, & co. .   _ mo, original cloth._ first issue of the first edition. harte, walter.--an essay on satire, particularly on the dunciad.   by mr. walter harte of st. mary-hall, oxon.   to which is added, a discourse on satires, arraigning persons by name.   by monsieur boileau.    london: printed for lawton gilliver . . . m dcc xxx.   _ vo, half brown morocco, citron edges._ contains half-title and leaf of announcement preceding the title and final leaf of advertisement. haslem, john.--the old derby china factory: the workmen and their productions.   containing biographical sketches of the chief artist workmen, the various marks used, fac-similes copied from the old derby pattern books, the original price list of more than figures and groups, etc. etc.   by john haslem.   london: george bell and sons, . . . [birmingham]    .   _royal vo, cloth, gilt top._ haslewood, joseph.--some account of the life and publications of the late joseph ritson, esq. by joseph haslewood.   london: printed for robert triphook . . . .   _crown vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by lewis. bound with "northern garlands" and "gammer gurton."_ silhouette portrait of ritson. haslewood, joseph.--see brydges and haslewood. hassell, john.--memoirs of the life of the late george morland; with critical and descriptive observations on the whole of his works hitherto before the public. by j. hassell.   illustrated with engravings. . . . [london] albion press printed: published by james cundee, . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait by mackenzie after mrs. s. jones, , frontispiece-title and seven other plates by mackenzie and scott after morland. hastings, thomas.--etchings, from the works of [etched portrait] ric. wilson with some memoirs of his life, &c.   by thomas hastings, . . . published by hurst, robinson & co. . . . london.    .   _royal to, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait on the title-page after an original sketch by sir george beaumont, and forty etchings on india paper by hastings after wilson. hawthorne, nathaniel.--fanshawe, a tale . . . boston: marsh & capen, . . . .   _ mo, olive levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ first edition of hawthorne's first work. hawthorne, nathaniel.--mosses from an old manse. by nathaniel hawthorne. new york: wiley and putnam. . _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition, with the original covers. published as nos. xvii and xviii of "wiley and putnam's library of american books." hawthorne, nathaniel.--the scarlet letter, a romance. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. mdcccl. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first issue of the first edition, with the word "reduplicate" on page (line ), afterwards changed to "repudiate," and again to "resuscitate." hawthorne, nathaniel.--nathaniel hawthorne   the scarlet letter a romance literally reprinted from the first edition. with fifteen original colored illustrations by a. robaudi and c. graham. new york privately printed [paris] . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, sides covered with a rich floral design in mosaic of ivory, red, and green morocco, gilt tooled, doubled with citron morocco, gilt over uncut edges, in a blue morocco case, by the club bindery._ the only copy printed upon vellum, with the plates in two states, black and coloured, and the original drawings bound in. hawthorne, nathaniel.--the house of the seven gables, a romance. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. mdcccli. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. preface dated lenox, january , . hawthorne, nathaniel.--the snow image, and other twice-told tales. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. mdccclii. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first american edition, with preface dated lenox, november , . published early in december, , simultaneously with the london edition of that date. hawthorne, nathaniel.--the blithedale romance. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. mdccclii. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. preface dated concord, may, . hawthorne, nathaniel.--life of franklin pierce. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. mdccclii. _ mo, blue morocco, gilt fillets, with the original brown paper covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition, with portrait by c. e. wagstaff and j. andrews after a. tenney. preface dated concord, august , . hawthorne, nathaniel.--the marble faun: or, the romance of monte beni. by nathaniel hawthorne . . . boston: ticknor and fields. mdccclx. _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. the second edition was issued in the same year, with a "conclusion," pages - . the first english edition was printed in also, in three volumes, octavo, under the title "transformation." the preface is dated leamington, december , , and at the end of volume i are sixteen pages of advertisements, dated march, . hawthorne, nathaniel.--the marble faun or the romance of monte beni by nathaniel hawthorne illustrated with photogravures . . . cambridge printed at the riverside press mdccclxxxix. _ vo, two volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed: with portrait and fifty illustrations. hawthorne, nathaniel.--our old home: a series of english sketches. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor and fields. . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over rough edges, by david._ first edition. most of the articles in this volume had appeared in the atlantic monthly. hawthorne, nathaniel.--passages from the american note-books of nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor and fields. . _ mo, two volumes, half maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition, copyrighted by sophia hawthorne. hawthorne, nathaniel.--septimus felton; or, the elixir of life. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: james r. osgood and company. . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. hawthorne, nathaniel.--a wonder book for boys and girls by nathaniel hawthorne with sixty designs [in colour] by walter crane   cambridge printed at the riverside press mdcccxciii. _ vo, stamped white vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed. hawthorne, nathaniel.--see lowell, j. r. the pioneer. hay, david ramsay.--the science of beauty, as developed in nature and applied in art. by d. r. hay, . . . william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclvi. _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ twenty-three plates. haydon, benjamin robert.--benjamin robert haydon: correspondence and table-talk. with a memoir by his son, frederic wordsworth haydon. with facsimile illustrations from his journals . . . london: chatto and windus, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ haydon, benjamin robert.--see taylor, tom. hayes, alfred.--see gale, hayes, and le gallienne. hayley, william.--the triumphs of temper; a poem: in six cantos. by william hayley . . . the tenth edition, corrected. london: printed for t. cadell, jun. and w. davies, . . . . _post vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ seven plates after the designs of stothard engraved by sharp, heath, and neagle. the plate on page is a portrait of honora sneyd. hayley, william.--the triumphs of temper. a poem: in six cantos. by william hayley, esq. . . . the twelfth edition, corrected. with new original designs, by maria flaxman. chichester: printed by j. seagrave: for t. cadell and w. davies, strand, london. . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ large paper copy. six plates by w. blake after flaxman. the preface is dated eartham, jan. , . hayley, william.--the triumphs of temper. . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ another large paper copy. in addition to the six plates after maria flaxman, three portraits of hayley have been inserted, the first an unfinished proof by holloway. hayley, william.--the life of george romney, esq . . . by william hayley, esq.   chichester: printed by w. mason, for t. payne, pall mall, london .   _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over rough edges, by bedford_. large paper copy. in addition to the twelve brilliant engravings by caroline watson, this copy is further illustrated by the insertion of over one hundred portraits and plates, including many examples of romney's best work. some of the plates are on india paper, two are mezzotints, one a private plate, and all are selected impressions. at the end is bound a supplementary memoir of romney, by thomas phillips, pages. hayter, charles.--an introduction to perspective, practical geometry, drawing and painting; a new and perfect explanation of the mixture of colours; with practical directions for miniature, crayon, and oil painting; . . . illustrated with numerous wood engravings, from drawings by john hayter, esq. [a steel portrait of the author] and coloured plates.   by charles hayter, esq. the sixth edition.   london samuel bagster and sons . . . m.dccc.xlv.   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges_. hazlitt, william.--characters of shakespear's plays.   by william hazlitt.   london: printed by c. h. reynell . . . .   _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway_. first edition. hazlitt, william.--lectures on the english poets. delivered at the surry institution.   by william hazlitt. london: printed for taylor and hessey . . . . _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway_. first edition. hazlitt, william.--lectures on the english poets.    .   _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford_. another copy, illustrated by the insertion of fifty-eight portraits. hazlitt, william.--a view of the english stage; or, a series of dramatic criticisms.   by william hazlitt . . . london: printed for robert stodart . . . .   _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first edition, with six character portraits inserted, including harley as jack phantom, the triple portrait. hazlitt, william.--a view of the english stage.    .   _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. hazlitt, william.--political essays, with sketches of public characters.    by william hazlitt. . . . london: printed for william hone, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to john hunt. hazlitt, william.--lectures on the english comic writers. delivered at the surry institution.   by william hazlitt . . . london: printed for taylor and hessey . . . .   _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--lectures on the english comic writers.    . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. hazlitt, william.--lectures chiefly on the dramatic literature of the age of elizabeth.   delivered at the surry institution.   by william hazlitt. . . . london: stodart and steuart, , strand; and bell and bradfute, edinburgh, .   _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--lectures on the dramatic literature of the age of elizabeth; delivered at the surrey institution, by william hazlitt. second edition. london: john warren . . . mdcccxxi.   _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ hazlitt, william.--table-talk; or, original essays. by william hazlitt. london: john warren. m dcccxxi.   [printed for henry colburn and co., mdcccxxii.]   _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--table-talk; or, original essays on men and manners. second edition.   london: printed for henry colburn . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ hazlitt, william.--liber amoris; or, the new pygmalion.   london. printed for john hunt . . . by c. h. reynolds . . . .   _ mo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ first edition: engraved title with miniature portrait of sarah walker. hazlitt, william.--the spirit of the age: or contemporary portraits. london: printed for henry colburn . . . .   _ vo, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--notes of a journey through france and italy . . . london: printed for hunt and clarke, . . . mdcccxxvi.   _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reprinted from the "morning chronicle." hazlitt, william.--the plain speaker: opinions on books, men and things.    london: henry colburn . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--the plain speaker.    . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. hazlitt, william.--the life of napoleon buonaparte.   by william hazlitt. . . . london: printed for hunt and clarke, . . . . [- .]    _ vo, four volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. hazlitt, william.--conversations of james northcote, esq:, r. a.   by william hazlitt   london: henry colburn and richard bentley . . . .    _crown vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ portrait of northcote by wright after wivell, and (inserted) a second portrait by meyer after jackson, and a mezzotint of samuel northcote senior by wivell after gandy. hazlitt, william.--literary remains of the late william hazlitt.   with a notice of his life, by his son, and thoughts on his genius and writings, by e. l. bulwer . . . and m^{r} sergeant talfourd . . . london: saunders and otley . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition: with the portrait by marr after bewick. hazlitt, william.--literary remains.    . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. hazlitt, william.--see duppa and de quincy. montaigne, michael de. hazlitt, william carew.--hand-book to the popular, poetical, and dramatic literature of great britain, from the invention of printing to the restoration.   by w. carew hazlitt. . . . london: john russell smith, . . . .   _royal vo, sprinkled calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ hazlitt, william carew, _editor_.--jests, new and old.   containing anecdotes of celebrities, living and deceased, many of which have never before been published.   collected and edited, with preface and index, by w. carew hazlitt.   london: j. w. jarvis & son, . . . [ .]   _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed on large hand-made paper, interleaved. hazlitt, william carew.--a manual for the collector and amateur of old english plays.   edited from the material formed by kirkman, langbaine, downes, oldys, and halliwell-phillipps, with extensive additions and corrections   by w. carew hazlitt.   london pickering & chatto . . . .   _ to, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed. head, sir edmund.--see kugler, franz theodor. heaton, mary margaret.--the history of the life of albrecht dürer of nürnberg.   with a translation of his letters and journal, and some account of his works. by mrs. charles heaton.   london and new york: macmillan and co.    . . . . _royal vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by w. matthews._ first edition. frontispiece portrait and thirty other illustrations. heber, reginald.--the poetical works of reginald heber, late bishop of calcutta.   london: john murray, . . . m dccc xli.   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by e. finden after t. phillips. heine, heinrich.--poems by heinrich heine translated by julian fane. not published.   vienna. from the imperial court and government printing-office.    .   _royal vo, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ heine, heinrich.--the love songs of heinrich heine.   englished by h. b. briggs.   london: trübner & co., . . . .   _post vo, vellum, uncut edges._ helps, sir arthur.--thoughts in the cloister and the crowd. . . . london: printed for henry wix, [by metcalfe and palmer, cambridge] . . . .   _post vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition of helps's first publication, suppressed by the author. helps, sir arthur.--essays written in the intervals of business   london    william pickering    . _post vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--essays written in the intervals of business   london    william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ helps, sir arthur.--king henry the second. an historical drama. london:   william pickering, .   _post vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--the claims of labour.   an essay on the duties of the employers to the employed. the second edition.   to which is added an essay on the means of improving the health and increasing the comfort of the labouring classes.   london:   william pickering .   _post vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ helps, sir arthur.--friends in council: a series of readings and discourse thereon london william pickering [- ]   _crown vo, four volumes, cambridge panelled calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition: both series complete. helps, sir arthur.--(i.) friends in council: a series of readings and discourse thereon   london   william pickering    (ii.) friends in council: a series of readings and discourse thereon   a new series . . . the second edition london john w. parker and son, . . . . . . _crown vo, four volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ helps, sir arthur.--the conquerors of the new world and their bondsmen being a narrative of the principal events which led to negro slavery in the west indies and america   london   william pickering .   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--companions of my solitude london, william pickering     .   _post vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--oulita the serf. a tragedy. london: john w. parker and son, . . . .   _small vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. thick paper copy. helps, sir arthur.--organization in daily life. an essay. london: parker, son, and bourn, . . . . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--casimir maremma.   by the author of "friends in council," "realmah," etc. . . . london: bell and daldy, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--the life of hernando cortes.   by arthur helps, . . . london: bell and daldy, [chiswick press] . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with woodcuts.   dedicated to carlyle. helps, sir arthur.--conversations on war and general culture. by the author of "friends in council." london: smith, elder and co., . . . .   _post vo, brown morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--thoughts upon government   by arthur helps   london    bell and daldy . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--ivan de biron or, the russian court in the middle of the last century by the author of "friends in council," etc. . . . w. isbister & co. . . . .   _crown vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. helps, sir arthur.--social pressure by the author of 'friends in council'   london daldy, isbister, & co. . . . .   _crown vo, blue morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. hemans, felicia.--songs of the affections, with other poems. by felicia hemans . . . w. blackwood, edinburgh; and t. cadell, strand, london. mdcccxxx.   _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ presentation copy from mrs. hemans to william wordsworth, with inscription by the author and two autographs of wordsworth. hemans, felicia.--poems by felicia hemans. william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . -[- ]. _foolscap vo, six volumes in three, red morocco, janseniste, gilt edges._ henderson, william.--my life as an angler by william henderson. london: w. satchell, peyton & co. . . .   _royal vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side panels with branches of leaves, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ portrait and sixty-seven woodcut illustrations by e. evans, and head and tail pieces by mrs. henderson. large paper copy, with the full-page illustrations on india paper. henley, william ernest.--a book of verses by william ernest henley [etched vignette] london: published by david nutt . . . .   _ vo, original boards, uncut._ first edition.   one of seventy large paper copies printed. inserted is an autograph letter from henley. henley, william ernest.--see farmer and henley. henryson, robert.--the poems and fables of robert henryson, now first collected. with notes, and a memoir of his life. by david laing. [vignette] edinburgh: m dccc lxv. william paterson, . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ herbert, henry william.--frank forester's horse and horsemanship of the united states and british provinces of north america.   by henry william herbert, . . . with steel-engraved original portraits of celebrated horses. . . . new york: stringer & townsend, . . . .   _ to, two volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by joly._ large paper copy.   frontispiece-titles on india paper engraved by r. hinshelwood after f. o. c. darley, sixteen plates, also on india paper, and numerous woodcuts. herbert, william.--see dibdin,   t. f. typographical antiquities. hero of alexandria.--the pneumatics of hero of alexandria   from the original greek translated for and edited by bennet woodcroft . . . london taylor walton and maberly . . . .   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ seventy-eight illustrations. herodotus.--history of herodotus. a new english version, edited with copious notes and appendices, illustrating the history and geography of herodotus, from the most recent sources of information; and embodying the chief results, historical and ethnographical, which have been obtained in the progress of cuneiform and hieroglyphical discovery.   by george rawlinson . . . assisted by col. sir henry rawlinson . . . and sir j. g. wilkinson . . . with maps and illustrations. london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ heroic epistle.--an heroic epistle to the right honourable lord viscount sackville. . . . london: printed for g. kearsley, . . . .   _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ the dedication is dated oxford, december , . contains half-title. herschel, sir john f. w.--a treatise on astronomy.   by sir john f. w. herschel, . . . new edition.   [vignette]   london:   printed for longman, brown, green & longmans, . . . [n. d.]   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ engraved title by e. finden after h. corbould, and numerous woodcuts in the text. edmund waller's copy, with his autograph and book-plate. hervey, james.--meditations and contemplations. by the revd. james hervey . . . to which is prefixed the life of the author.   [vignettes after corbould] london.   printed for t. heptinstall . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt back and sides, inside linings with gold borders, gilt edges, by hering, with his ticket._ portrait of the author, in colours, and twelve plates after designs by corbould, ibbetson, and others. hervey, john, lord.--a satire in the manner of persius: in a dialogue between atticus and eugenio. by a person of quality.   london: printed for j. clarke, . . . and j. robinson . . . mdcc.xxxix. . . . _folio, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ hewitt, john.--a tutor for the beaus: or love in a labyrinth.   a comedy, as it is acted at the theatre royal in lincoln's-inn-fields. written by mr hewitt. . . . london: printed for, and sold by ward and chandler, . . . m. dcc. xxxvii.   _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. hewlett, joseph thomas james.--peter priggins, the college scout.   [by j. t. hewlett]   edited by theodore hook, esq.   in three volumes. with [ ] illustrations by phiz.   [hablot k. browne] . . . london: henry colburn, publisher, . . . .   _ mo, three volumes, blue figured silk, uncut edges._ first edition.   the advertisement, signed t. e. h., is dated "athenæum, december , ." hicks, thomas.--eulogy on thomas crawford by thomas hicks . . . new york privately printed for subscribers    . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of seventy copies printed.   portrait and three illustrations. higgons, bevill.--the generous conquerour: or, the timely discovery. a tragedy; as it is acted at the theatre royal, by his majesty's servants. written by bevill higgons, esq; [two lines from juvenal] london: printed for s. briscoe, and sold by j. nutt, near stationer's-hall, .   _ to, half brown morocco._ first edition.   a-l in fours, title on a . dedication to the marquis of normanby, prologue by george granville, lord lansdowne. hildeburn, charles r.--sketches of printers and printing in colonial new york   by charles r. hildeburn with numerous illustrations.   new york dodd, mead & company .   _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ three etched portraits and twenty-eight facsimiles of title-pages. three hundred and seventy-five copies printed. hill, aaron.--elfrid: or, the fair inconstant. a tragedy: as it is acted at the theatre royal, by her majesty's servants.   to which is added the walking statue: or, the devil in the wine-cellar. a farce. written by mr. hill. . . . london, printed for bernard lintott, . . . and egbert sanger . . . [ ].   _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b- in fours. dedicated to the marquis of kent.   rewritten in under the title of "athelwold." hill, aaron.--the dramatic works of aaron hill . . . london: printed for thomas lownds . . . mdcclx.   _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ contains a life of the author by "i. k.," a list of subscribers, seventeen plays, and seven love-letters. hill, aaron.--dramatic works .   _ vo, two volumes, old red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ thick paper copy. hill, john.--the story of elizabeth canning considered by dr. hill. with remarks on what has been called, a clear state of her case, by mr. fielding; and answers to the several arguments and suppositions of that writer.   london: printed for m. cooper, . . . .   [price one shilling.]   _ vo, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with fielding's "clear state of the case of elizabeth canning."_ hill, nathaniel.--the ancient poem of guillaume de guileville entitled le pelerinage de l'homme compared with the pilgrim's progress of john bunyan edited from notes collected by the late mr. nathaniel hill of the royal society of literature with illustrations and an appendix. london basil montagu pickering . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of bunyan and numerous illustrations in facsimile from old manuscripts and woodcuts. hill, thomas.--see griffiths, a. f. hillhouse, margaret p.--the white rose knight and other poems by margaret p. hillhouse   new york   privately printed at the de vinne press .   _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ two hundred copies printed. hipkins and gibb.--musical instruments historic, rare and unique the selection, introduction and descriptive notes by a. j. hipkins, . . . illustrated by a series of fifty plates in colours drawn by william gibb    edinburgh: adam and charles black m dccc lxxxviii. _folio, half red levant morocco, gilt edges._ one thousand and forty copies printed. hochschild, baron.--désirée queen of sweden and norway translated from the french of baron hochschild by mrs. m. carey   new york dodd, mead & company [de vinne press] .   _ mo, half cloth, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred copies printed. hodgkin, john eliot.--[** symbol] rariora being notes of some of the printed books, manuscripts, historical documents, medals, engravings, pottery, etc., etc., collected ( - ) by john eliot hodgkin, . . . [ illustrations] london: sampson low, marston & company, . . . [n. d.]    _royal to, three volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ hoe, robert.--a lecture on bookbinding as a fine art, delivered before the grolier club, february , . with sixty-three illustrations. by robert hoe. new york: published by the grolier club mdccclxxxvi. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides elaborately tooled in the manner of padeloup, doubled with olive morocco, dentelle border, gilt over uncut edges, by cuzin._ printed upon vellum. hoe, robert.--a lecture on bookbinding. . _ to, red levant morocco, back panels and side borders in a gilt and mosaic design of green and ivory morocco, tooled in scrolls and fleurons, doubled with vellum, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy printed upon vellum, with the plates on satin. [hoe, robert.]--one hundred and seventy-six historic and artistic book-bindings dating from the fifteenth century to the present time pictured by etchings, artotypes, and lithographs after the originals selected from the library of robert hoe . . . dodd, mead & company, . . . [the de vinne press] .   _ to, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side fillets, doubled with red morocco, corner ornaments of scrolls azure tooled, gilt over uncut edges, by mercier._ the text is on japan paper, the illustrations on vellum, and the only set so printed. hofland, thomas christopher.--the british angler's manual, or the art of angling in england, scotland, wales and ireland: with some account of the principal rivers, lakes and trout-streams, in the united kingdom; with instructions in fly-fishing, trolling, and angling at the bottom, and more particularly for the trout. by t. c. hofland, esq. embellished with numerous engravings on steel and wood, from original pictures and drawings by the author. london: published by whitehead and compy: . . . mdcccxxxix.   _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ large paper copy of the first edition. fourteen steel plates on india paper. hofland, barbara.--see turner and girtin. hogarth, george.--memoirs of the musical drama.   by george hogarth, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ eight portraits. hogarth, william.--the analysis of beauty. written with a view of fixing the fluctuating ideas of taste. by william hogarth. . . . a new edition. london: printed by w. strahan, for mrs. hogarth, and sold by her at her house in leicester-fields. m dcc lxxii. _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ frontispiece and two folded plates, the second in its original state. d'israeli, in his "curiosities of literature," , volume v, p. , says, "we know that dr. morell wrote the 'analysis of beauty' for hogarth." hogarth and ireland.--hogarth illustrated. by john ireland . . . pub: june . , by j. e. j. boydell . . . a supplement to hogarth illustrated; compiled from his original manuscripts, in the possession of john ireland . . . london: published, march, . for the author . . . _royal vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition.   presentation copy from the author, on large paper, with three autograph letters and memoranda. in addition to the sixty-six plates proper to the first two volumes, seventeen duplicates, proofs before letters, have been inserted, and three extra plates, including a rare portrait of hogarth. the supplement has forty plates. hogarth and ireland.--graphic illustrations of hogarth from pictures, drawings, and scarce prints, in the possession of samuel ireland, author of this work . . . london: published for samuel ireland; by r. faulder, . . . t. egerton, . . . and b. white, . . . .   _ to, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by rivière._ ireland's own copy on large paper, with two hundred and seventeen plates in two, three, and four states, including impressions in black, brown, and colour, first etchings, signed proofs, etc. hogarth, william.--the genuine works of william hogarth; with biographical anecdotes, by john nichols, . . . and the late george steevens, . . . volume iii. containing clavis hogarthiana, and other illustrative essays: with fifty additional plates. london: printed by and for nichols, son, and bentley, . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by rivière._ large paper copy.   volume iii of the genuine works, - , which is "supplementary and often deficient." hogarth, william.--hogarth moralized; a complete edition of all the most capital and admired works of william hogarth, accompanied with concise and comprehensive explanations of their moral tendency, by the late rev. dr. trusler, an introduction and many additional notes. london: printed at the shakespeare press . . . for john major . . . . _crown vo, half citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by cuzin._ fifty-seven copper-plate illustrations, proofs on india paper, and twelve woodcuts. hogarth, william.--anecdotes of william hogarth, written by himself: with essays on his life and genius, and criticisms on his works, selected from walpole, gilpin, j. ireland, lamb, phillips, and others to which are added a catalogue of his prints; [edited by j. b. nichols] accounts of their variations and principal copies; lists of paintings, drawings, &c   london: j. b. nichols and son . . . .   _ vo, red levant morocco, quintuple and septuple fillet on back panels and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ forty-eight plates. hogg, thomas jefferson.--the life of percy bysshe shelley by thomas jefferson hogg.   london: edward moxon . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait and woodcuts. holbein, hans.--icones veteris testamenti; illustrations of the old testament, engraved on wood, from designs by hans holbein.   london: william pickering .   _crown vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ printed on heavy india paper. ninety woodcut illustrations. holbein, hans.--see dance of death. holcroft, thomas.--love's frailties: a comedy in five acts, as performed at the theatre royal, covent-garden. by thomas holcroft.   london: printed for shepperson and reynolds, . . . .   _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. holmes, edward.--the life of mozart, including his correspondence. by edward holmes, . . . london: chapman and hall . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. holmes, edward.--the life of mozart including his correspondence by edward holmes . . . a new edition, with notes by ebenezer prout. london: novello, ewer & co., . . . .   _ vo, cloth._ holmes, oliver wendell, and others.--the harbinger; a may-gift. boston: carter, hendee and co. mdcccxxxiii.   _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. in three parts: i by park benjamin, ii by holmes, iii by john osborne sargent. holmes, oliver wendell.--poems. by oliver wendell holmes.   boston: otis, broaders, and company. new york: george dearborn and company. m dccc xxxvi.   _ mo, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a tall copy, measuring - / inches in height. holmes, oliver wendell.--urania: a rhymed lesson. by oliver wendell holmes. pronounced before the mercantile library association, october , .   boston: william d. ticknor & company. m dccc xlvi.   _ vo, original paper wrappers._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--urania. . _ vo, original paper wrappers._ another copy, printed upon large paper. presentation copy from the author. holmes, oliver wendell.--poems by oliver wendell holmes.   new and enlarged edition.   boston: ticknor, reed & fields. mdcccxlix.   _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ contains prefatory note, "the author to the publishers," and nine poems, including urania, now first collected. this edition contains pages and two leaves of advertisements dated january , . there is an edition of the same year with pages. holmes, oliver wendell.--astræa: the balance of illusions. a poem delivered before the phi beta kappa society of yale college, august , , by oliver wendell holmes . . . boston: ticknor, reed, and fields.    mdcccl.   _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--the autocrat of the breakfast table . . . boston phillips, sampson and company mdccclviii.   _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first issue of the first edition, with woodcut half-title, which was omitted from a large portion of the edition, and from all later issues, and eight other illustrations, engraved on wood after the designs of hoppin. holmes, oliver wendell.--the autocrat of the breakfast-table. . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back with mosaic centre, gilt over untrimmed edges, by rivière._ second issue of the first edition, without the woodcut half-title. eight illustrations by hoppin. holmes, oliver wendell.--the autocrat of the breakfast-table. . . . boston: phillips, sampson and company mdccclix.   _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, with eight illustrations after hoppin. presentation copy to george a. bethune. holmes, oliver wendell.--the professor at the breakfast-table; with the story of iris.   by oliver wendell holmes . . . boston: ticknor and fields . . . mdccclx.   _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--elsie venner: a romance of destiny. by oliver wendell holmes   boston: ticknor and fields mdccclxi.   _ mo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over untrimmed edges, by rivière._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--the poet at the breakfast-table. his talks with his fellow-boarders and the reader.   boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . .   _ mo, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition, with a woodcut frontispiece. holmes, oliver wendell.--songs of many seasons.    - .   by oliver wendell holmes. boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--the iron gate, and other poems.   by oliver wendell holmes.   boston: houghton, mifflin and company. . . . . _ mo, original cloth, gilt top._ first edition. portrait by j. a. j. wilcox. holmes, oliver wendell.--grandmother's story of bunker hill battle.   by oliver wendell holmes. illustrated by h. w. mcvicar   imprinted at new york by dodd, mead & company [ ].   _ to red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, by matthews._ the thirty illustrations printed in colour are accompanied in each case by the original drawing. holmes, oliver wendell.--medical essays - by oliver wendell holmes.   second edition. boston, houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ holmes, oliver wendell.--pages from an old volume of life.   a collection of essays - by oliver wendell holmes   boston, houghton mifflin and company . . . .   _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ holmes, oliver wendell.--a mortal antipathy. first opening of the new portfolio by oliver wendell holmes.   fourth edition.   boston, houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ holmes, oliver wendell.--the poetical works of oliver wendell holmes household edition   with illustrations   boston, houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ holmes, oliver wendell.--before the curfew and other poems, chiefly occasional   by oliver wendell holmes   boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. holmes, oliver wendell.--dorothy q   together with a ballad of the boston tea party & grandmother's story of bunker hill battle   by oliver wendell holmes   with illustrations by howard pyle   cambridge printed at the riverside press mdcccxciii.   _ vo, vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ first separate edition, two hundred and fifty copies printed. home, john.--(i.) douglas: a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. [one line in latin]   edinburgh: printed for g. hamilton & j. balfour, w. gray & w. peter.   m, dcc, lvii. [price one shilling sixpence.]   (ii.) the morality of stage-plays seriously considered.   edinburgh: m, dcc, lvii. (price sixpence.) (iii.) an argument to prove that the tragedy of douglas ought to be publickly burnt by the hands of the hangman. [six lines in english] edinburgh: printed in the year m, dcc, lvii.   [price three pence.] _ vo, three works in one volume, brown levant morocco, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition of douglas.   one leaf (half-title) and a (title)--k in fours. originally produced in edinburgh in . home, john.--(i.) douglas: a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. [one line in latin] london: printed for a. millar, . . . mdcclvii.   (ii.) agis: a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane.   london: printed for a. millar, . . . mdcclviii.   _ vo, two volumes in one, red morocco, gilt back, wide border on the sides, gilt edges._ first edition of agis, and first london edition of douglas. douglas: a -a and b-f in eights, blank leaf, a , title on a . agis: a -a and b-f in eights, title on a . home, john.--alonzo. a tragedy. in five acts, as it is performed at the theatre-royal, drury lane. . . . london: printed for t. becket, . . . m dcc lxxiii. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. homer.--(i.) the iliad of homer engraved from the compositions of iohn flaxman r. a. scvlptor, london, [vignette]   london: printed for longman, hurst &c . . . march , .   (ii.) the odyssey of homer engraved from the compositions of iohn flaxman . . . .   _oblong quarto, two works in one volume, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ the iliad consists of an engraved title and thirty-nine plates. inserted is a portrait of flaxman by r. woodman after john jackson, a proof on india paper. the odyssey consists of an engraved title and thirty-four plates, all proofs before letter, with the exception of nos. and . inserted is a portrait of flaxman by w. c. edwards after jackson. homer.--the iliad of homer translated by t. s. brandreth esq. . . . london   william pickering    . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ homer.--the iliad of homer rendered into english blank verse.   by edward earl of derby. . . . fifth edition, revised.   london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ homer.--see garnett, richard. pope, alexander. hone, william, _editor_.--[select trials] london: printed for william hone, . . . [- ] _ vo, five parts in one volume, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ these trials consist of the "case of elizabeth fenning," by john watkins, , "the important trials at kingston assizes," , the "trial of captain harrower" for bigamy, , the "four trials of the thief takers," , and the "history of the memorable blood conspiracy," . hone, william.--the apocryphal new testament, being all the gospels, epistles, and other pieces now extant, attributed in the first four centuries to jesus christ, his apostles, and their companions, and not included in the new testament, by its compilers. translated, and now first collected into one volume, with prefaces and tables, and various notes and references. third edition.   london: printed for william hone, . . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with hone's "ancient mysteries" and another work._ hone, william.--ancient mysteries described, especially the english miracle plays, founded on apocryphal new testament story, extant among the unpublished manuscripts in the british museum; including notices of ecclesiastical shows, the festivals of fools and asses--the english boy bishop.--the descent into hell--the lord mayor's show.   the guildhall giants--christmas carols, &c.   by william hone.   with engravings on copper and wood . . . london: printed for william hone, . . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with two other works._ first edition, with the plate of gog and magog coloured. hone, william.--the every-day book; or everlasting calendar of popular amusements, . . . forming a complete history of the year, months, & seasons, and a perpetual key to the almanack; . . . by william hone. . . . [ woodcuts]   london: published for william hone, by hunt and clarke, . . . [- ].   _ vo, two volumes, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. dedication to charles lamb, dated may , . hone, william.--the table book; by william hone . . . london: published for william hone, by hunt and clarke, . . . . [-' .]   _ vo, two volumes in one, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. one hundred and sixteen woodcut engravings. hone, william.--full annals of the revolution in france, .   illegal ordinances of charles x. &c . . . by william hone.   illustrated with engravings. london: printed for thomas tegg, . . . .   _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ in the same volume are curran's speeches, , "tributes of the public press to the memory of the late mr. whitbread," , with portrait by t. blood after opie, "an authentic account of the late mr. whitbread," by francis phippen, third edition, , the speech of mr. phillips in the case of guthrie v. sterne, , "fifteenth genuine edition," and "authentic memoirs of the life and death of the right honourable r. b. sheridan," , with portrait by harwood. hone, william.--the year book of daily recreation and information, concerning remarkable men and manners, times and seasons, solemnities and merrymakings, antiquities and novelties: on the plan of the every-day book and table book, . . . forming a complete history of the year; and a perpetual key to the almanac.   by william hone. . . . with one hundred and fourteen engravings.   london: printed for thomas tegg, . . . . . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. hood, thomas.--the plea of the midsummer fairies, hero and leander, lycus the centaur, and other poems by thomas hood . . . london: printed for longman . . . .   _crown vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. hood, thomas.--whims and oddities, in prose and verse; with forty original designs, by thomas hood . . . fourth edition.   london: lupton relfe . . . [charles tilt . . . -mdccc xxvii].   _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ both series, the second being the first issue, as indicated by dates given above. each volume contains forty illustrations. hood, thomas.--national tales. by thomas hood . . . london: william h. ainsworth . . . mdcccxxvii.   _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with eight lithographic plates by t. dighton. one of the few books issued by the author-publisher, ainsworth. hood, thomas.--hood's own: or laughter from year to year.   being former runnings of his comic vein, with an infusion of new blood for general circulation [second volume] being a further collection of his wit and humour, with a preface by his son.   second series   london: a. h. baily and c^{o}. . . . mdcccxxxix. edward moxon & co. . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. steel portrait by w. holl after lewis, and many hundred punning woodcut illustrations. hood, thomas.--poems of wit and humour. by thomas hood.   ninth edition.    london: edward moxon & co., . . . .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ hood, thomas.--poems by thomas hood. twelfth edition.   london: edward moxon & co., . . . .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bust portrait by f. a. heath after e. davis. hood, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas hood.   with some account of the author. . . . boston: little, brown, and company.    .   _ mo, five volumes, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed, with portrait by h. w. smith on india paper. hood, thomas.--humorous poems   by thomas hood   with a preface by alfred ainger and one hundred and thirty illustrations by charles e. brock   london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. hook, theodore.--tentamen;   or, an essay towards the history of whittington some time lord mayor of london.   by vicesimus blinkinsop. london: printed for william wright . . . .   _foolscap vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ a bitter satire on alderman wood and queen caroline, which was suppressed. hook, theodore.--sayings and doings. a series of sketches from life. . . . [second series.   third series.] london   printed for henry colburn, . . . . [ . .]   _crown vo, nine volumes, tree calf, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage._ first edition. hook, theodore.--see barham, r. h. d. foote, samuel.   hewlett, j. t. hope, thomas.--costume of the ancients.   by thomas hope. . . . [ plates] london: printed for william miller, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ first edition, large paper copy. hope, thomas.--anastasius: or, memoirs of a greek; written at the close of the eighteenth century. . . . london: john murray, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. hope, thomas.--an essay on the origin and prospects of man.   by thomas hope.   london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ hoper, mrs.--queen tragedy restor'd: a dramatick entertainment. london: printed for w. owen, . . . m dcc xlix.   _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ horace.--the epodes, satires, and epistles of horace.   translated by the late rev. francis howes, . . . london william pickering . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ horace.--the works of quintus horatius flaccus, illustrated chiefly from the remains of ancient art. with a life by the rev. henry hart milman &c.   london: john murray   mdcccxlix.   _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges._ every leaf surrounded with a coloured border of different design, and eight title-pages similarly treated by owen jones, and over three hundred woodcut illustrations from drawings by george scharf, jr. horace.--the odes of horace, translated into english verse, with a life and notes by theodore martin.   london:   john w. parker and son . . . mdccclx.   _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by allô._ large paper copy. [horn-book.] printed in aberdene, by e. rabau. [n. d.]   _folio, red straight-grain morocco, by the club bindery._ the original leaf, unfolded, as it came from the press.   four pages printed in black-letter, containing the alphabet and the lord's prayer. horne, herbert p.--the binding of books   an essay in the history of gold-tooled bindings   by herbert p. horne   london   kegan paul, . . . m dccc xciv.   _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies, with twelve plates on japan paper. horne, richard hartwell.--orion an epic poem.   in three books   by r. h. horne   london   j. miller . . . mdcccxliii.   _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ published at one farthing. horne, thomas hartwell.--an introduction to the study of bibliography, to which is prefixed a memoir on the public libraries of the antients by thomas hartwell horne.   london:   printed by g. woodfall for t. cadell and w. davies .   _royal vo, two volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large and thick paper copy. illustrated by numerous facsimiles, and (inserted) portraits of gutenberg, aldus and paulus manutius, caxton, etc. horne, thomas hartwell.--an introduction to the critical study and knowledge of the holy scriptures. by the rev. thomas hartwell horne . . . eleventh edition, revised, corrected, and brought down to the present time.   edited by the rev. thomas hartwell horne, b. d. (the author) the rev. john ayre . . . and samuel prideaux tregelles . . . illustrated with maps and facsimiles of biblical manuscripts.   london: longman, green . . . .   _ vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by pratt._ horsmanden, daniel.--a journal of the proceedings in the detection of the conspiracy formed by some white people, in conjunction with negro and other slaves, for burning the city of new-york in america, and murdering the inhabitants. which conspiracy was partly put in execution, by burning his majesty's house in fort george, within the said city, on wednesday the eighteenth of march, . and setting fire to several dwelling and other houses there, within a few days succeeding, and by another attempt made in prosecution of the same infernal scheme, by putting fire between two other dwelling-houses within the said city, on the fifteenth day of february, ; which was accidentally and timely discovered and extinguished. containing, i. a narrative of the trials, condemnations, executions, and behaviour of the several criminals, at the gallows and stake, with their speeches and confessions; . . . ii. an appendix, wherein is set forth some additional evidence concerning the said conspiracy and conspirators, . . . iii. lists of the several persons (whites and blacks) committed on account of the conspiracy; . . . by the recorder of the city of new-york. . . . new york: printed by james parker, at the new printing-office, . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, in a brown levant morocco case, by bedford._ on page the running head-line is misprinted "journal of the proceedings against" instead of "the conspirators at new-york, ." page is misprinted "conspirators" etc., instead of "journal." on page " " is misprinted " ," and misprinted " " on pages , , , , , , , , , , and . there were two issues of this book, the variations of which occur in the running head-lines. hotten, john camden.--see larwood, jacob. houghton, richard monckton milnes, lord.--the poems of richard monckton milnes [lord houghton] . . . poems of many years [and] memorials of a residence on the continent   london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxxxviii. _small to, two volumes in one, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by allô._ guizot's copy on large paper(?). houghton, lord.--poems of many years. by richard monckton milnes.   a new edition.   london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxliv.   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ houghton, lord.--poems, legendary and historical. by richard monckton milnes.   a new edition. london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xliv. _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ howard, edward.--rattlin, the reefer.   [by edward howard]   edited by the author of "peter simple." [captain marryat]   second edition. london: richard bentley, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first illustrated edition, with nine plates by a. hervieu. howard, edward.--outward bound; or a merchant's adventures.   by the author of "rattlin, the reefer," &c. london: henry colburn, . . . .    _post vo, three volumes, dark green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. howard, frank.--the spirit of the plays of shakespeare.   exhibited in a series of outline plates illustrative of the story of each play. drawn and engraved by frank howard. with quotations and descriptions london: printed for t. caddell &c . . . . _ to, five volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with four hundred and eighty-three plates, proofs on india paper. howard, frank.--colour, as a means of art, being an adaptation of the experience of professors to the practice of amateurs.   by frank howard, . . . london: joseph thomas, . . . . _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ seventeen coloured plates. howard, frank.--the science of drawing being a progressive series of the characteristic forms of nature . . . by frank howard . . . london william pickering    [- ].   _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ fifty-one plates. howard, montague.--old london silver its history, its makers and its marks   by montague howard   with two hundred illustrations, and over four thousand facsimiles of makers' marks and hall-marks   charles scribner's sons   new york   [the de vinne press] . . . .   _ to, green morocco, gilt border on the sides, gilt top._ howel, laurence.--the orthodox communicant, by way of meditation on the order for the administration of the lord's-supper, or holy communion; according to the liturgy of the church of england. london.   engraven by j. sturt . . . [n. d.]   _small vo, red levant morocco, back and sides elaborately tooled, gilt over rough edges, by f. bedford._ ninety-one pages, engraved throughout, and embellished with vignettes representing scenes in the life of christ. howitt, william.--visits to remarkable places: old halls, battle fields, and scenes illustrative of striking passages in english history and poetry. by william howitt, . . . the illustrations designed and executed by samuel williams. london: longman . . . m.dccc.xl [-xlii.]   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of both series. howitt, william.--the student-life of germany: by william howitt, from the unpublished ms. of dr. cornelius.   containing nearly forty of the most famous student songs, with the original music, adapted to the piano-forte, by the herr winkelmeyer.   illustrated with engravings by sargent, woods, and other eminent artists,   [vignette]   london: longman, brown, green, and longmans.    .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ seven steel plates by j. woods and twenty-four woodcuts by g. f. sargent. howitt, william.--the rural life of england. by william howitt, . . . [vignette] third edition, corrected and revised.   with [ ] illustrations on wood by bewick and s. williams.   london: longman, brown, green, and longmans.    .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ hoyt, e.--antiquarian researches: comprising a history of the indian wars in the country bordering connecticut river and parts adjacent, and other interesting events, from the first landing of the pilgrims, to the conquest of canada by the english, in : with notices of indian depredations in the neighbouring country: and of the first planting and progress of settlements in new england, new york and canada.   by e. hoyt, esq. greenfield, mass.   printed by ansel phelps.   dec. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ engraved title, and folding plate of the old house in deerfield which escaped the fire of . hughes, john.--calypso and telemachus. an opera. perform'd at the queen's theatre in the hay-market. written by mr. hughes.   the musick compos'd by mr. galliard.   london, printed for e. sanger . . . . . . _ to, half red morocco, gilt top, by alfred matthews._ first edition. a- in fours.   dedicated to the duchess of hamilton. prefixed to this copy (formerly owned by j. payne collier) is a poem of two pages in the handwriting of pope, addressed to the author. apparently it has never been printed. hughes, john.--poems on several occasions. with some select essays in prose . . . by john hughes, esq: adorn'd with sculptures.   london: printed for j. tonson and j. watts, mdccxxxv.   _ mo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, harps in side corners, gilt edges, by c. smith, with his ticket._ the only complete edition.   portrait by van der gucht after kneller, and other illustrations. hughes, t. m.--revelations of spain in . by an english resident london: henry colburn . . . mdcccxlv.   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ hughes, t. m.--revelations of portugal, and narrative of an overland journey to lisbon, at the close of ; with a picture of the present state of spain. by t. m. hughes . . . london: henry colburn . . . mdcccxlvii.   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ hugo, thomas, _editor_.--the bewick collector. a descriptive catalogue of the works of thomas and john bewick; including cuts, in various states, for books and pamphlets, private gentlemen, public companies, exhibitions, races, newspapers, shop cards, invoice heads, bar bills, coal certificates, broadsides, and other miscellaneous purposes, and wood blocks. with an appendix of portraits, autographs, works of pupils, &c. &c. the whole described from the originals contained in the largest and most perfect collection ever formed, and illustrated with a hundred and twelve cuts.   by thomas hugo, . . . the possessor of the collection.   london: lovell reeve and co, . . . m dccc lxvi.   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy.   portrait by f. bacon after james ramsay. huish, robert.--the historical gallery of celebrated men of every age and nation; exhibiting a splendid series of authentic portraits, faithfully copied and skilfully engraved from rare and acknowledged originals, by artists of the first celebrity, accompanied by biographical sketches and observations on their character and writings, founded on the authority of genuine and unpublished documents, and illustrated by fac-similes of letters and extracts from their manuscripts, with the autograph of the individual affixed to each portrait.   by robert huish, . . . london: printed for thomas kelly, . . . .   _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ over fifty portraits on india paper after reynolds, vandyke, holbein, lawrence, raeburn, vertue, houbraken, and others. hull, thomas. see shenstone, william. hume, sir abraham.--notices of the life and works of titian.   london: sold by john rodwell, . . . .   _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ portrait of titian after carracci, and lists not only of his paintings, but of the engravings from them. sixty engravings inserted, including fourteen portraits of titian, fifteen other portraits, and thirty-one plates after paintings by titian, views, etc. many of the engravings are proofs in various states. hume, david.--the history of england by david hume   oxford, published by talboys and wheeler; and william pickering, london.   mdcccxxvi. _royal vo, eight volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over rough edges, by bedford._ one of three copies printed on large and tinted paper, with twenty-eight portraits of the sovereigns by worthington, proofs on india paper. humourist, the.--see jest-books. humphreys, david.--an essay on the life of the honourable major general israel putnam. addressed to the state society of the cincinnati in connecticut, and first published by their order.   by col. david humphreys. with notes and additions.   with an appendix, containing an historical and topographical sketch of bunker hill battle.   by s. swett. boston: published by samuel avery, . . . .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait by t. gimbrede from a drawing by miss a. hall after the original by trumbull.   the dedication to the hon. col. jeremiah wadsworth is dated mount-vernon, june , . humphreys, henry noel.--the illuminated books of the middle ages; an account of the development and progress of the art of illumination, as a distinct branch of pictorial ornamentation, from the ivth. to the xviith. centuries.   by henry noel humphreys.   illustrated by a series of examples, of the size of the originals, selected from the most beautiful mss. of the various periods, executed on stone and printed in colours by owen jones.   london:   longman, brown, . . . m dccc xl ix. _royal folio, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ thirty-nine plates in gold, silver, and colours, and the letter-press title of . humphreys, henry noel.--a history of the art of printing, from its invention to its wide-spread development in the middle of the ^{th} century. preceded by a short account of the origin of the alphabet, and the successive methods of recording events and multiplying ms. books before the invention of printing.   by h. noel humphreys . . . with one hundred illustrations . . . london: bernard quaritch, . . . . _imperial to, original ornamental cloth, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred copies of the first issue printed. humphreys, henry noel.--masterpieces of the early printers & engravers. a series of facsimiles from rare and curious books, remarkable for illustrative devices, beautiful borders, decorative initials, printers' marks, elaborate title-pages, &c.   by h. noel humphreys, . . . london: henry sotheran & co. . . . .   _folio, figured green and yellow silk._ seventy plates containing eighty-one illustrations. hunnewell, james frothingham.--triumphs of early printing   a paper read at the annual meeting of the club of odd volumes, at the university club, dec. , , by the president james frothingham hunnewell boston   the club of odd volumes . _ to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ no. of sixty-eight copies printed. hunt, leigh.--the feast of the poets, with other pieces in verse, by leigh hunt . . . second edition, amended and enlarged.   london: printed for gale and fenner . . . .   _post vo, half red morocco, uncut edges._ hunt, leigh.--the descent of liberty, a mask; by leigh hunt.   london: printed for gale, curtis, and fenner . . . .   _foolscap vo, half red morocco, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--foliage; or poems original and translated, by leigh hunt . . . . london: printed for c. and j. ollier, . . . .   _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt and byron.--the liberal.   verse and prose from the south.   by leigh hunt, lord byron &c] london, : [- ] printed by and for john hunt. _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition.   the article "apuleius," volume , page , embodies a covert attack on dr. darwin and anna seward. byron's "vision of judgment" was first published in part i, , "heaven and earth, a mystery," in part ii, , and "morgante maggiore di messer luigi pulci," canto i, in part iv, . hunt, leigh.--lord byron and some of his contemporaries; with recollections of the author's life, and of his visit to italy.   by leigh hunt.   london: henry colburn .   _ to, red levant morocco, heavy back panels and side corners, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ first edition.   portraits and facsimile, also seventy-one inserted plates, and autograph letters of leigh hunt (to elliston the actor) and john murray.   twenty-seven of the portraits are proofs on india paper, there are fifteen portraits of byron, six of charles lamb, unlettered proof mezzotints of thomas campbell and george iv, unfinished proof of david garrick, of benjamin west by caroline watson, etc. hunt, leigh.--lord byron and some of his contemporaries; with recollections of the author's life, and of his visit to italy.   by leigh hunt.   london: henry colburn, . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition, with five portraits and facsimile. hunt, leigh.--the poetical works of leigh hunt. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dcccxxx ii. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--the poetical works of leigh hunt. containing many pieces now first collected. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxliv. _ mo, green calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ hunt, leigh.--poems of leigh hunt with prefaces from some of his periodicals. selected and edited by reginald brimley johnson with bibliography and etchings by herbert railton.   london.   j. m. dent and co . . . .   _crown vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed. hunt, leigh.--the indicator, and companion; a miscellany for the fields and fire-side.   by leigh hunt. london: published for henry colburn, by r. bentley . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition.   portrait by meyer after hayter. hunt, leigh.--captain sword and captain pen. a poem.   by leigh hunt. with some remarks on war and military statesmen. . . . london: charles knight, . . . .   _post vo, cloth._ first edition, with eight full-page woodcuts by j. jackson after thornton leigh hunt, son of the author. hunt, leigh.--the palfrey; a love-story of old times.   by leigh hunt. london: how and parsons. .   _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ first edition, with six woodcut illustrations. hunt, leigh.--stories from the italian poets: with lives of the writers.    by leigh hunt.   london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxlvi.   _ mo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--men, women and books; a selection of sketches, essays and critical memoirs, from his uncollected prose writings, by leigh hunt. london: smith, elder and co. . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, tree calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with portrait by armytage after severn. hunt, leigh.--the town, its memorable characters and events.   by leigh hunt.   st. paul's to st. james's.   with forty-five illustrations. london: smith, elder and co., . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--a jar of honey from mount hybla, by leigh hunt. illustrated by richard doyle. london: smith, elder and co., . . . mdcccxlviii. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, with the original ornamental covers by owen jones bound in, by rivière._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--the autobiography of leigh hunt; with reminiscences of friends and contemporaries . . . london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portraits of hunt, ætat. , , and , lithographs on india paper. hunt, leigh.--the religion of the heart.   a manual of faith and duty. london: john chapman . . . m.dccc.liii.   _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--the old court suburb; or, memorials of kensington, regal, critical, and anecdotal.   by leigh hunt   london: hurst and blackett . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--the correspondence of leigh hunt.   edited by his eldest son . . . with a portrait. london: smith, elder and co., . . . m.dccc.lxii. _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. hunt, leigh.--essays of leigh hunt selected and edited by reginald brimley johnson with introduction. portrait by s. lawrence and etchings by herbert railton   london j. m. dent and co . . . .   _crown vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed. [hunt, william holman.]--william holman hunt and his works.   a memoir of the artist's life, with description of his pictures.   london: published by james nisbet & co. . . . .   _ vo, cloth, gilt edges._ huntington, archer milton.--a notebook in northern spain   by archer m. huntington illustrated   new york and london   g. p. putnam's sons .   _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ hutchinson, gregory, and lydekker.--the living races of mankind   a popular illustrated account of the customs, habits, pursuits, feasts & ceremonies of the races of mankind throughout the world by h. n. hutchinson . . . j. w. gregory . . . r. lydekker . . . assisted by eminent specialists.   [ illustrations, including coloured frontispieces] london: hutchinson & co., . . . [n. d.]   _royal to, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt edges._ hutchinson, thomas.--the speeches of his excellency governor hutchinson to the general assembly of the massachusetts-bay.   at a session begun and held on the sixth of january, .   with the answers of his majesty's council and the house of representatives respectively. [publish'd by order of the house] boston; new-england: printed by edes and gill . . . m. dcc. lxxiii.   _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ hutchinson, francis, bishop.--a defence of the antient historians: with a particular application of it to the history of ireland. . . . dublin: printed by s. powell, for john smith and william bruce, . . . .   _ vo, old brown morocco, gilt back, sides tooled in the "cottage" design, gilt edges._ hymn to neptune.--a hymn to neptune; occasion'd by the late glorious victory obtain'd in the height of malaga by her majesty's royal navy, under the command of sir george rooke, vice-admiral of england, &c. . . .    london, printed for r. basset . . . . . . . _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ dedicated to sir george rooke. hymns.--victorian hymns. english sacred songs of fifty years.   london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxvii.   _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. idler, the.--see british classics and british essayists. "inconnue."--see mérimée, prosper. independent reflector, the.--see livingston, william. indian laws.--the new laws of the indies for the good treatment and preservation of the indians promulgated by the emperor charles the fifth - a facsimile reprint of the original spanish edition together with a literal translation into the english language to which is prefixed an historical introduction by the late henry stevens of vermont and fred w lucas   london privately printed at the chiswick press md ccc lxxxx iii.   _folio, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with vellum, vellum guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of thirteen copies printed upon vellum.   woodcuts. inman, thomas.--ancient faiths embodied in ancient names: or an attempt to trace the religious belief, sacred rites, and holy emblems of certain nations by an interpretation of the names given to children by priestly authority, or assumed by prophets, kings, and hierarchs. by thomas inman . . . second edition.   london: trubner & co., . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ twelve plates and numerous woodcuts. ireland, alexander.--the book-lover's enchiridion: thoughts on the solace and companionship of books, and topics incidental thereto; garnered from writers of every age for the help and betterment of all readers. by alexander ireland . . . [third edition] london: simpkin, marshall, & c^{o}. .   _ vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait, vignette, and facsimile. ireland, alexander.--the book-lover's enchiridion: a treasury of thoughts on the solace and companionship of books gathered . . . : by alexander ireland . . . london: simpkin, marshall, & co. . . . . _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fifth edition revised and further enlarged. ireland, john.--see hogarth and ireland. ireland, samuel.--a picturesque tour through holland, brabant, and part of france; made in the autumn of .   illustrated with copper plates in aqua tinta from drawings made on the spot by samuel ireland . . . london: may ^{st} , printed for t. & i. egerton . . . _ to, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ large paper copy, with engraved title-pages and forty-three plates. ireland, samuel.--a picturesque tour through holland. . _ to, two volumes, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ another large paper copy, with proofs of the prints and most of the etchings, many of them before the letters, and some of the original drawings.   some additional illustrations, including a brilliant portrait of johan van oldenbarnevelt by andries vaillant. presentation copy from the author to mr. coram. ireland, samuel.--picturesque views, on the river medway, from the nore to the vicinity of its source in sussex: with observations on the public buildings and other works of art in its neighbourhood.   by samuel ireland, . . . london: published by t. and j. egerton, . . . m, dcc, xciii.   _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ frontispiece-title by c. apostool after mortimer, and twenty-eight other plates, all in bistre. ireland, william henry.--chalcographimania; or the portrait-collector and printseller's chronicle with infatuations of every description.   a humorous poem, in four books, with copious notes explanatory.   by satiricus sculptor esq. . . . [w. h. ireland]   london: printed for r. s. kirby .   _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ t. coram furnished the facts (?) on which ireland founded this satire. ireland.--real life in ireland; or, the day and night scenes, rovings, rambles, and sprees, bulls, blunders, bodderation and blarney, of brian boru, esq. and his elegant friend sir shawn o'dogherty.   exhibiting a real picture of characters, manners, &c. in high and low life, in dublin and various parts of ireland.   embellished with [ ] humorous coloured engravings, from original designs by the most eminent artists.   by a real paddy. london: printed by b. bensley, . . . .   _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ sometimes attributed to pierce egan. irish minstrelsy, or bardic remains of ireland with english poetical translations.   collected and edited with notes and illustrations, by james hardiman . . . london: joseph robins . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ irving, washington, and others.--salmagundi; or, the whim-whams and opinions of launcelot langstaff esq. and others . . . new york: printed & published by d. longworth . . . - .   _ mo, two volumes in one, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford, with the original wrappers of each part._ first edition. twenty numbers, january, --january, . written with j. k. paulding and william irving. irving, washington, and others.--salmagundi; or, the whim-whams and opinions of launcelot langstaff, esq. and others [j. k. paulding, washington and william irving]   first series . . . a new edition, corrected by the authors   new york: harper & brothers . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ irving, washington, and others.--salmagundi. second series.   by launcelot langstaff, esq.   new york: published by harper & brothers . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. irving, washington.--a history of new york, from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty. containing among many surprising and curious matters, the unutterable ponderings of walter the doubter, the disastrous projects of william the testy, and the chivalric achievments of peter the headstrong, the three dutch governors of new amsterdam; being the only authentic history of the times that ever hath been, or ever will be published. by diedrich knickerbocker . . . published by inskeep & bradford, new york . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet._ first edition, afterwards rewritten.   folded view of new york, about , and four original drawings. irving, washington.--a history of new york. .   _ mo, two volumes in one, red levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled with roses, &c., gilt edges, by david._ another copy. irving, washington.--a history of new york, from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty. . . . the third edition.   by diedrich knickerbocker . . . philadelphia:   published by m. thomas . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, edges entirely uncut, by rivière._ large paper copy. frontispieces by leslie and allston inserted, proofs on india paper. irving, washington.--a humorous history of new york, from the beginning of the world, to the end of the dutch dynasty: containing, among many surprising and curious matters, the unutterable ponderings of walter the doubter, the disastrous projects of william the testy, and the chivalric achievements of peter the headstrong; the three dutch governors of new amsterdam; being the only authentic history of the times that ever hath been published.   a new edition.   by diedrich knickerbocker . . . london: printed for w. wright . . . .   _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ frontispiece and (inserted) the six plates after designs by leslie and allston, proofs on india paper. the original text before its revision. irving, washington.--a history of new-york, from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty; containing, among many surprising and curious matters, the unutterable ponderings of walter the doubter, the disastrous projects of william the testy, and the chivalric achievements of peter the headstrong--the three dutch governors of new amsterdam: being the only authentic history of the times that ever hath been or ever will be published. by diedrich knickerbocker. . . . with [ ] illustrations. by felix o. c. darley, engraved by eminent artists.    new york: g. p. putnam & company, . . . .   _ vo, green morocco, fillets on the back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by w. matthews._ bound in is irving's original manuscript of the rewritten work, with, the text of the first edition altered and corrected, and all the additional matter. irving, washington.--a history of new york . . . the author's revised edition. complete in one volume.   new york: george p. putnam and son . . . [riverside press, cambridge] .   _imperial vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ one of three copies specially printed on drawing paper. in addition to the series of illustrations by darley and others, proofs on india paper, published with the book, four portraits of irving have been added, proofs, and a full set of the illustrations after leslie and allston, proofs on india paper. irving, washington.--a history of new york from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty, containing among many surprising and curious matters, the unutterable ponderings of walter the doubter, the disastrous projects of william the testy, and the chivalric achievements of peter the headstrong--the three dutch governors of new amsterdam; being the only authentic history of the times that ever hath been or ever will be published.   by diedrich knickerbocker . . . a new edition, containing unpublished corrections of the author, with illustrations by geo. h. boughton, will h. drake, and howard pyle, and etchings by henry c. eno and f. raubicheck . . . new york: printed for the grolier club, mdccclxxxvi.   _ vo, two volumes, orange levant morocco, back and sides covered with diamond panels filled by special tools, cut from the designs in the book, doubled with vellum, inside borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ one of one hundred and seventy-five copies on holland paper, printed from elzevir types with the club seal on the title-page. the etchings are in three states, different colours, the head and tail pieces printed in brown. this edition was printed from irving's original manuscript, in this library; every variation in the text is noted, and the author's punctuation is carefully preserved. irving, washington.--a history of new york. .   _ vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with red morocco, gilt borders, red silk guards, gilt over uncut edges, in maroon morocco cases, by joly._ one of two copies printed upon vellum, with duplicate impressions of the etchings. irving, washington.--the sketch book of geoffrey crayon, gent.   new york: printed by c. s. van winkle . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. irving, washington.--the sketch book of geoffrey crayon, gent. . . . new edition.   london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ portrait by scriven after newton, and six plates after leslie's designs inserted: proofs on india paper. irving, washington.--the sketch book of geoffrey crayon, gent^{n} . . . author's revised edition. with original designs by f. o. c. darley, engraved by childs, herrick, etc.   new york: g. p. putnam & company . . . .   _small to, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ twenty-two illustrations, the vignettes on india paper. the author's manuscript revisions, forty-two pages in the handwriting of irving, are inserted in this copy. irving, washington.--sketch book of geoffrey crayon gent.   artist's edition.   illustrated with one hundred and twenty engravings on wood, from original designs . . . new york: g. p. putnam:   hurd & houghton . . . mdccclxv.   _ to, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ steel portrait and one hundred and twenty-three woodcut illustrations. the original drawings for the cover, title-page, and ten other illustrations are inserted in this copy, as well as six by shattuck, hill, etc., apparently never engraved. irving, washington.--sketch book of geoffrey crayon gent.   artist's edition.   illustrated with one hundred and twenty engravings on wood, from original designs . . . new york: g. p. putnam: hurd and houghton . . . m.d.ccc.lx.v.   _ to, red levant morocco, rich gilt back and broad side borders, gilt edges, by matthews._ portrait of irving on steel, in brown, from the painting by stuart newton, .   further illustrated by the insertion of forty-five plates, including an original drawing of the boar's head tavern, the cancelled title-page, the plates by leslie, allston, and westall, in two and three states, engraver's etching, proofs before letters and open-letter proofs, all on india paper, mezzotint portrait of shakespeare by turner after jansen, many proof portraits on india paper, etc. irving, washington.--sketch book of geoffrey crayon gent.   (washington irving.) [vignette] edition de luxe. . . . philadelphia: j. b. lippincott & co. .   _imperial vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait after stuart newton. two portraits by hall after stuart newton and john de mare after jarvis, and one hundred and fifty vignettes on india paper, engraved on wood by richardson after parsons, hoppin, darley, and others. no. of five hundred copies printed. irving, washington.--old christmas: from the sketch book of washington irving.   illustrated by r caldecott   london.   macmillan & co.    .    _imperial vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. irving, washington.--rip van winkle and the legend of sleepy hollow by washington irving   with fifty-three illustrations by george h. boughton, a. r. a. london   macmillan and co. . . . .   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. irving, washington.--bracebridge hall, or the humourists.   a medley, by geoffrey crayon, gent. [quotation of three lines from "christmas ordinary"] new york: printed by c. s. van winkle . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ one of two editions published in . irving, washington.--bracebridge hall, or the humourists.   a medley, by geoffrey crayon, gent. [quotation of four lines from "christmas ordinary"] new york: printed by c. s. van winkle, no. greenwich street.    .   _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another edition of , a mo in sixes, whereas the preceding is an vo in fours.   the quotation from "christmas ordinary" on the title-page occupies four lines in this edition, three in the preceding. irving, washington.--bracebridge hall; or, the humorists.   by geoffrey crayon, gent. . . . london: john murray, . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first english edition. irving, washington.--bracebridge hall.   by washington irving. illustrated by r. caldecott.   london. macmillan & co. .   _crown vo, decorated cloth, gilt edges._ irving, washington.--letters of jonathan old-style, gent.   by the author of the sketch book with a biographical notice   new york: published by william h. clayton . . . .   _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. irving, washington.--tales of a traveller. by geoffrey crayon, gent london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first edition. irving, washington.--a history of the life and voyages of christopher columbus.   by washington irving. . . . in three volumes.   new york. g. and c. carvill, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first american edition.   map of the route of columbus on arriving among the bahama islands. irving, washington.--a history of the life and voyages of christopher columbus.   by washington irving   london: john murray   mdcccxxviii. _ vo, four volumes, calf gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first english edition. two folded maps. irving, washington.--the life and voyages of christopher columbus and the voyages and discoveries of the companions of columbus by washington irving . . . author's revised edition . . . g. p. putnam's sons new york . . . october , .   _royal to, three volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ quadri-centennial edition, no. of four hundred and two copies numbered from to , with two frontispieces in colour, five etchings and twelve steel plates printed on india paper, thirteen photogravures printed on japan paper, forty-three plates printed on japan paper and mounted, and sixty-seven illustrations in the text. irving, washington.--a chronicle of the conquest of granada.   by fray antonio agapida.   philadelphia: carey, lea & carey . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first american edition. irving, washington.--a chronicle of the conquest of granada.   from the mss. of fray antonio agapida.   by washington irving.   london: john murray . . . mdcccxxix.   _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by holloway._ first english edition. irving, washington.--the alhambra: a series of tales and sketches of the moors and spaniards.   by the author of the sketch book   philadelphia: carey & lea .   _ mo, two volumes in one, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. irving, washington.--the alhambra. . _ mo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. irving, washington.--the crayon miscellany. by the author of the sketch book.   no. . containing a tour on the prairies.   [no. . containing abbotsford and newstead abbey. no. . containing legends of the conquest of spain.]   philadelphia: carey, lea & blanchard.    .   _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. irving, washington.--astoria, or anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the rocky mountains. by washington irving.   philadelphia: carey, lea & blanchard .   _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition, with folded map. irving, washington.--the rocky mountains: or, scenes, incidents, and adventures in the far west; digested from the journal of captain b. l. e. bonneville, of the army of the united states, and illustrated from various other sources, by washington irving. . . . philadelphia. carey, lea, & blanchard.    .   _ mo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. two folded maps. irving, washington.--the life of oliver goldsmith by washington irving.    _ to, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, vellum guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ the original manuscript of the enlarged and completed work, with corrected pages of the first issue, also a portrait of irving by sartain after g. s. newton, and one of goldsmith, india proof, by wivell after sir joshua reynolds.   carefully inlaid on whatman paper by trent. irving, washington.--oliver goldsmith: a biography.   by washington irving, with illustrations. [woodcuts]   new york: george p. putnam . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by matthews._ first complete edition. fifty-two selected plates inserted, including portraits of goldsmith's contemporaries, many proofs. irving, washington.--oliver goldsmith: a biography.   by washington irving.   with illustrations. new york: george p. putnam & co. . . . mdcccliii. _ to, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ inserted in this copy are the original manuscript corrections and revisions in the handwriting of irving. irving, washington.--life of george washington. by washington irving. . . . new york: g. p. putnam & co., . . . . [- ]   _ to, five volumes, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and ten copies printed on large paper, with india proof impressions of all the plates, including the series published as a supplement. the title-page of volume i reads, "in three vols."   volumes ii and iii are dated , volume iv, , volume v, . irving, washington.--the works of washington irving.   new edition, revised [with the life and letters of irving, by his nephew pierre m. irving, and the spanish papers]   new york: geo. p. putnam. -[ ].    _square vo, twenty-eight volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. portraits, steel plates, and woodcuts after the designs of leslie, allston, darley, and others. irving, washington.--ninety-three pages in the hand-writing of washington irving, being the original manuscript copy of that portion of irving's life of washington covering the incidents relative to the treason of benedict arnold: india proof portraits of arnold and andré added.   _ to, half green morocco._ irving, washington.--memorandum book containing fifty leaves in the handwriting of washington irving, being notes for his life of washington. these notes are largely copies of letters written by washington and extracts from his diary. irving, washington.--journal of a tour through france, italy, sicily. - .   _ to, old vellum boards, with ties._ a manuscript of one hundred and fifteen closely written leaves, dated bordeaux. july , to january , .   the first entry begins "my dear brother."   on the back of the first cover and on the first fly-leaf are pencil drawings, and on the inside of the back cover, "ship matilda, dec. opposite corsica," and "acheté en bordeaux juillet .   prix liv." irving, washington.--three memorandum books of forty leaves each containing notes in the handwriting of washington irving, chiefly concerning the arabs, and gathered while the author was engaged on the life and successors of mahomet these notes are chiefly from sale's text of the koran and the works of d'herbelot. irving, washington.--four memorandum books each with eight pages in the handwriting of washington irving, containing notes of information respecting the far west and indians, for use in his book, the "tour of the prairies." these notes are almost entirely relative to the ethnology, zoölogy, botany, and geography of the far west. irving, washington.--notes of a tour in europe. fifty pages of memoranda in the handwriting of washington irving, who, in describing this as volume , indicates that it contains the "route from zürich to paris and from paris to london, from may ^{th} to oct. ^{th} ." a further note states that he purchased this book in zürich for - / livres. irving's autograph is on the inside of the front cover.   _ to, vellum covers, with flap and cord._ irving, washington.--irving vignettes. vignette illustrations of the writings of washington irving, [ ] engraved on steel by smillie, hall, and others.   with a sketch of his life and works, from allibone's forthcoming "dictionary of authors," and passages from the works illustrated.   new york: g. p. putnam, . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ irving, washington.--washington irving.   mr. bryant's address on his life and genius.   addresses by everett, bancroft, longfellow, felton, aspinwall, king, francis, greene.   mr. allibone's sketch of his life and works.   with eight photographs.   new york: g. p. putnam . _square vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ ten photographs and a steel portrait of bryant. irving, washington.--the life and letters of washington irving.   by his nephew pierre m. irving. . . . new york: g. p. putnam, . . . [- ]. _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with four portraits. irving and fairholt.--shakespeare's home; visited and described by washington irving and f. w. fairholt: with a letter from stratford by j. f. sabin: and the complete prose works of shakespeare. [vignette] with [ ] etchings [on india paper] by j. f. and w. w. sabin.   new york: j. sabin and sons, . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. irving, william.--see irving, washington. salmagundi. irwin, r. b.--see bowman and irwin. italian novelists, the.--see roscoe, thomas. italian tales.   tales of humour, gallantry, and romance, selected and translated from the italian. with sixteen illustrative drawings by george cruikshank. london: printed for charles baldwyn . . . mdcccxxiv.    _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ jabet, george.--the poets' pleasaunce: or, garden of all sorts of pleasant flowers, which our pleasant poets have, in past time, for pastime, planted.   by eden warwick [the rev. george jabet] london: longman . . . mdcccxlvii. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, corner ornaments on the sides, gilt edges, by brany._ engraved frontispiece and woodcut borders. jackson, catherine charlotte, lady.--the last of the valois, and accession of henry of navarre. - .   by catherine charlotte, lady jackson, . . . [ portraits]   new york: scribner and welford, . . . [london.]    .   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth._ jackson, catherine charlotte, lady.--the first of the bourbons [henry iv] - .   by catherine charlotte lady jackson . . . london richard bentley and son . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ ten steel portraits. jackson, john.--a treatise on wood engraving, historical and practical, with upwards of three hundred illustrations engraved on wood.   by john jackson   london: charles knight and co, . . . .   _royal vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. jackson and chatto.--a treatise on wood engraving historical and practical with upwards of three hundred illustrations engraved on wood by john jackson. the historical portion by w. a. chatto.   second edition with a new chapter on the artists of the present day by henry g. bohn and additional wood engravings. london   henry g. bohn, . . . m. dccc. lxi.   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ jacob, hildebrand.--the works of hildebrand jacob, esq; containing poems on various subjects, and occasions; with the fatal constancy, a tragedy; and several pieces in prose. the greatest part never before publish'd.   london, printed for   w. lewis . . . m dcc xxxv.   _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ contains final leaf of errata. jacobi, charles thomas.--on the making and issuing of books   by charles thomas jacobi   london: made at the chiswick press . . . m dccc xci. _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed on large paper. jacobi, charles thomas.--gesta typographica or a medley for printers and others collected by chas. t. jacobi   london: elkin mathews . . . m dccc xcvii. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed on japanese vellum. jacobs, joseph, _editor_.--english fairy tales collected by joseph jacobs . . . illustrated by john d. batten [vignette] london   david nutt, . . . . _royal vo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of eighty copies printed on japanese vellum, with frontispiece in two colours, black and bistre. jacobs, joseph, _editor_.--indian fairy tales selected and edited by joseph jacobs . . . illustrated by john d. batten [vignette]   london david nutt, . . . . _royal vo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and sixty copies printed on japanese vellum, with full-page illustrations in two colours, black and bistre. jacobs, joseph, _editor_.--celtic fairy tales selected and edited by joseph jacobs . . . illustrated by john d. batten [vignette] london david nutt, . . . . _royal vo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and twenty-five copies printed on japanese vellum, with full-page illustrations in two colours, black and bistre. jacobs, joseph, _editor_.--more english fairy tales collected and edited by joseph jacobs . . . illustrated by john d. batten [vignette] london david nutt, . . . .   _royal vo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and sixty copies printed on japanese vellum, with full-page illustrations in two colours, black and bistre. jacobs, joseph, _editor_.--more celtic fairy tales selected and edited by joseph jacobs . . . illustrated by john d. batten [vignette] london    david nutt, . . . .   _royal vo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and twenty-five copies printed on japanese vellum, with full-page illustrations in two colours, black and bistre. james, frank linsly.--the wild tribes of the soudan an account of travel and sport chiefly in the basé country   being personal experiences and adventures during three winters spent in the soudan   by f. l. james, . . . new york   dodd, mead, and company . . . [ ]. _royal vo, decorated cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ two coloured maps and forty other illustrations. james and thrupp.--the unknown horn of africa.   an exploration from berbera to the leopard river.   by f. l. james, . . . with additions by j. godfrey thrupp, . . . the map by w. d. james and percy aylmer.   the narrative illustrations by rose hake, and the drawings of the fauna by k. keuleman, from specimens chiefly collected by e. lort-phillips. london: george philip & son, . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ james, george payne rainsford, _editor_.--memoirs of celebrated women. edited by g. p. r. james . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ two portraits engraved on steel. james, george wharton.--indian basketry. with illustrations.   by george wharton james . . . .   printed privately for the author, george wharton james, pasadena, cal.   _ vo, cloth._ james, henry.--the real thing and other tales by henry james   london macmillan and co. . . . .   _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. james, henry.--what maisie knew.   by henry james london: william heinemann m dcccxc viii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. james, henry.--a little tour in france by henry james with [ ] illustrations by joseph pennell cambridge   printed at the riverside press   m dcccc. _ vo, half buckram, uncut edges._ james, montague rhodes, _editor_.--a descriptive catalogue of fifty manuscripts from the collection of henry yates thompson   by montague rhodes james, . . . cambridge: printed at the university press. . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ presentation copy from mr. thompson. james, william dobein.--a sketch of the life of brig. gen. francis marion, and a history of his brigade, from its rise in june, , until disbanded in december, ; with descriptions of characters and scenes, not heretofore published.   containing also, an appendix, with copies of letters which passed between several of the leading characters of that day; principally from gen. greene to gen. marion.   by william dobein james, . . . charleston, s. c.   printed by gould and riley, . . . .    _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portraits of general greene and general marion, the latter by t. b. welch after stothard. jameson, anna murphy.--memoirs of celebrated female sovereigns; by mrs. jameson . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. jameson, anna murphy.--the beauties of the court of king charles the second; a series of portraits, illustrating the diaries of pepys, evelyn, clarendon, and other contemporary writers.   with memoirs biographical and critical, by mrs. jameson, . . . the portraits from copies made for her late royal highness the princess charlotte, by mr. murphy.   dedicated by permission to his grace the duke of devonshire. london: published for henry colburn by richard bentley, . . . . _folio, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ largest paper copy of the first edition, extra-illustrated by the insertion of twenty-four portraits of contemporary beauties in addition to the twenty-one published with the book.   the portraits are all proofs, frequently in three and four states. jameson, anna murphy.--memoirs of the beauties of the court of charles the second, with their portraits, after sir peter lely and other eminent painters: illustrating the diaries of pepys, evelyn, clarendon, and other contemporary writers.   by mrs. jameson.   second edition, enlarged.   london: henry colburn . . . mdcccxxxviii.   _imperial vo, two volumes in one, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by j. wright._ twenty-one portraits engraved by holl, wright, thompson, scriven, freeman, wagstaff, etc. jameson, anna murphy.--visits and sketches at home and abroad with tales and miscellanies now first collected and a new edition of the diary of an ennuyée. by mrs. jameson . . . london.   saunders and otley . . . .   _ mo, four volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition of "visits and sketches," second of "diary of an ennuyée." steel frontispiece and woodcut illustrations. jameson, anna murphy.--the romance of biography; or memoirs of women loved and celebrated by poets, from the days of the troubadours to the present age; a series of anecdotes intended to illustrate the influence which female beauty and virtue have exercised over the characters and writings of men of genius.   by mrs. jameson . . . third edition. london: saunders and otley mdcccxxxvii.   _crown vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ steel frontispiece. jameson, anna murphy.--a handbook to the public galleries of art in and near london.   with catalogues of the pictures, accompanied by critical, historical, and biographical notices, and copious indexes to facilitate reference.   by mrs. jameson . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. jameson, anna murphy.--handbook to the public galleries of art in and near london. . . . by mrs. jameson, . . . a new [second] edition, with an index.   london: john murray, . . . .   _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ jameson, anna murphy.--memoirs and essays illustrative of art, literature, and social morals.   by mrs. jameson . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _ mo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. jameson, anna murphy.--sacred and legendary art   by mrs. jameson . . . containing legends of the angels and archangels, the evangelists, the apostles, the doctors of the church and mary magdalene (the patron saints and virgin patronesses, the greek and latin martyrs, the early bishops, the hermits, and the warrior saints of christendom)   london: printed for longman, . . . .   _square vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition.   illustrated with twenty-one etchings, and one hundred and seventy-one woodcuts. jameson, anna murphy.--sacred and legendary art.   by mrs. jameson. second edition complete in one volume . . . london: printed for longman, . . . .   _square vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ sixteen etchings and one hundred and eighty woodcut illustrations. jameson, anna murphy.--legends of the monastic orders, as represented in the fine arts.   forming the second series of sacred and legendary art.    by mrs. jameson.   london: printed for longman . . . .   _square vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition: illustrated by eleven etchings and eighty-four woodcuts. jameson, anna murphy.--legends of the madonna, as represented in the fine arts.   forming the third series of sacred and legendary art.   by mrs. jameson. illustrated by [ ] drawings and [ ] woodcuts. london: longman, . . . .   _square vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. jameson, anna murphy.--a commonplace book of thoughts, memories, and fancies, original and selected.   part i. ethics and character.   part ii. literature and art.   by mrs. jameson . . . with illustrations and etchings.   london: longman . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. jameson, anna murphy.--the communion of labour: a second lecture on the social employments of women.   by mrs. jameson . . . london: longman . . . .   _post vo, half blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition.   presentation copy with the autograph inscription, "the lady augusta bruce with many kind regards from anna jameson. sep^{t} . ." jameson, anna murphy.--characteristics of women.   moral, poetical, and historical.   with illustrations from the author's designs.   by mrs. jameson . . . london: saunders and otley . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ jameson, anna murphy.--the history of our lord as exemplified in works of art: with that of his types; st. john the baptist, and other persons of the old and new testament.   commenced by the late mrs. jameson, continued and completed by lady eastlake. london: longman . . . . _square vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ first edition, with thirty-one etchings and two hundred and eighty-one woodcut illustrations. also an autograph letter of mrs. jameson to bentley the publisher inserted. jameson, anna murphy.--memoirs of early italian painters, and of the progress of painting in italy. cimabue to bassano.   by mrs. jameson . . . a new edition with [ ] portraits.   london: john murray, . . . .    _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ jÂmi.--the behâristân (abode of spring) by jâmi a literal translation from the persian. printed by the kama shastra society for private subscribers only. benares .   _crown vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ jarves, james jackson.--art studies: the "old masters" of italy; painting. by james jackson jarves, . . . copperplate illustrations. . . . new york: derby and jackson: . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ fifteen illustrations. jeaffreson and pole.--the life of robert stephenson, f. r. s. . . . late president of the institution of civil engineers.   by j. c. jeaffreson . . . with descriptive chapters on some of his most important professional works by william pole, . . . second edition. london: longmans, green, reader, and dyer.    . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ two portraits by henry adlard, one after george richmond, four other plates, a diagram, and numerous cuts in the text. jeffrey, francis.--contributions to the edinburgh review.   by francis jeffrey, . . . second edition. . . . london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ jennings, hargrave.--phallicism celestial and terrestrial heathen and christian its connexion with the rosicrucians and the gnostics and its foundation in buddhism with an essay on mystic anatomy by hargrave jennings . . . london george redway . . . m dccc lxxxiv.   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ jephson, robert.--the count of narbonne, a tragedy.   as it is acted at the theatre royal in covent garden.   by robert jephson, esq; london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxxxi. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition.   founded on "the castle of otranto," by horace walpole, to whom the play is dedicated. jerdan, william.--the autobiography of william jerdan, . . . with his literary, political, and social reminiscences and correspondence during the last fifty years. . . . london: arthur hall, virtue, & co., . . . .   _post vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ engraved title-pages and four portraits. jerningham, edward.--the nun: an elegy. by the author of the magdalens.    london: printed for r. and j. dodsley, . . . mdcclxiv. . . . _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ first edition. jerningham, edward.--the deserter: a poem. london: printed for j. robson . . . m dcc lxx. . . . _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ first edition. jerrold, blanchard.--the life of george cruikshank   in two epochs by blanchard jerrold . . . with numerous illustrations [vignette] . . . london chatto and windus, . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition.   eighty-four illustrations, including two portraits. jerrold, douglas.--cakes and ale.   by douglas jerrold. . . . london: how and parsons, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. engraved frontispieces and title-pages by george cruikshank. jerrold, douglas.--the brownrigg papers. by douglas jerrold.   edited by blanchard jerrold, . . . with a coloured illustration by george cruikshank. london: john camden hotten . . . .   _crown vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ jesse, edward.--an angler's rambles: by edward jesse . . . london: john van voorst mdcccxxxvi.   _crown vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ first edition.   seal vignettes, etc. jesse, edward.--anecdotes of dogs; by edward jesse . . . with illustrations.   london: richard bentley . . . mdcccxlvi.   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition.   twenty steel plates by w. r. smith, etc., and numerous woodcuts. jesse, edward.--favorite haunts and rural studies; including visits to spots of interest in the vicinity of windsor and eton.   by edward jesse . . . with numerous illustrations. london: john murray . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of the court of england during the reign of the stuarts, including the protectorate.   by john heneage jesse. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . [ .]   _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition: with four engravings. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of the court of england from the revolution in to the death of george the second, [the house of hanover.] by john heneage jesse. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition: with three plates by john cook after t. wageman. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of the court of england from the revolution.    .   _ vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and ten portraits and views, including many proofs on india paper and before letters, and the rare portrait of beau fielding by van der gucht. jesse, john heneage.--george selwyn and his contemporaries; with memoirs and notes.   by john heneage jesse . . . london: richard bentley &c. . [-' ]   _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition: with nine portraits on steel. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of the pretenders and their adherents. by john heneage jesse, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition: with four engravings and a facsimile. jesse, john heneage.--literary and historical memorials of london.   by j. heneage jesse. . . . in two volumes. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition.   nine plates by j. cook, and plan of london and westminster in the time of queen elizabeth. jesse, john heneage.--london and its celebrities. a second series of literary and historical memorials of london.   by j. heneage jesse. . . . in two volumes. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of king richard the third and some of his contemporaries   with an historical drama on the battle of bosworth   by john heneage jesse . . . london   richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition.   portrait of richard by b. holl after t. wageman, and coloured plate. jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of the life and reign of king george the third.   by j. heneage jesse, . . . second edition.   london: tinsley brothers, . . . . . . . _ vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ jesse, john heneage.--memoirs of celebrated etonians: including henry fielding. the earl of chatham. horne tooke. horace walpole. george grenville. thomas gray. george selwyn. lord north. earl of bute. earl temple. etc. etc. etc. by j. heneage jesse, . . . in two volumes. . . . london: richard bentley and son, . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. jesse, w.--the life of beau brummell, esq., commonly called beau brummell.   by captain [w.] jesse   london: saunders and otley . . . mdcccxliv.   _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition.   in addition to the full-length portrait of the "beau" and the frontispiece to volume ii, a brilliant impression of cook's engraving of brummell and a proof portrait of byron have been inserted. jest books.--joe miller's jests.   or, the wits vade-mecum.   being a collection of the most brilliant jests; the politest repartees; the most elegant bon mots, and most pleasant short stories in the english language.   first carefully collected in the company, and many of them transcribed from the mouth of the facetious gentleman, whose name they bear; and now set forth and published by his lamentable friend and former companion, elijah jenkins, esq; most humbly inscribed to those choice-spirits of the age, captain bodens, mr. alexander pope, mr. professor lacy, mr. orator henley, and job baker, the kettle-drummer. london: printed and sold by t. read, . . . mdccxxxix.   _ vo, green morocco, filleted back and sides, gilt over red edges, by rivière._ first edition. jest books.--joe miller's jests: or, the wits vade-mecum.   being a collection of the most brilliant jests; . . . first carefully collected in the company, and many of them transcribed from the mouth of the facetious gentleman, whose name they bear; and now set forth and published by his lamentable friend and former companion, elijah jenkins, esq; most humbly inscribed to those choice-spirits of the age, captain bodens, mr. alexander pope, mr. professor lacy, mr. orator henley, and job baker, the kettle-drummer. the second edition. london: printed and sold by t. read, . . . m dcc xxxix. . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ jest books.--joe miller's jests, or wit's merry companion, containing a selection of brilliant jests, smart repartees, and short stories, calculated to promote mirth and good humour, and furnishing entertainment for the winter evenings.   the whole teaching the agreeable art of story telling.   the seventh edition.   london: printed by sabine and son, . . . price six-pence. [ ]   _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece with the legend: /p "wit a thousand different shapes it bears, and comedy in a thousand forms appears." p/ jest books.--joe miller's jests: or, the wits vade-mecum, being a collection of the most brilliant jests, the most excellent bon mots, and most pleasant short stories in the english language; . . . most humbly inscribed to those choice spirits of the age, his majesty's poet-laureat, mr. david garrick, mr. the. cibber, mr. justice boden's horse, tom jones, the most impudent man living, the rev. mr. henley, and job baker the kettle-drummer.   the fourteenth edition. london: printed for s. crowder, . . . w. nicol, . . . and j. williams, . . . (price one shilling and sixpence.) [ ]   _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--joe miller's jests; or the wits vade-mecum: being a collection of the most brilliant jests, curious bon-mots, and the most pleasing short stories in the english language, . . . to which is added a choice collection of moral sentences; also a selection of curious epigrams.   humbly inscribed to the choice spirits of the age.   a new edition.   london: printed for w. lane, . . . [price one shilling and six-pence.] [n. d.]   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece of five men seated at a dining-table. jest books.--old joe miller: being a complete and correct copy from the best edition of his celebrated jests; and also including all the good things in above fifty jest-books published from the year to the present time.   by the editor of new joe miller, or the tickler. . . . london, printed by wilson & co. . . . for j. ridgway, . . . . _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "momus," with the legend, "ride si sapis." jest books.--new joe miller; or, the tickler. containing upwards of five hundred good things, many of which are original, and the others selected from the best authors.   the second edition, with additions. [ lines from l'allegro]   london: printed for james ridgway, york street, st. james's square.    .   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece after the manner of stothard, and half-title. jest books.--the royal jester, or cream of the jest.   being a collection of the best jests, puns, jokes, conundrums, repartees, &c, &c, &c. collected for the universal amusement, diversion and improvement of mankind.   by martin merry, esq.; wit professor in ordinary to the king of-- . . . london: printed for f. stamper, . . . m. dcc. li. _small vo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition.   engraved frontispiece-title and printed title in red and black. jest books.--modius salium.   a collection of such pieces of humour (not to be found in others of this kind) as prevail'd at oxford in the time of mr. anthony à wood.   collected by himself, and publish'd from his original manuscript.   oxford: printed for r. clements; and sold by r. baldwin . . . .   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ jest books.--the merry andrew: being the smartest collection ever yet published, of elegant repartees, brilliant jests, . . . and second hand conundrums. this book is the quintessence of wit, the source of fun, the original of laughter, and the perfection of true humour.   by ferdinando funny, esq; m. m.   and professor of drollery in the university of humbug. . . . london: printed for i. pottinger, . . . m dcc lix. _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. jest books.--the nut-cracker: containing   an agreeable and great variety of well-seasoned jests, epigrams, epitaphs, &c. . . . a new edition, with many very delightful additions and charming improvements. publish'd with the approbation of the learned in all faculties, by ferdinando foot, esq; london: printed for t. carnan, . . . m. dcc. lx.   _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece.   the first edition was printed in . jest books.--the celebrated mrs. pilkington's jests: or the cabinet of wit and humour.   to which is now first added, a great variety of bons mots, witticisms, and anecdotes of the inimitable dr. swift, dean of st. patrick's, dublin . . . the second edition. . . . london, printed for w. nicoll, . . . m dcc lxiv. mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery. frontispiece of swift. jest books.--wilkes's jests, or the patriot wit. being a collection of bonmots, puns, repartees, and other witticisms, respecting john wilkes, esq. and the ever-memorable number forty-five.. . to which is added the freeborn muse; or select pieces of poetry, by mr. wilkes, and other gentlemen distinguished for their wit and patriotism. . . . london: printed for t. evans, . . . [price one shilling.] mdcclxx. _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ second edition: with portrait. jest books.--sir john fielding's jests; or, new fun for the parlour and kitchen: being the smartest, wittiest, and drollest collection of original jests, jokes, repartees, &c. ever yet published. . . . among which are particularly noticed all those jokes that have passed upon various examinations at the public office, before the late sir john fielding and other magistrates, and which have occasioned even justice itself to relax and give countenance to a smile. compiled by a justice of the peace.   london: printed for the editor; and sold by alex. hogg, . . . t. lewis. . . . [ ]   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece of "the worshipful author and his companions." jest books.--the court jester; or, museum of entertainment; to which is added, a collection of the most fashionable songs, toasts, sentiments, &c. &c. &c. london: printed for a. hamilton, . . . price s. d. [ ]    _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece printed in blue ink. jest books.--a new cure for the spleen: being a collection of advertisements, humorous, numerous, curious, farcical, satirical, entertaining, and diverting. intended for the amusement of the fireside. many of which were never before printed. . . . by a. g. love-fun, . . . london: printed for the author; and sold by j. wenman &c . . . . [price one shilling.] _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ jest books.--the female jester; or, wit for the ladies.   containing every comical jest, smart repartee, &c . . . that can be found in any jest-book, ancient or modern, worthy of being read by the woman of delicacy, or the man of sense.   together with some few witticisms never before published, . . . compiled by a lady. . . . london: printed for and sold by j. bew, . . . [ ]   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the jovial companion; or, merry jester.   being a choice collection of the most witty and entertaining jests, puns, bon mots, repartees, quibbles, bulls, &c. london: sold by t. bowen, . . . m dcc lxxix. _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ jest books.--yorick's jests: or, wit's commonplace book, arranged on a new plan.   being a choice collection of humourous jests, happy bons-mots, &c. &c. . . . selected from the works and anecdotes of voltaire, foote, ld. chesterfield, sterne, &c   and other celebrated wits of the last and present age.   to which is added, a choice selection of toasts and sentiments. . . . london: printed for s. bladon, . . . .   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ jest books.--yorick's jests: or, wit's commonplace book, . . . being a choice collection of humourous jests, . . . selected from the works and anecdotes of voltaire, foote, &c . . . and other celebrated wits of the last and present age.   to whibh is added, a choice selection of toasts and sentiments. . . . a new edition. london.   printed for s. bladon, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by j. lodge. jest books.--yorick turned trimmer; or, the gentleman's jester: and newest collection of songs. . . . the three prints, printed in a beautiful picturesque manner, in black, blossom, and green, are worth the purchase money of the whole.   london: printed for the proprietor; and sold by w. nicoll, . . . [ ]   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "yorick riding through the village," and two other plates, "dr. slop and obadiah" and "uncle toby and corporal trim." jest books.--the theatre of fun, or, roderick random in high glee. containing great variety of diverting jests, entertaining stories, &c. &c. . . . london: printed for william cavell, . . . m dcc lxxxiv. _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "lieutenant bowling & roderick random, going to see his grandfather." jest books.--the whimsical jester, or, rochester in high glee. containing great variety of diverting jests, entertaining stories, &c. &c.   london: printed for william cavell, . . . m dcc lxxxviii.   _ mo, brown straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the funny jester, or the cream of harmony and humour, a grand collection of all that is witty, merry &c. . . . and that will raise laughter at an easy expence.   compiled by sir toby tickleside, alderman and citizen of comus's court.   london: printed for w. lane, . . . m dcc lxxxviii.   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ jest books.--the christmas companion; or mince-pye for all true hearted and honest britons. . . . a true roast beef selection, cut and come again to your old friend bill cheerfull, who has dressed this high seasoned dish to suit every palate. london: printed for w. lane, . . . [ ] _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by sansom after cruikshank. jest books.--the royal court jester; or, a choice and fasionable collection of witty sayings, anecdotes, &c. . . . both ancient and modern; with the old buck's adventures in st. james's park, with a young maiden of seventeen. by a member of comus's court. . . . london: printed for j. sudbury, . . . price sixpence. [ ] _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the whimsical meeting." jest books.--edwin's jests, humours, frolics, and bonmots; containing all the good things he has said or done in his whole life; . . . london: printed by and for j. roach, . . . (price sixpence) [ ]   _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "mr. edwin as skirmish in the musical drama of the deserter," by barlow after cruikshanks. jest books.--the royal jester, or prince's cabinet of wit; containing all the bon mots witticisms repartees bulls humbugs that have been uttered by the greatest wits of the present century; london. printed by and for j. roach, . . . .   price one shilling.   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved title with vignette and frontispiece by barlow after (the elder) cruikshank, "two literary gentlemen comparing the merits of mrs. goodall and mrs. jordan in breeches." jest books.--st. james's repartee; or the witticisms of fashion, taste, and the bon ton: . . . compiled to procure a hearty laugh.   london: printed for w. lane, . . . m dccxciii.   _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "st james's jesters." jest books.--a new edition, greatly improved. the covent garden jester; or, lady's and gentleman's treasure of wit, humour, and amusement; . . . by the earl of funsborough. london: printed by and for j. roach, . . . (price sixpence.) [ ] _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "miss florida, capt^{n}. merry-field & preserve 'em all, in the meads near myrtle-berry abby," , which does not belong with the book, as it says, "see page ." there are but sixty pages in the book. jest books.--the jolly jester; or the wit's complete library. containing a rich fund of entertainment of the most laughable and pleasant kind: . . . by marmaduke momus, esq. h. i. b. q. president of the imperial society of grinners. london: printed for w. and j. stratford, . . . . _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved frontispiece of marmaduke momus. volume i only. jest books.--new jolly jester, or wit's pocket companion; consisting of a diverting selection of smart repartees new jests &c. &c. . . . together with a variety of originals, never before published. compiled for the use of the society of choice spirits.   london. printed for h. d. symonds, . . . price one shilling.   printed by t. plummer, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, brown straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by t. tegg after e. dayes. jest books.--the new london city jester; or a banquet of wit, mirth, and fancy. calculated for the entertainment and amusement of both sexes; . . . london: printed by and for j. roach, . . . . _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the city jester, or a view of the horns." jest books.--the new london jester; or a complete fund of mirth, and good-humour. . . . together with the complete english songster; being a choice collection of the most esteemed songs sung at vauxhall, ranelagh, the london theatres, and other assemblies, throughout the kingdom. london: printed for the proprietors; . . . . [price one shilling and sixpence.]   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "hence loath'd melancholy." jest books.--the polite jester: or, theatre for wit. containing diverting jests, smart repartees, &c. &c. interspersed with a great variety of comic poetry. the whole intended for chearful amusement, and is free from indelicacy. london: printed by and for j. drew, . . . . [price one shilling.]   _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--scogin's jests; full of witty mirth, and pleasant shifts; done by him in france and other places. being a preservative again melancholy, gathered by andrew board, doctor of physick. . . . london: printed for w. thackeray, . . . and j. deacon. . . . reprinted for j. caulfield. . _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ full-length portrait of andrew board [borde] by clamp after holbein. jest books.--quick's whim, or, the merry medley: containing a collection of . . . jests, bon-mots, repartees, &c. occasionally introduced by this son of momus and his companions, at the tables of hospitality, in the hours of convitiality and moments of mirth. enriched with an engraving of that excellent comedian. . . . london. printed for w. lane, . . . [ ] _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece of quick by eastgate after corbould. jest books.--the new universal story-teller, or, a picture of human life. . . . southwark: printed by w. kemmish, . . . m dcc xcvii.   price six-pence. _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "music has power to melt the soul," printed in green. jest books.--paragon jester; or, the polite wit's museum. containing a variety of elegant apophthegms, jests, &c. newly translated from the french, german, spanish, roman, and eastern languages: . . . southwark: printed by and for w. kemmish, . . . . . . . _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the sailor's jester; or, merry lad's companion: a diverting, droll and entertaining collection of funny jests, witty replies, &c. &c. of the brave tars of old england, from the captain to the cabin boy: . . . london: printed for w. lane, . . . [ ] _ mo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the merry sailor's." jest books.--the dramatic budget; or, olio of fancy. being a choice collection of much-admired comic scenes: to which are added, prologues epilogues and tales. . . . london: printed by j. plymsell, . . . and published by t. hooper and j. woodhouse, . . . . price sixpence. _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "fustian & silvester daggerwood." jest books.--admiral nelson's fun-box open'd; being a complete collection of jests, of the first cast, by the most celebrated wits of the age. . . . london. printed by t. plummer, . . . [ ]   _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "an old story," by brune after e. dayes. jest books.--the ladies elegant jester, or fun for the female sex; being a chaste and delicate selection of good things, written by mrs. montague, the countess of aisborough, lady douglass, the countess of wimbledon, and other literary ladies; . . . together with many originals, by ann sophia radcliffe. . . . london. printed for the proprietor, and published by crosby & letterman . . . price only d. plummer, printer, . . . [ ] _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by grignion after e. dayes. jest books.--the new loyal and patriotic jester, or complete library of fun; intended for the perusal of every loyal briton; . . . nearly the whole of which has never before appeared in print. by christopher grin, esq. the second edition. london. printed by t. plummer, . . . and sold by h. d. symonds, . . . price one shilling.   [ ]   _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by t. tegg after e. dayes. jest books.--the social magazine or cabinet of wit being a complete repository of original bon mots, epigrams &c   by a society of gentlemen members of the club of odd fellows . . . london: printed for h. d. symonds, . . . [ ]   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved title by holland, frontispiece, "an old story," by brune after e. dayes, and five other plates by r. heath, brune, t. tegg, and grignion after e. dayes and tegg. jest books.--the festival of mirth for ; consisting of interesting, moral, and amusing stories; . . . london: printed by w. nicholson, . . . for thomas wilson, . . . price one shilling. . _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by r. williamson after cawse, coloured by hand. the text of pages and is reversed, and - are mixed. jest books.--the convivial jester, or bane of melancholy; being an unrivalled collection of the most celebrated and pointed jests, puns, and repartees, ever before published in the whole world; . . . written and compiled under the immediate inspection of that facetious and lively writer, godfrey broadgrin, esq. the second edition, embellished with a beautiful and appropriate frontispiece, by a most eminent artist. london. printed for the proprietor, and published by h. d. symonds, . . . and t. hurst, . . . price only d. plummer, printer, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges; by the club bindery._ frontispiece by heath after tegg. jest books.--the gentleman's companion, or an elegant and lively selection, of the bon mots, repartees, &c. of the most distinguished characters, in the brilliant circles of taste and fashion. london: printed for w. lane, . . . [n. d.]   _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the humorous jester; or, man of fashion's companion; being a collection of jests and humours, . . . by henry ranger, author of a thousand good things. london: printed by and for j. roach, . . . [n. d.]    _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the laughing philosopher; or repository of wit: . . . written and compiled for the sons of momus, by jerry jingle, esq. of jingle-hall. london: printed for h. d. symonds, . . . price six-pence. plummer, printer, . . . [n. d.]   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by brune after e. dayes. jest books.--the laughing philosopher. [n. d.] _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, similar to the preceding in all respects through page . page begins with a paragraph on the word "sir"; the last page, , ends with "newspapers." the preceding copy begins on page with verses called "the spectacles," and ends on page with "charles ii." jest books.--the laughing philosopher's legacy to dull mortals. . . . london.   printed for s. elliott, . . . and w. harris, . . . price .^{d}    [n. d.] _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ woodcuts and frontispiece, "the old citizen at vauxhall." jest books.--laugh when you can; or, the monstrous droll jester. . . . to which is added, the benevolent jew, as recited at the royalty theatre. london: printed for ann lemoine, . . . (price sixpence.) [n. d.]   _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the compulsive wedding." jest books.--the merry fellow; or jack fun's budget. . . . gosport: printed by j. watts, and sold by crosby and letterman, . . . london. [n. d.] _ mo, olive straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the rival candidates," by t. s. seed. jest books.--new genuine edition.   the new london & country jester; or, fun for the parlour & kitchen. . . . by peter cunningham, esq. professor of drollery at oxford. including the most remarkable jokes and witticisms, used by the late noted sir john fielding, of facetious memory, . . . london: printed for, and sold wholesale and retail by, alex. hogg, [n. d.] . . . [price only s. embellished with a droll frontispiece.] _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the town and country jester." jest books.--rusted's humourous and entertaining jester or pabulum of life. containing a variety of original jests, entirely new. london: sold by r. rusted, . . . j. adlard, printer, . . . [n. d.]   _ mo, brown straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece etched by haynes and coloured by hand. jest books.--sam brown's precious collection of merry jokes; with his curious story of the unfortunate little french pastry cook. london: printed for r. rusted, . . . six-pence. bentham, printer, . . . [n. d.]    _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "misfortune the first," by haynes. jest books.--the town and country nut-cracker, or jack sharp's jests. . . . london, printed and sold by t. sabine, no. , shoe lane. [n. d.]    _small vo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece in two compartments. jest books.--the variety, or the evening's entertainment; in a parcel of interesting novels, histories, amours, intrigues, &c. &c. &c. . . . london: bailey, printer, . . . [n. d.]   _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece. jest books.--the whimsical jester; or, the humors of high life. calculated for the entertainment of the polite world; . . . london: printed for j. sudbury, . . . [n. d.]   price six-pence. _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the amorous lovers," preliminary blank leaf, a , and two final leaves of advertisement, e and e . jest books.--the humourist: a collection of entertaining tales, anecdotes, repartees, witty sayings, epigrams, bon mots, jeu d'esprits, &c. carefully selected. . . . vol. i. [vols. ii.-iv.]   london: printed and published by j. robins and co. . . . . [ . . .] _ mo, four volumes, original decorated boards, uncut edges._ forty coloured plates by george cruikshank. jest books.--see wit. jewitt, llewellynn.--the wedgwoods: being a life of josiah wedgwood; with notices of his works and their productions, memoirs of the wedgwood and other families, and a history of the early potteries of staffordshire. by llewellynn jewitt, . . . with a portrait and numerous illustrations. london: virtue brothers and co., . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ jewitt, llewellynn.--the ceramic art of great britain from pre-historic times down to the present day, being a history of the ancient and modern pottery and porcelain works of the kingdom and of their productions of every class by llewellynn jewitt . . . illustrated with nearly two thousand engravings. london virtue and co., . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ john carter brown library.--the john carter brown library   the dedication of the library building   may the seventeenth a. d. m dcccc iiii   with the addresses by william vail kellen ll.d. and frederick jackson turner ph.d. providence rhode island   m dcccc v. _ vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ presentation copy. johnson, charles.--fortune in her wits. a comedy. london, printed for bernard lintott . . . . price s. d. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b-i in fours, title on a . johnson, charles.--love and liberty. a tragedy. as it is to be acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane. written by charles johnson, of the middle-temple, esq; london; printed for bernard lintott . . . . price s. d. _ to, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by mercier._ first edition. a-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . dedicated "to the judicious criticks throughout the town," "from my chambers in the middle-temple, november , "; but never acted. johnson, charles.--the wife's relief: or, the husband's cure. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by her majesty's servants. written by mr. cha. johnson. [two lines in latin]   london: printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-k in fours, title on a . dedication to henry bentinck, earl of portland. johnson, charles.--the generous husband: or, the coffee house politician. a comedy.   as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by her majesty's servants. written by mr. charles johnson. [one line in latin]   london: printed for bernard lintott . . . and egbert sanger, . . . [ ]   price s. d. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-i in fours, title on a . dedicated to lord ashburnham. johnson, charles.--the victim. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane by her majesty's servants. written by mr. johnson . . . . london, printed: and sold by ferd. burleigh . . . mdccxiv. _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ frontispiece by lud. du guernier. taken from racine and plagiarized from the adaptation of abel boyer. johnson, john.--typographia, or the printers' instructor: including an account of the origin of printing, with biographical notices of the printers of england, from caxton to the close of the sixteenth century. a series of ancient and modern alphabets and domesday characters . . . by j. johnson, printer   longman . . . london: . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by brany._ thick and largest paper copy. a roxburghe club copy. portrait of caxton, etc. johnson was assisted by t. f. dibdin and other bibliographers. johnson, samuel.--irene: a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane. by mr. samuel johnson.   london: printed for r. dodsley at tully's-head in pall-mall and sold by m. cooper in pater-noster-row. m dcc xlix. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges._ first edition. a -a and b-g in eights, half-title on a , title on a , and final leaf of advertisement, g . johnson, samuel.--the vanity of human wishes.   the tenth satire of juvenal, imitated   by samuel johnson. london: printed for r. dodsley . . . , and sold by m. cooper . . . m.dcc.xlix. _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, some uncut, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. a-d in fours, title on a . johnson, samuel.--the rambler. volume first, [second.] nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri, quo me cunque rapit tempestas deferor hospes. hor. london: printed for j. payne, at pope's head, in pater noster row. m dccliii. _folio, two volumes, brown morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition, as published, in numbers. title and contents in each volume, two leaves, mottos, three leaves. volume i contains nos. - , tuesday, may , -- to saturday, march , . volume ii, nos. - , tuesday, march , to saturday, march , . each number consists of three leaves, "price d." with date, and the notice, "to be continued on tuesdays and saturdays." the double date, - , was dropped after the second number, and no. is headed, "tuesday, march , ." at the end of no. is the imprint: "london: printed for j. payne, and j. bouquet, in pater-noster-row; where letters for the author are received." in no. this reading is changed to "for the rambler," and in no. , "and the preceding numbers may be had" is added and continued to the end. johnson, samuel.--a dictionary of the english language: in which the words are deduced from their originals, and illustrated in their different significations by examples from the best writers. to which are prefixed, a history of the language, and an english grammar. by samuel johnson, a. m.   london: printed by w. strahan . . . mdcclv. _royal folio, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. johnson, samuel.--the prince of abissinia. [rasselas]   a tale . . . london: printed for r. and j. dodsley, . . . and w. johnston, . . . mdcclix. _small vo, two volumes, original calf._ first edition. johnson, samuel.--the idler . . . london, printed for j. newbery, . . . mdcclxi. _ mo, two volumes, calf gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. johnson, samuel.--a journey to the western islands of scotland. london: printed for w. strahan; and t. cadell . . . m dcc lxxv. _ vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by carayon._ first edition: with final leaf of errata. johnson, samuel.--the lives of the most eminent english poets; with critical observations on their works. by samuel johnson . . . london: printed for c. bathurst . . . mdcclxxxi. _ vo, four volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ second edition. portrait of johnson by trotter after reynolds. johnson, samuel.--the poetical works of samuel johnson, ll.d. now first collected in one volume. london. printed for the editor and sold by g. kearsley, . . . . _small vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ johnson, samuel.--the works of samuel johnson, l.l. d . . . oxford. printed for william pickering; london . . . mdcccxxv. _royal vo, eleven volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ one of fifty copies printed on large paper, including the parliamentary debates, etc. portrait of dr. johnson by worthington after reynolds, india proof, and (inserted) westall's illustrations to rasselas. johnson, samuel.--dialogue between dr. johnson and mrs. knowles. london: printed for j. and a. arch, . . . m dcc xcix. [price six pence.] _ vo, calf, side panels blind-tooled, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with sir joshua reynolds' "johnson and garrick."_ johnson, samuel.--see beckford, william. boswell, james. johnsoniana; or, a collection of bon mots, &c. by dr. johnson, and others. together with the choice sentences of publius syrus, now first translated into english. london: printed for j. ridley, . . . w. shropshire, . . . w. davis, . . . t. evans, . . . g. kearsly, . . . wallis and stonehouse, . . . richardson and urquhart, . . . and w. flexney, . . . m dcc lxxvi. . . . _small vo, spanish calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of dr. johnson by taylor. johnsoniana.--the witticisms, anecdotes, jests, and sayings, of dr. samuel johnson, during the whole course of his life. collected from boswell, piozzi, hawkins, baretti, beauclerk, sir joshua reynolds, and other gentlemen in the habits of intimacy with the doctor. and a full account of dr. johnson's conversation with the king. to which is added, a great number of jests, in which the most distinguished wits of the present century bore a part. by j. merry, esq. of pembroke college. . . . the third edition, greatly improved. london: printed for d. brewman, . . . . _ vo, spanish calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece, "mrs. thrale's breakfast table," by barlow after cruikshanks. johnsoniana; or supplement to boswell.   being anecdotes and sayings of dr. johnson collected by piozzi [and many others]   london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxvi. _royal vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, with forty-five portraits and views engraved on steel. johnsoniana.--samuel johnson   his words and his ways what he said, what he did, and what men thought and spoke concerning him   edited by e. t. mason   new york   harper & brothers, . . . . _ mo, cloth._ johnson, samuel, of cheshire.--hurlothrumbo: or, the super-natural.   as it is acted at the new-theatre, in the hay-market. written by mr. samuel johnson, from cheshire. . . . london: printed for t. wotton, . . . and j. shuckburgh, . . . m. dcc.xxix. _ to, half calf gilt edges._ the author of this play was a namesake of dr. johnson. johnston, charles.--chrysal; or the adventures of a guinea: wherein are exhibited views of several striking scenes; with interesting anecdotes of the most noted persons in every rank of life, through whose hands it has passed. by an adept. . . . london: printed for samuel richards and co. . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ twelve coloured plates. jolly, william.--robert burns at mossgiel: with reminiscences of the poet by his herd-boy. by william jolly, . . . [cut]   paisley: alexander gardner. . _ mo, original cloth._ diagram. jomini, baron.--life of napoleon. by baron jomini, general-in-chief and aid-de-camp to the emperor of russia. . . . translated from the french. with notes, by h. w. halleck, . . . new york: d. van nostrand, . . . . _ vo, five volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ volume v is an atlas containing sixty maps. jones, george.--sir francis chantrey, r. a. recollections of his life, practice, and opinions. by george jones, r. a. london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxlix. _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ jones, henry.--card essays, clay's decisions, and card-table talk.   by "cavendish," . . . london: thos. de la rue & co. . . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait. jones, owen.--the grammar of ornament by owen jones illustrated by examples from various styles of ornament. one hundred folio plates, drawn on stone by f. bedford, and printed in colours by day and son. london: published by day and son . . . m dccc lvi _imperial folio, half purple morocco, gilt top._ first edition. jones, stephen.--see baker, reed, and jones. joones, z.--the hermit of mona, a poem; saled, a tale of the eleventh century: with other pieces. by z. joones, . . . london: printed for t. and g. underwood. . . . . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ jordan, dorothea (dorothy) bland.--the life of mrs. jordan; including original private correspondence, and numerous anecdotes of her contemporaries. by james boaden, esq. . . . third edition. . . . london: edward bull, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by pratt._ _portrait on india paper by w. h. worthington after romney. extra-illustrated by the insertion of two hundred and seventy-five portraits, many being original drawings, and several autograph letters. the engravings are for the most part in proof state._ josephine, empress.--memoirs of the empress josephine with anecdotes of the courts of navarre and malmaison. london: henry colburn, . . . . [- .]   _post vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ josephus, flavius.--the jewish war of flavius josephus: a new translation, by the late rev. robert traill, . . . edited, with notes, by isaac taylor. with pictorial illustrations. . . . london: houlston and stoneman, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ seventy-five plates. journal of design and manufactures . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . mdcccxlix-lii. _ vo, six volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ volumes i-vi, with two hundred and thirteen fabric patterns inserted, and many hundred woodcuts. journal of sentimental travels in the southern provinces of france, shortly before the revolution; embellished with seventeen coloured engravings, from designs by t. rowlandson, esq. . . . london: published by r. ackermann, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first issue, with a list of seventeen plates on the final page under "directions to the binder." although the title-page calls for this number, there are eighteen, which in the present copy are in two states. the list in the second issue includes the plate here omitted: rural happiness at caverac, page . journal of sentimental travels. . _royal vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ second issue, with the list of plates on the last page increased from seventeen to eighteen, to correspond with the number in the book, although the title-page calls for only seventeen. joutel.--joutel's journal of la salle's last voyage a reprint (page for page and line for line) of the first english translation, london, ; with the map of the original french edition paris, , in facsimile; and notes by melville b. anderson   chicago   the caxton club mdcccxcvi. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and three copies printed on american hand-made paper. judah, samuel b. f.--gotham and the gothamites, a medley. . . . new york: published for the author, and sold by s. king, . . . . _ mo, original boards, uncut edges._ this satire on new york society caused the imprisonment of the author-publisher, and the suppression of the work. "junius."--junius. [letters] . . . london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ thick paper copy, with engraved title, sixteen copper-plate portraits, and woodcuts by bewick. "junius."--junius . . . london: printed by t. bensley . . . . the letter-press title is dated . _ vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over edges partially uncut, by bozerian the younger._ thick paper copy. twenty-one portraits engraved by ridley, and numerous woodcuts by bewick. this edition contains all the letters of junius, philo junius, and of sir william draper and mr. horne to junius. jusserand, j. j.--the english novel in the time of shakespeare by j. j. jusserand . . . translated from the french by elizabeth lee. revised and enlarged by the author. illustrated. london   t. fisher unwin . . . m dcccxc. _ vo, vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of sixty-five copies printed on japanese paper. frontispiece portrait of queen elizabeth after william rogers, and sixty-one other illustrations. jusserand, j. j.--a french ambassador at the court of charles the second. le comte de cominges from his unpublished correspondence. by j. j. jusserand . . . with portraits. london   t. fisher unwin . . . mdcccxcii. _ vo, vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of sixty-five copies printed on japanese paper. just vengeance.--the just vengeance of heaven exemplify'd.   in a journal lately found by captain mawson, (commander of the ship compton) on the island of ascension. as he was homeward-bound from india. in which is a full and exact relation of the author's being set on shore there (by order of the commodore and captains of the dutch fleet) for a most enormous crime he had been guilty of, and the extreme and unparallel'd hardships, sufferings, and misery he endur'd, from the time of his being left there, to that of his death. all wrote with his own hand, and found lying near the skeleton. london: printed and sold by the booksellers. . . . [n. d.]   _ vo, half calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece containing a skeleton on the seashore. kÁlidÁsa.--sakoontalá; or the lost ring; an indian drama, translated into english prose and verse from the sanskrit of kálidása.   by monier williams &c . . . hertford: printed and published by stephen austin &c m dccc lv. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by a. motte._ first edition. every page surrounded with a border in gold and colours, sub-titles and other illustrations similarly treated, woodcuts, etc. kÁlidÁsa.--['s]akoontalá or the lost ring   an indian drama translated into english prose and verse from the sanskrit of kálidása by monier williams, m. a. . . . new york dodd, mead and company    . _ to, citron levant morocco, back panels and side compartments in a floral design of red mosaic and gilt, green mosaic borders, tooled, figured silk linings, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred and ten copies printed on japanese paper. kÁlidÁsa.--['s]akoontalá. . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with brown morocco, gilt borders, gilt edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ no. of four copies printed upon vellum. kant, immanuel.--critick of pure reason translated from the original of immanuel kant   london william pickering    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ keane, a. h.--the early teutonic, italian, and french masters translated and edited from the dohme series by a. h. keane, . . . with numerous illustrations london chatto and windus, . . . . _royal vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ keats, john.--poems by john keats . . . london: printed for c. & j. ollier . . . . _small vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. keats, john.--poems. . _ mo, citron levant morocco, rich gilt back and side border, doubled with citron morocco, gilt border, gilt over uncut edges, in a citron levant morocco case, by mercier._ another copy. keats, john.--endymion: a poetic romance. by john keats. "the stretched metre of an antique song."   london: printed for taylor and hessey, [by t. miller] . . . . _ vo, maroon levant morocco, sides covered with a floral design, the intervals studded with dots, doubled with red morocco, maroon borders, filleted, red silk guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition; dated from teignmouth, april , , and "inscribed to the memory of thomas chatterton." two final leaves of advertisement dated may , . b. r. haydon's copy, with his signature on the title-page. a three-page autograph letter from keats to fanny brawne is inserted. keats, john.--lamia, isabella, the eve of st. agnes, and other poems. by john keats, . . . london: printed for taylor and hessey, . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, rich gilt back and sides, doubled with red levant, chaplet border, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. portrait of the author inserted, india proof, by meyer after severn. keats, john.--the poetical works of john keats. a new edition. london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by h. robinson after j. severn. keats, john.--the poetical works of john keats. with a memoir by richard monckton milnes. illustrated by designs, original and from the antique, drawn on wood   by george scharf, jun., . . . london: edward moxon, . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ one of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait by h. robinson after j. severn. keats, john.-the poetical works of john keats. with a memoir. . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed, with portrait on india paper. keats, john.--(i.) the letters of john keats edited by jno. gilmer speed . . . new york dodd, mead & company [de vinne press]    (ii.-iii.) the poems of john keats with the annotations of lord houghton and a memoir by jno. gilmer speed . . . [same imprint] _ mo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ one of fifty-five copies printed on whatman paper; with seven portraits (three coloured), two facsimiles, and one view. the coloured portraits in the letters are in two states, unique duplicates on satin having been added to the ordinary impressions. in the poems, the mask of keats is in three states: japan and india paper, and vellum. twenty-five proof portraits and scenes have been added, including five examples after stothard, for the most part on india paper. keats, john.--letters and poems. . _ mo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back and sides tooled in bands of fillets, doubled with blue morocco, floral borders, gilt over uncut edges, in green morocco cases, by david._ no. of two copies printed on vellum. inserted are two pages from keats' original manuscript of "cap and bells." keats, john.--the poetical works of john keats edited by william t. arnold   london   kegan paul, trench, & co., . . . m dccc lxxx iiii. _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, corner ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by zaehnsdorf._ no. of fifty copies printed on large paper: with etched portrait on japan paper. keats, john.--the poems of john keats edited by g. thorn drury. with an introduction by robert bridges. london: lawrence & bullen . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, two hundred printed, with a portrait of keats after severn's miniature. keats, john.--life, letters, and literary remains, of john keats. edited by richard monckton milnes. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portrait by h. robinson after j. severn, and facsimile. keats, john.--letters of john keats to fanny brawne   written in the years mdcccxix and mdcccxx and now given from the original manuscripts with introduction and notes by harry buxton forman   london   printed for private circulation mdccclxxviii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ whatman paper copy, fifty printed, with etched portrait of keats by severn, a private proof. keats, john.--see rossetti, william michael. keble, john.--the christian year: thoughts in verse for the sundays and holydays throughout the year . . . oxford, printed by w. baxter, for j. parker; . . . . _small vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. keble, john.--the christian year thoughts in verse for the sundays and holydays throughout the year [by ----]   london kegan paul trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with portrait of keble, proof on india paper. keeling, william.--liturgiæ britannicæ, or the several editions of the book of common prayer of the church of england, from its compilation to the last revision; together with the liturgy set forth for the use of the church of scotland: arranged to shew their respective variations. by william keeling, . . . london: william pickering. . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ keese, john, _editor_.--the poets of america: illustrated by one of her painters . . . edited by john keese. new york: published by s. colman . . . . [- ] _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by barr & co._ first edition of the first and second series. thirty portraits have been inserted in this copy which is otherwise illustrated with thirty-seven etchings, some printed in red. keese, john, _editor_.--the poets of america. . _ mo, brown morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by matthews._ another copy of the first series, with the thirty-seven illustrations. keese, john, _editor_.--the poets of america: illustrated by one of her painters . . . edited by john keese. london: charles tilt, . . . [new york]   mdcccxl. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece-title in black and bronze and the same illustrations as in the new york edition, but printed in different colours. a leaf "advertisement to the english edition," dated fleet street, november, , is substituted for the dedication, "to the poets of our country." the verso of the frontispiece-title bears the imprint of h. ludwig, new york; the verso of the title-page of the new york edition, the imprint of alex. s. gould, new york. keese, john, _editor_.--the poets of america: illustrated by one of her painters. . . . edited by john keese. (volume second of the series.) third edition. new york; published by samuel colman. . . . . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ keese, john, _editor_.--the poet's gift: illustrated by one of her painters. . . . edited by john keese. boston: published by t. h. carter and company. new york: collins . . . . _ mo, brown morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by matthews._ thirty-six illustrations by w. h. croome, etc. kelly, hugh.--false delicacy: a comedy; as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by his majesty's servants. by hugh kelly. london, printed for r. baldwin, . . . w. johnston, . . . and g. kearsly, . . . m dcc lxviii. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to garrick, who wrote both prologue and epilogue. kelty, mary ann.--reminiscences of thought and feeling; by the author of visiting my relations. london william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ kemble, fanny.--poems by frances anne butler [fanny kemble] philadelphia: john pennington . . . . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the style of roger payne, gilt over uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. portrait by cheney after sully. kemble, john philip.--fugitive pieces . . . written by j. p. kemble. york: printed by w. blanchard and co . . . mdcclxxx. _ vo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by hayday._ kemble was at particular pains to destroy as many copies of this book as possible, so that very few remain. kempis, thomas À.--of the imitation of jesus christ, translated from the latin original ascribed to thomas a kempis; with an introduction and notes. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin, d. d. . . . london: printed for the author by w^{m} nicol . . . published by wm. pickering, and john major. m dccc xxviii. _royal vo, divided into two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, with an original drawing and ninety selected plates added, including many rare old copper-plate engravings and proof impressions of the more modern steel plates. kempis, thomas À.--of the imitation of jesus christ. translated from the latin original ascribed to thomas a kempis by t. f. dibdin d. d. london william pickering    . _ vo, blue levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by bedford._ the engraving "ecce homo" is in two states, a fine proof having been added. kempis, thomas À.--of the imitation of christ by thomas à kempis london c. kegan paul & co., . . . mdccclxxxi. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with frontispiece on india paper. kennedy, john pendleton.--swallow barn, or a sojourn in the old dominion. . . . philadelphia: carey & lea, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. kennedy, john pendleton.--swallow barn; or, a sojourn in the old dominion. by john p. kennedy . . . revised edition. with illustrations by strother. new york . . . hurd and houghton . . . . _ mo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ kennedy, john pendleton.--horse shoe robinson; a tale of the tory ascendency.   by the author of "swallow barn" . . . philadelphia: carey, lea, & blanchard. . _ mo, two volumes, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. kennedy, john pendleton.--horse-shoe robinson. a tale of the tory ascendency. by john p. kennedy . . . revised edition   new york . . . hurd and houghton . . . . _ mo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ frontispiece and vignette. kennedy, john pendleton.--rob of the bowl: a legend of st. inigoe's. by the author of "swallow barn" . . . philadelphia: lea & blanchard . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. kennedy, john pendleton.--rob of the bowl. a legend of st. inigoe's. by john p. kennedy . . . revised edition. new york . . . hurd & houghton . _ mo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ kennedy, john pendleton.--quodlibet: containing some annals thereof, with an authentic account of the origin and growth of the borough and the sayings and doings of sundry of the townspeople: interspersed with sketches of the most remarkable and distinguished characters of that place and its vicinity. edited by solomon second-thoughts, school-master, from original mss. indited by him, and now made public at the request and under the patronage of the great new light democratic central committee of quodlibet. . . . philadelphia: lea & blanchard. . _ mo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. kennedy, john pendleton.--quodlibet: containing some annals thereof, with an authentic account of the origin and growth of the borough, and the sayings and doings of sundry of the townspeople; interspersed with sketches of the most remarkable and distinguished characters of that place and its vicinity. by solomon secondthoughts, schoolmaster . . . third edition. new york . . . hurd and houghton. . _ mo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ kennedy, john pendleton.--the blackwater chronicle   a narrative of an expedition into the land of canaan, in randolph county, virginia, a country flowing with wild animals, . . . by "the clerke of oxenforde." with illustrations from life by strother. redfield . . . new york. . _ mo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. kennedy, john pendleton.--memoirs of william wirt, attorney-general of the united states. by john p. kennedy. a new and revised edition   new york . . . hurd and houghton. . _ mo, two volumes, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ portrait of wirt by walter after king. kenrick, william.--falstaff's wedding: a comedy.   being a sequel to the second part of the play of king henry the fourth. written in imitation of shakespeare, by mr. kenrick. . . . london: printed for j. wilkie, . . . f. blyth, . . . t. lowndes, and w. owen, . . . becket and de hondt, . . . t. lewis, j. walter, . . . and j. almon, . . . m. dcc. lx. [m. dcc. lxvi]   _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. the preface is dated jan. , ; therefore the date on the title-page is obviously a misprint. dedicated "to m^{r.} quin, in return for the frequent pleasure received, by his representation of the character of sir john falstaff." title, a -a and b-g in eights. kettell, samuel.--specimens of american poetry, with critical and biographical notices . . . by samuel kettell. boston,--s. g. goodrich and co. mdcccxxix. _ mo, three volumes, half morocco, uncut edges._ kidd, john.--on the adaptation of external nature to the physical condition of man, principally with reference to the supply of his wants, and the exercise of his intellectual faculties. by john kidd, m. d. . . . london: william pickering. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. ii. kidgell, john.--the card . . . london: printed for the maker, and sold by j. newbery, . . . m d cc lv. _ mo, two volumes, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ coloured frontispiece, and one other plate. kidgell, john.--original fables   by the reverend john kidgell . . . london: printed for james robson . . . mdcclxiii. _small vo, two volumes in one, blue morocco, rich gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by birdsall._ the text is in english and french, on opposite pages. a spirited outline illustration accompanies each of the ninety-four fables, and two other plates precede each volume. in isaac reed said he had never seen any copy but his own, for the author absconded at the time the book was printed and it was suppressed. king, charles william.--antique gems and rings. by c. w. king, . . . london: bell and daldy, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ fifty-six woodcut and ten copper plates, and numerous illustrations in the text. king, richard john, _editor_.--handbook to the cathedrals of england . . . with illustrations london: john murray . . . [-' -' -' ] _crown vo, six volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by maclehose._ comprises northern division, volumes, york--ripon--carlisle--durham--chester--manchester. southern division, volumes, chichester--canterbury--rochester--winchester--salisbury--exeter--wells. eastern division, oxford--peterborough--norwich--ely--lincoln. western division, bristol--gloucester--hereford--worcester--lichfield. king, william.--miscellanies in prose and verse. by william king. london: printed for b. lintott . . . _ vo, original calf._ large and thick paper copy, presented by the author to dean swift, with the latter's autograph and memoranda. kingsley, charles.--the saint's tragedy; or, the true story of elizabeth of hungary, landgravine of thuringia, saint of the romish calendar. by charles kingsley, junior, rector of eversley. with a preface by professor maurice. london: john w. parker, . . . m. dccc. xlviii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. kingsley, charles.--twenty-five village sermons. by charles kingsley, jun., . . . third edition. london: john w. parker and son, . . . m dccc liv. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ kingsley, charles.--sermons for the times. by charles kingsley, . . . the second edition. london: john w. parker and son, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ kingsley, charles.--phaeton; or, loose thoughts for loose thinkers. by charles kingsley, . . . third edition. cambridge: macmillan and co. . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ kingsley, charles.--andromeda and other poems   by charles kingsley . . . the third edition. london: parker, son, and bourn . . . mdccclxii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ kinnaird, douglas.--the merchant of bruges; or, beggar's bush. with considerable alterations and additions. by the honourable douglas kinnaird. now performing, with universal applause, at the theatre royal, drury lane. london: printed for whittingham and arliss, . . . . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. kinzie, juliette a. mcgill.--wau-bun the "early day" of the north-west by mrs. john h. kinzie of chicago   new edition, with an introduction and notes by reuben gold thwaites, . . . with numerous illustrations chicago   the caxton club m dccc ci. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty-six copies printed on hand-made paper. kipling, rudyard.--the story of the gadsbys, a tale without a plot. by rudyard kipling. published by messrs. a. h. wheeler & co., alla-habad. [ ] _ vo, cloth, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. kipling, rudyard.--the light that failed by rudyard kipling london macmillan and co. . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. kipling, rudyard.--many inventions by rudyard kipling . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. kirby, william.--on the power wisdom and goodness of god as manifested in the creation of animals and in their history habits and instincts by the rev. william kirby, . . . london william pickering . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. vii. sixteen plates after c. m. curtis. kit-kat club.--the kit-kat club, done from the original paintings of sr. godfrey kneller, by mr. faber. sold by j. tonson [london] . _folio, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. mezzotint title-page and forty-four portraits on forty-three plates, one being double. knapp and baldwin.--the newgate calendar; comprising interesting memoirs of the most notorious characters who have been convicted of outrages on the laws of england since the commencement of the eighteenth century; with occasional anecdotes and observations, speeches, confessions, and last exclamations of sufferers. by andrew knapp and william baldwin . . . london: j. robins and co . . . . _ vo, four volumes, mottled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ four portraits and numerous woodcut illustrations. knight, charles.--the old printer and the modern press. by charles knight . . . london: john murray . . . . _ mo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ numerous woodcut illustrations. knight, joseph.--life of dante gabriel rossetti by joseph knight london   walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ knight, samuel.--the life of dr. john colet, dean of s. paul's in the reigns of k. henry vii. and henry viii. and founder of s. paul's school: with an appendix containing some account of the masters and more eminent scholars of that foundation; and several original papers relating to the said life. by samuel knight . . . london, printed by j. downing . . . . _ vo, purple straight-grain morocco, back and side panels finished in blind-tooling, leather joints, gilt edges, by c. lewis._ large paper copy of the first edition. portrait by vertue, and seven other plates. knight, samuel.--the life of dr. john colet, dean of st. paul's in the reigns of k. henry vii. and k. henry viii. and the founder of st. paul's school: with an appendix, containing some account of the masters and more eminent scholars of that foundation, and several original papers relating to the said life. by samuel knight, . . . a new [second] edition. oxford, at the clarendon press. mdcccxxiii. _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back with red roses inlaid, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ two portraits of colet and six other plates. knight, samuel.--the life of erasmus, more particularly that part of it, which he spent in england; wherein an account is given of his learned friends, and the state of religion and learning at that time in both our universities. with an appendix containing several original papers. by samuel knight . . . cambridge: printed by corn. crownfield   mdccxxvi . . . _ vo, pigskin, uncut edges._ an uncut copy of the small paper edition, with the portrait by vertue and sixteen other plates, all indexed, the three extra engravings, including the portrait of froben, so often missing, and (inserted) a proof before letters on india paper of sir thomas more and his family. dibdin says in his "library companion" that he never saw this book in an uncut state. knight, samuel.--the life of erasmus.    . _ vo, purple straight-grain morocco, back and side panels blind-tooled with centre ornament in gold on the back, doubled with a border of red morocco, gilt edges, by c. lewis._ large paper copy, with proof impression of the portraits and plates ( ), and the three extra engravings. knowles, james sheridan.--the dramatic works of james sheridan knowles . . . . london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxli [volume iii., m dccc xliii.]    _ vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition.   portrait by finden after wageman.   dedication of volumes i and ii to the duchess of kent, of volume iii, dated dec. , , to w. a. dow. volume i contains caius gracchus, virginius, william tell, alfred the great; or, the patriot king, and the hunchback. volume ii contains the wife: a tale of mantua, the beggar of bethnal green, the daughter, the love-chase, and woman's wit; or, love's disguises. volume iii contains the maid of mariendorpt, love, john of procida, old maids, and the rose of arragon. knowles, james sheridan.--george lovell. a novel.   by james sheridan knowles, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxlvii.   _ mo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ knowles, john.--the life and writings of henry fuseli, esq. m. a. r. a. . . . the former written, and the latter edited by john knowles, . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley, . . . mdcccxxxi.   _ vo, three volumes, half purple morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of fuseli by dean after harlow. kugler, franz theodor.--the schools of painting in italy.   translated from the german of kugler by a lady.   edited, with notes, by sir charles l. eastlake, . . . with upwards of one hundred illustrations, drawn on wood, by george scharf, jun., from the works of the old masters mentioned in this book, engraved by john thompson and samuel williams. second edition, thoroughly revised, with much additional matter. . . . london: john murray, . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ kugler, franz theodor.--handbook of painting. the german, flemish, dutch, spanish and french schools.   partly translated from the german by a lady. edited, with notes, by sir edmund head, bart.   illustrated edition.   london: john murray, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ lackington, james.--memoirs of the forty-five first years of the life of james lackington, the present bookseller in chiswell-street, moorfields, london.   written by himself in forty-seven letters to a friend.   with a triple dedication . . . a new edition.   corrected and much enlarged . . . to which is also added, an index.   london: printed for the author . . . m d c c x c i v.   _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ second edition.   four portraits of lackington, and a coloured print of his shop, inserted. lackington, james.--memoirs of james lackington, who from the humble station of a journey-man shoemaker, by great industry, amassed a large fortune, and now lives in a splendid stile, in london. containing, among other curious and facetious anecdotes, a succinct account of the watch nights, classes, bards, love-feasts, &c. of the methodists; with specimens of mr. wesley's and mr. whitfield's mode of preaching, and the means made use of by them in propagating their tenets.   written by himself.   formerly one of the brethren of mr. wesley's church.   newburgh: printed by d. denniston, for j. fellows, new york.-- --   _ mo, half calf._ la fontaine, jean de.--tales and novels in verse of j. de la fontaine illustrated with the eighty fives original plates   by eisen . . . paris j. lemonnyer . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, original paper, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed on japanese paper. portrait of la fontaine by ficquet after hyacinthe rigault, and of eisen by darodes after ficquet's drawing from vispré. an orthographic curiosity.   reprinted from the so-called moore translation, london, .   the french publisher has not only repeated the errors of the english edition, but has also created many more; "eighty-fives" on the title-page being a specimen. laing, david.--see cunningham and laing. wilkie and geddes. lamartine, alphonse de.--history of the girondists; or, personal memoirs of the patriots of the french revolution.   from unpublished sources. by alphonse de lamartine, . . . translated by h. t. ryde.   london: george bell & sons, . . . .   _post vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ three frontispiece-portraits and three inserted plates, besides an autograph letter of mirabeau. lamb and lloyd.--blank verse, by charles lloyd and charles lamb. london: printed by t. bensley; for john and arthur arch . . . .   _small vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. lamb, charles.--john woodvil a tragedy.   by c. lamb.   to which are added, fragments of burton, the author of the anatomy of melancholy. london: printed by t. plummer . . . for g. and j. robinson . . . . _small vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. lamb, charles and mary.--tales from shakespear. designed for the use of young persons.   by charles lamb.   embellished with copper-plates. . . . london: printed for thomas hodgkins, at the juvenile library, hanway-street (opposite soho-square), oxford-street; and to be had of all booksellers.    .   _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, emblematic corners, gilt edges, by lortic._ first edition: with twenty plates. lamb, charles.--tales from shakespeare.   designed for the use of young persons.   by mr. and miss lamb.   sixth edition.   ornamented with engravings, from designs by harvey.   [woodcut]   london: baldwin and cradock, . . . .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lamb, charles and mary.--tales from shakspeare. by charles and mary lamb.   new york: frank h. dodd, . . . .   _ mo, half blue straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ lamb, charles.--specimens of english dramatic poets, who lived about the time of shakespeare: with notes.   by charles lamb london: printed for longman . . . . _crown vo, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. lamb, charles.--specimens of english dramatic poets, who lived about the time of shakespeare. with notes. by charles lamb. a new edition . . . london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxxxv. _foolscap vo, two volumes, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ lamb, charles.--the adventures of ulysses. by charles lamb. london: printed by t. davison, whitefriars, for the juvenile library, . . . . _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. frontispiece and engraved title by heath after corbould. lamb, charles.--beauty and the beast: or, a rough outside with a gentle heart. a poetical version of an ancient tale. illustrated with a series of engravings, and beauty's song at her spinning wheel, set to music by mr. whitaker. london: printed for m. j. godwin, at the juvenile library, . . . [ ]   _ mo, boards, uncut edges, with the original paper covers bearing the date . enclosed in a citron morocco case._ first edition. eight plates, one coloured, and folded leaf of music score. lamb, charles.--beauty and the beast by charles lamb, with an introduction by andrew lang. london: field & tuer [n. d.] _square vo, citron levant morocco, back panels and side corners decorated with a conventional flower gilt and inlaid in blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by kaufmann._ one of ten copies with the eight plates coloured by hand. lamb, charles.--the works of charles lamb. in two volumes. . . . london: printed for c. and j. ollier, . . . . _small vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, filleted side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the marygold bindery._ first edition. volume i is dedicated to coleridge, volume ii to martin charles burney. lamb, charles.--elia. [ ]   essays which have appeared under that signature in the london magazine, [from august, to october, ] london: printed for taylor and hessey, fleet-street. . _crown vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side borders in compartments, figured green silk linings, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first issue of the first edition. "valentine's day" appeared in _the indicator_ february , . the present copy was rebound from the original boards, with paper label, as issued. lamb, charles.--the last essays of elia. being a sequel to essays published under that name.   london: edward moxon, . . . . _crown vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side borders in compartments, figured green silk linings, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. twenty-three essays which appeared in the _london magazine_, the _englishman's magazine_, the _new monthly magazine_, and the _athenæum_ from january, , to february, . lamb, charles.--album verses, with a few others, by charles lamb. london: edward moxon, . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. robert southey's copy, with his autograph dated keswick. july, . lamb, charles.--satan in search of a wife; with the whole process of his courtship and marriage, and who danced at the wedding. by an eye witness. [vignette] london: edward moxon, [bradbury and evans, printers] . . . m. dccc. xxxi. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original pink paper covers bound in, by j. larkins._ first edition. four full-page woodcuts, and one vignette, besides that on the title-page. lamb, charles.--rosamund gray: recollections of christ's hospital etc etc. by charles lamb. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxxxv. _crown vo, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ lamb, charles.--the poetical works of charles lamb. a new edition london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxxxvi. _foolscap vo, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ lamb, charles.--the letters of charles lamb, with a sketch of his life. by thomas noon talfourd, one of his executors. london: edward moxon . . . m d cccxxxvii. _crown vo, two volumes, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. three portraits by e. smith after william hazlitt, finden after wageman, and by brook pulham. lamb, charles.--final memorials of charles lamb; consisting chiefly of his letters not before published with sketches of some of his companions. by thomas noon talfourd . . . london: edward moxon . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. lamb, charles.--(i.-iii.) the works of charles lamb. in four volumes [with life by sir thomas noon talfourd]   london: edward moxon . . . (iv.) rosamund gray, essays, poems, etc. by charles lamb   london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxlix. _post vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by finden after wageman. lamb, charles.--the works of charles lamb. a new edition. . . . boston: william veazie. . _ vo, five volumes, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by h. wright smith after t. wageman. large paper copy, one hundred printed. lamb, charles and mary.--mary and charles lamb: poems, letters, and remains: now first collected, with reminiscences and notes. by w. carew hazlitt. with portrait, and numerous facsimiles and illustrations of their favourite haunts in london and the suburbs. london: chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lamb, charles.--a bibliography of the first editions in book form of the writings of charles and mary lamb published prior to charles lamb's death in by luther s. livingston   new york   printed for j. a. spoor at the de vinne press    . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of ninety copies printed on van gelder paper. six portraits on japan paper, and numerous facsimiles. lamb, charles.--see coleridge, s. t.   proctor, b. w. lambert, osmund.--angling literature in england; and descriptions of fishing by the ancients: with a notice of some books on other piscatorial subjects. by osmund lambert. london: sampson low &c [chiswick press]    . _small vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original vellum covers bound in, by zaehnsdorf._ lamborn, robert h.--mexican painting and painters   a brief sketch of the development of the spanish school of painting in mexico   by robert h. lamborn, . . . [ illustrations]   new york .   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of five hundred copies printed for the author. presentation copy, with autograph letter inserted. lancashire ballads.--ballads & songs of lancashire chiefly older than the th century.   collected, compiled, and edited, with notes, by john harland, . . . [cut]   london whittaker & co. . . . .   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ lancaster indian treaty.--a treaty, held at the town of lancaster, in pennsylvania,   by the honourable the lieutenant-governor of the province, and the honourable the commissioners for the provinces of virginia and maryland, with the indians of the six nations, in june, .   philadelphia: printed and sold by b. franklin, at the new-printing-office, near the market.   m, dcc,xliv.   _folio, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ lanciani, rodolfo.--ancient rome in the light of recent discoveries by rodolfo lanciani, . . . with one hundred illustrations   boston and new york   houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ landon, letitia elizabeth.--the poetical works of letitia elizabeth landon. . . . a new edition. . . . london: printed for longman, orme, brown, green, and longmans, . . . .   _post vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by finden after maclise and four plates by c. heath, j. mitchell, e. j. portbury and w. finden after j. m. wright, c. c. pyne, and h. howard. landor, walter savage.--the poems of walter savage landor.   london: printed for t. cadell, jun^{r}. and w. davies, . . . mdccxcv.   _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. landor, walter savage.--gebir, count julian, and other poems.   by walter savage landor, esq. london: edward moxon . . . .   _small vo, calf gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. landor, walter savage.--pericles and aspasia by walter savage landor, esq . . . london saunders and otley . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, narrow side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition.   dedication to the earl of mulgrave, lord lieutenant of ireland, advertisement dated "villa fiesolana, july , ." landor, walter savage.--pericles & aspasia walter savage landor   london printed at the chiswick press for george bell & sons    .   _folio, original cloth, uncut edges._ two hundred copies printed, with frontispiece, portrait, and woodcut title-page by alfred a. longden. landor, walter savage.--the pentameron and pentalogia.   london saunders and otley . . . . _ mo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. landor, walter savage.--andrea of hungary, and giovanna of naples.   by walter savage landor. london: richard bentley . . . mdcccxxxix.   _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. landor, walter savage.--fra rupert the last part of a trilogy.   the first being andrea of hungary, the second being giovanna of naples.   by walter savage landor.   london: saunders and otley, . . . .   _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. landor, walter savage.--the works of walter savage landor. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlvi. _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ landor, walter savage.--the hellenics of walter savage landor. enlarged and completed. london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlvii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ landor, walter savage.--imaginary conversations of greeks and romans. by walter savage landor.   london: edward moxon . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ landseer, thomas, _editor_.--life and letters of william bewick (artist) edited by thomas landseer, a. r. a.   london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of bewick by brown after macartan. lane, edward william.--an account of the manners and customs of the modern egyptians, written in egypt during the years ,-- , and-- , partly from notes made during a former visit to that country in the years ,-- ,-- , and-- .   by edward william lane . . . the third edition, with large additions and improvements.   london: charles knight and co., . . . mdcccxlii.   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred and twenty-eight woodcut illustrations. lang, andrew.--ballads and lyrics of old france: with other poems.   by a. lang.   london: longmans, green and co.    .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--a. lang xxii ballades in blue china [vignette] london c. kegan paul & co., . . . m dccc lxxx.   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, centre ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original vellum covers bound in._ first edition. lang, andrew.--helen of troy by a. lang. london: george bell and sons . . . .   _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ first edition, with autograph letter of the author inserted. lang, andrew.--rhymes a la mode by a. lang.   london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxv.   _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ first edition.   large paper copy, fifty printed, with frontispiece by abbey. lang, andrew.--in the wrong paradise and other stories by andrew lang. london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--letters to dead authors by andrew lang.   london longmans, green, and co. . . . .   _crown vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--the mark of cain by andrew lang . . . bristol j. w. arrowsmith . . . . _foolscap vo, original paper covers._ first edition. lang, andrew.--books and bookmen by andrew lang london longmans, green, and co.    . . . _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. lang, andrew.--books and bookmen by andrew lang . . . new york   george j. coombes . . . [riverside press] .   _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with fourteen illustrations. lang, andrew.--books and bookmen by andrew lang.   london longmans, green and co.    . _ vo, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition with additions and illustrations.   printed on handmade paper. lang, andrew.--a. lang.   xxxii ballades in blue china.   london   kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxviii.   _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. lang, andrew, _editor_.--ballads of books.   edited by andrew lang. london   longmans, green, and co . . . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and thirteen large paper copies printed. lang, andrew.--grass of parnassus.   rhymes old and new by andrew lang.    london   longmans, green, and co . . . .   _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--the gold of fairnilee.   by andrew lang.   frontispiece [in colour] by t. scott. drawings [ in colour] by e. a. lemann. bristol: j. w. arrowsmith, . . . london: simpkin, marshall & co., . . . [ ]   _royal to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of a limited edition printed upon large paper. lang and sylvester.--the dead leman and other tales from the french by andrew lang and paul sylvester.   london   swan sonnenschein & co . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--prince prigio by andrew lang . . . twenty-seven illustrations by gordon browne. .   bristol j. w. arrowsmith . . . _square post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--lost leaders   by andrew lang london   kegan paul, trench & co., . . . .   _ vo, original paper covers, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. lang, andrew.--how to fail in literature: a lecture by andrew lang. .   london: field & tuer . . . _square mo, original covers, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--old friends   essays in epistolary parody by andrew lang. [frontispiece] london. longmans, green, and co . . . .   _crown vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. lang, andrew.--angling sketches by andrew lang with three etchings and numerous illustrations by w. g. burn-murdoch.   london   longmans, green, and co . . . .   _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. lang, andrew, _editor_.--the blue poetry book edited by andrew lang with numerous illustrations by h. j. ford and lancelot speed.   london. longmans, green, and co . . . .   _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. lang and dobson.--the library by andrew lang with a chapter on modern english illustrated books by austin dobson   second edition   london macmillan & co. . . . . . . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred large paper copies printed: three plates (two coloured) and twenty-two woodcuts. lang, andrew, _editor_.--the green fairy book edited by andrew lang [vignette]   with numerous illustrations by h. j. ford   london longmans, green, and co. . . . . . . _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. lang, andrew.-- . . . prince ricardo of pantouflia being the adventures of prince prigio's son, by andrew lang . . . illustrated by gordon browne published at bristol by j. w. arrowsmith, . . . and at london by simpkin, marshall, hamilton, kent & company . . . [ .]   _ to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of a large paper edition. lang, andrew.--the tercentenary of izaak walton.   by andrew lang. london: printed for private circulation only.    .   _ to, vellum boards, uncut edges._ only a few copies printed for private circulation.   portrait and other illustrations. lang, andrew, _editor_.--the yellow fairy book edited by andrew lang [vignette]   with numerous illustrations by h. j. ford   london longmans, green, and co. . . . . . . _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of one hundred and forty large paper copies printed. lang, andrew.--ban and arrière ban a rally of fugitive rhymes by andrew lang.   london longmans, green & co . . .    _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition.   no. of seventy large paper copies printed, with frontispiece. lang, andrew.--see aucassin and nicolete. colonna, francesco. langhorne, john.--the fables of flora.   by dr. [john] langhorne london: printed by t. rickaby for e. and s. harding . . . mdccxciv. _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, wide border on the sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ twenty-two illustrations by stothard and others. langhorne, john.--the fables of flora, by dr. langhorne . . . to which is prefixed a life of the author, by f. blagdon . . . london: printed for b. crosby and co . . . .   _ mo, half blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ twenty-two vignettes and floral tail-pieces by stothard. lanthorn book.--the lanthorn book being a small collection of tales and verses read at the sign o' the lanthorn william street.   new york [ ] _royal vo, half ooze calf, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and twenty-five copies printed: with illustrations. larned, walter cranston.--churches and castles of mediæval france by walter cranston larned illustrated   new york   charles scribner's sons . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ larwood and hotten.--the history of signboards, from the earliest times to the present day. by jacob larwood and john camden hotten.   with one hundred illustrations in fac-simile   by j. larwood. . . . [vignette] fourth edition.   london: john camden hotten, . . . . . . . _ to, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of one hundred large paper copies printed, with seventy-two additional illustrations of ancient signboards, and other reminiscences of old london. las cases, count augustin de.--memorial de sainte helene.   journal of the private life and conversations of the emperor napoleon at saint helena   by the count de las cases. . . . london: printed for henry colburn and co. .   _ vo, eight parts in four volumes, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ two maps, a plan, and a view. lathy, thomas pike.--the angler; a poem, in ten cantos: with proper instructions in the art, rules to choose fishing rods, lines, hooks, floats, baits, and to make artificial flies; receipts for pastes &c, and, in short, every article relating to the sport. by piscator [t. p. lathy] [cut] london: printed for w. wright . . . and m. iley . . . .    _square vo, red morocco, back tooled with appropriate emblems, sides panelled with a design in relief introducing portraits of walton and cotton, &c., gilt edges._ large and thick paper copy, only twenty printed, with portrait, proof on india paper, by scott after cooper, and twenty-one woodcuts. lavater, john caspar.--aphorisms on man: translated from the original manuscript of the rev. john caspar lavater . . . london: printed for j. johnson . . . mdcclxxxviii.   _small vo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ william blake's copy with his autograph, manuscript notes, and a proof impression of his frontispiece. lavater, john caspar.--essays on physiognomy, designed to promote the knowledge and the love of mankind.   by john caspar lavater . . . illustrated by more than eight hundred engravings accurately copied, and some duplicates added from originals.   executed by, or under the inspection of, thomas holloway.   translated from the french by henry hunter, d. d. . . . london: printed for john murray, . . . h. hunter, . . . and t. holloway, . . . mdcclxxxix (xcii and printed by t. bensley, . . . for john stockdale, . . . .)   _ to, three volumes divided in five, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by carayon._ large paper copy. lawrence, john and edward.--the gentleman's recreation: or the second part of the art of gardening improved.   containing several new experiments and curious observations relating to fruit-trees: particularly, a new method of building walls with horizontal shelters. illustrated with copper plates. . . . by john lawrence, m. a. rector of yelvertoft in northamptonshire.   to which is added by way of appendix, a new and familiar way to find a most exact meridian line by the pole-star; whereby gentlemen may know the true bearings of their houses and garden walls, and regulate their clocks and watches, &c. by edward lawrence, brother to the author of this book. the second edition.   london: printed for bernard lintott . . . .   _crown vo, calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece of a house and garden, another plate, folded, and four woodcuts on page . layard, austen henry.--ninevah and its remains: with an account of a visit to the chaldæan christians of kurdistan, and the yezidis, of devil-worshippers; and an enquiry into the manners and arts of the ancient assyrians.   by austen henry layard . . . third edition london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred plates, woodcuts, and plans. layard, austen henry.--discoveries in the ruins of nineveh and babylon; with travels in armenia, kurdestan and the desert: being the result of a second expedition undertaken for the trustees of the british museum. by austen h. layard . . . with maps, plans, and illustrations.   london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ lee, sidney.--a life of william shakespeare by sidney lee   illustrated library edition   london   smith, elder, & co., . . . . . . _royal vo, ornamental maroon cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ coloured frontispiece, six photogravures, and eighty-four woodcuts in the text. lee, sophia.--the chapter of accidents: a comedy, in five acts, as it is performed at the theatre-royal in the hay-market.   written by miss lee.    london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m. dcc. lxxx.   _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition.   prologue by george colman. lee, sophia and harriet.--canterbury tales. by sophia and harriet lee. revised, corrected, and illustrated with a new preface, by harriet lee.    london: henry colburn and richard bentley . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half red morocco, uncut edges._ frontispieces and vignettes engraved on steel. lee, william.--daniel defoe: his life, and recently discovered writings: extending from to . by william lee.   london: john camden hotten, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ woodcut portraits and views.   volume i contains the life, volumes ii and iii the writings. lee, william.--a chronological catalogue of the works of daniel defoe. by william lee.   only twelve copies separately printed.   not for sale.     .   _ to, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ reprinted from lee's "life of defoe," . le gallienne, richard.--the book-bills of narcissus an account rendered by richard le gallienne. printed and published by frank murray derby . . . .   _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. le gallienne, richard.--see gale, hayes, and le gallienne. le grand, j. b.--fabliaux or tales, abridged from french manuscripts of the xiith and xiiith centuries by m. le grand, selected and translated into english verse, [by g. l. way]   with a preface and notes. . . . [by g. ellis]   london: printed by w. bulmer and co. . . . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by hering._ large paper copy of the first edition: with fifty woodcuts by bewick. le grand, j. b.--fabliaux or tales, abridged from french manuscripts of the xiith and xiiith centuries by m. le grand, selected and translated into english verse, by the late g. l. way, . . . with a preface, notes, and appendix, by the late g. ellis, . . . [vignette] a new edition, corrected. . . . london:   printed for j. rodwell, . . . by s. hamilton, . . . .   _crown vo, three volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition: woodcuts by bewick. le grand, j. b.--partenopex de blois, a romance, in four cantos. freely translated from the french of m. le grand; with notes: by william stewart rose. london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, and orme, . . . .   _ to, original boards, uncut edges._ two full-page plates and five vignettes after r. smirke. le houx, jean.--the vaux-de-vire of maistre jean le houx, advocate, of vire.   edited and translated by james patrick muirhead, . . . with a portrait [by j. richardson jackson after a miniature] and [ ] other illustrations.   london: john murray, . . . m dccc lxxv. . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lehrs, max.--. . . the playing cards of the master es of reproduced by the heliographic process with an explanatory essay by max lehrs [vignette] agents of the [international chalcographical] society: . . . london   bernard quaritch . . . . _folio, original boards._ forty-five figures on thirteen plates. leland, charles godfrey.--etruscan roman remains in popular tradition by charles godfrey leland . . . london t. fisher unwin . . . m dccc xcii. _royal vo, decorated cloth, uncut edges._ coloured frontispiece and sixty-seven illustrations in the text. lemperly, paul.--vanities in verse . . . paul lemperly, cleveland. printed by f. h. on the marion press, jamaica, long island. mdcccxcvii.   _ mo, original vellum covers, uncut edges._ fifty-seven copies printed. le sage, alain renÉ.--the adventures of gil blas of santillane. translated from the french of le sage.   by t. smollett, m. d.   to which is prefixed a memoir of the author, by thomas roscoe. illustrated by george cruikshank. . . . london: effingham wilson, . . . .   _post vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ two imaginary portraits by j. smith after j. k. meadows, and ten plates by cruikshank. le sage, alain renÉ.--the adventures of gil blas of santillane translated from the french by tobias smollett preceded by a biographical and critical notice of le sage   by george saintsbury   with twelve original etchings by r. de los rios . . . london j. c. nimmo and bain . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. le sage, alain renÉ.--asmodeus or the devil upon two sticks preceded by dialogues, serious and comic between two chimneys of madrid   translated from the french of alain rené le sage   with four original etchings by r. de los rios   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. le sage, alain renÉ.--the bachelor of salamanca translated from the french of alain rené le sage by james townsend   with four original etchings by r. de los rios   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . .    _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. le sage, alain renÉ.--the history of vanillo gonzales surnamed the merry bachelor   translated from the french of alain rené le sage . . . with four original etchings by r. de los rios   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. leslie, charles robert.--memoirs of the life of john constable, esq. r. a. composed chiefly of his letters.   by c. r. leslie, r. a. . . . london:   james carpenter, . . . [chiswick] .   _ to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ first edition.   a presentation copy from the author.   mezzotint portrait by david lucas after leslie, twenty-two other plates, all by lucas after constable. inserted are two autograph letters, one from constable and one from leslie. leslie, charles robert.--memoirs of the life of john constable, esq. r. a. composed chiefly of his letters.   by c. r. leslie, r. a. . . . second edition. london: longman, . . . .   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ two portraits of constable, lithographs on india paper, and mezzotints of "spring," "little roxalana," and "hampstead heath;" the last two being added. leslie, charles robert.--a hand-book for young painters.   by c. r. leslie, . . . with illustrations. [ ] london: john murray, . . . .    _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ leslie, charles robert.--autobiographical recollections. by the late charles robert leslie, r. a. edited, with a prefatory essay on leslie as an artist, and selections from his correspondence.   by tom taylor . . . london: john murray . . . .   _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of leslie, engraved by william holl. leslie and taylor.--life and times of sir joshua reynolds: with notices of some of his contemporaries. commenced by charles robert leslie, r. a. continued and concluded by tom taylor, m. a. . . . with portraits and illustrations.   london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, two volumes in four, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ illustrated and extended to four volumes by the insertion of three hundred and forty plates, including a large number of mezzotint portraits and other subjects after reynolds, for the most part proofs, some in the first state.   of the other plates, the majority are india proofs and proofs before letters. leslie, eliza, _editor_.--the gift: a christmas and new year's present for .   edited by miss leslie. [volume iv.]   philadelphia:   carey & hart.   [ ] _ mo, maroon morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ engraved title and eight other plates by j. cheney, j. b. forrest, and others after t. sully, c. r. leslie, and others. advertisement dated philadelphia, may , . contains the first publication of poe's "william wilson." leslie, george dunlop.--our river. . . . by george d. leslie, r. a. illustrations by the author. london: bradbury, agnew, & co., . . . .    _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ thirteen full-page india proof illustrations, and twenty-five other woodcuts. lester, c. edwards.--the artists of america: a series of biographical sketches of american artists; with portraits and designs on steel.   by c. edwards lester.   new york: baker & scribner .   _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by trioullier._ eight portraits engraved by burt, and a plate by pease after inman. letter.--a letter from a lady to her husband abroad. . . . london: printed for j. roberts, . . . and sold by a. dodd, . . . and e. nutt, . . . m. dcc. xxviii. _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ contains the half-title. letter.--a letter from a right honourable person.   and the answer to it, translated into verse, as nearly as the different idioms of prose and poetry will allow.   with notes historical, critical, political, &c. london: printed for w. nicoll . . . m dcclxi.   _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ levee.--the levee.   a farce.   as it was offer'd to, and accepted for representation by the master of the old-house in drury-lane, but by the inspector of farces denied a licence.   london: printed for m. cooper, . . . m dcc xliv. . . . _ vo, olive morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ the editors of _biographia dramatica_ record this play with the note: "anon.   we find mention made of this piece in the appendix to mr. oulton's list, but have never met with it." "the levee," by john kelly, vo, , was also "offered to, and accepted for representation by, fleetwood, the manager of drury lane theatre; but was denied a license." collation: title, one leaf (verso blank). "dramatis personae," one leaf (verso blank).   text, b -g in fours.   pages - .   g blank. lever, charles james.--arthur o'leary: his wanderings and ponderings in many lands.   edited by his friend, harry lorrequer, and illustrated by george cruikshank. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition.   portrait and nine other plates. presentation copy from the author, with his inscription on the title-page. lever, charles james.--charles o'malley, the irish dragoon.   edited by harry lorrequer, with [ ] illustrations by phiz.   [h. k. browne] . . . dublin william curry, jun and company. . . . m dccc xlv. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ originally published in the "dublin university magazine," . lever, charles james.--the knight of gwynne; a tale of the time of the union.   by charles lever, . . . with [ ] illustrations by "phiz"   [h. k. browne] . . . london: published by chapman and hall.   m dccc l. _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ lever, charles james.--the daltons or three roads in life.   by charles lever . . . with illustrations by phiz [h. k. browne] london: chapman and hall . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ first edition, bound from the parts, with forty-eight illustrations. lever, charles james.--roland cashel.   by charles lever, . . . with [ ] illustrations by phiz. [h. k. browne] . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . m dccc lx.   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ lever, charles james.--one of them by charles lever, . . . with [ ] illustrations by phiz.   london: chapman and hall, . . . m dccc lxi. . . . _ vo, brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition.   the dedication to james whiteside, m. p., is dated spezia, december , .   on the fly-leaf is the inscription, "with the authors respects." lever, charles james.--barrington.   by charles lever, . . . with [ ] illustrations by phiz. [h. k. browne] london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lever, charles james.--tony butler . . . william blackwood and sons edinburgh and london m d ccc lxv . . . _crown vo, three volumes, original green cloth, uncut edges._ first edition in book form.   originally published in _blackwood's magazine_ on the half-title is the inscription, "to my old & much valued friend g. hamilton seymour fr the author c. l." lever, charles james.--luttrell of arran by charles lever, . . . with illustrations ( ) by "phiz" [h. k. browne]   london: chapman and hall . . . mdccclxv.   _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. de coverly._ first edition. lewes, george henry.--the history of philosophy from thales to comte. by george henry lewes. third edition. . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ lewis, george.--a series of groups, illustrating the physiognomy, manners, and character of the people of france and germany.   by george lewis.   london. published for the author, by john and arthur arch, . . . .   _ to, half morocco, uncut edges._ fifty-two plates, printed on india paper, and indexed as sixty illustrations.   they were made for dibdin's "tour in france and germany." lewis, john.--the life of mayster wyllyam caxton, of the weald of kent; the first printer in england.   in which is given an account of the rise and progress of the art of pryntyng in england, during his time, till .   collected by john lewis, minister of mergate in kent   london: printed in the year m dccxxxvii.   _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, corner ornaments on the sides, wide inside borders, vellum linings, gilt edges._ portrait of caxton by bagford, and two plates of paper-marks. lewis, john.--the life of mayster wyllyam caxton.    .   _ vo, grey morocco, gilt back and side panels, crest and monogram t. w. on the sides, gilt edges, by lewis._ large and thick paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed. the author's own copy, with his manuscript additions and corrections. lewis, matthew gregory.--the monk.   a romance . . . by m. g. lewis, esq. m. p.   waterford: printed for j. saunders: .   _ mo, three volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ second edition.   to avert prosecution (on account of its immorality) for the publication of this work, lewis pledged himself to recall the printed copies of the first edition, , and to omit the objectionable passages in future editions.   it is difficult, therefore, to procure a copy of the first impression. lewis, matthew gregory.--the monk: a romance.   by m. g. lewis.   paris: printed for theophilus barrois, junior . . . m d c c c v i i.   _ mo, three volumes in two, half grey morocco, uncut edges._ lewis, matthew gregory.--tales of wonder: written and collected by m. g. lewis, esq. m. p. . . . london: printed by w. bulmer and co. . . . and sold by j. bell, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery_. large paper copy. lewis, thomas.--origines hebrææ: the antiquities of the hebrew republick.   in four books.   i. the origin of the hebrews . . . ii the ecclesiastical government . . . iii places of worship . . . iv the religion of the hebrews . . . design'd as an explanation of every branch of the levitical law, and of all the ceremonies and usages of the hebrews, both civil and sacred.   by thomas lewis london:   printed for sam. illidge . . . and john hooke . . . mdccxxiv.-v. _ vo, four volumes, cambridge panelled calf, gilt back and sides, red edges, by bedford._ libertine's choice.--the libertine's choice: or, the mistaken happiness of the fool in fashion. london: printed and sold by h. hills, . . . . _small vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ liechtenstein, marie, princess.--holland house.   by princess marie liechtenstein, [portrait] with numerous illustrations . . . second edition.   london: macmillan and c^{o}    .   _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ in addition to the thirteen steel plates and facsimiles and eighty-eight woodcuts issued with these volumes, one hundred and ten portraits and views have been inserted, forty of this number being proofs on india paper. liÈvre, edouard.--art gems.   a series of thirty high-class engravings from pictures by the most eminent painters, ancient and modern. produced under the direction of edouard lièvre, with notices of the artists and their works.   henry sotheran, . . . london, . . . [chiswick press]    .   _folio, cloth, uncut edges._ liÈvre, Édouard.--works of art in the collections of england drawn by Édouard lièvre . . . and engraved by bracquemond, courtry, flameng, greux, le rat, lhermitte, j. lièvre, muzelle, rajon, randall and valentin.   holloway and son . . . london [n. d.] _folio, uncut edges, in half cloth portfolio._ only five hundred copies printed.   fifty plates on india paper. lillo, george.--lillo's dramatic works with memoirs of the author by thomas davies.   second edition improved. . . . london.   printed for w. lowndes . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, citron edges, by bedford._ lindley, john.--the pomological magazine; or, figures and descriptions of the most important varieties of fruit cultivated in great britain london: james ridgway . . . mdcccxxviii. &c.   _royal vo, three volumes, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ the complete work with the final title-pages, "pomologia britannica," dated .   the plates are one hundred and fifty-two in number, coloured, chiefly by mrs. withers. lindsay, alexander william crawford, lord.--sketches of the history of christian art.   by lord lindsay london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ lingard, john.--the history of england, from the first invasion by the romans to the accession of william and mary in .   by john lingard, d. d. copyright edition, with ten portraits newly etched by damman. . . . london: j. c. nimmo & bain, . . . .   _ vo, ten volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed, with extra proof impressions of the ten portraits on india paper. lippmann, friedrich.--the art of wood-engraving in italy in the fifteenth century by friedrich lippmann . . . english edition with extensive corrections and additions by the author, which have not appeared in the german original.   london   bernard quaritch mdccclxxxviii.   _imperial vo, half orange morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ fifty-nine illustrations in facsimile accompany the text. lippmann, friedrich.--. . .    the seven planets by f. lippmann translated by florence simmonds [vignette]   agents of the [international chalcographical] society: london   asher & co. . . . _folio, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ forty-three plates and four woodcuts in the text. livingston, william.--the independent reflector: or, weekly essays on sundry important subjects. more particularly adapted to the province of new-york. . . . new-york: [james parker] printed (until tyrannically suppressed) in m d ccliii.   _folio, original dark brown morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges.   bound with two other works._ the first magazine published in new york city, in fifty-two numbers, from thursday, november , , through thursday, november , . the tone of the essays was such that the writer was denounced from the pulpit and the printer menaced into discontinuance of the publication. the present copy contains the preliminary leaf of advertisement, the general title, and the preface of thirty-one pages, dated new york, january , . bookplate of william peartree smith, engraved by thomas johnston. livingstone, david.--missionary travels and researches in south africa; including a sketch of sixteen years' residence in the interior of africa; and a journey from the cape of good hope to loanda on the west coast; thence across the continent, down the river zambesi, to the eastern ocean. by david livingstone, . . . [vignette]   with portrait, maps by arrowsmith, and numerous illustrations.   london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ livingstone, david and charles.--narrative of an expedition to the zambesi and its tributaries; and of the discovery of the lakes shirwa and nyassa.    - . by david and charles livingstone.   [vignette] with map and illustrations.   london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ lloyd, charles.--poems on various subjects by charles lloyd. . . . carlisle: printed by f. jollie, for j. richardson, penrith; and sold by c. law, london; t. pearson, birmingham.   m,dcc,xcv.   _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition: with the final leaf of errata, n . lloyd, charles.--the duke d'ormond, a tragedy; and beritola, a tale. by charles lloyd.   london: longman, hurst, &c . . . .   _post vo, green levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. lloyd, charles.--see coleridge, s. t. lamb, charles. lloyd, robert.--see arne, thomas a. lobeira, vasco.--amadis of gaul, by vasco lobeira.   [from the spanish version of garciordonez de montalvo, by robert southey]   london: printed by n. biggs . . . for t. n. longman and o. rees . . . . _ mo, four volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics.   by frederick locker. london: basil montagu pickering . . . .   _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ this volume of poems was extended and rearranged in subsequent editions after its first appearance in . locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker.   sixth edition.   strahan & co . . . london .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ includes eleven pieces "now first collected and published." locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics   by frederick locker seventh edition   w. isbister & co. . . . london .   _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ cosmopolitan club edition, with presentation leaf signed by the author, and eight pieces "now first collected and published." locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker   a new edition enlarged and finally revised.   henry s. king & co.   london . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait. mr. locker stated that a fourth of this edition was destroyed by a fire at his publisher's. locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker.   london [printed by whittingham] .   _ vo, vellum, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed.   one of six copies with frontispiece in two states, one on india paper.   india proof portrait of locker inserted; and india proof illustration at page .   the illustrations are by caldecott and kate greenaway. autograph letters of locker and kate greenaway inserted. locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker.   new york   printed for the book fellow's club .   _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ etched portrait and numerous woodcuts.   ninety-four copies printed on holland paper for the bookfellow's club. locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker.   new york white, stokes, & allen .   _ mo, original covers, uncut edges._ portrait by du maurier. locker-lampson, frederick.--london lyrics by frederick locker   london kegan paul, trench & co mdccclxxxv.   _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with etched portrait of locker and the "fairy connoisseurs," frontispiece by cruikshank. locker-lampson, frederick.--a selection from the works of frederick locker.   with illustrations by richard doyle. london: edward moxon & co., . . . .   _square post vo, original cloth covers designed by leighton, uncut edges._ first edition.   etched portrait of locker by millais, and nineteen other illustrations. locker-lampson, frederick, _editor_.--lyra elegantiarum   a collection of some of the best specimens of vers de société and vers d'occasion in the english language by deceased authors.   edited by frederick locker . . . london: edward moxon & co., . . . .   _foolscap vo, cloth gilt, uncut edges._ first edition.   the selection from landor, forty pieces, was omitted in later editions. locker-lampson, frederick, _editor_.--lyra elegantiarum a collection of some of the best social and occasional verse by deceased english authors.   revised and enlarged edition. edited by frederick locker-lampson, assisted by coulson kernahan.   ward, lock, and co., london, . . . .   _ to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with etched portrait. locker-lampson, frederick.--poems by frederick locker   [not published]    london: john wilson . . . .   _crown vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges_. one hundred copies printed by whittingham, frontispiece by george cruikshank.   presentation copy from the author with his autograph. locker-lampson, frederick.--poems. . _ vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges_. large paper copy, twenty printed, of which but thirteen contain coloured impressions of the frontispiece by george cruikshank, as in this copy. locker-lampson, frederick.--poems. . _square vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges_. another large paper copy, with the frontispiece by cruikshank coloured.    a letter from locker is inserted in which he gives a chronological list of the various editions of his books. locker-lampson, frederick.--patchwork by frederick locker.   london smith, elder, & c^{o}., . . . .   _post vo, blue levant morocco, maroon russia linings, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition.   large paper copy, presented by the author to henry g. bohn. locker-lampson, frederick.--the rowfant library.   a catalogue of the printed books, manuscripts, autograph letters, drawings and pictures, collected by frederick locker-lampson.   bernard quaritch, london, .    _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges_. one hundred and fifty copies printed, with etched frontispiece by george cruikshank, one of the first two hundred and fifty impressions of the plate, and a poem by andrew lang. lockhart, john gibson.--see spanish ballads. lockman, john.--pastoral stanzas.   written on occasion of the marriage of c. phipps, esquire, with the honourable miss lepel hervey.   by mr. lockman. . . . london, m dcc xliii.   _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ lockman, john.--to the long-conceal'd first promoter of the cambrick and tea-bills: an epistle. writ at the close of last session of parliament.   by mr. lockman. . . . london: printed for the author; and sold by m. cooper, . . . m dcc xlvi. . . . _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ contains the final leaf of advertisement. lodge, edmund.--portraits of illustrious personages of great britain. engraved from authentic pictures in the galleries of the nobility and the public collections of the country.   with biographical and historical memoirs of their lives and actions, by edmund lodge, . . . london: printed for harding, mavor, and lepard. .   _ to, twelve volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy.   two hundred and forty plates in two states, proofs before and after letters, and cancels. loftie, w. j., _editor_.--the latin year   compiled by the rev. w. j. loftie, . . . with illustrations by robert bateman.   london   basil montagu pickering . . . [chiswick press] .   _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ printed upon vellum. loftie, w. j.--catalogue of the prints and etchings of hans sebald beham, painter, of nuremberg, citizen of frankfort, - .   london: mrs. noseda, . . . .   _small vo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed on drawing paper. loftie, w. j.--a history of london.   by w. j. loftie, . . . with maps and illustrations. . . . london: edward stanford, . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ loftie, w. j.--kensington picturesque & historical   by w. j. loftie, . . . with upwards of three hundred illustrations (some in colours)   by william luker jun.   from drawings taken on the spot. . . . london field and tuer, . . . m dccc lxxxviii. _royal vo, cloth._ london.--select views of london and its environs; containing a collection of highly-finished engravings, from original paintings and drawings, accompanied by copious letter-press descriptions of such objects in the metropolis and the surrounding country as are most remarkable for antiquity, architectural grandeur, or picturesque beauty.    london: published by vernor and wood &c .   _royal to, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with the sixty-five illustrations duplicated by a set on india paper, and in addition many in a third state,--the engraver's etching. long vacation.--the long vacation: a satyr.   adddres'd to all disconsolate traders.   london: printed and sold by h. hills, . . . .   _small vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ longfellow, henry wadsworth, _editor_.--novelas españolas.   el serrano de las alpujarras; y el cuadro misterioso.   [by george w. montgomery] brunswick: imprenta de griffin . . . .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition.   preface by longfellow. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--syllabus de la grammaire italienne.   par h. w. longfellow, . . . boston: gray et bowen: mdcccxxxii.   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth, _translator_.--coplas de don jorge manrique, translated from the spanish, with an introductory essay on the moral and devotional poetry of spain.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. boston: allen and ticknor.    .   _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panel, gilt top, by alfred matthews._ first edition of longfellow's first separate publication, containing nine sonnets, of which only seven have been retained in subsequent editions. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--outre-mer; a pilgrimage beyond the sea. n^{o}. i. . . . boston: hilliard, gray, & co.   [printed by j. griffin, brunswick, maine] m dccc xxxiii.   _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition of volume i.   the publication in numbers was discontinued after no. ii, , and the whole work appeared in .   see the following item. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--outre-mer; a pilgrimage beyond the sea.--new york: published by harper & brothers, . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ second edition, but the first edition of the complete work. two chapters in volume i and the whole of volume ii are new.   in volume ii "coplas de manrique" and its introductory essay are reprinted. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--hyperion, a romance.   by the author of "outre-mer."   new york: . . . samuel colman, . . . .   _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--voices of the night.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. cambridge: published by john owen.   m dccc xxxix. _small vo, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--poems on slavery.   by henry wadsworth longfellow   cambridge: . . . john owen   mdcccxlii.   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition, with the original glazed paper covers and the inscription "samuel rogers esq. from the author." longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the belfry of bruges and other poems.   by henry wadsworth longfellow.   cambridge: . . . john owen. . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition, with the original white and gold covers, and date preserved. longfellow, henry wadsworth, _editor_.--the estray: a collection of poems . . . boston: william d. ticknor & co.    .   _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ the "proem" only, "once into a quiet village," is by longfellow, the other pieces are early contributions by bryant, lowell, whittier, emerson, and others. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--evangeline, a tale of acadie.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. boston:   william d. ticknor & company. . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, in a citron levant case elaborately tooled, by rivière._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--h. w. longfellow   Évangéline conte d'acadie traduit   par charles brunel deuxième édition illustrée de vignettes sur bois   par jane e. benham, birket foster et john gilbert paris . . . hachette et cie . . . .   _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ one of the few copies printed on india paper, with the original covers. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--kavanagh, a tale.   by henry wadsworth longfellow boston: ticknor, reed, and fields.   mdcccxlix. _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--kavanagh: a tale.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. . . . illustrated with [ ] original designs by birket foster, engraved by h. n. woods.   london: w. kent and co. . . . mdccclviii.   _ vo, cloth, gilt edges_. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--kavanagh. forty touched proofs of the illustrations after designs by birket foster, on india paper.   [london ]   _ to, half green morocco._ longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the seaside and the fireside.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. boston: ticknor, reed and fields.   mdcccl. _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by meunier._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the golden legend.   by henry wadsworth longfellow, [woodcut of a cross] boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. m dccc li.   _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first issue of the first edition.   "this is one of the few poems of longfellow in which the text of the first edition differs from that in current impressions, the part spoken by the girl and all allusions to her, in the refectory scene, being suppressed in later editions." longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the golden legend.   by henry wadsworth longfellow, [woodcut of a cross]   boston: ticknor, reed, and fields. m dccc lii.   _ mo, original cloth._ second issue of the first edition, although dated instead of .    the sheets are the same in both issues. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--la légende dorée et poèmes sur l'esclavage de w. w. longfellow traduits par paul blier et edward macdonnell suivis de quelques poésies par p. b. . . . valenciennes l. henry . . . . _ vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, uncut edges._ no. of twenty-five copies printed on vellum paper. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the song of hiawatha.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. boston: ticknor and fields, mdccclv.   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the courtship of miles standish, and other poems.   by henry wadsworth longfellow.   boston: ticknor and fields. m dccc lviii.   _ mo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--tales of a wayside inn.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. boston: ticknor and fields.    .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over marbled edges, by david._ first edition, with woodcut frontispiece. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the complete works of henry wadsworth longfellow. revised edition   boston, ticknor and fields    . _ mo, seven volumes, orange levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ large paper copy, one hundred printed.   autograph letter of longfellow to dr. abbott inserted, also eight portraits and twenty-five views, for the most part proofs on india paper. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--flower-de-luce. by henry wadsworth longfellow.   with illustrations   boston: ticknor and fields.    . _square mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition, frontispiece and four other woodcuts engraved by anthony. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the new-england tragedies.   by henry wadsworth longfellow. i. john endicott.   ii. giles corey of the salem farms.   boston: ticknor and fields.    .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by meunier._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the divine tragedy, by henry wadsworth longfellow boston   james r. osgood and co    .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by meunier._ one of two editions published in .   the other is an vo, printed on thick paper in larger type. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--three books of song.   by henry wadsworth longfellow boston: james r. osgood and company    .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by meunier._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--aftermath. by henry wadsworth longfellow.    boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . .   _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by meunier._ first edition, with woodcut frontispiece. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--the masque of pandora and other poems   by henry wadsworth longfellow   boston   james r. osgood and company . . . .   _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--excelsior by henry wadsworth longfellow with [ ] illustrations [by a. r. waud, w. homer, t. moran, j. mcentee, charles kendrick, a. v. s. anthony, and f. t. merrill] boston   james r. osgood and company . . . . _square mo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first separate published edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--kéramos and other poems   by henry wadsworth longfellow boston   houghton, osgood & company . . . . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. longfellow, henry wadsworth.--see bryant, william cullen.    . longfellowiana.--the longfellow collectors' hand-book   a bibliography of first editions   new york william evarts benjamin . . . . _ mo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed.   presentation copy from the editor, beverly chew. looker-on, the.--see british essayists. lorraine, claude de.--liber veritatis.   or, a collection of two hundred prints, after the original designs of claude de lorrain, in the collection of his grace the duke of devonshire, executed by richard earlom, in the manner and taste of the drawings.   to which is added a descriptive catalogue of each print.   together with the names of those for whom, and of the places for which the original pictures were first painted, (taken from the hand-writing of claude de lorrain himself on the back of each drawing) and of the present possessors of many of the original pictures. . . . published by the proprietor, john boydell, engraver, . . . london. m dcc lxxvii. [-m dcccxix] _folio, three volumes, scored russia, gilt back, gilt and blind-tooled side borders, gilt edges._ first edition.   mezzotint portraits of claude by josiah boydell, of richard earlom by lupton after stuart, and, inserted, a portrait of alderman john boydell by b. smith after c. borckhardt. in each volume are one hundred aquatints after claude. volume iii is published by hurst, robinson, and co., . the beckford copy. lossing, benson john.--the pictorial field-book of the revolution; or, illustrations, by pen and pencil, of the history, biography, scenery, relics, and traditions of the war for independence.   by benson j. lossing. with several hundred engravings on wood by lossing and barritt, chiefly from original sketches by the author. . . . new york: harper & brothers, . . . .   _royal vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ inserted is an autograph letter from lossing. lossing, benson john.--the home of washington and its associations, historical, biographical, and pictorial. new edition, revised, with additions.   by benson j. lossing.   illustrated by numerous engravings, chiefly from original drawings by the author, engraved by lossing and barritt.   new york: w. a. townsend, . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, one hundred printed.   frontispiece of mount vernon by j. duthie after g. i. parkeyns, portrait of washington by g. r. hall after stuart, and numerous woodcuts. lossing, benson john.--a memorial of alexander anderson, m.d., the first engraver on wood in america.   read before the new york historical society, oct., , .   by benson j. lossing.   new york: printed for the subscribers:    .   _ to, half maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet._ illustrated with thirty-seven woodcuts and a copper-plate portrait of dr. mitchill. lounger, the.--see british essayists. love feast.--the love-feast.   a poem.   by the author of the saints, a satire; . . . london, printed for j. bew, . . . m dcclxxviii.   _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ love poems.--musa proterva: love-poems of the restoration.   edited by a. h. bullen.   [nimmo] london: privately printed.    .   _ to, half calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ love poems.--speculum amantis: love-poems from rare song-books and miscellanies of the seventeenth century.   edited by a. h. bullen. london.   [nimmo] privately printed    .   _ to, half calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ love the leveller.--see b., g. love verses. consisting of i. an elegy to damon. ii. an elegy, in answer to the foregoing.   iii. the recantation. an ode. . . . london: printed for t. davies, . . . m dcc lxi. . . . _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ lowe, robert w.--a bibliographical account of english theatrical literature from the earliest times to the present day by robert w. lowe    london   john c. nimmo . . . m dccc lxxxviii.   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. lowell, james russell.--class poem . . . (cambridge press: metcalf, torry, and ballou) . . . mdcccxxxviii.   _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, filleted side panel, gilt edges, by david._ first edition.   presentation copy to "professor channing with the author's respects," with the original covers. lowell, james russell.--a year's life.   by james russell lowell . . . boston: c. c. little and j. brown.   mdcccxli.   _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, quintuple interlaced fillet on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. lowell and carter, _editors_.--the pioneer. a literary and critical magazine.   j. r. lowell and r. carter, editors and proprietors. january, [-march, ]   vol. .--no. i.   [-vol. i.--no. iii.] . . . boston: leland and whiting, . . . [philadelphia: drew and scammel, . . .]    _royal vo, three numbers in one volume, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ only these three numbers of this magazine were published. lowell's articles were never reprinted in his works, although they have been issued in book form. four plates by j. cheney and j. andrews ( ) after flaxman, one by andrews after i. b. wright, and one drawn and etched by d. c. johnston. lowell's contributions are introduction and book notices, sonnet (p. ), the plays of thomas middleton ( - ), song writing ( - ), to m. o s. (p. ), the street (p. ). poe contributed the tell-tale heart ( - ), lenore ( - ), and notes upon english verse ( - ). hawthorne contributed the hall of fantasy ( - ) and the birth-mark ( - ).   mrs. browning, the maiden's death ( ).   whittier, lines written in the book of a friend ( - ), and w. w. story, longing ( ), a lament ( - ), and john flaxman ( - ). lowell, james russell.--poems by james russell lowell.   cambridge: published by john owen. mdcccxliv.   _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, quintuple interlaced fillets on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition.   the dedication is dated cambridge, december , . lowell, james russell.--poems.    .   _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ large and thick paper copy, with portrait by h. b. hall after page, and an autograph letter, both inserted. lowell, james russell.--poems by james russell lowell.   london: c. e. mudie, . . . .   _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first london edition. lowell, james russell.--conversations on some of the old poets.   by james russell lowell. . . . cambridge: published by john owen. mdcccxlv. _ vo, white vellum side bands and corners finished with gold ornaments, uncut edges, in a brown levant case, by cobden-sanderson._ first edition, with the original covers in colours. lowell, james russell.--poems by james russell lowell.   second series.    cambridge; published by george nichols . . . .   _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, quintuple interlaced fillets on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--meliboeus-hipponax. the biglow papers, edited, with an introduction, notes, glossary, and copious index, by homer wilbur, a. m. . . . cambridge: published by george nichols.    . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--. . . a fable for critics; or . . . a glance at a few of our literary progenies (mrs. malaprop's word) from the tub of diogenes; that is, a series of jokes   by a wonderful quiz, . . . set forth in the year ' by g. p. putnam, broadway. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt top, by the club bindery._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--the vision of sir launfal.   by james russell lowell.   cambridge: published by george nichols.    .   _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--fireside travels.   by james russell lowell. . . . boston: ticknor and fields. .   _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--meliboeus-hipponax. the biglow papers. second series. . . . boston: ticknor and fields.    .   _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--under the willows and other poems.   by james russell lowell.   boston: fields, osgood, & co., . . . .   _ mo, original cloth, gilt top._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--the cathedral.   by james russell lowell. [woodcut]   boston: fields, osgood, & co.    .   _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--among my books. by james russell lowell, a. m., . . . boston: fields, osgood, & co.    [- .]   _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--my study windows. by james russell lowell. . . . boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . .   _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--democracy and other addresses by james russell lowell.   boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--political essays by james russell lowell. boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. lowell, james russell.--heartsease and rue by james russell lowell. boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . .   _ mo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with portrait. lowell, james russell.--[half title]   the writings of james russell lowell . . . cambridge printed at the riverside press    [- ] _ vo, twelve volumes, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred large paper copies printed for america: with three portraits. the set originally contained ten volumes, dated .   the additions are "latest literary essays and addresses," dated , and "the old english dramatists," . lowell, james russell.--il pesceballo opera in one act   italian words by francis james child   english version by james russell lowell chicago   the caxton club .   _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges_. one of two hundred and seven copies printed on american hand-made paper. lowndes, william thomas.--the bibliographer's manual of english literature containing an account of rare, curious, and useful books . . . with bibliographical and critical notices, collations . . . and prices . . . by william thomas lowndes.   london: w. pickering.    .   _ vo, four volumes, russia, gilt edges._ thick paper copy. lowndes, william thomas.--the bibliographer's manual of english literature, containing an account of rare, curious, and useful books, published in or relating to great britain and ireland, from the invention of printing . . . by william thomas lowndes.   new edition, revised, corrected and enlarged . . . by henry g. bohn   london: bell & daldy . . . .   _ vo, six volumes, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. lucan.--see rowe, nicholas. lÜbke, wilhelm.--history of art, by dr. wilhelm lübke . . . translated by f. e. bunnètt.   london: smith, elder & co. .   _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ illustrated with four hundred and three engravings. lÜbke, wilhelm.--ecclesiastical art in germany during the middle ages by dr wilhelm lübke . . . translated from the fifth german edition with appendix by l. a. wheatley   illustrated with engravings. edinburgh    thomas c. jack, . . . .   _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lÜbke, wilhelm.--history of sculpture, from the earliest ages to the present time.   by dr. wilhelm lübke, . . . translated by f. e. bunnètt.    with numerous [ ] illustrations--london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _ to, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ lucan.--lucan's pharsalia; translated into english verse,   by nicholas rowe, esq:   london, printed for t. johnson   m.dcc.xx.   _post vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ lucian.--lucian's true history translated by francis hickes illustrated by william strang j. b. clark and aubrey beardsley with an introduction by charles whibley   london   privately printed   m dccc xciv. _ to, buckram, uncut edges_. no. of fifty-four copies printed on japanese vellum. greek and english text; with sixteen full-page illustrations. lunatic--the lunatick.   a comedy.   dedicated to the three ruling b----s at the new-house in lincolns-inn-fields.   london: printed, and sold by b. bragg at the blew-ball in ave-mary-lane.    . price one shilling.   _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-f in fours, title on a . lydekker, r.--see hutchinson, gregory, and lydekker. lyell, sir charles.--a second visit to the united states of north america.   by sir charles lyell, . . . london: john murray, . . . .    _crown vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ lyell, sir charles.--a manual of elementary geology: or, the ancient changes of the earth and its inhabitants as illustrated by geological monuments.   by sir charles lyell, . . . fourth and entirely revised edition. illustrated with woodcuts.   london: john murray, . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lyell, sir charles.--principles of geology; or, the modern changes of the earth and its inhabitants considered as illustrative of geology. by sir charles lyell, . . . ninth and entirely revised edition. illustrated with maps, plates, and woodcuts.   london: john murray, . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lyell, sir charles.--the geological evidences of the antiquity of man with remarks on theories of the origin of species by variation by sir charles lyell, . . . illustrated by woodcuts london john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ lyre of love.--see courtier, peter l. lyrics.--french lyrics selected and annotated by george saintsbury. london.   kegan paul, trench, & c^{o}   mdccclxxxii.   _ vo, citron levant morocco, back and sides tooled in compartments with mosaic in green and red morocco, doubled with red morocco, wide dentelle border, silk linings, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with a frontispiece on india paper. lyttelton, george, lord.--the poetical works of george lord lyttelton with additions: to which is prefixed an account of his life.   london: printed by c. whittingham . . . for cadell and davies, . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy.   engraved title with portrait of lyttelton after b. west, and eleven plates by burney and others, including portraits of lyttelton, pitt, and glover (india proofs), all inserted. lytton, edward robert bulwer-lytton, (first) lord.--the wanderer.   by owen meredith . . . london: chapman & hall . . . .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ maberly, j.--the print collector an introduction to the knowledge necessary for forming a collection of ancient prints.   containing suggestions as to the mode of commencing collector, the selection of specimens, the prices and care of prints. also notices of the marks of proprietorship used by collectors, remarks on the ancient and modern practice of the art and a catalogue raisonné of books on engraving and prints.   london saunders and otley, . . . mdcccxliv.   _ to, half maroon morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. three plates of marks and numerous woodcut illustrations. maberly, j.--the print collector.    .   _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ another copy, illustrated by the insertion of eighty-five selected engravings, including examples of goltzius, beham, durer, aldegrever, rembrandt, hollar, lucas van leyden, bartolozzi, raphael morghen, etc., also many proof portraits of the most famous engravers, print collectors, etc. maberly, j.--the print collector an introduction to the knowledge necessary for forming a collection of ancient prints.   by j. maberly. with an appendix containing fielding's treatise on the practice of engraving. edited with notes, an account of contemporary etching and etchers, and a bibliography of engraving, by robert hoe, jr.   [ plates]   new york   dodd mead & company .   _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by motte._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with several inserted plates. maberly, j.--the print collector.    .   _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, corner ornaments, doubled with vellum, gilt over uncut edges, in a blue straight-grain morocco case, by bedford._ the only copy printed upon vellum. macaulay, thomas babington.--lays of ancient rome.   by thomas babington macaulay. london: longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. macaulay, thomas babington.--lays of ancient rome.   by thomas babington macaulay. with illustrations, original and from the antique, drawn on wood by george scharf, jun.   london: longman . . . .   _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first illustrated edition. macaulay, thomas babington.--critical and historical essays, contributed to the edinburgh review, by thomas babington macaulay   london: longman . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. macaulay, thomas babington.--the history of england from the accession of james ii.   by thomas babington macaulay [vol. v. edited by his sister, lady trevelyan] london . . . longman . . . -[ - ] _ vo, five volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition of each volume. macaulay, thomas babington.--the history of england from the accession of james the second by lord macaulay.   cambridge.   printed at the riverside press .   _ vo, eight volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ one of four copies printed on holland paper, with three hundred and eleven portraits inserted, including one hundred india proofs in addition to many prints in two states, proofs before and after letters.    the rare portrait of samuel pepys engraved by white is one of the illustrations. macaulay, thomas babington.--the history of england.    .   _ vo, eight volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by drany_. one of six special copies printed on drawing paper.   the present copy is illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and thirty-three portraits and views, eighty-six being proofs on india paper, many before the letters.   included among the portraits are the mezzotint of catherine of braganza by blooteling, india proofs before letters of the duchesses of portsmouth and cleveland by scriven, mezzotint of james ii by schenck, and the frontispiece, "history," by bartolozzi. macaulay, thomas babington.--speeches, [parliamentary and miscellaneous.] of the right honorable t. b. macaulay, m. p. collected by himself   london: longman . . . .   _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford_. macaulay, thomas babington.--the miscellaneous writings of lord macaulay    london: longman . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford_. portrait of macaulay engraved by c. cook. macaulay, thomas babington.--see trevelyan, george otto. mackay, charles.--the salamandrine; or, love and immortality.   by charles mackay. . . . third edition.   london: g. routledge & co. . . . . _foolscap vo, paper, uncut edges_. mackenzie, henry.--the works of henry mackenzie . . . edinburgh: printed by james ballantyne and co. . . . .   _crown vo, eight volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ five portraits and four plates inserted, five being proofs on india paper, and two proofs before letters. mackintosh, sir james.--the miscellaneous works of the right honourable sir james mackintosh. . . . london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges_. mackqueen, john.--british valour triumphing over french courage: under the conduct of the duke of marlborough, prince of the empire.   set forth in some discourses on the victories obtained over them at blenheim, ramillies, oudenard, the taking of lisle, the reduction of ghent and bruges. . . . with a modest character of his grace.   by john mackqueen . . . london: printed for j. morphew . . . .   _ vo, contemporary red morocco, back and sides elaborately tooled._ presentation copy from the author to sarah, duchess of marlborough. madan, falconer.--books in manuscript a short introduction to their study and use.   with a chapter on records   by falconer madan, . . . london kegan paul, trench, trubner & co., . . . m dccc xciii. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed; with woodcut title, and eight illustrations on japan paper. magnÚsson, eirÍkr.--see morris, william. mahan, alfred thayer.--the influence of sea power upon history -    by captain a. t. mahan . . . eighth edition.   boston   little, brown, and company    .   _ vo, cloth, gilt top._ mahan, alfred thayer.--the influence of sea power upon the french revolution and empire - by captain a. t. mahan, . . . fifth edition. boston little, brown, and company    .   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top._ mahony, francis.--the reliques of father prout . . . collected and arranged by oliver yorke, esq. illustrated by alfred croquis, esq . . . [by francis mahony] london: james fraser . . . .   _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. maidment, james, _editor_.--scotish ballads and songs, historical and traditionary.   edited by james maidment. [woodcut] edinburgh.--m dccc lxviii. william paterson, . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ maistre, xavier de.--a journey round my room by xavier de maistre translated from the french with a notice of the author's life   by h. a.    london longmans, green, reader, and dyer.   [riverside press, cambridge] .   _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. mallet (or malloch), david, and james thomson.--alfred: a masque. acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by his majesty's servants. london: printed for a. millar, . . . m.dcc.li.   _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ second edition: begun in collaboration with thomson, but finished and rewritten by mallet.   the song "rule britannia" first appears in this book, on page . a -k in fours, title on a . mallet, david.--the works of david mallet esq; . . . a new edition corrected [vignette] london: printed for a. millar, and p. vaillant . . . mdcclix. _ mo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ mallet, david.--ballads and songs by david mallet.   a new edition, with notes and illustrations, and a memoir of the author, by frederick dinsdale . . . london: bell and daldy . . . .   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ eight steel plates, and fifteen other illustrations, also several pages of music score. richard grant white's copy, with autograph. malloch, david.--see mallet, david. mallock, william hurrell.--the new republic; or, culture, faith, and philosophy in an english country house. . . . london: chatto and windus, . . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. mallock, william hurrell.--social equality a short study in a missing science by w. h. mallock . . . london richard bentley & son, . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. mallock, william hurrell.--the heart of life.   by w. h. mallock. . . . london: chapman & hall, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, buckram, uncut edges._ first edition. malone, edmond.--an inquiry into the authenticity of certain miscellaneous papers and legal instruments, published dec. , m dcc xcv. and attributed to shakspeare, queen elizabeth, and henry, earl of southampton: illustrated by fac-similes of the genuine handwriting of that nobleman, and of her majesty; a new fac-simile of the hand-writing of shakspeare, never before exhibited; and other authentick documents: in a letter addressed to the right hon. james, earl of charlemont, by edmond malone, . . . london: printed by h. baldwin: . . . m dcc xcvi. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges._ besides the three facsimiles, there are two inserted portraits, proofs before letter. malone's own copy, with his autograph on the fly-leaf, and the note, "begun jany . began printing jan. . finished at the press march . ." manning, anne.--the maiden & married life of mary powell, afterwards mistress milton.   new york: printed for m. w. dodd, [by john wilson and sons, cambridge, .]   _ to, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. originally published in _sharpe's magazine_, . manning, francis.--poems written at different times on several occasions, by a gentleman who resided many years abroad in the two last reigns with a publick character.   london: printed by john watts. mdcclii.   _ to, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ mantell, gideon algernon.--the wonders of geology; or, a familiar exposition of geological phenomena; being the substance of a course of lectures delivered at brighton.   by gideon algernon mantell . . . third edition london:--relfe and fletcher . . . .   _ vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ mezzotint frontispiece by martin, ten plates, and numerous woodcut illustrations. mantell, gideon algernon.--the medals of creation; or first lessons in geology and the study of organic remains.   by gideon algernon mantell . . . second edition, entirely rewritten.   london: henry g. bohn . . . mdcccliv.   _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ seven plates and two hundred and seventy-five lignograph illustrations. manuel, don juan.--count lucanor: or, the fifty pleasant stories of patronio, written by the prince don juan manuel, a.d. - . first done into english from the spanish, by james york, doctor of medicine mdccclxviii. basil montagu pickering, piccadilly in the city of westminster.   _post vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ manuscripts.--catalogue of an exhibition of illuminated and painted manuscripts together with a few early printed books with illuminations--also some examples of persian manuscripts--with plates in facsimile and an introductory essay   new york. the grolier club .   _ vo, original binding, with an embroidered cover._ three hundred and fifty copies printed.   twenty-two facsimile plates. marguerite de navarre.--the heptameron of margaret, queen of navarre. translated from the french.   with a memoir of the author.   by walter k. kelly.   london: henry g. bohn . . . mdccclv. _post vo, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ portrait of margaret by winchliff. [marlborough, john churchill, duke of.]--a compleat history of the wars in flanders, italy, spain, portugal, and on the rhine. containing, a particular account of all the glorious victories and memorable sieges, during her majesty's auspicious reign, under the command of the illustrious prince, john duke of marlborough, lord peterborough, and the earl of gallway: with the several sea-fights, and acquisitions in the mediterranean, west-indies, &c.   done from the most authentick accounts, and original letters of several ministers of state at home and abroad.   london   printed, and sold by j. how, . . . .   _ mo, sprinkled calf, citron edges._ equestrian portrait of the duke of marlborough. marryat, frederick.--the naval officer; or, scenes and adventures in the life of frank mildmay. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . .   _post vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--the king's own   by the author of "the naval officer."   london: henry colburn and richard bentley . . . . _ vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--newton forster; or, the merchant service.   by the author of "the king's own." london: james cochrane and co., . . . .    _ vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--jacob faithful   by the author of "peter simple," &c.   london: saunders and otley, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--the pacha of many tales   by the author of "peter simple" &c london saunders and otley, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--japhet in search of a father.   by the author of "peter simple," &c   london saunders and otley, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--mr. midshipman   easy by the author of "japhet, in search of a father," &c london   saunders and otley, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, dark brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--peter simple.   by the author of "newton foster," "the king's own," &c. . . . illustrated edition.   london saunders and otley, . . . .   _post vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original blue cloth covers bound in, by the club bindery._ twelve plates drawn and etched by r. w. buss. marryat, frederick.--snarleyow or the dog fiend.   by the author of "peter simple," &c   london: henry colburn, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, dark green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--the phantom ship.   by capt. marryat, r. n., . . . london: henry colburn, . . . .   _post vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--a diary in america, with remarks on its institutions. by captain marryat, . . . london: printed for longman, . . . .   _post vo, six volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition of both series, each in three volumes, with a large folded map. marryat, frederick.--olla podrida.   by the author of "peter simple," &. &c.   london: longman . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--poor jack. by captain marryat, c. b.   with illustrations by clarkson stanfield, r. a.   london: longman, orme, brown, green, and longmans, . . . .   _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition.   thirty-six full-page wood engravings, and eleven vignettes by branston, vizetelly, and landells, after stanfield. marryat, frederick.--joseph rushbrook; or, the poacher.   by the author of peter simple.   london: longman, . . . .   _ vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--masterman ready; or, the wreck of the pacific. written for young people, [his own children]   by captain marryat. london: longman . . . .   _foolscap vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers inserted, by rivière._ first edition, with ninety-three woodcut illustrations. marryat, frederick.--percival keene.   by capt. marryat.   london. henry colburn . . . . _ vo, three volumes, brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--narrative of the travels and adventures of monsieur violet, in california, sonora, & western texas.   written by capt. marryat, c. b. . . . london: longman, brown, &c . . . .   _post vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--the pirate, and the three cutters.   by captain marryat, r. n.   illustrated with twenty splendid engravings from drawings by clarkson stanfield, . . . a. fullarton and co. . . . london . . . m dccc xlv.   _ vo, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ marryat, frederick.--the mission: or, scenes in africa.   written for young people.   by captain marryat. . . . london: longman, brown, green, & longmans, . . . .   _post vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition.   frontispieces and a map. marryat, frederick.--the privateer's-man one hundred years ago.   by captain marryat, r. n. london: longman . . . .   _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--the children of the new forest   by capt. marryat, r. n. . . . london: h. hurst, . . . [n. d.]   _post vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ eight steel plates after frank marryat. marryat, frederick.--the little savage.   by captain marryat, r. n. . . . first edition.   london: h. hurst, . . . .   _post vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ eight full-page woodcuts. marryat, frederick.--valerie, an autobiography. by captain marryat, r. n. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . . . . _post vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. marryat, frederick.--see howard, edward. marryat, joseph.--collections towards a history of pottery and porcelain, in the th, th. and th. centuries: with a description of the manufacture, a glossary, and a list of monograms.   by joseph marryat. illustrated with [ ] coloured plates and [ ] woodcuts. london: john murray, . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. marryat, joseph.--collections towards a history of pottery and porcelain.    .   _ to, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. marryat, joseph.--a history of pottery and porcelain, mediaeval and modern.   by joseph marryat. third edition, revised and augmented, with coloured plates [ ] and numerous woodcuts [ ] london: john murray . . . .   _ vo, green levant morocco, back and sides tooled in the manner of roger payne, gilt edges, by bedford._ martialis, marcus valerius.--the epigrams of martial.   translated into english prose.   each accompanied by one or more verse translations, from the works of english poets, and various other sources.   london: henry g. bohn . . . mdccclx.   _post vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by stamper._ martialis, marcus valerius.--ex otio negotium. or, martiall his epigrams translated . . . by r. fletcher.   london: printed for distribution amongst private subscribers only: mdcccxciii.   _ vo, cloth, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges_. one hundred and five copies printed, with portrait of martial. martin, henri.--martin's history of france. the age of louis xiv.   by henri martin.   translated from the fourth paris edition   by mary l. booth. . . . boston: walker, wise, and company.    .   _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ one of seventy-five large paper copies printed, with two portraits. martin, henri.--martin's history of france. the decline of the french monarchy.   by henri martin. translated from the fourth paris edition, by mary l. booth. . . . boston: walker, fuller, and company. . _imperial vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ one of seventy-five large paper copies printed, with portrait and map. martin, john.--a bibliographical catalogue of books, privately printed; including those of the bannatyne, maitland and roxburghe clubs, and of the private presses at darlington, auchinleck, lee priory, newcastle, middle hill, and strawberry hill.   by john martin . . . london: j. and a. arch . . . m.dccc.xxxiv.   _imperial vo, two volumes, purple morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by wickwar._ large paper copy with two frontispieces, one coloured. martin, john, _editor_.--the seven ages of shakspeare. [vignette] london: john van voorst, . . . m d ccc xl.   _ to, cloth, gilt edges._ nine full-page plates, one vignette, and two other illustrations, after mulready, constable, wilkie, landseer, and others. maskell, william.--the ancient liturgy of the church of england according to the uses of sarum bangor york & hereford and the modern roman liturgy arranged in parallel columns by william maskell . . . london   william pickering    .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ maskell, william.--a history of the martin marprelate controversy in the reign of queen elizabeth, by the rev. william maskell . . . london william pickering    .   _ vo, calf, gilt back, by rivière._ large paper copy. mason, george c.--the life and works of gilbert stuart   by george c. mason   with selections from stuart's portraits   reproduced on steel and by photogravure [vignette portrait]   new york   charles scribner's sons    .   _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ fourteen plates. mason, john.--a brief history of the pequot war: especially of the memorable taking of their fort at mistick in connecticut in : written by major john mason, a principal actor therein, as then chief captain and commander of connecticut forces.   with an introduction and some explanatory notes   by the reverend mr. thomas prince . . . boston: printed & sold by s. kneeland & t. green . . . .   _ to, brown levant morocco, black ornament on the sides, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ massachusetts bay.--a brief account of the state of the province of the massachusetts-bay in new-england, civil and ecclesiastical.   by a lover of his country.   boston: printed by t. crump, for gillam phillips, . . . .   _small to (four leaves), brown levant morocco, filleted back and sides, rough edges, by zaehnsdorf._ masuccio di salerno.--the novellino of masuccio   now first translated into english by w. g. waters   illustrated by e. r. hughes, . . . london: lawrence and bullen . . . m dccc xcv.   _imperial vo, two volumes, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and ten copies printed on japanese vellum, with twenty plates in bistre. mathews, anne jackson.--memoirs of charles mathews, comedian.   by mrs. mathews.   [vignette] second edition. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . .   _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ seventeen portraits and scenes, the former including two of mathews by w. greatbatch after j. lonsdale, j. brown after masquerier; the latter, for the most tinted, after drawings by aug. hervieu. mathias, thomas james.--the pursuits of literature, a satirical poem in four dialogues, with notes. to which are added an appendix; the citations translated; and a complete index.   the sixteenth edition. . . . london: printed for becket and porter, . . . by w. bulmer and co. . . . .   _ to, two volumes, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by c. smith._ the first dialogue was first published in , the second and third in , and the fourth in . the present copy is illustrated by the insertion of over two hundred selected portraits, including many mezzotints and plates printed in colours. some are private plates and many are proofs. matthews, brander.--bookbindings old and new   notes of a book-lover with an account of the grolier club of new york   by brander matthews illustrated   new york.   macmillan and co. . . . m dcccxcv . . . _ mo, dark green velvet, back and side borders embroidered in gold and colours to simulate jewels, olive silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed on japanese vellum. mayhew, augustus and horace.--the image of his father; or, one boy is more trouble than a dozen girls   being a tale of a "young monkey."   by the brothers mayhew.   illustrated by "phiz." [h. k. browne] london: h. hurst, . . . . _post vo, brown straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original green cloth and gilt covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition: with eleven plates. mayhew, augustus.--paved with gold or the romance and reality of the london streets.   an un-fashionable novel.   by augustus mayhew (one of the brothers mayhew).   with illustrations by h. k. browne. london: chapman and hall, . . . .   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with engraved title-page and twenty-six other plates. mayhew and binny.--the criminal prisons of london and scenes of prison life.   by henry mayhew, . . . and john binny, . . . with numerous illustrations from photographs. london: griffin, bohn, and company, . . . m d ccc lxii. _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ folded frontispiece, fifty-two full-page woodcuts, and numerous illustrations in the text. mayhew, henry.--london labour and the london poor: the condition and earnings of those that will work, cannot work, and will not work. by henry mayhew. . . . london: charles griffin and company, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, three volumes, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ mayhew, henry.--london labour and the london poor; a cyclopædia of the condition and earnings of those that will work, those that cannot work, and those that will not work. by henry mayhew. those that will not work. comprising, prostitutes. | swindlers. thieves. | beggars by several contributors. with introductory essay on the agencies at present in operation in the metropolis for the suppression of vice and crime. by the rev. william tuckniss, . . . with [ ] illustrations, [and maps] london: griffin, bohn, and company, . . . . _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ mccarthy and pennell.--charing cross to st. paul's   notes by justin mccarthy, m. p. and [ ] plates and vignettes from drawings by joseph pennell london: seeley and co. . . . . _folio, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. mccreery, john.--the press, a poem. published as a specimen of typography. by john m^{c}creery. liverpool: printed by j. m^{c}creery, houghton-street. and sold by cadell and davies, strand, london. . [part the second--london: printed by j. m^{c}creery . . . .] _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over marbled edges._ in addition to the cuts printed with this volume, one hundred and twenty-nine plates have been added, including many fine proofs and rare copper-plate engravings. these additions illustrate the various forms of printing and engraving, and are interspersed with portraits of printers, famous collectors, and writers. mcmaster, john bach.--benjamin franklin as a man of letters. by john bach mcmaster, . . . boston: houghton, mifflin and company. . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with portrait by albert rosenthal after c. w. peale. m^{c}vickar, harry whitney.--the evolution of woman [cut]   by harry whitney m^{c}.vickar   new york   harper & brothers . . . . _square vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-two full-page coloured plates by the author, and twenty-two illustrations in the text. presentation copy, with autograph letter inserted. meerman, gerard.--see middleton and meerman. meinhold, william.--sidonia the sorceress by william meinhold translated by francesca speranza lady wilde. [kelmscott press, william morris, ] _small folio, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ printed upon vellum. melmoth, william.--of active and retired life, an epistle . . . london, printed for t. cooper . . . mdccxxxv. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ first edition. sixteen pages, including title. memes, john s.--memoirs of antonio canova, with a critical analysis of his works, and an historical view of modern sculpture . . . by j. s. memes, . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable & co., . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ portrait and three plates of medals, etc. memoirs of the little man and the little maid: with some interesting particulars of their lives. never before published. london: [printed by c. squire] published by b. tabart & co. . . . . _small to, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ twelve aquatints dated may, . title, six leaves of musical score, text: b-d in twos, and a final leaf of advertisement. mendoza and aleman.--. . . the life and adventures of lazarillo de tormes translated from the spanish of don diego hurtado de mendoza by thomas roscoe the life and adventures of guzman d'alfarache or the spanish rogue by mateo aleman   from the french edition of le sage by john henry brady with eight original etchings by r. de los rios . . . london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. menzel, wolfgang.--german literature by wolfgang menzel. translated from the german, with notes by thomas gordon. oxford: d. a. talboys . . . mdcccxl. _crown vo, four volumes, russia, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ "mercurius rusticus."--see dibdin, t. f. meredith, george.--poems: by george meredith.   london: john w. parker and son, . . . [ ] _post vo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition, with the slip of "errata" at the end. meredith, george.--the shaving of shagpat. an arabian entertainment. by george meredith. london:   chapman and hall, . . . . _ mo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--the shaving of shagpat an arabian entertainment. by george meredith. a new edition. london:   chapman and hall, . . . . _crown vo, half maroon levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ this edition has a frontispiece engraved on steel by j. saddler after a design by f. sandys. meredith, george.--the ordeal of richard feverel.   a history of father and son. by george meredith.   london:   chapman and hall . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half orange levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--evan harrington. by george meredith. london: bradbury & evans . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--modern love and poems of the english roadside, with poems and ballads. by george meredith   london:   chapman and hall . . . . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--emilia in england. by george meredith. london: chapman & hall, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half olive levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--rhoda fleming. a story. by george meredith. london: tinsley brothers, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--vittoria by george meredith.   london: chapman & hall, . . . mdccclxvii. _crown vo, three volumes, half citron levant morocco, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--the adventures of harry richmond.   by george meredith   london:   smith, elder & co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--beauchamp's career. by george meredith. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--the egoist   a comedy in narrative   by george meredith. london kegan paul & co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--the tragic comedians. a study in a well-known story. (enlarged from the fortnightly review.) by george meredith. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--poems and lyrics of the joys of earth   by george meredith. london macmillan and co. . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--diana of the crossways a novel by george meredith. considerably enlarged from "the fortnightly review." london: chapman and hall . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--ballads and poems of tragic life by george meredith. london macmillan and co. . . . . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--a reading of earth by george meredith. london macmillan and co . . . . _post vo, cloth, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--one of our conquerors. by george meredith.   london: chapman and hall, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george.--poems   the empty purse with odes to the comic spirit to youth in memory and verses. by george meredith. london   macmillan and co. . _post vo, half maroon levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ meredith, george.--jump to glory jane. by george meredith. edited and arranged by harry quilter. with forty-four designs invented, drawn, and written by lawrence housman. swan, sonnenschein & co. . . . . _crown vo, original vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. one thousand copies printed. meredith, george.--the tale of chloe--the house on the beach--the case of general ople and lady camper. by george meredith   london   ward, lock & bowden, . . . . _crown vo, half citron levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. meredith, george--the tale of chloe-- . _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with portrait and view on japan paper. meredith, george.--lord ormont and his aminta.   a novel. by george meredith. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition. "meredith, owen."--see lytton, lord. [mÉrimÉe, prosper.]--an author's love being the unpublished letters of prosper mérimée's 'inconnue' london   macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ merritt, henry.--henry merritt   art criticism and romance,   with recollections, and etchings by anna lea merritt. london   c. kegan paul & co . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ merryweather, f. somner.--glimmerings in the dark; or lights and shadows of the olden time. by f. somner merryweather, . . . london: simpkin, marshall, & co., . . . m d cccl.   _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ meteyard, eliza.--the life of josiah wedgwood from his private correspondence and family papers in the possession of joseph mayer, esq., f.s.a. f. wedgwood, esq. c. darwin, esq., m.a., f.r.s. miss wedgwood and other original sources with an introductory sketch of the art of pottery in england by eliza meteyard with numerous illustrations . . . london hurst and blackett, . . . [- ]   _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ the illustrations consist of two steel portraits, two coloured plates, and two hundred and eighty-two woodcuts. meteyard, eliza.--memorials of wedgwood. a selection from his fine art works in plaques, medallions, figures, and other ornamental objects. with an introduction, and descriptions of the objects delineated, by eliza meteyard, . . . [portrait]   london: george bell and sons, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt edges._ twenty-eight plates. meyrick, samuel rush.--a critical inquiry into antient armour, as it existed in europe, but particularly in england, from the norman conquest to the reign of king charles ii, with a glossary of military terms of the middle ages. . . . by samuel rush meyrick; london: printed by g. schulze, . . . for robert jennings,--m dccc xxiv.   _folio, three volumes, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ engraved titles and eighty plates, for the most part coloured. michaux, f. andrew.--the north american sylva, or a description of the forest trees of the united states, canada and nova scotia, considered particularly with respect to their use in the arts, and their introduction into commerce; to which is added a description of the most useful of the european forest trees. illustrated by coloured engravings. translated from the french of f. andrew michaux, . . . paris, printed by c. d'hautel.    .   _royal vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ translated by augustus l. hillhouse. michaux, f. andrew.--see nuttall, thomas. michel, Émile.--rembrandt his life, his work, and his time by Émile michel   from the french by florence simmonds edited by frederick wedmore   with sixty-seven full-page plates   and two hundred and fifty text illustrations . . . london   william heinemann . . . m dccc xciv. _ to, two volumes, half cloth, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred large japan paper copies printed. middleton, charles henry.--a descriptive catalogue of the etched work of rembrandt van rhyn by charles henry middleton.   [with plates] london john murray, . . . .   _royal vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ middleton, charles s.--shelley and his writings. by charles s. middleton.   london: thomas cautley newby . . . . _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with a facsimile letter. middleton, conyers, and gerard meerman.--the origin of printing.   in two essays: i. the substance of dr. middleton's dissertation on the origin of printing in england.   ii. mr. meerman's account of the invention of the art at harleim, and its progress to mentz.   with occasional remarks and an appendix. the second edition: with improvements. london: printed for w. bowyer and j. nichols. . . . m dcclxxvi. _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ an argument in favour of lawrence koster. middleton, j. henry.--illuminated manuscripts in classical and mediæval times, their art and their technique   by j. henry middleton, . . . cambridge: at the university press: . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top._ woodcut frontispiece and fifty-five other illustrations. miller, james.--an hospital for fools.   a dramatic fable.   as it is acted at the theatre-royal, by his majesty's servants.   to which is added the songs with their basses and symphonies, and transposed for the flute.   the musick by mr. arne.   sung by mrs. clive. [line from horace]   london: printed for j. watts . . . m dcc xxxix. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. miller, james.--see popeiana, - . "are these things so?" and "the great man's answer" &c, . miller, joe.--see jest books. mills, charles.--an history of muhammedanism: comprising the life and character of the arabian prophet, and succinct accounts of the empires founded by the muhammeden arms: an inquiry into the theology, laws, literature, and usages of the muselmans, and a view of the present state and extent of the muhammedan religion.   by charles mills.   the second edition, revised and augmented   london: printed for black . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ mills, charles.--the travels of theodore ducas, in various countries in europe, and the revival of letters and art. edited by charles mills. london: printed for longman . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ in the second volume, pages - , is an account of the aldine press, and libraries and printers on pages - of the same volume.   although a "voyage imaginaire," the details are generally "de facto." mills, charles.--the history of chivalry or knighthood and its times. by charles mills esq^{r}. . . . london: printed for longman . . . m.dccc.xxvi. _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ engraved title-pages with vignettes by a. le petit after r. w. sievier. mills, charles.--the history of the crusades, for the recovery and possession of the holy land. by charles mills . . . with a memoir of the author. london: printed for longman . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait of the author, frontispiece, and map. milman, henry hart.--the poetical works of the rev: h. h. milman. london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxix. _post vo, three volumes, green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ portrait by e. finden after f. cruikshank and engraved title-pages. milnes, richard monckton.--see houghton, lord. minnesingers.--lays of the minnesingers or german troubadours of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: illustrated by specimens of the cotemporary lyric poetry of provence and other parts of europe: with historical and critical notices, and engravings [ ] from the ms. of the minnesingers in the king's library at paris, and from other sources. london: printed for longman . . . . _crown vo, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ minstrelsy.--the minstrelsy of the english border.   being a collection of ballads, ancient, remodelled, and original, founded on well known border legends.   with illustrative notes by frederick sheldon. london: longman, green and longmans . . . . _square vo, blue levant morocco, gilt panels, gilt top, uncut edges._ illustrated by the insertion of sixty-four views and portraits, including many india proofs as head and tail pieces. mirror, the.--see british essayists. mitford, mary russell.--our village by mary russell mitford with an introduction by anne thackeray ritchie and one hundred illustrations by hugh thomson. london   macmillan and co . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of four hundred and seventy large paper copies printed. mock election.--a description of the mock election at garrat, on the seventh of this month. wherein is given some historical account of its first rise, the various cavalcades of the different candidates, the speeches they made upon the hustings, the whimsical oath of qualification, and an authentic copy of their several droll printed addresses.   collected, for the amusement of a country friend, by a person on the spot.   london; printed for w. bingley, . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco.   bound at the end of goldsmith's "mystery revealed," ._ moliÈre, jean baptiste poquelin.--monsieur de pourceaugnac, or, squire trelooby.   acted at the subscription musick at the theatre royal in lincoln's-inn-fields. march . .   by select comedians from both houses. done into english from a comedy of moliere's, which was made and perform'd at chambord for the diversion of the french king, in the year . [line in latin] london, printed for william davis, at the black bull against the royal exchange, and bernard lintott, at the middle-temple gate in fleetstreet.    . price s. d. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ a -a , a -a , and b-h in fours, half-title on a , title on a , preface dated april , , and prologue by dr. garth. a play called "the cornish squire" was adapted from the same work of molière, by vanbrugh, congreve, and walsh. moliÈre, jean baptiste poquelin.--the dramatic works of molière rendered into english   by henri van laun with a prefatory memoir, introductory notices, appendices and notes.   edinburgh:   william paterson mdccclxxv. _royal vo, six volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with numerous etchings by lalauze in three states; in addition are plates by boucher, fragonard, etc. molloy, j. fitzgerald.--the life and adventures of peg woffington with pictures of the period in which she lived.   by j. fitzgerald molloy . . . [portrait] london: hurst and blackett, . . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. moncrieff, w. thomas.--poems, by w. t. moncrieff.   printed (for private distribution only) at the author's private press, saville house, lambeth. mdcccxxix. _small vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ monster.--the monster: or, the world turn'd topsy turvy.   a satyr. . . . london, printed: and sold by b. bragg . . . . (price d.) _ to, figured silk boards, uncut edges._ montagu, basil.--essays and selections by basil montagu   london william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ montagu, lady mary wortley.--the works of the right honourable lady mary wortley montagu, including her correspondence, poems, and essays. published, by permission, from her genuine papers.   the sixth edition . . . . london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . . . &c . _crown vo, five volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ portrait by caroline watson after richardson. montagu, lady mary wortley.--the letters and works of lady mary wortley montagu. edited by her great grandson lord wharncliffe . . . london: richard bentley . . . _ vo, three volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ three portraits engraved by greatbatch. montagu, lady mary wortley.--the letters and works of lady mary wortley montagu. edited by her great-grandson lord wharncliffe. third edition, with additions and corrections derived from the original manuscripts, illustrative notes, and a new memoir by w. moy thomas.   london: henry g. bohn . . . mdccclxi. _ vo, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ six portraits by greatbatch and others. montagu, lady mary wortley.--the letters and works of lady mary wortley montagu. edited by her great-grandson lord wharncliffe.   third edition, with additions and corrections derived from the original manuscripts, illustrative notes, and a new memoir. by w. moy thomas. london: henry g. bohn, . . . mdccclxvi. _ vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ six portraits. montaigne, michael de.--works of michael de montaigne comprising his essays, journey into italy, and letters, with notes from all the commentators, biographical and bibliographical notices, etc.   by w. hazlitt.   a new and carefully revised edition, edited by o. w. wight. cambridge: riverside press . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, seventy-five printed, with proof impression of the portrait on india paper. montgomery, george w.--see longfellow, h. w.   novelas epañolas. montgomery, james.--the poetical works of james montgomery.   with a life.   boston: little, brown, and company.    . _ mo, five volumes, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed on large paper, with portrait. moore and brooke.--fables for the female sex. [vignette] [by edward moore and henry brooke] london: printed for r. francklin, . . . mdccxliv. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition.   seventeen plates and a vignette, by grignion, mosley, and ravenet after the designs of hayman. moore and brooke.--fables for the female sex.    . _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, the sides decorated with a triumphal arch in gold and mosaic, with figures of fame, wreaths of laurel, dove with olive branch, and falcons, gilt edges._ thick paper copy, presented to mrs. david garrick by the author, with inscription and four verses signed.   david garrick's bookplate is affixed to the inside cover. moore and brooke.--moore's fables for the female sex.   embellished with engravings [vignette] london.   published by t. heptinstall . . . h. d. symonds &c . . . (printed by c. whittingham)    . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ engraved title and five plates after white, besides three inserted engravings, two by c. warren after r. corbould, and one by bartolozzi after rebecca. moore, francis.--a voyage to georgia.   begun in the year . containing, an account of the settling the town of frederica, in the southern part of the province; and a description of the soil, air, birds, beasts, trees, rivers, islands, &c. with the rules and orders made by the honourable the trustees for that settlement; including the allowances of provisions, cloathing, and other necessaries to the families and servants which went thither.   also a description of the town and county of savannah, in the northern part of the province; the manner of dividing and granting the lands, and the improvements there: with an account of the air, soil, rivers, and islands in that part. by francis moore, . . . london: printed for jacob robinson . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ moore, thomas.--lalla rookh, an oriental romance.   by thomas moore. london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, [by a. strahan and t. davison] . _ to, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders of interlaced fillets, gilt and blind-tooled compartments, centre ornament of a harp surrounded by a wreath, wide inside borders, gauffred gilt edges, by dawson and lewis._ engraved title-page and five other plates by heath after westall. dedication to samuel rogers, dated may , . six editions were printed in . moore, thomas.--lalla rookh. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy with numerous added plates. moore, thomas.--lalla rookh, an oriental romance.   by thomas moore. new edition.   illustrated with [ ] engravings from drawings by eminent artists.   london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ moore, thomas.--lalla rookh: an oriental romance.   by thomas moore. with sixty-nine illustrations from original drawings by john tenniel, engraved on wood by the brothers dalziel; and five ornamental pages of persian design by t. sulman jun.   engraved on wood by h. n. woods. new edition. london: longmans &c . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, with centre ornament of persian design, gilt edges, by rivière._ moore, thomas.--lalla rookh an oriental romance by thomas moore   boston estes and lauriat [university press]    . _imperial vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges, in a satin portfolio, with ties._ no. of five hundred copies printed on imperial japanese paper.   one hundred and forty-three illustrations after j. wells champney, robert blum, kenyon cox, walter satterlee, f. t. merrill, w. h. low, f. h. allen, and others. moore, thomas.--the loves of the angels, a poem.   by thomas moore. . . . with embellishments. paris: printed for ant.-aug. renouard, and jules didot, senior. m d c c c x x i i i. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ one of two copies printed upon vellum: with three illustrations. five editions were published in . moore, thomas.--memoirs of the life of the right honourable richard brinsley sheridan.   by thomas moore. london: printed for longman, . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with mezzotint portrait of sheridan by c. turner after reynolds, and a facsimile. nearly one hundred portraits and views have been added, for the most part proofs on india paper. presentation copy from thomas moore to lord mountjoy, with the poet's inscription. moore, thomas.--memoirs of the life of the right honourable richard brinsley sheridan. by thomas moore. the fifth edition . . . london: printed for longman, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ portrait of sheridan by fry after reynolds. moore, thomas.--the epicurean, a tale, with [ ] vignette illustrations by j. m. w. turner, . . . and alciphron, a poem. by thomas moore . . . london: john macrone . . . . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ moore, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas moore, collected by himself. in ten volumes. . . . london: longman, orme, brown, green, & longmans, . . . . _post vo, ten volumes, original green cloth, uncut edges._ first collected edition. dedicated to the marquis of lansdown. portrait by charles heath after sir thomas lawrence, and frontispieces and engraved titles by frederick and alfred heath after maclise and george jones. moore, thomas.--moore's irish melodies. illustrated by d. maclise, . . . london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . . _ to, decorated boards, uncut edges._ one hundred and sixty-one designs by maclise and the letter-press engraved on steel by e. p. becker, on fine, thick paper. moore, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas moore. with a memoir. . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, six volumes, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed on large paper, with portrait on india paper. moore, thomas.--memoirs, journal, and correspondence of thomas moore. edited by . . . lord john russell . . . london: longman [&c] . . . [-' .] _crown vo, eight volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ sixteen portraits and views engraved on steel. moore, thomas.--[songs in thomas moore's autograph]   _oblong vo, red morocco, gilt edges._ fifteen sheets of musical score, containing moore's twelve "legendary ballads," in part, set to music by bishop, may , , and , , with the text in moore's handwriting. the poems are the voice, called in manuscript, the legend of the voice, out of stanzas; cupid and psyche, without title, stanzas; hero and leander, called the legend of hero and leander, out of stanzas; the leaf and the fountain, stanzas; cephalus and procris, called the hunter, stanzas; the indian boat, out of stanzas; youth and age, without title, out of stanzas; the dying warrior, without title, stanzas; the magic mirror, called the legend of the mirror, out of stanzas; the pilgrim, without title, stanzas; the high born ladye, stanzas without musical score on a separate sheet, with a note by moore; and the stranger, called the heart-wounded stranger, stanzas of score, and on a separate sheet of paper. the variations between the manuscript and printed text are numerous, e.g., in the voice, "soft as in hours of delight long ago" is printed (poetical works, ) "soft as in moments of bliss long ago;" "'twas in vain she tried to forget it" is printed "'twas in vain to chase the illusion." moore, sir thomas.--mangora, king of the timbusians. or the faithful couple. a tragedy. by sir thomas moore. [two lines in latin from persias, one from ovid, one from martial] london: printed for w. harvey . . . and e. nutt . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side corners, and centre ornament, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -h in fours, title on a . moraes, francisco de.--palmerin of england, by francisco de moraes [corrected by robert southey, from the original portuguese]   london: printed for longman . . . . _ mo, four volumes, tree calf, gilt back, by rivière._ more, hannah.--percy, a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxx viii. . . . _ vo, red morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. prologue and epilogue by garrick, dedication to earl percy. a-m in fours. more, hannah.--florio: a tale, for fine gentlemen and fine ladies: and, the bas bleu; or, conversation: two poems. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxxxvi. . . . _ to, half brown straight-grain morocco, gilt top._ first edition. the first poem is dedicated to horace walpole, the second to mrs. vesey. morgan, lady sydney.--the wild irish girl, a national tale. by miss owenson, . . . the fifth edition. in three volumes. . . . london: printed for longman hurst, rees orme and brown, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, green figured silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ morgan, lady sydney.--the life and times of salvator rosa. by lady morgan . . . london. printed for henry colburn . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portrait of salvator rosa engraved by cooper. morier, james.--the mirza. by james morier, esq. author of "hajji baba," "zohrab," "ayesha," &c.   london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, scotch plaid silk, uncut edges._ first edition. morier, james.--the adventures of hajji baba of ispahan by james morier edited by c. j. wills, . . . with an introduction by major-gen. sir frederic goldsmid, . . . illustrated. london   lawrence & bullen, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ morley, henry.--memoirs of bartholomew fair by henry morley. with facsimile drawings, engraved upon wood, by the brothers dalziel. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, cloth, red top, uncut edges._ inserted is an autograph letter from morley, dated january , , referring to "bartholomew fayre." morley, john.--critical miscellanies. by john morley. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of the first series. morley, john.--voltaire. by john morley. london: chapman and hall . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ morley, john.--rousseau. by john morley. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morley, john.--critical miscellanies. second series. by john morley. london: chapman and hall . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morley, john.--diderot and the encyclopædists. by john morley london: chapman and hall . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morris, william.--the defence of guenevere and other poems. by william morris. london: bell and daldy . . . [chiswick press] . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morris, william.--the defence of guenevere, and other poems. by william morris. (reprinted without alteration from the edition of .) london: ellis & white, . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, twenty-five printed. morris, william.--the defence of guenevere, & other poems. by william morris. [reeves & turner, london, ] _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ three hundred copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. morris, william.--the life and death of jason a poem by william morris. london: bell and daldy . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morris, william.--the life and death of jason a poem [woodcut] by william morris, . . . fourth edition. london: f. s. ellis, . . . m dccc lxix. _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ one of a small issue printed from the stereotyped plates on large and thick whatman paper. morris, william.--the earthly paradise a poem [woodcut] by william morris, . . . london: f. s. ellis, . . . m dccc lxviii. [-m dccc lxx.] _ vo, four parts in six volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, twenty-five printed. title-page woodcut engraved by morris after the design of sir e. burne-jones. morris and magnÚsson, _translators_.--grettis saga. the story of grettir the strong   translated from the icelandic   by eiríkr magnússon, . . . and william morris, . . . london: f. s. ellis, . . . m dccc lxix. _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition: with map. morris and magnÚsson, _translators_.--völsunga saga. the story of the volsungs & niblungs with certain songs from the elder edda. translated from the icelandic by eiríkr magnússon, . . . and william morris, . . . london: f. s. ellis, . . . m dccc lxx. _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. one of twelve copies printed on large paper. morris, william.--love is enough or the freeing of pharamond a morality. by william morris. london: ellis & white, . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. one of twenty-five copies printed on large paper. morris and magnÚsson, _translators_.--three northern love stories, and other tales. translated from the icelandic   by eiríkr magnússon and william morris. london: ellis & white, . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, twenty-five printed. morris, william.--the Æneids of virgil done into english verse by william morris, . . . london: ellis and white, . . . m dccc lxxvi. _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, twenty-five printed. morris, william.--the story of sigurd the volsung and the fall of the niblungs. by william morris, . . . london: ellis and white, . . . mdccclxxvii. _ vo, brown levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, embossed gold over green edges, by cobden-sanderson, ._ first edition. morris, william.--hopes and fears for art. five lectures delivered in birmingham, london, and nottingham, - . by william morris. . . . london: ellis & white, . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, twenty-five printed. morris, william.--a dream of john ball and a king's lesson. (reprinted from the "commonweal.") by william morris . . . with an illustration by edward burne-jones. london: reeves & turner . . . mdccclxxxviii. _square post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. morris, william.--a dream of john ball and a king's lesson. by william morris. [printed by william morris at the kelmscott press, and sold by reeves & turner, london, ] _small to, green levant morocco, back and sides covered, with panels of fillets, doubled with maroon morocco, gasconesque borders, maroon silk guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ three hundred copies printed. the woodcut was designed by sir e. burne-jones. morris, william.--a dream of john ball. . _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ one of eleven copies printed on vellum. morris, william.--a tale of the house of the wolfings and all the kindreds of the mark written in prose and verse by william morris . . . london : reeves and turner . . . _ to, buckram, uncut edges._ first edition. one of one hundred copies printed on large paper. morris, william.--the roots of the mountains wherein is told somewhat of the lives of the men of burgdale their friends their neighbours their foemen and their fellows in arms by william morris . . . london mdcccxc: reeves and turner . . . _ to, original tapestry bindings uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed. morris, william.--the story of the glittering plain which has been also called the land of living men or the acre of the undying. written by william morris, [initial letters from designs by william morris.] [reeves and turner, london] . _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ the first edition was the first book printed by morris at the kelmscott press, in the same year. the work originally appeared as a serial in the _english illustrated magazine_, volume vii, pages , , , and . morris, william.--the story of the glittering plain which has been also called the land of living men or the acre of the undying. written by william morris. [ woodcuts by walter crane] [kelmscott press, william morris, ] _folio, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty copies printed. morris, william.--poems by the way. written by william morris [reeves and turner, london ] _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ first edition. three hundred copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. morris, william.--news from nowhere or an epoch of rest, being some chapters from a utopian romance by william morris . . . second edition. london: reeves & turner . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ the first edition also was printed in . the story ran as a serial through thirty-nine numbers of _the commonweal_. morris, william.--news from nowhere; or, an epoch of rest. being some chapters from a utopian romance. by william morris [reeves & turner, london    ] _ vo, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ three hundred copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. the woodcut was designed by c. m. gere. morris, william.--news from nowhere. . _ vo, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ one of ten copies printed on vellum. morris, william, _translator_.--the order of chivalry. [reprinted from caxton's edition of . with l'ordene de chevalerie, a french poem of the ^{th} century by hues de tabarie--translated by william morris] [reeves and turner, london ] _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ two hundred and twenty-five copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press, with a woodcut designed by burne-jones. morris, william, _translator_.--the order of chivalry. . _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ one of ten copies printed on vellum. morris, william.--gothic architecture: a lecture for the arts and crafts exhibition society. by william morris [london, ] _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ one of ten copies printed on vellum, by william morris, at the kelmscott press. the first kelmscott book printed in mo. the type was set up at hammersmith, and copies printed at the new gallery during the exhibition. the four-line initials used in it appear here for the first time. morris, william.--arts and crafts essays by members of the arts and crafts exhibition society with a preface   by william morris   london rivington, percival, & co. . _crown vo, buckram, uncut edges._ the essay on "printing," which in the arts and crafts exhibition catalogue was written by mr. emery walker alone, is here recast and issued under the names of william morris and emery walker. morris, william, _translator_.--the tale of king florus and the fair jehane. [a french story of the ^{th} century, done into english by william morris] [london ] _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ one of twelve copies printed on vellum at the kelmscott press. morris, william, _translator_.--of the friendship of amis and amile [done out of the ancient french into english, by william morris] [london ] _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ one of fifteen vellum copies, printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. morris, william.--the wood beyond the world. by william morris. [kelmscott press, ] _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ three hundred and fifty copies printed, with woodcut frontispiece by sir edward burne-jones, and borders. the borders and half borders are here used for the first time. morris, william.--the well at the world's end by william morris [kelmscott press, william morris, ] _ to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ one of eight copies printed on vellum, with four illustrations by sir edward burne-jones. morrisiana.--a bibliography of the works of william morris by temple scott   london: geo. bell & sons [chiswick press] mdcccxcvii. _post vo, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ moscheles, ignace, _editor_.--the life of beethoven, including his correspondence with his friends, numerous characteristic traits, and remarks on his musical works. edited by ignace moscheles . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait, facsimile, etc. moses, henry.--a collection of vases, altars, pateræ, tripods, candelabra, sarcophagi, &c. from various museums and collections, engraved on plates [several coloured] by henry moses. with historical essays, [by thomas hope] [london, ] _ to, one volume in two, blue levant morocco, back and side borders tooled in a conventional design of rectangular fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition, large paper copy. the plates are all dated october , ; the preface, london, . moses, henry.--vases from the collection of sir henry englefield, bart. drawn and engraved by h. moses. london: printed for rodwell and martin . . . [ ] _ to, green morocco, gilt and blind tooled, wide morocco panel border inside, tooled with arabesques, &c., gilt edges._ thirty-one plates, one coloured. motherwell, william.--minstrelsy: ancient and modern, with an historical introduction and notes. by william motherwell john wylie:--glasgow mdcccxxvii. _ to, calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ frontispiece, engraved title-page, appendix, and nine pages of music, generally lacking. motley, john lothrop.--the rise of the dutch republic. a history. by john lothrop motley. london: john chapman . . . mdccclvi. _ vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ illustrated by the insertion of fifty-two portraits and views, many proofs and all selected impressions, by hollar, crispin de pass, moncornet, de leu, lombart, houbraken, etc. motley, john lothrop.--history of the united netherlands from the death of william the silent to the synod of dort. with a full view of the english-dutch struggle against spain, and of the origin and destruction of the spanish armada. by john lothrop motley. london, john murray . . . [-' .] _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ illustrated by the insertion of eighty-one portraits and views, many proofs, including brilliant specimens of engraving by crispin de pass, blooteling, kilian, moncornet, houbraken, visscher, and other famous copper-plate engravers, in addition to the illustrations published with the work. motley, john lothrop.--the life and death of john of barneveld, advocate of holland; with a view of the primary causes and movements of the thirty years' war. by john lothrop motley, . . . with illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: steel portrait and three woodcut illustrations. motley, john lothrop.--the correspondence of john lothrop motley . . . edited by george william curtis   with portrait . . . new york   harper & brothers, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ moultrie, john.--poems by john moultrie second edition   london william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of the three sons by aug. fox after corden. mozart, wolfgang amadeus.--the letters of wolfgang amadeus mozart ( - ) translated, from the collection of ludwig nohl, by lady wallace. with a portrait and facsimile. london: longmans, green, and co. . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ muggletonian songs.--divine songs of the muggletonians, in grateful praise to the only true god, the lord jesus christ. . . . london: printed by r. brown, . . . . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ portrait of ludowicke muggleton by j. kennerley. mÜller, friedrich max.--chips from a german workshop by f. max müller . . . london: longmans . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ mulock, dinah maria.--poems, by the author of "john halifax" . . . london, hurst and blackett [n. d.] _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece and engraved title by birket foster. munchausen, baron.--(i.) the seventh edition, considerably enlarged, and ornamented with twenty explanatory engravings, from original designs. gulliver revived: or, the vice of lying properly exposed. containing singular travels, campaigns, voyages, and adventures in russia, the caspian sea, iceland, turkey, egypt, gibraltar, up the mediterranean, on the atlantic ocean, and through the centre of mount Ætna, into the south sea. also, an account of a voyage into the moon and dog-star; with many extraordinary particulars relative to the cooking animal in those planets, which are there called the human species. by baron munchausen. london: printed for c. and g. kearsley, . . . m. dcc. xciii. (ii.) a new edition, (with twenty capital copper-plates, including the baron's portrait) a sequel to the adventures of baron munchausen, containing his expedition into africa.--how he out-does alexander. . . . humbly dedicated to mr. bruce, the abyssinian traveller, . . . london. printed for h. d. symonds, . . . m dcc xcvi. _ mo, two volumes in one, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ volume i contains twenty scenes on eight plates, volume ii, a frontispiece portrait and nineteen other plates. munchausen, baron.--(i.) the eighth edition, ornamented with twenty explanatory engravings, from original designs. gulliver revived: or, the vice of lying properly exposed containing singular travels, campaigns, voyages, and adventures in russia, the caspian sea, iceland, turkey, egypt, gibraltar, up the mediterranean, on the atlantic ocean, and through the centre of mount Ætna into the south sea, also, an account of a voyage into the moon and dog-star; with many extraordinary particulars relative to the cooking animal in those planets, which are there called the human species. by baron munchausen. london: printed for g. kearsley . . . . (ii). . . . a sequel to the adventures of baron munchausen . . . humbly dedicated to m^{r} bruce the abyssinian traveller . . . london: printed for h. d. symonds . . . . _ mo, two volumes in one, tree calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ twenty illustrations to each part, the sequel containing a portrait of the baron. munchausen, baron.--the surprising adventures of baron munchausen illustrated by william strang and j. b. clark, with an introduction by thomas seccombe   london   lawrence and bullen . . . . _crown vo, cloth._ murchison, sir roderick impey.--siluria. a history of the oldest rocks in the british isles and other countries;. . . by sir roderick impey murchison, . . . fourth edition, including "the silurian system," with a map, much new matter, and many illustrations. . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ murphy, arthur.--the old maid. a comedy in two acts, as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by mr. murphy. . . . london: printed for p. vaillant, . . . m dcc lxi. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. murphy, arthur.--all in the wrong. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by mr. murphy. . . . london: printed for p. vaillant, . . . mdcclxi. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. a -p in fours, title on a . murphy, arthur.--the apprentice. a farce. in two acts. as it is performed at the theatre-royal, in drury-lane. by mr. murphy. london, printed for p. vaillant. . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. prologue by garrick. a-g in fours, half-title on a . murphy, arthur.--what we must all come to. a comedy   in two acts, as it was intended to be acted at the theatre-royal in convent-garden. . . . london, printed for p. vaillant, . . . m dcc lxiv. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. reprinted in as "three weeks after marriage." murphy, arthur.--the school for guardians. a comedy. as it is performing at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. . . . london: printed for p. vaillant, . . . m dcc lxvii. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. musa proterva.--see love poems. muse.--the muse an advocate for injur'd merit. in an epistle to the right honourable sir robert walpole . . . london: printed for j. roberts, . . . mdccxxxiv. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ napier, lord.--notes on modern painting at naples. by lord napier. london john w. parker and son . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ naples and the campagna felice. in a series of letters, addressed to a friend in england, in . london: published by r. ackermann . . . . _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by amand._ two maps, title-page, and fifteen plates, all in colours, nine by rowlandson. napoleon bonaparte.--memoirs of the history of france during the reign of napoleon, dictated by the emperor at saint helena to the generals [montholon, gourgaud, &c] who shared his captivity; and published from the original manuscripts corrected by himself. . . . london: printed for henry colburn and co. . . . . [- ] _ vo, seven volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ eight facsimiles, eight maps, and two diagrams. the memoirs occupy four volumes, the historical miscellanies three. napoleon bonaparte.--napoleon in the other world. a narrative written by himself: and found near his tomb in the island of st. helena, by xongo-tee-foh-tchi, mandarin of the third class. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by r. stagg._ frontispiece by t. dighton. nares, edward.--heraldic anomalies   second edition   london: g. and w. b. whittaker . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, citron edges, by bedford._ narrative of the journey of an irish gentleman through england in the year . edited from a contemporary manuscript, with a few illustrative notes, [by henry huth.] london: printed at the chiswick press. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, doubled with maroon russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ one of fifty copies printed. nash, richard.--see goldsmith, oliver. national academy.--the national academy of design. ceremonies on the occasion of laying the corner-stone, october st, . and the inauguration of the building, april th, . new york: miller and mathews. m. dccc. lxv. _royal vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ frontispiece on india paper. naturalist's library.--the naturalist's library, [conducted by sir william jardine] ichthyology. . . . edinburgh: w. h. lizars, and stirling & kenney; . . . . [- ] _post vo, five volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ volume i, the perch family, by sir william jardine, is dated ; volume ii, treating of the nature, structure, and economical uses of fishes, by j. s. bushnan, m. d., ; volume iii, fishes of guiana. part i, by robert h. schomburgk, ; volume iv, british fishes. part i, by robert hamilton, m. d., ; volume v, fishes of guiana. part ii, by robert h. schomburgk, . five frontispiece portraits and engraved titles, by lizars, and one hundred and fifty-nine plates, for the most part coloured. naturalist's pocket book.--the naturalists pocket book. ornamented with most elegant engravings. illustrated by corresponding descriptions, accompanied with an almanack. &c   london. printed for g. kearsley, fleet street [ ] _small to, old red morocco, elaborately tooled, and inlaid with curious multiform panels of barbaric design, enclosed in a case of the same pattern._ engraved title-page, with coloured vignette, coloured frontispiece, and twelve full-page illustrations by barlow. nature in perfection; or, the mother unveil'd: being a congratulatory poem to mrs. bret, upon his majesty's most gracious pardon granted to mr. richard savage, son of the late earl rivers. . . . london: printed for t. green, . . . and sold by j. roberts . . . m dcc xxviii. . . . _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ neander, augustus.--the history of the christian religion and church during the three first centuries. by dr. augustus neander. translated from the german, by henry john rose, . . . second edition. london: printed for j. g. f. & j. rivington, . . . . [- ] _ vo, two volumes, half light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ volume ii is the first edition. neve, philip.--cursory remarks on some of the ancient english poets, particularly milton . . . london. m.dcc.lxxxix. _ vo, half calf gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. new ballad.--a new ballad. to the tune of, london is a fine town, &c. london: printed for j. smith . . . mdcc xxvi. _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ newton, sir charles thomas.--travels and discoveries in the levant. by c. t. newton, . . . with numerous illustrations. . . . day & son, . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ two maps, thirty-nine plates, and thirty-eight woodcuts. new york charter.--the charter and the several laws, orders & ordinances established by the mayor, recorder, aldermen and assistants of the city of new-york   conven'd in common council, for the good rule and government of the inhabitants of the said city. published this first day of december, in the mayoralty of jacobus van cortland, esq; annoq; domini . printed and sold by william bradford in the city of new-york, . _folio, brown levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, silk linings, gilt edges, by rivière._ the first printed laws and charter of the city of new york, with the revised ordinance "prevention of fire" on the fifth page. new york city during the american revolution, being a collection of original papers (now first published) from the manuscripts in the possession of the mercantile library association of new york city [with an introduction by h. b. dawson] privately printed for the association [by c. a. alvord] . _ to, brown morocco, back and sides in gold and mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by pawson and nicholson._ map of new york and plan, also (inserted) fifteen views and six portraits. new york directory.--the new-york directory, containing, a valuable and well calculated almanack; . . . tables of the different coins, suitable for any state, and digested in such order, as to render an exchange between any of the united states plain and easy. likewise, . the names of all the citizens, their occupations and places of abode. . the members in congress, from what state, and where residing. . grand departments of the united states for adjusting public accounts, and by whom conducted. . members in senate and assembly, from what county, and where residing. . judges, aldermen, and other civil officers, with their places of abode. . public state-offices, and by whom kept. . counsellers at law, and where residing. . ministers of the gospel, where residing, and of what church. . physicians, surgeons, and their places of abode. . president, directors, days, and hours of business at the bank. . professors, &c. of the university of columbia college. . rates of porterage, as by law established. . arrivals and departures of the mails at the post-office. by david franks. new york: printed by shepard kollock, corner of wall and water streets, m, dcc, lxxx, vi. _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, with the original grey covers bound in, by f. bedford._ first edition. new york laws.--laws, statutes, ordinances, and constitutions, ordained, made and established, by the mayor, recorder, aldermen, and assistants, of the city of new-york, convened in common-council, for the good rule and government of the inhabitants and residents of the said city. published the twenty-seventh day of january, and the first day of february, in the twenty second year of the reign of our sovereign lord george the second, . . . annoque domini . and in the mayoralty of edward holland, esq; to which is added, an appendix, containing extracts of sundry acts of the general assembly of the colony of new-york, immediately relating to the good government of the said city and corporation. printed and sold by j. parker, at the new printing office, in bever street, . _folio, bound with william livingston's "independent reflector" and "the occasional reverberator."_ one of four copies on record. the other three are in the lenox library, the philadelphia public library, and the tower collection of american laws in the library of the pennsylvania historical society. new york parks.--first annual report of the board of commissioners of the department of public parks for the year ending may , . new york: william c. bryant & co., . _royal vo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ fifty illustrations. nichols, john.--biographical and literary anecdotes of william bowyer, printer, f. s. a. and of many of his learned friends. containing an incidental view of the progress and advancement of literature in this kingdom from the beginning of the present century to the end of the year m dcclxx vii. by john nichols, his apprentice, partner, and successor . . . . london: printed by and for the author. mdcclxxxii. _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ second edition. portrait of bowyer by j. basire. nichols, john.--literary anecdotes of the eighteenth century; comprizing biographical memoirs of william bowyer, printer, f. s. a. and many of his learned friends; an incidental view of the progress and advancement of literature in this kingdom during the last century; and biographical anecdotes of a considerable number of eminent writers and ingenious artists; with a very copious index. by john nichols, . . . in six volumes. . . . london: printed for the author, by nichols, son, and bentley, . . . - . _ vo, nine volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ the title-page of volume vii reads "in seven volumes," , and the volume contains a second part, dated , although the pagination is continuous; volume viii is dated , and volume ix, . fourteen portraits and one facsimile. nichols, john.--illustrations of the literary history of the eighteenth century. consisting of authentic memoirs and original letters of eminent persons; and intended as a sequel to the literary anecdotes. by john nichols, . . . london: printed for the author, by nichols, son, and bentley, . . . - . _ vo, eight volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ sixty-two portraits and one other plate in two compartments. volumes i and ii are dated ; volume iii, ; iv, ; v, ; vi, ; vii, ; and viii, . the title-page reads "to which are appended additions to the literary anecdotes and literary illustrations." volumes vii and viii were written by john bowyer nichols; volumes v and vi were posthumous publications. nichols, john.--biographical anecdotes of william hogarth; with a catalogue of his works chronologically arranged; and occasional remarks. the third edition, enlarged and corrected. london: printed by and for john nichols, . . . mdcclxxxv. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ engraved title. nichols, john.--see hogarth, william. nichols, t.--a handy-book of the british museum, for every-day readers. by t. nichols, . . . london: cassell, petter, and galpin, . . . . _crown vo, cloth._ sixteen plates and numerous woodcuts in the text. nicolas, sir nicholas harris.--memoirs and remains of lady jane grey: by nicholas harris nicolas . . . new [second] edition. london: henry colburn and richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, with india proof portrait of lady jane grey by dean after de heere, and forty inserted plates, including a coloured drawing and several proofs. nicolas, sir nicholas harris.--the lives of walton and cotton by sir harris nicholas   london   william pickering    . _imperial vo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ four portraits on steel. one of twenty-five copies printed. the sheets are the same as in volume i of the pickering edition of "the complete angler," , with a new title-page. nightingale.--the nightingale: a choice selection of the most admired popular songs, heroic, plaintive, sentimental, humourous, and bacchanalian. arranged for the violin, flute, and voice. by the editor of the "skylark" and "thrush" . . . london: published by thomas tegg, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ engraved frontispiece-title with vignette, by freeman after corbould. nightingale valley.--nightingale valley. a collection, including a great number of the choicest lyrics and short poems in the english language. edited by giraldus . . . london: bell and daldy . . . . _post vo, blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back panels, gilt edges, by holloway._ noble, j. ashcroft.--the sonnet in england & other essays by j. ashcroft noble   london   elkin mathews and john lane. . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. nodier, charles.--the bibliomaniac by charles nodier with forty-five illustrations from designs by maurice leloir, engraved on wood by f. noel, and a preface by r. vallery-radot. translated by mabel osgood wright j. o. wright & company   new york   mdcccxciv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed on japan paper, with a duplicate set of the illustrations. nodier, charles.--the bibliomaniac. . _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges._ another copy, one of five presentation copies printed upon india paper. "north, christopher."--see wilson, john. north, roger.--the lives of the right hon. francis north, baron guilford, lord keeper of the great seal, under king charles ii. and king james ii. the hon. sir dudley north, commissioner of the customs, and afterwards of the treasury, to king charles ii. and the hon. and rev. dr. john north, master of trinity college, cambridge, and clerk of the closet to king charles ii. by the hon. roger north. a new edition. with notes and illustrations, historical and biographical. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, boards, uncut edges._ three portraits by r. cooper. northall, w. k., _editor_.--life and recollections of yankee [george handel] hill: together with anecdotes and incidents of his travels. edited by dr. w. k. northall. new york, published for mrs. cordelia hill, by w. f. burgess, . . . . _small vo, cloth._ portrait and woodcuts. northcote, james.--memoirs of sir joshua reynolds, knt. . . . late president of the royal academy. comprising original anecdotes of many distinguished persons, his contemporaries; and a brief analysis of his discourses. to which are added, varieties on art. by james northcote, . . . london: printed for henry colburn, . . . . _ to, half calf, uncut edges._ portrait by robert cooper after john jackson. northcote, james.--(i.) one hundred fables, original and selected, by james northcote, r. a. &c &c embellished with two hundred and eighty engravings on wood   london, geo: lawford . . . printed by j. johnson (ii.) fables, original and selected. by the late james northcote, r. a. second series. illustrated by two hundred and eighty engravings on wood. [portrait] london: john murray, . . . mdcccxxxiil _royal vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ large paper copy. rubricated title. portrait of northcote inserted, by worthington after barlow, india open letter proof. northcote, james.--fables. second series. . _crown vo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ another copy, printed on india paper. northcote, james.--proof illustrations to northcote's fables; and of the ornamental letters and vignettes by william harvey. london: geo: lawford . . . printed by j. johnson . _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by chambolle-duru._ printed entirely on india paper, with title-page rubricated. northcote, james.--the life of titian: with anecdotes of the distinguished persons of his time. by james northcote . . . london, henry colburn and richard bentley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of titian engraved by dean. written chiefly by william hazlitt. norton, john.--the redeemed captive. being a narrative of the taking and carrying into captivity the reverend mr. john norton, when fort-massachusetts surrendered to a large body of french and indians, august th . with a particular account of the defence made before the surrender of that fort, with the articles of capitulation &c. together with an account, both entertaining and affecting, of what mr. norton met with, and took notice of, in his travelling to, and while in captivity at canada, and 'till his arrival at boston, on august . . written by himself. [ten lines of biblical quotations] boston: printed & sold opposite the prison. . _ mo, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, side compartments in a conventional floral and foliage design, uncut edges, in an olive levant morocco case, by cobden-sanderson._ nugent, george grenville, lord.--legends of the library at lilies, by the lord and lady there. . . . london: printed for longman, rees, &c . . . . _post vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ nursery rhymes.--see halliwell-phillipps, j. o. nuttall, thomas.--the north american sylva; or, a description of the forest trees of the united states, canada, and nova scotia, not described in the work of f. andrew michaux, and containing all the forest trees discovered in the rocky mountains, the territory of oregon, down to the shores of the pacific and into the confines of california, as well as in various parts of the united states. illustrated by fine [coloured] plates. by thomas nuttall, f. l. s., . . . philadelphia: j. dobson, . . . . [ , .] _royal vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ volume ii has the imprint of townsend ward, ; volume iii, smith and wistar, . the three are iv, v, and vi of michaux and nuttall's "north american sylva." nuttall, thomas.--see michaux, f. andrew. occasional reverberator.--[first page] the occasional reverberator. number i. friday, september , . [--number iv. friday, october , .] [colophon of number iv.] new york: printed by j. parker, at the new-printing-office, in beaver-street. by whom letters to the author are carefully delivered. _folio, bound with william livingston's "independent reflector" and one other work._ a supplement to _the independent reflector_, issued only four times. o'donoghue, freeman m.--a descriptive and classified catalogue of portraits of queen elizabeth by freeman m. o'donoghue, . . . bernard quaritch [dryden press] . . . london . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ frontispiece and seven other illustrations. ogilvie, john.--poems on several subjects . . . by john ogilvie, d. d. london: printed for george pearch, . . . m.dcc.lxix. _ vo, two volumes, old red morocco, gilt back, wide border on the side introducing the thistle, gilt edges. a scotch binding._ presentation copy from the author to lord adam gordon. ogle, george.--gemmæ antiquæ cælatæ: or, a collection of gems, wherein are explained many particulars relating to the fable and history, the customs and habits, the ceremonies and exercises of the ancients. taken from the classics   by george ogle esq; engraved by cl. du bosc. the second edition. london: printed for claude du bosc, and william darres, . . . m. dcc. xli. _ to, old red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders, corner ornaments, gilt edges._ frontispiece and fifty plates. o'hara, kane.--the golden pippin: an english burletta, in three acts. as it is performed at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. by the author of midas. london: printed for t. becket, . . . m. dcc. lxxiii. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. o'keefe, john.--the castle of andalusia. a comic opera. in three acts. as performed at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. written by john o'keefe, . . . london: printed by h. baldwin, for t. n. longman, . . . m dcc xc iv. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. oldys, william.--memoirs of mrs. anne oldfield. [vignette portrait] london: printed in the year m, dcc, xli. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with betterton's "history of the english stage," ._ inserted are sixteen portraits and scenes. oliphant, thomas.--la musa madrigalesca; or a collection of madrigals, ballets, roundelays, etc., chiefly of the elizabeth age; with remarks and annotations. by thomas oliphant, . . . london: calkin and budd, . . . . _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ autograph letter and poem inserted, also certificate of the author's birth. "oliver, stephen."--see chatto, william andrew. omar khayyÁm.--rubáiyát of omar khayyám, the astronomer-poet of persia. rendered into english verse by edward fitzgerald   the grolier club of new york   mdccclxxxv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and side border composed of passion-flowers and vine, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed on japan paper. omar khayyÁm.--rubáiyát of omar khayyám. . _ vo, blue levant morocco, back and sides covered with an elaborate persian design, doubled with brown morocco, wide border, by ramage._ another copy printed on japan paper. omar khayyÁm.--the quatrains of omar kheyyam of nishapour, now first completely done into english verse from the persian, in accordance with the original forms, with a biographical and critical introduction, by john payne, . . . london: m dccc xcviii: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _royal vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. y of a limited edition. o'meara, barry edward.--napoleon in exile; or, a voice from st. helena. the opinions and reflections of napoleon on the most important events of his life and government, in his own words. by barry e. o'meara, esq. his late surgeon. . . . london: printed for w. simpkin and r. marshall, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ portraits by t. woolnoth from a cameo by morelli and by t. a. dean from a medal. one hundred books famous in english literature with facsimiles of the title-pages and an introduction by george e. woodberry. the grolier club of the city of new york   mcmii. _royal vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and five copies printed on hand-made paper. the rejected title-page is inserted. one hundred books--bibliographical notes on one hundred books famous in english literature compiled by henry w. kent the grolier club of the city of new york   mcm iii. _royal vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and five copies printed on french hand-made paper. opie, amelia alderson.--poems by mrs. opie . . . london: printed for t. n. longman and o. rees . . . by taylor and wilks . . . . _small vo, mottled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. frontispiece by opie, engraved by reynolds. oppian's halieuticks of the nature of fishes and fishing of the ancients    in v. books. translated from the greek, with an account of oppian's life and writings, and a catalogue of his fishes. [engraving of the sheldonian theatre] oxford, printed at the theater, an. dom. m dcc xxii. _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by larkins._ translated by john jones and john diaper, of baliol college, and dedicated to the lord marquis of carnarvon. on the verso of the half-title is the imprimatur, dated february , . orbeliani, sulkhan-saba.--the book of wisdom and lies. [a gregorian story-book of the eighteenth century, by sulkhan-saba orbeliani: translated, with notes, by oliver wardrop. printed by william morris, kelmscott press, . sold by bernard quaritch.] _small to, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ two hundred and fifty copies printed. orme, edward.--an essay on transparent prints, and on transparencies in general. by edward orme. london: printed for, and sold by, the author, . . . &c . . . . . . . _folio, half maroon straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ french and english text: twenty plates, some in colours, seven transparent. orpheus.--the mystical hymns of orpheus. translated from the greek, and demonstrated to be the invocations which were used in the eleusinian mysteries, by thomas taylor. . . . the second edition. with considerable emendations, alterations, and additions. chiswick: printed by c. whittingham, . . . for the translator, . . . . _crown vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ orrery, charles boyle, earl of.--as you find it. a comedy. as it is acted at the new-theatre, in little-lincoln's-inn-fields, by her majesty's servants. . . . london: printed for r. parker, . . . m dc iii. [m dcc iii.] . . . _ to, blue morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition of boyle's only play. the date is misprinted . a -a and b-k in fours. the epilogue by george granville is k , "a catalogue of books printed" is k . orrery, john boyle, earl of.--remarks on the life and writings of dr. jonathan swift, dean of st. patrick's, dublin, in a series of letters from john earl of orrery to his son, the honourable hamilton boyle. . . . london, printed for a. millar, . . . m dcc lii. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition, large paper copy. etching of swift by b. wilson, . orthodox communicant.--see sturt, john. osburn, william.--the monumental history of egypt, as recorded on the ruins of her temples, palaces, and tombs. by william osburn . . . london: trübner and co., . . . mdcccliv. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ thirty-nine plates and maps, some coloured. o'shaughnessy, arthur william edgar.--an epic of women and other poems. by arthur w. e. o'shaughnessy. london: john camden hotten, . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. o'shaughnessy, arthur william edgar.--lays of france, (founded on the lays of marie) by arthur w. e. o'shaughnessy. london: ellis and green . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. o'shaughnessy, arthur william edgar.--music and moonlight. poems and songs by arthur o'shaughnessy. london chatto and windus . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. o'shaughnessy, arthur william edgar.--songs of a worker by arthur o'shaughnessy. london chatto and windus . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ossoli, countess.--see fuller, margaret. ottley, henry.--a biographical and critical dictionary of recent and living painters and engravers, forming a supplement to bryan's dictionary of painters and engravers as edited by george stanley. by henry ottley. london. henry g. bohn, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ ottley, william young.--an inquiry into the origin and early history of engraving, upon copper and in wood, with an account of the engravers and their works, from the invention of chalcography by maso finiguerra in the time of marc' antonio raimondi. by william young ottley . . . london: printed for john and arthur arch . . . by j. m'creery . . . . _ to, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ numerous facsimile illustrations. ottley, william young.--an inquiry into the origin and early history of engraving. . _folio, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by w. strong._ large paper copy, sixty printed, with the illustrations on india paper, and many in duplicate, coloured. ottley, william young.--a collection of [ ] fac-similes of scarce and curious prints, by the early masters of the italian, german, and flemish schools; illustrative of the history of engraving, from the invention of the art, by maso finiguerra, in the middle of the fifteenth century, to the end of the century following: with an explanatory catalogue of the plates. by william young ottley, . . . london: published for the proprietor; and sold by longman, &c . . . printed by j. m'creery, . . . . _folio, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of the copies containing one hundred plates instead of one hundred and twenty-nine. some of the plates are on india paper, and niello no. is in duplicate, in silver. there is no frontispiece. ottley, william young.--a collection of one hundred and twenty-nine fac-similes of scarce and curious prints, by the early masters of the italian, german, and flemish schools; illustrative of the history of engraving, from the invention of the art, by maso finiguerra, in the middle of the fifteenth century: with introductory remarks and a catalogue of the plates. by william young ottley . . . london . . . printed by j. m'creery, . . . . _folio, blue morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by w. strong._ the plates are on india paper, the niellos in silver, and the frontispiece coloured. ouvaroff, alexei, count.--essay on the mysteries of eleusis; by m. ouvaroff, . . . translated from the french, by j. d. price. with observations, by j. christie. london: printed for rodwell and martin, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ engraved frontispiece-title. ovidius.--ovid's metamorphoses epitomized in an english poetical style, for the use and entertainment of the ladies of great britain. [by the rev. nicholas tindal.]   london: printed for robert horsfield, . . . . _small vo, old english red morocco, gilt back, thistle border on the sides, gilt edges._ presentation copy from tindal to the duchess of richmond, with her autograph and book-plate. owen, hugh.--see champion and owen. owenson, sydney.--see morgan, lady sydney. oxford essays.--the oxford english prize essays . . . oxford   d a talboys    . _crown vo, four volumes, half green morocco, uncut edges._ one of twelve copies printed on tinted paper. page, william.--a study of shakespeare's portraits, by william page, . . . london: printed at the chiswick press. mdccclxxvi. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ five illustrations. a reprint of an article in _scribner's magazine_ for may, . paine, thomas.--letter addressed to the abbe raynal on the affairs of north-america. in which the mistakes in the abbe's account of the revolution of america are corrected and cleared up. by thomas paine, m. a. of the university of pennsylvania, and author of the pamphlet and other publications, entitled, "common sense." philadelphia, printed. boston: re-printed by benjamin edes & sons, . . . m, dcc, lxxxii. _crown vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. the postscript of four leaves is dated philadelphia, august , . paine, thomas.--common sense; addressed to the inhabitants of america, on the following interesting subjects: i. of the origin and design of government in general, with concise remarks on the english constitution. ii. of monarchy and hereditary succession. iii. thoughts on the present state of american affairs. iv. of the present ability of america, with some miscellaneous reflections. a new edition, with several additions in the body of the work. to which is added an appendix; together with an address to the people called quakers. by thomas paine, . . . [two lines from thomson.] philadelphia: printed and sold by w. and t. bradford. m,dcc,xci. _ vo, rose levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ inserted is a portrait by f. bonneville. the introduction is dated philadelphia, february , . paine, thomas.--rights of man: being an answer to mr. burke's attack on the french revolution. by thomas paine, . . . fourth american edition. printed at boston, by i. thomas and e. t. andrews, . . . mdccxci. _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ dedicated to george washington. paine, thomas.--letter addressed to the addressers, on the late proclamation. by thomas paine, . . . london: printed for h. d. symonds, . . . and thomas clio rickman, . . . . _ vo, maroon levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. contains final leaf of advertisement of "rights of man." paine, thomas.--letter addressed to the addressers, on the proclamation. by thomas paine., . . . new york--printed by thomas greenleaf.--m,dcc,xc,iii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ the half-title reads, "paine's rights of man. part third." paine and condorcet.--a letter from m. condorcet, a member of the national convention, to a magistrate in swisserland, respecting the massacree of the swiss guards on the th of august, &c. with a letter from thomas paine, to the people of france, on his election to the national convention. to which is added, an abstract of that system of despotism, which has been overturned by the french, and under which the mass of the people in that country have groaned for ages. with a brief account of the strength and resources of france. new york: printed for the book-sellers. m, dcc, xciii. _ vo, light brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--prospects on the war, and paper currency. the first american edition. by thomas paine, . . . baltimore: printed by s. and j. adams, for fisher and cole, . . . m, dcc, xc, iv. _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ the text is dated "york street, st. james's square, th august, ," and is followed by eleven pages of advertisements. paine, thomas.--the age of reason. being an investigation of true and of fabulous theology. by thomas paine, citizen and cultivator of the united states of america; . . . paris, printed for barrois, senior, bookseller, quai des augustins, n^{o}. . second year of the french republic, one and indivisible. [ ] _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. the dedication, "to my fellow citizens of the united states of america," is dated "luxembourg, th pluviose, second year of the french republic, one and indivisible. january , o. s. ." paine, thomas.--the age of reason; being an investigation of true and fabulous theology. by thomas paine, secretary for foreign affairs to congress in the american war, . . . paris: printed by barrois. london: sold by d. i. eaton, . . . . price one shilling and six-pence. _ vo, half dark brown calf._ second edition: with half-title, but without the dedication. pasted in the back of the volume is a broadside on bluish grey paper, "first and second day. trial of mr. r. carlile, at the court of king's bench. for publishing paynes' age of reason," two columns with "catnach, printer, , monmouth-court" at the end. paine, thomas.--the age of reason. part the second. being an investigation of true and of fabulous theology. by thomas paine, . . . printed for the author. m dcc xcv. _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition of second part. the preface is dated october, . paine, thomas.--dissertation on first-principles of government; by thomas paine, . . . paris, printed at the english press, rue de vaugirard, n^{o}. . third year of the french republic. [ ] _ vo, purple levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. on pages - is "speech of thomas paine, as delivered in the convention, july , . wherein he alludes to the preceding work," the same speech that is appended to "the decline and fall of the english system of finance, philadelphia, ," two items below. paine, thomas.--dissertation on first principles of government. by thomas paine, . . . the second edition. london: printed and sold by daniel isaac eaton, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--[first page] the decline and fall of the english system of finance. by thomas paine, . . . philadelphia, printed by john page, . . . for benj. franklin bache, . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ the half-title is followed by a leaf, a, containing the text of the title, a quotation of one line, and nine lines of the discourse, which is dated at the end "paris, th germinal, th year of the republic. april , ." the text is a -d (verso blank) in fours, pages - . following is "speech of thomas paine, as delivered in the convention, july , . wherein he alludes to the preceding work," c -c , pages - . this is the same speech as that appended to "dissertation on first-principles of government," paris, . see page . paine, thomas.--agrarian justice, opposed to agrarian law, and to agrarian monopoly; being a plan for meliorating the condition of man, by creating in every nation a national fund, to pay to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, to enable him, or her to begin the world; and also, ten pounds sterling per annum during life to every person now living of the age of fifty years, and to all others when they shall arrive at that age, to enable them to live in old age without wretchedness, and go decently out of the world. by thomas paine, . . . paris: printed by w. adlard, . . . london, reprinted for t. g. ballard, . . . and evans and bone, . . . . _ vo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ written in the winter of - . presumably the second edition. paine, thomas.--agrarian justice, opposed to agrarian law, and to agrarian monopoly. being a plan for meliorating the condition of man, by creating in every nation, a national fund, to pay to every person, when arrived at the age of twenty-one years, the sum of fifteen pounds sterling, to enable him or her to begin the world! and also, ten pounds sterling per annum during life to every person now living of the age of fifty years, and to all others when they shall arrive at that age, to enable them to live in old age without wretchedness, and go decently out of the world. by thomas paine, . . . philadelphia: printed by r. folwell, for benjamin franklin bache. [ ] _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ presumably the third edition. paine, thomas.--a letter to the hon. thomas erskine, on the prosecution of thomas williams, for publishing the age of reason. by thomas paine, . . . with his discourse at the society of the theo-philanthropists. printed at newburgh, by d. denniston. [after ] _ vo, light blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--the ruling passion: an occasional poem. written by the appointment of the society of the [greek: ph b k], and spoken, on their anniversary, in the chapel of the university, cambridge, july , . by thomas paine, a, m. published according to act of congress. boston: printed by manning & loring, for the author. . _ to, red morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ paine, thomas.--letters to the citizens of the united states. by thomas paine. new york: printed in the year . _ vo, maroon levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--thomas paine's letter to the late general george washington. when president of the united states. dated, paris june , . a new edition. new york: printed for and published by r. d. taylor. . _ vo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--on the origin of free-masonry. by thomas paine. posthumous work. new york: printed and sold by elliot and crissy, . . . . _ vo, light blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--miscellaneous poems. by thomas paine. london: printed & published by r. carlile, . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paine, thomas.--see puglia, james ph. de. vale, g. wakefield, gilbert. paineiana.--the trial of thomas paine, for a libel, contained in the second part of rights of man. before lord kenyon, and a special jury, at guildhall, december , . with the speeches of the attorney general and mr. erskine at large. printed at boston, by i. thomas and e. t. andrews, . . . m dcc xc iii. _ vo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paineiana.--mr. thomas paine's trial; being an examination of his age of reason. to which is added, two addresses, the first to the deists, and the second to the youths of america. with some brief remarks on gilbert wakefield's examination of said age of reason. dedicated to george washington, president of the united states of america. by the author of the dialogue between philagathus and pamela. . . . printed at boston, by isaiah thomas and ebenezer t. andrews, . . . m d c c x c v. _ mo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ paineiana.--a dialogue on the approaching trial of mr. carlile, for publishing the age of reason. with the trial anticipated. principal speakers. cantwell, a member of the society for the suppression of vice. officio, attorney general to the holy league. burn-all-o, a member of the holy inquisition. mordecai, an honest israelite. honestus, a sincere christian. candid, a philosopher. witnesses, &c. from wooler's british gazette, sunday, april , . london: printed & published by t. j. wooler, . . . . price fourpence. _ vo, maroon levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ palatine anthology.--see halliwell-phillipps, j. o. palgrave, francis turner, _editor_.--the golden treasury of the best songs and lyrical poems in the english language selected and arranged with notes by francis turner palgrave. cambridge macmillan and co., . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ palliser, fanny marryat.--history of lace. by mrs. [richard] bury palliser   london: sampson low, son, & marston . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ one hundred and sixty-nine illustrations. palmer, roundell, _editor_.--the book of praise from the best english hymn writers selected and arranged by roundell palmer [vignette by c. h. jeens after t. woolner]   macmillan and co   london and cambridge. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ palmerin of england.--see moraes, francisco de. panam, madame pauline.--memoirs of a young greek lady, madame pauline adelaide alexandre panam, against his serene highness the reigning prince of saxe-cobourg. translated by w. h. ireland, . . . london: printed and published by j. fairburn, . . . . _ vo, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ two portraits engraved by phillips. pardoe, julia.--louis the fourteenth, and the court of france in the seventeenth century. by miss pardoe . . . third edition, with an index now first added. london; richard bentley . . . mdcccxlix. _ vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ five steel portraits, fifty-one woodcut illustrations, also ninety-six additional portraits, etc., inserted, many proofs on india paper, and before letters, including some by peter de jode and st. aubin. pardoe, julia.--the court and reign of francis the first, king of france. by miss pardoe. london: richard bentley mdcccxlix. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portraits. pardoe, julia.--the life of marie de medicis, queen of france, consort of henry iv., and regent of the kingdom under louis xiii. by miss pardoe . . . london: colburn and co. . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. three portraits and six facsimiles of letters. park, thomas.--see griffiths, a. f. parker, john henry.--a glossary of terms used in grecian, roman, italian, and gothic architecture. the fifth edition, enlarged. exemplified by seventeen hundred woodcuts   oxford, john henry parker . . . mdcccl. _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ some of the illustrations are coloured. parker, john henry.--see turner and parker. parker, martin.--see chap books. - . parnell, thomas.--poems on several occasions. written by dr. thomas parnell, late arch-deacon of clogher: and published by mr. pope . . . london: printed for b. lintot, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, rich side borders in the manner of derome, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. the dedication, in verse, to robert, earl of oxford, by pope, is dated sept. , , and is here printed for the first time. the book concludes, beginning with n , with "visions, publish'd in the spectators, &c. by the same hand," and a final leaf of index and advertisement. parnell, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas parnell   london william pickering    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by the reverend john mitford, and a portrait of parnell. parnell, thomas.--see goldsmith and parnell. parry, william.--the last days of lord byron: with his lordship's opinions on various subjects, particularly on the state and prospects of greece. by william parry . . . london: printed for knight and lacey, . . . mdcccxxv. _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece representing byron and his dog "lyon." pascal, blaise.--the thoughts of blaise pascal translated from the text of m. auguste molinier by c. kegan paul . . . london   kegan paul, trench & co. [chiswick press] m dccc lxxxv. _ vo, paper wrappers, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with portrait on japan paper. pater, walter horatio.--studies in the history of the renaissance   by walter h. pater . . . london   macmillan and co. . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. pater, walter horatio.--marius the epicurean his sensations and ideas by walter pater . . . london: macmillan and co. . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. pater, walter horatio.--the renaissance studies in art and poetry   by walter pater . . . third edition, revised and enlarged   macmillan and co. london and new york . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ tinted frontispiece by jeens. pater, walter horatio.--appreciations with an essay on   style by walter pater   london   macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. pater, walter horatio.--plato and platonism a series of lectures by walter pater . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. pater, walter horatio.--greek studies a series of essays by walter pater . . . prepared for the press by charles l. shadwell . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with portrait. pater, walter horatio.--[half-title]   the works of walter pater. london    macmillan and co., . . . [- .] _ vo, nine volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ one of seven hundred and seventy-five copies printed, with frontispiece in bistre on japan paper. pater, walter horatio.--essays from 'the guardian' by walter pater . . . london macmillan and co., . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. paterson, william.--arminius. a tragedy. as it was to have been acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. london: printed for, and sold by a. millar, . . . m. dcc. xl. . . . _ vo, olive morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ patmore, coventry kersey dighton.--tamerton church-tower and other poems by coventry patmore . . . london john w. parker and son . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ patmore, coventry.--the angel in the house. the betrothal . . . london john w. parker and son . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. patmore, coventry.--the angel in the house. by coventry patmore. . . . london and cambridge, macmillan and co. . . . . _post vo, two volumes (called "parts"), cloth, uncut edges._ patmore, coventry.--faithful for ever. by coventry patmore. . . . london: john w. parker, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. patmore, coventry, _editor_.--the children's garland   from the best poets selected and arranged by coventry patmore [vignette] macmillan and co. london and cambridge    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. vignette on the title-page by c. h. jeens after t. woolner. patmore, coventry.--the victories of love. by coventry patmore. . . . london and cambridge: macmillan and co. . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ patmore, henry.--poems by henry patmore. printed at oxford by henry daniel . _ to, original covers, uncut edges._ one hundred and twenty-five copies printed. patmore, peter george.--my friends and acquaintance: being memorials, mind-portraits, and personal recollections of deceased celebrities of the nineteenth century: with selections from their unpublished letters. by p. g. patmore, . . . london saunders and otley, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--jokeby, a burlesque on rokeby, a poem . . . in six cantos. by an amateur, of fashion to which are added, occasional notes; by our most popular characters . . . published by w. wells and t. b. wait and co. boston . . . . _ mo, half red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--letters from the south, written during an excursion in the summer of . by the author of john bull and brother jonathan, &c. &c. . . . new york: published by james eastburn & co. . . . abraham paul, printer, . _ mo, two volumes, half blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--the backwoodsman. a poem. by j. k. paulding. philadelphia: published by m. thomas . . . . _ mo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition: with six preliminary leaves of advertisement. after page are two stubs which complete signature q and are evidently two cancelled leaves. paulding, james kirke.--the new mirror for travellers; and guide to the springs. by an amateur. new york: g. & c. carvill . . . . _ mo, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--. . . the dutchman's fireside. a tale. by the author of "letters from the south" &c . . . new york: published by j. & j. harper, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. contains the leaves of advertisement. paulding, james kirke.--the dutchman's fireside. a tale. by james k. paulding. "somewhere about the time of the old french war." edited by william i. paulding. new york: charles scribner and company. . _ mo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ paulding, james kirke.--westward ho! a tale. by the author of "the dutchman's fireside," . . . new york: printed and published by j. & j. harper . . . . _ mo, two volumes, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--the book of saint nicholas. translated from the original dutch of dominic nicholas Ægidius oudenarde. new york: harper & brothers, . . . . _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. the dedication is dated nieuw-amsterdam, july, . paulding, james kirke.--slavery in the united states. by j. k. paulding. new york: published by harper & brothers . . . . _ mo, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--the old continental; or, the price of liberty. by the author of "the dutchman's fireside," &c., &c. . . . new york: paine and burgess, . . . . _ mo, two volumes in one, original cloth._ first edition. paulding, james and william.--american comedies. by j. k. paulding, . . . and william irving paulding. contents. the bucktails, or americans in england. the noble exile. madmen all, or the cure of love. antipathies, or the enthusiasts by the ears. philadelphia: carey and hart. . _ vo, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. of the four comedies, three are by j. k. paulding. paulding, james kirke.--the puritan and his daughter. by j. k. paulding, . . . new york, baker and scribner, . . . . _ vo, two volumes in one, cloth._ first edition. paulding, james kirke.--literary life of james k. paulding. compiled by his son william i. paulding. new york: charles scribner and company. . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. includes unpublished letters and hitherto uncollected sketches. portrait by halpin after wood. paulding, james kirke.--the bulls and the jonathans; comprising john bull and brother jonathan and john bull in america. by james k. paulding. edited by william i. paulding. new york: charles scribner and company. . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ paulding, james kirke.--tales of the good woman. by a doubtful gentleman: otherwise, james k. paulding. edited by william i. paulding. new york: charles scribner and company. . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ paulding, james kirke.--a book of vagaries; comprising the new mirror for travellers and other whim-whams: being selections from the papers of a retired common-councilman erewhile known as launcelot langstaff, and, in the public records, as james k. paulding. edited by william i. paulding. new york: charles scribner and company. . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ paulding, james kirke.--see irving, washington. payn, james.--poems. by james payn . . . cambridge: macmillan & co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. payne, john.--the masque of shadows and other poems by john payne. london basil montagu pickering . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ payne, john.--intaglios. sonnets by john payne . . . london basil montagu pickering . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ payne, john.--new poems by john payne london: newman and co . . . . _crown vo, cloth._ payne, john, _translator_.--the book of the thousand nights and one night: now first completely done into english prose and verse, from the original arabic, by john payne . . . london: m dccc lxxxii: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _ vo, nine volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of five hundred large paper copies printed. payne, john, _translator_.--tales from the arabic of the breslau and calcutta ( - ) editions of the book of the thousand nights and one night not occurring in the other printed texts of the work, now first done into english by john payne. . . . london: m dccc lxxxiv: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _ vo, three volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, no. . payne, john, _translator_.--alaeddin and the enchanted lamp; zein ul asnam and the king of the jinn: two stories done into english from the recently discovered arabic text by john payne. london: m dccc lxxxix: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _royal vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, no. . payne, john.--see villon, françois. payne and foss, _editors_.--bibliotheca grenvilliana; or bibliographical notices of rare and curious books, forming part of the library of the right hon. thomas grenville: by john thomas payne and henry foss. . . . london: printed by william nicol, shakspeare press, . . . . [- ] _imperial vo, four volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. volume iii, called "part the second printed by order of the trustees," is dated ; volume iv, "part the third," "printed by order of the trustees," , chiswick press, contains a bust portrait of grenville. payne, john howard.--lispings of the muse: a selection from juvenile poems, chiefly written at and before the age of sixteen, by john howard payne . . . printed as a testimony of regard from the author to his personal friends (london: . . . richard and arthur taylor . . .) . _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. payne, john howard.--(i.) thèrése the orphan of geneva, a drama, in three acts: freely translated from the french, altered and adapted to the english stage; by john howard payne new york: published by thomas longworth . . . w. grattan, printer. may, . (ii.) accusation; or, the family of d'anglade: a melo drama in three acts, from the french, with alterations by john howard payne. represented with great applause at the royal drury-lane and boston theatres. boston: published by west, richardson & lord . . . and printed by j. h. a. frost . . . . _ mo, two volumes in one, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, edges entirely untrimmed, by rivière._ first editions. peacock, thomas love.--the genius of the thames: a lyrical poem, in two parts. by thomas love peacock.   london: printed for t. hookham, jun. &c . . . . _ vo, morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. peacock, thomas love.--paper money lyrics, and other poems. [only copies printed: not for sale.] london: printed by c. and w. reynell . . . . _small vo, green morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ manuscript additions and corrections by the author, and the original covers preserved. pearce, william.--the midnight wanderers: a comic opera. in two acts. performed at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. written by mr. pearce, author of hartford bridge. . . . london: printed for t. n. longman, . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. peckard, peter.--memoirs of the life of mr. nicholas ferrar. by p. peckard . . . cambridge, printed by j. archdeacon . . . mdccxc. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ first edition. portrait of ferrar by tomkins after johnson. [pelham, henry.]--an ode on the death of mr. pelham. . . . london, printed: and sold by m. cooper . . . m dcc liv. . . . _folio, cloth, by the club bindery. bound with two other works._ pellatt, apsley.--curiosities of glass making: with details of the processes and productions of ancient and modern ornamental glass manufacture. by apsley pellatt. london: david bogue, . . . mdcccxlix. _ to, original cloth, uncut edges._ six coloured plates and numerous woodcut illustrations. pembroke, henry herbert, earl of.--a method of breaking horses, and teaching soldiers to ride, designed for the use of the army, by henry [herbert] earl of pembroke . . . london: printed by j. hughs . . . mdcc.lxi. _small vo, contemporary green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ first edition. plates. from the collection of lord george lennox. penn, richard.--maxims and hints on angling, chess, shooting, and other matters; also, miseries of fishing. with wood-cuts. by richard penn, esq., f.r.s. a new edition, enlarged. london: john murray . . . mdcccxlii. _small vo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by wilson._ twenty-five illustrations after the designs of sir francis chantrey and others. written by the great-grandson of william penn. pennant, thomas.--a tour in scotland, and voyage to the hebrides; m dcc lxxii. [vignette] chester, printed by john monk, m dcc lxxiv. _ to, brown morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. engraved title and forty-four plates. pennell, h. cholmondeley, _editor_.--fishing gossip or stray leaves from the note-books of several anglers. edited by h. cholmondeley pennell . . . edinburgh: adam & charles black mdccclxvi. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece and other illustrations. pennell, h. cholmondeley.--'from grave to gay' a volume of selections from the complete poems of h. cholmondeley-pennell . . . london longmans . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ etched portrait of the author by sherwin. pennell, h. cholmondeley.--the sporting fish of great britain   with notes on ichthyology   by h. cholmondeley-pennell . . . illustrated by sixteen lithographs of fish in gold, silver, and colours. london sampson low, marston, searle, and rivington . . . [chiswick press] . . . _royal vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. pennell, joseph.--modern illustration by joseph pennell, author of "pen drawing and pen draughtsmen," etc. london: george bell & sons, [chiswick press] . . . m dcccxcv. _ vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, centre ornaments on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and twenty-five copies printed on japanese vellum. numerous illustrations after whistler, boutet de monvel, constable, bewick, wilkie, stothard, the linnells, george cruikshank, dante gabriel rossetti, and many others. percy anecdotes.--the percy anecdotes. original and select. by sholto and reuben percy . . . london: printed for j. cumberland . . . . _ mo, twenty volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ forty portraits engraved on steel. compiled by thomas byerley and joseph clinton robertson. percy society. early english poetry, ballads, and popular literature of the middle ages. edited from original manuscripts and scarce publications. . . . london. printed for the percy society, by t. richards, . . . m. dccc. xl. _crown vo, thirty volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ "percy, reuben."--see byerley, thomas. percy, thomas, bishop, _translator_.--five pieces of runic poetry translated from the islandic language . . . london: printed for r. and j. dodsley . . . mdcclxiii. _ vo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. percy, thomas, bishop.--the life of dr. oliver goldsmith: written from personal knowledge, authentic papers, and other indubitable authorities. to which are added, such select observations, from various parts of this writer's works, as may tend to recreate the fancy, improve the understanding, and amend the heart. [six lines in english] london: printed for j. swan, . . . . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges, by leighton._ first edition. perkins, charles c.--tuscan sculptors: their lives, works, and times. with illustrations [ etchings and woodcuts] from original drawings and photographs. by charles c. perkins. . . . london: longman, green, longman, roberts, & green. . _royal to, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ perkins, charles c.--italian sculptors: being a history of sculpture in northern, southern, and eastern italy. by charles c. perkins. . . . with [ ] etchings by the author, and [ ] engravings on wood from original drawings and photographs. london: longmans, green, and co. . _royal vo, half light brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ perrault, charles.--tales of passed times by mother goose. with morals. written in french by m. perrault, and englished by r. s. gent. to which is added a new one, viz. the discreet princess. the six edition, corrected, and adorned with fine cuts. london: printed for j. melvil, . . . m dcc lxiv. _small vo, purple calf, blind tooled, by clyde._ large paper copy, with nine copper-plate engravings. the text is in english and french, on opposite pages. peters, samuel a.--a general history of connecticut, from its first settlement under george fenwick, esq. to its latest period of amity with great britain; including a description of the country, and many curious and interesting anecdotes. to which is added, an appendix, wherein new and the true sources of the present rebellion in america are pointed out; together with the particular part taken by the people of connecticut in its promotion. by a gentleman of the province . . . london: printed for the author; and sold by j. bew, . . . mdcclxxxi. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, inside border, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ large paper copy of the first edition. petrarch.--fifteen sonnets of petrarch selected and translated by thomas wentworth higginson   published by houghton mifflin & company boston and new york m dcccc iii. _ mo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of four hundred and thirty large paper copies printed, with woodcut title-page printed in red ink. petronius arbiter.--see propertius. pfoundes, c.--fu-so mimi bukuro. a budget of japanese notes, by c. pfoundes. reprinted from the "japan mail." . printed and published at the "japan mail" office, yokohama, japan. _crown vo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author. philips, ambrose.--the distrest mother. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by her majesty's servants. written by mr. philips. london: printed for s. buckley . . . and j. tonson, . . . m dcc xii. _ to, dark brown calf, gilt edges._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . a translation of racine's "andromaque." dedication to the duchess of montague, prologue by steele, epilogue nominally by budgell, but actually by addison. phillips, claude.--sir joshua reynolds by claude phillips   with nine illustrations from pictures by the master . . . london   seeley and co. . . . . _royal vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. phillips, henry.--the true enjoyment of angling. by henry phillips esq. . . . london: printed by william stevens . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ subscriber's copy, one hundred printed. mezzotint portrait, proof, by dawe after knight. phillips, john.--the splendid shilling. a poem, in imitation of milton. by the author of bleinheim. [john phillips, of christ church, oxford] . . . london: printed, and sold by b. bragg, . . . . _folio, silk covers, by the club bindery._ first edition. a -a . phillips, john.--cyder. a poem. in two books . . . london: printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ vo, original calf, gilt back, with bunbury crest in the top panel._ first edition, on large paper, with frontispiece by m. van der gucht. phillips, stephen.--herod a tragedy by stephen phillips john lane london and new york . _post vo, green cloth, uncut edges._ phillips, stephen.--ulysses a drama in a prologue & three acts by stephen phillips. john lane london and new york . _post vo, green cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. phillips, stephen.--ulysses a drama in a prologue & three acts by stephen phillips   new york   the macmillan company . . . . . . _ vo, original vellum covers, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed on japanese vellum. phillips, stephen.--the sin of david by stephen phillips   london macmillan and co. . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. phillips, stephen.--the sin of david by stephen phillips . . . new york    the macmillan company . . . . _ mo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed on japanese vellum. philobiblon society. bibliographical and historical miscellanies. london: printed by charles whittingham. . [- ] _ to, fourteen volumes, brown levant morocco, doubled with russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ one of twenty-five copies printed on wove paper. phippen, francis.--see hone, william. . pickering, william.--rules and regulations of the walton and cotton club. instituted ^{th} march    revised ^{th} april &c. london . _small to, green morocco, lavishly decorated with waltonian emblems, inlaid with variegated leathers, covered with tooling, broad inside borders, inlaid and gilded, watered silk linings, gilt edges, by hayday, and one of his most elaborate examples._ cuts of fish, etc., and coloured borders. privately printed, and a very few copies issued by william pickering. this copy was a present to "j. w. k. eyton, esq. from the author, aug. . ." pilkington and fuseli.--(i.) a dictionary of painters, from the revival of the art to the present period; by the rev. m.[atthew] pilkington, a.m. a new edition, with considerable alterations, additions, an appendix, and an index, by henry fuseli, r. a. . . . london: printed by john crowder, . . . for j. johnson &c . . . . (ii.) an illustrative supplement to pilkington's dictionary of painters; consisting of biographical sketches, and one hundred and thirty-nine portraits; principally taken from the anecdotes of painting, &c. by horatio walpole, earl of orford. london: printed for john stockdale, . . . . _ to, two works in one volume, calf, gilt back, side borders._ frontispiece-portrait of fuseli by t. holloway after t. lawrence. seventy-four portraits on fifty-six plates in the first work, and sixty-three portraits on fifty-five plates in the second. pilkington and fuseli.--a dictionary of painters. . _ to, five volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, illustrated by the insertion of seven hundred and seventy-six engravings, comprising portraits of the artists and examples of their work. fully a third of the plates are in proof condition, one hundred and thirty being on india paper, and they include fine examples of engraving by dürer, goltzius, hollar, faithorne, bartolozzi, crispin de pass, edelinck, etc. pindar.--odes of pindar, with several other pieces in prose and verse, translated from the greek. to which is added a dissertation on the olympick games; together with original poems on several occasions. by gilbert west . . . london: printed for j. dodsley . . . mdcclxvi. _ mo, three volumes, citron morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ presentation copy from the princess charlotte to her sister elizabeth, with a sonnet in her autograph. portrait of pindar engraved by boitard. planchÉ, j. r.--see cunningham, planché and collier. play-bills.-- - . _folio, two volumes, cloth._ one hundred and fifty-nine play-bills, of which twenty-one are duplicates. volume i contains eighty-three bills of the drury-lane theatre, from march , --september , , with a few undated and one of february , . the seventy-six in volume ii are principally of the theatre royal in liverpool, and extend from september , --september , , with a few undated. plomer, henry r.--abstracts from the wills of english printers & stationers, from to . by henry r. plomer. london: printed for the bibliographical society, by blades, east & blades. february, . _ to, original paper covers, uncut edges._ plomer, henry r.--see duff, e. gordon. plutarch.--plutarch's lives. translated from the original greek; with notes, critical and historical; and a new life of plutarch. by j. langhorne, d. d. and w. langhorne, m. a. . . . london: printed for j. richardson and co. &c . . . . _ mo, eight volumes, half green levant morocco, uncut edges._ inserted are over fifty plates, by van der gucht, du guernier, and giles king after cheron and van der gucht. pocket book.--a little pretty pocket-book, intended for the instruction and amusement of little master tommy, and pretty miss polly. with two letters from jack the giant-killer; as also a ball and pincushion; the use of which will infallibly make tommy a good boy, and polly a good girl. to which is added, a little song-book, being a new attempt to teach children the use of the english alphabet, by way of diversion. the first worcester edition. printed at worcester, massachusetts. by isaiah thomas, and sold, wholesale and retail, at his book-store. m dcc lxxxvii. _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side compartments in gilt and mosaic of red morocco, doubled with green morocco, gilt borders, red silk guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ woodcut frontispiece, "instruction with delight," and sixty-five cuts in the text. the present copy contains the leaf of advertisement, h , and the two final blank leaves, h and h . dedicated by the editor to the parents, guardians, and nurses in the united states of america. pocket diary. xviii^{th} century. _ mo, old english red morocco, gilt back, sides covered with conventional floral ornaments and insects, silver bosses, gilt edges, with pencil and sheath._ poe, edgar allan.--the narrative of arthur gordon pym of nantucket. comprising the details of a mutiny and atrocious butchery on board the american brig grampus, on her way to the south seas, in the month of june, . with an account of the recapture of the vessel by the survivers; their shipwreck and subsequent horrible sufferings from famine; their deliverance by means of the british schooner jane guy; the brief cruise of this latter vessel in the antarctic ocean; her capture and the massacre of her crew among a group of islands in the eighty-fourth parallel of southern latitude; together with the incredible adventures and discoveries still farther south to which that distressing calamity gave rise   new york: harper & brothers . . . . _ mo, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. poe, edgar allan.--aventures d'arthur gordon pym. eureka par edgar poe. traduction de charles baudelaire. paris, michel lévy, frères . . . . _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ poe, edgar allan, _editor_.--the conchologist's first book: or, a system of testaceous malacology, arranged expressly for the use of schools, in which the animals, according to cuvier, are given with the shells, a great number of new species added, and the whole brought up, as accurately as possible, to the present condition of the science. by edgar a. poe. with illustrations of two hundred and fifteen shells, presenting a correct type of each genus. [ plates] philadelphia: published for the author, by haswell, barrington, and haswell, . . . . _ mo, half brown morocco._ a compilation from various english sources. poe, edgar allan.--tales by edgar a. poe new york: wiley and putnam, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. poe, edgar allan.--histoires extraordinaires par edgar poe. traduction par charles baudelaire. paris, michel lévy, frères . . . . _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ poe, edgar allan.--nouvelles histoires extraordinaires par edgar poe. traduction de charles baudelaire. paris, michel lévy, frères . . . . _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ poe, edgar allan.--edgar poe. histoires extraordinaires, traduites par charles baudelaire. edition illustrée de treize gravures hors texte. paris, a. quantin . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ no. of one hundred copies printed on japan paper, with the original covers, and two states of the portrait by chifflart and etchings by wogel, on holland and japan paper, the latter proofs before letters. poe, edgar allan.--charles baudelaire. quinze histoires d'edgar poë illustrations de louis legrand. paris imprimé pour les amis des livres . . . . _royal vo, brown levant morocco, filleted back and side borders, gilt over uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by chambolle-duru._ no. of fifty copies printed with the large illustrations in two states. poe, edgar allan.--the raven and other poems. by edgar a. poe. london: wiley & putnam, . . . . _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ the first edition with the london imprint. poe, edgar allan.--the raven and other poems. by edgar a. poe. new york: wiley and putnam, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges, in a red levant morocco case._ first american edition. poe, edgar allan.--(i.-ii.) the works of the late edgar allan poe: with notices of his life and genius. by n. p. willis, j. r. lowell, and r. w. griswold . . . [portrait] new york: j. s. redfield . . . . (iii.) the literati: some honest opinions about autorial merits and demerits, with occasional words of personality. together with marginalia, suggestions, and essays. by edgar a. poe . . . with a sketch of the author by rufus wilmot griswold. new york: j. s. redfield . . . . (iv.) the works of the late edgar allan poe with a memoir by rufus wilmot griswold and notices of his life and genius by n. p. willis and j. r. lowell. redfield . . . new york. . _ mo, four volumes, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ poe, edgar allan.--the poetical works of edgar allan poe with a notice of his life and genius   by james hannay, . . . with twenty illustrations   by e. h. wehnert, james godwin, f. w. hulme, and harrison weir. london: addey and co. . . . m dccc liii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ poe, edgar allan.--the poems of edgar allan poe with an essay on his poetry by andrew lang. london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxi. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with frontispiece on india paper. poe, edgar allan.--tamerlane and other poems by edgar allan poe first published at boston in and now first republished from a unique copy of the original edition with a preface by richard herne shepherd london    george redway   m dccc lxxxiv. _ mo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed. poe, edgar allan.--the works of edgar allan poe with a memoir by richard henry stoddard . . . [etching] new york   george p. putnam's sons . . . [n. d.] _square vo, eight volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait, seven etched frontispieces, and vignettes on the title-pages. three hundred and fifteen copies printed. poe, edgar allan.--les cloches poème de edgar poe traduction libre d'Émile blémont avec quatre eaux-fortes de henry guérard   paris librairie de l'eau-forte . . . _ to, original paper covers, uncut edges._ one hundred holland paper copies printed, with etchings on japan paper. poe, edgar allen.--some letters of edgar allan poe to e. h. n. patterson of oquawka, illinois, with comments by eugene field   chicago   the caxton club . _ to, buckram, uncut edges._ one hundred and eighty-six copies printed on american hand-made paper. poe, edgar allan.--see leslie, eliza. the gift. lowell, j. r. the pioneer. stedman, e. c. poems.--a collection of poems in six volumes. by several hands. [vignette] london: printed by j. hughs, for r. and j. dodsley, . . . m dcc lviii. _small vo, six volumes, sprinkled calf._ fifth edition, except of volume iv, which is second, according to the half-title. vignettes, and in volume iii a plate, by grignion after hayman. some of the authors represented here, besides many comparatively unknown, are dr. johnson, shenstone, lord lansdown, gray, pope, thomson, william collins, waller, somerville, fielding, akenside, lord lyttelton, and joseph warton. poetical address.--a poetical address to the fashionable ladies of great britain. . . . london: printed for the author by t. bensley; . . . m dcc lxxx viii. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ poetical miscellanies.--see steele, sir richard. poetry.--bell's classical arrangement of fugitive poetry . . . london: printed by john bell . . . mdccxc- . _foolscap vo, eighteen volumes in nine, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ frontispieces by delatre after burney, etc. large paper copy. poetry.--inedited poetical miscellanies    - . selected from mss. chiefly in private hands, with a few explanatory and illustrative notes. printed [at the chiswick press] for private circulation. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fifty copies printed for henry huth and edited by w. carew hazlitt. the present copy has the amatory poems, thirty-two pages, of which but three copies were printed. two autograph letters inserted, from the editor, verify this detail. poets.--one hundred and seventeen illustrations to the english poets, including seven portraits. london: sharpe -' . _royal vo, two volumes, russia, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ one of six copies on india paper, proofs before letters. poet's gift.--see keese, john. poets of america.--see keese, john. pole, william.--see jeaffreson, j. c. polhemus, john.--a family souvenir. my first vacation and welcome home, with a brief biographical sketch [by john polhemus]. new york: john polhemus printing company. . _ to, half cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of the author and his presentation inscription. pollard, alfred william.--last words on the history of the title-page with notes on some colophons and twenty-seven fac-similes of title-pages by alfred w. pollard. [woodcut] london: john c. nimmo. . . . m dccc xci. _ to, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and sixty copies printed. pollard, alfred william.--early illustrated books   a history of the decoration and illustration of books in the th and th centuries by alfred w. pollard. london kegan paul, trench, trübner & co., . . . m dccc xc iii. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed: with woodcut title, frontispiece on japan paper, and fifty-eight other facsimiles. pollok, robert.--the course of time: a poem, in ten books. by robert pollok, . . . william blackwood, edinburgh: and t. cadell, london, mdcccxxvii. _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. portrait of the author, engraved by t. a. dean, proof on india paper, inserted. pomet, pierre.--a compleat history of druggs, written in french by monsieur pomet, chief druggist to the present french king; to which is added what is further observable on the same subject, from mess^{rs}. lemery, and tournefort, divided into three classes, vegetable, animal and mineral; with their use in physick, chymistry, pharmacy, and several other arts: illustrated   with above four hundred copper cutts curiously done from the life; and an explanation of their different names, places of growth, and countries from whence they are brought; the way to know the true from the false, their virtues, &c. a work of very great use and curiosity. done into english from the originals. london: printed for r. bonwicke, . . . . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ the "cutts" are on eighty-five plates. poole, john.--the comic miscellany. by john poole . . . with a portrait of the author and an illustration by phiz. london: william tegg and co., . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ poole, reginald stuart.--horæ Ægyptiacæ: or, the chronology of ancient egypt discovered from astronomical and hieroglyphic records upon its monuments; including many dates found in coeval inscriptions from the period of the building of the great pyramid to the times of the persians: and illustrations of the history of the first nineteen dynasties, shewing the order of their succession, from the monuments. by reginald stuart poole. with [ ] plates and numerous cuts. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ pope, alexander.--an essay on criticism. . . . si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti; si non, his utere mecum. horat. london: printed for w. lewis in russel-street, covent-garden; and sold by w. taylor at the ship in pater-noster-row, t. osborn in grays-inn near the walks, and j. graves in st. james's-street. m dcc xi. _ to, half morocco, red edges._ first edition. a-f in fours, title on a . pope, gay, and others.--miscellaneous poems and translations. by several hands . . . london: printed for bernard lintott . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ frontispiece engraved by kirk. contributions by pope, dryden, gay, prior, brome, etc., concluding with "the rape of the locke," the first appearance of the poem. the book is complete, although there are no pages - . pope, alexander.--the dying christian to his soul an ode, written by m^{r} pope, adapted for three voices, and the piano forte. london printed & sold, by preston, . . . [n. d.] _ to, green figured silk, by the club bindery._ three pages of music score. this poem was written in [ ], appeared in its original form in lewis's miscellany in , was altered the same year, and appeared in its present form in , vo. pope never avowed its authorship. pope, alexander.--windsor-forest. to the right honourable george lord lansdown. by mr. pope. [three lines from virgil.] london: printed for bernard lintott at the cross-keys in fleet-street. . _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. collation: title with ornament, a (verso blank). text, a -e , in twos. pages - . pope, alexander.--the rape of the lock. an heroi-comical poem. in five canto's. written by mr. pope.--a tonso est hoc nomen adepta capillo. ovid. london: printed for bernard lintott, at the cross-keys in fleetstreet. . _ vo, original covers, uncut, in silk chemise, and green levant morocco case._ first separate edition, and the earliest to contain the machinery of the sylphs. frontispiece and five plates by du bosc after du guernier. collation: title in red and black, a (verso blank). dedication to mrs. arabella fermor, a -a (verso blank). text, b -d , in eights. pages - ; misprinted, and and reversed. pope, alexander.--the rape of the lock. . _ vo, red levant morocco, back and sides elaborately tooled in compartments of mosaic in ivory, dark, and light green morocco, doubled with red morocco, gilt borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, printed upon thick paper. collation: the same as the preceding copy. pope, alexander.--the rape of the lock. an heroi-comical poem. in five canto's. written by mr. pope.--a tonso est hoc nomen adepta capillo. ovid. the second edition. london: printed for bernard lintott, at the cross-keys in fleet-street. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ frontispiece and five plates engraved by du bosc after du guernier. collation: the same as the first edition, but with no errors in pagination. pope, alexander.--the rape of the lock, an heroi-comical poem, by a. pope. adorned with plates. london: printed by c. bensley; for f. j. duroveray . . . . _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy. in addition to the plates by bartolozzi, fourteen others have been inserted, including an india proof portrait of pope, engraved by c. warren, and other proof illustrations, some in two states. collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). advertisement, a -a . poem by t. parnell to pope, b -b (verso blank). dedication to mrs. arabella fermor, b -b (verso blank). pages i-xxix. text, b -e , in eights, b , b , c , d , and e being half-titles, with versos blank. "notes, variations, and imitations," f (verso blank)-f (verso blank). pages - . pope, alexander.--the rape of the lock an heroi-comical poem in five cantos written by alexander pope embroidered with nine drawings [on japan paper] by aubrey beardsley . . . london leonard smithers [chiswick press] . . . m dccc xc vi. _ to, decorated cloth, uncut edges._ pope, alexander.--the iliad of homer. translated by mr. pope. [four lines from lucretius] london: printed by w. bowyer, for bernard lintott between the temple-gates, [- .] _folio, six volumes, pigskin, gilt and blind-tooled back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy of the original subscription edition. bust portrait by vertue, map of greece and phrygia by john senex, plan of troy and environs by l. harris, and vignettes preceding each book. volume ii is dated ; iii, ; iv, , v and vi, . pope, alexander, _translator_.--the iliad of homer, translated by a. pope. london: printed for f. j. duroveray, by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, six volumes in three, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ largest paper copy. illustrated by the portrait and twenty-four plates (each in three states) by schiavonetti, heath, isaac taylor, etc., after stothard, westall, singleton, etc., and in addition two portraits, twenty-six plates, proofs before the letters, after marillier, twenty-six other scenes to the iliad (six on india paper), bartolozzi's engraving of jupiter, and the parting of hector and andromache, coloured like a miniature. pope, alexander.--the works of mr. alexander pope. [four lines from cicero pro arch. and a large floral woodcut] london: printed by w. bowyer, for bernard lintot between the temple-gates. . _small folio, brown levant morocco, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first collected folio edition of the miscellaneous poems, in which the "elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady" and "eloisa to abelard" appear for the first time. the half-title, t , is in duplicate. collation: half-title, one leaf (verso blank). title with a large floral woodcut, one leaf (verso blank). preface, a -c (verso blank), in twos. commendatory poems to the author by the duke of buckingham, the countess of winchelsea, wycherley, fr. knapp, e. fenton, parnell, and simon harcourt, c -g (verso blank). table, g . half-title of pastorals, b (verso blank). "a discourse on pastoral poetry," b -d . pastorals, d -m . half-title of "windsor forest," n (verso blank). text, n -s (verso blank). half-title of "essay on criticism," written , t (verso blank). [duplicate leaf] text, t -z and aa -ee (verso blank). half-title of "the rape of the lock," written , ff (verso blank). dedication to mrs. arabella fermor, ff -gg (verso blank). text, gg -rr (verso blank). half-title of "the temple of fame," written , ss (verso blank). advertisement, ss (verso blank). text, tt -zz and aaa -bbb (verso blank). half-title, "january and may," bbb (verso blank). text, ccc -mmm (verso blank). half-title of "the wife of bath her prologue," nnn (verso blank). text, nnn -sss (verso blank). half-title, "sapho to phaon," ttt (verso blank). text, ttt -yyy recto. vertumnus and pomona, yyy verso-aaaa . the fable of dryope, aaaa -bbbb . half-title, "the first book of statius his thebais," cccc (verso argument). text, ccccz-nnnn (verso blank). half-title, "part of the thirteenth book of homer's odysses," oooo (verso blank). text, oooo -ssss (verso blank). half-title, "miscellanies on several occasions," ssss (verso blank). poems, tttt -fffff (verso blank). half-title, "eloisa to abelard," ggggg (verso argument). text, ggggg -lllll . pages - . pope, alexander.--the works of mr. alexander pope. [four lines from cicero pro arch, and a triangular engraved vignette] london: printed by w. bowyer, for bernard lintot between the temple-gates. . _folio, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another issue of the first edition, on large and thick paper, measuring - / by - / inches. the text is partly reset and partly printed from the same types, with title-page in red and black, different ornaments, vignettes and initials engraved by gribelin, and a portrait by vertue after jervas, which was issued separately in . collation: the same as the preceding issue, without the duplicate half-title, t . pope, alexander.--the works of alexander pope esq. in nine volumes complete. with his last corrections, additions, and improvements; as they were delivered to the editor a little before his death: together with the commentaries and notes of mr. warburton [afterwards bishop of gloucester]   london, printed for j. and p. knapton, h. lintot, j. and r. tonson, and s. draper. m dcc li. _ vo, nine volumes, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ thick paper copy of warburton's first edition: with twenty-four engravings by major after the designs of blakey, wale, and hayman. the frontispiece of volume i contains medallion portraits of pope and warburton. pope, alexander.--(i.) the works of alexander pope esq. in nine volumes, complete. with his last corrections, additions, and improvements; as they were delivered to the editor, a little before his death. together with the commentary and notes of mr. warburton. london, printed for a. millar, j. and r. tonson, h. lintot, and c. bathurst. m dcc lvii. _ vo, nine volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, citron edges._ twenty-four plates and inserted portrait by vertue. warburton's sixth edition. volume ii contains translations and imitations; iii, moral essays; iv, satires, etc.; v, the dunciad; vi, miscellaneous pieces in verse and prose: vii-ix, letters. pope, alexander.--the works of alexander pope esq . . . complete. with his last corrections, additions, and improvements; as they were delivered to the editor a little before his death. together with the notes of m^{r} warburton. london, printed for a. millar, j. and r. tonson, h. lintot, and c. bathurst mdcclxiv. _ mo, six volumes, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by c. lewis._ large paper copy, from the collection of george daniel, who wrote on the fly-leaf, "i never saw another copy" [on large paper and uncut]. in addition to the plates by grignion, several portraits have been added. pope, alexander.--oeuvres complettes d'alexandre pope, traduites en françois. nouvelle édition, revue, corrigée, augmentée du texte anglois mis à côté des meilleures pièces, & ornée de belles gravures. . . . a paris, chez la veuve duchesne, . . . m. dcc. lxxix. _crown vo, eight volumes, half red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, uncut edges._ large and thick paper copy. portrait by le beau after kneller, and fourteen plates after c. p. marillier, besides a few inserted plates in various states, and an original sepia drawing of pope. pope, alexander.--the poetical works of alexander pope. a new edition. adorned with plates. . . . london: printed for f. j. du roveray, . . . . _royal vo, six volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ largest paper copy, one of fifty printed. portrait by l. schiavonetti after e. f. burney, and nineteen illustrations by warren, fittler, neagle, heath, etc., after stothard, westall, fuseli, singleton, and others. pope, alexander.--poetical works. . _royal vo, six volumes bound in four, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ another copy, printed on largest paper. the twenty-two illustrations by warren, fittler, neagle, etc., after stothard and others are in three states: the etching, india proof before letters, and proof before the inscription. in addition, fifty-seven portraits of pope have been inserted, including two drawings, one hundred and thirty-two portraits of the chief characters mentioned, eighty-six scenes from the poems, and ten views. over seventy of the inserted plates are india proofs, and many more before the letters. the series of illustrations by marillier are often in two states, and among the rarities are two prints of st. cecilia by bartolozzi (one coloured) and the three graces, by the same engraver, a water-colour of mahomet by g. p. harding, mezzotints of wycherly, newton, pope, jane shore, and others, richelieu by faithorne, charles ii. by bouttats, charles i. by hollar, voiture by nantueil, and the penance of jane shore by scriven, india proof. pope, alexander.--the works of alexander pope, esq. in verse and prose. containing the principal notes of drs. warburton and warton: illustrations, and critical and explanatory remarks by johnson, wakefield, a. chalmers, f. s. a. and others. to which are added, now first published, some original letters, with additional observations, and memoirs of the life of the author. by the rev. william lisle bowles . . . london: printed for j. johnson . . . . _ vo, ten volumes, olive morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by lewis._ large paper copy. in addition to the regular series of twenty-one portraits and a facsimile, forty other portraits and plates have been inserted in these volumes, consisting of the series by stothard, burney, etc., artist proofs on india paper, the illustrations by marillier, some in two states, and many other proofs. pope, alexander.--the poetical works of alexander pope [with a memoir by the rev. alexander dyce, and a portrait of pope] london william pickering . _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ pope, alexander.--the works of alexander pope. new edition. including several hundred unpublished letters, and other new materials. collected in part by the late r^{t}. hon. john wilson croker. with introductions and notes. by rev. whitwell elwin. . . . with portraits and other illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . [- ] . . . _ vo, ten volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ volumes i-iv, poetry, are dated - ; volume v, life and index, ; volumes vi-x, letters, - . pope and swift.--(i.) miscellanea. in two volumes. never before published. viz. i. familiar letters written to henry cromwell esq; by mr. pope. ii. occasional poems by mr. pope, mr. cromwell, dean swift, &c. iii. letters from mr. dryden, to a lady, in the year . volume i. london: printed [by edmund curll] in the year, . price s. (ii.) miscellanea. the second volume. i. an essay upon gibing. with a project for its improvement. ii. the praise of women. done out of french. iii. an essay on the mischief of giving fortunes with women in marriage. iv. swifteana: or poems by dean swift, and several of his friends. v. laus ululæ. the praise of owls. translated from the latin, by a canary bird. london: printed in the year, . _ mo, two volumes, original calf._ first authentic edition of pope's letters. the work was advertised in _the daily post_ of august , ; the date on the title is merely a device "to protract a little longer the semblance of novelty." portrait of pope by clark and pine in volume i, and of swift by vertue in volume ii. pope and swift.--(i.) miscellanies in prose and verse. the first volume. london: printed for benjamin motte, . . . m. dcc. xxvii. (ii.) miscellanies. the second volume. london: printed for benjamin motte . . . m dcc xx vii. (iii.) miscellanies. the third volume. london: printed for benj. motte . . . , and lawton gilliver . . . . (iv.) miscellanies. the last volume. london: printed for b. motte, . . . . _ vo, four volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back._ first edition of volumes i, ii, and iv; second of volume iii. the preface is dated twickenham, may , , and signed "jonath. swift. alex. pope." the postscript following does not occur in the mo edition: "p. s. we could not resist the opportunity of improving this collection with two or three pieces on parallel subjects, written by persons of great distinction, our particular friends, for which the publick ought to thank us, and with which it was in the power of none but our selves to have obliged them." volume iii has pages, a leaf of errata, and pages - . pope, alexander.--the dunciad. an heroic poem. in three books, [woodcut of vase of flowers] dublin, printed, london reprinted for a. dodd. [may ] . _ vo, brown morocco, blind-tooled, gilt top, uncut edges._ an uncut copy of the first issue of the first edition, measuring - / by inches. "b" of thoms's list, similar to the copy in the british museum. the distinguishing marks of this first issue are the misprint, "book and the man i sing" instead of "books," page , line , and the blank page on the verso of h instead of an advertisement. three varieties of the owl frontispiece are found in the different editions; the first as in this issue, the second in that edition of which is entirely reset (page ), and the third in the variorum edition, . perhaps the simplest method of identification is by means of the legend on the scroll held by the owl. in variety no. , the second line, "dunci-" has a hyphen at the end; in no. it has not; in no. the second line is the complete word "dunciad." the owl in no. is better drawn than in no. ; the "s" in "shakesp." is a long "s" in no. , which is not the case in no. ; all the lettering in no. is smaller than in no. . the owl in no. is more like no. than no. is; "p. & k. arthur," on the book under the owl's claws in and is changed to "gildon & woolston" in no. ; "new-castle" on the back of the book next the floor in and is changed to "blackmore" in no. . the lettering in no. corresponds more nearly in size to no. than does that in no. . the present copy was once owned by jonathan richardson, the painter. collation: [signature a unlettered]. owl frontispiece, no. , a (recto blank). title with woodcut of a vase of flowers, a (verso blank). "the publisher to the reader," a -a and b . pages i-viii. half-title, "the dunciad in three books," b (verso blank). book , b -c , in fours. book ii, c -f recto. book iii, f verso-h (verso blank). pages - . pope, alexander.--the dunciad. . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ another copy, measuring - / by - / inches. pope, alexander.--(i.) the dunciad. an heroic poem. in three books. [woodcut of a vase of flowers] dublin, printed, london re-printed for a. dodd. . (ii.) a compleat key to the dunciad. /p how easily two wits agree, one finds the poem; one the key. p/ london, printed for a. dodd. . (price d.) _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with red morocco, wide border, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ second issue of the first edition. "c" of thoms's list. the distinguishing mark of this issue is on page , line (ending with "who"), where "book and the man i sing" is corrected to "books." the text was probably printed from the same forms of type as the first issue, with corrections of some, but not all, typographical irregularities; e.g., on page vii of the preface the second "i" of the roman numeral extends above the line in both issues; on page , line , of the second issue the last letter in "who" has been raised to the line, whereas in the first it is below. on page the same space exists in both issues between "f" and "i" of "first" in the running head-line; on page , line , the misprint "spirits" occurs in both issues. in the note on page "interlude" of the first issue is changed to "enterlude" in the second. in the first issue the verso of h is blank; in the second it contains an announcement: "speedily will be published the progress of dulness, an historical poem. by an eminent hand. price s. d." signature a of the first issue is not lettered; the first page of the preface in the second is lettered a . page vii of the preface in the first issue is lettered "b"; in the second issue it is unlettered, making six leaves in a, the present issue being a mo in sixes, the first an vo in fours, with corresponding alterations in signature marks. collation: i. owl frontispiece (no. ), a (recto blank). title with woodcut of a vase of flowers, a (verso blank). "the publisher to the reader," a -a . pages i-viii. half-title, a (verso blank). text, b -f (verso advertisement, "speedily will be published," etc.), in sixes. pages - . ii. title with woodcut, a (verso blank). "to the public," a -a . key, a -a and b -b . pages - . "six new books, just publish'd," b . pope, alexander.--the dunciad. an heroic poem. in three books. the second edition. dublin, printed; london, reprinted for a. dodd. . _ mo, maroon morocco, blind-tooled, gilt top, uncut edges._ "d" of thoms's list. presumably the third issue of the first edition, although the title-page says "second edition." the address from the publisher to the reader appears to have been printed from the same forms as the two preceding issues ("b" and "c" of thoms's list), because of many similarities of dropped letters and defective types. the text was probably printed from the same type reimposed to admit of the interpolation of notes, e.g., on page , "lord mayor of london" is added to the note, "sir geo. tho--"; on page , line , "and furious d--n" is changed to "d--s"; on page two notes are added, "old printers." and "§ philemon holland." on page the addition of a note of three lines necessitated the transference of two lines of text to the top of page ; "spirts," line , page , is here correctly printed, whereas in the previous issue it is "spirits." the advertisement of "the progress of dulness" on the verso of f does not occur here. lieut.-col. francis grant's copy. collation: owl frontispiece (no. ), a (recto blank). title with ornament of a vase of flowers, other flowers at the side, a (verso blank). "the publisher to the reader," a -a . pages i-viii. half-title, a (verso blank). text, b -f (verso blank), in sixes. pages - . pope, alexander.--the dunciad. an heroic poem. in three books. [square printer's ornament] dublin, printed, london reprinted for a. dodd. . _ mo, maroon morocco, blind-tooled, gilt top, uncut edges._ undescribed by thoms. another edition of , presumably the second, rather than the preceding. the type is entirely reset in the body of the work, although the same founts are used. on the title-page it is larger and of a heavier face than in the preceding edition, and the ornament is different. the "u" in "dunciad" is not symmetrical, as in the other edition, but has a straight right and a curved left side. the owl frontispiece has been re-engraved (variety no. ). the first page of the preface, a (a in the other edition), has a large, heavy capital "i" for "it," whereas the other begins with an "i" in a woodcut border. "who," the last word of the first line of the other edition, is the first word of the second line here,--the distinguishing mark of this edition. the type of the final page of advertisement is of much lighter face than in the other edition. it does not contain the additional notes on pages , , and , and the spelling of "interludes" in the note on page is preserved; therefore it was probably set up from a copy of "b" rather than "c," although the misprint "spirits," page , line , is corrected. lieut.-col. francis grant's copy. collation: title with square printer's ornament, a (verso blank). "the publisher to the reader," a -a . pages i-viii. text, a -e (verso advertisement of "the progress of dulness"), in sixes. pages - , misprinted . pope, alexander.--the dunciad, variorvm. with the prolegomena of scriblerus [vignette of ass]   london. printed for a. dod. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first complete, and author's first avowed edition. "f" of thoms's list. four varieties of the ass frontispiece are found in different editions. no. as in the present edition, no. in the first variorum vo edition, no. in the reprint of the variorum to (page x), and no. in the collected works, folio, . although the difference between nos. and is perfectly evident when the two plates are compared side by side, the details of no. are so faithfully re-engraved in no. that a definite mark of differentiation is difficult to give. in no. the spacing of the letters in "vicum" in the inscription at the left of the vignette is uneven; there is too much space between "v" and its adjacent letters. this is not so in no. . in no. , on the other hand, the "o" in "deferor" is raised above the line, as it is not in no. . perhaps the surest means is measurement; no. is inches in height; no. , - / inches. no. is much smaller and has very evidently been re-engraved. the spelling "heywood" is found here instead of "haywood," as in nos. and . in no. the caption of the paper in the right foreground is "the free briton" instead of "bakers journal," as in nos. , , and . collation: title printed from a copper-plate, with vignette of the ass, no. , one leaf (verso blank). "pieces contained in this book," a (verso blank). advertisement, a . "letter to the publisher," a -b (verso quotations). pages - . half-title, "martinus scriblerus his prolegomena to the dunciad," b (verso blank). "testimonies of authors," b -d recto. "martinus scriblerus, of the poem," d verso-e . "dunciados periocha," e -e (verso blank). half-title, "the dunciad, in three books, with notes variorum," e (verso blank). text, f -o , in fours, p -p , and q -q (verso blank). "m. scriblerus lectori," errata, q recto. index of persons, q verso-q (verso "index of author's"). half-title of appendix, r (verso "pieces contained in the appendix"). appendix, r -x (verso "a list of all our author's genuine works"). "index of things," x -x . pages - and cxix-cxxiv. addenda, one leaf (verso blank). pope, alexander.--the dunciad, variorvm. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, uncut. collation: the same as the preceding copy, excepting that it lacks the final leaf of addenda. pope, alexander.--the dunciad, variorvm. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, with the inscription on the title-page, "j. caryll. ex dono authoris." collation: the same as the preceding copy. pope, alexander.--the dunciad, variorvm. with the prolegomena of scriblerus. [vignette of the ass] london. printed for a. dob. [_sic_] . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels in floral design, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ the first octavo variorum edition. "g" of thoms's list. probably recomposed from the quarto edition, with the same fount of type. some of the errors of the preceding edition corrected and vignette of ass re-engraved. collation: title printed from a copper-plate, with vignette of ass (variety ), one leaf (verso blank). "pieces contained in this book," a (verso advertisement). "a letter to the publisher," signed william cleland, a -a and b . quotations, b recto. "martinus scriblerus his prolegomena to the dunciad" (running title, "testimonies of authors"), b verso-d , in fours. "martinus scriblerus of the poem," e -e recto. pages i-xxxvii. "dunciados periocha: or, arguments to the books," e verso-e . text, f -p (verso "m. scriblerus lectori," errata). index of persons and authors, p . pages - . half-title of appendix, a (verso "pieces contained in the appendix"). appendix, a -d (verso "a list of all our author's genuine works"). pages i-xxx. index of things, d -e . "addenda to the octavo edition," f . pope, alexander.--the dunciad, variorum, with the prolegomena of scriblerus. [engraving of the ass] london: printed and re-printed, for the booksellers in dublin, m dccxxix. _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ a reprint of the quarto variorum edition of . collation: title engraved by p. simms with vignette of the ass, variety , one leaf (verso blank). "pieces contained in this book," a (verso blank). advertisement, a -a recto. "a letter to the publisher," a verso-a and b recto. quotations, b verso-b (verso blank). half-title, b (verso blank). "testimonies of authors," b and c -c , d -d , and e -e . "martinus scriblerus, of the poem," e -e . "dunciados periocha," e -e and f (verso blank). half-title, f (verso blank). text, f -n , in alternating eights and fours, beginning with f in fours. "m. scriblerus lectori," n recto. "index of persons," n verso-n (verso "index of authors"). half-title of appendix, n (verso "pieces contained," etc.). appendix, n -r recto, ending with "a list of all our author's genuine works." q recto is blank. "index of things," r verso-s (misprinted r ). addenda, s (verso blank). pages - and - , misprinted . pope, alexander.--the dunciad. with notes variorum, and the prolegomena of scriblerus. london: printed for lawton gilliver at homer's head, against st. dunstan's church, fleetstreet, . _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ "h" of thoms's list. frontispiece of the ass and also the owl, the latter on the verso of a false title between h and h , preceding the text of the poem. collation: half-title, one leaf (verso blank). ass frontispiece, variety , a leaf (recto blank). title, a (verso blank). "pieces contained in this book," a misprinted a (verso blank). advertisement, a . "a letter to the publisher," signed william cleland and dated "st. james's dec. ," b -c . quotations, c . half-title, "martinus scriblerus his prolegomena to the dunciad," d . "testimonies of authors," d -f . "martinus scriblerus of the poem," f -g . "dunciados periocha: or, arguments to the books," g -g (verso blank). half-title, "the dunciad, in three books, with notes variorum," h (verso blank). second half-title, "the dunciad," one leaf (verso engraving of the owl, variety ). text, h -z (verso blank), in fours. index of persons, z -z (verso index of authors). half-title of appendix, aa (verso "pieces contained in the appendix"). appendix, aa -ff recto, in fours. "a list of all our author's genuine works," ff verso-ff recto. index of things, ff verso-gg . pages - , one leaf, - , and ccxxii-ccxxxii. "m. scriblerus lectori," errata, one leaf. pope, alexander.--the dunciad. with notes variorum &c. . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, printed upon large paper. collation: the same as the preceding copy, excepting that it contains no preliminary half-title. pope, alexander.--the dunciad. with notes variorum, and the prolegomena of scriblerus. the second edition, with some additional notes. london: printed for lawton gilliver at homer's head, against st. dunstan's church, fleetstreet, . _ vo, brown straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ "k" of thoms's list. this edition has many additional notes and epigrams, and seven pages (four leaves) of errata instead of two. it also contains the cancelled leaf p , with the preceding edition through gg , excepting that there is no engraving of the owl between h and h , and pages - are numbered in arabic instead of roman numerals. after page are three leaves of errata, a -a , pages - , and a fourth leaf, a , containing eight additional lines of errata. collation: ass frontispiece, no. , a (recto blank). title printed in red and black, a (verso blank). from this point on, the collation agrees with eight lines of verse ( - ) on page instead of twelve; on page the remarks consist of ten lines signed "scriblerus," which with the next two lines were cancelled in later editions. pope, alexander.--the dunciad. with notes variorum, and the prolegomena of scriblerus. written in the year, . london: printed for lawton gilliver in fleetstreet. [ ] _small vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ "l" of thoms's list. the declaration by the author, pages - , was declared before john barber, mayor, january , , and in the list of books in which the author was abused, the last two on page are dated , which makes the year of printing not earlier than . owl frontispiece, variety no. . collation: title, a (verso blank). "pieces contained," etc., a (verso blank). advertisement, a , misprinted a -a recto. "a letter to the publisher," a verso-b . quotations, b . "martinus scriblerus of the poem," b -b . "testimonies of authors," b -d , in eights. half-title, d (verso blank). text, e -o , o misprinted n . "by the author, a declaration," in black letter, dated january , , and given before john barber, mayor, p . "index of persons," p -p (verso "index of authors"). appendix, p -q recto. "index of things," q verso-r (verso blank). pages - , misprinted . pope, alexander.--[half-title] the dunciad, in three books, written in the year . with notes variorum, and the prolegomena of scriblerus. [ ] _folio, brown levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ part of pope's works, volume ii, folio, . ass vignette, no. , on f verso, and on f recto a headband engraved p. f.[ourdrinier] after w. k[ent]. collation: half-title, b (verso blank). "a letter to the publisher," a -e (verso quotations) in twos. arguments, e -f , ending with the ass vignette, no. . book i, f -i recto. book ii, i verso-o . book iii, o -s (verso blank). "by the author, a declaration," t . index, t . half-title, "martinus scriblerus," etc., u (verso blank). "martinus scriblerus his prolegomena," u -z and aa --cc . "notes variorum," cc -zz and aaa recto. appendix, aaa verso-eee recto. index to the dunciad, eee verso-fff (verso "index of the authors of the notes"). pages - , last page unnumbered. pope, alexander.--(i.) the new dunciad: as it was found in the year . with the illustrations of scriblerus and notes variorum. london: printed for t. cooper at the globe in pater-noster row. mdccxlii. [price s. and d.] (ii.) [epistles of horace] (iii.) poems and imitations of horace. by mr. pope. now first collected together. [one line from horace] london: printed for j. and p. knapton, l. gilliver, j. brindley, and r. dodsley. m dcc xxx viii. _ to, three works in one volume, contemporary red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ "o" of thoms's list. first edition of book iv of the dunciad, containing pages. the second work, the epistles, has no general title. the latin text is on the verso of the page, the english on the recto, facing each other. collation: i. half-title, "the new dunciad" a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). "to the reader," a . argument, a . book iv, b -f (verso blank), ending with four lines of errata, in fours. pages - . [epistles] half-title, "the first epistle of the first book of horace, b recto. text in latin and english, b verso-d (verso blank), ending with two tail-pieces engraved by p. fourdrinier. half-title, "the sixth epistle of the first book of horace," e recto. text, e verso-f (verso blank). pages - . half-title, "epistles of horace, imitated," a recto. advertisement, a verso-a recto. text, a verso-l (verso blank). pages - . half-title, "the first ode of the fourth book of horace," l recto. text, l verso-l (verso blank). pages - . iii. title, one leaf (verso notice). text in two dialogues, b -d (verso blank), in fours. pages - , misprinted ; misprinted . pope, alexander.--the new dunciad: as it was found in the year m dcc xli. with the illustrations of scriblerus, and notes variorum. london, printed for t. cooper at the globe in pater-noster row. m dccxlii. [price s. and d.] _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ "p" of thoms's list. second edition of book iv of the dunciad, containing pages, and lines instead of . lines - in the first edition, /p "oft her gay sister's life and spirit fled; but history and satire held their head:" p/ are here expanded into four lines, - :-- /p "but sober history restrain'd her rage, and promis'd vengeance on a barb'rous age: there sunk thalia, nerve-less, faint, and dead, had not her sister satire held her head:" p/ collation: half-title, "the new dunciad," a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). "to the reader," a . argument, a . book iv, b -g in fours. pages - . pope, alexander.--the dunciad, in four books. printed according to the complete copy found in the year . with the prolegomena of scriblerus, and notes variorum. to which are added, several notes now first publish'd, the hypercritics of aristarchus, and his dissertation on the hero of the poem. [two lines from ovid]   london, printed for m. cooper at the globe in pater-noster-row, m dcc xliii. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first complete edition. "r" of thoms's list. collation: half-title, "the dunciad," etc., lettered a (verso blank). title, a (verso announcement, "speedily will be publish'd," etc.). "advertisement to the reader," signed w. w.[arburton], a . "by authority," with royal arms, a (verso blank). half-title, "martinus scriblerus," etc., a (verso blank). quotations, a . cleland's "letter to the publisher," a (repeated)-a . "testimonies of authors," b -d verso. "martinus scriblerus of the poem," d verso-d verso. "ricardus aristarcus of the hero of the poem," d verso-e (verso "argument to book the first"). text in four books, e -z and aa -cc , in fours. half-title of appendix, dd (verso blank). appendix, dd -gg (verso blank). pages i-vi, two unnumbered leaves, ix-x, i-xxxvii, two unnumbered pages and - . author's declaration before the mayor, dd . "index of persons," dd -dd recto. "index of matters," etc., dd verso-ee . pope, alexander.--the dunciad, in four books. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ another copy, with a different collation of the preliminary leaves. collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso "speedily will be publis'd"). "by authority," a (verso blank). "advertisement to the reader," a . half-title, "martinus scriblerus," etc., one leaf (verso blank). "letter to the publisher," a -a . quotations, one leaf, numbered at the bottom of the recto and [ix]-[x] at the top. from this point on the collation follows the preceding copy. pope, alexander.--a miscellany on taste. by mr. pope, &c. viz. i. of taste in architecture. an epistle to the earl of burlington. with notes variorum, and a compleat key. ii. of mr. pope's taste in divinity, viz. the fall of man, and the first psalm. translated for the use of a young lady. iii. of mr. pope's taste of shakespeare. iv.----his satire on mrs. p----y. v. mr. congreve's fine epistle on retirement and taste. address'd to lord cobham. [two lines from gay] london: printed; and sold by g. lawton, . . . t. osborn, . . . and j. hughes. . . . . price s. _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece designed by hogarth, representing pope on a scaffolding white-washing burlington house, while the earl, as a labourer, climbs a ladder. a pirated edition of pope's fourth moral essay, "of taste," folio, . pope, alexander.--(i.) an essay on man. address'd to a friend. [henry st. john, lord bolingbroke] part i. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, be-hind the chapter-house, st. pauls. [price one shilling.] [ ] (ii.) an essay on man. in epistles to a friend. epistle ii. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, behind the chapter-house, st. paul's. [price one shilling.] (iii.) an essay on man. in epistles to a friend. epistle iii. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, behind the chapter-house, st. paul's. [price one shilling.] _folio, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ it is difficult to determine the priority of the various editions of the four epistles composing this essay. whereas there were once supposed to be only four editions, it is now generally conceded that there are ten or eleven, two of the first epistle with "part i." on the title-page, two of the first with "epistle i." on the title-page, three of the second, two of the third, and one of the fourth. no recorded investigations are sufficiently advanced to be of service, and in the matter of the numbering of the lines or neglect to number, one theory is as plausible as another. it is granted, however, that the editions of the first epistle with "part i." on the title-page were earlier printed than those bearing "epistle i." the wording of the third title-page is the same as the second, with the substitution of "epistle iii." for "epistle ii.," but they are differently set up. in the imprint of epistle ii, "j. wilford" is in lower case italics, in epistle iii in small capitals; "chapter-house" in epistle iii is in lower case italics, and not in epistle ii. in the address to the reader preceding epistle ii, pope says, "the author has been induced to publish these epistles separately for two reasons; the one, that he might not impose upon the publick too much at once of what he thinks incorrect; the other, that by this method, he might profit of its judgement on the parts, in order to make the whole less unworthy of it." collation: i. title with ornament containing two birds, a (verso blank). "to the reader," beginning "as the epistolary way of writing," etc., a . text, b -e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . ii. title with ornament containing a lion rampant, a (verso blank). "to the reader," a (verso blank). text, b -e , in twos. pages - . iii. half-title, a (verso blank). title with ornament containing an open book, a (verso blank). text, b -e , ending with "n. b. the rest of this work will be published the next winter." pages - . pope, alexander.--(i.) an essay on man. in epistles to a friend. epistle i. corrected by the author. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, be-hind the chapter-house, st. pauls. [price one shilling.] [ ] (ii.) an essay on man. in epistles to a friend. epistle ii. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, behind the chapter-house, st. paul's. [price one shilling.] (iii.) [same title as iii. in the preceding edition] (iv.) an essay on man. in epistles to a friend. epistle iv. london: printed for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces, behind the chapter-house, st. paul's. [price one shilling.] _folio, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by r. w. smith._ first edition of epistle iv. epistle i, although it contains only five lines more than in the first edition, i.e., , is considerably altered: e.g., between lines and , six lines are inserted in the present edition; lines - are here omitted, and - of the first are transposed after ; - and - in the first edition are omitted in the second; - in the second are new; in the first is omitted in the second, and in the second is new. these are a few of the alterations. in epistle ii the lines are not numbered, except line , although the number is the same as in the first edition. epistle iii is printed from the same forms of type as the first edition. collation: i. title with ornament containing a face, one leaf (verso blank). "to the reader," beginning "the author was induced to publish these epistles separately," a recto. contents, a verso-a . text, one leaf and b -d (verso blank), in twos. pages - . ii. title with ornament of a basket of fruit and flowers, a (verso blank). "to the reader," beginning "the author has been induced to publish these epistles separately," a (verso blank). text, b -e . pages - . iii. the same as iii of the first edition preceding, except that the half-title is misbound after the title. iv. title with floral ornament, a (verso blank). contents, a (verso blank). text, b -f , in twos. pages - ; misprinted . leaf of advertisement, "lately published the three former parts of an essay on man," f (verso blank). pope, alexander.--essais sur la critique et sur l'homme. par m. pope. ouvrages traduits de l'anglois en françois. nouvelle edition. . . . a londres: [chez g. smith] m dcc xxx vii. _ to, old brown morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ pope, alexander.--essai sur l'homme, par monsieur alexandre pope. traduction françoise en prose, par m^{r}. s * * * *. nouvelle edition. avec l'original anglois; ornée de figures en taille-douce [portrait of pope, engraved by will in after kneller, ] a lausanne, chez marc chapuis. m dcc lxii. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ english text and french prose translation. four full-page engravings and eight vignettes by galimard and soubeyran after delamonce, and portrait of charles frederic, margrave of baden and hachberg, engraved by will after j. f. guillibaud. pope, alexander.--an essay on man. by alexander pope, esq. a new edition. to which is prefixed a critical essay, by j. aikin, m. d. london: printed for t. cadell, jun. and w. davies, . . . . _foolscap vo, half orange levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ four plates by parker, cromek, and neagle after stothard. pope, alexander.--(i.) of the use of riches, an epistle to the right honorable allen lord bathurst. [one of pope's executors] by mr. pope. london: printed by j. wright, for lawton gilliver at homer's head against st. dunstan's church in fleetstreet, . price s. (ii.) the first satire of the second book of horace, imitated in a dialogue between alexander pope of twickenham in com. midd. esq; on the one part, and his learned council on the other. [line from horace] london: printed by l.[awton] g.[illiver] and sold by a. dodd, near temple-bar; e. nutt, at the royal exchange; and by the booksellers of london and westminster. m.dcc.xxxiii. (iii.) an epistle [of the knowledge and character of men] to the right honourable richard [temple] lord visc^{t}. cobham. by mr. pope. [six lines from horace, sat. . lib. .] london: printed for lawton gilliver, at homer's head against st. dunstan's church in fleetstreet, . [price one shilling.] (iv.) an epistle from mr. pope to dr. arbuthnot. [four lines from tully.] london: printed by j. wright for lawton gilliver at homer's head in fleetstreet, . (v.) of the characters of women: an epistle to a lady. by mr. pope. london: printed by j. wright, for lawton gilliver at homer's head against st. dunstan's church in fleetstreet, m dccxxxv. (price one shilling.) (vi.) the second epistle of the second book of horace, imitated by mr. pope. ludentis speciem dabit & torquebitur----london: printed for r. dodsley, at tully's head, in pall-mall. m. dcc. xxxvii. (price one shilling.) _folio, six works in one volume, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ first editions. the epistle to lord cobham, of the knowledge and character of men, of the characters of women, and of the use of riches are the first three of the four moral essays written in the form of epistles. in this edition of the characters of women, philomedé (henrietta, duchess of marlborough in her own right), atossa (her mother the duchess sarah), and chloe (lady suffolk) do not appear. the epistle to dr. arbuthnot is the prologue to the satires. the first satire of the second book of horace is presumably the first of four issues of the first of two editions printed in , with no defective type on the title-page, and the catch-word on page misprinted "in" for "whether." it has been asserted that there were five editions of this poem in , but an examination of various copies shows that defective type in the text occurs in the same places in four out of five instances. this would indicate that the type was actually reset only once, although variations of signature marks and marginal signs show that slight typographical changes were made as the sheets passed through the press. these, however, are not important enough to constitute new editions. the real test is in the composition of the text itself. the sheets of the four issues are the same, but on one title-page the words "price one shilling" are added after the date. it has been asserted that there are three editions of the second epistle of the second book of horace; but, on the same grounds as in the previous poem, it seems more probable that there were three issues of one edition, parts of which were possibly reset, as indicated by occasional corrections of defective type. the present issue is presumably the first, with the misprint " " for " " at the foot of page , an error corrected in the other two issues. collation: i. title with floral ornament, one leaf (verso blank). text, b -f , in twos, ending with an erratum of one line. pages - . ii. title, a (verso blank). half-title in latin, a recto. text in latin and english, a verso-e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . iii. title, one leaf (verso blank). text, b -e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . leaf of advertisement, e (verso blank). iv. title with ornament of flowers and birds, a (verso blank). advertisement, a . text, b -f , in twos. pages - , misprinted . v. title with ornament of a head, a (verso blank). advertisement, a (verso blank). text, b -d , in twos. pages - . vi. title with ornament of a vase of flowers, a (verso blank). text, a -e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . pope, alexander.--(i.) the first epistle of the first book of horace imitated. by mr. pope. london: printed for r. dodsley . . . and sold by t. cooper . . . m dcc xxx vii. (ii.) the sixth epistle of the first book of horace imitated. by mr. pope. london: printed for l. gilliver . . . m dcc xxxvii. . . . (iii.) the first epistle of the second book of horace, imitated. [line from horace] london: printed for t. cooper, . . . m. dcc. xxx vii. . . . (iv.) the second epistle of the second book of horace, . _folio, four works in one volume, cloth, by the club bindery_. first editions. no. iv is of the issue with the correct numbering of the note, , at the foot of page , and no numeral in the lower right-hand corner of the page. collations: i. title, one leaf (verso blank). half-title, b recto. text (latin on the verso, english on the recto), b verso-f (verso blank), in twos. pages - ; - misprinted - . ii. half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). second half-title, b recto. text (latin on the verso, english on the recto), b verso-e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . iii. title with large floral ornament containing figures and birds, a (verso blank). advertisement, a . text, b -g (verso blank), in twos. pages - . iv. title with ornament of a vase of flowers, a (verso blank). text, a -e (verso blank), in twos. pages - . pope, alexander.--the universal prayer. by the author of the essay on man. london: printed for r. dodsley, at tully's-head, in pall-mall. m dcc xxx viii. (price six-pence.) _folio, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery_. first edition. title and three leaves without signatures. pope, alexander.--(i.) one thousand seven hundred and thirty eight. a dialogue something like horace. by mr. pope. london: printed for t. cooper at the globe in pater-noster-row. (price one shilling.) [ ] (ii.) one thousand seven hundred and thirty eight. dialogue ii. by mr. pope. london: printed for r. dodsley at tully's head in pall-mall, m dcc xxx viii. (price one shilling.) _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery_. first editions. collation: i. half-title, a (verso blank). title with ornament of a basket of flowers, a (verso blank). text, b -d , in twos. pages - . "books lately printed for t. cooper," d (verso blank). ii. title with ornament as in i, a (verso blank). text, a -d , in twos. pages - . pope, alexander.--verses upon the late d----ss of m----. [duchess of marlborough] by mr. p----. [woodcut] london: printed for w. webb, near st. paul's, . (price sixpence.) _small folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery_. the announcement on the last page reads: "these verses are part of a poem, entitled _characters of women_. it is generally said, the d----ss gave mr. p. l. to suppress them: he took the money, yet the world sees the verses; but this is not the first instance where mr. p's practical virtue has fallen very short of those pompous professions of it he makes in his writings." collation: [no signatures] title with woodcut of a winged man with a scythe and a headless statue, one leaf (verso blank). text, two leaves, on the verso of the second, an announcement. pages - , last page unnumbered. pope, alexander, _translator_.--the odyssey of homer, translated by a. pope london: printed for f. j. du roveray, by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, six volumes in three, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford_. illustrated by the portrait and twenty-four plates by fittler and others from the designs of fuseli, smirke, singleton, burney, howard, etc., each in three states, and in addition eighteen scenes (eight on india paper) and two portraits of homer. pope, alexander. see ayre, william. dilworth, w. h. parnell, thomas. ruffhead, owen. swift, jonathan. miscellanies, . thoms, w. j. warton, joseph. young, edward. popeiana.--love's invention: or, the recreation in vogue. an excellent new ballad upon the masquerades. to the tune of, o! london is a fine town, &c. honi soit qui mal y pense. london: printed for e. curll . . . and r. francklin . . . m. dcc. xviii. . . . _ to, boards, uncut edges, by the club bindery_. pages - contain a poem, "to the ingenious mr. moore, author of the celebrated worm-powder, by mr. pope." popeiana.--the progress of dulness. by an eminent hand. which will serve for an explanation of the dunciad. . . . london: printed in the year m. dcc. xxviii. . . . _small vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery_. a poem of eight pages, "the progress of dulness. to duncan campbell," by h. stanhope, dated white-hall, june , , is followed by "observations on windsor forest, the temple of fame, and the rape of the lock," twenty-one pages, verses to the countess of warwick, two pages by j. markland, and five other pages, two of them advertisements. popeiana, - .-(i.) stowe, the gardens of the right honourable richard lord viscount cobham. address'd to mr. pope. . . . london: printed for l. gilliver . . . m dccxxx ii. . . . (ii.) a dialogue on one thousand seven hundred and thirty-eight: together with a prophetic postscript as to one thousand seven hundred and thirty-nine. london: printed for t. cooper, . . . m. dcc. xxxviii. . . . (iii.) are these things so? the previous question, from an englishman in his grotto, to a great man at court. . . . [by james miller] london: printed for t. cooper, . . . mdccxl. (iv.) the great man's answer to are these things so? in a dialogue between his honour and the englishman in his grotto. . . . by the author of are these things so. [by james miller] london: printed for t. cooper, . . . m dcc xl. (v.) yes, they are: being an answer to are these things so? the previous question from an englishman in his grotto to a great man at court. . . . london: printed for t. cooper . . . m. dcc. xl. . . . (vi.) what of that! occasion'd by a pamphlet, intitled, are these things so? and its answer, yes, they are. . . . the second edition. london: printed for t. cooper, . . . m dcc xl. . . . (vii.) they are not. . . . the third edition. london: printed for t. cooper, . . . m dccxl. . . . (viii.) pro and con. . . . london: printed for j. roberts, . . . m dcc xli. . . . _folio, eight works in one volume, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery_. popeiana.--the court dunciad. inscrib'd to the honourable mrs. fitz----ms. /p this book's a meaning, and, no doubt, ye all have wit enough to find it out. p/ london: printed for j. irons, and sold at the pamphlet-shops of london and westminster. . [price s.] _ vo, green morocco, gilt edges. bound with "spiller's jests" and three other works_. engraved frontispiece with four lines of verse beneath. george daniel's copy, with the following note on the fly-leaf: "of 'the court dunciad' i have never seen a second copy." popeiana.--a tryal of skill between a court lord, and a twickenham 'squire. inscrib'd to mr. pope. [quotation of ten lines and copper-plate vignette] london: printed and sold by j. dormer, . . . [price one shilling.] m. dcc. xxxiv. _folio, cloth, by the club bindery. bound with three other works, all popeiana._ popeiana.--sober advice from horace, to the young gentlemen about town. as deliver'd in his second sermon. imitated in the manner of m^{r} pope. together with the original text, as restored by the revd. r. bentley, doctor of divinity. and some remarks on the version. london: printed for t. boreman, . . . [ ] _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works_. the text is in latin and english. popeiana.--mr. p--pe's picture in miniature, but as like as it can stare; a poem: with notes. . . . london: printed for g. lion, . . . . (price sixpence.) _folio, cloth, by the club bindery. bound with three other works, all popeiana._ popeiana.--a plan of mr. pope's garden, as it was left at his death: with a plan and perspective view of the grotto. all taken by j. serle, his gardener. with an account of all the gems, minerals, spars, and ores of which it is composed, and from whom and whence they were sent. to which is added, a character of all his writings. london: printed for r. dodsley, . . . and sold by m. cooper . . . . [price s. d.] _ to, green morocco, uncut edges, with the original blue wrappers bound in, by the club bindery._ folded plate, "a plan of mr. pope's garden as it was left at his death. taken by mr. serle his gardener," and two other plates after serle, "a plan of the grotto" and "a perspective view of the grotto." popeiana.--a plan of mr. pope's garden. . _ to, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of three sepia, two wash, and five pencil drawings of the grotto, four engravings, and an autograph letter from pope to jonathan richardson, the painter, ending, "yours most affectionately and faithfully." popeiana.--remarks on 'squire ayre's memoirs of the life and writings of mr. pope.   in a letter to mr. edmund curl, bookseller, with authentic memoirs of the life and writings of the said e---- c--l [four lines from the dunciad] london: printed for m. cooper, . . . . _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ contains half-title. the letter is signed j. h. popeiana.--eloisa en dishabille: being a new version of that lady's celebrated epistle to abelard. ascribed to professor [richard] porson . . . . london: printed in the year m dccc xxii. _post vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed. porson, richard.--see popeiana. eloisa en dishabille. porter, george richardson.--a treatise on the origin, progressive improvement, and present state, of the manufacture, of porcelain and glass, [vignette by e. finden after h. corbould] london. printed for longman, rees, orme, brown, & green, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fifty woodcuts in the text. [portland, duke of.]--catalogue of the pictures belonging to his grace the duke of portland, at welbeck abbey, and in london m. d. ccc. lxxxxiiii. [ plates] london: printed at the chiswick press m. d. ccc. lxxxx iiii. _ to, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portraits.--a series of proof portraits and embellishments executed by first rate artists, to illustrate the best english novelists, poets, and essayists . . . got up under the direction of, and printed for, charles cooke . . . , _ vo, four volumes, old red morocco, gilt back panels and side border, gilt edges._ three hundred and forty plates, twenty-three being portraits. portraits.--physiognomical portraits. one hundred distinguished characters, from undoubted originals, engraved in the line manner by the most eminent british artists   london: published for the proprietor, [john johnson] by j. major . . . . _ to, two volumes, half purple morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ largest paper copy, proofs of the plates on india paper, including the portrait of george iv. engraved on silver by cosmo armstrong and the cancelled portraits of aremberg, michael angelo, vandyck, pitt the younger, and reynolds, and the engraver's etching of lord william russell and wolsey. potter, robert.--poems by mr. potter. london: printed for j. wilkie, . . . m dcc lxxiv. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ contains final leaf of errata. praed, winthrop mackworth.--the poetical works of winthrop mackworth praed. new and enlarged edition . . . redfield . . . new york    . _ to, two volumes, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges_. large paper copy, "editor's edition," fifty printed. pratt, samuel jackson.--the fair circassian. a tragedy. as performed at the theatre-royal, drury-lane, by the author of sympathy, a poem. london: printed for r. baldwin, . . . m dcc lxxxi. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery_. first edition. the date in "biographia dramatica" is obviously a misprint, as the play was not acted until . prayers.--the book of common prayer . . . according to the use of the church of england; together with the psalter . . . oxford, printed by t. wright and w. gill . . . m dcclxxii. _ mo, contemporary red morocco, gilt back, sides in mosaic of blue, red, and green elaborately tooled, silk linings_. prayers.--the book of common prayer, and administration of the sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies of the church, according to the use of the united church of england and ireland. with notes. illuminated: and illustrated with engravings from the works of the great painters. london: john murray, mdcccxlv. _ vo, grey velvet, back and side borders embroidered in gold and colours to simulate jewels, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ twelve inserted plates. prescott, william hickling.--history of the conquest of mexico; with a preliminary view of the ancient mexican civilization, and the life of the conqueror, hernando cortéz. by william h. prescott london: r. bentley . . . mdcccxliii. _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with three portraits, two maps, and a facsimile. prescott, william hickling.--biographical and critical miscellanies. by william h. prescott, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portrait by w. greatbatch after ames. prescott, william hickling.--history of the reign of ferdinand and isabella the catholic, of spain. by william h. prescott. . . . fourth edition revised. london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ five portraits. prescott, william hickling.--history of the conquest of peru, with a preliminary view of the civilization of the incas. by william h. prescott   london: r. bentley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first english edition. two portraits and a map. prescott, william hickling.--history of the reign of philip the second, king of spain. by william h. prescott, . . . boston: phillips, sampson, and company. . [- ] _ vo, three volumes, cloth._ first edition: with four portraits on steel by j. brown, a facsimile, and a map. prescott, william hickling.--history of the reign of philip the second, king of spain. by william h. prescott, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . [- ] _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first english edition. seven portraits by j. brown and w. greatbatch, and a facsimile. presentation copy from the author to sir archibald alison. pretender.--an authentick account of the conduct of the young chevalier, [charles james edward] from his first arrival in paris, after his defeat at culloden, to the conclusion of the peace at aix-la-chapelle. wherein the motives of his late behaviour are fully laid open and explained; with the various messages which passed between him and the french king; and many other curious and interesting particulars. never before made publick. in a letter from a gentleman residing at paris, to his friend in london. . . . the third edition. london: printed and sold by nutt . . . dodd . . . barnes . . . m,dcc,xlix. _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ pretender.--virtue in distress: or, heroism display'd. containing a succint and true relation of the politick methods taken by the court of france to save the young pretender [charles james edward] from being made a sacrifice to the late peace. also the steps taken at the congress at aix la chapelle, to frustrate any resolutions that might be formed to the prejudice of his claims and pretensions in e--d. with a just and particular account of every thing that happened before, at, and after his being arrested at paris, to his arrival at avignon. to which is added, a short narrative of the various hardships and accidents that befell him in scotland, after the battle of culloden, till his escape to france. london: printed for b. dickinson, . . . . _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ portrait of the young pretender by j. g. after l. tocqué. pretender.--the young chevalier: [charles james edward] or, a genuine narrative of all that befell that unfortunate adventurer, from his fatal defeat to his final escape, after wandering about the isles and highlands of scotland, for the space of five months, while continually pursued by his enemies, from whom all his narrow escapes are circumstantially and honestly related. the whole interspersed with many curious anecdotes of the lives and characters of the chiefs who accompanied, as well as those who abandoned him in his distresses. in particular the characters of lord lovat, and some others are cleared up, all the facts, hitherto unknown, are related on the most indisputable evidence, in the most candid manner, and every fictitious embellishment avoided. by a gentleman, who was personally acquainted not only with the scenes of action, but with many of the actors themselves. london: printed for the author, and by his appointment sold by r. griffiths . . . [n. d.] _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, red edges._ price, h.--poems on several subjects. by a land-waiter in the port of poole. . . . london: printed for t. astley, . . . m. dcc. xli. _ vo, cloth, by the club bindery._ prideaux, sarah t.--an historical sketch of bookbinding by s. t. prideaux with a chapter on early stamped bindings   by e. gordon duff. london lawrence & bullen . . . . _post vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and thirty large paper copies printed, with two illustrations. prime, william cowper.--pottery and porcelain of all times and nations with tables of factory and artists' marks for the use of collectors [with illustrations] by william c. prime . . . [coloured ornament] new york   harper and brothers, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. prior, james.--the life of oliver goldsmith, m. b. from a variety of original sources. by james prior, . . . london: john murray, . . . m dccc xxx vii. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece, goldsmith's monument, engraved by e. finden after nollekens, and facsimile. procter, bryan waller.--(i.) dramatic scenes and other poems, by barry cornwall [bryan waller procter] london. printed for c. and j. ollier . . . . (ii.) a sicilian story, with diego de montilla, and other poems. by barry cornwall   london: c. and j. ollier . . . . _ mo, two volumes in one, blue morocco, back and sides, gilt and blind-tooled, gilt edges._ first editions. procter, bryan waller.--effigies poeticæ: or the portraits of the british poets illustrated by notes biographical, critical, and poetical, [by bryan waller procter]   london: james carpenter and son, . . . mdcccxxiv. _folio, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. one hundred and forty portraits, proofs on india paper. procter, bryan waller.--english songs, and other small poems. by barry cornwall, [vignette] london: edward moxon, . . . m dcccxxxii. _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. procter, bryan waller.--charles lamb: a memoir. by barry cornwall london: edward moxon & co., . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges_. portrait of lamb by vinter after hazlitt. proctor, robert.--the printing of greek in the fifteenth century   by robert proctor printed for the bibliographical society at the oxford university press december, . _ to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ twenty-four plates. no. viii of illustrated monographs issued by the bibliographical society. proctor, robert.--see duff, e. gordon. propertius, petronius arbiter, and others.--erotica. the elegies of propertius, the satyricon of petronius arbiter, and the kisses of johannes secundus. literally translated, and accompanied by poetical versions from various sources. to which are added, the love epistles of aristænetus. translated by r. brinsley sheridan and mr. halked. edited by walter k. kelly. london: henry g. bohn, . . . m dccc liv. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ prophecy of liberty.--the prophecy of liberty: a poem. humbly inscrib'd to the right hon. robert lord romney. . . . london, printed for g. pearch, . . . and s. steare, . . . mdcclxviii. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ psalms, etc.--the psalms hymns and spiritual songs, of the old and new-testament: faithfully translated into english meeter. for the use, edification and comfort of the saints in publick and private, especially in new-england . . . the twenty-third edition. boston: printed for d. henchman . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ psalms.--the book of psalms translated by the rev. t. k. cheyne london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxiiii _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges_. large paper copy, fifty printed. puckle, james.--the club, or, a grey-cap, for a green-head, in a dialogue between father and son . . . the fourth edition, with additions. london, printed for edward symon, . . . . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ portrait of puckle by cole after closterman. puckle, james.--the club; in a dialogue between father and son [london: imprinted by j. johnson] . _royal vo, tree calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ large paper copy, with portrait of the author by bragg after vertue, and woodcuts by thurston. puglia, james ph. de.--a short extract (concerning the rights of man and titles,) from the work entitled man undeceived. written in spanish by james ph. de puglia, sworn interpreter, translated from the original by the author, and corrected by a democrat. in confutation of several theological objections produced in an aristocratical piece by walworth, against thomas paine, published in a london paper of the th of august, and in the federal gazette of the th of october last. . . . or rather mr. burke, under the name of walworth. however, the author computes him as a different writer. philadelphia: printed by johnston & justice, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ puliga, comtesse de.--madame de sévigné, her correspondents and her contemporaries. by the comtesse de puliga. london: tinsley brothers . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ two steel portraits and facsimile. punster's pocket book.--the punster's pocket-book, or the art of punning enlarged. by bernard blackmantle. . . . illustrated with numerous original designs by robert cruikshank. london: published by sherwood, gilbert, and piper . . . . _crown vo, half green morocco._ portrait of george iv. and sixteen woodcuts. pushkin, alexander.--see borrow, george. pythagorean.--memoirs of a pythagorean, in which are delineated the manners, customs, genius and polity of ancient nations, interspersed with a variety of anecdotes . . . london: printed for g. g. j. and j. robinson . . . . _ vo, three volumes in one, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ file was produced from images generously made available by the posner memorial collection (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/posner/)) transcriber's note led by the belief that the spelling and punctuation of each entry is based directly on the original title pages no intentional 'corrections' have been made to the content. the text in this e-book is as close to the original printed text as pgdp proofing and postprocessing could get it. in some entries larger spaces are used as spacers between bibliographic fields instead of punctuation. these have been retained to the best of our ability and are represented as non-breaking spaces. a catalogue of books in english later than , forming a portion of the library of robert hoe new york ex libris robert hoe volume iii catalogue volume iii one hundred copies only, including three upon imperial japanese vellum · printed by the university press, cambridge a catalogue of books in english later than forming a portion of the library of robert hoe [illustration] volume iii privately printed new york · this catalogue was compiled by carolyn shipman the catalogue quaritch, bernard.--palæography notes upon the history of writing and the medieval art of illumination by bernard quaritch extended from a lecture, delivered at a conversazione of the sette of odd volumes, at the galleries of the royal institute of painters in water colours, th december, london privately printed    . _royal vo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ no. of one hundred and ninety-nine copies printed. presentation copy from the author. quatremÈre de quincy, antoine chrysostome.--an essay on the nature, the end, and the means of imitation in the fine arts. translated from the french of m. quatremère de quincy. by j. c. kent. london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ quatremÈre de quincy, antoine chrysostome.--see duppa and quatremère de quincy. quevedo, francisco de.--the works of don francisco de quevedo. translated from the spanish. . . . illustrated with beautiful engravings. edinburgh: printed for mundell & son; . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ three frontispieces, by r. scott after a. carse. quillet, claudius.--callipædia: a poem: in four books. with some other pieces. written in latin by claudius quillet, made english by n. rowe, esq; to which is prefix'd mr. bayle's account of his life. london, printed for e. sanger . . . and e. curll . . . m. dcc. xii. _royal vo, calf, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ frontispiece engraved by m. van der gucht. possibly a large paper copy. the translators were rowe, cobb, sewell, and diaper. quillet, claudius.--callipædia: or, the art of getting beautiful children. a poem in four books. written in latin   by claudius quillet; made english by n. rowe, esq; &c. the third edition . . . london, printed, and sold by w. feales, . . . mdccxxxiii. _ mo, calf gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ four plates by van der gucht. quillinan, edward.--woodcuts and verses. [cut] kent: printed at the private press of lee priory; by john warwick. . _ to, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ one hundred copies printed with the object of exhibiting all the wood engravings and specimens of every type used at the lee priory press. the body of the book is printed on india paper, to give the woodcuts their full value. quilter, harry.--giotto by harry quilter london   sampson low, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ coloured frontispiece and twelve other plates. quin, james.--quin's jests; or, the facetious man's pocket-companion. containing every species of wit, humour, and repartee, with a compleat collection of epigrams, bon-mots, &c &c. london: printed for s. bladon, . . . m dcclxvi. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ quin, james.--the life of mr. james quin, comedian. with the history of the stage from his commencing actor to his retreat to bath. illustrated with many curious and interesting anecdotes of several persons of distinction, literature, and gallantry. to which is added, a genuine and authentic copy of his last will and testament. dedicated to david garrick, esq; london: printed for s. bladon, . . . mdcclxvi. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait of quin, an oval, engraved on copper. radcliffe, ann ward.--the italian; or, the confessional of the black penitents. a romance. by ann radcliffe, . . . [vignette] chiswick: printed by c. and c. whittingham; . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ raimbach, michael thomson scott, _editor_.--memoirs and recollections of the late abraham raimbach, esq. engraver, . . . including a memoir of sir david wilkie, r. a. edited by m. t. s. raimbach, m. a . . . london: frederick shoberl, junior, . . . . _square vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ privately printed, with medallion portrait of abraham raimbach. raimbach, michael thomson scott, _editor_.--memoirs and recollections of the late abraham raimbach, esq. engraver . . . including a memoir of sir david wilkie, r. a. edited by m. t. s. raimbach, m. a. . . . london: frederick shoberl, junior . . . . _square vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ a few copies printed, not published. the present copy contains, inserted, ninety-eight selected plates, for the most part proofs, including fine examples of raimbach's engraving and portraits of his contemporaries. ralph, james.--the fall of the earl of essex. as it is perform'd at the theatre in goodman's-fields. alter'd from the unhappy favourite of mr. banks. . . . london: printed for w. meadows, . . . and s. billingsley, . . . . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. rambler, the.--see british classics and british essayists. ramsay, allan.--original manuscripts of poems, verses, letters, poetical epistles, etc., by allan ramsay. _ to, light green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders in the manner of dérome, doubled with maroon morocco, covered with a scroll design, centre ornament of gilt and green and red mosaic, maroon silk guards, borders, gilt edges, in a rose silk chemise and maroon levant morocco case, by zaehnsdorf._ this volume consists of a title in red and black on vellum, a leaf of contents, specifying fourteen poems, and twenty-eight leaves (forty-nine full pages) of manuscript, dating from to , in addition to a mezzotint portrait of ramsay by white, and a portrait of george whitefield, the subject of one of the poems. ramsay, allan.--the gentle shepherd, a pastoral comedy: with illustrations of the scenary: an appendix, containing memoirs of david allan, the scots hogarth: besides original, and other poems connected with the illustrations: and a comprehensive glossary. to which are prefixed an authentic life of allan ramsay &c edinburgh: printed by abernethy & walker &c . _royal vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ large paper copy. portrait by carse, map, and twelve plates of scenery. ramsay, allan.--the tea-table miscellany. a collection of choice songs scots & english. by allan ramsay . . . glasgow   john crum . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ random recollections of courts and society by a cosmopolitan   london: ward and downey . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ rawlinson, george.--the five great monarchies of the ancient eastern world; or, the history, geography, and antiquities of chaldæa, assyria, babylon, media and persia, collected and illustrated from ancient and modern sources. by george rawlinson . . . london: john murray . . . [-' , ' , ' ] _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. four maps and six hundred and fifty-five woodcut illustrations. rawlinson, george.--the sixth great oriental monarchy; or the geography, history, & antiquities of parthia, collected and illustrated from ancient and modern sources by george rawlinson . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with a coloured frontispiece, four maps and plans and twenty-eight woodcut illustrations. rawlinson, george.--the seventh great oriental monarchy or the geography, history, and antiquities of the sassanian or new persian empire collected and illustrated from ancient and modern sources by george rawlinson . . . london   longmans, green, and co. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with seventy-six illustrations. rawlinson, george.--see herodotus. rawlinson, sir henry creswicke.--see herodotus. raymond, oliver.--the art of fishing on the principle of avoiding cruelty. with approved rules for fishing used during sixty years' practice, not hitherto published on any work on the subject. by the rev. oliver raymond, . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ reade, charles.--christie johnstone. a novel. by charles reade, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . . . . _crown vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--"it is never too late to mend." a matter of fact romance. by charles reade, . . . second edition. london: richard bentley . . . . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ reade, charles.--the course of true love never did run smooth. by charles reade, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . . . . _crown vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--white lies. a story. by charles reade. . . . london: trübner & co . . . . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--peg woffington. a novel. by charles reade. [frontispiece] london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ reade, charles.--peg woffington by charles reade. new york: printed for the grolier club mdccclxxxvii. _ mo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ two hundred and fifty copies printed on holland paper. reade, charles.--"love me little, love me long." by charles reade, . . . london: trübner & co., . . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--griffith gaunt; or, jealousy. by charles reade. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--a simpleton a story of the day by charles reade . . . london   chapman and hall, . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. reade, charles.--a woman-hater by charles reade, . . . william blackwood and sons   edinburgh and london   mdccclxxvii . . . _crown vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. originally published in _blackwood's magazine_. reade, charles.--the cloister and the hearth a tale of the middle ages by charles reade . . . new york   dodd, mead and company    . _crown vo, four volumes, embossed ooze calf, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed, with proof impressions of the plates on japan paper. redgrave, gilbert r.--erhard ratdolt and his work at venice   a paper read before the bibliographical society, november , , by gilbert r. redgrave. london printed for the bibliographical society at the chiswick press april . _ to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ ten plates, two of them in colours. no. of illustrated monographs issued by the bibliographical society. redgrave, richard and samuel.--a century of painters of the english school; with critical notices of their works, and an account of the progress of the art in england. by richard redgrave . . . and samuel redgrave . . . london: smith, elder and co. . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ redgrave, samuel.--a descriptive catalogue of the historical collection of water-colour paintings in the south kensington museum with an introductory notice by samuel redgrave. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, half light brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-one illustrations, some etchings, some in colour, after turner and others. reed, isaac.--see baker, reed, and jones. goldsmith and parnell. reed and cadwalader.--a reprint of the reed and cadwalader pamphlets with an appendix   [philadelphia]   mdccclxiii. _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ one hundred and ninety-nine copies printed for subscribers, including the privately printed "correspondence between william b. reed and john penington and son," not in all copies, though relating to this reprint. illustrated by the insertion of an autograph letter by william b. reed and forty-five portraits and views, including ten portraits of washington, six of reed, and many others of exceeding rarity, engraved by edwin, tiebout, b. b. e., prevost, bartolozzi, etc. reeve, clara.--see walpole, horace. reflexions on courtship and marriage.--see swift, jonathan. reid, mayne.--the white chief   a legend of northern mexico. by captain mayne reid, . . . london: david bogue, . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. repton, humphry.--odd whims; and miscellanies, by humphry repton, esq. . . . "from grave to gay, from lively to severe." [vignette by h. r. cook after repton] london: printed for william miller, . . . by w. bulmer and co. . . . . _ vo, two volumes, light brown straight-grain morocco, gilt edges._ large paper copy, with ten coloured plates by stadler after repton and h. richter. reresby, sir john.--the memoirs and travels of sir john reresby, bart. the former containing anecdotes, and secret history, of the courts of charles ii. and james ii. the latter (now first published) exhibiting a view of the governments and society in the principal states and courts of europe during the time of cromwell's usurpation. london: printed for edward jeffery, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. rescue.--the rescue. inscribed to the right honourable charles james fox. . . . london: printed for j. debrett, (successor to mr. almon,) . . . m. dcc. lxxxiii. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ reynard the fox. a renowned apologue of the middle age, reproduced in rhyme. longmans, london m.dcccxlv. _ to, purple levant morocco, back and sides in mosaic, gilt edges, by holloway._ translated from the low german "rynke der voss," bearing the name of heinrich von alkmar, by s. naylor. the title-page is printed in colours. reynard the fox.--see goethe, wolfgang a. reynolds, john.--the pioneer history of illinois, containing the discovery, in , and the history of the country to the year eighteen hundred and eighteen, when the state government was organized. by john reynolds. belleville, ill. published by n. a. randall. . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with blue morocco, wide dérome border, gilt edges, in a red morocco box, by chambolle-duru._ reynolds, sir joshua.--johnson and garrick [not published.] london: printed by nichols, son, and bentley, . . . . _ vo, calf, side panels blind-tooled, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with "dialogue between dr. johnson and mrs. knowles."_ two hundred copies privately printed and distributed by lady thomond, sir joshua's niece. reynolds, sir joshua.--the discourses of sir joshua reynolds; illustrated by explanatory notes & plates. by john burnet . . . london: james carpenter . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by j. clarke._ large paper copy, with engraved title and eleven plates, proofs on india paper. reynolds, sir joshua.--the discourses of sir joshua reynolds   edited and annotated by edmund gosse   london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxiiii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with etched portrait, proof on japan paper. reynolds, sir joshua.--see russell, john. rhymers' club.--the book of the rhymers' club   london   elkin mathews . . . . . . _small to, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. rhymers' club.--the second book of the rhymers' club. london: elkin mathews & john lane . . . . _small to, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, seventy printed. richards, george.--the declaration of independence; a poem: accompanied by odes, songs, &c. adapted to the day. . . . by a citizen of boston. printed at boston, faust's statue, no. , newbury street. mdccxciii. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with white watered silk, gilt borders, white silk guards, uncut edges, by rivière._ richardson, charles.--a new dictionary of the english language, combining explanation with etymology: and illustrated by quotations from the best authorities. the words--with those of the same family, in german, dutch and swedish, or in italian, french and spanish,--are traced to their origin. the explanations are deduced from the primitive meaning through the various usages. the quotations are arranged chronologically from the earliest period to the beginning of the present century. by charles richardson, . . . london: william pickering. . _ to, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ volume iii is the supplement, without title-page. richardson, samuel.--clarissa. or, the history of a young lady: comprehending the most important concerns of private life. and particularly shewing, the distresses that may attend the misconduct both of parent and children, in relation to marriage. published by the editor of pamela. . . . london: printed for s. richardson: and sold by a. millar, . . . j. and ja. rivington, . . . john osborn, . . . and by j. leake, . . . m. dcc. xlviii. _ mo, seven volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. richardson, samuel.--clarissa. or, the history of a young lady: comprehending the most important concerns of private life . . . the fourth edition, in which many passages and some letters are restored from the original manuscripts . . . london: printed for s. richardson . . . mdccli. _ vo, seven volumes, calf, gilt edges, by belz-niedrée._ richardson, samuel.--the history of sir charles grandison. in a series of letters published from the originals, by the editor of pamela and clarissa. in six volumes. . . . london: printed for s. richardson; and sold by c. hitch and l. hawes, . . . m. dcc.liv. _post vo, six volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ first edition. richardson, samuel.--the correspondence of samuel richardson, author of pamela, clarissa, and sir charles grandison. selected from the original manuscripts, bequeathed by him to his family, to which are prefixed, a biographical account of that author, and observations on his writings. by anna lætitia barbauld. . . . london: printed for richard phillips, . . . . . . . _ mo, six volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ two portraits by caroline watson, one of richardson after a painting by highmore, a view by t. richards, and two coloured plates (folded), one by stadler. richardson, samuel.--the works of samuel richardson. with a sketch of his life and writings, by the rev. edward mangin . . . london: printed for james carpenter . . . . _crown vo, nineteen volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ illustrated with a portrait and seventy-five inserted plates by vinkeles (proofs before letters), stothard, corbould, and burney, some in two states, the duplicates being proofs before letters or on india paper. ridley, james.--the tales of the genii: or, the delightful lessons of horam the son of asmar. translated from the persian by sir charles morell . . . london: printed for james wallis . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, citron over rough edges, by bedford._ frontispieces and twelve plates from the designs of w. m. craig. ripa, cÆsar.--iconologia: or, moral emblems, by cæsar ripa--wherein are express'd, various images of virtues, vices, passions, arts, humours, elements, and celestial bodies; as design'd by the ancient egyptians, greeks, romans, and modern italians: useful for orators, poets, painters, sculptors, and all lovers of ingenuity: illustrated with three hundred twenty-six humane figures, with their explanations; newly design'd, and engraven on copper, by i. fuller, painter, and other masters. by the care and at the charge of p. tempest. london: printed by benj. motte. mdccix. _ to, green levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by david._ frontispiece and eighty-one plates containing four figures each, excepting the cuts - , which occupy one plate. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--robin hood: a collection of all the ancient poems, songs, and ballads, now extant, relative to that celebrated english outlaw: to which are prefixed historical anecdotes of his life. london: printed for t. egerton and j. johnson, mdccxcv. _crown vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ woodcut illustrations. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--robin hood: a collection of all the ancient poems, songs, and ballads, now extant, relative to that celebrated english outlaw: to which are prefixed historical anecdotes of his life. london: printed for longman . . . . _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ re-edited from ritson's edition, with woodcuts by bewick. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--robin hood: a collection of all the ancient poems, songs, and ballads, now extant relative to that celebrated english outlaw. to which are prefixed historical anecdotes of his life. by joseph ritson, second edition. london: william pickering: . _crown vo, two volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ edited by joseph frank with additions from the manuscript of ritson and the "tale of robin hood and the monk," which had escaped ritson's notice. the illustrations to the edition of are here printed to better advantage. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--bibliotheca poetica: a catalogue of english poets, of the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth, centurys, with a short account of their works . . . london: printed by c. roworth . . . for g. and w. nicol . . . mdcccii. _crown vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ ritson, joseph, _editor_.--northern garlands. the bishopric garland; or durham minstrel: a choice collection of excellent songs. the yorkshire garland: a curious collection of old and new songs. the northumberland garland; or newcastle nightingale: a matchless collection of famous songs. the north-country chorister: an unparalleled variety of excellent songs. edited by the late joseph ritson, esq. london: printed for r. triphook, . _crown vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ the four separate titles are dated . ritson, joseph, _editor_.--gammer gurton's garland: or, the nursery parnassus. a choice collection of pretty songs and verses, for the amusement of all little good children who can neither read nor run. london: printed for r. triphook . . . . _crown vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by lewis. bound with "northern garlands" and one other work._ ritson, joseph, _editor_.--gammer gurton's garland or the nursery parnassus. a choice collection of pretty songs and verses for the amusement of all little good children who can neither read nor run. london       reprinted for hugh hopkins, glasgow    . _crown vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ one hundred copies printed. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--the caledonian muse: a chronological selection of scotish poetry from the earliest times. edited by the late joseph ritson, esq. with vignettes engraved by heath after the designs of stothard. london: printed : and now first published, by robert triphook . . . . _crown vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ silhouette portrait of ritson. ritson, joseph.--the life of king arthur: from ancient historians and authentic documents. by joseph ritson . . . london: printed for payne and foss . . . . _crown vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ ritson, joseph.--memoirs of the celts or gauls. by joseph ritson . . . london: printed for payne and foss . . . . _crown vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ contains an appendix with a dictionary of celtic words, and a bibliotheca celtica. ritson, joseph.--annals of the caledonians, picts, and scots; and of strathclyde, cumberland, galloway, and murray. by joseph ritson . . . edinburgh: printed for w. and d. laing . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half lilac levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ ritson, joseph.--letters from joseph ritson, esq. to mr. george paton to which is added, a critique by john pinkerton, esq. upon ritson's scottish songs. edinburgh: printed for john stevenson, . . . m.dccc.xxix. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ one hundred copies printed. an etched portrait of george paton at the age of sixty-four is inserted, a private plate. ritson, joseph, _editor_.--fairy tales, now first collected: to which are prefixed two dissertations: . on pygmies. . on fairies. by joseph ritson . . . london: printed for payne and foss . . . and william pickering . . . . _crown vo, half green levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ edited by mr. frank from a manuscript and prepared for the press by ritson. ritson, joseph.--the letters of joseph ritson, esq. edited chiefly from originals in the possession of his nephew. to which is prefixed a memoir of the author by sir harris nicolas . . . london: william pickering. . _crown vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ roberts, william.--the book-hunter in london   historical and other studies of collectors and collecting with numerous portraits and illustrations by w. roberts . . . london   elliot stock, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ roberts, william.--memorials of christie's a record of art sales from to by w. roberts . . . london   george bell and sons    . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. sixty-four plates and fourteen illustrations in the text. robertson, joseph clinton.--see percy anecdotes. robertson, william.--the works of wm. robertson . . . oxford, published by talboys and wheeler; and w. pickering, london   mdcccxxv. _royal vo, eight volumes, olive green morocco, gilt back and wide dentelle border on the sides, gilt edges, by lewis._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with five portraits, proofs on india paper. robin hood.--see ritson, joseph. robinson, j. c.--south kensington museum. italian sculpture of the middle ages and period of the revival of art. a descriptive catalogue of the works forming the above section of the museum, with additional illustrative notices. by j. c. robinson, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, cloth, red edges._ twenty plates. robinson, j. c.--the treasury of ornamental art. illustrations of objects of art and vertù. photographed from the originals and drawn on stone by f. bedford, with descriptive notices by j. c. robinson . . . london. pubd. by day & son . . . [n. d.] _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ seventy-one plates printed in gold and colours. rock, daniel.--textile fabrics. by the very rev. daniel rock, d.d. with numerous woodcuts. published for the committee of council on education by chapman and hall, . . . . _royal vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed on large paper, with additional illustrations. sixteen woodcuts and seven added plates, four in colour and three on india paper. rogers, samuel.--the pleasures of memory. with some other poems. by samuel rogers, esq. the seventh edition. london: printed for cadell jun. and davies . . . and dilly . . . mdccxcv. _post vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ four copper-plate engravings by heath and neagle, after designs by stothard and westall. rogers, samuel.--the pleasures of memory, with other poems. by samuel rogers, esq. a new edition london: printed by thomas bensley . . . for t. cadell, jun. and w. davies . . . . _small vo, red morocco, gilt edges._ large paper copy. illustrated by a set of seven engravings by westall, proofs on india paper, mezzotint portrait of mrs. siddons by turner, an unlettered proof portrait of rogers, by meyer after hoppner, and an autograph letter of the author, jan. , , in addition to the fifteen exquisite vignettes by stothard. from the collection of george daniel. rogers, samuel.--the pleasures of memory with other poems. by samuel rogers, esq. a new edition. london: printed by thomas bensley . . . . _foolscap vo, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt edges (with rough leaves), by matthews._ fifteen engravings by heath after the designs of stothard. rogers, samuel.--the pleasures of memory, with other poems. by samuel rogers, esq. a new edition, with engravings on wood by mr. l. clennell, from drawings by t. stothard. . . . london: printed for t. cadell . . . by t. bensley . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by holloway._ printed entirely on india paper, with an autograph letter of the author inserted. rogers, samuel.--an epistle to a friend, with other poems. by the author of "the pleasures of memory"   london: printed by r. noble, for t. cadell, junior, and w. davies . . . . _ to, olive morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by lewis._ first edition. rogers, samuel.--the voyage of columbus. a poem. [t. bensley and son, london .] _ to, red levant morocco, elaborately tooled on back and sides, gilt edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, presumably unique, with twenty-six illustrations inserted, including india proofs of the stothard woodcuts, several fine steel engravings from the designs of turner and stothard, and the portrait of rogers by meyer after hoppner, all proofs and for the most part on india paper. rogers, samuel.--poems by samuel rogers   london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies . . . by t. bensley and son . . . . _foolscap vo, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt over rough edges, by matthews._ title-page on india paper and sixty-four woodcuts by luke clennell from drawings by thomas stothard. rogers, samuel.--poems by samuel rogers . . . london: printed for t. cadell . . . . _foolscap vo, boards, uncut edges._ woodcut illustrations by stothard. rogers, samuel.--poems by samuel rogers. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . and e. moxon . . . . _crown vo, original boards, uncut edges._ the first edition to contain the seventy-three proof engravings by finden, goodall, and six others, after the designs of stothard, turner, flaxman( ), parmagiano ( ), and callot ( ). rogers, samuel.--poems. . [_crown vo_] _enlarged to two volumes to, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by matthews_. another proof copy, inlaid to quarto, and illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and twenty-six plates and an autograph letter of the author. many of the original illustrations by turner and stothard are duplicated on india paper, and a large proportion of the portraits and views inserted are first proofs. rogers, samuel.--human life, a poem. by samuel rogers. london: john murray, . . . . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition, large and thick paper copy. rogers, samuel.--italy, a poem . . . london: printed for longman. . . . [and] john murray [-' .] _small vo, two volumes in one, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition of both parts. rogers, samuel.--italy, a poem. by samuel rogers. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . . _crown vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first issue of the fourth (?) edition, but the first with the engravings by finden, goodall, wallis, and ten others after the designs of stothard, turner, vasari ( ), and captain batty ( ). the tomb on page should be on page . later issues transpose the vignettes. rogers, samuel.--italy, a poem. . [_ vo_] _extended to two volumes, to, blue levant morocco, back and sides covered with a typical grolier pattern, gilt edges, by david_. another copy, inlaid on whatman paper to quarto size, with one hundred and ninety-two inserted plates, including double and triple states of the turner and stothard illustrations, scenes and views, proofs on india paper, and numerous portraits. an immaculate collection of proofs and engraver's etchings. rogers, samuel.--italy, a poem. by samuel rogers. london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ woodcut illustrations by t. stothard. rogers, samuel.--recollections of the table-talk of samuel rogers. to which is added porsoniana. [by the rev. alexander dyce]   london: edward moxon . . . mdccclvi. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. rogers, samuel.--recollections. by samuel rogers. second edition. [edited by william sharpe] london: longman, green, longman, and roberts, . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ roget, peter mark.--animal and vegetable physiology considered with reference to natural theology by peter mark roget, m. d. . . . third edition with numerous additions and emendations [ woodcuts] london william pickering    . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. . roland, george.--an introductory course of fencing. by george roland, . . . second edition. edinburgh: published by the author, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, cloth._ ronalds, alfred.--the fly-fishers entomology. illustrated by colored representations of the natural and artificial insect. and accompanied by a few observations and instructions relative to trout and grayling fishing. by alfred ronalds. with nineteen copper plates [all coloured] london: longman, &c . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ roosevelt, j. west, _editor_.--in sickness and in health   a manual of domestic medicine and surgery, hygiene, dietetics, and nursing, dealing in a practical way with the problems relating to the maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of disease, and the most effective aid in emergencies by george waldo crary, m. d.   frederic s. lee, ph. d.   josiah royce, ph. d. [nine others] and j. west roosevelt, m. d. editor   new york   d. appleton and company    . _royal vo, brown morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ four coloured plates, and numerous illustrations in the text. ropes, john codman.--the story of the civil war   a concise account of the war in the united states of america between and    by john codman ropes . . . with maps and plans . . . g. p. putnam's sons   new york . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ roscoe, thomas, _translator_.--the italian novelists: selected from the most approved authors in that language; from the earliest period down to the close of the eighteenth century: arranged in an historical and chronological series. translated from the original italian. accompanied with notes, critical and biographical. by thomas roscoe. london: printed for septimus prowett . . . . _crown vo, four volumes, half orange morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ roscoe, thomas, _translator_.--the german novelists: tales selected from ancient and modern authors in that language: from the earliest period down to the close of the eighteenth century. translated from the originals: with critical and biographical notices. by thomas roscoe. london: henry colburn . . . . _crown vo, four volumes, half orange morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ roscoe, thomas, _translator_.--the spanish novelists: a series of tales, from the earliest period to the close of the seventeenth century. translated from the originals, with critical and biographical notices by thomas roscoe   london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ roscoe, william.--the life and pontificate of leo the tenth. . . . by william roscoe. . . . [papal insignia]   liverpool: printed by j. mccreery; . . . . _ vo, four volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. four portraits by moses haughton after raffaelo, giovan bellino, and aldegrever, and woodcut vignettes. roscoe, william.--the life and pontificate of leo the tenth. by william roscoe. fourth edition. revised by his son, thomas roscoe. london: henry g. bohn . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ two portraits, and numerous woodcut illustrations. roscoe, william.--illustrations, historical and critical, of the life of lorenzo de' medici, called the magnificent; with an appendix of original and other documents. by william roscoe. london: printed for t. cadell . . . . _ vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders, with the arms of françois i, king of the two sicilies, - , on both covers, inside panels and linings of yellow silk, gilt edges._ portrait, three plates, and two engraved medals. supplementary to all preceding editions. roscoe, william.--the life of lorenzo de' medici, called the magnificent. by william roscoe. the sixth edition, corrected. london: printed for t. cadell . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue straight-grain morocco, rich gilt back and side border, arms of the medici family on both covers, yellow silk linings, gilt edges._ portrait engraved by haughton. roscoe, william stanley.--poems by william stanley roscoe   london: william pickering. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ rose, james anderson, _editor_.--a collection of engraved portraits; catalogued and exhibited by james anderson rose, at the opening of the new library and museum of the corporation of london, november, . with a preface on engraving, and on the best mode of arranging a collection of prints or engraved portraits. illustrated by a portrait of mrs. susanna rose, engraved by c. g. lewis, from the original picture by frederick sandys; and one hundred portraits produced in permanent photography. london: marcus ward and co. . _ to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of a limited number of large paper copies printed. rosebery, archibald philip primrose, lord.--napoleon the last phase london   arthur l. humphreys    . _ vo, cloth._ first edition. rosini, giovanni.--history of painting in italy illustrated by its monuments. by giovanni rosini. new [second] edition, with a list of the plates and alphabetical and topographical indexes, in english. pisa (niccolò capurro) mdcccxlviii.-lii. _ vo, seven volumes, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of rosini, four hundred and eighty-five outline engravings, and title-frontispieces in gold and colours. the body of this work is in italian. ros rosarum ex horto poetarum. dew of the ever-living rose gathered from the poets' gardens of many lands by "e. v. b."   london   elliot stock . . . . _crown vo, grey silk embroidered in a conventional design of red flowers, figured silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, with the original covers, in a figured silk case, by the club bindery._ whatman paper copy, fifty printed, with numerous woodcut illustrations. rossetti, christina georgina.--goblin market and other poems. by christina rossetti. with two designs by d. g. rossetti. cambridge macmillan and co . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. rossetti, christina georgina.--goblin market   the prince's progress and other poems by christina g. rossetti with four designs by d. g. rossetti. london   macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth._ rossetti, christina georgina.--goblin market by christina rossetti illustrated by laurence housman       macmillan & co   london. _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred and sixty printed. woodcut title-page, twelve full-page illustrations, and numerous cuts in the text. rossetti, christina georgina.--the prince's progress and other poems. by christina rossetti. with two designs by d. g. rossetti. london: macmillan and co. .   _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. rossetti, christina georgina.--a pageant and other poems by christina g. rossetti   london   macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. rossetti, dante gabriel, _translator_.--the earlier italian poets from ciullo d' alcamo to dante alighieri ( - - ) in the original metres together with dante's vita nuova translated by d. g. rossetti . . . london: smith, elder and co . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of the first volume published by rossetti. rossetti, dante gabriel, _translator and editor_.--dante and his circle: with the italian poets preceding him. ( - - ). a collection of lyrics, edited, and translated in the original metres, by dante gabriel rossetti. revised and re-arranged edition . . . london: ellis and white . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece from the edition of , inserted. this work is essentially the same as "the early italian poets." the chief difference is that the order of arrangement has been reversed, dante and his contemporaries being here placed first, and the other poets second. rossetti, dante gabriel, _translator and editor_.--dante and his circle with the italian poets preceding him ( - - )   a collection of lyrics translated in the original metres by dante gabriel rossetti . . . a new edition with preface by william m. rossetti. ellis and elvey london    . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, thirty-five printed. rossetti, dante gabriel.--poems by dante gabriel rossetti. london: f. s. ellis . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first published collected edition. rossetti, dante gabriel.--poems. . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ another copy, one of twenty-five printed on large paper. rossetti, dante gabriel.--ballads and sonnets by dante gabriel rossetti. second edition. london: ellis and white . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ rossetti, dante gabriel--ballads and sonnets by dante gabriel rossetti. london: ellis and white, . . . [chiswick press] . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ one of twenty-five copies printed on large paper. rossetti, dante gabriel.--the blessed damozel   by dante gabriel rossetti   with [ ] drawings by kenyon cox   new york: dodd, mead and company: [de vinne press] m dccc lxxxvi. _folio, decorated vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of thirty-five copies printed, with proof impressions on india paper. rossetti, dante gabriel.--the blessed damozel   by d. g. rossetti introduction by w. m. rossetti   decorations by w. b. macdougall london   duckworth & co. . _ to, grey satin, embroidered in a design of small pink flowers and foliage, green silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of sixty-five copies printed on japanese vellum. rossetti, dante gabriel.--the collected works of dante gabriel rossetti    edited with preface and notes by william m rossetti . . . ellis and scrutton london . _ vo, two volumes in four, original boards, uncut edges._ one of twenty-five copies printed on large paper. rossetti, dante gabriel.--the collected works of dante gabriel rossetti    edited with preface and notes by william m. rossetti . . . ellis and elvey london . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ rossetti, dante gabriel.--the poetical works of dante gabriel rossetti edited with preface by william m. rossetti   a new edition in one volume [etched portrait]   ellis and elvey   london . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ rossetti, dante gabriel.--sonnets and lyrical poems. by dante gabriel rossetti   [ellis & elvey, london ]   _ vo, vellum covers, uncut edges._ three hundred and ten copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. rossetti, dante gabriel.--sonnets and lyrical poems. . _ vo, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ printed upon vellum. rossetti, dante gabriel.--ballads and narrative poems by dante gabriel rossetti   [ellis & elvey, london ]   _ vo, vellum covers, uncut edges._ three hundred and ten copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. rossetti, dante gabriel.--ballads and narrative poems. . _ vo, vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ printed upon vellum. rossetti, dante gabriel.--the house of life by dante gabriel rossetti being now for the first time given in its full text. copeland and day. boston. mdcccxciv. _square vo, original japan paper covers, uncut edges._ an unauthorized edition. printed on michallat paper, fifty copies so issued, with rubricated initials and three borders designed by b. g. goodhue. in spite of the reading of the title-page, the house of life was printed in its entirety in the poems, . until the present edition was published, one of the sonnets was never thereafter printed with the cycle. rossetti, dante gabriel.--hand and soul. by dante gabriel rossetti. [colophon] [** symbol] here ends hand and soul, written by dante gabriel rossetti, and reprinted from the germ for messrs. way and williams of chicago, by william morris, at the kelmscott press, upper mall, hammersmith [** symbol] finished the th day of october, . [** symbol] sold by william morris at the kelmscott press. _ mo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ two woodcut borders. rossetti, dante gabriel.--dante gabriel rossetti   his family-letters with a memoir   by william michael rossetti . . . london   ellis and elvey    . _royal vo, two volumes, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with ten portraits and a facsimile. rossetti, dante gabriel.--see sharp, william. rossetti, maria francesca.--a shadow of dante being an essay towards studying himself, his world and his pilgrimage   by maria francesca rossetti. rivingtons . . . london   mdccclxxxiv. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ five illustrations. rossetti, william michael.--swinburne's poems and ballads. a criticism by william michael rossetti. london: john camden hotten . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. rossetti and swinburne.--notes on the royal academy exhibition, . part i. by wm. michael rossetti. part ii. by algernon c. swinburne. . . . london: john camden hotten, . . . [ ]   _ vo, paper._ rossetti, william michael.--life of john keats. by william michael rossetti. london   walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. rossetti, william michael, _editor_.--ruskin: rossetti: preraphaelitism papers to    arranged and edited by william michael rossetti . . . with [ ] illustrations   london   george allen, . . . . . . . _ to, half buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed on hand-made paper. rossetti, william michael.--see dante. rovigo, duke of.--see savary, anne-jean. rowe, nicholas.--the ambitious step-mother. a tragedy. as 't was acted at the new theatre in little-lincolns-inn-fields. by his majesty's servants. by n. rowe, esq;. [one line from ovid, four from virgil] london, printed for peter buck, . . . . _ to, dark brown calf, centre ornaments on the sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ second edition. a-l in fours, title on a . dedicated to the earl of jersey. rowe, nicholas.--tamerlane. a tragedy. as it is acted at the new theater in little lincoln's-inn-fields. by his majesty's servants   written by n. rowe esq; [three lines from virgil] london, printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -a unlettered, b -b , and b-k in fours, title on a . dedicated to william, marquis of hartington. rowe, nicholas.--the fair penitent. a tragedy. as it is acted at the new theatre in little-lincolns-inn-fields. by her majesty's servants. written by n. rowe, esq; [line from virg. Æn. lib. .] london, printed for jacob tonson, within grays-inn gate next grays-inn lane. . _ to, half maroon, straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. collation: title, a (verso blank). dedication to the duchess of ormond, a -a . prologue, a . epilogue, a . "dramatis personæ," a verso (recto blank). text, b -i recto, in fours. pages - . "books printed," i verso-i (verso "advertisement"). rowe, nicholas.--the fair penitent. . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side ornaments, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ another issue of the first edition. the title-page and text of this copy are similar to the preceding, but it contains a half-title, a , and no final advertisements, i verso and i being blank. rowe, nicholas.--ulysses. a tragedy. as it is acted at the queen's theatre in the hay-market. by her majesty's sworn servants. written by n. rowe, esq; [three lines from horace]   london, printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. two leaves (half-title and title), a-i in fours, and final leaf of advertisement. dedicated to sidney, lord godolphin. rowe, nicholas.--the royal convert. a tragedy. as it is acted at the queen's theatre in the hay-market. by her majesty's sworn servants. written by n. rowe, esq; laudatur & alget. london: printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ to, old red morocco, gilt back and sides, the halifax arms on both covers, gilt edges._ first edition. two leaves (half-title and title) and a-h in fours. the dedication copy to charles, lord halifax, with his arms on the sides. rowe, nicholas.--the tragedy of jane shore. written in imitation of shakespear's style. by n. rowe, esq; [two lines from virgil] london: printed for bernard lintott, . . . [ ] _ to, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by pratt._ first edition. a-i in fours, title on a . dedicated to the duke of queensbury. [rowe, nicholas.]--a review of the tragedy of jane shore consisting of observations on the characters, manners, stile, and sentiments. london: printed by j. roberts . . . [n. d.] _ to, olive levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ rowe, nicholas.--poems on several occasions. by n. rowe, esq; london: printed for e. curll . . . . _ to, citron levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ rowe, nicholas.--the tragedy of the lady jane gray. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by n. rowe esq; [two lines in latin] london, printed for bernard lintott . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b-k in fours, title on a . dedicated to the princess of wales. rowe, nicholas.--the works of nicholas rowe, esq; . . . london: printed for h. lintot, j. and r. tonson and s. draper mdccxlvii. _ mo, two volumes, contemporary blue morocco, back and sides richly ornamented, gilt edges._ portrait of rowe and folded plate of his monument, both engraved by vertue. rowe, nicholas.--the works of nicholas rowe, esq . . . a new edition. ornamented with copper-plates. to which is prefixed a life of the author. london: printed for w. lowndes; j. nichols; s. bladon; and w. nicoll. mdccxcii. _ mo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait of rowe and plate of his monument, four plates by du guernier, etc., also (inserted) eleven portraits of actresses in character. rowe, nicholas.--see lucan. quillet, claudius. royal family.--the royal family described, or; the character of king james i. king charles i. king charles ii. king james ii. with the pedegree of queen anne. written by the author of the rights of the king and subiect briefly stated, &c. london, printed and sold by benj. bragg, at the blue-ball in ave-mary lane. . _ to, morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery. bound with james wright's "burley on the hill" and "fortune's bounty."_ collation: title, a (verso blank). text, a -a . pages - . ruffhead, owen.--the life of alexander pope, esq. compiled from original manuscripts; with a critical essay on his writings and genius. by owen ruffhead, esq. london: printed for c. bathurst . . . mdcclxix. _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ frontispiece, pope's monument, engraved by ravenet. runic poetry.--see percy, bishop. ruskin, john.--the seven lamps of architecture. by john ruskin . . . with illustrations, drawn and etched by the author. london: smith, elder, and co. . . . . _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition: with fourteen plates. ruskin, john.--the seven lamps of architecture. . _royal vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ another copy. ruskin, john.--the seven lamps of architecture. by john ruskin . . . with illustrations drawn by the author. second edition. london: smith, elder, and co. . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ fourteen plates, carefully re-etched by cuff, the original etchings by the author not being satisfactory. ruskin, john.--the seven lamps of architecture. by john ruskin, . . . with [ ] illustrations, drawn by the author. new edition. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. [chiswick press] . _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ ruskin, john.--notes on the construction of sheepfolds. by john ruskin, . . . london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the stones of venice . . . the foundations [the sea-stories, , and the fall, .] by john ruskin . . . with illustrations drawn by the author. london: smith, elder, and co., . . . .[-' .] _royal vo, three volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with fifty-three plates, some coloured, and woodcuts. ruskin, john.--the king of the golden river; or the black brothers: a legend of stiria. illustrated by richard doyle. london: smith, elder & co., . . . mdcccli. _square vo, original boards._ first edition. frontispiece, frontispiece-title, and numerous woodcuts. ruskin, john.--lectures on architecture and painting, delivered at edinburgh in november, . by john ruskin, . . . with ( ) illustrations drawn by the author. second edition. london: smith, elder & co. . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ ruskin, john.--modern painters. . . . by john ruskin . . . london: smith, elder, and co. . . . . [-' -' ] _royal vo, five volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ volumes i and ii, dated and , are sixth and fourth editions, respectively. volumes iii-v, , , and , are first editions. illustrated with eighty-seven plates by armytage, william holl, and others after the designs of j. m. w. turner, the author, etc., and two hundred and sixteen woodcuts. ruskin, john.--the political economy of art: being the substance (with additions) of two lectures delivered at manchester, july th. and th, . by john ruskin, . . . london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the elements of drawing; in three letters to beginners. by john ruskin, . . . with illustrations, drawn by the author. london: smith, elder, & co., . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the elements of perspective arranged for the use of schools and intended to be read in connexion with the first three books of euclid. by john ruskin, . . . london   smith, elder, and co., . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the elements of perspective. . . . . _crown vo, green morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ another copy. ruskin, john.--the two paths: being lectures on art, and its application to decoration and manufacture, delivered in - . by john ruskin london: smith, elder & co., . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with two plates. ruskin, john.--sesame and lilies. two lectures delivered at manchester in , by john ruskin    . of kings' treasuries. . of queens' gardens . . . london: smith, elder & co., . . . . _post vo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the ethics of the dust: ten lectures to little housewives on the elements of crystallisation, by john ruskin . . . london: smith, elder & co. . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--the queen of the air: being a study of the greek myths of cloud and storm. by john ruskin . . . london: smith, elder & co. . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--lectures on art delivered before the university of oxford in hilary term,    by john ruskin, . . . oxford at the clarendon press m. dccc. lxx . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ruskin, john.--fors clavigera. letters to the workmen and labourers of great britain. by john ruskin, l.l.d. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. [-' ] _ vo, eight volumes, half red levant morocco, uncut edges, by carayon._ first edition of the first and second series, eighty-eight letters in all, with fifteen frontispieces and numerous text illustrations. ruskin, john.--st. mark's rest. the history of venice written for the help of the few travellers who still care for her monuments. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. [-' ] _post vo, five parts, original binding, gilt edges._ the second supplement was written by james reddie anderson and edited by ruskin. ruskin, john.--arrows of the chace   being a collection of scattered letters published chiefly in the daily newspapers,-- [ ]- by john ruskin, . . . and now edited by an oxford pupil. with preface by the author. . . . george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. [chiswick press] . . . . _ to, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ frontispiece and other illustrations. ruskin, john.--elements of english prosody for use in st. george's schools. explanatory of the various terms used in "rock honeycomb." by john ruskin, . . . george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. . _ vo, original paper covers._ ruskin, john.--notes by mr. ruskin on samuel prout and william hunt, in illustration of a loan collection of drawings exhibited at the fine art society's galleries, in - . illustrated with twenty autotypes. london: the fine art society, . . . . _folio, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ ruskin, john.--general statement explaining the nature and purposes of st. george's guild. by john ruskin, . . . george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. . _ vo, original paper covers._ ruskin, john.--poems by john ruskin. collected and edited by james osborne wright. new york: john wiley & sons. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. portrait. ruskin, john.--the art of england. lectures given in oxford, by john ruskin, . . . during his second tenure of the slade professorship. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. [ ] . _ to, cloth, uncut edges; the original parts bound together._ the lectures are six: realistic, mythic, and classic schools of painting, fairy land, the fireside, the hill-side, and appendix and index, which, with the general title, as above, is dated . the separate numbers were printed in . ruskin, john.--gold   a dialogue connected with the subject of "munera pulveris" by john ruskin edited by h. buxton forman . . . london printed by r. clay and sons limited    . _ vo, vellum paper covers, uncut edges._ one of two copies printed on japan paper. ruskin, john.--letters upon subjects of general interest from john ruskin to various correspondents. . london: privately printed. (not for sale) _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first series. very few copies of these letters were printed. this copy has, inserted, seventeen of the original letters, written and signed by ruskin. ruskin, john.--stray letters from professor ruskin to a london bibliopole    : london: privately printed (not for sale)   _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ ruskin, john.--the poetry of architecture: or, the architecture of the nations of europe considered in its association with natural scenery and natural character. by john ruskin. with illustrations by the author. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, . . . . _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ coloured frontispiece and twenty-eight other illustrations. ruskin and acland.--the oxford museum by henry w. acland, m. d. and john ruskin, m. a. honorary students of christ church   from original edition, . with additions in    george allen   london and orpington [oxford, horace hart] . _ to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. three plates, including portraits of the authors, besides a folded plan on japan paper. ruskin, john.--three letters and an essay on literature. by john ruskin. - . found in his tutor's desk . . . published by george allen, london & orpington. mdcccxciii. _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ two hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. ruskin, john.--letters from john ruskin to william ward. edited by thomas j. wise . . . london: privately printed. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ a few copies printed, with facsimile frontispiece. ruskin, john.--letters on art and literature by john ruskin. edited by thomas j. wise. london: privately printed. . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ a few copies only printed by the ashley library. ruskin, john.--verona and other lectures by john ruskin . . . with illustrations from drawings by the author   george allen, sunnyside, orpington . . . . _ to, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed, with proofs of the twelve plates on india paper. ruskin, john.--letters from john ruskin to frederick j. furnivall, m. a. hon. dr. phil. and other correspondents. edited by thomas j. wise. london: privately printed . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ thirty copies printed: with facsimile frontispiece, etc. ruskin, john.--see rossetti, william michael. russell, arthur t.--memorials of the life and works of thomas fuller d. d. by the rev. arthur t. russell . . . london william pickering . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ russell, john.--letters from a young painter abroad to his friends in england. adorned with copper plates. [four lines from ovid] . . . the second edition. london: printed for w. russel, . . . m dccl. _ vo, two volumes, tree calf, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by j. clarke._ these letters are sometimes attributed to sir joshua reynolds. the second volume is dedicated to sir john cotton, of stretton. thirteen plates, some coloured by hand, one signed by boitard. sa'di.--the gulistan or rose garden of sa'di faithfully translated into english. printed by the kama shastra society for private subscribers only. benares    . _crown vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ saint-amand, imbert de.--the women of the court of louis xv. translated from the french of imbert de saint-amand   boston   the club of odd volumes . _ to, half cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of madame de pompadour and of louis xv in two states, coloured and bistre. no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed upon holland hand-made paper. saint-amand, imbert de.--the last years of louis xv. translated from the french of imbert de saint-amand. boston   the club of odd volumes . _ to, original boards, uncut edges._ one hundred and fifty copies printed, with portrait of madame du barry in two states, in colours and bistre, and of marie antoinette in black and bistre. st. augustine.--the confessions of s. augustine in ten books   london kegan paul, trench trübner & co. ltd. m dcccc. _square vo, blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side panels of fillets and red mosaic in scroll design, the intervals thickly studded with dots, doubled with blue morocco, filleted borders, blue morocco guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ no. of thirty copies printed upon japanese vellum. title-page by clemence housman after lawrence housman, illustrations by miss housman after paul woodroffe. st. john, james augustus.--the history of the manners and customs of ancient greece. by j. a. st. john. [map] london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. saintsbury, george, _editor_.--specimens of english prose style from malory to macaulay selected and annotated with an introductory essay by george saintsbury . . . london   kegan paul, trench & co. [chiswick press] m dccc lxxxv. _ vo, paper wrappers, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. saintsbury, george.--see french lyrics. sakoontalÁ.--see kálidása. salter, thomas frederick.--the angler's guide, or complete london angler, containing the whole art of angling as practised in the rivers thames and lea, and other waters twenty miles round london, founded on actual experience: with the art of trolling for jack or pike [woodcut] . . . by t. f. salter, gent . . . london, published for the author by t. tegg . . . . _ vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. twelve woodcut illustrations, and inserted portrait of the author, a proof on india paper. sandby, william.--the history of the royal academy of arts from its foundation in to the present time. with biographical notices of all the members. by william sandby. london: longman . . . . _ vo, two volumes extended to three, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ illustrated by the insertion of two hundred and twenty-seven plates, of which fifty-three are portraits and the rest examples of the artists mentioned. the majority of these plates are proofs in various states, including some fine examples by bartolozzi. sanford, ezekiel.--the humours of eutopia: a tale of colonial times. by an eutopian. . . . philadelphia: carey, lea & carey-- . _ mo, two volumes, figured brown silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ sargent, john.--the mine: a dramatic poem. to which are added two historic odes. by john sargent, esq. the fourth edition. london: printed by w. flint . . . for t. cadell and w. davies . . . . _post vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ five plates engraved by neagle, hall, collyer, and others after the designs of stothard. sargent, john osborne.--see holmes, o. w. the harbinger. sargent, winthrop.--the life and career of major john andré adjutant-general of the british army in america. by winthrop sargent. . . . boston: ticknor and fields. mdccclxi. _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, seventy-five printed, with a steel portrait of andré by hall. sartain, john.--on the antique painting in encaustic of cleopatra discovered in . philadelphia: george gebbie & co. . _ to, cloth._ mezzotint frontispiece and twenty-four other illustrations. satchell, thomas.--see westwood, thomas. "satiricus sculptor."--see ireland, w. h. satirist.--the satirist: in imitation of the fourth satire of the first book of horace. . . . london: printed for l. g.[illiver] and sold by mrs. dodd . . . mrs. nutt, . . . m dcc xxxiii. . . . _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ saunders, james.--the compleat fisherman. being a large and particular account, of all the several ways of fishing now practised in europe; with abundance of curious secrets and niceties in the art of fishing, as well in the sea, as in lakes, meers, ponds, rivers or brooks; whether by darts, spears, harpoons, nets, hook and line, or any other way whatsoever. more particularly calculated for the sport of angling. with directions for preparing the angle rods, lines, hooks, and baits, proper for every part of the sport respectively; and also for the angler's conduct in rightly applying them. also, an account of all the principal rivers, lakes, &c. in england; and what kinds of fish are more especially found in them. collected from the best authors, and from the long experience of james saunders, esq; of newton-awbery, upon the river trent. london: printed for w. mears, . . . and s. tooke, and b. motte, . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. savage, richard, _editor_.--miscellaneous poems and translations. by several hands. publish'd by richard savage, son of the late earl rivers. . . . london: printed for samuel chapman, . . . m dcc xxvi. _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges._ large paper copy of the first edition. savage, richard.--the bastard. a poem, inscribed with all due reverence to mrs. bret, once countess of macclesfield. by richard savage, son of the late earl rivers. . . . london: printed for t. worrall, . . . . _ vo, boards, by the club bindery._ first edition. savage, richard.--the wanderer: a poem. in five canto's. by richard savage, son of the late earl rivers. . . . london: printed for j. walthoe, . . . . . . . _ vo, brown morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. savage, richard.--sir thomas overbury: a tragedy. altered from the late mr. richard savage. [by william woodfall]   as now performing at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. london: printed by william woodfall; for francis newbery, . . . m. dcc. lxx vii. . . . _ vo, red morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated by the editor to george colman. prologue by sheridan, epilogue by cumberland. a-l in fours. savage, richard.--the works of richard savage, esq. son of the earl rivers. with an account of the life and writings of the author, by samuel johnson, l.l.d. london: printed for t. evans . . . mdcclxxvii. _ vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ the title-page vignettes are supplemented by ten inserted plates, some in two states. savage, william.--practical hints on decorative printing, with illustrations engraved on wood, and printed in colours at the type press. by william savage. london: published for the proprietor, by messrs. longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . . . . _royal to, half maroon levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ coloured title-page, the arms of the earl of spencer in colour, and forty-six other illustrations, in various states. savary, anne-jean: duc de rovigo.--memoirs of the duke of rovigo, (m. savary,) written by himself: illustrative of the history of the emperor napoleon. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, eight parts in four volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ savoy, the.--the savoy   an illustrated quarterly. january    [december ]   leonard smithers. london    . _ to, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ the eight parts complete, edited by arthur symons and illustrated by aubrey beardsley. saxe, john godfrey.--clever stories of many nations. rendered in rhyme by john g. saxe. illustrated by w. l. champney. boston: ticknor and fields. . _small to, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ first edition. scarron, paul.--the comic romance of monsieur scarron, translated by oliver goldsmith. in two volumes. . . . london: printed for w. griffin, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, side borders in the manner of dérome, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ scharf, george.--see boaden, forster, and others. schiller, friedrich von.--the poems and ballads of schiller. translated by sir edward bulwer lytton . . . with a brief sketch of schiller's life. . . . william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdcccxliv. _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. schlegel, frederick.--lectures on the history of literature ancient and modern from the german of frederick schlegel   new edition   william blackwood and sons   edinburgh and london   m.dccc.xlvi. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ schliemann, henry.--troy and its remains; a narrative of researches and discoveries made on the site of ilium, and in the trojan plain. by dr. henry schliemann. translated with the author's sanction. edited by philip smith, . . . with map, plans, views, and cuts, representing objects of antiquity discovered on the site. london: john murray, . . . . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ inserted is an autograph letter from dr. schliemann. schopenhauer, arthur.--two essays by arthur schopenhauer. i. on the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason. ii. on the will in nature. a literal translation. george bell and sons, . . . [chiswick press] . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ schopenhauer, arthur.--the wisdom of life being the first part of arthur schopenhauer's aphorismen zur lebensweisheit . . . translated with a preface by t. bailey saunders, . . . second edition   london swan sonnenschein & co. . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ scientific works.--library of illustrated scientific works. . . . london: hippolyte bailliere, . . . . [- .] _ vo, thirteen volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ the contents of the volumes are as follows: i. principles of physics and meteorology. by j. muller, . ii., v. principles of the mechanics of machinery and engineering. by julius weisbach. - . iii., iv., x. chemical technology. by f. knapp, - . vi. practical treatise on the use of the microscope. by john quekett. second edition. . vii. anatomy of the external forms of man. by j. fau. . viii., xiii. elements of chemistry. by thomas graham. second edition. - . ix. architecture of the heavens. by j. p. nichol. ninth edition. . xi. manual of practical assaying. by john mitchell. second edition. . xii. introduction to cryptogamic botany. by rev. m. j. berkeley. . scott and davey.--a guide to the collector of historical documents literary manuscripts and autograph letters etc. with an index of valuable books of reference, where several thousand facsimiles of handwriting may be found for the verification of mss. and autograph letters also a new edition of wright's court-hand restored with an introductory chapter for the use of students and facsimiles of watermarks by rev. dr. scott & samuel davey . . . [with plates] london s. j. davey . . . m dccc xci. _ to, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ scott, sir walter.--the lay of the last minstrel a poem. by walter scott, esq. london: printed for longman, . . . and a. constable and co. edinburgh, by james ballantyne, . . . . _ to, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with a number of plates inserted. scott, sir walter.--the works of walter scott, esq. . . . edinburgh: printed by james ballantyne and co. for longman, hurst, rees, and orme, london; and a. constable and co. edinburgh. . _ vo, five volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ volumes i-iii contain "the minstrelsy of the scottish border," volume iv, "sir tristrem," volume v, "the lay of the last minstrel," fourth edition. the dedication in volume i is to henry, duke of buccleuch. inserted is a portrait by a. raimbach after h. raeburn; in volume iii three plates by a. smith, f. engleheart, and r. golding after westall; in volume iv an original water-colour half-title in a border, and a drawing of sir tristrem's armour in a similar border; in volume v a plate, the engraved title from the westall edition of , and seven other designs by c. heath after westall, besides nine engravings by j. heath after j. c. schetky. scott, sir walter.--marmion; a tale of flodden field. by walter scott, esq. the second edition. . . . edinburgh: printed by j. ballantyne and co. . . . . _royal vo, original boards, uncut edges._ engraved title dated , and six other plates after westall, besides three views after j. c. schetky. scott, sir walter.--the lady of the lake. a poem. by walter scott, esq. the second edition. edinburgh: printed for john ballantyne and co. . . . . _royal vo, original boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy. engraved title, dated , and six other plates by heath, anker smith, raimbach, and others after westall. scott, sir walter.--life of jonathan swift. [ ] _ to, russia._ the original manuscript entirely in scott's handwriting, with page proofs corrected, and various annotations. scott, sir walter.--novels and tales of the author of waverley. edinburgh; printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . [' ] _ vo, twelve volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first octavo edition, with engraved title-pages. illustrated by the insertion of two hundred and forty-two plates, proofs on india paper and often in two states, including proofs before letters and unfinished proofs. they embrace fourteen portraits of scott, the landscape illustrations by turner, etc., portraits of heroines and historical characters, and the series by stothard, johannot, westall, corbould, cruikshank, faed, allan, cattermole, romney, etc. scott, sir walter.--historical romances of the author of waverley. edinburgh; printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _ vo, six volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ engraved titles, and one hundred and seventy inserted plates, including the designs of westall, johannot, stothard, cruikshank, faed, landseer, corbould, leslie, etc., and many historical portraits, also six portraits of the author. the plates are proofs, some in three states; viz.: engraver's etching, and before and after letters on india paper. scott, sir walter.--quentin durward. by the author of "waverley, peveril of the peak," &c. . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. scott, sir walter.--st ronan's well. by the author of "waverley, quentin durward," &c. . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. scott, sir walter.--novels and romances of the author of waverley. edinburgh; printed for archibald constable and co. . _ vo, seven volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ engraved titles and (inserted) one hundred and twenty portraits, scenes, and views by faed, wilkie, landseer, johannot, wright, leslie, fraser, richter, etc., and seven portraits of sir walter scott. the plates are all proofs on india paper, many in duplicate, proofs before letters. scott, sir walter.--tales of the crusaders. [the betrothed & the talisman]   by the author of "waverley, quentin durward," &c. . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _crown vo, four volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first editions. scott, sir walter.--the poetical works of sir walter scott . . . edinburgh; printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _ vo, ten volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ engraved titles, and nearly one hundred inserted plates, including twenty portraits of scott and the illustrations by westall, smirke, stothard, turner, johannot, etc., for the most part proofs on india paper, many accompanied with engraver's etching, or a proof before letters. scott, sir walter.--the miscellaneous prose works of sir walter scott . . . edinburgh: printed for cadell and co. . . . . _ vo, six volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait inserted, proof on india paper. scott, sir walter.--tales and romances of the author of waverley. edinburgh; printed for cadell and c^{o} . . . [-' ] _ vo, sixteen volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ engraved titles, and one hundred and thirty inserted plates, proofs before and after letters, some in both states, on india paper, including sixteen portraits of scott, and the illustrations designed by landseer, frith, mulready, leslie, faed, johannot, slous, roberts, cattermole, cruikshank, etc. the introductions and notes form volumes and . scott, sir walter.--the life of napoleon buonaparte, emperor of the french. with a preliminary view of the french revolution. by the author of "waverley," &c. . . . edinburgh: printed by ballantyne and co. . . . . _crown vo, nine volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ first edition. scott, sir walter.--chronicles of the canongate. second series. [st. valentine's day, or the fair maid of perth]   by the author of "waverley," &c. . . . edinburgh: printed for cadell and co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. scott, sir walter.--waverley novels. edinburgh: robert cadell. . . . m dccc xlii. [xlvii] _royal vo, twelve volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ this, the abbotsford edition, was printed in london by richard clay. in addition to the portraits and views engraved on steel, it contains many hundred woodcut illustrations. a number of fine proof plates, coloured and mezzotint engravings have been added. scott, sir walter.--seventy-six vignettes, proofs on india paper, illustrating the novels and poems of sir walter scott, engraved on steel after the designs of tony and alfred johannot. _ vo, boards._ scott, sir walter.--see drama. scott, william bell.--poems by william bell scott. ballads, studies from nature, sonnets, etc. illustrated by seventeen etchings by the author and l. alma tadema. london longmans, green, and co. . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ two of the illustrations by alma tadema are in duplicate, the added plates being artist's proofs. scrope, william.--the art of deer-stalking; illustrated by a narrative of a few days' sport in the forest of atholl, with some account of the nature and habits of red deer, and a short description of the scotch forests; legends; superstitions; stories of poachers and free-booters, &c. &c. by william scrope, esq., . . . illustrated by engravings and lithographs, after paintings by edwin and charles landseer, esqrs., and by the author. london: john murray, . . . m dccc xxxviii. _royal vo, green levant morocco, emblematic back, side fillets, emblematic corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. engraved frontispiece-title and frontispiece, by thomas landseer after edwin landseer, and ten lithographs. scrope, william.--days and nights of salmon fishing in the tweed; with a short account of the natural history and habits of the salmon, instructions to sportsmen, anecdotes, etc. by william scrope, esq. . . . illustrated by [ ] lithographs and [ ] wood engravings by l. haghe, t. landseer, and s. williams, from paintings by sir david wilkie, edwin landseer, r. a., charles landseer, william simson, and edward cooke. london: john murray, . . . . _royal vo, green levant morocco, emblematic back, side fillets, emblematic corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. scudder, horace elisha.--henry oscar houghton a biographical outline by horace e. scudder [ portraits]   cambridge   printed at the riverside press m dccc xcvii. _ mo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ scudder, horace elisha.--james russell lowell a biography by horace elisha scudder . . . cambridge printed at the riverside press mcmi. _ vo, two volumes, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred and fifty large paper copies printed: with portrait. secundus nicolaÏus, joannes.--kisses: a poetical translation of the basia of joannes secundus nicolaïus. [everaerts, of the hague] with the original latin, and an essay on his life and writings. the third edition, with additions, and the epithalamium newly translated. . . . london, printed by d. bond, . . . for j. bew, . . . m dcc lxxviii. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ frontispiece by bartolozzi, and over sixty inserted plates, with few exceptions in proof state, either on india paper or before letters, by the best french and english engravers. secundus nicolaÏus, joannes.--kisses: a poetical translation of the basia of joannes secundus nicolaïus. with the original latin, and an essay of his life and writings. the fourth edition, with additions; and the epithalamium newly translated . . . london, printed by john crowder, for j. bew . . . . _ vo, half calf, uncut edges._ frontispiece and engraved title, with portrait, by bartolozzi. secundus nicolaÏus, joannes.--see propertius. seeley, leonard benton, _editor_.--mrs. thrale afterwards mrs. piozzi a sketch of her life and passages from her diaries, letters & other writings edited by l. b. seeley, . . . with nine illustrations after hogarth, reynolds, zoffany, & others   london seeley and co., . . . . _royal vo, half maroon morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. seeley, leonard benton.--see walpole, horace. segur, comte louis philippe de.--history of the expedition to russia, undertaken by the emperor napoleon, in the year . by general, count philip de segur. . . . with a map and five engravings. . . . london: treuttel and wurtz, treuttel, jun. and richter, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ segur, comte louis philippe de.--memoirs and recollections of count segur, ambassador from france to the courts of russia and prussia, &. &c. written by himself. london: printed for henry colburn, . . . . [- ] _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ portrait after j. hayter, and facsimile. segur, comte louis philippe de.--history of russia and of peter the great; by general count philip de segur, . . . london: treuttel and würtz, treuttel, jun. and richter. . . . . _ vo, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ senefelder, alois.--a complete course of lithography: containing clear and explicit instructions in all the different branches and manners of that art: accompanied by illustrative specimens of drawings. to which is prefixed a history of lithography, from its origin to the present time. by alois senefelder, . . . with a preface by frederic von schlichtegroll, . . . translated from the original german, by a. s. london: printed for r. ackermann, . . . . _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ fourteen plates, including portrait of the author. senior, william.--the thames from oxford to the tower by william senior (red spinner) illustrated with thirty original painters'-etchings   by francis s. walker, . . . london john c. nimmo . . . m dccc xci. _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and sixty large paper copies printed, with the etchings on hand-made paper. sensier, alfred.--jean-francois millet peasant and painter   translated by helena de kay from the french of alfred sensier   london   macmillan and co. . _ to, red levant morocco, filleted back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ in addition to the twenty-eight illustrations issued with this volume, twenty-five etchings have been inserted, proofs on india paper. seward, anna.--monody on major andrè. by miss seward. (author of the elegy on capt. cook.) to which are added letters addressed to her by major andrè, in the year . lichfield: printed and sold by j. jackson, for the author; sold also by robinson, pater-noster-row; cadell and evans, in the strand, london; prince, oxford; merrill, cambridge; and pratt and clinch, bath. m. dcc. lxxxi. . . . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. washington objected to the lines in which he is called a murderer, and miss seward promised him to alter them, but they were not changed in subsequent editions. the letters are said to have been the creation of the author's own imagination. seward, anna.--monody on major andrè. by miss seward. (author of the elegy on capt. cook) to which are added letters addressed to her by major andrè in the year . the second edition. litchfield: printed and sold by j. jackson, for the author; . . . m.dcc.lxxxi . . . _ to, half calf, citron edges, by bedford._ [seymour, edward.]--an abstract of the accompt of paym^{ts} made by the right honourable edward seymour esquire trea^{r} ma^{ts} navy betweene the ^{th} of july & ye ^{th} of decemb^{r} . _folio, old blue morocco, gilt back, sides covered with rich ornamentation in gold and mosaic compartments, relieved by light sprays of flowers also in gold and mosaic, gilt edges, by mearne._ a manuscript of sixty-nine pages handsomely engrossed. shadwell, charles.--the humours of the army. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by mr. shadwel. london, printed for james knapton, at the crown in st. paul's church-yard. . price s. d. _ to, half grey morocco._ first edition. a-k in fours. dedicated to major-general newton. shadwell, charles.--five new plays viz. i. the hasty wedding: or, the intriguing squire. a comedy. ii. the sham prince: or, news from passau. a comedy. iii. rotherick o'connor, king of connaught: or, the distress'd princess. a tragedy. iv. the plotting lovers: or, the dismal squire. a farce. v. irish hospitality: or, virtue rewarded. a comedy. as they are acted at the theatre-royal in dublin. written by mr. charles shadwell . . . . london: printed for a. bettesworth, . . . and sold by j. graves . . . m dcc xx. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ title and b-t in twelves. shaftesbury, anthony, earl of.--characteristicks of men, manners, opinions, times . . . by the right honourable anthony, earl of shaftesbury. the sixth edition, corrected. with the addition of a letter concerning design. [london: tonson] m.dcc.xxxvii[-viii] _ vo, three volumes, contemporary red morocco, gilt back, diamond centre panels on the sides, with a border introducing figures of birds, gilt edges._ large paper copy. portrait of the author after closterman and vignettes engraved by gribelin. shaftesbury, anthony, earl of.--characteristicks of men, manners, opinions, times. . . . by the right honourable anthony, earl of shaftesbury. the fifth edition. [vignette] birmingham: printed by john baskerville m.dcc.lxxiii. _royal vo, three volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back and side panels after the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait after closterman and vignettes engraved by gribelin. shakspeare illustrated, by an assemblage of portraits and views, adapted to the whole series of that authors historical dramas; to which are added portraits of actors, editors, &c. london, published . . . by s & e harding, . . . . _folio, half red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. engraved title-page and one hundred and forty-eight plates by bartolozzi, schiavonetti, c. knight, t. nugent, birrell, and others after reynolds, hollar, de bie, holbein, harding, trotter, and old prints. shakespeare society.--the papers of the shakespeare society: being contributions too short in themselves for separate publication. [london] printed for the shakespeare society, . . . . _ vo, four volumes in one, cloth, uncut edges._ the sub-titles to the four volumes are dated , , , and . sharp, william.--dante gabriel rossetti a record and a study by william sharp. london macmillan and co. . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. frontispiece by rossetti. sharp, william.--life of percy bysshe shelley by william sharp   london walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. sharpe, charles kirkpatrick.--etchings by charles kirkpatrick sharpe with photographs from original drawings poetical and prose fragments and a prefatory memoir   william blackwood and sons   edinburgh and london m dccc lx ix. _ to, gilt top, uncut edges._ shaw, george bernard.--cashel byron's profession. . . . by george bernard shaw. . the modern press, . . . [london] _ vo, blue morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. shaw, george bernard.--the quintessence of ibsenism: by g. bernard shaw. london: walter scott . . . _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. shaw, george bernard.--the perfect wagnerite: a commentary on the ring of the niblungs. by bernard shaw. london: grant richards, . . . . _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. shaw, george bernard.--plays: pleasant and unpleasant. by bernard shaw. the first volume, containing the three unpleasant plays. [the second volume, containing the four pleasant plays.] london: grant richards, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with portrait. shaw, george bernard.--three plays for puritans: the devil's disciple, cæsar and cleopatra, & captain brassbound's conversion. by bernard shaw. london: grant richards, . . . . _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. shaw, george bernard.--man and superman. a comedy and a philosophy. by bernard shaw. westminster: archibald constable & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. shaw, george bernard.--the common sense of municipal trading. by bernard shaw. westminster: archibald constable & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. shaw, henry.--illuminated ornaments selected from manuscripts and early printed books from the sixth to the seventeenth centuries. drawn and engraved by henry shaw. f. s. a. with descriptions by sir frederick madden, . . . london: william pickering . _royal folio, red levant morocco, with elaborate tooling on back and sides in the manner of dérome, gilt edges, by clarke & bedford._ large paper copy. forty plates of miniatures, initial letters, ornamental borders, etc., beautifully executed in gold and colours in facsimile of the originals. shaw, henry.--specimens of ancient furniture drawn from existing authorities by henry shaw f. s. a. with descriptions by sir samuel rush meyrick, . . . london. william pickering . _royal folio, uniform in binding with the preceding item._ large paper copy. seventy-four plates printed in colour. shaw, henry.--dresses and decorations of the middle ages by henry shaw . . . london, william pickering    . _imperial vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ eighty-five coloured copper-plate engravings, woodcuts, a profusion of initial letters and examples of curious ornaments. shaw, henry.--the decorative arts ecclesiastical and civil of the middle ages   by henry shaw . . . london william pickering    . _folio, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by j. wright._ one of twenty-five large paper copies printed, with forty-one plates in gold, silver, and colours. shaw, henry.--a handbook of the art of illumination, as practised during the middle ages. with a description of the metals, pigments, and processes employed by the artists at different periods. by henry shaw, . . . [ plates] london: bell and daldy, . . . . _folio, cloth, uncut edges._ shee, martin archer.--the life of sir martin archer shee, president of the royal academy, f. r. s., d. c. l. by his son martin archer shee, . . . london   longman, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ illustrated by the insertion of sixty-five plates, many proofs on india paper, and numerous examples of the artist's work, also a signed autograph letter from shee. shelley, harriet.--harriet shelley's letters to catherine nugent. london: printed for private circulation. . _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ twenty-one copies printed. shelley, mary godwin.--rambles in germany and italy, in , , and . by mrs. shelley. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxliv. _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ shelley, percy bysshe.--zastrozzi, a romance. by p. b. s. . . . london: printed by g. wilkie and j. robinson . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--st. irvyne; or, the rosicrucian: a romance. by a gentleman of oxford. london: printed for j. j. stockdale . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--st. irvyne; or, the rosicrucian. a romance. by a gentleman of oxford. london: printed for j. j. stockdale . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ shelley, percy bysshe.--queen mab; a philosophical poem: with notes. by percy bysshe shelley . . . london: printed by p. b. shelley, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. privately printed on fine paper. it is said that two hundred and fifty copies were printed, but carlisle, the publisher, said that only one hundred and eighty copies were issued, and that from these shelley himself removed the title-page and printer's name. shelley, percy bysshe.--queen mab. by percy bysshe shelley. london: printed and published by w. clark . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first published edition. thick paper copy. shelley, percy bysshe.--queen mab; a philosophical poem. by percy bysshe shelley. new york: printed by william baldwin and co . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges._ first american edition, edited by "a pantheist," with the greek, latin, and french passages translated. the editor deplores the fact that shelley's publisher was prosecuted "by an infamous junta of canting hypocrites, assuming the title of 'a society for the suppression of vice.'" engraved title. shelley, percy bysshe.--queen mab. by percy bysshe shelley. london: printed and published by r. carlile . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, rich side border, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ shelley, percy bysshe.--alastor; or, the spirit of solitude: and other poems. by percy bysshe shelley. london: printed for baldwin, cradock, and joy . . . . _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--history of a six weeks' tour through a part of france, switzerland, germany, and holland: with letters descriptive of a sail round the lake of geneva, and of the glaciers of chamouni. london: published by t. hookham, jun. . . . and c. and j. ollier . . . . _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--the revolt of islam; a poem, in twelve cantos. by percy bysshe shelley. london: printed for c. and j. ollier . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ second issue of the first edition, largely suppressed, but republished, with some changes, under the title "laon and cythna." the first issue, consisting of a few copies only, is dated . shelley, percy bysshe.--laon and cythna; or, the revolution of the golden city: a vision of the nineteenth century. in the stanza of spenser. by percy b. shelley . . . london: printed for sherwood, neely, jones . . . and c. and j. ollier . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with final leaf of errata. first published as "the revolt of islam." shelley, percy bysshe.--rosalind and helen, a modern eclogue; with other poems by percy bysshe shelley. london: printed for c. and j. ollier . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with half-title and two final leaves of advertisement. shelley, percy bysshe.--the cenci. a tragedy, in five acts. by percy b. shelley. italy. printed for c. and j. ollier . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. only two hundred and fifty copies were printed for sale, and it is the only work of shelley's that reached a second edition during his lifetime. shelley, percy bysshe.--the cenci. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ thick paper copy of the first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--the cenci   a tragedy in five acts by percy bysshe shelley. second edition london c and j ollier. . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ shelley, percy bysshe.--prometheus unbound a lyrical drama in four acts with other poems by percy bysshe shelley . . . london c. and j. ollier . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with the half-title. shelley, percy bysshe.--epipsychidion: verses addressed to the noble and unfortunate lady emilia v---- now imprisoned in the convent of ---- . . . london c. and j. ollier . . . mdcccxxi. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--adonais. an elegy on the death of john keats, author of endymion, hyperion etc. by percy b. shelley . . . pisa with the types of didot mdcccxxi. _ to, original binding, enclosed in a case of brown levant morocco, gilt back, by rivière._ first edition, with the original blue covers enclosed. shelley, percy bysshe.--adonais. an elegy on the death of john keats . . . by percy b. shelley . . . cambridge: printed by w. metcalfe . . . mdcccxxix. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition printed in england. shelley, percy bysshe.--hellas   a lyrical drama by percy b. shelley . . . london   charles and james ollier . . . mdcccxxii. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--posthumous poems of percy bysshe shelley. london, : printed for john and henry l. hunt . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--the masque of anarchy. a poem. by percy bysshe shelley. now first published, with a preface by leigh hunt . . . london: edward moxon . . . . _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--the shelley papers memoir of percy bysshe shelley by t. medwin esq. and original poems and papers by percy bysshe shelley. now first collected. london: whittaker, treacher, & co. . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition. shelley, percy bysshe.--essays, letters from abroad, translations and fragments, by percy bysshe shelley. edited by mrs. shelley . . . london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxl. _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. [shelley, percy bysshe.]--a brief sketch of the life of percy bysshe shelley . . . london: j. watson . . . [ ] _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with the original covers enclosed. sharp quotes an edition of only. the sketch is taken from the poetical works published in paris, , and up to the author was not identified. shelley, percy bysshe.--letters of percy bysshe shelley. with an introductory essay by robert browning. london: edward moxon . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ printed from forgeries, and suppressed. shelley, percy bysshe.--select letters of percy bysshe shelley edited with an introduction by richard garnett. london kegan paul, trench, & co. mdccclxxxii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with frontispiece on india paper. shelley, percy bysshe.--letters from percy bysshe shelley to jane clairmont. . london: privately printed. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ shelley, percy bysshe.--letters from percy bysshe shelley to elizabeth hitchener. . london: privately printed. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ printed on whatman paper. shelley, percy bysshe.--letters from percy bysshe shelley to william godwin. . london: privately printed. _ vo, two volumes, buckram, uncut edges._ printed on whatman paper. shelley, percy bysshe.--the poetical works of percy bysshe shelley. edited by mrs. shelley. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by w. finden. shelley, percy bysshe.--the poetical works of percy bysshe shelley. edited by mrs. shelley. with a memoir. . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, four volumes, half cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait, on india paper. shelley, percy bysshe.--poems from shelley selected and arranged by stopford a. brooke [vignette] london   macmillan and co.    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. shelley, percy bysshe.--the works of percy bysshe shelley in verse and prose now first brought together with many pieces not before published edited with prefaces notes and appendices by harry buxton forman . . . london   printed for private distribution [reeves & turner] . _ vo, eight volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ fifteen portraits, views, etc., and six facsimiles. shelley, percy bysshe.--the poetical works of percy bysshe shelley. [william morris, kelmscott press, -' -] _crown vo, three volumes, white pigskin, back and sides covered with a conventional floral design, gilt over uncut edges, by the doves bindery._ two hundred and fifty copies printed, with borders and woodcut title-page. shelley, percy bysshe.--shelley memorials: from authentic sources. edited by lady shelley. to which is added an essay on christianity, by percy bysshe shelley: now first printed. london: smith, elder and co . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ frontispiece. shelley, percy bysshe.--relics of shelley. edited by richard garnett . . . london: edward moxon & co . . . . _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ shelley, percy bysshe.--see hogg, thomas jefferson. sharp, william. smith, george barnett. shenstone, william.--poems upon various occasions. written for the entertainment of the author, and printed for the amusement of a few friends prejudic'd in his favour. oxford   printed by leon lichfield . . . . _ mo, blue morocco, gilt back and sides, red silk panel and linings, gilt edges._ written while the author was at oxford, and subsequently suppressed by the poet. shenstone, william.--the judgment of hercules, a poem. inscrib'd to george lyttelton esq; . . . london: printed for r. dodsley . . . and sold by t. cooper . . . m. dcc. xli. _ vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ first edition. shenstone, william.--the school-mistress, a poem. in imitation of spenser. . . . [vignette engraved by j. mynde] london: printed for r. dodsley, and sold by t. cooper . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by f. bedford._ first edition. half-title, one leaf (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). advertisement, a (verso blank). text, a -a and b -b (verso blank), ending with a vignette. index, b -b (verso blank). shenstone, william.--(i.-ii.) the works in verse and prose, of william shenstone, esq; most of which were never before printed. in two volumes, with decorations. [two lines from virgil and vignette] vol. i. [ii.] london: printed for r. and j. dodsley in pall-mall. m dcc lx iv. (iii.) the works, in verse and prose, of william shenstone, esq; vol. iii. containing letters to particular friends, from the year to . london, printed for j. dodsley, in pall-mall. mdcc lxix. _ vo, three volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. bust portrait, frontispiece to volume ii, and vignettes. shenstone, william.--the poetical works of william shenstone . . . london: printed for t. cadell, junior . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ six copper-plate engravings, by heath, bromley, and neagle after the designs of stothard. shenstone, william.--select letters between the late duchess of somerset, lady luxborough, mr. whistler, miss dolman, mr. r. dodsley, william shenstone, esq. and others; including a sketch of the manners, laws, &c. of the republic of venice, and some poetical pieces; the whole now first published from original copies, by mr. [thomas] hull. in two volumes. . . . london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m dcclxxviii. _ vo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ the preface is signed by the editor, thomas hull, and dated london, dec. , . shepherd, richard herne.--tennysoniana. notes bibliographical and critical on early poems of alfred & c. tennyson. opinions of contemporary writers. in memoriam; various readings, with parallel passages in shakespeare's sonnets. various readings in later poems ( - ). patriotic and minor poems. allusions to scripture and to classic authors. the tennyson portraits. bibliographical list of tennyson's volumes and of his contributions to periodical publications. basil montagu pickering . . . london w. mdccclxvi. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ sheppard, jack.--see defoe, daniel. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the rivals, a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. london: printed for john wilkie . . . mdcclxxv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by bradstreet's._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and o -o in fours. sheridan, richard brinsley.--verses to the memory of garrick. spoken as a monody, at the theatre royal in drury-lane. london: published by t. evans, . . . j. wilkie, . . . e. and c. dilly, . . . a. portal, . . . and j. almon, . . . m.dcc.lxxix. _ to, red morocco, gilt edges, by smith-mansell._ frontispiece engraved by albanesi after loutherbourg. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the school for scandal. a comedy. [six lines of verse from dryden] dublin: printed for j. ewling, [ ?] _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by bradstreet's._ presumably the first edition. the play was first performed may , . collation: title, a (verso blank). "dramatis personae," a (verso blank). prologue by garrick, a . text, a -n recto in fours. pages - . epilogue by "coleman," n verso-n (verso errata). sheridan, richard brinsley.--the school for scandal, a comedy; as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. dublin: printed in the year m dcc lxxxi. _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side corners and centre ornaments, gilt edges, by l. broga._ presumably the second edition. a-i in fours, ending with prologue by garrick and epilogue by colman. title on a (verso "dramatis personae"). sheridan, richard brinsley.--the critic or a tragedy rehearsed   a dramatic piece in three acts as it is performed at the theatre royal in drury lane by richard brinsley sheridan esq^{r}. london. printed for t. becket, . . . mdcclxxxi. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ engraved title-page, a -a and b -h , in eights. pages - . there is another edition of with half-title and pages. this edition is usually called the first, but there is a copy of the play dated in the british museum. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the critic. . _ vo, old red morocco, gilt back, side borders, centre ornaments, gilt edges._ another copy, with the final page of advertisements. a presentation copy from the author to lord spencer, whose bookplate is in the volume. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the critic: or, a tragedy rehearsed. a dramatic piece of three acts. as performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by richard brinsley sheridan, esq. dublin: printed for messrs. sheppard, wilkinson &c . . . m dcc lxxxv. _ mo, silk, gilt edges, by the club bindery. bound with sheridan's "trip to scarborough," ._ first irish edition. dedication to mrs. greville, prologue by richard fitzpatrick. a -c in twelves, title on a . sheridan, richard brinsley.--a trip to scarborough. a comedy. as performed at the theatre royal in drury lane. altered from vanbrugh's relapse; or, virtue in danger. by richard brinsley sheridan, esq. london. printed for g. wilkie, . . . m dcc lxxxi. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ presumably the first edition. produced in february, . the british museum has no edition of this play earlier than . collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). prologue by garrick, a . "dramatis personæ," a (recto blank). text, b -o , in fours. pages - ; , , , , and not numbered. sheridan, richard brinsley.--a trip to scarborough, a comedy. as performed at the theatre royal in drury lane. altered from vanbrugh's relapse; or, virtue in danger. by richard brinsley sheridan, . . . dublin: printed by r. marchbank, for the company of booksellers. m. dcc.lxxxi. _ mo, silk, gilt edges, by the club bindery. bound with sheridan's "critic," ._ a-c in twelves, title on a . sheridan, richard brinsley.--the duenna: a comic opera. in three acts. as performed at the theatre royal, covent garden: with universal applause. by r. b. sheridan, esq   london. printed for t. n. longman, . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first authorized edition, although the first printed edition was in . the play was acted at covent garden, . title, dramatis personæ, and b-k in fours, k blank. [sheridan, richard brinsley.]--the camp, a musical entertainment, as performed at the theatre royal, drury lane. by r. b. sheridan, esq. london: printed in the year m, dcc, xcv. _ mo, olive morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, with the original blue covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. a -a and b -b . _biographia dramatica_ says in regard to this play: "mr. tate wilkinson, in his 'wandering patentee,' vol. iv, p. , positively denies that mr. sheridan ever wrote a line of it." sheridan, richard brinsley.--pizarro; a tragedy, in five acts; as performed at the theatre royal in drury-lane: taken from the german drama of kotzebue; and adapted to the english stage by richard brinsley sheridan. london: printed for james ridgway, . . . . price s. d. a superior edition, on fine wove paper, hot-hressed [sic], price s. _ vo, cloth._ first edition. a-l in fours. the dedication to sheridan's wife is as follows: "to her, whose approbation of this drama, and whose peculiar delight in the applause it has received from the public, have been to _me_ the highest gratification its success has produced--i dedicate this play." the epilogue was written by william lamb. the play is said to have passed through twenty-nine editions of one thousand copies each. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the works of the late right honourable richard brinsley sheridan. . . . london: john murray, . . . james ridgway; and thomas wilkie. . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ edited by thomas moore, whose advertisement is dated "champs elysées, paris, november, ." sheridan, richard brinsley.--works. . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ another copy on fine paper, with four portraits and nine other scenic and character plates, some proofs, inserted. sheridan, richard brinsley.--the dramatic works of richard brinsley sheridan. with a biographical and critical sketch by leigh hunt. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxlvi. _royal vo, calf, gilt back, by w. matthews._ sheridan, richard brinsley.--the dramatic works of richard brinsley sheridan with an introduction by richard grant white. new york: dodd, mead, and company . _ vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt over uncut edges, by marius michel._ no. of thirty copies printed on japan paper. three portraits of sheridan, each in two states, proofs before and after letters. sheridan, richard brinsley.--dramatic works. . _ vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, dérome border on the sides, doubled with red morocco, inside border, silk lining, gilt edges, by david._ one of two copies printed on vellum. sheridan, richard brinsley.--see propertius. smith, sydney. sheridaniana; or, anecdotes of the life of richard brinsley sheridan; his table-talk, and bon mots. london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by tribullier._ portrait by newton after reynolds. sherlock, william.--the scripture proofs of our saviour's divinity explained and vindicated: with an examination of a late discourse concerning the descent of the man jesus christ from heaven, together with his ascension to heaven again. by w. sherlock, d. d. dean of st. paul's, and chaplain in ordinary to her majesty. london: printed for w. rogers, . . . . _ vo, old red morocco, panelled sides, delicately tooled, with the monogram and crown of queen anne in each corner, gilt edges._ queen anne's copy. shippen, william.--see defoe, daniel. moderation displayed. shirley, evelyn philip.--lower eatington: its manor house and church. london: privately printed at the chiswick press, by whittingham and wilkins. . _ to, brown levant morocco, doubled with maroon russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ five woodcuts. shirley, thomas.--the angler's museum; or, the whole art of float and fly fishing. containing, i. the nature and properties of fish in general ii. rules and cautions to be observed by young anglers. iii. the choice and preparation of rods and lines. iv. of float-fishing, and of live and dead baits. v. of fly-fishing, and the preparation of artificial flies. vi. an account of the different sorts of fish, their haunts and spawning times, and seasons to angle for them. vii. an account of some of the principal sea fish, their nature, qualities, and the manner of catching them, &c. viii. particulars respecting the laws and customs of angling. the whole carefully collected from actual experience, by thomas shirley. london: printed for john fielding . . . [ ] _ mo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by hering._ portrait of john kirby, the celebrated fisherman. shirrefs, andrew.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect, by andrew shirrefs, a.m. . . . edinburgh: printed for the author, by d. willison: . . . m, dcc, xc. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portrait by j. beugo after caldwell. on the half-title is the inscription, "presented by the author to william smith, aberdeen, ^{th} march ." shore, jane.--jane shore to the duke of gloster, an epistle. . . . london: printed for r. dodsley . . . and sold by m. cooper . . . m. dcc. xlix. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ contains the half-title. short, frank.--on the making of etchings. by frank short, [cut of rembrandt] london. robert dunthorne. . . . . _ to, vellum boards, gilt edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed on japanese vellum. four plates and illustrations in the margin. shorthouse, j. henry.--john inglesant. a romance. london. macmillan and co . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half olive levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. sigourney, lydia huntley.--scenes in my native land. by mrs. l. h. sigourney. . . . boston: james munroe and company. m dccc xlv. _ mo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition. frontispiece and title engraved by d. glover, the former after w. h. bartlett. sillar, david.--poems, by david sillar. [seven lines from ramsay] kilmarnock: printed by john wilson. m, dcc, lxxxix. _ vo, green straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to hugh montgomery of skelmorlie. silliman, benjamin.--remarks made on a short tour between hartford and quebec in the autumn of : by the author of a journal of travels in england, holland, and scotland. new haven: printed and published by s. converse. . _ mo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. engraved title and nine plates. silliman, benjamin.--a tour to quebec, in the autumn of . by dr. benjamin silliman . . . london: printed for sir richard phillips and co . . . . _ vo, half red morocco, uncut edges._ second edition, with four illustrations, on two plates, by read after wadsworth. simcoe, john graves.--a journal of the operations of the queen's rangers, from the end of the year , to the conclusion of the late american war. by lieutenant-colonel simcoe, commander of that corps. exeter: printed for the author. [ ] _ to, original boards, entirely uncut, in a red morocco case._ printed on thick paper, with ten folded plates of plans. simms, william gilmore.--atalantis; a story of the sea . . . [and the eye and the wing] philadelphia: carey and hart. . _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ simrock, karl, etc.--karl simrock, on the plots of shakespeare. and shakespeare's henry iv. from a contemporary ms. both edited by j. o. halliwell. [london] printed for the shakespeare society, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ the two sub-titles are dated and . sinclair, alexander.--fifty years of newspaper life, - : being chiefly reminiscences of that time. by alexander sinclair, of the "glasgow herald." printed for private circulation, [n. d.] _ to, blue morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece and woodcuts in the text. presentation copy from the author. singer, samuel weller.--researches into the history of playing cards; with illustrations of the origin of printing and engraving on wood. by samuel weller singer. london: printed by t. bensley and son for robert triphook . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ two hundred and fifty copies printed. nineteen plates, eight coloured and six on india paper, also many woodcut illustrations. singer and strang.--etching, engraving and the other methods of printing pictures by hans w. singer & william strang   with ten original plates by, and four illustrations after, william strang   london   kegan paul, trench, trübner & co. . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. skeen, william.--early typography. by william skeen. colombo: ceylon. . _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ skelton, sir john.--charles i. by sir john skelton, . . . goupil & co., . . . london and paris . . . . _royal to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of five hundred copies printed on japan paper, with a duplicate set of the large plates. coloured frontispiece, twenty-three plates, and eighteen vignettes. sketchley, w.--the cocker; containing every information to the breeders and amateurs of that noble bird, the game cock: to which is added, a variety of other useful information for the instruction of those who are attendants on the cock pit. by w. sketchley . . . burton-on-trent: printed and published by j. croft . . . . _rep. vo, boards, uncut edges._ frontispiece. slater, j. herbert.--engravings and their value. a guide for the print collector. by j. herbert slater, . . . london: l. upcott gill, . . . . _crown vo, cloth._ first edition. slater, j. herbert.--engravings and their value: a guide for the print collector   by j. herbert slater . . . second edition. revised and enlarged   london l. upcott gill, . . . . _post vo, cloth._ "slick, samuel."--see haliburton, thomas chandler. sloane, sir hans.--histoire de la jamaïque, traduite de l'anglois [de sir hans sloane] par m.* * *, [raulin] ancien officier de dragons. a londres, chez nourse. m. dcc. li. _ mo, two volumes, original green morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by dérome._ six folded plates, engraved by poilly. smedley, francis edward.--lewis arundel; or, the railroad of life. by frank e. smedley, . . . with [ ] illustrations by "phiz" [hablot k. browne] london: virtue, hall, & virtue, . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, figured silk sides, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. smiles, samuel.--the huguenots their settlements, churches, & industries in england and ireland   by samuel smiles . . . london   john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ smith, adam.--an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. by adam smith, ll. d. and f. r. s. formerly professor of moral philosophy in the university of glasgow. . . . london: printed for w. strahan; and t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxxvi. _ to, two volumes, dark blue levant morocco, blind tooled back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. smith, adam.--an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. by adam smith, ll.d. with a life of the author, an introductory discourse, notes, and supplemental dissertations. by j. r. m^{c}culloch, . . . edinburgh: printed for adam black, and william tait; . . . m. dccc. xxviii. _ vo, four volumes, half green vellum, uncut edges._ portrait by j. horsburgh from the medallion by tassia, with proof on india paper. smith, albert.--the wassail-bowl. by albert smith . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with the original covers bound in. steel frontispieces, and numerous woodcut illustrations designed by leech. smith, albert.--the natural history of the gent, [vignette] by albert smith. london: david bogue, . . . mdcccxlvii. _ mo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with forty-five woodcut illustrations, and the original covers. smith, albert.--the natural history of the gent, [vignette] by albert smith. london: david bogue, . . . mdcccxlvii. _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original front cover bound in._ thirty-eight woodcuts, including frontispiece. the front cover reads "third edition." smith, albert.--a bowl of punch. by albert smith. illustrated by henning, hine, and sala. london: d. bogue, . . . mdcccxlviii. _ mo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with the original covers and one hundred and fifty-two woodcuts. smith, albert.--the natural history of the idler upon town, [vignette] by albert smith. illustrated by a. henning. [ woodcuts] london: d. bogue, . . . m dccc xlviii. _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original front cover bound in, also that of "the natural history of the flirt."_ smith, albert.--a month at constantinople by albert smith. london: david bogue, . . . mdcccl. _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with a coloured frontispiece and numerous woodcut illustrations. smith, albert.--the story of mont blanc. by albert smith, [vignette] london: david bogue, . . . mdccc liii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. coloured frontispiece and numerous woodcuts. smith, edmund.--phædra and hippolitus. a tragedy. as it is acted at the queen's theatre in the hay-market, by her majesty's sworn servants. by mr. edmund smith. london, printed for bernard lintott, . . . [ ] _ to, rose levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. dedicated to lord halifax. smith, george barnett.--shelley a critical biography by george barnett smith . . . edinburgh david douglas . _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ smith, horace and james, and others.--the tin trumpet; or heads and tales, for the wise and waggish; to which are added poetical selections. by the late paul chatfield, m. d. edited by jefferson saunders, esq. . . . london: printed for whittaker & co. . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of paul chatfield, m. d., engraved by adlard. smith, james and horace.--rejected addresses: or, the new theatrum poetarum. by james smith & horace smith. . . . twenty-second edition, with additional notes. london: john murray, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by e. finden after harlowe. smith, jerome v. c.--natural history of the fishes of massachusetts, embracing a practical essay on angling. by jerome v. c. smith, m. d. [woodcut] boston: allen and ticknor . _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back and top, uncut edges, by bedford._ fifty cuts of fish. smith, john chaloner.--british mezzotint portraits; being a descriptive catalogue of these engravings from the introduction of the art to the early part of the present century. arranged according to the engravers; the inscriptions given at full length; and the variations of state precisely set forth; accompanied by biographical notes, and appendix of a selection of the prices produced at public sales by some of the specimens, down to the present time. by john chaloner smith, . . . london: henry sotheran & co., . . . . . . . [- ] _royal vo, four parts in five volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ four frontispieces. smith, john christopher.--see handel and smith. smith, john thomas.--nollekens and his times: comprehending a life of that celebrated sculptor; and memoirs of several contemporary artists, from the time of roubiliac, hogarth, and reynolds, to that of fuseli, flaxman, and blake. by john thomas smith, . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ portrait of nollekens, by bond after jackson. smith, john thomas.--an antiquarian ramble in the streets of london, with anecdotes of their more celebrated residents. by john thomas smith . . . edited by charles mackay. london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ smith, seba.--the life and writings of major jack downing, of downingville, away down east in the state of maine. boston: lilly, wait, colman, & holden. . _ mo, boards._ smith, sydney.--sermons preached at st. paul's cathedral, the foundling hospital, and several churches in london; together with others addressed to a country congregation. by the late rev. sydney smith . . . london: printed for longman . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt._ smith, sydney.--the works of the rev. sydney smith. fourth edition. london: printed for longman . . . . _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt._ portrait engraved by t. a. dean. smith, sydney.--elementary sketches of moral philosophy, delivered at the royal institution, in the years , , and , by the late rev. sydney smith . . . london: . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed for private distribution. smith and sheridan.--bon-mots of sydney smith and r. brinsley sheridan edited by walter jerrold with grotesques by aubrey beardsley   london: published by j. m. dent and company . . . m dccc xciv. _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ smith, william.--the history of the province of new-york, from the first discovery to the year m.dcc.xxxii. to which is annexed, a description of the country, with a short account of the inhabitants, their trade, religious and political state, and the constitution of the courts of justice in that colony . . . by william smith, a.m. london: printed for thomas wilcox, . . . m.dcc.lvii. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, doubled with blue morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with map, "the south view of oswego on lake ontario," engraved by j. mynde. smith, william.--the history of the province of new-york. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, centre ornaments on the sides, uncut edges, by pratt._ another copy, printed upon large paper and measuring by - / inches. smith, william.--a catalogue of the works of cornelius visscher. by william smith, . . . reprinted from the fine arts quarterly review, for private circulation only, by john childs and son, bungay. . _imperial vo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author, with a notice of visscher by the same author, pages - , inserted. smollett, tobias.--the adventures of roderick random. london: printed for j. osborn . . . mdccxlviii. _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with frontispieces by c. grignion after f. hayman. smollett, tobias.--the adventures of roderick random. by t. smollett, m. d. with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ smollett, tobias.--the regicide: or, james the first, of scotland. a tragedy. by the author of roderick random. . . . london: printed by subscription, for the benefit of the author, m dcc xlix. (price five shillings.) _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. smollett, tobias.--the adventures of peregrine pickle. in which are included, memoirs of a lady of quality. . . . london: printed for the author: . . . mdccli. _ mo, four volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. smollett, tobias.--the adventures of peregrine pickle: in which are included memoirs of a lady of quality. . . . london: printed for j. walker and co.; . . . by s. hamilton, weybridge, surrey. . _ mo, two volumes, citron straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by hering._ engraved frontispieces and titles by c. warren after t. uwins. smollett, tobias.--the adventures of peregrine pickle. in which are included memoirs of a lady of quality. by t. smollett, m. d. with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ smollett, tobias.--the adventures of ferdinand count fathom. by the author of roderick random. london: printed for t. johnson . . . m,dcc,liii. _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. smollett, tobias.--the history and adventures of an atom. london: printed for robinson and roberts . . . mdccxlix [mdcclxix.] _ mo, two volumes, spanish calf, gilt back, citron edges, by jenkins & cecil._ first edition. a key to this semi-political work will be found in "a second journey round the library of a bibliomaniac," by william davis. smollett, tobias.--the expedition of humphrey clinker. by the author of roderick random. london, printed for w. johnston . . . and b. collins mdc[c]lxxi. _ mo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. only the first volume has the error in the date of publication, which was corrected after a few copies had left the press. smollett, tobias.--the expedition of humphrey clinker. by t. smollett, m. d. with a memoir of the author by thomas roscoe, esq. and illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: printed for cochrane and pickersgill, . . . . _post vo, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ portrait by freeman, and four other plates. smollett, tobias.--plays and poems written by t. smollett, m. d. with memoirs of the life and writings of the author. london: printed for t. evans . . . and r. baldwin . . . mdcclxxvii. _post vo, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. vignette portrait on the title-page, by s. ravenet after sir joshua reynolds. the arrangement of preliminary leaves in this volume is so unusual as to give the impression on a first examination that c is missing. but as the copy in the advocates' library, edinburgh, is similar to this, except for the transposition of the half-title of "the regicide," which there precedes the preface instead of the play itself, as in the present copy, the supposition is that no leaves are lacking. as the present copy is in the original boards, the arrangement of signatures is easily discernible. for the preliminary leaves it is as follows: half-title and title, one unnumbered sheet; a, eight leaves; b, eight leaves; c, six leaves, the first four lettered c , c , c , and (according to the actual folding of the sheet, there is no c , the first page being misprinted c ); two leaves, with no signatures, pasted together, viz.: the end of the preface (verso "persons of the drama") and the half-title of "the regicide" (verso blank); b, six leaves, the first three lettered b , b , and b ; one leaf pasted to b and numbered . signatures c-s are in eights. the pagination of the preliminary leaves is as follows: half-title and title unnumbered, i-xxix (viii misprinted iii), four unnumbered pages, and xxxvi-xlvii, the verso of which is unnumbered. the omitted numbers between xxix and xxxvi indicate a missing leaf, but even though the half-title of "the regicide" were to fill the place, as in the copy in the advocates' library, making the preface to the whole book follow the half-title of one of the works, which is an unnatural arrangement, there would still be a missing leaf, as the first page of text of "the regicide" is numbered . the simplest explanation of the discrepancy is to suppose a printer's error in the pagination of the preliminary matter; i.e., xxxvi should be xxxiv. there is no copy of this edition in the british museum or the bodleian library, nor in the university or trinity college libraries, cambridge, and the copy in the advocates' library, edinburgh, bound in full calf, lacks the preliminary half-title. with this record of signatures, the following collation gives the lettering of the leaves as actually printed. collation: half-title, one leaf (verso blank). title with portrait, one leaf (verso blank). life, a -a and b -b (verso blank). contents, b . preface, c -c (verso "persons of the drama"). half-title of "the regicide," one leaf, which might be counted as c , to complete the signature c, or as b , to precede b . "the regicide," b -i , in eights. half-title of "the reprisal," i (verso "persons represented"). prologue, i . text, i -o (verso blank), ending with the epilogue. half-title, "advice, and reproof: two satires. first published in the year and ," o (verso blank). "advice," o -p . half-title of "reproof," p (verso blank). text, p -q . "the tears of scotland," , q -q . poems, r -r recto. odes, r verso-s recto. "observations on dr. smollett's ode to independence," s verso-s . pages - . smollett, tobias.--the works of tobias smollett, m. d. with memoirs of his life; to which is prefixed a view of the commencement and progress of romance, by john moore, m. d. london: printed for b. law &c . . . . _ vo, eight volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, citron edges, by bedford._ portrait of smollett by holloway, and plate of his monument. smollett, tobias.--the miscellaneous works of tobias smollett; to which is prefixed, memoirs of his life and writings. . . . embellished with twenty-six engravings, by rowlandson & others, . . . edinburgh: printed for c. elliot, by j. orphoot, . . . . _ vo, five volumes, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ smollett, tobias.--the history of england by t. smollett . . . [william and mary to death of george ii] oxford, published by d. a. talboys; and william pickering, london. mdcccxxvii. _royal vo, five volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed on large paper, with five portraits of the sovereigns by worthington, proofs on india paper. smollett, tobias.--see cervantes, saavedra, miguel de. le sage, alain rené. snow, robert.--(i.) observations on imitation. by robert snow, . . . london: william pickering. . (ii) vert-vert from the french of gresset by robert snow . . . london   william pickering    . _post vo, two works in one volume, half cloth, uncut edges._ somerville, william.--the chace. a poem. by william somervile, esq; [one line from virgil and two from horace] london, printed for g. hawkins, and sold by t. cooper at the globe in pater-noster-row. m dcc xxxv. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. somerville, william.--the chace. a poem. by william somerville, esq; . . . london, printed for g. hawkins, and sold by t. cooper . . . mdccxxxv. _ vo, green morocco, gilt back, side border, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ second edition. somerville, william.--the chase. a poem. by william somervile, esq. london: printed by w. bulmer and co. shakespeare printing office . . . . _ to, green morocco, gilt back and sides, silk linings, gilt edges, by staggemeier._ one of three copies printed on vellum, with thirteen woodcuts by t. bewick, drawn on the blocks by j. bewick. somerville, william.--the chase. . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in emblematic design, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and twenty-five engravings, including a proof set of the bewick cuts, portraits of the author, etc., and the stothard, sharpe, and other selected plates, some in two or more states, and the majority on india paper. somerville, william.--hobbinol, or the rural games, a burlesque poem, in blank verse. by william somervile esq; [five lines from virgil] london: printed for j. stagg, . . . mdccxl. _ to, spanish calf, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dedicated to hogarth. song of solomon.--the song of solomon. with twelve full page plates: and various other decorations. by h. granville fell   london: guild of women binders. . . . [ ] _ to white buckram, uncut edges._ one of twelve copies with duplicate plates on thick vellum, coloured by miss gloria cardew for the guild of women binders. song of solomon.--the song of songs which is solomon's. [colophon] . . . printed by me, st. john hornby, at the ashendene press, shelley house, chelsea. illuminated by florence kingsford. the year of the coronation of king edward vii. mdccccij. _ mo, blue levant morocco, uncut edges, by f. p._ printed upon vellum. illuminated title-page, border, etc. songs.--a collection of english songs, with an appendix of original pieces . . . london, : printed by william bennett . . . collected by alexander dalrymple. _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ songs and carols.--songs and carols. printed from a manuscript in the sloane collection in the british museum   london: william pickering: mdcccxxxvi. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ songs and ballads.--a little book of songs and ballads, gathered from ancient musick books, ms. and printed. by e. f. rimbault . . . london: printed for john russell smith . . . m.dccc.li. _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ songs and ballads, merry.--see farmer, john s. songs of scotland.--see cunningham, allan. songster.--the london songster, or polite musical companion, containing four hundred and fifty-four of the newest and most favourite songs, catches, duets, and cantatas, now in vogue at the public theatres and gardens. to which is added, a genteel collection of the various toasts, sentiments, and hob nobs, now in fashion. [two lines from congreve] london, printed for w. nicoll, . . . mdcclxvii. [price two shillings.] _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by cecil & larkin._ sonnets.--specimens of english sonnets selected by the rev. alexander dyce   london   william pickering . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ sonnets of three centuries: a selection including many examples hitherto unpublished. edited by t. hall caine. london: elliot stock, . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ sonnets.--three hundred english sonnets chosen and edited with a few notes by david m. main . . . william blackwood and sons edinburgh . . . mdccclxxxiv. _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. sophia dorothea.--memoirs of sophia dorothea, consort of george i. chiefly from the secret archives of hanover, brunswick, berlin, and vienna; including a diary of the conversations of illustrious personages of those courts, illustrative of her history, with letters and other documents. now first published from the originals. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ two portraits. sotheby, samuel leigh.--principia typographica. the block-books, or xylographic delineations of scripture history, issued in holland, flanders, and germany, during the fifteenth century, exemplified and considered with the origin of printing. to which is added an attempt to elucidate the character of the paper-marks of the period. a work contemplated by the late samuel sotheby, and carried out by his son, samuel leigh sotheby. . . . london: printed for the author . . . m.dccc.lviii. _folio, three volumes, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ two hundred and fifty copies privately printed, with one hundred and twenty plates, some coloured, and more than two hundred woodcuts. southey, robert.--(i.) poems, by robert southey. printed by n. biggs, for joseph cottle, bristol, and g. g. and j. robinson, london. . (ii.) poems, by robert southey. [line from spenser] the second volume. bristol: printed by biggs and cottle, for t. n. longman and o. rees . . . london. . _post vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first editions. southey, robert, _editor_.--the annual anthology. volume i. . [volume ii. .] bristol: printed by biggs and co. for t. n. longman and o. rees, . . . london. _foolscap vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ southey states in the advertisement to volume i his intention to publish annually a similar volume, and, after the contents of volume ii, that communications for the third volume are to be addressed to messrs. biggs & co., printers, bristol. but a third volume was never published. in volume i is a poem by lamb, "living without god in the world." other contributors are southey, charles lloyd, joseph cottle, robert lovell, and mrs. opie. southey, robert.--roderick, the last of the goths. by robert southey, esq. poet laureate, and member of the royal spanish academy. london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . . . . _ to, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. southey, robert.--the lay of the laureate. carmen nuptiale, by robert southey, esq. poet laureate . . . london: printed for longman . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. southey, robert.--essays, moral and political, by robert southey . . . now first collected. london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxii. _ mo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, by matthews._ southey, robert.--the doctor, &c   london: longman, rees . . . . [-' ] _crown vo, seven volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ an amalgamation of the first, second, and third editions, with the curious coloured frontispiece to the seventh volume. southey, robert.--the poetical works of robert southey. with a memoir . . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, ten volumes, half cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait on india paper. southey, robert.--see cowper, william (works, ). lobeira, vasco de. moraes, francisco de. spanish ballads.--ancient spanish ballads historical and romantic translated by j. g. lockhart . . . william blackwood edinburgh . . . mdcccxxiii. _ to, spanish calf, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by white._ first edition, with engraved title and many pieces omitted in subsequent editions. spanish ballads.--ancient spanish ballads; historical and romantic. translated, with notes, by j. g. lockhart, esq. a new edition, revised. with numerous illustrations from drawings by william allan, r. a., david roberts, r. a., william simson, henry warren, c. e. aubrey, and william harvey. the borders and ornamental vignettes by owen jones, architect. london: john murray, . . . mdcccxli. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with rose morocco, ribbon panel in blue mosaic, leaf branches, gilt top, uncut edges, by ritter._ spanish ballads.--ancient spanish ballads. . _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, sides covered with a mosaic ribbon design in brown, maroon, green, and red morocco, the intervals tooled in conventionalized flowers, foliage, and dots, gilt edges, in a green morocco case, by mackenzie and f. bedford._ another copy. spanish ballads.--ancient spanish ballads; historical and romantic. translated, with notes, by j. g. lockhart, esq. with numerous illustrations from drawings by william allan, r. a., david roberts, r. a., henry warren, c. e. aubrey, and william harvey. the borders and ornamental vignettes by owen jones. a new edition, revised. london: john murray, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ the titles and sub-titles are printed in gold and colours, every page has a coloured border, and a portrait of lockhart by doo after pickersgill prefaces the biographical sketch. spanish novelists, the.--see roscoe, thomas. spectator, the.--see british classics and british essayists. speculum amantis.--see love poems. spence, joseph.--anecdotes, observations, and characters, of books and men. collected from the conversation of mr. pope, and other eminent persons of his time. by the rev. joseph spence. now first published from the original papers, with notes, and a life of the author. by samuel weller singer. london: published by w. h. carpenter . . . mdccc.xx. _ vo, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ printed by whittingham at the chiswick press, with a portrait of spence by bragg after whood. spence, joseph.--anecdotes, observations, and characters. . . . . _folio, half vellum, uncut edges._ largest paper copy, with portrait on india paper. spence, joseph.--anecdotes, observations, and characters, of books and men. collected from the conversation of mr. pope, and other eminent persons of his time. by the rev. joseph spence. with notes, and a life of the author. by samuel weller singer, . . . second edition. london: john russell smith, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. portrait by t. bragg after isaac whood. spencer, herbert.--social statics: or, the conditions essential to human happiness specified, and the first of them developed. by herbert spencer. london: john chapman, . . . m dccc li. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. spencer, herbert.--essays: scientific, political, and speculative. (second series.) by herbert spencer, . . . reprinted, chiefly from the quarterly reviews. williams and norgate, . . . london; . . . m dccc lxiii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first separate edition. spencer, herbert.--the principles of biology. by herbert spencer, . . . williams and norgate, . . . london, . . . . [-' .] _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. spiller, james.--spiller's jests: or the life and pleasant adventures of the late celebrated comedian mr. james spiller; containing his merry jests, diverting songs, and entertaining tales. [six lines in english] london: printed for h. cook, . . . and s. hester, . . . [n. d.] (price one shilling) _ vo, green morocco, gilt edges. bound with four other works._ portrait by bell. george daniel's copy, with the following note on the fly leaf: "'spiller's jests' i have never seen in any other collection." it is his life with a new title-page. it would seem that "spiller's life" was not an attractive title; the publisher therefore cancelled the first title and substituted the present one, as the two works are apparently the same, except for the titles. spingarn, joel elias.--a history of literary criticism in the renaissance with special reference to the influence of italy in the formation and development of modern classicism   by joel elias spingarn    new york   published for the columbia university press by the macmillan company . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. springer, jaro.--. . . gothic alphabets . . . the text by jaro springer agents of the [international chalcographical society, ] london &c [berlin] _folio, boards, uncut edges._ thirty-nine full-page plates and five illustrations in the text. squier, ephraim george.--peru   incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the incas   by e. george squier, . . . with illustrations new york   harper & brothers, . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ stage beaux.--the stage-beaux toss'd in a blanket: or, hypocrisie alamode; expos'd in a true picture of jerry . . . [jeremy collier] a pretending scourge to the english stage. a comedy. with a prologue on occasional conformity; being a full explanation of the poussin doctor's book; and an epilogue on the reformers. spoken at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. [one line from juvenal] london, printed, and sold by j. nutt, near stationers-hall, . price one shilling and six pence. [four lines of advertisement] _ to, contemporary brown morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ large paper copy of the first edition of a play never acted. half-title and title, two leaves; a -a , and b -i in fours. a satire on jeremy collier, who wrote "a short view of the immorality and profaneness of the english stage," (two editions), and was answered by congreve, vanbrugh, dennis, dr. drake, dr. filmer, and others. (see volume i, page , of this catalogue.) collier is satirized under the name of sir jerry witwoud. the running title is "the beaux of the stage toss'd in a blanket &c;" and the play is dedicated to christopher rich, patentee of the theatre-royal. attributed to tom brown and to charles gildon. stanhope, hester, lady.--memoirs of the lady hester stanhope, as related by herself in conversations with her physician; comprising her opinions and anecdotes of some of the most remarkable persons of her time . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. three plates and a plan. stanhope, hester, lady.--travels of lady hester stanhope; forming the completion of her memoirs. narrated by her physician . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. three plates and twenty woodcut illustrations. stanley, arthur penrhyn.--the life and correspondence of thomas arnold, . . . by arthur penrhyn stanley, . . . third edition. london: b. fellowes, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by b. hall after thomas phillips. stanley, arthur penrhyn.--lectures on the history of the eastern church    with an introduction on the study of ecclesiastical history by arthur penrhyn stanley, . . . second edition   london   john murray, . . . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ plan and coloured map of the eastern churches. stanley, arthur penrhyn.--lectures on the history of the jewish church . . . . by arthur penrhyn stanley, . . . with [ ] maps and [ ] plans. third edition. london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ stanley, george.--see bryan and stanley. stanley, henry morton.--how i found livingstone: travels, adventures and discoveries in central africa: including an account of four months' residence with dr. livingstone, by henry m. stanley, . . . with maps and illustrations after drawings by the author. published only by subscription. new york: scribner, armstrong & co. . . . . _ vo, one volume in two, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. stanley's real name was john rowlands when as a cabin-boy he was adopted by a new orleans merchant. stanley, henry morton.--in darkest africa or the quest rescue and retreat of emin governor of equatoria by henry m. stanley . . . with one hundred and fifty woodcut illustrations and maps. . . . london sampson low, marston, searle, and rivington . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. star chamber.--a decree of star chamber concerning printing. made july ,    reprinted by the grolier club, from the first edition by robert barker, [new york ] _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, dentelle border inside, silk lining, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed, with the original covers preserved. starr, r.--specimen of printing types, by r. starr & co. letter-founders, no. liberty-street, albany, [vignette] [albany] printed by packard & van benthuysen, . . . . _ vo, original boards._ stebbing, henry.--lives of the italian poets. by the rev. henry stebbing, . . . second edition. with numerous additions. . . . london: edward bull, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ stedman, edmund clarence.--edgar allan poe. boston   houghton, mifflin and company . . . mdccclxxxi. _ mo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by marius michel._ first edition, with the original vellum covers preserved. stedman, edmund clarence.--songs and ballads by edmund clarence stedman. new york   printed for the book fellows' club . _small to, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed, on japan paper, with portrait of the author, and numerous vignettes by taylor. stedman, edmund clarence.--poets of america by edmund clarence stedman . . . cambridge. printed at the riverside press . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with the ten portraits on india paper. stedman, edmund clarence.--victorian poets, revised, and extended, by a supplementary chapter, to the fiftieth year of the period under review. by edmund clarence stedman . . . cambridge: printed at the riverside press . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with the portraits on india paper. steele, sir richard.--the funeral: or, grief a-la-mode. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane, by his majesty's servants. written by mr. steele. [three lines from horace] london: printed for jacob tonson within gray's-inn-gate, next grey's-inn-lane. . _ to, half green levant morocco, gilt edges, by roger de coverly._ first edition: with the half-title, not in the british museum copy. collation: half-title, one leaf (verso blank). title, one leaf (verso blank). dedication to the countess of albemarle, a -a recto. preface, a verso-a . text, b -l (verso epilogue), in fours. pages - , last page unnumbered, and reversed. steele, sir richard.--the tender husband; or, the accomplish'd fools. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by her majesty's servants. written by mr. steele. [two lines from tull. de oratore] london, printed for jacob tonson, . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. as this play was first produced in april, , the date of the first edition as in _biographia dramatica_ is obviously incorrect. half-title and title, two leaves, and a-i in fours. final leaf of advertisement, i . dedication to addison, prologue by him. steele, sir richard.--the lucubrations of isaac bickerstaff esq; vol. i. [vol. ii.] [line from homer] london, printed: and sold by john morphew, near stationers-hall. mdccx. [-m dccxi.] [** right index] note, the bookbinder is desired to place the index after [tatler, n^{o}. .] which ends the first volume in folio, [after tatler, n^{o}. which ends the second volume in folio.] _folio, two volumes, green vellum, gilt sides, uncut edges._ the original numbers of _the tatler_ from april , to january , , published three times a week, on tuesdays, thursdays, and saturdays. from the libraries of lord hope and the earl of munster. collation: i. title with ornament, a (verso blank). "to mr. maynwaring," signed isaac bickerstaff, a . nos. - (single leaves), from tuesday, april , to tuesday, april , . index, two leaves, pages i-iv, ending with six lines of errata and "[the price of these two sheets, three pence.]" number reads "the tatler. by isaac bickerstaff, esq; [line in latin] tuesday, april , . . . . [verso] london: printed for the author, ." the verso of number reads: "sold by john morphew near stationers-hall; where advertisements are taken in." numbers and - read: "the tatler. by mrs. jenny distaff, half sister to mr. bickerstaff." ii. title with ornament, a (verso blank). "to edward wortley mountague esq," signed isaac bickerstaff, with the note: "the dedication foregoing belongs to the second volume of tatlers in octavo; which begins with n^{o} , and ends with n^{o} ," a recto. "to the honourable william lord cowper, baron of wingham," signed richard steele, with the note: "the foregoing dedication belongs to the third volume of tatlers in octavo, which begins with n^{o} , and ends with n^{o} ," a verso--and b (verso), "to the right honourable charles lord hallifax," signed richard steele, dated "from the hovel at hampton-wick, april , ," and with the note: "this dedication belongs to the fourth volume of tatlers in octavo, which begins with n^{o} , and ends with n^{o} ." "the preface," b . pages i-viii. numbers - , thursday, april , to tuesday, january , . index, three leaves, pages i-vi, ending "[the price of these three sheets and a half, six pence.]" steele, sir richard.--[first page] numb. i. the guardian. [line from martial] to be continued every day. thursday, march , . [imprint] london: printed for j. tonson in the strand; and sold by a. baldwin in warwick-lane. . _folio, green vellum, gilt sides, uncut edges._ the complete file of _the guardian_ as originally issued, clxxv numbers, from thursday, march , to thursday, october , . "price two pence" appears on number i and continues; "where advertisements are taken in" is added to the imprint on number ii, and "to be continued every day" is not found after that number. from the libraries of lord hope and the earl of munster. steele, sir richard.--[first page] numb. i. the englishman. being the sequel of the guardian. to be published every tuesday, thursday, and saturday. tuesday, october , . [latin quotation] [verso.] london: printed for sam buckley, at the dolphin in little britain; where advertisements will be taken in. [numb. xxiii.--and sold by ferd. burleigh at the west-end of st. paul's.] _folio, green vellum, gilt sides, uncut edges. bound with "the guardian._" a whig publication in which steele combated the arguments of swift, bolingbroke, and atterbury in _the examiner_. volume i, numbers i-lvi, from tuesday, october , to thursday, february , . each number is a single sheet. "price two-pence" appears at the bottom of each leaf on the recto. steele, sir richard.--[first page] numb. i. the lover. written in imitation of the tatler. [line from horace] to be published every tuesday, thursday, and saturday. thursday, february , . [verso] london, printed: and sold by ferd. burleigh, in amen-corner. where advertisements are taken in. _folio, green vellum, gilt sides, uncut edges. bound with "the guardian."_ numbers i-xl through thursday, may , . on number iv the name of "marmaduke myrtle, gent," i.e., steele, first appears. addison, who assisted steele, is said to have written number x. steele, sir richard.--the crisis: or, a discourse representing, from the most authentick records, the just causes of the happy revolution: and the several settlements of the crowns of england and scotland on her majesty; and on the demise of her majesty without issue, upon the most illustrious princess sophia, electress and duchess dowager of hanover, and the heirs of her body being protestants; by previous acts of both parliaments of the late kingdoms of england and scotland; and confirmed by the parliament of great britain. with some seasonable remarks on the danger of a popish successor . . . by richard steele esq; london: printed by sam. buckley; and sold by ferd. burleigh, . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panel, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. steele, sir richard, _editor_.--poetical miscellanies, consisting of original poems and translations. by the best hands. publish'd by mr. steele. london: printed for jacob tonson . . . mddc xiv. _small vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with misprint in the date on the title-page, the leaves of contents following the dedication, and a final blank leaf, x . frontispiece by du guernier after laguerre. contains the first version of pope's "wife of bath her prologue, from chaucer," "the arrival of ulysses in ithaca, being part of the xiiith book of homer's odysses," and "the gardens of alcinous, from the seventh book of homer's odysses." other contributors are steele, parnell, eusden, tickell, william harrison, and gay. steele, sir richard, _editor_.--poetical miscellanies, consisting of original poems and translations. by the best hands. publish'd by mr. steele. london: printed for jacob tonson . . . m dcc xiv. _small vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ second edition, with the misprint in the date on the title-page corrected, and the contents reset in smaller type in two leaves instead of three. although the text is the same, line for line, as in the first edition, an examination of separate pages shows that the type has been not only reset, but with a different fount. page gives clear evidence of this fact. the brackets and ornaments in this edition are different from those in the other. there is no final blank leaf, x . steele, sir richard.--the dramatick works of the late sir richard steele . . . london, printed for w. feales . . . [ -' .] _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ the separate titles are dated as follows: "the conscious lovers" (with a frontispiece by g. van der gucht), fourth edition, ; "the funeral," sixth edition, ; "the tender husband," fifth edition, ; "the lying lover," fifth edition, . steele, sir richard.--the dramatic works of sir richard steele, knt. containing, the funeral. the tender husband. the lying lover. the conscious lovers. london: printed for j. and r. tonson, . . . mdcclx. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait of steele by vertue after kneller, and a frontispiece to each play by g. van der gucht, j. basire, and others. the four plays have separate paginations and signatures. "the funeral" is dated ; "the tender husband," ; "the lying lover" (sixth edition), ; and "the conscious lovers," . steele, sir richard.--the dramatic works of sir richard steele, knt. containing, the funeral. the tender husband. the lying lover. the conscious lovers. to which is prefixed, an account of his life and writings. london: printed for j. and r. tonson, s. crowder, . . . m dcc lxi. _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait by vertue after kneller, and three plates by van der gucht. in this edition, as in the preceding, the four plays have separate pagination and signatures. "the funeral" is dated ; "the tender husband," ; "the lying lover," ; and "the conscious lovers," . steele and addison.--le spectateur, ou le socrate moderne, où l'on voit un portrait naif des moeurs de ce siecle. traduit de l'anglois a amsterdam et a leipzig, chez arkstée & mercus, mdcclxviii. _ mo, eight volumes, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by dérome the younger, with his ticket._ two portraits of steele, and a frontispiece by punt. volume vii is dated , and volume vi, . steele, sir richard.--see addison, joseph. the spectator. steele, robert.--the earliest english music printing   a description and bibliography of english printed music to the close of the sixteenth century   by robert steele   london printed for the bibliographical society at the chiswick press december, . _ to, original paper, uncut edges._ no. xi of illustrated monographs. steevens, george.--see hogarth, william. stent, peter.--a booke of drawinges. performed acording to the best order for vse & breuity that is yet extant. london. printed and are to be sould by peter stent at the white horse in guilt spur streete without newgate. . _ mo, red morocco, gilt top, by stikeman._ engraved title and seventeen engravings. stephens, john lloyd.--incidents of travel in central america, chiapas, and yucatan. by john l. stephens . . . illustrated by numerous engravings. new-york: harper & brothers . . . . _ vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ map and seventy-six illustrations. stephens, john lloyd.--incidents of travel in yucatan. by john l. stephens . . . illustrated by engravings. new york: published by harper & brothers . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ sterne, laurence.--the life and opinions of tristram shandy, gentleman . . . . [london] -[mdcclxvii.] _small vo, nine volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. the place of publication and name of printer, dodsley, first appear in volume iii, dated mdcclxi, with a frontispiece by ravenet after hogarth, and the marbled paper leaf. in volume v the date is one year later, and the publishers, becket and dehont, and the work is completed by this firm, volumes vii and viii being dated mdcclxv, and volume ix, two years later. volumes v, vii, and ix have the autograph signature of the author. sterne, laurence.--the life and opinions of tristram shandy, gentleman . . . . the second edition. london: printed for r. and j. dodsley . . . m.dcc.lx. [-lxvii] _small vo, nine volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ volumes i and ii contain the name of the printer, as they do not in the first edition; the succeeding volumes are the same as in the preceding item. volume i contains a frontispiece by ravenet after hogarth, not found in the first edition. sterne, laurence.--la vie et les opinions de tristram shandy, [avec suite] traduites de l'anglois de sterne, par m. frenais. a yorck, et se trouve à paris, chez ruault [et volland.] -[ .] _ mo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, edges entirely uncut, by belz-niedrée._ sterne, laurence.--the life and opinions of tristram shandy, gentleman. by the rev. laurence sterne, m. a. to which is added the sentimental journey. with illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ portrait by freeman and eight other plates. sterne, laurence.--. . . the opinions of tristram shandy gentleman   by laurence sterne . . . with eight etchings by damman from original designs by harry furniss. london j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick. london: printed for t. becket and p. a. dehondt . . . mdcclxviii. _small vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by f. bedford._ first edition. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey. . _ vo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, in a citron straight-grain morocco case._ another large paper copy, with the inserted leaf of advertisement. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey. . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back and sides covered with an elaborate mosaic of olive, grey, citron, and pink morocco, in compartments, with alternate floral emblems, doubled in red morocco with a heavy border and the monogram r. h., gilt edges, in maroon levant morocco cases, by mercier._ large paper copy, with the inserted leaf of advertisement. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick . . . london: printed for t. becket and p. a. de hondt . . . mdcclxviii. [new york: devinne & co., ] _ mo, two volumes, maroon levant morocco, back and sides elaborately tooled, doubled with red morocco, wide dentelle border, green silk linings, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ facsimile reprint of the first edition, on holland paper. no. of one hundred copies printed. illustrated by the insertion of four portraits of the author, and thirty-two plates, including the designs of chasselat, stothard, archer, craigg, unwins, and the etchings by hedouin in two states, before and after letters. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey. - . _ mo, two volumes, red morocco, back and sides beautifully tooled in the manner of roger payne, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ one of four copies printed on vellum, with five water-colour drawings by fernand coindre inserted. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick. a new edition. london: printed by a. strahan; . . . mdccxc. _small vo, red morocco, back and sides exquisitely tooled after the manner of roger payne, gilt edges. de bure's copy from the la bedoyere collection._ two inserted plates by tomkins after edwards. sterne, laurence.--voyage sentimental, suivi des lettres d'yorick a Éliza, par laurent sterne, en anglais et en français. nouvelle edition, dont la traduction française a étè entièrement revue et corrigée sur le texte anglais, ornée de six figures d'après monsiau. a paris . . . chez j. e. gabriel dufour [imp. didot] . . . l'an vii. [ ]. _ mo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ the six plates are engraved by le villain and are proofs before letters. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick. london, stereotyped and printed by andrew wilson . . . . _ mo, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ woodcut illustrations. sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick. a new edition, embellished with two caricature prints, [coloured] by rowlandson. london: published by thomas tegg . . . . _ mo, half brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by rivière._ sterne, laurence.--a sentimental journey through france and italy. by laurence sterne. illustrated with numerous engravings on wood, by bastin, and g. nicholls: from original drawings by jacque and fussell. london: j. e. nicholls . . . [n. d.] _ vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ sterne, laurence.--voyage sentimental traduction nouvelle précédée d'un essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de sterne par m. j. janin edition illustrée par mm. tony johannot et jacque [vignette]   paris ernest bourdin, . . . [n. d.] _imperial vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ twelve full-page plates, and numerous illustrations in the text. sterne, laurence.--voyage sentimental [n. d.] _imperial vo, half blue levant morocco, uncut edges, with the original covers in blue and gold._ another copy. sterne and swift.--. . . a sentimental journey through france and italy by laurence sterne also a tale of a tub written for the universal improvement of mankind . . . by jonathan swift . . . with five etchings and portrait by ed. hédouin. london j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two works in one volume, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. sterne, laurence.--letters from yorick to eliza. london, printed for g. kearsly, . . . and t. evans, . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels in floral design, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. edited by sterne's daughter, who dedicated the work to lord apsley, lord high chancellor of england. sterne, laurence.--the works of laurence sterne . . . with a life of the author, written by himself. london: printed for w. strahan . . . mdcclxxx. _small vo, ten volumes, old calf, gilt back._ two portraits and eight plates after the designs of hogarth, edwards, and rooker. sterne, laurence.--the works of laurence sterne . . . with a life of the author, written by himself . . . london: printed for j. johnson . . . . _ vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back._ large paper copy, with autograph letter of sterne inserted. portrait of the author by neagle after reynolds, nine plates after stothard's designs, and a portrait and fifteen vignettes by widnell after the designs by satchwell and thurston. sterne, laurence.--original letters of the late reverend mr. laurence sterne; never before published. london: printed at the logographic press . . . . _ mo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, corner ornaments on the sides, gilt edges._ sterne, laurence.--seven letters written by sterne and his friends, hitherto unpublished. edited by w. durrant cooper, f. s. a. london: printed for private circulation, by t. richards, . . . . _ vo, original paper wrappers._ stevens, henry.--catalogue of my english library; collected and described by henry stevens . . . london: printed by c. whittingham, nov. . _post vo, half green morocco, interleaved, gilt top, uncut edges._ stevens, henry.--catalogue of my english library. . _post vo, blue levant morocco, blind-tooled, stevens's monogram on the upper cover, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ stevens's own copy. stevens, henry.--historical nuggets bibliotheca americana or a descriptive account of my collection of rare books relating to america henry stevens g. m. b. f. s. a. . . . london printed by whittingham and wilkins . . . mdccclxii. _post vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ stevens's own copy, with his monogram on the front cover. stevens, henry.--benjamin franklin's life and writings   a bibliographical essay on the stevens' collection of books and manuscripts relating to doctor franklin by henry stevens of vermont . . . [cut of franklin] london    printed by messrs davy & sons at the dryden press . . . for the author . . . ci[** inverted c]. i[** inverted c]. ccc lxxxi. _royal vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ four portraits of franklin by g. f. storm, t. b. welch after d. martin, j. andrews after duplessis, t. b. welch after houdon's bust; a portrait of mrs. franklin by j. andrews, and a facsimile letter. stevens, henry.--who spoils our new english books asked and answered by henry stevens of vermont . . . [cut] london   henry newton stevens . . . [chiswick press]   m dccc lxxxiv. _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ stevens, john.--the spanish libertines: or, the lives of justina, the country jilt; celestina, the bawd of madrid; and estevanillo gonzales, the most arch and comical of scoundrels. to which is added, a play, call'd an evenings adventures. all four written by eminent spanish authors, and now first made english by captain john stevens. london    printed, and sold by j. how, . . . . _ vo, green morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ stevenson, john hall.--crazy tales. . . . london: printed in the year m dcc lxii. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. oval frontispiece, "crazy castle." stevenson, john hall.--the works of john-hall-stevenson, esq. containing, crazy tales. fables for grown gentlemen. lyric epistles. pastoral cordial. pastoral puke. macarony fables. lyric consolations. moral tales. monkish epitaphs. &c. &c. &c. corrected and enlarged. with several original poems, now first printed, and explanatory notes . . . london, printed by j. nichols, for j. debrett, . . . and t. beckett, . . . mdccxcv. _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ two frontispieces. stevenson, j. j.--house architecture. by j. j. stevenson, . . . architecture. [and house-planning] london: macmillan and co. . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ illustrated with one hundred and ninety woodcuts. stevenson, robert louis.--the silverado squatters by robert louis stevenson. london chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first published edition, with a frontispiece. the first printed edition was an vo of fourteen leaves in paper wrappers, of which only ten copies were issued, october , , to secure copyright in england. stevenson, robert louis.--kidnapped being memoirs of the adventures of david balfour in the year . . . [with a map] by robert louis stevenson. cassell & company . . . [london] mdccc.lxxxvi. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first published edition. the first printed edition, issued to secure copyright, was an undated quarto of twenty-seven pages. stevenson, robert louis.--prince otto a romance by robert louis stevenson   third edition. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stevenson, robert louis.--the merry men and other tales and fables by robert louis stevenson. second edition. london chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stevenson, robert louis.--memories & portraits by robert louis stevenson. london chatto and windus . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. stevenson, robert louis.--virginibus puerisque and other papers by robert louis stevenson   third edition. london chatto and windus . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stevenson, robert louis.--the black arrow a tale of the two roses by robert louis stevenson. new york charles scribner's sons    . . . _crown vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, figured green silk sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ author's edition: with twelve illustrations. stevenson, robert louis.--familiar studies of men and books by robert louis stevenson third edition. london chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stevenson, robert louis.--new arabian nights by robert louis stevenson. london chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stevenson, robert louis.--the master of ballantrae. a winter's tale. by robert louis stevenson . . . cassell & company . . . london . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first published edition. the first printed edition was issued in , and was called on the title-page "author's edition." stevenson, robert louis.--across the plains with other memories and essays by robert louis stevenson   london chatto & windus, . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. stevenson, robert louis.--father damien by robert louis stevenson portland, maine thomas b. mosher   mdcccxcvij. _ mo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ portrait after edward clifford. stewart, james.--plocacosmos: or the whole art of hair dressing; wherein is contained, ample rules for the young artizan, more particularly for ladies women, valets, &c. &c. as well as directions for persons to dress their own hair; also ample and wholesome rules to preserve the hair. the hair completely analyzed, as to its growth, nature, colour, &c. and all and every article used in the hair, on the head, face, &c. as, false hair, perfumery, cosmetics, &c. clearly analyzed and examined; with a history of the hair and head dress, from the earliest ages to the present time, particularly as they have appeared upon the english stage for these last two hundred years; with strictures on the present performers belonging to each theatre. the plan of this work requiring it, there are also complete rules for the management of children and education of youth; . . . by james stewart. with an elegant frontispiece, and other copper-plates. london: printed for the author, . . . m dcc lxxxii. _ vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece in bistre, "shakespeare's seven ages," and ten other plates, all by delegal. stirling-maxwell, sir william.--songs of the holy land   edinburgh [constable] m.dcccxlvi. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ forty copies privately printed stirling-maxwell, sir william.--annals of the artists of spain. by william stirling, m. a. . . . london: john ollivier, . . . mdcccxlviii. _ vo, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with coloured frontispiece-titles and initial letters. stirling-maxwell, sir william.--annals of the artists of spain by sir william stirling-maxwell . . . a new edition incorporating the author's own notes additions and emendations   with portrait and twenty-four steel and mezzotint engravings also numerous engravings on wood london john c. nimmo . . . m dcccxci. _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of four hundred and fifteen large paper copies printed, with a duplicate set of plates on japan paper, and the initial letters and rules printed in red. stirling-maxwell, sir william.--the cloister life of the emperor charles the fifth, [portrait] by william stirling . . . third edition, enlarged and corrected. london: john w. parker and son . . . mdcccliii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ stirling-maxwell, sir william.--the cloister life of the emperor charles v. by sir william stirling-maxwell . . . fourth edition incorporating the author's latest notes additions and emendations with eight mezzotint engravings and five illustrations in colour engraved from the original water-colour sketches also numerous engravings on wood   london john c. nimmo . . . m dccc xci. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of four hundred and fifteen copies printed on large paper, with the engravings in duplicate, bistre on japan paper, and the initial letters and rules printed in red. stirling-maxwell, sir william.--velazqvez and his works by william stirling. london: john w. parker and son . . . . _post vo, citron levant morocco, roger payne back and side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. stirling-maxwell, sir william.--don john of austria or passages from the history of the sixteenth century -    illustrated with numerous wood engravings [vignette] by the late sir william stirling-maxwell . . . london: longmans, green, and co., m dccc lxxx iii. _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ stirling-maxwell, sir william.--miscellaneous essays and addresses by sir william stirling-maxwell . . . also biographical note and bibliography illustrated with six engravings   london   john c. nimmo . . . m dccc xci. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of four hundred and fifteen copies printed on large paper, with a duplicate set of the six engravings in bistre on japan paper, and the initial letters and rules printed in red. stith, william.--the history of the first discovery and settlement of virginia: being an essay towards a general history of this colony. by william stith. a. m. rector of henrico parish, and one of the governors of william and mary college. . . . williamsburg: printed by william parks. m,dcc,xlvii. _ vo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition, with the appendix, containing a collection of charters relating to the period described. stockton, frank richard.--the captain's toll-gate   by frank r. stockton with a memorial sketch by mrs. stockton   and a bibliography illustrated   new york   d. appleton & company . _ vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and sixty large paper copies printed, with portrait etched by jacques reich and four other illustrations. stoddart, thomas tod.--the angler's companion to the rivers and lochs of scotland. by thomas tod stoddart. william blackwood and sons, edinburgh and london m.dccc.xlvii. _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ steel frontispiece, coloured plate of flies, woodcuts, and a large folded map. stone, mrs.--chronicles of fashion, from the time of elizabeth to the early part of the nineteenth century, in manners, amusements, banquets, costume &c. by mrs. stone . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half orange levant morocco, gilt back, figured silk sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ fifteen steel portraits. storer, james.--history and antiquities of the cathedral churches of great britain. [ ] illustrated with a series of highly-finished engravings, exhibiting general and particular views, ground plans, and all the architectural features and ornaments in the various styles of building used in our ecclesiastical edifices. by james storer. . . . london: published by rivingtons; murray; . . . mdcccxiv. [-xix.] coe, printer . . . _ to, four volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by w. matthews._ largest paper copy of the first edition, with the two hundred and fifty-six plate proofs on india paper. story, william wetmore.--graffiti d'italia by w. w. story. william blackwood and sons edinburgh . . . mdccclxviii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. story, william wetmore.--poems by william wetmore story . . . boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ mo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ story, william wetmore.--roba di roma by william wetmore story . . . boston and new york houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, uncut edges._ story, william wetmore.--a poet's portfolio later readings   by william wetmore story . . . boston and new york houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ story, william wetmore.--see lowell, j. r. the pioneer. stothard, thomas.--the alphabet engraved on wood from designs by tho. stothard esq. r. a. london: william pickering. . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ stowe, harriet beecher.--uncle tom's cabin; or, life among the lowly. by harriet beecher stowe. [woodcut] boston: john p. jewett & company. . . . . _ mo, two volumes, original cloth, in a brown levant morocco case._ first american edition. presentation copy from the author, with inscription. stowe, harriet beecher.--uncle tom's cabin. by harriet beecher stowe. with twenty-seven illustrations on wood by george cruikshank, esq. london: john cassell, . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first english edition, with the original covers preserved. stowe, harriet beecher.--uncle tom's cabin; or, the history of a christian slave. by harriet beecher stowe. with an introduction by elihu burritt. illustrated by sixteen engravings by johnston, from original designs by anelay . . . london: partridge and oakey . . . . _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ stowe, harriet beecher.--la cabane de l'oncle tom ou les noirs en amérique par mistress harriet beecher stowe traduction revue, corrigée et accompagnée de notes par léon de wally et edmond texier ornée de gravures sur acier d'apres andrieux. deuxième édition. paris perrotin, . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by carayon._ stowe, harriet beecher.--a key to uncle tom's cabin; presenting the original facts and documents upon which the story is founded. together with corroborative statements verifying the truth of the work. by harriet beecher stowe, . . . boston: published by john p. jewett & co. . . . . _ vo, figured brown silk, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ stowe, harriet beecher.--la case de l'oncle tom ou tableaux de l'esclavage dans les États-unis d'amérique; par mistress harriet beecher stowe. traduction nouvelle par old nick & adolphe joanne, . . . précédée d'un portrait et de la biographie de l'auteur; ornée d'un grand nombre de gravures d'après les dessins de george cruikshank; suivie de poésies composées par des nègres et d'une notice sur la colonie de liberia. [vignette] paris. aux bureaux du magasin pittoresque, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in._ stowe, harriet beecher.--la clef de la case de l'oncle tom contenant les faits et les documents originaux sur lesquels le roman est fondé, avec les pièces justificatives; par mistress harriet beecher stowe. ouvrage traduit par old nick & adolphe joanne, . . . paris. aux bureaux du magasin pittoresque, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ strang, william.--see singer and strang. straparola.--the nights of straparola now first translated into english by w. g. waters illustrated by e. r. hughes, . . . london: lawrence and bullen . . . m dccc xciv. _ to, two volumes, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and ten copies printed on japanese vellum, with twenty illustrations. streatfeild, thomas.--(i.) ton and antiquity a comedy, in two acts. written for the l. d. t. and performed january ^{st} . . . oxford: printed by r. slatter. [ ] (ii.) the road to ridicule: a comedy, in two acts. written for the l. d. t. and performed january , . . . oxford: printed by r. slatter. [ ] (iii.) prologues and epilogues, written for the l. d. t. on various occasions. - - . . . oxford: printed by r. slatter. [ ] _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by smith-mansell. bound with walpole's "mysterious mother," ._ these three pieces, privately printed, are illustrated by a portrait of the author and two scenes from the comedies, beautifully executed in water-colours. strickland, agnes.--lives of the queens of england, from the norman conquest. now first published from official records & other authentic documents, private as well as public. by agnes strickland. . . . a new edition, revised and greatly augmented. embellished with portraits of every queen. . . . [and engraved titles] london: colburn & co., . . . _ vo, eight volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ strollers.--the strollers pacquet open'd. containing seven jovial drolls or farces, calculated for the meridian of bartholomew and southwark fairs. representing the comical humours of designing usurers, sly pettifoggers, cunning sharpers, cowardly bullies, wild rakes, finical fops, shrewd clowns, testy masters, arch footmen, forward widows, stale maids, and melting lasses. london: printed and sold by a. jackson . . . m d cc xlii. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by pratt._ the general title is dated , the sub-titles, . a collection of seven drolls, as follows: ( ) the bilker bilk'd, or, a banquet of wiles (from "the woman's revenge," by charles bullock), a -b in sixes; ( ) the witchcraft of love, or, stratagem on stratagem (from mrs. centlivre's "man's bewitch'd; or, the devil to do about her"), c -f ; ( ) the braggadochio: or, his worship, the cully (from congreve's "old bachelor"), f -h ; ( ) the feign'd shipwreck, or, the imaginary heir (from "the elder brother," by beaumont and fletcher), h -l ; ( ) the guardians over-reached in their own humour, or, the lover metamorphos'd (from mrs. centlivre's "bold stroke for a wife"), l -o ; ( ) the sexes mismatch'd; or a new way to get a husband (from southerne's "oroonoko" and "monsieur thomas," by beaumont and fletcher), p -r ; ( ) the litigious suitor defeated: or a new trick to get a wife (from bullock's "woman's a riddle"), r -t . the first droll has no sub-title. strutt, joseph.--a biographical dictionary; containing an historical account of all the engravers, from the earliest period of the art of engraving to the present time; and a short list of their most esteemed works. with the cyphers, monograms, and particular marks, used by each master, accurately copied from the originals, and properly explained. to which is prefixed, an essay on the rise and progress of the art of engraving, both on copper and on wood. with several curious specimens of the performances of the most ancient artists. by joseph strutt. london: printed by j. davis, for robert faulder, . . . mdcclxxxv. _ to, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by f. bedford._ sixteen plates. strutt, joseph.--biographical dictionary. . _ to, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ another copy. inserted are one hundred and fifty-nine examples of engraving by bartolozzi, nanteuil, wille, marshall, peter de jode, b. beham, and others, and many portraits of the artists, in mezzotint, line, and stipple engraving, including the portrait of john florio by hole, lucas de leyda by stokius, charles ii of england by meyssens, scudery by nanteuil, montaigne by ficquet, evelyn by bartolozzi, mlle. camargo by bickham, and many other examples. strutt, joseph.--the sports and pastimes of the people of england. including the rural and domestic recreations, may games, mummeries, shows, processions, pageants, and pompous spectacles, from the earliest period to the present time. by joseph strutt. illustrated by one hundred and forty engravings, in which are represented most of the popular diversions; selected from ancient paintings. a new edition, with a copious index, by william hone, . . . london: printed for thomas tegg, . . . . _royal vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with engravings coloured by hand. sturt, john.--the orthodox communicant, by way of meditation on the order for the administration of the lord's-supper, or holy communion; according to the liturgy of the church of england, [vignette] london, engraven by j. sturt & sold by r. ware . . . & j. tinney . . . [n.d.] _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, centre ornaments, gilt over uncut edges, by f. bedford._ engraved throughout. eighty-eight vignettes and tail-pieces, and numerous initial letters. sudermann, hermann.--the joy of living (es lebe das leben) a play in five acts by hermann sudermann translated from the german by edith wharton charles scribner's sons   new york . _ mo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ suetonius.--the lives of the first twelve caesars, translated from the latin of c. suetonius tranquillus: with annotations and a review of the government and literature of the different periods. by alexander thomson . . . london: printed for g. g. and j. robinson . . . m.dcc.xcvi. _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ suffolk-berkeley, henrietta and george.--letters to and from henrietta, countess of suffolk, and her second husband, the hon. george berkeley; from to . with historical, biographical, and explanatory notes. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half sheep, uncut edges._ portrait of lady suffolk by scriven. suffolk garland.--the suffolk garland: or, a collection of poems, songs, tales, ballads, sonnets, and elegies, legendary and romantic, historical and descriptive, relative to that county; and illustrative of its scenery, places, biography, manners, habits and customs. [cut] . . . ipswich: printed and sold by john raw; . . . mdcccxviii. _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges._ surtees, robert smith.--handley cross; or, mr. jorrocks's hunt. by the author of "mr. sponge's sporting tour," &c . . . [cut]   with illustrations by john leech. london: bradbury and evans, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ eighteen coloured plates and eighty-five woodcuts. surtees, robert smith.--"ask mamma;" or, the richest commoner in england with illustrations by john leech. london: bradbury, evans, & co., . . . . _ vo, orange levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ thirteen coloured plates and sixty-nine woodcut illustrations. swedenborg, emanuel.--heaven and its wonders, the world of spirits, (or the intermediate region, which is the first receptacle after death,) and hell: described by one who has heard and seen what he relates. from the latin of emanuel swedenborg . . . translated by the rev. samuel noble. second edition, carefully revised . . . london: james s. hodson . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ swift, jonathan.--a tale of a tub. written for the universal improvement of mankind . . . to which is added, an account of a battel between the antient and modern books in st. james's library . . . london: printed for john nutt . . . mdcciv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with green morocco, wide borders, green silk guards, gilt edges, by a. meyer._ first edition. at page is a title, as follows: "a discourse concerning the mechanical operation of the spirit," etc.; the pagination, however, continues without interruption, showing an omission on the first title, for the conditions are the same as those governing the battle of the books. swift, jonathan.--(i-ii.) le conte du tonneau, contenant tout ce que les arts, & les sciences ont de plus sublime et le plus mysterieux; avec plusieurs autres pieces très-curieuses. par jonathan swift . . . traduit de l'anglois. a la haye, chez henri scheurleer, m.dcc.xxxii. (iii.) traité des dissensions entre les nobles et le peuple, dans les républiques d'athenes & de rome, &c. l'art de ramper en poesie, et l'art du mensonge politique; . . . pour servir de suite au conte du tonneau. a amsterdam, aux dépens de la compagnie. m.dcc.xxxiii. _ mo, three volumes, green morocco, gilt back and sides, red silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by dérome._ seven curious copper-plate engravings illustrate the first volume. swift, jonathan.--a tale of a tub, written for the universal improvement of mankind. . . . to which is added, an account of a battle between the ancient and modern books in st. james's library: with the author's apology, and explanatory notes, by w. wotton, b. d. and others. . . . london: printed for thomas tegg, . . . . _crown vo, scotch plaid silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ coloured frontispiece by rhodes after thurston, and six other coloured plates. swift, jonathan.--part of the seventh epistle of the first book of horace imitated: and address'd to a noble peer. london: printed for a. dodd, at the peacock without temple-bar. . price d. _ to, calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. collation: title, a (verso blank). text, a -b , in fours. pages - . swift, jonathan.--les trois justaucorps, conte bleu, tiré de l'anglois du révérend mr. jonathan swif. . . . avec les trois anneaux, nouvelle tirée de boccace. a dublin. m.dcc.xxi. _ vo, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by dérome._ two pieces in one volume, the second, "recueil de pieces serieuses, comiques, et burlesques." [s. l.] m.dcc.xxi. swift, jonathan.--a letter to the shopkeepers, tradesmen, farmers and common people of ireland, concerning the brass-half-pence coined by onb william wood, hard-ware-man, with a design to have them pass in this kingdom. wherein in shewn the power of his patent, the value of his half-pence, and how far every person may be obliged to take the same in payments, and how to behave himself, in case such an attempt should be made by wood, or any other person. (very proper to be kept in every family.) by m. b. drapier. [dublin] written in the year . _ vo, sprinkled calf._ first separate edition. swift, jonathan.--the hibernian patriot: being a collection of the drapier's letters to the people of ireland, concerning mr. wood's brass half-pence. together with considerations on the attempts made to pass that coin. and reasons for the people of ireland's refusing it. to which are added, poems and songs relating to the same subject. . . . printed at dublin. london: reprinted and sold by a. moor. . . . m dcc xxx. _ vo, sprinkled calf, gilt top._ swift, jonathan.--(i.) cadenus and vanessa. a poem. from the original copy. dublin: printed in the year, . [ ] (ii.) cadenus and vanessa. a poem. by dr. s--t. london, printed for n. blandford, at the london-gazette, charing-cross; and sold by j. peele, at locke's-head in pater-noster-row. . (price d.) (iii.) cadenus and vanessa. a poem. london, printed: and sold by j. roberts at the oxford-arms in warwick-lane, . price d. _ vo, three works in one volume, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by rivière._ although "vanessa" [hester vanhomrigh] died in , the present poem did not appear until , when it was published by three different booksellers. the first edition was probably printed in dublin, the second by w. blandford, practically a reprint of the first; the third by j. roberts, which contains some variations from the others, notably the addition on page of the ten lines beginning "but what success vanessa met." collation: i. title with floral ornament, a (verso blank). text, a -d , in fours. pages - . ii. title with floral ornament, a (verso blank). text, a -d (verso blank), in fours. iii. half-title, a (verso blank). title with ornament, a (verso blank). pages - . text, a , numbered -e (verso blank), in fours. pages - . swift, jonathan.--cadenus and vanessa. . _ vo, blue levant morocco, centre ornaments on the sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ another copy of the roberts edition, larger than the preceding. collation: the same as the preceding copy. swift, jonathan.--(i.) travels into several remote nations of the world. in four parts. by lemuel gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships. vol. i. london: printed for benj. motte, at the middle temple-gate in fleet-street. m dcc xxvi. (ii.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by captain lemuel gulliver. vol. ii. part iii. a voyage to laputa, balnibarbi, glubbdubdribb, luggnagg, and japan. part iv. a voyage to the houyhnhnms. london: printed for benjamin motte, at the middle-temple-gate. m dcc xxvi. _ vo, four parts in two volumes, red straight-grain morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ an uncut copy of one of four editions published in . presumably the first edition, with the misprints "subsidues," instead of "subsidies," part i, page , line , and "_ebe_ houyhnhmns" in the running headline, part iv, page . portrait of gulliver by sturt and sheppard, with inscription around the oval and two lines of latin beneath; also six maps. collation: i. a (verso blank). contents, a recto. "the publisher to the reader," signed richard sympson, a verso-a . title of part i, , with floral ornament, a recto. contents, a verso-a . pages i-xii. text of part i, a -k , in eights. pages - . title of part ii, , a (verso blank). contents, a -a , plate ii, a (recto blank). text of part ii, b -m , in eights. pages - . ii. title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . plate iii, a (recto blank). text of part iii, b -l , in eights. pages - . title of part iv, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . text, b -o (verso blank). pages - . key dated "jan. feb. march. ," one leaf (verso blank). swift, jonathan.--(i.) travels into several remote nations of the world. in four parts. by lemuel gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships. vol. i. london: printed for benj. motte, at the middle temple-gate in fleet-street. m dcc xx vi. (ii.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by captain lemuel gulliver. part iii. a voyage to laputa, balnibarbi, glubbdubdrib, luggnagg and japan. part iv. a voyage to the houyhnhnms. london: printed for benjamin motte, at the middle-temple-gate. m dcc xxvi. _ vo, four parts in two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders in floral and bird design, doubled with red morocco, floral border, red figured silk guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ presumably the second edition. one of the three large paper copies on record, a second being in the british museum. this one measures by - / inches, and besides the six maps, has a portrait of gulliver without the inscription around the oval. instead of two lines in latin beneath, the legend is "captain lemuel gulliver, of redriff Ætat. suæ ." the two title-pages of volume i appear to be the same as in the preceding edition, but in volume ii "glubbdubdrib" has one final "b" instead of two, and "vol. ii." is omitted. the type of "world" is heavier faced in this edition. the text is reset; ornaments, use of type, and spelling are different. in the contents of volume ii, "pirates" in chapter i is here spelled "pyrates." page of part iii is misprinted in this edition, and not in the preceding; but the misprint in the running headline on page , part iv, is here corrected to "_the_ houyhnhmns." "glubbdubdrib" is spelled without the final "b" in the text of both editions, except at the head of chapter i, in the preceding, which would point to the final "bb" on the title of volume ii as a misprint corrected in the present edition. in both editions chapter vii of part iii is misprinted chapter v. part iii of the present edition contains pages, whereas the previous edition contains and ends with a different signature. collation: i. title, a (verso blank). contents, a (verso blank). "the publisher to the reader," signed richard sympson, a -a (verso blank). title of part i, , with the same floral ornament as in the preceding edition, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . pages i-xvi. text of part i, b -l , in eights. pages - . part ii: the same as the preceding edition. ii. title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . plate iii, a (recto blank). text, b -k , in eights, l -l , and m -m (verso blank). pages - , misprinted . part iv: the same as the preceding edition, without the final key. swift, jonathan.--travels into several remote nations of the world. . _ vo, four parts in two volumes, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ another copy, on small paper, with portrait having the inscription around the oval, and six maps. collation: the same as the preceding copy. swift, jonathan.--(i.) travels into several remote nations of the world. in four parts. by lemuel gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships. vol. i. london: printed for benj. motte, at the middle temple-gate in fleet-street. m,dcc,xxvi. (ii.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by captain lemuel gulliver. vol. ii. part iii. a voyage to laputa, balnibarbi, glubbdubdribb, luggnagg, and japan. part iv. a voyage to the houyhnhnms. london: printed for benjamin motte, at the middle-temple-gate. m dcc xxvi. _ vo, four parts in two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with green morocco, gilt borders in the manner of dérome, green moire silk guards, gilt edges, by a. meyer._ presumably the fourth edition. the pagination of the two parts in each volume is continuous, and plates ii and vi, preceding parts ii and iv, respectively, are both numbered page i, as though made for the previous editions, in which those parts have a separate pagination. the title of volume ii follows line for line that of the edition no. i preceding, with "glubbdubdribb" spelled with two final "b's," but the entire work is reset. as in the other two editions, chapter vii of part iii is misprinted v. portrait by sturt and sheppard, and six maps. collation: i. title, a (verso blank). contents, a recto. "the publisher to the reader," a verso-a . pages i-viii. title of part i, , a (verso blank). contents, a . text of part i, a -k , in eights. title of part ii, , l (verso blank). [in this copy misbound after contents.] contents, l -l . "plate ii, part ii, page ," l (recto blank). text of part ii, m -y . pages - , four leaves, and - ; , , - , - , and - misprinted , , - , - , and - ; and reversed; , , - misprinted , , - ; - , - , and misprinted - , - , and . ii. title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . plate iii, a (verso blank). part iii, b -l . title of part iv, m (verso blank). contents, m -m . part iv, m -z and aa -aa (verso blank). pages - , four leaves, and - . swift, jonathan.--(i.) travels into several remote nations of the world. in four parts. by lemuel gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships. to which are prefix'd, several copies of verses expla-planatory and commendatory; never before printed. vol. i. the second edition. london: printed for benj. motte, at the middle temple gate in fleet-street. m dcc xxvii. (ii.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by captain lemuel gulliver. part iii. a voyage to laputa, balnibarbi, glubbdubdrib, luggnag and japan. part iv. a voyage to the houyhnhnms. vol. ii. the second edition, corrected. london: printed for benjamin motte, at the middle-temple-gate. m dcc xx vii. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ portrait of gulliver by sturt and sheppard, and six maps. the present copy contains two more leaves than the one in the british museum; viz., "the words of the king of brobdingnag," following b . this edition contains twelve leaves of preliminary matter not found in previous editions. collation: i. title, a (verso blank). "to quinbus flestrin the man-mountain. an ode. by titly tit, esq; poet laureat to his majesty of lilliput. translated into english," a -a "the lamentation of glumdalclitch for the loss of grildrig. a pastoral," in verse, a -a recto. "to mr. lemuel gulliver, the grateful address of the unhappy houyhnhnms, now in slavery and bondage in england," a verso-a . "mary gulliver to capt. lemuel gulliver; an epistle," in verse, b -b . "the words of the king of brobdingnag, as he held captain gulliver between his finger and thumb for the inspection of the sages and learned men of the court," * and a . contents of parts, a recto. "the publisher to the reader," a verso-a . title of part i, a recto. contents of chapters, a verso-a . pages i-xii. part i, a -k . pages - . title of part ii, l (verso blank). contents, l -l . part ii, l -u , x -x , and y . pages - . y blank. ii. advertisement, one leaf (recto blank). title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . part iii, b -k , l -l , and m -m (verso blank). pages - . title of part iv, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . part iv, b -o (verso blank). pages - . swiftiana.--(i.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by capt. lemuel gulliver. vol. iii. [two lines in latin] london: printed in the year m.dcc.xx vii. (ii.) travels into several remote nations of the world. by captain lemuel gulliver. vol. iii. part ii. a voyage to sevarambia, &c. london: printed in the year m dcc xx vii. _ vo, two parts in one volume, red levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ this volume was not written by swift. plate by r. cooper after j. van der gucht. collation: i. half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a . introduction, b -c , in eights. "a second voyage to brobdingnag," in six chapters, c -i . pages - ; - repeated. ii. title, a (verso blank). contents, a -a (verso blank). part ii, in six chapters, b -l (verso blank). pages - . swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver. a paris, chés gabriel martin, . . . mdccxxvii. _ vo, two volumes, old red morocco, gilt edges, with the arms of madame du barry and her device, "boutez en avant."_ the first french translation, with four engravings. swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver. a paris, dans la boutique de la v. coustelier, chez jacques guérin &c m.dcc.xxvii. _ mo, two volumes in one, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by trautz-bauzonnet._ four copper-plate engravings. swift, jonathan.--le nouveau gulliver, ov voyage de jean gulliver, fils du capitaine gulliver. traduit d'un manuscrit anglois, par monsieur l. d. f. [l'abbé desfontaines] a paris, chez la veuve clouzier . . . et françois le breton &c mdccxxx. _ mo, two volumes in one, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by trautz-bauzonnet._ swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver. a paris, de l'imprimerie de pierre didot l'aîné an v. . _ mo, two volumes bound in four parts, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by dérome._ illustrated by ten exquisite engravings by masquelier after the designs of le febvre, each plate in two states, proofs before and after the letters. swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver. . _ mo, two volumes in four parts, red morocco, gilt over uncut edges._ large paper copy, with ten plates by masquelier after the designs of lefebvre, proofs before the inscription. swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver dans des contrées lointaines par swift. edition illustree par grandville. traduction nouvelle. paris. h. fournier ainé . . . mdcccxxxviii. _ vo, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by petit._ swift, jonathan.--travels into several remote nations of the world. by lemuel gulliver, . . . illustrated with upwards of four hundred wood-engravings from designs by grandville. with copious notes, a life of the author, and an essay on satirical fiction, by w. c. taylor, . . . london: hayward and moore, . . . [ ] _ vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ swift, jonathan.--voyages de gulliver. a paris   an mdccclx. _ mo, two volumes (four parts), green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by allô._ large paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed, with proof impression of the eight plates by masquelier after lefebvre. swift, jonathan.--. . . travels into several remote nations of the world    by lemuel gulliver   first a surgeon and then a captain of several ships   in four parts . . . by jonathan swift . . . with five etchings and portrait by ad. lalauze london j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. swift, jonathan.--travels into several remote nations of the world   by lemuel gulliver first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships with a preface by henry craik and one hundred illustrations by charles e. brock   london   macmillan and co. . . . . . . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and ten large paper copies printed. swift, jonathan.--. . . voyages de gulliver traduction nouvelle et complète par b.-h. gausseron [coloured vignette] paris a. quantin, . . . [n. d.] _royal vo, half red straight-grain morocco, figured red silk sides, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred copies printed on japan paper. four full-page coloured plates by v. a. poirson, numerous illustrations in the text, head and tail pieces, and initials, almost all of them coloured. swift, jonathan.--the life and genuine character of doctor swift. written by himself. london: printed for j. roberts . . . . . . . _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ a spurious copy of "verses on the death of dr. swift," . swift, jonathan.--(i.) miscellanies. consisting chiefly of original pieces in prose and verse. by d--n s----t. never before published in this kingdom. dublin   printed. london: re-printed for a. moore in fleetstreet, . (price one shilling.) (ii.) a proposal humbly offered to the p----t, for the more effectual preventing the further growth of popery. with the description and use of the ecclesiastical thermometer, very proper for all families. [two lines from horace] by dr. s--t. to which is added, the humble petition of the weavers and venders of gold and silver lace, embroiderers, &c. as also two poems, viz. helter skelter, or the hue and cry after the attornies upon their riding the circuit, and the place of the damn'd. the second edition. dublin printed. london, reprinted for j. roberts . . . m dcc xxxii. price six pence. _ vo, two works in one volume, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition of the miscellanies. contains no pages - , although the text is continuous. swift, arbuthnot, pope, and gay.--miscellanies. . . . by dr. swift, dr. arbuthnot, mr. pope, and mr. gay. the fourth edition corrected: with several additional pieces in verse and prose. . . . london: printed for charles bathurst, . . . mdccxlii. _ vo, four volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ large paper copy, with nine portraits, etc., inserted. volume i is by swift; ii, by swift, arbuthnot, and gay; iii, by arbuthnot, pope, and gay; and iv, by the four authors. swift, jonathan.--(i.) an epistle to a lady, who desired the author to make verses on her, in the heroick stile. also a poem, occasion'd by reading dr. young's satires, called, the universal passion. dublin, printed: and reprinted at london for j. wilford, at the three flower-de-luces behind the chapter-house, st. paul's church-yard. m dcc. xxx iv. [price s. (ii.) on poetry: a rapsody. printed at dublin, and re-printed at london: and sold by j. huggonson, next to kent's coffee-house, near serjeant's-inn, in chancery-lane; and at the booksellers and pamphlet-shops, . [price one shilling.] _folio, two works in one volume, green levant morocco, by the club bindery._ first editions. collation: i. title, one leaf (verso blank). epistle, b -e recto, in twos. poem, e verso-e . pages - . ii. title with ornament, one leaf (verso blank). text, b -h , ending with errata, in twos. pages - . swift, jonathan.--the beasts confession to the priest, on observing how most men mistake their own talents. by j. s. d. s. p. dublin, printed: london, re-printed: and sold by t. cooper, . . . . _ to, blue morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ a-c in fours, half-title on a , and c blank. swift, jonathan.--a complete collection of genteel and ingenious conversation, according to the most polite mode and method now used at court, and in the best companies of england. in three dialogues. by simon wagstaff, esq; london: printed for b. motte, and c. bathurst, . . . m.dcc.xxxviii. _royal vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ large paper copy of the first edition. swift, jonathan.--polite conversation in three dialogues by jonathan swift with introduction and notes by george saintsbury   london . . . charles whittingham & co . . . mdcccxcii. _crown vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed on japanese vellum, with portrait of swift. swift, jonathan.--an imitation of the sixth satire of the second book of horace. . . . the first part done in the year , by dr. swift. the latter part now first added, and never before printed. london: printed for b. motte and c. bathurst . . . and j. and p. knapton . . . m dcc xxxviii. (price one shilling.) _folio, cloth, by the club bindery._ collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso advertisement). second half-title, b recto. text (latin on the verso, english on the recto), b verso-g (verso blank), in twos. pages - . swift, jonathan.--political tracts. . . . by the author of gulliver's travels. london, printed for c. davis . . . mdccxxxviii. _ vo, two volumes, cambridge panelled calf._ first edition. swift, jonathan.--verses on the death of doctor swift. written by himself; november . the third edition. london, printed for c. bathurst, . . . mdccxxxix. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ swift, jonathan.--reflexions on courtship and marriage: in two letters to a friend. wherein a practicable plan is laid down for obtaining and securing conjugal felicity. to which is annexed, a letter to a very young lady on her marriage. by dr. swift. philadelphia, printed. edinburgh, reprinted, for william gray junior mdccl . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ swift, jonathan.--the works of jonathan swift, d.d. dean of st. patrick's, dublin; containing additional letters, tracts, and poems, not hitherto published; with notes, and a life of the author, by sir walter scott, bart. second edition. edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. . . . . _ vo, nineteen volumes, tree calf, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by lizars after bindon. swift, jonathan.--the poetical works of jonathan swift. london william pickering    . _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by the reverend john mitford and a portrait of swift. swift, jonathan.--selections from the prose writings of jonathan swift with a preface and notes by stanley lane-poole. london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxiiii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. swift, jonathan.--letters and journals of jonathan swift selected and edited with a commentary and notes by stanley lane-poole   london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxv. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. swift, jonathan.--the correspondence and poems of jonathan swift. a collection of proof sheets with editorial corrections, additions &c in the handwriting of sir walter scott and henry weber, letters of dean swift &c. _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, uncut edges._ fifty-five portraits and other plates inserted. swift, jonathan.--see bramston, james. jest books, . pope alexander (miscellanea, . miscellanies, .) sterne, laurence, . swinburne, algernon charles.--the queen-mother and rosamond by algernon charles swinburne. london   edward moxon & co . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--chastelard; a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne. london: edward moxon & co., . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--atalanta in calydon. a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne . . . london: edward moxon & co . . . . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side borders in a floral design, doubled with blue morocco, wide borders in floral design, figured rose silk guards, gilt over uncut edges, by mercier._ one of two editions of the same date, the other being an octavo. swinburne, algernon charles.--atalanta in calydon. a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne . . . third edition. london: john camden hotten . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ swinburne, algernon charles.--atalanta in calydon: a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne. william morris, kelmscott press. . _folio, vellum wrappers, uncut edges, with ties._ one of two hundred and fifty copies printed. swinburne, algernon charles.--atalanta in calydon. . _folio, vellum wrappers, uncut edges, with ties._ printed upon vellum. swinburne, algernon charles.--cleopatra. by algernon charles swinburne. london: john camden hotten . . . . _small vo, original covers, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--poems and ballads. by algernon charles swinburne. london: edward moxon & co., . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--poems and ballads   second series   by algernon charles swinburne. london. chatto and windus, . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of the second series, uniform with the original first series. swinburne, algernon charles.--poems and ballads. . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy of the first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--poems and ballads by algernon charles swinburne. a new edition. london chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ swinburne, algernon charles.--poems and ballads   third series   by algernon charles swinburne. london chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--notes on poems and reviews. by algernon charles swinburne. . . . london: john camden hotten, . . . . _ vo, cloth._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--a song of italy. by algernon charles swinburne. london: john camden hotten . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--william blake. a critical essay. by algernon charles swinburne. with illustrations from blake's designs in facsimile, coloured and plain. second edition. london: john camden hotten, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ swinburne, algernon charles.--songs before sunrise. by algernon charles swinburne. london: f. s. ellis . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--bothwell: a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne. london: chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--george chapman a critical essay. by algernon charles swinburne. london: chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--songs of two nations by algernon charles swinburne   i. a song of italy. ii. ode on the proclamation of the french republic. iii. diræ. london   chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ swinburne, algernon charles.--note of an english republican on the muscovite crusade. by algernon charles swinburne. . . . london: chatto & windus, . . . . _ vo, paper wrappers._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles erechtheus: a tragedy. by algernon charles swinburne. london: chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--songs of the springtides by algernon charles swinburne   london   chatto and windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--studies in song by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--mary stuart a tragedy by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--tristram of lyonesse and other poems by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. presentation copy from the author, with autograph inscription. swinburne, algernon charles.--a century of roundels by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--marino faliero   a tragedy by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--locrine   a tragedy by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--a study of ben jonson by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--astrophel and other poems by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. "astrophel" first appeared in the _pall mall magazine_, vol. i, no. , may, . swinburne, algernon charles.--the tale of balen by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--rosamund, queen of the lombards   a tragedy by algernon charles swinburne. london   chatto & windus    . _crown vo, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. swinburne, algernon charles.--see rossetti, william michael. sylvester, paul.--see lang, andrew. symons, arthur.--see savoy, the. symonds, john addington.--the renaissance. an essay read in the theatre, oxford, june , , by john addington symonds, b. a. . . . oxford henry hammans    . _ vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ first edition. symonds, john addington.--the life of benvenuto cellini   newly translated into english by john addington symonds   with engraved portrait and eight etchings by f. laguillermie also eighteen reproductions of the works of the master . . . london   john c. nimmo . . . mdccclxxxviii. _royal vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with proof impressions of the plates on india paper. symonds, john addington.--see gozzi, count carlo. t. s. a.--cocking and its votaries (by s. a. t.) _ vo, brown morocco, back and sides emblematically tooled, gilt top, uncut edges, by larkins._ fifteen illustrations, some coloured, and an original invitation ticket to a cock fight, dated . tailfer, anderson, and douglas.--a true and historical narrative of the colony of georgia in america, from the first settlement thereof until this present period: containing the most authentick facts, matters and transactions therein; together with his majesty's charter, representations of the people, letters, &c. and a dedication to his excellency general oglethorpe. {pat. tailfer, m. d. by {hugh anderson, m. a. {da. douglas, and others, land-holders in georgia, at present in charles-town in south-carolina. [six lines from horace] charles-town, south-carolina: printed by p. timothy, for the authors, m. dcc. xli. _ vo, brown morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges._ tales from the arabic.--see payne, john. talfourd, sir thomas noon.--ion; a tragedy, in five acts. by thomas noon talfourd. london: edward moxon, . . . . _ vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. autograph notice by the author inserted. talfourd, sir thomas noon.--final memorials of charles lamb; consisting chiefly of his letters not before published, with sketches of some of his companions. by thomas noon talfourd, one of his executors. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: dedicated to wordsworth. talfourd, sir thomas noon.--the dramatic works of sir thomas noon talfourd, d.c.l. eleventh edition; to which are added, a few sonnets and verses. london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ talfourd, sir thomas noon.--recollections of a first visit to the alps, in august and september . by t. n. talfourd. london: printed for private circulation [n. d.] _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ presentation copy to "mr. justice creswell with the best respects of t. n. talfourd," with autograph inscription and corrections. a very few copies were printed. tasso, torquato.--jerusalem delivered; an heroic poem. translated from the italian of torquato tasso, by john hoole . . . the eighth edition, with notes. london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ large paper copy, with portrait and fourteen plates engraved by fittler, heath, anker smith, neagle, etc., after the designs of s. shelley. contains a life of tasso and a dedication to the queen, the latter written by samuel johnson, though signed by hoole. tasso, torquato.--jerusalem delivered. . _royal vo, two volumes, green morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ another large paper copy. inserted are the original water-colour drawings for the engravings, also three unpublished drawings by shelley. tatler, the.--see british classics and british essayists. taverner, william.--the faithful bride of granada. a play. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane, by her majesty's servants. london, printed for james knapton, . . . william turner, . . . william davis, . . . and bernard lintott, . . . . price s. d. _ to, purple levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . taverner, william.--the maid the mistress. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal, by her majesty's servants. london: printed for e. sanger at the post-house at the middle temple-gate; and e. curll at the peacock without temple-bar. . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a , final leaf of advertisement, i . taylor, sir henry.--the eve of the conquest, and other poems. by henry taylor . . . london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxlvii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, sir henry.--notes from books. in four essays. by henry taylor. london: john murray . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, sir henry.--notes from life in six essays . . . by henry taylor . . . third edition. london: john murray . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, sir henry.--edwin the fair; an historical drama. isaac comnenus; a play. the eve of the conquest, and other poems. by henry taylor, . . . third edition. london: edward moxon. . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, sir henry.--philip van artevelde; a dramatic romance. in two parts. by henry taylor. . . . sixth edition. london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, isaac.--history of the transmission of ancient books to modern times; or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness and authenticity of ancient historical works are ascertained: with an estimate of the comparative value of the evidence usually adduced in support of the claims of the jewish and christian scriptures. by isaac taylor. london: printed for b. j. holdsworth, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--the process of historical proof; exemplified and explained: with observations on the peculiar points of the christian evidence. by isaac taylor. . . . london: printed for b. j. holdsworth, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--saturday evening. by the author of natural history of enthusiasm. . . . london: holdsworth and ball. m dccc xxxii. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--fanaticism. by the author of natural history of enthusiasm. . . . london: holdsworth and ball, . . . m dccc xxxiii. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--spiritual despotism. by the author of natural history of enthusiasm. . . . london: holdsworth and ball, . . . m dccc xxxv. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--physical theory of another life by the author of natural history of enthusiasm . . . london   william pickering    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. taylor, isaac.--elements of thought; or concise explanations (alphabetically arranged) of the principal terms employed in the several branches of intellectual philosophy. by isaac taylor. . . . fifth thousand. london. s. holdsworth, . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, john.--the music speech at the public commencement in cambridge, july , m dcc xxx. to which is added, an ode designed to have been set to music on that occasion. by john taylor, m.a. fellow of st. john's college. london, printed by william bowyer, jun. sometime student of the same college; and sold by w. thurlbourn in cambridge, r. clements in oxford, and the booksellers of london and westminster. m dcc xxx. _ vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ contains half-title and final leaf of advertisements. taylor, samuel.--angling in all its branches, reduced to a complete science: being the result of more than forty years real practice and strict observation throughout the kingdoms of great britain and ireland. in three parts. first, describing (among other things) the counties of england, wales, and scotland, in alphabetical order; . . . secondly, a full description of the different kinds of fish taken by angling, &c. . . . thirdly, a list of artificial flies . . . the whole forming a work of real utility, . . . by samuel taylor, gent. london: printed by a. strahan . . . for t. n. longman and o. rees . . . . _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ first edition. taylor, thomas, _translator_.--iamblicus on the mysteries of the egyptians, chaldeans, and assyrians. translated from the greek by thomas taylor. chiswick: printed by c. whittingham . . . . _ vo, russia, back and sides gilt and blind tooled, gilt top, uncut edges, by yarrell._ a small edition printed for the translator, and for the most part suppressed. taylor, thomas, _translator_.--ocellus lucanus on the nature of the universe. taurus, the platonic philosopher, on the eternity of the world. julius firmicus maternus of the thema mundi; in which the positions of the stars at the commencement of the several mundane periods is given. select theorems on the perpetuity of time, by proclus. translated from the originals by thomas taylor. london: printed for the translator; and sold by john bohn, . . . mdcccxxxi. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, thomas.--aristotle. volume x. . taylor, tom.--life of benjamin robert haydon, historical painter, from his autobiography and journals. edited and compiled by tom taylor, . . . second edition.--london: longman, brown &c . . . . _post vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ taylor, tom.--see foster, birket. leslie, c.r. taylor, w. b. s.--the origin, progress, and present condition of the fine arts in great britain and ireland. by w. b. sarsfield taylor, . . . [vignette] . . . london: whittaker & co. . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ woodcuts. tennyson, alfred and charles.--poems, by two brothers . . . london: printed for w. simpkin and r. marshall, . . . and j. and j. jackson, louth. mdcccxxvii. _small vo, green levant morocco, back and sides covered with an exquisite floral design, blossoms and seed-pods, gauffred gilt edges, by cobden-sanderson, ._ first edition of tennyson's first publication. tennyson, alfred and charles.--poems by two brothers . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred large paper copies printed. tennyson, alfred, lord.--prolusiones academicae præmis annius dignatæ et in curia cantabrigiensi recitatæ comitiis maximis a. d.   m. dccc. xxix. cantabrigiæ: typis academicis excudit joannes smith [ ] _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, with the original covers, by rivière._ includes the first edition of "timbuctoo," a poem which obtained the chancellor's medal at the cambridge commencement, "by a. tennyson of trinity college." tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems, chiefly lyrical, by alfred tennyson. london: effingham wilson, . . . . _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panel, doubled with green levant ornamented with sprays of roses, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems by alfred tennyson. london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxxxiii. _small vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, rose vine panel on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the princess; a medley. by alfred tennyson. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxlvii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the princess a medley by alfred tennyson. london c. kegan paul & co., . . . mdccclxxx. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of fifty large paper copies printed, with frontispiece on india paper. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the princess a medley by alfred tennyson. london   kegan paul, trench & c^{o} mdccclxxxii. _post vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ frontispiece. tennyson, alfred, lord.--in memoriam. london: edward moxon . . . . _post vo, light brown levant morocco, back and sides covered with mosaic of red and green in small compartments, gilt edges, in a blue levant morocco case, by rivière._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--in memoriam   boston   ticknor and fields . _small vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ portrait of tennyson, a proof, inserted. tennyson, alfred, lord.--in memoriam   london   kegan paul & co   m dccc lxxx. _post vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ etched portrait of the author. tennyson, alfred, lord.--in memoriam. london   macmillan and co. . _ vo, green levant morocco, back and sides covered with a floral design, partly studded, leaf inside border and edges similarly gauffred, by cobden-sanderson, ._ one of five hundred large paper copies printed, with autograph letter of the binder inserted. tennyson, alfred, lord.--maud, and other poems. by alfred tennyson . . . london: edward moxon . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with autograph letter of the author inserted. tennyson, alfred, lord.--maud . _post vo, crimson levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled with roses and leaves, gauffred gilt edges, by cobden-sanderson, ._ another copy of the first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--maud, a mono-drama, by alfred lord tennyson. printed by william morris at the kelmscott press, . . . . published by macmillan & co., . . . _crown vo, calf, front cover chiselled in a lyre and laurel design, figured silk linings, gilt over uncut edges by gruel._ tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems by alfred tennyson, d. c. l., poet laureate. london: edward moxon, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by h. robinson, after a medallion by thomas woolner, and fifty-four woodcuts by w. j. linton, the dalziel brothers, t. williams, j. thompson and w. t. green, after stanfield, millais, hunt, rossetti, mulready, maclise, horsley, and creswick. tennyson, alfred, lord.--idylls of the king. by alfred tennyson . . . london: edward moxon & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems. mdcccxxx. mdcccxxxiii. privately printed [canada] . _small vo, original paper covers, uncut edges._ privately printed for j. dyke campbell, by whom the book was edited. presentation copy. tennyson, alfred, lord.--enoch arden, etc. by alfred tennyson . . . london: edward moxon & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--enoch arden. by alfred tennyson, [vignette] boston: j. e. tilton and company. . _ to, half green straight-grain morocco, uncut edges._ six full-page woodcuts, and eighteen vignettes, including the one on the title-page. tennyson, alfred, lord.--enoch arden. by alfred tennyson: illustrated by arthur hughes. london: edward moxon & co. . . . . _ to, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by suttaby._ portrait and twenty-five vignettes. tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems by alfred tennyson, d.c.l. poet laureate. with illustrations by millais, stanfield, creswick, mulready, horsley etc etc. new edition. london: e. moxon and co. . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by rivière._ portrait of tennyson on steel from woolner's medallion, and fifty-four woodcuts. tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems by alfred tennyson. strahan and co., . . . london    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ tennyson, alfred, lord.--the holy grail and other poems by alfred tennyson . . . strahan and co., . . . london . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--gareth and lynette etc. by alfred tennyson . . . strahan & co . . . london    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--queen mary a drama by alfred tennyson. henry s. king & co., london . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--harold a drama by alfred tennyson. henry s. king & co.; london . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the lover's tale by alfred tennyson. london c. kegan paul & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--ballads and other poems by alfred tennyson. london   c. kegan paul & co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the lady of shalott   decorated by howard pyle    dodd mead & company   new york    . _ to, maroon levant morocco, gilt and blind tooled back and side panels, doubled with green morocco, gilt borders, green moire silk guards, gilt edges, by lortic._ nineteen pages of text with duplicates on satin, and forty-five designs in colour, with duplicates on satin, and the original drawings. tennyson, alfred, lord.--poems by alfred tennyson   london   kegan paul, trench & co., . . . [chiswick press] mdccclxxxiii. _crown vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, with frontispieces. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the cup and the falcon by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co. . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--tiresias and other poems by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with the dedication afterwards suppressed. tennyson, alfred, lord.--becket by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--locksley hall sixty years after etc. by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with dedication to the poet's wife, afterwards suppressed. tennyson, alfred, lord.--demeter and other poems by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the foresters robin hood and maid marian by alfred lord tennyson . . . london macmillan and co., . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tennyson, alfred, lord.--the death of oenone, akbar's dream, and other poems by alfred lord tennyson . . . with five steel portraits of the author. london macmillan and co., . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, five hundred printed, with proofs of the portraits on india paper. tennyson, alfred, lord.--alfred lord tennyson   a memoir by his son . . . new york   the macmillan company . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-four portraits and other illustrations. testament.--the new testament of our lord and saviour jesus christ. with engravings on wood from designs of fra angelico, pietro perugino, francesco francia, lorenzo di credi, fra bartolommeo, titian, raphael, gaudenzio ferrari, daniel di volterra and others. london: longman . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed. thackeray, william makepeace.--the paris sketch book: by mr. titmarsh. with numerous designs by the author, on copper and wood. london: john macrone . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original cloth covers inserted, by rivière._ first edition of thackeray's first book. thackeray, william makepeace.--the irish sketch-book. by mr. m. a. titmarsh. with numerous engravings on wood, drawn by the author. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxliii. _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. thackeray, william makepeace.--the history of pendennis. his fortunes and misfortunes, his friends and his greatest enemy. by william makepeace thackeray. with illustrations on steel and wood by the author. london: bradbury and evans, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition. thackeray, william makepeace.--the history of henry esmond, esq. a colonel in the service of her majesty queen anne. written by himself. london: printed for smith, elder & company . _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ thackeray, william makepeace.--the newcomes. memoirs of a most respectable family. edited by arthur pendennis esq. with illustrations on steel [ ] and wood, by richard doyle. london: bradbury and evans, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition. thackeray, william makepeace.--the virginians. a tale of the last century. by w. m. thackeray . . . with illustrations on steel [ ] and wood, by the author. london: bradbury and evans . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition, with the original covers, etc., bound at the end. thackeray, william makepeace.--the works of william makepeace thackeray . . . london: smith, elder & co., . . . . _ vo, twenty-two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first issue, with individual titles dated - - , and the original illustrations. thackeray, william makepeace.--loose sketches. an eastern adventure, etc. by w. m. thackeray. with a frontispiece by john leech. london: frank t. sabin . . . mdcccxciv. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. thausing, moriz.--albert dürer his life and works. by moriz thausing, . . . translated from the german. edited by fred. a. eaton, . . . with portraits and illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ augmented by the insertion of a complete set of the plates called the "little passion," together with the original text printed at venice, , by daniel bissuccio. theobald, lewis.--the persian princess: or, the royal villain. a tragedy. as it was acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by mr. theobald. . . . london: printed for jonas browne, . . . . _ to, brown morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ theobald, lewis.--the fatal secret. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal, in covent-garden. by mr. theobald. london: printed for j. watts . . . mdccxxxv. _ mo, contemporary red morocco, gilt back, sides tooled with radiating centre and corners, gilt edges._ first edition. frontispiece by g. van der gucht. dedicated to sir robert walpole, and containing horace walpole's book-plate. thomas, isaiah.--the history of printing in america, with a biography of printers, and an account of newspapers. to which is prefixed a concise view of the discovery and progress of the art in other parts of the world . . . by isaiah thomas . . . worcester: isaiah thomas jun . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ five plates of facsimiles, etc. autograph letter of thomas inserted. thomas, ralph.--a catalogue of the etchings and drypoints of james abbott macneil whistler. london: privately printed by john russell smith, . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ fifty copies printed, with etched portrait of whistler. thompson, isaac.--a collection of poems, occasionally writ on several subjects. by isaac thompson . . . newcastle upon tyne: printed by john white, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ thick paper copy, with list of subscribers, eight pages, at the end. thoms, p. p.--a dissertation on the ancient chinese vases of the shang dynasty, from to , b.c.. illustrated with forty-two chinese wood engravings. by p. p. thoms, . . . london: published by the author, . . . and sold by james gilbert, . . . . _ vo, cloth._ thoms, w. j.--[notes on editions of the dunciad] [n.d.] _ mo, half green morocco._ privately reprinted from "notes and queries," nos. - , without title-page and interleaved. thoms, w. j.--curll papers stray notes on the life and publications of edmund curll   from notes and queries   reprinted for private circulation [london, by spottiswoode and co.] m dccc lxxix. _ mo, half green morocco, gilt top, with the original covers bound in._ presentation copy from the author to lieut.-colonel francis grant, with inscription on the half-title. thomson, arthur.--a handbook of anatomy for art students by arthur thomson, . . . with numerous illustrations   new york   the macmillan company    . _ vo, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-nine plates and illustrations in the text. thomson, james.--the tragedy of sophonisba. acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane by his majesty's servants. by mr. thomson. london: printed for a. millar . . . mdccxxx. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ thick paper copy of the first edition. a-l in fours, title on a . dedicated to the queen. thomson, james.--the castle of indolence: an allegorical poem. written in imitation of spenser. by james thomson. london: printed for a. millar, . . . mdccxlviii. _ to, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. thomson, james.--les saisons. poëme. traduit de l'anglois de thompson. a paris, chez chaubert [et] herissant . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by motte._ engraved title, four plates and four vignettes by baquoy after the designs of eisen, all brilliant impressions. thomson, james.--the seasons. by james thomson. parma   printed by bodoni   mdccxciv. _folio, half maroon calf, uncut edges._ the entire edition consisted of one hundred and seventy-five copies. the present copy is one of a few printed upon large paper. thomson, james.--les saisons, poeme. traduit de l'anglais de thompson [par mme. bontemps] edition ornée de figures dessinées par le barbier et gravées sous sa direction. a paris, de l'imprimerie de didot jeune m.dcc.xcvi. _royal vo, red morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges._ three hundred copies printed. the four plates are proofs before the inscription. thomson, james.--the seasons, by james thomson. a new edition. adorned with plates. london: printed by t. bensley . . . for t. j. du roveray . . . . _royal vo, half crown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by cook._ large paper copy. portrait by collyer after burney, and six proof plates by bromley, heath, etc., after designs by fuseli and hamilton. thomson, james.--the seasons. . _royal vo, green levant morocco, back and sides covered with a floral and foliage design, figured green silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, with the original plates in proof state, some in duplicate. inserted are a portrait by r. hicks after aikman, on india paper, and thirteen proof plates after stothard, kirk, etc., and stothard's original drawing for autumn, the plate of which is in three states. thomson, james.--the seasons. . _royal vo, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by clarke and bedford._ one of three copies, printed on large and heavy india paper. portrait and six plates, proofs before letters. thomson, james.--the seasons, by j. thomson. embellished with engravings on wood   by bewick, from thurston's designs . . . london: printed for james wallis . . . . _ vo, half brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ thomson, james.--the seasons. by james thomson. with engraved illustrations from designs drawn on wood by john bell . . . [&c] and with the life of the author by patrick murdock . . . edited by bolton corney esq. london: longman . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by lortic._ seventy-seven illustrations. thomson, james.--the works of james thomson. with his last corrections and improvements . . . to which is prefixed the life of the author by patrick murdock . . . london: printed by a. strahan . . . m d cclxxxviii. _crown vo, three volumes bound in four, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side borders, roger payne style, inside border, silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by rivière._ illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and eighty engravings on copper and steel, including twenty-five portraits of the author, with the head engraved by caroline watson and others in two states, proofs before and after the letters. nearly all the various series of plates to the "seasons," etc., are included, many in from two to four states, and the engraving by audinet after stothard, of "shepherding," is supplemented by the original drawing. thomson, james.--the works of mr. james thomson, with his last corrections and improvements . . . to which is prefixed, the life of the author, by patrick murdock . . . london: printed for r. baldwin . . . . _royal vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy. illustrated by a portrait of the author, and twenty-two plates (many inserted) after the designs of stothard, metz, fuseli, burney, westall, etc., many proofs. thomson, james.--the poetical works of james thomson. london   william pickering    . _foolscap, vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by sir harris nicolas, and a portrait of thomson. thomson, james.--see mallet, david. thomson, richard.--a lecture on some of the characteristic features of illuminated manuscripts, from the viii. to the xviii. century; by richard thomson . . . as delivered . . . by william tite . . . to which is added a second lecture on the materials and practice of illuminators: with biographical and literary notices illustrative of the art of illumination. london. m.dccc.lvii. [not published] _ vo, cloth._ thomson, william.--an outline of the necessary laws of thought; a treatise on pure and applied logic. by william thomson, . . . third edition much enlarged. london: william pickering. . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ thorburn, grant.--fifty years' reminiscences of new-york, or flowers from the garden of laurie todd: being a collection of fugitive pieces which appeared in the newspapers and periodicals of the day, for the last thirty years; including tales of the sugar-house [prison] in liberty street; &c . . . by grant thorburn. new york: published by daniel fanshaw, . . . [ ] _ mo, half maroon straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top._ portrait by j. n. gimbrede after freeman. thorburn, grant.--lawrie todd. life and writings of grant thorburn: prepared by himself. new york: edward walker, . . . . _ mo, original green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ portrait by j. n. gimbrede after freeman. thornbury, walter.--the life of j. m. w. turner, r.a. founded on letters and papers. furnished by his friends and fellow academicians. by walter thornbury . . . london: hurst and blackett . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait (statue) and six woodcut illustrations. thornbury, walter.--the life of j. m. w. turner, r.a. founded on letters and papers furnished by his friends and fellow-academicians by walter thornbury   a new edition revised and mostly rewritten with illustrations, facsimiled in colours, from turner's original drawings. london   chatto & windus, . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ thousand nights.--see payne, john. thrupp, j. godfrey.--see james and thrupp. ticknor, george.--history of spanish literature. by george ticknor. london: john murray   . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. ticknor, george.--history of spanish literature by george ticknor . . . third american edition, corrected and enlarged. boston   ticknor and fields    . _ vo, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. ticknor, george.--life of william hickling prescott by george ticknor. boston, ticknor and fields    . _ to, blue morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ one of two editions published in the same year, the other being octavo. portrait of prescott. ticknor, george.--life of william hickling prescott. by george ticknor, . . . with a new portrait, on steel. london: routledge, warne, and routledge, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first english edition. ticknor, george.--life of william hickling prescott by george ticknor [arms] boston   ticknor and fields . _royal to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. two portraits, proofs before letters, facsimile, and sixteen woodcuts in the text. tieck, ludwig.--the midsummer night. or shakespeare and the fairies. from the german of ludwig tieck. by mary c. rumsey. london: printed by c. whittingham. . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ tiffin, walter f.--gossip about portraits. principally engraved portraits. by walter f. tiffin. london: h. g. bohn . . . . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ first issue. tighe, mary blachford.--psyche; or, the legend of love. [printed for james carpenter by c. w. whittingham] london    . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed for presents, with a portrait of mrs. tighe, engraved by caroline watson. presentation copy to lady elinor butler and s. ponsonby, with inscription by the author. one of the earliest imprints of the elder charles whittingham. tighe, mary blachford.--psyche, with other poems. by the late mrs. henry tighe. the fourth edition. london: printed for longman, . . . . _small vo, green levant morocco, profusely ornamented on back and sides, and inlaid with citron morocco, wide inside borders, repeated on the yellow silk linings, gilt edges with a painting on the fore-edge, by a contemporary english binder._ portrait by scriven after romney. timbs, john.--club life of london, with anecdotes of the clubs, coffee-houses, and taverns of the metropolis during the th, th, and th, centuries. by john timbs . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portraits of george colman and captain morris. timbs, john.--romance of london: strange stories, scenes and remarkable persons of the great town. by john timbs, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. timbs, john.--english eccentrics and eccentricities. by john timbs, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. timbs, john.--london and westminster: city and suburb. strange events, characteristics and changes, of metropolitan life. by john timbs . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ timbs, john.--curiosities of london: exhibiting the most rare and remarkable objects of interest in the metropolis; with nearly sixty years' personal recollections. by john timbs . . . a new edition, corrected and enlarged   london: longmans . . . m dccclxviii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of timbs, engraved by mote. tite, sir william.--an address delivered before the society of antiquaries of london, on thursday, december th. , at an exhibition of early printed books. to which is subjoined an address delivered on thursday, june th, , at an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts. by william tite, . . . london: m.dccc.lxii. [not published] _ vo, half olive morocco, uncut edges._ presentation copy to dr. markland, with the author's inscription. "todd, laurie."--see thorburn, grant. tom raw, the griffin.--see d'oyly, sir charles. tonty, henri de.--relation of henri de tonty concerning the explorations of la salle from to translated by melville b. anderson chicago the caxton club . _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and ninety-four copies printed on hand-made paper. toovey, james.--a catalogue of an extensive and extraordinary assemblage of the productions of the aldine press, from its first establishment at venice in , together with lyonese and venetian counterfeits, the giunta and other works illustrative of the series. london: james toovey, . . . [chiswick press] . _ vo, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ tower menagerie.--the tower menagerie: comprising the natural history of the animals contained in that establishment; with anecdotes of their characters and history. illustrated by portraits of each, taken from life, by william harvey; and engraved on wood by branston and wright. [vignette] london: printed for robert jennings, [by charles whittingham] . . . m d ccc xxix. _ vo, half blue silk, gilt top, uncut edges._ printed on india paper. townsend, w. h.--a system of foliage, with hints on the acquirement of a touch, being an introduction to the study of nature, designed for the use of amateurs. by w. h. townsend. london:--published by joseph graham, . . . [ ] _oblong to, cloth._ twenty-three plates. townshend, thomas.--poems. by thomas townshend . . . london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ large paper copy, with vignettes by stothard. trelawny, edward john.--recollections of the last days of shelley and byron. by e. j. trelawny. london: edward moxon . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ four portraits and views. trench, richard chevenix.--the hulsean lectures for m. dccc. xlv and m. dccc. xlvi. by richard chevenix trench, . . . fourth edition, revised. cambridge: macmillan and co. . . . . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ trevelyan, sir george otto.--the life and letters of lord macaulay by his nephew george otto trevelyan, m. p. . . . london longmans, green, and co    . _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with portrait of macaulay. trevelyan, sir george otto.--the early history of charles james fox by george otto trevelyan, . . . london longmans, green, and co. . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. tristram, w. outram.--coaching days and coaching ways by w. outram tristram with illustrations by hugh thomson and herbert railton london macmillan and co. . . . . _imperial vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. trollope, frances milton.--paris and the parisians in . by frances trollope, . . . second edition. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ etched frontispieces and twelve plates by a. hervieu. trollope, frances milton.--vienna and the austrians; with some account of a journey through swabia, bavaria, the tyrol, and the salzbourg. by frances trollope, . . . in two volumes. london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, light brown morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. the preface is dated hadley, january , , and the engraved title-pages, . engraved title-pages, frontispieces, and ten other plates drawn and etched by a. hervieu. trollope, frances milton.--the widow married; a sequel to "the widow barnaby." by frances trollope, . . . with numerous illustrations. . . . london: henry colburn, publisher, [harrison and co., printers] . . . . _post vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. twenty-one etchings by b. w. buss. trollope, frances milton.--life and adventures of michael armstrong, the factory boy. by frances trollope, author of "the vicar of wrexhill," "the widow barnaby," etc. in three volumes. . . . london: henry colburn, publisher, [william clowes and sons, printers] . . . . _post vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. twenty-four engravings, dated march -december , . trollope, frances milton.--charles chesterfield, or the adventures of a youth of genius. by mrs. trollope, . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. twelve etchings by "phiz." trollope, thomas adolphus.--the girlhood of catherine de' medici. by t. adolphus trollope. london: chapman and hall . . . . _crown vo, calf, gilt back, by nutt._ first edition. lithographic title, with portrait of catherine de' medici. trollope, thomas adolphus.--filippo strozzi. a history of the last days of the old italian liberty. by t. adolphus trollope, . . . london: chapman & hall, . . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. portrait after bronzino (titian?). trollope, thomas adolphus.--paul the pope and paul the friar. a story of an interdict. by t. adolphus trollope, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by livy. trollope, thomas adolphus.--giulio malatesta a novel. by t. adolphus trollope . . . london: chapman and hall . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ trollope, thomas adolphus.--a history of the commonwealth of florence, from the earliest independence of the commune to the fall of the republic in . by t. adolphus trollope, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--barchester towers. by anthony trollope, author of "the warden." . . . london: longman, brown, green, longmans, & roberts. . _crown vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--can you forgive her? by anthony trollope, . . . with illustrations. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. twenty etchings, and twenty woodcuts by dalziel. trollope, thomas anthony.--the belton estate. by anthony trollope, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--orley farm. by anthony trollope, . . . with illustrations by j. e. millais. london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--the claverings. by anthony trollope. with sixteen illustrations, by m. ellen edwards. . . . london: smith, elder and co., . . . m. dccc. lxvii. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--phineas redux by anthony trollope, . . . with twenty-four illustrations. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ trollope, thomas anthony.--harry heathcote of gangoil. a tale of australian bush life. by anthony trollope. london: sampson low, marston, low, & searle, . . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trollope, thomas anthony.--ayala's angel by anthony trollope, . . . london: chapman and hall . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. trusler, john.--proverbs exemplified, and illustrated by pictures from real life. teaching morality and a knowledge of the world; with prints. designed as a succession-book to Æsop's fables. after the manner, and by the author, of hogarth moralized [cut] printed for and published by the rev. j. trusler . . . london, may , . _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. fifty woodcut illustrations by john bewick. trumbull, john.--m^{c}fingal: a modern epic poem, in four cantos. by john trumbull, esq. embellished with nine copper plates; designed and engraved by e. tisdale. the first edition with plates, [including a portrait] and explanatory notes. . . . new york: printed by john buel, . . . m, dcc, xcv. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ tuckerman, arthur lyman.--design by arthur lyman tuckerman. new york wm. t. comstock . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. tuckerman, henry t.--book of the artists. american artist life, comprising biographical and critical sketches of american artists: preceded by an historical account of the rise and progress of art in america. by henry t. tuckerman. with an appendix containing an account of notable pictures and private collections. new york: g. p. putnam and son, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of d. huntington. tupper, martin farquhar.--proverbial philosophy: by martin f. tupper . . . thirty-eighth edition. london: hatchard and co. . . . . _crown vo, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by rivière._ portrait engraved by artlett from a bust by durham. turner and girtin.--river scenery, by turner and girtin, with descriptions by m^{rs}. hofland. engraved by eminent engravers, from drawings by j. m. w. turner, r. a. and the late thomas girtin. [ plates] . london. published by w. b. cooke, . . . _folio, green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ turner and parker.--some account of domestic architecture in england, from the conquest to the end of the thirteenth century, [and edward i to henry viii] with numerous illustrations of existing remains from original drawings. by t. hudson turner [and j. h. parker] oxford, john henry parker, . . . mdcccli [liii-lix.] _ vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ three hundred and four illustrations. the first volume only is the work of turner. parker had assisted him in preparing the book, and was eminently fitted to complete the series. twining, henry.--on the philosophy of painting: a theoretical and practical treatise; comprising æsthetics in reference to art, the application of rules to painting, and general considerations on perspective. by henry twining--london: longman, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. the illustrations are on steel and wood. two tales.--an impossible thing. a tale. london: printed: and sold by j. roberts . . . m dcc xx. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ on pages - is the second tale, "the peasant in search of his heifer. a tale, after m. de la fontaine." universal songster.--the universal songster; or museum of mirth: forming the most complete, extensive, and valuable collection of ancient and modern songs in the english language . . . embellished with a [three] humorous characteristic frontispiece, and twenty-nine wood-cuts, designed by george and robert cruikshank, and engraved by j. r. marshall. london: printed for john fairburn . . . . [- ] _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. utterson, s. e., _translator_.--tales of the dead. principally translated from the french . . . london: printed for white, cochrane, and co., . . . . _ vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt edges._ e. v. utterson's copy, with a portrait of "s. e. utterson" by reynolds after chalon, and six water-colour drawings inserted. mrs. utterson was the translator of these tales, and presumably the inserted portrait bore some resemblance to her. uwins, mrs. thomas.--a memoir of thomas uwins, r. a. late keeper of the royal galleries and the national gallery . . . etc. by mrs. uwins. with letters to his brothers during seven years spent in italy and correspondence with the late sir thomas lawrence, sir charles l. eastlake, a. e. chalon, r. a. and other distinguished persons . . . london longman, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ uzanne, octave.--the french bookbinders of the eighteenth century by octave uzanne . . . translated by mabel mcilvaine chicago published by the caxton club   mdcccciv. _royal to, half cloth, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty-two copies printed on hand-made paper, with twenty coloured plates, five head-pieces from wash-drawings by paul avril, and fifteen binders' labels, etc. vale, g.--a compendium of the life of thomas paine. by g. vale. [teacher of the arts depending on the mathematics.] published by the author, . . . and by messrs g. & w. matsell, . . . new york. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ the substance of an address delivered at tammany hall on sunday, january , , the centennial anniversary of paine's birthday. valentines.--(i.)a few shots from cupid's bow. being original valentines for ladies and gentlemen, who wish to convey the sentiments of love in the most expressive language london: printed by dean and son. [n. d.] (ii.) a few shots [as above, but with extensive revision] london: dean and c^{o}. [n. d.] (iii.) the gentlemen's polite valentine writer. . . . london: published by dean and c^{o}. [n. d.] (iv.) the book of love; or the poesy of st. valentine . . . london. published by a. park. [n. d.] (v.) liber amoris: or the book of love . . . london: published by a. park . . . [n. d.] _ vo, five works in one volume, half red morocco, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by r. w. smith._ each of the five works has a large coloured frontispiece. vandam, albert.--an englishman in paris (notes and recollections) . . . london: chapman & hall . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. vaniÈre, jacques.--fishing. a translation from the latin of vanier. book xv. upon fish. by the late rev. john duncombe, . . . with a brief introduction; and passages from english writers, selected as notes. london: printed for r. triphook, . . . . _ vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed. originally published in brydges's "censura literaria." vasari, george.--the life of giovanni angelico da fiesole, translated from the italian of vasari by giovanni aubrey bezzi, with notes and illustrations. printed for the arundel society. . _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ twenty-one plates, proofs on india paper. vaughan, robert alfred.--essays and remains of the rev. robert alfred vaughan. edited, with a memoir, by the rev. robert vaughan. london: john w. parker and son . . . . _square post vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of the author. vaughan, robert alfred.--hours with the mystics. a contribution to the history of religious opinion. by robert alfred vaughan b. a. second edition revised and augmented by the author. london: john w. parker and son . . . . _square post vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ vega, garcilasso de la.--the works of garcilasso de la vega, surnamed the prince of castilian poets, translated into english verse; with a critical and historical essay on spanish poetry, and a life of the author. by j. h. wiffen. london: printed for hurst, robinson, and co. . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, back and side panels richly tooled, arms on the sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ one of the twenty-five copies printed on large paper for presentation. this copy, no. , was given by the translator to samuel rogers, the poet. it has a cancelled leaf at page xv, with autograph correction. portrait of the author, by cooper after parez, and woodcut illustrations, proofs on india paper. verses in memory of a lady. written at sandgate castle, m dcc lxviii. . . . london, printed for t. becket and p. a. de hondt . . . m dcc lxviii. _ to, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ contains the half-title and final leaf of advertisement. vespucci, amerigo.--the first four voyages of amerigo vespucci reprinted in facsimile and translated from the rare original edition (florence, - ). london bernard quaritch . . . . _ to, original paper covers, uncut edges._ frontispiece and folded map, besides the woodcuts in the facsimile. [vestris, madame.]--. . . memoirs of the life, public and private adventures, of madame vestris; [lucia elizabeth bartolozzi--mrs. charles james mathews] . . . with interesting and curious anecdotes of celebrated and distinguished characters in the fashionable world. detailing an interesting variety of singularly curious and amusing scenes, as performed before and behind the curtain, both in public and private life, "at home" and abroad. by a naval officer. dedicated to the king. . . . embellished with portraits, and curious coloured plates. london: printed & published by john duncombe, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, half citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition: with portrait drawn and engraved by kennerley, and five coloured plates by marks. madame vestris obtained an injunction against the publisher of this book and it was suppressed. view of the town.--a view of the town: in an epistle to a friend in the country. a satire. . . . london: printed by r. penny, for the author, and sold by a. dodd, . . . . _folio, red levant morocco._ villari, pasquale.--life and times of girolamo savonarola by professor pasquale villari translated by linda villari with portraits and illustrations. . . . london: t. fisher unwin . . . m dccc lxxx viii. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait on steel and twenty-seven other illustrations. villon, franÇois.--the poems of master francis villon of paris, now first done into english verse, in the original forms, by john payne, author of 'the masque of shadows', 'intaglios', 'songs of life and death', &c. london: printed for the villon society, for private distribution, m dccclxxviii. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, centre ornament, gilt top, uncut edges, by de coverly._ one of two copies printed upon vellum. woodcut frontispiece, which is repeated in gilt on the upper side of the binding. villon, franÇois.--the poems of master françois villon of paris, now first done into english verse, in the original forms, with a biographical and critical introduction, by john payne, . . . london: m dccc xcii: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _ vo, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of a limited edition. virgilius maro, publius.--the first four books of the Æneid of virgil, in english heroic verse. with other translations and poems. by richard stanyhurst. printed at edinburgh. [edinburgh printing company.] m dccc xxxvi. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies privately printed. virgilius maro, publius.--see morris, william. virtue in distress.--see pretender. vizetelly, henry.--berlin under the new empire, its institutions, inhabitants, industry, monuments, museums, social life, manners, and amusements. by henry vizetelly, . . . illustrated with upwards of engravings from designs by german artists. . . . london: tinsley brothers, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ vocal magazine.--the vocal magazine. containing a selection of the most esteemed english, scots, and irish songs, antient and modern: adapted for the harpsichord or violin. . . . edinburgh: printed by c. stewart & co. . . . . [- ] _ vo, three volumes and seventeen songs of volume iv in two volumes, half calf, gilt back, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in._ the covers are from no. i to no. xix, - , the magazine having been issued monthly. volkmann, ludwig.--iconografia dantesca the pictorial representations to dante's divine comedy by ludwig volkmann   revised and augmented by the author with a preface by charles sarolea . . . with seventeen plates and four woodcuts london h. grevel & co. . . . . _royal vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed. voltaire, franÇois marie arouet de.--three epistles in the ethic way. from the french of m. de voltaire. viz. i. happiness. ii. freedom of will. iii. envy. london: printed for r. dodsley, . . . m. dcc. xxxviii . . . . _ vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ three sub-titles and a final leaf of advertisement. waagen, g. f.--peter paul rubens, his life and genius. translated from the german of dr. waagen, by robert r. noel, esq. edited by mrs. jameson. london: saunders and otley, . . . mdcccxl. _crown vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ waagen, g. f.--handbook of painting. the german, flemish, and dutch schools. based on the handbook of kugler. enlarged and for the most part re-written. by dr. waagen, . . . with [ ] illustrations. . . . london: john murray, . . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ waechter, harriet, _editor_.--the chaucer birthday book. compiled by harriet waechter . . . london: griffith, farran, okeden and welsh . . . mdccclxxxix. _square vo, vellum, uncut edges._ portrait of chaucer from pickering's plate. printed in gothic type by whittingham. "wagstaff, simon."--see swift, jonathan. wakefield, gilbert.--an examination of the age of reason, or an investigation of true and fabulous theology, by thomas paine. by gilbert wakefield, b. a. late fellow of jesus-college, cambridge. . . . london: printed: new york: re-printed by g. forman, . . . for j. fellows, . . . --_ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ final leaf of advertisements. walker, alexander.--beauty illustrated chiefly by an analysis and classification of beauty in woman. preceded by a critical view of the general hypotheses respecting beauty, by hume, hogarth, burke, knight, alison, etc., and followed by a similar view of the hypotheses of beauty in sculpture and painting by leonardo da vinci, winckelmann, mengs, bossi, etc. by alexander walker, . . . illustrated by drawings from life, by henry howard, . . . drawn on stone by m. gauci and r. j. lane, . . . london: effingham wilson, . . . . _royal vo, blue levant morocco, floral mosaic on back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition, with the twenty-two plates on india paper. walker, alexander.--intermarriage; or the mode in which, and the causes why, beauty, health and intellect, result from certain unions, and deformity, disease and insanity, from others; . . . illustrated by drawings of parents and progeny. by alexander walker. london: john churchill . . . mdcccxxxviii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. walker, alexander.--woman physiologically considered as to mind, morals, marriage, matrimonial slavery, infidelity and divorce. by alexander walker. . . . london: a. h. baily and co., . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. walker, thomas.--the wit of a woman. as it is now acted at the new theatre in little lincolns-inn-fields. by her majesty's sworn servants. london, printed for richard bassett, at the mitre in fleet-street, and j. chantry, at the pestle and mortar without temple-bar. . _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. half-title and title, two leaves, and a-f in fours. advertisement, f . wallis, alfred.--examples of the book-binder's art of the xvi. and xvii. centuries, selected chiefly from the royal continental libraries, with descriptions and an introduction by alfred wallis . . . james g. commin, exeter . . . printed for the subscribers only, m. dccc. xc. _folio, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed, with forty plates. wallis, henry.--the godman collection persian ceramic art in the collection of mr. f. du cane godman, f. r. s. the thirteenth century lustred vases. by henry wallis. with illustrations by the author. london: printed for private circulation. m dccc xci. _imperial to, half citron morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. h. porter._ twenty-nine coloured plates, and numerous marginal illustrations. no. of two hundred copies printed. walpole, horace.--a catalogue of the royal and noble authors of england, with lists of their works . . . the second edition, corrected and enlarged. london: printed for r. and j. dodsley . . . mdcclix. _ vo, two volumes, contemporary red morocco, gilt back, thistle border on the sides._ frontispiece by grignion. horace walpole's copy, with his book-plate. walpole, horace.--a catalogue of the royal and noble authors of england, scotland, and ireland; with lists of their works: by the late horatio walpole, earl of orford. enlarged and continued to the present time by thomas park . . . london: printed for john scott . . . . _ to, five volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by holloway._ large paper copy, with three hundred and fifteen portraits, duplicates of the regular series, proofs before letters, the variation of most of these plates, also proofs, the original engraving of the duchess of newcastle by peter von schappen, an india proof impression before all letters of the lodge portrait of horace walpole, also two letters in the autograph of walpole, one to john pinkerton, the other to dr. ducarel, both referring to this book. walpole, horace.--portraits of royal and noble authors publish'd . . . by s. harding (london - ) _royal to, half red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by rousselle._ one hundred and forty-five portraits in semi-outline, and three from the british cabinet by adolphus. these portraits must not be confounded with the series issued with the edition of , for while most are taken from the same originals, some do not appear in the later issue. walpole, horace.--anecdotes of painting in england; with some account of the principal artists; and incidental notes on other arts; collected by the late mr. george vertue; and now digested and published from his original mss. by mr. horace walpole . . . printed by thomas farmer at strawberry-hill   mdcclxii [lxiii--lxxi] _ to, four volumes, red morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by henderson & bisset._ one hundred and four plates of portraits. the fourth volume contains "the history of the modern taste in gardening," and is printed by thomas kirgate. the "additional lives" are bound with the second and third volumes. walpole, horace.--anecdotes of painting in england, with some account of the principal artists; and incidental notes on other arts; collected by the late mr. george vertue; and now digested and published from his original mss. by mr. horace walpole . . . printed by thomas farmer at strawberry hill   mdcclxii. [iii-xxi] _ to, four volumes, old red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ one hundred and four plates of portraits. the fourth volume, printed by kirgate, contains "the history of the modern taste in gardening." the "additional lives" are in the third volume. walpole, horace.--anecdotes of painting in england; with some account of the principal artists; and incidental notes on other arts; collected by the late mr. george vertue; digested and published from his original mss. by the honourable horace walpole; with considerable additions by the rev. james dallaway london: printed at the shakespeare press, by w. nicol, for john major . . . mdcccxxviii. _royal vo, five volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. the portraits and woodcuts published with these volumes are duplicated by the insertion of unlettered proofs on india paper. in addition, one hundred and twenty-two plates have been inserted, comprising twenty-four india proofs of english kings by worthington, fifty-eight portraits from the strawberry-hill press, a drawing by harding of horace walpole as a child, etc. walpole, horace.--a catalogue of engravers, who have been born, or resided in england; digested by mr. horace walpole from the mss. of mr. george vertue; to which is added an account of the life and works of the latter . . . strawberry-hill: printed in the year mdcclxiii. _ to, red morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by henderson & bisset._ first edition. nine plates of portraits. walpole, horace.--a catalogue of engravers. . _ to, old red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ another copy. walpole, horace.--a catalogue of engravers, who have been born or resided in england; digested by mr. horace walpole from the mss. of mr. george vertue; to which is added an account of the life and works of the latter. the second edition . . . strawberry-hill: printed in the year mdcclxv. _ to, half red morocco, red top, uncut edges._ nine copper-plate portraits. walpole, horace.--the castle of otranto, a story. translated by william marshal, gent. from the original italian of onuphrio muralto, canon of the church of st. nicholas at otranto. london: printed for tho. lownds . . . mdcclxv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, which consisted of very few copies. walpole, horace.--the castle of otranto, a gothic story. translated by william marshal, gent. from the original italian of onuphrio muralto, . . . the sixth edition. [parma] printed with bodoni's characters for edwards . . . of london mdccxc. _royal vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side borders in scrolls, flowers, foliage, and small tools, gilt over uncut edges, in a brown straight-grain morocco case, by bedford._ marshal junot's copy, one of six printed upon vellum. walpole, horace.--the castle of otranto, a gothic story. translated by william marshal, gent. from the original italian of onuphrio muralto . . . the sixth edition. parma. printed by bodoni, for j. edwards, bookseller of london. mdccxci. _royal vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ large paper copy, with brilliant portrait of walpole by falconet, and view of the castle of otranto in two states, engraver's etching and finished proof. portrait inserted. walpole, horace.--jeffery's edition of the castle of otranto, a gothic story. translated by william marshal, gent. from the original italian of onuphrio muralto . . . london: printed by cooper and graham . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ seven coloured plates, engraved by birrell, with a gold border added to each plate. walpole and reeve.--. . . the old english baron   a gothic story by clara reeve also the castle of otranto   a gothic story   by horace walpole with two portraits and four drawings by a. h. tourrier   etched by damman   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two works in one volume, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. walpole, horace.--the mysterious mother. a tragedy. by mr. horace walpole. printed at strawberry-hill: mdcclxviii. _ vo, citron morocco, rich gilt back and sides, inside borders, satin linings, gilt edges, by roger payne._ first edition, fifty copies printed. walpole, horace.--the mysterious mother. . _ vo, blue morocco, rich gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by clarke and bedford._ another copy. walpole, horace.--the mysterious mother. a tragedy. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m.dcc.lxxxi. _ vo, brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by smith-mansell. streatfeild's "comedies" are bound at the end._ second edition. presentation copy "from the author," with five water-colour drawings. walpole, horace.--letters of horace walpole   earl of orford, to sir horace mann, british envoy at the court of tuscany. now first published from the originals in the possession of the earl of waldegrave. edited by lord dover; with an original memoir of the author, by the editor. third edition . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by dean after a miniature by zincke. walpole, horace.--the letters of horace walpole, earl of orford: including numerous letters now first published from the original manuscripts . . . - . london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, six volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first collected edition. twenty-four steel portraits. walpole, horace.--the letters of horace walpole, earl of orford. edited by peter cunningham. now first chronologically arranged. [cut] in nine volumes. . . . london: richard bentley, m.d.ccc.lvii.[-ix.] _ vo, nine volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first cunningham edition: with thirty-nine plates. walpole, horace.--memoirs of the reign of king george the third. by horace walpole . . . now first published from the original mss. edited, with notes, by sir denis le marchant . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. steel portraits of george iii, queen charlotte, duke of grafton, and the hon. charles townshend. walpole, horace.--memoirs of the reign of king george the second. by horace walpole . . . edited, from the original mss. with a preface and notes, by the late lord holland. second edition, revised. with the original mottoes. london: henry colburn . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first octavo edition, with six steel portraits. walpole, horace.--memoirs of horace walpole and his contemporaries; including numerous original letters chiefly from strawberry hill. edited by eliot warburton . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portraits of horace walpole and mary berry. walpole, horace.--journal of the reign of king george the third, from the year to . by horace walpole. now first published from original mss . . . edited, with notes, by dr. doran. london: richard bentley . . . mdccclix. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portraits of john wilkes and francis, lord north. walpole, horace.--horace walpole's marginal notes, written in dr. maty's miscellaneous works and memoirs of the earl of chesterfield. vols. to. . communicated by r. s. turner, esq. the possessor of the volumes, [n. p., n. d.] _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ [walpole, horace.]--horace walpole and his world. select passages from his letters. edited by l. b. seeley . . . with eight illustrations after sir joshua reynolds and sir thomas lawrence. london. seeley, jackson, and halliday . . . . _square vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with one hundred portraits and views inserted, including mezzotints after reynolds, a large number of proofs before letters and on india paper. walpole, horace.--see pilkington and fuseli. war in america.--an impartial history of the war in america, between great britain and her colonies, from its commencement to the end of the year . exhibiting a circumstantial, connected, and complete account of the real causes, rise, and progress of the war, interspersed with anecdotes and characters of the different commanders, and accounts of such personages in congress as have distinguished themselves during the contest. with an appendix, containing a collection of interesting and authentic papers tending to elucidate the history. illustrated with a variety [ ] of beautiful copper-plates, representing real and animated likenesses of those celebrated generals who have distinguished themselves in the important contest. [and a map]. london: printed for r. faulder . . . m,dcc,lxxx. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over rough edges, by bedford._ ward, edward.--nuptial dialogues and debates: or, an useful prospect of the felicities and discomforts of a marry'd life, incident to all degrees, from the throne to the cottage. containing many great examples of love, piety, prudence, justice, and all the excellent vertues that largely contribute to the true happiness of wedlock. drawn from the lives of our own princes, nobility, and other quality, in prosperity and adversity. also the fantastical humours of all fops, coquets, bullies, jilts, fond fools and wantons, old fumblers, barren ladies, misers, parsimonious wives, ninnies, sluts, and termagants, drunken husbands, toaping gossips, schismatical precisians, and devout hypocrites of all sorts. digested into serious, merry, and satyrical poems, wherein both sexes in all stations, are reminded of their duty, and taught how to be happy in a matrimonial state. by the author of the london-spy . . . london: printed for t. norris . . . . _ mo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt edges, by bedford._ eight plates drawn and engraved by j. pine. waring, j. b., _editor_.--. . . art treasures of the united kingdom from the art treasures exhibition, manchester edited by j. b. waring chromo lithographed by f. bedford. the drawings on wood by r. dudley. with essays by owen jones, digby wyatt, a. w. franks, j. b. waring, j. c. robinson & g. scharf. jun. london, . day and son. . . . _royal to, dark brown calf, back and sides covered with a mosaic design of interlacing ribbons in darker brown calf, gilt ornaments._ one hundred plates and numerous woodcuts in the text. warner, charles dudley.--our italy   by charles dudley warner . . . with many illustrations   new york   harper & brothers, . . . m dcccxcii. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ warner, george f.--illuminated manuscripts in the british museum. miniatures, borders, and initials reproduced in gold and colours. with descriptive text by george f. warner, . . . first series. fifteen plates. printed by order of the trustees. . . . london, . _folio, in a half cloth portfolio._ warren, arthur.--the charles whittinghams printers by arthur warren new york the grolier club of new york   mdccclxxxxvi. _ vo, half green morocco, uncut edges._ three hundred and eighty-five copies printed, with portraits and numerous facsimile illustrations in the text. the index, pages - , was issued after the publication of the volume. warren, arthur.--the charles whittinghams. . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side borders in a design of scrolls, flowers, and birds, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ one of three copies printed upon vellum. warren, j. leicester.--a guide to the study of book-plates (ex-libris) by the hon. j. leicester warren . . . london john pearson . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ sixteen full-page woodcuts. warren, samuel.--passages from the diary of a late physician. by samuel warren . . . william blackwood & sons, edinburgh . . . mdcccxxxviii. _post vo, three volumes, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ warren, samuel.--ten thousand a-year. in three volumes . . . william blackwood and sons, . . . m.dccc.xli. _post vo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, striped green silk sides, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ warren, samuel.--miscellanies critical, imaginative, and juridical, contributed to blackwood's magazine. by samuel warren. william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclv. _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ warton, joseph.--an essay on the genius and writings of pope . . . by joseph warton . . . the fifth edition, corrected. to which is now added, an index   london: printed by thomas maiden . . . . _ vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by holloway._ large paper copy, illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and twenty-five portraits (twenty-three of pope) and scenes. many of the plates are proofs before letters, and seventeen are on india paper. included are a fine mezzotint of samuel butler and caroline watson's engraving of lady mary wortley montagu. warton, thomas.--the poems on various subjects, of thomas warton, b. d. . . . london: printed for g. g. j. and j. robinson, . . . m.dcc.xci. _ vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ portrait and autograph of the author inserted. warton, thomas.--the history of english poetry, from the close of the eleventh to the commencement of the eighteenth century. to which are prefixed, three dissertations . of the origin of romantic fiction in europe. . on the introduction of learning into england. . on the gesta romanorum. by thomas warton, b. d. . . . a new edition carefully revised, with numerous additional notes by the late mr. ritson, the late dr. ashby, mr. douce, mr. park and other eminent antiquaries, and by the editor. [richard price]   london: printed for thomas tegg . . . . _ vo, four volumes, boards, uncut edges._ portrait. warton, thomas.--the history of english poetry, from the close of the eleventh century to the commencement of the eighteenth century. to which are prefixed three dissertations: by thomas warton, b. d. . . . from the edition of superintended by the late richard price esq. including the notes of mr. ritson, dr. ashby, mr. douce, and mr. park. now further improved . . . london: printed for thomas tegg . . . . _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ portrait after reynolds. "warwick, eden."--see jabet, george. washington, george.--official letters to the honorable american congress, written, during the war between the united colonies and great britain, by his excellency george washington . . . copied, by special permission, from the original papers preserved in the office of the secretary of state, philadelphia. london: printed for cadell junior and davies . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ contains, in addition to the duplicate titles, "american state papers," etc., the b. b. e. portrait of washington, an autograph letter of john hancock to washington, dated aug. , and endorsed by the latter; a folio letter of washington to general mcdougall from headquarters at morristown, march , , and an ensign's commission, signed by john hancock, and attested by charles thomson. washington, george.--a message of the president of the united states, to congress, relative to france and great britain: delivered, december , . with the papers therein referred to. published by order of the house of representatives. philadelphia: printed for mathew carey, . . . october , . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ washington, george.--address of george washington, president of the united states, to his fellow citizens, on his declining being considered a candidate for their future suffrages. to which is added   the tribute of respect, paid to his memory, by the legislature of new-hampshire, at their late session at exeter, december th. . exeter, from the press of henry ranlet. . _ mo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges (partly uncut, and with the original covers), by rivière._ one hundred copies printed for the students of phillips exeter academy. the false title is "washington's legacy." washington, george.--diary of washington: from the first day of october, , to the tenth day of march, . from the original manuscript, now first printed. new york: . _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side borders in the gasconesque manner, gilt top, uncut edges, by w. matthews._ large paper copy. inserted are a washington manuscript, signed, fifteen portraits of washington, forty-seven other portraits, and eleven views, many of the engravings being proofs. watkins, john.--see hone, william. watson, william.--lachrymæ musarum. (october th, .) by william watson, . . . london: printed for private distribution. . _crown vo, silk covers._ first edition. frontispiece and portrait bust of tennyson. vellum copy, one hundred printed. watson, william.--the eloping angels   a caprice by william watson. london. elkin mathews and john lane . . . . _ to, vellum, uncut edges._ first edition. one of seventy-five copies printed on large, japanese vellum paper. watson, william.--excursions in criticism being some prose recreations of a rhymer. by william watson. london: elkin mathews & john lane . . . mdcccxciii. _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. large paper copy, fifty printed. watson, william.--the poems of william watson. new york   macmillan and co . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. watson, william.--the poems of william watson   new [second] edition rearranged by the author with additions. new york   macmillan and co . . . . _ vo, buckram, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed on hand-made paper, with a portrait of the author. watt, robert.--bibliotheca britannica; or a general index to british and foreign literature. by robert watt, m. d. . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and company, . . . . _ to, two parts in four volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ watts, alaric.--poetical sketches: the profession; the broken heart, etc. with stanzas for music, and other poems. by alaric a. watts. third edition, with additional poems. illustrated with [ ] engravings from drawings by messrs. stothard and brockedon. . . . london: printed for hurst, robinson, and co. . . . . _post vo, boards, uncut edges._ watts, alaric a.--lyrics of the heart; with other poems. by alaric a. watts. with forty-one engravings on steel. london: longman . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, back and sides richly ornamented, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ the engravings are after the designs of stothard, westall, david roberts, howard, and others. watts, isaac.--divine songs attempted in easy language, for the use of children. by i. watts, d. d., . . . the twelfth edition. london: printed for richard ford, . . . . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ watts, isaac.--divine and moral songs for children. by isaac watts. d. d. london: the religious tract society &c [n. d.] _ mo, calf, gilt, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ seventy woodcut illustrations. watts, isaac.--horæ lyricæ. poems, chiefly of the lyric kind, in three books. . . . by isaac watts, d. d. to which is added, a supplement, containing translations of all the latin poems, with notes, by thomas gibbons, d. d. . . . with a memoir of the author, by robert southey, esq. london: printed and published by joseph rickerby, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of watts by scriven. watts, isaac.--the poetical works of isaac watts. with a memoir. . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait on india paper. webster, noah.--dissertations on the english language: with notes historical and critical, to which is added, by way of appendix, an essay on a reformed mode of spelling, with dr. franklin's arguments on that subject. by noah webster, jun. esquire . . . printed at boston, for the author, by isaiah thomas and company, mdcclxxxix. _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by rousselle._ webster, noah.--an american dictionary of the english language. by noah webster, l. l. d. thoroughly revised, and greatly enlarged and improved by chauncey a. goodrich . . . and noah porter . . . cambridge. printed at the riverside press for g. & c. merriam, publishers, springfield, mass. . _folio, two volumes, brown morocco antique, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed, with portrait of webster, and engraved title, on india paper. wedmore, frederick.--meryon and meryon's paris: with a descriptive catalogue of the artist's work. by frederick wedmore. london: a. w. thibaudeau . . . . _crown vo, vellum, uncut edges._ one hundred and thirteen copies printed. wedmore, frederick.--four masters of etching. by frederick wedmore. with original etchings by haden, jacquemart, whistler, and legros. london: the fine art society, . . . . _ to, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and twenty-five large paper copies printed. weirotter, f. e.--[etched works of f. e. weirotter, consisting of one hundred and eighty designs, including many titles. &c] _folio, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ weld, h. hastings.--benjamin franklin: his autobiography; with a narrative of his public life and services. by rev. h. hastings weld. with numerous designs [ ] by j. g. chapman. london: sampson low, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ wellington.--the letters of the duke of wellington to miss [a. m.] j.[enkins] - edited, with extracts from the diary of the latter, by christine terhune herrick   new york   dodd, mead, & company, . _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ inserted is a letter from the duke of wellington to miss jenkins. wells, nathaniel armstrong.--the picturesque antiquities of spain; described in a series of letters, with illustrations, [ten plates and nineteen woodcuts] representing moorish palaces, cathedrals, and other monuments of art, contained in the cities of burgos, valladolid, toledo, and seville. by nathaniel armstrong wells, london: richard bentley, . . . m.dccc.xlvi. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ westmacott, richard.--handbook of sculpture ancient and modern by richard westmacott . . . edinburgh adam and charles black . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece and other illustrations. westminster school (st. peter's college).--comitia westmonasteriensium, in collegio s^{ti} petri habita die anniversario fundatricis suæ reginæ elizabethæ inauguratæ jan. xv. [engraved coat of arms]   londini, typis guil. bowyer: . . . apud jacobum roberts . . . mdccxxviii. _folio, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery. bound with two other works entirely in latin._ the contents of this volume are a latin poem to the king by robert hay, an english poem to the queen by lord middlesex, a latin address by thomas kingsman, eighty-two short poems in latin and english by alumni of the college, an english "speech in the college hall after dinner," by james noel, a prologue in latin, and an epilogue in english. in the middle of page is pasted a note of four errata. on page is a list of the six men under whom the meeting was begun in / , and of their twelve successors for the following two years. from the heber collection. westropp, hodder m.--handbook of archæology. the traveller's art companion to the museums and ancient remains of italy, greece, and egypt. by hodder m. westropp. [cut] london: bell & daldy, . . . . _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ seven plates, and numerous illustrations in the text. westwood, j. o.--fac-similes of the miniatures & ornaments of anglo-saxon & irish manuscripts executed by j. o. westwood, . . . drawn on stone by w. r. tymms. chromo-lithographed by day and son, . . . london, bernard quaritch, . . . mdccclxviii. _royal folio, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ title in a coloured border, and fifty-three coloured plates. westwood, thomas.--the chronicle of the 'compleat angler' of izaak walton and charles cotton. being a bibliographical record of its various phases and mutations. by thomas westwood. london: willis and sotheran . . . . _ to, half morocco, uncut edges._ large paper copy. westwood, thomas.--the sword of kingship. a legend of the "mort d'arthure." by t. westwood. london: printed for private circulation, by whittingham and wilkins. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, sides richly decorated in gold and mosaic scrolls, &c., gilt edges, by bosquet._ westwood and satchell.--bibliotheca piscatoria   a catalogue of books on angling, the fisheries and fish-culture, with bibliographical notes and an appendix of citations touching on angling and fishing from old english authors. by t. westwood and t. satchell. london   w. satchell, . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. whalley, thomas sedgwick.--edwy and edilda, a tale, in five parts. by the rev. thomas sedgwick whalley, . . . embellished with six fine engravings, from original designs, by a young lady. london: printed for t. chapman, &c . . . . _royal to, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ wharton, grace and philip.--the wits and beaux of society. by grace and philip wharton . . . with [ ] illustrations from drawings by h. k. browne and james godwin. engraved by the brothers dalziel. london: james hogg & sons, . . . [ ] _crown vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. wharton, grace.--the literature of society. by grace wharton . . . with an introductory chapter on the origin of fiction. london: tinsley brothers . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. wharton, grace and philip.--the queens of society. by grace and philip wharton. illustrated by charles altamont doyle, and the brothers dalziel. london: james hogg & sons. [n. d.] _crown vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, the lower ones uncut, by the club bindery._ first edition. wharton, henry thornton.--sappho. memoir, text, selected renderings and a literal translation by henry thornton wharton . . . second edition. london   david stott . . . mdccclxxxvii. _post vo, vellum, uncut edges._ portrait of sappho by webb after alma-tadema, and facsimiles. [wharton (r).]--cheviot: a poetical fragment. by r. w. newcastle upon tyne: printed by s. hodgson, . . . mdcccxvii. _ vo, brown morocco, gilt back and sides, arms on the covers, gilt edges._ one of three copies printed upon india paper, and on one side only. the editor, john adamson, suggests that the author's name was possibly wharton. wheatley, henry benjamin.--notes on the life of john payne collier; with a complete list of his works, and an account of such shakespeare documents as are believed to be spurious. by henry b. wheatley. london: elliot stock, . . . . _ mo, original vellum wrappers, uncut edges._ reprinted from the bibliographer, - . wheatley, henry benjamin.--remarkable bindings in the british museum selected for their beauty or historic interest and described by henry b. wheatley . . . london   sampson low, marston, &c . . . . _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ one of twenty-five copies printed, with the sixty-two plates coloured in imitation of the original bindings. wheatley, hewett.--the rod and line: or, practical hints and dainty devices for the sure taking of trout, grayling, etc. by hewett wheatley, . . . london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ nine coloured plates. whewell, william.--astronomy and general physics considered with reference to natural theology. by the rev. william whewell, . . . london: william pickering. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. iii. whistler, james abbott mcneill.--see thomas, ralph. white, gilbert.--the natural history and antiquities of selborne, in the county of southampton: with engravings, and an appendix. . . . london: printed by t. bensley; for b. white and son, . . . m,dcc,lxxxix. _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. folded frontispiece, second title with vignette by d. lerpiniere after s. h. grimm, and seven other engravings after grimm. white, gilbert.--the natural history and antiquities of selborne. by the late gilbert white. a new edition, with notes by eminent naturalists, and an enlargement of the naturalists' calendar. london: printed for j. and a. arch . . . [ ] _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ numerous woodcut illustrations. white, gleeson.--english illustration 'the sixties': - by gleeson white with numerous illustrations by ford madox brown: a boyd houghton arthur hughes: charles keene: m. j. lawless: lord leighton, p. r. a. sir j. e. millais, p. r. a.: g. du maurier. j. w. north, r. a.: c. j. pinwell. dante gabriel rossetti: w. small: frederick sandys: j. mcneill whistler. frederick walker, a. r. a.: and others. westminster archibald constable and co . . . . _imperial vo, original gilt cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ white, henry kirke.--clifton grove, a sketch in verse, with other poems, by henry kirke white, . . . london, printed by n. biggs, . . . for vernor and hood, . . . . _small vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. two portraits of the author inserted, one a proof before letters. the severe criticism of this book in two numbers of the _monthly review_ is supposed to have accelerated the author's death. white, henry kirke.--the poetical works of henry kirke white. london william pickering    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by sir harris nicolas, and a portrait of white. white, richard grant.--shakespeare's scholar: being historical and critical studies of his text, characters, and commentators, with an examination of mr. collier's folio of . by richard grant white, . . . new york: d. appleton and company, . . . m.dccc.liv. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. white, richard grant.--an essay on the authorship of the three parts of king henry the sixth. by richard grant white. riverside press: . . . cambridge, . . . . _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-five copies privately printed. white, richard grant.--memoirs of the life of william shakespeare, with an essay toward the expression of his genius, and an account of the rise and progress of the english drama. by richard grant white. boston: little, brown, and company. . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait on india paper, after burbage. no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. whitehead, william.--atys and adrastus, a tale in the manner of dryden's fables. by mr. william whitehead, fellow of clare-hall in cambridge. . . . london: printed for r. manby, . . . and sold by m. cooper, . . . m dcc xliv. _folio, boards, by the club bindery._ first edition. whitehead, william.--the school for lovers, a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane. by william whitehead, esq; poet laureat. london: printed for r. and j. dodsley . . . and sold by j. hinxman, . . . m dcc lxii. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. whitehead, william.--plays and poems by william whitehead, esq. poet laureat . . . london; printed for j. dodsley . . . mdcclxxiv-xxxviii. _crown vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ three portraits of the author inserted, two on india paper, one a proof before letters. the third volume is printed at york and comprises "poems by william whitehead . . . to which are prefixed, memoirs of his life and writings by w. mason." whitman, walt.--leaves of grass. brooklyn, new york: . _folio, original green cloth._ first edition: with three-quarter standing portrait engraved on steel, and four preliminary leaves of english and american criticisms. whitman, walt.--leaves of grass   boston   james r. osgood and company - . _ mo, cloth._ full-length portrait engraved on steel. whitman, walt.--walt whitman's drum-taps. new-york. . _ mo, cloth._ first edition, with the sequel, "when lilacs last in the door-yard bloom'd," and other pieces. washington, - . whittier, john greenleaf.--poems, by john g. whittier. . . . philadelphia: published by joseph healy. . . . . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. whittier, john greenleaf.--miriam and other poems. by john greenleaf whittier. [vignette] boston: fields, osgood, & co. . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition: with woodcut frontispiece, and two vignettes. whittier, john greenleaf.--hazel-blossoms. by john greenleaf whittier. boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . . _ mo, cloth._ first edition. whittier, john greenleaf.--see lowell, j. r. the pioneer. wight, john.--mornings at bow street. a selection of the most humourous and entertaining reports which have appeared in the morning herald. by mr wight, (bow street reporter to the morning herald.) with twenty-one illustrative drawings, by george cruikshank. . . . london: printed for charles baldwyn, . . . m dccc xxiv. _post vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with all the plates printed separately. in later editions, they are in the text. wight, john.--more mornings at bow street. a new collection of humorous and entertaining reports. by john wight, of the morning herald. with twenty-five illustrations by george cruikshank [vignette] london: james robins and co. . . . mdcccxxvii. _post vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with frontispiece etching and twenty-five woodcuts. wilde, oscar o'flahertie wills.--a hovse of pomegranates by oscar wilde    the design & decoration of this book by c. ricketts & c. h. shannon london   james r. osgood mcilvaine & co   m.dccc xci. _ to, decorated cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. wilde, oscar.--the pictvre of dorian gray. by oscar wilde   ward lock and co   london new york & melbovrne. [ ] _crown vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. wilde, oscar.--lady windermere's fan   a play about a good woman by oscar wilde   london . . . elkin mathews and john lane . . . mdcccxciii. _ to, buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. wilde, oscar.--a woman of no importance by oscar wilde   london   john lane . . . m d ccc xciv. _ to, yellow buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. wilde, oscar.--the priest and the acolyte   honi soit qui mal y pense. privately printed for presentation only. [ ] _ to, original brown wrappers, uncut edges._ wilde, oscar.--salome a tragedy in one act: translated [by lord alfred bruce douglas] from the french of oscar wilde: pictured by aubrey beardsley   london: elkin mathews & john lane . . . . _ to, olive silk, uncut edges._ only one hundred copies printed, with the title-page and eleven full-page plates on japan paper. wilde, oscar.--the sphinx   by oscar wilde [woodcut] with decorations by charles ricketts   london   m dcccxciv   elkin mathews and john lane . . . _ to, vellum boards, decorated in gilt, uncut edges._ first edition, only twenty-five copies printed. wilde, oscar.--the importance of being earnest   a trivial comedy for serious people by the author of lady windermere's fan   london   leonard smithers and co . . . [chiswick press] m dcccxcix. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ wilkes, john.--see jest books. wilkie and geddes.--etchings by sir david wilkie, r. a. limner to h. m. for scotland and by andrew geddes, a. r. a. with biographical sketches by david laing, f. s. a. s. edinburgh: mdccclxxv. _folio, maroon levant morocco, back panels and side borders blind-tooled, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed. this copy is extra-illustrated by a number of trial proofs of the etchings, executed for the author, david laing, during the progress of the publication. wilkinson, sir john gardner.--topography of thebes, and general view of egypt. being a short account of the principal objects worthy of notice in the valley of the nile, to the second cataract and wadee samneh, with the fyoom, oases, and eastern desert, from sooez to berenice; with remarks on the manners and customs of the ancient egyptians and the productions of the country, &c &c. by j. g. wilkinson. london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxv. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ eleven plates. wilkinson, sir john gardner.--(i.-iii.) manners and customs of the ancient egyptians, including their private life, government, laws, arts, manufactures, religion, and early history; derived from a comparison of the paintings, sculptures, and monuments still existing, with the accounts of ancient authors. illustrated by drawings of those subjects. by j. g. wilkinson . . . london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxvii. (iv.-vi.) a second series of the manners and customs of the ancient egyptians, including their religion, agriculture, &c. derived from a comparison of the paintings, sculptures, and monuments still existing, with the accounts of ancient authors. by sir j. gardner wilkinson, . . . two volumes, and a volume of plates. . . . london: john murray, . . . m dcccxli. _ vo, six volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition of both series. eighty-eight plates, some coloured, and numerous woodcuts in the text. wilkinson, sir john gardner.--modern egypt and thebes: being a description of egypt; including the information required for travellers in that country. by sir gardner wilkinson . . . with woodcuts and a map, london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. wilkinson, sir john gardner.--dalmatia and montenegro: with a journey to mostar in herzegovina, and remarks on the slavonic nations; the history of dalmatia and ragusa; the uscocs; &c &c. by j. gardner wilkinson . . . london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. fifteen maps and plates and numerous woodcut illustrations. wilkinson, sir john gardner.--on colour and on the necessity for a general diffusion of taste among all classes. with remarks on laying out dressed or geometrical gardens. examples of good and bad taste illustrated by woodcuts and coloured plates in contrast. by sir j. gardner wilkinson . . . london   john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ wilkinson, sir john gardner.--see herodotus. wilkinson, richard.--vice reclaim'd: or, the passionate mistress. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal, by her majesty's servants. written by richard wilkinson, gent. [two lines in latin] london: printed for bernard lintott, at the middle-temple-gate in fleet-street. . price s. d. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b-i in fours, half-title, a , title, a . [williams, sir charles hanbury.]--h----s-s----y to sir c[harles] h[anbury] w[illiam]s: or, the rural reflection of a welch poet. london: printed for a. moore . . . . . . . _folio, cloth, by the club bindery. bound with two other works._ williams, d. e.--the life and correspondence of sir thomas lawrence . . . by d. e. williams . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ illustrated by three portraits of lawrence, and (inserted) forty-five portraits, etc., after his paintings, including india proofs and engraver's etchings. williams, d. e.--the life and correspondence of sir thomas lawrence, . _ vo, two volumes extended to four, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ another copy. in addition to the three portraits of lawrence issued with this book, two hundred and six other portraits, etc., have been added, including all the important examples of the artist's lifework. the greater majority of these inserted plates are in proof state, some are coloured, and all are selected impressions. an autograph letter of lawrence is also inserted, and special title-pages printed. williams, j. m., _editor_.--the dramatic censor: or, critical and biographical illustration of the british stage. for the year . involving a correct register of every night's performances at our metropolitan theatres, and published with a view to sustain the morality and dignity of the drama. edited by j. m. williams, l. l. d. . . . london: printed by g. brimmer, . . . [ ] _ vo, half calf._ portrait of "anthony pasquin" (john williams) by f. bartolozzi. eleven numbers, published on the eleventh of each month, beginning with january. although december has no separate heading, the dramatic events of the month are chronicled through to the thirty-first, under november. williamson, john.--the british angler: or, a pocket-companion for gentlemen-fishers. being a new and methodical treatise of the art of angling: comprehending all that is curious and useful in the knowledge of that polite diversion. as: i. an introduction; . . . ii. the angler's apparatus: . . . iii. an exact description of the several kinds of fish that are found in the rivers, . . . iv. the whole practice of angling: . . . together with supplemental discourses, . on fish-ponds and reservatories. . on the laws against poachers, and in favour of the fair angler. also, excellent receipts for dressing of fish, and a complete index, in which the terms in use among anglers are occasionally explained. embellished with copper-plates curiously engraved. the whole compiled from approved authors, and above thirty years experience, by john williamson, gent. who has added a versification of the principal heads, at the end of each chapter, for the help of memory. london: printed for j. hodges, . . . m dcc xl. _ mo, original calf._ first edition: with frontispiece by g. bickham, and three folded plates by b. cole. "willington, james."--see goldsmith, oliver. willis, nathaniel parker--letters from under a bridge. and poems. by n. p. willis, esq. . . . london: george virtue, . . . . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portrait by f. c. lewis after lawrence, engraved title-page and nine other plates after w. h. bartlett. the letters were written to dr. t. olcutt porter, and are dedicated to miss jane porter. the prefatory note is dated london, march , . willis, robert, _translator_.--facsimile of the sketch-book of wilars de honecort, an architect of the thirteenth century; with commentaries and descriptions by m. j. b. a. lassus, . . . and by m. j.[ules] quicherat, . . . translated and edited, with many additional articles and notes, by the rev. robert willis, . . . london: john henry and james parker. . . . . _ to, purple levant morocco, gilt back, side fillets._ frontispiece bust portrait of lassus and seventy-three plates on india paper, besides forty-three woodcuts. wills, william gorman.--melchior. by w. g. wills. . [printed by hutchings and crowsley, london] _ to, vellum boards, uncut edges._ one of seven copies privately printed. wilson, charles heath.--life and works of michelangelo buonarroti by charles heath wilson the life partly compiled from that by the commend. aurelio gotti--[ illustrations] london   john murray, . . . mdccclxxvi. _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ wilson and grey.--a practical treatise upon modern printing machinery and letterpress printing. by fred j. f. wilson and douglas grey. illustrated with numerous engravings. cassell & company, . . . london, . . . . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ wilson, james grant.--the life and letters of fitz-greene halleck. by james grant wilson. . . . new york: d. appleton and company, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait by h. b. hall after inman, and engraved title-page. wilson, john.--noctes ambrosianæ by professor [john] wilson. william blackwood and sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclv.[-vi] _crown vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back._ first collected edition, with a preface by j. f. f. wilson, john.--noctes ambrosianæ by the late john wilson . . . wm. maginn, . . . j. g. lockhart, james hogg, and others. revised edition with memoirs and notes by r. shelton mackenzie, . . . new york   w. j. widdleton, . . . . _ mo, five volumes, cloth, uncut edges_. four portraits after sir j. watson gordon, maclise, etc., and a facsimile. wilson, john.--the poetical works of professor wilson ["christopher north"]. william blackwood and sons. edinburgh . . . mdccclviii. _crown vo, calf, gilt back, by henderson & bisset._ wilson, richard.--see hastings, thomas. wilson, thomas.--a catalogue raisonné of the select collection of engravings of an amateur [thomas wilson] london   mdcccxxviii. _ to, blue levant morocco, rich back and side panels, gilt edges, by w. matthews._ privately printed. the engraved initials and head-pieces are on india paper, and two autograph letters of wilson, together with one hundred and thirteen portraits and other engravings, are inserted. the majority of the plates are in proof state; fourteen are by bartolozzi, five by raphael morghen, and among the others are notable examples by rembrandt, nanteuil, edelinck, caroline watson, hollar, drevet, wille, tardieu, crispin de pass, masson, the sadelers, and others. wilson, thomas.--a catalogue raisonné of the select collection, &c., . _royal to, green morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges._ large paper copy, with proofs on india paper. inserted are over one hundred specimens of engraving by faithorne, wierix, raphael morghen, hollar, edelinck, bartolozzi, the pass family, etc. presentation copy from thomas wilson to his wife. from the collection of john allan. wilson, thomas.--a descriptive catalogue of the prints of rembrandt. by an amateur. london: j. f. setchel . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by holloway._ lowndes describes this book as "privately printed," but as the title-page bears the subscription imprint of eight publishers of books and prints, the statement is largely fictitious, though in any event the number printed is known to have been very small. wilson, thomas.--a descriptive catalogue of the prints of rembrandt. . royal vo, cloth, uncut edges. large paper copy, of which ten were printed. presented by the author to mr. tiffin, sept. , , with an inserted letter from wilson pertinent to the subject. winchelsea, anne finch, countess of.--poems on several occasions, viz. the prevalence of custom. the mussulman's dream. jupiter and the farmer. the spleen. the philosopher, the young man and his statue. adam pos'd. the house of socrates. the wit and the beau. cupid and folly. alcidor. the atheist and acorn. the miller, his son, and their ass. the phoenix. a nocturnal reverie. the shepherd piping to the fishes. love, death, and reputation. fanscomb's barn. alexander's epistle to hephæstion. the lord and the bramble. the cautious lover. the equipage. the executor. the change. the nightingale. the tradesman and scholar. life's progress. aristomenes, &c. a tragedy, &c. written by the right honourable anne, countess of winchelsea. london: printed by j. b. and sold by w. taylor . . . and jonas browne . . . . _ vo, old red morocco, gilt back, side borders, arms in the corners, gilt edges, in a brown levant morocco case with gilt back._ "the spleen" was first printed in charles gildon's miscellany, . lady winchelsea's poetical name was "ardelia." wirt, william.--the letters of the british spy. originally published in the virginia argus, in august and september, . the second edition. richmond: printed by samuel pleasants, junior. december, . _crown vo, calf, citron edges._ inserted are two portraits of wirt, by j. b. longacre and p. maverick, a print of richmond by maverick, and an autograph letter from wirt to henry thompson, dated washington, dec. , . wit.--of modern wit. an epistle to the right honourable sir william young. london: printed for henry lintot . . . mdccxxxii. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ wit.--the new foundling hospital for wit. being a collection of several curious pieces, in verse and prose: written by lord chesterfield, lord hardwicke, lord lyttelton, sir c. h. williams, mr. wilkes, mr. churchill, mr. garrick, mr. potter, dr. akenside. and other eminent persons. london: printed in the year mdcclxviii. _small vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ caricature frontispiece. wit.--a new edition, with great additions. the festival of wit: or, the small talker. consisting of flights of humour and genius, selected from a voluminous work, in the possession of g***** k***, summer resident at w----. with the life of the author and compiler, written by himself. when prussia's monarch writes, why may not i? london, printed, by permission of the editor, for m. smith; and sold by the booksellers of piccadilly, fleet-street, and paternoster-row. . _small vo, panelled calf, gilt back and sides, citron top, uncut edges, by rivière._ wit.--(i.) the new festival of wit; or, gleanings, from the best authors of jokes, jests, and flashes of merriment; with curious anecdotes. . . . london: printed for r. rusted, . . . six-pence, [n. d.] (ii.) the paragon of mirth & drollery, or the new merry jester, calculated for the sons of conviviality, and jocularity. london: printed for r. rusted, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, two works in one volume, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispieces engraved by t. ovenden and printed in brown ink, the second hand-coloured in part. wit.--wits museum, or the new london jester; a collection by the choice spirits of the present age. a new edition [vignette] london, printed for w. lane, . . . price two shillings. [ ] _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved title-page and frontispiece, "charles fox & his merry companions." wit.--attic wit; or, a medley of humour: containing an agreeable variety of bon mots, jokes, & repartees; being humorous, whimsical, laughable, novel and sentimental; in prose and verse. designed to promote mirth, jocularity, and chearfulness, in in both sexes. london: printed for and sold by a. hamilton, . . . . ornamented with an engraved frontispiece. price one shilling. _ mo, red straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved frontispiece, "attic meeting or the jovial companions." wit.--the museum of wit; being a choice collection of poetical pieces, instructive and entertaining; . . . selected from various authors. . . . london: printed for crosby and letterman, . . . by j. cundee, . . . . _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by scott after satchwell. wit.--the banquet of wit: containing a choice collection of bon-mots, jests, repartees, for the amusement of the fire-side, [woodcut] . . . gosport: printed by j. watts. and sold by crosby and letterman, . . . london. [n. d.] _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece, "the rival candidates," by t. s. seed. wit.--the encyclopedia of wit. [vignette] london, printed for r. phillips, . . . [n. d.] price six shillings in boards. _ mo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ engraved frontispiece title, with vignette, "a laughing audience," by e. mills after hogarth. wit.--see jest books. wit's magazine.--the wit's magazine; or, library of momus. being a compleat repository of mirth, humour, and entertainment . . . [edited by thomas holcroft] london: printed for harrison and co . . . mdcclxxxiv-v. _ vo, two volumes in one, mottled calf, gilt back, side border, gilt edges._ the complete issue of this magazine from january, , to may, , inclusive. of the seventeen double-page plates, five are by blake. wolcott, roger.--poetical meditations, being the improvement of some vacant hours, by roger wolcott, esq, with a preface by the reverend m^{r} bulkley of colchester. new london: printed and sold by l. green, . _small vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ wollstonecraft, mary.--see godwin, mary wollstonecraft. wolseley, garnet joseph, (first) viscount.--the life of john churchill duke of marlborough to the accession of queen anne   by general viscount wolseley, . . . [vignette] . . . london   richard bentley and son . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. eight portraits, five plans, four vignettes, two views, and one facsimile. woltmann, alfred.--holbein and his time. by dr. alfred woltmann. translated by f. e. bunnètt. with sixty illustrations. london: richard bentley and son, . . . . proof sheets, unbound. woltmann and fouquÉ.--the white lady [by c. von woltmann] and undine [by la motte fouqué] london   william pickering    . _post vo, white satin, brocaded in silk and embroidered in light green, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ printed by whittingham at the chiswick press, with numerous woodcut illustrations. wood, anthony À.--see jest books. modius salium. wood, john george.--homes without hands. being a description of the habitations of animals, classed according to their principle of construction. by the rev. j. g. wood, . . . with new designs by w. f. keyl, and e. smith. engraved by g. pearson. london: longmans, green, and co. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ wood, mary anne everett (mrs. george pycock green).--letters of royal and illustrious ladies of great britain, from the commencement of the twelfth century to the close of the reign of queen mary. edited chiefly from the originals in the state paper office, the tower of london, the british museum, and other state archives, by mary anne everett wood. illustrated with fac-simile autographs . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, gilt back, citron edges, by bedford._ wood, robert.--an essay on the original genius and writings of homer: with a comparative view of the ancient and present state of the troade. illustrated with engravings. by the late robert wood, esq; . . . london: printed by h. hughs; for t. payne, . . . and p. elmsly, . . . mdcclxxv. _ to, green morocco, back and sides richly tooled with brackets and floral festoons, the arms of horace walpole on both covers, gilt edges._ portrait of homer engraved by basire, four large plates, and vignettes engraved by bartolozzi. presentation copy from mrs. wood to horace walpole, with a note from elmsly inserted, stating that he had orders to "bind the copy in the most elegant manner." woodcuts.--a collection of eighty-four woodcut engravings, india proofs, by carbonneau and other french artists. paris - . _folio, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by r. w. smith._ woodfall, william.--see savage, richard. woolley, charles.--a two years journal in new-york: and part of its territories in america. by c. w. a. m. london, printed for john wyat, . . . and eben tracy, . . . mdcci. _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ wordsworth and coleridge.--lyrical ballads, with a few other poems. london: printed for j. & a. arch, . . . . _foolscap vo, calf, gilt back, side borders._ first edition. wordsworth, william.--poems, . . . by william wordsworth, author of the lyrical ballads . . . london, printed for longman, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first collected edition. wordsworth, william.--the white doe of rylstone; or the fate of the nortons, a poem. by william wordsworth. london: printed for longman, . . . by james ballantyne and c^{o}., edinburgh . _ to, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition, with a frontispiece engraved by bromley after sir george beaumont. wordsworth, william.--[the white doe of rylstone. the forty-four illustrations by birket foster, and h. noel humphreys, retouched engraver's proofs on india paper.] _ to, half green morocco._ wordsworth, william.--the waggoner, a poem. to which are added, sonnets. by william wordsworth. . . . london: printed by strahan and spottiswoode, . . . for longman, hurst, . . . . _ mo, red levant morocco, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: dedicated to charles lamb. wordsworth, william.--memorials of a tour on the continent, . by william wordsworth. london: printed for longman, hurst, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. wordsworth, william.--the poetical works of william wordsworth. london: edward moxon: . . . mdcccxxxvi[-vii]. _post vo, six volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by watt after pickersgill. world, the.--see british essayists. worlidge, thomas.--[select collection of drawings from curious antique gems, etched after the manner of rembrandt by thomas worlidge   london .] _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by allô._ the true edition of , without the letterpress, and with one hundred and sixty-nine plates. worlidge, thomas.--a select collection of drawings from curious antique gems; most of them in the possession of the nobility and gentry of this kingdom; etched after the manner of rembrandt. by t. worlidge, painter. london: printed by dryden leach, for m. worlidge, . . . and m. wicksteed, . . . mdcclxviii. _ to, old red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders, corner ornaments, gilt edges, by c. smith._ large paper copy of the second edition, with etched portrait, , and one hundred and eighty-two plates, proofs on french plate paper. the text calls for only one hundred and eighty plates, but there are two fauns at no. , and preceding no. , at the beginning of volume ii, is an extra plate, "medusa antique." wornum, ralph nicholson.--the epochs of painting. a biographical and critical essay on painting and painters of all times and many places. by ralph nicholson wornum, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . mdccclxiv. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ forty illustrations. wornum, ralph nicholson.--some account of the life and works of hans holbein, painter, of augsburg. with numerous illustrations. by ralph nicholson wornum, . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by c. w. sharpe after holbein, and thirty-three other illustrations. woty, william.--poems on several occasions; by w. woty. . . . derby: printed for the author, by j. drewry. m, dcc, lxxx. _ vo, contemporary red morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ the heber copy. wreath, the.--see du bois, edward. wright, mabel osgood.--the friendship of nature a new england chronicle of birds and flowers by mabel osgood wright. with twelve full-page illustrations from photographs by the author. new york macmillan and company . . . . _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed. wyn, elis.--see borrow, george. wynne, james.--private libraries of new york. by james wynne, m. d. new york: e. french, . . . m d ccc lx. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ woodcut frontispiece. yarrell, william.--a history of british fishes. by william yarrell . . . illustrated by nearly woodcuts . . . london: john van voorst . . . m.dccc.xxxvi [-lx]. _imperial vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by bedford._ largest paper copy ( - / by - / inches), with portrait of the author, proof on india paper, and both supplements, the second edited by sir john richardson. a life of yarrell and a list of his writings appear in the first volume. yarrell, william.--a history of british birds. by william yarrell . . . illustrated by wood-engravings. london: john van voorst . . . m.dccc.xliii.[-xlv-lvl] _imperial vo, four volumes, green levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by bedford._ largest paper copy ( - / by - / inches), with the two supplements. yeats, william butler.--the wind among the reeds. by william butler yeats   london. elkin mathews . . . mdcccciii. _post vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ yellow book.--the yellow book   an illustrated quarterly   volume i april [volume xiii, april, ]   london: elkin mathews & john lane . . . _ to, thirteen volumes, decorated yellow cloth, uncut edges._ young, edward.--two epistles to mr. pope, concerning the authors of the age. [vignette] london: printed for lawton gilliver, . . . mdccxxx. _ vo, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ "epistle ii, from oxford," extends from d-f in fours, ending with four lines of errata. f -f are advertisements. young, edward.--the works of the author of the night-thoughts. revised and corrected by himself   london: printed for j. buckland . . . mdcclxxiv.-[w. owen,-xxiii and t. cadell-xxviii.] _ mo, six volumes, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by j. clarke._ portrait by boitard. the fifth volume contains a life of the poet. young, edward.--night thoughts by edward young, d. d. with the life of the author, and notes critical & explanatory. [vignette by p. rothwell after stothard]   london   printed by c. whittingham for t. heptinstall, . . . . _royal vo, spanish calf, gilt back, side borders._ large paper copy, with portrait by j. collyer, and eight illustrations after stothard. young, edward.--the poetical works of edward young. london william pickering, . _foolscap vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by the rev. john mitford, and a portrait of young. young, john, _editor_.--a catalogue of pictures by british artists, in the possession of sir john fleming leicester, . . . with etchings from the whole collection. including the pictures in his gallery at tabley house, cheshire; . . . and accompanied with historical and biographical notices. by john young, . . . london: printed by w. bulmer and w. nicol, . . . april , . _folio, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ thirty-three plates (seventy figures) on india paper. young chevalier.--see pretender. zaehnsdorf, joseph w.--the art of bookbinding by joseph w. zaehnsdorf illustrated. london   george bell & sons . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fifty copies printed on large paper, for private circulation only. zimmern, helen.--see firdusi. zoological society.--the gardens and menagerie of the zoological society delineated. published with the sanction of the council . . . chiswick: printed by charles whittingham . . . m.dccc.xxxi. _ vo, two volumes in one, calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ printed on india paper, with woodcut illustrations of quadrupeds and birds, engraved by branston and wright after drawings by william harvey. zouch, thomas.--the life of isaac walton; including notices of his contemporaries. by thomas zouch . . . london: septimus prowett, strand. mdcccxxiv. _ to, half morocco, uncut edges._ largest paper copy. twenty-one plates, proofs on india paper, including two portraits, and five other india proofs added. generously made available by the internet archive.) [illustration: the history of the catnach press, and the two catnachs, john & james, father & son, _printers_, - .] the history of the catnach press. large paper copy. only two hundred and fifty printed. each copy numbered and signed [signature: charles hindley.] no. ________ _purchased by_ ____________________________________________________ _of_ ____________________________________________________ _on the ___________ day of ____________ _____ the history of the catnach press, at berwick-upon-tweed, alnwick and newcastle-upon-tyne, in northumberland, and seven dials, london. by charles hindley, esq., _editor of "the old book collector's miscellany; or, a collection of readable reprints of literary rarities," "works of john taylor--the water poet," "the roxburghe ballads," "the catnach press," "the curiosities of street literature," "the book of ready made speeches," "life and times of james catnach, late of the seven dials, ballad monger," "tavern anecdotes and sayings," "a history of the cries of london--ancient and modern," etc._ london: charles hindley [the younger,] booksellers' row, st. clement danes, strand, w.c. . to mr. george skelly, of the market place, and mr. george h. thompson, of bailiffgate, alnwick, _in the county of_ northumberland, the history of the catnach press. is most respectfully dedicated by the author [signature: charles hindley.] _st. james' street, brighton. lady day, ._ [illustration: historical introduction or a pursuit of knowledge under difficulties.] [illustration: the catnach press.] "'tis education forms the common mind; just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined."--_pope._ ----there can be little doubt that jemmy catnach, the printer, justly earned the distinction of being one of the great pioneers in the cause of promoting cheap literature--he was for a long time the great mæcenas and elzevir of the seven dials district. we do not pretend to say that the productions which emanated from his establishment contained much that was likely to enlighten the intellect, or sharpen the taste of the ordinary reader; but, to a great extent, they served well in creating an impetus in the minds of many to soar after things of a higher and more ennobling character. whilst for the little folk his store was like the conjuror's bag--inexhaustible. he could cater to the taste and fancies of all, and it is marvellous, even in these days of a cheap press, to look back upon the time when this enterprising man was by a steady course of action, so paving the way for that bright day in the annals of britain's history, when every child in the land should be educated. [illustration] historical introduction or a pursuit of knowledge under difficulties. ----knowledge is of two kinds. we know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it.--boswell, _life of johnson_. that history repeats itself is fairly and fully exemplified by the reproduction of "the catnach press," the _first_ edition of which was published in , and "guaranteed only two hundred and fifty copies printed."--namely: on fine, and on extra-thick paper. _each copy numbered._ the outer and descriptive title set forth that the work contained:-- "a collection of books and wood-cuts of james catnach, late of seven dials, printer, consisting of twenty books of the cock robin-class, from, 'this is the house that jack built,' to 'old mother hubbard,' (printed with great care) _specialite_ at the catnach press, from the old plates and woodcuts, prior to their final destruction, to which is added a selection of catnachian wood-cuts, many by bewick, and many of the most anti-bewickian character it is possible to conceive." the announcement of the publication of the work was first made known through the medium of the metropolitan press, some few days prior to the copies being delivered by the book-binders, and so great was the demand of the london and american trade, that every copy was disposed of on the day of issue. the work is now eagerly sought after by book collectors who indulge in literary rarities. while engaged in collecting information for "the catnach press," and interviewing the producers of ballads, broadsides and chap-books, we met with a vast assemblage of street-papers and of a very varied character, which we proposed to publish in quarto form under the title of "the curiosities of street literature," and when in london in , still seeking for information on the subject, met by mere chance in the strand with the street ballad singer of our youth, one samuel milnes, who used between the years of and to visit fetter lane every thursday with the newest and most popular ballad of the day. we so often met with him at other times and places in and about london in after years that a peculiar kind of a friendly feeling grew up towards him in preference to all other street ballad singers of the time, so much so that at our meetings--and friendly greetings, we invariably purchased the ballad he was singing, or, gave him a few halfpence as a fee for having detained him from his calling--or shall we say bawling, for to tell the truth, samuel milnes was but a very indifferent vocalist. time rolled on--"still on it creeps, each little moment at another's heels"--and we continued to meet our old ballad singer either in london or brighton. the meeting with him on this particular occasion was most opportune for we wanted him. first we obtained from him "wait for the turn of the tide," and "call her back and kiss her," then the following information:-- "oh, yes, i remember you, remember you well; particularly when i see you down at brighton: when you treated me to that hot rum and water; when i was so wet and cold, at a little snug public-house in one of the streets that leads off the main street. i don't remember the name on it now, but i remembers the rum and water well enough; it was good. you said it would be, and so it was, and no mistake. how old am i now? why, . how long have i been at it? why, hard on fifty years. i was about nine or ten year old--no, perhaps i might have been year old, when i come to think on it. yes, about year old; my mother was a widow with five children, and there was a boy in our street as used to go out singing ballads, and his mother said to my mother, 'why don't you let your boy (that's me) go out and sing ballads like my boy.' and i said i didn't mind, and i did go out, and i've been at it ever since, so you see 'aint far short of year. how many do i sell in a day? well, not so many as i used to do, by a long way. i've sold me four and five quires a-day, but i don't sell above two and three dozen a-day now. that's all the difference you see, sir--dozens against quires. how do i live then? why, you see i am so well-known in different parts of london, that lots and lots of people comes up to me like you always do--and say's--'how do you do, old fellow? i remember you when i was a boy, if it's a man, and when i was a girl, if it's a woman.' and says, 'so you are still selling songs, eh?' then they give me a few coppers; some more and some less than others, and says they don't want the songs. some days--very often--i've had more money given me than i've took for the ballads. yes, i have travelled all over england--all over it i think--but the north's the best--manchester, liverpool, and them towns; but down bath and cheltenham way i was nearly starved. i was coming back from that way, i now remember, when i met you, sir, at brighton that time. i buy my ballads at various places--but now mostly over the water, because i live there now and it's handiest. mr. such, the printer, in union-street in the borough. oh! yes, some at catnach's--leastways, it ain't catnach's now, it's fortey's. yes, i remember 'old jemmy catnach' very well; he wa'n't a bad sort, as you say; leastways, i've heard so, but i never had anything of him. i always paid for what i had, and did not say much to him, or he to me--writing the life of him, are you indeed? no, i can't give you no more information about him than that, because, as i said before, i bought my goods as i wanted them, and paid for them, then away on my own account and business. well he was a man something like you--a little wider across the shoulders, perhaps, but about such a man as you are. i did know a man as could have told you a lot about "old jemmy," but he's dead now; he was one of his authors, that is, he wrote some of the street-ballads for him, and very good ones they used to be, that is, for selling. want some old 'dying speeches' and 'cocks,' do you indeed; well, i a'nt got any--i don't often 'work' them things, although i have done so sometimes, but i mostly keep to the old game--'ballads on a subject.' you see them other things are no use only just for the day, then they are no use at all, so we don't keep them--i've often given them away. you'd give sixpence a piece for them, would you, indeed, sir; then i wish i had some of them. now i come to think of it i know a man that did have a lot of them bye him, and i know he'd be glad to sell them, i don't know where he lives, but i sometimes see him. oh! yes, a letter would find me. my name is samuel milnes, and i live at no. , mint-street, that's in the borough; you know, guagar is the name at the house. thank you, sir, i'm much obliged. good day sir." our next adventure--in pursuit of knowledge under difficulties--occured at brighton in the month of august, , and when we were winding our way through a maze of small streets lying between richmond and albion hills, in the northern part of the town, our ears voluntarily "pricked up," on hearing the old familiar sounds of a 'street, or running patterer' with the stereotyped sentences of "horrible."--"dreadful."--"remarkable letters found on his person."--"cut down by a labouring man."--"quite dead."--"well-known in the town."--"hanging."--"coroner's inquest."--"verdict."--"full particulars."--"most determined suicide."--"brutal conduct."--&c., &c., _only a ha'penny!--only a ha'penny!_ presently we saw the man turn into a wide court-like place, which was designated by the high-sounded name of "square," and dedicated to richmond; hither we followed him, and heard him repeat the same detached sentences, and became a purchaser for--'_only a ha'penny!_' when to our astonishment we discovered a somewhat new phrase in cock or catchpenny selling. inasmuch as our purchase consisted of the current number ( ) of the _brighton daily news_--a very respectable looking and well printed halfpenny local newspaper, and of that day's publication, and did in reality contain an account of a most determined suicide of an old and highly respected inhabitant of brighton and set forth under the heading of:-- the determined suicide of an aged artist. remarkable letters of deceased. calling the man aside, we ventured upon a conversation with him in the following form:-- ----"well, governor, _how does the cock fight?_" "oh, pretty well, sir; but it ain't a cock; its a genuine thing--the days for cocks, sir, is gone bye--cheap newspapers 'as done 'em up." "yes; we see this is a brighton newspaper of to-day." "oh, yes, that's right enough--but its all true." "yes; we are aware of that and knew the unfortunate man and his family; but you are vending them after the old manner." "that's all right enough, sir,--you see i can sell 'em better in that form than as a newspaper--its more natural like for me: i've sold between ten and twelve dozen of 'em to-day." "yes; but how about to-morrow?" "oh, then it will be all bottled up--and i must look for a new game, i'm on my way to london, but a hearing of this suicide job, i thought i'd work 'em just to keep my hand in and make a bob or two." to our question of "have you got any real old 'cocks' by you?" he replied, "no, not a bit of a one; i've worked 'em for a good many years, but it 'aint much of a go now. oh, yes, i know'd 'old jemmy catnach' fast enough--bought many hundreds, if not thousands of quires of him. not old enough? oh, 'aint i though; why i'm turned fifty, and i've been a 'street-paper' seller all my life. i knows muster fortey very well; him as is got the business now in the dials--he knows his way about, let him alone for that; and he's a rare good business man let me tell you, and always been good and fair to me; that i will say of him." having rewarded the man with a few half-pence to make him some recompense for having detained him during his business progress, we parted company. while still prosecuting our enquiries for information on the literature of the streets, we often read of, and heard mention made of, a mr. john morgan, as one of the "seven bards of the seven dials" and his being best able to assist us in the matter we had in hand. the first glimpse we obtained of the poet! in print was in an article entitled "the bards of the seven dials and their effusion" and published in "the town," of , a weekly journal, conducted by the late mr. renton nicholson, better known as "baron nicholson," of judge and jury notoriety:-- review. _the life and death of john william marchant_, who suffered the extreme penalty of the law, in front of the debtor's door, newgate, on monday, july th, , for the murder of elizabeth paynton, his fellow servant, on the seventeenth of may last, in cadogan place, chelsea. by john morgan. london: j. catnach, and , monmouth court, dials. the work is a quarto page, surrounded with a handsome black border. "take no thought for to-morrow, what thou shalt eat, or what thou shalt put on," says a certain writer, whose wisdom we all reverence, and then he adds "sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof"--a remark particularly applicable to the bards of seven dials, whose pens are kept in constant employment by the fires, rapes, robberies, and murders, which, from one year's end to the other, present them with a daily allowance of evil sufficient for their subsistence. but, at present, it is only one of these poets, "john morgan," as he modestly signs himself, whom we are about to notice; and as some of our readers may be curious to see a specimen of the poetry of seven dials, we shall lay certain portions of john morgan's last effusion before them, pointing out the beauties and peculiarities of the compositions as we go along. after almost lawyer-like particularity as to dates and places, the poem begins with an invocation from the murderer in _propria personæ_. "oh! give attention awhile to me, all you good people of each degree; in newgate's dismal and dreary cell, i bid all people on earth farewell." heaven forbid, say we, that _all_ the people on earth should ever get in newgate, to receive the farewell of such a blood-thirsty miscreant. "john william marchant is my name, i do confess i have _been to blame_." and here we must observe that the poet makes his hero speak of his offence rather too lightly, as if, indeed, it had been nothing more than a common misdemeanour. "i little thought, my dear parents kind, i should leave this earth with a troubled mind." now this _is_ modest; he is actually surprised that his parents are at all grieved at the idea of getting rid of such a scoundrel, and well he might be. "i lived as servant in cadogan place, and never thought this would be my case, to end my days on the fatal tree: good people, pray drop a tear for me." there is a playfulness about the word "drop," introducing just here after "the fatal tree," which, in our mind, somewhat diminishes the plaintiveness of the entreaty; but we must not be hypocritical. * * * * * then comes his trial and condemnation, the account of which is most remarkable precise and pithy. "at the old bailey i was tried and cast, and the dreadful sentence on me was past on a monday morning, alas! to die, and on the eight of this month of july." a marvellous particularity as to dates, intended, doubtless, to show the convicts anxiety that, although he died young, his name should live long in the minds of posterity. then follows his farewell to father and mother, and an impudent expression of confidence that his crime will be forgiven in heaven, an idea, by-the-by, which is reported to have been confirmed by the ordinary of newgate, who told him that the angels would receive him with great affection; and this it was, perhaps, which induced our bard of seven dials to represent his hero as coolly writing poetry up to the very last moment of his existence; taking his farewell of the public in these words:-- "adieu, good people of each degree, and take a warning, i pray, by me; the bell is tolling, and i must go, and leave this world of misery and woe." but we cannot exactly see what business the fellow--"a pampered menial," had to speak ill of the world, when he was very comfortably off in it, and might have lived long and happily if it had not been for his own wickedness; a hint which we throw out for the benefit of mr. john morgan, in his future effusions, trusting he will not make his heroes die grumby, when poetic justices does not require it. but we must now take our leave, with a hearty wish to the whole fraternity of seven dials' bards, that they may never go without a dinner for want of the means of earning it, or that, in other words, though they seem somewhat contradictory, "sufficient unto the day may be the evil thereof." again, the writer of an article on "street ballads," in the "national review," for october, , makes the following remarks:-- "this ballad--'little lord john out of service'--is one of the few which bear a signature--it is signed 'john morgan' in the copy which we possess. for a long time we believed this name to be a mere _nom-de-plume_; but the other day in monmouth court, we were informed, in answer to a casual question that this is the real name of the author of some of the best comic ballads. our informant added that he is an elderly, we may say old, gentleman, living somewhere in westminster; but the exact whereabouts we could not discover. mr. morgan followed no particular visible calling, so far as our informant knew, except writing ballads, by which he could not earn much of a livelihood, as the price of an original ballad, in these buying-cheap days, has been screwed down by the publishers to somewhere about a shilling sterling. something more like bread-and-butter might be made, perhaps, by poets who were in the habit of singing their own ballads, as some of them do, but not mr. morgan. should this ever meet the eye of that gentleman (a not very probable event, we fear), we beg to apologise for the liberty we have taken in using his verses and name, and hope he will excuse us, having regard to the subject in which we are humble fellow-labourers. we could scarcely avoid naming him, the fact being that he is the only living author of street-ballads whose name we know. that self-denying mind, indifferent to worldly fame, which characterised the architects of our cathedrals and abbeys, would seem to have descended on our ballad-writers; and we must be thankful, therefore, to be able to embalm and hand down to posterity a name here and there, such as william of wykeham, and john morgan. in answer to our inquiries in this matter, generally, we have been told, 'oh, anybody writes them,' and with that answer we have had to rest satisfied. but in presence of that answer, we walk about the streets with a new sense of wonder, peering into the faces of those of our fellow-lieges who do not carry about with them the external evidence of overflowing exchequers, and saying to ourselves, 'that man may be a writer of ballads.'" at every enquiry we made for information in regard to street-literature, we still continued to be referred to mr. john morgan as the most likely person living to supply what we needed on the subject. but the grave question arose in our own minds of the how, when, and where: could we find out and interview this said mr. john morgan, poet! first we made enquiry at the office of mr. taylor, printer of ballads, &c., and , brick lane, spitalfields, but, they "had not the least idea where we could find him. in fact they had only heard of him as a ballad-writer, and knew nothing about where he lived, never having employed him: had perhaps printed some of his ballads. thought mr. such, of the borough, might give some information, but, sure to find out all about him in the seven dials district." mr. h. such, machine printer and publisher, , union street, borough, s.e., on being applied to could give us no positive information as to the whereabout of mr. john morgan--he knew him, but where he lived he could not tell. mr. fortey or mr. disley, in the dials-way, would be most likely to know. mr. william s. fortey, (late a. ryle, successor to the late j. catnach), printer, publisher, and wholesale stationer, and , monmouth court, seven dials, london, w., on being applied to could not exactly tell where mr. john morgan did live, it was somewhere westminster-way: it was very uncertain when he should next see him, because he did not sometimes call in for weeks together, yet he might by chance see him to-morrow, or the next day. anyway, we felt that we had no right to press the question any further, more particularly so because mr. fortey had been very civil and obliging to us on other occasions--in fact we have been under great and lasting obligations to him, so changed the conversation. mr. henry disley, printer, , high street, st. giles', london, who we found to be a very genial sort of a man, and that he had formerly been in the service of james catnach; he was working in his front shop at a small hand-press on some cards relative to a forthcoming friendly lead,[ ] to be held at a public-house in the immediate neighbourhood, while mrs. disley was hard at work colouring some christmas carols, and which she did with a rapidity that was somewhat astonishing. in answer to our inquiry whether he knew of one john morgan--who was--as we described him, "something of a song writer." well! both mr. and mrs. disley together--"did know him--should think they did." but when we came to enquire about his private address they knew nothing about that. he (mr. morgan) wrote ballads for them at times: often called on them--whenever he did it was always to sell a _good_ ballad he had on hand, or to tell them what _bad_ times it was with him: but as to where he lived, beyond that it was somewhere westminster-way, they did not know--in fact, had not the least idea. but, most likely, mr. fortey, him in monmouth court, did. yes! come to think of it, he would be sure to know. the very unsatisfactory and evasive answers received in reference to the address of mr. john morgan gave a zest to our zeal in the matter--so much so, that we then determined "to work the oracle" out in our way. at this time we had a near relative occupying chambers in barnard's inn, which we held to be a good central and lawyer-like address--one that had the "true ring," of business and substantiality about it. yes! barnard's inn, holborn, london, e.c., looked to our mind to be likely to serve our stratigical purpose to the point we desired. having made all the preparatory arrangements, we then procured from a neighbouring stationer's shop a sheet of mourning note-paper and an envelope of large proportions, each having the very blackest and broadest of black borders we could find in stock. then we wrote in a law-like hand:-- _no. , barnard's inn, holborn, london, e.c., february , ._ _this is to give notice:--if mr. john morgan, ballad-writer, &c., will call at the above address on or after wednesday next. he will hear something greatly to his advantage._ _(signed)_ [signature: charles hindley.] _mr. john morgan, care of............ ..............london._ the above document having been duly intrusted to her majesty's post master general for delivery, we had to abide our time for the result. we had not to wait long, for although we had appointed the next following wednesday to communicate "_something greatly to the advantage of mr. john morgan_," he turned up a little sooner than we expected, or desired, by reason of his putting in an appearance at barnard's inn on tuesday evening, where he arrived "happy and glorious," and made earnest enquiries for "the gentleman who had sent him a letter to say he had got a something to his advantage--perhaps a fortune! for sometimes he thought somebody would die and leave him one. where was the gentleman who wrote him the letter? he says that i am to call here. he sent it in a black-bordered envelope for him. where is the gentleman? see here is the letter, and all in black--black as your hat--look for yourself, sir." all the above was spoken to a friend of ours who lived on the ground-floor at the particular house in barnard's inn, where mr. john morgan had been requested to call on wednesday. it was then only tuesday, and that fact had to be explained; also, that the gentleman in question was not at present in his chambers on the third-floor, but would be in the morning up to o'clock. our friend on the first-floor--who had received instructions from us in the event of mr. john morgan turning-up while we were not at home--informed us of all that had taken place when we arrived a little later on in the evening. on the next morning preparations were made for the reception of our expectant friend--a good fire, a good breakfast, and a half-pint of "old tom" from carr's well-known establishment, st. clement danes, strand. very soon after the old clock of the ancient hall of barnard's inn, and all the public clocks in the surrounding neighbourhood had proclaimed aloud that the hour of a.m. of that wednesday morning had arrived, there was heard a knock at the outer door of our chamber-rooms, and on the same being opened, mr. john morgan announced himself as the party to whom the gentleman had sent a black-bordered letter and envelope for him to say there was a something to his advantage to be had. then mr. john morgan, full of bows and scrapes, was ushered into our presence.--he was the party who had received the letter. oh! yes, mr. morgan we added: take a seat sir. yes, sir, and thank you to, he replied, at the same time sitting down and then very carefully despositing his somewhat delapidated hat under--far under--the chair. we then enquired whether he would have anything to eat, or have a cup of coffee. no! it was a little too early in the morning for eating, and coffee did not always agree with him. or, a drop of good "old tom," we somewhat significantly suggested. mr. john morgan would very much like to have a little drop of gin, for it was a nasty raw cold morning: in answer to our enquiry whether he would prefer hot or cold water, elected to have it neat if it made no difference to us. mr. john morgan at our suggestion having "wet the other eye," _i.e._, taken the second glass, the real business part of the question we had met upon commenced thus:--"we have been informed that you were acquainted with, and used to write for the late james catnach, who formerly lived in the seven dials, and that you can give us much of the information that we require towards perfecting a work we have in hand treating on street literature. if you are willing to do so, we are prepared to treat with you in a liberal manner, and that, please to at once to understand is the '_something greatly to your advantage_ that is mentioned in the note we addressed to you.'" here mr. john morgan hinted that he thought it was--or he had hoped it was, a little fortune some one had been kind enough to leave him, he always expected that old jemmy catnach would--after what he had done for him, have left him a bit, however small, but no such luck. mr. morgan expressed his willingness to give all the information he could on the subject and leave it to our generosity to pay him what we pleased, and adding that he had no doubt that we should not fall out on that score. and so we proceeded, we talked and took notes. mr. morgan talked and took gin. mr. morgan got warm--warmer and warmer--and very entertaining, his conversational powers increased wonderfully, he became very witty and laughed _ha! hah!!_ he joked and made merry at some old reminiscences in connection with old jemmy catnach--and admitted, that after all old jemmy wasn't a particular bad sort--that is, when you knew him, and could handle him properly--then old jemmy was as right as my leg! still we continued to talk and take notes, still mr. morgan talked and took gin, until he emulated the little old woman who sold "hot codlings," for of her it is related that--"the glass she filled and the bottle she shrunk and that this little old woman in the end got----." at length it became very manifest that we should not be able to get any more information out of mr. john morgan on that day, so proposed for him to call again on the morrow morning and at the same time and place to pursue the thread of our narrative. then having presented him with a portrait of her most gracious majesty queen victoria, set in gold, we volunteered to see him down stairs which we observed were very crooked--mr. morgan thought they were very old and funny ones: up and down like--in fact what old charley dibdin would have called regular "whopping old stairs!" being safely landed from the last stone step on to the stone-paved way, we thought it advisable, for appearance sake, to conduct our friend out of barnard's inn by a sideway leading into fetter-lane. after that it occurred to us that it would perhaps be better to see him to the fleet-street end of the lane and then to put him into a westminster omnibus, but we had reached somerset house before one going that way came in sight. then it was mr. john morgan suddenly recollected that he could not pass his old friend short--who was short? why surely you know short--old short, him as sells the wine so good and so cheap, there over the way--that's short's--"wines from the wood," that's out of the cask you know, you remind me to-morrow, sir, and i'll tell you a good tale about old short before he made such a lot of money as he has got now.--capital chap old short, he knows me--it's all about a song i wrote--but i'll tell you all about it to-morrow. besides i must have change ye know for there's no one got any at my home--my landlord--there's no change about him, oh! dear no--he's never got any change but he's always got an old account, do you see? an old account--but no matter let's go in! respectfully, but firmly declining the kind and very pressing invitation to have "only just one drop with old short." we left mr. john morgan to take care of himself for the day and to be sure to meet us on the next morning in barnard's inn at o'clock--sharp. at length the wishful morrow came, also ten of the clock, but not so mr. john morgan, nor did he call at any hour during the day. but soon after o'clock the next day he made his appearance, but being so stupidly drunk we gave him some money and told him to call again to-morrow. and he did, but still so muddled that we could make nothing out of him, so we somewhat curtly dismissed him and returned to brighton. the next day the letter--of which we give a _verbatim et literatim_ copy--was received and then forwarded on to us. great peter street westminister, s.w. saturday the th of march . my dear and kind sir:--i return you my most sincere and heartfelt thanks for the kindness i received from you and deeply i regret if i caused you any displeasure the fact is i have been greatly put about and you having been so kind as to give me refreshments it overpowered me i fell and hurt myself. and i am now destitute without a penny in the world or a friend to help me. i feel as though i offended you i hope not i think by the little conversation we had i may be able to please you i have been considering in my doleful moments matters of importance if my kind and good friend you can favour me with a line this saturday evening i will be most grateful i shall not go out waiting to hear from you i am placed in a most sad position accept my thanks write me a line in answer to this befriend me if it is possible and i will make all right and with gratitude, anxiously waiting your kind and i trust favourable reply. [signature: your hum{ble} servt john morgan] charles hindley, esq barnard's inn holborn w.c. having no desire to incur the expense of another journey to london in the matter, and believing that we had obtained sufficient information on the subject, we published, in the year , a limited number of copies of our work under the title of:-- curiosities of street literature: comprising "cocks," or "catchpennies," a large and curious assortment of street drolleries, squibs, histories, comic stories in prose and verse, broadsides on the royal family, political litanies, dialogues, catechisms, acts of parliament, street political papers. a variety of "ballads on a subject," _dying speeches and confessions_, to which is attached the all-important and necessary affectionate copy of verses, as "come, all you feeling-hearted christians, wherever you may be, attention give to these few lines, and listen unto me; it's of this cruel murder, to you i will unfold, the bare recital of the same will make your blood run cold." "what hast here? ballads? i love a ballad in print, or a life; for then we are sure they are true."--_shakespeare._ "there's nothing beats a stunning good murder, after all."--_experiences of a running patterer._ london: reeves and turner , strand, . curiosities of street literature. guaranteed only four hundred and fifty six copies printed, namely,-- £ s. d. on fine toned demy to published at on large post to, printed on one side of the paper only " on fine french linear writing paper, printed on one side only, and in imitation of the catnachian tea-like paper of old " on yellow demy to paper " --- [symbol: pointing hand] each copy of each edition numbered. our work on the curiosities of street literature soon ran out of print. but we continued to gather from time to time fresh information on the subject of the "two catnachs--john and james," and in the early part of we determined on publishing a work, to be entitled "the life and times of james catnach--late of seven dials--ballad monger." and for the purpose of obtaining the verification, amendment, or denial to the several scraps of information we had obtained, we wrote to our old friend, mr. john morgan, on the subject, and from him we received the letters that follow:-- no. , model cottages, little st. anne's lane, great peter street, westminster, london, s.w. _ th february, ._ sir, i received your letter this morning: i have removed to above address two years and seven months, i have been in bed seven weeks suffering from bronchitis; but am now recovering and shall get up to-day, but the doctor will not permit me to go out. whatever you may require i am ready and willing to do to the utmost of my abilities, and be happy to serve you, and much regret i have not the strength to venture to ---- street. if anything can be done by letter or otherwise, i will willingly attend to your request, your reply will greatly oblige, [signature: your hum{ble} servt john morgan] p.s.--please excuse the illegible scribble as i write this in bed. charles hindley, esq., , rose hill terrace, brighton. no. , model cottages, little st. ann's lane, great peter street, westminster, london, s.w. _ th february, ._ sir, i have just received yours, p.m., and in reply i beg to say that when i came to london in catnach's father was not living. catnach, his mother, and sister julia the youngest, resided at , monmouth court, the old woman and julia worked at a small hand press--i joined him about --his father died before.--i understood julia went astray--the mother died about . anne ryle was the widow of an officer: a waterloo man--with one child--had a pension. catnach had but little type, and no stock to speak of: he had a sister at portsea the wife of a mate of a ship in harbour, and kept a song-shop. his mother lived with him or years.--i understand about the "horses-heads." cox and kean, i forget except the title and chorus:-- cox _versus_ kean; or little breeches. "with his ginger tail he did assail, and did the prize obtain, this merry little wanton bantam cock of drury lane-- little breeches." ann stanton was tried for cutting the cock's head off there was no verses. as regards the sausages, catnach printed a few lines on a quarter-sheet, that caused a great uproar, he was taken to bow street. catnach had six months. there was no verses, it was quickly done. he printed the life of mother cummins, of dyot street--now, george street, and that was knocked into "pye" in quick sticks. there was a change after he went to alnwick in northumberland, where he carried a small press and printed the state of the poll every day, while there he took up his freedom.[ ] he came home and printed "cubitt's treadmill":-- "and we're all treading, tread, tread, treading, and we're all treading at fam'd brixton mill." and kept going forward--retired and went to barnet, left the business to james paul and ann ryle. that is many years ago. i seldom go near the seven dials, perhaps once in , , , or six months. i remember many occurrances but years is a long time, i have just entered my th year. anything you require as far as i can i will send and remain, [signature: your hum{ble} servt john morgan] charles hindley, esq., , rose hill terrace, brighton. model cottages, little ann's lane, great peter street, westminster, london, s.w. _ th february, ._ dear sir:-- if i was to go back and think of passing events it would fill a volume. first in --catnach then being very poor--at the death of george the third, and the duke of kent he printed an elegy: "mourn, britons mourn! your sons deplore, our royal sovereign is now no more." then comes the election for westminster: burdett, hobhouse, and lamb. he had a song:-- "oh, cammy hobby is the man, and so is daddy sir franky, o; the hon. w. lamb is going mad and kicking like a donkey, o." "oh, the naughty lamb-- the miserable sinner, o we'll have him roast and boil'd and cut him up for dinner, o." during the whole time of the election party spirit ran very high. a real lamb's head with a real rat in its mouth, was stuck upon the top of a pole. from the rat's tail hung a cock's comb. on the lamb's head was placed a lawyer's wig, surmounted with a fool's cap. on a board immediately below the head, was inscribed in front--"behold the ratting lamb, with a cock's comb at his tail." on the other side, the inscription was-- "if silly lambs will go ratting, 'tis fit they get this sort of batting."[ ] then came the dog's meat man-founded on fact:-- in gray's inn lane, not long ago. an old maid lived a life of woe; she was fifty-three, with a face like tan, when she fell in love with a dogs'-meat man. much she loved this dogs'-meat man, he was a good-looking dogs'-meat man; her roses and lilies were turn'd to tan, when she fell in love wi' the dogs'-meat man. every morning when he went by, whether the weather was wet or dry, and right opposite her door he'd stand, and cry "dogs'-meat," did this dogs'-meat man. then her cat would run out to the dogs'-meat man, and rub against the barrow of the dogs'-meat man, as right opposite to her door he'd stand, and cry "dogs' meat," did this dogs'-meat man. he said his customers, good lord! owed him a matter of two pound odd; and she replied, it was quite scan- dalous to cheat such a dogs'-meat man. "if i had but the money," says the dogs'-meat man, "i'd open a tripe-shop," says the dogs'-meat man, "and i'd marry you to-morrow."--she admired the plan, and she lent a _five-pound note_ to the dogs'-meat man. he pocketed the money and went away, she waited for him all next day, but he never com'd; and then she began to think she was diddled by the dogs'-meat man; she went to seek this dogs'-meat man, but she couldn't find the dogs'-meat man; some friend gave her to understan' he'd got a wife and seven children--this dogs'-meat man. mother cummins lived and kept brothels in dyot street, bloomsbury square, after, and still called george street, named after the prince regent george th, at that time "beggar's opera" where the prince and nobles resorted was at the rose and crown, church lane, st. giles. catnach printed her life. in the beggar's opera, were assembled matchmakers, beggars, prigs and all the lowest of the low. there was old black billy waters, with his wooden leg, dancing and playing his fiddle, and singing:-- polly will you marry me--polly don't you cry, polly come to bed with me; and get a little boy. some were dipping matches, some boiling potatoes and salt herrings, some swearing, some dancing--all manners of fun, _&c._ then comes queen caroline's trial; catnach gets out a song:-- as i walked down the greenwich-road one evening in june, i never saw so fine a sight as on that afternoon. i never saw so fine a sight, or, one half so good, as for to see queen caroline supported by a wood. that wood shall never be cut down, but stand for ever more; and he'll protect our innocent queen sweet caroline on our shore. which was followed by a skit on george ivth called:-- "the great babe in a mess." then another on queen caroline's _crin con_ case with bergami who couldn't _remember_ nothing at all. "bergami, the _non mi recordo_." [illustration] who are you? "_non mi recordo._" what countryman are you--a foreigner or an englishman? "_non mi recordo._" there was something fresh everyday until the end of the trial. catnach then prints some "papers" belonging to j. pitts, printer, gt. saint andrew-street, which causes a flare-up and a bother. then comes the sheet of "horses heads" which heads were like eldon, peel, canning, &c. just before they were out mr. rockcliff, a printer in old gravel lane, radcliff-highway sends for me--there was bottles of whisky. rockcliff had engaged with a man called oliver cromwell to get him one of the first sheets printed off catnach's press of the "horses heads" and he would give him half-a-crown. rockcliff then requested me to bring him the first sheet of "horses heads" and get the half-a-crown. i went and got the sheet and meets oliver cromwell going into catnach's as i came out, so i got the half-a-crown. rockcliff copies the sheet, then engaged with lowe the printer in compton-street to supply all the west-end. so it went on and made plenty of bother between them. catnach got on like a house on fire printing religious sheets, then came the murder of william weare esq. by john thurtell, hunt and probert. i remember all that affair well,--then the execution of thurtell. a twelve-month after probert was hanged for horsestealing. then came the trial of henry fauntleroy a banker in berner's street oxford street executed for forgery. then came corder and maria marten and the red barn, so that is the way catnach got on from a poor man to be a gentleman. there is many little things i may think of but close for the present and remain:-- [signature: your hum{ble} servt john morgan] , model cottages, little st. ann's lane, great peter street, westminster, london. _ th march, ._ sir, i received yours. my recollection is not so good as i would wish. i think to the best of my recollection in there were some old men who had been forty-years in the streets at that time, their names were old jack smith, tom caton, old jack rush, tom anderson and a few others. when they wanted anything they made up fresh reports, and things were done without the least hesitation. as respects mr. pizzy the pork butcher, it was some of these men that went to blackman street, clare market, and created an uproar about the sausages, crowds assembled, and windows were broken, they were charged with rioting and taken to bow street, before--as they told me, sir richard burnie, and i think mr. minshull. catnach was sent to clerkenwell for trial, and was afterwards sentenced to six months, and he served the full time. then there was the trial of the four poor irishmen for coining, in the first year of the mayorality of the late sir matthew wood, and a lot of other things which i think would answer the purpose. about twenty-six years ago henry mayhew sent for me, and he began a work something like yours, but by some means it stopped. there is matters that would help to fill up a book without going to much expense. [signature: your hum{ble} servt john morgan] charles hindley, esq., , rose hill terrace, brighton. at this date we were through the instrumentality of mrs. paul, widow of mr. james paul--formerly in the service of catnach, introduced to mrs. elizabeth benton, the last surviving daughter of john and mary catnach. mr. benton was assistant treasurer, and box-book keeper to mr. alfred bunn, of covent garden and drury lane theatres, mrs. benton, at the time being wardrobe-mistress and _costumier_. at one period mr. and mrs. benton lived with mr. bunn in st james' place, st. james' street, mrs. benton acting in the capacity of housekeeper. during several seasons mr. benton was also treasurer for the proprietors of vauxhall gardens, afterwards he filled the same office for e. t. smith--_dazzle smith!_ at cremorne gardens. he died abroad in . the interview we had with mrs. benton led up to receiving the two letters that follow:-- , sonderburg road, seven sisters' road, holloway. london. _november, th, ._ dear sir, in reply to your letter, in which you ask if i know where my father and mother were married, i regret to say i do not know for certain if it was in edinburgh or berwick-on-tweed, but i am certain it was not in alnwick. * * * * * i shall feel obliged for the [alnwick] journal, and also for the register of baptisms. i always understood that my father was a descendant of catnach, king of the picts. [signature: i remain yours & e benton] p.s.--the paper has not arrived--shall be glad to hear from you by return of post. charles hindley, esq., , rose hill terrace, brighton. , sonderburg road, seven sisters' road, holloway, london. _november , ._ dear sir, i am sorry i have not answered your letter before, but i have been very ill. i am sorry i can give you no more information than i have already given you, but about mrs. ryle and mr. ---- i cannot exactly say, and as my niece mrs. harding was but a girl when her uncle died i should not like to apply to her as it would be painful. my father was dead when the battle of waterloo was fought, but was in alnwick at the battle of trafalgar, and for some time after. my father had residences in london. . (only a shop) in wardour street, soho square, and ditto also gerrard street, and also in charlotte street, fitzroy square (apartments). my father had a severe illness, also a fever of which he died. i should feel very much obliged if you could find me a copy of the hermit of warkworth, and i will willingly pay for it, and also blair's grave. i am very much obliged for the registers, and if i can supply you with further information i will do so with pleasure. i have not heard from mr. [mark] smith. [signature: i remain yours &c. e benton] p.s.--i received the paper [alnwick journal] with thanks. c. hindley, esq., , rose hill terrace, brighton. it was at this particular date of our history-- --that we had the good fortune to get acquainted with mr. george skelly, of alnwick--who, like ourselves, is possessed of the _cacoethes scribendi_, and was at the time supplying, _con amore_, an article to the _alnwick journal_, entitled "john and james catnach," which we found to contain certain information relative to the elder catnach, and also of the earlier portion of the life of james, of which we had no previous knowledge. at our solicitation to be allowed to make a selection from the same, we received a most courteous and gentlemanly letter, which, in addition to containing several pieces of information and answers to many queries we had put to mr. skelly, he wound up by saying:--"you have full liberty to make use of anything that i have written, and it will afford me much pleasure if i can further your intentions in any way." from that date, mr. george skelly continued to correspond with us on the subject of the "two catnachs," nearly up to the last moment of our going to press with our own "life and times of james catnach," and to him we are greatly indebted for much of the information therein contained. and it was at his suggestion that we wrote the following letter to the _alnwick journal_--mr. skelly at the same time furnishing the local paragraph. letter to the editor. _to the editor of the alnwick journal._ , rose hill terrace, brighton, june th, . sir,--your townsman, mr. george skelly, in the concluding chapter of his excellent article of "john and james catnach," makes mention of my name as being engaged in preparing for publication "the life and times of james catnach, formerly of seven dials, printer of ballads, &c." such being the fact, i shall therefore be glad if you would allow me sufficient space in the _alnwick journal_, to ask your readers and correspondents who possess any additional facts, sayings, doings, or letters of the two catnachs--john and james--to supply me with the same, when i shall have much pleasure in assigning to any such contributions a proper chronological place in my work, and of acknowledging the source of the same, while all documents or books will be faithfully returned by yours, &c., &c., charles hindley. * * * * * john and james catnach.--it will be seen by a correspondence in another page that mr. charles hindley, of brighton, is preparing for publication the "life and times of james catnach," and he respectfully solicits from our readers any facts and scraps they may be possessed of, also the loan of any letters or books suitable for the extention of the life of the celebrated and withal eccentric printer, who, although a native of alnwick, settled in london, and occupied a peculiar position for upwards of a quarter of a century in the seven dials district. we trust that our correspondent may be enabled to add to his all ready large stock of material in hand a few more items, by the publication of his letter in our columns. mr. hindley's work, will, it is expected, be published by messrs. reeves and turner, of the strand, london, during the coming autumn. the above letter to the _alnwick journal_ was the means of obtaining another valuable correspondent--mr. george h. thompson, also of alnwick, who volunteered his services to aid and assist, to the best of his time and ability, in supplying all the information he possessed or could glean from his friends and acquaintances in the good old borough of alnwick, or the county at large. and _inter alia_ copied out _verbatim_ from the parish register of baptisms in st. michael's church all the entries in connection with the family of john and mary catnach and which will be found _in extenso_ at pages - of this work. mr. george skelly and mr. g. h. thompson are fortunate by their residence in alnwick in having had the acquaintance and friendship of the late mr. mark smith--james catnach's fellow apprentice, mr. thomas robertson, mr. tate, the local historian, and several other _alnwick-folk_. and they have made the best possible use of the circumstance to supply us with information on the subject of our enquiry. recently mr. geo. skelly has forwarded to us an original trade invoice of john catnach of which we here append a _fac-simile_ copy:-- [illustration] _alnwick_ _mr. smart_, _bought of_ j. catnach, . _july ._ _£ s. d._ _printing bills_ ,, ---------- [signature: paid j. catnach] we have now brought up the history of our pursuit of knowledge to the eve of the publication of the life and times of james catnach--late of seven dials, ballad-monger--which was first announced in in the manner following. ye life of jemmy catnach. [illustration] now, my friends, you have here just printed and pub--lish--ed, the full, true, and particular account of the life, trial, character, confession, condemnation, and behaviour, together with an authentic copy of the last will and testament: or dying speech, of that eccentric individual "old jemmy catnach," late of the _seven dials_, printer, publisher, toy-book manufacturer, dying-speech merchant, and ballad-monger. here, you may read how he was bred and born the son of a printer, in the ancient borough of alnwick, which is in northumberlandshire. how he came to london to seek his fortune. how he obtained it by printing and publishing children's books, the chronicling of doubtful scandals, fabulous duels between ladies of fashion, "cooked" assassinations, and sudden deaths of eminent individuals, apocryphal elopements, real or catch-penny accounts of murders, impossible robberies, delusive suicides, dark deeds and public executions, to which was usually attached the all-important and necessary "sorrowful lamentations," or, "copy of affectionate verses," which, according to the established custom, the criminal composed, in the condemned cell, the night before his execution. yes, my customers, in this book you'll read how jemmy catnach made his fortune in monmouth court, which is to this day in the seven dials, which is in london. not only will you read how he did make his fortune, but also what he did and what he didn't do with it after he had made it. you will also read how "old jemmy" set himself up as a fine gentleman:--james catnach es--quire. and how he didn't like it when he had done it. and how he went back again to dear old monmouth court, which is in the seven dials aforesaid. and how he languished, and languishing, did die--leaving all his old mouldy coppers behind him--and how being dead, he was buried in highgate cemetery. furthermore, my ready-money customers, you are informed that there are only copies of the work print-ed and pub-lish-ed, viz., namely that is to say;-- copies on crown vo, at / each. copies on demy vo., at /- each. london: reeves and turner, , strand, w.c. . the seven dials!--jemmy catnach and street literature are, as it were, so inseparably bound together that we now propose to give a short history of the former to enable us to connect our own history with the later:-- the seven dials were built for wealthy tenants, and evelyn, in his _diary_, , notes: "i went to see the building near st. giles's, where seven dials make a star from a doric pillar placed in the middle of a circular area, in imitation of venice." the attempt was not altogether in vain. this part of the parish has ever since "worn its _dirt_ with a difference." there is an air of shabby gentility about it. the air of the footman or waiting-maid can be recognised through the tatters, which are worn with more assumption than those of their unsophisticated neighbours. "you may break, you may shatter the vase if you will; but the scent of the roses will hang round it still." the seven dials are thus described in gay's trivia:-- "where famed st. giles's ancient limits spread, an in-railed column rears its lofty head; here to seven streets, seven dials count their day, and from each other catch the circling ray; here oft the peasant, with inquiring face, bewildered, trudges on from place to place; he dwells on every sign with stupid gaze-- enters the narrow alley's doubtful maze-- tries every winding court and street in vain, and doubles o'er his weary steps again." this column was removed in july, , on the supposition that a considerable sum of money was lodged at the base; but the search was ineffectual. charles knight, in his "london," writes thus of seven dials:-- "it is here that the literature of st. giles's has fixed its abode; and a literature the parish has of its own, and that, as times go, of a very respectable standing in point of antiquity. in a letter from letitia pilkington, to the demure author of 'sir charles grandison,' and published by the no less exemplary and irreproachable mrs. barbauld, the lady informs her correspondent that she has taken apartments in great white lion street, and stuck up a bill intimating that all who have not found 'reading and writing come by nature,' and who had had no teacher to make up the defect by art, might have 'letters written here.' with the progress of education, printing presses have found their way into st. giles's, and what with literature and a taste for flowers and birds, there is much of the 'sweet south' about the seven dials harmonising with the out-of-door habits of its occupants. it was here--in monmouth court, a thoroughfare connecting monmouth street with little earl street--that the late eminent mr. catnach developed the resources of his genius and trade. it was he who first availed himself of greater mechanical skill and a larger capital than had previously been employed in the department of the trade, to substitute--for the excrable tea-paper, blotched with lamp-black and oil, which characterised the old broadside and ballad printing--tolerably white paper and real printer's ink. but more than that, it was he who first conceived and carried into effect, the idea of publishing collections of songs by the yard, and giving to purchasers, for the small sum of one penny (in former days the cost of a single ballad), strings of poetry, resembling in shape and length the list of don juan's mistresses, which leporello unrolls on the stage before donna anna. he was no ordinary man, catnach; he patronised original talents in many a bard of st giles's and is understood to have accumulated the largest store of broadsides, last dying speeches, ballads and other stock-in-trade of the flying stationer's upon record." douglas jerrold in his article on the ballad singer, published in "heads of the people; or portraits of the english"-- , writes thus of seven dials and its surroundings:-- "the public ear has become dainty, fastidious, hypercritical; hence the ballad-singer languishes and dies. only now and then, his pipings are to be heard * * * with the fall of napoleon, declined the english ballad-singer. during the war, it was his peculiar province to vend halfpenny historical abridgments to his country's glory; recommending the short poetic chronicle by some familiar household air, that fixed it in the memory of the purchaser, who thus easily got hatred of the french by heart, with a new assurance of his own invulnerability. no battle was fought, no vessel taken or sunken, that the triumph was not published, proclaimed in the national gazette of our ballad-singer. if he were not the clear silver trump of fame, he was at least her tin horn. it was he who bellowed music into news, which, made to jingle, was thus, even to the weakest understanding, rendered portable. it was his narrow strips of history that adorned the garrets of the poor; it was he who made them yearn towards their country, albiet to them so rough and niggard a mother. napoleon lost waterloo, and the english ballad-singer not only lost his greatest prerogative, but was almost immediately assailed by foreign rivals, who had well-nigh played him dumb. little thought the ballad-singer, when he crowed forth the crowning triumphs of the war, and in his sweetest possible modulations breathed the promised blessings of a golden peace, that he was then, swan-like, singing his own knell; that he did but herald the advent of his own provençal destroyers. oh muse! descend and say, did no omen tell the coming of the fall? did no friendly god give warning to the native son of song? burned the stars clearly, tranquilly in heaven,--or shot they madly across primrose-hill, the middlesex parnassus? * * * * * evening had gathered o'er saint giles's, and seven dials. so tranquil was the season, even publishers were touched. catnach and pitts sat silent in their shops; placing their hands in breeches-poke, with that serenity which pockets best convey, they looked around their walls--walls more richly decked than if hung with triumphs of sidonian looms, arrayed with bayeux stitchings; walls, where ten thousand thousand ballads--strips harmonious, yet silent as apollo's unbraced strings,--hung pendulous, or crisply curling, like john braham's hair. catnach and pitts, the tuneful masters of the gutter-choir, serenely looked, yet with such comprehensive glance, that look did take their stock. suddenly, more suddenly than e'er the leaves in hornsey wood were stirred by instant blast, the thousand thousand ballads swung and rustled on the walls; yet wind there was not, not the lightest breath. still like pendants fluttering in a northern breeze, the ballads streamed towards catnach, and towards pitts! amazing truth--yet more; each ballad found a voice! 'old towler' faintly growled; 'nancy dawson' sobbed and sighed; and, 'bright chanticleer' crowed weakly, dolorously, as yet in chickenhood, and smitten with the pip. at the same instant, the fiddle, the antique viol of roger scratch, fell from its garret-peg, and lay shivered, even as glass. a cloud fell upon seven dials; dread and terror chilled her many minstrels: and why--and wherefore? at that dread moment, a ministrel from the sunny south, with barrel-organ, leapt on dover beach! seven dials felt the shock: her troubadours, poor native birds, were to be out-carrolled and out-quavered, by italian opera retailed by penn'orths to them, from the barrel-organs: and prompt to follow their masters, they let the english ballad singer sing unheard. the ballad-singer has lost his occupation; yet should he not pass away unthanked, unrecompensed. we have seen him a useful minister in rude society; we have heard him a loud-mouthed advocate of party zeal, and we have seen him almost ground into silence by the southern troubadour. yet was he the first music-seller in the land. ye well-stocked, flourishing vendors of fashionable scores, deign to cast a look through plate glass at your poor, yet great original, bare-footed and in rags, singing, unabashed, amidst london wagon-wheels: behold the true decendant of the primative music-seller." charles dickens, as boz, long since "sketched" the seven dials, and at the same time and place given us his--"meditations in monmouth street":-- "seven dials! the region of song and poetry--first effusions, and last dying speechees: hallowed by the names of catnach and pitts--names that will entwine themselves with costermongers, and barrel-organs, when penny magazines shall have superseded penny yards of song, and capital punishment be unknown." several years ago mr. albert smith, who lived at chertsey, discovered in his neighbourhood part of the seven dials--the column doing duty as a monument to a royal duchess--when he described the circumstance in a pleasant paper, entitled "some news of a famous old fellow," in his "town and country magazine." the communication is as follows:-- "let us now quit the noisome mazes of st. giles's and go out and away into the pure leafy country. seventeen or eighteen miles from town, in the county of surrey, is the little village of weybridge. one of the lions to be seen at weybridge is oatlands, with its large artificial grotto and bath-room, which is said--but we cannot comprehend the statement--to have cost the duke of newcastle, who had it built, £ , . the late duchess of york died at oatlands, and lies in a small vault under weybridge church, wherein there is a monument, by chantrey, to her memory. she was an excellent lady, well-loved by all the country people about her, and when she died they were anxious to put up some sort of a tribute to her memory. but the village was not able to offer a large some of money for this purpose. the good folks did their best, but the amount was still very humble, so they were obligated to dispense with the service of any eminent architect, and build up only such a monument as their means could compass. someone told them that there was a column to be sold cheap in a stonemason's yard, which might answer their purpose. it was accordingly purchased; a coronet was placed upon its summit; and the memorial was set up on weybridge green, in front of the ship inn, at the junction of the roads leading to oatlands, to shepperton lock, and to chertsey. this column turned out to be the original one from seven dials. the stone on which the dials were engraved or fixed, was sold with it. the poet gay, however, was wrong when he spoke of its seven faces. it is hexagonal in its shape; this is accounted for by the fact that two of the streets opened into one angle. it was not wanted to assist in forming the monument, but was turned into a stepping stone, near the adjoining inn, to assist the infirm in mounting their horses, and there it now lies, having sunk by degrees into the earth; but its original form can still be easily surmised. it may be about three feet in diameter. the column itself is about thirty feet high and two feet in diameter, displaying no great architectural taste. it is surmounted by a coronet, and the base is enclosed by a light iron railing. an appropriate inscription on one side of the base indicates its erection in the year , on the others are some lines to the memory of the duchess. relics undergo strange transpositions. the obelisk from the mystic solitudes of the nile to the centre of the place de la concorde, in bustling paris--the monuments of nineveh to the regions of great russell street--the frescoes from the long, dark, and silent pompeii to the bright and noisy naples--all these are odd changes. but in proportion to their importance, not much behind them is that old column from the crowded dismal regions of st. giles to the sunny tranquil green of weybridge." we are now approaching--"the beginning of the end"--of our history. we were not taken by surprise as we know that "coming events cast their shadows before," and that:-- often do the spirits of great events stride on before the events, and in to-day already walks to-morrow. therefore we were well prepared to read in the newspapers of october, , the following paragraph:-- the old-established printing and publishing house formerly occupied by james catnach, , monmouth-court, seven dials, will soon be amongst the lost landmarks of london. the metropolitan board of works have purchased the house, and it is to be pulled down to make the new street from leicester-square to new oxford-street. the business of the literature of the street was founded by james catnach in , who retired in . the ballads and broadsides he printed, many of them illustrated with cuts by bewick, helped to furnish the people with news and political and social ballads for generations. all that is fortold in the above has since taken place, monmouth-court and the house and shop wherein old jemmy catnach established the "catnach press" in the year has disappeared to make way for the "new thoroughfare" from leicester-square to new oxford street, and:-- the catnach press removed by mr. w. s. fortey--catnach's successor--to great st. andrew-street, bloomsbury, w.c. _o tempora! o mores!_ [illustration: the history of the catnach press, and the two catnachs, john & james, father & son, _printers_, - .] [illustration] thomas bewick, thomas bewick died at his house on the windmill-hills, gateshead, november the th, , in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and on the th he was buried in the family burial-place at ovingham, where his parents, wife, and brother were interred. [illustration] the catnach press. in addition to the full title of our work--"the history of the catnach press"--the two catnachs--john and james--father and son, we deem it necessary to incidentally introduce into our pages some notice of alnwick, an ancient borough, market-town and parish of northumberland, also a few passing remarks on the life and doings of mr. william davison, who, in conjunction with the elder catnach as a business partner and subsequent successor, employed thomas bewick--an english artist, who imparted the first impulse to the art of wood-engraving--for many of their publications. of the early life of john catnach, (_kat-nak_), the father, we have little information. he was born in , at burntisland, a royal burgh and parish of fifeshire, scotland, where his father was possessed of some powder-mills. the family afterwards removed to edinburgh, when their son john was bound apprentice to his uncle, sandy robinson, the printer. after having duly served out his indentures, he worked for some short time in edinburgh, as a journeyman, then started in a small business of his own in berwick-upon-tweed, where he married mary hutchinson, who was a native of dundee, a seaport-town in scotland. while at berwick a son and heir, john, was born. in they removed their business to alnwick, and during their residence there seven children were born to them and from the register of baptisms in st. michael's church we glean that four of them were baptised at one time, viz., september , , and there described as "of john catnach, printer, and mary his wife: dissenter."[?] john catnach had been brought up in the roman catholic faith, and his wife as a presbyterian. the following is taken _verbatim_ from the parish register:-- sep{t.} , . margaret, daug{r.} of john catnach, printer, and mary his wife. born dec{r.} {th}, . dissenter. james, son of john catnach, printer, and mary his wife. born august {th}, . dissenter. mary, daug{r.} of john catnach, printer, and mary his wife. born february {th}, . dissenter. nancy, daug{r.} of john catnach, printer, and mary his wife. born sep{r.} {nd}, . dissenter. may , . elizabeth catnach. born march , , {th} daughter of john catnach, printer, native of burnt island, shire of fife, by his wife mary hutchinson, native of dundee, angus shire, scotland. dec{r.} , . isabella catnach. born nov{r.} , . th daughter of jn{o.} catnach, stationer, nat. of scotland, by his wife, mary hutchinson, nat. of dundee, angus shire, scotland. march , . jane catnach, {th} daughter of john catnach, printer, native of edinburgh (_sic_) by his wife mary hutchinson, native of dundee, scotland. to the above we have to add that there were two sons--john, born to john and mary catnach. john i. who was born at berwick-upon-tweed, died august , , aged years and months, and we find him duly recorded in the register of deaths. john ii., whose name appears at the end of the inscription on a tombstone in alnwick churchyard, and of which further mention will be made in another portion of our work, died, presumably unbaptized, march , , aged months. john catnach was not long a resident in the borough of alnwick before he became acquainted with many of the principal tradesmen in the place. naturally he was of a free-and-easy disposition, and, like many of his kinsman on the borders, was particularly fond of the social glass. the latter practice he allowed to grow upon him in such a way that it ultimately interfered very much with his business prospects, and finally hastened his death. the shop that he commenced business in, was situated in narrowgate-street, and adjoining the old half-moon hostelry. in gaining access to the place one had to ascend a flight of steps. whilst in this shop he secured a fair amount of patronage, and the specimens of printing that emanated from his press are of such a character as to testify to his qualifications and abilities in the trade which he adopted as his calling. he possessed a fond regard for the traditions and customs which for centuries had been so closely associated with the border country. when the printing press was first introduced into alnwick is not exactly known; but that it was considerably before the time of catnach is certain. john vint, the bookseller and author of the "burradon ghost," for several years used a press for printing purposes in the town, and thomas lindsay carried on a similar business at a still earlier period. john catnach had a great relish for printing such works as would admit of expensive embellishments, which, at the time he commenced business, were exceedingly rare. the taste he displayed in the execution of his work will be best exemplified in examining some of the printed editions of the standard works which emanated from his press; and in no instance is this more characteristically set forth than in those finely printed books which are so beautifully illustrated by the masterly hand of thomas bewick and his accomplished and talented pupil, luke clennell. notably among which are:-- .--"the beauties of natural history. selected from buffon's history of quadrupeds, &c. alnwick: j. catnach, [n. d.] _circa_ , mo., pp. . with cuts by bewick."--another edition. published and sold by the booksellers. by wilson and spence, york, and j. catnach, printer, alnwick. (price _s._ _d._ sewed, or _s._ half-bound.) [n. d.] _circa_ . the embellishments of "the beauties of natural history" form an unique and valuable collection. they are very small and were done at an exceedingly low price, yet every bird and animal is exquisitely brought out in the minutest detail; whilst many of the illustrations which served as "tail pieces" are gems of art. .--"poems by percival stockdale. with cuts by thomas bewick. alnwick: printed by j. catnach. ." .--"the hermit of warkworth. a northumberland ballad. in three fits. by dr. thos. percy, bishop of dromore. with designs by mr. craig; and engraved on wood by mr. bewick. alnwick: printed and sold by j. catnach. sold by lackington, allen, and co., london; constable and co., edinburgh; and hodgson, newcastle. ." the arms of the duke of northumberland precedes the dedication, thus:-- [illustration] to her grace frances julia, duchess of northumberland, _this edition of_ the hermit of warkworth, is respectfully inscribed by her grace's obliged and humble servant, j. catnach alnwick, _october, _. .--a second edition; of which a few copies were printed on extra thick paper, royal vo., to match with some of his other works, illustrated by bewick, pp. xiv., , with cuts. at the end of the poem are a postcript, a description of the hermitage of warkworth, warkworth castle, alnwick castle, alnwick abbey, and a descriptive ride in hulne park, alnwick: printed and sold by j. catnach. sold by wilson and spence, york. . the hermit of warkworth. [illustration] "and now, attended by their host, the hermitage they view'd." [illustration] with hospitable haste he rose, and wak'd his sleeping fire: and snatching up a lighted brand, forth hied the reverend sire. * * * * [illustration] he fought till more assistance came; the scots were overthrown; thus freed me, captive, from their bands, to make me more his own. the illustrations of "the hermit of warkworth" are, upon the whole, very creditable, and are well calculated to enhance the value of the book, but as works of art some few of them fall far short of many of craig or bewick's other productions. john catnach also printed and published a series of juvenile works, as "the royal play book: or, children's friend. a present for little masters and misses." "the death and burial of cock robin, &c. adorned with cuts.--which in many cases were the early productions of thomas bewick.--alnwick: sold wholesale and retail by j. catnach, at his toy-book manufactory." [illustration] in the year , john catnach took an apprentice--a lad named mark smith, of whom more anon; a few months afterwards he entered into partnership with a mr. william davison, who was a native of ponteland, in the county of northumberland, but he duly served his apprenticeship as a chemist and druggist to mr. hind, of newcastle-upon-tyne, and for whom he ever cherished a fond regard. the union was not of long duration--certainly under two years--but it is very remarkable that two such men should have been brought together, for experience has shown that they were both morally and socially, the very opposite of each other. during the partnership: mr. davison held his business of chemist, &c., in bondgate-street; while the printing and publishing continued at narrowgate-street, and among the works published by the firm of catnach and davison we may record:-- "the minstrel; or, the progress of genuis. in two parts. with some other poems. by james beattie, ll.d. with sixteen cuts from designs by mr. thurston; and engraved on wood by mr. clennel, alnwick. printed by catnach and davison. sold by the booksellers in england and scotland. . mo. and royal vo., pp. ." "the grave. a poem. by robert blair. to which is added gray's elegy. in a country church yard. with notes moral and explanatory. alnwick: printed by catnach and davison. sold by the booksellers in england, scotland, and ireland. . mo., pp. xiv., . with a frontispiece and other cuts by thomas bewick." [illustration: _t. bewick._] the grave. "prone, on the lowly grave of the dear man she drops; whilst busy meddling memory, in barbarous succession, musters up the past endearments of their softer hours tenacious of its theme." after the dissolution of the strange partnership, mr. davison still prosecuted with vigour the several departments of the business; for although reared to the prescribing of physics, he had a fine taste and relish for the book trade, and the short time that he was with catnach enabled him to acquire a good amount of valuable information on this subject. be this as it may, he soon laid the basis of a large and lucrative business. about the first work mr. davison issued on his own account was:-- [illustration] the repository of select literature. being an elegant assemblage of curious, scarce, entertaining and instructive pieces in prose and verse. adorned with beautiful engravings by bewick, &c. alnwick: printed by w. davison. sold by the booksellers in england and scotland. . this work is a fine specimen of provincial book-printing; its pages are adorned with some of bewick's excellent cuts. there is one that we would particularly refer to, and that is "shepherd lubin." in size it is very small, but, like most of bewick's pieces, sufficiently large to show the inimitable skill of the artist. the picture tells its own tale:-- "young lubin was a shepherd's boy, who watched a rigid master's sheep, and many a night was heard to sigh, and may a day was seen to weep." [illustration: _and for whole days would wander in those places she had been used to walk with henry._] "the history of crazy jane, by sarah wilkinson, with a frontispiece by bewick: alnwick. printed by w. davison; _and sold by all the principal booksellers in england and scotland_. ." [illustration: "willie brew'd a peck o'maut."] "the poetical works of robert burns. engravings on wood by bewick, from designs by thurston. alnwick: printed by catnach and davison, ." and london: printed for t. cadell and davis, strand, . with cuts previously used in davison's publications. [illustration] "many of the engravings produced for burns' poems, are of a very superior class, and cannot be too highly commended."--_hugo._ [illustration: "sandie and willie."] "the poetical works of robert ferguson, with his life. engravings on wood by bewick. alnwick: printed by w. davison." mr. davison, following up the actions of his former partner, had a great regard for the standard poets. previous to the issuing of the poems of ferguson they had tried to imbue a better taste into the minds of the general reader, by means of publishing nothing but what was of an elevating character. and this will be seen by examining such works as buffon, beattie, percy, burns, &c. almost simultaneously with the poems of burns appeared those of ferguson. both works are uniform in size and price--_viz_: vols., foolscap vo.-- s. in boards; they contain some of bewick's choicest and most exquisite wood-engravings. "the northumberland minstrel: a choice selection of songs. alnwick: printed by w. davison." there were only three numbers of this work published,[ ] each of which contained pages. the object of this undertaking was for the carrying out a project which at that time was becoming very popular, and consisted in bringing together in a collected form some of the best and most admired of our ballad-poetry. in fact, the object mr. davison had in view was only to extend what had been so successfully accomplished by herd, ramsay, motherwell, ritson, and others. mr. davison continued in business at alnwick up to the time of his death, in , at the ripe age of . he was by far the most enterprising printer that had settled in the north of england. his collection of wood blocks was very large, and it is hardly possible to form an adequate conception of the many hundreds of beautiful specimens which he possessed. he stated that he had paid thomas bewick upwards of five hundred pounds for various woodcut blocks. with a view of disposing of some of his surplus stock, he printed and published in to., a catalogue:--"new specimens of cast-metal ornaments and wood types, sold by w. davison. alnwick. with impressions of , cast ornaments and wood blocks, many of the latter executed by thomas bewick." this catalogue--now exceedingly rare--is of the greatest interest and utility, as it embraces a series of cuts dispersed, as mr. hugo plainly shows, among a considerable number of publications, and enables those who collect bewick's pieces to detect the hand of the artist in many of his less elaborated productions. those of our readers who desire more information as to the many books printed by w. davison, the alnwick publisher, are referred to "the bewick collector," and the supplement thereto, by the rev. thomas hugo, m.a., &c. london: - . these volumes, illustrated by upwards of two hundred and ninety cuts, comprise an elaborate descriptive list of the most complete collection yet formed of the works of the renowned wood-engravers of newcastle-upon-tyne. not only to bewick collectors, but to all persons interested in the progress of art, and especially of wood-engraving, these volumes, exhibiting chronologically the works of the fathers of that art in england, cannot fail to be of the highest interest. mr. davison printed and published a series of halfpenny books; they are not only well printed, but in addition to this it is not unusual to see them illustrated by some of thomas bewick's choicest engravings. mr. hugo possessed twenty-seven in number, the titles of which he enumerates in his "bewick collector" and the supplement thereto: adding the remarks that follow:-- "the cuts in these little publications are for the most part the same which were used by davison in the other and more important works which issued from his press. the volumes are in mo, and in typographical excellence are far in advance of all other children's books of the period of their publication with which i am acquainted." herewith we publish one of the series from our own private collection. the justness of mr. hugo's opinion will be at once seen. the guess book, a collection of _ingenious puzzles_. [illustration] alnwick: published and sold by w. davison. _price one halfpenny_, a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z & the guess book. [illustration] the moon. there was a thing a full month old, when adam was no more; but ere that thing was five weeks old, adam was years five score. _guess book._ [illustration] a cat. in almost every house i'm seen, (no wonder then i'm common), i'm neither man, nor maid, nor child, nor yet a married woman. _guess book._ [illustration] a cannon. i am the terror of mankind, my breath is flame, and by its power i urge my messenger to find a way into the strongest tower. _guess book._ [illustration] an owl. my patron is wisdom--if wisdom you prize, in me put your confidence, borrow my eyes, who into a mill-stone can see quite as far as the best of you all, by the light of a star. _guess book._ [illustration] a top. i ne'er offend thee, yet thou dost me whip, which don't amend me, though i dance and skip; when i'm upright, me you always like best, and barbarously whip me when i want rest. _guess book._ [illustration] books. with words unnumber'd i abound; in me mankind do take delight; in me much learning's to be found; yet i can neither read nor write. _guess book._ [illustration] a drum. my sides are firmly lac'd about, yet nothing is within: you'll think my head is strange indeed, being nothing else but skin. _guess book._ [illustration] a sand-glass. made of two bodies join'd, without foot or hand; and yet you will find i can both run and stand. _guess book._ [illustration] time. ever eating, never cloying, all devouring, all destroying, never finding full repast till i eat the world at last. _guess book._ [illustration] death. the gate of life, the cause of strife, the fruit of sin, when i appear, you drop a tear, and stay within. _guess book._ [illustration] a pair of shoes. to rich and poor we useful are; and yet for our reward, by both at last we're thrown away, without the least regard. _guess book._ [illustration] a squirrel. i am a busy active creature, fashion'd for the sport of nature, nimbly skip from tree to tree, under a well-wrought canopy; bid chloe then to mira tell what's my name and where i dwell. _guess book._ [illustration] a fish. though it be cold i wear no clothes, the frost and snow i never fear; i value neither shoes nor hose, and yet i wander far and near. [illustration] [illustration] [signature: john catnach] at newcastle. "there is no fooling with life, when it is once turned forty: the seeking of a fortune then is but a desperate after-game: it is a hundred to one if a man fling three sixes, and recover all; if his hand be no luckier than mine."--_cowley._ in or about the latter part of the year , john catnach, with his wife and family, left alnwick for newcastle-upon-tyne, and commenced business in a small shop in newgate-street, and among other works which he printed there, mention may be made of "the battle of chevy chase," a selection from the works of "dr. samuel johnson, in two volumes," and "the life of john thompson, mariner. written by himself: also, his divine selections, in prose and verse. _from esteemed authors._ embellished with steel engravings. newcastle: _printed for the author_. by j. catnach, newgate-street. . mo., pp. lxxvi., . with two tail-pieces by thomas bewick." john thompson, _alias_ godfried thomas leschinsky, born at riga, , was a seaman. he sailed with nelson's fleet to copenhagen, . continuing at sea he endured many hardships from severe accidents and ill health, and was at length discharged as not being fit for his majesty's service. in , while in the infirmary at newcastle, one of his legs--from old injuries, rapidly mortified and had to be amputated. subsequently, in consequence of the bones and joints of his right hand decaying, his arm was taken off below the elbow. he for years made a living out of his misfortunes and assumed piety. catnach was induced, by specious reasoning, to undertake the printing of the book, but the eleemosynary author dying just as it was all worked off but not bound, he had the whole of the stock thrown on his hands to do the best he could with. there were between fifty and sixty claims set up by persons who averred that they had in part, or whole, paid for a copy each to the author on signing his subscription list, and most of these claims were allowed on the payment of sixpence extra: the work was subscribed for at s. d., but being extended to pages more than was expected, the price was advanced to s. john catnach, at newcastle, worked attentively for awhile, but without finding his expectations realised. alas! time and the change of scene and companions had not improved the man. he contrived to get into a great amount of debt, without the least possible chance, from his irregular mode of living, of being able to pay it off. eventually, he made up his mind for the worst, and the downward course would seem to have been the only way open to him. from bad to worse, and from one extreme to the other, he rapidly drifted. the loose and irregular manner in which he had existed was beginning to tell upon his constitution. his business had been neglected, and his adventures were nearly at a climax. the wreck came, with a terrific blow; but it was not unlooked for. poor catnach was a bankrupt, and as such sent to the debtor's gaol. but just before, he had managed to send his wife and daughters to london, together with a wooden printing press, some small quantity of type, and other articles of his trade that could be hurriedly and clandestinely got together. during the five years' residence of john and mary catnach in newcastle, they had one child, isabella, burned to death, and another, julia dalton, born to them. mr. mark smith, who had been bound apprentice to john catnach, but by reason of whose removal from the borough of alnwick, the indentures had been rendered void, was then in london, serving out his time as a turnover and improver with mr. john walker, of paternoster row, and on being made acquainted with the arrival of mrs. catnach and her family, paid them a visit at their lodgings in a court leading off drury-lane, and assisted in putting up the press and arranging the other few matters and utensils in connection with their tiny printing office, there to await john catnach's release from prison and arrival in the metropolis. london life to john catnach proved very disastrous, matters never went smoothly with him. it was evident to all his friends that he had made a great mistake in leaving the north of england. mr. mark smith continued to visit the family as opportunities presented themselves. on one occasion he found them in extremely distressed circumstances, so much so, that he had to afford them some temporary relief from his slender earnings and then left the northern sojourners for the night, promising that he would return to see them at an early date. anxious to learn how they were succeeding in the crowded metropolis, it was not many days before he again visited them, but this time he found them in a sorry plight; the landlady had distrained upon their all for arrears of rent. this was an awkward predicament; but the indomitable young northumbrian, like the more burly dr. johnson of old, when his friend oliver goldsmith was similarly situated, resolved to do all he could to rescue him from the peril in which he was placed. not being prepared for a case of such pressing emergency, the full debt and costs being demanded, he was compelled to borrow the required amount of mr. matthew willoughby, a native and freeman of the borough of alnwick, then residing in london, and once more his old master was free. john catnach then removed his business to a front shop in soho, when, in the absence of work of a higher class, he had to resort to printing quarter-sheet ballads, here is the title and imprint of one example:-- [illustration] tom starboard and faithful nancy. tom starboard was a lover true, as brave a tar as ever sail'd; the duties ablest seamen do tom did, and never had fail'd. london.--printed by j. catnach, and sold wholesale and retail at no. , wardour-street, soho-square. for his wife and family he took apartments in charlotte street, fitzroy-square. again he shortly removed his business to gerrard-street, where he had hardly got his plant into working order, when on returning home on the evening of the th of august, , he had the misfortune to fall down and injure his leg. he was immediately taken to st. george's hospital, hyde-park corner, when rheumatic fever supervened, and although placed under the skilful treatment of dr. young, he never rallied, his constitution being completely broken, but by means of superior medical treatment and good nursing he lingered until the th of december in the same year, on which day he died. such is a brief _résumé_ of the latter years of john catnach's life. it is apparent that, by a little application and self-denial, this man might have made for himself a name and position in the world. he possessed all the necessary talents for bringing success within his reach. the ground which he took is the same which in after years proved to be of inestimable value to hundreds of publishers who never possessed half the amount of ability and good taste in printing and embellishing books that was centred in him. after his death, and just at the time when his widow and daughters were sunk in the greatest poverty, his son james, who in after years became so noted in street literature publications, made his way to the metropolis. it appears that this extraordinary man at one time contemplated devoting his life to rural pursuits; in fact, when a youth he served for some time as a shepherd boy, quite contrary to the wish and desire of his parents. every opportunity he could get he would run away, far across the moors and over the northumbrian mountains, and, always accompanied with his favourite dog venus, and a common-place book, in which he jotted down in rhymes and chymes his notions of a pastoral life.[ ] thus he would stay away from home for days and nights together. this project, however, was abandoned, and he commenced to serve as a printer in the employment of his father. it is rather remarkable that he and mr. mark smith [signature: mr. smith.] were both bound on the same day as apprentices to mr. john catnach, and that they afterwards worked together as "improvers" in their trade with:-- [illustration: _joseph graham, printer, alnwick._] mr. hugo, in the supplement to his "bewick collector," pp. ( ), says:--"this very beautiful cut was done by thomas bewick, sometime about the year , for a well-known alnwick printer." [signature: james catnach] "death made no conquest of this man, for now he lives in fame, though not in life." at the time james--or, as he afterwards was popularly called "_jemmy_," or, "_old jemmy_" catnach commenced business in seven dials it took all the prudence and tact which he could command to maintain his position, as at that time "johnny" pitts,[ ] of the toy and marble warehouse, no. , great st. andrew street, was the acknowledged and established printer of street literature for the "dials" district; therefore, as may be easily imagined, a powerful rivalry and vindictive jealousy soon arose between these "two of a trade"--most especially on the part of "old mother" pitts, who is described as being a coarse and vulgar-minded personage, and as having originally followed the trade of a bumboat woman at portsmouth: she "wowed wengeance" against the young fellow in the court for daring to set up in their business, and also spoke of him as a young "catsnatch," "catblock," "cut-throat," and many other opprobrious terms which were freely given to the new comer. pitts' staff of "bards" were duly cautioned of the consequences which would inevitably follow should they dare to write a line for catnach--the new _cove_ up the court. the injunction was for a time obeyed, but the "seven bards of the seven dials" soon found it not only convenient, but also more profitable to sell copies of their effusions to both sides at the same time, and by keeping their own counsel they avoided detection, as each printer accused the other of obtaining an early sold copy, and then reprinting it with the utmost speed, which was in reality often the case, as "both houses" had emissaries on the constant look-out for any new production suitable for street-sale. now, although this style of "double dealing" and competition tended much to lessen the cost price to the "middle-man" or vendor, the public in this case did not get any of the reduction, as a penny broadside was still a penny, and a quarter-sheet still a halfpenny to them, the "street-patterer" obtaining the whole of the reduction as extra profit. the feud existing between these rival publishers, who have been somewhat aptly designated as the colburn and bentley of the "paper" trade, never abated, but, on the contrary, increased in acrimony of temper, until at last not being content to vilify each other by "words! words!! words!!!" alone, they resorted to printing off virulent lampoons, in which catnach never failed to let the world know that "old mother pitts" had been formerly a bumboat woman, while the pitt's party announced that:-- "all the boys and girls around, who go out prigging rags and phials, know jemmy _catsnatch_!!! well, who lives in a back slum in the dials. he hangs out in monmouth court, and wears a pair of blue-black breeches, where all the "polly cox's crew" do resort to chop their swag for badly printed dying speeches." but however, in spite of all the opposition and trade rivalry, catnach persevered; he worked hard, and lived hard, and was fitted to the stirring times. the peninsular wars had just concluded, politics and party strife ran high, squibs, lampoons, and political ballads were the order of the day, and he made money. but he had weighty pecuniary family matters to bear up with, as thus early in his career, his father's sister also joined them, and they all lived and huddled together in the shop and parlour of no. , monmouth-court. he did a small and very humble trade as a jobbing master, printing and publishing penny histories, street-papers, and halfpenny songs, relying for their composition on one or two out of the known "seven bards of the seven dials," and when they were on the drink, or otherwise not inclined to work, being driven to write and invent them himself. the customers who frequented his place of business were for the most part of the lowest grades of society:--those who by folly, intemperance, and crime, had been reduced to the greatest penury. anyone with a few coppers in his pockets could easily knock out an existence, especially when anything sensational was in the wind. the great excitement throughout the country caused by the melancholy death of the princess charlotte, on the sixth day of november, , was an event of no ordinary description. it was, indeed, a most unexpected blow, the shining virtues, as well as the youth and beauty of the deceased, excited an amount of affectionate commiseration, such as probably had never before attended the death of any royal personage in england. the seven dials press was busily engaged in working off "papers" descriptive of every fact that could be gleaned from the newspapers, and that was suitable for street sale. catnach was not behind his compeers, as he published several statements in respect to the princess's death, and _made_ the following lines _out of his own head_! and had, continued our informant--a professional street-ballad writer--"_wood_ enough left for as many more":-- "she is gone! sweet charlotte's gone! gone to the silent bourne; she is gone, she's gone, for evermore,-- she never can return. she is gone with her joy--her darling boy, the son of leopold, blythe and keen; she died the sixth of november, eighteen hundred and seventeen." the year , proved a disastrous one to catnach, as in addition to the extra burden entailed on him in family matters, he had, in the way of his trade, printed a street-paper reflecting on the private character and on the materials used in the manufacture of the sausages as sold by the pork butchers of the drury-lane quarter in general, and particularly by mr. pizzey, a tradesman carrying on business in blackmore-street, clare-market, who caused him to be summoned to the bow-street police court to answer the charge of malicious libel, when he was committed to take his trial at the next clerkenwell sessions, by sir richard burnie, where he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment in the house of correction, at clerkenwell, in the county of middlesex. [signature: john morgan] during catnach's incarceration his mother and sisters, aided by one of the seven dials bards, carried on the business, writing and printing off all the squibs and street ballads that were required. in the meanwhile the johnny pitts' crew printed several lampoons on "jemmy catnach." subjoined is a portion of one of them that has reached us, _vivâ voce_, of the aforesaid--john morgan--professional street-ballad writer:-- "jemmy catnach printed a quarter sheet-- it was called in lanes and passages, that pizzy the butcher, had dead bodies chopped, and made them into sausages. "poor pizzey was in an awful mess, and looked the colour of cinders-- a crowd assembled from far and near, and they smashed in all his windows. "now jemmy catnach's gone to prison, and what's he gone to prison for? for printing a libel against mr. pizzey, which was sung from door to door. "six months in quod old jemmy's got, because he a shocking tale had started, about mr. pizzey who dealt in sausages in blackmore-street, clare-market." misfortunes are said never to come singly, and so it proved to the catnach family, for while jemmy was _doing_ his six months in the house of correction at clerkenwell, we find in the pages of the _weekly dispatch_ for january , , and under police intelligence, as follows:-- circulating false news.--at bow-street, on wednesday, thomas love and thomas howlett, were brought to the office by one of the patrole, charged with making a disturbance in chelsea, in the morning, by blowing of horns, with a tremendous noise, and each of them after blowing his horn, was heard to announce with all the vociferation the strength of his lungs would admit of:--"the full, true, and particular account of the most cruel and barbarous murder of mr. ellis, of sloane-street, which took place, last night, in the five fields, chelsea." the patrole, knowing that no such horrid event had taken place, had them taken up. the papers in their possession, which they had been selling at a halfpenny each, were seized and brought to the office with the prisoners. but what is most extraordinary, the contents of the papers had no reference whatever to mr. ellis! they were headed in large letters, "a horrid murder," and the murder was stated to have been committed at south-green, near dartford, on the bodies of thomas lane, his wife, three children, and his mother. the murderer's conduct was stated very particularly, although, in fact, no such event occurred. the magistrate severely censured the conduct of the whole parties. he ordered the prisoners to be detained, and considered them to be very proper subjects to be made an example of. on thursday these parties were again brought before the magistrate, together with mrs. catnach [the mother] the printer of the bills, which gave a fictitious statement of the horrid murder said to be committed at dartford. she was severely reprimanded. the two hornblowers were also reprimanded and then discharged. the busy year of was a very important one to catnach, in fact the turning point in his life. the duke of kent, fourth son of george iii., and father to queen victoria, died on the rd of january--the event was of sufficient consequence to produce several "full particulars," for street sale. just six days after his death, viz., on the th of january, , george iii. died, and that event set the "catnach press" going night and day to supply the street papers, containing "latest particulars," &c. "mourn, britons mourn! your sons deplore, our royal sovereign is now no more," was the commencement of a ballad written, printed, and published by j. catnach, , monmouth-court, dials. battledores, lotteries, and primers sold cheap. sold by marshall, bristol, and hook, brighton. the royal body was committed to the family vault in st. george's chapel at windsor, on the th of february, amidst a concourse of the great and the noble of the land. the usual ceremony of proclamation and salutation announced the accession of george iv. and another important era commenced. immediately following these events came the cato-street conspiracy. on the th of february the newspapers contained the startling intelligence that, on the previous evening, a party of eleven men, headed by arthur thistlewood, who was already known as a political agitator, had been apprehended at a stable in cato-street, an obscure place in the locality of grosvenor-square, on the charge of being the parties to a conspiracy to assassinate the greater part of the king's ministers. the truth of the intelligence was soon confirmed by the proceedings which took place before the magisterial authorities; and in due course all the parties were put on their trial at the old bailey, on a charge of high treason, arthur thistlewood, the leader, being the first tried on the th of april; the lord chief justice abbott presiding. the names of the other prisoners were--william davidson, a man of colour; james ings, john thomas brunt, richard tidd, james william wilson, john harrison, richard bradburn, james shaw strange, and charles cooper, of whom the first four, together with thistlewood, were executed as traitors on may st. the cato-street conspiracy proved a rich harvest to all concerned in the production of street literature. catnach came in for a fair share of the work, and he found himself with plenty of cash in hand, and in good time to increase his trade-plant to meet the great demand for the street-papers that were in a few months to be published daily, and in reference to the ever-memorable trial of queen caroline; then it was that his business so enormously increased as at times to require three or four presses going night and day to keep pace with the great demand for papers, which contained a very much abridged account of the previous day's evidence, and taken without the least acknowledgment from an early procured copy of one of the daily newspapers. great as was the demand, the printers of street literature were equal to the occasion, and all were actively engaged in getting out "papers," squibs, lists of various trade deputations to the queen's levées, lampoons and songs, that were almost hourly published, on the subject of the queen's trial. the following is a selection from one which emanated from the "catnach press," and was supplied to us by john morgan, the seven dials bard, and who added that he had the good luck--the times being prosperous--to screw out half-a-crown from old jemmy for the writing of it. "ah! sir," he continued, "it was always a hard matter to get much out of jemmy catnach, i can tell you, sir. he was, at most times, a hard-fisted one, and no mistake about it. yet, sir, somehow or another, he warn't such a bad sort, just where he took. a little bit rough and ready, like, you know, sir. but yet still a 'nipper.' that's just about the size of jemmy catnach, sir. i wish i could recollect more of the song, but you've got the marrow of it, sir:-- 'and when the queen arrived in town, the people called her good, sirs; she had a brougham by her side, a denman, and a wood, sirs. 'the people all protected her, they ran from far and near, sirs, till they reached the house of squire byng, which was in st. james's-square, sirs. 'and there my blooming caroline, about her made a fuss, man, and told how she had been deceived by a cruel, barbarous, husband.'" street papers continued to be printed and sold in connection with queen caroline's trial up to the date of her death, in the month of august, . [illustration] a copy of verses in praise of queen caroline. "ye britons all, both great and small, come listen to my ditty, your noble queen, fair caroline, does well deserve your pity. like harmless lamb that sucks its dam, amongst the flowery thyme, or turtle dove that's given to love: and that's her only crime. wedlock i ween, to her has been a life of grief and woe; thirteen years past she's had no rest, as britons surely know. to blast her fame, men without shame, have done all they could do; 'gainst her to swear they did prepare a motley, perjured crew. europe they seek for turk or greek, to swear her life away, but she will triumph yet o'er all, and innocence display. ye powers above, who virtue love, protect her from despair, and soon her free from calumny, is every true man's prayer." j. catnach, printer, , monmouth court, dials. [illustration] immediately following the queen's death, there were published a whole host of monodies, elegies, and ballads in her praise. catnach made a great hit with one entitled--"oh! britons remember your queen's happy days," together with a large broadside, entitled "an attempt to exhibit the leading events in the queen's life, in cuts and verse. adorned with twelve splendid illustrations. interspersed with verses of descriptive poetry. entered at stationers' hall. by jas. catnach, printer, dials. price d." a copy is preserved in the british museum. press mark. _tab._ , _a_, - , and arranged under catnach, from which we select two pieces as a fair sample of jemmy's "poetry-making!"--which please to read carefully, and "mind your stops!" quoth john berkshire. an elegy on the death of the queen. curs'd be the hour when on the british shore, she set her foot--whose loss we now deplore; for, from that hour she pass'd a life of woe, and underwent what few could undergo: and lest she should a tranquil hour know, against her peace was struck a deadly blow; a separation hardly to be borne,-- her only daughter from her arms was torn! and next discarded--driven from her home, an unprotected wanderer to roam! oh, how each heart with indignation fills, when memory glances o'er the train of ills, which through her travels followed everywhere in quick succession till this fatal year! here let us stop--for mem'ry serves too well, to bear the woes which caroline befel, each art was tried--at last to crush her down, the queen of england was refus'd a crown! too much to bear--thus robb'd of all her state she fell a victim to their hate! "they have destroy'd me,"--with her parting breath, she died--and calmly yielded unto death. forgiving all, she parted with this life, a queen, and no queen--wife, and not a wife! to heaven her soul is borne on seraph's wings, to wait the judgment of the king of kings; trusting to find a better world than this, and meet her daughter in the realms of bliss. caroline the injured queen of england. beneath this cold marble the "wanderer" lies, here shall she rest 'till "the heavens be no more," 'till the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall arise, then the perjurer unmask'd will his sentence deplore. ah! what will avail then? pomp, titles, and birth, those empty distinctions all levell'd will be, for the king shall be judg'd with the poor of the earth, and perhaps, the poor man will be greater than he. until that day we leave caroline's wrongs, meantime, may "repentance" her foes overtake; o grant it, kind power, to whom alone it belongs. amen. here an end of this hist'ry we make. _quod._ jas. c-t-n-h, dec. th, . [illustration] in the early part of the year , the british public were informed through the then existing usual advertising mediums that there was about to be published, in monthly parts, "pierce egan's life in london; or, the day and night scenes of jerry hawthorn, esq., and his elegant friend corinthian tom, accompanied by bob logic, the oxonian, in their rambles and sprees through the metropolis. embellished with scenes from real life, designed and etched by i. r. and g. cruikshank, and enriched with numerous original designs on wood by the same artists." and on the th of july, the first number, price one shilling, was published by messrs. sherwood, neely, and jones, of paternoster row. this sample, or first instalment, of the entire work was quite enough for society to judge by. it took both town and country by storm. it was found to be the exact thing in literature that the readers of those days wanted. edition after edition was called for--and supplied, as fast as the illustrations could be got away from the small army of women and children who were colouring them. with the appearance of numbers two and three, the demand increased, and a revolution in our literature, in our drama, and even in our nomenclature began to develope itself. all the announcements from paternoster row were of books, great and small, depicting life in london; dramatists at once turned their attention to the same subject, and tailors, bootmakers, and hatters, recommended nothing but corinthian shapes, and tom and jerry patterns.[ ] [illustration] tom and jerry. "of life in london, tom, jerry and logic i sing." to the strand then i toddled--the mob was great-- my watch i found gone--pockets undone: i fretted at first, and rail'd against fate, for i paid well to see "life in london." as may be readily conceived; the stage soon claimed "tom and jerry." the first drama founded upon the work was from the pen of mr. barrymore, and produced--"in hot haste," at the royal amphitheatre, on monday, sept. , . the second dramatic version was written for the olympic theatre, by charles dibden, and first played on monday, nov. , . mr. moncrieff appeared as the third on the list of dramatists, and it was announced at the adelphi theatre in the following style:--"on monday, nov. th, , will be presented for the first time, on a scale of unprecedented extent (having been many weeks in preparation under the superintendence of several of the most celebrated artists, both in the _ups and downs_ of life, who have all kindly come forward to assist the proprietors in their endeavours to render the piece a complete out-and-outer), an entirely new classic, comic, operatic, didactic, aristophanic, localic, analytic, panoramic, camera-obscura-ic extravaganza-burletta of fun, frolic, fashion and flash, in three acts, called 'tom and jerry; or life in london.' replete with prime chaunts, rum glees, and kiddy catches, founded on pierce egan's well-known and highly popular work of the same name, by a celebrated extravagant erratic author. the music selected and modified by him from the most eminent composers, ancient and modern, and every air furnished with an attendant train of graces. the costumes and scenery superintended by mr. i. r. cruikshank, from the drawings by himself and his brother, mr. george cruikshank, the celebrated artists of the original work. "corinthian tom, mr. wrench; jerry hawthorn, mr. john reeve; logic, mr. wilkinson; jemmy green, mr. keeley; dusty bob, mr. walbourn; african sal, mr. sanders; billy waters, mr. paulo; kate, mrs. baker; sue, mrs. waylett, &c., &c. [illustration: black sal and dusty bob.] besides the authors already mentioned, tom dibden, farrell, and douglas jerrold, each produced dramas upon the popular theme, and during the seasons of - , "life in london" was performed with _éclat_, at ten theatres in and around the metropolis, to overflowing houses. but pierce egan at length became tired of the successes of the playwrights in using his book, and resolved to try his own hand at a dramatic version--or, as he termed it, to "take a leaf out of his own book,"--and the author's piece was "got up" and performed for the first time at sadler's wells, under the management of mr. egerton, on monday, april , , with most decided success. it was thus announced by mrs. egerton, in the address written for the occasion by t. greenwood, esq.:-- "to-night my friends, this modern taste to meet, we show you jerry at his country seat: then up to town transport the rustic beau, and show him 'life in london,' high and low." at length tom and jerry had been repeated so often in the metropolis, that the performers, notwithstanding the great applause they nightly received in the above piece, absolutely became tired and worn-out with the repetition of their characters, when the following piece of satire, written by t. greenwood, esq., was published, entitled, "the tears of pierce egan, esq., for the death of 'life in london;' or, the funeral of tom and jerry, dedicated to robert and george cruikshank, esqs. price two shillings, with an engraving by george cruikshank." "beat out of the pit and thrown over the ropes, tom and jerry resign'd their last breath, with them, too, expired the managers' hopes, who are left to deplore their sad death! "odd and various reports of the cause are about, but the real one was _this_, i opine: they were run to a _standstill_, and, therefore, no doubt, that the cause was a rapid _decline_. "when death showed his _nob_, out of _time_ they were beat, and neither would come to the _scratch_; they hung down their heads and gave up the last heat, not prepared with the spectre to _match_. "all wept at the funeral! the fancy and all-- some new, but a great many mended: and egan, while cruikshank and _bob_ held the pall, as _chief-mourner_ in person attended!!! "their _sprees_ and their _rambles_ no more shall amuse, farewell to all nocturnal parleys: the town felt regret as the bell tolled the news, and no one rejoiced--but the _charleys_! "a monument, too, their kind patrons will raise, inscribed on--'here lies tom and jerry, who, departing the _stage_ to their immortal praise, one thousand nights made the _town merry_!!!' "may their souls rest in peace, since they've chosen to flit, like other great heroes departed; may no mischief arise from the _sudden_ exit, nor pierce egan die--_broken-hearted_!" in reference to the above, pierce egan states in "the finish to the adventures of tom, jerry, and logic," that catnach, in less than twelve hours after the publication, produced a pirated edition for street sale, for twopence. mr. pierce egan, in his "_finish_," states that he reckoned no less than sixty-five separate publications, which he enumerates _in extenso_, all derived from his own work, and adds, with his usual amount of large and small capitals and _italics_--"we have been _pirated_, copied, _traduced_; but unfortunately, not enriched by our indefatigable exertions; therefore notoriety must satisfy us, instead of the smiles of fortune." jemmy catnach, true to his line of life, soon joined what pierce egan designates as the "mob of literary pirates," and brought out a "whole sheet" for street-sale, entitled "life in london," with twelve woodcuts, which are reduced and very roughly executed copies of the centre figures of the original plates by the brothers cruikshank--but all in reverse. the letter-press matter consists of a poetical epitome of the plot and design of the original work of "life in london." and taking it as it stands, and from whence it emanated, rather a creditable performance, particularly when we take into consideration--as duly announced by the street-patterer, that it was "just printed and pub--lish--ed, all for the low charge of twopence." on the rarity of this catnachian and pirated edition of "life in london" it is superfluous to enlarge, and it is easy to account for this circumstance, if we reflect that the broadside form of publication is by no means calculated for preservation; hundreds of similar pieces printed for street-sale must have perished. the more generally acceptable a broadside or street ballad became, and was handed about for perusal, the more it was exposed to the danger of destruction. no copy of catnach's version is preserved in the british museum, therefore, and for the reason above stated, it must be considered as a great "literary rarity."[ ] cut i.--jerry in training for a swell. [illustration] now jerry must needs be a swell, his coat must have a swallow-tail, and mr. snip, so handy, o, soon rigg'd him out a dandy, o. cut ii.--tom and jerry among the ladies. [illustration] ladies, your most humble servants, tom and jerry stand before you. our blood is thrilling, you're so killing; at once we love you and adore you. cut iii.--jerry loses at play. [illustration] at st. james's they dine, when, flushed with new wine, to the gaming tables they reel, where blacklegs and sharps, often gammon the flats, as their pockets do presently feel. cut iv.--jerry learning to spar. [illustration] now jerry's become a fancy blade, to jackson's he often goes, and to shew his skill in the milling trade, he crack'd poor logick's nose. cut v.--tom and jerry at a fortune-teller's. [illustration] here lives a fortune-telling gipsy, wrinkled, crabbed, grim and old; and tom and jerry's fancy ladies are gone to get their fortunes told. cut vi.--beggar's opera. tom, jerry, and logick among the cadgers in the holy land. [illustration] now to keep up the spree, tom, jerry and logick, went disguis'd to the slums in the holy land; through each crib and each court, they hunted for sport, till they came to the beggar's opera so named. cut vii.--night scene.--tom and jerry upsetting the charleys. [illustration] hark! the watchman springs his rattle, now the midnight lark's begun; boxes crashing, lanthorns smashing, mill the charleys--oh! what fun. cut viii.--brought before the magistrates. [illustration] an' please your worship here's three fellows been hammering of us all about; broke our boxes, lanthorns, smellers, and almost clos'd our peepers up. cut ix.--tom, jerry, and logick in a row. [illustration] mercy! what a din and clatter breaks the stillness of the night, lamps do rattle--'tis a battle, quick, and let us see the sight. cut x.--scene in a gin-shop. [illustration] here some are tumbling and jumping in, and some are staggering out; one's pawn'd her smock for a quartern of gin, another, her husband's coat. cut xi.--poor logick in the fleet. [illustration] all in the fleet poor logick's moor'd his swaggering's now at an end! cut xii.--jerry going back to the country. [illustration] three merry boys were logick, tom and jerry, and many funny larks they have seen; farewell, gay london, the country calls me home again, the coach moves on--the play is done--goodbye, goodbye. _quod._ jas. c-n-h, march , . how delightful pierce egan's book was to the youths of england, and how eagerly all its promised feasts of pleasure were devoured by them, thackeray has told us in his "roundabout papers--de juventute" in the "cornhill magazine" for october, . * * * * * mr., afterwards sir william cubitt, of ipswich, erected a treadmill at brixton gaol, and soon afterwards in other large prisons. a street ballad on the subject was issued from the "catnach press" and had a most unprecedented sale, keeping the pressmen and boys working for weeks-- "and we're all treading at fam'd brixton mill." the treadmill--that "terror to evil doers"--excited much attention, and the inventor's name gave rise to many jokes on the subject among such of the prisoners as could laugh at their own crimes, who said they were punished by the _cubit_!. the treadmill. this brixton mill's a fearful ill, and he who brought the bill in, is threat'n'd by the _cribbing_ coves, that he shall have a _milling_. they say he shew'd a simple pate, to think of felons mending; as every _step_ which here they take they're still in crime _ascending_. tom, jerry, logic, three prime sprigs, find here they cannot _come_ it, for though their _fancy_ soars aloft, they ne'er will reach the _summit_. corinthian kate and buxom sue must change their _warm_ direction, for if they make one _false step_ more they'll have _cold bath correction_. [illustration: "the gallows does well: but how does it well? it does well to those that do ill."--_hamlet_, act v., sc. i.] there can be little doubt that jemmy catnach, the great publisher of the seven dials, had his mind mostly centred upon the chronicling of doubtful scandals, fabulous duels between ladies of fashion, "cooked" assassinations, and sudden deaths of eminent individuals, apochryphal elopements, real or catch-penny account of murders, impossible robberies, delusive suicides, dark deeds, and--though last, not least, in _his_ love--public executions, _vulgo_ "hanging matches," to which was usually attached the all-important and necessary "sorrowful lamentations," or "copy of affectionate verses," which according to the established custom, the criminal composed in the condemned cell the night before his execution, after this manner:-- [illustration] the flying stationer, otherwise patterer. "all you that have got feeling, i pray you now attend to these few lines so sad and true, a solemn silence lend; it is of a cruel murder, to you i will unfold---- the bare recital of the tale must make your blood run cold." "mercy on earth i'll not implore, to crave it would be vain, my hands are dyed with human gore, none can wash off the stain, but the merits of a saviour, whose mercy alone i crave; good christians pray, as thus i die, i may his pardon have." a mournful and affecting copy of verses on the death of ann williams, who was barbarously and cruelly murdered by her sweetheart, w. jones, near wirksworth, in derbyshire, july, . william jones, a young man aged , has been fully committed to derby gaol for the murder of his sweetheart, under circumstances of unheard of barbarity. the poor victim was a servant girl, whom under pretence of marriage he seduced. on her proving with child the villain formed the horrid design of murdering her, and carried his diabolical plan into execution on monday evening last. the following verses are written upon the occasion, giving a complete detail of this shocking affair:-- come all false hearted young men and listen to my song, 'tis of a cruel murder, that lately has been done on the body of a maiden fair the truth i will unfold, the bare relation of this deed will make your blood run cold. near wirksworth town in derbyshire, ann williams she did dwell, in service she long time had lived, till this to her befel. her cheeks were like the blushing rose all in the month of may, which made this wicked young man thus unto her did say: nancy, my charming creature, you have my heart ensnared, my love is such i am resolved to wed you i declare. thus by his false deluding tongue poor nancy was beguil'd, and soon to her misfortune, by him she proved with child. some days ago this damsel fair did write to him with speed, such tenderness she did express would make a heart to bleed. she said, my dearest william, i am with child by thee; therefore, my dear, pray let me know when you will marry me. the following day at evening, this young man did repair, unto the town of wirksworth, to meet his nancy there. saying, nancy dear, come let us walk, among the flowery fields, and then the secrets of my heart to you i will reveal. o then this wicked young man a knife he did provide, and all unknown to his true love concealed it by his side. when to the fatal spot they came, these words to her did say: all on this very night i will your precious life betray. on bended knees she then did fall, in sorrow and despair, aloud for mercy she did call, her cries did rend the air; with clasped hands and uplift eyes she cried, oh spare my life, i never more will ask you to make me your wedded wife. o then this wicked young man said, no mercy will i show; he took the knife all from his side, and pierced her body through. but still she smiling said to him while trembling with fear, aä! william, william, spare my life, think on your baby dear. twice more then with the bloody knife he ran her body through, her throat was cut from ear to ear, most dreadful for to view; her hands and arms and beauteous face he cut and mangled sore, while down upon her milk white breast the crimson blood did pour. he took the shawl from off her neck, and round her body tied, with pebble stones he did it fill, thinking the crime to hide. o then into the silver stream he plunged her straightway, but with her precious blood was stained which soon did him betray. o then this young man taken was, and into prison sent, in ratling chains he is confin'd his crime for to lament, until the assizes do come on when trembling he must stand, reflecting on the deed he's done; waiting the dread command. now all you thoughtless young men a timely warning take; likewise ye fair young maidens, for this poor damsel's sake. and oh beware of flattering tongues, for they'll your ruin prove; so may you crown your future day, in comfort, joy, and love. or take another and stereotyped example, which from time to time has served equally well for the verses _written by_ the culprit--brown, jones, robinson, or smith: "those deeds i mournfully repent, but now it is too late, the day is past, the die is cast, and fixed is my fate. i see the hangman before me stand, ready to seize me by the law's command; when my life is ended on the fatal tree, then will be clear'd up all mystery." occasionally the last sorrowful lamentation contained a "love letter"--the criminal being unable, in some instances, to read or write, being no obstacle to the composition--written according to the street patterer's statement: "from the depths of the condemned cell, with the condemned pen, ink, and paper." this mode of procedure in "gallows" literature, and this style of composition having prevailed for from sixty to seventy years. then they would say: "here you have also an exact likeness of the murderer, taken at the bar of the old bailey by an eminent artist!" when all the time it was an old woodcut that had been used for every criminal for many years. the _block!_ opposite, to our own knowledge, served as the _counterfeit_ presentment of all popular murderers for upwards of forty years. [illustration: likeness of the murderer.] "there's nothing beats a stunning good murder after all," said a "running patterer" to mr. henry mayhew, the author of "london labour and london poor." it is only fair to assume that mr. james catnach shared in the sentiment, for it is said that he made over £ by the publication of:-- "the full, true and particular account of the murder of mr. weare by john thurtell and his companions, which took place on the th of october, , in gill's hill-lane, near elstree, in hertfordshire:--only one penny." there were eight formes set up, for old jemmy had no notion of stereotyping in those days, and pressmen had to re-cover their own tympans with sheep-skins. but by working day and night for a week they managed to get off about , copies with the four presses, each working two formes at a time. [illustration: thurtell murdering mr. weare.] as the trial progressed, and the case became more fully developed, the public mind became almost insatiable. every night and morning large bundles were despatched to the principal towns in the three kingdoms. one of the many street-ballads on the subject informed the british public that:-- "thurtell, hunt, and probert, too, for trial must now prepare, for that horrid murder of mr. william weare." the circumstances immediately attending the murder are so fully and so well detailed in the proper channels that we need not here say more than that the trial took place at hertford on the th january, . the prisoners who stood indicted were john thurtell and joseph hunt. the latter was at the time well known as a public singer and was somewhat celebrated for the talent which he possessed. both prisoners were found guilty, but hunt was reprieved and subsequently ordered to be transported for life. thurtell, who fully confessed to the crime, was executed in front of hertford gaol on friday, the th of january, . as before observed, catnach cleared over £ by this event, and was so loth to leave it, that when a wag put him up to a joke, and showed him how he might set the thing a-going again, he could not withstand it; and so, about a fortnight after thurtell had been hanged, jemmy brought out a startling broad-sheet, headed, "we are alive again!" he put so little space between the words "we" and "are" that it looked at first sight like "weare." many thousands were bought by the ignorant and gullible public, but those who did not like the trick called it a "catch penny," and this gave rise to this peculiar term, which ever afterwards stuck to the issues of the "seven dials' press," though they sold as well as ever. probert, who had been mixed up in the affair, was admitted as king's evidence and discharged at the rising of the court. he subsequently met the fate he so richly deserved, for, having been found guilty at the old bailey of horse stealing, he was executed there on the th of june, . [illustration] the confession and execution of john thurtell at hertford gaol, on friday, the th of january, . the execution. _hertford, half-past twelve o'clock._ this morning, at ten minutes before twelve, a bustle among the javelin-men stationed within the boarded enclosure on which the drop was erected, announced to the multitude without that the preparations for the execution were nearly concluded. the javelin-men proceeded to arrange themselves in the order usually observed upon these melancholy but necessary occurrences. they had scarcely finished their arrangements, when the opening of the gate of the prison gave an additional impulse to public anxiety when the clock was on the stroke of twelve, mr nicholson, the under-sheriff, and the executioner ascended the platform, followed on to it by thurtell, who mounted the stairs with a slow but steady step. the principal turnkey of the gaol came next, and was followed by mr wilson and two officers. on the approach of the prisoner being intimated by those persons who, being in an elevated situation, obtained the first view of him, all the immense multitude present took off their hats. thurtell immediately placed himself under the fatal beam, and at that moment the chimes of a neighbouring clock began to strike twelve. the executioner then came forward with the rope, which he threw across it. thurtell first lifted his eyes up to the drop, gazed at it for a few moments, and then took a calm but hurried survey of the multitude around him. he next fixed his eyes on a young gentleman in the crowd, whom he had frequently seen as a spectator at the commencement of the proceedings against him. seeing that the individual was affected by the circumstance, he removed them to another quarter, and in so doing recognised an individual well known in the sporting circles, to whom he made a slight bow. the prisoner was attired in a dark brown great coat, with a black velvet collar, white corduroy breeches, drab gaiters and shoes. his hands were confined with handcuffs, instead of being tied with cord, as is usually the case on such occasions, and, at his own request, his arms were not pinioned. he wore a pair of black kid gloves, and the wrists of his shirt were visible below the cuffs of his coat. as on the last day of his trial, he wore a white cravat. the irons, which were very heavy, and consisted of a succession of chain links, were still on his legs, and were held up in the middle by a belcher handkerchief tied round his waist. the executioner commenced his mournful duties by taking from the unhappy prisoner his cravat and collar. to obviate all difficulty in this stage of the proceedings, thurtell flung back his head and neck, and so gave the executioner an opportunity of immediately divesting him of that part of his dress. after tying the rope round thurtell's neck, the executioner drew a white cotton cap over his countenance, which did not, however, conceal the contour of his face, or deprive him entirely of the view of surrounding objects. at that moment the clock sounded the last stroke of twelve. during the whole of this appalling ceremony, there was not the slightest symptom of emotion discernible in his features; his demeanour was perfectly calm and tranquil, and he behaved like a man acquainted with the dreadful ordeal he was about to pass, but not unprepared to meet it. though his fortitude was thus conspicuous, it was evident from his appearance that in the interval between his conviction and his execution he must have suffered much. he looked careworn; his countenance had assumed a cadaverous hue, and there was a haggardness and lankness about his cheeks and mouth, which could not fail to attract the notice of every spectator. the executioner next proceeded to adjust the noose by which thurtell was to be attached to the scaffold. after he had fastened it in such a manner as to satisfy his own mind, thurtell looked up at it, and examined it with great attention. he then desired the executioner to let him have fall enough. the rope at this moment seemed as if it would only give a fall of two or three feet the executioner assured him that the fall was quite sufficient. the principal turnkey then went up to thurtell, shook hands with him, and turned away in tears. mr wilson, the governor of the gaol, next approached him. thurtell laid to him, "do you think, mr wilson, i have got enough fall?" mr wilson replied, "i think you have, sir. yes, quite enough." mr wilson then took hold of his hand, shook it, and said, "good bye, mr thurtell, may god almighty bless you." thurtell instantly replied, "god bless _you_, mr wilson, god bless _you_." mr wilson next asked him whether he considered that the laws of his country had been dealt to him justly and fairly, upon which he said, "i admit that justice has been done me--i am perfectly satisfied." a few seconds then elapsed, during which every person seemed to be engaged in examining narrowly thurtell's deportment his features, as well as they could be discerned, appeared to remain unmoved, and his hands, which were extremely prominent, continued perfectly steady, and were not affected by the slightest tremulous motion. exactly at two minutes past twelve the under-sheriff, with his wand, gave the dreadful signal--the drop suddenly and silently fell--and john thurtell was launched into eternity. on the th of september, , henry fauntleroy, of the firm of marsh, stracey, fauntleroy, and graham, bankers, in berners-street, was apprehended in consequence of its being discovered that in september, , £ , per cent stock, standing in the names of himself, j. d. hume, and john goodchild, as trustees of francis william bellis, had been sold out under a power of attorney, to which the names of his co-trustees and some of the subscribing witnesses were forged. it was soon ascertained that the extent to which this practice had been carried was enormous, no less than £ , stock having been sold out in and by the same fraudulent means. every exertion was used by mr. fauntleroy's counsel, his case being twice argued before the judges, but both decisions were against him; and on the th of november, , his execution took place. the number of persons assembled was estimated at nearly , . the station in society of this unfortunate man, and the long-established respectability of the banking-house, in which he was the most active partner, with the vast extent of the forgeries committed, gave to his case an intensity of interest which has scarcely ever been equalled, and during the whole time it was pending afforded plenty of work for the printers and vendors of street literature. catnach's advanced position, which was now far beyond all his compeers, caused him to get the lion's share. every incident in the man's character, history, and actions was taken advantage of. the sheets, almost wet from the press, were read by high and low; by those who lived and revelled in marble halls and gilded saloons, as well as by those who thronged our large towns and centres of industry. the parliamentary election of , for the county of northumberland, the principal seat of which was at alnwick, gave early promise of being severely contested. there were four candidates in the field, namely, henry thomas liddell, afterwards first earl of ravensworth, of ravensworth castle, county durham; mr. matthew bell, of woolsingham, northumberland; mr. thomas wentworth beaumont, and lord howick, afterwards henry the third earl grey, k.g. the nomination of the candidates took place on tuesday, june th, , and the polling continued till july th, when the result was as follows:-- liddell bell beaumont howick this contest was the greatest political event in the history of the county. it is estimated that it cost the candidates little short of £ , . now, as we have before observed, mr. mark smith--who till the time of his death, on the th of may, , aged --carried on the business of printer and bookseller at alnwick--and james catnach, were fellow apprentices, both being bound to learn the art of printing to the elder catnach on the same day. this early-formed acquaintanceship continued throughout the remaining portion of catnach's life, and whenever mr. mark smith came to london in after years, he always visited jemmy's house. it was in consequence of the continued friendship existing between mr. mark smith and jemmy catnach that the latter had often expressed a desire to serve his fellow-apprentice, should circumstances occur to render it necessary. the alnwick election of promised to be a good one as regarded printing, and mr. smith anticipating a difficulty in getting through his work, applied to catnach to know if he could render him any assistance. the result was that jemmy at once proffered to go to alnwick and take with him a small hand-press. after his arrival he seldom went out of the house, as all hands worked early and late, for, besides addresses, squibs, &c., they had to get out the state of the poll every afternoon, shortly after four o'clock. the number of addresses and squibs, in prose and verse, during this memorable election was enormous. the whole, when collected together, forms four good-sized volumes. the principal printers in alnwick at this time, and who were engaged by the candidates, were smith, davison, and graham. but there was a great deal of printing done at newcastle, gateshead, north shields, morpeth, and other towns. there can be but little doubt that all who were professionally engaged at this election made a good thing out of it. the money spent upon printing alone must have been very great. and nearly all the public-houses in alnwick were made "open houses," as well as most of those in the principal towns throughout the county. old people talk to this day, with a degree of pride of "those good old times" that existed at the parliamentary elections previous to the passing of the reform bill of . as far as catnach was concerned, he merely went to help to pay off a deep debt of gratitude owing by him to the smith family for many past favours to his own family when they were in dire distress in _auld lang syne_. besides, jemmy was now getting towards that state known as being "comfortably well-to-do," and the trip was a change of air--a bit of a holiday, and a visit to the town of his birth. and as he had buried his mother in london during the early part of the year, he took the opportunity to erect in the parish churchyard, that which at once stands as a cenotaph and a tombstone, bearing the following inscription:-- "john, son of john catnach, printer, died august th, , aged years & months. john catnach died in london, , aged . mary, his wife died jany. th, , aged years, also john, margaret, and jane catnach, lie here."[ ] during catnach's absence from london on the alnwick election, his old rivals--the pitts family--were, as usual, concocting false reports, and exhibiting lampoons, after the following manner:-- "poor jemmy with the son of old nick, down to northumberland he's gone; to take up his freedom at alnwick, the why or the wherefore's known to none. "before he went, he washed in soap and sud, the alnwick folks they found the fiddle; then they dragged poor jemmy through the mud, two foot above his middle. the above was in allusion to the old ceremony of being dragged through the dirty pool to be made a freeman of the town of alnwick. but, as far as catnach was concerned, there is no truth whatever in the matter, it was simply "a weak invention of the enemy." it was in the latter part of june and the beginning of july in the same year, that catnach was at alnwick, and the ceremony of making freemen always took place on st. mark's day, april th, or at least two months earlier. thus the statement of the pitts' party was-- "as false as air, as water, as wind, as sandy earth, as fox to lamb, as wolf to heifer's calf, pard to the hind, or step-dame to her son." catnach, as the high priest of the literature of the streets, surrounded by trade rivals, "stood like a man at a mark with a whole army shooting at him," but he was as firm as a rock and with the strength of a giant, and, as hyperion to a satyr, defied them all. the destruction of the royal brunswick theatre, well-street, wellclose-square, east london, on the th of february, , by the falling in of the walls, in consequence of too much weight being attached to the heavy cast-iron roof, made a rare nine-day's wonder for the workers of street-papers. fortunately the catastrophe happened in the day-time, during the rehearsal of "guy mannering," and only fifteen persons perished, viz:-- mr. d. s. maurice, a master printer, of fenchurch-street, one of the proprietors, mr. j. evans _bristol observer_ miss mary a. feron _actress_, miss freeman _corps de ballet_, mr. e. gilbert _comedian_, mr. j. blamire _property man_, mr. g. penfold _doorkeeper_, miss jane wall _visitor_, mr. j. purdy _blacksmith_, messrs. j. miles, w. leader, a. w. davidson, m. miles, and j. abbott _carpenters_, j. levy, _a clothesman_ (accidentally passing). "oh yes, sir! i remember well the falling of the brunswick theatre, out whitechapel way. it was a rare good thing for all the running and standing patterers in and about ten miles of london. every day we all killed more and more people--in our "latest particulars." one day there was twenty persons killed, the next day thirty or forty, until it got at last to be worked up to about a hundred, and all killed. then we killed all sorts of people, duke of wellington, and all the dukes and duchesses, bishops, swell nobs and snobs we could think of at the moment." [illustration: atrocious murder of a young woman in suffolk. singular discovery of the body from a dream. the red barn. the scene of the murder, and where the body of maria marten was found concealed.] four years after the thurtell and weare affair, namely, in the month of april, , another "sensational" murder was discovered--that of maria marten, by william corder, in the red barn, at polstead, in the county of suffolk. the circumstances that led to the discovery of this most atrocious murder, were of an extraordinary and romantic nature, and manifest an almost special interposition of providence in marking out the offender. as the mother of the girl had on three several nights dreamt that her daughter was murdered and buried in corder's red barn, and as this proved to be the case, an additional "charm" was given to the circumstance. the "catnach press" was again set working both day and night, to meet the great demand for the "full particulars." in due course came the gratifying announcement of the apprehension of the murderer! and the sale continued unabatingly in both town and country, every "flying stationer" making great profits by the sale. [illustration: likeness of william corder.] the trial of corder took place at bury st. edmonds, on the th of august, , before the lord chief baron (anderson). the prisoner pleaded "_not guilty_," and the trial proceeded. on being called on for his defence, corder read a manuscript paper. he declared that he deeply deplored the death of the unfortunate deceased, and he urged the jury to dismiss from their minds all that prejudice which must necessarily have been excited against him by the public press, &c. having concluded his address, the lord chief baron summed up, and a verdict of "_guilty_" was returned. the last dying speech and confession had an enormous sale--estimated at , , , a _fac-simile_ copy of which with the "lamentable verses," said to have been written by old jemmy catnach will be found on the next page. confession and execution of william corder, the murderer of maria marten. since the tragical affair between thurtell and weare, no event has occurred connected with the criminal annals of our country which has excited so much interest as the trial of corder, who was justly convicted of the murder of maria marten on friday last. the confession. "bury gaol, august th, .--condemned cell. "sunday evening, half-past eleven. "i acknowledge being guilty of the death of poor maria marten, by shooting her with a pistol. the particulars are as follows:--when we left her father's house, we began quarrelling about the burial of the child: she apprehended the place wherein it was deposited would be found out. the quarrel continued about three quarters of an hour upon this sad and about other subjects. a scuffle ensued, and during the scuffle, and at the time i think that she had hold of me, i took the pistol from the side pocket of my velveteen jacket and fired. she fell, and died in an instant. i never saw her even struggle. i was overwhelmed with agitation and dismay:--the body fell near the front doors on the floor of the barn. a vast quantity of blood issued from the wound, and ran on to the floor and through the crevices. having determined to bury the body in the barn (about two hours after she was dead). i went and borrowed a spade of mrs stow, but before i went there i dragged the body from the barn into the chaff-house, and locked the barn. i returned again to the barn, and began to dig a hole, but the spade being a bad one, and the earth firm and hard, i was obliged to go home for a pickaxe and a better spade, with which i dug the hole, and then buried the body. i think i dragged the body by the handkerchief that was tied round her neck. it was dark when i finished covering up the body. i went the next day, and washed the blood from off the barn-floor. i declare to almighty god i had no sharp instrument about me, and no other wound but the one made by the pistol was inflicted by me. i have been guilty of great idleness, and at times led a dissolute life, but i hope through the mercy of god to be forgiven. william corder." witness to the signing by the said william corder, john orridge. condemned cell, eleven o'clock, monday morning, august th, . the above confession was read over carefully to the prisoner in our presence, who stated most solemnly it was true, and that he had nothing to add to or retract from it--w. stocking, chaplain; timothy r. holmes, under-sheriff. the execution. at ten minutes before twelve o'clock the prisoner was brought from his cell and pinioned by the hangman, who was brought from london for the purpose. he appeared resigned, but was so weak as to be unable to stand without support; when his cravat was removed he groaned heavily, and appeared to be labouring under great mental agony. when his wrists and arms were made fast, he was led round towards the scaffold, and as he passed the different yards in which the prisoners were confined, he shook hands with them, and speaking to two of them by name, he said, "good bye, god bless you." they appeared considerably affected by the wretched appearance which he made, and "god bless you!" "may god receive your soul!" were frequently uttered as he passed along. the chaplain walked before the prisoner, reading the usual burial service, and the governor and officers walking immediately after him. tho prisoner was supported to the steps which led to the scaffold; he looked somewhat wildly around, and a constable was obliged to support him while the hangman was adjusting the fatal cord. there was a barrier to keep off the crowd, amounting to upwards of , persons, who at this time had stationed themselves in the adjoining fields, on the hedges, the tops of houses, and at every point from which a view of the execution could be best obtained. the prisoner, a few moments before the drop fell, groaned heavily, and would have fallen, had not a second constable caught hold of him. everything having been made ready, the signal was given, the fatal drop fell, and the unfortunate man was launched into eternity. just before he was turned off, he said in a feeble tone, "i am justly sentenced, and may god forgive me." the murder of maria marten. by w. corder. come all you thoughtless young men, a warning take by me, and think upon my unhappy fate to be hanged upon a tree; my name is william corder, to you i do declare, i courted maria marten, most beautiful and fair. i promised i would marry her upon a certain day, instead of that, i was resolved to take her life away. i went into her father's house the th day of may, saying, my dear maria, we will fix the wedding day. if you will meet me at the red-barn, as sure as i have life, i will take you to ipswich town, and there make you my wife; i then went home and fetched my gun, my pickaxe and my spade, i went into the red-barn, and there i dug her grave. with heart so light, she thought no harm, to meet him she did go he murdered her all in the barn, and laid her body low; after the horrible deed was done, she lay weltering in her gore, her bleeding mangled body he buried beneath the red-barn floor. now all things being silent, her spirit could not rest, she appeared onto her mother, who suckled her at her breast, for many a long month or more, her mind being sore oppress'd, neither night or day she could not take any rest. her mother's mind being so disturbed, she dreamt three nights o'er, her daughter she lay murdered beneath the red-barn floor; she sent the father to the barn, when he the ground did thrust, and there he found his daughter mingling with the dust. my trial is hard, i could not stand, most woeful was the sight, when her jaw-bone was brought to prove, which pierced my heart quite; her aged father standing by, likewise his loving wife, and in her grief her hair she tore, she scarcely could keep life. adieu, adieu, my loving friends, my glass is almost run, on monday next will be my last, when i am to be hang'd, so you, young men, who do pass by; with pity look on me, for murdering maria marten, i was hang'd upon the tree. printed by j catnach, and , monmouth court.--cards, &c., printed cheap [illustration] "oh, she lives snug in the holy land, right, tight, and merry in the holy land, search the globe round, none can be found so _accommodating!_ as old mother cummins--of the holy land." catnach, like many others connected with the getting up of news broadsides and fly-sheets, did not always keep clear of the law. the golden rule is a very fine one, but, unfortunately, it is not always read aright; in some cases injured innocence flies at extremes. jemmy catnach for a long time had been living upon unfriendly terms with a party connected with the management of one of mother cummins's lodging-house establishments in the immediate neighbourhood, so out of spite printed a pamphlet, purporting to be the "life and adventures of old mother cummins." here catnach had reckoned without his host, by reason of his not taking into consideration the extensive aristocratic and legal connection mother cummins had for her friends and patrons. the moment she was made acquainted with the "_dirty parjury_" that jemmy catnach had printed and caused to be publicly circulated, she immediately gave instructions to _her_ attorney general to prosecute the _varmint_, when a warrant was applied for and obtained to search the premises of the seven dials printer. but catnach got the news of the intended visit of the bow street runners, and naturally became alarmed from having a vivid recollection of the punishment and costs in the case of the drury-lane sausage makers, so the forme containing the libellous matter was at once broken up--"pied," that is, the type was jumbled together and left to be properly distributed on a future occasion. what stock of the pamphlets remained were hastily packed up and carried off to the "other side of the water" by john morgan, one of catnach's poets! while another forme, consisting of a christmas-sheet, entitled "the sun of righteousness," was hurriedly got to press, and all hands were working away full of assumed innocence when the officers from bow street arrived at monmouth-court, when, after a diligent search, they had very reluctantly to come to the conclusion that they were "a day behind the fair," and that the printer had been a little too sharp for them this time. but mother cummins did not mean to be so checkmated by catnach and co., and vowed to pursue him and his dirty blackguards to the end of the world and back again, and instructed her lawyers to serve him with several notices of action for libel, defamation of character, and, more particular, as she expressed it, for "_parjury_." then catnach became somewhat alarmed by her known vindictive disposition and long purse, that he consulted his own solicitor in the matter, who took "counsel's opinion" when an instant compromise at all costs, together with an ample apology, was recommended as the only safe way out of the dilemma; a course which was ultimately agreed to by both sides. an apology was drawn up and approved of, with the understanding that catnach was, after paying all costs incurred to print the apology and publish the same on three several places in front of his business premises in monmouth court for fourteen clear days. all this--and more--jemmy promised steadfastly to observe. yet in effect, he evaded the conditions by printing the apology in small pica type and sticking the three copies so high up on the premises, that it would have required sam weller's "pair of double million magnifying gas microscopes of hextra power" to have been able to read the same. immediately after mother cummins's death and funeral, march, , the following announcement appeared:-- _published this day, price sixpence, embellished with a humorous coloured plate._ the life and adventures of mother cummins, the celebrated lady abbess of st. giles's; with a curious description, regulations, &c., of her singular establishment. an account of her funeral, &c. interspersed with numerous anecdotes of living characters, visitors of mother cummins's nunnery,--capt. shiels and the forty-four nuns--poll hankey and sir charles stanton,--jane sealey and an illustrous person, &c.--with an account of some of the principal nuns of the establishment; particularly mrs. throgmorton and lord al...n..y--bell chambers and the d... of y...,--miss wilkinson and captain featherstone--marianne hempstead, the scotch beauty--miss weltern davis and the rev. mr. h...l..y be..rs..d--mary thomas, the female chimney-sweep, and captain t...t...s, &c. the trial, sentence, full confession, and execution of bishop & williams, the burkers. [illustration] burking and burkers. the month of november, , will be recorded in the annals of crimes and cruelties as particularly pre-eminent, for it will prove to posterity that other wretches could be found base enough to follow the horrid example of burke and his accomplice hare, to entice the unprotected and friendless to the den of death for sordid gain. the horrible crime of "burking," or murdering the unwary with the intention of selling their bodies at a high price to the anatomical schools, for the purpose of dissection, has unfortunately obtained a notoriety which will not be soon or easily forgotten. it took its horrifying appellation from the circumstances which were disclosed on the trial of the inhuman wretch burke, who was executed at edinburgh in , for having wilfully and deliberately murdered several persons for the sole purpose of profiting by the sale of their dead bodies. apprehension of the burkers. on tuesday, november th, four persons vis., john bishop, thomas williams, james may, and michael shield, were examined at bow street police office on the charge of being concerned in the wilful murder of an unknown italian boy. from the evidence adduced, it appeared that may, _alias_ jack stirabout, a known resurrection-man, and bishop, a body-snatcher, offered at king's college a subject for sale, shield and williams having charge of the body in a hamper, for which they demanded twelve guineas. mr partridge, demonstrator of anatomy, who, although not in absolute want of a subject, offered nine guineas, but being struck with its freshness sent a messenger to the police station, and the fellows were then taken into custody, examined before the magistrates, when shield was discharged and the others ultimately committed for trial the trial. friday, december nd, having been fixed for the trial of the prisoners charged with the murder of the italian boy, the court was crowded to excess so early as eight o'clock in the morning. at nine o'clock the deputy recorder, mr serjeant arabin, came into the court, when the prisoners severally pleaded "not guilty." the jury were then sworn, and at ten o'clock chief justice tindal, mr baron vaughan, and mr justice littledale entered the court, with the lord mayor and sheriffs. the bench was crowded with persons of rank, amongst whom was the duke of sussex. mr bodkin having opened the case, mr adolphus proceeded to state to the jury the leading facts, as they were afterwards stated in the evidence produced. the case for the prosecution having closed, the prisoners were called upon for their defence. the prisoner bishop in his defence stated that he was thirty-three years of age, and had followed the occupation of carrier till the last five years, during which he had occasionally obtained a livelihood by supplying surgeons with subjects. he most solemnly declared that he had never disposed of any body that had not died a natural death. williams' defence briefly stated that he had never been engaged in the calling of a resurrectionist, but had only by accident accompanied bishop on the sale of the italian boy's body. may, in his defence, admitted that for the last six years he had followed the occupation of supplying the medical schools with anatomical subjects, but disclaimed ever having had anything to do with the sale of bodies which had not died a natural death. that he had accidentally met with bishop at the fortune of war public house on the friday on which the body was taken for sale to guy's hospital. at eight o'clock the jury retired to consider their verdict and on their return they found the prisoners were guilty of murder. the recorder then passed the awful sentence upon them. "that each of them be hanged on monday morning, and their bodies be delivered over for dissection and anatomization." the prisoners heard the sentence as they had the verdict, without any visible alteration. may raised his voice, and in a firm tone said, "i am a murdered man, gentlemen." the full confession of bishop and williams. on saturday morning williams addressed a note to mr wontner, stating that he and bishop wanted particularly to see him and dr. cotton, the ordinary. in the course of the interview which immediately followed, both prisoners made a full confession of their guilt, both exculpating may altogether from being party to any of the murders. having received the confessions, mr wontner immediately waited upon mr justice littledale and baron vaughan, and upon communicating to them the statements, they said they would at once see the home secretary on the subject. on sunday morning the sheriffs visited all three of the prisoners in succession, and with the under-sheriffs were engaged between three and four hours in taking down the statements of the convicts. the result of all these investigations was that the same afternoon a respite during his majesty's pleasure arrived at newgate for may, and his sentence will be commuted to transportation for life. the execution. during the whole of sunday crowds of persons congregated in the old bailey, and the spot on which the scaffold was to be erected was covered with individuals conversing on the horrid crimes of the convicts, and in the course of the day strong posts were erected in the old bailey and at the ends of newgate street giltspur street, and skinner street, for the purpose of forming barriers to break the pressure of the crowd. at half-past twelve o'clock the gallows was brought out from the yard, and drawn to its usual station opposite the debtor's door. the crowd, as early as one o'clock amounting to several thousand persons, continued rapidly increasing. by some oversight three chains had been suspended from the fatal beam, and this led the crowd to suppose that may had not been respited. mr. wontnor, on hearing of the mistake, directed that one of the chains should be removed. the moment this was done an exclamation of "may is respited," ran through the crowd, and, contrary to the expected tokens of indignation, distinct cheers were heard amongst the crowd on witnessing this token that mercy had been shown to may. at half-past seven the sheriffs arrived in their carriage, and in a short time the press-yard was thronged with gentlemen. the unhappy convicts were now led from their cells. bishop cams out first, and after he was pinioned he was conducted to a seat, and the rev. mr. williams sat alongside of him, and they conversed together in a low tone of voice. williams was next introduced, and the wonderful alteration two days had effected in his appearance astonished everyone who was present at the trial. all the bold confidence he exhibited then had completely forsaken him, and he looked the most miserable wretch it is possible to conceive. he entered the room with a very faltering step, and when the ceremony of pinioning him commenced, he was so weak as to be scarcely able to stand. everything being ready, the melancholy procession moved forward. bishop was then conducted to the scaffold, and the moment he made his appearance the most dreadful yells and hootings were heard among the crowd. the executioner proceeded at once to the performance of his duty, and having put the rope round his neck and affixed it to a chain, placed him under the fatal beam. williams was then taken out, and the groans and hisses were renewed. the dreadful preparations were soon completed, and in less than five minutes after the wretched men appeared on the scaffold the usual signal was given, the drop fell, and they were launched into eternity. bishop appeared to die very soon, but williams struggled hard. thus died the dreadful burkers of printed in london for the venders. it may be remarked, _en passant_, that mr. corder, with paragalli and colla, the two italian witnesses, who gave evidence as to the identity of the body, said to be that of the italian boy, at the trial of bishop, williams, and may, appeared at bow street, in consequence of doubts being entertained by a portion of the public as to the body being that of carlo ferrari, to re-assert their former evidence. mr. corder afterwards published a statement in the "times" newspaper, which gave scarcely the possibility of doubt that the body offered at king's college _must have been_ that of ferrari notwithstanding the murderer's assertion to the contrary. on december the th, a _post-obit_ prosecution of williams, the burkite murderer, took place in the court of excise, where he was charged, on information, with having carried on an illicit factory for making glass at no. , nova scotia gardens, bethnal green. an officer proved the seizure of goods used in the manufacture of glass, at the house of the person charged, and that bishop was at the time in company. the court condemned the goods seized. a drama on the subject of the "burkers" was produced at an unlicensed theatre, designated the shakespeare, in the kingsland road, and not far from shoreditch church, and for a time was specially attractive. in the young actor, who played carlo ferrari, the italian boy, might now be recognised an eminent tragedian.[ ] [illustration] street-ballads on political subjects, though not regarded as of great interest by the whole body of the people, are still eventful among certain classes, and for such the street author and ballad singer cater. the measure of reform by earl grey's administration, was proposed in the house of commons by lord john russell, st march, . on the first division, _second_ reading nd march, there stood for it, ; against it, . ultimately, the bill for that session was abandoned, and parliament dissolved. the reform bill of was read for the _third_ time on the rd of march, when the numbers stood thus:--for the bill, ; against it, --majority for it, . in the lords, the bill was carried through the committee on the th of may, and read a _third_ time on the th of june. for the bill, ; against, --majority, . during the whole of the time the reform bills of - were before the houses of parliament, the "catnach press," in common with other printing offices that produced street-literature, was very busy in publishing, almost daily, songs and papers in ridicule of borough-mongering and of the various rotten boroughs then in existence, but which were entirely swept away by the passing of this bill; fifty-six boroughs in england being disfranchised, while thirty were reduced to one member only; twenty-two new boroughs were created to send two members, and twenty to send one member; other important changes were also made. songs upon the subject were sung at every corner of the streets, to the great delight of the multitude. the reform bill. as william and _bill_ are the same, our king, if he "weathers the storm," shall be called in the annals of fame, the _glorious_ bill _of reform_! [illustration] attack on king william iv. at ascot heath, on tuesday, the th of june, . the ascot races for will be rendered memorable in the history of this country by reason of a stone thrown at his majesty while on the grand stand at ascot races, which hit him on the forehead. the man by whom it was thrown was immediately secured, and proved to be dennis collins, a seaman with only one leg, formerly a pensioner of greenwich hospital, from whence he had been dismissed for ill-conduct. on his examination he confessed he committed the outrage in revenge because no notice had been taken of petitions which he had sent to the lords of the admiralty and the king. he was committed to reading gaol to take his trial, which took place at abingdon, on august nd. the jury returned a verdict of guilty on the fifth count, that of intending some bodily harm to his majesty, but not guilty of the intent to kill. mr. baron gurney passed sentence on the prisoner, that he _be drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution_, and being hung by his _neck_ until dead, his _head_ be afterwards _severed from his body_, and his body _divided into four pieces_, and disposed of as his majesty should think fit. his sentence was afterwards respited. nothing better than the above circumstance could have suited the producers and workers of street-literature. king william and queen adelaide were very popular at the time. "yes, sir, we all did well out of that job of the wooden-legged sailor and old king billy. it lasted out for months. we had something fresh nearly every day. we killed old billy five or six times; then we made out that the sailor-chap was a love-child of the sailor king and madame vestris; then that he was an old sweetheart of queen adelaide's, and that he was jealous and annoyed at her a jilting of him and a-marrying of old king billy, and so on. but it was an awful sell, and a robbery to us all, because they didn't hang and cut the chap up into four quarters--that would have been a regular godsend to us chaps, sir. but i think old jemmy catnach, as it was, must have cleared pretty nigh or quite fifty pounds for himself out of the job. a-talking about madame vestris, sir, reminds me that once we had a song about her, and the chorus was:-- "'a hundred pounds reward for the man that cut the legs above the knees belonging to madame vestris.'" [illustration] the year produced two sensational murders and executions. the first case--that of pegsworth--made a great stir, particularly in the east part of london. it was on the evening of the th of january, , that a most atrocious and cold-blooded murder was committed in ratcliff highway. the individual who suffered was mr. john holliday ready, who for some time carried on the trade of a tailor, draper, and milliner. john pegsworth, was a messenger in the tea department of st. katherine's docks, he had formerly kept a small tobacconist's shop in the same street, and had contracted a debt of £ with mr. ready, who being unable to obtain payment, took out a summons against him in the court of requests, osborne-street, whitechapel. the court gave judgement against pegsworth for the full amount and costs, which he was ordered to pay by instalments. on the evening of the same day pegsworth proceeded to a cutler's shop in shadwell, where he bought a large pig-knife, armed with which he immediately repaired to the house of mr. ready for the purpose of executing his diabolical intention. he entered the shop, and having spoken to mrs. ready, passed on to the parlour and got into conversation with mr. ready. pegsworth, although pressingly asked to do so, declined taking a seat, and after he had been talking about ten minutes in a calm and collected manner on the subject of the debt and the misfortunes he had met with in business, he pointedly asked mr. ready if he intended to enforce the payment of the debt? ready said he should be compelled to issue an execution against his goods if the money was not paid. the words had scarcely left the lips of the unfortunate man than pegsworth uttered some exclamation which is supposed to have been "take that!" and plunged the knife with great force into his breast up to the hilt. ready called out to his wife, "o, i am stabbed!" fell back in his chair, and almost immediately expired. mrs. ready, who saw pegsworth move his arm, but was not aware her husband was stabbed until she saw him fall back, screamed aloud for assistance, and several of her neighbours rushed into the shop for the purpose of securing the murderer, who did not make the least attempt to escape, but having completed his purpose, withdrew the knife from the body of his victim, laid it on the table, and calmly awaited the arrival of the police. pegsworth was tried at the central criminal court of london on the th of february, and found guilty of wilful murder, and was executed in front of the debtor's door in the old bailey on the th of march following. * * * * * during the whole of the time that was occupied in the trial and execution of pegsworth, a circumstance took place which excited an extraordinary sensation throughout the metropolis and its neighbourhood--namely, the discovery near the pine apple gate, edgware road, of the trunk of a human being, tied up in a sack, dismembered of the arms, legs, and head. the utmost vigilance was exercised to trace out the murderer, but for several days no light was thrown upon the transaction. at length, on the th of january, as a barge was passing down the regent's canal, near stepney, one of the eastern environs of london, the bargeman, to his unspeakable horror, fished up what proved to be a human head. proper notice of this circumstance was forwarded to the police. it was now very generally supposed the head would prove to belong to the body found in the edgware road, although at a distance of nearly five miles, and this conjecture proved to be correct. on the second of february the remaining portions of the human being was discovered in a sack in an osier bed, near cold harbour lane, camberwell. these mutilated remains were carefully matched together, and at length recognised as those of a mrs. brown, and suspicion fell, and justly so, upon james greenacre and his paramour sarah gale. in respect to the last two murders we have cited, mr. henry mayhew received from an old "running patterer" the following statement--"pegsworth was an out-and-out lot. i did tremendous with him, because it happened in london, down ratcliff highway--that's a splendid quarter for working--there's plenty of feeling--but, bless you, some places you go to you can't move nohow, they've hearts like paving stones. they wouldn't have 'the papers' if you'd give them to 'em--especially when they knows you. greenacre didn't sell so well as might have been expected, for such a diabolical out-and-out crime as he committed; but you see he came close after pegsworth, and that took the beauty off him. two murderers together is no good to nobody." in the greenacre tragedy catnach did a great amount of business, and as it was about the last "popular murder" in which he had any trade concern, we give a statement in respect to the sale of "execution papers," of the chief modern '_popular_' murders, thus:-- of rush murder , , copies. of the mannings , , " of courvoisier , , " of greenacre , , " of corder (maria marten) , , " of the five pirates (flowery land) , " of müller , " so that the printers and publishers of "gallows" literature in general, and "the catnach press" in particular must have reaped a golden harvest for many a long day, even when sold to the street patterers at the low rate of d. per _long_ dozen. [illustration] life, trial, confession, & execution of james greenacre, for the edgeware road murder. [illustration] on the nd of april, james greenacre was found guilty of the wilful murder of hannah brown, and sarah gale with being accessary after the fact. a long and connected chain of evidence was produced, which showed, that the sack in which the body was found was the property of mr. ward; that it was usually deposited in a part of the premises which led to the workshop, and could without observation have been carried away by him; that the said sack contained several fragments of shavings of mahogeny, such as were made in the course of business by ward; and that it contained some pieces of linen cloth, which had been patched with nankeen; that this linen cloth matched exactly with a frock which was found on greenacre's premises, and which belonged to the female prisoner. feltham, a police-officer, deposed, that on the th of march he apprehended the prisoners at the lodgings of greenacre; that on searching the trowsers pockets of that person, he took therefrom a pawnbroker's duplicate for two silk gowns, and from the fingers of the female prisoner two rings, and also a similar duplicate for two veils, and an old-fashioned silver watch, which she was endeavouring to conceal; and it was further proved that these articles were pledged by the prisoners, and that they had been the property of the deceased woman.--two surgeons were examined, whose evidence was most important, and whose depositions were of the greatest consequence in throwing a clear light on the manner in which the female, hannah brown, met with her death. mr. birtwhistle deposed, that he had carefully examined the head; that the right eye had been knocked out by a blow inflicted while the person was living; there was also a cut on the cheek, and the jaw was fractured, these two last wounds were, in his opinion, produced after death; there was also a bruise on the head, which had occurred after death; the head had been separated by cutting, and the _bone sawed nearly through_, and then broken off; then were the marks of a saw, which fitted with a saw which was found in greenacre's box. mr. girdwood, a surgeon, very minutely and skilfully described the appearances presented on the head, and showed incontestibly, that the head had been severed from the body _while the person was yet alive_; that this was proved by the retraction, or drawing back, of the muscles at the parts where they were separated by the knife, and further, by the blood-vessels being empty, the body was drained of blood. this part of the evidence produced a thrill of horror throughout the court, but greenacre remained quite unmoved. after a most impressive and impartial summing up by the learned judge, the jury retired, and, after the absence of a quarter of an hour, returned into court, and pronounced a verdict of "guilty" against both the prisoners. the prisoners heard the verdict without evincing the least emotion, or the slightest change of countenance. after an awful silence of a few minutes, the lord chief justice said they might retire, as they would be remanded until the end of the session. they were then conducted from the bar, and on going down the steps, the unfortunate female prisoner kissed greenacre with every mark of tenderness and affection. the crowd outside the court on this day was even greater than on either of the preceding; and when the result of the trial was made known in the street, a sudden and general shout succeeded, ans continued huzzas were heard for several minutes. the execution. at half past seven the sheriff arrived in his carriage, and in a short time the press-yard was thronged with gentlemen who had been admitted by tickets. the unhappy convict was now led from his cell. when he arrived in the press-yard, his whole appearance pourtrayed the utmost misery and spirit-broken dejection; his countenance haggard, and his whole frame agitated; all that self-possesion and fortitude which he displayed in the early part of his imprisonment, had utterly forsaken him, and had left him a victim of hopelessness and despair. he requested the executioner to give him as little pain as possible in the process of pinioning his arms and wrists; he uttered not a word in allusion to his crime; neither did he make any dying request, except that his spectacles might be given to sarah gale; he exhibited no sign of hope; he showed no symptom of reconciliation with his offended god! when the venerable ordinary preceded him in the solemn procession through the vaulted passage to the fatal drop, he was so overcome and unmanned, that he could not support himself without the aid of the assistant executioner. at the moment he ascended the faithless floor, from which he was to be launched into eternity, the most terrific yells, groans, and cheers were vociferated by the immense multitude surrounding the place of execution. greenacre bowed to the sheriff, and begged he might not be allowed to remain long in the concourse; and almost immediately the fatal bolt was withdrawn, and, without a struggle he became a lifeless corse.--thus ended the days of greenacre, a man endowed with more than ordinary talents, respectably connected, and desirably placed in society; but a want of probity, an absolute dearth of principle, led him on from one crime to another, until at length he perpetrated the sanguinary deed which brought his career to an awful and disgraceful period, and which has enrolled his name among the most notorious of those who have expiated their crime on the gallows. on hearing the death-bell toll, gale became dreadfully agitated; and when she heard the brutal shouts of the crowd of spectators, she fainted, and remained in a state of alternate mental agony and insensibility throughout the whole day. after having been suspended the usual time, his body was cut down, and buried in a hole dug in one of the passages of the prison, near the spot where thistlewood and his associate were deposited. catnach received a very indifferent education, and that little at the establishment of mr. goldie, in alnwick, where his attendance was very irregular, and this drawback assisted very much in blunting his relish for the higher walks of literature. the father had not carried out the heavenly injunction so much practised in scotland, by giving to his son the best of blessings--"a good education." jemmy had a tenacious love of money, and this propensity he retained throughout life. as a man of business he was rough and brusque in his manners, but this mattered little, as his trade lay amongst a class who were low and insensitive in their habits and modes of living. the productions issued at the "catnach press" were not destined to rank high in the annals of literature; and they bear a sorry appearance when placed alongside of several works of a similar kind, which were printed at the same period in many parts of the kingdom. in this respect jemmy catnach was very unlike his father, for, whilst the former had a niggardly turn in all his dealings, the latter was naturally inclined to the reverse. one class of literature which jemmy catnach made--by reason of greater mechanical skill and a larger capital than his rivals--almost his own, was children's farthing, halfpenny, and penny books. among the great many that he published we select from our own private collection, those that follow as a fair sample. many other nursery books of a similar kind might be mentioned as some of the chief attractions that emanated from the "catnach press," and which, to the juvenile population, were more eagerly welcomed than the great sensational three-volume novels are by many in our day. "the catnach press." [illustration] a collection of juvenile books. printed and published by james catnach, late of monmouth court, seven dials, london. [illustration: james catnach to his juvenile readers. little boys and girls will find at catnach's something to their mind, from great variety may choose, what will instruct them and amuse; the prettiest plates that you can find, to please at once the eye and mind, in all his little books appear, in natural beauty, shining clear, instruction unto youth when given, points the path from earth to heaven. he sells by wholesale and retail. to suit all moral tastes can't fail.] nurse love-child's legacy [illustration] london: printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. [illustration] the lion and the unicorn, were fighting for the crown, the lion beat the unicorn, all round about the town, some gave them white bread and some gave them brown, some gave them plum cake and sent them out of town. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] what is the news of the day, good neighbour i pray, they say the balloon, is gone up to the moon. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] the little mouse doth skip and play, he runs by night, and sleeps by day. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] this is the cat that killed the cock, for waking her at five o'clock. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] and this is the dog that bit the thief, for stealing all his master's beef. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] who comes here a grenadier, what do you want a pot of beer, where's your money i've forgot. get you gone you drunken sot. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] be not a glutton when you eat, but spare some for the needy, or people will, when filled with meat, say, like a wolf, you are greedy. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] there was a little man, and he had a little gun, and his bullets were made of lead, he shot john sprig thro' the middle of his wig, and knock'd it off his head. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] now what do you think of little jack jingle, before he was married, he used to live single. but after he married, to alter his life, he left off living single and lived with his wife. nurse lovechild's legacy. tom trueby was a good and sensible boy, who neither played the truant nor kept company with naughty children. he did not like tossing up nor chuck up farthing, because he thought it might lead him to love gaming, when he was grown up; but he liked very well to play at ball or top, and most particularly at marbles, at which he was very clever, never cheated, and played so well that he used to teach the neighbouring children. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] and here you see him instructing master manly, a baronet's son in the place, as he did in matters of more consequence, and behaved so well towards him, that he was his friend all his lifetime. nurse lovechild's legacy. fire-works and crackers. [illustration] fire-works are things that look very pretty when they are properly managed by those who understand them, but children ought to take care how they meddle with gunpowder lest they should hurt themselves or other people. nurse lovechild's legacy. tom hazard for example was always fond of playing with serpents crackers &c. at one time he was near doing damage by his fireworks falling into a cellar, and at another time as you see in the cut he so much frightened one of his schoolfellows that he fell down, and put his ancle out, for which tom was severely corrected and you must own he richly deserved it. [illustration] nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] see the mother, good and mild, how she plays with her dear child. nurse lovechild's legacy. [illustration] see the maid by kindness led, to feed the fowls with crumbs of bread. finis. j. catnach, printer. the golden pippin. [illustration] london: printed by j. catnach. , monmouth court, dials. the lord's prayer. [illustration] our father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name, thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven, give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive them that trespass against us, and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. for thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory, for ever and ever. amen. [illustration] [illustration] a was an arch boy. [illustration] b a beauty was. [illustration] c a comely wench but coy. [illustration] d a dainty lass. [illustration] e loved eggs, and eat his fill. [illustration] f was full and fat. [illustration] g had grace and wit at will. [illustration] h wore a gold lace hat. [illustration] i stands for little jackys name. [illustration] k for kitty fair. [illustration] l loved learning & got fame. [illustration] m was his mother dear. [illustration] n was naughty & oft crying. [illustration] o an only child. [illustration] p was pretty peggy sighing. [illustration] q was a quaker mild. [illustration] r was rude, & in disgrace. [illustration] s stands for sammy still. [illustration] t for ever talked a-pace. [illustration] v was fond of veal. [illustration] w he watched the house & hall. [illustration] x does like a cross appear. [illustration] y a youth well shaped & tall. [illustration] z whips up the rear. let all good children come to me, and i'll learn them their a b c [illustration] and when your great letters you know, then i'll teach you the small also. [illustration] j. catnach, printer. jerry diddle, and his fiddle. [illustration] _if you are bad i pray reform, and praise will all your acts adorn._ london: printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. jerry diddle. bought a fiddle, to play to little boys, he wax'd his string, and began to sing, youth is the time for joys. [illustration] he went to a pig, and play'd a jig. the pigs did grunt for joy, till the farmer came out, and made a great rout, saying "off, or i'll cane you, my boy." [illustration] he met an old woman to market a prancing, he took out his fiddle, and set her a dancing. she broke all her eggs, and dirtied her butter; at which her old husband began for to splutter. [illustration] oh! then, said jerry, i'll soon make you merry. and the way with his fiddle he led, the old man heard the tune, as he sat in his room, and danc'd on top of his head. [illustration] [illustration] he next met a barber, with powder and wig, he play'd him a tune, and he shaved an old pig. [illustration] then up in his arms he carried the boar, and went to the ale-house, to dance on the floor. [illustration] he met an old man, with beer in a can, and a bundle of clothes on his shoulder, he bade jerry play, and threw all away, to astonish each gaping beholder. [illustration] he went to a tailor, who was ill in bed; when he got up to dance, with a goose on his head. [illustration] he went to a fishwomen, tippling of gin, when she like a top, began for to spin. [illustration] the publican star'd, as he fill'd out the glasses, but when jerry play'd, he danc'd with the lasses. [illustration] he next met an old man, with beard white and long, who laugh'd at poor jerry, and scoff'd at his song. [illustration] his name was instruction, the friend of the wise, who teaches good youth, to win honor's prize. [illustration] he broke jerry's fiddle, and taught him to read, and told him that honor would daily succeed. [illustration] jerry now is a lad at school always true, the joy of his friends, and a pattern for you. [illustration] be instructed by him, to avoid folly's snare, and your bosom thro' life, will escape every care. finis. jumping joan. [illustration] here am i, little jumping joan, when nobody's with me, i'm always alone. london: printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. _jumping joan._ [illustration] joan had a dog, and joan had a cat, look at them both, see how pretty they're sat. _jumping joan._ [illustration] joan she lov'd skipping, and was not at a loss, at jumping or hopping, or going a cross. _jumping joan._ [illustration] joan had a parrot could chatter and bawl, but joan could talk faster, and longer withal. _jumping joan._ [illustration] joan's dog, prinny, no learning did lack, he'd carry poll in his mouth and puss on his back. _jumping joan._ [illustration] as joan lov'd jumping, she learned her cat, look at them both, and see what they're at. _jumping joan._ [illustration] here's pussy a washing joan's linen you know, she could wash for herself a long while ago. _jumping joan._ [illustration] now prinny, joan's dog, to market would go, but what he'll bring back, i'm sure i don't know. _jumping joan._ [illustration] here's pussy drest out like a lady so gay, she's going to court, if she finds but the way. _jumping joan._ [illustration] here's prinny and pussy to dancing have got, while joan plays a tune on the lid of a pot. _jumping joan._ [illustration] here's joan with a whip, taking very long strides, and vows if she finds 'em, she'll bang both their hides. _jumping joan._ [illustration] here's prinny with gun, sword and gorget so smart, he's going to france, to fight bonaparte. _jumping joan._ [illustration] and joan's threat had fill'd poor prin with alarms, he said he'd not fight, and so grounded his arms. _jumping joan._ [illustration] then puss in a fright ran back to the house, she pull'd off her clothes, and has just caught a mouse. _jumping joan._ [illustration] then joan she came in, call'd the cat saucy puss, and said prin was a puppy, to frighten her thus. _jumping joan._ [illustration] they fell on their knees, her pardon to crave, and promis'd in future, they'd better behave. j. catnach, printer. [illustration] this milk maid and book for a halfpenny. [illustration] to the juvenile reader. little boys and girls will find at catnach's something to their mind. from great variety may choose, what will instruct them and amuse; the prettiest plates that you can find, to please at once the eye and mind, in all his little books appear, in natural beauty, shining clear, instruction unto youth when given, points the path from earth to heaven. he sells by wholesale and retail, to suit all moral tastes can't fail. the butterfly's ball, and grasshopper's feast. [illustration] _come take up your hats, and away let us haste, to the butterfly's ball, or the grasshoppers feast._ j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. [illustration] the butterfly's ball and grasshopper's feast. [illustration] the trumpeter gad-fly, has summon'd the crew, and the revels are now, only waiting for you. [illustration] on the smooth shaved grass, by the side of a wood. beneath a broad oak, which for ages had stood. [illustration] see the children of earth, and the tenants of air, to an evening's amusement, together repair. [illustration] and there came the beetle, so blind and so black, and carried the emmet, his friend on his back. [illustration] and there came the gnat, and the dragon-fly too, and all their relations-- green, orange and blue. [illustration] and there came the moth with her plume of down, and the hornet with jacket of yellow and brown. [illustration] who with him the wasp, his companion did bring, but they promised that evening to lay by their sting. [illustration] the sly little dormouse, peep'd out of his hole, and led to the feast, his blind cousin the mole. [illustration] and the snail with his horns, peeping out of a shell. came fatigued with the distance, the length of an ell. [illustration] a mushroom the table, and on it was spread, a water-dock leaf, which their table-cloth made. [illustration] the viands were various, to each of their taste, and the bee brought the honey, to sweeten the feast [illustration] with steps most majestic, the snail did advance, and he promised the gazers a minuet to dance. [illustration] but they all laugh'd so loud, that he drew in his head, and went in his own little chamber to bed. [illustration] then as the evening gave way to the shadows of night, their watchman the glow-worm came out with his light. [illustration] so home let us hasten, while yet we can see, for no watchman is waiting, for you or for me. j. catnach, printer. [illustration] a halfpenny pay and take honest tray. let all good children come to me, and i'll learn them their a b c [illustration] [illustration: the _easter gift_; being a useful toy for _little miss & master_ to learn their abc j. catnach, printer, , & , monmouth-court, dials.] [illustration] a was an archer and shot at a frog, but missing his mark shot into a bog. [illustration] b was a butcher and had a great dog, who always went round the streets with a clog. [illustration] c was a captain so brave and so grand, he headed in buff the stately train'd band. [illustration] d was a drunkard and lov'd a full pot, his face and his belly shew'd him a great sot. [illustration] e was an esquire, both lofty and proud, his servant was softy though he was full loud. [illustration] f was a farmer and followed the plough, and gathered good from the sweat of his brow. [illustration] g was a gamester, and oft would he play, a poor single ace against a bold tray. [illustration] h hunted the buck, and likewise the doe, the hart and the fox, and also the roe. [illustration] i was an image set up at rome, many that see it were better at home. [illustration] j was a joiner and built him a house, a little time after there came in a mouse. [illustration] k was a king, who would drink and carouse, affrighted was he at a stand and a mouse. [illustration] l was a lady that lov'd a fine tree, though none understood it so little as she. [illustration] m was a merchant to foreign lands gone. to bring home fine tea and rich silks anon. [illustration] n was a noble of birth and high power, to the poor most gentle, to the haughty most sour. [illustration] o with her oysters, a delicate cry. come buy my sweet oyster, come buy, come buy. [illustration] p was a parson, and wore a black gown, for goodness and virtue of high renown. [illustration] q was a quaker, both stiff and upright, in yea and nay they chiefly delight. [illustration] r was a robber on the highway, for which he's been hung this many a day. [illustration] s was a sailor and liv'd in a ship, he made the spaniards and french for to skip. [illustration] t was tom tinker and mended a kettle, while he was hammering was deaf as a beetle. [illustration] u was an undertaker at work for his bread. the living must pay, though he works for the dead. [illustration] v was a vintner that loved his pottle, went seldom to bed without his full bottle. [illustration] w was a watchman, to guard the warehouse, that rogues did not strip it of every souse. [illustration] x was expensive, and so became poor, with his little dog begged from door to door. [illustration] y was a youngster that lov'd not his school, but trundled his hoop though out of all rule. [illustration] z was a zany that look'd like a fool, with his long tassell'd cap he was the boy's fool. and when your great letters you know, then i'll teach you the small ones also. [illustration] printed by j. catnach. the tragical death of an _apple pie_, [illustration] who was cut to pieces and eaten by _twenty-five gentlemen_, with whom all little people ought to be acquainted printed by j. paul & co., london; _ & , monmouth court_. [illustration] an apple pie when it looks nice, would make one long to have a slice, and if its taste should prove so too, i fear one slice would scarcely do, so to prevent my asking twice, pray mamma, cut a good large slice. [illustration] the life and death of an apple pie. [illustration] a an apple-pie. b bit it. [illustration] c cut it. d dealt it. [illustration] e did eat it. f fought for it. [illustration] g got it. h had it. [illustration] j join'd for it. k kept it. [illustration] l long'd for it. m mourned for it. [illustration] n nodded at it. o open'd it. [illustration] p peeped into it. q quartered it. [illustration] r ran for it. s stole it. [illustration] t took it. v view'd it. [illustration] w wanted it. xyz and & all wished for a piece in hand. [illustration] at last they every one agreed, upon the apple pie to feed; but as there seem'd to be so many, those who were last might not have any, unless some method there was taken that every one might have their bacon, they all agreed to stand in order, around the apple pie's fine border, take turn as they in hornbook stand from great a down to &, in equal parts the pie divide, as you may see on the other side. [illustration] _a curious discourse that passed between the twenty-five letters at dinner time._ a . says, a, give me a good large slice. b . says b, a little bit but nice. c . says c, cut me a piece of crust. d . take it, says d, 'tis dry as dust. e . says e, i'll eat it fast, who will? f . says f, i vow i'll have my fill. g . says g, give it me both good and great. h . says h, a little bit i hate. i . says i, i love the juice the best. k . and k, the very same confess'd. l . says l, there's nothing more i love. m . says m, it makes your teeth to move. n . n notic'd what the others said, o . o, others plates with grief survey'd. p . p prais'd the cook up to the life. q . q quarrell'd because he'd a bad knife. r . says r, it runs short i'm afraid. s . s, silent sat and nothing said. t . t, thought that talking might lose time. u . u understood it at meals a crime. w . w wish'd there had been a quince in. x . says x, those cooks there's no convincing. y says y, i'll eat, let others wish. z . z sat as mute as any fish. & . while & he lick'd the dish. having concluded their discourse and dinner together, i have nothing more to add; but if my little readers are pleased with what they have found in this book they have nothing to do but to run to j. paul & co's., , & , monmouth court; dials, where they may have a great variety of books not less entertaining than this of the same size and price. [illustration] but that you may not think i leave you too abruptly, i here present you with the picture of dame dumpling, who made the apple pie you have been reading about; she has several more in her basket, and she promised that if you are good children you shall never go to bed supperless while she has one left. but as good people always ask a blessing, as a token that you are good and deserve a pie, you must learn the two following graces, that one be said before your meals, and the other after. * * * * * _grace before meat._ good lord, bless us, and these thy creatures, to our use, which we are about to receive, of thy bounteous liberality, through jesus christ our lord. _amen._ _grace after meat._ we thank thee, o lord, for all the benefits of this time, and of our whole lives. make us thankful for all thy mercies now, and for evermore. _amen._ [illustration] the ten commandments put into short rhyme. . thou shalt have no other god but me. . before no idol bow thy knee. . take not the name of god it vain. . nor dare the sabbath-day profane. . give both thy parents honour due. . take heed that thou no murder do. . abstain from words and deeds unclean. . steal not, tho' thou art poor and mean. . tell not a wilful lie, nor love it. . what is thy neighbour's, dare not covet. j. paul & co., printers. old mother hubbard and her wonderful dog. [illustration] old mother hubbard went to the cupboard to get the poor dog a bone; but when she came there the cupboard was bare, and so the poor dog had none. london: printed by j. catnach, & , monmouth court, dials. [illustration] she went to the baker's to buy him some bread, when she came back the dog was dead. ah! my poor dog, she cried, oh, what shall i do? you were always my pride--none equal to you. [illustration] she went to the undertaker's to buy him a coffin, when she came back, the dog was laughing. now how this can be quite puzzles my brain, i am much pleased to see you alive once again. [illustration] she went to the barber's to buy him a wig, when she came back he was dancing a jig. o, you dear merry grig, how nicely you're prancing; then she held up the wig, and he began dancing. [illustration] she went to the sempstress to buy him some linen, when she came back the dog was spinning. the reel, when 'twas done, was wove into a shirt, which served to protect him from weather and dirt. [illustration] to market she went, to buy him some tripe, when she came back he was smoking his pipe. why, sure, cried the dame, you'd beat the great jocko. who before ever saw a dog smoking tobacco? [illustration] she went to the alehouse to buy him some beer, when she came back he sat on a chair. drink hearty, said dame, there's nothing to pay, 'twill banish your sorrow and moisten your clay. [illustration] she went to the fruiterer's to buy him some fruit, when she came back he was playing the flute. oh, you musical dog, you surely can speak: come, sing me a song, then he set up a squeak. [illustration] she went to the tavern for white wine and red, when she came back he stood on his head. this is odd, said the dame, for fun you seem bred, one would almost believe you'd wine in your head. [illustration] the dog he cut capers, and turned out his toes, 'twill soon cure the vapours, he such attitude shows. the dame made a curtsey, the dog made a bow, the dame said, your servant, the dog said bow wow. [illustration] the royal book. [illustration] of nursery rhymes. a present for little masters and misses. a good book to instruct and amuse. [illustration] pussy-cat, pussy-cat, where have you been? i've been up to london to look at the queen. pussy-cat, pussy-cat, what did you there? i frighten'd a little mouse under the chair. london: published by ryle and paul, & , monmouth court, seven dials. nursery rhymes. [illustration] see-saw, sacradown, which is the way to london town? one foot up, and the other down, and that is the way to london town. [illustration] hey diddle, the cat and the fiddle, the cow jumped over the moon. the little dog laughed to see the sport, and the dish ran away with the spoon. ding, dong, bell! pussy's in the well. who put her in? little johnny green. who pulled her out? little johnny snout, what a naughty boy was that, to drown poor pussy cat, who never did him any harm, and kill'd the mice in his father's barn. [illustration] jack and jill went up the hill, to get a pail of water: jack fell down and broke his crown, and jill came tumbling after. [illustration] cock a doodle do, the dame has lost her shoe, and master's lost his fiddle stick and don't know what to do. simple simon met a pieman, going to the fair! says simple simon to the pieman, let me taste your ware. [illustration] says the pieman unto simon first give me a penny; says simple simon to the pieman, i have not got any. once simon made a great snow ball and brought it in to roast, he laid it down before the fire, and soon the ball was lost. [illustration] he went to ride a spotted cow, that had a little calf, she threw him down upon the ground and made all the people laugh. now simple simon went a fishing, for to catch a whale, but all the water he had got was in his mother's pail. [illustration] he went to catch a dickey bird and thought he could not fail because he had a bit of salt, to put upon his tail. he went to see if cherries ripe, did grow upon a thistle, he pricked his finger very much, which made poor simon whistle. [illustration] he went to take a bird's nest, 'twas built upon a bough, a branch gave way, down simon fell into a dirty slough. simon was sent to market, to buy a joint of meat, he tied it to his horse's tail, to keep it clean and sweet. [illustration] he went to slide upon the ice, before the ice would bear, then he plunged in above his knees, which made poor simon stare. he went to shoot a wild duck, but the duck flew away, says simon i can't hit him, because he would not stay. [illustration] then simple simon went a hunting, for to catch a hare, he rode an ass about the street, but could not find one there. he went for water in a seive, but soon it all run through, and went all o'er his clothes, which made poor simon rue. [illustration] he washed himself with blacking ball, because he had no soap, and then said to his mother i'm a beauty now i hope. he went to eat some honey, out of the mustard pot, it bit his tongue until he cried, that was all the good he got. [illustration] simple simon cutting his mother's bellows open to see where the wind lay. jack jingle. [illustration] little jack jingle, played truant at school, they made his bum tingle for being a fool; he promised no more like a fool he would look but be a good boy and attend to his book. [illustration] see little jack jingle learning his task, he's a very good boy, if the neighbours should ask, to school he does run, and no truant does play, but when school is done, he can laugh and be gay. [illustration] here sulky sue, what shall we do. turn her face to the wall, till she comes to; if that should fail, a touch with the cane will do her good, when she feels the pain. [illustration] now suky never pouts, never frowns, never flouts, but reads her book with glee, then dances merrily, no girl so good as she, in all the country; cheerfully doth all things do, she lost the name of sulky sue. [illustration] jack jingle went 'prentice, to make a horse-shoe, he wasted the iron, till it would not do, his master came in, and began for to rail; says jack, the shoe's spoil'd, but 'twill still make a nail. [illustration] little jack jingle, went to court suky shingle, says he, shall we mingle our toes in the bed; fye! jacky jingle, says little suke shingle, we must try to mingle, our pence for some bread. [illustration] suke shingle when young, did what others have done, she could dirty two clouts, while her mother wash'd one. but now grown a stout wench, with her pail and her mop, if she don't clean the board, she can make a great slop. [illustration] suky you shall be my wife, and i'll tell you why; i have got a little pig, and you have got a sty; i have got a dun cow, and you can make good cheese, suky will you have me? say yes, if you please. death & burial of cock robin. [illustration] who kill'd cock robin? i said the sparrow, with my bow and arrow. i kill'd cock robin. who caught his blood? i, said the fish, with my little dish-- i caught his blood. [illustration] this is the fish that held the dish. who saw him die? i, said the fly with my little eye-- i saw him die. [illustration] this is the fly that saw him die. who made his shroud? i, said the beetle, with my little needle-- i made his shroud. [illustration] this is the beetle, with his little needle. who'll be the parson? i, said the rook, with my little book-- i will be the parson. [illustration] here is parson rook, reading his book. who'll carry the coffin? i, said the kite, if it's not in the night-- i'll carry the coffin. [illustration] behold the kite, how he takes his flight. who'll be the clerk? i, said the lark, if its not in the dark-- i will be the clerk. [illustration] behold how the lark, says amen like a clerk. who will carry the link? i, said the linnet: i'll fetch it in a minute-- i will carry the link. [illustration] the linnet with a light, altho' it is not night. little red riding hood. [illustration] and now her riding hood is on, how pretty she does look; _mamma_ made it to keep her warm because she learn'd her book; so be good girls all who hear this and boys be good also, and your _mammas_ will give you all great coats and hoods, i know. [illustration] you see this pot of butter nice, and likewise this plum-cake, which little _biddy's_ dear _mamma_ for _grandmamma_ did make: who lived in a little house, a mile or two away, and _red riding hood_ must take them, to _grandmamma_ next day [illustration] the morning come--the hood put on, the pot and cake she took, _biddy_, good bye--good bye, _mamma_ and then her hand she shook: and so set off for _grandmamma's_ _mamma_ stood at the door, and watched her little _biddy_ till she could see her no more. [illustration] now in the road to _grandma's_ house, a lonesome wood there lay, and _goffip wolf_ popp'd from a bush, and stopp'd her in the way he was a fierce and cruel beast, and would have eat her there, but turning of his head about, he found he did not dare. [illustration] i'm going to my _grandmamma's_, she is not very well, with cake and pot of butter; says _wolf_ where does she dwell? in yonder house, by yonder mill good bye--i cannot stay-- and with her pretty finger, she pointed out the way. [illustration] the _wolf_ got first to grandma's door, and knocked toc, toc, toc; who is that, said _grandmamma_, that at the door doth knock; 'tis your _grandaughter_, said the _wolf_ and mimic'd biddy's voice, _mamma_ has sent you a plumb cake, and pot of butter nice. [illustration] now _grandmamma_ being very ill, she on the bed did lie, and called out, the bobbin pull, and up the latch will fly; the bobbin pull'd, up flew the latch, the _wolf_ popp'd in his head and soon he eat up _grandmamma_ and then got into bed. [illustration] toc, toc, toc, at _grandma's_ door knocked _little red riding hood_, who's there, says _wolf_, and with a voice, like _grandma's_ as he could; 'tis your _grandaughter_, little _bid_ with cake and pot of butter; the bobbin pull, the latch will fly, the wicked _wolf_ did mutter. cinderella. [illustration] here cinderella you may see a beauty bright and fair, her real name was helena, few with her could compare besides she was so very good, so affable and mild, she learned to pray and read her book, like a very good child. [illustration] her mother-in-law you see, one of the worst of hags, who made her do all drudgery work. and clothed her in rags; and after she had done her work, her mother-in-law would tell her the cinders she might sit among, then call'd her cinderella. [illustration] these are her two sisters-in-law, both deformed & ordinary, altho' they dress as fine as queens, which you may think extraordinary; but neither of them scarce can read, nor pray to god to bless'em they only know to patch and paint, and gaudily to dress'em, [illustration] this is the king's fine gallant son, young, handsome, straight and tall he invited all the ladies round for to dance at his ball; which when the ugly sisters heard they dress'd themselves so fine, and off they set, being resolv'd at this grand ball to shine. [illustration] her god-mother came to lend her aid, and her power is not small to help her god-daughter to go to this fine prince's ball. this coach was once a pumpkin, by the fairy changed from that, the footmen once were lizards green, the coachman once a rat. [illustration] now having danced with the prince, he led her to her place, while all the ladies at the ball envied her handsome face; behold the clock now striking twelve, out cinderella run, and happily got out of door just as the clock had done. [illustration] but in her haste to get away, one of her slippers fell, which the young prince himself pick'd up, and it pleased him so well, that straight he offer'd a reward, it was ten thousand pound, to any person that could tell where the owner could be found. [illustration] and now the sisters tried in vain the slipper to get on; said cinderella, let me try, dear sisters, when you've done; she tried, and on it went with ease to the foot of cinderella, said she, i think the slipper's mine, see here i've got the fellow. the child's new year's gift. [illustration] _a pair of spectacles._ without a bridle or a saddle, across a thing i ride and straddle. and those i ride by help of me, tho' almost blind are made to see. [illustration] _a pair of stays._ my legs i can venture, to say within bound, are twelve, if not more, tho' they ne'er touch the ground; if you search for my eyes, more than thirty you'll find and strange to be told they are always behind. [illustration] _a pin._ and tho' i'm a brazen-fac'd sharper at best, no lady without my aid can be drest, when i'm wanted, i'm dragg'd by the head to my duty and am doomed to be slave to the dress of a beauty. [illustration] _a letter m._ i'm found in most countries, yet not in earth or sea, i am in all timber, yet not in any tree, i am in all metals, yet, as i am told, i am not in iron, lead, brass, silver, nor gold. [illustration] _a pair of snuffers._ a mouth i have got, that's not whiter than ink. and all i devour doth most nauseously stink; so much valued am i, that by none i'm refused, and the light shines the brighter whenever i'm used. [illustration] _a watch._ my form is beauteous to allure the sight my habit gay, of colour gold & white, when ladies take the air, it is my pride, to walk with equal paces by their side, i near their persons constantly remain, a favourite slave, bound in a golden chain. [illustration] _a wheelbarrow._ no mouth, no eyes, nor yet a nose, two arms, two feet, and as it goes, the feet don't touch the ground, but all the way the head runs round. and tho' i can both speak and go alone, yet are my motions to myself unknown. [illustration] _a salamander._ what all consumes best pleases me, i covet that which others flee, strange thing to tell, unhurt i lie and live, where all the world would die. printed by a. ryle & paul. the good child's illustrated alphabet or first book. [illustration] london: published by ryle & paul, & , monmouth court, seven dials. [illustration: a] was an archer, who shot at a frog. [illustration: b] was a butcher, and kept a great dog. [illustration: c] was a captain, all covered with lace. [illustration: d] was a drunkard and had a red face. [illustration: e] was an esquire, with insolent brow. [illustration: f] was a farmer, and followed the plough. [illustration: g] was a gamester, who had but ill-luck. [illustration: h] was a huntsman, and hunted a buck. [illustration: i] was an inn-keeper, who loved to bouse. [illustration: j] was a joiner, and built up a house. [illustration: k] was king william, once governed this land. [illustration: l] was a lady, who had a white hand. [illustration: m] was a miser, and hoarded up gold. [illustration: n] was a nobleman, gallant and bold. [illustration: o] was an oyster-wench, and went about town. [illustration: p] was a parson, and wore a black gown. [illustration: q] was a queen, who was fond of flip. [illustration: r] was a robber, and wanted a whip. [illustration: s] was a sailor, who spent all he got. [illustration: t] was a tinker, and mended a pot. [illustration: u] was a usurer, a miserly elf. [illustration: v] was a vinter, who drank all himself. [illustration: w] was a watchman, and guarded the door. [illustration: x] was expensive, and so became poor. [illustration: y] was a youth, who did not love school. [illustration: z] was a zany, a silly old fool. the alphabet. the letters promiscuously arranged. d b c f g e h a x u y m v w n k p j o z q i s l t r z w x o c l y b b f p s m q n v h k r t g e j a u i double and triple letters. fi fl ff ffi ffl fi fl fff ffi fl diphthongs, &c. ae oe æ oe & &c. Æ oe ae oe and _et cætera_ arabic numerals. roman numerals. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. xiv. [illustration] the life and adventures of dick turpin. [illustration] london: w. s. fortey, printer & publisher, monmouth court, bloomsbury, w.c. the life and adventures of dick turpin. richard turpin was born at hempstead, in essex, where his father kept the sign of the bell; and after being the usual time at school, he was bound apprentice to a butcher in whitechapel, but did not serve out his time, for his master discharged him for impropriety of conduct, which was not in the least diminished by his parents' indulgence in supplying him with money, which enabled him to cut a figure round the town, among the blades of the road and the turf, whose company he usually kept. his friends, thinking that marriage would reclaim him, persuaded him to marry, which he did with one hester palmer, of east ham in essex, but he had not long been married before he became acquainted with a gang of thieves, whose depredations terrified the whole county of essex, and the neighbourhood of london. he joined sheep stealing to foot-pad robbery; and was at last obliged to fly from his place of residence for stealing a young heifer, which he killed and cut up for sale. soon after, he stole two oxen from one farmer giles, of plaistow, and drove them to a butcher's slaughtering house, near waltham abbey. he was followed there, but made his escape out of the window of the house where he was, just as they were entering the door. he now retreated into the hundreds of essex, where he found more security: he adopted a new scheme; and that was to rob the smugglers, but he took care not to attack a gang, only solitary travellers, this he did with a colour of justice, for he pretended to have a deputation from the customs, and demanded their property in the king's name. he again joined the gang with whom he had before connected himself, the principal part of those depredations were committed upon epping forest, &c. but this soon becoming an object of magisterial enquiry, he again returned to the solitude of the country, with some more of the gang, and they became notorious deer-stealers, and turpin being a good shot, sent many a buck up to his connections in london. dick turpin. they next determined to commence house-breakers; and in this they were much encouraged by joining with gregory's gang, as it was then called, a company of desparadoes that made the essex and adjacent roads very dangerous to travel. somehow or other, turpin became acquainted with the circumstances of an old woman, that lived at laughton, that kept a great quantity of cash by her; whereupon they agreed to rob her; and when they came to the door, wheeler knocked and turpin and the rest forcing their way into the house, blindfolded the eyes of the old woman and her maid, and tied the legs of her son to the bedstead, but not finding the wished-for booty, they held a consultation, as they were certain she must have a considerable sum concealed. turpin told her he knew she had money, and it was in vain to deny it, for have it they would. the old lady persisted that she had none, but turpin insisting she had money, he swore he would put her on the fire. she continued obstinate and endured for some time, when they took her off the grate, and robbed her of all they could find, upwards of four hundred pounds. they next proceeded into surrey, where turpin and his company robbed mr. sheldon's house, near croydon church, where they arrived about seven o'clock in the evening. they secured the coachman in the stable. his master hearing some strange voices in the yard, was proceeding to know the cause, when he was met by turpin, who seizing hold of him compelled him to show them the way into the house, when he secured the door, and confined the rest of the family in one room, here they found but little plate and no cash. from mr. sheldon's person they took eleven guineas, two of which turpin returned him, begged pardon for what they had done, and wished him a good night. these robberies hitherto had been carried on entirely on foot, with only the occasional assistance of a hackney coach but now they aspired to appear on horse-back, for which purpose they hired horses at the old leaping bar in holborn, from whence they set out about two o'clock in the afternoon, and arrived at the queen's head, stanmore, where they staid to regale themselves. it was by this means that wood, the master of the horse, had so good an opportunity of observing the horses, as to remember the same again when he saw them afterwards in bloomsbury, where they were taken. about five they went from mr. wood's to stanmore and staid from six until seven and then went together for mr. lawrence's, about a mile from thence, where they got about half-past seven. on their arrival at mr. lawrence's they alighted from their horses at the gate; whereupon fielder knocked at the door, and calling out mr. lawrence. the man servant thinking it to be some of the neighbours, opened the door, upon which they all rushed in with pistols, and seizing mr. dick turpin [illustration] lawrence and his man, threw a cloth over their faces then fell to rifling their pockets, out of which they took one guinea, and about fifteen shillings in silver, with his keys. they said they must have more, and drove mr. lawrence up stairs, where coming to a closet, they broke open the door, and took out from thence two guineas, ten shillings, a silver cup, silver spoons, and two gold rings. they then rifled the house of all they could get, linen, table cloths, shirts, and the sheets off the bed, and trod the beds under feet, to discover if any money was concealed therein. suspecting there was more money in the house, they then brought mr. lawrence down again, and threatened to cut his throat, and fielder put a knife to it, as though he intended to do it; to make him confess what money was in the house. one of them took a chopping bill, and threatened to cut off his leg: they then broke his head with their pistols, and dragged him about by the hair of his head. another of them took the kettle off the fire, and flung it upon him; but it did no other harm just wetting him, because the maid had just before taken out the greater part of the boiling water, and filled it again with cold. after this they dragged him about again, swearing they would "do for him" if he did not immediately inform them where the rest of the money was hid. they then proceeded to make a further search; and then withdrew; threatening to return again in half an hour, and kill every one dick turpin. [illustration] they found loose. so saying they locked them in the parlour and threw the keys down the area. turpin by this robbery got but little, for out of the _l_, they took in the whole, he distributed it among them all but three guineas and six shillings and six pence. a proclamation was issued for the apprehension of the offenders, and a pardon and _l_ was offered to any of the party who would impeach his accomplices, which however, had no effect. the white hart in drury-lane was their place of rendezvous. here they planned their nightly visits, and here they divided their spoil, and spent the money they acquired. the robbery being stated to the officers of westminster, turpin set off to alton, where he met with an odd encounter, which got him the best companion he ever had, as he often declared. king, the highwayman, as he was returning from this place to london, being well dressed and mounted, turpin seeing him have the appearance of a substantial gentleman, rode up to him, and thinking him a fair mark, bid him stand and deliver, and therewith producing his pistols, king fell a laughing at him, and said "what dog rob dog! come, come, brother turpin, if you don't know me, i know you, and shall be glad of your company." after a mutual communication of circumstances to each other, they agreed to keep company, and divide good or ill fortune as the trumps might turn up. in fact king was true to him to the last, which was for more than three years. they met with various fortunes; but being too well known to dick turpin. remain long in one place, and as no house that knew them would receive them in it, they formed the resolution of making themselves a cave, covered with bevins and earth, and for that purpose pitched upon a convenient place, enclosed with a thicket, situated on the waltham side of epping, near the sign of the king's oak. in this place turpin lived, ate, drank, and lay, for the space of six years, during the first three of which he was enlivened by the drollery of his companion, tom king, who was a fellow of infinite humour in telling stories, and of an unshaken resolution in attack or defence. one day, as they were spying from their cave, they discovered a gentleman riding by, that king knew very well to be a rich merchant near gresham college. this gentleman was in his chariot, and wife with him; his name was bradele. king first attacked him on the laughton road; but he being a man of great spirit, offered to make resistence, thinking there was but one; upon which king called turpin, and bid him hold the horses' heads. they proceeded first to take his money, which he readily parted with, but demurred a good while about his watch, being the dying bequest of his father. king was insisting to take it away, when turpin interposed, and said, they were more gentlemen than to deprive anyone of their friend's respect which they wore about them, and bid king desist from his demand. on the day after this transaction they went to the red lion ale house, in aldersgate street, where they had not been more than half an hour, when turpin heard of the approach of the chief constable and his party; they mounted each their horse; but before king could get fairly seated he was seized by one of the party, and called on dick to fire. turpin replied, "if i do, i shall hit you." "fire, if you are my friend." said king--turpin fired, but the ill-fated ball took effect in king's breast. dick stood a moment in grief, but self-preservation made him urge his mare forward to elude his pursuers; it was now he resolved on a journey to york, and raising himself in his saddle, he said, "by g--, i will do it." encouraged by "harkaway bess," she flew on. astonishing to relate, he reached york the same evening and was noticed playing at bowls in the bowling-green with several gentlemen there, which circumstance saved him from the hands of justice for a time. his pursuers coming up and seeing turpin, knew him; and caused him to be taken into custody; one of them swore to him and the horse he rode on, which was the identical one he arrived upon in that city; but on being in the stable, and its rider at play, and all in the space of four-and-twenty hours, his alibi was admitted; for the magistrates of york could not believe it possible for one horse to cover the ground, being upwards of miles, in so short a space. dick turpin. for the last two years of his life he seems to have confined his residence to the county of york, where he appears to be a little known. he often accompanied the neighbouring gentlemen in their parties of hunting and shooting; and one evening, on a return from an expedition of the latter kind, he saw one of his landlord's cocks in the street, which he shot. the next day mr. hall received a letter from robert appleton, long sutton, with this account:--that the said john palmer had lived there about three quarters of a year, and had before that been once apprehended, and made his escape, and that they had a strong suspicion he was guilty of horse-stealing. another information gave notice, that he had stolen a horse from captain dawson, of ferraby; his horse was that which turpin rode on when he came to beverley, and which he stole from off hickinton fen in lincolnshire. he wrote to his father upon being convicted, to use his interest to get him off for transportation, but his fate was at hand, his notoriety caused application to be ineffectual. after he had been in prison five months, he was removed from beverley to york castle to take his trial. when on his trial his case seemed much to affect the hearers. he had two trials, upon both of which he was convicted upon the fullest evidence. after a long trial the jury brought in their verdict and found him guilty. he was carried in a cart to the place of execution, on saturday, april, th, . he behaved himself with amazing assurance and bowed to the spectators as he passed. it was remarkable that as he mounted the ladder, his right leg trembled, on which he stamped it down with an air, and with undaunted courage looked round about him; and after speaking near half an hour to the topman, threw himself off the ladder, and expired in about five minutes. [illustration] w. s. fortey, printer, monmouth court, bloomsbury. "the catnach press," (established .) william s. fortey, (sole successor to the late j. catnach.) printer, publisher, and wholesale stationer, & , monmouth court, seven dials, london, w.c. the cheapest and greatest variety in the trade of large coloured penny books; halfpenny coloured books; farthing books; penny and halfpenny panoramas; school books; penny and halfpenny song books; memorandum books; poetry cards; lotteries; ballads ( ) and hymns; valentines; scripture sheets; christmas pieces; twelfth night characters; carols; book and sheet almanacks, envelopes, note paper, &c. w. s. fortey begs to inform his friends and the public generally, that after years service he has succeeded to the business of his late employers (a. ryle & co.), and intends carrying on the same, trusting that his long experience will be a recommendation, and that no exertion shall be wanting on his part to merit a continuance of those favours that have been so liberally bestowed on that establishment during the last years. . [illustration] the long song-seller. songs and song literature. "old songs, old songs--what heaps i knew, from 'chevy chase' to 'black-eyed sue'; from 'flow, thou regal, purple stream,' to 'rousseau's melancholy dream!' i loved the pensive 'cabin boy,' with earnest truth and real joy. to greet 'tom bowling' and 'poor jack'; and, oh! 'will watch,' the 'smuggler' bold, my plighted troth thou'lt ever hold." eliza cook. "songs! songs! songs! beautiful songs! love songs! newest songs! old songs! popular songs! songs, _three yards a penny_!" was a "standing dish" at the "catnach press," and catnach was the leo x. of street publishers. and it is said that he at one time kept a fiddler on the premises, and that he used to sit receiving ballad-writers and singers, and judging of the merits of any production which was brought to him, by having it sung then and there to some popular air played by his own fiddler, and so that the ballad-singer should be enabled to start at once, not only with the new song, but also the tune to which it was adapted. his broad-sheets contain all sorts of songs and ballads, for he had a most catholic taste, and introduced the custom of taking from any writer, living or dead, whatever he fancied, and printing it side by side with the productions of his own clients. he naturally had a bit of a taste for old ballads, music, and song writing; and in this respect he was far in advance of many of his contemporaries. to bring within the reach of all the standard and popular works of the day, had been the ambition of the elder catnach; whilst the son was, _nolens volens_, incessant in his endeavours in trying to promulgate and advance, not the beauty, elegance, and harmony which pervades many of our national airs and ballad poetry, but very often the worst and vilest of each and every description--in other words, those most suitable for street-sale. his stock of songs was very like his customers, diversified. there were all kinds, to suit all classes. love, sentimental, and comic songs were so interwoven as to form a trio of no ordinary amount of novelty. at ordinary times, when the awfuls and sensationals were flat, jemmy did a large stroke of business in this line. it is said that when the "songs--_three-yards-a-penny_"--first came out and had all the attractions of novelty, some men sold twelve or fourteen dozen on fine days during three or four of the summer months, so clearing between s. and s. a day, but on the average about s. a week profit. the "long songs," however, have been quite superseded by the "monster" and "giant penny song books." still there are a vast number of half-penny ballad-sheets worked off, and in proportion to their size, far more than the "monsters" or "giants." as a rule there are but two songs printed on the half-penny ballad-sheets--generally a new and popular song with another older ditty, or a comic and sentimental, and "adorned" with two woodcuts. these are selected without any regard as to their fitness to the subject, and in most cases have not the slightest reference to the ballad of which they form the head-piece. for instance:--"the heart that can feel for another" is illustrated by a gaunt and savage looking lion; "when i was first breeched," by an engraving of a highlander _sans culotte_; "the poacher" comes under the cut of a youth with a large watering-pot, tending flowers; "ben block" is heralded by the rising sun; "the london oyster girl," by sir walter raleigh; "the sailor's grave," by the figure of justice; "alice grey" comes under the very dilapidated figure of a sailor, or "jolly young waterman;" "bright hours are in store for us yet" is _headed_ with a _tail-piece_ of an urn, on which is inscribed finis! "the wild boar hunt," by two wolves chasing a deer; "the dying child to its mother," by an angel appearing to an old man; "autumn leaves lie strew'd around," by a ship in full sail; "cherry ripe," by death's head and cross bones; "jack at the windlass," falls under a roadside inn; while "william tell" is presented to the british public in form and style of an old woman nursing an infant of squally nature. here follow a few examples of the style, also that of some of the ballad-sheets: together with various _verbatim_ imprints used by "the catnach press," chronologically arranged from _circa_ to the present time. [illustration] the gallant _sailor_. london: printed by j. catnach, and sold wholesale and retail at no. , wardour street, soho square. farewell thou dear and gallant sailor, since thou and i have parted been, be thou constant and true hearted, and i will be the same to thee. chorus. may the winds and waves direct thee, to some wishful port design'd, if you love me, don't deceive me, but let your heart be as true as mine. * * * * * when oft times my fancy tells me, that in battle thou art slain, with true love i will requite thee, when thou dost return again. may the winds, &c. [illustration] o rare turpin. printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. sold by j. sharman, cambridge, bennet, brighton; & r. harris, salisbury. as i was riding over hunslow moor, there i saw a lawyer riding before, and i asked him if he was not afraid, to meet bold turpin that mischievous blade. chorus.--i asked him if he was not afraid, to meet bold turpin that mischievous blade. says turpin to the lawyer and for to be cute, my money i have hid all in my boot, says the lawyer to turpin they mine can't find, for i have hid mine in the cape of my coat behind. i rode till i came to a powder mill, where turpin bid the lawyer for to stand still, for the cape of your coat it must come off, for my horse is in want of a new saddle cloth. now turpin robbed the lawyer of all his store, when that's gone he knows where to get more, and the very next town that you go in, tell them you was robb'd by the bold turpin. [illustration] mountain maid. printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. travellers and shopkeepers supplied with sheet hymns. patters, and slip songs as cheap and good as any shop in london. the mountain maid from her bower has hied, and speed to the glassy river's side, where the radiant mead shone clear and bright, and the willows wav'd in the silver light. on a mossy bank lay a shepherd swain, he woke his pipe to tuneful strain, and so blythely gay were the notes he play'd, that he charm'd the ear of the mountain maid. she step'd with timid fear oppress'd, while soft sighs swell her gentle breast, he caught her glance, and mark'd her sigh, and triumph laugh'd in his sparkling eye. so softly sweet was the tuneful ditty, he charmed her tender heart to pity; and so blithely gay were the notes he play'd, that he gain'd the heart of the mountain maid. [illustration] meet me in the willow glen j. catnach, printer, , monmouth court, dials. cards, &c. printed cheap. [symbol: pointing hand] country shops and travellers supplied. meet me in the willow glen, where the silvery moon is beaming, songs of love i'll sing thee then, when all the world is dreaming. meet me in the willow glen. when the silver moon is beaming, songs of love i'll sing thee then, if you meet me in the willow glen. no prying eye shall come love. no stranger foot be seen. and the busy village hum, love, shall echo through the glen. meet me, &c. [illustration] drink to me only with thine eyes. j. catnach, printer, , monmouth court, dials. sold by w. marshall. sold by t. pierce, southborough. (cards printed cheap.) drink to me only with thine eyes, and i will pledge with mine, or leave a kiss but in the cup, and i'll not look for wine; the thirst that from my soul doth rise, doth ask a drink divine; but might i of jove's nectar sip, i would not change for thine. [illustration] the mistletoe bough printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. sold by pierce, southborough, bennet, brighton; and sharman, cambridge. the mistletoe hung in the castle hall, the holly branch shone on the old oak wall, the baron's retainers were blithe and gay, and keeping their christmas holiday. the baron beheld with a father's pride, his beautiful child, young lovell's bride: while she with her bright eyes, seemed to be the star of the goodly company. oh! the mistletoe bough! "i'm weary of dancing now," she cried! "here tarry a moment--i'll hide--i'll hide, and, lovell, be sure thou'rt the first to trace the clue to my secret lurking place." away she ran--and her friends began each tower to search, and each nook to scan; and young lovell cried, "oh! where dost thou hide? i'm lonesome without thee, my own dear bride." oh! the mistletoe bough! [illustration] the _rose will cease to blow_. printed by j. catnach, , monmouth court, dials. sold by t. batchelor, , hackney road crescent; w. marshall, bristol. sold by bennet and boyes, brighton. the rose will cease to blow, the eagle turn a dove, the streams will cease to flow, ere i will cease to love. the sun shall cease to shine, the world shall cease to move, the stars their light resign, ere i will cease to love. [illustration] i'm a tough true hearted sailor. j. catnach, printer, & , monmouth court, dials, & at , waterloo road, (late hill's). country shops, and travellers supplied. i'm a tough true-hearted sailor, careless and all that, d'ye see, never at the times a railer-- what is time or tide to me? all must die when fate must will it, providence ordains it so; every bullet has its billet, man the boat, boys--yeo, heave, yeo! life's at best a sea of trouble, he who fears it is a dunce, death, to me, an empty bubble, i can never die but once, blood, if duty bids, i'll spill it, yet i have a tear for woe, every bullet has its billet, &c. [illustration] when bibo thought fit. printed and sold by j. catnach, & , monmouth court, dials. when bibo thought fit from the world to retreat, as full of champagne as an egg's full of meat; he wak'd in the boat, and to charon he said, he would be rowed back, for he was not yet dead. 'trim the boat, and sit quiet,' stern charon replied-- 'you may have forgot--you were drunk when you died!' [illustration] the sun that lights the roses. a. ryle and co., printers, & , monmouth court, seven dials, and , hanover street, portsea, where upwards of different sorts of ballads are continually on sale together with new penny song books. tho' dimple cheeks may give delight where rival beauties blossom; th'o balmy lips to love invite, to extacy the bosom. yet sweeter far yon summer sky, whose blushing tints discloses, give me the lustre beaming eye, the sun that lights the roses. [illustration] the woodpecker. london:--printed by j. paul & co., & , monmouth court. i knew by the smoke that so gracefully curl'd above the green elms, that a cottage was near, and i said if there's peace to be found it the world, a heart that is humble might hope for it here. chorus. every leaf was at rest, and i heard not a sound, but the woodpecker tapping in the hollow beech tree. and here in this lone little wood, i exclaim'd, with a maid who was lovely to soul and to eye, who would blush when i prais'd her, and weep if i blam'd, how blest could i live, and how calm could i die. every leaf, &c. [illustration] ye topers all. london:--published by ryle and paul, & , monmouth court, dials. where an immense number of songs are always ready. ye topers all drink to the soul, of this right honest fellow; who always loved a flowing bowl, and would in death be mellow. the lamp of life be kindled up, with spirit stout and glowing; his heart inspired thus with a cup, ascends where nectar's flowing. [illustration] death of nelson. london:--ryle & co., printers, & , monmouth court, bloomsbury. recitative. o'er nelson's tomb, with silent grief oppress'd britannia mourns her hero now at rest. but these bright laurels ne'er shall fade with years, whose leaves are water'd by a nation's tears. air. 'twas in trafalgar's bay, we saw the frenchmen lay, each heart was bounding then; we scorned the foreign yoke-- our ships were british oak, and hearts of oak our men, our nelson mark'd them on the wave, three cheers our gallant seamen gave, nor thought of home or beauty; along the line this signal ran-- "england expects that every man this day will do his duty!" [illustration] the scarlet flower. a. ryle & co., printers, & , monmouth court, bloomsbury. she's gentle as the zephyr, that sips of every sweet, she fairer than the fairest lily, in nature's soft retreat; her eyes are like the crystal brok, as bright and clear to see? her lips outshine the scarlet flow'r of bonny ellerslie. [illustration] the thorn. london:--printed at the "catnach press" by w. fortey, (late a. ryle) & , monmouth court. bloomsbury. (established .) the oldest and cheapest house in the world for ballads, ( , sorts) song books, &c. from the white blossomed sloe, my dear chloe requested, a sprig her fair breast to adorn; no by heavens i exclaimed, may i perish if ever i plant in that bosom a thorn. when i shewed her the ring and implored her to marry she blushed like the dawning of morn, yes i'll consent she replyed if you'll promise, that no jealous rival shall laugh me to scorn, no by heavens i exclaim'd may i perish, if ever i plant in that bosom a thorn. banks of the nile. [illustration] printed at the "catnach press" by w. fortey, monmouth court, bloomsbury, the oldest house in the world for ballads ( , sorts) song books, &c. &c. hark! i hear the drums a beating--no longer can i stay, i hear the trumpets sounding, my love i must away, we are ordered from portsmouth many a long mile, for to join the british soldiers on the banks of the nile. willie, dearest willie, don't leave me here to mourn, you'll make me curse and rue the day that ever i was born, for the parting of my own true love is parting of my life, so stay at home dear willie, and i will be your wife. i will cut off my yellow locks, and go along with you, i will dress myself in velveteens, and go see egypt too i will fight or bear your banner, while kind fortune seems to smile, and we'll comfort one another on the banks of the nile. poor crazy jane. [illustration] london:--printed at the "catnach press" by w. s. fortey, & , monmouth court, bloomsbury. (established .) the oldest and cheapest house in the world for ballads, song books, children's spelling & reading books, panorama slips, almanacks, valentines, hymns, toy cards, poetry cards, lotteries, characters, note paper, envelopes, &c. [symbol: asterism] shopkeepers and hawkers supplied on the lowest terms. why fair maid in every feature, are such signs of fear expressed, can a wandering wretched creature, with such horror fill thy breast. do my frenzied looks alarm thee, trust me, sweet, thy fears are vain, not for kingdom would i harm thee, shun not then poor crazy jane. fondly my young heart believed him, which was doomed to love but one; he sighed, he vowed, and i believed him, he was false, and i'm undone. from that hour has reason never, had her empire o'er my brain, henry fled, with him for ever fled the wits of crazy jane. [illustration] "it was christmas morning--dear christmas morning when bright angels and men kept watch for its dawning-- and merrily christmas bells were out ringing, and blithely the children their carols were singing-- 'twas a hundred years agone--or more." from time immemorial the ballad singer, with his rough and ready broad-sheet, has travelled over the whole surface of the country in all seasons and weathers, yet there was one time of the year, however, when he went out of his every-day path and touched on deeper matters than accidents, politics, prize fights, sporting matches, murders, battles, royalty, famous men and women. christmas time brought, both to him and his audience, its witness of the unity of the great family of heaven and earth, its story of the life and death of him in whom that unity stands. several examples, of christmas carols and scripture-sheets, bearing catnach's imprint lie before us, thanks to the kindness of mr. w. s. fortey, catnach's successor; these broadsides bear several distinctive marks which show that it was an object of more than ordinary care to publishers and ballad singers. in the first place, these christmas sheets are double the size of the ordinary broad-sheet--measuring inches by --and contain four or five carols--generally one long narrative ballad, and three or four short pieces. each of them having two or three large woodcuts and several of smaller sizes, and having the following distinctive titles--the trial of christ. faith, hope, and charity. our saviour's love. the tree of life. the crucifixion. the saviour of mankind. the messiah. the harp of israel. the saviour's garland. divine mirth. and the life of joseph, to which is appended:-- london: printed and sold by j. catnach, , monmouth court, , dials, where may be had the following sheets, with cuts. the last day, our saviour's letter, the son of righteousness, travels of the children of israel, glory of solomon, the morning star, the noble army of martyrs, christmas gambols, the hertfordshire tragedy, and a variety of others are in a state of forwardness for the press. [illustration] "looking at these christmas broad-sheets," says the writer of an article on street-ballads, in the "national review," for october, , "it would really seem as if the poorest of our brethren claimed their right to higher nourishment than common for their minds and souls, as well as for their bodies, at the time of year when all christendom should rejoice. and this first impression is confirmed when we examine their contents. in all those which we have seen, the only piece familiar to us is that noble old carol 'while shepherds watched their flocks by night,' where the rest come from, we cannot even conjecture; but in the whole of them there is not one which we should wish were not there. we have been unable to detect in them even a coarse expression; and of the hateful narrowness and intolerance, the namby-pamby, the meaningless cant, the undue familiarity with holy things, which makes us turn with a shudder from so many modern collections of hymns, there is simply nothing. "account for it how we will, there is the simple fact. perhaps it may lead us to think somewhat differently of those whom we are in the habit of setting down in the mass as little better than heathens. we cannot conclude this article better than by giving an extract or two from these christmas broad-sheets." [illustration] [illustration] "the saviour's garland, a choice collection of the most esteemed carols," has the usual long narrative ballad, which begins: "come, all you faithful christians that dwell upon the earth,-- come celebrate the morning of our dear saviour's birth: this is the happy morning,-- this is the happy morn whereon, to save our ruined race, the son of god was born." and after telling simply the well-known story, it ends: "now to him up ascended, then let your praises be, that we his steps may follow, and he our pattern be; that when our lives are ended we may hear his blessed call: 'come, souls, receive the kingdom prepared for you all.'" [illustration] another, "the star of bethlehem, a collection of esteemed carols for the present year," opens its narrative thus: "let all that are to mirth inclined consider well and bear in mind what our good god for us has done, in sending his beloved son. let all our songs and praises be unto his heavenly majesty; and evermore amongst our mirth remember christ our saviour's birth. the twenty-fifth day of december we have great reason to remember; in bethlehem, upon that morn, there was a blessed saviour born," &c. one of the short pieces, by no means the best, we give whole: "with one consent let all the earth the praise of god proclaim, who sent the saviour, by whose birth to man salvation came. all nations join and magnify the great and wondrous love of him who left for us the sky, and all the joys above. but vainly thus in hymns of praise we bear a joyful part, if while our voices loud we raise, we lift not up our heart. we, by a holy life alone, our saviour's laws fulfil; by those his glory is best shown who best perform his will. may we to all his words attend with humble, pious care; then shall our praise to heaven ascend, and find acceptance there." we do not suppose that the contents of these christmas broad-sheets are supplied by the same persons who write the murder-ballads, or the attacks on crinoline. they may be borrowed from well known hymn books for anything we know. but if they are borrowed, we must still think it much to the credit of the selectors, that, where they might have found so much that is objectionable and offensive, they should have chosen as they have done. we only hope that their successors, whoever they may be who will become the caterers for their audiences, will set nothing worse before them. christmas broad-sheets formed an important item in the office of the "catnach press," as the sale was enormous, and catnach always looked forward for a large return of capital, and a "good clearance" immediately following the spurt for guy fawkes' speeches, in october of each year. but although the sale was very large, it only occupies one "short month." this enabled them to make carols a stock job, so that when trade in the ballad, sensational, "gallows," or any other line of business was dull, they used to fill up every spare hour in the working off or colouring them, so as to be ready to meet the extraordinary demand which was sure to be made at the fall of the year. [illustration] like most of the old english customs, christmas-carol singing is fast dying out. old peripatetic stationers well remember the rich harvest they once obtained at christmas times by carol selling. now there are very few who care to invest more than a shilling or two at a time on the venture; whereas in times long past, all available capital was readily embarked in the highly-coloured and plain sheets of the birth of our saviour, with the carol of "christians awake," or "the seven good joys of mary:"-- "the first good joy our mary had, it was the joy of one, to see her own son, jesus, to suck at her breast-bone. to suck at her breast-bone, god-man, and blessed may he be both father, son, and holy ghost, to all eternity." [illustration] now, whether carol singing has degenerated with carol poetry, and consequently the sale of christmas carols diminished is a question we need not enter upon; but when we turn to the fine old carols of our forefathers, we cannot help regretting that many of these are buried in the records of the long past. here are a couple of verses of one, said to be the first carol or drinking-song composed in england. the original is in anglo-norman french:-- "lordlings, from a distant home, to seek old christmas are we come, who loves our minstrelsy-- and here unless report mis-say, the greybeard dwells; and on this day keeps yearly wassail, ever gay with festive mirth and glee. * * * * * lordlings, it is our host's command, and christmas joins him hand in hand, to drain the brimming bowl; and i'll be foremost to obey, then pledge we, sirs, and drink away, for christmas revels here to day, and sways without control. now _wassail_ to you all! and merry may you be, and foul that wight befall, who drinks not health to me." one can well imagine the hearty feeling which would greet a party of minstrels carolling out such a song as the above in christmas days of yore; and then contrast the picture with a _troupe_ from st. giles's or whitechapel bawling out "god rest you merry gentlemen!" the very thought of the contrast sends a shudder through the whole human system; and no wonder the first were received with welcome feasting, and the latter driven "with more kicks than half-pence" from the doors. in an old book of "christmasse carolles newely emprinted at london, in the fletestrete at the sygne of the sonne by wynkyn de worde. the yere of our lorde, m.d.xxi. quarto." is a carol on "bryngyng in the bore's head":-- "the bore's head in hand bring i, with garlandes gay and rosemary, i pray you all synge merely, _qui estis in convivio_. the bore's head, i understande is the chiefe servyce in this lande, loke wherever it be fande, _servite cum contico_. be gladde, lordes, both more and lasse, for this hath ordayned our stewarde, to chere you all this christmasse the bore's head with mustarde." [illustration] with certain alterations, this carol is still, or at least was very recently, retained at queen's college, oxford, and sung to a cathedral chant of the psalms. it would occupy too much space to search into the origin of christmas carols. they are doubtless coeval with the original celebrations of christmas, first as a strictly romish sacred ceremony, and afterwards as one of joyous festivity. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] this "moral-sheet" entitled "the stages of life: or, the various ages and degrees of human life explained by these twelve different stages, from our birth to our graves," had a great sale. [illustration] infancy _to years old._ "his vain delusive thoughts are fill'd with vain delusive joys-- the empty bubble of a dream, which waking change to toys." _from to years old._ "his heart is now puff'd up, he scorns the tutor's hand; he hates to meet the least control and glories to command." _from to years old._ "there's naught here that can withstand the rage of his desire, his wanton flames are now blown up, his mind is all on fire." _from to years old._ "look forward and repent of all thy errors past, that so thereby thou may'st attain true happiness at last." _from to years old._ "at fifty years he is like the declining sun, for now his better half of life, man seemeth to have run." _from to years old._ "his wasted taper now begins to lose its light, his sparkling flames doth plainly show 'tis growing towards night." _from to years old._ "perplex'd with slavish fear and unavailing woe, he travels on life's rugged way with locks as white as snow." _from to years old._ "infirmity is great, at this advanced age, and ceaseless grief and weakness leagued, now vent their bitter rage." _from to years old._ "life's 'vital spark'--the soul, is hovering on the verge of an eternal world above, and waiting to emerge." [illustration] _from to years old._ "the sun is sinking fast behind the clouds of earth, oh may it shine with brighter beams, where light receiv'd her birth." [illustration: printed by j. catnach, *** ,*** _monmouth-court, dials_, london.] catnach was now at the height of his fame as a printer of ballads, christmas-pieces, carols, lotteries, execution papers, dying speeches, catchpennies, primers and battledores, and his stock of type and woodcuts had very considerably increased to meet his business demands. and it may be said that he was the very napoleon of buyers at sales by auction of "printers' stock." on one occasion, when lot after lot was being knocked down to him, one of the "littlejohn crew" of "knock-out-men" of the period, observed to the auctioneer, "why, sir, mr. catnach is buying up all the lots." "yes," replied the auctioneer, "and what's more, mr. catnach will pay for them and clear away all his lots in the morning;" then adding somewhat pointedly, "which is a thing i can't say of all parties who attend my sales." but although we are informed, _vivâ voce_ of a contemporary, that jemmy catnach was so large a buyer at sales by auction of "printers' stock," we may, with some degree of safety, come to the conclusion that he could have only bought such lots that would be considered by other master printers as worthless, and that it was the apparent cheapness that would be the incentive for his buying up all the worn-out and battered letter, for jemmy was a man who hated "innowations" as he used to call improvements, and he, therefore, had a great horror in laying out his money in new and improved manufactured type, because, as he observed, he kept so many standing forms, and when certain sorts ran short he was not particular, and would tell the boys to use anything which would make a good shift. for instance, he never considered a compositor could be aground for a lowercase "l" while he had a figure " " or a cap "i" to fall back upon; by the same rule, the cap. "o" and figure " " were synonymous with "jemmy;" the lowercase "p," "b," "d," and "q," would all do duty for each other in _turn_, and if they could not always find roman letters to finish a word with, why the compositor knew very well that the "reader" would not mark out ita_lic_, nor wrong founts. from a small beginner in the world, catnach was soon able to see his way clear to amass a fortune. he had now established his reputation as a man of enterprise, and he was very sensitive to maintain a sort of shabby-genteel appearance. it was amusing, especially when over his glass, to hear him describe the effect the "awfuls" had on the public. the proprietor of any of our leading journals could not have felt prouder than did catnach, as he saw drafted from his press the many thousands of varied productions. we will now briefly allude to the wood-blocks which catnach had in his possession, and which served for the purpose of illustrating during the time that he had been in business. he had a large collection, such as they were; but as works of art they had little or no pretension, being, upon the whole, of the oddest and most ludicrous character. those that were intended for the small books were very quaint--as we have shown by the fac-similed specimens we have given--whilst the larger portion, which were chiefly intended for the "awfuls," were grotesque and hideous in their design and execution. no more ghastly sight could be imagined than one of jemmy's embellishments of an execution. it would appear that for the last discharge of the law he had a large collection of blocks which would suit any number of victims who were about to undergo the dread penalty. it mattered little how many jack ketch was going to operate upon, wood-blocks to the exact number were always adopted, in this particular the great "dying speech merchant" would seem to have thought that his honour and reputation were at stake, for he had his network so formed as to be able to secure every information of news that was passing between the friends of the culprits and the prerogative of the crown. but we are informed that upon one occasion he was nearly entrapped. three victims were upon the eve of being executed, and in those days--and in later times--it was not an uncommon thing to see the confession and dying speech printed one or two days previous to the event. this we are told by those in the trade was almost necessary, in order that the sheets might be ready for the provinces almost as soon as the sentence of the law had been carried out. it so happened that on the night previous to an execution, one of the culprits was reprieved. it was solely by a piece of good luck that catnach heard of it. several sheets had been struck off; and jemmy was often chaffed about hanging three men instead of two; but our informant assures us that the error was corrected before any of the impressions were dispatched from the office. had they gone before the public in their original state, the _locus standi_ of the great publisher in monmouth court would have been greatly imperilled. to those who are fond of the fine arts, _in usum vulgi_, catnach's embellishments will afford a fund of amusement. amongst the lot were several well known places, the scenes of horrible and awful crimes, engravings of debauchery and ill-fame, together with an endless number of different kinds, suitable at the shortest possible notice, to illustrate every conceivable and inconceivable subject. the seven dials in general, and "the catnach press" in particular, had no dread of copyright law--the principal librarian of the british museum, stationers', or any other hall in those days--and as wood engravings were not to be had then so quickly or cheaply as now-a-days, jemmy used at times to be his own engraver, and while the compositors were setting up the types, he would carve out the illustration on the back of an old pewter music plate, and by nailing it on to a piece of wood make it into an improvised stereo-plate off-hand, for he was very handy at this sort of work, at which also his sister, with his instruction, could assist; so they soon managed to rough out a figure or two, and when things were dull and slack they generally got one or two subjects ready in stock, such as a highwayman with crape over his face, shooting a traveller, who is falling from his horse near a wide-spreading old elm tree, through which the moon was to be seen peeping; not forgetting to put the highwayman in top boots and making him a regular dandy. this was something after the plan of the artists of the cheap illustrated papers of the present day, who generally anticipate events sometime beforehand to be ready with their blocks. as a proof of this, the editor of the "london, provincial, and colonial press news," says "i happened to call one day on an artist for the 'illustrated press,' and found him busily engaged in sketching a funeral procession with some twenty coffins borne on the shoulders of men who were winding their way through an immense crowd. upon inquiry, i was told that it was intended for the next week's issue, and was to represent the funeral of the victims of the late dreadful colliery explosion, for although the inquest was only then sitting, and all the bodies had not yet been found, there was sure to be a funeral of that kind when it was all over, and as they did not know how many bodies were to be buried at one time, it was very cleverly arranged to commence the procession from the _corner of the block_, and so leave it to the imagination as to how many more coffins were coming in the rear; something after the plan of a small country theatre, when representing richard the third, and in the battle scene, after the first two or three of the army had made their appearance, to cry 'halt!' very loudly to all those behind who were not seen, and leave the spectators to guess how many hundreds their were to come." for the illustrating of catchpennies, broadsides, and street-literature in general, particular kinds of wood-cuts were required. in most cases one block was called upon to perform many parts; and the majority of metropolitan printers, who went in for this work, had only a very limited number of them. very often the same cuts were repeated over and over again, and made to change sides as one another, and that simply to make a little variation from a ballad or broadside that had been printed at the same office on the day, week, or month previous. it mattered little what the subject was, it required some adornment, in the shape of illustration, to give effect to it. the catchpennies, especially those connected with the awful, were in general very rough productions. a lover strangling his sweetheart with a long piece of rope. a heartless woman murdering an innocent man. vice punished and virtue rewarded, and similar subjects, were always handled in such a manner as to create a degree of excitement, sympathy, and alarm. the broadsides, generally adorned with some rough outline of the royal arms of england, a crowned king or queen, as the subject might be, received their full share of consideration at the hands of the artist. scions of royal blood, and those connected with the court, were often painted in colours glaring and attractive, whilst the matter set forth in the letterpress was not always the most flattering or encouraging. catch-penny:--any temporary contrivance to obtain money from the public; penny shows, or cheap exhibitions. also descriptions of murders, fires, and terrible accidents, &c., which have never taken place. hotton's: _slang dictionary_. an account of the dreadful apparition that appeared last night to henry ---- in this street, of mary ----, the shopkeeper's daughter round the corner, in a shroud, all covered in white. the castle clock struck one--the night was dark, drear, and tempestuous.--henry sat in an antique chamber of it, over a wood fire, which in the stupor of contemplation, he had suffered to decrease into a few lifeless embers; on the table by him lay the portrait of mary--the features of which were not very perfectly disclosed by a taper, that just glimmered in the socket. he took up the portrait, however, and gazing intensely upon it, till the taper, suddenly burning brighter, discovered to him a phenomenon he was not less terrified than surprised at.--the eyes of the portrait moved;--the features from an angelic smile, changed to a look of solemn sadness; a tear stole down each cheek, and the bosom palpitated as with sighing. [illustration] again the clock struck _one!_--it had struck the same hour but ten minutes before.--henry heard the castle gate grate on its hinges--it slammed too--the clock struck one again--and a deadly groan echoed through the castle. henry was not subject to superstitious fears--neither was he a coward;--yet a hero of romance might have been justified in a case like this, should he have betrayed fear.--henry's heart sunk within him--his knees smote together, and upon the chamber door being opened, and his name uttered in a hollow voice, he dropped the portrait to the floor; and sat, as if rivetted to the chair, without daring to lift up his eyes. at length, however, as silence again prevailed, he ventured for a moment to raise his eyes, when--my blood freezes as i relate it--before him stood the figure of mary in a shroud--her beamless eyes fixed upon him with a vacant stare; and her bared bosom exposing a most deadly gash. "henry!--henry!!--henry!!!" she repeated in a hollow tone--"henry! i come for thee! thou hast often said that death with me was preferable to life without me; come then, and enjoy with me all the ecstacies of love these ghastly features, added to the contemplation of a charnel-house, can inspire;" then grasping his hand with her icy fingers, he swooned; and instantly found himself--stretched on the hearth of his master's kitchen; a romance in his hand, and the house dog by his side, whose cold nose touching his hand, had awaked him. friends it is with feelings of the deepest regret that we are at present compelled, for the support of our friends and families, to offer this simple, but true tale to your notice, trusting, at the same time, that you will be pleased to purchase this paper, it being the only means at present to support the tender thread of our existence, and keep us and our families from utter starvation which at present surrounds us. price one penny. _printed for author and vendor._ [illustration] murder of captain lawson. [illustration] cruel and inhuman murder, last night. [illustration] the scarborough tragedy. giving an account how susan forster, a farmer's daughter, near scarborough, was seduced by mr. robert sanders, a naval officer, under promise of marriage.--how she became pregnant, and the wicked hardened and cruel wretch appointed her to meet him at a well-known, retired spot, which she unhappily did, and was basely murdered by him, and buried under a tree--and of the wonderful manner in which this base murder was brought to light, and he committed to gaol. young virgins fair of beauty bright, and you that are of cupid's fold, unto my tragedy give ear, for it's as true as e'er was told. in yorkshire, liv'd a virgin fair, a farmer's only daughter dear, and a young sea-captain did her ensnare, whose station was her father near. susannah was this maiden's name, the flower of all that country, this officer a courting came, begging that she his love would be. her youthful heart to love inclin'd young cupid bent his golden bow, and left his fatal dart behind, which prov'd susannah's overthrow. ofttimes at evening she would repair, close to the borders of the sea, her treach'rous love would meet her there, the time it passed most pleasantly. and while they walked the sea-banks over, to mark the flowing of the tide, he said he'd be her constant lover, and vow'd that she should be his bride. * * * * * he did confess--they dug the ground while hundreds came to view, and here the murder'd corpse they found, of her who lov'd so true; in irons now in prison strong lamenting he does lie; and, by the laws condemn'd ere long, most justly he will die. j. catnach, printer, , monmouth-court, dials. [illustration] horrid murder, committed by a young man on a young woman. george caddell became acquainted with miss price and a degree of intimacy subsisted between them, and miss price, degraded as she was by the unfortunate step she had taken, still thought herself an equal match for one of mr. caddell's rank of life. as pregnancy was shortly the result of their intimacy, she repeatedly urged him to marry her, but he resisted her importunities for a considerable time. at length she heard of his paying addresses to miss dean, and threatened in case of his non-compliance, to put an end to all his prospects with that young lady, by discovering everything that had passed between them. hereupon he formed a horrid resolution of murdering her, for he could neither bear the thought of forfeiting the esteem of a woman whom he loved, nor of marrying one who had been as condescending to another as to himself. so he called on miss price on a saturday and requested her to walk with him in the fields on the following day, in order to arrange a plan for their intended marriage. miss price met him at the time appointed, on the road leading to burton, at a house known by the name of the "nag's head." having accompanied her supposed lover into the fields, and walked about till towards evening, they sat down under a hedge, where after a little conversation, caddell suddenly pulled out a knife and cut her throat, and made his escape, but not before he had waited till she was dead. in the distraction of his mind he left behind him the knife with which he perpetrated the deed, and his case of instruments. on the following morning, miss price being found murdered in the field, great numbers went to take a view of her body, among whom was the woman of the house where she lodged, who recollected that she said she was going to walk with mr. caddell, on which the instruments were examined and sworn to have belonged to him. he was accordingly taken into custody. j. catnach, printer, monmouth court. [illustration] the secrets revealed, or the fashionable life of lord & lady ******. [illustration] dreadful murder by a soldier, yesterday morning. the liverpool tragedy. [illustration] showing how a father and mother barbarously murdered their own son. a few days ago a sea-faring man, who had just returned to england after an absence of thirty years in the east indies, called at a lodging-house, in liverpool, for sailors, and asked for supper and a bed; the landlord and landlady were elderly people, and apparently poor. the young man entered into conversation with them, invited them to partake of his cheer, asked them many questions about themselves and their family, and particularly of a son who had gone to sea when a boy, and whom they had long given over as dead. at night the landlady shewed him to his room, and when she was leaving him he put a large purse of gold into her hand, and desired her to take care of it till the morning, pressed her affectionately by the hand, and bade her good night. she returned to her husband and shewed the accursed gold: for its sake they mutually agreed to murder the traveller in his sleep. in the dead of the night, when all was still, the old couple silently creeped into the bed room of their sleeping guest, all was quiet: the landlady approached the bedside, and then cut his throat, severed his head from his body; the old man, upwards of seventy years of age, holding the candle. they put a washing-tub under the bed to catch his blood, and then ransacking the boxes of the murdered man they found more gold, and many handsome and costly articles, the produce of the east indies, together, with what proved afterwards, to be a marriage certificate. in the morning early, came a handsome and elegantly dressed lady, and asked, in a joyous tone, for the traveller who arrived the night before. the old people seemed greatly confused, but said he had risen early and gone away. "impossible!" said the lady, and bid them go to his bed-room and seek him, adding, "you will be sure to know him as he has a mole on his left arm in the shape of a strawberry. besides, 'tis your long lost son who has just returned from the east indies, and i am his wife, and the daughter of a rich planter long settled and very wealthy. your son has come to make you both happy in the evening of your days, and he resolved to lodge with you one night as a stranger, that he might see you unknown, and judge of your conduct to wayfaring mariners." the old couple went up stairs to examine the corpse, and they found the strawberry mark on its arm, and they then knew that they had murdered their own son, they were seized with horror, and each taking a loaded pistol blew out each other's brains. printed by j. catnach.--sold by marshall, bristol. just published.--a variety of children's books, battledores, lotteries, and a quantity of popular songs set to music. cards, &c., printed cheap. [illustration] the life, trial, character, confession, behaviour, and execution of james ward, aged , who was hung in the front of the gaol, for the wilful murder he committed on the body of his own wife. [illustration] to which is added a copy of affectionate verses which he composed in the condemned cell the night before his execution. printed at london. price one penny. [illustration] the arrest of the prisoner. "for murder, though it have no tongue, will speak with most miraculous organ." the prisoner was arrested while drinking with his companions in a public-house, and after two magistrates had heard the evidence he was fully committed to the assizes to be tried before my lord judge and a british jury, at the county hall. [illustration] the trial! "whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein." at an early hour on the morning of the trial, the court was crowded to excess, the judge taking his seat at nine o'clock. the prisoner on being placed at the bar, pleaded "not guilty," in a firm tone of voice. the trial lasted many hours, when, having been found 'guilty.' the learned judge addressed the prisoner as follows:-- "prisoner, you have been found guilty of a most cold-blooded murder, a more deliberate murder i never heard of. you and your wife had been to a neighbouring town, and were returning home, when you did it. she was found in a ditch. i cannot hold out the slightest hope of mercy towards you in this case." during this address the whole court was melted into tears. his lordship then put on the black cap and passed the sentence as usual, holding out no hope of mercy to the prisoner. [illustration: the county gaol.] [illustration: the home of the good man.] "sundry blessings hang about his throne, that speak him full of grace." letter written by the prisoner after his condemnation. condemned cell. dear sister, when you receive this you will see that i am condemned to die; my father and mother are coming to take their last farewell, and i should very much liked to have seen you, but knowing that you are on the eve of bringing into the world another to your family, i beg that you will refrain from coming; if that you do serious may be the consequences, therefore, dear sister, do not attempt to come. i hope that no one will upbraid you for what i have done; so god bless you and yours; farewell! dear sister, for ever. j. ward. [illustration] the execution. "a threefold cord is not quickly broken." the execution of the above prisoner took place early this morning at eight o'clock, the people flocking to the scene at an early hour. as the period of the wretched man's departure drew near, the chaplain became anxious to obtain from him a confession of the justice of his sentence. he acknowledged the justice of his sentence, and said he was not fit to live, and that he was afraid to die, but he prayed to the lord for forgiveness, and hoped through the merits of his saviour that his prayer would be heard. having received the sacrament, the executioner was not long in performing his office. the solemn procession moved towards the place of execution, the chaplain repeating the confession words, "in the midst of life we are in death." upon ascending the platform he appeared to tremble very much. the cap being drawn over his eyes and the signal given, the wretched man was launched into eternity. he died almost without a struggle. after the body had hanged the usual time it was cut down and buried according to the sentence in the gaol. [illustration] the home of the bad man. "one sin doth another provoke." copy of verses. come all you feeling hearted christians, wherever you may be, attention give to these few lines, and listen unto me; its of this cruel murder, to you i will unfold, the bare recital of the same will make your blood run cold. confined within a lonely cell, with sorrow i am opprest, the very thought of what i've done, deprives me of rest; within this dark and gloomy cell in the county gaol i lie, for murder of my dear wife i am condemned to die. for four long years i'd married been, i always lov'd her well, till at length i was overlooked, oh shame for me to tell; by satan sure i was beguiled, he led me quite astray, unto another i gave way on that sad unlucky day. i well deserve my wretched fate, no one can pity me, to think that i in cold blood could take the life away; i took a stake out of the hedge and hit on the head, my cruel blows i did repeat until she were dead. i dragged the body from the stile to a ditch running by, i quite forgot there's one above with an all-seeing eye, who always brings such deeds to light, as you so plainly see, i questioned was about it and took immediately. the body's found, the inquest held, to prison i was sent, with shame i do confess my sin, with grief i do repent; and when my trial did come on, i was condemned to die, an awful death in public scorn, upon the gallows high. while in my lonely cell i lie, the time draws on apace, the dreadful deeds that i have done appear before my face; while lying on my dreadful couch, those horrid visions rise, the ghastly form of my dear wife appears before my eyes. oh may my end a warning be now unto all mankind, and think of my unhappy fate and bear me in your mind; whether you are rich or poor, young wives and children love, so god will fill your fleeting days with blessings from above. [illustration] the burning shame. or [illustration] morality alarmed in this neighbourhood. just published price one penny. [illustration] a short time since, some of the moral-mending crew of parsons, magistrates, quakers, shakers, puritans, old maids, and highly respectable, and, now retired from active business "young ladies," who now assume a virtue, though they have it not, and a variety of other goodly persons ever ready to compound for sins they are inclined to, by exposing those they have no mind to, living not miles hence, determined on reforming doings, manners, and customs:-- in this town! and a meeting in consequence took place at "rosebud cottage" the residence of miss mary ann lovitt, when, as a first step, it was determined to remove the facilities and _accommodation_ afforded a certain--_you-know-what!_ crime very general _in this neighbourhood_ by hunting out of the town:-- a certain lady abbess!! who keeps a very genteel house for the _accommodation_ of "single young men and their wives" and one who never offends, or bores her patrons by asking for a sight of their 'marriage certificates.' at the meeting, the armchair was taken by the rev. john ---- ---- ---- b.a., of this parish, mr. churchwarden smith, and mr. j. brown, the draper, supporting him on either side; when a variety of methods were suggested for the removal of the alledged social evil, one thought _entreaty_ might best answer, another was for _force_, a third recommended the religious tract society, while a fourth was for the aid of the very rev. rowland h------l, miss a. and miss b. were both loud in their praise of the rev. jabez b------g, mention was made of the society for the suppression of vice, at length the reverend divine chairman was called on for his opinion, when he--conscious of the integrity and purity of his own life and _experience!_ at once pronounced:-- a burning shame!!! as the only effectual remedy for the ever increasing evil. this was indeed a harsh measure, and some of the worthies looked a variety of colours on the occasion, but as none had the moral courage for personal character sake to oppose the parson's proposition, it was carried unanamously. a board bearing on it in legible characters:-- beware of a bad house!!!! was soon prepared, and with a lanthorn attached, was paraded before the house of the fair--but frail duenna's mansion. it did not remain long in this position as the following letter from the lady abbess of the _agapemone!_ soon had its deserved effect:-- gentlemen:--"if the board and lanthorne is not removed from the front of my house in one hour from this time, i will publish the _name_, _profession_, and _address_, of every _gentleman_--together with that of the _lady_ accompaning him who has visited my "_establishment for young ladies_" during the last six months. some of your worships know on whom this would fall heaviest." yours with thanks for past favours, aunt. it is almost needless to say that the _board and lanthorne_ were very soon removed, and, that, the old, and _accommodating_ lady is doing a good business again:-- thus conscious does make cowards of us all. [illustration] the full, true and particular account of the [illustration] extraordinary marriage that took place in this town on thursday last. london: printed for the vendors. price one penny. [illustration] "who would have thought he had been a-- he was such--a nice young man." about a week since, a dashing young blade, dressed in the very height of the prevailing fashion, having long black and curly hair, together with a pair of out-and-out slap-up whiskers and moustaches, and calling himself count de coburgh aingarpatzziwutchz, and professing to be a foreigner and a man of enormous fortune, and one of the _haut ton!_ took up his lodging at the principal inn, the ---- arms, in this town, where the swell foreigner looking blade soon made a great stir among the ladies of the place; the old, the young, the tall, the short, the fair, and the dark, were all alike smitten over head and ears in love with the distinguished visitor, but none seemed to make so much impression upon his heart as mary jane jemima s----w, the youngest of the landlord's daughters of the ----arms inn, of this town. she is well known in this neighbourhood to be very handsome, with light brown hair all in ringlets, light blue eyes, a fine aquiline nose, and of a tall and commanding figure, aged about sweet years of age, and very tender. the foreign count! soon won the affections of the young lady, and while she was all cock-a-hoop at the thought of having such a fine handsome young blade for a husband, all the other women of the town, old and young, were ready to tear out her eyes and boil them in their own blood with womanly vexation and revenge, and spoke of the intended bridegroom as the count _don't-know-who_! on thursday the bells of the old parish church rang merrily ding!-dong!!-ding!!! and the happy couple were married, our old and respected rector officiating; assisted by his curate, rev. mr. ----, and all the parish was gay from one end to the other. [illustration] a few hours after the ceremony had taken place, whilst the happy couple were feasting on all of the very best with their friends and relations, a stranger, fat and greasy, and looking like a master or journeyman butcher in his sunday clothes, and about forty years of age, and black whiskers, made his appearance, and not being acquainted with the occasion that brought the party together, without hesitation exclaimed, loud enough to be heard by all in the room, "well, brother-blade, you are a lucky fellow! the business about sal saunders is all settled to our satisfaction, the lawyer made a good job of it for you, poleaxed the lot on the other side in prime style, and skinned 'em alive, so you may now return home to whitechapel and put on your blue apron and steel."--the company stood aghast, the bride fainted, and all was confusion. at length it came out that the newly-married man had a wife and four children at home, and that his visit to the above town was in consequence of a woman swearing a child to him. in the midst of the confusion which this discovery occasioned, the bridegroom and his brother slaughterman from whitechapel--which is in london--made a sudden retreat, and--have not since been heard of. the effects of love. sad shocking news! cruel seduction: dreadful warning to all young women in this neighbourhood to beware of young men's deluding and flattering tongues. the following melancholy account of her cruel seduction and desertion by her base lover was forwarded to that very worthy man mr. ---- a churchwarden, well-known and respected by all in this neighbourhood by miss s----h w----r, the night before she committed suicide. young lovers all i pray draw near, sad shocking news you soon shall hear, and when that you the same are told, it will make your very blood run cold. miss s----h w---- is my name, i brought myself to grief and shame, by loving one that ne'er loved me, my sorrow now i plainly see. mark well the words that will be said, by w---- e---- i was betray'd, by his false tongue i was beguil'd at length to him i proved with child. at rest with him i ne'er could be, until he had his will of me, to his fond tales i did give way, and did from paths of virtue stray. my grief is more than i can bear, i am disregarded every where, like a blooming flower i am cut down, and on me now my love does frown. oh! the false oathes he has sworn to me, that i his lawful bride should be, may i never prosper night, or day, if i deceive you, he would say. but now the day is past and gone, that he fix'd to be married on, he scarcely speaks when we do meet, and strives to shun me in the street. i did propose on sunday night, to walk once more with my heart's delight, on the umber's banks where billows roar, we parted there to meet no more. his word was pledged unto me, he never shall prosper nor happy be, the ghost of me and my infant dear, they both shall haunt him every where. william dear when this you see, remember how you slighted me, farewell vain world; false man adieu, i drown myself for love of you. as a token that i died for love, there will be seen a milk-white dove, which over my watery tomb shall fly, and there you'll find my body lie. these cheeks of mine once blooming red, must now be mingled with the dead, from the deep waves to a bed of clay, where i must sleep till the judgement day. a joyful rising then i hope to have, when angels call me from the grave receive my soul, o lord most high, for broken hearted i must die. grant me one favour that's all i crave, eight pretty maidens let me have, dress'd all in white a comely show, to carry me to the grave below. now all young girls i hope on earth, will be warned by my untimely death, take care sweet maidens when you are young, of men's deluding--flattering tongue. printed in london for the venders. shocking rape and dreadful murder of two lovers. [illustration] showing how john hodges, a farmer's son, committed a rape upon jane williams, and afterwards murdered her and her lover, william edwards, in a field near paxton. this is a most revolting murder. it appears jane williams was keeping company, and was shortly to be married to william edwards, who was in the employment of farmer hodges. for some time a jealousy existed in john hodges, who made vile proposals to the young girl, who although of poor parents was strictly virtuous. the girl's father also worked on farmer hodges' estate. on thursday last she was sent to the farm to obtain some things for her mother, who was ill; it was o'clock in the evening when she set out, a mile from the farm. going across the fields she was met by the farmer's son, who made vile proposals to her, which she not consenting to, he threw her down, and accomplished his vile purpose. in the meantime her lover had been to her house, and finding she was gone to the farm, went to meet her. he found her in the field crying, and john hodges standing over her with a bill-hook, saying he would kill her if she ever told. no one can tell the feelings of the lover, william edwards. he rushed forward, when hodges, with the hook, cut the legs clean from his body, and with it killed the poor girl, and then run off. her father finding she did not return, went to look for her, when the awful deeds were discovered. edwards was still alive, but died shortly afterwards from loss of blood, after giving his testimony to the magistrates. the farmer's son was apprehended, and has been examined and committed to take his trial at the next assizes. thousands of persons followed the unfortunate lovers to the grave, where they were both buried together. copy of verses. jane williams had a lover true and edwards was his name, whose visits to her father's house, had welcome now became. in marriage soon they would be bound, a loving man and wife, but john hodges, a farmer's son with jealousy was rife. one night he met her in the fields, and vile proposals made; how can i do this wicked thing, young jane then weeping said. he quickly threw her on the ground, he seized her by surprise, and did accomplish his foul act despite her tears and cries. her lover passing by that way, discovered her in tears, and when he found what had been done he pulled the monster's ears. young hodges with the bill-hook, then cut young edwards down; and by one fatal blow he felled jane williams on the ground. there side by side the lovers lay weltering in their blood: young jane was dead, her lover lived, though ebb'd away life's flood. old williams sought his daughter dear, when awful to relate, he found her lifeless body there, her lover's dreadful fate. now in one grave they both do lie, these lovers firm and true, who by a cruel man were slain who'll soon receive his due. in prison now he is confined, to answer for the crime. two lovers that he murdered, cut off when in their prime. [illustration] _a funny_ dialogue between a fat butcher and a [illustration] mackerel _in newport market_ yesterday. butcher.--well, mr. mackerel, pray let me ask you how you come to show your impudent face among those who don't want to see you or any of your crew? mackerel.--that my company is not agreeable to many such as you i very well know; but here i am, and will keep my place in spite of you. don't think to frighten me with your lofty looks, mr. green. you are an enemy to the poor, i am their true friend, and i will be in spite of you. butcher.--i will soon see the end of you and your vain boasting. what's the poor to me? mackerel.--i and thousands of my brethren are come to town for the sole good of the industrious poor. we will soon pull down your high prices, your pride and consequence, and melt your fat off your overgrown carcass. i am their sworn friend, and although you are biting off your tongue with vexation, yet i am determined they shall have a cheap meal--good, sweet, and wholesome--put that in your pipe and smoke it. butcher.--aye, aye. you are a saucy set, confound you altogether. oddzbobs, i wish the devil had the whole of your disagreeable tribe. mackerel.--i would advise you, mr. green, not to show your teeth when you can't bite. millions of my friends are on their way to town to make the poor rejoice. we have had a fine seed time, everything looks promising. meat must and will come down. the poor will sing for joy, and you may go hang yourself in your garters. [illustration] catnach, printer, , monmouth court, cards, bills, &c., printed on low terms. catnach, to the day of his retirement from business in , when he purchased the freehold of a disused public-house, which had been known as the lion inn, together with the grounds attached at dancer's hill, south mimms, near barnet, in the county of middlesex, worked and toiled in the office of the "catnach press," in which he had moved as the pivot, or directing mind, for a quarter of a century. he lived and died a bachelor. his only idea of all earthly happiness and mental enjoyment was now to get away in retirement to a convenient distance from his old place of business, so to give him an opportunity occasionally to go up to town and have a chat and a friendly glass with one or two old paper-workers and ballad-writers, and a few others connected with his peculiar trade who had shown any disposition to work when work was to be done. to them he was always willing to give or advance a few pence or shillings, in money or stock, and a glass-- "affliction's sons are brothers in distress; a brother to relieve, how exquisite the bliss!" but jemmy knew the men that were "skulkers," as he termed them, and there was no coin, stock, or a glass for them. he invariably drank whiskey, a spirit not in general demand in england in those days. gin was then, as now, the reigning favourite with the street folks. when the question was put to him in reference to his partiality to whiskey, he always replied--the scotch blood proudly rising in his veins, and with a strong northumberland burr, which never wholly forsook him, particularly when warmed by argument or drink--that, "he disdained to tipple with 'stuff,' by means of which all the women of the town got drunk. i am of catnach. yes! there's catnach blood in me. catnach--king catnach--catnach, king of the picts. we descend in a right straight line from the picts. that's the sort of blood-of-blood that flows in the veins of all the true-bred catnachs." jemmy would be for continually arguing when in his cups, and the old and the more artful of the street-folk would let him have all the say and grandeur that he then felt within him on the subject, well knowing that they would be much more likely to have their glasses replenished by agreeing with him than by contradicting him. even in his sober moments jemmy always persisted, right or wrong, that the catnachs, or catternachs, were descended direct from a king of the picts. yet, what is somewhat anomalous, he was himself a rigid churchman and a staunch old tory, "one of the olden time," and "as full of the glorious constitution as the first volume of blackstone." on catnach's retirement from the business, he left it to mrs. annie ryle, his sister, charged, nevertheless, to the amount of £ , payable at his death to the estate of his niece, marion martha ryle. in the meanwhile mr. james paul acted as managing man for mrs. ryle. this mr. paul--of whom jemmy was very fond, and rumour saith, had no great dislike to the mother--had grown from a boy to a man in the office of the "catnach press." he was therefore, well acquainted with the customers, by whom he was much respected; and it was by his tact and judgment that the business was kept so well together. he married a miss crisp, the daughter of a publican in the immediate neighbourhood. catnach did not long enjoy or survive his retirement. after the novelty of looking, as the poet cowper puts it, and no doubt in his case found it, "through the loop-holes of retreat, to see the stir of the great babel, and not feel the crowd," had worn itself out, "james catnach, gentleman, formerly of monmouth court, monmouth street, printer," grew dull in his "old bachelor's box;" he was troubled with hypochondriasis, and a liver overloaded with bile, and was further off than ever from being a happy man. he had managed to rake and scrape together--as far as we can get any knowledge--some £ , or £ , , although £ , and upwards is mostly put down to him. however, he had grabbed for and caught a fair amount of "siller and gold," but it failed to realize to him-- an elegant sufficiency, content, retirement, rural quiet, friendship, books, ease and alternate labour, useful life, progressive virtue, and approving heaven! no! all he had realized was that unenviable position so popularly known as of a man not knowing what to do with himself. his visits to town were now much more frequent and of longer duration, and for hours he would sit and loiter about the shops and houses of his old neighbours, so that he might catch a glimpse, or enjoy a friendly chat with his old friends and customers. at length he got sick at heart, "wearied to the bone," and sighed for the bustle of london life. from the following letter written to his sister, mrs. ryle, in , and now before us, we glean something of his state of mind and bodily health:-- july, th, . dear sister,-- i have been very ill for these last three weeks. i was obliged to send for dr. morris to cup me, which did some good for a few days, since then the pains have gone into my breast and ribs, and for the last three days i have kept my bed, and could take nothing but a little tea and water-gruel. i wish you to procure me bills to stick on my window shutters, outside and in, "this house to be let," and send them with / lb tea as soon as possible--but do not send them by salmon's coach, for he will not leave them at jackson's as wild does, but sends a boy with it, which costs me double porterage. i feel the loss of my jelly now i am so ill, and can eat little or nothing, it would have done my throat good. i have a great crop of black and red berries [currants] if you choose i will send them up, and you can make some jelly for us both; let me know as soon as you can, say wednesday morning and i will make the postwoman call for the parcel at jackson's. i also wish you to enquire of carr what is the lowest he will take for the rooms over mrs. morgan, by the / year. i have nothing more to say but to be remembered to mary and paul, and remain [signature: yours truly james catnach] pray send a paper of the execution of the valet, and the trial of oxford--mrs. westley has not sent me paper since i was last in town--neither has thornton. mrs. ryle, & , monmouth court, compton street, london. ultimately catnach hired the rooms he speaks about in the body of his letter to his sister, which were on the first floor of no. , monmouth court. all the vacant space in his old premises being now fully occupied by mrs. ryle, and her assistants, now "the humble cottage fenc'd with osiers round," which to his leisure afforded no pleasure, was entirely deserted, and in london he fretted out the remaining portion of his life. he soon grew peevish, and his brain got a little out of balance, then he listlessly wandered in and out of the streets, courts, and alleys, "infirm of purpose." on stormy days and nights to stand and view the lightning from waterloo bridge was his special delight, and wonder. his temper and liver were now continually out of order, and which whiskey, even "potations pottle deep," failed to relieve. at length he died of jaundice, in the very london court in which he had muck'd and grubbed for the best part of his life, on the first day of february, . like other great men of history he has several _locales_ mentioned as his final resting-place--hornsey, barnet, south mimms, &c. _urbes, certarunt septem de patria homeri, nulla domus vivo patria fuit._ seven cities strove whence homer first should come, when living, he no country had nor home:--_tom nash, ._ seven grecian cities vied for homer dead, through which the living homer begged his bread. seven cities vied for homer's birth, with emulation pious,--salamis, samos, colophon, rhodes, argos, athens, chios.--_from the greek._ but catnach lies buried in highgate cemetery, in one of the two plots that mrs. ryle purchased sometime previous to her brother's death. the official number of the grave is , square , over which is placed a flat stone, inscribed:-- in memory of james catnach, _of dancer's hill_. died st february, , aged . anne ryle, sister to the above, and widow of joseph ryle, who died in india, th october, . she died th april, , aged . _blessed are the dead which die in the lord._ the freehold in the other plot of ground, after catnach's death, was transferred to mr. robert palmer harding, the accountant of london, who married catnach's niece. the stone records the death of elizabeth cornelia, third daughter of robert palmer harding and marion martha harding, born june, , died of november, ; and greville, second son of the above, born may, , died september, . this grave is now numbered . we have been thus minute in respect to catnach's grave, from the circumstance of our having received so many contradictory statements as to its whereabouts. but however, we have removed all doubt from our mind by a personal visit to the highgate cemetery where under the guidance of the very civil and obliging superintendent of the grounds, mr. w. f. tabois, we were conducted to the spot we required, then introduced to mr. marks, the sexton, "here man and boy thirty years," and whom we found very intelligent and communicative on various _subjects_-- "from _grave_ to gay, from lively to severe." after catnach's death, mr. james paul entered into partnership with mrs. ryle, and then the business was carried on under the title and style of a. ryle and paul. in the partnership was dissolved, mr. paul receiving £ in settlement. he then entered into the public line taking the spencer's arms, at the corner of the monmouth court. a son that was born to him in , he had christened james catnach paul. he died in the year , just six weeks after mrs. ryle, and lies buried in the next grave but one to catnach and his sister. after mr. paul had left the business it was carried on as ryle & co., and ultimately became the property of mr. w. s. fortey, who still carries on the old business in the same quarter. for the purpose of clearing up, if possible, some contradictory statements, a few years ago we made personal search through the musty-fusty red-tapeism of doctor's commons for the will and testament--or "last dying speech" of "james catnach, of dancer's hill, south mimms, in the county of middlesex, gentleman, formerly of monmouth court, monmouth street, printer," an office copy of which, together with probate and administration act, we give below, by which it will be seen that the personal effects are sworn to as under three hundred pounds. but this gives us no idea of the value of his "freehold, copyhold, or leasehold estate" mentioned in the body of the will. "extracted from the principal registry of her majesty's court of probate. "in the prerogative court of canterbury-- "this is the last will and testament of me james catnach of dancers hill, south mimms in the county of middlesex gentleman formerly of monmouth court monmouth street printer i direct that my just debts funeral and testamentary expences be paid as soon as conveniently may be after my decease and subject thereto i give devise and bequeath all my real and personal estate whatever and wheresoever and of what nature or kind soever to my sister anne the widow of joseph ryle now residing in monmouth court aforesaid her heirs executors and administrators according to the nature and qualities thereof respectively in trust nevertheless for her daughter marion martha ryle her heirs executors administrators and assigns respectively when she shall attain the age of twenty one years absolutely with power in the meantime to apply the rents interest dividends or proceeds thereof for and towards the maintenance education and advancement of the said marion martha ryle and notwithstanding the private means of my said sister may be adequate to such purpose but if the said marion martha ryle shall depart this life before she shall attain the age of twenty one years then i give devise and bequeath all my said real and personal estate to my said sister her heirs executors administrators and assigns absolutely i hereby direct that during the minority of the said marion martha ryle it shall be lawful for the said anne ryle her heirs executors administrators to demise or lease all or any part of my freehold copyhold or leasehold estate for any term consistent with the tenure thereof not exceeding twenty one years so that on every such demise the best yearly rent be reserved that can be obtained for the property which shall be therein comprised without taking any fine or premium and so that the tenant or lessee be not made dispunishable for waste i hereby nominate constitute and appoint my said sister sole executrix of this my will and hereby revoking all former and other wills by me at any time heretofore made i declare this to be my last will and testament. in witness whereof i have hereunto set my hand the twenty second day of january one thousand eight hundred and thirty nine--james catnach--signed and acknowledged by the above named james catnach as and for his last will and testament in the presence of us present at the same time who in his presence and the presence of each other have hereunto set our names as witnesses--william kinsey suffolk st. pall mall solr.--wm. tookey his clerk." [the probate and administration act.] "extracted from the principal registry of her majesty's court of probate. "in the prerogative court of canterbury-- april, . "james catnach--on the second day of april administration (with the will annexed) of the goods chattels and credits of james catnach formerly of monmouth court monmouth street printer but late of dancers hill south mimms both in the county of middlesex gentleman deceased was granted to william kinsey esquire the curator or guardian lawfully assigned to marion martha ryle spinster a minor the niece and usufructuary universal legate until she shall attain the age of twenty one years and the absolute universal legatee on attaining that age named in the said will for the use and benefit of the said minor and until she shall attain the age of twenty one years have been first sworn duly to administer anne ryle widow the sister sole executrix universal legatee in trust and the contingent universal legatee named in the said will and also the natural and lawful mother and next of kin of the said minor having first renounced the probate and execution of the said will and the letters of administration (with the said will annexed) of the goods of the said deceased and also the curation or guardianship of the said minor and consented (as by acts of court appear)-- _effects under three hundred pounds._ it is gratifying to be able to record that what the late mr. catnach was to the masses in the way of news provider some fifty years ago, the penny papers are now, with this exception, that the former tended to lower and degrade their pursuit after knowledge, the latter, on the contrary, improve and elevate them while they amuse and instruct all who peruse their contents. with the march of intellect, and the thirst for knowledge blended with the desire for truth, out went, to a great extent, the penny broad-sheet. several persons made the attempt to revive it long after the death of the great original jemmy catnach, but without success. [illustration: finis.] [illustration: the index.] [symbol: pointing hand] the be-all and the end-all here. index. adelaide, queen, a funny dialogue, alnwick--the borough of, " st. michael's church, " parish register, " catnach's shop in, " register of death, " printing press in, " the catnach press, " the castle, " the abbey, " davison's business, " election at, attack on william iv, ballads:--banks of the nile, " crazy jane, " death of nelson, " drink to me eyes, " gallant sailor, " meet me willow glen, " mistletoe bough, " mountain maid, " o rare turpin, " rose will cease to blow, " scarlet flower, " sun that lights roses, " the thorn, " true hearted sailor, " when bibo though fit, " woodpecker, the, " ye topers all, benton, mrs. _nee_ elizabeth catnach, bewick, t., wood-engraver, bewick collector, the, bewick:--see books bewick's illustrations--see books. bishop and williams, black sal and dusty bob, books printed by john catnach:-- " beauties of natural history " chevy chase, " cock robin, " dr. johnson's works, " hermit of warkworth, " life of thompson, " stockdale's poems, ----by catnach and davison:-- " beattie's minstrel, " blair's grave, " burn's poems, " gray's elegy, ----by davison:-- " crazy jane, " ferguson's poems, " guess book, the, , " halfpenny books, " northumberland minstrel, " repository, the, ----illustrated by bewick. " beauties of natural history, " burn's poems, " blair's grave, " hermit of warkworth, " repository, the, " stockdale's poems, brown, mrs., murdered, brunswick theatre, the, burkers, the, burnie, sir richard, burradon ghost, the, caroline, queen, the trial of, verses on, , , death of, , cato street conspiracy, the, , catchpennies:--apparition, the, " burning shame, " cruel murder, " execution of ward, " extraordinary marriage, " horrid murder, " liverpool tragedy, " murder by a soldier, " murder of capt. lawson " murder of two lovers, " secrets revealed, " scarborough tragedy, " shocking news, " shocking rape, catnach, john--the father, born " married, " at alnwick, , , , " at newcastle, " a bankrupt, " in london, , " death of, catnach, james, born , " his early life, " arrives in london, " imprisoned for months, " queen caroline, " verses on caroline, " life in london, , " at alnwick, , " and mother cummins, " his education, " nursery books, " christmas carols, " his woodcuts, " dying speeches, " his retirement, " at dancer's hill, " letter to his sister, " return to london, " death of, " will of the, charlotte, the princess of, " " " death of, christmas carols, to collins, dennis, copy of affectionate verses, , , , , , clennell, luke, corder, wm., the murderer, " " execution of, cruikshank, george, cruikshank, robert, cubitt's treadmill, cummins "mother", and catnach, - - davison of alnwick:-- davison and catnach, " partnership, - " his chemistry, " death of, dennis collins, earl grey, executions--public of:-- bishop and williams, courvoisier, corder, fauntleroy, mr. h., banker, five pirates, the, greenacre, muller, mannings, pegsworth, thurtell, false news, circulating of, flying stationer, the, fortey, mr., - george the iii, death of, george the iv, goldie, mr., of alnwick, graham, printer, alnwick, greenacre and gale, gurney, mr. baron, haines, mrs. _nee_ mary catnach, "hanging matches", hugo, rev. thomas, , " his bewick collector, , jane williams, juvenile books:-- a apple pie, butterfly's ball, cinderella, cock robin, easter gift, the, golden pippin, the, good child's alphabet, guess book, the, jack jingle, jerry diddle, jumping joan, mother hubbard, new year's gift, nurse love-child's, nursery rhymes, red riding hood, simple simon, kent, duke of, his death, life in london, by pierce egan, on the stage, catnach's version , thackeray on, likeness of the murderer, " " william corder, lindsay, printer, &c., long, song seller, the, marten, maria, murder of, " " verses on, mayhew's "london labour", , morgan, john, poet!, , , paul, mr., , pitts, john, " old mother, pizzey, sausage maker, the , pocock, mr. c. j. of brighton, red barn, the, reform bill, the, ryle, mrs. anne, , " death of, " marion martha, sarah gale, seven dials, the bards of, , " " the trade in, " " and queen caroline, shocking rape and murder, smith, mark, of alnwick:-- " apprenticed to catnach, " in london, " in alnwick, " his autograph, " the death of, songs, yards-a-penny, thistlewood, the conspirator, thompson, john, life of, thurtell, and weare, " execution of, tom and jerry, , " the tears of, treadmill, the, vestris, madame, vint, john, printer, &c., walker, mr., paternoster row, weare, mr., murder of, william the iv, willoughby family alnwick, [illustration] footnotes: [ ] friendly lead, a gathering at a low public-house, for the purpose of assisting some one who is "in trouble," _i.e._, in prison, or who has just "come out of trouble," or who is in want of a "mouthpiece" to defend him, and so forth. [ ] this is an error--see page . [ ] the numbers at the close of the poll on saturday, th march, at three o'clock, stood as under:-- sir francis burdett , j. cam hobhouse, esq. , hon. w. lamb , [ ] mr. george skelly--_alnwick_. [ ] at an interview which we had in with [signature: e benton] _née._ elizabeth catnach, the last survivor of the family of john and mary catnach, she informed us that the ms. book alluded to above, remained in the family for many years, and was last known to be in the possession of the sister mary--mrs. haines, of gosport, to the date of about . [ ] pitts, a modern publisher of love garlands, merriments, penny ballads, "who, ere he went to heaven, domiciled in dials seven!"-- g. daniel's "democritus in london." [ ] the late john camden hotten's introduction to the new edition of "life in london." chatto & windus: piccadilly. [ ] our thanks are due, and are hereby given to mr. crawford john pocock, of cannon place, brighton, for the loan and use of his--what we feel almost inclined to consider--unique copy of catnach's broadside of "life in london." [ ] the above copied, _verbatim_ at our request, by mr. george skelly, of alnwick. [ ] e. l. blanchard, in an article entitled, "vanished theatres," in the _era almanack_, . transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}. the original text includes various symbols that are represented as [symbol: description] in this text version. generously made available by the posner memorial collection (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/posner/)) the committee on publications of the grolier club certifies that this copy of "one hundred books famous in english literature" is one of three hundred and five copies printed on hand-made paper, and that all were printed during the year nineteen hundred and two. one hundred books famous in english literature one hundred books famous in english literature with facsimiles of the title-pages and an introduction by george e. woodberry the grolier club of the city of new york m cm ii copyright, , by the grolier club of the city of new york facsimile titles title author date page first page of the canterbury tales chaucer first page of the confessio amantis gower first page of the morte arthure malory the booke of common praier the vision of pierce plowman langland chronicles of england, scotlande, and ireland holinshed a myrrour for magistrates songes and sonettes surrey the tragidie of ferrex and porrex sackville euphues. the anatomy of wit lylie the countesse of pembrokes arcadia sidney the faerie queene spenser essaies bacon the principal navigations, voiages, traffiques and discoveries of the english nation hakluyt the whole works of homer chapman the holy bible king james's version the workes of benjamin jonson jonson the anatomy of melancholy burton mr. william shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies shakespeare the tragedy of the dutchesse of malfy webster a new way to pay old debts massinger the broken heart ford the famous tragedy of the rich jew of malta marlowe the temple herbert poems donne religio medici browne the workes of edmond waller esquire comedies and tragedies beaumont and fletcher hesperides herrick the rule and exercises of holy living taylor the compleat angler walton hudibras butler paradise lost milton the pilgrims progress bunyan absalom and achitophel dryden an essay concerning humane understanding locke the way of the world congreve the history of the rebellion and civil wars in england clarendon the lucubrations of isaac bickerstaff steele esq. the spectator addison the life and strange surprizing adventures of robinson crusoe defoe travels into several remote nations of the world swift an essay on man pope the analogy of religion butler reliques of ancient english poetry percy odes on several descriptive and allegoric subjects collins clarissa richardson the history of tom jones fielding an elegy wrote in a country church yard gray a dictionary of the english language johnson poor richard's almanack franklin commentaries on the laws of england blackstone the vicar of wakefield goldsmith a sentimental journey sterne the federalist the expedition of humphry clinker smollett [ ] an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations smith the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire gibbon the school for scandal sheridan the task cowper poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect burns the natural history and antiquities of selborne white reflections on the revolution in france burke rights of man paine the life of samuel johnson boswell lyrical ballads wordsworth a history of new york, from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty irving childe harold's pilgrimage byron pride and prejudice austen christabel coleridge ivanhoe scott lamia, isabella, the eve of st. agnes, and other poems keats adonais shelley elia lamb memoirs of samuel pepys, esq. f.r.s. pepys the last of the mohicans cooper pericles and aspasia landor the pickwick papers dickens sartor resartus carlyle nature emerson history of the conquest of peru prescott the raven and other poems poe jane eyre brontë evangeline longfellow sonnets mrs. browning the biglow papers lowell vanity fair thackeray the history of england macaulay in memoriam tennyson the scarlet letter hawthorne uncle tom's cabin mrs. stowe the stones of venice ruskin men and women browning the rise of the dutch republic motley adam bede george eliot on the origin of species by means of natural selection darwin rubáiyát of omar khayyám fitzgerald apologia pro vita sua newman essays in criticism arnold snow-bound whittier * * * * * except where noted, all facsimiles of title-pages are of the size of those in the original editions. [illustration] introduction a book is judged by its peers. in the presence of the greater works of authors there is no room for personal criticism; they constitute in themselves the perpetual mind of the race, and dispense with any private view. the eye rests on these hundred titles of books famous in english literature, as it reads a physical map by peak, river and coast, and sees in miniature the intellectual conformation of a nation. a different selection would only mean another point of view; some minor features might be replaced by others of similar subordination; but the mass of imagination and learning, the mind-achievement of the english race, is as unchangeable as a mountain landscape. perspective thrusts its unconscious judgment upon the organs of sight, also; if gower is thin with distance and the clump of the elizabethans shows crowded with low spurs, the eye is not therefore deceived by the large pettiness of the foreground with its more numerous and distinct details. the mass governs. darwin appeals to milton; shelley is judged by pope, and hawthorne by congreve. these books must of necessity be national books; for fame, which is essentially the highest gift of which man has the giving, cannot be conferred except by a public voice. fame dwells upon the lips of men. it is not that memorable books must all be people's books, though the greatest are such--the book of common prayer, the bible, shakespeare; but those which embody some rare intellectual power, or illuminate some seldom visited tract of the spirit, or merely display some peculiar taste in learning or pastime, must yet have something racial in them, something public, to secure their hold against the detaching power of time; they must be english books, not in tongue only, but body and soul. they are not less the books of a nation because they are remote, superfine, uncommon. such are the books of the poets--the faërie queene; books of the nobles--arcadia; books of the scholar--the anatomy of melancholy. these books open the national genius as truly, kind by kind, as books of knowledge exhibit the nation's advancement in learning, stage by stage, when new sciences are brought to the birth. the wealth of nations, locke's essay, blackstone's commentaries, are not merely the product of private minds. they are landmarks of english intellect; and more, since they pass insensibly into the power of civilization in the land, feeding the general mind. the limited appeal that many classics made in their age, and still make, indicates lack of development in particular persons; but however numerous such individuals may be, in whatever majorities they may mass, the mind of the race, once having flowered, has flowered with the vigor of the stock. the compleat angler finds a rustic breast under much staid cloth; pepys was never at a loss for a gossip since his seals were broken, and donne evokes his fellow-eccentric whose hermitage is the scholar's bosom; but whether the charm work on few or on many is indifferent, for whom they affect, they affect through consanguinity. the books of a nation are those which are appropriate to its genius and embody its variations amid the changes of time; even its sports, like euphues, are itself; and the works which denote the evolution of its civilized life in fructifying progress, whose increasing diversities are yet held in the higher harmony of one race, one temperament, one destiny, are without metaphor its sibylline books, and true oracles of empire. it is a sign of race in literature that a book can spare what is private to its author, and comes at last to forgo his earth-life altogether. this is obvious of works of knowledge, since positive truth gains nothing from personality, but feels it as an alloy; and a wise analysis will affirm the same of all long-lived books. works of science are charters of nature, and submit to no human caprice; and, in a similar way, works of imagination, which are to the inward world of the spirit what works of science are to the natural universe, are charters of the soul, and borrow nothing from the hand that wrote them. how deciduous such books are of the private life needs only to be stated to be allowed. they cast biography from them like the cloak of the ascending prophet. an author is not rightly to be reckoned among immortals until he has been forgotten as a man, and become a shade in human memory, the myth of his own work. the anecdote lingering in the mermaid tavern is cocoon-stuff, and left for waste; time spiritualizes the soul it released in shakespeare, and the speedier the change, so much the purer is the warrant of a life above death in the minds of men. the loneliness of antique names is the austerity of fame, and only therewith do milton, spenser, chaucer, seem nobly clad and among equals; the nude figure of shelley at oxford is symbolical and prophetic of this disencumberment of mortality, the freed soul of the poet,--like bion, a divine form. not to speak of those greatest works, the prayer book, the bible, which seem so impersonal in origin as to be the creation of the english tongue itself and the genius of language adoring god; nor of hakluyt or clarendon, whose books are all men's actions; how little do the most isolated and seclusive authors, surrey, collins, keats, perpetuate except the pure poet! in these hundred famous books there are few valued for aught more than they contain in themselves, or which require any other light to read them by than what they bring with them; they are rather hampered than helped by the recollection of their authors' careers. sidney adds lustre to the arcadia; an exception among men, in this as in all other ways, by virtue of that something supereminent in him which dazzled his own age. but who else of famous authors is greater in his life than in his book? it is the book that gives significance to the man, not the man to the book. these authors would gain by oblivion of themselves, and that in proportion to their greatness, thereby being at once removed into the impersonal region of man's permanent spirit and of art. the exceptions are only seemingly such; it is johnson's thought and the style of a great mind that preserve boswell, not his human grossness; and in pepys it is the mundane and every-day immortality of human nature, this permanently curious and impertinent world, not his own scandal and peepings, that yield him allowance in libraries. in all books to which a nation stands heir, it is man that survives,--the aspect of an epoch, the phase of a religion, the mood of a generation, the taste, sentiment, thought, pursuit, entertainment, of a historic and diversified people. there is nothing accidental in the fact that of these hundred books forty-six bear no author's name upon the title-page; nor is this due merely to the eldest style of printing, as with chaucer, gower, malory, langland; nor to the inclusion of works by several hands--the book of common prayer, the mirror for magistrates, the tatler, the spectator, the reliques, the federalist; nor to the use of initials, as in the case of donne and mrs. browning. the characteristic is constant. it is interesting to note the names thus self-suppressed: sackville, spenser, bacon, burton, browne, walton, butler, dryden, locke, defoe, swift, pope, richardson, gray, franklin, goldsmith, sterne, smollett, sheridan, white, wordsworth, irving, austen, scott, lamb, cooper, carlyle, emerson, brontë, lowell, tennyson, george eliot, fitzgerald. the broad and various nationality of english literature is a condition precedent to greatness, and underlies its mighty fortune. its chief glory is its continuity, by which it exceeds the moderns, and must, with ages, surpass antiquity. literary genius has been so unfailing in the english race that men of this blood live in the error that literature, like light and air, is a common element in the life of populations. literature is really the work of selected nations, and with them is not a constant product. many nations have no literature, and in fertile nations there are barren centuries. the splendid perpetuity of greek literature, which covered two thousand years, was yet broken by lean ages, by periods of desert dearth. in the english, beginning from chaucer (as is just, since he is our homer, whatever ages went before troy or canterbury), there have been reigns without a poet; and greek example might prepare the mind for alexandrian and byzantine periods in the future, were it not for the grand combinations of world-colonies and world-contacts which open new perspectives of time for which the mind, as part of its faith in life, requires destinies as large. the gaps, however, were greatest at the beginning, and grow less. one soil, one government, one evenly unfolded civilization--long life in the settled and peaceful land--contribute to this continuity of literature in the english; but its explanation lies in the integrity of english nurture, and this is essentially the same in all persons of english blood. homer was not more truly the school of greece than the bible has been the school of the english. it has overcome all external change in form, rule and institution, fused conventicle and cathedral, and in dissolving separate and narrow bonds of union has proved the greatest bond of all, and become like a tie of blood. english piety is of one stock, and through every book of holy living where its treasures are laid up, there blows the breath of one spirit. herbert and bunyan are peers of a faith undivided in the hearts of their countrymen. it does not change, but is the same yesterday, to-day and forever. on the secular side, also, english nurture has been of the like simple strain. the instinct of adventure, english derring-do, has never failed. holinshed and hakluyt were its chroniclers of old; and from the morte d'arthur to sidney, from the red-cross knight to ivanhoe, from shakespeare's henry to tennyson's grenville, genius has not ceased to stream upon it, a broad river of light. the word of god fed english piety; english daring was fed upon the deeds of men. hear shakespeare's henry: "plutarch always delights me with a fresh novelty. to love him is to love me; for he has been long time the instructor of my youth. my good mother, to whom i owe all, and who would not wish, she said, to see her son an illustrious dunce, put this book into my hands almost when i was a child at the breast. it has been like my conscience, and has whispered in my ear many good suggestions and maxims for my conduct and the government of my affairs." the english plutarch is written on the earth's face. its battles have named the lands and seas of all the world; but, as was said of english piety, from harold to cromwell, from the first conqueror to wellington, from the black prince to gordon, english daring--the strength of the yeoman, the breath of the noble--is of one stock. race lasts; those who are born in the eyrie find eagles' food. this has planted iron resolution and all-hazarding courage in epic-drama and battle-ode, and, as in the old riddle, feeds on what it fed. english literature is brave, martial, and brings forth men-children. it has the clarion strength of empire; like taillefer at hastings, drayton and tennyson still lead the charge at agincourt and balaclava. as shakespeare's henry was nourished, so was the english spirit in all ages bred. this integrity of english nurture, seen in these two great modes of life turned toward god in the soul and toward the world in action, is as plainly to be discerned in details as in these generalities; and to state only one other broad aspect of the facts governing the continuity of literary genius in the english, but one that goes to the foundations, the condition that both vivifies and controls that genius in law, metaphysics, science, in all political writing, whether history, theory, or discussion, as well as in the creative and artistic modes of its development, is freedom. the freedom of england, which is the parent of its greatness in all ways, is as old in the race as fear of god and love of peril; and, through its manifold and primary operation in english nurture, is the true continuer of its literature. a second grand trait of english literature that is writ large on these title-pages, is its enormous assimilative power. so great is this that he who would know english must be a scholar in all literatures, and that with no shallow learning. the old figure of the torch handed down from nation to nation, as the type of man's higher life, gives up its full meaning only to the student, and to him it may come to seem that the torch is all and the hand that bears it dust and ashes; often he finds in its light only the color of his own studies, and names it greek, semitic, hindu, and looks on english, french and latin as mere carriers of the flame. in so old a symbol there must be profound truth, and it conveys the sense of antiquity in life, of the deathlessness of civilization, and something also of its superhuman origin--the divine gift of fire transmitted from above; but civilization is more than an inheritance, it is a power; and truth is always more than it was; and wherever the torch is lit, its light is the burning of a living race of men. the dependence of the present on the past, of a younger on an older people, of one nation on another, is often misinterpreted and misleads; life cannot be given, but only knowledge, example, direction--influence, but not essence; and the impact of one literature upon another, or of an old historic culture upon a new and ungrown people, is more external than is commonly represented. the genius of a nation born to greatness is irresistible, it remains itself, it does not become another. the greeks conquered rome, men say, through the mind; and rome conquered the barbarians through the mind; but in gibbon who finds greece? and the mind of europe does not bear the ruling stamp of either byzantine or italian rome. in the narrowly temporal and personal view, even under the overwhelming might of greece, virgil remained, what tennyson calls him, "roman virgil"; and in the other capital instance of apparently all-conquering literary power, under the truth that went forth from judea into all lands, dante remained italian and milton english. yet in these three poets, whose names are synonyms of their countries, the assimilated element is so great that their minds might be said to have been educated abroad. what is true of milton is true of the young english mind, from chaucer and earlier. in the beginning english literature was a part of european literature, and held a position in it analogous to that which the literature of america occupies in all english speech; it was not so much colonial as a part of the same world. the first works were european books written on english soil; chaucer, gower and malory used the matter of europe, but they retained the tang of english, as emerson keeps the tang of america. the name applied to gower, "the moral gower," speaks him english; and arthur, "the flower of kings," remains forever arthur of britain; and the canterbury pilgrimage, whatever the source of the world-wandering tales, gives the first crowded scene of english life. in langland, whose form was mediæval, lay as in the seed the religious and social history of a protestant, democratic, and labor-honoring nation. in the next age, with the intellectual sovereignty of humanism, surrey, sackville, lyly, sidney and spenser put all the new realms of letters under tribute, and made capture with a royal hand of whatever they would have for their own of the world's finer wealth; the dramatists gathered again the tales of all nations; and, period following period, italy, spain and france in turn, and the hebrew, greek and latin unceasingly, brought their treasures, light or precious, to each generation of authors, until the last great burst of the age now closing, itself indebted most universally to all the past and all the world. yet each new wave that washed empire to the land retreated, leaving the genius of english unimpaired and richer only in its own strength. notwithstanding the _concettisti_, the heroic drama, the celtic mist, which passed like shadows from the kingdom, the instinct of the authors held to the massive sense of latin and the pure form of greek and italian, and constituted these the enduring humane culture of english letters and their academic tradition. the permanence of this tradition in literary education has been of vast importance, and is to the literary class, in so far as they are separate by training, what the integrity of english nurture at large has been to the nation. the poets, especially, have been learned in this culture; and, so far from being self-sprung from the soil, were moulded into power by every finer touch of time. chaucer, spenser, milton, gray, shelley, tennyson are the capital names that illustrate the toil of the scholar, and approve the mastery of that classical culture which has ever been the most fruitful in the choicest minds. as on the broad scale english literature is distinguished by its general assimilative power, being hospitable to all knowledge, it is most deeply and intimately, because continuously, indebted to humane studies, in the strictest sense, and has derived from them not, as in many other cases, transitory matter and the fashion of an hour, but the form and discipline of art itself. in assimilating this to english nature, literary genius incurred its greatest obligation, and in thereby discovering artistic freedom found its greatest good. this academic tradition has created english culture, which is perhaps best described as an instinctive standard of judgment, and is the necessary complement to that openness of mind that has characterized english literature from the first. nor is this last word a paradox, but the simple truth, as is plain from the assimilative power here dwelt upon. the english genius is always itself; no element of greatness could inhere in it otherwise; but, in literature, it has had the most open mind of any nation. a third trait of high distinction in english literature, of which this list is a reminder, and one not unconnected with its continuity and receptivity, is its copiousness. this is not a matter of mere number, of voluminousness; there is an abundance of kinds. in the literature of knowledge, what branch is unfruitful, and in the literature of power, what fountainhead is unstruck by the rod? only the italian genius in its prime shows such supreme equality in diversity. how many human interests are exemplified, and how many amply illustrated, exhibiting in a true sense and not by hyperbole myriad-minded man! in the english genius there seems something correspondent to this marvellous efficacy of faculty and expression; it has largeness of power. the trait most commonly thought of in connection with aristotle as an individual--"master of those who know"--and in connection with mediæval schoolmen as a class, is not less characteristic of the english, though it appears less. the voracity of chaucer for all literary knowledge, which makes him encyclopædic of a period, is matched at the end of these centuries by newman, whose capaciousness of intellect was inclusive of all he cared to know. bacon, in saying, "i take all knowledge to be my province," did not so much make a personal boast as utter a national motto. the great example is, of course, shakespeare, on whose universality later genius has exhausted metaphor; but for everything that he knew in little, english can show a large literature, and exceeds his comprehensiveness. the fact is best illustrated by adverting to what this list spares. english is rich in translations, and in this sort of exchange the balance of trade is always in favor of the importer. homer alone is included here,--to except the bible, which has been so inbred in england as to have become an english book to an eye that clings to the truth through all appearances; but how rich in great national books is a literature that can omit so noble a work, though translated, and one so historic in english, as north's plutarch! in the literature of knowledge, greek could hardly have passed over euclid; but newton's principia is here not required. sir thomas more is one of the noblest english names, and his utopia is a memorable book; but it drops from the list. nor is it names and books only that disappear; but, as these last instances suggest, kinds of literature go out with them. platonism falls into silence with the pure tones of vaughan, in whom light seems almost audible; and the mystic italian fervor of the passional spirit fades with crashaw. the books of politeness, though descended from castiglione, depart with chesterfield, perhaps from some pettiness that had turned courtesy into etiquette; and parody retires with buckingham. latin literature was almost rewritten in english during the eighteenth century; but the traces of it here are few. of inadequate representation, how slight is burlesque in butler, and the presence of chevy chase hardly compensates for the absence of the war-ballad in drayton and campbell. so it is with a hundred instances. in another way of illustration, it is to be borne in mind that each author appears by only one title; and while it may be true that commonly each finer spirit stores up his immortality in some one book that is a more perfect vessel of time, yet fecundity is rightly reckoned as a sign of greatness and measure of it in the most, and the production of many books makes a name bulk larger. mass counts, when in addition to quality; and the greatest have been plentiful writers. no praise can make gray seem more than a remnant of genius, and no qualification of the verdict can deprive dryden and jonson of largeness. it belongs to genius to tire not in creation, thereby imitating the excess of nature flowing from unhusbanded sources. yet among these hundred books, as in scientific classification, one example must stand for all, except when some folio, like an ark, comes to the rescue of a beaumont and fletcher. this is cutting the diamond with itself. but within these limits, narrowing circle within circle, what a universe of man remains! culture after culture, epoch by epoch, are laid bare as in geologic strata,--mediæval tale and history, humanistic form, the shakespearian age, puritan, cavalier, man scientific, reforming, reborn into a new natural, political, artistic world, man modern; and in every layer of imagination and learning lies, whole and entire, a buried english age. it is by virtue of its copiousness that english literature is so representative, both of man's individual spirit in its restless forms of apprehension and embodiment, and of its historic formulation in english progress as national power. the realization of this long-lived, far-gathering, abounding english literature, in these external phases, leaves untouched its original force. whence is its germinating power,--what is this genius of the english? it is the same in literature as in all its other manifold manifestations, for man is forever unitary and of one piece. curiosity, which is the distinction of progressive peoples, is perhaps its initial and moving source. the trait which has sent the english broadcast over the world and mingled their history with the annals of all nations is the same that has so blended their literature with the history of all tongues. the acquisitive power which has created the empire of the english, with dominion on dominion, is parallel with the faculty that assimilates past literatures with the body of their literary speech. but curiosity is only half the word. it is singular that the first quality which occurs to the mind in connection with the english is, almost universally and often exclusively, their practicality. they are really the most romantic of all nations; romanticism is the other half of their genius, and supplements that positive element of knowledge-hunting or truth-seeking which is indicated by their endless curiosity. possibly the elizabethan age is generally thought of as a romantic period, as if it were exceptional; and the romantic vigor of the late georgian period, though everywhere acknowledged, is primarily regarded as more strictly a literary and not a national characteristic in its time; but, like all interesting history, english history was continuously romantic. the days of the crusaders, the wars of the roses and the french wars were of the same strain in action and character, in adventurous travel, in personal fate, in contacts, as were the times of shakespeare's world or of the world of waterloo. what a reinforcement of character in the english has india been, how restorative of greatness in the blood! it must be that romanticism should characterize a great race, and, when appealing to a positive genius, the greatest race; for in it are all the invitations of destiny. futurity broods and brings forth in its nest. romanticism is the lift of life in a people that does not merely continue, but grows, spreads and overcomes. the sphere of the word is not to be too narrowly confined, as only a bookish phrase of polite letters. in the world of knowledge the pursuit of truth is romantic. the scientific inquirer lives in a realm of strangeness and in the presence of the unknown, in a place so haunted with profound feeling, so electric with the emotions that feed great minds, that whether awe of the unsolved or of the solved be the stronger sentiment he cannot tell; and the appeal made to him--to the explorer in every bodily peril, to the experimenter in the den of untamed forces, to the thinker in his solitude--is often a romantic appeal. the moments of great discoveries are romantic moments, as is seen in keats's sonnet, lifting cortez and the star-gazer on equal heights with the reader of the iliad. the epic of science is a columbiad without end. nor is this less true of those branches of knowledge esteemed most dry and prosaic. locke, adam smith, darwin were all similarly placed with pythagoras, aristotle and copernicus; the mind, society and nature, severally, were their americas. even in this age of the mechanical application of forces, which by virtue of the large part of these inventions in daily and world-wide life seems superficially, and is called, a materialistic age, romanticism is paramount and will finally be seen so. are not these things in our time what drake and spanish gold and virginia, what clive and the indies, were to other centuries? it is true that the element of commercial gain blends with other phases of our inventions, and seems a debasement, an avarice; but so it was in all ages. nor are the applications of scientific discovery for the material ends of wealth other or relatively greater now than the applications of geographical discovery, for example, to the same ends were in elizabeth's reign and later. in the first ages commercial gain was in league with the waves from which rose the odyssey,--a part of that early trading, coasting world, as it was always a part of the artistic world of athens. gain in any of its material forms, whether wealth, power or rank, does not debase the knowledge, the courage of heart, the skill of hand and brain, from which it flows, for it is their natural and proper fruit; nor does it by itself materialize either the man or the nation, else civilization were doomed from the start, and the pursuit of truth would end in humiliation and ignominy. it is rather the attitude of mind toward this new world of knowledge and this spectacle of man now imperializing through nature's forces, as formerly through discovery of the earth's lands and seas, that makes the character of our age. romanticism, being the enveloping mood in whose atmosphere the spirit of man beholds life, and, as it were, the light on things, changes its aspect in the process of the ages with the emergence of each new world of man's era; and as it once inhered in english loyalty and the piety of christ's sepulchre, and in english voyaging over-seas and colonizing of the lands, it now inheres in the conquest of natural force for the arts of peace. the present age exceeds its predecessors in marvel in proportion as the victories of the intellect are in a world of finer secrecy than any horizon veils, and build an empire of greater breadth and endurance than any monarch or sovereign people or domineering race selfishly achieves; its victories are in the unseen of force and thought, and it brings among men the undecaying empire of knowledge, as inexpugnable as the mind in man and as inappropriable as light and air. here, as elsewhere, it is the sensual eye that sees the sensual thing, but the spiritual eye spiritually discerns. it is romance that adds this "precious seeing" to the eye. openness to the call, capability of the passion, and character, so sensitized and moulded in individuals and made hereditary in a civilization and a race and idealized in conscience, constitute the motor-genius of a nation, which is its finding faculty; and the appreciation of results and putting them to the use of men make its conserving and positive power. these two, indistinguishably married and blended, are the english genius. a positive genius following a romantic lead, a romantic genius yielding a positive good, equally describe it from opposed points of view; yet in the finer spirits and in the long age the romantic temperament is felt to be the fertilizing element, to be character as opposed to performance. greatness lies always in the unaccomplished deed, as in the lonely anecdote of newton: "i do not know what i may appear to the world, but to myself i seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." so tennyson with his "wages of going on," and sir john franklin and gordon in their lives. this spiritual breath of the nation in all its activities through centuries is the breath of its literature, there embodied in its finer being and applied to the highest uses for the civilization and culture of the nation by truth and art. in english literary history, and in its men of genius taken individually, the positive or the romantic may predominate, each in its own moment; but the conspectus of the whole assigns to each its true levels. romanticism condensed in character, which is the creation of the highest poetic genius, the rarest work of man, has its illustrative example in shakespeare, the first of all writers; he followed it through all its modes, and perhaps its simplest types are henry iv for action, romeo for passion, and hamlet, which is the romance of thought. before shakespeare, spenser closed the earliest age, which had been shaped by a diffused romantic tradition, inherited from mediævalism, though in its later career masked under renaissance forms; and since shakespeare, a similar diffused romantic prescience, in the region of the common life and of revolutionary causes most significantly, brought in our age that has now passed its first flower, but has yet long to run. these are the three great ages of english poetry. in the interval between the second and the third, the magnificently accomplished school of the eighteenth century gave to english an age of cultivated repose, in which pope, its best example, lived on the incomes of the past, and, together with the younger and the elder men he knew, exhibited in literature that conserving and positive power which is the economy of national genius; but even in that great century, wherever the future woke, there was a budding romanticism, in collins, gray, walpole, thomson, cowper, blake. such was the history of english poetry, and the same general statement will be found applicable to english prose, though in a lower tone, due to the nature of prose. taken in the large, important as the positive element in it is, the english literary genius is, like the race, temperamentally romantic, to the nerve and bone. this view becomes increasingly apparent on examination of the service of this literature to civilization and the individual soul of man, which is the great function of literature, and of its place in the world of art. "how shall the world be served?" was chaucer's question; and it has never been absent from any great mind of the english stock. the literature of a nation, however, including, as here, books of knowledge, is so nearly synonymous with the mind in all its operations in the national life, as to be coextensive with civilization, and hardly separable from it. civilization is cast in the mould of thought, and retains the brute necessity of nature only as mass, but not as surface; it is the flowering of human forces in the formal aspect of life, and of these literature is one mode, reflecting in its many phases all the rest in their manifestations, and inwardly feeding them in their vital principle. the universality of its touch on life is indicated by the fact that it has made the english a lettered people, the alphabet as common as numbers, and the ability to read almost as wide-spread in the race as the ability to count. its service, therefore, cannot be summarized any more than the dictionary of its words. it is possible to bring within the compass of a paragraph only hints and guide-marks of its work; and naturally these would be gathered from its most comprehensive influences in the higher spheres of intellect and morals, in the world of ideas, and in the person of those writers who were either the founders or restorers of knowledge. such a cardinal service was the baconian method, to take a single great instance, which may almost be said to have reversed the logical habit of the mind of europe, and to have summoned nature to a new bar. it is enough to name this. of books powerful in intellectual results, locke's essay is, perhaps, thought of as metaphysical and remote, yet it was of immeasurable influence at home and abroad, so subtly penetrating as to resemble in scale and intimacy the silent forces of nature. it was great as a representative of the spirit of rationalism, which it supported and spread with incalculable results on the temper of educated europe; and great also as a product and embodiment of that cold, intellectual habit, distinctive of a certain kind of english mind, and usually regarded as radical in the race. it was great by the variety as well as the range of its influence, and was felt in all regions of abstract thought and those practical arts, education, government and the like, then most affected by such thought; it permanently modified the cast of men's minds. in opposition to it new philosophical movements found their mainspring. a similar honor belongs to adam smith's wealth of nations in another century. it is customary to eulogize the pioneer, and to credit the first openers of californias with the wealth of all the mines worked by later comers; and, in this sense, the words of buckle, that have been placed opposite the title-page, are, perhaps, to be taken: "adam smith contributed more, by the publication of this single work, towards the happiness of men than has been effected by the united abilities of all the statesmen and legislators of whom history has preserved an authentic account." but the excess of the statement is a proof of the largeness of the truth it contains, and like-minded praise is not from buckle alone, but may be found in half a score of thoughtful and temperate authors. in the last age, darwin, by his origin of species, most arrested the attention of the scientific mind, and stimulated the highly educated world with surprise. he was classed with copernicus, as having brought man's pretension to be the first of created things, and their lord from the beginning, under the destroying criticism of scientific time and its order, in the same way that copernicus brought the pretension of the earth to be the centre of the universe under a like criticism of scientific space and its order; and in these proud statements there is some measure of truth. the ideas of darwin compel a readjustment of man's thoughts with regard to his temporal and natural relation to the universe in which he finds himself; and the vast generalities of all evolutionary thought received from darwin immense stimulus, its method greater scope, and its results a firmer hold on the general mind, with an influence still unfathomable upon man's highest beliefs with regard to his origin and destiny. there are epochs in the intellectual history of the race as marked as those of the globe; and such works as these, in the literature of knowledge, show the times of the opening of the seals. in addition to the service so done in the advancement of civilization by the discovery of new truth, as great benefaction is accomplished by the continual agitation and exercise of men's minds in the ideas that are not new but the ever-living inheritance from the past, whose permanence through all epochs shows their deep grounding in the race they nourish. in english such ideas are, especially, in the view of the whole world, ideas of civil and religious liberty in the widest sense and particularly as worked out in legal and political history. the common law of england in blackstone is a mighty legacy. on the large public scale, and as involved in the constitutional making of a great nation, the federalist is a document invaluable as setting forth essentials of free government under a particular application; and for comment on social liberty, burke, on the conservative, and paine, on the radical side, exhibit the scope, the weight and fire of english thought. of still greater significance, for the mass and variety of teaching, is that commentary on man's freedom which is contained in the operation of liberty and its increase as presented in the long story of england's greatness recorded in the works of her historians from holinshed to macaulay, with what the last prolific generation has added. they are exceeded in the dignity of their labors by gibbon, whose work on rome, which mommsen called the greatest of all histories and is often likened to a mighty bridge spanning the gulf between the ancient and the modern world, was a contribution to european learning; but the historians of english liberty have more profitably served mankind. at yet another remove, the ideas of liberty--and the mind acquainted with english books is dazzled by the vast comprehensiveness of such a phrase--are again poured through the nation's life-blood by all her poets, and well-nigh all her writers in prose, in one or another mode of the promethean fire. these ideas are never silent, never quiescent; they work in the substance, they shape the form and feature, of english thought; they are the necessary element of its being; they constitute the race of freemen, and are known in every language as english ideas. they give sublimity to the figure of milton; they are the feeding flame of shelley's mind; they alone lift tennyson to an eagle-flight of song. in the unceasing celebration of ideal liberty, and its practical life in english character and events, the literature of england has, perhaps, done a greater service than in the positive advancement of knowledge, for it is more fundamental in the national life. touching the subject almost at random, such are a few of the points of contact between english books and the civilization of men. it is still more difficult to state briefly the action of literature on the individual for what is more distinctly his private gain, in the enlargement of his life, the direction of his thoughts, and bringing him into harmony with the world. as, in regard to civilization, the emphasis lay rather on the literature of knowledge, here it lies on the literature of power,--on imaginative and reflective works. its initial office is educative; it feeds the imagination and the powers of sympathy, and trains not only the affections but all feeling; and in these fields it is the only instrument of education outside of real experience. it is this that gives it such primacy as to make acquaintance with humane letters almost synonymous with culture. no actual world is large enough for a man to live in; at the lowest, there is some tradition of the past, some expectation of the future; and, though training in the senses is an important part of early life, yet the greater part of education consists in putting the young in possession of an unseen world. the biograph is a marvellous toy of the time, but literature in its lower forms of information, of history, travel and description, has been a biograph for the mind's eye from the beginning; and in its higher forms of art it performs a greater service by bringing into mental vision what it is above the power of nature to produce. to expand the mind to the compass of space and time, and to people these with the thoughts of mankind, to revive the past and penetrate the reality of the present, is the joint work of all literature; and as a preparation for individual life, in unfolding the faculties and the feelings, humane letters achieve their most essential task. literature furnishes the gymnasia for all youth, in that part of their nature in which the highest power of humanity lies. but this is only, as was said, its initial office. throughout life it acts in the same way on old and young alike. the dependence of all men on thought, and of thought on speech, is a profound matter, though as little considered as gravitation that keeps the world entire; and the speech on which such a strain of life lies is the speech of books. how has longfellow consoled middle life in its human trials, how has carlyle roused manhood, and emerson illumined life for his readers at every stage! scott is a benefactor of millions by virtue of the entertainment he has given to english homes and the lonely hours of his fellow-men, now for three generations, to an extent hardly measurable in thought; and so in hardly a less degree is dickens, and, though diminishing in inclusive power, are thackeray, austen, brontë, cooper, hawthorne, george eliot, to name only novelists. each century has had its own story-telling from chaucer down, though masked in the elizabethan period as drama, and in each much hearty and refined pleasure has been afforded by the spectacle of life in books; but in the last age the benefit so conferred is to be reckoned among the greater blessings of civilization. it is singular that humor, so prime and constant a factor in english, should have so few books altogether its own, and these not of the greater class; but the spirit which yields burlesque in butler and irving, and comedy in massinger, congreve and sheridan, pervades the body of english literature and characterizes it among national literatures. the highest mind is incomplete without humor, for a perfect idealism includes laughter at the real; and it is natural, for, the principle of humor being incongruity to the intellect, it is properly most keen in those in whom the idea of order, which is the mother-idea of the intellect, is most omnipresent and controlling; but as humor is thus auxiliary in character, it is found to be subordinate also in english literature as a whole. the constancy of its presence, however, is a sign of the general health of the english genius, which has turned to morbidity far less than that of other nations ancient or modern. it is a cognate fact, here, that great books are never frivolous; they leave the reader wiser and better, as well through laughter as through tears, or they sustain imaginative and sympathetic power already acquired. they open the world of humanity to the heart, and they open the heart to itself. in another region, not primarily of entertainment, the value of literature lies in its function to inspire. in individual life, each finer spirit of the past touches with an electric force those of his own kindred as they are born into the world of letters, and often for life. the later poets have most personal power in this way. burns, wordsworth, byron, shelley have been the inspiration of lives, like carlyle and emerson in prose. the most intense example of national inspiration in a book is uncle tom's cabin; but in quieter ways scotland feels the pulse of burns, and england the many-mingled throbbing of the poets in her blood. on the large scale, in the impact of literature on the individual soul and through that on the national belief, aspiration and resolve, the great sphere of influence lies necessarily in the religious life, because that is universal and constant from birth to death and spreads among the secret springs and sources of man's essential nature. it is a commonplace, it has sometimes been made a reproach, that english literature is predominantly moral and religious, and the fact is plainly so. the strain that began with piers plowman flourished more mightily in the pilgrim's progress. the psalm-note that was a tone of character in surrey, wyatt and sidney gave perfect song in milton, both poet and man. from butler to newman the intellect, applied to religion, did not fail in strenuous power. taylor's holy living is a saint's book. if religious poets, of one pure strain of sabbath melody, have been rare, yet herbert, vaughan, cowper, keble, whittier are to the memory christian names, with the humility and breathing peace of sacred song. the portion of english literature expressly religious is enlarged by the works of authors, both in prose and verse, in which religion was an occasional theme and often greatly dealt with; and the religious and moral influence of the body of literature as a whole on the english race is immensely increased by those writers into whom the christian spirit entered as a master-light of reason and imagination, such as spenser in the faërie queene and wordsworth in his works generally, or gray in the solemn thought of the elegy. to particularize is an endless task; for the sense of duty toward man and god is of the bone and flesh of english books in every age, being planted in the english nature. this vast mass of experience and counsel, of praise and prayer, of insight and leading, variously responding to every phase of the religious consciousness of the historic people, has been, like the general harvest, the daily food of the nation in its spiritual life. if shakespeare is the greatest of our writers, the english bible is the greatest of our books; and the whole matter is summarized in saying that the bible, together with the book of common prayer, is the most widely distributed, the most universally influential, the most generally valued and best-read book of the english people, and this has been true since the diffusion of printing. it may seem only the felicity of time that the english language best adorns its best book; but it is by a higher blessing that english character centres in this book, that english thinkers see by it, that english poets feel by it, that the english people live by it; for it has passed into the blood of all english veins. it is natural to inquire, after dwelling so much on the practical power of english literature in society and life, what is its value in the world of art, in that sphere where questions of perfection in the form, of permanence in the matter, and the like, arise. if the standards of an academic classicism be applied, english literature will fall below both latin and greek, and the italian and french, and take a lower place with german and spanish, to which it is most akin. but such standards are pseudo-classical at best, and under modern criticism find less ground in the ancients. the genius of the english is romantic, and originated romantic forms proper to itself, and by these it should be judged. the time is, perhaps, not wholly gone by when the formlessness of shakespeare may be found spoken of as a matter of course, as the formlessness of shelley is still generally alleged; but if neither of these has form in the pseudo-classic, the italian and french, sense of convention, decorum and limit, they were creators of that romantic form in which english, together with spanish, marks the furthest original modern advance. the subject is too large, and too much a matter of detail, for this place; but it is the less necessary to expand it, for it is as superfluous to establish the right of shakespeare in the realm of the most perfect art as to examine the title-deeds of alexander's conquests. he condensed romanticism in character, as was said above; and in the power with which he did this, in the wisdom, beauty and splendor of his achievement, excelled all others, both for substance and art. the instinct of fame may be safely followed in assigning a like primacy to milton. the moment which milton occupied, in the climax of a literary movement, is, perhaps, not commonly observed with accuracy. the drama developed out of allegorical and abstract, and through historical, into entirely human and ideal forms; and in shakespeare this process is completed. the same movement, on the religious as opposed to the secular line, took place more slowly. spenser, like sackville, works by impersonation of moral qualities, viewed abstractly; the fletchers, who carried on his tradition, employ the same method, which gives a remote and often fantastic character to their work; nor was moral and religious poetic narrative truly humanized, and given ideal power in character and event, until milton carried it to its proper artistic culmination in paradise lost. milton stands to the evolution of this branch of poetic literature, springing from the miracle-plays, precisely as shakespeare does to the branch of ideal drama; and thus, although he fell outside of the great age, and was sixty years later than shakespeare in completing the work, the singularity of his literary greatness, his loneliness as a lofty genius in his time, becomes somewhat less inexplicable. the paradise lost occupies this moment of climax, to repeat the phrase, in literary history, and, like nearly all works in such circumstances, it has a greatness all its own. but, beyond that, it lies in a region of art where no other english work companions it, as an epic of the romantic spirit such as italy most boasts of, but superior in breadth, in ethical power, in human interest, to ariosto or tasso, and comparing with them as pindar with the alexandrians; it realized hell and eden, and the world of heavenly war and the temptation, to the vision of men, with tremendous imaginative power, stamping them into the race-mind as permanent imagery; and the literary kinship which the workmanship bears to what is most excellent and shining in the great works of greece, rome and italy, as well as to hebraic grandeur, helps to place the poem in that remoter air which is an association of the mind with all art. no other english poem has a similar brilliancy, aloofness and perfection, as of something existing in another element, except the adonais. in it personal lyricism achieved the most impersonal of elegies, and mingled the fairest dreams of changeful imaginative grief with the soul's intellectual passion for immortality full-voiced. it is detached from time and place; the hunger of the soul for eternity, which is its substance, human nature can never lay off; its literary kinship is with what is most lovely in the idyllic melody of the antique; and, owing to its small scale and the simple unity of its mood, it gives forth the perpetual charm of literary form in great purity. these two poems stand alone with shakespeare's plays, and are for epic and lyric what his work is for drama, the height of english performance in the cultivation of romance. other poets must be judged to have attained excellence in romantic art in proportion as they reveal the qualities of shakespeare, milton and shelley; for these three are the masters of romantic form, which, being the spirit of life proceeding from within outward, is the vital structure of english poetic genius. this internal power is also a principle of classic art in its antique examples; but academic criticism developed from them a hardened formalism to which romantic art is related as the spirit of life to the death-mask of the past. such pallor has from time to time crossed the features of english letters in a man or an age, and has brought a marble dignity, as to landor, or the shadow of an augustan elegance, as in the era of pope; but it has faded and passed away under the flush of new life. even in prose, in which so-called classic qualities are still sought by academic taste, the genius of english has shown a native obstinacy. the novel is so protean in form as to seem amorphous, but essentially repeats the drama, and submits in its masters to shakespearian parallelism; in substance and manner it has been overwhelmingly of a romantic cast; and in the other forms of prose, style, though of all varieties, has, perhaps, proved most preservative when highly colored, individualized, and touched with imaginative greatness, as in browne, taylor, milton, bunyan, burke, carlyle, macaulay; but the inferiority of their matter, it should be observed, affects the endurance of the eighteenth-century prose masters--steele, addison, swift and johnson, to name the foremost. commonly, it must be allowed, english, both prose and poetry, notwithstanding its triumphs, is valued for substance and not for form, whether this be due to a natural incapacity, or to a retardation in development which may hereafter be overcome, or to the fact that the richness of the substance renders the fineness of the form less eminent. in conclusion, the thought rises of itself, will this continuity, assimilative power, and copiousness, this original genius, this serviceableness to civilization and the private life, this supreme romantic art, be maintained, now that the english and their speech are spread through the world, or is the history of the intellectual expansion of athens and rome, the moral expansion of jerusalem, to be repeated? the saying of shelley, "the mind in creation is a fading coal," seems to be true of nations. great literatures, or periods in them, have usually marked the culmination of national power; and if they "look before and after," as virgil in the Æneid, they gather their wisdom, as he too did, by a gaze reverted to the past. the paradox of progress, in that the _laudator temporis acti_ is always found among the best and noblest of the elders, while yet the whole world of man ever moves on to greater knowledge, power and good, continues like the riddle of the sphinx; but time seems unalterably in favor of mankind through all dark prophecies. the mystery of genius is unsolved; and the messianic hope that a child may be born unto the people always remains; but the greatness of a nation dies only with that genius which is not a form of human greatness in individuals, but is shared by all of the blood, and constitutes them fellow-countrymen. the genius of the english shows no sign of decay; age has followed age, each more gloriously, and whether the period that is now closing be really an end or only the initial movement of a vaster arc of time, corresponding to the greater english destiny, world-wide, world-peopling, world-freeing, the arc of the movement of democracy through the next ages,--is immaterial; so long as the genius of the people, its piety and daring, its finding faculty for truth, its creative shaping in art, be still integral and vital, so long as its spiritual passion be fed from those human and divine ideas whose abundance is not lessened, and on those heroic tasks which a world still half discovered and partially subdued opens through the whole range of action and of the intellectual and moral life,--so long as these things endure, english speech must still be fruitful in great ages of literature, as in the past these have been its fountainheads. but if no more were to be written on the page of english, yet what is written there, contained and handed down in famous books and made the spiritual food of the vast multitude whose children's children shall use and read the english tongue through coming centuries under every sky, will constitute a moral dominion to which virgil's line may proudly apply-- his ego nec metas rerum nec tempora pono: imperium sine fine dedi. one hundred books famous in english literature dan chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath preluded those melodious bursts that fill the spacious times of great elizabeth with sounds that echo still. tennyson whan that apprill with his shouris sote and the droughte of marche hath pa'd [.y] rote and badid euery veyne in suche licour of whiche vertu engendrid is the flour whanne zepherus eke with his sote breth enspirid hath in euery holte and heth the tendir croppis and the yong sonne hath in the ram half his cours y conne and smale foulis make melodie that slepyn al nyght with opyn ye so prikith hem nature in her corage than longyng folk to gon on pilgremage and palmers to seche straunge londis to serue halowis couthe in sondry londis and specially fro euery shiris ende of yngelond to cauntirbury thy wende the holy blisful martir for to seke that them hath holpyn when they were seke and fil in that seson on a day in suthwerk atte tabard as i lay redy to wende on my pilgremage to cauntirbury with deuout corage that nyght was come in to that hosterye wel nyne & twenty in a companye of sondry folk be auenture y falle in feleship as pilgrymys were they alle that toward cauntirbury wolden ryde the chambris and the stablis were wyde and wel were they esid atte beste reduced leaf in original, × inches o moral gower chaucer this book is intituled confessio amantis / that is to saye in englysshe the confessyon of the louer maad and compyled by johan gower squyer borne in walys in the tyme of kyng richard the second which book treteth how he was confessyd to genyus preest of venus vpon the causes of loue in his fyue wyttes and seuen dedely synnes / as in thys sayd book al alonge appyereth / and by cause there been comprysed therin dyuers hystoryes and fables towchyng euery matere / i haue ordeyned a table here folowyng of al suche hystoryes and fables where and in what book and leef they stande in as here after foloweth ¶ fyrst the prologue how johan gower in the xvi yere of kyng rychard the second began to make thys book and dyrected to harry of lancastre thenne erle of derby folio ¶ ii of thestate of the royames temporally the sayd yere folio ¶ iii of thestate of the clergye the tyme of robert gylbonensis namyng hym self clemente thenne antipope folio ¶ iv of the estate of the comyn people folio ¶ v how he treteth of the ymage that nabugodonosor sawe in his sleep hauyng an heed of golde / a breste of syluer / a bely of brasse / legges of yron / and feet haffe yron & halfe erthe folio vi of thenterpretacion of the dreme / and how the world was fyrst of golde / & after alwey werse & werse folio vii ¶ thus endeth the prologue ¶ here begynneth the book and fyrst the auctor nameth thys book confessio amantis / that is to say the shryfte of the louer / wheron alle thys book shal shewe not onely the loue humayn / but also of alle lyuyng beestys naturally folio ¶ ix how cupydo smote johan gower with a fyry arowe and wounded hym so that venus commysed to hym genyus hyr preest for to here hys confessyon folio ¶ x how genyus beyng sette / the louer knelyng tofore hym prayeth the sayd confessor to appose hym in his confessyon folio ¶ xi the confessyon of the amant of two of the pryncipallist of his fyue wyttes folio ¶ xi how atheon for lokyng vpon deane was turned in to an herte folio ¶ xi of phorceus and hys thre doughters whiche had but one eye / & how phorceus slewe them folio ¶ xii how the serpente that bereth the charbuncle stoppeth his one ere wyth hys tayle and that other wyth the erthe whan he is enchaunted folio ¶ xii how vlyxes escaped fro the marmaydys by stoppyng of hys eerys folio ¶ xii here foloweth that there ben vii dedely synnes / of whome the fyrste is reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. flos regum arthurus john of exeter after that i had accomplysshed and fynysshed dyuers hystoryes as wel of contemplacyon as of other hystoryal and worldly actes of grete conquerours & prynces / and also certeyn bookes of ensaumples and doctryne / many noble and dyuers gentylmen of thys royame of englond camen and demaunded me many and oftymes / wherfore that j haue not do made & enprynte the noble hystorye of the saynt greal / and of the moost renomed crysten kyng / fyrst and chyef of the thre best crysten and worthy / kyng arthur / whyche ought moost to be remembred emonge vs englysshe men tofore al other crysten kynges / for it is notoyrly knowen thorugh the vnyuersal world / that there been ix worthy & the best that euer were / that is to wete thre paynyms / thre jewes and thre crysten men / as for the paynyms they were tofore the jncarnacyon of cryst / whiche were named / the fyrst hector of troye / of whome thystorye is comen bothe in balade and in prose / the second alysaunder the grete / & the thyrd julyus cezar emperour of rome of whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had / and as for the thre jewes whyche also were tofore thyncarnacyon of our lord of whome the fyrst was duc josue whyche brought the chyldren of israhel in to the londe of byheste / the second dauyd kyng of jherusalem / & the thyrd judas machabeus of these thre the byble reherceth al theyr noble hystoryes & actes / and sythe the sayd jncarnacyon haue ben thre noble crysten men stalled and admytted thorugh the vnyuersal world in to the nombre of the ix beste & worthy / of whome was fyrst the noble arthur / whos noble actes j purpose to wryte in thys present book here folowyng / the second was charlemayn or charles the grete / of whome thystorye is had in many places bothe in frensshe and englysshe / and the thyrd and last was godefray of boloyn / of whos actes & lyf j made a book vnto thexcellent prynce and kyng of noble memorye kyng edward the fourth / the sayd noble jentylmen jnstantly requyred me temprynte thystorye of the sayd noble kyng and conquerour kyng arthur / and of his knyghtes wyth thystorye of the saynt greal / and of the deth and endyng of the sayd arthur / affermyng that j ouzt rather tenprynte his actes and noble feates / than of godefroye of boloyne / or reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. so judiciously contrived that the wisest may exercise at once their knowledge and devotion; its ceremonies few and innocent; its language significant and perspicuous; most of the words and phrases being taken out of the holy scriptures and the rest are the expressions of the first and purest ages. comber the booke of the common praier and administracion of the sacramentes, and other rites and ceremonies of the churche: after the vse of the churche of englande. londini, _in officina richardi graftoni, regij impressoris_. _cum priuilegio ad imprimendum solum._ _anno domini._ m.d.xlix. _mense martij._ reduced leaf in original × . inches. the author of piers ploughman, no doubt, embodied in a poetic dress just what millions felt. his poem as truly expressed the popular sentiment on the subjects it discussed as did the american declaration of independence the national thought and feeling on the relations between the colonies and great britain. its dialect, its tone and its poetic dress alike conspired to secure to the vision a wide circulation among the commonalty of the realm, and by formulating--to use a favorite word of the day--sentiments almost universally felt, though but dimly apprehended, it brought them into distinct consciousness, and thus prepared the english people for the reception of the seed which the labors of wycliffe and his converts were already sowing among them. marsh the vision of pierce plowman, now fyrste imprynted by roberte crowley, dwellyng in ely tentes in holburne. anno domini. . cum priuilegio ad imprimend[=u] solum. by far the most important of our historical records, in print, during the time of queen elizabeth. dibdin . the firste volume of the _chronicles of england, scotlande_, and irelande. conteyning, the description and chronicles of england, from the first inhabiting vnto the conquest the description and chronicles of scotland, from the first originall of the scottes nation, till the yeare of our lorde. . the description and chronicles of yrelande, likewise from the firste originall of that nation, vntill the yeare. . _faithfully gathered and set forth, by_ raphaell holinshed. at london, imprinted for george bishop. god saue the queene. reduced leaf in original, . . inches our historic plays are allowed to have been founded on the heroic narratives in the mirror for magistrates; to that plan, and to the boldness of lord buckhurst's new scenes, perhaps we owe shakespeare. walpole ¶_a myrrovr for_ magistrates. wherein maye be seen by example of other, with howe greuous plages vices are punished: and howe frayle and vnstable werldly prosperity is founde, even of those whom fortune seemeth most highly to fauour. _fælix quem faciunt aliena pericula cautum._ _anno._ . ¶_imprinted at london in fletestrete nere to saynct dunstans churche by thomas marshe._ two chieftaines who having travailed into italie, and there tasted the sweete and stately measures and stile of italian poesie, as novices newly crept out of the schooles of dante, arioste, and petrarch, they greatly pollished our rude and homely maner of vulgar poesie, from that it had bene before, and for that cause may justly be sayd the first reformers of our english meetre and stile. puttenham ¶_songes and sonettes written by the right honorable lord henry haward late earle of surrey, and others._ _apud richardum tottell._ . _cumpriuilegio._ it is full of stately speeches, and well-sounding phrases, clyming to the height of seneca his stile, and as full of notable moralitie, which it doth most delightfully teach, and so obtayne the very end of poesie. sidney ¶the tragidie of ferrex and porrex, set forth without addition or alteration but altogether as the same was shewed on stage before the queenes maiestie, about nine yeares past, _vz._ the xviij. day of ianuarie. . by the gentlemen of the inner temple. =seen and allowed, &c.= imprinted at london by iohn daye, dwelling ouer aldersgate. these papers of his lay like dead lawrels in a churchyard; but i have gathered the scattered branches up, and by a charme, gotten from apollo, made them greene againe and set them up as epitaphes to his memory. a sinne it were to suffer these rare monuments of wit to lye covered in dust and a shame such conceipted comedies should be acted by none but wormes. oblivion shall not so trample on a sonne of the muses; and such a sonne as they called their darling. our nation are in his debt for a new english which he taught them. "euphues and his england" began first that language: all our ladyes were then his scollers; and that beautie in court, which could not parley eupheueisme was as little regarded as shee which now there speakes not french. blount evphves. the anatomy _of wit_. verie pleasant for all _gentlemen to reade_, and most necessary to remember. _wherein are contayned the_ delightes that wit followeth in _his youth, by the pleasantnesse of loue_, and the happinesse he reapeth in age, by the perfectnes of wisedome. _by_ iohn lylie, _maister of art_. corrected and augmented. _at london_ printed for gabriell cawood, dwelling in paules church-yard. the noble and vertuous gentleman most worthy of all titles both of learning and chevalrie m. philip sidney. spenser the covntesse of pembrokes arcadia, written by sir philippe sidnei. london printed for william ponsonbie. _anno domini_, . our sage and serious poet spenser (whom i dare be known to think a better teacher than scotus or aquinas). milton the faerie qveene. disposed into twelue books, _fashioning_ xii. morall vertues. vbique floret (in printer's mark) london printed for william ponsonbie. . who is there that upon hearing the name of lord bacon does not instantly recognize everything of literature the most extensive, everything of discovery the most penetrating, everything of observation of human life the most distinguished and refined? burke essaies. religious meditations. places of perswasion and disswasion. seene and allowed. london printed for humfrey hooper and are to bee solde at the blacke beare in chauncery lane. . they contain the heroic tales of the exploits of the great men in whom the new era was inaugurated; not mythic like the iliads and the eddas, but plain, broad narratives of substantial facts, which rival legend in interest and grandeur. what the old epics were to the royally or nobly born, this modern epic is to the common people. we have no longer kings or princes for chief actors to whom the heroism, like the dominion of the world, had in time past been confined. but, as it was in the days of the apostles, when a few poor fishermen from an obscure lake in palestine assumed, under the divine mission, the spiritual authority over mankind, so, in the days of our own elizabeth, the seamen from the banks of the thames and the avon, the plym and the dart, self-taught and self-directed, with no impulse but what was beating in their own royal hearts, went out across the unknown seas, fighting, discovering, colonizing, and graved out the channels, paving them at last with their bones, through which the commerce and enterprise of england has flowed out over all the world. froude the principal navigations, voiages, traffiqves and discoueries of the english nation, made by sea or ouer-land, to the remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth, at any time within the compasse of these . yeeres: deuided into three seuerall volumes, according to the positions of the regions, whereonto they were directed. this first volume containing the woorthy discoueries, &c. of the english toward the north and northeast by sea, as of _lapland_, _scriksinia_, _corelia_, the baie of s. _nicholas_, the isles of _colgoieue_, _vaigatz_, and _noua zembla_, toward the great riuer _ob_, with the mighty empire of _russia_, the _caspian_ sea, _georgia_, _armenia_, _media_, _persia_, _boghar_ in _bactria_, and diuers kingdoms of _tartaria_: together with many notable monuments and testimonies of the ancient forren trades, and of the warrelike and other shipping of this realme of _england_ in former ages. _whereunto is annexed also a briefe commentarie of the true_ state of _island_, and of the northren seas and lands situate that way. _and lastly, the memorable defeate of the spanish huge armada, anno_ . and the famous victorie atchieued at the citie of _cadiz_, . are described. _by_ richard hacklvyt _master of_ artes, and sometime student of christ-church in oxford. [illustration] imprinted at london by george bishop, ralph newberie and robert barker. . reduced leaf in original, × . inches. much have i travell'd in the realms of gold and many goodly states and kingdoms seen; round many western islands have i been which bards in fealty to apollo hold. oft of one wide expanse had i been told that deep-brow'd homer ruled as his demesne; yet did i never breathe its pure serene till i heard chapman speak out loud and bold: then felt i like some watcher of the skies when a new planet swims into his ken; or like stout cortez, when with eagle eyes he stared at the pacific--and all his men look'd at each other with a wild surmise-- silent, upon a peak in darien. keats _mulciber in troiam, pro troia stabat apollo._ homer the whole works of homer; prince of poetts in his iliads, and odysses. _translated according to the greeke, by geo: chapman._ de ili: et odiss: _omnia ab his: et in his sunt omnia: siue beati_ _te decor eloquij, seu rer[=u] pondera tangunt. angel pol:_ * * * * * _at london printed for nathaniell butter. william hole sculp:_ qui nil molitur ineptè achilles hector reduced leaf in original, . x . inches. within that awful volume lies the mystery of mysteries! happiest they of human race, to whom god has granted grace to read, to fear, to hope, to pray, to lift the latch, and force the way; and better had they ne'er been born who read to doubt, or read to scorn. scott the holy bible, conteyning the old testament, and the new: ¶_newly translated out of_ the originall tongues: and with the former translations diligently compared and reuised by his maiesties speciall commandement, ¶_appointed to be read in churches._ * * * * * ¶imprinted at london by _robert barker_, printer to the kings most excellent maiestie. * * * * * anno dom. . reduced leaf in original . x . inches o rare ben jonson epitaph theatrvm gvl locvm teneant s cen the workes of _beniamin jonson_ --_neque, me vt miretur turba laboro: contentus paucis lectoribus._ _imprinted at london, by will stansby_ plavstrvm visorivm _an. d._ . guhel _hole fecit_ reduced leaf in original, × . inches. scarce any book of philology in our land hath in so short a time passed so many impressions. fuller _the_ anatomy of melancholy, _what it is_. with all the kindes, cavses, symptomes, prog_nostickes, and severall cvres of it_. in three maine partitions with their seuerall sections, members, and svbsections. _philosophically, medicinally, historically, opened and cvt vp._ by democritvs _iunior_. with a satyricall preface, conducing to _the following discourse_. macrob. omne meum, nihil meum. _at oxford_, printed by iohn lichfield and iames short, for henry cripps. _anno dom._ . he was not of an age, but for all time! jonson m^r. william shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies. published according to the true originall copies. [illustration] _martin droahout sculpsit london_ london printed by isaac jaggard, and ed. blount. . reduced leaf in original . x . inches this most tragic of all tragedies save king lear. swinburne the tragedy of the dutchesse of malfy. _as it was presented priuatly, at the black-friers; and publiquely at the globe, by the_ kings maiesties seruants. the perfect and exact coppy, with diuerse _things printed, that the length of the play would_ not beare in the presentment. written by _john webster._ hora.----_si quid---- ----candidus imperti si non bis vtere mecum._ * * * * * _london:_ printed by nicholas okes, for iohn waterson, and are to be sold at the signe of the crowne, in _paules_ church-yard, . to me massinger is one of the most interesting as well as one of the most delightful of the old dramatists, not so much for his passion or power, though at times he reaches both, as for the love he shows for those things that are lovely and of good report in human nature, for his sympathy with what is generous and high-minded and honorable and for his equable flow of a good every-day kind of poetry, with few rapids or cataracts, but singularly soothing and companionable. lowell a new way to pay old debts a comoedie _as it hath beene often acted at the phoenix in drury-lane, by the queenes maiesties seruants._ the author. philip massinger. noli altvm sapere (in printer's mark) london, printed by _e. p._ for _henry seyle_, dwelling in _s. pauls_ church-yard, at the signe of the tygers head. anno. m. dc. xxxiii. ford was of the first order of poets. he sought for sublimity, not by parcels in metaphors or visible images, but directly where she has her full residence in the heart of man; in the actions and sufferings of the greatest minds. there is a grandeur of the soul above mountains, seas, and the elements. even in the poor perverted reason of giovanni and annabella we discover traces of that fiery particle, which in the irregular starting from out of the road of beaten action, discovers something of a right line even in obliquity, and shows hints of an improvable greatness in the lowest descents and degradation of our nature. lamb the broken heart. a tragedy. _acted_ by the kings majesties seruants at the priuate house in the black-friers. _fide honor._ [illustration] _london:_ printed by _i. b._ for hvgh beeston, and are to be sold at his shop, neere the _castle_ in _corne-hill_. . next marlow, bathed in the thespian springs, had in him those brave sublunary things that the first poets had; his raptures were all air and fire which made his verses clear; for that fine madness still he did retain, which rightly should possess a poet's brain. drayton _the famous_ tragedy of the rich jew of _malta_. as it was playd before the king and qveene, in his majesties theatre at _white-hall_, by her majesties servants at the _cock-pit_. _written by_ christopher marlo. [illustration] _london_, printed by _i. b._ for _nicholas vavasour_, and are to be sold at his shop in the inner-temple, neere the church. . sir, i pray deliver this little book to my dear brother farrar, and tell him he shall find in it a picture of the many spiritual conflicts that have passed betwixt god and my soul, before i would subject mine to the will of jesus, my master, in whose service i have now found perfect freedom. desire him to read it; and then, if he can think it may turn to the advantage of any dejected poor soul, let it be made public; if not, let him burn it; for i and it are less than the least of god's mercies. herbert the temple. sacred poems and private ejaculations. by m^r. george herbert. psal. . _in his temple doth every man speak of his honour._ [illustration] cambridge printed by _thom._ _buck_, and _roger daniel_, printers to the universitie. . did his youth scatter poetry wherein lay love's philosophy? was every sin pictured in his sharp satires, made so foul, that some have fear'd sin's shapes, and kept their soul safer by reading verse: did he give days, past marble monuments, to those whose praise he would perpetuate? did he--i fear envy will doubt--these at his twentieth year? but, more matured, did his rich soul conceive and in harmonious holy numbers weave a crown of sacred sonnets, fit to adorn a dying martyr's brow, or to be worn on that blest head of mary magdalen, after she wiped christ's feet, but not till then; did he--fit for such penitents as she and he to use--leave us a litany which all devout men love, and doubtless shall, as times grow better, grow more classical? did he write hymns, for piety and wit, equal to those great grave prudentius writ? walton poems, _by_ j. d. with elegies on the authors death. london. printed by _m. f._ for iohn marriot, and are to be sold at his shop in s^t _dunstans_ church-yard in _fleet-street_. . it is not on the praises of others, but on his own writings that he is to depend for the esteem of posterity; of which he will not easily be deprived while learning shall have any reverence among men; for there is no science in which he does not discover some skill; and scarce any kind of knowledge, profane or sacred, abstruse or elegant, which he does not appear to have cultivated with success. johnson à coelo salus religio, medici. _printed for andrew crooke. . will marshatt. scu._ waller was smooth. pope the workes of edmond waller esquire, lately a member of the honourable house of commons, in this present parliament. _imprimatur_ na. brent. _decem. . ._ london, printed for _thomas walkley_. . o volume, worthy, leaf by leaf and cover, to be with juice of cedar washed all over! here's words with lines, and lines with scenes consent to raise an act to full astonishment; here melting numbers, words of power to move young men to swoon, and maids to die for love: _love lies a-bleeding_ here; evadne there swells with brave rage, yet comely everywhere; here's _a mad lover_; there that high design of _king and no king_, and the rare plot thine. so that where'er we circumvolve our eyes, such rich, such fresh, such sweet varieties ravish our spirits, that entranc'd we see, none writes love's passion in the world like thee. herrick comedies and tragedies {francis beavmont} written by { and } gentlemen. {iohn fletcher } never printed before, and now published by the authours originall copies. * * * * * _si quid habent veri vatum præsagia, vivam._ * * * * * _london_, printed for _humphrey robinson_, at the three _pidgeons_, and for _humphrey moseley_ at the _princes armes_ in _s^t pauls church-yard_. . reduced leaf in original, . x . inches what mighty epics have been wrecked by time since herrick launched his cockle-shell of rhyme! aldrich _hesperides_: or, the works both humane & divine of robert herrick _esq._ * * * * * ovid. _effugient avidos carmina nostra rogos._ * * * * * [illustration] * * * * * _london_ printed for _john williams_, and _francis eglesfield_, and are to be sold at the crown and marygold in saint _pauls_ church-yard. . taylor, the shakespeare of divines. emerson _the rule and exercises of holy living_ _by jer. taylor d:d._ _non magna loquimur sed vivimus_ _london printed for r. royston in ivye lane. ._ _ro: vaughan sculp._ that is a book you should read: such sweet religion in it, next to woolman's, though the subject be bait, and hooks, and worms, and fishes. lamb _the compleat angler or the contemplative man's recreation_ being a discourse of fish and fishing, not unworthy the perusal of most _anglers_. * * * * * simon peter said, _i go a_ fishing: _and they said, we also wil go with thee_. john . . * * * * * _london_, printed by _t. maxey_ for rich. marriot, in s. _dunstans_ church-yard fleetstreet, . yet he, consummate master, knew when to recede and when pursue. his noble negligences teach what others' toils despair to reach. he, perfect dancer, climbs the rope, and balances your fear and hope; if, after some distinguished leap, he drops his pole, and seems to slip, straight gathering all his active strength, he rises higher half his length. with wonder you approve his slight, and owe your pleasure to your fright. prior hudibras * * * * * the first part. * * * * * _written in the time of the late wars._ * * * * * _london._ printed by _j. g._ for _richard marriot_, under saint _dunstan_'s church in _fleetstreet_. . the third among the sons of light. shelley paradise lost. a poem written in ten books by _john milton._ * * * * * licensed and entred according to order. * * * * * _l o n d o n_ printed, and are to be sold by _peter parker_ under _creed_ church neer _aldgate_; and by _robert boulter_ at the _turks head_ in _bishopsgate-street_; and _matthias walker_, under st. _dunstons_ church in _fleet-street_, . ingenious dreamer! in whose well-told tale sweet fiction and sweet truth alike prevail; whose humorous vein, strong sense, and simple style, may teach the gayest, make the gravest smile; witty and well-employed, and, like thy lord, speaking in parables his slighted word:-- i name thee not, lest so despised a name should move a sneer at thy deserved fame. cowper the pilgrim's progress from this world, to that which is to come: delivered under the similitude of a dream wherein is discovered, the manner of his setting out, his dangerous journey; and safe arrival at the desired countrey. * * * * * _i have used similitudes_, _hos._ . . * * * * * by _john bunyan._ * * * * * licensed and entred according to order. * * * * * l o n d o n, printed for _nath. ponder_ at the _peacock_ in the _poultrey_ near _cornhil_, . behold where dryden's less presumptuous car wide o'er the fields of glory bear two coursers of ethereal race, with necks in thunder clothed, and long-resounding pace. gray absalom and achitophel. * * * * * a poem. * * * * * ----_si propiùs stes te capiet magis_---- * * * * * l o n d o n, printed for _j. t._ and are to be sold by _w. davis_ in _amen-corner_, . reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. few books in the literature of philosophy have so widely represented the spirit of the age and country in which they appeared, or have so influenced opinion afterwards as locke's _essay concerning human understanding_. the art of education, political thought, theology and philosophy, especially in britain, france and america, long bore the stamp of the _essay_, or of reaction against it. fraser an e s s a y concerning =humane understanding=. * * * * * in four books. * * * * * _quam bellum est velle confiteri potius nescire quod nescias, quam ista effutientem nauseare, atque ipsum sibi displicere!_ =cic. de natur. deor.= _l._ . * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed by _eliz. holt_, for =thomas basset=, at the _george_ in _fleetstreet_, near st. _dunstan_'s church. mdcxc. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches oh! that your brows my laurel had sustained, well had i been deposed if you had reigned! the father had descended for the son; for only you are lineal to the throne. * * * * * yet i this prophesy: thou shalt be seen, (though with some short parenthesis between,) high on the throne of wit; and, seated there, not mine (that's little) but thy laurel wear. thy first attempt an early promise made, that early promise this has more than paid; so bold, yet so judiciously you dare, that your least praise is to be regular. * * * * * already i am worn with cares and age, and just abandoning the ungrateful stage; unprofitably kept at heaven's expense, i live a rent-charge on his providence. but you, whom every muse and grace adorn, whom i foresee to better fortune born, be kind to my remains; and, oh defend, against your judgment, your departed friend! let not the insulting foe my fame pursue, but shield those laurels which descend to you: and take for tribute what these lines express: you merit more, but could my love do less. dryden the way of the world, a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre in _lincoln's-inn-fields_, by his majesty's servants. * * * * * written by mr. _congreve_. * * * * * _audire est operæ pretium, procedere recte qui mæchis non vultis----_ hor. sat. . l. . _----metuat doti deprensa.----_ ibid. * * * * * l o n d o n: printed for _jacob tonson_, within _gray's-inn-gate_ next _gray's-inn-lane_. . reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. for an englishman there is no single historical work with which it can be so necessary for him to be well and thoroughly acquainted as with clarendon. southey the history of the rebellion and civil wars in england, begun in the year . with the precedent passages, and actions, that contributed thereunto, and the happy end, and conclusion thereof by the king's blessed restoration, and return upon the ^{th} of _may_, in the year . written by the right honourable edward earl of clarendon, late lord high chancellour of _england_, privy counsellour in the reigns of king charles the first and the second. * * * * * [greek: ktêma es aei.] thucyd. _ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne quid veri non audeat._ cicero. * * * * * volume the first. * * * * * [illustration] _o x f o r d_, printed at the theater, _an. dom._ mdccii. reduced leaf in original, × . inches. it is incredible to conceive the effect his writings have had upon the town; how many thousand follies they have either quite banished or given a very great check to! how much countenance they have added to virtue and religion! how many people they have rendered happy, by showing them it was their own fault if they were not so! and lastly how entirely they have convinced our young fops and young fellows of the value and advantages of learning! he has indeed rescued it out of the hands of pedants, and fools, and discovered the true method of making it amiable and lovely to all mankind. in the dress he gives it, it is a most welcome guest at tea-tables and assemblies, and is relished and caressed by the merchants on the change. accordingly, there is not a lady at court, nor a broker in lombard street, who is not easily persuaded that captain _steele_ is the greatest scholar and casuist of any man in england. gay the lucubrations of isaac bickerstaff esq; * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * [greek: ou chrê pannychion heudein boulêphoron andra.] homer. * * * * * [illustration] * * * * * _l o n d o n_, printed: and sold by _john morphew_, near _stationers-hall_. mdccx. _note_, the bookbinder is desired to place the index after [_tosler, n^o. _] which ends the _first volume_ in folio. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches whoever wishes to attain an english style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of addison. johnson numb. the spectator. * * * * * _non fumum ex fulgore, sed ex fumo dare lucem cogitat; ut speciosa dehinc miracula promat._ hor. * * * * * to be continued every day. * * * * * _thursday, march . ._ i have observed, that a reader seldom peruses a book with pleasure 'till he knows whether the writer of it be a black or a fair man, of a mild or cholerick disposition, married or a batchelor, with other particulars of the like nature, that conduce very much to the right understanding of an author. to gratify this curiosity, which is so natural to a reader, i design this paper, and my next, as prefatory discourses to my following writings, and shall give some account in them of the several persons that are engaged in this work. as the chief trouble of compiling, digesting and correcting will fall to my share, i must do my self the justice to open the work with my own history. i was born to a small hereditary estate, which i find, by the writings of the family, was bounded by the same hedges and ditches in _william_ the conqueror's time that it is at present, and has been delivered down from father to son whole and entire, without the loss or acquisition of a single field or meadow, during the space of six hundred years. there goes a story in the family, that when my mother was gone with child of me about three months, she dreamt that she was brought to bed of a judge: whether this might proceed from a law-suit which was then depending in the family, or my father's being a justice of the peace, i cannot determine; for i am not so vain as to think it presaged any dignity that i should arrive at in my future life, though that was the interpretation which the neighbourhood put upon it. the gravity of my behaviour at my very first appearance in the world, and all the time that i sucked, seemed to favour my mother's dream: for, as she has often told me, i threw away my rattle before i was two months old, and would not make use of my coral 'till they had taken away the bells from it. as for the rest of my infancy, there being nothing in it remarkable, i shall pass it over in silence. i find that, during my nonage, i had the reputation of a very sullen youth, but was always a favourite of my school-master, who used to say, _that my parts were solid and would wear well_. i had not been long at the university, before i distinguished my self by a most profound silence: for, during the space of eight years, excepting in the publick exercises of the college, i scarce uttered the quantity of an hundred words; and indeed do not remember that i ever spoke three sentences together in my whole life. whilst i was in this learned body i applied my self with so much diligence to my studies, that there are very few celebrated books, either in the learned or the modern tongues, which i am not acquainted with. upon the death of my father i was resolved to travel into foreign countries, and therefore left the university, with the character of an odd unaccountable fellow, that had a great deal of learning, if i would but show it. an insatiable thirst after knowledge carried me into all the countries of _europe_, where there was any thing new or strange to be seen; nay, to such a degree was my curiosity raised, that having read the controversies of some great men concerning the antiquities of _egypt_, i made a voyage to _grand cairo_, on purpose to take the measure of a pyramid; and as soon as i had set my self right in that particular, returned to my native country with great satisfaction. i have passed my latter years in this city, where i am frequently seen in most publick places, tho' there are not above half a dozen of my select friends that know me; of whom my next paper shall give a more particular account. there is no place of publick resort, wherein i do not often make my appearance; sometimes i am seen thrusting my head into a round of politicians at _will_'s, and listning with great attention to the narratives that are made in those little circular audiences. sometimes i smoak a pipe at _child_'s; and whilst i seem attentive to nothing but the _post-man_, over-hear the conversation of every table in the room. i appear on _sunday nights_ at _st. james's coffee_-house, and sometimes join the little committee of politicks in the inner-room, as one who comes there to hear and improve. my face is likewise very well known at the _grecian_, the _cocoa-tree_, and in the theaters both of _drury-lane_, and the _hay-market_. i have been taken for a merchant reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. it breathes throughout a spirit of piety and benevolence; it sets in a very striking light the importance of the mechanic arts, which they who know not what it is to be without them are apt to undervalue. it fixes in the mind a lively idea of the horrors of solitude, and, consequently, of the sweets of social life, and of the blessings we derive from conversation and mutual aid; and it shows how by labouring with one's own hands, one may secure independence, and open for one's self many sources of health and amusement. i agree, therefore, with rousseau, that this is one of the best books that can be put into the hands of children. beattie the life and strange surprizing adventures of _robinson crusoe_, of _york_, mariner: who lived eight and twenty years, all alone in an un-inhabited island on the coast of america, near the mouth of the great river of oroonoque; having been cast on shore by shipwreck, wherein all the men perished but himself. with an account how he was at last as strangely deliver'd by pyrates. * * * * * _written by himself._ * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed for w. taylor at the _ship_ in _pater-noster-row_. mdccxix. anima rabelasii habitans in sicco coleridge travels into several remote nations of the world. * * * * * in four parts. * * * * * by _lemuel gulliver_, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships. * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ _printed for_ benj. motte, _at the middle_ temple-gate _in_ fleet-street. mdccxxvi. i think no english poet ever brought so much sense into the same number of lines with equal smoothness, ease, and poetical beauty. let him who doubts of this peruse the _essay on man_ with attention. shenstone an essay on man address'd to a friend. * * * * * part i. * * * * * [illustration] * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed for _j. wilford_, at the _three flower-de-luces_, behind the _chapter-house_, st. _pauls_. [price one shilling.] _ _ reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. it was about this date, i suppose, that i read bishop butler's _analogy_; the study of which has been to so many, as it was to me, an era in their religious opinions. its inculcation of a visible church, the oracle of truth and a pattern of sanctity, of the duties of external religion, and of the historical character of revelation, are characteristics of this great work which strike the reader at once; for myself, if i may attempt to determine what i most gained from it, it lay in two points which i shall have an opportunity of dwelling on in the sequel: they are the underlying principles of a great portion of my teaching. newman the analogy of religion, natural and revealed, to the constitution and course of nature. to which are added two brief dissertations: i. of personal identity. ii. of the nature of virtue. by joseph butler, l l. d. rector of stanhope, in the bishoprick of durham. _ejus_ (analogiæ) _hæc vis est, ut id quod dubium est, ad aliquid simile de quo non quæritur, referat; ut incerta certis probet._ quint. inst. orat. l. i. c. vi. l o n d o n: printed for james, john and paul knapton, at the crown in ludgate street. mdccxxxvi. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. i never heard the olde song of percy and duglas that i found not my heart mooved more than with a trumpet. sidney reliques of ancient english poetry: consisting of old heroic ballads, songs, and other pieces of our earlier poets, (chiefly of the lyric kind.) together with some few of later date. volume the first. [illustration: durat opus vatum] l o n d o n: printed for j. dodsley in pall-mall. m dcc lxv. from dewy pastures, uplands sweet with thyme, a virgin breeze freshened the jaded day. it wafted collins' lonely vesper chime, it breathed abroad the frugal note of gray. watson odes on several _descriptive_ and _allegoric_ subjects. * * * * * by william collins. * * * * * ----[greek: eiên heurêsiepês, anageisthai prosphoros en moisan diphrô; tolma de kai amphilaphês dynamis espoito,---- pindar. olymp. th.] [illustration] _l o n d o n:_ printed for a. millar, in the _strand_. m.dcc.xlvii. (price one shilling.) the first book in the world for the knowledge it displays of the human heart. johnson clarissa. or, the history of a young lady: comprehending _the most_ important concerns _of_ private life. and particularly shewing, the distresses that may attend the misconduct both of parents and children, in relation to marriage. * * * * * _published by the_ editor _of_ pamela. * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * [illustration] * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed for s. richardson: and sold by a. millar, over-against _catharine-street_ in the _strand_: j. and ja. rivington, in _st. paul's church-yard_: john osborn, in _pater-noster row_; and by j. leake, at _bath_. m.dcc.xlviii. upon my word i think the _oedipus tyrannus_, the _alchymist_, and _tom jones_ the three most perfect plots ever planned. coleridge the history of _tom jones_, a foundling. * * * * * in six volumes. * * * * * by henry fielding, esq. * * * * * ----_mores hominum multorum vidit_---- * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed for a. millar, over-against _catharine-street_ in the _strand_. mdccxlix. now, gentlemen, i would rather be the author of that poem than take quebec. wolfe an elegy wrote in a country church yard. * * * * * _london:_ printed for r. dodsley in _pall-mall_; and sold by m. cooper in _pater-noster-row_. . [price six-pence.] reduced leaf in original, . × . inches i have devoted this book, the labour of years, to the honour of my country, that we may no longer yield the palm of philology without a contest to the nations of the continent. johnson a dictionary of the english language: in which the words are deduced from their originals, and illustrated in their different significations by examples from the best writers. to which are prefixed, a history of the language, and an english grammar. by samuel johnson, a. m. in two volumes vol. i. cum tabulis animum censoris sumet honesti: audebit quæcunque parum splendoris habebunt, et sine pondere erunt, et honore indigna serentur. verba movere loco; quamvis invita recedant, et versentur adhuc intra penetralia vestæ: obscurata diu populo bonus eruet, atque proferet in lucem speciosa vocabula rerum, quæ priscis memorata catonibus atque cethegis, nunc situs informis premit et deserta vetustas. hor. l o n d o n, printed by w. strahan, for j. and p. knapton; t. and t. longman; c. hitch and l. hawes; a. millar; and r. and j. dodsley. mdcclv. reduced leaf in original, × . inches. eripuit coelo fulmen sceptrumque tyrannis turgot poor richard improved: * * * * * being an almanack and _ephemeris_ of the motions of the sun and moon; the true places and aspects of the planets; the _rising_ and _setting_ of the _sun_; and the rising, setting _and_ southing _of the_ moon, for the year of our lord : being the second after leap-year. containing also, the lunations, conjunctions, eclipses, judgment of the weather, rising and setting of the planets, length of days and nights, fairs, courts, roads, &c. together with useful tables, chronological observations, and entertaining remarks. * * * * * fitted to the latitude of forty degrees, and a meridian of near five hours west from _london_; but may, without feasible error, serve all the northern colonies. * * * * * by _richard saunders_, philom. * * * * * _philadelpeia:_ printed and sold by b. franklin, and d. hall. there your son will find analytical reasoning diffused in a pleasing and perspicuous style. there he may imbibe, imperceptibly, the first principles on which our excellent laws are founded; and there he may become acquainted with an uncouth crabbed author, coke upon lytleton, who has disappointed and disheartened many a tyro, but who cannot fail to please in a modern dress. mansfield commentaries on the laws of england. book the first. by william blackstone, esq. vinerian professor of law, and solicitor general to her majesty. o x f o r d, printed at the clarendon press. m. dcc. lxv. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. i received one morning a message from poor goldsmith that he was in great distress, and, as it was not in his power to come to me, begging that i would come to him as soon as possible. i sent him a guinea, and promised to come to him directly. i accordingly went as soon as i was dressed, and found that his landlady had arrested him for his rent, at which he was in a violent passion. i perceived that he had already changed my guinea, and had got a bottle of madeira and a glass before him. i put the cork into the bottle, desired he would be calm, and began to talk to him of the means by which he might be extricated. he then told me he had a novel (_the vicar of wakefield_) ready for the press, which he produced to me. i looked into it, and saw its merit; told the landlady i should soon return; and, having gone to a bookseller, sold it for sixty pounds. i brought goldsmith the money, and he discharged his rent, not without rating his landlady in a high tone for having used him so ill. johnson the v i c a r of wakefield: a t a l e. supposed to be written by himself. * * * * * _sperate miseri, cavete fælices._ * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * salisbury: printed by b. collins, for f. newbery, in pater-noster-row, london. mdcclxvi. his exquisite sensibility is ever counteracted by his perception of the ludicrous and his ambition after the strange. talfourd a sentimental journey through france and italy. by mr. yorick. * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * l o n d o n: printed for t. becket and p. a. de hondt, in the strand. mdcclxviii. i know not indeed of any work on the principles of free government that is to be compared, in instruction, and intrinsic value, to this small and unpretending volume of _the federalist_, not even if we resort to aristotle, cicero, machiavel, montesquieu, milton, locke, or burke. it is equally admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, patriotism, candor, simplicity, and elegance with which its truths are uttered and recommended. chancellor kent t h e federalist: a collection of e s s a y s, written in favour of the new constitution, as agreed upon by the federal convention, september , . in two volumes vol. i. new-york: printed and sold by j. and a. m'lean, no. , hanover-square, m,dcc,lxxxviii. the novel of _humphrey clinker_ is, i do think, the most laughable story that has ever been written since the goodly art of novel-writing began. winifred jenkins and tabitha bramble must keep englishmen on the grin for ages to come; and in their letters and the story of their loves there is a perpetual fount of sparkling laughter, as inexhaustible as bladud's well. thackeray the expedition of humphry clinker. by the author of roderick random. * * * * * in three volumes. v o l. i. * * * * * ----quorsum hæc tam putida tendunt, furcifer? ad te, inquam---- hor. * * * * * l o n d o n, printed for w. johnston, in ludgate-street; and b. collins, in salisbury. mdclxxi. adam smith contributed more by the publication of this single work towards the happiness of men than has been effected by the united abilities of all the statesmen and legislators of whom history has preserved an authentic account. buckle an i n q u i r y into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. by adam smith, ll. d. and f. r. s. formerly professor of moral philosophy in the university of glasgow. in two volumes vol. i. * * * * * london: printed for w. strahan; and t. cadell, in the strand. mdcclxxvi. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. sapping a solemn creed with solemn sneer; the lord of irony-- byron the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire, by edward gibbon, esq; volume the first. jam provideo animo, velut qui, proximis littori vadis inducti, mare pedibus ingrediuntur, quicquid progredior, in vastiorem me altitudinem, ac velut profundum invehi; et crescere pene opus, quod prima quæque perficiendo minui videbatur. * * * * * l o n d o n: printed for w. strahan; and t. cadell, in the strand. mdcclxxvi. reduced leaf in original, . - . inches whatever sheridan has done, or chosen to do, has been _par excellence_ always the best of its kind. he has written the best comedy (_school for scandal_), the best drama (in my mind far beyond that st. giles lampoon, the _beggar's opera_), the best farce (the _critic_,--and it is only too good for a farce), and the best address (_monologue on garrick_), and, to crown all, delivered the very best oration (the famous begum speech) ever conceived or heard in this country. byron the _school_ for _scandal._ a comedy. * * * * * satire has always shone among the rest, and is the boldest way, if not the best, to tell men freely of their foulest faults, to laugh at their vain deeds, and vainer thoughts. in satire, too, the wise took diff'rent ways, to each deserving its peculiar praise. dryden. * * * * * _dublin:_ printed for j. ewling. of all the verses that have been ever devoted to the subject of domestic happiness, those in his winter evening, at the opening of the fourth book of the _task_, are perhaps the most beautiful. campbell the task, a poem, in six books. by william cowper, of the inner temple, esq. fit surculus arbor. anonym. to which are added, by the same author, an epistle to joseph hill, esq. tirocinium, or a review of schools, and the history of john gilpin. * * * * * london: printed for j. johnson, n^o , st. paul's church-yard. . through busiest street and loneliest glen are felt the flashes of his pen: he rules 'mid winter snows, and when bees fill their hives: deep in the general heart of men his power survives. wordsworth p o e m s, chiefly in the scottish dialect, by robert burns. * * * * * the simple bard, unbroke by rules of art, he pours the wild effusions of the heart: and if inspir'd, 'tis nature's pow'rs inspire; her's all the melting thrill, and her's the kindling fire. anonymous. * * * * * kilmarnock: printed by john wilson. m,dcc,lxxxvi. open the book where you will, it takes you out-of-doors. in simplicity of taste and natural refinement he reminds you of walton; in tenderness toward what he would have called the brute creation, of cowper. he seems to have lived before the fall. his volumes are the journal of adam in paradise. lowell the natural history and antiquities of selborne, in the county of southampton: with engravings, and an appendix. * * * * * -- -- -- "ego apis matinæ "more modoque grata carpentis -- -- -- per laborem plurimum," -- -- -- -- -- hor. "omnia benè describere, quæ in hoc mundo, a deo facta, aut naturæ creatæ viribus elaborata fuerunt, opus est non unius hominis, nec unius ævi. hinc _faunæ & floræ_ utilissimæ; hine _monographi_ præstantissimi." scopoli ann. hist. nat. * * * * * l o n d o n: printed by t. bensley; for b. white and son, at horace's head, fleet street. m,dcc,lxxxix, reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. he is without parallel in any age or country, except perhaps lord bacon or cicero; and his works contain an ampler store of political and moral wisdom than can be found in any other writer whatever. mackintosh reflections on the revolution in france, and on the proceedings in certain societies in london relative to that event. in a letter intended to have been sent to a gentleman _in paris._ by the right honourable _edmund burke._ * * * * * l o n d o n: printed for j. dodsley, in pall-mall. m.dcc.xc. the great commoner of mankind conway _rights of man:_ being an answer to mr. burke's attack on the _french revolution._ by thomas paine, secretary for foreign affairs to congress in the american war, and author of the work intitled _common sense_. * * * * * l o n d o n: printed for j. johnson, st paul's church-yard. mdccxci. homer is not more decidedly the first of heroic poets, shakespeare is not more decidedly the first of the dramatists, demosthenes is not more sensibly the first of orators, than boswell is the first of biographers. macaulay the life of samuel johnson, ll.d. comprehending an account of his studies and numerous works, in chronological order; a series of his epistolary correspondence and conversations with many eminent persons; and various original pieces of his composition, never before published. the whole exhibiting a view of literature and literary men in great-britain, for near half a century, during which he flourished. in two volumes. by james boswell, esq. ----_quò fit ut_ omnis _votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella_ vita senis.---- horat. * * * * * volume the first. * * * * * _l o n d o n:_ printed by henry baldwin, for charles dilly, in the poultry. m dcc xci. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. he laid us as we lay at birth on the cool flowery lap of earth; smiles broke from us and we had ease, the hills were round us, and the breeze went o'er the sun-lit fields again; our foreheads felt the wind and rain. our youth return'd; for there was shed on spirits that had long been dead, spirits dried up and closely furl'd, the freshness of the early world. arnold lyrical ballads, with _a few other poems_. london: printed for j. & a. arch, gracechurch-street. . the history was hailed with delight as the most witty and original production from any american pen. the first foreign critic was scott, who read it aloud in his family till their sides were sore with laughing. warner a history of new york, from the beginning of the world to the end of the dutch dynasty. containing among many surprising and curious matters, the unutterable ponderings of walter the doubter, the disastrous projects of william the testy, and the chivalric achievments of peter the headstrong, the three dutch governors of new amsterdam; being the only authentic history of the times that ever hath been, or ever will be published. * * * * * by diedrich knickerbocker. * * * * * =de waarheid die in duister lag, die komt met klaarheid aan den dag.= * * * * * in two volumes. vol. i. * * * * * published by inskeep & bradford, new york; bradford & inskeep, philadelphia; wm. m'ilhenney, boston; coale & thomas, baltimore; and morford, willington, & co. charleston. * * * * * . the pilgrim of eternity whose fame over his living head like heaven is bent. shelley =childe harold's pilgrimage.= romaunt. by lord byron. * * * * * l'univers est une espèce de livre, dont on n'a lu que la première page quand on n'a vu que son pays. j'en ai feuilleté un assez grand nombre, que j'ai trouvé également mauvaises. cet examen ne m'a point été infructueux. je haïssais ma patrie. toutes les impertinences des peuples divers, parmi lesquels j'ai vécu, m'ont réconcilié avec elle. quand je n'aurais tiré d'autre bénéfice de mes voyages que celui-là, je n'en regretterais ni les frais, ni les fatigues. le cosmopolite. * * * * * _london:_ printed for john murray, , fleet-street; william blackwood, edinburgh; and john cumming, dublin. _by thomas davison, white-friars._ . reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. i read again, and for the third time, miss austen's very finely written novel of _pride and prejudice_. that young lady had a talent for describing the involvements, feelings, and characters of ordinary life, which is to me the most wonderful i have ever met with. the big bow-wow i can do myself like any one going; but the exquisite touch, which renders commonplace things and characters interesting from the truth of the description and the sentiment, is denied me. what a pity so gifted a creature died so early! scott pride and prejudice: a novel. _in three volumes._ * * * * * by the author of "sense and sensibility." * * * * * vol. i. * * * * * =london:= printed for t. egerton, military library, whitehall. . a subtle-souled psychologist shelley christabel: * * * * * kubla khan, a vision; * * * * * the pains of sleep. * * * * * by s. t. coleridge, esq. * * * * * london: printed for john murray, albemarle-street, by william bulmer and co. cleveland-row, st. james's. . o great and gallant scott, true gentleman, heart, blood, and bone, i would it had been my lot to have seen thee, and heard thee, and known. tennyson ivanhoe; a romance. by "the author of waverley," &c. * * * * * now fitted the halter, now traversed the cart, and often took leave,--but seem'd loth to depart! prior. * * * * * in three volumes. vol. i. * * * * * edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. edinburgh. and hurst, robinson, and co. , cheapside, london. . he is made one with nature: there is heard his voice in all her music, from the moan of thunder to the song of night's sweet bird; he is a presence to be felt and known in darkness and in light, from herb and stone, spreading itself where'er that power may move which has withdrawn his being to its own; which wields the world with never-wearied love, sustains it from beneath, and kindles it above. shelley lamia, isabella, the eve of st. agnes, and other poems. * * * * * by john keats, author of endymion. * * * * * london: printed for taylor and hessey, fleet-street. . cor cordium epitaph adonais * * * * * an elegy on the death of john keats, author of endymion, hyperion etc. by percy. b. shelley [greek: astêr prin men elampes eni zôoisin heôos. nun de thanôn, lampeis hesperos en phthimenois.] plato. pisa with the types of didot mdcccxxi. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. and the more we walk around his image, and the closer we look, the more nearly we arrive at this conclusion, that the _elia_ on our shelves is all but the same being as the pleasant charles who was so loved by his friends, who ransomed from the stalls, to use old richard of bury's phrase, his thomas browne and the "dear silly old angel" fuller, and who stammered out such quaint jests and puns--"saint charles," as thackeray once called him, while looking at one of his half-mad letters, and remembering his devotion to that quite mad sister. fitzgerald elia. essays which have appeared under that signature in the london magazine. * * * * * london: printed for taylor and hessey, fleet-street. . the most confiding of diarists, the most harmless of turncoats, the most wondering of _quidnuncs_, the fondest and most penitential of faithless husbands, the most admiring, yet grieving, of the beholders of the ladies of charles ii, the sancho panza of the most insipid of quixotes, james ii, who did bestow on him (in naval matters) the government of a certain "island," which, to say the truth, he administered to the surprise and edification of all who bantered him. many official patriots have, doubtless, existed since his time, and thousands, nay millions of respectable men of all sorts gone to their long account, more or less grave in public, and frail to their consciences; but when shall we meet with such another as he was? hunt memoirs of samuel pepys, esq. f.r.s. secretary to the admiralty in the reigns of charles ii. and james ii. comprising h i s d i a r y from to , deciphered by the rev. john smith, a. b. of st. john's college, cambridge, from the original short-hand ms. in the pepysian library, and a selection from his p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e. [illustration] edited by richard, lord braybrooke. * * * * * in two volumes. vol. i. * * * * * london: henry colburn, new burlington street. mdcccxxv. reduced leaf in original, . × . inches. while the love of country continues to prevail, his memory will exist in the hearts of the people. webster the last of the mohicans; a narrative of . by the author of "the pioneers." * * * * * "mislike me not, for my complexion, the shadowed livery of the burnished sun." * * * * * in two volumes. vol. i. * * * * * philadelphia: h. c. carey & i. lea--chesnut-street. * * * * * . and through the trumpet of a child of rome rang the pure music of the flutes of greece. swinburne pericles and aspasia by walter savage landor, esq. in two volumes. vol. i. london saunders and otley, conduit street. . thankfully i take my share of love and kindness which this generous and gentle and charitable soul has contributed to the world. i take and enjoy my share and say a benediction for the meal. thackeray the pickwick papers. by charles dickens. [illustration: phiz. feat.] london chapman and hall strand mdcccxxxvii. carlyle alone with his wide humanity has, since coleridge, kept to us the promises of england. his provokes rather than informs. he blows down narrow walls, and struggles, in a lurid light, like the jótuns, to throw the old woman time; in his work there is too much of the anvil and the forge, not enough hay-making under the sun. he makes us act rather than think; he does not say, know thyself, which is impossible, but know thy work. he has no pillars of hercules, no clear goal, but an endless atlantis horizon. he exaggerates. yes: but he makes the hour great, the future bright, the reverence and admiration strong: while mere precise fact is a coil of lead. thoreau sartor resartus. in three books. * * * * * =reprinted for friends from fraser's magazine.= * * * * * _mein vermächtniss, wie herrlich weit und breit!_ _die zeit ist mein vermächtniss, mein acker ist die zeit._ * * * * * london: james fraser, regent street. * * * * * m.dccc.xxxiv. it was good to meet him in the wood-paths with that pure intellectual gleam diffused about his presence, like the garment of a shining one; and he so quiet, so simple, so without pretension, encountering each man as if expecting to receive more than he could impart. hawthorne nature. * * * * * "nature is but an image or imitation of wisdom, the last thing of the soul; nature being a thing which doth only do, but not know." plotinus. * * * * * boston: james munroe and company. m dccc xxxvi. the result of all his labors of research, thought and composition was a history possessing the unity, variety and interest of a magnificent poem. whipple history of the conquest of peru, with a preliminary view of the civilization of the incas. * * * * * by william h. prescott, corresponding member of the french institute; of the royal academy of history at madrid, etc. * * * * * "congestæ cumulantur opes, orbisque rapinas accipit." claudian, in ruf., lib. i., v. . "so color de religion van a buscar plata y oro del encubierto tesoro." lope de vega, el nuevo mundo, jorn. . * * * * * in two volumes. volume i. * * * * * new york: harper and brothers, cliff street. m dccc xlvii. when all is said, poe remains a master of fantastic and melancholy sound. some foolish old legend tells of a musician who surpassed all his rivals. his strains were unearthly sad, and ravished the ears of those who listened with a strange melancholy. yet his viol had but a single string, and the framework was fashioned out of a dead woman's breast-bone. poe's verse--the parallel is much in his own taste--resembles that player's minstrelsy. lang the raven and other poems by edgar a. poe. * * * * * new york: wiley and putnam, broadway. . strew with laurel the grave of the early-dying! alas, early she goes on the path to the silent country, and leaves half her laurels unwon, dying too soon!--yet green laurels she had, and a course short, but redoubled by fame. arnold jane eyre. =an autobiography.= edited by currer bell. in three volumes. vol. i. london: smith, elder, and co., cornhill. . the poem already is a little classic, and will remain one, just as surely as _the vicar of wakefield_, _the deserted village_, or any other sweet and pious idyl of our english tongue. stedman evangeline, a tale of acadie. by henry wadsworth longfellow. * * * * * boston: william d. ticknor & company. . the most exquisite poetry hitherto written by a woman. stedman sonnets. by e. b. b. reading: [not for publication.] . what racy talks of yankee-land he had! up-country girl, up-country farmer-lad; the regnant clergy of the time of old in wig and gown:--tales not to be retold. clough _meliboeus-hipponax._ * * * * * the =biglow papers=, edited, with an introduction, notes, glossary, and copious index, by homer wilbur, a. m., pastor of this first church in jaalam, and (prospective) member of many literary, learned and scientific societies, (_for which see page v._) the ploughman's whistle, or the trivial flute, finds more respect than great apollo's lute. _quarles's emblems_, b. ii. e. . margaritas, munde porcine, calcâsti: en, siliquas accipe. _jac. car. fil. ad pub. leg._ § . cambridge: published by george nichols. . there is a man in our own days whose words are not framed to tickle delicate ears; who, to my thinking, comes before the great ones of society much as the son of imlah came before the throned kings of judah and israel; and who speaks truth as deep, with a power as prophet-like and as vital--a mien as dauntless and as daring. is the satirist of _vanity fair_ admired in high places?--they say he is like fielding; they talk of his wit, humour, comic powers. he resembles fielding as an eagle does a vulture: fielding could stoop on carrion, but thackeray never does. his wit is bright, his humour attractive, but both bear the same relation to his serious genius that the mere lambent sheet-lightning, playing under the edge of the summer cloud, does to the electric death-spark hid in its womb. brontË vanity fair =a novel without a hero.= _by_ william makepeace thackeray. _london_ bradbury & evans, bouverie street, _ _ the cleverest and most fascinating of narrators. freeman the history of england from the accession of james ii. by thomas babington macaulay. volume i. london: printed for longman, brown, green, and longmans, paternoster-row. . shakespeare and milton--what third blazoned name shall lips of after-ages link to these? his who, beside the wild encircling seas, was england's voice, her voice with one acclaim, for threescore years; whose word of praise was fame, whose scorn gave pause to man's iniquities. what strain was his in that crimean war? a bugle call in battle, a low breath, plaintive and sweet above the fields of death! so year by year the music rolled afar, from euxine wastes to flowery kandahar, bearing the laurel or the cypress wreath. others shall have their little space of time, their proper niche and bust, then fade away into the darkness, poets of a day; but thou, o builder of enduring rhyme, thou shalt not pass! thy fame in every clime on earth shall live where saxon speech has sway. aldrich in memoriam. london. edward moxon, dover street. . new england's poet, soul reserved and deep, november nature with a name of may. lowell the scarlet letter, a romance. by nathaniel hawthorne. boston: ticknor, reed, and fields m dccc l. works of imagination written with an aim to immediate impression are commonly ephemeral; but the creative faculty of mrs. stowe, like that of cervantes in _don quixote_ and of fielding in _joseph andrews_, overpowered the narrow specialty of her design, and expanded a local and temporary theme with the cosmopolitanism of genius. lowell uncle tom's cabin; or, life among the lowly. by harriet beecher stowe. [illustration] vol. i. boston: john p. jewett & company. cleveland, ohio: jewett, proctor & worthington. . a strange, unexpected and, i believe, most true and excellent _sermon_ in stones--as well as the best piece of school-mastery in architectonics. carlyle the =stones of venice.= volume the first. =the foundations.= by john ruskin, author of "the seven lamps of architecture," "modern painters," etc. etc. with illustrations drawn by the author. london: smith, elder, and co., . cornhill. . reduced leaf in orignal x inches. there is delight in singing, tho' none hear besides the singer; and there is delight in praising, tho' the praiser sit alone and see the prais'd far off him, far above. shakespeare is not our poet, but the world's; therefore on him no speech! and brief for thee, browning! since chaucer was alive and hale, no man hath walkt along our roads with step so active, so inquiring eye, or tongue so varied in discovery. but warmer climes give brighter plumage, stronger wing: the breeze of alpine hights thou playest with, borne on beyond sorrento and amalfi, where the siren waits thee, singing song for song. landor men and women. by robert browning. in two volumes. vol. i. london: chapman and hall, , piccadilly. . far from making his book a mere register of events, he has penetrated deep below the surface and explored the causes of these events. he has carefully studied the physiognomy of the times and given finished portraits of the great men who conducted the march of the revolution. prescott the rise of the dutch republic. =a history.= by john lothrop motley. in three volumes. vol i. new york: harper & brothers, & pearl street. . the sphere which she has made specially her own is that quiet english country life which she knew in early youth. she has done for it what scott did for the scotch peasantry, or fielding for the eighteenth century englishman, or thackeray for the higher social stratum of his time. stephen adam bede by george eliot author of "scenes of clerical life" "so that ye may have clear images before your gladden'd eyes of nature's unambitious underwood and flowers that prosper in the shade. and when i speak of such among the flock as swerved or fell, those only shall be singled out upon whose lapse, or error, something more than brotherly forgiveness may attend." wordsworth. in three volumes vol. i. william blackwood and sons edinburgh and london mdccclix _the right of translation is reserved._ the most potent instrument for the extension of the realm of natural knowledge which has come into men's hands since the publication of newton's _principia_ is darwin's _origin of species_. huxley on the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. by charles darwin, m.a., fellow of the royal, geological, linnÆan, etc., societies; author of 'journal of researches during h.m.s. beagle's voyage round the world.' london: john murray, albemarle street. . _the right of translation is reserved._ a planet equal to the sun which cast it, that large infidel your omar. tennyson rubÁiyÁt of omar khayyÁm, the astronomer-poet of persia. =translated into english verse.= * * * * * london: bernard quaritch, castle street, leicester square. . i know of no writings which combine, as cardinal newman's do, so penetrating an insight into the realities of the human world around us in all its details, with so unwavering an inwardness of standard in estimating and judging that world; so steady a knowledge of the true vanity of human life with so steady a love for that which is not vanity or vexation of spirit. hutton apologia pro vita sua: being =a reply to a pamphlet= entitled "what, then, does dr. newman mean?" "commit thy way to the lord, and trust in him, and he will do it. and he will bring forth thy justice as the light, and thy judgment as the noon-day." by john henry newman, d.d. london: longman, green, longman, roberts, and green. . in his prose writings there was discernible an intellectual _hauteur_ which contrasted with the uneasiness and moral incertitude of his versified moods, and which implied that a dogmatist stood erect under the shifting sensitiveness of the poet. a dogmatist--for mr. arnold is not merely a critic who interprets the minds of other men through his sensitiveness and his sympathies; he delivers with authority the conclusions of his intellect; he formulates ideas. dowden essays in criticism. by matthew arnold, professor of poetry in the university of oxford. =london and cambridge:= macmillan and co. . the most faithful picture of our northern winter that has yet been put into poetry. burroughs snow-bound. a winter idyl. by john greenleaf whittier. boston: ticknor and fields. . transcriber notes: passages in italics are indicated by _underscores_. passages in bold are indicated by =equal signs=. small caps were replaced with all caps. oe ligatures are indicated by "oe". "o" with a macron are indicated by "[=o]". "u" with a macron are indicated by "[=u]". a single superscripted letter is represented by that single letter preceded by a caret. more than one superscripted letters are represented by the letters enclosed by curly brackets. throughout the document there were many instances where there was no hyphens where one would expect hyphens to be. the text below images is an attempt to capture what was written in the images. in some cases, this was difficult because the nature of the alphabet has changed dramatically since the book was printed, and because some characters are somewhat illegible. in the text below images, text within printer marks are identified by "(in printer's mark)". such text is often illegible, but the best efforts are made to read that text. errors in punctuation and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected. generously made available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the numerous original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/englishillustrat whit english illustration the sixties [illustration: morgan le fay.] english illustration 'the sixties': - by gleeson white with numerous illustrations by ford madox brown : a. boyd houghton arthur hughes : charles keene m. j. lawless : lord leighton, _p._r.a. sir j. e. millais, _p._r.a. : g. du maurier j. w. north, r.a.: g. j. pinwell dante gabriel rossetti : w. small frederick sandys: j. mcneill whistler frederick walker, a.r.a. : and others london archibald constable and co. ltd. james street haymarket _third impression_ *.* _this is a re-impression of the original edition of . a few small errors have been corrected. in other respects the text has been left, as it came from the late mr. gleeson white's hands, unaltered._ edinburgh: t. and a. constable, printers to his majesty to a. m. g. w. and c. r. g. w. in memory of the many hours spent ungrudgingly in proof reading preface in a past century the author of a well-digested and elaborately accurate monograph, the fruit of a life's labour, was well content to entitle it 'brief contributions towards a history of so-and-so.' nowadays, after a few weeks' special cramming, a hastily written record of the facts which most impressed the writer is labelled often enough 'a history.' were this book called by the earlier phrase, it would still be overweighted. nor did an english idiom exist that would provide the exact synonym for _catalogue-raisonné_, could the phrase be employed truthfully. it is at most a roughly annotated, tentative catalogue like those issued for art critics on press-days with the superscription 'under revision'--an equivalent of the legal reservation 'without prejudice.' to conceal the labour and present the results in interesting fashion, which is the aim of the chancellor of the exchequer on a 'budget' night, ought also to be that of the compiler of any document crammed with distantly unrelated facts. but the time required for rewriting a book of this class, after it has grown into shape, would be enough to appal a person who had no other duties to perform, and absolutely prohibitive to one not so happily placed. in estimating the errors which are certain to have crept into this record of a few thousand facts selected from many thousands, the author is obviously the last person to have any idea of their number; for did he suspect their existence, they would be corrected before the work appeared. yet all the same, despite his own efforts and those of kindly hands who have re-collated the references in the majority of cases, he cannot flatter himself he has altogether escaped the most insidious danger that besets a compilation of this kind, namely, overlooking some patently obvious facts which are as familiar to him as to any candid critic who is sure to discover their absence. the choice of representative illustrations has been most perplexing. some twenty years' intimacy with most of the books and magazines mentioned herein made it still less easy to decide upon their abstract merits. personal prejudice--unconscious, and therefore the more subtle--is sure to have influenced the selection; sometimes, perhaps, by choosing old favourites which others regard as second-rate, and again by too reticent approval of those most appreciated personally, from a fear lest the partiality should be sentimental rather than critical. but, and it is as well to make the confession at once, many have been excluded for matters quite unconnected with their art. judging from the comments of the average person who is mildly interested in the english illustrations of the past, his sympathy vanishes at once if the costumes depicted are 'old-fashioned.' whilst i have been working on these books, if a visitor called, and turned over their pages, unless he chanced to be an artist by profession as well as by temperament, the spoon-bill bonnet and the male 'turban' of the 'sixties' merely provoked ridicule. as my object is to reawaken interest in work familiar enough to artists, but neglected at present by very many people, it seems wiser not to set things before them which would only irritate. again, it is difficult to be impartial concerning the beauty of old favourites; whether your mother or sister happen to be handsome is hardly a point of which you are a trustworthy judge. other omissions are due to the right, incontestable if annoying, every other person possesses in common with oneself, 'to do what he likes with his own'; and certain publishers, acting on this principle, prefer that half-forgotten engravings should remain so. the information and assistance so freely given should be credited in detail, yet to do so were to occupy space already exceeded. but i cannot avoid naming mr. g. h. boughton, r.a., mr. dalziel, mr. g. r. halkett, mr. fairfax murray, and mr. joseph pennell for their kind response to various inquiries. thanks are also due to the many holders of copyrights who have permitted the illustrations to be reproduced. as some blocks have changed hands since they first appeared, the original source given below each picture does not always indicate the owner who has allowed it to be included. the artists' names are printed in many cases without titles bestowed later, as it seemed best to quote them as they stood at the time the drawing was published. lastly, i have to thank mr. temple scott for his elaborate index, prepared with so much care, which many interested in the subject will find the most useful section of the book. the claims of wood-engraving _versus_ process have been touched upon here very rarely. if any one doubts that nearly all the drawings of the 'sixties' lost much, and that many were wholly ruined by the engraver, he has but to compare them with reproductions by modern processes from a few originals that escaped destruction at the time. if this be not a sufficient evidence, the british museum and south kensington have many examples in their permanent collections which will quickly convince the most stubborn. if some few engravers managed to impart a certain interest at the expense of the original work, which not merely atones for the loss but supplies in its place an intrinsic work of art, such exceptions no way affect the argument. wood-engraving of the first order is hardly likely to die out. it is true that, as the craft finds fewer recruits, the lessened number of journeymen, experts in technique (whence real artist-engravers may be expected to spring up at intervals), will diminish the supply. given the artist as craftsman, he may always be trusted to distance his rival, whether it be mechanism or a profit-making corporation which reduces the individuality of its agents to the level of machines. for in art, still more than in commerce, it is the personal equation that finally controls and shapes the project to mastery, and the whole charm of the sixties is the individual charm of each artist. the incompetent draughtsman, then, was no less uninteresting than he is to-day; even the fairly respectable illustrators gain nothing by the accident that they flourished in 'the golden decade.' but the best of the work which has never ceased to delight fellow-workers will, no doubt, maintain its interest in common with good work of all schools and periods. therefore, this rough attempt at a catalogue of some of its most striking examples, although its publication happens to coincide with a supposed 'boom,' may have more than ephemeral value if it save labour in hunting up commonplace facts to many people now and in the future. this plea is offered in defence of the text of a volume which, although cut down from its intended size, and all too large, is yet but a rough sketch. collectors of all sorts know the various stages which their separate hobbies impose on them. first, out of pure love for their subject, they gather together chance specimens almost at haphazard. then, moved by an ever-growing interest, they take the pursuit more seriously, and, as one by one the worthier objects fall into their hands, they grow still more keen. later, they discover to their sorrow that a complete collection is, humanly speaking, impossible: certain unique examples are not to be obtained for love or money, or, at all events, for the amount at their personal disposal. at last they realise, perhaps, that after all the cheapest and most easily procured are also the most admirable and delightful. this awakening comes often enough when a catalogue has been prepared, and on looking over it they find that the treasures they valued at one time most highly are only so estimated by fellow-collectors; then they realise that the more common objects which fall within the reach of every one are by far the best worth possessing. a homely american phrase (and the word homely applies in a double sense) runs: 'he has bitten off more than he can chew.' the truth of the remark is found appropriate as i write these final words. to mark, learn, and inwardly digest the output of ten to fifteen years' illustration must needs be predestined failure, if space and time for its preparation are both limited. the subject has hitherto been almost untouched, and when in certain aspects it has attracted writers, they have approached it almost always from the standpoint of artistic appreciation and criticism. here, despite certain unintentional lapses into that nobler path, the intention has been to keep strictly to a catalogue of published facts and with a few bibliographical notes added. setting out with a magnificent scheme--to present an iconography of the work of every artist of the first rank--the piles of manuscript devoted to this comprehensive task which are at my side prove the impracticability of the enterprise. to annotate the work of sir john gilbert or mr. birket foster would require for each a volume the size of this. but as _punch_, _the illustrated london news_, and the moxon _tennyson_ have already been the subject of separate monographs, no doubt in future years each branch of the subject that may be worth treating exhaustively will supply material for other monographs. the chief disappointment in preparing a reference-book of this class belongs to the first compiler only; the rest have the joy of exposing his shortcomings and correcting his errors, combined with the pleasure of indulging in that captious criticism which any overheard dialogue in the streets shows to be the staple of english conversation. gleeson white. theresa terrace, ravenscourt park, w., _october _. contents chapter i page the new appreciation and the new collector, chapter ii the illustrated periodicals before the sixties, chapter iii some illustrated magazines of the sixties: i. 'once a week,' chapter iv some illustrated magazines of the sixties: ii. 'the cornhill,' 'good words,' and 'london society,' chapter v other illustrated periodicals of the sixties: 'churchman's family magazine,' 'sunday magazine, etc., chapter vi some illustrated weekly papers in the sixties, chapter vii some illustrated books of the period before , chapter viii some illustrated books of the period - , chapter ix some illustrated books of the period - , chapter x the aftermath: a few belated volumes, chapter xi certain influences upon the artists of the sixties, chapter xii some illustrators of the sixties, index, list of illustrations (where two or more illustrations follow each other with no text between, the references are given to the nearest page facing) facing page anonymous, 'enoch arden,' _leisure hour_ (religious tract society), armstead, h. h., r.a., a dream, _willmott's sacred poetry_ (routledge), brown, ford madox, prisoner of chillon, _willmott's poets of the nineteenth century_ (routledge), elijah and the widow's son, _bible gallery_ (routledge), joseph's coat, " " down stream, from the original drawing in the wood (photographed by mr. fred hollyer)--(_photogravure_), " " burne-jones, bt., sir e., parable of the boiling-pot, " " clayton, j. r., olympia and bianca, _barry cornwall's dramatic scenes_ (chapman and hall), crane, walter treasure-trove, _good words_ (strahan), dalziel, t., bedreddin hassan and the _arabian nights_ pastrycook, (ward, lock and co.), the destruction of sodom, _bible gallery_ (routledge), du maurier, g., on her deathbed, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), per l'amore d'una donna, " " a time to dance, _good words_ (strahan), a legend of camelot (nos. i. _punch_ (bradbury, agnew, to v.), and co.), send the culprit from the _story of a feather_ (bradbury, house instantly, agnew, and co.), he felt the surpassing importance of his position, " " fildes, s. l., the farmer's daughter, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), foster, birket, the green lane, _pictures of english landscape_ (routledge), the old chair-mender, " " gilbert, sir john, r.a., hohenlinden, _willmott's poets of the nineteenth century_ (routledge), graham, t., honesty, _good words_ (strahan), gray, paul, cousin lucy, _the quiver_ (cassell), herkomer, hubert, r.a., wandering in the wood, _good words for the young_ (strahan), houghton, a. boyd, my treasure, _good words_ (strahan), a lesson to a king, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), luther the singer " " john baptist, " " the parable of the sower, " " the vision of sheik hamil, _the argosy_ (strahan), noureddin ali, _arabian nights_ (routledge), love, _golden thoughts from golden fountains_ (warne), don jose's mule, _good words for the young_ (strahan), reading the chronicles, from the original drawing on the block (_photogravure_), (british museum), hughes, arthur, fancy, _good words_ (strahan), the letter, " " the dial (sun comes, moon comes), " " my heart, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), blessings in disguise, " " barbara's pet lamb, _good words for the young_ (strahan), mercy, " " hunt, w. holman, the lent jewels, _willmott's sacred poetry_ (routledge), keene, charles, 'a good fight,' _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), lawless, m. j., effie gordon, " " dr. johnson's penance, " " john of padua, " " rung into heaven, _good words_ (strahan), the bands of love, " " the player and the listeners, " " honeydew, _london society_ (hogg), one dead, _churchman's family magazine_ (hogg), lawson, j., ariadne, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), leighton, lord, p.r.a., cain and abel, _bible gallery_ (routledge), moses views the promised land, " " abram and the angel, " " leighton, john, a parable, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), mahoney, j., summer, " " yesterday and to-day, _good words_ (strahan), marks, h. s., r.a., a quiet mind, _willmott's sacred poetry_ (routledge), in a hermitage, " " millais, sir j. e., p.r.a., there's nae luck about the house, _home affections_ (routledge), the border widow, " " grandmother's apology, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), the plague of elliant, " " tannhäuser, " " sister anne's probation, " " the hampdens, " " death dealing arrows, " " the prodigal son, _good words_ (strahan), the tares, " " the sower, " " morten, t., the cumæan sibyl, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), izaak walton, _the quiver_ (cassell), gulliver in lilliput, _gulliver's travels_ (cassell), the laputians " " north, j. w., r.a., glen oona, _wayside poesies_ (routledge), glen oona (from the original drawing), _magazine of art_ (cassell), the nutting, _wayside poesies_ (routledge), afloat, " " anita's prayer, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), winter, " " pettie, j., r.a., the monks and the heathen, _good words_ (strahan), pickersgill, f. r., r.a., the water nymph, _willmott's poets of the nineteenth century_ (routledge), pinwell, g. j., the sailor's valentine, _the quiver_ (cassell), king pippin, _wayside poesies_ (routledge), the little calf, " " madame de krudener, _sunday magazine_ (strahan), what, bill! you chubby rogue, _goldsmith's works_ (ward and lock), from the original drawing on the block for _she stoops to conquer_--(_photogravure_), (british museum), poynter, e. j., p.r.a., joseph before pharaoh, _bible gallery_ (routledge), pharaoh honours joseph, " " rossetti, dante gabriel, the maids of elfen-mere, _the music-master_ (routledge), you should have wept _the prince's progress_ her yesterday, (macmillan), sandys, frederick, the three statues of Ægina, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), the old chartist, " " harold harfagr, " " death of king warwolf, " " rosamund, queen of the lombards, " " legend of the portent, _cornhill magazine_ (smith and elder), manoli, " " cleopatra, " " the waiting time, _churchman's family magazine_ (hogg), amor mundi--(_photogravure_), _shilling magazine_ (bosworth), sleep, _good words_ (strahan), until her death, " " 'if,' _the argosy_ (strahan), october, _the quiver_ (cassell), danae in the brazen _the hobby horse_ chamber, (chiswick press), life's journey, _willmott's sacred poetry_ (routledge), a little mourner, " " jacob hears the voice of the lord, _bible gallery_ (routledge), morgan le fay-- (_photogravure_), _frontispiece_ shields, frederick, the plague-cart, _defoe's history of the plague_ (munby), small, w., between the cliffs, _the quiver_ (cassell), mark the grey-haired man, _golden thoughts from golden fountains_ (warne), solomon, simeon, the veiled bride, _good words_ (strahan), the feast of tabernacles, _leisure hour_ (religious tract society), the day of atonement, " " tenniel, sir john, the norse princess, _good words_ (strahan), walker, frederick, the nursery friend, _willmott's sacred poetry_ (routledge), a child in prayer, " " out among the wild-flowers, _good word_ (strahan), portrait of a minister, _english sacred poetry_ (religious tract society), autumn, _a round of days_ (routledge), autumn, from the original drawing on the block (_photogravure_), (british museum), the bit o' garden, _wayside poesies_ (routledge), watson, j. d., too late, _london society_ (hogg), ash wednesday, " " whistler, james m'neill, the major's daughter, _once a week_ (bradbury and evans), the relief fund in lancashire, " " the morning before the massacre of st. bartholomew, " " count burckhardt, " " [illustration: scene from "she stoops to conquer."] english illustration the sixties, - chapter i: the new appreciation and the new collector the borderland between the hallowed past and the matter-of-fact present is rarely attractive. it appeals neither to our veneration nor our curiosity. its heroes are too recent to be deified, its secrets are all told. if you estimate a generation as occupying one-third of a century, you will find that to most people thirty-three years ago, more or less, is the least fascinating of all possible periods. its fashions in dress yet linger in faded travesties, its once refined tastes no longer appeal to us, its very aspirations, if they do not seem positively ludicrous, are certain to appear pathetically insufficient. yet there are not wanting signs which denote that the rush of modern life, bent on shortening times of waiting, will lessen the quarantine which a period of this sort has had to suffer hitherto before it could be looked upon as romantically attractive instead of appearing repulsively old-fashioned. for the moment you are able to take a man of a former generation, and can regard him honestly, not as a contemporary with all human weakness, but with the glamour which surrounds a hero; he is released from the commonplace present and has joined the happy past. therein he may find justice without prejudice. of course the chances are that, be he artist or philosopher, the increased favour bestowed upon him will not extend to his subjects, or perhaps his method of work; but so sure as you find the artists of any period diligently studied and imitated, it is almost certain that the costumes they painted, the furniture and accessories they admired, and the thought which infused their work, will be less intolerable, and possibly once again restored to full popularity. not very long ago anything within the limits of the century was called modern. perhaps because its early years were passed in yearnings for the classic days of old greece, and later in orthodox raptures over the bulls of nineveh and the relics of dead pharaohs. then by degrees the middle ages also renewed their interest: the great gothic revival but led the way to a new exploration of the queen anne and georgian days. so in domestic life england turned to its chippendale and sheraton, america to its colonial houses, and the word 'antique,' instead of being of necessity limited to objects at least a thousand years old was applied to those of a bare hundred. now, when the nineteenth century has one foot in the grave, we have but to glance back a few years to discover that what was so lately 'old-fashioned' is fast attaining the glamour of antiquity. even our immediate progenitors who were familiar with the railway and telegraph, and had heard of photography, seem to be in other respects sufficiently unlike our contemporaries to appear quite respectably ancestral to-day. it is true that we have compensations: the new photography and electric lighting are our own joys; and the new criticism had hardly begun, except perhaps in the far west, during the time of this previous generation--the time that begins with a memory of the project for the great exhibition, and ends with an equally vivid recollection of the collapse of the third empire. in those days people still preserved a sentimental respect for the artist merely because he was 'an artist,' quite apart from his technical accomplishment. it was the period of magenta and crinoline--the period that saw, ere its close, the twin domes of the second international exhibition arise in its midst to dominate south kensington before they were moved to muswell hill and were burnt down without arousing national sorrow--in short, it was 'the sixties.' only yesterday 'the sixties' seemed a synonym for all that was absurd. is it because most of us who make books to-day were at school then, and consequently surveyed the world as a superfluous and purely inconsequent background? for people who were children in the sixties are but now ripening to belief in the commonplace formulæ dear to an orthodox british citizen. to their amazement they find that not a few of the pupils of the 'seventies,' if not of the 'eighties,' have already ripened prematurely to the same extent. have we not heard a youth of our time, in a mood not wholly burlesque, gravely discussing the Æsthetic movement of the 'eighties' as soberly as men heretofore discussed the movement of a century previous? were the purpose of this book phrase-making instead of a dull record of facts, we might style this sudden appreciation of comparatively recent times the new antiquity. to a child the year before last is nearly as remote as the time of the norman conquest, or of julius cæsar. possibly this sudden enlightenment respecting the artistic doings of the mid-victorian period may indicate the return to childhood which is part of a nonagenarian's equipment. at seventy or eighty, our lives are spent in recollections half a century old, but at ninety the privilege may be relaxed, and the unfortunate loiterer on the stage may claim to select a far more recent decade as his golden age, even if by weakening memory he confuses his second childhood with his first. to-day not a few people interested in the arts find 'the sixties' a time as interesting as in the last century men found the days of praxiteles, or as, still more recently, the middle ages appeared to the early pre-raphaelites. these few, however, are more or less disciples of the illustrator, as opposed to those who consider 'art' and 'painting' synonymous terms. not long since the only method deemed worthy of an artist was to paint in oils. to these, perhaps, to be literally exact, you might add a few pedants who recognised the large aims of the worker in fresco, and a still more restricted number who believed in the maker of stained glass, mosaic, or enamel, if only his death were sufficiently remote. now, however, the humble illustrator, the man who fashions his dreams into designs for commercial reproduction by wood-engraving or 'process,' has found an audience, and is acquiring rapidly a fame of his own. for those who recognise most sincerely, and with no affectation, the importance of the mere illustrator, this attempt to make a rough catalogue of his earlier achievements may be not without interest. yet it is not put forward as a novel effort. one of the most hopeful auguries towards the final recognition of the pen-draughtsmen of the sixties quickly comes to light as you begin to search for previous notices of their work. it was not mr. joseph pennell who first appreciated them. it is true that he carried the report of their powers into unfamiliar districts; but, long before his time, mr. j. m. gray, mr. edmund gosse, and many another had paid in public due tribute to their excellence. nor can you find that they were unappreciated by their contemporaries. on the contrary, our popular magazines were filled with their work. despite mr. ruskin's consistent 'aloofness' and inconsistent 'diatribes,' many critics of their own day praised them; their names were fairly well known to educated people, their works sold largely, they obtained good prices, and commissions, as the published results bear witness, were showered upon them. but, until to-day, the draughtsman for periodicals was deemed a far less important person than the painter of academy pictures. now, without attempting to rob the r.a. of its historic glory, we see there are others without the fold who, when the roll-call of nineteenth-century artists is read, will answer 'adsum.' there are signs that the collector, always ready for a fresh hobby, will before long turn his attention to the english wood-engravings of this century, as eagerly as he has been attracted heretofore by the early woodcuts of german and italian origin, or the copper-plates of all countries and periods. it is true that bewick already enjoys the distinction, and that cruikshank and leech have also gained a reputation in the sale-rooms, and that blake, for reasons only partly concerned with art, has for some time past had a faithful and devout following. but the prices realised, so far, by the finest examples of the later wood-engravings, in the moxon edition of _tennyson's poems_, in _once a week_, and messrs. dalziels' books, are not such as to inspire faith in the collector who esteems his treasures chiefly for their value under the hammer. but in this case, as in others, the moderate prices demanded in may not be the rule a few months hence. already, although books rarely fetch as much as the original published cost, they are getting scarce. you may hunt the london shops in vain, and ransack the second-hand stores in the big provincial towns and not light on jean ingelow's _poems_, to, thornbury's _legendary ballads_, or even _wayside poesies_, or a _round of days_, all fairly common but a short time ago. there are two great divisions of the objects that attract collectors. in the first come all items of individual handiwork, where no two can be precisely alike (since replicas by the authors are too rare to destroy the argument), and each specimen cannot be duplicated. into this class fall paintings and drawings of all sorts, gems, sword-guards, lacquer, and ivories, and a thousand other objects of art. in the second, where duplicates have been produced in large numbers, the collector has a new ideal--to complete a collection that contains examples of every variety of the subject, be they artistic:--coins, etchings, or engravings of any sort; natural objects:--butterflies, or crystals, or things which belong neither to nature nor art:--postage-stamps, the majority of book-plates, and other trifles so numerous that even a bare list might extend to pages. the first class demands a long purse, and has, of necessity, a certain failure confronting it, for many of the best specimens are already in national collections, and cannot by any chance come into the market. but in the second class, no matter how rare a specimen may be, there is always a hope, and in many cases not a forlorn one, that some day, in some likely or unlikely place, its fellow may be discovered. and the chance of picking up a treasure for a nominal price adds to the zest of the collector, whose real delight is in the chase, far more than in the capture. who does not hope to find a twopenny box containing (as once they did) a first edition of fitzgerald's _omar khayyám_? or a rembrandt's _three trees_ in a first state? or to discover a _tetradrachm_ syracuse, b.c. , 'with the superb head of persephone and the spirited quadriga, on the obverse,' in some tray of old coins in a foreign market-place? without more preamble, we may go on to the objects the new collector wishes to acquire; and to provide him with a hand-book that shall set him on the track of desirable specimens. this desultory gossip may also serve to explain indirectly the aims and limits of the present volume, which does not pretend to be a critical summary, not a history of art, and neither a treatise on engravers, nor an anecdotal record of artists, but merely a working book of reference, whatever importance it possesses being due only to the fine examples of the subject, which those concerned have most kindly permitted to be reproduced. it is quite true that in collecting, the first of the two classes demands more critical knowledge, because as it is not a collection but only a selection that is within the reach of any one owner, it follows that each item must reflect his taste and judgment. in the second division there is danger lest the rush for comprehensiveness may dull the critical faculty, until, by and by, the ugly and foolish rarity is treasured far more than the beautiful and artistic items which are not rare, and so fail to command high prices. in fact the danger of all collectors is this alluring temptation which besets other people in other ways. many people prefer the exception to the rule, the imperfect sport to the commonplace type. if so, this discursive chatter is not wholly irrelevant, since it preludes an apology for including certain references to work distinctly below the level of the best, which, by its accidental position in volumes where the best occurs, can hardly be ignored completely. another point of conscience arises which each must decide for himself. supposing that the collection of wood-engravings of the sixties assumes the proportion of a craze, must the collector retain intact a whole set of an illustrated periodical for the sake of a few dozen pictures within it, or if he decides to tear them out, will he not be imitating the execrable john bagford, who destroyed twenty-five thousand volumes for the sake of their title-pages? must he mutilate a tennyson's _poems_ (moxon, ) or _the music-master_, or many of dalziels' gift-books, for the sake of arranging his specimens in orderly fashion? the dilemma is a very real one. even if one decides to keep volumes entire, the sets of magazines are so bulky, and in some cases contain such a small proportion of valuable work, that a collector cannot find space for more than a few of them. possibly a fairly representative collection might be derived entirely from the back-numbers of periodicals, if any huge stores have yet survived the journey to the paper-mill or the flames; the one or the other being the ultimate fate of every magazine or periodical that is not duly bound before it has lost its high estate, as 'a complete set,' and become mere odd numbers or waste-paper. so far the question of cost has not been raised, nor at present need it frighten the most economic. taking all the subjects referred to in this book, with perhaps one or two exceptions (allingham's _music-master_, , for instance), i doubt if a penny a piece for all the illustrations in the various volumes (counting the undesirable as well as the worthy specimens) would not be far above the market-price of the whole. but the penny each, like the old story of the horse-shoes, although not in this case governed by geometrical progression, would mount up to a big total. yet, even if you purchase the books at a fair price, the best contain so many good illustrations, that the cost of each is brought down to a trifle. having decided to collect, and bought or obtained in other ways, so that you may entitle your treasures (as south kensington museum labels its novelties) 'recent acquisitions,' without scrupulous explanation of the means employed to get them, you are next puzzled how to arrange them. it seems to me that a fine book should be preserved intact. there are but comparatively few of its first edition, and of these few a certain number are doomed to accidental destruction in the ordinary course of events, so that one should hesitate before cutting up a fine book, and be not hasty in mutilating a volume of _once a week_ or the _shilling magazine_. but if you have picked up odd numbers, and want to preserve the prints, a useful plan is to prepare a certain number of cardboard or cloth-covered boxes filled with single sheets of thick brown paper. in these an oblique slit is made to hold each corner of the print. by this method subjects can be mounted quickly, and, as the collection grows, new sub-divisions can be arranged and the subjects distributed among a larger number of boxes. this plan allows each print to be examined easily, the brown paper stands wear and tear and shows no finger-marks, and affords a pleasant frame to the engraving. pasting-down in albums should be viewed with suspicion--either the blank leaves for specimens still to be acquired are constantly in evidence to show how little you possess, compared with your expectations; or else you will find it impossible to place future purchases in their proper order. there is a process, known as print-splitting, which removes the objectionable printed back that ruins the effect of many good wood-engravings. it is a delicate, but not a very difficult operation, and should the hobby spread, young lady artists might do worse than forsake the poorly-paid production of nasty little head-pieces for fashion-papers and the like, and turn deft fingers to a more worthy pursuit. it needs an artistic temperament to split the print successfully, and a market would be quickly opened up if moderate prices were charged for the new industry. one could wish that representative collections of the best of these prints were gathered together and framed inexpensively, for gifts or loans to schools, art industrial classes, and other places where the taste of pupils might be raised by their study. the cheap process-block from a photograph is growing to be the staple form of black and white that the average person meets with in his daily routine. the cost of really fine etchings, mezzotints, lithographs, and other masterpieces of black and white prohibits their being scattered broadcast; but while the fine prints by millais, sandys, hughes, pinwell, fred walker, and the rest are still to be bought cheaply, the opportunity should not be lost. chapter ii: the illustrated periodicals before the sixties the more you study the position of illustrators during the last forty years, the more you are inclined to believe that they owe their very existence, as a class, to the popularity of magazines and periodicals. from the time _once a week_ started, to the present to-day, the bulk of illustrations of any merit have been issued in serial publications. it is easy to find a reason for this. the heavy cost of the drawings, and, until recent times, the almost equally heavy cost of engraving them, would suffice to prohibit their lavish use in ordinary books. for it must not be forgotten that every new book is, to a great extent, a speculation; whereas the circulation of a periodical, once it is assured, varies but slightly. a book may be prepared for twenty thousand buyers, and not attract one thousand; but a periodical that sold twenty thousand of its current number is fairly certain to sell eighteen thousand to nineteen thousand of the next, and more probably will show a slight increase. again, although one appears to get as many costly illustrations in a magazine to-day as in a volume costing ten times the price, the comparative sales more than readjust the balance. for a quarter of a million, although a record circulation of a periodical, is by no means a unique one; whereas the most popular illustrated book ever issued--and _trilby_ could be easily proved to merit that title--is probably not far beyond its hundred thousand. this very book was published in _harper's magazine_, and so obtained an enormous advertisement in one of the most widely circulated shilling monthlies. one doubts if the most popular illustrated volumes published at one or two guineas would show an average sale of two thousand copies at the original price. therefore, to regard the periodical, be it quarterly, monthly, or weekly--and quite soon the daily paper may be added to the list--as the legitimate field for the illustrator, is merely to accept the facts of the case. true, that here and there carefully prepared volumes, with all the added luxury of fine paper and fine printing, stand above the magazine of their time in this mechanical production. but things are rapidly changing. one may pick up some ephemeral paper to-day, to find it has process-blocks of better quality, and is better printed, than 'the art book of the season,' be it what it may. the illustrator is the really popular artist of the period--the natural product of the newer conditions. for one painter who makes a living entirely by pictures, there are dozens who subsist upon illustrating; while, against one picture of any reputable sort--framed and sold--it would be impossible to estimate the number of drawings made specially for publication. nor even to-day--when either the demand for illustration is ahead of the supply, or else many editors artfully prefer the second best, not forgetting all the feeble stuff of the cheap weeklies--would it be safe to declare that the artistic level is below that of the popular galleries. certainly, even in the thirties, there were, in proportion, as many masterpieces done for the engraver as those which were carried out in oil or water-colour. waiving the question of the damage wrought by engraver, or process-reproducer, the artist--if he be a great man--is no less worthy of respect as an illustrator in a cheap weekly, than when he chooses to devote himself solely to easel pictures. it is not by way of depreciating paintings that one would exalt illustration, but merely to recognise the obvious truth that the best work of an artist who understands his medium can never fail to be of surpassing interest, whether he uses fresco, tempera, oil, or water-colour; whether he works with brush or needle, pen or pencil. nobody doubts that most of these products are entitled, other qualities being present, to be considered works of art; but, until lately, people have not shown the same respect for an illustration. even when they admired the work, it was a common form of appreciation to declare it was 'as good as an etching,' or 'a composition worthy of being painted.' many writers have endeavoured to restore black-and-white art to its true dignity, and the labours of sir f. seymour haden, who awakened a new popular recognition of the claims of the etcher, and of mr. joseph pennell, who fought with sustained vigour for the dignity and importance of illustration, have helped to inspire outsiders with a new respect. for it is only outsiders who ever thought of making absurd distinctions between high art and minor arts. if the thing, be it what it may, is good--as good as it could be--at no age did it fail to win the regard of artists; even if it had to wait a few generations to charm the purchaser, or awaken the cupidity of the connoisseur. it is a healthy sign to find that people to-day are interesting themselves in the books of the sixties; it should make them more eager for original contemporary work, and foster a dislike to the inevitable photograph from nature reproduced by half-tone, which one feared would have satisfied their love for black-and-white to the exclusion of all else. if, after an evening spent in looking over the old magazines which form the subject of the next few chapters, you can turn to the current weeklies and monthlies, and feel absolutely certain that we are better than our fathers, it augurs either a very wisely selected purchase from the crowded bookstall, which, at each railway station as the first of the month approaches, has its hundreds of rival magazines, or else that it would be wiser to spend still more time over the old periodicals until a certain 'divine dissatisfaction' was aroused towards the average illustrated periodical of to-day. not that we are unable to show as good work perhaps, man for man, as they offer. we have no sandys, no millais, no boyd houghton, it is true; they had no e. a. abbey, no phil may, no ..., but it would be a delicate matter to continue a list of living masters here. but if you can find an english periodical with as many first-rate pictures as _once a week_, _the cornhill magazine_, _good words_, and others contained in the early sixties, you will be ... well ... lucky is perhaps the most polite word. that the cheapness and rapidity of 'reproduction by process' should be directly responsible for the birth of many new illustrated periodicals to-day is clear enough. but it is surprising to find that a movement, which relatively speaking was almost as fecund, had begun some years before photography had ousted the engraver. why it sprang into existence is not quite so obvious; but if we assume, as facts indicate, that the system of producing wood-engravings underwent a radical change about this time, we shall find that again a more ample supply provoked a larger demand. hitherto, the engraver had only accepted as many blocks as he could engrave himself, with the help of a few assistants; but not very long before the date we are considering factories for the supply of wood-engravings had grown up. the heads of these, practical engravers and in some cases artists of more than average ability, took all the responsibility for the work intrusted to them, and maintained a singularly high standard of excellence; but they did not pretend that they engraved each block themselves. such a system not merely permitted commissions for a large quantity of blocks being accepted, but greatly increased speed in their production. there can be little doubt that something of the sort took place; it will suffice to name but two firms, messrs. dalziel and messrs. swain, who were each responsible often enough, not merely for all the engravings in a book, but often for all the engravings in a popular magazine. under the old system, the publisher had thrown upon him the trouble of discovering the right engraver to employ, and the burden of reconciling the intention of the artist with the product of the engraver. this, by itself, would have been enough to make him very cautious before committing himself to the establishment of an illustrated magazine. but if we also remember that, under such conditions, almost unlimited time would be required for the production of the engravings, and that, to ensure a sufficient quantity being ready for each issue, a very large number of independent engravers must needs have been employed, it is clear that the old conditions would not have been equal to the task. when, however, the publisher or editor was able to send all his drawings to a reputable firm who could undertake to deliver the engravings by a given time, one factor of great practical importance had been established. it is not surprising to find that things went even further than this, and that the new firms of engravers not only undertook the whole of the blocks, but in several cases supplied the drawings also. without claiming that such a system is the best, it is but fair to own that to it we are indebted for the masterpieces of the sixties. no doubt the ideal art-editor--a perfectly equipped critic, with the blank cheque of a millionaire at his back--might have done better; but to-day there are many who think themselves perfectly equipped critics, and perhaps some here and there who are backed by millionaires, yet on neither side of the atlantic can we find better work than was produced under the system in vogue in the sixties. but after all, it is not the system, then or now, that is praiseworthy, but the individual efforts of men whose hearts were in their professions. the more you inquire into the practice of the best engravers then and now, the more you find that ultimately one person is responsible for the good. in the sixties the engraver saw new possibilities, and did his utmost to realise them; full of enthusiasm, and a master of his craft, he inspired those who worked with him to experiment and spare no effort. that he did marvels may be conceded; and to declare that the merely mechanical processes to-day have already distanced his most ambitious efforts in many qualities does not detract from his share. but in this chapter he is regarded less as a craftsman than as a middleman, an art-editor in effect if not in name; one who taught the artists with whom he was brought in contact the limits of the material in which their work was to be translated, and in turn learned from them no little that was of vital importance. above all, he seems to have kept closely in touch with draughtsmen and engravers alike; one might believe that every drawing passed through his hands, and that every block was submitted to him many times during its progress. when you realise the mass of work signed 'dalziels' or 'swain,' it is evident that its high standard of excellence must not be attributed to any system, but to the personal supervision of the acting members of the firms--men who were, every one of them, both draughtsmen and engravers, who knew not only the effect the artist aimed to secure, but the best method of handicraft by which to obtain it. if, after acknowledging this, one cannot but regret that the photographic transfer of drawings to wood had not come into general use twenty years before it did, so that the masterpieces of the rossetti designs to tennyson's _poems_ and a hundred others had not been cut to pieces by the engraver; yet at the same time we must remember that, but for the enterprise of the engraver, the drawings themselves would in all probability never have been called into existence in many cases. this is especially true of the famous volumes which messrs. dalziel issued under the imprint of various publishers, who were really merely agents for their distribution. _the penny magazine_ in , and other of charles knight's publications, _sharp's magazine_, _the people's journal_, _howitt's journal of literature_, _the illustrated family journal_, _the mirror_, _the parterre_, _the casket_, _the olio_, _the saturday magazine_, _pinnock's guide to knowledge_, _punch_, _the illustrated london news_, had led the way for pictorial weekly papers, even as the old annuals and the various novels by ainsworth, dickens, and thackeray had prepared the way for magazines; but the artistic movement of the 'sixties,' so far as its periodicals are concerned, need be traced back no further than _once a week_. perhaps, however, it would be unfair to forget the influence of _the art journal_ (at first called _the art union_), which, started in , brought fine art to the homes of the great british public through the medium of wood-engravings in a way not attempted previously; and certainly we must not ignore john cassell, who, on the demise of _howitt's journal_ and _the people's journal_ in , brought out an illustrated chronicle of the great exhibition, which was afterwards merged in a _magazine of art_. as _the strand magazine_--the first monthly periodical to exploit freely the kodak and the half-tone block--started a whole school of imitators, so _once a week_, depending chiefly on drawings by the best men of the day, engraved by the foremost engravers, was followed quickly by the _cornhill magazine_, _good words_, and the rest. many of these were short-lived; nor, looking at them impartially to-day, are we quite sure that the survivors were always the fittest. certainly they were not always the best. but the number of new ventures that saw the light about this time can scarce be named here. then, as now, a vast army of quite second-rate draughtsmen were available, and a number of periodicals, which it were gross flattery to call second-rate, sprang up to utilise their talents. besides these, many weekly and monthly publications, ostensibly devoted to catering for the taste of the masses, gained large audiences and employed talented artists, but demand no more serious consideration as art, than do the 'snippet' weeklies of to-day as literature. but some of these popular serials--such as _the band of hope_, _the british workman_, _the london journal_, _the london reader_, _bow bells_, _every week_, and the rest--are not, relatively speaking, worse than more pretentious publications. it is weary work to estimate the place of the second and third bests, and whatever interest the subject possesses would be exhausted quickly if we tried to catalogue or describe the less important items. yet, to be quite just, several of these, notably the cheap publications of messrs. cassell, petter, and galpin, messrs. s. w. partridge and co., and many others, employed artists by no means second-rate and gave better artistic value for their money than many of their successors do at present. it is well to face the plain fact, and own that at no time has the supply of really creative artists equalled the popular demand. not all the painters of any period are even passable, nor all the illustrators. much that is produced for the moment fulfils its purpose admirably enough, although it dies as soon as it is born. nature shows us the prodigal fecundity of generation compared with the few that ripen to maturity. the danger lies rather in appreciating too much, whether of 'the sixties' or 'the nineties'; yet, if one is stoical enough to praise only the best, it demands not merely great critical acumen, but no little hardness of heart. the intention always pleads to be recognised. we know that accidents, quite beyond the artist's power to prevent, may have marred his work. each man, feeling his own impotence to express his ideas lucidly, must needs be lenient to those who also stammer and fail to interpret their imaginings clearly and with irresistible power. yet, although the men of the sixties survive in greatly reduced numbers and one might speak plainly of much of its trivial commonplace without hurting anybody's feelings, there is no need to drag the rubbish to light. chapter iii: some illustrated magazines of the sixties. i. 'once a week' once a week.--on the second of july appeared the first number of _once a week_, 'an illustrated miscellany of literature, art, science, and popular information.' despite the choice of an extraordinary time of year, as we should now consider it, to float a new venture, the result proved fortunate. not merely does the first series of this notable magazine deserve recognition as the pioneer of its class; its superiority is no less provable than its priority. the earliest attempt to provide a magazine with original illustrations by the chief artists of its time was not merely a bold and well-considered experiment but, as the thirteen volumes of its first series show, an instant and admirably sustained triumph. no other thirteen volumes of an english magazine, at any period, contain so much first-class work. the invention and knowledge, the mastery of the methods employed, and the superb achievements of some of its contributors entitle it to be ranked as one of the few artistic enterprises of which england may be justly proud. when the connection of dickens with his old publishers was severed, and _all the year round_ issued from its own office, messrs. bradbury and evans projected a rival paper that was in no sense an imitation of the former. the reasons for its success lie on the surface. started by the proprietors of _punch_, with the co-operation of an artistic staff that has been singularly fortunate in enlisting always the services of the best men of their day, it is obvious that few periodicals have ever been launched under happier auspices. its aim was obviously to do for fiction, light literature, and _belles-lettres_, what _punch_ had accomplished so admirably for satire and caricature. at that time, with no rivals worth consideration, a fixed intention to obtain for a new magazine the active co-operation of the best men of all schools was within the bounds of possibility. to-day a millionaire with a blank cheque-book could not even hope to succeed in such a project. he would find many first-rate artists, whom no amount of money would attract, and others with connections that would be imperilled if they contributed to a rival enterprise. there are many who prefer the safety of an established periodical to the risk which must needs attend any 'up-to-date' venture. now _once a week_ was not merely 'up-to-date' in its period, but far ahead of the popular taste. as we cannot rival it to-day in its own line, even the most ardent defender of the present at the expense of the past must own that the improvement in process-engraving and the increased truth of facsimile reproductions it offers have not inspired draughtsmen to higher efforts. why so excellent a magazine is not flourishing to-day is a mystery. it would seem as if the public, faithful as they are to non-illustrated periodicals, are fickle where pictures are concerned. but the memory of the third series of _once a week_ relieves the public of the responsibility; changes in the direction and aim of the periodical were made, and all for the worse; so that it lost its high position and no more interested the artist. _punch_, its sponsor, seems to have the secret of eternal youth, possibly because its original programme is still consistently maintained. in another feature it resembled _punch_ more than any previous periodical. in _the london charivari_ many of the pictures have always been inserted quite independently of the text. some have a title, and some a brief scrap of dialogue to explain their story; but the picture is not there to elucidate the anecdote, so much as the title, or fragment of conversation, helps to elucidate the picture. unless an engraving be from a painting, or a topographical view, the rule in english magazines then, as now, is that it must illustrate the text. this is not the place to record an appreciation of the thorough and consistent way in which the older illustrators set about the work of reiterating the obvious incident, depicting for all eyes to see what the author had suggested in his text already, for it is evident that a design untrammelled by any fixed programme ought to allow the artist more play for his fancy. nevertheless, the less frequent illustrations to its serial fiction are well up to the level of those practically independent of the text. in _once a week_ there are dozens of pictures which are evidently purely the invention of the draughtsman. that a modest little poem, written to order usually, satisfies the conventions of established precedent, need not be taken as evidence that traverses the argument. _once a week_ ranked its illustrators as important as its authors, which is clearly an ideal method for an illustrated periodical to observe. to write up to pictures has often been attempted; were not _the pickwick papers_ begun in this way? but the author soon reversed the situation, and once more put the artist in a subordinate place. it is curious to observe that readers of light literature had been satisfied previously with a very conventional type of illustration. for, granting all sorts of qualities to those pictures by cruikshank, 'phiz,' and thackeray, which illustrated the dickens, ainsworth, lever, and thackeray novels, you can hardly refer the source of their inspiration to nature, however remotely. their purpose seems to have been caricature rather than character-drawing, sentimentality in place of sentiment, melodrama in lieu of mystery, broad farce instead of humour. these aims were accomplished in masterly fashion, perhaps; but is there a single illustration by cruikshank, 'phiz,' thackeray, or even john leech, which tempts us to linger and return again and again purely for its art? its 'drawing' is often slipshod, and never infused by the perception of physical beauty that the greeks embodied as their ideal, that ideal which the illustrators of _once a week_, especially walker, revived soon after this date. nor are they inspired by the symbolists' regard for nature, which attracted the 'primitives' of the middle ages, and their legitimate followers the pre-raphaelites. indeed, as you study the so-called 'immortal' designs which illustrate the early victorian novels, you feel that if many of the artists were once considered to be as great as the authors whose ideas they interpreted, time has wreaked revenge at last. if a boy happens to read for the first time thackeray's _vanity fair_ with its original illustrations, the humour and pathos of the masterpiece lose half their power when the ridiculously feeble drawings confront him throughout the book. this is not the case with millais' illustrations to trollope, or those by fred walker to thackeray. the costume may appear grotesque, but the men and women are vital, and as real in the picture as in the literature. lacking the virility of hogarth, or the coarse animal vigour of rowlandson, these caricaturists kept one eye on the fashion-book and one on the grotesque. it was 'cumeelfo' to depict the english maiden a colourless vapid nonentity, to make the villain look villainous, and the benevolent middle-aged person imbecile. accidental deformities and vulgar personal defects were deemed worthy themes for laughter. the fat boy in _pickwick_, the fat joe sedley in _vanity fair_, the _marchioness and dick swiveller_, the _quilps' tea-party_, and the rest, all belong to the order of humour that survives to-day in the 'knockabout artists,' or the 'sketch' performances at second-rate music-halls. even the much-belauded _fagin in the condemned cell_ appears a trite and ineffective bit of low melodrama to-day. we know the oft-repeated story of the artist's despondency, his failure to realise an attitude to express fagin's despair, and how as he caught sight of his own face in the glass he saw that he himself, a draughtsman troubled by a subject, was the very model for one about to be hanged. all the personality of anecdote and the sentimental log-rolling which gathered round the pictures, that by chance were associated with a series of masterpieces in fiction, no longer fascinate us. we recognise the power of the writers, but wish in our hearts that they had never been 'illustrated,' or if so, that they had enjoyed the good fortune which belongs to the novelists of the sixties. but to refuse to endorse the verdict of earlier critics does not imply that there was no merit in these designs, but merely that their illustrators must be classed for the most part (leech least of all) with the exaggerators--those who aimed at the grotesque--with gilray or baxter, the creator of _ally sloper_, and not with true satirists like hogarth or charles keene, who worked in ways that are pre-eminently masterly, even if you disregard the humorous element in their designs. without forcing the theory too far, it may be admitted that the idea of _once a week_ owes more to these serial novels than to any previous enterprise. be that as it may, the plan of the magazine, as we find in a postscript (to vol. i.), was at once 'ratified by popular acceptance.' further, its publishers admit that its circulation was adequate and its commercial success established, after only thirty-six numbers had appeared. it is no new thing for the early numbers of magazines and papers to contain glowing accounts of their phenomenal circulation; but, in this case, there can be no doubt that the self-congratulation is both well deserved and genuine. to _once a week_ may be accorded the merit of initiating a new type of periodical which has survived with trifling changes until to-day. its recognition of 'fiction' and 'pictures,' as the chief items in its programme, has been followed by a hundred others; but the editing, which made it readable as well as artistic, is a secret that many of its imitators failed to understand. although _a good fight_ (afterwards rewritten and entitled _the cloister and the hearth_) is the only novel within its pages that has since assumed classic rank, yet the average of its art--good as it was--is not as far above the standard of its literature, as the illustrations of its predecessors fell below the text they professed to adorn. in sketching the life-history of other illustrated magazines it seemed best to follow a chronological order, because the progress of the art of illustration is reflected more or less faithfully in the advance and retrogression they show. but the thirteen volumes which complete the first series of _once a week_ may be considered better in a different way. for to-day it is prized almost entirely for its pictures, and they were contributed for the most part by the same artists year after year. while in other periodicals you find, with every new volume, a fresh relay of artists, _once a week_, during its palmy days, was supported by the same brilliant group of draughtsmen, who admitted very few recruits, and only those whose great early promise was followed almost directly by ample fulfilment. the very first illustration is a vignette by john leech to a rhymed programme of the magazine by shirley brooks. but leech, who died in , cannot be regarded as a typical illustrator of 'the sixties'--not so much because his work extended only a few years into that decade, as that he belonged emphatically to the earlier school, and represented all that is _not_ characteristic of the period with which this book is concerned. it is unnecessary to belittle his art for the sake of glorifying those who succeeded him in popularity. that he obtained a strong hold upon english taste, lettered and unlettered, is undeniable. it has become part and parcel of that english life, especially of the insular middle-class, whose ideal permitted it to regard the exhibition building of not as a big conservatory, but as a new and better parthenon, and to believe honestly enough that the millennium of universal peace with art, no less than morals, perfected to the '_n_th' degree (on purely british lines), was dawning upon humanity. that the efforts of made much possible to-day which else had been impossible may be granted. the grace and truth of john leech's designs may be recognised despite their technical insufficiency, but at the same time we may own that, in common with cruikshank and the rest, he has received infinitely more appreciation than his artistic achievement merited, and leave his share unconsidered here, although no doubt it was a big commercial factor in the success. to vol. i. of _once a week_ he contributed no less than thirty-two designs, to vol. ii. forty-six, to vol. iii. seven, to vol. iv. one, and to vol. v. four. john tenniel, although he began to work much earlier, and is still an active contemporary, may be considered as belonging especially to the sixties, wherein he represents the survival of an academic type in sharply accentuated distinction to the pre-raphaelism of one group or to the romantic naturalism of a still larger section. on page of vol. i. we find his first drawing, a vignette, and page a design, _audun and the white bear_, no less typically 'a tenniel' in every particular than is the current cartoon in _punch_. those on pages , , , , , , and are all relatively unimportant. _the king of thule_ (p. ) is an illustration to sir theodore martin's familiar translation of goethe's poems. others are on pp. , , . to vol. ii. he is a less frequent contributor. the designs, pp. , , , and call for no comment. the one on p. (not p. as the index has it), to tom taylor's ballad _noménoë_, is reprinted in _songs and ballads of brittany_ (macmillan, ). in vol. iii. there is one (p. ) of small value. on pp. , , , , , , and are pictures to shirley brooks's _the silver cord_, showing the artist in his less familiar aspect as an illustrator of fiction. the one on p. is irresistibly like a 'wonderland' picture, while that on p. (vol. iv.) suggests a _punch_ cartoon; but, on the whole, they are curiously free from undue mannerism in the types they depict. in vol. iv. are more illustrations to _the silver cord_ (pp. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ), and illustrations to owen meredith's poem, _fair rosamund_ (pp. , ). in volume v. _the silver cord_ is continued with ten more designs (pp. , , , , , , , , , ), and there is one to _mark bozzari_ (p. ), translated from müller by sir theodore martin. in volume vi. tenniel appears but four times: _at crutchley prior_ (p. ), _the fairies_ (p. ), a very delicate fancy, _prince lulu_ (p. ), and _made to order_ (p. ). from the seventh and eighth volumes he is absent, and reappears in the ninth with only one drawing, _clytè_ (p. ), and in the tenth (dec. -june ) with one, _bacchus and the water thieves_ (p. ). nor does he appear again in this magazine until , with _lord aythan_, the frontispiece to vol. iii. of the new series. sir john tenniel, however, more than any other of the _punch_ staff, seems never thoroughly at home outside its pages. the very idea of a tenniel drawing has become a synonym for a political cartoon; so that now you cannot avoid feeling that all his illustrations to poetry, fiction, and fairy-tale must have some satirical motive underlying their apparent purpose. [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' vol. i. p. grandmother's apology] [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' vol. i. p. the plague of elliant] it is difficult to record sir john everett millais' contributions to this magazine with level unbiassed comments. notwithstanding the palpable loss they suffered by translation under the hands of even the most skilful of his engravers, the impressions belong to a higher plane than is reached by their neighbours save in a very few instances. the millais wood-engravings deserve a deliberately ordered monograph as fully as do the etchings by rembrandt and whistler, or hokousaï's prints. it is true that not quite all his many illustrations to contemporary literature are as good as the best works of the great artist just named; but if you search through the portfolios of the past for that purpose, you will find that even the old masters were not always adding to a cycle of masterpieces. the astounding fact remains that sir john millais, dealing with the hair-net and the dundreary whiskers, the crinoline and peg-top trousers, imparted such dignity to his men and women that even now they carry their grotesque costumes with distinction, and fail to appear old-fashioned, but at most as masqueraders in fancy dress. for in millais' work you are face to face with actual human beings, superbly drawn and fulfilling all artistic requirements. they possess the immense individuality of a velasquez portrait, which, as a human being, appeals to you no less surely, than its handling arouses your æsthetic appreciation. at this period it seems as if the artist was overflowing with power and mastery--everything he touched sprang into life. whether he owed much or little to his predecessors is unimportant--take away all, and still a giant remains. it is so easy to accept the early drawings of millais as perfect of their kind, beyond praise or blame, and yet to fail to realise that they possess the true vitality of those few classics which are for all time. the term monumental must not be applied to them, for it suggests something dead in fact, although living in sentiment and admired by reason of conventional precedent. the millais drawings have still the power to excite an artist as keenly as a great rembrandt etching that he sees for the first time, or an early whistler that turns up unexpectedly in a loan collection, or an unknown utamaro colour print. the mood they provoke is almost deprived of critical analysis by the overwhelming sense of fulfillment which is forced on your notice. in place of gratified appreciation you feel appalled that one man should have done over and over again, so easily and with such certainty, what dozens of his fellows, accomplished and masterly in their way, tried with by no means uniform success. if every canvas by the artist were lost, he might still be proved to belong to the great masters from his illustrations alone; even if these were available only through the medium of wood-engraving. the first volume of _once a week_ contains, as millais' first contribution, _magenta_ (p. ), a study of a girl who has just read a paper with news of the great battle that gave its name to the terrible colour which typifies the period. it is badly printed in the copy at my side, and, although engraved by dalziels, is not an instance of their best work. in _grandmother's apology_ (p. ) we have a most delightful illustration to tennyson, reproduced in his collected volume, but not elsewhere. _on the water_ (p. ) and _la fille bien gardée_ (p. ) may be passed without comment. but _the plague of elliant_ (p. ), a powerful drawing of a woman dragging a cart wherein are the bodies of her nine dead children, has been selected, more than once, as a typical example of the illustrator at his best. _maude clare_ (p. ), _a lost love_ (p. ), and _st. bartholomew_ (p. ), complete the millais' in vol. i. in the second volume we find _the crown of love_ (p. ), a poem by george meredith. this was afterwards painted and exhibited under the same title in the royal academy of . _a wife_ (p. ), _the head of bran_ (p. ), _practising_ (p. ), (a girl at a piano), and _musa_ (p. ), complete the list of the five in this volume. in vol. iii. there are seven: _master olaf_ (p. ), _violet_ (p. ), _dark gordon's bride_ (p. ), _the meeting_ (p. ), _the iceberg_ (pp. , ), and _a head of hair for sale_ (p. ). in vol. iv. but two appear, _iphis and anaxarete_ (p. ) and _thorr's hunt for the hammer_ (p. ), both slighter in execution than most of the _once a week_ millais'. volume v. also contains but two, _tannhäuser_ (p. ) and _swing song_ (p. ), a small boy in a spanish turban swinging. volume vi. houses a dozen: _schwerting of saxony_ (p. ), _the battle of the thirty_ (p. ), _the child of care_ (pp. , ), five designs for miss martineau's _sister anne's probation_ (pp. , , , , ), _sir tristem_ (p. ), _the crusader's wife_ (p. ), _the chase of the siren_ (p. ), and _the drowning of kaer-is_ (p. ). the seventh volume contains eleven examples by this artist: _margaret wilson_ (p. ), five to miss martineau's _anglers of the don_ (pp. , , , , ), _maid avoraine_ (p. ), _the mite of dorcas_ (p. ), (which is the subject of the academy picture, _the widow's mite_ of ; although in the painting the widow turns her back on the spectator), _the parting of ulysses_ (p. ), _the spirit of the vanished island_ (p. ), and _limerick bells_ (p. ), a design of which a eulogist of the artist says: 'the old monk might be expanded as he stands into a full-sized picture.' in the eighth volume _endymion on latmos_ (p. ), a charming study of the sleeping shepherd, is the only independent picture; the other nine are by way of illustration to miss martineau's _the hampdens_ (pp. , , , , , , , , , ). these are delightful examples of the use of costume by a great master. neither pedantically correct, nor too lax, they revivify the period so that the actors are more important than the accessories. [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' vol. v. p. tannhÄuser] [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' vol. vi. p. sister anne's probation] [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' vol. viii. p. the hampdens] [illustration: j. e. millais 'once a week' , vol. i. p. death dealing arrows] the ninth volume, like the eighth, has only one picture by millais not illustrating its serial. this is _hacco the dwarf_ (p. ). the others represent scenes in miss martineau's _sir christopher_ (pp. , , , , , , , ), a seventeenth-century story. the illustrators of to-day should study these and other pictures where the artist was hampered by the story, and imitate his loyal purpose to expound and amplify the text, accomplishing it the while with most admirably dramatic composition and strong character-drawing. in the remaining volume of the first series there are no other examples by millais; nor, with the exceptions _death dealing arrows_ (jan. , , p. ), one in the _christmas number for _, and _taking his ease_, (p. ), does he appear as a contributor to the magazine. it must not be forgotten that high prices are often responsible for the desire, or rather the necessity, of using second-rate work. when an artist attains a position that monopolises all his working hours, it is obvious that he cannot afford to accept even the highest current rate of payment for magazine illustration; nor, on the other hand, can an editor, who conducts what is after all a commercial enterprise, afford to pay enormous sums for its illustrations. for later drawings this artist was paid at least five times as much as for his earlier efforts, and possibly in some cases ten or twelve times as much. charles keene, the great illustrator so little appreciated by his contemporaries, whose fame is still growing daily, was a frequent contributor to _once a week_ for many years. starting with volume i. he depicted, in quasi-mediæval fashion, charles reade's famous _cloister and the hearth_, then called, in its first and shorter form, _a good fight_ (pp. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ). coincidently he illustrated also _guests at the red lion_ (pp. , ), _a fatal gift_ (p. ), _uncle simkinson_ (pp. , ), _gentleman in the plum-coloured coat_ (p. ), _benjamin harris_ (pp. , , ), _my picture gallery_ (p. ), and _a merry christmas_ (p. ). in volume ii. there are only five illustrations by him (pp. , , , , and ) to shorter tales; but to george meredith's _evan harrington_, running through this volume and the next, he contributes thirty-nine drawings, some of them in his happiest vein, all showing strongly and firmly marked types of character-drawing, in which he excelled. volume iii. contains also, on pages , , , , and , less important works: _the emigrant artist_ on p. is a return to the german manner which distinguished the _good fight_. the drawings for _sam bentley's christmas_ commence here in (pp. , ), and are continued (pp. , , , ) in vol. iv., where we also find _in re mr. brown_ (pp. , ), _the beggar's soliloquy_ (p. ), _a model strike_ (p. ), _the two norse kings_ (pp. , ), and _the revenue officer's story_ (p. ). in volume v. are: _the painter alchemist_ (p. ), _business with bokes_ (p. ), _william's perplexities_ (pp. , , , , ), also a romantic subject, _adalieta_ (p. ): a poem by edwin arnold, and _the patriot engineer_ (p. ). to the sixth volume, the illustrations for _the woman i loved and the woman who loved me_ (pp. , , , , , , , ) are by keene, as are also those to _my schoolfellow friend_ (p. ), _a legend of carlisle_ (p. ), a curiously germanic _page from the history of kleinundengreich_ (p. ), _nip's daimon_ (p. ), and _a mysterious supper-party_ ( ). in vol. vii. and vol. viii. _verner's pride_, by mrs. henry wood, supplies motives for seventeen pictures. in vol. viii. _the march of arthur_ (p. ), _the bay of the dead_ (p. ), and _my brother's story_ (p. ). in vol. ix. _the viking's serf_ (p. ), _the station-master_ (pp. , ), and _the heirloom_ (pp. , ) complete charles keene's share in the illustration of the thirteen volumes of the first series. fred walker is often supposed to have made his first appearance as an illustrator in _once a week_, vol. ii. with _peasant proprietorship_ (p. ); and, although an exception of earlier date may be discovered, it is only in an obscure paper (of which the british museum apparently has no copy) barely a month before. for practical purposes, therefore, _once a week_ may be credited with being the first-established periodical to commission a young artist whose influence upon the art of the sixties was great. this drawing was quickly followed by _god help our men at sea_ (p. ), _an honest arab_ (p. ), _après_ (p. ), _lost in the fog_ (p. ), _spirit painting_ (p. ), and _tenants at no. _ (p. ), and _the lake at yssbrooke_ (p. ). looking closely at these, in two or three only can you discover indications of the future creator of _philip_. those on pages and are obviously the work of the fred walker as we know him now. but those on pp. , , , and would pass unnoticed in any magazine of the period, except that the full signature 'f. walker' arouses one's curiosity, and almost suggests, like lewis carroll's re-attribution of the _iliad_, 'another man of the same name.' [illustration: charles keene 'once a week' vol. i. p. 'a good fight'] in vol. iii. a poem, _once upon a time_, by eliza cook, has two illustrations (pp. , ), which, tentative as they are, and not faultless in drawing, foreshadow the grace of his later work. in _markham's revenge_ (pp. - ) the artist is himself, as also in _wanted a diamond ring_ (p. ). _a noctuary of terror_ (pp. , ), _first love_ (p. ), _the unconscious bodyguard_ (p. ), are unimportant. _the herberts of elfdale_ (pp. , , , , ), possibly the first serial walker illustrated, is infinitely better. _black venn_ (p. ), _a young wife's song_ (p. ), and _putting up the christmas_, a drawing group, complete the examples by this artist in vol. iii. volume iv. contains: _under the fir-trees_ (p. ), _voltaire at ferney_ (p. ), a very poor thing, _the fan_ (p. ), _bring me a light_ (pp. - ), _the parish clerk's story_ (p. ), _the magnolia_ (pp. , ), _dangerous_ (p. ), _an old boy's tale_ (p. ), _romance of the cab-rank_ (p. ), and _the jewel case_ (p. ). in vol. v. we find _jessie cameron's bairn_ (p. ), _the deserted diggings_ (p. ), _pray, sir, are you a gentleman_? (pp. , ), _a run for life_ (p. ), _cader idris_ (p. ), and a series of illustrations to _the settlers of long arrow: a canadian story_ (pp. , , , , , , , , , , and ). to volume vi. walker contributes _patty_ (pp. , ), _a dreadful ghost_ (p. ), and nine to dutton cook's _the prodigal son_ (pp. , , , , , , , , ), which story, running into volume vii., has further illustrations on pp. , , and . _the deadly affinity_ (pp. , , ), and _spirit-rapping extraordinary_ (p. ) are the only others by the artist in this volume. the eighth volume has but one, _after ten years_ (p. ), and _the ghost in the green park_ (p. ) is the only one in volume ix., and his last in the first series. vol. i. of the new series has the famous _vagrants_ (p. ) for one of its special art supplements. amid contemporary notices you often find the work of m. j. lawless placed on the same level as that of millais or sandys; but, while few of the men of the period have less deservedly dropped out of notice, one feels that to repeat such an estimate were to do an injustice to a very charming draughtsman. for the sake of his future reputation it is wiser not to attempt to rank him with the greatest; but in the second order he may be fitly placed. for fancy and feeling, no less than for his loyal adherence to the dürer line, at a time it found little favour, lawless deserves to be more studied by the younger artists of to-day. a great number of decorative designers are too fond of repeating certain mannerisms, and among others, lawless in england and howard pyle in america, two men inspired by similar purpose, should receive more attention than they have done. _once a week_ contains the largest number of his drawings. in vol. i., to _sentiment from the shambles_, there are three illustrations attributed to him. those on pp. and are undoubtedly by lawless, but that on p. is so unlike his method, and indeed so unimportant, that it matters not whether the index be true or in error. [illustration: m. j. lawless 'once a week' vol. iv. p. effie gordon] [illustration: m. j. lawless 'once a week' vol. vi. p. dr. johnson's penance] [illustration: m. j. lawless 'once a week' vol. x. p. john of padua] in vol. ii. are ten examples, two on the same page to _the bridal of galtrim_ (p. ), _the lay of the lady and the hound_ (p. ), a very pre-raphaelite composition, _florinda_ (p. ), (more influenced by the later millais), _only for something to say_ (p. ), a study of fashionable society, which (as mr. walter crane's attempts show) does not lend itself to the convention of the thick line, _the head master's sister_ (pp. , , ), _the secret_ (p. ), and _a legend of swaffham_ (p. ). in vol. iii. _oysters and pearls_ (p. ) is attributed to lawless, but one hopes wrongly; _the betrayed_ (p. ), elfie meadows (p. ), _the minstrel's curse_ (p. ), _the two beauties_ (unsigned and not quite obviously a lawless) (p. ), and _my angel's visit_ (p. ) are the titles of the rest. in the fourth volume there are: _the death of oenone_ (pp. , ), _valentine's day_ (p. ), _effie gordon_ (pp. , ), and _the cavalier's escape_ ( ), all much more typical. in vol. v. we find _high elms_ (p. ), _twilight_ (p. ), _king dyring_ (p. ), and _fleurette_ (p. ). in the sixth volume there are only three: _dr. johnson's penance_ (one of the best drawings of the author), (p. ), _what befel me at the assizes_ (p. ), and _the dead bride_ (p. ). in the seventh volume there is one only to a story by a. c. swinburne, _dead love_ (p. ). despite the name of jacques d'aspremont on the coffin, the picture is used to a poem with quite a different theme, _the white witch_, in thornbury's _legendary ballads_, which contains no less than twenty of lawless's _once a week_ designs. in vol. viii. are two, _the linden trees_ (p. ) and _gifts_ (p. ). in vol. ix. three only: _faint heart never won fair lady_ (p. ), _heinrich frauenlob_ (p. ), and _broken toys_ (p. ). in vol. x. appears the last of lawless's contributions, and, as some think, his finest, _john of padua_ (p. ). the first work by frederick sandys in _once a week_ will be found in vol. iv.: it is not, as the index tells you, _the dying hero_, on page , which is wrongly attributed to him; _yet once more on the organ play_ (p. ) is by sandys, as is also _the sailor's bride_ (p. ) in the same volume. in vol. v. are three, _from my window_ (p. ), _the three statues of Ægina_ (p. ), and _rosamund, queen of the lombards_ (p. ). in vol. vi. we find _the old chartist_ (p. ), _the king at the gate_ (p. ), and _jacques de caumont_ (p. ). in vol. vii. _harold harfagr_ (p. ), _the death of king warwolf_ (p. ), and _the boy martyr_ (p. ). thence, with the exception of _helen and cassandra_, published as a separate plate with the issue of april , (p. ), no more sandys are to be found. to _once a week_ holman hunt contributed but three illustrations: _witches and witchcraft_ (ii. p. ), _at night_ (iii. p. ), and _temujin_ (iii. p. ); yet this very scanty representation is not below the average proportion of the work of this artist in black and white compared with his more fecund contemporaries. a still more infrequent illustrator, j. m'neill whistler, is met with four times in _once a week_, and, i believe, but twice elsewhere. speaking of the glamour shed upon the magazine by its sandys drawings, it is but just to own that to another school of artists these four 'whistlers' were responsible for the peculiar veneration with which they regarded an old magazine. the illustrations to _the major's daughter_ (vi. p. ), _the relief fund in lancashire_ (vii. p. ), _the morning before the massacre of st. bartholomew_ (vii. p. ), and _count burckhardt_ (vii. p. ), a nun by a window, are too well known to need comment. that they show the exquisite sense of the value of a line, and have much in common with the artist's etchings of the same period, is evident enough. g. j. pinwell first makes his appearance in _once a week_, in the eighth volume, with _the saturnalia_ (p. ), a powerful but entirely untypical illustration of a classical subject by an artist who is best known for pastoral and bucolic scenes, _the old man at d._ (p. ), _seasonable wooing_ (p. ), _a bad egg_ (p. ), and _a foggy story_ (p. ); but only in the latter do you find the curiously personal manner which grew to a mannerism in much of his later work. these, with _blind_ (p. ) and _tidings_ (p. ), are all well-thought-out compositions. to volume ix. he contributes _the strong heart_ (p. ), _not a ripple on the sea_ (p. ) (a drawing which belies its title), _laying a ghost_ (p. ), _the fisherman of lake sunapee_ (p. ), _waiting for the tide_ (p. ), _nutting_ (p. ), and _the sirens_ (p. ). in volume x. he is represented by _bracken hollow_ (pp. , ), _the expiation of charles v._ (p. ), _the blacksmith of holsby_ (pp. , ), _calypso_ (p. ), _horace winston_ (p. ), _proserpine_ (p. ), _a stormy night_ (p. ), _mistaken identity_ (p. ), _hero_ (p. ), _the vizier's parrot_ ( ), _a pastoral_ (p. ), _a' beckett's troth_ (p. ), and _the stonemason's yard_ (p. ). the eleventh volume contains only four: _hettie's trouble_ (p. ), _delsthorpe sands_ (p. ), _the legend of the bleeding cave_ (p. ), and _rosette_ (p. ); and volume xii. has three: _followers not allowed_ (p. ), _homer_ (p. ), and _dido_ (p. ). the last volume of the first series ( ) has but one, _achilles_ (p. ). pinwell's work bulks so largely in the sixties that a bare list of these must suffice; but this period, before he developed the curiously immobile manner of his later years, is perhaps the most interesting. [illustration: frederick sandys 'once a week' vol. v. p. the three statues of Ægina] [illustration: frederick sandys 'once a week' vol. vi. p. the old chartist] [illustration: frederick sandys 'once a week' vol. vii. p. harold harfagr] [illustration: frederick sandys 'once a week' vol. v. p. rosamund, queen of the lombards] the index asserts that george du maurier is responsible for the pictures in _once a week_, vol. iii. pp. - , signed m.b., and as you find others unmistakably du maurier's signed with various monograms, its evidence must not be gainsaid; but neither these nor others, to _my adventures ... in russia_ (pp. , ), _the two hands_ (p. ), and _the steady students_ (pp. , ), betray a hint of his well-known style. but _non satis_ (p. ) is signed in full, and obviously his, as a glance would reveal. in vol. iv., _indian juggling_ (p. ), _the black spot_ (p. ), _a life story_ (p. ), _in search of garibaldi_ (p. ), and _the beggar's soliloquy_ (p. , more like a charles keene) are from his hand. in the picture here reproduced, _on her deathbed_ (p. ), the artist has found himself completely, yet _a portuguese tragedy_ (p. ) has no trace of his manner. in vol. v. _recollections of an english gold miner_ (p. ), _monsieur the governor_ (p. ), _a man who fell among thieves_ (p. ), _sea-bathing in france_ (p. ), and _the poisoned mind_, are his only contributions. in vol. vi. are three illustrations to _the admiral's daughters_ (pp. , , ), _the hotel garden_ (p. ), _the change of heads_ (p. ), _the latest thing in ghosts_ (p. ), _metempsychosis_ (p. ), _per l'amore d'una donna_ (p. ), _a parent by proxy_ (p. ), and _threescore and ten_ (p. ). vol. vii. contains _miss simons_ (p. ), _santa_ (pp. , , , ), _only_ (p. ), and the _cannstatt conspirators_ (p. ). _a notting hill mystery_ is pictured on pages , , , and of the seventh volume, and in vol. viii. is continued on pages , , , ; _out of the body_ (p. ), is also here. _eleanor's victory_ is illustrated on pages , , , , , , , and , and continued in vol. ix on pages , , , , , , , . vol. x. contains _the veiled portrait_ (p. ), _the uninvited_ (p. ), _my aunt tricksy_ (p. ), _the old corporal_ (p. ), and _detur digniori_ (pp. and ). in vol. xi. we find two illustrations only by this artist, _philip fraser's fate_, and vols. xii. and xiii. contain no single example. a few illustrations by t. morten appear, and these are scattered over a wide space. the first, _swift and the mohawks_ (iv. p. ), is to a ballad by walter thornbury; _the father of the regiment_ (v. p. ), _wish not_ (x. p. ), _the coastguardsman's tale_ (x. p. ), _late is not never_ (xi. p. ), _the cumæan sibyl_ (xi. p. ), and _macdhonuil's coronach_ (xii. p. ), make one regret the infrequent appearance of one who could do so well. edward j. poynter (the present director of the national gallery) is also sparsely represented: _the castle by the sea_ (vi. p. ), a very pre-raphaelite decoration to uhland's ballad, _wife and i_ (vi. p. ), _the broken vow_ (vii. p. ), _a dream of love_ (vii. pp. , ), _a fellow-traveller's story_ (vii. pp. , ), _my friend's wedding-day_ (viii. p. ), _a haunted house in mexico_ (viii. p. ), _ducie of the dale_ (viii. p. ), and _a ballad of the page to the king's daughter_ (viii. p. ), are all the examples by this artist in _once a week_. charles green, of late known almost entirely as a painter, was a fecund illustrator in the sixties. beginning with vol. iii., in which seven of his works appear (pp. , , , , , , ), he contributed freely for several years; in vol. iv. there are examples on pp. , , , , , , and , and on pp. , of the fifth volume, and and of the sixth, on pp. , , , and of the seventh. but not until the eighth volume, with _the wrath of mistress elizabeth gwynne_ (p. ), do we find one that is of any importance. whether spoilt by the engraver, or immature work, it is impossible to say; but the earlier designs could scarcely be identified except for the index. in the same volume _the death of winkelried_ (p. ), _milly leslie's story_ (p. ), _the countess gabrielle_ (p. ), _corporal pietro micca_ (p. ), _damsel john_ (p. ), _my golden hill_ (p. ), _five days in prison_ (p. ), _the queen's messenger_ (p. ), _the centurion's escape_ (p. ), and _the cry in the dark_ (p. ), are so curiously unlike the earlier, and so representative of the artist we all know, that if the 'c. green' be the same the sudden leap to a matured style is quite remarkable. in volume ix. but three appear: _paul garrett_ (p. ), _a modern idyll_ (p. ), and _my affair with the countess_ (p. ); but in the tenth are nine: _norman's visit_ (pp. , ), _legend of the castle_ (p. ), _a long agony_ (p. ), _the lady of the grange_ (p. ), _the gentleman with the lily_ (pp. , ), _the mermaid_ (p. ), and _t' runawaa lass_ (p. ). _the hunt at portskewitt_ (p. ) is in vol. xi., the last appearance of the artist i have met with in this magazine. f. j. shields, so far as i can trace his drawings, is represented but three times: _an hour with the dead_ (iv. p. ), _the risen saint_ (v. p. ), and _turberville_ (x. p. ). as reference to this comparatively infrequent illustrator appears in another place no more need be said of these, except that they do not show the artist in so fine a mood as when he illustrated defoe's _history of the plague_. simeon solomon contributes a couple only of drawings of jewish ceremonies (vii. pp. , ). j. luard, an artist, whose work floods the cheaper publications of the time, shows, in an early drawing, _contrasts_ (iii. p. ), a pre-raphaelite manner, and a promise which later years did not fulfil, if indeed this be by the luard of the penny dreadfuls. [illustration: j. m'neill whistler 'once a week' vol. vi. p. the major's daughter] [illustration: j. m'neill whistler 'once a week' vol. vii. p. the relief fund in lancashire] [illustration: j. m'neill whistler 'once a week' vol. vii. p. the morning before the massacre of st. bartholomew] [illustration: j. m'neill whistler 'once a week' vol. vii. p. count burckhardt] m. e. edwards, a most popular illustrator, appears in the last volume of the first series, with _found drowned_ (xiii. pp. , , , , , , , , , , , ), in which volume j. lawson has three: _ondine_ (p. ), _narcissus_ (p. ), and _adonis_ ( ). of a number of more or less frequent contributors, including f. eltze, r. t. pritchett, p. skelton, f. j. slinger, j. wolf (the admirable delineator of animals), space forbids even a complete list of their names. among other occasional contributors to the first thirteen volumes are: j. d. watson with _the cornish wrecker's hut_ (viii. p. ), _no change_ (ix. p. ), and _my home_ (ix. ); a. boyd houghton:--_the old king dying_ (xii. p. ), _the portrait_ (xiii. p. ), _king solomon_ (xiii. p. ), _the legend of the lockharts_ (xiii. p. ), and _leila and hassan_ (xiii. p. ); walter crane:--_castle of mont orgueil_ (ix. p. ) and _the conservatory_ (xiii. p. ); j. w. north:--_bosgrove church_ (ix. p. ), _the river_ (xii. p. ), and _st. martin's church, canterbury_ (xii. p. )--the two latter being worthy to rank among his best work; paul gray with _hans euler_ (xii. p. ), _moses_ (xiii. p. ), _the twins_ (xiii. pp. - ), _two chapters of life_ (xiii. p. ), and _quid femina possit_ (xii. pp. , , , ); a. r. fairfield (x. pp. , , , , ); w. s. burton, _romance of the rose_ (x. p. ), _the executioner_ (xi. p. ), _dame eleanor's return_ (xi. p. ), and _the whaler fleet_ (xi. p. ); t. white (viii. p. ); f. w. lawson, _dr. campany's courtship_ (xii. pp. , , , ), and others on pp. , , ; (xiii. pp. , , , _lucy's garland_, p. ); c. dobell (vi. p. ); _our secret drawer_, by miss wells (v. p. ); and four by miss l. mearns, which are of genuine interest (xiii. pp. , , , ). the new series of _once a week_, started on january , , was preceded by a christmas number, wherein one of the most graceful drawings by paul gray is to be found, _the chest with the silver mountings_ (p. ). it contains also a full-page plate by g. b. goddard, _up, up my hounds_ (p. ), and designs by w. small, _a golden wedding_ (p. ); g. du maurier, _the ace of hearts_ (p. ); j. lawson, _a fairy tale_ (p. ), and others of little moment. the new series announced, as a special attraction, 'extra illustrations by eminent artists, printed separately on toned paper.' those to the first volume include _little bo peep_, a delightful and typical composition by g. du maurier (_frontispiece_); _the vagrants_ (p. ), by fred walker; _helen and cassandra_ (p. ), by f. sandys; _the servants' hall_ (p. ), by h. s. marks; _alonzo the brave_ (p. ), by sir john gilbert, and _caught by the tide_, by e. duncan (p. ). [illustration: g. du maurier 'once a week' vol. iv. p. on her deathbed] [illustration: g. du maurier 'once a week' vol. vi. p. per l'amore d'una donna] [illustration: t. morten 'once a week' vol. xi. p. the cumÆan sibyl] 'a specimen of the most recent application of the versatile art of lithography' which is also given, dates the popular introduction of the coloured plate by which several magazines, _nature and art_, _the chromo-lithograph_, etc., were illustrated entirely; others, especially _the sunday at home_, _leisure hour_, _people's magazine_, etc., from onwards issued monthly frontispieces in colours and gold--a practice now confined almost wholly to boys' magazines. the pictures by artists already associated with _once a week_ include (in vol. i. p. ) two by a. boyd houghton, _the queen of the rubies_ (p. ) and _a turkish tragedy_ (p. ); four by paul gray, _the phantom ship_ (p. ), _blanche_ (pp. , ), and _the fight on rhu carn_ (p. ); two by t. morten, _the dying viking_ (p. ), a drawing curiously like sandys's _rosamunda_, and _king eric_ (p. ); six by w. small, _billy blake's best coffin_ (p. ), _kattie and the deil_ (p. ), _the king and the bishop_ (p. ), _the staghound_ (p. ), _thunnors slip_ (p. ), and _larthon of inis-huna_ (p. ); five by j. lawson: _the watch-tower_ (p. ), _theocritus_ (p. ), _in statu quo_ (p. ), _ancient clan dirge_ (p. ), and _wait on_ (p. ); one by f. w. lawson, _a sunday a century ago_ (p. ), and others. among recruits we find r. barnes with _lost for gold_ (p. ), b. bradley with _a raid_ (p. ), eleven by edward hughes, and many by g. bowers, r. t. pritchett, f. j. slinger, and others. altogether the new series started bravely. in vol. ii. new series, the so-called 'extra illustrations' include _the suit of armour (frontispiece)_, by sir john gilbert; _evening_ (p. ), by basil bradley; _poor christine_ (p. ), by edward hughes; _among the breakers_ (p. ), by e. duncan; _the nymph's lament_ (p. ), by g. du maurier; and _the huntress of armorica_ (p. ), by paul gray. of 'old hands' du maurier has another of his graceful drawings, _lady julia_ (p. ), and paul gray has, besides the special plate, eleven to _hobson's choice_ (pp. , , , , , , , , , , and ); three by a. boyd houghton are _a dead man's message_ (p. ); and _the mistaken ghost_ (pp. , ); t. morten has only a couple, _the curse of the gudmunds_ (p. ) and _on the cliffs_ (p. ); and g. j. pinwell one, _the pastor and the landgrave_ (p. ); j. w north's _luther's gardener_ (p. ) is a curious drawing to a curious poem; w. small, with _eldorado_ (p. ), _dorette_ (p. ), _the gift of clunnog vawr_ (p. ), _the prize maiden_ (pp. , , ), and _tranquillity_ (p. ), shows more and more that strong personality which by and by influenced black and white art, so that men of the seventies are far more disciples of small than even were the men of the sixties of millais. m. e. edwards's _avice and her lover_ (p. ); six by basil bradley (pp. , , , , , and ), charles green's _kunegunda_ (p. ), _hazeley mill_ (p. ), and _michael considine's daughter_ (p. ); five by edward hughes (pp. , , , , and ); three by j. lawson: _ariadne_ (p. ), _the mulberry-tree_ (p. ), and _gabrielle's cross_ (p. ). f. w. lawson's _a midshipman's yarn_ (p. ) and _grandmother's story_ (p. ) deserve to be noted. others by g. bowers, f. eltze, r. t. pritchett, p. j. skelton, e. wimpress (_sic_), and j. wolf among the rest, call for no comment. for the christmas number for this year , w. small has _the brown imp_ (p. ); j. lawson, _the birth of the rose_ (p. ); e. hughes, _the pension latoque_ (p. ); ernest griset, _boar hunting_ (p. ); g. b. goddard, _christmas eve in the country_ (p. ); and basil bradley, _a winter piece_ (p. ); john leighton contributes a frontispiece and illustrations to _st. george and the dragon_, a poem by the author of _john halifax_. in volume iii. the extra illustrations are still distinguished by a special subject index; they include _lord aythan (frontispiece)_, by j. tenniel; _coming through the fence_ (p. ), by r. ansdell, a.r.a.; _feeding the sacred ibis_ (p. ), by e. j. poynter; _come, buy my pretty windmills_ (p. ), by g. j. pinwell; _hide a stick_ (p. ), by f. j. shields; and _highland sheep_ (p. ), by basil bradley. another extra plate, a drawing by helen j. miles, 'given as an example of graphotype,' is not without technical interest. in the accompanying article we find that the possibilities of mechanical reproduction are discussed, and the writer adds, as his highest flight of fancy, 'who shall say that graphotype may not be the origin of a daily illustrated paper?' it would be out of place to pursue this tempting theme, and to discuss the _daily graphic_ of new york and succeeding illustrated dailies, for all these things were but dreams in the sixties. yet, undoubtedly, graphotype set people on the track of process-work. by and by the photographer came in as the welcome ally, who left the draughtsman free to work upon familiar materials, instead of the block itself, and presently supplanted the engraver also, and the great rival of wood-cutting and wood-engraving sprang into life. among the ordinary illustrations a. boyd houghton is represented by _the mistaken ghost_ (p. ), _a hindoo legend_ (p. ), and _the bride of rozelle_ (p. ); g. j. pinwell by _joe robertson's folly_ (p. ) and _the old keeper's story_ (p. ); j. w. north by _the lake_ (p. ); w. small by _a queer story about banditti_ (pp. , ); s. l. fildes by a strongly-drawn design, _the goldsmith's apprentice_ (p. ); ernest griset by a slight yet distinctly grotesque _tale of a tiger_ (p. ); m. ellen edwards by _wishes_ (p. ) and kate edwards by _cherry blossom_ (p. ); j. lawson by _the legend of st. katherine_ (p. ), _sir ralph de blanc-minster_ (p. ), and _hymn to apollo_ (p. ); f. w. lawson by _the singer of the sea_ (p. ). the various examples by f. a. fraser, t. green, t. scott (a well-known portrait engraver), e. m. wimpress, and the rest may be dismissed with bare mention. in vol. iv., new series, we find charles keene with a frontispiece, _the old shepherd_; _the haymakers_ (p. ), e. m. wimpress; _cassandra_ (p. ), s. l. fildes; _fetching the doctor_ (p. ), h. s. marks; _imma and eginhart_ (p. ), w. small; and _the christmas choir_ (p. ), f. a. fraser, are the other separate plates. those printed with the text include _the child queen_ (p. ) and _feuilles d'automne_ (p. ), by s. l. fildes; _evening tide_ (p. ), a typical pastoral, by g. j. pinwell; _zoë fane_ (p. ), by j. mahoney; and others by b. bradley, e. f. brewtnall, f. eltze, t. green, e. hughes, f. w. lawson, e. sheil, l. straszinski, t. sulman, e. m. wimpress, etc. despite the presence of many of the old staff, the list of names shows that the palmy days of the magazine are over. the christmas number contains, _inter alia_, a frontispiece by john gilbert; _my cousin renie_ (p. ), by j. mahoney; _scotch cattle_, by basil bradley; and _the maiden's test_, by m. e. edwards (p. ). in another new series starts. a notable feature has disappeared: the illustrations no longer figure in a separate list, but their artists' names are tacked on to the few articles and stories which are illustrated in the ordinary index. yet the drawings by du maurier to charles reade's _foul play_ (pp. , , , , , , , , ) would alone make the year interesting. people, who regard du maurier as a society draughtsman only, must be astonished at the grim melodramatic force displayed in these. 'john millais, r.a.,' also appears as a contributor with _death dealing arrows_ (p. ); s. l. fildes has _the orchard_ (p. ); f. w. lawson, _the castaway_ (p. ); basil bradley is well represented by _the chillingham cattle_ (p. ), and _another day's work done_ (p. ); f. s. walker appears with _a lazy fellow_ (p. ), john gilbert with _the armourer_ (p. ), and m. e. edwards with the society pictures, _the royal academy_ (p. ) and _a flower show_ (p. ). in the second volume for we find _salmon fishing_ (p. ) and _daphne_ (p. ), both by s. l. fildes; _found out_ (p. ), _a town cousin_ (p. ), _left in the lurch_ (p. ), and _blackberry gatherers_ (p. ), by h. paterson; _sussex oxen_ (p. ) and _the foxhound_ (p. ), by basil bradley; _the picnic_ (p. ), by f. w. lawson, who has also _the waits_, the frontispiece of the christmas number, which contains _taking his ease_ (p. ), the last millais in the magazine; a clever gallery study; _boxing night_, by s. l. fildes, and a capital domestic group, _the old dream_ (p. ), by m. e. edwards. in , vol. iii., new series, contains a single example by g. j. pinwell, _a seat in the park_ (p. ); five by s. l. fildes; _the duet_ (p. ), _the juggler_ (p. ), _hours of idleness_, the subject of a later academy picture (p. ), _led to execution_ (p. ), and _basking_ (p. ); and others by fred barnard (pp. , , , ), b. bradley (pp. , , ), val prinsep (p. ), f. w. lawson (p. ), and ford madox brown, _the traveller_ (p. ). to state that vol. iv., new series, is absolutely without interest is to let it off cheaply. in the volume for the names of artists are omitted, and if we follow the editor's example no injustice will be done, despite a few clever drawings by r. m[acbeth]; the work, not merely in date but in spirit, is of the new decade, and as it is exceptionally poor at that for the most part, it no longer belongs to the subject with which this volume is concerned. chapter iv: some illustrated magazines of the sixties: ii. 'the cornhill,' 'good words,' and london society' the cornhill magazine, which began in with thackeray as editor, showed from the very first that the aim of the magazine was to keep the level of its pictures equal to that of its text. in looking through the forty-seven volumes of the first series it is gratifying to find that this purpose was never forgotten. many a rival magazine has been started since under the happiest auspices, with the most loyal intention to have the best and only the very best illustrations; but in a few years the effort has been too exacting, and the average commonplace of its padding in prose and verse has been equalled by the dull mediocrity of its pictures. only those who have experienced the difficulty which faces an editor firmly resolved to exclude the commonplace of any sort can realise fully what a strain a successful effort, lasting over twenty years, must needs impose on the responsible conductors. thackeray, as we know, soon found the labour too great; but his successors kept nobly to their purpose, and few magazines show more honourable fulfilment of their projected scheme than the classic _cornhill_, which has introduced so many masterpieces in art and literature to the public. curiously enough, the weakest illustrations under the _régime_ he inaugurated so happily are those by the editor himself. thackeray's designs to _lovel the widower_, and the one example by g. a. sala in the first volume, link the new periodical with the past. they belong to the caricature type of illustrations which had been accepted by the british public as character-drawing. like the 'phiz' plates for dickens's works, and many of john leech's sketches, they have undoubtedly merit of a sort, but not if you consider them as pictures pure and simple. later experience shows that an illustration to a story, which catches the spirit of the writer, and realises in another medium the characters he had imagined, may also be fine art--art as self-sufficient and as wholly beautiful as that of a dürer wood-cut or a rembrandt etching. the masterpieces of modern illustrations to fiction which the _cornhill magazine_ contains would by themselves suffice to prove this argument up to the hilt. the collection of drawings chiefly by millais, walker, and leighton, in a volume of carefully-printed impressions, from one hundred of the original wood-blocks, issued under the title of the _cornhill gallery_ in , may in time to come be prized as highly as _bible wood-cuts_, _the dance of death_, or the _liber studiorum_. it is true that the pictures aimed only to fulfil their actual purpose, and it may be argued, reasonably enough, that a picture which illustrates a story is for that very reason on a different level to a self-contained work--inspired solely by the delight of the artist in his subject. but, in their own way, they touched high-water mark. upon one of dürer's blocks he is said to have written in latin, 'better work did no man than this,' and on many a _cornhill_ design the same legend might have been truly inscribed. it is true that most of the etchings and wood-cuts beside which they deserve to be ranked are untrammelled autograph work throughout, and that here the drawing done direct on the block was paraphrased by an engraver. not always spoilt, sometimes (as even the draughtsman himself admitted), improved in part, but still with the impress of another personality added. and this argument might be extended to prove that an engraving by another craftsman can never be so interesting as an etching from a master's hand, or a block cut by its designer. yet, without forcing such comparison, we may claim that the engravings in _once a week_, _good words_, and the _cornhill_ enriched english art to lasting purpose. although sets of the _cornhill magazine_ are not difficult to procure, and a large number of people prize them in their libraries, yet by way of bringing together those scattered facts of interest which pertain to our subject, it may be as well to indicate briefly the principal contents of the first thirty-two volumes which cover the period to which this book is limited. in we find six full-page illustrations to _lovel the widower_, three to _the four georges_, two to _roundabout papers_, all by thackeray, to whom they are all formally attributed in the _cornhill gallery_. possibly one, entirely unlike the style of the rest to the _four georges_, is from another hand--the fact that it is not included in the reprint seems to confirm this suspicion. millais' first contributions included _unspoken dialogue_, _'last words,'_ and the beginning of the illustrations to _framley parsonage_, which he equalled often but never excelled. f. sandys is represented by _legends of the portent_ (i. p. ), and frederick leighton by _the great god pan_ (ii. p. ) to mrs. browning's poem. _ariadne in naxos_, an outline-drawing in a decorative frame, is unsigned, and so strangely unlike the style of the magazine that it provokes curiosity. in thackeray started illustrating his serial story, _the adventures of philip_, but, after four full-page drawings, relinquished the task to fred walker, who at first re-drew thackeray's compositions, but afterwards signed his work with the familiar 'f. w.' we may safely attribute eight solely to him. millais continued his series of drawings to illustrate _framley parsonage_, and has besides one other, entitled _temptation_ (iii. p. ). a series of studies of character, _the excursion train_, by c. h. bennett, is a notable exception to the practice of the magazine, which printed all its 'pictures' on plate-paper apart from the text, the blocks in the text (always excepting the initial letters) being elsewhere limited to diagrams elucidating the matter and obviously removed from consideration as pictures. this year doyle began those outline pictures of society which attained so wide a popularity. [illustration: frederick sandys 'cornhill magazine' vol. i. p. legend of the portent] [illustration: frederick sandys 'cornhill magazine' vol. vi. p. manoli] in walker concludes his _philip_ series with eight full-page drawings, including the superb _philip in church_, of which he made a version in water-colours that still ranks among his most notable work. the first two illustrations to miss thackeray's _story of elizabeth_ are also from his hand. millais is represented by _irené_, a kneeling figure (v. p. ), and by the powerfully conceived _bishop and the knight_ (vi. p. ), and the first four illustrations to trollope's _small house at allington_. richard doyle continues the series of _pictures of english society_; but now that their actuality no longer impresses, we fail to discover the special charm which endeared them to contemporaries. f. sandys is represented by _manoli_ (vi. p. ), the second of his three contributions, which deepens the regret that work by this fine artist appeared so seldom in this magazine. but the most notable feature this year is found in the drawings contributed by frederick leighton, then not even an associate of the royal academy, which illustrate george eliot's _romola_. with these the _cornhill_ departed from its ordinary custom, and gave two full-page illustrations to each section of the serial month by month. consequently in the volumes in and the usual two-dozen plates are considerably augmented. in twelve more of the _romola_ series complete leighton's contributions to the magazine. millais has twelve more to _the small house at allington_, walker is represented by one drawing, _maladetta_, another to _mrs. archie_, two to _out of the world_, and one more to the _story of elizabeth_. du maurier, destined to occupy the most prominent position in later volumes, appears for the first time with _the cilician pirates_, _sibyl's disappointment_, _the night before the morrow_, and _cousin phillis_. possibly a drawing entitled 'the first meeting' to a story, _the ... in her closet_, is from his hand; but the style is not clearly evident, nor is it included in the _cornhill gallery_ which, published in the next year, drew its illustrations from the few volumes already noticed, with the addition of five others from the early numbers of . another drawing, signed a. h., to _margaret denzil_, is by arthur hughes. in two other illustrations complete _the small house at allington_, and millais has also two others for _madame de monferrat_. sir noel paton appears for the only time with a fine composition, _ulysses_ (ix. p. ). _margaret denzil_ has its three illustrations signed r. b., probably the initials of robert barnes, who did much work in later volumes. charles keene, a very infrequent contributor, illustrated _brother jacob_, a little-known story by george eliot. du maurier supplies the first four illustrations to mrs. gaskell's unfinished _wives and daughters_, and fred walker contributes five to the other serial, also interrupted by its author's death, the delightful _denis duval_. here we see the artist employed on costume-work, and hampered somewhat by historical details, yet infusing into his designs the charm which characterises his idyllic work. g. j. pinwell is represented by _the lovers of ballyvookan_. g. h. thomas starts wilkie collins's _armadale_ with two pictures that do not accord with the rest of the _cornhill_ work, but belong to a differently considered method, popular enough elsewhere, but rarely employed in this magazine. the volume contains also a portrait of thackeray engraved on steel, by j. c. armytage, after laurence. in the _armadale_ illustrations take up twelve full pages, and du maurier supplies the remaining twelve stories to _wives and daughters_. in six _armadale_ and one _wives and daughters_ are reinforced by eleven illustrations to _the claverings_ by m. ellen edwards. fred walker is again a contributor with five drawings for miss thackeray's _village on the cliff_, and frederick sandys, with a fine composition illustrating swinburne's _cleopatra_ (xiv. p. ), makes his last appearance in the magazine. in m. e. edwards signs five of _the claverings_ and seven to _the bramleighs of bishop's folly_. _the satrap_, an admirable composition, is signed f. w. b., but for whom these initials stand is not clear. fred walker completes his illustrations to the _village on the cliff_, and adds one other to _beauty and the beast_, and two to _a week in a french country house_ and one to _red riding hood_. f. w. lawson makes his _entrée_ with the four drawings to _stone edge_, and du maurier has a curiously massive _joan of arc_. in walker has three illustrations to _jack the giant killer_, '_i do not love you_,' and _from an island_ respectively. m. ellen edwards is responsible for ten to _the bramleighs_, one to a story, _the stockbroker_, and the first two to _that boy of norcott's_. f. w. lawson has four to _avonhoe_, and two to _lettice lisle_, and du maurier two to _my neighbour nelly_, and one to _lady denzil_. in _that boy of norcott's_ supplies the subjects for three others by m. e. edwards, and _lettice lisle_ for four by f. w. lawson. the first chapters of _put yourself in his place_, charles reade's trades-union novel, are illustrated by ten drawings by robert barnes, f. walker has one to _sola_, for which tale du maurier supplies another, as well as one to the _courtyard of the ours d'or_, and the three for _against time_. in robert barnes continues illustrating charles reade's novel with seven full pages. du maurier contributes ten to _against time_, and four to george meredith's _adventures of harry richmond_, and s. l. fildes (more familiar to-day as luke fildes) comes in with three admirable compositions to charles lever's _lord kilgobbin_. [illustration: frederick sandys 'cornhill magazine' vol. xiv. p. cleopatra] in the latter story engages twelve full pages, and _harry richmond_ and eleven others, du maurier has the first to a _story of the plébiscite_. in du maurier continues _the plébiscite_ with one full page (the others to the same story are signed 'h. h.'), and has four others to francillon's _pearl and emerald_, and ten to _the scientific gentleman_. fildes concludes his embellishment of _lord kilgobbin_ with three full pages. hubert herkomer (the 'h. h.' of _the plébiscite_ probably) appears as a recruit with two most satisfactory designs to _the last master of the old manor-house_, and g. d. leslie, also a fresh arrival, finds, in miss thackeray's _old kensington_, the themes for nine graceful compositions. in to du maurier are devoted twelve subjects illustrating _zelda's fortune_. g. d. leslie has four others concluding _old kensington_. s. l. fildes illustrates _willows_ with two, and marcus stone is represented by half-a-dozen idyllic and charming, if somewhat slight, designs for _young brown_. in h. paterson, w. small, and du maurier contribute all the pictures excepting one by marcus stone. _far from the madding crowd_ by thomas hardy, illustrated by the first artist, and _a rose in june_, and black's _three feathers_ by the second. in h. allingham supplies most graceful pictures to _miss angel_. du maurier is the artist chosen for another hardy novel, _the hand of ethelberta_. a. hopkins illustrates mr. henley's wonderful achievement, _hospital outlines_, as the poems were called when they appeared in july . from this date to the last number of the shilling series, june , the artists are limited to small and du maurier for the most part, and as this record has already exceeded its limits, no more need be said, except that until the last, the high standard of technical excellence was never abandoned. although the rare mastery of millais and the charm of walker were hardly approached by their successors, yet the magazine was always representative of the best work of those of its contemporaries who devoted themselves to black and white, and not infrequently, as this notice shows, attracted men who have made few, if any other, attempts to draw for publication. it is curious to find that, notwithstanding the evident importance it attached to its pictorial department, no artist's name is ever mentioned in the index or elsewhere. in a graceful and discriminative essay 's. c.' speaks feelingly and appreciatively of fred walker just after his death; but that seems to be the only time when the anonymity imposed on the artists was divulged in the magazine itself. it is but fair to add that the literary contents were never signed, or attributed in the index, except that a few articles bear the now familiar initials, 'l. s.', 'w. e. h.', 'r. l. s.', 'g. a.', and others. good words this popular, semi-religious, sixpenny magazine, established in , achieved quickly a circulation that was record-breaking in its time. edited by dr. norman macleod, it was printed by thomas constable, and published (at first) in edinburgh by alexander strahan and co. although, viewed in the light of its later issues, one cannot help feeling disappointed with the first volume, yet even there the pictures are distinctly interesting as a forecast, even if they do not call for any detailed notice by reason of their intrinsic merit. they rarely exceed a half page in size, and were engraved none too well by various craftsmen. indeed, judging from the names of the artists, then as afterwards, given fully in the index of illustrations, it might not be unfair to blame the engravers still more strongly. the very fact that the illustrations are duly ascribed in a separate list is proof that, from the first, the editor recognised their importance. such honourable recognition of the personality of an illustrator is by no means the rule, even in periodicals that have equal right to be proud of their collaborators. where the artists' names are recorded it is rare to find them acknowledged so fully and thoroughly as in _good words_. in other magazines they are usually referred to under the title of the article they illustrate and nowhere else; or their name is printed (as in _once a week_) with a bare list of numerals showing the pages containing their pictures; but in _good words_ the subject, titles, and artists' names have always been accorded a special index. [illustration: g. du maurier 'good words' , p. a time to dance] in the first volume, for , w. q. orchardson--not then even an associate of the royal academy--supplies nine drawings, engraved by f. borders. admirable in their own way, one cannot but feel that the signature leads one to expect something much more interesting; and, knowing the quality of mr. orchardson's later work, it is impossible to avoid throwing the blame on the engraver. keeley halswelle contributes six; in these you find (badly drawn or spoilt by the engraver) those water-lilies in blossom, which in after years became a mannerism in his landscape foregrounds. j. w. m'whirter has four--one a group of _autumn flowers_ (p. ), cut by r. paterson, that deserves especial notice as a much more elaborate piece of engraving than any other in the volume. erskine nicol supplies two _genre_ pieces, the full-page, _mary macdonell and her friends_ (p. ), being, most probably, a thoroughly good sketch, but here again the translator has produced hard scratchy lines that fail to suggest the freer play of pencil or pen, whichever it was that produced the original. others by 'j. b.,' j. o. brown, c. a. doyle, clarence dobell, jas. drummond, clark stanton, gourlay steell, and hughes taylor, call for no particular comment. from the chief full-page illustrations were printed separately on toned paper. a series of animal subjects by 'j. b.,' twelve 'illustrations of scripture,' engraved by dalziel brothers, were announced in the prospectus as a special feature. somewhat pre-raphaelite in handling they are distinctly interesting, but hardly masterly. but the volume will be always memorable for its early work by frederick walker and g. du maurier. _a time to dance_, by the latter, shows a certain decorative element, which in various ways has influenced his work at different periods, although no one could have deduced from it the future career of its brilliant author as a satirist of society, a draughtsman who imparted into his work, to a degree no english artist has surpassed, and very few equalled, that 'good form' so prized by well-bred people. the drawing unsigned _the blind school_ (p. ), attributed to fred walker in the index, suggests some clerical error. like one attributed to sandys in a later volume, you hesitate before accepting evidence of the compiler of the list of engravings, which the picture itself contradicts flatly. _only a sweep_ (p. ) is signed, and, although by no means a good example, is unquestionably attributed rightly. john pettie has two designs, _cain's brand_ (pp. , ); j. m'whirter and w. q. orchardson, one each; h. h. armstead, a pre-raphaelite composition, _a song which none but the redeemed ever sing_, which is amongst the most interesting of the comparatively few illustrations by the royal academician, who is better known as a sculptor, as his _music, poetry, and painting_ in the albert memorial, the panels beneath dyce's frescoes at westminster palace, and a long series of works shown at the academy exhibitions suffice to prove. t. morten, a draughtsman who has missed so far his due share of appreciation, is represented by _the waker, dreamer, and sleeper_ (p. ), a powerful composition of a group of men praying at night by the side of a breaking dyke. john pettie has two drawings; and j. d. watson, six subjects--the first, _the toad_, being singularly unlike his later style, and suggesting a closer discipleship with the pre-raphaelites than he maintained afterwards. two by clarence dobell, and three by t. graham--one, _the young mother_, a charming arrangement in lines; with others by j. wolf, zwecker, w. m'taggart, j. l. porter, a. w. cooper, a. bushnell, w. fyfe, w. linney, and c. h. bennett, are also included. altogether the second volume shows marked advance upon the first, although this admirable periodical had not yet reached its high-water mark. in we find added to its list of artists, millais, keene, sandys, whistler, holman hunt, e. burne-jones, a. boyd houghton, tenniel, s. solomon, and lawless, a notable group, even in that year when so many magazines show a marvellous 'galaxy of stars.' to millais fell the twelve illustrations to _mistress and maid_, by the author of _john halifax_, and two others, _olaf_ (p. ) and _highland flora_ (p. ). that these maintain fully the reputation of the great illustrator, whose later achievements in oil have in popular estimation eclipsed his importance as a black-and-white artist, goes without saying. if not equal to the superb _parables_ of the following year, they are worthy of their author. indeed, no matter when you come across a millais, it is with a fresh surprise each time that one finds it rarely falls below a singularly high level, and is apt to seem, for the moment, the best he ever did. [illustration: simeon solomon 'good words' , p. the veiled bride] [illustration: frederick walker 'good words' , p. out among the wild-flowers] the two illustrations by j. m'neill whistler seem to be very little known. those to _once a week_, possibly from the fact of their being reprinted in thornbury's _legendary ballads_, have been often referred to and reproduced several times; but no notice (so far as i recollect) of these, to _the first sermon_, has found its way into print. the one (p. ) shows a girl crouching by a fire, with a man, whose head is turned towards her, seated at a table with his hand on a lute. the other (p. ) is a seated girl in meditation before a writing-table. not a little of the beauty of line, which distinguishes the work of the famous etcher, is evident in these blocks, which were both engraved by dalziel, and as whatever the original lost cannot now be estimated, as they stand they are nevertheless most admirable works, preserving the rapid touch of the pen-line in a remarkable degree. the charles keene drawing to _nanneri the washerwoman_ is another dalziel block which merits praise in no slight measure; as here again one fancies that the attempt has been to preserve a facsimile of each touch of the artist, and not to translate wash into line. the _king sigurd_ of burne-jones has certainly lost a great deal; in fact, judging by drawings of the same period still extant, it conveys an effect quite different from that its author intended. certainly, at the present time, he regards it as entirely unrepresentative; but no doubt then as now he disliked drawing upon wood. to-day it has been said that his chaucer drawings in pencil were practically translated by another hand in the course of their being engraved on wood. certainly technique of lead pencil is hardly suggested, much less reproduced in facsimile in the entirely admirable engravings by the veteran mr. w. h. hooper. but if the designs were photographed on the block such translation as they have undergone is no doubt due to the engraver. a drawing by simeon solomon, _the veiled bride_ (p. ), seems also much less dainty than his pencil studies of the same period. many artists, when they attempt to draw upon wood, find the material peculiarly unsympathetic. rossetti has left his opinion on record, and it is quite possible that in both the burne-jones and solomon, as in the tennyson drawings, although the engravers may have accomplished miracles, what the artist had put down was untranslatable. for the delicacies of pencil may easily produce something beyond the power of even the most skilful engraver to reproduce. the sandys, _until her death_ (p. ), illustrating a poem, loses much as it appeared in the magazine; you have but to compare a proof from the block itself, in a reprinted collection of messrs. strahan's engravings, to realise how different a result was secured upon good paper with careful printing. a. boyd houghton is represented by four subjects: _my treasure_ (p. ), _on the cliff_ (p. ), _true or false_ (p. ), and _about toys_ (p. ); they all belong to the manner of his _home scenes_, rather than to his oriental illustrations. _the battle of gilboa_ (p. ), by tenniel, is typical. m. j. lawless is at his best in _rung into heaven_ (p. ), and in the _bands of love_ (p. ) shows more grace than he sometimes secured when confronted by modern costume. t. morten has a finely-engraved night-piece, _pictures in the fire_ (p. ), besides _the christmas child_ (p. ) and _the carrier pigeon_ (p. ). the holman hunt, _go and come_ (p. ), a weeping figure, is not particularly interesting. _honesty_ (p. ), by t. graham, gives evidence of the power of an artist who has yet to be 'discovered' so far as his illustrations are concerned. h. h. armstead's _seaweeds_ (p. ), and eight by j. d. watson (pp. , , , , , , , ) need no special comment, nor do the ten by j. pettie (pp. - ). fred walker is represented by _the summer woods_, a typical pastoral (p. ), _love in death_, a careworn woman in the snow (p. ), and _out among the wild flowers_ (p. ), the latter an excellent example of the grace he imparted to rustic figures. these, with a few diagrams and engravings from photographs, complete the record of a memorable, if not the most memorable, year of the magazine. [illustration: t. graham 'good words' , p. honesty] [illustration: m. j. lawless 'good words' , p. rung into heaven] [illustration: m. j. lawless 'good words' , p. the bands of love] [illustration: j. pettie 'good words' , p. the monks and the heathen] [illustration: frederick sandys 'good words' , p. sleep] [illustration: frederick sandys 'good words' , p. until her death] [illustration: john tenniel 'good words' , p. the norse princess] in we find less variety in the artists and subjects, which is due to the presence of the superb series of drawings by millais, _the parables_, wherein the great illustrator touched his highest level. to call these twelve pictures masterpieces is for once to apply consistently a term often misused. for, though one ransacked the portfolios of europe, not many sets of drawings could be found to equal, and very few to excel them. the twelve subjects appeared in the following order: _the leaven_ (p. ), _the ten virgins_ (p. ), _the prodigal son_ (p. ), _the good samaritan_ (p. ), _the unjust judge_ (p. ), _the pharisee and publican_ (p. ), _the hid treasure_ (p. ), _the pearl of great price_ (p. ), _the lost piece of money_[ ] (p. ), _the sower_ (p. ), _the unmerciful servant_ (p. ), and _the labourers in the vineyard_ (p. ). to f. sandys two drawings are attributed; one is obviously from another hand, but _sleep_ (p. ) undoubtedly marks his final appearance in this magazine. t. morten is represented by _cousin winnie_ (p. ), _hester durham_ (p. ), _the spirit of eld_ (p. , unsigned), a powerful composition that at first glance might almost be taken for a sandys, and _an orphan family's christmas_ (p. ). in _autumn thoughts_ (p. ) we have an example of j. w. north, more akin to those he contributed to the dalziel table-books, a landscape, with a fine sense of space, despite the fact that it is enclosed by trees. john tenniel, in _the norse princess_ (p. ) and _queen dagmar_ (p. ), finds subjects that suit him peculiarly well. _the summer snow_ (p. ), attributed to 'christopher' jones, is by sir edward burne-jones of course, and the final contribution of the artist to these pages. h. j. lucas, a name rarely encountered, has one drawing, _the sangreal_ (p. ). a. boyd houghton, in _st. elmo_ (p. ), _a missionary cheer_ (p. ), and _childhood_ (p. ), is showing the more mature style of his best period. g. j. pinwell has but a single drawing, _martin ware's temptation_ (p. ), and that not peculiarly individual; john pettie appears with six, _the monks and the heathen_ (p. ), _the passion flowers of life_ (p. ), a study of an old man seated in a creeper-covered porch with a child on his lap, _the night walk over the mill stream_ (p. ), and _not above his business_ (p. ), _a touch of nature_ (p. ), and _the negro_ (p. ). to a later generation, who only know the pictures of the royal academician, these come as a surprise, and prove the versatility of an artist whose painting was somewhat mannered. walter crane's--a fine group of oriental sailors--_treasure-trove_ (p. ), and j. d. watson's six drawings are all capable and accomplished; _a pastoral_ (p. ), a very elaborate composition which looks like a copy of an oil-painting, _fallen in the night_ (p. ), _the curate of suverdsio_ (p. ), _the aspen_ (p. ), _rhoda_ (p. ), and _olive shand's partner_ (p. ), with the not very important _sheep and goats_ wrongly attributed to sandys, two decorated pages by john leighton, one drawing by e. w. cooke and five by t. graham, complete the year's record. the volume for is distinctly less interesting. nevertheless it holds some fine things. notably five millais', including _oh! the lark_ (p. ), _a scene for a study_ (p. ), _polly_ (p. ), (a baby-figure kneeling by a bed, which has been republished elsewhere more than once), _the bridal of dandelot_ (p. ), and _prince philibert_ (p. ), another very popular childish subject, a small girl with a small boy holding a toy-boat. frederick walker, in his illustrations to mrs. henry wood's novel, _oswald cray_ (pp. - , , , , , , and ), shows great dramatic insight, and a certain domestic charm, which has caused the otherwise not very entrancing story to linger in one's memory in a way quite disproportionate to its merits. the remaining illustrations to _oswald cray_ are by r. barnes (pp. , , ), the same artist contributing also _grandmother's snuff_, (p. ), _a burn case_ (p. ), _a lancashire doxology_, (p. ), _blessed to give_ (p. ), and _the organ fiend_ (p. ). m. j. lawless is responsible for only one subject, a study of a man and a harpsichord, _the player and the listeners_; in this case, as, on turning over the pages, you re-read a not very noteworthy poem, you find it has lingered in memory merely from its association with a picture. arthur hughes has a graceful design, _at the sepulchre_ (p. ), which seems to have lost much in the engraving; john tenniel is also represented by a solitary example, _the way in the wood_ (p. ); g. j. pinwell, in five full-page drawings, _a christmas carol_ (p. ), _the cottage in the highlands_ (p. ), _m'diarmid explained_ (p. ), _malachi's cove_ (p. ), and _mourning_ (p. ), sustains his high level. other subjects, animal pictures by j. wolf, and figures and landscapes by r. p. leitch, florence claxton, f. eltze, j. w. ehrenger, r. t. pritchett, and w. colomb, call for no special mention. to john pettie is attributed a tail-piece of no importance. [illustration: m. j. lawless 'good words' , p. the player and the listeners] with comes a sudden cessation of interest, as seventy of the illustrations are engraved 'from photographs of oriental scenes to illustrate the editor's series of travel papers,' _eastward_. this leaves room merely for pictures to the two serials. paul gray contributed those to charles kingsley's novel, _hereward, the last of the english_; but the twelve drawings are unequal, and in few show the promise which elsewhere he exhibited so fully. robert barnes supplies nine for the story, _alfred hagart's household_, by alexander smith of _city poems_ fame. these, like all the artist's work, are singularly good of their kind, and show at once his great facility and his comparatively limited range of types. in , although engravings after photographs do not usurp the space to the extent they did in the previous year, they are present, and the volume, in spite of many excellent drawings, cannot compare in interest with those for - . the frontispiece, _lilies_, is a most charming figure-subject by w. small, who contributes also three others: _the old yeomanry weeks_ (p. ), _deliverance_ (p. ), a typical example of a landscape with figures in the foreground, which, in the hands of this artist, becomes something entirely distinct from the 'figure with a landscape beyond' of most others; and _carissimo_ (p. ), a pair of lovers on an old stone bench, 'just beyond the julian gate,' which seems as carefully studied as if it were intended for a painting in oils. to compare the average picture to a poem to-day, with the work of mr. small and many of his fellows, is not encouraging. thirty years ago it seemed as if the draughtsman did his best to evolve a perfect representation of the subject of the verses; now one feels doubtful whether the artist does not keep on hand, to be supplied to order, a series of lovers in attitudes warranted to fit, more or less accurately, any verses by any poet. of course for one picture issued then, a score, perhaps a hundred, are published to-day, and it might be that numerically as many really good drawings appear in the course of a year now, as then; but, while our average rarely descends to the feeblest depths of the sixties, it still more rarely comes near such work as mr. small's, whose method is still followed and has influenced more decidedly a larger number of draughtsmen than has that of millais, walker, pinwell, or houghton. studying his work at this date, you realise how very strongly he influenced the so-called '_graphic_ school' which supplanted the movement we are considering in the next decade. despite the appreciation, contemporary and retrospective, already bestowed upon his work, despite the influence--not always for good--upon the younger men, it is yet open to doubt if the genius of this remarkable artist has received adequate recognition. in a running commentary upon work of all degrees of excellence, one is struck anew with its admirably sustained power and its constantly fresh manner. this digression, provoked by the four delightful 'small' drawings, must not lead one to overlook the rest of the pictures in _good words_ for . they include _the island church_, by j. w. north (p. ), _the life-boat_, by j. w. lawson (p. ), _between the showers_, by w. j. linton, (p. ), six illustrations to _ruth thornbury_, by m. e. edwards, and one by g. j. pinwell, _bridget dally's change_. perhaps the most notable of the year are the five still to be named: a. boyd houghton's _the voyage_, and a set of four half-page drawings, _reaping_, _binding_, _carrying_, _gleaning_, entitled _the harvest_ (pp. , ). these have a decorative arrangement not always present in the work of this clever artist, and a peculiarly large method of treatment, so much so that if the text informed you that they were pen-sketches from life-size paintings, you would not be surprised. whether by accident or design, it is curious to discover that the landscapes in each pair, set as they are on pages facing one another, have a look of being carried across the book in japanese fashion. might be called the pinwell year, as a dozen of his illustrations to dr. george mac donald's _guild court_, and one each to _a bird in the hand_ and _the cabin boy_, account for nearly half the original drawings in the volume. w. small is seen in five characteristic designs to dr. macleod's _the starling_, and one each to _beside the stile_ (p. ) and _the highland student_ (p. ). arthur boyd houghton contributes _omar and the persian_ (p. ) and _making poetry_ (p. ); the first a typical example of his oriental manner, the latter one of his home scenes. s. l. fildes appears with _in the choir_ (p. ), a church interior showing the influence of william small. f. w. lawson illustrates _grace's fortune_ with three drawings, also redolent of small, and fred walker has _waiting in the dusk_, a picture of a girl in a passage, which does not illustrate the accompanying verses, and has the air of being a picture prepared for a serial some time before, that, having been delayed for some reason, has been served up with a poem that chanced to be in type. in pinwell and houghton between them are responsible for quite half the separate plates, and small contributes no less than thirty-four which illustrate delightfully _the woman's kingdom_, a novel by the author of _john halifax_, together with a large number of vignetted initials, a feature not before introduced into this magazine. without forgetting the many admirable examples of mr. small's power to sustain the interest of the reader throughout a whole set of illustrations to a work of fiction, one doubts if he has ever surpassed the excellence of these. the little sketches of figures and landscapes in the initials show that he did not consider it beneath his dignity to study the text thoroughly, so as to interpret it with dramatic insight. your modern _chic_ draughtsman, who reads hastily the few lines underscored in blue pencil by his editor, must laugh at the pains taken by the older men. indeed, a very up-to-date illustrator will not merely refuse to carry out the author's idea, but prefer his own conception of the character, and say so. that neither course in itself produces great work may be granted, but one cannot avoid the conclusion that if it be best to illustrate a novel (which is by no means certain) that artist is most worthy of praise who does his utmost to present the characters invented by the author. true, that character-drawing with pen and pencil is out of date,--subtle emotion has taken its place,--it is not easy to make a picture of a person smiling outwardly, but inwardly convulsed with conflicting desires; the smile you may get, but the conflicting desires are hard to work in at the same time. appreciation of mr. small's design need not imply censure of the work of others; but, all the same, the cheap half-tone from a wash-drawing, in the current sixpenny magazine, looks a very feeble thing after an hour devoted to the illustrations to _guy waterman's maze_, _the woman's kingdom_, _griffith gaunt_, and the rest of the serials he illustrated. in this volume two others, _the harvest home_ (p. ) and _a love letter_ (p. ), are also from the same facile hand. the first of the boyd houghtons is a striking design to tennyson's poem of _the victim_ (p. ); neither picture nor poem shows its author at his best. others signed a. b. h. are: _the church in the cevennes_ (pp. , ), _discipleship_ (p. ), _the pope and the cardinals_ (p. ), _the gold bridge_ (p. ), _the two coats_ (p. ), _how it all happened_ (seven illustrations), _dance my children_ (p. ), a typical example of the peculiar mannerism of its author, and a _russian farmyard_ (p. ); also a number of small designs to _russian fables_, some of which were illustrated also by zwecker. g. j. pinwell illustrates _notes on the fire_ (pp. , ), _much work for little pay_ (p. ), _a paris pawn-shop_ (p. ), _mrs. dubosq's daughter_ (four pictures), _una and the lion_ (p. ), _lovely, yet unloved_ (pp. , ), _hop gathering_ (p. ), _the quakers in norway_ (p. ). s. l. fildes has _the captain's story_, a good study of fire-light reflected on three seated figures. other numbers worth noting are an excellent example of j. mahoney, _yesterday and to-day_ (p. ), briton rivière's _at the window_ (p. ), r. buckman's _the white umbrella_ (p. ), and seven by francis walker to _hero harold_, and one each to _glenalla_ (p. ), _the bracelet_ (p. ), and _thieves' quarter_ (p. ). with we lose sight of many of the men who did so much to sustain the artistic reputation of this magazine. w. small has but one drawing, _the old manor-house_ (p. ). hubert herkomer is represented by _the way to machaerus_ (pp. , ). j. mahoney by five designs to _the staffordshire potter_, francis walker by nine to _the connaught potters_ and _a burial at machaerus_ and _holyhead breakwater_. arthur hughes, an infrequent contributor so far, contributes two illustrations to _carmina nuptialia_. f. barnard has two to _house-hunting_; f. a. fraser has no less than seventy-five: thirty-five to _debenham's vow_, and thirty-three to _noblesse oblige_, with seven others, none of them worth reconsideration, although they served their purpose no doubt at the time. with we reach the limit of the present chronicle, to which francis walker and f. a. fraser contribute most of the pictures. the most interesting are: arthur hughes's _fancy_ (p. ) and _the mariner's cave_ (p. ); j. d. linton, _married lovers_ (p. ); j. mahoney, _the dorsetshire hind_ (p. ), _ascent of snowdon_ (p. ); and _dame martha's well_ (p. ), and g. j. pinwell's three very representative drawings, _rajah playing chess_ (p. ), _margaret in the xebec_ (p. ), and _a winter song_ (p. ). [illustration: arthur hughes 'good words' , p. fancy] is memorable for three of arthur hughes's designs, made for a projected illustrated edition of tennyson's _loves of the wrens_, a scheme abandoned at the author's wish; the three drawings cut down from their original size, _fly little letter_ (p. ), _the mist and the rain_ (p. ), and _sun comes, moon comes_ (p. ), are especially dear to collectors of mr. hughes's work, which appeared here with the lyrics set to sir arthur sullivan's music; another by the same artist, _the mother and the angel_ (p. ), is also worth noting. one boyd houghton, _baraduree justice_ (p. ), twenty-one drawings by w. small to katharine saunders, _the high mills_, and one by the same artist to _an unfinished song_ (p. ) are in this volume, besides four by pinwell, _aid to the sick_ (p. ), _the devil's boots_ (p. ), _toddy's legacy_ (p. ), and _shall we ever meet again?_ (p. ). without discussing the remaining years of this still flourishing monthly one can hardly omit mention of the volume for , in which william black's _macleod of dare_ is illustrated by g. h. boughton, r.a., j. pettie, r.a., p. graham, r.a., w. q. orchardson, r.a., and john everett millais, r.a., a group which recalls the glories of its early issues. london society this popular illustrated shilling magazine, started in february under the editorship of mr. james hogg, has not received so far its due share of appreciation from the few who have studied the publications of the sixties. yet its comparative neglect is easily accounted for. it contains, no doubt, much good work--some, indeed, worthy to be placed in the first rank. but it also includes a good deal that, if tolerable when the momentary fashions it depicted were not ludicrous, appears now merely commonplace and absurd. a great artist--millais especially--could introduce the crinoline and the dundreary whiskers, so that even to-day their ugliness does not repel you. but less accomplished draughtsmen, who followed slavishly the inelegant mode of the sixties, now stand revealed as merely journalists. journalism, useful and honourable as its work may be, rarely has lasting qualities which bear revival. aiming as it did to be a 'smart' and topical magazine, with the mood of the hour reflected in its pages, it remains a document not without interest to the social historian. amid its purely ephemeral contents there are quite enough excellent drawings to ensure its preservation in any representative collection of english illustrations. [illustration: m. j. lawless 'london society' vol. iv. p. honeydew] [illustration: j. d. watson 'london society' , p. too late] [illustration: j. d. watson 'london society,' vol. i. p. ash wednesday] in the first volume for we find a beautiful lawless, _beauty's toilet_ (p. ), spoilt by its engraving, the texture of the flesh being singularly coarse and ineffectual. fred walker, in _the drawing-room, 'paris'_ (i. p. ), is seen in the unusual and not very captivating mood of a 'society' draughtsman. _ash wednesday_ (p. ), by j. d. watson, is a singularly fine example of an artist whose work, the more you come across it, surprises you by its sustained power. the frontispiece _spring days_ and _a romance_ and _a curacy_ (p. ), are his also. other illustrations by t. morten, h. sanderson, c. h. bennett, adelaide claxton, julian portch, and f. r. pickersgill, r.a., call for no special comment. in the second volume there are two drawings by lawless, _first night at the seaside_ (p. ) and _a box on the ear_ (p. ); several by du maurier, one _a kettledrum_ (p. ), peculiarly typical of his society manner; others, _refrezzment_ (p. ), _snowdon_ (p. ), _oh sing again_ (p. ), _jewels_ (p. ), and a _mirror scene_ (p. ), which reveal the cosmopolitan student of nature outside the artificial, if admirable, restrictions of 'good form.' _the border witch_ (p. ), by j. e. millais, a.r.a., is one of the very few examples by the great illustrator in this periodical. j. d. watson, in _moonlight on the beach_ (p. ), _married_[ ] (p. ), _a summer eve_ (p. ), _on the coast_ (p. ), _holiday life_ (p. ), and _how i gained a wife_ (p. ), again surprises you, with regret his admirable work has yet not received fuller appreciation by the public. walter crane contributes some society pictures which reveal the admirable decorator in an unusual, and, to be candid, unattractive aspect. _kensington gardens_ (p. ), _a london carnival_ (p. ), and _which is fairest?_ (p. ), are interesting as the work of a youth, but betray little evidence of his future power. robert barnes, in _dreaming love and waiting duty_ (p. ), shows how early in his career he reached the level which he maintained so admirably. a. boyd houghton's _finding a relic_ (p. ) is a good if not typical specimen of his work. the designs by e. j. poynter, _tip cat_ (p. ), _i can't thmoke a pipe_ (p. ), and _lord dundreary_ (pp. , ), are singularly unlike the usual work of the accomplished author of _israel in egypt_. to these one must add the names of c. h. bennett (_beadles_, three), w. m'connell, c. a. doyle, george h. thomas, e. k. johnson, f. j. skill, f. claxton, h. sanderson, and a. w. cooper. so that offers, at least, a goodly list of artists, and quite enough first-rate work to make the volumes worth preserving. in vol. iii. there is a drawing, _the confession_ (p. ), engraved by dalziel, that is possibly by pinwell. three by t. morten, _after the opera_ (p. ), _a struggle in the clouds_ (p. ), and _ruth grey's trial_ (p. ), are good, if not the best of this artist's work. two by george du maurier (pp. , ) employ, after the manner of the time, a sort of pictured parable entitled _on the bridge_ and _under the bridge_. _our honeymoon_, by marcus stone, is interesting. _struck down_ (p. ) and _the heiress of elkington_ (p. ), both by j. d. watson, are as good as his work is usually. _a may morning_ (p. ), by george h. thomas, is also worthy of mention, but the rest, by e. k. johnson, e. h. corbould, w. brunton, w. cave thomas, louis huard, etc., are not peculiarly attractive. the concluding volume for has a very dainty figure, _honey-dew_, by m. j. lawless (p. ). the three du mauriers are _a little hop in harley st._ (p. ), _lords: university cricket match_ (p. ), and the _worship of bacchus_ (p. ) at first sight so curiously like a charles keene that, were it not for the signature, one would distrust the index. nine drawings by t. morten to _the first time_ are good, especially those on p. , and _a first attempt_, charles green (p. ), is also worth notice. two drawings by g. j. pinwell, _wolsey_ (p. ) and another (p. ), are characteristic. for the rest, c. h. bennett, louis huard, felix darley, w. m'connell, w. brunton, matt morgan, florence claxton, t. godwin, waldo sargent, george thomas, and c. a. doyle, provide _entrées_ and sweets a little flavourless to-day, although palatable enough, no doubt, at the time. in , m. j. lawless's _not for you_ (p. ); a fine j. d. watson, _the duet_ (p. ); _charley blake_, by g. du maurier (p. ); _at swindon_ (p. ), m. e. edwards, and _little golden hair_, by r. barnes, are the only others above the average. adelaide claxton, w. m'connell, h. sanderson, and j. b. zwecker provide most of the rest. the second half of the year (vol. vi.) is far better, contains some good work by the 'talented young lady,' m. e. e. (to quote contemporary praise); that her work was talented all students of the 'sixties' will agree. _a holocaust_ (p. ), _dangerous_ (p. ), _gone_ (p. ), _magdalen_ (p. ), _milly's success_ (p. ), and _unto this last_ (p. ) are all by miss edwards. a fine millais, _knightly worth_ (p. ), and a good j. d. watson, _blankton weir_ (p. ), would alone make the volume memorable. c. a. doyle has some of his best drawings to _a shy man_, and g. h. thomas and others maintain a good average. rebecca solomon has a good full page (p. ). in the extra christmas number you will find e. j. poynter's _a sprig of holly_ (p. ), j. d. watson's _story of a christmas fairy_ (p. ), a notable design, besides capital illustrations by du maurier, r. dudley (_the blue boy_), r. barnes, and marcus stone. is a du maurier year. in vol. vii. eleven drawings by this fecund artist on pp. , , , , , , , , , and , all excellent examples of his early manner. arthur hughes, with _the farewell valentine_ (p. ), makes his first appearance within the pages of _london society_. a. w. cooper, j. pasquier, t. r. lamont, and a. claxton are to the fore, and c. h. bennett has a series of typical members of various learned societies, which, characteristic as they are, might have their titles transposed without any one being the wiser. in vol. viii. , paul gray appears with _my darling_ (p. ). t. morten has three capital drawings: _two loves and a life_ (p. ), _a romance at marseilles_ (p. ), and _love and pride_ (p. ); and du maurier has _codlingham regatta_ (p. ), _how not to play croquet_ (p. ), _where shall we go?_ (p. ), _old jockey west_ (p. ), _the rev. mr. green_ (p. ), _furnished apartments_ (p. ), and _ticklish ground_ (p. ). g. j. pinwell is represented by a solitary example, _the courtship of giles languish_ (p. ), j. d. watson by _green mantle_ (pp. , , ), and m. e. edwards by _georgie's first love-letter_ (p. ), _faithful and true_ (p. ), _firm and faithful_ (p. ). the other contributors are a. w. bayes (_to gertrude_, p. ), l. c. henley, t. r. lamont, j. a. pasquier, kate edwards, w. brunton, t. s. seccombe, john gascoine, etc. in , vol. ix., george du maurier signs the frontispiece, _two to one_, and also two illustrations to _much ado about nothing_ (pp. , ), two to _second thoughts_ (pp. , ), and two to _queen of diamonds_ (pp. - ). t. morten has again three designs: _mrs. reeve_ (p. ), _on the wrekin_ (p. ), and _the man with a dog_ (p. ); r. dudley supplies one, _the tilt-yard_ (p. ), and kate edwards one, _the june dream_ (p. ). m. ellen edwards in three admirable examples, _in peril_ (p. ), _mutually forgiven_ (p. ), and _the cruel letter_ (p. ), shows how cleverly she caught the influence in the air. other artists contribute many drawings of no particular interest. vol. x. shows w. small with two drawings, _agatha_ (p. ) and _the reading of locksley hall_ (p. ). it is curious to see how the sentimentality of the poem has influenced the admirable draughtsman, who is not here at his best. paul gray has also two, _an english october_ (p. ) and _to a flirt_ (p. ); g. du maurier is represented by one only, _life in lodgings_ (p. ); j. g. thompson by one also, _caught at last_ (p. ); t. morten again contributes three: _marley hall_ (p. ), _may's window_ (p. ), and _the trevillians' summer trip_ (p. ); a. boyd houghton is represented by _ready for supper_ (p. ), and m. e. edwards by two drawings to _something to my advantage_ (pp. - ). the christmas number contains one boyd houghton, _the christmas tree_ (p. ); a j. d. watson, _given back on christmas morn_ (p. ); a very good f. w. lawson, _did i offend?_ (p. ); a delightful charles keene, _how i lost my whiskers_ (p. ); _sir guy's goblet_ (p. ), by m. e. edwards, and one by george cruikshank, _my christmas box_, looking curiously out of place here. in the eleventh volume ( ) the four by w. small are among the most important. they are _a pastoral episode_ (p. ), _quite alone_ (p. ), _the meeting_ (p. ), and _try to keep firm_ (p. ); a j. d. watson, _changes_ (p. ); a paul gray, _goldsmith at the temple gate_ (p. ); a j. g. thompson, _an expensive journey_ (p. ); m. e. edwards's _winding of the skein_ (p. ), and l. c. henley's _how i set about paying my debts_ (p. ), are all that need be mentioned. in the twelfth volume ( ) a. boyd houghton signs a couple of drawings to _a spinster's sweepstake_ (pp. , ), g. j. pinwell supplies two to _beautiful mrs. johnson_ (pp. - ), f. w. lawson two to _dedding revisited_ (p. ), _without reserve_ (p. ), and four to _mary eaglestone's lover_ (pp. , , , ). charles green is responsible for _the meeting at the play_ (p. ), and j. g. thompson for a series, _threading the mazy at islington_. the christmas number is honoured by two fine drawings by charles keene (p. ) and a good double page by j. d. watson, _christmas at an old manor-house_. sir john gilbert, a rare contributor to these pages, is represented by _the rowborough hollies_ (p. ), m. e. edwards by _the christmas rose_ (p. ), and f. w. lawson by _my turn next_ (p. ). with its thirteenth volume ( ) _london society_ still keeps up to the level it established. among much that was intended for the moment only there is also work of far more sterling value. charles keene, in two drawings for _tomkins' degree supper_ (pp. , ), is seen at his best, and how good that is needs no retelling. sir john gilbert, among a new generation, keeps his place as a master, and in four drawings (pp. , , , ) reveals the superb qualities of his work, coupled, it must be said, with certain limitations which are almost inseparable from rapid production. g. du maurier is represented by two, _lift her to it_ (p. ) and _the white carnation_ (p. ). the inscription of _expectation_ (p. ), by 'the late m. j. lawless', marks the final discharge of an illustrator who did much to impart permanent interest to the magazine. it is always a regret to find that mr. sandys chose other fields of work, and that death withdrew lawless so soon; for these two, not displaying equal power, together with walter crane maintained the decorative ideal through a period when it was unpopular with the public and apparently found little favour in editors' eyes. m. e. edwards's _my valentine_ (p. ) and _married on her tenth birthday_ (p. ). to this list must be added w. small, with a delightful out-of-doors study, _'you did not come'_ (p. ); g. b. goddard with some capital 'animal' pictures: _spring of life_ (p. ), _buck shooting_ (p. ), and _dogs of note_ (pp. , ); wilfrid lawson, _a spring-tide tale_ (p. ); f. barnard, _a bracing morning_ (p. ); a. w. cooper, _the old seat_ (p. ); and others by tom gray, j. g. thomson, w. l. thomas, j. a. pasquier, w. s. gilbert, s. e. illingworth, rice, w. brunton, h. french, a. crowquill, edwin j. ellis, fane wood, and isaac l. brown. vol. xiv., the second of , contains j. d. watson's _the oracle_ (p. ); w. small's _the lights on gwyneth's head_ (p. ); a. boyd houghton, _the turn of the tide_ (p. ); john gilbert's _cousin geoffrey's chamber_ (_frontispiece_), and _box and cox in bay of bengal_ (p. ); birket foster's _the falconer's lay_, probably engraved from a water-colour drawing (p. ); wilfrid lawson's _crush-room_ (p. ); _for charity's sake_ (p. ); _behind the scenes_ (p. ), _the gentle craft_ (p. ), and _the golden boat_ (p. ), with many others by the regular contributors. in the christmas number we find _linley sambourne_, whose work is encountered rarely outside the pages of _punch_, with a design for a _christmas day costume_ (p. ); charles keene, with two drawings for _our christmas turkey_ (pp. , ); g. b. goddard's full-page, _knee-deep_ (p. ); j. d. watson's _aunt grace's sweetheart_ (p. ) and _the two voices_ (p. ) deserve noting. in wilfrid lawson illustrates whyte-melville's _m. or n._, and has several other full-page drawings in his best vein (pp. , , , , , , , , ); j. mahoney is first met here with _officers and gentlemen_ (p. ), and j. d. watson supplies the frontispiece to vol. xv., _bringing home the hay_, and also that to vol. xvi., _second blossom_. in this latter wilfrid lawson has illustrations to _m. or n._ (pp. , , , ); t. morten, a powerful drawing, _winter's night_ (p. ); g. b. goddard, _the sportman's resolve_ (p. ). the other artists, including some new contributors, are m. a. boyd, horace stanton, e. j. ellis, t. sweeting, james godwin, f. roberts, a. w. cooper, l. huard, and b. ridley. the christmas number for contains a good charles keene, _the coat with the fur lining_ (pp. , ); gilbert's _secret of calverly court_ (p. ); m. e. edwards's _how the choirs were carolling_ (p. ); and j. mahoney's _mr. daubarn_ (p. ), with others of no particular importance. the numbers for contain, _inter alia_, in the first half-year, a good j. d. watson, _going down the road_ (_frontispiece_); _a leaf from a sketch-book_, by linley sambourne (printed, like a series this year, on special sheets of thick white paper, as four-page supplements), which contained lighter work by artists of the hour, but none worth special mention. j. mahoney's _going to the drawing-room_ (p. ), and _sir stephen's question_ (p. ), and _spring-time_, drawn and engraved by w. l. thomas (p. ), are among the most interesting of the ordinary full pages. in the second half of the year, volume , there is a full page, _not mine_ (p. ), by arthur hughes, which links to ; a. w. small, _after the season_ (p. ); the very unimportant drawing by m. j. lawless, _an episode of the italian war_ (p. ), has interest as a relic; j. mahoney contributes two to _the old house by the river_ (pp. , ), and many others by h. paterson, wilfrid lawson, a. claxton. this year a holiday number appeared, with a not very good j. d. watson, _a landscape painter_ (p. ), and two francis walkers, _a summer holiday_ and _rosalind and celia_, and other seasonable designs by various hands. the christmas number has a coloured frontispiece and other designs by h. d. marks; j. d. watson illustrates _what might have happened_ (pp. , , ); and charles keene, _gipsy moll_ (pp. , ); francis walker has _the star rider_ (p. ) and _a tale_ (p. ); f. a. fraser, typical of the next decade, and one might say, without undue severity, of the decadence also, and f. gilbert, that facile understudy of _sir john_, show examples of work differing as far as it well could; but is the last stage we need note here in the career of a magazine which did notable service to the cause of illustration, and brought a good many men into notice who have taken prominent part in the history of 'black and white.' without placing it on a level with _once a week_, it is an interesting collection of representative work, with some really first-rate drawing. [illustration: frederick sandys,del. "oh, what's that in the hollow, so pale i quake to follow? oh, that's a thin dead body which waits th'eternal term." _christina rossetti._] chapter v: other illustrated periodicals of the sixties. 'churchman's family magazine,' 'sunday magazine,' etc. in devoting another chapter to periodicals one must insist upon their relative importance; for the time and money expended on them in a single year would balance possibly the cost of all the books mentioned in this volume. in a naïve yet admirable article in the christmas _bookseller_, , written from a commercial standpoint, the author says, speaking of some pictures in _good words_: 'some of these, we are informed, cost as much as £ a block, a sum which appears marvellous when we look at the low price of the magazine'; he instances also the celebrated 'j. b.'[ ], 'whose delineations of animals are equal to landseer. the magazines to be noticed are those only which contain original designs; others, _the national magazine_, the _fine arts quarterly_, and the like, which relied upon the reproductions of paintings, are not even mentioned. the churchman's family magazine any periodical containing the work of millais and sandys is, obviously, in the front rank, but _the churchman's family magazine_, which started in january , did not long maintain its high level; yet the first half a dozen volumes have enough good work to entitle them to more than passing mention. this, like _london society_, was published by mr. james hogg, and must not be confounded with another of the same price, with similar title, _the churchman's shilling magazine_, to which reference is made elsewhere. in the familiar octavo of its class, it is well printed and well illustrated. the first volume contains two full pages by millais, _let that be please_ (p. ) and _you will forgive me_ (p. ); three illustrations by e. j. poynter to _the painter's glory_ (pp. , , ); three by t. morten (pp. , , and ); five by j. d. watson, _only grandmamma_ (p. ), _christian martyr_ (p. ), _sunday evening_ (p. ), _the hermit_ (p. ), and _mary magdalene_ (p. ); three by charles green to _how susy tried_ (pp. , , ), and one each to _henry ii._ (p. ), and _an incident in canterbury cathedral_ (p. ), a drawing strangely resembling a 'john gilbert.' h. s. marks is represented by _home longing_ (p. ) and _age and youth_ (p. ); h. h. armstead by _fourth sunday in lent_ (p. ) and _angel teachers_ (p. ); j. c. horsley by _anne boleyn_ (p. ); f. r. pickersgill by _the still small voice_ (p. ); g. h. thomas by _catechising in church_ (p. ), and r. barnes by _music for the cottage_ (p. ) and _the strange gentleman_ (p. ). besides these the volume contains others by rebecca (sister to simeon) solomon (p. ), l. huard, d. h. friston, h. c. selous, t. macquoid, w. m'connell, t. sulman, e. k. johnson (_spenser_, p. ), and j. b. zwecker--a very fairly representative group of the average illustrator of the period. the second half of (vol. ii.) enshrines the fine frederick sandys, _the waiting time_, an incident of the lancashire cotton famine (p. ). another of m. j. lawless's most charming designs, _one dead_ (p. ), (reprinted under the title of _the silent chamber_), will be found here. m. e. edwards contributes two, _ianthe's grave_ (p. ) and _child, i said_ (p. ); g. j. pinwell is represented once with _by the sea_ (p. ); and t. morten with _the bell-ringers' christmas story_ (p. ). the other artists include h. c. selous, c. w. cope, f. r. pickersgill, e. armitage, a. w. cooper, e. h. wehnert, e. h. corbould, marshall claxton, p. w. justyne, p. skelton, paulo priolo, d. h. friston, h. sanderson, creswick, and t. b. dalziel. in vol. iii. ( ) m. j. lawless has _harold massey's confession_ (p. ); c. green, _thinking and wishing_ (p. ); g. j. pinwell, _march winds_ (p. ); m. e. edwards, _at the casement_ (p. ); and t. morten, _the twilight hour_ (p. ). among other contributors are florence caxton, l. huard, h. m. vining, w. m'connell, rebecca solomon, h. fitzcook, john absolon, percy justyne, f. w. keyl, w. j. allen. [illustration: m. j. lawless 'churchman's family magazine' vol. ii. p. 'one dead'] [illustration: frederick sandys 'churchman's family magazine' vol. ii. p. the waiting time] in vol. iv. are j. d. watson's _crusaders in sight of jerusalem_ (p. ), t. b. dalziel's _in the autumn twilight_ (p. ), and a. w. cooper's _lesson of the watermill_ (p. ); florence caxton illustrates the serial. and in vol. v. m. e. edwards's _deare childe_ (p. ), and _the emblem of life_ (p. ), and a. boyd houghton's _a word in season_ (p. ), are best worth noting. vol. vi. has a good study of a monk, _desert meditations_ (p. ), and a _gretchen's lament_ (p. ), by m. e. edwards. from vol. vii. onwards portraits, chiefly of ecclesiastical dignitaries, take the place of pictures. the shilling magazine this somewhat scarce publication is often referred to as one of the important periodicals of the sixties, but on looking through it, it seems to have established its claim on somewhat slender foundation. true, it contains one of sandys' most memorable designs--here reproduced in photogravure from an early impression of the block, a peculiarly fine drawing--to christina rossetti's poem, _amor mundi_. it was reproduced from a photograph of the drawing on wood in the first edition of mr. pennell's admirable _pen drawing and pen draughtsmen_, and in the second edition are reproductions by process, not only of mr. sandys' original drawing as preserved in a hollyer photograph, but of preliminary studies for the figures. the rest of the illustrations of the magazine, which only lived for a few months, are comparatively few and not above the average in merit. the numbers, may to may , contain eight drawings by j. d. watson, illustrating mrs. riddell's _phemie keller_. thirteen by paul gray illustrate _the white flower of ravensworth_, by miss m. betham-edwards. others noteworthy are: _gythia_, by t. r. lamont; _dahut_, and _an incident_ of , by j. lawson; _mistrust_ and _love's pilgrimage_, by edward hughes; a fine composition, _lost on the fells_, by w. small, and a few minor drawings mostly in the text. it was published by t. bosworth, regent street. this is a brief record of a fairly praiseworthy venture, but there is really no more to be said about it. the sunday magazine, another sixpenny illustrated monthly more definitely religious in its aim than _good words_, of which it was an offspring, was started in . the illustrations from the first were hardly less interesting than those in the other publications under the direction of mr. alexander strahan. indeed, it would be unjust not to express very clearly and unmistakably the debt which all lovers of black-and-white art owe to the publisher of these magazines. the conditions of oil-painting demand merely a public ready to buy: whether the artist negotiates directly with the purchaser, or employs an agent, is a matter of convenience. but black-and-white illustration requires a well-circulated, well-printed, well-conducted periodical: not as a middleman whose services can be dispensed with, but as a vital factor in the enterprise. therefore drawings intended for publication imply a publisher, and one who is not merely a man with pronounced artistic taste, but also a good administrator and a capable man of business. these triple qualifications are found but rarely together, and when they do unite, the influence of such a personality is of the utmost importance. mr. strahan, who appears to have combined in no small degree the qualities which go to make a successful publisher, set on foot two popular magazines, which, in spite of their having long passed their first quarter of a century, are still holding their own. a third, full of promise, _good words for the young_, was cut off in its prime, or rather died of a lingering disease, caused by that terrible microbe _the foreign cliché_. others, _the day of rest_ and _saturday journal_, also affected by the same ailment, succumbed after more or less effort; but the magazines that relied on the best contemporary illustrators still flourish. the moral, obvious as it is, deserves to be insisted upon. to-day the photograph from life is as popular with many editors as the _cliché_ from german and french originals was in the seventies; but a public which tired of foreign electros may soon grow weary of the inevitable photograph, and so the warning is worth setting down. [illustration: j. mahoney 'sunday magazine' , p. summer] [illustration: j. w. north 'sunday magazine' , p. winter] like its companion, _good words_, it has known fat years and lean years; volumes that were full of admirable drawings, and volumes that barely maintained a respectable average. from the very first volume of the _sunday magazine_ we find among others r. barnes, a. boyd houghton, m. e. edwards, paul gray, j. lawson, f. w. lawson, j. w. north, g. j. pinwell, and marcus stone well represented. the standard of excellence implied by these names was preserved for a considerable time. to this pinwell contributes two drawings, _the house of god_ (p. ) and _only a lost child_ (p. ), a typical character-study of town life. paul gray has a full page, _the maiden martyr_ (p. ), engraved by swain; either the drawing is below his level, or it has suffered badly at the hands of the engraver. _the orphan girl_ (p. ), _clara linzell's commentary_ (p. ), and _dorcas_ (p. ), by the same artist, are all interesting, but do not represent him at his best. the single contribution by a. boyd houghton, _friar ives_ (p. ), is not particularly good. in _winter_, by j. w. north (p. ), we have a most excellent drawing of a snow-clad farm with a thrashing machine at work in the distance, and two children in the foreground. the delicacy and breadth of the work, and its true tonality deserve appreciation; it was engraved by swain. _drowned_ (p. ), by marcus stone, is not very typical. _the watch at the sepulchre_ (p. ), by j. lawson, is a spirited group of roman soldiers. _caught in a thunderstorm_, by r. p. leitch, engraved by w. j. linton, is interesting to disciples of 'the white line.' edward whymper supplies the frontispiece, _the righi_. m. e. edwards, in the drawings to _grandfather's sunday_ (pp. , ), appears to be under the influence of g. h. thomas. robert barnes has twenty illustrations to _kate the grandmother_, and one each to _light in darkness_ (p. ) and _our children_. a series of fourteen to _joshua taylor's passion_, engraved by dalziel, are unsigned; the style leads one to credit them to f. a. fraser, who in later volumes occupied a prominent position. f. w. lawson, in _a romance of truth_ (pp. , ) and _the vine and its branches_ (p. ), has not yet found his individual manner. the rest of the pictures by t. dalziel, f. j. slinger, r. t. pritchett, f. eltze, w. m'connell, etc., call for no special comment. in j. mahoney's _summer_, the frontispiece to the volume, is a notable example of a clever artist, whose work has hardly yet attracted the attention it deserves; _marie_ (p. ), a study of an old woman knitting, is no less good. birket foster's _autumn_ (p. ) is also a very typical example. paul gray's _among the flowers_ (p. ), a group of children from the slums in a country lane, is fairly good. w. small, in _hebe dunbar_ 'from a photograph' (p. ), supplies an object-lesson of translation rather than imitation, which deserves to be studied to-day. in it, a really great draughtsman has given you a personal rendering of facts, like those he would have set down had he worked from life, and thereby imparted individual interest to a copy of a photograph. this one block, if photographers would but study it, should convince them that a good drawing is in every way preferable to a 'half-tone' block from a photograph of the subject; it might also teach a useful lesson to certain draughtsmen, who employ photographs so clumsily that the result is good neither as photography nor as drawing, but partakes of the faults of both. three designs to the _annals of a quiet neighbourhood_, by dr. george mac donald, (pp. , , ), the first quite in the mood of the hour, a capital piece of work, and _a sunday afternoon in a london court_, complete mr. small's share in this volume. robert barnes supplies the other eight drawings to dr. mac donald's story, and another, _the pitman and his wife_ (p. ), an excellent specimen of his 'british workman' manner. f. j. shields, a very infrequent contributor to these magazines, has a biblical group, '_even as thou wilt_' (p. ). edward hughes (who must not be confounded with arthur hughes, nor with the present member of the old water-colour society, e. r. hughes) is responsible for _under a cottage roof_ (p. ), _the bitter and sweet_ (p. ), _the first tooth_ (p. ), and _the poor seamstress_ (p. ); although a somewhat fecund illustrator not devoid of style and invention, his work fails to interest one much to-day. j. gordon thomson, so many years the cartoonist of _fun_, is represented by _on the rock_ (p. ). f. w. lawson's _hope_ (p. ) and a. w. bayes's _saul and david_ (p. ), with a drawing of wild animals drinking, by wolf, complete the list of original work, the rest being engraved from photographs. [illustration: s. l. fildes 'sunday magazine,' , p. the farmer's daughter] [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'sunday magazine' , p. a lesson to a king] [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'sunday magazine' , p. luther the singer] [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'sunday magazine' john baptist] [illustration: j. mahoney 'good words' , p. yesterday and to-day] [illustration: j. w. north 'sunday magazine' , p. anita's prayer] [illustration: g. j. pinwell 'sunday magazine' , p. madame de krudener] in a. boyd houghton is well to the fore with twelve illustrations to the serial story by sarah tytler, _the huguenot family in the english village_, besides full-page drawings, some in his best manner, to _a proverb illustrated_ (p. ), _heroes_ (p. ), _luther the singer_ (p. ), _the martyr_ (p. ), _the last of the family_ (p. ), and _a lesson to a king_ (p. ). w. small is only represented twice, with _wind me a summer crown_ (p. ) and _philip's mission_ (p. ). j. w. north has three admirable drawings, _foundered at sea_ (p. ), _peace_ (p. ), _anita's prayer_ (p. ), the first and last of these, both studies of shipwrecks, deserve to be remembered for the truth of movement of the drawing of the waves, and one doubts if any sea-pieces up to the date of their appearance had approached them for fact and beauty combined. both are engraved by dalziels in an admirably intelligent fashion. f. w. lawson's _the chained book_ (p. ) and _the revocation of the edict of nantes_ (p. ), and _in the times of the lollards_ (p. ), all deal with acrimonious memories of the past. after the scenes of cruelty, persecution, and martyrdom which unfortunately are too often the chief dishes in the _menu_ of a religious periodical, it is a relief to turn to the _cottar's farewell_ (p. ), by j. d. watson, or to the 'norths' before quoted. this most straightforward and accomplished study of a dying peasant and his family shows the dignified and simple treatment which the artist at his happiest moments employed with complete mastery. in a. boyd houghton is again the most frequent contributor of full-page designs; a bare list must suffice. _sunday at hippo_ (p. ), _three feasts of israel_ (p. ), _paul's judge_ (p. ), _sunday songs, sweden_ (p. ), _the charcoal burners_ (p. ), a drawing which looks like an intentional 'exercise in the manner of gustave doré,' who, despite his enormous popularity in england, seems to have had singularly little influence on english artists, so that this stands out as a unique exception. houghton has also _the feast of the passover_ (p. ), _the poor man's shuttle_ (p. ), _feast of pentecost_ (p. ), _samuel the ruler_ (p. ), _george herbert's last sunday_ (p. ), _baden-baden_ (p. ), _the good samaritan_ (p. ), _church of the basilicas_ (p. ), _joseph's coat_ (p. ), _st. paul preaching_ (p. ), and _the parable of the sower_ (p. ). g. j. pinwell is seen in three examples, _a westphalian parsonage_ (p. ), _madame de krudener_ (pp. , ); s. l. fildes is here for the first time with _the farmer's daughter_ (p. ); j. pettie has a small drawing, _my sister_ (p. ); j. wolf, a clever 'lamb' study (p. ); and w. small a most typical, almost mannered, _sunday morning_ (p. ). j. mahoney supplies twenty-eight illustrations to _the occupations of a retired life_, by edward garrett, besides separate plates, _sunday songs from denmark_ (p. ), _love days_ (p. ), and _just suppose_ (p. ). j. gordon thomson contributes eighteen drawings for dr. george macdonald's _the seaboard parish_, and others of no particular interest are attributed to shield, f. a. fraser, c. morgan, miles, lamont, and pasquier. here, as in many other volumes, are vignettes and tail-pieces by t. dalziel, some of them most admirably drawn and all charmingly expressed in the engraving. in a. boyd houghton still maintains his position. this year his drawings are _wisdom of solomon_ (p. ), _the jews in the ghetto_ (p. ), _martha and mary_ (p. ), _rehoboam_ (p. ), _jewish patriotism_ (p. ), _sunday in the bush_ (p. ), _miss bertha_ (pp. , ), _babylonian captivity_ (p. ), _john baptist_ (p. ), and _samson_ (p. ). g. j. pinwell illustrates edward garrett's _the crust and the cake_ with thirty-four cuts. in one of these (p. ), as in two other designs by the same artist, you find that in drawing the lines of a harpsichord, or grand piano, he has forgotten that the reversal required by engraving would represent the instrument with its curve on the bass, instead of the treble side--a sheer impossibility, which any pianist cannot help noticing at a glance. his one other contribution this year is _the gang children_ (p. ). represented by a solitary example in each case are j. m'whirter, _sunday songs_ (p. ); j. pettie, _philip clayton's first-born_ (p. ); edward hughes, _mother mahoney_ (p. ); towneley green, _village doctor's wife_ (p. ); robert barnes, _a missionary in the east_ (p. ); and arthur hughes, _blessings in disguise_ (p. ). j. mahoney has _the centurion's faith_ (p. ), _building of the minster_ (p. ), _hoppety bob_ (p. ), _roger rolf_ (p. ), and _christmas eighteenth century_ (p. ). francis walker, with his _sunday songs_ (p. ), _bird fair, shoreditch_ (p. ), _feast of tabernacles_ (p. ), _widow mullins_ (p. ), and _a little heroine_ (p. ); h. french, with '_it is more blessed_' (p. ), and _a narrative sermon_ (p. ); and f. a. fraser with _jesuit missions_ (p. ), _wesley_ (p. ), _the year_ (p. ), _a queer charity_ (p. ), and _a schwingfest_ (p. ); the three latter belong by rights to the men of the seventies rather than to the group with which this volume is concerned. [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'sunday magazine' , p. the parable of the sower] [illustration: arthur hughes 'sunday magazine' p. my heart] [illustration: arthur hughes 'sunday magazine' , p. blessings in disguise] [illustration: j. leighton 'sunday magazine' , p. a parable] in a. boyd houghton, one of the heroes of the sixties, reappears with five contributions, one, quite out of his ordinary manner, being a design for a group of statues, _st. paul's companions_ (p. ); the others are _my mother's knee_ (p. ), _sunday at aix-les-bains_ (p. ), achsah's _wedding gifts_ (p. ), and _sister edith's probation_ (p. ). j. mahoney signs but two: _a sun-dial in a churchyard_ (p. ) and _passover observances_ (p. ). f. a. fraser and towneley green supply the illustrations to the serials. w. j. wiegand contributes decorative head-pieces, and hubert herkomer has two drawings, _diana's portrait_ and _diana coverdale's diary_. in houghton has but two: _a woman that was a sinner_ (p. ) and _the withered flower_ (p. ). arthur hughes, in three delightful designs, _my heart_ (p. ), _the first sunrise_ (p. ), and _tares and wheat_ (p. ); j. mahoney with _diet of augsburg_ (p. ) and _our milkmen_ (p. ); and w. small with _the sea-side well_ (p. ), _one of many_ (p. ), and fourteen illustrations to _the story of the mine_, are about the only remnants of the old army. john leighton, a frequent contributor of decorative borders and head-pieces, has a typical full-page, _a parable_ (p. ). the 'seventies' are represented by r. macbeth's _tom joiner's good angel_ (p. ); and c. green (who, like small, belongs to both periods) with his designs to _the great journey_ (p. ) and _mills of clough_ (pp. , ). cassell's magazine, a popular monthly periodical that is still in full vigour under a slightly altered title, started in the decade immediately before the date that this book attempts to cover. as _cassell's family paper_, a large folio weekly, beyond the fact that the ubiquitous sir john gilbert did innumerable good things for its pages, one is not greatly interested in it. but in it was changed to a quarto shape, and although l. huard supplied the front page pictures to vol. i., and so the artistic position of the paper was not improved, yet soon after the change we find a great illustrator contributing the weekly drawing for its chief serial. for despite the indifferent engraving accorded to many of the blocks and the absence of any signature, the autograph of william small is legible in every line of the illustrations to _bound to the wheel_ which started with vol. ii. in august , , and has sixteen half-page illustrations. this was followed by _the secret sign_, with the same artist for a few chapters. then another hand appears, and soon after the monogram f. g. shows that the second gilbert (a brother, i believe, of the more famous artist) has replaced w. small. to one drawing of another serial, _the lion in the path_, the signature of t. morten is appended. in april its title is changed to _cassell's family magazine_, and it is printed on toned paper. the serial, _anne judge, spinster_, by f. w. robinson, has thirty illustrations by charles green. no doubt the originals were worthy of that admirable draughtsman; indeed, despite their very ordinary engraving, enough remains to show the handling of a most capable artist. the succeeding serial, _poor humanity_, is illustrated by b. bradley. j. d. watson contributes occasional drawings--_ethel_, on p. , being the first. m. ellen edwards also appears, with f. w. lawson, f. a. fraser, henley, c. j. staniland, r. t. pritchett, m. w. ridley, j. mahoney, and g. h. thomas. it is noteworthy of the importance attached to the illustrator at this date, that the names of those artists who have contributed to the magazine are printed in bold type upon the title-page to each volume. these, as later, bear no date, so that only in volumes bound with the wrappers in british museum fashion can you ascertain the year of their publication. in vol. iii. (may onwards) you discover on p. a drawing, _cleve cliff_, by g. j. pinwell. its serial, _a fight for life_, is illustrated by g. h. thomas, whose pictures are not signed, nor have i found that the authorship is attributed to the artists within the magazine itself. but in the 'in memoriam' volume, published soon after his death, several are reprinted and duly credited to him. they were all engraved by w. thomas. the first appearance of s. l. fildes, _woodland voices_, is on p. of this volume. t. blake wirgman has also a notable composition, _a sculptor's love_, and in this and in volume iv. there are other drawings by fildes, pinwell, and many by f. barnard, f. s. walker, and other popular draughtsmen of the period. [illustration: frederick sandys 'the argosy' , vol. i. p. 'if'] in we find another change, this time to a page that may be a quarto technically, but instead of the square proportions we usually connect with that shape, it seems more akin to an octavo. the illustrations are smaller, but far better engraved and better printed. w. small illustrates wilkie collins's cleverly-constructed story, _man and wife_, with thirty-seven pictures. his character-drawing appears at its best in 'bishopriggs,' the old scotch waiter, his love of beauty of line in two or three sketches of the athlete, 'geoffrey delamayne,' the working villain of the story. the dramatic force of the group on p. , the mystery of the scene on p. , or the finely-contrasted emotions of anne silvester and sir patrick on p. , could hardly be beaten. the other contributors to this vol. i. of the new series, include r. barnes, basil bradley, h. k. browne, w. r. duckman, e. h. corbould, m. e. edwards, e. ellis, s. l. fildes, f. a. fraser, e. hughes, f. w. lawson, h. paterson, and others, most of whom it were kindness to ignore. for side by side with mr. small's masterly designs appear the weakest and most commonplace full pages. hardly one, except s. l. fildes's _a sonnet_ (p. ), tempts you to linger a moment. in vol. ii. the serial story, _checkmate_, is illustrated by towneley green. the drawings throughout are mainly by those who contributed to the first volume. in the third volume, charles reade's _a terrible temptation_ is illustrated by edward hughes; a somewhat powerful composition by j. d. l[inton], p. ; one by w. small (p. ), and others by j. lawson, f. w. lawson, m. e. edwards, are all that can claim to be noted. belgravia this illustrated shilling monthly, the same size and shape as most of its predecessors, was not started until , and its earlier volumes have nothing in them sufficiently important to be noticed. in the seventies better things are to be found. the argosy this monthly periodical, as we know it of late years, suggests a magazine devoted to fiction and light literature, with a frontispiece by some well-known artist, and small engravings in the text mostly from photographs, or belonging to the diagram and the record rather than to fine art. i am not speaking of the present shilling series, but of the long array of volumes from until a few years ago. nor does this opinion belittle the admirable illustrations by walter crane, m. ellen edwards, and other artists who supplied its monthly frontispiece. but the first four half-yearly volumes were planned on quite different lines, and these deserve the attention of all interested in the subject of this book, to a degree hardly below that of the better-known magazines; better known, that is to say, as storehouses of fine illustrations. as these volumes seem to be somewhat scarce, a brief _résumé_ of their contents will not be out of place. in the year we have william small at his best in twelve illustrations to charles reade's dramatic novel, _griffith gaunt_. whether because the ink has sunk into the paper and given a rich tone to the prints, or because of their intrinsic merit, it is not quite easy to say, but the fact remains that these drawings have peculiar richness, and deserve to be placed among the best works of a great artist not yet fully recognised. one design by f. sandys to christina rossetti's poem, _if_, is especially noticeable, the model biting a strand of hair embodies the same idea as that of _proud maisie_, one of the best-known works of this master. a. boyd houghton has a typical eastern figure-subject, _the vision of sheik hamil_; edward hughes one, _hermione_; paul gray, a singularly good drawing to a poem _the lead-melting_, by robert buchanan. another to a poem by george macdonald, _the sighing of the shell_, is unsigned, whether by morten or paul gray i cannot say, but it is worthy of either artist; j. lawson has one to _the earl of quarterdeck_, m. ellen edwards one to _cuckoo_ and one to _cape ushant_, a ballad by william allingham; a group, with napoleon as the central figure, is by g. j. pinwell, and j. mahoney contributes three: _autumn tourists, bell from the north_, a girl singing by a trafalgar square fountain, and _the love of years_. the next year, , is illustrated more sparsely. _robert falconer_, by george macdonald, has one unsigned drawing, and nine by william small; these, with _a knight-errant_ by boyd houghton, make up the eleven it contains. in the next year walter crane illustrates the serial, _anne hereford_, by mrs. henry wood, and also a poem, _margaret_, by his sister. [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'the argosy' , vol. i. p. the vision of sheik hamil] [illustration: g. j. pinwell 'the quiver' the sailor's valentine] the quiver this semi-religious monthly magazine, published by messrs. cassell and co., was not illustrated at first. it is almost unnecessary to describe it volume by volume, as a reprint of its principal illustrations was made in , when fifty-two pictures were sandwiched between poems, and published in a small quarto volume entitled '_idyllic pictures_, drawn by barnes, miss ellen edwards, paul gray, houghton, r. p. leitch, pinwell, sandys, small, g. thomas, etc' the curiously colloquial nomenclature of the artists on the title-page is the only direct reference to their share in the book, which is well printed, and includes some admirable illustrations. the book is now exceptionally scarce, and like its companion, _pictures of society_, selected from _london society_, must be searched for long and patiently. personal inquiries at all the accessible shops in london, bath, and edinburgh failed to find one bookseller who had ever heard of either book. yet, in spite of it, single copies of both turned up alternately on the shelves of men who were at the moment of its discovery glibly doubting its existence. the ignorance of booksellers concerning this period is at once the terror and the joy of the collector. for when they do know, he will have to pay for their knowledge. yet it would be unfair to the reputation of a periodical which issued so many designs by representative artists of the sixties to dismiss it without a little more detail. started as a non-illustrated paper on october , , it entered the ranks with a very capable staff. in a third series on toned paper still further established its claim to be considered seriously, and the fact that these few years supplied the matter for the volume just mentioned shows that it fulfilled its purpose well. in volume i. third series ( ), pictures by a. boyd houghton will be found on pages , , , , , , and ; and in vol. ii. , he appears upon pages and . those by william small (pp. , ), g. j. pinwell (pp. , ), and j. d. watson (p. ) also deserve looking up. m. w. ridley, an illustrator of promise, is also represented. in vol. iii. , j. d. watson's designs on pages , , , , , and are perhaps his best. drawings by john lawson (p. ), hubert herkomer (p. ), a. boyd houghton (pp. , , , ), s. l. fildes (pp. , , ), g. j. pinwell (pp. , , , , and ), c. green (p. ), j. mahoney (p. ), and t. b. wirgman (p. ) all merit notice. in vol. iv. many of the above artists are represented--s. l. fildes (p. ), j. d. watson (p. ), w. small (p. ), and the designs by s. l. fildes and j. d. watson in the christmas number being perhaps the most noticeable. other frequent contributors include r. barnes, c j. staniland, m. e. edwards, j. a. pasquier, g. h. thomas, f. w. lawson, and edith dunn. although not to be compared artistically with its rivals, _good words_ and the _sunday magazine_, it is nevertheless a storehouse of good, if not of exceptionally fine, work. the churchman's shilling magazine, a periodical of the conventional octavo size, affected by the illustrated shilling periodicals of the sixties, was commenced in . the first two volumes contain little of note, and are illustrated by r. huttula, john leigh, e. f. c. clarke; the third volume has m. e. edwards, and in the fifth volume walter crane supplies two full pages (pp. , ). despite the fact that it credited its artists duly in the index, and seemed to have been most favourably noticed at the time, it may be dismissed here without further notice. tinsley's magazine this shilling monthly was started in august with illustrations by 'phiz,' w. brunton, d. h. friston, and a. w. cooper. a. boyd houghton's contributions include _the story of a chignon_ (i. p. ), _for the king_ (ii. p. ), and _the return from court_ (ii. p. ). j. d. watson appears in vol. iii. pp. , , , and a drawing, signed a. t. (possibly alfred thompson), is on p. . but the magazine, although published at a shilling, and therefore apparently intended as a rival to the _cornhill_ and the rest, is not important so far as its illustrations are concerned. the broadway this international magazine, heralded with much flourish in by messrs. routledge, is of no great importance, yet as it was illustrated from its first number in september to july , it must needs be mentioned. examples of the following artists will be found therein:--f. barnard, g. a. barnes, w. brunton, m. e. edwards, paul gray, e. griset, a. b. houghton, r. c. huttula, f. w. lawson, matt morgan, thomas nash, j. a. pasquier, alfred thompson, and j. gordon thomson. saint paul's, yet another shilling magazine which was started in october , and published by messrs. virtue and co., is memorable for its twenty-two drawings by millais. these appeared regularly to illustrate trollope's _phineas finn the irish member_. a few illustrations by f. a. fraser were issued to _ralph the heir_, the next story, and to _the three brothers_, but from it appears without pictures. by way of working off the long serial by trollope, _ralph the heir_, independent supplements as thick as an ordinary number, but entirely filled with chapters of the story in question, were issued in april and october . so curious a departure from ordinary routine is worth noting. good words for the young, a most delightful children's magazine, which began as a sixpenny monthly under the editorship of dr. norman macleod in , bids fair to become one of those books peculiarly dear (in all senses) to collectors. there are many reasons why it deserves to be treasured. its literature includes several books for children that in volume-form afterwards became classics; its illustrations, especially those by arthur hughes, appeal forcibly to the student of that art, which is called pre-raphaelite, Æsthetic, or decorative, according to the mood of the hour. like all books intended for children, a large proportion of its edition found speedy oblivion in the nursery; and those that survive are apt to show examples of the amateur artist in his most infantile experiments with a penny paint-box. from the very first it surrounded itself with that atmosphere of distinction, which is well-nigh as fatal to a magazine's longevity as saintliness of disposition to a sunday-school hero. after a career that may be called truthfully--brilliant, it suddenly changed to a periodical of no importance, illustrated chiefly by foreign _clichés_. how long it lingered in this state does not concern us. indeed, it is only by a liberal interpretation of the title of this book that a magazine which was not started until can be included in _the sixties_ at all; but it seems to have continued the tradition of the sixties, and until the first half of , although it changed its editor and its title (to _good things_), it kept the spirit of the first volume unimpaired; but after that date it joined the majority of uninteresting periodicals for children, and did not survive its recantation for many years. in arthur hughes has twenty-four drawings to george macdonald's _at the back of the north wind_, and ten to the earlier chapters of henry kingsley's _boy in grey_. the art of a. boyd houghton is seen in three instances: _cocky locky's journey_ (p. ), _lessons from russia_ (p. ), and _the boys of axleford_ (p. ). j. mahoney has about a dozen; h. herkomer one to _lonely jane_ (p. ); and g. j. pinwell one to _black rock_ (p. ). although, following the example set by its parent _good words_, it credits the illustrations most faithfully to their artists in a separate index, yet it developed a curious habit of illustrating its serials with a fresh artist for each instalment; and, as their names are bracketed, it is not an easy task to attribute each block to its rightful author. the list which i have made is by my side, but it is hardly of sufficient general interest to print here; as many of the sketches, despite the notable signatures upon them, are trivial and non-representative. other illustrations in the first volume include one hundred and fifty-five grotesque thumb-nail sketches by w. s. gilbert to his _king george's middy_, and many by f. barnard, b. rivière, e. f. brewtnall, e. dalziel, f. a. fraser, h. french, s. p. hall, j. mahoney, j. pettie, t. sulman, f. s. walker, w. j. wiegand, j. b. zwecker, etc. in arthur hughes contributes thirty-six illustrations to _ranald bannerman's boyhood_, by george mac donald (who succeeded dr. macleod as editor), forty-eight to the continuation of the other serial by the same author, _at the back of the north wind_, four to the concluding chapters of henry kingsley's _boy in grey_, and one to _the white princess_. a. boyd houghton has but two: _two nests_ (p. ), _keeping the cornucopia_ (p. ); _miss jane_ 'wandering in the wood' (p. ) is by h. herkomer, while most of the artists who contributed to the first volume reappear; we find also e. g. and t. dalziel, charles green, towneley green, and ernest griset. [illustration: paul gray 'the quiver' cousin lucy] [illustration: h. herkomer 'good words for the young' , p. wandering in the wood] [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'good words for the young' , p. don jose's mule] [illustration: arthur hughes 'good words for the young' , p. barbara's pet lamb] [illustration: arthur hughes 'good words for the young' , p. mercy] [illustration: w. small 'the quiver' between the cliffs] in , arthur hughes, the chief illustrator of this magazine, to whose presence it owes most of its interest (since other artists are well represented elsewhere, but he is rarely met with outside its pages), contributes thirty pictures to dr. george mac donald's _princess and the goblin_, and fourteen others, some of which have been republished in _lilliput lectures_ and elsewhere,--one, _mercy_ (p. ), reappearing in that work, and again as the theme of a large painting in oils, which was exhibited at the royal academy , and reproduced in _the illustrated london news_, may rd of that year. a. boyd houghton, in _don josé's mule_ (p. ), has a most delightfully grotesque illustration, and in two drawings for _the merry little cobbler of bagdad_ (pp. - ), both in his 'arabian nights' vein, is typically representative. for the rest, w. small in _my little gypsy cousin_ (p. ), a good full page, and ernest griset with ten of his humorous animal pictures, combine with most of the artists already named to maintain the well-deserved reputation of the magazine. in arthur hughes supplies nine delightful designs for _gutta-percha willie_, by the editor; twenty-four to _innocent's island_, a long-rhymed chronicle by the author of _lilliput levée_, and a curiously fantastic drawing to george mac donald's well-known poem, _the wind and the moon_. some one, with the initials f. e. f. (not f. a. f.), illustrates _on the high meadows_ in nineteen sketches; with the exception of two by j. mahoney, the rest of the pictures are chiefly by f. a. fraser, t. green, f. s. walker, w. j. wiegand, and j. b. zwecker. in the magazine changed its name to _good things_. the most attractive illustrations are by arthur hughes: ten to _sindbad in england_ (pp. , , , , , , , , ), two to _henry and amy_ (pp. , ), and one each to _a poor hunchback_ (p. ), _the wonderful organ_ (p. ), and _my daughter_ (p. ). j. mahoney has a small design, _the old mill_ (p. ). the rest are by ernest griset, w. j. wiegand, and francis walker. on and after the _cliché_ enters, and all interest ceases. at this time the business of trading in _clichés_ had begun to assume large proportions. you find sometimes, in the course of a single month, that an english periodical hitherto exclusively british becomes merely a vehicle for foreign _clichés_. in this instance the change is so sudden that, excepting a few english blocks which we may presume had been prepared before, the foreigner is supreme. that, in at least three cases, the demise of the publication was merely a question of months is a sequel not to be regretted. but we need not assume too hastily that the _cliché_ killed it--possibly it had ceased to be profitable before, and the false economy of spending less has tempted the proprietor to employ foreign illustrations. britannia, another shilling illustrated magazine, was started in . the british museum, it seems, possesses no set, and my own copy has disappeared, excepting the first volume, but so far as that proves, and my memory can be trusted, it was illustrated solely by matt morgan, a brilliant but ephemeral genius who shortly after migrated to new york. the peculiarity of this magazine is that, like _the tomahawk_, a satirical journal illustrated by the same artist, its pictures were all printed in two colours, after the fashion of the old venetian wood-blocks. the one colour was used as a ground with the high lights cut away; the other block, for the ordinary convention of line-drawing. some of the pictures are effective, but none are worthy of very serious consideration. dark blue although _dark blue_, a shilling monthly magazine, did not begin until march , and ran its brief career until march only, it deserves mention here, because quite apart from its literary contributions which were notable, including as they did swinburne's _end of a month_, rossetti's _down stream_, its earlier volumes contain at least two drawings that will be prized when these things are collected seriously. besides, it has a certain _cachet_ of its own that will always entitle it to a place. its wrapper in colours, with three classically-attired maidens by a doorway, is singularly unlike that of any other publication; possibly f. w. l. would not be anxious to claim the responsibility of its design, yet it was new in its day, and not a bad specimen of the good effect of three simple colours on a white ground. its serial, _lost_, a romance by j. c. freund, was illustrated by f. w. lawson, t. w. perry, t. robinson, and d. t. white; and its second serial, _take care whom you trust_, by m. e. freere and t. w. ridley. a full-page drawing (they are all separately printed plates in this magazine), by cecil lawson, _spring_, is far more interesting. _musaeus_, by a. w. cooper, a somewhat jejune representation of the hero and leander motive, and other illustrations by e. f. clarke, w. j. hennessey, m. fitzgerald, d. h. friston, s. p. hall, j. a. h. bird, are commonplace designs engraved by c. m. jenkin; but _the end of a month_, a study of two heads, by simeon solomon, and _down stream_, by ford madox brown, (here reproduced from the original drawing on wood by kind permission of mr. frederick hollyer), represent the work of two artists who very rarely appeared as magazine illustrators. the literature includes many names that have since become widely known, but the project failed, one imagines, to secure popular support, and so it must be numbered with the long list of similar good intentions. the british workman it would be unjust to ignore a very popular penny magazine because of its purely philanthropic purpose. for from the first it recognised the importance of good illustrations as its great attraction, and enlisted some of the best draughtsmen to fulfil its didactic aim. we cannot help admiring its pluck, and congratulating the cause it championed (and still supports), and its fortune in securing coadjutors. the first number, issued in february , has a design, the _loaf lecture_, by george cruikshank on its first page; for some time h. anelay and l. huard were the most frequent contributors; then came john gilbert and harrison weir, the earliest important gilbert being _the last moments of thomas paine_ (january ). as a sample of white-line engraving, a block after a medallion of the _prince consort_, by l. c. wyon, and another of _h.m. the queen_, would be hard to beat. among these more frequent contributors, we find drawings by j. d. watson, _my account with her majesty_ (august ) and _parley and flatterwell_ (december ) being the most notable; and others by a. w. cooper, and lastly many by r. barnes, whose studies of humble life yet await the full appreciation they deserve. these large and vigorous engravings maintain a singularly high level of excellence, and, if not impeccable, are yet distinctly of art, and far above the ephemeral padding of more pretentious magazines. the band of hope review of all unlikely publications to interest artist or collector a halfpenny monthly devoted to teetotalism might take first place. not because of its price, nor because it was a monthly with a mission, for many cheap serials have attracted the support of artists who gave liberally of their best for the sake of the cause the publications championed. _the band of hope review_ is no esoteric pamphlet, but a perfect instance of a popular venture unconcerned, one would think, with art. it would be easy to claim too much for it; still the good work in its pages merits attention. it was started in as a folio sheet about the size of _the sketch_, its front page being always filled by a large wood-engraving. the first full page, by h. anelay, a draughtsman whose speciality was the good little boy and girl of the most commonplace religious periodicals, promises little enough. a series of really fine drawings of animals and birds by harrison weir commenced in no. . the third issue included a page by l. huard, whose work occasionally found its way to the shilling magazines, although the bulk of it appeared in the mass of journals of the type of the _london journal_, _bow bells_, etc. in the fifth number john gilbert (not then knighted) appears with a fine drawing, _the golden star_; j. wolf, honourably distinguished as an illustrator of animals, is also represented. for december john gilbert provided a decorative composition of _the ten virgins_, that is somewhat unlike his usual type. in august robert barnes appears for the first time with admirably drawn boys and girls full of health and characteristically british. afterwards one finds many of his full pages all vigorous and delightfully true to the type he represents. in august a group, _young cadets_, may be selected as a typical example of his strength and perhaps also of his limitations. in the falling off apparent everywhere is as noticeable in this unimportant publication as in those of far higher pretensions. here, as elsewhere, the foreign _cliché_ appears, or possibly the subjects were engraved specially, and were not, as was so often the case, merely replicas of german and french engravings. but all the same they are from oil-paintings, not from drawings made for illustration. [illustration: unknown 'leisure hour' enoch arden] [illustration: simeon solomon 'leisure hour' , p. the feast of tabernacles] [illustration: simeon solomon 'leisure hour' , p. the day of atonement] the leisure hour the publications of the religious tract society have employed an enormous mass of illustrations, but as the artist's name rarely appears at the period with which we are concerned, either in the index of illustrations or below the engravings, the task of tracing each to its source would be onerous and the result probably not worth the labour. yet, in the volumes of the _leisure hour_ for the sixties, there are a few noteworthy pictures which may later on attract collectors to a periodical which so far appealed more, one had thought, to parish workers than to art students. the volume starts with the st number of the magazine, illustrated by 'gilbert' (probably sir john). in coloured plates are given monthly, three being after originals by the same artist, but, although attributed duly in the advertising pages of its wrapper, the name of the design does not appear in the index. with a surprise faces you in the illustrations to _hurlock chase_, which are vigorous, dramatic, and excellently composed, full of colour and breadth. that they are by g. du maurier internal evidence proves clearly, but there is no formal recognition of the fact. robert barnes has a full page, _granny's portrait_ (p. ). _enoch arden_ is by 'an amateur whose name the publishers are not able to trace.'[ ] in the illustrations to _the awdries_, also unsigned, are distinctly interesting; later the well-known monogram of j. mahoney is met with frequently. in a series of ten illustrations of the ceremonies of modern jewish ritual, domestic and ecclesiastical (pp. , , , , - , , , , ) appear. contrary to the rule usually observed here, they are entitled, 'by s. solomon.' these are, so far as i know (with four exceptions), the only contributions to periodical literature by simeon solomon, an artist who at this date bade fair to be one of the greatest pre-raphaelite painters. they are distinctly original both in their technical handling and composition, and excellently engraved by butterworth and heath. for their sake no collector of the sixties should overlook a book which is to be picked up anywhere at present. the illustrations to _the great van bruch property_, unsigned, are most probably by j. mahoney. others include _george iii. and mr. adams_, a full page by c. j. staniland (p. ); a series of _pen and pencil sketches among the outer hebrides_, r. t. pritchett; _finding the body of william rufus_, j. m. in j. mahoney illustrates the serial, _the heiress of cheevely dale_, and contributes a full page, _the blue-coat boy's mother_ (p. ); whymper has two series, _on the nile_ and _a trip through the tyrol_, both oddly enough attributed to him in the index. silent, with scarce an exception, as regards other artists, the sentence, 'engraved by whymper,' finds a place each time. in are more mahoneys; in charles green illustrates the serial. the sunday at home this magazine, uniform with the _leisure hour_ in style and general arrangement, is hardly of sufficient artistic interest to need detailed comment here. started in it relied, like its companion, on gilbert and other less important draughtsmen. in the sixties it was affected a little by the movement. in there is one design by g. j. pinwell, _the german band_ (p. ), several by c. green, and one probably by du maurier (p. ), who has also six most excellent drawings to _the artist's son_ in the number for january, and one each to short stories, _john henderson_ and _siller and gowd_, later in the year. a serial in and one in are both illustrated by j. mahoney; and, in the latter year, w. small supplies drawings to another story. beyond a full page, obviously by r. barnes, there is nothing else peculiarly interesting in ; in the volume f. w. lawson and charles green contribute a good many designs. in s. l. fildes has one full page, _st. bartholomew_ (p. ), and f. a. f. appears; in charles green is frequently encountered, but the magazine is not a very happy hunting-ground for our purpose. other serial publications serial issues of cassell's _history of england_, the _family bible_, and other profusely illustrated works might also repay a close search, but, as a rule, the standard is too ordinary to attract any but an omnivorous collector. still, men of considerable talent are among the contributors, (sir) john gilbert for instance, and others like h. c. selous, paolo priolo, who never fell below a certain level of respectability. _golden hours_, a semi-religious monthly, started in as a penny magazine. in its price was raised to sixpence, and among its artist-contributors we find m. e. edwards, r. barnes, and a. boyd houghton (represented once only) with _an eastern wedding_ (p. ). in towneley green, c. o. murray, and others appear, but the magazine can hardly be ranked as one representative of the period. nor is it essential to record in detail the mass of illustrations in the penny weeklies and monthlies--to do so were at once impossible and unnecessary; nor the mass of semi-religious periodicals such as _our own fireside_ and _the parish magazine_, which rarely contain work that rises above the dull average. the boys' own magazine the art of this once popular magazine may be dismissed very briefly. j. g. thomson made a lot of designs to _silas the conjuror_ and other serials. r. dudley, a conscientious draughtsman whose speciality was mediæval subjects, illustrated its historical romances with spirit and no little knowledge of archæological details. a. w. bayes, j. a. pasquier, and others adorned its pages; but from to its death it contains nothing interesting except to a very rabid collector. every boy's magazine this well-intentioned periodical (routledge, , etc.), except for certain early works by walter crane, would scarce need mention here. its wrapper for onwards was from a capital design by walter crane, who contributed coloured frontispieces and titles to the and volumes. c. h. bennett illustrated his own romance of _the young munchausen_. in it called itself _the young gentleman's magazine_; an heraldic design by j. forbes nixon, with the shields of the four great public schools, replaced the crane cover. t. morten, m. w. ridley, and others contributed. a. boyd houghton illustrated _barford bridge_, its serial for , and walter crane performed the same offices to mrs. henry wood's _orville college_ in . these few facts seem to comprise all of any interest. aunt judy's magazine the sixpenny magazine for children, edited by mrs. alfred gatty, issued its first number, may . the artists who contributed include f. gilbert, j. a. pasquier, t. morten, m. e. edwards, e. griset, f. w. lawson, e. h. wehnert, a. w. bayes, a. w. cooper, and others. there are two drawings by george cruikshank, and later on randolph caldecott will be found. in both cases the illustrations were for mrs. ewing's popular stories, which had so large a sale, reprinted in volume-form. neither in the drawings nor in their engraving do you find anything else which is above the average of its class. two other magazines remain to be noticed out of their chronological order, both of little intrinsic importance, but of peculiar value to collectors. everybody's journal, a weekly periodical the size of the _london journal_, and not more attractive in its appearance, nor better printed, began with no. , october , , and ceased to exist early in the following year; probably before the end of january, since the british museum copy in monthly parts is inscribed 'discontinued' on the part containing the december issues. that a complete set is not in our great reference library is a matter for regret; for the first published illustration by fred walker, which was issued in _everybody's journal_, january , must needs have been in the missing numbers. those which are accessible include drawings by (sir) john gilbert, t. morten, and harrison weir, none of peculiar interest. among the names of the contributors will be found several that have since become widely known. entertaining things this twopenny monthly magazine, which is probably as unfamiliar to those who read this notice as it was to me until a short time since, was published by virtue and co., the first number appearing in january . it contains many designs by j. portch, f. j. skill, m. s. morgan, e. weedar, w. m'connell, p. justyne, and w. j. linton, none being particularly well engraved. but it contains also walter crane's first published drawing--a man in the coils of a serpent (p. ), illustrating one of a series of articles, _among the mahogany cutters_, which is not very important; another a few pages further on in the volume is even less so. collectors will also prize _a nocturne_ by g. du maurier, and some designs by t. morton (_sic_). the christmas number contains a delightful design by a. boyd houghton, _the maid of the wool-pack_, and another drawing by du maurier. the publication ceased, according to a note in the british museum copy, in may . among rarities of the sixties this magazine may easily take a high place, for one doubts if there are many copies in existence. should the mania for collecting grow, it is quite possible this volume, of such slight intrinsic value, will command record prices. beeton's annuals these were of two sorts, a badly printed shilling annual, which appealed to children of all ages, and a six-shilling variety, which appealed to those of a smaller growth. in the higher-priced volumes for t. morten, j. g. thomson, and j. a. pasquier appear. in the shilling issue, an independent publication, are more or less execrably engraved blocks, after c. h. bennett, g. cruikshank, jun., and others who would probably dislike to have their misdeeds chronicled. these publications added to the gaiety of nations, but when they ceased no eclipse was reported. yet a patient collation of their pages renewed a certain boyish, if faded, memory of their pristine charm, which the most cautious prophet may assert can never be imparted anew to any reader. _kingston's annuals_ and _peter parley's annuals_, also revisited, left impressions too sad to be expressed here. nor need _routledge's christmas annuals_ be noticed in detail. _tom hood's comic annuals_, which contained much work typical of the seventies, although it began its long career in , includes so little work by heroes of the 'sixties' that it need not be mentioned. the mass of penny magazines for children do not repay a close search. here and there you will find a design by a notable hand, but it is almost invariably ruined by poor engraving; so that it were kinder not to attempt to dispel the obscurity which envelops the juvenile 'goody-goody' literature of thirty years ago. [illustration: g. du maurier 'punch.' march , a legend of camelot, part i] [illustration: g. du maurier 'punch.' march , a legend of camelot, part ii] [illustration: g. du maurier 'punch.' march , . a legend of camelot, part iii] [illustration: g. du maurier 'punch.' march , a legend of camelot, part iv] [illustration: g. du maurier 'punch.' march , a legend of camelot, part v] chapter vi: some illustrated weekly papers in the sixties punch.--it is impossible to overlook the famous weekly that from its own pages could offer a fairly representative group of the work of any decade since it was established; a paper which, if it has not attracted every great illustrator, could nevertheless select a hundred drawings from its pages that might be fairly entered in competition with any other hundred outside them. but, at the same time, to give a summary of its record during the sixties, even as compressed as those of _the cornhill magazine_, _once a week_, etc., would occupy more pages than all the rest put together. fortunately the labour has been accomplished quite recently. mr. m. h. spielmann's _history of punch_ supplies a full and admirably digested chronicle of its artistic achievements. so that here (excluding the staff-artists, sir john tenniel, mr. du maurier, mr. linley sambourne, and the rest, and the greatest _punch_ artist, charles keene, who was never actually upon its staff) it will be sufficient to indicate where admirers of the men of the sixties may find examples of their work for _punch_; sir john millais appears twice upon p. of vol. xliv. ( ) with a design to _mokeanna_, mr. f. c. burnand's laughable parody, and again with _mr. vandyke brown's sons thrashing the lay figure_, in the _almanac_ for , a drawing that faces, oddly enough, one of fred walker's two contributions, _the new bathing company, limited, specimens of costumes to be worn by the shareholders_. the other fred walker, _captain jinks of the 'selfish,'_ is on p. of vol. lvii. ; george j. pinwell is an infrequent contributor from to ; walter crane appears but once, p. (vol. li. ); frederick shields's three initials, which appeared in , were drawn in ; m. j. lawless is represented by six drawings, which appeared between may and january ; f. w. lawson has some initials and one vignette in the volume for ; ernest griset appears in the _almanac_ for ; j. g. thomson, for twenty years cartoonist of _fun_, is an occasional contributor between and ; h. s. marks appears in , and paul gray, also with a few initials and 'socials,' up to ; charles keene's first drawing for _punch_ is in , he was 'called to the table' in , and on a few occasions supplied the political cartoon. the mass of his work within the classic pages is too familiar to need more than passing reference. the first drawing by 'george louis palmella busson du maurier' appears in , the _legend of camelot_, with five drawings, which are already historic, in . these delicious parodies (here reproduced) of the pre-raphaelite manner are as fascinating to-day as when they first appeared. fun this popular humorous penny weekly, which is still running, would be forever memorable as the birthplace of the famous _bab_ ballads, with w. s. gilbert's own thumb-nail sketches: yet it would be foolish to rank him as an illustrator, despite the grotesque humour of these inimitable little figures. the periodical, not (i believe) at first under the editorship of tom hood, the younger, began in september , . the mass of illustrations must be the only excuse for failing to include an orderly summary; yet there is not, and there is certainly no necessity for, an elaborate chronicle of the paper, like mr. spielmann's admirable monograph in _punch_. but those who are curious to discover the work of less-known men of the sixties will find plenty to reward their search. a clever parody of millais' pre-raphaelite manner is given as a tail-piece to the preface of vol. i. a. boyd houghton supplied the cartoons for a short period, november to april , . at least those signed a. h. are attributed to him, and the first would almost suffice by itself to decide it, did any doubt exist. another cartoonist, who signed his work with the device of a hen, is very freely represented. f. barnard was also cartoonist for a long time-- onwards--and j. g. thomson, for a score of years, did excellent work in the same department. the authorship of many of the drawings scattered through its pages is easily recognised by their style--others, as for instance one on page five of the _almanac_ for , puzzle the student. it looks like a paul gray, but the monogram with which it is signed, although it is indecipherable, is certainly not 'p. g.' w. j. wiegand, w. brunton, h. sanderson, matt stretch, lieut. seccombe, l. c. henley, f. s. walker, and f. w. lawson (see for instance, _almanac_ for , p. ) contributed a great many of the 'socials' to the early volumes. then, as now, you find unconscious or deliberate imitations of other artists' mannerisms. a rash observer might attribute drawings here to c. keene (_almanac_ for , vi.), and credit tenniel with the title-page to vol. iv. n.s. still, as a field to discover the work of young artists who afterwards become approximately great, _fun_ is not a very happy hunting-ground. despite some notable exceptions, its illustrators cannot be placed even upon the average of the period that concerns us; the presence of a half a dozen or so of first-rate men hardly makes a set of the comic paper essential to a representative collection. after renewed intimacy with its pages there is a distinct feeling of disappointment. that its drawings pleased you mightily, and seemed fine stuff at the time, may be true; but it only proves that the enjoyment of a schoolboy cannot be recaptured in after-life if the quality of the drawing be too poor to sustain the weight of old-fashioned dress and jokes whose first sparkle has dimmed beyond restoration. judy, the twopenny rival to _punch_, began life on may , . although matt morgan supplied many of the early cartoons and 'socials,' the really admirable level it reached in the eighties is not foreshadowed even dimly by its first volumes. with vol. ii. j. proctor, an admirable draughtsman, despite his fondness for the decisive, unsympathetic line which sir john tenniel has accustomed us to consider part and parcel of a political cartoon, is distinctly one of the best men who have worked this particular form of satire. afterwards 'w. b.' contributed many. the mass of work, in the volumes which can be considered as belonging to the period covered by this book, contains hardly a single drawing to repay the weary hunt through their pages. yet the issues of a later decade are as certain to be prized by students of the 'eighties' as the best periodicals of the sixties are by devotees of that period. punch and judy, beginning in october , yet another paper on similar lines, ran a short but interesting career of twelve weeks, and continued, in a commonplace way, for a year or two longer. the reason the first dozen issues are worth notice here is that the illustrations are all by 'graphotype process' (which must not be confused with the far earlier 'glyptography'), and so appeal to students of the technique of illustration. the principle of the graphotype process, it is said, was discovered accidentally. the inventor was removing, with a wet camel-hair brush, the white enamel from the face of a visiting-card, when he noticed that the printing on it was left in distinct relief. after many experiments the idea was developed, and a surface of metal was covered with a powdered chalky substance, upon which the drawing was made with a silicate ink which hardened the substance wherever it was applied. the chalk was then brushed away and the drawing left in low but distinct relief on the metal-plate, from which electrotypes could be taken in the usual way. the experiment gained some commercial success, and quite a notable group of artists experimented with it for designs to an edition of dr. isaac watts's _divine and moral songs_, a most curious libretto for an artistic venture. in _punch and judy_ the blocks are by no means bad as regards their reproduction. despite the very mediocre drawing of the originals, they are nevertheless preferable to the cheap wood-engravings of their contemporaries. after its change, 'g. o. m.' (if one reads the initials aright), or 'c. o. m.,'contributes some average cartoons. when it first appeared, at least one schoolboy was struck with the curious difference of technique that the illustrations showed, and from that time onwards had his curiosity aroused towards process-work. therefore, this lapse into anecdotage, in the short record of a venture otherwise artistically unworthy to be noticed here, may be pardoned. will o' the wisp this, another periodical of the same class, started on september , , but unlike its fellows relied at first solely upon a double-page political cartoon. from the second number these were contributed by j. proctor until and after april , , when other pictures were admitted. with the st of july another hand replaces proctor's vigorous work. the volume for contains many woodcuts (i use the word advisedly), unintentionally primitive, that should please a certain school to-day. whether the journal ceased with its fourth volume, or lasted into the seventies, the british museum catalogue does not record, nor is it worth while to pursue the inquiry further. the illustrated london news to notice this important paper in a paragraph is little better than an insult, and yet between a full monograph (already anticipated partially in mr. mason jackson's _the pictorial press_) and a bare mention there is no middle course. as a rule the drawings are unsigned, and not attributed to the artists in the index. the christmas numbers, however, often adopt a different method, and print the draughtsman's name below each engraving, which is almost always a full page. in that for we find alfred hunt, george thomas, s. read, and john gilbert, all regular contributors, well represented. in the christmas number of there is boyd houghton's _child's christmas carol_, and other drawings by corbould, s. read, j. a. pasquier, charles green, matt morgan, and c. h. bennett. other illustrated weeklies _the illustrated times_, first issued in october , maintained a long and honourable effort to achieve popularity. a new series was started in , but apparently also failed to gain a footing. the artists included many men mentioned frequently in this volume. the non-topical illustrations occasionally introduced were supplied chiefly by m. e. edwards, adelaide and florence claxton, lieut. seccombe, p. skelton, and t. sulman. yet a search through its pages revealed nothing sufficiently important to notice in detail. _the illustrated weekly news_ and _the penny illustrated weekly news_ are other lost causes, but the _penny illustrated paper_, which started in , is still a flourishing concern; yet it would be superfluous to give a detailed notice of its work. _pan_ (date uncertain[ ]), a short-lived sixpenny weekly. its cover was from a design by jules chéret. facsimiles of _a head_ by lord leighton, and _proud maisie_ by frederick sandys, appeared among its supplements. the graphic that this admirably conducted illustrated weekly revolutionised english illustration is granted on all sides. its influence for good or ill was enormous. with its first number, published on december , , we find a definite, official date to close the record of the 'sixties'; one by mere chance, chronologically as well as technically, appropriate. of course the break was not so sudden as this arbitrary limit might suggest. the style which distinguished the _graphic_ had been gradually prepared before, and if mr. william small is credited with the greatest share in its development, such a statement, incomplete as most generalities must needs be, holds a good part of the truth, if not the whole. the work of mr. small introduced new qualities into wood-engraving; which, in his hands and those of the best of his followers, grew to be meritorious, and must needs place him with those who legitimately extended the domain of the art of drawing for the engraver. but to discuss the style which succeeded that of the sixties would be to trespass on new ground, and that while the field itself is all too scantily searched. mr. ruskin dubbed the new style 'blottesque,' but, as we have seen, he was hardly more enamoured of the manner that immediately preceded it. many of the surviving heroes of the sixties contributed to the _graphic_. charles green appears in vol. i. with _irish emigrants_, g. j. pinwell with _the lost child_ (january , ), a. boyd houghton has a powerful drawing, _night charges_, and later, the marvellous series of pictures recording his very personal visit to america. william small, r. w. macbeth, s. l. fildes, hubert herkomer, and a crowd of names, some already mentioned frequently in this book, bore the weight of the new enterprise. but a cursory sketch of the famous periodical would do injustice to it. the historian of the seventies will find it takes the place of _once a week_ as the happy hunting-ground for the earliest work of many a popular draughtsman and painter--that is to say, the earliest work after his student and experimental efforts. to declare that it still flourishes, and with the _daily graphic_, its offspring, keeps still ahead of the popular average, is at once bare truth and the highest compliment which need be paid. the illustrated weeklies in the sixties were almost as unimportant, relatively speaking, as are the illustrated dailies to-day. yet to say that the weeklies did fair to monopolise illustration at the present time is a common truth, and, remembering what the _daily graphic_ and the _daily chronicle_ have already accomplished, to infer that the dailies will do likewise before has attained its majority is a prophecy that is based upon a study of the past. chapter vii: some illustrated books of the period before to draw up a complete list, with the barest details of title, artist, author, and publisher of the books in the period with which this volume is concerned would be unnecessary, and well-nigh impossible. the _english catalogue_, - , covering but a part of the time, claims to give some , entries. many, possibly a large majority, of these books are not illustrated; but on the other hand, the current periodicals not included contain thousands of pictures. the following chapters cannot even claim to mention every book worth the collector's notice, and refer hardly at all to many which seemed to the compiler to represent merely the commercial average of their time. whether this was better or worse than the commercial average to-day is of no moment. nearly all of the books mentioned have been referred to personally, and the facts reported at first hand. in spite of taxing the inexhaustible courtesy of the officials of the british museum to the extent of eighty or more volumes during a single afternoon, i cannot pretend to have seen the whole output of the period, for it is not easy to learn from the catalogue those particulars that are needed to identify which books are illustrated. so far as we are concerned here, the interest of the book lies solely in its illustrations, but the catalogue may not even record the fact that it contains any, much less attribute them to their author. of those in which the artist's share has been recognised by the publisher in his announcements, i have done my best to find the first edition of each. by dint of patient wading through the advertisements, and review columns of literary journals, trade periodicals, and catalogues, a good many have turned up which had otherwise escaped notice; although for the last twenty years at least i have never missed an opportunity of seeing every illustrated book of the sixties, with a view to this chronicle, which had been shaping itself, if not actually begun, long before any work on modern english illustrators had appeared. when a school-boy i made a collection of examples of the work of each artist whose style i had learned to recognise, and some of that material gathered together so long ago has been of no little use now. these personal reminiscences are not put forward by way of magnifying the result; but rather to show that even with so many years' desultory preparation the digesting and classification of the various facts has proved too onerous. a staff of qualified assistants under a capable director would be needed to accomplish the work as thoroughly as mr. sidney lee has accomplished a not dissimilar, if infinitely more important, task--_the dictionary of national biography_. a certain proportion of errors must needs creep in, and the possible errors of omission are even more to be dreaded than those of commission. a false date, or an incorrect reference to a given book or illustration, is easily corrected by a later worker in the same field; but an omission may possibly escape another student of the subject as it escaped me. as a rule, in a majority of cases--so large that it is practically ninety-nine per cent., if not more--the notes have been made side by side with the publication to which they refer. but in transcribing hasty jottings errors are apt to creep in, and despite the collation of these pages when in proof by other hands, i cannot flatter myself that they are impeccable. for experience shows that you never open the final printed text of any work under your control as editor or author, but errors, hitherto overlooked, instantly jump from the page and force themselves on your notice. an editor of one of the most widely circulated of all our magazines confesses that he has made it a rule never to glance at any number after it was published. he had too often suffered the misery of being confronted with obvious errors of fact and taste which no amount of patient care on his part (and he is a most conscientious workman) had discovered, until it was too late to rectify them. in the matter of dates alone a difficulty meets one at first sight. many books dated one year were issued several months before the previous christmas, and are consequently advertised and reviewed in the year before the date which appears upon their title-page. again, many books, and some volumes of magazines (messrs. cassell and co.'s publications to wit), bear no date. 'women and books should never be dated' is a proverb as foolish as it is widely known. yet all the same, inaccuracy of a few months is of little importance in this context; a book or a picture does not cease to exist as soon as it is born, like the performance of an actor or a musician. consequently, beyond its relative place as evidence of the development or decline of the author's talent, it is not of great moment whether a book was issued in or , whether a drawing was published in january or february. but for those who wish to refer to the subjects noted, the information has been made as exact as circumstances permitted. when, however, a book has been reissued in a second, or later edition, with no reference to earlier issues, it is tempting to accept the date on its title-page without question. one such volume i traced back from to , and for all i know the original may have been issued some years earlier; for the british museum library is not complete; every collector can point with pride to a few books on his shelves which he has failed to discover in its voluminous catalogue. to select a definite moment to start from is not easy, nor to keep rigidly within the time covered by the dates upon the cover of this book. it is necessary to glance briefly at some work issued before , and yet it would be superfluous to re-traverse ground already well covered in _the history of wood engraving_, by chatto and jackson, with its supplementary chapter by h. g. bohn (in the edition), in mr. w. j. linton's _masterpieces of engraving_, in mr. joseph pennell's two sumptuous editions of _pen drawing and pen draughtsmen_ (macmillan), and the same author's _modern illustrations_ (bell), not to mention the many admirable papers read before learned societies by messrs. w. j. linton, comyns carr, henry blackburn, walter crane, william morris, and others. still less is it necessary to attempt to indorse their arguments in favour of wood-engraving against process, or to repeat those which support the opposite view. so that here, in the majority of cases, the question of the engraver's share has not been considered. mr. pennell, for one, has done this most thoroughly, and has put the case for process so strongly, that if any people yet believe a wood-engraving is always something sacred, while a good process block of line work is a mere feeble substitute, there is little hope of convincing them. here the result has been the chief concern. the object of these notes is not to prove what wood-engraving ruined, or what might or ought to have been, but merely to record what it achieved, without too frequent expression of regret, which nevertheless will intrude as the dominant feeling when you study many of the works executed by even the better class wood-engravers. one must not overlook the very obvious fact that, in the earlier years, an illustration was a much more serious affair for all concerned than it is to-day. in jackson's _pictorial press_ we find the author says: 'illustration was so seldom used that the preparation of even a small woodcut was of much moment to all concerned. i have heard william harvey relate that when whittingham, the well-known printer, wanted a new cut for his chiswick press series, he would write to harvey and john thompson, the engraver, appointing a meeting at chiswick, when printer, designer, and engraver talked over the matter with as much deliberation as if about to produce a costly national monument. and after they had settled all points over a snug supper, the result of their labours was the production a month afterwards of a woodcut measuring perhaps two inches by three. at that time perhaps only a dozen persons besides bewick were practising the art of wood-engraving in england.' but this preamble does not seek to excuse the meagre record it prefaces. a complete bibliography of such a fecund illustrator as sir john gilbert would need a volume to itself. to draw up detailed lists of all the various drawings in _the illustrated london news_, _punch_, and other prominent weeklies, would be a task needing almost as much co-operation as dr. murray's great dictionary. the subject, if it proves to be sufficiently attractive, will doubtless be done piece by piece by future workers. i envy each his easy pleasure of pointing out the shortcomings of this work, for no keener joy awaits the maker of a handbook than gibbeting his predecessors, and showing by implication how much more trustworthy is his record than theirs. [illustration: d. g. rossetti 'the music-master' by william allingham the maids of elfenmere] few artistic movements are so sharply defined that their origin can be traced to a particular moment, although some can be attributed more or less to the influence of one man. even the pre-raphaelite movement, clearly distinct as its origin appears at first glance, should not be dated from the formal draft of the little coterie, january th, , for, as mr. w. m. rossetti writes, 'the rules show or suggest not only what we intended to do, but what had been occupying our attention since . the day when we codified proved also to be the day when no code was really in requisition.' nor has the autumn any better claim to be taken as the exact moment, for one cannot overlook the fact that there was ford madox brown, a pre-raphaelite, long before the pre-raphaelites, and that ruskin had published the first volume of _modern painters_. there can be little doubt that it was the influence of the so-called pre-raphaelites and those in closest sympathy with them, which awakened a new interest in illustration, and so prepared the ground for the men of the sixties; but to confine our notice from to --a far more accurate period--would be to start without sufficient reference to the work superseded by or absorbed into the later movement. so we must glance at a few of the books which preceded both the _music-master_ of and the _tennyson_ of , either volume, the latter especially, being an excellent point whence to reckon more precisely 'the golden decade of british art,' as mr. pennell terms it so happily. without going back too far for our purpose, one of the first books that contains illustrations by artists whose work extended into the sixties (and, in the case of tenniel, far beyond) is _poems and pictures_, 'a collection of ballads, songs, and poems illustrated by english artists' (burns, ). so often was it reprinted that it came as a surprise to discover the first edition was fourteen years earlier than the date which is upon my own copy. despite the ornamental borders to each page, and many other details which stamp it as old-fashioned, it does not require a rabid apologist of the past to discuss it appreciatively. from the first design by c. w. cope, to the last, _a storm at sea_, by e. duncan, both engraved by w. j. linton, there is no falling off in the quality of the work. the influence of mulready is discernible, and it seems probable that certain pencil drawings for the _vicar of wakefield_, engraved in facsimile--so far as was within the power of the craftsmen at that time--did much to shape the manner of book-illustrations in the fifties. nor does it betray want of sympathy with the artists who were thus influenced to regret that they chose to imitate drawings not intended for illustration, and ignored in very many cases the special technique which employs the most direct expression of the material. in _the mourner_, by j. c. horsley (p. ), you feel that the engraver (thompson) has done his best to imitate the softly defined line of a pencil in place of the clearly accentuated line which is most natural in wood. yet even in this there is scarcely a trace of that elaborate cross-hatching so easily produced in plate-engraving or pen drawing, so tedious to imitate in wood. another design, _time_, by c. w. cope (p. ), shows that the same engraver could produce work of quite another class when it was required. curiously enough, these two, picked at random, reappear in almost the last illustrated anthology mentioned in these chapters, cassell's _sacred poems_ ( ). several books earlier in date, including de la motte fouqué's _undine_, with eleven drawings by 'j. tenniel, junr.' (burns, ), and _sintram and his companions_, with designs by h. s. selous and a frontispiece after dürer's _the knight and death_ need only be mentioned. the _juvenile verse and picture book_ (burns, ), with many illustrations by gilbert, tenniel, 'r. cruikshank,' weigall, and w. b. scott, which was reissued with altered text as _gems of national poetry_ (warne, ), and _Æsop's fables_ (murray, ), with illustrations by tenniel, deserve a bare mention. nor should _the 'bon gaultier' ballads_ (blackwood, ) be forgotten. the illustrations by doyle, leech, and crowquill were enormously popular in their day, and although the style of humour which still keeps many of the ballads alive has been frequently imitated since, and rarely excelled, yet its drawings have often been equalled and surpassed, humorous although they are, of their sort. _the salamandrine_, a poem by charles mackay, issued in a small quarto (ingram, cooke, and co., ), with forty-six designs by john gilbert, is one of the early volumes by the more fecund illustrators of the century. it is too late in the day to praise the veteran whose paintings are as familiar to frequenters of the royal academy now as were his drawings when the great exhibition entered a formal claim for the recognition of british art. honoured here and upon the continent, it is needless to eulogise an artist whom all agree to admire. the prolific invention which never failed is not more evident in this book than in a hundred others decorated by his facile pencil, yet it reveals--as any one of the rest must equally--the powerful mastery of his art, and its limitations. thomson's _seasons_, illustrated by the etching club ( ), s. c. hall's _book of british ballads_ ( ), an edition of _the arabian nights_, with illustrations by w. harvey ( ), and _uncle tom's cabin_, with drawings by george thomas, can but be named in passing. gray's _elegy_, illustrated by 'b. foster, g. thomas, and a lady,' (sampson low), _the book of celebrated poems_, with eighty designs by cope, kenny meadows, and others (sampson low), _the vicar of wakefield_, with drawings by george thomas, _the deserted village_, illustrated by members of the etching club--cope, t. creswick, j. c. horsley, f. tayler, h. j. townsend, c. stenhouse, t. webster, r.a., and r. redgrave--all published early in the fifties--may also be dismissed without comment. about the same time the great mental sedative of the period--tupper's _proverbial philosophy_ (hatchard, )--was reprinted in a stately quarto, with sixty-two illustrations by c. w. cope, r.a., e. h. corbould, birket foster, john gilbert, j. c. horsley, f. r. pickersgill and others, engraved for the most part by 'dalziel bros.' and h. vizetelly. the dull, uninspired text seems to have depressed the imagination of the artists. despite the notable array of names, there is no drawing of more than average interest in the volume, except perhaps _to-morrow_ (p. ), by f. r. pickersgill, which is capitally engraved by dalziel and much broader in its style than the rest. _poems by henry wadsworth longfellow_ (david bogue, ) appears to be the earliest english illustrated edition of any importance of a volume that has been frequently illustrated since. this book is uniform with the _poetical works of john milton_ with engravings by thompson, williams, etc., from drawings by w. harvey, _the works of william cowper_ with seventy-five illustrations engraved by j. orrin smith from drawings by john gilbert; thomson's _seasons_ with illustrations 'drawn and engraved by samuel williams,' and _beattie and collins' poems_ with engravings by the same hand from designs by john absolon. the title-page of the longfellow says it is illustrated by 'jane e. benham, birket foster, etc.' it is odd to find the not very elegant, 'etc.' stands for john gilbert and e. wehnert, also to note that the engravers have in each of the above volumes taken precedence of the draughtsman. except that we miss the pre-raphaelite group for which we prize the moxon _tennyson_ to-day, the ideal of these books is very nearly the same as of that volume. this edition of longfellow must not be confused with another, a quarto, issued the following year (routledge, ), 'with over one hundred designs drawn by john gilbert and engraved by the brothers dalziel.' this notable instance of the variety and inventive power of the artist also shows (in the night pieces especially, pp. , ), that the engraver was trying to advance in the direction of 'tone' and atmospheric effect; and endeavouring to give the effect of a 'wash' rather than of a line drawing or the imitation of a steel engraving. this tendency, which was not the chief purpose of the work of the sixties, in the seventies carried the technicalities of the craft to its higher achievements, or, as some enthusiasts prefer to regard it, to its utter ruin, so that the photographic process-block could beat it on its own ground. but these opposite views have been threshed out often enough without bringing the parties concerned nearer together to encourage a new attempt to reconcile the opposing factions. the longfellow of was reissued with the addition of _hiawatha_ in . another edition of _hiawatha_, illustrated by g. h. thomas, issued about this time, contains some of his best work. allingham's _music-master_ (routledge, ) is so often referred to in this narrative that its mere name must suffice in this context. but, as the book itself is so scarce, a sentence from its preface may be quoted: 'those excellent painters' (writes mr. allingham), 'who on my behalf have submitted their genius to the risks of wood-engraving, will, i hope, pardon me for placing a sincere word of thanks in the book they have honoured with this evidence through art of their varied fancy.' to this year belongs also _the task_, illustrated by birket foster (nisbet, ). _eliza cook's poems_ (routledge, ) is another sumptuously illustrated quarto gift-book with many designs by john gilbert, j. wolf, harrison weir, j. d. watson, and others, all engraved by dalziel brothers. a notable drawing by h. h. armstead, _the trysting place_ (p. ), deserves republication. in this year appeared also the famous edition of adams's _sacred allegories_ with a number of engravings from original drawings by c. w. cope, r.a., j. c. horsley, a.r.a., samuel palmer, birket foster, and george c. hicks. the amazing quality of the landscapes by samuel palmer stood even the test of enormous enlargement in lantern slides, when mr. pennell showed them at his lectures on the men of the sixties; had w. t. green engraved no other blocks, he might be ranked as a great craftsman on the evidence of these alone. in _george herbert's poetical works_ (nisbet, ), with designs by birket foster, john clayton, and h. n. humphreys, notwithstanding the vitality of the text, the drawings are sicklied over with the pale cast of religious sentimentality which has ruined so much religious art in england. a draughtsman engaged on new testament subjects of that time rarely forgot overbeck, raphael, or still more 'pretty' masters. in the religious illustrations of the period many landscapes are included, some of them exquisite transcripts of english scenery, others of the 'oriental' order dear to the annuals. the delightful description of one of these imaginary scenes, by leland, 'hans breitmann,' will come to mind, when he says of its artist that 'all his work expanded with expensive fallacies, castles, towered walls, pavilions, real-estately palaces. in the foreground lofty palm-trees, as if full of soaring love, bore up cocoa-nuts and monkeys to the smiling heavens above; jet-black indian chieftains--at their feet, too, lovely girls were sighing, with an elephant beyond them, here and there a casual lion.' george herbert the incomparable may be hard to illustrate, but, if the task is attempted, it should be in any way but this delineation of pretty landscapes, with 'here and there a casual lion.' this reflection upon the mildly sacred compositions of 'gift-book' art generally, although provoked by this volume, is applicable to nearly every one of its fellows. in _rhymes and roundelays_, illustrated by birket foster (bogue, ), the designs are not without a trace of artificiality, but it contains also some of the earliest and best examples of a most accomplished draughtsman, and in it many popular blocks began a long career of 'starring,' until from guinea volumes some were used ultimately in children's primers and the like. _the works of william shakespeare_ illustrated by john gilbert (routledge, - ) will doubtless be remembered always as his masterpiece. at a public dinner lately, an artist who had worked with sir john gilbert on the _illustrated london news_, and in nearly all the books of the period illustrated by the group of draughtsmen with whom both are associated, spoke of his marvellous rapidity--a double-page drawing done in a single night. yet so sure is his touch that in the mass of these hundreds of designs to shakespeare you are not conscious of any scamping. without being archæologically impeccable, they suggest the types and costumes of the periods they deal with, and, above all, represent embodiments of actual human beings. they stand apart from the grotesque caricatures of an earlier school, and the academic inanities of both earlier and later methods. virile and full of invention, the book is a monument to an artist who has done so much that it is a pleasure to discover some one definite accomplishment that from size alone may be taken as his masterpiece, if merely as evidence that praise, scantily bestowed elsewhere, is limited by space only. [illustration: ford madox brown willmott's 'poets of the nineteenth century,' the prisoner of chillon] scott's _lady of the lake_, illustrated by john gilbert, appeared in . the other volumes, _marmion_, the _lady of the lake_, and the _lay of the last minstrel_, appear to have been published previously; but to ascertain their exact date of issue, the three bulky volumes of the british museum catalogue devoted to 'scott (walter)' can hardly be faced with a light heart. this year saw an edition of bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_ with outline drawings by j. r. clayton, who is sometimes styled 'j. r.,' and sometimes 'john.' an illustrated guinea edition of a once popular 'goody' book, _ministering children_, with designs by birket foster and h. le jeune (nisbet, ), an edition of _edgar allan poe's works_, illustrated by e. h. wehnert and others (addey, ); coleridge's _ancient mariner_, with pictures by birket foster, a. duncan, and e. h. wehnert, are also of this year, to which belongs, although it is post-dated, pollok's _course of time_ (w. blackwood, ), a book containing fifty fine illustrations by birket foster, john tenniel, and j. r. clayton, engraved by edward evans, dalziel brothers, h. n. woods, and john green. a block by dalziel, after clayton, on page , shows a good example of the white line, used horizontally, for the modelling of flesh, somewhat in the way, as pannemaker employed it so effectively in many of gustave doré's illustrations years after. the twenty-seven birket fosters are full of the special charm that his work possesses, and show once again how a great artist may employ a method, which, merely 'pretty' in inferior hands, has something of greatness when he touches it. in the next year appeared the famous '_poems by alfred tennyson, d.c.l._, poet-laureate. london. edward moxon, dover st., .' not even the bare fact that it was illustrated appears on the title-page. as the book has been re-issued lately in a well-printed edition, a detailed list of its contents is hardly necessary; nor need any of the illustrations be reproduced here. it will suffice to say that dante gabriel rossetti is represented by five designs to _the lady of shallott_ (p. ), _mariana_ (p. ), _palace of art_ (pp. - ), _sir galahad_ (p. ); millais has eighteen, w. holman hunt seven, w. mulready four, t. creswick six, j. c. horsley six, c. stanfield six, and d. maclise two. a monograph by mr. g. somes layard, _tennyson and his pre-raphaelite illustrators_ (stock, ), embodies a quantity of interesting facts, with many deductions therefrom which are not so valuable. in the books about rossetti and the pre-raphaelites, and their name is legion, this volume has rarely escaped more or less notice, so that one hesitates to add to the mass of criticism already bestowed. the whole modern school of decorative illustrators regard it rightly enough as the genesis of the modern movement; but all the same it is only the accidental presence of d. g. rossetti, holman hunt, and millais, which entitles it to this position. it satisfies no decorative ideal as a piece of book-making. except for these few drawings, it differs in no respect from the average 'quarto poets' before and after. the same 'toned' paper, the same vignetted pictures, appear; the proportions of the type-page are merely that in ordinary use; the size and shape of the illustrations was left apparently to pure chance. therefore, in place of talking of the volume with bated breath as a masterpiece, it would be wiser to regard it as one of the excellent publications of the period, that by the fortuitous inclusion of a few drawings, quite out of touch with the rest, has acquired a reputation, which, considered as a complete book, it does not deserve. the drawings by rossetti, even as we see them after translation by the engraver had worked his will, must needs be valued as masterpieces, if only for the imagination and thought compressed into their limited space, and from their exquisite manipulation of details. at first sight, some of these--for instance, the soldier munching an apple in the _st. cecilia_--seem discordant, but afterwards reveal themselves as commentaries upon the text--not elucidating it directly, but embroidering it with subtle meanings and involved symbolism. such qualities as these, whether you hold them as superfluous or essential, separate these fine designs from the jejune simplicity of the mass of the decorative school to-day. to draw a lady with 'intense' features, doing nothing in particular, and that in an anatomically impossible attitude, is a poor substitute for the fantasy of rossetti. no amount of poorly drawn confused accessories will atone for the absence of the dominant idea that welded all the disturbing elements to a perfect whole. one artist to-day, or at most two, alone show any real effort to rival these designs on their own ground. the rest appear to believe that a coarse line and eccentric composition provide all that is required, given sufficient ignorance of academic draughtsmanship. [illustration: john gilbert willmott's 'poets of the nineteenth century,' hohenlinden] [illustration: f. r. pickersgill willmott's 'poets of the nineteenth century,' the water nymph] another book of the same year, _the poets of the nineteenth century_, selected and edited by the rev. robert aris willmott (routledge, ), is in many respects quite as fine as the tennyson, always excepting the pre-raphaelite element, which is not however totally absent. for in this quarto volume millais' _love_ (p. ) and _the dream_ (p. ) are worthy to be placed beside those just noticed. ford madox brown's _prisoner of chillon_ (p. ) is another masterpiece of its sort. for this we are told the artist spent three days in a dissecting-room (or a mortuary--the accounts differ) to watch the gradual change in a dead body, making most careful studies in colour as well as monochrome all for a foreshortened figure in a block - / by inches. this procedure is singularly unlike the rapid inspiration which throws off compositions in black and white to-day. in a recent book received with well-deserved applause, some of the smaller 'decorative designs' were produced at the rate of a dozen in a day. the mere time occupied in production is of little consequence, because we know that the apparently rapid 'sketch' by phil may may have taken far more time than a decorative drawing, with elaborately minute detail over every inch of its surface; but, other qualities being equal, the one produced with lavish expenditure of care and thought is likely to outlive the trifle tossed off in an hour or two. in the _poets of the nineteenth century_ the hundred engravings by the brothers dalziel include twenty-one of birket foster's exquisite landscapes, all with figures; fourteen by w. harvey, nine by john gilbert, six by j. tenniel, five by j. r. clayton, eleven by t. dalziel, seven by j. godwin, five by e. h. corbould, two by d. edwards, five by e. duncan, seven by j. godwin, and one each by arthur hughes, w. p. leitch, e. a. goodall, t. d. hardy, f. r. pickersgill, and harrison weir--a century of designs not unworthy as a whole to represent the art of the day; although rossetti and holman hunt, who figure so strongly in the tennyson, are not represented. this year john gilbert illustrated the _book of job_ with fifty designs; _the proverbs of solomon_ (nisbet, ), a companion volume, contains twenty drawings. another noteworthy volume is barry cornwall's _dramatic scenes and other poems_ (chapman and hall, ) illustrated by many of the artists already mentioned. the fifty-seven engravings by dalziel include one block on p. , from a drawing by j. r. clayton, which is here reprinted--not so much for its design as for its engraving; the way the breadth of the drapery is preserved, despite the elaborate pattern on its surface, stamps it as a most admirable piece of work. thornbury's _legends of the cavaliers and roundheads_ (hurst and blackett, ), was illustrated by h. s. marks. so far the few books of noticed have considerable family likeness. the bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_ (nisbet, ), illustrated with twenty designs by g. h. thomas, more slight in its method, reflects the journalistic style of its day rather than the elaborate 'book' manner, which in many an instance gives the effect of an engraving 'after' a painting or a large and highly-wrought fresco. as one of the many attempts to illustrate the immortal protestant romance it deserves noting. to this year belongs _the poetical works of edgar allan poe_, illustrated with some striking designs by john tenniel, and others by f. r. pickersgill, r.a., birket foster, percival skelton; and besides these, felix darley, p. duggan, jasper cropsey, and a. w. madot--draughtsmen whose names are certainly not household words to-day. in the lists of 'artists' the portrait of the author is attributed to 'daguerreotype'! one of the earliest instances i have encountered of the formal appearance of the ubiquitous camera as an artist. longfellow's prose romance, _kavanagh_ (kent, ), with exquisite illustrations by birket foster, appeared this year; _hyperion_ (dean), illustrated by the same author, being issued the following christmas. _poetry and pictures from thomas moore_ (longman, ), the _poems and songs of robert burns_ (bell and daldy, ), both illustrated by birket foster and others, and _the fables of Æsop_, with twenty-five drawings by c. h. bennett, also deserve a passing word. _gertrude of wyoming_, by thomas campbell (routledge, ), is only less important from its dimensions, and the fact that it contains only thirty-five illustrations, engraved by the brothers dalziel, as against the complete hundred of most of its fellows. the drawings by birket foster, thomas dalziel, harrison weir, and william harvey include some very good work. _lays of the holy land_ (nisbet, ), clad in binding of a really fine design adapted from persian sources, is another illustrated quarto, with one drawing at least--_the finding of moses_--by j. e. millais, which makes it worth keeping; a 'decorative' _song of bethlehem_, by j. r. clayton, is ahead of its time in style; the rest by gilbert, birket foster, and others are mostly up to their best average. the title-page says 'from photographs and drawings,' but as every block is attributed to an artist, the former were without doubt redrawn and the source not acknowledged--a habit of draughtsmen which is not obsolete to-day. [illustration: j. r. clayton barry cornwall's 'dramatic scenes' olympia and bianca] [illustration: j. e. millais 'home affections from the poets,' there's nae luck about the house] [illustration: j. e. millais 'home affections from the poets,' the border widow] perhaps the most important illustrated volume of the next year is _the home affections [portrayed] by the poets_, by charles mackay (routledge, ), which continues the type of quarto gilt-edged toned paper table-books so frequent at this time. its illustrations are a hundred in number, all engraved by dalziels. its artists include birket foster, john gilbert, j. r. clayton, harrison weir, t. b. dalziel, s. read, john abner, f. r. pickersgill, r.a., john tenniel, with many others, 'and' (as play-bills have it) j. everett millais, a.r.a. _there's nae luck about the house_ (p. ) and _the border widow_ (p. ) are curiously unlike in motive as well as handling; the one, with all its charm, is of the mulready school, the other intense and passionate, highly wrought in the pre-raphaelite manner. yet after the millais' all the other illustrations in the book seem poor. a landscape by harrison weir (p. ), _lenore_, by a. madot (p. ), a very typical tenniel, _fair ines_ (p. ), _oriana_ (p. ), _hero and leander_ (p. ), _the hermit_ (p. ), and _good-night in the porch_ (p. ), by pickersgill, claim a word of appreciation as one turns over its pages anew. whether too many copies were printed, or those issued were better preserved by their owners than usual, no book is more common in good condition to-day than this. another book of the same size, with contents less varied, it is true, but of almost the same level of excellence, is _wordsworth's selected poems_ (routledge, ), illustrated by birket foster, j. wolf, and john gilbert. this contains the hundred finely engraved blocks by the brothers dalziel, some of them of the first rank, which was the conventional equipment of a gift-book at that time. other noteworthy volumes of - are _merrie days of england, sketches of olden times_, illustrated by twenty drawings by birket foster, g. thomas, e. corbould, and others; _the scouring of the white horse_, with designs by richard doyle (macmillan), his foreign tour of _brown, jones, and robinson_, and the same artist's _manners and customs of the english_, all then placed in the first rank by most excellent critics; _favourite english poems of the last two centuries_, illustrated by birket foster, cope, creswick, and the rest; wordsworth's _white doe of rylstone_ (longmans), also illustrated by birket foster and h. n. humphreys; _childe harold_, with many designs by percival skelton and others; blair's _grave_, illustrated by tenniel (a. and c. black); milton's _comus_ (routledge, ), with illustrations by pickersgill, b. foster, h. weir, etc.; and c. h. bennett's _proverbs with pictures_ (chapman and hall). _thomas moore's poems_ (longmans, ); _child's play_, by e. v. b., appeared also about this time. krummacher's _parables_, with forty illustrations by j. r. clayton (bohn's library, ), is another unfamiliar book likely to be overlooked, although it contains good work of its sort; inspired a little by german design possibly, but including some admirable drawings, those for instance on pages and . _the shipwreck_, by robert falconer, illustrated by birket foster (edinburgh, black, ), contains thirty drawings, some of them charmingly engraved by w. t. green, dalziel brothers, and edward evans in 'the turner vignette' manner; they are delightful of their kind. in there seems to be a falling off, which can hardly be traced to the starting of _once a week_ in july, for christmas books--and nearly all the best illustrated volumes fall into that category--are prepared long before midsummer. c. h. bennett's illustrated bunyan's _pilgrim progress_ (longmans) is one of the best of the year's output. a survival of an older type is _a book of favourite modern ballads_, illustrated by c. w. cope, j. c. horsley, a. solomon, s. palmer, and others (kent), which, but for the publisher's announcement, might well be regarded as a reprint of a book at least ten years earlier; but its peculiar method was unique at that time, and rarely employed since, although but lately revived now for half-tone blocks. it consists in a double printing, black upon a previous printing in grey, not solid, but with the 'lights' carefully taken out, so that the whole looks like a drawing on grey paper heightened by white chalk. whether the effect might be good on ordinary paper, these impressions on a shiny cream surface, set in gold borders, are not captivating. _odes and sonnets_, illustrated by birket foster (routledge, ), has also devices by henry sleigh, printed in colours. it is not a happy experiment; despite the exquisite landscapes, the decoration accords so badly that you cannot linger over its pages with pleasure. _byron's childe harold_, with eighty illustrations by percival skelton, is another popular book of . _hiawatha_, with twenty-four drawings by g. h. thomas, and _the merchant of venice_ (sampson low, ), illustrated by g. h. thomas, birket foster, and h. brandling, with ornaments by harry rogers, are two others a trifle belated in style. of different sort is _the voyage of the constance_, a tale of the arctic seas (edinburgh, constable), with twenty-four drawings by charles keene, a singularly interesting and apparently scarce volume which reveals powers of imagining landscape which he had never seen in a very realistic manner. i once heard him declare that he had never in his life been near either an irish bog or a scotch moor, both subjects being very frequent in his work. _the seasons_, by james thomson (nisbet, ), illustrated by birket foster, f. r. pickersgill, r.a., j. wolf, g. thomas, and noel humphreys, is another small quarto gift-book with the merits and defects of its class. yet, after making all due allowance, one feels that even these average volumes of the fifties, if they do not interest us as much as those of the sixties, are yet ahead, in many important qualities, of the average christmas gift-book to-day. the academic scholarship and fine craft of this era would equip a whole school of 'decorative students,' and leave still much to spare. yet if we prefer, in our heart of hearts, the birmingham books to-day, this is merely to confess that modernity, whether it be frankly actual, or pose as mediæval, attracts us more than a far worthier thing out of fashion for the moment. but such preference, if it exists, is hardly likely to outlast a serious study of the books of 'the sixties.' chapter viii: some illustrated books of the period - among the books dated , or issued in the autumn of that year, are more elaborately illustrated editions of popular poets--all, as a rule, in the conventional quarto, or in what a layman might be forgiven for describing as 'quarto,' even if an expert preferred to call it octavo. of these tennyson's _the princess_, with twenty-six drawings by maclise, may be placed first, on account of the position held by author and artist. all the same, it belongs essentially to the fifties or earlier, both in spirit and in style. a more ample quarto, _poems_ by james montgomery (routledge, ), (not the montgomery castigated by lord macaulay), 'selected and edited by robert aris wilmott (routledge), with one hundred designs by john gilbert, birket foster, f. r. pickersgill, r.a., j. wolf, harrison weir, e. duncan, and w. harvey, is perhaps slightly more in touch with the newer school. its engravings by the brothers dalziel are admirable. _the clouds athwart the sky_ (p. ), by john gilbert, and other landscapes by the same hand, may hold their own even by the side of those in the moxon _tennyson_, or in wilmott's earlier anthology. of quite different calibre is moore's _lalla rookh_, with its sixty-nine drawings by tenniel, engraved by the dalziels (longmans, ). if to-day you hardly feel inclined to indorse the verdict of the _times_ critic, who declared it to be 'the greatest illustrative achievement by any single hand,' it shows nevertheless not a few of those qualities which have won well-merited fame for our oldest cartoonist, even if it shows also the limitations which just alienate one's complete sympathy. yet those who saw an exhibition of sir john tenniel's drawings at the fine art society's galleries will be less ready to blame the published designs for a certain hardness of style, due in great part (one fancies) to their engraver. [illustration: h. h. armstead willmott's 'english sacred poetry' , p. a dream] [illustration: frederick walker willmott's 'sacred poetry,' the nursery friend] [illustration: frederick walker willmott's 'sacred poetry,' a child in prayer] in bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_ (routledge), with a hundred and ten designs by j. d. watson, engraved by the dalziels, we are confronted with a book that is distinctly of the 'sixties,' or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that most of its illustrations are distinguished by the broader treatment of the new school. it is strange that the ample and admirable achievements of this artist have not received more general recognition. when you meet with one of his designs set amid the work of the greatest illustrators, it rarely fails to maintain a dignified equality. if it lack the supreme artistry of one or the fine invention of another, it is always sober and at times masterly, in a restrained matter-of-fact way. some sketches reproduced in the _british architect_ (january , ) display more freedom than his finished works suggest. _quarles' emblems_ (nisbet), illustrated by c. h. bennett, a caricaturist whose style seems to have lost touch with modern taste, with decorative adornments by w. h. rogers, must not be overlooked; nor tennyson's _may queen_ (sampson low), with designs by e. v. b., a gifted amateur, whose work in this book, in _child's play_, and elsewhere, has a distinct charm, despite many technical shortcomings. _lyra germanica_ (longmans, ), an anthology of hymns translated from the german by catherine winkworth, produced under the superintendence of john leighton, f.s.a., must not be confused with a second series, with the same title, the same anthologist and art editor, issued in . this book contains much decorative work by john leighton, who has scarcely received the recognition he deserves as a pioneer of better things. at a time when lawless naturalistic detail was supreme everywhere he strove to popularise conventional methods, and deserves full appreciation for his energetic and successful labours. the illustrations include one fine charles keene (p. ), three by m. j. lawless (pp. , , ), four by h. s. marks (pp. , , , ), and five by e. armitage (pp. , , , , ). the engraving by t. bolton, after a flaxman bas-relief, is apparently the same block bohn includes in his supplementary chapter to the edition of chatto and jackson's _history of wood-engraving_, as a specimen of the first experiment in mr. bolton's 'new process for photographing on the wood.' as this change was literally epoch-making, this really beautiful block, with its companion p. , is of historic interest. _shakespeare: his birthplace_, edited by j. r. wise, with twenty-three pictures drawn and engraved by w. j. linton (longmans); _the poetry of nature_, with thirty-six drawings by harrison weir (low), and _household song_ (kent, ), illustrated by birket foster, samuel palmer, g. h. thomas, a. solomon, j. andrews, and others, including two rather powerful blocks, _to mary in heaven_ especially, by j. archer, r.s.a.; _chambers's household shakespeare_, illustrated by keeley halswelle, must not be forgotten; nor _a boy's book of ballads_ (bell and daldy), illustrated by sir john gilbert; but _the adventures of baron munchausen_, with designs by a. crowquill (trübner), is not very important. an illustrated edition of mrs. gatty's _parables from nature_ (bell and daldy) would be remarkable if only for the _nativity_ by 'e. burne-jones.' it is instructive to compare the engraving with the half-tone reproduction of the original drawing which appears in mr. pennell's _modern illustrations_ (bell). but there are also good things in the book by john tenniel, holman hunt, m. e. edwards, and drawings of average interest by w. (not j. e.) millais, otto speckter, f. keyl, l. frolich, harrison weir, and others. in the respective editions of and the illustrations vary considerably. another book that happened to be published in would at any time occupy a place by itself. founded on blake, david scott developed a distinctly personal manner, that has provoked praise and censure, in each case beyond its merit. yet without joining either detractors or eulogists, one must own that the bunyan's _pilgrim's progress_ (edinburgh, ), illustrated by david and w. b. scott, if a most ugly piece of book-making, contains many very noteworthy designs. it is possible, despite the monograph of j. m. gray (one of the earliest critics who devoted special study to the works of frederick sandys) and a certain esoteric cult of a limited number of disciples, that david scott still remains practically unknown to the younger generation. yet this book, and coleridge's _ancient mariner_, which he also illustrated, contain a great many weird ideas, more or less adequately portrayed, which should endear themselves to the symbolist to-day. [illustration: h. s. marks, r.a. willmott's 'sacred poetry' a quiet mind] [illustration: h. s. marks willmott's 'sacred poetry,' in a hermitage] [illustration: frederick sandys willmott's 'sacred poetry,' life's journey] [illustration: frederick sandys willmott's 'sacred poetry,' a little mourner] _goldsmith's poems_, with coloured illustrations by birket foster, appeared this year, which saw also many volumes (issued by day and son), resplendent with chromo-lithography and 'illuminations' in gold and colours. so that the christmas harvest, that might seem somewhat meagre in the short list above, really contained as many high-priced volumes appealing to art, 'as she was understood in ,' as the list of is likely to include. but the books we deem memorable had not yet appeared, and the signs of hardly point to the rapid advance which the next few years were destined to reveal. in passing it may be noted that this was the great magenta period for cloth bindings. 'surely the most exquisite colour that ever left the chemist's laboratory,' exclaims a contemporary critic, after a rapturous eulogy. the 'wicked fratricidal war in america,' we find by references in the trade periodicals of the time, was held responsible for the scarcity of costly volumes at this date. perhaps the most important book of is willmott's _sacred poetry of the th, th, and th centuries_ (like many others issued the previous christmas). it contains two drawings by sandys, which are referred to elsewhere, three by fred walker, seven by h. s. marks, two by charles keene, twenty-eight by j. d. watson, one by holman hunt, eight by john gilbert, and others by g. h. andrews, h. h. armstead, w. p. burton, f. r. pickersgill, s. read, f. smallfield, j. sleigh, harrison weir, and j. wolf. although the absence of millais and rossetti would suffice to place it just below the tennyson, it may be considered otherwise as about of equal interest with that and the earlier anthology of _poets of the nineteenth century_, gathered together by the same editor. it is distinctly a typical book of the earlier sixties, and one which no collector can afford to miss. _poetry of the elizabethan age_, with thirty illustrations by birket foster, john gilbert, julian portch, and e. m. wimperis, is not quite representative of the sixties, but of a transitional period which might be claimed by either decade. _the songs and sonnets of shakespeare_, with ten coloured and thirty black-and-white drawings by john gilbert, to whatever period it may be ascribed, is one of his most superb achievements in book-illustration. _christmas with the poets_, 'embellished with fifty-three tinted illustrations by birket foster' (bell and daldy), can hardly be mentioned with approval, despite the masterly drawings of a great illustrator. as a piece of book-making, its gold borders and weak 'tinted' blocks, printed in feeble blues and browns, render it peculiarly unattractive. yet in all honesty one must own that its art is far more thorough and its taste possibly no worse essentially than many of the deckle-edged superfluities with neo-primitive designs which are popular at the present time. the work of this artist is perhaps somewhat out of favour at the moment, but its neglect may be attributed to the inevitable reaction which follows undue popularity. there are legends of the palmy days of the old water-colour society, when the competition of dealers to secure drawings by 'birket foster' was so great that they crowded round the doors before they opened on the first day, and one enterprising trader, crushing in, went straight to the secretary and said, 'i will buy the screen,' thereby forestalling his rivals who were hastily jotting down the works by this artist hung with others upon it. but even popular applause is not always misdirected; and the master of english landscape, despite a certain prettiness and pettiness, despite a little sentimentality, is surely a master. there are 'bests' and bests so many; and if birket foster is easily best of his kind, and the fact would hardly be challenged, then as a master we may leave his final place to the future, sure that it is always with the great who have succeeded, and not with the merely promising who just escape success. among the minor volumes of this year, now especially scarce, are dr. george mac donald's _dealings with the fairies_, with illustrations by arthur hughes; and several of strahan's children's books: _the gold thread_, by dr. norman macleod, with illustrations by j. d. watson, j. m'whirter, and others; and _the postman's bag_, illustrated by j. pettie and others. a curious volume, _spiritual conceits_, 'illustrated by harry rogers,' is printed throughout in black letter, and, despite the title, would be described more correctly to-day as 'decorated' by the artists, for the engravings are 'emblematical devices' more or less directly inspired by the emblem books of the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. as one of the few examples of conventional design of the period, it is interesting. new copies are by no means scarce, so it would seem to have been printed in excess of the demand, which, judging by the laudatory criticism it received, could not have been meagre. [illustration: birket foster 'pictures of english landscape,' the green lane] [illustration: birket foster 'pictures of english landscape,' the old chair-mender at the cottage door] , the year of the second great international exhibition, might have been expected to yield a full crop of lavishly produced books, but as a matter of fact there are singularly few. two important exceptions occur: christina rossetti's _goblin market_, with the title-page and frontispiece by her brother, and _the new forest_, by j. r. wise, with drawings by walter crane, 'a very young artist, whom we shall be glad to meet with again,' as a contemporary criticism runs. yet, on the whole the men of the sixties appear to have exhausted their efforts on the new magazines which had just attained full vigour; hence, as we might expect, publishers refrained from competing with the annual volumes, which gave at least twice as much for seven shillings and sixpence as they had hitherto included in a guinea table-book. birket foster's _pictures of english landscape_, with pictures in words by tom taylor (routledge ), contains thirty singularly fine drawings engraved by dalziels, of which the editor says: 'it is still a moot point among the best critics how far wood-engraving can be profitably carried--whether it can attempt, with success, such freedom and subtlety of workmanship as are employed, for example, on the skies throughout this series, or should restrict itself to simple effects, with a broader and plainer manner of execution.' its companion was styled _beauties of english landscape_, and appeared much later. _early english poems, chaucer to pope_ (sampson low, ), is another book of the autumn of , which like the rest is a quarto, with an elaborately designed cover and the usual hundred blocks delightfully engraved, after john gilbert, birket foster, george thomas, t. creswick, r.a., r. redgrave, r.a., e. duncan, and many others. although there is no reference to the fact in the book itself, many of the illustrations had already done duty in other books, or possibly did duty afterwards, for, without a tedious collation of first editions, it is difficult to discover the first appearance of any particular block. probably this was the original source of many blocks which afterwards were issued in all sorts of volumes, so frequently that their charm is somewhat tarnished by memories of badly printed _clichés_ in children's primers and the like. [illustration: frederick shields defoe's 'history of the plague,' the plague-cart] _the life of st. patrick_, by h. formby, is said to be illustrated by m. j. lawless, but the labour in tracking it was lost; for, whoever made the designs, the wood-engravings are of the lowest order, and the book no more interesting than an illustrated religious tract is usually. a sumptuously produced volume, _moral emblems_ (longmans), 'from jacob cats and robert fairlie,' contains 'illustrations freely rendered from designs found in their works,' by john leighton. the text is by richard pigot, whose later career affords us a moral emblem of another sort; if indeed he be the hero of the parnell incident, as contemporary notices declared. its two hundred and forty-seven blocks were engraved by different hands--leighton, dalziel, green, harral, de wilde, swain, and others, all duly acknowledged in the contents. it is only fair to say that the decorators rarely fall to the level of the platitudes, interspersed with biblical quotations, which form the text of the work. among other volumes worth mentioning are: _papers for thoughtful girls_, by sarah tytler, illustrated by j. e. millais; _children's sayings_, with four pictures by walter crane; _stories of old_, two series, each with seven illustrations by the same artist; _stories little breeches told_, illustrated by c. h. bennett; and volumes of laurie's _shilling entertainment library_, including probably (the date of the first edition is not quite clear) defoe's _history of the plague_, with singularly powerful designs by frederick shields,--'rembrandt-like in power,' mr. joseph pennell has rightly called them; and _puck on pegasus_, a volume of humorous verses by h. cholmondeley pennell, illustrated, and well illustrated, by leech, tenniel, doyle, millais, sir noel paton, 'phiz,' portch, and m. ellen edwards. the doyle tailpiece is the only one formally attributed, but students will have little difficulty in identifying the work of the various hands represented in its pages. a volume, artless in its art, that has charmed nevertheless for thirty years, and still amuses--lear's _book of nonsense_ appeared this year; but luckily its influence has been nil so far, except possibly upon modern posters; wordsworth's _poems for the young_, with fifty illustrations by john pettie and j. m'whirter; an illustrated edition of mrs. alexander's _hymns for little children_, mildly exciting as works of art, _famous boys_ (darton), illustrated by t. morten; _one year_, with pictures by clarence dobell (macmillan), and _wood's natural history_, with fine drawings by zwecker, wolf, and others, are also in the sterile crop of the year . _passages from modern english poets_ ( ), illustrated by the junior etching club, an important book of its sort, is noticed elsewhere. in millais' _parables of our lord_ was issued, although it is dated . of the masterpieces it contained a reviewer of the period wrote: 'looked at with unfeeling eyes there is little to commend them to the average class of book-buyers.' this, which is no doubt a fairly representative opinion, may be set against the wide appreciation by artists they aroused at the time, and ever since, merely to show that the good taste of the sixties was probably confined to a minority, and that the public in or , despite its pretence of culture, is rarely moved deeply by great work. it is difficult to write dispassionately of this book. granted that when you compare it with the drawings of some of the subjects which are still extant, you regret certain shortcomings on the part of the engravers; yet, when studied apart from that severe test, there is much that is not merely the finest work of a fine period, but that may be placed among the finest of any period. we are told in the preface that 'mr. millais made his first drawing to illustrate the _parables_ in august , and the last in october ; thus he has been able to give that care and consideration to his subjects which the beauty as well as the importance of _the parables_ demanded.' it is not necessary to describe each one of the many illustrations. those which appeared in _good words_ are printed with the titles they first bore in the notice of that magazine. the other eight are: _the tares_, _the wicked husbandman_, _the foolish virgins_, _the importunate friend_, _the marriage feast_, _the lost sheep_, _the rich man and lazarus_, and _the good shepherd_, all engraved by the brothers dalziel, who (to quote again from the preface), 'have seconded his efforts with all earnestness, desiring, as far as their powers would go, to make the pictures specimens of the art of wood-engraving.' here it would be superfluous to ask whether the designs could have been better engraved, or even whether photogravure would not have retained more of the exquisite beauty of the originals. as they are, remembering the conditions of their production, we must needs accept them; and the full admiration they demand need not be dashed by useless regret. in place of blaming dalziels, let us rather praise lavishly the foresight and sympathy which called into being most of the books we now prize. indeed, a history of dalziels' undertakings fully told would be no small part of a history of modern english illustration. if any one who loves art, especially the art of illustration, does not know and prize these _parables_, then it were foolish to add a line in their praise, for ignorance of such masterpieces is criminal, and lukewarm approval a fatal confession. [illustration: j. e. millais 'the parables of our lord,' routledge, the prodigal son] [illustration: j. e. millais 'the parables of our lord,' the tares] [illustration: j. e. millais 'the parables of our lord,' routledge, the sower] it is difficult to place any book of next in order to _the parables_; despite many fine publications, there is not one worthy to be classed by its side. perhaps the most important in one sense, and the least in another, is longmans' famous edition of the _new testament_, upon the preparation of which a fabulous amount of money was spent. yet, although an epoch-making book to the wood-engraver, it represents rather the end of an old school than the beginning of a new. its greatly reduced illustrations, wherein a huge wall-painting occupies the space of a postage-stamp, the lack of spontaneity in its formal 'correct' borders, impress us to-day more as curiosities than as living craft. all the same, it was considered a marvellous achievement; but its spirit, if it ever existed, has evaporated with age; indeed, one cannot help thinking that it was out of date when it appeared. ten years earlier it would have provoked more hearty approval; but, with millais' treatment of the similar subjects, who could look at this precise, unimaginative work? that it ever exercised any influence on wood-engraving is doubtful, and that it repaid, even in part, its cost and labour is still more problematical. bound, if memory can be trusted, in sham carved and pierced oak, it may be still encountered among the _rep_ and polished walnut of the period, a monument of misapplied endeavour. its ideal seems to have been to imitate steel-plates by wood-blocks. just as crusaders' tombs had been modelled in parian to do duty as match-boxes, and a thousand other attempts, then and since, with the avowed intention of imitation, have attracted no little common popularity; so its tediously minute handiwork no doubt won the approbation of those whose approval is artistic insult. one has but to turn to the tiny woodcuts of holbein's _dance of death_ to find that size is of no importance; a _netsuke_ may be as broadly treated as a colossus, but the art of the miniature is too often miniature art. therefore, side by side with the splendour of millais, this mildly exciting 'art-book' comes as a typical contrast. no matter how millais was rewarded, the mere engraver in this case must have been paid more, if contemporary accounts are true; yet the result is that nobody wants the one, and every artist, lay or professional, who is awake to really fine things, treasures a chance impression of a _parable_, torn out of _good words_, as a thing to reverence. on turning back to a scrap-book, where a number of them were preserved by the present writer in the late sixties, the old surprise comes back with irresistible force to find that things which he then ranked first still maintain their supremacy. at that time, when the wonders of japanese art were a sealed book, the masterpieces of dürer and rembrandt, the triumphs of whistler, and the exquisite engravings of the french wood-engravers, past and present, all unknown to him, he, in common with dozens of others, was conscious that here was something so great that it was almost uncanny, for, obvious and simple as it looked, it yet accomplished what all others seemed only to attempt. there are very few pictures which after thirty years retain the old glamour; but while the longmans' _new testament_ when seen anew raises no thrill of appreciation, the _parables_ appear as astoundingly great to one familiar with modern illustrations as they did to an ignorant boy thirty years ago. other _fetishes_ have gone unregretted to the lumber-room, but the millais of is a still greater master in . they builded better than they knew, these giants of the sixties, and that the approval of another generation indorses the verdict of the best critics of their own may be taken as a promise of abiding homage to be paid in centuries yet to come. curiously enough, among some literary notes for christmas , we find that 'early next year messrs. dalziel hoped to issue their bible pictures,' and the writer goes on to praise several of the drawings--notably the leightons, which were even then engraved: this note, nearly twenty years before the book actually appeared, is interesting, but it must not be thought that the time was devoted entirely to the engraving or in waiting for the perfection of photographic transfer to wood. an english edition of michelet's _the bird_, illustrated by giacomelli (nelson), was issued this year, and the highly wrought naturalistic details of the engravings became extremely popular. its 'pretty' finish, and tame, colourless effect influenced no little work of the period, and, coupled with the _clichés_ of gustave doré engravings, so lavishly reprinted here about this date, did much to promote a style of wood-engraving which found its highest expression in the pages of american magazines years afterwards, and its lowest in the 'decorated' poems of cheap 'snippet' weeklies, which to-day are yet imitated unconsciously by those who work in wash for half-tone processes. the next important volume of the year, after millais' _parables_, judged by our standard, is unquestionably dalziels' edition of _the arabian nights_ (ward, lock, and tyler)--'illustrated by a. boyd houghton,' one feels tempted to add to the title. but although the book is often referred to as the work of one artist, as a matter of fact it is the work of many. houghton does not even contribute the largest number; his eighty-seven designs are beaten by t. dalziel's eighty-nine. nor is he the greatest draughtsman therein, for there are two by millais. still, notwithstanding these, and eight by john tenniel, ten by g. j. pinwell, one by t. morten, two by j. d. watson, and six by e. dalziel, it is for houghton's sake that the book has suddenly assumed importance, even in the eyes of those who do not search through the volumes of the sixties for forgotten masterpieces, but are content with _once a week_, the _cornhill gallery_, and thornbury's _legendary ballads_. one thing is beyond doubt: that with the _arabian nights_ and the others on this short list you have a national gallery of the best things--not the best of all possible collections, not even an exhaustive collection of specimens of each, but a good working assortment that suffices to uphold the glory of 'the golden decade,' and can only be supplemented but not surpassed by the addition of all the others. the book was issued in weekly numbers, as you see on opening a first edition of the volume at the risk of breaking its back. close to the fold appears the legend, 'printed by dalziel brothers, the camden press, n.w.,' etc. it was eventually issued in two volumes in october , but dated ' .' mr. laurence housman's volume, _arthur boyd houghton_ (kegan paul, ), and his excellent article in _bibliographica_, are available for those who wish for a fuller appreciation of this fine book. [illustration: a. boyd houghton dalziels' 'arabian nights,' p. noureddin ali on his journey] by the side of the books already mentioned the rest seem almost commonplace, but another edition of _the pilgrim's progress_, with one hundred illustrations by t. dalziel, must not be overlooked. these show that one of the famous engravers was also an artist of no mean importance, and explain much of the fine taste that distinguished the publications of the firm with which he was associated. elsewhere the many original designs by other members of the firm go to prove this up to the hilt. it is curious to find the date of the 'new' illustrated edition of _the ingoldsby legends_ (bentley).[ ] those familiar with contemporary volumes would have hazarded a time ten to fifteen years earlier, had the matter been open to doubt. it is profusely illustrated by leech, tenniel, and cruikshank, but in no way a typical book of the sixties. _english sacred poetry of the olden time_ (religious tract society, ) was issued this year. it contains f. walker's _portrait of a minister_ (p. ); _the abbey walk_ (p. ), and _sir walter raleigh_ (p. ), by g. du maurier; ten drawings by j. w. north, three by c. green, three by j. d. watson, and many by tenniel, percival skelton, and others, all engraved by whymper; _our life illustrated by pen and pencil_ (religious tract society, undated), is a similar book with designs by j. d. watson, pinwell, c. h. selous, du maurier, barnes, j. w. north. aytoun's _lays of the scottish cavaliers_ is another book of that is noticeable for its illustrations, from designs by [sir] noel paton. _robinson crusoe_, with one hundred designs by j. d. watson (routledge); wordsworth's _poetry for the young_, illustrated by j. pettie and j. m'whirter (strahan, ); c. h. bennett's _london people_, and the same artist's _mr. wind and madam rain_ (sampson low); _hymns in prose_ by mrs. barbauld, illustrated by barnes, whymper, etc.; dr. cumming's _life and lessons of our lord_, with pictures by c. green, p. skelton, a. hunt, and others; yet another _pilgrim's progress_, this time with illustrations by h. c. selous and p. priolo (cassell), and another _robinson crusoe_, illustrated by g. h. thomas (cassell); the _family fairy tales_, illustrated 'by a young lady of eighteen,' signed m. e. e., the first published works of m. ellen edwards, who soon became--and deservedly--one of the most popular illustrators of the day; _homes without hands_, by j. g. wood, with animal drawings by f. w. keyl; _hacco the dwarf_, with illustrations, interesting, because they are (i believe) the earliest published work by g. j. pinwell; and _golden light_ (routledge), with eighty drawings by a. w. bayes, are some of the rest of the books of this year that must be dismissed with a bare record of their titles. _the lake country_, with illustrations drawn and engraved by w. j. linton (smith and elder, ), is of technical rather than general interest. champions of the 'white line' will find practical evidence of its masterly use in the engravings. _the victorian history of england_ (routledge, ) has at least one drawing by a. b. houghton, but, so far as a rapid turn over of its pages revealed, only one--the frontispiece. _the golden harp_ (routledge) appears to be a re-issue of blocks by j. d. watson used elsewhere. _what men have said about women_ (routledge) is illustrated by the same artist, who is responsible--indirectly, one hopes--for coloured designs to _melbourne house_, issued about this time. _the months illustrated with pen and pencil_ (religious tract society, undated) contains sixty engravings by butterworth and heath, after j. gilbert, robert barnes, j. w. north, and others; uniform in style with _english sacred poetry_, it does not reach the same level of excellence. a book, _words for the wise_ (nelson), illustrated by w. small, i have failed to see; a critic calls attention to it as 'the work of a promising young artist hitherto unknown to us.' _pictures of english life_, with sixteen engravings by j. d. cooper, after drawings by r. barnes (sampson low), contains blocks of a size unusual in books. the superb drawings by charles keene to _mrs. caudle's curtain lectures_ (bradbury and evans) enrich this prolific period with more masterpieces. [illustration: frederick walker 'english sacred poetry' r. t. s. portrait of a minister] [illustration: g. j. pinwell 'wayside poesies,' king pippin] [illustration: autumn] chapter ix: some illustrated books, - with we reach the height of the movement--this and the following year being of all others most fertile in books illustrated by the best representative men. it saw rossetti's frontispiece and title to _the prince's progress_ (macmillan, ), these two designs being almost enough to make the year memorable. _a round of days_ (routledge), one of the finest of the illustrated gift-books, contains walker's _broken victuals_ (p. ), _one mouth more_ (p. ), and the well-known _four seasons_ (pp. , , , ), for one of which the drawing on wood is at south kensington museum. a. boyd houghton appears with fourteen examples (pp. , , , , , , , , , , , , , ), j. w. north with three exquisite landscapes (pp. , , ), g. j. pinwell with five subjects, paul gray with one (p. ), j. d. watson with five (pp. , , , , ), t. morten with one (p. ), a. w. bayes with two, t. dalziel with seven, and e. dalziel with two. these complete its contents, excepting two delicately engraved studies of heads after warwick brookes. the book itself is distinctly a lineal descendant from the annuals of the earlier half of the century; a typical example of a not very noble ideal--a scrap-book of poems and pictures made important by the work of the artists. yet, with full recognition of the greater literalism of reproductive process to-day, one doubts if even _the london garland_ (macmillan, ), which most nearly approaches it, will maintain its interest more fully, after thirty years' interval, than does this sumptuous quarto, and a few of its fellows. that we could get together, at the present time, as varied and capable a list of artists is quite possible; but where is the publisher who would risk paying so much for original work designed for a single book, when examples by the same men are to be obtained in equally good reproductions, and not less well printed in many of the sixpenny weeklies and the monthly magazines? the change of conditions seems to forbid a revival of volumes of this class, although the _yellow book_, _the pageant_, _the savoy_, and _the quarto_, are not entirely unrelated to them. to belongs formally _the cornhill gallery_, a hundred impressions from the original blocks of pictures. among the early volumes issued for christmas , this is, perhaps, the most important book, but, as its contents are fully noticed elsewhere, no more need be said here. it is amusing to read that a critic disliked 'mr. leighton's unpleasant subjects'--the romola designs! dalziels' _illustrated goldsmith_ (ward and lock, ), may be considered, upon the whole, the masterpiece of g. j. pinwell, who designed the hundred illustrations which seemed then to be accepted as the only orthodox number for a book. how charming some of these are every student of the period knows. pinwell, as certain original drawings that remain prove only too clearly, suffered terribly at the engraver's hands, and, beautiful as many of the designs are, one cannot avoid regret that they were not treated more tenderly. it is quite possible that bold work was needed for the serial issue in large numbers, and that the engravers simplified the drawings of set purpose; but the delicacy and grace of the originals are ill-replaced by the coarser modelling of the faces and the quality of the 'line' throughout. this year saw also _home thoughts and home scenes_, a book with thirty-five drawings of children, by a. boyd houghton (routledge, ); which was afterwards reprinted as _happy day stories_. this book is absolutely essential to any representative collection of the period, but nevertheless its designs can hardly be regarded as among the artist's most masterly works. warne's edition of _the arabian nights_ ( ), with sixteen drawings, eight by a. boyd houghton, must not be confused with the other edition to which he contributed quite distinct subjects. this, and _don quixote_ (warne) appear in the christmas lists for . the great spanish novel hardly seems to have sustained the artist to his finest achievements throughout. it contains most interesting designs; some that reveal his full accomplishment. at the same time it fails to astound you, as the _arabian nights_ have a knack of doing again and again, whenever you turn over their pages. [illustration: g. j. pinwell dalziels' 'illustrated goldsmith,' p. what, bill! you chubby rogue] [illustration: frederick walker 'a round of days' autumn] this was a great year for gustave doré. so many english editions of his books were issued that a summary of the year's art begins with an apology for calling it 'l'année dorée.' among these _don quixote_ gained rapid and firm hold of popular fancy. many people who have risen superior to doré to-day, and speak of him with contempt now, at that time grovelled before the french artist's work. a contemporary critic writes of him as one who, 'by common consent occupies the first place of all book-illustrators of all time.' as he is not in any sense an english illustrator we need not attempt to appraise his work here, but it influenced public taste far more than it influenced draughtsmen; yet the fact that _don quixote_, as houghton depicted him, even now fails to oust the lean-armoured, grotesque hero (one of doré's few powerful creations), may be the reason for houghton's version failing to impress us beyond a certain point. a book of the year, _ballads and songs of brittany_, from the french of hersart de la villemarqué, by tom taylor (macmillan), should be interesting to-day, if only for the two steel plates after tissot, which show that, in his great eastern cycle of biblical drawings, he reverts to an earlier manner, which he had employed before the _mondaine_ and the _demi-monde_ attracted him. the book contains also four millais', and a fine keene, which, with most of the other subjects, had already appeared with the poems in _once a week_. _enoch arden_ (e. moxon & co., ), with twenty-five most dainty drawings by arthur hughes, is said, in some contemporaneous announcements of the season, to be the first successful attempts at photographing the designs on wood; but we have already noticed the fine example of mr. bolton's new process for photographing on wood, a bas-relief after flaxman, in the _lyra germanica_ ( ). another table-book, important so far as price is concerned, is _the life of man symbolised_ (longmans, ), with many illustrations by john leighton, f.s.a. _gems of literature_, illustrated by noel paton (nimmo); _pen and pencil pictures from the poets_ (nimmo), with forty illustrations by keeley halswelle, pettie, m'whirter, w. small, j. lawson, and others; and _scott's poems_, illustrated by keeley halswelle, were also issued at this time. an epoch-making book of this season, _alice in wonderland_ (macmillan), with tenniel's forty-two immortal designs, needs only bare mention, for who does not know it intimately? a very interesting experiment survives in the illustration to watts's _divine and moral songs_ (nisbet, ). this book, edited by h. fitzcock, the enthusiastic promoter of graphotype, enlisted the services of notable artists, whose tentative efforts, in the first substitute for wood-engraving that attained any commercial recognition, make the otherwise tedious volume a treasure-trove. the du maurier on page , the j. d. watson (p. ), t. morten (p. ), holman hunt (p. ), m. e. edwards (p. ), c. green (p. ), and w. cave thomas (p. ), are all worth study. a not very important drawing, _the moon shines full_, by dr. c. heilbuth (p. ), is a very successful effort to rival the effect of wood-engraving by mechanical means. the titles of the poems come with most grotesque effect beneath the drawings. an artist in knickerbockers, by du maurier, entitled 'the excellency of the bible,' for instance, is apt to raise a ribald laugh; and some of the calvinistic rhymes and unpleasant theology of the good old doctor are strangely ill-matched with these experiments in a medium which evidently interested the draughtsman far more than the songs which laid so heavy a burden on the little people of a century ago. _legends and lyrics_, by a. a. procter (bell and daldy, ), is another quarto edition of a popular poet, but here, in place of the usual hundred birket fosters, gilberts, and the rest, we have but nineteen engravings; but they are all full pages. charles keene's two subjects are _the settlers_ and _rest_ (a night bivouac of soldiers); john tenniel with _a legend of bregenz_, and du maurier with _a legend of provence_ and _the requital_, also represent the _punch_ contingent. the others are by w. t. c. dobson, a. r. a., l. frolich, t. morten, g. h. thomas, samuel palmer, j. d. watson, w. p. burton, j. m. carrick, m. e. edwards, and william h. millais; all engraved by horace harral, who cannot be congratulated upon his rendering of some blocks. a very charming set of drawings by j. e. millais will be found in henry leslie's _little songs for me to sing_ (cassell, undated). the subjects, seven in number, are slightly executed studies of childhood by a master-hand at the work. the first volume of cassell's _shakespeare_, which contains a large number of drawings by h. c. selous, was issued this year. [illustration: g. j. pinwell 'wayside poesies' the little calf] [illustration: frederick walker 'wayside poesies' the bit o' garden] a fine collection of reprinted illustrations is _pictures of society_ (sampson low, ); its blocks are taken from mr. james hogg's publications, _london society_ and _the churchman's family magazine_, and include the fine sandys, _the waiting time_, and m. j. lawless's _silent chamber_, both reproduced here by his permission. it is a scarce but very interesting, if unequal, book. the minor books at this time are rich in drawings by most of the artists who are our quest in this chronicle. the number, and the difficulty of ascertaining which of them contain worthy designs, must be the excuse for a very incomplete list, which includes _keats's poetical works_, with a hundred and twenty designs by g. scharf; _the children's hour_ (hunter, edinburgh), w. small, etc.; _jingles and jokes for little folks_, paul gray, etc.; _the magic mirror_, w. s. gilbert (strahan); _dame dingle's fairy tales_, j. proctor (cassell); _ellen montgomery's bookshelf_, twelve plates in colour by j. d. watson (nisbet); _an old fairy tale_, r. doyle (routledge); _what the moon saw_, eighty illustrations by a. w. bayes (routledge); _ernie elton the lazy boy_, _patient henry_, _the boy pilgrims_, all illustrated by a. boyd houghton and published by warne; _sybil and her snowball_, r. barnes (seeley); _stories told to a child_, houghton, etc. (strahan); _aunt sally's life_, g. thomas, (bell); _mother's last words_, m. e. edwards, etc. (jarrold), and _watts's divine songs_ (sampson low), with some fine smalls and birket fosters. although the style of work that prevailed in - was so widely popular, it did not find universal approval. critics deplored the 'sketchy' style of dalziels' engraving and, comparing it unfavourably with longmans' _new testament_, moaned, 'when shall we find again such engraving as in mulready's drawings by thompson.' in _don quixote_ they owned houghton's designs were clever, but thought, 'on the whole, the worthy knight deserved better treatment.' and so all along the line we find the then present contrasted with the golden past; even as many look back to-day to the golden 'sixties' from the commonplace 'nineties.' this time saw the beginning of the superb toy-books by walter crane--which are his masterpieces, and monuments to the skill and taste of edmund evans, their engraver and printer. for wood-block printing in colours, no western work has surpassed them even to this date. _poems by jean ingelow_ (longmans, ) is a very notable and scarce volume, which was published in the autumn of . it contains twenty drawings by g. j. pinwell, of which the seven to _the high tide_ are singularly fine; but that they suffered terribly at the engraver's hands some originals, in the possession of mr. joseph pennell, prove only too plainly. j. w. north is represented by twenty-four, a. boyd houghton by sixteen, j. wolf by nine, e. j. poynter by one, w. small by four, e. dalziel by three, and t. dalziel by twenty. the level of this fine book is singularly high, and it must needs be placed among the very best of one of the most fruitful years. another book published at this time, _ballad stories of the affections_, by robert buchanan (routledge, undated), contains some singularly fine examples of the work of g. j. pinwell, w. small, a. b. houghton, e. dalziel, t. dalziel, j. lawson, and j. d. watson, engraved by the brothers dalziel; _signelil_ (pp. and ), _helga and hildebrand_ (p. ), _the two sisters_ (p. ), and _signe at the wake_ (_frontispiece_) show houghton at his best; _maid mettelil_ (p. ) exhibits pinwell in an unusually decorative mood. indeed, the thirty-four illustrations are all good, and the book is decidedly one of the most interesting volumes of the period, and unfortunately one least frequently met with to-day. [illustration: j. w. north 'wayside poesies' glen oona] [illustration: j. w. north from the original drawing glen oona] [illustration: j. w. north 'wayside poesies,' the nutting] [illustration: j. w. north 'wayside poesies' afloat] if _wayside poesies_ (routledge, ) is not the finest illustrated book of the christmas season of , it is in the very front rank. its eighteen drawings by g. j. pinwell are among the best things he did; the five by fred walker are also well up to his best manner, and the nineteen by j. w. north include some of the most exquisite landscapes he ever set down in black and white. it was really one of messrs. dalziels' projects, and its publishers were only distributors; so that the credit--and it is not slight--of producing this admirable volume belongs to the popular engravers whose names occur in one capacity or another in almost every paragraph of this chronicle. still more full of good things, but all reprinted, is _touches of nature by eminent artists_ (strahan, ). this folio volume, 'into which is gathered much of the richest fruit of strahan and company's magazines,' does not belie its dedication. as almost every one of its ninety-eight subjects is referred to in the record of the various magazines whence they were collected, it will suffice to note that it contains three by sandys, nine by fred walker, four by millais, five by a. boyd houghton, eight by g. j. pinwell, two by lawless, and many by j. w. north, w. small, j. pettie, g. du maurier, j. tenniel, j. d. watson, robert barnes, with specimens of charles keene, j. mahoney, marcus stone, w. orchardson, f. j. shields, paul gray, h. h. armstead, and others. a volume of even greater interest is _millais's collected illustrations_ (strahan, ). the eighty drawings on wood include many subjects originally published in _lays of the holy land_, _once a week_, _tennyson's poems_, _good words_, _orley farm_, etc. etc. copies in good condition are not often in the market; but it should be the blue riband of every collector, for the blocks here receive more careful printing than that allowed by the exigencies of their ordinary publication, and, free from any gold border, set on a large and not too shiny page, they tell out as well as one could hope to find them. as you linger over its pages you miss many favourites, for it is by no means an exhaustive collection even from the sources mentioned; but it is representative and full of superb work, interspersed though it be with the less fine things done while the great draughtsman was still hampered by the conventions of mulready and maclise. _idyllic pictures_ (cassell, ) is another reprinted collection, this time selected entirely from one magazine, _the quiver_. it contains a fine sandys here called _october_, elsewhere _the advent of winter_, whereof the artist complained bitterly of the 'cutting.' in march , the _art journal_ contained a very excellent paper on 'frederick sandys,' by j. m. gray, where the original drawing for this subject is reproduced by process. the more important things in _idyllic pictures_ are: g. j. pinwell's _faded flowers_ (p. ), _sailor's valentine_ (p. ), _the angel's song_ (p. ), _the organ-man_ (p. ), and _straight on_ (p. ); a. boyd houghton's _wee rose mary_ (p. ), _st. martin_ (p. ), and _sowing and reaping_ (p. ); paul gray's _cousin lucy_ (_frontispiece_), _a reverie_ (p. ), _by the dead_ (p. ), _mary's wedding-day_ (p. ), and _the holy light_ (p. ); w. small's _between the cliffs_ (p. ), _my ariel_ (p. ), _a retrospect_ (p. ), _babble_ (p. ), and _church bells_ (p. ); t. morten's _izaak walton_ (p. ) and _hassan_ (p. ); m. e. edwards's _a lullaby_ (p. ), _seeing granny_ (p. ), and _unrequited_ (p. ), with others by the artists already named, and r. barnes, h. cameron, r. p. leitch, c. j. staniland, and g. h. thomas. _two centuries of song_, selected by walter thornbury (sampson low, ), is a book almost exactly on the lines of those of the earlier sixties, which seems at first sight to be out of place amid the works of the newer school. it has nineteen full-page drawings, set in ornamental borders, which, printed in colours, decorate (? disfigure) every page of the book. the illustrations, engraved by w. j. linton, gavin smith, h. harral, are by eminent hands: h. s. marks, t. morten, w. small, g. leslie, and others. the frontispiece, _paying labourers, temp. elizabeth_, by the first named, is very typical; _phyllis_, by g. leslie, a pretty half-mediæval, half-modern 'decorative' subject; and _colin and phoebe_, by w. small, a delightful example of a broadly-treated landscape, with two figures in the distance--a really notable work. in my own copy, freely annotated with most depreciatory criticisms of text and pictures in pencil by a former owner, the illustration (p. ) has vanished, but on its fly-leaf the late owner has written-- 'this verse its picture had, a vulgar lass and lout; the _wood-cut_ was so bad that i _would cut_ it out.' that it is signed g. w. is a coincidence more curious than pleasing to me, and i quote the quatrain chiefly to show that the term 'wood-cut' for 'wood-engraving' has been in common use unofficially, as well as officially, all through this century. nevertheless it is a distinct gain to differentiate between the diverse methods, by refusing to regard the terms as synonymous. [illustration: g. du maurier 'story of a feather' p. 'send the culprit from the house instantly'] [illustration: g. du maurier 'story of a feather' p. 'he felt the surpassing importance of his position'] [illustration: t. morten 'the quiver' izaak walton] foxe's _book of martyrs_ (cassell, undated), issued about this time, has a number of notable contributors; but the one-sided gruesome record of cruelties which, whether true or false, are horribly depressing, has evidently told upon the artists' nerves. the illustrators, according to its title-page, are: 'g. h. thomas, john gilbert, g. du maurier, j. d. watson, a. b. houghton, w. small, a. pasquier, r. barnes, m. e. edwards, t. morten, etc.' some of the pictures have the names of artist and engraver printed below, while others are not so distinguished. those most worthy of mention are by a. boyd houghton (pp. , , , , , and ), s. l. fildes (p. ), g. du maurier (p. ), and w. small (pp. , , ). among artists not mentioned in the title-page are f. j. skill, j. lee, j. henley, and f. w. lawson. the first volume of cassell's _history of england_ appeared this year with many engravings after w. small and others. another book of the season worth noting is _heber's hymns_ (sampson low, ). it contains illustrations by t. d. scott, w. small, h. c. selous, wilfrid lawson, percival skelton, and others; but they can hardly be styled epoch-making. _christian lyrics_ (sampson low, ) (re-issued later in warne's _chandos classics_), contains illustrations by a. b. houghton, r. barnes, and others. _the story of a feather_ (bradbury, evans, and co. ), illustrated by g. du maurier, is a book that deserves more space than can be allowed to it. it holds a large number of drawings, some of which, especially the initial vignettes, display the marvellously fecund and dramatic invention of the artist. _the spirit of praise_ (warne, ) is an anthology of sacred verse, containing delightful drawings by w. small (pp. , , , ), by paul gray (p. ), by g. j. pinwell (pp. , ), by a. boyd houghton (p. ), and others by j. w. north and t. dalziel. to belongs most probably _gulliver's travels_, illustrated with eighty designs by 'the late t. morten,' in which the ill-fated artist is seen at his best level; they display a really convincing imagination, and if, technically speaking, he has done better work elsewhere, this is his most successful sustained effort. _moore's irish melodies_ (mackenzie) contains many illustrations by birket foster, harrison weir, cope, and others. _art and song_ has thirty original illustrations engraved on _steel_, which naturally looks very out of date among its fellows. _a new table-book_ by mark lemon (bradbury) is illustrated by f. eltze. mackay's _gems of poetry_ (routledge) numbers among its illustrations at least one millais. books containing designs by artists whose names appear after the title, may be noted briefly here. _little songs for little folks_, j. d. watson; _Æsop's fables_, with drawings by harrison weir (routledge); _washerwoman's foundling_, w. small (strahan); _lilliput levée_, j. e. millais, g. j. pinwell, etc. (strahan); _roses and holly_ (nimmo); _moore's irish melodies_, birket foster, h. weir, c. w. cope, etc. (mackenzie); _chandos poets: longfellow_, a. boyd houghton, etc. (warne); _things for nests_ (nisbet). the popularity of the illustrator at this time provoked a critic to write: 'book-illustration is a thriving fad. _jones fecit_ is the pendant of everything he does. the dearth of intellectual talent among book-illustrators is amazing. the idea is thought less of than the form. mental growth has not kept pace with technical skill'--a passage only worth quoting because it is echoed to-day, with as little justice, by irresponsible scribblers. in another criticism upon this year's books we find: 'for the pre-raphaelite draughtsman and the pre-bewick artist, who love scratchy lines without colour, blocks which look like spoilt etchings, and the first "proofs" of artists' work untouched by the engraver, nothing can be better.' it was the year of doré's _tennyson_, and doré's _tupper_, a year when the fine harvests were nearly at an end, when a new order of things was close at hand, and the advent of _the graphic_ should set the final seal to the work of the sixties and inaugurate a new school. but, although the christmas of saw the ingathering of the most fertile harvest, the next three years must be not overlooked. in _lucile_, with du maurier's designs, carries on the record; and _north coast and other poems_, by robert buchanan (routledge, ), nobly maintains the tradition of dalziels. it contains fifty-three drawings: thirteen by houghton, six by pinwell, two by w. small, one by j. b. zwecker, three by j. wolf, twenty-five by t. and three by e. dalziel, and the engraving is at their best level, the printing unusually good. [illustration: t. morten 'gulliver's travels' cassell gulliver in lilliput] [illustration: t. morten 'gulliver's travels' cassell the laputians] _golden thoughts from golden fountains_ (warne, ) is another profusely illustrated anthology, on the lines of those which preceded it. the first edition was printed in sepia throughout, but the later editions printed in black do more justice to the blocks. in it we find seventy-three excellent designs by a. boyd houghton, g. j. pinwell, w. small, j. lawson, w. p. burton, g. dalziel, t. dalziel, and others; if the book, as a whole, cannot be placed among the best of its class, yet all the same it comprises some admirable work. the _savage club papers_, (tinsley), has also a galaxy of stars in its list of illustrators, but their sparkle is intermittent and feeble. true that du maurier, a. boyd houghton, j. d. watson, and a host of others drew, and dalziels, swain, harral, and the rest engraved their work; but all the same it is but an ephemeral book. _krilof and his fables_ (strahan, ) enshrines some delightful, if slight, houghtons, and many spirited animal drawings by zwecker. wood's _bible animals_ is also rich in fine zoological pictures. the _ode on the morning of christ's nativity_ (nisbet, ) would be notable if only for its three designs by albert moore, who appears here as an illustrator, probably the only time he ever contributed to any publication. notwithstanding two or three powerful and fantastic drawings by w. small, the rest are a very mixed lot, conceived in all sorts of manners. _the illustrated book of sacred poems_ (cassell, undated) is a big anthology, with a silver-print photograph by way of frontispiece. it contains a rather fine composition, _side by side_ (p. ), with no signature or other means of identification. w. small (p. ), j. d. watson (pp. , , , , ), m. e. edwards, h. c. selous, j. w. north, and many others are represented; but the engravers, for the most part, cannot be congratulated upon their interpretation of the artists' designs. other books worth mention are: _the mirage of life_, with twenty-nine characteristic illustrations by john tenniel (religious tract society); _the story without an end_, illustrated by e. v. b.; _cassell's illustrated readings_, two volumes with a mass of pictures of unequal merit, but the omnivorous collector will keep them for the sake of designs by f. barnard, j. d. watson, j. mahoney, w. small, s. l. fildes, and many another typical artist of the sixties, in spite of the unsatisfactory blocks; _fairy tales_, by mark lemon, illustrated by c. h. bennett and richard doyle; _pupils of st. john the divine_, illustrated by e. armitage (macmillan); _puck on pegasus_ (the new and enlarged edition); _poetry of nature_, illustrated by harrison weir; and _original poems_ by j. and e. taylor (routledge, ), with a large number of designs by r. barnes, a. w. bayes, etc. with the end is near; the few books of real merit which bear its date were almost all issued in the autumn of the previous year. _the savage club papers_, , is a book not worth detailed comment; _five days' entertainment at wentworth grange_, by f. t. palgrave (macmillan), contains some charming designs by arthur hughes; _stories from memel_, illustrated by walter crane (w. hunt and co.), is a pleasant book of the year; and, about this time, other work by the same artist appeared in _the merrie heart_ (cassell). _king gab's story bag_ (cassell), _the magic of kindness_ (cassell), and other children's books i have been unable to trace, nor the _poetry of nature_, edited by j. cundall. _lyra germanica_ (longmans), a second anthology of hymns translated from the german, contains three illustrations by ford madox brown, _at the sepulchre_, _the sower_, and _abraham_, six by edward armitage, r.a., and many headpieces and other decorations by john leighton, which should not be undervalued because the taste of to-day is in favour of a bolder style, and dislikes imitation gothic detail. of their sort they are excellent, and may be placed among the earliest modern attempts to decorate a page, with some show of consistency of treatment. compared with the so-called 'rustic' borders of earlier efforts, they at once assume a certain importance. the binding is similar to that upon the first series. _tom brown's school days_, illustrated by arthur hughes and s. p. hall, is one of the most notable books of the year. it is curious that at the close of the period, as at its beginning, this artist is so much to the fore, although examples of his work appear at long intervals during the years' chronicle. yet, as shows his work in the van of the movement, so also he supplies a goodly proportion of the interesting work which is the aftermath of the sixties, rather than the premature growth of the seventies. _tom brown_ is too well known in its cheap editions, where the same illustrations are used, to require any detailed comment here. _gray's elegy_ (illustrated in colour by r. barnes, birket foster, wimperis, and others) is of little importance. [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'golden thoughts from golden fountains' love] [illustration: w. small 'golden thoughts from golden fountains' mark the grey-haired man] in _the nobility of life_ (warne), an anthology, edited by l. valentine, is attractive, less by reason of its coloured plates after j. d. watson, c. green, e. j. poynter, and others, than from its headpieces, by a. boyd houghton (pp. , , , , , ), francis walker (pp. , ), j. mahoney (p. ), which, subsidiary as they appear here, are in danger of being overlooked. _carmina crucis_ (bell and daldy, ), poems by dora greenwell, has two or three decorative pieces, by g. d. l[eslie], which might be attributed to the influence of the _century guild hobby horse_, if direct evidence did not antedate them by twenty years. _miss kilmansegg_, illustrated by seccombe; _the water babies_, sir noel paton and p. skelton; _in fairyland_, r. doyle (longmans); _vikram and the vampire_, e. griset (longmans), and _Æsop's fables_ (cassell), with one hundred clever and humorous designs, by the same artist, are among the few others that are worth naming. several series of volumes, illustrated by various hands, may be noticed out of their due order. for the date of the first volume is often far distant from the last, and yet, as the series maintained a certain coherency, it would be confusing to spread its record over a number of years and necessitate continual reiteration of facts. the _choice series_ of selections from the poets, published by messrs. sampson low and co., include several volumes issued some time before they were included as part of this series. the ideal of all is far more akin to that of the early fifties--when the original editions of several of these were first issued--than to that of the sixties. they include bloomfield's _farmer's boy_ ( ), campbell's _pleasures of hope_ ( ), coleridge's _ancient mariner_ ( ), goldsmith's _deserted village_ and _vicar of wakefield_, gray's _elegy_ ( ), keats's _eve of st. agnes_, milton's _l'allegro_, warton's _the hermit_, wordsworth's _pastoral poems_, and rogers's _pleasures of memory_ ( ). all the volumes, but the last, have wood-engravings by various hands after drawings by birket foster, harrison weir, gilbert and others; but in the _pleasures of memory_ 'the large illustrations' are produced by a new method without the aid of an engraver, and some little indulgence is asked for them on the plea of the inexperience of the artists in this process. 'the drawing is made' (to continue the quotation) 'with an etching needle, or any suitable point, upon a glass plate spread with collodion. it is then photographed [? printed] upon a prepared surface of wax, and from this an electrotype is formed in relief which is printed with the type.' samuel palmer, j. d. watson, charles green, and others are the artists to whom this reference applies, and the result, if not better than the best contemporary engraving, is certainly full of interest to-day. the _golden treasury_ series (macmillan and co.) contains, in each volume, a vignette engraved on steel by jeens, after drawings by j. e. millais, t. woolner, w. holman hunt, sir noel paton, arthur hughes, etc. although the 'household edition' of charles dickens's complete works was issued early in the seventies, it is illustrated almost entirely by men of the sixties, and was possibly in active preparation during that decade. fred barnard takes the lion's share, the largest number of drawings to the most important volumes. his fame as a dickens illustrator might rest secure on these alone, although it is supplemented by many other character-drawings of the types created by the author of _pickwick_. to _sketches by boz_ he supplies thirty-four designs, to _nicholas nickleby_ fifty-nine, to _barnaby rudge_ forty-six, to _christmas books_ twenty-eight, to _dombey and son_ sixty-four, to _david copperfield_ sixty, to _bleak house_ sixty-one, and to the _tale of two cities_ twenty-five. 'phiz' re-illustrates _the pickwick papers_ with fifty-seven designs, concerning which silence is best. j. mahoney shows excellent work in twenty-eight drawings to _oliver twist_ and fifty-eight each to _little dorrit_ and _our mutual friend_; charles green's thirty-nine illustrations to the _old curiosity shop_ are also admirable. f. a. fraser is responsible for thirty to _great expectations_, e. g. dalziel for thirty-four to _christmas stories_ (from _all the year round_), twenty-six to the _uncommercial traveller_, and a few to minor pieces, issued with _edwin drood_, which contain s. l. fildes's excellent designs. h. french contributes twenty to _hard times_, a. b. frost illustrates _american notes_, j. gordon thomson _pictures from italy_, and j. m'l. ralston supplies fifteen for _a child's history of england_. to re-embody characters already stereotyped, for the most part, by the earlier plates of the original editions, was a bold enterprise: that it did not wholly fail is greatly to its credit. it is quite possible that as large a number of readers made their first acquaintance with the _dramatis personæ_ of the novels in these popular editions as in the older books, and it would be interesting to discover what they really felt when the much-vaunted copper-plates afterwards fell under their notice. the sentiment of english people has been amply expended on the hablot k. browne designs. cruikshank is still considered a great master by many people; but if one could 'depolarise' their pictures (to use wendell holmes's simile), and set them before their admirers free from early associations, free from the glamour of dickens romance, and then extract a frank outspoken opinion, it would be, probably, quite opposite to that which they are now ready to maintain. recognising that the old illustrations are still regarded with a halo of memory and romance, not unlike that which raises mumbo jumbo to a fetish among his worshippers, a wish to estimate anew the intrinsic value, considered as works of art, of these old illustrations, is not provoked by merely destructive tendencies. so long as thackeray's drawing of _amelia_ is accepted as a type of grace and beauty, how can the believer realise the beauty of millais's _was it not a lie?_ in _framley parsonage_. in the earlier and later engravings alike, the costume repels; but in the one there is real flesh and blood, real passion, real art, in the other a merely conventional symbol, which we agree to accept as an interesting heroine, in the way a child of five accepts the scratches on his slate as real pirates and savages. there is little use in trying to appreciate the best, if the distinctly second-best is reverenced equally; and so, at any cost of personal feeling, it is simply the duty of all concerned to rank the heroes of the sale-room, 'phiz,' cruikshank, and leech at their intrinsic value. this is by no means despicable. for certain qualities which are not remotely connected with art belong to them; but the beauty of truth, the knowledge born of academic accomplishment, or literal imitation of nature, were alike absolutely beyond their sympathy. hence to praise their work as one praises a dürer, a whistler, or a millais, is apt to confuse the minds of the laity, already none too clear as to the moment when art comes in. this protest is not advanced to prove that every drawing mentioned in these pages surpasses the best work of the men in question, but merely to suggest whether it would not be better to recognise that the praise bestowed for so many years was awarded to a conventional treatment now obsolete, and should not be regarded as equivalent to that bestowed upon works of art which owe nothing to parochial conventions, and are based on unalterable facts, whether a hokousaï or a menzel chances to be the interpreter. the _chandos poets_ (warne), a series of bulky octavos, with red-line borders, are of unequal merit. some, _willmott's poets of the nineteenth century_, _james montgomery's poems_, _christian lyrics_, and _heber's poetical works_, appear to be merely reprints of earlier volumes with the original illustrations; others have new illustrations by men of the sixties. the _longfellow_ has several by a. boyd houghton, who is also represented by a few excellent designs in the _byron_; _legendary ballads_ (j. s. roberts) has three full-page designs, by walter crane, to _thomas of ercildoune_ (p. ), _the jolly harper_ (p. ), and _robin hood_ (p. ). later volumes, with designs by f. a. fraser and h. french, do not come into our subject. other series of the works of 'standard poets,' as they were called, all resplendent in gold and colours, and more or less well illustrated, were issued by messrs. routledge, nimmo, warne, cassell, moxon, and others, beginning in the fifties. here and there a volume has interest, but one suspects that many of the plates had done duty before, and those which had not are not always of great merit; as, for instance, the drawings by w. b. scott to the poetical works of l. e. l. (routledge). in these various books will be found, _inter alia_, examples of sir john gilbert, birket foster, e. h. corbould, w. small, and keeley halswelle. _hurst and blackett's standard library_ is the title of a series of novels by eminent hands in single volumes, each containing a frontispiece engraved on steel. that to _christian's mistake_ is by frederick sandys, engraved by john saddler. _john halifax_, _nothing new_, _the valley of a hundred fires_, and _les misérables_, each have a drawing by millais, also engraved by john saddler. in _studies from life_ holman hunt is the draughtsman and joseph brown the engraver. _no church_, _grandmother's money_, and _a noble life_, contain frontispieces by tenniel, _barbara's history_, one by j. d. watson, and _adèle_, a fine design by john gilbert. others by leech and edward hughes are not particularly interesting. the steel engraving bestowed upon most of these obliterated all character from the designs, and superseded the artist's touch by hard unsympathetic details; but, all the same, compositions by men of such eminence deserve mention. with the end of our subject is reached; it is the year of _edwin drood_, which established s. l. fildes's position as an illustrator of the first rank; it also has a pleasant book of quasi-mediæval work, _mores ridicula_, by j. e. rogers (macmillan), (followed later by _ridicula rediviva_ and _the fairy book_, by the author of _john halifax_, with coloured designs by the same artist), of which an enthusiastic critic wrote: 'worthy to be hung in the royal academy side by side with rossetti, sandys, barnes, and millais'; whymper's _scrambles on the alps_, a book greatly prized by collectors, with drawings by whymper and j. mahoney; _the cycle of life_ (s.p.c.k.); and _episodes of fiction_ (nimmo, ) containing twenty-eight designs by r. paterson, after c. green, c. j. staniland, p. skelton, f. barnard, harrison weir, and others. _novello's national nursery rhymes_, by j. w. elliott, published in , belongs to the sixties by intrinsic right. it includes two delightful drawings by a. boyd houghton--one of which, _tom the piper's son_ (owned by mr. pennell), has been reproduced from the original by photogravure in mr. laurence housman's monograph--and many by h. s. marks, w. small, j. mahoney, g. j. pinwell, w. j. wiegand, arthur hughes, t. and e. dalziel, and others. _h. leslie's musical annual_ (cassell, ) contains a fine drawing, _the boatswain's leap_, by g. j. pinwell, and a steel engraving, _a reverie_, after millais, which was re-issued in _the magazine of art_, september . _pictures from english literature_ (cassell) is an excuse for publishing twenty full-page engravings after elaborate drawings by du maurier, s. l. fildes, w. small, j. d. watson, w. cave thomas, etc. etc. this anthology, with a somewhat heterogeneous collection of drawings, seems to be the last genuine survivor of the old christmas gift-books, which is lineally connected with the masterpieces of its kind. soon after the inevitable anthology of poems reappeared, in humbler pamphlet shape, as a birthday souvenir, or a christmas card, embellished with chromo-lithographs, as it had already been allied with photographic silver-prints; but it is always the accident of the artists chosen which imparts permanent interest to the otherwise feeble object; whether it take the shape of a drawing-room table-book, gaudy, costly, and dull, or of a little booklet, it is a thing of no vital interest, unless by chance its pictures are the work of really powerful artists. the decadence of a vigorous movement is never a pleasant subject to record in detail. fortunately, although the king died, the king lived almost immediately, and _the graphic_, with its new ideals and new artists, quickly established a convention of its own, which is no less interesting. if it does not seem, so far as we can estimate, to have numbered among its articles men who are worthy in all respects to be placed by rossetti, millais, sandys, houghton, pinwell, fred walker, and the rest of the typical heroes of the sixties, yet in its own way it is a worthy beginning of a new epoch. before quitting our period, however, a certain aftermath of the rich harvest must not be forgotten; and this, despite the comparatively few items it contains, may be placed in a chapter by itself. [illustration: frederick sandys 'once a week' vol. vii. p. death of king warwolf] chapter x: the aftermath, a few belated volumes that thornbury's _legendary ballads_ (dated ) should be regarded as a most important volume in a collection of the 'sixties' is not odd, when you find that its eighty-one illustrations were reprinted from _once a week_. many of the drawings were republished in this book, with the poem they originally illustrated; others, however, were joined to quite different text. if the memories of those living are to be trusted, not a few of the artists concerned were extremely annoyed to find their designs applied to new purposes. to take a single instance, the sandys design to _king warwolf_ re-accompanied the poem itself, but the drawing by john lawson, which is herein supposed to illustrate the lines, 'and then there came a great red glare that seemed to crimson fitfully the whole broad heaven.' was first published with a poem, _ariadne_, by w. j. tate, in august , long after _king warwolf_ first appeared. its design is obviously based on this passage: 'my long hair floating in the boisterous wind, my white hands lightly grasping theseus' knees, while he, his wild eyes staring, urged his slaves to some last effort of their well-tried skill.' but it requires a great effort of perverted imagination to drag in the picture, which shows a greek hero on one ship, watching, you suppose, the dying norse king on another ship; when the ballad infers, and the dramatic situation implies, that the old monarch put out at once across the bar, and his people from the shore watched his ship burn in the night. to wrench such a picture from its context, and apply it to another, was a too popular device of publishers. as, however, it preserves good impressions of blocks otherwise inaccessible, it would be ungracious to single out this particular instance for blame. yet all the same, those who regard the artist's objection to the sale of _clichés_ for all sorts of purposes, as a merely sentimental grievance, must own that he is justified in being annoyed, when the whole intention of his work is burlesqued thereby. a contemporary review says that the illustrations had 'appeared before in _once a week_, _the cornhill_, and elsewhere.' it would be a long and ungrateful task to collate them, but, so far as my own memory can be trusted, they are all from the first named. in place of including a description of the book itself, a few extracts, from a review by mr. edmund gosse in the _academy_ (february , p. ), will not only give a vivid appreciation of the work of two of the artists, but show that twenty years ago the book was prized as highly as we prize it to-day. he says: 'we have thought the illustrations sufficiently interesting to demand a separate notice for themselves, the more so as in many cases they are totally unconnected with mr. thornbury's poems.... we are heartily glad to have collected for us some of the most typical illustrations of a school that is, above all others, most characteristic of our latest development in civilisation, and of which the principal members have died in their youth, and have failed to fulfil the greatness of their promise. 'the artists represented are mainly those who immediately followed the so-called pre-raphaelites, the young men who took up many of their principles, and carried them out in a more modern and a more quiet way than their more ambitious masters. mr. sandys, who pinned all his early faith to holbein, and messrs. walker, pinwell, lawless, and houghton, who promised to form a group of brother artists unrivalled in delicacy and originality of sentiment, are here in their earliest and strongest development.... m. j. lawless contributes no less than twenty designs to the volume. we have examined these singular and beautiful drawings, most of them old favourites, with peculiar emotion. the present writer [mr. edmund gosse] confesses to quite absurd affection for all the few relics of this gifted lad, whose early death seems to have deprived his great genius of all hope of fame. years ago these illustrations, by an unknown artist, keenly excited a curiosity which was not to be satisfied till we learned, with a sense of actual bereavement, that their author was dead. he seems to have scarcely lived to develop a final manner; with the excessive facility of a boy of high talent we find him incessantly imitating his elder rivals, but always with a difference.... no doubt, in m. j. lawless, english art sustained one of the sharpest losses it ever had to mourn. [illustration: w. holman hunt willmott's 'sacred poetry,' the lent jewels] [illustration: j. lawson 'once a week' vol. ii. n. s. p. ariadne] 'of pinwell no need to say so much. he has lived, not long enough indeed to fulfil the great promise of his youth, but to ensure his head a lasting laurel. there have been stronger intellects, purer colourists, surer draughtsmen among his contemporaries, but where shall we seek a spirit of poetry more pathetic, more subtle, more absolutely modern than his? the critics are for ever urging poets and painters to cultivate the materials that lie about them in the common household-life of to-day. it is not so easy to do so; it is not to be done by writing "idylls of the gutter and the gibbet"; it is not to be done by painting the working-man asleep by his baby's cradle. perhaps no one has done it with so deep and thorough a sympathy as pinwell; and it is sympathy that is needed, not curiosity or pity.' but it would be hardly fair to quote further from mr. gosse's appreciation twenty years ago of artists still living. the volume contains eight designs by sandys, namely, _labours of thor_ (_harold harfagr_), _king warwolf_, _the apparitor of the secret tribunal_ (_jacques de caumont_), _tintoretto_ (_yet once more on the organ play_), _the avatar of zeus_ (_the king at the gate_), _the search of ceres for proserpine_ (_helen and cassandra_), _the boy martyr_, _the three statues of egina_, and _the miller's meadow_ (_the old chartist_); the alternative title given in brackets is that of the original as it first appeared in _once a week_. to show how carelessly the author treated the artists, to whom, in a flowery preface, he says he owes so much, 'for they have given to his airy nothings a local habitation and a name, and have caught and fixed down on paper, like butterflies in an entomologist's cabinet, many a fleeting cynthia of his brain,' it will suffice to quote his profuse acknowledgments to 'mr. poynter, an old schoolfellow of the author's, and now professor in the london university, [who] has expended all his learning, taste, and thought in the _the three statues_. the drapery might be copied by a sculptor, it is arrayed with such fine artistic feeling, and over the whole the artist has thrown the solemnity of the subject, and has shown, in pluto's overshadowing arm, the vanity of all things under the sun--even the pure ambition of a great artist.' this charming eulogy, be it noted, is bestowed on a drawing that is by frederick sandys!!! not by poynter, who is unrepresented in the book. the four whistlers of _once a week_ are all here, absurdly renamed. there are twenty by m. j. lawless, seven by t. morten, ten by j. lawson, one by a. boyd houghton, two by fred walker, eight by g. j. pinwell, six by w. small, three by j. tenniel, three by f. eltze, and one each by j. d. watson, c. keene, g. du maurier, towneley green, c. green, t. r. macquoid, p. skelton, a. fairfield, e. h. corbould, and a. rich. the book is well printed, and a treasure-house of good things, which appear to more advantage upon its 'toned paper' than in the pages of the periodical where they first saw daylight. the preface to _dalziels' bible gallery_ is dated october , so that the volume was probably issued for the season of - . as we have seen, the work was in active preparation in the early sixties. it contained sixty-nine blocks excellently printed upon an india tint. these include nine by the late lord leighton, p.r.a., three by g. f. watts, r.a., five by f. r. pickersgill, r.a., twelve by e. j. poynter, r.a., three by e. armitage, r.a., two by h. h. armstead, r.a., one by sir e. burne-jones, one by holman hunt, three by ford madox brown, six by simeon solomon, two by a. boyd houghton, two by w. small, one by e. f. brewtnall, fourteen by t. dalziel, one by e. dalziel, two by a. murch, and one by f. s. walker, and one by frederick sandys. the praise lavished on these designs is amply justified if you regard them as a whole; but, turning over the pages critically after a long interval, there is a distinct sense of disillusion. at the time they seemed all masterpieces; sixteen years after they stand confessed as a very mixed group, some conscientious pot-boilers, others absolutely powerful and intensely individual. the book is monumental, both in its ambitious intention and in the fact that it commemorates a dead cause. it is easy to disparage the work of the engravers, but when we see what fine things owe their very existence to messrs. dalziels' enterprise, it is but just to pay due tribute to the firm, and to regret that so powerful an agency is no longer actively engaged in similar enterprises. [illustration: edward burne jones dalziels' 'bible gallery,' the parable of the boiling pot] [illustration: sir frederick leighton, p.r.a. dalziels' 'bible gallery,' cain and abel] [illustration: sir frederick leighton, p.r.a. dalziels' 'bible gallery,' moses viewing the promised land] [illustration: sir frederick leighton, p.r.a. dalziels' 'bible gallery,' abram and the angel] as copies are both scarce and costly, it may be well to call attention to a volume entitled _art pictures from the old testament_ (society for promoting christian knowledge, ), wherein the whole sixty-nine reappear supplemented by twenty-seven others, which would seem to have prepared for the _bible gallery_, but not previously issued: thirteen of these added designs are by simeon solomon, two by h. h. armstead, r.a., three by e. armitage, r.a., three by f. r. pickersgill, r.a., three by t. dalziel, and one each by f. s. waltges (_sic_), g. j. pinwell, and e. g. dalziel. as impressions of the famous blocks are obtainable at a low cost, it would be foolish to waste space upon detailed descriptions. of course the popular reprint ought not to be compared with the fine proofs of the great _édition-de-luxe_, which cost about twenty times as much. but for many purposes it is adequate, and gives an idea of the superb qualities of the leighton designs, and the vigour and strongly dramatic force of the poynters. it is interesting to compare sir edward burne-jones's original design for _the boiling pot_, reproduced in _pen-drawing and pen-draughtsmen by joseph pennell_ (macmillan, ), with the engraving, which is from an entirely different version of the subject. other drawings on wood obviously intended for this work, but never used, can be seen at south kensington museum. a few belated volumes still remain to be noticed--they are picked almost at random, and doubtless the list might be supplemented almost indefinitely: _the trial of sir jasper_, by s. c. hall (virtue, undated), with illustrations by gilbert, cruikshank, tenniel, birket foster, noel paton, and others, including w. eden thomson and g. h. boughton. the latter, a drawing quite in the mood of the sixties, seems to be the earliest illustration by its author. another design by h. r. robertson, of a dead body covered by a cloth in a large empty room, is too good to pass without comment. _beauties of english landscape_, drawn by birket foster, is a reprint, in collected form, of the works of this justly popular artist; it is interesting, but not comparable to the earlier volume with a similar title. in _nature pictures_, thirty original illustrations by j. h. dell, engraved by r. paterson (warne), the preface, dated october , refers to 'years of patient painstaking labour on the part of artist and engraver'; so that it is really a posthumous child of the sixties, and one not unworthy to a place among the best. _songs of many seasons_, by jemmett brown (pewtress and co., ), contains two little-known designs by walter crane, two by g. du maurier and one by c. m. (c. w. morgan). _pegasus re-saddled_ (h. s. king, ), with ten illustrations by g. du maurier is, as its title implies, a companion volume to the earlier _puck on pegasus_, by h. cholmondeley pennell. _the children's garland_ (macmillan, ), contains fourteen capital things by john lawson--no relative of 'cecil' or 'f. w. lawson.' _the lord's prayer_, illustrated by f. r. pickersgill, r.a., and henry alford, d.d. (longmans, ), has a curiously old-fashioned air. one fancies, and the preface supports the theory, that its nine designs should be considered not as an aftermath to the sixties, but as a presage of the time, near the date of _the music-master_. their vigorous attempt to employ modern costume in dignified compositions deserves more than patronising approval. any art-student to-day would discover a hundred faults, but their one virtue might prove beyond his grasp. although engraved on wood by dalziel, printed as they are upon a deep yellow tint, the pictures at first sight suggest lithographs, rather than wood-engravings. _rural england_, by l. seguin (strahan, ) has many delightful designs by millais and pinwell, but all, apparently, reprints of blocks used in _good words_ and elsewhere. possibly the whole series of mr. walter crane's toy-books, which began to be issued in the mid-sixties, should be noticed here; but they deserve a separate and complete iconography. in fact, any attempt to go beyond the arbitrary date is a mistake, and this chapter were best cut short, with full consciousness of its being a mere fragment which may find place in some future volume, upon 'the seventies,' that i hope may find its historian before long. [illustration: edward j. poynter, r.a. dalziels' 'bible gallery,' joseph before pharaoh] [illustration: edward j. poynter, r.a. dalziels' 'bible gallery,' pharaoh honours joseph] a book of this sort, which aimed to be complete, should contain a critical summary of the period it attempts to record. but to extract from the mass of material a clearly-defined purpose, and build up a plausible theory to show that all the diverse tendencies could be traced to a common purpose, would surely be at best merely an academic argument. all that the sixties prove, to a very sincere if incapable student, seems to be that the artist, if he be indeed an artist, can make the meanest material serve his purpose. the men of the sixties tried obviously to do their best. they took their art seriously, if not themselves. it is tempting to affirm that the tendency now is for no one to take himself seriously, and even at times to look upon his art, whatever it may be, as merely a useful medium to exploit for his own ends. yet such an opinion would be probably too sweeping; and one is driven back to the primal fact, that the energy and knowledge which results in masterly achievement is, and must always be, beyond rules, beyond schools, as it is beyond fashion or mood. a man who tries to do his best, if he be endowed with ripe knowledge and has the opportunity, will make a fine thing; which, whether intended for a penny paper, or a guinea gift-book, will possess both vitality and permanent value. but the men of the sixties took themselves quite seriously; and this is surely evident from their drawings. not a few committed suicide, or died from over-work; neither catastrophe being evidence of flippant content with the popularity they had achieved. whether inspired by pure zeal for art, by rivalry, or by money-making, they felt the game well worth the candle, and did all they could do to play it fairly. those of us to-day who try to do our best may be inept, ignorant, and attain only failure; yet the best is not achieved by accident, and the only moral of the sixties is the moral of the nineties: 'whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might.' whether it be the triumph of a master or a pot-boiling illustrator, the real artist never takes his art lightly. life, even reputation, he may play with, but his craft is a serious thing. in short, the study of the thousands of designs--some obviously burlesqued by the engraver, others admirably rendered--will not leave an unprejudiced spectator with a cut and dried opinion. that, as it happened, a number of really distinguished men enlisted themselves as illustrators may be granted, but each one did his own work in his own way; and to summarise the complex record in a sentence to prove that any method, or any manner, is a royal road to greatness is impossible. yet no one familiar with the period can avoid a certain pride in the permanent evidence it has left, that english art in illustration, (no less than english music in the part-songs of the elizabethan period), has produced work worthy to be entered on the cosmopolitan roll of fame. this is unquestionable; and being granted, no more need be said, for an attempt to appraise the relative value of totally distinct things is always a foolish effort. chapter xi: certain influences upon the artists of the sixties although it would be retraversing beaten paths to trace the illustrator of the sixties back to bewick, or to still earlier progenitors in dürer or the florentines, there can be little doubt that the pre-raphaelites gave the first direct impulse to the newer school. that their work, scanty as it is, so far as book-illustration is concerned, set going the impulse which in kelmscott press editions, the birmingham school, the vale press, beardsley, bradley, and a host of others on both sides of the atlantic, is 'the movement' of the moment is too obvious to need stating. but for 'the sixties' proper, the paramount influence was millais--the millais after the pre-raphaelite brotherhood had disbanded. despite a very ingenious attempt to trace the influence of menzel upon the earlier men, many still doubt whether the true pre-raphaelites were not quite ignorant of the great german. later men--fred walker especially, and charles keene many years after--knew their menzel, and appreciated him as a few artists do to-day, and the man in the street may at no distant future. but some of the survivors of the pre-raphaelites, both formal and associated, deny all knowledge of menzel at this date; others, however, have told mr. joseph pennell that they did know his work, and that it had a distinct influence. some who did not know him then regret keenly that they were unaware of his very existence until they had abandoned illustration for painting. all agree, of course, in recognising the enormous personality of one who might be called, without exaggeration, the greatest illustrator of the century; so that, having stated the evidence as it stands, no more need be added, except a suggestion that the theory of menzel's influence, even upon those who declare they knew not the man, may be sound. an edition of _frederick the great_, by kügler, with five hundred illustrations by menzel, was published in england (according to the british museum catalogue, the book itself is undated) in .[ ] it is quite possible that any one of the men of the time might have seen it by chance, and turned over its pages ignorant of its artist's name. a few minutes is enough to influence a young artist, and the one who in all honesty declares he never heard of menzel may have been thus unconsciously influenced. but, if a foreign source must be found, so far as the pre-raphaelites are concerned, rethel seems a far more possible agent. his famous prints, _death the friend_ and _death the avenger_, had they met his eye, would doubtless have influenced mr. sandys, and many others who worked on similar lines. [illustration: ford madox brown dalziels' 'bible gallery,' elijah and the widow's son] whether lasinio's 'execrable engravings,' as ruskin calls them, or others, will be found to have exerted any influence, i have no evidence to bring forward. in fact the theory is advanced only as a working hypothesis, not as an argument capable of proof. it is possible that france at that time was an important factor as regards technique, as it has been since, and is still. but, without leaving our own shores, the logical sequence of development from bewick, through harvey, mulready and others, does not leave very many terrible gaps. it is true that this development is always erratic--now towards the good, now to meretricious qualities. the more one studies the matter, the more one fancies that certain drawings not intended for engraving by mulready, and others by maclise, must have had a large share in the movement which culminated about and died out entirely about . but whatever the influence which set it going, the ultimate result was british; and, for good or evil, one cannot avoid a feeling of pride that in the sixties there was art in england, not where it was officially expected perhaps, but in popular journals. it is quite possible that the revival of etching as a fine art, which took place early in the second half of this century, had no little direct influence on the illustration of the period. many artists, who are foremost as draughtsmen upon wood, experimented with the etcher's needle. _the germ_, , was illustrated by etchings; but, with every desire to develop this suggestion, it would be folly to regard the much discussed periodical as the true ancestor of _once a week_ and the rest; even the etching which millais prepared for it, but never issued, would not suffice to establish such claim. two societies, the etching club and the junior etching club, are responsible for the illustration of several volumes, wherein the etched line is used in a way almost identical with the same artists' manner when drawing for the engraver. indeed, the majority of these etchings would suffer little if reproduced by direct process to-day, as the finesse of _rebroussage_ and the more subtle qualities of biting and printing are not present conspicuously in the majority of the plates. the _poems by tom hood_, illustrated by the junior etching club, include two delightful millais', _the bridge of sighs and ruth_, a _lee shore_ by charles keene, and two illustrations to the _ode to the moon_, and _the elm-tree_ by henry moore. _passages from modern english poets_, illustrated by the junior etching club, was issued (undated), by day and son, in , in a large octavo. in another edition in larger quarto, with the etchings transferred to stone, and printed as lithographs, was published by william tegg. in this notable volume millais is represented by _summer indolence_ (p. ), a most graceful study of a girl lying on her back in a meadow with a small child, who is wearing a daisy chain, seated at her side. mr. j. mcneill whistler contributes two delightful landscapes, _the angler_ (p. ) and _a river scene_ (p. ). in these the master-hand is recognisable at a glance, although the authorship of many of the rest can only be discovered by the index. they would alone suffice to make the book a treasure to light upon. to praise them would be absurd, for one can conceive no more unnecessary verbiage than a eulogy of mr. whistler's etchings--one might as well praise the beauty of june sunshine. there are many other good things in the book--a tenniel, _war and glory_ (p. ), four capital studies by henry moore (pp. , , , ), which come as a revelation to those who only know him as a sea-painter. four others by m. j. lawless, an artist who has been neglected too long, _the drummer_ (p. ), _sisters of mercy_ (p. ), _the bivouac_ (p. ), and _the little shipwrights_ (p. ), are all interesting, if not quite so fascinating, as his drawings upon wood. h. s. marks has a _genre_ subject, _a study in the egyptian antiquity department of the british museum_. this portentous title describes an etching of a country lad in smock-frock, who, with dazed surprise, is staring into vacancy amid the gigantic scarabs, the great goddess pasht, and other familiar objects of the corridor leading to the refreshment-room in the great bloomsbury building, which people of grub street hurry through daily, with downcast eyes, to enjoy the frugal dainties that a beneficent institution permits them to take by way of sustenance during the intervals of study in the reading-room. another plate, _scene of the plague in london_, , by charles keene, would hardly tempt one to linger before it, but for its signature. it is a powerful bit of work, but does not show the hand of the great _punch_ artist at its best. the rest of the contributions to this volume are by c. rossiter, f. smallfield, viscount bury, lord g. fitzgerald, j. w. oakes, a. j. lewis, f. powell, j. sleigh, h. c. whaite, walter severn, and w. gale. two by j. clark deserve mention. to find the painter of cottage-life, with all his dutch realistic detail, in company with mr. whistler, is a curious instance of extremes meeting. without wishing to press the argument unduly, it is evident that etching which afterwards developed so bravely, and left so many fine examples, exerted also a secondary influence on the illustration of the sixties. hence the somewhat extended reference to the few books which employed it largely for illustrations. those who would have you believe that the great english masters of illustration failed to obtain contemporary appreciation should note the three editions of this work as one fact, among a score of others, which fails to support their theory. whether from a desire to extol the past or not, it is certain that those publishers who have been established more than a quarter of a century claim to have sold far larger editions of their high-priced illustrated volumes then than any moderately truthful publisher or editor would dare to claim for similar ventures to-day. of course there were fewer books of the sort issued, and the rivalry of illustrated journalism was infinitely less; still the people of the fifties, sixties, and seventies paid their tribute in gold freely and lavishly, and if they offered the last insult of the populace--popularity--to these undoubted works of art, it prevents one placing artists of the period among the noble army of martyrs. their payment was quite equal to that which is the average to-day, as a file-copy of one of the important magazines shows. they were reproduced as well as the means available permitted; the printing and the general 'get-up' of the books, allowing for the different ideals which obtained then, was not inferior to the average to-day, and, as a rule, the authorship of the drawings was duly acknowledged in the table of contents, and the artists 'starred' in contemporary advertisements. it is painful to own that even the new appreciation is not absolutely without precedent. one notable instance of depreciation cannot be forgotten. mr. ruskin, who never expressed admiration of the illustrations of the sixties, in _ariadne florentina_, chose the current number of the _cornhill magazine_ for the text of a diatribe in which the following passages occur:-- 'the cheap popular art cannot draw for you beauty, sense, or honesty; but every species of distorted folly and vice--the idiot, the blackguard, the coxcomb, the paltry fool, the degraded woman--are pictured for your honourable pleasure in every page, with clumsy caricature, struggling to render its dulness tolerable by insisting on defect--if, perchance, a penny or two may be coined out of the cockneys' itch for loathsomeness.... these ... are favourably representative of the entire art industry of the modern press--industry enslaved to the ghastly service of catching the last gleams in the glued eyes of the daily more bestial english mob--railroad born and bred, which drags itself about the black world it has withered under its breath. in the miserable competitive labour of finding new stimulus for the appetite--daily more gross, of this tyrannous mob, we may count as lost beyond any hope, the artists who are dull, docile, or distressed enough to submit to its demands. and for total result of our english engraving industry for the last hundred and fifty years, i find that practically at this moment [ ] i cannot get a _single_ piece of true, sweet, and comprehensible art to place for instruction in any children's school.' but ignoring mr. ruskin--if it be possible to ignore the absolute leader of taste in the sixties--we find little but praise. yet the popularity of - naturally incurred the inevitable law of reaction, and was at its lowest ebb in the eighties; but now late in the nineties our revived applause is but an echo of that which was awarded to the work when it appealed not only by all its art, but with novelty and an air of being 'up to date' that cannot, in the course of things, be ever again its portion. we are not so much better than our fathers, after all, in recognising the good things of the sixties, or in trying to do our best in our way. which is just what they tried to do in theirs. chapter xii: some illustrators of the sixties although space forbids biographical notice, even in the briefest form, of all the artists mentioned in the preceding pages, and it would be folly to summarise in a few hasty sentences the complete life-work of sir j. e. millais, p.r.a., sir john gilbert, r.a., mr. birket foster, or mr. g. du maurier, to take but a few instances; yet in the case of mr. arthur hughes, the late m. j. lawless, and others, to give more exact references to their published illustrations is perhaps easier in this way than any other, especially as a complete iconography of all the chief artists in the movement had perforce to be abandoned for want of space. many illustrators--ford madox brown, charles keene, a. boyd houghton, dante gabriel rossetti, w. b. scott, fred walker, and j. wolf--have already been commemorated in monographs; not confined, it is true, in every instance to the subject of this book, but naturally taking it as part of the life-work of the hero, even when, as in rossetti's case, the illustrations form but an infinitesimally small percentage of the works he produced. the artists hereafter noticed have been chosen entirely from the collector's standpoint, and with the intention of assisting those who wish to make representative or complete collections of the work of each particular man. * * * * * george housman thomas ( - ) was born in london, december , . when only fourteen he became apprenticed to g. bonner, a wood-engraver, and at fifteen obtained the prize of a silver palette from the society of arts, for an original drawing, _please to remember the grotto_. after he had served his apprenticeship, in conjunction with henry harrison he set up in paris as a wood-engraver. the firm became so successful that they employed six or seven assistants. he was then tempted to go to new york to establish an illustrated paper, which was also a success, although losses on other ventures forced the proprietors to give it up. this led the artist to turn his attention to another field of engraving for bank notes, which are estimated among the most beautiful of their kind. a few years later he returned to england, and became attached to the _illustrated london news_. in a special expedition to italy, which resulted in a long series of illustrations of garibaldi's defence of rome against the french, not merely established his lasting reputation, but incidentally extended his taste and knowledge by the opportunity it gave him for studying the works of the old masters. in a sketch of sailors belonging to the baltic fleet, which was published in the _illustrated london news_, attracted the attention of the queen, who caused inquiries to be made, which led to the artist being employed by her majesty to paint for her the principal events of her reign. besides a series of important paintings in oil, he executed a large number of drawings and sketches which form an album of great interest. 'as an illustrator of books he was remarkable,' says his anonymous biographer,[ ] 'for facility of execution and aptness of character.' his illustrations of _hiawatha_ (kent and co.), _armadale_ (wilkie collins), and _the last chronicle of barset_ (anthony trollope), are perhaps the most important; but _london society_, mrs. gatty's _parables_, _cassell's magazine_, _the quiver_, _illustrated readings_, and many other volumes of the period, contain numerous examples of his work in this department. in the person of his brother, mr. w. luson thomas, the managing director of the _graphic_ and the _daily graphic_, and his nephew, carmichael thomas, art director of the _graphic_, the family name is still associated with the most notable movement in illustration during the period which immediately followed that to which this book is devoted. * * * * * [illustration: ford madox brown dalziels' 'bible gallery' joseph's coat] sir john everett millais, bart., p.r.a. (born june , , died august , ).--as these proofs were being sent to press, the greatest illustrator of all (having regard to his place as the pioneer of the school which immediately succeeded the pre-raphaelites, the number of his designs, and their superlative excellence), has joined the majority of his fellow-workers in the sixties. it would be impossible in a few lines to summarise his contributions to the 'black-and-white' of english art; that task will doubtless be undertaken adequately. but, if all the rest of the work of the period were lost, his contributions alone might justly support every word that has been or will be said in praise of 'the golden decade.' from the _tennyson_ to his latest illustration he added masterpiece to masterpiece, and, were his triumphant career as a painter completely ignored, might yet be ranked as a great master on the strength of these alone. * * * * * paul gray ( - ).--a most promising young illustrator, whose early death was most keenly regretted by those who knew him best, paul gray was born in dublin, may , . he died november , . in the progress of this work mention has been made of all illustrations which it has been possible to identify; many of the cartoons for _fun_, being unsigned, could not be attributed to him with certainty. _the savage club papers_, first series (tinsley, ), contain his last drawing, _sweethearting_. in the preface we read: 'when this work was undertaken, that clever young artist [paul gray] was foremost in offering his co-operation; for he whom we mourned, and whose legacy of sorrow one had accepted, was his dear friend. the shock which his system, already weakened by the saddest of all maladies, received by the sudden death of that friend was more than his gentle spirit could sustain. he lived just long enough to finish his drawing, and then he left us to join his friend.' in the record of the periodicals of the sixties will be found many references to his work, which is, perhaps, most familiar in connection with charles kingsley's _hereward the wake_. * * * * * dante gabriel rossetti (_b._ , _d._ ). the comparatively few illustrations by rossetti have been described and reproduced so often, that it would seem superfluous to add a word more here. yet, recognising their influence to-day, we must also remember that many people who are attracted by this side of rossetti's art may not be familiar with the oft-told story of his career. he, more than any modern painter, would seem to be responsible for the present decorative school of illustrators, whose work has attracted unusual interest from many continental critics of late, and is recognised by them as peculiarly 'english.' while the man in the street would no doubt choose 'phiz,' cruikshank, leech, tenniel, gilbert, fred walker, or pinwell as typically 'english,' the foreigner prefers to regard the illustrations by rossetti, his immediate followers, and his later disciples as representing that english movement, which the native is apt to look upon as something exotic and bizarre. yet it is not necessary to discuss rossetti's position as founder of the pre-raphaelite school, nor to weigh his claims to the leadership against those of ford madox brown and holman hunt. but, without ignoring the black-and-white work of the two last named, there can be no doubt that it is rossetti who has most influenced subsequent draughtsmen. nor at the time was his position as an illustrator misunderstood. when we find that he received £ each for the small tennyson drawings on wood, the fact proves at the outset that the market value of his work was not ignored by his publishers. at the present day when any writer on men of the sixties is accused of an attempt to 'discover' them, and the appreciation he bestows is regarded as an attempt to glorify the appreciator at the expense of the appreciated, it is well to insist upon the fact that hardly one of the men in favour to-day failed to meet with substantial recognition at the time. it was not their fate to do drawings for love, or to publish engravings at their own cost, or sell as cheap curios works which now realise a thousand times their first cost. drawings paid for at the highest market rate, or, to speak more accurately, at 'star' prices, published in popular volumes that ran through large editions, received favourably by contemporary critics, and frequently alluded to as masterpieces by writers in current periodicals, cannot be said to have been neglected, nor have they even been out of favour with artists. that work, which has afforded so much lasting pleasure, was not achieved without an undue amount of pain, is easily proved in the case of rossetti. so pertinent is a description by his brother, published lately, that it may be quoted in full, to remind the illustrators of to-day, who draw on paper and card-board at their ease to any scale that pleases them, how much less exacting are the conditions under which they work than those encountered by the artists who were forced to draw upon an unpleasant surface of white pigment spread upon a shining wooden block:-- 'the tennyson designs, which were engraved on wood and published in the _illustrated tennyson_, in which millais, hunt, mulready, and others co-operated,' says mr. william michael rossetti, 'have in the long run done not a little to sustain my brother's reputation with the public. at the time they gave him endless trouble and small satisfaction. not indeed that the invention or the mere designing of these works was troublesome to him. he took great pains with them, but, as what he wrought at was always something which informed and glowed in his mind, he was not more tribulated by these than by other drawings. it must be said, also, that himself only, and not tennyson, was his guide. he drew just what he chose, taking from his author's text nothing more than a hint and an opportunity. the trouble came in with the engraver and the publisher. with some of the doings of the engraver, dalziel (not linton, whom he found much more conformable to his notion), he was grievously disappointed. he probably exasperated dalziel, and dalziel certainly exasperated him. blocks were re-worked upon and proofs sent back with vigour. the publisher, mr. moxon, was a still severer affliction. he called and he wrote. rossetti was not always up to time, though he tried his best to be so. in other instances he was up to time, but his engraver was not up to his mark. i believe that poor moxon suffered much, and that soon afterwards he died; but i do not lay any real blame on my brother, who worked strenuously and well. as to our great poet tennyson, who also ought to have counted for something in the whole affair, i gather that he really liked rossetti's designs when he saw them, and he was not without a perceptible liking and regard for rossetti himself, so far as he knew him (they had first met at mr. patmore's house in december ); but the illustration to _st. cecilia_ puzzled him not a little, and he had to give up the problem of what it had to do with his work.'[ ] later on, in the same volume, we find an extract from a letter dated february , which dante gabriel rossetti wrote to w. bell scott:-- 'i have designed five blocks for tennyson, save seven which are still cutting and maiming. it is a thankless task. after a fortnight's work my block goes to the engraver, like agag delicately, and is hewn in pieces before the lord harry. 'address to dalziel brothers 'o woodman spare that block, o gash not anyhow! it took ten days by clock, i'd fain protect it now. _chorus_--wild laughter from dalziels' workshop.' several versions of this incident are current, but mr. arthur hughes's account has not, i think, been published. it chanced that one day, during the time he was working in rossetti's studio, the engraver called, and finding rossetti was out, poured forth his trouble and stated his own view of the matter with spirit. for his defence, as he put it, much sympathy may be awarded to him. the curious drawings executed in pencil, ink, and red chalk, crammed with highly-wrought detail, that were to be translated into clean black and white, were, he declared, beyond the power of any engraver to translate successfully. how mr. hughes pacified him is a matter of no importance; but it is but fair to recollect that, even had the elaborate designs been executed with perfection of technique, any engraver must have needs encountered a task of no ordinary difficulty. when, however, the white coating had been rubbed away in parts, and all sorts of strokes in pen, pencil, and pigment added, it is not surprising that the paraphrase failed to please the designer. although the drawings naturally perished in the cutting, and cannot be brought forward as decisive evidence, we may believe that the engraver spoilt them, and yet also believe that no craftsman who ever lived would have been absolutely successful. the number of rossetti's book-illustrations is but ten in all, according to the list given in mr. william sharp's admirable monograph. to these one might perhaps add the frontispiece to that volume; as although the pen-drawing, _a sonnet is a moment's monument_, was never intended for reproduction, it forms a most decorative page. there is also a design for a frontispiece to the _early italian poets_, which was first reproduced in the _english illustrated magazine_, no. . the actual frontispiece was etched but never used, and the exquisitely dainty version survives only in two impressions from the plate, both owned by mr. fairfax murray. another frontispiece, to _the risen life_,[ ] a poem by r. c. jackson, in a cover designed by d. g. r. (r. elkins and co., castle st., east oxford st., w., ), belongs to the same category, in which may be placed _the queen's page_, drawn in , and reproduced in _flower pieces_ by allingham (reeves & turner, ). the ten which were all (i believe) drawn upon the wood include: _elfen-mere_, published first in william allingham's _the music-master_, , and afterwards reprinted in a later volume, _life and phantasy_, and again in _flower pieces_ ( ), by the same author. this design 'revealed to young burne-jones' (so his biographer, mr. malcolm bell, has recorded) that there existed a strange enchanting world beyond the hum-drum of this daily life--a world of radiant, many-coloured lights, of dim mysterious shadows, of harmonies of form and line, wherein to enter is to walk among the blest--that far-off world of art into which many a time since he has made his way and brought back visions of delight to show his fellow-men. the first suspicion of that land of faëry came to him when, in a small volume of poems by william allingham, he found a little wood-cut, 'elfen-mere,' signed with a curious entwinement of the initials d. g. r. the slumbering spirit of fancy awoke to life within him and cast her spells upon him never to be shaken off.' in the _oxford and cambridge magazine_, , mr. burne-jones wrote of this very design: 'there is one more i cannot help noticing, a drawing of higher finish and pretension than the last, from the pencil of rossetti, in allingham's _day and night songs_, just published. it is, i think, the most beautiful drawing for an illustration i have ever seen: the weird faces of the maids of elfen-mere, the musical, timed movement of their arms together as they sing, the face of the man, above all, are such as only a great artist could conceive.' this picture, 'three damsels clothed in white,' who came 'with their spindles every night; two and one, and three fair maidens, spinning to a pulsing cadence, singing songs of elfen-mere,' reproduced here, is still issued in william allingham's volume of poems entitled _flower pieces_ (reeves and turner, ). five illustrations to moxon's edition of _tennyson's poems_, , two in christina rossetti's _the goblin market and other poems_, , and two in _the princes progress and other poems_, , by the same author, complete the ten in question. as the _tennyson_ has been republished lately, and a monograph, _tennyson and his pre-raphaelite illustrators_, by g. somes layard (elliot stock, ), has brought together every available scrap of material connected with the famous quintette of designs, it would be superfluous to describe them here in detail. any distinctly recognised 'movement' is very rarely a _crescendo_, but nearly always a waning force that owes what energy it retains to the original impetus of its founder. should this statement be true of any fashion in art, it might be most easily supported, if applied to rossetti's ten drawings on wood, set side by side with the whole mass of modern 'decorative' illustration. even a great artist like howard pyle has hardly added a new motive to those crowded into these wood-engravings. the lady by the casement, '_the long hours come and go_,' upon the title-page of _the princes progress_, is an epitome of a thousand later attempts. mr. fairfax murray has collected over a dozen studies and preliminary drawings for this little block, that would appal some of the younger men as evidence of the intense care with which a masterpiece was wrought of old. highly-finished drawings were done over and over again until their author was satisfied. the frontispieces to _goblin market_ and to _the prince's progress_, no less than the tennyson designs, form, obviously enough, the treasure-trove whence later men have borrowed; too often exchanging the gold for very inferior currency. without attempting to give undue credit to rossetti, or denying that collateral influences--notably that of walter crane--had their share in the revival of the nineties, there can be no doubt that the strongest of the younger 'decorative' artists to-day are still fascinated by rossetti--no less irresistibly than 'the young burne-jones' was influenced in . therefore the importance of these ten designs cannot be exaggerated. whether you regard their influence as unwholesome, and regret the morbidity of the school that founded itself on them, or prefer to see in them the germ of a style entirely english in its renaissance, which has already spread over that continent which one had deemed inoculated against any british epidemic, the fact remains that rossetti is the golden milestone wherefrom all later work must needs be measured. no doubt the superb work of frederick sandys, had it been more accessible to the younger artists when the new impetus to decorative black-and-white began to attract a popular audience, would have found hardly as ardent disciples. [illustration: dante gabriel rossetti you should have wept her yesterday 'the prince's progress' ] * * * * * m. j. lawless (born , died ).--this artist, faithful to the best tradition of the pre-raphaelite illustrators, seems to have left few personal memories. born in , a son of barry lawless, a dublin solicitor, he was educated at prior park school, bath, and afterwards attended several drawing schools, and was for a time a pupil of henry o'neil, r.a. he died august , . mr. edward walford, who contributes a short notice of matthew james lawless to the _dictionary of national biography_, has only the barest details to record. nor do others, who knew him intimately, remember anything more than the ordinary routine of a short and uneventful life. but his artistic record is not meagre. in contemporary criticism we find him ranked with millais and sandys; not as equal to either, but as a worthy third. a fine picture of his, _the sick call_ (from the leathart collection), was exhibited again in at the guildhall. but it is by his work as an illustrator he will be remembered, and, despite the few years he practised, for his first published drawing was in _once a week_, december , (vol. i. p. ), he has left an honourable and not inconsiderable amount of work behind him. no search has lighted upon any work of his outside the pages of the popular magazines, except a few etchings (in the publications of the junior etching club), three designs of no great importance in _lyra germanica_ (longmans, ), and a pamphlet, the _life of st. patrick_, with some shocking engravings, said by his biographer to be from lawless's designs. in the chapters upon _once a week_, _london society_, _good words_, etc., every drawing i have been able to identify is duly noted. it is not easy to refrain from eulogy upon the work of a draughtsman with no little individuality and distinction, who has so far been almost completely forgotten by artists of the present day. the selection of his work reproduced here by the courtesy of the owners of the copyright will, perhaps, send many fresh admirers to hunt up the rest of it for themselves. * * * * * arthur boyd houghton ( - ) was born in , the fourth son of his father, who was a captain in the royal navy. he visited india, according to some of his biographers; others say that he was never in the east, but that it was a brother who supplied him with the oriental details that appear in so many of his drawings. be that as it may, his fellow-workers on the _arabian nights_ pretended to be jealous of his egyptian experience, and declared that it was no good trying to rival from their imaginings the scenes that he knew by heart. at present, when all men unite to praise him, it would almost lend colour to a belief that he was unappreciated by his fellows to read in a contemporary criticism: 'his designs were often striking in their effects of black and white, but were wanting in tone and gradation--a defect partly due to the loss of one eye.' this is only quoted by way of encouragement to living illustrators, who forget that their hero, despite sympathy and commissions, suffered also much the same misunderstanding that is often their lot. against this may be set a criticism of yesterday, which runs:-- 'as regards "the school of the sixties," now that it has moved away, we can rightly range the heads of that movement, and allowing for side impulses from the technique of menzel, and still more from the magnetism of rossetti's personality, we see, broadly speaking, that with millais it arrived, with houghton it ceased. under these two leaders it gathered others, but within ten years its essential work was done. it has all gone now nobly into the past from the hands of men, some still living, some dead but yesterday. 'in houghton's work, two things strike us especially, when we see it adequately to-day: its mastery of technique and style, and its temperament: the mastery so swift and spontaneous, so lavish of its audacities, so noble in its economies; the temperament so dramatic, so passionate, so satiric, and so witty. in many of his qualities, in vitality and movement, houghton tops millais. what is missing from his temperament, if it be a lack and not a quality, is the power to look at things coolly; he has not, as millais, the deep mood of stoical statement, of tragedy grown calm. his tragic note is vindictive, a little shrill: when he sets himself to depict contemporary life, as in the _graphic america_ series, he is sardonic, impatient, at times morose: his humour carries an edge of bitterness. but in whatever mood he looks at things, the mastery of his aim is certain.'[ ] [illustration: _drawn by a. boyd houghton._ _swan electro-engraving co._ reading the chronicles] the mass of work accomplished in illustration alone, between his first appearance and his death in , is amazing. there is scarce a periodical of any rank which has not at least one example from his pen. the curt attention given here to the man must be pardoned, as reference to his work is made on almost every page of this book. for an appreciative essay, that is a model of its class, one has but to turn to mr. laurence housman's volume[ ] which contains also five original drawings on wood (reproduced in photogravure) and eighty-three others from _dalziel's arabian nights_ (ward, lock & co., - and warne, ), _don quixote_, the two volumes of mr. robert buchanan's poems--_ballad stories of the affections_ ( ), and _north coast_ ( ), _home thoughts_ ( ), _national nursery rhymes_ ( ), and _the graphic_ ( ). * * * * * frederick walker[ ] ( - ), who was born in marylebone on the th of may , has been the subject of so many appreciations, and at least one admirable monograph, that a most brief notice of his career as an illustrator will suffice here. his father was a designer of jewelry and his grandfather had some skill in portrait-painting. how he began drawing from the elgin marbles in the british museum at the age of sixteen has been told often enough. many boys of sixteen have done the same, but it is open to doubt if any one of them has absorbed the spirit of their models so completely as fred walker did. it would be hardly asserting too much to say for him that they replaced humanity, and that his male figures seem nearly always youths from the parthenon in peasant costume. at seventeen or eighteen he was working at leigh's life-class in newman street, and at the same time was employed in mr. whymper's wood-engraving establishment. his first appearance in _everybody's journal_ is duly noted elsewhere, also his first drawing in _once a week_; but the peculiar affection he had inspired by his work has kept most of his critics from saying that some of his earliest designs, as we know them after engraving, appear distinctly poor. but, from the time he ceased to act as 'ghost' for thackeray, and signed his work with the familiar f. w., his career shows a distinct and sustained advance until the ill-fated , in which george mason, g. j. pinwell, and a. boyd houghton also died. it is unnecessary to recapitulate in brief the various contributions to the _cornhill magazine_, _good words_, _once a week_, etc., which have already been noted in detail. nor would it be in place here to dwell upon the personality of the artist; sufficient matter has been printed already to enable lovers of his works to construct a faithful portrait of their author--lovable and irritable, with innate genius and hereditary disease both provoking him to petulant outbursts that still live in his friends' memories. one anecdote will suffice. a group of well-known painters were strolling across a bridge on the upper thames. walker, who was passionately fond of music, had been playing on a tin whistle, which one of the party, half in joke, half weary of the fluting, struck from his mouth, so that it fell into the stream below. in a moment walker had thrown off his clothes, and, 'looking like a statue come to life, so exquisitely was he built,' plunged from the wall of the bridge, and, diving, rescued his tin whistle, which he bore to land in triumph. the trifling incident is an epitome of the character of the wayward boy, who kept his friends nevertheless. 'he did not seek beauty,' wrote an ardent student of his work, 'but it came, while pinwell thought of and strove for beauty always, yet often failed to secure it.' that he knew menzel, and was influenced by him, is an open secret; but he also owes much to the pre-raphaelites--millais especially. yet when all he learned from contemporary artists is fully credited, what is left, and it is by far the largest portion, is his own absolutely--owing nothing to any predecessor, except possibly to the sculptors of greece. he died in scotland in june , and was buried at the marlow he painted so delightfully, leaving behind him the peculiar immortality that is awarded more readily to a half-fulfilled life than to one which has accomplished all it set out to do, and has outlived its own reputation. * * * * * george john pinwell ( - ).--this notable illustrator, whose work bulks so largely in the latter half of the sixties, was born december , , and died september , . he studied at the newman street academy, entering in . at first his illustrations show little promise; some of the earliest, in _lilliput levée_, a book of delightful rhymes for children, by matthew browne, are singularly devoid of interest. no engraver's name appears on them, nor is it quite clear by what process they were reproduced. they are inserted plates, and, under a strong magnifying glass, the lines suggest lithography. the unfamiliar medium, supposing they were drawn in lithographic ink, or by graphotype, or some similar process, would account for the entire absence of the qualities that might have been expected. some others, in _hacco the dwarf_ and in _the happy home_, the latter in crude colours, are hardly more interesting. [illustration: a. boyd houghton 'good words' , p. my treasure] according to mr. harry quilter,[ ] pinwell began life as a butterman's boy in the city road, whose duty, among other things, was to 'stand outside the shop on saturday nights shouting buy! buy! buy!' later on he seems to have been a 'carpet-planner.' if one might read the words as 'carpet-designer,' the fact of turning up about this time at leigh's night-school, where he met fred walker, would not be quite so surprising. between walker and pinwell a friendship sprang up, but it seems to have been thomas white who introduced the former to _once a week_, wherein his first contribution, _the saturnalia_, was published, january , . in he began to work for messrs. dalziel on the _arabian nights_ and the _illustrated goldsmith_, which latter is his most important volume. in he became a member of the old water colour society, but his work as a colourist does not concern us here. nor is it necessary to recapitulate the enormous quantity of his designs which in magazines and books are noticed elsewhere in these pages. some illustrations to _jean ingelow's poems_, notably seven to _the high tide_, represent his best period. but he suffered terribly by translation at the engravers' hands. the immobility, which characterises so many of his figures, does not appear in the few drawings which survive. mr. pennell is the fortunate possessor of several of the designs for _the high tide_; but the pleasure of studying these originals is changed to pain when one remembers how many others were cut away by the engraver. it is curious that three men, so intimately associated as walker, pinwell, and houghton, should have preserved their individuality so entirely. it is impossible to confuse the work of any of them. walker infused a grace into the commonplace which, so far as the engravings are concerned, sometimes escaped pinwell's far more imaginative creations; while houghton lived in a world of his own, wherein all animate and inanimate objects obeyed the lines, the swirling curves, he delighted in. if, as has been well said, walker was a greek--but a dull greek--then pinwell may be called a naturalist with a touch of realism in his technique, while houghton was romantic to the core in essence and manipulation alike. * * * * * arthur hughes.--in appeared _the music-master_, the second enlarged and illustrated edition of _day and night songs_, a book of poems by william allingham, to which reference has been made several times in this chronicle. of its ten illustrations, seven and a vignette are from the hand of arthur hughes. the artist thus early associated with the leaders of the pre-raphaelite movement, and still actively at work, was never, technically, a member of the brotherhood. in , however, we find him one of the enthusiastic young artists rossetti had gathered round him with a view to the production of the so-called frescoes in the oxford union. the oft-told tale of this noble failure need not be repeated here. those who were responsible for the paintings in question appear more or less relieved to find that the work has ceased to exist. true, the majority of picture-lovers who have never seen them regard them, sentimentally, as the fine flower of pre-raphaelite art, which faded before it was fully open. judging from the restored fragments which remain, had they been permanent, they would not have been more than interesting curiosities; examples of the 'prentice efforts' of men who afterwards shaped the course of british art, not merely for their own generation, but, as we can see to-day, for a much longer time. the great difficulties of the task these ardent novices undertook so light-heartedly may or may not have checked the practice of wall-painting in england, if, indeed, one can speak of a check to a movement that never existed. to trace in detail the course of mr. hughes's work, from this date to the present, would be a pleasant and somewhat lengthy task. yet, although greater men are less fully dealt with, a running narrative showing where the illustrations appeared will be more valuable than any attempt to estimate the intrinsic value of the work, or explain its attractive quality. that the work is singularly lovable, and has found staunch and ardent admirers amid varying schools of artists, is unquestionable. without claiming that it equals the best work of the 'brotherhood,' it has a charm all its own. the sense of delight in lovely things is present throughout, nor does its elegance often degenerate to mere prettiness. the naïve expression of a child's ideal of lovely forms, with a curiously well-sustained type of beauty, neither greek nor gothic, yet having a touch of paganism in its mysticism, is always present in it. with a peculiarly individual manner--so that the signature, which is usually to be found in some unobtrusive corner, is needless,--a student of illustration can 'spot' an arthur hughes at the most rapid glance as surely as he could identify a du maurier. there are painters and draughtsmen of all periods, before whose work you are well content to cease from criticism, and to enjoy simply, with all their imperfections, the qualities that attract you. passionate intensity, the perfection of academic draughtsmanship, dramatic composition as it is usually understood, may, or may not, be always evident. whether they are or not is in this case of entirely secondary importance. certain indefinable qualities, lovable and lasting, are sure to be the most noticeable, whether you light on a print that has escaped you hitherto, or turn up one that you have known since the day it was published. like caters for the like, and this love which the work provokes from those to whom it appeals seems also its chief characteristic. in the whole mass of pictorial art you can hardly find its equal in this particular respect. the care and sorrow of life, its disillusions and injustice, are not so much forgotten, or set aside thoughtlessly, as recognised at their relative unimportance when contrasted with the widespread, yet absolutely indefinable thing, which it is convenient to term love. not, be it explained, love in its carnal sense, but, in an abstract spiritual way, which seeks the quiet happiness in adding to the joy of others, and trusts that somehow, somewhere, good is the final end of ill. it may be that this attempt to explain the impression of mr. hughes's work is a purely personal one, but it is one that intimate study for many years strengthens and raises to the unassailable position of a positive fact. at the risk of appearing mawkishly sentimental, even with the greater risk of reflecting sentimentality upon artistic work which it has not, this impression of mr. arthur hughes's art must be set down unmistakably. looking upon it from a purely technical aspect, you might find much to praise, and perhaps a little to criticise; but, taking it as an art addressed often enough to the purpose of forming artistic ideals in the minds of the young, you cannot but regret that the boys and girls of to-day, despite the army of artists of all ranks catering for them, cannot know the peculiar delight that the children of the sixties and early seventies enjoyed. arthur hughes was born in london in , and became a pupil of soames of the royal academy schools, exhibiting for the first time at the annual exhibition in . in appeared, as we have just seen, _the music-master_. the artist seems to have worked fitfully at illustrations, but his honourable labours in painting dispose of any charge of indolence, and, did but the scope of this work permit it, a still more interesting record of his artistic career could be made by including a list of pictures exhibited at the royal academy, the institute, the grosvenor, the new gallery, and elsewhere. between and i have found no illustrations, nor does he himself recall any. in the latter year there are two designs in _the queen_ to poems by george mac donald and f. greenwood. the next magazine illustration in order is _at the sepulchre_ in _good words_, . in appeared an edition of tennyson's _enoch arden_, with twenty-five illustrations by arthur hughes.' this noteworthy book is one of the essential volumes to those who make ever so small a collection of the books of the sixties. although the work is unequal, it contains some of his most delightful drawings. in the same year _london society_ contained _the farewell salutation_. in george mac donald's _dealings with the fairies_ was published. this dainty little book, which contains some very typical work, is exceptionally scarce. another book which was published in is now very difficult to run across in its first edition, _five days' entertainment at wentworth grange_, by f. t. palgrave, illustrated with seventeen designs, the woodcuts (_sic_) being by j. cooper, and a vignette engraved on steel by c. h. jeens. [illustration: arthur hughes 'good words' , p. the letter] [illustration: arthur hughes 'good words' , p. the dial--'sun comes, moon comes'] to belongs the book with which the artist is most frequently associated, _tom brown's school days_, by tom hughes, not a relative of the illustrator as the name might suggest. to descant on the merits of this edition to-day were foolish. when one hears of a new illustrated edition being contemplated, it seems sacrilege, and one realises how distinctly a newly illustrated _tom brown_ would separate the generation that knew the book through mr. arthur hughes's imagination from those who will make friends with it in company with another artist. incidents like these bring home the inevitable change of taste with passing time more vividly than far weightier matters enforce it. _good words_ in contains two drawings to _carmina nuptialia_, and _the sunday magazine_ the same year has a very beautiful composition, _blessings in disguise_. in - _good words for the young_ includes, in the first two volumes, no less than seventy-six illustrations by mr. hughes to _at the back of the north wind_, fourteen to _the boy in grey_, thirty to _ranald bannerman's boyhood_, thirty to _the princess and goblin_, ten to _lilliput revels_, six to _lilliput lectures_, and two to _king arthur_, besides one each to _fancy_, _the mariner's cave_, and a notable design to _the wind and the moon_. in also belongs _my lady wind_ (p. ), _little tommy tucker_ (p. ), in _novello's national nursery rhymes_. in _good words_ contains four: _the mother and the angel_ and three full-page designs, which rank among the most important of the artist's work in illustration, to tennyson's _loves of the wrens_. this song-cycle, which the late poet laureate wrote expressly for sullivan to set to music, was issued in in a sumptuous quarto. the publisher, strahan, who at that time issued all tennyson's work, had intended to include illustrations, and three were finished before the poet vetoed the project. these were cut down and issued with the accompanying lyrics in _good words_. although the artist, vexed no doubt at their curtailment, and by no means satisfied with their engraving, does not rank them among his best things, few who collect his work will share his view. despite the trespass beyond the limit of this book, it would be better to continue the list to date, and it is all too brief. in _good words_ contains five of his designs, and _good words for the young_ twenty-four to _innocent's island_, and eight to _gutta-percha willie_. saw two remarkably good volumes decorated by this artist, t. gordon hake's _parables and tales_ (chapman and hall) and _sing song_, a book of nursery rhymes by christina rossetti (routledge). in ten to _sindbad the sailor_, and six or seven others appeared in _good words for the young_, now entitled _good things_. to this year belongs also _speaking likenesses_ by christina rossetti, with its dozen fanciful and charming designs; and a frontispiece and full page (p. ), in mr. george mac donald's _england's antiphon_ (macmillan). in or _the graphic_ christmas number contained two full-page illustrations by this artist. to belongs a delightful vignette upon the title-page of mrs. george mac donald's _chamber dramas_. with a bare mention of seven drawings, inadequately reproduced in _the london home monthly_, , the record of mr. arthur hughes's work must close; several designs to a poem by jean ingelow, _the shepherd's lady_, the artist has lost sight of, and the date of the first edition of _five old friends and a young prince_, by miss thackeray, with a vignette, i have failed to trace at the british museum or elsewhere. as mr. arthur hughes, in the _music-master_ ( ), heads the list, so it seemed fit to mark his position by a fuller record than could be awarded to other of his contemporaries still living; partly because the comparatively small number of illustrations made a fairly complete record possible. * * * * * frederick sandys.--this most admirable illustrator 'was born in norwich in , the son of a painter of the place, from whom he received his earliest art-instruction. among his first drawings was a series of illustrations of the birds of norfolk, and another dealing with the antiquities of his native city. probably he first exhibited in , with a portrait (in crayons) of "henry, lord loftus" which appears as the work of "f. sands" in the catalogue of the royal academy to whose exhibitions he has contributed in all forty-seven pictures and drawings.'[ ] the above, extracted from mr. j. m. gray's article, 'frederick sandys and the woodcut designers of thirty years ago,' gives the facts which concern us here. a most interesting study of the same artist by the same critic, in the _art journal_,[ ] supplies more description and analysed appreciation. the eulogy by mr. joseph pennell in _the quarto_[ ] must not be forgotten. further references to mr. sandys appear in a lecture delivered by professor herkomer at the royal institution, printed in the _art journal_, , and in a review of thornbury's _ballads_ by mr. edmund gosse in _the academy_.[ ] [illustration: frederick sandys 'century guild hobby-horse' vol. iii. p. danae in the brazen chamber] [illustration: frederick sandys dalziels' 'bible gallery,' jacob hears the voice of the lord] it is quite possible, although only thirteen of the thirty or so of illustrations by frederick sandys appeared in _once a week_, that these thirteen have been the most potent factor in giving the magazine its peculiar place in the hearts of artists. the general public may have forgotten its early volumes, but at no time since they were published have painters and pen-draughtsmen failed to prize them. during the years that saw them appear there are frequent laudatory references in contemporary journals, with now and again the spiteful attack which is only awarded to work that is unlike the average. elsewhere mention is made of articles upon them which have appeared from time to time by messrs. edmund gosse, j. m. gray, joseph pennell, and others. during the 'seventies,' no less than in the 'eighties' or 'nineties,' men cut out the pages and kept them in their portfolios; so that to-day, in buying volumes of the magazine, a wise person is careful to see that the 'sandys' are all there before completing the purchase. therefore, should the larger public admit them formally into the limited group of its acknowledged masterpieces, it will only imitate the attitude which from the first fellow-artists have maintained towards them. the original drawings, '_if_,' _life's journey_, _the little mourner_, and _jacques de caumont_, were exhibited at the 'arts and crafts,' . that a companion volume to millais's _parables_, with illustrations of _the story of joseph_, was actually projected, and the first drawings completed, is true, and one's regret that circumstances--those hideous circumstances, which need not be explained fully, of an artist's ideas rejected by a too prudish publisher--prevented its completion, is perhaps the most depressing item recorded in the pages of this volume. that some thirty designs all told should have established the lasting reputation of an artist would be somewhat surprising, did not one realise that almost every one is a masterpiece of its kind. owing to the courtesy of all concerned, so large a number of these are reproduced herewith that a detailed description of each would be superfluous. but, at the risk of repeating a list already printed and reprinted, it is well to condense the scattered references in the foregoing pages in a convenient paragraph, wherein those republished in thornbury's _legendary ballads_ (chatto, ) are noted with an asterisk:-- the cornhill magazine: _the portent_ (' ), _manoli_ (' ), _cleopatra_ (' ); once a week: *_yet once more on the organ play_, _the sailor's bride_, _from my window_, *_three statues of Ægina_, _rosamund queen of the lombards_ (all ), *_the old chartist_, *_the king at the gate_, *_jacques de caumont_, *_king warwolf_, *_the boy martyr_, *_harold harfagr_ (all ' ), and _helen and cassandra_ (' ); good words: _until her death_ (' ), _sleep_ (' ); churchman's family magazine: *_the waiting time_ (' ); shilling magazine: _amor mundi_ (' ); the quiver: _advent of winter_ (' ); the argosy: _'if'_ (' ); the century guild hobby horse: _danae_ (' ); wilmot's sacred poetry: _life's journey_, _the little mourner_; cassell's family magazine: _proud maisie_ (' ); and dalziels' bible gallery: _jacob hears the voice of the lord_. [illustration: frederick sandys 'the quiver' october] in addition, it may be interesting to add notes of other drawings:--_the nightmare_ ( )[ ], a parody of _sir isumbras at the ford_, by millais, which shows a braying ass marked 'j. r.' (for john ruskin), with millais, rossetti, and holman hunt on his back; _morgan le fay_, reproduced as a double-page supplement in _the british architect_, october , ; a frontispiece, engraved on steel by j. saddler, for miss muloch's _christian's mistake_ (hurst and blackett), and another for _the shaving of shagpat_ (chapman and hall, ); a portrait of matthew arnold, engraved by o. lacour, published in _the english illustrated magazine_, january ; another of professor j. r. green, engraved by g. j. stodardt, in _the conquest of england_, ; and one of robert browning, published in _the magazine of art_ shortly after the poet's death; _miranda_, a drawing reproduced in _the century guild hobby horse_, vol. iii. p. ; _medea_, reproduced (as a silver-print photograph) in col. richard's poem of that name (chapman and hall, ); a reproduction of the original drawing for _amor mundi_, and studies for the same, in the two editions of mr. pennell's _pen-drawing and pen-draughtsmen_ (macmillan); a reproduction of an unfinished drawing on wood, _the spirit of the storm_, in _the quarto_ (no. , ); _proud maisie in pan_ ( ), reissued in _songs of the north_, and engraved by w. spielmayer (from the original in possession of dr. john todhunter) in the _english illustrated magazine_, may , and the original drawing for the _advent of winter_ and one of _two heads_, reproduced in j. m. gray's article in the _art journal_ (march ). whether the _judith_ here reproduced was originally drawn for engraving i cannot say. to add another eulogy of these works is hardly necessary at this moment, when their superb quality has provoked a still wider recognition than ever. concerning the engraving of some mr. sandys complained bitterly, but of others, notably the _danae_, he wrote in october : 'my drawing was most perfectly cut by swain, from my point of view, the best piece of wood-cutting of our time--mind i am not speaking of my work, but swain's.' to see that the artist's complaint was at times not unfounded one has but to compare the _advent of winter_ as it appears in a reproduction of the drawing (_art journal_, march ) and in _the quiver_. 'it was my best drawing entirely spoilt by the cutter,' he said; but this was perhaps a rather hasty criticism that is hardly proved up to the hilt by the published evidence. as a few contemporary criticisms quoted elsewhere go to prove, sandys was never ignored by artists nor by people of taste. to-day there are dozens of men in europe without popular appreciation at home or abroad, but surely if his fellows recognise the master-hand, it is of little moment whether the cheap periodicals ignore him, or publish more or less adequately illustrated articles on the man and his work. frederick sandys is and has been a name to conjure with for the last thirty years. though still alive, he has gained (i believe) no official recognition. but that is of little consequence. there are laureates uncrowned and presidents unelected still living among us whose lasting fame is more secure than that of many who have worn the empty titles without enjoying the unstinted approval of fellow-craftsmen which alone makes any honour worthy an artist's acceptance. * * * * * sir edward burne-jones.--the illustrations of this artist are so few that it is a matter of regret that they could not all be reproduced here. but the artist, without withholding permission, expressed a strong wish that they should not be reprinted. the two in _good words_ have been already named. others to a quite forgotten book must not be mentioned; but it is safe to say that no human being, who did not know by whom they were produced, would recognise them. a beautiful design[ ] for a frontispiece to mr. william morris's _love is enough_ was never engraved. the _nativity_ in gatty's _parables from nature_, and the one design in the _dalziel bible_ have already been named. many drawings for _cupid and psyche_, the first portion of a proposed illustrated folio edition of _the earthly paradise_, were actually engraved, some of the blocks being cut by mr. morris himself. several sets of impressions exist, and rumour for a long time babbled of a future kelmscott press edition. of his more recent designs nothing can be said here; besides being a quarter of a century later than the prescribed limits of the volume, they are as familiar as any modern work could be. * * * * * walter crane.--this popular artist was born in liverpool, august , , his father being sometime secretary and treasurer of the (then) liverpool academy. after a boyhood spent mostly at torquay the family came to london in . in he became a pupil of mr. w. j. linton, the well-known engraver, and remained with him for three years. about he first saw the work of burne-jones at the society of painters in water colours. these drawings, and some japanese toy-books which fell in his way, have no doubt strongly influenced his style; but the earlier pre-raphaelites and the _once a week_ school had been eagerly studied before. although mr. crane, with his distinctly individual manner, is not a typical artist of the sixties any more than of the seventies, or of to-day, and although his style had hardly found its full expression at that time, except in the toy-books, yet no record of the period could be complete without a notice of one whose loyalty to a particular style has done much to found the modern 'decorative school.' [illustration: walter crane 'good words' , p. treasure-trove] his first published drawing, _a man in the coils of a serpent_, appears in a quite forgotten magazine called _entertaining things_, vol. i. , p. (virtue); others, immature, and spoilt by the engraver, are in _the talking fire-irons_ and similar tracts by the rev. h. b. power. in many of the magazines, of which the contents are duly noted,--_good words_, _once a week_, _the argosy_, _london society_, etc.--reference has been already made to each of his drawings as it appeared therein. a bibliography of his work, to be exhaustive, would take up more room than space permitted here. as it will be the task of the one, whoever he may be, who undertakes to chronicle english illustrations of the seventies, it may be left without further notice. for, with the exception of the _new forest_ ( ), all the other books which may be called masterpieces of their order, _grimms' household stories_, _the necklace of princess fiorimonde_, _the baby's bouquet_, _baby's opera_, _Æsop's fables_, _flora's feast_, _queen summer_, the long series of mrs. molesworth's children's books, many 'coloured boards' for novels, and the rest, belong to a later period. to find that a large paper copy of _grimms' household stories_ fetched thirty-six pounds at lord leighton's sale is a proof that collectors of 'cranes' are already in full cry. two hundred and fifty copies of this book were issued in large paper; the copy in question, although handsomely bound, did not derive its value solely from that fact. modern readers rubbed their eyes to find a recent _édition de luxe_ fetching a record price; but, if certain signs are not misleading, the market value of many books of the sixties will show a rapid increase that will surprise the apathetic collector, who now regards them as commonplace. to believe that the worth of anything is just as much as it will bring is a most foolish test of intrinsic value; but, should the auctioneer's marked catalogue of a few years hence show that 'the sixties' produced works which coax the reluctant guineas out of the pockets of those who a short time before would not expend shillings, it will but reflect the well-seasoned verdict of artists for years past. in matters of science and of commerce the man in the street acts on the opinion of the expert, but in matters of art he usually prefers his own. if, when he wakens to the intrinsic value of objects about which artists know no difference of opinion, he has to pay heavily for his conceited belief in his own judgment, it is at once poetic justice and good common sense. space forbids, unfortunately, detailed notices of fred barnard, c. h. bennett, t. morten, george du maurier, john pettie, r.a., and many other deceased artists whose works have been frequently referred to in previous chapters. fairly complete iconographies had been prepared of the works of mr. birket foster, sir john gilbert, and ernest griset. these, and other no less important lists, have also been omitted for the same reason. nor is it necessary to include here notices of artists whose fame has been established in another realm of art--such as mr. whistler, mr. luke fildes, r.a., professor herkomer, r.a., messrs. w. q. orchardson, r.a., h. s. marks, r.a., h. h. armstead, r.a., edmund j. poynter, r.a., g. h. boughton, j. w. north, r.a., and george frederick watts, r.a. others, including w. small, charles green, sir john tenniel, would each require a volume, instead of a few paragraphs, to do even bare justice to the amazing quantity of notable illustrations they have produced. fortunately most of them are still alive and active, so that a more worthy excuse remains for omitting to give a complete iconography of each one here, for they belong to a far more extended period than is covered by this book. dalziel brothers the firm of dalziel brothers deserves more notice than it has received in the many incidental references throughout this book. to mr. thomas dalziel (still alive though past fourscore) and to his brother edward may be awarded the credit of exercising keen critical judgment in the discovery of latent talent among the art students of their day, and of acting as liberal patrons of the art of illustration. in a most courteous letter, written in reply to my request for some details of the establishment of the firm, the youngest brother of the four (mr. thomas dalziel) writes: 'we were constant and untiring workers with our own hands, untiring because it was truly a labour of love. the extension and development of our transactions and the carrying out of many of the fine art works which we published, is unquestionably due to my brother edward dalziel, and to this i am at all times ready to bear unhesitating testimony.' that these talented engravers were draughtsmen of no mean order might be proved in a hundred instances; one or two blocks here reprinted will suffice to establish their right to an honourable position as illustrators. [illustration: t. dalziel dalziels' 'arabian nights,' p. bedreddin hassan and the pastrycook] [illustration: t. dalziel dalziels' 'bible gallery,' the destruction of sodom] among the young artists to whom they gave commissions, at the time in a student's career when encouragement of that description is so vital, we find:--fred walker, g. j. pinwell, a. boyd houghton, j. d. watson, john pettie, r.a., professor herkomer, r.a., j. w. north, a.r.a., and fred barnard. artists of eminence, who in all human probability would never have experimented in drawing upon wood but for messrs. dalziels' suggestion, include the late lord leighton, p.r.a., mr. g. f. watts, r.a., and mr. h. stacy marks, r.a. other illustrators who owe much to the enterprise of this firm, and who in turn helped to make its reputation, include mr. birket foster, sir john gilbert, r.a., mr. george du maurier, sir john tenniel, and mr. harrison weir. it has been impossible to credit these engravers with their due share in every work mentioned in our pages, because to do this would have necessitated, in common justice, a complete record of the other engravers also; in itself enough to double the length of the chronicle already far too verbose. the engravings in _punch_ in its early years, and the _cornhill_ through its finest period, were intrusted to messrs. dalziel, while of _good words_ and _the sunday magazine_ the choice of pictures and their reproduction alike were entirely under their control. the dalziel brothers were born at wooler, northumberland, but spent most of their early days in newcastle-on-tyne. their craft was learned from pupils of thomas bewick. in george dalziel came to london, followed soon after by edward, and later by john and thomas. they were all draughtsmen as well as engravers. thomas devoted himself entirely to drawing. there was also a sister, 'margaret' (who died in ), who practised the art of wood-engraving for many years, with results distinguished for their minute elaboration and fine feeling. soon after settling in london, george was associated with ebenezer landells (who died in ); and the brothers later became intimate with bewick's favourite pupil, william harvey, for whom they engraved many of his drawings for lane's _arabian nights_, charles knight's _shakespeare_ and _bunyan_, and many other works. still later they became acquainted with [sir] john gilbert, and were 'the first who endeavoured to render his drawings throughout according to his own style of lining and suggested manipulation.' their effort was to translate the draughtsman's line, not to paraphrase it by tint-cutting. as a former apologist has written: 'this has been called "facsimile work"; but it is not so, strictly speaking. certainly, whatever it may be called, it required as much artistic knowledge and taste to produce a good result as the so-called tint-work against which they [dalziel brothers] have no word to say, having practised that branch of art to a considerable extent, as may be seen in hundreds of instances, but perhaps most notably in the rev. j. g. wood's _natural history_ and _the history of man_.' the dalziels had clever pupils to whom they attribute most readily no little of their success; of these harry fenn and c. kingdon, who both went to america, may be specially mentioned. but a record of so notable an enterprise cannot be adequately treated here; yet a few authorised facts must needs find place. did space permit, the eulogies of many artists who were entirely satisfied with messrs. dalziels' engraving could be quoted as a set-off to the few, rossetti included, who were querulous. it would be invidious to pick out their best work, but millais's _parables_, birket foster's _beauties of english landscape_, and the illustrated editions of classics: _don quixote_, _arabian nights_, _goldsmith's works_, _the bible gallery_, etc. etc., which bear their imprint, may be numbered among their highest achievements. the share of mr. edmund evans in many notable volumes that owe at least a moiety of their interest to his engraving, and of messrs. swain, must needs be left without comment. mr. joseph swain contributed to _good words_ in some very interesting articles on fred walker, c. h. bennett, and g. j. pinwell. these have since been issued in a volume,[ ] with essays, by various hands, on frederick shields, [sir] john tenniel, and others. it contains ninety illustrations, including the rare early 'fred walker' from _everybody's journal_, and specimens of mr. shields's illustrations to an edition of _the pilgrim's progress_, published (apparently) by the _manchester examiner_. but so far as i know, neither mr. evans nor messrs. swain (in the sixties at all events) projected works as messrs. dalziel did; and the appreciation which they merit, in their own field, would be unfairly recorded in a few hasty lines. index abner, j., . absolon, j., illustrations to beattie and collins's 'poems,' . adams's 'sacred allegories' ( ), illustrations to, by cope, birket foster, horsley, hicks, and s. palmer, , . 'adventures of philip,' . 'Æsop's fables' ( ), tenniel's illustrations to, . ( ) c. h. bennett, . ( ) h. weir, . ( ) e. griset, . 'alice in wonderland' ( ), tenniel's illustrations to, . allen, w. j., . allingham's 'the music-master' ( ), , , , , , . ---- 'day and night songs,' , . ---- 'flower pieces,' . ---- 'life and phantasy,' . _ally sloper_, . andrews, g. h., . andrews, j., . anelay, h., , . 'anglers of the dove,' millais's illustrations to, . ansdell, r., . 'arabian nights' ( ), w. harvey's illustrations to, . ---- dalziels' edition ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, t. and e. dalziel, g. j. pinwell, t. morten, j. tenniel, and j. d. watson, . ---- (warne, ) illustrations by boyd houghton, etc., . archer, j., . _argosy_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . boyd houghton, a., . crane, w., , . edwards, m. e., , . gray, paul, . hughes, e., . lawson, j., . mahoney, j., . pinwell, g. j., . sandys, f., . small, w., . 'armadale,' , . armitage, e., ; illustrations to: 'lyra germanica,' , . 'pupils of st. john the divine,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . armstead, h. h., illustrations to: _good words_, . 'albert memorial,' , . _churchman's family magazine_, . eliza cook's 'poems,' . 'sacred poetry,' . 'touches of nature,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . 'art pictures from old testament,' . armytage, j. c., . art, the new appreciation for, - . ---- old and new tastes in, . ---- of the 'sixties,' - , . ---- of the 'thirties,' . ---- black and white, . ---- influence of great exhibition of on, . 'art and song' ( ), . _art journal_, . artists of the 'sixties,' contemporary appreciation of, . ---- comparison with present-day artists, . ---- collectors of the works of, . ---- of the 'thirties,' . ---- value of, in various mediums, . ---- considerations which influence their quality of work, . 'art pictures from the old testament' ( ), reprints of the illustrations in the 'bible gallery,' , . _art union_, . 'aunt sally's life' ( ), illustrations by g. thomas, . _aunt judy's magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . bayes, a. w., . caldecott, r., . cooper, a. w., . cruikshank, g., . edwards, m. e., . gilbert, f., . griset, e., . lawson, f. w., . morten, t., . pasquier, j. a., . wehner, e. h., . aytoun's 'lays of the scottish cavaliers' ( ), illustrations by noel paton, . bagford, john, . 'ballads and songs of brittany' ( ), illustrations by c. keene and j. e. millais, . _band of hope, the_, . ---- _review_, illustrations and illustrators of, , ; characters of, . anelay, h., . barnes, r., . gilbert, sir j., . huard, l., . weir, h., . wolf, j., . barbauld's 'hymns in prose' ( ), illustrations by barnes and whymper, . barnard, f., , illustrations to: _once a week_, . _good words_, . _london society_, . _cassell's magazine_, . _broadway_, . _good words for the young_, . _fun_, . cassell's 'illustrated readings,' . dickens's 'works' (household edition), . 'episodes of fiction,' . barnes, g. a., . barnes, r., illustrations to: _once a week_, - . _cornhill magazine_, , . _good words_, , . _london society_, , , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, , , , . _cassell's magazine_, . _quiver_, , . _british workman_, . _band of hope review_, . _leisure hour_, . _sunday at home_, . _golden hours_, . 'our life,' . 'the months illustrated,' . 'pictures of english life,' . 'sybil and her snowball,' . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . 'christian lyrics,' . 'original poems' (taylor), . gray's 'elegy,' . baxter (_ally sloper_), . bayes, a. w., , , , , , , , . beattie and collins's 'poems,' illustrations by j. absolon, . 'beauties of english landscape,' . ---- illustrations by b. foster, . _beeton's annuals_, illustrators of, : bennett, c. h., . cruikshank, g., . morten, t., . pasquier, j. a., . thomson, j. g., . _belgravia_, illustrations of, . benham, j. e., . bennett, c. h., illustrations to: 'the excursion train,' _cornhill magazine_, . _good words_, . _london society_, , , . _every boy's magazine_, . _beeton's annuals_, . _illustrated london news_, . 'fables of Æsop,' . 'proverbs with pictures,' . 'pilgrim's progress,' . quarles's 'emblems,' . 'stories little breeches told,' . 'london people,' . 'mrs. wind and madam rain,' . lemon's 'fairy tales,' . bewick, collectors of, . 'bible gallery.' _see_ dalziel. 'bible woodcuts,' . bird, j. a. h., . black and white art, . b[lackburn], j., illustrations to _good words_, , . blake, collectors of, . blair's 'grave' ( ), illustrations by tenniel, . 'bon gaultier ballads' ( ), illustrations to, by doyle, leech, and crowquill, . books, illustrated, the destruction of, for collecting purposes, . ---- the difficulty of collecting them, . ---- the value of dates in, , . ---- difficulties in compiling a complete bibliography of, . 'book of british ballads' (s. c. hall, ), . 'book of celebrated poems,' illustrations by cope and k. meadows, . 'book of favourite modern ballads' ( ), illustrations by cope, horsley, a. solomon, and s. palmer, . 'book of job' ( ), illustrated by j. gilbert, . borders, f., . boughton, g. h., viii, , . _bow bells_, . bowers, g., , . 'boy pilgrims,' the ( ), illustrations by a. boyd houghton, . 'boy's book of ballads' ( ), illustrations by sir j. gilbert, . _boy's own magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . bayes, a. w., . dudley, r., . pasquier, j. a., . thomson, j. g., . boyd houghton, a., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, , , , , , , . _london society_, , , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, - . _argosy_, . _quiver_, , . _tinsley's magazine_, . _broadway_, . _good words for the young_, , . _golden hours_, . _every boy's magazine_, . _fun_, . _illustrated london news_, . _graphic_, , . dalziels' 'arabian nights,' , . 'victorian history of england,' . 'a round of days,' . 'home thoughts and home scenes,' , . 'happy day stories,' . 'arabian nights,' , . 'don quixote,' , . 'ernie elton, the lazy boy,' . 'patient henry,' . 'stories told to a child,' . 'the boy pilgrims,' . jean ingelow's 'poems,' . 'ballad stories of the affections,' , . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' , . 'christian lyrics,' . 'spirit of praise,' . longfellow's 'poems,' , . 'north coast and other poems,' , . 'golden thoughts from golden fountains,' . 'savage club papers,' . 'nobility of life,' . novello's 'national nursery rhymes,' , . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' , . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . ---- biographical account of, , , . ---- the quality of his designs, . ---- catalogue of forty designs exhibited ( ), . ---- his great fecundity in work, . ---- mr. laurence housman's book on, , . bradley, b., - , , . brandling, h., . brewtnall (e. f.), , , . _britannia_, illustrations for, by matt morgan, . _british architect_, . _british workman_, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, . anelay, h., . barnes, r., . cruikshank, g., . cooper, a. w., . gilbert, sir j., . huard, l., . watson, j. d., . weir, harrison, . wyon, l. c., . _broadway, the_, illustrators of, . barnard, f., . barnes, g. a., . boyd houghton, a., . brunton, w., . edwards, m. e., . gray, paul, . griset, e., . huttula, r. c., . lawson, f. w., . morgan, matt, . nash, thomas, . pasquier, j. a., . thompson, alfred, . thomson, j. g., . brookes, warwick, . brown, ford madox, illustrations to: _once a week_, . _dark blue_, . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'lyra germanica,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . brown, isaac l., . brown, j. o., . browne, h. k. _see_ 'phiz.' browning (mrs.) 'ariadne in naxos,' . brunton, w., illustrations to: _london society_, , , . _tinsley's magazine_, . _broadway_, . _fun_, . buchanan's 'ballad stories of the affections' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, e. and t. dalziel, j. lawson, g. j. pinwell, w. small, and j. d. watson, . ---- 'north coast and other poems' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, e. and t. dalziel, g. j. pinwell, w. small, j. wolf, j. b. zwecker, . buckman, w. r., , . bunyan's 'pilgrim's progress' ( ), illustrations by: clayton, . ( ) j. h. thomas, . ( ) c. h. bennett, . ( ) d. scott and w. b. scott, . ( ) dalziel, . ( ) p. priolo and c. h. selous, . burne-jones (sir e.), illustrations to: _good words_, , , , . chaucer drawings, . 'parables from nature,' , . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' , . 'cupid and psyche,' . ---- on rossetti, . ---- summary of his work, . ---- design for 'love is enough,' . burns's 'poems and songs' ( ), illustrations by birket foster, . burton, w. p., , , . burton, w. s., illustrations to _once a week_, . bury, viscount, . bushnell, a., . caldecott, randolph, illustrations to _aunt judy's magazine_, . cameron, h., . caricaturists, victorian, , . carrick, j. m., . carroll's 'alice in wonderland' ( ), tenniel's illustrations to, . cassell and co., publications of, . _cassell's family paper_, . ---- illustrations by w. small, sir j. gilbert, l. huard, f. gilbert, and t. morten, . _cassell's magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, , , . barnard, f., . barnes, r., . bradley, b., , . browne, h. k., . corbould, e. h., . duckman, w. r., . edwards, m. e., , . ellis, e., . fildes, s. l., , . fraser, f. a., , . green, c., . green, t., . henley, . hughes, e., . lawson, j., . lawson, f. w., , . linton, j. d., . mahoney, j., . paterson, h., . pinwell, g. j., . pritchett, r. t., . ridley, m. w., . small, w., , . staniland, c. j., . thomas, g. h., . walker, f. s., . watson, j. d., . wirgman, t. b., . cassell's 'history of england' ( , vol. i.), illustrations by w. small, . ---- 'illustrated readings' ( ), illustrations by f. barnard, j. mahoney, s. l. fildes, w. small, and j. d. watson, . cassell, john, . _casket, the_, . 'chambers's household shakespeare' ( ), illustrations by k. halswelle, . 'chandos poets,' the ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, fraser, and french, . chatto and jackson's 'history of wood engraving,' , . 'childe harold' ( ), illustrations by skelton, , . 'children's garland,' the ( ), illustrations by j. lawson, . 'children's hour,' the ( ), illustrations by w. small, . 'children's sayings' ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . 'child's play' ( ), . 'choice series,' the ( ), illustrations by b. foster, gilbert, h. weir, etc., , . 'christian lyrics' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, boyd houghton, etc., . 'christmas with the poets' ( ), illustrations by birket foster, , . _chromo-lithograph, the_, . _churchman's family magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, , , . allen, w. j., . armitage, e., . armstead, h. h., . barnes, r., boyd houghton, a., . claxton, f., . claxton, m., . cooper, a. w., . cope, c. w., . corbould, e. h., , creswick, . dalziel, t. b., . edwards, m. e., , . fitzcook, h., . friston, d. h., . green, c, , . horsley, j. c., . huard, l., . johnson, e. k., , justyne, p. w., . keyl, f. w., . lawless, m. j., . m'connell, w., . macquoid, t., . marks, h. s., . millais, j. e., . morten, t., , . pickersgill, f. r., . pinwell, g. j., . poynter, e. j., . priolo, p., . sanderson, h., . sandys, f., . selous, h. c., . skelton, p., . solomon, r., . sulman, t., . thomas, g. h., . vining, h. m., . watson, j. d., , . wehnert, e. h., . zwecker, j. b., . _churchman's shilling magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, . crane, w., . edwards, m. e., . huttula, r., . leigh, john, . clark, j., . clarke, e. f. c., , . claxton, a., illustrations to _london society_, . ---- other illustrations, , , , . claxton, florence, , , , . claxton, marshall, . clayton, john, illustrations to: herbert's 'poetical works,' . 'pilgrim's progress,' . pollok's 'course of time,' . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'dramatic scenes,' . 'lays of the holy land,' . 'home affections,' . krummacher's 'parables,' . _clichés_, beginning of the use of, . ---- bad influence on original productions, . 'cloister and the hearth,' the, . coleridge's 'ancient mariner' ( ), illustrations by: b. foster, a. duncan, and wehnert, . ( ), d. scott, . collecting, cost of, . collections, how to arrange, . ---- methods for preserving, . collectors, two objects of, - . ---- delights of, . ---- objects supplied by the present volume for, x. - . ---- dangers to be avoided by, . collins's (wilkie) 'armadale,' , . colomb, w., . cook's (eliza) 'poems' ( ), illustrations by armstead, j. gilbert, j. d. watson, h. weir, j. wolf, . cope, c. w., , , , , ; illustrations to: 'favourite english poems,' . 'book of favourite modern ballads,' . moore's 'irish melodies,' . cooke, e. w., . cooper, a. w., , , , , , , , , . corbould, e. h., , , , , , , , , . 'cornhill gallery': its quality and characteristics, , . _cornhill magazine_, . ---- aim of its editor, . ---- the anonymity of artists in, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, - . allingham, h., . barnes, r., , . bennett, c. h., . doyle, r., . du maurier, g., , , . edwards, m. e., . fildes, s. l., . herkomer, h., . hopkins, a., . hughes, a., . keene, c., . lawson, f. w., . leighton, f., . leslie, c. d., . millais, j. e., . paterson, h., . paton, noel, . pinwell, g. j., . sandys, f., , . small, w., . stone, marcus, . thackeray, w. m., , . walker, f., , , . cornwall (barry), 'dramatic scenes' ( ), illustrations by dalziel, clayton, . cowper's 'works,' illustrations by john gilbert, . ---- 'the task,' illustrations by birket foster, . crane, w., illustrations to: _once a week_, , . _good words_, , . _london society_, , , . _argosy_, , , . _churchman's shilling magazine_, . _every boy's magazine_, . _punch_, . _entertaining things_, . 'the new forest,' , . 'children's sayings,' . 'stories of old,' . toy-books, , . 'stories from memel,' . 'merry heart,' . 'king gab's story bag,' . 'magic of kindness,' . 'poetry of nature,' . roberts's 'legendary ballads,' . 'songs of many seasons,' . 'the necklace of princess fiorimonde,' . grimms' 'fairy tales,' . 'the baby's bouquet,' . 'baby's opera,' . Æsop's 'fables,' . 'flora's feast,' . 'queen summer,' . ---- critical and biographical notice of, , . ---- a pupil of w. j. linton, . ---- influence of burne-jones and japanese art, . creswick, t., , ; illustrations to: tennyson's 'poems,' . 'favourite english poems,' . 'early english poems,' . cropsey, j., . crowquill, a., ; illustrations to: 'bon gaultier ballads,' . 'munchausen,' . cruikshank (g.), collectors of, . ---- quality of his art work, , ; illustrations to: _london society_, . _british workman_, . _aunt judy's magazine_, . _beeton's annuals_, . 'ingoldsby legends,' . cruikshank, r., . cumming's 'life and lessons of our lord' ( ), illustrations by c. green, a. hunt, and p. skelton, . 'cycle of life,' the ( ), . dalziels' 'bible gallery' ( - ), illustrations by f. leighton, g. f. watts, f. r. pickersgill, e. j. poynter, e. armitage, h. h. armstead, burne-jones, holman hunt, madox brown, s. solomon, boyd houghton, w. small, e. f. brewtnall, e. and t. dalziel, a. murch, f. s. walker, and f. sandys, . dalziel, e., , , , , , , , , . dalziel, t. b., viii. , , , , , , , , , , , , , . ---- his own expressions about his work, . dalziels, the, , . ---- sketch of their careers, , , . ---- commissions given by them, . ---- works engraved by them, , . ---- their aims in engraving, . ---- their pupils, . 'dame dingle's fairy tales' ( ), illustrations by j. proctor, . 'dance of death,' . _dark blue_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . bird, j. a. h., . brown, ford madox, . clarke, e. f., . cooper, a. w., . fitzgerald, m., . freere, m. e., . friston, d. h., . hall, s. p., . hennessey, w. j., . lawson, cecil, . lawson, f. w., . perry, t. w., . ridley, t. w., . robinson, t., . solomon, simeon, . white, d. t., . darley, felix, , . 'day and night songs,' , . _day of rest_, . 'dealings with the fairies' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, . defoe's 'history of the plague,' shield's illustrations to, , . defoe's 'robinson crusoe' ( ), illustrations by: j. d. watson, . ( ) g. h. thomas, . dell, j. h., illustrations to 'nature pictures,' . 'denis duval,' . 'deserted village' (etching club), . dickens's works, illustrations of, , . ---- 'household edition' ( ), illustrations by fred barnard, 'phiz,' j. mahoney, c. green, f. a. fraser, e. g. dalziel, s. l. fildes, h. french, g. b. frost, j. g. thomson, j. m'l. ralston, , . ---- 'edwin drood' ( ), illustrations by s. l. fildes, . 'divine and moral songs' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, m. e. edwards, c. green, morten, w. c. thomas, and g. d. watson, , . dobell, c., , , . dobson, w. t. c., . 'don quixote' ( ), illustrations by: dorÉ, , . boyd houghton, . dorÉ, g., . ---- illustrations to 'don quixote,' , . doyle, c. a., illustrations to _london society_, , . doyle, j. o., . doyle, r., 'pictures of society,' ; illustrations to: 'bon gaultier ballads,' . 'foreign tour of brown, jones, and robinson,' . 'manners and customs of the english,' . 'scouring of the white horse,' . 'puck on pegasus,' . 'an old fairy tale,' . 'lemon's fairy tales,' . 'in fairyland,' . drummond, j., . dudley, r., illustrations to: _london society_, , . _boys' own magazine_, . du maurier, g., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , , , . 'foul play,' . _cornhill_, , . 'wives and daughters,' , . 'harry richmond,' , . 'the hand of ethelberta,' . _good words_, . _london society_, , , , , . _leisure hour_, . _sunday at home_, . _punch_, , . 'sacred poetry,' . 'our life,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'the moon shines full,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'touches of nature,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' , . 'story of a feather,' . 'lucile,' . 'savage club papers,' . 'pictures from english literature,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . 'songs of many seasons,' . 'pegasus re-saddled,' . duncan, a., illustrations to 'ancient mariner,' . duncan, e., , , , , . dunn, edith, . 'early english poems' ( ), illustrations by creswick, duncan, b. foster, j. gilbert, r. redgrave, and j. thomas, . edwards, d., . edwards, kate, , , . edwards, m. e., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , , , . _cornhill magazine_, . _good words_, . _london society_, - . _churchman's family magazine_, , . _sunday magazine_, , . _cassell's magazine_, , . _argosy_, , . _quiver_, . _churchman's shilling magazine_, . _broadway_, . _golden hours_, . _aunt judy's magazine_, . _illustrated times_, . 'parables from nature,' . 'puck on pegasus,' . 'family fairy tales,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'mother's last words,' , . 'idyllic pictures,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . 'illustrated book of sacred poems,' . ehrenger, j. w., . 'ellen montgomery's book-shelf' ( ), illustrations by j. d. watson, . eliot, g., 'romola,' . ---- 'brother jacob,' . ellis, e. j., , , . eltze, f., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, . _sunday magazine_, . lemon's 'a new table-book,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . 'english sacred poetry of the olden time' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, c. green, j. w. north, j. tenniel, p. skelton, f. walker, and j. d. watson, , . engravers, old methods of, . ---- work in the 'sixties,' . ---- enterprise of, . engraving, responsibility of artist in, . ---- relation of publisher to, . ---- object of an, . ---- white line, . _entertaining things_, its rarity, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, , . boyd houghton, a., . crane, w., . du maurier, g., , . justyne, p., . linton, w. j., . m'connell, w., . morgan, m. s., . morten, t., . portch, j., . skill, f. j., . weedar, e., . 'episodes of fiction' ( ), illustrations by f. barnard, c. green, r. paterson, p. skelton, c. j. staniland, h. weir, etc., . 'ernie elton the lazy boy' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, . etching, influence of the revival of, , , , . etching club, the, , , . 'evan harrington,' keene's illustrations to, . evans, edmund, . _everybody's journal_, the british museum edition imperfect, . ---- illustrators of, . gilbert, sir, j., . morten, t., . walker, f., , . weir, harrison, . _every boy's magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, . bennett, c. h., . boyd houghton, a., . crane, walter, . morten, t., . nixon, j. forbes, . ridley, m. w., . _every week_, . ewart, h. c., 'toilers in art,' . exhibition of , influences of, on art, . fairfield, a. r., illustrations to: _once a week_, . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . falconer's 'the shipwreck' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, . 'family fairy tales' ( ), illustrations by m. e. edwards, . 'famous boys' ( ), illustrations by t. morten, . 'favourite english poems of the last two centuries' ( ), illustrations by cope, creswick, foster, . fildes, s. l., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . fitzcook, h., . fitzgerald, lord g., . fitzgerald, m., . foster, birket, x, , , illustrations to: gray's 'elegy,' , . 'proverbial philosophy,' . longfellow's 'poems' ( ), . cowper's 'the task,' . adams's 'sacred allegories,' . herbert's 'poetical works,' . 'rhymes and roundelays,' . 'ministering children,' . 'ancient mariner,' . 'course of time,' . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . poe's 'poetical works,' . 'kavanagh,' . 'moore's poetry,' . burns's 'poems and songs,' . 'gertrude of wyoming,' . 'lays of the holy land,' . 'home affections,' . wordsworth's 'poems,' . 'merry days of england,' . 'favourite english poems,' . 'white doe of rylstone,' . 'comus,' . 'shipwreck,' . 'odes and sonnets,' . 'merchant of venice,' . 'the seasons,' . montgomery's 'poems,' . 'household song,' . goldsmith's 'poems,' . 'poetry of the elizabethan age,' . 'christmas with the poets,' . 'early english poems,' . 'pictures of english landscape,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . moore's 'irish melodies,' . 'choice series,' . 'standard poets,' . 'the trial of sir jasper,' . 'beauties of english landscape,' . ---- rage for his drawings, . 'flower pieces,' . 'foul play,' du maurier's illustrations to, . 'found drowned,' edwards's illustrations to, . 'four georges,' the, . foxe's 'book of martyrs' ( ?), r. barnes, boyd houghton, du maurier, m. e. edwards, j. gilbert, j. henley, j. lee, f. w. lawson, a. pasquier, t. morten, f. j. skill, w. small, g. h. thomas, and j. d. watson, , . 'framley parsonage,' . fraser, f. a., , illustrations to: _good words_, . _london society_, . _sunday magazine_, , , . _cassell's magazine_, , . _saint paul's_, . _good words for the young_, , . dickens's works (household edition), . chandos poets, . freere, m. e., . french, h., , , , , . friston, d. h., , , . frÖlich, l., , . frost, a. b., . _fun_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . barnard, f., . boyd houghton, a., . brunton, w., . gilbert, w. s., . henley, l. c., . lawson, f. w., . sanderson, h., . seccombe, lieutenant, . stretch, matt, . thomson, j. g., . walker, f. s., . fyfe, w., . gale, w., . gascoine, j., . gaskell, mrs., 'wives and daughters,' , . 'gems of literature' ( ), illustrations by noel paton, . 'gems of national poetry' ( ), . 'gertrude of wyoming' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, t. dalziel, h. weir, w. harvey, . giacomelli, illustrations to michelet's 'the bird,' . gilbert, f., , , . gilbert, sir john, x.; illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _london society_, , . _cassell's family paper_, . _british workman_, . _band of hope review_, . _leisure hour_, . _sunday at home_, . illustrations to cassell's serials, . _illustrated london news_, . 'the salamandrine,' , . 'proverbial philosophy,' . longfellow's 'poems' ( ), . ---- ( ), . cowper's 'works,' . eliza cook's 'poems,' . shakespeare's 'works,' . scott's 'lady of the lake,' . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'book of job,' . 'proverbs of solomon,' . 'lays of the holy land,' . 'home affections,' . wordsworth's 'poems,' . montgomery's 'poems,' . 'boy's book of ballads,' . 'sacred poetry,' . 'poetry of the elizabethan age,' . 'songs and sonnets of shakespeare,' . 'early english poems,' . 'months illustrated,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . 'the choice series,' . 'standard poets,' . 'standard library' (hurst and blackett), . gilbert, w. s., illustrations to: _london society_, . _good words for the young_, . _fun_, . 'juvenile verse picture book,' . 'magic mirror,' . gilray, j., . goddard, g. b., , , , , . godwin, j., . godwin, t., . 'golden harp,' the ( ), illustrations by watson, etc., . _golden hours_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . barnes, r., . boyd houghton, a., . edwards, m. e., . green, t., . murray, c. o., . 'golden light' ( ), illustrations by a. w. bayes, . 'golden thoughts from golden fountains' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, w. p. burton, the dalziels, j. lawson, g. j. pinwell, and w. small, , . 'golden treasury series' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, holman hunt, millais, noel paton, and t. woolner, . 'gold thread,' the ( ), illustrations by j. m'whirter and j. d. watson, . goldsmith's 'poems' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, . ---- 'works,' illustrations by pinwell (dalziel, ), . ---- 'deserted village,' illustrations by etching club, . goodall, e. a., . 'good fight,' a, . _good words_, . ---- poverty of early work in, . ---- good indexes in, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, - . armstead, h. h., , . barnard, f., . barnes, r., , . bennett, c. h., . b[lackburn], j., . boyd houghton, a., , , , , , , . brown, j. o., . buckman, r., . burne-jones, e., , , . bushnell, a., . cooke, e. w., . cooper, a. w., . crane, w., . dobell, c., . doyle, c. a., . drummond, j., . du maurier, g., . edwards, m. e., . fildes, s. l., , . fraser, f. a., . fyfe, w., . graham, t., , , . gray, p., . halswelle, k., . herkomer, h., . hughes, a., , , . hunt, holman, , . keene, c., . lawless, m. j., , , . lawson, j. w., . leighton, j., . linney, w., . linton, j. d., . linton, w. j., . lucas, h. j., . m'taggart, w., . m'whirter, j. w., . mahoney, j., . millais, j. e., , , , , . morten, t., , , . nicol, erskine, . north, j. w., . orchardson, , , . pettie, j., , , , , , . pinwell, g. j., , , , , . porter, j., . riviere, briton, . sandys, f., , , . solomon, s., , . small, w., , , , , . stanton, clark, . steele, gourlay, . taylor, hughes, . tenniel, j., , , , . walker, fred, , , . walker, francis, . watson, j. d., , , . whistler, j. m'n., . wolf, j., . zwecker, j. b., . _good words for the young_, . ---- its value to collectors, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, , , . barnard, f., . boyd houghton, , . brewtnall, e. f., . dalziel, e., . dalziel, t., . fraser, f. a., , . french, h., . gilbert, w. s., . green, c., . green, t., , . griset, e., , . hall, s. p., . herkomer, h., . hughes, a., , , . mahoney, j., , . pettie, j., . pinwell, c. j., . riviÈre, b., . small, w., . sulman, t., . walker, f. s., , . wiegand, w. j., , . zwecker, j. b., , . gosse, e., . ---- on thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' , . ---- on sandys, . _germ, the_ ( ), . graham, p., . graham, t., illustrations to _good words_, , , . _graphic, the_, its influence on english illustration, . ---- w. small's work in it, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, , . boyd houghton, a., . fildes, s. l., . green, c., . herkomer, h., . macbeth, r. w., . pinwell, c. j., . small, w., . _graphic_ school, . graphotype, , . ---- the beginning of 'process-work,' . ---- its principle and development, . ---- illustrations in _punch and judy_, . ---- watts's 'songs,' , . gray's 'elegy' ( ), illustrations to, by b. foster and g. thomas, . ( ) r. barnes, b. foster, wimperis, etc., . gray, j. m., . ---- paper on sandys in _art journal_, . gray, paul, illustrations to: _once a week_, , . _good words_, . _london society_, , . _shilling magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, , . _argosy_, . _quiver_, . _broadway_, . _punch_, . 'a round of days,' . 'jingles and jokes for little folks,' . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . 'spirit of praise,' . ---- biographical notice of, . ---- _fun_ cartoons, . ---- his last drawing in 'savage club papers,' . ---- illustrations to kingsley's 'hereward,' . gray, tom, . green, charles, illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _london society_, , . _churchman's family magazine_, , . _sunday magazine_, . _cassell's magazine_, . _good words for the young_, . _sunday at home_, . _illustrated london news_, . _graphic_, . 'sacred poetry,' . cumming's 'life of our lord,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'nobility of life,' . 'choice series,' . dickens's works (household edition), . 'episodes of fiction,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . green, t., , , , , , . greenwell, dora, 'carmina crucis' ( ), . grimms' 'fairy tales,' illustrations by w. crane, . griset, e., , , , , , , . 'gulliver's travels' ( ?), illustrations by t. morten, . 'hacco the dwarf' ( ), illustrations by g. j. pinwell, , . haden, sir seymour, . halkett, g. r., viii. hall's 'book of british ballads' ( ), . hall, s. p., , , . hall's 'the trial of sir jasper,' illustrations by cruikshank, b. foster, gilbert, g. h. boughton, w. eden thomson, h. r. robertson, noel paton, and tenniel, . halswelle, k., illustrations to: _good words_, . 'pen and pencil pictures,' . scott's 'poems,' . 'standard poets' (routledge, etc.), . 'hampdens,' the, millais's illustrations to, . 'happy day stories,' . hardy, thomas, 'far from the madding crowd,' . ---- 'the hand of ethelberta,' . hardy, t. d., . _harper's magazine_, . 'harry richmond,' du maurier's illustrations to, , . harvey, w., illustrations to: 'arabian nights,' . milton's 'poetical works,' . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'gertrude of wyoming,' . montgomery's 'poems,' . heber's 'hymns' ( ), illustrations by w. lawson, t. d. scott, h. c. selous, p. skelton, and w. small, . henley, l. c., , , , . hennessey, w. j., . 'herberts of elfdale,' the, fred walker's illustrations to, . herbert's 'poetical works' ( ), illustrations by birket foster, j. clayton, h. n. humphreys, . herkomer, hubert, illustrations to: _cornhill magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, . _quiver_, . _good words for the young_, . _graphic_, . 'lecture on sandys,' . hicks, g. c., . 'history of wood engraving' (chatto and jackson), , . hogarth, w., . 'home affections' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, j. gilbert, clayton, h. weir, t. dalziel, s. read, j. abner, pickersgill, millais, tenniel, madot, , . 'home thoughts and home scenes' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, . 'home without hands' ( ), illustrations by f. w. keyl, . _hood's comic annuals_, . hood's 'miss kilmansegg' ( ), illustrations by seecombe, . ---- 'poems,' illustrations by junior etching club (millais, c. keene, and h. moore), . hooper, w. h., . horsley, j. c., , , , , , , . houghton. _see_ boyd houghton. 'household song' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, s. palmer, g. h. thomas, a. solomon, and j. andrews, , . housman, l., on boyd houghton, , . _howitt's journal of literature_, . huard, l., , , , , . hughes, arthur, illustrations to: _cornhill magazine_, . _good words_, , , , , . _london society_, , , . _sunday magazine_, , , . _good words for the young_, , , , . _the queen_, . _the graphic_, . _the london home monthly_, . tennyson's 'loves of the wrens,' , , . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'dealings with the fairies,' , . 'enoch arden,' , . 'five days' entertainment at wentworth grange,' , . 'tom brown's school days,' , . 'golden treasury series,' . 'national nursery rhymes,' . 'the music-master,' . designs for _the queen_, . hake's 'parables and tales,' . rossetti's 'sing song,' . 'sinbad the sailor,' . rossetti's 'speaking likenesses,' , . 'england's antiphon,' . 'chamber dramas,' . ingelow's 'the shepherd's lady,' . miss thackeray's 'five old friends,' . 'at the back of the north wind,' . 'ranald bannerman's boyhood,' . 'the princess and goblin,' . 'lilliput lectures,' . ---- biographical account of, - . ---- appreciation of his work, , . ---- his association with the pre-raphaelites, . ---- impression of his work, , . hughes, e., , , , , , , , . hughes, t., 'tom brown's school days' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes and s. p. hall, . hunt, alfred, , . hunt, holman, illustrations to: _once a week_, . _good words_, , . tennyson's 'poems,' . 'parables from nature,' . 'sacred poetry,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'golden treasury series,' 'studies from life,' . humphrey's, h. n., illustrations to: herbert's 'poetical works,' . 'white doe of rylstone,' . thomson's 'seasons,' . hurst and blackett's 'standard library,' illustrations by f. sandys, holman hunt, j. gilbert, j. d. watson, j. leech, and e. hughes, , . huttula, r., . 'hymns for little children' ( ), . 'hyperion' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, . 'idyllic pictures' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, boyd houghton, h. cameron, m. e. edwards, p. gray, r. p. leitch, g. j. pinwell, f. sandys, w. small, c. j. staniland, and g. h. thomas, , . illingworth, s. e., . 'illustrated book of sacred poems' ( ?), illustrations by m. e. edwards, j. w. north, h. c. selous, w. small, and j. d. watson, . _illustrated chronicle of the great exhibition_, . _illustrated family journal_, . _illustrated london news_, ; illustrations of the 'seventies,' . bennett, c. h., . boyd houghton, a., . corbould, e. h., . gilbert, j., . green, c., . hunt, alfred, . morgan, matt, . pasquier, j. a., . read, s., . thomas, george, . _illustrated times_, illustrations in, by a. claxton, f. claxton, m. e. edwards, lieutenant seccombe, p. skelton, t. sulman. _illustrated weekly news_, . illustration, reasons for serial issue of, ---- demand for, . ---- importance of, . ---- influence of 'process-work' on, . ---- earliest attempt of magazine, . ---- object of, . ---- to the early victorian novels, . ---- to the _cornhill_, , . ---- black and white, its requisites, , . ---- influence of photography on, . ---- preference of a drawing to a photograph, , . ---- in daily papers, . ---- new method employed in 'pleasures of memory' ( ), , . ---- regard for the older, . ---- comparisons of old and modern, . illustrator, position of the modern, , . ---- the popular artist of the period, , . ---- appreciation of, . ---- summary of the work of the sixties, , . ingelow, jean, 'poems' ( , to), ; illustrations to, by boyd houghton, e. and t. dalziel, j. w. north, e. j. poynter, g. j. pinwell, and j. wolf, , . 'ingoldsby legends,' the ( ), illustrations by cruikshank, leech, and tenniel, . jackson, mason, 'the pictorial press,' , . jackson's 'engraving.' _see_ chatto. jerrold's 'story of a feather' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, . 'jingles and jokes for little folks' ( ), illustrations by paul gray, . johnson, e. k., , . journalism, . _judy_, general poorness of its drawings, . ---- illustrated by matt morgan and j. proctor, . ---- value as representative of the 'eighties,' . junior etching club, , , , . justyne, p. w., . 'juvenile verse and picture book' ( ), gilbert, tenniel, r. cruikshank, weigall, and w. b. scott's illustrations to, . 'kavanagh' ( ), illustrations by birket foster, . keats's 'poetical works' ( ), illustrations by g. scharf, . keene, charles, . ---- quality of his work, ; illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _cornhill magazine_, . _good words_, . _london society_, - . _punch_, , . 'voyage of the _constance_,' , . 'lyra germanica,' . 'sacred poetry,' . 'mrs. caudle's curtain lectures,' . 'ballads and songs of brittany,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'touches of nature,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . hood's 'poems,' . 'passages from modern english poets,' . kennedy, t., . keyl, f. w., , , . 'king gab's story bag' ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . kingsley, c., 'hereward,' . ---- 'the water babies' ( ), illustrations by paton and skelton, . _kingston's annuals_, . 'krilof and his fables' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton and zwecker, . krummacher's 'parables' ( ), illustrations by clayton, , . 'lake county,' the ( ), illustrations by linton, . lamont, t. r., , . landon (l. e.), 'poetical works' ( ), illustrations by w. b. scott, . lasinio, his influence, . laurie's 'shilling entertainment library' ( ), . lawless, m. j., quality of his work, ; illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, , , , . _london society_, , , , , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _punch_, . 'lyra germanica,' , . 'life of st. patrick,' . _churchman's shilling magazine_, . 'touches of nature,' . 'legendary ballads,' , . 'passages from modern english poets,' . ---- biographical accounts of, , . ---- his picture 'the sick call,' . lawson, cecil, . lawson, f. w., illustrations to: _once a week_, - . _cornhill magazine_, . _london society_, - . _shilling magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, - . _cassell's magazine_, , . _quiver_, . _broadway_, . _dark blue_, . _aunt judy's magazine_, . _punch_, . _fun_, . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . heber's 'hymns,' . lawson, j., - ; illustrations to: _good words_, . _sunday magazine_, , . _cassell's magazine_, . _argosy_, . _quiver_, . 'pen and pencil pictures,' . 'ballad stories of the affections,' . 'golden thoughts,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' , . 'children's garland,' . layard, g. s., 'tennyson and his pre-raphaelite illustrators,' , , . 'lays of the holy land' ( ), illustrations by millais, clayton, birket foster, gilbert, . lear's 'book of nonsense,' . lee, j., . leech (j.), collectors of, . ---- quality of his art work, , ; illustrations to: _once a week_, , . 'bon gaultier ballads,' . 'puck on pegasus,' . 'ingoldsby legends,' . hurst and blackett's 'standard library,' . 'legends and lyrics' ( ), illustrations by burton, carrick, du maurier, w. t. c. dobson, m. e. edwards, l. frÖlich, birket foster, john gilbert, charles keene, morten, w. h. millais, s. palmer, j. tenniel, and g. h. thomas, . leigh, john, . leighton, lord, p.r.a., illustrations to: 'cornhill gallery,' . _cornhill magazine_, . 'romola,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . leighton, john, , , ; illustrations to: 'lyra germanica,' , . 'moral emblems,' . dalziels' 'bible pictures,' . 'life of man symbolised,' . _leisure hour_, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, , , . barnes, r., . du maurier, g., . gilbert, sir j. (?), . green, c., . mahoney, j., . pritchett, r. t., . solomon, s., . staniland, c. j., . whymper, . leitch, r. p., , , , , . le jeune, h., designs to 'ministering children,' . lemon's, m., 'a new table-book' ( ), illustrations by f. eltze, . ---- 'fairy tales' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett and r. doyle, . leslie, g., . leslie's 'musical annual' ( ), illustrations by millais and pinwell, . lever, c., 'lord kilgobbin,' . lewis, a. j., . 'liber studiorum,' . 'life and phantasy,' . 'life of man symbolised' ( ), illustrations by john leighton, . 'life of st. patrick' ( ), illustrations by m. j. lawless, . 'lilliput lectures,' , . 'lilliput levée' ( ), illustrations by millais, pinwell, etc., , , . linney, w., . linton, j. d., illustrations to: _good words_, . _cassell's magazine_, . linton's 'masterpieces of engraving,' . linton, w. j., , ; illustrations to: wise's 'shakespeare,' . 'the lake country,' . 'little songs for me to sing' ( ), illustrations by j. e. millais, . 'little songs for little folks' ( ), illustrations by j. d. watson, . 'london garland,' the ( ), . _london journal, the_, . 'london people' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett, . _london reader_, . _london society_, account of its neglect, . ---- its excellence, , . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, - . barnard, f., . barnes, r., , , . bayes, a. w., . bennett, c. h., , , . boyd, m. a., . boyd houghton, a., , , . brown, isaac l., . brunton, w., , , . claxton, a., , , , . claxton, f., . cooper, a. w., , , . corbould, e. h., . crane, w., , . crowquill, a., . cruikshank, g., . darley, felix, . doyle, c. a., , . dudley, r., , . du maurier, g., - . edwards, k., , . edwards, m. e., - . ellis, e. j., , . fraser, f. a., . french, h., . foster, birket, . gascoine, j., . gilbert, f., . gilbert, sir j., , . gilbert, w. s., . goddard, g. b., , . godwin, t., . gray, p., , . gray, tom, . green, c., , . henley, l. c., , . huard, l., . hughes, a., , . illingworth, s. e., . johnson, e. k., . keene, c., - . lamont, t. r., . lawless, m. j., , , , . lawson, f. w., - . m'connell, w., . mahoney, j., , . marks, h. s., . millais, j. e., , . morgan, matt, . morten, t., - . paterson, h., . pasquier, j., , . pickersgill, f. r., . pinwell, g. j., , , . portch, j., . poynter, e. j., , . rice, . ridley, b., . sambourne, l., . sanderson, h., , . sandys, f., . sargent, waldo, . seccombe, t. s., . skill, f. j., . small, w., , , . solomon, rebecca, . stanton, h., . stone, marcus, , . sweeting, t., . thomas, g. h., , . thomas, w. cave, . thomas, w. l., . thomson, j. g., , . walker, francis, . walker, fred, . watson, j. d., - . wood, fane, . zwecker, j. b., . longfellow's 'hiawatha' ( ), illustrations to, by g. h. thomas, , . ---- 'poems' ( ), illustrations to: jane e. benham, birket foster, gilbert, and wehnert, . ( ) boyd houghton, etc., . longmans' 'new testament' ( ), . 'lord's prayer,' the ( ), illustrations by f. r. pickersgill, . luard, j., illustrations to _once a week_, . lucas, h. j., . 'lucile' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, . 'lyra germanica' ( ), illustrations by: j. leighton, h. s. marks, e. armitage, m. j. lawless, c. keene, . ( ) e. armitage, madox brown, and j. leighton, . m[acbeth], r., , , . m'connell, w., , , . mackay's ' gems of poetry' ( ), illustrations by millais, . maclise, (d.), illustrations to: tennyson's 'poems,' . 'the princess,' . macquoid, t. r., , . m'taggart, w., . m'whirter, j. w., illustrations to: _good words_, . _sunday magazine_, . 'the gold thread,' . wordsworth's 'poems for the young,' , . 'pen and pencil pictures,' . madot, a. w., , . _magazine of art_, . magazines, collecting of, . ---- precursors of weekly papers, . ---- earliest attempt of illustrated, . 'magic mirror,' the ( ), illustrations by w. s. gilbert, . 'magic of kindness,' the ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . mahoney, j., , , , ; illustrations to: _sunday magazine_, , , , . _cassell's magazine_, . _argosy_, . _quiver_, . _good words for the young_, , . _leisure hour_, . _sunday at home_, . 'touches of nature,' . cassell's 'illustrated readings,' . 'nobility of life,' . dickens's works (household edition), . 'scrambles on the alps,' . 'national nursery rhymes,' . marks, h. d., . marks, h. s., , , ; illustrations to: thornbury's 'legends of the cavaliers,' . 'lyra germanica,' . 'sacred poetry,' . 'two centuries of song,' . 'national nursery rhymes,' . 'passages from modern english poets,' . 'masterpieces of engraving,' (linton), . meadows, kenny, illustrations to 'book of celebrated poems,' . mearns, miss l., . 'melbourne house' ( ), . menzel, his influence on english illustrators, . ---- his illustrations to kügler's 'frederick the great,' , . meredith, g., 'evan harrington,' . ---- 'adventures of harry richmond,' , . 'merrie days of england' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, g. thomas, and corbould, . 'merrie heart,' the ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . michelet's 'the bird' ( ), illustrations by giacomelli, , . miles, helen j., . millais, sir j., p.r.a., illustrations to: trollope, , . _once a week_, , , , , . 'cornhill gallery,' . _cornhill magazine_, , . 'small house at allington,' , . _good words_, , , , , . _london society_, , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _saint paul's_, . _punch_, . tennyson's 'poems,' , . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'lays of the holy land,' . 'home affections,' . 'papers for thoughtful girls,' . 'puck on pegasus,' . 'parables of our lord,' , , , , . 'ballads and songs of brittany,' . 'little songs for me to sing,' . 'gems of poetry,' . 'collected illustrations,' . 'lilliput levée,' . 'golden treasury series,' . hurst and blackett's 'standard library,' . leslie's 'musical annual,' . hood's 'poems,' . 'passages for modern english poets,' . ---- characteristics of his work, , . ---- advantages in studying them, . ---- biographical notice of, , . ---- appreciation of his work, , . millais, w., , . milton's 'poetical works,' harvey's illustrations to, . ---- 'comus' ( ), illustrations by foster, pickersgill, and weir, . 'ministering children' ( ), illustrations by b. foster and h. le jeune, . 'mirage of life,' the ( ), illustrations by tenniel, . _mirror, the_, . 'modern illustration' (pennell), , . 'months illustrated by pen and pencil' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, j. gilbert, and j. w. north, . moore (albert), illustrations to 'ode on the nativity,' . moore, h., illustrations to: hood's 'poems,' . 'passages from modern english poets,' . moore's 'poetry and pictures' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, . ---- 'poems' ( ), . ---- 'irish melodies' ( ), illustrations by c. w. cope, b. foster, and h. weir, , . 'moral emblems' ( ), illustrations by j. leighton, . 'mores ridicula' ( ), illustrations by j. e. rogers, . morgan, c. w., , ; illustrations to 'songs of many seasons,' . morgan, matt, , ; illustrations to: _britannia_ and the _tomahawk_, . _illustrated london news_, . morten, t., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, , , . _london society_, , , , , . _churchman's family magazine_, , . _cassell's family paper_, . _every boy's magazine_, . _aunt judy's magazine_, . _beeton's annuals_, . 'famous boys,' . dalziels' 'arabian nights,' . 'a round of days,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . 'two centuries of song,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . 'gulliver's travels,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . 'mother's last words' ( ), illustrations by m. e. edwards and t. kennedy, . 'mrs. caudle's curtain lectures' ( ), illustrations by c. keene, . 'mrs. wind and madam rain' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett, . mulock (miss), 'the fairy book' ( ), illustrations by j. e. rogers, . mulready, w., illustrations in 'vicar of wakefield,' . ---- his influence on the 'sixties,' . ---- illustrations to tennyson's 'poems,' . 'munchausen' ( ), illustrations by a. crowquill, . murch, a., . murray, c. o., . murray, fairfax, viii; his rossetti collections, , . 'music-master,' , , , , . nash, t., . _nature and art_, . 'nature pictures' ( ), illustrations by j. h. dell, . 'new forest,' the ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . nicol erskine, illustrations to _good words_, . nixon, j. forbes, . 'nobility of life,' the ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, c. green, j. mahoney, e. j. poynter, francis walker, and j. d. watson, , . north, j. w., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, . _sunday magazine_, , , . 'sacred poetry,' . 'our life,' . 'the months illustrated,' . 'a round of days,' . jean ingelow's 'poems,' . 'wayside poesies,' . 'touches of nature,' . 'spirit of praise,' . 'illustrated book of sacred poems,' . novello's 'national nursery rhymes' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, e. and t. dalziel, a. hughes, h. s. marks, j. mahoney, g. j. pinwell, w. small, w. j. wiegand, . oakes, j. w., . odd numbers, method for preserving, . 'ode on the morning of christ's nativity' ( ), illustrations by a. moore, w. small, etc., . 'odes and sonnets' ( ), illustrations by foster, sleigh, . 'old fairy tale,' an ( ), illustrations by r. doyle, . _olio, the_, . _once a week_, collectors of, , , . ---- its original aim, . ---- its characteristics, . ---- its success and merits, , . ---- its illustrations and illustrators, - . ansdell, , . barnard, f., . barnes, r., - . boyd houghton, a., , , . bradley, - . brewtnall, , . brown, ford madox, . burton, . crane, w., . dobell, c., . du maurier, g., , , , , . duncan, e., , , . edwards, kate, . edwards, m. e., , , , , . eltze, f., . fairfield, . fraser, a. w., , , . fildes, s. l., , , , . gilbert, sir j., , , . goddard, , , . gray, p., , . green, c., , , . green, t., . griset, e., , . hughes, a., , . hughes, edward, . hunt holman, . keene, c., , . lawson, j., , , , . lawson, f. w., , , . leech, j., , . leighton, j., , . luard, j., . macbeth, r., . mahoney, j., , . marks, h. s., , . mearns (miss), . miles, h. j., , . millais, j. e., - , . morten, t., , . north, j. n., , . paterson, h., , . pinwell, g. j., , , , , . poynter, e. j., , . prinsep, val, . pritchett, r. t., . sandys, f., , , . scott. t., . sheil, e., , . shields, f. j., , . skelton, . slinger, . small, w., , , , . solomon, s., . straszinski, . sulman, t., . tenniel, j., , , . walker, fred, , , . watson, j. d., . wells (miss), . whistler, j. m'n., . white, . wimpress, e. m., . wolf, j., . 'one year' ( ), illustrations by c. dobell, . orchardson, w. q., illustrations to: _good words_, , , . 'touches of nature,' . 'original pictures' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, a. w. bayes, etc., . 'our life illustrated by pen and pencil' ( ), illustrations by barnes, du maurier, north, pinwell, h. c. selous, and j. d. watson, . _oxford and cambridge magazine_ ( ), . 'pageant,' the, . palgrave's 'five days' entertainment at wentworth grange' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, . palmer, s., , , , , . _pan_, , . 'papers for thoughtful girls' ( ), illustrations by j. e. millais, . 'parables from nature' ( ), illustrations by e. burne-jones, m. e. edwards, l. frÖlich, holman hunt, f. keyl, otto specker, j. tenniel, and h. weir, . 'parables of our lord' ( ), illustrations by j. e. millais, , , . _parterre, the_, . partridge and co., publications of, . pasquier, j., , , , , , , , , . 'passages from modern english poets' ( and ), illustrations by junior etching club (millais, whistler, tenniel, h. moore, m. j. lawless, h. s. marks, c. keene, c. rossetti, f. smallfield, viscount bury, lord c. g. fitzgerald, j. w. oakes, a. j. lewis, f. powell, j. sleigh, h. c. whaite, w. severn, w. gale, and t. clark), , , . 'patient henry' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, . paterson, h., , , , . paterson, r., , . paton, sir noel, illustrations to: _cornhill_, . 'puck on pegasus,' . aytoun's 'lays,' . 'gems of literature,' . 'the water babies,' . 'golden treasury series,' . 'pegasus re-saddled' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, , . 'pen and pencil pictures from the poets' ( ), illustrations by k. halswelle, j. lawson, j. m'whirter, pettie, and w. small, . pennell, joseph, viii, , . ---- 'pen drawing and pen draughtsmen,' , . ---- 'modern illustrations,' , . ---- arguments for wood-engraving, . ---- on shield's illustrations, . ---- eulogy on f. sandys in _the quarto_, . 'pen drawing and pen draughtsmen' (pennell), , . _penny illustrated paper_, . _penny illustrated weekly news_, . _penny magazine_, . _people's journal, the_, . _people's magazine_, . periodicals, legitimate field for illustration, . ---- estimation of, - . perry, t. w., . _peter parley's annuals_, . pettie, john, illustrations to: _good words_, , , , . _sunday magazine_, , . _good words for the young_, . 'the postman's bag,' . wordsworth's 'poems for the young,' , . 'pen and pencil pictures,' . 'touches of nature,' . phillips (c.), monograph on f. walker, . 'philip in church,' . 'phiz,' quality of his art work, , , . ---- illustrations to 'puck on pegasus,' . pickersgill, f. r., , , . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . poe's 'poetical works,' . 'home affections,' . 'comus,' . 'the seasons,' . montgomery's 'poems,' . 'sacred poetry,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . 'art pictures from old testament,' . 'the lord's prayer,' . 'pickwick papers,' , . 'pictorial press' (jackson), , . 'pictures from english literature' ( ), illustrations by du maurier, s. l. fildes, w. small, w. c. thomas, and j. d. watson, . 'pictures of english life' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, . 'pictures of english landscape' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, . 'pictures of society' ( ), reprints of illustrations by sandys, lawless, etc., , . pinnock's _guide to knowledge_, . pinwell, g. j., illustrations to: _once a week_, , , , , , . _cornhill magazine_, . _good words_, , , , , . _london society_, , , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, , , . _cassell's magazine_, . _argosy_, . _quiver_, , . _good words for the young_, . _sunday at home_, . _punch_, . _graphic_, . 'arabian nights' (dalziels'), , . 'our life,' . 'hacco the dwarf,' , , . 'a round of days,' . dalziels' 'goldsmith,' , . jean ingelow's 'poems,' , . 'ballad stories of the affections,' . 'wayside poesies,' . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . 'spirit of praise,' . 'lilliput levée,' , . 'north coast and other poems,' . 'golden thoughts from golden fountains,' . 'national nursery rhymes,' . leslie's 'musical annual,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . 'art pictures from the old testament,' . 'the happy home,' . ---- biographical account of, , , . ---- quilter (h.), on, . ---- comparison with walker and boyd houghton, . 'pleasures of memory' ( ), illustrations by s. palmer, j. d. watson, c. green, etc., , . poe's 'poetical works' ( ), illustrations by: wehnert, etc., . ( ), tenniel, pickersgill, birket foster, p. skelton, felix darley, duggan, j. cropsey, madot, , . 'poems and pictures' ( ), . 'poems for the young' ( ), illustrations by j. m'whirter and j. pettie, . 'poetry of the elizabethan age' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, j. gilbert, and e. m. wimperis, . 'poetry of nature' ( ), illustrations by h. weir, . ---- new edition ( ), . ---- ( , edited by j. cundall), illustrations by w. crane, . 'poets of the nineteenth century' ( ), illustrations by millais, ford madox brown, birket foster, w. harvey, j. gilbert, tenniel, clayton, t. dalziel, j. godwin, e. h. corbould, d. edwards, e. duncan, arthur hughes, w. b. leitch, e. a. goodall, t. d. hardy, f. r. pickersgill, h. weir, , . pollok's 'course of time' ( ), illustrations by b. foster, clayton, and tenniel, , . portch, j., , , . porter, j. l., . 'postman's bag' ( ), illustrations by j. pettie, . powell, f., . poynter, e. j., illustrations to: _once a week_, , . _london society_, , . _churchman's family magazine_, . jean ingelow's 'poems,' . 'nobility of life,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . pre-raphaelitism, w. m. rossetti on, , . ---- influence of, , . ---- somes layard on, . ---- exposition of, , . pritchett, r. t., , , , , , , , . process-work, influence on illustration, , . proctor, j., illustrations to _judy_, . ---- illustrations in _will o' the wisp_, , . 'prodigal son,' the, fred walker's illustrations to, . prinsep, val, . print-splitting, , . priolo, paulo, , , . 'proverbs of solomon' ( ), illustrations by j. gilbert, . 'proverbs with pictures' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett, . _punch_, , . ---- spielmann's history of, . ---- selected list of its illustrators, , . crane, walter, . du maurier, g., , . gray, paul, . griset, ernest, . keene, charles, , . lawless, m. j., . lawson, f. w., . millais, sir j., . pinwell, g. j., . sambourne, linley, . tenniel, sir j., . thomson, j. g., . walker, fred, . _punch and judy_, illustrations in graphotype, . 'puck on pegasus' ( ), illustrations by doyle, m. e. edwards, leech, millais, noel paton, 'phiz,' and portch, , . 'pupils of st. john the divine' ( ), illustrations by e. armitage, . quarles's 'emblems' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett, . _quarto, the_, . quilter, harry, on pinwell, . _quiver_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . barnes, r., , . boyd houghton, a., , . dunn, edith, . edwards, m. e., . fildes, s. l., . gray, paul, . herkomer, h., . lawson, j., . lawson, f. w., . leitch, r. p., . mahoney, j., . pasquier, j. a., . pinwell, g. j., , . ridley, m. w., . sandys, f., . small, w., , . staniland, c. j., . thomas, g. j., , . watson, j. d., . ---- reprint of illustrations in 'idyllic pictures,' in volume, . ralston, j. m'l., . read, s., , , . reade, (c.), 'the cloister and the hearth' ('a good fight'), . ---- 'foul play,' . ---- 'put yourself in his place,' . redgrave, r., , . rethel's influence, . 'rhymes and roundelays' ( ), illustrations by birket foster, . rice, . rich, a., . 'ridicula rediviva' ( ), illustrations by j. e. rogers, . ridley, b., . ridley, m. w., , , , . riviÈre, briton, illustrations to: _good words_, . _good words for the young_, . robertson, h. r., . robinson, t., . rogers, w. h., . ---- 'spiritual conceits,' . rogers, j. e., illustrations to 'mores ridicula,' 'ridicula rediviva,' and miss mulock's 'fairy tales,' . 'romola,' . 'roses and holly' ( ), . rossiter, c., . rossetti, christina, _amor mundi_, sandys's illustration to, . ---- 'if,' sandys's illustrations, . ---- 'goblin market' ( ), illustrations by d. g. rossetti, , . ---- 'the prince's progress' ( ), illustrations by d. g. rossetti, . ---- 'sing song' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, . rossetti, christina, 'speaking likenesses' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, . rossetti, d. g., opinion on wood as an artistic medium, . ---- designs to tennyson's 'poems,' , , . ---- 'goblin market,' , , . ---- 'the prince's progress,' , . ---- biographical notice of, , , , , , . ---- his relations with a. hughes, , . ---- prices received for his work, . ---- frontispiece to 'early italian poets,' . ---- frontispiece to 'the risen life,' . ---- 'the queen's page,' . ---- burne-jones on, . ---- 'day and night songs,' . ---- 'flower pieces,' . ---- 'life and phantasy,' . ---- number of book-illustrations and their importance, , , . rossetti, w. m., on pre-raphaelitism, , , . ---- his biography of d. g. rossetti, , . 'round of days,' a ( ), ; illustrations by a. w. bayes, boyd houghton, w. brooks, t. and e. dalziel, p. gray, j. w. north, t. morten, f. walker, and j. d. watson, . _routledge's christmas annuals_, . rowlandson, . ruskin, j., criticism of the engraving of the 'sixties,' . 'sacred poetry' ( ), illustrations by g. h. andrews, h. h. armstead, w. p. burton, j. gilbert, holman hunt, c. keene, h. s. marks, f. r. pickersgill, s. read, f. smallfield, j. sleigh, f. sandys, f. walker, j. d. watson, and h. weir, . _saint paul's magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, , . fraser, f. a., . millais, j. e., . sala, g. a., . 'salamandrine,' the ( ), gilbert's illustrations to, , . sanderson, h., illustrations to: _london society_, , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _fun_, . sandys, frederick, quality of his work, ; illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _cornhill magazine_, , . _good words_, , , . _london society_, . _churchman's family magazine_, . _shilling magazine_, . _argosy_, . _quiver_, . _churchman's shilling magazine_, . supplement to the _british architect_, . _english illustrated magazine_, . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . hurst and blackett's 'standard library,' , . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' , , , . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . _century guild hobby horse_, . 'the shaving of shagpat,' . ---- complete list, , . ---- portraits of arnold, green, and browning, . ---- miss mulock's 'christian's mistake,' . ---- critical and biographical summary of, , , , . ---- mr. gray on, , . ---- mr. pennell on, in _the quarto_, . ---- prof. herkomer on, . ---- mr. gosse on, . ---- sandys's complaint of engravers, . sambourne, linley, illustrations to: _london society_, . _punch_, . sargent, waldo, . _saturday journal_, . _saturday magazine, the_, . 'savage club papers' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, du maurier, and j. d. watson, ; ( ) . _savoy, the_, . scharf, g., illustrations to keats's 'poems,' . scott's 'poems' ( ), illustrations by k. halswelle, . ---- 'lady of the lake' ( ), illustrations by gilbert, . scott, david, illustrations to: 'pilgrim's progress,' . 'ancient mariner,' . scott, t., , . scott, w. b., ; illustrations to: 'pilgrim's progress,' . landon's 'poetical works,' . 'scouring of the white horse,' the ( ), illustrations by doyle, . seccombe, colonel t. s., , , , . seguin, l., 'rural england' ( ), . selous, h. c., , , , , , , . 'settlers of long arrow,' fred walker's illustrations to, . severn, w., . 'shakespeare, his birthplace' ( ), illustrations by w. j. linton, . shakespeare's 'works' ( - ), illustrations by gilbert, . shakespeare's 'works' ( ), illustrations by h. c. selous, . ---- 'merchant of venice' ( ), illustrations by g. h. thomas, b. foster, h. brandling, h. rogers, . _sharp's magazine_, . sharp (w.), monograph on d. g. rossetti, . sheil, e., . shields, f., illustrations to: defoe's 'history of the plague,' . 'touches of nature,' . _once a week_, , . _sunday magazine_, . _shilling magazine_, . ---- illustrators and illustrations of, . ---- sandys's designs to _amor mundi_, etc., . ---- watson's, j. d., . ---- gray, paul, . ---- pritchett, r. t., . ---- lamont, t. r., . ---- lawson, j., . ---- hughes, edward, . ---- small, w., . 'sintram and his companions,' selous's illustrations to, . 'sir christopher,' millais's illustrations to, . 'sister anne's probation,' millais's illustrations to, . 'sixties,' the, first public appreciation of the art of, . ---- contemporary appreciation of the artists of, . ---- collection of the wood-engravings of, . ---- interest in the art of, . ---- comparison with the art of the present day, , . ---- work of engraver in, . ---- origin of the movement in _once a week_, . ---- appreciation of, . ---- summary of the work of the artists of, , . ---- biographical notices of the artists of, - . skelton, p., , , , , , , , , , , , . skill, f. j., , . sleigh, h., , . sleigh, j., . slinger, f. j., , , . small, w., ; illustrations to: _once a week_, - . _good words_, - . ---- quality of his work in, , . 'the woman's kingdom,' . _london society_, , , . _shilling magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, - , . _cassell's family paper_, . _cassell's magazine_, , . _argosy_, . _quiver_, , . _good words for the young_, . _sunday at home_, . _graphic_, . 'words for the wise,' . 'pen and pencil pictures,' . 'children's hour,' . jean ingelow's 'poems,' . 'ballad stories of the affections,' . 'touches of nature,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . 'two centuries of song,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' , . heber's 'hymns,' . 'spirit of praise,' . 'washerwoman's foundling,' . 'north coast and other poems,' . 'goden thoughts from golden fountains,' . 'ode on the morning of christ's nativity,' . 'illustrated book of sacred poems,' . cassell's 'illustrated readings,' . 'standard poets,' . novello's 'national nursery rhymes,' . 'pictures from english literature,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . smallfield, f., , . 'small house at allington,' , . solomon, a., , . solomon, rebecca, , . solomon, simeon, illustrations to: _once a week_, . _good words_, , . _dark blue_, . _leisure hour_, . dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . 'art pictures from the old testament,' . 'songs and ballads of brittany' ( ), tenniel's illustrations to, . 'songs of many seasons' ( ), illustrations by w. crane, du maurier, and c. w. morgan, . 'songs and sonnets of shakespeare' ( ), illustrations by gilbert, . specker, otto, . 'spirit of praise, the' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, t. dalziel, p. gray, j. w. north, g. j. pinwell, and w. small, . 'spiritual conceits' ( ), illustrations by h. rogers, . stanfield, c., illustrations to tennyson's 'poems,' . staniland, c. j., , , , , . stanton, clark, . stanton, h., . steele, gourlay, . stenhouse, c., . stone, marcus, illustrations to: _cornhill magazine_, . _london society_, , . _sunday magazine_, , . 'touches of nature,' . 'stories from memel' ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . 'stories little breeches told' ( ), illustrations by c. h. bennett, . 'stories of old' ( ), illustrations by w. crane, . 'stories told to a child' ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, . 'story of elizabeth,' . 'story without an end' ( ), illustrations by e. v. b., . strahan, a., , . _strand magazine_, . straszinski, l., . stretch, matt, . sulman, t., , , , . _sunday at home_, . ---- illustrations and illustrators of, . barnes, r., . du maurier, g. (?), . fildes, s. l., . gilbert, sir j., . green, c., . lawson, f. w., . mahoney, j., . pinwell, c. j., . small, w., . _sunday magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, - . barnes, r., , , , . bayes, a. w., . boyd houghton, a., - . dalziel, t., , . edwards, m. e., , . eltze, f., . fildes, s. l., . foster, birket, . fraser, f. a., , , . french, h., . gray, paul, , . green, c., . green, townley, . herkomer, hubert, . hughes, a., , . hughes, e., , . lamont, miles, . lawson, f. w., - . lawson, j., , . leighton, john, . leitch, r. p., . macbeth, r., . m'connell, w., . m'whirter, j., . mahoney, j., , , , . morgan, c., . north, j. w., , , . pasquier, . pettie, j., , . pinwell, g. j., , , . pritchett, r. t., . shields, f. j., . slinger, f. j., . small, w., , , , . stone, marcus, , . thomson, j. gordon, , . walker, francis, . watson, j. d., . whymper, e., . wiegand, w. j., . wolf, j., , . swain, , , , . sweeting, t., . 'sybil and her snowball' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, . symbolists, . tayler, f., . taylor, hughes, . tenniel, john, illustrations to: _once a week_, , , . _good words_, , , , . _punch_, . 'juvenile verse and picture book,' . pollok's 'course of time,' . 'poets of nineteenth century,' . poe's 'works,' . 'home affections,' , . blair's 'grave,' . moore's 'lalla rookh,' . 'parables from nature,' . 'puck on pegasus,' . dalziels' 'arabian nights,' . 'ingoldsby legends,' . 'english sacred poetry,' . 'alice in wonderland,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'mirage of life,' . 'a noble life,' . 'passages from modern english poets,' . tennyson's 'poems,' (moxon edition), , , , . ---- illustrations by rossetti, millais, holman hunt, mulready, creswick, horsley, stanfield, maclise, . ---- rossetti's designs to, , . ---- 'loves of the wrens,' a. hughes's designs to, , . ---- 'criticism of the moxon poems,' , . ---- 'may queen' ( ), illustrations by e. v. b., . ---- 'enoch arden' ( ), illustrations by a. hughes, . tennyson's 'loves of the wrens' ( ). ---- hughes's illustrations to, . ---- 'the princess,' illustrations by maclise, . thackeray (miss), 'story of elizabeth,' . ---- 'village on the cliff,' . ---- 'old kensington,' . thackeray (w. m.), quality of his drawings, . ---- walker's illustration to, . ---- 'vanity fair,' . ---- editor of _cornhill_, . ---- 'love the widower,' . ---- 'adventures of philip,' . ---- 'denis duval,' . ---- portrait by armitage, . 'things for nests' ( ), . thomas, g. h., illustrations to: _cornhill magazine_, , . _london society_, , , . _churchman's family magazine_, . _cassell's magazine_, , . _quiver_, , , . _broadway_, . _illustrated london news_, , . 'uncle tom's cabin,' . gray's 'elegy,' . 'vicar of wakefield,' . longfellow's 'hiawatha,' , . 'pilgrim's progress,' . 'merrie days of england,' . 'hiawatha,' , . thomson's 'seasons,' . 'household song,' . 'early english poems,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'robinson crusoe,' . 'aunt gatty's life,' . 'idyllic pictures,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . ---- biographical notice of, , . ---- obtains the society of arts prize, . ---- sets up as a wood engraver, . ---- engraves bank notes, . ---- the garibaldi illustrations, . ---- is employed by the queen, . ---- illustrations to 'armadale,' . thomas, w. cave, , , . thomas, w. l., , . thompson, alfred, . thompson, alice, . thomson, j. g., , , , , , , , , . thomson, w. e., . thomson's 'seasons' ( ), . ---- ( ), . ---- ( ), illustrations by b. foster, humphreys, pickersgill, thomas, and wolf, . thornbury's 'legendary ballads' ( ), . ---- illustrations by boyd houghton, lawless, t. green, du maurier, f. eltze, j. lawson, a. fairfield, e. h. coebould, a. rich, t. r. macquoid, c. green, t. morten, j. tenniel, w. small, p. skelton, pinwell, sandys, whistler, and walker, , , , . thornbury's 'legends of cavaliers and roundheads' ( ), illustrations by h. s. marks, . ---- 'two centuries of song ( ), illustrations by g. leslie, h. s. marks, t. morten, and w. small, . _tinsley's magazine_, illustrations and illustrators of, . boyd houghton, a., . browne, h. k. ('phiz'), . brunton, w. d., . cooper, a. w., . friston, d. h., . thompson, alice, . watson, j. d., . tissot, illustrations to 'ballads and songs of brittany,' . _tomahawk_, illustrations to, by matt morgan, . 'toilers in art,' . 'touches of nature by eminent artists' ( ), illustrations by r. barnes, boyd houghton, h. h. armstead, du maurier, p. gray, c. keene, j. mahoney, j. e. millais, j. w. north, w. orchardson, g. j. pinwell, f. sandys, f. j. shields, marcus stone, j. pettie, w. small, g. tenniel, f. walker, and j. d. watson, , . townsend, h. j., . 'trilby,' . trollope, millais's illustrations to, , , . ---- 'framley parsonage,' . ---- 'small house at allington,' , . tupper's 'proverbial philosophy' ( ), illustrations by cope, corbould, birket foster, john gilbert, horsley, and pickersgill, . 'uncle tom's cabin,' illustrations to, by g. thomas, . 'undine' ( ), tenniel's illustrations to, . 'vagrants,' the, by fred walker, , . 'verner's pride,' keene's illustrations to, . 'vicar of wakefield,' mulready's illustrations to, . ---- thomas's illustrations to, . 'victorian history of england,' the ( ), illustrations by boyd houghton, . 'vikram and the vampire' ( ), illustrations by e. griset, . vining, h. m., . 'voyage of the constance,' the ( ), illustrations by c. keene, , . walker, francis, , , , , , , , , . walker, fred, illustrations to thackeray's works, . _once a week_, , , , , . 'cornhill gallery,' . _cornhill_, , , , . 'adventures of philip,' . 'philip in church,' . 'story of elizabeth,' , . 'denis duval,' . 'village on the cliff,' . _good words_, , , , . _london society_, . _punch_, . 'sacred poetry,' , . 'a round of days,' . 'wayside poesies,' . 'touches of nature,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' , . ---- biographical account of, , . ---- employed by mr. whymper, . ---- anecdote of him, , . ---- monograph on, by c. phillips, . ---- menzel's influence on, . ---- paper in _good words_ by j. swain, . waltges, f. s., . 'washerwoman's foundling' ( ), illustrations by w. small, . watson, j. d., illustrations to: _once a week_, . _good words_, , , . _london society_, - . _churchman's family magazine_, , . _shilling magazine_, . _sunday magazine_, . _cassell's magazine_, . _quiver_, . _tinsley's magazine_, . _british workman_, . eliza cook's 'poems,' . 'pilgrim's progress,' , . 'sacred poetry,' . 'the gold thread,' . dalziels' 'arabian nights,' . 'english sacred poetry,' . 'our life,' . 'robinson crusoe,' . 'the golden harp,' . 'what men have said about women,' . 'a round of days,' . watts's 'divine and moral songs,' . 'legends and lyrics,' . 'ellen montgomery's bookshelf,' . 'ballad stories of the affections,' . 'touches of nature,' . foxe's 'book of martyrs,' . 'little songs for little folks,' . 'savage club papers,' . 'illustrated book of sacred poems,' . cassell's 'illustrated readings,' . 'nobility of life,' . 'choice series,' . 'barbara's history,' . leslie's 'musical annual,' . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . watts, g. f., illustrations to dalziels' 'bible gallery,' . 'wayside poesies' ( ), illustrations by j. w. north, g. j. pinwell, and f. walker, , . webster, t., . wehnert, e. h., , , . ---- illustrations to poe's 'works,' . weigall, . weir, harrison, , , ; illustrations to: 'poets of nineteenth century,' . 'gertrude of wyoming,' . 'home affections,' . 'comus,' . montgomery's 'poems,' . 'poetry of nature,' , . 'parables from nature,' . 'sacred poetry,' . moore's 'irish melodies,' . Æsop's 'fables,' . 'choice series,' . 'episodes of fiction,' . wells, miss, . whaite, h. c., . 'what men have said about women' ( ), illustrations by j. d. watson, . 'what the moon saw' ( ), illustrations by a. w. bayes, . whistler, j. m'neill, illustrations to: _once a week_, . _good words_, , . thornbury's 'legendary ballads,' . 'passages from modern english poets,' . white, d. t., . white line engraving, . white, t., . whittingham, c., his care in choosing wood-engravings, . whymper, e., , . ---- 'scrambles among the alps' ( ), . ---- 'ancient mariner,' . wiegand, w. j., , , , . williams, s., . _will o' the wisp_, illustrations in, by j. proctor, . wimpress, e., , , , . wirgman, t. b., . 'wives and daughters,' , . wolf, j., , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 'woman i loved,' the, keene's illustrations to, . wood engravings _versus_ process, ix; collection of, . ---- print-splitting, . ---- factories for the spply of, . ---- responsibility of artists in, . ---- work of publisher in, . ---- advantages of over etching, . ---- rossetti's opinion of the material, . ---- white line, . ---- arguments in favour of, . ---- whittingham's care in choosing, . ---- influence of g. doré on, . ---- critics of - on, . wood, fane, . wood's 'natural history' ( ), illustrations by j. wolf and zwecker, . ---- 'bible animals' ( ), . woolner, t., . 'words for the wise' ( ), illustrations by w. small, . wordsworth's 'selected poems' ( ), illustrations by foster, gilbert, and wolf, . ---- 'white doe of rylstone' ( ), illustrations by foster and humphreys, . ---- 'poetry for the young' ( ), illustrations by j. m'whirter and j. pettie, . wyon, l. c., . _yellow book, the_, . zwecker, j. b., , , , , , , , , . printed by t. and a. constable, printers to his majesty, at the edinburgh university press footnotes: [ ] engraved by dalziels about double the size of this page, the subject was issued afterwards in _the day of rest_ (strahan). [ ] this is entitled _too soon_, in _pictures of society_, . [ ] 'j. b.' was mrs. blackburn, wife of hugh blackburn, professor of mathematics in the university of glasgow. landseer said that in the drawing of animals he had nothing to teach her. [ ] possibly a. r. fairfield. [ ] the british museum has no copy, and my own has been mislaid. [ ] the first edition, vols., , was illustrated by cruikshank and leech only. [ ] virtues issued another edition in . [ ] _in memoriam, george h. thomas_ (cassell, undated), a folio volume with about one hundred illustrations. [ ] _dante gabriel rossetti: letters and memories_, by william michael rossetti. ellis and elvey, , vol. i. p. . [ ] a silver-print photograph only. [ ] a catalogue of forty designs by a. boyd houghton, exhibited at _the sign of the dial_, warwick street, w. [ ]. [ ] _arthur boyd houghton_, by laurence housman, kegan paul & co., . [ ] _the portfolio_, june : 'frederick walker,' by claude phillips. [ ] preface to a catalogue of the _birmingham society of artists_, march . [ ] _century guild hobby horse_, vol. iii. p. ( ). [ ] march . [ ] no. , . [ ] , i. . [ ] a large broadsheet reproduced by some lithographic process. [ ] owned by mr. fairfax murray. [ ] _toilers in art_, edited by h. c. ewart (isbister and co.). * * * * * * transcribers' note: punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unpaired quotation marks were retained. ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. repeated inconsistent spellings, such as "mac donald" and "macdonald", have beeen retained. list of illustrations: the illustation "down stream, from the original drawing...." was not found in the printed book. page : "linley sambourne" was italicized, but most artists' names are not. page : "frederick sandys,del." was printed without a space after the comma in at least two editions. page : " , to" was printed that way. guide to the study of fishes [illustration] [illustration] a guide to the study of fishes by david starr jordan _president of leland stanford junior university_ _with colored frontispieces and illustrations_ in two volumes vol i. "i am the wiser in respect to all knowledge and the better qualified for all fortunes for knowing that there is a minnow in that brook."--_thoreau_ [illustration] new york henry holt and company copyright, by henry holt and company published march, to theodore gill, ichthyologist, philosopher, critic, master in taxonomy, this volume is dedicated. preface this work treats of the fish from all the varied points of view of the different branches of the study of ichthyology. in general all traits of the fish are discussed, those which the fish shares with other animals most briefly, those which relate to the evolution of the group and the divergence of its various classes and orders most fully. the extinct forms are restored to their place in the series and discussed along with those still extant. in general, the writer has drawn on his own experience as an ichthyologist, and with this on all the literature of the science. special obligations are recognized in the text. to dr. charles h. gilbert, he is indebted for a critical reading of most of his proof-sheets; to dr. bashford dean, for criticism of the proof-sheets of the chapters on the lower fishes; to dr. william emerson ritter, for assistance in the chapters on _protochordata_; to dr. george clinton price, for revision of the chapters on lancelets and lampreys, and to mr. george clark, secretary of stanford university, for assistance of various kinds, notably in the preparation of the index. to dr. theodore gill, he has been for many years constantly indebted for illuminating suggestions, and to dr. barton warren evermann, for a variety of favors. to dr. richard rathbun, the writer owes the privilege of using illustrations from the "fishes of north and middle america" by jordan and evermann. the remaining plates were drawn for this work by mary h. wellman, kako morita, and sekko shimada. many of the plates are original. those copied from other authors are so indicated in the text. no bibliography has been included in this work. a list of writers so complete as to have value to the student would make a volume of itself. the principal works and their authors are discussed in the chapter on the history of ichthyology, and with this for the present the reader must be contented. the writer has hoped to make a book valuable to technical students, interesting to anglers and nature lovers, and instructive to all who open its pages. david starr jordan. palo alto, santa clara county, cal., october, . errata[ ] vol. i frontispiece, for _paramia quinqueviltata_ read _paramia quinquevittata_ page xiii, line , _for_ filefish _read_ tilefish , " , _for_ science _read_ sciences , lines and , transpose hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid , line , for _hexagramidæ_ read _hexagrammidæ_ , " , the female salmon does as much as the male in covering the eggs. , last line, _for_ immmediately _read_ immediately , legend, _for_ miaki _read_ misaki , line , _for_ sand-pits _read_ sand-spits , " and elsewhere, for wood's hole read woods hole , " , for _roceus_ read _roccus_ , " next to last, for _masquinonqy_ read _masquinongy_ , " , _for_ filefish _read_ tilefish , " , _for_ feet _read_ feet , " , _for_ infallibility _read_ fallibility , " , _for_ west indies _read_ east indies , " , _for_- _read_- , " , _for_ were _read_ are , " , _for_ geffroy, st. hilaire _read_ geoffroy st. hilaire , " , _for_ william kitchener parker _read_ william kitchen parker , " , for _enterpneusta_ read _enteropneusta_ contents vol. i. chapter i. the life of the fish (_lepomis megalotis_). page what is a fish?--the long-eared sunfish.--form of the fish.--face of the fish.--how the fish breathes.--teeth of the fish.--how the fish sees.--color of the fish.--the lateral line.--the fins of the fish.--the skeleton of the fish.--the fish in action.--the air-bladder.--the brain of the fish.--the fish's nest. chapter ii. the exterior of the fish. form of body.--measurement of the fish.--the scales or exoskeleton.--ctenoid and cycloid scales.--placoid scales.--bony and prickly scales.--lateral line.--function of the lateral line.--the fins of fishes.--muscles. chapter iii. the dissection of the fish. the blue-green sunfish.--the viscera.--organs of nutrition.--the alimentary canal.--the spiral valve.--length of the intestine. chapter iv. the skeleton of the fish. specialization of the skeleton.--homologies of bones of fishes.--parts of the skeleton.--names of bones of fishes.--bones of the cranium.--bones of the jaws.--the suspensorium of the mandible.--membrane bones of head.--branchial bones.--the gill-arches.--the pharyngeals.--the vertebral column.--the interneurals and interhæmals.--the pectoral limb.--the shoulder-girdle.--the posterior limb.--degeneration.--the skeleton in primitive fishes.--the skeleton of sharks.--the archipterygium. chapter v. morphology of the fins of fishes. origin of the fins of fishes.--origin of the paired fins.--development of the paired fins in the embryo.--evidences of palæontology.--current theories as to origin of paired fin.--balfour's theory of the lateral fold.--objections.--objections to gegenbaur's theory.--kerr's theory of modified external gills.--uncertain conclusions.--forms of the tail in fishes.--homologies of the pectoral limb.--the girdle in fishes other than dipnoans. chapter vi. the organs of respiration. how fishes breathe.--the gill structures.--the air-bladder.--origin of the air-bladder.--the origin of lungs.--the heart of the fish.--the flow of blood. chapter vii. the nervous system. the nervous system.--the brain of the fish.--the pineal organ.--the brain of primitive fishes.--the spinal cord.--the nerves. chapter viii. the organs of sense. the organs of smell.--the organs of sight.--the organs of hearing.--voices of fishes.--the sense of taste.--the sense of touch. chapter ix. the organs of reproduction. the germ-cells.--the eggs of fishes.--protection of the eggs.--sexual modification. chapter x. the embryology and growth of fishes. post-embryonic development.--general laws of development.--the significance of facts of development.--the development of the bony fishes.--the larval development of fishes.--peculiar larval forms.--the development of flounders.--hybridism.--the age of fishes.--tenacity of life.--effect of temperature on fishes.--transportation of fishes.--reproduction of lost parts.--monstrosities among fishes. chapter xi. instincts, habits, and adaptations. the habits of fishes.--irritability of animals.--nerve-cells and fibers.--the brain or sensorium.--reflex action.--instinct.--classification of instincts.--variability of instincts.--adaptations to environment.--flight of fishes.--quiescent fishes.--migratory fishes.--anadromous fishes.--pugnacity of fishes.--fear and anger in fishes.--calling the fishes.--sounds of fishes.--lurking fishes.--the unsymmetrical eyes of the flounder.--carrying eggs in the mouth. chapter xii. adaptations of fishes. spines of the catfishes.--venomous spines.--the lancet of the surgeon-fish.--spines of the sting-ray.--protection through poisonous flesh of fishes.--electric fishes.--photophores or luminous organs.--photophores in the iniomous fishes.--photophores of porichthys.--globefishes.--remoras.--sucking-disks of clingfishes.--lampreys and hogfishes.--the swordfishes.--the paddle-fishes.--the sawfishes.--peculiarities of jaws and teeth.--the angler-fishes.--relation of number of vertebræ to temperature, and the struggle for existence.--number of vertebræ: soft-rayed fishes; spiny-rayed fishes; fresh-water fishes; pelagic fishes.--variations in fin-rays.--relation of numbers to conditions of life.--degeneration of structures.--conditions of evolution among fishes. chapter xiii. colors of fishes. pigmentation.--protective coloration.--protective markings.--sexual coloration.--nuptial coloration.--coral-reef fishes.--recognition marks.--intensity of coloration.--fading of pigments in spirits.--variation in pattern. chapter xiv. geographical distribution of fishes. zoogeography.--general laws of distribution.--species absent through barriers.--species absent through failure to maintain foothold.--species changed through natural selection.--extinction of species.--barriers checking movements of marine species.--temperature the central fact in distribution.--agency of ocean currents.--centers of distribution.--distribution of marine fishes.--pelagic fishes.--bassalian fishes.--littoral fishes.--distribution of littoral fishes by coast lines.--minor faunal areas.--equatorial fishes most specialized.--realms of distribution of fresh-water fishes.--northern zone.--equatorial zone.--southern zone.--origin of the new zealand fauna. chapter xv. isthmus barriers separating fish faunas. the isthmus of suez.--the fish fauna of japan.--fresh-water faunas of japan.--faunal areas of marine fishes of japan.--resemblance of japanese and mediterranean fish faunas.--significance of resemblances.--differences between japanese and mediterranean fish faunas.--source of faunal resemblances.--effects of direction of shore lines.--numbers of genera in different faunas.--significance of rare forms.--distribution of shore-fishes.--extension of indian fauna.--the isthmus of suez as a barrier to distribution.--geological evidences of submergence of isthmus of suez.--the cape of good hope as a barrier to fishes.--relations of japan to the mediterranean explained by present conditions.--the isthmus of panama as a barrier to distribution.--unlikeness of species on the shores of the isthmus of panama.--views of dr. günther on the isthmus of panama.--catalogue of fishes of panama.--conclusions of evermann & jenkins.--conclusions of dr. hill.--final hypothesis as to panama. chapter xvi. dispersion of fresh-water fishes. the dispersion of fishes.--the problem of oatka creek.--generalizations as to dispersion.--questions raised by agassiz.--conclusions of cope.--questions raised by cope.--views of günther.--fresh-water fishes of north america.--characters of species.--meaning of species.--special creation impossible.--origin of american species of fishes. chapter xvii. dispersion of fresh-water fishes. (_continued._) barriers to dispersion of fresh-water fishes: local barriers.--favorable waters have most species.--watersheds.--how fishes cross watersheds.--the suletind.--the cassiquiare.--two-ocean pass.--mountain chains.--upland fishes.--lowland fishes.--cuban fishes.--swampy watersheds.--the great basin of utah.--arctic species in lakes.--causes of dispersion still in operation. chapter xviii. fishes as food for man. the flesh of fishes.--relative rank of food-fishes.--abundance of food-fishes.--variety of tropical fishes.--economic fisheries.--angling. chapter xix. diseases of fishes. contagious diseases: crustacean parasites.--myxosporidia or parasitic protozoa.--parasitic worms: trematodes, cestodes.--the worm of the yellowstone.--the heart lake tape-worm.--thorn-head worms.--nematodes.--parasitic fungi.--earthquakes.--mortality of filefish. chapter xx. the mythology of fishes. the mermaid.--the monkfish.--the bishop-fish.--the sea-serpent. chapter xxi. the classification of fishes. taxonomy.--defects in taxonomy.--analogy and homology.--coues on classification.--species as twigs of a genealogical tree.--nomenclature.--the conception of genus and species.--the trunkfishes.--trinomial nomenclature.--meaning of species.--generalization and specialization.--high and low forms.--the problem of the highest fishes. chapter xxii. the history of ichthyology. aristotle.--rondelet.--marcgraf.--osbeck.--artedi.--linnæus.-- forskål.--risso.--bloch.--lacépède.--cuvier.--valenciennes.-- agassiz.--bonaparte.--günther.--boulenger.--le sueur.--müller.-- gill.--cope.--lütken.--steindachner.--vaillant.--bleeker.-- schlegel.--poey.--day.--baird.--garman.--gilbert.--evermann.-- eigenmann.--zittel.--traquair.--woodward.--dean.--eastman.--hay.-- gegenbaur.--balfour.--parker.--dollo. chapter xxiii. the collection of fishes. how to secure fishes.--how to preserve fishes.--value of formalin.--records of fishes.--eternal vigilance. chapter xxiv. the evolution of fishes. the geological distribution of fishes.--the earliest sharks.--devonian fishes.--carboniferous fishes.--mesozoic fishes.--tertiary fishes.--factors of extinction.--fossilization of a fish.--the earliest fishes.--the cyclostomes.--the ostracophores.--the arthrodires.--the sharks.--origin of the shark.--the chimæras.--the dipnoans.--the crossopterygians.--the actinopteri.--the bony fishes. chapter xxv. the protochordata. the chordate animals.--the protochordates.--other terms used in classification.--the enteropneusta.--classification of enteropneusta.--family harrimaniidæ.--balanoglossidæ.--low organization of harrimaniidæ. chapter xxvi. the tunicates, or ascidians. structure of tunicates.--development of tunicates.--reproduction of tunicates.--habits of tunicates.--larvacea.--ascidiacea.--thaliacea.--origin of tunicates.--degeneration of tunicates. chapter xxvii. the leptocardii, or lancelets. the lancelet.--habits of lancelets.--species of lancelets.--origin of lancelets. chapter xxviii. the cyclostomes, or lampreys. the lampreys.--structure of the lamprey.--supposed extinct cyclostomes.--conodontes.--orders of cyclostomes.--the hyperotreta, or hagfishes.--the hyperoartia, or lampreys.--food of lampreys.--metamorphosis of lampreys.--mischief done by lampreys.--migration or "running" of lampreys.--requisite conditions for spawning with lampreys.--the spawning process with lampreys.--what becomes of lampreys after spawning? chapter xxix. the class elasmobranchii, or shark-like fishes. the sharks.--characters of elasmobranchs.--classification of elasmobranchs.--subclasses of elasmobranchs.--the selachii.--hasse's classification of elasmobranchs.--other classifications of elasmobranchs.--primitive sharks.--order pleuropterygii.--order acanthodii.--dean on acanthodii.--order ichthyotomi. chapter xxx. the true sharks. order notidani.--family hexanchidæ.--family chlamydoselachidæ.--order asterospondyli.--suborder cestraciontes.--family heterodontidæ.--edestus and its allies.--onchus.--family cochliodontidæ.--suborder galei.--family scyliorhinidæ.--the lamnoid, or mackerel-sharks.--family mitsukurinidæ, the goblin-sharks.--family alopiidæ, or thresher-sharks.--family pseudotriakidæ.--family lamnidæ.--man-eating sharks.--family cetorhinidæ, or basking sharks.--family rhineodontidæ.--the carcharioid sharks, or requins.--family sphyrnidæ, or hammer-head sharks.--the order of tectospondyli.--suborder cyclospondyli.--family squalidæ.--family dalatiidæ.--family echinorhinidæ.--suborder rhinæ.--family pristiophoridæ, or saw-sharks.--suborder batoidei, or rays.--pristididæ, or sawfishes.--rhinobatidæ, or guitar-fishes.--rajidæ, or skates.--narcobatidæ, or torpedoes.--petalodontidæ.--dasyatidæ, or sting-rays.--myliobatidæ.--family psammodontidæ.--family mobulidæ. chapter xxxi. the holocephali, or chimÆras. the chimæras.--relationship of chimæras.--family chimæridæ.--rhinochimæridæ.--extinct chimæroids.--ichthyodorulites. chapter xxxii. the class ostracophori. ostracophores.--nature of ostracophores.--orders of ostracophores.--order heterostraci.--order osteostraci.--order antiarcha.--order anaspida. chapter xxxiii. arthrodires. the arthrodires.--occurrence of arthrodires.--arthrognathi.--anarthrodira.--stegothalami.-- arthrodira.--temnothoraci.--arthrothoraci.--relations of arthrodires.--suborder cycliæ.--palæospondylus.--gill on palæospondylus.--views as to the relationships of palæospondylus: huxley, traquair, . traquair, . traquair, . smith woodward, . dawson, . gill, . dean, . dean, . parker & haswell, . gegenbaur, .--relationships of palæospondylus chapter xxxiv. the crossopterygii. class teleostomi.--subclass crossopterygii.--order of amphibians.--the fins of crossopterygians.--orders of crossopterygians.--haplistia.--rhipidistia.--megalichthyidæ.--order actinistia.--order cladistia.--the polypteridæ chapter xxxv. subclass dipneusti, or lungfishes. the lungfishes.--classification of dipnoans.--order ctenodipterini.--order sirenoidei.--family ceratodontidæ.--development of neoceratodus.--lepidosirenidæ.--kerr on the habits of lepidosiren footnotes: [ ] for most of this list of errata i am indebted to the kindly interest of dr. b. w. evermann. list of illustrations vol. i. page _lepomis megalotis_, long-eared sunfish _lepomis megalotis_, long-eared sunfish _eupomotis gibbosus_, common sunfish _ozorthe dictyogramma_, a japanese blenny _eupomotis gibbosus_, common sunfish _monocentris japonicas_, pine-cone fish _diodon hystrix_, porcupine-fish _nemichthys avocetta_, thread-eel _hippocampus hudsonius_, sea-horse _peprilus paru_, harvest-fish _lophius litulon_, anko or fishing-frog _epinephelus adscensionis_, rock-hind or cabra mora scales of _acanthoessus bronni_ cycloid scale _porichthys porosissimus_, singing-fish _apomotis cyanellus_, blue-green sunfish _chiasmodon niger_, black swallower jaws of a parrot-fish, _sparisoma aurofrenatum_ _archosargus probatocephalus_, sheepshead _campostoma anomalum_, stone-roller _roccus lineatus_, striped bass _roccus lineatus._ lateral view of cranium _roccus lineatus._ superior view of cranium _roccus lineatus._ inferior view of cranium _roccus lineatus_. posterior view of cranium _roccus lineatus._ face-bones, shoulder and pelvic girdles, and hyoid arch lower jaw of _amia calva_, showing gular plate _roccus lineatus._ branchial arches pharyngeal bone and teeth of european chub, _leuciscus cephalus_ upper pharyngeals of parrot-fish, _scarus strongylocephalus_ lower pharyngeal teeth of parrot-fish, _scarus strongylocephalus_ pharyngeals of italian parrot-fish, _sparisoma cretense_ _roccus lineatus_, vertebral column and appendages basal bone of dorsal fin, _holoptychius leptopterus_ inner view of shoulder-girdle of buffalo-fish, _ictiobus bubalus_ _pterophryne tumida_, sargassum-fish. shoulder-girdle of _sebastolobus alascanus_. cranium of _sebastolobus alascanus_. lower jaw and palate of _sebastolobus alascanus_. maxillary and premaxillary of _sebastolobus alascanus_. part of skeleton of _selene vomer_. hyostylic skull of _chiloscyllium indicum_, a scyliorhinoid shark. skull of _heptranchias indicus_, a notidanoid shark. basal bones of pectoral fin of monkfish, _squatina_. pectoral fin of _heterodontus philippi_. pectoral fin of _heptranchias indicus_. shoulder-girdle of a flounder, _paralichthys californicus_. shoulder-girdle of a toadfish, _batrachoides pacifici_. shoulder-girdle of a garfish, _tylosurus fodiator_. shoulder-girdle of a hake, _merluccius productus_. _cladoselache fyleri_, restored. fold-like pectoral and ventral fins of _cladoselache fyleri_. pectoral fin of a shark, _chiloscyllium_. skull and shoulder-girdle of _neoceratodus forsteri_, showing archipterygium. _acanthoessus wardi_. shoulder-girdle of _acanthoessus_. pectoral fin of _pleuracanthus_. shoulder-girdle of _polypterus bichir_. arm of a frog. _pleuracanthus decheni_. embryos of _heterodontus japonicas_, a cestraciont shark. _polypterus congicus_, a crossopterygian fish with external gills. heterocercal tail of sturgeon, _acipenser sturio_. heterocercal tail of bowfin, _amia calva_. heterocercal tail of garpike, _lepisosteus osseus_. _coryphænoides carapinus_, showing leptocercal tail. heterocercal tail of young trout, _salmo fario_. isocercal tail of hake, _merluccius productus_. homocercal tail of a flounder, _paralichthys californicus_. gephyrocercal tail of _mola mola_. shoulder-girdle of _amia calva_. shoulder-girdle of a sea-catfish, _selenaspis dowi_. clavicles of a sea-catfish, _selenaspis dowi_. shoulder-girdle of a batfish, _ogcocephalus radiatus_. shoulder-girdle of a threadfin, _polydactylus approximans_. gill-basket of lamprey. weberian apparatus and air-bladder of carp. brain of a shark, _squatina squatina_. brain of _chimæra monstrosa_. brain of _polypterus annectens_. brain of a perch, _perca flavescens_. _petromyzon marinus unicolor._ head of lake lamprey, showing pineal body. _chologaster cornutus_, dismal-swamp fish. _typhlichthys subterraneus_, blind cavefish. _anableps dovii_, four-eyed fish. _ipnops murrayi._ _boleophthalmus chinensis_, pond-skipper. _lampetra wilderi_, brook lamprey. _branchiostoma lanceolatum_, european lancelet. _pseudupeneus maculatus_, goatfish. _xiphophorus helleri_, sword-tail minnow. _cymatogaster aggregatus_, white surf-fish, viviparous, with young. _goodea luitpoldi_, a viviparous fish. egg of _callorhynchus antarcticus_, the bottle-nosed chimæra. egg of the hagfish, _myxine limosa_. egg of port jackson shark, _heterodontus philippi_. development of sea-bass, _centropristes striatus_. _centropristes striatus_, sea-bass. _xiphias gladius_, young sword-fish. _xiphias gladius_, sword-fish. larva of the sail-fish, _istiophorus_, very young. larva of brook lamprey, _lampetra wilderi_, before transformation. _anguilla chrisypa_, common eel. larva of common eel, _anguilla chrisypa_, called _leptocephalus grassii_. larva of sturgeon, _acipenser sturio_. larva of _chætodon sedentarius_. _chætodon capistratus_, butterfly-fish. _mola mola_, very early larval stage of headfish, called _centaurus boöps_. _mola mola_, early larval stage called _molacanthus nummularis_. _mola mola_, advanced larval stage. _mola mola_, headfish, adult. _albula vulpes_, transformation of ladyfish from larva to young. development of the horsehead-fish, _selene vomer_. _salanx hyalocranius_, ice-fish. _dallia pectoralis_, alaska blackfish. _ophiocephalus barca_, snake-headed china-fish. _carassius auratus_, monstrous goldfish. jaws of _nemichthys avocetta_. _cypsilurus californicus_, flying-fish. _ammocrypta clara_, sand-darter. _fierasfer acus_, pearl-fish, issuing from a holothurian. _gobiomorus gronovii_, portuguese man-of-war fish. tide pools of misaki. _ptychocheilus oregonensis_, squaw-fish. _ptychocheilus grandis_, squaw-fish, stranded as the water falls. larval stages of _platophrys podas_, a flounder of the mediterranean, showing migration of eye. _platophrys lunatus_, the wide-eyed flounder. young flounder just hatched, with symmetrical eyes. _pseudopleuronectes americanus_, larval flounder. _pseudopleuronectes americanus_, larval flounder (more advanced stage). face view of recently-hatched flounder. _schilbeodes furiosus_, mad-tom. _emmydrichthys vulcanus_, black nohu or poison-fish. _teuthis bahianus_, brown tang. _stephanolepis hispidus_, common filefish. _tetraodon meleagris._ _balistes carolinensis_, the trigger-fish. _narcine brasiliensis_, numbfish. _torpedo electricus_, electric catfish. _astroscopus guttatus_, star-gazer. _Æthoprora lucida_, headlight-fish. _corynolophus reinhardti_, showing luminous bulb. _etmopterus lucifer._ _argyropelecus olfersi._ luminous organs and lateral line of midshipman, _porichthys notatus_. cross-section of ventral phosphorescent organ of midshipman, _porichthys notatus_. section of deeper portion of phosphorescent organ, _porichthys notatus_. _leptecheneis naucrates_, sucking-fish or pegador. _caularchus mæandricus_, clingfish. _polistotrema stouti_, hagfish. _pristis zysron_, indian sawfish. _pristiophorus japonicus_, saw-shark. skeleton of pike, _esox lucius_. skeleton of red rockfish, _sebastodes miniatus_. skeleton of a spiny-rayed fish of the tropics, _holacanthus ciliaris_. skeleton of the cowfish, _lactophrys tricornis_. _crystallias matsushimæ_, liparid. _sebastichthys maliger_, yellow-backed rockfish. _myoxocephalus scorpius_, european sculpin. _hemitripterus americanus_, sea-raven. _cyclopterus lumpus_, lumpfish. _psychrolutes paradoxus_, sleek sculpin. _pallasina barbata_, agonoid-fish. _amblyopsis spelæus_, blindfish of the mammoth cave. _lucifuga subterranea_, blind brotula. _hypsypops rubicunda_, garibaldi. _synanceia verrucosa_, gofu or poison-fish. _alticus saliens_, lizard-skipper. _etheostoma camurum_, blue-breasted darter. _liuranus semicinctus_ and _chlevastes colubrinus_, snake-eels. coral reef at apia. _rudarius ercodes_, japanese filefish. _tetraodon setosus_, globefish. _dasyatis sabina_, sting-ray. _diplesion blennioides_, green-sided darter. _hippocampus mohnikei_, japanese sea-horse. _archoplites interruptus_, sacramento perch. map of the continents, eocene time. _caulophryne jordani_, deep-sea fish of gulf stream. _exerpes asper_, fish of rock-pools, mexico. _xenocys jessiæ._ _ictalurus punctatus_, channel catfish. drawing the net on the beach of hilo, hawaii. _semotilus atromaculatus_, horned dace. _leuciscus lineatus_, chub of the great basin. _melletes papilio_, butterfly sculpin. _scartichthys enosimæ_, a fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island of enoshima, japan. _halichoeres bivittatus_, the slippery dick. _peristedion miniatum._ outlet of lake bonneville. _hypocritichthys analis_, silver surf-fish. _erimyzon sucetta_, creekfish or chub-sucker. _thaleichthys pretiosus_, eulachon or ulchen. _plecoglossus altivelis_, the japanese ayu. _coregonus clupeiformis_, the whitefish. _mullus auratus_, the golden surmullet. _scomberomorus maculatus_, the spanish mackerel. _lampris luna_, the opah or moonfish. _pomatomus saltatrix_, the bluefish. _centropomus undecimalis_, the robalo. _chætodipterus faber_, the spadefish. _micropterus dolomieu_, the small-mouthed black bass. _salvelinus fontinalis_, the speckled trout. _salmo irideus_, the rainbow trout. _salvelinus oquassa_, the rangeley trout. _salmo gairdneri_, the steelhead trout. _salmo henshawi_, the tahoe trout. _salvelinus malma_, the dolly varden trout. _thymallus signifer_, the alaska grayling. _esox lucius_, the pike. _pleurogrammus monopterygius_, the atka-fish. _chirostoma humboldtianum_, the pescado blanco. _pseudupeneus maculatus_, the red goatfish. _pseudoscarus guacamaia_, great parrot-fish. _mugil cephalus_, striped mullet. _lutianus analis_, mutton-snapper. _clupea harengus_, herring. _gadus callarias_, codfish. _scomber scombrus_, mackerel. _hippoglossus hippoglossus_, halibut. fishing for ayu with cormorants. fishing for ayu. emptying pouch of cormorant. fishing for tai, tokyo bay. _brevoortia tyrannus_, menhaden. _exonautes unicolor_, australian flying-fish. _rhinichthys atronasus_, black-nosed dace. _notropis hudsonius_, white shiner. _ameiurus catus_, white catfish. _catostomus ardens_, sucker. _oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, quinnat salmon. _oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, young male. _ameiurus nebulosus_, catfishes. "le monstre marin en habit de moine". "le monstre marin en habit d'Évêque". _regalecus russelli_, oarfish. _regalecus glesne_, glesnæs oarfish. _nemichthys avocetta_, thread-eel. _lactophrys tricornis_, horned trunkfish. _ostracion cornutum_, horned trunkfish. _lactophrys bicaudalis_, spotted trunkfish. _lactophrys bicaudalis_, spotted trunkfish (face). _lactophrys triqueter_, spineless trunkfish. _lactophrys trigonus_, hornless trunkfish. _lactophrys trigonus_, hornless trunkfish (face). bernard germain de lacépède. georges dagobert cuvier. louis agassiz. johannes müller. albert günther. franz steindachner. george albert boulenger. robert collett. spencer fullerton baird. edward drinker cope. theodore nicholas gill. george brown goode. johann reinhardt. edward waller claypole. carlos berg. edgar r. waite. felipe poey y aloy. léon vaillant. louis dollo. decio vinciguerra. bashford dean. kakichi mitsukuri. carl h. eigenmann. franz hilgendorf. david starr jordan. herbert edson copeland. charles henry gilbert. barton warren evermann. ramsay heatley traquair. arthur smith woodward. karl a. zittel. charles r. eastman. fragment of sandstone from ordovician deposits. fossil fish remains from ordovician rocks. _dipterus valenciennesi._ _hoplopteryx lewesiensis._ _paratrachichthys prosthemius_, berycoid fish. _cypsilurus heterurus_, flying-fish. _lutianidæ_, schoolmaster snapper. _pleuronichthys decurrens_, decurrent flounder. _cephalaspis lyelli_, ostracophore. _dinichthys intermedius_, arthrodire. _lamna cornubica_, mackerel-shark or salmon-shark. _raja stellulata_, star-spined ray. _harriotta raleighiana_, deep-sea chimæra. _dipterus valenciennesi_, extinct dipnoan. _holoptychius giganteus_, extinct crossopterygian. _platysomus gibbosus_, ancient ganoid fish. _lepisosteus platystomus_, short-nosed gar. _palæoniscum macropomum_, primitive ganoid fish. _diplomystus humilis_, fossil herring. _holcolepis lewesiensis_. _elops saurus_, ten-pounder. _apogon semilineatus_, cardinal-fish. _pomolobus æstivalis_, summer herring. _bassozetus catena._ _trachicephalus uranoscopus._ _chlarias breviceps_, african catfish. _notropis whipplii_, silverfin. _gymnothorax moringa._ _seriola lalandi_, amber-fish. geological distribution of the families of elasmobranchs. "tornaria" larva of _glossobalanus minutus_. _glossobalanus minutus._ _harrimania maculosa._ development of larval tunicate to fixed condition. anatomy of tunicate. _ascidia adhærens._ _styela yacutatensis._ _styela greeleyi._ _cynthia superba._ _botryllus magnus_, compound ascidian. _botryllus magnus._ _botryllus magnus_, a single zooid. _aplidiopsis jordani_, a compound ascidian. _oikopleura_, adult tunicate of group larvacea. _branchiostoma californiense_, california lancelet. gill-basket of lamprey. _polygnathus dubium._ _polistotrema stouti_, hagfish. _petromyzon marinus_, lamprey. _petromyzon marinus unicolor_, mouth lake lamprey. _lampetra wilderi_, sea larvæ brook lamprey. _lampetra wilderi_, mouth brook lamprey. _lampetra camtschatica_, kamchatka lamprey. _entosphenus tridentatus_, oregon lamprey. _lampetra wilderi_, brook lamprey. fin-spine of _onchus tenuistriatus_. section of vertebræ of sharks, showing calcification. _cladoselache fyleri._ _cladoselache fyleri_, ventral view. teeth of _cladoselache fyleri_. _acanthoessus wardi._ _diplacanthus crassissimus._ _climatius scutiger._ _pleuracanthus decheni._ _pleuracanthus decheni_, restored. head-bones and teeth of _pleuracanthus decheni_. teeth of _didymodus bohemicus_. shoulder-girdle and pectoral fins of _cladodus neilsoni_. teeth of _cladodus striatus_. _hexanchus griseus_, griset or cow-shark. teeth of _heptranchias indicus_. _chlamydoselachus anguineus_, frill-shark. _heterodontus francisci_, bullhead-shark. lower jaw of _heterodontus philippi_. teeth of cestraciont sharks. egg of port jackson shark, _heterodontus philippi_. tooth of _hybodus delabechei_. fin-spine of _hybodus basanus_. fin-spine of _hybodus reticulatus_. fin-spine of _hybodus canaliculatus_. teeth of cestraciont sharks. _edestus vorax_, supposed to be a whorl of teeth. _helicoprion bessonowi_, teeth of. lower jaw of _cochliodus contortus_. _mitsukurina owstoni_, goblin-shark. _scapanorhynchus lewisi_, under side of snout. tooth of _lamna cuspidata_. _isuropsis dekayi_, mackerel-shark. tooth of _isurus hastalis_. _carcharodon mega odon._ _cetorhinus maximus_, basking-shark. _galeus zyopterus_, soup-fin shark. _carcharias lamia_, cub-shark. teeth of _corax pristodontus_. _sphyrna zygæna_, hammer-head shark. _squalus acanthias_, dogfish. _etmopterus lucifer._ brain of monkfish, _squatina squatina_. _pristiophorus japonicus_, saw-shark. _pristis pectinatus_, sawfish. _rhinobatus lentiginosus_, guitar-fish. _raja erinacea_, common skate. _narcine brasiliensis_, numbfish. teeth of _janassa linguæformis_. _polyrhizodus radicans._ _dasyatis sabina_, sting-ray. _aëtobatis narinari_, eagle-ray. _manta birostris_, devil-ray or sea-devil. skeleton of _chimæra monstrosa_. _chimæra colliei_, elephant-fish. _odontotodus schrencki_, ventral side. _odontotodus schrencki_, dorsal side. head of _odontotodus schrencki_, from the side. _limulus polyphemus_, horseshoe crab. _lanarkia spinosa._ _drepanaspis gmundenensis._ _pteraspis rostrata._ _cephalaspis lyelli_, restored. _cephalaspis dawsoni._ _pterichthyodes testudinarius._ _pterichthyodes testudinarius_, side view. _birkenia elegans._ _lasianius problematicus._ _coccosteus cuspidatus_, restored. jaws of _dinichthys hertzeri_. _dinichthys intermedius_, an arthrodire. _palæospondylus gunni._ shoulder-girdle of _polypterus bichir_. arm of a frog. _polypterus congicus_, a crossopterygian fish. basal bone of dorsal fin, _holoptychius leptopterus_. _gyroptychius microlepidotus._ _coelacanthus elegans_, showing air-bladder. _undina gulo._ lower jaw of _polypterus bichir_, from below. _polypterus congicus._ _polypterus delhezi._ _erpetoichthys calabaricus._ shoulder-girdle of _neoceratodus forsteri_. _phaneropleuron andersoni._ teeth of _ceratodus runcinatus_. _neoceratodus forsteri._ archipterygium of _neoceratodus forsteri_. upper jaw of _neoceratodus forsteri_. lower jaw of _neoceratodus forsteri_. adult male of _lepidosiren paradoxa_. _lepidosiren paradoxa._ embryo three days before hatching; larva thirteen days after hatching. larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ forty days after hatching. larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ thirty days after hatching. larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ three months after hatching. _protopterus dolloi._ [illustration: fig. .--long-eared sunfish, _lepomis megalotis_ (rafinesque). (from life by r. w. shufeldt.)--page .] chapter i the life of the fish a popular account of the life of the long-eared sunfish, _lepomis megalotis_ =what is a fish?=--a fish is a back-boned animal which lives in the water and cannot ever live very long anywhere else. its ancestors have always dwelt in water, and most likely its descendents will forever follow their example. so, as the water is a region very different from the fields or the woods, a fish in form and structure must be quite unlike all the beasts and birds that walk or creep or fly above ground, breathing air and being fitted to live in it. there are a great many kinds of animals called fishes, but in this all of them agree: all have some sort of a back-bone, all of them breathe their life long by means of gills, and none have fingers or toes with which to creep about on land. =the long-eared sunfish.=--if we would understand a fish, we must first go and catch one. this is not very hard to do, for there are plenty of them in the little rushing brook or among the lilies of the pond. let us take a small hook, put on it an angleworm or a grasshopper,--no need to seek an elaborate artificial fly,--and we will go out to the old "swimming-hole" or the deep eddy at the root of the old stump where the stream has gnawed away the bank in changing its course. here we will find fishes, and one of them will take the bait very soon. in one part of the country the first fish that bites will be different from the first one taken in some other. but as we are fishing in the united states, we will locate our brook in the centre of population of our country. this will be to the northwest of cincinnati, among the low wooded hills from which clear brooks flow over gravelly bottoms toward the ohio river. here we will catch sunfishes of certain species, or maybe rock bass or catfish: any of these will do for our purpose. but one of our sunfishes is especially beautiful--mottled blue and golden and scarlet, with a long, black, ear-like appendage backward from his gill-covers--and this one we will keep and hold for our first lesson in fishes. it is a small fish, not longer than your hand most likely, but it can take the bait as savagely as the best, swimming away with it with such force that you might think from the vigor of its pull that you have a pickerel or a bass. but when it comes out of the water you see a little, flapping, unhappy, living plate of brown and blue and orange, with fins wide-spread and eyes red with rage. [illustration: fig. .--long-eared sunfish, _lepomis megalotis_ (rafinesque). (from clear creek, bloomington, indiana.) family _centrarchidæ_.] =form of the fish.=--and now we have put the fish into a bucket of water, where it lies close to the bottom. then we take it home and place it in an aquarium, and for the first time we have a chance to see what it is like. we see that its body is almost elliptical in outline, but with flat sides and shaped on the lower parts very much like a boat. this form we see is such as to enable it to part the water as it swims. we notice that its progress comes through the sculling motion of its broad, flat tail. =face of a fish.=--when we look at the sunfish from the front we see that it has a sort of face, not unlike that of higher animals. the big eyes, one on each side, stand out without eyelids, but the fish can move them at will, so that once in a while he seems to wink. there isn't much of a nose between the eyes, but the mouth is very evident, and the fish opens and shuts it as it breathes. we soon see that it breathes water, taking it in through the mouth and letting it flow over the gills, and then out through the opening behind the gill-covers. =how the fish breathes.=--if we take another fish--for we shall not kill this one--we shall see that in its throat, behind the mouth-cavity, there are four rib-like bones on each side, above the beginning of the gullet. these are the gill-arches, and on each one of them there is a pair of rows of red fringes called the gills. into each of these fringes runs a blood-vessel. as the water passes over it the oxygen it contains is absorbed through the skin of the gill-fringe into the blood, which thus becomes purified. in the same manner the impurities of the blood pass out into the water, and go out through the gill-openings behind. the fish needs to breathe just as we do, though the apparatus of breathing is not the same. just as the air becomes loaded with impurities when many people breathe it, so does the water in our jar or aquarium become foul if it is breathed over and over again by fishes. when a fish finds the water bad he comes to the surface to gulp air, but his gills are not well fitted to use undissolved air as a substitute for that contained in water. the rush of a stream through the air purifies the water, and so again does the growth of water plants, for these in the sunshine absorb and break up carbonic acid gas, and throw out oxygen into the water. =teeth of the fish.=--on the inner side of the gill-arch we find some little projections which serve as strainers to the water. these are called gill-rakers. in our sunfish they are short and thick, seeming not to amount to much but in a herring they are very long and numerous. behind the gills, at the opening of the gullet, are some roundish bones armed with short, thick teeth. these are called pharyngeals. they form a sort of jaws in the throat, and they are useful in helping the little fish to crack shells. if we look at the mouth of our live fish, we shall find that when it breathes or bites it moves the lower jaw very much as a dog does. but it can move the upper jaw, too, a little, and that by pushing it out in a queer fashion, as though it were thrust out of a sheath and then drawn in. if we look at our dead fish, we shall see that the upper jaw divides in the middle and has two bones on each side. on one bone are rows of little teeth, while the other bone that lies behind it has no teeth at all. the lower jaw has little teeth like those of the upper jaw, and there is a patch of teeth on the roof of the mouth also. in some sunfishes there are three little patches, the vomer in the middle and the palatines on either side. the tongue of the fish is flat and gristly. it cannot move it, scarce even taste its food with it, nor can it use it for making a noise. the unruly member of a fish is not its tongue, but its tail. =how the fish sees.=--to come back to the fish's eye again. we say that it has no eyelids, and so, if it ever goes to sleep, it must keep its eyes wide open. the iris is brown or red. the pupil is round, and if we could cut open the eye we should see that the crystalline lens is almost a perfect sphere, much more convex than the lens in land animals. we shall learn that this is necessary for the fish to see under water. it takes a very convex lens or even one perfectly round to form images from rays of light passing through the water, because the lens is but little more dense than the water itself. this makes the fish near-sighted. he cannot see clearly anything out of water or at a distance. thus he has learned that when, in water or out, he sees anything moving quickly it is probably something dangerous, and the thing for him to do is to swim away and hide as swiftly as possible. in front of the eye are the nostrils, on each side a pair of openings. but they lead not into tubes, but into a little cup lined with delicate pink tissues and the branching nerves of smell. the organ of smell in nearly all fishes is a closed sac, and the fish does not use the nostrils at all in breathing. but they can indicate the presence of anything in the water which is good to eat, and eating is about the only thing a fish cares for. =color of the fish.=--behind the eye there are several bones on the side of the head which are more or less distinct from the skull itself. these are called membrane bones because they are formed of membrane which has become bony by the deposition in it of salts of lime. one of these is called the opercle, or gill-cover, and before it, forming a right angle, is the preopercle, or false gill-cover. on our sunfish we see that the opercle ends behind in a long and narrow flap, which looks like an ear. this is black in color, with an edging of scarlet as though a drop of blood had spread along its margin. when the fish is in the water its back is dark greenish-looking, like the weeds and the sticks in the bottom, so that we cannot see it very plainly. this is the way the fish looks to the fishhawks or herons in the air above it who may come to the stream to look for fish. those fishes which from above look most like the bottom can most readily hide and save themselves. the under side of the sunfish is paler, and most fishes have the belly white. fishes with white bellies swim high in the water, and the fishes who would catch them lie below. to the fish in the water all outside the water looks white, and so the white-bellied fishes are hard for other fishes to see, just as it is hard for us to see a white rabbit bounding over the snow. [illustration: fig. .--common sunfish, _eupomotis gibbosus_ (linnæus). natural size. (from life by r. w. shufeldt.)] but to be known of his own kind is good for the sunfish, and we may imagine that the black ear-flap with its scarlet edge helps his mate and friends to find him out, where they swim on his own level near the bottom. such marks are called recognition-marks, and a great many fishes have them, but we have no certain knowledge as to their actual purpose. we are sure that the ear-flap is not an ear, however. no fishes have any external ear, all their hearing apparatus being buried in the skull. they cannot hear very much: possibly a great jar or splash in the water may reach them, but whenever they hear any noise they swim off to a hiding-place, for any disturbance whatever in the water must arouse a fish's anxiety. the color of the live sunfish is very brilliant. its body is covered with scales, hard and firm, making a close coat of mail, overlapping one another like shingles on a roof. over these is a thin skin in which are set little globules of bright-colored matter, green, brown, and black, with dashes of scarlet, blue, and white as well. these give the fish its varied colors. some coloring matter is under the scales also, and this especially makes the back darker than the lower parts. the bright colors of the sunfish change with its surroundings or with its feelings. when it lies in wait under a dark log its colors are very dark. when it rests above the white sands it is very pale. when it is guarding its nest from some meddling perch its red shades flash out as it stands with fins spread, as though a water knight with lance at rest, looking its fiercest at the intruder. when the sunfish is taken out of the water its colors seem to fade. in the aquarium it is generally paler, but it will sometimes brighten up when another of its own species is placed beside it. a cause of this may lie in the nervous control of the muscles at the base of the scales. when the scales lie very flat the color has one appearance. when they rise a little the shade of color seems to change. if you let fall some ink-drops between two panes of glass, then spread them apart or press them together, you will see changes in the color and size of the spots. of this nature is the apparent change in the colors of fishes under different conditions. where the fish feels at its best the colors are the richest. there are some fishes, too, in which the male grows very brilliant in the breeding season through the deposition of red, white, black, or blue pigments, or coloring matter, on its scales or on its head or fins, this pigment being absorbed when the mating season is over. this is not true of the sunfish, who remains just about the same at all seasons. the male and female are colored alike and are not to be distinguished without dissection. if we examine the scales, we shall find that these are marked with fine lines and concentric striæ, and part of the apparent color is due to the effect of the fine lines on the light. this gives the bluish lustre or sheen which we can see in certain lights, although we shall find no real blue pigment under it. the inner edge of each scale is usually scalloped or crinkled, and the outer margin of most of them has little prickly points which make the fish seem rough when we pass our hand along his sides. [illustration: fig. .--_ozorthe dictyogramma_ (herzenstein). a japanese blenny, from hakodate: showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic of many fishes of the north pacific.] =the lateral line.=--along the side of the fish is a line of peculiar scales which runs from the head to the tail. this is called the lateral line. if we examine it carefully, we shall see that each scale has a tube from which exudes a watery or mucous fluid. behind these tubes are nerves, and although not much is known of the function of the tubes, we can be sure that in some degree the lateral line is a sense-organ, perhaps aiding the fish to feel sound-waves or other disturbances in the water. =the fins of the fish.=--the fish moves itself and directs its course in the water by means of its fins. these are made up of stiff or flexible rods growing out from the body and joined together by membrane. there are two kinds of these rays or rods in the fins. one sort is without joints or branches, tapering to a sharp point. the rays thus fashioned are called spines, and they are in the sunfish stiff and sharp-pointed. the others, known as soft rays, are made up of many little joints, and most of them branch and spread out brush-like at their tips. in the fin on the back the first ten of the rays are spines, the rest are soft rays. in the fin under the tail there are three spines, and in each fin at the breast there is one spine with five soft rays. in the other fins all the rays are soft. the fin on the back is called the dorsal fin, the fin at the end of the tail is the caudal fin, the fin just in front of this on the lower side is the anal fin. the fins, one on each side, just behind the gill-openings are called the pectoral fins. these correspond to the arms of man, the wings of birds, or the fore legs of a turtle or lizard. below these, corresponding to the hind legs, is the pair of fins known as the ventral fins. if we examine the bones behind the gill-openings to which the pectoral fins are attached, we shall find that they correspond after a fashion to the shoulder-girdle of higher animals. but the shoulder-bone in the sunfish is joined to the back part of the skull, so that the fish has not any neck at all. in animals with necks the bones at the shoulder are placed at some distance behind the skull. if we examine the legs of a fish, the ventral fins, we shall find that, as in man, these are fastened to a bone inside called the pelvis. but the pelvis in the sunfish is small and it is placed far forward, so that it is joined to the tip of the "collar-bone" of the shoulder-girdle and pelvis attached together. the caudal fin gives most of the motion of a fish. the other fins are mostly used in maintaining equilibrium and direction. the pectoral fins are almost constantly in motion, and they may sometimes help in breathing by starting currents outside which draw water over the gills. =the skeleton of the fish.=--the skeleton of the fish, like that of man, is made up of the skull, the back-bone, the limbs, and their appendages. but in the fish the bones are relatively smaller, more numerous, and not so firm. the front end of the vertebral column is modified as a skull to contain the little brain which serves for all a fish's activities. to the skull are attached the jaws, the membrane bones, and the shoulder-girdle. the back-bone itself in the sunfish is made of about twenty-four pieces, or vertebræ. each of these has a rounded central part, concave in front and behind. above this is a channel through which the great spinal cord passes, and above and below are a certain number of processes or projecting points. to some of these, through the medium of another set of sharp bones, the fins of the back are attached. along the sides of the body are the slender ribs. =the fish in action.=--the fish is, like any other animal, a machine to convert food into power. it devours other animals or plants, assimilates their substance, takes it over into itself, and through its movements uses up this substance again. the food of the sunfish is made up of worms, insects, and little fishes. to seize these it uses its mouth and teeth. to digest them it needs its alimentary canal, made of the stomach with its glands and intestines. if we cut the fish open, we shall find the stomach with its pyloric cæca, near it the large liver with its gall-bladder, and on the other side the smaller spleen. after the food is dissolved in the stomach and intestines the nutritious part is taken up by the walls of the alimentary canal, whence it passes into the blood. the blood is made pure in the gills, as we have already seen. to send it to the gills the fish has need of a little pumping-engine, and this we shall find at work in the fish as in all higher animals. this engine of stout muscle surrounding a cavity is called the heart. in most fishes it is close behind the gills. it contains one auricle and one ventricle only, not two of each as in man. the auricle receives the impure blood from all parts of the body. it passes it on to the ventricle, which, being thick-walled, is dark red in color. this passes the blood by convulsive action, or heart-beating, on to the gills. from these the blood is collected in arteries, and without again returning to the heart it flows all through the body. the blood in the fish flows sluggishly. the combustion of waste material goes on slowly, and so the blood is not made hot as it is in the higher beasts and birds. fishes have relatively little blood; what there is is rather pale and cold and has no swift current. if we look about in the inside of a fish, we shall find close along the lower side of the back-bone, covering the great artery, the dark red kidneys. these strain out from the blood a certain class of impurities, poisons made from nerve or muscle waste which cannot be burned away by the oxygen of respiration. =the air-bladder.=--in the front part of the sunfish, just above the stomach, is a closed sac, filled with air. this is called the air-bladder, or swim-bladder. it helps the fish to maintain its place in the water. in bottom fishes it is almost always small, while fishes that rise and fall in the current generally have a large swim-bladder. the gas inside it is secreted from the blood, for the sunfish has no way of getting any air into it from the outside. but the primal purpose of the air-bladder was not to serve as a float. in very old-fashioned fishes it has a tube connecting it with the throat, and instead of being an empty sac it is a true lung made up of many lobes and parts and lined with little blood-vessels. such fishes as the garpike and the bowfin have lung-like air-bladders and gulp air from the surface of the water. in the very little sunfish, when he is just hatched, the air-bladder has an air-duct, which, however, is soon lost, leaving only a closed sac. from all this we know that the air-bladder is the remains of what was once a lung, or additional arrangement for breathing. as the gills furnish oxygen enough, the lung of the common fish has fallen into disuse and thrifty nature has used the parts and the space for another and a very different purpose. this will serve to help us to understand the swim-bladder and the way the fish came to acquire it as a substitute for a lung. =the brain of the fish.=--the movements of the fish, like those of every other complex animal, are directed by a central nervous system, of which the principal part is in the head and is known as the brain. from the eye of the fish a large nerve goes to the brain to report what is in sight. other nerves go from the nostrils, the ears, the skin, and every part which has any sort of capacity for feeling. these nerves carry their messages inward, and when they reach the brain they may be transformed into movement. the brain sends back messages to the muscles, directing them to contract. their contraction moves the fins, and the fish is shoved along through the water. to scare the fish or to attract it to its food or to its mate is about the whole range of the effect that sight or touch has on the animal. these sensations changed into movement constitute what is called reflex action, performance without thinking of what is being done. with a boy, many familiar actions may be equally reflex. the boy can also do many other things "of his own accord," that is, by conscious effort. he can choose among a great many possible actions. but a fish cannot. if he is scared, he must swim away, and he has no way to stop himself. if he is hungry, and most fishes are so all the time, he will spring at the bait. if he is thirsty, he will gasp, and there is nothing else for him to do. in other words, the activities of a fish are nearly all reflex, most of them being suggested and immediately directed by the influence of external things. because its actions are all reflex the brain is very small, very primitive, and very simple, nothing more being needed for automatic movement. small as the fish's skull-cavity is, the brain does not half fill it. [illustration: fig. .--common sunfish, _eupomotis gibbosus_ (linnæus). natural size. (from life by r. w. shufeldt.)--page .] the vacant space about the little brain is filled with a fatty fluid mass looking like white of egg, intended for its protection. taking the dead sunfish (for the live one we shall look after carefully, giving him every day fresh water and a fresh worm or snail or bit of beef), if we cut off the upper part of the skull we shall see the separate parts of the brain, most of them lying in pairs, side by side, in the bottom of the brain-cavity. the largest pair is near the middle of the length of the brain, two nerve-masses (or ganglia), each one round and hollow. if we turn these over, we shall see that the nerves of the eye run into them. we know then that these nerve-masses receive the impressions of sight, and so they are called optic lobes. in front of the optic lobes are two smaller and more oblong nerve-masses. these constitute the cerebrum. this is the thinking part of the brain, and in man and in the higher animals it makes up the greater part of it, overlapping and hiding the other ganglia. but the fish has not much need for thinking and its fore-brain or cerebrum is very small. in front of these are two small, slim projections, one going to each nostril. these are the olfactory lobes which receive the sensation of smell. behind the optic lobes is a single small lobe, not divided into two. this is the cerebellum and it has charge of certain powers of motion. under the cerebellum is the medulla, below which the spinal cord begins. the rest of the spinal cord is threaded through the different vertebræ back to the tail, and at each joint it sends out nerves of motion and receives nerves of sense. everything that is done by the fish, inside or outside, receives the attention of the little branches of the great nerve-cord. =the fish's nest.=--the sunfish in the spawning time will build some sort of a nest of stones on the bottom of the eddy, and then, when the eggs are laid, the male with flashing eye and fins all spread will defend the place with a good deal of spirit. all this we call instinct. he fights as well the first time as the last. the pressure of the eggs suggests nest-building to the female. the presence of the eggs tells the male to defend them. but the facts of the nest-building and nest protection are not very well understood, and any boy who can watch them and describe them truly will be able to add something to science. chapter ii the exterior of the fish =form of body.=--with a glance at the fish as a living organism and some knowledge of those structures which are to be readily seen without dissection, we are prepared to examine its anatomy in detail, and to note some of the variations which may be seen in different parts of the great group. in general fishes are boat-shaped, adapted for swift progress through the water. they are longer than broad or deep and the greatest width is in front of the middle, leaving the compressed paddle-like tail as the chief organ of locomotion. [illustration: fig. .--pine-cone fish, _monocentris japonicus_ (houttuyn). waka, japan.] but to all these statements there are numerous exceptions. some fishes depend for protection, not on swiftness, but on the thorny skin or a bony coat of mail. some of these are almost globular in form, and their outline bears no resemblance to that of a boat. the trunkfish (_ostracion_) in a hard bony box has no need of rapid progress. [illustration: fig. .--porcupine-fish, _diodon hystrix_ (linnæus). tortugas islands.] [illustration: fig. .--thread-eel, _nemichthys avocetta_ jordan and gilbert. vancouver island.] [illustration: fig. .--sea-horse, _hippocampus hudsonius_ dekay. virginia.] [illustration: fig. .--harvest-fish, _peprilus paru_ (linnæus). virginia.] [illustration: fig. .--anko or fishing-frog, _lophius litulon_ (jordan). matsushima bay, japan. (the short line in all cases shows the degree of reduction; it represents an inch of the fish's length.)] the pine-cone fish (_monocentris japonicus_) adds strong fin-spines to its bony box, and the porcupine fish (_diodon hystrix_) is covered with long prickles which keep away all enemies. among swift fishes, there are some in which the body is much deeper than long, as in _antigonia_. certain sluggish fishes seem to be all head and tail, looking as though the body by some accident had been omitted. these, like the headfish (_mola mola_) are protected by a leathery skin. other fishes, as the eels, are extremely long and slender, and some carry this elongation to great extremes. usually the head is in a line with the axis of the body, but in some cases, as the sea-horse (_hippocampus_), the head is placed at right angles to the axis, and the body itself is curved and cannot be straightened without injury. the type of the swiftest fish is seen among the mackerels and tunnies, where every outline is such that a racing yacht might copy it. the body or head of the fish is said to be compressed when it is flattened sidewise, depressed when it is flattened vertically. thus the _peprilus_ (fig. ) is said to be compressed, while the fishing-frog (_lophius_) (fig. ) has a depressed body and head. other terms as truncate (cut off short), attenuate (long-drawn out), robust, cuboid, filiform, and the like may be needed in descriptions. =measurement of the fish.=--as most fishes grow as long as they live, the actual length of a specimen has not much value for purposes of description. the essential point is not actual length, but relative length. the usual standard of measurement is the length from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. with this length the greatest depth of the body, the greatest length of the head, and the length of individual parts may be compared. thus in the rock hind (_epinephelus adscensionis_), fig. , the head is contained - / times in the length, while the greatest depth is contained three times. thus, again, the length of the muzzle, the diameter of the eye, and other dimensions may be compared with the length of the head. in the rock hind, fig. , the eye is in head, the snout is - / in head, and the maxillary - / . young fishes have the eye larger, the body slenderer, and the head larger in proportion than old fishes of the same kind. the mouth grows larger with age, and is sometimes larger also in the male sex. the development of the fins often varies a good deal in some fishes with age, old fishes and male fishes having higher fins when such differences exist. these variations are soon understood by the student of fishes and cause little doubt or confusion in the study of fishes. [illustration: fig. .--rock hind or cabra mora of the west indies, _epinephelus adscensionis_ (osbeck). family _serranidæ_.] =the scales, or exoskeleton.=--the surface of the fish may be naked as in the catfish, or it may be covered with scales, prickles, shagreen, or bony plates. the hard covering of the skin, when present, is known as the exoskeleton, or outer skeleton. in the fish, the exoskeleton, whatever form it may assume, may be held to consist of modified scales, and this is usually obviously the case. the skin of the fish may be thick or thin, bony, horny, leathery, or papery, or it may have almost any intermediate character. when protected by scales the skin is usually thin and tender; when unprotected it may be ossified, as in the sea-horse; horny, as in the headfish; leathery, as in the catfish; or it may, as in the sea-snails, form a loose scarf readily detachable from the muscles below. the scales themselves may be broadly classified as ctenoid, cycloid, placoid, ganoid, or prickly. _ctenoid and cycloid scales._--normally formed scales are rounded in outline, marked by fine concentric rings, and crossed on the inner side by a few strong radiating ridges and folds. they usually cover the body more or less evenly and are imbricated like shingles on a roof, the free edge being turned backward. such normal scales are of two types, ctenoid or cycloid. ctenoid scales have a comb-edge of fine prickles or cilia; cycloid scales have the edges smooth. these two types are not very different, and the one readily passes into the other, both being sometimes seen on different parts of the same fish. in general, however, the more primitive representatives of the typical fishes, those with abdominal ventrals and without spines in the fins, have cycloid or smooth scales. examples are the salmon, herring, minnow, and carp. some of the more specialized spiny-rayed fishes, as the parrot-fishes, have, however, scales equally smooth, although somewhat different in structure. sometimes, as in the eel, the cycloid scales may be reduced to mere rudiments buried in the skin. _ctenoid_ scales are beset on the free edge by little prickles or points, sometimes rising to the rank of spines, at other times soft and scarcely noticeable, when they are known as ciliate or eyelash-like. such scales are possessed in general by the more specialized types of bony fishes, as the perch and bass, those with thoracic ventrals and spines in the fins. [illustration: fig. .--scales of _acanthoessus bronni_ (agassiz). (after dean.)] _placoid scales._--placoid scales are ossified papillæ, minute, enamelled, and close-set, forming a fine shagreen. these are characteristic of the sharks; and in the most primitive sharks the teeth are evidently modifications of these primitive structures. some other fishes have scales which appear shagreen-like to sight and feeling, but only the sharks have the peculiar structure to which agassiz gave the name of placoid. the rough prickles of the filefishes and some sculpins are not placoid, but are reduced or modified ctenoid scales, scales narrowed and reduced to prickles. _bony and prickly scales._--bony and prickly scales are found in great variety, and scarcely admit of description or classification. in general, prickly points on the skin are modifications of ctenoid scales. ganoid scales are thickened and covered with bony enamel, much like that seen in teeth, otherwise essentially like cycloid scales. these are found in the garpike and in many genera of extinct ganoid and crossopterygian fishes. in the line of descent the placoid scale preceded the ganoid, which in turn was followed by the cycloid and lastly by the ctenoid scale. bony scales in other types of fishes may have nothing structurally in common with ganoid scales or plates, however great may be the superficial resemblance. [illustration: fig. .--cycloid scale.] the distribution of scales on the body may vary exceedingly. in some fishes the scales are arranged in very regular series; in others they are variously scattered over the body. some are scaly everywhere on head, body, and fins. others may have only a few lines or patches. the scales may be everywhere alike, or they may in one part or another be greatly modified. sometimes they are transformed into feelers or tactile organs. the number of scales is always one of the most valuable of the characters by which to distinguish species. =lateral line.=--the lateral line in most fishes consists of a series of modified scales, each one provided with a mucous tube extending along the side of the body from the head to the caudal fin. the canal which pierces each scale is simple at its base, but its free edge is often branched or ramified. in most spiny-rayed fishes it runs parallel with the outline of the back. in most soft-rayed fishes it follows rather the outline of the belly. it is subject to many variations. in some large groups (_gobiidæ_, _pæciliidæ_) its surface structures are entirely wanting. in scaleless fishes the mucous tube lies in the skin itself. in some groups the lateral line has a peculiar position, as in the flying-fishes, where it forms a raised ridge bounding the belly. in many cases the lateral line has branches of one sort or another. it is often double or triple, and in some cases the whole back and sides of the fish are covered with lateral lines and their ramifications. sometimes peculiar sense-organs and occasionally eye-like luminous spots are developed in connection with the lateral line, enabling the fish to see in the black depths of the sea. these will be noticed in another chapter. _the lateral line as a mucous channel._--the more primitive condition of the lateral line is seen in the sharks and chimæras, in which fishes it appears as a series of channels in or under the skin. these channels are filled with mucus, which exudes through occasional open pores. in many fishes the bones of the skull are cavernous, that is, provided with cavities filled with mucus. analogous to these cavities are the mucous channels which in primitive fishes constitute the lateral line. [illustration: fig. .--singing fish (with many lateral lines), _porichthys porosissimus_ (cuv. and val.). gulf of mexico.] _function of the lateral line._--the general function of the lateral line with its tubes and pores is still little understood. as the structures of the lateral line are well provided with nerves, it has been thought to be an organ of sense of some sort not yet understood. its close relation to the ear is beyond question, the ear-sac being an outgrowth from it. "the original significance of the lateral line," according to dr. dean,[ ] "as yet remains undetermined. it appears intimately if not genetically related to the sense-organs of the head and gill region of the ancestral fish. in response to special aquatic needs, it may thence have extended farther and farther backward along the median line of the trunk, and in its later differentiation acquired its metameral characters." in view of its peculiar nerve-supply, "the precise function of this entire system of organs becomes especially difficult to determine. feeling, in its broadest sense, has safely been admitted as its possible use. its close genetic relationship to the hearing organ suggests the kindred function of determining waves of vibration. these are transmitted in so favorable a way in the aquatic medium that from the side of theory a system of hypersensitive end-organs may well have been established. the sensory tracts along the sides of the body are certainly well situated to determine the direction of the approach of friend, enemy, or prey." =the fins of fishes.=--the organs of locomotion in the fishes are knows as fins. these are composed of bony or cartilaginous rods or rays connected by membranes. the fins are divided into two groups, paired fins and vertical fins. the pectoral fins, one on either side, correspond to the anterior limbs of the higher vertebrates. the ventral fins below or behind them represent the hinder limbs. either or both pairs may be absent, but the ventrals are much more frequently abortive than the pectorals. the insertion of the ventral fins may be abdominal, as in the sharks and the more generalized of the bony fishes, thoracic under the breast (the pelvis attached to the shoulder-girdle) or jugular, under the throat. when the ventral fins are abdominal, the pectoral fins are usually placed very low. the paired fins are not in general used for progression in the water, but serve rather to enable the fish to keep its equilibrium. with the rays, however, the wing-like pectoral fins form the chief organ of locomotion. the fin on the median line of the back is called the dorsal, that on the tail the caudal, and that on the lower median line the anal fin. the dorsal is often divided into two fins or even three. the anal is sometimes divided, and either dorsal or anal fin may have behind it detached single rays called finlets. the rays composing the fin may be either simple or branched. the branched rays are always articulated, that is, crossed by numerous fine joints which render them flexible. simple rays are also sometimes articulate. rays thus jointed are known as soft rays, while those rays which are neither jointed nor branched are called spines. a spine is usually stiff and sharp-pointed, but it may be neither, and some spines are very slender and flexible, the lack of branches or joints being the feature which distinguishes spine from soft ray. the anterior rays of the dorsal and anal fins are spinous in most fishes with thoracic ventrals. the dorsal fin has usually about ten spines, the anal three, but as to this there is much variation in different groups. when the dorsal is divided all the rays of the first dorsal and usually the first ray of the second are spines. the caudal fin has never true spines, though at the base of its lobes are often rudimentary rays which resemble spines. most spineless fishes have such rudiments in front of their vertical fins. the pectoral, as a rule, is without spines, although in the catfishes and some others a single large spine may be developed. the ventrals when abdominal are usually without spines. when thoracic each usually, but not always, consists of one spine and five soft rays. when jugular the number of soft rays may be reduced, this being a phase of degeneration of the fin. in writing descriptions of fishes the number of spines may be indicated by roman numerals, those of the soft rays by arabic. thus d. xii-i, means that the dorsal is divided, that the anterior portion consists of twelve spines, the posterior of one spine and seventeen soft rays. in some fishes, as the catfish or the salmon, there is a small fin on the back behind the dorsal fin. this is known as the adipose fin, being formed of fatty substance covered by skin. in a few catfishes, this adipose fin develops a spine or soft rays. =muscles.=--the movements of the fins are accomplished by the muscles. these organs lie along the sides of the body, forming the flesh of the fish. they are little specialized, and not clearly differentiated as in the higher vertebrates. with the higher fishes there are several distinct systems of muscles controlling the jaws, the gills, the eye, the different fins, and the body itself. the largest of all is the great lateral muscle, composed of flake-like segments (myocommas) which correspond in general with the number of the vertebræ. in general the muscles of the fish are white in color. in some groups, especially of the mackerel family, they are deep red, charged with animal oils. in the salmon they are orange-red, a color also due to the presence of certain oils. in a few fishes muscular structures are modified into electric organs. these will be discussed in a later chapter. footnotes: [ ] fishes recent and fossil, p. . chapter iii the dissection of the fish =the blue-green sunfish.=--the organs found in the abdominal cavity of the fish may be readily traced in a rapid dissection. any of the bony fishes may be chosen, but for our purposes the sunfish will serve as well as any. the names and location of the principal organs are shown in the accompanying figure, from kellogg's zoology. it represents the blue-green sunfish, _apomotis cyanellus_, from the kansas river, but in these regards all the species of sunfishes are alike. we may first glance at the different organs as shown in the sequence of dissection, leaving a detailed account of each to the subsequent pages. =the viscera.=--opening the body cavity of the fish, as shown in the plate, we see below the back-bone a membranous sac closed and filled with air. this is the air-bladder, a rudiment of that structure which in higher vertebrates is developed as a lung. the alimentary canal passes through the abdominal cavity extending from the mouth through the pharynx and ending at the anus or vent. the stomach has the form of a blind sac, and at its termination are a number of tubular sacs, the pyloric cæca, which secrete a digestive fluid. beyond the pylorus extends the intestine with one or two loops to the anus. connected with the intestine anteriorly is the large red mass of the liver, with its gall-bladder, which serves as a reservoir for bile, the fluid the liver secretes. farther back is another red glandular mass, the spleen. in front of the liver and separated from it by a membrane is the heart. this is of four parts. the posterior part is a thin-walled reservoir, the sinus venosus, into which blood enters through the jugular vein from the head and through the cardinal vein from the kidney. from the sinus venosus it passes forward into a large thin-walled chamber, the auricle. [illustration: fig. .--dissection of the blue-green sunfish, _apomotis cyanellus_ rafinesque. (after kellogg.)-- .] next it flows into the thick-walled ventricle, whence by the rhythmical contraction of its walls it is forced into an arterial bulb which lies at the base of the ventral aorta, which carries it on to the gills. after passing through the fine gill-filaments, it is returned to the dorsal aorta, a large blood-vessel which extends along the lower surface of the back-bone, giving out branches from time to time. the kidneys in fishes constitute an irregular mass under the back-bone posteriorly. they discharge their secretions through the ureter to a small urinary bladder, and thence into the urogenital sinus, a small opening behind the anus. into the same sinus are discharged the reproductive cells in both sexes. in the female sunfish the ovaries consist of two granular masses of yellowish tissue lying just below and behind the swim-bladder. in the spring they fill much of the body cavity and the many little eggs can be plainly seen. when mature they are discharged through the oviduct to the urogenital sinus. in some fishes there is no special oviduct and the eggs pass into the abdominal cavity before exclusion. in the male the reproductive organs have the same position as the ovaries in the female. they are, however, much smaller in size and paler in color, while the minute spermatozoa appear milky rather than granular on casual examination. a _vas deferens_ leads from each of these organs into the urogenital sinus. the lancelets, lampreys, and hagfishes possess no genital ducts. in the former the germ cells are shed into the atrial cavity, and from there find their way to the exterior either through the mouth or the atrial pore; in the latter they are shed directly into the body cavity, from which they escape through the abdominal pores. in the sharks and skates the wolffian duct in the male, in addition to its function as an excretory duct, serves also as a passage for the sperm, the testes having a direct connection with the kidneys. in these forms there is a pair of müllerian ducts which serve as oviducts in the females; they extend the length of the body cavity, and at their anterior end have an opening which receives the eggs which have escaped from the ovary into the body cavity. in some bony fishes as the eels and female salmon the germ cells are shed into the body cavity and escape through genital pores, which, however, may not be homologous with abdominal pores. in most other bony fishes the testes and ovaries are continued directly into ducts which open to the outside. =organs of nutrition.=--the organs thus shown in dissection we may now examine in detail. [illustration: fig. .--black swallower, _chiasmodon niger_ johnson, containing a fish larger than itself. le have bank.] the mouth of the fish is the organ or series of structures first concerned in nutrition. the teeth are outgrowths from the skin, primarily as modified papillæ, aiding the mouth in its various functions of seizing, holding, cutting, or crushing the various kinds of food material. some fishes feed exclusively on plants, some on plants and animals alike, some exclusively on animals, some on the mud in which minute plants and animals occur. the majority of fishes feed on other fishes, and without much regard to species or condition. with the carnivorous fishes, to feed represents the chief activity of the organism. in proportion to the voracity of the fish is usually the size of the mouth, the sharpness of the teeth, and the length of the lower jaw. the most usual type of teeth among fishes is that of villiform bands. villiform teeth are short, slender, even, close-set, making a rough velvety surface. when the teeth are larger and more widely separated, they are called cardiform, like the teeth of a wool-card. granular teeth are small, blunt, and sand-like. canine teeth are those projecting above the level of the others, usually sharp, curved, and in some species barbed. sometimes the canines are in front. in some families the last tooth in either jaw may be a "posterior canine," serving to hold small animals in place while the anterior teeth crush them. canine teeth are often depressible, having a hinge at base. [illustration: fig. .--jaws of a parrot-fish, _sparisoma aurofrenatum_ (val.). cuba.] teeth very slender and brush-like are called setiform. teeth with blunt tips are molar. these are usually enlarged and fitted for crushing shells. flat teeth set in mosaic, as in many rays and in the pharyngeals of parrot-fishes, are said to be _paved_ or tessellated. knife-like teeth, occasionally with serrated edges, are found in many sharks. many fishes have incisor-like teeth, some flattened and truncate like human teeth, as in the sheepshead, sometimes with serrated edges. often these teeth are movable, implanted only in the skin of the lips. in other cases they are set fast in the jaw. most species with movable teeth or teeth with serrated edges are herbivorous, while strong incisors may indicate the choice of snails and crabs as food. two or more of these different types may be found in the same fish. the knife-like teeth of the sharks are progressively shed, new ones being constantly formed on the inner margins of the jaw, so that the teeth are marching to be lost over the edge of the jaw as soon as each has fulfilled its function. in general the more distinctly a species is a fish-eater, the sharper are the teeth. usually fishes show little discrimination in their choice of food; often they devour the young of their own species as readily as any other. the digestive process is rapid, and most fishes rapidly increase in size in the process of development. when food ceases to be abundant the fishes grow more slowly. for this reason the same species will grow to a larger size in large streams than in small ones, in lakes than in brooks. in most cases there is no absolute limit to growth, the species growing as long as it lives. but while some species endure many years, others are certainly very shortlived, and some may be even annual, dying after spawning, perhaps at the end of the first season. teeth are wholly absent in several groups of fishes. they are, however, usually present on the premaxillary, dentary, and pharyngeal bones. in the higher forms, the vomer, palatines, and gill-rakers are rarely without teeth, and in many cases the pterygoids, sphenoids, and the bones of the tongue are similarly armed. no salivary glands or palatine velum are developed in fishes. the tongue is always bony or gristly and immovable. sometimes taste-buds are developed on it, and sometimes these are found on the barbels outside the mouth. [illustration: fig. .--sheepshead (with incisor teeth), _archosargus probatocephalus_ (walbaum). beaufort, n. c.] =the alimentary canal.=--the mouth-cavity opens through the pharynx between the upper and lower pharyngeal bones into the oesophagus, whence the food passes into the stomach. the intestinal tract is in general divided into four portions--oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. but these divisions of the intestines are not always recognizable, and in the very lowest forms, as in the lancelet, the stomach is a simple straight tube without subdivision. in the lampreys there is a distinction only of the oesophagus with many longitudinal folds and the intestine with but one. in the bony fishes the stomach is an enlarged area, either siphon-shaped, with an opening at either end, or else forming a blind sac with the openings for entrance (cardiac) and exit (pyloric) close together at the anterior end. in the various kinds of mullets (_mugil_) and in the hickory shad (_dorosoma_), fishes which feed on minute vegetation mixed with mud, the stomach becomes enlarged to a muscular gizzard, like that of a fowl. attached near the pylorus and pouring their secretions into the duodenum or small intestine are the _pyloric cæca_. these are tubular sacs secreting a pale fluid and often almost as long as the stomach or as wide as the intestine. these may be very numerous as in the salmon, in which case they are likely to become coalescent at base, or they be few or altogether wanting. besides these appendages which are wanting in the higher vertebrates, a pancreas is also found in the sharks and many other fishes. this is a glandular mass behind the stomach, its duct leading into the duodenum and often coalescent with the bile duct from the liver. the liver in the lancelet is a long diverticulum of the intestine. in the true fishes it becomes a large gland of irregular form, and usually but not always provided with a gall-bladder as in the higher vertebrates. its secretions usually pass through a _ductus cholodechus_ to the duodenum. the _spleen_, a dark-red lymphatic gland, is found attached to the stomach in all fish-like vertebrates except the lancelet. the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity is known as the _peritoneum_, and the membrane sustaining the intestines from the dorsal side, as in the higher vertebrates, is called the _mesentery_. in many species the peritoneum is jet black, while in related forms it may be pale in color. it is more likely to be black in fishes from deep water and in fishes which feed on plants. =the spiral valve.=--in the sharks or skates the rectum or large intestine is peculiarly modified, being provided with a spiral valve, with sometimes as many as forty gyrations. a spiral valve is also present in the more ancient types of the true fishes as dipnoans, crossopterygians, and ganoids. this valve greatly increases the surface of the intestine, doing away with the necessity for length. in the bowfin (_amia_) and the garpike (_lepisosteus_) the valve is reduced to a rudiment of three or four convolutions near the end of the intestine. in the sharks and skates the intestine opens into a cloaca, which contains also the urogenital openings. in all fishes the latter lie behind the orifice of the intestine. in the bony fishes and the ganoids there is no cloaca. [illustration: fig. .--stone-roller, _campostoma anomalum_ (rafinesque). family _cyprinidæ_. showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-bladder.] =length of the intestine.=--in all fishes, as in the higher vertebrates, the length of the alimentary canal is coordinated with the food of the fish. in those which feed upon plants the intestine is very long and much convoluted, while in those which feed on other fishes it is always relatively short. in the stone-roller, a fresh-water minnow (_campostoma_) found in the mississippi valley, the excessively long intestines filled with vegetable matter are wound spool-fashion about the large air-bladder. in all other fishes the air-bladder lies on the dorsal side of the intestinal canal. chapter iv the skeleton of the fish =specialization of the skeleton.=--in the lowest form of fish-like vertebrates (_branchiostoma_), the skeleton consists merely of a cartilaginous rod or notochord extending through the body just below the spinal cord. in the lampreys, sharks, dipnoans, crossopterygians, and sturgeons the skeleton is still cartilaginous, but grows progressively more complex in their forms and relations. among the typical fishes the skeleton becomes ossified and reaches a very high degree of complexity. very great variations in the forms and relations of the different parts of the skeleton are found among the bony fishes, or teleostei. the high degree of specialization of these parts gives to the study of the bones great importance in the systematic arrangement of these fishes. in fact the true affinities of forms is better shown by the bones than by any other system of organs. in a general way the skeleton of the fish is homologous with that of man. the head in the one corresponds to the head in the other, the back-bone to the back-bone, and the paired fins, pectoral and ventral, to the arms and legs. =homologies of bones of fishes.=--but this homology does not extend to the details of structure. the bones of the arm of the specialized fish are not by any means identical with the humerus, coracoid, clavicle, radius, ulna, and carpus of the higher vertebrates. the vertebrate arm is not derived from the pectoral fin, but both from a cartilaginous shoulder-girdle with undifferentiated pectoral elements bearing fin-rays, in its details unlike an arm and unlike the pectoral fin of the specialized fish. the assumption that each element in the shoulder-girdle and the pectoral fin of the fish must correspond in detail to the arm of man has led to great confusion in naming the different bones. among the many bones of the fish's shoulder-girdle and pectoral fin, three or four different ones have successively borne the names of scapula, clavicle, coracoid, humerus, radius, and ulna. none of these terms, unless it be clavicle, ought by rights apply to the fish, for no bone of the fish is a true homologue of any of these as seen in man. the land vertebrates and the fishes have doubtless sprung from a common stock, but this stock, related to the crossopterygians of the present day, was unspecialized in the details of its skeleton, and from it the fishes and the higher vertebrates have developed the widely diverging lines. [illustration: fig. .--striped bass, _roccus lineatus_ (bloch). potomac river.] =parts of the skeleton.=--the skeleton may be divided into the head, the vertebral column, and the limbs. the very lowest of the fish-like forms (_branchiostoma_) has no differentiated head or skull, but in all the other forms the anterior part of the vertebral column is modified to form a cranium for the protection of the brain. in the lampreys there are no jaws or other appendages to the cranium. in the sharks, dipnoans, crossopterygians, ganoids, and teleosts or bony fishes, jaws are developed as well as a variety of other bones around the mouth and throat. the jaw-bearing forms are sometimes known by the general name of gnathostomes. in the sharks and their relatives (rays, chimæras, etc.) all the skeleton is composed of cartilage. in the more specialized bony fishes, besides these bones we find also series of membrane bones, more or less external to the skull and composed of ossified dermal tissues. membrane bones are not found in the sharks and lampreys, but are developed in an elaborate coat of mail in some extinct forms. [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ lateral view of cranium. . vomer. . prefrontal. . sphenotic. . epiotic. . pterotic. . exoccipital. . parasphenoid. . prootic. . ethmoid. . frontal. . parietal. . supraoccipital. . opisthotic. . basioccipital. . basisphenoid.] [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ superior view of cranium. . vomer. . prefrontal. . sphenotic. . epiotic. . pterotic. . exoccipital. . ethmoid. . frontal. . parietal. . supraoccipital. . opisthotic.] [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ inferior view of cranium. . vomer. . frontal. . epiotic. . pterotic. . exoccipital. . parasphenoid. . alisphenoid. . prefrontal. . sphenotic. . supraoccipital. . opisthotic. . basioccipital. . prootic.] =names of bones of fishes.=--in the study of the names of the bones of fishes it will be more convenient to begin with a highly specialized form in which each of the various structures is present and in its normal position. to this end we present a series of figures of a typical form, choosing, after starks, the striped bass (_roccus lineatus_) of the atlantic coast of the united states. for this set of plates, drawn from nature by mrs. chloe lesley starks, we are indebted to the courtesy of mr. edwin chapin starks. the figures of the striped bass illustrate a noteworthy paper on "the synonymy of the fish skeleton," published by the washington academy of sciences in . =bones of the cranium.=--the _vomer_ ( ) is the anterior part of the roof of the mouth, armed with small teeth in the striped bass and in many other fishes, but often toothless. the _ethmoid_ ( ) lies behind the vomer on the upper surface of the skull, and the _prefrontal_ ( ) projects on either side and behind the ethmoid, the nostrils usually lying over or near it and near the nasal bone ( ). between the eyes above are the two _frontal_ ( ) bones joined by a suture. on the side behind the posterior angle of the frontal is the _sphenotic_ ( ) above the posterior part of the eye. behind each frontal is the _parietal_ ( ). behind the parietal and more or less turned inward over the ear-cavity is the _epiotic_ ( ). between the parietals, and in most fishes rising into a thin crest, is the _supraoccipital_ ( ), which bounds the cranium above and behind, its posterior margin being usually a vertical knife-like edge. the _pterotic_ ( ) forms a sort of wing or free margin behind the epiotic and over the ear-cavity. the _opisthotic_ ( ) is a small, hard, irregular bone behind the pterotic. the _exoccipital_ ( ) forms a concave joint or condyle on each side of the _basioccipital_ ( ), by which the vertebral column is joined to the skull. the _parasphenoid_ ( ) forms a narrow ridge of the roof of the mouth, connecting the vomer with the basioccipital. in some fishes of primitive structure (_salmo_, _beryx_) there is another bone, called orbitosphenoid, on the middle line above and between the eyes. the _basisphenoid_ ( ) is a little bone above the myotome or tube in which runs the rectus muscle of the eye. it descends toward the parasphenoid and is attached to the prootic. the _prootic_ ( ) is an irregular bone below the ear region and lying in advance of the opisthotic. the _alisphenoid_ ( ) is a small bone in the roof of the mouth before the prootic. these sixteen bones (with a loose bone of specialized form, the _otolith_, within the ear-cavity) constitute the cranium. all are well developed in the striped bass and in most fishes. in some specialized forms they are much distorted, coossified, or otherwise altered, and their relations to each other may be more or less changed. in the lower forms they are not always fully differentiated, but in nearly all cases their homologies can be readily traced. in the sharks and lampreys the skull constitutes a continuous cartilaginous box without sutures. in the dipnoans and other forms having a bony casque the superficial bones outside the cranium may not correspond to the cartilaginous elements of the soft skull itself. [illustration: fig. --_roccus lineatus._ posterior view of cranium. . parietal. . epiotic. . supraoccipital. . pterotic. . opisthotic. . exoccipital. . basioccipital.] =bones of the jaws.=--the bones of the jaws are attached to the cranium by membranes only, not by sutures, except in a few peculiarly specialized forms. _the upper jaw._--the _premaxillary_ ( ) lies on either side and forms the front of the upper jaw. its upper posterior tip or premaxillary spine projects backward almost at right angles with the rest of the bone into a groove on the ethmoid. there is often a fold in the skin by which this bone may be thrust out or protracted, as though drawn out of a sheath. when the spines of the premaxillary are very long the upper jaw may be thrust out for a considerable distance. the premaxillary is also often known as intermaxillary. lying behind the premaxillary, its anterior end attached within the angle of the premaxillary, is the _maxillary_ ( ), or _supramaxillary_, a flattened bone with expanded posterior tip. in the striped bass this bone is without teeth, but in many less specialized forms, as the salmon, it is provided with teeth and joined to the premaxillary in a different fashion. in any case its position readily distinguishes it. in some cases the maxillary is divided by one or more sutures, setting off from it one or more extra maxillary (supplemental maxillary) bones. this suture is absent in the striped bass, but distinct in the black bass, and more than one suture is found in the shad and herring. the roof of the mouth above is formed by a number of bones, which, as they often possess teeth, may be considered with the jaws. these are the _palatine_ bones ( ), one on either side flanking the vomer, the _pterygoid_ ( ), behind it and articulating with it, the _mesopterygoid_ ( ), on the roof of the mouth toward the median line, and the _metapterygoid_ ( ), lying behind this. although often armed with teeth, these bones are to be considered of the general nature of the membrane bones. in some degraded types of fishes (eels, morays, congers) the premaxillary is indistinguishable, being united with the vomer and palatines. [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ face-bones, shoulder and pelvic girdles, and hyoid arch. . hyomandibular. . symplectic. . quadrate. . pterygoid. . palatine. . mesopterygoid. . metapterygoid. . preopercle. . opercle. . subopercle. . interopercle. . articular. . angular. . dentary. . maxillary. . premaxillary. . interhyal. . epihyal. . ceratohyal . basihyal. . glossohyal. . urohyal. . branchiostegal. . preorbital. . suborbital. . nasal. . supratemporal. . post-temporal. . supraclavicle. . clavicle. . postclavicle. . hypercoracoid. . hypocoracoid. . actinosts. . pectoral fin. . pelvic girdle. . ventral fin.] the upper jaw of the shark is formed from the anterior portion of the palatine bones, which are not separate from the quadrate, the whole forming the palato-quadrate apparatus. in the himæra and the dipnoans this apparatus is solidly united with the cranium. in these fishes the true upper jaw, formed of maxillary and premaxillary, is wanting. [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw of _amia calva_ (linnæus), showing the gular plate.] _the lower jaw._--the lower jaw or mandible is also complex, consisting of two divisions or rami, right and left, joined in front by a suture. the anterior part of each ramus is formed by the _dentary bone_ ( ), which carries the teeth. behind this is the _articular bone_ ( ), which is connected by a joint to the _quadrate bone_ ( ). at the lower angle of the articular bone is the small _angular bone_ ( ). in many cases another small bone, which is called _splenial_, may be found attached to the inner surface of the articular bone. this little bone has been called coronoid, but it is doubtless not homologous with the coronoid bone of reptiles. in a few fishes, _amia_, _elopidæ_, and certain fossil dipnoans, there is a bony gular plate, a membrane bone across the throat behind the chin on the lower jaw. =the suspensorium of the mandible.=--the lower jaw is attached to the cranium by a chain of suspensory bones, which vary a good deal with different groups of fishes. the articular is jointed with the flat quadrate bone ( ), which lies behind the pterygoid. a slender bone passes upward ( ) under the preopercle and the metapterygoid, forming a connection above with a large flattish bone, the _hyomandibular_ ( ), which in turn joins the cranium. the slender bone which thus keys together the upper and lower elements, hyomandibular and quadrate, forming the suspensorium of the lower jaw, is known as _symplectic_ ( ). the hyomandibular is thought to be homologous with the stapes, or stirrup-bone, of the ear in higher animals. in this case the symplectic may be homologous with its small orbicular bone, and the malleus is a transformation of the articular. the incus, or anvil-bone, may be formed from part of meckel's cartilage. all these homologies are however extremely hypothetical. the core of the lower jaw is formed of a cartilage called meckel's cartilage, outside which the membrane bones, dentary, etc., are developed. this cartilage forms the lower jaw in sharks, true jaw-bones not being developed in these fishes. in lampreys and lancelets there is no lower jaw. =membrane bones of face.=--the membrane bones lie on the surface of the head, when they are usually covered by thin skin and have only a superficial connection with the cranium. such bones, formed of ossified membrane, are not found in the earlier or less specialized fishes, the lancelets and lampreys, nor in the sharks, rays, and chimæras. they are chiefly characteristic of the bony fishes, although in some of these they have undergone degradation. the _preorbital_ ( ) lies before and below the eye, its edge more or less parallel with that of the maxillary. it may be broad or narrow. when broad it usually forms a sheath into which the maxillary slips. the _nasal_ ( ) lies before the preorbital, a small bone usually lying along the spine of the premaxillary. behind and below the eye is a series of about three flat bones, the _suborbitals_ ( ), small in the striped bass, but sometimes considerably modified. in the great group of loricate fishes (sculpins, etc.), the third suborbital sends a bony process called the suborbital stay backward across the cheek toward the preopercle. the suborbital stay is present in the rosefish. in some cases, as in the gurnard, this stay covers the whole cheek with a bony coat of mail. in some fishes, but not in the striped bass, a small supraorbital bone exists over the eye, forming a sort of cap on an angle of the frontal bone. the largest uppermost flat bone of the gill-covers is known as the _opercle_ ( ). below it, joined by a suture, is the _subopercle_ ( ). before it is the prominent ridge of the _preopercle_ ( ), which curves forward below and forms a more or less distinct angle, often armed with serrations or spines. in some cases this armature is very highly developed. the _interopercle_ ( ) lies below the preopercle and parallel with the lower limb. =branchial bones.=--the bones of the branchial apparatus or gills are very numerous and complex, as well as subject to important variations. in many fishes some of these bones are coossified, and in other cases some are wanting. the tongue may be considered as belonging to this series, as the bones of the gills are attached to its axis below. in the striped bass, as in most fishes, the tongue, gristly and immovable, is formed anteriorly by a bone called the _glossohyal_ ( ). behind this are the _basihyals_ ( ), and still farther back, on the side, is the _ceratohyal_ ( ). to the basihyals is attached a bone extending downward and free behind the _urohyal_ ( ). behind the ceratohyal and continuous with it is the _epihyal_ ( ), to which behind is attached the narrow _interhyal_ ( ). on the under surface of the _ceratohyal_ and the _epihyal_ are attached the _branchiostegals_ ( ). these are slender rays supporting a membrane beneath the gills, seven in number on each side in the striped bass, but much more numerous in some groups of fishes. the gill membranes connecting the branchiostegals are in the striped bass entirely separate from each other. in other fishes they may be broadly joined across the fleshy interspace between the gill-openings, known as the _isthmus_, or again they may be grown fast to the isthmus itself, so that the gill-openings of the two sides are widely separated. =the gill-arches.=--the gills are attached to four bony arches with a fifth of the same nature, but totally modified by the presence of teeth, and very rarely having on it any of the gill-fringes. the fifth arch thus modified to serve in mastication instead of respiration is known collectively as the _lower pharyngeals_ ( ). opposite these are the _upper pharyngeals_ ( ). the gill-arches are suspended to the cranium from above by the _suspensory pharyngeal_ ( ). each arch contains three parts--the _epibranchial_ ( ), above, the _ceratobranchial_ ( ), forming the middle part, and the _hypobranchial_ ( ), the lower part articulating with the series of _basibranchials_ ( ) which lie behind the epihyal of the tongue. on the three bones forming the first gill-arch are attached numerous appendages called _gill-rakers_ ( ). these gill-rakers vary very greatly in number and form. in the striped bass they are few and spear-shaped. in the shad they are very many and almost as fine as hairs. in some fishes they form an effective strainer in separating the food, or perhaps in keeping extraneous matter from the gills. in some fishes they are short and lumpy, in others wanting altogether. [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ branchial arches. (after starks.) . basibranchial. . hypobranchial. . ceratobranchial. . epibranchial. . suspensory pharyngeal. . upper pharyngeals. . lower pharyngeals. . gill-rakers.] =the pharyngeals.=--the hindmost gill-arch, as above stated, is modified to form a sort of jaw. the tooth-bearing bones above, to pairs, are known as _upper pharyngeals_ ( ), those below, single pair, as _lower pharyngeals_ ( ). of these the lower pharyngeals are most highly specialized and the most useful in classification. these are usually formed much as in the striped bass. occasionally they are much enlarged, with large teeth for grinding. in many families the lower pharyngeals are grown together in one large bone. in the suckers (_catostomidæ_) the lower pharyngeal preserves its resemblance to a gill-arch. in the carp family (_cyprinidæ_) retaining this resemblance, it possesses highly specialized teeth. =vertebral column.=--the vertebral column is composed of a series of vertebræ, in number in the striped bass and in many of the higher fishes, but varying in different groups from to to upwards of , the higher numbers being evidence of unspecialized or more usually degenerate structure. each vertebra consists of a double concave body or _centrum_ ( ). above it are two small projections often turned backward, _zygapophyses_ ( ), and two larger ones, _neurapophyses_ ( ), which join above to form the _neural spine_ ( ) and thus form the _neural canal_, through which passes the spinal cord from end to end of the body. [illustration: fig. .--pharyngeal bone and teeth of european chub, _leuciscus cephalus_ (linnæus). (after seelye.)] [illustration: fig. .--upper pharyngeals of a parrot-fish, _scarus strongylocephalus_.] [illustration: fig. .--lower pharyngeals of a parrot-fish, _scarus strongylocephalus_ (bleeker).] below in the vertebræ of the posterior half of the body the _hæmapophyses_ ( ) unite to form the _hæmal spine_ ( ), and through the _hæmal canal_ thus formed passes a great artery. the vertebræ having hæmal as well as neural spines are known as _caudal vertebræ_, and occupy the posterior part of the body, usually that behind the attachment of the _anal fin_ ( ). the anterior vertebræ known as _abdominal vertebræ_, bounding the body-cavity, possess neural spines similar to those of the caudal vertebræ. in place, however, of the hæmapophyses are projections known as _parapophyses_ ( ), which do not meet below, but extend outward, forming the upper part of the wall of the abdominal cavity. [illustration: fig. .--pharyngeals of italian parrot-fish, _sparisoma cretense_ (l.). _a_, upper; _b_, lower.] to the parapophyses, or near them, the ribs ( ) are rather loosely attached and each rib may have one or more accessory branches ( ) called _epipleurals_. [illustration: fig. .--_roccus lineatus._ vertebral column and appendages, with a typical vertebra. (after starks.) . abdominal vertebræ. . caudal vertebræ. . centrum. . neurapophysis. . neural spine. . hæmapophysis. . hæmal spine. . zygapophysis. . parapophysis. . ribs. . epipleurals. . interneural. . dorsal fin. . interhæmal. . anal fin. . hypural. . caudal fin.] in the striped bass the dorsal vertebræ are essentially similar in form, but in some fishes, as the carp and the catfish, or anterior vertebræ are greatly modified, coossified, and so arranged as to connect the air-bladder with the organ of hearing. fishes with vertebræ thus altered are called _plectospondylous_. in the garpike the vertebræ are convex anteriorly, concave behind, being joined by ball-and-socket joints (opisthocoelian). in most other fishes they are double concave (amplicoelian). in sharks the vertebræ are imperfectly ossified, a number of terms, asterospondylous, cyclospondylous, tectospondylous, being applied to the different stages of ossification, these terms referring to the different modes of arrangement of the calcareous material within the vertebra. =the interneurals and interhæmals.=--the vertical fins are connected with the skeletons by bones placed loosely in the flesh and not joined by ligament or suture. below the dorsal fin ( ) lies a series of these bones, dagger-shaped, with the point downward. these are called _interneurals_ ( ) and to these the spines and soft rays of the fin are articulated. in like fashion the spines and rays of the anal fin ( ) are jointed at base to bones called _interhæmals_ ( ). in certain cases the second interhæmal is much enlarged, made hollow and quill-shaped, and in its concave upper end the tip of the air-bladder is received. this structure is seen in the plume-fishes (_calamus_). these two groups of bones, interneural and interhæmal, are sometimes collectively called _inter-spinals_. the flattened basal bone of the _caudal fin_ ( ) is known as _hypural_ ( ). [illustration: fig. .--basal bone of dorsal fin, _holoptychius leptopterus_ (agassiz). (after woodward.)] the tail of the striped bass, ending in a broad plate which supports the caudal, is said to be homocercal. in more primitive forms the tail is turned upward more or less, the fin being largely thrown to its lower side. such a tail as in the sturgeon is said to be heterocercal. in the isocercal tail of the codfish and its relatives the vertebræ are progressively smaller behind and the hypural plate is obsolete or nearly so, the vertebræ remaining in the line of the axis of the body and dividing the caudal fin equally. the simplest form of tail, called diphycercal, is extended horizontally, tapering backward, the fin equally divided above and below, without hypural plate. in any form of the tail, it may through degeneration be attenuate or whip-like, a form called leptocercal. =the pectoral limb.=--the four limbs of the fish are represented by the paired fins. the anterior limb is represented by the pectoral fin and its basal elements with the shoulder-girdle, which in the bony fishes reaches a higher degree of complexity than in any other vertebrates. it is in connection with the shoulder-girdle that the greatest confusion in names has occurred. this is due to an attempt to homologize its parts with the shoulder-girdle (scapula, coracoid, and clavicle) of higher vertebrates. but it is not evident that a bony fish possesses a real scapula, coracoid, or even clavicle. the parts of its shoulder-girdle are derived by one line of descent from the undifferentiated elements of the cartilaginous shoulder-girdle of ancestral crossopterygian or dipnoan forms. from a similar ancestry by another line of differentiation has come the amphibian and reptilian shoulder-girdle and its derivative, the girdle of birds and mammals. =the shoulder-girdle.=--in the higher fishes the uppermost bone of the shoulder-girdle is called the _post-temporal_ (_suprascapula_) ( ). in the striped bass and in most fishes this bone is jointed to the temporal region of the cranium. sometimes, as in the trigger-fishes, it is grown fast to the skull, but it usually rests lightly with the three points of its upper end. in sharks and skates the shoulder-girdle, which is formed of a continuous cartilage, does not touch the skull. in the eels and their allies, it has, by degradation, lost its connection and the post-temporal rests in the flesh behind the cranium. the post-temporal sometimes projects behind through the skin and may bear spines or serrations. in front of the post-temporal and a little to the outside of it is the small _supratemporal_ ( ) also usually connecting the shoulder-girdle with the skull. below the post-temporal, extending downward and backward, is the flattish _supraclavicle_ (_posterotemporal_) ( ). to this is joined the long _clavicle_ (_proscapula_) ( ), which runs forward and downward in the bony fishes, meeting its fellow on the opposite side in a manner suggesting the wishbone of a fowl. behind the base of the clavicle, the sword-shaped post-clavicle ( ) extends downward through the muscles behind the base of the pectoral fin. in some fishes, as the stickleback and the trumpet-fish, a pair of flattish or elongate bones called _interclavicles_ (_infraclavicles_) lie between and behind the lower part of the clavicle. these are not found in most fishes and are wanting in the striped bass. they are probably in all cases merely extensions of the hypocoracoid. [illustration: fig. .--inner view of shoulder-girdle of the buffalo-fish, _ictiobus bubalus_ rafinesque, showing the mesocoracoid ( ). (after starks.)] two flat bones side by side lie at the base of the pectoral fin, their anterior edges against the upper part of the clavicle. these are the _hypercoracoid_ ( ), above, and _hypocoracoid_ ( ), below. these have been variously called scapula, coracoid, humerus, radius, and ulna, but being found in the higher fishes only and not in the higher vertebrates, they should receive names not used for other structures. the hypercoracoid is usually pierced by a round foramen or fenestra, but in some fishes (cods, weavers) the fenestra is between the two bones. attached to the hypercoracoid in the striped bass are four little bones shaped like an hour-glass. these are the _actinosts_ ( ) (_carpals_ or _pterygials_), which support the rays of the pectoral fin ( ). in most bony fishes these are placed much as in the striped bass, but in certain specialized or aberrant forms their form and position are greatly altered. in the anglers (_pediculati_) the "carpals" are much elongated, forming a kind of arm, by which the fish can execute a motion not unlike walking. in the alaska blackfish (_dallia pectoralis_) the two coracoids are represented by a thin, cartilaginous plate, imperfectly divided, and there are no actinosts. in almost all bony fishes, however, these bones are well differentiated and distinct. in most of the soft-rayed fishes an additional v-shaped bone or arch exists on the inner surface of the shoulder-girdle near the insertion of the hypercoracoid. this is known as the _mesocoracoid_ ( ). it is not found in the striped bass, but is found in the carp, catfish, salmon, and all their allies. [illustration: fig. .--sargassum-fish, _pterophryne tumida_ (osbeck). one of the anglers. family _antennariidæ_.] [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _sebastolobus alascanus_ gilbert. (after starks.) pot. post-temporal. cl. clavicle. pcl. postclavicle. hyc. hypercoracoid. hypc. hypocoracoid.] =the posterior limbs.=--the posterior limb or ventral fin ( ) is articulated to a single bone on either side, the _pelvic girdle_ ( ). [illustration: fig. .--cranium of _sebastolobus alascanus_ gilbert. (after starks.) v. vomer. n. nasal. e. ethmoid. pf. prefrontal. fr. frontal. pas. parasphenoid. als. alisphenoid. p. parietal. ba. basisphenoid. pro. prootic. bo. basioccipital. so. supraoccipital. eo. exoccipital. epo. epiotic. spo. sphenotic. pto. pterotic.] in the shark the pelvic girdle is rather largely developed, but in the more specialized fishes it loses its importance. in the less specialized of the bony fishes the pelvis is attached at a distance from the head among the muscles of the side, and free from the shoulder-girdle and other parts of the skeleton. the ventral fins are then said to be abdominal. when very close to the clavicle, but not connected with it, as in the mullet, the fin is still said to be abdominal or subabdominal. in the striped bass the pelvis is joined by ligament between the clavicles, near their tip. the ventral fins thus connected, as seen in most spiny-rayed fishes, are said to be thoracic. in certain forms the pelvis is thrown still farther forward and attached at the throat or even to the chin. when the ventral fins are thus inserted before the shoulder-girdle, they are said to be jugular. most of the fishes with spines in the fins have thoracic ventrals. in the fishes with jugular ventrals these fins have begun a process of degeneration by which the spines or soft rays or both are lost or atrophied. [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw and palate of _sebastolobus alascanus_. (after starks.) pa. palatine. mspt. mesopterygoid. pt. pterygoid. mpt. metapterygoid. d. dentary. ar. articular. an. angular. q. quadrate. sy. symplectic. hm. hyomandibular. pop. preopercle. iop. interopercle. sop. subopercle. op. opercle.] =degeneration.=--by degeneration or degradation in biology is meant merely a reduction to a lower degree of complexity or specialization in structure. if in the process of development of the individual some particular organ loses its complexity it is said to be degenerate. if in the geological history of a type the same change takes place the same term is used. degeneration in this sense is, like specialization, a phase of adaptation. it does not imply disease, feebleness, or mutilation, or any tendency toward extinction. it is also necessary to distinguish clearly phases of primitive simplicity from the apparent simplicity resulting from degeneration. =the skeleton in primitive fishes.=--to learn the names of bones we can deal most satisfactorily with the higher fishes, those in which the bony framework has attained completion. but to understand the origin and relation of parts we must begin with the lowest types, tracing the different stages in the development of each part of the system. [illustration: fig. .--maxillary and premaxillary of _sebastolobus alascanus_. m, maxillary; pm, premaxillary.] in the lancelets (_leptocardii_), the vertebral column consists simply of a gelatinous notochord extending from one end of the fish to the other, and pointed at both ends, no skull being developed. the notochord never shows traces of segmentation, although cartilaginous rods above it are thought to forecast apophyses. in these forms there is no trace of jaws, limbs, or ribs. [illustration: fig. .--part of skeleton of _selene vomer_ (linnæus).] in the embryo of the bony fish a similar notochord precedes the segmentation and ossification of the vertebral column. in most of the extinct types of fishes a notochord more or less modified persisted through life, the vertebræ being strung upon it spool fashion in various stages of development. in the cyclostomi (lampreys and hagfishes) the limbs and lower jaw are still wanting, but a distinct skull is developed. the notochord is still present, but its anterior pointed end is wedged into the base of a cranial capsule, partly membranous, partly cartilaginous. there is no trace of segmentation in the notochord itself in these or any other fishes, but neutral arches are foreshadowed in a series of cartilages on each side of the spinal chord. the top of the head is protected by broad plates. there are ring-like cartilages supporting the mouth and other cartilages in connection with the tongue and gill structures. [illustration: fig. .--hyostylic skull of _chiloscyllium indicum_, a scyliorhinoid shark. (after parker and haswell.)] [illustration: fig. .--skull of _heptranchias indicus_ (gmelin), a notidanoid shark. (after parker and haswell.)] [illustration: fig. .--basal bones of pectoral fin of monkfish, _squatina_. (after zittel.)] =the skeleton of sharks.=--in the elasmobranchs (sharks, rays, chimæras) the tissues surrounding the notochord are segmented and in most forms distinct vertebræ are developed. each of these has a conical cavity before and behind, with a central canal through which the notochord is continued. the form and degree of ossification of these vertebræ differ materially in the different groups. the skull in all these fishes is cartilaginous, forming a continuous undivided box containing the brain and lodging the organs of sense. to the skull in the shark is attached a suspensorium of one or two pieces supporting the mandible and the hyoid structures. in the chimæra the mandible is articulated directly with the skull, the hyomandibular and quadrate elements being fused with the cranium. the skull in such case is said to be _autostylic_, that is, with self-attached mandible. in the shark it is said to be _hyostylic_, the hyomandibular intervening. the upper jaw in the shark consists not of maxillary and premaxillary but of palatine elements, and the two halves of the lower jaw are representatives of meckel's cartilage, which is the cartilaginous centre of the dentary bone in the bony fishes. these jaw-bones in the higher fishes are in the nature of membrane bones, and in the sharks and their relatives all such bones are undeveloped. the hyoid structures are in the shark relatively simple, as are also the gill-arches, which vary in number. the vertical fins are supported by interneural and interhæmal cartilages, to which the soft fin-rays are attached without articulation. [illustration: fig. .--pectoral fin of _heterodontus philippi_. (from nature.)] [illustration: fig. .--pectoral fin of _heptranchias indicus_ (gmelin). (after dean.)] the shoulder-girdle is made of a single cartilage, touching the back-bone at a distance behind the head. to this cartilage three smaller ones are attached, forming the base of the pectoral fin. these are called _mesopterygium_, _propterygium_, and _metapterygium_, the first named being in the middle and more distinctly basal. these three segments are subject to much variation. sometimes one of them is wanting; sometimes two are grown together. behind these the fin-rays are attached. in most of the skates the shoulder-girdle is more closely connected with the anterior vertebræ, which are more or less fused together. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a flounder, _paralichthys californicus_ (ayres).] the pelvis, remote from the head, is formed, in the shark, of a single or paired cartilage with smaller elements at the base of the fin-rays. in the males a cartilaginous generative organ, known as the clasper, is attached to the pelvis and the ventral fins. in the elasmobranchs the tail vertebræ are progressively smaller backward. if a caudal fin is present, the last vertebræ are directed upward (_heterocercal_) and the greater part of the fin is below the axis. in other forms (sting-rays) the tail degenerates into a whip-like organ (_leptocercal_), often without fins. in certain primitive sharks (ichthyotomi), as well as in the dipnoi and crossopterygii, the tail is _diphycercal_, the vertebræ growing progressively smaller backward and not bent upward toward the tip. in the chimæras (_holocephali_) the notochord persists and is surrounded by a series of calcified rings. the palate with the suspensorium is coalesced with the skull, and the teeth are grown together into bony plates. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a toadfish, _batrachoides pacifici_ (günther).] [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a garfish, _tylosurus fodiator_ (jordan and gilbert).] =the archipterygium.=--the dipnoans, crossopterygians, and ganoids represent various phases of transition from the ancient cartilaginous types to the modern bony fishes. in the ichthyotomous sharks, dipnoans, and crossopterygians the segments of the pectoral limb are arranged axially, or one beyond another. this type of fin has been called _archipterygium_ by gegenbaur, on the theory that it represents the condition shown on the first appearance of the pectoral fin. this theory is now seriously questioned, but it will be convenient to retain the name for the pectoral fin with segmented axis fringed on one or both sides by soft rays. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a hake, _merluccius productus_ (ayres).] the archipterygium of the dipnoan genus _neoceratodus_ is thus described by dr. günther ("guide to the study of fishes," p. ): "the pectoral limb is covered with small scales along the middle from the root to the extremity, and is surrounded by a rayed fringe similar to the rays of the vertical fins. a muscle split into numerous fascicles extends all the length of the fin, which is flexible in every part and in every direction. the cartilaginous framework supporting it is joined to the scapular arch by a broad basal cartilage, generally single, sometimes showing traces of a triple division. along the middle of the fin runs a jointed axis gradually becoming smaller and thinner towards the extremity. each joint bears on each side a three-, two-, or one-jointed branch." in the genus _lepidosiren_, also a dipnoan, the pectoral limb has the same axial structure, but is without fin-rays, although in the breeding season the posterior limb or ventral fin in the male is covered with a brush of fine filaments. this structure, according to prof. j. g. kerr,[ ] is probably without definite function, but belongs to the "category of modifications so often associated with the breeding season (cf. the newts' crest) commonly called ornamental, but which are perhaps more plausibly looked upon as expressions of the intense vital activity of the organisms correlated with its period of reproductive activity." professor kerr, however, thinks it not unlikely that this brush of filaments with its rich blood-supply may serve in the function of respiration, a suggestion first made by professor lankester. footnotes: [ ] philos. trans., lond., . chapter v morphology of the fins =origin of the fins of fishes.=--one of the most interesting problems in vertebrate morphology, and one of the most important from its wide-reaching relations, is that of the derivation of the fins of fishes. this resolves itself at once into two problems, the origin of the median fins, which appear in the lancelets, at the very bottom of the fish-like series, and the origin of the paired fins or limbs, which are much more complex, and which first appear with the primitive sharks. in this study the problem is to ascertain not what theoretically should happen, but what, as a matter of fact, has happened in the early history of the fish-like groups. that these structures, with the others in the fish body, have sprung from simple origins, growing more complex with the demands of varied conditions, and then at times again simple, through degeneration, there can be no doubt. it is also certain that each structure must have had some element of usefulness in all its stages. in such studies we have, as hæckel has expressed it, "three ancestral documents, paleontology, morphology, and ontogeny"--the actual history as shown by fossil remains, the sidelight derived from comparison of structures, and the evidence of the hereditary influences shown in the development of the individual. as to the first of these ancestral documents, the evidence of paleontology is conclusive where it is complete. but in very few cases are we sure of any series of details. the records of geology are like a book with half its leaves torn out, the other half confused, displaced, and blotted. still each record actually existing represents genuine history, and in paleontology we must in time find our final court of appeal in all matters of biological origins. the evidence of comparative anatomy is most completely secured, but it is often indecisive as to relative age and primitiveness of origin among structures. as to ontogeny, it is, of course, true that through heredity "the life-history of the individual is an epitome of the life-history of the race." "ontogeny repeats phylogeny," and phylogeny, or line of descent of organisms and structures, is what we are seeking. but here the repetition is never perfect, never nearly so perfect in fact as hæckel and his followers expected to find it. the demands of natural selection may lead to the lengthening, shortening, or distortion of phases of growth, just as they may modify adult conditions. the interpolation of non-ancestral stages is recognized in several groups. the conditions of the individual development may, therefore, furnish evidence in favor of certain theories of origins, but they cannot alone furnish the absolute proof. in the process of development the median or vertical fins are doubtless older than the paired fins or limbs, whatever be the origin of the latter. they arise in a dermal keel which is developed in a web fitting and accentuating the undulatory motion of the body. in the embryo of the fish the continuous vertical fin from the head along the back and around the tail precedes any trace of the paired fins. in this elementary fin-fold slender supports, the rudiments of fin-rays, tend to appear at intervals. these are called by ryder ray-hairs or actinotrichia. they are the prototype of fin-rays in the embryo fish, and doubtless similarly preceded the latter in geological time. in the development of fishes the caudal fin becomes more and more the seat of propulsion. the fin-rays are strengthened, their basal supports are more and more specialized, and the fin-fold ultimately divides into distinct fins, the longest rays developed where most needed. that the vertical fins, dorsal, anal, and caudal, have their origin in a median fold of the skin admits of no question. in the lowest forms which bear fins these structures are dermal folds, being supported by very feeble rays. doubtless at first the vertical fins formed a continuous fold, extending around the tail, this fold ultimately broken, by atrophy of parts not needed, into distinct dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. in the lower fishes, as in the earlier sharks, there is an approach to this condition of primitive continuity, and in the embryos of almost all fishes the same condition occurs. dr. john a. ryder points out the fact that there are certain unexplained exceptions to this rule. the sea-horse, pipefish, and other highly modified forms do not show this unbroken fold, and it is wanting in the embryo of the top-minnow, _gambusia affinis_. nevertheless the existence of a continuous vertical fold in the embryo is the rule, almost universal. the codfish with three dorsals, the spanish mackerel with dorsal and anal finlets, the herring with one dorsal, the stickleback with a highly modified one, all show this character, and we may well regard it as a certain trait of the primitive fish. this fold springs from the ectoblast or external series of cells in the embryo. the fin-rays and bony supports of the fins spring from the mesoblast or middle series of cells, being thrust upward from the skeleton as supports for the fin-fold. =origin of the paired fins.=--the question of the origin of the paired fins is much more difficult and is still far from settled, although many, perhaps the majority of recent writers favor the theory that these fins are parts of a once continuous lateral fold of skin, corresponding to the vertical fold which forms the dorsal, anal, and caudal. in this view the lateral fold, at first continuous, became soon atrophied in the middle, while at either end it is highly specialized, at first into an organ of direction, then into fan-shaped and later paddle-shaped organs of locomotion. according to another view, the paired fins originated from gill structures, originally both close behind the head, the ventral fin migrating backward with the progress of evolution of the species. =evidence of paleontology.=--if we had representations of all the early forms of fishes arranged in proper sequence, we could decide once for all, by evidence of paleontology, which form of fin appears first and what is the order of appearance. as to this, it is plain that we do not know the most primitive form of fin. sharks of unknown character must have existed long before the earliest remains accessible to us. hence the evidence of paleontology seems conflicting and uncertain. on the whole it lends most support to the fin-fold theory. in the later devonian, a shark, _cladoselache fyleri_, is found in which the paired fins are lappet-shaped, so formed and placed as to suggest their origin from a continuous fold of skin. in this species the dorsal fins show much the same form. other early sharks, constituting the order of _acanthodei_, have fins somewhat similar, but each preceded by a stiff spine, which may be formed from coalescent rays. [illustration: fig. .--_cladoselache fyleri_ (newberry), restored. upper devonian of ohio. (after dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--fold-like pectoral and ventral fins of _cladoselache fyleri_. (after dean.)] long after these appears another type of sharks represented by _pleuracanthus_ and _cladodus_, in which the pectoral fin is a jointed organ fringed with rays arranged serially in one or two rows. this form of fin has no resemblance to a fold of skin, but accords better with gegenbaur's theory that the pectoral limb was at first a modified gill-arch. in the coal measures are found also teeth of sharks (_orodontidæ_) which bear a strong resemblance to still existing forms of the family of _heterodontidæ_, which originates in the permian. the existing _heterodontidæ_ have the usual specialized form of shark-fin, with three of the basal segments especially enlarged and placed side by side, the type seen in modern sharks. whatever the primitive form of shark-fin, it may well be doubted whether any one of these three (_cladoselache_, _pleuracanthus_, or _heterodontus_) actually represents it. the beginning is therefore unknown, though there is some evidence that _cladoselache_ is actually more nearly primitive than any of the others. as we shall see, the evidence of comparative anatomy may be consistent with either of the two chief theories, while that of ontogeny or embryology is apparently inconclusive, and that of paleontology is apparently most easily reconciled with the theory of the fin-fold. [illustration: fig. .--pectoral fin of shark, _chiloscyllium_. (after parker and haswell.)] =development of the paired fins in the embryo.=--according to dr. john a. ryder ("embryography of osseous fishes," ) "the paired fins in teleostei arise locally, as short longitudinal folds, with perhaps a few exceptions. the pectorals of _lepisosteus_ originate in the same way. of the paired fins, the pectoral or anterior pair seems to be the first to be developed, the ventral or pelvic pair often not making its appearance until after the absorption of the yolk-sac has been completed, in other cases before that event, as in _salmo_ and in _gambusia_. the pectoral fin undergoes less alteration of position during its evolution than the posterior pair." in the codfish (_gadus callarias_) the pectoral fin-fold "appears as a slight longitudinal elevation of the skin on either side of the body of the embryo a little way behind the auditory vesicles, and shortly after the tail of the embryo begins to bud out. at the very first it appears to be merely a dermal fold, and in some forms a layer of cells extends out underneath it from the sides of the body, but does not ascend into it. it begins to develop as a very low fold, hardly noticeable, and, as growth proceeds, its base does not expand antero-posteriorly, but tends rather to become narrowed, so that it has a pedunculated form. with the progress of this process the margin of the fin-fold also becomes thinner at its distal border, and at the basal part mesodermal cells make their appearance more noticeably within the inner contour-line. the free border of the fin-fold grows out laterally and longitudinally, expanding the portion outside of the inner contour-line of the fin into a fan-shape. this distal thinner portion is at first without any evidence of rays; further than that there is a manifest tendency to a radial disposition of the histological elements of the fin." the next point of interest is found in the change of position of the pectoral fin by a rotation on its base. this is associated with changes in the development of the fish itself. the ventral fin is also, in most fishes, a short horizontal fold and just above the preanal part of the median vertical fold which becomes anal, caudal, and dorsal. but in the top-minnow (_gambusia_), of the order haplomi, the ventral first appears as "a little papilla and not as a fold, where the body-walls join the hinder upper portion of the yolk-sac, a very little way in front of the vent." "these two modes of origin," observes dr. ryder, "are therefore in striking contrast and well calculated to impress us with the protean character of the means at the disposal of nature to achieve one and the same end." =current theories as to origin of paired fins.=--there are three chief theories as to the morphology and origin of the paired fins. the earliest is that of dr. karl gegenbaur, supported by various workers among his students and colleagues. in his view the pectoral and ventral fins are derived from modifications of primitive gill-arches. according to this theory, the skeletal arrangements of the vertebrate limb are derived from modifications of one primitive form, a structure made up of successive joints, with a series of fin-rays on one or both sides of it. to this structure gegenbaur gives the name of archipterygium. it is found in the shark, _pleuracanthus_, in _cladodus_, and in all the dipnoan and crossopterygian fishes, its primitive form being still retained in the australian genus of dipnoans, _neoceratodus_. this biserial archipterygium with its limb-girdle is derived from a series of gill-rays attached to a branchial arch. the backward position of the ventral fin is due to a succession of migrations in the individual and in the species. as to this theory, mr. j. graham kerr observes: [illustration: fig. .--skull and shoulder-girdle of _neoceratodus forsteri_ (günther), showing the archipterygium.] "the gegenbaur theory of the morphology of vertebrate limbs thus consists of two very distinct portions. the first, that the archipterygium is the ground-form from which all other forms of presently existing fin skeletons are derived, concerns us only indirectly, as we are dealing here only with the _origin_ of the limbs, i.e., their origin from other structures that were not limbs. "it is the second part of the view that we have to do with, that deriving the archipterygium, the skeleton of the primitive paired fin, from a series of gill-rays and involving the idea that the limb itself is derived from the septum between two gill-clefts. "this view is based on the skeletal structures within the fin. it rests upon ( ) the assumption that the archipterygium is the primitive type of fin, and ( ) the fact that amongst the selachians is found a tendency for one branchial ray to become larger than the others, and, when this has happened, for the base of attachment of neighboring rays to show a tendency to migrate from the branchial arch on to the base of the larger or, as we may call it, primary ray; a condition coming about which, were the process to continue rather farther than it is known to do in actual fact, would obviously result in a structure practically identical with the archipterygium. gegenbaur suggests that the archipterygium actually has arisen in this way in phylogeny." [illustration: fig. .--_acanthoessus wardi_ (egerton). carboniferous. family _acanthoessidæ_. (after woodward.)] [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _acanthoessus_. (after dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--pectoral fin of _pleuracanthus_. (after dean.)] the fin-fold theory of balfour, adopted by dohrn, weidersheim, thacher, mivart, ryder, dean, boulenger, and others, and now generally accepted by most morphologists as plausible, is this: that "the paired limbs are persisting and exaggerated portions of a fin-fold once continuous, which stretched along each side of the body and to which they bear an exactly similar phylogenetic relation as do the separate dorsal and anal fins to the once continuous median fin-fold." "this view, in its modern form, was based by balfour on his observation that in the embryos of certain elasmobranchs the rudiments of the pectoral and pelvic fins are at a very early period connected together by a longitudinal ridge of thickened epiblast--of which indeed they are but exaggerations. in balfour's own words referring to these observations: 'if the account just given of the development of the limb is an accurate record of what really takes place, it is not possible to deny that some light is thrown by it upon the first origin of the vertebrate limbs. the facts can only bear one interpretation, viz., that the limbs are the remnants of continuous lateral fins.' [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _polypterus bichir_. specimen from the white nile.] "a similar view to that of balfour was enunciated almost synchronously by thacher and a little later by mivart--in each case based on anatomical investigation of selachians--mainly relating to the remarkable similarity of the skeletal arrangements in the paired and unpaired fins." a third theory is suggested by mr. j. graham kerr (_cambridge philos. trans._, ), who has recently given a summary of the theories on this subject. mr. kerr agrees with gegenbaur as to the primitive nature of the archipterygium, but believes that it is derived, not from the gill-septum, but from an external gill. such a gill is well developed in the young of all the living sharks, dipnoans and crossopterygians, and in the latter types of fishes it has a form analogous to that of the archipterygium, although without bony or cartilaginous axis. we may now take up the evidence in regard to each of the different theories, using in part the language of kerr, the paragraphs in quotation-marks being taken from his paper. we may first consider balfour's theory of the lateral fold. =balfour's theory of the lateral fold.=--"the evidence in regard to this view may be classed under three heads, as ontogenetic, comparative anatomical, and paleontological. the ultimate fact on which it was founded was balfour's discovery that in certain elasmobranch embryos, but especially in _torpedo_ (_narcobatus_), the fin rudiments were, at an early stage, connected by a ridge of epiblast. i am not able to make out what were the other forms in which balfour found this ridge, but subsequent research, in particular by mollier, a supporter of the lateral-fold view, is to the effect that it does not occur in such ordinary sharks as _pristiurus_ and _mustelus_, while it is to be gathered from balfour himself that it does not occur in _scyllium_ (_scyliorhinus_). "it appears to me that the knowledge we have now that the longitudinal ridge is confined to the rays and absent in the less highly specialized sharks greatly diminishes its security as a basis on which to rest a theory. in the rays, in correlation with their peculiar mode of life, the paired fins have undergone (in secondary development) enormous extension along the sides of the body, and their continuity in the embryo may well be a mere foreshadowing of this. [illustration: fig. .--arm of a frog.] "an apparently powerful support from the side of embryology came in dohrn and rabl's discoveries that in _pristiurus_ all the interpterygial myotomes produce muscle-buds. this, however, was explained away by the gegenbaur school as being merely evidence of the backward migration of the hind limb--successive myotomes being taken up and left behind again as the limb moved farther back. as either explanation seems an adequate one, i do not think we can lay stress upon this body of facts as supporting either one view or the other. the facts of the development of the skeleton cannot be said to support the fold view; according to it we should expect to find a series of metameric supporting rays produced which later on become fused at their bases. instead of this we find a _longitudinal_ bar of cartilage developing quite continuously, the rays forming as projections from its outer side. "the most important evidence for the fold view from the side of comparative anatomy is afforded by ( ) the fact that the limb derives its nerve supply from a large number of spinal nerves, and ( ) the extraordinary resemblance met with between the skeletal arrangements of paired and unpaired fins. the believers in the branchial arch hypothesis have disposed of the first of these in the same way as they did the occurrence of interpterygial myotomes, by looking on the nerves received from regions of the spinal cord anterior to the attachment of the limb as forming a kind of trail marking the backward migration of the limb. "the similarity in the skeleton is indeed most striking, though its weight as evidence has been recently greatly diminished by the knowledge that the apparently metameric segmentation of the skeletal and muscular tissues of the paired fins is quite secondary and does not at all agree with the metamery of the trunk. what resemblance there is may well be of a homoplastic character when we take into account the similarity in function of the median and unpaired fins, especially in such forms as _raja_, where the anatomical resemblances are especially striking. there is a surprising dearth of paleontological evidence in favor of this view." the objection to the first view is its precarious foundation. such lateral folds are found only in certain rays, in which they may be developed as a secondary modification in connection with the peculiar form of these fishes. professor kerr observes that this theory must be looked upon and judged: "just as any other view at the present time regarding the nature of the vertebrate limb, rather as a speculation, brilliant and suggestive though it be, than as a logically constructed theory of the now known facts. it is, i think, on this account allowable to apply to it a test of a character which is admittedly very apt to mislead, that of 'common sense.' "if there is any soundness in zoological speculation at all, i think it must be admitted that the more primitive vertebrates were creatures possessing a notochordal axial skeleton near the dorsal side, with the main nervous axis above it, the main viscera below it, and the great mass of muscle lying in myotomes along its sides. now such a creature is well adapted to movements of the character of lateral flexure, and not at all for movements in the sagittal plane--which would be not only difficult to achieve, but would tend to alternately compress and extend its spinal cord and its viscera. such a creature would swim through the water as does a cyclostome, or a _lepidosiren_, or any other elongated vertebrate without special swimming organs. swimming like this, specialization for more and more rapid movement would mean flattening of the tail region and is extension into an at first not separately mobile median tail-fold. it is extremely difficult to my mind to suppose that a new purely _swimming_ arrangement should have arisen involving up-and-down movement, and which, at its first beginnings, while useless as a swimming organ itself, must greatly detract from the efficiency of that which already existed." =objections to gegenbaur's theory.=--we now return to the gegenbaur view--that the limb is a modified gill-septum. "resting on gegenbaur's discovery already mentioned, that the gill-rays in certain cases assume an arrangement showing great similarity to that of the skeletal elements of the archipterygium, it has, so far as i am aware, up to the present time received no direct support whatever of a nature comparable with that found for the rival view in the fact that, in certain forms at all events, the limbs actually do arise in the individual in the way that the theory holds they did in phylogeny. no one has produced either a form in which a gill-septum becomes the limb during ontogeny, or the fossil remains of any form which shows an intermediate condition. "the portion of gegenbaur's view which asserts that the biserial archipterygial fin is of an extremely primitive character is supported by a large body of anatomical facts, and is rendered further probable by the great frequency with which fins apparently of this character occur amongst the oldest known fishes. on the lateral-fold view we should have to regard these as independently evolved, which would imply that fins of this type are of a very perfect character, and in that case we may be indeed surprised at their so complete disappearance in the more highly developed forms, which followed later on." [illustration: fig. .--_pleuracanthus decheni_ (goldfuss). (after dean.)] as to gegenbaur's theory it is urged that no form is known in which a gill-septum develops into a limb during the growth of the individual. the main thesis, according to professor kerr, "that the archipterygium was derived from gill-rays, is supported only by evidence of an indirect character. gegenbaur in his very first suggestion of his theory pointed out, as a great difficulty in the way of its acceptance, the position of the limbs, especially of the pelvic limbs, in a position far removed from that of the branchial arches. this difficulty has been entirely removed by the brilliant work of gegenbaur's followers, who have shown from the facts of comparative anatomy and embryology that the limbs, and the hind limbs especially, actually have undergone, and in ontogeny do undergo, an extensive backward migration. in some cases braus has been able to find traces of this migration as far forward as a point just behind the branchial arches. now, when we consider the numbers, the enthusiasm, and the ability of gegenbaur's disciples, we cannot help being struck by the fact that the _only_ evidence in favor of this derivation of the limbs has been that which tends to show that a migration of the limbs backwards has taken place from a region somewhere near the last branchial arch, and that they have failed utterly to discover any intermediate steps between gill-rays and archipterygial fin. and if for a moment we apply the test of common sense we cannot but be impressed by the improbability of the evolution of a gill-septum, which in all the lower forms of fishes is fixed firmly in the body-wall, and beneath its surface, into an organ of locomotion. [illustration: fig. .--embryos of _heterodontus japonicus_ maclay and macleay, a cestraciont shark, showing the backward migration of the gill-arches and the forward movement of the pectoral fin. _a_, _b_, _c_, representing different stages of growth. (after dean.)] "may i express the hope that what i have said is sufficient to show in what a state of uncertainty our views are regarding the morphological nature of the paired fins, and upon what an exceedingly slender basis rest both of the two views which at present hold the field?" as to the backward migration of the ventral fins, dr. bashford dean has recently brought forward evidence from the embryo of a very ancient type of shark (_heterodontus japonicus_) that this does not actually occur in that species. on the other hand, we have a forward migration of the pectoral fin, which gradually takes its place in advance of the hindmost gill-arches. the accompanying cut is from dean's paper, "biometric evidence in the problem of the paired limbs of the vertebrates" (american naturalist for november, ). dean concludes that in _heterodontus_ "there is no evidence that there has ever been a migration of the fins in the gegenbaurian sense." "the gill region, at least in its outer part, shows no affinity during proportional growth with the neighboring region of the pectoral fin. in fact from an early stage onward, they are evidently growing in opposite directions." =kerr's theory of modified external gills.=--"it is because i feel that in the present state of our knowledge neither of the two views i have mentioned has a claim to any higher rank than that of extremely suggestive speculations that i venture to say a few words for the third view, which is avowedly a mere speculation. "before proceeding with it i should say that i assume the serial homology of fore and hind limbs to be beyond dispute. the great and deep-seated resemblances between them are such as to my mind seem not to be adequately explicable except on this assumption. "in the urodela (salamanders) the external gills are well-known structures--serially arranged projections from the body-wall near the upper ends of certain of the branchial arches. when one considers the ontogenetic development of these organs, from knob-like outgrowth from the outer face of the branchial arch, covered with ectoderm and possessing a mesoblastic core, and which frequently if not always appear before the branchial clefts are open, one cannot but conclude that they are morphologically projections of the outer skin and that they have nothing whatever to do with the gill-pouches of the gut-wall. amongst the urodela one such gill projects from each of the first three branchial arches. in _lepidosiren_ there is one on each of the branchial arches i-iv. in _polypterus_ and _calamoichthys_ (_erpetoichthys_) there is one on the hyoid arch. finally, in many urodelan larvæ we have present at the same time as the external gills a pair of curious structures called balancers. at an early stage of my work on _lepidosiren_, while looking over other vertebrate embryos and larvæ for purposes of comparison, my attention was arrested by these structures, and further examinations, by section or otherwise, convinced me that there were serial homologues of the external gills, situated on the mandibular arch. on then looking up the literature, i found that i was by no means first in this view. rusconi had long ago noticed the resemblance, and in more recent times both orr and maurer had been led to the same conclusion as i had been. three different observers having been independently led to exactly the same conclusions, we may, i think, fairly enough regard the view i have mentioned of the morphological nature of the balancers as probably a correct one. "here, then, we have a series of homologous structures projecting from each of the series of visceral arches. they crop up on the crossopterygii, the dipnoi, and the urodela, i.e., in three of the most archaic of the groups of gnathostomata. but we may put it in another way. the groups in which they do not occur are those whose young possess a very large yolk-sac (or which are admittedly derived from such forms). now wherever we have a large yolk-sac we have developed on its surface a rich network of blood-vessels for purposes of nutrition. but such a network _must necessarily_ act as an extraordinarily efficient organ of respiration, and did we not know the facts we might venture to prophesy that in forms possessing it any other small skin-organ of respiration would tend to disappear. "no doubt these external gills are absent also in a few of the admittedly primitive forms such as, e.g., (_neo-_) _ceratodus_. but i would ask that in this connection one should bear in mind one of the marked characteristics of external gills--their great regenerative power. this involves their being extremely liable to injury and consequently a source of danger to their possessor. their absence, therefore, in certain cases may well have been due to natural selection. on the other hand, the _presence_ in so many lowly forms of these organs, the general close similarity in structure that runs through them in different forms, and the exact correspondence in their position and relations to the body can, it seems to me, _only_ be adequately explained by looking on them as being homologous structures inherited from a common ancestor and consequently of great antiquity in the vertebrate stem." as to the third theory, professor kerr suggests tentatively that the external gill may be the structure modified to form the paired limbs. of the homology of fore and hind limbs and consequently of their like origin there can be no doubt. the general gill-structures have, according to kerr, "the primary function of respiration. they are also, however, provided with an elaborate muscular apparatus comprising elevators, depressors, and adductors, and larvæ possessing them may be seen every now and then to give them a sharp backward twitch. they are thus _potentially_ motor organs. in such a urodele as _amblystoma_ their homologues on the mandibular arch are used as supporting structures against a solid substratum exactly as are the limbs of the young _lepidosiren_. [illustration: fig. .--_polypterus congicus_, a _crossopterygian_ fish from the congo river. young, with external gills. (after boulenger.)] "i have, therefore, to suggest that the more ancient gnathostomata possessed a series of potentially motor, potentially supporting structures projecting from their visceral arches; it was inherently extremely probable that these should be made use of when actual supporting, and motor appendages had to be developed in connection with clambering about a solid substratum. if this had been so, we should look upon the limb as a modified external gill; the limb-girdle, with gegenbaur, as a modified branchial arch. "this theory of the vertebrate paired limb seems to me, i confess, to be a more plausible one on the face of it than either of the two which at present hold the field. if untrue, it is so dangerously plausible as to surely deserve more consideration than it appears to have had. one of the main differences between it and the other two hypotheses is that, instead of deriving the swimming-fin from the walking and supporting limb, it goes the other way about. that this is the safer line to take seems to me to be shown by the consideration that a very small and rudimentary limb could _only_ be of use if provided with a fixed _point d'appui_. also on this view, the pentadactyle limb and the swimming-fin would probably be evolved independently from a simple form of limb. this would evade the great difficulties which have beset those who have endeavored to establish the homologies of the elements of the pentadactyle limb with those of any type of fully formed fin." =uncertain conclusions.=--in conclusion we may say that the evidence of embryology in this matter is inadequate, though possibly favoring on the whole the fin-fold theory; that of morphology is inconclusive, and probably the final answer may be given by paleontology. if the records of the rocks were complete, they would be decisive. at present we have to decide which is the more primitive of two forms of pectoral fin actually known among fossils. that of _cladoselache_ is a low, horizontal fold of skin, with feeble rays, called by cope _ptychopterygium_. that of _pleuracanthus_ is a jointed paddle-shaped appendage with a fringe of rays on either side. in the theory of gegenbaur and kerr _pleuracanthus_ must be, so far as the limbs are concerned, the form nearest the primitive limb-bearing vertebrate. in balfour's theory _cladoselache_ is nearest the primitive type from which the other and with it the archipterygium of later forms may be derived. boulenger and others question even this, believing that the archipterygium in _pleuracanthus_ and other primitive sharks and that in _neoceratodus_ and its dipnoan and crossopterygian allies and ancestors have been derived independently, not the latter from the former. in this view there is no real homology between the archipterygium in the sharks possessing it and that in the _dipnoans_ and _crossopterygians_. in the one theory the type of _pleuracanthus_ would be ancestral to the other sharks on the one hand, and to crossopterygians and all higher vertebrates on the other. with the theory of the origin of the pectoral from a lateral fold, _pleuracanthus_ would be merely a curious specialized offshoot from the primitive sharks, without descendants and without special significance in phylogeny. as elements bearing on this decision we may note that the tapering unspecialized diphycercal tail of _pleuracanthus_ seems very primitive in comparison with the short heterocercal tail of _cladoselache_. this evidence, perhaps deceptive, is balanced by the presence on the head of _pleuracanthus_ of a highly specialized serrated spine, evidence of a far from primitive structure. certainly neither the one genus nor the other actually represents the primitive shark. but as _cladoselache_ appears in geological time, long before _pleuracanthus_, _cladodus_, or any other shark with a jointed, archipterygial fin, the burden of proof, according to dean, rests with the followers of gegenbaur. if the remains found in the ordovician at cañon city referred to crossopterygians are correctly interpreted, we must regard the shark ancestry as lost in pre-silurian darkness, for in sharks of some sort the crossopterygians apparently must find their remote ancestry. [illustration: fig. .--heterocercal tail of sturgeon, _acipenser sturio_ (linnæus). (after zittel.)] =forms of the tail in fishes.=--in the process of development the median or vertical fins are, as above stated, older than the paired fins or limbs, whatever be the origin of the latter. they arise in a dermal keel, its membranes fitting and accentuating the undulatory motion of the body. in this elementary fin-fold slender supports (actinotrichia), the rudiments of fin-rays, appear at intervals. in those fins of most service in the movement of the fish, the fin-rays are strengthened, and their basal supports specialized. dean calls attention to the fact that in fishes which swim, when adult, by an undulatory motion, the paired fins tend to disappear, as in the eel and in all eel-like fishes, as blennies and eel-pouts. the form of the tail at the base of the caudal fin varies in the different groups. in most primitive types, as in most embryonic fishes, the vertebræ grow smaller to the last (diphycercal). in others, also primitive, the end of the tail is directed upward, and the most of the caudal fin is below it. such a tail is seen in most sharks, in the sturgeon, garpike, bowfin, and in the ganoid fishes. it is known as heterocercal, and finally in ordinary fishes the tail becomes homocercal or fan-shaped, although usually some trace of the heterocercal condition is traceable, gradually growing less with the process of development. since professor agassiz first recognized, in , the distinction between the heterocercal and homocercal tail, this matter has been the subject of elaborate investigation and a number of additional terms have been proposed, some of which are in common use. a detailed discussion of these is found in a paper by dr. john a. ryder "on the origin of heterocercy" in the report of the u. s. fish commissioner for . in this paper a dynamic or mechanical theory of the causes of change of form is set forth, parts of this having a hypothetical and somewhat uncertain basis. dr. ryder proposes the name _archicercal_ to denote the cylindroidal worm-like caudal end of the larva of fishes and amphibians before they acquire median fin-folds. the term _lophocercal_ is proposed by ryder for the form of caudal fin which consists of a rayless fold of skin continuous with the skin of the tail, the inner surfaces of this fold being more or less nearly in contact. to the same type of tail dr. jeffries wyman in gave the name _protocercal_. this name was used for the tail of the larval ray when it acquires median fin-folds. the term implies, what cannot be far from true, that this form of tail is the first in the stages of evolution of the caudal fin. to the same type of tail mr. alexander agassiz gave, in , the name of _leptocardial_, on the supposition that it represented the adult condition of the lancelet. in this creature, however, rudimentary basal rays are present, a condition differing from that of the early embryos. the diphycercal tail, as usually understood, is one in which the end of the vertebral column bears "not only hypural but also epural intermediary pieces which support rays." the term is used for the primitive type of tail in which the vertebræ, lying horizontally, grow progressively smaller, as in _neoceratodus_, _protopterus_, and other dipnoans and crossopterygians. the term was first applied by mccoy to the tails of the dipnoan genera _diplopterus_ and _gyroptychius_, and for tails of this type it should be reserved. [illustration: fig. .--heterocercal tail of bowfin, _amia calva_ (linnæus). (after zittel.)] [illustration: fig. .--heterocercal tail of garpike, _lepisosteus osseus_ (linnæus).] the heterocercal tail is one in which the hindmost vertebræ are bent upwards. the term is generally applied to those fishes only in which this bending is considerable and is externally evident, as in the sharks and ganoids. the character disappears by degrees, changing sometimes to diphycercal or leptocercal by a process of degeneration, or in ordinary fishes becoming _homocercal_. dr. ryder uses the term heterocercal for all cases in which any up-bending of the axis takes place, even though it involves the modification of but a single vertebra. with this definition, the tail of salmon, herring, and even of most bony fishes would be considered heterocercal, and most or all of these pass through a heterocercal stage in the course of development. the term is, however, usually restricted to those forms in which the curving of the axis is evident without dissection. [illustration: fig. .--_coryphænoides carapinus_ (goode and bean), showing leptocercal tail. gulf stream.] the homocercal tail is the fan-shaped or symmetrical tail common among the teleosts, or bony fishes. in its process of development the individual tail is first archicercal, then lophocercal, then diphycercal, then heterocercal, and lastly homocercal. a similar order is indicated by the sequence of fossil fishes in the rocks, although some forms of diphycercal tail may be produced by degeneration of the heterocercal tail, as suggested by dr. dollo and dr. boulenger, who divide diphycercal tails into primitive and secondary. the peculiar tapering tail of the cod, the vertebræ growing progressively smaller behind, is termed _isocercal_ by professor cope. this form differs little from diphycercal, except in its supposed derivation from the homocercal type. a similar form is seen in eels. [illustration: fig. .--heterocercal tail of young trout, _salmo fario_ (linnæus). (after parker and haswell.)] the term _leptocercal_ has been suggested by gaudry, , for those tails in which the vertebral column ends in a point. we may, perhaps, use it for all such as are attenuate, ending in a long point or whip, as in the _macrouridæ_, or grenadiers, the sting-rays, and in various degenerate members of almost every large group. the term _gephyrocercal_ is devised by ryder for fishes in which the end of the vertebral axis is aborted in the adult, leaving the caudal elements to be inserted on the end of this axis, thus bridging over the interval between the vertical fins, as the name (~gephyros~, bridge; ~kerkos~, tail) is intended to indicate. such a tail has been recognized in four genera only, _mola_, _ranzania_, _fierasfer_, and _echiodon_, the head-fishes and the pearl-fishes. [illustration: fig. .--isocercal tail of hake, _merluccius productus_ (ayres).] [illustration: fig. .--homocercal tail of a flounder, _paralichthys californicus_.] the part of the body of the fish which lies behind the vent is known as the urosome. the urostyle is the name given to a modified bony structure, originally the end of the notochord, turned upward in most fishes. the term _opisthure_ is suggested by ryder for the exserted tip of the vertebral column, which in some larvæ (_lepisosteus_) and in some adult fishes (_fistularia_, _chimæra_) projects beyond the caudal fin. the urosome, or posterior part of the body, must be regarded as a product of evolution and specialization, its function being largely that of locomotion. in the theoretically primitive fish there is no urosome, the alimentary canal, as in the worm, beginning at one end of the body and terminating at the other. [illustration: fig. .--gephyrocercal tail of _mola mola_ (linnæus). (after ryder.)] =homologies of the pectoral limb.=--dr. gill has made an elaborate attempt to work out the homologies of the bones of the pectoral limb.[ ] from his thesis we take the following: "the following are assumed as premises that will be granted by all zootomists: " . homologies of parts are best determinable, _ceteris paribus_, in the most nearly related forms. " . identification should proceed from a central or determinate point outwards. "the applications of these principles are embodied in the following conclusions: " . the forms that are best comparable and that are most nearly related to each other are the dipnoi, an order of fishes at present represented by _lepidosiren_, _protopterus_, and _ceratodus_, and the batrachians as represented by the _ganocephala_, salamanders, and salamander-like animals. " . the articulation of the anterior member with the shoulder-girdle forms the most obvious and determinable point for comparison in the representatives of the respective classes. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _amia calva_ (linnæus).] [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a sea catfish, _selenaspis dowi_.] =the girdle in dipnoans.=--"the proximal element of the anterior limb in the dipnoi has almost by common consent been regarded as homologous with the _humerus_ of the higher vertebrates. "the humerus of urodele batrachians, as well as the extinct ganocephala and labyrinthodontia, is articulated chiefly with the coracoid. therefore the element of the shoulder-girdle with which the humerus of the dipnoi is articulated must also be regarded as the _coracoid_ (subject to the proviso hereinafter stated), unless some specific evidence can be shown to the contrary. no such evidence has been produced. "the scapula in the urodele and other batrachians is entirely or almost wholly excluded from the glenoid foramen, and above the coracoid. therefore the corresponding element in dipnoi must be the _scapula_. "the other elements must be determined by their relation to the preceding, or to those parts from or in connection with which they originate. all those elements in _immediate_ connection with the pectoral fin and the scapula must be homologous as a whole with the coraco-scapular plate of the batrachians; that is, it is infinitely more probable that they represent, as a whole or as dismemberments therefrom, the coraco-scapular element than that they independently originated. but the homogeneity of that coraco-scapular element forbids the identification of the several elements of the fish's shoulder-girdle with regions of the batrachian's coraco-scapular plate. [illustration: fig. .--clavicles of a sea catfish, _selenaspis dowi_ (gill).] "and it is equally impossible to identify the fish's elements with those of the higher reptiles or other vertebrates which have developed from the batrachians. the elements in the shoulder-girdles of the distantly separated classes _may_ be (to use the terms introduced by dr. lankester) homoplastic, but they _are not_ homogenetic. therefore they must be named accordingly. the element of the dipnoan's shoulder-girdle, continuous downward from the scapula, and to which the coracoid is closely applied, may be named _ectocoracoid_. "neither the scapula in batrachians nor the cartilaginous extension thereof, designated suprascapula, is dissevered from the coracoid. therefore there is an _a priori_ improbability against the homology with the scapula of any part having a distant and merely ligamentous connection with the humerus-bearing element. consequently, as an element better representing the scapula exists, the element named scapula (by owen, günther, etc.) cannot be the homologue of the scapula of batrachians. on the other hand, its more intimate relations with the skull and the mode of development indicate that it is rather an element originating and developed in more intimate connection with the skull. it may therefore be considered, with parker, as a _post-temporal_. "the shoulder-girdle in the dipnoi is connected by an azygous differentiated cartilage, swollen backwards. it is more probable that this is the homologue of the _sternum_ of batrachians, and that in the latter that element has been still more differentiated and specialized than that it should have originated _de novo_ from an independently developed nucleus." [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a batfish, _ogcocephalus radiatus_ (mitchill).] =the girdle in fishes other than dipnoans.=--"proceeding from the basis now obtained, a comparative examination of other types of fishes successively removed by their affinities from the lepidosirenids may be instituted. "with the humerus of the dipnoans, the element of the polypterids (single at the base, but immediately divaricating and with its limbs bordering an intervening cartilage which supports the pectoral and its basilar ossicles) must be homologous. but it is evident that the external elements of the so-called carpus of the teleosteoid ganoids are homologous with that element in polypterids. therefore those elements cannot be carpal, but must represent the humerus. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of a threadfin, _polydactylus approximans_ (lay and bennett).] "the element with which the homologue of the humerus, in polypterids, is articulated must be homologous with the analogous element in dipnoans, and therefore with the _coracoid_. the coracoid of polypterids is also evidently homologous with the corresponding element in the other ganoids, and the latter consequently must be also _coracoid_. it is equally evident, after a detailed comparison, that the single coracoid element of the ganoids represents the three elements developed in the generalized teleosts (cyprinids, etc.) in connection with the basis of the pectoral fin, and, such being the case, the nomenclature should correspond. therefore the upper element may be named _hypercoracoid_; the lower, _hypocoracoid_; and the transverse or median, _mesocoracoid_. "the two elements of the arch named by parker, in _lepidosiren_, 'supraclavicle' (scapula) and 'clavicle' (ectocoracoid) seem to be comparable together, and as a whole, with the single element carrying the humerus and pectoral fin in the crossopterygians (_polypterus_ and _calamoichthys_) and other fishes, and therefore not identical respectively with the 'supraclavicle' and 'clavicle' (except in part) recognized by him in other fishes. as this compound bone, composed of the scapula and ectocoracoid fused together, has received no name which is not ambiguous or deceptive in its homologous allusions, it may be designated as _proscapula_. "the post-temporal of the dipnoans is evidently represented by the analogous element in the ganoids generally, as well as in the typical fishes. the succeeding elements (outside those already alluded to) appear from their relations to be developed from or in connection with the post-temporal, and not from the true scapular apparatus; they may therefore be named _post-temporal_, _posterotemporal_, and _teleo-temporal_. it will be thus seen that the determinations here adopted depend mainly ( ) on the interpretation of the homologies of the elements with which the pectoral limbs are articulated, and ( ) on the application of the term 'coracoid.' the name 'coracoid,' originally applied to the process so called in the human scapula and subsequently extended to the independent element homologous with it in birds and other vertebrates, has been more especially retained (e.g., by parker in mammals, etc.) for the region including the glenoid cavity. on the assumption that this may be preferred by some zootomists, the preceding terms have been applied. but if the name should be restricted to the proximal element, nearest the glenoid cavity, in which ossification commences, the name _paraglenal_ given by dugès to the cartilaginous glenoid region can be adopted, and the coracoid would then be represented (in part) rather by the element so named by owen. that eminent anatomist, however, reached his conclusion (only in part the same as that here adopted) by an entirely different course of reasoning, and by a process, as it may be called, of elimination; that is, recognizing first the so-called 'radius' and 'ulna,' the 'humerus,' the 'scapula,' and the 'coracoid' were successively identified from their relations to the elements thus determined and because they were numerically similar to the homonymous parts among higher vertebrates." footnotes: [ ] catalogue of the families of fishes, . chapter vi the organs of respiration =how fishes breathe.=--the fish breathes the air which is dissolved in water. it cannot use the oxygen which is a component part of water, nor can it, as a rule, make use of atmospheric air. the amount of oxygen required for the low vegetative processes of the fish is comparatively small. according to dr. günther, a man consumes , times as much oxygen as a tench. but some fishes demand more oxygen than others. some, like the catfish or the loach, will survive long out of water, while others die almost instantly if removed from their element or if the water is allowed to become foul. in most cases the temperature of the blood of the fish is but little above that of the water in which they live, but in the mackerel and other muscular fishes the temperature of the body may be somewhat higher. some fishes which live in mud, especially in places which become dry in summer, have special contrivances by which they can make use of atmospheric air. in a few primitive fishes (dipnoans, crossopterygians, ganoids) the air-bladder retains its original function of a lung. in other cases some peculiar structure exists in connection with the gills. such a contrivance for holding water above the gills is seen in the climbing perch of india (_anabas scandens_) and other members of the group called labyrinthici. in respiration, in fishes generally, the water is swallowed through the mouth and allowed to pass out through the gill-openings, thus bathing the gills. in a few of the lower types a breathing-pore takes the place of the gill-openings. the gills, or branchiæ, are primarily folds of the skin lining the branchial cavity. in most fishes they form fleshy fringes or laminæ throughout which the capillaries are distributed. in the embryos of sharks, skates, chimæras, lung-fishes, and crossopterygians external gills are developed, but in the more specialized forms these do not appear outside the gill-cavity. in some of the sharks, and especially the rays, a spiracle or open foramen remains behind the eye. through this spiracle, leading from the outside into the cavity of the mouth, water is drawn downwards to pass outward over the gills. the presence of this breathing-hole permits these animals to lie on the bottom without danger of inhaling sand. [illustration: fig. .--gill-basket of lamprey. (after dean.)] =the gill-structures.=--the three main types of gills among fishes are the following: (_a_) the purse-shaped gills found in the hagfishes and lampreys, known as a class as marsipobranchs, or purse-gills. these have a number ( to ) of sac-like depressions on the side of the body, lined with gill-fringes and capillaries, the whole supported by an elaborate branchial basket formed of cartilage. (_b_) the plate-gills, found among the sharks, rays, and chimæras, thence called elasmobranchs, or plate-gills. in these the gill-structures are flat laminæ, attached by one side to the gill-arches. (_c_) the fringe-gills found in ordinary fishes, in which the gill-filaments containing the capillaries are attached in two rows to the outer edge of each gill-arch. the so-called tuft-gills (lophobranchs) of the sea-horse and pipefish are like these in structure, but the filaments are long, while the arches are very short. in most of the higher fishes a small accessory gill (pseudobranchia) is developed in the skin of the inner side of the opercle. =the air-bladder.=--the air-bladder, or swim-bladder, must be classed among the organs of respiration, although in the higher fishes its functions in this regard are rudimentary, and in some cases it has taken collateral functions (as a hydrostatic organ of equilibrium, or perhaps as an organ of hearing) which have no relation to its original purpose. [illustration: fig. .--weberian apparatus and air-bladder of carp. (from günther, after weber.)] the air-bladder is an internal sac possessed by many fishes, but not by all. it lies in the dorsal part of the abdominal cavity above the intestines and below the kidneys. in some cases it is closely adherent to the surrounding tissues. in others it is almost entirely free, lying almost loose in the cavity of the body. in some cases it is enclosed in a bony capsule. in the allies of the carp and catfish, which form the majority of fresh-water fishes, its anterior end is connected through a chain of modified vertebræ to the ear. sometimes its posterior end fits into an enlarged and hollow interhæmal bone. sometimes, again, a mass of muscle lies in front of it or is otherwise attached to it. sometimes it is divided into two or three parts by crosswise constrictions. sometimes it is constricted longitudinally, and at other times it has attached to it a complication of supplemental tubes of the same character as the air-bladder itself. in still other cases it is divided by many internal partitions into a cellular body, similar to the lung of the higher vertebrates, though the cells are coarser and less intricate. this condition is evidently more primitive than that of the empty sac. the homology of the air-bladder with the lung is evident. this is often expressed in the phrase that the lung is a developed air-bladder. this is by no means true. to say that the air-bladder is a modified and degenerate lung is much nearer the truth, although we should express the fact more exactly to say that both air-bladder and lung are developed from a primitive cellular breathing-sac, originally a diverticulum from the ventral walls of the oesophagus. the air-bladder varies in size as much as in form. in some fishes it extends from the head to the tail, while in others it is so minute as to be scarcely traceable. it often varies greatly in closely related species. the common mackerel (_scomber scombrus_) has no air-bladder, while in the closely related colias or chub mackerel (_scomber japonicus_) the organ is very evident. in other families, as the rockfishes (_scorpænidæ_), genera with and those without the air-bladder are scarcely distinguishable externally. in general, fishes which lie on the bottom, those which inhabit great depths, and those which swim freely in the open sea, as sharks and mackerel, lack the air-bladder. in the sharks, rays, and chimæras there is no trace of an air-bladder. in the mackerel and other bony fishes without it, it is lost in the process of development. the air-bladder is composed of two layers of membrane, the outer one shining, silvery in color, with muscular fibres, the inner well supplied by blood-vessels. the gas within the air-bladder must be in most cases secreted from the blood-vessels. in river fishes it is said to be nearly pure nitrogen. in marine fishes it is mostly oxygen, with from to per cent of carbonic-acid gas, while in the deep-sea fishes oxygen is greatly in excess. in _lopholatilus_, a deep-sea fish, professor r. w. tower finds to per cent of oxygen. in _trigla lyra_ biot records per cent. in _dentex dentex_, a shore fish of europe, per cent of oxygen was found in the air-bladder. fifty per cent is recorded from the european porgy, _pagrus pagrus_. in a fish dying from suffocation the amount of carbonic-acid gas (co ) is greatly increased, amounting, according to recent researches of professor tower on the weak-fish, _cynoscion regalis_, to to per cent. this shows conclusively that the air-bladder is to some degree a reservoir of oxygen secreted from the blood, to which channel it may return through a kind of respiration. the other functions of the air-bladder have been subject to much question and are still far from understood. the following summary of the various views in this regard we copy from professor tower's paper on "the gas in the swim-bladder of fishes": "the function of the swim-bladder of fishes has attracted the attention of scientists for many centuries. the rôle that this structure plays in the life of the animal has been interpreted in almost as many ways as there have been investigators, and even now there is apparently much doubt as to the true functions of the swim-bladder. consequently any additional data concerning this organ are of immediate scientific value. "aristotle, writing about the noises made by fishes, states that 'some produce it by rubbing the gill-arches ...; others by means of the air-bladder. each of these fishes contains air, by rubbing and moving of which the noise is produced.' the bladder is thus considered a sound-producing organ, and it is probable that he arrived at this result by his own investigations. "borelli (de motu animalium, ) attributed to the air-bladder a hydrostatic function which enabled the fish to rise and fall in the water by simply distending or compressing the air-bladder. this hypothesis, which gives to the fish a volitional control over the air-bladder--it being able to compress or distend the bladder at pleasure--has prevailed, to a greater or less degree, from the time of borelli to the present. to my knowledge, however, there are no investigations which warrant such a theory, while, on the other hand, there are many facts, as shown by moreau's experiment, which distinctly contradict this belief. delaroche (annales du mus. d'hist. nat., tome xiv, - ) decidedly opposed the ideas of borelli, and yet advanced an hypothesis similar to it in many respects. like borelli, he said that the fish could compress or dilate the bladder by means of certain muscles, but this was to enable the fish to keep the same specific gravity as the surrounding medium, and thus be able to remain at any desired depth (and not to rise or sink). this was also disproved later by moreau. delaroche proved that there existed a constant exchange between the air in the air-bladder and the air in the blood, although he did not consider the swim-bladder an organ of respiration. "biot ( ), provençal and humboldt ( ), and others made chemical analyses of the gas in the swim-bladder, and found to per cent of co_{ }, to per cent of o_{ }, and the remainder nitrogen. the most remarkable fact discovered about this mixture was that it frequently consisted almost entirely of oxygen, the per cent of oxygen increasing with the depth of the water inhabited by the fish. the reasons for this phenomenon have never been satisfactorily explained. "in weber described a series of paired ossicles which he erroneously called stapes, malleus, and incus, and which connected the air-bladder in certain fishes with a part of the ear--the atrium sinus imparis. weber considered the swim-bladder to be an organ by which sounds striking the body from the outside are intensified, and these sounds are then transmitted to the ear by means of the ossicles. the entire apparatus would thus function as an organ of hearing. weber's views remained practically uncontested for half a century, but recently much has been written both for and against this theory. whatever the virtues of the case may be, there is certainly an inviting field for further physiological investigations regarding this subject, and more especially on the phenomena of hearing in fishes. "twenty years later johannes müller described, in certain siluroid fishes, a mechanism, the so-called 'elastic-spring' apparatus, attached to the anterior portion of the air-bladder, which served to aid the fish in rising and sinking in the water according as the muscles of this apparatus were relaxed or contracted to a greater or lesser degree. this interpretation of the function of the 'elastic-spring' mechanism was shown by sörensen to be untenable. müller also stated that in some fish, at least, there was an exchange of gas between blood and air-bladder--the latter having a respiratory function--and regarded the gas in the air-bladder as the result of active secretion. in _malapterurus_ (_torpedo electricus_) he stated that it is a sound-producing organ. "hasse, in , published the results of his investigations on the functions of the ossicles of weber, stating that their action was that of a manometer, acquainting the animal with the degree of pressure that is exerted by the gases in the air-bladder against its walls. this pressure necessarily varies with the different depths of water which the fish occupies. hasse did not agree with weber that the ear is affected by the movements of these ossicles. "one year later dufosse described in some fishes an air-bladder provided with extrinsic muscles by whose vibration sound was produced, the sound being intensified by the air-bladder, which acted as a resonator. he also believed that certain species produced a noise by forcing the gas from the air-bladder through a pneumatic duct. "at about the same time moreau published his classical work on the functions of the air-bladder. he proved by ingenious experiments that many of the prevailing ideas about the action of the air-bladder were erroneous, and that this organ serves to equilibrate the body of the fish with the water at any level. this is not accomplished quickly, but only after sufficient time for the air in the bladder to become adjusted to the increase or decrease in external pressure that has taken place. the fish, therefore, makes no use of any muscles in regulating the volume of its air-bladder. the animal can accommodate itself only gradually to considerable changes in depth of water, but can live equally comfortably at different depths, provided that the change has been gradual enough. moreau's experiments also convinced him that the gas is actually secreted into the air-bladder, and that there is a constant exchange of gas between it and the blood. in these investigations he has also noticed that section of the sympathetic-nerve fibres supplying the walls of the air-bladder hastens the secreting of the gas into the empty bladder. since then bohr has shown that section of the vagus nerve causes the secretion to cease. moreau noticed in one fish (_trigla_) having an air-bladder supplied with muscles that the latter served to make the air-bladder produce sound. "again, in , the weberian mechanism was brought to our attention with a new function attributed to it by sagemehl who stated that this mechanism exists not for any auditory purposes, nor to tell the fish at what level of the water it is swimming, but to indicate to the fish the variations in the atmospheric pressure. sörensen tersely contrasts the views of hasse and sagemehl by saying that 'hasse considers the air-bladder with the weberian mechanism as a manometer; sagemehl regards it as a barometer.' the theory of sagemehl has, naturally enough, met with little favor. sörensen ( ) held that there is but little evidence for attributing to the air-bladder the function of a lung. it is to be remembered, however, that, according to sörensen's criterion no matter what exchange of gases takes place between blood and air-bladder, it cannot be considered an organ of respiration, 'unless its air is renewed by mechanical respiration.' "sörensen also refutes, from anatomical and experimental grounds, the many objections to weber's theory of the function of the ossicles. he would thus attribute to the air-bladder the function of hearing; indeed in certain species the only reason for the survival of the air-bladder is that 'the organ is still of acoustic importance; that it acts as a resonator.' this idea, sörensen states, is borne out by the anatomical structure found in _misgurnus_ and _chlarias_, which resembles the celebrated 'colladon resonator.' this author attributes to the air-bladder with its 'elastic spring' and various muscular mechanisms the production of sound as its chief function." =origin of the air-bladder.=--in the more primitive forms, and probably in the embryos of all species, the air-bladder is joined to the oesophagus by an air-duct. this duct is lost entirely in the adult of all or nearly all of the thoracic and jugular fishes, and in some of the abdominal forms. the lancelets, lampreys, sharks, rays, and chimæras have no air-bladder, but in the most primitive forms of true fishes (dipnoans and crossopterygians), having the air-bladder cellular or lung-like, the duct is well developed, freely admitting the external air which the fish may rise to the surface to swallow. in most fishes the duct opens into the oesophagus from the dorsal side, but in the more primitive forms it enters from the ventral side, like the windpipe of the higher vertebrates. in some of the dipnoans the air-bladder divides into two parts, in further resemblance to the true lungs. =the origin of the lungs.=--the following account of the function of the air-bladder and of its development and decline is condensed from an article by mr. charles morris:[ ] "if now we seek to discover the original purpose of this organ, there is abundant reason to believe that it had nothing to do with swimming. certainly the great family of the sharks, which have no bladder, are at no disadvantage in changing their depth or position in the water. yet if the bladder is necessary to any fish as an aid in swimming, why not to all? and if this were its primary purpose, how shall we explain its remarkable variability? no animal organ with a function of essential importance presents such extraordinary modifications in related species and genera. in the heart, brain, and other organs there is one shape, position, and condition of greatest efficiency, and throughout the lower forms we find a steady advance towards this condition. great variation, on the other hand, usually indicates that the organ is of little functional importance, or that it has lost its original function. such we conceive to be the case with the air-bladder. the fact of its absence from some and its presence in other fishes of closely related species goes far to prove that it is a degenerating organ; and the same is shown by the fact that it is useless in some species for the purpose to which it is applied in others. that it had, at some time in the past, a function of essential importance there can be no question. that it exists at all is proof of this. but its modern variations strongly indicate that it has lost this function and is on the road towards extinction. larval conditions show that it had originally a pneumatic duct as one of its essential parts, but this has in most cases disappeared. the bladder itself has in many cases partly or wholly disappeared. where preserved, it seems to be through its utility for some secondary purpose, such as an aid in swimming or in hearing. that its evolution began very long ago there can be no question; and the indications are that it began long ago to degenerate, through the loss of its primitive function. "what was this primitive function? in attempting to answer this question we must first consider the air-bladder in relation to the fish tribe as a whole. no shark or ray possesses the air-bladder. in some few sharks, indeed, there is a diverticulum of the pharynx which may be a rudimentary approach to the air-bladder; but this is very questionable. the conditions of its occurrence in the main body of modern fishes, the teleostean, we have already considered. but in the most ancient living orders of fishes it exists in an interesting condition. in every modern dipnoan, crossopterygian, and ganoid the air-bladder has an effective pneumatic duct. this in the ganoids opens into the dorsal side of the oesophagus, but in the dipnoans and crossopterygians, like the windpipe of lung-breathers, it opens into the ventral side. in the dipnoans, also survivors from the remote past, the duct not only opens ventrally into the oesophagus, but the air-bladder does duty as a lung. externally it differs in no particular from an air-bladder; but internally it presents a cellular structure which nearly approaches that of the lung of the batrachians. there are three existing representatives of the dipnoans. one of these, the australian lung-fish (_neoceratodus_) has a single bladder, which, however, is provided with breathing-pouches having a symmetrical lateral arrangement. it has no pulmonary artery, but receives branches from the _arteria coeliaca_. in the other two forms, _lepidosiren_ and _protopterus_, the kindred 'mudfishes' of the amazon basin and tropical africa, the bladder or lung is divided into two lateral chambers, as in the land animals, and is provided with a separate pulmonary artery. "the opinion seems to have been tacitly entertained by physiologists that this employment of the air-bladder by the dipnoans as a lung is a secondary adaptation, a side issue from its original purpose. it is more likely that this is the original purpose, and that its degeneration is due to the disappearance of the necessity of such a function. as regards the gravitative employment of the bladder, the teleostean fishes, to which this function is confined, are of comparatively modern origin; while the dipnoans are surviving representatives of a very ancient order of fishes, which flourished in the devonian age of geology, and in all probability breathed air then as now; and the crossopterygians and ganoids, which approach them in this particular, are similarly ancient in origin, and were the ancestors of the teleosteans. the natural presumption, therefore, is that the duty which it subserved in the most ancient fishes was its primitive function. "the facts of embryology lend strong support to this hypothesis. for the air-bladder is found to arise in a manner very similar to the development of the lung. they each begin as an outgrowth from the fore part of the alimentary tract, the only difference being that the air-bladder usually rises dorsally and the lung ventrally. the fact already cited, that the pneumatic duct is always present in the larval form in fishes that possess a bladder, is equally significant. all the facts go to show that the introduction of external air into the body was a former function of the air-bladder, and that the atrophy of the duct in many cases, and the disappearance of the bladder in others, are results of the loss of this function. "such an elaborate arrangement for the introduction of air into the body could have, if we may judge from analogy, but one purpose, that of breathing, to which purpose the muscular and other apparatus for compressing and dilating the bladder, now seemingly adapted to gravitative uses, may have been originally applied. the same may be said of the great development of blood-capillaries in the inner tunic of the bladder. these may now be used only for the secretion of gas into its interior, but were perhaps originally employed in the respiratory secretion of oxygen. in fact all the circumstances mentioned--the similarity in larval development between the bladder and lung, the larval existence of the pneumatic duct, the arrangements for compressing and dilating the bladder, and the capillary vessels on its inner tunic--point to the breathing of air as its original purpose. "it is probable that the ganoid, as well as the dipnoan, air-bladder is to some extent still used in breathing. the dipnoans have both lungs and gills, and probably breathe with the latter in ordinary cases, but use their lungs when the inland waters in which they live become thick and muddy, or are charged with gases from decomposing organic matter. the ganoid fishes to some extent breathe the air. in _polypterus_ the air-bladder resembles the dipnoan lung in having lateral divisions and a ventral connection with the oesophagus, while in _lepisosteus_ (the american garpike) it is cellular and lung-like. this fish keeps near the surface, and may be seen to emit air-bubbles, probably taking in a fresh supply of air. the american bowfin, or mudfish (_amia_), has a bladder of the same lung-like character, and has been seen to come to the surface, open its jaws widely, and apparently swallow a large quantity of air. he considers that both _lepisosteus_ and _amia_ inhale and exhale air at somewhat regular intervals, resembling in this the salamanders and tadpoles, 'which, as the gills shrink and the lungs increase, come more frequently to the surface for air.' "as the facts stand there is no evident line of demarcation between the gas-containing bladders of many of the teleosteans, the air-containing bladders of the others and the ganoids, and the lung of the dipnoans, and the indications are in favor of their having originally had the same function, and of this being the breathing of air. "if now we ask what were the conditions of life under which this organ was developed, and what the later conditions which rendered it of no utility as a lung, some definite answer may be given. the question takes us back to the devonian and silurian geological periods, during which the original development of the bladder probably took place. in this era the seas were thronged with fishes of several classes, the elasmobranchs among others, followed by the dipnoi and crossopterygians. the sharks were without, the dipnoans and crossopterygians doubtless with, an air-bladder--a difference in organization which was most likely due to some marked difference in their life-habits. the elasmobranchs were the monarchs of the seas, against whose incursions the others put on a thick protective armor, and probably sought the shallow shore waters, while their foes held chief possession of the deeper waters without. "we seem, then, to perceive the lung-bearing fishes, driven by their foes into bays and estuaries, and the waters of shallow coasts, ascending streams and dwelling in inland waters. here two influences probably acted on them. the waters they dwelt in were often thick with sediment, and were doubtless in many instances poorly aerated, rendering gill-breathing difficult. and the land presented conditions likely to serve as a strong inducement to fishes to venture on shore. its plant-life was abundant, while its only animal inhabitants seem to have been insects, worms, and snails. there can be little doubt that the active fish forms of that period, having no enemies to fear on the land, and much to gain, made active efforts to obtain a share of this vegetable and animal food. even to-day, when they have numerous foes to fear, many fishes seek food on the shore, and some even climb trees for this purpose. under the conditions of the period mentioned there was a powerful inducement for them to assume this habit. "such conditions must have strongly tended to induce fishes to breathe the air, and have acted to develop an organ for this purpose. in addition to the influences of foul or muddy water and of visits to land may be named that of the drying-out of pools, by which fishes are sometimes left in the moist mud till the recurrence of rains, or are even buried in the dried mud during the rainless season. this is the case with the modern dipnoi, which use their lungs under such circumstances. in certain other fresh-water fishes, of the family ophiocephalidæ, air is breathed while the mud continues soft enough for the fish to come to the surface, but during the dry period the animal remains in a torpid state. these fishes have no lungs, but breathe the air into a simple cavity in the pharynx, whose opening is partly closed by a fold of the mucous membrane. other labyrinthici, of similar habits, possess a more developed breathing organ. this is a cavity formed by the walls of the pharynx, in which are thin laminæ, or plates, which undoubtedly perform an oxygenating function. the most interesting member of this family is _anabas scandens_, the climbing perch. in this fish, which not only leaves the water, but is said to climb trees, the air-breathing organ is greatly developed. the labyrinthici, moreover, have usually large air-bladders. as regards the occasional breathing of air by fishes, even in species which do not leave the water, it is quite common, particularly among fresh-water species. cuvier remarks that air is perhaps necessary to every kind of fish; and that, particularly when the atmosphere is warm, most of our lacustrine species sport on the surface for no other purpose. "it is not difficult to draw a hypothetical plan of the development of the air-bladder as a breathing organ. in the two families of fishes just mentioned, whose air-bladders indicate that they once possessed the air-breathing function and have lost it, we perceive the process of formation of an air-breathing organ beginning over again under stress of similar circumstances. the larval development of the air-bladder points significantly in the same direction. in fact we have strong reason to believe that air-breathing in fishes was originally performed, as it probably often is now, by the unchanged walls of the oesophagus. then these walls expanded inwardly, forming a simple cavity, partly closed by a fold of membrane, like that of the ophiocephalidæ. a step further reduced this membranous fold to a narrow opening, leading to an inner pouch. as the air-breathing function developed, the opening became a tube, and the pouch a simple lung, with compressing muscles and capillary vessels. by a continuation of the process the smooth-walled pouch became sacculated, its surface being increased by folding into breathing cells. finally, a longitudinal constriction divided it into two lateral pouches, such as we find in the lung of the dipnoans. this brings us to the verge of the lung of the amphibians, which is but a step in advance, and from that the line of progress is unbroken to the more intricate lung of the higher land animals. "the dorsal position of the bladder and its duct would be a difficulty in this inquiry, but for the fact that the duct is occasionally ventral. this dorsal position may have arisen from the upward pressure of air in the swimming fish, which would tend to lift the original pouch. but in the case of fishes which made frequent visits to the shore new influences must have come into play. the effect of gravity tended to draw the organ and its duct downward, as we find in the crossopterygians and in all the dipnoans, and its increased use in breathing required a more extended surface. through this requirement came the pouched and cellular lung of the dipnoans. of every stage of the process here outlined examples exist, and there is great reason to believe that the development of the lung followed the path above pointed out. "when the carboniferous era opened there may have been many lung- and gill-breathing fishes which spent much of their time on land, and some of which, by a gradual improvement of their organs of locomotion, changed into batrachians. but with the appearance of the latter, and of their successors, the reptiles, the relations of the fish to the land radically changed. the fin, or the simple locomotor organ, of the dipnoans could not compete with the leg and foot as organs of land locomotion, and the fish tribe ceased to be lords of the land, where, instead of feeble prey, they now found powerful foes, and were driven back to their native habitat, the water. nor did the change end here. in time the waters were invaded by the reptiles, numerous swimming forms appearing, which it is likely were abundant in the shallower shore-line of the ocean, while they sent many representatives far out to sea. these were actively carnivorous, making the fish their prey, the great mass of whom were doubtless driven into the deeper waters, beyond the reach of their air-breathing foes. "in this change of conditions we seem to perceive an adequate cause for the loss of air-breathing habits in those fishes in which the lung development had not far progressed. it may indeed have been a leading influence in the development of the teleostean or bony fishes, as it doubtless was in the loss of its primitive function by, and the subsequent changes of, the air-bladder. "such of the crossopterygians and dipnoans as survived in their old condition had to contend with adverse circumstances. most of them in time vanished, while their descendants which still exist have lost in great measure their air-breathing powers, and the dipnoans, in which the development of the lung had gone too far for reversal, have degenerated into eel-like, mud-haunting creatures, in which the organs of locomotion have become converted into the feeble paddle-like limbs of neoceratodus and the filamentary appendages of the other species. "as regards the presence of a large quantity of oxygen in the bladders of deep-swimming marine fishes, it not unlikely has a respiratory purpose, the bladder being, as suggested by semper, used as a reservoir for oxygen, to serve the fish when sleeping, or when, from any cause, not actively breathing. the excess of oxygen is not due to any like excess in the gaseous contents of sea-water, for the percentage of oxygen decreases from the surface downward, while that of nitrogen remains nearly unchanged. in all cases, indeed, the bladder may preserve a share of its old function, and act as an aid in respiration. speaking of this, cuvier says: 'with regard to the presumed assistance which the swim-bladder affords in respiration, it is a fact that when a fish is deprived of that organ, the production of carbonic acid by the branchiæ is very trifling,' thus strongly indicating that the bladder still plays a part in the oxygenation of the blood. "under the hypothesis here presented the process of evolution involved may be thus summed up. air-breathing in fishes was originally performed by the unchanged walls of the oesophagus perhaps at specially vascular localities. then the wall folded inward, and a pouch was finally formed, opening to the air. the pouch next became constricted off, with a duct of connection. then the pouch became an air-bladder with respiratory function, and finally developed into a simple lung. these air-breathing fishes haunted the shores, their fins becoming converted into limbs suitable for land locomotion, and in time developed into the lung- and gill-breathing batrachia, and these in their turn into the lung-breathing reptilia, the locomotor organs gradually increasing in efficiency. of these pre-batrachia we have existing representatives in the mud-haunting dipnoi, with their feeble limbs. in the great majority of the ganoid fishes the bladder served but a minor purpose as a breathing organ, the gills doing the bulk of the work. in the teleostean descendants of the ganoids the respiratory function of the bladder in great measure or wholly ceased, in the majority of cases the duct closing up or disappearing, leaving the pouch as a closed internal sac, far removed from its place of origin. in this condition it served as an aid in swimming, perhaps as a survival of one of its ancient uses. it gained also in certain cases some connection with the organ of hearing. but these were makeshift and unimportant functions, as we may gather from the fact that many fishes found no need for them, the bladder, in these cases, decreasing in size until too small to be of use in swimming, and in other cases completely disappearing after having travelled far from its point of origin. in some other cases, above cited, the process seems to have begun again, in modern times, in an eversion of the wall of the oesophagus for respiratory purposes. the whole process, if i have correctly conceived it, certainly forms a remarkable organic cycle of development and degeneration, which perhaps has no counterpart of similarly striking character in the whole range of organic life." =the heart of the fish.=--the heart of the fish is simple in structure, small in size, and usually placed far forward, just behind the branchial cavity, and separated from the abdominal cavity by a sort of "diaphragm" formed of thickened peritoneum. in certain eels the heart is remote from the head. the heart consists of four parts, the sinus venosus, into which the veins enter, the auricle or atrium, the ventricle, and the arterial bulb at the base of the great artery which carries the blood to the gills. of these parts the ventricle is deepest in color and with thickest walls. the arterial bulb varies greatly in structure, being in the sharks, rays, ganoids, and dipnoans muscular and provided with a large number of internal valves, and contracting rhythmically like the ventricle. in the higher fishes these structures are lost, the walls of the arterial bulb are not contractile, and the interior is without valves, except the pair that separate it from the ventricle. in the lancelet there is no proper heart, the function of the heart being taken by a contractile blood-vessel situated on the ventral side of the alimentary canal. in the dipnoans, which are allied to the ancestors of the higher vertebrates, there is the beginning of a division of the ventricle, and sometimes of the auricle, into parts by a median septum. in the higher vertebrates this septum becomes more and more specialized, separating auricle and ventricle into right and left cavities. the blood in the fish is not returned to the heart after purification, but is sent directly over the body. =the flow of blood.=--the blood in fishes is thin and pale red (colorless in the lancelet) and with elliptical blood-corpuscles. it enters the _sinus venosus_ from the head through the jugular vein, from the kidney and body walls through the cardinal vein, and from the liver through the hepatic veins. hence it passes to the auricle and ventricle, and from the ventricle through the arterial bulb, or conus arteriosus to the ventral aorta. thence it flows to the gills, where it is purified. after passing through the capillaries of the gill-filaments it is collected in paired arteries from each pair of gills. these vessels unite to form the dorsal aorta, which extends the length of the body just below the back-bone. from the dorsal aorta the subclavian arteries branch off toward the pectoral fins. from a point farther back arise the mesenteric arteries carrying blood to the stomach, intestine, liver, and spleen. in the tail the caudal vein carries blood to the kidneys. these secrete impurities arising from waste of tissues, after which the blood again passes to the heart through the _cardinal vein_. from the intestine the blood, charged with nutritive materials in solution, is carried by the _portal vein_ to the liver. here it again passes by the _hepatic sinus_ to the _sinus venosus_ and the heart. the details of the circulatory system vary a good deal in the different groups, and a comparative study of the direction of veins and arteries is instructive and interesting. the movement of the blood in fishes is relatively slow, and its temperature is raised but little above that of the surrounding water. footnotes: [ ] the origin of lungs: a chapter in evolution. american naturalist, december, . chapter vii the nervous system =the nerves of the fish.=--the nervous system in the fish, as in the higher vertebrates, consists of brain and spinal cord with sensory, or afferent, and motor, or efferent, nerves. as in other vertebrates, the nerve substance is divided into gray matter and white matter, or nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. in the fish, however, the whole nervous system is relatively small, and the gray matter less developed than in the higher forms. according to günther the brain in the pike (_esox_) forms but / part of the weight of the body; in the burbot (_lota_) about / part. the cranium in fishes is relatively small, but the brain does not nearly fill its cavity, the space between the dura mater, which lines the skull-cavity, and the arachnoid membrane, which envelops the brain, being filled with a soft fluid containing a quantity of fat. =the brain of the fish.=--it is most convenient to examine the fish-brain, first in its higher stages of development, as seen in the sunfish, striped bass, or perch. as seen from above the brain of a typical fish seems to consist of five lobes, four of them in pairs, the fifth posterior to these and placed on the median line. the posterior lobe is the _cerebellum_, or _metencephalon_, and it rests on the _medulla oblongata_, the posterior portion of the brain, which is directly continuous with the spinal cord. in front of the cerebellum lies the largest pair of lobes, each of them hollow, the optic nerves being attached to the lower surface. these are known as the _optic lobes_, or _mesencephalon_. in front of these lie the two lobes of the cerebrum, also called the hemispheres, or _prosencephalon_. these lobes are usually smaller than the optic lobes and solid. in some fishes they are crossed by a furrow, but are never corrugated as in the brain of the higher animals. in front of the cerebrum lie the two small olfactory lobes, which receive the large olfactory nerve from the nostrils. from its lower surface is suspended the hypophysis or pituitary gland. [illustration: fig. .--brain of a shark (_squatina squatina l._). (after dean.) i. first cranial nerve (olfactory). p. prosencephalon (cerebrum). e. epiphysis. t. thalamencephalon. ii. second cranial nerve. iv. fourth cranial nerve. v. fifth cranial nerve. vii. seventh cranial nerve. v . fourth ventricle. m. mesencephalon (optic lobes). mt. metencephalon (medulla). ep. epencephalon (cerebellum).] [illustration: fig. .--brain of _chimæra monstrosa_. (after wilder per dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--brain of _protopterus annectens_. (after burckhardt per dean.)] in most of the bony fishes the structure of the brain does not differ materially from that seen in the perch. in the sturgeon, however, the parts are more widely separated. in the dipnoans the cerebral hemispheres are united, while the optic lobe and cerebellum are very small. in the sharks and rays the large cerebral hemispheres are usually coalescent into one, and the olfactory nerves dilate into large ganglia below the nostrils. the optic lobes are smaller than the hemispheres and also coalescent. the cerebellum is very large, and the surface of the medulla oblongata is more or less modified or specialized. the brain of the shark is relatively more highly developed than that of the bony fishes, although in most other regards the latter are more distinctly specialized. =the pineal organ.=--besides the structures noted in other fishes the epiphysis, or pineal organ, is largely developed in sharks, and traces of it are found in most or all of the higher vertebrates. in some of the lizards this epiphysis is largely developed, bearing at its tip a rudimentary eye. this leaves no doubt that in these forms it has an optic function. for this reason the structure wherever found has been regarded as a rudimentary eye, and the "pineal eye" has been called the "unpaired median eye of chordate" animals. [illustration: fig. .--brain of a perch, _perca flavescens_. (after dean.) r. olfactory lobe. p. cerebrum (prosencephalon). e. epiphysis. m. optic lobes (mesencephalon). ep. cerebellum (epencephalon). ml. medulla oblongata (metencephalon). i. first cranial nerve. ii. second cranial nerve. iv. fourth cranial nerve. v. fifth cranial nerve. vii. seventh cranial nerve. viii. eighth cranial nerve. ix. ninth cranial nerve. x. tenth cranial nerve.] [illustration: fig. .--_petromyzon marinus unicolor_ (dekay). head of lake lamprey, showing pineal body. (after gage.)] it has been supposed that this eye, once possessed by all vertebrate forms, has been gradually lost with the better development of the paired eyes, being best preserved in reptiles as "an outcome of the life-habit which concealed the animal in sand or mud, and allowed the forehead surface alone to protrude, the median eye thus preserving its ancestral value in enabling the animal to look directly upward and backward." this theory receives no support from the structures seen in the fishes. in none of the fishes is the epiphysis more than a nervous enlargement, and neither in fishes nor in amphibia is there the slightest suggestion of its connection with vision. it seems probable, as suggested by hertwig and maintained by dean that the original function of the pineal body was a nervous one and that its connection with or development into a median eye in lizards was a modification of a secondary character. on consideration of the evidence, dr. dean concludes that "the pineal structures of the true fishes do not tend to confirm the theory that the epiphysis of the ancestral vertebrates was connected with a median unpaired eye. it would appear, on the other hand, that both in their recent and fossil forms the epiphysis was connected in its median opening with the innervation of the sensory canals of the head. this view seems essentially confirmed by ontogeny. the fact that three successive pairs of epiphyseal outgrowths have been noted in the roof of the thalamencephalon[ ] appears distinctly adverse to the theory of a median eye."[ ] =the brain of primitive fishes.=--the brain of the hagfish differs widely from that of the higher fishes, and the homologies of the different parts are still uncertain. the different ganglia are all solid and are placed in pairs. it is thought that the cerebellum is wanting in these fishes, or represented by a narrow commissure (_corpus restiforme_) across the front of the medulla. in the lamprey the brain is more like that of the ordinary fish. in the lancelet there is no trace of brain, the band-like spinal cord tapering toward either end. =the spinal cord.=--the spinal cord extends from the brain to the tail, passing through the neural arches of the different vertebræ when these are developed. in the higher fishes it is cylindrical and inelastic. in a few fishes (headfish, trunkfish) in which the posterior part of the body is shortened or degenerate, the spinal cord is much shortened, and replaced behind by a structure called cauda equina. in the headfish it has shrunk into "a short and conical appendage to the brain." in the cyclostomes and chimæra the spinal cord is elastic and more or less flattened or band-like, at least posteriorly. =the nerves.=--the nerves of the fish correspond in general in place and function with those of the higher animals. they are, however, fewer in number, both large nerve-trunks and smaller nerves being less developed than in higher forms. the _olfactory nerves_, or first pair, extend through the ethmoid bone to the nasal cavity, which is typically a blind sac with two roundish openings, but is subject to many variations. the _optic nerves_, or second pair, extend from the eye to the base of the optic lobes. in cyclostomes these nerves run from each eye to the lobe of its own side. in the bony fishes, or teleostei, each runs from the eye to the lobe of the opposite side. in the sharks, rays, chimæras, and ganoids the two optic nerves are joined in a chiasma as in the higher vertebrates. other nerves arising in the brain are the third pair, or _nervus oculorum motorius_, and the fourth pair, _nervus trochlearis_, both of which supply the muscles of the eye. the fifth pair, _nervus trigeminus_, and the seventh pair, _nervus facialis_, arise from the medulla oblongata and are very close together. their various branches, sensory and motor, ramify among the muscles and sensory areas of the head. the sixth pair, _nervus abducens_, passes also to muscles of the eye, and in sharks to the nictitating membrane or third eyelid. the eighth pair, _nervus acousticus_, leads to the ear. the ninth pair, _glosso-pharyngeal_, passes to the tongue and pharynx, and forms a ganglion connected with the sympathetic system. the tenth pair, _nervus vagus_, or pneumogastric nerve, arises from strong roots in the corpus restiforme and the lower part of the medulla oblongata. its nerves, motor and sensory, reach the muscles of the gill-cavity, heart, stomach, and air-bladder, as well as the muscular system and the skin. in fishes covered with bony plates the skin may be nearly or quite without sensory nerves. the eleventh pair, _nervus accessorius_, and twelfth pair, _nervus hypoglossus_, are wanting in fishes. the spinal nerves are subject to some special modifications, but in the main correspond to similar structures in higher vertebrates. the anterior root of each nerve is without ganglionic enlargement and contains only motor elements. the posterior or dorsal root is sensory only and widens into a ganglionic swelling near the base. a sympathetic system corresponding to that in the higher vertebrates is found in all the teleostei, or bony fishes, and in the body of sharks and rays in which it is not extended to the head. footnotes: [ ] the thalamencephalon or the interbrain is a name given to the region of the optic thalami, between the bases of the optic lobes and cerebrum. [ ] fishes recent and fossil, p. . chapter viii the organs of sense =the organs of smell.=--the sense-organs of the fish correspond in general to those of the higher vertebrates. the sense of taste is, however, feeble or wanting, and that of hearing is muffled and without power of acute discrimination, if indeed it exists at all. according to dr. kingsley (vert. zool., p. ), "recent experiments tend to show that in fishes the ears are without auditory functions and are solely organs of equilibration." the sense of smell resides in the nostrils, which have no relation to the work of breathing. no fish breathes through its nostrils, and only in a few of the lowest forms (hagfishes) does the nostril pierce through the roof of the mouth. in the bony fishes the nostril is a single cavity, on either side, lined with delicate or fringed membrane, well provided with blood-vessels, and with nerves from the olfactory lobe. in most cases each nasal cavity has two external openings. these may be simple, or the rim of the nostril may be elevated, forming a papilla or even a long barbel. either nostril may have a papilla or barbel, or the two may unite in one structure with two openings or with sieve-like openings, or in some degenerate types (_tropidichthys_) with no obvious openings at all, the olfactory nerves spreading over the skin of a small papilla. the openings may be round, slit-like, pore-like, or may have various other forms. in certain families of bony fishes (_pomacentridæ_, _cichlidæ_, _hexagrammidæ_), there is but one opening to each nostril. in the sharks, rays, and chimæras there is also but one opening on either side and the nostril is large and highly specialized, with valvular flaps controlled by muscles which are said to enable them "to scent actively as well as to smell passively." in the lancelet there is a single median organ supposed to be a nostril, a small depression at the front of the head, covered by ciliated membrane. in the hagfish the single median nostril pierces the roof of the mouth, and is strengthened by cartilaginous rings, like those of the windpipe. in the lamprey the single median nostril leads to a blind sac. in the _barramunda_ (_neoceratodus_) there are both external and internal nares, the former being situated just within the upper lip. in all other fishes there is a nasal sac on either side of the head. this has usually, but not always, two openings. there is little doubt that the sense of smell in fishes is relatively acute, and that the odor of their prey attracts them to it. it is known that flesh, blood, or a decaying carcass will attract sharks, and other predatory fish are drawn in a similar manner. at the same time the strength of this function is yet to be tested by experiments. [illustration: fig. .--dismal swamp fish, _chologaster cornutus_ agassiz. supposed ancestor of _typhlichthys_. virginia.] [illustration: fig. .--blind cavefish, _typhlichthys subterraneus_ girard. mammoth cave, kentucky.] =the organs of sight.=--the eyes of fishes differ from those of the higher vertebrates mainly in the spherical form of the crystalline lens. this extreme convexity is necessary because the lens itself is not very much denser than the fluid in which the fishes live. the eyes vary very much in size and somewhat in form and position. they are larger in fishes living at a moderate depth than in shore fishes or river fishes. at great depths, as a mile or more, where all light is lost, they may become aborted or rudimentary, and may be covered by the skin. often species with very large eyes, making the most of a little light or of light from their own luminous spots, will inhabit the same depths with fishes having very small eyes or eyes apparently useless for seeing, retained as vestigial structures through heredity. fishes which live in caves become also blind, the structures showing every possible phase of degradation. the details of this gradual loss of eyes, whether through reversed selection or hypothetically through inheritance of atrophy produced by disuse, have been given in a number of memoirs on the blind fishes of the mississippi valley by dr. carl h. eigenmann. in some fishes the eye is raised on a short, fleshy stalk and can be moved about at the will of the fish. it is said that the vision of the pond-skipper, _periophthalmus_, when hunting insects on the mud flats of japan or india is "quite equal to that of a frog." it is known also that trout possess keen eyesight, and that they show a marked preference for one sort or another of real or artificial fly. nevertheless the vision of fishes in general is probably not very precise. they apparently notice motion rather than outline, changes rather than objects, while the extreme curvature of the crystalline lens would seem to render them all near-sighted. [illustration: fig. .--four-eyed fish, _anableps dovii_ gill. tehuantepec, mexico.] in the eyes of the fishes there is no lachrymal gland. true eyelids no fishes possess; the integuments of the head pass over the eye, becoming transparent as they cross the orbit. in some fishes part of this integument is thickened, covering the eye fully although still transparent. this forms the adipose eyelid characteristic of the mullet, mackerel, and ladyfish. many of the sharks possess a distinct nictitating membrane or special eyelid, moved by a set of muscles. the iris in most fishes surrounds a round pupil without much power of contraction. it is frequently brightly colored, red, orange, black, blue, or green. in fishes, like rays or flounders, which lie on the bottom, a dark lobe covers the upper part of the pupil--a curtain to shut out light from above. the cornea is little convex, leaving small space for aqueous humor. in two genera of fishes, _anableps_, _dialommus_, the cornea is divided by a horizontal partition into two parts. this arrangement permits these fishes, which swim at the surface of the water, to see both in and out of the medium. _anableps_, the four-eyed fish, is a fresh-water fish of tropical america, which swims at the surface like a top-minnow, feeding on insects. _dialommus_ is a marine blenny from the panama region, apparently of similar habit. [illustration: fig. .--_ipnops murrayi_ günther.] in one genus of deep-sea fishes, _ipnops_, the eyes are spread out to cover the whole upper surface of the head, being modified as luminous areas. whether these fishes can see at all is not known. [illustration: fig. .--pond-skipper, _boleophthalmus chinensis_ (osbeck). bay of tokyo, japan; from nature. k. morita. (eye-stalks shrunken in preservation.)] the position of the optic nerves is described in a previous chapter. in ordinary fishes there is one eye on each side of the head, but in the flounders, by a distortion of the cranium, both appear on the same side. this side is turned uppermost as the fish swims in the water or when it lies on the bottom. this distortion is a matter of development. the very young flounder swims with its broad axis vertical in the water, and it has one eye on either side. as soon as it rests on the bottom it begins to lean to one side. the lower eye changes its axis and by degrees travels across the face of the fish, part of the bony interorbital moving with it across to the other side. in some soles it is said to pass through the substance of the head, reappearing on the other side. in all species which the writer has examined the cranium is twisted, the eye moving with the bones; and the frontal bone is divided, a new orbit being formed by this division. in most northern flounders the eyes are on the right side in the adult, in tropical forms more frequently on the left, these distinctions corresponding with others in the structure of the fish. in the lowest of the fish-like forms, the lancelet, the eye is simply a minute pigment-spot situated in the anterior wall of the ventricle at the anterior end of the central nervous system. in the hagfishes, which stand next highest in the series, the eye, still incomplete, is very small and hidden by the skin and muscles. this condition is very different from that of the blind fishes of the higher groups, in which the eye is lost through atrophy, because in life in caves or under rocks the function of seeing is no longer necessary. =the organs of hearing.=--the ear of the typical fish consists of the labyrinth only, including the vestibule and usually three semicircular canals, these dilating into sacs which contain one or more large, loose bones, the ear-stones or otoliths. in the lampreys there are two semicircular canals, in the hagfish but one. there is no external ear, no tympanum, and no eustachian tube. the ear-sac on each side is lodged in the skull or at the base of the cranial cavity. it is externally surrounded by bone or cartilage, but sometimes it lies near a fontanelle or opening in the skull above. in some fishes it is brought into very close connection with the anterior end of the air-bladder. the latter organ it is thought may form part of the apparatus for hearing. the arrangement for this purpose is especially elaborate in the carp and the catfish families. in these fishes and their relatives (called _ostariophysi_) the two vestibules are joined in a median sac (_sinus impar_) in the substance of the basioccipital. this communicates with two cavities in the atlas, which again are supported by two small bones, these resting on a larger one in connection with the front of the air-bladder. the system of bones is analogous to that found in the higher vertebrates, but it connects with the air-bladder, not with an external tympanum. the bones are not homologous with those of the ear of higher animals, being processes of the anterior vertebræ. the tympanic chain of higher vertebrates has been thought homologous with the suspensory of the mandible. [illustration: fig. .--brook lamprey, _lampetra wilderi_ jordan and evermann. (after gage.) cayuga lake.] the otoliths, commonly two in each labyrinth, are usually large, firm, calcareous bodies, with enamelled surface and peculiar grooves and markings. each species has its own form of otolith, but they vary much in different groups of fishes. [illustration: fig. .--european lancelet, _branchiostoma lanceolatum_ (pallas). (after parker and haswell.)] in the elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and in the dipnoans the ear-sac is enclosed in the cartilaginous substance of the skull. there is a small canal extending to the surface of the skull, ending sometimes in a minute foramen. the otoliths in these fishes are soft and chalk-like. the lancelet shows no trace of an ear. in the cyclostomes, hagfishes, and lampreys it forms a capsule of relatively simple structure conspicuous in the prepared skeleton. the sense of hearing in fishes cannot be very acute, and is at the most confined to the perception of disturbances in the water. most movements of the fish are governed by sight rather than by sound. it is in fact extremely doubtful whether fishes really hear at all, in a way comparable to the auditory sense in higher vertebrates. recent experiments of professor g. h. parker on the killifish tend to show a moderate degree of auditory sense which grades into the sense of touch, the tubes of the lateral line assisting in both hearing and touch. while the killifish responds to a bass-viol string, there may be some fishes wholly deaf. =voices of fishes.=--some fishes make distinct noises variously described as quivering, grunting, grating, or singing. the name grunt is applied to species of _hæmulon_ and related genera, and fairly describes the sound these fishes make. the spanish name ronco or roncador (grunter or snorer) is applied to several fishes, both sciænoid and hæmuloid. the noise made by these fishes may be produced by forcing air from part to part of the complex air-bladder, or it may be due to grating one on another of the large pharyngeals. the grating sounds arise, no doubt, from the pharyngeals, while the quivering or singing sounds arise in the air-bladder. the midshipman, _porichthys notatus_, is often called singing fish, from a peculiar sound it emits. these sounds have not yet been carefully investigated. =the sense of taste.=--it is not certain that fishes possess a sense of taste, and it is attributed to them only through their homology with the higher animals. the tongue is without delicate membranes or power of motion. in some fishes certain parts of the palate or pharyngeal region are well supplied with nerves, but no direct evidence exists that these have a function of discrimination among foods. fishes swallow their food very rapidly, often whole, and mastication, when it takes place, is a crushing or cutting process, not one likely to be affected by the taste of the food. =the sense of touch.=--the sense of touch is better developed among fishes. most of them flee from contact with actively moving objects. many fishes use sensitive structures as a means of exploring the bottom or of feeling their way to their food. the barbel or fleshy filament wherever developed is an organ of touch. in some fishes, barbels are outgrowths from the nostrils. in the catfish the principal barbel grows from the rudimentary maxillary bone. in the horned dace and gudgeon the little barbel is attached to the maxillary. in other fishes barbels grow from the skin of the chin or snout. in the goatfish and surmullet the two chin barbels are highly specialized. in _polymixia_ the chin barbels are modified _branchiostegals_. in the codfish the single beard is little developed. in the gurnards and related forms the lower rays of the pectoral are separate and barbel-like. detached rays of this sort are found in the thread-fins (_polynemidæ_), the gurnards (_triglidæ_), and in various other fishes. barbels or fleshy flaps are often developed over the eyes and sometimes on the scales or the fins. [illustration: fig. .--goatfish, _pseudupeneus maculatus_ (bloch). woods hole.] the structure of the lateral line and its probable relation as a sense-organ is discussed on page . it is probable that it is associated with sense of touch, and hearing as well, the internal ear being originally "a modified part of the lateral-line system," as shown by parker,[ ] who calls the skin the lateral line and the ear "three generations of sense-organs." the sense of pain is very feeble among fishes. a trout has been known to bite at its own eye placed on a hook, and similar insensibility has been noted in the pike and other fishes. "the greenland shark, when feeding on the carcass of a whale, allows itself to be repeatedly stabbed in the head without abandoning its prey." (gÜnther.) footnotes: [ ] see parker, on the sense of hearing in fishes, american naturalist for march, . chapter ix the organs of reproduction =the germ-cells.=--in most fishes the germ-cells are produced in large sacs, ovaries or testes, arranged symmetrically one on either side of the posterior part of the abdominal cavity. the sexes are generally but not always similar externally, and may be distinguished on dissection by the difference between the sperm-cells and the ova. the ovary with its eggs is more yellow in color and the contained cells appear granular. the testes are whitish or pinkish, their secretion milk-like, and to the naked eye not granular. [illustration: fig. .--sword-tail minnow, male, _xiphophorus helleri_ heckel. the anal fin modified as an intromittent organ. vera cruz.] in a very few cases both organs have been found in the same fish, as in _serranus_, which is sometimes truly hermaphrodite. all fishes, however, seem to be normally dioecious, the two sexes in different individuals. usually there are no external genital organs, but in some species a papilla or tube is developed at the end of the urogenital sinus. this may exist in the breeding season only, as in the fresh-water lampreys, or it may persist through life as in some gobies. in the elasmobranchs, cartilaginous claspers, attached to the ventral fins in the male, serve as a conduit for the sperm-cells. =the eggs of fishes.=--the great majority of fishes are oviparous, the eggs being fertilized after deposition. the eggs are laid in gravel or sand or other places suitable for the species, and the milt containing the sperm-cells of the male is discharged over or among them in the water. a very small quantity of the sperm-fluid may impregnate a large number of eggs. but one sperm-cell can enter a particular egg. in a number of families the species are ovoviviparous, the eggs being hatched in the ovary or in a dilated part of the oviduct, the latter resembling a real uterus. in some sharks there is a structure analogous to the placenta of higher animals, but not of the same structure or origin. in the case of viviparous fishes actual copulation takes place and there is usually a modification of some organ to effect transfer of the sperm-cells. this is the purpose of the sword-shaped anal fin in many top-minnows (_pæciliidæ_), the fin itself being placed in advance of its usual position. in the surf-fishes (_embiotocidæ_) the structure of part of the anal fin is modified, although it is not used as an intromittent organ. in the elasmobranchs, as already stated, large organs of cartilage (claspers) are developed from the ventral fins. [illustration: fig. .--white surf-fish, viviparous, with young, _cymatogaster aggregatus_ gibbons. san francisco.] in some viviparous fishes, as in the rockfishes (_sebastodes_) and rosefishes (_sebastes_), the young are very minute at birth. [illustration: fig. .--_goodea luitpoldi_ (steindachner). a viviparous fish from lake patzcuaro, mexico. family _pæciliidæ_. (after meek.)] in others, as the surf-fishes (_embiotocidæ_), they are relatively large and few in number. in the viviparous sharks, which constitute the majority of the species of living sharks, the young are large at birth and prepared to take care of themselves. [illustration: fig. .--egg of _callorhynchus antarcticus_, the bottle-nosed chimæra. (after parker and haswell.)] the eggs of fishes vary very much in size and form. in those sharks and rays which lay eggs the ova are deposited in a horny egg-case, in color and texture suggesting the kelp in which they are laid. the eggs of the bullhead sharks (_heterodontus_) are spirally twisted, those of the cat-sharks (_scyliorhinidæ_) are quadrate with long filaments at the angles. those of rays are wheelbarrow-shaped with four "handles." one egg-case of a ray may sometimes contain several eggs and develop several young. the eggs of lancelets are small, but those of the hagfishes are large, ovate, with fibres at each side, each with a triple hook at tip. the chimæra has also large egg-cases, oblong in form. [illustration: fig. .--egg of the hagfish, _myxine limosa_ girard, showing threads for attachment. (after dean.)] in the higher fishes the eggs are spherical, large or small according to the species, and varying in the firmness of their outer walls. all contain food-yolk from which the embryo in its earlier stages is fed. the eggs of the eel (_anguilla_) are microscopic. according to günther , eggs have been counted in the herring, , in the lumpfish, , , in the halibut, , in the sturgeon, and , , in the cod. smaller numbers are found in fishes with large ova. the red salmon has about eggs, the king salmon about . where an oviduct is present the eggs are often poured out in glutinous masses, as in the bass. when, as in the salmon, there is no oviduct, the eggs lie separate and do not cohere together. it is only with the latter class of fishes, those in which the eggs remain distinct, that artificial impregnation and hatching is practicable. in this regard the value of the salmon and trout is predominant. in some fishes, especially those of elongate form, as the needle-fish (_tylosurus_), the ovary of but one side is developed. [illustration: fig. .--egg of port jackson shark, _heterodontus philippi_ (lacépède). (after parker and haswell.)] =protection of the young.=--in most fishes the parents take no care of their eggs or young. in some catfishes (_platystacus_) the eggs adhere to the under surface of the female. in a kind of pipefish (_solenostomus_), a large pouch for retention of the eggs is formed on the belly of the female. in the sea-horses and pipefishes a pouch is formed in the skin, usually underneath the tail of the male. into this the eggs are thrust, and here the young fishes hatch out, remaining until large enough to take care of themselves. in certain sea catfishes (_galeichthys, conorhynchos_) the male carries the eggs in his mouth, thus protecting them from the attacks of other fishes. in numerous cases the male constructs a rough nest, which he defends against all intruders, against the female as well as against outside enemies. the nest-building habit is especially developed in the sticklebacks (_gasterosteidæ_), a group in which the male fish, though a pygmy in size, is very fierce in disposition. in a minnow of europe (_rhodeus amarus_) the female is said to deposit her eggs within the shells of river mussels. =sexual modification.=--in the relatively few cases in which the sexes are unlike the male is usually the brighter in color and with more highly developed fins. blue, red, black, and silvery-white pigment are especially characteristic of the male, the olivaceous and mottled coloration of the female. sometimes the male has a larger mouth, or better developed crests, barbels, or other appendages. in some species the pattern of coloration in the two sexes is essentially different. in various species the male develops peculiar structures not found in the female, and often without any visible purpose. in the chimæra a peculiar cartilaginous hook armed with a brush of enamelled teeth at the tip is developed on the forehead in the male only. in the skates or true rays (_raja_) the pectoral fin has near its edge two rows of stout incurved spines. these the female lacks. in the breeding season, among certain fishes, the male sometimes becomes much brighter by the accumulation of bright red or blue pigment accompanied by black or white pigment cells. this is especially true in the minnows (_notropis_), the darters (_etheostoma_), and other fresh-water species which spawn in the brooks of northern regions in the spring. in the minnows and suckers horny excrescences are also developed on head, body, or fins, to be lost after the deposition of the spawn. in the salmon, especially those of the pacific, the adult male becomes greatly distorted in the spawning season, the jaws and teeth being greatly elongated and hooked or twisted so that the fish cannot shut its mouth. the atlantic salmon and the trout show also some elongation of the jaws, but not to the same extent. in those fishes which pair the relation seems not to be permanent, nor is there anything to be called personal affection among them so far as the writer has noticed. there is no evidence that the bright colors or nuptial adornments of the males are enhanced by sexual selection. in most species the males deposit the sperm-cells in spawning-grounds without much reference to the preference of the females. in general the brightest colors are not found among viviparous fishes. none of the groups in which the males are showily colored, while the females are plain, belong to this class. the brightest colors are found on the individuals most mature or having greatest vitality. chapter x embryology and growth of fishes =segmentation of the egg.=--the egg of the fish develops only after fertilization (amphimixis). this process is the union of its nuclear substance with that of the sperm-cell from the male, each cell carrying its equal share in the function of heredity. when this process takes place the egg is ready to begin its segmentation. the eggs of all fishes are single cells containing more or less food-yolk. the presence of this food-yolk affects the manner of segmentation in general, those eggs having the least amount of food-yolk developing most typically. the simplest of all fish like vertebrates, the lancelet (_branchiostoma_) has very small eggs, and in their early development it passes through stages that are typical for all many-celled animals. the first stage in development is the simple splitting of the egg into two halves. these two daughter cells next divide so that there are four cells; each of these divides, and this division is repeated until a great number of cells is produced. the phenomenon of repeated division of the germ-cell is called cleavage, and this cleavage is the first stage of development in the case of all many-celled animals. instead of forming a solid mass the cells arrange themselves in such a way as to form a hollow ball, the wall being a layer one cell thick. the included cavity is called the segmentation cavity, and the whole structure is known as a blastula. this stage also is common to all the many-celled animals. the next stage is the conversion of the blastula into a double-walled cup, known as a gastrula by the pushing in of one side. all the cells of the blastula are very small, but those on one side are somewhat larger than those of the other, and here the wall first flattens and then bends in until finally the larger cells come into contact with the smaller and the segmentation cavity is entirely obliterated. there is now an inner layer of cells and an outer layer, the inner layer being known as the endoblast and the outer as the ectoblast. the cavity of the cup thus formed is the archenteron and gives rise primarily to the alimentary canal. this third well-marked stage is called the gastrula stage; and it is thought to occur either typically or in some modified form in the development of all metazoa, or many-celled animals. in the lampreys, the ganoids, and the dipnoans the eggs contain a much greater quantity of yolk than those of the lancelet, but the segmentation resembles that of the lancelet in that it is complete; that is, the whole mass of the egg divides into cells. there is a great difference, however, in the size of the cells, those at the upper pole being much smaller than those at the lower. in _petromyzon_ and the dipnoans blastula and gastrula stages result, which, though differing in some particulars from the corresponding stages of the lancelet, may yet readily be compared with them. in the hagfishes, sharks, rays, chimæras, and most bony fishes there is a large quantity of yolk, and the protoplasm, instead of being distributed evenly throughout the egg, is for the most part accumulated upon one side, the nucleus being within this mass of protoplasm. when the food substance or yolk is consumed and the little fish is able to shift for itself, it leaves the egg-envelopes and is said to be hatched. the figures on page show some of the stages by which cells are multiplied and ultimately grouped together to form the little fish. =post-embryonic development.=--in all the fishes the development of the embryo goes on within the egg long after the gastrula stage is passed, and until the embryo becomes a complex body, composed of many differing tissues and organs. almost all the development may take place within the egg, so that when the young animal hatches there is necessary little more than a rapid growth and increase of size to make it a fully developed mature animal. this is the case with most fishes: a little fish just hatched has most of the tissues and organs of a full-grown fish, and is simply a small fish. but in the case of some fishes the young hatches from the egg before it has reached such an advanced state of development, and the young looks very different from its parent. it must yet undergo considerable change before it reaches the structural condition of a fully developed and fully grown fish. thus the development of most fishes is almost wholly embryonic development--that is, development within the egg or in the body of the mother--while the development of some of them is to a considerable degree post-embryonic or larval development. there is no important difference between embryonic and post-embryonic development. the development is continuous from egg-cell to mature animal and, whether inside or outside of an egg, it goes on with a degree of regularity. while certain fishes are subject to a sort of metamorphosis, the nature of this change is in no way to be compared with the change in insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis. in the insects all the organs of the body are broken down and rebuilt in the process of change. in all fishes a structure once formed maintains a more nearly continuous integrity although often considerably altered in form. =general laws of development.=--the general law of development may be briefly stated as follows: all many-celled animals begin life as a single cell, the fertilized egg-cell; each animal goes through a certain orderly series of developmental changes which, accompanied by growth, leads the animal to change from single-cell to many-celled, complex form characteristic of the species to which the animal belongs; this development is from simple to complex structural condition; the development is the same for all individuals of one species. while all animals begin development similarly, the course of development in the different groups soon diverges, the divergence being of the nature of a branching, like that shown in the growth of a tree. in the free tips of the smallest branches we have represented the various species of animals in their fully developed condition, all standing clearly apart from each other. but in tracing back the development of any kind of animal we soon come to a point where it very much resembles or becomes apparently identical with some other kind of animal, and going farther back we find it resembling other animals in their young condition, and so on until we come to that first stage of development, that trunk stage where all animals are structurally alike. any animal at any stage in its existence differs absolutely from any other kind of animal, in this respect: it can develop into only its own kind. there is something inherent in each developing animal that gives it an identity of its own. although in its young stages it may be indistinguishable from some other species of animal in its young stages, it is sure to come out, when fully developed, an individual of the same kind as its parents were or are. the young fish and the young salamander may be alike to all appearance, but one embryo is sure to develop into a fish, and the other into a salamander. this certainty of an embryo to become an individual of a certain kind is called the law of heredity. viewed in the light of development, there must be as great a difference between one egg and another as between one animal and another, for the greater difference is included in the less. =the significance of facts of development.=--the significance of the process of development in any species is yet far from completely understood. it is believed that many of the various stages in the development of an animal correspond to or repeat the structural condition of the animal's ancestors. naturalists believe that all animals having a notochord at any stage in their existence are related to each other through being descended from a common ancestor, the first or oldest chordate or back-boned animal. in fact it is because all these chordate animals--the lancelets, lampreys, fishes, batrachians, the reptiles, the birds, and the mammals--have descended from a common ancestor that they all develop a notochord, and those most highly organized replace this by a complete back-bone. it is believed that the descendants of the first back-boned animal have, in the course of many generations, branched off little by little from the original type until there came to exist very real and obvious differences among the back-boned animals--differences which among the living back-boned animals are familiar to all of us. the course of development of an individual animal is believed to be a very rapid and evidently much condensed and changed recapitulation of the history which the species or kind of animal to which the developing individual belongs has passed through in the course of its descent through a long series of gradually changing ancestors. if this is true, then we can readily understand why the fish and the salamander and the tortoise and bird and rabbit are all alike in their earlier stages of development, and gradually come to differ more and more as they pass through later and later developmental stages. =development of the bony fishes.[ ]= the mode of development of bony fishes differs in many and apparently important regards from that of their nearest kindred, the ganoids. in their eggs a large amount of yolk is present, and its relations to the embryo have become widely specialized. as a rule, the egg of a teleost is small, perfectly spherical, and enclosed in delicate but greatly distended membranes. the germ disc is especially small, appearing on the surface as an almost transparent fleck. among the fishes whose eggs float at the surface during development, as of many pelagic teleosts, e.g., the sea-bass, _centropristes striatus_, the yolk is lighter in specific gravity than the germ; it is of fluid-like consistency, almost transparent. in the yolk at the upper pole of the egg an oil globule usually occurs; this serves to lighten the relative weight of the entire egg, and from its position must aid in keeping this pole of the egg uppermost. [illustration: fig. .--development of sea-bass, _centropristes striatus_ (linnæus). _a_, egg prior to germination; _b_, germ-disk after first cleavage; _c_, germ-disk after third cleavage; _d_, embryo just before hatching. (after h. v. wilson.)] in the early segmentation of the germ the first cleavage plane is established, and the nuclear divisions have taken place for the second; in the latter the third cleavage has been completed. as in other fishes these cleavages are vertical, the third parallel to the first. a segmentation cavity occurs as a central space between the blastomeres, as it does in the sturgeon and garpike. in stages of late segmentation the segmentation cavity is greatly flattened, but extends to the marginal cells of the germ-disk; its roof consists of two tiers of blastomeres, its floor of a thin film of the unsegmented substance of the germ; the marginal blastomeres are continuous with both roof and floor of the cavity, and are produced into a thin film which passes downward, around the sides of the yolk. later the segmentation cavity is still further flattened; its roof is now a dome-shaped mass of blastomeres; the marginal cells have multiplied, and their nuclei are seen in the layer of the germ, below the plane of the segmentation cavity. these are seen in the surface view of the marginal cells of this stage; they are separated by cell boundaries only at the sides; below they are continuous in the superficial down-reaching layer of the germ. the marginal cells shortly lose all traces of having been separate; their nuclei, by continued division, spread into the layer of germ flooring the segmentation cavity, and into the delicate film of germ which now surrounds the entire yolk. thus is formed the _periblast_ of the teleost development, which from this point onward is to separate the embryo from the yolk; it is clearly the specialized inner part of the germ, which, becoming fluid-like, loses its cell-walls, although retaining and multiplying its nuclei. later the periblast comes into intimate relations with the growing embryo; it lies directly against it, and appears to receive cell increments from it at various regions; on the other hand, the nuclei of the periblast, from their intimate relations with the yolk, are supposed to subserve some function in its assimilation. aside from the question of periblast, the growth of the blastoderm appears not unlike that of the sturgeon. from the blastula stage to that of the early gastrula, the changes have been but slight; the blastoderm has greatly flattened out as its margins grow downward, leaving the segmentation cavity apparent. the rim of the blastoderm has become thickened as the 'germ-ring'; and immediately in front of the dorsal lip of the blastopore its thickening marks the appearance of the embryo. the germ-ring continues to grow downward, and shows more prominently the outline of the embryo; this now terminates at the head region; while on either side of this point spreads out tail-ward on either side the indefinite layer of outgrowing mesoderm. in the next stage the closure of the blastopore is rapidly becoming completed; in front of it stretches the widened and elongated form of the embryo. the yolk-plug is next replaced by periblast, the dorsal lip by the tail-mass, or more accurately the dorsal section of the germ-rim; the coelenteron under the dorsal lip has here disappeared, on account of the close approximation of the embryo to the periblast; its last remnant, the kupffer's vesicle, is shortly to disappear. the germ-layers become confluent, but, unlike the sturgeon, the flattening of the dorsal germ-ring does not permit the formation of a neurenteric canal. [illustration: fig. . sea-bass, _centropristes striatus_, natural size. (from life, by r. w. shufeldt.)--page .] the process of the development of the germ-layers in teleosts appears as an abbreviated one, although in many of its details it is but imperfectly known. in the development of the medullary groove, as an example, the following peculiarities exist: the medullary region is but an insunken mass of cells without a trace of the groove-like surface indentation. it is only later, when becoming separate from the ectoderm, that it acquires its rounded character; its cellular elements then group themselves symmetrically with reference to a sagittal plane, where later, by their dissociation, the canal of the spinal cord is formed. the growth of the entoderm is another instance of specialized development. in an early stage the entoderm exists in the axial region, its thickness tapering away abruptly on either side; its lower surface is closely apposed to the periblast; its dorsal thickening will shortly become separate as the notochord. in a following stage of development the entoderm is seen to arch upward in the median line as a preliminary stage in the formation of the cavity of the gut. later, by the approximation of the entoderm-cells in the median ventral line, the condition is reached where the completed gut-cavity exists. the formation of the mesoderm in teleosts is not definitely understood. it is usually said to arise as a process of 'delamination,' i.e., detaching itself in a mass from the entoderm. its origin is, however, looked upon generally as of a specialized and secondary character. the mode of formation of the gill-slit of the teleost does not differ from that in other groups; an evagination of the entoderm coming in contact with an invaginated tract of ectoderm fuses, and at this point an opening is later established. the late embryo of the teleost, though of rounded form, is the more deeply implanted in the yolk-sac than that of the sturgeon; it is transparent, allowing notochord, primitive segments, heart, and sense-organs to be readily distinguished; at about this stage both anus and mouth are making their appearance. [illustration: fig. .--young sword-fish, _xiphias gladius_ (linnæus). (after lütken.)] =the larval development of fishes.[ ]=--"when the young fish has freed itself from its egg-membranes it gives but little suggestion of its adult form. it enters upon a larval existence, which continues until maturity. the period of change of form varies widely in the different groups of fishes, from a few weeks' to longer than a year's duration; and the extent of the changes that the larva undergoes are often surprisingly broad, investing every organ and tissue of the body, the immature fish passing through a series of form stages which differ one from the other in a way strongly contrasting with the mode of growth of amniotes; since the chick, reptile, or mammal emerges from its embryonic membranes in nearly its adult form. [illustration: fig. .--sword-fish, _xiphias gladius_ (linnæus). (after day.)] the fish may, in general, be said to begin its existence as a larva as soon as it emerges from its egg-membranes. in some instances, however, it is difficult to decide at what point the larval stage is actually initiated: thus in sharks the excessive amount of yolk material which has been provided for the growth of the larva renders unnecessary the emerging from the egg at an early stage; and the larval period is accordingly to be traced back to stages that are still enclosed in the egg-membranes. in all cases the larval life may be said to begin when the following conditions have been fulfilled: the outward form of the larva must be well defined, separating it from the mass of yolk, its motions must be active, it must possess a continuous vertical fin-fold passing dorsally from the head region to the body terminal, and thence ventrally as far as the yolk region; and the following structures, characteristic in outward appearance, must also be established: the sense-organs--eye, ear, and nose--mouth and anus, and one or more gill-clefts. [illustration: fig. .--larva of the sail-fish, _istiophorus_, very young. (after lütken.)] [illustration: fig. .--larva of brook lamprey, _lampetra wilderi_, before transformation, being as large as the adult, toothless, and more distinctly segmented.] [illustration: fig. .--common eel. _anguilla chrisypa_ rafinesque. family _anguillidæ_.] among the different groups of fishes the larval changes are brought about in widely different ways. these larval peculiarities appear at first of far-reaching significance, but may ultimately be attributed, the writer believes, to changed environmental conditions, wherein one process may be lengthened, another shortened. so, too, the changes from one stage to another may occur with surprising abruptness. as a rule, it may be said the larval stage is of longest duration in the cyclostomes, and thence diminished in length in sharks, lung-fishes, ganoids, and teleosts; in the last-named group a very much curtailed (i.e., precocious) larval life may often occur. [illustration: fig. .--larva of common eel, _anguilla chrisypa_ (rafinesque), called _leptocephalus grassii_. (after eigenmann.)] the metamorphoses of the newly hatched teleost must finally be reviewed; they are certainly the most varied and striking of all larval fishes, and, singularly enough, appear to be crowded into the briefest space of time; the young fish, hatched often as early as on the fourth day, is then of the most immature character; it is transparent, delicate, easily injured, inactive; within a month, however, it may have assumed almost every detail of its mature form. a form hatching three millimeters in length may acquire the adult form before it becomes much longer than a centimeter. [illustration: fig. .--larva of sturgeon, _acipenser sturio_ (linnæus). (after kupffer, per dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--larva (called _tholichthys_) of _chætodon sedentarius_ (poey). cuba. (after lütken,)] [illustration: fig. .--butterfly-fish, _chætodon capistratus_ linnæus. jamaica.] =peculiar larval forms.=--the young fish usually differs from the adult mainly in size and proportions. the head is larger in the young, the fins are lower, the appendages less developed, and the body more slender in the young than in the adult. but to most of these distinctions there are numerous exceptions, and in some fish there is a change so marked as to be fairly called a metamorphosis. in such cases the young fish in its first condition is properly called a larva. the larva of the lamprey (_petromyzon_) is nearly blind and toothless, with slender head, and was long supposed to belong to a different genus (_ammocoetes_) from the adult. the larva of sharks and rays, and also of dipnoans and crossopterygians, are provided with bushy external gills, which disappear in the process of development. in most soft-rayed fishes the embryonic fringe which precedes the development of the vertical fins persists for a considerable time. in many young fishes, especially the _chætodontidæ_ and their allies (butterfly-fishes), the young fish has the head armed with broad plates formed by the backward extension of certain membrane-bones. in other forms the bones of the head are in the young provided with long spines or with serrations, which vanish totally with age. such a change is noticeable in the swordfish. in this species the production of the bones of the snout and upper jaw into a long bony sword, or weapon of offense, takes place only with age. the young fish have jaws more normally formed, and armed with ordinary teeth. in the headfish (_mola mola_) large changes take place in the course of growth, and the young have been taken for a different type of fishes. among certain soft-rayed fishes and eels the young is often developed in a peculiar way, being very soft, translucent, or band-like, and formed of large or loosely aggregated cells. these peculiar organisms, long known as leptocephali, have been shown to be the normal young of fishes when mature very different. in the ladyfish (_albula_) dr. gilbert has shown, by a full series of specimens, that in their further growth these pellucid fishes shrink in size, acquiring greater compactness of body, until finally reaching about half their maximum length as larvæ. after this, acquiring essentially the form of the adult fish, they begin a process of regular growth. this leptocephalous condition is thought by günther to be due to arrest of growth in abnormal individuals, but this is not the case in _albula_, and it is probably fully normal in the conger and other eels. in the surf-fishes the larvæ have their vertical fins greatly elevated, much higher than in the adult, while the body is much more closely compressed. in the deal-fish (_trachypterus_) the form of the body and fins changes greatly with age, the body becoming more elongate and the fins lower. the differences between different stages of the same fish seem greater than the differences between distinct species. in fact with this and with other forms which change with age, almost the only test of species is found in the count of the fin-rays. so far as known the numbers of these structures do not change. in the moonfishes (_carangidæ_) the changes with age are often very considerable. we copy lütken's figure of the changes in the genus _selene_ (fig. ). similar changes take place in _alectis_, _vomer_, and other genera. [illustration: _fig. ._--_mola mola_ (linnæus). very early larval stage of the headfish, called _centaurus boöps_. (after richardson.)] [illustration: fig. .--_mola mola_ (linnæus). early larval stage, called _molacanthus nummularis_. (after ryder.)] [illustration: fig. .--_mola mola_ (linnæus). advanced larval stage. (after ryder.)] =the development of flounders.=--in the great group of flounders and soles (_heterosomata_) the body is greatly compressed and the species swim on one side or lie flat on the bottom, with one side uppermost. this upper side is colored like the bottom, sand-color, gray, or brown, while the lower side is mostly white. both eyes are brought around to the upper side by a twisting of the cranium and a modification or division of the frontal bones. when the young flounder is hatched it is translucent and symmetrical, swimming vertically in the water, with one eye on either side of the head. after a little the young fish rests the ventral edge on the bottom. it then leans to one side, and as its position gradually becomes horizontal the eye on the lower side moves across with its frontal and other bones to the other side. in most species it passes directly under the first interneurals of the dorsal fin. these changes are best observed in the genus _platophrys_. =hybridism.=--hybridism is very rare among fishes in a state of nature. two or three peculiar forms among the snappers (_lutianus_) in cuba seem fairly attributable to hybridism, the single specimen of each showing a remarkable mixture of characters belonging to two other common species. hybrids may be readily made in artificial impregnation among those fishes with which this process is practicable. hybrids of the different salmon or trout usually share nearly equally the traits of the parent species. =the age of fishes.=--the age of fishes is seldom measured by a definite period of years. most of them grow as long as they live, and apparently live until they fall victims to some stronger species. it is reputed that carp and pike have lived for a century, but the evidence needs verification. some fishes, as the salmon of the pacific (_oncorhynchus_), have a definite period of growth (usually four years) before spawning. after this act all the individuals die so far as known. in japan and china the ice-fish (_salanx_), a very long, slender, transparent fish allied to the trout, may possibly be annual in habit, all the individuals perhaps dying in the fall to be reproduced from eggs in the spring. but this alleged habit needs verification. [illustration: fig. .--headfish (adult), _mola mola_ (linnæus). virginia.] =tenacity of life.=--fishes differ greatly in tenacity of life. in general, fishes of the deep seas die at once if brought near the surface. this is due to the reduction of external pressure. the internal pressure forces the stomach out through the mouth and may burst the air-bladder and the large blood-vessels. marine fishes usually die very soon after being drawn out from the sea. [illustration: fig. .--_albula vulpes_ (linnæus). transformation of the ladyfish, from the translucent, loosely compacted larva to the smaller, firm-bodied young. gulf of california. (after gilbert.)] [illustration: fig. .--development of the horsehead-fish, _selene vomer_ (linnæus). family _carangidæ_. (after lütken.)] some fresh-water fishes are very fragile, dying soon in the air, often with injured air-bladder or blood-vessels. they will die even sooner in foul water. other fishes are extremely tenacious of life. the mud-minnow (_umbra_) is sometimes ploughed up in the half-dried mud of wisconsin prairies. the related alaskan blackfish (_dallia_) has been fed frozen to dogs, escaping alive from their stomachs after being thawed out. many of the catfishes (_siluridæ_) will live after lying half-dried in the dust for hours. the dipnoan, _lepidosiren_, lives in a ball of half-dried mud during the arid season, and certain fishes, mostly asiatic, belonging to the group _labyrinthici_, with accessory breathing organ can long maintain themselves out of water. among these is the china-fish (_ophiocephalus_), often kept alive in the chinese settlements in california and hawaii. some fishes can readily endure prolonged hunger, while others succumb as readily as a bird or a mammal. [illustration: fig. .--ice-fish, _salanx hyalocranius_ abbott. family _salangidæ_. tientsin, china.] [illustration: fig. .--alaska blackfish, _dallia pectoralis_ (bean). st. michaels, alaska.] =the effects of temperature on fish.=--the limits of distribution of many fishes are marked by changes in temperature. few marine fishes can endure any sudden or great change in this regard, although fresh-water fishes adapt themselves to the seasons. i have seen the cutlass-fish (_trichiurus_) benumbed with cold off the coast of florida while the temperature was still above the frost-line. those fishes which are tenacious of life and little sensitive to changes in climate and food are most successfully acclimatized or domesticated. the chinese carp (_cyprinus carpio_) and the japanese goldfish (_carassius auratus_) have been naturalized in almost all temperate and tropical river basins. within the limits of clear, cold waters most of the salmon and trout are readily transplanted. but some similar fishes (as the grayling) are very sensitive to the least change in conditions. most of the catfish (_siluridæ_) will thrive in almost any fresh waters except those which are very cold. [illustration: fig. .--snake-headed china-fish, _ophiocephalus barca_. india. (after day.)] =transportation of fishes.=--the eggs of species of salmon, placed in ice to retard their development, have been successfully transplanted to great distances. the quinnat-salmon has been thus transferred from california to australia. it has been found possible to stock rivers and lakes with desirable species, or to restock those in which the fish-supply has been partly destroyed, through the means of artificially impregnated eggs. the method still followed is said to be the discovery of j. l. jacobi of westphalia (about ). this process permits the saving of nearly all the eggs produced by the individuals taken. in a condition of nature very many of these eggs would be left unfertilized, or be destroyed by other animals. fishes are readily kept in captivity in properly constructed aquaria. unless injured in capture or transportation, there are few species outside the deep seas which cannot adapt themselves to life in a well-constructed aquarium. =reproduction of lost parts.=--fishes have little power to reproduce lost parts. only the tips of fleshy structures are thus restored after injury. sometimes a fish in which the tail has been bitten off will survive the injury. the wound will heal, leaving the animal with a truncate body, fin-rays sometimes arising from the scars. [illustration: fig. .--monstrous goldfish (bred in japan), _carassius auratus_ (linnæus). (after günther.)] =monstrosities among fishes.=--monstrosities are rare among fishes in a state of nature. two-headed young are frequently seen at salmon-hatcheries, and other abnormally divided or united young are not infrequent. among domesticated species monstrosities are not infrequent, and sometimes, as in the goldfish, these have been perpetuated to become distinct breeds or races. goldfishes with telescopic eyes and fantastic fins, and with the green coloration changed to orange, are reared in japan, and are often seen in other countries. the carp has also been largely modified, the changes taking place chiefly in the scales. some are naked (leather-carp), others (mirror-carp) have a few large scales arranged in series. footnotes: [ ] this account of the normal development of the teleost fishes is condensed from dr. dean's "fishes living and fossil," in which work the details of growth in the teleost are contrasted with those of other types of fishes. [ ] this paragraph is condensed from dean's "fishes living and fossil." chapter xi instincts, habits, and adaptations =the habits of fishes.=--the habits of fishes can hardly be summarized in any simple mode of classification. in the usual course of fish-life the egg is laid in the early spring, in water shallower than that in which the parents spend their lives. in most cases it is hatched as the water grows warmer. the eggs of the members of the salmon and cod families are, however, mostly hatched in cooling waters. the young fish gathers with others of its species in little schools, feeds on smaller fishes of other species or of its own, grows and changes until maturity, deposits its eggs, and the cycle of life begins again, while the old fish ultimately dies or is devoured. =irritability of animals.=--all animals, of whatever degree of organization, show in life the quality of irritability or response to external stimulus. contact with external things produces some effect on each of them, and this effect is something more than the mere mechanical effect on the matter of which the animal is composed. in the one-celled animals the functions of response to external stimulus are not localized. they are the property of any part of the protoplasm of the body. in the higher or many-celled animals each of these functions is specialized and localized. a certain set of cells is set apart for each function, and each organ or series of cells is released from all functions save its own. =nerve-cells and fibres.=--in the development of the individual animal certain cells from the primitive external layer or ectoblast of the embryo are set apart to preside over the relations of the creature to its environment. these cells are highly specialized, and while some of them are highly sensitive, others are adapted for carrying or transmitting the stimuli received by the sensitive cells, and still others have the function of receiving sense-impressions and of translating them into impulses of motion. the nerve-cells are receivers of impressions. these are gathered together in nerve-masses or ganglia, the largest of these being known as the brain, the ganglia in general being known as nerve-centres. the nerves are of two classes. the one class, called sensory nerves, extends from the skin or other organ of sensation to the nerve-centre. the nerves of the other class, motor nerves, carry impulses to motion. =the brain, or sensorium.=--the brain or other nerve-centre sits in darkness, surrounded by a bony protecting box. to this main nerve-centre, or _sensorium_, come the nerves from all parts of the body that have sensation, the external skin as well as the special organs of sight, hearing, taste, and smell. with these come nerves bearing sensations of pain, temperature, muscular effort--all kinds of sensation which the brain can receive. these nerves are the sole sources of knowledge to any animal organism. whatever idea its brain may contain must be built up through these nerve-impressions. the aggregate of these impressions constitute the world as the organism knows it. all sensation is related to action. if an organism is not to act, it cannot feel, and the intensity of its feeling is related to its power to act. =reflex action.=--these impressions brought to the brain by the sensory nerves represent in some degree the facts in the animal's environment. they teach something as to its food or its safety. the power of locomotion is characteristic of animals. if they move, their actions must depend on the indications carried to the nerve-centre from the outside; if they feed on living organisms, they must seek their food; if, as in many cases, other living organisms prey on them, they must bestir themselves to escape. the impulse of hunger on the one hand and of fear on the other are elemental. the sensorium receives an impression that food exists in a certain direction. at once an impulse to motion is sent out from it to the muscles necessary to move the body in that direction. in the higher animals these movements are more rapid and more exact. this is because organs of sense, muscles, nerve-fibres, and the nerve-cells are all alike highly specialized. in the fish the sensation is slow, the muscular response sluggish, but the method remains the same. this is simple reflex action, an impulse from the environment carried to the brain and then unconsciously reflected back as motion. the impulse of fear is of the same nature. reflex action is in general unconscious, but with animals, as with man, it shades by degrees into conscious action, and into volition or action "done on purpose." =instinct.=--different animals show differences in method or degree of response to external influences. fishes will pursue their prey, flee from a threatening motion, or disgorge sand or gravel swallowed with their food. such peculiarities of different forms of life constitute the basis of instinct. instinct is automatic obedience to the demands of conditions external to the nervous system. as these conditions vary with each kind of animal, so must the demands vary, and from this arises the great variety actually seen in the instincts of different animals. as the demands of life become complex, so do the instincts. the greater the stress of environment, the more perfect the automatism, for impulses to safe action are necessarily adequate to the duty they have to perform. if the instinct were inadequate, the species would have become extinct. the fact that its individuals persist shows that they are provided with the instincts necessary to that end. instinct differs from other allied forms of response to external condition in being hereditary, continuous from generation to generation. this sufficiently distinguishes it from reason, but the line between instinct and reason and other forms of reflex action cannot be sharply drawn. it is not necessary to consider here the question of the origin of instincts. some writers regard them as "inherited habits," while others, with apparent justice, doubt if mere habits or voluntary actions repeated till they become a "second nature" ever leave a trace upon heredity. such investigators regard instinct as the natural survival of those methods of automatic response which were most useful to the life of the animal, the individual having less effective methods of reflex action perishing, leaving no posterity. =classification of instincts.=--the instincts of fishes may be roughly classified as to their relation to the individual into egoistic and altruistic instincts. _egoistic instincts_ are those which concern chiefly the individual animal itself. to this class belong the instincts of feeding, those of self-defense and of strife, the instincts of play, the climatic instincts, and environmental instincts, those which direct the animal's mode of life. _altruistic instincts_ are those which relate to parenthood and those which are concerned with the mass of individuals of the same species. the latter may be called the social instincts. in the former class, the instincts of parenthood, may be included the instinct of courtship, reproduction, home-making, nest-building, and care for the young. most of these are feebly developed among fishes. the instincts of feeding are primitively simple, growing complex through complex conditions. the fish seizes its prey by direct motion, but the conditions of life modify this simple action to a very great degree. the instinct of self-defense is even more varied in its manifestations. it may show itself either in the impulse to make war on an intruder or in the desire to flee from its enemies. among carnivorous forms fierceness of demeanor serves at once in attack and in defense. herbivorous fishes, as a rule, make little direct resistance to their enemies, depending rather on swiftness of movement, or in some cases on simple insignificance. to the latter cause the abundance of minnows, anchovies, and other small or feeble fishes may be attributed, for all are the prey of carnivorous fishes, which they far exceed in number. the instincts of courtship relate chiefly to the male, the female being more or less passive. among many fishes the male makes himself conspicuous in the breeding season, spreading his fins, intensifying his pigmented colors through muscular tension, all this supposedly to attract the attention of the female. that this purpose is actually accomplished by such display is not, however, easily proved. in the little brooks in spring, male minnows can be found with warts on the nose or head, with crimson pigment on the fins, or blue pigment on the back, or jet-black pigment all over the head, or with varied combination of all these. their instinct is to display all these to the best advantage, even though the conspicuous hues lead to their own destruction. the movements of many migratory animals are mainly controlled by the impulse to reproduce. some pelagic fishes, especially flying fishes and fishes allied to the mackerel, swim long distances to a region favorable for a deposition of spawn. some species are known only in the waters they make their breeding homes, the individuals being scattered through the wide seas at other times. many fresh-water fishes, as trout, suckers, etc., forsake the large streams in the spring, ascending the small brooks where they can rear their young in greater safety. still others, known as anadromous fishes, feed and mature in the sea, but ascend the rivers as the impulse of reproduction grows strong. an account of these is given in a subsequent paragraph. [illustration: fig. .--jaws of _nemichthys avocetta_. jordan and gilbert.] =variability of instincts.=--when we study instincts of animals with care and in detail, we find that their regularity is much less than has been supposed. there is as much variation in regard to instinct among individuals as there is with regard to other characters of the species. some power of choice is found in almost every operation of instinct. even the most machine-like instinct shows some degree of adaptability to new conditions. on the other hand, in no animal does reason show entire freedom from automatism or reflex action. "the fundamental identity of instinct with intelligence," says dr. charles o. whitman, "is shown in their dependence upon the same structural mechanism (the brain and nerves) and in their responsive adaptability." =adaptation to environment.=--in general food-securing structures are connected with the mouth, or, as in the anglers, are hung as lures above it; spines of offense and defense, electric organs, poison-glands, and the like are used in self-protection; the bright nuptial colors and adornments of the breeding season are doubtfully classed as useful in rivalry; the egg-sacs, nests, and other structures or habits may serve to defend the young, while skinny flaps, sand or weed-like markings, and many other features of mimicry serve as concessions to the environment. each kind of fishes has its own ways of life, fitted to the conditions of environment. some species lie on the bottom, flat, as a flounder, or prone on their lower fins, as a darter or a stone-roller. some swim freely in the depths, others at the surface of the depths. some leap out of the water from time to time, as the mullet (_mugil_) or the tarpon (_tarpon atlanticus_). [illustration: fig. .--catalina flying fish, _cypsilurus californicus_ (cooper). santa barbara.] =flight of fishes.=--some fishes called the flying-fishes sail through the air with a grasshopper-like motion that closely imitates true flight. the long pectoral fins, wing-like in form, cannot, however, be flapped by the fish, the muscles serving only to expand or fold them. these fishes live in the open sea or open channel, swimming in large schools. the small species fly for a few feet only, the large ones for more than an eighth of a mile. these may rise five to twenty feet above the water. the flight of one of the largest flying fishes (_cypsilurus californicus_) has been carefully studied by dr. charles h. gilbert and the writer. the movements of the fish in the water are extremely rapid. the sole motive power is the action under the water of the strong tail. no force can be acquired while the fish is in the air. on rising from the water the movements of the tail are continued until the whole body is out of the water. when the tail is in motion the pectorals seem in a state of rapid vibration. this is not produced by muscular action on the fins themselves. it is the body of the fish which vibrates, the pectorals projecting farthest having the greatest amplitude of movement. while the tail is in the water the ventral fins are folded. when the action of the tail ceases the pectorals and ventrals are spread out wide and held at rest. they are not used as true wings, but are held out firmly, acting as parachutes, enabling the body to skim through the air. when the fish begins to fall the tail touches the water. as soon as it is in the water it begins its motion, and the body with the pectorals again begins to vibrate. the fish may, by skimming the water, regain motion once or twice, but it finally falls into the water with a splash. while in the air it suggests a large dragon-fly. the motion is very swift, at first in a straight line, but is later deflected in a curve, the direction bearing little or no relation to that of the wind. when a vessel passes through a school of these fishes, they spring up before it, moving in all directions, as grasshoppers in a meadow. [illustration: fig. .--sand-darter, _ammocrypta clara_ (jordan and meek). des moines river.] =quiescent fishes.=--some fishes, as the lancelet, lie buried in the sand all their lives. others, as the sand-darter (_ammocrypta pellucida_) and the hinalea (_julis gaimard_), bury themselves in the sand at intervals or to escape from their enemies. some live in the cavities of tunicates or sponges or holothurians or corals or oysters, often passing their whole lives inside the cavity of one animal. many others hide themselves in the interstices of kelp or seaweeds. some eels coil themselves in the crevices of rocks or coral masses, striking at their prey like snakes. some sea-horses cling by their tails to gulfweed or sea-wrack. many little fishes (_gobiomorus_, _carangus_, _psenes_) cluster under the stinging tentacles of the portuguese man-of-war or under ordinary jellyfishes. in the tide-pools, whether rock, coral, or mud, in all regions multitudes of little fishes abound. as these localities are neglected by most collectors, they have proved of late years a most prolific source of new species. the tide-pools of cuba, key west, cape flattery, sitka, unalaska, monterey, san diego, mazatlan, hilo, kailua and waiahæ in hawaii, apia and pago-pago in samoa, the present writer has found peculiarly rich in rock-loving forms. even richer are the pools of the promontories of japan, hakodate head, misaki, awa, izu, waka, and kagoshima, where a whole new fish fauna unknown to collectors in markets and sandy bays has been brought to light. some of these rockfishes are left buried in the rock weeds as the tide flows, lying quietly until it returns. others cling to the rocks by ventral suckers, while still others depend for their safety on their powers of leaping or on their quickness of their movements in the water. those of the latter class are often brilliantly colored, but the others mimic closely the algæ or the rocks. some fishes live in the sea only, some prefer brackish-water. some are found only in the rivers, and a few pass more or less indiscriminately from one kind of water to another. [illustration: fig. .--pearl-fish, _fierasfer acus_ (linnæus), issuing from a _holothurian_. coast of italy. (after emery.)] [illustration: fig. .--portuguese man-of-war fish, _gobiomorus gronovii_. family _stromateidæ_]. =migratory fishes.=--the movements of migratory fishes are mainly controlled by the impulse of reproduction. some pelagic fishes, especially those of the mackerel and flying-fish families, swim long distances to a region favorable for the deposition of spawn. others pursue for equal distances the schools of menhaden or other fishes which serve as their prey. some species are known mainly in the waters they make their breeding homes, as in cuba, southern california, hawaii, or japan, the individuals being scattered at other times through the wide seas. =anadromous fishes.=--many fresh-water fishes, as trout and suckers, forsake the large streams in the spring, ascending the small brooks where their young can be reared in greater safety. still others, known as _anadromous_ fishes, feed and mature in the sea, but ascend the rivers as the impulse of reproduction grows strong. among such fishes are the salmon, shad, alewife, sturgeon, and striped bass in american waters. the most remarkable case of the anadromous instinct is found in the king salmon or quinnat (_oncorhynchus tschawytscha_) of the pacific coast. this great fish spawns in november, at the age of four years and an average weight of twenty-two pounds. in the columbia river it begins running with the spring freshets in march and april. it spends the whole summer, without feeding, in the ascent of the river. by autumn the individuals have reached the mountain streams of idaho, greatly changed in appearance, discolored, worn, and distorted. the male is humpbacked, with sunken scales, and greatly enlarged, hooked, bent, or twisted jaws, with enlarged dog-like teeth. on reaching the spawning beds, which may be a thousand miles from the sea in the columbia, over two thousand in the yukon, the female deposits her eggs in the gravel of some shallow brook. the male covers them and scrapes the gravel over them. the female salmon does as much as the male in covering the eggs. then both male and female drift tail foremost helplessly down the stream; none, so far as certainly known, ever survive the reproductive act. the same habits are found in the five other species of salmon in the pacific, but in most cases the individuals do not start so early nor run so far. the blue-back salmon or redfish, however, does not fall far short in these regards. the salmon of the atlantic has a similar habit, but the distance traveled is everywhere much less, and most of the hook-jawed males drop down to the sea and survive to repeat the acts of reproduction. [illustration: fig. .--tide-pools of misaki. the misaki biological station, from the north side.] _catadromous_ fishes, as the true eel (_anguilla_), reverse this order, feeding in the rivers and brackish estuaries, apparently finding their usual spawning-ground in the sea. [illustration: fig. .--squaw-fish, _ptychocheilus oregonensis_ (richardson). columbia river.] =pugnacity of fishes.=--some fishes are very pugnacious, always ready for a quarrel with their own kind. the sticklebacks show this disposition, especially the males. in hawaii the natives take advantage of this trait to catch the uu (_myripristis murdjan_), a bright crimson-colored fish found in those waters. the species lives in crevices in lava rocks. catching a live one, the fishermen suspend it by a string in front of the rocks. it remains there with spread fins and flashing scales, and the others come out to fight it, when all are drawn to the surface by a concealed net. another decoy is substituted and the trick is repeated until the showy and quarrelsome fishes are all secured. in siam the fighting-fish (_betta pugnax_) is widely noted. the following account of this fish is given by cantor:[ ] "when the fish is in a state of quiet, its dull colors present nothing remarkable; but if two be brought together, or if one sees its own image in a looking-glass, the little creature becomes suddenly excited, the raised fins and the whole body shine with metallic colors of dazzling beauty, while the projected gill membrane, waving like a black frill round the throat, adds something of grotesqueness to the general appearance. in this state it makes repeated darts at its real or reflected antagonist. but both, when taken out of each other's sight, instantly become quiet. the fishes were kept in glasses of water, fed with larvæ of mosquitoes, and had thus lived for many months. the siamese are as infatuated with the combats of these fish as the malays are with their cock-fights, and stake on the issue considerable sums, and sometimes their own persons and families. the license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, and brings a considerable annual revenue to the king of siam. the species abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the hills of penang. the inhabitants name it 'pla-kat,' or the 'fighting-fish'; but the kind kept especially for fighting is an artificial variety cultivated for the purpose." a related species is the equally famous tree-climber of india (_anabas scandens_). in lieutenant daldorf describes his capture of an _anabas_, five feet above the water, on the bark of a palm-tree. in the effort to do this, the fish held on to the bark by its preopercular spines, bent its tail, inserted its anal spines, then pushing forward, repeated the operation. =fear and anger in fishes.=--from an interesting paper by surgeon francis day[ ] on fear and anger in fishes we may make the following extracts, slightly condensed and with a few slight corrections in nomenclature. the paper is written in amplification of another by rev. s. j. whitmee, describing the behavior of aquarium fishes in samoa. [illustration: fig. .--squaw-fish, _ptychocheilus grandis_ agassiz. running up a stream to spawn, the high water, after a rain, falling, leaves the fishes stranded. kelsey creek, clear lake, california, april , . (photograph by o. e. meddaugh.)--page .] the means of expression in animals adverted to by mr. darwin (excluding those of the ears, which would be out of place in fishes) are: sounds, vocally or otherwise produced; the erection of dermal appendages under the influence of anger or terror, which last would be analogous to the erection of scales and fin-rays among fishes. regarding special expressions, as those of joy, pain, astonishment, etc., we could hardly expect such so well marked in fishes as in some of the higher animals, in which the play of the features often affords us an insight into their internal emotions. eyes[ ] destitute of movable eyelids, cheeks covered with scales, or the head enveloped in dermal plates, can scarcely mantle into a smile or expand into a broad grin. we possess, however, one very distinct expression in fishes which is absent or but slightly developed in most of the higher animals, namely, change of color. all are aware that when a fish sickens, its brilliant colors fade, but less so how its color may be augmented by anger, and a loss of it be occasioned by depression, the result of being vanquished by a foe. some forms also emit sounds when actuated by terror, and perhaps in times of anger; but of this last i possess no decided proofs. similar to the expression of anger in _betta_ is that of the three-spined stickleback (_gasterosteus aculeatus_).[ ] after a fight between two examples, according to couch, "a strange alteration takes place almost immediately in the defeated party: his gallant bearing forsakes him; his gay colors fade away; he becomes again speckled and ugly; and he hides his disgrace amongst his peaceable companions who occupy together that part of the tub which their tyrants have not taken possession of; he is, moreover, for some time the constant object of his conqueror's persecution." fear is shown by fish in many ways. there is not an angler unacquainted with the natural timidity of fishes, nor a keeper in charge of a salmon-pass, who does not know how easy it is for poachers to deter the salmon from venturing along the path raised expressly for his use. among the coral reefs of the andaman islands i found the little _chromis lepisurus_ abundant. as soon as the water was splashed they appeared to retire for safety to the branching coral, where no large fish could follow them; so frightened did they become that on an andamanese diving from the side of the boat, they at once sought shelter in the coral, in which they remained until it was removed from the sea. in burma i observed, in , that when weirs are not allowed to stretch across the rivers (which would impede navigation), the open side as far as the bank is studded with reeds; these, as the water passes over them, cause vibration, and occasion a curious sound alarming the fishes, which, crossing to the weired side of the river, become captured. hooker, alluding to gulls, terns, wild geese, and pelicans in the ganges valley, observes: "these birds congregate by the sides of pools and beat the water with violence, so as to scare the fish, which then become an easy prey--a fact which was, i believe, first indicated by pallas during his residence on the banks of the caspian sea."[ ] fishes, under the influence of terror, dash about with their fins expanded, and often run into places which must destroy them. thus droves and droves of sardines in the east, impelled by the terror of pursuing sharks, bonitos, and other voracious fishes, frequently throw themselves on the shores in enormous quantities. friar odoric, who visited ceylon about , says: "there are fishes in those seas which come swimming towards the said country in such abundance, that for a great distance into the sea nothing can be seen but the backs of fishes, which, casting themselves on the shore, do suffer men for the space of three days to come, and to take as many of them as they please, and then they return again into the sea."[ ] pennant tells us that the river bullhead (_cottus gobio_) "deposits its spawn in a hole it forms in the gravel, and quits it with great reluctance." general hardwicke tells how the gouramy (_osphromenus gouramy_), in the mauritius, forms a nest amongst the herbage growing in the shallow water in the sides of tanks. here the parent continues to watch the place with the greatest vigilance, driving away any interloping fish. the amphibious walking-fish of mysore (_ophiocephalus striatus_) appears to make a nest very similar to that of the gouramy, and over it the male keeps guard; but should he be killed or captured, the vacant post is filled by his partner. (colonel puckle.) when very young the fishes keep with and are defended by their parents, but so soon as they are sufficiently strong to capture prey for themselves they are driven away to seek their own subsistence. (see fishes of india, p. .) but it is not only these monogamous amphibious fishes which show an affection for their eggs and also for their fry, but even the little _etroplus maculatus_ has been observed to be equally fond of its ova. "the eggs are not very numerous and are deposited in the mud at the bottom of the stream, and, when hatched, both parents guard the young for many days, vigorously attacking any large fish that passes near them."[ ] although the proceedings of the members of the marine and estuary genus of sea-cat (_tachysurus_) and its allies show not quite so distinctly signs of affection, still it must be a well-developed instinct which induces the male to carry about the eggs in its mouth until hatched, and to remove them in this manner when danger is imminent. i have taken the ova just ready for the young to come forth out of the mouth and fauces of the parent (male) fish; and in every animal dissected there was no trace of food in the intestinal tract. =calling the fishes.=--at many temples in india fishes are called to receive food by means of ringing bells or musical sounds. carew, in cornwall, is said to have called the gray mullet together by making a noise like chopping with a cleaver. lacépède relates that some fishes, which had been kept in the basins out of the tuileries for more than a century, would come when called by their names, and that in many parts of germany trout, carp, and tench are summoned to their food by the sound of a bell. these instances are mostly due to the fishes having learned by experience that on the hearing certain sounds they may expect food. but lacépède mentions that some were able to distinguish their individual names; and the same occurs in india. lieutenant connolly[ ] remarked upon seeing numerous fishes coming to the ghaut at sidhnath to be fed when called; and on "expressing our admiration of the size of the fish, 'wait,' said a bystander, 'until you have seen raghu.' the brahmin called out his name in a peculiar tone of voice; but he would not hear. i threw in handful after handful of ottah (flour) with the same success, and was just leaving the ghaut, despairing and doubting, when a loud plunge startled me. i thought somebody had jumped off the bastion of the ghaut into the river, but was soon undeceived by the general shout of 'raghu, raghu,' and by the fishes, large and small, darting away in every direction. raghu made two or three plunges, but was so quick in his motions that i was unable to guess at his species." [it may be said in relation to these stories quoted by dr. day, that they probably belong to the mythology of fishes. it is very doubtful if fishes are able to make any such discrimination among sounds in the air.] =sounds of fishes.=--pallegoix states that in siam the dog's-tongue (_cynoglossus_) is a kind of sole; it attaches itself to the bottom of boats, and makes a sonorous noise, which is more musical when several are stuck to the same boat and act in concert (vol. i. p. ). these noises can scarcely be due to anger or fear. sir j. bowring (vol. ii. p. ) also remarks upon having heard this fish, "which sticks to the bottoms of the boats, and produces a sound something like that of a jew's-harp struck slowly, though sometimes it increases in loudness, so as to resemble the full tones and sound of an organ. my men have pointed me out a fish about four inches long as the author of the music." some years since, at madras, i (dr. day) obtained several specimens of a fresh-water siluroid fish (_macrones vittatus_) which is termed the "fiddler" in mysore. i touched one which was on the wet ground, at which it appeared to become very irate, erecting its dorsal fin, making a noise resembling the buzzing of a bee. having put some small carp into an aquarium containing one of these fishes, it rushed at a small example, _seized it by the middle of its back_, and shook it like a dog killing a rat; at this time its barbels were stiffened out laterally like a cat's whiskers. many fish when captured make noises, perhaps due to terror. thus the _carangus hippos_, _tetraodon_, and others grunt like a hog. darwin (nat. journ., vol. vii) remarks on a catfish found in the rio paraná, and called the armado, which is remarkable for a harsh grating noise when caught by hook and line; this noise can be distinctly heard when the fish is beneath the water. the cuckoo-gurnard (_trigla pini_) and the maigre (_pseudosciæna aquila_) utter sounds when taken out of the water; and herrings, when the net has been drawn over them, have been observed to do the same: "this effect has been attributed to an escape of air from the air-bladder; but no air-bladder exists in the _cottus_, which makes a similar noise." the lesser weaver (_trachinus_) buries itself in the loose soil at the bottom of the water, leaving only its head exposed, and awaits its prey. if touched, it strikes upwards or sideways; and pennant says it directs its blows with as much judgment as a fighting-cock. (yarrell, vol. i. p. .) fishermen assert that wounds from its anterior dorsal spines are more venomous than those caused by the spines on its gill-covers. as regards fighting, i should suppose that, unless some portion of the body is peculiarly adapted for this purpose, as the rostrum of the swordfish, or the spine on the side of the tail in the lancet-fishes, we must look chiefly to the armature or covering of the jaws for weapons of offense. =lurking fishes.=--mr. whitmee supposes that most carnivorous fish capture their prey by outswimming them; but to this there are numerous exceptions; the angler or fishing-frog (_lophis piscatorius_), "while crouching close to the ground, by the action of its ventral and pectoral fins stirs up the sand and mud; hidden by the obscurity thus produced, it elevates its anterior dorsal spines, moves them in various directions by way of attraction as a bait, and the small fishes, approaching either to examine or to seize them, immediately become the prey of the fisher." (yarrell.) in india we find a fresh-water siluroid (_chaca lophioides_) which "conceals itself among the mud, from which, by its lurid appearance and a number of loose filamentous substances on its skin, it is scarcely distinguishable; and with an immense open mouth it is ready to seize any small prey that is passing along." (ham. buchanan.) in march, , i obtained a fine example of _ichthyscopus lebeck_ (fishes of india, p. ), which i placed in water having a bed of mud; into this it rapidly worked itself, first depressing one side and then another, until only the top of its head and mouth remained above the mud, whilst a constant current was kept up through its gills. it made a noise, half snapping and half croaking, when removed from its native element. in the royal westminster aquarium, says dr. day, is a live example of the electric eel (_electrophorus electricus_) which has in its electric organs the means of showing when it is affected by anger or terror. some consider this curious property is for protection against alligators: it is certainly used against fishes for the purpose of obtaining food; but when we remember how, when the indians drive in horses and mules to the waters infested by the eels, they immediately attack them, we must admit that such cannot be for the purpose of preying upon them, but is due to anger or terror at being disturbed. (day.) =carrying eggs in the mouth.=--many catfishes (_siluridæ_) carry their eggs in the mouth until hatched. the first and most complete account of this habit of catfishes is that by dr. jeffries wyman, which he communicated to the boston society of natural history at its meeting on september , . in , in a paper entitled "on some unusual modes of gestation," dr. wyman published a full account of his observations as follows, here quoted from a paper on surinam fishes by evermann and goldsborough: "among the siluroid fishes of guiana there are several species which, at certain seasons of the year, have their mouths and branchial cavities filled either with eggs or young, and, as is believed, for the purpose of incubation. my attention was first called to this singular habit by the late dr. francis w. cragin, formerly united states consul at paramaribo, surinam. in a letter dated august, , he says: "'the eggs you will receive are from another fish. the different fishermen have repeatedly assured me that these eggs in their nearly mature state are carried in the mouths of the parent till the young are relieved by the bursting of the sac. do you either know or believe this to be so, and, if possible, where are the eggs conceived and how do they get into the mouth?' "in the month of april, , on visiting the market of paramaribo, i found that this statement, which at first seemed to be very improbable, was correct as to the existence of eggs in the mouths of several species of fish. in a tray of fish which a negro woman offered for sale, i found the mouths of several filled with either eggs or young, and subsequently an abundance of opportunities occurred for repeating the observation. the kinds most commonly known to the colonists, especially to the negroes, are _jara-bakka_, _njinge-njinge_, _koepra_, _makrede_, and one or two others, all belonging either to the genus _bagrus_ or one nearly allied to it. the first two are quite common in the market, and i have seen many specimens of them; for the last two i have the authority of negro fishermen, but have never seen them myself. the eggs in my collection are of three different sizes, indicating so many species, one of the three having been brought to me without the fish from which they were taken. "the eggs become quite large before they leave the ovaries, and are arranged in three zones corresponding to three successive broods, and probably to be discharged in three successive years; the mature eggs of a jara-bakka inches long measure three-fourths of an inch in diameter; those of the second zone, one-fourth; and those of the third are very minute, about one-sixteenth of an inch. "a careful examination of eight specimens of njinge-njinge about inches long gave the following results: "the eggs in all instances were carried in the mouths of the males. this protection, or gestation of the eggs by the males, corresponds with what has been long noticed with regard to other fishes, as, for example, _syngnathus_, where the marsupial pouch for the eggs or young is found in the males only, and _gasterosteus_, where the male constructs the nest and protects the eggs during incubation from the voracity of the females. "in some individuals the eggs had been recently laid, in others they were hatched and the foetus had grown at the expense of some other food than that derived from the yolk, as this last was not proportionally diminished in size, and the foetus weighed more than the undeveloped egg. the number of eggs contained in the mouth was between twenty and thirty. the mouth and branchial cavity were very much distended, rounding out and distorting the whole hyoid and branchiostegal region. some of the eggs even partially protruded from the mouth. the ova were not bruised or torn as if they had been bitten or forcibly held by the teeth. in many instances the foetuses were still alive, though the parent had been dead for many hours. "no young or eggs were found in the stomach, although the mouth was crammed to its fullest capacity. "the above observations apply to njinge-njinge. with regard to jarra-bakka, i had but few opportunities for dissection, but in several instances the same conditions of the eggs were noticed as stated above; and in one instance, besides some nearly mature foetuses contained in the mouth, two or three were squeezed apparently from the stomach, but not bearing any marks of violence or of the action of the gastric fluid. it is probable that these found their way into that last cavity after death, in consequence of the relaxation of the sphincter which separates the cavities of the mouth and the stomach. these facts lead to the conclusion that this is a mouth gestation, as the eggs are found there in all stages of development, and even for some time after they are hatched. "the question will be very naturally asked, how under such circumstances these fishes are able to secure and swallow their food. i have made no observations bearing upon such a question. unless the food consists of very minute particles it would seem necessary that during the time of feeding the eggs should be disgorged. if this supposition be correct, it would give a very probable explanation of the only fact which might be considered at variance with the conclusion stated above, viz., that we have in these fishes a mouth gestation. in the mass of eggs with which the mouth is filled i have occasionally found the eggs, rarely more than one or two, of another species. the only way in which their presence may be accounted for, it seems to me, is by the supposition that while feeding the eggs are disgorged, and as these fishes are gregarious in their habits, when the ova are recovered the stray eggs of another species may be introduced into the mouth among those which naturally belong there." one of the earliest accounts of this curious habit which we have seen is that by dr. günther, referring to specimens of _tachysurus fissus_ from cayenne received from prof. r. owen: "these specimens having had the cavity of the mouth and of the gills extended in an extraordinary manner, i was induced to examine the cause of it, when, to my great surprise, i found them filled with about twenty eggs, rather larger than an ordinary pea, perfectly uninjured, and with the embryos in a forward state of development. the specimens are males, from to inches long, and in each the stomach was almost empty. "although the eggs might have been put into the mouth of the fish by their captor, this does not appear probable. on the other hand, it is a well-known fact that the american siluroids take care of their progeny in various ways; and i have no doubt that in this species and in its allies the males carry the eggs in their mouths, depositing them in places of safety and removing them when they fear the approach of danger or disturbance." =the unsymmetrical eyes of flounders.=--in the two great families of flounders and soles the head is unsymmetrically formed, the cranium being twisted and both eyes placed on the same side. the body is strongly compressed, and the side possessing the eyes is uppermost in all the actions of the fish. this upper side, whether right or left, is colored, while the eyeless side is white or very nearly so. it is well known that in the very young flounder the body rests upright in the water. after a little there is a tendency to turn to one side and the lower eye begins its migration to the other side, the interorbital bones or part of them moving before it. in most flounders the eye seems to move over the surface of the head, before the dorsal fin, or across the axil of its first ray. in the tropical genus _platophrys_ the movement of the eye is most easily followed, as the species reach a larger size than do most flounders before the change takes place. the larva, while symmetrical, is in all cases transparent. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. . figs. , .--larval stages of _platophrys podas_, a flounder of the mediterranean, showing the migration of the eye. (after emery.)] in a recent study of the migration of the eye in the winter flounder (_pseudopleuronectes americanus_) mr. stephen r. williams reaches the following conclusions: . the young of _limanda ferruginea_ (the rusty dab) are probably in the larval stage at the same time as those of _pseudopleuronectes americanus_ (the winter flounder). . the recently hatched fish are symmetrical, except for the relative positions of the two optic nerves. . the first observed occurrence in preparation for metamorphosis in _p. americanus_ is the rapid resorption of the part of the supraorbital cartilage bar which lies in the path of the eye. . correlated with this is an increase in distance between the eyes and the brain, caused by the growth of the facial cartilages. . the migrating eye moves through an arc of about degrees. [illustration: fig. .--_platophrys lunatus_ (linnæus), the wide-eyed flounder. family _pleuronectidæ_. cuba. (from nature by mrs. h. c. nash.)] . the greater part of this rotation (three-fourths of it in _p. americanus_) is a rapid process, taking not more than three days. . the anterior ethmoidal region is not so strongly influenced by the twisting as the ocular region. [illustration: fig. .--young flounder, just hatched, with symmetrical eyes. (after s. r. williams.)] . the location of the olfactory nerves (in the adult) shows that the morphological midline follows the interorbital septum. . the cartilage mass lying in the front part of the orbit of the adult eye is a separate anterior structure in the larva. . with unimportant differences, the process of metamorphosis in the sinistral fish is parallel to that in the dextral fish. . the original location of the eye is indicated in the adult by the direction first taken, as they leave the brain, by those cranial nerves having to do with the transposed eye. . the only well-marked asymmetry in the adult brain is due to the much larger size of the olfactory nerve and lobe of the ocular side. . there is a perfect chiasma. . the optic nerve of the migrating eye is always anterior to that of the other eye. [illustration: fig. .--larval flounder, _pseudopleuronectes americanus_. (after s. r. williams.)] [illustration: fig. .--larval flounder, _pseudopleuronectes americanus_. (after s. r. williams.)] "the why of the peculiar metamorphosis of the _pleuronectidæ_ is an unsolved problem. the presence or absence of a swim-bladder can have nothing to do with the change of habit of the young flatfish, for _p. americanus_ must lose its air-bladder before metamorphosis begins, since sections showed no evidence of it, whereas in _lophopsetta maculata_, 'the windowpane flounder,' the air-sac can often be seen by the naked eye up to the time when the fish assumes the adult coloration, and long after it has assumed the adult form. "cunningham has suggested that the weight of the fish acting upon the lower eye after the turning would press it toward the upper side out of the way. but in all probability the planktonic larva rests on the sea-bottom little if at all before metamorphosing. those taken by mr. williams into the laboratory showed in resting no preference for either side until the eye was near the midline. "the fact that the change in all fishes is repeated during the development of each individual fish has been used to support the proposition that the flatfishes as a family are a comparatively recent product. they are, on the other hand, comparatively ancient. according to zittel flatfishes of species referable to genera living at present, _rhombus_ (_bothus_) and _solea_, are found in the eocene deposits. these two genera are notable in that _bothus_ is one of the least and _solea_ the most unsymmetrical of the _pleuronectidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--face view of recently hatched flounder. (after s. r. williams.)] "the degree of asymmetry can be correlated with the habit of the animal. those fishes, such as the sole and shore-dwelling flounders, which keep to the bottom are the most twisted representatives of the family, while the more freely swimming forms, like the sand-dab, summer flounder, and halibut, are more nearly symmetrical. asymmetry must be of more advantage to those fishes which grub in the mud for their food than to those which capture other fishes; of the latter those which move with the greatest freedom are the most symmetrical. "this deviation from the bilateral condition must have come about either as a 'sport' or by gradual modification of the adults. if by the latter method--the change proving to be advantageous--selection favored its appearing earlier and earlier in ontogeny, until it occurred in the stages of planktonic life. metamorphosis at a stage earlier than this would be a distinct disadvantage, because of the lack of the customary planktonic food at the sea-bottom. at present some forms of selection are probably continually at work fixing the limit of the period of metamorphosis by the removal of those individuals which attempt the transformation at unsuitable epochs; for instance, at the time of hatching. that there are such individuals is shown by fullarton, who figures a fish just hatched 'anticipating the twisting and subsequent unequal development exhibited by the head of pleuronectids.' those larvæ which remain pelagic until better able to compete at the sea-bottom become the adults which fix the time of metamorphosis on their progeny." (s. r. williams.) so far as known to the writer, the metamorphosis of flounders always occurs while the individual is still translucent and swimming at the surface of the sea before sinking to the bottom. footnotes: [ ] cantor, catal. malayan fishes, , p. . bowring, siam, p. , gives a similar account of the battles of these fishes. [ ] francis day, on fear and anger in fishes, proc. zool. society, london, feb. , , pp. - . [ ] couch (illustrations, etc., p. ) says: "the faculty of giving forth brilliant light from the eyes is said to have been observed by fishermen in the blue shark, as in a cat." [ ] couch, "british fishes," , vol. iv. p. . [ ] himalayan journals, vol. i. p. . [ ] hakluyt, vol. ii. p. . [ ] jerdon, "madras journal of literature and science," , p. . [ ] "observations on the past and present condition of onjein," journal of the asiatic society of bengal, vi, p. . chapter xii adaptations of fishes [illustration: fig. .--mad-tom, _schilbeodes furiosus_ jordan and meek. showing the poisoned pectoral spine. family _siluridæ_. neuse river.] =spines of the catfishes.=--the catfishes or horned pouts (_siluridæ_) have a strong spine in the pectoral fin, one or both edges of this being jagged or serrated. this spine fits into a peculiar joint and by means of a slight downward or forward twist can be set immovably. it can then be broken more easily than it can be depressed. a slight turn in the opposite direction releases the joint, a fact known to the fish and readily learned by the boy. the sharp spine inflicts a jagged wound. pelicans which have swallowed the catfish have been known to die of the wounds inflicted by the fish's spine. when the catfish was first introduced into the sacramento, according to mr. will s. green, it caused the death of many of the native "sacramento perch" (_archoplites interruptus_). this perch (or rather bass) fed on the young catfish, and the latter erecting their pectoral spines in turn caused the death of the perch by tearing the walls of its stomach. in like manner the sharp dorsal and ventral spines of the sticklebacks have been known to cause the death of fishes who swallow them, and even of ducks. in puget sound the stickleback is often known as salmon-killer. certain small catfishes known as stone-cats and mad-toms (_noturus_, _schilbeodes_), found in the rivers of the southern and middle western states, are provided with special organs of offense. at the base of the pectoral spine, which is sometimes very jagged, is a structure supposed by professor cope to be a poison gland the nature of which has not yet been fully ascertained. the wounds made by these spines are exceedingly painful like those made by the sting of a wasp. they are, however, apparently not dangerous. [illustration: fig. .--black nohu, or poison-fish, _emmydrichthys vulcanus_ jordan. a species with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava among which it lives. family _scorpænidæ_. from tahiti.] =venomous spines.=--many species of scorpion-fishes (_scorpæna_, _synanceia_, _pelor_, _pterois_, etc.), found in warm seas, as well as the european weavers (_trachinus_), secrete poison from under the skin of each dorsal spine. the wounds made by these spines are very exasperating, but are not often dangerous. in some cases the glands producing these poisons form an oblong bag excreting a milky juice, and placed on the base of the spine. in _thalassophryne_, a genus of toad-fishes of tropical america, is found the most perfect system of poison organs known among fishes. the spinous armature of the opercle and the two spines of the first dorsal fin constitute the weapons. the details are known from the dissections of dr. günther. according to his[ ] observations, the opercle in _thalassophryne_ "is very narrow, vertically styliform and very mobile. it is armed behind with a spine eight lines long and of the same form as the hollow venom-fang of a snake, being perforated at its base and at its extremity. a sac covering the base of the spine discharges its contents through the apertures and the canal in the interior of the spine. the structure of the dorsal spines is similar. there are no secretory glands imbedded in the membranes of the sacs and the fluid must be secreted by their mucous membrane. the sacs are without an external muscular layer and situated immediately below the thick, loose skin which envelops the spines at their extremity. the ejection of the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be effected as in _synanceia_, by the pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine enters another body." [illustration: fig. .--brown tang, _teuthis bahianus_ (ranzani). tortugas, florida.] =the lancet of the surgeon-fish.=--some fishes defend themselves by lashing their enemies with their tails. in the tangs, or surgeon-fishes (_teuthis_), the tail is provided with a formidable weapon, a knife-like spine, with the sharp edge directed forward. this spine when not in use slips forward into a sheath. the fish, when alive, cannot be handled without danger of a severe cut. in the related genera, this lancet is very much more blunt and immovable, degenerating at last into the rough spines of _balistapus_ or the hair-like prickles of _monacanthus_. =spines of the sting-ray.=--in all the large group of sting-rays the tail is provided with one or more large, stiff, barbed spines, which are used with great force by the animal, and are capable of piercing the leathery skin of the sting-ray itself. there is no evidence that these spines bear any specific poison, but the ragged wounds they make are always dangerous and often end in gangrene. it is possible that the mucus on the surface of the spine acts as a poison on the lacerated tissues, rendering the wound something very different from a simple cut. [illustration: fig. .--common filefish, _stephanolepis hispidus_ (linnæus). virginia.] =protection through poisonous flesh of fishes.=--in certain groups of fishes a strange form of self-protection is acquired by the presence in the body of poisonous alkaloids, by means of which the enemies of the species are destroyed in the death of the individual devoured. such alkaloids are present in the globefishes (_tetraodontidæ_), the filefishes (_monacanthus_), and in some related forms, while members of other groups (_batrachoididæ_) are under suspicion in this regard. the alkaloids produce a disease known as ciguatera, characterized by paralysis and gastric derangements. severe cases of ciguatera with men, as well as with lower animals, may end fatally in a short time. the flesh of the filefishes (_stephanolepis tomentosus_), which the writer has tested, is very meager and bitter, having a decidedly offensive taste. it is suspected, probably justly, of being poisonous. in the globefishes the flesh is always more or less poisonous, that of _tetraodon hispidus_, called muki-muki, or death-fish, in hawaii, is reputed as excessively so. the poisonous fishes have been lately studied in detail by dr. jacques pellegrin, of the museum d'histoire naturelle at paris. he shows that any species of fish may be poisonous under certain circumstances, that under certain conditions certain species are poisonous, and that certain kinds are poisonous more or less at all times. the following account is condensed from dr. pellegrin's observations. [illustration: fig. .--_tetraodon meleagris_ (lacépède). riu kiu islands.] the flesh of fishes soon undergoes decomposition in hot climates. the consumption of decayed fish may produce serious disorders, usually with symptoms of diarrhoea or eruption of the skin. there is in this case no specific poison, but the formation of leucomaines through the influence of bacteria. this may take place with other kinds of flesh, and is known as botulism, or allantiasis. for this disease, as produced by the flesh of fishes, dr. pellegrin suggests the name of ichthyosism it is especially severe in certain very oily fishes, as the tunny, the anchovy, or the salmon. the flesh of these and other fishes occasionally produces similar disorders through mere indigestion. in this case the flesh undergoes decay in the stomach. in certain groups (wrasse-fishes, parrot-fishes, etc.) in the tropics, individual fishes are sometimes rendered poisonous by feeding on poisonous mussels, holothurians, or possibly polyps, species which at certain times, and especially in their spawning season, develops alkaloids which themselves may cause ciguatera. in this case it is usually the very old or large fishes which are liable to be infected. in some markets numerous species are excluded as suspicious for this reason. such a list is in use in the fish-market of havana, where the sale of certain species, elsewhere healthful, or at the most suspected, was rigidly prohibited under the spanish régime. a list of these suspicious fishes has been given by prof. poey. [illustration: fig. .--the trigger-fish, _balistes carolinensis_ gmelin. new york.] in many of the eels the serum of the blood is poisonous, but its venom is destroyed by the gastric juice, so that the flesh may be eaten with impunity, unless decay has set in. to eat too much of the tropical morays is to invite gastric troubles, but no true ciguatera. the true ciguatera is produced by a specific poisonous alkaloid. this is most developed in the globefishes or puffers (_tetraodon_, _spheroides_, _tropidichthys_, etc.). it is present in the filefishes (_monacanthus_, _alutera_, etc.), probably in some toad-fishes (_batrachoides_, etc.), and similar compounds are found in the flesh of sharks and especially in sharks' livers. these alkaloids are most developed in the ovaries and testes, and in the spawning season. they are also found in the liver and sometimes elsewhere in the body. in many species otherwise innocuous, purgative alkaloids are developed in or about the eggs. serious illness has been caused by eating the roe of the pike and the barbel. the poison is less virulent in the species which ascend the rivers. it is also much less developed in cooler waters. for this reason ciguatera is almost confined to the tropics. in havana, manila, and other tropical ports it is of frequent occurrence, while northward it is practically unknown as a disease requiring a special name or treatment. on the coast of alaska, about prince william sound and cook inlet, a fatal disease resembling ciguatera has been occasionally produced by the eating of clams. [illustration: fig. .--numbfish, _narcine brasiliensis_ henle, showing _electric cells_. pensacola, florida.] the purpose of the alkaloids producing ciguatera is considered by dr. pellegrin as protective, saving the species by the poisoning of its enemies. the sickness caused by the specific poison must be separated from that produced by ptomaines and leucomaines in decaying flesh or in the oil diffused through it. poisonous bacteria may be destroyed by cooking, but the alkaloids which cause ciguatera are unaltered by heat. it is claimed in tropical regions that the germs of the bubonic plague may be carried through the mediation of fishes which feed on sewage. it is suggested by dr. charles b. ashmead that leprosy may be so carried. it is further suggested that the custom of eating the flesh of fishes raw almost universal in japan, hawaii, and other regions may be responsible for the spread of certain contagious diseases, in which the fish acts as an intermediate host, much as certain mosquitoes spread the germ of malaria and yellow fever. =electric fishes.=--several species of fishes possess the power to inflict electric shocks not unlike those of the leyden jar. this is useful in stunning their prey and especially in confounding their enemies. in most cases these electric organs are evidently developed from muscular substance. their action, which is largely voluntary, is in its nature like muscular action. the power is soon exhausted and must be restored by rest and food. the effects of artificial stimulation and of poisons are parallel with the effect of similar agents on muscles. [illustration: fig. .--electric catfish, _torpedo electricus_ (gmelin). congo river. (alter boulenger.)] in the electric rays or torpedos (_narcobatidæ_) the electric organs are large honeycomb-like structures, "vertical hexagonal prisms," upwards of of them, at the base of the pectoral fins. each prism is filled "with a clear trembling jelly-like substance." these fishes give a shock which is communicable through a metallic conductor, as an iron spear or the handle of a knife. it produces a peculiar and disagreeable sensation not at all dangerous. it is said that this living battery shows all the known qualities of magnetism, rendering the needle magnetic, decomposing chemical compounds, etc. in the nile is an electric catfish (_torpedo electricus_) having similar powers. its electric organ extends over the whole body, being thickest below. it consists of rhomboidal cells of a firm gelatinous substance. the electric eel (_electrophorus electricus_), the most powerful of electric fishes, is not an eel, but allied rather to the sucker or carp. it is, however, eel-like in form and lives in rivers of brazil and guiana. the electric organs are in two pairs, one on the back of the tail, the other on the anal fin. these are made up of an enormous number of minute cells. in the electric eel, as in the other electric fishes, the nerves supplying these organs are much larger than those passing from the spinal cord for any other purpose. in all these cases closely related species show a no trace of the electric powers. [illustration: fig. .--star-gazer (_astroscopus guttatus_) settling in the sand. (from life by r. w. shufeldt.)] dr. gilbert has described the electric powers of species of star-gazer (_astroscopus y-græcum_ and _a. zephyreus_), the electric cells lying under the naked skin of the top of the head. electric power is ascribed to a species of cusk (_urophycis regius_), but this perhaps needs verification. =photophores or luminous organs.=--many fishes, chiefly of the deep seas, develop organs for producing light. these are known as luminous organs, phosphorescent organs, or photophores. these are independently developed in four entirely unrelated groups of fishes. this difference in origin is accompanied by corresponding difference in structure. the best-known type is found in the iniomi, including the lantern-fishes and their many relatives. these may have luminous spots, differentiated areas round or oblong which shine star-like in the dark. these are usually symmetrically placed on the sides of the body. they may have also luminous glands or diffuse areas which are luminous, but which do not show the specialized structure of the phosphorescent spots. these glands of similar nature to the spots are mostly on the head or tail. in one genus, _Æthoprora_, the luminous snout is compared to the headlight of an engine. [illustration: fig. .--headlight fish, _Æthoprora lucida_ goode and bean. gulf stream.] [illustration: fig. .--_corynolophus reinhardti_ (lütken), showing luminous bulb (modified after lütken). family _ceratiidæ_. deep sea off greenland.] entirely different are the photophores in the midshipman or singing-fish (_porichthys_), a genus of toad-fishes or _batrachoididæ_. this species lives near the shore and the luminous spots are outgrowths from pores of the lateral line. in one of the anglers (_corynolophus reinhardti_) the complex bait is said to be luminous, and luminous areas are said to occur on the belly of a very small shark of the deep seas of japan (_etmopterus lucifer_). this phenomenon is now the subject of study by one of the numerous pupils of dr. mitsukuri. the structures in _corynolophus_ are practically unknown. [illustration: fig. .--_etmopterus lucifer_ jordan and snyder. misaki, japan.] =photophores in iniomous fishes.=--in the _iniomi_ the luminous organs have been the subject of an elaborate paper by dr. r. von lendenfeld (deep-sea fishes of the challenger. appendix b). these he divides into ocellar organs of regular form or luminous spots, and irregular glandular organs or luminous areas. the ocellar spots may be on the scales of the lateral line or on other definite areas. they may be raised above the surface or sunk below it. they may be simple, with or without black pigment, or they may have within them a reflecting surface. they are best shown in the _myctophidæ_ and _stomiatidæ_, but are found in numerous other families in nearly all soft-rayed fishes of the deep sea. the glandular areas may be placed on the lower jaw, on the barbels, under the gill cover, on the suborbital or preorbital, on the tail, or they may be irregularly scattered. those about the eye have usually the reflecting membrane. in all these structures, according to dr. von lendenfeld, the whole or part of the organ is glandular. the glandular part is at the base and the other structures are added distally. the primitive organ was a gland which produced luminous slime. to this in the process of specialization greater complexity has been added. [illustration: fig. .--_argyropelecus olfersi_ cuvier. gulf stream.] the luminous organs of some fishes resemble the supposed original structure of the primitive photophore, though of course these cannot actually represent it. the simplest type of photophore now found is in _astronesthes_, in the form of irregular glandular luminous patches on the surface of the skin. there is no homology between the luminous organs of any insect and those of any fish. =photophores of porichthys.=--entirely distinct in their origin are the luminous spots in the midshipman (_porichthys notatus_), a shore fish of california. these have been described in detail by dr. charles wilson greene (late of stanford university, now of the university of missouri) in the _journal of morphology_, xv., p. . these are found on various parts of the body in connection with the mucous pores of the lateral lines and about the mucous pores of the head. the skin in _porichthys_ is naked, and the photophores arise from a modification of its epidermis. each is spherical, shining white, and consists of four parts--the lens, the gland, the reflector, and the pigment. as to its function prof. greene observes: "i have kept specimens of _porichthys_ in aquaria at the hopkins seaside laboratory, and have made numerous observations on them with an effort to secure ocular proof of the phosphorescence of the living active fish. the fish was observed in the dark when quiet and when violently excited, but, with a single exception, only negative results were obtained. once a phosphorescent glow of scarcely perceptible intensity was observed when the fish was pressed against the side of the aquarium. then, this is a shore fish and quite common, and one might suppose that so striking a phenomenon as it would present if these organs were phosphorescent in a small degree would be observed by ichthyologists in the field, or by fishermen, but diligent inquiry reveals no such evidence. "notwithstanding the fact that _porichthys_ has been observed to voluntarily exhibit only the trace of phosphorescence mentioned above, still the organs which it possesses in such numbers are beyond doubt true phosphorescent organs, as the following observations will demonstrate. a live fish put into an aquarium of sea-water made alkaline with ammonia water exhibited a most brilliant glow along the location of the well-developed organs. not only did the lines of organs shine forth, but the individual organs themselves were distinguishable. the glow appeared after about five minutes, remained prominent for a few minutes, and then for twenty minutes gradually became weaker until it was scarcely perceptible. rubbing the hand over the organs was followed always by a distinct increase in the phosphorescence. pieces of the fish containing the organs taken five and six hours after the death of the animal became luminous upon treatment with ammonia water. "electrical stimulation of the live fish was also tried with good success. the interrupted current from an induction coil was used, one electrode being fixed on the head over the brain or on the exposed spinal cord near the brain, and the other moved around on different parts of the body. no results followed relatively weak stimulation of the fish, although such currents produced violent contractions of the muscular system of the body. but when a current strong enough to be quite painful to the hands while handling the electrodes was used then stimulation of the fish called forth a brilliant glow of light apparently from every well-developed photophore. all the lines on the ventral and lateral surfaces of the body glowed with a beautiful light, and continued to do so while the stimulation lasted. the single well-developed organ just back of and below the eye was especially prominent. no luminosity was observed in the region of the dorsal organs previously described as rudimentary in structure. i was also able to produce the same effect by galvanic stimulation, rapidly making and breaking the current by hand. [illustration: fig. .--luminous organs and lateral line of midshipman, _porichthys notatus_ girard. family _batrachoididæ_. monterey, california. (after greene.)] "the light produced in _porichthys_ was, as near as could be determined by direct observation, a white light. when produced by electric stimulation it did not suddenly reach its maximal intensity, but came in quite gradually and disappeared in the same way when the stimulation ceased. the light was not a strong one, only strong enough to enable one to quite easily distinguish the apparatus used in the experiment. "an important fact brought out by the above experiment is that an electrical stimulation strong enough to most violently stimulate the nervous system, as shown by the violent contractions of the muscular system, may still be too weak to produce phosphorescence. this fact gives a physiological confirmation of the morphological result stated above that no specific nerves are distributed to the phosphorescent organs. "i can explain the action of the electrical current in these experiments only on the supposition that it produces its effect by direct action on the gland. [illustration: fig. .--cross-section of a ventral phosphorescent organ of the midshipman, _porichthys notatus_ girard. _l_, lens; _gl_, gland; _r_, reflector; _bl_, blood; _p_, pigment. (after greene.)] "the experiments just related were all tried on specimens of the fish taken from under the rocks where they were guarding the young brood. two specimens, however, taken by hooks from the deeper water of monterey bay, could not be made to show phosphorescence either by electrical stimulation or by treatment with ammonia. these specimens did net have the high development of the system of mucous cells of the skin exhibited by the nesting fish. my observations were, however, not numerous enough to more than suggest the possibility of a seasonal high development of the phosphorescent organs. [illustration: fig. .--section of the deeper portion of phosphorescent organ of _porichthys notatus_, highly magnified. (after greene.)] "two of the most important parts of the organ have to do with the physical manipulation of light--the reflector and the lens, respectively. the property of the reflector needs no discussion other than to call attention to its enormous development. the lens cells are composed of a highly refractive substance, and the part as a whole gives every evidence of light refraction and condensation. the form of the lens gives a theoretical condensation of light at a very short focus. that such is in reality the case, i have proved conclusively by examination of fresh material. if the fresh fish be exposed to direct sunlight, there is a reflected spot of intense light from each phosphorescent organ. this spot is constant in position with reference to the sun in whatever position the fish be turned and is lost if the lens be dissected away and only the reflector left. with needles and a simple microscope it is comparatively easy to free the lens from the surrounding tissue and to examine it directly. when thus freed and examined in normal saline, i have found by rough estimates that it condenses sunlight to a bright point a distance back of the lens of from one-fourth to one-half its diameter. i regret that i have been unable to make precise physical developments. "the literature on the histological structure of known phosphorescent organs of fishes is rather meager and unsatisfactory. von lendenfeld describes twelve classes of phosphorescent organs from deep-sea fishes collected by the _challenger_ expedition. all of these, however, are greater or less modifications of one type. this type includes, according to von lendenfeld's views, three essential parts, _i.e._, a gland, phosphorescent cells, and a local ganglion. these parts may have added a reflector, a pigment layer, or both; and all these may be simple or compounded in various ways, giving rise to the twelve classes. blood-vessels and nerves are distributed to the glandular portion. of the twelve classes direct ocular proof is given for one, i.e., ocellar organs of _myctophum_ which were observed by willemoes-suhm at night to shine 'like a star in the net.' von lendenfeld says that the gland produces a secretion, and he supposes the light or phosphorescence to be produced either by the 'burning or consuming' of this secretion by the phosphorescent cells, or else by some substance produced by the phosphorescent cells. furthermore, he says that the phosphorescent cells act at the 'will of the fish' and are excited to action by the local ganglion. "some of these statements and conclusions seem insufficiently grounded, as, for example, the supposed action of the phosphorescent cells, and especially the control of the ganglion over them. in the first place, the relation between the ganglion and the central nervous system in the forms described by von lendenfeld is very obscure, and the structure described as a ganglion, to judge from the figures and the text descriptions, may be wrongly identified. at least it is scarcely safe to ascribe ganglionic function to a group of adult cells so poorly preserved that only nuclei are to be distinguished. in the second place, no structural character is shown to belong to the 'phosphorescent cells' by which they may take part in the process ascribed to them.[ ] "the action of the organs described by him may be explained on other grounds, and entirely independent of the so-called 'ganglion cells' and of the 'phosphorescent cells.' "phosphorescence as applied to the production of light by a living animal is, according to our present ideas, a chemical action, _an oxidation process_. the necessary conditions for producing it are two--an oxidizable substance that is luminous on oxidation, i.e., a photogenic substance on the one hand, and the presence of free oxygen on the other. every phosphorescent organ must have a mechanism for producing these two conditions; all other factors are only secondary and accessory. if the gland of a firefly can produce a substance that is oxidizable and luminous on oxidation, as shown as far back as by faraday and confirmed and extended recently by watasé, it is conceivable, indeed probable, that phosphorescence in _myctophum_ and other deep-sea forms is produced in the same direct way, that is, by direct oxidation of the secretion of the gland found in each of at least ten of the twelve groups of organs described by von lendenfeld. free oxygen may be supplied directly from the blood in the capillaries distributed to the gland which he describes. the possibility of the regulation of the supply of blood carrying oxygen is analogous to what takes place in the firefly and is wholly adequate to account for any 'flashes of light' 'at the will of the fish.' "in the phosphorescent organs of _porichthys_ the only part the function of which cannot be explained on physical grounds is the group of cells called the gland. if the large granular cells of this portion of the structure produce a secretion, as seems probable from the character of the cells and their behavior toward reagents, and this substance be oxidizable and luminous in the presence of free oxygen, i.e., photogenic, then we have the conditions necessary for a light-producing organ. the numerous capillaries distributed to the gland will supply free oxygen sufficient to meet the needs of the case. light produced in the gland is ultimately all projected to the exterior, either directly from the luminous points in the gland or reflected outward by the reflector, the lens condensing all the rays into a definite pencil or slightly diverging cone. this explanation of the light-producing process rests on the assumption of a secretion product with certain specific characters. but comparing the organ with structures known to produce such a substance, i.e., the glands of the firefly or the photospheres of euphausia, it seems to me the assumption is not less certain than the assumption that twelve structures resembling each other in certain particulars have a common function to that proved for one only of the twelve. "i am inclined to the belief that whatever regulation of the action of the phosphorescent organ occurs is controlled by the regulation of the supply of free oxygen by the blood-stream flowing through the organ; but, however this may be, the essential fact remains that the organs in _porichthys_ are true phosphorescent organs." (greene.) other species of _porichthys_ with similar photophores occur in texas, guiana, panama, and chile. the name midshipman alludes to these shining spots, compared to buttons. [illustration: fig. .--sucking-fish, or pegador, _leptecheneis naucrates_ (linnæus). virginia.] =globefishes.=--the globefishes (_tetraodon_, etc.) and the porcupine-fishes have the surface defended by spines. these fishes have an additional safeguard through the instinct to swallow air. when one of these fishes is seriously disturbed it rises to the surface, gulps air into a capacious sac, and then floats belly upward on the surface. it is thus protected from other fishes, although easily taken by man. the same habit appears in some of the frog-fishes (_antennarius_) and in the swell sharks (_cephaloscyllium_). the writer once hauled out a netful of globefishes (_tetraodon hispidus_) from a hawaiian lagoon. as they lay on the bank a dog came up and sniffed at them. as his nose touched them they swelled themselves up with air, becoming visibly two or three times as large as before. it is not often that the lower animals show surprise at natural phenomena, but the attitude of the dog left no question as to his feeling. =remoras.=--the different species of remora, or shark-suckers, fasten themselves to the surface of sharks or other fishes and are carried about by them often to great distances. these fishes attach themselves by a large sucking-disk on the top of the head, which is a modified spinous dorsal fin. they do not harm the shark, except possibly to retard its motion. if the shark is caught and drawn out of the water, these fishes often instantly let go and plunge into the sea, swimming away with great celerity. =sucking-disks of clingfishes.=--other fishes have sucking-disks differently made, by which they cling to rocks. in the gobies the united ventrals have some adhesive power. the blind goby (_typhlogobius californiensis_) is said to adhere to rocks in dark holes by the ventral fins. in most gobies the adhesive power is slight. in the sea-snails (_liparididæ_) and lumpfishes (_cyclopteridæ_) the united ventral fins are modified into an elaborate circular sucking-disk. in the clingfishes (_gobiesocidæ_) the sucking-disk lies between the ventral fins and is made in part of modified folds of the naked skin. some fishes creep over the bottom, exploring it with their sensitive barbels, as the gurnard, surmullet, and goatfish. the suckers (_catostomus_) test the bottom with their thick, sensitive lips, either puckered or papillose, feeding by suction. [illustration: fig. .--clingfish, _caularchus mæandricus_ (girard). monterey, california.] =lampreys and hagfishes.=--the lampreys suck the blood of other fishes to which they fasten themselves by their disk-like mouth armed with rasping teeth. the hagfishes (_myxine_, _eptatretus_) alone among fishes are truly parasitic. these fishes, worm-like in form, have round mouths, armed with strong hooked teeth. they fasten themselves at the throats of large fishes, work their way into the muscle without tearing the skin, and finally once inside devour all the muscles of the fish, leaving the skin unbroken and the viscera undisturbed. these fishes become living hulks before they die. if lifted out of the water, the slimy hagfish at once slips out and swims quickly away. in gill-nets in monterey bay great mischief is done by hagfish (_polistotrema stouti_). it is a curious fact that large numbers of hagfish eggs are taken from the stomachs of the male hagfish, which seems to be almost the only enemy of his own species, keeping the numbers in check. [illustration: fig. .--hagfish, _polistotrema stouti_ (lockington).] =the swordfishes.=--in the swordfish and its relatives, the sailfish and the spearfish, the bones of the anterior part of the head are grown together, making an efficient organ of attack. the sword of the swordfish, the most powerful of these fishes, has been known to pierce the long planks of boats, and it is supposed that the animal sometimes attacks the whale. but stories of this sort lack verification. =the paddle-fishes.=--in the paddle-fishes (_polyodon spatula_ and _psephurus gladius_) the snout is spread out forming a broad paddle or spatula. this the animal uses to stir up the mud on the bottoms of rivers, the small organisms contained in mud constituting food. similar paddle-like projections are developed in certain deep-water chimæras (_harriottia_, _rhinochimæra_), and in the deep-sea shark, _mitsukurina_. [illustration: fig. .--indian sawfish, _pristis zysron_ latham. river mouths of hindustan. (after day.)] =the sawfishes.=--a certain genus of rays (_pristis_, the sawfish) and a genus of sharks (_pristiophorus_, the saw-shark), possess a similar spatula-shaped snout. but in these fishes the snout is provided on either side with enamelled teeth set in sockets and standing at right angles with the snout. the animal swims through schools of sardines and anchovies, strikes right and left with this saw, destroying the small fishes, who thus become an easy prey. these fishes live in estuaries and river mouths, _pristis_ in tropical america and guinea, _pristiophorus_ in japan and australia. in the mythology of science, the sawfish attacks the whale, but in fact the two animals never come within miles of each other, and the sawfish is an object of danger only to the tender fishes, the small fry of the sea. [illustration: fig. .--saw-shark, _pristiophorus japonicus_ günther. specimen from nagasaki.] =peculiarities of jaws and teeth.=--the jaws of fishes are subject to a great variety of modifications. in some the bones are joined by distensible ligaments and the fish can swallow other fishes larger than itself. in other cases the jaws are excessively small and toothless, at the end of a long tube, so ineffective in appearance that it is a marvel that the fish can swallow anything at all. in the thread-eels (_nemichthys_) the jaws are so recurved that they cannot possibly meet, and in their great length seem worse than useless. in some species the knife-like canines of the lower jaw pierce through the substance of the upper. in four different and wholly unrelated groups of fishes the teeth are grown fast together, forming a horny beak like that of the parrot. these are the chimæras, the globefishes (_tetraodon_), and their relatives, the parrot-fishes (_scarus_, etc.), and the stone-wall perch (_oplegnathus_). the structure of the beak varies considerably in these four cases, in accord with the difference in the origin of its structures. in the globefishes the jaw-bones are fused together, and in the chimæras they are solidly joined to the cranium itself. =the angler-fishes.=--in the large group of angler-fishes the first spine of the dorsal fin is modified into a sort of bait to attract smaller fishes into the capacious mouth below. this structure is typical in the fishing-frog (_lophius_), where the fleshy tip of this spine hangs over the great mouth, the huge fish lying on the bottom apparently inanimate as a stone. in other related fishes this spine has different forms, being often reduced to a vestige, of little value as a lure, but retained in accordance with the law of heredity. in a deep-sea angler the bait is enlarged, provided with fleshy streamers and a luminous body which serves to attract small fishes in the depths. the forms and uses of this spine in this group constitute a very suggestive chapter in the study of specialization and ultimate degradation, when the special function is not needed or becomes ineffective. similar phases of excessive development and final degradation may be found in almost every group in which abnormal stress has been laid on a particular organ. thus the ventral fins, made into a large sucking-disk in _liparis_, are lost altogether in _paraliparis_. the very large poisoned spines of _pterois_ become very short in _aploactis_, the high dorsal spines of _citula_ are lost in _alectis_, and sometimes a very large organ dwindles to a very small one within the limits of the same genus. an example of this is seen in the poisoned pectoral spines of _schilbeodes_. =relation of number of vertebræ to temperature and the struggle for existence.=--one of the most remarkable modifications of the skeleton of fishes is the progressive increase of the number of vertebræ as the forms become less specialized, and that this particular form of specialization is greatest at the equator.[ ] it has been known for some years that in several groups of fishes (wrasse-fishes, flounders, and "rock-cod," for example) those species which inhabit northern waters have more vertebræ than those living in the tropics. certain arctic flounders, for example, have sixty vertebræ; tropical flounders have, on the average, thirty. the significance of this fact is the problem at issue. in science it is assumed that all facts have significance, else they would not exist. it becomes necessary, then, to find out first just what the facts are in this regard. [illustration: fig. .--skeleton of pike, _esox lucius_ linnæus, a river fish with many vertebræ.] going through the various groups of non-migratory marine fishes we find that such relations are common. in almost every group the number of vertebræ grows smaller as we approach the equator, and grows larger again as we pass into southern latitudes. taking an average netful of fishes of different kinds at different places along the coast, the variation would be evident. at point barrow or cape farewell or north cape a seineful of fishes would perhaps average eighty vertebræ each, the body lengthened to make room for them; at sitka or st. johns or bergen, perhaps sixty vertebræ; at san francisco or new york or st. malo, thirty-five; at mazatlan or pensacola or naples, twenty-eight; and at panama or havana or sierra leone, twenty-five. under the equator the usual number of vertebræ in shore fishes is twenty-four. outside tropical and semi-tropical waters this number is the exception. north of cape cod it is virtually unknown. =number of vertebræ.=--the numbers of vertebræ in different groups may be summarized as follows: _lancelets._--among the lancelets the numbers of segments range from to , there being no vertebræ. _lampreys._--in this group the number of segments ranges from to . _elasmobranchs._--among sharks and skates the usual number of segments is from to and upwards. in the extinct species as far as known the numbers are not materially different. the carboniferous genus, _pleuracanthus_, has about vertebræ. the _chimæras_ have similar numbers; _chimæra monstrosa_ has about in the body and more than as many more in the filamentous tail. _cycliæ._--_palæospondylus_ has about vertebræ. _arthrodires._--there are about vertebræ in _coccosteus_. _dipnoans._--in protopterus there are upwards of vertebræ, the last much reduced in size. figures of _neoceratodus_ show about . _crossopterygians._--_polypterus_ has vertebræ; _erpetichthys_, ; _undina_, about . _ganoids._--in this group the numbers are also large-- in _amia_, about in the short-bodied _microdon_. the sturgeons all have more than vertebræ. =soft-rayed fishes.=--among the _teleostei_, or bony fishes, those which first appear in geological history are the _isospondyli_, the allies of the salmon and herring. these have all numerous vertebræ, small in size, and none of them in any notable degree modified or specialized. they abound in the depths of the ocean, but there are comparatively few of them in the tropics. the _salmonidæ_ which inhabit the rivers and lakes of the northern zones have from to vertebræ. the _myctophidæ, stomiatidæ_, and other deep-sea forms have from upwards in the few species in which the number has been counted. the group of _clupeidæ_ is nearer the primitive stock of _isospondyli_ than the salmon are. this group is essentially northern in its distribution, but a considerable number of its members are found within the tropics. the common herring (_clupea harangus_) ranges farther into the arctic regions than any other. its vertebræ are in number. in the shad (_alosa sapidissima_), a northern species which ascends the rivers, the same number is recorded. the sprat (_clupea sprattus_) and sardine (_sardinia pilchardus_), ranging farther south, have from to , while in certain small herrings (_sardinella_) which are strictly confined to tropical shores the number is but . allied to the herring are the anchovies, mostly tropical. the northernmost species, the common anchovy of europe (_engraulis enchrasicolus_), has vertebræ. a tropical species (_anchovia browni_) has . there are, however, a few soft-rayed fishes confined to the tropical seas in which the numbers of vertebræ are still large, an exception to the general rule. among these are _albula vulpes_, the bonefish, with vertebræ, _elops saurus_, the ten-pounder, with , the tarpon (_tarpon atlanticus_), with about , and the milkfish, _chanos chanos_, with . in a fossil eocene herring from the green river shales (_diplomystus_) i count vertebræ; in a bass-like fish (_mioplosus_) from the same locality --these being the usual numbers in the present tropical members of these groups. the great family of _siluridæ_, or catfishes, is represented in all the fresh waters of temperate and tropical america, as well as in the warmer parts of the old world. one division of the family, containing numerous species, abounds on the sandy shores of the tropical seas. the others are all fresh-water fishes. so far as the vertebræ in the _siluridæ_ have been examined, no conclusions can be drawn. the vertebræ in the marine species range from to ; in the north american forms, from to ; and in the south american fresh-water species, where there is almost every imaginable variation in form and structure, the numbers range from to or more. the _cyprinidæ_ (carp and minnows), confined to the fresh waters of the northern hemisphere, and their analogues, the _characinidæ_ of the rivers of south america and africa, have also numerous vertebræ, to in most cases. in general we may say of the soft-rayed fishes that very few of them are inhabitants of tropical shores. of these few, some which are closely related to northern forms have fewer vertebræ than their cold-water analogues. in the northern species, the fresh-water species, and the species found in the deep sea the number of vertebræ is always large, but the same is true of some of the tropical species also. =the flounders.=--in the flounders, the halibut and its relatives, arctic genera (_hippoglossus_ and _atheresthes_), have from to vertebræ. the northern genera (_hippoglossoides, lyopsetta_, and _eopsetta_) have from to ; the members of a large semi-tropical genus (_paralichthys_) of wide range have from to ; while the tropical forms have from to . in the group of turbots and whiffs none of the species really belong to the northern fauna, and the range in numbers is from to . the highest number, , is found in a deep-water species (_monolene_), and the next, , in species (_lepidorhombus, orthopsetta_) which extend their range well toward the north. among the plaices, which are all northern, the numbers range from to , the higher numbers, , , , being found in species (_glyptocephalus_) which inhabit considerable depths in the arctic seas. the lowest numbers ( ) belong to shore species (_pleuronichthys_) which range well toward the south. =spiny-rayed fishes.=--among the spiny-rayed fishes the facts are more striking. of these, numerous families are chiefly or wholly confined to the tropics, and in the great majority of all the species the number of vertebræ is constantly ,-- in the body and in the tail ( + ). this is true of all or nearly all the _berycidæ_, _serranidæ_, _sparidæ_, _sciænidæ_, _chætodontidæ_, _hæmulidæ_, _gerridæ_, _gobiidæ_, _acanthuridæ_, _mugilidæ_, _sphyrænidæ_, _mullidæ_, _pomacentridæ_, etc. in some families in which the process of reduction has gone on to an extreme degree, as in certain _plectognath_ fishes, there has been a still further reduction, the lowest number, , existing in the short inflexible body of the trunkfish (_ostracion_), in which the vertebral joints are movable only in the base of the tail. in all these forms the process of reduction of vertebræ has been accompanied by specialization in other respects. the range of distribution of these fishes is chiefly though not quite wholly confined to the tropics. thus _balistes_, the trigger-fish, has vertebræ; _monacanthus_ and _alutera_, foolfishes, about ; the trunkfish, _ostracion_, ; the puffers, _tetraodon_ and _spheroides_, ; _canthigaster_, ; and the headfish, _mola_, . among the _pediculates, malthe_ and _antennarius_ have to vertebræ, while in their near relatives, the anglers, _lophiidæ_, the number varies with the latitude. thus, in the northern angler, _lophius piscatorius_, which is never found south of cape hatteras, there are vertebræ. in a similar species, inhabiting the north of japan (_lophius litulon_), there are . in another japanese species, ranging farther south, _lophiomus setigerus_, the vertebræ are but . yet in external appearance these two fishes are almost identical. it is, however, a notable fact that some of the deep-water _pediculates_, or angling fishes, have the body very short and the number of vertebræ correspondingly reduced. _dibranchus atlanticus_, from a depth of fathoms, or more than miles, has but vertebræ, and others of its relatives in deep waters show also small numbers. these soft-bodied fishes are simply animated mouths, with a feeble osseous structure, and they are perhaps recent offshoots from some stock which has extended its range from muddy bottom or from floating seaweed to the depths of the sea. a very few spiny-rayed families are wholly confined to the northern seas. one of the most notable of these is the family of viviparous surf-fishes (_embiotocidæ_), of which numerous species abound on the coasts of california and japan, but which enter neither the waters of the frigid nor of the torrid zone. the surf-fishes have from to vertebræ, numbers which are never found among tropical fishes of similar appearance or relationship. the facts of variation with latitude were first noticed among the _labridæ_. in the northern genera (_labrus_, _tautoga_, etc.) there are to vertebræ; in the semi-tropical genera (_crenilabrus_, _bodianus_, etc.), to ; in the tropical genera (_halichoeres_, _xyrichthys_, _thalassoma_, etc.), usually . equally striking are the facts in the great group of _pareioplitæ_, or mailed-cheek fishes, composed of numerous families, diverging from each other in various respects, but agreeing in certain peculiarities of the skeleton. among these fishes the family most nearly related to ordinary fishes is that of the _scorpænidæ_ (scorpion-fishes, etc.). this is a large family containing many species, fishes of local habits, swarming about the rocks at moderate depths in all zones. the species of the tropical genera have all vertebræ. those genera chiefly found in cooler waters, as in california, japan, chile, and the cape of good hope, have in all their species vertebræ, while in the arctic genera there are . allied to the _scorpænidæ_, but confined to the tropical or semi-tropical seas, are the _platycephalidæ_, with vertebræ, and the _cephalacanthidæ_ (flying gurnards), with but . in the deeper waters of the tropics are the _peristediidæ_, with vertebræ, and extending farther north, belonging as much to the temperate as to the torrid zone, is the large family of the _triglidæ_ (gurnards) in which the vertebræ range from to . the family of _agonidæ_ (sea-poachers), with to vertebræ, is still more decidedly northern in its distribution. wholly confined to northern waters is the great family of the _cottidæ_ (sculpins), in which the vertebræ ascend from to . entirely polar and often in deep waters are the _liparididæ_ (sea-snails), an offshoot from the _cottidæ_, with soft, limp bodies, and the vertebræ to . in these northern forms there are no scales, the spines in the fins have practically disappeared, and only the anatomy shows that they belong to the group of spiny-rayed fishes. in the _cyclopteridæ_ (lumpfishes), likewise largely arctic, the body becomes short and thick, the back-bone inflexible, and the vertebræ are again reduced to . in most cases, as the number of vertebræ increases, the body becomes proportionally elongate. as a result of this, the fishes of arctic waters are, for the most part, long and slender, and not a few of them approach the form of eels. in the tropics, however, while elongate fishes are common enough, most of them (always excepting the eels) have the normal number of vertebræ, the greater length being due to the elongation of their individual vertebræ and not to their increase in number. thus the very slender goby, _gobionellus oceanicus_, has the same number ( ) of vertebræ as its thick-set relative _gobius soporator_ or the chubby _lophogobius cyprinoides_. in the great group of blenny-like fishes the facts are equally striking. the arctic species are very slender in form as compared with the tropical blennies, and this fact, caused by a great increase in the number of their vertebræ, has led to the separation of the group into several families. the tropical forms composing the family of _blenniidæ_ have from to vertebræ, while in the arctic genera the numbers range from to . of the true _blennidæ_, which are all tropical or semi-tropical, _blennius_ has to vertebræ; _salarias_, to ; lepisoma, ; _clinus_, ; _cristiceps_, . a fresh-water species of _cristiceps_ found in australia has . blennioid fishes in the arctic seas are _anarrhichas_, with vertebræ; _anarrhichthys_, with or more; _lumpenus_, ; _pholis_, ; _lycodes_, ; _gymnelis_, . _lycodes_ and _gymnelis_ have lost all the dorsal spines. in the cod family (_gadidæ_) the number of vertebræ is usually about . the number is in the codfish (_gadus callarias_), in the siberian cod (_eleginus navaga_), in the haddock (_melanogrammus æglifinus_), in the whiting (_merlangus merlangus_), in the coalfish (_pollachius virens_), in the alaskan coalfish (_theragra chalcogramma_), in the hake (_merluccius merluccius_). in the burbot (_lota lota_), the only fresh-water codfish, ; in the deep-water ling (_molva molva_), ; in the rocklings (_gaidropsarus_), to . those few species found in the mediterranean and the gulf of mexico have fewer fin-rays and probably fewer vertebræ than the others, but none of the family enter warm water, the southern species living at greater depths. in the deep-sea allies of the codfishes, the grenadiers or rat-tails (_macrouridæ_), the numbers range from to . =fresh-water fishes.=--of the families confined strictly to the fresh waters the great majority are among the soft-rayed or physostomous fishes, the allies of the salmon, pike, carp, and catfish. in all of these the vertebræ are numerous. a few fresh-water families have their affinities entirely with the more specialized forms of the tropical seas. of these the _centrarchidæ_ (comprising the american fresh-water sunfish and black bass) have on the average about vertebræ, the pirate perch , and the _percidæ_, perch and darters, etc., to , while the _serranidæ_ or sea-bass, the nearest marine relatives of all these, have constantly . the marine family of damsel-fishes (_pomacentridæ_) have vertebræ, while to vertebræ usually exist in their fresh-water analogues (or possibly descendants), the _cichlidæ_, of the rivers of south america and africa. the sticklebacks (_gasterosteidæ_), a family of spiny fishes, confined to the rivers and seas of the north, have from to vertebræ. =pelagic fishes.=--among the free-swimming or migratory pelagic fishes, the number of vertebræ is usually greater than among their relatives of local habits. this fact is most evident among the scombriform fishes, the allies of the mackerel and tunny. all of these belong properly to the warm seas, and the reduction of the vertebræ in certain forms has no evident relation to the temperature, though it seems to be related in some degree to the habits of the species. perhaps the retention of many segments is connected with that strength and swiftness in the water for which the mackerels are preeminent. the variations in the number of vertebræ in this group led dr. günther to divide it into two families, the _carangidæ_ and _scombridæ_. the _carangidæ_ or _pampanos_ are tropical shore fishes, local or migratory to a slight degree. all these have from to vertebræ. in their pelagic relatives, the dolphins (_coryphæna_), there are from to ; in the opah (_lampris_), ; in brama, ; while the great mackerel family (_scombridæ_), all of whose members are more or less pelagic, have from to . the mackerel (_scomber scombrus_) has vertebræ; the chub mackerel (_scomber japonicus_), ; the tunny (_thunnus thynnus_), ; the long-finned albacore (_germo alalonga_), ; the bonito (_sarda sarda_), ; the spanish mackerel (_scomberomorus maculatus_), . other mackerel-like fishes are the cutlass-fishes (_trichiuridæ_), which approach the eels in form and in the reduction of the fins. in these the vertebræ are correspondingly numerous, the numbers ranging from to . _aphanopus_ has vertebræ; _lepidopus_, ; _trichurus_, . in apparent contradiction to this rule, however, the pelagic family of swordfishes (_xiphias_), remotely allied to the mackerels, and with even greater powers of swimming, has the vertebræ in normal number, the common swordfish having but . =the eels.=--the eels constitute a peculiar group of soft-rayed ancestry, in which everything else has been subordinated to muscularity and flexibility of body. the fins, girdles, gill-arches, scales, and membrane bones are all imperfectly developed or wanting. the eel is perhaps as far from the primitive stock as the most highly "ichthyized" fishes, but its progress has been of another character. the eel would be regarded in the ordinary sense as a degenerate type, for its bony structure is greatly simplified as compared with its ancestral forms, but in its eel-like qualities it is, however, greatly specialized. all the eels have vertebræ in great numbers. as the great majority of the species are tropical, and as the vertebræ in very few of the deep-sea forms have been counted, no conclusions can be drawn as to the relation of their vertebræ to the temperature. it is evident that the two families most decidedly tropical in their distribution, the morays (_murænidæ_) and the snake-eels (_ophichthyidæ_), have diverged farthest from the primitive stock. they are most "degenerate," as shown by the reduction of their skeleton. at the same time they are also most decidedly "eel-like," and in some respects, as in coloration, dentition, muscular development, most highly specialized. it is evident that the presence of numerous vertebral joints is essential to the suppleness of body which is the eel's chief source of power. so far as known the numbers of vertebræ in eels range from to , some of the deep-sea eels (_nemichthys_, _nettastoma_, _gordiichthys_) having much higher numbers, in accord with their slender or whip-like forms. among the morays, _muræna helena_ has ; _gymnothorax meleagris_, ; _g. undulatus_, ; _g. moringa_, ; _g. concolor_, ; _echidna catenata_, ; _e. nebulosa_, ; _e. zebra_, . in other families the true eel, _anguilla anguilla_, has ; the conger-eel, _leptocephalus conger_, ; and _murænesox cinereus_, . =variations in fin-rays.=--in some families the number of rays in the dorsal and anal fins is dependent on the number of vertebræ. it is therefore subject to the same fluctuations. this relation is not strictly proportionate, for often a variable number of rays with their interspinal processes will be interposed between a pair of vertebræ. the myotomes or muscular bands on the sides are usually coincident with the number of vertebræ. as, however, these and other characters are dependent on differences in vertebral segmentation, they bear the same relations to temperature or latitude that the vertebræ themselves sustain. thus in the _scorpænidæ_, _sebastes_, and _sebastolobus_ arctic genera have the dorsal rays xv, , the vertebræ + . the tropical genus _scorpæna_ has the dorsal rays xii, , the vertebræ + , while the genus _sebastodes_ of temperate waters has the intermediate numbers of dorsal rays xii, , and vertebræ + . =relation of numbers to conditions of life.=--fresh-water fishes have in general more vertebræ than marine fishes of shallow waters. pelagic fishes and deep-sea fishes have more than those which live along the shores, and more than localized or non-migratory forms. to each of these generalizations there are occasional partial exceptions, but not such as to invalidate the rule. the presence of large numbers of vertebræ is noteworthy among those fishes which swim for long distances, as, for example, many of the mackerel family. among such there is often found a high grade of muscular power, or even of activity, associated with a large number of vertebræ, these vertebræ being individually small and little differentiated. for long-continued muscular action of a uniform kind there would be perhaps an advantage in the low development of the vertebral column. for muscular alertness, moving short distances with great speed, the action of a fish constantly on its guard against enemies or watching for its prey, the advantage would be on the side of a few vertebræ. there is often a correlation between the free-swimming habit and slenderness and suppleness of the body, which again is often dependent on an increase in numbers of the vertebral segments. these correlations appear as a disturbing element in the problem rather than as furnishing a clew to its solution. in some groups of fresh-water fishes there is a reduction in number of vertebræ, not associated with any degree of specialization of the individual bone, but correlated with simple reduction in size of body. this is apparently a phenomenon of degeneration, a survival of dwarfs, where conditions are unfavorable in full growth. all these effects should be referable to the same group of causes. they may, in fact, be combined in one statement. all other fishes now extant, as well as all fishes existing prior to cretaceous times, have a larger number of vertebræ than the marine shore fishes of the tropics of the present period. there is good reason to believe that in most groups of spiny-rayed fishes, those with the smaller number of segments are at once the most highly organized and the most primitive. this is true among the blennies, the sculpins, the flounders, the perches, and probably the labroid fishes as well. the present writer once held the contrary view, that the forms with the higher numbers were primitive, but the evidence both from comparative anatomy and from palæontology seems to indicate that among spiny-rayed fishes the forms most ancient, most generalized, and most synthetic are those with about vertebræ. the soft-rayed fishes without exception show larger numbers, and these are still more primitive. this apparent contradiction is perhaps explained by dr. boulenger's suggestion that the prevalence of the same number, , in the vertebræ of various families of spiny-rayed fishes is due to common descent, probably from cretaceous berycoids having this number. in this theory, perches, sparoids, carangoids, chætodonts, labroids, parrot-fishes, gobies, flounders, and sculpins must be regarded as having a common origin from which all have diverged since jurassic times. this view is not at all unlikely and is not inconsistent with the facts of palæontology. if this be the case, the members of these and related families which have larger numbers of vertebræ must have diverged from the primitive stock. the change has been one of degeneration, the individual vertebræ being reduced in size and complexity, with a vegetative increase in their number. at the same time, the body having the greater number of segments is the more flexible though the segments themselves are less specialized. the primitive forms live chiefly along tropical shores, while forms with increased numbers of vertebræ are found in all other localities. this fact must be considered in any hypothesis as to the causes producing such changes. if the development of large numbers be a phase of degeneration the causes of such degeneration must be sought in the colder seas, in the rivers, and in the oceanic abysses. what have these waters in common that the coral reefs, the lava crags, and tide-pools of the tropics have not? it is certain that the possession of fewer vertebræ indicates the higher rank, the greater specialization of parts, even though the many vertebræ be a feature less primitive. the evolution of fishes is rarely a movement of progress toward complexity. the time movement in some groups is accompanied by degradation and loss of parts, by vegetative repetition of structures, and often by a movement from the fish-form toward the eel-form. water life is less exacting than land life, having less variation of conditions. it is, therefore, less effective in pushing forward the differentiation of parts. when vertebræ are few in number each one is relatively larger, its structure is more complicated, its appendages larger and more useful, and the fins with which it is connected are better developed. in other words, the tropical fish is more intensely and compactly a fish, with a better fish equipment, and in all ways better fitted for the business of a fish, especially for that of a fish that stays at home. [illustration: fig. .--skeleton of red rockfish, _sebastodes miniatus_ jordan and gilbert. california.] [illustration: fig. .--skeleton of a spiny-rayed fish of the tropics, _holacanthus ciliaris_ (linnæus).] in the center of competition no species can afford to be handicapped by a weak back-bone and redundant vertebræ. those who are thus weighted cannot hold their own. they must change or perish. the conditions most favorable to fish life are among the rocks and reefs of the tropical seas. about the coral reefs is the center of fish competition. a coral archipelago is the paris of fishes. in such regions is found the greatest variety of surroundings, and therefore the greatest number of possible adjustments. the struggle is between fish and fish, not between fishes and hard conditions of life. no form is excluded from the competition. cold, darkness, and foul water do not shut out competitors, nor does any evil influence sap the strength. the heat of the tropics does not make the sea-water hot. it is never sultry or laden with malaria. [illustration: fig. .--skeleton of the cowfish, _lactophrys tricornis_ (linnæus).] from conditions otherwise favorable in arctic regions the majority of competitors are excluded by their inability to bear the cold. river life is life in isolation. to aquatic animals river life has the same limitations that island life has to the animals of the land. the oceanic islands are far behind the continents in the process of evolution in so far as evolution implies specialization of parts. in a like manner the rivers are ages behind the seas, so far as progress is concerned, though through lack of competition the animals in isolation may be farthest from the original stock. therefore the influences which serve as a whole to intensify fish life, to keep it up to its highest effectiveness, and which tend to rid the fish of every character or structure it cannot "use in its business," are most effective along the shores of the tropics. one phase of this is the retention of low numbers of vertebræ, or, more accurately, the increase of stress on each individual bone. conversely, as the causes of these changes are still in operation, we should find that in cold waters, deep waters, dark waters, fresh waters, and inclosed waters the strain would be less, the relapses to less complex organization more frequent, the numbers of vertebræ would be larger, while the individual vertebræ would become smaller, less complete, and less perfectly ossified. this in a general way is precisely what we do find in examining the skeletons of a large variety of fishes. the cause of the increased numbers of vertebræ in cold waters or extratropical waters is as yet unknown. several guesses have been made, but these can scarcely rise to the level of theories. to ascribe it to natural selection, as the present writer has done, is to do little more than to restate the problem. as a possible tentative hypothesis we may say that the retention of the higher primitive traits in the tropics is due to continuous selection, the testing of individuals by the greater variety of external conditions. the degeneration of extratropical fishes may be due to isolation and cessation or reversal of selection. thus fresh waters, the arctic waters, the oceanic abysses are the "back woods" of fish life, localities favorable to the retention of primitive simplicity, equally favorable to subsequent degeneration. practically all deep-sea fishes are degenerate descendants of shore fishes of various groups. monotony and isolation permit or encourage degeneration of type. where the struggle for existence is most intense the higher structures will be retained or developed. among such facts as these derived from natural selection the cause of the relation of temperature to number of vertebræ must be sought. how the cretaceous berycoids first acquired their few vertebræ and the high degree of individual specialization of these structures we may not know. the character came with the thoracic ventrals with reduced number of rays, the ctenoid scales, the toothless maxillary, and other characters which have long persisted in their subsequent descendants. an exception to the general rule in regard to the number of vertebræ is found in the case of the eel. eels inhabit nearly all seas, and everywhere they have many vertebræ. the eels of the tropics are at once more specialized and more degraded. they are better eels than those of northern regions, but, as the eel is a degraded type, they have gone farther in the loss of structures in which this degradation consists. it is not well to push this analogy too far, but perhaps we can find in the comparison of the tropics and the cities some suggestion as to the development of the eel. in the city there is always a class which follows in no degree the general line of development. its members are specialized in a wholly different way. by this means they take to themselves a field which others have neglected, making up in low cunning what they lack in humanity or intelligence. thus, among fishes, we have in the regions of closest competition this degenerate and non-fish-like type, lurking in holes among the rocks, or creeping in the sand; thieves and scavengers among fishes. the eels thus fill a place otherwise left unfilled. in their way they are perfectly adapted to the lives they lead. a multiplicity of vertebral joints is useless to the tropical fish, but to the eel strength and suppleness are everything. no armature of fin or scale or bone is so desirable as its power of escaping through the smallest opening. with the elongation of the body and its increase in flexibility there is a tendency toward the loss of the paired fins, the ventrals going first, and afterwards the pectorals. this tendency may be seen in many groups. among recent fishes, the blennies, the eel-pouts, and the sea-snails furnish illustrative examples. =degeneration of structures.=--in the lancelet, which is a primitively simple organism, the various structures of the body are formed of simple tissues and in a very simple fashion. it is probable from the structure of each of these that it has never been very much more complex. as the individual develops in the process of growth each organ goes as it were straight to its final form and structure without metamorphosis or especial alterations by the way. when this type of development occurs, the organism belongs to a type which is primitively simple. but there are other forms which in their adult state appear feeble or simple, in which are found elements of organs of high complexity. thus in the sea-snail (_liparis_), small, weak, with feeble fins and flabby skin, we find the essential anatomy of the sculpin or the rosefish. the organs of the latter are there, but each one is reduced or degenerate, the bones as soft as membranes, the spines obsolete or buried in the skin. such a type is said to be degenerate. it is very different from one primitively simple, and it is likely in its earlier stages of development to be more complex than when it is fully grown. [illustration: fig. .--liparid, _crystallias matsushimæ_ (jordan and snyder). family _liparididæ_. matsushima bay, japan.] [illustration: fig. .--yellow-backed rockfish, _sebastichthys maliger_ jordan and gilbert. sitka, alaska.] in the evolution of groups of fishes it is a common feature that some one organ will be the center of a special stress, in view of some temporary importance of its function. by the process of natural selection it will become highly developed and highly specialized. some later changes in conditions will render this specialization useless or even harmful for at least a part of the species possessing it. the structure then undergoes degeneration, and in many cases it is brought to a lower estate than before the original changes. an example of this may be taken from the loricate or mailed-cheek fishes. one of the primitive members of this group is the rockfish known as priestfish (_sebastodes mystinus_). in this fish the head is weakly armed, covered with ordinary scales. a slight suggestion of cranial ridges and a slight prolongation of the third suborbital constitute the chief suggestions of its close affinity with the mailed-cheek fishes. in other rockfishes the cranial ridges grow higher and sharper. the third suborbital extends itself farther and wider. it becomes itself spinous in still others. finally it covers the whole cheek in a coat of mail. the head above becomes rough and horny and at last the whole body also is enclosed in a bony box. but while this specialization reaches an extraordinary degree in forms like _agonus_ and _peristedion_, it begins to abate with _cottus_, and thence through _cottunculus_, _psychrolutes_, _liparis_, and the like, and the mailed cheek finds its final degradation in _parliparis_. in this type no spines are present anywhere, no hard bone, no trace of scales, of first dorsal, or of ventral fins, and in the soft, limp structure covered with a fragile, scarf-like skin we find little suggestion of affinity with the strong rockfish or the rough-mailed _agonus_. yet a study of the skeleton shows that all these loricate forms constitute a continuous divergent series. the forms figured constitute only a few of the stages of specialization and degradation which the members of this group represent. [illustration: fig. .--european sculpin, _myoxocephalus scorpius_ (linnæus). cumberland gulf, arctic america] [illustration: fig. .--sea-raven, _hemitripterus americanus_ (gmelin). halifax, nova scotia.] some of the features of the habits and development of certain fresh-water fishes are mentioned in the following chapter. [illustration: fig. .--lumpfish, _cyclopterus lumpus_ (linnæus). eastport, maine.] the degeneration of the eye of the blind fishes of the caves of the mississippi valley, _amblyopsis_, _typhlichthys_, and _troglichthys_, have been very fully studied by dr. carl h. eigenmann. according to his observations "the history of the eye of _amblyopsis spelæus_ may be divided into four periods: [illustration: fig. .--sleek sculpin, _psychrolutes paradoxus_ (günther). puget sound.] "(_a_) the first extends from the appearance of the eye till the embryo is - mm. long. this period is characterized by a normal palingenic development, except that the cell division is retarded and there is very little growth. [illustration: fig. .--agonoid-fish, _pallasina barbata_ (steindachner). port mulgrave, alaska.] "(_b_) the second period extends till the fish is mm. long. it is characterized by the direct development of the eye from the normal embryonic stage reached in the first period to the highest stage reached by the _amblyopsis_ eye. [illustration: fig. .--blindfish of the mammoth cave, _amblyopsis spelæus_ (de kay). mammoth cave, kentucky.] "(_c_) the third, from mm. to about or mm. it is characterized by a number of changes which are positive as contrasted with degenerative. there are also distinct degenerative processes taking place during this period. "(_d_) the fourth, - mm. to death. it is characterized by degenerative processes only. "the eye of _amblyopsis_ appears at the same stage of growth as in normal fishes developing normal eyes. the eye grows but little after its appearance. "all the developmental processes are retarded and some of them give out prematurely. the most important, if the last, is the cell division and the accompanying growth that provide material for the eye. "the lens appears at the normal time and in the normal way, but its cells never divide and never lose their embryonic character. "the lens is first to show degenerative steps and disappears entirely before the fish is mm. long. [illustration: fig. .--blind brotula, _lucifuga subterranea_ (poey), showing viviparous habit. joignan cave, pinar del rio, cuba. photographed by dr. eigenmann.] "the optic nerve appears shortly before the fish reaches mm. it does not increase in size with the growth of the fish and disappears in old age. "the scleral cartilages appear when the fish is mm. long; they grow very slowly, possibly till old age. "there is no constant ratio between the extent and degree of ontogenic and phylogenic degeneration. "the eye is approaching the vanishing point through the route indicated by the eye of _troglichthys rosæ_. "there being no causes operative or inhibitive, either within the fish or in the environment, that are not also operative or inhibitive in _chologaster agassizii_, which lives in caves and develops well-formed eyes, it is evident that the causes controlling the development are hereditarily established in the egg by an accumulation of such degenerative changes as are still notable in the later history of the eye of the adult. "the foundations of the eye are normally laid, but the superstructure, instead of continuing the plan with additional material, completes it out of the material provided for the foundations. the development of the foundation of the eye is phylogenic; the stages beyond the foundations are direct." =conditions of evolution among fishes.=--dr. bashford dean ("fishes, living and fossil") has the following observations on the processes of adaptation among fishes: "the evolution of groups of fishes must accordingly have taken place during only the longest periods of time. their aquatic life has evidently been unfavorable to deep-seated structural changes, or at least has not permitted these to be perpetuated. recent fishes have diverged in but minor regards from their ancestors of the coal measures. within the same duration of time, on the other hand, terrestrial vertebrates have not only arisen, but have been widely differentiated. among land-living forms the amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have been evolved, and have given rise to more than sixty orders. "the evolution of fishes has been confined to a noteworthy degree within rigid and unshifting bounds; their living medium, with its mechanical effects upon fish-like forms and structures, has for ages been almost constant in its conditions; its changes of temperature and density and currents have rarely been more than of local importance, and have influenced but little the survival of genera and species widely distributed; its changes, moreover, in the normal supply of food organisms cannot be looked upon as noteworthy. aquatic life has built few of the direct barriers to survival, within which the terrestrial forms appear to have been evolved by the keenest competition. "it is not, accordingly, remarkable that in their descent fishes are known to have retained their tribal features, and to have varied from each other only in details of structure. their evolution is to be traced in diverging characters that prove rarely more than of family value; one form, as an example, may have become adapted for an active and predatory life, evolving stronger organs of progression, stouter armoring, and more trenchant teeth; another, closely akin in general structures, may have acquired more sluggish habits, largely or greatly diminished size, and degenerate characters in its dermal investiture, teeth and organs of sense or progression. the flowering out of a series of fish families seems to have characterized every geological age, leaving its clearest imprint on the forms which were then most abundant. the variety that to-day maintains among the families of bony fishes is thus known to be paralleled among the carboniferous sharks, the mesozoic chimæroids, and the palæozoic lung-fishes and teleostomes. their environment has retained their general characters, while modelling them anew into forms armored or scaleless, predatory or defenseless, great, small, heavy, stout, sluggish, light, slender, blunt, tapering, depressed. "when members of any group of fishes became extinct, those appear to have been the first to perish which were the possessors of the greatest number of widely modified or _specialized_ structures. those, for example, whose teeth were adapted for a particular kind of food, or whose motions were hampered by ponderous size or weighty armoring, were the first to perish in the struggle for existence; on the other hand, the forms that most nearly retained the ancestral or tribal characters--that is, those whose structures were in every way least extreme--were naturally the best fitted to survive. thus _generalized_ fishes should be considered those of medium size, medium defenses, medium powers of progression, omnivorous feeding habits, and wide distribution, and these might be regarded as having provided the staples of survival in every branch of descent. "aquatic living has not demanded wide divergence from the ancestral stem, and the divergent forms which may culminate in a profusion of families, genera, and species do not appear to be again productive of more generalized groups. in all lines of descent specialized forms do not appear to regain by regression or degeneration the potential characters of their ancestral condition. a generalized form is like potter's clay, plastic in the hands of nature, readily to be converted into a needed kind of cup or vase; but when thus specialized may never resume unaltered its ancestral condition: the clay survives; the cup perishes." (dean.) footnotes: [ ] günther, introd. to the study of fishes, p. . [ ] the cells which von lendenfeld designates 'phosphorescent cells' have as their peculiar characteristic a large, oval, highly refracting body imbedded in the protoplasm of the larger end of the clavate cells. these cells have nothing in common with the structure of the cells of the firefly known to be phosphorescent in nature. in fact the true phosphorescent cells are more probably the 'gland-cells' found in ten of the twelve classes of organs which he describes. [ ] see a more technical paper on this subject entitled "relations of temperature to vertebræ among fishes," published in the proceedings of the united states national museum for , pp. - . still fuller details are given in a paper contained in the wilder quarter-century book, . the substance is also included in chapter viii of foot-notes to evolution: d. appleton & co. chapter xiii the colors of fishes =pigmentation.=--the colors of fishes are in general produced by oil sacs or pigment cells beneath the epidermis or in some cases beneath the scales. certain metallic shades, silvery blue or iridescent, are produced, not by actual pigment, but, as among insects, by the deflection of light from the polished skin or the striated surfaces of the scales. certain fine striations give an iridescent appearance through the interference of light. the pigmentary colors may be divided into two general classes, ground coloration and ornamentation or markings. of these the ground color is most subject to individual or local variation, although usually within narrow limits, while the markings are more subject to change with age or sex. on the other hand, they are more distinctive of the species itself. =protective coloration.=--the ground coloration most usual among fishes is protective in its nature. in a majority of fishes the back is olivaceous or gray, either plain or mottled, and the belly white. to birds looking down into the water, the back is colored like the water itself or like the bottom below it. to fishes in search of prey from below, the belly is colored like the surface of the water or the atmosphere above it. in any case the darker colored upper surface casts its shadow over the paler lower parts. in shallow waters or in rivers the bottom is not uniformly colored. the fish, especially if it be one which swims close to the bottom, is better protected if the olivaceous surface is marked by darker cross streaks and blotches. these give the fish a color resemblance to the weeds about it or to the sand and stones on which it lies. as a rule, no fish which lies on the bottom is ever quite uniformly colored. [illustration: fig. .--garibaldi (scarlet in color), _hypsypops rubicunda_ (girard). la jolla, san diego, california.] in the open seas, where the water seems very blue, blue colors, and especially metallic shades, take the place of olivaceous gray or green. as we descend into deep water, especially in the warm seas, red pigment takes the place of olive. at a moderate depth a large percentage of the fishes are of various shades of red. several of the large groupers of the west indies are represented by two color forms, a shore form in which the prevailing shade is olive-green, and a deeper-water form which is crimson. in several cases an intermediate-color form also exists which is lemon-yellow. on the coast of california is a band-shaped blenny (_apodichthys flavidus_) which appears in three colors, according to its surroundings, blood-red, grass-green, and olive-yellow. the red coloration is also essentially protective, for the region inhabited by such forms is the zone of the rose-red algæ. in the arctic waters, and in lakes where rose-red algæ are not found, the red-ground coloration is almost unknown, although red may appear in markings or in nuptial colors. it is possible that the red, both of fishes and algæ, in deeper water is related to the effect of water on the waves of light, but whether this should make fishes red or violet has never been clearly understood. it is true also that where the red in fishes ceases violet-black begins. in the greater depths, from to fathoms, the ground color in most fishes becomes deep black or violet-black, sometimes with silvery luster reflected from the scales, but more usually dull and lusterless. this shade may be also protective. in these depths the sun's rays scarcely penetrate, and the fish and the water are of the same apparent shade, for black coloration is here the mere absence of light. in general, the markings of various sorts grow less distinct with the increase of depth. bright-red fishes of the depths are usually uniform red. the violet-black fishes of the oceanic abysses show no markings whatever (luminous glands excepted), and in deep waters there are no nuptial or sexual differences in color. ground colors other than olive-green, gray, brown, or silvery rarely appear among fresh-water fishes. marine fishes in the tropics sometimes show as ground color bright blue, grass-green, crimson, orange-yellow, or black; but these showy colors are almost confined to fishes of the coral reefs, where they are often associated with elaborate systems of markings. =protective markings.=--the markings of fishes are of almost every conceivable character. they may be roughly grouped as protective coloration, sexual coloration, nuptial coloration, recognition colors, and ornamentation, if we may use the latter term for brilliant hues which serve no obvious purpose to the fish itself. examples of protective markings may be seen everywhere. the flounder which lies on the sand has its upper surface covered with sand-like blotches, and these again will vary according to the kind of sand it imitates. it may be true sand or crushed coral or the detritus of lava, in any case perfectly imitated. equally closely will the markings on a fish correspond with rock surroundings. with granite rocks we find an elaborate series of granitic markings, with coral rocks another series of shades, and if red corals be present, red shades of like appearance are found on the fish. still another kind of mark indicates rock pools lined with the red calcareous algæ called corallina. black species are found in lava masses, grass-green ones among the fronds of ulva, and olive-green among sargassum or fucus, the markings and often the form corresponding to the nature of the algæ in which the species makes its home. [illustration: fig. .--gofu, or poison fish, _synanceia verrucosa_ (linnæus). family _scorpænidæ_. specimen from apia, samoa, showing resemblance to coral masses, in the clefts of which it lives.] =sexual coloration.=--in many groups of fishes the sexes are differently colored. in some cases bright-red, blue, or black markings characterize the male, the female having similar marks, but less distinct, and the bright colors replaced by olive, brown, or gray. in a few cases, however, the female has marks of a totally different nature, and scarcely less bright than those of the male. [illustration: fig. .--lizard-skipper, _alticus saliens_ (forster). a blenny which lies out of water on lava-rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility. from nature; specimen from point distress, tutuila island, samoa. (about one-half size.)] =nuptial coloration.=--nuptial colors are those which appear on the male in the breeding season only, the pigment afterwards vanishing, leaving the sexes essentially alike. such colors are found on most of the minnows and dace (_cyprinidæ_) of the rivers and to a less degree in some other fresh-water fishes, as the darters (_etheostominæ_) and the trout. in the minnows of many species the male in spring has the skin charged with bright pigment, red, black, or bright silvery, for the most part, the black most often on the head, the red on the head and body, and the silvery on the tips of the fins. at the same time other markings are intensified, and in many species the head and sometimes the body and fins are covered with warty excrescences. these shades are most distinct on the most vigorous males, and disappear with the warty excrescences after the fertilization of the eggs. [illustration: fig. .--blue-breasted darter, _etheostoma camurum_ (cope), the most brilliantly colored of american river-fishes. cumberland gap, tennessee.] nuptial colors do not often appear among marine fishes, and in but few families are the sexes distinguishable by differences in coloration. =recognition-marks.=--under the head of "recognition-marks" may be grouped a great variety of special markings, which may be conceived to aid the representatives of a given species to recognize each other. that they actually serve this purpose is a matter of theory, but the theory is plausible, and these markings have much in common with the white tail feathers, scarlet crests, colored wing patches, and other markings regarded as recognition-marks among birds. among these are ocelli, black- or blue-ringed with white or yellow, on various parts of the body; black spots on the dorsal fin; black spots below or behind the eye; black, red, blue, or yellow spots variously placed; cross-bars of red or black or green, with or without pale edges; a blood-red fin or a fin of shining blue among pale ones; a white edge to the tail; a yellow, blue, or red streamer to the dorsal fin, a black tip to the pectoral or ventral; a hidden spot of emerald in the mouth or in the axil; an almost endless variety of sharply defined markings, not directly protective, which serve as recognition-marks, if not to the fish itself, certainly to the naturalist who studies it. these marks shade off into an equally great variety for which we can devise no better name than "ornamentation." some fishes are simply covered with brilliant spots or bars or reticulations, their nature and variety baffling description, while no useful purpose seems to be served by them, unless we stretch still more widely the convenient theory of recognition-marks. in many cases the markings change with age, certain bands, stripes, or ocelli being characteristic of the young and gradually disappearing. in such cases the same marks will be found permanent in some related species of less differentiated coloration. in such cases it is safe to regard them as ancestral. in case of markings on the fins and of elaborate ornamentation in general, it is best defined in the oldest and most vigorous individuals, becoming intensified by degrees. the most brilliantly colored fishes are found about the coral reefs. here may be found species of which the ground color is the most intense blue, others are crimson, grass-green, lemon-yellow, jet-black, and each with a great variety of contrasted markings. the frontispiece of this volume shows a series of such fishes drawn from nature from specimens taken in pools of the great coral reef of apia in samoa. these colors are not protective. the coral masses are mostly plain gray, and the fishes which lie on the bottom are plain gray also. nothing could be more brilliant or varied than the hues of the free-swimming fishes. what their cause or purpose may be, it is impossible to say. it is certain that their intense activity and the ease with which they can seek shelter in the coral masses enable them to defy their enemies. nature seems to riot in bright colors where her creatures are not destroyed by their presence. =intensity of coloration.=--in general, coloration is most intense and varied in certain families of the tropical shores, and especially about coral reefs. but in brilliancy of individual markings some fresh-water fishes are scarcely less notable, especially the darters (_etheostominæ_) and sunfishes (_centrarchidæ_) of the streams of eastern north america. the bright hues of these fresh-water fishes are, however, more or less concealed in the water by the olivaceous markings and dark blotches of the upper parts. [illustration: fig. .--snake-eels, _liuranus semicinctus_ (lay and bennett), and _chlevastes colubrinus_ (boddaert), from riu kiu islands, japan.] [illustration: fig. .--coral reef at apia.] =coral-reef fishes.=--the brilliantly colored fishes of the tropical reefs seem, as already stated, to have no need of protective coloration. they save themselves from their enemies in most cases by excessive alertness and activity (_chætodon_, _pomacentrus_), or else by busying themselves in coral sand (_julis gaimard_), a habit more frequent than has been suspected. every large mass of branching coral is full of lurking fishes, some of them often most brilliantly colored. =fading of pigments in spirits.=--in the preservation of specimens most red and blue pigments fade to whitish, and it requires considerable care to interpret the traces which may be left of red bands or blue markings. yet some blue pigments are absolutely permanent, and occasionally blood-red pigments persist through all conditions. black pigment seldom changes in spirits, and olivaceous markings simply fade a little without material alteration. it is an important part of the work of the systematic ichthyologist to learn to interpret the traces of the faded pigment left on specimens he may have occasion to examine. in such cases it is more important to trace the markings than to restore the ground color, as the ground color is at once more variable with individuals and more constant in large groups. =variation in pattern.=--occasionally, however, a species is found in which, other characters being constant, both ground color and markings are subject to a remarkable range of variation. in such cases the actual unity of the species is open to serious question. the most remarkable case of such variation known is found in a west indian fish, the vaca, which bears the incongruous name of _hypoplectrus unicolor_. in the typical vaca the body is orange with black marks and blue lines, the fins checkered with orange and blue. in a second form the body is violet, barred with black, the head with blue spots and bands. in another form the blue on the head is wanting. in still another the body is yellow and black, with blue on the head only. in others the fins are plain orange, without checks, and the body yellow, with or without blue stripes and spots, and sometimes with spots of black or violet. in still others the body may be pink or brown, or violet-black, the fins all yellow, part black or all black. finally, there are forms deep indigo-blue in color everywhere, with cross bands of indigo-black, and these again may have bars of deeper blue on the head or may lack these altogether. i find, no difference among these fishes except in color, and no way of accounting for the differences in this regard. certain species of puffer (_tetraodon setosus_, of panama, and _tetraodon nigropunctatus_, of polynesia) show similar remarkable variations, being dark gray with white spots, but varying to indigo-blue, lemon-yellow, or sometimes having coarse blotches of either. lemon-yellow varieties of several species are known, and these may be due to a failure of pigment, a sort of semi-albinism. true albinos, individuals wholly without pigment, are rare among fishes. in some cases the markings, commonly black, will be replaced by a deep crimson which does not fade in alcohol. this change happens most frequently among the _scorpænidæ_. an example of this is shown in the frontispiece of volume ii of this work. the japanese okose or poison-fish (_inimicus_) is black and gray about lava-rocks. in deeper water among red algæ it is bright crimson, the color not fading in spirits, the markings remaining the same. in still deeper water it is lemon-yellow. chapter xiv the geographical distribution of fishes =zoogeography.=--under the head of distribution we consider the facts of the actual location of species of organisms on the surface of the earth and the laws by which their location is governed. this constitutes the subject-matter of the science of zoogeography. in physical geography we may prepare maps of the earth or of any part of it, these bringing to prominence the physical features of its surface. such maps show here a sea, there a plateau, here a mountain chain, there a desert, a prairie, a peninsula, or an island. in political geography the maps show their physical features of the earth as related to the people who inhabit them and the states or powers which receive or claim their allegiance. in zoogeography the realms of the earth are considered in relation to the species or tribes of animals which inhabit them. thus series of maps could be drawn representing those parts of north america in which catfishes or trout or sunfishes are found in the streams. in like manner the distribution of any particular fish as the muskallonge or the yellow perch could be shown on the map. the details of such a map are very instructive, and their consideration at once raises a series of questions as to the cause behind each fact. in science it must be supposed that no fact is arbitrary or meaningless. in the case of fishes the details of the method of diffusion of species afford matters of deep interest. these are considered in a subsequent chapter. the dispersion of animals may be described as a matter of space and time, the movement being continuous but modified by barriers and other conditions of environment. the tendency of recent studies in zoogeography has been to consider the facts of present distribution as the result of conditions in the past, thus correlating our present knowledge with the past relations of land and water as shown through paleontology. dr. a. e. ortmann well observes that "any division of the earth's surface into zoogeographical regions which starts exclusively from the present distribution of animals without considering its origin must always be unsatisfactory." we must therefore consider the coast-lines and barriers of tertiary and earlier times as well as those of to-day to understand the present distribution of fishes. =general laws of distribution.=--the general laws governing the distribution of all animals are reducible to three very simple propositions. each species of animal is found in every part of the earth having conditions suitable for its maintenance, unless (_a_) its individuals have been unable to reach this region through barriers of some sort; or, (_b_) having reached it, the species is unable to maintain itself, through lack of capacity for adaptation, through severity of competition with other forms, or through destructive conditions of environment; or else, (_c_) having entered and maintained itself, it has become so altered in the process of adaptation as to become a species distinct from the original type. =species absent through barriers.=--the absence from the japanese fauna of most european or american species comes under the first head. the pike has never reached the japanese lakes, though the shade of the-lotus leaf in the many clear ponds would suit its habits exactly. the grunt[ ] and porgies[ ] of our west indian waters have failed to cross the ocean and therefore have no descendants in europe or asia. =species absent through failure to maintain foothold.=--of species under (_b_), those who have crossed the seas and not found lodgement, we have, in the nature of things, no record. of the existence of multitudes of estrays we have abundant evidence. in the gulf stream off cape cod are every year taken many young fishes belonging to species at home in the bahamas and which find no permanent place in the new england fauna. in like fashion, young fishes from the tropics drift northward in the kuro shiwo to the coasts of japan, but never finding a permanent breeding-place and never joining the ranks of the japanese fishes. but to this there have been, and will be, occasional exceptions. now and then one among thousands finds permanent lodgement, and by such means a species from another region will be added to the fauna. the rest disappear and leave no trace. a knowledge of these currents and their influence is eventual to any detailed study of the dispersion of fishes. the occurrence of the young of many shore fishes of the hawaiian islands as drifting plankton at a considerable distance from the shores has been lately discovered by dr. gilbert. each island is, in a sense, a "sphere of influence," affecting the fauna of neighboring regions. =species changed through natural selection.=--in the third class, that of species changed in the process of adaptation, most insular forms belong. as a matter of fact, at some time or another almost every species must be in this category, for isolation is a source of the most potent elements in the initiation and intensification of the minor differences which separate related species. it is not the preservation of the most useful features, but of those which actually existed in the ancestral individuals, which distinguish such species. natural selection must include not only the process of the survival of the fittest, but also the results of the survival of the existing. this means the preservation through heredity of the traits not of the species alone, but those of the actual individuals set apart to be the first in the line of descent in a new environment. in hosts of cases the persistence of characters rests not on any special usefulness or fitness, but on the fact that individuals possessing these characters have, at one time or another, invaded a certain area and populated it. the principle of utility explains survivals among competing structures. it rarely accounts for qualities associated with geographical distribution. =extinction of species.=--the extinction of species may be noted here in connection with their extension of range. prof. herbert osborn has recognized five different types of elimination. . that extinction which comes from modification or progressive evolution, a relegation to the past as the result of a transmutation into more advanced forms. . extinction from changes of physical environment which outrun the powers of adaptation. . the extinction which results from competition. . the extinction from extreme specialization and limitation to special conditions the loss of which means extinction. . extinction as a result of exhaustion. as an illustration of no. , we may take almost any species which has a cognate species on the further side of some barrier or in the tertiary seas. thus the trout of the twin lakes in colorado has acquired its present characters in the place of those brought into the lake by its actual ancestors. no. is illustrated by the disappearance of east indian types (_zanclus_, _platax_, _toxotes_, etc.) in italy at the end of the eocene, perhaps for climatic reasons. extinction through competition is shown in the gradual disappearance of the sacramento perch (_archoplitis interruptus_) after the invasion of the river by catfish and carp. from extreme specialization certain forms have doubtless disappeared, but no certain case of this kind has been pointed out among fishes, unless this be the cause of the disappearance of the devonian mailed _ostracophores_ and _arthrodires_. it is not likely that any group of fishes has perished through exhaustion of the stock of vigor. =barriers checking movement of marine fishes.=--the limits of the distribution of individual species or genera must be found in some sort of barrier, past or present. the chief barriers which limit marine fishes are the presence of land, the presence of great oceans, the differences of temperature arising from differences in latitude, the nature of the sea bottom, and the direction of oceanic currents. that which is a barrier to one species may be an agent in distribution to another. the common shore fishes would perish in deep waters almost as surely as on land, while the open pacific is a broad highway to the albacore or the swordfish. again, that which is a barrier to rapid distribution may become an agent in the slow extension of the range of a species. the great continent of asia is undoubtedly one of the greatest of barriers to the wide movement of species of fish, yet its long shore-line enables species to creep, as it were, from bay to bay, or from rock to rock, till, in many cases, the same species is found in the red sea and in the tide-pools or sand-reaches of japan. in the north pacific, the presence of a range of half-submerged volcanoes, known as the aleutian and the kurile islands, has greatly aided the slow movement of the fishes of the tide-pools and the kelp. to a school of mackerel or of flying-fishes these rough islands with their narrow channels might form an insuperable barrier. [illustration: fig. .--japanese filefish, _rudarius ercodes_ jordan and snyder. wakanoura, japan. family _monacanthidæ_.] =temperature the central fact in distribution.=--it has long been recognized that the matter of temperature is the central fact in all problems of geographical distribution. few species in any group freely cross the frost-line, and except as borne by oceanic currents, not many extend their range far into waters colder than those in which the species is distinctively at home. knowing the average temperature of the water in a given region we know in general the types of fishes which must inhabit it. it is the similarity in temperature and physical conditions which chiefly explains the resemblance of the japanese fauna to that of the mediterranean or the antilles. this fact alone must explain the resemblance of the arctic and antarctic faunæ, there being in no case a barrier in the sea that may not some time be crossed. like forms lodge in like places. =agency of ocean currents.=--we may consider again for a moment the movements of the great currents in the pacific as agencies in the distribution of species. a great current sets to the eastward, crossing the ocean just south of the equator. it extends past samoa and passes on nearly to the coast of mexico, touching the galapagos islands, clipperton island, and especially the revillagigedos. this may account for the number of polynesian species found on these islands, about which they are freely mixed with immigrants from the mainland of mexico. from the revillagigedos[ ] the current moves northward and westward, passing the hawaiian islands and thence onward to the ladrones. the absence in hawaii of most of the characteristic fishes of polynesia and micronesia may be in part due to the long detour made by these currents, as the conditions of life in these groups of islands are not very different. northeast of hawaii is a great spiral current, moving with the hands of the watch, forming what is called fleurieu's whirlpool. this does not reach the coast of california. this fact may help to account for the almost complete distinction in the shore fishes of hawaii and california.[ ] no other group of islands in the tropics has a fish fauna so isolated as that of hawaii. the genera are largely the ordinary tropical types. the species are largely peculiar to these islands. the westward current from hawaii reaches luzon and formosa. it is deflected to the northward and, joining a northward current from celebes, it forms the kuro shiwo or black stream of japan, which strews its tropical species in the rock pools along the japanese promontories as far as tokio. then, turning into the open sea, it passes northward to the aleutian islands, across to sitka. thence it moves southward as a cold current, bearing ochotsk-alaskan types southward as far as the santa barbara islands, to which region it is accompanied by species of aleutian origin. a cold return current seems to extend southward in japan, along the east shore perhaps as far as matsushima. a similar current in the sea to the west of japan extends still further to the southward, to noto, or beyond. it is, of course, not necessary that the movements of a species in an oceanic current should coincide with the direction of the current. young fishes, or fresh-water fishes, would be borne along with the water. those that dwell within floating bodies of seaweed would go whither the waters carry the drifting mass. but free-swimming fishes, as the mackerel or flying-fishes, might as readily choose the reverse direction. to a free-swimming fish the temperature of the water would be the only consideration. it is thus evident that a current which to certain forms would prove a barrier to distribution, to others would be a mere convenience in movement. in comparing the japanese fauna with that of australia, we find some trace of both these conditions. certain forms are perhaps excluded by cross-currents, while certain others seem to have been influenced only by the warmth of the water. a few australian types on the coast of chile seem to have been carried over by the cross-currents of the south atlantic. it is fair to say that the part taken by oceanic currents in the distribution of shore fishes is far from completely demonstrated. the evidence that they assist in such distribution is, in brief, as follows: . the young of shore fishes often swim at the surface. . the young of very many tropical fishes drift northward in the gulf stream and the japanese kuro shiwo. . the faunal isolation of hawaii may be correlated with the direction of the oceanic currents. =centers of distribution.=--we may assume, in regard to any species, that it has had its origin in or near that region in which it is most abundant and characteristic. such an assumption must involve a very large percentage of error or of doubt, but in considering the mass of species, it may represent essential truth. in the same fashion we may regard a genus as being autochthonous or first developed in the region where it shows the greatest range or variety of species. those regions where the greatest number of genera are thus autochthonous may be regarded as centers of distribution. so far as the marine fishes are concerned, the most important of these supposed centers are found in the pacific ocean. first of these in importance is the east-indian archipelago, with the neighboring shores of india. next would come the arctic pacific and its bounding islands, from japan to british columbia. third in importance in this regard is australia. important centers are found in temperate japan, in california, the panama region, and in new zealand, chili, and patagonia. the fauna of polynesia is almost entirely derived from the indies; and the shore fauna of the red sea, the bay of bengal, and madagascar, so far as genera are concerned, seems to be not really separable from the indian fauna generally. [illustration: fig. .--globefish, _tetraodon setosus_ rosa smith. clarion island, mexico.] i know of but six genera which may be regarded as autochthonous in the red sea, and nearly all of these are of doubtful value or of uncertain relation. the many peculiar genera described by dr. alcock, from the dredgings of the _investigator_ in the bay of bengal, belong to the bathybial or deep-water series, and will all, doubtless, prove to be forms of wide distribution. in the atlantic, the chief center of distribution is the west indies; the second is the mediterranean. on the shores to the northward or southward of these regions occasional genera have found their origin. this is true especially of the new england region, the north sea, the gulf of guinea, and the coast of argentina. the fish fauna of the north atlantic is derived mainly from the north pacific, the differences lying mainly in the relative paucity of the north atlantic. but in certain groups common to the two regions the migration must have been in the opposite direction, exceptions that prove the rule. =distribution of marine fishes.=--the distribution of marine fishes must be indicated in a different way from that of the fresh-water forms. the barriers which limit their range furnish also their means of dispersion. in some cases proximity overbalances the influence of temperature; with most forms questions of temperature are all-important. =pelagic fishes.=--before consideration of the coast-lines we may glance at the differences in vertical distribution. many species, especially those in groups allied to the mackerel family, are pelagic--that is, inhabiting the open sea and ranging widely within limits of temperature. in this series some species are practically cosmopolitan. in other cases the genera are so. each school or group of individuals has its breeding place, and from the isolation of breeding districts new species may be conceived to arise. the pelagic types have reached a species of equilibrium in distribution. each type may be found where suitable conditions exist, and the distribution of species throws little light on questions of distribution of shore fishes. yet among these species are all degrees of localization. the pelagic fishes shade into the shore fishes on the one hand and into the deep-sea fishes on the other. =bassalian fishes.=--the vast group of bassalian or deep-sea fishes includes those forms which live below the line of adequate light. these too are localized in their distribution, and to a much greater extent than was formerly supposed. yet as they dwell below the influence of the sun's rays, zones and surface temperatures are nearly alike to them, and the same forms may be found in the arctic or under the equator. their differences in distribution are largely vertical, some living at greater depths than others, and they shade off by degrees from bathybial into semi-bathybial, and finally into ordinary pelagic and ordinary shore types. apparently all of the bassalian fishes are derived from littoral types, the changes in structure being due to degeneration of the osseous and muscular systems and of structures not needed in deep-sea life. [illustration: fig. .--sting-ray, _dasyatis sabina_ le sueur. galveston.] the fishes of the great depths are soft in substance, some of them blind, some of them with very large eyes, all black in color, and very many are provided with luminous spots or areas. a large body of species of fishes are semi-bathybial, inhabiting depths of to fathoms, showing many of the characters of shore fishes, but far more widely distributed. many of the remarkable cases of wide distribution of type belong to this class. in moderate depths red colors are very common, corresponding to the zone of red algæ, and the colors in both cases are perhaps determined from the fact that the red rays of light are the least refrangible. a certain number of species are both marine and fresh water, inhabiting estuaries and brackish waters, while some more strictly marine ascend the rivers to spawn. in none of these cases can any hard and fast line be drawn, and some groups which are shore fishes in one region will be represented by semi-bathybial or fluviatile forms in another.[ ] =littoral fishes.=--the shore fishes are in general the most highly specialized in their respective groups, because exposed to the greatest variety of selecting conditions and of competition. their distribution in space is more definite than that of the pelagic and bassalian types, and they may be more definitely assigned to geographical areas. =distribution of littoral fishes by coast-lines.=--their distribution is best indicated, not by realms or areas, but as forming four parallel series corresponding to the four great north and south continental outlines. each of these series may be represented as beginning at the north in the arctic fauna, practically identical in each of the four series, actually identical in the two pacific series. passing southward, forms are arranged according to temperature. one by one in each series, the arctic types disappear; subarctic, temperate, and semi-tropical types take their places, giving way in turn to south-temperate and antarctic forms. the distribution of these is modified by barriers and by currents, yet though genera and species may be different, each isotherm is represented in each series by certain general types of fishes. [illustration: fig. .--green-sided darter, _diplesion blennioides_ rafinesque. clinch river. family _percidæ_.] passing southward the two american series, the east atlantic and the east pacific, pass on gradually through temperate to antarctic types. these are analogous to those of the arctic, and in a few cases they are generally identical. the west pacific (east asian) series is not a continuous line on account of the presence of australia, the east indies, and polynesia. the irregularities of these regions make a number of subseries, which break up the simplicity expressed in the idea of four parallel series. yet the fauna of polynesia is strictly east indian, modified by the omission or alteration of species, and that of australia is indian at the north, and changes to the southward much as that of africa does. in its marine fishes, it does not constitute a distinct "realm." the east atlantic (europe-african) series follows the same general lines of change as that of the west atlantic. it extends, however, only to the south temperate zone, developing no antarctic elements. the relative shortness of africa explains in large degree, as already shown, the similarity between the tropical elements in the two old-world series, as the similarity in tropical elements in the two american series must be due to a former depression of the connecting isthmus. the practical unity of the arctic marine fauna needs no explanation in view of the present shore lines of the arctic ocean. =minor faunal areas.=--the minor faunal areas of shore fishes may be grouped as follows: east atlantic. icelandic, british, mediterranean, guinean, cape. west atlantic. greenlandic, new england, virginian, austroriparian, floridian, antillæan, caribbean, brazilian, argentinan, patagonian. east pacific. arctic, aleutian, sitkan, californian, san diegan, sinaloan, panamanian, peruvian, revillagigedan, galapagan, chilian, patagonian. west pacific. arctic, aleutian, kurile, hokkaido, nippon, chinese, east indian, polynesian, hawaiian, indian, arabian, madagascarian, cape, north australian, tasmanian, new zealand, antarctic. =equatorial fishes most specialized.=--in general, the different types are most highly specialized in equatorial waters. the processes of specific change, through natural selection or other causes, if other causes exist, take place most rapidly there and produce most far-reaching modification. as elsewhere stated, the coral reefs of the tropics are the centers of fish-life, the cities in fish economy. the fresh waters, the arctic waters, the deep sea and the open sea represent forms of ichthyic backwoods, regions where change goes on more slowly, and in them we find survivals of archaic or generalized types. for this reason the study in detail of the distribution of marine fishes of equatorial regions is in the highest degree instructive. =realms of distribution of fresh-water fishes.=--if we consider the fresh-water fishes alone we may divide the land areas of the earth into districts and zones not differing fundamentally with those marked out for mammals and birds. the river basin, bounded by its shores and the sea at its mouth, shows many resemblances, from the point of view of a fish, to an island considered as the home of an animal. it is evident that with fishes the differences in latitude outweigh those of continental areas, and a primary division into old world and new world would not be tenable. the chief areas of distribution of fresh-water fishes we may indicate as follows, following essentially the grouping proposed by dr. günther:[ ] =northern zone.=--with dr. günther we may recognize first the _northern zone_, characterized familiarly by the presence of sturgeon, salmon, trout, whitefish, pike, lamprey, stickleback, and other species of which the genera and often the species are identical in europe, siberia, canada, alaska, and most of the united states, japan, and china. this is subject to cross-division into two great districts, the first europe-asiatic, the second north american. these two agree very closely to the northward, but diverge widely to the southward, developing a variety of specialized genera and species, and both of them passing finally by degrees into the equatorial zone. still another line of division is made by the ural mountains in the old world and by the rocky mountains in the new. in both cases the eastern region is vastly richer in genera and species, as well as in autochthonous forms, than the western. the reason for this lies in the vastly greater extent of the river basins of china and the eastern united states, as compared with those of europe or the californian region. [illustration: fig. .--japanese sea-horse, _hippocampus mohnikei_ bleeker. misaki, japan.] minor divisions are those which separate the great lake region from the streams tributary to the gulf of mexico; and in asia, those which separate china from tributaries of the caspian, the black, and the mediterranean. =equatorial zone.=--the equatorial zone is roughly indicated by the tropics of cancer and capricorn. its essential feature is that of the temperature, and the peculiarities of its divisions are caused by barriers of sea or mountains. dr. günther finds the best line of separation into two divisions to lie in the presence or absence of the great group of dace or minnows,[ ] to which nearly half of the species of fresh-water fishes the world over belong. the entire group, now spread everywhere except in the arctic, south america, australia, and the islands of the pacific, seems to have had its origin in india, from which region its genera have radiated in every direction. the cyprinoid division of the equatorial zone forms two districts, the indian and the african. the acyprinoid division includes south america, south of mexico, and all the islands of the tropical pacific lying to the east of wallace's line. this line, separating borneo from celebes and bali from lompoe, marks in the pacific the western limit of cyprinoid fishes, as well as that of monkeys and other important groups of land animals. this line, recognized as very important in the distribution of land animals, coincides in general with the ocean current between celebes and papua, which is one of the sources of the kuro shiwo. in australia, hawaii, and polynesia generally, the fresh-water fishes are derived from marine types by modification of one sort or another. in no case, so far as i know, in any island to the eastward of borneo, is found any species derived from fresh-water families of either the eastern or the western continent. of course, minor subdivisions in these districts are formed by the contour lines of river basins. the fishes of the nile differ from those of the niger or the congo, or of the streams of madagascar or cape colony, but in all these regions the essential character of the fish fauna remains the same. =southern zone.=--the third great region, the southern zone, is scantily supplied with fresh-water fishes, and the few it possesses are chiefly derived from modifications of the marine fauna or from the equatorial zone to the north. three districts are recognized--tasmania, new zealand, and patagonia. =origin of the new zealand fauna.=--the fact that certain peculiar groups are common to these three regions has attracted the notice of naturalists. in a critical study of the fish fauna of new zealand,[ ] dr. gill discusses the origin of the four genera and seven species of fresh-water fishes found in these islands, the principal of these genera (_galaxias_) being represented by nearly related species in south australia, in patagonia,[ ] the falkland islands, and in south africa. according to dr. gill, we can account for this anomaly of distribution only by supposing, on the one hand, that their ancestors were carried for long distances in some unnatural manner, as (_a_) having been carried across entombed in ice, or (_b_) being swept by ocean currents, surviving their long stay in salt water, or else that they were derived (_c_) from some widely distributed marine type now extinct, its descendants restricted to fresh water. on the other hand, dr. gill suggests that as "community of type must be the expression of community of origin," the presence of fishes of long-established fresh-water types must imply continuity or at least contiguity of land. the objections raised by geologists to the supposed land connection of new zealand and tasmania do not appear to dr. gill insuperable. it is well known, he says, "that the highest mountain chains are of comparatively recent geological age. it remains, then, to consider which is the more probable, ( ) that the types now common in distant regions were distributed in some unnatural manner by the means referred to, or ( ) that they are descendants of forms once wide-ranging over lands now submerged." after considering questions as to change of type in other groups, dr. gill is inclined to postulate, from the occurrence of species of the trout-like genus _galaxias_, in new zealand, south australia, and south america, that "there existed some terrestrial passage-way between the several regions at a time as late as the close of the mesozoic period. the evidence of such a connection afforded by congeneric fishes is fortified by analogous representatives among insects, mollusca, and even amphibians. the separation of the several areas must have occurred little later than the late tertiary, inasmuch as the salt-water fishes of corresponding isotherms found along the coast of the now widely separated lands are to such a large extent specifically different. in general, change seems to have taken place more rapidly among marine animals than fresh-water representatives of the same class." in this case, when one guess is set against another, it seems to me that the hypothesis first suggested, rather than the other, lies in the line of least logical resistance. i think it better to adopt provisionally some theory not involving the existence of a south pacific antarctic continent, to account for the distribution of _galaxias_. for this view i may give five reasons: . there are many other cases of the sort equally remarkable and equally hard to explain. among these is the presence of species of paddle-fish and shovel-nosed sturgeon,[ ] types characteristic of the mississippi valley, in central asia. the presence of one and only one of the five or six american species of pike[ ] in europe; of one of the three species of mud-minnow in austria,[ ] the others being american. still another curious case of distribution is that of the large pike-like trout of the genus _hucho_, one species (_hucho hucho_) inhabiting the danube, the other (_hucho blackistoni_) the rivers of northern japan. many such cases occur in different parts of the globe and at present admit of no plausible explanation. . the supposed continental extension should show permanent traces in greater similarity in the present fauna, both of rivers and of sea. the other fresh-water genera of the regions in question are different, and the marine fishes are more different than they could be if we imagine an ancient shore connection. if new zealand and patagonia were once united other genera than _galaxias_ would be left to show it. . we know nothing of the power of _galaxias_ to survive submergence in salt water, if carried in a marine current. as already noticed, i found young and old in abundance of the commonest of japanese fresh-water fishes in the open sea, at a distance from any river. thus far, this species, the hakone[ ] dace, has not been recorded outside of japan, but it might well be swept to korea or china. two fresh-water fishes of japanese origin now inhabit the island of tsushima in the straits of korea. . the fresh-water fishes of polynesia show a remarkably wide distribution and are doubtless carried alive in currents. one river-goby[ ] ranges from tahiti to the riu kiu islands. another species,[ ] originally perhaps from brazil through mexico, shows an equally broad distribution. . we know that _galaxias_ with its relatives must have been derived from a marine type. it has no affinity with any of the fresh-water families of either continent, unless it be with the salmonidæ. the original type of this group was marine, and most of the larger species still live in the sea, ascending streams only to spawn. when the investigations of geologists show reason for believing in radical changes in the forms of continents, we may accept their conclusions. that geological evidence exists which seems to favor the existence of a former continent, antarctica, is claimed on high authority. if this becomes well established we may well explain the distribution of _galaxias_ with reference to it. but we cannot, on the other hand, regard the anomalous distribution of _galaxias_ alone constituting proof of shore connection. there can be no doubt that almost every case of anomalies in the distribution of fishes admits of a possible explanation through "the slow action of existing causes." real causes are always simple when they are once known. all anomalies in distribution cease to be such when the facts necessary to understand them are at our disposal. footnotes: [ ] _hæmulon._ [ ] _calamus._ [ ] clarion island and socorro island. [ ] a few mexican shore fishes, _chætodon humeralis_, _galeichthys dasycephalus_, _hypsoblennius parvipinnis_, have been wrongly accredited to hawaii by some misplacement of labels. [ ] the dragonets (_callionymus_) are shore fishes of the shallowest waters in europe and asia, but inhabit considerable depths in tropical america. the sea-robins (_prionotus_) are shore fishes in massachusetts, semi-bathybial fishes at panama. often arctic shore fishes become semi-bathybial in the temperate zone, living in water of a given temperature. a long period of cold weather will sometimes bring such to the surface. [ ] "introduction to the study of fishes." [ ] cyprinidæ. [ ] "a comparison of antipodal faunæ," . [ ] _galaxias_, _neochanna_, _prototroctes_, and _retropinna_. [ ] the shovel-nosed sturgeon (_scaphirynchus_ and _kessleria_) and the paddle-fish (_polyodon_ and _psephurus_). [ ] _esox lucius._ [ ] _umrba_, the mud-minnow. [ ] _leuciscus hakuensis._ [ ] _eleotris fusca._ [ ] _awaous genivittatus._ chapter xv. isthmus barriers separating fish faunas =the isthmus of suez.=--in the study of the effect of the isthmus of suez on the distribution of fishes we may first consider the alleged resemblance between the fauna of the mediterranean and that of japan. dr. günther claims that the actual identity of genera and species in these two regions is such as to necessitate the hypothesis that they have been in recent times joined by a continuous shore-line. this shore-line, according to prof. a. ortmann and others, was not across the isthmus of suez, but farther to the northward, probably across siberia. =the fish fauna of japan.=--for a better understanding of the problem we may give a brief analysis of the fish fauna of japan. the group of islands which constitute the empire of japan is remarkable for the richness of its animal life. its variety in climatic and other conditions, its nearness to the great continent of asia and to the chief center of marine life, the east indian islands, its relation to the warm black current or kuro shiwo from the south and to the cold currents from the north, all tend to give variety and richness to the fauna of its seas. especially is this true in the group of fishes. in spite of the political isolation of the japanese empire, this fact has been long recognized and the characteristic types of japanese fishes have been well known to naturalists. at present about species of fishes are known from the four great islands which constitute japan proper--hondo, hokkaido, kiusiu, and shikoku. about others are known from the volcanic islands to the north and south. of these species, about fifty belong to the fresh waters. these are all closely allied to forms found on the mainland of asia, from which region all of them were probably derived. in general the same genera appear in china and with a larger range of species. =fresh-water faunas of japan.=--two faunal areas of fresh waters may be fairly distinguished, although broadly overlapping. the northern region includes the island of hokkaido and the middle and northern part of the great island of hondo. in a rough way, its southern boundary may be defined by fuji yama, and the bay of matsushima. it is characterized by the presence of salmon, trout, and sculpins, and northward by sturgeon and brook lampreys. the southern area loses by degrees the trout and other northern fishes, while in its clear waters abound various minnows, gobies, and the famous ayu, or japanese dwarf salmon, one of the most delicate of food fishes. sculpins and lampreys give place to minnows, loaches, and chubs. two genera, a sculpin[ ] and a perch,[ ] besides certain minnows and catfishes, are confined to this region and seem to have originated in it, but, like the other species, from chinese stock. =origin of japanese fresh-water fishes.=--the question of the origin of the japanese river fauna seems very simple. all the types are asiatic. while most of the japanese species are distinct, their ancestors must have been estrays from the mainland. to what extent river fishes may be carried from place to place by currents of salt water has never been ascertained. one of the most widely distributed of japanese river fishes is the large hakone dace or chub.[ ] this has been repeatedly taken by us in the sea at a distance from any stream. it would evidently survive a long journey in salt water. an allied species[ ] is found in the midway island of tsushima, between korea and japan. =faunal areas of marine fishes in japan.=--the distribution of the marine fishes of japan is mainly controlled by the temperature of the waters and the motion of the ocean currents. five faunal areas may be more or less clearly recognized, and these may receive names indicating their scope--kurile, hokkaido, nippon, kiusiu, kuro shiwo, and riu kiu. the first or kurile district is frankly subarctic, containing species characteristic of the ochotsk sea on the one hand, and of alaska on the other. the second or hokkaido[ ] district includes this northern island and that part of the shore of the main island of hondo[ ] which lies to the north of matsushima and noto. here the cold northern currents favor the development of a northern fauna. the herring and the salmon occupy here the same economic relation as in norway, scotland, newfoundland, and british columbia. sculpins, blennies, rockfish, and flounders abound of the rocky shores and are seen in all the markets. south of matsushima bay and through the island sea as far as kobe, the nippon fauna is distinctly one of the temperate zone. most of the types characteristically japanese belong here, abounding in the sandy bays and about the rocky islands. about the islands of kiusiu and shikoku, the semi-tropical elements increase in number and the kiusiu fauna is less characteristically japanese, having much in common with the neighboring shores of china, while some of the species range northward from india and java. but these faunal districts have no sharp barriers. northern fishes[ ] unquestionably of alaskan origin range as far south as nagasaki, while certain semi-tropical[ ] types extend their range northward to hakodate and volcano bay. the inland sea, which in a sense bounds the southern fauna, serves at the same time as a means of its extension. while each species has a fairly definite northern or southern limit, the boundaries of a faunal district as a whole must be stated in the most general terms. the well-known boundary called blackiston's line, which passes through the straits of tsugaru, between the two great islands of hondo and hokkaido, marks the northern boundary of monkeys, pheasants, and most tropical and semi-tropical birds and mammals of japan. but as to the fishes, either marine or fresh water, this line has no significance. the northern fresh-water species probably readily cross it; the southern rarely reach it. we may define as a fourth faunal area that of the kuro shiwo district itself, which is distinctly tropical and contrasts strongly with that of the inshore bays behind it. this warm "black current," analogous to our gulf stream, has its origin in part from a return current from the east which passes westward through hawaii, in part from a current which passes between celebes and new guinea. it moves northward by way of luzon and formosa, touching the east shores of the japanese islands kiusiu and shikoku, to the main island of hondo, flooding the bays of kagoshima and kochi, of waka, suruga, and sagami. the projecting headlands reach out into it and the fauna of their rock-pools is distinctly tropical as far to the northward as tokio. [illustration: fig. .--sacramento perch, _archoplites interruptus_ girard. family _centrarchidæ_. sacramento river.] these promontories of hondo, waka, ise, izu, misaki, and awa have essentially the same types of fishes as are found on the reefs of tropical polynesia. the warmth of the off-shore currents gives the fauna of misaki its astonishing richness, and the wealth of life is by no means confined to the fishes. corals, crustaceans, worms, and mollusks show the same generous profusion of species. a fifth faunal area, closely related to that of the black current, is formed by the volcanic and coral reefs of the riu kiu archipelago. this fauna, so far as known, is essentially east indian, the genera and most of the species being entirely identical with those of the islands about java and celebes. =resemblance of the japanese and mediterranean fish faunas.=--it has been noted by dr. günther that the fish fauna of japan bears a marked resemblance to that of the mediterranean. this likeness is shown in the actual identity of genera and species, and in their relation to each other. this resemblance he proposes to explain by the hypothesis that at some recent period the two regions, japan and the mediterranean, have been united by a continuous shore-line. the far-reaching character of this hypothesis demands a careful examination of the data on which it rests. the resemblance of the two faunal areas, so far as fishes are concerned, may be stated as follows: there are certain genera[ ] of shore fishes, tropical or semi-tropical, common to the mediterranean and japan, and wanting to california, panama, and the west indies, and in most cases to polynesia also. besides these, certain others found in deeper water ( to fathoms) are common to the two areas,[ ] and have been rarely taken elsewhere. =significance of resemblance.=--the significance of these facts can be shown only by a fuller analysis of the fauna in question, and those of other tropical and semi-tropical waters. if the resemblances are merely casual, or if the resemblances are shown by other regions, the hypothesis of shore continuity would be unnecessary or untenable. it is tenable if the resemblances are so great as to be accounted for in no other way. of the genera regarded as common, only two[ ] or three are represented in the two regions by identical species, and these have a very wide distribution in the warm seas. of the others, nearly all range to india, to the cape of good hope, to australia, or to brazil. they may have ranged farther in the past; they may even range farther at present. not one is confined to the two districts in question. as equally great resemblances exist between japan and australia or japan and the west indies, the case is not self-evident without fuller comparison. i shall therefore undertake a somewhat fuller analysis of the evidence bearing on this and similar problems with a view to the conclusions which may be legitimately drawn from the facts of fish distribution. =differences between japanese and mediterranean fish faunas.=--we may first, after admitting the alleged resemblances and others, note that differences are equally marked. in each region are a certain number of genera which we may consider as autochthonous. these genera are represented by many species or by many individuals in the region of their supposed origin, but are more scantily developed elsewhere. such genera in mediterranean waters are _crenilabrus_, _labrus_, _spicara_, _pagellus_, _mullus_, _boops_, _spondyliosoma_, _oblata_. none of these occurs in japan, nor have they any near relatives there. japanese autochthonous types, as _pseudoblennius_, _vellitor_, _duymæria_, _anoplus_, _histiopterus_, _monocentrus_, _oplegnathus_, _plecoglossus_, range southward to the indies or to australia, but all of them are totally unknown to the mediterranean. the multifarious genera of gobies of japan show very little resemblance to the mediterranean fishes of this family, while blennies, labroids, scaroids, and scorpænoids are equally diverse in their forms and alliances. to the same extent that likeness in faunas is produced by continuity of means of dispersion is it true that unlikeness is due to breaks in continuity. such a break in continuity of coast-line, in the present case, is the isthmus of suez, and the unlikeness in the faunas is about what we might conceive that such a barrier should produce. =sources of faunal resemblances.=--there are two main sources of faunal resemblances: first, the absence of any barriers permitting the actual mingling of the species; second, the likeness of temperature and shore configuration on either side of an imperfect barrier. absolute barriers do not exist and apparently never have existed in the sea. if the fish faunas of different regions have mingled in recent times, the fact would be shown by the presence of the same species in each region. if the union were of a remote date, the species would be changed, but the genera might remain identical. in case of close physical resemblances in different regions, as in the east indies and west indies, like conditions would favor the final lodgement of like types, but the resemblance would be general, the genera and species being unlike. without doubt part of the resemblance between japan and the mediterranean is due to similarity of temperature and shores. is that which remains sufficient to demand the hypothesis of a former shore-line connection? =effects of direction of shore-line.=--we may first note that a continuous shore-line produces a mingling of fish faunas only when not interrupted by barriers due to climate. a north and south coast-line, like that of the east pacific, however unbroken, permits great faunal differences. it is crossed by the different zones of temperature. an east and west shore-line lies in the same temperature. in all cases of the kind which now exist on the earth (the mediterranean, the gulf of mexico, the caribbean sea, the shores of india), even species will extend their range as far as the shore-line goes. the obvious reason is because such a shore-line rarely offers any important barrier to distribution, checking dispersion of species. we may, therefore, consider the age and nature of the isthmus of suez and the character of the faunas it separates. =numbers of genera in different faunas.=--for our purposes the genera must be rigidly defined, a separate name being used in case of each definable difference in structure. the wide-ranging genera of the earlier systematists were practically cosmopolitan, and their geographical distribution teaches us little. on the other hand, when we come to the study of geological distribution, the broad definition of the genus is the only one usually available. the fossil specimens are always defective. minor characters may be lost past even the possibility of a guess, and only along broad lines can we achieve the classification of the individual fossil. using the modern definition of genus, we find in japan genera of marine fishes; in the red sea, ; in the mediterranean, . in new zealand are recorded; in hawaii, ; from the west indies, from the pacific coast of tropical america, from india, from the east-indian islands, and from australia. of the genera ascribed to japan, are common to the mediterranean also, to the west indies and japan, to the pacific coast of the united states and mexico. with hawaii japan shares genera, with new zealand ; are common to japan and india, to japan and the red sea, most of these being found in india also. two hundred genera are common to japan and australia. from this it is evident that japan and the mediterranean have much in common, but apparently not more than japan shares with other tropical regions. japan naturally shows most likeness to india, and next to this to the red sea. proportionately less is the resemblance to australia, and the likeness to the mediterranean seems much the same as that to the west indies or to the pacific coast of america. but, to make these comparisons just and effective, we should consider not the fish fauna as a whole; we should limit our discussion solely to the forms of equatorial origin. from the fauna of japan we may eliminate all the genera of alaskan-aleutian origin, as these could not be found in the other regions under comparison. we should eliminate all pelagic and all deep-sea forms, for the laws which govern the distribution of these are very different from those controlling the shore fishes, and most of the genera have reached a kind of equilibrium over the world. =significance of rare forms.=--we may note also, as a source of confusion in our investigation, that numerous forms found in japan and elsewhere are very rarely taken, and their real distribution is unknown. some of these will be found to have, in some unexpected quarter, their real center of dispersion. in fact, since these pages were written, i have taken in hawaii representatives of three[ ] genera which i had enumerated as belonging chiefly to japan and the west indies. numerous other genera common to the two regions have since been obtained by dr. gilbert. such species may inhabit oceanic plateaus, and find many halting places in their circuit of the tropical oceans. we have already discovered that madeira, st. helena, ascension, and other volcanic islands constitute such halting places. we shall find many more such, when the deeper shore regions are explored, the region between market-fishing and the deep-sea dredgings of the _challenger_ and the _albatross_. in some cases, no doubt, these forms are verging on extinction and a former wide distribution has given place to isolated colonies. the following table shows the contents, so far as genera are concerned, of those equatorial areas in which trustworthy catalogues of species are accessible. it includes only those fishes of stationary habit living in less than fathoms. it goes without saying that considerable latitude must be given to these figures, to allow for errors, omissions, uncertainties, and differences of opinion. =distribution of shore fishes.=-- _a. japan and the mediterranean._ genera[ ] chiefly confined to these regions genera of wide distribution ---- total of common genera total in both regions genera above included, found in all equatorial regions genera[ ] found in most equatorial regions genera more or less restricted ---- _b. japan and the red sea._ genera[ ] chiefly confined to these two regions genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in both regions _c. japan and hawaii._ genera chiefly confined to these regions genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in both regions _d. japan and australia._ genera chiefly confined to these regions genera of wide distribution (chiefly east indian) ---- total genera common total in both regions _e. japan and panama._ genera chiefly confined to these regions genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in both regions _f. japan and the west indies._ genera chiefly confined to these regions genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in both regions _g. the mediterranean and the red sea._ genera confined to the suez region genera of wide distribution (chiefly indian) ---- total genera common total in both regions _h. west indies and the mediterranean._ genera chiefly confined to the equatorial atlantic genera of wide distribution ---- total total in both regions _i. west indies and panama._ genera chiefly confined to equatorial america genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in equatorial america _j. hawaii and panama._ genera chiefly confined to the regions in question genera of wide distribution ---- total genera common total in both regions _k. hawaii and the east indies._ genera chiefly confined to hawaii genera of wide distribution in the equatorial pacific genera confined to hawaii and the west indies _summary._ genera (shore fishes only) in the mediterranean sea. genera in the red sea genera in india genera in japan (exclusive of northern forms) genera in australia genera in new zealand genera in hawaii genera about panama genera in west indies =extension of indian fauna.=--from the above tables it is evident that the warm-water fauna of japan, as well as that of hawaii, is derived from the great body of the fauna of the east indies and hindostan; that the fauna of the red sea is derived in the same way; that the fauna of the mediterranean bears no especial resemblance to that of japan, rather than to other elements of the east asiatic fauna in similar conditions of temperature, and no greater than is borne by either to the west indies; that the faunas of the sides of the isthmus of suez have relatively little in common, while those of the two sides of the isthmus of panama show large identity of genera, although few species are common to the two sides. of the genera recorded from the panama region, , or over per cent., are also in the west indies, while , or more than per cent. of the number, are limited to the two regions in question. =the isthmus of suez as a barrier to distribution.=--with the aid of the above table we may examine further the relation of the fauna of japan to that of the mediterranean. if a continuity of shore-line once existed, it would involve the obliteration of the isthmus. with free connection across this isthmus the fauna of the red sea must have been once practically the same as that of the mediterranean. the present differences must be due to later immigrations to one or the other region, or to the extinction of species in one locality or the other, through some kind of unfitness. in neither region is there evidence of extensive immigration from the outside. the present conditions of water and temperature differ a little, but not enough to explain the difference in faunæ. the red sea is frankly tropical and its fauna is essentially indian, much the same, so far as genera are concerned, as that of southern japan. the mediterranean is at most not more than semi-tropical and its fishes are characteristically european. its tropical forms belong rather to guinea than to the east indies. with the red sea the mediterranean has very little in common, not so much, for example, as has hawaii. forty genera of shore fishes (and only fifty of all fishes) are identical in the two regions, the mediterranean and the red sea. of those, every one is a genus of wide distribution, found in nearly all warm seas. of shore fishes, only one genus in seven is common to the two regions. apparently, therefore, we cannot assume a passage across the isthmus of suez within the lifetime of the present genera. not one of the types alleged to be peculiar to japan and the mediterranean is thus far known in the red sea. not one of the characteristically abundant mediterranean types[ ] crosses the isthmus of suez, and the distinctive red sea and indian types[ ] are equally wanting in the mediterranean. the only genera which could have crossed the isthmus are certain shallow-water or brackish-water forms, sting-rays, torpedoes, sardines, eels, and mullets, widely diffused through the east indies and found also in the mediterranean. the former channel, if one ever existed, had, therefore, much the same value in distribution of species as the present suez canal. =geological evidence of submergence of the isthmus of suez.=--yet, from geological data, there is strong evidence that the isthmus of suez was submerged in relatively recent times. the recognized geological maps of the isthmus show that a broad area of post-pliocene or pliocene deposits constitutes the isthmus and separates the nummulitic hills of suez from their fellows about thirty miles to the eastward. the northern part of the isthmus is alluvium from the nile, and its western part is covered with drifting sands. the red sea once extended farther north than now and the mediterranean farther to the southeast. assuming the maps to be correct, the isthmus must have been open water in the late pliocene or post-pliocene times. admitting this as a fact, the difference in the fish fauna would seem to show that the waters over the submerged area were so shallow that the rock-loving forms did not and could not cross it. moreover, the region was very likely overspread with silt-bearing fresh waters from the nile. to such fishes as _chætodon_, _holocentrus_, _thalassoma_ of the red sea, or to _crenilabrus_, _boops_, and _zeus_ of the mediterranean, such waters would form a barrier as effective as the sand-dunes of to-day. =conclusions as to the isthmus of suez.=--we are led, therefore, to these conclusions: . there is no evidence derivable from the fishes of the recent submergence of the isthmus of suez. . if the isthmus was submerged in pliocene or post-pliocene times, the resultant channel was shallow and muddy, so that ordinary marine fishes or fishes of rock bottoms or of deep waters did not cross it. . it formed an open water to brackish-water fishes only. . the types common to japan and the mediterranean did not enter either region from the other by way of the red sea. . as most of these are found also in india or australia or both, their dispersion was probably around the south coast of africa or by the cape of good hope. . in view of the fact that numerous east indian genera, as _zanclus_, _enoplosus_, _toxotes_, _ephippus_, _platax_, _teuthis_, _acanthurus_ (_monoceros_), _myripristis_ occur in the eocene rocks of tuscany, syria, and switzerland, we may well suppose that an open waterway across africa then existed. perhaps these forms were destroyed in european waters by a wave of glacial cold, perhaps after the miocene. as our knowledge of the miocene fish faunæ of europe is still imperfect, we cannot locate accurately the period of their disappearance. about half the species found in the eocene of italy belong to existing genera, and these genera are almost all now represented in the indian fauna, and those named above with others are confined to it. the study of fishes alone furnishes no adequate basis for mapping the continental masses of tertiary times. the known facts in regard to their distribution agree fairly with the provisional maps lately published by dr. ortmann (bull. philos. soc., xli). in the eocene map (fig. ) the mediterranean extends to the northward of arabia, across to the mouth of the ganges. this extension would account for the tropical, eocene, and miocene fish fauna of southern europe. =the cape of good hope as a barrier to fishes.=--the fishes of the cape of good hope are not well enough known for close comparison with those of other regions. enough is known of the cape fauna to show its general relation to those of india and australia. the cape of good hope lies in the south temperate zone. it offers no absolutely impassable barrier to the tropical fishes from either side. it bears a closer relation to either the red sea or the mediterranean than they bear to each other. it is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that the transfer of tropical shore fishes of the old world between the atlantic and pacific, in recent times, has taken place mainly around the southern point of africa. to pelagic and deep-sea fishes the cape of good hope has offered no barrier whatever. to ordinary fishes it is an obstacle, but not an impassable one. this the fauna itself shows. it has, however, not been passed by many tropical species, and by these only as the result of thousands of years of struggle and point-to-point migration. =relations of japan to mediterranean explainable by present conditions.=--we may conclude that the resemblance of the mediterranean fish fauna to that of japan or india is no more than might be expected, even had the present contour of the continents been permanent for the period of duration of the present genera and species. an open channel in recent times would have produced much greater resemblances than actually exist. =the isthmus of panama as a barrier to distribution.=--conditions in some regards parallel with those of the isthmus of suez exist in but one other region--the isthmus of panama. here the first observers were very strongly impressed by the resemblance of forms. nearly half the genera found on the two sides of this isthmus are common to both sides. taking those of the pacific shore for first consideration, we find that three-fourths of the genera of the panama fauna occur in the west indies as well. this identity is many times greater than that existing at the isthmus of suez. moreover, while the cape of good hope offers no impassable barrier to distribution, the same is not true of the southern part of south america. the subarctic climate of cape horn has doubtless formed a complete check to the movements of tropical fishes for a vast period of geologic time. =unlikeness of species on the shores of the isthmus of panama.=--but, curiously enough, this marked resemblance is confined chiefly to the genera and does not extend to the species on the two shores. of species of fishes recorded from tropical america north of the equator, only about are common to the two coasts. the number of shore fishes common is still less. in this are included a certain number of cosmopolitan types which might have reached either shore from the old world. [illustration: fig. .--map of the continents, eocene time. (after ortmann.)] a few others invade brackish or fresh waters and may possibly have found their way, in one way or another, across the isthmus of nicaragua. of fishes strictly marine, strictly littoral, and not known from asia or polynesia, scarcely any species are left as common to the two sides. this seems to show that no waterway has existed across the isthmus within the lifetime, whatever that may be, of the existing species. the close resemblance of genera shows apparently with almost equal certainty that such a waterway has existed, and within the period of existence of the groups called genera. how long a species of fish may endure unchanged no one knows, but we know that in this regard great differences must exist in different groups. assuming that different species crossed the isthmus of panama in miocene times, we should not be surprised to find that a few remain to all appearances unchanged; that a much larger number have become "representative" species, closely related forms retaining relations to the environment to those of the parent form, and, finally, that a few species have been radically altered. this is exactly what has taken place at the isthmus of panama with the marine shore fishes. curiously enough, the movement of genera seems to have been chiefly from the atlantic to the pacific. certain characteristic genera[ ] of the panama region have not passed over to the pacific. on the other hand, most of the common genera[ ] show a much larger number of species on the atlantic side. this may be held to show their atlantic origin. of the relatively small number of genera which panama has received from polynesia[ ] few have crossed the isthmus to appear in the west indian fauna. =views of earlier writers on the fishes of the isthmus of panama.=--the elements of the problem at panama may be better understood by a glance at the results of previous investigations. in dr. günther, after enumerating the species examined by him from panama, reaches the conclusion that nearly one-third of the marine fishes on the two shores of tropical america will be found to be identical. he enumerates such species as found on the two coasts; of these, or per cent. of the total, being actually identical. from this he infers that there must have been, at a comparatively recent date, a depression of the isthmus and intermingling of the two faunas.[ ] =catalogue of fishes of panama.=--in an enumeration of the fishes of the pacific coast in ,[ ] the present writer showed that dr. günther's conclusions were based on inadequate data. in my list species were recorded from the pacific coast of tropical america--twice the number enumerated by dr. günther. of these species, or - / per cent., were found also in the atlantic. about species are known from the caribbean and adjacent shores, so that out of the total number of , species but , or per cent. of the whole, are common to the two coasts. this number does not greatly exceed that of the species common to the west indies and the mediterranean, or even the west indies and japan. it is to be noted also that the number is not very definitely ascertained, as there must be considerable difference of opinion as to the boundaries of species, and the actual identity in several cases is open to doubt. this discrepancy arises from the comparatively limited representation of the two faunas at the disposal of dr. günther. he enumerates marine or brackish-water species as found on the two coasts, of which are regarded by him as specifically identical, this being per cent. of the whole. but in of these cases i regard the assumption of complete identity as erroneous, so that taking the number as given i would reduce the percentage to . but these species form but a fragment of the total fauna, and any conclusion based on such narrow data is certain to be misleading. of the identical species admitted in our list, several (_e.g._, _mola_, _thunnus_) are pelagic fishes common to most warm seas. still others (_e.g._, _trachurus_, _carangus_, _diodon_ sp.) are cosmopolitan in the tropical waters. most of the others (_e.g._, _gobius_, _gerres_, _centropomus_, _galeichthys_ sp., etc.) often ascend the rivers of the tropics, and we may account for their diffusion, perhaps, as we account for the dispersion of fresh-water fishes on the isthmus, on the supposition that they may have crossed from marsh to marsh at some time in the rainy season. in very few cases are representatives of any species from opposite sides of the isthmus exactly alike in all respects. these differences in some cases seem worthy of specific value, giving us "representative species" on the two sides. in other cases the distinctions are very trivial, but in most cases they are appreciable, especially in fresh specimens. further, i expressed the belief that "fuller investigation will not increase the proportion of common species. if it does not, the two faunas show no greater resemblance than the similarity of physical conditions on the two sides would lead us to expect." this similarity causes the same types of fishes to persist on either side of the isthmus while through isolation or otherwise these have become different as species. this conclusion must hold so far as species are concerned, but the resemblance of the genera on the sides has a significance of its own. in [ ] dr günther expressed his views in still stronger language, claiming a still larger proportion of the fishes of tropical america to be identical on the two sides of the continent. he concluded that "with scarcely any exceptions the genera are identical, and of the species found on the pacific side, nearly one-half have proved to be the same as those of the atlantic. the explanation of this fact has been found in the existence of communications between the two oceans by channels and straits which must have been open till within a recent period. the isthmus of central america was then partially submerged, and appeared as a chain of islands similar to that of the antilles; but as the reef-building corals flourished chiefly north and east of these islands and were absent south and west of them, reef fishes were excluded from the pacific shores when the communications were destroyed by the upheaval of land." =conclusions of evermann and jenkins.=--this remark led to a further discussion of the subject on the part of dr. b. w. evermann and dr. o. p. jenkins. from their paper on the fishes of guaymas[ ] i make the following quotations: "the explorations since have resulted ( ) in an addition of about species to one or other of the two faunas; ( ) in showing that at least two species that were regarded as identical on the two shores[ ] are probably distinct; and ( ) in the addition of but two species to those common to both coasts.[ ] "all this reduces still further the percentage of common species. "of the species obtained by us, , or less than per cent., appear to be common to both coasts. of these species, at least , from their wide distribution, would need no hypothesis of a former waterway through the isthmus to account for their presence on both sides. they are species fully able to arrive at the pacific shores of the americas from the warm seas west. it thus appears that not more than eight species, less than per cent. of our collection, all of which are marine species, require any such hypothesis to account for their occurrence on both coasts of america. this gives us, then, , species that should properly be taken into account when considering this question, not more than of which, or . per cent., seem to be identical on the two coasts. this is very different from the figures given by dr. günther in his 'study of fishes.' "now, if from these species, admitted to be common to both coasts, we subtract the species of wide distribution--so wide as to keep them from being a factor in this problem--we have left but species common to the two coasts that bear very closely upon the waterway hypothesis. _this is less than . per cent. of the whole number._ "but the evidence obtained from a study of other marine life of that region points to the same conclusion. "in , dr. paul fischer discussed the same question in his 'manual de conchyliologie,' pp. , , in a section on the molluscan fauna of the panamic province, and reached the same general conclusions. he says: 'les naturalistes américians se sont beaucoup preéoccupés des espèces de panama qui paraissent identiques avec celles des antilles, ou qui sont représentatives. p. carpenter estime qu'il en existe . dans la plupart des cas, l'identite absolue n'a pu être constantée et on a trouvé quelques caractères distinctifs, ce qui n'a rien d'ètonnant, puisque dans l'hypothèse d'une origine commune, les deux races pacifique et atlantique sont séparée depuis la periode miocène. voici un liste de ces espèces représentatives ou identiques.' here follows a list of species. 'mais ces formes semblables,' he says, 'constituent un infime minorité ( per cent.).' "these facts have a very important bearing upon certain geological questions, particularly upon the one concerning the cold of the glacial period. "in dr. g. frederick wright's recent book, 'the ice age in north america,' eight different theories as to the cause of the cold are discussed. the particular theory which seems to him quite reasonable is that one which attributes the cold as due to a change of different parts of the country, and a depression of the isthmus of panama is one of the important changes he considers. he says: 'should a portion of the gulf stream be driven through a depression across the isthmus of panama into the pacific, and an equal portion be diverted from the atlantic coast of the united states by an elevation of the sea-bottom between florida and cuba, the consequences would necessarily be incalculably great, so that the mere existence of such a possible cause for great changes in the distribution of moisture over the northern hemisphere is sufficient to make one hesitate before committing himself unreservedly to any other theory; at any rate, to one which has not for itself independent and adequate proof.' "in the appendix to the same volume mr. warren upham, in discussing the probable causes of glaciation, says: 'the quaternary uplifts of the andes and rocky mountains and of the west indies make it nearly certain that the isthmus of panama has been similarly elevated during the recent epoch.... it may be true, therefore, that the submergence of this isthmus was one of the causes of the glacial period, the continuation of the equatorial oceanic currents westward into the pacific having greatly diminished or wholly diverted the gulf stream, which carries warmth from the tropics to the northern atlantic and northwestern europe.' [illustration: fig. .--_caulophryne jordani_ goode and bean, a deep-sea fish of the gulf stream. family _ceratiidæ_.] [illustration: fig. .--_exerpes asper_ jenkins and evermann, a fish of the rock-pools, guaymas, mexico. family _blenniidæ_.] "any _very_ recent means by which the fishes could have passed readily from one side to the other would have resulted in making the fish faunas of the two shores practically identical; but the time that has elapsed since such a waterway could have existed has been long enough to allow the fishes of the two sides to become _practically distinct_. that the mollusks of the two shores are almost wholly distinct, as shown by dr. fischer, is even stronger evidence of the remoteness of the time when the means of communication between the two oceans could have existed, for 'species' among the mollusks are probably more persistent than among fishes. "our present knowledge, therefore, of the fishes of tropical america justifies us in regarding the fish faunas of the two coasts as being essentially distinct, and believing that there has not been, at any comparatively recent time, any waterway through the isthmus of panama." it is thus shown, i think, conclusively, that the isthmus of panama could not have been depressed for any great length of time in a recent geological period. =conclusions of dr. hill.=--these writers have not, however, considered the question of generic identity. to this we may find a clue in the geological investigations of dr. robert t. hill. in a study of "the geological history of the isthmus of panama and portions of costa rica," dr. hill uses the following language: "by elimination we have concluded that the only period of time since the mesozoic within which communication between the seas could have taken place is the tertiary period, and this must be restricted to the eocene and oligocene epochs of that period. the paleontologic evidence upon which such an opening can be surmised at this period is the occurrence of a few california eocene types in the atlantic sides of the tropical american barrier, within the ranges of latitude between galveston (texas) and colon, which are similar to others found in california. there are no known structural data upon which to locate the site of this passage, but we must bear in mind, however, that this structure has not been completely explored. "even though it was granted that the coincidence of the occurrence of a few identical forms on both sides of the tropical american region, out of the thousands which are not common, indicates a connection between the two seas, there is still an absence of any reason for placing this connection at the isthmus of panama, and we could just as well maintain that the locus thereof might have been at some other point in the central american region. "the reported fossil and living species common to both oceans are littoral forms, which indicate that if a passage existed it must have been of a shallow and ephemeral character. "there is no evidence from either a geologic or a biologic standpoint for believing that the oceans have ever communicated across the isthmian regions since tertiary time. in other words, there is no evidence for these later passages which have been established upon hypothetical data, especially those of pleistocene time. "the numerous assertions, so frequently found in literature, that the two oceans have been frequently and recently connected across the isthmus, and that the low passes indicative of this connection still exist, may be dismissed at once and forever and relegated to the domain of the apocryphal. a few species common to the waters of both oceans in a predominantly caribbean fauna of the age of the claiborne epoch of the eocene tertiary is the only paleontologic evidence in any time upon which such a connection may be hypothesized. "there has been a tendency in literature to underestimate the true altitude of the isthmian passes, which, while probably not intentional, has given encouragement to those who think that this pleistocene passage may have existed. maack has erroneously given the pass at feet. dr. j. w. gregory states 'that the summit of the isthmus at one locality is feet and in another feet in height.' the lowest isthmian pass, which is not a summit, but a drainage col, is - feet above the ocean. "if we could lower the isthmian region feet at present, the waters of the two oceans would certainly commingle through the narrow culebra pass. but the culebra pass is clearly the headwater col of two streams, the obispo flowing into the chagres, and the rio grande flowing into the pacific, and has been cut by fluviatile action, and not by marine erosion, out of a land mass which has existed since miocene time. those who attempt to establish pleistocene interoceanic channels through this pass on account of its present low altitude must not omit from their calculations the restoration of former rock masses which have been removed by the general levelling of the surface by erosion." [illustration: fig. .--_xenocys jessiæ_ jordan and bollman. galapagos islands. family _lutianidæ_.] in conclusion, dr. hill asserts that "there is considerable evidence that a land barrier in the tropical region separated the two oceans as far back in geologic history as jurassic time, and that that barrier continued throughout the cretaceous period. the geological structure of the isthmus and central american regions, so far as investigated, when considered aside from the paleontology, presents no evidence by which the former existence of a free communication of oceanic waters across the present tropical land barriers can be established. the paleontologic evidence indicates the ephemeral existence of a passage at the close of the eocene period. all lines of inquiry--geologic, paleontologic, and biologic--give evidence that no connection has existed between the two oceans since the close of the oligocene. this structural geology is decidedly opposed to any hypothesis by which the waters of the two oceans could have been connected across the regions in miocene, pliocene, pleistocene, or recent times." =final hypothesis as to panama.=--if we assume the correctness of dr. hill's conclusions, they may accord in a remarkable degree with the actual facts of the distribution of the fishes about the isthmus. to account for the remarkable identity of genera and divergence of species i may suggest the following hypothesis: during the lifetime of most of the present species, the isthmus has not been depressed. it was depressed in or before miocene time, during the lifetime of most of the present genera. we learn from other sources that few of the extant species of fishes are older than the pliocene. relatively few genera go back to the eocene, and most of the modern families appear to begin in the eocene or later cretaceous. in general the miocene may be taken as the date of the origin of modern genera. the channel formed across the isthmus was relatively shallow, excluding forms inhabiting rocky bottoms at considerable depths. it was wide enough to permit the infiltration from the caribbean sea of numerous species, especially of shore fishes of sandy bays, tide pools, and brackish estuaries. the currents set chiefly to the westward, favoring the transfer of atlantic rather than pacific types. [illustration: fig. .--channel catfish, _ictalurus punctatus_ (rafinesque). illinois river. family _siluridæ_.] since the date of the closing of this channel the species left on the two sides have been altered in varying degrees by the processes of natural selection and isolation. the cases of actual specific identity are few, and the date of the establishment as species, of the existing forms, is subsequent to the date of the last depression of the isthmus. we may be certain that none of the common genera ever found their way around cape horn. most of them disappear to the southward, along the coasts of brazil and peru. while local oscillations, involving changes in coast-lines, have doubtless frequently taken place and are still going on, the past and present distribution of fishes does not alone give adequate data for their investigation. further, it goes without saying that we have no knowledge of the period of time necessary to work specific changes in a body of species isolated in an alien sea. nor have we any data as to the effect on a given fish fauna of the infiltration of many species and genera belonging to another. all such forces and results must be matters of inference. the present writer does not wish to deny that great changes have taken place in the outlines of continents in relatively recent times. he would, however, insist that the theory of such changes must be confirmed by geological evidence, and evidence from groups other than fishes, and that likeness in separated fish faunas may not be conclusive. [illustration: fig. .--drawing the net on the beach of hilo, hawaii. photograph by henry w. henshaw.] footnotes: [ ] _rheopresbe._ [ ] _bryttosus._ [ ] _leuciscus hakuensis_ günther. [ ] _leuciscus jouyi._ [ ] formerly, but no longer, called yeso in japan. [ ] called nippon on foreign maps, but not so in japan, where nippon means the whole empire. [ ] _pleuronichthys cornutus_, _hexogrammos otakii_, etc. [ ] as _halichoeres_, _tetrapturus_, _callionymus_, _ariscopus_, etc. [ ] of these, the principal ones are _oxystomus_, _myrus_, _pagrus_, _sparus_, _macrorhamphosus_, _cepola_, _callionymus_, _zeus_, _uranoscopus_, _lepidotrigla_, _chelidonichthys_. [ ] among these are _beryx_, _helicolenus_, _lotella_, _nettastoma_, _centrolophus_, _hoplostethus_, _aulopus_, _chlorophthalmus_, _lophotes_. [ ] _beryx_, _hoplostethus_. [ ] _antigonia_, _etelis_, _emmelichthys_. [ ] _lepadogaster_, _myrus_; _lophotes_, thus far recorded from japan, the mediterranean, and the cape of good hope, is bassalian and of unknown range. _beryx_, _trachichthys_, _hoplostethus_, etc., are virtually cosmopolitan as well as semi-bassalian. [ ] in this group we must place _cepola_, _callionymus_, _pagrus_, _sparus_, _beryx_, _zeus_, all of which have a very wide range in indian waters. [ ] _cryptocentrus_, _asterropteryx_. the range of neither of these genera of small shore fishes is yet well known. [ ] as _crenilabrus_, _labrus_, _symphodus_, _pagellus_, _spondyliosoma_, _sparisoma_. [ ] as _chætodon_, _lethrinus_, _monotaxis_, _glyphisodon_, etc. [ ] _hoplopagrus_, _xenichthys_, _xenistius_, _xenocys_, _microdesmus_, _cerdale_, _cratinus_, _azevia_, _microlepidotus_, _orthostoechus_, _isaciella_, etc. [ ] _hæmulon_, _anisotremus_, _gerres_, _centropomus_, _galeichthys_, _hypoplectrus_, _mycteroperca_, _ulæma_, _stellifer_, _micropogon_, _bodianus_, _microspathodon_. [ ] among these are perhaps _teuthis_ (_acanthurus_), _ilisha_, _salarias_, _myripristis_, _thalassoma_. some such which have not crossed the isthmus are _cirrhitus_, _sectator_, _sebastopsis_, and _lophiomus_. [ ] "fishes of central america," , . [ ] _proc. u. s. nat. mus._, , . [ ] introduction to the "study of fishes," , p. . [ ] _proc. u. s. nat. mus._, , pp. - . [ ] _citharichthys spilopterus_ and _c. gilberti_. [ ] _hæmulon steindachneri_ and _gymnothorax castaneus_ of the west coast probably being identical with _h. schranki_ and _gymnothorax funebris_ of the east coast. chapter xvi dispersion of fresh-water fishes[ ] =dispersion of fishes.=--the methods of dispersion of fishes may be considered apart from the broader topic of distribution or the final results of such dispersion. in this discussion we are mainly concerned with the fresh-water fishes, as the methods of distribution of marine fishes through marine currents and by continuity of shore and water ways are all relatively simple. =the problem of oatka creek.=--when i was a boy and went fishing in the brooks of western new york, i noticed that the different streams did not always have the same kinds of fishes in them. two streams in particular in wyoming county, not far from my father's farm, engaged in this respect my special attention. their sources are not far apart, and they flow in opposite directions, on opposite sides of a low ridge--an old glacial moraine, something more than a mile across. the oatka creek flows northward from this ridge, while the east coy runs toward the southeast on the other side of it, both flowing ultimately into the same river, the genesee. it does not require a very careful observer to see that in these two streams the fishes are not quite the same. the streams themselves are similar enough. in each the waters are clear and fed by springs. each flows over gravel and clay, through alluvial meadows, in many windings, and with elms and alders "in all its elbows." in both streams we were sure of finding trout,[ ] and in one of them the trout are still abundant. in both we used to catch the brook chub,[ ] or, as we called it, the "horned dace"; and in both were large schools of shiners[ ] and of suckers.[ ] but in every deep hole, and especially in the millponds along the east coy creek, the horned pout[ ] swarmed on the mucky bottoms. in every eddy, or in the deep hole worn out at the root of the elm-trees, could be seen the sunfish,[ ] strutting in green and scarlet, with spread fins keeping intruders away from its nest. but in the oatka creek were found neither horned pout nor sunfish, nor have i ever heard that either has been taken there. then besides these nobler fishes, worthy of a place on every schoolboy's string, we knew by sight, if not by name, numerous smaller fishes, darters[ ] and minnows,[ ] which crept about in the gravel on the bottom of the east coy, but which we never recognized in the oatka. there must be a reason for differences like these, in the streams themselves or in the nature of the fishes. the sunfish and the horned pout are home-loving fishes to a greater extent than the others which i have mentioned; still, where no obstacles prevent, they are sure to move about. there must be, then, in the oatka some sort of barrier, or strainer, which keeping these species back permits others more adventurous to pass; and a wider knowledge of the geography of the region showed that such is the case. farther down in its course, the oatka falls over a ledge of rock, forming a considerable waterfall at rock glen. still lower down its waters disappear in the ground, sinking into some limestone cavern or gravel-bed, from which they reappear, after some six miles, in the large springs at caledonia. either of these barriers might well discourage a quiet-loving fish; while the trout and its active associates have some time passed them, else we should not find them in the upper waters in which they alone form the fish fauna. this problem is a simple one; a boy could work it out, and the obvious solution seems to be satisfactory. =generalizations as to dispersion.=--since those days i have been a fisherman in many waters,--not an angler exactly, but one who fishes for fish, and to whose net nothing large or small ever comes amiss; and wherever i go i find cases like this. we do not know all the fishes of america yet, nor all those well that we know by sight; still this knowledge will come with time and patience, and to procure it is a comparatively easy task. it is also easy to ascertain the more common inhabitants of any given stream. it is difficult, however, to obtain negative results which are really results. you cannot often say that a species does not live in a certain stream. you can only affirm that you have not yet found it there, and you can rarely fish in any stream so long that you can find nothing that you have not taken before. still more difficult is it to gather the results of scattered observations into general statements regarding the distribution of fishes. the facts may be so few as to be misleading, or so numerous as to be confusing, and the few writers who have taken up this subject in detail have found both these difficulties to be serious. whatever general propositions we may maintain must be stated with the modifying clause of "other things being equal"; and other things are never quite equal. the saying that "nature abhors a generalization" is especially applicable to all discussions of the relations of species to environment. still less satisfactory is our attempt to investigate the causes on which our partial generalizations depend,--to attempt to break to pieces the "other things being equal" which baffle us in our search for general laws. the same problems, of course, come up on each of the other continents and in all groups of animals or plants; but most that i shall say will be confined to the question of the dispersion of fishes in the fresh waters of north america. the broader questions of the boundaries of faunæ and of faunal areas i shall bring up only incidentally. =questions raised by agassiz.=--some of the problems to be solved were first noticed by prof. agassiz in , in his work on lake superior. later ( ), in a paper on the fishes of the tennessee river,[ ] he makes the following statement: "the study of these features [of distribution] is of the greatest importance, inasmuch as it may eventually lead to a better understanding of the intentions implied in this seemingly arbitrary disposition of animal life.... "there is still another very interesting problem respecting the geographical distribution of our fresh-water animals which may be solved by the further investigation of the fishes of the tennessee river. the water-course, taking the powell, clinch, and holston rivers as its head waters, arises from the mountains of virginia in latitude °; it then flows s.w. to latitude ° ', when it turns w. and n.w., and finally empties into the ohio, under the same latitude as its source in °. [illustration: fig. .--horned dace, _semotilus atromaculatus_ (mitchill). aux plaines river, ills. family _cyprinidæ_.] "the question now is this: are the fishes of this water system the same throughout its extent? in which case we should infer that water communication is the chief condition of geographical distribution of our fresh-water fishes. or do they differ in different stations along its course? and if so, are the differences mainly controlled by the elevation of the river above the level of the sea, or determined by climatic differences corresponding to differences of latitude? we should assume that the first alternative was true if the fishes of the upper course of the river differed from those of the middle and lower courses in the same manner as in the danube, from its source to pesth, where this stream flows nearly for its whole length under the same parallel. we would, on the contrary, suppose the second alternative to be well founded if marked differences were observed between the fish of such tracts of the river as do not materially differ in their evolution above the sea, but flow under different latitudes. now, a few collections from different stations along this river, like that sent me by dr. newman from the vicinity of huntsville, would settle at once this question, not for the tennessee river alone, but for most rivers flowing under similar circumstances upon the surface of the globe. nothing, however, short of such collections, compared closely with one another, will furnish a reliable answer.... whoever will accomplish this survey will have made a highly valuable contribution to our knowledge." =conclusions of cope.=--certain conclusions were also suggested by prof. cope in his excellent memoir on the fishes of the alleghany region[ ] in . from this paper i make the following quotations: "the distribution of fresh-water fishes is of special importance to the questions of the origin and existence of species in connection with the physical conditions of the waters and of the land. this is, of course, owing to the restricted nature of their habitat and the impossibility of their making extended migrations. with the submergence of land beneath the sea, fresh-water fish are destroyed in proportion to the extent of the invasion of salt water, while terrestrial vertebrates can retreat before it. hence every inland fish fauna dates from the last total submergence of the country. "prior to the elevation of a given mountain chain, the courses of the rivers may generally have been entirely different from their later ones. subsequent to this period, they can only have undergone partial modifications. as subsequent submergences can rarely have extended to the highlands where such streams originate, the fishes of such rivers can only have been destroyed so far as they were unable to reach those elevated regions, and preserve themselves from destruction from salt water by sheltering themselves in mountain streams. on the other hand, a period of greater elevation of the land, and of consequent greater cold, would congeal the waters and cover their courses with glaciers. the fishes would be driven to the neighborhood of the coast, though no doubt in more southern latitudes a sufficient extent of uncongealed fresh waters would flow by a short course into the ocean, to preserve from destruction many forms of fresh-water fishes. thus, through many vicissitudes, the fauna of a given system of rivers has had opportunity of uninterrupted descent, from the time of the elevation of the mountain range, in which it has its sources.... "as regards the distinction of species in the disconnected basins of different rivers, which have been separated from an early geologic period, if species occur which are common to any two or more of them, the supporter of the theory of distinct creations must suppose that such species have been twice created, once for each hydrographic basin, or that waters flowing into the one basin have been transferred to another. the developmentalist, on the other hand, will accept the last proposition, or else suppose that time has seen an identical process and similar result of modification in these distinct regions. [illustration: fig. .--chub of the great basin, _leuciscus lineatus_ (girard). heart lake, yellowstone park. family _cyprinidæ_.] "facts of distribution in the eastern district of north america are these. several species of fresh-water fishes occur at the same time in many atlantic basins from the merrimac or from the hudson to the james, and throughout the mississippi valley, and in the tributaries of the great lakes. on the other hand, the species of each river may be regarded as pertaining to four classes, whose distribution has direct reference to the character of the water and the food it offers: first, those of the tide-waters, of the river channels, bayous, and sluggish waters near them, or in the flat lands near the coast; second, those of the river channels of its upper course, where the currents are more distinct; third, those of the creeks of the hill country; fourth, those of the elevated mountain streams which are subject to falls and rapids." in the same paper prof. cope reaches two important general conclusions, thus stated by him: "i. that species not generally distributed exist in waters on different sides of the great watershed. "ii. that the distribution of the species is not governed by the outlet of the rivers, streams having similar discharges (holston and kanawha, roanoke and susquehanna) having less in common than others having different outlets (kanawha, or susquehanna and james). [illustration: fig. .--butterfly-sculpin, _melletes papilio_ bean, a fish of the rock-pools. st. paul, pribilof islands.] "in view of the first proposition, and the question of the origin of species, the possibility of an original or subsequent mingling of the fresh waters suggests itself as more probable than that of distinct origin in the different basins." =questions raised by cope.=--two questions in this connection are raised by prof. cope. the first question is this: "has any destruction of the river faunæ taken place since the first elevation of the alleghanies, when the same species were thrown into waters flowing in opposite directions?" of such destruction by submergence or otherwise, prof. cope finds no evidence. the second question is, "has any means of communication existed, at any time, but especially since the last submergence, by which the transfer of species might occur?" some evidence of such transfer exists in the wide distribution of certain species, especially those which seek the highest streamlets in the mountains; but except to call attention to the cavernous character of the subcarboniferous and devonian limestones, prof. cope has made little attempt to account for it. prof. cope finally concludes with this important generalization: "it would appear, from the previous considerations, that the distribution of fresh-water fishes is governed by laws similar to those controlling terrestrial vertebrates and other animals, in spite of the seemingly confined nature of their habitat." =views of günther.=--dr. günther[ ] has well summarized some of the known facts in regard to the manner of dispersion of fishes: "the ways in which the dispersal of fresh-water fishes has been affected were various. they are probably all still in operation, but most work so slowly and imperceptibly as to escape direct observation; perhaps they will be more conspicuous after science and scientific inquiry shall have reached a somewhat greater age. from the great number of fresh-water forms which we see at this present day acclimatized in, gradually acclimatizing themselves in, or periodically or sporadically migrating into, the sea, we must conclude that under certain circumstances salt water may cease to be a barrier at some period of the existence of fresh-water species, and that many of them have passed from one river through salt water into another. secondly, the headwaters of some of the grandest rivers, the mouths of which are at opposite ends of the continents which they drain, are sometimes distant from each other a few miles only. the intervening space may have been easily bridged over for the passage of fishes by a slight geological change affecting the level of the watershed or even by temporary floods; and a communication of this kind, if existing for a limited period only, would afford the ready means of an exchange of a number of species previously peculiar to one or the other of these river or lake systems. some fishes provided with gill-openings so narrow that the water moistening the gills cannot readily evaporate, and endowed, besides, with an extraordinary degree of vitality, like many siluroids (_chlarias_, _callichthys_), eels, etc., are enabled to wander for some distance over land, and may thus reach a water-course leading them thousands of miles from their original home. finally, fishes or their ova may be accidentally carried by water-spouts, by aquatic birds or insects, to considerable distances." =fresh-water fishes of north america.=--we now recognize about six hundred species[ ] of fishes as found in the fresh waters of north america, north of the tropic of cancer, these representing thirty-four of the natural families. as to their habits, we can divide these species rather roughly into the four categories proposed by prof. cope, or, as we may call them, ( ) lowland fishes; as the bowfin,[ ] pirate-perch,[ ] large-mouthed black bass,[ ] sunfishes, and some catfishes. ( ) channel-fishes; as the channel catfish,[ ] the mooneye,[ ] garpike,[ ] buffalo-fishes,[ ] and drum.[ ] ( ) upland fishes; as many of the darters, shiners, and suckers, and the small-mouthed black bass.[ ] ( ) mountain-fishes; as the brook trout and many of the darters and minnows. to these we may add the more or less distinct classes of ( ) lake fishes, inhabiting only waters which are deep, clear, and cold, as the various species of whitefish[ ] and the great lake trout;[ ] ( ) anadromous fishes, or those which run up from the sea to spawn in fresh waters, as the salmon,[ ] sturgeon,[ ] shad,[ ] and striped bass;[ ] ( ) catadromous fishes, like the eel,[ ] which pass down to spawn in the sea; and ( ) brackish-water fishes, which thrive best in the debatable waters of the river-mouths, as most of the sticklebacks and the killifishes. as regards the range of species, we have every possible gradation from those which seem to be confined to a single river, and are rare even in their restricted habitat, to those which are in a measure cosmopolitan,[ ] ranging everywhere in suitable waters. =characters of species.=--still, again, we have all degrees of constancy and inconstancy in what we regard as the characters of a species. those found only in a single river-basin are usually uniform enough; but the species having a wide range usually vary much in different localities. such variations have at different times been taken to be the indications of as many different species. continued explorations bring to light, from year to year, new species; but the number of new forms now discovered each year is usually less than the number of recognized species which are yearly proved to be untenable. four complete lists of the fresh-water fishes of the united states (north of the mexican boundary) have been published by the present writer. that of jordan and copeland,[ ] published in , enumerates species. that of jordan[ ] in contains species, and that of jordan and gilbert[ ] in , species. that of jordan and evermann[ ] in contains species, although upwards of new species were detected in the twenty-two years which elapsed between the first and the last list. additional specimens from intervening localities are often found to form connecting links among the nominal species, and thus several supposed species become in time merged in one. thus the common channel catfish[ ] of our rivers has been described as a new species not less than twenty-five times, on account of differences real or imaginary, but comparatively trifling in value. where species can readily migrate, their uniformity is preserved; but whenever a form becomes localized its representatives assume some characters not shared by the species as a whole. when we can trace, as we often can, the disappearance by degrees of these characters, such forms no longer represent to us distinct species. in cases where the connecting forms are extinct, or at least not represented in collections, each form which is apparently different must be regarded as a distinct species. the variations in any type become, in general, more marked as we approach the tropics. the genera are represented, on the whole, by more species there, and it would appear that the processes of specific change go on more rapidly under the easier conditions of life in the torrid zone. we recognize now in north america twenty-five distinct species of fresh-water catfishes,[ ] although nearly a hundred ( ) nominal species of these fishes have been from time to time described. but these twenty-five species are among themselves very closely related, and all of them are subject to a variety of minor changes. it requires no strong effort of the imagination to see in them all the modified descendants of some one species of catfish, not unlike our common "bullhead,"[ ] an immigrant probably from asia, and which has now adjusted itself to its surroundings in each of our myriad of catfish-breeding streams. =meaning of species.=--the word "species," then, is simply a term of convenience, including such members of a group similar to each other as are tangibly different from others, and are not known to be connected with these by intermediate forms. such connecting links we may suppose to have existed in all cases. we are only sure that they do not now exist in our collections, so far as these have been carefully studied. when two or more species of any genus now inhabit the same waters, they are usually species whose differentiation is of long standing,--species, therefore, which can be readily distinguished from one another. when, on the other hand, we have "representative species,"--closely related forms, neither of which is found within the geographical range of the other,--we can with some confidence look for intermediate forms where the territory occupied by the one bounds that inhabited by the other. in very many such cases the intermediate forms have been found; and such forms are considered as subspecies of one species, the one being regarded as the parent stock, the other as an offshoot due to the influences of different environment. then, besides these "species" and "subspecies," groups more or less readily recognizable, there are varieties and variations of every grade, often too ill-defined to receive any sort of name, but still not without significance to the student of the origin of species. comparing a dozen fresh specimens of almost any kind of fish from any body of water with an equal number from somewhere else, one will rarely fail to find some sort of differences,--in size, in form, in color. these differences are obviously the reflex of differences in the environment, and the collector of fishes seldom fails to recognize them as such; often it is not difficult to refer the effect to the conditions. thus fishes from grassy bottoms are darker than those taken from over sand, and those from a bottom of muck are darker still, the shade of color being, in some way not well understood, dependent on the color of the surroundings. fishes in large bodies of water reach a larger size than the same species in smaller streams or ponds. fishes from foul or sediment-laden waters are paler in color and slenderer in form than those from waters which are clear and pure. again, it is often true that specimens from northern waters are less slender in body than those from farther south; and so on. other things being equal, the more remote the localities from each other, the greater are these differences. [illustration: fig. .--_scartichthys enosimæ_ jordan and snyder, a fish of the rock-pools of the sacred island of enoshima, japan. family _blenniidæ_.] in our fresh-water fishes each species on an average has been described as new from three to four times, on account of minor variations, real or supposed. in europe, where the fishes have been studied longer and by more different men, upwards of six or eight nominal species have been described for each one that is now considered distinct. =special creation impossible.=--it is evident, from these and other facts, that the idea of a separate creation for each species of fishes in each river-basin, as entertained by agassiz, is wholly incompatible with our present knowledge of the specific distinctions or of the geographical distribution of fishes. this is an unbroken gradation in the variations from the least to the greatest,--from the peculiarities of the individual, through local varieties, geographical subspecies, species, sub-genera, genera, families, super-families, and so on, until all fish-like vertebrates are included in a single bond of union. =origin of american species of fishes.=--it is, however, evident that not all american types of fishes had their origin in america, or even first assumed in america their present forms. some of these are perhaps immigrants from northern asia, where they still have their nearest relatives. still others are evidently modified importations from the sea; and of these some are very recent immigrants, land-locked species which have changed very little from the parent stock. the problems of analogous variation or parallelism without homology are very often met with among fishes. in shallow, swift brooks in all lands there are found small fishes which hug the bottom--large-finned, swift of movement, with speckled coloration, and with the air-bladder reduced in size. in the eastern united states these fishes are darters, dwarf perches; in northern india they are catfishes; in japan, gobies or loaches; in canada, sculpins; in south america, characins. members of various groups may be modified to meet the same conditions of life. being modified to look alike, the thought of mutual affinity is naturally suggested, but in such cases the likeness is chiefly external. the internal organs show little trace of such modifications. the inside of an animal tells what it really is, the outside where it has been. in other words, it is the external characters which are most readily affected by the environment. throughout all groups of animals and plants, there are large branches similarly affected by peculiarities of conditions. this is the basis of the law of "adaptive radiation." prof. h. f. osborn thus states this law: "it is a well-known principle of zoological evolution that an isolated region, if large and sufficiently varied in its topography, soil, climate, and vegetation, will give rise to a diversified fauna according to the law of adaptive radiation from primitive and central types. branches will spring off in all directions to take advantage of every possible opportunity of securing food. the modifications which animals undergo in this adaptive radiation are largely of mechanical nature; they are limited in number and kind by hereditary stirp or germinal influences, and thus result in the independent evolution of similar types in widely separated regions under the law of parallelism or homoplasy." footnotes: [ ] this chapter and the next are in substance reprinted from an essay published by the present writer in a volume called science sketches. a. c. mcclurg & co., chicago. [ ] _salvelinus fontinalis_ mitchill. [ ] _semotilus atromaculatus_ mitchill. [ ] _notropis cornutus_ rafinesque. [ ] _catostomus commersoni_ (lacépède). [ ] _ameiurus melas_ rafinesque. [ ] _eupomotis gibbosus_ linnæus. [ ] _etheostoma flabellare_ rafinesque. [ ] _rhinichthys atronasus_ mitchill. [ ] on fishes from tennessee river, alabama. american journal of science and arts, xvii., d series, , p. . [ ] on the distribution of fresh-water fishes in the alleghany region of southwestern virginia. journ. acad. nat. sci., phila., , pp. - . [ ] introduction to the study of fishes, , p. . [ ] the table below shows approximately the composition of the fresh-water fish fauna of europe, as compared with that of north america north of the tropic of cancer. families. europe. n. america. lamprey _petromyzonidæ_ species. species. paddle-fish _polyodontidæ_ -- " " sturgeon _acipenseridæ_ " " garpike _lepisosteidæ_ -- " " bowfin _amiidæ_ -- " " mooneye _hiodontidæ_ -- " " herring _clupeidæ_ " " gizzard-shad _dorosomidæ_ -- " " salmon _salmonidæ_ " " characin _characinidæ_ -- " " carp _cyprinidæ_ " " loach _cobiridæ_ " -- " sucker _catostomidæ_ -- " " catfish _siluridæ_ " " trout-perch _percopsidæ_ -- " " blindfish _amblyopsidæ_ -- " " killifish _cyprinodontidæ_ " " mud-minnow _umbridæ_ " " pike _esocidæ_ " " alaska blackfish _dalliidæ_ -- " " eel _anguillidæ_ " " stickleback _gasterosteidæ_ " " silverside _atherinidæ_ " " pirate perch _aphredoderidæ_ -- " " elassoma _elassomidæ_ -- " " sunfish _centrarchidæ_ -- " " perch _percidæ_ " " bass _serranidæ_ " " drum _sciænidæ_ -- " " surf-fish _embiotocidæ_ -- " " cichlid _cichlidæ_ -- " " goby _gobiidæ_ " " sculpin _cottidæ_ " " blenny _blenniidæ_ " -- " cod _gadidæ_ " " flounder _pleuronectidæ_ " -- " sole _soleidæ_ " " total: europe, families; species. north america, families; species. a few new species have been added since this enumeration was made. according to dr. günther (guide to the study of fishes, p. ), the total number of species now known from the temperate regions of asia and europe is about . the fauna of india, south of the himalayas, is much more extensive, numbering species. this latter fauna bears little resemblance to that of north america, being wholly tropical in its character. [ ] _amia calva_ linnæus. [ ] _aphredoderus sayanus_ gilliams. [ ] _micropterus salmoides_ lacépède. [ ] _ictalurus punctatus_ rafinesque. [ ] _hiodon tergisus_ le sueur. [ ] _lepisosteus osseus_ linnæus. [ ] _ictiobus bubalus_, _cyprinella_, etc. [ ] _aplodinotus grunniens_ rafinesque. [ ] _micropterus dolomieu_ lacépède. [ ] _coregonus clupeiformis_, _argyrosomus artedi_, etc. [ ] _cristivomer namaycush_ walbaum. [ ] _salmo salar_ linnæus. [ ] _acipenser sturio_ and other species. [ ] _alosa sapidissima_ wilson. [ ] _roccus lineatus_ bloch. [ ] _anguilla chrysypa_ raf. [ ] thus the chub-sucker (_erimyzon sucetta_) in some of its varieties ranges everywhere from maine to dakota, florida, and texas; while a number of other species are scarcely less widely distributed. [ ] check list of the fishes of the fresh waters of north america, by david s. jordan and herbert e. copeland. bulletin of the buffalo society of natural history, , pp. - . [ ] a catalogue of the fishes of the fresh waters of north america. bulletin of the united states geological survey, , pp. - . [ ] a catalogue of the fishes known to inhabit the waters of north america north of the tropic of cancer. annual report of the commissioner of fish and fisheries for and . [ ] check list of the fishes of north and middle america. report of the u. s. commissioner of fisheries for . [ ] _ictalurus punctatus_ rafinesque. [ ] _siluridæ._ [ ] _ameiurus nebulosus._ chapter xvii barriers to dispersion of river fishes =the process of natural selection.=--we can say, in general, that in all waters not absolutely uninhabitable there are fishes. the processes of natural selection have given to each kind of river or lake species of fishes adapted to the conditions of life which obtain there. there is no condition of water, of bottom, of depth, of speed of current, but finds some species with characters adjusted to it. these adjustments are, for the most part, of long standing; and the fauna of any single stream has as a rule been produced by immigration from other regions or from other streams. each species has an ascertainable range of distribution, and within this range we may be reasonably certain to find it in any suitable waters. [illustration: fig. .--slippery-dick or doncella, _halichoeres bivittatus_ bloch, a fish of the coral reefs, key west. family _labridæ_.] but every species has beyond question some sort of limit to its distribution, some sort of barrier which it has never passed in all the years of its existence. that this is true becomes evident when we compare the fish fauna of widely separated rivers. thus the sacramento, connecticut, rio grande, and st. john's rivers have not a single species in common; and with one or two exceptions, not a species is common to any two of them. none of these[ ] has any species peculiar to itself, and each shares a large part of its fish fauna with the water-basin next to it. it is probably true that the faunas of no two distinct hydrographic basins are wholly identical, while on the other hand there are very few species confined to a single one. the supposed cases of this character, some twenty in number, occur chiefly in the streams of the south atlantic states and of arizona. all of these need, however, the confirmation of further exploration. it is certain that in no case has an entire river fauna[ ] originated independently from the divergence into separate species of the descendants of a single type. the existence of boundaries to the range of species implies, therefore, the existence of barriers to their diffusion. we may now consider these barriers and in the same connection the degree to which they may be overcome. =local barriers.=--least important to these are the barriers which may exist within the limits of any single basin, and which tend to prevent a free diffusion through its waters of species inhabiting any portion of it. in streams flowing southward, or across different parallels of latitude, the difference in climate becomes a matter of importance. the distribution of species is governed very largely by the temperature of the water. each species has its range in this respect,--the free-swimming fishes, notably the trout, being most affected by it; the mud-loving or bottom fishes, like the catfishes, least. the latter can reach the cool bottoms in hot weather, or the warm bottoms in cold weather, thus keeping their own temperature more even than that of the surface of the water. although water communication is perfectly free for most of the length of the mississippi, there is a material difference between the faunæ of the stream in minnesota and in louisiana. this difference is caused chiefly by the difference in temperature occupying the difference in latitude. that a similar difference in longitude, with free water communication, has no appreciable importance, is shown by the almost absolute identity of the fish faunæ of lake winnebago and lake champlain. while many large fishes range freely up and down the mississippi, a majority of the species do not do so, and the fauna of the upper mississippi has more in common with that of the tributaries of lake michigan than it has with that of the red river or the arkansas. the influence of climate is again shown in the paucity of the fauna of the cold waters of lake superior, as compared with that of lake michigan. the majority of our species cannot endure the cold. in general, therefore, cold or northern waters contain fewer species than southern waters do, though the number of individuals of any one kind may be greater. this is shown in all waters, fresh or salt. the fisheries of the northern seas are more extensive than those of the tropics. there are more fishes there, but are far less varied in kind. the writer once caught seventy-five species of fishes in a single haul of the seine at key west, while on cape cod he obtained with the same net but forty-five species in the course of a week's work. thus it comes that the angler, contented with many fishes of few kinds, goes to northern streams to fish, while the naturalist goes to the south. [illustration: fig. .--_peristedion miniatum_ goode and bean, a deep-red colored fish of the depths of the gulf stream.] but in most streams the difference in latitude is insignificant, and the chief differences in temperature come from differences in elevation, or from the distance of the waters from the colder source. often the lowland waters are so different in character as to produce a marked change in the quality of their fauna. these lowland waters may form a barrier to the free movements of upland fishes; but that this barrier is not impassable is shown by the identity of the fishes in the streams[ ] of the uplands of middle tennessee with those of the holston and french broad. again, streams of the ozark mountains, similar in character to the rivers of east tennessee, have an essentially similar fish fauna, although between the ozarks and the cumberland range lies an area of lowland bayous, into which such fishes are never known to penetrate. we can, however, imagine that these upland fishes may be sometimes swept down from one side or the other into the mississippi, from which they might ascend on the other side. but such transfers certainly do not often happen. this is apparent from the fact that the two faunas[ ] are not quite identical, and in some cases the same species are represented by perceptibly different varieties on one side and the other. the time of the commingling of these faunæ is perhaps now past, and it may have occurred only when the climate of the intervening regions was colder than at present. the effect of waterfalls and cascades as a barrier to the diffusion of most species is self-evident; but the importance of such obstacles is less, in the course of time, than might be expected. in one way or another very many species have passed these barriers. the falls of the cumberland limit the range of most of the larger fishes of the river, but the streams above it have their quota of darters and minnows. it is evident that the past history of the stream must enter as a factor into this discussion, but this past history it is not always possible to trace. dams or artificial waterfalls now check the free movement of many species, especially those of migratory habits; while conversely, numerous other species have extended their range through the agency of canals.[ ] every year fishes are swept down the rivers by the winter's floods; and in the spring, as the spawning season approaches, almost every species is found working its way up the stream. in some cases, notably the quinnat salmon[ ] and the blue-back salmon,[ ] the length of these migrations is surprisingly great. to some species rapids and shallows have proved a sufficient barrier, and other kinds have been kept back by unfavorable conditions of various sorts. streams whose waters are always charged with silt or sediment, as the missouri, arkansas, or brazos, do not invite fishes; and even the occasional floods of red mud such as disfigure otherwise clear streams, like the red river or the colorado (of texas), are unfavorable. extremely unfavorable also is the condition which obtains in many rivers of the southwest, as, for example, the red river, the sabine, and the trinity, which are full from bank to bank in winter and spring, and which dwindle to mere rivulets in the autumn droughts. =favorable waters have most species.=--in general, those streams which have conditions most favorable to fish life will be found to contain the greatest number of species. such streams invite immigration; and in them the struggle for existence is individual against individual, species against species, and not a mere struggle with hard conditions of life. some of the conditions most favorable to the existence in any stream of a large number of species of fishes are the following, the most important of which is the one mentioned first: connection with a large hydrographic basin; a warm climate; clear water; a moderate current; a bottom of gravel (preferably covered by a growth of weeds); little fluctuation during the year in the volume of the stream or in the character of the water. limestone streams usually yield more species than streams flowing over sandstone, and either more than the streams of regions having metamorphic rocks. sandy bottoms usually are not favorable to fishes. in general, glacial drift makes a suitable river bottom, but the higher temperature usual in regions beyond the limits of the drift gives to certain southern streams conditions still more favorable. these conditions are all well realized in the washita river in arkansas, and in various tributaries of the tennessee, cumberland, and ohio; and in these, among american streams, the greatest number of species has been recorded. the isolation and the low temperature of the rivers of new england have given to them a very scanty fish fauna as compared with the rivers of the south and west. this fact has been noticed by professor agassiz, who has called new england a "zoological island."[ ] in spite of the fact that barriers of every sort are sometimes crossed by fresh-water fishes, we must still regard the matter of freedom of water communication as the essential one in determining the range of most species. the larger the river basin, the greater the variety of conditions likely to be offered in it, and the greater the number of its species. in case of the divergence of new forms by the processes called "natural selection," the greater the number of such forms which may have spread through its waters; the more extended any river basin, the greater are the chances that any given species may sometimes find its way into it; hence the greater the number of species that actually occur in it, and, freedom of movement being assumed, the greater the number of species to be found in any one of its affluents. of the six hundred species of fishes found in the rivers of the united states, about two hundred have been recorded from the basin of the mississippi. from fifty to one hundred of these species can be found in any one of the tributary streams of the size, say, of the housatonic river or the charles. in the connecticut river there are but about eighteen species permanently resident; and the number found in the streams of texas is not much larger, the best known of these, the rio colorado, having yielded but twenty-four species. the waters of the great basin are not rich in fishes, the [illustration: fig. .--ancient outlet of lake bonneville, great salt lake, in idaho. (photograph by prof. j. m. aldrich.)] species now found being evidently an overflow from the snake river when in late glacial times it drained lake bonneville. this postglacial lake once filled the present basin of the great salt lake and utah lake, its outlet flowing northwest from ogden into snake river. the same fishes are now found in the upper snake river and the basins of utah lake and of sevier lake. in the same fashion lake lahontan once occupied the basin of nevada, the humboldt and carson sinks, with pyramid lake. its drainage fell also into the snake river, and its former limits are shown in the present range of species. these have almost nothing in common with the group of species inhabiting the former drainage of lake bonneville. another postglacial body of water, lake idaho, once united the lakes of southeastern oregon. the fauna of lake idaho, and of the lakes malheur, warner, goose, etc., which have replaced it, is also isolated and distinctive. the number of species now known from this region of these ancient lobes is about . this list is composed almost entirely of a few genera of suckers,[ ] minnows,[ ] and trout.[ ] none of the catfishes, perch, darters, or sunfishes, moon-eyes, pike, killifishes, and none of the ordinary eastern types of minnows[ ] have passed the barrier of the rocky mountains. west of the sierra nevada the fauna is still more scanty, only about seventy species being enumerated. this fauna, except for certain immigrants[ ] from the sea, is of the same general character as that of the great basin, though most of the species are different. this latter fact would indicate a considerable change, or "evolution," since the contents of the two faunæ were last mingled. there is a considerable difference between the fauna of the columbia and that of the sacramento. the species which these two basins have in common are chiefly those which at times pass out into the sea. the rivers of alaska contain but few species, barely a dozen in all, most of these being found also in siberia and kamchatka. in the scantiness of its faunal list, the yukon agrees with the mackenzie river, and with arctic rivers generally. there can be no doubt that the general tendency is for each species to extend its range more and more widely until all localities suitable for its growth are included. the various agencies of dispersal which have existed in the past are still in operation. there is apparently no limit to their action. it is probable that new "colonies" of one species or another may be planted each year in waters not heretofore inhabited by such species. but such colonies become permanent only where the conditions are so favorable that the species can hold its own in the struggle for food and subsistence. that the various modifications in the habitat of certain species have been caused by human agencies is of course too well known to need discussion here. =watersheds.=--we may next consider the question of watersheds, or barriers which separate one river basin from another. of such barriers in the united states, the most important and most effective is unquestionably that of the main chain of the rocky mountains. this is due in part to its great height, still more to its great breadth, and most of all, perhaps, to the fact that it is nowhere broken by the passage of a river. but two species--the red-throated or rocky mountain trout[ ] and the rocky mountain whitefish[ ]--are found on both sides of it, at least within the limits of the united states; while many genera, and even several families, find in it either an eastern or a western limit to their range. in a few instances representative species, probably modifications or separated branches of the same stock, occur on opposite sides of the range, but there are not many cases of correspondence even thus close. the two faunas are practically distinct. even the widely distributed red-spotted or "dolly varden" trout[ ] of the columbia river and its affluents does not cross to the east side of the mountains, nor does the montana grayling[ ] ever make its way to the west. in northern mexico, however, numerous eastern river fishes have crossed the main chain of the sierra madre. =how fishes cross watersheds.=--it is easy to account for this separation of the faunæ; but how shall we explain the almost universal diffusion of the whitefish and the trout in suitable waters on both sides of the dividing ridge? we may notice that these two are the species which ascend highest in the mountains, the whitefish inhabiting the mountain pools and lakes, the trout ascending all brooks and rapids in search of their fountainheads. in many cases the ultimate dividing ridge is not very broad, and we may imagine that at some time spawn or even young fishes may have been carried across by birds or other animals, or by man, or more likely by the dash of some summer whirlwind. once carried across in favorable circumstances, the species might survive and spread. the following is an example of how such transfer of species may be accomplished, which shows that we need not be left to draw on the imagination to invent possible means of transit. =the suletind.=--there are few watersheds in the world better defined than the mountain range which forms the "back-bone" of norway. i lately climbed a peak in this range, the suletind. from its summit i could look down into the valleys of the lära and the bägna, flowing in opposite directions to opposite sides of the peninsula. to the north of the suletind is a large double lake called the sletningenvand. the maps show this lake to be one of the chief sources of the westward-flowing river lära. this lake is in august swollen by the melting of the snows, and at the time of my visit it was visibly the source of both these rivers. from its southeastern side flowed a large brook into the valley of the bägna, and from its southwestern corner, equally distinctly, came the waters which fed the lära. this lake, like similar mountain ponds in all northern countries, abounds in trout; and these trout certainly have for part of the year an uninterrupted line of water communication from the sognefjord on the west of norway to the christianiafjord on the southeast,--from the north sea to the baltic. part of the year the lake has probably but a single outlet through the lära. a higher temperature would entirely cut off the flow into the bägna, and a still higher one might dry up the lake altogether. this sletningenvand, with its two outlets on the summit of a sharp watershed, may serve to show us how other lakes, permanent or temporary, may elsewhere have acted as agencies for the transfer of fishes. we can also see how it might be that certain mountain fishes should be so transferred while the fishes of the upland waters may be left behind. in some such way as this we may imagine that various species of fishes have attained their present wide range in the rocky mountain region; and in similar manner perhaps the eastern brook trout[ ] and some other mountain species[ ] may have been carried across the alleghanies. =the cassiquiare.=--professor john c. branner calls my attention to a marshy upland which separates the valley of the la plata from that of the amazon, and which permits the free movement of fishes from the paraguay river to the tapajos. it is well known that through the cassiquiare river the rio negro, another branch of the amazon, is joined to the orinoco river. it is thus evident that almost all the waters of eastern south america form a single basin, so far as the fishes are concerned. as to the method of transfer of the trout from the columbia to the missouri, we are not now left in doubt. =two-ocean pass.=--to this day, as the present writer and later evermann and jenkins[ ] have shown, the yellowstone and snake rivers are connected by two streams crossing the main divide of the rocky mountains from the yellowstone to the snake across two-ocean pass. prof. evermann has described the locality as follows: "two-ocean pass is a high mountain meadow, about , feet above the sea and situated just south of the yellowstone national park, in longitude ° ' w., latitude ° ' n. it is surrounded on all sides by rather high mountains except where the narrow valleys of atlantic and pacific creeks open out from it. running back among the mountains to the northward are two small canyons down which come two small streams. on the opposite is another canyon down which comes another small stream. the extreme length of the meadow from east to west is about a mile, while the width from north to south is not much less. the larger of the streams coming in from the north is pacific creek, which, after winding along the western side of the meadow, turns abruptly westward, leaving the meadow through a narrow gorge. receiving numerous small affluents, pacific creek soon becomes a good-sized stream, which finally unites with buffalo creek a few miles above where the latter stream flows into snake river. "atlantic creek was found to have two forks entering the pass. at the north end of the meadow is a small wooded canyon down which flows the north fork. this stream hugs the border of the flat very closely. the south fork comes down the canyon on the south side, skirting the brow of the hill a little less closely than does the north fork. the two, coming together near the middle of the eastern border of the meadow, form atlantic creek, which after a course of a few miles flows into the upper yellowstone. but the remarkable phenomena exhibited here remain to be described. "each fork of atlantic creek, just after entering the meadow, divides as if to flow around an island, but the stream toward the meadow, instead of returning to the portion from which it had parted, continues its westerly course across the meadow. just before reaching the western border the two streams unite and then pour their combined waters into pacific creek; thus are atlantic and pacific creeks united and a continuous waterway from the columbia via two-ocean pass to the gulf of mexico is established. "pacific creek is a stream of good size long before it enters the pass, and its course through the meadow is in a definite channel, but not so with atlantic creek. the west bank of each fork is low and the stream is liable to break through anywhere and thus send part of its water across to pacific creek. it is probably true that one or two branches always connect the two creeks under ordinary conditions, and that following heavy rains or when the snows are melting, a much greater portion of the water of atlantic creek crosses the meadow to the other side. [illustration: fig. .--silver surf-fish (viviparous), _hypocritichthys analis_ (agassiz). monterey.] "besides the channels already mentioned, there are several more or less distinct ones that were dry at the time of our visit. as already stated, the pass is a nearly level meadow covered with a heavy growth of grass and many small willows one to three feet high. while it is somewhat marshy in places it has nothing of the nature of a lake about it. of course, during wet weather the small springs at the borders of the meadow would be stronger, but the important facts are that there is no lake or even marsh there and that neither atlantic nor pacific creek has its rise in the meadow. atlantic creek, in fact, comes into the pass as two good-sized streams from opposite directions and leaves it by at least four channels, thus making an island of a considerable portion of the meadow. and it is certain that there is, under ordinary circumstances, a continuous waterway through two-ocean pass of such a character as to permit fishes to pass easily and readily from snake river over to the yellowstone, or in the opposite direction. indeed, it is quite possible, barring certain falls in the snake river, for a fish so inclined, to start at the mouth of the columbia, travel up that great river to its principal tributary, the snake, thence on through the long, tortuous course of that stream, and, under the shadows of the grand teton, enter the cold waters of pacific creek, by which it could journey on up to the very crest of the great continental divide,--to two-ocean pass; through this pass it may have a choice of two routes to atlantic creek, in which the down-stream journey is begun. soon it reaches the yellowstone, down which it continues to yellowstone lake, then through the lower yellowstone out into the turbid waters of the missouri; for many hundred miles it may continue down this mighty river before reaching the father of waters, which will finally carry it to the gulf of mexico--a wonderful journey of nearly , miles, by far the longest possible fresh-water journey in the world. "we found trout in pacific creek at every point where we examined it. in two-ocean pass we found trout in each of the streams and in such positions as would have permitted them to pass easily from one side of the divide to the other. we also found trout in atlantic creek below the pass, and in the upper yellowstone they were abundant. thus it is certain that there is no obstruction, even in dry weather, to prevent the passage of trout from the snake river to yellowstone lake; it is quite evident that trout do pass over in this way; and it is almost certain that yellowstone lake was stocked with trout from the west via two-ocean pass."--evermann. =mountain chains.=--the sierra nevada constitutes also a very important barrier to the diffusion of species. this is, however, broken by the passage of the columbia river, and many species thus find their way across it. that the waters to the west of it are not unfavorable for the growth of eastern fishes is shown by the fact of the rapid spread of the common eastern catfish,[ ] or horned pout, when transported from the schuylkill to the sacramento. the catfish is now one of the important food fishes of the san francisco markets, and with the chinaman its patron, it has gone from california to hawaii. the chinese catfish, described by bleeker as _ameiurus cantonensis_, was doubtless carried home by some chinaman returning from san francisco. in like fashion the small-mouthed black bass is now frequent in california streams, as is also the blue-green sunfish, _apomotis cyanellus_, introduced as food for the bass. the mountain mass of mount shasta is, as already stated, a considerable barrier to the range of fishes, though a number of species find their way around it through the sea. the lower and irregular ridges of the coast range are of small importance in this regard, as the streams of their east slope reach the sea on the west through san francisco bay. yet the san joaquin contains a few species not yet recorded from the smaller rivers of southwestern california. the main chain of the alleghanies forms a barrier of importance separating the rich fish fauna of the tennessee and ohio basins from the scantier faunæ of the atlantic streams. yet this barrier is crossed by many more species than is the case with either the rocky mountains or the sierra nevada. it is lower, narrower, and much more broken,--as in new york, in pennsylvania, and in georgia there are several streams which pass through it or around it. the much greater age of the alleghany chain, as compared with the rocky mountains, seems not to be an element of any importance in this connection. of the fish which cross this chain, the most prominent is the brook trout,[ ] which is found in all suitable waters from hudson's bay to the head of the chattahoochee. =upland fishes.=--a few other species are locally found in the head waters of certain streams on opposite sides of the range. an example of this is the little red "fallfish,"[ ] found only in the mountain tributaries of the savannah and the tennessee. we may suppose the same agencies to have assisted these species that we have imagined in the case of the rocky mountain trout, and such agencies were doubtless more operative in the times immediately following the glacial epoch than they are now. prof. cope calls attention also to the numerous caverns existing in these mountains as a sufficient medium for the transfer of many species. i doubt whether the main chains of the blue ridge or the great smoky can be crossed in that way, though such channels are not rare in the subcarboniferous limestones of the cumberland range. in the brooks at the head waters of the roanoke river about alleghany springs in virginia, fishes of the tennessee basin are found, instead of those characteristic of the lower roanoke. in this case it is likely that we have to consider the results of local erosion. probably the divide has been so shifted that some small stream with its fishes has been cut off from the holston and transferred to the roanoke. the passage of species from stream to stream along the atlantic slope deserves a moment's notice. it is under present conditions impossible for any mountain or upland fish, as the trout or the miller's thumb,[ ] to cross from the potomac river to the james, or from the neuse to the santee, by descending to the lower courses of the rivers, and thence passing along either through the swamps or by way of the sea. the lower courses of these streams, warm and muddy, are uninhabitable by such fishes. such transfers are, however, possible farther north. from the rivers of canada and from many rivers of new england the trout does descend to the sea and into the sea, and farther north the whitefish does this also. thus these fishes readily pass from one river basin to another. as this is the case now everywhere in the north, it may have been the case farther south in the time of the glacial cold. we may, i think, imagine a condition of things in which the snow-fields of the alleghany chain might have played some part in aiding the diffusion of cold-loving fishes. a permanent snow-field on the blue ridge in western north carolina might render almost any stream in the carolinas suitable for trout, from its source to its mouth. an increased volume of colder water might carry the trout of the head streams of the catawba and the savannah as far down as the sea. we can even imagine that the trout reached these streams in the first place through such agencies, though of this there is no positive evidence. for the presence of trout in the upper chattahoochee we must account in some other way. it is noteworthy that the upland fishes are nearly the same in all these streams until we reach the southern limit of possible glacial influence. south of western north carolina the faunæ of the different river basins appear to be more distinct from one another. certain ripple-loving types are represented by closely related but unquestionably different species in each river basin, and it would appear that a thorough mingling of the upland species in these rivers has never taken place. the best examples of this are the following: in the santee basin are found _notropis pyrrhomelas_, _notropis niveus_, and _notropis chloristius_; in the altamaha, _notropis xænurus_ and _notropis callisemus_; in the chattahoochee, _notropis hypselopterus_ and _notropis eurystomus_; in the alabama, _notropis coeruleus_, _notropis trichroistius_, and _notropis callistius_. in the alabama, escambia, pearl, and numerous other rivers is found _notropis cercostigma_. this species descends to the sea in the cool streams of the pine woods. its range is wider than that of the others, and in the rivers of texas it reappears in the form of a scarcely distinct variety, _notropis venustus_. in the tennessee and cumberland, and in the rivers of the ozark range, is _notropis galacturus_; and in the upper arkansas _notropis camurus_,--all distinct species of the same general type. northward, in all the streams from the potomac to the oswego, and westward to the des moines and the arkansas, occurs a single species of this type, _notropis whipplei_, varying eastward into _notropis analostanus_. but this species is not known from any of the streams inhabited by any of the other species mentioned, although very likely it is the parent stock of them all. =lowland fishes.=--with the lowland species of the southern rivers it is different. few of these are confined within narrow limits. the streams of the whole south atlantic and gulf coast flow into shallow bays, mostly bounded by sand-spits or sand-bars which the rivers themselves have brought down. in these bays the waters are often neither fresh nor salt; or, rather, they are alternately fresh and salt, the former condition being that of the winter and spring. many species descend into these bays, thus finding every facility for transfer from river to river. there is a continuous inland passage in fresh or brackish waters, traversable by such fishes, from chesapeake bay nearly to cape fear; and similar conditions exist on the coasts of louisiana, texas, and much of florida. in perdido bay i have found fresh-water minnows[ ] and silversides[ ] living together with marine gobies[ ] and salt-water eels.[ ] fresh-water alligator gars[ ] and marine sharks compete for the garbage thrown over from the pensacola wharves. in lake pontchartrain the fauna is a remarkable mixture of fresh-water fishes from the mississippi and marine fishes from the gulf. channel-cats, sharks, sea-crabs, sunfishes, and mullets can all be found there together. it is therefore to be expected that the lowland fauna of all the rivers of the gulf states would closely resemble that of the lower mississippi; and this, in fact, is the case. the streams of southern florida and those of southwestern texas offer some peculiarities connected with their warmer climate. the florida streams contain a few peculiar fishes;[ ] while the rivers of texas, with the same general fauna as those farther north, have also a few distinctly tropical types,[ ] immigrants from the lowlands of mexico. =cuban fishes.=--the fresh waters of cuba are inhabited by fishes unlike those found in the united states. some of these are evidently indigenous, derived in the waters they now inhabit directly from marine forms. two of these are eyeless species,[ ] inhabiting streams in the caverns. they have no relatives in the fresh waters of any other region, the blind fishes[ ] of our caves being of a wholly different type. some of the cuban fishes are common to the fresh waters of the other west indies. of northern types, only one, the alligator gar,[ ] is found in cuba, and this is evidently a filibuster immigrant from the coasts of florida. =swampy watersheds.=--the low and irregular watershed which separates the tributaries of lake michigan and lake erie from those of the ohio is of little importance in determining the range of species. many of the distinctively northern fishes are found in the headwaters of the wabash and the scioto. the considerable difference in the general fauna of the ohio valley as compared with that of the streams of michigan is due to the higher temperature of the former region, rather than to any existing barriers between the river and the great lakes. in northern indiana the watershed is often swampy, and in many places large ponds exist in the early spring. at times of heavy rains many species will move through considerable distances by means of temporary ponds and brooks. fishes that have thus emigrated often reach places ordinarily inaccessible, and people finding them in such localities often imagine that they have "rained down." once, near indianapolis, after a heavy shower, i found in a furrow in a corn-field a small pike,[ ] some half a mile from the creek in which he should belong. the fish was swimming along in a temporary brook, apparently wholly unconscious that he was not in his native stream. migratory fishes, which ascend small streams to spawn, are especially likely to be transferred in this way. by some such means any of the watersheds in ohio, indiana, or illinois may be passed. [illustration: fig. .--creekfish or chub-sucker, _erimyzon sucetta_ (lacépède). nipisink lake, illinois. family _catostomidæ_.] it is certain that the limits of lake erie and lake michigan were once more extended than now. it is reasonably probable that some of the territory now drained by the wabash and the illinois was once covered by the waters of lake michigan. the cisco[ ] of lake tippecanoe, lake geneva, and the lakes of the oconomowoc chain is evidently a modified descendant of the so-called lake herring.[ ] its origin most likely dates from the time when these small deep lakes of indiana and wisconsin were connected with lake michigan. the changes in habits which the cisco has undergone are considerable. the changes in external characters are but trifling. the presence of the cisco in these lakes and its periodical disappearance--that is, retreat into deep water when not in the breeding season--have given rise to much nonsensical discussion as to whether any or all of these lakes are still joined to lake michigan by subterranean channels. several of the larger fishes, properly characteristic of the great lake region,[ ] are occasionally taken in the ohio river, where they are usually recognized as rare stragglers. the difference in physical conditions is probably the sole cause of their scarcity in the ohio basin. =the great basin of utah.=--the similarity of the fishes in the different streams and lakes of the great basin is doubtless to be attributed to the general mingling of their waters which took place during and after the glacial epoch. since that period the climate in that region has grown hotter and drier, until the overflow of the various lakes into the columbia basin through the snake river has long since ceased. these lakes have become isolated from each other, and many of them have become salt or alkaline and therefore uninhabitable. in some of these lakes certain species may now have become extinct which still remain in others. in some cases, perhaps, the differences in surroundings may have caused divergence into distinct species of what was once one parent stock. the suckers in lake tahoe[ ] and those in utah lake are certainly now different from each other and from those in the columbia. the trout[ ] in the same waters can be regarded as more or less tangible species, while the whitefishes[ ] show no differences at all. the differences in the present faunas of lake tahoe and utah lake must be chiefly due to influences which have acted since the glacial epoch, when the whole utah basin was part of the drainage of the columbia. =arctic species in lakes.=--connected perhaps with changes due to glacial influences is the presence in the deep waters of the great lakes of certain marine types,[ ] as shown by the explorations of professor sidney i. smith and others. one of these is a genus of fishes,[ ] of which the nearest allies now inhabit the arctic seas. in his review of the fish fauna of finland,[ ] professor a. j. malmgren finds a number of arctic species in the waters of finland which are not found either in the north sea or in the southern portions of the baltic. these fishes are said to "agree with their 'forefathers' in the glacial ocean in every point, but remain comparatively smaller, leaner, almost starved." professor lovén[ ] also has shown that numerous small animals of marine origin are found in the deep lakes of sweden and finland as well as in the gulf of bothnia. these anomalies of distribution are explained by lovén and malmgren on the supposition of the former continuity of the baltic through the gulf of bothnia with the glacial ocean. during the second half of the glacial period, according to lovén, "the greater part of finland and of the middle of sweden was submerged, and the baltic was a great gulf of the glacial ocean, and not connected with the german ocean. by the gradual elevation of the scandinavian continent, the baltic became disconnected from the glacial ocean and the great lakes separated from the baltic. in consequence of the gradual change of the salt water into fresh, the marine fauna became gradually extinct, with the exception of the glacial forms mentioned above." it is possible that the presence of marine types in our great lakes is to be regarded as due to some depression of the land which would connect their waters with those of the gulf of st. lawrence. on this point, however, our data are still incomplete. to certain species of upland or mountain fishes the depression of the mississippi basin itself forms a barrier which cannot be passed. the black-spotted trout,[ ] very closely related species of which abound in all waters of northern asia, europe, and western north america, has nowhere crossed the basin of the mississippi, although one of its species finds no difficulty in passing bering strait. the trout and whitefish of the rocky mountain region are all species different from those of the great lakes or the streams of the alleghany system. to the grayling, the trout, the whitefish, the pike, and to arctic and subarctic species generally, bering strait has evidently proved no serious obstacle to diffusion; and it is not unlikely that much of the close resemblance of the fresh-water faunæ of northern europe, asia, and north america is due to this fact. to attempt to decide from which side the first migration came in regard to each group of fishes might be interesting; but without a wider range of facts than is now in our possession, most such attempts, based on guesswork, would have little value. the interlocking of the fish faunas of asia and north america presents, however, a number of interesting problems, for migrations in both directions have doubtless taken place. =causes of dispersion still in operation.=--one might go on indefinitely with the discussion of special cases, each more or less interesting or suggestive in itself, but the general conclusion is in all cases the same. the present distribution of fishes is the result of the long-continued action of forces still in operation. the species have entered our waters in many invasions from the old world or from the sea. each species has been subjected to the various influences implied in the term "natural selection," and under varying conditions its representatives have undergone many different modifications. each of the six hundred fresh-water species we now know in the united states may be conceived as making every year inroads on territory occupied by other species. if these colonies are able to hold their own in the struggle for possession, they will multiply in the new conditions, and the range of the species becomes widened. if the surroundings are different, new species or varieties may be formed with time; and these new forms may again invade the territory of the parent species. again, colony after colony of species after species may be destroyed by other species or by uncongenial surroundings. the ultimate result of centuries on centuries of the restlessness of individuals is seen in the facts of geographical distribution. only in the most general way can the history of any species be traced; but could we know it all, it would be as long and as eventful a story as the history of the colonization and settlement of north america by immigrants from europe. but by the fishes each river in america has been a hundred times discovered, its colonization a hundred times attempted. in these efforts there is no co-operation. every individual is for himself, every struggle a struggle of life and death; for each fish is a cannibal, and to each species each member of every other species is an alien and a savage. footnotes: [ ] except possibly the sacramento. [ ] unless the fauna of certain cave streams in the united states and cuba be regarded as forming an exception. [ ] for example, elk river, duck river, etc. [ ] there are three species of darters (_cottogaster copelandi_ jordan, _hadropterus evides_ jordan and copeland, _hadropterus scierus_ swain) which are now known only from the ozark region or beyond and from the uplands of indiana, not yet having been found at any point between indiana and missouri. these constitute perhaps isolated colonies, now separated from the parent stock in arkansas by the prairie districts of illinois, a region at present uninhabitable for these fishes. but the non-occurrence of these species over the intervening areas needs confirmation, as do most similar cases of anomalous distribution. [ ] thus, _dorosoma cepedianum_ le sueur and _pomolobus chrysochloris_ rafinesque have found their way into lake michigan through canals. [ ] _oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ walbaum. [ ] _oncorhynchus nerka_ walbaum. [ ] "in this isolated region of north america, in this zoological island of new england, as we may call it, we find neither lepidosteus, nor amia, nor polyodon, nor amblodon (_aplodinotus_), nor grystes (_micropterus_), nor centrarchus, nor pomoxis, nor ambloplites, nor calliurus (_chænobryttus_), nor carpiodes, nor hyodon, nor indeed any of the characteristic forms of north american fishes so common everywhere else, with the exception of two pomotis (_lepomis_), one boleosoma, and a few catostomus."--agassiz, _amer. journ. sci. arts_, . [ ] _catostomus_, _pantosteus_, _chasmistes_. [ ] _gila_, _ptychocheilus_, etc. [ ] _salmo clarkii_ and its varieties. [ ] genera _notropis_, _chrosomus_, etc. [ ] as the fresh-water surf-fish (_hysterocarpus traski_) and the species of salmon. [ ] _salmo clarki_ richardson. [ ] _coregonus williamsoni_ girard. [ ] _salvelinus malma_ (walbaum). [ ] _thymallus tricolor_ cope. [ ] _salvelinus fontinalis_ mitchill. [ ] _notropis rubricroceus_ cope, _rhinichthys atronasus_ mitchill, etc. [ ] evermann, a reconnoissance of the streams and lakes of western montana and northwestern wyoming, in bull. u. s. fish. comm., xi, , - , pls. i and ii; jordan, the story of a strange land, in pop. sci. monthly, feb., , - ; evermann, two-ocean pass, in proc. ind. ac. sci., , - , pl. i; evermann, two-ocean pass, in pop. sci. monthly, june, , with plate. [ ] _ameiurus nebulosus_ le sueur: _ameiurus catus_ linnæus. [ ] _salvelinus fontinalis._ [ ] _notropis rubricroceus_ cope. [ ] _cottus ictalops_ rafinesque. [ ] _notropis cercostigma_, _notropis xænocephalus_. [ ] _labidesthes sicculus._ [ ] _gobiosoma molestum._ [ ] _myrophis punctatus._ [ ] _lepisosteus tristoechus._ [ ] _jordanella_, _rivulus_, _heterandria_, etc. [ ] _heros_, _tetragonopterus_. [ ] _lucifuga_ and _stygicola_, fishes allied to the cusk, and belonging to the family of _brotulidæ_. [ ] _amblyopsis_, _typhlichthys_. [ ] _lepisosteus tristoechus._ [ ] _esox vermiculatus_ le sueur. [ ] _argyrosomus sisco_ jordan. [ ] _argyrosomus artedi_ le sueur. [ ] as _lota maculosa_; _percopsis guttata_; _esox masquinongy_. [ ] _catostomus tahoensis_, in lake tahoe; _catostomus macrocheilus_ and _discobolus_, in the columbia; _catostomus fecundus_; _catostomus ardens_; _chasmistes liorus_ and _pantosteus generosus_, in utah lake. [ ] _salmo henshawi_ and _virginalis_. [ ] _coregonus williamsoni._ [ ] species of _mysis_ and other genera of crustaceans, similar to species described by sars and others, in lakes of sweden and finland. [ ] _triglopsis thompsoni_ girard, a near ally of the marine species _oncocottus quadricornis_ l. [ ] kritisk Öfversigt of finlands fisk-fauna, helsingfors, . [ ] see günther, zoological record for , p. . [ ] _salmo fario_ l., in europe; _salmo labrax_ pallas, etc., in asia; _salmo gairdneri_ richardson, in streams of the pacific coast; _salmo perryi_, in japan; _salmo clarki_ richardson, throughout the rocky mountain range to the mexican boundary and the headwaters of the kansas, platte, and missouri. chapter xviii fishes as food for man =the flesh of fishes.=--among all races of men, fishes are freely eaten as food, either raw, as preferred by the japanese and hawaiians, or else as cooked, salted, dried, or otherwise preserved. the flesh of most fishes is white, flaky, readily digestible, and with an agreeable flavor. some, as the salmon, are charged with oil, which aids to give an orange hue known as salmon color. others have colorless oil which may be of various consistencies. some have dark-red flesh, which usually contains a heavy oil which becomes acrid when stale. some fishes, as the sharks, have tough, coarse flesh. some have flesh which is watery and coarse. some are watery and tasteless, some dry and tasteless. some, otherwise excellent, have the muscular area, which constitutes the chief edible part of the fish, filled with small bones. =relative rank of food-fishes.=--the writer has tested most of the noted food-fishes of the northern hemisphere. when properly cooked (for he is no judge of raw fish) he would place first in the ranks as a food-fish the eulachon, or candle-fish (_thaleichthys pacificus_). [illustration: fig. .--eulachon, or ulchen. _thaleichthys pretiosus_ girard. columbia river. family _argentinidæ_.] this little smelt, about a foot long, ascends the columbia river, frazer river, and streams of southern alaska in the spring in great numbers for the purpose of spawning. its flesh is white, very delicate, charged with a white and very agreeable oil, readily digested, and with a sort of fragrance peculiar to the species. [illustration: fig. .--ayu, or japanese samlet, _plecoglossus altivelis_ schlegel. tanagawa, tokyo, japan.] next to this he is inclined to place the ayu (_plecoglossus altivelis_), a sort of dwarf salmon which runs in similar fashion in the rivers of japan and formosa. the ayu is about as large as the eulachon and has similar flesh, but with little oil and no fragrance. [illustration: fig. .--whitefish, _coregonus clupeiformis_ mitchill. ecorse, mich.] very near the first among sea-fishes must come the pampano (_trachinotus carolinus_) of the gulf of mexico, with firm, white, finely flavored flesh. the red surmullet of europe (_mullus barbatus_) has been long famed for its delicate flesh, and may perhaps be placed next. two related species in polynesia, the munu and the kumu (_pseudupeneus bifasciatus_ and _pseudupeneus porphyreus_), are scarcely inferior to it. [illustration: fig. .--golden surmullet, _mullus auratus_ jordan & gilbert. woods hole, mass.] [illustration: fig. .--spanish mackerel, _scomberomorus maculatus_ mitchill. family _scombridæ_. key west.] side by side with these belongs the whitefish of the great lakes (_coregonus clupeiformis_). its flesh, delicate, slightly gelatinous, moderately oily, is extremely agreeable. sir john richardson records the fact that one can eat the flesh of this fish longer than any other without the feeling of cloying. the salmon cannot be placed in the front ranks because, however excellent, the stomach soon becomes tired of it. the spanish mackerel (_scomberomorus maculatus_), with flesh at once rich and delicate, the great opah (_lampris luna_), still richer and still more delicate, the bluefish (_pomatomus saltatrix_) similar but a little coarser, the ulua (_carangus sem_), the finest large food-fish of the south seas, the dainty california poppy-fish, miscalled "pampano" (_palometa simillima_), and the kingfish firm and well-flavored (_scomberomorus cavalla_), represent the best of the fishes allied to the mackerel. [illustration: fig. .--opah, or moonfish, _lampris luna_ (gmelin). specimen in honolulu market weighing - / lbs. (photograph by e. l. berndt.)--page .] [illustration: fig. .--bluefish, _pomatomus saltatrix_ (l.). new york.] [illustration: fig. .--robalo, _centropomus undecimalis_ (bloch). florida.] the shad (_alosa sapidissima_), with its sweet, tender, finely oily flesh, stands also near the front among food-fishes, but it sins above all others in the matter of small bones. the weak-fish (_cynoscion nobilis_) and numerous relatives rank first among those with tender, white, savorous flesh. among the bass and perch-like fishes, common consent places near the first the striped bass (_roccus lineatus_), the bass of europe (_dicentrarchus labrax_), the susuki of japan (_lateolabrax japonicus_), the red tai of japan (_pagrus major_ and _p. cardinalis_), the sheep's-head (_archosargus probatocephalus_), the mutton-fish or pargo criollo of cuba (_lutianus analis_), the european porgy (_pagrus pagrus_), the robalo (_centropomus undecimalis_), the uku (_aprion virescens_) of hawaii, the spadefish (_chætodipterus faber_), and the black bass (_micropterus dolomieu_). [illustration: fig. .--spadefish, _chætodipterus faber_ (l.). virginia.] [illustration: fig. .--small-mouthed black bass, _micropterus dolomieu_ (lacépède). potomac river.] [illustration: fig. .--speckled trout (male), _salvelinus fontinalis_ (mitchill). new york.] [illustration: fig. .--rainbow trout, _salmo irideus_ gibbons. sacramento river, california.] [illustration: fig. .--rangeley trout, _salvelinus oquassa_ (girard). lake oquassa, maine.] the various kinds of trout have been made famous the world over. all are attractive in form and color; all are gamey; all have the most charming of scenic surroundings, and, finally, all are excellent as food, not in the first rank perhaps, but well above the second. notable among these are the european charr (_salvelinus alpinus_), the american speckled trout or charr (_salvelinus fontinalis_), the dolly varden or malma (_salvelinus malma_), and the oquassa trout (_salvelinus oquassa_). scarcely less attractive are the true trout, the brown trout, or forelle (_salmo fario_), in europe, the rainbow-trout (_salmo irideus_), the steelhead (_salmo gairdneri_), the cut-throat trout (_salmo clarkii_), and the tahoe trout (_salmo henshawi_), in america, and the yamabe (_salmo perryi_) of japan. not least of all these is the flower of fishes, the grayling (_thymallus_), of different species in different parts of the world. [illustration: fig. .--steelhead trout, _salmo gairdneri_ richardson. columbia river.] [illustration: fig. .--tahoe trout, _salmo henshawi_ gill & jordan. lake tahoe, california.] [illustration: fig. .--the dolly varden trout, _salvelinus malma_ (walbaum). lake pend d'oreille, idaho. (after evermann.)] [illustration: fig. .--alaska grayling, _thymallus signifer_ richardson. nulato, alaska.] [illustration: fig. .--pike, _esox lucius_ l. ecorse, mich.] [illustration: fig. .--atka-fish, _pleurogrammus monopterygius_ (pallas). atka island.] other most excellent food-fishes are the eel (_anguilla_ species), the pike (_esox lucius_), the muskallonge (_esox roccus_), the sole of europe (_solea solea_), the sardine (_sardinella pilchardus_), the atka-fish (_pleurogrammus monopterygius_) of bering sea, the pescado blanco of lake chapala (_chirostoma estor_ and other species), the hawaiian mullet (_mugil cephalus_), the channel catfish (_ictalurus punctatus_), the turbot (_scophthalmus maximus_), the barracuda (_sphyræna_), and the young of various sardines and herring, known as whitebait. of large fishes, probably the swordfish (_xiphias gladius_), the halibut (_hippoglossus hippoglossus_), and the king-salmon, or quinnat (_oncorhynchus tschawytscha_), may be placed first. those people who feed on raw fish prefer in general the large parrot-fishes (as _pseudoscarus jordani_ in hawaii), or else the young of mullet and similar species. [illustration: fig. .--pescado blanco, _chirostoma humboldtianum_ (val.). lake chalco, city of mexico.] [illustration: fig. .--red goatfish, or salmonete, _pseudupeneus maculatus_ bloch. family _mullidæ_ (surmullets).] =abundance of food-fishes.=--in general, the economical value of any species depends not on its toothsomeness, but on its abundance and the ease with which it may be caught and preserved. it is said that more individuals of the herring (_clupea harengus_ in the atlantic, _clupea pallasi_ in the pacific) exist than of any other species. the herring is a good food-fish and whenever it runs it is freely sought. according to björnsön, wherever the school of herring touches the coast of norway, there a village springs up, and this is true in scotland, newfoundland, and from killisnoo in alaska to otaru in japan, and to strielok in siberia. goode estimates the herring product of the north atlantic at , , , pounds annually. in professor huxley used these words: [illustration: fig. .--great parrot-fish, or guacamaia, _pseudoscarus guacamaia_ bloch & schneider. florida.] [illustration: fig. .--striped mullet, _mugil cephalus_ (l.). woods hole, mass.] "it is said that , , , or thereabout of herrings are every year taken out of the north sea and the atlantic. suppose we assume the number to be , , , so as to be quite safe. it is a large number undoubtedly, but what does it come to? not more than that of the herrings which may be contained in one shoal, if it covers half a dozen square miles, and shoals of much larger size are on record. it is safe to say that scattered through the north sea and the atlantic, at one and the same time, there must be scores of shoals, any one of which would go a long way toward supplying the whole of man's consumption of herrings." [illustration: fig. .--mutton-snapper, or pargo criollo, _lutianus analis_ (cuv. & val.). key west.] [illustration: fig. .--herring, _clupea harengus_ l. new york.] [illustration: fig. .--codfish, _gadus callarias_ l. eastport, maine.] the codfish (_gadus callarias_ in the atlantic; _gadus macrocephalus_ in the pacific) likewise swarms in all the northern seas, takes the hook readily, and is better food when salted and dried than it is when fresh. next in economic importance probably stands the mackerel of the atlantic (_scomber scombrus_), a rich, oily fish which bears salting better than most. [illustration: fig. .--mackerel, _scomber scombrus_ l. new york.] not less important is the great king-salmon, or quinnat (_oncorhyanchus tschawytscha_), and the still more valuable blue-back salmon, or redfish (_oncorhynchus nerka_). [illustration: fig. .--halibut, _hippoglossus hippoglossus_ (linnæus). st. paul island, bering sea. (photograph by u. s. fur seal commission.)] the salmon of the atlantic (_salmo salar_), the various species of sturgeon (_acipenser_), the sardines (_sardinella_), the halibut (_hippoglossus_), are also food-fishes of great importance. =variety of tropical fishes.=--in the tropics no one species is represented by enormous numbers of individuals as is the case in colder regions. on the other hand, the number of species regarded as food-fishes is much greater in any given port. in havana, about different species are sold as food in the markets, and an equal number are found in honolulu. upward of different species appear in the markets of japan. in england, on the contrary, about species make up the list of fishes commonly used as food. yet the number of individual fishes is probably not greater about japan or hawaii than in a similar stretch of british coast. =economic fisheries.=--volumes have been written on the economic value of the different species of fishes, and it is not the purpose of the present work to summarize their contents. [illustration: fig. .--fishing for ayu with cormorants in the tanagawa, near tokyo. (after photograph by j. o. snyder by sekko shimada.)] equally voluminous is the literature on the subject of catching fishes. it ranges in quality from the quaint wisdom of the "compleat angler" and the delicate wit of "little rivers" to elaborate discussions of the most economic and effective forms and methods, of the beam-trawl, the purse-seine, and the codfish hook. in general, fishes are caught in four ways--by baited hooks, by spears, by traps, and by nets. special local methods, such as the use of the tamed cormorant[ ] in the catching of the ayu, by the japanese fishermen at gifu, may be set aside for the moment, and all general methods of fishing come under one of these four classes. of these methods, the hook, the spear, the seine, the beam-trawl, the gill-net, the purse-net, the sweep-net, the trap and the weir are the most important. the use of the hook is again extremely varied. in the deep sea long, sunken lines, are sometimes used for codfish, each baited with many hooks. for pelagic fish, a baited hook is drawn swiftly over the surface, with a "spoon" attached which looks like a living fish. in the rivers a line is attached to a pole, and when fish are caught for pleasure or for the joy of being in the woods, recreation rises to the dignity of angling. angling may be accomplished with a hook baited with an earthworm, a grasshopper, a living fish, or the larva of some insect. the angler of to-day, however, prefers the artificial fly, as being more workmanlike and also more effective than bait-fishing. the man who fishes, not for the good company of the woods and brooks, but to get as many fish as possible to eat or sell, is not an angler but a pot-fisher. the man who kills all the trout he can, to boast of his skill or fortune, is technically known as a trout-hog. ethically, it is better to lie about your great catches of fine fishes than to make them. for most anglers, also, it is more easy. =fisheries.=--with the multiplicity of apparatus for fishing, there is the greatest variety in the boats which may be used. the fishing-fleet of any port of the world is a most interesting object, as are also the fishermen with their quaint garb, plain speech, and their strange songs and calls with the hauling in of the net. [illustration: fig. .--fishing for ayu in the tanagawa, japan. emptying the pouch of the cormorant. (photograph by j. o. snyder.)] for much information on the fishing apparatus in use in america the reader is referred to the reports of the fisheries in the tenth census, in , under the editorship of dr. george brown goode. in these reports goode, stearns, earle, gilbert, bean, and the present writer have treated very fully of all economic relations of the american fishes. in an admirable work entitled "american fishes," dr. goode, with the fine literary touch of which he was master, has fully discoursed of the game- and food-fishes of america with especial reference to the habits and methods of capture of each. to these sources, to jordan and evermann's "food and game fishes of north america," and to many other works of similar purport in other lands, the reader is referred for an account of the economic and the human side of fish and fisheries. =angling.=--it is no part of the purpose of this work to describe the methods or materials of angling, still less to sing its praises as a means of physical or moral regeneration. we may perhaps find room for a first and a last word on the subject; the one the classic from the pen of the angler of the brooks of staffordshire, and the other the fresh expression of a stanford student setting out for streams such as walton never knew, the purissima, the stanislaus, or perchance his home streams, the provo or the bear. "and let me tell you, this kind of fishing with a dead rod, and laying night-hooks, are like putting money to use; for they both work for the owners when they do nothing but sleep, or eat, or rejoice, as you know we have done this last hour, and sat as quietly and as free from cares under this sycamore as virgil's tityrus and his meliboeus did under their broad beech-tree. no life, my honest scholar,--no life so happy and so pleasant as the life of a well-governed angler; for when the lawyer is swallowed up with business and the statesman is preventing or contriving plots, then we sit on the cowslip-banks, hear the birds sing, and possess ourselves in as much quietness as these silent silver streams which we now see glide so quietly by us. indeed, my good scholar, we may say of angling, as dr. boteler said of strawberries, 'doubtless god could have made a better berry, but doubtless god never did'; and so, if i might be judge, 'god never made a more calm, quiet, innocent recreation than angling.' "i'll tell you, scholar, when i sat last on this primrose-bank, and looked down these meadows, i thought of them as charles the emperor did of florence, 'that they were too pleasant to be looked on but only on holidays.' "gentle izaak! he has been dead these many years, but his disciples are still faithful. when the cares of business lie heavy and the sound of wheels jarring on cobbled streets grows painful, one's fingers itch for the rod; one would away to the quiet brook among the pines, where one has fished so often. every man who has ever got the love of the stream in his blood feels often this longing. "it comes to me each year with the first breath of spring. there is something in the sweetness of the air, the growing things, the 'robin in the greening grass' that voices it. duties that have before held in their performance something of pleasure become irksome, and practical thoughts of the day's work are replaced by dreamy pictures of a tent by the side of a mountain stream--close enough to hear the water's singing in the night. two light bamboo rods rest against the tent-pole, and a little column of smoke rising straight up through the branches marks the supper fire. jack is preparing the evening meal, and, as i dream, there comes to me the odor of crisply browned trout and sputtering bacon--was ever odor more delicious? i dare say that had the good charles lamb smelled it as i have, his 'dissertation on roast pig' would never have been written. but then charles lamb never went a-fishing as we do here in the west--we who have the mountains and the fresh air so boundlessly. "and neither did izaak walton for that matter. he who is sponsor for all that is gentle in angling missed much that is best in the sport by living too early. he did not experience the exquisite pleasure of wading down mountain streams in supposedly water-proof boots and feeling the water trickling in coolingly; nor did he know the joy of casting a gaudy fly far ahead with a four-ounce rod, letting it drift, insect-like, over that black hole by the tree stump, and then feeling the seaweed line slip through his fingers to the _whirr_ of the reel. and, at the end of the day, supper over, he did not squat around a big camp-fire and light his pipe, the silent darkness of the mountains gathering round, and a basketful of willow-packed trout hung in the clump of pines by the tent. izaak's idea of fishing did not comprehend such joy. with a can of worms and a crude hook, he passed the day by quiet streams, threading the worms on his hook and thinking kindly of all things. the day's meditations over, he went back to the village, and, mayhap, joined a few kindred souls over a tankard of ale at the sign of the red lobster. but he missed the mountains, the water rushing past his tent, the bacon and trout, the camp-fire--the physical exaltation of it all. his kind of fishing was angling purely, while modern waltons, as a rule, eschew the worm. [illustration: fig. .--fishing for tai, tokyo bay. (photograph by j. o. snyder.)] "to my mind, there is no real sport in any kind of fishing except fly-fishing. this sitting on the bank of a muddy stream with your bait sunk, waiting for a bite, may be conducive to gentleness and patience of spirit, but it has not the joy of action in which a healthy man revels. how much more sport is it to clamber over fallen logs that stretch far out a-stream, to wade slipping over boulders and let your fly drop caressingly on ripples and swirling eddies and still holes! it is worth all the work to see the gleam of a silver side as a half-pounder rises, and, with a flop, takes the fly excitedly to the bottom. and then the nervous thrill as, with a deft turn of the wrist, you hook him securely--whoever has felt that thrill cannot forget it. it will come back to him in his law office when he should be thinking of other things; and with it will come a longing for that dear remembered stream and the old days. that is the hold trout-fishing takes on a man. "it is spring now and i feel the old longing myself, as i always do when life comes into the air and the smell of new growth is sweet. i got my rod out to-day, put it together, and have been looking over my flies. if i cannot use them, i can at least muse over days of the past and dream of those to come." (waldemar young.) footnotes: [ ] the cormorant is tamed for this purpose. a harness is placed about its wings and a ring about the lower part of its neck. two or three birds may be driven by a boy in a shallow stream, a small net behind him to drive the fish down the river. in a large river like that of gifu, where the cormorants are most used, the fishermen hold the birds from the boats and fish after dark by torchlight. the bird takes a great interest in the work, darts at the fishes with great eagerness, and fills its throat and gular pouch as far down as the ring. then the boy takes him out of the water, holds him by the leg and shakes the fishes out into a basket. when the fishing is over the ayu are preserved, the ring is taken off from the bird's neck, and the zako or minnows are thrown to him for his share. these he devours greedily. chapter xix diseases of fishes =contagious diseases.=--as compared with other animals the fishes of the sea are subject to but few specific diseases. those in fresh waters, being more isolated, are more frequently attacked by contagious maladies. often these diseases are very destructive. in an "epidemic" in lake mendota, near madison, wis., professor stephen a. forbes reports a death of tons of fishes in the lake. i have seen similar conditions among the land-locked alewife in cayuga and seneca lakes, the dead fishes being piled on the beaches so as to fill the air with the stench of their decay. [illustration: fig. .--menhaden, _brevoortia tyrannus_ (latrobe). woods hole, mass.] =crustacean parasites.=--the external parasites of fishes are of little injury. these are mainly lernæans and other crustaceans (fish-lice) in the sea, and in the rivers different species of leeches. these may suck the blood of the fish, or in the case of certain crustaceans which lie under the tongue, steal the food as it passes along, as is done by _cymothoa prægustator_, the "bug" of the mouth of the menhaden (_brevoortia tyrannus_). [illustration: fig. .--australian flying-fish, _exonautes unicolor_ (valenciennes). specimen from tasman sea, having parasitic lernæan crustaceans, to which parasitic barnacles are attached. (after kellogg.)] the relation of this crustacean to its host suggested to latrobe, its discoverer, the relation of the "foretaster" in roman times to the tyrant whom he served. a similar commensation exists in the mouth of a mullet (_mugil hospes_) at panama. the writer has received, through the courtesy of mr. a. p. lundin, a specimen of a flying-fish (_exonautes unicolor_) taken off sydney, australia. to this are attached three large copepod crustaceans of the genus _penella_, the largest over two inches long, and to the copepods in turn are attached a number of barnacles (_conchoderma virgatum_) so joined to the copepods as to suggest strange flowers, like orchids, growing out of the fish. [illustration: fig. .--black-nosed dace, _rhinichthys atronasus_ (mitchill). east coy creek, w. n. y. showing black spots of parasitic organisms. (from life by mary jordan edwards.)] =myxosporidia, or parasitic protozoa.=--internal parasites are very numerous and varied. some of them are bacteria, giving rise to infectious diseases, especially in ponds and lakes. others are myxosporidia, or parasitic protozoans, which form warty appendages, which burst, discharging the germs and leaving ulcers in their place. in the report of the u. s. fish commissioner for , dr. r. r. gurley has brought together our knowledge of the protozoans of the subclass _myxosporidia_, to which these epidemics are chiefly due. these creatures belong to the class of sporozoa, and are regarded as animals, their nearest relatives being the parasitic _gregarinida_, from which they differ in having the germinal portion of the spore consisting of a single protoplasmic mass instead of falciform protoplasmic rods as in the worm-like gregarines. the _myxosporidia_ are parasitic on fishes, both fresh-water and marine, especially beneath the epidermis of the gills and fins and in the gall-bladder and urinary bladder. in color these protozoa are always cream-white. in size and form they vary greatly. the cyst in which they lie is filled with creamy substance made up of spores and granule matter. dr. gurley enumerates as hosts of these parasites about sixty species of fishes, marine and fresh-water, besides frogs, crustaceans, sea-worms, and even the crocodile. in the sharks and rays the parasites occur mainly in the gall-ducts, in the minnows within the gill cavity and epidermis, and in the higher fishes mainly but not exclusively in the same regions. forty-seven species are regarded by gurley as well defined. the diseases produced by them are very obscurely known. these parasites on american fishes have been extensively studied by charles wardall stiles, edwin linton, henry b. ward, and others. according to dr. linton the parasitism which results from infection with protozoan parasites will, of all kinds, be found to be the most important. epidemics among european fish have been repeatedly traced to this source. the fatality which attends infection with psorosperms appears to be due to a secondary cause, however, namely, to bacilli which develop within the psorosperms (_myxobolus_) tumors and give rise to ulceration. the discharge of these ulcers then disseminates the disease. [illustration: fig. .--white shiner, _notropis hudsonius_ (clinton), with cysts of parasitic psorosperms. (after gurley.)] "brief mention of the remedies there proposed may appropriately be repeated here. megnin sees no other method than to collect all the dead and sick fishes and to destroy them by fire. ludwig thinks that the waters should be kept pure, and that the pollutions of the rivers by communities or industrial establishments should be interdicted. further he says: "that most dangerous contamination of the water by the _myxosporidia_ from the ulcers cannot of course be stopped entirely, but it is evident that it will be less if all fishermen are impressed with the importance of destroying all diseased and dead fish instead of throwing them back into the water. such destruction must be so effected as to prevent the re-entry of the germs into the water. "railliet says that it is expedient to collect the diseased fish and to bury them at a certain depth and at a great distance from the water-course. he further states that this was done on the meuse with success, so that at the end of some years the disease appeared to have left no trace." [illustration: fig. .--white catfish, _ameiurus catus_ (linnæus), from potomac river, infested by parasitic protozoa, _ichthyophthirus multifilis_ fouquet. (after c. w. stiles.)] =parasitic worms: trematodes.=--parasitic worms in great variety exist in the intestinal canal or in the liver or muscular substance of fishes. trematode worms are most common in fresh-water fishes. these usually are sources of little injury, especially when found in the intestines, but they may do considerable mischief when encysted within the body cavity or in the heart or liver. dr. linton describes species of these worms from different species of american fishes. in species of fishes from the great lakes, specimens, dr. h. b. ward found specimens infected with parasites, securing trematodes, acanchocephala, cestodes, and nematodes. in the bowfin (_amia calva_), trematodes existed in enormous numbers. =cestodes.=--cestode worms exist largely in marine fishes, the adults, according to dr. linton, being especially common in the spiral valve of the shark. it is said that one species of human tape-worm (_bothriocephalus tænia_) has been got from eating the flesh of the european tench (_tinca tinca_). =the worm of the yellowstone.=--the most remarkable case of parasitism of worms of this type is that given by the trout of yellowstone lake (_salmo clarki_). this is thus described by dr. linton: "one of the most interesting cases of parasitism in which direct injury results to the host, which has come to my attention, is that afforded by the trout of yellowstone lake (_salmo clarki_). it was noticed by successive parties who visited the lake in connection with government surveys that the trout with which the lake abounded were, to a large extent, infested with a parasitic worm, which is most commonly in the abdominal cavity, in cysts, but which in time escapes from the cyst and tunnels into the flesh of its host. fish, when thus much afflicted, are found to be lacking in vitality, weak, and often positively emaciated. "it was my good fortune, in the summer of , to visit this interesting region for the purpose of investigating the parasitism of the trout of yellowstone lake. the results of this special investigation were published in the bulletin of the u. s. fish commission for , vol. ix., pp. - , under the title 'a contribution to the life-history of _dibothrium cordiceps_, a parasite infesting the trout of yellowstone lake.' "i found the same parasite in the trout of heart lake, just across the great continental divide from yellowstone lake, but did not find any that had tunneled into the flesh of its host, while a considerable proportion of the trout taken in yellowstone lake had these worms in the flesh. some of these worms were as much as centimeters in length when first removed; others which had lain in water a few hours after removal before they were measured were much longer, as much as centimeters. they are rather slender and of nearly uniform size throughout, . to millimeters being an average breadth of the largest. i found the adult stage in the intestine of the large white pelican (_pelecanus erythrorhynchus_), which is abundant on the lake and was found breeding on some small islands near the southern end of the lake. "in the paper alluded to above i attempted to account for two things concerning this parasitism among the trout of yellowstone lake: first, the abundance of parasitized trout in the lake; second, the migration of the parasite into the muscular tissue of its host. the argument cannot be well summarized in as short space as the requirements of this paper demand. it is sufficient to say that what appear to me to be satisfactory explanations are supplied by the peculiar conditions of distribution of fish in the lakes of this national park. until three or four years ago, when the u. s. fish commission stocked some of the lakes and streams of the park, the conditions with relation to fish life in the three principal lakes were as follows: shoshone lake, no fish of any kind; heart lake, at least three species, _salmo clarki_, _leuciscus lineatus_, and _catostomus ardens_; yellowstone lake, one species, _salmo clarki_. shoshone and yellowstone lakes are separated from the river systems which drain them by falls too high for fish to scale. heart lake has no such barrier. the trout of yellowstone lake are confined to the lake and to eighteen miles of river above the falls. whatever source of parasitism exists in the lake, therefore, must continue to affect the fish all their lives. they cannot be going and coming from the lake as the trout of heart lake may freely do. if their food should contain eggs of parasites, or if the waters in which they swim should contain eggs or embryos of parasites, they would be continually exposed to infection, with no chance for a vacation trip for recuperation. to quote from my report: "'it follows, therefore, from the peculiar conditions surrounding the trout of yellowstone lake, that if there is a cause of parasitism present in successive years the trout are more liable to become infested than they would be in waters where they had a more varied range. trout would become infested earlier and in greater relative numbers, and the life of the parasites themselves--that is, their residence as encysted worms--must be of longer duration than would be the rule where the natural conditions are less exceptional.... there are probably not less than one thousand pelicans on the lake the greater part of the time throughout the summer, of which at any time not less than per cent. are infested with the adult form of the parasite, and, since they spend the greater part of their time on or over the water, disseminate millions of tape-worm eggs each in the waters of the lake. it is known that eggs of other dibothria hatch out in the water, where they swim about for some time, looking much like ciliated infusoria. donnadieu found in his experiments on the adult dibothria of ducks that the eggs hatched out readily in warm water and very slowly in cold. if warm water, at least water that is warmer than the prevailing temperature of the lake, is needed for the proper development of these ova, the conditions are supplied in such places as the shore system of geysers and hot springs on the west arm of the lake, where for a distance of nearly three miles the shore is skirted by a hot spring and geyser formation, with numerous streams of hot water emptying into the lake, and large springs of hot water opening in the floor of the lake near shore. "'trout abound in the vicinity of these warm springs, presumably on account of the abundance of food there. they do not love the warm water, but usually avoid it. several persons with whom i talked on the subject while in the park assert that diseased fish--that is to say, those which are thin and affected with flesh worms--are more commonly found near the warm water; that they take the bait readily but are logy. i frequently saw pelicans swimming near the shore in the vicinity of the warm springs on the west arm of the lake. it would appear that the badly infested or diseased fish, being less active and gamy than the healthy fish, would be more easily taken by their natural enemies, who would learn to look for them in places where they most abound. but any circumstances which cause the pelican and the trout to occupy the same neighborhood will multiply the chances of the parasites developing in both the intermediate and final host. the causes that make for the abundance of the trout parasite conspire to increase the number of adults. the two hosts react on each other and the parasite profits by the reaction. about the only enemies the trout had before tourists, ambitious to catch big strings of trout and photograph them with a kodak, began to frequent this region, were the fish-eating birds, and chief among these in numbers and voracity was the pelican. it is no wonder, therefore, that the trout should have become seriously parasitized. it may be inferred from the foregoing statements that the reason why the parasite of the trout of yellowstone lake migrates into the muscular tissue of its host must be found in the fact that the life of the parasite within the fish is much more prolonged than is the case where the conditions of life are less exceptional. "the case just cited is probably the most signal one of direct injury to the host from the presence of parasites that i have seen. i shall enumerate more briefly a few additional cases out of a great number that i have encountered in my special investigations on the entozoa of fishes for the u. s. fish commission." many worms of this type abound in codfishes, bluefishes, striped bass, and other marine fishes, rendering them lean and unfit for food. =the heart lake tape-worm.=--another very interesting case of parasitism is that of the large tape-worm (_ligula catostomi_) infecting the suckers, _catostomus ardens_, in the warm waters of witch creek, near heart lake, in the yellowstone park. of this dr. linton gives the following account: [illustration: fig. .--sucker, _catostomus ardens_ (jordan & gilbert), from heart lake, yellowstone park, infested by a flatworm, _ligula catostomi_ linton, itself probably a larva of _dibothrium_. (after linton.)] "in the autumn of dr. david starr jordan found an interesting case of parasitism in some young suckers (_catostomus ardens_) which he had collected in witch creek, a small stream which flows into heart lake, in the yellowstone national park. specimens of these parasites were sent to me for identification. they proved to be a species of ligula, probably identical with the european _ligula simplicissima_ rud., which is found in the abdominal cavity of the tench. on account of its larval condition in which it possesses few distinctive characters, i described it under the name _ligula catostomi_. these parasites grow to a very large size when compared with the fish which harbors them, often filling the abdominal cavity to such a degree as to give the fish a deceptively plump appearance. the largest specimen in dr. jordan's collection measured, in alcohol, . centimeters in length, millimeters in breadth at the anterior end, millimeters at a distance of millimeters from the anterior end, and . millimeters near the posterior end. the thickness throughout was about millimeters. the weight of one fish was . grams, that of its three parasites . grams, or - / per cent. the weight of the host. if a man weighing pounds were afflicted with tape-worms to a similar degree, he would be carrying about with him pounds of parasitic impedimenta. "in the summer of i collected specimens from the same locality. a specimen obtained from a fish centimeters in length measured while living . centimeters in length and millimeters in breadth at the anterior end. another fish centimeters in length harbored four parasites, , , , and centimeters long, respectively, or centimeters aggregate. another fish centimeters long was infested with a single parasite which was centimeters in length. "these parasites were found invariably free in the body cavity. dr. jordan's collections were made in october and mine in july of the following year. donnadieu has found that this parasite most frequently attains its maximum development at the end of two years. it is probable, therefore, that dr. jordan and i collected from the same generation. since these parasites, in this stage of their existence, develop, not by levying a toll on the food of their host, after the manner of intestinal parasites, but directly by the absorption of the serous fluid of their host, it is quite evident that they work a positive and direct injury. since, however, they lie quietly in the body cavity of the fish and possess no hard parts to cause irritation, they work their mischief simply by the passive abstraction of the nutritive juices of their host, and by crowding the viscera into confined spaces and unnatural positions. the worms, in almost every case, had attained such a size that they far exceeded in bulk the entire viscera of their host. "from the fact that the examples obtained were of comparatively the same age, it may be justly inferred that the period of infection to which the fish are subjected must be a short one. i did not discover the final host, but it is almost certain to be one or more of the fish-eating species of birds which visit that region, and presumably one of which, in its migrations, pays but a brief visit to this particular locality. this parasite was found only in the young suckers which inhabit a warm tributary of witch creek. they were not found in the large suckers of the lake. these young _catostomi_ were found in a single school, associated with the young of the chub (_leuciscus lineatus_), in a stream whose temperature was ° f. near where it joined a cold mountain brook whose temperature was ° f. we seined several hundred of these young suckers and chubs, ranging in length from to centimeters. the larger suckers were nearly all infested with these parasites, the smaller ones not so much, and the smallest scarcely at all. or, to give concrete examples: of fish ranging in length from to centimeters, only one or two were without parasites; of specimens averaging about centimeters in length, were infested and were not; of specimens averaging about centimeters in length, were infested and were not; of specimens less than centimeters in length, were infested and were not. none of the chubs were infested with this parasite. "the conditions under which these fish were found are worthy of passing notice. the stream which they occupied flowed with rather sluggish current into a swift mountain stream, which it met almost at right angles. the school of young chubs and suckers showed no inclination to enter the cold water, even to escape the seine, but would dart around the edge of the seine, in the narrow space between it and the bank, in preference, apparently, to taking to the colder water. when not disturbed by the seine they would swim up near to the line which marked the division between the cold and the warm water, and seemed to be gazing with open mouth and eyes at the trout which occasionally darted past in the cold stream. the trout appeared to avoid the warm water, while the chubs and suckers appeared to avoid the cold water. it may be that what the latter really avoided was the special preserve of the trout, since large chubs and suckers are found in abundance in the lake, which is quite cold, a temperature of ° f. having been taken by us at a depth of feet. "since the eggs of this parasite, after the analogy of closely related forms, in all probability are discharged into the water from the final host and hatch out readily in warm water, where they may live for a longer or shorter time as free-swimming planula-like forms, it will be observed that the sluggish current and high temperature of the water in which these parasitized fish occur give rise to conditions which are highly favorable to infection. "it may be of passing interest to state here what i have recorded elsewhere, that ligulæ, probably specifically identical with _l. catostomi_, form an article of food in italy, where they are sold in the markets under the name _maccaroni piatti_; also in southern france, where they are less euphemistically but more truthfully called the _ver blanc_. so far as my information goes, this diet of worms is strictly european. "it is not necessary to prove cases of direct injury resulting from the presence of parasites in order to make out a case against them. in the sharp competition which nature forces on fishes in the ordinary struggle for existence, any factor which imparts an increment either of strength or of weakness may be a very potent one, and in a long term of years may determine the relative abundance or rarity of the individuals of a species. in most cases the interrelations between parasite and host have become so adjusted that the evil wrought by the parasite on its host is small. parasitic forms, like free forms, are simply developing along the lines of their being, but unlike most free forms they do not contribute a fair share to the food of other creatures." =thorn-head worms.=--the thorn-head worms called _acanthocephala_ are found occasionally in large numbers in different kinds of fishes. they penetrate the coats of the intestines, producing much irritation and finally waxy degeneration of the tissues. according to linton, there is probably no practical way of counteracting the bad influences of worms of this order, since their larval state is passed, in some cases certainly, and in most cases probably, in small crustacea, which constitute a constant and necessary source of food for the fish. the same remark which was made in another connection with regard to the disposal of the viscera of fish applies here. in no case should the viscera of fish be thrown back into the water. in this order the sexes are distinct, and the females become at last veritable sacs for the shelter and nourishment of enormous numbers of embryos. the importance, therefore, of arresting the development of as many embryos as possible is at once apparent. =nematodes.=--the round worms or nematodes are very especially abundant in marine fishes, and particularly in the young. the study of these forms has a large importance to man. dr. linton pertinently observes: "where there is exhaustive knowledge of the thing itself the application of that knowledge toward getting good out of it or averting evil that may come from it first becomes possible. for example, a knowledge of the life-history of _trichina spiralis_ and its pathological effects on its host has taught people a simple way of securing immunity from its often deadly effects. a knowledge of the life-histories of the various species of tæniæ which infest man and the domestic animals, frequently to their serious hurt, has made it possible to diminish their numbers, and may, in time, lead to their practical extinction. "so with the parasites of fishes. whenever for any reason or reasons parasitism of any sort becomes so prevalent with any species as to amount to a disease, the remedy will be suggested, and in some cases may be practically applied. if, for example, it were thought desirable to counteract the influences which are at work to cause the parasitism of the trout of yellowstone lake, it could be very largely accomplished by breaking up the breeding-places of the pelican on the islands of the lake. with regard to parasitism among the marine food-fishes, the remedy while plainly suggested by the circumstances, might be difficult of application. yet something could be done even there, if it were thought necessary to lessen the amount of parasitism. if such precautions as the destruction of the parasites which abound in the viscera of fish before throwing them back into the water, and if no opportunity be lost of killing those sharks which feed on the food-fishes, two sources of the prevalence of parasites would be affected and the sum total of parasitism diminished. these remarks are made not so much because such precautions are needed as to suggest possible applications of knowledge which is already available." =parasitic fungi.=--fishes are often subject to wounds. if not too serious these will heal in time, with or without scars. some lost portions may be restored, but not those including bone fin-rays or scales. in the fresh waters, wounds are usually attacked by species of fungus, notably _saprolegnia ferox_, _saprolegnia mixta_, and others, which makes a whitish fringe over a sore and usually causes death. this fungus is especially destructive in aquaria. this fungus is not primarily parasitic, but it fixes itself in the slime of a fish or in an injured place, and once established the animal is at its mercy. spent salmon are very often attacked by this fungus. in america the spent salmon always dies, but in scotland, where such is not the case, much study has been given to this plant and the means by which it may be exterminated. dr. g. p. clinton gives a useful account of the development of _saprolegnia_, from which we take the following: "the minute structure and life-history of such fungous forms have been so thoroughly made out by eminent specialists that no investigation along this line was made, save to observe those phenomena which might be easily seen with ordinary microscopic manipulations. the fungus consists of branched, hyaline filaments, without septa, except as these are found cutting off the reproductive parts of the threads. it is made up of a root-like or rhizoid part that penetrates the fish and a vegetative and reproductive part that radiates from the host. the former consists of branched tapering threads which pierce the tissues for a short distance, but are easily pulled out. the function of this part is to obtain nourishment for the growth of the external parts. prostrate threads are found running through the natural slime covering the fish, and from these are produced the erect radiating hyphæ so plainly seen when in the water. the development of these threads appears to be very rapid when viewed under the microscope, although the growth made under favorable conditions in two days is only about a third of an inch. from actual measurements of filaments of the fungus placed in water and watched under the microscope, it was found that certain threads made a growth of about microns in an hour. two others, watched for twenty minutes, gave in that time a growth of and microns respectively; and yet another filament, observed during two periods of five minutes each, made a growth of microns each time. in ordinary cultures the rate of growth depends upon the condition of the medium, host, etc." [illustration: fig. .--quinnat salmon, _oncorhynchus tschawytscha_ (walbaum). monterey bay. (photograph by c. rutter.)] professor h. a. surface thus speaks of the attacks of _saprolegnia_ on the lamprey: "the attack that attends the end of more lampreys than does any other is that of the fungus (_saprolegnia_ sp.). this looks like a gray slime and eats into the exterior parts of the animal, finally causing death. it covers the skin, the fins, the eyes, the gill-pouches, and all parts, like leprosy. it starts where the lamprey has been scratched or injured or where its mate has held it, and develops very rapidly when the water is warm. it is found late in the season on all lampreys that have spawned out, and it is almost sure to prove fatal, as we have repeatedly seen with attacked fishes or lampreys kept in tanks or aquaria. with choice aquarium fishes a remedy, or at least a palliative, is to be found in immersion in salt water for a few minutes or in bathing the affected parts with listerine. since these creatures complete the spawning process before the fungoid attack proves serious to the individual, it can be seen that it affects no injury to the race, as the fertilized eggs are left to come to maturity. also, as it is nature's plan that the adult lampreys die after spawning once, we are convinced that death would ensue without the attack of the fungus; and in fact this is to be regarded as a resultant of those causes that produce death rather than the immediate cause of it. its only natural remedy is to be found in the depths of the lake ( feet) where there is a uniform or constant temperature of about ° fahr., and where the light of the noon-day sun penetrates with an intensity only about equal to starlight on land on a clear but moonless night. [illustration: fig. .--young male quinnat salmon, _oncorhynchus tschawytscha_, dying after spawning. sacramento river. (photograph by cloudsley rutter.)] "as light and heat are essential to the development of the fungus, which is a plant growth and properly called a water mold, and as their intensity is so greatly diminished in the depth of the lake, it is probable that if creatures thus attacked should reach this depth they might here find relief if their physical condition were otherwise strong enough to recuperate. however, we have recently observed a distinct tendency on the part of fungus-covered fishes to keep in the shallower, and consequently warmer, parts of the water, and this of course results in the more rapid growth of the sarcophytic plant, and the death of the fishes is thus hastened. "all kinds of fishes and fish-eggs are subject to the attacks of such fungus, especially after having been even slightly scratched or injured. as a consequence, the lamprey attacks on fishes cause wounds that often become the seat of a slowly spreading but fatal fungus. we have seen many nests of the bullhead, or horned pout (_ameiurus nebulosus_), with all the eggs thus destroyed, and we have found scores of fishes of various kinds thus killed or dying. it is well known that in many rivers this is the apparent cause of great mortality among adult salmon. yet we really doubt if it ever attacks uninjured fishes that are in good strong physical condition which have not at least had the slime rubbed from them when captured. it is contagious, not only being conveyed from one infested fish to another, but from dead flies to fishes." (for a further discussion of this subject see an interesting and valuable manual of fish culture, by the u. s. fish commission, .) =earthquakes.=--occasionally an earthquake has been known to kill sea-fishes in large numbers. the _albatross_ obtained specimens of _sternoptyx diaphana_ in the japanese kuro shiwo, killed by the earthquakes of , which destroyed fishing villages of the coast of rikuchu in northern japan. =mortality of tilefish.=--some years ago in the gulf stream off newfoundland an immense mortality of the filefish (_lopholatilus chamæleonticeps_) was reported by fishermen. this handsome and large fish, inhabiting deep waters, died by thousands. for this mortality, which almost exterminated the species, no adequate cause has been found. as to the destruction of fresh-water fishes by larger enemies, we may quote from professor h. a. surface. he says there is no doubt that these three species, the lake lamprey (_petromyzon marinus unicolor_), the garpike (_lepidosteus osseus_), and the mud-puppy (_necturus maculosus_), named "in order of destructiveness, are the three most serious enemies of fishes in the interior of this state [new york], each of which surely destroys more fishes annually than are caught by all the fishermen combined. the next important enemies of fishes in order of destructiveness, according to our observations and belief, are spawn-eating fishes, water-snakes, carnivorous or predaceous aquatic insects (especially larvæ), and piscivorous fishes and birds." the lamprey attaches itself to larger fishes, rasping away their flesh and sucking their blood, as shown in the accompanying plate. [illustration: fig. .--catfishes, _ameiurus nebulosus_ le sueur, destroyed by lampreys (_petromyzon marinus unicolor_ de kay). cayuga lake, n. y. (modified from photograph by prof. h. a. surface.)] chapter xx the mythology of fishes =the mermaid.=--a word may be said of the fishes which have no existence in fact and yet appear in popular literature or in superstition. the mermaid, half woman and half fish, has been one of the most tenacious among these, and the manufacture of their dried bodies from the head, shoulders, and ribs of a monkey sealed to the body of a fish has long been a profitable industry in the orient. the sea-lion, the dugong, and other marine mammals have been mistaken for mermaids, for their faces seen at a distance and their movements at rest are not inhuman, and their limbs and movements in the water are fish-like. in china, small mermaids are very often made and sold to the curious. the head and torso of a monkey are fastened ingeniously to the body and tail of a fish. it is said that linnæus was once forced to leave a town in holland for questioning the genuineness of one of these mermaids, the property of some high official. these monsters are still manufactured for the "curio-trade." =the monkfish.=--many strange fishes were described in the middle ages, the interest usually centering in some supposed relation of their appearance with the affairs of men. some of these find their way into rondelet's excellent book, "histoire entière des poissons," in . two of these with the accompanying plate of one we here reproduce. other myths less interesting grew out of careless, misprinted, or confused accounts on the part of naturalists and travelers. "in our times in norway a sea-monster has been taken after a great storm, to which all that saw it at once gave the name of monk; for it had a man's face, rude and ungracious, the head shorn and smooth. on the shoulders, like the cloak of a monk, were two long fins instead of arms, and the end of the body was finished by a long tail. the picture i present was given me by the very illustrious lady, margaret de valois, queen of navarre, who received it from a gentleman who gave a similar one to the emperor, charles v., then in spain. this gentleman said that he had seen the monster as the portrait shows it in norway, thrown by the waves and tempests on the beach at a place called dieze, near the town called denelopoch. i have seen a similar picture at rome not differing in mien. among the sea-beasts, pliny mentions a sea-mare and a triton as among the creatures not imaginary. pausanias also mentions a triton." [illustration: fig. .--"_le monstre marin an habit de moine._" (after rondelet.)] rondelet further says: =the bishop-fish.=--"i have seen a portrait of another sea-monster at rome, whither it had been sent with letters that affirmed for certain that in one had seen this monster in a bishop's garb, as here portrayed, in poland. carried to the king of that country, it made certain signs that it had a great desire to return to the sea. being taken thither it threw itself instantly into the water." [illustration: fig. .--"_le monstre marin en habit d'Évêque._" (after rondelet.)] =the sea-serpent.=--a myth of especial persistency is that of the sea-serpent. most of the stories of this creature are seaman's yarns, sometimes based on a fragment of wreck, a long strip of kelp, the power of suggestion or the incitement of alcohol. but certain of these tales relate to real fishes. the sea-serpent with an uprearing red mane like that of a horse is the oarfish (_regalecus_), a long, slender, fragile fish compressed like a ribbon and reaching a length of feet. we here present a photograph of an oarfish (_regalecus russelli_) stranded on the california coast at newport in orange county, california. a figure of a european species (_regalecus glesne_) is also given showing the fish in its uninjured condition. another reputed sea-serpent is the frilled shark (_chlamydoselachus angineus_), which has been occasionally noticed by seamen. the struggles of the great killer (_orca orca_) with the whales it attacks and destroys has also given rise to stories of the whale struggling in the embrace of some huge sea-monster. this description is correct, but the mammal is a monster itself, a relative of the whale and not a reptile. [illustration: fig. .--oarfish, _regalecus russelli_, on the beach at newport, orange co., cal. (photograph by c. p. remsberg.)] [illustration: fig. .--glesnæs oarfish, _regalecus glesne_ ascanius. newcastle, england. (after day.)] it is often hard to account for some of the stories of the sea-serpent. a gentleman of unquestioned intelligence and sincerity lately described to the writer a sea-serpent he had seen at short range, feet long, swimming at the surface, and with a head as large as a barrel. i do not know what he saw, but i do know that memory sometimes plays strange freaks. little venomous snakes with flattened tails (_platyurus, pelamis_) are found in the salt bays in many tropical regions of the pacific (gulf of california, panama, east indies, japan), but these are not the conventional sea-serpents. certain slender fishes, as the thread-eel (_nemichthys_) and the wolf-eel (_anarrhichthys_), have been brought to naturalists as young sea-serpents, but these of course are genuine fishes. whatever the nature of the sea-serpent may be, this much is certain, that while many may be seen, none will ever be caught. the great swimming reptiles of the sea vanished at the end of mesozoic time, and as living creatures will never be known of man. as a record of the mythology of science, we may add the following remarks of rafinesque on the imaginary garpike (_litholepis adamantinus_), of which a specimen was painted for him by the wonderful brush of audubon: "this fish may be reckoned the wonder of the ohio. it is only found as far up as the falls, and probably lives also in the mississippi. i have seen it, but only at a distance, and have been shown some of its singular scales. wonderful stories are related concerning this fish, but i have principally relied upon the description and picture given me by mr. audubon. its length is from to feet. one was caught which weighed pounds. it lies sometimes asleep or motionless on the surface of the water, and may be mistaken for a log or snag. it is impossible to take it in any other way than with the seine or a very strong hook; the prongs of the gig cannot pierce the scales, which are as hard as flint, and even proof against lead balls! its flesh is not good to eat. it is a voracious fish. its vulgar names are diamond-fish (owing to its scales being cut like diamonds), devil-fish, jackfish, garjack, etc. the snout is large, convex above, very obtuse, the eyes small and black; nostrils small, round before the eyes; mouth beneath the eyes, transversal with large angular teeth. pectoral and abdominal fins trapezoidal. dorsal and anal fins equal, longitudinal, with many rays. the whole body covered with large stone scales, lying in oblique rows; they are conical, pentagonal pentædral, with equal sides, from half an inch to one inch in diameter, brown at first but becoming the color of turtle-shell when dry. they strike fire with steel and are ball-proof!" [illustration: fig. .--thread-eel, _nemichthys avocetta_ jordan & gilbert. puget sound.] chapter xxi classification of fishes =taxonomy.=--classification, as dr. elliott coues has well said,[ ] is a natural function of "the mind which always strives to make orderly disposition of its knowledge and so to discover the reciprocal relations and interdependencies of the things it knows. classification presupposes that there do exist such relations, according to which we may arrange objects in the manner which facilitates their comprehension, by bringing together what is like and separating what is unlike, and that such relations are the result of fixed inevitable law. it is therefore taxonomy (~taxis~, away; ~nomos~, law) or the rational, lawful disposition of observed facts." a perfect taxonomy is one which would perfectly express all the facts in the evolution and development of the various forms. it would recognize all the evidence from the three ancestral documents, palæontology, morphology, and ontogeny. it would consider structure and form independently of adaptive or physiological or environmental modifications. it would regard as most important those characters which had existed longest unchanged in the history of the species or type. it would regard as of first rank those characters which appear first in the history of the embryo. it would regard as of minor importance those which had arisen recently in response to natural selection or the forced alteration through pressure of environment, while fundamental alterations as they appear one after another in geologic time would make the basal characters of corresponding groups in taxonomy. in a perfect taxonomy or natural system of classification animals would not be divided into groups nor ranged in linear series. we should imagine series variously and divergently branched, with each group at its earlier or lower end passing insensibly into the main or primitive stock. a very little alteration now and then in some structure is epoch-making, and paves the way through specialization to a new class or order. but each class or order through its lowest types is interlocked with some earlier and otherwise diverging group. =defects in taxonomy.=--a sound system of taxonomy of fishes should be an exact record of the history of their evolution. but in the limitations of book-making, this transcript must be made on a flat page, in linear series, while for centuries and perhaps forever whole chapters must be left vacant and others dotted everywhere with marks of doubt. for science demands that positive assertion should not go where certainty cannot follow. a perfect taxonomy of fishes would be only possible through the study, by some artedi, müller, cuvier, agassiz, traquair, gill, or woodward, of all the structures of all the fishes which have ever lived. there are many fishes living in the sea which are not yet known to any naturalist, many others are known from one or two specimens, but not yet accessible to students in other continents. many are known externally from specimens in bottles or drawings in books, but have not been studied thoroughly by any one, and the vast multitude of species have perished in palæozoic, mesozoic, and tertiary seas without leaving a tooth or bone or fin behind them. with all this goes human fallibility, the marring of our records, such as they are, by carelessness, prejudice, dependence, and error. chief among these defects are the constant mistaking of analogy for homology, and the inability of men to trust their own eyes as against the opinion of the greater men who have had to form their opinions before all evidence was in. because of these defects, the current system of classification is always changing with each accession of knowledge. the result is, again to quote from dr. coues, "that the natural classification, like the elixir of life or the philosopher's stone, is a goal far distant." =analogy and homology.=--_analogy_, says dr. coues, "is the apparent resemblance between things really unlike--as the wing of a bird and the wing of a butterfly, as the lungs of a bird and the gills of a fish. _homology_ is the real resemblance, or true relation between things, however different they may appear to be--as the wing of a bird and the foreleg of a horse, the lungs of a bird and the swim-bladder of a fish. the former commonly rests upon mere functional, i.e. physiological, modifications; the latter is grounded upon structural, i.e., morphological, identity or unity. analogy is the correlative of physiology, homology of morphology; but the two may be coincident, as when structures identical in morphology are used for the same purposes, and are therefore physiologically identical. physiological diversity of structure is incessant, and continually interferes with morphological identity of structure, to obscure or obliterate the indications of affinity the latter would otherwise express clearly.... we must be on our guard against those physiological appearances which are proverbially deceptive!" "it is possible and conceivable that every animal should have been constructed upon a plan of its own, having no resemblance whatever to the plan of any other animal. for any reason we can discover to the contrary, that combination of natural forces which we term life might have resulted from, or been manifested by, a series of infinitely diverse structures; nor would anything in the nature of the case lead us to suspect a community of organization between animals so different in habit and in appearance as a porpoise and a gazelle, an eagle and a crocodile, or a butterfly and a lobster. had animals been thus independently organized, each working out its life by a mechanism peculiar to itself, such a classification as that now under contemplation would be obviously impossible; a morphological or structural classification plainly implying morphological or structural resemblances in the things classified. "as a matter of fact, however, no such mutual independence of animal forms exists in nature. on the contrary, the members of the animal kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, are marvelously connected. every animal has something in common with all its fellows--much with many of them, more with a few, and usually so much with several that it differs but little from them. "now, a morphological classification is a statement of these gradations of likeness which are observable in animal structures, and its objects and uses are manifold. in the first place, it strives to throw our knowledge of the facts which underlie, and are the cause of, the similarities discerned into the fewest possible general propositions, subordinated to one another, according to their greater or less degree of generality; and in this way it answers the purpose of a _memoria technica_, without which the mind would be incompetent to grasp and retain the multifarious details of anatomical science." =coues on classification.=--it is obvious that fishes like other animals may be classified in numberless ways, and as a matter of fact by numberless men they have been classified in all sorts of fashions. "systems," again quoting from dr. coues, "have been based on this and that set of characters and erected from this or that preconception in the mind of the systematist.... the mental point of view was that every species of bird (or of fish) was a separate creature, and as much of a fixture in nature's museum as any specimen in a naturalist's cabinet. crops of classifications have been sown in the fruitful soil of such blind error, but no lasting harvest has been reaped.... the genius of modern taxonomy seems to be so certainly right, to be tending so surely even if slowly in the direction of the desired consummation, that all differences of opinion we hope will soon be settled, and defect of knowledge, not perversity of mind, is the only obstacle in the way of success. the taxonomic goal is not now to find the way in which birds (or other animals) may be most conveniently arranged, but to discover their pedigree, and so construct their family tree. such a genealogical table, or _phylum_ (~phylon~, tribe, race, stock), as it is called, is rightly considered the only taxonomy worthy the name--the only true or natural classification. in attempting this end, we proceed upon the belief that, as explained above, all birds, like all other animals and plants, are related to each other genetically, as offspring are to parents, and that to discover their generic relations is to bring out their true affinities--in other words, to reconstruct the actual taxonomy of nature. in this view there can be but one 'natural' classification, to the perfecting of which all increase in our knowledge of the structure of birds infallibly and inevitably tends. the classification now in use or coming into use is the result of our best endeavors to accomplish this purpose, and represents what approach we have made to this end. it is one of the great corollaries of that theorem of evolution which most naturalists are satisfied has been demonstrated. it is necessarily a _morphological classification_; that is, one based solely upon considerations of structure or form (~morphê~, form, _morphe_), and for the following reasons: every offspring tends to take on precisely the form or structure of its parents, as its natural physical heritage; and the principle involved, or the _law of heredity_, would, if nothing interfered, keep the descendants perfectly true to the physical characters of their progenitors; they would 'breed true' and be exactly alike. but counter influences are incessantly operative, in consequence of constantly varying external conditions of environment; the plasticity of organization of all creatures rendering them more or less susceptible of modifications by such means, they become unlike their ancestors in various ways and to different degrees. on a large scale is thus accomplished, by natural selection and other natural agencies, just what man does in a small way in producing and maintaining different breeds of domestic animals. obviously, amidst such ceaselessly shifting scenes, degrees of likeness or unlikeness of physical structure indicate with the greatest exactitude the nearness or remoteness of organisms in kinship. morphological characters derived from the examination of structure are therefore the surest guides we can have to the blood relationships we desire to establish; and such relationships are the 'natural affinities' which all classification aims to discover and formulate." =species as twigs of a genealogical tree.=--in another essay dr. coues has compared species of animals to "the twigs of a tree separated from the parent stem. we name and arrange them arbitrarily in default of a means of reconstructing the whole tree according to nature's ramifications." if one had a tree, all in fragments, pieces of twig and stem, some of them lost, some destroyed, and some not yet separated from the mass not yet picked over, and wished to place each part where he could find it, he would be forced to adopt some system of natural classification. in such a scheme he would lay those parts together which grew from the same branch. if he were compelled to arrange all the fragments in a linear series, he would place together those of one branch, and when these were finished he would begin with another. if all this were a matter of great importance and extending over years or over many lifetimes, with many errors to be made and corrected, a set of names would be adopted--for the main trunk, for the chief branches, the lesser branches, and on down to the twigs and buds. a task of this sort on a world-wide scale is the problem of systematic zoology. there is reason to believe that all animals and plants sprang from a single stock. there is reasonable certainty that all vertebrate animals are derived from a single origin. these vertebrate animals stand related to each other, like the twigs of a gigantic tree of which the lowermost branches are the aquatic forms to which we give the name of fishes. the fishes are here regarded as composed of six classes or larger lines of descent. each of these, again, is composed of minor divisions called orders. the different species or ultimate kinds of animals are grouped in genera. a genus is an assemblage of closely related species grouped around a central species as type. the type of a genus is, in common usage, that species with which the name of the genus was first associated. the name of the genus as a noun, often with that of the species which is an adjective in signification if not in form, constitutes the scientific name of the species. thus _petromyzon_ is the genus of the common large lamprey, _marinus_ is its species, and the scientific name of the species is _petromyzon marinus_. _petromyzon_ means stone-sucker; _marinus_, of the sea, thus distinguishing it from a species called _fluviatilis_, of the river. in like fashion all animals and plants are named in scientific record or taxonomy. technical names are necessary because vernacular names fail. half a million kinds of animals are known, while not half a thousand vernacular names exist in any language. and these are always loosely used, half a dozen of them often for the same species, one name often for a dozen species. in the same way, whenever we undertake an exact description, we must use names especially devised for that purpose. we cannot use the same names for the bones of the head of a fish and those of the head of a man, for a fish has a different series of bones, and this series is different with different fishes. =nomenclature.=--a family in zoology is an assemblage of related genera. the name of a family, for convenience, always ends in the patronymic _idæ_, and it is always derived from the leading genus, that is, the one best known or earliest studied. thus all lampreys constitute the family _petromyzonidæ_. an order may contain one or more families. an order is a division of a larger group; a family an assemblage of related smaller groups. intermediate groups are often recognized by the prefixes sub or super. a subgenus is a division of a genus. a subspecies is a geographic race or variation within a species; a super-family a group of allied families. binomial nomenclature, or the use of the name of genus and species as a scientific name, was introduced into science as a systematic method by linnæus. in the tenth edition of his systema naturæ, published in , this method was first consistently applied to animals. by common consent the scientific naming of animals begins with this year, and no account is taken of names given earlier, as these are, except by accident, never binomial. those authors who wrote before the adoption of the rule of binomials and those who neglected it are alike "ruled out of court." the idea of genus and species was well understood before linnæus, but the specific name used was not one word but a descriptive phrase, and this phrase was changed at the whim of the different authors. [illustration: fig. .--horned trunkfish, cowfish, or cuckold, _lactophrys tricornis_ (linnæus). charleston, s. c.] =nomenclature of trunkfishes.=--examples of such names are those of the west indian trunkfish, or cuckold (_ostracion tricorne_, linnæus). lister refers to a specimen in as "_piscis triangularis capiti cornutu cui e media cauda cutanea aculeus longus erigitus_." this artedi alters in to _ostracion triangulatus aculeis duobus in capite et unico longiore superne ad caudam_. this is more accurately descriptive and it recognizes the existence of a generic type, _ostracion_, or trunkfish, to cover all similar fishes. french writers transformed this into various phrases beginning "coffre triangulaire à trois cornes," or some similar descriptive epithet, and in english or german it was likely to wander still farther from the original. but linnæus condenses it all in the word _tricornis_, which, although not fully descriptive, is still a name which all future observers can use and recognize. it is true that common consent fixes the date of the beginning of nomenclature at . but to this there are many exceptions. some writers date genera from the first recognition of a collective idea under a single name. others follow even species back through the occasional accidental binomials. most british writers have chosen the final and completed edition of the systema naturæ, the last work of linnæus, in , in preference to the earlier volume. but all things considered, justice and convenience alike seem best served by the use of the edition of . =synonymy and priority.=--synonymy is the record of the names applied at different times to the same group or species. with characteristic pungency dr. coues defines synonymy as "a burden and a disgrace to science." it has been found that the only way to prevent utter confusion is to use for each genus or species the first name applied to it and no other. the first name, once properly given, is sacred because it is the right name. all other later names whatever their appropriateness are wrong names. in science, of necessity, a name is a name without any necessary signification. for this reason and for the further avoidance of confusion, it remains as it was originally spelled by the author, obvious misprints aside, regardless of all possible errors in classical form or meaning. the names in use are properly written in latin or in latinized greek, the greek forms being usually preferred as generic names, the latin adjectives for names of species. many species are named in honor of individuals, these names being usually given the termination of the latin genitive, as _sebastodes gillii, liparis agassizi_. in recent custom all specific names are written with the small initial; all generic names with the capital. one class of exceptions must be made to the law of priority. no generic name can be used twice among animals, and no specific name twice in the same genus. thus the name _diabasis_ has to be set aside in favor of the next name _hæmulon_, because _diabasis_ was earlier used for a genus of beetles. the specific name _pristipoma humile_ is abandoned, because there was already a _humile_ in the genus _pristipoma_. =the conception of genus.=--in the system of linnæus, a genus corresponds roughly to the modern conception of a family. most of the primitive genera contained a great variety of forms, as well as usually some species belonging to other groups disassociated from their real relationships. as greater numbers of species have become known the earlier genera have undergone subdivision until in the modern systems almost any structural character not subject to intergradation and capable of exact definition is held to distinguish a genus. as the views of these characters are undergoing constant change, and as different writers look upon them from different points of view, or with different ideas of convenience, we have constant changes in the boundaries of genera. this brings constant changes in the scientific names, although the same specific name should be used whatever the generic name to which it may be attached. we may illustrate these changes and the burden of synonymy as well by a concrete example. =the trunkfishes.=--the horned trunkfish, or cuckold, of the west indies was first recorded by lister in , in the descriptive phrase above quoted. artedi, in , recognized that it belonged with other trunkfishes in a group he called _ostracion_. this, to be strictly classic, he should have written _ostracium_, but he preferred a partly greek form to the latin one. in the nagg's head inn in london, artedi saw a trunkfish he thought different, having two spines under the tail, while lister's figure seemed to show one spine above. this nagg's head specimen artedi called "_ostracion triangulatus duobus aculeis in fronte et totidem in imo ventre subcaudalesque binis_." next came linnæus, , who named lister's figure and the species it represented, _ostracion tricornis_, which should in strictness have been _ostracion tricorne_, as ~ostrakion~, a little box, is a neuter diminutive. the nagg's head fish he named _ostracion quadricornis_. the right name now is _ostracion tricornis_, because the name _tricornis_ stands first on the page in linnæus' work, but _ostracion quadricornis_ has been more often used by subsequent authors because it is more truthful as a descriptive phrase. in , lacépède changed the name of lister's fish to _ostracion listeri_, a needless alteration which could only make confusion. [illustration: fig. .--horned trunkfish, _ostracion cornutum_ linnæus. east indies. (after bleeker.)] in , dr. samuel latham mitchill, receiving a specimen from below new orleans, thought it different from _tricornis_ and _quadricornis_ and called it _ostracion sexcornutus_; dr. holard, of paris, in , named a specimen _ostracion maculatus_, and at about the same time bleeker named two others from africa which seem to be the same thing, _ostracion guineensis_ and _ostracion gronovii_. lastly, poey calls a specimen from cuba _acanthostracion polygonius_, thinking it different from all the rest, which it may be, although my own judgment is otherwise. this brings up the question of the generic name. among trunkfishes there are four-angled and three-angled kinds, and of each form there are species with and without horns and spines. the original _ostracion_ of linnæus we may interpret as being _ostracion cubicus_ of the coasts of asia, a species similar to the _ostracion rhinorhynchus_. this species, _cubicus_, we call the type species of the genus, as the nagg's head specimen of artedi was the type specimen of the species _quadricornus_, and the one that was used for lister's figure the type specimen of _tricornis_. _ostracion cubicus_ is a four-angled species, and when the trunkfishes were regarded as a family (_ostraciidæ_), the three-angled ones were set off as a separate genus. for this two names were offered, both by swainson in . for _trigonus_, a species without horns before the eyes, he gave the name _lactophrys_, and for _triqueter_, a species without spines anywhere, the name of _rhinesomus_. most recent american authors have placed the three-cornered species which are mostly american in one genus, which must therefore be called _lactophrys_. of this name _rhinesomus_ is a synonym, and our species should stand as _lactophrys tricornis_. the fact that _lactophrys_ as a word (from latin _lætus_, smooth; greek ~ophrys~, eyebrow; or else from _lactoria_, a milk cow, and ~ophrys~) is either meaningless or incorrectly written makes no difference with the necessity for its use. [illustration: fig. .--spotted trunkfish, _lactophrys bicaudalis_ (linnæus). cozumel island, yucatan.] [illustration: fig. .--spotted trunkfish (face view), _lactophrys bicaudalis_ (linnæus).] in , bleeker undertook to divide these fishes differently. placing all the hornless species, whether three-angled or four-angled, in _ostracion_, he proposed the name _acanthostracion_ for the species with horns, _tricornis_ being the type. but _acanthostracion_ has not been usually adopted except as the name of a section under _lactophrys_. the three-angled american species are usually set apart from the four-angled species of asia, and our cuckold is called _lactophrys tricornis_. but it may be with perfect correctness called _ostracion tricorne_, in the spirit called conservative. or with the "radical" systematists we may accept the finer definition and again correctly call it _acanthostracion tricorne_. but to call it _quadricornis_ or _listeri_ or _maculatus_ with any generic name whatever would be to violate the law of priority. [illustration: fig. .--spineless trunkfish, _lactophrys triqueter_ (linnæus). tortugas.] =trinomial nomenclature.=--by trinomial nomenclature we mean the use of a second subordinate specific name to designate a geographic subspecies, variety, or other intergrading race. thus _salmo clarki virginalis_ indicates the variety of clark's trout, or the cut-throat trout, found in the lakes and streams of the great basin of utah, as distinguished from the genuine _salmo clarkii_ of the columbia. trinomials are not much used among fishes, as we are not yet able to give many of the local forms correct and adequate definition such as is awarded to similar variations among birds and mammals. usually varieties in ichthyology count as species or as nothing. [illustration: fig. .--hornless trunkfish, _lactophrys trigonus_ (linnæus). tortugas, florida.] [illustration: fig. .--hornless trunkfish (face-view), _lactophrys trigonus_ (linnæus). charleston, s. c.] =meaning of species.=--quoting once more from the admirable essay of dr. coues on the taxonomy of birds: "the student cannot be too well assured that no such things as species, in the old sense of the word, exist in nature any more than have genera or families an actual existence. indeed they cannot be, if there is any truth in the principles discussed in our earlier paragraphs. species are simply ulterior modifications, which once were, if they be not still, inseparably linked together; and their nominal recognition is a pure convention, like that of a genus. more practically hinges upon the way we regard them than turns upon our establishment of higher groups, simply because upon the way we decide in this case depends the scientific labeling of specimens. if we are speaking of a robin, we do not ordinarily concern ourselves with the family or order it belongs to, but we do require a technical name for constant use. that name is compounded of its genus, species, and variety. no infallible rule can be laid down for determining what shall be held to be a species, what a conspecies, subspecies, or variety. it is a matter of tact and experience, like the appreciation of the value of any other group in zoology. there is, however, a convention upon the subject, which the present workers in ornithology in this country find available; at any rate we have no better rule to go by. we treat as "specific" any form, however little different from the next, that we do not know or believe to intergrade with that next one, between which and the next one no intermediate equivocal specimens are forthcoming, and none, consequently, are supposed to exist. this is to imply that differentiation is accomplished, the links are lost and the characters actually become "specific." we treat as "varietal" of each other any forms, however different in their extreme manifestation, which we know to intergrade, having the intermediate specimens before us, or which we believe with any good reason do intergrade. if the links still exist, the differentiation is still incomplete, and the characters are not specific, but only varietal, in the literal sense of these terms." =generalization and specialization.=--a few terms in common use may receive a moment's discussion. a type or group is said to be specialized when it has a relatively large number of peculiarities or when some one peculiarity is carried to an extreme. a sculpin is a specialized fish having many unusual phases of development, as is also a swordfish, which has a highly peculiar structure in the snout. a generalized type is one with fewer peculiarities, as the herring in comparison with the sculpin. in the process of evolution generalized types usually give place to specialized ones. generalized types are therefore as a rule archaic types. the terms high and low are also relative, a high type being one with varied structure and functions. low types may be primitively generalized, as the lancelet in comparison with all other fishes, or the herring in comparison with the perch, or they may be due to degradation, a loss of structures which have been elaborately specialized in their ancestry. the sea-snail (_liparis_), an ally of the sculpin, with scales lost and fins deteriorated is an example of a low type which is specialized as well as degraded. =high and low forms.=--in the earlier history of ichthyology much confusion resulted from the misconception of the terms "high" and "low." because sharks appeared earlier than bony fishes, it was assumed that they should be lower than any of their subsequent descendants. that the brain and muscular system in sharks was more highly developed than in most bony fishes seemed also certain. therefore it was thought that the teleost series could not have had a common origin with the series of sharks. it is now understood that evolution means chiefly adaptation. the teleost is adapted to its mode of life, and to that end it is specialized in fin and skeleton rather than in brain and nerves. all degeneration is associated with specialization. the degeneration of the blindfish is a specialization for better adaptation to life in the darkness of caves; the degeneration of the deep-sea fish meets the demands of the depths, the degeneration of the globefish means the sinking of one line of functions in the extension of some other. referring to his own work on the fossil fishes in the early forties, professor agassiz once said to the writer: "at that time i was on the verge of anticipating the views of darwin, but it seemed to me that the facts were contrary to the theories of evolution. we had the highest fishes first." this statement leads us to consider what is meant by high and low. undoubtedly the sharks are higher than the bony fishes in the sense of being nearer to the higher vertebrates. in brain, muscle, teeth, and reproductive structures they are also more highly developed. in all skeletal and cranial characters the sharks stand distinctly lower. but the essential fact, so far as evolution is concerned, is not that the sharks are high or low. they are, in almost all respects, distinctly generalized and primitive. the bony fishes are specialized in various ways through adaptation to the various modes of life they lead. much of this specialization involves corresponding degeneration of organs whose functions have ceased to be important. as a broad proposition it is not true that "we had our highest fishes first," for in a complete definition of high and low, the specialized perch or bass stands higher. but whether true or not, it does not touch the question of evolution which is throughout a process of adaptation to conditions of life. referring to the position of agassiz and his early friend and disciple, hugh miller, dr. traquair ( ) uses these words in an address at bradford, england: "it cannot but be acknowledged that the paleontology of fishes is not less emphatic in the support of descent than that of any other division of the animal kingdom. but in former days the evidence of fossil ichthyology was by some read otherwise. "it is now a little over forty years since hugh miller died: he who was one of the first collectors of the fossil fishes of the scottish old red sandstone, and who knew these in some respects better than any other man of his time, not excepting agassiz himself. yet his life was spent in a fierce denunciation of the doctrine of evolution, then only in its lamarckian form, as darwin had not yet electrified the world with his 'origin of species.' many a time i wonder greatly what hugh miller would have thought had he lived a few years longer, so as to have been able to see the remarkable revolution which was wrought by the publication of that book. "the main argument on which miller rested was the 'high' state of organization of the ancient fishes of the paleozoic formations, and this was apparently combined with a confident assumption of the completeness of the geological record. as to the first idea, we know of course that evolution means the passage from the more general to the more special, and that as the general result an onward advance has taken place; yet 'specialization' does not always or necessarily mean 'highness' of organization in the sense in which the term is usually employed. as to the idea of the perfection of the geological record, that of course is absurd. "we do not and cannot know the oldest fishes, as they would not have had hard parts for preservation, but we may hope to come to know many more old ones, and older ones still than we do at present. my experience on the subject of fossil ichthyology is that it is not likely to become exhausted in our day. "we are introduced at a period far back in geological history to certain groups of fishes, some of which certainly are high in organization as animals, but yet of generalized type, being fishes and yet having the potentiality of higher forms. but because their ancestors are unknown to us, that it is no evidence that they did not exist, and cannot overthrow the morphological testimony in favor of evolution with which the record actually does furnish us. we may therefore feel very sure that fishes or 'fish-like vertebrates' lived long ages before the oldest forms with which we are acquainted came into existence. "the modern type of bony fishes, though not so 'high' in many anatomical points as that of the selachii, crossopterygii, dipnoi, acipenseroidei, and lepidosteoidei of the palæozoic and mesozoic eras, is more specialized in the direction of the fish proper, and, as already indicated, specialization and 'highness' in the ordinary sense of the word are not necessarily coincident. but ideas about these things have undergone a wonderful change since those pre-darwinian days, and though we shall never be able fully to unravel the problems concerning the descent of animals, we see many things a great deal more clearly now than we did then." dr. gill observes: "perhaps there are no words in science that have been productive of more mischief and more retarded the progress of biological taxonomy than those words pregnant with confusion, high and low, and it were to be wished that they might be erased from scientific terminology. they deceive the person to whom they are addressed. they insensibly mislead the one who uses them. psychological prejudices and fancies are so inextricably associated with these words that the use of them is provocative of such ideas. the words, generalized and specialized, having become almost limited to the expression of the ideas which the scientific biologist wishes to unfold by the others, can with great gain be employed in their stead." ("families of fishes," .) =the problem of the highest fishes.=--as to which fishes should be ranked highest and which lowest, dr. gill gives ("families of fishes," ) the following useful discussion: "while among the mammals there is almost universal concurrence as to the forms entitled to the first as well as the last places, naturalists differ much as to the 'highest' of the ichthyoid vertebrates, but are all of one accord respecting the form to be designated as the 'lowest.' with that admitted lowest form as a starting-point, inquiry may be made respecting the forms which are successively _most nearly related_. "no dissent has ever been expressed from the proposition that the leptocardians (_branchiostoma_) are the lowest of the vertebrates; while they have doubtless deviated much from the representatives of the immediate line of descent of the higher vertebrates, and are probably specialized considerably, in some respects, in comparison with those vertebrates from which they (in common with the higher forms) have descended, they undoubtedly have diverged far less, and furnish a better hint as to the protovertebrates than any other form. "equally undisputed it is that most nearly related to the leptocardians are the marsipobranchiates (_lampreys_, etc.), and the tendency has been rather to overlook the fundamental differences between the two, and to approximate them too closely, than the reverse. "but here unanimity ends, and much difference of opinion has prevailed with respect to the succession in the system of the several subclasses (by whatever name called) of true fishes: ( ) some (e.g., cuvier, j. müller, owen, lütken, cope) arranging next to the lowest the elasmobranchiates, and, as successive forms, the ganoids and teleosteans; ( ) while others (e.g., agassiz, dana, duméril, günther) adopt the sequence leptocardians, marsipobranchiates, teleosteans, ganoids, and elasmobranchiates. the source of this difference of opinion is evident and results partly from metaphysical or psychological considerations, and partly from those based (in the case of the ganoids) on real similarities and affinities. "the evidence in favor of the title of the elasmobranchiates to the 'highest' rank is based upon ( ) the superior development of the brain; ( ) the development of the egg, and the ovulation; ( ) the possession of a placenta; and ( ) the complexity of the organs of generation. "( ) it has not been definitely stated wherein the superior development of the brain consists, and as it is not evident to the author, the vague claim can only be met by this simple statement; it may be added, however, that the brains comparable in essentials and most similar as a whole to those of the marsipobranchiates are those of the sharks. in answer to the statement that the sharks exhibit superior intelligence, and thus confirm the indications of cerebral structure, it may be replied that the impression is a subjective one, and the author has not been thus influenced by his own observations of their habits. psychological manifestations, at any rate, furnish too vague criteria to be available in exact taxonomy. "( ) if the development of the eggs, their small number, and their investment in cases are arguments in favor of the high rank of the elasmobranchiates, they are also for the marsipobranchiates, and thus prove too much or too little for the advocates of the views discussed. the variation in number of progeny among true fishes (e.g., cyprinodonts, _embiotocids_) also demonstrates the unreliability of those modifications _per se_. "( ) the so-called placenta of some elasmobranchiates may be _analogous_ to that of mammals, but that it is not _homologous_ (i.e., homogenetic) is demonstrable from the fact that all the forms intervening between them and the specialized placental mammals are devoid of a placenta, and by the variation (presence or want) among the elasmobranchiates themselves. "( ) the organs of generation in the elasmobranchiates are certainly more complex than in most other fishes, but as the complexity results from specialization of parts _sui generis_ and different from those of the higher (quadruped) vertebrates, it is not evident what bearing the argument has. if it is claimed simply on the ground of specialization, irrespective of homological agreement with admitted higher forms, then are we equally entitled to claim any specialization of parts as evidence of high rank, or at least we have not been told within what limits we should be confined. the cetaceans, for example, are excessively specialized mammals, and, on similar grounds, would rank above the other mammals and man; the aye-aye exhibits in its dentition excessive specialization and deviation from the primitive type (as exhibited in its own milk teeth) of the primates, and should thus also rank above man. it is true that in other respects the higher primates (even including man) may be more specialized, but the specialization is not as obvious as in the cases referred to, and it is not evident how we are to balance _irrelative_ specializations against each other, or even how we shall subordinate such cases. we are thus compelled by the _reductio ad absurdum_ to the confession that irrelative specialization of single organs is untrustworthy, and are fain to return to that better method of testing affinities by the equation of agreement in whole and after the elimination of special teleological modifications. "the question then recurs, what forms are the most _nearly allied_ to the marsipobranchiates, and what show the closest approach in _characteristic_ features? and in response thereto the evidence is not undecisive. wide as is the gap between marsipobranchiates and fishes, and comparatively limited as is the range of the latter among themselves, the elasmobranchiates are very appreciably more like, and share more characters in common with them, than any other; so much is this the case that some eminent naturalists (e.g., pallas, geoffroy, st. hilaire, latreille, agassiz, formerly lütken) have combined the two forms in a peculiar group, contradistinguished from the other fishes. the most earnest and extended argument in english, in favor of this combination has been published by professor agassiz in his 'lake superior,' but that eminent naturalist subsequently arrived at the opposite conclusions already indicated. "the evidences of the closer affinity of the elasmobranchiates (than of any other fishes) with the marsipobranchiates are furnished by ( ) the cartilaginous condition of the skeleton; ( ) the post-cephalic position of the branchiæ; ( ) the development of the branchiæ and their restriction to special chambers; ( ) the larger number of the branchiæ; ( ) the imperfect development of the skull; ( ) the mode of attachment of the teeth; ( ) the slight degree of specialization of the rays of the fins; and ( ) the rudimentary condition of the shoulder-girdle." footnotes: [ ] key to north american birds. chapter xxii the history of ichthyology science consists of human experience, tested and placed in order. the science of ichthyology represents our knowledge of fishes, derived from varied experiences of man, tested by methods or instruments of precision and arranged in orderly sequence. this science, in common with every other, is the work of many persons, each in his own field, and each contributing a series of facts, a series of tests of the alleged facts of others, or some improvement in the method of arrangement. as in other branches of science, this work has been done by sincere, devoted men, impelled by a love for this kind of labor, and having in view, as "the only reward they asked, a grateful remembrance of their work." and in token of this reward it is well sometimes, in grateful spirit, to go over the names of those who made even its present stage of completeness possible. we may begin the history of ichthyology with that of so many others of the sciences, with the work of aristotle ( - b.c.). this wonderful observer recorded many facts concerning the structure and habits of the fishes of greece, and in almost every case his actual observation bears the closest modern test. these observations were hardly "set in order." the number of species he knew was small, about in all, and it did not occur to him that they needed classification. his ideas of species were those of the fishermen, and the local vernacular supplied him with the only names needed in his records. as dr. günther wisely observes, "it is less surprising that aristotle should have found so many truths as that none of his followers should have added to them." for nearly years the scholars of the times copied the words of aristotle, confusing them by the addition of fabulous stories and foolish superstitions, never going back to nature herself, "who leads us to absolute truth whenever we wander." a few observations were made by caius plinius, claudius Ælianus, athenæus and others. theophrastus ( - b.c.) wrote on the fishes which may live out of water. about a.d., decius magnus ausonius wrote a pleasing little poem on the moselle, setting forth the merits of its various fishes. it was not, however, until the middle of the seventeenth century that any advance was made in the knowledge of fishes. at that time the development of scholarship among the nations of europe was such that a few wise men were able to grasp the idea of species. in , pierre bélon ( - ) published his octavo volume of pages, entitled "de aquatilibus," in which numerous ( ) species of fishes of the mediterranean were described, with tolerable figures, and with these is a creditable attempt at classification. at about this time ulysses aldrovandi, of bologna, founded the first museum of natural history and wrote on the fishes it contained. in - , ippolito salviani ( - ), a physician at rome, published a work entitled "aquatilium animalium historia," with good figures of most of the species, together with much general information as to the value and habits of animals of the sea. more important than these, but almost simultaneous with them, is the great work of guillaume rondelet ( - ), "de piscibus marinus" ( - ), at first written in latin, later translated into french and enlarged under other titles. in this work, different species, chiefly from the mediterranean, are fairly described, and the various fables previously current are subjected to severe scrutiny. recognizable woodcuts represent the different species. classification, rondelet had none, except as simple categories for purposes of convenience. more than usual care is given to the vernacular names, french and greek. he closes his book with these words: "or s'il en i a qui prennent les choses tant à la rigueur, qui ne veulent rien apparouver qui ne soit du tout parfait, je les prie de bien bon cueur de traiter telle, ou quelque autre histoire parfaitement, sans qu'il i ait chose quelconque à redire et la receverons é haut louerons bien vouluntiers. cependant je scai bien, et me console . . . avec grand travail . . . qu'on pourra trouver plusieurs bones choses e dignes de louange ou proufit é contentement des homes studieux é à l'honneur é grandissime admiration des tres excellens é perfaits oeuvres de dieu." and with the many "bones choses" of the work of rondelet, men were too long satisfied, and it was not until the impulse of commerce had brought them face to face with new series of animals not found in the mediterranean that the work of investigating fishes was again resumed. about , prince moritz (maurice) of nassau ( - ) visited brazil, taking with him two physicians, georg marcgraf ( - ) and wilhelm piso. in the great work "historia naturalis brasiliæ," published at leyden ( ), marcgraf described about one hundred species, all new to science, under portuguese names and with a good deal of spirit and accuracy. this work was printed by piso after marcgraf's death, and his colored drawings--long afterward used by bloch--are in the "history of brazil" reduced to small and crude woodcuts. this is the first study of a local fish fauna outside the mediterranean region and it reflects great credit on marcgraf and on the illustrious prince whose assistant he was. there were no other similar attempts of importance in ichthyology for a hundred years, when per osbeck, an enthusiastic student of linnæus, published ( ) the records of his cruise to china, under the name of "iter chinensis." at about the same time another of linnæus' students, fredrik hasselquist, published, in his "iter palestinum" the account of his discoveries of fishes in palestine and egypt. more pretentious than these and of much value as an early record is mark catesby's ( - ) "natural history of carolina and the bahamas," published in , with large colored plates which are fairly correct except in those cases in which the drawing was made from memory. at about the same time, hans sloane ( - ) published his large volume on the "fishes of jamaica," patrick browne ( - ) wrote on the fishes of the same region, while father charles plumier ( - ) made paintings of the fishes of martinique, long after used by bloch and lacépède. dr. alexander garden ( - ), of charleston, s. c., collected fishes for linnæus, as did also dr. pehr kalm in his travels in the northern parts of the american colonies. with the revival of interest in general anatomy several naturalists took up the structure of fishes. among these günther mentions borelli, malpighi, swammerdam, and duverney. other anatomists of later dates were albrecht von heller ( - ), peter camper ( - ), felix vicq d'azyr ( - ), and alexander monro ( ). the basis of classification was first fairly recognized by john ray ( - ) and francis willughby ( - ), who, with other and varied scientific labors, undertook, in the "historia piscium," published in oxford in , to bring order out of the confusion left by their predecessors. this work, edited by ray after willughby's death, is ostensibly the work of willughby with additions by ray. in this work species were recorded, of which were actually examined by the authors, and the arrangement chosen by them pointed the way to a final system of nomenclature. direct efforts in this direction, with a fairly clear recognition of genera as well as species, were made by lorenz theodor gronow, called gronovius, a german naturalist of much acumen, and by jacob theodor klein ( - ), whose work, "historic naturalis piscium," published about , is of less importance, not being much of an advance over the catalogue of rondelet. far greater than any of these investigators, and earlier than either klein or gronow, was he who has been justly called the father of ichthyology, petrus (peter) artedi ( - ). artedi was born in sweden. he was a fellow student of linnæus at upsala, and he devoted his short life wholly to the study of fishes. he went to holland to examine the collection of east and west indian fishes of a rich dutch merchant in amsterdam named albert seba, and there at the age of twenty-nine he was, by accident, drowned in one of the dutch canals. "his manuscripts were fortunately rescued by an englishman, cliffort," and they were edited and published by linnæus in a series of five parts or volumes. artedi divided the class of fishes into orders, and these orders again into genera, the genera into species. the name of each species consisted of that of the genus with a descriptive phrase attached. this cumbersome system, called polynomial, used by artedi, gronow, klein, and others, was a great advance on the shifting vernacular, of which it now took the place. but the polynomial method as a system was of short duration. linnæus soon substituted for it the convenient, in fact inevitable binomial system which has now endured for years, and which with certain modifications must form the permanent substructure of the nomenclature in systematic zoology and botany. the genera of artedi are in almost all cases natural groups, corresponding essentially equivalent to the families of to-day. families in ichthyology were first clearly recognized and defined by cuvier. the following is a list of artedi's genera and their arrangement: order malacopterygii. _syngnathus_ (pipefishes) ( species). _cobitis_ (loaches) ( ). _cyprinus_ (carp and dace) ( ). _clupea_ (herrings) ( ). _argentina_ (argentines) ( ). _exocoetus_ (flying-fishes) ( ). _coregonus_ (whitefishes) ( ). _osmerus_ (smelts) ( ). _salmo_ (salmon and trout) ( ). _esox_ (pike) ( ). _echeneis_ (remoras) ( ). _coryphæna_ (dolphins) ( ). _ammodytes_ (sand-launces) ( ). _pleuronectes_ (flounders) ( ). _stromateus_ (butter-fishes) ( ). _gadus_ (codfishes) ( ). _anarhichas_ (wolf-fishes) ( ). _muræna_ (eels) ( ). _ophidion_ (cusk-eels) ( ). _anableps_ (four-eyed fish) ( ). _gymnotus_ (carapos) ( ). _silurus_ (catfishes) ( ). order acanthopterygii. _blennius_ (blennies) ( ). _gobius_ (gobies) ( ). _xiphias_ (swordfishes) ( ). _scomber_ (mackerels) ( ). _mugil_ (mullets) ( ). _labrus_ (wrasses) ( ). _sparus_ (porgies) ( ). _sciæna_ (croakers) ( ). _perca_ (perch and bass) ( ). _trachinus_ (weavers) ( ). _trigla_ (gurnards) ( ). _scorpæna_ (scorpion-fishes) ( ). _cottus_ (sculpins) ( ). _zeus_ (john dories, etc.) ( ). _chætodon_ (butterfly-fishes) ( ). _gasterosteus_ (sticklebacks) ( ). _lepturus_ (cutlass-fishes) (=_trichiurus_) ( ). order branchiostegi. _balistes_ (trigger-fishes) ( ). _ostracion_ (trunkfishes) ( ). _cyclopterus_ (lumpfishes) ( ). _lophius_ (anglers) ( ). order chondropterygii. _petromyzon_ (lampreys) ( ). _acipenser_ (sturgeons) ( ). _squalus_ (sharks) ( ). _raja_ (rays) ( ). in all genera and species of fishes were known from the whole world in . the cetaceans, or whales, constitute a fifth order, plagiuri, in artedi's scheme. as examples of the nomenclature of species i may quote: "_zeus ventre aculeato, cauda in extremo circinata._" this polynomial expression was shortened by linnæus to _zeus faber_. the species was called by rondelet "_faber sive gallus marinus_" and by other authors "_piscis jovii_." "jovii" suggested _zeus_ to artedi, and rondelet's name _faber_ became the specific name. "_anarhichas lupus marinus nostras._" this became with linnæus "_anarhichas lupus_." "_clupea, maxilla inferiore longiore, maculis nigris carens: harengus vel chalcis auctorum, herring vel hering anglis, germanis belgis._" this became _clupea harengus_ in the convenient binomial system of linnæus. the great naturalist of the eighteenth century, carl von linné, known academically as carolus linnæus, was the early associate and close friend of artedi, and from artedi he obtained practically all his knowledge of fishes. linnæus, professor in the university of upsala and for a time its rector, primarily a botanist, was a man of wonderful erudition, and his great strength lay in his skill in the orderly arrangement of things. in his lifetime, his greatest work, the "systema naturæ," passed through twelve editions. in the tenth edition, in , the binomial system of nomenclature was first consistently applied to all animals. for this reason most naturalists use the date of its publication as the beginning of zoological nomenclature, although the english naturalists have generally preferred the more complete twelfth edition, published in . this difference in the recognized starting-point has been often a source of confusion, as in several cases the names of species were needlessly changed by linnæus and given differently in the twelfth edition. in taxonomy it is not nearly so important that a name be pertinent or even well chosen as that it be stable. in changing his own established names, the father of classification set a bad example to his successors, one which they did not fail to follow. in linnæus' system (tenth and twelfth editions) all of artedi's genera were retained save _lepturus_, which name was changed to _trichiurus_. the following new genera were added: _chimæra_, _tetraodon_, _diodon_, _centriscus_, _pegasus_, _callionymus_, _uranoscopus_, _cepola_, _mullus_, _teuthis_, _loricaria_, _fistularia_, _atherina_, _mormyrus_, _polynemus_, _amia_, _elops_. the classification was finally much altered: the chondropterygia and branchiostegi (with _syngnathus_) being called _amphibia nantes_, and divided into two groups--_spiraculis compositis_ and _spiraculis solitariis_. the other fishes were more naturally distributed according to the position of the ventral fins into pisces apodes, jugulares, thoracici, and abdominales. the apodes of linnæus do not form a homogeneous group, as members of various distinct groups have lost their ventral fins in the process of evolution. but the jugulares, the thoracici, and the abdominales must be kept as valid categories in any natural system. linnæus' contributions to zoology consisted mainly of the introduction of his most ingenious and helpful system of bookkeeping. by it naturalists of all lands were able to speak of the same species by the same name in whatever tongue. unfortunately, ignorance, carelessness, and perversity brought about a condition of confusion. for a long period many species were confounded under one name. this source of confusion began with linnæus himself. on the other hand, even with linnæus, the same species often appeared under several different names; in this matter it was not the system of naming which was at fault. it was the lack of accurate knowledge, and sometimes the lack of just and conscientious dealing with the work of other men. no system of naming can go beyond the knowledge on which it rests. ignorance of fact produces confusion in naming. the earlier naturalists had no conception of the laws of geographical distribution. the "indies," east or west, were alike to them, and "america" or "india" or "africa" was a sufficiently exact record of the origin of any specimen. moreover, no thought of the geological past of groups and species had yet arisen, and without the conception of common origin, the facts of homology had no significance. all classification was simply a matter of arbitrary pigeon-holing the records of forms, rather than an expression of actual blood relationship. to this confusion much was added through love of novelty. different authors changed names to suit their personal tastes regardless of rights of priority. _amia_ was altered to _amiatus_ by rafinesque in because it was too short a name. _hiodon_ was changed to _amphiodon_ because it sounded too much like _diodon_, _batrachoides_ to _batrictius_ because ~batrachos~ means a frog, not a fish, and other changes even more wanton were introduced, to be condemned and discarded by the more methodical workers of a later period. with all its abuses, however, the binomial nomenclature made possible systematic zoology and botany, and with the "systema naturæ" arose a new era in the science of living organisms. in common with most naturalists of his day, the spirit of linnæus was essentially a devout one. admiration for the wonderful works of god was breathed on almost every page. "o jehovah! quam ampla sunt opera tua" is on the title-page of the "systema naturæ," and the inscription over the door of his home at hammarby was to linnæus the wisdom of his life. this inscription read: "innocue vivito: numen adest" (live blameless: god is here). the followers of linnæus are divided into two classes, explorers and compilers. to the first class belonged his own students and others who ransacked all lands for species to be added to the lists of the "systema naturæ." those men, mostly scandinavian and dutch, worked with wonderful zeal, enduring every hardship and making great contributions to knowledge, which they published in more or less satisfactory forms. to these men we owe the beginnings of the science of geographical distribution. among the most notable of these are pehr osbeck and fredrik hasselquist, already noted; otto fabricius ( - ), author of an excellent "fauna of greenland"; carl peter thunberg ( -), successor of linnæus as rector of the university of upsala, who collected fishes about nagasaki, intrusting most of the descriptive work to the less skillful hands of his students, jonas nicolas ahl and martin houttuyn; martin th. brünnich, who collected at marseilles the materials for his "pisces massiliensis"; petrus forskål ( - ), whose work on the fishes of the red sea ("descriptio animalium," etc.), published posthumously in , is one of the most accurate of faunal lists, and one which shows a fine feeling for taxonomic distinctions scarcely traceable in any previous author. georg wilhelm steller ( - ), naturalist of bering's expedition, gathered amid incredible hardships the first knowledge of the fishes of alaska and siberia, his notes being printed after his tragic death, by pallas and krascheninnikov. petrus simon pallas ( - ) gives the account of his travels in the north pacific in his most valuable volumes, "zoographia russo-asiatica"; johann georg gmelin ( - ) with samuel theophilus gmelin ( - ), and johann anton güldenstädt ( - ), like steller, crossed siberia, recording its animals. johann david schöpf ( - ), a hessian surgeon stationed at long island in the revolutionary war, gave an excellent account of the fishes about new york. still other naturalists accompanied navigators around the globe, collecting specimens and information as opportunity offered. john reinhold forster ( - ), with his son, john george adam forster ( - ), and daniel solander ( - ), a student of linnæus, and sir joseph banks ( - ), sailed with captain james cook. philibert commerson ( - ) accompanied the explorer, louis antoine de bougainville, and furnished nearly all the original material used by lacépède. other noted travelers of the early days were pierre sonnerat and mungo park. still other naturalists, scarcely less useful, gave detailed accounts of the fauna of their own native regions. ablest of these was anatole risso, an apothecary of nice, who published in the "ichthyologie de nice," an excellent work, afterward ( ) expanded by him into a "histoire naturelle de l'europe méridionalé." contemporary with risso was a man of very different character, constantine samuel rafinesque ( - ), who wrote at palermo in his "caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi" and his "ittiologia siciliana." later he went to america, where he was for a time professor in the transylvania university at lexington, ky. brilliant, erudite, irresponsible, fantastic, he wrote of the fishes of sicily and later ("ichthyologia ohiensis," ) of the fishes of the ohio river, with wide knowledge, keen taxonomic insight, and a hopeless disregard of the elementary principles of accuracy. always eager for novelties, restless and credulous, his writings have been among the most difficult to interpret of any in ichthyology. earlier than risso and rafinesque, thomas pennant ( - ) wrote of the british fishes; otto fredrik müller of the fishes of denmark; j. e. gunner, bishop of thröndhjem, of fishes of norway; francis valentijn ( - ), jan nieuhof ( - ), renard, and castour of the fishes of the dutch east indies; duhamel du monceau of the fisheries of france; francesco cette of the fishes of sicily; josé cornide of the fishes of spain; ignacio molina of the fishes of chile; and meidinger of those of austria. some of these writers lived before linnæus. others knew little of the linnæan system, and their records are generally in the vernacular. most important of this class is the work of antonio parra, "descripcion de diferentes piezas de historia natural de la isla de cuba," published in havana in . in , patrick russell gave a valuable account, non-binomial, of "two hundred fishes collected at vizagapatam and on the coast of coromandel." papers on the fishes of bering sea and japan by wilhelm theophilus tilesius ( - ), are published in the transactions of the early societies of russia. the collections of the traveler krusenstern were recorded by tilesius. stephen krascheninnikov ( ) wrote a history of russia in asia. other notable names among the early writers are those of pierre marie auguste broussonet, of montpelier, whose work ( ), too soon cut short, showed marked promise; fr. faber, who wrote of the fishes of iceland; e. blyth, who studied the fishes of the andamans; a. g. desmarest, who made excellent studies of the fishes of cuba; j. t. kölreuter and everard home in the east indies; geoffrey saint-hilaire, who recorded the fishes of egypt at the command of napoleon. others equally notable were b. a. euphrasen, iwan lepechin ( - ), john latham, w. e. leach, george montagu, c. quensel, jean-antoine scopoli, peter ascanius, francois etienne de la roche ( - ), hans ström, m. vahl and zuieuw. the compilers who followed linnæus belonged to a wholly different class. these were men of extensive learning, methodical ways, sometimes brilliant, occasionally of deep insight, but more often, on the whole, dull, plodding, and mechanical. earliest of those is antoine gouan, whose "historia piscium" was published in paris in . in this work, which is of fair quality, only genera were included, and the three new ones which he introduces into the "system" (_lepadogaster_, _lepidopus_, and _trachypterus_) are still retained with his definition of them. johann friedrich gmelin ( - ), a relative of the explorers of siberia, published in a thirteenth edition of the "systema naturæ" of linnæus, adding to it the discoveries of forskål, forster, and others who had written since linnæus' time. this work was useful as bringing the compilation of linnæus to a later date, but it is not well done, the compiler having little knowledge of the animals described and little penetration in matters of taxonomy. very similar in character, although more lucid in expression, is the french compilation of the same date ( ), "tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature," by the abbé j. p. bonnaterre. another volume of the "encyclopédie méthodique," of still less merit, was published as a dictionary in paris in by réné just haüy. another dictionary in even poorer was the work of hippolyte cloquet. in , johann julius walbaum ( - ), a german compiler of a little higher rank, gathered together the records of all known species, using the work of artedi as a basis and giving binominal names in place of the vernacular terms used by schöpf, steller, pennant, and krascheninnikov. far more pretentious and more generally useful, as well as containing a large amount of original material, is the "ichthyologia" of mark eliezer bloch, published in berlin in various parts from to . it was originally in german and divided into two portions--"oeconomische naturgeschichte der fische deutschlands" and "naturgeschichte der auslandischen fische." bloch was a jewish physician, born at anspach in , and at the age of fifty-six began to devote himself to ichthyology. in his great work is contained every species which he had himself seen, every one which he could purchase from collections, and every one of which he could find drawings made by others. that part which relates to the fishes of germany is admirably done. in the treatment of east indian and american fishes there is much guesswork and many errors of description and of fact, for which the author was not directly responsible. to learn to interpret the personal equation in the systematic work of other men is one of the most delicate of taxonomic arts. after the publication of these great folio volumes of plates, dr. bloch began a systematic catalogue to include all known species. this was published after his death by his collaborator, the philologist, dr. johann gottlob schneider. this work, "m. e. blochii systema ichthyologia," contains species of fishes, and is the most creditable compilation subsequent to the death of linnæus. even more important than the work of bloch is that of the comte de la cépède, who became with the progress of the french revolution, "citoyen lacépède," his original full name being bernard germain etienne de la ville-sur-illon, comte de la cépède. his great work, "histoire naturelle des poissons," was published originally in five volumes, in paris, from to . it was brought out under great difficulties, his materials being scattered, his country in a constant tumult. for original material he depended largely on the collections and sagacious notes of the traveler commerson. dr. gill sums up the strength and weakness of lacépède's work in these terms: "a work by an able man and eloquent writer even prone to aid rhetoric by the aid of the imagination in absence of desirable facts, but which because of undue confidence in others, default of comparison of material from want thereof and otherwise, and carelessness generally is entirely unreliable." the work of lacépède had a great influence upon subsequent investigators, especially in france. a considerable number of the numerous new genera of rafinesque were founded on divisions made in the analytical keys of lacépède. [illustration: bernard germain de lacÉpÈde. georges dagobert cuvier. louis agassiz. johannes mÜller.] in and , dr. george shaw published in london his "general zoology," the fishes forming part of volumes iv and v. this is a poor compilation, the part concerning the fishes being mostly extracted from bloch and lacépède. another weak compilation for the supposed use of students was the "ichthyologie analytique" of a. m. constant duméril. about , henri ducrotay de blainville wrote the "faune française" and contributed important studies to the taxonomy of sharks. with georges léopold chrétien frédéric dagobert cuvier ( - ) and the "règne animal arrangé aprés son organization" ( ; - ) we have the beginning of a new era in ichthyology. this period is characterized by a recognition of the existence of a natural classification inevitable in proportion to the exactness of our knowledge, because based on the principles of morphology. the "règne animal" is, in the history of ichthyology, not less important than the "systema naturæ" itself, and from it dates practically our knowledge of families of fishes and the interrelations of the different groups. the great facts of homology were clearly understood by cuvier. their significance as indications of lines of descent were never grasped by him, and this notwithstanding the fact that cuvier was almost the first to bring extinct forms into proper relations with those now living. dr. günther well says that the investigation of anatomy of fishes was continued by cuvier until he had succeeded in completing so perfect a framework of the system of the whole class that his immediate successors could content themselves with filling up those details for which their master had no leisure. indefatigable in examining all the external and internal characters of the fishes of a rich collection, he ascertained the natural affinities of the infinite variety of fishes, and accurately defined the divisions, orders, families, and genera of the class as they appear in the two original editions of the "règne animal." his industry equaled his genius; he opened connections with almost every accessible part of the globe; not only french travelers and naturalists, but also germans, englishmen, americans rivaled one another to assist him with collections; and for many years the museum of the jardin des plantes was the center where all ichthyological treasures were deposited. thus cuvier brought together a collection the like of which had never been seen before, and which, as it contains all the materials on which his labors were based, must still be considered to be one of the most important in existence. "those little low rooms, five in number" (in the museum of the jardin des plantes), "they should be the mecca of scientific devotees. perhaps every great zoologist of the past hundred years has sat in them and discussed those problems of life which are always inviting solution and are never solved. the spirits of great naturalists still haunt these corridors and speak from the specimens their hands have set in order." (theodore lyman.) cuvier's studies of the different species of fishes are contained in the great "histoire naturelle des poissons," the joint work of cuvier and his pupil and successor, achille valenciennes ( - ). of this work volumes were published, from to , containing nominal species, the greater portion being written after the death of cuvier ( ). the work was finally left unfinished on account of a disagreement with the publisher. dr. gill tells me that at this time valenciennes made an unsuccessful appeal to the smithsonian institution for assistance in the publication of the remaining chapters. this is a most masterly work, indispensable to the student of fishes. its descriptions are generally fairly correct, its plates accurate, and its judgments trustworthy. but with all this it is very unequal. too often nominal species are based on variations due to age or sex or to the conditions of preservation of specimens. many of the species are treated very lightly by cuvier; many of the descriptions of valenciennes are very mechanical, as though the author had grown weary of the endless process, "a failing commonly observed among zoologists when attention to descriptive details becomes to them a tedious task." after the death of valenciennes ( ) dr. auguste duméril began another natural history of the fishes. of this two volumes ( - ) were published covering sharks, ganoids, and other fishes not treated by cuvier and valenciennes, his category beginning at the opposite end of the fish series. the death of duméril left this catalogue also unfinished. duméril's work is useful and carefully done, but his excessive trust in slight differences has filled his book with nominal species. thus among the living ganoid fishes he recognizes species, the actual number being not far from . we may anticipate the sequence of time by here referring to the remaining attempts at a record of all the fishes in the world, dr. albert c. l. g. günther, a naturalist of german birth, but resident in london for many years, long the honored keeper of the british museum, published in eight volumes the "catalogue of the fishes of the british museum," from to . in this monumental work, the one work most essential to all systematic study of fishes, species are described and doubtful species are mentioned. the book is a remarkable example of patient industry. its great merits are at once apparent, and those of us engaged in the same line of study may pass by its faults with the leniency which we may hope that posterity may bestow on ours. the publication of this work gave an immediate impetus to the study of fishes. the number of known species has been raised from to about , in the last thirty years, although meanwhile some hundreds of species even accepted by the conservatism of günther have been erased from the system. a new edition of this work has been long in contemplation, and in the first volume of it, covering the percoid fishes, was published by dr. george albert boulenger. this volume is one of the most satisfactory in the history of ichthyology. it is based on ample material. its accepted species have been subject to thorough criticism and in its classification every use has been made of the teachings of morphology and especially of osteology. its classification is distinctly modern, and with the writings of the contemporary ichthyologists of europe and america, it is fully representative of the scientific era ushered in by the researches of darwin. the chief criticism which one may apply to this work concerns most of the publications of the british museum. it is the frequent assumption that those species not found in the greatest museum of the world do not really exist at all. there are still many forms of life, very many, outside the series gathered in any or all collections. [illustration: albert gÜnther. franz steindachner. george a. boulenger. robert collett.] we may now turn from the universal catalogues to the work on special groups, on local faunas, or on particular branches of the subject of ichthyology. these lines of study were made possible by the work of cuvier and valenciennes and especially by that of dr. günther. before taking up the students of faunal groups, we may, out of chronological order, consider the researches of three great taxonomists, who have greatly contributed to the modern system of the classification of fishes. louis agassiz (born at motiers in western switzerland in ; died at cambridge, mass., in ) was a man of wonderful insight in zoological matters and possessed of a varied range of scientific information, scarcely excelled in any age--intellectually a lineal descendant of aristotle. his first work on fishes was the large folio on the fishes collected by jean baptiste spix ( - ) in brazil, published at munich in . after his establishment in america in , soon after which date, he became a professor in harvard university, agassiz published a number of illuminating papers on the fresh-water fishes of north america. he was the first to recognize the necessity of the modern idea of genera among fishes, and most of the groups designated by him as distinct genera are retained by later writers. he was also the first to investigate the structure of the singular viviparous surf-fishes of california, the names _embiotoca_ and _holconotus_ applied to these fishes being chosen by him. his earlier work, "recherches sur les poissons des eaux douces," published in europe, gave a great impetus to our knowledge of the anatomy and especially of the embryology of the fresh-water fishes. most important of all his zoological publications was the "recherches sur les poissons fossiles," published at neufchatel from to . this work laid the foundation of the systematic study of the extinct groups of fishes. the relations of sharks were first appreciated by agassiz, and the first segregation of the ganoids was due to him. although he included in this group many forms not truly related either to anything now called ganoids, nor even to the extinct mailed forms which preceded them, yet the definition of this order marked a distinct step in advance. the great, genial, hopeful personality of agassiz and his remarkable skill as a teacher made him the "best friend that ever student had" and gave him a large following as a teacher. among his pupils in ichthyology were charles girard ( - ), frederick ward putnam, alexander agassiz, samuel garman, samuel h. scudder, and the present writer. johannes müller ( - ), of berlin, was one of the greatest of comparative anatomists. in his revision of cuvier's "system of classification" he corrected many errors in grouping, and laid foundations which later writers have not altered or removed. especially important is his classical work, "ueber den bau and die grenzen der ganoiden." in this he showed some of the real fundamental characters of that group of archaic fishes, and took from it the most heterogeneous of the elements left in it by agassiz. to müller we also owe the first proper definition of the leptocardii and the cyclostomata, and, in association with dr. j. henle, müller has given us one of the best general accounts of the sharks ("systematische beschriebungen der plagiostomen"). to müller we owe an accession of knowledge in regard to the duct of the air-bladder, and the groups called physostomi, physoclysti, dipneusti (dipnoi), pharyngognathi, and anacanthini were first defined by him. in his work on devonian fishes, the great british comparative anatomist, thomas henry huxley, first distinguished the group of crossopterygians, and separated it from the ganoids and dipnoans. theodore nicholas gill is the keenest interpreter of taxonomic facts yet known in the history of ichthyology. he is the author of a vast number of papers, the first bearing date of , touching almost every group and almost every phase of relation among fishes. his numerous suggestions as to classification have been usually accepted in time by other authors, and no one has had a clearer perception than he of the necessity of orderly methods in nomenclature. among the orders first defined by gill are the eventognathi, nematognathi, pediculati, iniomi, heteromi, haplomi, xenomi, and the group called teleocephali, originally framed to include all the bony fishes except those which showed peculiar eccentricities or modifications. dr. gill's greatest excellence has been shown as a scientific critic. incisive, candid, and friendly, there is scarcely an investigator in biology, in america, who is not directly indebted to him for critical aid of the highest importance. the present writer cannot too strongly express his own obligations to this great teacher, his master in fish taxonomy. dr. gill's work is not centered in any single great treatise, but is diffused through a very large number of brief papers and catalogues, those from to mostly published by the academy of natural sciences in philadelphia, those of recent date by the united states national museum. for many years dr. gill has been identified with the work of the smithsonian institution at washington. closely associated with dr. gill was dr. edward drinker cope, of philadelphia, a tireless worker in almost every field of zoology, and a large contributor to the broader fields of ichthyological taxonomy as well as to various branches of descriptive zoology. cope was one of the first to insist on the close relation of the true ganoids with the teleost fishes, the nearest related group of which he defined as isospondyli. at the same time he recognized the wide range of difference even among the forms which johannes müller had assembled under that name. in breadth of vision and keenness of insight, cope ranked with the first of taxonomic writers. always bold and original, he was not at all times accurate in details, and to the final result in classification his contribution has been less than that of dr. gill. professor cope also wrote largely on american fresh-water fishes, a large percentage of the cyprinidæ and percidæ of the eastern united states having been discovered by him, as well as much of the rocky mountain fauna. in later years his attention was absorbed by the fossil forms, and most of the species of cretaceous rocks and the eocene shales of wyoming were made known through his ceaseless activity. [illustration: spencer fullerton baird. edward drinker cope. theodore nicholas gill. george brown goode.] the enumeration of other workers in the great field of ichthyology must assume something of the form of a catalogue. part of the impulse received from the great works of cuvier and valenciennes and of günther was spent in connection with voyages of travel. in quoy and gaimard published in paris the great folio work on the fishes collected by the corvette _l'uranie_ and _la physicienne_ in freycinet's voyages around the world, and in the same authors published the fishes collected in duperrey's voyage of the _astrolabe_. in lesson published the fishes of dumont d'urville's voyage of the _coquille_. these three great works lie at the foundation of our knowledge of the fishes of polynesia. in eydoux and gervais published an account of the fishes of the voyage of _la favorite_. in , also in paris, hombron and jacquinot gave an account of the fishes taken in dumont d'urville's expedition to the south pole. in england, sir john richardson ( - ), a wise and careful naturalist, wrote of the fishes collected by the _sulphur_ ( ), the _erebus_ and _terror_ ( ), the _samarang_, and the _herald_. lay and bennett recorded the species taken by beechey's voyage on the _blossom_. a most useful work is the account of the species taken by charles darwin on the voyage of the _beagle_, prepared by the conscientious hand of rev. leonard jenyns. still more important and far ranging is the voyage of the _challenger_, including the first important work in the deep seas, one stately volume and parts of other volumes on fishes being the work of dr. günther. other deep-sea work of equal importance has been accomplished in the atlantic and the pacific by the u. s. fish commission steamer _albatross_. its results in central america, alaska, japan, hawaii, as well as off both coasts of the united states, have been made known in different memoirs by goode and bean, gilbert, garman, gill, jordan, cramer, ryder, and others. the deep-sea fish collections of the _fish hawk_ and the _blake_ have been studied by goode and bean and garman. the deep-sea work of other countries may be briefly noticed. the french vessels _travailleur_ and _talisman_ have made collections chiefly in the mediterranean and along the coast of africa, the results having been made known by léon valliant. the _hirondelle_ about the azores and elsewhere has furnished material for professor robert collett, of the university of christiania. dr. decio vinciguerra, of rome, has reported on the collections of the _violante_, a vessel belonging to the prince of monaco. dr. a. alcock, of calcutta, has had charge of the most valuable deep-sea work of the _investigator_ in the indian seas. edgar r. waite and james douglas ogilby, of the australian museum at sydney, have described the collections of the _thetis_, on the shores of the new south wales. [illustration: johann reinhardt. edward waller claypole. carlos berg. edgar r. waite.] from austria the voyage of the frigate _novara_ has yielded large material which has been described by dr. rudolph kner. the cream of many voyages of many danish merchant vessels has been gathered in the "spolia atlantica" and other truly classical papers of christian frederik lütken, of the university of copenhagen, one of the most accomplished naturalists of recent times. f. h. von kittlitz has written on the fishes seen by him in the northern pacific, and earlier and more important we may mention the many ichthyological notes found in the records of travel in mexico and south america by alexander von humboldt ( - ). the local faunal work in various nations has been very extensive. in great britain we may note parnell's "natural history of the fishes of the firth of forth," published in edinburgh in , william yarrell's "history of british fishes" ( ), the earlier histories of british fishes by edward donovan and by william turton, and the works of j. couch ( ) and dr. francis day ( ), possessing similar titles. the work of day, with its excellent plates, will long be the standard account of the relatively scant fish fauna of the british islands. h. g. seeley has prepared ( ) also a useful synopsis of "the fresh-water fishes of europe." we may here notice without praise the pretentious work of william swainson ( - ). w. thompson has written of the fishes of ireland, and rev. richard t. lowe and j. y. johnson have done most excellent work on the fishes of madeira. f. mccoy, better known for work on fossil fishes, may be mentioned here. the fish fauna of scandinavia has been described more or less fully by s. kröyer ( ), robert nilsson ( ), fries and ekström ( ), robert collett, robert lilljeborg, and f. a. smitt, besides special papers by other writers, notably reinhardt, l. esmarck, japetus steenstrup, lütken, and a. w. malm. reinhardt, kröyer, lütken, and a. j. malmgren have written of the arctic fishes of greenland and spitzbergen. in russia, nordmann has described the fishes of the black sea ("ichthyologic pontique," paris, ) and eichwald those of the caspian. more recently, s. herzenstein, warpachowsky, k. kessler, b. n. dybowsky, and others have written of the rich fauna of siberia, the caucasus, and the scarcely known sea of ochotsk. stephan basilevsky has written of the fishes of northern china. a. kowalevsky has contributed very much to our knowledge of anatomy. peter schmidt has studied the fishes of the japan sea. in germany and austria the chief local works have been those of heckel and kner on the fresh-water fishes of austria ( ) and c. th. von siebold on the fresh-water fishes of central europe ( ). german ichthyologists have, however, often extended their view to foreign regions where their characteristic thoroughness and accuracy has made their work illuminating. the two memoirs of eduard rüppell on the fishes of the red sea and the neighboring parts of africa, "atlas zu der reise im nördlichen afrika," , and "neue wirbelthiere," , rank with the very best of descriptive literature. günther's illustrated "fische der südsee," published in hamburg, may be regarded as german work. the excellent colored plates are mostly from the hand of andrew garrett. other papers are those of dr. wilhelm peters on asiatic fishes, the most important being on the fishes of mozambique. j. j. heckel, rudolph kner, and franz steindachner, successively directors of the museum at vienna, have written largely on fishes. the papers of steindachner cover almost every part of the earth and are absolutely essential to any systematic study of fishes. no naturalist of any land has surpassed steindachner in industry or accuracy, and his work has the advantage of the best illustrations of fishes made by any artist, the noted eduard konopicky. in association with dr. döderlein, formerly of tokyo, dr. steindachner has given an excellent account of the fishes of japan. other german writers are j. j. kaup, who has worked in numerous fields, but as a whole with little skill, dr. s. b. klunzinger, who has given excellent accounts of the fishes of the red sea, and dr. franz hilgendorf, of the university of berlin, whose papers on the fishes of japan and other regions have shown a high grade of taxonomic insight. a writer of earlier date is w. l. von rapp, who wrote on the "fische den bodensees." j. f. brandt has written of the sturgeons of russia, and johann marcusen, to whom we owe much of our knowledge, of the mormyri of africa. in italy, charles lucien bonaparte, prince of canino, has published an elaborate "fauna italica" ( ) and in numerous minor papers has taken a large part in the development of ichthyology. many of the accepted names of the large groups (as elasmobranchii, heterosomata, etc.) were first suggested by bonaparte. the work of rafinesque has been already noticed. o. g. costa published (about ) a "fauna of naples." in recent times camillo ranzani, of bologna, wrote on the fishes of brazil and of the mediterranean. giovanni canestrini, decio vinciguerra, enrico hillyer giglioli, luigi döderlein, and others have contributed largely to our knowledge of italian fishes, while carlo f. emery, f. de filippi, luigi facciolá, and others have studied the larval growth of different species. camillo ranzani, g. g. bianconi, domenico nardo, cristoforo bellotti, alberto perugia, and others have contributed to different fields of ichthyology. nicholas apostolides and, still later, horace a. hoffman and the present writer, have written of the fishes of greece. in france, the fresh-water fishes are the subject of an important work by emile blanchard ( ), and emile moreau has given us a convenient account of the fish fauna of france. léon vaillant has written on various groups of fishes, his monograph of the american darters (etheostominæ) being a masterpiece so far as the results of the study of relatively scanty material would permit. the "mission scientifique au mexique," by valliant and f. bocourt, is one of the most valuable contributions to our knowledge of the fishes of that region. dr. h. e. sauvage, of boulogne-sur-mer, has also written largely on the fishes of asia, africa, and other regions. among the most important of these are the "poissons de madagascar," and a monograph of the sticklebacks. alexander thominot and jacques pellegrin have also written, in the museum of the jardin des plantes, on different groups of fishes. earlier writers were constant duméril, alphonse guichenot, l. brissot de barneville, h. hollard, an able anatomist, and bibron, an associate of auguste duméril. [illustration: felipe poey y aloy. lÉon vaillant. louis dollo. decio vinciguerra.] in spain and portugal the chief work of local authors is that of j. v. b. bocage and f. de brito capello on the fishes of portugal. so far as the fishes of spain are concerned, the most valuable memoir is steindachner's account of his travels in spain and portugal. the principal studies of the balkan region have also been made by steindachner. josé gogorza y gonzález, of the museum of madrid, has given a list of the fishes of the philippines. a still more elaborate list, praiseworthy as a beginning, is the work of the reverend padre casto de elera, professor of natural history in the dominican college of santo tomas in manila. in holland, the chief great works have been those of schlegel and pieter van bleeker. professor h. schlegel, of the university of leyden, described the fishes collected about nagasaki by ph. fr. de siebold and bürger. his work on fishes forms a large folio illustrated by colored plates, a volume of the "fauna japonica," published in leyden from to . schlegel's work in every field is characterized by scrupulous care and healthful conservatism, and the "fauna japonica" is a most useful monument to his rare powers of discrimination. pieter von bleeker ( - ), a surgeon in the dutch east indies, is the most voluminous writer in ichthyology. he began his work in java without previous training and in a very rich field where almost everything was new. with many mistakes at first he rose to the front by sheer force of industry and patience, and his later work, while showing much of the "personal equation," is still thoroughly admirable. at his death he was engaged in the publication of a magnificent folio work, "atlas ichthyologique des indes orientales neerlandaises," illustrated by colored plates. this work remains about two-thirds completed. the writings of dr. bleeker constitute the chief source of our knowledge of the fauna of the east indies. dr. van lidth de jeude, of the university of leyden, is the author of a few descriptive papers on fishes. to belgium we may assign part at least of the work of the eminent belgian naturalist, george albert boulenger, now long connected with the british museum. his various valuable papers on the fishes of the congo are published under the auspices of the "congo free state." to belgium also we may ascribe the work of louis dollo on the morphology of fishes and on the deep-sea fishes obtained by the "expedition antarctique belge." the fish fauna of cuba has been the lifelong study of dr. felipe poey y aloy ( - ), a pupil of cuvier, for a half century or more the honored professor of zoology in the university of havana. of his many useful papers, the most extensive are his "memorias sobre la historia natural de la isla de cuba," followed by a "repertorio" and an "enumeratio" in which the fishes are elaborately catalogued. poey devoted himself solely to the rich fish fauna of his native island, in which region he was justly recognized as a ripe scholar and a broad-minded gentleman. a favorite expression of his was "comme naturaliste, je ne suis pas espagnol: je suis cosmopolite." before poey, guichenot, of paris, had written on the fishes collected in cuba by ramon de la sagra ( - ). his account was published in sagra's "historia de cuba," and later philip h. gosse ( - ) wrote on the fishes of jamaica. much earlier, robert hermann schomburgk ( - ) wrote on the fishes of british guiana. other papers on the caribbean fishes were contributed by johannes müller and f. h. troschel, and by richard hill and j. hancock. besides the work in south america of marcgraf, agassiz, reinhardt, lütken, steindachner, jenyns, boulenger, and others already named, we may note the local studies of dr. carlos berg in argentina, dr. r. a. philippi, and frederico t. delfin in chile, miranda-ribeiro in brazil, with garman, j. f. abbott, and others in recent times. carl h. eigenmann and earlier jordan and eigenmann have studied the great collections made in brazil by agassiz. steindachner has described the collections of johann natterer and gilbert those made by dr. john casper branner. the most recent examinations of the myriads of brazilian river fishes have been made by dr. eigenmann. earlier than any of these ( ), francis de castelnau ( - ) described many brazilian fishes and afterwards numerous fishes of australia and southern africa, alphonse guichenot, of paris, contributed a chapter on fishes to claude gay's ( - ) "history of chile," and j. j. von tschudi, of st. gallen, published an elaborate but uncritical "fauna peruana" with colored plates of peruvian fishes. in new zealand, f. w. hutton and j. hector have published a valuable work on the fishes of new zealand, to which dr. gill added useful critical notes in a study of "antipodal faunas." later writers have given us a good knowledge of the fishes of australia. notable among them are charles devis, william macleay, h. de miklouho-maclay, james douglas ogilby, and edgar r. waite. clarke has also written on "fishes of new zealand." the most valuable work on the fishes of hindustan is the elaborate treatise on the "fishes of india" by surgeon francis day. in this all the species are figured, the groups being arranged as in günther's catalogue, a sequence which few non-british naturalists seem inclined to follow. cantor's "malayan fishes" is a memoir of high merit, as is also mcclelland's work on indian fishes and the still earlier work of francis buchanan hamilton on the fishes of the ganges. we may here refer to andrew smith's papers on the fishes of the cape of good hope and to r. i. playfair and a. günther's "fishes of zanzibar." t. c. jerdon, john edward gray, e. tyrwhitt bennett, and others have also written on the fishes of india; j. c. bennett has published several excellent papers on the fishes of polynesia and the east indies. in japan, following the scattering papers of thunberg, tilesius, and houttuyn, and the monumental work of schlegel, numerous species have been recorded by james carson brevoort, günther, gill, eduard nyström, hilgendorf, and others. about steindachner and döderlein published the valuable "fische japans," based on the collections made about tokyo by dr. döderlein. in , motokichi namiye, then assistant curator in the imperial university, published the first list of japanese fishes by a native author. in , dr. chiyomatsu ishikawa, on the "fishes of lake biwa," was the first japanese author to venture to name a new species of fish (_pseudogobio zezera_). this reticence was due not wholly to lack of self-confidence, but rather to the scattered condition of the literature of japanese ichthyology. for this reason no japanese author has ever felt that any given undetermined species was really new. other japanese ichthyologists of promise are dr. kamakichi kishinouye, in charge of the imperial fisheries bureau, dr. shinnosuke matsubara, director of the imperial fisheries institute, keinosuke otaki, s. hatta, s. nozawa, t. kitahara, and michitaro sindo, and we may look for others among the pupils of dr. kakichi mitsukuri, the distinguished professor of zoology in the imperial university. [illustration: bashford dean. kakichi mitsukuri. carl h. eigenmann. franz hilgendorf.] the most recent, as well as the most extensive, studies of the fishes of japan were made in by the present writer and his associate, john otterbein snyder. the scanty pre-cuvieran work on the fishes of north america has been already noticed. contemporary with the early work of cuvier is the worthy attempt of professor samuel latham mitchill ( - ) to record in systematic fashion the fishes of new york. soon after followed the admirable work of charles alexandre le sueur ( - ), artist and naturalist, who was the first to study the fishes of the great lakes and the basin of the ohio. le sueur's engravings of fishes, in the early publications of the academy of natural sciences in philadelphia, are still among the most satisfactory representations of the species to which they refer. constantine samuel rafinesque ( - ), the third of this remarkable but very dissimilar trio, published numerous papers descriptive of the species he had seen or heard of in his various botanical rambles. this culminated in his elaborate but untrustworthy "ichthyologia ohiensis." the fishes of ohio received later a far more conscientious though less brilliant treatment at the hands of dr. jared potter kirtland ( - ), an eminent physician of cleveland, ohio. in the amiable and scholarly james ellsworth dekay ( - ) published his detailed report on the fishes of the "new york fauna," and a little earlier ( ) in the "fauna boreali-americana" sir john richardson ( - ) gave a most valuable and accurate account of the fishes of the great lakes and canada. almost simultaneously, rev. zadock thompson ( - ) gave a catalogue of the fishes of vermont, and david humphreys storer ( - ) began his work on the fishes of massachusetts, finally expanded into a "synopsis of the fishes of north america" ( ) and a "history of the fishes of massachusetts" ( - ). dr. john edwards holbrook ( - ), of charleston, published ( - ) his invaluable record of the fishes of south carolina, the promise of still more important work, which was prevented by the outbreak of the civil war in the united states. the monograph on lake superior ( ) and other publications of louis agassiz ( - ) have been already noticed. one of the first of agassiz's students was charles girard ( - ), who came with him from switzerland, and, in association with spencer fullerton baird ( - ), described the fishes from the united states pacific railway surveys ( ) and the united states and mexican boundary surveys ( ). professor baird, primarily an ornithologist, became occupied with executive matters, leaving girard to finish these studies of the fishes. a large part of the work on fishes published by the united states national museum and the united states fish commission has been made possible through the direct help and inspiration of professor baird. among those engaged in this work, james william milner ( - ), marshall macdonald ( - ), and hugh m. smith may be noted. most eminent, however, among the students and assistants of professor baird was his successor, george brown goode ( - ), one of the most accomplished of american naturalists, whose greatest work, "oceanic ichthyology," published in collaboration with his long associate, dr. tarleton hoffman bean, was barely finished at the time of his death. the work of theodore nicholas gill and edward drinker cope has been already noticed. other faunal writers of more or less prominence were william dandridge peck ( - ) in new hampshire, george suckley ( - ) in oregon, james william milner ( - ) in the great lake region, samuel stehman haldeman ( - ) in pennsylvania, william o. ayres ( - ) in connecticut and california; dr. john g. cooper (died ), dr. william p. gibbons and dr. william n. lockington (died ) in california; philo romayne hoy ( - ) studied the fishes of wisconsin, charles conrad abbott those of new jersey, silas stearns ( - ) those of florida, stephen alfred forbes and edward w. nelson those of illinois, oliver perry hay, later known for his work on fossil forms, those of mississippi, alfredo dugés, of guanajuato, those of central mexico. samuel garman, at harvard university, a student of agassiz, is the author of numerous valuable papers, the most notable being on the sharks and on the deep-sea collections of the _albatross_ in the galapagos region, the last illustrated by plates of most notable excellence. other important monographs of garman treat of the cyprinodonts and the discoboli. the present writer began a "systematic catalogue of the fishes of north america" in in association with his gifted friend, herbert edson copeland ( - ), whose sudden death, after a few promising beginnings, cut short the undertaking. later, charles henry gilbert ( -), a student of professor copeland, took up the work and in a "synopsis of the fishes of north america" was completed by jordan and gilbert. later, dr. gilbert has been engaged in studies of the fishes of panama, alaska, and other regions, and the second and enlarged edition of the "synopsis" was completed in , as the "fishes of north and middle america," in collaboration with another of the writer's students, dr. barton warren evermann. a monographic review of the fishes of puerto rico was later ( ) completed by dr. evermann, together with numerous minor works. other naturalists whom the writer may be proud to claim as students are charles leslie mckay ( - ), drowned in bristol bay, alaska, while engaged in explorations, and charles henry bollman ( - ), stricken with fever in the okefinokee swamps in georgia. still others are dr. carl b. eigenmann, the indefatigable investigator of brazilian fishes and of the blind fishes of the caves; dr. oliver peebles jenkins, the first thorough explorer of the fishes of hawaii; dr. alembert winthrop brayton, explorer of the streams of the great smoky mountains; dr. seth eugene meek, explorer of mexico; john otterbein snyder, explorer of mexico, japan, and hawaii; edwin chapin starks, explorer of puget sound and panama and investigator of fish osteology. still other naturalists of the coming generation, students of the present writer and of his lifelong associate, professor gilbert, have contributed in various degrees to the present fabric of american ichthyology. among them are mrs. rosa smith eigenmann, dr. joseph swain, wilbur wilson thoburn ( - ), frank cramer, alvin seale, albert jefferson woolman, philip h. kirsch ( - ), cloudsley rutter (died ), robert edward snodgrass, james francis abbott, arthur white greeley, edmund heller, henry weed fowler, keinosuke otaki, michitaro sindo, and richard crittenden mcgregor. [illustration: david starr jordan. herbert edson copeland. charles henry gilbert. barton warren evermann.] other facts and conclusions of importance have been contributed by various persons with whom ichthyology has been an incident rather than a matter of central importance. =the fossil fishes.=[ ]--the study of fossil fishes was begun systematically during the first decades of the nineteenth century, for it was then realized that of fossils of back-boned animals, fishes were the only ones which could be determined from early palæozoic to recent horizons, and that from the diversity of their forms they could serve as reliable indications of the age of rocks. at a later time, when the evolution of vertebrates began to be studied, fishes were examined with especial care with a view of determining the ancestral line of the amphibians. the earliest work upon fossil fishes is, as one would naturally expect, of a purely systematic value. anatomical observations were scanty and crude, but as the material for study increased, a more satisfactory knowledge was gained of the structures of the various major groups of fishes; and finally by a comparison of anatomical results important light came to be thrown upon more fundamental problems. the study of fossil fishes can be divided for convenience into three periods: (i) that which terminated in the _magnum opus_ of louis agassiz; (ii) that of the systematists whose major works appeared between and the recent publication of the catalogue of fossil fishes of the british museum (from this period date many important anatomical observations); and (iii) that of morphological work, roughly from to the present. during this period detailed consideration has been given to the phylogeny of special structures, to the probable lines of descent of the groups of fossil fishes, and to the relationships of terrestrial to aquatic vertebrates. =first period.=--=the work of louis agassiz.=--the real beginning of our knowledge of fossil fishes dates from the publication of the classic volumes of agassiz, "recherches sur les poissons fossiles (neuchâtel, - )." there had previously existed but a fragmentary and widely scattered literature; the time was ripe for a great work which should bring together a knowledge of this important vertebrate fauna and the museums throughout europe had been steadily growing in their collections of fossils. especially ripe, too, since the work of cuvier ( - ) had been completed and the classic anatomical papers of j. müller ( - ) were appearing. and agassiz ( - ) was eminently the man for this mission. at the age of one and twenty he had already mapped out the work, and from this time he devoted sixteen active years to its accomplishment. one gets but a just idea of the personality of agassiz when he recalls that the young investigator while in an almost penniless position contrived to travel over a large part of europe, mingle with the best people of his day, devote almost his entire time to research, employ draughtsmen and lithographers, support his own printing-house, and in the end publish his "poissons fossiles" in a fashion which would have done credit to the wealthiest amateur. with tireless energy he collected voluminous notes and drawings numberless; he corresponded with collectors all over europe and prevailed upon them to loan him tons of specimens; in the meanwhile he collated industriously the early but fragmental literature in such works as those of de blainville, münster, murchison, buckland, egerton, redfield, w. c. williamson, and others. hitherto less than species of fossil fishes were known; at the end of agassiz's work about were described and many of them figured. it is easy to see that such a work made a ready basis of future studies. doubtless, too, much is owing to the personal energy of agassiz that such keen interest was focused in the collection and study of fossil fishes during the middle of the nineteenth century. the actual value of agassiz's work can hardly be overestimated; his figures and descriptions are usually clear and accurate. and it is remarkable, perhaps, that in view of the very wide field which he covered that his errors are not more glaring and numerous. upon the purely scientific side, however, one must confess that the "poissons fossiles" is of minor importance for the reason that as time has gone by it has been found to yield no generalizations of fundamental value. the classification of fishes advocated by agassiz, based upon the nature of the scales, has been shown to be convenient rather than morphological. this indeed agassiz himself appears to realize in a letter written to humboldt, but on the other hand he regards his creation of the now discarded order of _ganoids_, which was based upon integumental characters, as his most important contribution to the general study of ichthyology. and although there passed through his hands a series of forms more complete than has perhaps been seen by any later ichthyologist,[ ] a series which demonstrates the steps in the evolution of the various families and even orders of fishes, he is nowhere led to such important philosophical conclusions as was, for example, his contemporary, johannes müller. and even to his last day, in spite of the light which palæontology must have given him, he denied strenuously the truth of the doctrine of evolution, a result the more remarkable since he has even given in graphic form the geological occurrence of the various groups of fishes in a way which suggests closely a modern phylogenetic table, and since at various times he has emphasized the dictum that the history of the individual is but the epitomized history of the race. the latter statement, which has been commonly attributed to agassiz, is clearly of much earlier origin; it was definitely formulated by von baer and meckel, the former of whom even as early as pronounced himself a distinct evolutionist. [illustration: ramsay heatley traquair. arthur smith woodward. karl a. zittel. charles r. eastman.] =second period.=--=systematic study of fossil fishes.=--on the ground planted by agassiz, many important works sprang up within the next decades. in england a vigorous school of palæichthyologists was soon flourishing. many papers of egerton date from this time, and the important work of owen on the structure of fossil teeth and the often-quoted papers of huxley in the "british fossil remains." among other workers may be mentioned james powrie, author of a number of papers upon scottish devonian fossils; the enthusiastic hugh miller, stone-mason and geologist; montague brown, thomas atthey, j. young, and w. j. barkas, students upon coal measure fishes; e. ray lankester, some of whose early papers deal with pteraspids; e. t. newton, author of important works on chimæroids. the extensive works of j. w. davis deal with fishes of many groups and many horizons. mr. davis, like sir philip gray egerton, was an amateur whose devotion did much to advance the study of fossil fishes. the dean of british palæichthyology is at present dr. r. h. traquair, of the edinburgh museum of science and arts. during four decades he has devoted himself to his studies with rare energy and success, author of a host of shorter papers and numerous memoirs and reports. finally, and belonging to a younger generation of palæontologists, is to be named arthur smith woodward, curator of vertebrate palæontology of the british museum. dr. woodward has already contributed many scores of papers to palæichthyology, besides publishing a four-volume catalogue of the fossil fishes of the british museum, a compendial work whose value can only be appreciated adequately by specialists. in the united states the study of fossil fishes was taken up by j. h. and w. c. redfield, father and son, prior to the work of agassiz, and there has been since that time an active school of american workers. agassiz himself, however, is not to be included in this list, since his interest in extinct fishes became almost entirely unproductive during his life in america. foremost among these workers was john strong newberry ( - ), of columbia college, whose publications deal with fishes of many horizons and whose work upon this continent is not unlike that of agassiz in europe. he was the author of many state reports, separate contributions, and two monographs, one upon the palæozoic fishes of north america, the other upon the triassic fishes. among the earlier palæontologists were orestes h. st. john, a pupil of agassiz at harvard, and a. h. worthen ( - ), director of the geological survey of illinois; also w. gibbes and joseph leidy. the late e. d. cope ( - ) devoted a considerable portion of his labors to the study of extinct fishes. e. w. claypole, of buchtel college, is next to be mentioned as having produced noteworthy contributions to our knowledge of sharks, palæaspids, and arthrodires, as has also a. a. wright, of oberlin college. among other workers may be mentioned o. p. hay, of the american museum; c. r. eastman, of harvard, author of important memoirs upon arthrodires and other forms; alban stewart, a student of dr. s. w. williston at kansas university, and bashford dean. among canadian palæontologists g. f. matthew deserves mention for his work on cyathaspis, principal dawson for interesting references to mesozoic fishes, and j. f. whiteaves for his studies upon the devonian fishes of scaumenac bay. belgian palæontologists have also been active in their study of fishes. here we may refer to the work of louis dollo, of brussels, of max lohest, of p. j. van beneden, of l. g. de koninck, of t. c. winckler, and of r. storms, the last of whom has done interesting work on tertiary fishes. foremost among russian palæichthyologists is to be named c. h. pander, long-time academician in st. petersburg, whose elaborate studies of extinct lung-fishes, ostracophores, and crossopterygians published between and will long stand as models of careful work. we should also refer to the work of h. asmuss and h. trautschold, e. eichwald and of victor rohon, the last named having published many important papers upon ostracophores during his residence in st. petersburg. german palæichthyologists include otto jaekel, of berlin; o. m. reis of the oberbergamt, in munich; a. von koenen, of göttingen; a. wagner, e. koken, and k. von zittel. among austro-hungarians are anton fritsch, author of the _fauna der gaskohleformations boemens_; rudolf kner, an active student of living fishes as well, as is also franz steindachner. french palæichthyologists are represented by the veteran h. e. sauvage, of boulogne-sur-mer, v. thollière, m. brongniart, and f. priem. in italy francesco bassani, of naples, is the author of many important works dealing with mesozoic and tertiary forms; also was baron achille di zigno. robert collett, of bergen, and g. lindström are worthy representatives of scandinavia in kindred work. =third period.=--=morphological work on fossil fishes.=--among the writers who have dealt with the problems of the relationships of the ostracophores as well as _palæospondylus_ and the arthrodires may be named traquair, huxley, newberry, smith woodward, rohon, eastman, and dean; most recently william patten. upon the phylogeny of the sharks traquair, a. fritsch, hasse, cope, brongniart, jaekel, reis, eastman, and dean. on chimæroid morphology mention may be made of the papers of a. s. woodward, reis, jaekel, eastman, c. d. walcott, and dean. as to dipnoan relationships the paper of louis dollo is easily of the first value; of especial interest, too, is the work of eastman as to the early derivation of the dipnoan dentition. in this regard a paper of rohon is noteworthy, as is also that of richard semon on the development of the dentition of recent neoceratodus, since it contains a number of references to extinct types. interest notes on dipnoan fin characters have been given by traquair. in the morphology of ganoids, the work of traquair and a. s. woodward takes easily the foremost rank. other important works are those of huxley, cope, a. fritsch, and oliver p. hay. =anatomists.=--still more difficult of enumeration is the long list of those who have studied the anatomy of fishes usually in connection with the comparative anatomy or development of other animals. pre-eminent among these are karl ernst von baer, cuvier, geoffroy st. hilaire, louis agassiz, johannes müller, carl vogt, carl gegenbaur, william kitchen parker, francis m. balfour, thomas henry huxley, meckel, h. rathke, richard owen, kowalevsky, h. stannius, joseph hyrtl, gill, boulenger, and bashford dean. other names of high authority are those of wilhelm his, kölliker, bakker, rosenthal, gottsche, miklucho-macleay, weber, hasse, retzius, owsjannikow, h. müller, stieda, marcusen, j. a. ryder, e. a. andrews, t. h. morgan, g. b. grassi, r. semon, howard ayers, r. r. wright, j. p. mcmurrich, c. o. whitman, a. c. eyclesheimer, e. pallis, jacob reighard, and j. b. johnston. besides all this, there has risen, especially in the united states, great britain, norway, and canada and australia, a vast literature of commercial fisheries, fish culture, and angling, the chief workers in which fields we may not here enumerate even by name. footnotes: [ ] for these paragraphs on the history of the study of fossil fishes the writer is indebted to the kind interest of professor bashford dean. [ ] dr. arthur smith woodward excepted. chapter xxiii the collection of fishes =how to secure fishes.=--in collecting fishes three things are vitally necessary--a keen eye, some skill in adapting means to ends, and some willingness to take pains in the preservation of material. in coming into a new district the collector should try to preserve the first specimen of every species he sees. it may not come up again. he should watch carefully for specimens which look just a little different from their fellows, especially for those which are duller, less striking, or with lower fins. many species have remained unnoticed through generations of collectors who have chosen the handsomest or most ornate specimens. in some groups with striking peculiarities, as the trunkfishes, practically all the species were known to linnæus. no collector could pass them by. on the other hand, new gobies or blennies can be picked up almost every day in the lesser known parts of the world. for these overlooked forms--herrings, anchovies, sculpins, blennies, gobies, scorpion-fishes--the competent collector should be always on the watch. if any specimen looks different from the rest, take it at once and find out the reason why. in most regions the chief dependence of the collector is on the markets and these should be watched most critically. by paying a little more for unusual, neglected, or useless fish, the supply of these will rise to the demand. the word passed along among the people of onomichi in japan, that "ebisu the fish-god was in the village" and would pay more for okose (poison scorpion-fishes) and umiuma (sea-horses) than real fishes were worth soon brought (in ) all sorts of okose and umiuma into the market when they were formerly left neglected on the beach. thus with a little ingenuity the markets in any country can be greatly extended. the collector can, if he thinks best, use all kinds of fishing tackle for himself. in japan he can use the "dabonawa" long lines, and secure the fishes which were otherwise dredged by the _challenger_ and _albatross_. if dredges or trawls are at his hand he can hire them and use them for scientific purposes. he should neglect no kind of bottom, no conditions of fish life which he can reach. especially important is the fauna of the tide-pools, neglected by almost all collectors. as the tide goes down, especially on rocky capes which project into the sea, myriads of little fishes will remain in the rock-pools, the algæ, and the clefts of rock. in regions like california, where the rocks are buried with kelp, blennies will lie in the kelp as quiescent as the branches of the algæ themselves until the flow of water returns. a sharp three-tined fork will help in spearing them. the water in pools can be poisoned on the coast of mexico with the milky juice of the "hava" tree, a tree which yields strychnine. in default of this, pools can be poisoned by chloride of lime, sulphate of copper, or, if small enough, by formaline. of all poisons the commercial chloride of lime seems to be most effective. by such means the contents of the pool can be secured and the next tide carries away the poison. the water in pools can be bailed out, or, better, emptied by a siphon made of small garden-hose or rubber tubing. on rocky shores, dynamite can be used to advantage if the collector or his assistant dare risk it and if the laws of the country do not prevent. most effective in rock-pool work is the help of the small boy. in all lands the collector will do well to take him into his pay and confidence. of the hundred or more new species of rock-pool fishes lately secured by the writer in japan, fully two-thirds were obtained by the japanese boys. equally effective is the "muchacho" on the coasts of mexico. masses of coral, sponges, tunicates, and other porous or hollow organisms often contain small fishes and should be carefully examined. on the coral reefs the breaking up of large masses is often most remunerative. the importance of securing the young of pelagic fishes by tow-nets and otherwise cannot be too strongly emphasized. =how to preserve fishes.=--fishes must be permanently preserved in alcohol. dried skins are far from satisfactory, except as a choice of difficulties in the case of large species. dr. günther thus describes the process of skinning fishes: "scaly fishes are skinned thus: with a strong pair of scissors an incision is made along the median line of the abdomen from the foremost part of the throat, passing on one side of the base of the ventral and anal fins to the root of the caudal fin, the cut, being continued upward to the back of the tail close to the base of the caudal. the skin of one side of the fish is then severed with the scalpel from the underlying muscles to the median line of the back; the bones which support the dorsal and caudal are cut through, so that these fins remain attached to the skin. the removal of the skin of the opposite side is easy. more difficult is the preparation of the head and scapulary region. the two halves of the scapular arch which have been severed from each other by the first incision are pressed toward the right and left, and the spine is severed behind the head, so that now only the head and shoulder bones remain attached to the skin. these parts have to be cleaned from the inside, all soft parts, the branchial and hyoid apparatus, and all smaller bones being cut away with the scissors or scraped off with the scalpel. in many fishes which are provided with a characteristic dental apparatus in the pharynx (labroids, cyprinoids), the pharyngeal bones ought to be preserved and tied with a thread to their specimen. the skin being now prepared so far, its entire inner surface as well as the inner side of the head are rubbed with arsenical soap; cotton-wool or some other soft material is inserted into any cavities or hollows, and finally a thin layer of the same material is placed between the two flaps of the skin. the specimen is then dried under a slight weight to keep it from shrinking. "the scales of some fishes, as for instance of many kinds of herrings, are so delicate and deciduous that the mere handling causes them to rub off easily. such fishes may be covered with thin-paper (tissue paper is the best) which is allowed to dry on them before skinning. there is no need for removing the paper before the specimen has reached its destination. "scaleless fishes, as siluroids and sturgeons, are skinned in the same manner, but the skin can be rolled up over the head; such skins can also be preserved in spirits, in which case the traveler may save to himself the trouble of cleaning the head. "some sharks are known to attain to a length of thirty feet, and some rays to a width of twenty feet. the preservation of such gigantic specimens is much to be recommended, and although the difficulties of preserving fishes increase with their size, the operation is facilitated, because the skins of all sharks and rays can easily be preserved in salt and strong brine. sharks are skinned much in the same way as ordinary fishes. in rays an incision is made not only from the snout to the end of the fleshy part of the tail, but also a second across the widest part of the body. when the skin is removed from the fish, it is placed into a cask with strong brine mixed with alum, the head occupying the upper part of the cask; this is necessary, because this part is most likely to show signs of decomposition, and therefore most requires supervision. when the preserving fluid has become decidedly weaker from the extracted blood and water, it is thrown away and replaced by fresh brine. after a week's or fortnight's soaking the skin is taken out of the cask to allow the fluid to drain off; its inner side is covered with a thin layer of salt, and after being rolled up (the head being inside) it is packed in a cask the bottom of which is covered with salt; all the interstices and the top are likewise filled with salt. the cask must be perfectly water-tight." =value of formalin.=--in the field it is much better to use formalin (formaldehyde) in preference to alcohol. this is an antiseptic fluid dissolved in water, and it at once arrests decay, leaving the specimen as though preserved in water. if left too long in formalin fishes swell, the bones are softened, and the specimens become brittle or even worthless. but for ordinary purposes (except use as skeleton) no harm arises from two or three months' saturation in formalin. the commercial formalin can be mixed with about twenty parts of water. on the whole it is better to have the solution too weak rather than too strong. too much formalin makes the specimens stiff, swollen, and intractable, besides too soon destroying the color. formalin has the advantage, in collecting, of cheapness and of ease in transportation, as a single small bottle will make a large amount of the fluid. the specimens also require much less attention. an incision should be made in the (right) side of the abdomen to let in the fluid. the specimen can then be placed in formalin. when saturated, in the course of the day, it can be wrapped in a cloth, packed in an empty petroleum can, and at once shipped. the wide use of petroleum in all parts of the world is a great boon to the naturalist. before preservation, the fishes should be washed, to remove slime and dirt. they should have an incision to let the fluid into the body cavity and an injection with a syringe is a useful help to saturation, especially with large fishes. even decaying fishes can be saved with formalin. =records of fishes.=--the collector should mark localities most carefully with tin tags and note-book records if possible. he should, so far as possible, keep records of life colors, and water-color sketches are of great assistance in this matter. in spirits or formalin the life colors soon fade, although the pattern of marking is usually preserved or at least indicated. a mixture of formalin and alcohol is favorable to the preservation of markings. in the museum all specimens should be removed at once from formalin to alcohol. no substitute for alcohol as a permanent preservative has been found. the spirits derived from wine, grain, or sugar is much preferable to the poisonous methyl or wood alcohol. in placing specimens directly into alcohol, care should be taken not to crowd them too much. the fish yields water which dilutes the spirit. for the same reason, spirits too dilute are ineffective. on the other hand, delicate fishes put into very strong alcohol are likely to shrivel, a condition which may prevent an accurate study of their fins or other structures. it is usually necessary to change a fish from the first alcohol used as a bath into stronger alcohol in the course of a few days, the time depending on the closeness with which fishes are packed. in the tropics, fishes in alcohol often require attention within a few hours. in formalin there is much less difficulty with tropical fishes. fishes intended for skeletons should never be placed in formalin. a softening of the bones which prevents future exact studies of the bones is sure to take place. generally alcohol or other spirits (arrack, brandy, cognac, rum, sake "vino") can be tested with a match. if sufficiently concentrated to be ignited, they can be safely used for preservation of fishes. the best test is that of the hydrometer. spirits for permanent use should show on the hydrometer to above proof. decaying specimens show it by color and smell and the collector should be alive to their condition. one rotting fish may endanger many others. with alcohol it is necessary to take especial pains to ensure immediate saturation. deep cuts should be made into the muscles of large fishes as well as into the body cavity. sometimes a small distilling apparatus is useful to redistil impure or dilute alcohol. the use of formalin avoids this necessity. small fishes should not be packed with large ones; small bottles are very desirable for their preservation. all spinous or scaly fishes should be so wrapped in cotton muslin as to prevent all friction. =eternal vigilance.=--the methods of treating individual groups of fishes and of handling them under different climatic and other conditions are matters to be learned by experience. eternal vigilance is the price of a good collection, as it is said to be of some other good things. mechanical collecting--picking up the thing got without effort and putting it in alcohol without further thought--rarely serves any useful end in science. the best collectors are usually the best naturalists. the collections made by the men who are to study them and who are competent to do so are the ones which most help the progress of ichthyology. the student of a group of fishes misses half the collection teaches if he has made no part of it himself. chapter xxiv the evolution of fishes =the geological distribution of fishes.=--the oldest unquestioned remains of fishes have been very recently made known by mr. charles d. walcott, from rocks of the trenton period in the ordovician or lower silurian. these are from cañon city in colorado. among these is certainly a small ostracophore (_asteraspis desideratus_). with it are fragments (_dictyorhabdus_) thought to be the back-bone of a chimæra, but more likely, in dean's view, the axis of a cephalopod, besides bony, wrinkled scales, referred with doubt to a supposed crossopterygian genus called _eriptychius_. this renders certain the existence of _ostracophores_ at this early period, but their association with _chimæras_ and crossopterygians is questionable. primitive sharks may have existed in ordovician times, but thus far no trace of them has been found. [illustration: fig. .--fragment of sandstone from ordovician deposits, cañon city, colo., showing fragments of scales, etc., the earliest known traces of vertebrates. (from nature.)] the fish-remains next in age in america are from the bloomfield sandstone in pennsylvania of the onondaga period in the upper silurian. the earliest in europe are found in the ludlow shales, both of these localities being in or near the horizon of the niagara rocks, in the upper silurian age. it is, however, certain that these lower silurian remains do not represent the beginning of fish-life. probably _ostracophores_, and _arthrodires_, with perhaps crossopterygians and dipnoans, existed at an earlier period, together perhaps with unarmed, limbless forms without jaws, of which no trace whatever has been left. [illustration: fig. .--fossil fish remains from ordovician rocks, cañon city, colo. (after walcott.) _a._ scale of _eriptychius americanus_ walcott. family _holoptychiidæ?_ _b._ dermal plate of _asteraspis desideratus_ walcott. family _asterolepidæ_. _c._ _dictyorhabdus priscus_ walcott, a fragment of uncertain nature, thought to be a chordal sheath of a chimæra, but probably part of a cephalopod (dean). _chimæridæ?_] =the earliest sharks.=--the first actual trace of sharks is found in the upper silurian in the form of fin-spines (_onchus_), thought to belong to primitive sharks, perhaps acanthodeans possibly to ostracophores. with these are numerous bony shields of the mailed ostracophores, and somewhat later those of the more highly specialized arthrodires. later appear the teeth of _cochliodontidæ_, with chimæras, a few dipnoans, and crossopterygians. =devonian fishes.=--in the devonian age the _ostracophores_ increase in size and abundance, disappearing with the beginning of the carboniferous. the arthrodires also increase greatly in variety and in size, reaching their culmination in the devonian, but not disappearing entirely until well in the carboniferous. these two groups (often united by geologists under the older name placoderms) together with sharks and a few chimæras made up almost exclusively the rich fish-fauna of devonian times. the sharks were chiefly acanthodean and psammodont, as far as our records show. the supposed more primitive type of _cladoselache_ is not known to appear before the latter part of the devonian age, while _pleuracanthus_ and _cladodus_, sometimes regarded as still more primitive, are as yet found only in the carboniferous. it is clear that the records of early shark life are still incomplete, whatever view we may adopt as to the relative rank of the different forms. chimæroids occur in the devonian, and with them a considerable variety of crossopterygians and dipnoans. the true fishes appear also in the devonian in the guise of the ganoid ancestors and relatives of _palæoniscum_, all with diamond-shaped enameled scales. in the devonian, too, we find the minute creature _palæospondylus_, our ignorance of which is concealed under the name _cycliæ_. =carboniferous fishes.=--in the carboniferous age the sharks increase in number and variety, the ostracophores disappear, and the arthrodires follow them soon after, the last being recorded from the permian. other forms of dipnoans, crossopterygians, and some ganoids now appear giving the fauna a somewhat more modern aspect. the _acanthodei_ and the _ichthyotomi_ pass away with the permian, the latest period of the carboniferous age. [illustration: fig. .--_dipterus valenciennesi_ agassiz, a dipnoan. (after dean, from woodward.)] =mesozoic fishes.=--in the triassic period which follows the permian, the earliest types of ganoids give place to forms approaching the garpike and sturgeon. the crossopterygians rapidly decline. the dipnoans are less varied and fewer in number; the primitive sharks, with the exception of certain cestracionts, all disappear, only the family of _orodontidæ_ remaining. here are found the first true bony fishes, doubtless derived from ganoid stock, the allies and predecessors of the great group of herrings. herring-like forms become more numerous in the jurassic, and with them appear other forms which give the fish-fauna of this period something of a modern appearance. in the jurassic the sharks become divided into several groups, _notidani_, scyllioid sharks, lamnoid sharks, angel-fishes, skates, and finally carcharioid sharks being now well differentiated. chimæras are still numerous. the _acanthodei_ have passed away, as well as the mailed ostrachopores and arthrodires. the dipnoans and crossopterygians are few. the early ganoids have given place to more modern types, still in great abundance and variety. this condition continues in the cretaceous period. here the rays and modern sharks increase in number, the ganoids hold their own, and the other groups of soft-rayed fishes, as the smelts, the lantern-fishes, the pikes, the flying-fishes, the berycoids and the mackerels join the group of herring-like forms which represent the modern bony fishes. in the cretaceous appear the first spiny-rayed fishes, derived probably from herring-like forms. these are allies or ancestors of the living genus _beryx_. [illustration: fig. .--_hoplopteryx lewesiensis_ (mantell), restored. english cretaceous. family _berycidæ_. (after woodward.)] dr. woodward observes: "as soon as fishes with a completely osseous endoskeleton began to predominate at the dawn of the cretaceous period, specializations of an entirely new kind were rapidly acquired. until this time the skull of the actinopterygii had always been remarkably uniform in type. the otic region of the cranium often remained incompletely ossified and was never prominent or projecting beyond the roof bones; the supraoccipital bone was always small and covered with the superficial plates; the maxilla invariably formed the greater part of the upper jaw; the cheek-plates were large and usually thick; while none of the head or opercular bones were provided with spines or ridges. the pelvic fins always retained their primitive remote situation, and the fin-rays never became spines. during the cretaceous period the majority of the bony fishes began to exhibit modifications in all these characters, and the changes occurred so rapidly that by the dawn of the eocene period the diversity observable in the dominant fish-fauna was much greater than it had ever been before. at this remote period, indeed, nearly all the great groups of bony fishes, as represented in the existing world, were already differentiated, and their subsequent modifications have been quite of a minor character." [illustration: fig. .--a living berycoid fish, _paratrachichthys prosthemius_ jordan & fowler. misaki, japan. family _berycidæ_.] [illustration: fig. .--flying-fish, _cypsilurus heterurus_ (rafinesque). family _exocætidæ_ woods hole, mass.] [illustration: fig. .--the schoolmaster snapper, a perch-like fish. family _lutianidæ_. key west.] =tertiary fishes.=--with the eocene or first period of the tertiary great changes have taken place. the early families of bony fishes nearly all disappear. the herring, pike, smelt, salmon, flying-fish, and berycoids remain, and a multitude of other forms seem to spring into sudden existence. among these are the globefishes, the trigger-fishes, the catfishes, the eels, the morays, the butterfly-fishes, the porgies, the perch, the bass, the pipefishes, the trumpet-fishes, the mackerels, and the john-dories, with the sculpins, the anglers, the flounders, the blennies, and the cods. that all these groups, generalized and specialized, arose at once is impossible, although all seem to date from the eocene times. doubtless each of them had its origin at an earlier period, and the simultaneous appearance is related to the fact of the thorough study of the eocene shales, which have in numerous localities (london, monte bolca, licata, mount lebanon, green river) been especially favorable for the preservation of these forms. practically fossil fishes have been thoroughly studied as yet only in a very few parts of the earth. the rocks of scotland, england, germany, italy, switzerland, syria, ohio, and wyoming have furnished the great bulk of all the fish remains in existence. in some regions perhaps collections will be made which will give us a more just conception of the origin of the different groups of bony fishes. we can now only say with certainty that the modern families were largely existent in the eocene, that they sprang from ganoid stock found in the triassic and jurassic, that several of them were represented in the cretaceous also, that the berycoids were earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes, and forms allied to herring the earliest of the soft-rayed forms. few modern families arose before the cretaceous. few of the modern genera go back to the eocene, many of them arose in the miocene, and few species have come down to us from rocks older than the end of the pliocene. the general modern type of the fish-faunas being determined in the latter eocene and the miocene, the changes which bring us to recent times have largely concerned the abundance and variety of the individual species. from geological distribution we have arising the varied problems of geographical distribution and the still more complex conditions on which depend the extinction of species and of types. [illustration: fig. .--decurrent flounder, _pleuronichthys decurrens_ jordan & gilbert. san francisco.] =factors of extinction.=--these factors of extinction have been recently formulated as follows by professor herbert osborn. he considers the process of extinction as of five different types: "( ) that extinction which comes from modification or progressive evolution, a relegation to the past as a result of the transmutation into more advanced forms. ( ) extinction from changes of physical environment which outrun the powers of adaptation. ( ) the extinction which results from competition. ( ) the extinction which results from extreme specialization and limitation to special conditions the loss of which means extinction. ( ) extinction as a result of exhaustion." =fossilization of a fish.=--when a fish dies he leaves no friends. his body is at once attacked by hundreds of creatures ranging from the one-celled protozoa and bacteria to individuals of his own species. his flesh is devoured, his bones are scattered, the gelatinous substance in them decays, and the phosphate of lime is in time dissolved in the water. for this reason few fishes of the millions which die each year leave any trace for future preservation. at the most a few teeth, a fin-spine, or a bone buried in the clay might remain intact or in such condition as to be recognized. but now and then it happens that a dead fish may fall in more fortunate conditions. on a sea bottom of fine clay the bones, or even the whole body, may be buried in such a way as to be sealed up and protected from total decomposition. the flesh will usually disappear and leave no mark or at the most a mere cast of its surface. but the hard parts, even the muscles may persist, and now and then they do persist, the salts of lime unchanged or else silicified or subjected to some other form of chemical substitution. only the scales, the teeth, the bones, the spines, and the fin-rays can be preserved in the rocks of sea or lake bottom. in a few localities, as near green river in wyoming, monte bolca, near verona, and mount lebanon in syria, the london clays, with certain quarries in scotland and lithographic stones in germany, many skeletons of fishes have been found pressed flat in layers of very fine rock, their structures traced as delicately as if actually drawn on the smooth stone. fragments preserved in ruder fashion abound in the clays and even the sandstones of the earliest geologic ages. in most cases, however, fossil fishes are known from detached and scattered fragments, many of them, especially of the sharks, by the teeth alone. fishes have occurred in all ages from the silurian to the present time and probably the very first lived long before the silurian. =the earliest fishes.=--no one can say what the earliest fishes were like, nor do we know what was their real relation to the worm-like forms among which men have sought their presumable ancestors, nor to the tunicates and other chordate forms, not fish-like, but still degenerate relatives of the primeval fish. from analogy we may suppose that the first fishes which ever were bore some resemblance to the lancelet, for that is a fish-like creature with every structure reduced to the lowest terms. but as the lancelet has no hard parts, no bones, nor teeth, nor scales, nor fins, no traces of its kind are found among the fossils. if the primitive fish was like it in important respects, all record of this has probably vanished from the earth. =the cyclostomes.=--the next group of living fishes, the cyclostomes, including the hagfishes and lampreys,--fishes with small skull and brain but without limbs or jaws,--stands at a great distance above the lancelet in complexity of structure, and equally far from the true fishes in its primitive simplicity. in fact the lamprey is farther from the true fish in structure than a perch is from an eagle. yet for all that it may be an offshoot from the primitive line of fish descent. there is not much in the structure of the lamprey which may be preserved in the rocks. but the cartilaginous skull, the back-bone, fins, and teeth might leave their traces in soft clay or lithographic stone. but it is certain that they have not done so in any rocks yet explored, and it may be that the few existing lampreys owe their form and structure to a process of degradation from a more complex and more fish-like ancestry. the supposed lamprey fossil of the devonian of scotland, _palæospondylus_, has little in common with the true lampreys. =the ostracophores.=--besides the lampreys the devonian seas swarmed with mysterious creatures covered with an armor of plate, fish-like in some regards, but limbless, without true jaws and very different from the true fishes of to-day. these are called ostracophori, and some have regarded them as mailed lampreys, but they are more likely to be a degenerate or eccentric offshoot from the sharks, as highly modified or specialized lampreys, a side offshoot which has left no descendants among recent forms. recently professor patten has insisted that the resemblance of their head-plates to those of the horseshoe crab (_limulus_) is indicative of real affinity. among these forms in mail-armor are some in which the jointed and movable angles of the head suggest the pectoral spines of some catfishes. but in spite of its resemblance to a fin, the spine in _pterichthyodes_ is an outgrowth of the ossified skin and has no more homology with the spines of fishes than the mailed plates have with the bones of a fish's cranium. in none of these fishes has any trace of an internal skeleton been found. it must have retained its primitive gelatinous character. there are, however, some traces of eyes, and the mucous channels of the lateral line indicate that these creatures possessed some other special senses. [illustration: fig. .--an ostracophore, _cephalaspis lyelli_ agassiz, restored. devonian. (after agassiz, per dean.)] whatever the ostracophores may be, they should not be included within the much-abused term _ganoidei_, a word which was once used in the widest fashion for all sorts of mailed fishes, but little by little restricted to the hard-scaled relatives and ancestors of the garpike of to-day. =the arthrodires.=--dimly seen in the vast darkness of paleozoic time are the huge creatures known as arthrodires. these are mailed and helmeted fishes, limbless so far as we know, but with sharp, notched, turtle-like jaws quite different from those of the fish or those of any animal alive to-day. these creatures appear in silurian rocks and are especially abundant in the fossil beds of ohio, where newberry, claypole, eastman, dean and others have patiently studied the broken fragments of their armor. most of them have a great casque on the head with a shield at the neck and a movable joint connecting the two. among them was almost every variation in size and form. [illustration: fig. .--an arthrodire, _dinichthys intermedius_ newberry, restored. devonian, ohio. (family after dean.)] these creatures have been often called ganoids, but with the true ganoids like the garpike they have seemingly nothing in common. they are also different from the ostracophores. to regard them with woodward as derived from ancestral dipnoans is to give a possible guess as to their origin, and a very unsatisfactory guess at that. in any event these have all passed away in competition with the scaly fishes and sharks of later evolution, and it seems certain that they, like the mailed ostracophores, have left no descendants. =the sharks.=--next after the lampreys, but a long way after them in structure, come the sharks. with the sharks appear for the first time true limbs and the lower jaw. the upper jaw is, however, formed from the palate, and the shoulder-girdle is attached behind the skull. "little is known," says professor dean, "of the primitive stem of the sharks, and even the lines of descent of the different members of the group can only be generally suggested. the development of recent forms has yielded few results of undoubted value to the phylogenist. it would appear as if paleontology alone could solve the puzzles of their descent." of the very earliest sharks in the upper silurian age the remains are too scanty to prove much save that there were sharks in abundance and variety. spines, teeth, fragments of shagreen, show that in some regards these forms were highly specialized. in the carboniferous age the sharks became highly varied and extensively specialized. of the paleozoic types, however, all but a single family seems to have died out, leaving cestraciontes only in the permian and triassic. from these the modern sharks one and all may very likely have descended. =origin of the sharks.=--perhaps the sharks are developed from the still more primitive shark imagined as without limbs and with the teeth slowly formed from modification of the ordinary shagreen prickles. in determining the earliest among the several primitive types of shark actually known we are stopped by an undetermined question of theory. what is the origin of paired limbs? are these formed, like the unpaired fins, from the breaking up of a continuous fold of skin, in accordance with the view of balfour and others? or is the primitive limb, as supposed by gegenbaur, a modification of the bony gill-arch? or again, as supposed by kerr, is it a modification of the hard axis of an external gill? if we adopt the views of gegenbaur or kerr, the earliest type of limb is the jointed _archipterygium_, a series of consecutive rounded cartilaginous elements with a fringe of rays along its length. sharks possessing this form of limb (_ichthyotomi_) appear in the carboniferous rocks, but are not known earlier. it may be that from these the dipnoans, on the one hand, may be descended and, on the other, the true sharks and the chimæras; but there is no certainty that the jointed arm or archipterygium of the dipnoans is derived from the similar pectoral fin of the _ichthyotomi_. on the other hand, if we regard the paired fins as parts of a lateral fold of skin, we find primitive sharks to bear out our conclusions. in _cladoselache_ of the upper devonian, the pectoral and the ventral fins are long and low, and arranged just as they might be if balfour's theory were true. _acanthoessus_, with a spine in each paired fin and no other rays, might be a specialization of this type or fin, and _climatius_, with rows of spines in place of pectorals and ventrals, might be held to bear out the same idea. in all these the tail is less primitive than in the _ichthyotomi_. on the other hand, the vent in _cladoselache_ is thought by dean to have been near the end of the tail. if this is the case, it should indicate a very primitive character. on the whole, though there is much to be said in favor of the primitive nature of the _ichthyotomi_ (_pleuracanthus_) with the tapering tail and jointed pectoral fin of a dipnoan, and other traits of a shark, yet, on the whole, _cladoselache_ is probably nearer the origin of the shark-like forms. the relatively primitive sharks called _notidani_ have the weakly ossified vertebræ joined together in pairs and there are six or seven gill-openings. this group has persisted to our day, the frilled shark (_chlamydoselachus_) and the genera _hexanchus_ and _heptranchias_ still showing its archaic characters. here the sharks diverge into two groups, the one with the vertebræ better developed and its calcareous matter arranged star-fashion. this forms hasse's group of _asterospondyli_, the typical sharks. the earliest forms (_orodontidæ_, _heterodontidæ_) approach the _notidani_, and so far as geological records go, precede all the other modern sharks. one such ancient type, _heterodontus_, including the bullhead shark, and the port jackson shark, still persists. the others diverge to form the three chief groups of the cat-sharks (_scyliorhinus_, etc.), the mackerel-sharks (_lamna_, etc.), and the true sharks (_carcharhias_, etc.). [illustration: fig. .--mackerel-shark or salmon-shark, _lamna cornubica_ (gmelin). santa barbara, cal.] in the second group the vertebræ have their calcareous matter arranged in rings, one or more about the notochordal center. in all these the anal fin is absent, and in the process of specialization the shark gradually gives place to the flattened body and broad fins of the ray. this group is called _tectospondyli_. those sharks of this group with one ring of calcareous matter in each vertebra constitute the most primitive extreme of a group representing continuous evolution. from _cladoselache_ and _chlamydoselachus_ through the sharks to the rays we have an almost continuous series which reaches its highest development in the devil rays or mantas of the tropical seas, _manta_ and _mobula_ being the most specialized genera and among the very largest of the fishes. however different the rays and skates may appear in form and habit, they are structurally similar to the sharks and have sprung from the main shark stem. [illustration: fig. .--star-spined ray, _raja stellulata_ jordan & gilbert. monterey, cal.] =the chimæras.=--the most ancient offshoot from the shark stem, perhaps dating from silurian times and possibly separated at a period earlier than the date of any known shark, is the group of _holocephali_ or chimæras, shark-like in essentials, but differing widely in details. of these there are but few living forms and the fossil types are known only from dental plates and fin-spines. the living forms are found in the deeper seas the world over, one of the simplest in structure being the newly discovered _rhinochimæra_ of japan. the fusion of the teeth into overlapping plates, the covering of the gills by a dermal flap, the complete union of the palato-quadrate apparatus or upper jaw with the skull and the development of a peculiar clasping spine on the forehead of the male are characteristic of the chimæras. the group is one of the most ancient, but it ends with itself, none of the modern fishes being derived from chimæras. [illustration: fig. .--a deep-sea chimæra, _harriotta raleighiana_ goode & bean. gulf stream.] [illustration: fig. .--an extinct dipnoan, _dipterus valenciennesi_ agassiz. devonian. (after pander.)] =the dipnoans.=--the most important offshoot of the primitive sharks is not the chimæras, nor even the shark series itself, but the groups of crossopterygians and dipnoans, or lung-fishes, with the long chain of their descendants. with the dipnoan appears the lung or air-bladder, at first an outgrowth from the ventral side of the oesophagus, as it still is in all higher animals, but later turning over, among fishes, and springing from the dorsal side. at first an arrangement for breathing air, a sort of accessory gill, it becomes the sole organs of respiration in the higher forms, while in the bony fishes its respiratory function is lost altogether. the air-bladder is a degenerate lung. in the dipnoans the shoulder-girdle moves forward to the skull, and the pectoral limb, a jointed and fringed archipterygium, is its characteristic appendage. the shark-like structure of the mouth remains. the few living lung-fishes resemble the salamanders in many regards, and some writers have ranged the class as midway between the primitive sharks and the amphibians. these forms show their intermediate characters in the development of lungs and in the primitive character of the pectoral and ventral limbs. those now extant give but little idea of the great variety of extinct dipnoans. the living genera are three in number--_neoceratodus_ in australian rivers, _lepidosiren_ in the amazon, and _protopterus_ in the nile. these are all mudfishes, some of them living through most of the dry season encased in a cocoon of dried mud. of these forms _neoceratodus_ is certainly the nearest to the ancient forms, but its embryology, owing to the shortening of its growth stages due to its environment, has thrown little light on the question of its ancestry. from some ally of the dipnoans the ancestry of the amphibians, and through them that of the reptiles, birds, and mammals may be traced, although a good deal of evidence has been produced in favor of regarding the primitive crossopterygian or fringe fin as the point of divergence. it is not unlikely that the crossopterygian gave rise to amphibian and dipnoan alike. in the process of development we next reach the characteristic fish mouth in which the upper jaw is formed of maxillary and premaxillary elements distinct from the skull. the upper jaw of the shark is part of the palate, the palate being fused with the quadrate bone which supports the lower jaw. that of the dipnoan is much the same. the development of a typical fish mouth is the next step in evolution, and with its appearance we note the decline of the air-bladder in size and function. =the crossopterygians.=--the fish-like mouth appears with the group of crossopterygians, fishes which still retain the old-fashioned type of pectoral and ventral fin, the archipterygium. in the archaic tail, enameled scales, and cartilaginous skeleton the crossopterygian shows its affinity with its dipnoan ancestry. thus these fishes unite in themselves traits of the shark, lung-fish, and ganoid. the few living crossopterygians, _polypterus_ and _erpetoichthys_, are not very different from those which prevailed in devonian times. the larvæ possess external gills with firm base and fringe-like rays, suggesting a resemblance to the pectoral fin itself, which develops from the shoulder-girdle just below it and would seem to give some force to kerr's contention that the archipterygium is only a modified external gill. in _polypterus_ the archipterygium has become short and fan-shaped, its axis made of two diverging bones with flat cartilage between. from this type it is thought that the arm of the higher forms has been developed. the bony basis may be the humerus, from which diverge radius and ulna, the carpal bones being formed of the intervening cartilage. [illustration: fig. .--an extinct crossopterygian, _holoptychius giganteus_ agassiz ( ). (after agassiz, per zittel.)] =the actinopteri.=--from the crossopterygians springs the main branch of the true fishes, known collectively as _actinopteri_, or ray-fins, those with ordinary rays on the paired fins instead of the jointed archipterygium. the transitional series of primitive _actinopteri_ are usually known as ganoids. the ganoid differs from the crossopterygian in having the basal elements of the paired fins small and concealed within the flesh. but other associated characters of the crossopterygii and dipnoans are preserved in most of the species. among these are the mailed head and body, the heterocercal tail, the cellular air-bladder, the presence of valves in the arterial bulb, the presence of a spiral valve in the intestine and of a chiasma in the optic nerves. all these characters are found in the earlier types so far as is known, and all are more or less completely lost or altered in the teleosts or bony fishes. among these early types is every variety of form, some of them being almost as long as deep, others arrow-shaped, and every intermediate form being represented. an offshoot from this line is the bowfin (_amia calva_), among the ganoids the closest living ally of the bony fishes, showing distinct affinities with the great group to which the herring and salmon belong. near relatives of the bowfin flourished in the mesozoic, among them some with a forked tail, and some with a very long one. from ganoids of this type the vast majority of recent fishes may be descended. [illustration: fig. .--an ancient ganoid fish, _platysomus gibbosus_ blainville. family _platysomidæ_. (after woodward.)] [illustration: fig. .--a living ganoid fish, the short-nosed gar, _lepisosteus platystomus_ rafinesque. lake erie.] another branch of ganoids, divergent from both garfish and bowfin and not recently from the same primitive stock, included the sturgeons (_acipenser_, _scaphirhynchus_, _kessleria_) and the paddle-fishes (_polyodon_ and _psephurus_). all these are regarded by woodward as degenerate descendants of the earliest ganoids, _palæoniscidæ_, of devonian and carboniferous time. [illustration: fig. .--a primitive ganoid fish, _palæoniscum macropomum_ (agassiz), restored. permian. family _potaconiscidæ_. (after traquair.)] [illustration: fig. .--a fossil herring, _diplomystus humilis_ leidy. (from a specimen obtained at green river, wyo.) the scutes along the back lost in the specimen. family _clupeidæ_.] =the bony fishes.=--all the remaining fishes have ossified instead of cartilaginous skeletons. the dipnoan and ganoid traits one by one are more or less completely lost. through these the main line of fish development continues and the various groups are known collectively as bony fishes or teleosts. [illustration: fig. .--a primitive herring-like fish, _holcolepis lewesiensis_ mantell, restored. family _elopidæ_. english chalk. (after woodward.)] [illustration: fig. .--ten-pounder, _elops saurus_ l. an ally of the earliest bony fishes. virginia.] the earliest of the true bony fishes or teleosts appear in mesozoic times, the most primitive forms being soft-rayed fishes with the vertebræ all similar in form, allied more or less remotely to the herring of to-day, but connected in an almost unbroken series with the earliest ganoid forms. in these and other soft-rayed fishes the pelvis still retains its posterior insertion, the ventral fins being said to be abdominal. the next great stage in evolution brings the pelvis forward, attaching it to the shoulder-girdle so that the ventral fins are now thoracic as in the perch and bass. if brought to a point in front of the pectoral fins, a feature of specialized degradation, they become jugular as in the codfish. in the abdominal fishes the air-bladder still retains its rudimentary duct joining it to the oesophagus. from the abdominal forms allied to the herring, the huge array of modern fishes, typified by the perch, the bass, the mackerel, the wrasse, the globefish, the sculpin, the sea-horse, and the cod descended in many diverging lines. the earliest of the spine-rayed fishes with thoracic fins belong to the type of _berycidæ_, a group characterized by rough scales, the retention of a primitive bone between the eyes, and the retention of the primitive larger number of ventral rays. these appear in the cretaceous or chalk deposits, and show various attributes of transition from the abdominal to the thoracic type of ventrals. [illustration: fig. .--cardinal-fish, a perch-like fish, _apogon semilineatus_ schlegel. misaki, japan.] [illustration: fig. .--summer herring, _pomolobus æstivalis_ (mitchill). potomac river. family _clupeidæ_.] another line of descent apparently distinct from that of the herring and salmon extends through the characins to the loach, carps, catfishes, and electric eel. the fishes of this series have the anterior vertebræ coossified and modified in connection with the hearing organ, a structure not appearing elsewhere among fishes. this group includes the majority of fresh-water fishes. still another great group, the eels, have lost the ventral fins and the bones of the head have suffered much degradation. [illustration: fig. .--fish with jugular ventral fins, _bassozetus catena_ goode & bean. family _brotulidæ_. gulf stream.] [illustration: fig. .--a specialized bony fish, _trachicephalus uranoscopus_. family _scorpænidæ_. from swatow, china.] the most highly developed fishes, all things considered, are doubtless the allies of the perch, bass, and sculpin. these fishes have lost the air-duct and on the whole they show the greatest development of the greatest number of structures. in these groups their traits one after another are carried to an extreme and these stages of extreme specialization give way one after another to phases of degeneration. the specialization of one organ usually involves degeneration of some other. extreme specialization of any organ tends to render it useless under other conditions and may be one step toward its final degradation. [illustration: fig. .--an african catfish, _chlarias breviceps_ boulenger. congo river. family _chlariidæ_. (after boulenger.)] [illustration: fig. .--silverfin, _notropis whipplii_ (girard). white river, indiana. family _cyprinidæ_.] we have thus seen, in hasty review, that the fish-like vertebrates spring from an unknown and possibly worm-like stock, that from this stock, before it became vertebrate, degenerate branches have fallen off, represented to-day by the _tunicates_ and _enteropneustans_. we have seen that the primitive vertebrate was headless and limbless and without hard parts. the lancelet remains as a possible direct offshoot from it; the cyclostome with brain and skull is a possible derivative from archaic lancelets. the earliest fishes leaving traces in the rocks were mailed ostracophores. from an unknown but possibly lamprey-like stock sprang the sharks and chimæras. the sharks developed into rays in one right line and into the highest sharks along another, while by a side branch through lost stages the primitive sharks passed into crossopterygians, into dipnoans, or lung-fishes, and perhaps into ostracophores. all these types and others abound in the devonian age and the early records were lost in the silurian. from the crossopterygians or their ancestors or descendants by the specialization of the lung and limbs, the land animals, at first amphibians, after these reptiles, birds, and mammals, arose. [illustration: fig. .--moray, _gymnothorax moringa_ bloch. family _murænidæ_ tortugas.] [illustration: fig. .--amber-fish, _seriola lalandi_ (cuv. & val.). family _carangidæ_. woods hole.] in the sea, by a line still more direct, through the gradual emphasis of fish-like characters, we find developed the crossopterygians with archaic limbs and after these the ganoids with fish-like limbs but otherwise archaic; then the soft-rayed and finally the spiny-rayed bony fishes, herring, mackerel, perch, which culminate in specialized and often degraded types, as the anglers, globefishes, parrot-fishes, and flying gurnards; and from each of the ultimate lines of descent radiate infinite branches till the sea and rivers are filled, and almost every body of water has fishes fitted to its environment. [illustration: geological distribution of the families of elasmobranchs. a=pliocene b=miocene c=eocene d=cretaceous e=jurassic f=triassic g=permian h=coal measures i=sub-carbonifero j=devonian k=silurian l=ordovician +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ |a|b|c|d|e|f|g|h|i|j|k|l| |-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-| cladoselachidæ | | | | | | | | |x|x| | | acanthodii | | | | | | |x|x|x|x| | | pleuracanthidæ | | | | | | |x|x|x|x| | | cladodontidæ | | | | | | |x|x|x|x| | | petalodontidæ | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | | psammodontidæ | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | cochliodontidæ | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | orodontidæ | | | | | | | |x|x| | | | heterodontidæ |x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | tamiobatidæ | | | | | | | | | |x| | | hexanchidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | lamnidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | mitsukurinidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | odontaspidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | scyliorhinidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | carchariidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | squalidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | dalatiidæ |x|x|x| | | | | | | | | | squatinidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | rhinobatidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | pristididæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | rajidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | narcobatidæ |x|x|x| | | | | | | | | | dasyatidæ |x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | | myliobatidæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | ptychodontidæ | | | |x| | | | | | | | | chimæridæ |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | |] chapter xxv the protochordata =the chordate animals.=--referring to our metaphor of the tree with its twigs as used in the chapter on classification we find the fishes with the higher vertebrates as parts of a great branch from which the lower twigs have mostly perished. this great branch, phylum, or line of descent is known in zoology as _chordata_, and the organisms associated with it or composing it are chordate animals. the chordate animals are those which at some stage of life possess a notochord or primitive dorsal cartilage which divides the interior of the body into two cavities. the dorsal cavity contains the great nerve centers or spinal cord; the ventral cavity contains the heart and alimentary canal. in all other animals which possess a body cavity, there is no division by a notochord, and the ganglia of the nervous system if existing are placed on the ventral side or in a ring about the mouth. =the protochordates.=--modern researches have shown that besides the ordinary back-boned animals certain other creatures easily to be mistaken for mollusks or worms and being chordate in structure must be regarded as offshoots from the vertebrate branch. these are degenerate allies, as is shown by the fact that their vertebrate traits are shown in their early or larval development and scarcely at all in their adult condition. as dr. john sterling kingsley has well said: "many of the species start in life with the promise of reaching a point high in the scale, but after a while they turn around and, as one might say, pursue a downward course, which results in an adult which displays but few resemblances to the other vertebrates." in the tunicates or ascidians (sea-squirts, sea-pears, and salpas), which constitute the class known as _tunicata_ or _urochordata_, there is no brain, the notochord is confined to the tail and is usually present only in the larval stage of the animal when it has the form of a tadpole. in later life the animal usually becomes quiescent, attached to some hard object, fixed or floating. it loses its form and has the appearance of a hollow, leathery sac, the body organs being developed in a tough tunic. there are numerous families of tunicates and the species are found in nearly all seas. they suggest no resemblance to fishes and look like tough clams without shells. the internal cavity being usually filled with water it is squirted out through the two apertures when the animal is handled. the class _enteropneusta_ (_adelochorda_, or _hemichordata_), includes the rather rare worm-like forms related to _balanoglossus_. bateson has shown that these animals possess a notochord which is developed in the anterior part of the body. they have no fins and before the mouth is a long proboscis. gill-slits are found in the larval tunicate. in _balanoglossus_ these persist through life as in the fishes. the remaining chordate forms constitute the vertebrates proper, not worm-like nor mollusk-like, the notochord not disappearing with age, except as it gives way, by specialized segmentation to the complex structures of the vertebral column. these vertebrates, which are permanently aquatic, are known in a popular sense as fishes. the fish, in the broad sense, is a back-boned animal which retains the homologue of the back-bone throughout life, which does not develop jointed limbs, its locomotive members, if present, being developed as fins, and which breathes through life the air contained in water by means of gills. this definition excludes the tunicates and enteropneusta on the one hand and the amphibia or batrachia with the reptiles, birds, and mammals on the other. the amphibia are much more closely related to certain fishes than the classes of fishes are to each other. still for purposes of systematic study, the frogs and salamanders are left out of the domain of ichthyology, while the tunicata and the enteropneusta might well be included in it. the known branchiferous or gill-bearing chordates living and extinct may be first divided into eight classes--the _enteropneusta_, the _tunicata_, the _leptocardii_, or lancelets, the _cyclostomi_, or lampreys, the _elasmobranchii_, or sharks, the _ostracophori_ the _arthrodira_, and the _teleostomi_, or true fishes. the first two groups, being very primitive and in no respect fish-like in appearance, are sometimes grouped together as _protochordata_, the others with the higher chordates constituting the _vertebrata_. =other terms used in classification.=--the leptocardii are sometimes called acraniata (without skull), as distinguished from the higher groups, craniota, in which the skull is developed. the _leptocardii_, _cyclostomi_, and _ostracophori_ are sometimes called _agnatha_ (without jaws) in contradistinction to the _gnathostomi_ (jaw mouths), which include the sharks and true fishes with the higher vertebrates. the sharks and teleostomes are sometimes brought together as _pisces_, or fishes, as distinguished from other groups not true fishes. to the sharks and true fishes the collective name of _lyrifera_ has been given, these fishes having the harp-shaped shoulder-girdle, its parts united below. the _ostracophores_ and _arthrodires_ agreeing in the bony coat of mail, and both groups now extinct and both of uncertain relationship, have been often united under the name of _placoderms_, and these and many other fishes have been again erroneously confounded with the ganoids. again, the teleostomi have been frequently divided into three classes--_crossopterygii_, _dipneusti_ or _dipnoi_, and _actinopterygii_. the latter may be again divided into _ganoidei_ and _teleostei_ and all sorts of ranks have been assigned to each of these groups. for our purposes a division into eight classes is most convenient, and lowest among these we may place the _enteropneusta_. =the enteropneusta.=--most simple, most worm-like, and perhaps most primitive of all the chordates is the group of worm-shaped forms, forming the class of _enteropneusta_. the class of _enteropneusta_, also called _adelochorda_ or _hemichordata_, as here recognized, consists of a group of small marine animals allied to the genus _balanoglossus_, or acorn-tongues (~balanos~, acorn; ~glôssa~, tongue). these are worm-like creatures with fragile bodies buried in the sand or mud, or living under rocks of the seashore and in shallow waters, where they lie coiled in a spiral, with little or no motion. from the surface of the body a mucous substance is secreted, holding together particles by which are formed tubes of sand. the animal has a peculiar odor like that of iodoform. at the front is a long muscular proboscis, very sensitive, capable of great extension and contraction, largely used in burrowing in the ground, and of a brilliant orange color in life. behind this is a collar which overlaps the small neck and conceals the small mouth at the base of the proboscis. the gill-slits behind the collar are also more or less concealed by it. the body, which is worm-like, extends often to the length of two or three feet. the gill-slits in the adult are arranged in regular pairs, there being upwards of fifty in number much like the gill-slits of the lancelet. as the animal grows older the slits become less conspicuous, their openings being reduced to small slit-like pores. in the interior of the proboscis is a rod-like structure which arises as an outgrowth of the alimentary canal above the mouth. in development and structure this rod so resembles the notochord of the lancelet that it is regarded as a true notochord, though found in the anterior region only. from the presence of gill-slits and notochord and from the development and structure of the central nervous system _balanoglossus_ was recognized by william bateson, who studied an american species, _dolichoglossus kowalevskii_, at hampton roads in virginia in , and at beaufort in north carolina, as a member of the chordate series. unlike the tunicates it represents a primitively simple, not a degenerate, type. it seems to possess real affinities with the worms, or possibly, as some have thought, with the sea-urchins. [illustration: fig. .--"tornaria" larva of _glossobalanus minutus_. (after minot.)] a peculiar little creature, known as _tornaria_, was once considered to be the larva of a starfish. it is minute and transparent, floating on the surface of the sea. it has no visible resemblance to the adult _balanoglossus_, but it has been reared in aquaria and shown to pass into the latter or into the related genus _glossobalanus_. no such metamorphosis was found by bateson in the more primitive genus _dolichoglossus_, studied by him. this adult animal may be, indeed, a worm as it appears, but the presence of gill-slits, the existence of a rudimentary notochord, and the character of the central nervous system are distinctly fish-like and therefore vertebrate characters. with the chordates, and not with the worms, this class, _enteropneusta_ (~enteron~, intestine; ~pnein~, to breathe), must be placed if its characters have been rightly interpreted. it is possibly a descendant of the primitive creatures which marked the transition from the archaic worms, or possibly archaic echinoderms, to the archaic chordate type. [illustration: fig. .--_glossobalanus minutus_, one of the higher enteropneustans. (after minot.)] it is perhaps not absolutely certain that the notochord of _balanoglossus_ and its allies is a true homologue of the notochord of the lancelet. there may be doubt even of the homologies of the gill-slits themselves. but the balance of evidence seems to throw _balanoglossus_ on the fish side of the dividing line which separates the lower chordates from the worms. it may be noticed that hubrecht regards the proboscis of various marine nemertine worms as a real homologue of the notochord, and other writers have traced with more or less success other apparent or possible homologies between the chordate and the annelid series. =classification of enteropneusta.=--until recently the _enteropneusta_ have been usually placed in a single family or even in a single genus. the recent researches of professor j. w. spengel of giessen and of professor william emerson ritter of the university of california, have shown clearly that the group is much larger than had been generally supposed, with numerous species in all the warm seas. in spengel's recent paper, "die benennung der enteropneusten-gattungen," three families are recognized with nine genera and numerous species. at least seven species are now known from the pacific coast of north america. =family harrimaniidæ.=--in _harrimania maculosa_, lately described by dr. ritter from alaska, the eggs are large, with much food yolk, and the process of development is probably, without _tornaria_ stage. a second species of _harrimania_ (_h. kupferi_) is now recognized from norway and greenland. this genus is the simplest in structure among all the enteropneustans and may be regarded as the lowest of known chordates, the most worm-like of back-boned animals. [illustration: fig. .--_harrimania maculosa_ (ritter), the lowest of chordate animals. an enteropneustan from alaska. (after ritter.)] in _dolichoglossus kowalevskii_ the species studied by bateson on the virginia coast, the same simplicity of development occurs. this genus, with a third, _stereobalanus_ (_canadensis_), constitutes in spengel's system the family of _harrimaniidæ_. =balanoglossidæ.=--the family _glandicepitidæ_ contains the genera _glandiceps_, _spengelia_, and _schizocardium_. in the _balanoglossidæ_ (_ptychoderidæ_ of spengel) the eggs are very small and numerous, with little food yolk. the species in this family pass through the tornaria stage above described, a condition strikingly like that of the larval starfish. this fact has given rise to the suggestion that the enteropneusta have a real affinity with the echinoderms. the _balanoglossidæ_ include the genera _glossobalanus_, _balanoglossus_, and _ptychodera_, the latter the oldest known member of the group, its type, _ptychodera flava_, having been described by eschscholtz from the pacific coast in , while _balanoglossus clavigerus_ was found by della chiaje in . =low organization of harrimaniidæ.=--apparently the _harrimaniidæ_, with simpler structure, more extensive notochord, and direct development, should be placed at the bottom as the most primitive of the enteropneustan series. dr. willey, however, regards its characters as due to degeneration, and considers the more elaborate _balanoglossidæ_ as nearest the primitive type. the case in this view would have something in common with that of the _larvacea_, which seems to be the primitive tunicates, but which may have been produced by the degeneration of more complex forms. chapter xxvi the tunicates, or ascidians =structure of tunicates.=--one of the most singular groups of animals is that known as ascidians, or tunicates. it is one of the most clearly marked yet most heterogeneous of all the classes of animals, and in no other are the phenomena of degeneration so clearly shown. among them is a great variety of form and habit. some lie buried in sand; some fasten themselves to rocks; some are imbedded in great colonies in a gelatinous matrix produced from their own bodies, and some float freely in long chains in the open sea. all agree in changing very early in their development from a free-swimming or fish-like condition to one of quiescence, remaining at rest or drifting with the current. says dr. john sterling kingsley: "many of the species start in life with the promise of reaching a point high in the scale, but after a while they turn around and, as one might say, pursue a downward course which results in an adult which displays but few resemblances to the other vertebrates. indeed, so different do they seem that the fact that they belong here was not suspected until about thirty-five years ago. before that time, ever since the days of cuvier, they were almost universally regarded as mollusks, and many facts were adduced to show that they belonged near the acephals (clams, oysters, etc.). in the later years when the facts of development began to be known, this association was looked on with suspicion, and by some they were placed for a short time among the worms. any one who has watched the phases of their development cannot help believing that they belong here, the lowest of the vertebrate series." the following account of the structure and development of the tunicate is taken, with considerable modification and condensation, from professor kingsley's chapter on the group in the riverside natural history. for the changes suggested i am indebted to the kindness of professor william emerson ritter: the tunicates derive their name from the fact that the whole body is invested with a tough envelope or "tunic." this tunic or test may be either gelatinous, cartilaginous, or leathery. in some forms it is perfectly transparent, in others it is translucent, allowing enough light to pass to show the colors of the viscera, while in still others it is opaque and variously colored. the tunic is everywhere only loosely attached to the body proper, except in the region of the two openings now to be mentioned. one of these openings occupies a more or less central position, while the other is usually at one side, or it may even be placed at the opposite end of the body. on placing one of the ascidians in a glass dish and sprinkling a little carmine or indigo in the water, we can study some of the functions of the animal. as soon as the disturbance is over, the animals will open the two apertures referred to, when it will be seen that each is surrounded with blunt lobes, the number of which varies with the species. as soon as they are opened a stream of water will be seen to rush into the central opening, carrying with it the carmine, and a moment later a reddish cloud will be ejected from the other aperture. from this we learn that the water passes through the body. why it does so is to be our next inquiry. on cutting the animal open we find that the water, after passing through the first-mentioned opening (which may be called the mouth) enters a spacious chamber, the walls of which are made up of fine meshes, the whole appearing like lattice-work. taking out a bit of this network and examining it under the microscope, we find that the edges of the meshes are armed with strong cilia, which are in constant motion, forcing the water through the holes. of course, the supply has to be made good, and hence more water flows in through the mouth. this large cavity is known as the branchial or pharyngeal chamber. it is, according to professor ritter, "as we know from the embryology of the animal, the greatly enlarged anterior end of the digestive tract; and as the holes, or stigmata, as they are technically called, are perforations of the wall for the passage of water for purposes of respiration, they are both morphologically and physiologically comparable with the gill openings of fishes." there can be no doubt, therefore, that the pharyngeal sac of ascidians is homologous with the pharynx of fishes. surrounding the mouth, or branchial orifice, just at its entrance into the branchial chamber is a circle of tentacles. these are simple in some genera, but elaborately branched in others. in close connection with the cerebral ganglion, which is situated between the two siphons, there is a large gland with a short trumpet-shaped duct opening into the branchial sac a little distance behind the mouth. the orifice of the duct is just within a ring consisting of a ciliated groove that extends around the mouth outside the circle of branchial tentacles. on the opposite side of the mouth from the gland the ciliated groove joins another groove which is both ciliated and glandular, and which runs backward along the upper floor of the pharyngeal sac to its posterior extremity. this organ, called the endostyle, is concerned in the transportation of the animal's food through the pharyngeal sac to the opening of the oesophagus. comparative embryology makes it almost certain that the subneural gland with its duct, described above, is homologous with the hypophesis cerebri of true vertebrates, and that the endostyle is homologous with the thyroid glands of vertebrates. the water after passing through the branchial network is received into narrow passages and conducted to a larger cavity--the cloacal or atrial chamber. the general relations can he seen from our diagram, illustrating a vertical and horizontal section. from the atrial chamber the water flows out into the external world. now we can readily see how in the older works naturalists were misled as to the affinities of the tunicates. they regarded the tunic as the equivalent of the mantle of the mollusks, while the incurrent and excurrent openings corresponded to the siphons. in one genus, _rhodosoma_, the resemblance was even stronger, for there the tunic is in two parts, united by a hinge line, and closed by an adductor muscle. how and why these views were totally erroneous will be seen when we come to consider the development of these animals. at the bottom of the pharnygeal sac is the narrow oesophagus surrounded with cilia, which force a current down into the digestive tract. the branchial meshes serve as a strainer for the water, and the larger particles which it contains fall down until they are within reach of the current going down the oesophagus. after passing through the throat, they come to the stomach, where digestion takes place, and then the ejectamenta are carried out through the intestine and poured into the bottom of the atrial cavity. the heart lies on the ventral side of the stomach and is surrounded by a well-developed pericardium. the most remarkable fact connected with the circulation is that the heart, after beating a short time, forcing the blood through the vessels, will suddenly stop for a moment and then resume its beats; but, strange to say, after the stoppage the direction of the circulation is reversed, the blood taking an exactly opposite course from that formerly pursued. this most exceptional condition was first seen in the transparent _salpa_, but it may be witnessed in the young of most genera. we have already referred to the branchial chamber. the walls of this chamber, besides acting as a strainer, are also respiratory organs. the meshes of which they are composed are in reality tubes through which the blood circulates and thus is brought in contact with a constantly renewed supply of fresh water. the central nervous system in the adults of all except the _larvacea_ is reduced to a single ganglion placed near the mouth thus indicating the dorsal side. in forms like _cynthia_ it holds the same relative position with regard to the mouth, but by the doubling of the body (to be explained further on) it is also brought near the atrial aperture, where it is shown in our first diagram. =development of tunicates.=--the sexes are combined in the same individual, though usually the products ripen at different times. as a rule, the earlier stages of the embryo are passed inside the cloacal chamber, though in some the development occurs outside the body. as a type of the development we will consider that of one of the solitary forms, leaving the many curious modifications to be noticed in connection with the species in which they occur. this will be best, since these forms show the relationship to the other vertebrates in the clearest manner. [illustration: fig. .--development of the larval tunicate to the fixed condition. (from seeliger, per parker & haswell.) _a_, larva; _b_, intermediate stage; _c_, adult.] the egg undergoes a total segmentation and a regular gastrulation. soon a tail appears, and under the microscope the young embryo, which now begins its free life, appears much like the tadpole of the frog. it has a large oval body and a long tail which lashes about, forcing the animal forward with a wriggling motion. nor is the resemblance superficial; it pervades every part of the structure, as may be seen from the adjacent diagram. the mouth is nearly terminal and communicates with a gill-chamber provided with gill-clefts. at the posterior end of the gill-chamber begins the alimentary tract, which pursues a convoluted course to the vent. in the tail, but not extending to any distance into the body, is an axial cylinder, the notochord, which here, as in all other vertebrates, arises from the hypoblast; and above it is the spinal cord (epiblastic in origin), which extends forward to the brain, above the gill-chamber. besides, the animal is provided with organs of sight and hearing, which, however, are of peculiar construction and can hardly be homologized with the corresponding organs in vertebrates. so far the correspondence between the two types is very close, and if we knew nothing about the later stages, one would without doubt predict that the adult tunicate would reach a high point in the scale of vertebrates. these high expectations are never fulfilled; the animal, on the contrary, pursues a retrograde course, resulting in an adult whose relationship to the true vertebrates never would have been suspected had its embryology remained unknown. [illustration: fig. .--anatomy of tunicate. (after herdman, per parker & haswell.)] after the stage described this retrograde movement begins. from various parts of the body lobes grow out, armed on their extremities with sucking-disks. these soon come in contact with some subaquatic object and adhere to it. then the notochord breaks down, the spinal cord is absorbed, the tail follows suit, the intestine twists around, and the cloaca is formed, the result being much like the diagram near the head of this section. in forms like _appendicularia_, little degeneration takes place, so far as is known, the tail, with its notochord and neural chord, persisting through life. =reproduction of tunicates.=--as to the reproduction of the tunicates, dr. ritter writes: "in addition to the sexual method of reproduction, many tunicates reproduce asexually by budding. the capacity for bud reproduction appears to have been acquired by certain simple ascidians in connection with, probably as a result of, their having given up the free-swimming life and become attached and consequently degenerate. "instructive as the embryonic development of the creatures is from the standpoint of evolution, the bud method of development is scarcely less so from the same point of view. the development of the adult zooid from the simple bud has been conclusively shown to be by a process in many respects fundamentally unlike that by which the individual is developed from the egg. we have then in these animals a case in which practically the same results are reached by developmental processes that are, according to prevailing conceptions of animal organizations, fundamentally different. this fact has hardly a parallel in the animal kingdom." =habits of tunicates.=--the tunicates are all marine, some floating or swimming freely, some attached to rocks or wharves, others buried in the sand. they feed on minute organisms, plants, or animals, occasional rare forms being found in their stomachs. some of them possess a single median eye or eye-like structure which may not do more than recognize the presence of light. no fossil tunicates are known, as they possess no hard parts, although certain ostracoderms have been suspected, though on very uncertain grounds, to be mailed tunicates, rather than mailed lampreys. it is not likely that this hypothesis has any sound foundation. the group is divided by herdman and most other recent authorities into three orders, viz., the _larvacea_, the _ascidiacea_, and the _thaliacea_. =larvacea.=--in the most primitive order the animals are minute and free-swimming, never passing beyond the tadpole stage. the notochord and the nervous chord persist through life, the latter with ganglionic segmentations at regular intervals. the species mostly float in the open sea, and some of them form from their own secretions a transparent gelatinous envelope called a "house." this has two apertures and a long chamber "in which the tail has room to vibrate." the order consists of a single small family, _appendiculariidæ_. the lowest type is known as _kowalevskia_, a minute creature without heart or intestine found floating in the mediterranean. it is in many respects the simplest in structure among _chordate_ animals. _oikopleura_ (fig. ) is another genus of this group. =ascidiacea.=--in the _ascidiacea_ the adult is usually attached to some object, and the two apertures are placed near each other by the obliteration of the caudal area. the form has been compared to a "leathern bottle with two spouts." [illustration: fig. .--_ascidia adhærens_ ritter. glacier bay, alaska. (after ritter.)] the suborder _ascidiæ simplices_ includes the solitary ascidians or "sea-squirts," common on our shores, as well as the social forms in which an individual is surrounded by its buds. the common name arises from the fact that when touched they contract, squirting water from both apertures. the _ascidiidæ_ comprise the most familiar solitary forms, some of them the largest of the tunicates and represented on most coasts. in the _molgulidæ_ and most _ascidiæ compositæ_ the young hatch out in the cloaca, from which "these tadpoles swim out as yellow atoms," while in a new genus, _euherdmania_, described by ritter, from the coast of california, the embryos are retained through their whole larval stage in the oviduct of the parent. they form, according to kingsley, adhesive processes on the body, but those of _molgula_ cannot use them in becoming attached to rocks, since they are entirely inclosed in a peculiar envelope. this envelope is after a while very adhesive, and if the little tadpole happens to touch any part of himself to a stone or shell he is fastened for life. thus "i have frequently seen them adhere by the tail, while the anterior part was making the most violent struggles to escape. soon, however, they settle down contentedly, absorb the tail, and in a few weeks assume the adult structure." in the family _cynthiidæ_ the brightly-colored red and yellow species of _cynthia_ are known as sea-peaches by the fishermen. the sea-pears, _boltenia_, are fastened to long stalks. these have a leathery and wrinkled tunic, to which algæ and hydroids freely attach themselves. into the gill-cavity of these forms small fishes, blennies, gobies, and pearl-fishes often retreat for protection. [illustration: fig. .--_styela yacutatensis_ (ritter), a simple ascidian. family _molgulidæ_. yakutat bay, alaska. (after ritter.)] the social ascidians constitute the _clavellinidæ_. they are similar to the _ascidiidæ_ in form, but each individual sends out a bud which forms a stern bearing another individual at the end. by this means large colonies may be formed. the suborder, _ascidiæ compositæ_, contains the compound ascidians or colonies enveloped in a common gelatinous "test." these colonies are usually attached to rock or seaweed, and the individuals are frequently regularly and symmetrically arranged. the bodies are sometimes complex in form. [illustration: fig. .--_styela greeleyi_ ritter. family _molgulidæ_. lukanin, pribilof islands. (after ritter.)] [illustration: fig. .--_cynthia superba_ ritter. a tunicate from puget sound. family _cynthiidæ_. (after ritter.)] in the _botryllidæ_ and _polystyelidæ_ the individuals are not segmented and in the former family are arranged in star-shaped groups about a common cloaca, into which the atrial siphons of the different individuals open. the group springs by budding from the tadpole, or larva, which has attached itself to some object. these forms are often brightly colored. _botryllus gouldi_ is a species very common along our north atlantic coast, forming gray star-shaped masses sometimes an inch across on eel-grass (_zostera_) and on flat-leaved seaweeds. _goodsiria dura_, a representative of the _polystyelidæ_, is one of the most common ascidians on the california coast southward, where the brick-red masses incrusting on seaweeds of various kinds, and on other ascidians, are frequently thrown ashore in great quantities during heavy storms. [illustration: fig. .--_botryllus magnus_ ritter. a compound ascidian. shumagin islands, alaska. (after ritter.)] in _didemnidæ_ the body is more complex, of two parts, called the "thorax" and "abdomen." in _amaroecium_, the "sea pork" of the fishermen, the body is in three parts and the individuals are very long. these sometimes form great masses a foot or more long, "colored like boiled salt pork, but more translucent." other families of this type are the _distomidæ_ and the _polyclinidæ_. in the suborder _luciæ_, including the family _pyrosomidæ_, the colonies are thimble-shaped and hollow, the incurrent openings being on the outer surface of the thimble, the outgoing stream opening within. _pyrosoma_ is highly phosphorescent. in the tropical seas some colonies reach a length of two or three feet. it is said that a description of a colony was once written by a naturalist on a page illumined by the colony's own light. "each of the individuals has a number of cells near the mouth the function of which is to produce the light." =thaliacea.=--in the order _thaliacea_ the tunicates have the two orifices at opposite ends of the body. all are free-swimming and perfectly transparent. the principal family is that of _salpidæ_. the gill-cavity in salpa is much altered, the gills projecting into it dividing it into two chambers. in these forms we have the phenomena of alternation of generations. a sexual female produces eggs, and from each hatches a tadpole larva which is without sex. this gives rise to buds, some at least of the individuals arising which in turn produce eggs. [illustration: fig. .--_botryllus magnus_ ritter. part of colony. (after ritter.)] in the family _salpidæ_ two kinds of individuals occur, the solitary salpa, or female, and the chain salpa, or bisexual males. the latter are united together in long bands, each individual forming a link in the chain held together by spurs extending from one to the next. from each solitary individual a long process or cord grows out, this dividing to form the chain. each chain salpa produces male reproductive organs and each develops as well a single egg. the egg is developed within the body attached by a sort of placenta, while the spermatozoa are cast into the sea to fertilize other eggs. from each egg develops the solitary salpa and from her buds the chain of bisexual creatures. dr. w. k. brooks regards these as nursing males, the real source of the egg being perhaps the solitary female. of this extraordinary arrangement the naturalist-poet chamisso, who first described it, said: "a salpa mother is not like its daughter or its own mother, but resembles its sister, its granddaughter, and its grandmother." but it is misleading to apply such terms taken from the individualized human relationship to the singular communal system developed by these ultra-degenerate and strangely specialized chordates. [illustration: fig. .--_botryllus magnus_ ritter, a single zooid. shumagin islands, alaska. (after ritter.)] [illustration: fig. .--_aplidiopsis jordani_ ritter, a compound ascidian. lukanin beach, pribilof islands. (after ritter.)] the salpas abound in the warm seas, the chains often covering the water for miles. they are perfectly transparent, and the chains are often more than a foot in length. in doliolum the body is barrel-shaped and the gills are less modified than in salpa. the alternation of generations in this genus is still more complicated than in salpa, for here we have not only a sexual and a non-sexual generation, the individuals of which differ from each other, but there is further a differentiation among the asexually produced individuals themselves; so that we have in all three instead of two sorts of animals in the complete life cycle. besides the proliferating stolon situated on the ventral side, the bud-producing individual possesses a dorsal process larger than the stolon proper. the buds become completely severed from the true stolon at an early stage and actually crawl along the side of the parent up to the dorsal process, upon which they arrange themselves in three rows, two lateral and one median. the buds of the lateral rows become nutritive and respiratory zooids, while those of the median row, ultimately at least, give rise in turn to the egg-producing individuals. =origin of tunicates.=--there can be little doubt that the _tunicata_ form an offshoot from the primitive chordate stock, and the structure of their larva in connection with that of the lancelet throws a large light on the nature of their common parents. "we may conclude," says dr. arthur willey, "that the proximate ancestor of the vertebrates was a free-swimming animal intermediate in organization between an ascidian tadpole and amphioxus, possessing the dorsal mouth, hypophysis, and restricted notochord of the former and the myotomes, coelomic epithelium, and straight alimentary canal of the latter. the ultimate or primordial ancestor of the vertebrates would, on the contrary, be a worm-like animal whose organization was approximately on a level with that of the bilateral ancestors of the echinoderms." [illustration: fig. .--adult tunicate of the group larvacea, oikopleura. family _appendiculariidæ_. (after fol, per parker & haswell.)] =degeneration of tunicates.=--there is no question, furthermore, professor ritter observes, "that most of the group has undergone great degeneration in its evolutionary course. just what the starting-point was, however, is a matter on which there is considerable difference of opinion among authorities. according to one view, particularly championed by professor w. k. brooks, _appendicularia_ is very near the ancestral form. the ancestor was consequently a small, marine, free-swimming creature. from this ancestor the ascidiacea were evolved largely through the influence of the attached habit of life, and the tadpole stage in their development is a recapitulation of the ancestral form, just as the tadpole stage in the frog's life is a repetition of the fish ancestry of the frog. "according to the most common view _appendicularia_ is not an ancestral form at all, but is the tadpole stage of the _ascidiacea_ that has failed to undergo metamorphosis and has become sexually mature in the larval condition, as the larva of certain amphibians and insects are known to never pass into the adult state but reproduce their kind sexually in the larval condition. by this view the tadpole of such ascidian as _ciona_, for example, represents more closely the common ancestor of the group than does any other form we know. this view is especially defended by professor k. heider and dr. arthur willey." chapter xxvii the leptocardii, or lancelets =the lancelet.=--the lancelet is a vertebrate reduced to its very lowest terms. the essential organs of vertebrate life are there, but each one in its simplest form unspecialized and with structure and function feebly differentiated. the skeleton consists of a cartilaginous notochord inclosed in a membranous sheath. there is no skull. no limbs, no conspicuous processes, and no vertebræ are present. the heart is simply a long contractile tube, hence the name _leptocardii_ (from ~leptos~, slender; ~kardia~, heart). the blood is colorless. there is a hepatic portal circulation. there is no brain, the spinal cord tapering in front as behind. the water for respiration passes through very many gill-slits from the pharynx into the atrium, from which it is excluded through the atripore in front of the vent. a large chamber, called the atrium, extends almost the length of the body along the ventral and lateral regions. it communicates with the pharynx through the gill-slits and with the exterior through a small opening in front of the vent, the atripore. the atrium is not found in forms above the lancelets. the reproductive organs consist of a series of pairs of segmentally arranged gonads. the excretory organs consist of a series of tubules in the region of the pharynx, connecting the body-cavity with the atrium. the mouth is a lengthwise slit without jaws, and on either side is a row of fringes. from this feature comes the name _cirrostomi_, from cirrus, a fringe of hair, and ~stoma~, mouth. the body is lanceolate in form, sharp at either end. from this fact arises a third name, _amphioxus_, from ~amphi~, both; ~oxys~, sharp. dorsal and anal fins are developed as folds of the skin supported by very slender rays. there are no other fins. the alimentary canal is straight, and is differentiated into pharynx and intestine; the liver is a blind sac arising from the anterior end of the intestine. a pigment spot in the wall of the spinal cord has been interpreted as an eye. above the snout is a supposed olfactory pit which some have thought to be connected with the pineal structure. the muscular impressions along the sides are very distinct and it is chiefly by means of the variation in numbers of these that the species can be distinguished. thus in the common lancelet of europe, _branchiostoma lanceolatum_, the muscular bands are + + = . in the common species of the eastern coasts of america, _branchiostoma caribæum_, these are + + = , while in the california lancelet, _branchiostoma californiense_, these are + + = . =habits of lancelets.=--lancelets are slender translucent worm-like creatures, varying from half an inch (_asymmetron lucayanum_) to four inches (_branchiostoma californiense_) in length. they live buried in sand in shallow waters along the coasts of warm seas. one species, _amphioxides pelagicus_, has been taken at the depth of fathoms, but whether at the bottom or floating near the surface is not known. the species are very tenacious of life and will endure considerable mutilation. some of them are found on almost every coast in semi-tropical and tropical regions. =species of lancelets.=--the mediterranean species ranges northward to the south of england. others are found as far north as chesapeake bay, san diego, and misaki in japan, where is found a species called _branchiostoma belcheri_. the sands at the mouth of san diego bay are noted as producing the largest of the species of lancelets, _branchiostoma californiense_. from the bahamas comes the smallest, the type of a distinct genus, _asymmetron lucayanum_, distinguished among other things by a projecting tail. other supposed genera are _amphioxides_ (_pelagicus_), dredged in the deep sea off hawaii and supposed to be pelagic, the mouth without cirri; _epigonichthys_ (_cultellus_), from the east indies, and _heteropleuron_ (_bassanum_), from bass straits, australia. these little animals are of great interest to anatomists as giving the clue to the primitive structure of vertebrates. while possibly these have diverged widely from their actual common ancestry with the fishes, they must approach near to these in many ways. their simplicity is largely primitive, not, as in the tunicates, the result of subsequent degradation. [illustration: fig. .--california lancelet, _branchiostoma californiense_ gill. (from san diego.)] the lancelets, less than a dozen species in all, constitute a single family, _branchiostomidæ_. the principal genus, _branchiostoma_, is usually called _amphioxus_ by anatomists. but while the name _amphioxus_, like lancelet, is convenient in vernacular use, it has no standing in systematic nomenclature. the name _branchiostoma_ was given to lancelets from naples in , by costa, while that of _amphioxus_, given to specimens from cornwall, dates from yarrell's work on the british fishes in . the name amphioxus may be pleasanter or shorter or more familiar or more correctly descriptive than _branchiostoma_, but if so the fact cannot be considered in science as affecting the duty of priority. the name _acraniata_ (without skull) is often used for the lower chordates taken collectively, and it is sometimes applied to the lancelets alone. it refers to those chordate forms which have no skull nor brain, as distinguished from the _craniota_, or forms with a distinct brain having a bony or cartilaginous capsule for its protection. =origin of lancelets.=--it is doubtless true, as dr. willey suggests, that the vertebrates became separated from their worm-like ancestry through "the concentration of the central nervous system along the dorsal side of the body and its conversion into a hollow tube." besides this trait two others are common to all of them, the presence of the gill-slits and that of the notochord. the gill-slits may have served primarily to relieve the stomach of water, as in the lowest forms they enter directly into the body-cavity. the primitive function of the notochord is still far from clear, but its ultimate use of its structures in affording protection and in furnishing a fulcrum for the muscles and limbs is of the greatest importance in the processes of life. [illustration: fig. _a_.--gill-basket of lamprey.] chapter xxviii the cyclostomes, or lampreys =the lampreys.=--passing upward from the lancelets and setting aside the descending series of tunicates, we have a long step indeed to the next class of fish-like vertebrates. during the period this great gap represents in time we have the development of brain, skull, heart, and other differentiated organs replacing the simple structures found in the lancelet. the presence of brain without limbs and without coat-of-mail distinguishes the class of _cyclostomes_, or lampreys (~kuklos~, round; ~stoma~, mouth). this group is also known as _marsipobranchi_ (~marsipion~, pouch; ~branchos~, gill); _dermopteri_ (~derma~, skin; ~pteron~, fin); and _myzontes_ (~myzaô~, to suck). it includes the forms known as lampreys, slime-eels, and hagfishes. =structure of the lamprey.=--comparing a cyclostome with a lancelet we may see many evidences of specialization in structure. the cyclostome has a distinct head with a cranium formed of a continuous body of cartilage modified to contain a fish-like brain, a cartilaginous skeleton of which the cranium is evidently a differentiated part. the vertebræ are undeveloped, the notochord being surrounded by its membranes, without bony or cartilaginous segments. the gills have the form of fixed sacs, six to fourteen in number, on each side, arranged in a cartilaginous structure known as "branchial basket" (fig. _a_), the elements of which are not clearly homologous with the gill-arches of the true fishes. fish-like eyes are developed on the sides of the head. there is a median nostril associated with a pituitary pouch, which pierces the skull floor. an ear-capsule is developed. the brain is composed of paired ganglia in general appearance resembling the brain of the true fish, but the detailed homology of its different parts offers considerable uncertainty. the heart is modified to form two pulsating cavities, auricle and ventricle. the folds of the dorsal and anal fins are distinct, supported by slender rays. the mouth is a roundish disk, with rasping teeth over its surface and with sharper and stronger teeth on the tongue. the intestine is straight and simple. the kidney is represented by a highly primitive pronephros and no trace exists of an air-bladder or lung. the skin is smooth and naked, sometimes secreting an excessive quantity of slime. from the true fishes the cyclostomes differ in the total absence of limbs and of shoulder and pelvic girdles, as well as of jaws. it has been thought by some writers that the limbs were ancestrally present and lost through degeneration, as in the eels. dr. ayers, following huxley, finds evidence of the ancestral existence of a lower jaw. the majority of observers, however, regard the absence of limbs and jaws in cyclostomes as a primitive character, although numerous other features of the modern hagfish and lamprey may have resulted from degeneration. there is no clear evidence that the class of cyclostomes, as now known to us, has any great antiquity, and its members may be all degenerate offshoots from types of greater complexity of structure. =supposed extinct cyclostomes.=--no species belonging to the class of cyclostomes has been found fossil. we may reason theoretically that the earliest fish-like forms were acraniate or lancelet-like, and that lamprey-like forms would naturally follow these, but this view cannot be substantiated from the fossils. lancelets have no hard parts whatever, and could probably leave no trace in any sedimentary deposit. the lampreys stand between lancelets and sharks. their teeth and fins at least might occasionally be preserved in the rocks, but no structures certainly known to be such have yet been recognized. it is however reasonably certain that the modern lamprey and hagfish are descendants, doubtless degraded and otherwise modified from species which filled the gap between the earliest chordate animals and the jaw-bearing sharks. =conodontes.=--certain structures found as fossils have been from time to time regarded as cyclostomes, but in all such cases there is doubt as to the real nature of the fossil relic in question or as to the proper interpretation of its relationship. thus the _conodontes_ of the cambrian, silurian, and devonian have been regarded as lingual teeth of extinct cyclostomes. the _cycliæ_ of the devonian have been considered as minute lampreys, although the vertebral segments are highly specialized, to a degree far beyond the condition seen in the lampreys of to-day. the ostracophores have been regarded as monstrous lampreys in coat of mail, and the possibility of a lamprey origin even for arthrodires has been suggested. the _cycliæ_ and _ostracophori_ were apparently without jaws or limbs, being in this regard like the _cyclostomes_, but their ancestry and relationships are wholly problematical. [illustration: fig. .--_polygnathus dubium_ hinde. a conodont from the new york devonian. (after hinde.)] the nature of the conodontes is still uncertain. in form they resemble teeth, but their structure is different from that of the teeth of any fishes, agreeing with that of the teeth of annelid worms. some have compared them to the armature of trilobites. some fifteen nominal genera are described by pander in russia, and by hinde about lake erie and lake ontario. some of these, as _drepaniodus_, are simple, straight or curved grooved teeth or tooth-like structures; others, as _prioniodus_, have numerous smaller teeth or denticles at the base of the larger one. =orders of cyclostomes.=--the known cyclostomes are naturally divided into two orders, the _hyperotreta_, or hagfishes, and the _hyperoartia_, or lampreys. these two orders are very distinct from each other. while the two groups agree in the general form of the body, they differ in almost every detail, and there is much pertinence in lankester's suggestions that each should stand as a separate class. the ancestral forms of each, as well as the intervening types if such ever existed, are left unrecorded in the rocks. =the hyperotreta, or hagfishes.=--the _hyperotreta_ (~hyperôa~, palate; ~tretos~, perforate), or hagfishes, have the nostril highly developed, a tube-like cylinder with cartilaginous rings penetrating the palate. in these the eyes are little developed and the species are parasitic on other fishes. in _polistotrema stouti_, the hagfish of the coast of california, is parasitic on large fishes, rockfishes, or flounders. it usually fastens itself at the throat or isthmus of its host and sometimes at the eyes. thence it works very rapidly to the inside of the body. it there devours all the muscular part of the fish without breaking the skin or the peritoneum, leaving the fish a living hulk of head, skin, and bones. it is especially destructive to fishes taken in gill-nets. the voracity of the chilean species _polistotrema dombeyi_ is equally remarkable. dr. federico t. delfin finds that in seven hours a hagfish of this species will devour eighteen times its own weight of fish-flesh. the intestinal canal is a simple tube, through which most of the food passes undigested. the eggs are large, each in a yellowish horny case, at one end of which are barbed threads by which they cling together and to kelp or other objects. in the california hagfish, _polistotrema stouti_, great numbers of these eggs have been found in the stomachs of the males. [illustration: fig. .--california hagfish, _polistotrema stouti_ lockington.] similar habits are possessed by all the species in the two families, _myxinidæ_ and _eptatretidæ_. in the _myxinidæ_ the gill-openings are apparently single on each side, the six gills being internal and leading by six separate ducts to each of the six branchial sacs. the skin is excessively slimy, the extensible tongue is armed with two cone-like series of strong teeth. about the mouth are eight barbels. of _myxine_, numerous species are known--_myxine glutinosa_, in the north of europe; _myxine limosa_, of the west atlantic; _myxine australis_, and several others about cape horn, and _myxine garmani_ in japan. all live in deep waters and none have been fully studied. it has been claimed that the hagfish is male when young, many individuals gradually changing to female, but this conclusion lacks verification and is doubtless without foundation. in the _eptatretidæ_ the gill-openings, six to fourteen in number, are externally separate, each with its own branchial sac as in the lampreys. the species of the genus _eptatretus_ (_bdellostoma_, _heptatrema_, and _homea_, all later names for the same group) are found only in the pacific, in california, chile, patagonia, south africa, and japan. in general appearance and habits these agree with the species of _myxine_. the species with ten to fourteen gill-openings (_dombeyi_: _stouti_) are sometimes set off as a distinct genus (_polistotrema_), but in other regards the species differ little, and frequent individual variations occur. _eptatretus burgeri_ is found in japan and _eptatretus forsteri_ in australia. =the hyperoartia, or lampreys.=--in the order _hyperoartia_, or lampreys, the single nostril is a blind sac which does not penetrate the palate. the seven gill-openings lead each to a separate sac, the skin is not especially covered with mucus, the eyes are well developed in the adult, and the mouth is a round disk armed with rasp-like teeth, the comb-like teeth on the tongue being less developed than in the hagfishes. the intestine in the lampreys has a spiral valve. the eggs are small and are usually laid in brooks away from the sea, and in most cases the adult lamprey dies after spawning. according to thoreau, "it is thought by fishermen that they never return, but waste away and die, clinging to rocks and stumps of trees for an indefinite period, a tragic feature in the scenery of the river-bottoms worthy to be remembered with shakespeare's description of the sea-floor." this account is not far from the truth, as recent studies have shown. the lampreys of the northern regions constitute the family of _petromyzonidæ_. the larger species (_petromyzon_, _entosphenus_) live in the sea, ascending rivers to spawn, and often becoming land-locked and reduced in size by living in rivers only. such land-locked marine lampreys (_petromyzon marinus unicolor_) breed in cayuga lake and other lakes in new york. the marine forms reach a length of three feet. smaller lampreys of other genera six inches to eighteen inches in length remain all their lives in the rivers, ascending the little brooks in the spring, clinging to stones and clods of earth till their eggs are deposited. these are found throughout northern europe, northern asia, and the colder parts of north america, belonging to the genera _lampetra_ and _ichthyomyzon_. other and more aberrant genera from chile and australia are _geotria_ and _mordacia_, the latter forming a distinct family, _mordaciidæ_. in _geotria_, a large and peculiar gular pouch is developed at the throat. in _macrophthalmia_ _chilensis_ from chile the eyes are large and conspicuous. =food of lampreys.=--the lampreys feed on the blood and flesh of fishes. they attach themselves to the sides of the various species, rasp off the flesh with their teeth, sucking the blood till the fish weakens and dies. preparations made by students of professor jacob reighard in the university of michigan show clearly that the lamprey stomach contains muscular tissue as well as the blood of fishes. the river species do a great deal of mischief, a fact which has been the subject of a valuable investigation by professor h. a. surface, who has also considered the methods available for their destruction. the flesh of the lamprey is wholesome, and the larger species, especially the great sea lamprey of the atlantic, _petromyzon marinus_, are valued as food. the small species, according to prof. gage, never feed on fishes. [illustration: fig. .--lamprey, _petromyzon marinus_ l. woods hole, mass.] =metamorphosis of lampreys.=--all lampreys, so far as known, pass through a distinct metamorphosis. the young, known as the _ammocoetes_ form, are slender, eyeless, and with the mouth narrow and toothless. from professor surface's paper on "the removal of lampreys from the interior waters of new york" we have the following extracts (slightly condensed): [illustration: fig. .--_petromyzon marinus unicolor_ (de kay). mouth of lake lamprey, cayuga lake. (after gage.)] [illustration: fig. .--_lampetra wilderi_ jordan & evermann. larval brook lamprey in its burrow in a glass filled with sand. (after gage.)] [illustration: fig. .--_lampetra wilderi_ jordan & evermann. mouth of brook lamprey. cayuga lake. (after gage.)] "in the latter part of the fall the young lampreys, _petromyzon marinus unicolor_, the variety land-locked in the lakes of central new york, metamorphose and assume the form of the adult. they are now about six or eight inches long. the externally segmented condition of the body disappears. the eyes appear to grow out through the skin and become plainly visible and functional. the mouth is no longer filled with vertical membranous sheets to act as a sieve, but it contains nearly one hundred and fifty sharp and chitinous teeth, arranged in rows that are more or less concentric and at the same time presenting the appearance of circular radiation. these teeth are very strong, with sharp points, and in structure each has the appearance of a hollow cone of chitin placed over another cone or papilla. a little below the center of the mouth is the oral opening, which is circular and contains a flattened tongue which bears finer teeth of chitin set closely together and arranged in two interrupted (appearing as four) curved rows extending up and down from the ventral toward the dorsal side of the mouth. around the mouth is a circle of soft membrane finally surrounded by a margin of fimbriæ or small fringe. this completes the apparatus with which the lamprey attaches itself to its victims, takes its food, carries stones, builds and tears down its nest, seizes its mate, holds itself in position in a strong current, and climbs over falls." =mischief done by lampreys.=--"the most common economic feature in the entire life history of these animals is their feeding habits in this (spawning) stage, their food now consisting wholly of the blood (and flesh) of fishes. a lamprey is able to strike its suctorial mouth against a fish, and in an instant becomes so firmly attached that it is very rarely indeed that the efforts of the fish will avail to rid itself of its persecutor. when a lamprey attaches itself to a person's hand in the aquarium, it can only be freed by lifting it from the water. as a rule it will drop the instant it is exposed to the open air, although often it will remain attached for some time even in the open air, or may attach itself to an object while out of water. "nearly all lampreys that are attached to fish when they are caught in nets will escape through the meshes of the nets, but some are occasionally brought ashore and may hang on to their victim with bulldog pertinacity. "the fishes that are mostly attacked are of the soft-rayed species, having cycloid scales, the spiny-rayed species with ctenoid scales being most nearly immune from their attacks. we think there may be three reasons for this: st, the fishes of the latter group are generally more alert and more active than those of the former, and may be able more readily to dart away from such enemies; d, their scales are thicker and stronger and appear to be more firmly imbedded in the skin, consequently it is more difficult for the lampreys to hold on and cut through the heavier coat-of-mail to obtain the blood of the victim; d, since the fishes of the second group are wholly carnivorous and in fact almost exclusively fish-eating when adult, in every body of water they are more rare than those of the first group, which are more nearly omnivorous. according to the laws and requirements of nature the fishes of the first group must be more abundant, as they become the food for those of the second, and it is on account of their greater abundance that the lampreys' attacks on them are more observed. "there is no doubt that the bullhead, or horned pout (_ameiurus nebulosus_), is by far the greatest sufferer from lamprey attacks in cayuga lake. this may be due in part to the sluggish habits of the fish, which render it an easy victim, but it is more likely due to the fact that this fish has no scales and the lamprey has nothing to do but to pierce the thick skin and find its feast of blood ready for it. there is no doubt of the excellency of the bullhead as a food-fish and of its increasing favor with mankind. it is at present the most important food- and market-fish of the state (new york), being caught by bushels in the early part of june when preparing to spawn. as we have observed at times more than ninety per cent. of the catch attacked by lampreys, it can readily be seen how very serious are the attacks of this terrible parasite which is surely devastating our lakes and streams." =migration or "running" of lampreys.=--"after thus feeding to an unusual extent, their reproductive elements (gonads) become mature and their alimentary canals commence to atrophy. this duct finally becomes so occluded that from formerly being large enough to admit a lead-pencil of average size when forced through it, later not even liquids can pass through, and it becomes nearly a thread closely surrounded by the crowding reproductive organs. when these changes commence to ensue, the lampreys turn their heads against the current and set out on their long journeys to the sites that are favorable for spawning, which here may be from two to eight miles from the lake. in this migration they are true to their instincts and habits of laziness in being carried about, as they make use of any available object, such as a fish, boat, etc., that is going in their direction, fastening to it with their suctorial mouths and being borne along at their ease. during this season it is not infrequent that as the cornell crews come in from practice and lift their shells from the water, they find lampreys clinging to the bottoms of the boats, sometimes as many as fifty at one time. they are likely to crowd up all streams flowing into the lake, inspecting the bed of the stream as they go. they do not stop until they reach favorable spawning sites, and if they find unsurmountable obstacles in their way, such as vertical falls or dams, they turn around and go down-stream until they find another, up which they go. this is proved every spring by the number of adult lampreys which are seen temporarily in pall creek and cascadilla creek. in each of these streams, about a mile from its mouth, there is a vertical fall over thirty feet in height which the lampreys cannot surmount, and in fact they have never been seen attempting to do so. after clinging with their mouths to the stones at the foot of the falls for a few days, they work their way down-stream, carefully inspecting all the bottom for suitable spawning sites. they do not spawn in these streams because there are too many rocks and no sand, but finally enter the only stream (the cayuga lake inlet) in which they find suitable and accessible spawning sites. [illustration: fig. .--kamchatka lamprey, _lampetra camtschatica_ (tilesius). kamchatka.] "the three-toothed lampreys (_entosphenus tridentatus_) of the west coast climb low falls or rapids by a series of leaps, holding with their mouths to rest, then jumping and striking again and holding, thus leap by leap gaining the entire distance. "the lampreys here have never been known to show any tendency or ability to climb, probably because there are no rapids or mere low falls in the streams up which they would run. in fact, as the inlet is the only stream entering cayuga lake in this region which presents suitable spawning conditions and no obstructions, it can be seen at once that all the lampreys must spawn in this stream and its tributaries. [illustration: fig. .--oregon lamprey, _entosphenus tridentatus_, ascending a brook. (modified from a photograph by dr. h. m. smith. published by prof. h. a. surface.) willamette river, oregon.] "in 'running' they move almost entirely at night, and if they do not reach a suitable spawning site by daylight, they will cling to roots or stones during the day and complete their journey the next night. this has been proven by the positive observation of individuals. of the specimens that run up early in the season, about four-fifths are males. thus the males do not exactly precede the females, because we have found the latter sex represented in the stream as early in the season as the former, but in the earlier part of the season the number of the males certainly greatly predominates. this proportion of males gradually decreases, until in the middle of the spawning season the sexes are about equally represented, and toward the latter part of the season the females continue to come until they in turn show the greater numbers. thus it appears very evident in general that the reproductive instinct impels the most of the males to seek the spawning ground before the most of the females do. however, it should be said that neither the males nor the females show all of the entirely sexually mature features when they first run up-stream in the beginning of the season, but later they are perfectly mature and 'ripe' in every regard when they first appear in the stream. when they migrate, they stop at the site that seems to suit their fancy, many stopping near the lake, others pushing on four or five miles farther up-stream. we have noted, however, that later in the season the lower courses become more crowded, showing that the late comers do not attempt to push up-stream as far as those that came earlier. also it thus follows, from what was just said about late-running females, that in the latter part of the season the lower spawning beds are especially crowded with females. in fact, during the early part of the month of june we have found, not more than half a mile above the lowest spawning bed, as many as five females on a spawning nest with but one male; and in that immediate vicinity many nests indeed were found at that time with two or three females and but one male. "having arrived at a shoal which seems to present suitable conditions for a spawning nest, the individual or pair commences at once to move stones with its mouth from the centre to the margin of an area one or two feet in diameter. when many stones are thus placed, especially at the upper edge, and they are cleaned quite free of sediment and algæ, both by being moved and by being fanned with the tail, and when the proper condition of sand is found in the bottom of the basin thus formed, it is ready to be used as a spawning bed or nest. a great many nests are commenced and deserted. this has been left as a mystery in publications on the subject, but we are well convinced that it is because the lampreys do not find the requisites or proper conditions of bottom (rocks, sand, etc., as given below) to supply all their needs and fulfill all conditions for ideal sites. this desertion of half-constructed nests is just what would be expected and anticipated in connection with the explanation of 'requisite conditions for spawning,' given below, because some shallows contain more sand and fewer stones, and others contain many larger stones but no sand, while others contain pebbles lying over either rocks or sand. the lampreys remove some of the material, and if they do not find all the essentials for a spawning nest, the site is deserted and the creatures move on." =requisite conditions for spawning with lampreys.=--"for a spawning site two conditions are immediately essential--proper conditions of water and suitable stream bed or bottom. of course with these it is essential that no impassable barriers (dam or falls) exist between the lake and the spawning sites to prevent migration at the proper 'running' season. lampreys will not spawn where there is no sand lying on the bottom between the rocks, as sand is essential in covering the eggs (see remarks on the 'spawning process'); neither will they spawn where the bottom is all sand and small gravel, as they cannot take hold of this material with their mouths to construct nests or to hold themselves in the current, and they would not find here pebbles and stones to carry over the nest while spawning, as described elsewhere. it can thus be seen that, as suggested above, the reason they do not spawn in fall creek and cascadilla creek, between the lake and the falls, is that the beds of these streams are very rocky, being covered only with large stones and no sand. there is no doubt that the lampreys find here suitable conditions of water, but they do not remain to spawn on account of the absence of the proper conditions of stream bed. again, they do not spawn in the lower course of the inlet for a distance of nearly two miles from the lake, because near the lake the bed of the stream is composed of silt, while for some distance above this (up-stream) there is nothing but sand. farther up-stream are found pebbles and stones commingled with sand, which combination satisfies the demands of the lampreys for material in constructing nests and covering eggs. the accessibility of these sites, together with their suitable conditions, render the inlet the great and perhaps the only spawning stream of the lake; and, doubtless, all the mature lampreys come here to spawn, excepting a few which spawn in the lower part of six-mile creek, a tributary of the inlet. "as the course of the stream where the beds abound is divided into pools, separated by stony ripples or shallows, the nests must be made at the ends of the pools. of the spawning beds personally observed during several seasons, nine-tenths of the entire number were formed just above the shallows at the lower ends of the pools, while only a few were placed below them. an advantage in forming the nest above the shoals rather than below it is that in the former place the water runs more swiftly over the lower and middle parts of such a bed than at its upper margin, since the velocity decreases in either direction from the steeper part of the shallows; and any organic material or sediment that would wash over the upper edge of the nest is thus carried on rather than left as a deposit. when formed below the shallows, owing to the decreased velocity at the lower part of the nest compared with that at the upper, the sediment is likely to settle in the hollow of the nest, and, through the process of decay of the organic material, prove disastrous or unfavorable for the developing embryos. "the necessity of sand in the spawning bed indicates the explanation of why we see so many shallows which have no spawning lampreys upon them, while there are others in the same vicinity that are crowded. there will be no nests formed if there is too little or too much sand, not enough or too many stones, or stones that are all too small or all too large. the stones must vary from the size of an egg to the size of a man's hand, and must be intermingled with sand without mud or rubbish. "the lampreys choose to make their spawning nests just where the water flows so swiftly that it will carry the sand a short distance, but will not sweep it out of the nest. this condition furnishes not only force to wash the sand over the eggs when laid, but also keeps the adult lampreys supplied with an abundance of fresh water containing the dissolved air needed for their very rapid respiration. of course in such rapid water the eggs are likely to be carried away down-stream, but nature provides against this by the fact that they are adhesive, and the mating lampreys stir up the sand with their tails, thus weighing down the freshly laid eggs and holding them in the nest. hence the necessity of an abundance of sand at the spawning site." =the spawning process with lampreys.=--"there is much interest in the study of the spawning process, as it is for the maintenance of the race that the lampreys risk and end their lives; and as they are by far the lowest form of vertebrates found within the united states, a consideration of their actions and apparent evidences of instinct becomes of unusual attraction. let us consider one of those numerous examples in which the male migrates before the female. when he comes to that portion of the stream where the conditions named above are favorable, he commences to form a nest by moving and clearing stones and making a basin with a sandy bottom about the size of a common wash-bowl. several nests may be started and deserted before perfect conditions are found for the completion of one. the male may be joined by a female either before or after the nest is completed. there is at once harmony in the family; but if another male should attempt to intrude, either before or after the coming of the female, he is likely to be summarily dealt with and dismissed at once by the first tenant. as soon as the female arrives she too commences to move pebbles and stones with her mouth. "sometimes the nest is made large enough to contain several pairs, or often unequal numbers of males and females; or they may be constructed so closely together as to form one continuous ditch across the stream, just above the shallows. many stones are left at the sides and especially at the upper margin of the nest, and to these both lampreys often cling for a few minutes as though to rest. while the female is thus quiet, the male seizes her with his mouth at the back of her head, clinging as to a fish. he presses his body as tightly as possible against her side, and loops his tail over her near the vent and down against the opposite side of her body so tightly that the sand, accidentally coming between them, often wears the skin entirely off of either or both at the place of closest contact. in most observed instances the male pressed against the right side of the female, although there is no unvarying rule as to position. the pressure of the male thus aids to force the eggs from the body of the female, which flow very easily when ripe. the vents of the two lampreys are thus brought into close proximity, and the conspicuous genital papilla of the male serves to guide the milt directly to the issuing spawn. there appears to be no true intromission, although definite observation of this feature is quite difficult, and, in fact, impossible. during the time of actual pairing, which lasts but a few seconds, both members of the pair exhibit tremendous excitement, shaking their bodies in rapid vibrations and stirring up such a cloud of sand with their tails that their eggs are at once concealed and covered. as the eggs are adhesive and non-buoyant, the sand that is stirred up adheres to them immediately and covers most of them before the school of minnows in waiting just below the nest can dart through the water and regale themselves upon the eggs of these enemies of their race; but woe to the eggs that are not at once concealed. we would suggest that the function of the characteristic anal fin, which is possessed only by the female, and only at this time of year, may be to aid in this vastly important process of stirring up the sand as the eggs are expelled; and the explanation of the absence of such a fin from the ventral side of the tail of the male may be found in the fact that it could not be used for the same purpose at the instant when most needed, since the male is just then using his tail as a clasping organ to give him an essential position in pairing. as soon as they shake together they commence to move stones from one part of the nest to another, to bring more loose sand down over their eggs. they work at this from one to five minutes, then shake again, thus making the intervals between mating from one to five minutes, with a general average of about three and a half minutes. "although their work of moving stones does not appear to be systematic in reference to the placing of the pebbles, or as viewed from the standpoint of man, it does not need to be so in order to perfectly fulfill all the purposes of the lampreys. as shown above in the remarks on the spawning habits of the brook lampreys, the important end which they thus accomplish is the loosening and shifting of the sand to cover their eggs; and the more the stones are moved, even in the apparently indiscriminate manner shown, the better is this purpose achieved. yet, in general, they ultimately accomplish the feat of moving to the lower side of the nest all the stones they have placed or left at the upper margin. at the close of the spawning season when the nest is seen with no large pebbles at its upper margin, but quite a pile of stones below, it can be known that the former occupants completed their spawning process there; but if many small stones are left at the upper edge and at the sides, and a large pile is not formed at the lower edge, it can be known that the nest was forsaken or the lampreys removed before the spawning process was completed. the stones they move are often twice as heavy as themselves, and are sometimes even three or four times as heavy. since they are not attempting to build a stone wall of heavy material, there is no occasion for their joining forces to remove stones of extraordinary size, and they rarely do so, although once during the past spring ( ) we saw two lake lampreys carrying the same large stone down-stream across their nest. although this place was occupied by scores of brook lampreys, there were but three pairs of lake lampreys seen here. it is true that one of these creatures often moves the same stone several times, and many even attempt many times to move a stone that has already been found too heavy for it; but sooner or later the rock may become undermined so that the water will aid them, and they have no way of knowing what they can do under such circumstances until they try. also, the repeated moving of one stone may subserve the same purpose for the lamprey in covering its eggs with sand as would the less frequent removal of many. "when disturbed on the spawning nest, either of the pair will return to the same nest if its mate is to be found there; but if its mate is in another place, it will go to it, and if its mate is removed or killed, it is likely to go to any part of the stream to another nest. when disturbed, they often start up-stream for a short distance, but soon dart down-stream with a velocity that is almost incredible. they can swim faster than the true fishes, and after they get a start are generally pretty sure to make good their escape, although we have seen them dart so wildly and frantically down-stream that they would shoot clear out on the bank and become an easy victim of the collector. this peculiar kind of circumstance is most likely to happen with those lampreys that are becoming blinded from long exposure to the bright light over the clear running water. if there is a solitary individual on a nest when disturbed, it may not return to that nest, but to any that has been started, or it may stay in the deep pool below the shallows until evening and then move some distance up-stream. when the nest is large and occupied by several individuals, those that are disturbed may return to any other such nest. we have never seen evidence of one female driving another female out of a spawning-nest; and from the great number of nests in which we have found the numbers of the females exceeding those of the males, we would be led to infer that the former live together in greater harmony than do the males. "under the subject of the number of eggs laid, we should have said that at one shake the female spawns from twenty to forty. we once caught in fine gauze twenty-eight eggs from a female at one spawning instant. in accordance with the frequency of spawning stated, and the number of eggs contained in the body of one female, the entire length of time given to the spawning process would be from two to four days. this agrees with the observed facts, although the lampreys spend much time in moving stones and thoroughly covering the nests with sand. even after the work of spawning and moving stones is entirely completed, they remain clinging to rocks in various parts of the stream, until they are weakened by fungus and general debility, when they gradually drift down-stream. "in forming nests there is a distinct tendency to utilize those sites that are concealed by overhanging bushes, branches, fallen tree-tops, or grass or weeds, probably not only for concealment, but also to avoid the bright sunlight, which sooner or later causes them to go blind, as it does many fishes when they have to live in water without shade. toward the end of the spawning season, it is very common to see blind lampreys clinging helplessly to any rocks on the bottom, quite unable to again find spawning-beds. however, at such times they are generally spent and merely awaiting the inevitable end. "as with the brook lamprey, the time of spawning and duration of the nesting period depend upon the temperature of the water, as does also the duration of the period of hatching or development of the embryo. they first run up-stream when the water reaches a temperature of ° or ° fahr., and commence spawning at about °. a temperature of ° finds the spawning process in its height, and at ° it is fairly completed. it is thus that the rapidity with which the water becomes heated generally determines the length of time the lampreys remain in the stream. this may continue later in the season for those that run later, but usually it is about a month or six weeks from the time the first of this species is seen on a spawning-nest until the last is gone." =what becomes of lampreys after spawning?=--"there has been much conjecture as to the final end of the lampreys, some writers contending that they die after spawning, others that they return to deep water and recuperate, and yet others compromise these two widely divergent views by saying that some die and others do not. the fact is that the spawning process completely wears out the lampreys, and leaves them in a physical condition from which they could never recover. they become stone-blind; the alimentary canal suffers complete atrophy; their flesh becomes very green from the katabolic products, which find the natural outlet occluded; they lose their rich yellow color and plump, symmetrical appearance; their skin becomes torn, scratched, and worn off in many places, so that they are covered with sores, and they become covered with a parasitic or sarcophytic fungus, which forms a dense mat over almost their entire bodies, and they are so completely debilitated and worn out that recovery is entirely out of the question. what is more, the most careful microscopical examination of ovaries and testes has failed to reveal any evidence of new gonads or reproductive bodies. this is proof that reproduction could not again ensue without a practical rebuilding of the animals, even though they should regain their vitality. a. mueller, in , showed that all the ova in the lamprey were of the same size, and that after spawning no small reproductive bodies remained to be developed later. this is strong evidence of death after once spawning. "one author writes that an argument against the theory of their dying after spawning can be found in the fact that so few dead ones have been found by him. however, many can be found dead if the investigator only knows how and where to look for them. we should not anticipate finding them in water that is shallow enough for the bottom to be plainly seen, as there the current is strong enough to move them. it is in the deep, quiet, pools where sediment is depositing that the dead lampreys are dropped by the running water, and there they sink into the soft ooze. "the absence of great numbers of dead lampreys from visible portions of the stream cannot be regarded as important evidence against the argument that they die soon after spawning once, as the bodies are very soon disintegrated in the water. in the weir that we maintained in , a number of old, worn-out, and fungus-covered lampreys were caught drifting down-stream; some were dead, some alive, and others dying and already insensible, but none were seen going down that appeared to be in condition to possibly regain their strength." [illustration: fig. _a_.--brook lamprey, _lampetra wilderi_. (after gage.)] chapter xxix the class elasmobranchii or shark-like fishes =the sharks.=--the gap between the lancelets and the lampreys is a very wide one. assuming the primitive nature of both groups, this gap must represent the period necessary for the evolution of brain, skull, and elaborate sense organs. the interspace between the lampreys and the nearest fish-like forms which follow them in an ascending scale is not less remarkable. between the lamprey and the shark we have the development of paired fins with their basal attachments of shoulder-girdle and pelvis, the formation of a lower jaw, the relegation of the teeth to the borders of the mouth, the development of separate vertebræ along the line of the notochord, the development of the gill-arches, and of an external covering of enameled points or placoid scales. these traits of progress separate the elasmobranchs from all lower vertebrates. for those animals which possess them, the class name of _pisces_ or fishes has been adopted by numerous authors. if this term is to be retained for technical purposes, it should be applied to the aquatic vertebrates above the lampreys and lancelets. we may, however, regard fish as a popular term only, rather than to restrict the name to members of a class called _pisces_. from the bony fishes, on the other hand, the sharks are distinguished by the much less specialization of the skeleton, both as regards form and substance, by the lack of membrane bones, of air-bladder, and of true scales, and by various peculiarities of the skeleton itself. the upper jaw, for example, is formed not of maxillary and premaxillary, but of elements which in the lower fishes would be regarded as belonging to the palatine and pterygoid series. the lower jaw is formed not of several pieces, but of a cartilage called meckel's cartilage, which in higher fishes precedes the development of a separate dentary bone. these structures are sometimes called primary jaws, as distinguished from secondary jaws or true jaws developed in addition to those bones in the _actinopteri_ or typical fishes. in the sharks the shoulder-girdle is attached, not to the skull, but to a vertebra at some distance behind it, leaving a distinct neck, such as is possessed or retained by the vertebrate higher than fishes. the shoulder-girdle itself is a continuous arch of cartilage, joining its fellow at the breast of the fish. other peculiar traits will be mentioned later. =characters of elasmobranchs.=--the essential character of the elasmobranchs as a whole are these: the skeleton is cartilaginous, the skull without sutures, and the notochord more or less fully replaced or inclosed by vertebral segments. the jaws are peculiar in structure, as are also the teeth, which are usually highly specialized and found on the jaws only. there are no membrane bones; the shoulder-girdle is well developed, each half of one piece of cartilage, and the ventral fins, with the pelvic-girdle, are always present, always many-rayed, and abdominal in position. the skin is covered with placoid scales, or shagreen, or with bony bucklers, or else it is naked. it is never provided with imbricated scales. the tail is diphycercal, heterocercal, or else it degenerates into a whip-like organ, a form which has been called leptocercal. the gill-arches are , , or in number, with often an accessory gill-slit or spiracle. the ventral fins in the males (except perhaps in certain primitive forms) are provided with elaborate cartilaginous appendages or claspers. the brain is elongate, its parts well separated, the optic nerves interlacing. the heart has a contractile arterial cone containing several rows of valves; the intestine has a spiral valve; the eggs are large, hatched within the body, or else deposited in a leathery case. =classification of elasmobranchs.=--the group of sharks and their allies, rays, and chimæras, is usually known collectively as _elasmobranchii_ (~elasmos~, blade or plate; ~branchos~, gill). other names applied to all or a part of this group are these: _selachii_ (~selachos~, a cartilage, the name also used by the greeks for the gristle-fishes or sharks); _plagiostomi_ (~plagios~, oblique; ~stoma~, mouth); _chondropterygii_ (~chondros~, cartilage; ~pteryx~, fin); and _antacea_ (~antakaios~, sturgeon). they represent the most primitive known type of jaw-bearing vertebrates, or _gnathostomi_ (~gnathos~, jaw; ~stoma~, mouth), the chordates without jaws being sometimes called collectively _agnatha_ (~a-gnathos~, without jaws). these higher types of fishes have been also called collectively _lyrifera_, the form of the two shoulder-girdles taken together being compared to that of a lyre. through shark-like forms all the higher vertebrates must probably trace their descent. sharks' teeth and fin-spines are found in all rocks from the upper silurian deposits to the present time, and while the majority of the genera are now extinct, the class has had a vigorous representation in all the seas, later palæozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic, as well as in recent times. most of the elasmobranchs are large, coarse-fleshed, active animals feeding on fishes, hunting down their prey through superior strength and activity. but to this there are many exceptions, and the highly specialized modern shark of the type of the mackerel-shark or man-eater is by no means a fair type of the whole great class, some of the earliest types being diminutive, feeble, and toothless. =subclasses of elasmobranchs.=--with the very earliest recognizable remains it is clear that the elasmobranchs are already divided into two great divisions, the sharks and the _chimæras_. these groups we may call subclasses, the _selachii_ and the _holocephali_, or chismopnea. the _selachii_, or sharks and rays, have the skull hyostylic, that is, with the quadrate bone grown fast to the palate which forms the upper jaw, the hyomandibular, acting as suspensorium to the lower jaw, being articulated directly to it. the palato-quadrate apparatus, the front of which forms the upper jaw in the shark, is not fused to the cranium, although it is sometimes articulated with it. there are as many external gill-slits as there are gill-arches ( , , or ), and the gills are adnate to the flesh of their own arches, without free tips. the cerebral hemispheres are grown together. the teeth are separated and usually strongly specialized, being primitively modified from the prickles or other defences of the skin. there is no frontal holder or bony hook on the forehead of the male. the subclass _holocephali_, or _chimæras_, differ from the sharks in all this series of characters, and its separation as a distinct group goes back to the devonian or even farther, the earliest known sharks having little more in common with chimæras than the modern forms have. =the selachii.=--there have been many efforts to divide the sharks and rays into natural orders. most writers have contented themselves with placing the sharks in one order (_squali_ or _galei_ or _pleurotremi_) having the gill-openings on the side, and the rays in another (_rajæ_, _batoidei_, _hypotrema_) having the gill-openings underneath. of far more importance than this superficial character of adaptation are the distinctions drawn from the skeleton. dr. gill has used the attachment of the palato-quadrate apparatus as the basis of a classification. the _opistharthri_ (_hexanchidæ_) have this structure articulated with the postorbital part of the skull. in the _prosarthri_ (_heterodontidæ_) it is articulated with the preorbital part of the skull, while in the other sharks (_anarthri_) it is not articulated at all. but these characters do not appear to be always important. _chlamydoselachus_, for example, differs in this regard from _heptranchias_, which in other respects it closely resembles. yet, in general, the groups thus characterized are undoubtedly natural ones. [illustration: fig. .--fin-spine of _onchus tenuistriatus_ agassiz. (after zittel.)] =hasse's classification of elasmobranchs.=--in , professor carl hasse proposed to subdivide the sharks on the basis of the structure of the individual vertebræ. in the lowest group, a hypothetical order of _polyospondyli_, possibly represented by the fossil spines called _onchus_, an undivided notochord, perhaps swollen at regular intervals, is assumed to have represented the vertebral column. in the _diplospondyli_ (_hexanchidæ_) the imperfectly segmented vertebræ are joined in pairs, each pair having two neural arches. in the _asterospondyli_ or ordinary sharks each vertebra has its calcareous lamella radiating star-like from the central axis. in the _cyclospondyli_ (_squalidæ_, etc.) the calcareous part forms a single ring about the axis, and in the _tectospondyli_ (_squatina_, rays, etc.) it forms several rings. these groups again are natural and correspond fairly with those based on other characters. at the same time there is no far-reaching difference between _cyclospondyli_ and _tectospondyli_, and the last-named section includes both sharks and rays. [illustration: fig. .--section of vertebræ of sharks, showing calcification. (after hasse.) . _cyclospondyli_ (_squalus_); . _tectospondyli_ (_squatina_); . _asterospondyli_ (_carcharias_).] nothing is known of the _polyospondyli_, and they may never have existed at all. the _diplospondyli_ do not differ very widely from the earlier _asterospondyli_ (_cestraciontes_) which, as a matter of fact, have preceded the _diplospondyli_ in point of time, if we can trust our present knowledge of the geological record. =other classifications of elasmobranchs.=--characters more fundamental may be drawn from the structure of the pectoral fin. in this regard four distinct types appear. in _acanthoessus_ this fin consists of a stout, stiff spine, with a rayless membrane attached behind it. in _cladoselache_ the fin is low, with a very long base, like a fold of skin (_ptychopterygium_), and composed of feeble rays. in _pleuracanthus_ it is a jointed axis of many segments, with a fringe of slender fin-rays, corresponding in structure to all appearance to the pectoral fin of dipnoans and crossopterygians, the type called by gegenbaur _archipterygium_ on the hypothesis that it represents the primitive vertebrate limb. in most sharks the fin has a fan-shape, with three of the basal segments larger than the others. of these the mesopterygium is the central one, with the propterygium before it and the metapterygium behind. in the living sharks of the family of _heterodontidæ_, this form of fin occurs and the teeth of the same general type constitute the earliest remains distinctly referable to sharks in the devonian rocks. =primitive sharks.=--admitting that these four types of pectoral fin should constitute separate orders, we have next to consider which form is the most primitive and what is the line of descent. in this matter we have, in the phrase of hæckel, only the "three ancestral documents, palæontology, morphology, and ontogeny." unfortunately the evidence of these documents is incomplete and conflicting. so far as palæontology is concerned, the fin of _cladoselache_, with that of _acanthoessus_, which may be derived from it, appears earliest, but the modern type of pectoral fin with the three basal segments is assumed to have accompanied the teeth of psammodonts and cochliodonts, while the fin of the chimæra must have been developed in the devonian. the jointed fin of _cladodus_ and _pleuracanthus_ may be a modification or degradation of the ordinary type of shark-fin. assuming, however, that the geological record is not perfect and that the fin of _cladoselache_ is not clearly shown to be primitive, we have next to consider the evidence drawn from morphology. those who with balfour and others (see page ) accept the theory that the paired fins are derived from a vertebral fold, will regard with dean the fin of _cladoselache_ as coming nearest the theoretical primitive condition. the pectoral fin in _acanthoessus_ dean regards as a specialized derivative from a fin like that of _cladoselache_, the fin-rays being gathered together at the front and joined together to form the thick spine characteristic of _acanthoessus_. this view of the morphology of the fin of _acanthoessus_ is not accepted by woodward, and several different suggestions have been recorded. if with gegenbaur we regard the paired fins as derived from the septa between the gill-slits, or with kerr regard them as modified external gills, the whole theoretical relation of the parts is changed. the archipterygium of _pleuracanthus_ would be the nearest approach to the primitive pectoral limb, and from this group and its allies all the other sharks are descended. this central jointed axis of _pleuracanthus_ is regarded by traquair as the equivalent of the metapterygium in ordinary sharks. (see figs. , , .) according to traquair: "the median stern [of the archipterygium], simplified, shortened up and losing all its radials on the postaxial side, except in sometimes a few near the tip, becomes the metapterygium, while the mesopterygium and propterygium are formed by the fusion into two pieces of the basal joints of a number of preaxial radials, which have reached and become attached to the shoulder-girdle in front of the metapterygium." according to dr. traquair, the pectoral fin in _cladodus neilsoni_, a shark from the coal measures of scotland, is "apparently a veritable uniserial archipterygium midway between the truly biserial one of _pleuracanthus_ and the pectoral fin of ordinary sharks." other authors look on these matters differently, and dr. traquair admits that an opposite view is almost equally probable. cope and dean would derive the tribasal pectoral of ordinary sharks directly from the ptychopterygium or fan-like fold of _cladoselache_, while fritsch and woodward would look upon it as derived in turn from the _ceratodus_-like fin of _pleuracanthus_, itself derived from the ptychopterygium or remains of a lateral fin-fold. if the dipnoans are descended from the crossopterygians, as dollo has tried to show, the archipterygium of _pleuracanthus_ has had a different origin from the similar-appearing limb of the dipnoans, _dipterus_ and _ceratodus_. in such case the archipterygium would not be the primitive pectoral limb, but a structure which may have been independently evolved in two different groups. in the view of gegenbaur, the crossopterygians and dipnoans with all the higher vertebrates and the bony fishes would arise from the same primitive stock, ancestors, or allies of the _ichthyotomi_, which group would also furnish the ancestors of the _chimæras_. in support of this view, the primitive protocercal or diphycercal tail of _pleuracanthus_ may be brought in evidence as against the apparently more specialized heterocercal tail of _cladoselache_. but this is not conclusive, as the diphycercal tail may arise separately in different groups through degeneration, as dollo and boulenger have shown. the matter is one mainly of morphological interpretation, and no final answer can be given. on page a summary of the various arguments may be found. little light is given by embryology. the evidence of palæontology, so far as it goes, certainly favors the view of balfour. omitting detached fin-spines and fragments of uncertain character, the earliest identifiable remains of sharks belong to the lower devonian. these are allies of _acanthoessus_. _cladoselache_ comes next in the upper devonian. _pleuracanthus_ appears with the teeth and spines supposed to belong to cestraciont sharks, in the carboniferous age. the primitive-looking _notidani_ do not appear before the triassic. for this reason the decision as to which is the most primitive type of shark must therefore rest unsettled for the present and perhaps for a long time to come. the weight of authority at present seems to favor the view of balfour, wiedersheim, boulenger, and dean, that the pectoral limb has arisen from a lateral fold of skin. but weight of authority is not sufficient when evidence is confessedly lacking. for our purpose, without taking sides in this controversy, we may follow dean in allowing _cladoselache_ to stand as the most primitive of known sharks, thus arranging the elasmobranchs and rays, recent and fossil, in six orders of unequal value--_pleuropterygii_, _acanthodei_, _ichthyotomi_, _notidani_, _asterospondyli_, and _tectospondyli_. of these orders the first and second are closely related, as are also the fourth and fifth, the sixth being not far remote. the true sharks form the culmination of one series, the rays of another, while from the _ichthyotomi_ the crossopterygians and their descendants may be descended. but this again is very hypothetical, or perhaps impossible; while, on the other hand, the relation of the chimæras to the sharks is still far from clearly understood. =order pleuropterygii.=--the order of _pleuropterygii_ of dean (~pleuron~, side; ~pteryx~, fin), called by parker and haswell _cladoselachea_, consists of sharks in which the pectoral and ventral fins have each a very wide horizontal base (ptychopterygium), without jointed axis and without spine. there are no spines in any of the fins. the dorsal fin is low, and there were probably two of them. the notochord is persistent, without intercalary cartilage, such as appear in the higher sharks. the caudal fin is short, broad, and strongly heterocercal. apparently the ventral fin is without claspers. the gill-openings were probably covered by a dermal fold. the teeth are weak, being modified denticles from the asperities of the skin. the lateral line is represented by an open groove. the family of _cladoselachidæ_ consists of a single genus _cladoselache_ from the cleveland shale or middle devonian of ohio. _cladoselache fyleri_ is the best-known species, reaching a length of about two feet. dean regards this as the most primitive of the sharks, and the position of the pectorals and ventrals certainly lend weight to balfour's theory that they were originally derived from a lateral fold of skin. i am recently informed by dr. dean that he has considerable evidence that in _cladoselache_ the anus was _subterminal_. if this statement is verified, it would go far to establish the primitive character of _cladoselache_. [illustration: fig. .--_cladoselache fyleri_ (newberry), restored. upper devonian of ohio. (after dean.)] =order acanthodei.=--near the _pleuropterygii_, although much more highly developed, we may note the strange group of _acanthodei_ (~akanthôdês~, spinous). these armed fishes were once placed among the crossopterygians, but there seems no doubt that woodward is right in regarding them as a highly specialized aberrant offshoot of the primitive sharks. in this group the paired fins consist each of a single stout spine, nearly or quite destitute of other rays. a similar spine is placed in front of the dorsal fin and one in front of the anal. according to dean these spines are each produced by the growing together of all the fin-rays normally belonging to the fin, a view of their morphology not universally accepted. [illustration: fig. .--_cladoselache fyleri_ (newberry), restored. ventral view. (after dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _cladoselache fyleri_ (newberry). (after dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--_acanthoessus wardi_ (egerton). carboniferous. family _acanthoessidæ_. (after woodward.)] the dermal covering is highly specialized, the shagreen denticles being much enlarged and thickened, often set in little squares suggesting a checker-board. the skull is covered with small bony plates and membrane bones form a sort of ring about the eye. the teeth are few, large, and "degenerate in their fibrous structure." some of the species have certainly no teeth at all. the tail is always heterocercal, or bent upward at tip as in the _cladoselache_, not diphycercal, tapering and horizontal as in the _ichthyotomi_. the lower acanthodeans, according to woodward, "are the only vertebrates in which there are any structures in the adult apart from the two pairs of fins which may be plausibly interpreted as remnants of once continuous lateral folds. in _climatius_, one of the most primitive genera (see fig. ), there exists, according to woodward, and as first noticed by cope, between the pectoral and pelvic (or ventral) fins a close and regular series of paired spines, in every respect identical with those supporting the appendages that presumably correspond to the two pairs of fins in the higher genera. they may even have supported fin membranes, though specimens sufficiently well preserved to determine this point have not yet been discovered. however, it is evident that dermal calcifications attained a greater development in the _acanthodei_ than in any of the more typical elasmobranchs, and we may look for much additional information on the subject when the great fishes to which the undetermined _ichthyodorulites_ pertained became known." (see fig. .) the _acanthodei_ constitute three families. in the _acanthoessidæ_ there is but one short dorsal fin opposite the anal, and clavicular bones are absent. the gill-openings being provided with "frills" or collar-like margins, perhaps resembled those of the living genus _chlamydoselachus_, the frilled shark. the pectoral spine is very strong, and about the eye is a ring of four plates. the body is elongate, tapering, and compressed. _acanthoessus_ of agassiz, the name later changed by its author to _acanthodes_, is the principal genus, found in the devonian and carboniferous. the species of _acanthoessus_ are all small fishes rarely more than a foot long, with very small teeth or none, and with the skin well armed with a coat-of-mail. _acanthoessus bronni_ is the one longest known. in the earliest species known, from the devonian, the ventral fins are almost as large as the pectorals and nearly midway between pectorals and anal. in the later species the pectoral fins become gradually larger and the ventrals move forward. in the permian species the pectorals are enormous. _traquairia pygmæa_, from the permian of bohemia, is a diminutive sharklet three or four inches long with large scales, slender spines, and apparently no ventral fins. in the genus _cheiracanthus_ the dorsal fin is placed before the anal. in _acanthodopsis_ the teeth are few, large, and triangular, and the fin-spines relatively large. the _ischnacanthidæ_ have no clavicles, and two dorsal fins. _ischnacanthus gracilis_ of the devonian has a few large conical teeth with small cusps between them. the _diplacanthidæ_, with two dorsal fins, possess bones interpreted as clavicles. the teeth are minute or absent. in _diplacanthus striatus_ and _diplacanthus longispinus_ of the lower devonian stout spines are attached to the shoulder-girdle between the pectoral spines below. [illustration: fig. .--_diplacanthus crassissimus_ duff. devonian. family _diplacanthidæ_. (after nicholson). (restoration of jaws and gill-openings; after traquair.)] in the very small sharks called _climatius_ the fin-spines are very strong, and a series of several free spines occurs, as above stated, on each side between the pectoral and ventral fins, a supposed trace of a former lateral fold. in _paraxus_ the first dorsal spine is enormously enlarged in size, the other spines remaining much as in _climatius_. =dean on acanthodei.=--in his latest treatise on these fishes, "the devonian lamprey," dr. dean unites the _pleuropterygii_ and _acanthodei_ in a single order under the former name, regarding _acanthoessus_ as an ally and perhaps descendant of the primitive _cladoselache_. dr. dean observes: "in the foregoing classification it will be noted that the acanthodia are regarded as included under the first order of sharks, _pleuropterygii_. to this arrangement smith woodward has already objected that the spines of acanthodians cannot be regarded as the homologues of the radial elements of the cladoselachian fin (which by a process of concrescence have become fused in its interior margin), since he believes the structure to be entirely dermal in origin. his criticism, however, does not seem to me to be well grounded, for, although all will admit that acanthodian spines have become incrusted, and deeply incrusted, with a purely dermal calcification, it does not follow that the interior of the spine has not had primitively a non-dermal core. that the concrescence of the radial supporting elements of the fin took place _pari passu_ with the development of a strengthening dermal support of the fin margin was the view expressly formulated in my previous paper on this subject. it is of interest in this connection to recall that the earliest types of acanthodian spines were the widest, and those which, in spite of their incasing dermal calcification, suggest most clearly the parallel elements representing the component radial supports. there should also be recalled the many features in which the acanthodians have been shown to resemble _cladoselache_." [illustration: fig. .--_climatius scutiger_ egerton, restored. family _diplacanthidæ_. (after powrie, per zittel.)] from these primitive extinct types of shark we may proceed to those forms which have representatives among living fishes. from _cladoselache_ a fairly direct series extends through the _notidani_ and _cestraciontes_, culminating in the lamnoid and galeoid sharks. still another series, destitute of anal fin, probably arising near the _acanthodei_, reaches its highest development in the side branch of the _batoidei_ or rays. the _holocephali_ and _dipneusti_ must also find their origin in some of these primitive types, certainly not in any form of more highly specialized sharks. [illustration: fig. .--_pleuracanthus decheni_ goldfuss. family _pleuracanthidæ_. (after roemer, per zittel.)] woodward prefers to place the _tectospondyli_ next to the _ichthyotomi_, leaving the specialized sharks to be treated later. there is, however, no linear system which can interpret natural affinities, and we follow custom in placing the dogfishes and rays at the end of the shark series. [illustration: fig. .--_pleuracanthus decheni_, restored. (after brongniart.) the anterior anal very hypothetical.] [illustration: fig. .--head-bones and teeth of _pleuracanthus decheni_ goldfuss. (after davis, per dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _didymodus bohemicus_ quenstadt. carboniferous. family _pleuracanthidæ_. (after zittel)] =order ichthyotomi.=--in the order _ichthyotomi_ (~ichthys~, fish; ~tomos~, cutting; named by cope from the supposed segmentation of the cranium; called by parker and haswell _pleuracanthea_) the very large pectoral fins are developed each as an archipterygium. each fin consists of a long segmented axis fringed on one or both sides with fin-rays. the notochord is very simple, scarcely or never constricted, the calcifications of its sheath "arrested at the most primitive or rhachitomous stage, except in the tail." this is the best defined of the orders of sharks, and should perhaps rank rather as a subclass, as the _holocephali_. two families of _ichthyotomi_ are recognized by woodward, the _pleuracanthidæ_ and the _cladodontidæ_. in the _pleuracanthidæ_ the dorsal fin is long and low, continuous from head to tail, and the pectoral rays are in two rows. there is a long barbed spine with two rows of serrations at the nape. the body is slender, not depressed, and probably covered with smooth skin. the teeth have two or more blunt cusps, sometimes with a smaller one between and a blunt button behind. the interneural cartilages are more numerous than the neural spines. the genera are imperfectly known, the skeleton of _pleuracanthus decheni_ only being well preserved. this is the type of the genus called _xenacanthus_ which, according to woodward, is identical with _pleuracanthus_, a genus otherwise known from spines only. the denticles on the spine are straight or hooked backward, in _pleuracanthus_ (_lævissimus_), the spine being flattened. in _orthacanthus_ (_cylindricus_), the spine is cylindrical in section. the species called _dittodus_ and _didymodus_ are known from the teeth only. these resemble the teeth of _chlamydoselachus_. it is not known that _dittodus_ possesses the nuchal spine, although detached spines like those of _pleuracanthus_ lie about in remains called _didymodus_ in the permian rocks of texas. in _dicranodus texensis_ the palato-quadrate articulates with the postorbital process of the cranium, as in the _hexanchidæ_, and the hyomandibular is slender. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle and pectoral fins of _cladodus neilsoni_ traquair.] a genus, _chondrenchelys_, from the sub-carboniferous of scotland, is supposed to belong to the _pleuracanthidæ_, from the resemblance of the skeleton. it has no nuchal spine, and no trace of paired fins is preserved. the _cladodontidæ_ differ in having the "pectoral fin developed in the form of a uniserial archipterygium intermediate between the truly biserial one of _pleuracanthus_ and the pectoral fin of modern sharks." the numerous species are known mainly from detached teeth, especially abundant in america, the earliest being in the lower carboniferous. one species, _cladodus nelsoni_ (fig. ), described by traquair, from the sub-carboniferous of scotland shows fairly the structure of the pectoral fin. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _cladodus striatus_ agassiz. (after davis.) carboniferous.] in _cladodus mirabilis_ the teeth are very robust, the crown consisting of a median principal cone and two or three large lateral cones on each side. the cones are fairly striate. in _lambdodus_ from illinois there are no lateral cones. other genera are _dicentrodus_, _phoebodus_, _carcharopsis_, and _hybocladodus_. chapter xxx the true sharks =order notidani.=--we may recognize as a distinct order, a primitive group of recent sharks, a group of forms finding its natural place somewhere between the _cladoselachidæ_ and _heterodontidæ_, both of which groups long preceded it in geological time. the name _notidani_ (_notidanus_, ~nôtidanos~, dry back, an old name of one of the genera) may be retained for this group, which corresponds to the _diplospondyli_ of hasse, the _opistharthri_ of gill, and the _protoselachii_ of parker and haswell. the _notidani_ are characterized by the primitive structure of the spinal column, which is without calcareous matter, the centra being imperfectly developed. there are six or seven branchial arches, and in the typical forms (not in _chlamydoselachus_) the palato-quadrate or upper jaw articulates with the postorbital region of the skull. the teeth are of primitive character, of different forms in the same jaw, each with many cusps. the fins are without spines, the pectoral fin having the three basal cartilages (mesopterygium with propterygium and metapterygium) as usual among sharks. [illustration: fig. .--griset or cow-shark, _hexanchus griseus_ (gmelin). currituck inlet, n. c.] the few living forms are of high interest. the extinct species are numerous, but not very different from the living species. =family hexanchidæ.=--the majority of the living notidanoid sharks belong to the family of _hexanchidæ_. these sharks have six or seven gill-openings, one dorsal fin, and a relatively simple organization. the bodies are moderately elongate, not eel-shaped, and the palato-quadrate articulates with the postorbital part of the skull. the six or eight species are found sparsely in the warm seas. the two genera, _hexanchus_, with six, and _heptranchias_, with seven vertebræ, are found in the mediterranean. the european species are _hexanchus griseus_, the cow-shark, and _heptranchias cinereus_. the former crosses to the west indies. in california, _heptranchias maculatus_ and _hexanchus corinus_ are occasionally taken, while _heptranchias deani_ is the well known aburazame or oil shark of japan. _heptranchias indicus_, a similar species, is found in india. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _heptranchias indicus_ gmelin.] fossil _hexanchidæ_ exist in large numbers, all of them referred by woodward to the genus _notidanus_ (which is a later name than _hexanchus_ and _heptranchias_ and intended to include both these genera), differing chiefly in the number of gill-openings, a character not ascertainable in the fossils. none of these, however, appear before cretaceous time, a fact which may indicate that the simplicity of structure in _hexanchus_ and _heptranchias_ is a result of degeneration and not altogether a mark of primitive simplicity. the group is apparently much younger than the cestraciontes and little older than the lamnoids, or the squaloid groups. _heptranchias microdon_ is common in english cretaceous rocks, and _heptranchias primigenius_ and other species are found in the eocene. =family chlamydoselachidæ.=--very great interest is attached to the recent discovery by samuel garman of the frilled shark, _chlamydoselachus anguineus_, the sole living representative of the _chlamydoselachidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--frill-shark, _chlamydoselachus anguineus_ garman. from misaki, japan. (after günther.)] this shark was first found on the coast of japan, where it is rather common in deep water. it has since been taken off madeira and off the coast of norway. it is a long, slender, eel-shaped shark with six gill-openings and the palato-quadrate not articulated to the cranium. the notochord is mainly persistent, in part replaced by feeble cyclospondylic vertebral centra. each gill-opening is bordered by a broad frill of skin. there is but one dorsal fin. the teeth closely resemble those of _dittodus_ or _didymodus_ and other extinct _ichthyotomi_. the teeth have broad, backwardly extended bases overlapping, the crown consisting of three slender curved cusps, separated by rudimentary denticles. teeth of a fossil species, _chlamydoselachus lawleyi_, are recorded by j. w. davis from the pliocene of tuscany. =order asterospondyli.=--the order of _asterospondyli_ comprises the typical sharks, those in which the individual vertebræ are well developed, the calcareous lamellæ arranged so as to radiate, star-fashion, from the central axis. all these sharks possess two dorsal fins and one anal fin, the pectoral fin is normally developed, with the three basal cartilages; there are five gill-openings, and the tail is heterocercal. [illustration: fig. .--bullhead-shark, _heterodontus francisci_ (girard). san pedro, cal.] =suborder cestraciontes.=--the most ancient types may be set off as a distinct suborder under the name of _cestraciontes_ or _prosarthri_. [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw of _heterodontus philippi_. from australia. family _heterodontidæ_. (after zittel.)] these forms find their nearest allies in the _notidani_, which they resemble to some extent in dentition and in having the palato-quadrate articulated to the skull although fastened farther forward than in the _notidani_. each of the two dorsal fins has a strong spine. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of cestraciont sharks. (after woodward.) _d_, _synechodus dubrisianus_ mackie; _e_, _heterodontus canaliculatus_ egerton; _f_, _hybodus striatulus_ agassiz. (after woodward.)] [illustration: fig. .--egg of port jackson shark, _heterodontus philippi_ (lacépède). (after parker & haswell.)] =family heterodontidæ.=--among recent species this group contains only the family of _heterodontidæ_, the bullhead sharks, or port jackson sharks. in this family the head is high, with usually projecting eyebrows, the lateral teeth are pad-like, ridged or rounded, arranged in many rows, different from the pointed anterior teeth, the fins are large, the coloration is strongly marked, and the large egg-cases are spirally twisted. all have five gill-openings. the living species of _heterodontidæ_ are found only in the pacific, the port jackson shark of australia, _heterodontus philippi_, being longest known. other species are _heterodontus francisci_, common in california, _heterodontus japonicus_, in japan, and _heterodontus zebra_, in china. these small and harmless sharks at once attract attention by their peculiar forms. in the american species the jaws are less contracted than in the asiatic species, called _heterodontus_. for this reason dr. gill has separated the former under the name of _gyropleurodus_. the differences are, however, of slight value. the genus _heterodontus_ first appears in the jurassic, where a number of species are known, one of the earliest being _heterodontus falcifer_. three families of _cestraciontes_ are recognized by hay. the most primitive of these is the group of _orodontidæ_. _orodus_, from the lower carboniferous, has the teeth with a central crown, its surface wrinkled. of the _heterodontidæ_, _hybodus_, of the carboniferous and triassic, is one of the earliest and largest genera, characterized by elongate teeth of many cusps, different in different parts of the jaw, somewhat as in the _hexanchidæ_, the median points being, however, always longest. the dorsal fins are provided with long spines serrated behind. the vertebræ with persistent notochord show qualities intermediate between those of _hexanchidæ_ and _heterodontidæ_, and the same relation is shown by the teeth. in this genus two large hooked half-barbed dermal spines occur behind each orbit. [illustration: fig. .--tooth of _hybodus delabechei_ charlesworth. (after woodward.)] [illustration: fig. .--fin-spine of _hybodus basanus_ egerton. cretaceous. family _heterodontidæ_. (after nicholson.)] [illustration: fig. .--fin-spine of _hybodus reticulatus_ agassiz. (after zittel.)] _palæospinax_, with short stout spines and very large pectoral fins, formerly regarded as a dogfish, is placed near _heterodontus_ by woodward. _acrodus_, from the triassic, shows considerable resemblance to _heterodontus_. its teeth are rounded and without cusps. most of these species belong to the carboniferous, triassic, and jurassic, although some fragments ascribed to cestraciont sharks occur in the upper silurian. _asteracanthus_, known only from fin-spines in the jura, probably belongs here. it is a singular fact first noted by dr. hay, that with all the great variety of sharks, ten families in the carboniferous age, representatives of but one family, _heterodontidæ_, are found in the triassic. this family may be the parent of all subsequent sharks and rays, six families of these appearing in the jurassic and many more in the cretaceous. =edestus and its allies.=--certain monstrous structures, hitherto thought to be fin-spines, are now shown by dr. eastman and others to be coalescent teeth of cestraciont sharks. [illustration: fig. .--fin-spine of _hybodus canaliculatus_ agassiz.] [illustration: fig. .--teeth of cestraciont sharks. (after woodward.) _a_, _hybodus lævis_ woodward (after woodward); _b_, _heterodontus rugosus_ agassiz; _c_, _hybodus delabechei_ charlesworth.] [illustration: fig. .--_edestus vorax_ leidig, supposed to be a whorl of teeth. (after newberry.)] these remarkable _ichthyodorulites_ are characteristic structures of sharks of unknown nature, but probably related to the _heterodontidæ_. of these the principal genera are _edestus_, _helicoprion_, and _campyloprion_. karpinsky regards these ornate serrated spiral structures as whorls of unshed teeth cemented together and extending outside the mouth, "sharp, piercing teeth which were never shed but became fused in whorls as the animals grew." dr. eastman has, however, shown that these supposed teeth of _edestus_ are much like those of the _cochliodontidæ_, and the animals which bore them should doubtless find their place among the cestraciont sharks, perhaps within the family of _heterodontidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--_helicoprion bessonowi_ karpinsky. teeth from the permian of krasnoufimsk, russia. (after karpinsky.)] =onchus.=--the name _onchus_ was applied by agassiz to small laterally compressed spines, their sides ornamented with smooth or faintly crenulated longitudinal ridges, and with no denticles behind. very likely these belonged to extinct cestraciont sharks. _onchus murchisoni_ and _onchus tenuistriatus_ occur in the upper silurian rocks of england, in the lowest strata in which sharks have been found. to a hypothetical group of primitive sharks dr. hasse has given the name of _polyospondyli_. in these supposed ancestral sharks the vertebræ were without any ossification, a simple notochord, possibly swollen at intervals. the dorsal fin was single and long, a fold of skin with perhaps a single spine as an anterior support. the teeth must have been modified dermal papillæ, each probably with many cusps. probably seven gill-openings were developed, and the tail was diphycercal, ending in a straight point. the finely striated fin-spines not curved upward at tip, called _onchus_ from the upper silurian of the ludlow shales of england and elsewhere, are placed by hasse near his polyspondylous sharks. such spines have been retained by the group of _chimæras_, supposed to be derived from the ancestors of _onchus_, as well as by the _heterodontidæ_ and _squalidæ_. =family cochliodontidæ.=--another ancient family known from teeth alone is that of _cochliodontidæ_. these teeth resemble those of the _heterodontidæ_, but are more highly specialized. the form of the body is unknown, and the animals may have been rays rather than sharks. eastman leaves them near the _petalodontidæ_, which group of supposed rays shows a similar dentition. the teeth are convex in form, strongly arched, hollowed at base, and often marked by ridges or folds, being without sharp cusps. in each jaw is a strong posterior tooth with smaller teeth about. the elaborate specialization of these ancient teeth for crushing or grinding shells is very remarkable. the species are chiefly confined to rocks of the carboniferous age. among the principal genera are _helodus_, _psephodus_, _sandalodus_, _venustodus_, _xystrodus_, _deltodus_, _poecilodus_, and _cochliodus_. [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw of _cochliodus contortus_ agassiz. carboniferous. (after zittel.)] concerning the teeth of various fossil sharks, dr. dean observes: "their general character appears to have been primitive, but in structural details they were certainly specialized. thus their dentition had become adapted to a shellfish diet, and they had evolved defensive spines at the fin margins, sometimes at the sides of the head. in some cases the teeth remain as primitive shagreen cusps on the rim of the mouth, but become heavy and bluntish behind; in other forms the fusion of tooth clusters may present the widest range in their adaptations for crushing; and the curves and twistings of the tritoral surfaces may have resulted in the most specialized forms of dentition which are known to occur, not merely in sharks but among all vertebrates." in this neighborhood belongs, perhaps, the family of _tamiobatidæ_, known from the skull of a single specimen, called _tamiobatis vetustus_, from the devonian in eastern kentucky. the head has the depressed form of a ray, but it is probably a shark and one of the very earliest known. =suborder galei.=--the great body of recent sharks belong to the suborder _galei_, or _euselachii_, characterized by the asterospondylous vertebræ, each having a star-shaped nucleus, and by the fact that the palato-quadrate apparatus or upper jaw is not articulated with the skull. the sharks of this suborder are the most highly specialized of the group, the strongest and largest and, in general, the most active and voracious. they are of three types and naturally group themselves about the three central families _scyliorhinidæ_, _lamnidæ_, and _carchariidæ_ (_galeorhinidæ_). the _asterospondyli_ are less ancient than the preceding groups, but the modern families were well differentiated in mesozoic times. among the _galei_ the dentition is less complex than with the ancient forms, although the individual teeth are more highly specialized. the teeth are usually adapted for biting, often with knife-like or serrated edges; only the outer teeth are in function; as they are gradually lost, the inner teeth are moved outward, gradually taking the place of these. we may place first, as most primitive, the forms without nictitating membrane. =family scyliorhinidæ.=--the most primitive of the modern families is doubtless that of the _scyliorhinidæ_, or cat-sharks. this group includes sharks with the dorsal fins both behind the ventrals, the tail not keeled and not bent upward, the spiracles present, and the teeth small and close-set. the species are small and mostly spotted, found in the warm seas. all of them lay their eggs in large cases, oblong, and with long filaments or strings at the corners. the cat-sharks, or roussettes, _scyliorhinus canicula_ and _catulus stellaris_, abound in the mediterranean. their skin is used as shagreen or sandpaper in polishing furniture. the species of swell-sharks (_cephaloscylium_) (_c. uter_, in california; _c. ventriosus_, in chile; _c. laticeps_, in australia; _c. umbratile_, in japan) are short, wide-bodied sharks, which have the habit of filling the capacious stomach with air, then floating belly upward like a globefish. other species are found in the depths of the sea. _scyliorhinus_, _catulus_, and numerous other genera are found fossil. the earliest is _palæoscyllium_, in the jurassic, not very different from _scyliorhinus_, but the fins are described as more nearly like those of _ginglymostoma_. close to the _scyliorhinidæ_ is the asiatic family, _hemiscylliidæ_, which differs in being ovoviviparous, the young, according to mr. edgar r. waite, hatched within the body. the general appearance is that of the _scyliorhinidæ_, the body being elongate. _chiloscyllium_ is a well-known genus with several species in the east indies. _chiloscyllium modestum_ is the dogfish of the australian fishermen. the _orectolobidæ_ are thick-set sharks, with large heads provided with fleshy fringes. _orectolobus barbatus_ (_crossorhinus_ of authors) abounds from japan to australia. another family, _ginglymostomidæ_, differs mainly in the form of the tail, which is long and bent abruptly upward at its base. these large sharks, known as nurse-sharks, are found in the warm seas. _ginglymostoma cirrhatum_ is the common species with _orectolobus_. _stegostoma tigrinum_, of the indian seas and north to japan, one of several genera called tiger-sharks, is remarkable for its handsome spotted coloration. the extinct genus _pseudogaleus_ (_voltai_) is said to connect the _scyliorhinoid_ with the _carcharioid_ sharks. =the lamnoid or mackerel sharks.=--the most active and most ferocious of the sharks, as well as the largest and some of the most sluggish, belong to a group of families known collectively as lamnoid, because of a general resemblance to the mackerel-shark, or _lamna_, as distinguished from the blue sharks and white sharks allied to _carcharias_ (_carcharhinus_). the lamnoid sharks agree with the cat-sharks in the absence of nictitating membrane or third eyelid, but differ in the anterior insertion of the first dorsal fin, which is before the ventrals. some of these sharks have the most highly specialized teeth to be found among fishes, most effective as knives or as scissors. still others have the most highly specialized tails, either long and flail-like, or short, broad, and muscular, fitting the animal for swifter progression than is possible for any other sharks. the lamnoid families are especially numerous as fossils, their teeth abounding in all suitable rock deposits from mesozoic times till now. among the lamnoid sharks numerous families must be recognized. the most primitive is perhaps that of the _odontaspididæ_ (called _carchariidæ_ by some recent authors), now chiefly extinct, with the tail unequal and not keeled, and the teeth slender and sharp, often with smaller cusps at their base. _odontaspis_ and its relatives of the same genus are numerous, from the cretaceous onward, and three species are still extant, small sharks of a voracious habit, living on sandy shores. _odontaspis littoralis_ (also known as _carcharias littoralis_) is the common sand-shark of our atlantic coast. _odontaspis taurus_ is a similar form in the mediterranean. =family mitsukurinidæ, the goblin-sharks.=--closely allied to _odontaspis_ is the small family of _mitsukurinidæ_, of which a single living species is known. the teeth are like those of _odontaspis_, but the appearance is very different. the goblin-shark, or tenguzame, _mitsukurina owstoni_, is a very large shark rarely taken in the kuro shiwo, or warm "black current" of japan. it is characterized by the development of the snout into a long flat blade, extending far beyond the mouth, much as in _polyodon_ and in certain chimæras. several specimens are now known, all taken by capt. alan owston of yokohama in sagami bay, japan. the original specimen, a young shark just born, was presented by him to professor kakichi mitsukuri of the university of tokyo. from this our figure was taken. the largest specimen now known is in the united states national museum and is fourteen feet in length. in the upper cretaceous is a very similar genus, _scapanorhynchus_ (_lewisi_, etc.), which professor woodward thinks may be even generically identical with _mitsukurina_, though there is considerable difference in the form of the still longer rostral plate, and the species of _scapanorhynchus_ differ among themselves in this regard. [illustration: fig. .--goblin-shark (tenguzame), _mitsukurina owstoni_ jordan. from a young specimen in the imperial university of tokyo.] _mitsukurina_, with _heterodontus_, _heptranchias_, and _chlamydoselache_, is a very remarkable survival of a very ancient form. it is an interesting fact that the center of abundance of all these relics of ancient life is in the black current, or gulf stream, of japan. [illustration: fig. .--_scapanorhynchus lewisi_ davis. family _mitsukurinidæ_. under side of snout. (after woodward.)] =family alopiidæ, or thresher sharks.=--the related family of _alopiidæ_ contains probably but one recent species, the great fox-shark, or thresher, found in all warm seas. in this species, _alopias vulpes_, the tail is as long as the rest of the body and bent upward from the base. the snout is very short, and the teeth are small and close-set. the species reaches a length of about twenty-five feet. it is not especially ferocious, and the current stories of its attacks on whales probably arise from a mistake of the observers, who have taken the great killer, _orca_, for a shark. the killer is a mammal, allied to the porpoise. it attacks the whale with great ferocity, clinging to its flesh by its strong teeth. the whale rolls over and over, throwing the killer into the air, and sailors report it as a thresher. as a matter of fact the thresher very rarely if ever attacks any animal except small fish. it is said to use its tail in rounding up and destroying schools of herring and sardines. fossil teeth of thresher-sharks of some species are found from the miocene. =family pseudotriakidæ.=--the _pseudotriakidæ_ consist of two species. one of these is _pseudotriakis microdon_, a large shark with a long low tail, long and low dorsal fin, and small teeth. it has been only twice taken, off portugal and off long island. the other, the mute shark, _pseudotriakis acrales_, a large shark with the body as soft as a rag, is in the museum of stanford university, having been taken by mr. owston off misaki. =family lamnidæ.=--to the family of _lamnidæ_ proper belong the swiftest, strongest, and most voracious of all sharks. the chief distinction lies in the lunate tail, which has a keel on either side at base, as in the mackerels. this form is especially favorable for swift swimming, and it has been independently developed in the mackerel-sharks, as in the mackerels, in the interest of speed in movement. [illustration: fig. .--tooth of _lamna cuspidata_ agassiz. oligocene. family _lamnidæ_. (after nicholson.)] the porbeagle, _lamna cornubica_, known as salmon-shark in alaska, has long been noted for its murderous voracity. about kadiak island it destroys schools of salmon, and along the coasts of japan, and especially of europe and across to new england, it makes its evil presence felt among the fishermen. numerous fossil species of _lamna_ occur, known by the long knife-like flexuous teeth, each having one or two small cusps at its base. [illustration: fig. .--mackerel-shark, _isuropsis dekayi_ gill. pensacola, fla.] in the closely related genus, _isurus_, the mackerel-sharks, this cusp is wanting, while in _isuropsis_ the dorsal fin is set farther back. in each of these genera the species reach a length of to feet. each is strong, swift, and voracious. _isurus oxyrhynchus_ occurs in the mediterranean, _isuropsis dekayi_, in the gulf of mexico, and _isuropsis glauca_, from hawaii and japan westward to the red sea. =man-eating sharks.=--equally swift and vastly stronger than these mackerel-sharks is the man-eater, or great white shark, _carcharodon carcharias_. this shark, found occasionally in all warm seas, reaches a length of over thirty feet and has been known to devour men. according to linnæus, it is the animal which swallowed the prophet jonah. "jonam prophetum," he observes, "ut veteris herculem trinoctem, in hujus ventriculo tridui spateo bæsisse, verosimile est." [illustration: fig. .--tooth of _isurus hastalis_ (agassiz). miocene. family _lamnidæ_. (after nicholson.)] it is beyond comparison the most voracious of fish-like animals. near soquel, california, the writer obtained a specimen in , with a young sea-lion (_zalophus_) in its stomach. it has been taken on the coasts of europe, new england, carolina, california, hawaii, and japan, its distribution evidently girdling the globe. the genus _carcharodon_ is known at once by its broad, evenly triangular, knife-like teeth, with finely serrated edges, and without notch or cusp of any kind. but one species is now living. fossil teeth are found from the eocene. one of these, _carcharodon megalodon_ (fig. ), from fish-guano deposits in south carolina and elsewhere, has teeth nearly six inches long. the animal could not have been less than ninety feet in length. these huge sharks can be but recently extinct, as their teeth have been dredged from the sea-bottom by the _challenger_ in the mid-pacific. fossil teeth of _lamna_ and _isurus_ as well as of _carcharodon_ are found in great abundance in cretaceous and tertiary rocks. among the earlier species are forms which connect these genera very closely. the fossil genus _otodus_ must belong to the _lamnidæ_. its massive teeth with entire edges and blunt cusps at base are common in cretaceous and tertiary deposits. the teeth are formed much as in _lamna_, but are blunter, heavier, and much less effective as instruments of destruction. the extinct genus _corax_ is also placed here by woodward. [illustration: fig. .--_carcharodon megalodon_ charlesworth. miocene. family _lamnidæ_. (after zittel.)] =family cetorhinidæ, or basking sharks.=--the largest of all living sharks is the great basking shark (_cetorhinus maximus_), constituting the family of _cetorhinidæ_. this is the largest of all fishes, reaching a length of thirty-six feet and an enormous weight. it is a dull and sluggish animal of the northern seas, almost as inert as a sawlog, often floating slowly southward in pairs in the spring and caught occasionally by whalers for its liver. when caught, its huge flabby head spreads out wide on the ground, its weight in connection with the great size of the mouth-cavity rendering it shapeless. although so clumsy and without spirit, it is said that a blow with its tail will crush an ordinary whaleboat. the basking shark is known on all northern coasts, but has most frequently been taken in the north sea, and about monterey bay in california. from this locality specimens have been sent to the chief museums of europe. in its external characters the basking shark has much in common with the man-eater. its body is, however, relatively clumsy forward; its fins are lower, and its gill-openings are much broader, almost meeting under the throat. the great difference lies in the teeth, which in _cetorhinus_ are very small and weak, about in each row. the basking shark, also called elephant-shark and bone-shark, does not pursue its prey, but feeds on small creatures to be taken without effort. fossil teeth of _cetorhinus_ have been found from the cretaceous, as also fossil gill-rakers, structures which in this shark are so long as to suggest whalebone. [illustration: fig. .--basking shark, _cetorhinus maximus_ (gunner). france.] =family rhineodontidæ.=--the whale-sharks, _rhineodontidæ_, are likewise sluggish monsters with feeble teeth and keeled tails. from _cetorhinus_ they differ mainly in having the last gill-opening above the pectorals. there is probably but one species, _rhineodon typicus_, of the tropical pacific, straying northward to florida, lower california, and japan. =the carcharioid sharks, or requins.=--the largest family of recent sharks is that of _carchariidæ_ (often called _galeorhinidæ_, or _galeidæ_), a modern offshoot from the lamnoid type, and especially characterized by the presence of a third eyelid, the nictitating membrane, which can be drawn across the eye from below. the heterocercal tail has no keel; the end is bent upward; both dorsal fins are present, and the first is well in front of the ventral fins; the last gill-opening over the base of the pectoral, the head normally formed; these sharks are ovoviviparous, the young being hatched in a sort of uterus, with or without placental attachment. some of these sharks are small, blunt-toothed, and innocuous. others reach a very large size and are surpassed in voracity only by the various _lamnidæ_. the genera _cynias_ and _mustelus_, comprising the soft-mouthed or hound-sharks, have the teeth flat and paved, while well-developed spiracles are present. these small, harmless sharks abound on almost all coasts in warm regions, and are largely used as food by those who do not object to the harsh odor of shark's flesh. the best-known species is _cynias canis_ of the atlantic. by a regular gradation of intermediate forms, through such genera as _rhinotriacis_ and _triakis_ with tricuspid teeth, we reach the large sharp-toothed members of this family. _galeus_ (or _galeorhinus_) includes large sharks having spiracles, no pit at the root of the tail, and with large, coarsely serrated teeth. one species, the soup-fin shark (_galeus zyopterus_), is found on the coast of california, where its fins are highly valued by the chinese, selling at from one to two dollars for each set. the delicate fin-rays are the part used, these dissolving into a finely flavored gelatine. the liver of this and other species is used in making a coarse oil, like that taken from the dogfish. other species of _galeus_ are found in other regions, _galeus galeus_ being known in england as tope, _galeus japonicus_ abounding in japan. [illustration: fig. .--soup-fin shark, _galeus zyopterus_ (jordan & gilbert). monterey.] _galeocerdo_ differs mainly in having a pit at the root of the tail. its species, large, voracious, and tiger-spotted, are found in warm seas and known as tiger-sharks (_galeocerdo maculatus_ in the atlantic, _galeocerdo tigrinus_ in the pacific). the species of _carcharias_ (_carcharhinus_ of blainville) lack the spiracles. these species are very numerous, voracious, armed with sharp teeth, broad or narrow, and finely serrated on both edges. some of these sharks reach a length of thirty feet. they are very destructive to other fishes, and often to fishery apparatus as well. they are sometimes sought as food, more often for the oil in their livers, but, as a rule, they are rarely caught except as a measure for getting rid of them. of the many species the best known is the broad-headed _carcharias lamia_, or cub-shark, of the atlantic. this the writer has taken with a great hook and chain from the wharves at key west. these great sharks swim about harbors in the tropics, acting as scavengers and occasionally seizing arm or leg of those who venture within their reach. one species (_carcharias nicaraguensis_) is found in lake nicaragua, the only fresh-water shark known, although some run up the brackish mouth of the ganges and into lake pontchartrain. _carcharias japonicus_ abounds in japan. [illustration: fig. .--cub-shark, _carcharias lamia_ rafinesque. florida.] a closely related genus is _prionace_, its species _prionace glauca_, the great blue shark, being slender and swift, with the dorsal farther back than in _carcharias_. of the remaining genera the most important is _scoliodon_, small sharks with oblique teeth which have no serrature. one of these, _scoliodon terræ-novæ_, is the common sharp-nosed shark of our carolina coast. fossil teeth representing nearly all of these genera are common in tertiary rocks. probably allied to the _carchariidæ_ is the genus _corax_, containing large extinct sharks of the cretaceous with broadtriangular serrate teeth, very massive in substance, and without denticles. as only the teeth are known, the actual relations of the several species of _corax_ are not certainly known, and they may belong to the _lamnidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _corax pristodontus_.] =family sphyrnidæ, or hammer-head sharks.=--the _sphyrnidæ_, or hammer-headed sharks, are exactly like the _carchariidæ_ except that the sides of the head are produced, so as to give it the shape of a hammer or of a kidney, the eye being on the produced outer edge. the species are few, but mostly widely distributed; rather large, voracious sharks with small sharp teeth. the true hammer-head, _sphyrna zygæna_, fig. , is common from the mediterranean to cape cod, california, hawaii, and japan. the singular form of its head is one of the most extraordinary modifications shown among fishes. the bonnet-head (_sphyrna tiburo_) has the head kidney-shaped or crescent-shaped. it is a smaller fish, but much the same in distribution and habits. intermediate forms occur, so that with all the actual differences we must place the _sphyrnidæ_ all in one genus. fossil hammer-heads occur in the miocene, but their teeth are scarcely different from those of _carcharias_. _sphyrna prisca_, described by agassiz, is the primeval species. =the order of tectospondyli.=--the sharks and rays having no anal fin and with the calcareous lamellæ arranged in one or more rings around a central axis constitute a natural group to which, following woodward, we may apply the name of _tectospondyli_. the _cyclospondyli_ (_squalidæ_, etc.) with one ring only of calcareous lamellæ may be included in this order, as also the rays, which have tectospondylous vertebræ and differ from the sharks as a group only in having the gill-openings relegated to the lower side by the expansion of the pectoral fins. the group of rays and hasse's order of _cyclospondyli_ we may consider each as a suborder of _tectospondyli_. the origin of this group is probably to be found in or near the _cestraciontes_, as the strong dorsal spines of the _squalidæ_ resemble those of the _heterodontidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--hammer-head shark, _sphyrna zygæna_ l. hindustan. (after day.)] =suborder cyclospondyli.=--in this group the vertebræ have the calcareous lamellæ arranged in a single ring about the central axis. the anal fin, as in all the tectospondylous sharks and rays, is wanting. in all the asterospondylous sharks, as in the _ichthyotomi_, _acanthodei_, and _chimæras_, this fin is present. it is present in almost all of the bony fishes. all the species have spiracles, and in all are two dorsal fins. none have the nictitating membrane, and in all the eggs are hatched internally. within the group there is considerable variety of form and structure. as above stated, we have a perfect gradation among _tectospondyli_ from true sharks, with the gill-openings lateral, to rays, which have the gill-opening on the ventral side, the great expansion of the pectoral fins, a character of relatively recent acquisition, having crowded the gill-openings from their usual position. =family squalidæ.=--the largest and most primitive family of _cyclospondyli_ is that of the _squalidæ_, collectively known as dogfishes or skittle-dogs. in the _squalidæ_ each dorsal fin has a stout spine in front, the caudal is bent upward and not keeled, and the teeth are small and varied in form, usually not all alike in the same jaw. [illustration: fig. .--dogfish, _squalus acanthias_ l. gloucester, mass.] the genus _squalus_ includes the dogfishes, small, greedy sharks abundant in almost all cool seas and in some tropical waters. they are known by the stout spines in the dorsal fins and by their sharp, squarish cutting teeth. they are largely sought by fishermen for the oil in their livers, which is used to adulterate better oils. sometimes , have been taken in one haul of the net. they are very destructive to herrings and other food-fishes. usually the fishermen cut out the liver, throwing the shark overboard to die or to be cast on the beach. in northern europe and new england _squalus acanthias_ is abundant. _squalus sucklii_ replaces it in the waters about puget sound, and _squalus mitsukurii_ in japan and hawaii. still others are found in chile and australia. the species of _squalus_ live near shore and have the gray color usual among sharks. allied forms perhaps hardly different from _squalus_ are found in the cretaceous rocks and have been described as _centrophoroides_. other genera related to _squalus_ live in greater depths, from to fathoms, and these are violet-black. some of the deep-water forms are the smallest of all sharks, scarcely exceeding a foot in length. _etmopterus spinax_ lives in the mediterranean, and teeth of a similar species occur in the italian pliocene rocks. _etmopterus lucifer_,[ ] a deep-water species of japan, has a brilliant luminous glandular area along the sides of the belly. other small species of deeper waters belong to the genera _centrophorus_, _centroscymnus_, and _deania_. in some of these species the scales are highly specialized, pedunculate, or having the form of serrated leaves. some species are arctic, the others are most abundant about misaki in japan and the madeira islands, two regions especially rich in semi-bathybial types. allied to the _squalidæ_ is the small family of _oxynotidæ_ with short bodies and strong dorsal spine. _oxynotus centrina_ is found in the mediterranean, and its teeth occur in the miocene. [illustration: fig. .--_etmopterus lucifer_ jordan & snyder. misaki, japan.] =family dalatiidæ.=--the _dalatiidæ_, or scymnoid sharks, differ from the _squalidæ_ almost solely in the absence of dorsal spines. the smaller species belonging to _dalatias_ (_scymnorhinus_, or _scymnus_), _dalatias licha_, etc., are very much like the dogfishes. they are, however, nowhere very common. the teeth of _dalatias major_ exist in miocene rocks. in the genus _somniosus_ the species are of very much greater size, _somniosus microcephalus_ attaining the length of about twenty-five feet. this species, known as the sleeper-shark or greenland shark, lives in all cold seas and is an especial enemy of the whale, from which it bites large masses of flesh with a ferocity hardly to be expected from its clumsy appearance. from its habit of feeding on fish-offal, it is known in new england as "gurry-shark." its small quadrate teeth are very much like those of the dogfish, their tips so turned aside as to form a cutting edge. the species is stout in form and sluggish in movement. it is taken for its liver in the north atlantic on both coasts in puget sound and bering sea, and i have seen it in the markets of tokyo. in alaska it abounds about the salmon canneries feeding on the refuse. =family echinorhinidæ.=--the bramble-sharks, _echinorhinidæ_, differ in the posterior insertion of the very small dorsal fins, and in the presence of scattered round tubercles, like the thorns of a bramble instead of shagreen. the single species, _echinorhinus spinosus_ reaches a large size. it is rather scarce on the coasts of europe, and was once taken on cape cod. the teeth of an extinct species, _echinorhinus richardi_, are found in the pliocene. [illustration: fig. .--brain of monkfish, _squatina squatina_ l. (after duméril.)] =suborder rhinæ.=--the suborder _rhinæ_ includes those sharks having the vertebræ tectospondylous, that is, with two or more series of calcified lamellæ, as on the rays. they are transitional forms, as near the rays as the sharks, although having the gill-openings rather lateral than inferior, the great pectoral fins being separated by a notch from the head. the principal family is that of the angel-fishes, or monkfishes (_squatinidæ_). in this group the body is depressed and flat like that of a ray. the greatly enlarged pectorals form a sort of shoulder in front alongside of the gill-openings, which has suggested the bend of the angel's wing. the dorsals are small and far back, the tail is slender with small fins, all these being characters shared by the rays. but one genus is now extant, widely diffused in warm seas. the species if really distinct are all very close to the european _squatina squatina_. this is a moderate-sized shark of sluggish habit feeding on crabs and shells, which it crushes with its small, pointed, nail-shaped teeth. numerous fossil species of _squatina_ are found from the triassic and cretaceous, _squatina alifera_ being the best known. [illustration: fig. .--saw-shark, _pristiophorus japonicus_ günther. specimen from nagasaki.] =family pristiophoridæ, or saw-sharks.=--another highly aberrant family is that of the sawsharks, _pristiophoridæ_. these are small sharks, much like the _dalatiidæ_ in appearance, but with the snout produced into a long flat blade, on either side of which is a row of rather small sharp enameled teeth. these teeth are smaller and sharper than in the sawfish (_pristis_), and the whole animal is much smaller than its analogue among the rays. this saw must be an effective weapon among the schools of herring and anchovies on which the sawsharks feed. the true teeth are small, sharp, and close-set. the few species of sawsharks are marine, inhabiting the shores of eastern asia and australia. _pristiophorus japonicus_ is found rather sparsely along the shores of japan. the vertebræ in this group are also tectospondylous. both the _squatina_ and _pristiophorus_ represent a perfect transition from the sharks and rays. we regard them as sharks only because the gill-openings are on the side, not crowded downward to the under side of the body-disk. as fossil, _pristiophorus_ is known only from a few detached vertebræ found in germany. =suborder batoidei, or rays.=--the suborder of _batoidei_, _rajæ_, or _hypotrema_, including the skates and rays, is a direct modern offshoot from the ancestors of tectospondylous sharks, its characters all specialized in the direction of life on the bottom with a food of shells, crabs, and other creatures less active than fishes. the single tangible distinctive character of the rays as a whole lies in the position of the gill-openings, which are directly below the disk and not on the side of the neck in all the sharks. this difference in position is produced by the anterior encroachment of the large pectoral fins, which are more or less attached to the side of the head. by this arrangement, which aids in giving the body the form of a flat disk, the gill-openings are limited and forced downward. in the _squatinidæ_ (angel-fishes) and the _pristiophoridæ_ (sawsharks) the gill-openings have an intermediate position, and these families might well be referred to the _batoidei_, with which group they agree in the tectospondylous vertebræ. other characters of the rays, appearing progressively, are the widening of the disk, through the greater and greater development of the fins, the reduction of the tail, which in the more specialized forms becomes a long whip, the reduction, more and more posterior insertion, and the final loss of the dorsal fins, which are always without spine, the reduction of the teeth to a tessellated pavement, then finally to flat plates and the retention of the large spiracle. through this spiracle the rays breathe while lying on the bottom, thus avoiding the danger of introducing sand into their gills, as would be done if they breathed through the mouth. in common with the cyclospondylous sharks, all the rays lack the anal fin. the rays rarely descend to great depths in the sea. the different members have varying relations, but the group most naturally divides into thick-tailed rays or skates (_sarcura_) and whip-tailed rays or sting-rays (_masticura_). the former are much nearer to the sharks and also appear earliest in geological times. =pristididæ, or sawfishes.=--the sawfishes, _pristididæ_, are long, shark-like rays of large size, having, like the sawsharks, the snout prolonged into a very long and strong flat blade, with a series of strong enameled teeth implanted in sockets along either side of it. these teeth are much larger and much less sharp than in the sawsharks, but they are certainly homologous with these, and the two groups must have a common descent, distinct from that of the other rays. doubtless when taxonomy is a more refined art they will constitute a small suborder together. this character of enameled teeth on the snout would seem of more importance than the position of the gill-openings or even the flattening and expansion of the body. the true teeth in the sawfishes are blunt and close-set, pavement-like as befitting a ray. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--sawfish, _pristis pectinatus_ latham. pensacola, fla.] the sawfishes are found chiefly in river-mouths of tropical america and west africa: _pristis pectinatus_ in the west indies; _pristis zephyreus_ in western mexico; and _pristis pectinatus_ in the senegal. they reach a length of ten to twenty feet, and with their saws they make great havoc among the schools of mullets and sardines on which they feed. the stories of their attacks on the whale are without foundation. the writer has never found any of the species in the open sea. they live chiefly in the brackish water of estuaries and river-mouths. fossil teeth of sawfishes occur in abundance in the eocene. still older are vertebræ from the upper cretaceous at maestricht. in _propristis schweinfurthi_ the tooth-sockets are not yet calcified. in _sclerorhynchus atavus_, from the upper cretaceous, the teeth are complex in form, with a "crimped" or stellate base and a sharp, backward-directed enameled crown. =rhinobatidæ, or guitar-fishes.=--the _rhinobatidæ_ (guitar-fishes) are long-bodied, shovel-nosed rays, with strong tails; they are ovoviviparous, hatching the eggs within the body. the body, like that of the shark or sawfish, is covered with nearly uniform shagreen. the numerous species abound in all warm seas; they are olive-gray in color and feed on small animals of the seabottoms. the length of the snout differs considerably in different species, but in all the body is relatively long and strong. most of the species belong to _rhinobatus_. the best-known american species are _rhinobatus lentiginosus_ of florida and _rhinobatus productus_ of california. the names guitar-fish, fiddler-fish, etc., refer to the form of the body. numerous fossil species, allied to the recent forms, occur from the jurassic. species much like _rhinobatus_ occur in the cretaceous and eocene. _tamiobatis vetustus_, lately described by dr. eastman from a skull found in the devonian of eastern kentucky, the oldest ray-like fish yet known, is doubtless the type of a distinct family, _tamiobatidæ_. it is more likely a shark however than a ray, although the skull has a flattened ray-like form. [illustration: fig. .--guitar-fish, _rhinobatus lentiginosus_ garman. charleston, s. c.] closely related to the _rhinobatidæ_ are the _rhinidæ_ (_rhamphobatidæ_), a small family of large rays shaped like the guitar-fishes and found on the coast of asia. _rhina ancylostoma_ extends northward to japan. in the extinct family of _astrodermidæ_, allied to the _rhinobatidæ_, the tail has two smooth spines and the skin is covered with tubercles. in _belemnobatis sismondæ_ the tubercles are conical; in _astrodermus platypterus_ they are stellate. =rajidæ, or skates.=--the _rajidæ_, skates, or rays, inhabit the colder waters of the globe and are represented by a large number of living species. in this family the tail is stout, with two-rayed dorsal fins and sometimes a caudal fin. the skin is variously armed with spines, there being always in the male two series of specialized spinous hooks on the outer edge of the pectoral fin. there is no serrated spine or "sting," and in all the species the eggs are laid in leathery cases, which are "wheelbarrow-shaped," with a projecting tube at each of the four angles. the size of this egg-case depends on the size of the species, ranging from three to about eight inches in length. in some species more than one egg is included in the same case. most of the species belong to the typical genus _raja_, and these are especially numerous on the coasts of all northern regions, where they are largely used as food. the flesh, although rather coarse and not well flavored, can be improved by hot butter, and as "raie au beurre noir" is appreciated by the epicure. the rays of all have small rounded teeth, set in a close pavement. [illustration: fig. .--common skate, _raja erinacea_ mitchill. woods hole, mass.] some of the species, known on our coasts as "barn-door skates," reach a length of four or five feet. among these are _raja lævis_ and _raja ocellata_ on our atlantic coast, _raja binoculata_ in california, and _raja tengu_ in japan. the small tobacco-box skate, brown with black spots, abundant on the new england coast, is _raja erinacea_. the corresponding species in california is _raja inornata_, and in japan _raja kenojei_. numerous other species, _raja batis_, _clavata_, _circularis_, _fullonica_, etc., occur on the coasts of europe. some species are variegated in color, with eye-like spots or jet-black marblings. still others, living in deep waters, are jet-black with the body very soft and limp. for these garman has proposed the generic name _malacorhinus_, a name which may come into general use when the species are better known. in the deep seas rays are found even under the equator. in the south-temperate zone the species are mostly generically distinct, _psammobatis_ being a typical form, differing from _raja_. _discobatus sinensis_, common in china and japan, is a shagreen-covered form, looking like a _rhinobatus_. it is, however, a true ray, laying its eggs in egg-cases, and with the pectorals extending on the snout. fossil _rajidæ_, known by the teeth and bony tubercles, are found from the cretaceous onward. they belong to _raja_ and to the extinct genera _dynatobatis_, _oncobatis_, and _acanthobatis_. the genus _arthropterus_ (_rileyi_) from the lias, known from a large pectoral fin, with distinct cylindrical-jointed rays, may have been one of the _rajidæ_, or perhaps the type of a distinct family, _arthropteridæ_. [illustration: fig. .--numbfish, _narcine brasiliensis_ henle, showing electric cells. pensacola, fla.] =narcobatidæ, or torpedoes.=--the torpedoes, or electric rays (_narcobatidæ_), are characterized by the soft, perfectly smooth skin, by the stout tail with rayed fins, and by the ovoviviparous habit, the eggs being hatched internally. in all the species is developed an elaborate electric organ, muscular in its origin and composed of many hexagonal cells, each filled with soft fluid. these cells are arranged under the skin about the back of the head and at the base of the pectoral fin, and are capable of benumbing an enemy by means of a severe electric shock. the exercise of this power soon exhausts the animal, and a certain amount of rest is essential to recovery. the torpedoes, also known as crampfishes or numbfishes, are peculiarly soft to the touch and rather limp, the substance consisting largely of watery or fatty tissues. they are found in all warm seas. they are not often abundant, and as food they have not much value. perhaps the largest species is _tetronarce occidentalis_, the crampfish of our atlantic coast, black in color, and said sometimes to weigh pounds. in california _tetronarce californica_ reaches a length of three feet and is very rarely taken, in warm sandy bays. _tetronarce nobiliana_ in europe is much like these two american species. in the european species, _narcobatus torpedo_, the spiracles are fringed and the animal is of smaller size. to _narcine_ belong the smaller numbfish, or "entemedor," of tropical america. these have the spiracles close behind the eyes, not at a distance as in _narcobatus_ and _tetronarce_. _narcine brasiliensis_ is found throughout the west indies, and _narcine entemedor_ in the gulf of california. _astrape_, a genus with but one dorsal fin, is common in southern japan. fossil _narcobatus_ and _astrape_ occur in the eocene, one specimen of the former nearly five feet long. vertebræ of _astrape_ occur in prussia in the amber-beds. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _janassa linguæformis_ atthey. carboniferous. family _petalodontidæ_. (after nicholson.)] =petalodontidæ.=--near the _squatinidæ_, between the sharks and the rays, woodward places the large extinct family of _petalodontidæ_, with coarsely paved teeth each of which is elongate with a central ridge and one or more strong roots at base. the best-known genera are _janassa_ and _petalodus_, widely distributed in carboniferous time. _janassa_ is a broad flat shark, or, perhaps, a skate, covered with smooth shagreen. the large pectoral fins are grown to the head; the rather large ventral fins are separated from them. the tail is small, and the fins, as in the rays, are without spines. the teeth bear some resemblance to those of _myliobatis_. _janassa_ is found in the coal-measures of europe and america, and other genera extend upward from the subcarboniferous limestones, disappearing near the end of carboniferous time. _petalodus_ is equally common, but known only from the teeth. other widely distributed genera are _ctenoptychius_ and _polyrhizodus_. [illustration: fig. .--_polyrhizodus radicans_ agassiz. family _petalodontidæ_. carboniferous of ireland. (after mccoy.)] these forms may be intermediate between the skates and the sting-rays. in dentition they resemble most the latter. similar to these is the extinct family of _pristodontidæ_ with one large tooth in each jaw, the one hollowed out to meet the other. it is supposed that but two teeth existed in life, but that is not certain. nothing is known of the rest of the body in _pristodus_, the only genus of the group. =dasyatidæ, or sting-rays.=--in the section _masticura_ the tail is slender, mostly whip-like, without rayed dorsal or caudal fins, and it is usually armed with a very long spine with saw-teeth projecting backward. in the typical forms this is a very effective weapon, being wielded with great force and making a jagged wound which in man rarely heals without danger of blood-poisoning. there is no specific poison, but the slime and the loose cuticle of the spine serve to aggravate the irregular cut. i have seen one sting-ray thrust this spine through the body of another lying near it in a boat. occasionally two or three of these spines are present. in the more specialized forms of sting-rays this spine loses its importance. it becomes very small and not functional, and is then occasionally or even generally absent in individuals. the common sting-rays, those in which the caudal spine is most developed, belong to the family of _dasyatidæ_. this group is characterized by the small skate-like teeth and by the non-extension of the pectoral rays on the head. the skin is smooth or more or less rough. these animals lie flat on the sandy bottoms in nearly all seas, feeding on crabs and shellfish. all hatch the eggs within the body. the genus _urolophus_ has a rounded disk, and a stout, short tail with a caudal fin. it has a strong spine, and for its size is the most dangerous of the sting-rays. _urolophus halleri_, the california species, was named for a young man who was stung by the species at the time of its first discovery at san diego in . _urolophus jamaicensis_ abounds in the west indies, _urolophus mundus_ at panama, and _urolophus fuscus_ in japan. none of the species reach europe. the true sting-ray (stingaree, or clam-cracker), _dasyatis_, is more widely diffused and the species are very closely related. in these species the body is angular and the tail whip-like. some of the species reach a length of ten or twelve feet. none have any economic value, and all are disliked by fishermen. _dasyatis pastinaca_ is common in europe, _dasyatis centrura_ along our atlantic coast, _dasyatis sabina_ ascends the rivers of florida, and _dasyatis dipterura_ abounds in the bay of san diego. other species are found in tropical america, while still others (_dasyatis akajei_, _kuhlii_, _zugei_, etc.) swarm in japan and across india to zanzibar. [illustration: fig. .--sting-ray, _dasyatis sabina_ le sueur. galveston.] _pteroplatea_, the butterfly-ray, has the disk very much broader than long, and the trivial tail is very short, its little spine more often lost than present. different species of this genus circle the globe: _pteroplatea maclura_, on our atlantic coast; _pteroplatea marmorata_, in california; _pteroplatea japonica_, in japan; and _pteroplatea altavela_, in europe. they are all very much alike, olive, with the brown upper surface pleasingly mottled and spotted. sting-rays of various types, _tæniura_, _urolophus_, etc., occur as fossils from the eocene onward. a complete skeleton called _xiphotrygon acutidens_, distinguished from _dasyatis_ by its sharp teeth, is described by cope from the eocene of twin creek in wyoming. vertebræ of _urolophus_ are found in german eocene. _cyclobatis_ (_oligodactylus_), allied to _urolophus_, with a few long pectoral rays greatly produced, extending over the tail and forming a rayed wreath-like projection over the snout, is known from the lower cretaceous. =myliobatidæ.=--the eagle-rays, _myliobatidæ_, have the pectoral fins extended to the snout, where they form a sort of rayed pad. the teeth are very large, flat, and laid in mosaic. the whip-like tail is much like that in the _dasyatidæ_, but the spine is usually smaller. the eagle-like appearance is suggested by the form of the skull. the eyes are on the side of the head with heavy eyebrows above them. the species are destructive to clams and oysters, crushing them with their strong flat teeth. in _aëtobatus_ the teeth are very large, forming but one row. the species _aëtobatus narinari_ is showily colored, brown with yellow spots, the body very angular, with long whip-like tail. it is found from brazil to hawaii and is rather common. in _myliobatis_ the teeth are in several series. the species are many, and found in all warm seas. _myliobatis aquila_ is the eagle-ray of europe, _myliobatis californicus_ is the batfish of california, and _myliobatis tobijei_ takes its place in japan. in _rhinoptera_ the snout is notched and cross-notched in front so that it appears as if ending in four lobes at the tip. these "cow-nosed rays," or "whipparees," root up the soft bottoms of shallow bays in their search for clams, much as a drove of hogs would do it. the common american species is _rhinopterus bonasus_. _rhinoptera steindachneri_ lives in the gulf of california. teeth and spines of all these genera are common as fossils from the eocene onwards, as well as many of the extinct genus, _ptychodus_, with cyclospondylous vertebræ. _ptychodus mammilaris_, _rugosus_, and _decurrens_ are characteristic of the cretaceous of england. _myliobatis dixoni_ is common in the european eocene, as is also _myliobatis toliapicus_ and _aëtobatis irregularis_. _apocopodon seriacus_ is known from the cretaceous of brazil. [illustration: fig. .--eagle-ray, _aëtobatis narinari_ (euphrasen). cedar keys, fla.] =family psammodontidæ.=--the _psammodontidæ_ are known only from the teeth, large, flat, or rounded and finely dotted or roughened on the upper surface, as the name _psammodus_ (~psammos~, sand; ~odous~, tooth) would indicate. the way in which the jaws lie indicates that these teeth belonged to rays rather than sharks. numerous species have been described, mostly from the subcarboniferous limestones. _archæobatis gigas_, perhaps, as its name would indicate, the primeval skate, is from the subcarboniferous limestone of greencastle, indiana. teeth of numerous species of _psammodus_ and _copodus_ are found in many rocks of carboniferous age. _psammodus rugosus_ common in carboniferous rocks of europe. [illustration: fig. .--devil-ray or sea-devil, _manta birostris_ (walbaum). florida.] =family mobulidæ.=--the sea-devils, _mobulidæ_, are the mightiest of all the rays, characterized by the development of the anterior lobe of the pectorals as a pair of cephalic fins. these stand up like horns or cars on the upper part of the head. the teeth are small and flat, tubercular, and the whip-like tail is with or without spine. the species are few, little known, and inordinately large, reaching a width of more than twenty feet and a weight, according to risso, of pounds. when harpooned it is said that they will drag a large boat with great swiftness. the manta, or sea-devil, of tropical america is _manta birostris_. it is said to be much dreaded by the pearl-fishers, who fear that it will devour them "after enveloping them in its vast wings." it is not likely, however, that the manta devours anything larger than the pearl-oyster itself. _manta hamiltoni_ is a name given to a sea-devil of the gulf of california. the european species _mobula edentula_ reaches a similarly enormous size, and _mobula hypostoma_ has been scantily described from jamaica and brazil. _mobula japonica_ occurs in japan. a foetus in my possession from a huge specimen taken at misaki is nearly a foot across. in _mobula_ (_cephaloptera_) there are teeth in both jaws, in _manta_ (_ceratoptera_) in the lower jaw only. in _ceratobatis_ from jamaica (_c. robertsi_) there are teeth in the upper jaw only. otherwise the species of the three genera are much alike, and from their huge size are little known and rarely seen in collections. of _mobulidæ_ no extinct species are known. footnotes: [ ] dr. peter schmidt has made a sketch of this little shark at night from a living example, using its own light. chapter xxxi the holocephali, or chimÆras =the chimæras.=--very early in geological times, certainly as early as the middle silurian, the type of _chimæras_ diverged from that of the sharks. hasse derives them directly from his hypothetical primitive _polyospondyli_, by way of the _acanthodei_ and _ichthyotomi_. in any event the point of divergence must be placed very early in the evolution of sharks, and this suggestion is as likely as any other. the chief character of chimæras is found in the autostylic skull, which is quite different from the hyostylic skull of the sharks. in the sharks and in all higher fishes the mandible is joined to the skull by a suspensorium of bones or cartilages (quadrate, symplectic, and hyomandibular bones in the teleost fishes). to this arrangement the name hyostylic is given. in the chimæra there is no suspensorium, the mandible being directly attached to the cranium, of which the hyomandibular and quadrate elements form an integral part, this arrangement being called autostylic. the palato-quadrate apparatus, of which the upper jaw is the anterior part, is immovably fused with the cranium, instead of being articulated with it. this fact, gives the name to the subclass _holocephali_ (~holos~, whole or solid; ~kephalê~, head). other characters are found in the incomplete character of the back-bone, which consists of a scarcely segmented notochord differing from the most primitive condition imagined only in being surrounded by calcareous rings, no lime entering into the composition of the notochord itself. the tail is diphycercal and usually prolonged in a filament (leptocercal). the shoulder-girdle, as in the sharks, is free from the skull. the pectoral fins are short and broad, without segmented axis or archipterygium and without recognizable analogue of the three large cartilages seen in the sharks, the propterygium, mesopterygium, and metapterygium. in the mouth, instead of teeth, are developed flat, bony plates called tritors or grinders, set endwise in the front of the jaws. the gills are fringe-like, free at the tips as in ordinary fishes, and there is a single external opening for them all as in true fishes, and they are covered with a flap of skin. these structures are, however, quite different from those of the true fishes and are doubtless independently developed. there is no spiracle. the skin is smooth or rough. in the living forms and most of the extinct species there is a strong spine in the dorsal fin. the ventral fin in the male has complex, usually trifid, claspers, and an analogous organ, the cephalic holder, is developed on the front of the head, in the adult male. this is a bony hook with a brush of glistening enameled teeth at the end. the eggs are large, and laid in oblong or elliptical egg-cases, provided with silky filaments. the eggs are fertilized after they are extruded. mucous channels and lateral line are highly developed, being most complex about the head. the brain is essentially shark-like, the optic nerves form a chiasma, and the central hemispheres are large. the teeth of the chimæras are thus described by woodward, vol. , pp. , : "in all the known families of chimæroids, the dentition consists of a few large plates of vascular dentine, of which certain areas ('tritors') are specially hardened by the deposition of calcareous salts within and around groups of medullary canals, which rise at right angles to the functional surface. in most cases there is a single pair of such plates in the lower jaw, meeting at the symphysis, while two pairs are arranged to oppose these above. as a whole, the dentition thus closely resembles that of the typical dipnoi (as has often been pointed out); and the upper teeth may be provisionally named palatine and vomerine until further discoveries shall have revealed their precise homologies. the structures are sometimes described as 'jaws,' and regarded as dentaries, maxillæ, and premaxillæ, but the presence of a permanent pulp under each tooth is conclusive proof of their bearing no relation to the familiar membrane-bones thus named in higher fishes." =relationship of chimæras.=--as to the origin of the chimæras and their relation to the sharks, dr. dean has this recent ("the devonian lamprey") and interesting word: "the holocephali have always been a doubtful group, anatomy and palæontology contributing but imperfect evidence as to their position in the gnathostome phylum. their embryology, however, is still undescribed, except in a brief note by t. j. parker, and it is reasonably looked to to contribute evidence as to their line of descent. the problem of the relationships of the chimæroids has long been of especial interest to me, and it has led me to obtain embryonic material of a pacific species of one of these forms. it may be of interest in this connection to state that the embryology of this form gives the clearest evidence that the wide separation of the selachii and holocephali is not tenable. the entire plan of development in _chimæra colliei_ is clearly like that of a shark. the ovulation is closely like that of certain of the rays and sharks: the eggs are large, the segmentation is distinctly shark-like; the circular blastoderm overgrows the yolk in an elasmobranchian manner. the early embryos are shark-like; and the later ones have, as t. j. parker has shown, external gills, and i note further that these arise, precisely as in shark-embryos, from the posterior margin of the gill-bar. a spiracle also is present. a further and most interesting developmental feature is the fact that the autostylism in _chimæra_ is purely of secondary nature and is at the most of ordinal value. it is found that in a larva of _chimæra_ measuring mm. in length, the palato-quadrate cartilage is still separated from the skull by a wide fissure. this becomes gradually reduced by the confluence of the palato-quadrate cartilage with the skull, the fusion taking place at both the anterior and posterior ends of the mesal rim of the cartilage. the remains of the fissure are still well marked in the young _chimæra_, four inches in length; and a rudiment of it is present in the adult skull as a passage-way for a nerve. regarding the dentition: it may also be noted in the present connection that the growth of the dental plates in _chimæra_ suggests distinctly elasmobranchian conditions. thus on the roof of the mouth the palatine plates are early represented by a series of small more or less conical elements which resemble outwardly, at least, the 'anlagen' of the pavement teeth in cestraciont sharks." [illustration: fig. .--skeleton of _chimæra monstrosa_ linnæus. (after dean.)] =family chimæridæ.=--the existing chimæras are known also as spookfishes, ratfishes, and elephant-fishes. these are divided by garman into three families, and in the principal family, the _chimæridæ_, the snout is blunt, the skin without plates, and the dorsal fin is provided with a long spine. the flat tritors vary in the different genera. the single genus represented among living fishes is _chimæra_, found in cold seas and in the oceanic depths. the best-known species, _chimæra colliei_, the elephant-fish, or chimæra of california, abounds in shallow waters of ten to twenty fathoms from sitka to san diego. it is a harmless fish, useless except for the oil in its liver, and of special interest to anatomists as the only member of the family to be found when desired for dissection. this species was first found at monterey by mr. collie, naturalist of captain beechey's ship, the _blossom_. it is brown in color, with whitish spots, and reaches a length of - / feet. as a shallow-water form, with certain differences in the claspers and in the tail, _chimæra colliei_ is sometimes placed in a distinct genus, _hydrolagus_. other species inhabit much greater depths and have the tail produced into a long filament. of these, _chimæra monstrosa_, the sea-cat of the north atlantic, has been longer known than any other chimæra. _chimæra affinis_ has been dredged in the gulf stream and off portugal. _chimæra phantasma_ and _chimæra mitsukurii_ are frequently taken in japan, and the huge jet-black _chimæra purpurascens_ in hawaii and japan. none of these species are valued as food, but all impress the spectator with their curious forms. [illustration: fig. .--elephant-fish, _chimæra colliei_ lay & bennett. monterey.] the fossil _chimæridæ_, although numerous from triassic times and referred to several genera, are known chiefly by their teeth with occasional fin-spines, frontal holders, or impressions of parts of the skeleton. the earliest of _chimæroid_ remains has been described by dr. charles d. walcott[ ] from ordovician or lower silurian rocks at cañon city, colorado. of the species called _dictyorhabdus priscus_, only parts supposed to be the sheath of the notochord have been preserved. dr. dean thinks this more likely to be part of the axis of a cephalopod shell. the definitely known _chimæridæ_ are mainly confined to the rocks of the mesozoic and subsequent eras. _ischyodus priscus_ (_avitus_) of the lower jura resembles a modern chimæra. _granodus oweni_ is another extinct chimæra, and numerous fin-spines, teeth, and other fragments in the cretaceous and eocene of america and europe are referred to _edaphodon_. a species of _chimæra_ has been recorded from the pliocene of tuscany, and one of _callorhynchus_ from the greensand of new zealand. other american cretaceous genera of chimæroids are _mylognathus_, _bryactinus_, _isotænia_, _leptomylus_, and _sphagepoea_. dental plates called _rhynchodus_ are found in the devonian. =rhinochimæridæ.=--the most degenerate of existing chimæras belong to the family of _rhinochimæridæ_, characterized by the long flat soft blade in which the snout terminates. this structure resembles that seen in the deep-sea shark, _mitsukurina_, and in _polyodon_. in _rhinochimæra pacifica_ of japan the teeth in each jaw form but a single plate. in _harriotta raleighana_, of the gulf stream, they are more nearly as in _chimæra_. both are bathybial fishes, soft in texture, and found in great depths. the family of _callorhynchidæ_, or antarctic chimæras, includes the bottle-nosed chimæra (_callorhynchus callorhynchus_) of the patagonian region. in this species the snout is also produced, a portion being turned backward below in front of the mouth, forming a sensory pad well supplied with nerves. =extinct chimæroids.=--according to woodward, three other families are recognizable among the extinct forms. the _ptyctodontidæ_ are known from the teeth only, a single pair of large, laterally compressed dental plates in each jaw, with a few hard tritoral areas. these occur in silurian and devonian rocks. _ptyctodus obliquus_ from the devonian of russia is the best-known species. other genera are _rhynchodus_ and _palæomylus_. the _squalorajidæ_ have the head depressed and the snout produced in a flat rostrum, as in _harriotta_. there is no dorsal spine, and the teeth are a few thin curved plates. the frontal holder of the male is well developed. the few species occur in the lias. _squaloraja dolichognathos_ is known from numerous fragments from the triassic in england and scotland. _chalcodus permianus_ is found in german permian. the _myriacanthidæ_ have the body elongate, with dermal plates on the head and a long straight spine in the dorsal fin. the frontal holder is large. the species, few in number, are found in mesozoic rocks. _myriacanthus paradoxus_ is the best-known species. of another species, _chimæropsis paradoxa_, a skeleton about three feet long has been found which shows a number of peculiar traits. the skin is covered with ribbed shagreen scales. the dorsal fin has a large spine with retrorse serrations behind. the tail is slim, and the pectoral and ventral fins are very large. bony plates with conical spines protect the neck. the teeth are large and angular, of peculiar form. =ichthyodorulites.=--the term ichthyodorulite (~ichthys~, fish; ~dory~, lance; ~lithos~, stone) is applied to detached fin-spines, dermal spines, and tubercles belonging to unrecognized species of sharks and chimæras. some of these are serrated, others entire, some straight, some curved, and some with elaborate armature or sculpture. some doubtless belong to _cestraciontes_, others to _pleuracanthidæ_; some to _squalidæ_, some to chimæras, and others, perhaps, to forms still altogether unknown. footnotes: [ ] bulletin geol. soc. america, . chapter xxxii the class ostracophori[ ] =ostracophores.=--among the earliest vertebrates actually recognized as fossils belongs the group known as _ostracophori_ (~ostrakos~, a box; ~phoreô~, to bear). these are most extraordinary creatures, jawless, apparently limbless, and enveloped in most cases anteriorly in a coat of mail. in typical forms the head is very broad, bony, and horseshoe-shaped, attached to a slender body, often scaly, with small fins and ending in a heterocercal tail. what the mouth was like can only be guessed, but no trace of jaws has yet been found in connection with it. the most remarkable distinctive character is found in the absence of jaws and limbs in connection with the bony armature. the latter is, however, sometimes obsolete. the back-bone, as usual in primitive fishes, is developed as a persistent notochord imperfectly segmented. the entire absence of jaw structures, as well as the character of the armature, at once separates them widely from the mailed _arthrodires_ of a later period. but it is by no means certain that these structures were not represented by soft cartilage, of which no traces have been preserved in the specimens known. =nature of the ostracophores.=--the ostracophores are found in the ordovician or lower silurian rocks, in the upper silurian, and in the devonian. after the latter period they disappear. the species are very numerous and varied. their real affinities have been much disputed. zittel leaves them with the ganoids, where agassiz early placed them, but they show little homology in structure with the true ganoids. some have regarded them as aberrant teleosts, possibly as freakish catfishes. cope saw in them a huge mailed group of archaic tunicates, while patten has soberly and with considerable plausibility urged their affinity[ ] to the group of spiders, especially to the horseshoe-crabs (_limulus_) and their palæozoic ancestors, the _eurypteridæ_ and _merostomata_. the best guess as to the affinities of the ostracophores is perhaps that given by dr. ramsey h. traquair ("fossil fishes of the silurian rocks of the south of scotland," ). traquair regards them as highly aberrant sharks, or, more exactly, as being derived, like the chimæras, from a primitive elasmobranch stock. in favor of this view is the character of their armature, the bony plates themselves to be regarded as formed by the fusion of shagreen grains or scales. according to traquair: "specialization from the most specialized form, _lanarkia_, has been accompanied by ( ) fusion of the spinelets (_lanarkia_) or shagreen grains (_thelodus_) into plates, scutes, and rhombic scales, supported by hard matter developed in a deeper layer of skin, and ( ) alterations in the pectoral fin-flaps, which, becoming covered up by the postero-lateral plates in _drepanaspis_, are finally no longer recognizable in the _pteraspidæ_." [illustration: fig. .--_odontotodus schrencki_ (pander) (_tremataspis_), ventral side. island of oesel. (after patten.)] [illustration: fig. .--_odontotodus schrencki_ (pander) (_tremataspis_), dorsal side. island of oesel. (after patten.)] woodward leaves their exact relationship undefined, while others have regarded them as mailed lampreys, at any rate to be excluded from the _gnathostomi_, or jaw-bearing series. the apparent absence of true jaws, true limbs, and limb-girdles certainly seems to separate them widely from true fishes, but these characters are negative only, perhaps due to degeneration, and at any rate they are not yet absolutely determined. certainly they offer no positive proof of affinity with the modern cyclostomes. dr. traquair regards the _heterostraci_ or most primitive _ostracophores_ as most certainly derived from the elasmobranchs. other writers have attacked the integrity of the group of ostracophores, questioning the mutual relationship of its component parts. reiss, for example, regards the association of the _osteostraci_ with the _heterostraci_ as "unbegründet" and "unheilvoll," while ray lankester, as quoted by traquair, affirms that "there is absolutely no reason for regarding _cephalaspis_ as allied to _pteraspis_ beyond that the two genera occur in the same rocks, and still less for concluding that either has any connection with _pterichthys_." elsewhere lankester states that the _heterostraci_ are associated at present with the _osteostraci_, "because they have, like _cephalaspis_, a large head-shield, and because there is nothing else with which to associate them." patten, on the other hand, seems inclined to deny the rank of _heterostraci_ and _osteostraci_ as even separate orders, regarding them as very closely related to each other as also to their supposed spider-like ancestors. [illustration: fig. .--head of _odontotodus schrencki_ pander, from the side. (after patten.)] but the consensus of opinion favors the belief that the four orders usually included under this head are distinct and at the same time are really related one to another. for our purposes, then, we may regard the _ostracophori_ as a distinct class of vertebrates. by placing it after the elasmobranchs we may indicate its probable descent from a primitive shark-like stock. [illustration: fig. .--the horseshoe crab or king-crab, _limulus polyphemus_ linnæus. supposed by professor patten to be an ally of the ostracophores; usually regarded as related to the spiders.] on this subject dr. dean remarks: "the entire problem of the homology of the dermal plates and 'scales' in the ostracophores and arthrognaths is to the writer by no means as clear as previous writers have conceded. from the histological standpoint, admitting the craniote nature of the vasodentine and cancellous layers in the dermal plates, it nevertheless does not follow that they have been derived from the actual conditions of the dermal denticles of the ancestral gnathostome, as were unquestionably the dermal plates of teleostomes and dipnoans. it seems equally if not more probable, on the other hand, that the dermal armoring of the distinct groups may have had an altogether different mode of origin, the product of a crude evolution which aimed to strengthen the skin by a general deposition of calcareous matter throughout its entire thickness. the tuberculation of plates thus acquired might have become an important step in the development of a more superficial type of armoring which is most preferably represented by the dermal denticles of selachians. nor, in passing, need the presence of a mucus-canal system in the early plated forms be of greater morphological importance than a foreshadowing of the conditions of gnathostomes, for this system of organs might serve as well as evidence, in a general way, of relationship with marsipobranchs. nor is this evidence the more conclusive when we reflect that _no known type of gnathostome, recent or fossil, possesses open sensory grooves in distinct dermal plates_. the presence, furthermore, of a dorsal fin and a 'truly piscine heterocercal tail,' as noted by traquair, is by no means as gnathostome-like as these structures at first glimpse appear. for they lack not merely the characteristic radial supports of fishes, but even actinotrichia. their mode of support, on the other hand, as smith woodward points out, is of a more generalized nature, bent scales, homologous with those of the adjacent body region, taking the place of the piscine external supports." the actual position in the system to be finally assigned to the ostracophores is therefore still uncertain. =orders of ostracophores.=--four orders of _ostracophori_ are now usually recognized, known in the systems of woodward and traquair as _heterostraci_, _osteostraci_, _antiarcha_, and _anaspida_. the former is the most primitive and perhaps the most nearly allied to the sharks, the second is not very remote from it, the last two aberrant in very different directions. hay places the _antiarcha_ with the _arthrodira_ under the superorder of _placodermi_. =order heterostraci.=--the _heterostraci_ (~heteros~], different; ~ostrakos~, box) have no bone-corpuscles in the coat of mail. this typically consists of a few pieces above, firmly united and traversed by dermal sense-organs or "lateral lines." the ventral shield is simple. four families are recognized by traquair as constituting the _heterostraci_, these forming a continuous series from shark-like forms to the carapace-covered _pteraspis_. in the most primitive family, the _thelodontidæ_,[ ] the head and trunk are covered with small scales or tubercles of dentine and not fused into large plates. the tail is slender and heterocercal, the caudal fin deeply forked. until lately these tubercles were regarded as belonging to sharks, and they are still regarded by traquair as evidence of the affinity of the _heterostraci_ with the _acanthodei_. dr. traquair thinks that a flap or lappet-like projection behind the head may be a pectoral fin. the three known genera are _thelodus_, _lanarkia_, and _ateleaspis_. in _thelodus_ the scales consist of a base and a crown separated by a constriction or neck. _thelodus scoticus_, _thelodus pagei_, and _thelodus planus_ are found in the silurian rocks of scotland. other species, as _thelodus tulensis_ of russia, extend to the upper devonian. in _lanarkia_ the large sharp scales have an expanded base like the mouth of a trumpet. _lanarkia horrida_ and _l. spinulosa_ are found in the shire of lanark in scotland. in _ateleaspis_ (_tesselatus_) the skin is covered with small polygonal plates. the lateral flaps or possibly fins take the form of flat rhombic sculptured scales. in this genus the eyes seem to be on the top of the head. [illustration: fig. .--_lanarkia spinosa_ traquair. upper silurian. family _thelodontidæ_. (after traquair.)] in the _psammosteidæ_ of the devonian the head is covered with large plates which are not penetrated by the sense-organs. these plates are covered with minute, close-set tubercles, covered with brilliant ganoid enamel and with finely crimped edges. according to dr. traquair, these tubercles are shagreen granules which have coalesced and become united to plates formed in a deeper layer of the skin, as in _ateleaspis_ the minute scales have run together into polygonal plates. these creatures have been considered as "armored sharks," and dr. traquair regards them as really related to the acanthodean sharks. nevertheless they are not really sharks at all, and they find their place with the _pteraspis_ and other longer known heterostracans. the family of _drepanaspidæ_ consists of a single recently known species, _drepanaspis gmundenensis_, found in a pyritized condition in purple roofing-slate in gmünden, germany. this fish, which reaches a length of about two feet, has a broad head, with eyes on its outer margin, with a slender body and heterocercal tail. the head has a broad median plate and smaller polygonal ones. the flaps, supposed to represent the pectoral fins, are here cased in immovable bone. no trace of internal skeleton is found by traquair, who has given the restoration of this species, but the mouth has been outlined. [illustration: fig. .--_drepanaspis gmundenensis_ schlüter. upper silurian, gmünden, germany. (after traquair.)] the best known of the heterostracan families is that of _pteraspidæ_. in this family the plates of the head are coalesced in a large carpace, the upper part originally formed of seven coalesced pieces. a stout dorsal spine fits into a notch of the carapace. the slender body is covered with small scales and ends in a heterocercal tail. the dermal sense-organs are well developed. _pteraspis rostrata_ occurs in the lower devonian. other genera are _palæaspis_ and _cyrthaspis_. [illustration: fig. .--_pteraspis rostrata_ agassiz. devonian. family _pteraspidæ_. (after nicholson.)] =order osteostraci.=--the osteostraci (~osteon~, bone; ~ostrakos~, box) (called _aspidocephali_ by rohon) have bone-corpuscles in the shields, and the shield of the back is in one piece without lateral-line channels or sense-organs. ventral shield single. the order includes three families. the _cephalaspidæ_ have the shields tuberculate, the one between the eyes fixed, and the anterior body-shields are not fused into a continuous plate. the best known of the numerous species is _cephalaspis lyelli_ from the lower devonian of england. _hemicyclaspis murchisoni_ occurs in the upper silurian of england, and the extraordinary _cephalaspis dawsoni_ in the lower devonian of gaspé, canada. _eukeraspis pustulifera_ has the head-shield very slender and armed with prickles. in the _thyestidæ_ the anterior body-scales are fused into a continuous plate. _thyestis_ and _didymaspis_ are genera of this type. the _odontotodontidæ_ (_tremataspidæ_) have the shield truncate behind, its surface finely punctate, and the piece between the eyes not fixed. _odontotodus[ ] schrenki_ is found in the upper silurian of the island of oesel in company with species of _thyestes_. the _euphaneropidæ_ are represented in the devonian of quebec. [illustration: fig. .--_cephalaspis lyelli_ agassiz, restored. (after agassiz.)] =order antiarcha.=--the antiarcha (~anti~, opposite; ~archos~, anus) have also bone-corpuscles in the plates, which are also enameled. the sense-organs occupy open grooves, and the dorsal and ventral shields are of many pieces. the head is jointed on the trunk, and jointed to the head are paddle-like appendages, covered with bony plates and resembling limbs. there is no evidence that these erectile plates are real limbs. they seem to be rather jointed appendages of the head-plate, erectile on a hinge like a pectoral spine. there are traces of ear-cavities, gill-arches, and other fish-like structures, but nothing suggestive of mouth or limbs. this group contains one family, the _asterolepidæ_, with numerous species, mostly from devonian rocks. the best known genus is _pterichthyodes_,[ ] in which the anterior median plate of the back is overlapped by the posterior dorso-lateral. _pterichthyodes milleri_ from the lower devonian, named by agassiz for hugh miller, is the best known species, although numerous others, mostly from scottish quarries, are in the british museum. _asterolepis maximus_ is a very large species from the same region, known from a single plate. _bothriolepis canadensis_ is from the upper devonian of scaumenac bay near quebec, numerous specimens and fragments finely preserved having been found. [illustration: fig. .--_cephalaspis dawsoni_ lankester. lower devonian of canada. family _cephalaspidæ_. (after woodward.) in the square a portion of the tubercular surface is shown.] _microbrachium dicki_ with the pectoral appendages small occurs in the devonian of scotland. the earliest remains of _ostracophori_ are found in ordovician or lower silurian rocks of the trenton horizon at cañon city, colorado. these consist of enormous numbers of small fragments of bones mixed with sand. with these is a portion of the head carapace of a small ostracophore which has been named by dr. walcott _asteraspis desiderata_ and referred provisionally to the family of _asterolepidæ_, which belongs otherwise to the lower devonian. [illustration: fig. .--_pterichthyodes testudinarius_ (agassiz), restored. lower devonian family _asterolepidæ_. (after traquair and others.)] with these remains are found also scales possibly belonging to a crossopterygian fish (_eriptychius_). these remains make it evident that the beginning of the fish series lies far earlier than the rocks called silurian, although fishes in numbers are not elsewhere known from rocks earlier than the ludlow shales of the upper silurian, corresponding nearly to the niagara period in america. in the ludlow shales we find the next appearance of the ostracophores, two families, _thelodontidæ_ and _birkeniidæ_, being there represented. [illustration: fig. .--_pterichthyodes testudinarius_ agassiz, side view. (after zittel, etc.)] [illustration: fig. .--_birkenia elegans_ traquair. upper silurian. (after traquair.)] =order anaspida.=--recently a fourth order, _anaspida_ (~a~, without; ~aspis~, shield), has been added to the _ostracophori_ through the researches of dr. traquair. this group occurs in the upper silurian in the south of scotland. it includes the single family _birkeniidæ_, characterized by the fusiform body, bluntly rounded head, bilobate, heterocercal tail, and a median row of hooked spinous scales along the ventral margin. no trace of jaws, teeth, limbs, or internal skeleton has been found. unlike other ostracophores, _birkenia_ has no cranial buckler with orbits on the top, nor have the scales and tubercles the microscopic structure found in other ostracophores. in the genus _birkenia_ the head and body are completely covered by tubercular scutes. the gill-openings seem to be represented by a series of small perforations on the sides. a dorsal fin is present. _birkenia elegans_ is from the ludlow and downstonian rocks of southern scotland. _lasianius problematicus_ from the same rocks is very similar, but is scaleless. it has a row of ventral plates like those of _birkenia_, the only other hard parts it possesses being a number of parallel rods behind the head, homologous with the lateral series of _birkenia_. _lasianius_ is therefore a specialized and degenerate representation of _birkenia_, differing somewhat as "the nearly naked _phanerosteon_ differs from other _palæoniscidæ_ whose bodies are covered with osseous scales." [illustration: fig. .--_lasianius problematicus_ traquair. upper silurian. (after traquair.)] footnotes: [ ] this group was first called by cope _ostracodermi_--a name preoccupied for the group of bony trunkfishes, _ostracidæ_. the still earlier name of _placodermi_, chosen by mccoy ( ), was intended to include arthrodires as well as ostracophores. rohon ( ) calls the group _protocephali_, and to the two orders he assigns the names _aspidorhini_ and _aspidocephali_. these groups correspond to _heterostraci_ and _osteostraci_ of woodward. another name of early date is that of _aspidoganoidei_, given by professor gill in , but not defined until . these fishes are, however, not "ganoids" and the name _ostracophori_ seems to receive general preference. the group _peltacephalata_ of patten corresponds essentially to _ostracophori_, as does also the order _hypostomata_ of gadow. [ ] according to professor patten's view, the close resemblance of the shields of _pteraspis_ to those of contemporaneous _eurypterids_ indicates real affinity. but the _eurypterids_ are related to the spiders and to _limulus_. the only reason for thinking that _pteraspis_ is a fish at all lies in its resemblance to _cephalaspis_, which is in several ways fish-like, although its head shield is much like that of _limulus_. all these resemblances in patten's view indicate real affinity. patten considers the _pteraspids_ as derived from primitive arachnid or spider-like forms having a bony carapace as _limulus_ has. from _pteraspis_ he derives the other ostracophores, and from these the sharks and other vertebrates, all of which appear later in time than the earliest ostracophores. this view of the origin of vertebrates is recently urged with much force by professor patten (amer. nat., , ). most naturalists regard such resemblances in specialized structures on the outside of an animal as parallelisms due to likeness in conditions of life. the external structure in forms of really different nature is often similarly modified. thus certain catfishes, pipefishes, sea-moths, and agonoid fishes are all provided with bony plates not unlike those of ganoid fishes, although indicative of no real affinity with them. commonly the ancestry of vertebrates is traced through enteropneustans to soft-bodied worms which have left no trace in the rocks. in the same connection, professor patten suggests that the lateral fold from which many writers have supposed that the limbs or paired fins of vertebrates is evolved is itself a resultant of the fusion of the fringing appendages on the sides of the body. such appendages are found in the primitive mailed arachnoids and in _limulus_. they are shown very plainly in patten's restoration of _cephalaspis_. about thirty of them of a bony nature and jointed to the body occur on either side between the gill opening and the vent. [ ] called _coelolepidæ_ by pander and traquair, but _coelolepis_ is a later synonym of _thelodus_. [ ] this name, inappropriate or meaningless, is older than _tremataspis_. [ ] the earlier name of _pterichthys_ has been already used for a genus of living fishes. chapter xxxiii arthrodires =the arthrodires.=--another large group of extinct fishes mailed and helmeted is included under the general name of _arthrodira_[ ] (~arthros~, joint; ~deira~, neck), or _arthrognathi_ (~arthros~, ~gnathos~, jaw), the latter term recently framed by dr. dean with a somewhat broader application than the former. these fishes differ from the ostracophores, on the one hand, in the possession of jaws and in the nature of their armored covering. on the other hand, the nature of these jaws, the lack of differentiation of the skeleton, and the uncertain character of the limbs separate them still more widely from the true fishes. their place in the system is still unknown, but their origin seems as likely to be traceable to ostracophores as to any other group. the head in all the species is covered with a great bony helmet. behind this on the nape is another large shield, and between the two is usually a huge joint which dr. dean compares to the hinge of a spring-beetle (_elater_). as to the presence of limbs, no trace of pectoral fin or anterior limb has been found. dean denies the existence of any structures corresponding to either limb, but woodward figures a supposititious posterior limb in _coccosteus_, finding traces of basal bones which may belong to it. these monstrous creatures have been considered by woodward and others as mailed dipnoans, but their singular jaws are quite unlike those of the _dipneusti_, and very remote from any structures seen in the ordinary fish. the turtle-like mandibles seem to be formed of dermal elements, in which there lies little homology to the jaws of a fish and not much more with the jaws of dipnoan or shark. the relations with the ostracophores are certainly remote, though nothing else seems to be any nearer. they have no affinity with the true ganoids, to which vaguely limited group many writers have attached them. nor is there any sure foundation to the view adopted by woodward, that they are to be considered as armored offshoots of the dipnoans. according to dean we might as well refer the arthrodires to the sharks as to the dipnoans. dean further observes ("fishes living and fossil"): [illustration: fig. .--_coccosteus cuspidatus_ agassiz, restored. lower devonian. (after traquair, per woodward.)] "the puzzling characters of the arthrodirans do not seem to be lessened by a more definite knowledge of their different forms. the tendency, as already noted, seems to be at present to regard the group provisionally as a widely modified offshoot of the primitive dipnoans, basing this view upon their general structural characters, dermal plates, dentition, autostylism. but only in the latter regard could they have differed more widely from the primitive elasmobranch or teleostome, if it be admitted that in the matter of dermal structures they may be clearly separated from the chimæroid. it certainly is difficult to believe that the articulation of the head of arthrodirans could have been evolved after dermal bones had come to be formed, or that a dipnoan could become so metamorphosed as to lose not only its body armoring, but its pectoral appendages as well. the size of the pectoral girdle is, of course, little proof that an anterior pair of fins must have existed, since this may well have been evolved in relation to the muscular supports of plastron, carapace, trunk, and head. the intermovement of the dental plates, seen especially in _dinichthys_, is a further difficulty in accepting their direct descent from the dipnoans." [illustration: fig. .--jaws of _dinichthys hertzeri_ newberry. upper devonian. ohio. (after newberry.)] =occurrence of arthrodires.=--these fishes occur in abundance from the silurian times to the mesozoic. in the devonian their gigantic size and thick armor gave them the leading position among the hosts of the sea. among the genera there occurred "series of forms most interesting as to their evolution." "it is found more and more evident," says dr. dean ("fishes, living and fossil," pp. , ) "that the arthrodirans may have represented the dominant group in the devonian period, as were the sharks in the carboniferous, or as are the teleosts in modern times. there were forms which, like _coccosteus_, had eyes at the notches of the head-buckler; others, like _macropetalichthys_, in which orbits were well centralized; some, like _dinichthys_ and _titanichthys_, with the pineal foramen present; some with pectoral spines(?); some with elaborately sculptured dermal plates. among their forms appear to have been those whose shape was apparently subcylindrical, adapted for swift swimming; others (_mylostoma_) whose trunk was depressed to almost ray-like proportions. in size they varied from that of the perch to that of a basking shark. in dentition they presented the widest range in variation, from the formidable shear-like jaws of _dinichthys_ to the lip-like mandibles of _titanichthys_, the tearing teeth of _trachosteus_, the wonderfully forked tooth-bearing jaw-tips of _diplognathus_, to the cestraciont type, _mylostoma_. the latter form has hitherto been known only from its dentition, but now proves to be, as newberry and smith woodward suggested, a typical arthrodiran." =classification of arthrodira.=--our knowledge of the systematic relations of the arthrodira is mostly of recent origin. woodward refers most of the remains to the best known genus _coccosteus_, and recognizes as families the _coccosteidæ_, _mylostomidæ_, _asterosteidæ_, and _phyllolepidæ_. [illustration: fig. .--an arthrodire, _dinichthys intermedius_ newberry, restored. devonian, ohio. (after dean.)] dr. bashford dean in different papers has treated these fishes in great detail. in a recent paper on the "relationships of the _arthrognathi_"[ ] he recognizes the group as a class coordinate with _cyclostomi_ and _elasmobranchii_. this class, which he calls _arthrognathi_, is first divided into two suborders, _anarthrodira_, without joint at the neck, and _arthrodira_, with such a joint. the former comprises one order, _stegothalami_, and the latter two orders, _temnothoraci_ and _arthrothoraci_. the following is dr. dean's definition of these orders and their component families: =arthrognathi.=--"chordates whose anterior body region is encased in dermal elements, and divisible by a more or less definite partition into head and trunk. dermal plates which surround the mouth function as jaws. no evidence of branchial arches. column notochordal, showing no traces of centra; well-marked neural and hæmal elements. paired limbs [absent or uncertain]. dermal plates consisting typically of two layers, the superficial tuberculate, the inner bony with radiating lamellæ. orbits situated near or at the margin of the head-shield and separated from one another by fixed integumental plates. a pineal funnel present situated in a fixed plate. a mucous system whose canals radiate from the preoccipital region." =anarthrodira.=--"arthrognaths in which the cranial and dorsal regions are separated by a fixed partition whose dorsal rim is overlapped and concealed by superficial plates. of these a large median dorsal element is present which extends backward superficially from the region near the pineal funnel. also a pair of elements which overlie the position of the external occipital joint. suborbital plates apparently absent. jaw elements undescribed." =stegothalami= (~stegos~, roof; ~thalamos~, chamber).--"anarthrodires in which the cranio-dorsal septum is vertical and deep, its height equal apparently to that of the arch of the head-shield. by this deep partition the latter appears to inclose two chambers (whence the ordinal name). orbits inclosed by pre- and postorbital plates. mucous system lacks a postorbital canal." one family, the _macropetalichthyidæ_, thus defined: "stegothalami with large orbits and well-arched cranio-dorsal shield. dorso-central shield long, wide, gomphoidal, extending backward to the hinder margin of the shield and bordered by all plates save the postorbitals and marginals. pineal funnel small and obscure." _macropetalichthys sullivanti_ from ohio devonian rocks, and _macropetalichthys agassizi_ from the devonian of germany, are important species of this group. the _asterosteidæ_ perhaps constitute a second family in this order. the single species _asterosteus stenocephalus_ is from the devonian of ohio. =arthrodira.=--"arthrognaths in which the dorsal armoring is separated into dorsal and cranial elements, the latter attached to the former movably by means of a pair of peg-and-socket joints. the interval lying between cranial and dorsal armoring does not appear to have been protected by plates, and in the median line, instead of the cranio-central of the anarthrodires, there are separate elements, median occipital, median dorsal, and perhaps others. suborbital plates present. jaws of three pairs of elements. ventral armoring of two pairs of lateral and two median elements." =temnothoraci= (~temnô~, to cut; ~thôrax~, thorax).--"arthrodires whose cranial and dorsal shields are closely apposed, separated only by a transverse fissure-like interval (whence the ordinal name); interarticulation of cranial and dorsal shields little developed. head-shield elliptical in outline as far as the line of the transverse division. the anterior rim of the shoulder-shield flattened at its sides, suggesting a rudiment of the vertical partition of the anarthrodira. suborbital plate is present, but takes no part, apparently, in the ventral boundary of the orbit, this being formed, as in the anarthrodira, by the pre- and postorbital elements. jaws, ventral armoring, and endoskeleton not definitely known." one family, _chelonichthyidæ_, thus defined: "temnothoraci with orbits relatively small in size and situated well forward in the head-shield. occipital elements produced antero-posteriorly, the external occipital forming the posterior lateral angle of the head, no projection of the head occurring in the region of the marginal plate. median occipital trapezoidal. centrals take part in the median boundary of the orbits, and embrace the pineal plate. median dorsal with poorly developed keel and terminal process." _heterosteus asmussi_ (perhaps to be called _ichthyosauroides spinosus_) is a gigantic species from the lower devonian of livonia. allied to this species is _homostius milleri_ from scotland, celebrated as the "asterolepis of stromness" in hugh miller's "footsteps of the creator." another notable species is _homostius formosissimus_ from the lower devonian of russia. =arthrothoraci.=--"arthrodires whose dorsal shield articulates with the head-roof by a conspicuous and movable peg-and-socket joint, and leaves a definite interval (unprotected?) between the two armorings. orbits marginal, bounded inferiorly not by the suborbital element. in the head-shield the postero-lateral angles formed by the marginal plate (_phlyctænaspis?_), the occipital border concave. a dorsal fin is present, supported by endoskeletal elements." five families, the most important being the _coccosteidæ_, thus defined: "arthrothoraci with head-shield hexagonal in outline. median occipital trapezoidal, margins underlapped conspicuously by the external occipitals. prefrontals meet below pineal plates, thus occluding this element from contact with centrals. the median dorsal plate elongated, terminating in an acute heavy point; no definite ventral keel; its anterior border approaches the head-shield more closely than in related families. cranio-dorsal joint relatively small. postero-dorso-lateral large." (?a pair of spines occurs in the pectoral region.) the best-known species is _coccosteus cuspidatus_ (_decipiens_) of the lower red sandstone or devonian of scotland. the family of _dinichthyidæ_ consists of "arthrothoraci with stout trenchant jaws, whose cutting surfaces have worn away marginal teeth. plates heavy. head-shield with conspicuous lateral indentation to form dorsal border of orbit. preorbitals separated by rostral and pineal elements, the latter passing backward between the anterior ends of the centrals. cranio-dorsal joint conspicuous. median dorsal shovel-shaped, nearing a stout keel with a large neck and with heavy gouge-shaped terminal. postero-dorso-lateral relatively small in size." _dinichthys hertzeri_ and numerous other species are described from the devonian and carboniferous rocks of ohio. the _titanichthyidæ_ are "arthrothoraci with slender edentulous jaws bearing a longitudinal sulcus. plates squamous. head-shield wide, with indentations to form dorsal border of orbit. cranio-dorsal joint complete, but of relatively small size. median dorsal with lateral border indented with rudimentary keel and with flat and rounded terminal. antero-dorso-lateral with an area of overlap on median border." _titanichthys agassizi_ is a gigantic mailed fish from the lower carboniferous of cleveland, ohio. the _mylostomidæ_ are "arthrothoraci with dental elements in the character of crushing plates. cranial shield wide, rounded anteriorly, deeply indented in nuchal margin; orbital rim not apparent in dorsal aspect. central separated from marginal." _mylostoma terrelli_ is based on jaws from cleveland, ohio. the _selenosteidæ_ are "arthrothoraci with jaws studded with cuspidate teeth; the mandibular rami rounding out anteriorly or presenting diverging tips, bearing teeth in the symphysis. cranial shield deeply concave on lateral margins, no orbital rim here apparent. nuchal border deeply indented. (centrals separate from marginals.) cranio-dorsal hinges large in size. dorsal armoring reduced antero-posteriorly, giving an almost zone-like appearance. dorso-median crescent-shaped, with feeble keel and knob." _selenosteus glaber_ is described by dean from the cleveland shales. =relations of arthrodires.=--to complete our account of the arthrodira we may here summarize dr. dean's reasons for separating its members from true fishes on the one hand and from the ostracophores on the other. "first. the arthrodira cannot be strictly included among the pisces. according to the definition of the latter class its members are craniotes possessing the following characters: _a_, dermal defenses which in their simplest terms can be reduced to the shagreen denticles of the elasmobranch; _b_, a series of definite gill-arches whose foremost elements are metamorphosed into hyoid and mandibular apparatus; _c_, paired fins, or their equivalents. in the first of these regards i think it can be shown that the remarkable character of the dermal plates in the arthrognaths approaches rather that of the ostracophores than that of the pisces. in certain of these forms, _trachosteus_, for example, the tuberculated plates are made up of inner and outer elements, each with tubercles, which denote a distinctly different mode of origin from that of any known type of fish. the absence of remains of gill-arches in the arthrognaths would be not a serious objection to including these forms among pisces, especially in view of the fact that cartilaginous gill-arches are rarely preserved even in favorable fossils. but that their presence is more than doubtful is indicated by the peculiar character of the 'jaws' in these forms. for the character of these structures is such as to suggest that they are not homologous with the branchial arch jaws of the true fishes, but are rather parallel structures which owe their origin to distinctly exoskeletal elements, i.e., that they were derived from dermal plates surrounding the mouth, which became mobile, and whose edges became apposed as sectorial structures. i would in this connection call attention to the fact that the 'mandibles,' 'premaxillary,' and 'maxillary' dental plates[ ] were not fixed in the sense in which these elements are in the true pisces. on the evidence of several types, _dinichthys_, _titanichthys_, _mylostoma_, _trachosteus_, _diplognathus_, and other of the american forms, _macropetalichthys_[ ] excepted, there is the clearest proof that each element of the jaws had a considerable amount of independent movement. on account of the mobility of these elements the name arthrognathi is suggested. thus the mandibular rami could change the angle of inclination towards each other, as well as their plane with reference to the vertical axis. so, too, could the 'premaxillæ' be protracted like a pair of bent fingers, and it is more than probable that the 'maxillæ' had a considerable amount of independent movement. in connection with these characters it is also important to note that the blades of the 'mandible' show nowhere the faintest trace of an articular facet for attachment to the cranium. in short, the entire plan of the mandibular apparatus in these forms is strikingly unfish-like, although one will frankly confess that it is remarkable that these forms should have paralleled so strikingly the piscine conditions, to the extent of producing mandibular rami margined with teeth, and an arrangement of toothed elements on the 'upper jaw' which resembles superficially the premaxillary and maxillary structures of teleostomes, or the vomero-palatine structures of lung-fishes and chimæras. "in the matter of paired fins there seems little evidence to conclude that either pectoral or pelvic fins were present. in spite of the researches upon these forms during the past half-century, no definite remains of pectoral fins have been described. the so-called pectoral spines described for _dinichthys_ by newberry, whatever they may be, certainly are not, as far as the present evidence goes, pterygial, nor are the similar structures in _brachydirus_.[ ] the sigmoid element, described as a 'pelvic girdle' by smith woodward, in coccosteus, a structure which appears to occur in a small species of _dinichthys_(?), may as reasonably be interpreted as a displaced element of the armor-plates of the trunk. in _coccosteus_, as far as i am aware, it occurs in well-preserved condition in but a single specimen. "in referring to the singular joint between the shoulder-plates and the hinder margin of the cranium smith woodward has called attention to one of the striking features of the group. it is one, however, which, as a functional structure, i.e., a joint, characterizes only a portion of its members; and in these the region in which vestiges of the joint are sought is overlaid and concealed by dermal plates. such are the conditions in _macropetalichthys_ (with transitional characters in _trachosteus_ and in _mylostoma_). for this form a special subclass (or order) may be created which we may term anarthrodira. "second. the _arthrognathi_ cannot well be included in any other class. it would certainly be more convenient to retain the arthrognaths among the ostracophores, regarding them as a fourth subclass, were it not that they differ from them in so marked a way in the presence of well-marked vertebral arches, of supports for the unpaired fin, and in the possession of 'jaws.' in these regards--add to them the (probable if not certain) absence of the paired paddle-like 'spines'--they stand certainly further from the antiarcha than these from the osteostraci, or than the latter from the heterostraci. it appears to me desirable, therefore, that the arthrodira and the anarthrodira be brought together as a separate class. should subsequent researches demonstrate a closer affinity with the ostracophores, the arthrognathi can be regarded as of rank as a subclass, with the orders anarthrodira and arthrodira."[ ] in a recent paper dr. otto jaekel unites arthrodires and ostracophores under the name _placodermi_. he regards _pteraspis_ as a larval type, _asterolepis_ as one more specialized. in _coccosteus_ he claims to find a pelvic girdle as well as a more segmented skeleton. he regards all of these as true fishes, the _coccosteidæ_ as ancestral, related on the one hand to the _crossopterygians_, and on the other to the _stegocephali_ and other ancestral amphibians. =suborder cycliæ.=--we may append to the _arthrodira_ as a possible suborder the group called _cycliæ_ by dr. gill, based on a single imperfectly known species. few organisms discovered in recent times have excited as much interest as this minute fish-like creature, called _palæospondylus gunni_, discovered in by dr. r. h. traquair in the flagstones of caithness in scotland. many specimens have been obtained, none more than an inch and a half long. its structure and systematic position have been discussed by dr. r. h. traquair, by woodward, gill, gegenbaur, and recently by dean, from whose valuable memoir on "the devonian lamprey" we make several quotations. [illustration: fig. .--_palæospondylus gunni_ traquair. devonian. (after traquair and dean.)] =palæospondylus.=--according to dr. traquair: "the _palæospondylus gunni_ is a very small organism, usually under one inch in length, though exceptionally large specimens occasionally measure one inch and a half.... it has a head and vertebral column, but no trace of jaws or limbs; and, strange to say, all the specimens are seen only from the ventral aspect, as is shown by the relation of the neural arches to the vertebral centra. "the head is in most cases much eroded.... it is divided by a notch ... into two parts.... the _anterior part_ shows a groove the edges of which are elevated, while the surface on each side shows two depressions, like fenestræ, though perhaps they are not completely perforated, and also a groove partially divided off, posteriorly and externally, a small lobe. in front there is a ring-like opening ... surrounded by small pointed cirri, four ventrally, at least five dorsally, and two long lateral ones which seem to arise inside the margin of the ring instead of from its rim like the others. the _posterior part_ of the cranium is flattened, but the median groove is still observable. connected with the posterior or occipital aspect of the skull are two small narrow plates which lie closely alongside the first half-dozen vertebræ. "the bodies of the vertebræ are hollow or ring-like, and those immediately in front are separated from each other by perceptible intervals; their surfaces are marked with a few little longitudinal grooves, of which one is median. they are provided with neural arches, which are at first short and quadrate, but towards the caudal extremity lengthen out into slender neural spines, which form the dorsal expansion of a caudal fin, while shorter hæmal ones are also developed on the ventral aspect." dr. traquair concludes that "there seems to be no escape from the conclusion that the little creature must be classed as a marsipobranch." "if _palæospondylus_ is not a marsipobranch, it is quite impossible to refer it to any other existing group of vertebrates." =gill on palæospondylus.=--in dr. gill proposed to regard _palæospondylus_ provisionally as the type of a distinct order of cyclostomes to be called _cycliæ_ (~kyklos~, circle), from the median ring on the head, whether nostril or mouth. dr. gill observes: "assuming the correctness of dr. traquair's description and figures, we certainly have a remarkable combination of characters. on the one hand, if the 'median opening or rim' is indeed nasal, the animal certainly cannot be referred to the class of selachians or of teleostomes. on the other hand, the cranium and the segmental vertebral column indicate a more advanced stage of development of the vertebrate line than that from the living marsipobranchs must have originated. we may, therefore, with propriety isolate it as the representative not only of a peculiar family (_palæospondylidæ_), but of an order or even subclass (cycliæ) of vertebrates which may provisionally (and only provisionally) be retained in the class of marsipobranchs. "the group may be defined as monorrhines with a continuous (?) cranium, a median nasal (?) ring, and a segmented vertebral column. "the differences between the _hyperoartia_ and _hyperotreta_ are very great, and prof. lankester did not go much too far when he elevated those groups to class rank. among the numerous distinctive characters are the great differences in the auditory organs. perhaps the organs of _palæospondylus_ might be worked out in some specimen and throw light on the subject of affinities. at present even the region of the auditory organs is not exactly known and we are now at a loss to orient the several parts of the cranium. in fact, the question of the relations of _palæospondylus_ is a very open one." =views as to the relationships of palæospondylus.=--dr. dean thus summarizes in a convenient and interesting fashion the views of different students of fossil fishes in regard to _palæospondylus_: =huxley.=--a "baby _coccosteus_." =traquair, .=--"certainly not a placoderm, its resemblance to a supposed 'baby coccosteus' being entirely deceptive. the appearance of the head does remind us in a strange way of the primitive skull of _myxine_, a resemblance which is rendered still more suggestive by the apparent complete absence of the lower jaw, or of limbs or limb-girdles." =traquair, .=--"it seems, indeed, impossible to refer the organism to any existing vertebrate class, unless it be the marsipobranchs or cyclostomata." does not believe it a larval form, because the possible adult is unknown, and because of the highly differentiated vertebræ. granting his interpretation of the parts of the fossil, "there seems no escape from the conclusion that the little creature must be classed as a marsipobranch." =traquair, .=--"the question of the affinities of _palæospondylus_ is left precisely where it was after i had written my last paper on the subject." =smith woodward, .=--"it seems to possess an unpaired nose, lip cartilages in place of functional jaws, and no paired limbs; thus agreeing precisely with the lampreys and hagfishes, of which the fossil representatives have long been sought. it is extremely probable, therefore, that _palæospondylus_ belongs to this interesting category." =dawson, .=--_palæospondylus_ suggests "the smaller snake-like batrachians of the carboniferous and permian; and i should not be surprised if it should come to be regarded as either a forerunner of the batrachians or as a primitive tadpole." =gill, .=--"the group to which _palæospondylus_ belongs may be defined as monorrhines with a continuous (?) cranium, a median nasal (?) ring, and a segmented vertebral column." "the cranium and segmented vertebral column indicate a more advanced stage of development of the vertebrate line than that from which the living marsipobranchs must have originated. we may, therefore, with propriety isolate it as the representative not only of a peculiar family (_palæospondylidæ_), but of an order or even subclass (_cycliæ_) of vertebrates which may provisionally (and only provisionally) be retained in the class of marsipobranchs." =dean, .=--"place it with the ostracoderms among the curiously specialized offshoots of the early chordates, but this position would be at the best unsatisfactory." =dean, .=--"_palæospondylus_ should not be given a place--even a provisional one--among the marsipobranchs." to be accepted "as the representative of the new subclass (or class) cycliæ constituted for it by professor gill." =parker & haswell, .=--"there is some reason to regard that _palæospondylus_ is referable to the cyclostomes." "a distinctly higher type than recent forms." =gegenbaur, .=--"discovery of _palæospondylus_ one of the highest importance. if this organism stands in no way near the cyclostomes, the tentacles lose their higher importance, since they also occur in other groups." "through _palæospondylus_ came also the attempt (pollard) to deduce the presence of the tentacular condition in the higher forms." (_mem._--in this gegenbaur has not consulted the literature accurately. at the time of founding his "cirrhostomal theory" pollard was unaware of the discovery of _palæospondylus_). "ich muss sagen, das die positive behauptung der einen wie der anderen deutung mir sehr unsicher scheint, da auch an den übrigen resten des kopfskelets keine bestimmten uebereinstimmungen mit anderen organismen erweisbar sind. es ist daher auch nicht zu vermuthen, dass sogar an beziehung zu froschlarven gedacht ward. unter diesen umständen möchte ich jene im verhältniss zum kopfe wie zum gesammten körper bedeutende, von cirren umstellte eingangsöffnung als nicht einer nase, sondern einem munde oder beiden zugleich angehörig betrachten. zu einem dem cyclostomenriechorgan vergleichbaren verhalten fehlen alle bedingungen." =relationships of palæospondylus.=--the arguments for and against the supposition that _palæospondylus_ is a cyclostome may be here summed up after professor dean. the vertebral column agrees with that of the lamprey in having the notochord in part persistent. on the other hand, the vertebræ have continuous centra, showing definite processes. those of the different regions are differentiated. these conditions are quite unlike those seen in the lamprey. the cranium is massive, over twice as large proportionally as that of the lamprey. in the latter type the cranium forms but a small portion of the bulk of the head; in _palæospondylus_, on the other hand, the cranium bears every sign of having filled the contour of the head. moreover, if the region adjacent to the structure is admitted to be that of the eye, and few, i believe, will doubt it, then the brain-cavity must, by many analogies, have been much larger than that of a marsipobranch. also the auditory capsules must have been of extraordinary size. in short, there is very little about the cranium to suggest the structures of cyclostomes. the "oral cirri" suggest somewhat the barbels of the nose and mouth of a hagfish. they, however, resemble even as much in arrangement and greater number the buccal cirri of _amphioxus_. on the other hand, similar mouth-surrounding tentacles are evolved independently in many groups of fishes, siluroids, sharks, forms like _pogonias_, _hemitripterus_. a possibility further exists that the "cirri" may turn out to be remnants of cranial or facial structures of an entirely different nature. in fact the very uncertain preservation of these parts renders their evidence of little definite value. in but one specimen, as far as i am aware, is there any evidence of the presence of ventral cirri. the jaw parts in _palæospondylus_ are unknown. it is possible that the ventral rim of the "nasal ring" may prove to be the remains of the meckelian cartilage (the cartilaginous core of the lower jaw). it is possible that certain very faint ray-like markings noted by professor dean may be the basalia of paired fins. in such case _palæospondylus_ can have no affinity with the lampreys. dr. dean asserts that the presence of these, in view of the wide dissimilarity in other and important structures, is sufficient to remove _palæospondylus_ from its provisional position among the cyclostomes. the postoccipital plates may represent a pectoral arch. it is, however, much more likely, as dr. traquair has insisted, that the supposed rays are due to the reflection of light from striations on the stone, and that the creature had no pectoral limbs. the caudal fin, with its dichotomous rays, is essentially like the tail of a lamprey. this condition is, however, found in other groups of fishes, as among sharks and lung-fishes. it is, moreover, doubtful whether the rays are really dichotomous. it is possible that _palæospondylus_ may be, as huxley suggests, a larval arthrodire. it is not probable that this is the case, but, on the other hand, _palæospondylus_ seems to be an immature form. according to dr. dean, it is more likely to prove a larval _coccosteus_, or the young of some other arthrodire, than a lamprey. against this view must be urged the fact that the tail of _palæospondylus_ is not heterocercal, a fact verified by dr. traquair on all of his many specimens. it is more like the tail of a lamprey than that of _coccosteus_. it is, however, certain that it cannot be placed in the same class with the living _cyclostomes_, and that it is far more highly specialized than any of them. in a still later paper ( ) dr. dean shows that the fossil might as easily be considered a chimæra as a lamprey, and repeats his conviction that it is a larval form of which the adult is still unrecognized. we cannot go much farther than dr. dean's statement in , that it belongs "among the curiously specialized offshoots of the early chordates." footnotes: [ ] "the name _arthrodira_ as given to coccosteans, as distinguished from the _antiarcha_, is not altogether a satisfactory one, since at least from the time of pander the head of pterichthys (_asterolepis_) is known to be articulated with the armoring of the trunk in a way closely resembling that of _coccosteus_. this term may, however, be retained as a convenient one for the order of coccosteans, in which, together with other differentiating features, this structure is prominently evolved. a renewed examination of the subject has caused me to incline strongly to the belief, as above expressed, that _pterichthys_ and coccosteans are not as widely separated in phylogeny as smith woodward, for example, has maintained. but, as far as present evidence goes, they appear to me certainly as distinct as fishes are from amphibia, or as reptiles are from birds or from mammals." (dean.) the name _placodermi_ used by mccoy in was applied to the _ostracophores_ as well as to the _arthrodires_. hay revives it as the name of a superorder to include the _antiarcha_ and the _arthrodira_, the former being detached from the _ostracophores_. this superorder is equivalent to the subclass _azygostei_ of hay. [ ] memoirs new york academy of sciences, . [ ] it will be recalled that there is no ground for concluding that the "mandibular rami" possessed an endoskeletal core, and were comparable, therefore, to the somewhat mobile jaws of elasmobranchs. on the other hand, there is the strongest evidence that they are entirely comparable to adjacent dermal plates. histologically they are identical, and in certain cases their exposed surfaces bear the same tuberculation. [ ] the similarity of _macropetalichthys_ to dinichthyids in the general matter of the dermal plates is so complete that i have had no hesitation in associating it with the arthrognaths. (_cf._ eastman.) the circumstance that its "jaws" have not yet been found has to a large degree been due to the lack of energy on the part of local collectors. in the corniferous quarries near delaware, ohio, this fossil is stated to be relatively abundant. [ ] it is by no means impossible that there may ultimately be found pectoral elements to correspond in a general way with the paddle-like "spines" of the antiarcha. [ ] the group placodermi, created by mccoy ( ) as a "family" for the reception of coccosteus and pterichthys might then be justly elevated to rank as a class, superseding the ostracophori of cope ( ). the latter group might, however, be retained as a subclass, and include the heterostraci and osteostraci as ordinal divisions. chapter xxxiv the crossopterygii =class teleostomi.=--we may unite the remaining groups of fishes into a single class, for which the name _teleostomi_ (~teleos~, true; ~stoma~, mouth), proposed by bonaparte in , may be retained. the fishes of this class are characterized by the presence of a suspensorium to the mandible, by the existence of membrane-bones (opercles, suborbitals, etc.) on the head, by a single gill-opening leading to gill-arches bearing filamentous gills, and by the absence of claspers on the ventral fins. the skeleton is at least partly ossified in all the _teleostomi_. more important as a primary character, distinguishing these fishes from the sharks, is the presence typically and primitively of the air-bladder. this is at first a lung, arising as a diverticulum from the ventral side of the oesophagus, but in later forms it becomes dorsal and is, by degrees, degraded into a swim-bladder, and in very many forms it is altogether lost with age. this group comprises the vast majority of recent fishes, as well as a large percentage of those known only as fossils. in these the condition of the lung can be only guessed. the _teleostomi_ are doubtless derived from sharks, their relationship being possibly nearest to the _ichthyotomi_ or to the primitive _chimæras_. the dipnoans among _teleostomi_ retain the shark-like condition of the upper jaw, made of palatal elements, which may be, as in the _chimæra_, fused with the cranium. in the lower forms also the primitive diphycercal or protocercal form of tail is retained, as also the archipterygium or jointed axis of the paired fins, fringed with rays on one or both sides. we may divide the teleostomes, or true fishes, into three subclasses: the _crossopterygii_, or fringe-fins; the _dipneusti_, or lung-fishes; _actinopteri_, or ray-fins, including the _ganoidei_ and the _teleostei_, or bony fishes. of these many recent writers are disposed to consider the _crossopterygii_ as most primitive, and to derive from it by separate lines each of the remaining subclasses, as well as the higher vertebrates. the _ganoidei_ and _teleostei_ (constituting the _actinopteri_) are very closely related, the ancient group passing by almost imperceptible degrees into the modern group of bony fishes. =subclass crossopterygii.=--the earliest teleostomes known belong to the subclass or group called after huxley, _crossopterygii_ (~krossos~, fringe; ~pteryx~, fin). a prominent character of the group lies in the retention of the jointed pectoral fin or archipterygium, its axis fringed by a series of soft rays. this character it shares with the _ichthyotomi_ among sharks, and with the _dipneusti_. from the latter it differs in the hyostylic cranium, the lower jaw being suspended from the hyomandibular, and by the presence of distinct premaxillary and maxillary elements in the upper jaw. in these characters it agrees with the ordinary fishes. in the living crossopterygians the air-bladder is lung-like, attached by a duct to the ventral side of the oesophagus. the lung-sac, though specialized in structure, is simple, not cellular as in the dipnoans. the skeleton is more or less perfectly ossified. outside the cartilaginous skull is a bony coat of mail. the skin is covered with firm scales or bony plates, the tail is diphycercal, straight, and ending in a point, the shoulder-girdle attached to the cranium is cartilaginous but overlaid with bony plates, and the branchiostegals are represented by a pair of gular plates. in the single family represented among living fishes the heart has a muscular arterial bulb with many series of valves on its inner edge, and the large air-bladder is divided into two lobes, having the functions of a lung, though not cellular as in the lung-fishes. the fossil types are very closely allied to the lung-fishes, and the two groups have no doubt a common origin in silurian times. it is now usually considered that the crossopterygian is more primitive than the lung-fish, though at the same time more nearly related to the ganoids, and through them to the ordinary fishes. =origin of amphibians.=--from the primitive _crossopterygii_ the step to the ancestral _amphibia_, which are likewise mailed and semi-aquatic, seems a very short one. it is true that most writers until recently have regarded certain dipneustans as the _dipteridæ_ as representing the parents of the amphibians. but the weight of recent authority, gill, pollard, boulenger, dollo, and others, seems to place the point of separation of the higher vertebrates with the crossopterygians, and to regard the lobate pectoral member of _polypterus_ as a possible source of the five-fingered arm of the frog. this view is still, however, extremely hypothetical and there is still much to be said in favor of the theory of the origin of amphibia from dipnoans and in favor of the view that the dipnoans are also ancestors of the crossopterygians. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _polypterus bichir_. specimen from the white nile.] in the true amphibians the lungs are better developed than in the crossopterygian or dipnoan, although the lungs are finally lost in certain salamanders which breathe through epithelial cells. the gills lose, among the amphibia, their primitive importance, although in _proteus anguineus_ of austria and _necturus maculosus_, the american "mud-puppy" or water-dog, these persist through life. the archipterygium, or primitive fin, gives place to the chiropterygium, or fingered arm. in this the basal segment of the archipterygium gives place to the humerus, the diverging segments seen in the most specialized type of archipterygium (_polypterus_) become perhaps radius and ulna, the intermediate quadrate mass of cartilage possibly becoming carpal bones, and from these spring the joints called metacarpals and phalanges. in the amphibians and all higher forms the shoulder-girdle retains its primitive insertion at a distance from the head, and the posterior limbs remain abdominal. the amphibians are therefore primarily fishes with fingers and toes instead of the fringe-fins of their ancestors. their relations are really with the fishes, as indicated by huxley, who unites the amphibians and fishes in a primary group, _ichthyopsida_, while reptiles and birds form the contrasting group of _sauropsida_. [illustration: fig. .--arm of a frog.] the reptiles differ from the amphibians through acceleration of development, passing through the gill-bearing stages within the egg. the birds bear feathers instead of scales, and the mammals nourish their young by means of glandular secretions. through a reptile-amphibian ancestry the birds and mammals may trace back their descent from palæozoic crossopterygians. in the very young embryo of all higher vertebrates traces of double-breathing persist in all species, in the form of rudimentary gill-slits. =the fins of crossopterygians.=--dollo and boulenger regard the heterocercal tail as a primitive form, the diphycercal form being a result of degradation, connected with its less extensive use as an organ of propulsion. most writers who adopt the theory of gegenbaur that the archipterygium is the primitive form of the pectoral fin are likely, however, to consider the diphycercal tail found associated with it in the _ichthyotomi_, _dipneusti_, _crossopterygii_ as the more primitive form of the tail. from this form the heterocercal tail of the higher sharks and ganoids may be derived, this giving way in the process of development to the imperfectly homocercal tail of the salmon, the homocercal tail of the perch, and the isocercal tail of the codfish and its allies, the gephyrocercal and the leptocercal tail, tapering or whip-like, representing various stages of degeneration. boulenger draws a distinction between the protocercal tail, the one primitively straight, and the diphycercal tail modified, like the homocercal tail, from an heterocercal ancestry. [illustration: fig. .--_polypterus congicus_, a crossopterygian fish from the congo river. young, with external gills. (after boulenger.)] =orders of crossopterygians.=--cope and woodward divide the _crossopterygia_ into four orders or suborders, _haplistia_, _rhipidistia_, _actinistia_, and _cladistia_. to the latter belong the existing species, or the family of _polypteridæ_, alone. boulenger unites the three extinct orders into one, which he calls _osteolepida_. in all three of these the pectorals are narrow with a single basal bone, and the nostrils, as in the dipneustans, are below the snout. the differences are apparently such as to justify cope's division into three orders. =haplistia.=--in the _haplistia_ the notochord is persistent, and the basal bones of dorsal and anal fins are in regular series, much fewer in number than the fin-rays. the single family _tarrassiidæ_ is represented by _tarrasius problematicus_, found by traquair in scotland. this is regarded as the lowest of the crossopterygians, a small fish of the lower carboniferous, the head mailed, the body with small bony scales. =rhipidistia.=--in the _rhipidistia_ the basal bones of the median fins ("axonosts and baseosts") are found in a single piece, not separate as in the _haplistia_. four families are recognized, _holoptychiidæ_, _megalichthyidæ_, _osteolepidæ_, and _onychodontidæ_, the first of these being considered as the nearest approach of the crossopterygians to the dipnoans. the _holoptychiidæ_ have the pectoral fins acute, the scales cycloid, enameled, and the teeth very complex. _holoptychius nobilissimus_ is a very large fish from the devonian. _glyptolepis leptopterus_ from the lower devonian is also a notable species. _dendrodus_ from the devonian is known from detached teeth. [illustration: fig. .--basal bone of dorsal fin, _holoptychius leptopterus_ (agassiz). (after woodward.)] in the ordovician rocks of cañon city, colorado, dr. walcott finds numerous bony scales with folded surfaces and stellate ornamentation, and which he refers with some doubt to a crossopterygian fish of the family _holoptychiidæ_. this fish he names _eriptychius americanus_. if this identification proves correct, it will carry back the appearance of crossopterygian fishes, the earliest of the teleostome forms, to the beginning of the silurian, these cañon city shales being the oldest rocks in which remains of fishes are known to occur. in the same rocks are found plates of ostracophores and other fragments still more doubtful. it is certain that our records in palæontology fall far short of disclosing the earliest sharks, as well as the earliest remains of ostracophores, arthrodires, or even ganoids. =megalichthyidæ.=--the _megalichthyidæ_ (wrongly called "_rhizodontidæ_") have the pectoral fins obtuse, the teeth relatively simple, and the scales cycloid, enameled. there are numerous species in the carboniferous rocks, largely known from fragments or from teeth. _megalichthys_, _strepsodus_, _rhizodopsis_, _gyroptychius_, _tristichopterus_, _eusthenopteron_, _cricodus_, and _sauripterus_ are the genera; _rhizodopsis sauroides_ from the coal-measures of england being the best-known species. the _osteolepidæ_ differ from the _megalichthyidæ_ mainly in the presence of enameled rhomboid scales, as in _polypterus_ and _lepisosteus_. in _glyptopomus_ these scales are sculptured, in the others smooth. in _osteolepis_, _thursius_, _diplopterus_, and _glyptopomus_ a pineal foramen is present on the top of the head. this is wanting in _parabatrachus_ (_megalichthys_ of authors). in _osteolepis_, _thursius_, and _parabatrachus_ the tail is heterocercal, while in _diplopterus_ and _glyptopomus_ it is diphycercal. _osteolepis macrolepidotus_ and numerous other species occur in the lower devonian. _diplopterus agassizii_ is common in the same horizon. _megalichthys hibberti_ is found in the coal-measures, and _glyptopomus minimus_ in the upper devonian. _palæosteus_ is another genus recently described. [illustration: fig. .--_gyroptychius microlepidotus_ agassiz. devonian. family _megalichthyidæ_. (after pander.)] the _onychodontidæ_ are known from a few fragments of _onychodus sigmoides_ from the lower devonian of ohio and _onychodus anglicus_ from england. [illustration: fig. .--_coelacanthus elegans_ newberry. from the ohio carboniferous, showing air-bladder. (after dean.)] =order actinistia.=--in the _actinistia_ there is a single fin-ray to each basal bone, the axonosts of each ray fused in a single piece. the notochord is persistent, causing the back-bone in fossils to appear hollow, the cartilaginous material leaving no trace in the rocks. the genera and species are numerous, ranging from the subcarboniferous to the upper cretaceous, many of them belonging to _coelacanthus_, the chief genus of the single family _coelacanthidæ_. in _coelacanthus_ the fin-rays are without denticles. _coelacanthus granulatus_ is found in the european permian. _coelacanthus elegans_ of the coal-measures is found in america also. in _undina_ the anterior fin-rays are marked with tubercles. _undina penicillata_ and _undina gulo_ from the triassic are well-preserved species. in _macropoma_ (_lewesiensis_) the fin-rays are robust, long, and little articulated. other genera are _heptanema_, _coccoderma_, _libys_, _diplurus_, and _graphiurus_. _diplurus longicaudatus_ was found by newberry in the triassic of new jersey and connecticut. [illustration: fig. .--_undina gulo_ egerton; lias. family _coelacanthidæ_. (after woodward.)] =order cladistia.=--in the _cladistia_ the axis of the pectoral limb is fan-shaped, made of two diversified bones joined by cartilage. the notochord is restricted and replaced by ossified vertebræ. the axonosts of the dorsal and anal are in regular series, each bearing a fin-ray. the order contains the single family _polypteridæ_. in this group the pectoral fin is formed differently from that of the other crossopterygians, being broad, its base of two diverging bones with cartilage between. this structure, more specialized than in any other of the crossopterygians or _dipneusti_, has been regarded by gill and others, as above stated, as the origin of the fingered hand (chiropterygium) of the frogs and higher vertebrates. the base of the diverging bones has been identified as the antecedent of the humerus, the bones themselves as radius and ulna, while the intervening non-ossified cartilage breaks up into carpal bones, from which metacarpals and digits ultimately diverge. this hypothesis is open to considerable doubt. the nostrils, as in true fishes, are superior. the body in these fishes is covered with rhombic enameled scales, as in the garpike; the head is similarly mailed, but, in distinction from the garpike, the anterior rays of the dorsal are developed as isolated spines. the young have a bushy external gill with a broad scaly base. the air-bladder is double, not cellular, with a large air-duct joining the ventral surface of the oesophagus. the intestine has a spiral valve. the cranium, according to boulenger ("poissons du bassin du congo," p. ), is remarkable for its generalized form, this character forming a trait of union between the ganoids and the primitive _amphibia_ or _stegocephali_. without considering _polypterus_, it is not possible to interpret the homologies of the cranium of the amphibians and the sharks. the jaws are similar to those of the vertebrates higher than fishes. tooth-bearing premaxillaries and dentaries are solidly joined at the front of the cranium, and united by a suture to the toothed maxillaries which form most of the edge of the mouth. each half of the lower jaw consists of four elements, covering meckel's cartilage, which is ossified at the symphysis. these are the articular, angular, dentary, and splenial (coronoid). most of these bones are armed with teeth. the palato-suspensory consists of hyomandibular, quadrate, ectopterygoid, entopterygoid, metapterygoid, and palatine elements, the pterygoid elements bearing teeth. in _erpetoichthys_ only the opercle is distinct among the gill-covers. in _polypterus_ there is a subopercle also; the suborbital chain is represented by two small bones. the gill-arches are four, but without lower pharyngeals. the teeth are conic and pointed, and in structure, according to agassiz, they differ largely from those of bony fishes, approaching the teeth of reptiles. [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw of _polypterus bichir_, from below.] the external gill of the young, first discovered by steindachner in , consists of a fleshy axis bordered above and below by secondary branches, themselves fringed. in form and structure this resembles the external gills of amphibians. it is inserted, not on the gill-arches, but on the hyoid arch. its origin is from the external skin. it can therefore not be compared morphologically with the gills of other fishes, nor with the pseudobranchiæ, but rather with the external gills of larval sharks. the vertebræ are very numerous and biconcave as in ordinary fishes. each of the peculiar dorsal spines is primitively a single spine, not a finlet of several pieces, as some have suggested. the enameled, rhomboid scales are in movable oblique whorls, each scale interlocked with its neighbors. [illustration: fig. .--_polypterus congicus_, a crossopterygian fish from the congo river. young, with external gills. (after boulenger.)] [illustration: fig. .--_polypterus delhezi_ boulenger. congo river.] the shoulder-girdle, suspended from the cranium by post-temporal and supraclavicle, is covered by bony plates. to the small hypercoracoid and hypocoracoid the pectoral fin is attached. its basal bones may be compared to those of the sharks, mesopterygium, propterygium, and metapterygium, which may with less certainty be again called humerus, radius, and ulna. these are covered by flesh and by small imbricated scales. the air-bladder resembles the lungs of terrestrial vertebrates. it consists of two cylindrical sacs, that on the right the longer, then uniting in front to form a short tube, which enters the oesophagus from below with a slit-like glottis. unlike the lung of the _dipneusti_, this air-bladder is not cellular, and it receives only arterial blood. its function is to assist the respiration by gills without replacing it. =the polypteridæ.=--all the _polypteridæ_ are natives of africa. two genera are known, no species having been found fossil. of _polypterus_, boulenger, the latest authority, recognizes nine species: six in the congo, _polypterus congicus_, _p. delhezi_, _p. ornatipinnis_, _p. weeksi_, _p. palmas_, and _p. retropinnis_; one, _p. lapradei_, in the niger; and two in the nile, _polypterus bichir_ and _p. endlicheri_. of these the only one known until very recently was _polypterus bichir_ of the nile. these fishes in many respects resemble the garpike in habits. they live close on the mud in the bottom of sluggish waters, moving the pectorals fan-fashion. if the water is foul, they rise to the surface to gulp air, a part of which escapes through the gill-openings, after which they descend like a flash. in the breeding season these fishes are very active, depositing their eggs in districts flooded in the spring. the eggs are very numerous, grass-green, and of the size of eggs of millet. the flesh is excellent as food. [illustration: fig. .--_erpetoichthys calabaricus_ smith. senegambia. (after dean.)] the genus _erpetoichthys_ contains a single species, _erpetoichthys calabaricus_,[ ] found also in the senegal and congo. this species is very slender, almost eel-like, extremely agile, and, as usual in wriggling or undulating fishes, it has lost its ventral fin. it lives in shallow waters among interlaced roots of palms. when disturbed it swims like a snake. footnotes: [ ] this genus was first called _erpetoichthys_, but the name was afterwards changed by its author, j. a. smith, to _calamoichthys_, because there is an earlier genus _erpichthys_ among blennies, and a _herpetoichthys_ among eels. but these two names, both wrongly spelled for _herpetichthys_, are sufficiently different, and the earlier name should be retained. "a name in science is a name without necessary meaning" and without necessarily correct spelling. furthermore, if names are spelled differently, they are different, whatever their meaning. the efforts of ornithologists, notably those of dr. coues, to spell correctly improperly formed generic names have shown that to do so consistently would throw nomenclature into utter confusion. it is well that generic names of classic origin should be correctly formed. it is vastly more important that they should be stable. stability is the sole function of the law of priority. chapter xxxv subclass dipneusti,[ ] or lungfishes =the lungfishes.=--the group of dipneusti, or lung-fishes, is characterized by the presence of paired fins consisting of a jointed axis with or without rays. the skull is autostylic, the upper jaw being made as in the chimæra of palatal elements joined to the quadrate and fused with the cranium, without premaxillary or maxillary. the dentary bones are little developed. the air-bladder is cellular, used as a lung in all the living species, its duct attached to the ventral side of the oesophagus. the heart has many valves in the muscular arterial bulb. the intestine has a spiral valve. the teeth are usually of large plates of dentine covered with enamel, and are present on the pterygo-palatine and splenial bones. the nostrils are concealed, when the mouth is closed, under a fold of the upper lip. the scales are cycloid, mostly not enameled. [illustration: fig. .--shoulder-girdle of _neoceratodus forsteri_ günther. (after zittel.)] the lung-fishes, or _dipneusti_ (~dis~, two; ~pnein~, to breathe), arise, with the crossopterygians, from the vast darkness of palæozoic time, their origin with that or through that of the latter to be traced to the ichthyotomi or other primitive sharks. these two groups are separated from all the more primitive fish-like vertebrates by the presence of lungs. in its origin the lung or air-bladder arises as a diverticulum from the alimentary canal, used by the earliest fishes as a breathing-sac, the respiratory functions lost in the progress of further divergence. nothing of the nature of lung or air-bladder is found in lancelet, lamprey, or shark. in none of the remaining groups of fishes is it wholly wanting at all stages of development, although often lost in the adult. among fishes it is most completely functional in the _dipneusti_, and it passes through all stages of degeneration and atrophy in the more specialized bony fishes. in the _dipneusti_, or dipnoans, as in the crossopterygians and the higher vertebrates, the trachea, or air-duct, arises, as above stated, from the ventral side of the oesophagus. in the more specialized fishes, yet to be considered, it is transferred to the dorsal side, thus avoiding a turn in passing around the oesophagus itself. from the sharks these forms are further distinguished by the presence of membrane-bones about the head. from the _actinopteri_ (ganoids and teleosts) dipnoans and crossopterygians are again distinguished by the presence of the fringe-fin, or archipterygium, as the form of the paired limbs. from the crossopterygians the dipnoans are most readily distinguished by the absence of maxillary and premaxillary, the characteristic structures of the jaw of the true fish. the upper jaw in the dipnoan is formed of palatal elements attached directly to the skull, and the lower jaw contains no true dentary bones. the skull in the dipnoans, as in the _chimæra_, is autostylic, the mandible articulating directly with the palatal apparatus, the front of which forms the upper jaw and of which the pterygoid, hyomandibular and quadrate elements form an immovable part. the shoulder-girdle, as in the shark, is a single cartilage, but it supports a pair of superficial membrane-bones. in all the dipnoans the trunk is covered with imbricated cycloid scales and no bony plates, although sometimes the scales are firm and enameled. the head has a roof of well-developed bony plates made of ossified skin and not corresponding with the membrane-bones of higher fishes. the fish-like membrane-bones, opercles, branchiostegals, etc., are not yet differentiated. the teeth have the form of grinding-plates on the pterygoid areas of the palate, being distinctly shark-like in structure. the paired fins are developed as archipterygia, often without rays, and the pelvic arch consists of a single cartilage, the two sides symmetrical and connected in front. there is but one external gill-opening leading to the gill-arches, which, as in ordinary fishes, are fringe-like, attached at one end. in the young, as with the embryo shark, there is a bushy external gill, which looks not unlike the archipterygium pectoral fin itself, although its rays are of different texture. in early forms, as in the ganoids, the scales were bony and enameled, but in some recent forms deep sunken in the skin. the claspers have disappeared, the nostrils, as in the frog, open into the pharynx, the heart is three-chambered, the arterial bulb with many valves, and the cellular structure of the skin and of other tissues is essentially as in the amphibian. the developed lung, fitted for breathing air, which seems the most important of all these characters, can, of course, be traced only in the recent forms, although its existence in all others can be safely predicated. besides the development of the lung we may notice the gradual forward movement of the shoulder-girdle, which in most of the teleostomous fishes is attached to the head. in bony fishes generally there is no distinct neck, as the post-temporal, the highest bone of the shoulder-girdle, is articulated directly with the skull. in some specialized forms (_balistes_, _tetraodon_) it is even immovably fused with it. in a few groups (_apodes_, _opisthomi_, _heteromi_, etc.) this connection ancestrally possessed is lost through atrophy and the slipping backward of the shoulder-girdle leaves again a distinct neck. in the amphibians and all higher vertebrates the shoulder-girdle is distinct from the skull, and the possession of a flexible neck is an important feature of their structure. in all these higher forms the posterior limbs remain abdominal, as in the sharks and the primitive and soft-rayed fishes generally. in these the pelvis or pelvic elements are attached toward the middle of the body, giving a distinct back as well as neck. in the spiny-rayed fishes the "back" as well as the neck disappears, the pelvic elements being attached to the shoulder-girdle, and in a few extreme forms (as _ophidion_) the pelvis is fastened at the chin. =classification of dipnoans.=--by woodward the _dipneusti_ are divided into two classes, the _sirenoidei_ and the _arthrodira_. we follow dean in regarding the latter as representative of a distinct class, leaving the _sirenoidei_, with the _ctenodipterini_, to constitute the subclass of _dipneusti_. the _sirenoidei_ are divided by gill into two orders, the _monopneumona_, with one lung, and the _diplopneumona_, with the lung divided. to the latter order the _lepidosirenidæ_ belong. to the former the _ceratodontidæ_, and presumably the extinct families also belong, although nothing is known of their lung structures. zittel and hay adopt the names of _ctenodipterini_ and _sirenoidei_ for these orders, the former being further characterized by the very fine fin-rays, more numerous than their supports. =order ctenodipterini.=--in this order the cranial roof-bones are small and numerous, and the rays of the median fins are very slender, much more numerous than their supports, which are inserted directly on the vertebral arches. in the _uronemidæ_ the upper dentition comprises a cluster of small, blunt, conical denticles on the palatine bones; the lower dentition consists of similar denticles on the splenial bone. the vertical fins are continuous and the tail diphycercal. there is a jugular plate, as in _amia_. the few species are found in the carboniferous, _uronemus lobatus_ being the best-known species. in _dipteridæ_ there is a pair of dental plates on the palatines, and an opposing pair on the splenials below. jugular plates are present, and the tail is usually distinctly heterocercal. in _phaneropleuron_ there is a distinct anal fin shorter than the very long dorsal; _phaneropleuron andersoni_ is known from scotland, and _scaumenacia curta_ is found at scaumenac bay in the upper devonian of canada. in _dipterus_ there are no marginal teeth, and the tail is heterocercal, not diphycercal, as in the other dipnoans generally. numerous species of _dipterus_ occur in devonian rocks. in these the jugular plate is present, as in _uronemus_. _dipterus valenciennesi_ is the best-known european species. _dipterus nelsoni_ and numerous other species are found in the chemung and other groups of devonian rocks in america. [illustration: fig. .--_phaneropleuron andersoni_ huxley; restored; devonian. (after dean.)] in the _ctenodontidæ_ the tail is diphycercal, and no jugular plates are present in the known specimens. in _ctenodus_ and _sagenodus_ there is no jugular plate and there are no marginal teeth. the numerous species of _ctenodus_ and _sagenodus_ belong chiefly to the carboniferous age. _ctenodus wagneri_ is found in the cleveland shale of the ohio devonian. _sagenodus occidentalis_, one of the many american species, belongs to the coal-measures of illinois. as regards the succession of the _dipneusti_, dr. dollo regards _dipterus_ as the most primitive, _scaumenacia_, _uronemus_, _ctenodus_, _ceratodus_, _protopterus_, and _lepidosiren_ following in order. the last-named genus he thinks marks the terminus of the group, neither ganoids nor amphibians being derived from any dipnoans. =order sirenoidei.=--the living families of _dipneusti_ differ from these extinct types in having the cranial roof-bones reduced in number. there are no jugular plates and no marginal teeth in the jaws. the tail is diphycercal in all, ending in a long point, and the body is covered with cycloid scales. to these forms the name _sirenoidei_ was applied by johannes müller. =family ceratodontidæ.=--the _ceratodontidæ_ have the teeth above and below developed as triangular plates, set obliquely each with several cusps on the outer margin. nearly all the species, representing the genera _ceratodus_, _gosfordia_, and _conchopoma_, are now extinct, the single genus _neoceratodus_ still existing in australian rivers. numerous fragments of _ceratodus_ are found in mesozoic rocks in europe, colorado, and india, _ceratodus latissimus_, figured by agassiz in , being the best-known species. the abundance of the fossil teeth of _ceratodus_ renders the discovery of a living representative of the same type a matter of great interest. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of _ceratodus runcinatus_ plieninger. carboniferous. (after zittel.)] [illustration: fig. .--_neoceratodus forsteri_ (günther). australia. family _ceratodontidæ_. (after dean.)] [illustration: fig. .--archipterygium of _neoceratodus forsteri_ günther.] in the barramunda of the rivers of queensland was described by krefft, who recognized its relationship to _ceratodus_ and gave it the name of _ceratodus forsteri_. later, generic differences were noticed, and it was separated as a distinct group by castelnau in , under the name of _neoceratodus_ (later called _epiceratodus_ by teller). _neoceratodus forsteri_ and a second species, _neoceratodus miolepis_, have been since very fully discussed by dr. günther and dr. krefft. they are known in queensland as _barramunda_. they inhabit the rivers known as burnett, dawson, and mary, reaching a length of six feet, and being locally much valued as food. from the salmon-colored flesh, they are known to the settlers in queensland as "salmon." according to dr. günther, "the barramunda is said to be in the habit of going on land, or at least on mud-flats; and this assertion appears to be borne out by the fact that it is provided with a lung. however, it is much more probable that it rises now and then to the surface of the water in order to fill its lung with air, and then descends again until the air is so much deoxygenized as to render a renewal of it necessary. it is also said to make a grunting noise which may be heard at night for some distance. this noise is probably produced by the passage of the air through the oesophagus when it is expelled for the purpose of renewal. as the barramunda has perfectly developed gills besides the lung, we can hardly doubt that, when it is in water of normal composition and sufficiently pure to yield the necessary supply of oxygen, these organs are sufficient for the purpose of breathing, and that the respiratory function rests with them alone. but when the fish is compelled to sojourn in thick muddy water charged with gases, which are the products of decomposing organic matter (and this must be the case very frequently during the droughts which annually exhaust the creeks of tropical australia), it commences to breathe air with its lung in the way indicated above. if the medium in which it happens to be is perfectly unfit for breathing, the gills cease to have any function; if only in a less degree, the gills may still continue to assist in respiration. the barramunda, in fact, can breathe by either gills or lung alone or by both simultaneously. it is not probable that it lives freely out of water, its limbs being much too flexible for supporting the heavy and unwieldy body and too feeble generally to be of much use in locomotion on land. however, it is quite possible that it is occasionally compelled to leave the water, although we cannot believe that it can exist without it in a lively condition for any length of time. [illustration: fig. .--upper jaw of _neoceratodus forsteri_ günther. (after zittel.)] "of its propagation or development we know nothing except that it deposits a great number of eggs of the size of those of a newt, and enveloped in a gelatinous case. we may infer that the young are provided with external gills, as in _protopterus_ and _polypterus_. "the discovery of _ceratodus_ does not date farther back than the year , and proved to be of the greatest interest, not only on account of the relation of this creature to the other living _dipneusti_ and _ganoidei_, but also because it threw fresh light on those singular fossil teeth which are found in strata of triassic and jurassic formations in various parts of europe, india, and america. these teeth, of which there is a great variety with regard to general shape and size, are sometimes two inches long, much longer than broad, depressed, with a flat or slightly undulated, always punctated, crown, with one margin convex, and with from three to seven prongs projecting on the opposite margin." [illustration: fig. .--lower jaw of _neoceratodus forsteri_ günther. (after günther.)] =development of neoceratodus.=--from dean's "fishes, recent and fossil," pp. - , we condense the following account (after the observations of dr. f. semon) of the larval history of the barramunda, _neoceratodus forsteri_: it offers characters of exceptional interest, uniting features of ganoids with those of cyclostomes and amphibians. the newly hatched _neoceratodus_ does not strikingly resemble the early larva of shark. no yolk-sac occurs, and the distribution of the yolk material in the ventral and especially the hinder ventral region is suggestive rather of lamprey or amphibian; it is, in fact, as though the quantum of yolk material had been so reduced that the body form had not been constricted off from it. the caudal tip in this stage appears, however, to resemble that of the shark, and, as far as can be inferred from surface views, a neurenteric canal persists. like the shark there then exists no unpaired fin; the gill-slits (five?) are well separated and there is an abrupt cephalic flexure. in this stage pronephros (primitive kidney) and primitive segments are well marked, and are outwardly similar to those structures in ganoid; the mouth is on the point of forming its connection with the digestive cavity; the anus is the persistent blastophore; the heart, well established, takes a position, as in cyclostomes, immediately in front of the yolk material. in a later stage the unpaired fin has become perfectly established, the tail increasing in length; the gill-slits have now been almost entirely concealed by a surrounding dermal outgrowth, the embryonic operculum; a trace of the pectoral fin appears; the lateral line is seen proceeding down the side of the body; near the anal region the intestine[ ] becomes narrower, and the beginnings of the spiral valve appear. in a larva of two weeks a number of developmental advances are noticed; the fish has become opaque; the primitive segments are no longer seen; the size of the yolk mass is reduced; the anal fin-fold appears; sensory canals are prominent in the head region; lateral line is completely established; the rectum becomes narrowed; and the cycloidal body-scales are already outlined. gill-filaments may still be seen beyond the rim of the outgrowing operculum. in the ventral view of a somewhat later larva the following structures are to be noted: the pectoral fins, which have now suddenly budded out,[ ] reminding one in their late appearance of the mode of origin of the anterior extremity of urodele; the greatly enlarged size of the opercular flap; external gills, still prominent; the internal nares, becoming constricted off into the mouth-cavity by the dermal fold of the anterior lip (as in some sharks); and finally (as in _protopterus_ and some batrachian larvæ) the one-sided position of the anus. the larva of six weeks suggests the outline of the mature fish; head and sides show the various openings of the tubules of the insunken sensory canals; and the archipterygium of the pectoral fin is well defined. the oldest larva figured is ten weeks old; its operculum and pectoral fin show an increased size; the tubular mucous openings, becoming finely subdivided, are no longer noticeable; and although the basal supports of the remaining fins are coming to be established, there is as yet little more than a trace of the ventrals. the early development of a lung-fish has thus far been described (semon) only from the outward appearance of the embryo. the egg of _neoceratodus_ has its upper pole distinguished by its fine covering of pigment. from the first fine planes of cleavage it will be seen that the yolk material of the lower pole is not sufficient to prevent the egg's total segmentation. the first plane of cleavage is a vertical one, passing down the side of the egg as a shallow surface furrow, not appearing to entirely separate the substance of the blastomeres, although traversing completely the lower hemisphere. a second vertical furrow at right angles to the first is seen from the upper pole. the third cleavage is again a vertical one (as in all other fishes, but unlike _petromyzon_), approximately meridional; its furrows appear less clearly marked than those of earlier cleavages, and seem somewhat irregular in occurrence. the fourth cleavage is horizontal above the plane of the equator. judging from semon's figure, at this stage the furrows of the lower pole seem to have become fainter, if not entirely lost. in a blastula showing complete segmentation the blastomeres of the upper hemisphere are the more finely subdivided. in the earlier stage the dorsal lip of the blastopore is crescent-like; in the later the blastopore acquires its oblong outline, through which the yolk material is apparent; its conditions may later be compared to those of a ganoid. the next change of the embryo is strikingly amphibian-like; the medullary folds rise above the egg's surface, and, arching over, fuse their edges in the median dorsal line. the medullary folds are seen closely apposed in the median line; hindward, however, they are still separate, and through this opening the blastopore may yet be seen. at this stage primitive segments are shown; in the brain region the medullary folds are still slightly separated. in an older embryo the fish-like form may be recognized. the medullary folds have completely fused in the median line, and the embryo is coming to acquire a ridge-like prominence; optic vesicles and primitive segments are apparent, and the blastopore appears to persist as the anus. the continued growth of the embryo above the yolk mass is apparent; the head end has, however, grown the more rapidly, showing gill-slits, auditory, optic, and nasal vesicles, at a time when the tail mass has hardly emerged from the surface. pronephros has here appeared. it is not until the stage of the late embryo that the hinder trunk region and tail come to be prominent. the embryo's axis elongates and becomes straighter; the yolk mass is now much reduced, acquiring a more and more oblong form, lying in front of the tail in the region of the posterior gut. the head and even the region of the _pronephros_ are clearly separate from the yolk-sac; the mouth is coming to be formed. according to eastman (ed. zittel), the skeleton of _neoceratodus_ is less developed and less ossified than that of its supposed triassic ancestors. a similar rule holds with regard to the sturgeons and some amphibians. [illustration: fig. .--adult male of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ fitzinger. (after kerr.)] =lepidosirenidæ.=--the family _lepidosirenidæ_, representing the suborder _diplopneumona_, is represented by two genera of mudfishes found in streams of africa and south america. _lepidosiren paradoxa_ was discovered by natterer in in tributaries of the amazon. it was long of great rarity in collections, but quite recently large numbers have been obtained, and dr. j. graham kerr of the university of cambridge has given a very useful account of its structure and development. from his memoir we condense the following record of its habits as seen in the swamps in a region known as gran chaco, which lies under the tropic of capricorn. these swamps in the rainy season have a depth of from two to four feet, becoming entirely dry in the southern winter (june, july). [illustration: fig. .--embryo ( days before hatching) and larva ( days after hatching) of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ fitzinger. (after kerr.)] =kerr on the habits of lepidosiren.=--the loalach, as the _lepidosiren_ is locally called, is normally sluggish, wriggling slowly about at the bottom of the swamp, using its hind limbs in irregular alternation as it clambers through the dense vegetation. more rapid movement is brought about by lateral strokes of the large and powerful posterior end of the body. it burrows with great facility, gliding through the mud, for which form of movement the shape of the head, with the upper lip overlapping the lower and the external nostril placed within the lower lip, is admirably adapted. it feeds on plants, algæ, and leaves of flower-plants. the gills are small and quite unable to supply its respiratory needs, and the animal must rise to the surface at intervals, like a frog. it breathes with its lungs as continuously and rhythmically as a mammal, the air being inhaled through the mouth. the animal makes no vocal sound, the older observation that it utters a cry like that of a cat being doubtless erroneous. its strongest sense is that of smell. in darkness it grows paler in color, the black chromatophores shrinking in absence of light and enlarging in the sunshine. in injured animals this reaction becomes much less, as they remain pale even in daylight. [illustration: fig. .--larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ days after hatching. (after kerr.)] [illustration: fig. .--larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ days after hatching. (after kerr.)] [illustration: fig. .--larva of _lepidosiren paradoxa_ months after hatching. (after kerr.)] in the rainy season when food is abundant the lepidosiren eats voraciously and stores great quantities of orange-colored fat in the tissues between the muscles. in the dry season it ceases to feed, or, as the indians put it, it feeds on water. when the water disappears the lepidosiren burrows down into the mud, closing its gill-openings, but breathing through the mouth. as the mud stiffens it retreats to the lower part of its burrow, where it lies with its tail folded over its face, the body surrounded by a mucous secretion. in its burrow there remains an opening which is closed by a lid of mud. at the end of the dry season this lid is pushed aside, and the animal comes out when the water is deep enough. when the waters rise the presence of lepidosirens can be found only by a faint quivering movement of the grass in the bottom of the swamp. when taken the body is found to be as slippery as an eel and as muscular. the eggs are laid in underground burrows in the black peat. their galleries run horizontally and are usually two feet long by eight inches wide. after the eggs are laid the male remains curled up in the nest with them. in the spawning season an elaborate brush is developed in connection with the ventral fins. _protopterus_, a second genus, is found in the rivers of africa, where three species, _p. annectens_, _p. dolloi_, and _p. æthiopicus_, are now known. the genus has five gill-clefts, instead of four as in _lepidosiren_. it retains its external gills rather longer than the latter, and its limbs are better developed. the habits of _protopterus_ are essentially like those of _lepidosiren_, and the two types have developed along parallel lines doubtless from a common ancestry. no fossil _lepidosirenidæ_ are known. [illustration: fig. .--_protopterus dolloi_ boulenger. congo river. family _lepidosirenidæ_. (after boulenger.)] just as the last page of this volume passes through the press, there has appeared a bold and striking memoir on the "phylogeny of the teleostomi," by mr. c. tate regan of the british museum of natural history. in this paper mr. regan takes the view that the chondrostean ganoids (_palæoniscum_, _chondrosteus_, _polyodon_, _psephurus_, etc.) are the most primitive of the teleostomous fishes; that the _crossopterygii_, the _dipneusti_, the _placodermi_, and the _teleostei_ (as well as the higher vertebrates) are descended from these; that the _coccosteidæ_ (arthrodires) are the most generalized of the placoderms, the _osteostraci_ and most of the other forms called ostracophores (_antiarcha_, _anaspida_) being allied to the arthrodires, and to be included with them among the _placodermi_; that the cephalic appendage of _pterichthyodes_, etc., is really a pectoral fin; that the _heterostraci_ (_lanarkia_, _pteraspis_, etc.) are not ostracophores or placoderms at all, but mailed primitive sharks, derived from the early sharks as the chimæras are, and that the holostean ganoids (_lepisosteus_, _amia_, etc.) should be separated from the _chondrostei_ and referred to the _teleostei_, of which they are the primitive representatives. mr. regan especially calls attention to the very close similarity in structure of pectoral and ventral fins in the chondrostean ganoids, _psephurus_ and _polyodon_, with that of the anal fin in the same fishes. from this he derives additional evidence in favor of the origin of paired fins from a lateral fold. in his view, the _chondrostei_ have sprung directly, through ancestors of the _lysopteri_ and _selachostomi_, from pleuropterygian sharks (_cladoselache_) of the lower silurian, and the true fishes on the one hand and the crossopterygian-dipneustan-placoderm series on the other are descended from these. the absence of the lower jaw in fossil remains of ostracophores may be due to its cartilaginous structure. "there is no justification for regarding the _crossopterygii_ as less specialized than the _chondrostei_ because they were the earlier dominant group." these views are very suggestive and contain at least some elements of taxonomic advance, although few naturalists of to-day will regard the chondrostean ganoids as more primitive than the fishes called _crossopterygii_ and _placoderms_. these conclusions are summarized by mr. regan as follows: ( ) the _chondrostei_ are the most generalized _teleostomi_. ( ) the _crossopterygii_ differ from them (_a_) in the lobate pectoral fin; (_b_) in the larger paired gular plates. ( ) the _placodermi_ (_coccosteidæ_, _asterolepidæ_, _cephalaspidæ_) are a natural group, not related to the _heterostraci_, which are _chondropterygii_. they may probably be regarded as armored _primitive crossopterygii_, this view being most in accordance with (_a_) the arrangement of the cranial roof-bones in _coccosteus_; (_b_) the structure of the ventral fin in _coccosteus_; (_c_) the structure of the pectoral limb of the _asterolepidæ_. ( ) the _dipneusti_ probably originated from more specialized _crossopterygii_, e.g., from the neighborhood of the _holoptychiidæ_. ( ) the teleostei differ in so many respects from the _chondrostei_ that they should rank as an order, in which the _holostei_ are included. footnotes: [ ] this group has been usually known as _dipnoi_, a name chosen by johannes müller in . but the latter term was first taken by leuckart in as a name for amphibians before any of the living _dipneusti_ were known. we therefore follow boulenger in the use of the name _dipneusti_, suggested by hæckel in . the name dipnoan may, however, be retained as a vernacular equivalent of _dipneusti_. [ ] the yolk appears to be contained in the digestive cavity, as in _ichthyophis_ and lamprey. [ ] the abbreviated mode of development of the fins is most interesting; from the earliest stage they assume outwardly the archipterygial form; the retarded development of the limbs seems curiously amphibian-like; the pectorals do not properly appear until about the third week, the ventrals not until after the tenth. the natural history of plants their forms, growth, reproduction and distribution from the german of anton kerner von marilaun _professor of botany in the university of vienna_ by f. w. oliver _quain professor of botany in university college, london_ with the assistance of marian bush and mary e. ewart to. new edition. vols. the set--$ . a work for reference or continuous reading, at once popular and, in the modern sense, thoroughly scientific. the new edition is practically identical with the former four-volume edition except that the colored plates in the latter have been omitted. the wood-engravings, over two thousand in number, have been retained. _prof. john m. coulter_, in the dial: "prof. kerner has brought the most recent researches within reach of the intelligent reader, and in a style so charming that even the professional teacher may learn a lesson in the art of presentation.... =it is such books as this that will bring botany fairly before the public as a subject of absorbing interest=; that will illuminate the botanical lecture-room." _prof. chas. r. barnes_, in the botanical gazette: "this lucidity, and the excellent illustrations, not only will introduce the non-botanical reader to the science of botany, but =should serve as a lesson to the professional botanist in the art of presentation=." _the nation_: "he has succeeded in constructing a popular work on the phenomena of vegetation which is practically without any rival." guide to the study of insects and a treatise on those injurious and beneficial to crops for the use of _colleges, farm-schools and agriculturists_ by alpheus s. packard, m.d. with illustrations. ninth edition. xii+ pp., vo, $ . net plant physiology by george j. peirce _professor in leland stanford university_ vi+ pages, vo $ . a modern and thoroughly scientific discussion of the general principles of plant physiology, intended for the student or general reader acquainted with the elements of botany. _science_: "the volume is full of original suggestions and differs quite markedly from the old-time works devoted to plant physiology." _william f. ganong, professor in smith college_: "i am much pleased with the clearness, proportion, and vigor with which it treats the subject. it seems to me =an admirable exposition of the principles of plant physiology= as they are understood at the present day, and it should have a wide use." [illustration] henry holt and company west d street, new york geology vol i. "geologic processes and their results" by prof. thomas c. chamberlin and prof. rollin d. salisbury heads of the departments of geology and geography, university of chicago; members of the united states geological survey; editors of the journal of geology with numerous illustrations, including colored maps and tables. pages, vo, $ . net vol. ii. 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[illustration] henry holt and company west d street, new york transcriber's notes: simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were corrected. punctuation normalized. anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed. the errata on p. ix has been corrected in the text. p. xxiii corrected "_salmo gairdneri_, the steelhead trout. " to "_salmo irideus_, the rainbow trout. " to agree with the actual illustration caption. p. xxiii corrected "_salmo rivularis_, the steelhead trout. " to "_salmo gairdneri_, the steelhead trout. " to agree with the actual illustration caption. italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_. bold markup is enclosed in =equals=. greek text is transliterated and enclosed in ~tildes~. proofreading symbols for diacritical marks (in the table below, the "x" represents a letter with a diacritical mark.) diacritical mark sample above below macron (straight line) ¯ [=x] [x=] the augustan reprint society gerard langbaine momus triumphans: or, the plagiaries of the english stage ( [ ]) _introduction by_ david stuart rodes publication number william andrews clark memorial library university of california, los angeles general editors william e. conway, _william andrews clark memorial library_ george robert guffey, _university of california, los angeles_ maximillian e. novak, _university of california, los angeles_ associate editor david s. rodes, _university of california, los angeles_ advisory editors richard c. boys, _university of michigan_ james l. clifford, _columbia university_ ralph cohen, _university of virginia_ vinton a. dearing, _university of california, los angeles_ arthur friedman, _university of chicago_ louis a. landa, _princeton university_ earl miner, _university of california, los angeles_ samuel h. monk, _university of minnesota_ everett t. moore, _university of california, los angeles_ lawrence clark powell, _william andrews clark memorial library_ james sutherland, _university college, london_ h. t. swedenberg, jr., _university of california, los angeles_ robert vosper, _william andrews clark memorial library_ curt a. zimansky, _state university of iowa_ corresponding secretary edna c. davis, _william andrews clark memorial library_ editorial assistant jean t. shebanek, _william andrews clark memorial library_ introduction gerard langbaine's _momus triumphans, or the plagiaries of the english stage_ ( ) is significant for a number of reasons. it is, first of all, the most comprehensive catalogue of the english theatre to its time, a list of surprising bibliographical competence and extent for its subject and period and a source study which is still of some use today. secondly, it serves as the strong and carefully articulated skeleton for langbaine's elaborately expanded _account of the english dramatick poets_ published some three years later in , and itself a catalogue which remains "a major work of literary scholarship that is immune from obsolescence."[ ] thirdly, and more privately, _momus_ stands as both a partial record and efficient cause of a quarrel whose claim to our attention is its connection with dryden. it is a quarrel minor in itself and of which few details are known. indeed, to call it a quarrel at all is to give a corporeality to langbaine's adversaries which facts will not directly support, but langbaine's prejudices against dryden in _momus_ and their resulting intensification in the _account_ suggest a matrix of literature, alliances of taste, politics and religion interestingly characteristic of late seventeenth-century england. _momus triumphans_ is based on four prior literary catalogues:[ ] [francis kirkman,] _a true, perfect and exact catalogue of all the comedies, tragedies, tragi-comedies, pastorals, masques and interludes, that were ever yet printed and published, till this present year _ (london, ); edward phillips, _theatrum poetarum, or a compleat collection of the poets, especially the most-eminent, of all ages_ (london, ); [gerard langbaine,] _an exact catalogue of all all the comedies, tragedies, tragi-comedies, operas, masks, pastorals, and interludes that were ever yet printed and published, till this present year _ (oxford, ); and william winstanley, _the lives of the most famous english poets, or the honour of parnassus_ (london, ). in his preface to _momus_ langbaine acknowledges his indebtedness to these four earlier lists and asserts "_the general use of_ catalogues, _and the esteem they are in at present_" (a r). but he argues that a new catalogue is needed because the former ones are out of print, "_they were all of them full of gross errours_," and they are not "_so methodical as this which i have now made_." further, he proposes to add "_all the plays which have been printed since _" ([a v]). the catalogues of phillips and winstanley are, as their titles state, not primarily play lists, and their importance to a discussion of dramatic bibliographies resides solely in the use made of them by langbaine. two hundred and fifty-two british poets are named in phillips' _theatrum poetarum_. of these some one hundred and sixty-nine were authors of plays. the titlepage of winstanley's _lives_ advertises an account "of above two hundred" poets, but " are actually listed in the catalogue, and only are noted throughout."[ ] four hundred and sixty-seven plays by sixty authors are included. from phillips' collection winstanley omits the thirty-three scottish poets and sixty-eight english poets. william riley parker believes that most of winstanley's omissions were deliberate and that his "endeavor, unlike phillips', was to give a chronological survey of english poetry from robert of gloucester down to sir roger l'estrange."[ ] parker defines the differing contributions of the two men in the following manner: phillips is more the bibliographer and cataloguer, collecting names and titles; winstanley is the amateur literary historian, seeking out the verse itself, arranging it in chronological order, and trying to pass judgment upon it.[ ] as a bibliographer phillips was exceedingly inaccurate and "the _theatrum_ was a hasty, careless piece of hack work," whose convenience was seriously damaged by a poor organization which alphabetizes the poets in four sections by their first names, with no last name index. his source materials were of the easiest and most superficial kind.[ ] both phillips and winstanley misunderstood kirkman's method of listing anonymous plays and this, as langbaine notes in the preface to _momus_, led "_both these charitable kind gentlemen_" to find "_fathers for them, by ranking each under the authors name that preceded them in the former catalogues_"([a r]).[ ] although he acknowledged all three men in his preface and mentions them each about thirty times in the _account_, it was kirkman who was most admired by langbaine and of most use to him. kirkman's _catalogue_ of , "_the_ first ... _printed of any worth_," was the principal source of _momus_, and it, in turn, was based on a catalogue which kirkman made and published ten years previously.[ ] the format of kirkman's catalogue followed the general format of his earlier catalogue and of several earlier play lists[ ] by arranging the plays alphabetically by title and with some haphazard attempt at chronological order as well, but, as langbaine described it, "promiscuously _as to those of_ authors" except for "shakespeare, fletcher, johnson, _and some others of the most voluminous authors_," whose works were inserted in first place ([a r]). the catalogue listed eight hundred and eight plays, and its principal orientation was most likely not scholarly but commercial, to list the books which kirkman had for sale.[ ] nevertheless, kirkman argued for the completeness of the second catalogue: i really believe there are no more [plays], for i have been these twenty years a collector of them, and have conversed with, and enquired of those that have been collecting these fifty years. these, i can assure you, are all in print, for i have seen them all within ten, and now have them all by me within thirty.[ ] langbaine's first catalogue, _an exact account_, was published anonymously and his authorship of this work has been questioned.[ ] but he refers to it as his own at least three times (on pages , and [ ]) in the _account_. basically, in _an exact account_ langbaine "_reprinted_ kirkman's [catalogue] _with emendations, but in the same form_" ([a r]), with an added alphabetical list giving authors publishing from to . as james osborn has shown, langbaine perpetuated most of kirkman's errors, even where dryden was concerned, still mistakenly attributing to him _love in a wood_ and to his brother-in-law, sir robert howard, _the maiden queen_ and _sir martin mar-all_.[ ] _an exact catalogue_, in turn, formed the basis for _momus_.[ ] it has been suggested that langbaine worked for kirkman and came into possession of his collection, but the small evidence in _momus_ is to the contrary: langbaine lists kirkman's own play _presbyterian lash_ as anonymous, and in the play index he enters _the wits_ ( ), a collection of drolls kirkman claimed to have compiled, as "by sir w. d." and then omits it from the main lists. in the _account_, _wits_ is assigned anonymously. at the time of _an exact catalogue_ it can only be assumed that langbaine's attitude toward dryden was similar to kirkman's: and although i dare not be absolute in my opinion, who is the best of this age, yet i should be very disingenuous if i should not conclude that the _english_ stage is much improved and adorned with the several writings of several persons of honour; but, in my opinion chiefly with those of the most accomplished mr. _john dryden_.[ ] for _momus_ langbaine did adopt many opinions and much information from the earlier catalogues. in the seven years between his first and second catalogues, however, he began to deal more carefully with bibliographical matters, especially in his attributions to dryden, and he found a new format which would allow him to present his later catalogues in a more accurate, useful and stimulating manner. * * * * * _momus triumphans_ was published in november, (although its titlepage is dated ), under two different imprints: the one reproduced here and another "printed for n. c. and to be sold by _sam. holford_, at the crown in the _pall-mall_. ." in both issues there is a major press variant on page under dryden in which "[ ] maximin--t. o" is deleted and the note correctly rekeyed to "tyrannick love, or royal martyr" in the right-hand column. where this variant occurs both title and note for "[ ]mistaken husband--c. o" are moved from the top of the right-hand column to the bottom of the left-hand column. in addition to its preface, _momus_ is divided into four sections: ( ) authors arranged alphabetically according to surnames, together with their plays, including the genre and format of each (pp. - ); ( ) "_supposed_ authours" listed by initials with their plays, genre and format (pp. - ); ( ) "_unknown_ authours" with plays divided alphabetically into groups by first initial of their titles (pp. - ); and ( ) an index of plays arranged alphabetically [pp. - ]. the alphabetizing is not exact, but the careful and efficient organization by format (with its handy, easily usable cross index)[ ] is one of langbaine's chief contributions to modern catalogue making. furthermore, the format established in _momus_ not only supports the enormous expansion which langbaine himself makes in the _account_, but it (in tandem with his marked prejudices) encouraged the copious annotations of later commentators. in other words, langbaine discovered the form which was not only most useful to his contemporaries, but one which was to make him, in osborn's phrase, "the chief tool of compilers for more than two generations."[ ] in _momus_ langbaine has entries for two hundred and thirty-two authors, of whom twenty-six have "_discover_[ed] _themselves but by halves_" ([a v]) and are listed only by initials. langbaine claims to "_have been master of above_ nine hundred _and_ fourscore _english_ plays _and_ masques, _besides_ drolls _and_ interludes" (a r), and _momus_ lists approximately one thousand and forty plays, though the number may actually be slightly higher since a few of these entries represent collections ("terence's plays," for example) and in footnotes many foreign plays are given as sources for the english ones. of the total, thirty-five are given to supposed authors and one hundred and sixty-nine are listed alphabetically by title since their authors are unknown to langbaine even by initial. although the _account_ represents a five-hundred page expansion (but in octavo), the enlargement is accomplished within the basic arrangement and largely with the lists of authors and plays established in _momus_. langbaine adds only ten new authors,[ ] while he deletes two,[ ] and adds about fifty-one new plays, while omitting three.[ ] the expansion takes the form, mainly, of added biographical, critical and source material, including discussions of classical authors and of non-dramatic works. the corrections take the form of deletion and reassignment, change of dates and format, and, most interestingly, change of genre designation. there are over one hundred and fifteen genre changes, of which at least three-quarters involve tragi-comedy, and of these nearly one half (about forty) represent a shift in description from comedy to tragi-comedy. these changes suggest that langbaine was reading or re-reading the plays carefully between the end of and and perhaps the critical commentary on genre by the caroline dramatists as well since many of the conversions occur in describing the works of beaumont and fletcher, massinger, and shirley. for bibliographical detail _momus_ is not entirely superseded by the _account_ since over sixteen descriptions of format[ ] and thirty of genre are not incorporated in the later catalogue. furthermore, about thirty-eight plays are given sources in _momus_ which are not carried over into the _account_. a large number of the source references in _momus_, especially those not transferred to the _account_, are general in nature, to national histories or to the compilations of eusebius and heylin. * * * * * in addition to a history of previous catalogues, his abhorrence of plagiarism and his attack on dryden, the preface contains statements of langbaine's own literary interests and critical principles. he had an obvious "_relish of the_ dramma" (a r) which probably dated from the time he was "bound an apprentice to a bookseller called nevil simmons living in s. _paul's_ church yard in _london_." this time spent in london, from about to was probably his greatest period of play-going.[ ] his orientation, however, is not toward the performed play. he sees drama as essentially the history of the printed work and, unlike john downes in _roscius anglicanus_ ( ), he approaches the appreciation of plays through criticism ([a v]). like his father, the sometime provost of queen's college, oxford, who left behind him "rhapsodies of collections,"[ ] he was an antiquarian and bibliographer. he had the bibliographer's delight in the difficulty of the search ([a v]) and his pleasure in ordering. _momus_ is designed for those readers who "_may possibly be desirous, either to make a collection, or at least have the curiosity to know in_ general, _what has been publish't in our language, as likewise to receive some remarks on the writings of_ particular _men_" (a r-[a v]). as this statement suggests, his general literary principles are neo-classically sound and standard: "it being nobler to contemplate the general history of nature, than a selected diary of fortune" ([a v]), as is his unprejudiced attitude toward borrowings and the need for models. for langbaine the end of literature is moral, "decency _and_ probability" ([a v]), and there is a sense of balanced fairness which extends even to dryden: mr. _dryden_ has many excellencies which far out-weigh his faults; he is an excellent _critick_, and a good _poet_, his stile is smooth and fluent, and he has written well, both in verse and prose. i own that i admire him, as much as any man ... ([a v], italics reversed). but, in the case of dryden, the fairness is much a matter of strategy and the balance is partly stylistic. langbaine's praise has the perfunctory quality of "well, now that's out of the way," and, characteristically, the praise is followed closely by an intensely felt "but" clause which excoriates dryden for his immodesty in debate and his misuses of literature. langbaine's language is often that of theology, the "right path to solid glory" ([a v-a r]), and he intends to show that many authors (and especially dryden) "_have fallen into very great errours_" ([a r]). langbaine's animadversions on "_crafty booksellers_" ([a r]) as well as his attacks on dryden may have caused an embarrassing bibliographical trick to be played on him. wood reports that _momus_ was published in november, , and five hundred copies sold before langbaine "caused another title to be put to the rest of the copies (with an advertisement against the first)."[ ] this new titlepage, added early in december, reads as follows: a new catalogue of english plays, containing all the comedies, tragedies, tragi-comedies, operas, masques, pastorals, interludes, farces, &c. both ancient and modern, that have ever yet been printed, to this present year, . to which, are added, the volumes, and best editions; with divers remarks, of the originals of most plays; and the plagiaries of several authors. by gerard langbaine, gent.... london, printed for nicholas cox, and are to be sold by him in oxford mdclxxxviii. langbaine's reaction to the trick is contained in the advertisement in which he compares this incident to one played on oldham and decries "the heathenish name of _momus triumphans_." i wish i knew my obliging gossips who nam'd it, that i might thank them, as they deserv'd, for their signal kindness. i have endeavour'd to be inform'd, who these friends were, from my bookseller; but he pleads _ignoramus_.... thus not being able to trace it further, and which is worse, _five hundred_ copies being got into _hucksters hands_, past my recovery, i am forc'd to sit down with _patience_, and must depend upon _this apology_, that my _friends_ may not think me _lunatic_ (as they might with reason, were this title my own) and my _enemies_ have occasion to say, this just revenge was inflicted on me by _apollo_, for abusing his sons, the poets. but _whoever_ the _author_ was, i dare swear, he thought, he had infinitely obliged me, in _dubbing_ me a _squire_: a title, no more my due, than _that_ of _doctor_, is to a _mountebank_; and which, i receive with the _same_ kindness, as a _crooked_ man would _that_ of _my lord_.[ ] macdonald believes this account is fictive and that langbaine invented the story to cover an initial immodesty,[ ] but langbaine's style has nothing of the biting playfulness of tone of the spurious title. he is often righteous and sarcastic, but he is not given to direct immodesty or to the burlesque, and _he_ does not consider plagiarism his principal subject. further, there is evidence in the preface ([a r]) that "new _catalogue_" was at least his working title. nevertheless, the false title page is a clever and perceptive joke on langbaine's classical bias and on his fixation with plagiary. his predecessor kirkman has given an apt contemporary definition of a _momus_: as for such, as either rashly condemn without judgment, or lavishly dislike without advice: i esteem them like feathers, soone disperst with every blast, accounting their discontent my content, not caring to please every _momus_.[ ] if langbaine was such a _momus_, he certainly dipped his feather into ink, "the common remedy" against attack (the advertisement), giving the lie to his enemies the poets. the third point of attack, that concerning the title of _esquire_, was perhaps intended as an insult to the humble origins of langbaine's distinguished father and is certainly appropriate satire on a man so concerned with borrowing and on one who had left the university profligately to become "idle" and "a great jockey."[ ] langbaine was entitled to style himself a gentleman[ ] as he does in _a new catalogue_ (but not in the _account_); ironically, langbaine came to the address of esquire by his elections in and as inferior and then superior beadle of arts of oxford university "in consideration of his ingenuity and loss of part of his estate."[ ] langbaine's reactions to the trick served to intensify his source studies (though this was already promised in the preface) and to increase his attention and antagonism to dryden. moreover, in the _account_ he added titles very carefully, including that of esquire to dryden himself. this particular response to his satirists reaches its most amusing dimension with the preciseness of the unknown author listing of "r. a. _gent_." (_account_, p. ). it is probably impossible ever to know if dryden was involved in the trick played on langbaine, and it is hard to imagine that langbaine's criticisms would have engaged even so ardent a controversialist as dryden, but whether the emotion is in any way mutual or not, dryden is at the center of langbaine's thoughts: thus our _laureat_ himself runs down the _french_ wit in his _marriage a la mode_, and steals from _molliere_ in his _mock astrologer_; and which makes it more observable, at the same time he does so, pretends in his _epistle_ to justifie himself from the imputation of theft ... [and] i cannot but blame him for taxing others with stealing characters from him, (as he does _settle_ in his _notes on morocco_) when he himself does _the same_, almost in all the plays he writes; and for arraigning his predecessours for stealing from the _ancients_, as he does _johnson_; which tis evident that he himself is guilty of the same (preface, a r-[a v], italics reversed). what is finally remarkable about langbaine's work, especially in the preface to _momus_ and throughout the _account_, is his abiding determination to insert himself into virtually every one of dryden's quarrels, no matter how passe. the quality which binds together langbaine's heros is not their talent, their common beliefs or their rectitude in admitting sources, but their mutual fortunes in being dryden's adversaries. the list of support he marshals is a long one and includes sir robert howard and the debate over the rhymed heroic drama; the group led by clifford and known as the rota;[ ] _the empress of morocco_ controversy with settle;[ ] shadwell, flecknoe and _mac flecknoe_; the ancients versus the moderns; rymer; and dryden's attitudes toward the classics, the french, and the english dramatists of the earlier part of the century. the reiterations of these attacks come from langbaine at a time when dryden was vulnerable to political and religious charges, and langbaine does not fail to include those.[ ] langbaine's wholesale attacks seem, however, to have two centers. the principal one concerns the charge of plagiarism, which, as osborn has shown, was an old one with dryden, although langbaine's strictures against borrowing do not represent the most characteristic attitude of his time.[ ] more precisely, langbaine focuses on dryden's (seeming) _arrogance_ toward the use of source material, and he would "_desire our laureat_ ... to shun this, confidence and self-love, as the worst of plagues" ([a v]).[ ] the second focus, again one which is seemingly characterized by arrogance, is dryden's criticism of the three major pre-interregnum dramatists, "these three great men" (_account_, p. ), shakespeare,[ ] fletcher and jonson. of these the attacks on jonson and the "thefts" from him are seen as the most disturbing. well over a tenth of the preface and of the _account_ are devoted to dryden, but the next mentioned playwright, at least in the _account_, is jonson. his "excellencies ... are very great, noble, and various" (_account_, p. ). everywhere his modesty and his exemplary uses of the classics and of the english language are vaunted as a rebuke to dryden. his opinions on other dramatists are quoted extensively and approvingly. behind this admiration lie langbaine's love of ancient learning and the continuing affinity of university men for jonson. but there is a personal side, too (as there may be with dryden). langbaine's father was a friend of jonson, who presented him with an inscribed copy of vossius,[ ] and langbaine concludes his article on jonson with an encomium by his father's friend anthony wood. if langbaine delights in exposing the antagonisms and contradictions of dryden's thirty years at the controversial center of london life, he also inadvertently reveals to us a man on a hobby-horse riding at full tilt with a motley pack. his obsession with dryden, like most obsessions, was, no doubt, a fault. it seems, however, to have generated much of the energy required to accomplish so assiduously such large tasks. langbaine's attacks angered some contemporary readers;[ ] they seem, ineffectually, to have made no adverse impression on at least one of dryden's patrons: in the same year that langbaine dedicated the _account_ to james, earl of abington, the earl commissioned dryden to write a commemorative ode to his wife eleanora. for the modern reader, langbaine's point of view happily supplies the interest which raises his catalogues from any dullness inherent in their genre. langbaine is a writer one now appreciates not simply for the extensive accuracy of his theatrical recording, but as a man whose attitudes (and many of his inaccuracies) arise passionately out of his interests and prejudices. to paraphrase mirabell, _quite_ out of context, we admire him "with all his faults, nay like him for his faults." university of california, los angeles notes to the introduction footnotes: [ ] john loftis, "introduction," gerard langbaine, _an account of the english dramatick poets_, the augustan reprint society special publication (los angeles, ), p. i. [ ] for a bibliographical study of play catalogues, see carl j. stratman, _dramatic play lists, - _ (new york, ). [ ] william riley parker, "winstanley's _lives_: an appraisal," _mlq_, vi ( ), . [ ] parker, pp. , . [ ] parker, pp. - . [ ] "just as phillips copied all of the source citations from vossius for the ancients, so he took most of the scholarly references to the moderns from edward leigh's _treatise_" (sanford golding, "the sources of the _theatrum poetarum_," _pmla_, lxxvi [ ], ). [ ] parker believed that only winstanley used kirkman directly, but golding shows that phillips used both kirkman's and lists (golding, p. ). [ ] the _catalogue_ is bound, bibliographically independent, with john dancer's _nicomede_, which was published by kirkman. kirkman's earlier list, _a true, perfect, and exact catalogue_ (london, ) contains plays and is bound with _tom tyler and his wife_. [ ] specifically, the catalogues of richard rogers and william ley and of archer, both published in . see stratman, pp. - . [ ] see, for example, kirkman, the stationer to the reader, in _the thracian wonder_ ( ); this and similar advertisements are reprinted in strickland gibson, _a bibliography of francis kirkman_, oxford bibliographical society publications, n. s., i ( ), . [ ] gibson, pp. - . [ ] principally by w. w. greg, "additional notes on dramatic bibliographers," the malone society, _collections_, ii. ( ), - . based on evidence in the _account_ greg later corrected his attribution from kirkman to langbaine: "gerard langbaine the younger and nicholas cox," _the library_, n. s., xxv. & ( ), - . [ ] it is, however, impossible that phillips, published in , was "led into [error] by my catalogue printed ." [ ] _john dryden: some biographical facts and problems_, revised edition (gainesville, fla., ), p. . [ ] about plays which appear in _an exact catalogue_, usually wrongly attributed, are not brought into _momus_. these include such plays as "cruelty of the spanish in peru," "hieronomo in two parts" and "gyles goose-cap." there are several changes in assignment from _an exact catalogue_ to _momus_, including "appius and virginia" from b. r. to john webster. _an exact catalogue_ seems to attribute "virtuoso" to d'urfey, but _momus_ gives it correctly to shadwell. [ ] this is osborn's suggestion, p. . [ ] fewer than plays in _momus_ are missing from the index. of these shakespeare's _henry viii_ and sir robert howard's _committee_ are the most significant. the index lists several plays which are omitted from the main list, most interestingly "revenger's tragedy, by c. t." [ ] osborn, p. . [ ] henry burnel, _esq._; james carlile; _sir_ john denham; joseph harris; will. mountford; george powel; john stephens; _dr._ robert wild; r. d.; j. w. [ ] "--_peaps_" and "_j. swallow_." [ ] decker, _wonder of the kingdom_; unknown, _robin conscience_; and unknown, _woman will have her will_. [ ] although langbaine claims to use "_the best edition of each book_" (preface, [a v]), one of his eighteenth-century annotators, bishop percy, is right in saying that "langbaine's work would have been more valuable if he had everywhere set down the first editions," but "the editions referred to" are "such as he happened to have in his possession." oldys had earlier expressed the same bibliographical regret more succinctly: "a woeful chronologist art thou, gerard langbaine." these opinions are quoted by alun watkin-jones in his survey of annotated copies of the _account_: "langbaine's _account of the english dramatick poets_ ( )," _essays and studies by members of the english association_, xxi ( ), . [ ] for his biography and that of his father, gerard langbaine the elder, see anthony wood, _athenae oxonienses_, ed. philip bliss (london, - ), iii, - . there is a note recording an illicit romance for the son in andrew clark, _the life and times of anthony wood_ (oxford, ), i, - . [ ] wood, iii, . [ ] wood, iii, . [ ] the advertisement is on the recto of a leaf added after [a ]; "the errata for the preface" appears on the verso. for an account of oldham's "a satyr against vertue," published without his consent in , see wood, iv, . [ ] hugh macdonald, "the attacks on dryden," _essays and studies by members of the english association_, xxi ( ), . [ ] the translators epistle to the reader, _amadis de gaule_ ( ). [ ] wood, iii, . [ ] his father's coat of arms is described in clark, i, . but for a conservative attitude toward use of the address, see edward chamberlayne, _angliae notitia: or the present state of england_, the first part, the fifteenth edition (london, ), p. . [ ] wood, iii, . [ ] clifford makes the same charge of plagiarism in equally virulent language: "and next i will detect your thefts, letting the world know how great a plagery you are ..." (_notes upon mr. dryden's poems_ [london, ], p. ). [ ] maximillian e. novak, "introduction," settle, dryden, shadwell, crowne, duffet, _the empress of morocco and its critics_, the augustan reprint society special series (los angeles, ), pp. i-xix. novak also discusses dryden's quarrels with howard and the rota. [ ] _account_, p. , gives new information, or gossip, about dryden's pre-restoration activities. [ ] loftis, pp. ix-xiii. [ ] this is a focus of clifford's charges as well: "there is one of your virtues which i cannot forbear to animadvert upon, which is your excess of modesty; when you tell us in your postscript to _granada_, that _shakespeare is below the dullest writer of ours, or any precedent age_" (p. ). [ ] although shakespeare's "learning was not extraordinary," langbaine "esteem[s] his plays beyond any that have ever been published in our language" (_account_, pp. - ). in both _momus_ and the _account_ langbaine employed the folio edition of shakespeare's works which was printed for herringman and others and dedicated to the earls of pembroke and montgomery (wing , , ). he catalogues the seven plays added in this edition to those of the earlier collected editions, but contrary to its genre designation in the first folio and in this edition, langbaine refers to _merchant of venice_ as a tragi-comedy and, in _momus_, lists two parts of "john king of england." in the _account_ he changes the designation of _winter's tale_ from comedy to tragi-comedy, and in both catalogues appends "birth of merlin," altering his description of its genre from pastoral to tragi-comedy. [ ] wood, iii, . [ ] see, for example, a review in the _moderator_, no. ( june ); quoted in wood, iii, . bibliographical note this facsimile of _momus triumphans_ ( [ ]) is reproduced from a copy (*zpr/ /l m) in the william andrews clark memorial library. momus triumphans: or, the plagiaries of the english stage; expos'd in a catalogue of all the _comedies_, _tragi-comedies_, _masques_, _tragedies_, _opera's_, _pastorals_, _interludes_, &c. both ancient and modern, that were ever yet printed in _english_. the names of their known and supposed authors. their several volumes and editions: with an account of the various originals, as well _english_, _french_, and _italian_, as _greek_ and _latine_; from whence most of them have stole their plots. by _gerard langbaine_ esq; _indice non opus est nostris, nec vindice libris: stat contra dicitq; tibi tua pagina, fures._ mart. _london_: printed for _nicholas cox_, and are to be sold by him in _oxford_. mdclxxxviii. the preface. if it be true, what =aristotle=[ ] that great philosopher, and father of criticism, has own'd, =that the= stage =might instruct mankind better than= philosophy it self. if =homer= was thought by =horace=[ ] to exceed =crantor= and =chrystippus= in the precepts of morality; and if =sophocles= and =euripides=, obtained the title of wise, for their =dramatich= writing, certainly it can be no discredit for any man to own himself a lover of that sort of poetry, which has been stiled, =the school of vertue and good manners=? i know there have been many severe =cato's= who have endeavoured all they could, to decry the use of the stage; but those who please to consult the writings of the learned dr. =gager=, =albericus gentiles=, sir =philip sidney=, sir =richard baker=, =heywood=, the poet and actor both in one; not to mention several others, as the famous =scaliger=, monsieur =hedelin=, =rapin=, &c. will find their objections fully answered, and the diversion of the theatre sufficiently vindicated. i shall therefore without any apology, publickly own, that my inclination to this kind of poetry in particular, has lead me not onely to the view of most of our modern representations on the stage, but also to the purchase of all the plays i could meet with, in the =english= tongue; and indeed i have been master of above =nine hundred= and =fourscore= english =plays= and =masques=, besides =drolls= and =interludes=; and having read most of them, i think am able to give some tollerable account of the greatest part of our dramatick writers, and their productions. the general use of =catalogues=, and the esteem they are in at present, is so well known, that it were to waste paper to expatiate on it: i shall therefore onely acquaint my =reader=, that i designed =this catalogue= for their use, who may have the same relish of the =dramma= with my self; and may possibly be desirous, either to make a collection, or at least have the curiosity to know in =general=, what has been publish't in our language, as likewise to receive some remarks on the writings of =particular= men. the =reasons= that induc'd me to the publishing this =catalogue=, were these: =first=, that the former =catalogues= were out of print. =secondly=, that they were all of them full of groÃ� errours. =thirdly=, that they were not, as i thought, so methodical as this which i have now made; wherein the reader will find the imperfections i observed in the former catalogues, amended; all the plays which have been printed since , to this present time, added; with several remarks, which whether or no observed, i cannot tell, but never published by any author till now. to begin then =first= with the errours of =former= catalogues, they are chiefly =five=: =first=, there were plays inserted in all of them, which were never in print; as for brevity's sake, to give =one= instance for many, =the amorous widow, and wanton wife=, a comedy. this is a =stock-play=, and was written (if not translated from =mollieres george dandin=) by mr. =batterton=. =secondly=, some plays were omitted, which had been printed very long ago; as, =cola's fury, and lirenda's misery=. written by =henry burkhead=. =the religious rebel=; and several others. =thirdly=, =two= titles which belong'd to one and the same play, were frequently printed, as if they had been two =distinct= plays; as =the constant maid=, or =love will find out the way=. written by =shirley=. =ferex and porex=, or the tragedy of =gorboduc=. written by =sackvile= and =norton=; with many others. =fourthly=, the same title was often times printed twice, and that seperately, as if writ by =two several= persons; and sometimes ascrib'd to =different= authors likewise; when it was onely a new edition of the same play; as for example, =patient grissel= was again repeated under the title of =patient griÃ�el old=. and =appius= and =virginia=, written by =webster=, is afterwards ascrib'd to =t. b.= though as the deceased comedian mr. =carthwright=, a bookseller by profession, told me, 'twas onely the old play reprinted, and corrected by the above-mentioned =mr. batterton=; with several others. =fifthly=, some plays are ascribed to =one= author which were writ by another; as =celum britanicum=, a masque, is to sir =william davenant=, though it was written by =carew= and =jones=. which fault is rather to be imputed to the publishers of sir =william davenant='s workes, , in folio, than to the compilers of the former =catalogue=; who are more excusable than, mr. =phillips= in his =catalogue= of poets, called, =theatrum poetarum=; and his transcriber =winstanley=, who has follow'd him at a venture in his characters of the =drammatick= writers, even to a word, in his =lives of the english poets=. both these authors through a mistake of the method of former catalogues, and their ignorance in what pieces each =drammatick= author had published, have fallen into very great errours, as i am going to shew. the =first= catalogue that was printed of any worth, was that collected by =kirkman=, a =london= bookseller, whose chief dealing was in plays; which was published , at the end of =nicomede=, a tragi-comedy, translated from the =french= of monsieur =corneille=. this catalogue was printed =alphabetically=, as to the names of the =plays=, but =promiscuously= as to those of the =authors=, (=shakspeare=, =fletcher=, =johnson=, and some others of the most voluminous authors excepted) each authors name being placed over against each play that he writ, and still repeated with every several play, till a new author came on. about =nine= years after, the publisher of this catalogue, reprinted =kirkman='s with emendations, but in the same form. notwithstanding the =anonimous= plays, one would think easily distinguishable by the want of an authors name before them; yet have both these charitable kind gentlemen found fathers for them, by ranking each under the authors name that preceded them in the former catalogues. thus =charles= the first is placed by them both to =nabbs=; because in both the former catalogues it followed his =covent-garden=: and for the same reason =cupid's whirligig= is ascribed by both of them to =goff=; because it follow'd his =careless shepherdess=; and so of many others, too tedious to repeat. to prevent the like mistake for the future, and to make the catalogue more useful, i wholly altered the form: and yet that i might please those who delight in old paths, i have transcribed the same as a second part, after the former way of =alphabet=, though more methodically than formerly, as i shall shew presently. in this =new= catalogue the reader will find the whole to be divided into =three= distinct =classes=. in the first i have placed the =declared= authours, alphabetically, according to their =sirnames=, in =italick= characters: and placed the plays each authour has written, underneath in =roman= letters, which are rank'd alphabetically likewise; so that the reader may at one glance view each authours labours. over against each play, is plac'd as formerly a letter to indicate the =nature= of the dramma: as c. for =comedy=. t. for =tragedy=. t. c. for =tragi-comedy=. p. for =pastoral=. o. for =opera=. i. for =interlude=. f. for =farce=. and, for the better use of those who may design a collection, i have added to the =letter= the volume also, (according to the best edition) as =fol. o. o.= against each play that i have seen. and for their further help; where a play is not printed single, the reader will be directed by a letter or figure to the bottom of the colume, where he will meet with instructions how it is to be found; i mean, with what poems or other plays it is printed, the year =when=, the place =where=, and the best edition of each book so mentioned. this may seem superfluous at first sight, but may possibly be no longer thought so, when i shall have acquainted my reader, that when i was making my collection, i found several plays and masks, bound up with other poems, which by the name were scarce known to the generality of booksellers: as for instance, sir =robert howard='s =blind lady=; =daniel's philotas=; =carew='s =coelum britanicum=; =shirley='s =triumph of beauty;= with infinite others. but two plays i might particularly mention, both taken notice of in former catalogues, to wit, =gripus and hegio=, a pastoral; and =deorum dona=, a masque; both which were written by =baron=, and were wholly unknown to all the booksellers of whom i happened to enquire, and which i could never have found but by chance; they being printed in a romance called, =the cyprian academy=, in o. the same i might add of =the clouds=, (a play which was never in any catalogue before, and was translated from =aristophanes='s =nubes= by =stanley=, and printed with his =history of philosophy=, fol. =lond. =, and now newly reprinted; and of several others) but that i must hasten back to give an account of the two other divisions of my catalogue. the =one= of which contains those plays whose authors discover themselves but by halves, and =that= to their intimate friends, by two letters only in the =title-page=, or the bottom of their =epistle=; and in the last degree are plac'd all =anonemous= plays; and thus compleats the =fifth= part. the =second= part contains the catalogue =reprinted= in an exact =alphabetical= manner, according to the forms of =dictionaries=, the authors names being here left out as superfluous; and against each play is a figure to direct you to the page where you may find it in the first part. thus much as to the method and alterations of this catalogue: now as to the remarks, which are of =three= sorts; the =first= of use, and the other =two= conducing to pleasure at least, if not to profit likewise. the =first= is to prevent my readers being impos'd on by crafty booksellers, whose custom it is as frequently to vent =old= plays with =new= titles, as it has been the use of the theatres to dupe the town, by acting old plays under new names, as if newly writ, and never acted before; as, =the counterfeit bridegroom=, an old play of =middleton='s; =the debauchee=, another of =brome='s; =the match in newgate=, another of =marston='s; with many more, too tedious to repeat. by these remarks the reader will find =the fond lady=, to be only the =amorous old woman=, with a new title, =the eunuch=, to be =the fatal contract=, a play printed above thirty years ago; with many the like. the =second= is an essay towards a more large account of the =basis= on which each play is built, whether it be founded on any story or passage either in =history=, =chronicle=, =romance=, or =novel=. by this means the curious reader may be able to form a judgment of the poets ability in working up a =dramma=, by comparing his =play= with the =original= story. i have not been so large and full in this as i intend hereafter, not having by me several =chronicles= and =novels=, which might have been subservient to my design, as the =chronicles= of =particular= countries, and the =novels= of =cynthio geraldi=, =loredano=, =bandello=, =sansorino belleforreste=, &c. for this reason, in the notes on several plays which i have taken notice of, i have been forc'd to refer to the chronicles of a country in =general=, not have had time or opportunity to make an exact search what historian the author has =chiefly= follow'd, or what author has most largely treated on that particular action which is the subject of the dramma. so in novels i have been forc'd through necessity to quote some which have been printed since the plays were written to which they are referred: because i knew that they were extracted and collected from the originals, whence the plot was taken, though i had them not by me: of which i could produce many instances, were it material. i would desire my readers leave to make this observation by the by, that a =drammatick poet= is not ty'd up to the rules of =chronology=, or =history=, but is at liberty to new-model a story at his pleasure, and to change not only the circumstances of a true story, but even the principal action it self. of this opinion are most of our modern critics; and =scaliger= observes, not only that 'tis the priviledge of =epick= poets, but also of =tragedians=.[ ] =quis nescit omnibus epicis poetis historiam esse pro argumento? quam illi aut adumbratam, aut illustratam certe alia facie quam ostendunt ex historia consiciunt, poema. nam quid alius homeras? quid tragicis ipsis faciemus. sic multâ lucano ficta. patriæ imago quæ sese offerat cæsari: excitam ab interis animam, atq; alia talia.=[ ] this instance of =lucan=, makes me call to mind what sir =william davenant= says on account of the same author, whom he blames for making choice of an argument so near his own time, that such an enterprize rather beseem'd an historian, than a poet. =for= (says he) =wise poets think it more worthy to seek out truth in the passions, than to record the truth of actions; and practise to describe mankind just as we are perswaded or guided by instinct, not particular persons, as they are lifted, or levelled by the force of fate, it being nobler to contemplate the general history of nature, than a selected diary of fortune=. so that we see the busineÃ� of a poet is to =refine= upon history; and reformation of manners is so much his busineÃ�, that he is not to represent things on the stage, as he finds them =recorded= in history, but as they =ought= to have been: and therefore we are not to make =history= so much the standard and rule of our judgment, as =decency= and =probability=. for indeed, provided the author shew judgment in the heightning and working up of his story, it matters not whether the play be founded on =history=, or =romance=, or whether the story be his own, or another's invention. the last sort of remarks, relate to thefts: for having read most of our english plays, as well ancient as those of latter date, i found that our modern writers had made incursions into the deceas'd authors labours, and robb'd them of their fame. i am not a sufficient casuist to determine whether that severe sentance of =synesius= be true, =magis impium mortuorum lucubrationes quam vestes furari=; that 'tis a worse sin to steal dead mens writings, than their clothes: but i know that i cannot do a better service to their memory, than by taking notice of the plagiaries, who have been so free to borrow, and to endeavour to vindicate the fame of these ancient authors from whom they took their spoiles. for this reason i have observ'd what thefts i have met with throughout the catalogue, and have endeavour'd a restitution to their right owners, and a prevention of the readers being impos'd on by the plagiary, as the patrons of several of our plays have been by our modern poets. but none certainly has attempted it with greater confidence, than he that stiles himself the author of =the country innocence=, or =the chambermaid turn'd quaker=: a play which was acted and printed in the year , but first publish'd many years before by its genuine author =ant. brewer=. it is not to those of our own nation only, but to forreigners also, that i have endeavour'd to do justice. for that reason i have remark'd (as far as my knowledge would permit me) what has been translated or stollen from =tasso=, =guarini=, =bonarelli=, =garnier=, =scarron=, both the =corneilles=, =molliere=, =rucine=, =quinault=, and others both =french= and =italians=. neither have i omitted, to my power, to do right likewise to the ancient =greek= and =latin= poets, that have written in this way, as =sophocles=, =euripides=, =Ã�schylus=, =aristophanes=, =seneca=, =plautus=, =terence=, &c. i must acknowledge, with regret, that these are not so well known to me as i could wish; but yet as far as my power, i have endeavour'd to do right to their memories. but i dare assure my reader, that for the future it shall be more my busineÃ� to obtain a more intimate acquaintance with all worthy strangers, as well as with my own countrymen, so that if this trifle should have the fortune to appear abroad a second time, it shall be more compleat and correct, than the shortneÃ� of the time, and my small acquaintance with authors at present allow; the catalogue being in the preÃ�, and the first sheet of it set, before i thought of adding these remarks. but before i quit this paper, i desire my readers leave to take a view of =plagiaries= in =general=, and that we may observe the different proceedings between the =ancients= and our =modern= writers. this art has reign'd in all ages, and is as ancient almost as learning it self. if we take it in its general acceptation, and according to the extent of the word, we shall find the most eminent poets (not to move excentrically and out of our present sphere) are liable to the charge and imputation of =plagiary=. =homer= himself is not free from it, if we will give credit to =suidas=, =Ã�lian=, and others: and that the invention of the =iliad= is not wholly due to him, seems to be confirm'd by the testimony of =aristotle=, who mentions a =small iliad=,[ ] which was written before his was produced. but whether there be any ground, for this opinion, or no, certain it is that the most eminent poets amongst the =romans=, i mean =virgil= and =ovid=, made use of the grecian magazines, to supply their inventions. to prove this, let us first consider =virgil=, stil'd the king of poets by =scaliger=, and in the opinion of =propertius= exceeding =homer= himself, as appears by the following lines[ ] so well known amongst all learned men, =cedite romani scriptores, cedite graii, nescio, quid majus nascitur Ã�neade.= yet even this great man has borrow'd in all his works; from =theocritus=, in his =eclogues=; from =hesiod= and =aratus=, in his =georgicks=; and from =homer= and =pisander=, in his =Ã�neads=: besides what he has borrow'd from =parthenius nicæus=, his tutor in the =greek= tongue, and from =q. ennius= an ancient =latin= poet; as you may read more at large in =macrobius=.[ ] if we consider =ovid=, the flower of the =roman= wit, we shall find him imitating at least, if not borrowing from, the forementioned =parthenius=: his =metamorphosis=, that divine poem, (as =ant. muretus=[ ] stiles it in his orations) being built upon that poem writ in the =greek= tongue, which bore the same name, and handled the same subject, as we are told by =plutarch= and =eustathius=. and if to these we add that worthy =carthaginian terence=, who by the kindneÃ� of the generous =lucan=, was at once made a free man and citizen of =rome=, and whom on the account of his comedies written in the =latin= tongue, we may number among the =roman= writers: we shall find him likewise beholding, for his productions, to that eminent =athenian= poet =menander=. but let us now observe how these eminent men manage what they borrow'd; and then compare them with those of our times. =first=, they propos'd to themselves those authors whose works they borrow'd from, for their model. =secondly=, they were cautious to borrow only what they found beautiful in them, and rejected the rest. this is prov'd by =virgil='s answer concerning =ennius= his works, when he was ask'd by one who saw him reading, what he was about, reply'd, =aurum se ex enii stercore colligere=. =thirdly=, they plainly confess'd what they borrow'd, and modestly ascrib'd the credit of it to the author whence 'twas originally taken. thus =terence= owns his translations in his =prologue= to =eunuchus=. =qui bene vertendo, & eas discribendo malè ex græcis bonis, latinas fecit non bonas.= this behaviour =pliny=[ ] commends in these words: =est enim benignum & plenum ingenium pudoris, fateri per quos profeceris=: and after having blam'd the plagiaries of his time, he commends =cicero= for making mention of =plato=, =crantor=, and =panætius=, whom he made use of in his works: and let it be observ'd by our =modern= poets, that though our modest =carthaginian= own'd his translations, yet was he not the leÃ� esteem'd by the =romans=, or his poems leÃ� valu'd for it. nay, even in =this= age he is universally commended by learned men, and the judicious =rapin= gives =him= a character, which i doubt few of our age will deserve. terence[ ] =a ecrit d'une maniere, & si naturelle, & si judicieuse, que de copie qu'il estoit il est devenu original: car jamais auteur n'a eu un goust plus par de la nature=. =lastly=, whatsoever these ancient poets (particularly =virgil=) copyed from =any= author, they took care not only to alter it for their purpose; but to add to the beauty of it: and afterwards to insert it so =handsomly= into their poems, (the body and oeconomy of which was generally their own) that what they =borrow'd=, seem'd of the same contexture with what was =originally= theirs. so that it might be truly said of =them=; =apparet unde sumptum sit, aliud tamen quam unde sit, apparet=. if we =now= on the =other side= examine the proceedings of our late =english= writers, we shall find them diametrically opposite in all things. =shakspear= and =johnson= indeed imitated these illustrious men i have cited; the =one= having borrow'd the comedy of errours from the =menechmi= of =plautus=; the =other= has made use not only of him, but of =horace=, =ovid=, =juvenal=, =salust=, and several others, according to his occasions: for which he is commended by mr. =dryden=,[ ] =as having thereby beautified our language=: and mr. =rymer=, whose judgment of him is this; =i cannot= (says he) =be displeas'd with honest= ben,[ ] =when he chuses rather to borrow a melon of his neighbour, than to treat us with a pumpion of his own growth=. but for the most part we are treated far otherwise; not with sound =roman= wit, as in =ben='s time, but with empty =french= kickshaws, which yet our poetical hosts serve up to us for regales of their own cookery; and yet they themselves undervalue that very nation to whom they are oblig'd for the best share of their treat. thus our =laureat= himself runs down the =french= wit in his =marriage a la mode=, and steals from =molliere= in his =mock astrologer=; and which makes it more observable, at the same time he does so, pretends in his =epistle= to justifie himself from the imputation of theft: =not unlike the cunning of a jugler= (to apply his own simile to him) [epistle to the =spanish= fryer] =who is always staring us in the face, and overwhelming us with gibberish, only that he may gain the opportunity of making the cleanlier conveyance of his trick.=[ ] i will wave the epistle to this play, which seems to be the picture of bays in little, yet i cannot omit one observation more, which is, that our =laureat= should borrow from =old flecknoe=, whom he so much despises: and yet whoever pleases to read =flecknoe's damoyselles a la mode=, will find that they have furnisht mr. =dryden= with those =refin'd= expressions which his =retrenching= lady =donna aurelea= makes use of, as =the counsellor of the graces=, and that =furious indigence of ribons=. but possibly he will own that he borrow'd them as =father flecknoe= did, from =mollieres les precieuses ridicules=: however, i hope he will allow that these expressions better suit, with the =spiritual= temper of those =french= damsels, than with the known gravity of the =spanish= ladies. i hope mr. =dryden= will pardon me this discovery, it being absolutely necessary to my design of restoring what i could to the true authors: and this maxim i learnt from his own father =aldo=, every one must have their own.[ ] =fiat justitia, aut ruat mundus.= in pursuance to which, i own that mr. =dryden= has many excellencies which far out-weigh his faults; he is an excellent =critick=, and a good =poet=, his stile is smooth and fluent, and he has written well, both in verse and prose. i own that i admire him, as much as any man; ----=neque ego illi detrahere ausim, hærentem capiti multâ cum laude coronam.=[ ] but at the same time i cannot but blame him for taxing others with stealing characters from him, (as he does =settle= in his =notes on morocco=) when he himself does =the same=, almost in all the plays he writes; and for arraigning his predecessours for stealing from the =ancients=, as he does =johnson=; which tis evident that he himself is guilty of the same. i would therefore desire our laureat, that he would follow that good advice which the modest history professor mr. =wheare= gives to the young academick in his =antelogium, to shun this, confidence and self-love, as the worst of plagues; and to= consider that =modesty is it which becomes every age, and leads all that follow her in the streight, and right path to solid= =glory; without it we are hurld down precepices, and instead of acquiring honour, become the scorn of men, and instead of a good fame, we return loaden with ignominy and contempt.=[ ] i have not time to examine the thefts of other plagiaries in particular, both from the =french= and our =own= language, and therefore shall onely desire them to consider this sentence of =pliny=:[ ] =obnoxii profecto animi, & infelicis ingenii est, deprehendere infurto malle, quam mutuum reddere cum presertim sors fiat ex usurâ=. althô i condemn =plagiaries=, yet i would not be thought to reckon as such either =translators=, or those who =own= what they borrow from other authors: for as 'tis commendable in any man to advantage the =publick=; so it is manifest, that those authors have done so, who have contributed to the knowledge of the =unlearned=, by their excellent =versions=: yet at the same time i cannot but esteem them as the =worst= of plagiaries, who steal from the writings of those of our own nation. because he that borrows from the worst =forreign= author, may possibly import, even amongst a great deal of trash, =somewhat= of value: whereas the former makes us pay extortion for =that= which was our own before. for this reason i must distinguish one of our best comick-writers,[ ] from the =common herd= of =translators=; since though proportionate to his writings, none of our =modern= poets have borrow'd leÃ�; yet has he dealt ingenuously with the world, and if i mistake not, has =publickly= own'd, either in his =prefaces=, or =prologues=, =all= that he has borrow'd; which i the rather take notice of, because it is so =little= practised in =this= age. 'tis true indeed, what is borrow'd from =shakspeare= or =fletcher=, is usually own'd by our poets, because every one would be able to convict them of theft, should they endeavour to conceal it. but in what has been stolen from authors not so generally known, as =murston=, =middleton=, =massenger=, &c. we find our poets playing the parts of =bathyllus= to =virgil=, and robbing them of that fame, which is as justly their due, as the reward the emperour =augustus= had promised to the author of that known =distich= affixed on the court gate, was to =virgil=. neither can this imputation be laid at the doors of such who are onely imitators of the works of others, amongst which, are admired sir =charles sidley=, and the inimitable m. =wytcherley=: the last of which, if i mistake not, has copied =mollieres le misanthrope=, in his character of the =plain dealer=; and his =celimene=, in that of =olivia=: but =so well=, that though the character of the =misanthrope= be accounted by =rapin=,[ ] =te caractere le plus achevee=; the compleatest character, and the most singular that ever appeared on the stage: yet certainly =our poet= has equaled, if not exceeded his copy. imitation which =longinus= commends in =stesichorus=, =archilochus=, and =herodotus=, all of them being imitators of =homer=; but particularly he says of =plato=: #pantôn de toutôn malista ho platôn, apo tou homêrikou ekeinou namatos eis hauton myrias hosas paratropas apocheteusamenos#[ ] =sed omnium hujus poetæ studiosissimus imitator suit plato, ab illis homericis laticibus ad se seductos vivos quam-plurimos transferens.= but to put an end to these =observations=, which may prove =alike troublesome= to the reader, as well as to the poets: i must say this for our countrymen, that notwithstanding our =modern= authors have borrow'd =much= from the =french=, and other nations, yet have we several pieces, if i may so say, of our =own= manefacture, which equal at least, any of our neighbours productions. this is a truth so =generally= known, that i need not bring instances to prove, that in the =humour= of our =comedies=, and in the =characters= of our =tragedies=, we do not yeild to =any other= nation. 'tis true the =unities= of =time=, =place=, and =action=, which are generally allowed to be the beauties of a play, and which the =french= are so careful to observe, add all lusture to their plays; nevertheleÃ�, several of our poets have given proof, that did our nation more regard them, they could practice them with equal succeÃ�: but as a =correct play= is not so much understood, or at least regarded by the generality of spectators; and that few of our poets now-a-days write so much for =honour= as =profit=: they are therefore content to please at an easier rate. but would some =great man= appear here in the defence of =poetry=, and for the support of =good= poets, as the great cardinal =richlieu=, that noble patron of arts and sciences, did in =france=; i doubt not but we should find =several= authors, who would quickly evince, that neither the writings of =aristotle=, or the practice of those admirable rules laid down by that =father= of =criticism=, and his best commentator, =horace=; with the rest of those eminent men, that have written on the =art of the stage=, are unknown to them. but in the mean time, would our =nobility= and =gentry=, who delight in plays, but allow themselves so much time, as to read over what is extant on this subject in =english=, as, =ben johnson's= discoveries; =roscommon='s translation of =horace='s art of poetry; =rapin='s reflections on =aristotle='s treatise of poetry; =longinus= of the loftineÃ� of speech; =boyleau='s art of poetry; =hedelin='s art of the stage; =euremont='s essays; =rimer='s tragedies of the last age considered; =dryden='s drammatick essay; and several others; though they understood none but their native language, and consequently could not read what =vossius=, =heinsius=, =scaliger=, =plutarch=, =athenæus=, =titius giraldus=, =castelvetro=, =lope de vega=, =corneille=, =menardiere=, and others which have written to the same purpose in several languages; yet those which are to be met with in =english=, are sufficient to inform them, both in the =excellency= of the poetick art, and the rules which poets follow, with the reasons of them: they would then find their pleasure encrease with their knowledge; and they would have the greater satisfaction in seeing a =correct play=, by how much they were capable (by the help of these rules) to discern the =beauties= of it; and the greater value for a =good= poet, by how much they were sensible of the pains and study requisite to bring such a poem to perfection. this would advance the fame of =good= poets, and procure them =patrons= amongst the =nobility= and =gentry=, and through their =emulation= to exceed each other, =poetry= might in a few years be advanced to the =same= perfection that it was in formerly, at =rome= and =athens=. gerard langbaine. errata. by reason of my great distance from the preÃ�, several confederate =errata's= are to be met with throughout; but the most material are these which follow: which the reader is desired to pardon and correct. =in the catalogue it self.= page . =the wits= is left out, a play of sir =w. davenant=. p. . =courageous turk=, &c. for o read o p. . =play of love=, &c. dele o, for i never saw but the first play. p. . for =hymenes= read =hymenæi=. p. . for =antiquarary= read =antiquary=. p. . =heyre= for o read o. p. . for =loyal brother= read =revenger's tragedy=. =in the notes.= page . and so throughout, for =in vitam= read =in vitâ=, and =in vitas= read =in vitis=. p. . note [ ] for =procopis= read =procopii=. p. . n. [ ] add the line of the next page, =viz.= plot from =guiciardine='s history of =italy=, p. . dele and from =poetical history=, ibid. to n. [ ] instead of what is printed, read, these three plays are translated from =seneca=, and printed with the rest, =lond.= . p. . n. [ ] for book the ninth, satyr the first part, read, book the first, satyr . p. . n. [ ] for =du bee=, read =du bec=. p. . n. [ ] for fourteen, read thirteen, and for three, read five. p. . n. [ ] belongs to =cambyses=. p. . n. [ ] for =mons= read =monsieur=. p. . n. [ ] for =mænectrini=, read =mænechmi=. p. . n. [ ] for , read . =ibid.=, to =triumph of beauty=, add (=k=) with this note, printed with his poems, =lond.= . p. . n. [ ] for publish'd, read reprinted. =ibid.= n. [ ] for =musæe erotoprgnion=, read =musæi erotopagnion=. p. . n. [ ] for =k=. read =prince=. p. . n. [ ] to =observationum=, add =medicarum volumen=. p. . n. [ ] for poem, read play. =ibid.= n. [ ] belongs to =french conjurer=, and n. [ ] to =witty combat=. p. . n. [ ] belongs to =thornby-abby=: n. [ ] to =marriage broker=, and the last line to =menechmus=. p. . n. [ ] belongs to =rivals=. footnotes: [ ] poet. c. . [ ] epist. . ad lollium [ ] poetices. lib. ,. c. . [ ] pref. to _gondibert_, p. . [ ] poet. c. . [ ] =poet. l. . cap. .= [ ] =saturnalia, l. . c. . l. . c. .= [ ] =vol. . orat. .= [ ] =epist. ad tit. vespar.= [ ] =reflect. , part .= [ ] =epist. to mock astrologer.= [ ] =tragedies of the last age=, p. . [ ] ep. to the spanish fryer. [ ] kind keeper. [ ] hor. sat. . ., ., [ ] mr. _bohun's_, translat. [ ] ep. ad ty. [ ] mr. =shadwell=. [ ] =reflect. .= part. [ ] #peri hypssous# sect. . a catalogue of plays, with their _known or supposed_ authors, &c. will. alexander, lord sterline. {[ ]alexandrian trag. tr. fol. {[ ]croesus t. fol. [ ] {[ ]darius t. fol. {[ ]julius cæsar t. fol. robert armin. maids of moorclack h. barnaby barnes. [ ] devil's charter. t. o. samuel brandon. [ ] virtuous octavia t. c. o. henry burkhead. colas fury, or lyrindas misery. t. o robert baron. [ ] {gripus & hegio p. o {deorum dona m. o [ ] mirza t. o anthony brewer. country girl com. o [ ] love-sick king t. c. o nicholas breton. old mans lesson, and young mans love i. o dabridgecourt belchier. see me, and see me not c. o francis beaumont, vide fletcher. richard bernard. terence's comedies, _viz._ andræa. } adelphi. } evnuchus. } heautontimorumenos. } o hecyra. } phormio. } lodow. barrey. ram-alley, or merry tricks. c. o. richard brome. {court beggar c.} {city wit c.} [ ] {damoyselle c.} o {mad couple well matcht. c.} {novella c.} {covent garden weeded. c. o {english moor c. o [ ] {love-sick court c. o {new exchange c. o {queen and concubine c. o antipodes c. o [ ] jovial crew c. o [ ] northern lass c. o queens exchange c. o sparagus garden c. o alexander brome. cunning, lover c. o fulk, =lord= brook. [ ] {alaham t. fo. [ ] {mustapha t. fo. abraham baily. spightful sister c. o =mrs.= frances boothby. marcelia t. c. o john bancroft. sertorius t. o =mrs.= astrea behn. amorous prince t. c. o [ ] abdellazar, or the moors revenge t. o [ ] city heiress c. o [ ] dutch lover c. o [ ] emperour of the moon f. .o forc'd marriage t. c. o false count c. o feign'd courtezans c. o lucky chance c. o [ ] rover, two parts c. o [ ] roundheads c. o [ ] sir patient fancy c. o [ ] town-fopp, or sir timothy tawdry c. o [ ] young king t. c. o capt. william bedloe. excommunicated prince t. c. fo. john banks. [ ] destruction of troy t. o [ ] rival kings t. o [ ] unhappy favourite-_essex_ t. o [ ] mary, queen of _scotland_ t. o [ ] virtue betray'd-_an. bullen._ t. o george chapman. all fools c. o [ ] alphonsus, emperor of germany t. o blind beggar of alexandria c. o [ ] {bussy d'amboys t. o {---- his revenge t. o [ ] {byron's conspiracy t. o {---- his tragedy t. o [ ] cæsar and pompey t. o gentleman usher c. o humorous days mirth c. o may day c. o monsieur d' olive c. o masque of the middle temple. m. o revenge for honour t. o temple m. o two wise men, and all the rest fools c. o [ ] widows tears c. o [ ] eastward hoe c. o robert cox. [ ] actæon and diana i. o john cook. green's tu quoque c. o edward cook. [ ] loves triumph t. c. o thomas carew, and inigo jones. [ ] coelum britannicum m. o lady eliz. carew. [ ] mariam t. o robert chamberlain. swaggering damoyselle c. o william chamberlain. loves victory c. o [ ]lodowick carlell. arviragus and philicia, two parts t. c. o fool would be a favourite t. c. o deserving favourite t. c. o [ ]osmond the great turk t. o passionate lovers, two parts. t. c. o [ ]heraclius emperour of the east t. o abraham cowley. [ ]cutter of coleman-street c. o guardian c. o [ ]loves riddle p. fol. [ ]william carthwright. lady errant t. c. o ordinary c. o royal slave t. c. o [ ]siege t. c. o [ ]sir aston cockain. obstinate lady c. o [ ]ovid t. o [ ]trapolin suppos'd a prince. t. c. o richard carpenter. pragmatical jesuit c. o charles cotton. [ ]horrace t. o john corey. [ ]generous enemies c. o john crown. [ ]andromache t. o ambitious states-man t. o city politiques c. o [ ]country wit c. o [ ]charles the eighth t. o [ ]calisto m. o [ ]destruct. of jerusal. pts. t. o [ ]{henry the sixth t. o {----the second part, or the miseries of civil war t. o juliana, princess of poland. t. c. o [ ]sir courtly nice c. o [ ]thiestes t. o john day. blind beggar of bednal green. c. o humour out of breath c. [ ]isle of gulls c. o law tricks c. o parliament of bees m. o [ ]travels of three english brothers h. o robert dawbourn. christian turn'd turk t. o poor mans comfort c. o [ ]samuel daniel. [ ]cleopatra t. o hymens triumph p. o [ ]philotas t. o queens arcadia p. o vision of the twelve goddesses m. o robert davenport. [ ]city night-cap c. o [ ]john and matilda t. o thomas decker. fortunatus c. o honest whore, two parts c. o if this be'nt a good play, the devil's in't c. o match me in london c. o {northward hoe c. o [ ]{westward hoe h. o {wyat's history h. o untrussing of the humorous poet c. o whore of babylon c. o wonder of a kingdom c. o [ ]witch of edmonton t. o [ ]sir will. d'avenant. [ ]albovine t. fol. cruel brother t. fol. distresses c. fol. fair favourite t. c. fol. just italian t. c. fol. love and honour t. c. fol. [ ]law against lovers t. c. fol. [ ]man's the master c. fol. platonick lovers c. fol. [ ]play-house to be lett c. fol. siege t. c. fol. siege of rhodes, two parts. t. c. fo. temple of love m. fol. triumph of the prince d'amour m. fol. unfortunate lovers t. fol. [ ]coelum britannicum. m. fol. news from plymouth c. fol. britannia triumphans m. o dr. charles d'avenant. circe o. o tho. denham. [ ]sophy t. o john dancer. [ ]aminta p. o [ ]agrippa king of alba. t. c. o [ ]nicomede t. c. o john dryden. [ ]amboyna t. o [ ]assignation c. o [ ]----auringzebe t. c. o [ ]all for love t. o albion and albanius o. fol. [ ]conquest of granada, two parts t. c. o [ ]evenings love, or mock-astrologer c. o [ ]indian emperour t. c. o kind keeper, or mr. lymberham c. o [ ]maiden queen t. c. o [ ]marriage a-la-mode c. o [ ]maximin t. o [ ]mistaken husband c. o rival ladies t. c. o [ ]sir martin mar-all c. o [ ]state of innocence c. o [ ]spanish fryar t. c. o [ ]tempest c. o tyrannick love, or royal martyr t. o [ ]troylus and cressida t. o wild gallant c. o [ ]{[ ]duke of guise t. o {[ ]oedipus t. o john dover. roman generals t. c. o thomas durfey. [ ]banditti c. o [ ]common-wealth of women t. c. o fool turn'd critick c. o fond husband c. o [ ]injured princess t. c. o [ ]madam fickle c. o siege of memphis t. o [ ]squire old sapp c. o royallist c. o [ ]mr. barnaby whigg c. o [ ]trick for trick c. o virtuous wife c. o _tho. duffet._ mock-tempest f. o spanish rogue c. o _sir george etheridge._ love in a tub c. o man of mode, or sir fopling flutter c. o she wou'd if she cou'd c. o _edward eccleston._ [ ]noah's flood o. o [ ]_john fletcher, and francis beaumont._ beggars bush c. fol. [ ]bonduca t. fol. [ ]bloody brother, or rollo d. of normandy. t. fol. custom of the country t. c. fol. [ ]chances c. fol. captain c. fol. coxcomb c. fol. cupid's revenge c. fol. coronation t. c. fol. double marriage t. c. fol. elder brother c. fol. false one t. fol. four plays in one t. c. fol. faithful shepherdess p. fol. fair maid of the inn c. fol. honest man's fortune c. fol. humerous lieutenant t. c. fol. [ ]island princess t. c. fol. king and no king t. c. fol. knight of the burning pestle. c. fol. knight of malta t. c. fol. [ ]little french lawyer c. fol. loyal subject t. c. fol. laws of candy c. fol. [ ]lovers progress t. c. fol loves cure c. fol. [ ]loves pilgrimage c. fol mad lover c. fol. [ ]maid in the mill c. fol. masque of grays-inn gent. m. fol. monsieur thomas c. fol. maids tragedy t. fol. noble gentleman c. fol. nice valour t. c. fol. night walker c. fol. prophetess t. c. fol. pilgrim t. c. fol. philaster t. c. fol. queen of corinth t. c. fol. rule a wife, and have a wife c. fol. [ ]spanish curate c. fol. sea voyage t. c. fol. scornful lady c. fol. [ ]thierry and theodoret t. fol. & o two noble kinsmen t. c. fol. [ ]valentinian t. fol. & o womans prize c. fol. women pleas'd c. fol. wife for a month c. fol. wit at several weapons c. fol. wild-goose chase c. fol. woman hater c. fol. wit without money c. fol. _nathaniel field._ amends for ladies c. o womans a weather-cock c. o _john ford. v. decker._ broken heart t. o fancies c. o lovers melancholy t. o loves sacrifice t. o ladies tryal t. o [ ]perkin warbeck h. o pity she's a whore t. o [ ]suns darling c. o _thomas ford._ [ ]loves labyrinth t. c. o _abraham fraunce._ countess of pembroke's ivy church, parts p. o _richard flecknoe._ [ ]damoyselles a-la-mode c. o erminia t. c. o [ ]{loves kingdom t. c. o {loves dominion p. o marriage of oceanus and britannia m. _ulpian fulwell._ like will to like, quoth the devil to the collier c. o _j. fountain._ reward of virtue c. o _sir ralph freeman._ imperiale t. o _lord viscount faulkland._ marriage night t. o _sir richard fanshaw._ [ ]pastor fido p. o _sir francis fane_, jun. [ ]love in the dark t. c. o sacrifice t. o _henry glapthorn._ albertus wallenstine t. o [ ]argalus and parthenia p. o hollander c. o ladies priviledge c. o wit in a constable c. o _tho. goff._ careless shepherdess p. o [ ]selimus t. o {[ ]courageous turk. } [ ]{[ ]orestes. }t. o {[ ]raging turk. } _robert green._ [ ]fryer bacon c. o [ ]looking-glass for london h. o _george gerbyer._ false favourite disgrac'd t. c. o _george gascoign._ glass of government t. c. o [ ]jocasta t. o [ ]supposes c. o pleasure at kenelworth-castle m. _francis gouldsmith._ [ ]joseph t. c. o _robert gomersall._ [ ]sforza duke of millain t. o _alexander green._ politician cheated c. o john heywood. four p. p. i. o play of love i. o play of the weather i. o play between john the husband, and tib his wife. i. o play between the pardoner, fryar, curate, and neighbour pratt. i. o play of gentileness and nobility, parts. i. o [ ]jasper heywood. hercules furiens } thyestes }t. o troas } tho. heywood, vide ford. { {golden age }h. o {[ ]{silver age } [ ]{ {brazen age c. o {[ ]iron age, parts h. o challenge for beauty c. o [ ]dutchess of suffolk h. o english traveller c. o edward the fourth, parts h. o [ ]elizabeth's troubles, pts. h. o [ ]fair maid of the west, two parts. c. o four london-prentices h. o fair maid of the exchange c. o [ ]fortune by land and sea. h. o [ ]lancashire witches c. o [ ]loves mistress m. o maidenhead well lost c. o [ ]rape of lucrece t. o [ ]{robert earl of huntingdon's downfall. h. o {--his death t. o woman kill'd with kindness c. o wise woman of hogsden c. o william habington. queen of arragon folio. charles hool. [ ]terence's comedies c. o peter hausted. rival friends c. o barton holiday. marriage of the arts c. o william hemings. [ ]fatal contract t. o [ ]jews tragedy t. o richard head. hic & ubique c. o [ ]sir robert howard. indian queen t.} committee c.} fol. surprisal t. c.} vestal virgins t. c.} [ ]blind lady c. o duke of lerma t. o james howard. all mistaken, or the mad couple. c. o english monsieur c. o edward howard. man of newmarket c. o six days adventure c. o usurper t. o womans conquest t. c. o james howel. [ ]peleus and thetis m. o [ ]benj. johnson. alchymist }c. fol. bartholemew-fair. } christmas's masque }m. fol. cloridia } cynthia's revels c. fol. challenge at tilt m. fol. [ ]cataline's conspiracy t. fol. devil's an ass c. fol. every man in his humour }c. fol. every man out of his humour. } [ ]entertainment at k. _james_'s coronation. e. fol. entertainments of the q. and prince, at _althrop_. e. fol. entertainments of the king of _england_, and the king of _denmark_, at _theobalds_. f. fol. entertainment of k. _james_ and q. _ann_, at _theobalds_. f. fol. entertainment of the king and queen, on _may_-day, at sir _wil. cornwallis_'s house, at _high-gate_. e. fol. fortunate isles m. fol. fox c. fol. golden age restored m. fol. honour of wales m. fol. [ ]hymenes m. fol. irish masque m. fol. king's entertainment at _welbeck_. m. fol. loves triumph m. fol. love's welcome m. fol. love restored m. fol. magnetick lady c. fol. masque of auguurs m. fol. masque at the lord _hayes_'s house. m. fol. masque at the lord _haddington_'s marriage. m. fol. masque of owls m. fol. [ ]masque of queens m. fol. mercury vindicated m. fol. metamorphosed gipsies m. fol. [ ]mortimer's fall t. fol. news from the new world in the moon. m. fol. neptune's triumph m. fol. [ ]oberon the fairy-queen m. fol. pleasure reconciled to virtue m. fol. pan's anniversary m. fol. [ ]poetaster c. fol. [ ]queen's masque of blackness. m. fol. [ ]-- her masque of beauty m. fol. speeches at pr. h. barriers m. fol. staple of news c. fol. [ ]silent woman c. fol. [ ]sad shepherd t. fol. [ ]sejanus t. fol. tale of a tub c. fol. time vindicated m. fol. vision of delight m. fol. case is altered c. o new-inn c. o [ ]eastward hoe c. o [ ]widow c. o john jones. adrasta c. o tho. ingeland. disobedient child i. o tho. jordain. fancies festivals m. o mony's an ass c. o walks of islington and hogsden c. o william joyner. [ ]roman empress t. o tho. jevorn. devil of a wife f. o tho. kyd. [ ]cornelia t. o tho. kirk. [ ]seven champions of christendom. h. o ralph knevet. rhodon & iris p. o [ ]sir william killegrew. ormasdes t. c. fol. pandora t. c. fol. selindra t. c. fol. siege of urbin t. c. fol. henry killegrew. [ ]{conspiracy t. o {pallantus and eudora t. fol. [ ]tho. killegrew. bellamira her dream, parts. t. fol. claracilla t. c. fol. cicilia and clorinda, parts. t. c. fol. parsons wedding c. fol. prisoners t. c. fol. princess t. c. fol. pilgrim t. fol. thomaso, or the wanderer, parts. c. fol. [ ]john lilly. [ ]alexander and campaspe c. o [ ]endimion c. o galathæa c. o [ ]mydas c. o mother bomby c. o [ ]sapho and phaon c. o loves metamorphosis c. o maids metamorphosis c. o woman in the moon c. o [ ]sir william lower. amorous phantasm p. o enchanted lovers p. o [ ]noble ingratitude t. c. o [ ]horatius t. o [ ]martyr t. o tho. lupon. all for mony t. o tho. lodge. [ ]marius and scylla t. o [ ]looking-glass for london h. o john lacey. [ ]dumb lady c. o old troop c. o sir hercules buffoon c. o nat. lee, v. dryden. [ ]cæsar borgia t. o [ ]constantine the great t. o [ ]gloriana t. o [ ]lucius junius brutus t. o [ ]mithridates t. o [ ]nero t. o [ ]rival queens t. o [ ]sophonisba t. o [ ]theodosius t. o j. lenard. [ ]country innocence c. o [ ]rambling justice c. o tho. middleton, v. fletcher. any thing for a quiet life c. o blurt mr constable c. o chast maid in cheapside c. o family of love c. o game at chess c. o inner-temple masque m. o mad world my masters c. o [ ]mayor of quinborough c. o michaelmas-term c. o phoenix c. o roaring girl c. o trick to catch the old one c. o triumphs of love and antiquity. m. o world toss'd at tennis m. o your five gallants c. o {more dissemblers besides women c. o [ ]{[ ]women beware women t. o {no {wit } {help} like a womans c. o {[ ]changeling t. o [ ]{[ ]fair quarrel t. c. o {old law c. o {[ ]spanish gipsies c. o philip massenger. bondman c. o city madam c. o duke of millain t. o [ ]emperour of the east t. c. o fatal dowry t. o great duke of florence c. o maid of honour c. o new way to pay old debts c. o [ ]picture c. o roman actor t. o renegado c. o unnatural combat t. o [ ]virgin martyr t. o {bashful lady c. o [ ]{[ ]guardian c. o {very woman t. o [ ]john marston. antonio & mellida, parts t. o [ ]dutch courtezan c. o fawn c. o [ ]sophonisba t. o what you will c. o [ ]insatiate countess t. o male-content t. c. o shakerly marmion. antiquarary c. o fine companion c. o holland's leaguer c. o christopher marloe. [ ]dr. faustus t. o [ ]dido q. of carthage t. o [ ]edward the d t. o jew of malta t. c. o lusts dominion t. o [ ]massacree at paris t. o [ ]tamberlain the great, two parts t. o thomas may. [ ]{[ ]agrippina t. o {[ ]cleopatra t. o [ ]antigone t. o heyre t. c. o old couple t. o tho. meriton. love and war t. o wandring lover t. c. o lewis machin. dumb knight c. o cosmo manuch. just general t. o loyal lovers t. c. o gervase markham. [ ]herod and antipater t. o j. milton. sampson agonestes t. o john mason. muleasses the turk t. o walter montague. shepherds paradice p. o robert mead. combat of love and friendship c. o jasper main. [ ]{amorous war c. o & o {city match c. o & o mathew medbourn. [ ]tartuff c. o l. maidwel. loving enemies c. o thomas nabbs. bride c. o covent-garden c. o entertainment on the prince's birth-day f. o [ ]hannibal and scipio t. o microcosmus m. o spring's glory m. o tottenham court c. o unfortunate mother t. o tho. nash, v. marloe. summers last will and testament c. o tho. norton, and sackvile. [ ]ferex & porex, or gorboduc t. o thomas nuce. [ ]octavia t. o tho. newton. [ ]thebais t. o alex. nevile. [ ]oedipus t. o robert nevile. poor schollar c. o duke of newcastle. humerous lovers c. o triumphant widow c. o [ ]dutchess of newcastle. apocryphal ladies c. fol. bell in campo, parts c. fol. female academy c. fol. loves adventures, parts c. fol. lady contemplation, parts c. fol. matrimonial trouble, parts c. fol. natures daughters, pts. c. fol. publick woing c. fol. religions c. fol. several wits c. fol. unnatural tragedy t. fol. wits cabal, parts c. fol. youth's glory, and death's banquet c. fol. blazing world c. fol. bridals c. fol. covent of pleasure c. fol. presence c. fol. sociable companions c. fol. earl of orrery. [ ]black prince h. fol. tryphon t. fol. [ ]mustapha t. fol. [ ]henry the fifth h. fol. tho. otway. athiest, or the second part of the soldiers fortune c. o [ ]alcibiades t. o [ ]cheats of scapin f. o [ ]caius marius t. o [ ]don-carlos t. o friendship in fashion c. o [ ]orphan t. o soldiers fortune c. o [ ]titus and berenice t. o venice preserv'd t. o george peele. [ ]david and bethshabe t. c. o [ ]edward the first h. o henry porter. two angry women of abingdon c. o tho. porter. carnival c. o villain t. o lady pembrock. antonius t. o tho. preston. cambyses king of persia t. c. o edward prestwick. hectors c. o [ ]hippolitus t. o mrs. katherine phillips. [ ]horrace t. fol. [ ]pompey t. fol. samuel pordage. [ ]herod and meriamne t. o [ ]siege of babylon t. o ---- peaps. love in its extasie p. o john palsgrave. acolastus c. o francis quarles. virgin widow c. o william rowley, v. webster, middleton, day, and shakespear. [ ]all's lost by lust t. o match at midnight t. o [ ]shoemakers a gentleman c. o wonder a woman never vex'd c. o spanish gipsies c. o samuel rowley. [ ]when you see me you know me c. o joseph rutter. [ ]cid, parts t. c. o shepherds holyday nath. richards. [ ]messalina t. o tho. rawlins. rebellion t. o tho. randolph. {aristippus t. o [ ]{aminta t. c. o {jealous lover t. c. o {muses looking-glass p. o [ ]hey for honesty, down with knavery c. o william rider. twins c. o edward revett. town shifts c. o edward ravenscroft. [ ]careless lovers c. o [ ]citizen turn'd gentleman c. o [ ]dame dobson c. o [ ]english lawyer c. o [ ]king edgar and alfreda t. o [ ]london cuckolds c. o [ ]scaramouch, &c. f. o [ ]wrangling lovers c. o tho. rymer. [ ]edgar t. o [ ]william shakespear. [ ]all's well that ends well c. fol. [ ]anthony and cleopatra t. fol. as you like it c. fol. [ ]comedy of errours c. fol. [ ]coriolanus t. fol. [ ]cromwell's history h. fol. [ ]cymbeline t. fol. gentleman of verona c. fol. [ ]henry the th, parts h. fol. [ ]henry the th h. fol. [ ]henry the th parts h. fol. [ ]henry the th h. fol. hamlet prince of denmark t. fol. [ ]john k. of england, pts. h. fol. [ ]julius cæsar t. fol. [ ]lears tragedy t. fol. [ ]locrine's tragedy c. fol. london prodigal c. fol. love's labour lost c. fol. merry wives of windsor c. fol. measure for measure c. fol. merchant of venice t. c. fol. [ ]mackbeth t. fol. midsummers nights-dream c. fol. much ado about nothing c. fol. [ ]old-castle, lord cobham's life and death t. fol. [ ]othello moor of venice t. fol. pericles prince of tyre h. fol. puritan widow c. fol. [ ]richard the second h. fol. [ ]richard the third h. fol. [ ]romeo & juliet t. fol. taming of the shrew c. fol. tempest c. fol. titus andronicus t. fol. [ ]timon of athens t. fol. troylus and cressida t. fol. twelfth night c. fol. [ ]winter's tale c. fol. yorkshire tragedy t. fol. birth of merlin p. o j. studley, v. jaspar heywood. {agamemnon t. o [ ]{hippolitus t. o {hercules oetus t. o {medea t. o james shirley. [ ]arcadia p. o bird in a cage c. o ball c. o changes, or love in a maze c. o [ ]chabott, admiral of france t. o constant maid, or love will find out the way c. o cupid and death m. o contention for honour and riches m. o duke's mistress t. c. o example t. o [ ]gamester c. o [ ]gentleman of venice t. c. o grateful servant c. o hyde-park c. o humerous courtier c. o loves cruelty t. o lady of pleasure c. o [ ]maids revenge t. o opportunity c. o politician c. o patrick for ireland h. o royal master c. o school of complements c. o traytor t. o triumph of peace m. o wedding c. o witty fair one c. o young admiral c. o [ ]{honoria and mammon c. o {[ ]contention of ajax and ulysses, for achilles's armour m. o {brothers c. o {sisters c. o {doubtful heir } [ ]{imposture }t. c. o {cardinal } {court secret } {triumph of beauty m. o henry shirley. martyr'd soldier t. o edward sherbourn. [ ]{medea t. o {troades t. o ---- sheppard. committee-man curryed c. george sandys. [ ]christ's passion t. o j. swallow. cynthia's revenge t. o edward sharpham. fleir c. o william sampson, v. markham. vow breaker t. o tho. stanley. [ ]clouds fol. william smyth. hector of germany h. o william strode. floating island c. o gilbert swinhoe. [ ]fair irene t. o [ ]sir john suckling. aglaura t. c. o brenoralt t. o goblins t. o sad one t. o lewis sharp. noble stranger c. o john smyth. cytherea c. o sir robert stapleton. [ ]hero and leander t. o slighted maid c. o tho. st. serf. tarugoes wiles c. o tho. shadwell. epsom wells c. o humorists c. o lancashire witches c. o [ ]libertine c. o [ ]miser c. o [ ]psiche o. o [ ]royal shepherdess c. o [ ]sullen lovers c. o [ ]timon of athens t. o true widow c. o virtuoso c. o woman captain c. o elkanah settle. [ ]cambyses k. of persia t. o [ ]conquest of china t. o empress of morocco t. o [ ]fatal love t. o [ ]female prelate t. o heir of morocco t. o [ ]ibrahim t. o [ ]love and revenge t. c. o [ ]pastor fido p. o sir charles sidley. [ ]anthony and cleopatra t. o [ ]bellamira c. o mulberry garden c. o tho. shipman. [ ]henry the d. of france t. o charles saunders. [ ]tamerlane the great t. o tho. southern. disappointment c. o [ ]loyal brother t. c. o cyril turneur. athiests tragedy t. o loyal brother t. c. o john tateham. distracted state t. o [ ]rump c. o scotts vagaries c. o [ ]love crowns the end c. o nich. trott arthur t. robert taylor. hog has lost his pearl tho. thompson. english rogue c. o [ ]mother shipton's life and death c. o nat. tate. [ ]brutus of alba t. o [ ]cuckolds haven c. o [ ]duke and no duke f. o [ ]ingratitude of a common-wealth t. c. o [ ]island princess t. c. o loyal general t. o [ ]lear and his daughters t. o [ ]richard the second h. o s. tuke. adventures of hours c. o richard tuke. divine comedian c. o john tutchin. [ ]unfortunate shepherd p. o john webster, v. decker. [ ]appius and virginia t. o [ ]devil's law-case t. c. o dutchess of malfey t. o white devil t. o [ ]{thracian wonder h. o {cure for a cuckold c. o lewis wager. mary magdalen's repentance i. o william wayer. the longer thou liv'st the more fool thou art c. george wapul. tyde tarryeth for no man c. nat. woods. conflict of conscience p. r. weaver. lusty juventus i. robert wilson. cobler's prophecie c. o john wilson. [ ]andronicus comenius t. o cheats c. o projectors c. o j. weston. [ ]amazon queen t. c. o _robert wilmot._ [ ]tancred and grismond t. o _george wilkins, v. day._ miseries of inforc'd marriage t. c. o _john wright._ [ ]{thyestes t. o {thyestes f. o _leonard willan._ [ ]astræa p. o _edmund waller._ [ ]pompey t. o _william wycherly._ country wife c. o gentleman dancing master c. o love in a wood c. o plain dealer c. o ---- _whitaker._ conspiracy t. o _robert yarrington._ two tragedies in one t. o supposed =authours=. _r. a._ [ ]valiant welchman t. c. o _h. b._ [ ]landagartha c. o _h. h. b._ [ ]plutus c. o [ ]_p. b._ mock-duellest c. o _j. c._ merry milkmaids c. o _r. c._ alphonsus k. of arragon c. o [ ]ignoramus c. o _j. d._ hell's higher court of justice i. o mall c. o _t. d._ bloody banquet t. o [ ]fool turn'd critick c. o [ ]psiche debauch'd f. o _s. h._ sicily and naples t. o _d. j._ guy of warwick t. [ ]_e. m._ st. cecily,, or the converted twins t. o _t. p._ [ ]witty combat t. c. o [ ]french conjurer c. o _monsieur p. p._ [ ]ariadne o. o s. p. [ ]troades t. o t. r. [ ]extravagant shepherd p. o w. r. three lords and ladies of lond. c. mr. s. master of arts. gammer gurton's needle c. o j. s. masquerade du cel m. [ ]phillis of syros p. o [ ]andromana t. o s. s. honest lawyer c. o j. t. [ ]grim the collier of croyden c. o [ ]troas t. o c. w. [ ]electra t. o e. w. apollo shroving c. o l. w. orgula, or the fatal errour t. o m. w. master of arts. [ ]marriage broker c. o t. w. [ ]thornby-abby h. o w. w. menechmus c. o footnotes: [ ] plot from =justin='s hist. lib. . [ ] plot from =herodotus=, lib. . =plutarch= in =solon='s life. [ ] these of the lord =sterline= are all bound with his works (in folio) called, =recreations with the muses=. printed at =london=, . [ ] plot from =justin='s hist. lib., . [ ] plot from =suetonius= and =plutarch=. [ ] plot from =guiciardine='s hist. =of= italy. [ ] plot from =plutarch='s lives. [ ] these two of =r. baron= are mentioned in former catalogues, but are part of a romance writ by him, and called the =cyprian academy=. printed at =london=, . [ ] plot from =herbert='s travels, =fol.= [ ] from an old =english= chronicle, =fol.= [ ] these five of =richard brome=, are printed in one volume, =octavo=, =london=, . [ ] these five of =brome=, are printed in another volume in =octavo=, =london=, . [ ] reprinted, =lond. =. [ ] lately reprinted. [ ] these two of the lord =brook='s are printed with his poetical works in =folio=. =london=, . [ ] plot from the =turkish= chronicle. [ ] this is a play of =christopher marlo='s, call'd =lusts dominion=, printed in =octavo=, =london=, . [ ] part of the =city heiress=, from a play of =middleton='s, call'd, =a mad world my masters=, quarto; and part from another of =massenger='s, called, =the guardian=, octavo. [ ] plot from =don fenise=, =octavo=. [ ] stollen from =harlequin=, =emperur dans le monde de la lune=. [ ] taken from =tho. killegrew='s =don thomaso=, or =the wanderer=, folio. [ ] a play of =john tateham='s, called, =the rump=, altered, =quarto=. [ ] part of this play taken from =richard brome='s damoyselle, =octa.= and =le malade imaginaire=. [ ] a great part of this play borrowed from a play, called, =the miseries of forc'd marriage=, written by =george wilkins=, quarto. [ ] plot from =alcamenes= and =menalippa=, in =cleopatra=, folio. [ ] plot from the old story so called. [ ] plot from =cassandra=, folio. [ ] plot from e. of =essex= and q. =e=. a =nov.= [ ] plot from =causin='s =holy court=, folio. [ ] plot q. =eliz.= novel, first part o. [ ] plot from chron. =de rebus germanicis=. [ ] plot from the =french= chron. =hen. =. [ ] plot from the =french= chronicles. [ ] plot from =lucan='s =pharsalia=, =suetonius=, in the life of =julius cæsar=. [ ] plot from =petronius arbyter=. [ ] written by =chapman=, =johnson=, and =marston=. [ ] plot from =ovid='s =metamorph.= [ ] plot from =cassandra=, fol. [ ] printed with =carew='s poems. =london=, . [ ] plot from =josephus=, folio. [ ] the first of =carlell='s plays, (=viz.=) in two parts, bound in one volume, twelves. the three next printed in another volume, octavo. =london=, . and the next in octavo. printed . [ ] plot from =knolls='s =turkish= history, in the reign of =mahomet= the first. [ ] from =corneille=. [ ] this play is the =guardian=, corrected and enlarged. [ ] bound with his second volume, folio, =london, =. [ ] all printed with his poems, =lond. =. [ ] occasion in =plutarch's= life of =cymon=, and part from =boccaces= novels, the ninth day, novel the first. [ ] all printed with his poems, =lond. =. [ ] plot from his elegies. [ ] plot from =trapolen creduto principe=. [ ] from =corneille=. [ ] part of this play is borrowed from sir =william lower='s noble ingratitude. [ ] translated from the =french=. [ ] part from =molliere='s =le sicilien=. [ ] plot from =guiciardine='s hist. and the =french= chron. in the reign of =charles =. [ ] the foundation from =ovidii metam. lib. =. [ ] plot from =josephus='s hist. book . . [ ] from =english= chronicles, and part of the language from =shakespear=. [ ] plot, and part of the play from a =spanish= play, called =no puedeser=. [ ] plot from poetical history. [ ] plot from sir =phil. sidney='s =arcadia=. [ ] writ by him, =rowly=, and =wilkins=. [ ] all printed in one volume, =london, =. [ ] plot from =appian= of =alexandria=. [ ] plot from =plutarch='s life of =alexander=, and =quintus curtius=, book the th. [ ] plot from =don quixot='s novel, of the =curious impertinent=, and =boccaces novels, day the th, novel th=. [ ] =english= chronicle. [ ] writ by him and =webster=. [ ] writ by him, =rowly=, and =ford=. [ ] all, except the last, printed with his works, in folio, =lond. =. the last writ by him, and =inigo jones=, the late king's surveyor. [ ] plot from =heylin='s cosmographie, book the first. chronicle of =italy=. [ ] from =measure= for =measure=, and =much adoe about nothing=. [ ] from =mollieres='s =joddelet=, on =le maitre valet=. [ ] part from =mollieres sganarelle=. [ ] not his, but =carew='s, and printed with his poems, =octavo=. [ ] plot from =herbert='s travels, life of =abbas=. printed with his poems, =london, =. [ ] translated from the =italian= of =tasso=, and printed with =dancer='s poems, =london, =. [ ] translated from monsieur =quinault=. [ ] translated from =corneille=. [ ] =sanderson='s hist. of k. =james= p. . [ ] plot of the serious part, from the =annals of love=: in the story of =constance= the fair =nun=. the part of =aureleo=, from =scarron='s =comical romance=: in the story of =destiny= and madam =star=. [ ] plot from =tavernier='s voyages into =india=, volume the first, part the second, book the second. [ ] =plutarch='s life of =marcus antonins=, and other =roman= historians. [ ] plot, =almanzor= and =almahide=, from =cleopatra= in the story of =artaban=: and =almahide= the romance. =ozmyn= and =benzaida=, from =osman= and =alibech=, in =ibrahim=. =abdalla=, =abdelmelech=, =lyndaraxa=, from prince =ariantes=, =agathirses=, and =elibesis=, in the first book of the ninth part of =cyrus=. [ ] part from =corneilles de pit amoreuse=, part from =le-feinte astrologue=, and part from the =illustrious bassa=, a romance. [ ] plot, =heylin's= cosmography, book the fourth. =hen. bonzonus rerum ab hispanis in india occidentali gestarum=, lib. . octavo. [ ] plot, from =cleobuline=, queen of =corinth=, in the second book of the seventh part of =cyrus=: and the character of =celadon= and =florimel=, from =pisistrate= and =cerinthe= in =cyrus=, part ninth, book third; and from the =french= marquess in =ibrahim=, part second, book the first. [ ] plot of the serious part, and the characters from =sesostris= and =timareta= in =cyrus=, part the sixth, book the second: and =palamedes= from the prince of =salamis=, in the story of =timantes= and =parthenia=, part sixth, book first, of =cyrus=; and from =nagaret=, in the =annals of love=, octavo. [ ] plot from =jul. capitolinus in vitam maximini=. [ ] founded on =plautus='s =amphytruo=. [ ] part from =molliere='s =l'etourdy=. [ ] plot from =milton='s =paradise lost=. octavo. [ ] plot of the comical part from the =pilgrim=, a novel, =twelves=. [ ] originally =shakespear='s. [ ] part =shakespear=. [ ] from =d'avila='s history of =france=. [ ] from =sophocles=, and the poetical histories. [ ] joyn'd in these two last with =nath. lee=. [ ] plot from =don fenise=, octavo. [ ] borrowed from =fletcher='s =sea-voyage=. [ ] the foundation =shakespear='s. [ ] part from the antiquary, =quarto=. [ ] plot from =francion='s romance, =fol.= [ ] part of it from the =fine companion=, quarto. and plot from the double-cuckold, a =novel=, octavo. [ ] from monsieur =thomas=. [ ] foundation on =sacred writ=. [ ] all =beaumont= and =fletcher='s plays printed together in one volume, folio, =london, =. [ ] plot from =tacitus='s =annals=, book . [ ] plot from =herodiani historiæ=. [ ] altered by the duke of =buckingham=, and printed in quarto. =lond. =. the plot from lady =cornelia=, in =exemplary novels=, folio. [ ] lately reprinted with alterations, by =nat. tate. lond. =. [ ] plot from =gusman='s =don lewis de castro=, and =don roderigo de montalvo=. [ ] plot, =lysander= and =calista=. [ ] part of it from =johnson='s =new inn=, octavo, and the plot from =exemplary novels=, two damsels. [ ] serious plot from =gerardo=, p. . o. [ ] from =gerardo='s =leandro=. p. . o. [ ] plot from the =french= chronicles, in the reign of =clotaire= the second. imperfect in the folio edition, but right in the quarto. [ ] plot, =procopis cæsariensis historiæ=: altered by the lord =rochester=. printed quarto, . [ ] plot from =gainsford='s history, o. [ ] =ford= and =decker=. [ ] printed with his works, octavo. =london, =. [ ] borrowed from =molliere='s =preceeuses redicules=. octavo. [ ] these two almost the same. [ ] translated from =guarini='s =italian=, and printed with his poems, =london=, o. [ ] plot from the =invisible mistress=, in =scarron='s novels, o. [ ] plot from sir =philip sidney='s =arcadia=, folio. [ ] plot from the =turkish= history. [ ] plot from the same. [ ] from =euripides=. [ ] plot from the =turkish= history. [ ] printed in one volume. [ ] plot from the =english= chronicle. [ ] plot, story of =jonas= in the =holy scripture=. [ ] from =euripides=. [ ] from =ariosto=. [ ] from =hugo grotius='s =sophompaneas, latin=. [ ] printed with his poems, =lond. =. [ ] plot from =guiciardine='s history of =italy=, folio, and from =poetical= history. [ ] plot from =poetical= history. [ ] plot from =virgil='s =Ã�neids=, second book, and =homer='s =iliads=. [ ] these are usually bound together. [ ] plot from =english= chronicle, and =clark='s martyrology. [ ] plot from =english= chronicle. [ ] plot, =english lovers=, o. [ ] by him and =rowley=. [ ] by him and =brome=. [ ] plot from =apuleius='s =golden ass=, o. [ ] plot from =titus livius=. [ ] plot, =stow= and =speed='s chronicle. [ ] castrated =latin=, =english=. [ ] plot, =french= chronicles. [ ] plot from =josephus='s history of the =jews=, book sixth and seventh. [ ] the four first of sir =robert howard='s plays, are usually bound together. [ ] printed with his poems in o. [ ] translated from the =french=. [ ] all =ben. johnson='s except the four last, are printed with other poems in two volumes, folio, =london=, . [ ] plot from =salust='s history. [ ] from several authours quoted in the margin throughout. [ ] all marked with this a are in the first volume, and quotations are cited by the authour in the margin throughout. [ ] an imperfect piece just begun. [ ] from =ovid='s elegies; and from =horrace='s =satyrs=, book the ninth, =satyr= the first part. [ ] borrowed part of it from =ovid de arte amandi=, and =juvenal='s sixth =satyr=. [ ] this play left imperfect. [ ] plot, =tacitus=, =suetonius=, =seneca=, &c. there is an edition of this play, o, printed =lond.= , by the authour's own orders, with all the quotations from whence he borrowed any thing of his play. [ ] joyn'd in this with =chapman=. [ ] joyn'd in this with =fletcher= and =middleton=. [ ] plot, =zosimi historiæ=. [ ] translated from the =french= of =robert garnier=. [ ] plot, history of the =seven champions of christendom=. [ ] all printed in one volume folio, =oxon.= . [ ] these two in a manner the same. [ ] these all printed in one volume, folio, =london=, . [ ] the first six printed together in octavo =london=, . [ ] plot, =pliny='s =natural history=, lib. . cap. . [ ] plot, =lucian='s =dialogue= between =venus= and the =moon=. [ ] plot, =ovid='s =metamorph.= lib. . [ ] plot, =ovidii epistolæ=. [ ] the three first of sir =wil. lower='s plays, printed together in o =london=, . [ ] from the =french=. [ ] from =corneille=. [ ] from =corneille='s =polyeucte=. [ ] plot from =plutarch= in =vitas c. marii & syllæ=. [ ] by him and =green=. [ ] plot and language from =molliere='s =le medicine malgre luy=. [ ] plot from =matchiavel=. [ ] plot, =eusebius de vitâ constantini=. [ ] plot from =cleopatra=. [ ] plot, =clelia=, and =livy='s history. [ ] plot, =historical dictionary=, =appian=, =alexand. romanæ=, =historiæ=. [ ] plot from =suetonius=, in =vitam neronis=. [ ] plot, =quintus curtius=. [ ] plot, sir =walter raleigh='s =history of the world=, book th, chap. d. sect. th. [ ] plot from =pharamond=, book d. part d. page , and =eusebii hister=. =ecclesiastica.= [ ] taken from a play called =the country girl=. c. o [ ] part from =more dissemblers besides women=. c. o [ ] plot from =ranulph=, =cestrensis polychronicon=. [ ] plot from =hippolito= and =isabella=, a novel, o. [ ] these three in one volume, o, =lon.= . [ ] plot from =god's revenge against murther=, in =alsemero= and =beatrice joanna=, folio. [ ] plot from =complaisant companion=, o, page . [ ] plot, =cervantes='s =exemplary novels=, folio. =force of blood.= [ ] these four were writ by =middleton= and =rowley=. [ ] plot, =eufebii hist=. [ ] plot from =fortunate, deceiv'd, and unfortunate lovers=, o: novel the th of the =deceived lovers=. [ ] plot, =eusebii hist.= lib. . cap. . [ ] plot from the =cimmerian matron=, o. [ ] these three are printed in one volume, o. =lond.= . [ ] all except the two last are in one volume, o. =lond.= . [ ] plot from =palace of pleasure=, the last novel. [ ] plot from sir =walter raleigh='s history, and =livy='s history. [ ] plot from =montius='s history of =naples=, in =the life of= joan =queen of= naples. [ ] plot, =camerarii opera subsc. cent. . cap. =. [ ] writ by him and =nash=, plot, =virgil='s =Ã�neids=, book . [ ] plot, =english= chronicles. [ ] plot, =french= chronicles. [ ] plot, =jean du bee= =l'histoire de tamerlane=, o, and his life in =english=, o. [ ] plot, =taciti annales=, =lib. =. [ ] plot, =plutarchus in vitam=, =m. antonii=. [ ] these two printed together, o, =london=, . [ ] plot from =sophocles=. [ ] writ by him and =sampson=. plot from =josephus='s history, book . [ ] these two printed together, and may be had either in o or o. [ ] translated from =molliere=. [ ] plot from =corn. nepos in vitam annibalis=. [ ] plot from old =british= chronicles. [ ] translated from =seneca='s tragedies. [ ] translated from the same. [ ] translated from the same. [ ] the first fourteen of her plays, are printed together in one volume, folio. the other three are in another volume, with other scenes, printed =london= . [ ] plot, =english= chronicle in k. =edward= the third. [ ] plot, =turkish= chronicles. [ ] plot, =english= chronicles. [ ] plot from =plutarch=, and =corn. nepos= both in the life of =alcibiades=. [ ] plot from =ravenscroft='s =scaramouch=. [ ] stollen part from =shakespear='s =romeo & juliet=, plot from =plutarch=, in his life of =c. marius=, and =lucan='s =pharsalia=, book d. [ ] plot from the novel so called, o. [ ] plot, =english= adventures, a =novel=, o. [ ] from monsieur =racine=. [ ] plot from =holy scripture=. [ ] from =english= chronicles. [ ] plot =justin. hist. lib. . cap. =. [ ] plot from =livy=, translated from =corneille=. [ ] plot from =lucan='s =pharsalia=, translated from =corneille=. [ ] plot from =joseph hist.= and =cleopatra= a romance, in the story of =tyridates=. [ ] plot from =cassandra=, a romance, fol. [ ] =lipsii monita, lib. . cap. .= [ ] plot, =history of the gentle craft=. [ ] plot from =english= chron. =hen. =th &c. [ ] translated from =corneille=. [ ] plot, =suetonius=, in =claudio= and =tacitus=, =lib. =. [ ] these four printed with his poems, o. [ ] translated from =aristophanes='s =plutus=. [ ] borrowed part from =de molliere='s =monsieur de pourceaugnac=, o. [ ] translated from =molliere='s =le bourgeois gentlehome=, & =mons de pourceaugnac=. [ ] translated from =la divineresse=. [ ] translated from the =latin ignoramus=. [ ] plot from =english= chronicles. [ ] plot, part from =scarron='s novels, o, novel first, =the fruitless precaution=, part from =les-contes du-sieur d'ouville=, o, = de. pte.= page . and part from =boccace='s novels, day th, novel and of the th day. [ ] part from =molliere='s =le bourgeois gentlehome=, & =la mariage forcee=, o. [ ] plot from =deceptio visus=: or, =seeing and believing are two things=, a romance in o. [ ] plot, =english= chronicles. [ ] all except the last, are printed in one volume, fol. =lond.= . [ ] plot from =boccace='s novels, d. day, th novel, =juliet of narbona=. [ ] plot from =plutarch=, in =vitam antonii=. [ ] the ground from =plautus='s =ampitruo=, and =mænectrini=. [ ] plot, =plutarchus in vitam coriolan=: and from =livy='s =history=. [ ] plot from =english= chronicle. [ ] plot from =boccace='s novels, d. day, ninth novel. [ ] all so mark'd had their plots from =english= chronicles. [ ] plot, =livy='s history. [ ] plot from =scotch= chronicles, and =heylin='s cosmography. [ ] plot from =english= chronicle. [ ] plot from =cynthio='s novels. [ ] plot from =cynthio='s novels. [ ] plot from =lucian='s dialogue. [ ] plot from =dorastus= and =fawnia=, o. [ ] all translated from =seneca='s tragedies. [ ] plot from sir =philip sidney='s =arcadia=, folio. [ ] plot from the =french= chronicles. [ ] plot from =the unlucky citizen=, o. [ ] plot, part from =gayton='s notes on =don quixot=, book th, chap. th. [ ] plot from =reynolds='s =god's revenge against murther=, folio, book d. hist. th. [ ] plot from =ovid='s =metamorphosis=, book th. [ ] these printed together in octavo, =lon.= . [ ] these are printed together in o, =lond.= . [ ] translated from =seneca='s tragedy. [ ] translated from =hugo grotius=. [ ] translated from =aristophanes=, printed with his =history of philosophy=, newly publish'd, folio. [ ] plot from =bandello='s novels, =turkish= chronicles, =life of mahomet the first=. [ ] all printed with his poems, o =lond.= . [ ] from =ovid='s epistles, and =muses erotopegnion gr. lat.= [ ] plot from =molliere='s =l'athee foudroye=. [ ] plot from =molliere='s =l'avaree=. [ ] plot, =apuleii aureus asrinus=. [ ] from =reward of virtue=, o. [ ] plot from =molliere='s =les facheaux=. [ ] part from =shakspear=. [ ] plot, =justin='s =hist. lib. . cap. .= =amianus marcellinus, lib. =. [ ] plot, =heylin='s =cosmography=, book d. and =conquest of china=, by =senior palafax=, englished, o. [ ] plot, =achilles tatius='s =clitophon= and =leucippe=, o book th. [ ] plot from =platina=, &c. =life and death of pope joan=, o. [ ] plot from =the illustrious bassa=, fol. [ ] from =fatal contract=, o. [ ] from =fanshaw='s translation of =guarini=. [ ] plot, =plutarch='s =life of m. anthony=. [ ] the ground from =terence='s =eunuchus=. [ ] from the =french= chronicles. [ ] plot, =asteria= and =tamerlain=, a novel, o. [ ] plot, =tachmas k. of persia=, a novel, o. [ ] plot from =english= chronicles. [ ] printed with his poems, =london=, . [ ] part of the language from the =city madam=; and plot from a book so called in prose, o. [ ] plot, =virgil='s =Ã�neids=, book th. [ ] from =eastward hoe=. [ ] from =trapolin= suppos'd a prince, o. [ ] part from =shakspear='s =coriolanus=. [ ] reviv'd from =shakspear=. [ ] reviv'd from =shakspear=. [ ] reviv'd from =shakspear=. [ ] printed with his poems, =lond.= . [ ] plot, =livy='s history. [ ] part of the plot in =schenchii rariorum observationum=. [ ] by =webster= and =rowley=. [ ] plot from =heylin='s cosmography in the description of =greece=. [ ] plot from =strabo, lib. .= =quintus curtius, lib. .= [ ] plot from =boccace='s novels, st. novel, th day. [ ] both in one volume, o =lond. =. the former from =seneca=. [ ] plot from a romance so called. [ ] from =corneille=. [ ] plot from =british= chronicles. [ ] written by =henry burnel=. [ ] translated from =aristophanes=. [ ] supposed to be =peter bellon=. [ ] translated from the =latin= poem so called. [ ] ascrib'd to =tho. dunfey=. [ ] said to be writ by =tho. duffet=. [ ] supposed to be =mathew medbourn=. [ ] plot, part of it from =gusman='s fol. in the story of =dorido= and =cloridia=. [ ] plot from the =german princess=, a novel, o. [ ] put into musick, by monsieur =grabutt=. [ ] supposed to be writ by =samuel pordage=, being printed with his poems, o =lond.= . [ ] translated from =corneille=. [ ] translated from the =italian= of =c. guidubaldo di bonarelli=. [ ] plot from sir =philip sidney='s =arcadia=, in the story of =plangus=, p. . [ ] in a book call'd =the ternory of plays=, o =lond.= . plot from =matchiavil='s =marriage of belphegor=, a novel, folio: the same is printed with =quevedo='s novels, o. [ ] translated from =seneca=. [ ] from =sophocles= by =christoph. wase=. [ ] in the =ternary of plays=, and plot from =english= chronicles, in the reign of =sebert=, king of the =west-saxons=. [ ] in the same =ternary of plays=, and translated from =plautus=. _unknown_ ~authours~. a. abraham's sacrifice [ ]alarm for london h. o albion i. albion's triumph m. o albumazar c. o [ ]aminta p. o amorous gallant c. o amorous old woman c. o [ ]arden of feversham t. o arraignment of paris p. b. [ ]battle of alcazar t. o band-ruff and cuff i. bastard t. o c. cæsar's revenge t. [ ]charles the first t. o combat of caps m. commons conditions c. constant nymph p. o costly whore c. o [ ]contention between york and lancaster, parts counterfeits c. o [ ]counterfeit bridegroom c. o [ ]country captain c. o cromwell's conspiracy t. c. cruel debtor cupid's whirligig c. o cyrus king of persia t. d. damon and pythias h. [ ]debauchee c. o destruction of jerusalem dick scorner [ ]divine masque m. o doctor dodipol c. o e. [ ]edward the third h. o [ ]elvira t. c. o [ ]empress of morocco f. o [ ]english princess t. o enough's as good as a feast c. every woman in her humour c. o f. [ ]faithful shepherd p. o fair em c. o fair maid of bristol h. o factious citizen c. o fatal jealousie t. o fidele and fortunatus [ ]feign'd astrologer c. o free-will [ ]flora's vagaries c. o [ ]fond lady fulgius and lucrelle g. gentile-craft c. o ghost c. o h. [ ]henry the fifth, with the battle of agencourt h. o [ ]hectors c. o histriomastix c. o hoffman t. o how to chuse a good wife from a bad one c. o j. jacob and esau c. jack drum's entertainment c. o jack juggler [ ]jack straw's life and death h. o james the fourth h. jeronimo, parts t. o impatient poverty [ ]imperial tragedy t. fol. interlude of youth i. o john the evangelist joseph's afflictions jovial crew i. o k. [ ]king edgar and alfreda h. o king and queen's entertainment at richmond m. o knave in grain c. o knack how to know an honest man [ ]knack how to know a knave c. o knavery in all trades c. o knight of the golden shield h. o l. lady alimony c. o laws of nature c. levellers levell'd i. liberality and prodigality c. lingua c. o london canticleers f. o look about you c. o lost lady t. c. fol. love a-la-mode c. fol. loves loadstone c. o lumenalia m. o [ ]lyer c. o m. manhood and wisdom [ ]marcus tullius cicero t. o marriage of wit and science i. masque of flowers m. o [ ]masque at ludlow castle m. o [ ]massianello t. o mercurius britannicus c. o merry devil of edmonton c. o [ ]morning ramble c. o mucedorus c. o [ ]muse of newmarket f. o n. [ ]nero's life and death t. o new custom i. o newmarket fair f. o new trick to cheat the devil c. o nice wanton c. no-body and some-body h. o o. oldwives tale [ ]orlando furioso h. o p. [ ]patient grissle c. pedler's prophecie c. philotus scotch c. o pinder of wakefield c. o [ ]piso's conspiracy t. o presbyterian lash t. c. [ ]prince of priggs c. o promises of god manifested promus and cassandra, parts q. queen t. c. o r. [ ]rambling justice c. o [ ]rampant alderman f. o [ ]revenge c. o [ ]rehearsal f. o [ ]reformation c. o religious rebel t. c. o [ ]return from parnassus c. o rivals t. c. o robin conscience robin hood's pastoral may-games rob. hood and his crew of soldiers royal masque at hampton-court m. o [ ]romulus and hersilia t. o s. salmacida spolia, m. o [ ]siege of constantinople t. o sicillides a piscatory drama p. o sir gyles goose-cap c. o [ ]sir solomon c. o solimon and perseda t. o sophister c. o [ ]sport upon sport.--drolls spanish baud t. c. o step-mother t. c. o [ ]strange discovery t. c. o susanna's tears swetnam the woman-hater arraigned c. o t. tempe restored m. o thersytes i. [ ]tom essence c. o tom tyler and his wife, i. o traytor to himself i. o [ ]true trojans h. o tryal of chivalry tryal of treasure [ ]tunbride-wells c. o tyrannical government v. valiant scot t. o [ ]varieties c. o [ ]unfortunate usurper t. o ungrateful favourite t. o w. warning for fair women t. o wealth and health weakest goes to the wall c. o wily beguil'd c. o wine beer ale and tobaco i. o [ ]wits led by the nose c. o wit of a woman c. o woman turn'd bully c. o woman will have her will c. o footnotes: [ ] plot from the tragical history of the city of =antwerp=, o. [ ] translated from =tasso=, =italian=. [ ] plot from =baker=, and other =english= chronicles. [ ] plot from =heylin='s cosmography, in the history of =spain=. =de rebus lusitan=: by =andr. schottum=,, folio. [ ] plot from =english= chronicles. [ ] plot from the second part of =shakspear='s =henry th=, folio. [ ] from =no wit like a womans=, by =middleton=. [ ] bound with the varieties, o. [ ] from =brome='s =mad couple well matcht=. [ ] plot from =holy scripture=, =jeroboam=, &c. [ ] plot from =english= chronicles. [ ] ascrib'd to the lord =digby=. [ ] said to be writ by =tho. duffet=. [ ] ascrib'd to =j. carell=. [ ] from =guarini='s =il pastor fido=. [ ] translated from the =french= of monsieur =corneille=, =junior=. [ ] ascrib'd to =rhodes=. [ ] the same with the =amorous old woman=, only a different title. [ ] plot from =english= chronicles. [ ] ascrib'd to =edm. prestwith=. [ ] plots from =english= chronicles. [ ] ascrib'd to sir =william killegrew=, and translated from the =latin=. [ ] from =corneille='s =le menteur=. [ ] plot from =plutarch=. =in vitam ciceronis=. [ ] ascrib'd to =j. milton=. [ ] plot from =giraffi='s history of =naples=, =english'd= by =james howel=. [ ] said to be writ by mr. =pane=. [ ] three drolls stollen from several plays. [ ] plot from =suetonius=. [ ] play from =ariosto='s poem so call'd, fol. =englished= by sir =j. harrington=. [ ] plot from =boccace='s novels, day , novel . folio. [ ] plot from =suetonius=, in =vitam neronis=. [ ] plot from =hyne='s pranks, o. [ ] ascrib'd to =j. lenard=. part from =middleton='s =more dissemblers besides women=, o. [ ] from the =fine companion=, and other plays. [ ] ascrib'd to mrs. =behn=, but borrowed all from =marston='s =dutch courtezan=. [ ] said to be writ by the late duke of =buckingham=. [ ] by mr. =arrowsmith=. [ ] ascrib'd to sir =william d'avenant=. [ ] plot from =livius, lib : ovidii metamorph. lib. .= [ ] plot from =heylin='s cosmography, book d. in the description of =greece=, and =constantinopolis à mahammada, da. expugnata=, fol. [ ] ascrib'd to =john carrel=, from =corneille='s =l'escote des femmes=, o. [ ] a collection of drolls taken from plays, printed in o =lond.= . [ ] plot from =heliodorus emissenus Ã�thiopicorum, lib. .= the same is in =english=, o . [ ] part from =molliere='s =le cocu imaginaire. c.= o. [ ] plot from =liv. lib. . cæsaris coment.= =lib. & . galfridus ap arthur monumetensis.= =de gestis regum brittanniæ, lib. .= [ ] that and =tom essence= ascrib'd to mr. =rawlins=. [ ] bound with the =country captain=, o. [ ] plot from =heylin='s cosmography, in the description of =greece=. [ ] part of it taken from =chamberlain='s =love's victory=. _the alphabetical_ ~index~ _of_ ~_plays_~, _referring to their ~authours~_, &c. a. abdellazar, abraham's sacrifice, acolastus, actæon and diana, adelphi, adrasta, adventures of hours, agamemnon, aglaura, agrippa king of alba, agrippina, all for love, all mistaken, all fools, all for mony, all's lost by lust, all's well that ends well, alaham, alarum for london, albion, _ib._ albion's triumph, _ib._ albion and albanius, albertus wallenstine, albovine, albumazar, alcibiades, alchimist, alexander and campaspe, alexandrian tragedy, alphonsus k. of arragon, alphonsus emp. of germ., amazon queen, ambitious states-man, amboyna, amends for ladies, amorous gallant, amorous old woman, amorous war, amorous prince, amorous fantasm, amynta, , , . andræa, andromache, andromana, andronicus comenius, anthony and cleopatra, , . antigone, antipodes, antiquary, antonio and mellida, antonius, any thing for a quiet life, appius and virginia, apocryphal ladies, apollo shroving, arcadia, arden of feversham, argalus and parthenia, ariadne, aristippus, arraignment of paris, arthur, arviragus and philitia, two parts, as you like it, assignation, astrea, athiests tragedy, auringzebe, b. ball, band-ruff and cuff, banditti, bartholomew-fair, bashful lover bashful lady, bastard, battle of alcazar, beggars bush, bell in campo, bellamira, her dream, bellamira, the mistress, bird in a cage, birth of merlin, black prince, blazing world, blind beggar of alexandria, -------- of bednal green, blind lady, blurt mr. constable, bloody brother, vide rollo, bloody banquet, bondman, bonduca, brazen age, brenoralt, bridals, bride, britannia triumphans, broken heart, brothers, brutus of alba, bussy d' amboys's revenge, ---- his tragedy, _ib._ byron's conspiracy, _ib._ ---- his tragedy, _ib._ c. calisto, caius marius's history and fall, cambyses k. of persia, , . captain, cardinal, careless lovers, careless shepherdess, carnival, case is altered, cataline's conspiracy, cæsar borgia, cæsar and pompey, cæsar's revenge, chabott admiral of france, challenge at tilt, challenge for beauty, champions of christendom, chances, changes, changeling, charles the first, charles the th of france, chast maid in cheapside, cheats, cheats of scapin, christmas masque, christ's passion, christian turn'd turk, cicilia and clorinda, cid, circe, city heiress, citizen turn'd gentleman, city madam, city match, city night-cap, city politiques, city wit, claricilla, cleopatra, , cloridia, clouds, cobler's prophecy, cælum britannicum, , colas fury, combat of caps, combat of love and friendship, comedy of errours, common-wealth of women, committe-man curried, commons conditions, conflict of conscience, conquest of china, ---- of granada, conspiracy, , constant maid, constant nymph, constantine the great, contention of ajax and ulisses, contention for honour and riches, contention between york and lancaster, coriolanus, cornelia, coronation, costly whore, covent-garden, covent-garden weeded, covent of pleasure, counterfeits, counterfeit bridegroom, countess of pembrook's ivy-church, country captain, country innocence, country girl, country wife, country wit, couragious turk, court beggar, court secret, coxcomb, cruel brother, custom of the country, cromwell's history, cunning lover, cuckolds haven, cupid and death, cruel debtor, croesus, cupid's whirligig, cupid's revenge, cure for a cuckold, cutter of coleman-street, cymbeline, cynthia's revels, cynthia's revenge, cytherea, cyrus king of persia, d. dame dobson, damoiselle, damoiselle a-la-mode, damon and pythias, darius's tragedy, david and bethshabe, debauchee, deorum dona, deserving favourite, destruction of jerusalem, , destruction of troy, devil's an ass, devil's charter, devil's law-case, devil of a wife, dick scorner, dido q. of carthage, disappointment, disobedient child, distresses, distracted state, divine comedian, divine masque, doctor dodipol, doctor faustus, don carlos prince of spain, double marriage, doubtful heir, duke and no duke, duke of guise, duke of lerma, duke of millain, duke's mistress, dumb knight, dumb lady, dutch courtezan, dutch lover, dutchess of malfey, dutchess of suffolk, e. eastward hoe, , edgar, edward the first, edward the second, edward the third, edward the fourth, elder brother, electra, elizabeth's troubles, elvira, emperour of the east, emperour of the moon, empress of morocco t. & f., , . enchanted lovers, endimion, english lawyer, english monsieur, english moor, english princess, english rogue, english traveller, enough's as good as a feast entertainment at k. james's coronation, ---- of k. james, and q. ann, at theobalds, ---- of the k. of england, and the king of denmark, at theobalds, ---- on the prince's birth-day, ---- of the q. and prince at althrop, ---- of king and queen at high-gate, epsom wells, erminia, evening love, every man in his humour, every man out of his humour, every woman in her humour, eunuchus, example, excommunicated prince, extravagant shepherd, f. factious citizen, fair em, fair favourite, fair irene, fair maid of bristol, ---- maid of the west, ---- of the exchange, ---- of the inn, fair quarrel, faithful shepherd, faithful shepherdess, false favourite disgrac'd, false count, false one, family of love, fancies, fancies festivals,, fatal contract, fatal dowry, fatal love, fatal jealousie, fawn, feign'd astrologer, feign'd courtezans, ferex and porex, female prelate, female academy, fidele and fortunatus, fine companion, fleir, floating island, flora's vagaries, fond lady, fond husband, fool turn'd critick, fool would be a favorite, forc'd marriage, fortunate isles, fortune by land and sea, fortunatus, four p. p., four london prentices, four plays in one, fox, free will, friendship in fashion, french conjurer, fryer bacon, fulgius and lucrelle, g. gallathea, game at chess, gamester, gammer gurton's needle, generous enemies, gentle craft, gentleman dancing-master, ---- of venice, ---- usher, ---- of verona, ghost, glass of government, gloriana, goblins, golden age, golden age restored, grateful servant, great duke of florence, green's tu quoque, grim the collier of croyden, gripus and hegio, guardian, , guy of warwick, h. hamlet pr. of denmark, hannibal and scipio, heautontimorumenos, hector of germany, hectors, hecyra, heir of morocco, heir, hell's higher court of justice, henry the d of france, henry the th, henry the th, , ---- _item_, with the battle of agencourt, henry the th, parts _shakspear_, henry the th, pts. _crown_, heraclius emp. of the east, hercules furiens, hercules oetus, hero and leander, herod and antipater, herod and mariamne, hey for honesty down with knavery, hic & ubique, hippolitus, , histrioma stix, hoffman, hog hath lost his pearl, hollander, holland's leaguer, honest lawyer, honoria and mammon, honest man's fortune, honest whore, honour of wales, horace, , horatius, how to chuse a good wife from a bad, humerous lovers, humerous courtier, humerous days-mirth, humerous lieutenant, humorists, humour out of breath, hyde park, hymenæi,, hymens triumph, j. jack drum's entertainment, jack jugler, _ib._ jack straw's life and death, _ib._ jacob and esau, _ib._ james the th, _ib._ ibrahim, jealous lovers, jeronymo, jew of malta, jews tragedy, if this be'nt a good play the devil's in't., ignoramus, impatient poverty, imperiale, imperial tragedy, imposture, indian emperour, indian queen, ingratitude of a common-wealth, injured princess, inner-temple masque, insatiate countess, interlude of youth, jocasta, john the evangelist, john king of england, john and matilda, joseph, joseph's afflictions, jovial crew, , irish masque, iron age, isle of gulls, island princess, juliana princess of poland, julius cæsar, , just general, just italian, k. kind keeper, king and no king, k. edgar and alfreda, , king's entertainment at welbeck, king and queen's entertainment at richmond, k. lear, and his daughters, knack to know an honest man, knack to know a knave, knave in grain, knavery in all trades, knight of the burning pestle, knight of the golden shield, knight of malta, l. lady alimony, lady contemplation, lady errant, lady of pleasure, ladies tryal, ladies priviledge, lancashire witches, , landagartha, laws of candy, law against lovers, laws of nature, law tricks, levellers levell'd, lears tragedy, liberality & prodigality, libertine, like will to like, quoth the devil to the collier, lingua, little french lawyer, locrine, london canticleers, london prodigal, look about you, looking-glass for lond., london cuckolds, lost lady, love a-la-mode, love crowns the end, love in its extasie, love freed from ignorance, by _b. j._ _omitted_ love and honour, love in the dark, love lost in the dark, _omit-_ love restored, love and revenge, love-sick king, love-sick court, love in a tub, love and war, love in a wood, loves adventures, loves cure, loves cruelty, loves dominion, loves kingdom, loves labour lost, loves labyrinth, loves loadstone, lovers melancholy, loves metamorphosis, loves mistress, loves pilgrimage, lovers progress, loves riddle, loves sacrifice, loves triumph, , loves victory, loves welcome, love will find out the way loving enemies, lucius junius brutus, luminalia, lusts dominion, lusty juventus, loyal brother, loyal gentleman, loyal lovers, loyal subject, lucky chance, lyer, m. mackbeth, mad couple well matcht, madam fickle, mad lover, mad world my masters, magnetick lady, maid of honour, maid in the mill, maids metamorphosis, maids of moorclack, maids revenge, maiden queen, maids tragedy, maidenhead well lost, male-content, mall, man of mode, manhood and wisdom, man's the master, man of newmarket, marriage a-la-mode, marriage broker, marriage night, marriage of the arts, marriage of oceanus and britannica, ---- of wit and science, mariam, marcelia, marcus tull. cicero, marius and scylla, martyr, martyr'd soldier, mary q. of scotland, mary magdalen's repent., masque of auguurs, masque at the l. haddington's house, masque of grays-inn gent., masque at ludlow-castle, masque of the middle-temp. and lincolns-inn gent., masquerade du cel, massacree at paris, massianello, masque of owls, masque of flowers, masque of queens, match me in london, match at midnight, matrimonial trouble, may-day, mayor of quinborough, measure for measure, medea, , menechmus, merchant of venice, mercurius britannicus, mercury vindicated, merry devil of edmonton, merry milkmaids, merry wives of windsor, messalina, metamorphosed gipsies, michaelmas-term, microcosmus, midas, midsumer nights dream, mirza, miser, miseries of civil war, miseries of inforc'd marr., mistaken husband, mithridates, mock tempest, mock duellest, mony is an ass, monsieur thomas, morning ramble, more dissemblers besides women, mortimer's fall, monsieur d'olive, mother bomby, mother shipton's l. & d., mucedorus, much adoe about nothing, mulberry garden, muleasses the turk, muses looking-glass, muse of newmarket, mustapha, , n. natures daughters, neptune's triumph, nero, newly written, nero's life and death, new custom, new exchange, new inn, newmarket fair, new trick to cheat the devil, new way to pay old debts, news from the world in the moon, news from plymouth, nice valour, nice wanton, nicomede, night-walker, noah's flood, no-body and some-body, noble gentleman, noble ingratitude, noble spanish soldier, _by_ s. r. _omitted_. noble stranger, northern lass, northward hoe, novella, no wit } help} like a wom., o. oberon, the fairy prince, obstinate lady, octavia, oedipus, , old-castle, old couple, old law, old man's lesson, and a young man's love, old troop, old wives tale, opportunity, ordinary, orestes, orlando furioso, orgula, ormazdes, orphan, othello, the moor of ven., ovid, osmond the great turk, _ib._ p. pallantus, and eudora, pandora, pan's anniversary, parliament of bees, parson's wedding, passionate lovers, pastor fido, , patient grissle, patrick for ireland, pedler's prophesie, peleus and thetis, perkin warbeck, pericles prince of tyre, philaster, phillis of syros, phoenix, phoenix in her flames philotus, scotch, philoras,, phormio, picture, pilgrim, , pinder of wakefield, piso's conspiracy, _ib._ pity she's a whore, platonick lovers, play-house to be lett, _ib._ play of gentileness and nobility, play of love, _ib._ play between john the husband, and tib his wife, _ib._ play between the pardoner, and the fryer, the curate, and neighb. pratt, _ib._ play of the weather, _ib._ plain dealer, pleasure at kenelworth-castle, pleasure reconcil'd to vir., plutus, poetaster, politician, politician cheated, pompey, , pope joan, _vide_ fem. prel. poor man's comfort, poor schollar, pragmatical jesuit, presbiterian lash, presence, princess, prince of priggs, prisoners, projectors, prophetess, promus and cassandra, promises of god manifested, _ib._ psiche, psiche debauch'd, publick woing, puritan widow, q. queen, queen's arcadia, queen of arragon, queen and concubine, queen of corinth, queen's exchange, ---- masque of blackness, ---- masque of beauty, r. raging turk, ram-alley, rambling justice, rampant alderman, rape of lucrece, rebellion, reformation, rehearsal, religions, religious rebel, renegado, return from parnassus, revenge, _ib._ revenge for honour, revenger's tragedy, _by_ c. t. _omitted_. reward of virtue, rhodon and iris, richard the second, , richard the third, rival friends, rival kings, rival ladies, rival queens, rivals, roaring girl, robert earl of huntingdon's downfall, ---- his death, _ib._ robin hood's pastoral may-games, ---- and his crew of sold., _ib._ robin conscience, _ib._ rollo d. of normandy, roman actor, roman empress, roman generals, romeo & juliet, romulus and hersilia, roundheads, rover, royallist, royal master, royal masq. at hampt. court royal slave, royal shepherdess, rule a wife and have a wife, rump, s. sacrifice, sad one, sad shepherd, st. cicily, salmacida spolia, sampson agonestes, sapho and phao, scaramouch, _&c._, school of complements, scornful lady, scot's figgaries, sea voyage, seven cham. of christen., see me and see me not, sejanus, selimus, selindra, sertorius, several wits, sforza duke of millain, she wou'd if she cou'd, shepherds paradice, shepherds holyday, shoomaker a gentleman, sicelides, sicily and naples, siege, , ---- of babylon, ---- of constantinople, ---- of memphis, ---- of rhodes, ---- of urbin, silent woman, silver age, sir courtly nice, sir barnaby whigg, sir giles goose-cap, sir hercules buffoon, sir martin marr-all, sir patient fancy, sir solomon, sisters, six days adventure, slighted maid, sociable companions, soliman and perseda, sophister, _ib._ sophonisba, , sophy, souldier's fortune, spanish bawd, ---- curate, ---- friar, ---- gipsies, , . ---- rogue, sparagus garden, speeches at pr. h. barriers, spightful sister, sport upon sport, spring's glory, squire old-sap, staple of news, step-mother, state of innocence, strange discovery, stukeley's life and death, _vide_ battle of alcazar sullen lovers, summers last will and testament, sun's darling, supposes, surprizal, susanna's tears, swaggering damoysel, swetnam the woman-hater arraigned, t. tale of a tub, tamberlain the great, tamerlain the great, tancred and grismond, taming of the shrew, tartuff, tarugo's wiles, tempe restored, temple, temple of love, tempest, , the longer thou livest, the more fool thou art, thebais, theodosius, thersytes, thomaso, thornby-abby, thracian wonder, three lords and ladies of london, thyestes t. & f., , . thyerry, and theodoret, time vindicated to himself, and to his honour, timon of athens, , titus andronicus, titus and berenice, tom essence, tom tyler, and his wife, _ib._ tottenham-court, town-fopp, town shift, trapolin suppos'd a prince, travels of eng. broth., traytor, traytor to himself, trick to catch the old one, trick for trick, triumph of beauty, ---- of love and antiq., ---- of peace, ---- of the pr. d'amour, triumphant widow troades, , troas, , troylus and cressida, , true trojans, true widow, tunbride-wells, tryal of chivalry, tryal of treasure tryphon, twelfth-night, twins, two noble kinsmen, two tragedies in one, two angry wom. of ab., tyde tarryeth for no man, tyrannical government, tyrannick love, two wise men, and all the rest fools, v. valentinian, valiant scot, valiant welchman, varieties, very woman, unfortunate lovers, unfortunate shepherd, unfortunate mother, unfortunate usurper, ungrateful favourite, unhappy favourite, _essex_, unnatural combat, unnatural tragedy, usurper, untrussing the humerous poet, venice preserved, virtue betray'd, vestal virgin, villain, virgin martyr, virgin widow, virtuous octavia, virtuous wife, virtuoso, vision of delight, vision of the goddesses, vow breaker, w. walks of islington & hogsdon, wandring lover, warning for fair women, weakest goes to the wall, _ib._ wealth and health, _ib._ wedding, westward hoe, what you will, when you see me, you know me, white devil, whore of babylon, wiat's history, _ib._ widow, widow's tears, wife for a month, wild gallant, wild-goose chase, wily beguil'd, wine, beer, ale, & tobac., _ib._ winter's tale, wise woman of hogsdon, witch of edmonton, wit in a constable, wit without money, wit of a woman, wit at several weapons, wits, _by sir_ w. d. _omitted_ wits cabal, wits led by the nose, witty combat, witty fair, one, woman turn'd bully, ---- captain, ----'s conquest, ---- kill'd, with kindness, ---- hater, ---- in the moon, ----'s prize, ---- will have her will, ----'s a weather-cock, women pleas'd, _ib._ women beware women, wonder, a woman never vex'd, wonder of a kingdom, world toss'd at tennis, wrangling lovers, y. yorkshire tragedy, young admiral, _ib._ your five gallants, youth's glory, and death's banquet, young king, * * * * * ~advertisement~. c. _stands for comedy_, t. _tragedy_, t. c. _tragy-comedy_, o. _opera_, h. _history_, p. _pastoral_, i. _interlude_, _and_ e. _entertainment_. * * * * * _~finis~._ william andrews clark memorial library: university of california, los angeles the augustan reprint society cimarron street, los angeles, california _general editors_: william e. conway, william andrews clark memorial library; george robert guffey, university of california, los angeles; maximillian e. novak, university of california, los angeles _corresponding secretary_: mrs. edna c. davis, william andrews clark memorial library * * * * * the society's purpose is to publish rare restoration and eighteenth-century works (usually as facsimile reproductions). all income of the society is devoted to defraying costs of publication and mailing. correspondence concerning memberships in the united states and canada should be addressed to the corresponding secretary at the william andrews clark memorial library, cimarron street, los angeles, california. correspondence concerning editorial matters may be addressed to the general editors at the same address. manuscripts of introductions should conform to the recommendations of the m l a _style sheet_. the membership fee is $ . a year in the united states and canada and £ . . in great britain and europe. british and european prospective members should address b. h. blackwell, broad street, oxford, england. copies of back issues in print may be obtained from the corresponding secretary. publications of the first fifteen years of the society (numbers - ) are available in paperbound units of six issues at $ . per unit, from the kraus reprint company, east th street, new york, n.y. . * * * * * make check or money order payable to =the regents of the university of california= regular publications for - - . thomas shelton, _a tutor to tachygraphy, or, short-writing_, , and _tachygraphy_, . introduction by william matthews. - . _deformities of dr. samuel johnson_, . introduction by gwin j. kolb and j. e. congleton. . _poeta de tristibus: or, the poet's complaint_, . introduction by harold love. . gerard langbaine, _momus triumphans: or, the plagiaries of the english stage_ [_a new catalogue of english plays_], . introduction by david rodes. * * * * * members of the society will receive copies of clark library seminar papers. special publication for - - gerard langbaine, _an account of the english dramatick poets_ ( ), introduction by john loftis. volumes. approximately pages. price to members of the society, $ . for the first copy (both volumes), and $ . for additional copies. price to non-members, $ . . * * * * * already published in this series: . john ogilby, _the fables of aesop paraphras'd in verse_ ( ), with an introduction by earl miner. pages. . john gay, _fables_ ( , ), with an introduction by vinton a. dearing. pages. . _the empress of morocco and its critics_ (elkanah settle, _the empress of morocco_ [ ] with five plates; _notes and observations on the empress of morocco_ [ ] by john dryden, john crowne and thomas shadwell; _notes and observations on the empress of morocco revised_ [ ] by elkanah settle; and _the empress of morocco. a farce_ [ ] by thomas duffet), with an introduction by maximillian e. novak. pages. . _after the tempest_ (the dryden-davenant version of _the tempest_ [ ]; the "operatic" _tempest_ [ ]; thomas duffett's _mock-tempest_ [ ]; and the "garrick" _tempest_ [ ]), with an introduction by george robert guffey. pages. price to members of the society, $ . for the first copy of each title, and $ . for additional copies. price to non-members, $ . . standing orders for this continuing series of special publications will be accepted. british and european orders should be addressed to b. h. blackwell, broad street, oxford, england. the augustan reprint society publications in print [illustration] - . henry nevil payne, _the fatal jealousie_ ( ). . anonymous, "of genius," in _the occasional paper_, vol. iii, no. ( ), and aaron hill, preface to _the creation_ ( ). - . susanna centlivre, _the busie body_ ( ). . lewis theobald, _preface to the works of shakespeare_ ( ). . samuel johnson, _the vanity of human wishes_ ( ), and two _rambler_ papers ( ). . john dryden, _his majesties declaration defended_ ( ). - . charles macklin, _the man of the world_ ( ). . thomas gray, _an elegy wrote in a country churchyard_ ( ), and _the eton college manuscript_. - . bernard mandeville, _a letter to dion_ ( ). - . thomas d'urfey, _wonders in the sun; or, the kingdom of the birds_ ( ). - . john tutchin, _selected poems_ ( - ). . anonymous, _political justice_ ( ). . robert dodsley, _an essay on fable_ ( ). . t. r., _an essay concerning critical and curious learning_ ( ). . _two poems against pope:_ leonard welsted, _one epistle to mr. a. pope_ ( ), and anonymous, _the blatant beast_ ( ). - . daniel defoe and others, _accounts of the apparition of mrs. veal_. . charles macklin, _the covent garden theatre_ ( ). . sir roger l'estrange, _citt and bumpkin_ ( ). . henry more, _enthusiasmus triumphatus_ ( ). . thomas traherne, _meditations on the six days of the creation_ ( ). . bernard mandeville, _aesop dress'd or a collection of fables_ ( ). - . edmond malone, _cursory observations on the poems attributed to mr. thomas rowley_ ( ). . anonymous, _the female wits_ ( ). . anonymous, _the scribleriad_ ( ). lord hervey, _the difference between verbal and practical virtue_ ( ). - . lawrence echard, prefaces to _terence's comedies_ ( ) and _plautus's comedies_ ( ). . henry more, _democritus platonissans_ ( ). . walter harte, _an essay on satire, particularly on the dunciad_ ( ). - . john courtenay, _a poetical review of the literary and moral character of the late samuel johnson_ ( ). . john downes, _roscius anglicanus_ ( ). . sir john hill, _hypochondriasis, a practical treatise_ ( ). . thomas sheridan, _discourse ... being introductory to his course of lectures on elocution and the english language_ ( ). . arthur murphy, _the englishman from paris_ ( ). . [catherine trotter], _olinda's adventures_ ( ). - . john ogilvie, _an essay on the lyric poetry of the ancients_ ( ). . _a learned dissertation on dumpling_ ( ) and _pudding burnt to pot or a compleat key to the dissertation on dumpling_ ( ). . selections from sir roger l'estrange's _observator_ ( - ). . anthony collins, _a discourse concerning ridicule and irony in writing_ ( ). . _a letter from a clergyman to his friend, with an account of the travels of captain lemuel gulliver_ ( ). . _the art of architecture, a poem. in imitation of horace's art of poetry_ ( ). publications of the first fifteen years of the society (numbers - ) are available in paperbound units of six issues at $ . per unit, from the kraus reprint company, east th street, new york, n.y. . publications in print are available at the regular membership rate of $ . yearly. prices of single issues may be obtained upon request. subsequent publications may be checked in the annual prospectus. transcriber's notes: simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors in the prose were corrected. italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_. bold markup is enclosed in =equals=. gesperrt markup is enclosed in ~tildes~. greek text is transliterated and enclosed in #number signs#. the greek mispelling footnote was corrected. [transcriber's note: underscores have been used to indicate _italic_ fonts. original spelling varieties have not been standardized. ] index to kindergarten songs including singing games and folk songs by margery closey quigley, a.b., librarian divoll branch, st. louis public library assisted by other members of the staff american library association publishing board east washington street, chicago copyright, by american library association publishing board table of contents preface v plan of the index vi list of collections indexed vii key to abbreviations xi index to kindergarten songs lists of songs for special days preface this index, the plan of which is similar to that of the well known granger index to recitations, was suggested by demands from st. louis kindergartners for the location of songs for which they were searching. the idea is due to mrs. harriet p. sawyer, chief of the instruction department in the st. louis public library, and valuable preliminary work was done also by miss effie l. power, supervisor of children's work, and by miss margaret curran, children's librarian at the divoll branch. the librarian has had nothing to do with it except to give advice occasionally in matters of policy. it was expected at first that the st. louis public library would publish the index, but it has proved to be larger than was anticipated, and the publishing board of the american library association has kindly relieved us of this part of the enterprise. arthur e. bostwick, librarian st. louis public library. plan of the index three types of books are indexed:--those containing only kindergarten songs, those containing both kindergarten and folk songs, and those including folk songs only. the collection indexed includes the following classes of books: ( ) books recommended by the kindergarten normal department of the st. louis board of education; ( ) books of songs and games given in the a.l.a. catalog, its supplement and the a.l.a. booklist; ( ) all other kindergarten-song books in the collection of the st. louis public library. sixty-three books are indexed. the list aims to be comprehensive but is not recommended as a discriminative check-list for purchase. no kindergarten magazines have been indexed. the index is patterned on granger so far as the form of entry is concerned. the entries, all in one alphabet, are by composer, first line, title and author of the words when he is at all important. there are no subject headings in the main index, although a separate list of songs for special days will be found at the end. whenever there is a variation, whether in composer, first line or title, this is brought out in parenthesis below the entry. the variations appear in every entry of any given set. in groups where it was not possible to determine which was the parent song and which the versions, each song has been called a variant in accordance with the practice of the american folk-lore society. an asterisk indicates that the first line and the title begin with the same words. margery quigley. list of collections indexed with publishers and prices bancroft, j. h. games for playground, home, school and gymnasium. macmillan, . $ . net. bell, f. e. e. (o.) _lady, comp._ singing circle. longmans, . $ . net. bingham, c. balloon man. ill. music co., chic., c . c. brewster, f. s., _and_ thomas, e. a. song stories. amer. bk. co., . c. net. burchenal, e. folk dance music. schirmer, c . $ . burchenal, e., ed. folk dances and singing games. schirmer, . cloth $ . n. cole, s. w. child's first studies in music. silver burdett, c . c. net. coonley, _mrs._ l. (a.) singing verses for children. macmillan, c . $ n. crane, w. baby's bouquet. warne, . $ . . crane, w. baby's opera. warne, . $ . . crane, w. pan-pipes. warne, n. d. $ . . elliott, j. w. mother goose's nursery rhymes. mcloughlin, n. d. c. elson, l. c., _ed._ folk songs of many nations. church, c . $ . field, e. songs of childhood. scribner, . $ . . fisher, w. a. posies from a child's garden of verses. ditson, c . paper $ . forsythe, c. old songs for young america. doubleday, page, . $ net. froebel, f. mother play and nursery songs. lothrop, $ . , . froebel, f. songs and music. appleton, . $ . . funkhouser, m. f. simple songs for the kindergarten. perry and sons, c . $. . gaynor, j. l. songs of the child world. v. & . church, c . $ . . george, m. m. songs in season. flanagan, c . c. hailmann, e. l. songs, games, and rhymes. flanagan, c . $ . . hill, m. j. song stories for the kindergarten. summy, c . bds. $ . net. cloth $ . net. hitte, h. m. kindergarten songs and descriptive melodies. perry, c . c. hofer, m. r. children's singing games: old and new. flanagan, c . pa. c. hofer, m. r. music for the child world. summy, . v. . $ . net, v. . $ . net. hornby, j. joyous book of singing games. macmillan, . $ . . hubbard, c. b., _comp._ merry songs and games. flanagan, c . $ . hurd, e. h. play time songs. bradley, c . c. jenks, h. s. _and_ rust, m., _comps._ and _eds._ song echoes from child land. ditson. $ . . kastman, v. _and_ koehler, g. swedish song games. ginn, c . c net. knowlton, f. s. nature songs for children. bradley, . $ . . martin, g. e. sunday songs for little children. presbyterian bd., . c. net. meissner, w. o. art song cycles. silver, c . pt. . $. . montz, c. instrumental musical sketches. bradley, . $ . . neal, m. _ed._ esperance morris book, pt. and . curwen, c . /ea. n. neidlinger, w. h. earth, sky and air in song. am. bk. c . bks. bk. . c net, bk. . c net. neidlinger, w. h. small songs for small singers. schirmer, c . $. . newell, w. w. games and songs of american children. harper, . $ . . osgood, m. c. rounds, carols and songs. ditson, c . $ . ; paper $ . . plays and songs for kindergarten and family. presser, c . c. poulsson, e. finger plays; with music. lothrop, [c ] $ . . poulsson, e. holiday songs and every day songs and games. bradley, . $ . . poulsson, e. _and_ smith, e. songs of a little child's day. bradley, . $ . . pratt, w. s. _ed._ st. nicholas songs. century co., . $ . bds. $ . . reed, c. s. timely games and songs. hammett, . c. reinecke, c. fifty children's songs. schirmer, n. d. $ . . c . riley, a. c. d.; _and_ gaynor, j. l. lilts and lyrics. summy co., . $ . rogers, m. kindergarten marches. scranton, c . c. net price c. sheehan. on a spring morning in the kindergarten. anderson, c . c. smeltzer, j. r. sense games; with peter piper and his friends. talbot, c . $ . . smith, e. songs for little children. bradley, c . pts. ea. $ . . pa. $ . . stevenson, r. l. stevenson song book. scribner, . bds. $ . . stevenson, r. l. song flowers, from "a child's garden of verses," set to music by k. m. ramsay. stokes, c . c. terhune, a. colonial carols for children. scribner, c . $ . net. tomlins, w. l., _comp._ children's souvenir song book. novello, ewer., c . $ . . tomlins, w. l., _ed._ laurel song book. birchard, . $ . . tufts, j. w., _comp._ child life in song. silver, c . c net. u.s. indian affairs office. social plays, games, marches, old folk dances and rhythmic movements. supt. of docs., . pa. c. valentine, i. and claxton, l. baker's dozen for city children. kindergarten magazine co., . c. walker, g. a. _and_ jenks, h. s. songs and games for little ones. ditson, c . $ . . whitehead, j. b. r. folk songs and other songs for children. ditson, . bds. $ . . wiggin, k. d. kindergarten chimes. ditson. $ . , bds. $ . , pa. $ . . key to abbreviations (full titles of books indexed will be found on p. vii.) asc meissner. art song cycles. bk. . bb crane. baby's bouquet. bfd burchenal. folk dances and singing games. bg bancroft. games for school and playground. bm bingham. balloon man. bss brewster. song stories. cbo crane. baby's opera. cc terhune. colonial carols. cgv fisher. posies from a child's garden of verses. cl tufts. child life in song. cm cole. child's first studies in music. cpp crane. pan pipes. dm hitte. kindergarten songs and descriptive melodies. efs elson. folk songs of many nations. el jenks and rust. song echoes from child land. es neidlinger. earth, sea and sky. bk. . es ---- bk. . fc reinecke. fifty children's songs. fdm burchenal. folk dance music. fs whitehead. folk songs and other songs for children. fsc field. songs of childhood. fsk funkhouser. simple songs for kindergarten. gs george. songs in season. hc hofer. children's singing games. hmc hofer. music for the child world. bk. . hmc ---- bk. . hr hailmann. songs, games and rhymes. hs poulsson. holiday songs. ims montz. instrumental musical sketches. jb hornby. joyous book of singing games. kc wiggin. kindergarten chimes. kk kastman and koehler. swedish song games. km rogers. kindergarten marches. lcd poulsson and smith. songs for little child's day. lbs bell. singing circle. ll riley and gaynor. lilts and lyrics. mg elliott. mother goose's nursery rhymes and nursery songs; set to music. mp froebel. mother play. msg hubbard. merry songs and games. msl martin. sunday songs for little children. neb neal. espérance morris book. bk. . neb ---- bk. . ng newell. songs and games of american children. ns knowlton. nature songs for children. osm sheehan. on a spring morning. oya forsythe. old songs for young americans. pfp poulsson. finger plays. ps plays and songs for kindergarten and family. pts hurd. playtime songs. rcs osgood. rounds, carols and songs. sc gaynor. songs of the child world. bk. . sc ---- bk. . sf stevenson. song flowers, from "a child's garden of verses" set to music, by k. m. ramsay. shs hill. song stories. sl smith. songs for little children. bk. . sl ---- bk. . sm froebel. songs and music. ss stevenson song book. sss neidlinger. small songs for small singers. stn pratt. st. nicholas book of songs. sv coonley. singing verses for children. sz smeltzer. sense games. tc tomlins. children's souvenir song book. tgs reed. timely games and songs. tlb tomlins. laurel song book. usi u.s. indian bureau. social plays and games. vbd valentine. baker's dozen for city children. ws walker. songs and games for little ones. index to kindergarten songs *a, b, c. oya *a, b, c. rcs a, b, c, d. lbs *a, b, c, die katze lief im schnee. bb (a, e, o. rcs) *a, b, c, tumble down d. elliott. mg *a, e, o, the cat jumped in the snow. rcs (a, b, c, die katze lief im schnee. bb) *a-hunting we will go. jb (hunting. bg--usi) a-nutting we will go. neb music only. a-rub-a-dub-dub. _see_ gaynor. rub-a-dub-dub. sc a-tis-ket, a-tas-ket a pretty may basket. _see_ smith. may basket. lcd *abide with me, fast falls the eventide. monk. tlb abt. bee game. hr ---- birdies' cradle. hr about boats. neidlinger. es ace of diamonds. bfd ace of diamonds. fdm music only. ach, wie ist's moeglich dann. _see_ kuecken. how can i leave thee? fs acrobats and athletic sports. hmc music only. across the wild heather my laddie comes down. _see_ meissner. in scotland. asc adam. christmas song. gs adams. christmas carol. hs ---- nearer my god to thee. tlb adieu, dear land, with beauty teeming. _see_ switzer's farewell. efs after resting all the night. _see_ mozart. morning greeting. shs after "secret love." resch. km after the rain. smith. sv afternoon song. kc afternoon tea. knowlton. ns again you're here. _see_ gebauer. new year. h s ah! now we've caught you. _see_ bureau. captive wild bird. hs ah, the drops are pouring down. _see_ knowlton. summer shower. ns ah, violet, dearest violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sli--ws _for composers see_ schults. violet. ah! who comes here. _see_ punchinello. hc aiken drum. bb air du roi louis xiii. page. hmc music only. *air is filled with the echoes. morton. ws air is full of mystery. _see_ gaynor. christmas secrets. sc airy, fairy snowflakes. _see_ gaynor. sc alabieff. nightingale. fs alas! my love you do me wrong. _see_ my lady greensleeves. nebi (marzials. my lady greensleeves. cpp) albert. god's blessing on work. shs album leaf. grieg. hmc music only album leaf. sartorio. hmc music only alcott. o sing with cheery voices. sl alden. lost, the summer. gs *alder by the river. sawyer. el (strauchauer. alder by the river. ws) aldrich. bronze, brown eyes. stn ---- christ church bells. rcs ---- cradle song. tc ---- marjorie's almanac. stn alexander. all things bright and beautiful. hr--shs alice's supper. smith. sli *all aboard. funkhouser. fsk all about, all about, baby's feet are flying. _see_ froebel. play with the limbs. sm all alone i wander here. _see_ alone i wander. kk all around the chicken coop. _see_ pop goes the weasel. oya all around the house. _see_ stevenson. shadow march. sf (ramsay. shadow march. sf) all around the maypole. _see_ maypole style. jb all around the mulb'ry bush. cole. cm all day long i hear a song. _see_ cole. my song. tc all for baby. roeske. pfp all frosty stands christmas. _see_ hill. yes, come! dear dear christmas. hs all gone! hubbard. msg (froebel. all's gone. mp) all gone baby. smith. sl *all gone! the supper's gone! hurd. pts (bullard. all gone. sm) all good night, all good night. _see_ good night, no. . hr all hail the pow'r of jesus' name. _see_ holden. coronation. tlb all hail to thee, fair morning. _see_ walker. birthday song. ws all in the downs the fleet was moored. _see_ marzials. black eyed susan. cpp all night long, all night long, little stars do blink. _see_ rossini. stars and posies. gs all night long and every night. _see_ stevenson. young night thought. ss (foote. young night thought. ss) all our work is over. _see_ mozart. good-bye song. shs all people that on earth do dwell. _see_ old hundred. efs all's gone. froebel. mp (hubbard. all gone. msg) all the birds and bees are singing. _see_ hubbard. lovely may. msg all the birds are back again. _see_ spring song. ps all the birds are back again. _see_ wiggin. spring birds. kc all the birds are here again. _see_ smith. summer song. sl *all the birds have come again. smith. sl *all the birds have come again. ws all the busy work is done. _see_ hill. farewell. shs all the children's clothes are worn. _see_ story of the clothes. shs all the little marguerites. _see_ gaynor. marguerites. ll *all the little sparrows. walker. ws all the trees are lifeless. _see_ hubbard. rose bush. msg *all things bright and beautiful. heerwart. hr (hill. god's work. shs) all through the night. efs (owen. all through the night. tlb) all up and down, my honey. _see_ sugar lump. ng all you little blackey tops. _see_ scarecrow. bb all who sing and wish to please. _see_ goodban. round on the diatonic scale. rcs *alle galoo galoo. jb alle vögel sind schon da. _see_ pretty birdlings. rcs allegretto. beethoven. hmc music only. allegro. mendelssohn. hmc music only. alleluia. barnby. tlb allen. canoe song. el ---- christmas carol. el ---- clouds and sunshine. stn ---- in the pleasant sunny meadows. ws ---- jessie. stn ---- lullaby. stn (fairlamb. lullaby. stn) ---- memorial hymn. tlb ---- song of the rain. ws (smith. rain song. sl ) ---- there's a ship on the sea. stn (damrosch. there's a ship on the sea. stn) (fisher. there's a ship on the sea. stn) ---- whenever a little child is born. stn ---- winter and summer. stn alone i wander. kk alte barbarossa. _see_ gersbach. barbarossa. rcs amaryllis. efs america. smith. fs--gs--msg (my country 'tis of thee. tlb) america, america, thou country of the free. _see_ chadwick. child's american hymn. tc among the green leaves of the tall forest trees. _see_ czerny. number game. hr among these happy children. _see_ hill. skipping song. shs and so we say, good day, good day. _see_ we say good day. kk *and we're a noddin'. fs (variant: we are all nodding. lbs) and what are you trilling, o katy-did-did? _see_ meissner. katy-did. asc andre. christmas waltz song. kc ---- good morning. kc andreae. flower basket. hr ---- how we love our kindergarten. hr ---- watermill. hr angelus. conrade. gs annie goes to the cabbage field. _see_ character dance. hc (variant: strasak. bfd) annie laurie. efs--fs--tlb annie went to the cabbage patch. _see_ strasak. bfd (variant: character dance. hc) another birthday song. reinecke. fc another day has now begun. _see_ hailmann. opening stanza. hr anschuetz. mill by the rivulet. hr (mill. ws) antioch. handel. tlb anvil is busy, the iron is hot. _see_ coonley. anvil song. gs anvil song. coonley. gs apple orchard. lindbald. efs apple trees grow in the orchard fair. _see_ lindbald. apple orchard. efs *apples ripe. hubbard. msg april. sl april. knowlton. ns *april! april! are you here? conrade. gs april drops came down. _see_ strong. may song. hs april girl. fairlamb. stn (stanley. april girl. stn) april rain. knowlton. ns april's just a little child. _see_ fairlamb. song of april. tlb april shower. sawyer. el april showers. hailmann. hr april showers. sheehan. osm april snow. warren. stn arbor day. gaynor. gs arch. koehler. hr (marching, no. . ps) arch of glory curving there on high. _see_ gaynor. rainbow. sc are you here, my little birdies? _see_ hubbard. roll call. msg are you sleeping, are you sleeping. _see_ brother james. rcs (friar john. fs) arise, you little slumb'rers. _see_ finger plays, no. . ps armenian lullaby. chadwick. fsc armies in the fire. stevenson. sf (ramsay. armies in the fire. sf) arne. lucy locket. fs (lucy locket. bb--oya) arnold. canadian boat song. tlb ---- haste thee, nymph. tlb ---- star spangled banner. efs--fs--gs--msg *around the christmas tree. gaynor. ll around the maypole. sherwood. hs art thou poor. _see_ smith. sweet content. tlb art thou weary. _see_ baker. stephanos. tlb arthur of bradley. fs as i came down the canon-gate. _see_ merry may the keel row. fs as i walked over the hills one day. _see_ hill. each mother loves best. shs *as i was coming along along. smeltzer. sz as i was walking on the strand. _see_ old man. kk *as joseph was a-walking. coonley. gs as soon as the nights grow cold. _see_ neidlinger. jack frost. sss as the vane upon the tower. _see_ hailmann. weather vane. hr (froebel. weather vane. mp) as wandering up and down one day. _see_ hubbard. shoemaker. msg *as we go round the mulberry bush. ng (going round the mulberry bush. hr) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (little washerwoman. kk) (mulberry bush. cbo--bg--fs--jb--lbs) ashmall. waken, little children. sl asleep. hr (ball song, no. . ps) (hubbard. little ball lies in my hand. msg) (mozart. going to sleep. hr) at close of day the sunset past. _see_ hill. butterfly and moth. shs at easter tide. sheehan. osm at easter time. ws (smith. easter song. sl ) at evening the maiden dear. _see_ froebel. little maiden and the stars. mp at evening when i go to bed. _see_ conrade. daisies and stars. gs at evening when the lamp is lit. _see_ stevenson. land of story books. ss (bartlett. land of story books. ss) at last we've caught you. _see_ little bird. rcs at night. randegger. tc *at summer morn. fs at the beginning and at the close of play, no. - . ps at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps (variant: day's far spent. jb) at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps (forward, homeward. hr) at break of christmas day. _see_ sawyer. the waits. el at the dawn the light is sent. _see_ hill. certainty of law. shs at the window. pratt. stn at thy door i'm knocking. _see_ lully. by the moon's pale light. fs atkinson. brownies. gs ---- clock. gs ---- clouds. sv ---- cradle song. sv ---- doll day. gs ---- doll's cradle song. gs ---- first flag. gs ---- good-morning. gs ---- good-night. gs ---- lincoln. gs ---- little stars. sv ---- longfellow. gs ---- rainbow. gs ---- red, white and blue. gs ---- song of the nut. gs ---- wake up. gs ---- washington song. gs ---- windmill. gs au clair de la lune. _see_ lully. by the moon's pale light. fs august. knowlton. ns auld lang syne. burns. efs--fs austrian hymn. haydn. tlb austrian national hymn. haydn. fs autumn. gaynor. sc autumn. hiller. hmc music only. autumn. hitte. dm autumn. martin. msl autumn fires. stevenson. el--sf _for composers see_ stevenson. autumn fires. autumn flowers. conrade. gs autumn leaves. gaynor. gs autumn leaves. hr (hill. fall leaves. shs) (osgood. come little leaves. msg--rcs--ws) (smith. come little leaves. sl ) autumn leaves. macey. el autumn leaves falling yellow and brown. _see_ macey. autumn leaves. el autumn leaves are whirling. _see_ smith. finding the place. sl autumn song. beethoven. hr autumn song. russell. hs autumn wind. smith. lcd *autumn winds are crying. smith. sl awake. gaynor. ll awake! awake! houseman. hs *awake my soul, stretch every nerve. handel. tlb awake, said the sunshine. _see_ mendelssohn. spring song. sl *awake ye little sleepers. froebel. hr awakening. gaynor. sc awakening song. hill. shs away among the blossoms. el (hubbard. away among the blossoms. msg) away, away, away, away among the blossoms. _see_ hubbard. away among the blossoms. msg (away among the blossoms. el) away fly the pigeons. _see_ saville. pigeon's flight. hs away in the manger no crib for his bed. _see_ christmas manger hymn. gs away the merry children run. _see_ chapek. bowing game. hs away to the forest and search for a tree. _see_ sherwood. our fir tree. hs away up in alaska. _see_ neidlinger. glacier. es *away with melancholy. lbs *"baa! baa! black sheep, have you any wool?" cbo--fs (elliott. baa, baa black sheep. mg) (gaynor. baa, baa black sheep. ll) (hailmann. baa, baa black sheep. hr) "baa!" said a black sheep. _see_ smith. sheep. lcb babe jesus. dugan. el baby and the moon. sm (smith. baby and the moon. sl ) baby bo. marzo. stn baby bunting. lbs--oya *baby bye, here's a fly. hailmann. hr *baby dear. gaynor. ll baby dear, baby dear, i know a place. _see_ cole. ripe apples. cm baby has a little tune. _see_ baby's tune. lbs baby is a sailor boy. _see_ pollock. sailor boy. hr (hubbard. swing, cradle, swing. msg) baby moon. gaynor. sv baby seed song. conrade. gs baby sleeps, so we must tread. _see_ smith. bed. sl baby swallow chirps "chee-chee." _see_ smith. chirpings. lcd baby, what do the blossoms say? _see_ smith. flower bed. sl baby's birthday. smith. lcd baby's bread. strong. hs baby's calendar. sherwood. hs baby's cotton gown. strong. hs baby's face. neidlinger. es baby's horses. valentine. vbd baby's lullaby. walker. ws (elliott. lullaby. hr--mg--sm) baby's skies. marzo. stn baby's toys. gaynor. sc baby's tune. lbs baby's waking song. tennyson. shs (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) (tufts. little birdie. cl) bach. loure. hmc music only. bach. venetian boatmen's song. tlb bachmann. gigue bretonne. hmc music only. back and front, back and front. _see_ reed. first gift exercises. tgs bacon. before the mowing. el ---- chilly little chickadees. el (batchellor. chilly little chickadees. ws) ---- daffy-down-dilly. el ---- mother's hymn. el (hailmann. teacher's hymn. hr) (osgood. mother's hymn. el) (teacher's hymn, ii. kc) ---- robin redbreast. el ---- signs of the seasons. el ---- summer is coming. el ---- two little birds. el ---- two little roses. el ---- winter hymn. el bad pussy. neidlinger. sss bailiff's daughter of islington. marzials. cpp baker. stephanos. tlb baker. walker. ws ball. gaynor. sc ball. hubbard. msg *ball comes round to meet us. ps (walker. ball comes round to meet us. ws) ball game. hurd. pts ball game. (color.) hurd. el ball games. gaynor. sc ball is in my hand you see. _see_ hubbard. ball. msg *ball is sinking. hubbard. msg ball lullaby. wiggin. kc ball play. hailmann. kc (hailmann. selling fruit. hr) ball play. stedman. kc ball play. wiggin. kc (wiggin. ball song. kc) ball so high. smith. sl ball song. smith. sl (hubbard. roll over, come back. msg.) ball song. (motion.) el ball song, no. and . wiggin. kc ball song. no. . ps (asleep. hr) (hubbard. little ball lies in my hand. msg) (mozart. going to sleep. hr) ball song, no. . ps (bell high in the steeple. ws) (hubbard. bell high in the steeple. msg) (smith. bell so high. sl ) ball song. (spinning.) hurd. el ball songs. ps ball that daily sharest. _see_ ball songs, no. . ps ball will wander. kohl. hr balloon man. bingham. bm banbury cross. oya (elliott. ride a cock-horse to banbury cross. mg) baptist game. ng barbara allen. marzials. cpp barbarossa. gersbach. rcs barcarole. reinecke. fc (duck dance. bg) (fairy ship. bb) (reinecke. i saw a ship a-sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. el) bare and cold the garret chamber. _see_ damrosch. handel. stn (stanley. handel. stn) bareback riding. hmc music only. barefoot boy. johns. tlb barkshire tragedy. maitland. neb barley-brownie. reinecke. fc barnard. valentine day, no. . gs barnby. alleluia. tlb ---- cradle song. tc ---- cradle song of the virgin. rcs (kies. virgin's cradle song. msl) ---- dawn. tlb ---- morning song. tlb ---- now the day is over. sl --tlb (knowlton. now the day is over. ns) ---- o paradise, o paradise. tlb ---- st. gregory. tlb ---- still, still with thee. tlb ---- sweet and low. fs--rcs ---- west wind. tc barnyard. hubbard. msg (froebel. barnyard gate. mp) barnyard. page. hmc music only. barnyard gate. froebel. mp (hubbard. barnyard. msg) barnyard people. page. hmc music only. barnyard song. jacons. hs barrels i bind as a cooper should do. _see_ cooper. ps bartlett. boy and the toot. stn ---- good boy. ss ---- hey diddle diddle. stn ---- merry rain. stn ---- i had a little pony. stn ---- land of story books. ss ---- north wind doth blow. stn (conrade. north wind doth blow. gs) (elliott. north wind doth blow. mg--sl ) (north wind doth blow. hr) (north wind and the robin. bb) (tufts. north wind doth blow. cl) ---- punkydoodle and jollapin. stn (burdett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (stanley. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) ---- riding on the rail. stn (ingraham. riding on the rail. stn) ---- song of the roller-skates. stn ---- sweet, red rose. stn (ingraham. sweet red rose. stn) (mosenthal. sweet red rose. stn) ---- three wise women. stn ---- wren and the hen. stn (molloy. wren and the hen. stn) basket. froebel. mp (smith. flower basket. sm) basket. smith. sl basket of flowers. hubbard. msg baskets we will make with pleasure. _see_ flower baskets. ps bassford. can a little child like me? el (story. can a little child like me? ws) batchellor. blessed day. ws ---- chilly little chickadees. ws (bacon. chilly little chickadees. el) ---- daisy. ws ---- easter hymn. ws (story. easter hymn. ws) ---- god, make my life a little light. ws ---- merry christmas bells. gs ---- morning hymn. ws ---- shower and flower. ws ---- song of the bee. ws ---- tiny little snowflakes. ws battle hymn of the republic. efs--fs baumfelder. dance on the green. hmc music only. ---- jack in the box. hmc music only. *be active. hr be ba babity. jb be kind, little children. _see_ elliott. song of kindness. sl be quiet, dear cube, it is my will. _see_ hubbard. cube. msg be thorough. hr beach. singing joyfully. tc beacon of long ago. neidlinger. es beaming, shining bright and clear. _see_ smith. lighthouse. lcd bean-setting. neb beating the clover. _see_ st. john. rain. bss beaumont. better music ne'er was known. tlb beaumont. gavotte. hmc music only. beautiful faces are they that wear. _see_ mackenzie. things of beauty. tc beautiful rainclouds, sailing on high. _see_ hill. rain clouds. shs beautiful snowclouds. _see_ hill. snow clouds. shs beautiful world. cole. cm (adapted from stevenson. happy thought. cgv) becker. let's play soldiers. hmc music only. *beckon to the chickens. froebel. mp beckon to the pigeons. froebel. mp beckoning the chickens. gilchrist. sm beckoning the pigeons. reinecke. sm bed. smith. sl bed in summer. stevenson. cgv--cm--fsk--lbs--sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. bed time. browne. el bed time. grove. hs bed time. smith. lcd bed time. smith. sv bee. el bee. neidlinger. sss bee and robin. ps bee game. abt. hr *bee is a rover. tufts. cl bee was sporting in the sun. _see_ bee and robin. ps bees. msg (busy workers. hr) bees. ps bees. fischer. hr bees have flown away yonder. _see_ bees. ps bees in the cherry-tree. _see_ tufts. cherry-tree. cl bees' market. hill. shs bees' return. ps beethoven. allegretto. hmc music only. ---- autumn song. hr ---- child's prayer. hr ---- hymn. hmc ---- little window. hr beginnings. neidlinger. es begone, dull care! fs behold above the clear horizon mounting. _see_ denza. sailing o'er a summer sea. efs (denza. funiculi, funicula. fs) (denza. merry life. tlb) behr. night's song. hmc music only. behr. will o' the wisp. hmc music only. bell. bed in summer. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- cow. lbs (cole. cow. cm) ---- hayloft. lbs (ramsay. hayloft. sf) ---- keepsake mill. lbs ---- lamplighter. lbs ---- land of counterpane. lbs (chadwick. land of counterpane. ss) ---- marching. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. marching song. ---- moon. lbs ---- my bed is a boat. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. ---- pictures in winter. lbs (ramsay. picture books in winter. sf) ---- swing. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. ---- where go the boats. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. where go the boats. ---- wind. lbs _for other composers see_ stevenson. wind. bell. hr bell does toll. _see_ bell. hr *bell high in the steeple. ws (ball song, no. . ps) (hubbard. bell high in the steeple. msg) (smith. bell so high. sl ) bell-man. douty. tlb *bell ringer comes with his ting-a-ling-a-ling. reed. tgs bell so high. _see_ bell high in the steeple. bells. foote. tlb bells are ringing in the air. _see_ smith. christmas song. sl bells are ringing loud and sweet. _see_ herron. oh, ring glad bells. ws bells swing far and near. _see_ thompson. glad christmastide. el beneath the grass and flowers. _see_ neidlinger. buried stone. es beneath the shade on the sunny bright lea. _see_ reinecke. when mother was ill. fc berat. my normandy. fs bergere. bb (shepherd maiden. fs) (shepherdess. rcs) berghs. music box. hmc music only. berry. children, we're beginning. kc ---- rider. kc ---- sparrow's nest. kc. bertini. i am the wind. hr (cornwell. wind. el) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) (sawyer. wind. el) ---- little rivulet. hr (boott. run, little rivulet, run. rcs--ws) beside the brook grow flow'rets blue. _see_ schubert. miller's flowers. fs beside the clear streamlet. _see_ reinecke. mill. fc *better music ne'er was known. douty. tlb beyond the shadows lies twilight town. _see_ jenks. twilight town. el bibabutzemann. rcs bicycle. loomis. hmc music only. biehl. game of tag. hmc music only. big and bright electric light. _see_ gaynor. electric light. sc big bright sun shines down on me. _see_ smith. sunshine far and near. lcd big copper kettle. _see_ neidlinger. kettle. sss *big john stout. smeltzer. sz big old mumbly, bumbly bee. _see_ meissner. mr. bumble bee. asc big policeman stands all day. valentine. vbd big round world. _see_ gaynor. oh, wide, wide world. sc *big ship sails. jb big tall clock in the hall. _see_ neidlinger. tick-tock. sss big thumbs up. _see_ hey, thumbs up. kk billy boy. oya billy buttercup. stoeckel. stn billy pringle had a little pig. bb bingham. balloon man. bm ---- butterfly. bm ---- dandelion. bm ---- how i learned to sew. bm ---- little robin redbreast. bm ---- nodding daisies. bm ---- pretty poll parrot. bm ---- pretty swallow. bm ---- rock-a-bye-baby. bm ---- sleep time. bm ---- sleepy old duck. bm ---- swing. bm _for composers see_ stevenson. swing. ---- thanksgiving song. bm ---- violet. bm ---- wake up! wake up! bm ---- we are happy. bm ---- why do bells for christmas ring. bm (root. christmas song. sv) bingo. jb bird-band. grove. hs bird day. gaynor. gs bird-game. schumann. kc bird on the tree. hubbard. msg bird song. hubbard. msg bird song. (color) hurd. el bird thoughts. gilchrist. sm birdie. ps (walker. birdies in the greenwood. ws) (weber. birdies in the greenwood. hr) birdie dear! o birdie dear! _see_ froebel. light bird on the wall. mp (hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) (variant: smith. light bird. sl ) birdie gleaming on the wall. _see_ smith. light bird. sm birdie in the beech grove. _see_ birdie. ps (walker. birdies in the greenwood. ws) (weber. birdies in the greenwood. hr) birdie, o birdie, sweet birdie. _see_ smith. light bird. sl (adapted from froebel. light bird on the wall. mp) (variant: hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) birdie up in your cage so gay. _see_ knowlton. captive bird. ns birdie with a yellow bill. _see_ stevenson. time to rise. cgv (fisher. time to rise. cgv) birdies' ball. cornwell. ws (hubbard. it is lovely may. msg) birdies' burial. reinecke. fc birdies' cradle. abt. hr *birdies in the greenwood. walker. ws (birdie. ps) (weber. birdies in the greenwood. hr) birdie's song. frost. ws (cornwell. there was once a little birdie. el) (rust. there was once a little birdie. el) birdlings are singing to welcome the dawn. _see_ song of love. rcs birdling's good-night to the flowers. smith. sl birds. ps (hubbard. hopping and flying together. msg) birds all the summer day flutter and quarrel. _see_ stevenson. nest eggs. sf (ramsay. nest eggs. sf) birds and angels. reinecke. fc birds and bees and flowers. _see_ randegger. prayer. kc (randegger. song of thanks. el) birdies are flitting here and there. _see_ chapek. birds' joy. hs birds are singing, the bells are ringing. _see_ gilchrist. going to the fair. stn birds' duet. fs birds flying. montz. ims birds have their nest. _see_ sheehan. my garden flowers. osm birds in autumn. chapek. hs birds in summer. tufts. cl birds in the nest. taubert. rcs birds in the woods. hollaender. hmc music only. birds in winter. cole. cm birds' joy. chapek. hs birds must fly. hubbard. msg *birds' nest. hs bird's nest. gaynor. sc bird's nest. gilchrist. sm bird's nest. hailmann. hr (adapted from hubbard. see my little birdie's nest. msg) bird's nest. hurd. pts bird's nest. kohl. sm birds of passage. reinecke. fc birds of spring with gladness sing. _see_ chapek. easter morning. hs birge. morning sunshine. hs birth of the butterfly. gaynor. sc birthday greeting. gaynor. sc birthday greeting. jenks. el birthday march. schumann. hmc music only. birthday song. reinecke. sl (reinecke. mother's birthday. fc) birthday song. reinecke. sl birthday song. walker. ws bishop. home, sweet home. efs--fs--lbs ---- my pretty jane. efs björnson. twilight musing. fs black eyed susan. marzials. cpp blackbird song. bss blacksmith. kc blacksmith. gaynor. sc blacksmith. handel. sl blacksmith. montz. ims music only. blacksmith. neidlinger. es blacksmith. parker. ws (hubbard. song of the blacksmith. msg) blacksmith hammers the whole day long. _see_ hubbard. song of the blacksmith. msg (parker. blacksmith. ws) blacksmith strong, a man is he. _see_ neidlinger. blacksmith. es blacksmith's song. hill. shs *blackthorn, blackthorn. jb blake. dodo. rcs bleking. fdm music only. *bless you, burnie bee. cole. cm blessed day. batchellor. ws blessings on effort. hill. shs blessings on thee, little man. _see_ johns. barefoot. tlb blithe and merrily sang the shark. _see_ chadwick. song of the shark. stn blooming clover blossoms. _see_ clover blossoms. el *blossom, pretty flower. schulz. rcs blow away the morning dew. lbs blow, blow, blow your shining bubbles. _see_ gaynor. blowing bubbles. sc blow, blow busy, busy wind. _see_ neidlinger. busy wind. es *blow, blow thou winter wind. whiting. tlb blow, bugle, blow! neidlinger. tlb blowing, blowing everywhere. _see_ hill. wind song. shs blowing bubbles. gaynor. sc blue and the gray together. conrade. gs blue-bell and the flowers. reinecke. fc blue-bell rings adown the vale. _see_ reinecke. blue bell and the flowers. fc blue-bells of scotland. fs blue-eyed stranger. neb bluebird. conrade. gs bluebird. hubbard. msg (bluebird. ws) bluebird. neidlinger. sss bluebird, canary, the robin redbreast. _see_ wiggin. flight of the birds. kc bluebird sat on a tree and sang. _see_ bacon. summer is coming. el bluehe, liebes veilchen. _see_ schulz. blossom pretty flower. rec bluff king hal. _see_ may pole dance. bfd bo-peep. cbo (conrade. little bo-peep. gs) (elliott. little bo-peep. mg) (little bo-peep. km) boat. rust. el boat ride. smith. sl boat song. hr--ws (lightly row, lightly row. rcs) boat song. reinhold. hmc music only. boat song. weidig. tc (fanning. boat song. tc) boating. gaynor. sc boating song. ring. sc bob white. conrade. gs *bobbie shafto, it is he. smeltzer. sz bobby shafto. gaynor. ll (bobby shafto's gone to sea. oya) *bobby shafto's gone to sea. oya (gaynor. bobby shafto. ll) bobolink. cole. cm bobolink. gaynor. sc "bobolink, bobolink" this is my tune. _see_ cole. bobolink. cm bobolink is a jolly bird. _see_ gaynor. bobolink. sc bold snow-man. smith. lcd bolero. page. hmc music only. bonnie banks of loch lomond. _see_ loch lomond. fs bonnie dundee. efs bonnie laddie, highland laddie. fs bonny breast knot. neb *bootblacks. kc boott. bye, baby birds are sleeping. stn ---- run, little rivulet, run. rcs--ws (bertini. little rivulet. hr) ---- snow filled nest. stn bossy cow. lcd bowing game. chapek. hs bowl of bread and milk. neidlinger. sss boy and the brook. sawyer. el boy and the moon. froebel. mp boy and the toot. bartlett. stn boy and the wren. rcs (reinecke. george's song. fc) boy blue. smeltzer. sz boy is walking in the ring. _see_ with even step. kk boy once caught a tomtit gay. _see_ reinecke. george's song. fc (reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs) boy once trapped a birdling bright. _see_ reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs (reinecke. george's song. fc) brahms. cradle song. fs ---- fish in the brook. sm ---- little dustman. efs (brahms. lullaby. shs) ---- lost chicken. fs ---- lullaby. shs (brahms. little dustman. efs) brave. smith. lcd brave little crocus, what's in your cup? _see_ knowlton. crocus. ns brave little soldier. _see_ neidlinger. cut finger. sss *brave of heart. fs breaks the joyful easter dawn. _see_ story. easter hymn. ws (batchellor. easter hymn. ws) br'er rabbit. oya brewer. little things. cl brewster. christmas song. bss ---- cobbler. bss ---- cradle song. bss ---- dotty and the clock. bss ---- hush my baby. bss ---- little bird in the cradle. bss ---- lost doll. bss ---- morning. bss ---- o moon! in the night. bss ---- pat-a-cake. bss ---- robins and pussy willow. bss ---- sleep, my baby, sleep. bss (cornwell. sleep, baby sleep. el) (sleep, baby, sleep. fs--rcs) (smith. sleep, baby, sleep. sl ) ---- slumber song. bss ---- spring must come. bss ---- spring song. bss ---- thanksgiving song. bss ---- valentine song. bss ---- violet song. bss *briar rosebud is a pretty child. kk bridge. her lovers. tc bridge. froebel. mp (hubbard. brook is flowing. msg) (variant: smith. bridge. sl ) bridge. smith. sl (adapted from froebel. bridge. mp) (variant: hubbard. brook is flowing. msg) bridge. smith. sm brien the brave. tlb bright little dandelions. _see_ cole. dandelion. cm bring blossoms sweet. rossini. gs bring the comb and play upon it. _see_ stevenson. marching song. cgv--lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. marching song. bring the fife and bring the drum. _see_ gaynor. salute to the flag. sc bringing home the sheep. rcs bringing the cattle home. gaynor. ll bristow. little john bottlejohn. stn (gilchrist. little john bottlejohn. stn) (stanley. little john bottlejohn. stn) broken ring. glueck. efs bronson. sweet pea. gs bronze-brown eyes. schlesinger. stn brook. chadwick. tc brook. foote. fsc brook. karganoff. hmc music only. brook. smith. sl brook goes flowing swiftly by. _see_ smith. bridge. sl brook is brimmed with melting snow. _see_ knowlton. pussy willow. ns *brook is flowing along the vale. hubbard. msg (froebel. bridge. mp) (variant: smith. bridge. sl ) brook is flowing merrily. _see_ smith. bridge. sm brooklet's song. hill. hs brooks. christmas song. kc ---- christmas tree march. kc ---- "o little town of bethlehem." msl broom and the rod. reinecke. fc brother james. rcs (friar john. fs) brother, thou and i. _see_ lullaby. rcs brothers and sisters. froebel. mp (hubbard. brothers and sisters. msg) brown. bed time. el ---- child and the apple. el ---- daisy nurses. gs ---- hide and seek. el ---- lady bird. el ---- may. ws ---- over the bare hills far away. ws ---- peter white. rcs ---- pretty game. el ---- raindrops. gs ---- reason why. ws ---- santa claus. el ---- seasons. el ---- spring song. el ---- summer day. el ---- this is little tommy thumb. el ---- washing day. el ---- welcome to the pussy willows. el ---- when christ was born. fs brown birds are flying. _see_ smith. good-bye to summer. sl brownie. gaynor. ll *brownie firefly. meissner. asc brownie polska. kk brownies. atkinson. gs brownies. gaynor. sc brownies. reinhold. hmc music only. brownies are hidden away. _see_ atkinson. brownies. gs brownies' dance. funkhouser. fsk. browning. rabbi ben ezra. tlb bruder, ich und du. _see_ lullaby. rcs bryant. planting of the apple tree. hs ---- robert of lincoln. gs ---- to the fringed gentian. tlb bubbles. gaynor. sc bubbles, bubbles. _see_ neidlinger. soapbubbles. sss *bubbles, bubbles i love to blow. cole. cm bucket song. hubbard. msg (walker. bucket song. ws) bucket song. rust. el bubbling and splashing and foaming and dashing. _see_ purcell. knowledge and wisdom. rcs *build thee more stately mansions, o my soul. farwell. tlb builders we would like to be. _see_ wiggin. building song. kc building song. wiggin. kc building the house. gaynor. ll bullard. all gone. sm (hurd. all gone. pts) ---- charcoal-burner. sm ---- cuckoo. sm ---- falling! falling! sm (adapted from froebel. falling, falling. mp) ---- pigtail. tlb ---- target. sm ---- taste. guessing game. sm ---- wandering song. sm bumble bee. gaynor. sc bumble bee, yellow as gold. _see_ fisher. meadow talk. stn bumps o' stretton. neb bunner. one, two, three. cm bunny. neidlinger. sss bunny's accident. jb burchenal. highland fling. bfd ---- kamarinskaia. bfd ---- tarentella. bfd burdett. million little diamonds. stn (damrosch. million little diamonds. stn) (tufts. winter jewels. cl) (walker. winter jewels. ws) ---- punkydoodle and jollapin. stn (bartlett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (stanley. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) ---- summer song. stn bureau. captive wild bird. hs buried stone. neidlinger. es burly dozing, humble bee, dozing bee. _see_ neidlinger. humble bee. tlb burnett. firtree. hs ---- song of the wind. hs burnham. sailing o'er a summer sea. efs (translation of funiculi, funicula.) burns. auld lang syne. efs--fs ---- highland lad my love was born. fs ---- john anderson, my jo. efs ---- my luve's like a red, red rose. tlb ---- o, wert thou in the cauld blast. tlb ---- scots, wha hae wi' wallace bled! efs busy bee. tufts. cl (cole. lesson from the bee. cm) busy bee at work all day. _see_ neidlinger. bee. sss busy bees. hr busy blacksmith, what are you doing? _see_ handel. blacksmith. sl busy body, busy body. _see_ cole. to a honey-bee. cm busy brook. taubert. rcs busy carpenters. hill. shs busy children. hubbard. msg busy, curious, thirsty fly. _see_ cocchi. fly. rcs busy hands and fingers. fischer. hr busy hands are never still. _see_ fischer. busy hands and fingers. hr busy housewife. pollen. hmc music only. busy is the carpenter. _see_ gilchrist. carpenter. sm busy is the carpenter. _see_ parker. carpenter, no. . sm *busy lark, messenger of day. tlb busy maids, we bid you good morning. _see_ taubert. sparrow's greeting. rcs busy mill, the busy mill. _see_ reed. mill. tgs (reinecke. mill-wheel. sm) busy squirrel with shining eyes. _see_ gaynor. harvest of the squirrel and honey-bee. sc busy steam. neidlinger. es busy were our fingers. _see_ hill. presentation song. shs busy wind. neidlinger. es busy wind. smith. lcd busy workers. hr (bees. msg) buttercups. gaynor. sc *buttercups and daisies. conrade. gs (hubbard. buttercups and daisies. msg) (tufts. buttercups and daisies. cl) butterflies. emerson. sm butterflies. montz. ims *butterflies are pretty things. tufts. cl butterflies, butterflies seek the lily bell. _see_ emerson. butterflies. sm butterflies' hide and seek. gaynor. ll butterfly. ps butterfly. bingham. bm butterfly. gaynor. sc butterfly. hubbard. msg. butterfly. st. john. bss butterfly and moth. hill. shs butterfly and rosebud. sheehan. osm butterfly, butterfly, blithsome and gay. _see_ gaynor. butterfly. sc butterfly dance. smith. lcd butterfly, stay, please don't fly away. _see_ butterfly. ps buy a broom. bb--rcs (music also given in cube song, no. . el) buzz! this is the song of the bee. _see_ batchellor. song of the bee. ws "buzzard." _see_ chorus jig. fdm music only. by-low-by. taubert. rcs by streamlet and leafy dale. kk by the moon's pale light. lully. fs by the north pole dwells, we know. _see_ gaynor. eskimo. gs by yon bonnie banks, and by yon bonnie braes. _see_ loch lomond. efs--fs--tlb *bye, baby, birds are sleeping. boott. stn bye, baby bunting. _see_ baby bunting. lbs--oya bye baby bye. hill. shs (smith. bye, baby, night has come. sl --stn) bye, baby, bye. main. el bye, baby, day is over. _see_ main. bye, baby, bye. el *bye, baby, night has come. smith. sl --stn (hill. bye baby bye. shs) bye-low-bye, bye-low-bye. _see_ terhune. cradle carol. cc bye o, baby bunting. _see_ baby bunting. lbs--oya cable. neidlinger. es cachucha. fs cackling hen. smith. lcd calendar song. rcs (conrade. calendar song. gs) call. like the ball we move around. ws call of the crow. knowlton. ns call the pigeons, baby dear. _see_ reinecke. beckoning the pigeons. sm call to the circle. gaynor. sc callcott. love wakes and weeps. tlb caller herrin'. fs calling the flowers. hahn. bss calling the tides. tufts. cl calling the violet. knowlton. ns *campbells are comin'. efs--fs *can a little child like me? bassford. el (story. can a little child like me? ws) can ye sew cushions. fs *can you count the stars? smith. sl (canst thou count the stars? ws) *can you plant the seeds? rcs *can you show me how the farmer? jb (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (froebel. farmer. sm) (koehler. farmer. hr) (shall i show you the farmer? rcs) can you tell us how the farmer? _see_ farmer and the housewife. kk _for variants see above._ canadian boat song. arnold. tlb canary. smith. lcd canoe song. allen. el *canst thou count the stars? ws (can you count the stars? smith. sl ) *captain had a spying glass. jb captain! my captain! kelley. tlb captains call. martin. msl captive bird. knowlton. ns captive wild bird. bureau. hs car driver. wiggin. kc card sewing. moore. sc careful. smith. lcd *careful gardener. ws carey. america. fs--gs--msg (carey. my country 'tis of thee. tlb) carey. harvest hymn. bss carey. my country 'tis of thee. tlb (carey. america. fs--gs--msg) carlyle. safe stronghold. fs carnival. neidlinger. es *carol, carol, children. graeff. hs *carol, children, carol. walker. ws carol, children, carol. _see_ conrade. old carol. gs carol for christmas eve. rcs carol of the birds. quercy. tlb carol of the flowers. gascon. tlb *carol, oh, carol! dugan. ws carpenter. kc carpenter. froebel. mp (hubbard. oh! see the carpenter. msg) carpenter. gilchrist. sm carpenter. parker. sm carpenter. smith. sl carpenter theme. haydn. hmc music only. *carriage to ride in. reinecke. fc carrier dove. hr *carrion crow sat on an oak. bb carrousel. bfd cars are standing on the track. _see_ neidlinger. engineer. es cart-loads of pumpkins as yellow as gold. _see_ conrade. thanksgiving joys. gs cart-wheel. elliott. sl (walker. cartwheel song. ws) cartwheel song. walker. ws (elliott. cart-wheel. sl ) cary. april. ns cary. november, no. . gs ---- to a honey-bee. cm castilian bolero. efs castle. chorister. gs cat. valentine. vbd cat and mouse. ps *cat and the dog. stanley. stn cat and the mouse. hubbard. msg cat in the snow. lbs cat on the tree. fischer. hr catch the squirrel. usi caterpillar. neidlinger. sss caterpillar. roeske. pfp caterpillar. smith. lcd caterpillar. smith. sl caterpillar. smith. sm caterpillar and moth. hill. shs caterpillar, come from thy tiny egg. _see_ gaynor. birth of the butterfly. sc cat's cradle. gaynor. sc cattails. gaynor. sc cauffman. love song. tlb ---- wind and sea. tlb cave of the winds. gurlitt. hmc music only. caw, caw, caw. _see_ knowlton. call of the crow. ns cerdetschni. fdm music only. certainty of law. hill. shs ch-ch-ch-ch. now we're ready to go. _see_ valentine. train. vbd chadwick. armenian lullaby. fsc ---- brook. tc ---- busy lark. tlb ---- child's american hymn. tc ---- farewell to the farm. ss ---- kissing game. fsc ---- lamb. tlb ---- land of counterpane. ss (bell. land of counterpane. lbs) ---- soft-shell crab. tc ---- song of the shark. stn ---- stormy evening. tlb ---- there was a little girl. stn *chairs to mend! fs chanticleer. clarke. stn chapek. birds in autumn. hs ---- birds' joy. hs ---- bowing game. hs ---- easter morning. hs ---- garden. hs ---- ironing song. hs ---- little child's gift carol. hs ---- sprinkling the clothes. hs character dance. hc (variant: strasak. bfd) charcoal burner. bullard. sm charcoal burner. hubbard. msg (froebel. charcoal burner's hut. mp) *charcoal burner's hut. froebel. mp (hubbard. charcoal burner. msg) charley over the water. bb charlie is my darling. fs *charlie over the water. ng--usi charmante gabrielle. _see_ fair gabrielle. fs charming marguerite. efs chasing the squirrel. ws chavagnat. jumping jack. hmc music only. ---- on tiptoe. hmc music only. *cheerful gift, a cheerful gift. kies. msl cheerful singing. cole. cm *cherries are ripe. oya cherries in summer, nuts in the fall. _see_ smith. plums in winter. lcd *cherries ripe. hr--ws cherries ripe, lemons ripe. _see_ wiggin. fruit market. kc cherry-tree. tufts. cl cherubini. like as a father. tlb chickadee. sawyer. el chicken. neidlinger. sss chickens round the gate. conrade. gs (hubbard. see the chickens round the gate. msg) (seidell. see the chickens round the gate. hr) *chickery, crany-crow. gaynor. ll chickie, chickie, chickie chick. _see_ hailmann. little chickens. hr child. thanksgiving day. gs--msg--ws (sleighride. hr) ---- who stole the bird's nest? cm child and mother. gilchrist. fsc child and the apple. brown. el child and the cuckoo. _see_ reinecke. fc child and the moon. froebel. mp child and the star. elliott. mg--sl --sm child and the tree. root. sv *child jesus came from heav'nly height. gade. rcs (kies. child jesus. msl) *child-land echoes with music. phippen. el child, now open thy mouth. _see_ froebel. song of taste. mp child of my heart, oh say! _see_ hubbard. hiding of the child. msg (froebel. hide. mp) child of my heart so fair and so dear. _see_ froebel. mother in unity with her child. mp child who went to gather some treasures on the beach. _see_ smith. treasures. lcd childhood's gold. palmer. stn children and the sheep. marie antoinette. hr (cole. sheep. cm) (hill. children and the sheep. shs) children at the tower. froebel. mp children came to froebel's knee. _see_ gaynor. froebel. gs *children, can you truly tell? walker. ws choral. germer. hmc chorister. conrade. gs chorus jig. ("buzzard") fdm music only. chris-cradle sings. hubbard. msg christ church bells. aldrich. rcs christ is risen. martin. msl christ the lord is ris'n today. _see_ hubbard. easter. msg christine's christmas carol. wilcox. el christmas. reed. hs--tgs christmas at the door. reinecke. hr--sli--fc christmas bells. funkhouser. fsk christmas bells. mclellan. el christmas bells are ringing. _see_ riley. christmas carol. ll christmas carol. kc christmas carol. stegall. rcs (stegall. manger throne. fs) christmas carol. adams. hs christmas carol. allen. el christmas carol. elliott. sl christmas carol. gaynor. sc christmas carol. gaynor. sc christmas carol. ogden. kc christmas carol. riley. ll christmas carol. smith. sl christmas carol. terhune. cc christmas day! and the joy-bells ring. _see_ mclellan. christmas bells. el christmas day in the morning. cbo *christmas, glad christmas. kendall. hs christmas greeting. hubbard. msg christmas has come. kc christmas hymn. gottschalk. kc (reinecke. christmas hymn. fc) (smith. christmas hymn. sl ) *christmas is coming. hubbard. msg *christmas is here. hr christmas joys. gaynor. sc christmas joys are over. _see_ gaynor. new year. sc christmas lullaby. hill. shs christmas manger hymn. gs *christmas! merry christmas! we greet it. sherwood. hs christmas night. hill. shs christmas picture. morton. hs christmas secrets. gaynor. sc christmas song. (holy night.) adam. gs christmas song. brewster. bss christmas song. cole. bss christmas song. haydn. hr christmas song. reinecke. fc christmas song. rieff. kc christmas song. root. sv (bingham. why do bells for christmas ring. bm) christmas song. schwartz. bss christmas song. smith. sl christmas star. hill. shs *christmas time is coming. smith. lcd christmas tree march. rieff. kc christmas waltz-song. andre. kc christmas welcome. gs christmas wreath. hc church. gaynor. sc church. smith. sl (adapted from froebel. church window and church door. mp) (variant: hubbard. church bell. msg) church. smith. sm church bell. hubbard. msg (froebel. church window and church door. mp) (variant: smith. church. sl ) church bells. hill. shs *church bells. martin. msl church bells. montz. ims church window and church door. froebel. mp (hubbard. church bell. sl ) (adaptation : smith. church. sl ) circle march. montz. ims circles. smith. sl city lad and country lass. koschat. efs city rat and the country rat. fs clacker. conrade. gs clang! clang! clang! that's the fire bell i hear. _see_ funkhouser. fireman. fsk clang! clang! goes the blacksmith's hammer. _see_ gaynor. blacksmith. sc clap, clap the hands. _see_ roeske. santa claus. pfp clappers. ps clappers in the corn mill. _see_ clappers. ps clapping song. gaynor. sc clarke. chanticleer. stn ---- in the tree-top. stn (knowlton. in the tree-top. ns) ---- love virtue. tlb ---- two kittens. stn clean kitchen table. _see_ gaynor. cook. ll clear cool pond. fs clench, clench, clench. _see_ joiner. ps (froebel. joiner. mp) (hubbard. zisch, zisch, zisch. msg) (seidel. joiner. hr) click-a-tick-a-tick. _see_ gaynor. telegraph. sc *click, clack, click, clack, merrily flows the rill. osgood. rcs clickety, clackety, now the wheels run. _see_ ingraham. riding on the rail. stn (bartlett. riding on the rail. stn) *cling, cling, clinkerty clink. hubbard. msg clip, clap. rcs (millwheel. ps) cloak of purple velvet. _see_ gaynor. king pansy. ll clock. hr clock. atkinson. gs clock game. wiggin. kc clock now points the hour. _see_ sheehan. good-bye song. osm clocks and watches. koehler. hr clocks forever repeating. _see_ gaynor. tick-tock. ll clod. koschat. efs *close hidden in my hand it lies. ws close, little eyelets and go to dreamland. _see_ hurd. lullabye. closing song. kc clouds. atkinson. sv clouds and sunshine. allen. stn clouds are passing o'er the sky. _see_ lach. spring rain. sl clouds of gray are in the sky. _see_ hill. nature's good-night. shs cloudy day. reed. tgs clover blossoms. el clover, clover in the field. _see_ cole. generous clover. cm clovers. knowlton. ns clovers have no time to play. _see_ knowlton. clovers. ns clown elephant. kroeger. hmc music only. coach is at the door at last. _see_ stevenson. farewell to the farm. ss (chadwick. farewell to the farm. ss) coaching carol. terhune. cc coasting. gaynor. sc coasting. tufts. cl coasting song. sawyer. ws cobbler. hr--lbs cobbler. brewster. bss cobbler, cobbler, mend my shoe. _see_ hunt the slipper. hc cobblers work! cobblers work! _see_ brewster. cobbler. bss cocchi. fly. rcs cock-a-doodle-do! tufts. cl cock robin and jenny wren. cbo--rcs cockles and mussels. fs (molly malone. lbs) cold and dark the earth is lying. _see_ reinecke. longing for spring. rcs *cold winter is round us. rcs cole. all around the mulb'ry bush. cm ---- beautiful world. cm (adapted from stevenson. happy thought. cgv) ---- bed in summer. cm _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- birds in winter. cm ---- bless you, burnie bee. cm ---- bobolink. cm ---- bubbles. cm ---- cheerful singing. cm ---- christmas song. bss ---- come little children and sing. cm ---- cow. cm (bell. cow. lbs) ---- dandelion. cm ---- dewdrops. cm ---- dolly. cm ---- far out at sea. tc ---- generous clover. cm ---- going to school. cm ---- good morning, grandpa. cm ---- good night and good morning. cm (good night, no. . hr) ---- how the baby was named. cm ---- humming bird. cm ---- "if." tc ---- in september. gs ---- jolly joe. cm ---- lesson from the bee. cm (tufts. busy bee. cl) ---- like baby. cm ---- little birdies. cm ---- little doggie. cm ---- longing. tlb ---- month of may. cm ---- my dog, carl. cm ---- my kitty. cm ---- my song. tc ---- neddy's pets. cm ---- one two three. cm ---- pretty cow. cm (seidell. thank you, pretty cow. hr) (smith. thank you, pretty cow. sl ) (tufts. thank you, pretty cow. cl) ---- ripe apples. cm ---- rock-a-bye baby. cm ---- scale songs. cm ---- sheep. cm (hill. children and the sheep. shs) (marie antoinette. children and the sheep. hr) ---- singing. cm _for other composers see_ stevenson. singing. ---- singing and playing. cm ---- skylark. cm ---- snow. el ---- song about winter. cm ---- star. tc ---- stop, stop pretty water. cm (tufts. stop, stop pretty water. cl) ---- sunbeam voices. cm ---- swing. cm _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. ---- thistle's story. cm ---- to a honey-bee. cm ---- what can you do? tc ---- what the bells say. cm ---- when the night comes on. cm ---- where the birdies grow. cm ---- where they grow. cm (where they grow. bss) ---- who stole the bird's nest? cm coleridge. song of illyrian peasants. tlb *columbia, the gem of the ocean. shaw. gs columbus. gaynor. gs columbus dreamed of distant lands. _see_ gaynor. columbus. gs *columbus saw across the main. johns. tc comarinskaia. fdm music only. come, all ye young men, in your evil ways. _see_ baptist game. ng *come and join our carol. story. ws *come and join our circle. smith. sl *come and join our roundelay. jb come and see, come and see. _see_ pendulum. ws *come, aurora. fs come, awaken, awaken, my little boy blue. _see_ morning. fs come ball to the children. _see_ smith. so bright and so round. sl come chick, chick, chick, chickie. _see_ grieg. farmyard song. fs come child, and see the moon. _see_ froebel. child and the moon. mp come children all. _see_ wiggin. village dance. kc come children, clasp your neighbor's hand. _see_ gaynor. set of games. sc come children, stand a moment still. _see_ water mill. usi come children with me to the garden. _see_ little gardener. sm come, come and form a ring. _see_ wiggin. ring song, no. . kc come, come come! _see_ weber. ring song, no. . kc come, come, come! oh, come and form a merry ring. _see_ wiggin. ring song, no. . kc come, come, come! oh, come and form a ring. _see_ smith. ring song, no. . kc *come, come, come, one and all. rcs come, come, let's reap the flax plant to-day. _see_ reaping the flax. kk come, come, my little spitz. _see_ fritz and spitz. rcs come, come, my pretty fido. _see_ fido and his master. hr come, come, one and all. _see_ wiggin. ring song, no. . kc come, come, people come! _see_ hill. church bells. shs come, come, my pretty man. jb come dance and be gay. _see_ richter. may dancing song. hr *come dance, little thumbkin. hailmann. hr come, dear little children. himmel. thanksgiving song. shs come forth, little flowers. _see_ wiggin. spring's call to the flowers. kc *come here, little robin. tufts. cl come here, my dearest dear. _see_ shoot the buffalo. usi come in the ranks, keep step in merry march. _see_ regimental march. fs come, jack, and tie right speedily. _see_ taubert. hildebrandshagen. rcs come, ladybird, and seat yourself. _see_ schumann. ladybird. fs *come lasses and lads. fs--lbs (marzials. come lasses and lads. cpp) come, let our lives like jesus' shine. kies. msl come, let's play a new game. _see_ hurd. introduction song. pts come, let us be joyous. _see_ andre. christmas waltz song. kc come, let us live with our children. sawyer. el come, let us make a garden. _see_ gaynor. let us make a garden. ll come, let us play. _see_ hailmann. now, come let us play. hr come let us play we're from japan. funkhouser. fsk come let us play we're indians red. funkhouser. fsk come, let us worship. hayden. tlb come little boy, here are grapes for you. _see_ meissner. tasting. asc *come little children and sing. cole. cm *come little leaves. osgood. msg--rcs--ws (autumn leaves. hr) (hill. fall leaves. shs) (smith. come little leaves. sl ) come, little children, your praise sing. _see_ martin. jesus in king. msl come, little pigeons, come into the ring. _see_ hubbard. pigeons. msg *come little robin, and sing me a song. rcs. come little robin, spread your wings. funkhouser. fsk *come live with me and be my love. lawson. cpp come lovely light and shine on us. _see_ smith. window. sm *come lovely may. mozart. rcs come merry little sunbeam. _see_ sherwood. song for the prism. hs come millers, near this babbling rill. _see_ andreae. water mill. hr *come, mirth, thou foe to the sighing. paxton. rcs come, my baby you shall make. _see_ froebel. pat-a-cake. sm *come, my children, come away. tufts. cl come, my dear, dance we here. _see_ gaynor. dancing song. gs *come my dolly. smith. sv come my dolly, let us play. _see_ atkinson. doll day. gs come neighbor, the moon is up. _see_ frog-pond. ng come no time for idle slumber. _see_ seven game. jb come now, little birds. _see_ cole. birds in winter. cm come now, our vessel is ready. _see_ weber. on the sea. hr come out into the garden. _see_ dugan. watering the flowers. el come out of your hiding place, violet blue. _see_ brewster. violet song. bss come see my small garden. _see_ reed. garden bed. tgs *come, skip with me. kk *come take a little partner. hubbard. msg come take your barrow, neighbor john. _see_ hubbard. wheelbarrow. msg come tell me. _see_ reinecke. broom and the rod. fc *come thou almighty king. giardini. tlb. come to the garden feast. _see_ smith. taste song. sl come to the top of the path in the garden. _see_ nelham. windmill. rcs come to the woods and let us play. _see_ hubbard. froebel's birthday. msg come up, april. _see_ knowlton. april. ns come will you dance? o yes, i will. _see_ kull-dansen. bfd come with us sweet flow'rs. _see_ gascon. carol of the flowers. tlb come, ye happy hearted children. _see_ decoration day. bss comin' thro' the rye. efs (gin a body meet a body. fs) commencement song. tlb comparisons. neidlinger. es conclusion. froebel. mp concone. marche militaire. hmc music only. ---- run, run, run. hmc music only. conductor. valentine. vbd conrade. angelus. gs ---- april, april! are you here? gs ---- autumn flowers. gs ---- baby seed song. gs ---- blue and the gray together. gs ---- bluebird. gs ---- bob white. gs ---- buttercups and daisies. gs (hubbard. buttercups and daisies. gs) (tufts. buttercups and daisies. cl) ---- calendar song. gs (calendar song. rcs) ---- chickens round the gate. gs (hubbard. see the chickens round the gate. msg) (seidel. see the chickens round the gate. hr) ---- chorister. gs ---- clacker. gs ---- crow calculations. gs ---- daisies and stars. gs ---- daisies in the meadows. gs (walker. out in the meadows. ws) ---- daisy nurses. gs (knowlton. daisy nurses. ns) ---- drummer boy. gs ---- fairies. gs ---- fairy artist. gs ---- firefly song. gs ---- forget-me-not. gs ---- frog's good-bye. gs ---- i'm a little soldier boy. gs ---- in september. gs ---- in the springtime. gs ---- indian cradle song. gs (hitte. indian lullaby. dm) ---- little bird with eager wing. gs ---- little blue jay. gs ---- little bo-peep. (bo-peep. cbo) (elliott. little bo-peep. mg) (little bo-peep. km) ---- little boy bubble. gs ---- little doves. gs ---- little white feathers. gs (smith. little white feathers. sl ) ---- little wind. gs ---- lost, the summer. gs ---- millwheel. gs (hubbard. round and round it goes. msg) (millwheel. el) ---- moon. gs ---- north wind. gs (bartlett. north wind doth blow. stn) (elliott. north wind doth blow. mg--sl ) (north wind and the robins. bb) (north wind doth blow. hr) (tufts. north wind doth blow. cl) ---- november, no. . gs ---- october. gs ---- old carol. gs ---- pansies. gs ---- pretty polly pansy. gs ---- robert of lincoln. gs ---- september. gs (knowlton. september. ns) (mclellan. september. el) ---- sing, children, sing. gs ---- snail. gs ---- sparrow. gs ---- sweet pea. gs ---- sweet summer's gone away. gs ---- swinging. gs ---- thanksgiving day. gs (hubbard. thanksgiving day. msg) (morton. thanksgiving song. ws) (sleigh-ride. hr) ---- thanksgiving joys. gs ---- to santa claus. gs ---- tradespeople. gs (hubbard. swallow. msg) ----where they go. gs (walker. where do all the daisies go? ws) constant billy. neb continued story. gaynor. ll coo, coo, coo, coo. _see_ froebel. cuckoo. mp coo-oo, coo-oo, coo-oo, coo. let me speak a word too. _see_ cole. who stole the bird's nest. cm "coo-oo-oo." so in love to its mate calls the dove. _see_ smith. dove talk. lcd cook. gaynor. ll cool the grass to the brown, bare feet. _see_ gaynor. bringing the cattle home. ll coolun. efs. coonley. anvil song. gs ---- arbor day. gs. ---- as joseph was walking. gs ---- autumn flowers. gs ---- autumn leaves. gs ---- bird day. gs ---- brownies. gs ---- child's birthday. gs. ---- clock. gs ---- columbus. gs ---- dancing song. gs ---- doll day. gs ---- doll's cradle song. gs ---- easter. gs ---- eskimo. gs ---- first flag. gs ---- flower day. gs ---- froebel. gs ---- good-morning. gs ---- good-night. gs ---- growing. gs ---- indian. gs ---- japanese. gs ---- labor day. gs ---- lincoln. gs ---- longfellow. gs ---- may-day. gs ---- may queen. gs ---- mother day. gs ---- my bicycle. gs ---- rainbow. gs ---- red, white and blue. gs ---- salute. gs ---- sing, children, sing. gs ---- song of the nut. gs ---- valentine day, no. . gs ---- wake up. gs ---- washington song. gs ---- whittier. gs ---- windmill. gs ---- work of the week. gs cooper. bob white. gs ---- my brigantine. tlb ---- what robin told. ns cooper. hr cooper. walker. ws (hubbard. cooper. msg) corelli. giga. hmc music only. cornell. march. stn ---- song of the robin. stn cornish maypole dance. fdm music only. cornwell. birdies' ball. ws (hubbard. it is lovely may. msg) ---- ferns. el ---- fly, little birds, fly east and west. hs--ws ---- fly, little birds, fly round the ring. ws (hubbard. flying birds. msg) (smith. fly, little birds. sl ) ---- kind deeds. el ---- little boy blue. el ---- little jack frost. ws (little jack frost. hr) (walker. little jack frost. ws) ---- little moon. el ---- sleep, baby, sleep. el (brewster. sleep, my baby, sleep. bss) (sleep, baby, sleep. fs--rcs) (smith. sleep, baby, sleep. sl ) ---- there was once a little birdie. el (frost. birdie's song. ws) (rust. there was once a little birdie. el) ---- wind. el (bertini. i am the wind. hr) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) (sawyer. wind. el) coronation. holden. tlb cosaque. lange. hmc music only. cossack. fdm music only. cossack's song. tlb cottrau. santa lucia. fs (now 'neath the silver moon. efs--tlb) cough and crow to roost are gone. parker. robbers. tlb counting game. kk counting lesson. roeske. pfp country dance. fdm music only. country dance, i. ("lust'ger schweizerbu'") fdm music only. country dance, ii. ("o strassburg") fdm music only. country gardens. neb cousin peter. lbs cover the eyes all close and tight. _see_ froebel. flower song. sm cow. stevenson. cm--lbs _for composers see_ stevenson. cow cradle carol. terhune. cc cradle nest. winslow. hs cradle song. atkinson. sv cradle song. barnby. tc cradle song. brahms. fs cradle song. brewster. bss cradle song. fairlamb. stn (fisher. cradle song. stn) (ilsley. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) cradle song. schumann. hmc music only. cradle song. spazier. shs cradle song. tennyson. el (baby's waking song. shs) (what does little birdie say. sm) (tufts. little birdie. cl) cradle song. tufts. cl cradle song of the virgin. barnby. rcs (kies. virgin's cradle song. msl) crawling, spinning, shelter winning. _see_ hill. caterpillar and moth. shs creeping, slowly creeping. _see_ smith. caterpillar. sm creeping thing upon the ground. _see_ smith. caterpillar. sl crested hen. fdm music only. cricket. oldberg. hmc music only. crickets carol in the grass. _see_ menard. slumber song. bss. cris-cradle sings. hubbard. msg crocus. knowlton. ns crocus and anemone are calling from the wood. _see_ gaynor. flower day. gs crosby. hurrah for the sleigh-bells. el *cross and crown. martin. msl crossing the bar. huss. tlb crow. gaynor. sc crow calculations. conrade. gs crown her, oh crown her queen of the may. _see_ gaynor. may queen. gs crusaders. pinsuti. tlb cry is heard like thunder sound. _see_ wilhelm. watch by the rhine. efs--fs csardas. bfd csardas. fdm music only. csardas. geza. hmc music only. cube. hubbard. msg cube now is resting. _see_ wiggin. second gift song. kc cube songs, and . el cubes and ball. sl cuckoo. ps cuckoo. bullard. sm cuckoo. froebel. mp cuckoo. hubbard. msg cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo, hark to the call. _see_ hubbard. spring. msg *cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo! my child, the cuckoo is singing. ps cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo, cuckoo, the cuckoo now is calling. _see_ hubbard. msg cuck-oo, cuck-oo, green wood-lands call. _see_ messenger of spring. rcs *cuckoo cuckoo! sound from the wood. ps *cuckoo, cuckoo, the cuckoo calls you, dear. bullard. sm cunning cat is watching. _see_ cat and mouse. ps *curley locks. elliott. mg cushman. wheel song. el cut finger. neidlinger. sss cycle of the year. neidlinger. es cylinder. hubbard. msg cylinder song. el czerny. number game. hr da draussen auf der aue. _see_ taubert. down in a grassy meadow. rcs daddy, daddy, long legged daddy. _see_ meissner. granddaddy longlegs. asc *daffodil lady. gaynor. ll daffodils, daffodils, daisies and buttercups. _see_ palmer. little maid margery. stn daffy-down-dilly. bacon. el daffy-down-dilly. gaynor. sc daffy-down-dilly. smith. sl dainty little stockings. _see_ cole. christmas song. bss dainty milkweed babies. _see_ smith. milkweed babies. sl dairy. fs daisies. gaynor. sc daisies and stars. conrade. gs *daisies are dancing. smith. sl daisies in the meadows. conrade. gs (walker. out in the meadows. ws) daisies white are nursery maids. _see_ conrade. daisy nurses. gs (knowlton. daisy nurses. ns) daisy. batchellor. ws daisy. haydn. hr (reinecke. daisy. sl ) (reinecke. field daisy. fc) daisy and the wind. neidlinger. sss daisy buds. tufts. cl *daisy dear. hubbard. msg daisy nurses. conrade. gs (knowlton. daisy nurses. ns) daldans. fdm music only. dalecarlian maiden's song. lindbald. efs dame, get up and bake your pies. _see_ xmas day in ye morning. cbo damrosch. easter carol. stn (fairlamb. easter carol. stn) (hubbard. sweetly the birds are singing. msg) ---- handel. stn (stanley. handel. stn) ---- in the wood. stn ---- jessie. stn ---- joy, hope and love. stn ---- lord's day. stn ---- million little diamonds. stn (burdett. million little diamonds. stn) (tufts. winter jewels. cl) (walker. winter jewels. ws) ---- minuet. stn (fairlamb. minuet. stn) (fisher. minuet. stn) (mosenthal. minuet. stn) ---- there's a ship on the sea. stn (allen. there's a ship on the sea. stn) (fisher. there's a ship on the sea. stn) ---- valentine. stn (fairlamb. valentine. stn) dance. neidlinger. sss *dance a baby diddy. cbo (elliott. nurse's song. mg) *dance, little baby. weber. hr dance. looby, looby, looby dance. _see_ looby, looby. lbs (here we come, looby loo. jb) (looby loo. bg--hc--neb ) (looby light. bb) dance of greeting. bfd dance of greeting. fdm music only. dance of the bears. heins. hmc music only. dance of the frost elves. grieg. hmc music only. dance of the rainbow fairies. gaynor. sc dance on the green. baumfelder. hmc music only. *dance, thumbkin, dance. lbs dance we had at our village home. _see_ koschat. city lad and country lass. efs dancing game. gaynor. sc dancing song. froelich. hr (reinecke. dancing song. fc) dancing song. gaynor. gs dancing song. gaynor. ll dancing song. root. sv dancing song. smith. sl dandelion. bingham. bm dandelion. cole. cm dandelion. foote. stn dandelion. gaynor. sc dandelion. knowlton. ns dandelion. methfessel. shs dandelion cycle. knowlton. ns dandelion, dandelion, where's your cup of gold. _see_ knowlton. dandelion. ns dandelion fashions. smith. sl dandelions. suck. stn dandelions, dandelions, like golden stars are you. _see_ gaynor. dandelion. sc danse de strasbourg (ecossaise). fdm music only dapple gray horse. _see_ taubert. soldier song. fs--sl dark brown is the river. _see_ stevenson. where go the boats. cgv--lbs--sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. where go the boats. *darling little fingers. weber. hr dawn. barnby. tlb day. knowlton. ns day and night. neidlinger. es day i left my home for the rolling sea. _see_ yradier. dove. fs *day is dying. roeckel. tlb day is now spent. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of day, no. . ps (variant: day's far spent. jb) day's far spent. jb (variant: at the beginning and at the close of day, no. . ps) dayre. jolly joe. cm ---- summer shower. ns dear child, we welcome you to-day. _see_ gaynor. welcome song. sc dear grandmama is knitting. _see_ gaynor. grandma's knitting song. sc dear, here i sit and sit. _see_ terhune. tithing-man. cc *dear little ball. sl dear little buttercups shine in the grass. _see_ sheehan. to the wildflowers. osm dear little daffy-down-dilly. _see_ gaynor. daffy-down-dilly. sc dear little dollie is emmie so fair. _see_ cole. dolly. cm dear little friends across the way. _see_ reinecke. visit. sm dear little lamb says: "ba, ba." _see_ neidlinger. little lamb. sss *dear little lambs in happy fold. kies. msl dear little light bird, happy and free. _see_ jenks. light bird. el dear little pansies are lifting their heads. _see_ conrade. pansies. gs dear little plant fast asleep in its bed. _see_ vose. plants awakening. el dear little violet, don't be afraid. _see_ knowlton. calling the violet. ns dear lord in heaven. _see_ reinecke. morning prayer. fc--sl dear may, come on and render. _see_ in spring. ps dear oh! the cat is in the snow. _see_ cat in the snow. lbs dear santa claus, come down the chimney to-night. _see_ gaynor. letter to santa claus. sc dear santa, now appear. hubbard. msg dear santa, now we meet you. _see_ hubbard. dear santa now appear. msg dear sixpence, i've got sixpence. _see_ jolly tester. bb (elliott. jolly tester. mg) dear, what can the matter be? _see_ oh, dear, what can the matter be? fs--oya death and burial of cock-robin. elliott. mg december. knowlton. ns decker. sweet content. tlb decoration day. bss dekoven. dutch lullaby. fsc ---- fiddle-dee-dee. fsc ---- japanese lullaby. fsc ---- little boy blue. fsc ---- little-oh-dear. fsc ---- nightfall in dordrecht. fsc ---- norse lullaby. fsc ---- orkney lullaby. fsc ---- swing. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. deland. to a daisy. tc ---- waits. el ---- while shepherds watched their flocks by night. el de l'isle. marseillaise. efs--fs denza. funiculi, funicula. fs (denza. merry life. tlb) (denza. sailing o'er a summer sea. efs) deo gratias. efs dessauer march. hmc music only dewey. fir tree. hs dickinson. day. ns *dickory, dickory, dock. elliott. mg (dickory dock. cbo) (funkhouser. hickory dickory dock. fsk) dickory dock. cbo (elliott. dickory dickory dock. mg) (funkhouser. hickory dickory dock. fsk) dictation exercises with the blocks. gaynor. sc did you ever blow a bubble. _see_ gaynor. bubbles. sc did you ever hear of pussies. _see_ gebauer. queer pussies. hs *did you ever see a lassie? bg--usi (smith. did you ever see a lassie? sl ) *diddle-dy diddle. lbs dietrich. to a daisy. tc ---- woodland lullaby. tc ding, ding, ding, from the high tower. _see_ smith. chimes. lcd ding, dong! hoffman. stn (molloy. ding, dong. stn) ding, dong! tufts. cl ding, dong, bell! nimble little nell. _see_ smith. prompt. lcd *ding dong bell! pussy's in the well. cbo (elliott. ding, dong, bell. mg) ding, dong, come along. _see_ froelich. dancing song. hr (reinecke. dancing song. fc) ding, dong, dell. hubbard. msg ding dong, ding dong! _see_ gaynor. hickory dickory dock. sc ding dong, ding dong, ding dong bell. _see_ cole. what the bells say. cm ding dong, ding dong, hear the fire bells loudly ring. _see_ valentine. fireman. vbd ding dong, ding dong! i'll sing you a song. _see_ tufts. ding dong. cl ding, dong, ding! in solemn chime. _see_ hill. old year and new year. hs dinkey bird. kelley. fsc *dip your bread, marie. rcs (variant: dip your bread, polly. lbs) *dip your bread, polly. lbs (variant: dip your bread, marie. rcs) direction game. hr dixie's land. emmett. efs--fs *do, do, pity my case. ng *do the little brown twigs complain? smith. sl do you ever think when you see a flow'r. _see_ neidlinger. small and great. es do you hear the song of rain? _see_ hill. rain on the roof. shs *do you know how many stars? hubbard. msg (god knows. rcs) do you know of the land of nod? _see_ gaynor. land of nod. sc do you know the muffin man? _see_ muffin man. bg--hc--jb--usi *do you know the way to plant the choux? jb do you know why the snow. _see_ brown. bedtime. el *do you lack for silk or satin? jb do you see these tiny tracks in the snow? _see_ gaynor. tracks in the snow. sc *dr. faustus was a good man. cbo *doctor is a very fine man. jb dodge. april girl. stn ---- at the window. stn ---- billy buttercup. stn ---- blessed day. ws ---- bye, baby, birds are sleeping. stn ---- bye, baby, bye. el ---- bye, baby, night has come. stn ---- can a little child like me. el--ws ---- clouds and sunshine. stn ---- ding dong! stn ---- going to london. stn ---- good news on christmas morning. stn ---- if blue birds bloomed. stn ---- in the wood. stn ---- little squirrels. stn ---- march. stn ---- midsummer frolics. stn ---- minuet. stn ---- night and day. stn ---- queen of may. stn ---- snowflakes. stn ---- sweet red rose. stn ---- there's a ship on the sea. stn dodo. blake. rcs *dodo, baby, do. fs dodo, l'enfant, do. _see_ dodo, baby, do. fs dog. tufts. cl dog and cat. rcs *dogs to mill across and across. lbs doh lives here in a wee little house. _see_ gaynor. mistress doh and her neighbors. sc doll day. atkinson. gs doll song. grove. hs doll's cradle song. atkinson. gs doll's cradle song. reinecke. fc doll's cradle song. taubert. rcs doll's wooing. johns. fsc dolly. cole. cm dolly and her mamma. elliott. mg dolly song. hitte. dm dolly, you're a naughty girl. elliott. mg dolphin lullaby. gilchrist. tlb don your cap and apron. _see_ gaynor. sweeping and dusting. sc don't you think so? _see_ cornell. song of the robin. stn *doors of morning. jb *dormi. fs dors, dors, mon enfant. _see_ sleep, sleep, my darling. rcs dost remember, dear, when last autumn. _see_ heise. little karen. efs dost thou no longer love me? _see_ siciliana. efs dotty and the clock. brewster. bss double-set back. neb douglas. annie laurie. fs ---- family drum corps. ns douty. bell-man. tlb ---- better music ne'er was known. tlb dove. yradier. fs dove cote. smith. sl dove talk. smith. lcd dow. snowflakes. el down amid the wheat and hay. _see_ gaynor. poppy lady. ll down below our one we go. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm down by a shining water well. _see_ stevenson. my kingdom. sf (ramsay. my kingdom. sf) down by the brook's green turning. _see_ dairy. fs down by the old farmhouse. _see_ clear cool pond. fs down by the water stands the mill. _see_ gaynor. mill. sc down goes baby, mother's pet. _see_ bullard. falling, falling. sm (adapted from froebel. falling, falling. mp) down he goes, now falling, falling. _see_ froebel. falling, falling. mp (adaptation: bullard. falling, falling. sm) down in the buttercup meadow. hubbard. msg down in the dear old orchard. jenks. el--hs down in the deep grass. _see_ gilchrist. midsummer frolics. stn down in the fields where the wild flow'rs grow. _see_ methfessel. dandelion. shs. down in the grass under my feet. _see_ gaynor. to a dandelion. ll *down in the grassy meadow. taubert. rcs down in the pleasant meadow. _see_ tabram. haymakers kc down in the valley, deep, deep, deep. _see_ cole. where they grow. cm (where they grow. bss) down the little raindrops patter. _see_ batchellor. shower and flower. ws down thro' the waves of soft spring air. _see_ root. sunshine song. sv dragonfly in the sunshine. reinecke. hmc music only. draper. there's a song in the air. el draw a bucket of water. bg--usi (draw buckets of water. jb) draw back. neb *draw buckets of water. jb (draw a bucket of water. bg--usi) draw thou my soul, o christ. _see_ sullivan. st. edmund. tlb dream. reinecke. hmc music only dream baby. fs *drink to me only with thine eyes. cpp--efs--fs *drip, drop, drip, drop, sprinkle ev'rywhere. valentine. vbd drop the handkerchief. gaynor. sc drops are falling, falling. _see_ knowlton. april rain. ns drops are pouring down. _see_ knowlton. summer shower. ns drops of rain! drops of rain! _see_ sawyer. child's inquiry. el drummer. taubert. sl *drummer boy. conrade. gs drummer boys. funkhouser. fsk du willst mich kratzen. _see_ dog and cat. rcs duck. hmc music only duck dance. bg (reinecke. barcarole. fs) (reinecke. i saw a ship a-sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. el) (fairy ship. bb) duck game. sawyer. el duckling. gaynor. ll dugan. babe jesus. el ---- carol, oh, carol! ws ---- glad easter is here. hs ---- good-morning song. ws ---- little boy blue. ws ---- parting song. ws ---- shine out, oh blessed star! ws ---- watering the flowers. el ---- wind and the leaves. el ---- winter song. el duke and the castle. hc duke marlborough. fs duke of marlborough. fdm music only dulce domum. reading. tlb dunning. five little white mice. hr dusky maid with ebon hair. _see_ hatton. indian maid. tlb dutch lullaby. dekoven. fsc d'ye ken john peel with his coat so gay. _see_ john peel. fs dykes. holy, holy, holy! lord god almighty! tlb ---- i heard the voice of jesus say. tlb ---- lead, kindly light. tlb each child has found a pleasant place. _see_ running a race. ps each mother loves best. hill. shs early bird. gaynor. ll *early one morning. marzials. cpp earth and the clouds. kuhlan. hr earth's winter dress. hill. shs east wind brings the merry snow. _see_ smith. snowball song. sl easter. gaynor. gs easter. hadley. tlb easter. hubbard. msg easter carol. fairlamb. stn (damrosch. easter carol. stn) (hubbard. sweetly the birds are singing. msg) easter carol. sawyer. el easter day was a holiday. _see_ maitland. little sir william. neb easter hymn. batchellor. ws (story. easter hymn. ws) easter morning. chapek. hs easter morning. martin. msl easter song. gaynor. sl easter song. johns. tlb easter song. rich. hs easter song. smith. sl echo, echo, are you near? _see_ smith. echo play. lcd echo play. smith. lcd ecossaise. _see_ danse de strasbourg. fdm music only ei, ei, herr reiter. _see_ sir rider, ho, ho! rcs ei veilchen. _see_ reinecke. violet. rcs *eia popeia. taubert. rcs eiapopeia! was raschelt im stroh? _see_ taubert. doll's cradle song. rcs eiapopeia! what rustles the hay. _see_ taubert. doll's cradle song. rcs eight white sheep. walker. ws ein' feste burg. luther. tlb (luther. mighty fortress. efs) (luther. safe stronghold. fs) electric light. gaynor. sc elgar. my love dwelt in a northern land. tlb ellacombe. tlb elliott. a. b. c, tumble down d. mg ---- baa, baa, black sheep. mg (baa, baa, black sheep. cbo--fs) (gaynor. baa, baa, black sheep. ll) (hailmann. baa, baa, black sheep. hr) ---- cartwheel. sl (walker. cartwheel song. ws) ---- child and the star. mg--sl --sm ---- chipmunks. sl ---- christmas carol. sl ---- curly locks. mg ---- death and burial of cock robin. mg ---- dickory, dickory, dock. mg (dickory dock. cbo) (funkhouser. hickory, dickory, dock. fsk) ---- ding, dong bell. mg (ding, dong bell. cbo) ---- dolly and her mamma. mg ---- feast of lanterns. mg ---- georgie porgie. mg ---- goosey, goosey gander. mg (goosey, goosey, gander. lbs) ---- hey diddle diddle. mg ---- hiding the ball. sl ---- high in the clear air. sl ---- humpty dumpty. mg ---- i had a little doggy. mg ---- i love little pussy. mg--sl ---- is john smith within? mg ---- jack and jill. mg (jack and jill went up the hill. cbo--oya) ---- jolly tester. mg (jolly tester. bb) ---- king of france. mg ---- lazy cat. mg (lazy cat. hr) ---- little bo-peep. mg (bo-peep. cbo) (conrade. little bo-peep. gs) (little bo-peep. km) ---- little boy blue. sl ---- little cock-sparrow. mg (little cock-sparrow. bb--fs) ---- little jack horner. mg (gaynor. little jack horner. ll) (little jack horner. cbo) ---- little jumping joan. mg ---- little maid, pretty maid. mg (gaynor. little maid, pretty maid. ll) ---- little sunbeam. sl ---- little tommy tucker. mg ---- lullaby. mg--sm (lullaby. hr) (walker. baby's lullaby. ws) ---- maggie's pet. mg ---- man in the moon. mg ---- mistress mary. mg ---- mother tabbyskins. mg ---- my lady wind. mg ---- nineteen birds. mg ---- north wind doth blow. mg--sl (bartlett. north wind doth blow. stn) (conrade. north wind doth blow. gs) (north wind and the robin. bb) (north wind doth blow. hr) (tufts. north wind doth blow. cl) ---- nurse's song. mg (dance a baby diddy. cbo) ---- old man clothed in leather. mg (old man in leather. bb) ---- poor dog bright. mg ---- pussy-cat, pussy-cat. mg ---- rain shower. sl ---- ride a cock-horse to banbury cross. mg (banbury cross. oya) ---- ring. sl ---- rocking-horse. sl ---- see-saw, margery daw. mg (see-saw, margery daw. lbs) ---- simple simon. mg ---- sing a song of sixpence. mg (song of sixpence. cbo) ---- six little snails. mg ---- song of kindness. sl ---- spider and the fly. mg ---- street car. sl ---- taffy was a welshman. mg ---- there was a crooked man. mg ---- thievish mouse. mg ---- three children sliding. mg (three children sliding on the ice. cbo) (tufts. three children sliding. cl) ---- three crows. mg ---- three little mice. mg ---- tom, the piper's son. mg (tom, tom, the piper's son. cbo) ---- twinkle, twinkle little star. mg--sl --sm (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ll) (hill. twinkle, twinkle, little star. shs) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl) (twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr) (walker. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ws) ---- when the snow is on the ground. mg--sl ---- whittington forever. mg ---- worsted ball. sl ellmenreich. spinning song. hmc music only. elm and the maple, the ash and the oak. _see_ knowlton. october. ns elm trees are yellow. hurd. el elson. windmill. sl --sm emerson. butterflies. sm ---- humble bee. tlb ---- we thank thee. gs emmett. dixie's land. efs--fs *emperor napoleon had fifty thousand men. jb en passant dans un p'tit bois. _see_ et moi de m'en courir. bb *end to end. hailman. hr endless song. neidlinger. tlb engine song. tufts. cl engineer. neidlinger. es english country dance ("sir roger de coverley"). fdm music only. epitaph on a parish clerk. webbe. tlb equal measure gives us pleasure. _see_ marching, no. . ps (variant: equal measure. hr) ere the moon begins to rise. _see_ barnby. cradle song. tc ernst. five little pigs. hr es fing ein knab' ein voegelein. _see_ reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs (reinecke. george's song. fc) es ging 'ne zieg. _see_ goat and the cow. rcs es klappert die muehle am rauschenden bach. _see_ clip, clap. rcs (millwheel. ps) es regnet auf der bruecke. _see_ ringel tanz. bb es regnet, es regnet. _see_ taubert. it's raining. rcs es tanzt ein bibabutzemann. _see_ bibabutzemann. rcs escape at bedtime. stevenson. cgv (fisher. escape at bedtime. cgv) eskimo. gaynor. gs eskimo has a house of snow. _see_ meissner. in greenland. asc et moi de m'en courir. bb etait une bergere. _see_ shepherd maiden. fs (bergere. bb) (shepherdess. rcs) even song. parker. tc evening. gaynor. sc evening bell. kullak. hmc music only. evening concert. gilchrist. hmc music only. evening hymn of the crusaders. tlb evening prayer. reinecke. fc--hr--sl evening prayer. smith. lcd evening song. sl evening star. neidlinger. sss evening star. reinecke. rcs evening star. _see_ reinecke. to the evening star. fc ever so high, up in the sky. _see_ tufts. calling the tides. cl every-day politeness. wiggin. kc every day the shining sun. _see_ knowlton. points of the compass. ns every little flow'ret. _see_ god's tender care. hr every night a star. foster. tc (cole. star. tc) ev'ry night, ev'ry night. _see_ hill. christmas star. shs every night my prayers i say. _see_ stevenson. system. cgv (fisher. system. cgv) ewing. jerusalem the golden. tlb eyelids close in sweet repose. _see_ hill. lullaby and good morning. shs face the centre of the ring. _see_ wiggin. ring song, no. . kc faintly as tolls the evening chime. _see_ arnold. canadian boat song. tlb *fair gabrielle. henry. fs fair is the castle upon the hill. _see_ hawley. hushaby sweet my own. fsc fair little girl sat under a tree. _see_ cole. good night and good morning. cm (good night, no. . hr) *fair rosie was a lovely girl. jb fair snow-white down in the glen. _see_ reinecke. snow-white. fc fairest maiden, when i behold thee. _see_ love's parting. efs fairies. conrade. gs fairies. neidlinger. es fairlamb. april girl. stn (stanley. april girl. stn) fairlamb. cradle song. stn (fisher. cradle song. stn) (ilsley. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) ---- easter carol. stn (damrosch. easter carol. stn) (hubbard. sweetly the birds are singing. msg) ---- little mermaid. stn ---- lullaby. stn (allen. lullaby. stn) ---- minuet. stn (damrosch. minuet. stn) (fisher. minuet. stn) (mosenthal. minuet. stn) ---- song of april. tlb ---- valentine. stn (damrosch. valentine. stn) fairy. reinecke. fc fairy artist. conrade. gs fairy dance. smith. lcd *fairy maiden dance lightly round in the ring. kk fairy play. kk fairy sat on a roseleaf edge. _see_ gilchrist. so wise. stn fairy ship. bb (duck dance. bg) (reinecke. barcarole. fc) (reinecke. i saw a ship a-sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. el) fairy steps. reinhold. hmc music only. fall leaves. hill. shs (autumn leaves. hr) (osgood. come, little leaves. msg--rcs--ws) (smith. come, little leaves. sl ) falling! falling. bullard. sm (adapted from froebel. falling, falling. mp) falling, falling. froebel. mp (adaptation: bullard. falling! falling. sm) falling leaves. neidlinger. sss falling snow. hill. hs falling so lightly, drifting so whitely. _see_ hill. falling snow hs family. froebel. hr family. gilchrist. sm (parker. family. sm) family hurd. pts family. parker. sm (gilchrist. family. sm) family. walker. ws family drum corps. knowlton. ns music only. hmc family finger play. wiggin. kc faning. boat song. tc (weidig. boat song. tc) far down in the valley. _see_ smith. alice's supper. sl far, far away in bethlehem town. _see_ terhune. christmas carol. cc far, far to the southward. _see_ good morning, canary. hs *far out at sea. cole. tc far over western hills. _see_ gaynor. evening. sc farewell. hill. shs farewell to the birds. gaynor. sc farewell to the farm. stevenson. ss (chadwick. farewell to the farm. ss) *farewell, work. koehler. hr farmer. lbs (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (farmer. ps) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (froebel. farmer. sm) (koehler. farmer. hr) (shall i show you how the farmer? rcs) farmer. gaynor. ll farmer. hubbard. msg farmer. reinecke. sl farmer. smeltzer. sz farmer and the doves. taubert. rcs farmer and the housewife. kk (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (froebel. farmer. sm) (koehler. farmer. hr) (shall i show you how the farmer? rcs) farmer and the miller. _see_ roeske. making bread. pfp farmer has a dove-cot. _see_ taubert. farmer and the doves. rcs farmer he lived in the west countree. _see_ barkshire tragedy. neb *farmer in the dell. bg--hc--ll--ng--usi (farmer's in his den. jb) *farmer's in his den. jb (farmer in the dell. bg--hc--ll--ng--usi) farmyard. froebel. sm farmyard song. grieg. fs farwell. build thee more stately mansions. tlb ---- song of greeting. tlb *fast fly the hours. naegeli. rcs father and mother's care. naegeli. shs father, father dear, i pray, take your hat and cane to-day. _see_ froebel. toyman and boy. mp father, from a distant land thy host hath come. _see_ evening hymn of the crusaders. tlb father guillori. rcs (petit chasseur. bb) father, help each little child. _see_ mozart. morning hymn. hr father, i cry to thee. _see_ himmel. prayer. tlb father in heaven. _see_ wiggin. morning prayer, no. . kc father in heaven above, we thank thee. _see_ sheehan. spring morning prayer. osm father in heaven, thy children hear. _see_ largo. tlb father of all in heav'n above. _see_ hill. thanks for daily blessings. shs father o'flynn. fs father, thou who carest. _see_ hill. god's care of all things. shs father, we thank thee for the light. _see_ hill. thanks for constant care. shs father, we thank thee for the night. _see_ batchellor. morning hymn. ws (hamburg. morning hymn. hr) (wiggin. morning prayer. kc) fear us not, whate'er we're doing. _see_ reinecke. to the humble bee. fc feast of lanterns. elliott. mg feather game. gaynor. sc february. knowlton. ns february. marston. el feder mikkel. fdm music only. feeding chickens. knowlton. ns feeding chickens. montz. ims feeding the pigeons. ps feel you the raindrops. _see_ taubert. birds in the nest. rcs ferns. cornwell. el ferns. sloane. hs ferret. gaynor. ll (ferret of the woods. rcs) ferret of the woods. rcs (gaynor. ferret. ll) ferrett runs to the woods. _see_ ferret of the woods. rcs (gaynor. ferret. ll) *ferret's here, he is there. lbs fesca. when the earth wakes up in gladness. sl feste burg ist unser gott. _see_ luther. ein' feste burg. tlb (luther. mighty fortress. efs) (luther. safe stronghold. fs) festive march. hr fiddle-de-dee. dekoven. fsc fiddle-de-dee, fiddle-de-dee, the fly has married the humble-bee. _see_ fly and the humble-bee. bb *fiddler he had but one onliest cow. kk fido and his master. hr field. armenian lullaby. fsc ---- brook. fsc ---- child and mother. fsc ---- dinkey-bird. fsc ---- doll's wooing. fsc ---- dutch lullaby. fsc ---- easter carol. el ---- fiddle-dee-dee. fsc ---- hushaby, sweet my own. fsc ---- japanese lullaby. fsc ---- kissing time. fsc ---- little boy blue. fsc ---- little mistress sans-merci. fsc ---- little-oh-dear. fsc ---- little peach. fsc ---- nightfall in dordrecht. fsc ---- norse lullaby. fsc ---- oh, little child. fsc ---- orkney lullaby. fsc ---- rock-a-by lady. fsc ---- swing high and swing low. fsc ---- why do bells for christmas ring? bm--sv (bingham. why do bells for christmas ring? bm) (root. christmas song. sv) field daisy. reinecke. fc field is brown and bare. _see_ neidlinger. plowman. es field mouse. mokrejs. hmc music only. fields are white to harvest. _see_ kies. reaper. msl figure of eight. neb final triumph. martin. msl finch. sandman. hs finding the place. smith. sl fine frosted cake. _see_ smith. three years old. lcd finger family. gaynor. sc finger piano. reinecke. sm finger piano. smith. sl finger play. froebel. kc (froebel. this little thumb. mp) (hubbard. what's this. msg) finger plays. ps (no. a variant of froebel. numbering the fingers. sm) finger song. froebel. mp (hubbard. thumbs and fingers say "good morning." msg) finger song. smith. sl fingers' lullaby. gaynor. sc fingers tripping up and down. _see_ hailmann. stanzas for finger piano. hr *fir and the pine. rcs (fir tree. fs) fir tree. fs (fir and the pine. rcs) *fir tree grew in the forest old. burnett. hs *fire is burning, it burns so bright. kk firebells. montz. ims firefly, firefly, bright little thing. _see_ conrade. firefly song. gs firefly song. conrade. gs fireman. funkhouser. fsk fireman. valentine. vbd first christmas. morton. hs--ws (reinecke. first christmas. gs) first christmas. sawyer. el first christmas song. hill. hs first dance. gurlitt. hmc music only. first flag. atkinson. gs first flying lesson. neidlinger. sss first gift exercises. reed. tgs first morning in march in the year thirty-three. _see_ foxhunt. fs *first nowell. fs first of may. bfd (today is the first of may. kk) first primrose. grieg. fs first ring song. hill. shs first snowflakes. foerster. hmc music only. first thanksgiving day. gaynor. sc first to one friend. see froebel. wandering song. sm first with shovel and a drill. _see_ neidlinger. miner. es first your iron hot must be. _see_ smith. ironing day. sl . (warren. ironing song. stn) fischer. bees. hr ---- busy hands and fingers. hr ---- cat on the tree. hr ---- right, left, together. hr ---- trades. hr ---- what i have. hr fish, fresh fish. _see_ wiggin. fish-seller. kc fish in the brook. brahms. sm fish in the brook. kohl. sm fish-seller. wiggin. kc fisher. bed in summer. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- cradle song. stn (fairlamb. cradle song. stn) (ilsley. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) ---- escape at bedtime. cgv ---- foreign children. cgv (stanford. foreign children. ss) ---- land of nod. cgv (gilchrist. land of nod. ss) ---- marching song. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. marching song. ---- meadow talk. stn ---- my bed is a boat. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. ---- minuet. stn (damrosch. minuet. stn) (fairlamb. minuet. stn) (mosenthal. minuet. stn) ---- rain. cgv ---- singing. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. singing. ---- snowflakes. stn ---- swing. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. ---- there's a ship on the sea. stn (allen. there's a ship on the sea. stn) (damrosch. there's a ship on the sea. stn) ---- time to rain. cgv ---- two little birds. stn ---- where go the boats? cgv _for other composers see stevenson._ where go the boats? ---- wild wind. stn ---- wind. cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. wind. ---- windy nights? cgv _for other composers see_ stevenson. windy nights. fisherman. tabram. kc fishes. kc fishes. ps (kohl. little fish. hr) fishes. gaynor. sc fishes. hubbard. msg fishes. reed. tgs fishes at play. hill. hs fishes in the brook. froebel. mp five in a row. reinecke. sl --sm five knights. gaynor. sc five knights and bad child. hubbard. msg (froebel. knights and the ill-humored child. mp) five knights and good child. hubbard. msg (froebel. knights and the good child. mp) five knights i see riding. _see_ froebel. knights and the good child. mp (hubbard. five knights and good child. msg) five knights i see riding. _see_ froebel. knights and the ill-humored child. mp (hubbard. five knights and bad child. msg) five knights in full trot are coming. _see_ hubbard. five knights and good child. msg (froebel. knights and the good child. mp) five knights in haste i see coming hither. _see_ froebel. hide thee, child. mp *five little chickadees. jenks. ws five little children, busy all the day. _see_ froebel. happy brothers and sisters. sm five little children climb a tree. _see_ seidel. venturesome children. hr five little chipmunks. _see_ elliott. chipmunks. sl five little maidens all in a row. _see_ reinecke. five in a row. sl --sm *five little mice. roeske. pfp five little pigs. ernst. hr *five little white mice. dunning. hr five riders and good child. smith. sl five robins in their airy nests. _see_ tufts. peep of day. cl fjallnaspolska. bfd fjallnaspolska. fdm music only. flagman. gaynor. sc flemming. integer vitae. tlb *flicker, flicker, fire-sprite. titoff. fs flitting butterflies. foerster. hmc music only flotow. memorial day. gs flower basket. ps flower basket. andreae. hr flower basket. kohl. sm flower basket. smith. sm (froebel. basket. mp) flower bed. smith. sl flower day. gaynor. gs flower fairies. foerster. hmc music only. flower game. wiggin. kc flower garden. smith. lcd flower song. froebel. sm flower song. hitte. dm flower song. reinecke. sm flower wagon. valentine. vbd flowerets all sleep soundly. _see_ brahms. little dust man. efs (brahms. lullaby. shs) flowers. frazer. bss flowers' ball. gaynor. ll flow'rs for sleep are sighing. _see_ hadley. while you sleep. tlb flow'rs for the men who lost. _see_ conrade. blue and the gray together. gs flowers' lullaby. shs flowers of the forest. fs flowers unfolding. _see_ montz. seeds. ims flowers, wild-wood flowers, in a sheltered dell they grew. _see_ sweet wildwood flowers. hr fluttering and waving. _see_ chapek. sprinkling the clothes. hs fly. cocchi. rcs fly. gaynor. sc fly, and the humble-bee. bb fly away, fly away. _see_ chapek. birds in autumn. hs fly away, fly away, birdie. _see_ marzo. baby bo. stn *fly away, fly away, little brown things. gaynor. ll fly, little bird, in the golden sun. _see_ gilchrist. flying bird. sm fly, little birdies, fly in the sunlight. _see_ hill. flying song. shs *fly, little birds, fly east and west. cornwell. ws--hs *fly, little birds, fly 'round the ring. ws (hubbard. flying birds. msg) (smith. fly, little birds. sl ) flying bird. gilchrist. sm flying birds. hubbard. msg (cornwell. fly, little birds. ws) (smith. fly, little birds. sl ) flying kites. knowlton. hmc music only. flying song. hill. shs foerster. first snowflakes. hmc music only. ---- flitting butterflies. hmc music only. ---- flower fairies. hmc music only. ---- nocturne: go-to-sleep, fairies. hmc music only. ---- under the linden tree. hmc music only. ---- under the meadow. hmc music only. folded pigeon and pigeon-house. seidel. hr follen. stop, stop, pretty water. cm follow me. hr--oya fondly loves the dog his master. _see_ tufts. dog. cl fondly wishing joy and blessing. _see_ reinecke. another birthday song. fc fontaine. swing song. hmc music only. foote. bells. tlb ---- brook. fsc ---- dandelion. stn ---- going to london. stn ---- land to the leeward. tc ---- little mistress sans-merci. fsc ---- lullaby. tlb (golden slumbers kiss your eyes. rcs) (henderson. golden slumbers kiss your eyes. stn) ---- nikolina. stn ---- sun's travels. ss ---- young night thought. ss footprints. neidlinger. sss for air and sunshine, pure and sweet. _see_ galloway. giving thanks. msl for all the pleasant things i see. _see_ knowlton. hymn for a child. ns for flow'rs that bloom about our feet. _see_ george. we thank thee. gs *for he's a jolly good fellow. efs for lands that need the gospel. _see_ martin. lands that need the gospel. msl for peace and for plenty. _see_ knowlton. patriotic hymn. ns for prayer. montz. ims for the sky so bright and blue. _see_ beach. singing joyfully. tc for this new morning with its light. _see_ reed. morning thanksgiving. hs foreign children. stevenson. cgv--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. foreign children. foreign lands. stevenson. ss (stanford. foreign lands. ss) foreign tongues. gaynor. sc forest fir, o forest fir. _see_ fir tree. fs (fir and the pine. rcs) forest weasel. hc forget-me-not. hubbard. msg (conrade. forget-me-not. gs) forget-me-not. reinecke. fc--sl (jacobs. forget-me-not. ws) forlorn. franz. tlb forming the ring. reinecke. ws. forming the ring. smith. sl (heerwart. merrily, merrily. hr) (hubbard. merrily form a ring. msg) forth rodes rides with his twelve strong sons from pirate land. _see_ rodes. kk forward. fdm music only. forward, forward, forward, o weary feet. _see_ morning song and march. tlb *forward, homeward. hr (at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps) foster. every night. tc ---- lullaby. tc ---- my old kentucky home, good night. efs ---- old folks at home. efs--tlb fountain. gaynor. sc fountain. hadley. tlb (johns. fountain. tc) four dance. fdm music only. four little chestnuts swinging, swinging high. _see_ vose. song of chestnuts. el four little children here in the ring. _see_ cole. all around the mulb'ry bush. cm four little wee birdies. _see_ schumann. bird game. kc four owls. smeltzer. sz four presents. bb (perrie, merrie, dixi. rcs) four seasons. seidel. hr four seasons make up all the days of the year. _see_ brown. seasons. el fourth of july. kern. hs fox and goose. rcs fox and the goose. kk *fox went out in a hungry plight. gaynor. ll fox thro' the forest. see if i may. kk fox, you've stolen my grey gander. _see_ fox and goose. rcs foxhunt. fs fragrant flowers are bright and gay. _see_ abt. bee game. hr. franc. old hundred. tlb franz. forlorn. tlb frau schwalbe. gaynor. ll frazer. flowers. bss ---- let's go sliding down the hill. bss ---- little four-years. bss ---- oh, wouldn't you like to go? bss freedom, our queen. paine. tc (strong. freedom, our queen. tc) frere jacques. _see_ brother james. rcs (friar john. fs) freu't euch des lebens. _see_ naegeli. fast fly the hours. rcs friar john. fs (brother james. rcs) frieden der nacht. _see_ reinecke. peace of night. fs friendly cow all red and white. _see_ stevenson. cow. cm--lbs _for composers see_ stevenson. cow. friendly dark. smith. lcd fritz and spitz. rcs froebel. all's gone. mp (hubbard. all gone. msg) ---- asleep. hr ---- awake, ye little sleepers. hr ---- baby and the moon. sl ---- ball will wander. hr ---- barnyard gate. mp (hubbard. barnyard. msg) ---- basket. mp (smith. flower basket. sm) ---- basket. sl ---- beckon to the chickens. mp ---- beckon to the pigeons. mp ---- boy and the moon. mp ---- bridge. mp (hubbard. brook is flowing. msg) (adaptation: smith. bridge. sl ) ---- brothers and sisters. mp (hubbard. brothers and sisters. msg) ---- carpenter. mp (hubbard. oh, see the carpenter. msg) ---- charcoal burner's hut. mp (hubbard. charcoal burner. msg) ---- child and the moon. mp ---- children at the tower. mp (variant: froebel. children on the tower. sl ) ---- children on the tower. sl (variant: froebel. children at the tower. mp) ---- children's supper. sl ---- church. sl (variant: froebel. church window and church door. mp) (hubbard. church bell. msg) ---- church window and church door. mp (variant: froebel. church. sl ) (hubbard. church bell. msg) ---- clock game. kc ---- conclusion. mp ---- cooper. hr ---- cuckoo. mp ---- dove cote. sl ---- end to end. hr ---- falling, falling. mp (adaptation: bullard. falling! falling! sm) ---- family. hr ---- family. sm ---- farmer. sm (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (koehler. farmer. hr) (shall i show you how the farmer? rcs) ---- farmyard. sm ---- finger piano. sl ---- finger play. kc (froebel. this little thumb. mp) (hubbard. what's this? msg) ---- finger song. mp (hubbard. thumbs and fingers say "good morning." msg) (adaptation: smith. thumbs and fingers say "good morning." sl --sm) ---- fishes in the brook. mp ---- five riders and good child. sl ---- flower song. sm ---- go to sleep, thumbkin. sl --sm ---- going to sleep. hr ---- grandmamma. mp ---- grass mowing. mp (hubbard. hasten to the meadow, peter. msg) ---- greeting. sm ---- grinding wheat. hr ---- happy brothers and sister. sm ---- hide. mp (hubbard. hiding of the child. msg) ---- hide thee, child. mp ---- in a hedge. sl --sm ---- joiner. hr--mp--ps (hubbard. zish, zish, zish. msg) (joiner. ps) (seidel. joiner. hr) ---- knights and the good child. mp (adaptation: hubbard. five knights and good child. msg) ---- knights and the ill-humored child. mp (adaptation: hubbard. five knights and bad child. msg) ---- lengthwise, crosswise. mp (hubbard. target. msg) (adaptation: hurd. kite. pts) (adaptation: reed. kite. tgs) ---- light bird on the wall. mp (hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) (adaptation: smith. light bird. sl ) ---- little artist. mp ---- little birdie in a tree. hr ---- little chickens. hr ---- little fish. hr ---- little fishes. hr ---- little gardener. mp (hubbard. garden bed. msg) ---- little gardener. sl ---- little maiden and the stars. mp ---- little nest. mp ---- little thumb is one. mp ---- little window. mp (hubbard. oh, see the light. msg) (wiggin. window. kc) ---- merry helpers. hr ---- mother, good and dear. mp ---- mother in unity with her child. mp ---- mowing grass. sm ---- mowing song. sl ---- naming the fingers. sm ---- now come, let us play. hr ---- numbering the fingers. sm (variant: finger play, no. . ps) ---- pat-a-cake. mp (hubbard. pat-a-cake. msg) ---- pat-a-cake. sm ---- pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake. sl ---- pendulum. hr ---- pianoforte. mp ---- pigeon house. hr ---- pigeon house. mp (kohl. pigeon house. hr) (pigeon house. ps) (walker. pigeon song. ws) ---- play with the limbs. mp ---- play with the limbs. sm ---- rabbit. mp ---- see the windmill. hr ---- shadow rabbit. sm ---- skipping. hr ---- smelling. sl ---- snail. hr--bg--msg--ps--ws ---- song of perfume. mp ---- song of smell. mp ---- song of taste. mp ---- sunshine song. sl ---- this is the mother. sl ---- this little thumb. mp (froebel. finger play. kc) (hubbard. what's this? msg) ---- though your eyes are blinded. sl ---- thumbkin says "i'll dance." sl ---- thumbs and fingers say "good morning." sl --sm (variant: froebel. finger song. mp) ---- tick, tack. mp (hubbard. tick, tack. msg) ---- toyman and boy. mp ---- toyman and the maiden. mp ---- venturesome children. hr ---- wandering balls. hr ---- wandering song. sm ---- we're playing together. sl ---- weather vane. hr--mp ---- wheelwright. mp (hubbard. wheelwright. msg) ---- wild boar. mp ---- winding. hr ---- window. kc ---- window. mp ---- wolf. mp froebel. coonley. gs froebel hymn. kc froebel's birthday song. rust. el froebel's favorite hymn. rust. el froehlich. dancing song. hr (reinecke. dancing song. fc) ---- rain song. kc (reinecke. rain song. fc) frog. gaynor. sc frog and horse. gaynor. sc frog and ye crow. cbo *frog he would a-wooing go. oya--rcs frog pond. ng froggie's swimming school. gaynor. sc frogs. ps frogs. graham. hmc music only. frogs. hailman. hr music only. frogs. hubbard. msg frog's good-bye. conrade. gs frog's wooing. cbo from breakfast on. _see_ stevenson. land of nod. cgv--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. land of nod. from deutschland i come. _see_ buy a broom. bb--rcs (music also given in cube song, no. . el) from down in the ground. _see_ terhune. wellsweep. cc *from dust and grit. smith. sl from noise of scare-fires rest ye free. _see_ douty. bellman. tlb from north and from south come the voices of trees. _see_ gaynor. arbor day. gs from quiet night the sun's bright light awakes us. _see_ rust. froebel's favorite hymn. el from the bright blue heavens. _see_ reinecke. god, the father in heaven. fc from the far blue heaven. _see_ reinecke. morning hymn. kc from the height, lovely white. _see_ winter. ps from the old belfry wide and low. _see_ conrade. angelus. gs from the willow branches slender. _see_ kohl. flower basket. sm front to back we march away. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps frost. birdie's song. ws (cornwell. there was once a little birdie. el) (rust. there was once a little birdie. el) fruit basket. hurd. pts fruit market ball play. wiggin. kc fuchs, du hast die gans gestohlen. _see_ fox and goose. rcs fuehlt ihr den regen. _see_ taubert. birds in the nest. rcs full moon's face is big and round. _see_ gaynor. moon phases. sc funiculi, funicula. denza. fs (denza. merry life. tlb) (denza. sailing o'er a summer sea. efs) _words not like fs_ funkhouser. all aboard. fsk ---- brownies' dance. fsk ---- christmas bells. fsk ---- drummer boys. fsk ---- fireman. fsk ---- hickory, dickory dock. fsk (dickory dock. cbo) (elliott. dickory, dickory dock. mg) ---- in winter i get up at night. fsk _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- indian song. fsk ---- japanese song. fsk ---- jack o' lantern. fsk ---- mister sunshine. fsk ---- mother nature and mr. wind. fsk ---- prayer. fsk ---- robin's nest. fsk ---- shoo fly. fsk ---- sidewalk song. fsk ---- some day you'll be a man. fsk ---- tom, tom, the piper's son. fsk ---- waltz. fsk furry old fellow. _see_ neidlinger. caterpillar. sss fuzzy little caterpillar. _see_ roeske. caterpillar. pfp gade. child jesus. rcs (kies. child jesus. msl) ---- greeting to spring. rcs (kies. greeting to spring. msl) gaelic cradle song. hahn. bss (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) (harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb) gaelic lullaby. harris. tlb (hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss) (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) gaily through the window shining. _see_ birge. morning sunshine. hs gallop. hiller. hmc galloping fast and galloping free. _see_ smith. knights and the good child. sm galloping, galloping, glad and gay. _see_ gaynor. five knights. sc galloping horses. hitte. dm galloway. church bells. msl ---- giving thanks. msl game for the senses. jenks. el game of tag. biehl. hmc music only. game of tag. karganoff. hmc music only. game of the golden band. gaynor. ll game to teach five. knowlton. ns game with first kindergarten gift. knowlton. ns garden. fs garden. chapek. hs garden bed. hubbard. msg garden bed. hubbard. msg (froebel. little gardener. mp) garden bed. reed. tgs garden fence. smith. sl garden game. hc garden game. hurd. pts garden gate. gilchrist. sm garden gate. hubbard. msg garden mole. oldberg. hmc music only. garden of our house, it is the funniest garden yet. _see_ garden. fs garrett. oh, my luve's like a red, red rose. tlb garry owen. _see_ jig: "garry owen." page. hmc music only. gascon. carol of the flowers. tlb *gaudeamus igitur. _see_ meeting. fs gaul. song of the brook. tc gavotte. beaumont. hmc music only. gavotte. gurlitt. hmc music only. gay and gladsome spring. _see_ gaynor. who would not be glad? ll gay and sprightly, treading lightly. _see_ smith. fairy dance. lcd gay dances bibabutzemann. _see_ bibabutzemann. rcs gay pretty valentines gladly we send. _see_ hill. valentine's message. hs gaynor. arbor day. gs ---- around the christmas tree. ll ---- autumn. sc ---- autumn leaves. gs ---- awake. ll ---- awakening. sc ---- baa, baa, black sheep. ll (baa, baa, black sheep. cbo--fs) (elliott. baa, baa, black sheep. mg) (hailmann. baa, baa, black sheep. hr) ---- bay dear. ll ---- baby moon. sv ---- baby's toys. sc ---- ball. sc ---- ball games. sc ---- bird day. gs ---- bird's nest. sc ---- birth of the butterfly. sc ---- birthday greeting. sc ---- blacksmith. sc ---- blowing bubbles. sc ---- boating, nos. and . sc ---- bobby shafto. ll (bobby shafto's gone to sea. oya) ---- bobolink. sc ---- bringing the cattle home. ll ---- brownies. sc ---- bubbles. sc ---- building the house. ll ---- bumble bee. sc ---- buttercups. sc ---- butterflies' hide and seek. ll ---- butterfly. sc ---- call to the circle. sc ---- cat-tails. sc ---- cat's cradle. sc ---- chickery, crany-crow. ll ---- child's birthday. gs ---- choosing a game. sc ---- christmas carol. sc ---- christmas carol. sc ---- christmas joys. sc ---- christmas secrets. sc ---- church. sc ---- clapping song. sc ---- coasting. sc ---- columbus. gs ---- continued story. ll ---- cook. ll ---- crow. sc ---- daffodil lady. ll ---- daffy-down-dilly. sc ---- daisies. sc ---- dance of the rainbow fairies. sc ---- dancing game. sc ---- dancing song. gs ---- dancing song. ll ---- dandelion. sc ---- dictation exercises with the blocks. sc ---- drop the handkerchief. sc ---- duckling. ll ---- early bird. ll ---- easter. gs ---- easter song. sc ---- electric light. sc ---- eskimo. gs ---- evening. sc ---- farewell to the birds. sc ---- farmer. ll ---- farmer in the dell. ll (variant: farmer in the dell. bg--hc--ng--usi) (variant: farmer's in his den. jb) ---- feather game. sc ---- ferret. ll (ferret of the woods. rcs) ---- finger family. sc ---- fingers' lullaby. sc ---- first thanksgiving day. sc ---- fishes. sc ---- five knights. sc ---- flagman. sc ---- flower day. gs ---- flowers' ball. ll ---- fly. sc ---- fly away. ll ---- foreign tongues. sc ---- fountain. sc ---- fox went out in a hungry plight. ll ---- froebel. gs ---- frog. sc ---- frog and horse. sc ---- froggies' swimming school. sc ---- game of the golden band. ll ---- giants. sc ---- good bye. ll ---- good bye, no's. and . sc ---- good bye. sc ---- good morning. ll ---- good morning. sc ---- grandma's knitting song. sc ---- greeting to the sun. sc ---- growing. gs ---- guessing game. sc ---- happy lambkins. sc ---- harvest of the squirrel and honey bee. sc ---- he was a shepherd lad. ll ---- hey-diddle-diddle. ll ---- hickory dickory dock. sc ---- house of the tit-tat-toe. ll ---- household hints. ll ---- how many miles to babylon? ll (variant: how many miles to banbury? jb) ---- i had a little doll. ll ---- indian. gs ---- jack frost. sc ---- jack o'lantern. ll ---- japanese. gs ---- king arthur. ll (king arthur. cbo) (reinecke. good king arthur. fc) ---- king pansy. ll ---- kite. ll ---- labor day. gs ---- lads and lassies. ll ---- ladybug. sc ---- land of nod. sc ---- language lesson. sc ---- leaves' party. sc ---- legend of the christmas tree. sc ---- lesson in arithmetic. ll ---- let us all be quiet. sc ---- let us make a garden. ll ---- letter to santa claus. sc ---- liesel, the goose girl. ll ---- light bird. sc ---- little housewife. sc ---- little jack horner. ll (elliott. little jack horner. mg) (little jack horner. cbo) ---- little maid, pretty maid. ll (elliott. little maid, pretty maid. mg) ---- little shoemaker. sc ---- little vocal lesson. sc ---- little yellow dandelion. sc ---- lullaby. sc ---- marching song. sc ---- marguerites. ll ---- may day. gs ---- may queen. gs ---- merry christmas. sc ---- merry month of may. ll ---- milking time. sc ---- milkweed seeds. sc ---- mill. sc ---- mr. and mrs. sparrow. sc ---- mr. rooster and mrs. hen. sc ---- mr. wind and madame rain. sc ---- mistress doh and her neighbors. sc ---- mistress mary. ll ---- moon boat. sc ---- moon phases. sc ---- morning glory bells. sc ---- morning greeting. sc ---- morning prayer. sc ---- mother day. gs ---- mother holly. ll ---- mother's knives and forks. sc ---- my bicycle. gs ---- my pony. ll ---- my shadow. sc ---- new year. sc ---- new year's day. sc ---- night moth. sc ---- norman's work is finished. sc ---- november. ll ---- oh, wide, wide world. sc ---- our flag. sc ---- owl. sc ---- pat-a-cake. ll ---- pigeon. sc ---- piggie wig and piggie wee. sc ---- pit-a-pat. sc ---- popcorn people. sc ---- poppies. sc ---- poppy lady. ll ---- postman. sc ---- prayer. ll ---- prism game. sc ---- pussy. sc ---- pussy willows. sv ---- queen of the may. ll ---- ragman. sc ---- rainbow. sc ---- recipe for a valentine. sc ---- regiment. ll ---- rhythm game. sc ---- river. sc ---- robin redbreast. sc ---- round game. ll ---- rub-a-dub-dub. sc ---- sail. ll ---- sailor. sc ---- salute to the flag. sc ---- sandman. ll ---- see-saw. sc ---- set of games. sc ---- shepherd of tender youth. tlb ---- signs of the seasons. ll ---- skating. sc ---- sleighing song. sc ---- snow balls. sv ---- snow flakes. sc ---- snowman. sc ---- some lullabies. sc ---- song of iron. sc ---- song of the kitchen clock. sc ---- song of the loaf of bread. sc ---- song of the miller. ll ---- song of the shearer. sc ---- song of the sunflower. ll ---- spinning the yarn. sc ---- spring dance. ll ---- spring song. sc ---- stepping stones. sc ---- street car. sc ---- sweeping and dusting. sc ---- sweetpea ladies. sc ---- swing. sc ---- tailor. ll ---- target game. sc ---- target maker. sc ---- tea kettle. sc ---- telegraph. sc ---- telephone. sc ---- thanksgiving. ll ---- thanksgiving song. sc ---- three blind mice. ll ---- tick-tock. ll ---- to a dandelion. ll ---- top. sc ---- tracks in the snow. sc ---- tree's friends. sc ---- tripping we go. ll ---- tulips. sc ---- turn the big wheel. ll ---- twas this way and that way. ll (variant: when i was a lady. lbs) (variant: when i was a schoolgirl. neb ) (variant: when i was a shoemaker. ng) (variant: when i wore flounces. jb) ---- twinkle, twinkle, little star. ll (elliott. twinkle, twinkle, little star. mg--sl --sm) (hill. twinkle, twinkle, little star. shs) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl) (twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr) (walker. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ws) ---- valentine day. gs ---- valentines. sc ---- violet. sc ---- water lilies. sc ---- we'll stand up straight. sc ---- we march like soldiers. sc ---- we thank thee. gs ---- weathervane. sc ---- weaving. sc ---- welcome song. sc ---- when the regiment comes marching by. ll ---- whittier. gs ---- who would not be glad? ll ---- why mr. gobbler changed his tune. sc ---- wind. sc ---- winding the clock. sc ---- windmill. sc ---- wishing. ll ---- woodpecker. sc ---- work of the week. gs ---- world wonders. sc gayrhos. reapers. hmc music only. ---- spring's awakening. hmc music only. ---- tournament. hmc music only. ---- walking on stilts. hmc music only. gebauer. new year. hs ---- queer pussies. hs gefunden. bb generous clover. cole. cm gentle jesus, meek and mild. _see_ beethoven. child's prayer. hr gently flit from flow'r to flow'r. _see_ hubbard. butterfly. msg george's song. reinecke. fc (reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs) *georgie porgie. elliott. mg georgy could thrash a dragon well. _see_ arthur of bradley. fs german hopping dance. fdm music only. german hopping dance. hmc music only. germer. choral. hmc gersbach. barbarossa. rcs gertrude's birthday now is here. _see_ gaynor. birthday greeting. sc gestern abend ging ich aus. _see_ hunter and the hare. rcs geza. csardas. hmc music only. giants. gaynor. sc giardini. come, thou almighty king. tlb gibbons. silver swan. rcs giffe. lullaby. bss giga. corelli. hmc gigue bretonne. bachmann. hmc music only. gilchrist. beckoning the chickens. sm ---- bird thoughts. sm ---- carpenter. sm ---- child and mother. fsc ---- dolphin lullaby. tlb ---- evening concert. hmc music only. ---- family. sm ---- flying bird. sm ---- garden gate. sm ---- going to the fair. stn ---- good night. stn ---- home they brought her warrior dead. tlb ---- if blue birds bloomed. stn ---- kitty cat. stn (kitty cat and the mouse. rcs) (walker. kitty cat and the mouse. ws) ---- land of nod. ss (fisher. land of nod. cgv) ---- little john bottlejohn. stn (bristow. little john bottlejohn. stn) (stanley. little john bottlejohn. stn) ---- little plant. sm ---- little travelers. hs ---- little window. sm ---- midsummer frolics. stn ---- my bed is a boat. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. ---- oh, look at the moon. sm ---- piper. tlb ---- prayers of love. tlb ---- rippling, purling little river. sm (mozart. rippling, purling. hr) (rippling, purling little river. rcs) ---- rock-a-by lady. fsc ---- so wise. stn ---- we two together. tlb ---- whip-poor-will. tlb *gin a body meet a body. fs (comin' thro' the rye. efs) girl i left behind me. efs girl i've left behind me. marzials. cpp girl that's born on an april day. _see_ fairlamb. april girl. stn (stanley. april girl. stn) *girls and boys, come out to play. cbo girls scornful glances throw. _see_ koschot. clod. efs "give" said the little stream. _see_ hubbard. stream. msg giving thanks. galloway. msl giving the balls. hailmann. hr glacier. neidlinger. es *glad christmas bells. gs glad christmas tide. thompson. el glad easter is here. dugan. hs glare of the flames was all around. _see_ sacrifice. efs gleam of a torch at midnight. _see_ foote. land to the leeward. tc *glorious things of thee are spoken. haydn. tle glueck. broken ring. efs ---- mill. fs ---- spring song. hr gnomes. reinhold. hmc music only. go, dobbin, go. _see_ gaynor. farmer. ll *go over, come back here. walker. ws (ball songs, no. . ps) *go round and round the valley. ng (round and round the village. bg--hc--jb--usi) go round and round the village. _see_ round and round the village. bg--hc--jb--usi (go round and round the valley. ng) *go thither, come hither. hr go to bed, my little children. _see_ brewster. christmas song. bss go to sleep, dolly. bss go-to-sleep fairies. _see_ foerster. nocturne: go-to-sleep fairies. hmc music only. *go to sleep, little thumb. hubbard. msg go to sleep, thumbkin. smith. sl --sm goat doth run and loudly call. _see_ goat and the cow. rcs goat and the cow. rcs god be with us. hatton. tlb god, beneath thy guiding hand. _see_ hatton. god be with us. tlb god bless you all. _see_ christmas welcome. gs *god is always near me. heerwart. hr (smith. god is always near me. sl ) god is ever good. wiggin. kc god is there. walker. ws (hubbard. nature's god is there. msg) god knows. rcs (hubbard. do you know how many stars? msg) god loves his little children. knowlton. ns *god made the sun. heerwart. hr god make my life a little light. batchellor. ws god of harvest praise. _see_ carey. harvest hymn. bss god our father made the night. _see_ mozart. god's love. shs god preserve our noble nation. _see_ haydn. austrian national hymn. fs *god rest ye, little children. gs god save our gracious king. _see_ god save the king. lbs god save the king. lbs *god sends his bright spring sun. rust. el (smith. god sends his bright spring sun. sl ) god sends his bright warm summer sun. _see_ wolf. song of summer and winter. shs god, the father in heaven. reinecke. fc god's blessing on work. albert. shs god's care of all things. hill. shs god's love. mozart. shs god's tender care. hr god's work. hill. shs (heerwart. all things bright and beautiful. hr) goethe. george's song. fc (reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs) ---- hedge roses. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. ---- heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs (reichardt. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. hedge roses. fs) (schubert. wild rose. bss) ---- lyndhurst. tlb ---- wild rose. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. going home. hr going over the mountain. usi going round the mulberry bush. hr (as we go round the mulberry bush. ng) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (little washerwoman. kk) (mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs) going to london. foote. stn going to market. winslow. hs going to school. cole. cm going to sleep. mozart. hr going to sleep. smith. lcd going to sleepy land. _see_ brewster. cradle song. bss going to the fair. gilchrist. stn gold and crimson tulips. _see_ gaynor. tulips. sc golden grain was gathered. _see_ gaynor. first thanksgiving day. sc (knowlton. september. ns) (mclellan. september. el) golden rule. hubbard. msg golden rule. tufts. cl *golden slumbers kiss your eyes. rcs (foote. lullaby. tlb) (henderson. golden slumbers kiss your eyes. stn) goldenrod is yellow. _see_ conrade. september. gs goldfish. valentine. vbd *gone from me evermore. efs gone, gone, my child, all gone. _see_ froebel. all's gone. mp (hubbard. all gone. msg) gone is winter's storm and rain. _see_ wolf and the lamb. jb gone, my child, all gone. _see_ smith. all gone, baby. sl good advice. sherwood. hs good and bad children. stevenson. sf (ramsay. good and bad children. sf) good boy. stevenson. ss (bartlett. good boy. ss) good-bye. hr good-bye. gaynor. ll good-bye. gaynor. sc good-bye. gaynor. sc good-bye. hitte. dm good-bye, daisy, pinks and rose. _see_ mendelssohn. child's good-bye. hr (sawyer. good-bye to the flowers. ws) good-bye, dear friends. _see_ gaynor. good-bye ii. sc good-bye, fare you well. neb good-bye! good-bye! _see_ good-bye song. sl good-bye, good-bye, god speed you well. _see_ gaynor. good-bye. ll good-bye, good-bye to summer. _see_ kuecken. robin redbreast. hr good-bye, little birdie. _see_ tufts. nell and her bird. cl good-bye, little children. _see_ conrade. frog's good-bye. gs good-bye, mamma. _see_ reinecke. sleighing song. sl good-bye song. hurd. pts good-bye song. koehler. hr good-bye song. mozart. shs good-bye song. reed. tgs good-bye song. sheehan. osm good-bye song. smith. sl good-bye song. smith. kc good-bye song. wiggin. kc (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (hubbard. parting song. msg) (walker. our play is o'er. ws) good-bye to old winter. see spring. hr good-bye to summer. smith. sl good-bye to the flowers. sawyer. ws (mendelssohn. child's good-bye. hr) good comrade. fs good day, my biddy hen, good day. _see_ smith. cackling hen. lcd *good day, my rosa. kk good king arthur. reinecke. fc (gaynor. king arthur. ll) (king arthur. cbo) *good king wenceslas look'd out. fs--rcs good morning. andre. kc good morning. atkinson. gs good morning. gaynor. ll good morning. gaynor. sc good morning. hailmann. hr good morning. smith. sv good morning bows. montz. ims good morning, brave children who come out today. _see_ hill. rainy day good morning. shs good morning, canary. hs *good morning, dear children. walker. ws good morning, dear cobbler. see smith. shoemaker. sl good morning, dear playmates, how glad you should be. _see_ andre. good morning. kc good morning, dear sun. _see_ atkinson. good morning. gs good morning, dearest grandpa. _see_ cole. good morning, grandpa. cm. good morning, good morning, dear thumbkin to you. _see_ hailmann. good morning. hr good morning, good morning, we bid you good morning. _see_ gaynor. good morning. sc good morning, grandpa. cole. cm *good morning, kind teacher. hubbard. msg good morning, little children dear. _see_ rust. happy greetings. el good morning, little children dear. _see_ wiggin. kindergartner's morning greeting. kc good morning, little playmates dear. _see_ grove. morning song. hs good morning, lovely playroom. _see_ hill. good morning to the playroom. shs *good morning, merry sunshine. hubbard. msg (smith. good morning, merry sunshine. sl --sl ) good morning. mister mouse; we've nothing for you here. _see_ knight. mouse and cat. hs good morning, mister postman. _see_ knowlton. postman. ns *good morning, new day. walker. ws *good morning, playmates. hailmann. hr good morning, pleasant sunshine. _see_ mozart. good morning to sunshine. hr good morning song. dugan. ws good morning song. hill. shs good morning song. reed. tgs good morning song. sheehan. osm good morning song. valentine. vbd good morning to all. hill. shs good morning to sunshine. mozart. hr good morning to the kindergarten. smith. sl good morning to the playroom. hill. shs *good morning to the sunshine fair. dugan. ws good morning to this pretty room. _see_ smith. good morning to the kindergarten. sl good morning to you. _see_ hill. good morning to all. shs good morning to you. _see_ valentine. good morning song. vbd good morning to you, glorious sun. _see_ gaynor. greeting to the sun. sc good morning to you one and all. _see_ gaynor. good morning. ll good morning to you one and all. _see_ sheehan. good morning song. osm good morning, little rose bush. _see_ bartlett. sweet red rose. stn (ingraham. sweet red rose. stn) (mosenthal. sweet red rose. stn) good mother hen sits here on her nest. _see_ roeske. hen and chickens. pfp *good news on christmas morning. hatton. stn good night. hr (cole. good night and good morning. cm) good night. tlb good night. atkinson. gs good night. gilchrist. stn good night. hatton. stn good night and good morning. cole. cm (good night, no. . hr) *good night to you all, and sweet be your sleep. fs good old cock. reinecke. fc good tailors are we. _see_ smith. tailor. sl good weather. smith. lcd goodale. april, april, are you here? gs ---- april rain. ns goodban. round on the diatonic scale. rcs goose and little goslings come nipping the grass. _see_ fox and geese. kk *goosey, goosey gander, whither do you wander? lbs (elliott. goosey, goosey gander. mg) gotlands-quadrille. fdm music only. gott erhalte franz den kaiser. _see_ haydn. austrian national hymn. fs gottschalk. christmas hymn. kc ---- holy spirit, truth divine. tlb gould. now the day is over. tlb ---- pilot. tlb *gracious savior, gentle shepherd. martin. msl graeff. carol, carol children. hs ---- spring song. hs graham. frogs. hmc music only. grand ladies. smith. lcd grand parade. kullak. hmc music only. granddaddy longlegs. meissner. asc grandma drove her sparrow hitch'd up to the cart. _see_ grandma's old sparrow. bfd grandma told me all about it. _see_ damrosch. minuet. stn (fairlamb. minuet. stn) (fisher. minuet. stn) (mosenthal. minuet. stn) grandmamma. froebel. mp grandma's knitting song. gaynor. sc grandma's old sparrow. bfd grass mowing. froebel. mp (hubbard. hasten to the meadow, peter. msg) *grasshopper green. riley. ll *grasshopper green. walker. ws grasshoppers' dance. knowlton. hmc music only. graves. foxhunt. fs ---- john peel. fs ---- little red lark. efs--fs graves. my love's an arbutus. efs--fs gray. hunt is up. fs great big steeple clocks say. _see_ koehler. clocks and watches. hr great god in heaven. _see_ reinicke. morning prayer. fc great hamburger. fdm music only. great round sun is gone. _see_ smith. evening prayer. lcd great, wide, beautiful, wonderful world. _see_ roeske. world. el (hubbard. child's world. msg) green grass. hc (variant: here we come up the green grass. neb ) *green gravel, green gravel. lbs--ng--usi green-grocer. valentine. vbd *green grow the leaves. jb green holly boughs bring. _see_ smith. christmas carol. sl green leafy tree. smith. lcd green leaves grew all around. jb (there was a tree stood in the ground. ng) greeting. froebel. sm greeting. mendelssohn. fs greeting. mendelssohn. rcs greeting, o peaceful one, greeting. _see_ farwell. song of greeting. tlb greeting song. smith. kc greeting to all, both great and small. _see_ wiggin. morning greeting. kc greeting to spring. gade. rcs (kies. greeting to spring. msl) greeting to spring. sawyer. el greeting to the sun. gaynor. sc greeting to you, children dear. _see_ gaynor. morning greeting. sc greetings we offer thee. _see_ reinecke. birthday song. sl gregory. rainbow children. el gretchen lies in her gloomy bed. _see_ sinding. mother sings. efs grieg. album leaf. hmc music only. ---- dance of the frost elves. hmc music only. ---- farmyard song. fs ---- first primrose. fs ---- morning mood. hmc music only. grinding wheat. froebel. hr grove. bedtime. hs ---- bird-band. hs ---- doll song. hs ---- morning song. hs ---- mr. toadie's coat. hs grow old along with me. _see_ hadley. rabbi ben ezra. tlb growing. gaynor. gs gruber. stilly night, starry and bright. fs (haydn. holy night. rcs) guardian angels. schumann. fs guess. neidlinger. sss guess what doris told me. _see_ vose. spring secrets. el guessing game. hr guessing game. gaynor. sc guessing game. wiggin. kc (hubbard. seeing. msg) (guessing game, no. . ps) (when we're playing together. ws) guessing games. ps guessing the singer. reinecke. sm guglielmo. rowing. fs guinea hen. hmc music only. gurlitt. cave of the winds. hmc music only. ---- first dance. hmc music only. ---- gavotte. hmc music only. ---- morning prayer. hmc music only. ---- rabbit. hmc music only. ---- sunshiny morning. hmc music only. ---- under the maypole. hmc music only. gustaf's skal. fdm music only. *gustaf's skoal! o 'tis the best the land can boast. kk gustave's toast. see gustaf's skal. fdm music only. gute kamerad. _see_ good comrade. fs guten morgen, ihr baume wie seht ihr so kalt. _see_ morning song. rcs guten tag, ihr fleissigen maegdlein. _see_ taubert. sparrow's greeting. rcs ha, ha, he! my fine pony see. _see_ tufts. rocking-horse. fs had you seen my sweet coolun at the day's early dawn. _see_ coolun. efs hadley. easter. tlb ---- flag. tlb ---- fountain. tlb (johns. fountain. tc) ---- rabbi ben ezra. tlb ---- while you sleep. tlb hahn. calling the flowers. ---- gaelic cradle song. bss (harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb) (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) hahn. lullaby song. bss *hail columbia. hopkinson. efs hailmann. april showers. hr ---- baa, baa, black sheep. hr (baa, baa, black sheep. cbo--fs) (elliott. baa, baa, black sheep. mg) (gaynor. baa, baa, black sheep. ll) ---- baby bye, here's a fly. hr ---- ball play. kc (hailmann. selling fruit. hr) ---- birds' nest. hr (variant: hubbard. see my little birdie's nest. msg) ---- come dance, little thumbkin. hr ---- end to end. hr ---- frogs. hr ---- giving the balls. hr ---- good morning. hr ---- hopping. hr ---- little chickens. hr ---- newsboy. hr ---- now come let us play. hr ---- oh, see the snow. hr (hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg) (walker. snow. ws) ---- our work is done. hr (hubbard. parting song. msg) (walker. our play is o'er. kc) (wiggin. good-bye song. kc) ---- opening stanza. hr ---- postman. hr ---- putting the fingers to sleep. hr ---- rosy, my posy. hr ---- selling fruit. hr (hailmann. ball play. kc) ---- sewing. hr ---- stanzas for finger-piano. hr ---- street car. hr ---- tailor. hr ---- teacher of gymnastics. hr (variant: little teacher of gymnastics. ps) (variant: smith. choosing a game. sl ) (variant: wiggin. imitation game. kc) ---- teachers' hymn. hr (bacon. mother's hymn. el) (osgood. mother's hymn. el) (teachers' hymn, ii. kc) ---- tossing. hr ---- tossing game. hr ---- up, down. hr ---- voyage. hr ---- weather vane. hr (froebel. weather vane. mp) ---- you love me and i love you. hr ---- you must be very tired. hr half an hour past twelve o'clock. _see_ marella. half past twelve. rcs half past twelve. marella. rcs hallingen. fdm music only. hamburg. morning hymn. hr hand in hand dance around. _see_ root. dancing song. sv hand in hand dancing. _see_ krakoviak, ii. fs hand in hand you see us well. _see_ snail. bg--hr--msg--ps--ws (snail game. hc) handel. antioch. tlb ---- awake my soul. tlb ---- blacksmith. sl ---- harmonious blacksmith. hmc music only. ---- messiah. tlb handel. damrosch. stn (stanley. handel stn) hands shall heavy millstones be. _see_ froebel. grinding wheat. hr hansel and gretel dance. humperdink. hc happiest day. hill. hs happy birds among the boughs. _see_ brown. reason why. ws happy birds are singing. _see_ martin. springtime. msl happy birds are with us once again. _see_ gaynor. bird day. gs happy birds with joy will sing. _see_ gaynor. easter song. sc happy brothers and sisters. froebel. sm happy child. ps happy every morning when the hour comes round. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps happy greetings. rust. el "happy, happy christmas" let our voices chime. _see_ chapek. little child's carol. hs happy is the miller. _see_ miller. usi happy lambkins. gaynor. sc happy little fishes. _see_ fishes. kc happy monday morning. _see_ hill. good-morning song. shs happy spring waltz. osgood. tc *happy summer. smith. sl happy thought. stevenson. cgv (fisher. happy thought. cgv) (adaptation: cole. beautiful world. cm) *happy town of salem. martin. msl happy wanderer. jensen. hmc music only hard and soft balls. smith. sl hare. ps *hare in the hollow. hc *hare in the hollow. ws hares. lbs *hark, hark, my soul. smart. tlb *hark, hark, the lark. reinecke. sl hark, hark, the lark, list to his call. _see_ sheehan. lark. osm hark it echoes down the street. _see_ festive march. hr *hark, the bells are ringing. hubbard. msg hark, the birds are coming. _see_ hahn. calling the flowers. bss hark, the bonny christ church bells. _see_ aldrich. christ church bells. sm hark, the church bells pleasant sound. _see_ smith. church. sm hark the skylark in the cloud. _see_ knowlton. oh, the merry lay of june. ns hark to our singing, sweet flowers bringing. _see_ pomona. fs *hark, what mean the children's voices? kies. msl hark, what mean those wonderous voices? _see_ kies. final triumph. msl harmonious blacksmith. handel. hmc music only harold's eyes are blinded tight. _see_ smith. hearing. sl harp at nature's advent strung. _see_ stanford. worship. tc *harp that once through tara's halls. moore. efs harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb (hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss) (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) harry mcgarry. jb harte. jessie. stn harvest dance (finnish.) fdm music only. harvest home. marzials. cpp harvest hymn. carey. bss harvest is in; the cellar and bin. _see_ sherwood. thanksgiving for harvest. hs harvest of the squirrel and honey-bee. gaynor. sc harvest song. smith. sl harvester's dance (english.) fdm music only. haschka. austrian national hymn. fs *haste thee, nymph. arnold. tlb *hasten to the meadow, peter. hubbard. msg (froebel. grass mowing. mp) hatton. god be with us. tlb ---- good news on christmas morning. stn ---- good night. stn ---- indian maid. tlb hausegesinde. bb (widdy-widdy-wurky. lbs) (wide-wide-wenne. rcs) *have you heard the news? fs have you lost your old mother? _see_ gaynor. baby moon. sv have you seen but a bright lily grow. _see_ cauffman. love song. tlb *have you seen the beggar-man? jb *have you seen the mocking bird? jb have you seen the muffin man? _see_ muffin man. bg--hc--jb--usi have you seen the shah? _see_ hunting. bg--usi (a-hunting we will go. jb) *have you seen the soldier? hc have you seen the swimming school? _see_ gaynor. froggie's swimming school. sc hawley. hushaby, sweet my own. fsc ---- singing. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. singing. hay and straw are in the stack. _see_ gaynor. thanksgiving. ll "hay foot, straw foot" march, boys. _see_ terhune. train-band. cc hayden. visiting game. hc haydn. austrian hymn. tlb ---- austrian national hymn. fs ---- carpenter theme. hmc music only. ---- child's may song. hr ---- christmas song. hr ---- daisy. hr ---- glorious things of thee are spoken. tlb ---- hide and seek. sm ---- high and low. hr ---- holy night. rcs (gruber. stilly night. fs) ---- in native worth. tlb ---- lambkin. gs ---- wake up fairies. hmc music only. ---- winter. hr (hubbard. old winter. msg) hayes. spring. rcs ---- wind, gentle evergreen. tlb hayloft. stevenson. lbs--sf _for composers see_ stevenson. hayloft. haymakers. tabram. kc haynes. there were four lilies. tc he brings his father's slippers. _see_ smith. useful. lcd he is calling. martin. msl he's an old bachelor. _see_ day's far spent. jb he that will not when he may. fs he was a cabbage. _see_ bridge. her lovers. tc *he was a shepherd lad. gaynor. ll he who wants to be a soldier. _see_ young recruit. lbs hear the captain clearly calling. _see_ martin. captain's call. msl hear the happy children as they sing. _see_ martin. christ is risen. msl hear the 'plashing of the fountain. _see_ gaynor. fountain. sc hear the quail in yonder glen. _see_ walker. summer song. ws *hear the shining angels sing. martin. msl hear the sledges with the bells. _see_ foote. bells. tlb *hear my prayer. rcs hearing. hubbard. msg hearing. meissner. asc hearing. smith. sl heart of happiness is mine. _see_ tailor's dance. bfd heather rose. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein heav'nly father, hear thy children. _see_ wiggin. morning prayer, no. . kc heavenly father, thee we love. _see_ albert. god's blessing on work. shs heav'nly father, thee we love. _see_ beethoven. hymn. hmc heavens resound with his praises eternal. tlb heavy on my weary senses. _see_ saleza. remembrance. fs hecker. spring song. gs hedge roses. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein heerwart. all things bright and beautiful. hr (hill. god's work. shs) ---- god is always near me. hr *here comes one duke a-riding. jb (variant: three dukes a-riding. oya) (variant: here come three dukes a-riding. neb ) (variant: here comes one soldier marching. hc) *here comes one jew. jb *here comes one soldier marching. hc (variant: here come three dukes a-riding. neb ) ---- god made the sun. hr ---- merrily, merrily. hr ---- spring flowers. hr ---- spring joy. hr ---- trees. hr--kc--sm ---- windmill. kc (seidel. windmill. hr) heiden-roeslein. goethe. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. heigh-ho, daisies and buttercups. _see_ frazer. flowers. bss heigh ho, heigh ho, how the winds blow. _see_ gaynor. autumn. sc heine. greeting. fs ---- loreley. fs--rcs (silcher. loreley. fs) (silcher. lurlei. rcs) ---- two grenadiers. tlb heins. dance of the bears. hmc music only. heise. little karen. efs hello, central. _see_ gaynor. telephone. sc hello! said father winter. _see_ neidlinger. cycle of the year. es help, neighbors, help. _see_ strong. baby's bread. hs hen and chickens. roeske. pfp henderson. golden slumbers kiss your eyes. stn (foote. lullaby. tlb) (golden slumbers kiss your eyes. rcs) henry. fair gabrielle. fs henschel. oak and the streamlet. tc her kirtle has a rosy sheen. dietrich. tc her lovers. bridge. tc herald of freedom, for childhood's sweet sake. _see_ froebel hymn. kc here am i. see elliott. little jumping joan. mg here and there, everywhere. _see_ smith. dandelion fashions. sl here are the little leaves that grow. _see_ sherwood. leaves, flowers and fruits. hs here come riding the knights so gay. _see_ smith. knights and the bad child. sm here come the sounding buglers. _see_ we are sounding buglers. jb *here come three dukes a-riding. neb (three dukes a-riding. oya) (variant: here comes one duke a-riding. jb) (variant: here comes one soldier marching. hc) here come two creatures, now who can they be? funkhouser. fsk *here comes an old man from hull. jb *here comes an old woman from switzerland. jb (variant: three dukes a-riding. oya) (variant: here comes one duke a-riding. jb) here comes simon of salle. _see_ simon of salle. kk here comes the cable-car. _see_ valentine. conductor. vbd here comes the flower wagon. _see_ valentine. flower wagon. vbd here comes the merry baker. _see_ taubert. trade-game. kc here comes the sandman stepping so lightly. _see_ finch. sandman. hs here comes the wind. _see_ root. wind song. sv here i am and how do you do? _see_ cole. month of may. cm here i step within the ring. _see_ by streamlet and leafy dale. kk here in my open hand. _see_ ball song. kc here is a pretty ball. _see_ ball songs. no. . ps here is a pretty cradle nest. _see_ winslow. cradle nest. hs here is a snowflake, dainty and white. _see_ sawyer. snowflake. el here is miss pussy. _see_ tufts. my pussy. cl here is my trooper. _see_ my trooper. fs (my knight is a rider. rcs) here is one in a purple hat. _see_ thaxter. my pansies. el here is the beehive, where are the bees. _see_ roeske. counting lesson. pfp here lies within this tomb so calm. _see_ webbe. epitaph on a parish clerk. tlb here now we meet again. _see_ wiggin. morning hymn. kc here's a ball for baby. _see_ roeske. all for baby. pfp here's a little birdie's nest. _see_ hurd. bird's nest. pts here's a little kitty. _see_ smith. soft and hard balls. sl here's a pretty cradle nest. _see_ gilchrist. bird's nest. sm here's another song. _see_ neidlinger. sea song. es here's grandpapa. _see_ froebel. family. sm here's the old man of tobago. _see_ smeltzer. old man of tobago. sz here stand we all united. _see_ reinecke. hiding game. sm here we are the same old friends. _see_ hubbard. scissors grinder. msg here we come, bunnies in the sun. _see_ bunny's accident. jb here we come gath'ring nuts in may. _see_ nuts in may. bg--jb--lbs--usi (knots of may. ng) *here we come, looby loo. jb (looby light. bb) (looby loo. bg--hc--neb ) (looby looby. lbs) *here we come up the green grass. neb (variant: green grass. hc) here we dance looby loo. _see_ looby loo. bg--hc--neb (here we come, looby loo. jb) (looby light. bb) (looby looby. lbs) here we go. hr here we go around this ring. _see_ marriage. ng here we go in the garden swing. _see_ conrade. swinging. gs here we go o'er the snow. _see_ sawyer. coasting song. ws here we go over the green grass. _see_ green grass. hc (variant: here we come up the green grass. neb ) here we go round and round. _see_ gaynor. round game. ll here we go round our gay juniper tree. _see_ little washerwoman. kk (as we go round the mulberry bush. ng) (going round the mulberry bush. hr) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs) here we go round the mulberry bush. hc (as we go round the mulberry bush. ng) (going round the mulberry bush. hr) (little washerwoman. kk) (mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs) here we go, steady and slow. _see_ hubbard. skating song. msg here we stand hand in hand. _see_ playtime. rcs hering. little pony. hr herman bosses. fdm music only. herrick. bellman. tlb herron. oh, ring glad bells. ws hey, big thumbs up. _see_ hey, thumbs up. kk *hey, diddle, diddle. bartlett. stn (elliott. hey, diddle, diddle. mg) (gaynor. hey, diddle, diddle. ll) hey, hammer! ho, hammer! _see_ smith. carpenter. sl hey ho, my bonny lad. _see_ bacon. before the mowing. el hey, little brownies, come and frolic. _see_ brownie polska. kk hey, master rider, your mare no farther ride her. _see_ berry. rider. kc hey the rabbit! _see_ froebel. shadow rabbit. sm hey, thumbs up. kk *hickory, dickory, dock. funkhouser. fsk (dickory dock. cbo) (elliott. dickory, dickory dock. mg) hickory, hickory dock. gaynor. sc hide. froebel. mp (hubbard. hiding of the child. msg) hide and seek. brown. el hide and seek. haydn. mp hide thee, child. froebel. mp hiding game. reinecke. sm hiding of the child. hubbard. msg (froebel. hide. mp) hiding the ball. elliott. sl hiding the stone. ps high and low. haydn. hr high art riding. hmc music only. high in the air the birds are sailing. _see_ reinecke. birds and angels. fc high in the azure heaven. _see_ reinecke. evening star. rcs *high in the clear air. elliott. sl high on the top of an old pine tree. _see_ conrade. little doves. gs (wiggin. little doves. kc) highland fling. burchenal. bfd highland fling, i and ii. fdm highland fling. page. hmc music only. highland lad my love was born. fs highland schottische ("weel may the keel row.") fdm music only. hildebrandshagen. taubert. rcs hill. awakening song. shs ---- bees' market. shs ---- blacksmith's song. shs ---- blessings on effort. shs ---- brooklet's song. hs ---- busy carpenters. shs ---- butterfly and moth. shs ---- bye, baby, bye. shs (smith. bye, baby, night has come. sl --stn) ---- caterpillar and moth. shs ---- certainty of law. shs ---- children and the sheep. shs ---- christmas lullaby. shs ---- christmas star. shs ---- church bells. shs ---- each mother loves best. shs ---- earth's winter dress. shs ---- fall leaves. shs (autumn leaves. hr) (osgood. come, little leaves. msg--rcs--ws) (smith. come, little leaves. sl ) ---- falling snow. hs ---- farewell. shs ---- first christmas song. hs ---- first ring song. shs ---- fishes at play. hs ---- flying song. shs ---- god's care of all things. shs ---- god's work. shs (heerwart. all things bright and beautiful. hr) ---- good morning song. shs ---- good morning to all. shs ---- good morning to the playroom. shs ---- happiest day. hs ---- in autumn. hs ---- jack frost. shs ---- light and shadow. shs ---- lullaby and good morning. shs ---- merry little snowflakes. shs ---- migration song. shs ---- moon song. shs ---- nature's easter song. shs ---- nature's good night. shs ---- north wind. shs ---- old year and new year. hs ---- presentation song. shs ---- rain clouds. shs ---- rain on the roof. shs ---- rainy day good morning. shs ---- see the pretty valentines. hs ---- skipping song. shs ---- snow clouds. shs ---- song for a child's birthday. hs ---- song of the millstream. shs ---- song of the sewing machine. shs ---- song of the trees. hs ---- stages of life. shs ---- story of the apple. shs ---- story of the bread. shs ---- story of the butter. shs ---- story of the christ. shs ---- sunrise. hs ---- sunset. hs ---- sunshine's message. shs ---- thanks for constant care. shs ---- thanks for daily blessings. shs ---- thanksgiving day. hs ---- toyman's shop. hs ---- twinkle, twinkle little star. shs (elliott. twinkle, twinkle, little star. mg--sl --sm) (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ll) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl) (twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr) (walker. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ws) ---- valentine's message. hs ---- waking flowers. shs ---- washing and ironing. shs ---- weather song. shs ---- when you send a valentine. hs ---- while stars of christmas shine. hs ---- wind song. shs ---- yes, come, dear, dear christmas. hs hiller. autumn. hmc music only. ---- gallop. hmc music only. ---- soldiers are coming. hmc music only. himmel. prayer. tlb ---- thanksgiving song. shs his pretty head is brilliant red. _see_ gaynor. woodpecker. sc hist, hist, be still. _see_ gaynor. brownies. sc hitte. autumn. dm ---- clock. dm ---- cookie song. dm ---- dolly song. dm ---- flower song. dm ---- galloping horses. dm ---- good-bye. dm ---- indian lullaby. dm (conrade. indian cradle song. gs) ---- little soldiers. dm ---- marking time. dm ---- merry christmas bells. dm ---- mill. dm ---- partner sweet. dm ---- rain. dm ---- skipping. dm ---- waltz. dm ho! for us; hey! for us. _see_ rieff. christmas song. kc ho! here comes simon of salle. _see_ simon of salle. kk ho, ho, ho, ho, ho! high the cossack's heart is bounding. _see_ cossack's song. tlb *ho, little laddie, let's be dancing. kk ho! yonder stands a charming creature. _see_ twenty, eighteen. neb hofer. old carol. gs hoffman. ding, dong. stn (molloy. ding, dong. stn) hog-drivers, hog-drivers, hog-drivers we are. ng holden. coronation. tlb ---- my neighbor. el hole in a log. _see_ smith. squirrel. sl holiday. lbs hollaender. birds in the woods. hmc music only. ---- in dolly's kitchen. hmc music only. ---- march. hmc music only. ---- scenes from the circus. hmc music only. holland. lullaby. stn holly wreaths are shining. _see_ gaynor. christmas joys. sc holmes. build thee more stately mansions. tlb ---- freedom, our queen. tc holy child. rcs holy christmas time. _see_ haydn. christmas song. hr *holy, holy, holy, lord god almighty. dykes. tlb holy night. haydn. rcs (gruber. stilly night. fs) holy night, the stars are brightly shining. _see_ adam. christmas song. gs *holy spirit, truth divine. gottschalk. tlb home, sweet home. bishop. efs--fs--lbs *home they brought her warrior dead. gilchrist. tlb homer. rcs honest work earns pleasure after. _see_ work. fs honey bee. cole. cm honey bee and clover. meissner. asc hook. lass of richmond hill. fs--tlb *hop, hop, come birdies all. walker. ws *hop, hop, hop, pony do not stop. lbs--rcs hop, mother annika. kk hopp, mor annika. fdm music only. hope carol. smith. tlb hope of the nation. rogers. km hopkins. spirit of god. tlb ---- three kings of orient. fs hopkinson. hail columbia. efs hopp, hopp, hopp, pferdchen lauf' galopp. _see_ hop, hop, hop. lbs--rcs hopping. hailmann. hr hopping and flying together. hubbard. msg (birds. ps) hopping birds. ws hopping birds. hubbard. msg (birds. ps) hops in the nest. hr hornpipe. page. hmc music only. hornpipe (danish.) fdm music only. horse. neidlinger. es horse-shoeing. mozart. hr horses trotting. montz. ims hot cross buns, hot cross buns. bb hot irons. _see_ chapek. ironing song. hs houghton. good night and good morning. cm ---- march. ns hour was sad i left the maid. _see_ girl i left behind me. efs hours have sped on golden wings. _see_ gaynor. good bye. sc house. lark. tc house of the tit-tat-toe. gaynor. ll household hints. gaynor. ll housekeeping. ng (variant: polly put the kettle on. bb--oya) houseman. awake, awake. hs how are the children awakened. _see_ hill. awakening song. shs how are thy servants blessed. _see_ psalter. these see his wonders in the deep. tlb how beautiful, how joyous, our circle large and wide. _see_ smith. transformation game. sm *how can i leave thee? kuecken. efs--fs how delightful 'tis to see. _see_ pleasant light. ps how do robins build their nests? _see_ johnson. what robin told. bss (knowlton. what robin told. ns) how do you do? funkhouser. fsk how do you do, mister sunshine? funkhouser. fsk how do you like to go up in a swing? _see_ stevenson. swing. bm--cgv--cm--el--lbs--sm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. swing. how does my lady's garden grow? _see_ my lady's garden. cbo how doth the little busy bee. _see_ cole. lesson from the bee. cm (tufts. busy bee. cl) *how d'ye do, sir? neb *how gentle god's commands. naegeli. tlb how great is our pleasure. _see_ oh, how great is our pleasure. hr how he runs. _see_ gaynor. ferret. ll how hot, no cooling breeze. _see_ thunderstorm. hr how i learned to sew. bingham. bm how it blows and storms and pours. _see_ koehler. storm. hr how it looks in the mill. reinecke. fc how johnnie and polly shake the apples. reinecke. fc *how many miles to babylon? gaynor. ll (variant: how many miles to banbury? jb) *how many miles to banbury? jb (variant: gaynor. how many miles to babylon? ll) *how oats and beans and barley grow. jb (oats, peas, beans. bg--hc) how pleasant the life of a bird must be. _see_ tufts. birds in summer. cl *how should i your true love know? marzials. cpp *how sweetly the lark is trilling on high. jb how the little limbs fly out. _see_ froebel. play with the limbs. mp how strange to make a thing to float. _see_ neidlinger. about boats. es how the baby was named. cole. cm how the corn grew. roeske. pfp how the wind blows. wills. el *how we love our kindergarten. andreae. hr how well upon one point i stand. _see_ hubbard. cube. msg howe. battle hymn of the republic. efs--fs ---- child's american hymn. tc howitt. buttercups and daisies. cl--gs--msg *hub a dub dub. smeltzer. sz hubbard. all gone. msg (froebel. all's gone. mp) ---- apples ripe. msg ---- away among the blossoms. msg (away among blossoms. el) ---- ball. msg ---- ball is sinking. msg ---- barnyard. msg (froebel. barnyard gate. mp) ---- basket of flowers. msg ---- bees. msg ---- bell high in the steeple. msg (ball song, no. . ps) (bell high in the steeple. ws) (smith. bell so high. sl ) ---- bird on the tree. msg ---- bird song. msg ---- birds must fly. msg ---- bluebird. msg (bluebird. ws) ---- brook is flowing. msg (froebel. bridge. mp) (variant: smith. bridge. sl ) ---- brothers and sisters. msg (froebel. brothers and sisters. mp) ---- bucket song. msg (walker. bucket song. ws) ---- busy children. msg ---- buttercups and daisies. msg (conrade. buttercups and daisies. gs) (tufts. buttercups and daisies. cl) ---- butterfly. msg ---- cat and the mouse. msg ---- charcoal burner. msg (froebel. charcoal burner's hut. mp) ---- child's world. msg ---- chris-cradle sings. msg ---- christmas greeting. msg ---- christmas is coming. msg ---- church bell. msg (froebel. church window and church door. mp) (variant: smith. church. sl ) ---- cling, cling, clinkerty clink. msg ---- come, little leaves. msg _for other composers see_ osgood. come, little leaves. ---- come take a little partner. msg ---- cooper. msg (walker. cooper. ws) ---- cube. msg ---- cuckoo. msg ---- cylinder. msg ---- dary dear. msg ---- dear santa now appear. msg ---- ding, dong, dell. msg ---- do you know how many stars? msg (god knows. rcs) ---- down in the buttercup meadow. msg ---- easter. msg ---- farmer. msg ---- fishes. msg ---- five knights and bad child. msg (froebel. knights and the ill-humored child. mp) ---- five knights and good child. msg (froebel. knights and the good child. mp) ---- flying birds. msg (cornwell. fly, little birds. ws) (smith. fly, little birds. sl ) ---- forget-me-not. msg (conrade. forget-me-not. gs) ---- froebel's birthday. msg ---- froebel's song. msg ---- frogs. msg ---- garden bed. msg (froebel. little gardener. mp) ---- garden gate. msg ---- go to sleep, little thumb. msg ---- golden rule. msg ---- good morning, kind teacher. msg ---- good morning, merry sunshine. msg ---- hark, the bells are ringing. msg ---- hasten to the meadow, peter. msg (froebel. grass mowing. mp) ---- hearing. msg ---- hiding of the child. msg (froebel. hide. mp) ---- hopping and flying together. msg (birds. ps) ---- hopping birds. msg ---- hush-a-bye, birdie. msg ---- i am a busy bee. msg ---- i am the wind. msg (bertini. i am the wind. hr) (cornwell. wind. el) (sawyer. wind. el) ---- i should like to build today. msg ---- in the branches of a tree. msg (in the branches of a tree. ws) ---- it is lovely may. msg (cornwell. birdies' ball. ws) ---- jack frost. msg ---- jesus bids us shine. msg (walker. jesus bids us shine. ws) ---- johnny's trade. msg ---- lady moon. msg (sawyer. lady moon. ws) ---- let your feet go tramp. msg (let the feet go tramp. bg) (tramp, tramp, tramp. hr) ---- little ball lies in my hands. msg (asleep. hr) (ball songs, no. . ps) (mozart. going to sleep. hr) ---- little bird made a nest. msg ---- little brown hands. msg ---- little brown thrush. msg ---- little star. msg ---- little worm. msg ---- lizzards. msg (variant: knowlton. over in the meadow. ns) ---- lovely may. msg ---- maypole song. msg ---- merrily, form a ring. msg ---- miller. msg (mill. el) ---- my soft ball loves to wander. msg ---- nailor. msg ---- nature's god is there. msg (walker. god is there. ws) ---- nearer, my god, to thee. msg (mason. nearer, my god, to thee. tlb) ---- nearer to heaven we'll be. msg (hubbard. there is a brooklet. msg) ---- now our morning work is ended. msg ---- now take this little ball. msg ---- now the time has come for play. msg (smith. now the time has come for play. sl ) ---- oh, birdie dear. msg (froebel. light bird on the wall. mp) (variant: smith. light bird. sl ) ---- oh, see the carpenter. msg (froebel. carpenter. mp) ---- oh, see the light. msg (froebel. little window. mp) (wiggin. window. kc) ---- old winter. msg (haydn. winter. hr) ---- one, two, three, roll. msg ---- onward, christian soldiers. msg ---- our father in heaven. msg ---- over field and meadow. msg (over field and meadow. usi) ---- pansies. msg ---- paradise. msg ---- parting song. msg (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (walker. our play is o'er. kc) (wiggin. good-bye song. kc) ---- pat-a-cake. msg (froebel. pat-a-cake. mp) ---- pigeons. msg ---- polly. msg ---- pretty moon. msg (sawyer. new moon. ws) ---- rock-a-bye baby. msg ---- roll call. msg ---- roll over, come back. msg (smith. ball song. sl ) ---- roll the ball. msg ---- rose bush. msg ---- round and round it goes. msg (conrade. millwheel. gs) (millwheel. el) ---- sawing game. msg (sawing game. ws) (sawyer. ps) (stangenberger. sawyer. hr) ---- scissors grinder. msg ---- seasons. msg ---- see my little birdie's nest. msg (variant: hailmann. bird's nest. hr) ---- see-saw. msg ---- see the chickens round the gate. msg (conrade. chickens round the gate. gs) (seidell. see the chickens round the gate. hr) ---- see the snow is falling fast. msg (hailmann. oh, see the snow. hr) (walker. snow. ws) ---- seeing. msg (guessing game, no. . ps) (when we're playing together. ws) (wiggin. guessing game. kc) ---- ship. msg (vessel. ps) ---- shoemaker. msg ---- sing us a song, birdie. msg ---- skating game. msg ---- smelling. msg (smith. smelling. sl ) (wiggin. smelling. kc) ---- snail. msg (koehler. snail. hr) (snail. bg--ps) (snail game. hc) (walker. snail. ws) hubbard. song of the blacksmith. msg (parker. blacksmith. ws) ---- spring. msg ---- stream. msg ---- suppose. msg ---- suppose a little cowslip. msg ---- swallow. msg (conrade. tradespeople. gs) ---- sweetly the birds are singing. msg (damrosch. easter carol. stn) (fairlamb. easter carol. stn) ---- swing, cradle, swing. msg (pollock. sailor boy. hr) ---- target. msg (froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp) (variant: hurd. kite. pts) (variant: reed. kite. tgs) ---- tasting. msg (wiggin. tasting. kc) ---- thanksgiving day. msg (conrade. thanksgiving day. gs) (morton. thanksgiving song. ws) (sleigh-ride. hr) ---- there is a brooklet. msg (hubbard. nearer to heaven we'll be. msg) ---- this is the mother good and dear. msg ---- thumbkin says "i'll dance." msg (walker. thumbkin says "i'll dance." ws) (adaptation; smith. thumbkin says "i'll dance." sl ) ---- thumbs and fingers say "good morning." msg (froebel. finger songs. mp) ---- tick, tack. msg (froebel. tick, tack. mp) ---- to and fro. msg ---- to and fro the ball. msg ---- touching. msg (wiggin. touching. kc) ---- two hands. msg ---- wake, says the sunshine. msg ---- washington's birthday. msg ---- waves on the seashore. msg ---- we welcome you, dear friends. msg ---- we'll join our hands. msg ---- what a bird taught. msg ---- what do birdies dream. msg ---- what's this? msg (froebel. finger play. kc) (froebel. this little thumb. mp) ---- wheelbarrow. msg ---- wheelwright. msg (froebel. wheelwright. mp) ---- while we sing. msg ---- who taught the little bird? msg (schlager. who taught the bird? hr) ---- winter rose. msg ---- zish, zish, zish. msg (froebel. joiner. mp) (joiner. ps) (seidel. joiner. hr) hum, hum, hum, humble bee. _see_ reinecke. to the humble bee. fc hum, hum, hum, look the bees have come. _see_ bees' return. ps humble bee. neidlinger. tlb humble bee. _see_ reinecke. to the humble bee. fc humming bird. cole. cm *humming bird. tufts. cl humming, humming, cheerily. _see_ terhune. spinning carol. cc humming, humming, hear the sweet sound. _see_ cole. humming bird. cm humperdink. hansel and gretel dance. hc humpty dumpty. elliott. mg humpty dumpty. smeltzer. sz humpty dumpty is my name. _see_ smeltzer. humpty dumpty. sz humpty dumpty sat on a wall. _see_ elliott. humpty dumpty. mg hungry beasts and birds may eat. _see_ smith. thanks for food, i. lcd hungry spider made a web. _see_ wiggin. spider and the flies. kc *hunt is up. gray. fs hunt the slipper. hc hunter and the hare. rcs hunter in his career. marzials. cpp hunter's song. rcs hunter's song. weber. rcs hunting. bg--usi (a-hunting we will go. jb) hunting song. schumann. hmc music only. hunting the hare. purcell. rcs hunting we will go. _see_ a-hunting we will go. jb (hunting. bg--usi) hurd. all gone. pts (bullard. all gone. sm) ---- ball game. pts ---- ball game. (color) el ---- ball song. (spinning) el ---- bird song. (color) el ---- bird's nest. pts ---- children on the tower. pts ---- elm trees are yellow. el ---- family. pts ---- fruit basket. pts ---- garden game. pts ---- good-bye song. pts ---- introduction song. pts ---- kite. pts (adapted from froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp) (variant: hubbard. target. pts) (variant: reed. kite. tgs) ---- labor game. pts ---- lullabye. pts ---- nature game. pts ---- ring song. pts ---- seasons. pts ---- thanksgiving game. pts hurdy gurdy. reinecke. hmc music only. hurrah for bobby bumble. _see_ smith. brave. lcd hurrah for harry mcgarry. _see_ harry mcgarry. jb hurrah for ivied towers. _see_ loomis. uncrowned kings. tlb *hurrah for the sleigh bells. seward. el hurrah, hurrah, for the kite well made. _see_ reed. kite. tgs hurrah, hurrah, swift as a star. _see_ tufts. coasting. cl hurrah, hurrah, we march along. _see_ neidlinger. our flag. sss hurry quick, the ice is thick. _see_ gaynor. skating. sc hurry to the corner, dick. _see_ elliott. street car. sl *hush-a-by baby on the tree top. cbo--lbs hush-a-by, my little baby. _see_ hahn. lullaby. bss hush-a-by, sweet my own. hawley. fsc hush-a-bye birdie. hubbard. msg hush, hush, my baby, to dreamland we go. _see_ brewster. hush my baby. bss hush, hush, the waves are rolling in. _see_ harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb (hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss) (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) hush, little baby dear. _see_ reed. lullaby. tgs hush, little one, and fold your hands. _see_ smith. oh, little child. fsc hush, my baby. brewster. bss hush, the waves are rolling in. _see_ hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss (harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb) (tufts. old gaelic lullaby. cl) hush thee, my baby. _see_ macirone. oh hush, thee, my baby. fs huss. crossing the bar. tlb ---- if i were a flower. tc ---- recessional. tlb hymn. beethoven. hmc hymn for a child. knowlton. ns hymn for a little child. smith. sl hymn for a national holiday. knowlton. ns i am a blacksmith. _see_ gaynor. labor day. gs *i am a builder. koehler. hr i am a busy bee. hubbard. msg i am a cooper and barrels i make. _see_ cooper. hr i am a cooper, no care can i know. _see_ walker. cooper. ws (hubbard. cooper. msg) i am a honey bee buzzing away. _see_ hubbard. i am a busy bee. msg i am a little farmer boy. _see_ little farmer. hr i am a little gardener. _see_ hailmann. ball play. kc (hailmann. selling fruit. hr) i am a little new year. _see_ jenks. little new year. ws i am a little worsted ball. _see_ elliott. worsted ball. sl i am a sturdy farmer. _see_ fischer. trades. hr i am a young musician. _see_ musician. hc i am making a fine cat's cradle. _see_ gaynor. cat's cradle. sc i am mary, quite contrary. _see_ smeltzer. mary contrary. sz i am only a little sparrow. _see_ conrade. sparrow gs i am peter piper. _see_ smeltzer. peter piper. sz i am the jolly miller of dee. _see_ smeltzer. miller of dee. sz i am the miller. _see_ gaynor. song of the miller. ll *i am the wind. bertini. hr (cornwell. wind. el) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) (sawyer. wind. el) i am tommy tittlemouse. _see_ smeltzer. tommy tittlemouse. sz i can see with eyes aslant. _see_ conrade. crow calculations. gs *i'd like to have a partner. usi (kuecken. partners. hr) i found little footprints in the snow. _see_ neidlinger. footprints. sss i go to bed when wee chicks cheep. _see_ gaynor. early bird. ll *i had a little doggy. elliott. mg--sl *i had a little doll. gaynor. ll *i had a little nut tree. cbo--rcs *i had a little pony. bartlett. stn i had a loving comrade. _see_ good comrade. fs i had four brothers over the sea. _see_ four presents. bb (perrie, merrie, dixi. rcs) *i had two pigeons. tufts. cl i have a cat, a nice pussy cat. _see_ cole. my kitty. cm i have a little doll. _see_ tufts. my little doll, rose. fs i have a little shadow. _see_ stevenson. my shadow. ss (stanford. my shadow. ss) i have a noble comrade. _see_ gaynor. my bicycle. gs i have a pretty little card. _see_ moore. card sewing. sc i have something in my hand. _see_ sense game. hr *i have two eyes to see with. lbs i hear the bugle sounding. _see_ smith. knights and the mother. sm i heard a thousand blended notes. _see_ waller. lines written in early spring. tlb *i heard the gull. sinding. efs *i heard the voice of jesus say. dykes. tlb i know a little fellow. _see_ meissner. in japan. asc i know a place the sunbeams love. _see_ neidlinger. baby's face. es i know not what it may betoken. _see_ silcher. loreley. fs (silcher. lurlei. rcs) i know the song that the bluebird is singing. _see_ bluebird. ws (hubbard. bluebird. ws) *i lead my lambkin lovingly. smith. sl *i like little pussy. tufts. cl (elliott. i love little pussy. mg--sl ) (my kitty. hr) i like to go to school, i do. _see_ cole. jolly joe. cm i like to watch the spider. _see_ neidlinger. spider. sss i live in a little brown house. _see_ atkinson. song of the nut. gs i lived first in a little house. _see_ gilchrist. bird thoughts. sm i'll be a gay postillion. _see_ taubert. postillion. rcs i'll give to you a paper of pins. ng i'll lie me down to yonder bank. _see_ sawyer. what the little things said. ws i'll tell you how the sun rose. _see_ knowlton. day. ns i looked in the brook and saw a face. _see_ foote. brook. fsc i love little kitty. _see_ my kitty. hr (elliott. i love little pussy. mg--sl ) (tufts. i like little pussy. cl) *i love little pussy. elliott. mg--sl (my kitty. hr) (tufts. i like little pussy. cl) i love the meadow daisy bright. _see_ taubert. meadow daisy. rcs i'm a humble little thing. _see_ reinecke. daisy. sl (reinecke. field daisy. fc) (haydn. daisy. hr) i'm a jolly car driver. _see_ wiggin. car driver. kc i'm a little busy bee. _see_ bee. el i'm a little husbandman. _see_ tufts. busy little husbandman. cl *i'm a little soldier boy. conrade. gs i'm a little soldier of the cross. _see_ martin. little soldier. msl i'm a little wind a-blowing. _see_ conrade. little wind. gs i'm a merry sailor lad. _see_ gaynor. sailor. sc i'm a pretty little thing. _see_ haydn. daisy. hr (reinecke. daisy. sl ) (reinecke. field daisy. fc) i'm a robin. _see_ hubbard. bird song. msg i'm a scissors grinder. _see_ knowlton. scissors grinder. ns i'm a target round with my circles fair. _see_ gaynor. target game. sc i'm a weather vane, o. _see_ gaynor. weather vane. sc i'm going to make a dolly. _see_ cole. like baby. cm i'm little boy blue. _see_ smeltzer. boy blue. sz i'm little jack horner. _see_ smeltzer. jack horner. sz i'm looking for a partner sweet. _see_ hitte. partner sweet. dm i'm lonesome since i crossed the hill. _see_ marzials. girl i left behind me. cpp i'm on the king's land. hc i'm running and trying my papers to sell. _see_ hailmann. newsboy. hr i'm the big church bell. _see_ gaynor. ball games. sc *i'm the gabel huntsman. jb i'm the old woman. _see_ smeltzer. old woman who lives in the shoe. sz i'm very glad the spring is come. _see_ heerwart. spring joy. hr i'm walking on the levy. _see_ walking on the levy. ng *i need thee every hour. lowry. tlb i once had a sweet little doll, dears. _see_ brewster. lost doll. bss--gs i open now my pigeon house. _see_ froebel. pigeon house. mp i place my box at the back of the table. _see_ reed. table exercises for attention. tgs *i put my right hand in. smith. sl *i put my specs upon my nose. kk *i rode away to mandalay. fs *i saw a ship a-sailing. reinecke. hr (duck dance. bg) (fairy ship. bb) (reinecke. barcarole. fc) (ship a-sailing. el) *i saw three ships come sailing by. cbo (tufts. i saw three ships. cl) i saw you toss the kites on high. _see_ stevenson. wind. cgv--el--lbs--sf--sl --sm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. wind. i say, br'er rabbit. _see_ br'er rabbit. oya *i see you, i see you. bfd--kk i sell butter, i sell cheese. _see_ little farmer, no. . hr i sent a letter to my love. _see_ lost letter. jb i sent a pretty valentine to one i love so well. _see_ riley. my valentine. ll i should like to build today. hubbard. msg i should think that the man on the dromedary. _see_ neidlinger. man on the dromedary. sss i sowed the seeds of love. _see_ marzials. seeds of love. cpp i think the little skylark. _see_ cole. skylark. cm i think when a little chicken drinks. _see_ neidlinger. chicken. sss i think when i read that sweet story of old. _see_ kies. sweet old story. msl i thought i heard the old man say, goodbye, fare you well. _see_ goodbye, fare you well. neb *i took a walk one evening along the meadows sweet. kk i try to teach pussy. _see_ neidlinger. cat's cradles. sss i've a funny little playmate. _see_ gaynor. my shadow. sc *i've a little dog at home. rcs i've come to buy a target, sir. _see_ gaynor. target maker. sc i've come to choose you from the rest. _see_ gaynor. dancing game. sc i've come to see jilly jo. _see_ jilly jo. jb (variant: miss jenny jones. ng) i've come to see miss ginnia jones. _see_ miss jenny jones. ng (variant: jilly jo. jb) i've eight white sheep fast asleep. _see_ walker. eight white sheep. ws i've heard them lilting at the ewe-milking. _see_ flowers of the forest. fs i've made a basket neat and round. _see_ andreae. flower basket. hr i've many little children around me every day. _see_ kindergartner's song. kc i wake, i feel the day is here. _see_ clarke. chanticleer. stn i went to visit a friend one day. _see_ song of home work. hs i will give you the keys of heaven. _see_ keys of heaven. lbs i will hold my right hand so. _see_ gaynor. rhythm game. sc i wish i had room for my roots. _see_ smith. little gardener. lcd i wish i was in de land ob cotton. _see_ emmett. dixie's land. efs--fs i wish, little playmates, you'd skip with me today. _see_ hill. skipping song. shs i wish the winter would go. _see_ allen. winter and summer. stn i wished to pluck a pretty thing. _see_ bingham. butterfly. bm i woke before the morning. _see_ stevenson. good boy. ss (bartlett. good boy. ss) i won't have none of your weevily wheat. _see_ weevily wheat. oya i would be a butterfly. _see_ sheehan. butterfly and rosebud. osm ich ging im walde. _see_ gefunden. bb ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten. _see_ silcher. lurlei. rcs (silcher. loreley. fs) "if." cole. tc if a body meet a body. _see_ comin' thro' the rye. efs (gin a body meet a body. fs) if a child be meek and mild. _see_ happy child. ps if a lad would be a soldier. _see_ kuecken. little soldier. rcs *if all the world was apple pie. cl (if all the world were paper. bb) *if all the world were paper. bb (if all the world was apple pie. cl) if among the garden flowers. _see_ smith. choosing a flower. lcd *if blue birds bloomed. gilchrist. stn if i could but visit the sunrise land. _see_ gaynor. japanese. gs if i may. kk if i should beg politely, my pretty dear cuckoo. _see_ reinecke. child and the cuckoo. fc *if i were a fair one. jb *if i were a flower. huss. tc if i were a little frog. _see_ gaynor. frog. sc if i were a little sweet pea. _see_ conrade. sweet pea. gs if little lads. _see_ solomon. just like this. kc if on the street you chance to meet. _see_ gaynor. street car. sc if rosy sunsets never paled. smith. lcd if the children try to please. _see_ imitating. ps if the trees knew how. _see_ cole. "if." tc if thou wilt close thy drowsy eyes. _see_ chadwick. armenian lullaby. fsc if upon my flat faces you turn me round. _see_ hubbard. cylinder. msg if with all your hearts. mendelssohn. tlb if you know not which bonnet doth please you. _see_ terhune. new calash. cc if you'll listen, little children. _see_ hill. story of the christ. shs if you want to sing in tune. _see_ wiggin. keeping time. kc if you were a flower. smith. lcd if you were walking down the street. _see_ funkhouser. how do you do. fsk il etait un' bergere. _see_ bergere. bb (shepherd maiden. fs) (shepherdess. rcs) il etait un p'tit homme. _see_ father guillori. rcs (petit chasseur. bb) ilsley. cradle song. stn (fairlamb. cradle song. stn) (fisher. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) imitating. ps imitation game. wiggin. kc (little master of gymnastics. ps) (smith. choosing the game. sl ) (variant: hailmann. teacher of gymnastics. hr) impromptu. schubert. km in a country far away. _see_ gottschalk. christmas hymn. kc *in a hedge. froebel. sm (smith. in a hedge. sl ) in a lowly manger. _see_ gaynor. christmas carol. sc in a nest way up in a tree. _see_ neidlinger. robin's song. sss in a round little house. _see_ gaynor. flagman. sc in an ocean, way out yonder. _see_ kelley. dinkey-bird. fsc in and out, in and out. _see_ pratt. at the window. stn in another land and time. _see_ smith. christmas hymn. sl in autumn. hill. hs in bonnet of blue and in apron of white. _see_ reinecke. dancing song. fc in china. meissner. asc in comes the farmer, drinking all the cider. _see_ who'll be the binder? ng in day-time clouds can see to float. _see_ atkinson. clouds. sv *in dixie land, there i was born. jb in dolly's kitchen. hollaender. hmc music only. in dublin's fair city where girls are so pretty. _see_ cockles and mussels. fs (molly malone. lbs) in each tiny drop of water. _see_ neidlinger. busy steam. es in einem kuehlen grunde. _see_ glueck. mill. fs in forest and in heather. _see_ hunter's song. rcs in germany. meissner. asc in greenland. meissner. asc in holland. meissner. asc in japan. meissner. asc in little annie's garden grew all sorts of posies. _see_ smith. little annie's garden. sm in march come the march winds. _see_ knowlton. march. ns in my basket here you'll find. _see_ hurd. fruit basket. pts in my downy bed. _see_ reinecke. morning prayer. sl *in my hand a ball i hold. macomber. ws in my heart they lightly sing. _see_ mendelssohn. greeting. rcs in my little garden bed. _see_ roeske. little plant. pfp *in native worth and honour clad. _see_ haydn. in native worth. tlb in our still and mournful meadows. _see_ orpheus. tlb in port. stevenson. sf (ramsay. in port. sf) in quaint old times and years of long ago. _see_ neidlinger. signs. es in scarlet town, where i was born. _see_ marzials. barbara allen. cpp in scotland. meissner. asc in september. conrade. gs in snowy, blowy march. _see_ riley. mad tea party. ll in spring. ps in the barnyard. smith. sl in the bethlehem stable. smith. lcd in the black ball line 'twas that i did serve my time. _see_ sea shanties. neb in the branches of a tree. ws (hubbard. in the branches of a tree. msg) *in the branches of a tree. _see_ bird's nest. hs in the chill november. _see_ hill. thanksgiving day. hs in the dusky twilight. _see_ moonlight song. el in the early spring. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm in the early springtime, when the violets grow. _see_ batchellor. daisy. ws in the frosty autumn. _see_ bingham. thanksgiving song. bm in the grassy places. _see_ haydn. lambkin. gs in the heaven earth reposes. _see_ goodnight. tlb in the hedge midst thorn and briar. _see_ nest. ps (adopted from froebel. little nest. mp) in the hedgerow safely shielded. _see_ froebel. little nest. mp (adaptation: nest. ps) *in the land of france. hc in the merry month of may. _see_ gaynor. merry month of may. ll in the merry month of may. _see_ marzials. 'twas in the merry month of may. cpp in the mill. parlow. hmc music only. in the mill. reinecke. hmc music only. in the mill. schytte. hmc music only. in the oakwood, deep and green. _see_ froebel. wild boar. mp in the other gardens. _see_ stevenson. autumn fires. el--sf _for composers see_ stevenson. autumn fires. in the pleasant august. _see_ knowlton. august. ns *in the pleasant sunny meadows. allen. ws in the rain or in the sunshine. _see_ gaynor. postman. sc in the rippling water. _see_ hill. fishes at play. hs in the sky of evening. _see_ reinecke. to the evening star. fc in the smithy. parlow. hmc music only. *in the snowing and the blowing. smith. sl (cornell. march. stn) in the sombre fir-tree wood. _see_ froebel. wolf. mp in the south sea lives a whale. _see_ neidlinger. whale. sss *in the spring. fs--hc (adapted from sur le pont d'avignon. bb) (variant: on the bridge of avignon. jb--rcs) in the springtime. conrade. gs in the springtime bright and gay. _see_ hurd. seasons. pts in the sunny springtime. _see_ houseman. awake, awake. hs in the sweet scented meadows. _see_ with a hey-ding-ding. jb in the tall boughs on the tree-top. _see_ abt. birdie's cradle. hr in the tree-top. clarke. stn (knowlton. in the tree-top. ns) in the wintry woods. _see_ sloane. ferns. hs in the wood. damrosch. stn in thine eyes o mother darling. _see_ reinecke. my mother's eyes. fc in winter i get up at night. _see_ stevenson. bed in summer. cgv--cm--fsk--lbs--sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. in your tiny nest now lying. _see_ wiggin. ball play. kc inasmuch, inasmuch, inasmuch as ye have done it. _see_ wiggin. kindergartner's funeral hymn. kc independence day. schuckburgh. hs indian. gaynor. gs indian cradle song. conrade. gs (hitte. indian lullaby. dm) indian, in your blanket bound. _see_ gaynor. indian. gs indian lullaby. hitte. dm (conrade. indian cradle song. gs) indian lullaby. schwartz. bss indian maid. hatton. tlb indian song. funkhouser. fsk ingelow. flowers. bss ---- oh moon, in the night. bss ---- seven times one. bss ingraham. little miss clover. stn ---- riding on the rail. stn (bartlett. riding on the rail. stn) ---- sweet red rose. stn integer vitae. flemming. tlb into the sunshine, full of light. _see_ hadley. fountain. tlb (johns. fountain. tc) introduction song. hurd. pts introductory song. froebel. mp invitation. martin. msl "irish washerwoman." _see_ lilt (irish) fdm music only. ironing day. smith. sl (warren. ironing song. stn) ironing song. chapek. hs ironing song. warren. stn (smith. ironing day. sl ) *is john smith within? elliott. mg *isabella, isabella. jb *it came upon the midnight clear. walker. el it is lovely may. hubbard. msg (cornwell. birdie's ball. ws) it is of lincoln that we sing. _see_ atkinson. lincoln. gs it is spring. knowlton. ns it runs, it runs through the woods. _see_ forest weasel. hc it's i that am the captain. _see_ stevenson. my ship and i. sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. my ship and i. it's pipe all hands to man capstan. _see_ rolling home. neb *it's raining, it's raining, cries cuckoo, alas. taubert. rcs it swings up on the leafless tree. _see_ boott. snow filled nest. stn *it was a lover and his lass. marzials. cpp *it was a maid of my countree. marzials. cpp it was in the noon of night. _see_ dugan. babe jesus. el it was on a may. _see_ little harry hughes and the duke's daughter. ng it was the frog lived in the well. _see_ ye frogs wooing. cbo it will truly give me joy. _see_ bringing home the sheep. rcs italian national hymn. _see_ giardini. come thou almighty king. tlb *itiskit, itasket. bg--hc j'ai un long voyage a faire. _see_ he that will not when he may. fs jack and jill. smeltzer. sz *jack and jill went up the hill. cbo--km--oya (elliott. jack and jill. mg) *jack be nimble. smeltzer. sz jack frost. gaynor. sc jack frost. hill. shs jack frost. hubbard. msg jack frost. neidlinger. sss jack frost. smith. sl jack frost has arrived with his cold stinging bite. _see_ hurd. nature game. pts jack frost is a merry little elf. _see_ gaynor. jack frost. sc jack frost is a roguish little fellow. _see_ hubbard. jack frost. msg jack frost went over the hills one night. _see_ winter. hs jack horner. smeltzer. sz jack in the box. baumfelder. hmc music only jack o'lantern. funkhouser. fsk jack o'lantern. gaynor. ll jackie jingle. smeltzer. sz jackson. september. el--gs--ns jacob. forget-me-not. ws (reinecke. forget-me-not. fc--sl ) jacobs. barnyard song. hs *jail-keys. ng japanese. gaynor. gs japanese lullaby. dekoven. fsc japanese song. funkhouser. fsk jay, jay, jay, calls out the blue jay. _see_ bird's duet. fs je m'en allay a bagnolet. _see_ i rode away to mandalay. fs jenkins. kine. rcs jenks. birthday greeting. el ---- five little chickadees. ws ---- game for the senses. el ---- light bird. el ---- little new year. ws ---- orchard. el--hs ---- ring, merry christmas bells. el ---- snowballs. el ---- thanksgiving song. el ---- twilight town. el jensen. happy wanderer. hmc music only ---- windmill. hmc music only ---- windmill. sl --sm jerusalem above. ward. tlb *jerusalem the golden. ewing. tlb *jessie is both young and fair. damrosch. stn (allen. jessie. stn) *jesus bids us shine. walker. ws (hubbard. jesus bids us shine. msg) jesus is king. martin. msl *jesus' little lamb am i. martin. msl *jesus, meek and mild. martin. msl jesus, savior, pilot me. _see_ gould. pilot. tlb jesus, tender shepherd, hear me. _see_ martin. last song. msl *jesus, when he was a child. martin. msl jig.--"garry owen." page. hmc music only jig.--"st. patrick's day." bfd jig.--"st. patrick's day." fdm music only jilly jo. jb (variant: miss jenny jones. ng) jingle, jingle, go the bells. _see_ jenks. thanksgiving song. el jingle, jingle, jingle, hop, hop, hop. _see_ smith. knights and the mother. sm jingle, jingle, ring the bells. _see_ gaynor. sleighing song. sc jockey to the fair. neb *jog on, jog on the foot pathway. marzials. cpp johann, spann' an johann. _see_ taubert. hildebrandshagen. rcs *john anderson, my jo. efs *john brown had a little indian. oya john peel. fs *john smith. smeltzer. sz johnny had to learn a trade. _see_ hubbard. johnny's trade. msg *johnny is a merry boy. hr johnny is now old enough. _see_ musicians. hr johnny's trade. hubbard. msg johns. barefoot boy. tlb ---- columbus saw across the main. tc ---- doll's wooing. fsc ---- easter song. tlb ---- fountain. tc (hadley. fountain. tlb) johnson. indian cradle song. gs ---- massa dear. tlb ---- what robin told. bss (knowlton. what robin told. ns) johonnot. three little doves. ns joiner. ps (froebel. joiner. mp) (hubbard. zish, zish, zish. msg) (seidel. joiner. hr) joiner. kohl. sm jolly fat frog lived in the river swim. _see_ ye frog and ye crow. cbo jolly frogs hop in the pond. _see_ frogs. ps *jolly is the miller. hc jolly joe. cole. cm jolly miller. cbo--fs *jolly old saint nicholas. hr jolly rover. lbs jolly tester. bb (elliott. jolly tester. mg) jonson. drink to me only with thine eyes. efs--fs ---- love song. tlb journey of the logs. neidlinger. es joy, hope and love. damrosch. stn joy to the world. _see_ handel. antioch. tlb *joyfully, joyfully carol. thayer. ws joyous peasant. schumann. hmc music only joyous tones of christmas chimes. _see_ ogden. christmas carol. kc joyously we gather. _see_ on froebel's birthday. hs juggler. hmc music only. *july. knowlton. ns jumping jack. chavagnat. hmc music only. jumping the rope. loeschhorn. hmc music only. june. schnecker. tlb *june roses. knowlton. ns "just as i am," thine own to be. _see_ martin. child's hymn. msl just like this. solomon. kc just see that child running. _see_ smith. obedient. lcd just the thing. hr kamarinskaia. burchenal. bfd karganoff. brook. hmc music only. ---- game of tag. hmc music only. ---- nature's dream. hmc music only. katydid. meissner. asc katydid song. _see_ knowlton. august. ns keats. thing of beauty. tlb keep moving. bg keeping time. wiggin. kc keepsake mill. stevenson. lbs (bell. keepsake mill. lbs) kelley. dinkey bird. fsc kelly. o captain, my captain. tlb kendall. christmas, glad christmas. hs kern. fourth of july. hs ---- frau schwalbe. ll kettle. neidlinger. sss key. star spangled banner. efs--fs--gs--msg keys of heaven. lbs kies. cheerful gift. msl ---- child jesus. msl (gade. child jesus. rcs) ---- children's day. msl ---- come, let our lives like jesus' shine. msl ---- dear little lambs in happy fold. msl ---- final triumph. msl ---- greeting to spring. msl (gade. greeting to spring. rcs) ---- hark, what mean the children's voices. msl ---- lilies and the cross. msl ---- little lambs. msl ---- love of jesus. msl ---- morning hymn of praise. msl ---- reapers. msl ---- rest song. msl ---- see, the gospel light is shining. msl ---- shepherd leads his flock. msl ---- sweet old story. msl ---- violet. msl (reinecke. violet. fc--rcs--sl --ws) (violet. kc) ---- virgin's cradle song. msl (barnby. cradle song of the virgin. rcs) kimi-go-yo. tlb kind deeds. cornwell. el kind deeds are the gardens. _see_ cornwell. kind deeds. el kind jesus ward zur welt gebracht. _see_ gade. child jesus. rcs (kies. child jesus. msl) kindergartner's funeral hymn. wiggin. kc kindergartner's morning greeting. wiggin. kc kindergartner's song. kc kinderpolka. fdm kinderwacht. _see_ schumann. guardian angels. fs kindness. koehler. hr *kine, the kine, are homeward going. jenkins. rcs king arthur. cbo (gaynor. king arthur. ll) (reinecke. good king arthur. fc) *king arthur was king william's son. ng (variant: king william. hc--oya--usi) king cole. cbo (old king cole. fs--lbs) *king of france. hc--bg--mc--usi king of the barbarees. jb king pansy. gaynor. ll *king william was king james' son. hc--oya--usi (variant: king arthur was king william's son. ng) king's daughter sat in her lofty bow'r. _see_ kjerulf. twilight musing. fs king's land. hc kingsley. as joseph was a-walking. gs ---- lost doll. bss--gs ---- sands of dee. tlb ---- three fishers. tlb ---- when all the world is young. fs kipling. recessional. tlb kissing time. chadwick. fsc kit, kit, kit, kitty kitty kitty. _see_ kitty pretty. lbs kitchen carol. terhune. cc kite. gaynor. ll kite. hurd. pts (variant: reed. kite. tgs) (adapted from froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp) (variant: hubbard. target. msg) kite time. knowlton. ns kitten and the bow-wow. neidlinger. sss kittie put the kettle on. _see_ housekeeping. ng (variant: polly put the kettle on. bb--oya) kitty cat. gilchrist. stn (kitty cat and the mouse. rcs) (walker. kitty cat and the mouse. ws) kitty cat and the mouse. rcs (gilchrist. kitty cat. stn) (walker. kitty cat and the mouse. ws) kitty cat, i hear a mouse. _see_ kitty cat and the mouse. rcs (gilchrist. kitty cat. stn) (walker. kitty cat and the mouse. ws) kitty cat, kitty cat, so smooth is your fur. _see_ meissner. touching. asc *kitty white so slyly comes. bg--rcs--ws kjerulf. spring song. sl ---- twilight musing. fs klappdans. fdm music only. klein. my mother's memory. tlb kleinmichel. sleighride. hmc music only kling, kling, kling. _see_ reinecke. winter winds are blowing. sl knight. mouse and the cat. hs knight and the lady. jb knights and the bad child. smith. sm knights and the good child. froebel. mp (hubbard. five knights and good child. msg) knights and the good child. smith. sm knights and the ill-humored child. froebel. mp (hubbard. five knights and bad child. msg) knights and the mother. smith. sm *knock at the door. lbs knots of may. ng (nuts in may. bg--jb--lbs--usi) knotted handkerchief. kk know you the song that the bluebird is singing? _see_ conrade. bird songs. gs knowest thou, how many star eyes. _see_ god knows. rcs (hubbard. do you know how many stars? msg) knowledge and wisdom. purcell. rcs knowlton. afternoon tea. ns ---- april. ns ---- april rain. ns ---- august. ns ---- call of the crow. ns ---- calling the violet. ns ---- captive bird. ns ---- clovers. ns ---- crows. ns ---- daisy nurses. ns (conrade. daisy nurses. gs) ---- dandelion. ns ---- dandelion-cycle. ns ---- day. ns ---- december. ns ---- family drum corps. ns ---- family drum corps. hmc music only ---- february. ns ---- feeding the chickens. ns ---- flying kites. hmc music only ---- games to teach five. ns ---- games with first kindergarten gift. ns ---- god loves his little children. ns ---- grasshoppers' dance. hmc music only. ---- hymn for a child. ns ---- hymn for national holiday. ns ---- in the tree top. ns (clarke. in the tree top. stn) ---- it is lovely spring. ns ---- january. ns ---- july. ns ---- june roses. ns ---- kite time. ns ---- little bo-peep. ns ---- little fairy. ns ---- little friends. ns ---- little hickory nut. ns ---- litany. ns ---- march. ns ---- may. ns ---- merry bells of easter. ns ---- merry lay of june. ns ---- merry wind. ns ---- morning prayer. ns ---- news for gardeners. ns ---- north and south. ns ---- november. ns ---- now the day is over. ns (barnby. now the day is over. sl --tlb) ---- october. ns ---- oh, the merry lay of june. ns ---- out of the window. ns ---- over in the meadow. ns (variant: hubbard. lizzards. msg) ---- patriotic hymn. ns ---- pinky wild rose. ns ---- points of the compass. ns ---- postman. ns ---- pussy willow. ns ---- ripened leaves. ns ---- rollicking robin. ns ---- scissors grinder. ns ---- scissors grinder. hmc music only. ---- see saw. hmc music only. ---- september. ns (conrade. september. gs) (mclellan. september. el) ---- sequel to an old story. ns ---- snowballs. ns ---- sow, sew, so. ns ---- summer showers. ns ---- ten little ponies. ns ---- what robin told. ns (johnson. what robin told. bss) koehler. arch. hr ---- children, children, quick make speed. hr ---- clocks and watches. hr ---- farewell work. hr ---- farmer. hr (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (can you show us how the farmer? jb) (froebel. farmer. sm) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (shall i show you how the farmer. rsc) ---- forward, homeward. hr ---- good-bye song. hr ---- i am a builder. hr ---- kindness. hr ---- let us march. hr (marching, no. . ps) ---- mice. hr ---- miller. hr ---- race. hr ---- skating. hr ---- skipping. hr ---- snail. hr (hubbard. snail. msg) (snail. ps--bg) (snail game. hc) (walker. snail. ws) ---- softly, softly, softly. hr ---- storm. hr ---- time for play. hr kohl. ball will wander. hr ---- bird's nest. sm ---- fish in the brook. sm ---- flower basket. sm ---- joiner. sm ---- light bird. sm ---- little fish. hr (fishes. ps) ---- pendulum. hr ---- pigeon house. hr (froebel. pigeon house. mp) (pigeon house. ps) (walker. pigeon song. ws) ---- pigeon house. sm ---- weathervane. sm komarno. bfd komarno. fdm music only komm, komm, mein liebes spitzchen. _see_ fritz and spitz. rcs komm, lieber mai. _see_ come, lovely may. mozart. rcs kommt gezogen. _see_ taubert. like a fairy. rcs kommt heran! kommt heran lockt's euch an auf den weiten. _see_ come, come, come. rcs koschat. city lad and country lass. efs koschat. clod. efs krakoviak. fs kroeger. clown elephant. hmc music only ---- squirrels chatter. hmc music only ---- young thoughts have music. tlb kuecken. how can i leave thee? fs ---- little soldier. rcs ---- partners. hr (i'd like to have a partner. usi) ---- robin redbreast. hr ---- with footsteps firm. sl kuhlan. earth and clouds. hr kuk-kuk, kuk-kuk, ruf aus dem wald. _see_ messenger of spring. rcs kull-dansen. (lassie dance.) bfd kull-dansen. fdm music only. kullak. evening bell. hmc music only ---- grand parade. hmc music only ---- little spinning song. hmc music only labor day. gaynor. gs labor game. hurd. pts lach. spring rain. sl laddie is in the circle. _see_ laddie with red golden band. kk laddie with red golden band. kk lads and lassies. gaynor. ll lads and lassies out a-walking. _see_ social game. hc lady bird. schumann. fs *lady bird, lady bird, fly away home. lbs *lady bird, lady bird, fly away home. brown. el lady bug. gaynor. sc *lady fair, oh, lady fair. hc lady mine, thy casement open. _see_ barnby. morning song. tlb lady moon, lady moon, sailing so high. _see_ smith. baby and the moon. sl (baby and the moon. sm) lady moon, lady moon, where are you roving? _see_ sawyer. lady moon. ws (hubbard. lady moon. msg) laendler. _see_ two stars. fs lake. tlb lamb. which way does the wind blow? ws lamb. chadwick. tlb lambkin. haydn. gs lambkins frisk and the lambkins play. _see_ gaynor. happy lambkins. sc lambs. roeske. pfp lamplighter. mueller. shs lamplighter. stevenson. lbs (bell. lamplighter. lbs) lamps now glitter down the street. _see_ stevenson. armies in the fire. sf (ramsay. armies in the fire. sf) land. my old friend john. fs land of counterpane. lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. land of counterpane. land of nod. gaynor. sc land of nod. stevenson. cgv--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. land of nod. land of story books. stevenson. ss (bartlett. land of story books. ss) land to the leeward. foote. tc land where the banners wave last in the sun. _see_ paine. freedom, our queen. tc (strong. freedom, our queen. tc) lands that need the gospel. martin. msl lang. my love dwelt in a northern land. tlb ---- to the fringed gentian. tlb ---- true freedom. tlb lange. cosaque. hmc music only language lesson. gaynor. sc larcom. calling the violet. ns ---- childhood's gold. stn ---- easter hymn. ws ---- in the tree top. ns--stn ---- little rivulet. hr ---- rollicking robin. ns ---- run, little rivulet, run. ws ---- shower and flower. ws ---- sing-away bird. stn ---- sing, little children, sing. kc ---- tiny little snowflakes. ws ---- wind flowers. hs largo. tlb lark. efs lark. sheehan. osm *lark, sweet lark. house. tc larned. raindrops. hs ---- sunbeams. hs lass of richmond hill. hook. fs--tlb lass with the delicate air. efs "lassie." see kull-dansen. fdm music only. *lassie and i, and lassie and i. kk lassie dance. bfd lassus. matona, lovely maiden. tlb last evening cousin peter came. _see_ cousin peter. lbs last night these songs were finished. _see_ neidlinger. carnival. es last rose of summer. fs (tis the last rose of summer. efs) last song. martin. msl last to the chamber where i lie. see stevenson. in port. sf (ramsay. in port. sf) laud'num bunches. neb music only "laudnum bunches." see morris dance. bfd music only lavender cry. maitland. neb *lavender's blue, diddle, diddle. cbo--fs--rcs lawson. come live with me. cpp lay them neatly edge to edge. _see_ smith. garden fence. sl lay your head upon my arm. _see_ atkinson. doll's cradle song. gs lazy cat. hr (elliott. lazy cat. mg) *lazy mary. ng lazy sheep, pray tell us why. _see_ marie antoinette. children and the sheep. hr (cole. sheep. cm) (hill. children and the sheep. shs) *lead, kindly light. dykes. tlb leap frog. loomis. hmc music only learning to dance. schoenefeld. hmc music only leather bottel. marzials. cpp *leaves are green. bg--usi leaves, flowers and fruits. sherwood. hs leaves had a party one autumn day. _see_ gaynor. leaves' party. sc leaves' party. gaynor. sc leaves today are whirling. _see_ thalberg. november, no. . gs lecocq. valentine day, no. . gs lee. toyman. hs left foot first and then the right. _see_ marching exercise. kc left foot! right foot! sl left, left! listen to the music. _see_ gaynor. marching song. sc *leg over leg as the dog goes to dover. lbs legend of the christmas tree. gaynor. sc leise zieht durch mein gemueth. _see_ mendelssohn. greeting. rcs lengthwise, crosswise. froebel. mp (hubbard. target. msg) (adaptation: hurd. kite. pts) (adaptation: reed. kite. tgs) lesson from the bee. cole. cm (tufts. bust bee. cl) lesson in arithmetic. gaynor. ll let little hands bring blossoms sweet. _see_ rossini. bring blossoms sweet. gs let me learn a busy trade. wiggin. trade game, i. kc (workingman. hr) let me now thy finger take. _see_ froebel. little artist. mp let others seek the shady places. _see_ gaynor. song of the sunflower. ll let our voices, dearest comrades. _see_ reading. dulce domum. tlb let's all sing together. _see_ hurd. goodbye. pts *let's go sliding down the hill. frazer. bss let's have a game with a little ball. _see_ hailmann. tossing game. hr let's play a new game, just show us the way. _see_ hurd. introduction song. pts let's play soldiers. becker. hmc music only let's sing a song about the horse. _see_ neidlinger. horse. es let's stand on the corner. _see_ hailmann. street car. hr let the breezes, the breezes blow. _see_ gaynor. kite. ll let the feet go tramp, tramp, tramp! _see_ tramp, tramp, tramp! hr (hubbard. let your feet tramp, tramp. msg) (let the feet go tramp. bg) let us all be quiet. gaynor. sc let us all be quiet. _see_ gaynor. dictation exercises with the blocks. sc let us all in concert sing. _see_ barnby. alleluia. tlb let us all like little mice. _see_ gaynor. let us all be quiet. sc let us build a boat together. _see_ rust. boat. el *let us chase the squirrel. preston. hs let us choose a hiding place. _see_ elliott. hiding the ball. sl let us find a hiding place. _see_ hiding the stone. ps let us form a circle here. _see_ gaynor. drop the handkerchief. sc let us give a joyous greeting. _see_ jenks. birthday greeting. el let us make a garden. gaynor. ll *let us march without a blunder. koehler. hr (marching, no. . ps) let us now begin our sawing. _see_ stangenberger. sawyer. hr (sawing game. msg--ws) (sawyer. ps) let us now our garden make. _see_ hurd. garden game. pts let us pace around in singing. _see_ guessing, no. . ps let us play we're grown folks. _see_ neidlinger. dance. sss let us say the alphabet. _see_ a b c d. lbs let us sing to him whose hand. _see_ knowlton. hymn for national holiday. ns let us sing to-day. see reed. froebel's birthday. hs let us stand quite still and listen. _see_ hubbard. hearing. msc let us to the wheelwright go. _see_ froebel. wheelwright. mp (hubbard. wheelwright. msg) *let your feet tramp, tramp. hubbard. msg (let the feet go tramp. bg) (tramp, tramp, tramp. hr) let your hands so loudly clap, clap, clap. _see_ gaynor. clapping song. sc letter to santa claus. gaynor. sc letters. neidlinger. es libby. shoemaker. ws lichner. mazurka. hmc music only ---- polka. hmc music only liebchen, ade. _see_ swallow, good-bye. fs liesel, the goose girl. gaynor. ll light and shadow. hill. shs light bird. gaynor. sc light bird. jenks. el light bird. kohl. sm light bird. smith. sl (adapted from froebel. light bird. mp) (variant: hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) light bird. smith. sm light bird. stetson. hs light bird on the wall. froebel. mp (hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) (adaptation: smith. light bird. sl ) light is fading out. _see_ foster. lullaby. tc light within the window gleams. _see_ froebel. church window and church door. mp (hubbard. church bell. msg) (variant: froebel. church. sl ) lighthouse. hurd. pts lighthouse. smith. lcd lightly fairies go tripping to and fro. _see_ fairy play. kk lightly in my heart they sing. _see_ gade. greeting to spring. rcs (kies. greeting to spring. msl) lightly, lightly falls the snow. _see_ schubert. winter song. ws lightly our boat is rocking. _see_ ring. boating song. sc *lightly row, lightly row! rcs (boat song. hr--ws) lightly swinging in his cradle. _see_ brewster. light bird in the cradle. bss lightly trip on dancing feet. _see_ gaynor. flowers' ball. ll lights from the parlor and kitchen shone out. _see_ stevenson. escape at bedtime. cgv (fisher. escape at bedtime. cgv) like a band in tree tops playing. _see_ grove. bird band. hs like a fairy. taubert. rcs like a leaf or feather in the windy, windy weather. _see_ smith. whirlabout. lcd *like as a father. cherubini. tlb like baby. cole. cm like gathering thunder spreads a cry. _see_ wilhelm. watch on the rhine. fs (wilhelm. watch by the rhine. efs) like silver lamps in a distant shrine. _see_ stegall. christmas carol. rcs (stegall. manger throne. fs) like small curled feathers white and soft. _see_ sawyer. while shepherds watched their flocks by night. el *like the ball we move around. call. ws lilies and the cross. kies. msl lilies are not whiter. _see_ kies. lilies and the cross. msl *lilies sweet. spohr. hs lilt: "the irish washerwoman." fdm music only *lily white and fair. kk lily white, then violet blue. _see_ smith. flower garden. lcd lincoln. atkinson. gs lindbald. apple orchard. efs ---- dalecarlian maiden's song. efs lindsay. memorial day. hs lines written in early spring. waller. tlb lips say good morning. _see_ smith. morning greeting. sl *list, fairest maiden, will you tread a dance with me? kk list! the bells swing far and near. _see_ thompson. glad christmas tide. el list to the song of the wooden shoon. _see_ meissner. in germany. asc listen birds! ah, pretty birds. _see_ gaynor. farewell to the birds. sc listen! countless bees are humming. _see_ osgood. happy spring waltz. tc listen, listen! it seems to me i hear it thunder. _see_ raining. hr listen, listen, listen while i sing. _see_ damrosch. joy, hope and love. stn listen, little children, maybe you will hear. _see_ cole. sunbeam voices. cm listen, lordlings, unto me. _see_ carol for christmas eve. rcs listen, mother dearest! _see_ schwartz. mother's birthday. bss listen, the sun is calling. _see_ gaynor. growing. gs litany. knowlton. ns little acts of kindness. _see_ koehler. kindness. hr little annie's garden. smith. sm little artist. froebel. mp little ball hops out my hand. _see_ hubbard. hall. msg little ball lies in my hand. _see_ asleep. hr (ball song, no. . ps) (hubbard. little ball lies in my hand. msg) (mozart. going to sleep. hr) little ball is lying here. _see_ little ball lies in my hand. *little ball pass along. sawyer. ws little bird. rcs *little bird, from out my hand. smith. sl little bird hops in the nest. _see_ hops in the nest. hr little bird in the cradle. brewster. bss little bird, little bird, come to me. _see_ maiden and the bird. hr little bird made a nest. hubbard. msg little bird on weary pinion. _see_ nevin. return of the birds. tc little bird sat on the twig of a tree. _see_ hubbard. bird on the tree. msg *little bird with eager wing. conrade. gs little bird, you are welcome. _see_ carrier dove. hr little birdie. neidlinger. sss little birdie. tufts. cl (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) *little birdie in a tree. pollock. hr little birdies. cole. cm little birds hop out of the nest. _see_ hubbard. hopping birds. msg little black cricket once lived in a chink. _see_ conrade. chorister. gs little blue bird sat on a tree. _see_ walker. song of the blue bird. el *little blue jay, what does she say? conrade. gs little bo-peep. km (bo-peep. cbo) (conrade. little bo-peep. gs) (elliott. little bo-peep. mg) little bo-peep. knowlton. ns little bo-peep. smeltzer. sz little boy blue. cornwell. el (dugan. little boy blue: ws) little boy blue. dekoven. fsc *little boy blue, come blow your horn. elliott. sl *little boy bubble. conrade. gs little boy got out of bed. _see_ tufts. cock-a-doodle-do! cl little boy lay dreaming. _see_ osgood. little dreamer. rcs (tufts. little dreamer. cl) little boy went walking one frosty winter's day. _see_ sherwood. little boy's walk in winter. hs little boy went walking one lovely summer's day. _see_ roeske. little boy's walk. pfp little boys in labrador would stare. _see_ knowlton. north and south. ns little boy's walk. roeske. pfp little boy's walk in winter. sherwood. hs *little brother in a cot. tufts. cl little brown baby so round and so wee. _see_ knowlton. little hickory nut. ns *little brown birds. tufts. cl little brown brother. _see_ conrade. baby seed songs. gs little brown hands. hubbard. msg little brown seed. phippen. el little brown sparrows flying around. _see_ roeske. sparrows. pfp little brown thrush. hubbard. msg little brownies, come and frolic. _see_ brownie polska. kk little card so dainty. _see_ sewing song. ws little cat climbs up the tree. _see_ fischer. cat on the tree. hr little chickens. hailmann. hr little child. smith. fsc little child asleep. smith. sl little child is in its bed. _see_ smith. little child asleep. sl little child to us has sped. _see_ seidel. new year. hr little children, can you tell. _see_ sawyer. old english carol. el little children, come let us form our ring. _see_ third ring song. shs little children, leave your play. _see_ smith. harvest song. sl little children, little children. _see_ mozart. lullaby. shs little child's gift carol. chapek. hs. *little cock sparrow sat on a high tree. bb--fs (elliott. little cock-sparrow. mg) little cossack. fs (russian lullaby. tlb) little cousins, red and brown. _see_ smith. hard and soft balls. sl little cunning pussy, tell me. _see_ pussy on the roof. ps little dancing song. smith. lcd little disaster. bb little dog says bow-wow-wow! _see_ gaynor. foreign tongues. sc little doggie. cole. cm *little dove with wings wide spreading. kk *little dove, you are welcome. walker. ws little doves. wiggin. kc (conrade. little doves. gs) little dreamer. osgood. rcs (tufts. little dreamer. cl) little drops of dew. _see_ cole. dewdrop. cm little drops of water. _see_ tufts. little things. cl *little drops of water in a tiny shady spring. neidlinger. es little dustman. brahms. efs (brahms. lullaby. shs) little elf. schoenefeld. hmc music only little elsie. stanley. stn little fairy. knowlton. ns little farmer, no's. and . hr little feet and lips be quiet. _see_ gaynor. choosing a game. sc little fir tree in a forest grew. _see_ gaynor. legend of the christmas tree. sc little fish. kohl. hr (fishes. ps) *little fishes in the brook. froebel. hr. little flowers came from the ground. _see_ smith. easter song. sl (at easter time. ws) little flowers you love me so. _see_ tufts. little girl's fancies. cl *little four-years. frazer. bss little french doll was a dear little doll. _see_ johns. doll's wooing. fsc little friends. knowlton. ns little frog in a pond am i. _see_ gaynor. frog and horse. sc little frogs hop in the pond. _see_ hailmann. hopping. hr little frosty snowflakes. _see_ smith. to a snowflake. lcd little game for little folks. ws little gardener. sm little gardener. froebel. mp (hubbard. garden bed. msg) little gardener. reinecke. sm little gardener. smith. sl little gardener. smith. lcd *little gardens. walker. ws little geese your feathers preen. _see_ gaynor. liesel, the goose-girl. ll. little girl's fancies. tufts. cl little gold leaf dancing gaily on the tree. _see_ dugan. wind and the leaves. el little gray pigeon. _see_ gaynor. pigeon. sc little gypsy dandelion. _see_ bingham. dandelion. bm little hamburger. fdm music only little harry hughes and the duke's daughter. ng little hickory nut. knowlton. ns little housewife. gaynor. sc little indian maiden, have you come to play? _see_ terhune. red and white. cc little indian, sioux, or crow. _see_ stevenson. foreign children. cgv--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. foreign children. little indians. smeltzer. sz *little jack-a-dandy. smeltzer. sz *little jack frost went up the hill. hr (cornwell. little jack frost. ws) (walker. little jack frost. ws) *little jack horner sat in a corner. cbo (elliott. little jack horner. mg) (gaynor. little jack horner. ll) *little john bottlejohn. bristow. stn (gilchrist. little john bottlejohn. stn) (stanley. little john bottlejohn. stn) little john loves to wander. _see_ child's greeting. ps little juggler. loeschhorn. hmc music only little jumping joan. elliott. mg little jutlander. fdm music only little karen. heise. efs little kitten goes "me-yow." _see_ neidlinger. kitten and the bow-wow. sss *little laddie, let's be dancing. kk little lamb. neidlinger. sss little lamb, who made thee? _see_ chadwick. lamb. tlb *little lamb so white and fair. ws (kies. little lambs. msl) little loveliest lady mine. _see_ fairlamb. valentine. stn (damrosch. valentine. stn) little maid margery. palmer. stn *little maid, pretty maid. elliott. mg (gaynor. little maid, pretty maid. ll) little maiden and the stars. froebel. mp little maiden and the stars. osgood. sm little man and maid. bb--fs little man bought him a big bass drum. _see_ knowlton. family drum corps. ns little man in a fix. fdm music only little master of gymnastics. ps (smith. choosing the game. sl ) (wiggin. imitation game. kc) (adaptation.: hailmann. teacher of gymnastics. hr) little mermaid. fairlamb. stn little mice. smith. sl *little mice are creeping. morton. ws little miss careful. _see_ smith. careful. lcd little miss clover. ingraham. stn little miss daisy lives in the grass. _see_ gaynor. sc *little miss muffet, so frightened is she. smeltzer. sz *little mistress sans merci. foote. fsc *little moon. cornwell. el little nest. froebel. mp little new year. jenks. ws little-oh-dear. dekoven. fsc little peach in an orchard grew. _see_ smith. little peach. fsc little plant. brown. el little plant. gilchrist. sm little plant. roeske. pfp little playmate, dance with me. _see_ humperdink. hansel and gretel. hc little playmate, walk with me. _see_ hayden. visiting game. hc little polly flinders. _see_ polly flinders. lbs little polly flinders always loved the fire. _see_ smeltzer. polly flinders. sz little pony. el little pony. hering. hr little rain-drop, sighing. _see_ barnby. west wind. tc little rain-drops. tufts. cl little red lark. efs--fs little river runs away. _see_ chadwick. brook. tc little rivulet. bertini. hr (boott. run, little rivulet, run. rcs--ws) *little robin redbreast. bingham. bm little robin redbreast sat upon a tree. _see_ bacon. robin redbreast. el little robin redbreasts. tufts. cl little round head and a little red bonnet. _see_ ingraham. little miss clover. stn little seeds have a nice warm bed. _see_ sheehan. seed song. osm little sheep were fast asleep. _see_ allen. christmas carol. el little shoemaker. gaynor. sc little shoes are sold at the doorway of heaven. _see_ blake. dodo. rcs little sir william. maitland. neb little snowflakes falling lightly. _see_ knowlton. little friends. ns little soldier. kuecken. rcs little soldier. martin. msl little soldiers. hitte. dm little song of gratitude. gs little songs all full of joy. _see_ verdi. little song of gratitude. gs little songs and dances. smith. sl little spinning song. kullak. hmc music only. little squirrel, living there. _see_ roeske. squirrel. pfp *little squirrels, crack your nuts. stoeckel. stn little star. hubbard. msg little star that shines so bright. _see_ elliott. child and the star. sl --sm--mg *little stars from night's dark skies. atkinson. sv little stream goes laughing by. _see_ gaynor. boating. sc little sunbeam. elliott. sl little things. tufts. cl *little thumb is one. froebel. mp *little tommy titmouse. oya *little tommy tucker. elliott. mg little town of bethlehem. martin. msl little toy dog is covered with dust. _see_ dekoven. little boy blue. fsc little travelers. gilchrist. hs little vocal lesson. gaynor. sc little waiters. wiggin. kc little washerwoman. kk (as we go round the mulberry bush. ng) (going round the mulberry bush. hr) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs) little weary winged bees. _see_ randegger. at night. tc little white cloudlets. _see_ smith. snow clouds. sl *little white daisy. smith. sl *little white feathers. smith. sl (conrade. little white feathers. gs) *little white lily sat by a stone. tufts. cl (smith. little white lily. ws) (walker. little white lily. sl ) little white snowdrop, just waking up. _see_ waiting to grow. el (turner. waiting to grow. el) little wind. conrade. gs little window. beethoven. hr little window. froebel. mp (wiggin. window. kc) (hubbard. oh! see the light. msg) little window. gilchrist. sm little woman. bb (there was a little woman. rcs) little woodpecker and i. walker. ws little worm. hubbard. msg *little yellow dandelion. gaynor. sc little yellow goldenrod. _see_ conrade. autumn of flowers. gs little yellowhead. neidlinger. sss lively jig. neb liverpool girls. neb lizzards. hubbard. msg (adaptation: knowlton. over in the meadow. ns) lo, here i step within the ring. _see_ by streamlet and leafy dale. kk lo! sunk in each others' arms they lie. _see_ froebel. brothers and sisters. mp (hubbard. brothers and sisters. msg) loag. in the springtime. gs *loaves are burning. jb loch lomond. efs--fs--tlb locomotive. montz. ims loeschhorn. jumping the rope. hmc --mo music only. ---- little juggler. hmc music only. ---- rider upon the rockinghorse. hmc music only. logs begin their journey in the mountains. _see_ neidlinger. journey of the logs. es *london bridge is falling down. bg--hc--jb--ng--oya--usi (adaptation: london bridge. bb) (adaptation: london bridge. neb ) (adaptation: london bridge. rcs) lonely bird. ps long. little wind. gs long ago in bethlehem, the gentle mother mild. _see_ reed. christmas. hs long ere the morn expects the return of apollo from the ocean queen. _see_ marzials. hunter in his career. cpp long long ago the angels sang. _see_ elliott. christmas carol. sl long, long time, and a long time ago. _see_ long time ago. neb *long, long weary day. efs long time ago. neb long years ago, by bethlehem town. _see_ martin. when jesus came. msl long years ago in bethlehem. _see_ reed. christmas. hs--tgs long years ago in david's town. _see_ kies. come, let our lives like jesus' shine. msl longfellow. holy spirit, truth divine. tlb longfellow. atkinson. gs longing. cole. tlb longing for spring. reinecke. rcs looby light. bb (here we come. looby loo. jb) (looby loo. bg--hc--neb ) (looby looby. lbs) looby loo. neb --bg--hc (here we come. looby loo. jb) (looby light. bb) (looby looby. lbs) looby, looby. lbs (here we come, looby loo. jb) (looby light. bb) (looby loo. bg--hc--neb ) look at little harry. _see_ wiggin. imitation game. kc (little master of gymnastics. ps) (smith. choosing the game. sl ) look at our teacher, showing the game. _see_ hailmann. teacher of gymnastics. hr (variant: little master of gymnastics. ps) look at the moon. _see_ o look at the moon. gilchrist. sm (variant: smith. choosing the game. sl ) (variant: wiggin. imitation game. kc) look at those pretty balls. _see_ ball song, no. . ps look far across the waves with me. _see_ hurd. lighthouse. pts look! here's a pretty pigeon house! _see_ tufts. pigeon house. cl look, look! there goes the faithful watchman. _see_ terhune. watchman. cc look, there the stork is on the wing. _see_ stork, and the frogs. ps look up! look up. _see_ gaynor. world wonders. sc look up, look up, good people. _see_ smith. weather vane. lcd look! who's coming down the street. _see_ warner. postman. kc loomis. bicycle. hmc music only. ---- leap frog. hmc music only. ---- merry-go-round. hmc music only. ---- pickaninnies picnic. hmc music only. ---- playing golf. hmc music only. ---- return ball. hmc music only. ---- uncrowned kings. tlb lord, a tired child am i. _see_ evening song. sl *lord, in thy great, thy glorious name. schumann. tlb *lord lovell. fs lord of our fathers known of old. _see_ huss. recessional. tlb lord, we thank thee for this day. _see_ funkhouser. prayer. fsk lord, we thank thee for this day. _see_ gaynor. morning prayer. sc lord, who ordained for mankind. _see_ teacher's hymn. i. kc lordly cock. smith. lcd lord's day. damrosch. stn lorelei. _see_ silcher. loreley. fs (silcher. lurlei. rcs) loreley. silcher. fs (silcher. lurlei. rcs) lorsque j'etais petit. _see_ when i was shepherd. fs lost chicken. brahms. fs lost doll. brewster. bss--gs lost letter. jb lost rose seed. neidlinger. es lost, the summer. conrade. gs lott' ist tod. fdm music only. loure. bach. hmc music only. love and kindness we may measure. _see_ tufts. golden rule. cl love and mirth. rcs *love divine, all love excelling. zundel. tlb love of jesus. kies. msl love song. cauffman. tlb *love virtue, love virtue. clarke. tlb *love wakes and weeps. callcott. tlb love will find out the way. marzials. cpp lovely ball of golden light! we sing to you a sweet good night. _see_ hill. sunsets. hs lovely ball of golden light, we thank you for the sunshine bright. _see_ hill. sunrise. hs lovely bright star, you shine from afar. _see_ reinecke. evening star. fc lovely lady in the sky. _see_ smith. silver night. sv lovely little flow'ret. _see_ jacob. forget-me-not. ws (reinecke. forget-me-not. fc--sl ) lovely little violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws _for composers_ see schults. violet. *lovely lovely may. ws lovely may. hubbard. msg lovely minka. fs lovely moon, lovely moon. _see_ hill. moon song. shs lover. girl i left behind me. efs ---- low-backed car. efs--fs love's parting. efs loving jesus, meek and mild. _see_ smith. hymn for a little child. sl loving mother, kind and true. _see_ naegeli. father and mother's care. shs low-backed car. efs--fs lowell. fountain. tlb--tc ---- june. tlb ---- longing. tlb ---- true freedom. tlb lowry. i need thee every hour. tlb *lucy locket lost her pocket. bb--oya (arne. lucy locket. fs) louisella. _see_ dairy. fs lullaby. rcs lullaby. allen. stn (fairlamb. lullaby. stn) lullaby. brahms. shs (brahms. little dustman. efs) lullaby. elliott. mg--sm (lullaby. hr) (walker. baby lullaby. ws) lullaby. fairlamb. stn (allen. lullaby. stn) lullaby. foote. tlb (henderson. golden slumbers kiss your eyes. stn) (golden slumbers kiss your eyes. rcs) lullaby. foster. tc lullaby. gaynor. sc lullaby. giffe. bss lullaby. mozart. shs lullaby. reed. tgs lullaby and good morning. hill. shs lullaby and good-night! _see_ brahms. cradle song. fs *lullaby baby, go to sleep. bss lullaby ball song. kc lullaby, lullaby, baby must sleep. _see_ tufts. cradle song. cl lullaby, lullaby, twilight is falling. _see_ dietrich. woodland lullaby. tc lullaby, my darling, shut your eyes to sleep. _see_ giffe. lullaby. bss lullaby song. hahn. bss lullabye. hurd. pts lully. by the moon's pale light. fs lurlei. silcher. rcs (silcher. loreley. fs) "lust'ger schweizerbu'" _see_ country dance, i. fdm music only luther. ein' feste burg. tlb (luther. mighty fortress is our god. efs) (luther. safe stronghold. fs) lvoff. we praise thee, lord. fs ---- rise, crowned with light. tlb lyndhurst. tlb *m. o. for maudie-o. jb ma normandie. _see_ berat. my normandy. fs macdonald. little white lily. cl (smith. little white lily. sl ) (walker. little white lily. ws) macfarren. mid-summer night's dream. tlb ---- single chants. hmc music only ---- three fishes. tlb mchugh. october. gs macirone. o hush thee, my baby. fs mackenzie. things of beauty. tc ---- through love to light. tc mclellan. christmas bells. el ---- september. el (conrade. september. gs) (knowlton. september. ns) macomber. in my hand a ball i hold. ws macy. autumn leaves. el ---- clover blossoms. el mad tea party. riley. ll madam, i am come a-courting. _see_ quaker courtship. ng madam, i present you with six rows of pins. _see_ proposal. neb madeleine. roeckel. tlb maggie's pet. elliott. mg mai ist gekommen. _see_ may-time has come. rsc maid o' the mill. neb maiden and the bird. hr maiden's wish. chopin. fs (chopin. spring song. efs) main. bye, baby, bye. el maitland. barkshire tragedy. neb ---- lavender cry. neb ---- little sir william. neb make a basket. _see_ smith. basket. sl making bread. roeske. pfp making butter. roeske. pfp malbrough s'en va-t-en guerre. _see_ duke malborough. fs mamma and the baby. reinecke. fc man in the moon. elliott. mg man in the moon. smeltzer. sz man in the moon came down too soon. _see_ elliott. man in the moon. mg man in the moon came tumbling down. _see_ smeltzer. man in the moon. sz man on the dromedary. neidlinger. sss manger throne. steggall. fs (steggall. christmas carol. rcs) mann. god sends his bright spring sun. el--sl *man's life's a vapor. lbs many fields of grass and clover. _see_ hill. story of the butter. shs many happy returns of the day. _see_ gaynor. child's birthday. gs many miles have i been straying. _see_ lindbald. dalecarlian maiden's song. efs march. cornell. stn (smith. in the snowing and the blowing. sl ) march. hollaender. hmc music only march. knowlton. ns march. rogers. km march like gallant soldiers, rataplan. _see_ reinecke. rataplan. fc--hr march! march! comrades gay. _see_ wandering workmen. sl march of fingall's men. reinhold. hmc music only march of the men of harlech. fs march of the men of harlech. tlb march of the priests. mendelssohn. hmc march together and never stop. _see_ smith. wheel-wright. sm marche militaire. concone. hmc music only marching; no.'s - . ps marching: no. . ps (koehler. let us march without a blunder. hr) marching, no. . ps (adaptation: equal measure. hr) marching exercise. kc marching 'round the valley. usi marching song. stevenson. cgv--lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. marching song. marching song for froebel's birthday. rockwell. kc marella. half past twelve. rcs margery daw. bb marguerite. jb marguerites. gaynor. ll marion, may and maud have not passed me by. _see_ schlesinger. bronze, brown eyes. stn marianina. _see_ sea breeze. fs marie antoinette. children and the sheep. hr (cole. sheep. cm) (hill. children and the sheep. shs) ---- return. fs marien-wuermchen. _see_ schumann. lady bird. fs marionetts. reinecke. hmc music only marjorie daw. smeltzer. sz marjorie's almanac. warren. stn making time. hitte. dm mariner of old, when he sailed to sea. _see_ neidlinger. beacon of long ago. es marriage. ng marseillaise. de l'isle. efs--fs marseilles hymn. _see_ marseillaise. marston. february. el martin. autumn. msl ---- captain's call. msl ---- children's day. msl ---- child's hymn. msl ---- christ is risen. msl ---- cross and crown. msl ---- easter morning. msl ---- gracious saviour, gentle shepherd. msl ---- happy town of salem. msl ---- he is calling. msl ---- hear the shining angels sing. msl ---- invitation. msl ---- jesus is king. msl ---- jesus' little lamb. msl ---- jesus, meek and gentle. msl ---- jesus, when he was a child. msl ---- lands that need the gospel. msl ---- last song. msl ---- little soldier. msl ---- mary to the saviour's tomb. msl ---- morning song. msl ---- "o little town of bethlehem." msl ---- royal conqueror. msl ---- springtime. msl ---- summer. msl ---- thou crownest the year with thy goodness. msl ---- when jesus came. msl ---- winter. msl mary contrary. smeltzer. sz mary, go and call the cattle home. _see_ sands of dee. tlb *mary had a little lamb. oya mary had a little lamb which grew to be a sheep. _see_ knowlton. sequel to an old story. ns mary, look around you. _see_ wiggin. seeing game. kc *mary rides upon a horse. lbs *mary to the saviour's tomb. martin. msl maryland! my maryland. efs marzials. bailiff's daughter of islington. cpp ---- barbara allen. cpp ---- black eyed susan. cpp ---- come, lasses and lads. cpp (come, lasses and lads. fs--lbs) ---- drink to me only with thine eyes. cpp ---- early one morning. cpp ---- girl i've left behind me. cpp ---- harvest home. cpp ---- how should i your true love know? cpp ---- hunter in his career. cpp ---- it was a lover and his lass. cpp ---- it was a maid of my countree. cpp ---- jog on, jog on. cpp ---- leather bottel. cpp ---- love will find out the way. cpp ---- mermaid. cpp ---- my lady greensleeves. cpp (my lady greensleeves. neb ) ---- my lodging is on the cold ground. cpp ---- near woodstock town in oxfordshire. cpp ---- o mistress mine, where are you roving? cpp ---- phillida flouts me. cpp ---- phillis on the new made hay. cpp ---- poor beggar's daughter. cpp ---- sally in our alley. cpp ---- seeds of love. cpp ---- since first i saw your face. cpp ---- sir simon de montfort. cpp ---- spanish lady. cpp ---- three ravens. cpp (three ravens. efs--fs) ---- to all you ladies. cpp ---- 'twas in the merry month of may. cpp ---- we be soldiers three. cpp ---- we be three poor mariners. cpp ---- when the bright god of day. cpp ---- who liveth so merry in all this land? cpp marzo. baby. stn ---- baby's skies. stn *ma's little pigs we're all of us. bfd mason. how gentle god's command. tlb ---- nearer my god to thee. tlb mason and carpenter with stone and brick and wood. _see_ gaynor. building the house. ll *massa dear. johnson. tlb master hare sat in a hole fast asleep. _see_ hare. ps mather. robin, robin redbreast. ws *matona, lovely maiden. lassus. tlb maxwelton's braes are bonny. _see_ scott. annie laurie. efs--fs--tlb may. ps may. brown. ws may. knowlton. ns may-basket. smith. lcd may dance. fdm music only many dancing song. richter. hr may day. coonley. gs may day invitation. sherwood. hs may is trav'ling hither. _see_ may. ps may our emperor's reign endure. _see_ kimi-go-yo. tlb may pole dance.--"bluff king hal." bfd may queen. gaynor. gs may song. smith. tlb may song. strong. hs may-time has come. rcs may-time is coming. _see_ may-time has come. rcs maypole song. hubbard. msg maypole style. jb mazurka. lichner. hmc music only ---- wilm. hmc music only meadow daisy. taubert. rcs meadow talk. fisher. stn meeting. fs meeting of the waters. tlb mein schatz ist ein reiter. _see_ my knight is a rider. rcs (my trooper) meissner. brownie firefly. asc ---- granddaddy longlegs. asc ---- hearing. asc ---- honey bee and clover. asc ---- in china. asc ---- in germany. asc ---- in holland. asc ---- in japan. asc ---- in scotland. asc ---- katy did. asc ---- mr. bumble bee. asc ---- seeing. asc ---- smelling. asc ---- tasting. asc ---- touching. asc mellow light is shining. _see_ martin. autumn. msl melody in f. rubinstein. hmc music only memorial day. flotow. gs memorial day. stetson. hs memorial hymn. allen. tlb men of harlech! in the hollow. _see_ march of the men of harlech. tlb men of harlech, march to glory. _see_ march of the men of harlech. fs men! whose boast it is. _see_ lang. true freedom. tlb menard. slumber song. bss mendelssohn. allegro. hmc music only ---- child's good-bye. hr (sawyer. good-bye to the flowers. ws) ---- greeting. fs ---- greeting. rcs ---- if with all your hearts. tlb ---- march of the priests. hmc music only ---- o rest in the lord. tlb ---- o, wert thou in the cold blast. tlb ---- raindrops. hmc music only ---- sleep, gentle babe. tlb ---- spring song. hmc music only ---- spring song. sl merkel. polonaise. hmc music only mermaid. marzials. cpp mérot. youth has gone. fs merrily away they fly. _see_ fischer. bees. hr merrily, form a ring. hubbard. msg (heerwart. merrily, merrily. hr) (smith. forming the ring. sl ) merrily in the brooklet clear. _see_ froebel. fishes in the brook. mp *merrily, merrily let us form a ring. heerwart. hr (hubbard. merrily, form a ring. msg) (smith. forming the ring. sl ) merrily, merrily, the anvil rings. _see_ hill. blacksmith's song. shs merrily swinging on brier and weed. _see_ conrade. robert of lincoln. gs merrily we dance. smith. sl merry and swift in the crystal stream. _see_ kohl. fish in the brook. sm *merry bells of easter. ns merry chimes. kk merry christmas bells. batchellor. gs (murray. merry christmas bells. ws) merry christmas bells. hitte. dm *merry christmas has come. wiggin. kc merry christmas! merry christmas! we sing and we say. _see_ knowlton. december. ns *merry christmas now is here. gaynor. sc *merry christmas to our friends. hs merry frogs are blithe and gay. _see_ hailmann. frogs. hr merry-go-round. loomis. hmc music only merry-go-round. _see_ carrousel. bfd merry, happy little children. hr merry helpers. stangenberger. hr merry lay of june. knowlton. ns merry life. denza. tlb (denza. funiculi, funicula. fs) (---- sailing o'er a summer sea. efs) merry little fishes in the brook at play. _see_ brahms. fish in the brook. sm merry little maiden. _see_ haydn. child's may song. hr merry little men. roeske. pfp merry little playmate, at my side all day. _see_ hill. light and shadow. shs merry little river. _see_ roeske. mill. pfp merry little skip and dance. _see_ sherwood. around the maypole. hs *merry little snowflakes dancing in the air. hill. shs merry little snowflakes dancing thro' the street. _see_ reinecke. snowflakes. hr merry may the keel row. fs merry, merry, merry, merry, christmas bells. _see_ murray merry christmas bells. ws (batchellor. merry christmas bells. gs) merry mice stay in their holes. _see_ koehler. mice. hr merry month of may. gaynor. ll merry rain. bartlett. stn merry wind. smith. lcd *merry wind came racing. knowlton. ns merry workers. smith. sl messenger of spring. rsc messenger from cloudland. bss messiah. handel. tlb methfessel. dandelion. shs mice. koehler. hr 'mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam. _see_ bishop. home, sweet home. efs--fs--lbs 'mid the winter storms we're sleeping. _see_ reissmann. waking flowers. rcs midsummer frolics. gilchrist. stn midsummer night's dream. macfarren. tlb miew, miew, purr, purr, i am a cat you see. _see_ valentine. cat. vbd *mighty fortress is our god. luther. efs (luther. ein' feste burg. tlb) (luther. safe stronghold. fs) migration song. hill. shs milk for supper. smith. lcd milking time. gaynor. sc milkweed babies. smith. sl milkweed pods are ripe and brown. _see_ gaynor. milkweed seeds. sc milkweed seeds. gaynor. sc mill. el (hubbard. miller. msg) mill. ws (anschuetz. mill by the rivulet. hr) mill. gaynor. sc mill. glueck. fs mill. hitte. dm mill. reed. tgs (reinecke. mill-wheel. sm) mill. reinecke. fc (adaptation in sl ) mill. roeske. pfp *mill by the rivulet. anschuetz. hr (mill. ws) mill goes toiling slowly around. _see_ dekoven. nightfall in dordrecht. fsc millard. sing-away bird. stn miller. bluebird. gs ---- spring secrets. el ---- tick! tock. sm miller. ps miller. usi miller. hubbard. msg (mill. el) miller. koehler. hr miller, have you nought for grinding? _see_ koehler. miller. hr miller of dee. smeltzer. sz miller's flowers. schubert. fs *million little diamonds. burdett. stn (damrosch. million little diamonds. stn) (tufts. winter jewels. cl) (walker. winter jewels. ws) million wee cradles are curtained with green. _see_ knowlton. pinky wild rose. ns millstone. smith. sl millwheel. el (conrade. millwheel. gs) (hubbard. round and round it goes. msg) millwheel. ps (clip, clap. rsc) millwheel. montz. ims millwheel. reinecke. sm (reed. mill. tgs) millwheels are clapping. _see_ clip, clap. rcs (millwheel. ps) millwheels are turning. _see_ mill. el (hubbard. miller. msg) milton. haste thee, nymph. tlb ---- love virtue. tlb ---- stanzas from the nativity. tlb minding their mother. smith. lcd mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the lord. _see_ howe. battle hymn of the republic. efs--fs *mine's a lovely house. jb miner. neidlinger. es *minstrel boy. efs--fs minuet. damrosch. stn (fairlamb. minuet. stn) (fisher. minuet. stn) (mosenthal. minuet. stn) minuet. mozart. hmc music only minuet. terhune. cc miss, i'll give you a paper of pins. _see_ i'll give you a paper of pins. ng miss jenny jones. ng (variant: jilly jo. jb) missing ball. reed. tgs mr. and mrs. sparrow. gaynor. sc mr. bumble bee. meissner. asc mr. duck and mr. turkey. neidlinger. sss mister duck went to call. _see_ neidlinger. mr. duck and mr. turkey. sss *mr. frog. neidlinger. sss mr. period and his friends. es mr. rooster and mrs. hen. gaynor. sc mr. rooster and mrs. hen. neidlinger. sss mister rooster does nothing but crow. _see_ neidlinger. mr. rooster and mrs. hen. sss mister rooster wakes up early in the morning. _see_ gaynor. mr. rooster and mrs. hen. sc mr. squirrel. neidlinger. sss mister sun, good-night, we say. _see_ atkinson. good-night. gs mister sunshine. funkhouser. fsk mr. toadie's coat. grove. hs mr. wind and madam rain. gaynor. sc mrs. bond. cbo *mistress cow stand at the gate. neidlinger. es mistress doh and her neighbors. gaynor. sc *mistress mary. elliott. mg (gaynor. mistress mary. ll) *mistress mine, where are you roving? marzials. cpp mrs. pussy, sleek and fat. _see_ roeske. mrs. pussy's dinner. pfp mrs. pussy's dinner. roeske. pfp mistress sparrow, pert and perky. _see_ gaynor. mr. and mrs. sparrow. sc mit dem pfeil, dem bogen. _see_ weber. hunter's song. rcs mit einer primula veris. _see_ grieg. first primrose. fs mix a pancake, stir a pancake. _see_ krakoviak, i. fs mokrejs. field mouse. hmc music only ---- shoemaker. hmc music only molloy. ding, dong! stn (hoffman. ding, dong! stn) ---- snow-flakes. stn (warren. snow-flakes. stn) ---- wren and the hen. stn (bartlett. wren and the hen. stn) molly malone. lbs (cockles and mussels. fs) mond, der scheint. _see_ wenk. nursery clock. rcs *monday night, tuesday night. jb monday's dolly's washing day. _see_ gaynor. little housewife. sc monk. abide with me. tlb monkey married the baboon's sister. _see_ monkey's wedding. oya monkey's wedding. oya month of may. cole. cm montz. birds flying. ims ---- blacksmith. ims ---- butterflies. ims ---- chopping wood. ims ---- church bells. ims ---- circle march. ims ---- feeding chickens. ims ---- fire bells. ims ---- flags. ims ---- for prayer. ims ---- good morning bows. ims ---- horses trotting. ims ---- loading and unloading. ims ---- millwheel. ims ---- nodding flowers. ims ---- north wind. ims ---- pumping. ims ---- rocking the cradle. ims ---- run. ims ---- scythe movement. ims ---- seeds; or flowers unfolding. ims ---- sewing machine. ims ---- skip. ims ---- smoke. ims ---- stream freezing. ims ---- tip-toe march. ims ---- washing. ims moon. conrade. cs moon. stevenson. lbs (bell. moon. lbs) moon and the stars. ps (reinecke. who has the whitest lambkins? fc--kc) (white lambkins. hr) moon boat. gaynor. sc moon has a face like the clock in the hall. _see_ stevenson. moon. lbs (bell. moon. lbs) moon! in the night i have seen you sailing. _see_ brewster. o moon! in the night. bss moon in the pool. _see_ meissner. seeing. asc *moon is playing hide and seek. neidlinger. sss moon phases. gaynor. sc moon rides high. _see_ wenk. nursery clock. rcs moon so round and silv'ry. _see_ smith. silver moon. sl moon song. hill. shs moonbeam floateth from the skies. _see_ dekoven. orkney lullaby. fsc moonlight song. el moore. canadian boat song. tlb ---- card sewing. sc ---- harp that once through tara's halls. efs ---- last rose of summer. fs ---- meeting of the waters. tlb ---- minstrel boy. efs--fs ---- valley lay smiling. efs ---- when love is kind. efs morn was fair, the skies were clear. _see_ rose of allandale. tlb morning. fs morning. brewster. bss morning bright, with rosy light. _see_ tufts. morning hymn. cl (walker. morning bright. ws) morning fair has come again. _see_ morning song. kc *morning-glory bells. gaynor. sc morning greeting. gaynor. sc morning greeting. mozart. shs morning greeting. pollen. hmc music only morning greeting. smith. sl morning greeting. wiggin. kc morning hymn. batchellor. ws (hamburg. morning hymn. hr) (wiggin. morning prayer, no. . kc) morning hymn. mozart. hr morning hymn. reinecke. kc morning hymn. smith. lcd morning hymn. tufts. cl (walker. morning bright. ws) morning hymn. wiggin. kc morning hymn of praise. kies. msl morning mood. grieg. hmc music only morning prayer. gaynor. sc morning prayer. gurlitt. hmc music only morning prayer. knowlton. ns morning prayer. randegger. sl (wiggin. morning prayer, no. . kc) morning prayer. reinecke. fc--sl morning prayer. reinecke. sl morning prayer, no. . wiggin. kc (batchellor. morning hymn. ws) (hamburg. morning hymn. hr) morning prayer, no. . wiggin. kc morning prayer, no. . wiggin. kc morning prayer, no. . wiggin. kc (randegger. morning prayer. sl ) morning prayer, no. . smith. kc morning song. hr morning song. kc morning song. barnby. tlb morning song. grove. hs morning song. martin. msl morning song. schumann. hmc music only morning song. tufts. cl morning song and march. tlb *morning song, dear forest. rcs *morning sun is shining. smith sl morning sun peeps in at you. _see_ gaynor. awake. ll morning thanksgiving. reed. hs mornings frosty grow, and cold. _see_ conrade. in september. gs morris dance:--"laudnum bunches." bfd morris off. neb morris on. neb morton. air is filled with the echoes. ws ---- christmas picture. hs ---- first christmas. hs--ws (reinecke. first christmas. gs) ---- little mice are creeping. ws ---- thanksgiving song. ws (conrade. thanksgiving day. gs) (hubbard. thanksgiving day. msg) (sleigh-ride. hr) mosenthal. minuet. stn (damrosch. minuet. stn) (fairlamb. minuet. stn) (fisher. minuet. stn) ---- punkydoodle and jollypin. stn ---- sweet red rose. stn (bartlett. sweet red rose. stn) (ingraham. sweet red rose. stn) moth of the night. _see_ gaynor. night moth. sc mother annika. kk mother day. gaynor. gs mother dear, jerusalem. _see_ ward. jerusalem alone. tlb mother dear, so kind and good. _see_ hurd. family. pts mother eye, so blue and tender. _see_ reinecke. mother love. rcs mother, good and dear. froebel. mp *mother holly. gaynor. ll mother how pretty the moon looks tonight. _see_ hubbard. pretty moon. msg (sawyer. new moon. ws) mother in unity with her child. froebel. mp mother love. reinecke. rcs mother my love, if you'll give me your hand. _see_ gilchrist. child and mother. fsc mother nature and mr. wind. funkhouser. fsk mother says i must practise. _see_ terhune. spinet. cc "mother, see the moon." _see_ froebel. boy and the moon. mp mother sings. sinding. efs mother tabbyskins. elliott. mg *mother, will you buy me a milking can? jb mother's birthday. reinecke. fc (reinecke. birthday song. sl ) mother's birthday. schwartz. bss mother's busy sewing. _see_ cole. how the baby was named. cm mother's hymn. bacon. el (hailmann. teachers' hymn. hr) (teachers' hymn, ii. kc) mother's knives and forks. gaynor. sc mother's little olle walks in the wood. _see_ olle and the bear. kk mother's little pets are we together. _see_ mother's pets. kk mother's lullaby babies. sheehan. osm mother's pets. kk mountain polka. _see_ fjallnaspolska. fdm music only mountain march. bfd mountain march. fdm music only mouse and cat. knight. hs *mow, mow, the oats. hc mowers. tabram. kc mowing grass. froebel. sm mowing song. smith. sl mozart. come, lovely may. rcs ---- god's love. shs ---- going to sleep. hr (asleep. hr) (ball songs, no. . ps) (hubbard. little ball lies in my hand. msg) ---- good-bye song. shs ---- good morning to the sunshine. hr ---- horse-shoeing. hr ---- lullaby. shs ---- minuet. hmc music only ---- morning greeting. shs ---- morning hymn. hr ---- rain song. shs ---- rippling, purling. hr (gilchrist. rippling, purling little river. sm) (rippling, purling little river. rcs) ---- second ring song. shs ---- summer joy. hr ---- theme from sonata. hmc music only ---- two hands i have. hr mueller. lamplighter. shs ---- miller's flowers. fs muellers blumen. _see_ schubert. miller's flowers. fs muffin man. bg--hc--jb--usi mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs (as we go round the mulberry bush. ng) (going round the mulberry bush. hr) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (little washerwoman. kk) murray. merry christmas bells. ws music box. berghs. hmc music only musician. hc musicians. hr must i ride so long a journey. _see_ he that will not when he may. fs *must i then go afar from the town. efs mutteraug' in deine bläue. _see_ reinecke. mother love. rcs *my ball comes up to meet me. walker. ws my ball, i want to call you. _see_ walker. tossing game. ws my ball is fond of moving. ball songs, no. . ps *my ball is soft and round and gay. hr my ball is soft and round and gay. _see_ ball songs, no. . ps my ball is soft and round and bright. _see_ just the thing. hr *my ball lies in its little bed. ws my ball reflects the clear blue sky. _see_ ball songs, no. . ps my ball will be an apple red. _see_ knowlton. game with first kindergarten gift. ns my barrow i have brought to you. _see_ wheelbarrow. ps my bed is a boat. stevenson. cgv--lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. my bed is like a little boat. _see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. cgv--lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. my bed is a boat. my bicycle. gaynor. gs my big black dog. oya my brigantine. saar. tlb my brothers they were tom and jack and joe and jock and bill. _see_ seven brothers. lbs *my country 'tis of thee. carey. tlb (america. fs--gs--msg) my daddy is dead, but i can't tell you how. _see_ plough boy in luck. bo *my dame has a lame tame crane. fs my dear mama i love to hear. _see_ smith. bedtime. sv my dog, carl. cole. cm my doggie's name is "guess". _see_ neidlinger. guess. sss *my father and mother were irish. oya *my father was a carpenter. lbs *my father was a tailor. jb my first good horse is very very tall. _see_ valentine. baby's horses. vbd my garden flowers. sheehan. osm my god and father, while i stray. _see_ troyte. troyte's chant. tlb my hand must be the mill-stone. _see_ smith. mill-stone. sl my heart is god's little garden. smith. sl my kingdom. stevenson. sf (ramsey. my kingdom. sf) my kitty. hr (elliott. i love little pussy. mg--sl ) (tufts. i like little pussy. cl) my kitty. cole. cm *my knight is a rider. rcs (my trooper. fs) my lady greensleeves. neb (marzials. my lady greensleeves. cpp) *my lady wind. elliott. mg my lady's garden. cbo my little ball lies in my hand. _see_ wiggin. ball lullaby. kc my little doll rose. tufts. fs my little sixpence. _see_ elliott. jolly tester. mg (jolly tester. bb) *my lodging is on the cold ground. marzials. cpp *my love dwelt in a northern land. elgar. tlb *my love's an arbutus. efs--fs my love, you do me wrong. _see_ marzials. my lady greensleeves. cpp (my lady greensleeves. neb ) *my luve's like a red, red rose. garrett. tlb my mother minds me not. _see_ franz. forlorn. tlb *my mother said. jb *my mother sent me unto you. jb my mother's eyes. reinecke. fc my mother's memory. klein. tlb my neighbor. holden. el my normandy. berat. fs my old friend john. land. fs my old kentucky home, good night. foster. efs my pansies. smith. sv my pansies. thaxter. el *my pigeon house. parker. ws *my pony. gaynor. ll *my pretty jane. bishop. efs my pretty little ball is round. _see_ ball song. kc my pretty maid. cbo--lbs my pussy. tufts. cl my shadow. gaynor. sc my shadow. stevenson. ss (stanford. my shadow. ss) my ship and i. stevenson. sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. my ship and i. *my ship has been a sailing across the ocean blue. smeltzer. sz my six square flat faces are running away. _see_ cube song, no. . el *my soft ball loves to wander. hubbard. msg my song. cole. tc my song i sing at early dawning day. _see_ hubbard. farmer. msg my tea is nearly ready and the sun has left the sky. _see_ stevenson. lamplighter. lbs (bell. lamplighter. lbs) my trooper. fs (my knight is a rider. rcs) my valentine. riley. ll *mystery man. reed. tgs naegeli. fast fly the hours. rcs ---- father and mother's care. shs ---- how gentle god's commands. tlb ---- violet. hr--rcs--ws nailor. hubbard. msg naming the fingers. froebel. sm natural history. cbo nature game. hurd. pts nature's dream. karganoff. hmc music only nature's easter song. hill. shs nature's god is there. hubbard. msg (walker. god is there. msg) nature's goodnight. hill. shs nature's novel. neidlinger. es near the barnyard's open gate. _see_ smith. in the barnyard. sl *near woodstock town in oxfordshire. marzials. cpp *nearer, my god, to thee. hubbard. msg (mason. nearer, my god, to thee. tlb) nearer to heaven we'll be. hubbard. msg (hubbard. there is a brooklet. msg) neddy has a pony. _see_ cole. neddy's pets. cm neddy's pets. cole. cm *needle's eye. hc--ng--oya--usi neidlinger. about boats. es ---- baby's face. es ---- bad pussy. sss ---- beacon of long ago. es ---- bee. sss ---- beginnings. es ---- blacksmith. es ---- blue-bird. sss ---- blow, bugle, blow! tlb ---- bowl of bread and milk. sss ---- bunny. sss ---- buried stone. es ---- busy stream. es ---- busy wind. es ---- cable. es ---- carnival. es ---- caterpillar. sss ---- cat's cradles. sss ---- chicken. sss ---- comparisons. es ---- cut finger. sss ---- cycle of the year. es ---- daisy and the wind. sss ---- dance. sss ---- day and night. es ---- endless song. tlb ---- engineer. es ---- evening star. sss ---- fairies. es ---- falling leaves. sss ---- first flying lesson. sss ---- footprints. sss ---- glacier. es ---- guess. sss ---- horse. es ---- humble bee. tlb ---- jack frost. sss ---- journey of the logs. es ---- kettle. sss ---- kitten and the bow-wow. sss ---- letters. es ---- little birdie. sss ---- little drop of water. es ---- little lamb. sss ---- little yellowhead. sss ---- lost rose seed. es ---- man on the dromedary. sss ---- miner. es ---- mr. duck and mr. turkey. sss ---- mr. frog. sss ---- mr. period and his friends. es ---- mr. rooster and mrs. hen. sss ---- mr. squirrel. sss ---- mistress cow. es ---- moon is playing hide and seek. sss ---- nature's novel. es ---- night. es ---- old families. es ---- old friends. es ---- old gravitation. es ---- our flag. sss ---- painter sun. es ---- palette of painter sun. es ---- plowman. es ---- polly. sss ---- rainbow. es ---- rainy day. sss ---- robin's song. sss ---- rocking baby. sss ---- rosebush's baby. sss ---- same old road. es ---- sea garden. es ---- sea song. es ---- see-saw. sss ---- shadows. es ---- sheep. es ---- signs. es ---- six little puppies. sss ---- small and great. es ---- snowflakes. sss ---- snowman. sss ---- soap-babies. sss ---- spider. sss ---- steamer's message. es ---- story of the horse. es ---- telegraph. es ---- thermometer. es ---- three funny old men. sss ---- thunder. es ---- tick-tock. sss ---- tiddlely winks and tiddlely wee. sss ---- tide. es ---- tin soldiers. sss ---- two crows. sss ---- voyage. es ---- whale. sss ---- when i grow to be a man. sss ---- winds. es ---- windy day. sss ---- wise old owl. sss ---- year's color song. es nelham. windmill. rsc nell and her bird. tufts. cl nest. ps. nest eggs. stevenson. sf (ramsay. nest eggs. sf) nevin. return of the birds. tc new calash. terhune. cc new moon. sawyer. ws (hubbard. pretty moon. msg) new year. gaynor. sc new year. gebauer. hs new year. seidel. hr new year greeting. sherwood. hs new year is beginning. _see_ sherwood. new year greeting. hs new year is my mother. _see_ april. sl *new year's day is coming. gaynor. sc newman. lead kindly light. tlb news for gardeners. knowlton. ns newsboy. hailmann. hr nice little mermaid lived under the sea. _see_ fairlamb. little mermaid. stn nigarepolskan. fdm night. neidlinger. es night and day. stanley. stn (warren. night and day. stn) (wiggin. night and day. kc) night comes over the hills, dear. _see_ rittmeyer. night song. tlb night comes to guard the sleeping earth. _see_ neidlinger. night. es night moth. gaynor. sc night song. rittmeyer. tlb night was near, a day was near. _see_ smith. hope carol. tlb nightfall in dordrecht. dekoven. fsc *nightingale, o nightingale. alabieff. fs night's shadows falling, men to rest are calling. _see_ fleming. integer vitae. tlb night's song. behr. hmc music only nikolina. foote. stn *nineteen birds. elliott. mg nocturne: go-to-sleep fairies. _see_ forester. hmc music only *nodding daisies nod away. bingham. bm noël, noël, the christ is born! shelly. ws norman's birthday now is here. _see_ gaynor. birthday greeting. sc norman's work is finished. gaynor. sc norse lullaby. dekoven. fsc north-west passage--good night. stevenson. sf (ramsay. north-west passage--good night. sf) north wind. montz. ims north wind and the robin. bb (bartlett. north wind doth blow. stn) (conrade. north wind doth blow. gs) (elliott. north wind doth blow. mg--sl ) (north wind doth blow. hr) (tufts. north wind doth blow. cl) *north wind blew one cold, fall night. hill. shs north wind came along one day. _see_ hill. in autumn. hs *north wind doth blow. hr (bartlett. north wind doth blow. stn) (conrade. north wind doth blow. gs) (elliott. north wind doth blow. mg--sl ) (north wind and the robin. bb) (tufts. north wind. cl) north wind doth blow. _see_ hill. migration song. shs north wind how he blows. _see_ gaynor. wind. sc north winds do blow. _see_ knowlton. kite time. ns north winds blow o'er drifts of snow. _see_ walker. old year and the new. ws norton. game to teach five. ns ---- out of the window. ns norwegian dance. hmc music only nothing but a hand i see. _see_ hubbard. cube. msg notte é bella. _see_ guglielmo. rowing. fs november. gaynor. ll november. knowlton. ns november, no. . thalber. gs november, no. . conrade. gs november skies are dreary. _see_ brewster. thanksgiving song. bss now all ye flow'rs make room. _see_ allen. memorial hymn. tlb now before we work today. _see_ wiggin. morning prayer, no. . kc (randegger. morning prayer. sl ) now children, stand up. _see_ wiggin. flower game. kc now children, we're beginning. _see_ berry. children, we're beginning. kc now come, let us play. hailmann. hr now, fishermen, draw in your nets. _see_ tabram. fisherman. kc now go to sleep, my thumbkin. _see_ smith. go to sleep, thumbkin. sl --sm now hide the flowers beneath the snow. _see_ brown. hide and seek. el now in the dance we'll float around. _see_ smith. little dancing song. lcd now it is turning 'round and 'round. _see_ hubbard. ball. msg now jenny her walk is taking. _see_ wiggin. every day problems. kc now, join hands and let us all play a little with the ball. _see_ little game for little folks. ws now, my baby, now. _see_ dream-baby. fs now my child would have us baking. _see_ hubbard. pat-a-cake. msg (froebel. pat-a-cake. mp) now my little rogue may smell. _see_ froebel. song of perfume. mp now 'neath the silver moon. _see_ santa lucia. efs--tlb (_see_ where the star of eve. fs) *now, oh, now i needs must part! marzials. cpp now our happy playtime ring we'll form. _see_ sheehan. playtime ring song. osm *now our morning work is ended. hubbard. msg now our work is ended for another day. _see_ gaynor. good-bye, no. . sc now our work is over. _see_ closing song. kc now see them here, these friends so dear. _see_ froebel. greeting. sm *now take this little ball. hubbard. msg now taste, little playmate. _see_ jenks. game for the senses. el now the ball comes round to meet us. _see_ wiggin. wandering game. kc now the busy morn is over. _see_ dugan. parting song. ws now the clock upon the wall. _see_ reed. good-bye song. tgs now the cylinder comes with his faces three. _see_ cylinder song. el *now the day is over. barnby. sl --tlb (knowlton. now the day is over. nb) *now the sun is sinking. tufts. cl (wiggin. slumber song. kc) now the flowers lift their heads. _see_ conrade. in the springtime. gs now the garden beds are blooming. _see_ froebel. little gardener. mp (hubbard. garden bed. msg) now the leaves fall one by one. _see_ gaynor. signs of the seasons. ll now the night is over. _see_ smith. morning prayer, no. . kc now the silver moon arising. _see_ bach. venetian boatman's song. tlb now the stars begin to peep. _see_ osgood. little maiden and the stars. sm *now the time has come for play. smith. sl (hubbard. now the time has come for play. msg) now we dance looby, looby, looby. _see_ looby light. bb (here we come. looby loo. jb) (looby loo. bg--hc--neb ) (looby, looby. lbs) now welcome to the new born year. rischart. hr new we'll have a merry play. _see_ reed. pebble game. tgs now we'll throw balls of snow. _see_ sawyer. snow balls. el now we've had our merry play. _see_ to work. hr now what shall i send to the earth today? _see_ smith. sunbeams. sl now, who should know when pansies grow? _see_ stanley. little elsie. stn number game. czerny. hr numbering the fingers. froebel. sm (adaptation: finger play, no. . ps) nursery clock. wenk. rcs nurse's song. elliott. mg (dance a baby diddy. cbo) nuts in may. bg--jb--lbs--usi (knots of may. ng) o sanctissima. _see_ work. fs "o strasburg". _see_ country dance, . fdm o tannenbaum, o tannenbaum. _see_ fir and pine. rcs (fir tree. fs) o tempora! o mores! tlb *o, thou holy child. rcs o wie ist es kalt geworden. _see_ reinecke. longing for spring. rcs oak and the streamlet. henschel. tc *oats, peas, beans. bg--hc (how oats and beans and barley grow. jb) obedient. smith. lcd october. conrade. gs october. knowlton. ns october's woods are bare and brown. _see_ conrade. october. gs oehmler. reaper's dance. hmc music only o'er the white foam of the wild singing sea. _see_ gilchrist. dolphin lullaby. tlb of all the days of gladness. _see_ hill. happiest day. hs of all the girls that are so smart. _see_ marzials. sally in our alley. cpp of all the myriad moods of mind. _see_ cole. longing. tlb of many giants in the world. _see_ neidlinger. old gravitation. es of priests we can offer a charming variety. _see_ father o'flynn. fs of speckled eggs the birdie sings. _see_ stevenson. singing. cgv--cm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. singing. off! and with a merry song. _see_ marching, no. . ps ogden. christmas carol. kc oh, a little frog in a pond am i. _see_ gaynor. frog and horse. sc oh all you little blackey tops. _see_ scarecrow. bb oh, arch of glory curving there on high. _see_ gaynor. rainbow. sc oh big round world. _see_ gaynor. oh, wide, wide world. sc oh, birdie dear! see froebel. lightbird. mp (hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) (adaptation: smith. lightbird. sl ) oh, birdie gleaming on the wall. _see_ smith. lightbird. sm oh, birdie, oh birdie. _see_ smith. light bird. sl (adapted from froebel. light bird on the wall. mp) (adapted from hubbard. oh, birdie dear. msg) oh, blithe and merrily sang the shark. _see_ chadwick. song of the shark. stn oh, bring the fife and bring the drum. _see_ gaynor. salute to the flag. sc oh, builders we would like to be. _see_ wiggin. building song. kc oh, busy squirrel with shining eyes. _see_ gaynor. harvest of the squirrel and honey-bee. sc oh, butterfly, stay, please don't fly away. _see_ butterfly. ps oh, call the pigeons, baby dear. _see_ reinecke. beckoning the pigeons. sm *oh, can ye sew cushions? fs *oh, captain! my captain! kelly. tlb *oh, charlie is my darling. fs oh, child of my heart so fair and so dear. _see_ froebel. mother in unity with her child. mp oh, clap, clap the hands. _see_ roeske. santa claus. pfp *oh, columbia, the gem of the ocean. shaw. gs *oh come, all ye faithful. reading. tlb oh, come and join our circle. _see_ smith. come and join our circle. sl oh, come, come, my pretty man. _see_ come, come, my pretty man. jb oh come, dear little children. _see_ himmel. thanksgiving song. shs oh come, let us worship. haydn. tlb oh! come now, our vessel is ready. _see_ weber. on the sea. hr oh come to the woods and let us play. _see_ hubbard. froebel's birthday.msg oh dear, here i sit and sit. _see_ terhune. tithing-man. cc oh dear oh! the cat is in the snow. _see_ cat in the snow. lbs oh dear sixpence, i've got sixpence. _see_ jolly tester. bb (elliott. jolly tester. mg) *oh! dear, what can the matter be? fs--oya oh, do you know the land of nod? _see_ gaynor. land of nod. sc oh, do you know the muffin man? _see_ muffin man. bg--hc--jb--usi oh fairest maiden, when i behold thee. _see_ love's parting. efs oh forest fir! oh forest fir. _see_ fir tree. fs (fir and the pine. rcs) oh! gay pretty valentines gladly we send. _see_ hill. valentines. hs oh god! beneath thy guiding hand. _see_ hatton. god be with us. tlb oh, happy birds among the boughs. _see_ brown. reason why. ws oh, have you seen the muffin man? _see_ muffin man. bg--hc--jb--usi oh, have you seen the shak? _see_ hunting. bg--usi (a-hunting we will go. jb) oh, have you seen the swimming school? _see_ gaynor. froggies' swimming school. sc oh! here are the little leaves that grow. _see_ sherwood. leaves, flowers and fruits. hs oh! here is miss pussy. _see_ tufts. my pussy. cl oh, here is my trooper, my trooper so fine. _see_ my trooper. fs (my knight is a rider. rcs) oh, here is one in a purple hat. _see_ thaxter. my pansies. el oh! here we are the same old friends. _see_ hubbard. scissors grinders. msg oh, here's another song. _see_ neidlinger. sea song. es oh, here with her wonderful, wonderful bag. _see_ reed. wonderful bag. tgs oh, his pretty head is brilliant red. _see_ gaynor. woodpecker. sc *oh, how great is our pleasure. hr oh! how he runs. _see_ gaynor. ferret. ll oh, how hot! no cooling breeze. _see_ thunderstorm. hr oh, hurry quick, the ice is thick. _see_ gaynor. skating. sc *oh hush thee, my baby. macirone. fs oh, i am a cooper, no care can i know. _see_ walker. cooper. ws (hubbard. cooper. msg) oh, i am the little new year, oh, oh! _see_ jenks. little new year. ws oh i know a little fellow. _see_ meissner. in japan. asc oh, i'm a jolly car driver. _see_ wiggin. car driver. kc oh! i'm a scissors grinder. _see_ knowlton. scissors grinder. ns oh, i'm lonesome since i crossed the hill. _see_ marzials. girl i've left behind me. cpp oh, i say, br'er rabbit. _see_ br'er rabbit. oya oh i wish the winter would go. _see_ allen. winter and summer. stn oh! in our still and mournful meadow. _see_ orpheus. tlb oh, it's i that am the captain. _see_ stevenson. my ship and i. sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. my ship and i. oh it was in the noon of night. _see_ dugan. babe jesus. el oh, jack frost is a merry little elf. _see_ gaynor. jack frost. sc oh lady bird, lady bird, fly away home. _see_ lady bird. lbs oh, lady bird, lady bird, fly away home. _see_ brown. lady bird. el oh, lark, sweet lark. _see_ house. lark. tc oh, lassie and i, and lassie and i. _see_ lassie and i. kk *oh, list, fairest maiden, will you tread a dance with me? kk oh, list to the song of the wooden shoon. _see_ meissner. in germany. asc oh, listen, mother dearest! _see_ schwartz. mother's birthday. bss oh, listen, the sun is calling. _see_ gaynor. growing. gs oh, little birds! oh, pretty birds. _see_ gaynor. farewell to the birds. sc oh! little bo-peep. _see_ smeltzer. little bo-peep. sz oh, little child. smith. fsc oh, little flowers, you love me so. _see_ tufts. little girl's fancies. cl oh, little frosty snow-flakes. _see_ smith. to a snow-flake. lcd oh! little loveliest lady mine. _see_ damrosch. valentine. stn (fairlamb. valentine. stn) oh! little miss careful. _see_ smith. careful. lcd *"oh, little town of bethlehem." martin. msl *oh, look at the moon. gilchrist. sm oh! lovely ball of golden light! _see_ hill. sunrise. hs oh! lovely ball of golden light! we sing to you a sweet good night. _see_ hill. sunset. hs oh lovely bright star, you shine from afar. _see_ reinecke. evening star. fc oh, lovely little violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws _for composers see_ schults. violet. oh mary dear, come here, come here. _see_ reed. surprise. tgs "oh mary, go and call the cattle home." _see_ sands of dee. tlb oh, mary, look around you. _see_ wiggin. seeing game. kc oh miss, i'll give you a paper of pins. _see_ i'll give to you a paper of pins. ng *oh mistress mine, where are you roving? marzials. cpp oh, monday's dolly's washing day. _see_ gaynor. little housewife. sc *oh moon! in the night. brewster. bss oh, moth of the night. _see_ gaynor. night moth. sc *oh mother dear, jerusalem. _see_ ward. jerusalem above. tlb oh, mother, how pretty the moon looks tonight. _see_ sawyer. new moon. ws (hubbard. pretty moon. msg) oh, mother my love, if you'll give me your hand. _see_ gilchrist. child and mother. fsc oh, my little sixpence. _see_ elliott. jolly tester. mg (jolly tester. bb) *oh, my luve's like a red red rose. garrett. tlb oh oh, let the breezes, the breezes blow. _see_ gaynor. kite. ll oh! paddy dear, and did you hear the news that's going round? _see_ wearing of the green. efs *oh paradise! oh paradise. barnby. tlb (hubbard. paradise. msg) oh, pilgrim from the indies! weidig. tc oh pillykin willykin winkie wee! _see_ bartlett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn (burdett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (stanley. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) oh! poor chickabiddy, where's she gone? _see_ brahms. lost chicken fs oh, pretty bird, o shining bird. _see_ kohl. light bird. sm oh, pretty bird of colored light. _see_ gaynor. light bird. sc oh, pretty white clouds, now what have you done? _see_ reed cloudy day. tgs *oh rest in the lord. mendelssohn. tlb oh, ring, glad bells. herron. ws oh, ring, ring, ring, ring, merry bells. _see_ hitte. merry christmas bells. dm oh, sally waters. _see_ sally waters. jb oh, say, busy bee, whither now are you going? _see_ busy workers. hr (bees. msg) oh, say, can you see? _see_ key. star-spangled banner. efs--fs--gs--msg oh, say have you heard of the sing-away bird? _see_ millard. singaway bird. stn oh, say mister cube, what now are you hiding? _see_ cube song no. . el oh, see my pigeon-house, so high! _see_ kohl. pigeon-house sm oh, see the carpenter. _see_ froebel. carpenter. mp (hubbard. oh, see the carpenter. msg) oh, see the gate! it opens wide. _see_ froebel. farmyard sm oh, see the light. hubbard. msg (froebel. little window. mp) (wiggin. window. kc) oh, see the little window bright. _see_ froebel. little window. mp (wiggin. window. kc) (hubbard. oh! see the light. msg) *oh, see the snow, the falling snow. hailmann. hr (hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg) (walker. snow. ws) oh, see the snow is falling now. _see_ hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg (hailmann. oh! see the snow. hr) (walker. snow. ws) oh, see the window i have here. _see_ beethoven. little window. hr oh, see the shining skating pond. _see_ koehler. skating. hr oh, shall i sing you a song that tells you how? _see_ sowing song. kk oh shenandoah, i long to hear you. _see_ shenandoah. neb *oh sing with thy cheery voices. smith. sl oh, sun-beams that dance on the summer sea. _see_ rust. summer shower. el oh, swan of slenderness. _see_ little red lark. efs--fs oh take, thou lovely child of spring. _see_ grieg. first primrose. fs oh tell me, little children. _see_ foote. nikolina. stn *oh! tell me the tone that the cricket sings. schwartz. bss oh, the eskimo has a house of snow. _see_ meissner. in greenland. asc oh, the fox thro' the forest! _see_ if i may. kk oh! the gay and gladsome spring. _see_ gaynor. who would not be glad? ll *oh the lovely, lovely may. ws oh, the merry lay of june. knowlton. ns oh, the morning-glory bells. _see_ gaynor. morning-glory bells. sc oh, the north wind how he blows. _see_ gaynor. wind. sc oh, the tree loves me. see gaynor. tree's friends. sc oh the wide, wide world. gaynor. sc oh, there he comes! i hear his horn. _see_ bingham. balloon man. bm oh, this is the little chicken coop. _see_ gaynor. some lullabies. sc oh! tooriletoo was a bonnie cock robin. _see_ tooriletoo. rcs oh, violet, darling violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws _for composers see_ schults. violet. oh ! we are little waiters. _see_ wiggin. little waiters. kc oh, we are the shears big and strong. _see_ gaynor. song of the shears. sc oh, we wear brown velvet jackets. _see_ gaynor. cat-tails. sc *oh, wert thou in the cauld blast. mendelssohn. tlb oh what a plague is love. _see_ marzials. phillida flouts me. cpp oh, what a pretty black-bird. _see_ black-bird song. bss oh, what do birdies dream of? _see_ hubbard. what do birdies dream? msg oh, what do you ever suppose, mama? _see_ meissner. smelling. asc oh what do you think came down last night? _see_ dayre. snow. el oh, what fun it is to be just a tiny girl. _see_ terhune. sedan chair. cc oh, what fun, what jolly fun. _see_ gaynor. coasting. sc "oh, what have you got for dinner, mrs. bond?" _see_ mrs. bond. cbo oh, what is this? _see_ froebel. barnyard gate. mp (hubbard. barnyard gate. msg) oh! when do birds with weary wing. _see_ smith. friendly dark. lcd oh! when i was a farmer. _see_ gaynor. 'twas this way and that way. ll _for variants see_ when i was a lady. oh! where are the merry, merry little men? _see_ roeske. merry little men. pfp oh, where are you going billy boy? _see_ billy boy. oya oh, where do you come from? _see_ tufts. little raindrops. cl oh, where is little boy blue? ws (cornwell. little boy blue. el) oh where is marguerite? _see_ marguerite. jb oh where is my little dog gone? oya oh, where, oh, where is little boy blue? _see_ cornwell. little boy blue. el (dugan. little boy blue. ws) oh where, o where's my little dog gone? _see_ o where is my little dog gone? oya oh, where, tell me where is your highland laddie gone? _see_ blue bells of scotland. fs oh, who is so merry, so merry, heigh-ho. _see_ reinecke. fairy. fc oh! who's the friendly little chap? _see_ smith. polite. lcd oh, who will buy my toys? _see_ toyman. hs oh, who will o'er the downs so free. pearsall. fs oh, who will take a walk with me? _see_ hill. toyman's shop. hs oh, who wouldn't be a bounding ball. _see_ gaynor. ball. sc oh! who wouldn't be a soldier when the band begins to play? _see_ gaynor. when the regiment goes marching by. ll oh! whom shall i choose for the beautiful band? _see_ gaynor. game of the golden band. ll oh, why does the charcoal-burner stay up in the woods? _see_ bullard. charcoal-burner. sm oh, willow, willow. marzials. cpp oh, wonderful shell. _see_ meissner. hearing. asc oh, won't you take me to your party? _see_ party. usi oh, worship the king all glorious above. _see_ haydn. o come let us worship. tlb *oh, wouldn't you like to go? frazer. bss oh, you buttercups, yellow. _see_ gaynor. buttercups. sc oh, you pussy willow. _see_ sawyer. pussy willow. ws old black crow flew o'er the corn. _see_ gaynor. crow. sc old carol. conrade. gs *old caspar had six sons so fine. lbs old coats to mend, old coats to mend. _see_ hailmann. tailor. hr *old dan tucker. oya *old dan tucker came to town. usi old english carol. sawyer. el *old families. neidlinger. es old folks at home. foster. tlb--efs old fred'ric barbarossa. _see_ gersbach. barbarossa. rcs old friends. neidlinger. es old gravitation. neidlinger. es old gaelic lullaby. tufts. cl (hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss) (harris. gaelic cradle song. tlb) old hundred. france. tlb old hundred. efs old jack frost he is here. _see_ smith. jack frost. sl *old king cole is a jolly old soul. smeltzer. sz *old king cole was a merry old soul. fs--lbs (king cole. cbo) old king frost comes and locks me up. _see_ gaul. song of the brook. tc old man. kk old man and his wife. lbs old man clothed in leather. elliott. mg (old man in leather. bb) old man in leather. bb (elliott. old man clothed in leather. mg) old man of tobago. smeltzer. sz old mother earth has good children. _see_ neidlinger. falling leaves. sss *old mother hubbard. smeltzer. sz old mother oxford. neb old oak stood on a streamlet's bank. _see_ henschel. oak and the streamlet. tc old ocean has a son. _see_ neidlinger. tide. es *old roger is dead. jb--neb old santa claus puts on his cap. _see_ santa claus. el old winter is a sturdy one. _see_ haydn. winter. hr (hubbard. old winter. msg) old winter's coat is made of white. _see_ neidlinger. year's color song. es old woman of norwich. bb old woman tossed up in a basket. bb old woman who lives in the shoe. smeltzer. sz old year and new year. hill. hs old year and the new. walker. ws oldberg. cricket. hmc music only ---- garden mole. hmc music only olle and the bear. kk on a hedge there sat a linnet. _see_ reinecke. poor linnet in the hedge. fc *on a mountain stands a lady. jb on christmas day, babe jesus in a manger lay. _see_ morton. christmas picture. hs on fourth of july. _see_ kern. fourth of july. hs on friday morn as we set sail. _see_ marzials. mermaid. cpp on froebel's birthday. hs on guard. pleyel. gs on lightsome wing from flow'r to flow'r. _see_ st. john. butterfly. bss on monday we wash out our clothes. _see_ gaynor. work of the week. gs on my sampler long i work. _see_ terhune. sampler. cc on my two feet i used to run. _see_ smith. my pansies. sv on richmond hill there lives a lass. _see_ hook. lass of richmond hill. fs--tlb on silver skates we curve and slide. _see_ meissner. in holland. asc on steep mount carmel's height we stand. _see_ crusaders. tlb *on the bridge of avignon. jb--rcs (adaptation: in the spring. fs--hc) (trans. from sur le pont d'avignon. bb) *on the bridge neath the town. lbs on the gay red sarafan. see red sarafan. efs on the green and swelling moss-bank. _see_ mozart. summer joy. hr on the path that leads to school. _see_ smith. after the rain. sv on the railroad train. seeboeck. hmc music only on the ring we stand. _see_ hurd. ball game. pts on the sea. weber. hr on the wall there hangs a clock. _see_ atkinson. clock. gs on the wind of january. _see_ knowlton. january. ns *on this happy feast day. strong. hs on this memorial morning. _see_ flotow. memorial day. gs on tiptoe. chavagnat. hmc music only on yonder fleeting river. _see_ glueck. broken ring. efs once a boy a rose espied. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. once a little baby lay. _see_ morton. first christmas. hs--ws (reinecke. first christmas. gs) once a little boy and girl went to school together. _see_ cole. going to school. cm once a rat who loved the city. _see_ city rat and the country rat. fs once i got into a boat. _see_ smith. boat ride. sl *once in my life. story. stn *once in my youth a maiden i knew. kk once more, dear home, i with rapture behold thee. _see_ wagner. pilgrims' charm. tlb once our hennies sought their cock. _see_ reinecke. good old clock. fc once some little apple seeds. _see_ hill. story of the apple. shs once there lay a little baby. _see_ sawyer. first christmas. el once there lived a little man where a little river ran. _see_ little disaster. bb *once there was a little kitty. walker. ws once upon our earth there came. _see_ smith. froebel's birthday song. sl once unto the shepherds. _see_ gaynor. christmas carol. sc once within a lowly stable. _see_ hill. christmas night. shs one bird has joined another. _see_ wiebe. two birds. kc one by one, one by one. _see_ here we go. hr one by one we march along. _see_ koehler. arch. hr (marching, no. . ps) one by one we move along. _see_ marching, no. . ps (koehler. arch. hr) one candle for baby. _see_ smith. baby's birthday. lcd one day as mrs. squirrel. _see_ neidlinger. mrs. squirrel. sss one day when i was lonesome. _see_ bingham. how i learned to sew. bm one finger, one thumb keep moving. _see_ keep moving. bg one has found another place. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm one has moved again, you see. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm one hundred years ago and more. schuckburgh. hs one cat in the corner. _see_ knowlton. game to teach five. ns one little kitten scrubbing down its nose. _see_ clarke. two kittens. stn one little sparrow had learned to fly. _see_ neidlinger. first flying lesson. sss one little, two little, three little indians. hc one little, two little, three little indians. _see_ smeltzer. little indians. sz *one man went to mow. jb one merry summer day. _see_ bacon. two little roses. el one misty, moisty morning. _see_ elliott. old man clothed in leather. mg (old man in leather. bb) one morning laughing west wind blew. _see_ neidlinger. winds. es one night in far australia. _see_ neidlinger. telegraph. es one night when the dew had washed the face. _see_ neidlinger. daisy and the wind. sss one piece this way and one piece that. _see_ bullard. target. sm one robin red-breast hopped on the ground. _see_ hurd. bird song, (color). el one thing at a time. tufts. cl one time in 'frisco being sick of the shore. _see_ liverpool girls. neb one, two candles we must take. _see_ smith. two year old. lcd one, two, three. cole. cm one, two, three. pratt. stn one, two, three! a bonny boat i see. _see_ pratt. one, two, three. stn one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight. _see_ counting game. kk one, two, three, four, march around. _see_ smith. circles. sl one, two, three, in a ring are we. _see_ hubbard. ding, dong, dell. msg *one, two, three, roll! hubbard. msg one, two, three, ticka, tacka, tee. _see_ reinecke. how it looks in the mill. fc one winter night a star shone bright. _see_ hill. christmas lullaby. shs only see, only see. _see_ wiggin. clock game. kc onward, christian soldiers. hubbard. msg (sullivan. onward, christian soldiers. tlb) open cups of dazzling white. _see_ gaynor. water lilies. sc open the dove cote door. _see_ smith. dove cote. sl open your eye, little daisy. _see_ tufts. daisy birds. cl open your eyes, my pansies sweet. _see_ hubbard. pansies. msg opening stanza. hailmann. hr *"oranges and lemons" says the bells of st. clemens. cbo--jb orchard. jenks. el--hs orchard is a rosy cloud. _see_ knowlton. may. ns orioles. fs orkney lullaby. dekoven. fsc ormen lange. kk orpheus. tlb osgood. click, clack. rcs ---- come, little leaves. rcs--msg--ws (autumn leaves. hr) (hill. fall leaves. shs) (smith. come little leaves. sl ) ---- happy spring waltz. tc ---- little dreamer. rcs (tufts. little dreamer. cl) ---- little maiden and the stars. sm ---- mother's hymn. el (bacon. mother's hymn. el) (hailmann. teachers' hymn. hr) (teachers' hymn, ii. kc) ---- sing, little children, sing. ws ---- weather vane. sm ostgotapolska. fdm music only otto and the cow. kk otto would a-riding go. _see_ otto and the cow. kk our anchor's just a shovel. _see_ faning. boat song. tc (weidig. boat song. tc) *our balls are going to bye-low-land. walker. ws our country is america. _see_ song for washington's birthday. hs our country is calling. _see_ riego's hymn. fs *our father in heaven. hubbard. msg (at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . fs) our father who is heaven art. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of day, no. . ps (hubbard. our father in heaven. msg) our fir-tree. sherwood. hs our flag. gaynor. sc our flag. neidlinger. sss our flag, our flag above the clouds. _see_ hadley. flag. tlb our gentle patriot poet knew. _see_ gaynor. whittier. gs our heads we give. _see_ root. salute. gs our king went forth to normandy. _see_ deo gratias. efs our land. reed. hs--tgs our little balls move round and round. _see_ froebel. wandering balls. hr our oats they are hoed and our barley's reap'd. _see_ marzials. harvest home. cpp our play is o'er, our work is done. _see_ wiggin. good-bye song. kc (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (hubbard. parting song. msg) (walker. our play is o'er. kc) our play time is now o'er. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps our playtime now is over. _see_ going home. hr our souls are thine, dear fatherland. _see_ waller. to america. tlb our stately ship moves on with ease. _see_ hailmann. voyage. hr our tiny little sister is a maiden sweet as honey. _see_ reinecke. serenade. fc our vessel forward calmly sails. _see_ hubbard. ship. msg (vessel. ps) our work and play are over. _see_ parting song. el our work is done. hailmann. hr (hubbard. parting song. msg) (walker. our play is o'er. ws) (wiggin. *good-bye song. kc) out in my garden, daisies i see. _see_ hitte. flower song. dm out in the farmyard. _see_ smith. lordly cock. lcd *out in the fields. bss out in the fragrant clover fields. _see_ hill. bees' market. shs out in the garden hangs the swing. _see_ gaynor. swing. sc *out in the meadows. walker. ws (conrade. daisies in the meadow. gs) out in the meadows so fresh and dewy. _see_ conrade. daisies in the meadows. gs (walker. out in the meadows. ws) out in the woods where the nut trees grow. _see_ winter forethought. shs out of my window at night. _see_ neidlinger. evening star. sss out of the window. knowlton. ns out on the breeze. _see_ root. flag song. sv *over and back. walker. ws over and over the little wheels go. _see_ winslow. going to market. hs over and over the same old road. _see_ neidlinger. same old road. es over blue eyes, gray or brown. _see_ bullard. taste--guessing game. sm *over field and meadow. usi (hubbard. over field and meadow. msg) *over hill and dale we're tripping. kk over in the meadow by the old mossy gate. _see_ hubbard. lizzards. msg *over in the meadow in the sand, in the sun. knowlton. ns (variant. hubbard. lizzards. msg) over one, under one. _see_ weaving song. ws over one, under one. _see_ gaynor. weaving. sc over the bare hills far away. brown. ws over the borders, a sin without pardon. _see_ stevenson. keepsake mill. lbs (bell. keepsake mill. lbs) over the ditch. _see_ cubes and balls. sc over the hill in the green of the grass. _see_ gaynor. queen of the may. ll over the hills and far away. cbo over the mountains, and over the waves. _see_ marzials. love will find out the way. cpp over the pond where we used to play. _see_ reed. skating game. tgs over the river and through the wood. _see_ sleighride. hr (conrade. thanksgiving song. gs) (hubbard. thanksgiving day. msg) (morton. thanksgiving song. ws) over the standing corn. _see_ knowlton. call of the crows. ns over the water and over the lea. _see_ charley over the water. bb over there the sun gets up. _see_ sun. sl owen. all through the night. tlb (all through the night. tlb) owl. gaynor. sc oxdansen. bfd. oxdansen. fdm music only paddy dear, and did you hear? _see_ wearing of the green. efs page. air du roi louis xiii. hmc music only ---- barnyard. hmc music only ---- barnyard people. hmc music only ---- bolero. hmc music only ---- highland fling. hmc music only ---- hornpipe. hmc music only ---- jig: "garry owen." hmc music only ---- kite. pts--tgs ---- sir roger de coverly. hmc music only ---- thing of beauty. tlb pail. smith. sl paine. freedom, our queen. tc (strong. freedom, our queen. tc) painter sun. neidlinger. es palette of painter sun. neidlinger. es palmer. childhood's gold. stn ---- little maid margery. stn paloma. _see_ yradier. dove. fs pansies. conrade. gs pansies. hubbard. msg papillon. schumann. hmc music only *paradise, o paradise. barnby. tlb (hubbard. paradise. msg) parker. blacksmith. ws (hubbard. song of the blacksmith. msg) parker. carpenter. sm ---- evensong. tc ---- family. sm ---- my pigeon house. ws ---- robbers. tlb ---- rose song. tc parlow. in the mill. hmc music only ---- in the smithy. hmc music only ---- skaters. hmc music only ---- valiant rider. hmc music only parry. rock-a-bye. tc parting. tlb parting song. el parting song. dugan. ws parting song. hubbard. msg (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (walker. our play is o'er. ws) (wiggin. good-bye song. kc) partner right merry. _see_ reinecke. partner so merry. sl partner, so merry. reinecke. sl partner sweet. hitte. dm partners. kuecken. hr (i'd like to have a partner. usi) party. usi *pass time with good company i love. marzials. cpp pastral. tlb pat-a-cake. sm pat-a-cake. froebel. mp (hubbard. pat-a-cake. msg) *pat-a-cake. gaynor. ll *pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake. lbs *pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker's man. brewster. bss *pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, dear baby. smith. sl patch. bellringer. tgs ---- christmas. tgs ---- cloudy day. tgs ---- first gift exercise. tgs ---- fishes. tgs ---- garden bed. tgs ---- good-bye song. tgs ---- missing ball. tgs ---- mystery man. tgs ---- skating game. tgs ---- sleeping leaves. hs--tgs ---- surprise. tgs ---- two little windows. ---- wonderful bag. tgs patter, patter goes the rain. _see_ neidlinger. rainy day. sss patter, patter, here they come. sl patter, patter, let it pour. _see_ sawyer. april shower. el paulsen. first primrose. fs paxton. come mirth. rcs payne. home, sweet home. efs--fs peace of night. reinecke. fc--fs persall. oh, who will o'er the downs so free. fs pebble game. reed. tgs peek-a-boo, peek-a-boo light. _see_ gilchrist. little window. sm peep of day. tufts. cl *peeping at susie, susie, susie. usi peeping from his curtain'd pavilion. _see_ pastral. tlb pendulum. ps pendulum. ws pendulum. kohl. hr perhaps the biggest garden in the world. _see_ neidlinger. sea garden. es perrie, merrie, dixi. rcs (four presents. bb) perushka. fdm music only peter goes out fresh and early. _see_ smith. children's supper. sl peter, peter, quickly go. _see_ froebel. mowing grass. sm peter piper. smeltzer. sz *peter polt had a little colt. lbs *peter white that never goes right. brown. rcs petit chasseur. bb (father guillori. rcs) pettibone. sewing song. sc phillida flouts me. marzials. cpp *phillis on the new made hay. marzials. cpp phippen. child-land echoes with music. el ---- little brown seed. el *phoebus, arise! phoebus, arise, arise! sternberg. tlb phoebus, golden sun of morning. _see_ brewster. morning. bss pianoforte. froebel. mp pickaninnies' picnic. loomis. hmc music only picture books in winter. stevenson. sf (stevenson. pictures in winter. lbs) _for composers see_ stevenson. picture books in winter. pictures in winter. stevenson. sf (stevenson. picture books in winter. sf) _for composers see_ stevenson. picture books in winter. *pie sat on a pear tree. lbs piece of cardboard white. _see_ gaynor. recipe for a valentine. sc pigeon. gaynor. sc pigeon house. ps (froebel. pigeon house. mp) (kohl. pigeon house. hr) (walker. pigeon house. ws) pigeon house. kohl. sm pigeon house. tufts. cl pigeon song. walker. ws (froebel. pigeon house. mp) (kohl. pigeon house. hr) (pigeon house. ps) pigeons. hmc music only pigeons. hubbard. msg pigeons are coming, dear love, to meet you. _see_ froebel. beckon to the pigeons. mp pigeon's flight. saville. hs *piggie wig and piggie wee. gaynor. sc piggie wig and piggie wee. _see_ roeske. pigs. pfp pigs. roeske. pfp pigtail. bullard. tlb pilgrim from the indies! _see_ weidig. pilgrims. tc pilgrims. weidig. tc pilgrim's chorus. wagner. tlb pillykin, willykin, winkie wee! _see_ bartlett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn (burdett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (stanley. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) pilot. gould. tlb pinky wild rose. knowlton. ns pinsuti. crusaders. tlb piper. gilchrist. tlb piping down the valleys wind. _see_ gilchrist. piper. tlb pirate story. stevenson. ss (stanford. pirate story. ss) *pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat, fall the tiny raindrops. gaynor. sc pit! pat! pit! pat! pit! pat! _see_ mozart. rain song. shs pitter, patter, patter, hear the raindrops fall. _see_ sheehan. april showers. osm pity the bees in the steeple. _see_ hatton. good night. stn plane, plane, plane, joiner follow the grain. _see_ kohl. joiner. sm (variant: hubbard. zish, zish. msg) plantation dance. hmc music only planting of the apple tree. roeske. hs planting the corn and potatoes. _see_ hubbard. busy children. msg plants awakening. vose. el play in all seasons. smith. lcd play with the limbs. froebel. sm play with the limbs. froebel. mp playing golf. loomis. hmc music only playtime. rcs playtime ring song. sheehan. osm pleasant light. ps pleasant weather. rust. el pleyel. on guard. gs plough boy in luck. cbo plowman. neidlinger. es plump little baby clouds. _see_ elliott. rainshowers. sl (verdi. raindrops. gs) plums in winter. smith. lcd plus ne suis ce que j'ai été. _see_ youth has gone. fs poe. bells. tlb poet lived beside the sea. _see_ atkinson. longfellow. gs points of the compass. knowlton. ns policeman. valentine. vbd polite. smith. lcd polka, (bohemian) hmc music only polka. lichner. hmc music only polkett. i and ii. fdm music only pollen. busy housewife. hmc music only ---- morning greeting. hmc music only ---- rocking horse. hmc music only pollock. little birdie in a tree. hr ---- sailor boy. hr (hubbard. swing, cradle, swing. msg) polly. hubbard. msg polly. neidlinger. sss polly. valentine. vbd polly flinders. lbs polly flinders. smeltzer. sz polly, polly, have a cracker, do! _see_ valentine. polly. vbd *polly put the kettle on. bb--oya (variant: housekeeping. ng) polonaise. fdm music only polonaise. merkel. hmc music only pomona. fs *poor beggar's daughter. marzials. cpp poor chickabiddy, where's she gone? _see_ brahms. lost chicken. fs *poor dog bright. elliott. mg *poor ellen. jb (poor mary. lbs) poor linnet in the hedge. reinecke. fc poor little thistle so homely and rough. _see_ cole. thistle's story. cm *poor mary is a-weeping, a-weeping. lbs (poor ellen. jb) poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree. _see_ marzials. o, willow, willow. cpp pop-corn. vose. el pop-corn people. gaynor. sc pop goes the weasel. neb music only pop, goes the weasel. oya pope. rise, crowned with light. tlb poppies. gaynor. sc poppy lady. gaynor. ll posies and roses. lbs posies, posies, red and white and blue. _see_ posies and roses. lbs postillion. taubert. rcs postillion. schoenfeld. hmc music only postknecht will ich werden. _see_ taubert. postillion. rcs postman. gaynor. sc postman. hailmann. hr postman. knowlton. ns postman. reed. hs postman. valentine. vbd postman. warner. kc postman as he travels round upon his way. _see_ neidlinger. letters. es postman trudges down the street. _see_ reed. postman. hs postman with his leather bag. _see_ shedd. st. valentine's day. hs poulsson. all for baby. pfp ---- around the maypole. hs ---- autumn song. hs ---- autumn wind. lcd ---- baby's birthday. lcd ---- baby's bread. hs ---- baby's cotton gown. hs ---- beckoning the pigeons. sm ---- bed-time. lcd ---- birds in autumn. hs ---- bird's joy. hs ---- bird's nest. hs ---- bold snow man. lcd ---- bossy cow. lcd ---- bowing game. hs ---- brave. lcd ---- bridge. sm ---- brooklet's song. hs ---- busy wind. lcd ---- butterfly dance. lcd ---- cackling hen. lcd ---- canary. lcd ---- careful. lcd ---- carpenter. sm ---- caterpillar. lcd ---- caterpillar. pfp ---- caterpillar. sm ---- chimes. lcd ---- chirpings. lcd ---- choosing a flower. lcd ---- christmas time is coming. lcd ---- counting lesson. pfp ---- dandelion cycle. ns ---- dove talk. lcd ---- easter morning. hs ---- echo play. lcd ---- evening prayer. lcd ---- falling! falling! sm ---- falling snow. hs ---- family. sm ---- ferns. hs ---- first christmas. hs--ws ---- first christmas song. (for older children.) hs ---- fishes at play. hs ---- five little mice. pfp ---- flower garden. lcd ---- fly, little birds. hs--ws ---- friendly dark. lcd ---- froebel's birthday. hs ---- garden. hs ---- going to sleep. lcd ---- good morning, canary. hs ---- good weather. lcd ---- grand ladies. lcd ---- green leafy tree. lcd ---- greeting. sm ---- hen and chickens. pfp ---- how the corn grew. pfp ---- if rosy sunsets never paled. lcd ---- if you were a flower. lcd ---- in the bethlehem stable. lcd ---- independence day. hs ---- ironing song. hs ---- kite. tgs ---- lambs. pfp ---- light bird. hs ---- lighthouse. lcd ---- little boy's walk. pfp ---- little child's gift carol. hs ---- little dancing song. lcd ---- little game for little folks. ws ---- little garden. ws ---- little gardener. lcd ---- little plant. pfp ---- little travelers. hs ---- lordly cock. lcd ---- making bread. pfp ---- making butter. pfp ---- may-basket. lcd ---- merry little men. pfp ---- merry wind. lcd ---- milk for supper. lcd ---- mill. pfp ---- minding their mother. lcd ---- mrs. pussy's dinner. pfp ---- moonlight song. el ---- morning hymn. lcd ---- morning sunshine. hs ---- mowing grass. sm ---- new year greeting. hs ---- numbering the fingers. sm ---- obedient. lcd ---- old year and new year. hs ---- on froebel's birthday. hs ---- on this happy feast day. hs ---- orchard. el--hs ---- pigeon's flight. hs ---- pigs. pfp ---- play in all seasons. lcd ---- plums in winter. lcd ---- polite. lcd ---- postman. hs ---- prompt. lcd ---- rainbow. lcd ---- raining! raining! lcd ---- "riddle-cum-riddle". lcd ---- st. valentine's day. hs ---- santa claus. pfp ---- saying good-night. lcd ---- see the pretty valentines. hs ---- sequel to an old story. ns ---- sewing song. ws ---- sheep. lcd ---- shell. lcd ---- slow little snail. lcd ---- softly, softly blows the wind. lcd ---- soldiers true. hs ---- sparrows. pfp ---- sprinkling the clothes. hs ---- squirrel. pfp ---- sunshine far and near. lcd ---- thanks for food. lcd ---- thanksgiving for harvest. hs ---- three years old. lcd ---- tick-tack. sm ---- to a snow-flake. lcd ---- to the sky and back. lcd ---- toyman's shop. hs ---- train. lcd ---- transformation game. sm ---- treasures. lcd ---- two years old. lcd ---- useful. lcd ---- valentine's message. hs ---- washing day. el ---- washing day. hs ---- waves. lcd ---- weathervane. lcd ---- weathervane. sm ---- welcome to spring. lcd ---- when you send a valentine. hs ---- while stars of christmas shine. hs ---- whirlabout. lcd praise god from whom all blessings flow. _see_ franc. old hundred. tlb praise not to me the new born rose. _see_ charming marguerite. efs praise the lord with thankful spirits. _see_ martin. thou crownest the year with thy goodness. msl praise the lord! ye heavens, adore him. _see_ haydn. austrian hymn. tlb pratt. at the window. stn ---- august. ns ---- feeding the chickens. ns ---- god loves his little children. ns ---- little friends. ns ---- may. ns ---- news for gardeners. ns ---- north and south. ns ---- october. ns ---- one, two, three. stn ---- pinky wild rose. ns ---- points of the compass. ns ---- postman. ns ---- sleep, sleep, the south wind blows. stn pray tell me where you came from. _see_ smith. brook. sl pray, where are the little blue-bells gone? _see_ conrade. fairies. gs prayer. funkhouser. fsk prayer. gaynor. ll prayer. himmel. tlb prayer. randegger. kc (randegger. song of thanks. el) *prayers of love. gilchrist. tlb prelude. chopin. hmc music only presentation song. hill. shs preston. let us chase the squirrel. hs pretty bird, o shining bird. _see_ kohl. lightbird. sm pretty bird of colored light. _see_ gaynor. light bird. sc pretty bird with plumage gay. _see_ hubbard. polly. msg *pretty birdlings, blithe and gay. rcs pretty cow. cole. cm (seidell. thank you, pretty cow. hr) (smith. thank you, pretty cow. sl ) (tufts. thank you, pretty cow. cl) pretty flow'rs were sleeping. _see_ rich. easter song. hs pretty game. brown. el pretty garden-gate, we pray you open wide and let us go. _see_ gilchrist. garden-gate. sm pretty little blue-bird. _see_ neidlinger. blue-bird. sss pretty little blue eyed dolly. _see_ hitte. dolly song. dm pretty little goldi-locks shining in the sun. _see_ knowlton. dandelion cycle. ns pretty little johnnie, polly, come with me. _see_ reinecke. how johnnie and polly shake the apples. fc pretty little madelene. _see_ roeckel. madelene. tlb pretty little violets. _see_ brown. may. ws pretty maiden, sweet and gay. _see_ carrousel. bfd pretty moon. hubbard. msg (sawyer. new moon. ws) pretty poll parrott. bingham. bm *pretty polly pansy. conrade. gs pretty robin, do not go. _see_ tufts. robin. cl pretty skylark, winging, singing skylark. _see_ lark. efs *pretty swallow, fly away. bingham. bm pretty white snow flakes. _see_ smith. snow flakes. sl princes royal. neb prism game. gaynor. sc prompt. smith. lcd proposal. neb psalter. these see his wonder in the deep. tlb pumpkin head, pumpkin head there in the dark. _see_ gaynor. jack o'lantern. ll punkydoodle and jollapin. bartlett. stn (burdett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (stanley. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) purcell. hunting the hare. rcs ---- knowledge and wisdom. rcs purer yet and purer i would be in mind. _see_ lyndhurst. tlb puss at court. cbo (elliott. pussy cat, pussy cat. mg) pussy. gaynor. sc pussy by the fire. _see_ neidlinger. bad pussy. sss pussy cat. bb pussy cat high, pussy cat low. _see_ pussy cat. bb *pussy cat mew jumped over a coal. lbs *pussy cat, pussy cat, where have you been? elliott. mg (puss at court. cbo) pussy cat, where have you been today? _see_ lazy cat. hr (elliott. lazy cat. mg) pussy has a cozy home. _see_ gaynor. pussy. sc pussy on the roof. ps pussy, where have you been today? _see_ elliott. lazy cat. mg (lazy cat. hr) pussy white so slyly comes. _see_ hubbard. cat and the mouse. msg pussy willow. gaynor. sv pussy willow. knowlton. ns pussy willow. riley. ll pussy willow. st. john. bss pussy willow. sawyer. ws put on your bonnet and take your doll. _see_ knowlton. afternoon tea. ns put the clothes into the tub. _see_ smith. washing day. sl put the pretty pink shell to your pretty pink ear. _see_ smith. shell. lcd put your feet upon the line. _see_ gaynor. call to the circle. sc put your hand in mine and let us form our ring. _see_ sheehan. ring song. osm putting the fingers to sleep. hailmann. hr quack! said the duckling. _see_ gaynor. duckling. ll quadrille (swedish) fdm quaker courtship. ng *queen mary, queen mary. jb *queen o' may held court one day. warren. stn (stanley. queen o' may. stn) queen of the may. gaynor. ll queer pussies. gebauer. hs quercy. carol of the birds. tlb quickly from our bed we rise. _see_ marching, no. . ps quiet little sunbeam comes through the window clear. _see_ stetson. lightbird. hs quiet sabbath morn is here. _see_ gaynor. church. sc rabbi ben ezra. hadley. tlb rabbit. froebel. mp rabbit. gurlitt. hmc music only race. koehler. hr ragman. taynor. sc railway. wiseneder. hr rain. hitte. dm rain. st. john. bss rain. stevenson. cgv (fisher. rain. cgv) rain clouds. hill. shs rain coach. smith. sl rain fairies. reinecke. hmc music only rain is falling. _see_ gaynor. november. ll rain is raining all around. _see_ stevenson. rain. cgv (fisher. rain. cgv) rain on the roof. hill. shs *rain, rain, here again. tufts. cl rain shower. elliott. sl rain song. froelich. kc (reinecke. rain song. fc) rain song. mozart. shs rain song. smith. sl (allen. song of the rain. ws) rainbow. atkinson. gs rainbow. gaynor. sc rainbow. neidlinger. es rainbow. smith. lcd *rainbow children have come to town. gregory. el rainbow song. walker. ws raindrop is a little thing. _see_ tufts. trifles. cl raindrops. larned. hs raindrops. mendelssohn. hmc music only raindrops. verdi. gs (elliott. rainshowers. sl ) raining. hr *raining! raining! sang the sparrow. smith. lcd rainshowers. elliott. sl (verdi. raindrops. gs) rainy day. neidlinger. sss rainy day good morning. hill. shs ramsay. armies in the fire. sf ---- autumn fire. sf (wells. autumn fires. el) ---- bed in summer. sf _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- good and bad children. sf ---- hayloft. sf (bell. hayloft. lbs) ---- in port. sf ---- my kingdom. sf ---- my ship and i. sf (stanford. my ship and i. ss) ---- nest eggs. sf ---- northwest passage--good-night. sf ---- picture books in winter. sf (bell. pictures in winter. lbs) ---- shadow march. sf ---- swing. sf _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. ---- where go the boats? sf _for other composers see_ stevenson. where go the boats? ---- wind. sf _for other composers see_ stevenson. wind. ramsay. windy nights. sf _for other composers see_ stevenson. windy nights. randegger. at night. tc ---- morning prayer. sl ---- prayer. kc (randegger. song of thanks. el) ---- song of thanks. el (randegger. prayer. kc) ranged in rows. wiebe. kc ranged in two long facing rows. _see_ wiebe. ranged in rows. kc rataplan. reinecke. fc--hr (reinecke. marching song (rataplan.) kc) rap, rap, rap, rap, how the shingles snap. _see_ hubbard. nailor. msg reach out your hands. _see_ wiggin. ball song, no. . kc reading. dulce domum. tlb ---- oh, come, all ye faithful. tlb reap the flax. bfd reapers. gayrhos. hmc music only reapers. kies. msl reaper's dance. oehmler. hmc music only reaping the flax. kk reason why. brown. ws recipe for a valentine. gaynor. sc recessional. huss. tlb red and speckled lady bug. _see_ gaynor. lady bug. sc red and white. terhune. cc red sarafan. efs *red, white and blue. atkinson. gs reed. bell-ringer. tgs ---- christmas. hs--tgs ---- cloudy day. tgs ---- first gift exercises. tgs ---- fishes. tgs ---- froebel's birthday. hs ---- garden bed. tgs ---- good morning song. tgs ---- good-bye song. tgs ---- kite. tgs (variant: hurd. kite. pts) (adapted from froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp) (variant: hubbard. target. msg) ---- lullaby. tgs ---- mill. tgs (reinecke. mill-wheel. sm) ---- missing ball. tgs ---- morning thanksgiving. hs ---- mystery man. tgs ---- our land. hs--tgs ---- pebble game. tgs ---- postman. hs ---- skating game. tgs ---- sleepy leaves. hs--tgs ---- surprise. tgs ---- table exercise for attention. tgs ---- two little windows. tgs ---- wonderful bag. tgs reel (danish). fdm music only reel (finnish). fdm music only regiment. gaynor. ll regimental march. fs reichardt. heather rose. rcs _for other composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein reinecke. another birthday song. fc ---- barcarole. fc (duck dance. bg) (fairy ship. bb) (reinecke. i saw a ship a sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. el) ---- barley brownie. fc ---- beckoning the pigeons. sm ---- birds and angels. fc ---- birds of passage. fc ---- birdie's burial. fc ---- birthday song. sl (reinecke. mother's birthday song, no. . fc) ---- birthday song. sl ---- blue-bell and the flowers. fc ---- boy and the wren. rcs (reinecke. george's song. fc) ---- broom and the rod. fc ---- carriage to ride in. fc ---- child and the cuckoo. fc ---- christmas at the door. fc--hr--sl ---- christmas hymn. fc ---- christmas song. fc ---- daisy. sl ---- dancing song. fc (froelich. dancing song. hr) ---- doll's cradle song. fc ---- dragonfly in the sunshine. hmc music only ---- dream. hmc music only ---- evening prayer. fc--hr--sl ---- evening star. fc ---- evening star. rcs ---- fairy. fc ---- farmer. sl ---- field daisy. fc ---- finger piano. sm ---- first christmas. gs (morton. first christmas. hs--ws) ---- five in a row. sl --sm ---- flower song. sm ---- forget-me-not. fc--sl (jacob. forget-me-not. ws) ---- forming the ring. ws ---- george's song. fc (reinecke. boy and the wren. rcs) ---- god the father in heaven. fc ---- good king arthur. fc (gaynor. king arthur. ll) (king arthur. cbo) ---- good old cock. fc ---- guessing the singer. sm ---- hark, hark, like the lark. sl ---- hiding game. sm ---- how it looks in the mill. fc ---- how johnnie and polly shake the apples. fc ---- hurdy gurdy. hmc music only ---- i saw a ship a sailing. hr (duck dance. bg) (fairy ship. bb) (reinecke. barcarole. fc) (ship a-sailing. el) ---- in the mill. hmc music only ---- little gardener. sm ---- longing for spring. rcs ---- mamma and the baby. fc ---- marching song. kc ---- marching song. (rataplan.) (reinecke. rataplan. fc--hr) ---- marionetts. hmc music only ---- mill. fc (adaptation, in sl ) ---- millwheel. sm (reed. mill. tgs) ---- morning hymn. kc ---- morning prayer. fc--sl ---- morning prayer. sl ---- mother love. rcs ---- mother's birthday. fc (reinecke. birthday song. sl ) ---- my mother's eye. fc ---- partner, so merry. sl ---- peace of night. fc--fs ---- poor linnet in the hedge. fc ---- rain song. fc ---- rataplan. fc--hr (reinecke. marching song. (rataplan.) kc) ---- santa claus. sl ---- schnick schnack. rcs ---- serenade. fc ---- sicillian. hmc music only ---- sir spring's concert. fc ---- sleighing song. sl ---- snowflakes. hr ---- snowwhite. fc ---- spin, lassie, spin. sl (reinecke. spinning song. fc--rcs) ---- spinning song. fc--rcs (reinecke. spin, lassie, spin. sl ) ---- stork, stork, stander. fc (reinecke. stork, stork, stanley. rcs) ---- sunshine. hr ---- tick tack. sm ---- to the evening star. fc ---- to the humblebee. fc ---- to the nightingale. fc ---- toyman of nuremberg. fc ---- up yonder on the mountain. fc ---- violet. fc--rcs--sl --ws (kies. violet. msl) (schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws) (violet. kc) ---- visit. sm ---- weaving song. hr ---- when mother was ill. fc ---- when the little children sleep. fc--kc ---- who has the whitest lambkins? fc--kc (moon and the stars. ps) (white lambkins. hr) reinhold. boat song. hmc music only ---- brownies. hmc music only ---- fairy steps. hmc music only ---- gnomes. hmc music only ---- march of fingall's men. hmc music only ---- war song. hmc music only reissmann. waking flowers. rcs remember the glories of brien, the brave. _see_ brien, the brave. tlb remembrance. saleza. fs resch. "secret love." km *rest in the lord. mendelssohn. tlb rest song. kies. msl rest thee now. schubert. rcs (schubert. softly sleep thou. fs) rest thee, rest thee. _see_ schubert. rest thee now. rcs (schubert. softly sleep thou. fs) retour. _see_ marie antoinette. return. fs return. marie antoinette. fs return ball. loomis. hmc music only return of the birds. nevin. tc rheinlaender. fdm music only rhythm game. gaynor. sc rhythmic measure, gives us pleasure. _see_ equal measure. hr (variant: marching song, no. . ps) rich. easter song. hs richards. at easter time ws ---- baby bo. stn ---- church. sm ---- december. ns ---- happy brothers and sisters. sm ---- hymn for a child. ns ---- little gardener. sm ---- little john bottlejohn. stn ---- naming the fingers. sm ---- punkydoodle and jollapin. stn ---- shadow rabbit. sm ---- song of the shark. stn ---- valentine. stn richter. may dancing song. hr *riddle-cum-riddle. smith. lcd *ride a cock-horse to banbury cross. elliott. mg (banbury cross. oya) rider. berry. kc rider on the rockinghorse. loeschhorn. hmc music only riders five on steeds so gay. _see_ smith. five riders and good child. sl riding on the rail. ingraham. stn (bartlett. riding on the rail. stn) rieff. christmas song. kc ---- christmas tree march. kc riego's hymn. fs *right, left, together. fischer. hr rigs o'marlow. neb riley. grasshopper green. ll ---- mad tea party. ll ---- my valentine. ll ---- pussy willow. ll ring. boating song. sc ring. elliott. sl *ring a ring of roses, a pocket full of posies. jb--lbs (variant: ring around the rosie. ng) *ring around a rosy sweet. usi ring around the posy bed. smith. sl ring around the rosie. ng (ring a ring of roses. jb--lbs) ring, glad bells. herron. ws ring, kling, ling, ling. _see_ reinecke. christmas at the door. hr ring made of seven pretty girls. _see_ seven pretty girls. kk *ring, merry christmas bells. jenks. el *ring out, wild bells. tlb ring, ring, ring, ring, merry bells. _see_ hitte. merry christmas bells. dm ring! ring! ye bells of christmas. funkhouser. fsk ring, ring, ye merry bells. _see_ rust. froebel's birthday song. el ring song. hurd. pts ring song. sheehan. osm ring song, no. . weber. kc ring song, no. . kc ring song, no. - . wiggin. kc ring song, no. . smith. kc ringel tanz. bb ripe apples. cole. cm ripened leaves. knowlton. ns *rippling, purling little river. rcs (gilchrist. rippling, purling little river. sm) (mozart. rippling, purling. hr) rippling, sparkling in the sun. _see_ reinecke. finger piano. sm rischart. now welcome to the new-born year. hr *rise crowned with light. lvoff. tlb rittmeyer. night song. tlb *river, river, tell me pray. gaynor. sc robbers. parker. tlb robert of lincoln. conrade. gs robin. tufts. cl robin adair. efs robin redbreast. bss robin redbreast. bacon. el robin redbreast. gaynor. sc robin redbreast. kuecken. hr robin, robin redbreast, hopping in the snow. _see_ gaynor. robin redbreast. sc robin, robin redbreast, how your voice does ring. _see_ robin redbreast. bss *robin, robin redbreast, swinging on the bough. mather. ws robins and pussy willow. brewster. bss robins in the tree top. _see_ warren. marjorie's almanac. stn robin's nest. funkhouser. fsk robin's song. neidlinger. sss rock-a-bye baby on the tree top. _see_ cole. rock-a-bye baby. cm (bingham. rock-a-bye baby.) (hubbard. rock-a-bye baby. msg) (rock-a-bye baby. hr) (smith. rock-a-bye baby. sl ) rock-a-bye baby, see the leaves grow. _see_ atkinson. cradle song. sv *rock-a-bye baby, the moon is a cradle. parry. tc (seeboeck. rock-a-bye baby. tc) (wills. rock-a-bye baby. el) rock-a-bye baby up in the tree top. _see_ knowlton. in the tree top. ns (clarke. in the tree top. stn) rock-a-bye baby, upon the tree top, when the bow bends. _see_ rock-a-bye baby, on the tree top. *rock-a-bye lady from the hush-a-bye street. gilchrist. fsc rock-a-bye, lullaby, bees in the clover. allen. lullaby. stn (fairlamb. lullaby. stn) rock-a-way, rock-a-way, here we go. _see_ elliott. rockinghorse. sl rock the baby. _see_ neidlinger. rocking baby. sss rocking baby. neidlinger. sss rocking-horse. elliott. sl rocking-horse. pollen. hmc music only rocking-horse. tufts. fs rocking the cradle. montz. ims rockwell. marching song for froebel's birthday. kc rodes. kk rodney. neb roeckel. day is dying. tlb ---- madelene. tlb roelofson. swing song. el _for other composers see_ stevenson. swing. roeske. all for baby. pfp ---- caterpillar. pfp ---- counting lesson. pfp ---- five little mice. pfp ---- hen and chickens. pfp ---- how the corn grew. pfp ---- lamb. pfp ---- little boy's walk. pfp ---- little plant. pfp ---- making bread. pfp ---- making butter. pfp ---- merry little men. pfp ---- mill. pfp ---- mrs. pussy's dinner. pfp ---- pigs. pfp ---- planting of the apple tree. hs ---- santa claus. pfp ---- sparrow. pfp ---- squirrel. pfp ---- wind-flowers. hs ---- world. el rogers. hope of the nation. km ---- march. km roll call. hubbard. msg roll on, roll on, you restless waves. _see_ hubbard. waves on the sea-shore. msg *roll over, come back. hubbard. msg *roll the ball. hubbard. msg rollicking robin. knowlton. ns rolling and rolling. _see_ elliott. cart-wheel. sl (walker. cartwheel song. ws) rolling home. neb rolling the hoop. scharwenka. hmc music only roly-poly caterpillar. _see_ smith. caterpillar. lcd roly-poly honey bee. _see_ burdett. summer song. stn roman soldiers. jb root. child and the tree. sv ---- christmas song. sv (bingham. why do bells for christmas ring? bm) ---- dancing song. sv ---- flag song. sv ---- salute. gs ---- sunshine song. sv ---- wind song. sv rose-bush. hubbard. msg rose-bush has a baby. _see_ neidlinger. rose-bush's baby. sss rose-bush's baby. neidlinger. sss rose of allandale. tlb rose song. parker. tc roses are waking. _see_ commencement song. tlb rosetti. january. ns rossini. bring blossoms sweet. gs ---- sleighing. hr ---- stars and posies. gs *rosy apple, lemon, or a pear. jb *rosy, my posy. hailmann. hr rothe sarafan. _see_ titoff. flicker, flicker, firesprite. fs (music: tasting. kc) rough riders. seeboeck. hmc music only round and round. hr round and round and round we go a tripping-oh! _see_ gaynor. dancing song. ll *round and round it goes. hubbard. msg (conrade. millwheel. gs) (millwheel. el) round and round, round and round. _see_ ball song. (motion.) el round and round, round and round. _see_ valentine. goldfish. vbd round and round, the millwheels turn. _see_ round and round. hr *round and round the village. bg--hc--jb--usi (go round and round the valley. ng) round and round, we're slowly winding. _see_ froebel. winding. hr round and round we're lightly pacing. _see_ guessing game. hr round game. gaynor. ll round goes the ball in ev'ry place. _see_ hurd. ball song (spinning.) el round, on the diatonic scale. goodban. rcs round, round, wind the clock. _see_ gaynor. winding the clock. sc *round the corn stocks see us winding. jb rowing. guglielmo. fs royal conqueror. martin. msl *roy's horse enjoys a gallop. fs ru, ri, ru, ri, going o'er the mountain. _see_ going over the mountain. usi rub-a-dub-dub. gaynor. sc rub! scrub! rub-a-dub-dub! _see_ hill. washing and ironing. shs rubinstein. melody in f. hmc music only ---- trot de cavalerie. hmc music only rumbling down the alleys. _see_ gaynor. ragman. sc run. montz. ims *run, little rivulet, run. boott. rcs--ws (bertini. little rivulet. hr) run, run, run. concone. hmc music only run, run, run! oh, what jolly fun! _see_ hering. little pony. hr running a race. ps russell. autumn song. hs russian lullaby. tlb (little cossack. fs) russian dance melody. hmc music only rust. boat. el ---- bucket song. el ---- child-land echoes with music. el ---- duck game. el ---- froebel's birthday song. el ---- froebel's favorite hymn. el ---- god sends his bright spring sun. el (smith. god sends his bright spring sun. sl ) ---- happy greetings. el ---- pleasant weather. el ---- seasons. el ---- summer shower. el ---- thanksgiving song. el ---- there was once a little birdie. el (cornwell. there was once a little birdie. el) (frost. birdie's song. ws) saar. my brigantine. tlb sabbath morn is dawning. _see_ damrosch. lord's day. stn sacrifice. efs *safe stronghold. luther. fs (luther. ein' feste burg. tlb) (luther. mighty fortress. efs) sah ein knab' ein roeslein stehn. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. said a very small wren. _see_ bartlett. wren and the hen. stn (molloy. wren and the hen. stn) said a very young crow. _see_ neidlinger. two crows. sss said the boy to the brook that was rippling away. _see_ sawyer. boy and the brook. el said the clouds to the sun. _see_ cole. what can you do? tc said the leaves on the branches. _see_ knowlton. ripened leaves. ns sail. gaynor. ll sailing at high tide. ng sailing in the boat when the tide runs high. _see_ sailing at high tide. ng sailing o'er a summer sea. denza. efs (denza. funiculi, funicula. fs) (denza. merry life. tlb) sailor. gaynor. sc sailor boy. pollock. hr (hubbard. swing cradle, swing. msg) sailor, tell me, over the ocean. _see_ marie antoinette. return. fs sailors. sawyer. el sailor's song. schumann. hmc music only st. edmund. sullivan. tlb st. gregory. barnby. tlb st. john. butterfly. bss ---- pussy willows. bss ---- rain. bss ---- sing, sing, lily bells ring. bss st. patrick's day. _see_ jig. bfd "st. patrick's day" _see_ jig (irish) fdm music only st. paul's steeple. cbo st. valentine's day shedd. hs saint valentine's day will soon be here. _see_ gaynor. valentines. sc saleza. remembrance. fs sally in our alley. marzials. cpp sally luker. neb sally waters. jb salute. root. gs salute to the flag. gaynor. sc same old road. neidlinger. es sampler. terhune. cc sanctissima. _see_ work. fs sandman. finch. hs sandman. gaynor. ll sandman. taubert. rcs sands of dee. tlb sangster. call of the crow. ns ---- hymn for national holiday. ns ---- litany. ns ---- little fairy. ns ---- merry wind. ns ---- patriotic hymn. ns ---- ripened leaves. ns santa claus. brown. el santa claus. conrade. gs santa claus. reinecke. sl santa claus. roeske. pfp santa claus, dear santa claus, i wonder if you know. _see_ conrade. santa claus. gs santa claus is coming children! _see_ schwartz. christmas song. bss santa lucia. efs--fs--tlb (now neath the silver moon. efs--tlb) (see where the star of eve. fs) sap has begun to flow. smith. sl saraband. hmc music only sartorio. albumleaf. hmc music only saville. pigeon's flight. hs ---- song of thanks. hs saw, saw, saw, make the boards fit. _see_ hill. busy carpenters. shs sawing game. ws (hubbard. sawing game. msg) (sawyer. ps) (stangenberger. sawyer. hr) sawyer. alder by the river. el (strachauer. alder by the river. ws) ---- april shower. el ---- boy and the brook. el ---- chickadee. el ---- child's inquiry. el ---- coasting song. ws ---- come let us live with our children. el ---- duck game. el ---- easter carol. el ---- first christmas. el ---- good-bye to the flowers. ws (mendelssohn. child's good-bye. hr) ---- greeting to the spring. el ---- lady moon. ws (hubbard. lady moon. msg) ---- little ball, passing along. ws ---- new moon. ws ---- old english carol. el ---- pussy willow. ws ---- sailors. el ---- snow balls. el ---- snowflake. el ---- waits. el ---- what the little things said. ws ---- while shepherds watched their flocks by night. el ---- wind. el (bertini. i am the wind. hr) (cornwell. wind. el) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) sawyer. stangenberger. hr (hubbard. sawing game. msg) (sawing game. ws) (sawyer. ps) *say, bonnie lassie. jb say, busy bee, whither now are you going? _see_ busy workers. hr (bees. msg) say, can you see? _see_ key. star spangled banner. efs--fs--gs--msg say, can you tell what the sweet birds are singing? _see_ twilight and dawn. shs say, have you heard of the sing-away bird? stn say, mr. cube, what now are you hiding? _see_ cube song, no. . el saying good-night. smith. lcd says birdie: wee-tee, wee-tee. _see_ reinecke. birds of passage. fc scale songs. cole. cm scarecrow. bb scenes from the circus. hollaender. hmc music only schaefermaedchen weidete. _see_ shepherdess and the cuckoo. rcs scharwenka. rolling the hoop. hmc music only schilling. wonderful tree. ws schlaf' ein, mein suesses kind. _see_ taubert. sleep, thou, my darling. rcs schlaf' in gute ruh? _see_ dream-baby. fs *schlaf, kindlein, schlaf. bb (sleep, darling, sleep. rcs) schlaf, kindlein, schlaf. _see_ sleep, baby, sleep. fs--rcs schlafe, schlafe, holder suesser knabe. _see_ schubert. rest thee now. rcs (schubert. softly sleep thou. fs) schlager. who taught the bird? hr schlesinger. bronze, brown eyes. stn schneckenberger. watch by the rhine. efs--fs schnecker. june. tlb ---- song of illyrian peasants. tlb *schnick, schnack, dud'l sack, children gaily dancing. reinecke. rcs schoenefeld. learning to dance. hmc music only ---- little elf. hmc music only ---- postillion. hmc music only ---- silver fishes. hmc music only ---- tally-ho. hmc music only ---- top. hmc music only ---- turkish march. hmc music only schubert. heather rose. rcs (reichardt. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. hedge roses. fs) (schubert. wild rose. bss) ---- hedge roses. fs (reichardt. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. wild rose. bss) ---- impromptu. km ---- miller's flowers. fs ---- rest thee now. rcs (schubert. softly sleep thou. fs) ---- softly sleep thou. fs (schubert. rest thee now. rcs) ---- wild rose. bss (reichardt. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. heather rose. rcs) (schubert. hedge roses. fs) ---- winter song. ws schuckburgh. independence day. hs schultz. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws (kies. violet. msl) (reinecke. violet. fc--rcs--sl --ws) (violet. kc) schulz. blossom, pretty flower. rcs schumann. bird-game. kc ---- birthday march. hmc music only ---- cradle song. hmc music only ---- guardian angels. fs ---- hunting song. hmc music only ---- joyous peasant. hmc music only ---- lady bird. fs ---- lord in thy great, thy glorious name. tlb ---- lost chicken. fs ---- morning song. hmc music only ---- papillon. hmc music only ---- sailor's song. hmc music only ---- soldiers march. hmc music only ---- wild horseman. hmc music only schwartz. christmas song. bss ---- flag. bss ---- indian lullaby. bss ---- mother's birthday. bss ---- oh! tell me the tone that the cricket sings. bss schytte. in the mill. hmc music only ---- shadow. hmc music only ---- styrian dance. hmc music only scissors grinder. hubbard. msg scissors grinder. knowlton. hmc music only scissors grinder. knowlton. ns scollard. november. ns scotch reel. bfd *scotland's burning. fs--ll--oya *scots, wha hae wi' wallace bled! burns. efs scott. annie laurie. efs--fs--tlb ---- love wakes and weeps. tlb ---- o hush, thee, my baby. fs scythe movement. montz. ims sea breeze. fs sea garden. neidlinger. es sea is a jovial comrade. _see_ kauffman. wind and sea. tlb sea shanties. neb sea song. neidlinger. es searching for some simple thing. _see_ neidlinger. beginning. es seasons. brown. el seasons. hubbard. msg seasons. hurd. pts season's work is over. _see_ koehler. good-bye song. hr second gift song. wiggin. kc second ring song. mozart. shs secret love. resch. km sedan chair. terhune. cc *see, amid the winter's snow. tlb see, here is grandmamma. _see_ wiggin. family finger play. kc see how our hammer swings. _see_ blacksmith. kc see how the lovely fishes swim. _see_ kohl. little fish. hr (fishes. ps) see how the sparkling fishes gleam. _see_ fishes. ps (kohl. little fish. hr) see how within the shallow stream. _see_ hubbard. fishes, no. . msg see it go, see it go, not too fast and not too slow. _see_ pendulum. ps see, millions of bright raindrops. ws see my little ball. _see_ lullaby ball song. kc see, my bird has built a nest. _see_ hailmann. bird's nest. hr (variant: hubbard. see my little birdie's nest. msg) see my little birdie's nest. hubbard. msg (variant: hailmann. bird's nest. hr) see my dog, nice old carl. _see_ cole. my dog, carl. cm see my pigeon-house, so high! _see_ kohl. pigeon-house. sm see my soldiers. _see_ neidlinger. tin soldiers. sss see our bright beautiful dresses. _see_ gaynor. autumn leaves. gs see our cards all in a row. _see_ hailmann. sewing. hr see our maypole filled with flowers. _see_ hubbard. maypole song. msg see our pretty birdie fly. _see_ seidel. folded pigeon and pigeon house. hr see-saw. gaynor. sc see-saw. hubbard. msg see-saw. knowlton. hmc music only see-saw. neidlinger. sss *see-saw, margery daw. lbs (elliott. see-saw, margery daw. mg) see-saw, margery daw. _see_ margery daw. bb see-saw, margery daw has lost her way to london town. _see_ smeltzer. marjorie daw. sz *see saw, up and down. hr see the banner waving o'er us. _see_ schwartz. flag. bss see the blacksmiths so active and brawny. _see_ mozart. horseshoeing. hr *see the bunny sleeping. jb see the busy farmer. _see_ gaynor. song of the loaf of bread. sc see the carpenter! all the day he works away. _see_ hubbard. oh! see the carpenter. msg (froebel. carpenter. mp) see the cheerful carpenter. _see_ carpenter. kc see the cheerful postman coming. _see_ hailmann. postman. hr *see the chickens round the gate. hubbard. msg (conrade. chickens round the gate. gs) (seidell. chickens round the gate. gs) see the children on our ring joining in our song. _see_ mozart. second ring song. shs see the children swinging. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm see the fishes in the brook. _see_ hubbard. fishes, no. . msg see the fly buzzing by. _see_ gaynor. fly. sc see the gate! it opens wide. _see_ froebel. farmyard. sm *see the gospel light is shining. kies. msl see the light. hubbard. msg (froebel. little window. mp) (wiggin. window. kc) see the little doggie run. _see_ cole. little doggie. cm *see the little hands go clip. jb see the little table here. _see_ smith. setting the table. sl *see the little window bright. _see_ froebel. little window. mp (hubbard. oh! see the light. msg) (wiggin. window. kc) see the neat little clock. _see_ clock. hr see the pretty bunny. _see_ neidlinger. bunny. sss see the pretty little birdies. _see_ cole. little birdies. cm see the pretty pussy willows. _see_ st. john. pussy willows. bss see the pretty snow-flakes falling. _see_ messengers from cloudland. bss *see the pretty valentines. hill. hs see the pussy willows peeping. _see_ brown. welcome to the pussy willows. el see the rabbit running, skipping. _see_ froebel. rabbit. mp see the red tops in the clover. _see_ smith. mowing song. sl see the regiment passing by! _see_ gaynor. regiment. ll see the ripples in the water. _see_ gaynor. boating, no. . sc *see the rosy morn appearing. shield. tlb see the sailor toiling. _see_ sawyer. sailor. el see the shining dew drops. _see_ wiggin. god is ever good. kc see the sky is glowing. _see_ smith. morning hymn. lcd *see the snow is falling. hubbard. msg (hailmann. oh, see the snow. hr) (walker. snow. ws) see the snow, the falling snow. _see_ hailmann. oh, see the snow. hr (hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg) (walker. snow. ws) see the tiny fishes dart. _see_ gaynor. fishes. sc see the trees all in a row. _see_ heerwart. trees. hr--kc--sm see the waterwheel go round. _see_ waterwheel. ps see the windmill. _see_ stangenberger. windmill. hr (windmill. ps--ws) see the window i have here. _see_ beethoven. little window. hr see this shining skating pond. _see_ koehler. skating. hr see us now as we go by. _see_ threading the needle. el see us sawing. _see_ hubbard. see-saw. msg *see what a pretty little girl. jb see what a wonderful garden is here. _see_ dekoven. little-oh-dear. fsc see what a pretty sheep we've got. _see_ shepherdess. hc see where the star of eve. _see_ cottrau. santa lucia. fs (now neath the silver moon. efs--tlb) seeboeck. on the railroad train. hmc music only ---- rock-a-bye. tc (parry. rock-a-bye baby. tc) (willis. rock-a-bye baby. el) ---- rough riders. hmc music only ---- shepherd. hmc music only ---- threshers. hmc music only ---- winter sports. hmc music only seed song. sheehan. osm seeds and flowers are sleeping sound. _see_ hill. nature's easter song. shs seeds of love. marzials. cpp seeds; or, flowers unfolding. montz. ims seeing. hubbard. msg (guessing game, no. . ps) (when we're playing together. ws) (wiggin. guessing game. kc) see. meissner. asc seeing game. wiggin. kc seek the saviour early, children dear. _see_ martin. morning song. msl seems to me the whole world's singing. _see_ neidlinger. endless song. tlb seidel. folded pigeon and pigeon-house. hr ---- four seasons. hr ---- joiner. hr (froebel. joiner. mp) (hubbard. zish! zish! zish. msg) (joiner. ps) ---- new year. hr ---- see the chickens round the gate. hr (conrade. chickens and the gate. gs) (hubbard. see the chickens round the gate. msg) ---- thank you, pretty cow. hr (cole. pretty cow. cm) (smith. thank you, pretty cow. sl ) (tufts. thank you, pretty cow. cl) ---- venturesome children. hr ---- windmill. hr (heerwart. windmill. kc) selling fruit. hailmann. hr (hailmann. ball play. kc) september. conrade. gs (knowlton. september. ns) (mclellan. september. el) sequel to an old story. knowlton. ns serenade. reinecke. fc set of games. gaynor. sc setting the table. smith. sl seven brothers. lbs seven game. jb seven great towns of greece. _see_ homer. rcs seven little fairies came. _see_ walker. rainbow song. ws seven pretty girls. kk seven ships sailing on a milky sea. _see_ neidlinger. bowl of bread and milk. sss seven times one. bss seward. hurrah for the sleigh bells. el sewing. hailmann. hr sewing machine. montz. ims sewing song. ws sewing song. pettibone. sc sewing song. smith. sl shadow. schytte. hmc music only shadow march. stevenson. sf (ramsay. shadow march. sf) shadow rabbit. froebel. sm shadows. neidlinger. es shadows creeping along the sky. _see_ smith. birdling's goodnight to the stars. sl shakespeare. blow, blow, thou winter wind. tlb ---- mid-summer night's dream. tlb ---- who is silvia? tlb *shall i show you how the farmer? rcs (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (froebel. farmer. sm) (koehler. farmer. hr) shall i sing you a song that tells you how our farmers of old did their sowing? _see_ sowing song. kk. shall i tell you i spilled the ink? _see_ brewster. dotty and the clock. bss shall i tell you how the farmer sows his barley and wheat? _see_ farmer. lbs (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (farmer. ps) (froebel. farmer. sm) (koehler. farmer. hr) (shall i show you how the farmer? rcs) *shall i tell you how we sew in our garden? lbs shall we show you how the carpenter? _see_ hurd. labor game. pts shall we show you how the farmer? _see_ froebel. farmer. sm (farmer. lbs) (farmer. ps) (farmer and the housewife. kk) (koehler. farmer. hr) (can you show me how the farmer? jb) (shall i show you how the farmer? rcs) shaw. columbia, the gem of the ocean. gs she's an old spinster. _see_ day's far spent. jb shean trews. (whistle o'er the leaves o't). fdm music only sheehan. april showers. osm ---- at easter tide. osm ---- butterfly and rose bud. osm ---- good-bye song. osm ---- good morning song. osm ---- lark. osm ---- mothers' lullaby babies. osm ---- my garden flowers. osm ---- playtime ring song. osm ---- ring song. osm ---- seed song. osm ---- spring is here. osm ---- spring morning prayer. osm ---- to the wild flowers. osm sheep. cole. cm (hill. children and the sheep. shs) (marie antoinette. children and the sheep. shs) sheep. neidlinger. es sheep. smith. lcd shell. smith. lcd shelley. noël, noël, the christ is born. ws ---- tonight. tlb *shenandoah, i long to hear you. neb shepherd. seeboeck. hmc music only *shepherd leads his flock. kies. msl *shepherd of tender youth. gaynor. tlb shepherd maiden. fs (bergere. bb) (shepherdess. rcs) shepherdess. hc shepherdess. rcs (bergere. bb) (shepherd maiden. fs) shepherdess and the cuckoo. rcs shepherdess so faithful. _see_ shepherdess. rcs (bergere. bb) (shepherdess. rcs) shepherd's hay. neb shepherds were watching their sheep thru' the night. _see_ watching the flocks. gs sherman. dewdrops. cm ---- hide and seek. el ---- july. ns ---- kite time. ns ---- snowbird. ns sherwood. around the maypole. hs ---- baby's calendar. hs ---- christmas, merry christmas. hs ---- good advice. hs ---- leaves, flowers and fruit. hs ---- little boy's walk in winter. hs ---- may day invitation. hs ---- new year greeting. hs ---- our fir-tree. hs ---- soldiers true. hs ---- song for the prism. hs ---- thanksgiving for harvest. hs ---- we thank thee. hs shield. see the rosy morn appearing. tlb *shine out, oh blessed star! dugan. ws shine! shine! shine! pour down your warmth, great sun. _see_ gilchrist. we two together. tlb ship. hubbard. msg (vessel. ps) ship-a-sailing. el (duck dance. bg) (fairy ship. bb) (reinecke. barcarole. fc) (reinecke. i saw a ship-a-sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. rcs) ship, a ship, a-sailing. _see_ fairy ship. bb (duck dance. bg) (reinecke. barcarole. fc) (reinecke. i saw a ship a-sailing. hr) (ship a-sailing. el) (ship a-sailing. rcs) shoe the horse. smeltzer. sz (shoe the old horse. hr) *shoe the old horse. hr (smeltzer. shoe the horse. sz) shoemaker. hubbard. msg shoemaker. libby. ws shoemaker. mokrejs. hmc music only shoemaker. smith. sl shoemakers' dance. bfd shoemakers' dance. fdm music only *shoo fly. funkhouser. fsk shoot the buffalo. usi short. little boy bubble. gs should auld acquaintance be forgot. _see_ burns. auld lang syne. efs--fs shower and flower. batchellor. ws shut them! open! shut them! _see_ smith. finger song. sl shut your eyes. _see_ smith. tasting. sl siciliana. dost thou no longer love me? efs sicillian. reinecke. hmc music only sidewalk song. funkhouser. fsk signals of time. shs signs. neidlinger. es signs of the seasons. bacon. el signs of the seasons. gaynor. ll silcher. loreley. fs (silcher. lurlei. rcs) silent little snow flakes so silently falling down. _see_ lecocq. valentine day, no. . gs silver fishes. schoenefeld. hmc music only silver moon. smith. sl silver moon is floating, floating. _see_ gaynor. moon boat. sc silver night. smith. sv *silver swan, who living had no note. gibbons. rcs simon of salle. kk *simple simon. elliott. mg *since first i saw your face. marzials. cpp sinding. i heard the gull. efs ---- mother sings. efs sing a song of iron. _see_ gaynor. song of iron. sc *sing a song of sixpence. elliott. mg (song of sixpence. cbo) sing a song of snowflakes. _see_ dugan. winter song. el sing a song of the murmuring trees. _see_ hill. song of the trees. hs sing a song of washington. _see_ work. song of washington. hs sing a song of winter; pocket full of rye. _see_ cole. song about winter. cm sing-away bird. millard. stn sing, children, sing. conrade. gs sing ho! for the planter who planted the cotton. _see_ strong. baby's cotton apron. hs sing, little children, i love to hear you sing. _see_ cole. singing and playing. cm *sing, little children, sing. osgood. ws *sing, sing, lily bells ring. st. john. bss sing softly, sing sweetly, but join in the song. _see_ stetson. memorial day. hs sing the song we love to sing. _see_ meeting. fs sing us a song, birdie. hubbard. msg sing we all merrily, christmas is here. _see_ christmas is here. hr sing with cheery voices. _see_ smith. o sing with cheery voices. sl singing. stevenson. cgv--cm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. singing. singing and playing. cole. cm singing and swaying. _see_ cachucha. fs singing in the breezes where the tree tops flower. _see_ orioles. fs singing joyfully. beach. tc singing low. _see_ smith. slumber song. sl singing, singing all the day. _see_ cole. cheerful singing. cm single chants. macfarren. hmc music only *sippity sup. hr sir, pray be so good. _see_ purcell. hunting the hare. rcs *sir rider, ho! ho! no farther can your horse go! rcs sir roger de coverly. page. hmc music only "sir roger de coverley." _see_ english country dance. fdm music only sir spring will give a concert rare. _see_ reinecke. sir spring's concert. fc *sir simon de montfort my subject shall be. marzials. cpp sir spring's concert. reinecke. fc sitting at a window in her cloak and hat. _see_ elliott. mother tabbyskins. mg *six little puppies. neidlinger. sss *six little snails. elliott. mg six, seven, eight, nine o'clock. _see_ grove. bedtime. hs sixty seconds make a minute. _see_ calendar song. rcs (conrade. calendar song. gs) sixty seconds make a minute. _see_ tufts. time. cl skaters. parlow. hmc music only skating. gaynor. sc skating. koehler. hr skating game. hubbard. msg skating game. reed. tgs skim, skim, skim. _see_ roeske. making butter. pfp skip. montz. ims skipping. hitte. dm skipping. koehler. hr--ps skipping song. hill. shs skralat. fdm music only sky is dark and the hills are white. _see_ dekoven. norse lullaby. fsc skye boat song. fs skylark. cole. cm skylark. tschaikowsky. hmc music only sleep, ah, sleep, my darling baby. _see_ little cossack. fs (russian lullaby. tlb) *sleep, baby, sleep, thy father watches his sheep. fs--rcs (brewster. sleep, my baby, sleep. bss) (cornwell. sleep, baby, sleep. el) (smith. sleep, baby, sleep. sl ) *sleep, darling, sleep. rcs (schlaf, kindlein, schlaf. bb) sleep, dolly, sleep. _see_ reinecke. doll's cradle song. fc *sleep, gentle babe, your mother watches o'er you. mendelssohn. tlb sleep, little bird. _see_ gaynor. lullaby. sc sleep, little pigeon, and fold your wings. _see_ dekoven. japanese lullaby. fsc sleep, my baby, sleep. brewster. bss (cornwell. sleep, baby, sleep. el) (sleep, baby, sleep. fs--rcs) (smith. sleep, baby, sleep. sl ) sleep, my darling little one. _see_ spazier. cradle song. shs *sleep, my heart's treasure. weber. rcs sleep, my love, and peace attend thee. all through the night. efs (owen. all through the night. tlb) sleep now, birdies. _see_ wiggin. slumber song of the birdlings. kc *sleep, sleep, my darling. rcs *sleep, sleep, the south wind blows. pratt. stn sleep, sweet babe, my cares beguiling. _see_ dormi. fs *sleep thou, my darling. taubert. rcs sleep, thumbkin, sleep, sleep. _see_ hailmann. putting the fingers to sleep. hr *sleep time. bingham. bm sleepy flowers now are waking. _see_ waking flowers. shs *sleepy leaves. reed. hs--tgs *sleepy old duck. bingham. bm sleepy poppies, red and white. _see_ gaynor. poppies. sc sleigh-ride. hr (conrade. thanksgiving day. gs) (hubbard. thanksgiving day. msg) (morton. thanksgiving song. ws) sleigh-ride. kleinmichel. hmc music only sleighing. rossini. hr sleighing song. gaynor. sc sleighing song. reinecke. sl sloane. ferns. hs ---- washing day. hs slow and stately, quite sedately. _see_ smith. grand ladies. lcd slow little snail. smith. lcd slowly o'er the dark, dark waters. _see_ lake. tlb slowly, so slowly we tread our minuet. _see_ terhune. minuet. cc slumber song. brewster. bss slumber song. menard. bss slumber song. smith. sl slumber song. wiggin. kc (tufts. now the sun is sinking. cl) slumber song of the birdlings. wiggin. kc small and great. neidlinger. es smart. hark! hark! my soul, angelic songs. tlb smell the flow'r, my child, and see. _see_ reinecke. flower song. sm smelling. hubbard. msg (smith. smelling. sl ) (wiggin. smelling. kc) smelling. meissner. asc smeltzer. as i was coming along. sz ---- big john stout. sz ---- bobbie shaftoe. sz ---- boy blue. sz ---- farmer. sz ---- four owls. sz ---- hub a dub dub. sz ---- humpty dumpty. sz ---- jack and jill. sz ---- jack be nimble. sz ---- jack horner. sz ---- jackie jingle. sz ---- john smith. sz ---- little bo-peep. sz ---- little indians. sz ---- little jack-a-dandy. sz ---- little miss muffet. sz ---- man in the moon. sz ---- marjorie daw. sz ---- mary contrary. sz ---- miller of dee. sz ---- my ship. sz ---- old king cole. sz ---- old man of tobago. sz ---- old mother hubbard. sz ---- old woman who lives in the shoe. sz ---- peter piper. sz ---- polly flinders. sz ---- shoe the horse. sz ---- three men of gotham. sz ---- tommy snooks and bessie brooks. sz ---- tommy tittlemouse. sz ---- wooley foster and daffy down dilly. sz smiling in the valley, streaming o'er the plain. _see_ reinecke. sunshine. hr smith. after the rain. sv ---- afternoon song. kc ---- alice's supper. sl ---- all gone baby. sl ---- all the birds have come again. sl ---- america. fs--gs--msg (my country, 'tis of thee. tlb) ---- autumn wind. lcd ---- autumn winds are crying. sl ---- baby and the moon. sl (baby and the moon. sm) ---- baby's birthday. lcd ---- ball song. kc ---- ball song. sl (hubbard. roll over, come back. msg) ---- basket. sl ---- bed. sl ---- bedtime. lcd ---- bedtime. sv ---- bell so high. sl (bell song, no. . ps) (bell high in the steeple. ws) (hubbard. bell high in the steeple. msg) ---- birdlings' good-night to the flowers. sl ---- boat ride. sl ---- bold snow-man. lcd ---- bossy cow. lcd ---- brave. lcd ---- bridge. sl (variant: froebel. bridge. mp) (variant: hubbard. brook is flowing. msg) ---- bridge. sm ---- brook. sl ---- busy wind. lcd ---- butterfly dance. lcd ---- bye, baby, night has come. stn--sl (hill. bye, baby, bye. shs) ---- cackling hen. lcd ---- can you count the stars? sl (canst thou count the stars? ws) ---- canary. lcd ---- careful. lcd ---- carpenter. sl ---- caterpillar. lcd ---- caterpillar. sl ---- caterpillar. sm ---- children on the tower. sl ---- children's supper. sl ---- chimes. lcd ---- chirpings. lcd ---- choosing a flower. lcd ---- choosing the game. sl (variant: hailmann. teacher of gymnastics. hr) (little master of gymnastics. ps) (wiggin. imitation game. kc) ---- christmas carol. kc ---- christmas carol. sl ---- christmas hymn. sl ---- christmas is coming. lcd ---- christmas song. sl ---- church. sl (variant: froebel. church window and church door. mp) (variant: hubbard. church bell. msg) ---- church. sm ---- circles. sl ---- come and join our circle. sl ---- come, little leaves. sl (autumn leaves. hr) (hill. fall leaves. shs) (osgood. come, little leaves. rcs--msg--ws) ---- come, my dolly. sv ---- daffy-down-dilly. sl ---- daisies are dancing. sl ---- dancing song. sl ---- dandelion fashions. sl ---- dear little ball. sl ---- did you ever see a lassie? sl (did you ever see a lassie? bg--usi) ---- do the little brown twigs complain? sl ---- dove cote. sl ---- dove talk. lcd ---- easter song. sl (at easter time. ws) ---- echo play. lcd ---- evening prayer. lcd ---- evening song. sl ---- fairy dance. lcd ---- finding the place. sl ---- finger-piano. sl ---- finger song. sl ---- five riders and good child. sl ---- flag song. sl ---- flower basket. sm (froebel. basket. mp) ---- flower bed. sl ---- flower garden. lcd ---- fly, little birds. sl (cornwell. fly, little birds. ws) (hubbard. flying birds. msg) ---- forming the ring. sl ---- friendly drake. lcd ---- froebel's birthday song. sl ---- from dust and grit. sl ---- garden fence. sl ---- go to sleep, thumbkin. sl ---- god is always near me. sl ---- god sends his bright spring sun. sl (rust. god sends his bright spring sun. el) ---- going to sleep. lcd ---- good-bye song. kc ---- good-bye to summer. sl ---- good morning. sv ---- good morning, merry sunshine. sl --sl (hubbard. good morning, merry sunshine. msg) ---- good morning to the kindergarten. sl ---- good weather. lcd ---- grand ladies. lcd ---- green leafy tree. lcd ---- greeting song. kc ---- happy summer. sl ---- hard and soft balls. sl ---- harvest song. sl ---- hearing. sl ---- hope carol. tlb ---- hymn for a little child. sl ---- i lead my lambkin lovingly. sl ---- i put my right hand in. sl ---- if rosy sunsets never paled. lcd ---- if you were a flower. lcd ---- in a hedge. sl (froebel. in a hedge. sm) ---- in the barnyard. sl ---- in the bethlehem stable. lcd ---- in the snowing and the blowing. sl ---- ironing day. sl (warren. ironing song. stn) ---- jack frost. sl ---- joiner. sm ---- knights and the bad child. sm ---- knights and the good child. sm ---- knights and the mother. sm ---- light bird. sl --sm ---- lighthouse. lcd ---- little annie's garden. sm ---- little bird. sl ---- little child asleep. sl ---- little dancing song. lcd ---- little gardener. lcd ---- little gardener. sl ---- little mice. sl ---- little peach. fsc ---- little songs and dances. sl ---- little white daisy. sl ---- little white feathers. sl ---- little white lily. sl (tufts. little white lily. cl) (walker. little white lily. ws) ---- lordly cock. lcd ---- marching song. kc ---- may basket. lcd ---- may song. tlb ---- merrily dance. sl ---- merry wind. lcd ---- merry workers. sl ---- milk for supper. lcd ---- milkweed babies. sl ---- mill-stone. sl ---- minding their mother. lcd ---- morning greeting. sl ---- morning hymn. lcd ---- morning hymn. kc ---- morning prayer, no. . kc ---- morning song. kc ---- morning song. sl ---- morning sun is shining. sl ---- my country, 'tis of thee. tlb (smith. america. fs--gs--msg) ---- my heart is god's little garden. sl ---- my pegasus. sv ---- now the time has come for play. sl ---- obedient. lcd ---- oh little child. fsc ---- oh sing with cheery voices. sl ---- pail. sl ---- pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake. sl ---- play in all seasons. lcd ---- plums in winter. lcd ---- polite. lcd ---- prayer. kc ---- prompt. lcd ---- rain coach. sl ---- rain song. sl (allen. song of the rain. ws) ---- rainbow. lcd ---- raining! raining! lcd ---- riddle-cum-riddle. lcd ---- ring around the posy bed. sl ---- ring song, no. . kc ---- rock-a-by, baby. sl ---- sap has begun to flow. sl ---- saying good-night. lcd ---- setting the table. sl ---- sewing song. sl ---- sheep. lcd ---- shell. lcd ---- shoemaker. sl ---- silver moon. sl ---- silver night. sv ---- sing with cheery voices. _see_ smith. oh, sing with cheery voices. sl ---- sleep, baby, sleep. sl (brewster. sleep, my baby, sleep. bss) (cornwell. sleep, baby, sleep. el) (sleep, baby, sleep. fs--rcs) ---- slow little snail. lcd ---- slumber song. sl ---- smelling. sl (hubbard. smelling. msg) (wiggin. smelling. kc) ---- snow clouds. sl ---- snowball song. sl ---- snowflakes. sl ---- so bright and so round. sl ---- soft and hard balls. sl ---- softly, softly blows the wind. lcd ---- song of the clock. sl ---- squirrel. sl ---- stanzas from the nativity. tlb ---- stars and daisies. sl (stars and daisies. sm) ---- summer song. sl ---- sunbeams. sl ---- sunshine far and near. lcd ---- sunshine song. sl ---- sweet content. tlb ---- tailor. sl ---- tarantelle. hmc music only ---- taste song. sl ---- tasting. sl ---- thank you, pretty cow. sl (cole. pretty cow. hr) (seidell. thank you, pretty cow. hr) (tufts. thanks, pretty cow. cl) ---- thanks for food, i and ii. lcd ---- thanksgiving song. sl ---- this is the mother. sl ---- though your eyes are blinded. sl ---- three years old. lcd ---- thumbkin says "i'll dance." sl (variant: hubbard. thumbkin says "i'll dance." msg) (variant: walker. thumbkin says "i'll dance." ws) ---- thumbs and fingers say "good morning." sl --sm (variant: froebel. finger song. mp) (hubbard. thumbs and fingers say "good morning." msg) ---- to a snowflake. lcd ---- to the sky and back. lcd ---- tonight. tlb ---- tower. sl ---- train. lcd ---- transformation game. sm ---- treasures. lcd ---- tree in winter. sl ---- two years old. lcd ---- useful. lcd ---- wandering song. sm ---- washing day. sl ---- waves. lcd ---- we are little soldier men. sl ---- we are red birds. sl ---- we plow the fields. sl ---- we're playing together. sl ---- weather vane. lcd ---- welcome, little robin. sl ---- welcome to spring. lcd ---- wheel-wright. sm ---- whirlabout. lcd ---- wind song. sl --sm _for other composers see_ stevenson. wind. ---- window. sm ---- woodman. sl smith. hr smoke. montz. ims snail. conrade. gs snail. hubbard. msg (koehler. snail. hr) (snail. bg--ps) (snail game. hc) (walker. snail. ws) snail all cosily may dwell. _see_ smith. slow little snail. lcd snail crawls out with his house on his back. _see_ conrade. snail. gs snail game. hc (koehler. snail. hr) (hubbard. snail. msg) (snail. bg--ps) (walker. snail. ws) snail he lives in his hard round house. _see_ snail. hr snick, snick, snack! up my back. _see_ gaynor. tailor. ll snow. cole. el snow. walker. ws (hailmann. oh, see the snow. hr) (hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg) snow clouds. hill. shs snow clouds. smith. sl snow falls white and soft and light. _see_ snowstorm. rcs snow-filled nest. boot. stn snowball song. smith. sl snowballs. gaynor. sv snowballs. knowlton. ns snowballs, snowballs, oh such jolly fun. _see_ knowlton. snowballs. ns snowballs. sawyer. el snowbird. knowlton. ns snowdrops and violets. el snowdrops are thinking. _see_ snowdrops and violets. el snowdrops, waking from your sleep. _see_ gaynor. easter. gs snowflakes. dow. sl snowflakes. fisher. stn (molloy. snowflakes. stn) (warren. snowflakes. stn) snowflakes. gaynor. sc snowflakes. neidlinger. sss snowflakes. reinecke. hr snowflakes. sawyer. el snowflakes. smith. el snowflakes are falling. _see_ adams. christmas carol. hs snowflakes falling down. _see_ neidlinger. snowflakes. sss snowflakes white, from a height. _see_ winter. ps snowman. neidlinger. sss *snowman stands out on the lawn. gaynor. sc snowstorm. rcs snowwhite. reinecke. fc snurrbocken. fdm music only so bright and so round. smith. sl so, good day, my rosa. _see_ good day, my rosa. kk so we say, good day, good day. _see_ we say good day. kk so we weave the woolen. _see_ weaving game. hc so wise! gilchrist. stn soap-bubbles. neidlinger. sss social game. hc soft and hard balls. smith. sl soft-shell crab. chadwick. tc softly courses thro' my soul. _see_ mendelssohn. greeting. fs softly now the snowflakes fall. _see_ hill. earth's winter dress. shs *softly sleep thou. schubert. fs (schubert. rest thee now. rcs) softly, softly blows the wind. smith. lcd *softly, softly, softly. koehler. hr soldatenlied. see taubert. soldier song. fs--sl *soldier boy, soldier boy. hc *soldier, soldier, will you marry me? ng soldier song. taubert. fs--sl soldiers are coming. hiller. hmc music only soldiers' march. schumann. hmc music only *soldiers true. sherwood. hs solomon. just like this. kc some day you'll be a man. funkhouser. fsk some flags are red, or white, or green. _see_ smith. flag song. sl some little drops of water. _see_ smith. rain coach. sl some lullabies. gaynor. sc some think the world is made for fun and frolic. _see_ denza. funiculi, funicula. fs (merry life. tlb) (denza. sailing o'er a summer sea. efs) sometimes when flowers are very glad. _see_ neidlinger. rainbow. es son of god goes forth to war. _see_ martin. royal conqueror. msl song about winter. cole. cm song birds are flying. _see_ russell. autumn song. hs song for a child's birthday. hill. hs song for the prism. sherwood. hs song for washington's birthday. hs song i am singing my friend must repeat. _see_ reinecke. guessing the singer. sm song of april. fairlamb. tlb song of chestnuts. vose. el song of greeting. farwell. tlb song of home work. hs song of illyrian peasants. schnecker. tlb song of iron. gaynor. sc song of kindness. elliott. sl song of love. rcs song of perfume. froebel. mp song of sixpence. cbo (elliott. sing a song of sixpence. mg) song of smell. froebel. mp song of summer and winter. wolf. shs song of taste. froebel. mp song of thanks. el song of thanks. randegger. el (randegger. prayer. kc) song of thanks. saville. hs song of the bee. batchellor. ws song of the blacksmith. hubbard. msg (parker. blacksmith. ws) song of the bluebird. walker. el song of the brook. gaul. tc song of the clock. smith. sl song of the five fingers. tufts. cl song of the ghost dance. tlb song of the kitchen clock. gaynor. sc song of the loaf of bread. gaynor. sc song of the mill-stream. hill. shs song of the miller. gaynor. ll song of the nut. atkinson. gs song of the rain. allen. ws (smith. rain song. sl ) song of the robin. cornell. stn song of the roller skates. bartlett. stn song of the sewing machine. hill. shs song of the shark. chadwick. stn song of the shearer. sc song of the sunflower. gaynor. ll song of the tress. hill. hs song of the wind. burnett. hs song of washington. work. hs *songs my mother taught me. efs soon shall winter's reign be ended. _see_ brewster. spring must come. bss sounds of spring. fs sonne hat sich mued' gelaufen spricht. _see_ taubert. by-low-by. rcs sow, sew, so. knowlton. ns sowing song. kk *spacious firmament on high. tlb spanish lady. marzials. cpp sparks the charcoal throws. _see_ smith. hr sparrow. conrade. gs sparrows. roeske. pfp sparrow's greeting. taubert. rcs sparrows' nest. berry. kc spazier. cradle song. shs speed, bonnie boat, like a bird on the wing. _see_ skye boat song. fs spider. neidlinger. sss spider and the flies. wiggin. kc spider and the fly. elliott. mg spied a boy a rosebud fair. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. *spin, lassie, spin. reinecke. sl (reinecke. spinning song. fc--rcs) spin, maiden, spin. _see_ reinecke. spinning song. fc--rcs (reinecke. spin, lassie, spin. sl ) spindler. trumpeters' serenade. hmc music only spinet. terhune. cc spinn, maegdlein, spinn. _see_ reinecke. spinning song. fc--rcs (reinecke. spin, lassie, spin. sl ) spinning carol. terhune. cc spinning song. ellmenreich. hmc music only spinning song. reinecke. fc--rcs (reinecke. spin, lassie, spin. sl ) spinning the yarn. gaynor. sc spinning top, lightly spin. _see_ gaynor. top. sc *spirit of god, descend upon my heart. hopkins. tlb splendor falls on castle walls. _see_ neidlinger. blow, bugle, blow. tlb spohr. lillies sweet. hs spring birds. wiggin. kc spring comes with smiles and with sunshine so bright. _see_ spring's return. ps spring dance. gaynor. ll spring flowers. heerwart. hr spring flowers are op'ning. _see_ dugan. glad easter is here. hs spring has called us from our sleep. _see_ heerwart. spring flowers. hr spring is come. _see_ glueck. spring song. hr *spring is come. hayes. rcs spring is here. sheehan. osm spring is here, o children dear. _see_ stearns. springtime joy. hs spring is near. _see_ gaynor. pussy willows. sv spring joy. heerwart. hr spring morning prayer. sheehan. osm spring must come. brewster. bss spring once said to the nightingale. _see_ cornwell. birdies' ball. ws (hubbard. it is lovely may. msg) spring rain. lach. sl spring secrets. vose. el spring song. chopin. efs (chopin. maiden's wish. fs) spring song. mendelssohn. hmc music only spring the early blossoms bringeth. _see_ seidel. four seasons. hr spring's awakening. gayrhos. hmc music only spring's call to the flowers. wiggin. kc springtime. martin. msl springtime brings the robin and the blue-bird home. _see_ conrade. clacker. gs springtime is here. _see_ graeff. spring song. hs springtime joy. stearns. hs sprinkle, sprinkle, comes the rain. _see_ bartlett. merry rain. stn sprinkle, sprinkle, gentle rain. _see_ hailmann. april showers. hr sprinkling the clothes. chapek. hs squirrel. jb squirrel. roeske. pfp squirrel. smith. sl squirrel loves a pleasant place. _see_ chasing the squirrel. ws squirrels' chatter. kroeger. hmc music only stages of life. hill. shs stanford. bed in summer. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. bed in summer. ---- foreign children. ss (fisher. foreign children. cgv) ---- foreign lands. ss ---- marching song. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. marching song. ---- my shadow. ss ---- my ship and i. ss (ramsay. my ship and i. sf) ---- pirate story. ss ---- summer's rain and winter's snow. tc ---- where go the boats? ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. where go the boats? ---- windy nights. ss _for other composers see_ stevenson. windy nights. ---- worship. tc stangenberger. merry helpers. hr ---- sawyer. hr (hubbard. sawing game. msg) (sawing game. ws) (sawyer. ps) ---- windmill. hr (windmill. ps--ws) stanley. april girl. stn (fairlamb. april girl. stn) ---- cat and the dog. stn ---- cradle song. stn (fairlamb. cradle song. stn) (fisher. cradle song. stn) (ilsley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) ---- handel. stn (damrosch. handel. stn) ---- little elsie. stn ---- little john bottlejohn. stn (bristow. little john bottlejohn. stn) (gilchrist. little john bottlejohn. stn) ---- night and day. stn ---- punkydoodle and jollapin. stn (bartlett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (burdett. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) (mosenthal. punkydoodle and jollapin. stn) ---- queen o' may. stn ---- three wise women. stn ---- whenever a little child is born. stn stanzas for finger-piano. hailmann. hr stanzas from the nativity. smith. tlb star. cole. tc star. tours. tc star shone in the east one night. _see_ willcox. christine's christmas carol. el star spangled banner. key. efs--fs--gs--msg stars and daisies. sm (smith. stars and daisies. sl ) stars and posies. rossini. gs stars are tiny daisies high. _see_ stars and daisies. sm (smith. stars and daisies. sl ) stay with us, sweet songstress. _see_ reinecke. to the nightingale. fc steamer that passes far out at sea. _see_ neidlinger. steamer's message. es steamer's message. neidlinger. es stearns. springtime joy. hs stedman. ball play. kc stegall. christmas carol. rcs (stegall. manger throne. fs) ---- manger throne. fs (stegall. christmas carol. rcs) steh' nur auf. _see_ morning. fs steig' empor am himmel. _see_ reinecke. evening star. rcs step and fetch her. neb stephanos. baker. tlb stepping stones. gaynor. sc sternberg. phoebus, arise! tlb stetson. lightbird. hs ---- memorial day. hs stevenson. armies in the fire. sf (ramsay. armies in the fire. sf) ---- autumn fires. el--sf (ramsay. autumn fires. sf) (wills. autumn fires. el) ---- bed in summer. cgv--cm--fsk--lbs--sf--ss (bell. bed in summer. lbs) (cole. bed in summer. cm) (fisher. bed in summer. cgv) (funkhouser. in winter i get up at night. fsk) (ramsay. bed in summer. sf) (stanford. bed in summer. ss) ---- cow. cm--lbs (bell. cow. lbs) (cole. cow. cm) ---- escape at bedtime. cgv (fisher. escape at bed time. cgv) ---- farewell to the farm. ss (chadwick. farewell to the farm. ss) ---- foreign children. cgv--ss (fisher. foreign children. cgv) (stanford. ss) ---- foreign lands. ss (stanford. foreign lands. ss) ---- good and bad children. sf (ramsay. good and bad children. sf) ---- good boy. ss (bartlett. good boy. ss) ---- happy thought. cgv (fisher. happy thought. cgv) (adaptation: cole. beautiful world. cm) ---- hayloft. lbs--sf (bell. hayloft. lbs) (ramsay. hayloft. sf) ---- in port. sf (ramsay. in port. sf) ---- in winter i get up at night. fsk (see his bed in summer.) ---- keepsake mill. lbs (bell. keepsake mill. lbs) ---- lamplighter. lbs (bell. lamplighter. lbs) ---- land of counterpane. lbs--ss (bell. land of counterpane. lbs) (chadwick. land of counterpane. ss) ---- land of nod. cgv--ss (fisher. land of nod. cgv) (gilchrist. land of nod. ss) ---- land of story books. ss (bartlett. land of story books. ss) ---- marching song. cgv--lbs--ss (bell. marching song. lbs) (fisher. marching song. cgv) (stanford. marching song. ss) ---- moon. lbs (bell. moon. lbs) ---- my bed is a boat. cgv--lbs--ss (bell. my bed is a boat. lbs) (fisher. my bed is a boat. cgv) (gilchrist. my bed is a boat. ss) ---- my kingdom. sf (ramsay. my kingdom. sf) ---- my shadow. ss (stanford. my shadow. ss) ---- my ship and i. sf--ss (ramsay. my ship and i. sf) (stanford. my ship and i. ss) ---- nest eggs. sf (ramsay. nest eggs. sf) ---- northwest passage--good night. sf (ramsay. north-west passage--goodnight. sf) ---- picture books in winter. sf (bell. pictures in winter. lbs) (ramsay. picture books in winter. sf) ---- pictures in winter. lbs see above ---- pirate story. ss (stanford. pirate story. ss) ---- rain. cgv (fisher. rain. cgv) ---- shadow march. sf (ramsay. shadow march. sf) ---- singing. cgv--cm--ss (cole. singing. cm) (fisher. singing. cgv) (hawley. singing. ss) ---- stormy evening. tlb (chadwick. stormy evening. tlb) ---- sun's travels. ss (foote. sun's travels. ss) ---- swing. cgv--cm--bm--el--lbs--sm--ss (bell. swing. lbs) (bingham. swing. bm) (cole. swing. cm) (dekoven. swing. ss) (fisher. swing. cgv) (ramsay. swing. sf) (roelofson. swing song. el) ---- system. cgv (fisher. system. cgv) ---- time to rise. cgv (fisher. time to rise. cgv) ---- where go the boats? cgv--lbs--sf--ss (bell. where go the boats? lbs) (fisher. where go the boats? cgv) (ramsay. where go the boats? sf) (stanford. where go the boats? ss) ---- wind. cgv--el--lbs--sf--sl --ss--sm (allen. wind. el) (bell. wind. lbs) (dekoven. wind. ss) (fisher. wind. cgv) (ramsay. wind. sf) (smith. wind song. sl --sm) ---- wind song. see his wind. ---- windy nights. cgv--sf--ss (fisher. windy nights. cgv) (ramsay. windy nights. sf) (stanford. windy nights. ss) ---- young night thought. ss (foote. young night thought. ss) stick dance. neb still as little mice. _see_ smith. little mice. sl *still, still with thee. barnby. tlb stille nacht, heilige nacht! _see_ gruber. stilly night. fs (haydn. holy night. rcs) *stilly night, starry and bright. gruber. fs (haydn. holy night. rcs) stitch, stitch, stitch, the shoe-makers go. _see_ wiggin. trade game. ii. kc stoeckel. billy buttercup. stn ---- little squirrels. stn *stop, stop, pretty water. cole. cm (tufts. stop, stop, pretty water. cl) storch, storch, steiner. _see_ reinecke. stork, stork, stately. rcs (reinecke. stork, stork, stander. fc) stork and the frogs. ps *stork, stork, stander. reinecke. fc (reinecke. stork, stork, stately. rcs) storm. koehler. hr *stormy evening closes now in vain. chadwick. tlb story. can a little child like me? ws (bassford. can a little child like me? el) ---- come and join our carol. ws ---- easter hymn. ws (batchellor. easter hymn. ws) ---- once in my life. stn story of night. zelter. shs story of the apple. hill. shs story of the bread. hill. shs story of the butter. hill. shs story of the christ. hill. shs story of the clothes. shs story of the day. shs story of the house. neidlinger. es story sad, i've got to tell. _see_ elliott. thievish mouse. mg stowe. still, still with thee. tlb strachauer. alder by the river. ws (sawyer. alder by the river. el) straight and tall in the garden beds. _see_ smith. little gardener. sl strasak. bfd (adaptation: character dance. hc) ---- fdm music only "strassburg." _see_ country dance, ii. fdm music only strawberries! strawberries! ten cents a quart. _see_ valentine. greengrocer. vbd stream. hubbard. msg stream freezing. montz. ims stream melting. montz. ims street car. elliott. sl street car. gaynor. sc street car. hailmann. hr strong. baby's bread. hs ---- baby's cotton gown. hs ---- freedom, our queen. tc (paine. freedom, our queen. tc) ---- may song. hs ---- on this happy feast day. hs stucken. weave in, my hardy life. tlb styrian dance. schytte. hmc music only suck. cradle song. stn (fairlamb. cradle song. stn) (fisher. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) ---- dandelion. stn *"suffer the children," the savior said. _see_ martin. invitation. msl sugar lump. ng sullivan. onward, christian soldiers. tlb ---- st. edmund. tlb summer. martin. msl summer day. brown. el summer fading, winter comes. _see_ stevenson. picture books in winter. sf (stevenson. pictures in winter. lbs) _for composers see_ stevenson. picture books in winter. summer flow'rs are sleepy. _see_ flower's lullaby. shs summer has gone, the birds have flown. _see_ sawyer. chickadee. el *summer is a-coming in. fs summer is coming. bacon. el summer is gone. _see_ smith. thanksgiving song. sl summer joy. mozart. hr summer shower. knowlton. ns summer shower. rust. el summer song. burdett. stn summer song. kreutzer. shs summer song smith. sl summer song. walker. ws summer's gone, autumn's here. _see_ hitte. autumn. dm *summer's rain and winter's snow. stanford. tc sun. sl sun and rain in fickle weather. _see_ brown. pretty game. el sun, a-weary goes to rest. _see_ taubert. by-low-by. rcs sun has crept behind the clouds. _see_ sawyer. snowflakes. sun has long departed. _see_ reinecke. peace of night. fc--fs sun is on the land and sea. _see_ kies. morning hymn of praise. msl sun is not a-bed. _see_ stevenson. sun's travels. ss (foote. sun's travels. ss) sun shines bright in the old kentucky home. _see_ foster. my old kentucky home, good night. efs sun shining, rain falling. _see_ smith. rainbow. lcd sunbeam touched my little bed. _see_ smith. good morning. sv sunbeam voices. cole. cm sunbeams. larned. hs sunbeams. smith. sl sunbeams get up early. _see_ larned. sunbeams. hs sunbeams on the water danced. _see_ smith. to the sky and back. lcd sunbeams that dance on the summer sea. _see_ rust. summer shower. el sunrise. hill. hs sun's travels. stevenson. ss (foote. sun's travels. ss) sunset. hill. hs sunset and evening star. _see_ huss. crossing the bar. tlb sunshine. reinecke. hr sunshine dear, bright and clear. _see_ spring song. ps sunshine far and near. smith. lcd sunshine song. root. sv sunshine song. smith. sl sunshine's message. hill. shs sunshiny morning. gurlitt. hmc music only suppose. hubbard. msg *suppose a little cowslip. hubbard. msg *sur le pont d'avignon. bb (adaptation: in the spring. fs--hc) (trans: on the bridge of avignon. jb--rcs) surprise. reed. tgs swabian folk song. _see_ reinecke. dancing song. fc swallow. fs swallow. hubbard. msg (conrade. tradespeople. gs) *swallow, good bye. fs swallow is a mason. _see_ conrade. tradespeople. gs (hubbard. swallow. msg) *swallow is come. tufts. cl swan of slenderness. _see_ little red lark. efs--fs swedish schottische. fdm music only sweeping and dusting. gaynor. sc *sweet and low. barnby. fs--rcs sweet billy buttercup! pretty little fay. _see_ stoeckel. billy buttercup. stn sweet content. smith. tlb sweet daffy-down-dilly. _see_ smith. daffy-down-dilly. sl sweet maggie had a little bird. _see_ elliott. maggie's pet. mg sweet old story. kies. msl sweet pea. conrade. gs sweet-pea ladies. gaynor. sc sweet peas white. _see_ gaynor. sweet-pea ladies. sc sweet red rose. bartlett. stn (ingraham. sweet red rose. stn) (mosenthal. sweet red rose. stn) sweet summer's gone away. conrade. gs sweet wildwood flowers. hr sweetly sing the love of jesus. _see_ kies. love of jesus. msl sweetly the birds are singing at easter dawn. _see_ damrosch. easter carol. stn (fairlamb. easter carol. stn) (hubbard. sweetly the birds are singing. msg) swiftly round and round it goes. _see_ cushman. wheel song. el swiftly thro' the card so white. _see_ smith. sewing song. sl swiftly walk over the western wave. _see_ smith. tonight. tlb swine-herder. ng swing. gaynor. sc swing. stevenson. bm--cgv--cm--el--lbs--sm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. swing. swing, cradle, swing. hubbard. msg (pollock. sailor boy. hr) *swing high and swing low. dekoven. fsc swing high, swing low, my tawny papoose. _see_ schwartz. indian lullaby. bss swing it here; swing it there. _see_ knotted handkerchief. kk swing song. fontaine. hmc music only swing thee low in thy cradle soft. _see_ hitte. indian lullaby. dm (conrade. indian cradle song. gs) swing, swong! this is the way. _see_ smith. tick, tock! sm swing the shining sickle. _see_ gaynor. thanksgiving song. sc swinging. conrade. gs swinging 'neath the old apple tree. km swinging, swinging, swinging, swinging. _see_ swinging 'neath the old apple tree. km switzer's farewell. efs swoop-a-hoo! swoop-a-hoo! _see_ bartlett. song of the roller skates. stn sword and a gun. _see_ taubert. soldier song. fs--sl sword dance. neb system. stevenson. cgv (fisher. system. cgv) table army. lbs table exercises for attention. reed. tgs tabram. fisherman. kc ---- haymakers. kc ---- mowers. kc *taddypole and pollywog lived together in a bog. el--hr *taffy was a welshman. elliott. mg tailor. gaynor. ll tailor. hailmann. hr tailor. smith. sl tailor's dance. bfd take care i tell you. _see_ duke and the castle. hc take me, take me, mother, pray. _see_ froebel. toyman and the maiden. mp take, thou lovely child of spring. _see_ grieg. first primrose. fs tally-ho. schoenefeld. hmc music only tannenbaum, o tannenbaum. _see_ fir and the pine. rcs (fir tree. fs) tantoli. fdm music only tap, tap, listen to the rain-drops fall. _see_ hitte. rain. dm tarantella. smith. hmc music only tarentella meridionale. fdm music only tarentella. burchenal. bfd target. bullard. sm target. _see_ froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp (hubbard. target. msg) (adaptation: hurd. kite. pts) (adaptation: reed. kite. tgs) target game. gaynor. sc target maker. gaynor. sc taste song. smith. sl tasting. hubbard. msg (wiggin. tasting. kc) tasting. meissner. asc tasting. smith. sl tasting. wiggin. kc (hubbard. tasting. msg) tattler's mistress swallow for she gossips all the day. _see_ gaynor. frau schwalbe. ll taubert. birds in the nest. rcs ---- busy brook. rcs ---- by-low-by. rcs ---- doll's cradle song. rcs ---- down in the grassy meadow. rcs ---- drummer. sl ---- eia popeia. rcs ---- farmer and the doves. rcs ---- hildebrandshagen. rcs ---- it's raining. rcs ---- like a fairy. rcs ---- meadow daisy. rcs ---- postillion. rcs ---- sand man. rcs ---- sleep, thou, my darling. rcs ---- soldier song. fs--sl ---- sparrow's greeting. rcs ---- trade game. kc taylor. children and the sheep. hr (cole. sheep. cm) (hill. children and the sheep. shs) ---- my kitty. hr ---- pretty cow. cm (taylor. thank you, pretty cow. cl--hr--sl ) ---- thank you, pretty cow. cl--cm--hr--sl (taylor. pretty cow. cm) (cole. thank you, pretty cow. cm) (seidell. thank you, pretty cow. hr) (smith. thank you, pretty cow. sl ) (tufts. thank you, pretty cow. cl) ---- twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl--hr--ll--mg--shs--sl --sm--ws (elliott. twinkle, twinkle, little star. mg--sl --sm) (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ll) (hill. twinkle, twinkle, little star. shs) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl) (twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr) (walker. twinkle, twinkle little star. ws) ---- violet. hr--ws ---- wind and sea. tlb tching-a-ring-a-ring-tching, feast of lanterns. _see_ elliott. feast of lanterns. mg tea-kettle. gaynor. sc tea kettle's singing a song. _see_ gaynor. tea kettle. sc teacher of gymnastics. hailmann. hr (variant: little master of gymnastics. ps) (variant: smith. choosing the game. sl ) (variant: wiggin. imitation game. kc) teacher's hymn. hailmann. hr (bacon. mother's hymn. el) (osgood. mother's hymn. el) (teachers' hymn, ii. kc) teachers' hymn, i. and ii. kc telegraph. gaynor. sc telegraph. neidlinger. es telephone. gaynor. sc tell me how chris-cradle sings. _see_ hubbard. chris-cradle sings. msg tell me, little children. _see_ foote. nikolina. stn tell me, little daisy. _see_ gaynor. household hints. ll *tell me the tone that the cricket sings. schwartz. bss tell us year before you go ding, dong! _see_ hoffman. ding, dong! stn (molloy. ding, dong! stn) tempora! o mores! tlb ten little indians. hc *ten little ponies. knowlton. ns ten white eggs in a nest of hay. _see_ gaynor. lesson in arithmetic. ll tender flowers that early grow. _see_ martin. springtime. msl tender little violet. _see_ gaynor. violet. sc tennyson. baby's waking song. shs (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) (tufts. little birdie. cl) ---- blow bugle, blow. tlb tennyson. cradle song. el (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) (tufts. little birdie. cl) ---- crossing the bar. tlb ---- home they brought her warrior dead. tlb ---- little birdie. cl (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. what does little birdie say. sm) (tennyson. cradle song. el) ---- ring out, wild bells. tlb ---- sweet and low. fs--rcs ---- what does little birdie say? sm (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tufts. little birdie. cl) terhune. christmas carol. cc ---- coaching carol. cc ---- cradle carol. cc ---- kitchen carol. cc ---- minuet. cc ---- new calash. cc ---- red and white. cc ---- sampler. cc ---- sedan chair. cc ---- spinet. cc ---- spinning carol. cc ---- tithing man. cc ---- train band. cc ---- watchman. cc ---- well sweep. cc thalberg. november, no. . gs than old judea fairer. _see_ kies. children's day. msl thank thee, father, for this day. _see_ gaynor. prayer. ll *thank you, pretty cow. taylor. cl--cm--hr--sl _for composers see_ taylor. thank you, pretty cow thanks for constant care. hill. shs thanks for daily blessings. hill. shs thanks for food, i and ii. smith. lcd thanks to thee, o god we give. _see_ smith. thanks for food, ii. lcd thanksgiving. child. gs thanksgiving. gaynor. ll thanksgiving. hill. hs thanksgiving day. hubbard. msg (conrade. thanksgiving day. gs) (morton. thanksgiving song. ws) (sleigh ride. hr) thanksgiving day has come at last. _see_ hurd. thanksgiving game. pts thanksgiving for harvest. sherwood. hs thanksgiving game. hurd. pts thanksgiving joys. conrade. gs thanksgiving song. bingham. bm thanksgiving song. brewster. bss thanksgiving song. gaynor. sc thanksgiving song. himmel. shs thanksgiving song. jenks. el thanksgiving song. rust. el thanksgiving song. sawyer. el thanksgiving song. smith. sl thaxter. alder by the river. el--ws ---- chanticleer. stn ---- it is spring. ns ---- my pansies. el ---- nikolina. stn thayer. joyfully, joyfully. ws the while we are singing this morning song. _see_ neidlinger. es their scythes the mowers sharpened. _see_ tabram. mowers. kc theme from impromptu. schubert. hmc music only theme from sonata. mozart. hmc music only there are three men of gotham. _see_ smeltzer. three men of gotham. sz there he comes! i hear his horn. _see_ bingham. balloon man. bm there he stood, the snow-man. _see_ smith. bold snow-man. lcd then hoist the main sail. _see_ gaynor. sail. ll there is a brooklet just over the way. _see_ hubbard. there is a brooklet. msg (hubbard. nearer to heaven we'll be. msg) there is a little artist. _see_ conrade. fairy artist. gs there is not in this wide world a valley so sweet. _see_ meeting of the waters. tlb there is one bright star in heaven. _see_ klein. my mother's memory. tlb there lived a sage in days of yore. _see_ bullard. pigtail. tlb there once was a bird that lived up in a tree. _see_ dekoven. fiddle-dee-dee. fsc there once was a house in olden time. _see_ neidlinger. story of the house. es there's a fairy flying o'er the sea. _see_ sea breeze. fs there's a flower within my hand. _see_ hubbard. smelling. msg (smith. smelling. sl ) (wiggin. smelling. kc) there's a little old man. _see_ neidlinger. snow man. sss there's a little wee man in a little wee house. _see_ gaynor. little shoemaker. sc there's a merry little brown thrush. _see_ hubbard. little brown thrush. msg there's a music up in the frozen hills. _see_ hadley. easter. tlb there's a plump little chap in a speckled coat. _see_ conrade. bob white. gs there's a pretty poll parrott all yellow and green. _see_ bingham. pretty poll parrott. bm there's a purple tint on the woodland leaves. _see_ conrade. sweet summer's gone away. gs there's a ship on the sea. allen. stn (damrosch. there's a ship on the sea. stn) (fisher. there's a ship on the sea. stn) *there's a song in the air. draper. el there's a time for every thing. _see_ signals of time. shs there's a very old man. _see_ neidlinger. windy day. sss there's a wee little nest. _see_ gaynor. bird's nest. sc there's a wise old owl in the tree. _see_ gaynor. owl. sc there's a wonderful tree, a wonderful tree. _see_ schilling. wonderful tree. ws there's always a sun and a moon. _see_ neidlinger. day and night. es there's no dew left on the daisies and clover. _see_ seven times one. bss *there she stands, a lovely creature. ng there's something very funny a-sitting over there. _see_ funkhouser. jack o'lantern. fsk there strayed a pretty shepherdess. _see_ shepherdess and the cuckoo. rcs there they go in the pond below. _see_ sawyer. duck game. el *there was a crooked man. elliott. mg there was a farmer had a dog. _see_ bingo. jb there was a field that waiting lay. _see_ roeske. how the corn grew. pfp *there was a jolly miller. jb there was a jolly miller once. _see_ jolly miller. cbo--fs *there was a lady loved a swine. cbo there was a little fellow whose name was guillori. _see_ father guillori. rcs (petit chasseur. bb) there was a little gardener who spent the summer days. _see_ knowlton. news for gardeners. ns *there was a little girl. chadwick. stn (warren. there was a little girl. stn) there was a little maiden. _see_ shepherd maiden. fs (bergere. bb) (shepherdess. rcs) there was a little man and he woo'd a little maid. _see_ little man and little maid. bb--fs *there was a little woman as i've heard tell. rcs (little woman. bb) there was a man lived in the moon. _see_ aiken drum. bb there was a pretty dandelion. foote. stn there was a small boy with a toot. _see_ bartlett. boy and the toot. stn there was a soft-shell crab. _see_ chadwick. soft-shell crab. tc *there was a tree stood in the ground. ng (green leaves grew all around. jb) there was a wood in valley green. _see_ green leaves grew all around. jb (there was a tree stood in the ground. ng) there was a youth, and a well beloved youth. _see_ marzials. bailiff's daughter of islington. cpp there was an old man in a wood. _see_ old man and his wife. lbs there was an old woman and what do you think? _see_ old woman of norwich. bb there was an old woman tossed up in a basket. _see_ old woman tossed up in a basket. bb *there was once a little birdie. cornwell. el (frost. birdie's song. ws) (rust. there was once a little birdie. el) there went a fiddler marching. _see_ o tempora! o mores! tlb there were four big owls. _see_ smeltzer. four owls. sz *there were four lilies. haynes. tc there were shepherds abiding in the field. _see_ handel. messiah. tlb *there were three jolly fisherman. jb there were three little kittens put on their mittens. _see_ three little kittens. bb--fs there were three ravens sat on a tree. _see_ marzials. three ravens. cpp (three ravens. efs--fs) there were two little boys playing out in the snow. _see_ two little boys in the snow. kk thermometer. neidlinger. es these are mother's knives and forks. _see_ gaynor. mother's knives and forks. sc these little birdies in their nest. _see_ hopping birds. ws these see his wonders in the deep. _see_ psalter. tlb they are having a merry party. _see_ gaynor. pop-corn people. sc they drive home the cows from the pasture. _see_ hubbard. little brown hands. msg they need not go so far away. _see_ palmer. childhood's gold. stn thievish mouse. elliott. mg *thing of beauty is a joy forever. page. tlb things of beauty. mackenzie. tc think how strange 'twould be if to go a hundred miles. _see_ neidlinger. comparisons. es third ring song. shs thirsty earth one summer day. _see_ kuhlan. earth and the clouds. hr this is how, all through the night. _see_ walker. good-morning. ws this is how we spade the ground. _see_ garden game. hc *this is little tommy thumb. brown. el this is little yellowhead. _see_ neidlinger. little yellowhead. sss this is mamma, kind and dear. _see_ froebel. family. hr this is mother, kind and tender. _see_ gaynor. finger play. sc this is pretty polly. _see_ neidlinger. polly. sss this is the chicken coop. _see_ gaynor. some lullabys. sc this is the cow that jumped over the moon. _see_ neidlinger. old friends. es this is the day of light. _see_ barnby. dawn. tlb this is the dolly that i love best. _see_ grove. doll song. hs this is the farmer, who planted the corn. _see_ smeltzer. farmer. sz this is the grandmamma. _see_ froebel. grandmamma. mp this is the grandmamma. _see_ walker. family. ws *this is the lady going to town. usi this is the little tommy thumb. _see_ froebel. naming the fingers. sm this is the loving mother. _see_ gilchrist. family. sm (parker. family. sm) this is the meadow where all the long day. _see_ roeske. lambs. pfp this is the month, and this is the happy morn. _see_ smith. stanzas from the nativity. tlb *this is the mother. smith. sl (froebel. mother good and dear. mp) (hubbard. this is the mother. msg) this is the way my father sows. _see_ knowlton. sow, sew, so. ns this is the way that we form our ring. _see_ hill. first ring song. shs this is the way the cloud comes down. _see_ walker. weather song. ws. (hill. weather song. shs) (weather song. hr) *this is the way the ladies go. lbs this is the way the morning dawns. _see_ brown. a summer day. el this is the way the rain comes down. _see_ hill. weather song. shs (walker. weather song. ws) (weather song. hr) this is the way the sunshine comes down. _see_ weather song. hr (hill. weather song. shs) (walker. weather song. ws) this is your birthday, my dear, my dear. _see_ hill. song for a child's birthday. hs this little ball may visit you. _see_ hurd. ball game. (color). el this little bird lived in a tree. _see_ tufts. song of the five fingers. cl this little pig went to town. _see_ ernst. five little pigs. hr this little thumb. froebel. mp (froebel. finger play. kc) (hubbard. what's this? msg) this piece of wood i lengthwise lay. _see_ froebel. lengthwise, crosswise. mp (adaptation: hurd. kite. pts) (adaptation: reed. kite. tgs) (hubbard. target. msg) this way, that way turns the weather vane. _see_ osgood. weathervane. sm thistles' story. cole. cm thomas. bed time. el thompson. glad christmas tide. el thou blossom bright with autumn dew. _see_ lang. to the fringed gentian. tlb thou crownest the year with thy goodness. martin. msl thou holy child. rcs thou holy jesus, meek and mild. _see_ reinecke. christmas hymn. efs thou wilt keep him in perfect peace. _see_ williams. trust. tlb thou wilt not cower in the dust. _see_ maryland, my maryland. efs though you're not my partner. _see_ you are not my partner. kk *though your eyes are blinded. smith. sl though your little eyes are blinded. _see_ hubbard. touching. msg (wiggin. touching. kc) threading the needle. el three big white stepping stones. _see_ gaynor. stepping stones. sc *three blind mice. cbo--fs--ll--oya *three children sliding on the ice. cbo (elliott. three children sliding. mg) (tufts. three children sliding. cl) *three crows. elliott. mg three dukes a-riding. oya (here come three dukes a-riding. neb ) (variant: here comes one duke a-riding. jb) (variant: here comes one soldier marching. hc) *three fishers. macfarren. tlb *three funny old men. neidlinger. sss three-in-hand is slowly rolling. troika. efs *three jolly little boys. lbs three kings of orient. hopkins. fs three knights went riding away to the war. _see_ parting. tlb *three little doves. knowlton. ns three little kittens. bb--fs *three little mice. elliott. mg three men of gotham. smeltzer. sz three men's reel. fdm music only three of us afloat. _see_ stevenson. pirate story. ss (stanford. pirate story. ss) three ravens. efs--fs (marzials. three ravens. cpp) three shining sides of glass have i. _see_ gaynor. prism game. sc three times round goes the gallant ship. _see_ wind blows high. jb three wise old women were they. _see_ bartlett. three wise women. stn (stanley. three wise women. stn) three wise women. bartlett. stn (stanley. three wise women. stn) three years old. smith. lcd threshers. seeboeck. hmc music only through fair grassy meadows. _see_ hill. brooklet's song. hs *through love to light. mackenzie. tc through painted windows. _see_ smith. church. sl through the chequered window pane. _see_ froebel. window. mp through the golden meadows. _see_ knight and the lady. jb through the pleasant meadow side. _see_ stevenson. hayloft. lbs--sf _for composers see_ stevenson. hayloft. thro' the streets and o'er the snow. _see_ rossini. sleighing. hr through time to come as in ages past. _see_ neidlinger. nature's novel. es thrupp. chickens round the gate. gs (hubbard. see the chickens round the gate. msg) (seidell. see the chickens round the gate. hr) thumb i count as one. _see_ finger plays, no. . ps (adapted from froebel. numbering the fingers. sm) thumb is one. _see_ froebel. numbering the fingers. sm (adaptation: finger plays, no. . ps) *thumbkin says "i'll dance." hubbard. msg (walker. thumbkin says "i'll dance." ws) (variant: smith. thumbkin says "i'll dance." sl ) *thumbs and fingers say "good morning." hubbard. msg (froebel. finger song. mp) *thumbs and fingers say "good morning." smith. sl --sm (adapted from froebel. finger song. mp) thumbs up. kk thunder. neidlinger. es thunder storm. hr thus spake the mother fish. _see_ sherwood. good advice. hs tick, tack! froebel. mp (hubbard. tick, tack. msg) tick-tack. reinecke. sm tick, tack, tee. _see_ reinecke. mill. sl tick tack! tick tack! hear the old clock. _see_ reinecke. tick-tack. sm tick, tock! gaynor. ll tick, tock! miller. sm tick, tock! neidlinger. sss tick, tock, old clock, strike the hour for baby. _see_ brewster. slumber song. bss tick-tock, tick-tock. _see_ gaynor. song of the kitchen clock. sc tick tock, tick tock. _see_ kohl. pendulum. hr tick-tock, tick-tock! amy, jammie, jo and jock. _see_ smith. bed time. lcd tick, tock, tick, tock! busy, friendly, helpful clock. _see_ smith. song of the clock. sl "tickity tock!" hark to the clock. _see_ grove. bed time. hs *tiddlely-winks and tiddlely-wee. neidlinger. sss tide. neidlinger. es time. tufts. cl time for play. koehler. hr time to rise. stevenson. cgv (fisher. time to rise. cgv) timid, blue-eyed flower. _see_ naegeli. violet. hr--ws (variant: naegeli. violet. rcs) tin soldiers. neidlinger. sss ting a-ling, a-ling, a-ling. _see_ smeltzer. jackie jingle. sz ting, ting, tinkle ting! _see_ smith. bossy cow. lcd tiny fingers in a row. _see_ gilchrist. beckoning to the chickens. sm tiny flakes of snow. _see_ gaynor. snowballs. sv tiny little seed. _see_ brown. spring song. el *tiny little snow-flakes. batchellor. ws tip-toe march. montz. ims 'tis a lesson you should heed. _see_ try, try again. hr 'tis bed-time for the doggy now. _see_ smith. saying good-night. lcd 'tis forty years my old friend john. _see_ land. my old friend john. fs 'tis god our father. _see_ hill. blessings on effort. shs 'tis may day! 'tis may day! let's up and away. _see_ sherwood. may day invitation. hs 'tis raining, 'tis raining. _see_ froelich. rain song. kc (reinecke. rain song. fc) 'tis spring, the field is ready. _see_ reinecke. farmer. sl *'tis the last rose of summer. efs (last rose of summer. fs) 'tis twelve o'clock. _see_ good-bye. hr 'tis when the lark goes soaring. _see_ chadwick. kissing time. fsc tit-tat-toe! _see_ gaynor. house of tit-tat-toe. ll tithing-man. terhune. cc. titoff. flicker, flicker, fire sprite. fs to a daisy. dietrich. tc to a dandelion. gaynor. ll to a honey-bee. cole. cm to a snowflake. smith. lcd *to all you ladies now on land. marzials. cpp to america. tlb *to anacreon in heav'n. efs *to and fro. hr to and fro. hubbard. msg to and fro, gay we go. _see_ smith. dancing song. sl to and fro, so soft and slow. _see_ fairlamb. cradle song. stn (fisher. cradle song. stn) (ilsley. cradle song. stn) (stanley. cradle song. stn) (suck. cradle song. stn) *to and fro the ball. hubbard. msg to and fro the strong arms go. _see_ allen. canoe song. el to and fro, to and fro goes the pendulum. _see_ froebel. tick, tack! mr (hubbard. tick, tack. msg) to and fro, to and fro, that my ball can nicely do. _see_ hubbard. to and fro. msg *to araby will i wander. efs *to beccles. jb to do to others as i would. _see_ hubbard. golden rule. msg to fight the french in flanders. _see_ duke marlborough. fs to france were returning two grenadiers. _see_ two grenadiers. tlb *to market, to market, to buy a fat pig. km to me the land that gave me birth. _see_ at the beginning and at the close of play, no. . ps to night. smith. tlb to push the business on. jb to santa claus. conrade. gs to the cool and shaded pond. _see_ reed. fishes. tgs to the evening star. reinecke. fc to the fringed gentian. lang. tlb to the great brown house. _see_ allen. song of the rain. ws (smith. rain song. sl ) to the humble-bee. reinecke. fc to the lords of convention. _see_ bonnie dundee. efs to the mill let us go. _see_ hitte. mill. dm to the nightingale. reinecke. fc to the sky and back. smith. lcd to the sleeping seeds. _see_ hill. sunshine's message. shs to the war the cossack goes. _see_ lovely minka. fs to the wild flowers. sheehan. osm *to the woods, o come away. kk to thy loving parents. _see_ reinecke. birthday song. sl (reinecke. mother's birthday. fc) to ting. fdm music only to wander is the miller's joy. _see_ miller. ps to work. hr *today is the first of may. kk (first of may. bfd) tom, he was a piper's son. _see_ over the hills and far away. cbo tom, he was the piper's son. _see_ funkhouser. tom, tom, the piper's son. fsk tom, the piper's son. elliott. mg (tom, tom, the piper's son. cbo) tom, tom, the piper's son. funkhouser. fsk tom, tom, the piper's son. _see_ elliott. tom, the piper's son. mg (tom, tom, the piper's son. cbo) tommy snooks and bessie brooks. smeltzer. sz tommy tittlemouse. smeltzer. sz *tooriletoo was a bonnie cock robin. rcs top. gaynor. sc top. schoenefeld. hmc music only toppelius. yes, come, dear, dear christmas. hs toss a feather in the air. _see_ gaynor. feather game. sc tossing. hailmann. hr tossing game. hailmann. hr tossing game. walker. ws touch the clavier now. _see_ froebel. pianoforte. mp touching. hubbard. msg (wiggin. touching. kc) touching. meissner. asc touching. wiggin. kc (hubbard. touching. msg) tournament. gayrhos. hmc music only tours. star. tc tower. smith. sl toyman. hs toyman and boy. froebel. mp toyman and the maiden. froebel. mp *toyman of nuremberg. reinecke. fc toyman's shop. hill. hs tra la la la, there's joy in the air. _see_ hubbard. birds must fly. msg tra la la! tra la la! wee birds are singing. _see_ gaynor. spring dance. ll tra-ra, tra-ra, tra-ra. _see_ froebel. wild boar. mp tracks in the snow. gaynor. sc trade game. taubert. kc trade game. wiggin. kc trade song. i. wiggin. kc (working man. hr) tradespeople. conrade. gs (hubbard. swallow. msg) train. el train. smith. lcd train. valentine. vbd train-band. terhune. cc train is all ready and we must get on. _see_ train. el tramp, tramp, tramp. hr (hubbard. let your feet go tramp, tramp! msg) (let the feet go tramp. bg) transformation game. smith. sm *tread the green grass. ng treasures. smith. lcd tree loves me. _see_ gaynor. tree's friends. sc tree was cold. _see_ smith. tree in winter. sl trees are bare and brown. _see_ conrade. november, no. . gs tree's friends. gaynor. sc trekarlspolska. fdm music only tremp! ton pain, marie. _see_ dip your bread, marie. rcs (variant: dip your bread, polly. lbs) triangle. fdm music only trifles. tufts. cl *tripping we go. gaynor. ll troika. efs trois princesses. _see_ clear cool pond. fs trot along! trot along! _see_ hop, mother annika. kk trot de cavalerie. rubinstein. hmc music only trot, trot, trot, through the pasture lot. _see_ little pony. el troyte. troyte's chant. tlb true freedom. lang. tlb trum te tum, tum. _see_ taubert. drummer. sl trumpeter's serenade. spindler. hmc trunkles. neb music only trust. williams. tlb try, try again. hr tschaikowsky. skylark. hmc music only tufts. bee is a rover. cl ---- birds in summer. cl ---- busy bee. cl (cole. lesson from the bee. cm) ---- busy little husbandman. cl ---- buttercups and daisies. cl (conrade. buttercups and daisies. gs) (hubbard. buttercups and daisies. msg) ---- butterflies are pretty things. cl ---- calling the tides. cl ---- cherry tree. cl ---- coasting. cl ---- cock-a-doodle-do! cl ---- come here, little robin. cl ---- come, my children, come away. cl ---- cradle song. cl (tennyson. little birdie. cl) (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) ---- daisy buds. cl ---- ding, dong. cl ---- dog. cl ---- engine song. cl ---- golden rule. cl ---- humming bird. cl ---- i had two pigeons. cl ---- i like little pussy. cl (elliott. i love little pussy. mg--sl ) (my kitty. hr) ---- i saw three ships. cl (i saw three ships come sailing by. cbo) ---- if all the world was apple-pie. cl (if all the world were paper. bb) ---- little birdie. cl (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tennyson. what does little birdie say? sm) ---- little brother. cl ---- little brown birds. cl ---- little dreamer. cl (osgood. little dreamer. rcs) ---- little girl's fancies. cl ---- little rain-drops. cl ---- little robin redbreast. cl ---- little things. cl ---- little white lily. cl (walker. little white lily. ws) (smith. little white lily. sl ) ---- morning hymn. cl ---- morning song. cl ---- my little doll rose. fs ---- my pussy. cl ---- nell and her bird. cl ---- north wind doth blow. cl (bartlett. north wind doth blow. stn) (conrade. north wind doth blow. gs) (elliott. north wind doth blow. mg--sl ) (north wind and the robin. bb) (north wind doth blow. hr) ---- now the sun is sinking. cl (wiggin. slumber song. kc) ---- old gaelic lullaby. cl (hahn. gaelic cradle song. bss) (harris. gaelic lullaby. tlb) ---- one thing at a time. cl ---- peep of day. cl ---- pigeon house. cl ---- rain, rain. cl ---- robin. cl ---- rocking horse. fs ---- song of the five fingers. cl ---- stop, stop, pretty water. cl (cole. stop, stop, pretty water. cm) ---- swallow is come. cl ---- thank you, pretty cow. cl (cole. pretty cow. hr) (seidell. thank you, pretty cow. hr) (smith. thank you, pretty cow. sl ) ---- three children sliding. cl (elliott. three children sliding. mg) (three children sliding on the ice. cbo) ---- time. cl ---- trifles. cl ---- twinkle, twinkle, little star. cl (elliott. twinkle, twinkle, little star. mg--sl --sm) (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ll) (hill. twinkle, twinkle, little star. shs) (twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr) (walker. twinkle, twinkle, little star. ws) ---- wave's gift. cl ---- welcome swallow. cl ---- wind blows sweetly. cl ---- winter jewels. cl tulips. gaynor. sc tupper. skylark. cm turkey gobbler lived within a barnyard. _see_ gaynor. why mr. gobbler changed his tune. sc turkish march. schoenefeld. hmc music only *turn again. whittington. rcs turn around, around. _see_ wiebe. wheel. kc "turn!" said the little stream. _see_ hill. song of the mill-stream. shs *turn the big wheel. gaynor. ll turner. waiting to grow. el turning, whirling, turning, whirling. _see_ hill. song of the sewing machine. shs 'twas a merry time when jenny wren was young. _see_ cock robin and jenny wren. cbo 'twas an old, old, old, old lady and a boy that was half past three. _see_ cole. one two three. cm 'twas in the lowly stable. _see_ smith. in the bethlehem stable. lcd 'twas in the merry month of may. marzials. cpp 'twas on a chill december morn. _see_ washing day. lbs 'twas on a merry time. _see_ cock robin and jenny wren. rcs 'twas this way and that way. gaynor. ll (variant: when i was a shoemaker. ng) (variant: when i was a lady. lbs) (variant: when i was a schoolgirl. neb ) (variant: when i wore flounces. jb) 'twas within a mile of edinboro' town. _see_ within a mile of edinboro' town. efs twenty, eighteen. neb twilight and dawn. shs twilight town. jenks. el *twinkle, twinkle, little star. hr (elliott. twinkle, twinkle little star. mg--sl --sm) (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle little star. ll) (hill. twinkle, twinkle little star. shs) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle little star. cl) (walker. twinkle, twinkle little star. ws) twinkle, twinkle little star. _see_ hubbard. little star. msg 'twixt a hill and deep and shelter'd vale. _see_ two hares. rcs (zwei hasen. bb) two birds. wiebe. kc two boys in the snow. kk two crows. neidlinger. sss two grenadiers. tlb two hands and eight little fingers. _see_ hurd. children on the tower. pts two hands i have. mozart. hr two hands, thereon eight fingers are. _see_ froebel. children at the tower. mp (hubbard. two hands. msg) two hares. rcs (zwei hasen. bb) two kittens. clarke. stn two little birds. bacon. el *two little birds. fisher. stn two little hands. _see_ smith. children on the tower. sl two little hands i have. _see_ fischer. what i have. hr *two little maidens all alone. jb two little roses. bacon. el *two little windows. reed. tgs two merry little builders. _see_ brewster. robins and pussy willow. bss two pretty boots are these of mine. _see_ taubert. sand man. rcs two robin redbreasts built their nest. _see_ tufts. robin redbreasts. cl (two robin redbreasts. hr) (walker. two robin redbreasts. ws) *two stars are in heaven. fs two years old. smith. lcd tyrolese and his child. efs *tyrolese are jolly. jb uhland. good comrade. fs ukrainian dance melody. hmc music only uncrowned kings. loomis. tlb under and over the chain is unwound. _see_ rust. bucket song. el under the crimson flow'rets. _see_ reinecke. birdie's burial. fc under the glowing sun. _see_ reinecke. little gardener. sm under the lindentree. foerster. hmc music only under the maypole. gurlitt. hmc music only up and down and in and out. _see_ froebel. play with the limbs. sm up and down, and up and down. _see_ terhune. kitchen carol. cc up and down the centre we go. _see_ catch the squirrel. usi up comes the little bucket. _see_ smith. pail. sl . *up, down. hailmann. hr up, down, up down, all the way to london town. _see_ foote. going to london. stn up in the apple tree over the way. _see_ holden. my neighbor. el up in the tall old tree. _see_ cole. where the birdies grow. cm up into the cherry tree. _see_ stevenson. foreign lands. ss (stanford. foreign lands. ss) up the scale we're climbing. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm up through the mould. _see_ bacon. daffy-down-dilly. el up to us sweet childhood looketh. _see_ bacon. mother's hymn. el (hailmann. teacher's hymn. hr) (osgood. mother's hymn. el) (teacher's hymn, ii. kc) up up in the sky. walker. ws (ball song. kc) (direction song. hr) up, up my little bucket comes. _see_ walker. bucket song. ws (hubbard. bucket song. msg) *up yonder on the mountain. reinecke. fc upon a showery night and still. _see_ suck. dandelion. stn upon paul's steeple stands a tree. _see_ st. paul's steeple. cbo upon the blooming meadow. _see_ reinecke. forget-me-not. fc--sl (jacob. forget-me-not. ws) upon the bottom of the sea. _see_ neidlinger. cable. es upon the meadow. foerster. hmc music only upon the sweetest summer time. _see_ blow away the morning dew. lbs useful. smith. lcd v-v-v-v-v buzzing, buzzing, buzzing bees. _see_ fischer. bees. hr vafva vadmal. fdm music only valentine. baby's horses. vbd ---- cat. vbd ---- conductor. vbd ---- fireman. vbd ---- flower-wagon. vbd ---- goldfish. vbd ---- good-morning song. vbd ---- green grocer. vbd ---- policeman. vbd ---- polly. vbd ---- postman. vbd ---- train. vbd ---- water-cart. vbd valentine. damrosch. stn (fairlamb. valentine. stn) valentine day. gaynor. gs valentine song. brewster. bss valentines. gaynor. sc valentine's message. hill. hs valiant rider. parlow. hmc music only *valley boy smiling. efs vapperstavals. fdm music only varmer he lived in the west countree. _see_ barkshire tragedy. neb varsovienne. fdm music only veilchen wie so schweigend. _see_ naegeli. violet. hr--rcs--ws venetian boatmen's song. bach. tlb venturesome children. seidell. hr verdi. little song of gratitude. gs ---- raindrops. gs vesper sparrow now has sung. _see_ gilchrist. whip-poor-will. tlb vessel. ps (hubbard. ship. msg) viens, aurore. _see_ come, aurora. fs village dance. wiggin. kc vineyard dance. fdm music only vingakersdans. fdm music only violet. bingham. bm violet. gaynor. sc violet. naegeli. hr--rcs--ws violet. schults. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws (reinecke. violet. fc--rcs--sl --ws) (kies. violet. msl) (violet. kc) violet, darling violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws _for composers see_ schults. violet violet, dearest violet. _see_ schults. violet. fc--kc--msl--rcs--sl --ws _for composers see_ schults. violet violet does not dress as gay. _see_ bingham. violet. bm violet lowly bending. _see_ naegeli. violet. rcs (adaptation: naegeli. violet. hr--ws) violet song. brewster. bss virgin stills the crying. _see_ barnby. cradle song of the virgin. rcs (kies. virgin's cradle song. msl) virgin's cradle song. kies. msl (barnby. cradle song of the virgin. rcs) visit. reinecke. sm visiting game. el. visiting game. hayden. hc vose. little plant. el ---- plants awakening. el ---- pop corn. el ---- song of chestnuts. el ---- spring secrets. el voyage. hailmann. hr voyage. neidlinger. es wacht am rhein. _see_ wilhelm. watch on the rhine. fs (wilhelm. watch by the rhine. efs) wagner. pilgrims' chorus. tlb waiting to grow. el (turner. waiting to grow. el) waits. sawyer. el wake, little bird. _see_ gaynor. awakening. sc *wake! says the sunshine. hubbard. msg wake up fairies. hayden. hmc music only *wake up, snowdrop. atkinson. gs *wake up! wake up! the morning light. bingham. bm *waken little children. ashmall. sl waking flowers. hill. shs waking flowers. reissmann. rcs wakonda, hear us, hear us. _see_ song of the ghost dances. tlb walker. all the little sparrows. ws ---- baby's lullaby. ws (elliott. lullaby. mg--sm) (lullaby. hr) ---- baker. ws ---- ball comes round to meet us. ws (ball comes to meet us. ps) ---- birdies in the greenwood. ws (birdie. ps) (weber. birdies in the greenwood. hr) ---- birthday song. ws ---- bucket song. ws (hubbard. bucket song. msg) ---- carol, children, carol. ws ---- cartwheel song. ws (elliott. cartwheel. sl ) ---- children, can you truly tell. ws ---- children grateful for meeting. ws ---- cooper. ws (hubbard. cooper. msg) ---- eight white sheep. ws ---- family. ws ---- go over, come back here. ws ---- god is there. ws (hubbard. nature's god is there. msg) ---- good morning. ws ---- good morning, dear children. ws ---- good morning, new day. ws ---- grasshopper green. ws ---- hop, hop, come birdies all. ws ---- it came upon the midnight clear. el ---- jesus bids us shine. ws (hubbard. jesus bids us shine. msg) ---- kitty cat and the mouse. ws (gilchrist. kitty cat. stn) (kitty cat and the mouse. rcs) ---- little dove, you are welcome. ws ---- little gardens. ws ---- little jack frost. ws (cornwell. little jack frost. ws) (little jack frost. hr) ---- little white lily. ws (smith. little white lily. sl ) (tufts. little white lily. cl) ---- little woodpecker am i. ws ---- morning bright. ws ---- my ball comes up to meet me. ws ---- my ball lies in its little bed. ws ---- old year and the new. ws ---- once there was a little kitty. ws ---- our balls are going to bye-low-land. ws ---- our play is o'er. ws (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (hubbard. parting song, msg) (wiggin. good-bye song. kc) ---- out in the meadows. ws (conrade. daisies in the meadows. gs) ---- over and back. ws ---- pigeon song. ws (froebel. pigeon house. mp) (kohl. pigeon house. hr) (pigeon house. ps) ---- rainbow song. ws ---- snail. ws (koehler. snail. hr) (hubbard. snail. msg) (snail. bg--ps) (snail game. hc) ---- snow. ws (hailmann. oh, see the snow. hr) (hubbard. see the snow is falling fast. msg) ---- song of the bluebird. el ---- summer song. ws ---- thumbkin says, "i'll dance." ws (hubbard. thumbkin says, "i'll dance." msg) (variant: smith. thumbkin says, "i'll dance." sl ) ---- tossing game. ws (twinkle, twinkle little star. hr) (elliott. twinkle, twinkle little star. mg--sl --sm) (gaynor. twinkle, twinkle little star. ll) (hill. twinkle, twinkle little star. shs) (tufts. twinkle, twinkle little star. cl) (twinkle, twinkle little star. hr) ---- two robin redbreasts. ws (tufts. little robin redbreast. cl) (two robin redbreasts. hr) ---- up, up in the sky. ws ---- weather song. ws ---- where do all the daisies go? ws (conrade. where they go. gs) ---- which way does the wind blow? ws ---- winter jewels. ws (burdett. million little diamonds. stn) (damrosch. million little diamonds. stn) (tufts. winter jewels. cl) walking on stilts. gayrhos. hmc music only walking on the green grass. ng walking on the levy. ng wallbanck. forget-me-not. gs waller. lines written in early spring. tlb ---- to america. tlb *wallflowers, wallflowers. jb waltz. funkhouser. fsk music only waltz. hitte. dm music only waltz. weber. hmc music only wandering balls. hr wandering game. wiggin. kc wandering song. bullard. sm wandering song. froebel. sm wand'ring up and down one day. _see_ cobbler. hr--lbs wandering workmen. sl war song. reinhold. hmc music only ward. jerusalem above. tlb *warm hands, warm, the men have gone to plough. cbo--lbs warner. postman. kc warren. april snow. stn ---- ironing song. stn (smith. ironing day. sl ) ---- marjorie's almanac. stn ---- night and day. stn ---- queen o' may. stn ---- snow flakes. stn (molloy. snow-flakes. stn) ---- there was a little girl. stn was eilst du so? _see_ taubert. busy brook. rcs washing. montz. ims washing and ironing. hill. shs washing day. lbs washing day. sloane. hs washing day. smith. sl *washing day has come again. brown. el washing the clothes. bfd *washington, o washington, thy name is ever dear. atkinson. gs washington the soldier true who won our land. _see_ hubbard. washington's birthday. msg *wassail, a wassail, a wassail and we begin. neb watch by the rhine. wilhelm. efs (watch on the rhine. wilhelm. fs) watches and clocks. ps watches for good reasons never have any sleep. _see_ watches and clocks. ps watching the flocks. gs watchman. terhune. cc *water, water wild flowers. ng watercart. valentine. vbd watering the flowers. dugan. el waterlilies. gaynor. sc watermill. usi watermill. andreae. hr watersprite. _see_ nigarepolskan. fdm music only waterwheel. ps watts. busy bee. cl (lesson from the bee. cm) ---- ellacombe. tlb watts. lesson from the bee. cm (busy bee. cl) wave our bonny flag on high. _see_ gaynor. our flag. sc wave, pretty wave, come over the sea. _see_ tufts. wave's gift. cl waves. smith. lcd wave's gift. tufts. cl waves of the ocean roll in with a roar. _see_ smith. waves. lcd waves on the sea-shore. hubbard. msg way down in the buttercup meadow. _see_ hubbard. down in the buttercup meadow. msg way down in the field where the wheat seeds lie. _see_ hill. story of the bread. shs way down upon the suwanee ribber. _see_ foster. old folks at home. efs--tlb we all agree in loving. _see_ marching, no. . ps we all go round the mulberry bush. _see_ going round the mulberry bush. hr (as we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (here we go round the mulberry bush. hc) (little washerwoman. kk) (mulberry bush. bg--cbo--fs--jb--lbs) we all have found a pleasant place. _see_ koehler. race. hr *we are all little girlies. jb *we are all nodding, nid, nid, nodding. lbs (variant: and we're a noddin'. fs) we are butterflies dipping as we flit. _see_ gaynor. butterflies' hide and seek. ll we are drummer boys. _see_ funkhouser. drummer boys. fsk we are fairies from fairy land. _see_ gaynor. dance of the rainbow fairies. sc *we are happy all the day. bingham. bm we are joyous today. _see_ hubbard. froebel's song. msg we are little busy bees. _see_ busy bees. hr *we are little soldier men. smith. sl we are little waiters. _see_ wiggin. little waiters. kc we are merry children. _see_ stangenberger. merry helpers. hr *we are red birds. smith. sl we are sewing, sewing, sewing. _see_ pettibone. sewing song. sc we are soldiers of the froebel guard. _see_ rockwell. marching song for froebel's birthday. kc we are the shearers big and strong. _see_ gaynor. song of the shearer. sc we are the sounding buglars. jb *we be soldiers three. marzials. cpp *we be three poor mariners. marzials. cpp we birds are a merry set. _see_ birds. ps (hubbard. hopping and flying together. msg) *we cats get up in the morning. lbs we caught a young squirrel. _see_ squirrel. jb we children form a flowery ring. _see_ elliott. ring. sl we come to see miss jennie jones. _see_ miss jenny jones. (variant: jilly jo. jb) we go across the street. _see_ visiting game. el we have a little blue eye within the ring. _see_ choosing game. hc we have a little fairy. _see_ knowlton. little fairy. ns we have friends on land and sea. _see_ neidlinger. sheep. es we have got an army fit to march around the table. _see_ table army. lbs we have put our work away. _see_ koehler. time for play. hr we know a lovely garden. _see_ chapek. garden. hs we lightly skip on tip toe, all. _see_ koehler. skipping. hr--ps we'll hire a horse and steal a gig. _see_ to push the business on. jb *we'll join our hands. hubbard. msg we'll join our hands and in a circle sing. _see_ hubbard. seasons. msg we'll march and march and march around. _see_ reinecke. forming the ring. ws we'll march like soldiers brave. _see_ hitte. little soldiers. dm we'll mix up some water and meal in a pan. _see_ knowlton. feeding chickens. ns we'll open the pigeon house again. _see_ walker. pigeon song. ws (kohl. pigeon house. hr) (pigeon house. ps) we'll play we're giants tall. _see_ gaynor. giants. sc *we'll stand up straight. gaynor. sc we'll sweep. terhune. cc we'll turn to our places. _see_ wiggin. ring song, no. . kc we love this blessed land of ours. _see_ reed. our land. hs--tgs we love to go a-roaming. _see_ bullard. wandering song. sm we made a see-saw yesterday. _see_ neidlinger. see-saw. sss *we march like soldiers. gaynor. sc we meet again together. _see_ afternoon song. kc we open now our pigeon house. _see_ kohl. pigeon house. hr (froebel. pigeon house. mp) (pigeon house. ps) (walker. pigeon song. ws) *we plow the fields. smith. sl *we praise thee, lord. lvoff. fs *we're a band of happy children. kc we're a band of merry merry workmen. _see_ smith. merry workers. sl we're a-noddin'. fs (variant. we are all nodding. lbs) we're busy making shoes. _see_ libby. shoemaker. ws we're marching round the valley. _see_ marching round the valley. usi we're playing at railway. _see_ wiseneder. railway. hr *we're playing together. smith. sl we sail toward evening's loving star. _see_ parker. even song. tc we say good day. kk we send a "merry christmas" thro' the air. _see_ hubbard. christmas greeting. msg we thank the heav'nly father for sunshine and for rain. _see_ saville. song of thanks. hs we thank thee. george. gs we thank thee, dear father, for care through the night. _see_ knowlton. morning prayer. ns *we thank thee, father, for the love. sherwood. hs we thank thee, loving father. _see_ germer. choral. hmc we, the slender twigs are taking. _see_ hubbard. basket of flowers. msg we three kings of orient are. _see_ hopkins. three kings of orient. fs we throw our balls up, up so high. _see_ hailmann. tossing. hr we twine the boughs of holly green. _see_ christmas wreath. hc we two together. gilchrist. tlb we walk with equal paces. _see_ marching, no. . ps we weave brown velvet jackets. _see_ gaynor. cat tails. sc *we welcome you, dear friends. hubbard. msg we went to the meadow and what did we see? _see_ smith. green leafytree. lcd we will blind jamie's eyes. _see_ gaynor. guessing game. sc we will fetch you a pint of wine. _see_ roman soldiers. jb we will wash our clothes, we'll wash them. _see_ washing the clothes. bfd we won't go home till morning. neb music only we won't go home until morning. _see_ for he's a jolly good fellow. efs wearily at daylight's close. _see_ reinecke. evening prayer. fc--hr--sl wearing of the green. efs weary fingers. hr weary now the little fingers. _see_ weary fingers. hr weather song. hill. shs (walker. weather song. ws) (weather song. hr) weather vane. bss weather vane. froebel. mp (hailmann. weathervane. hr) weather vane. gaynor. sc weather vane. kohl. sm weather vane. osgood. sm weather vane. smith. lcd weather vane is perch'd on high. _see_ kohl. weather vane. sm weather vane is turning. _see_ weather vane. bss *weathercock high on the tower. ps weatherly. christmas bells. el weave, children, weave. _see_ reinecke. weaving song. hr *weave in, my hardy life. stucken. tlb *weave the homespun and strike together. kk weave the little basket. _see_ froebel. basket. mp (smith. flower basket. sm) weaving. gaynor. sc weaving dance. _see_ vafva vadmal. fdm music only weaving game. hc weaving song. ws weaving song. reinecke. hr webbe. epitaph on a parish clerk. tlb weber. birdies in the greenwood. hr (birdie. ps) (walker. birdies in the greenwood. ws) ---- dance, little baby. hr ---- darling little fingers. hr ---- hunter's song. rcs ---- on the sea. hr ---- ring song, no. . kc ---- waltz. hmc music only wee little star. _see_ tours. star. tc wee maiden dear with eyes of blue. _see_ brewster. valentine song. bss *wee willie winkie. lbs "weel may the keel row." _see_ highland schottische. fdm music only weevily wheat. oya weidig. boat song. tc (fanning. boat song. tc) ---- pilgrims. tc weisst du, wie viel sternlein? _see_ god knows. rcs (hubbard. do you know how many stars? msg) *welcome, little robin. smith. sl welcome, little travelers. _see_ gilchrist. little travelers. hs welcome song. gaynor. sc welcome swallow. tufts. cl welcome the gentle spring. _see_ brewster. spring song. bss welcome the joyous christmas day. _see_ christmas carol. kc welcome the merry time of spring. _see_ smith. welcome to spring. lcd welcome to spring. smith. lcd welcome to the new-born year. _see_ rischart. now welcome to the newborn year. hr welcome to the pussy willows. brown. el welcome to you, mother dear. _see_ gaynor. mother day. gs welcome, welcome! how do you do? _see_ smith. greeting song. kc welcome, welcome swallow. _see_ tufts. welcome swallow. cl wenk. nursery clock. rcs wer will unter die soldaten. _see_ kuecken. little soldier. rcs were i a sunbeam. _see_ chopin. spring song. efs (chopin. maiden's wish. fs) were i the sun so high in heaven soaring. _see_ chopin. maiden's wish. fs (chopin. spring song. efs) *wert thou in the cauld blast. mendelssohn. tlb wesley. child's prayer. hr west wind. barnby. tc who learned you to dance, babity, babity? _see_ be ba babity. jb whale. neidlinger. sss wharton. when all the world is young. fs what a bird taught. hubbard. msg what a little thing am i. _see_ reinecke. mamma and the baby. fc what a plague is love. _see_ marzials. phillida flouts me. cpp what a pretty black-bird. _see_ black-bird song. bss what are little boys made of? _see_ natural history. cbo what are you saying? _see_ root. child and the tree. sv what becomes of all the babies? _see_ hill. stages of life. shs what can you do? cole. tc what child is this? _see_ christmas carol. rcs what do birdies dream? hubbard. msg what do i see in baby's eyes? _see_ gilchrist. good night. stn what do you ever suppose, mamma? _see_ meissner. smelling. asc what do you say to the snow to-day? _see_ warren. april snow. stn what do you think came down last night? _see_ dayre. snow. el what do you think mother saw on the hill? _see_ smith. going to sleep. lcd what does it mean when the blue bird flies? _see_ bacon. signs of the seasons. el *what does little birdie say? tennyson. sm (tennyson. baby's waking song. shs) (tennyson. cradle song. el) (tufts. little birdie. cl) what does the baker make, we say? _see_ walker. baker. ws what does the moon say tonight? _see_ sheehan. mother's lullaby. osm what does the rumbling thunder say? _see_ neidlinger. thunder. es what fun it is to be just a tiny girl. _see_ terhune. sedan chair. cc what fun, what jolly fun. _see_ gaynor. coasting. sc what have we here? _see_ hubbard. garden gate. msg "what have you got for dinner, mrs. bond?" _see_ mrs. bond. cbo what i have. fischer. hr what is it fills our hearts with cheer? _see_ sheehan. spring is here. osm what is so rare as a day in june? _see_ schnecker. june. tlb what is this? this is a gate. _see_ froebel. barnyard gate. mp (hubbard. barnyard. msg) *what must be must. lbs what plant we in this apple tree? _see_ roeske. planting of the apple tree. hs what robin told. knowlton. ns (johnson. what robin told. bss) what's this dull town to me? _see_ robin adair. efs what says the book? _see_ damrosch. in the wood. stn what shall little children bring on christmas day? _see_ batchellor. blessed day. ws what shall we do the long winter thro'? _see_ cornwell. ferns. el what shall we do when we go out? _see_ holiday. lbs what song does the cricket sing? _see_ love and mirth. rcs what song shall we sing upon christmas? _see_ hill. first christmas song. hs what sweet tunes can babies play? _see_ smith. finger-piano. sl what the bells say. cole. cm what the little things said. sawyer. ws what twitt'ring in the sparrows' nest. _see_ berry. sparrows' nest. kc what, what shall santa claus bring helen? _see_ reinecke. santa claus. sl *what's this? hubbard. msg (froebel. finger play. kc) (froebel. this little thumb. mp) whatever the mother fosters. _see_ froebel. conclusion. mp wheatley. song of the blue-bird. el wheel. wiebe. kc wheel song. cushman. el wheelbarrow. ps wheelbarrow. hubbard. msg *wheelbarrow, wheelbarrow, where shall we go. hr wheelwright. smith. sm wheelwright. froebel. mp (hubbard. wheelwright. msg) *when a child goes marching out. lbs when all the ground with snow is white. _see_ knowlton. snow bird. ns *when all the world is young. wharton. fs *when bertie goes to the ball. jb when children lay them down to sleep. _see_ schumann. guardian angels. fs *when christ was born. brown. fs when do birds with weary wing. _see_ smith. friendly dark. lcd when early morning's. _see_ mowers. kc when first i saw sweet peggy. _see_ low-backed car. efs--fs when for my native land i sigh. _see_ tyrolese and his child. efs when good king arthur ruled this land. _see_ king arthur. cbo (gaynor. king arthur. ll) (reinecke. good king arthur. fc) when i am tucked within my bed. _see_ gaynor. wishing. ll when i go to sleep at night. _see_ knowlton. god loves his little children. ns *when i grow to be a man. neidlinger. sss when i'm softly sleeping. _see_ smith, sunshine song. sl when i run about all day. _see_ stanley. night and day. stn (warren. night and day. stn) (wiggin. night and day. kc) when i see my biddy hen. _see_ sherwood. baby's calendar. hs when i survey the world around. _see_ marzials. leather bottel. cpp when i was a farmer. _see_ gaynor. 'twas this way and that way. ll _for variants see_ when i was a lady. *when i was a lady, a lady, a lady. lbs (variant: gaynor. 'twas this way and that way. ll) (variant: when i was a shoemaker. ng) (variant: when i was a schoolgirl neb ) (variant: when i wore flounces. jb) *when i was a school girl. neb _for variants see_ when i was a lady. *when i was shepherd. fs *when i was a shoemaker. ng _for variants see_ when i was a lady. when i was sick and lay abed. _see_ stevenson. land of counterpane. lbs--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. land of counterpane. when i wore flounces. jb _for variants see_ when i was a lady. when it dusky grows. _see_ gaynor. sandman. ll when it is winter time. _see_ merry chimes. kk when jesus came. martin. msl *when little birdie bye-bye goes. _see_ elliott. lullaby. mg--sm (lullaby. hr) (walker. baby's lullaby. ws) when little birdie goes to sleep. _see_ neidlinger. little birdie. sss *when love is kind. efs when 'tis bright and pleasant weather. _see_ rust. pleasant weather. el when little bo-peep had lost her sheep. _see_ knowlton. little bo-peep. ns when little maizey came to town. _see_ vose. pop corn. el when mama does the pigeons call. _see_ feeding the pigeons. ps when mr. toadie wants a coat. _see_ grove. mr. toadie's coat. hs when morning comes the stars will fade. _see_ story of the day. shs when mother pussy mewed "come here!" _see_ smith. minding the mother. lcd when mother was ill. reinecke. fc when o'er earth is breaking. _see_ hubbard. nature's god is there. msg (walker. god is there. ws) when our cold hopes show buds again. _see_ berat. my normandy. fs when summer floods the earth with light. _see_ martin. summer. msl when sun the painter goes to work. _see_ neidlinger. es when the bell within our tower. _see_ smith. tower. sl when the bloom is on the rye. _see_ bishop. my pretty jane. efs *when the bright god of day drove to westward his ray. marzials. cpp when the bright lamp is carried in. _see_ stevenson. northwest passage--good night. sf (ramsay. northwest passage--goodnight. sf) when the children are safe. _see_ rieff. christmas tree march. kc *when the earth wakes up in gladness. fesca. sl when the frosty fall approaches. _see_ beethoven. autumn song. hr when the fuzzy pussy willows. _see_ gaynor. spring song. sc when the golden sun has set. _see_ zelter. story of night. shs when the light of day is fading. _see_ mueller. lamplighter. shs *when the little children sleep. reinecke. fc--kc *when the morning sun so bright. hr when the night comes on. cole. cm when the night is gently falling. _see_ kies. rest song. msl when the rain has come down. _see_ atkinson. rainbow. gs when the regiment comes marching by. gaynor. ll *when the snow is on the ground. elliott. mg--sl when the spring is seen. _see_ sounds of spring. fs when the spring-time comes and the world is gay. _see_ smith. play in all seasons. lcd when the summer comes each year. _see_ kreutzer. summer song. shs when the summer days had passed. _see_ neidlinger. lost rose seed. es when the sun says "wake" to buds. _see_ sheehan. at eastertide. osm when the wind blows cold. _see_ martin. winter. msl when the yellow sunbeams come. _see_ smith. good weather. lcd when to flow'rs so beautiful the father gave a name. _see_ hubbard. forget-me-not. msg (conrade. forget-me-not. gs) when tommy snooks and bessie brooks were walking out together. _see_ smeltzer. tommy snooks and bessie brooks. sz when we are all quiet. _see_ hurd. ring song. pts when we wake up we say. _see_ gaynor. language lesson. sc when we would talk about things to our friends. _see_ neidlinger. mr. period and his friends. es *when we're playing together. ws (guessing game, no. . ps) (hubbard. seeing. msg) (wiggin. guessing game. kc) when you're told to do a thing. _see_ be thorough. hr *when you send a valentine. hill. hs whence comes this rush of wings afar. _see_ quercy. carol of the birds. tlb *whenever a little child is born. allen. stn (stanley. whenever a little child is born. stn) whene'er a snowflake leaves the sky. _see_ molloy. snowflakes. stn (fisher. snowflakes. stn) (warren. snowflakes. stn) whenever the moon and stars are set. _see_ stevenson. windy nights. cgv--sf--sss _for composers see_ stevenson. windy nights. whenever the sun comes out. _see_ neidlinger. shadows. es where are the merry merry little men? _see_ roeske. merry little men. pfp where are you going, billy boy? _see_ billy boy. oya where are you going, lonely little sparrow? _see_ swallow. fs "where are you going to, my pretty maid?" _see_ my pretty maid. cbo--lbs where are you, my baby? _see_ haydn. hide and seek. sm where are you three foxes going? _see_ london bridge. neb where did you come from, pretty ball. _see_ gaynor. baby's toys. sc *where do all the daisies go? walker. ws (conrade. where they go. gs) where do you come from, you little drops of rain? _see_ tufts. little rain drops. cl where do you think wooley foster can be? _see_ smeltzer. wooley foster and daffy down dilly. sz where go the boats? stevenson. cgv--lbs--sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. where go the boats. where has the summer gone? _see_ conrade. lost, the summer. gs where ha' ye been a' the day? _see_ bonnie laddie, highland laddie. fs where is little boy blue? _see_ dugan. little boy blue. ws (cornwell. little boy blue. el) where is marguerita? _see_ marguerite. jb where is my little dog gone? oya where loud the mill-wheel roareth. _see_ glueck. mill. fs where 'mid the barley blue flow'rs are found. _see_ reinecke. barley-brownie. fc where, oh, where do the birdies go? _see_ cole. when the light comes on. cm where, oh, where is little boy blue? _see_ cornwell. little boy blue. el (dugan. little boy blue. ws) where, o, where is my little dog gone? _see_ o where is my little dog gone? oya where's the milk for baby's supper? _see_ smith. milk for supper. lcd where shall we walk on our way home from school? _see_ funkhouser. sidewalk song. fsk where, tell me where is your highland laddie gone? _see_ blue bells of scotland. fs where the birdies grow. cole. cm where the mountain and the valley meet. _see_ hares. lbs where the wild rose spreads its bowers. _see_ kohl. bird's nest. sm where they go. conrade. gs (walker. where do all the daisies go? ws) where they grow. cole. cm (where they grow. bss) whether fair, whether foul. _see_ allen. clouds and sunshine. stn *which way does the wind blow? walker. ws while shepherds watched their flocks by night. sawyer. el *while stars of christmas shine. hill. hs while the spring is still concealing. _see_ gaynor. valentine day, no. . gs while we are singing this morning song. _see_ neidlinger. voyage. es while we're playing together. _see_ wiggin. guessing game. kc (guessing game, no. . ps) (hubbard. seeing. msg) (when we're playing together. ws) while we sing. hubbard. msg while we sing the ball will wander. _see_ kohl. ball will wander. hr while you sleep. hadley. tlb whip-poor-will. gilchrist. tlb whirlabout. smith. lcd whirr! whirr! whirr! goes the spinning wheel. _see_ gaynor. spinning the yarn. sc white butterflies, bright butterflies frolic and drift. _see_ smith. butterfly dance. lcd white lambkins. hr (moon and the stars. ps) (reinecke. who has the whitest lambkins? fc--kc) *white sand and grey sand. fs--rcs whiting. blow, blow thou winter wind. tlb whitman. o captain! my captain! tlb ---- we two together. tlb ---- weave in, my hardy life. tlb whittier. barefoot boy. tlb ---- blue bird. msg--ws ---- prayers of love. tlb ---- teacher's hymn, ii. kc (bacon. mother's hymn. el) (hailmann. teacher's hymn. hr) (osgood. mother's hymn. el) ---- thanksgiving day. _see_ over the river and through the woods. ---- worship. tc whittier. gaynor. gs *whittington for ever. elliott. mg who can this little maiden be? _see_ knowlton. february. ns who comes along the upland ways? _see_ johns. easter song. tlb who comes here? _see_ punchinello. hc *who has the finest lambkins? _see_ moon and the stars. ps (reinecke. who has the whitest lambkins? fc--kc) (white lambkins. hr) *who has the whitest lambkins? fc--kc (moon and the stars. ps) (white lambkins. hr) who is at the meadow bars? _see_ gaynor. milking time. sc who is coming? _see_ smeltzer. jack and jill. sz who is hiding in the wood? _see_ riley. pussy willow. ll *who is silvia? tlb who is so merry, so merry, heigh-ho! _see_ reinecke. fairy. fc *who is this so late doth come? jb who killed cock robin? _see_ elliott. death and burial of cock robin. mg *who liveth so merry in all this land? marzials. cpp who'll be the binder? ng who'll buy caller herrin'? _see_ caller herrin'. fs who made the first flag? betty ross, betty ross. _see_ atkinson. first flag. gs *who's coming over there. lbs who's the friendly little chap. _see_ smith. polite. lcd *who taught the bird? schlager. hr (hubbard. who taught the little bird? msg) who will buy my top? _see_ toyman. hs who will come with me, the jolly rover. _see_ jolly rover. lbs *who will o'er the down so free. pearsall. fs who will take a walk with me? _see_ hill. toyman's shop. hs who would not be glad? gaynor. ll who wouldn't be a bounding ball? _see_ gaynor. ball. sc who wouldn't be a soldier when the band begins to play? _see_ gaynor. when the regiment goes marching by. ll whoever stole my big black dog. _see_ my big black dog. oya whom shall i choose for the beautiful band? _see_ gaynor. game of the beautiful band. ll why are red roses red? _see_ parker. rose song. tc *why do bells for christmas ring? field. bm--sv (bingham. why do bells for christmas ring? bm) (root. christmas song. sv) why do you come to my apple tree? _see_ hubbard. what a bird taught. msg why do you scratch me? _see_ dog and cat. rcs why does the charcoal burner stay? _see_ bullard. charcoal burner. sm why mr. gobbler changed his tune. gaynor. sc why, moon, it strikes me you're looking quite thin. _see_ conrade. moon. gs *widdy-widdy-wurky i call my fat turkey. lbs (hausegesinde. bb) (wide-wide-wenne. rcs) wide o'er the world. _see_ knowlton. november. ns *wide-wide-wenne. rcs (widdy-widdy-wurky. lbs) (hausegesinde. bb) wide, wide world. gaynor. sc wie ist es kalt geworden. _see_ reinecke. longing for spring. rcs wiebe. ranged in rows. kc ---- two birds. kc ---- wheel. kc wiegenlied. _see_ brahms. cradle song. fs wiesen bluemchen hab' ich gern. _see_ taubert. meadow daisy. rcs *wigamy, wigamy, waterhen. neb wiggin. ball lullaby. kc ---- ball play. kc (wiggin. ball song. kc) ---- bird game. kc ---- building song. kc ---- car driver. kc ---- christmas carol. kc ---- christmas hymn. kc ---- christmas waltz-song. kc ---- clock game. kc ---- closing song. kc ---- everyday politeness. kc ---- guessing game. kc (guessing game, no. . ps) (hubbard. seeing. msg) (when we're playing together. ws) ---- family finger play. kc ---- fish-seller. kc ---- fishes. kc ---- flight of the birds. kc ---- flower game. kc ---- fruit market. kc ---- god is ever good. kc ---- good-bye song. kc (hailmann. our work is done. hr) (hubbard. parting song. msg) (walker. our play is o'er. ws) ---- good morning. kc ---- imitation game. kc (little master of gymnastics. ps) (smith. choosing the game. sl ) ---- just like this. kc ---- keeping time. kc ---- kindergartner's funeral hymn. kc ---- kindergartner's morning greeting. kc ---- kindergartner's song. kc ---- little doves. kc ---- little waiters. kc ---- merry christmas has come. kc ---- morning greeting. kc ---- morning hymn. kc ---- morning prayer. kc ---- night and day. kc ---- ring song. kc ---- second gift song. kc ---- seeing game. kc ---- slumber song. kc (tufts. now the sun is sinking. cl) ---- slumber song of the birdlings. kc ---- smelling. kc (hubbard. smelling. msg) (smith. smelling. sl ) ---- spider and the flies. kc ---- spring birds. kc ---- spring's call to the flowers. kc ---- tasting. kc (hubbard. tasting. msg) ---- touching. kc (hubbard. touching. msg) ---- trade game, i. kc (workingman. hr) ---- trade game, ii. kc ---- village dance. kc ---- wandering game. kc ---- window. kc (froebel. little window. mp) (hubbard. oh, see the light. msg) wild boar. froebel. mp wild horseman. schumann. hmc music only wild rose. _see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein. bss--fs--rcs _for composers see_ goethe. heiden-roeslein wild wind. fisher. stn wilhelm. watch on the rhine. efs--fs will o' the wisp. behr. hmc music only will winter never be over? _see_ marston. february. el will you attend to my saga old? _see_ ormen lange. kk will you buy my sweet lavender? _see_ maitland. lavender cry. neb will you hear a spanish lady? _see_ marzials. spanish lady. cpp will you surrender? _see_ king of the barbarees. jb will you walk into my parlour? _see_ elliott. spider and the fly. ng willcox. christine's christmas carol. el williams. trust. tlb willie, willie, come to me. _see_ hailmann. giving the balls. hr willow, willow. marzials. cpp wills. autumn fires. el (ramsey. autumn fires. sf) ---- how the wind blows. el ---- rock-a-baby. el (parry. rock-a-baby. tc) (seeboeck. rock-a-baby. tc) wilm. mazurka. hmc music only. winchester. train. el wind. allen. el wind. cornwell. el (bertini. i am the wind. hr) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) (sawyer. wind. el) wind. gaynor. sc wind. sawyer. el (bertini. i am the wind. hr) (cornwell. wind. el) (hubbard. i am the wind. msg) wind. stevenson. cgv--el--lbs--sf--sl --sm--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. wind wind and sea. cauffman. tlb wind and the leaves. dugan. el wind blew low, the wind blew high. _see_ smith. busy wind. lcd wind blows high. jb wind blows high, the wind blows low. _see_ wills. how the wind blows. el *wind blows sweetly. tufts. cl wind blows, the sun shines. _see_ knowlton. it is spring. ns wind came forth one autumn morn. _see_ burnett. song of the wind. hs wind came howling at our door. _see_ fisher. wild wind. stn *wind, gentle evergreen. hayes. tlb wind must blow to turn the mill. _see_ heerwart. windmill. kc (seidell. windmill. hr) wind one gusty morning. _see_ smith. merry wind. lcd wind song. hill. shs wind song. root. sv wind song. stevenson. _see_ stevenson. wind. cgv--el--lbs--sf--sm--sl --ss *windflower. roeske. hs winding the clock. gaynor. sc windmill. ps--ws (stangenberger. windmill. hr) windmill. atkinson. gs windmill. gaynor. sc windmill. heerwart. kc (seidell. windmill. hr) windmill. jensen. hmc music only windmill. jensen. sl --sm windmill. nelham. rcs windmill. seidell. hr (heerwart. windmill. kc) windmill. stangenberger. hr (windmill. ps--ws) windmill holds its arms so high. _see_ atkinson. windmill. gs windmill is whirling away up so high. _see_ gaynor. windmill. sc windmill's fans around they go. _see_ jensen. windmill. sl --sm window. froebel. mp window. smith. sm window. wiggin. kc (froebel. little window. mp) (hubbard. oh, see the light. msg) winds. neidlinger. es winds are playing on the branches. _see_ kjerulf. spring song. sl windy day. neidlinger. sss windy nights. stevenson. cgv--sf--ss _for composers see_ stevenson. windy nights winged singers ever keep two and two together. _see_ lonely bird. ps winslow. cradle nest. hs ---- going to market. hs winter. hs winter. ps winter. haydn. hr (hubbard. old winter. msg) winter. martin. msl winter ade! scheiden thut weh. _see_ winter, good-bye. rcs winter and summer. allen. stn winter day! frosty day! god a cloak on all doth lay. _see_ bacon. winter hymn. el winter days will soon be gone. _see_ hecker. spring song. gs winter fore-thought. shs *winter, good-bye, parting is nigh. rcs winter has come and the songsters are gone. _see_ winter's advent. ps winter hymn. bacon. el winter ist kommen. _see_ cold winter is round us. rcs winter is over. _see_ sawyer. greeting to spring. el winter jewels. tufts. cl (burdett. million little diamonds. stn) (damrosch. million little diamonds. stn) (walker. winter jewels. ws) winter rose. _see_ hubbard. rose bush. msg winter song. schubert. ws winter sports. seeboeck. hmc music only winter winds are blowing. _see_ reinecke. christmas at the door. fc--sl --hr winter's advent. ps *wise old owl. neidlinger. sss wiseneder. railway. hr wishing. gaynor. ll with a baa! baa! here, a baa! baa! there. _see_ jacobs. barnyard song. hs with a hey-ding-ding. jb with even step. kk *with footsteps firm. kuecken. sl with his bow and arrow. _see_ weber. hunter's song. rcs *with my flocks. efs with shoulders back, and heads up straight. _see_ reinecke. marching song. kc with songs and honors sounding loud. _see_ ellacombe. tlb with sudsy water in the tub. _see_ sloane. washing day. hs with the dawn awaking. _see_ tufts. morning song. cl with enticing glances. _see_ castilian bolero. efs with whistle and shout. _see_ smith. autumn wind. lcd with whoo-whoo! whoo-whoo! _see_ smith. train. lcd with wisps of hay made snug and round. _see_ gaynor. continued story. ll within a mile of edinboro' town. efs within these walls is love abounding. _see_ marching, no. . ps wolf. song of summer and winter. shs wolf. froebel. mp wolf and the lamb. jb *wollt ihr wissen wie der bauer. _see_ shall i show you how the farmer? rcs wonderful bag. reed. tgs wonderful shell, you sing like a bell. _see_ meissner. hearing. asc wonderful tree. schilling. ws won't you take me to your party? usi woodland lullaby. dietrich. tc woodman. smith. sl woodman to the forest goes. _see_ smith. woodman. sl woodpecker. gaynor. sc woods are still sleeping. _see_ smith. sap has begun to flow. sl wooley foster, and daffy down dilly. smeltzer. sz wooly sheep, please tell us why. _see_ hill. children and the sheep. shs (cole. sheep. cm) (marie antoinette. children and the sheep. hr) wordsworth. lines written in early spring. tlb work. song of washington. hs work of the week. gaynor. gs work while you work. _see_ tufts. one thing at a time. cl workingman. hr (wiggin. trade game, i. kc) world. roeske. el world is filled with gladness. _see_ sawyer. easter carol. el world is so full of a number of things. _see_ stevenson. happy thought. cgv (fisher. happy thought. cgv) (adaptation: cole. beautiful world. cm) world is so full of beautiful things. _see_ cole. beautiful world. cm (adapted from stevenson. happy thought. cgv) world wonders. gaynor. sc worship. stanford. tc worship the king all glorious above. _see_ haydn. o come, let us worship. tlb worsted ball. elliott. sl would you know how does the farmer? _see_ hubbard. farmer. msg would you know the baby's skies? _see_ marzo. baby's skies. stn *wouldn't you like to go? frazer. bss wren and the hen. bartlett. stn (molloy. wren and the hen. stn) wynken and blynken and nod one night. _see_ dekoven. dutch lullaby. fsc xmas day in the morning. cbo *yankee doodle's come to town. lbs--oya ye holy angels bright. _see_ barnby. st. gregory. tlb ye lads and lassies all arise and speed. _see_ smith. may song. tlb ye people, rend your hearts, rend your hearts. _see_ mendelssohn. if with all your hearts. tlb ye shepherds arise. _see_ reinecke. christmas song. fc ye sons of france awake to glory. _see_ de l'isle. marseillaise. efs--fs year's color song. neidlinger. es yellow canary is trying his wings. _see_ smith. canary. lcd yeo ho! our boat is riding. _see_ guglielmo. rowing. fs yes come! dear, dear christmas. hill. hs yes, here i am and how do you do? _see_ cole. month of may. cm yester night as i did stray. _see_ hunter and hare. rcs yonder stands a charming creature. _see_ twenty eighteen. neb you all remember the fairy times. _see_ neidlinger. fairies. es you are bright and pretty, too. _see_ hailmann. you love me and i love you. hr you are not my partner. kk you buttercups yellow. _see_ gaynor. buttercups. sc you dear little thumb, go to sleep. _see_ gaynor. finger's lullaby. sc you have a little prisoner. _see_ pleyel. on guard. gs you have silken clothes to wear. _see_ meissner. in china. asc you know i am a brownie. _see_ gaynor. brownie. ll you love me and i love you. hailmann. hr you may hear us on your window. _see_ larned. raindrops. hs *you must be very tired. hailmann. hr you never would think that old grandfather sun. _see_ neidlinger. painter sun. es you pretty sunbeam. _see_ elliott. little sunbeam. sl you pussy willow. _see_ sawyer. pussy willow. ws you spotted snakes with double tongue. _see_ macfarren. midsummer night's dream. tlb you think, oh sun so fair. _see_ amaryllis. efs you want to be big and strong, of course. _see_ funkhouser. some day you'll be a man. fsk you will hear the birdies singing. _see_ cole. scale song, no. . cm young molly who lived at the foot of the hill. _see_ lass with the delicate air. efs young night thought. stevenson. ss (foote. young night thought. ss) young recruit. lbs *young thoughts have music in them. kroeger. tlb your little hand, my child, show me. _see_ wiggin. ball play. kc (wiggin. ball song, no. . kc) your mouth now open. _see_ hubbard. tasting. msg (wiggin. tasting. kc) *youth has gone. fs yradier. dove. fs *yule logs are waiting. jb zarnack. o tannenbaum. fs--rcs (fir and the pine. rcs) (fir tree. fs) zelter. story of night. shs *zisch, zisch, zisch. hubbard. msg (froebel. joiner. mp) (joiner. ps) (seidel. joiner. hr) zoom! zoom! said a busy little rover. _see_ meissner. honey bee and clover. asc zoom! zoom! zoom! drones the bumble bee. _see_ gaynor. bumble bee. sc zundel. love divine, all love excelling. tlb zwei feine stieflein hab' ich an. _see_ taubert. sand man. rcs zwei hasen. bb (two hares. rcs) zwischen berg and tiefen, tiefen, thal. _see_ two hares. rcs (zwei hasen. bb) lists of songs for special days arbor day. child and the tree. root. sv come, my dolly. smith. sv falling leaves. neidlinger. sss fir and the pine. rcs (fir tree. fs) fir tree. burnett. hs how johnny and polly shake the apples. reinecke. fc journey of the boys. neidlinger. es orchard. jenks. hs our fir tree. sherwood. hs planting of the apple tree. roeske. hs song of the trees. hill. hs story of the apple. hill. shs tree in winter. smith. sl trees. heerwart. kc--hr--sm tree's friends. gaynor. sc bird day. all the birds have come again. smith. sl all the little sparrows. walker. ws awakening. gaynor. sc baby's waking song. shs bird's duet. fs bird's nest. hs blackbird song. bss bluebird. ws bluebird. neidlinger. sss bobolink. cole. cm bobolink. gaynor. sc call of the crow. knowlton. ns captive bird. knowlton. ns captive wild bird. bureau. hs child and the cuckoo. reinecke. fc chris-cradle sings. hubbard. msg come here, little robin. tufts. cl cradle nest. winslow. hs crow. gaynor. sc cuckoo. ps cuckoo. froebel. mp cuckoo, cuckoo. ps death and burial of cock robin. elliott. mg dove cote. smith. sl farewell to the birds. gaynor. sc first flying lesson. neidlinger. sss fly little birds. cornwell. hs--ws flying song. hill. shs george's song. reinecke. fc humming bird. cole. cm humming bird. tufts. cl if blue-birds bloomed. gilchrist. stn little bird in the cradle. brewster. bss little birdie. neidlinger. sss little birdies. cole. cm little brown thrush. hubbard. msg little cock sparrow. fs little cock sparrow. elliott. mg little doves. wiggin. kc little red lark. fs little woodpecker and i. ws maggie's pet. elliott. mg mr. and mrs. sparrow. gaynor. sc nell and her bird. tufts. cl nest eggs. ramsay. sf nightingale. alabieff. fs nineteen birds. elliott. mg oriole. gaynor. sc orioles. fs pigeon. gaynor. sc pigeon house. tufts. cl pigeon's flight. saville. hs polly. hubbard. msg polly. neidlinger. sss poor linnet in the hedge. fc robin. tufts. cl robin redbreast. bss robin redbreast. gaynor. sc robin, robin redbreast. mather. ws robins and pussy willow. brewster. bss robin's song. neidlinger. sss rollicking robin. knowlton. ns sing-away bird. millard. stn skylark. cole. cm snowbird. knowlton. ns song of the robin. cornell. stn sparrows' nest. berry. kc stork, stork, stander. reinecke. fc swallow. fs swallow. hubbard. msg swallow, good bye. fs swallow is come. tufts. cl three crows. elliott. mg to the nightingale. reinecke. fc two little birds. fisher. stn two crows. neidlinger. sss two robin redbreasts. walker. ws we are red birds. smith. sl welcome little robin. smith. sl welcome swallow. tufts. cl what do birdies dream? hubbard. msg what robin told. johnson. bss what robin told. knowlton. ns when the night comes on. cole. cm where the birdies grow. cole. cm who taught the little bird? hubbard. msg wise old owl. neidlinger. sss woodpecker. gaynor. sc christmas air is filled with the echoes. morton. ws blessed day. batchellor. ws carol, carol, children. graeff. hs carol, children, carol. walker. ws carol, oh carol! dugan. ws carriage to ride in. reinecke. fc children, can you truly tell? walker. ws christmas. reed. hs christmas. reed. tgs christmas at the door. reinecke. fc--hr--sl christmas bells. weatherly. el christmas carol. adams. hs christmas carol. elliott. sl christmas carol. gaynor. sc christmas carol. gaynor. sc christmas carol. gaynor. ll christmas carol. ogden. kc christmas carol. smith. sl christmas carol. terhune. cc christmas! glad christmas. kendall. hs christmas greeting. hubbard. msg christmas has come. wiggin. kc christmas hymn. gottschalk. kc christmas hymn. reinecke. fc christmas hymn. smith. sl christmas is coming. hubbard. msg christmas is here. hr christmas joys. gaynor. sc christmas lullaby. hill. shs christmas manger hymn. gs christmas, merry christmas. hs christmas night. hill. shs christmas picture. morton. hs christmas secrets. gaynor. sc christmas song. (holy night.) adam. gs christmas song. brewster. bss christmas song. cole. bss christmas song. haydn. hr christmas song. reinecke. fc christmas song. rieff. kc christmas song. root. sv christmas song. schwartz. bss christmas song. smith. sl christmas star. hill. shs christmas time is coming. poulsson. lcd christmas tree march. rieff. kc christmas waltz song. andre. kc come and join our carol. story. ws dear santa now appear. hubbard. msg december. knowlton. ns first christmas. field. el first christmas. morton. hs--ws first christmas song. hill. hs first nowell. fs good news on christmas morning. hatton. stn happiest day. hill. hs hark! the bells are ringing. hubbard. msg in the bethlehem stable. poulsson. lcd jolly old saint nicholas. hr joyfully, joyfully. thayer. ws legend of the christmas tree. gaynor. sc letter to santa claus. gaynor. sc let's go sliding down the hill. frazer. bss little child's gift carol. chapek. hs little four-years. frazer. bss manger throne. steggall. fs merry christmas. hs merry christmas. gaynor. sc merry christmas bells. hitte. dm merry christmas bells. murray. ws noël, noël, the christ is born. shelly. ws o, thou holy child. rcs oh, ring glad bells. herron. ws old english carol. el presentation song. hill. shs ring merry bells. el santa claus. reinecke. sl santa claus. roeske. pfp shine out, oh blessed star! dugan. ws sing, little children, sing. osgood. ws song of thanks. saville. hs stilly night, starry and bright. gruber. fs story of the christ. hill. shs three kings of orient. hopkins. fs toyman. hs toyman's shop. hill. hs waken, little children. ashmall. sl we welcome you, dear friends. hubbard. msg when christ was born. brown. fs while stars of christmas shine. hill. hs why do bells for christmas ring? bingham. bm wonderful tree. schilling. ws easter. at easter-tide. sheehan. osm at easter time. ws awake, awake! houseman. hs easter. gaynor. gs easter. hadley. tlb easter. hubbard. msg easter carol. damrosch. stn easter carol. fairlamb. stn easter carol. sawyer. el easter hymn. batchellor. ws easter hymn. story. ws easter morning. chapek. hs easter morning. martin. msl easter song. gaynor. sc easter song. johns. tlb easter song. rich. hs easter song. smith. sl glad easter is here. dugan. hs lillies sweet. spohr. hs merry bells of easter. knowlton. ns nature's easter song. hill. shs sweetly the birds are singing. hubbard. msg waking flowers. hill. shs flag day. america. smith. fs--gs--msg (my country, 'tis of thee. tlb) battle hymn of the republic. fs dixie's land. emmett. fs first flag. atkinson. gs flag. hadley. tlb flag. schwartz. bss flag song. root. sv flag song. smith. sl flags. montz. ims our flag. gaynor. sc our flag. neidlinger. sss patriotic hymn. knowlton. ns salute to the flag. gaynor. sc star spangled banner. fs--msg froebel's birthday. froebel hymn. kc froebel's birthday. hubbard. msg froebel's birthday. reed. hs froebel's birthday song. rust. el froebel's birthday song. smith. sl froebel's favorite hymn. rust. el froebel's song. hubbard. msg marching song, for froebel's birthday. rockwell. kc on froebel's birthday. hs independence day. fourth of july. kern. hs july. knowlton. ns independence day. schuckburgh. hs may day. around the maypole. sherwood. hs cornish maypole dance. fdm music only it is lovely may. hubbard. msg lovely may. hubbard. msg may. ps may-basket. smith. lcd may dance. fdm music only may dancing song. richter. hr may day. gaynor. gs may day invitation. sherwood. hs may queen. gaynor. gs may song. strong. hs maypole dance.--"bluff king hal." bfd maypole song. hubbard. msg maypole style. jb queen of the may. gaynor. ll queen o' may. stanley. stn queen o' may. warren. stn memorial day. decoration day. bss memorial day. flotow. gs memorial day. stetson. hs memorial hymn. allen. tlb our land. reed. hs soldiers true. sherwood. hs new year. ding, dong! hoffman. stn ding, dong! molloy. stn little new year. jenks. ws new year. gaynor. sc new year. gebauer. hs new year. seidel. hr new year greeting. sherwood. hs new year's day. gaynor. sc now welcome to the new-born year. rischart. hr old year and new year. hill. hs old year and the new. walker. ws thanksgiving. can a little child like me. story. ws first thanksgiving day. gaynor. sc god's blessing on work. albert. shs god's care of all things. shs harvest hymn. carey. bss harvest song. smith. sl hymn for a child. knowlton. ns hymn for national holiday. knowlton. ns morning hymn. batchellor. ws morning hymn. hamburg. hr morning prayer, no. . wiggin. kc morning thanksgiving. reed. hs on this happiest feast day. hs patriotic hymn. knowlton. ns sleigh ride. hr (thanksgiving day. conrade. gs) (thanksgiving day. hubbard. msg) (thanksgiving song. morton. ws) song of thanks. saville. hs thanks for constant care. hill. shs thanks for daily blessings. hill. shs thanksgiving. gaynor. ll thanksgiving day. conrade. gs (thanksgiving day. hubbard. msg) (thanksgiving song. morton. ws) (sleigh ride. hr) thanksgiving day. hill. hs thanksgiving for harvest. sherwood. hs thanksgiving game. hurd. pts thanksgiving joys. conrade. gs thanksgiving song. bingham. bm thanksgiving song. brewster. bss thanksgiving song. gaynor. sc thanksgiving song. himmel. shs thanksgiving song. jenks. el thanksgiving song. morton. ws (sleigh ride. ws) (thanksgiving day. conrade. gs) (thanksgiving day. hubbard. msg) thanksgiving song. rust. el thanksgiving song. sawyer. el thanksgiving song. smith. sl we plow the fields. smith. sl we thank thee. sherwood. hs why mr. gobbler changed his tune. gaynor. sc valentine's day. february. knowlton. ns postman. reed. hs recipe for a valentine. gaynor. sc st. valentine's day. shedd. hs see the pretty valentines. hill. hs valentine. damrosch. stn (valentine. fairlamb. stn) valentine day, no. . gaynor. gs valentine song. brewster. bss valentines. gaynor. sc valentine's message. hill. hs when you send a valentine. hill. hs washington's birthday. song for washington's birthday. hs song of washington. work. hs washington's birthday. hubbard. msg washington song. atkinson. gs file was produced from scans of public domain material produced by microsoft for their live search books site.) by justin winsor. narrative and critical history of america. with bibliographical and descriptive essays on its historical sources and authorities. profusely illustrated with portraits, maps, facsimiles, etc. edited by justin winsor, librarian of harvard university, with the coöperation of a committee from the massachusetts historical society, and with the aid of other learned societies. in eight royal vo volumes. each volume, _net_, $ . ; sheep, _net_, $ . ; half morocco, _net_, $ . . (_sold only by subscription for the entire set._) reader's handbook of the american revolution. mo, $ . . was shakespeare shapleigh? mo, rubricated parchment paper, cents. christopher columbus. with portrait and maps. vo. houghton, mifflin & company, boston and new york. [illustration: behaim, .] [illustration: america, .] christopher columbus and how he received and imparted the spirit of discovery by justin winsor they that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters, these see the works of the lord and his wonders in the deep.--_psalms_, cvii. , boston and new york houghton, mifflin and company the riverside press, cambridge copyright, , by justin winsor. _all rights reserved._ _the riverside press, cambridge, mass., u.s.a._ electrotyped and printed by h. o. houghton & co. to francis parkman, ll.d., the historian of new france. dear parkman:-- you and i have not followed the maritime peoples of western europe in planting and defending their flags on the american shores without observing the strange fortunes of the italians, in that they have provided pioneers for those atlantic nations without having once secured in the new world a foothold for themselves. when venice gave her cabot to england and florence bestowed verrazano upon france, these explorers established the territorial claims of their respective and foster motherlands, leading to those contrasts and conflicts which it has been your fortune to illustrate as no one else has. when genoa gave columbus to spain and florence accredited her vespucius to portugal, these adjacent powers, whom the bull of demarcation would have kept asunder in the new hemisphere, established their rival races in middle and southern america, neighboring as in the old world; but their contrasts and conflicts have never had so worthy a historian as you have been for those of the north. the beginnings of their commingled history i have tried to relate in the present work, and i turn naturally to associate in it the name of the brilliant historian of france and england in north america with that of your obliged friend, [illustration: justin winsor] cambridge, _june, _. contents and illustrations. page chapter i. sources, and the gatherers of them illustrations: manuscript of columbus, ; the genoa custodia, ; columbus's letter to the bank of st. george, ; columbus's annotations on the _imago mundi_, ; first page, columbus's first letter, latin edition ( ), ; archivo de simancas, . chapter ii. biographers and portraitists illustrations: page of the giustiniani psalter, ; notes of ferdinand columbus on his books, ; las casas, ; roselly de lorgues, ; st. christopher, a vignette on la cosa's map ( ), ; earliest engraved likeness of columbus in jovius, ; the florence columbus, ; the yañez columbus, ; a reproduction of the capriolo cut of columbus, ; de bry's engraving of columbus, ; the bust on the tomb at havana, . chapter iii. the ancestry and home of columbus chapter iv. the uncertainties of the early life of columbus illustrations: drawing ascribed to columbus, ; benincasa's map ( ), ; ship of the fifteenth century, . chapter v. the allurements of portugal illustrations: part of the laurentian portolano, ; map of andrea bianco, ; prince henry, the navigator, ; astrolabes of regiomontanus, , ; sketch map of african discovery, ; fra mauro's world-map, ; tomb of prince henry at batalha, ; statue of prince henry at belem, . chapter vi. columbus in portugal illustrations: toscanelli's map restored, ; map of eastern asia, with old and new names, ; catalan map of eastern asia ( ), ; marco polo, ; albertus magnus, ; the laon globe, ; oceanic currents, ; tables of regiomontanus ( - ), ; map of the african coast ( ), ; martin behaim, . chapter vii. was columbus in the north? illustrations: map of olaus magnus ( ), ; map of claudius clavus ( ), ; bordone's map ( ), ; map of sigurd stephanus ( ), . chapter viii. columbus leaves portugal for spain illustrations: portuguese mappemonde ( ), ; père juan perez de marchena, ; university of salamanca, ; monument to columbus at genoa, ; ptolemy's map of spain ( ), ; cathedral of seville, ; cathedral of cordoba, . chapter ix. the final agreement and the first voyage, illustrations: behaim's globe ( ), , ; doppelmayer's reproduction of this globe, , ; the actual america in relation to behaim's geography, ; ships of columbus's time, , ; map of the canary islands, ; map of the routes of columbus, ; of his track in , ; map of the agonic line, ; lapis polaris magnes, ; map of polar regions by mercator ( ), ; map of the landfall of columbus, ; columbus's armor, ; maps of the bahamas ( and modern), , . chapter x. among the islands and the return voyage illustration: indian beds, . chapter xi. columbus in spain again; march to september, illustrations: the arms of columbus, ; pope alexander vi., ; crossbow-maker, ; clock-maker, . chapter xii. the second voyage, - illustrations: map of guadaloupe, marie galante, and dominica, ; cannibal islands, . chapter xiii. the second voyage, continued, illustration: mass on shore, . chapter xiv. the second voyage, continued, - illustrations: map of the native divisions of española, ; map of spanish settlements in española, . chapter xv. in spain, - . da gama, vespucius, cabot llustrations: ferdinand of aragon, ; bartholomew columbus, ; vasco da gama, ; map of south africa ( ), ; earliest representation of south american natives, . chapter xvi. the third voyage, - illustrations: map of the gulf of paria, ; pre-columbian mappemonde, restored, ; ramusio's map of española, ; la cosa's map ( ), , ; ribero's map of the antilles ( ), ; wytfliet's cuba, , . chapter xvii. the degradation and disheartenment of columbus ( ) illustration: santo domingo, . chapter xviii. columbus again in spain, - illustrations: first page of the _mundus novus_, ; map of the straits of belle isle, ; manuscript of gaspar cortereal, ; of miguel cortereal, ; the cantino map, . chapter xix. the fourth voyage, - illustrations: bellin's map of honduras, ; of veragua, . chapter xx. columbus's last years. death and character illustrations: house where columbus died, ; cathedral at santo domingo, ; statue of columbus at santo domingo, . chapter xxi. the descent of columbus's honors illustrations: pope julius ii., ; charles the fifth, ; ruins of diego colon's house, . appendix. the geographical results illustrations: ptolemy, ; map by donis ( ), ; ruysch's map ( ), ; the so-called admiral's map ( ), ; münster's map ( ), ; title-page of the _globus mundi_, ; of eden's _treatyse of the newe india_, ; vespucius, ; title of the _cosmographiæ introductio_, ; map in ptolemy ( ), , ; the tross gores, ; the hauslab globe, ; the nordenskiöld gores, ; map by apianus ( ), ; schöner's globe ( ), ; frisius's map ( ), ; peter martyr's map ( ), ; ponce de leon, ; his tracks on the florida coast, ; ayllon's map, ; balboa, ; grijalva, ; globe in schöner's _opusculum_, ; garay's map of the gulf of mexico, ; cortes's map of the gulf of mexico, ; the maiollo map ( ), ; the lenox globe, ; schöner's globe ( ), ; magellan, ; magellan's straits by pizafetta, ; modern map of the straits, ; freire's map ( ), ; sylvanus's map in ptolemy ( ), ; stobnieza's map, ; the alleged da vinci sketch-map, ; reisch's map ( ), ; pomponius mela's world-map, ; vadianus, ; apianus, ; schöner, ; rosenthal or nuremberg gores, ; the martyr-oviedo map ( ), , ; the verrazano map, ; sketch of agnese's map ( ), ; münster's map ( ), , ; michael lok's map ( ), ; john white's map, ; robert thorne's map ( ), ; sebastian münster, ; house and library of ferdinand columbus, ; spanish map ( ), ; the nancy globe, , ; map of orontius finæus ( ), ; the same, reduced to mercator's projection, ; cortes, ; castillo's california, ; extract from an old portolano of the northeast coast of north america, ; homem's map ( ), ; ziegler's schondia, ; ruscelli's map ( ), ; carta marina ( ), ; myritius's map ( ), ; zaltière's map ( ), ; porcacchi's map ( ), ; mercator's globe ( ), , ; münster's america ( ), ; mercator's gores ( ), reduced to a plane projection, ; sebastian cabot's mappemonde ( ), ; medina's map ( ), , ; wytfliet's america ( ), , ; the cross-staff, ; the zeni map, , ; the map in the warsaw codex ( ), , ; mercator's america ( ), ; portrait of mercator, ; of ortelius, ; map by ortelius ( ), ; sebastian cabot, ; frobisher, ; frobisher's chart ( ), ; francis drake, ; gilbert's map ( ), ; the back-staff, ; luke fox's map of the arctic regions ( ), ; hennepin's map of jesso, ; domina farrer's map ( ), , ; buache's theory of north american geography ( ), ; map of bering's straits, ; map of the northwest passage, . index christopher columbus. chapter i. sources, and the gatherers of them. in considering the sources of information, which are original, as distinct from those which are derivative, we must place first in importance the writings of columbus himself. we may place next the documentary proofs belonging to private and public archives. [sidenote: his prolixity.] harrisse points out that columbus, in his time, acquired such a popular reputation for prolixity that a court fool of charles the fifth linked the discoverer of the indies with ptolemy as twins in the art of blotting. he wrote as easily as people of rapid impulses usually do, when they are not restrained by habits of orderly deliberation. he has left us a mass of jumbled thoughts and experiences, which, unfortunately, often perplex the historian, while they of necessity aid him. [sidenote: his writings.] ninety-seven distinct pieces of writing by the hand of columbus either exist or are known to have existed. of such, whether memoirs, relations, or letters, sixty-four are preserved in their entirety. these include twenty-four which are wholly or in part in his own hand. all of them have been printed entire, except one which is in the biblioteca colombina, in seville, the _libro de las proficias_, written apparently between and , of which only part is in columbus's own hand. a second document, a memoir addressed to ferdinand and isabella, before june, , is now in the collection of the marquis of san roman at madrid, and was printed for the first time by harrisse in his _christophe colomb_. a third and fourth are in the public archives in madrid, being letters addressed to the spanish monarchs: one without date in or , or perhaps earlier, in , and the other february , ; and both have been printed and given in facsimile in the _cartas de indias_, a collection published by the spanish government in . the majority of the existing private papers of columbus are preserved in spain, in the hands of the present representative of columbus, the duke of veragua, and these have all been printed in the great collection of navarrete. they consist, as enumerated by harrisse in his _columbus and the bank of saint george_, of the following pieces: a single letter addressed about the year to ferdinand and isabella; four letters addressed to father gaspar gorricio,--one from san lucar, april , ; a second from the grand canaria, may, ; a third from jamaica, july , ; and the last from seville, january , ;--a memorial addressed to his son, diego, written either in december, , or in january, ; and eleven letters addressed also to diego, all from seville, late in or early in . [illustration: manuscript of columbus. [from a ms. in the biblioteca colombina, given in harrisse's _notes on columbus_.]] [sidenote: all in spanish.] without exception, the letters of columbus of which we have knowledge were written in spanish. harrisse has conjectured that his stay in spain made him a better master of that language than the poor advantages of his early life had made him of his mother tongue. [sidenote: his privileges.] columbus was more careful of the documentary proofs of his titles and privileges, granted in consequence of his discoveries, than of his own writings. he had more solicitude to protect, by such records, the pecuniary and titular rights of his descendants than to preserve those personal papers which, in the eyes of the historian, are far more valuable. these attested evidences of his rights were for a while inclosed in an iron chest, kept at his tomb in the monastery of las cuevas, near seville, and they remained down to in the custody of the carthusian friars of that convent. at this date, nuño de portugallo having been declared the heir to the estate and titles of columbus, the papers were transferred to his keeping; and in the end, by legal decision, they passed to that duke of veragua who was the grandfather of the present duke, who in due time inherited these public memorials, and now preserves them in madrid. [sidenote: _codex diplomaticus._] in there were copies made in book form, known as the _codex diplomaticus_, of these and other pertinent documents, raising the number from thirty-six to forty-four. these copies were attested at seville, by order of the admiral, who then aimed to place them so that the record of his deeds and rights should not be lost. two copies seem to have been sent by him through different channels to nicoló oderigo, the genoese ambassador in madrid; and in both of these copies came from a descendant of that ambassador as a gift to the republic of genoa. both of these later disappeared from its archives. a third copy was sent to alonso sanchez de carvajal, the factor of columbus in española, and this copy is not now known. a fourth copy was deposited in the monastery of las cuevas, near seville, to be later sent to father gorricio. it is very likely this last copy which is mentioned by edward everett in a note to his oration at plymouth (boston, , p. ), where, referring to the two copies sent to oderigo as the only ones made by the order of columbus, as then understood, he adds: "whether the two manuscripts thus mentioned be the only ones in existence may admit of doubt. when i was in florence, in , a small folio manuscript was brought to me, written on parchment, apparently two or three centuries old, in binding once very rich, but now worn, containing a series of documents in latin and spanish, with the following title on the first blank page: 'treslado de las bullas del papa alexandro vi., de la concession de las indias y los titulos, privilegios y cedulas reales, que se dieron a christoval colon.' i was led by this title to purchase the book." after referring to the _codice_, then just published, he adds: "i was surprised to find my manuscript, as far as it goes, nearly identical in its contents with that of genoa, supposed to be one of the only two in existence. my manuscript consists of almost eighty closely written folio pages, which coincide precisely with the text of the first thirty-seven documents, contained in two hundred and forty pages of the genoese volume." caleb cushing says of the everett manuscript, which he had examined before he wrote of it in the _north american review_, october, , that, "so far as it goes, it is a much more perfect one than the oderigo manuscript, as several passages which spotorno was unable to decipher in the latter are very plain and legible in the former, which indeed is in most complete preservation." i am sorry to learn from dr. william everett that this manuscript is not at present easily accessible. of the two copies named above as having disappeared from the archives of genoa, harrisse at a late day found one in the archives of the ministry of foreign affairs in paris. it had been taken to paris in , when napoleon i. caused the archives of genoa to be sent to that city, and it was not returned when the chief part of the documents was recovered by genoa in . the other copy was in among the papers of count cambiaso, and was bought by the sardinian government, and given to the city of genoa, where it is now deposited in a marble _custodia_, which, surmounted by a bust of columbus, stands at present in the main hall of the palace of the municipality. this "custodia" is a pillar, in which a door of gilded bronze closes the receptacle that contains the relics, which are themselves inclosed in a bag of spanish leather, richly embossed. a copy of this last document was made and placed in the archives at turin. [sidenote: their publication by spotorno.] these papers, as selected by columbus for preservation, were edited by father spotorno at genoa, in , in a volume called _codice diplomatico colombo-americano_, and published by authority of the state. there was an english edition at london, in ; and a spanish at havana, in . spotorno was reprinted, with additional matter, at genoa, in , as _la tavola di bronzo, il pallio di seta, ed il codice colomboamericano, nuovamente illustrati per cura di giuseppe banchero_. [illustration: the genoa custodia.] [sidenote: letters to the bank of st. george.] this spotorno volume included two additional letters of columbus, not yet mentioned, and addressed, march , , and december , , to oderigo. they were found pasted in the duplicate copy of the papers given to genoa, and are now preserved in a glass case, in the same custodia. a third letter, april , , addressed to the governors of the bank of st. george, was omitted by spotorno; but it is given by harrisse in his _columbus and the bank of saint george_ (new york, ). this last was one of two letters, which columbus sent, as he says, to the bank, but the other has not been found. the history of the one preserved is traced by harrisse in the work last mentioned, and there are lithographic and photographic reproductions of it. harrisse's work just referred to was undertaken to prove the forgery of a manuscript which has within a few years been offered for sale, either as a duplicate of the one at genoa, or as the original. when represented as the original, the one at genoa is pronounced a facsimile of it. harrisse seems to have proved the forgery of the one which is seeking a purchaser. [illustration: columbus's letter, april , , addressed to the bank of st. george in genoa. [reduced in size by photographic process.]] [sidenote: marginalia.] [sidenote: toscanelli's letter.] some manuscript marginalia found in three different books, used by columbus and preserved in the biblioteca colombina at seville, are also remnants of the autographs of columbus. these marginal notes are in copies of Æneas sylvius's _historia rerum ubique gestarum_ (venice, ) of a latin version of marco polo (antwerp, ?), and of pierre d'ailly's _de imagine mundi_ (perhaps ), though there is some suspicion that these last-mentioned notes may be those of bartholomew, and not of christopher, columbus. these books have been particularly described in josé silverio jorrin's _varios autografos ineditos de cristóbal colon_, published at havana in . in may, , josé maria fernandez y velasco, the librarian of the biblioteca colombina, discovered a latin text of the letter of toscanelli, written by columbus in this same copy of Æneas sylvius. he believed it a latin version of a letter originally written in italian; but it was left for harrisse to discover that the latin was the original draft. a facsimile of this script is in harrisse's _fernando colon_ (seville, ), and specimens of the marginalia were first given by harrisse in his _notes on columbus_, whence they are reproduced in part in the _narrative and critical history of america_ (vol. ii.). [sidenote: harrisse's memorial of columbus.] it is understood that, under the auspices of the italian government, harrisse is now engaged in collating the texts and preparing a national memorial issue of the writings of columbus, somewhat in accordance with a proposition which he made to the minister of public instruction at rome in his _le quatrième centenaire de la découverte du nouveau monde_ (genoa, ). [sidenote: columbus's printed works.] there are references to printed works of columbus which i have not seen, as a _declaracion de tabla navigatoria_, annexed to a treatise, _del uso de la carta de navegar_, by dr. grajales: a _tratado de las cinco zonas habitables_, which humboldt found it very difficult to find. [illustration: annotations by columbus on the _imago mundi_. [from harrisse's _notes on columbus_.]] [sidenote: his lost writings.] of the manuscripts of columbus which are lost, there are traces still to be discovered. one letter, which he dated off the canaries, february , , and which must have contained some account of his first voyage, is only known to us from an intimation of marino sanuto that it was included in the _chronica delphinea_. it is probably from an imperfect copy of this last in the library at brescia, that the letter in question was given in the book's third part (a. d. - ), which is now missing. we know also, from a letter still preserved (december , ), that there must be a letter somewhere, if not destroyed, sent by him respecting his fourth voyage, to messer gian luigi fieschi, as is supposed, the same who led the famous conspiracy against the house of doria. other letters, columbus tells us, were sent at times to the signora madonna catalina, who was in some way related to fieschi. in , francesco pesaro, examining the papers of the council of ten, at venice, read there a memoir of columbus, setting forth his maritime project; or at least pesaro was so understood by marin, who gives the story at a later day in the seventh volume of his history of venetian commerce. as harrisse remarks, this paper, if it could be discovered, would prove the most interesting of all columbian documents, since it would probably be found to fall within a period, from to , when we have little or nothing authentic respecting columbus's life. indeed, it might happily elucidate a stage in the development of the admiral's cosmographical views of which we know nothing. we have the letter which columbus addressed to alexander vi., in february, , as preserved in a copy made by his son ferdinand; but no historical student has ever seen the commentary, which he is said to have written after the manner of cæsar, recounting the haps and mishaps of the first voyage, and which he is thought to have sent to the ruling pontiff. this act of duty, if done after his return from his last voyage, must have been made to julius the second, not to alexander. [sidenote: journal of his first voyage.] irving and others seem to have considered that this cæsarian performance was in fact, the well-known journal of the first voyage; but there is a good deal of difficulty in identifying that which we only know in an abridged form, as made by las casas, with the narrative sent or intended to be sent to the pope. ferdinand, or the writer of the _historie_, later to be mentioned, it seems clear, had columbus's journal before him, though he excuses himself from quoting much from it, in order to avoid wearying the reader. the original "journal" seems to have been in still in the possession of luis colon. it had not, accordingly, at that date been put among the treasures of the biblioteca colombina. thus it may have fallen, with luis's other papers, to his nephew and heir, diego colon y pravia, who in entrusted them to luis de cardona. here we lose sight of them. [sidenote: abridged by las casas.] las casas's abridgment in his own handwriting, however, has come down to us, and some entries in it would seem to indicate that las casas abridged a copy, and not the original. it was, up to , in the library of the duke of orsuna, in madrid, and was at that date bought by the spanish government. while it was in the possession of orsuna, it was printed by varnhagen, in his _verdadera guanahani_ ( ). it was clearly used by las casas in his own _historia_, and was also in the hands of ferdinand, when he wrote, or outlined, perhaps, what now passes for the life of his father, and ferdinand's statements can sometimes correct or qualify the text in las casas. there is some reason to suppose that herrera may have used the original. las casas tells us that in some parts, and particularly in describing the landfall and the events immediately succeeding, he did not vary the words of the original. this las casas abridgment was in the archives of the duke del infantado, when navarrete discovered its importance, and edited it as early as , though it was not given to the public till navarrete published his _coleccion_ in . when this journal is read, even as we have it, it is hard to imagine that columbus could have intended so disjointed a performance to be an imitation of the method of cæsar's _commentaries_. the american public was early given an opportunity to judge of this, and of its importance. it was by the instigation of george ticknor that samuel kettell made a translation of the text as given by navarrete, and published it in boston in , as a _personal narrative of the first voyage of columbus to america, from a manuscript recently discovered in spain_. * * * * * [sidenote: descriptions of his first voyage.] we also know that columbus wrote other concise accounts of his discovery. on his return voyage, during a gale, on february , , fearing his ship would founder, he prepared a statement on parchment, which was incased in wax, put in a barrel, and thrown overboard, to take the chance of washing ashore. a similar account, protected in like manner, he placed on his vessel's poop, to be washed off in case of disaster. neither of these came, as far as is known, to the notice of anybody. they very likely simply duplicated the letters which he wrote on the voyage, intended to be dispatched to their destination on reaching port. the dates and places of these letters are not reconcilable with his journal. he was apparently approaching the azores, when, on february , he dated a letter "off the canaries," directed to luis de santangel. so false a record as "the canaries" has never been satisfactorily explained. it may be imagined, perhaps, that the letter had been written when columbus supposed he would make those islands instead of the azores, and that the place of writing was not changed. it is quite enough, however, to rest satisfied with the fact that columbus was always careless, and easily erred in such things, as navarrete has shown. the postscript which is added is dated march , which seems hardly probable, or even possible, so that march has been suggested. he professes to write it on the day of his entering the tagus, and this was march . it is possible that he altered the date when he reached palos, as is major's opinion. columbus calls this a second letter. perhaps a former letter was the one which, as already stated, we have lost in the missing part of the _chronica delphinea_. [sidenote: letter to santangel.] [sidenote: letter to sanchez.] the original of this letter to santangel, the treasurer of aragon, and intended for the eyes of ferdinand and isabella, was in spanish, and is known in what is thought to be a contemporary copy, found by navarrete at simancas; and it is printed by him in his _coleccion_, and is given by kettell in english, to make no other mention of places where it is accessible. harrisse denies that this simancas manuscript represents the original, as navarrete had contended. a letter dated off the island of santa maria, the southernmost of the azores, three days after the letter to santangel, february , essentially the same, and addressed to gabriel sanchez, was found in what seemed to be an early copy, among the papers of the colegio mayor de cuenca. this text was printed by varnhagen at valencia, in , as _primera epistola del almirante don cristóbal colon_, and it is claimed by him that it probably much more nearly represents the original of columbus's own drafting. [sidenote: printed editions.] there was placed in in the biblioteca ambrosiana at milan, from the library of baron pietro custodi, a printed edition of this spanish letter, issued in , perhaps somewhere in spain or portugal, for barcelona and lisbon have been named. harrisse conjectures that sanchez gave his copy to some printer in barcelona. others have contended that it was not printed in spain at all. no other copy of this edition has ever been discovered. it was edited by cesare correnti at milan in , in a volume called _lettere autografe di cristoforo colombo, nuovamente stampate_, and was again issued in facsimile in at milan, under the care of girolamo d'adda, as _lettera in lingua spagnuola diretta da cristoforo colombo a luis de sant-angel_. major and becher, among others, have given versions of it to the english reader, and harrisse gives it side by side with a french version in his _christophe colomb_ (i. ), and with an english one in his _notes on columbus_. this text in spanish print had been thought the only avenue of approach to the actual manuscript draft of columbus, till very recently two other editions, slightly varying, are said to have been discovered, one or both of which are held by some, but on no satisfactory showing, to have preceded in issue, probably by a short interval, the ambrosian copy. one of these newly alleged editions is on four leaves in quarto, and represents the letter as dated on february and march , and its cut of type has been held to be evidence of having been printed at burgos, or possibly at salamanca. that this and the ambrosian letter were printed one from the other, or independently from some unknown anterior edition, has been held to be clear from the fact that they correspond throughout in the division of lines and pages. it is not easily determined which was the earlier of the two, since there are errors in each corrected in the other. this unique four-leaf quarto was a few months since offered for sale in london, by ellis and elvey, who have published ( ) an english translation of it, with annotations by julia e. s. rae. it is now understood to be in the possession of a new york collector. it is but fair to say that suspicions of its genuineness have been entertained; indeed, there can be scarce a doubt that it is a modern fabrication. the other of these newly discovered editions is in folio of two leaves, and was the last discovered, and was very recently held by maisonneuve of paris at , francs, and has since been offered by quaritch in london for £ , . it is said to have been discovered in spain, and to have been printed at barcelona; and this last fact is thought to be apparent from the catalan form of some of the spanish, which has disappeared in the ambrosian text. it also gives the dates february and march . a facsimile edition has been issued under the title _la lettre de christophe colomb, annonçant la découverte du nouveau monde_. caleb cushing, in the _north american review_ in october, , refers to newspaper stories then current of a recent sale of a copy of the spanish text in london, for £ _s._ to the duke of buckingham. it cannot now be traced. [sidenote: catalan text.] harrisse finds in ferdinand's catalogue of the biblioteca colombina what was probably a catalan text of this spanish letter; but it has disappeared from the collection. [sidenote: letter found by bergenroth.] bergenroth found at simancas, some years ago, the text of another letter by columbus, with the identical dates already given, and addressed to a friend; but it conveyed nothing not known in the printed spanish texts. he, however, gave a full abstract of it in the _calendar of state papers relating to england and spain_. [sidenote: columbus gives papers to bernaldez.] columbus is known, after his return from the second voyage, to have been the guest of andrès bernaldez, the cura de los palacios, and he is also known to have placed papers in this friend's hands; and so it has been held probable by muñoz that another spanish text of columbus's first account is embodied in bernaldez's _historia de los reyes católicos_. the manuscript of this work, which gives thirteen chapters to columbus, long remained unprinted in the royal library at madrid, and irving, prescott, and humboldt all used it in that form. it was finally printed at granada in , as edited by miguel lafuente y alcántara, and was reprinted at seville in . harrisse, in his _notes on columbus_, gives an english version of this section on the columbus voyage. [sidenote: varieties of the spanish text.] these, then, are all the varieties of the spanish text of columbus's first announcement of his discovery which are at present known. when the ambrosian text was thought to be the only printed form of it, varnhagen, in his _carta de cristóbal colon enviada de lisboa á barcelona en marzo de _ (vienna, ; and paris, ), collated the different texts to try to reconstruct a possible original text, as columbus wrote it. in the opinion of major no one of these texts can be considered an accurate transcript of the original. [sidenote: origin of the latin text.] there is a difference of opinion among these critics as to the origin of the latin text which scholars generally cite as this first letter of columbus. major thinks this latin text was not taken from the spanish, though similar to it; while varnhagen thinks that the particular spanish text found in the colegio mayor de cuenca was the original of the latin version. [sidenote: transient fame of the discovery.] there is nothing more striking in the history of the years immediately following the discovery of america than the transient character of the fame which columbus acquired by it. it was another and later generation that fixed his name in the world's regard. [sidenote: english mentions of it.] harrisse points out how some of the standard chroniclers of the world's history, like ferrebouc, regnault, galliot du pré, and fabian, failed during the early half of the sixteenth century to make any note of the acts of columbus; and he could find no earlier mention among the german chroniclers than that of heinrich steinhowel, some time after . there was even great reticence among the chroniclers of the low countries; and in england we need to look into the dispatches sent thence by the spanish ambassadors to find the merest mention of columbus so early as . perhaps the reference to him made eleven years later ( ), in an english version of brandt's _shyppe of fools_, and another still ten years later in a little native comedy called _the new interlude_, may have been not wholly unintelligible. it was not till about that, so far as england is concerned, columbus really became a historical character, in edward hall's _chronicle_. speaking of the fewness of the autographs of columbus which are preserved, harrisse adds: "the fact is that columbus was very far from being in his lifetime the important personage he now is; and his writings, which then commanded neither respect nor attention, were probably thrown into the waste-basket as soon as received." [sidenote: editions of the latin text.] nevertheless, substantial proof seems to exist in the several editions of the latin version of this first letter, which were issued in the months immediately following the return of columbus from his first voyage, as well as in the popular versification of its text by dati in two editions, both in october, , besides another at florence in , to show that for a brief interval, at least, the news was more or less engrossing to the public mind in certain confined areas of europe. before the discovery of the printed editions of the spanish text, there existed an impression that either the interest in spain was less than in italy, or some effort was made by the spanish government to prevent a wide dissemination of the details of the news. the two genoese ambassadors who left barcelona some time after the return of columbus, perhaps in august, , may possibly have taken to italy with them some spanish edition of the letter. the news, however, had in some form reached rome in season to be the subject of a papal bull on may d. we know that aliander or leander de cosco, who made the latin version, very likely from the sanchez copy, finished it probably at barcelona, on the th of april, not on the th as is sometimes said. cosco sent it at once to rome to be printed, and his manuscript possibly conveyed the first tidings, to italy,--such is harrisse's theory,--where it reached first the hands of the bishop of monte peloso, who added to it a latin epigram. it was he who is supposed to have committed it to the printer in rome, and in that city, during the rest of , four editions at least of cosco's latin appeared. two of these editions are supposed to be printed by plannck, a famous roman printer; one is known to have come from the press of franck silber. all but one were little quartos, of the familiar old style, of three or four black-letter leaves; while the exception was a small octavo with woodcuts. it is harrisse's opinion that this pictorial edition was really printed at basle. in paris, during the same time or shortly after, there were three editions of a similar appearance, all from one press. the latest of all, brought to light but recently, seems to have been printed by a distinguished flemish printer, thierry martens, probably at antwerp. it is not improbable that other editions printed in all these or other cities may yet be found. it is noteworthy that nothing was issued in germany, as far as we know, before a german version of the letter appeared at strassburg in . [illustration: first page, columbus's first letter, latin edition, . [from the barlow copy, now in the boston public library.]] the text in all these latin editions is intended to be the same. but a very few copies of any edition, and only a single copy of two or three of them, are known. the lenox, the carter-brown, and the ives libraries in this country are the chief ones possessing any of them, and the collections of the late henry c. murphy and samuel l. m. barlow also possessed a copy or two, the edition owned by barlow passing in february, , to the boston public library. this scarcity and the rivalry of collectors would probably, in case any one of them should be brought upon the market, raise the price to fifteen hundred dollars or more. the student is not so restricted as this might imply, for in several cases there have been modern facsimiles and reprints, and there is an early reprint by veradus, annexed to his poem ( ) on the capture of granada. the text usually quoted by the older writers, however, is that embodied in the _bellum christianorum principum_ of robertus monarchus (basle, ). [sidenote: order of publication.] in these original small quartos and octavos, there is just enough uncertainty and obscurity as to dates and printers, to lure bibliographers and critics of typography into research and controversy; and hardly any two of them agree in assigning the same order of publication to these several issues. the present writer has in the second volume of the _narrative and critical history of america_ grouped the varied views, so far as they had in been made known. the bibliography to which harrisse refers as being at the end of his work on columbus was crowded out of its place and has not appeared; but he enters into a long examination of the question of priority in the second chapter of his last volume. the earliest english translation of this latin text appeared in the _edinburgh review_ in , and other issues have been variously made since that date. * * * * * [sidenote: additional sources respecting the first voyage.] we get some details of this first voyage in oviedo, which we do not find in the journal, and vicente yañez pinzon and hernan perez matheos, who were companions of columbus, are said to be the source of this additional matter. the testimony in the lawsuit of , particularly that of garcia hernandez, who was in the "pinta," and of a sailor named francisco garcia vallejo, adds other details. [sidenote: second voyage.] there is no existing account by columbus himself of his experiences during his second voyage, and of that cruise along the cuban coast in which he supposed himself to have come in sight of the golden chersonesus. the _historie_ tells us that during this cruise he kept a journal, _libro del segundo viage_, till he was prostrated by sickness, and this itinerary is cited both in the _historie_ and by las casas. we also get at second-hand from columbus, what was derived from him in conversation after his return to spain, in the account of these explorations which bernaldez has embodied in his _reyes católicos_. irving says that he found these descriptions of bernaldez by far the most useful of the sources for this period, as giving him the details for a picturesque narrative. on disembarking at cadiz in june, , columbus sent to his sovereigns two dispatches, neither of which is now known. [sidenote: columbus's letters.] it was in the collection of the duke of veragua that navarrete discovered fifteen autograph letters of columbus, four of them addressed to his friend, the father gaspar gorricio, and the rest to his son diego. navarrete speaks of them when found as in a very deplorable and in parts almost unreadable condition, and severely taxing, for deciphering them, the practiced skill of tomas gonzalez, which had been acquired in the care which he had bestowed on the archives of simancas. it is known that two letters addressed to gorricio in , and four in , beside a single letter addressed in the last year to diego colon, which were in the iron chest at las cuevas, are not now in the archives of the duke of veragua; and it is further known that during the great lawsuit of columbus's heirs, cristoval de cardona tampered with that chest, and was brought to account for the act in . whatever he removed may possibly some day be found, as harrisse thinks, among the notarial records of valencia. [sidenote: third voyage.] two letters of columbus respecting his third voyage are only known in early copies; one in las casas's hand belonged to the duke of orsuna, and the other addressed to the nurse of prince juan is in the custodia collection at genoa. both are printed by navarrete. [sidenote: fourth voyage.] columbus, in a letter dated december , , mentions a relation of his fourth voyage with a supplement, which he had sent from seville to oderigo; but it is not known. we are without trace also of other letters, which he wrote at dominica and at other points during this voyage. we do know, however, a letter addressed by columbus to ferdinand and isabella, giving some account of his voyage to july , . the lost spanish original is represented in an early copy, which is printed by navarrete. though no contemporary spanish edition is known, an italian version was issued at venice in , as _copia de la lettera per colombo mandata_. this was reprinted with comments by morelli, at bassano, in , and the title which this librarian gave it of _lettera rarissima_ has clung to it, in most of the citations which refer to it. peter martyr, writing in january, , mentions just having received a letter from columbus, but it is not known to exist. [sidenote: las casas uses columbus's papers.] las casas is said to have once possessed a treatise by columbus on the information obtained from portuguese and spanish pilots, concerning western lands; and he also refers to _libros de memorias del almirante_. he is also known by his own statements to have had numerous autograph letters of columbus. what has become of them is not known. if they were left in the monastery of san gregorio at valladolid, where las casas used them, they have disappeared with papers of the convent, since they were not among the archives of the suppressed convents, as harrisse tells us, which were entrusted in to the academy of history at madrid. [sidenote: work on the arctic pole.] in his letter to doña juana, columbus says that he has deposited a work in the convent de la mejorada, in which he has predicted the discovery of the arctic pole. it has not been found. [sidenote: missing letters.] harrisse also tells us of the unsuccessful search which he has made for an alleged letter of columbus, said in gunther and schultz's handbook of autographs (leipzig, ) to have been bought in england by the duke of buckingham; and it was learned from tross, the paris bookseller, that about some autograph letters of columbus, seen by him, were sent to england for sale. [sidenote: columbus's maps.] after his return from his first voyage, columbus prepared a map and an accompanying table of longitudes and latitudes for the new discoveries. they are known to have been the subject of correspondence between him and the queen. there are various other references to maps which columbus had constructed, to embody his views or show his discoveries. not one, certainly to be attributed to him, is known, though ojeda, niño, and others are recorded as having used, in their explorations, maps made by columbus. peter martyr's language does not indicate that columbus ever completed any chart, though he had, with the help of his brother bartholomew, begun one. the map in the ptolemy of is said by santarem to have been drawn by columbus, or to have been based on his memoranda, but the explanation on the map seems rather to imply that information derived from an admiral in the service of portugal was used in correcting it, and since harrisse has brought to light what is usually called the cantino map, there is strong ground for supposing that the two had one prototype. * * * * * [sidenote: italian notarial records.] let us pass from records by columbus to those about him. we owe to an ancient custom of italy that so much has been preserved, to throw in the aggregate no small amount of light on the domestic life of the family in which columbus was the oldest born. during the fourteen years in which his father lived at savona, every little business act and legal transaction was attested before notaries, whose records have been preserved filed in _filzas_ in the archives of the town. these _filzas_ were simply a file of documents tied together by a string passed through each, and a _filza_ generally embraced a year's accumulation. the photographic facsimile which harrisse gives in his _columbus and the bank of saint george_, of the letter of columbus preserved by the bank, shows how the sheet was folded once lengthwise, and then the hole was made midway in each fold. we learn in this way that, as early as and later, columbus stood security for his father. we find him in the witness of another's will. as under the justinian procedure the notary's declaration sufficed, such documents in italy are not rendered additionally interesting by the autograph of the witness, as they would be in england. this notarial resource is no new discovery. as early as , thirteen documents drawn from similar depositaries were printed at genoa, in some annotations by giulio salinerio upon cornelius tacitus. other similar papers were discovered by the archivists of savona, gian tommaso and giambattista belloro, in (reprinted, ) and respectively, and proving the general correctness of the earlier accounts of columbus's younger days given in gallo, senarega, and giustiniani. it is to be regretted that the original entries of some of these notarial acts are not now to be found, but patient search may yet discover them, and even do something more to elucidate the life of the columbus family in savona. [sidenote: savona.] there has been brought into prominence and published lately a memoir of the illustrious natives of savona, written by a lawyer, giovanni vincenzo verzellino, who died in that town in . this document was printed at savona in , under the editorial care of andrea astengo; but harrisse has given greater currency to its elucidations for our purpose in his _christophe colomb et savone_ (genoa, ). [sidenote: genoa notarial records.] harrisse is not unwisely confident that the nineteen documents--if no more have been added--throwing light on minor points of the obscure parts of the life of columbus and his kindred, which during recent years have been discovered in the notarial files of genoa by the marquis marcello staglieno, may be only the precursors of others yet to be unearthed, and that the pages of the _giornale ligustico_ may continue to record such discoveries as it has in the past. [sidenote: records of the bank of st. george.] the records of the bank of saint george in genoa have yielded something, but not much. in the state archives of genoa, preserved since in the palazzetto, we might hope to find some report of the great discovery, of which the genoese ambassadors, francesco marchesio and gian antonio grimaldi, were informed, just as they were taking leave of ferdinand and isabella for returning to italy; but nothing of that kind has yet been brought to light there; nor was it ever there, unless the account which senarega gives in the narrative printed in muratori was borrowed thence. we may hope, but probably in vain, to have these public archives determine if columbus really offered to serve his native country in a voyage of discovery. the inquirer is more fortunate if he explores what there is left of the archives of the old abbey of st. stephen, which, since the suppression of the convents in , have been a part of the public papers, for he can find in them some help in solving some pertinent questions. [sidenote: vatican archives.] [sidenote: hidden manuscripts.] [sidenote: letters about columbus.] harrisse tells us in that he had been waiting two years for permission to search the archives of the vatican. what may yet be revealed in that repository, the world waits anxiously to learn. it may be that some one shall yet discover there the communication in which ferdinand and isabella announced to the pope the consummation of the hopes of columbus. it may be that the diplomatic correspondence covering the claims of spain by virtue of the discovery of columbus, and leading to the bull of demarcation of may, , may yet be found, accompanied by maps, of the highest interest in interpreting the relations of the new geography. there is no assurance that the end of manuscript disclosures has yet come. some new bit of documentary proof has been found at times in places quite unexpected. the number of italian observers in those days of maritime excitement living in the seaports and trading places of spain and portugal, kept their home friends alert in expectation by reason of such appetizing news. such are the letters sent to italy by hanibal januarius, and by luca, the florentine engineer, concerning the first voyage. there are similar transient summaries of the second voyage. some have been found in the papers of macchiavelli, and others had been arranged by zorzi for a new edition of his documentary collection. these have all been recovered of recent years, and harrisse himself, gargiolli, guerrini, and others, have been instrumental in their publication. * * * * * [sidenote: spanish archives.] [sidenote: simancas and seville.] [sidenote: simancas.] it was thirty-seven years after the death of columbus before, under an order of charles the fifth, february , , the archives of spain were placed in some sort of order and security at simancas. the great masses of papers filed by the crown secretaries and the councils of the indies and of seville, were gradually gathered there, but not until many had been lost. others apparently disappeared at a later day, for we are now aware that many to which herrera refers cannot be found. new efforts to secure the preservation and systematize the accumulation of manuscripts were made by order of philip the second in , but it would seem without all the success that might have been desired. towards the end of the last century, it was the wish of charles the third that all the public papers relating to the new world should be selected from simancas and all other places of deposit and carried to seville. the act was accomplished in , when they were placed in a new building which had been provided for them. thus it is that to-day the student of columbus must rather search seville than simancas for new documents, though a few papers of some interest in connection with the contests of his heirs with the crown of castile may still exist at simancas. thirty years ago, if not now, as bergenroth tells us, there was little comfort for the student of history in working at simancas. the papers are preserved in an old castle, formerly belonging to the admirals of castile, which had been confiscated and devoted to the uses of such a repository. the one large room which was assigned for the accommodation of readers had a northern aspect, and as no fires were allowed, the note-taker found not infrequently in winter the ink partially congealed in his pen. there was no imaginable warmth even in the landscape as seen from the windows, since, amid a treeless waste, the whistle of cold blasts in winter and a blinding african heat in summer characterize the climate of this part of old castile. of the early career of columbus, it is very certain that something may be gained at simancas, for when bergenroth, sent by the english government, made search there to illustrate the relations of spain with england, and published his results, with the assistance of gayangos, in - , as a _calendar of letters, despatches, and state papers relating to negotiations between england and spain_, one of the earliest entries of his first printed volume, under , was a complaint of ferdinand and isabella against a columbus--some have supposed it our christopher--for his participancy in the piratical service of the french. [illustration: archivo de simancas. [from parcerisa and quadrado's _españa_.]] [sidenote: seville.] harrisse complains that we have as yet but scant knowledge of what the archives of the indies at seville may contain, but they probably throw light rather upon the successors of columbus than upon the career of the admiral himself. [sidenote: seville notarial records.] the notarial archives of seville are of recent construction, the gathering of scattered material having been first ordered so late as . the partial examination which has since been made of them has revealed some slight evidences of the life of some of columbus's kindred, and it is quite possible some future inquirer will be rewarded for his diligent search among them. it is also not unlikely that something of interest may be brought to light respecting the descendants of columbus who have lived in seville, like the counts of gelves; but little can be expected regarding the life of the admiral himself. [sidenote: santa maria de las cuevas.] the personal fame of columbus is much more intimately connected with the monastery of santa maria de las cuevas. here his remains were transported in ; and at a later time, his brother and son, each diego by name, were laid beside him, as was his grandson luis. here in an iron chest the family muniments and jewels were kept, as has been said. it is affirmed that all the documents which might have grown out of these transactions of duty and precaution, and which might incidentally have yielded some biographical information, are nowhere to be found in the records of the monastery. a century ago or so, when muñoz was working in these records, there seems to have been enough to repay his exertions, as we know by his citations made between and . * * * * * [sidenote: portuguese archives. torre do tombo.] the national archives of the torre do tombo, at lisbon, begun so far back as , are well known to have been explored by santarem, then their keeper, primarily for traces of the career of vespucius; but so intelligent an antiquary could not have forgotten, as a secondary aim, the acts of columbus. the search yielded him, however, nothing in this last direction; nor was varnhagen more fortunate. harrisse had hopes to discover there the correspondence of columbus with john the second, in ; but the search was futile in this respect, though it yielded not a little respecting the perestrello family, out of which columbus took his wife, the mother of the heir of his titles. there is even hope that the notarial acts of lisbon might serve a similar purpose to those which have been so fruitful in genoa and savona. there are documents of great interest which may be yet obscurely hidden away, somewhere in portugal, like the letter from the mouth of the tagus, which columbus on his return in march, , addressed to the portuguese king, and the diplomatic correspondence of john the second and ferdinand of aragon, which the project of a second voyage occasioned, as well as the preliminaries of the treaty of tordesillas. [sidenote: santo domingo archives.] [sidenote: lawsuit papers.] there may be yet some hope from the archives of santo domingo itself, and from those of its cathedral, to trace in some of their lines the descendants of the admiral through his son diego. the mishaps of nature and war have, however, much impaired the records. of columbus himself there is scarce a chance to learn anything here. the papers of the famous lawsuit of diego colon with the crown seem to have escaped the attention of all the historians before the time of muñoz and navarrete. the direct line of male descendants of the admiral ended in , when his great-grandson, diego colon y pravia, died on the th january, a childless man. then began another contest for the heritage and titles, and it lasted for thirty years, till in the council of the indies judged the rights to descend by a turn back to diego's aunt isabel, and thence to her grandson, nuño de portugallo, count of gelves. the excluded heirs, represented by the children of a sister of diego, francisca, who had married diego ortegon, were naturally not content; and out of the contest which followed we get a large mass of printed statements and counter statements, which used with caution, offer a study perhaps of some of the transmitted traits of columbus. harrisse names and describes nineteen of these documentary memorials, the last of which bears date in . the most important of them all, however, is one printed at madrid in , known as _memorial del pleyto_, in which we find the descent of the true and spurious lines, and learn something too much of the scandalous life of luis, the grandson of the admiral, to say nothing of the illegitimate taints of various other branches. harrisse finds assistance in working out some of the lines of the admiral's descendants, in antonio caetano de sousa's _historia genealogica da casa real portugueza_ (lisbon, - , in vols.). [sidenote: the muñoz collection.] the most important collection of documents gathered by individual efforts in spain, to illustrate the early history of the new world, was that made by juan bautista muñoz, in pursuance of royal orders issued to him in and , to examine all spanish archives, for the purpose of collecting material for a comprehensive history of the indies. muñoz has given in the introduction of his history a clear statement of the condition of the different depositories of archives in spain, as he found them towards the end of the last century, when a royal order opened them all to his search. a first volume of muñoz's elaborate and judicious work was issued in , and muñoz died in , without venturing on a second volume to carry the story beyond , where he had left it. he was attacked for his views, and there was more or less of a pamphlet war over the book before death took him from the strife; but he left a fragment of the second volume in manuscript, and of this there is a copy in the lenox library in new york. another copy was sold in the brinley sale. the muñoz collection of copies came in part, at least, at some time after the collector's death into the hands of antonio de uguina, who placed them at the disposal of irving; and ternaux seems also to have used them. they were finally deposited by the spanish government in the academy of history at madrid. here alfred demersey saw them in - , and described them in the _bulletin_ of the french geographical society in june, , and it is on this description as well as on one in fuster's _biblioteca valenciana_, that harrisse depends, not having himself examined the documents. [sidenote: the navarrete collection.] martin fernandez de navarrete was guided in his career as a collector of documents, when charles the fourth made an order, october , , that there should be such a work begun to constitute the nucleus of a library and museum. the troublous times which succeeded interrupted the work, and it was not till that navarrete brought out the first volume of his _coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde_ _fines del siglo xv._, a publication which a fifth volume completed in , when he was over seventy years of age. any life of columbus written from documentary sources must reflect much light from this collection of navarrete, of which the first two volumes are entirely given to the career of the admiral, and indeed bear the distinctive title of _relaciones, cartas y otros documentos_, relating to him. [sidenote: the researches of navarrete.] navarrete was engaged thirty years on his work in the archives of spain, and was aided part of the time by muñoz the historian, and by gonzales the keeper of the archives at simancas. his researches extended to all the public repositories, and to such private ones as could be thought to illustrate the period of discovery. navarrete has told the story of his searches in the various archives of spain, in the introduction to his _coleccion_, and how it was while searching for the evidences of the alleged voyage of maldonado on the pacific coast of north america, in , that he stumbled upon las casas's copies of the relations of columbus, for his first and third voyages, then hid away in the archives of the duc del infantado; and he was happy to have first brought them to the attention of muñoz. there are some advantages for the student in the use of the french edition of navarrete's _relations des quatre voyages entrepris par colomb_, since the version was revised by navarrete himself, and it is elucidated, not so much as one would wish, with notes by rémusat, balbi, cuvier, jomard, letronne, st. martin, walckenaer, and others. it was published at paris in three volumes in . the work contains navarrete's accounts of spanish pre-columbian voyages, of the later literature on columbus, and of the voyages of discovery made by other efforts of the spaniards, beside the documentary material respecting columbus and his voyages, the result of his continued labors. caleb cushing, in his _reminiscences of spain_ in , while commending the general purposes of navarrete, complains of his attempts to divert the indignation of posterity from the selfish conduct of ferdinand, and to vindicate him from the charge of injustice towards columbus. this plea does not find to-day the same sympathy in students that it did sixty years ago. [sidenote: madrid academy of history.] father antonio de aspa of the monastery of the mejorada, formed a collection of documents relating to the discovery of the new world, and it was in this collection, now preserved in the academy of history at madrid, that navarrete discovered that curious narration of the second voyage of columbus by dr. chanca, which had been sent to the chapter of the cathedral, and which navarrete included in his collection. it is thought that bernaldez had used this chanca narrative in his _reyes católicos_. [sidenote: _coleccion de documentos ineditos._] navarrete's name is also connected, as one of its editors, with the extensive _coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de españa_, the publication of which was begun in madrid in , two years before navarrete's death. this collection yields something in elucidation of the story to be here told; but not much, except that in it, at a late day, the _historia_ of las casas was first printed. in , there was still another series begun at madrid, _coleccion de documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las posesiones españolas en américa y oceania_, under the editing of joaquin pacheco and francisco de cárdenas, who have not always satisfied students by the way in which they have done their work. beyond the papers which navarrete had earlier given, and which are here reprinted, there is not much in this collection to repay the student of columbus, except some long accounts of the repartimiento in española. [sidenote: cartas de indias.] the latest documentary contribution is the large folio, with an appendix of facsimile writings of columbus, vespucius, and others, published at madrid in , by the government, and called _cartas de indias_, in which it has been hinted some use has been made of the matter accumulated by navarrete for additional volumes of his _coleccion_. [illustration: part of a page in the giustiniani psalter, showing the beginning of the earliest printed life of columbus. [from the copy in harvard college library.]] chapter ii. biographers and portraitists. [sidenote: contemporary notices.] [sidenote: giustiniani.] we may most readily divide by the nationalities of the writers our enumeration of those who have used the material which has been considered in the previous chapter. we begin, naturally, with the italians, the countrymen of columbus. we may look first to three genoese, and it has been shown that while they used documents apparently now lost, they took nothing from them which we cannot get from other sources; and they all borrowed from common originals, or from each other. two of these writers are antonio gallo, the official chronicler of the genoese republic, on the first and second voyages of columbus, and so presumably writing before the third was made, and bartholomew senarega on the affairs of genoa, both of which recitals were published by muratori, in his great italian collection. the third is giustiniani, the bishop of nebbio, who, publishing in , at genoa, a polyglot psalter, added, as one of his elucidations of the nineteenth psalm, on the plea that columbus had often boasted he was chosen to fulfill its prophecy, a brief life of columbus, in which the story of the humble origin of the navigator has in the past been supposed to have first been told. the other accounts, it now appears, had given that condition an equal prominence. giustiniani was but a child when columbus left genoa, and could not have known him; and taking, very likely, much from hearsay, he might have made some errors, which were repeated or only partly corrected in his annals of genoa, published in , the year following his own death. it is not found, however, that the sketch is in any essential particular far from correct, and it has been confirmed by recent investigations. the english of it is given in harrisse's _notes on columbus_ (pp. - ). the statements of the psalter respecting columbus were reckoned with other things so false that the senate of genoa prohibited its perusal and allowed no one to possess it,--at least so it is claimed in the _historie_ of ; but no one has ever found such a decree, nor is it mentioned by any who would have been likely to revert to it, had it ever existed. [sidenote: bergomas.] the account in the _collectanea_ of battista fulgoso (sometimes written fregoso), printed at milan in , is of scarcely any original value, though of interest as the work of another genoese. allegetto degli allegetti, whose _ephemerides_ is also published in muratori, deserves scarcely more credit, though he seems to have got his information from the letters of italian merchants living in spain, who communicated current news to their home correspondents. bergomas, who had published a chronicle as early as , made additions to his work from time to time, and in an edition printed at venice, in , he paraphrased columbus's own account of his first voyage, which was reprinted in the subsequent edition of . in this latter year maffei de volterra published a commentary at rome, of much the same importance. such was the filtering process by which italy, through her own writers, acquired contemporary knowledge of her adventurous son. the method was scarcely improved in the condensation of jovius ( ), or in the traveler's tales of benzoni ( ). [sidenote: casoni, .] [sidenote: bossi.] harrisse affirms that it is not till we come down to the annals of genoa, published by filippo casoni, in , that we get any new material in an italian writer, and on a few points this last writer has adduced documentary evidence, not earlier made known. it is only when we pass into the present century that we find any of the countrymen of columbus undertaking in a sustained way to tell the whole story of columbus's life. léon had noted that at some time in spain, without giving place and date, columbus had printed a little tract, _declaration de tabla navigatoria_; but no one before luigi bossi had undertaken to investigate the writings of columbus. he is precursor of all the modern biographers of columbus, and his book was published at milan, in . he claimed in his appendix to have added rare and unpublished documents, but harrisse points out how they had all been printed earlier. bossi expresses opinions respecting the spanish nation that are by no means acceptable to that people, and navarrete not infrequently takes the italian writer to task for this as for his many errors of statement, and for the confidence which he places even in the pictorial designs of de bry as historical records. there is nothing more striking in the history of american discovery than the fact that the italian people furnished to spain columbus, to england cabot, and to france verrazano; and that the three leading powers of europe, following as maritime explorers in the lead of portugal, who could not dispense with vespucius, another italian, pushed their rights through men whom they had borrowed from the central region of the mediterranean, while italy in its own name never possessed a rood of american soil. the adopted country of each of these italians gave more or less of its own impress to its foster child. no one of these men was so impressible as columbus, and no country so much as spain was likely at this time to exercise an influence on the character of an alien. humboldt has remarked that columbus got his theological fervor in andalusia and granada, and we can scarcely imagine columbus in the garb of a franciscan walking the streets of free and commercial genoa as he did those of seville, when he returned from his second voyage. the latest of the considerable popular italian lives of columbus is g. b. lemoyne's _colombo e la scoperta dell' america_, issued at turin, in . * * * * * [sidenote: portuguese writers.] we may pass now to the historians of that country to which columbus betook himself on leaving italy; but about all to be found at first hand is in the chronicle of joão ii. of portugal, as prepared by ruy de pina, the archivist of the torre do tombo. at the time of the voyage of columbus ruy was over fifty, while garcia de resende was a young man then living at the portuguese court, who in his _choronica_, published in , did little more than borrow from his elder, ruy; and resende in turn furnished to joão de barros the staple of the latter's narrative in his _decada da asia_, printed at lisbon, in . * * * * * [sidenote: spanish writers.] [sidenote: peter martyr.] we find more of value when we summon the spanish writers. although peter martyr d'anghiera was an italian, muñoz reckons him a spaniard, since he was naturalized in spain. he was a man of thirty years, when, coming from rome, he settled in spain, a few years before columbus attracted much notice. martyr had been borne thither on a reputation of his own, which had commended his busy young nature to the attention of the spanish court. he took orders and entered upon a prosperous career, proceeding by steps, which successively made him the chaplain of queen isabella, a prior of the cathedral of granada, and ultimately the official chronicler of the indies. very soon after his arrival in spain, he had disclosed a quick eye for the changeful life about him, and he began in the writing of those letters which, to the number of over eight hundred, exist to attest his active interest in the events of his day. these events he continued to observe till . we have no more vivid source of the contemporary history, particularly as it concerned the maritime enterprise of the peninsular peoples. he wrote fluently, and, as he tells us, sometimes while waiting for dinner, and necessarily with haste. he jotted down first and unconfirmed reports, and let them stand. he got news by hearsay, and confounded events. he had candor and sincerity enough, however, not to prize his own works above their true value. he knew columbus, and, his letters readily reflect what interest there was in the exploits of columbus, immediately on his return from his first voyage; but the earlier preparations of the navigator for that voyage, with the problematical characteristics of the undertaking, do not seem to have made any impression upon peter martyr, and it is not till may of , when the discovery had been made, and later in september, that he chronicles the divulged existence of the newly discovered islands. the three letters in which this wonderful intelligence was first communicated are printed by harrisse in english, in his _notes on columbus_. las casas tells us how peter martyr got his accounts of the first discoveries directly from the lips of columbus himself and from those who accompanied him; but he does not fail to tell us also of the dangers of too implicitly trusting to all that peter says. from may , , to june , , in twelve separate letters, we read what this observer has to say of the great navigator who had suddenly and temporarily stepped into the glare of notice. these and other letters of peter martyr have not escaped some serious criticism. there are contradictions and anachronisms in them that have forcibly helped ranke, hallam, gerigk, and others to count the text which we have as more or less changed from what must have been the text, if honestly written by martyr. they have imagined that some editor, willful or careless, has thrown this luckless accompaniment upon them. the letters, however, claimed the confidence of prescott, and have, as regards the parts touching the new discoveries, seldom failed to impress with their importance those who have used them. it is the opinion of the last examiner of them, j. h. mariéjol, in his _peter martyr d'anghera_ (paris, ), that to read them attentively is the best refutation of the skeptics. martyr ceased to refer to the affairs of the new world after , and those of his earlier letters which illustrate the early voyage have appeared in a french version, made by gaffarel and louvot (paris, ). the representations of columbus easily convinced martyr that there opened a subject worthy of his pen, and he set about composing a special treatise on the discoveries in the new world, and, under the title of _de orbe novo_, it occupied his attention from october, , to the day of his death. for the earlier years he had, if we may believe him, not a little help from columbus himself; and it would seem from his one hundred and thirty-five epistles that he was not altogether prepared to go with columbus, in accounting the new islands as lying off the coast of asia. he is particularly valuable to us in treating of columbus's conflicts with the natives of española, and las casas found him as helpful as we do. these _decades_, as the treatise is usually called, formed enlarged bulletins, which, in several copies, were transmitted by him to some of his noble friends in italy, to keep them conversant with the passing events. [sidenote: trivigiano.] a certain angelo trivigiano, into whose hands a copy of some of the early sections fell, translated them into easy, not to say vulgar, italian, and sent them to venice, in four different copies, a few months after they were written; and in this way the first seven books of the first decade fell into the hands of a venetian printer, who, in april, , brought out a little book of sixteen leaves in the dialect of that region, known in bibliography as the _libretto de tutta la navigation de re de spagna de le isole et terreni novamente trovati_. this publication is known to us in a single copy lacking a title, in the biblioteca marciana. here we have the first account of the new discoveries, written upon report, and supplementing the narrative of columbus himself. we also find in this little narrative some personal details about columbus, not contained in the same portions when embodied in the larger _de orbe novo_ of martyr, and it may be a question if somebody who acted as editor to the venetian version may not have added them to the translation. the story of the new discoveries attracted enough notice to make zorzi or montalboddo--if one or the other were its editor--include this venetian version of martyr bodily in the collection of voyages which, as _paesi novamente retrovati_, was published at vicentia somewhere about november, . it is, perhaps, a measure of the interest felt in the undertakings of columbus, not easily understood at this day, that it took fourteen years for a scant recital of such events to work themselves into the context of so composite a record of discovery as the _paesi_ proved to be; and still more remarkable it may be accounted that the story could be told with but few actual references to the hero of the transactions, "columbus, the genoese." it is not only the compiler who is so reticent, but it is the author whence he borrowed what he had to say, martyr himself, the observer and acquaintance of columbus, who buries the discoverer under the event. with such an augury, it is not so strange that at about the same time in the little town of st. dié, in the vosges, a sequestered teacher could suggest a name derived from that of a follower of columbus, americus vespucius, for that part of the new lands then brought into prominence. if the documentary proofs of columbus's priority had given to the admiral's name the same prominence which the event received, the result might not, in the end, have been so discouraging to justice. martyr, unfortunately, with all his advantages, and with his access to the archives of the indies, did not burden his recital with documents. he was even less observant of the lighter traits that interest those eager for news than might have been expected, for the busy chaplain was a gossip by nature: he liked to retail hearsays and rumors; he enlivened his letters with personal characteristics; but in speaking of columbus he is singularly reticent upon all that might picture the man to us as he lived. [sidenote: oviedo.] [sidenote: ramusio.] when, in , these portions of martyr's _decades_ were combined with a summary of oviedo, in a fresh publication, there were some curious personal details added to martyr's narrative; but as ramusio is supposed to have edited the compilation, these particulars are usually accredited to that author. it is not known whence this italian compiler could have got them, and there is no confirmation of them elsewhere to be found. if these additions, as is supposed, were a foreign graft upon martyr's recitals, the staple of his narrative still remains not altogether free from some suspicions that, as a writer himself, he was not wholly frank and trustworthy. at least a certain confusion in his method leads some of the critics to discover something like imposture in what they charge as a habit of antedating a letter so as to appear prophetic; while his defenders find in these same evidences of incongruity a sign of spontaneity that argues freshness and sincerity. * * * * * [sidenote: bernaldez.] the confidence which we may readily place in what is said of columbus in the chronicle of ferdinand and isabella, written by andrès bernaldez, is prompted by his acquaintance with columbus, and by his being the recipient of some of the navigator's own writings from his own hands. he is also known to have had access to what chanca and other companions of columbus had written. this country curate, who lived in the neighborhood of seville, was also the chaplain of the archbishop of seville, a personal friend of the admiral, and from him bernaldez received some help. he does not add much, however, to what is given us by peter martyr, though in respect to the second voyage and to a few personal details bernaldez is of some confirmatory value. the manuscript of his narrative remained unprinted in the royal library at madrid till about thirty-five years ago; but nearly all the leading writers have made use of it in copies which have been furnished. * * * * * [sidenote: oviedo.] in coming to oviedo, we encounter a chronicler who, as a writer, possesses an art far from skillful. muñoz laments that his learning was not equal to his diligence. he finds him of little service for the times of columbus, and largely because he was neglectful of documents and pursued uncritical combinations of tales and truths. with all his vagaries he is a helpful guide. "it is not," says harrisse, "that oviedo shows so much critical sagacity, as it is that he collates all the sources available to him, and gives the reader the clues to a final judgment." he is generally deemed honest, though las casas thought him otherwise. the author of the _historie_ looks upon him as an enemy of columbus, and would make it appear that he listened to the tales of the pinzons, who were enemies of the admiral. his administrative services in the indies show that he could be faithful to a trust, even at the risk of popularity. this gives a presumption in favor of his historic fairness. he was intelligent if not learned, and a power of happy judgments served him in good stead, even with a somewhat loose method of taking things as he heard them. he further inspires us with a certain amount of confidence, because he is not always a hero-worshiper, and he does not hesitate to tell a story, which seems to have been in circulation, to the effect that columbus got his geographical ideas from an old pilot. oviedo, however, refrains from setting the tale down as a fact, as some of the later writers, using little of oviedo's caution, and borrowing from him, did. his opportunities of knowing the truth were certainly exceptional, though it does not appear that he ever had direct communication with the admiral himself. he was but a lad of fifteen when we find him jotting down notes of what he saw and heard, as a page in attendance upon don juan, the son of the spanish sovereigns, when, at barcelona, he saw them receive columbus after his first voyage. during five years, between and , he was in italy. with that exception he was living within the spanish court up to , when he was sent to the new world, and passed there the greater part of his remaining life. while he had been at court in his earlier years, the sons of columbus, diego and ferdinand, were his companions in the pages' anteroom, and he could hardly have failed to profit by their acquaintance. we know that from the younger son he did derive not a little information. when he went to america, some of columbus's companions and followers were still living,--pinzon, ponce de leon, and diego velasquez,--and all these could hardly have failed to help him in his note-taking. he also tells us that he sought some of the italian compatriots of the admiral, though harrisse judges that what he got from them was not altogether trustworthy. oviedo rose naturally in due time into the position of chronicler of the indies, and tried his skill at first in a descriptive account of the new world. a command of charles the fifth, with all the facilities which such an order implied, though doubtless in some degree embarrassed by many of the documentary proofs being preserved rather in spain than in the indies, finally set him to work on a _historia general de las indias_, the opening portions of which, and those covering the career of columbus, were printed at seville in . it is the work of a consistent though not blinded admirer of the discoverer, and while we might wish he had helped us to more of the proofs of his narrative, his recital is, on the whole, one to be signally grateful for. gomara, in the early part of his history, mixed up what he took from oviedo with what else came in his way, with an avidity that rejected little. * * * * * [sidenote: _historie_ ascribed to ferdinand columbus.] but it is to a biography of columbus, written by his youngest son, ferdinand, as was universally believed up to , that all the historians of the admiral have been mainly indebted for the personal details and other circumstances which lend vividness to his story. as the book has to-day a good many able defenders, notwithstanding the discredit which harrisse has sought to place upon it, it is worth while to trace the devious paths of its transmission, and to measure the burden of confidence placed upon it from the days of ferdinand to our own. the rumor goes that some of the statements in the psalter note of , particularly one respecting the low origin of the admiral, disturbed the pride of ferdinand to such a degree that this son of columbus undertook to leave behind him a detailed account of his father's career, such as the admiral, though urged to do it, had never found time to write. ferdinand was his youngest son, and was born only three or four years before his father left palos. there are two dates given for his birth, each apparently on good authority, but these are a year apart. [sidenote: career of ferdinand columbus.] the language of columbus's will, as well as the explicit statements of oviedo and las casas, leaves no reasonable ground for doubting his illegitimacy. bastardy was no bar to heirship in spain, if a testator chose to make a natural son his heir, as columbus did, in giving ferdinand the right to his titles after the failure of heirs to diego, his legitimate son. columbus's influence early found him a place as a page at court, and during the admiral's fourth voyage, in - , the boy accompanied his father, and once or twice at a later day he again visited the indies. when columbus died, this son inherited many of his papers; but if his own avowal be believed, he had neglected occasions in his father's lifetime to question the admiral respecting his early life, not having, as he says, at that time learned to have interest in such matters. his subsequent education at court, however, implanted in his mind a good deal of the scholar's taste, and as a courtier in attendance upon charles the fifth he had seasons of travel, visiting pretty much every part of western europe, during which he had opportunities to pick up in many places a large collection of books. he often noted in them the place and date of purchase, so that it is not difficult to learn in this way something of his wanderings. the income of ferdinand was large, or the equivalent of what harrisse calls to-day , francs, which was derived from territorial rights in san domingo, coming to him from the admiral, increased by slave labor in the mines, assigned to him by king ferdinand, which at one time included the service of four hundred indians, and enlarged by pensions bestowed by charles the fifth. it has been said sometimes that he was in orders; but harrisse, his chief biographer, could find no proof of it. oviedo describes him in as a person of "much nobility of character, of an affable turn and of a sweet conversation." [sidenote: biblioteca colombina.] when he died at seville, july , , he had amassed a collection of books, variously estimated in contemporary accounts at from twelve to twenty thousand volumes. harrisse, in his _grandeur et décadence de la colombine_ ( d ed., paris, ), represents ferdinand as having searched from to all the principal book marts of europe. he left these books by will to his minor nephew, luis colon, son of diego, but there was a considerable delay before luis renounced the legacy, with the conditions attached. legal proceedings, which accompanied the transactions of its executors, so delayed the consummation of the alternative injunction of the will that the chapter of the cathedral of seville, which, was to receive the library in case don luis declined it, did not get possession of it till . the care of it which ensued seems to have been of a varied nature. forty years later a scholar bitterly complains that it was inaccessible. it is known that by royal command certain books and papers were given up to enrich the national archives, which, however, no longer contain them. when, in , the monks awoke to a sense of their responsibility and had a new inventory of the books made, it was found that the collection had been reduced to four or five thousand volumes. after the librarian who then had charge of it died in , the collection again fell into neglect. there are sad stories of roistering children let loose in its halls to make havoc of its treasures. there was no responsible care again taken of it till a new librarian was chosen, in , who discovered what any one might have learned before, that the money which ferdinand left for the care and increase of the library had never been applied to it, and that the principal, even, had disappeared. other means of increasing it were availed of, and the loss of the original inestimable bibliographical treasures was forgotten in the crowd of modern books which were placed upon its shelves. amid all this new growth, it does not appear just how many of the books which descended from ferdinand still remain in it. something of the old carelessness--to give it no worse name--has despoiled it, even as late as and , when large numbers of the priceless treasures still remaining found a way to the quay voltaire and other marts for old books in paris, while others were disposed of in london, amsterdam, and even in spain. this outrage was promptly exposed by harrisse in the _revue critique_, and in two monographs, _grandeur et décadence_, etc., already named, and in his _colombine et clément marot_ (paris, ); and the story has been further recapitulated in the accounts of ferdinand and his library, which harrisse has also given in his _excerpta colombiana: bibliographie de quatre cents pièces gothiques_ _francaises, italiennes et latines du commencement du xvi siecle_ (paris, ), an account of book rarities found in that library. [illustration: specimens of the notes of ferdinand columbus on his books. [from harrisse's _grandeur el décadence de la colombine_ (paris, ).]] [sidenote: perez de oliva.] we are fortunate, nevertheless, in having a manuscript catalogue of it in ferdinand's own hand, though not a complete one, for he died while he was making it. this library, as well as what we know of his writings and of the reputation which he bore among his contemporaries, many of whom speak of him and of his library with approbation, shows us that a habit, careless of inquiry in his boyhood, gave place in his riper years to study and respect for learning. he is said by the inscription on his tomb to have composed an extensive work on the new world and his father's finding of it, but it has disappeared. neither in his library nor in his catalogue do we find any trace of the life of his father which he is credited with having prepared. none of his friends, some of them writers on the new world, make any mention of such a book. there is in the catalogue a note, however, of a life of columbus written about , of which the manuscript is credited to ferdinand perez de oliva, a man of some repute, who died in . whether this writing bore any significant relation to the life which is associated with the owner of the library is apparently beyond discovery. it can scarcely be supposed that it could have been written other than with ferdinand's cognizance. that there was an account of the admiral's career, quoted in las casas and attributed to ferdinand columbus, and that it existed before , seems to be nearly certain. a manuscript of the end of the sixteenth century, by gonzalo argote de molina, mentions a report that ferdinand had written a life of his father. harrisse tells us that he has seen a printed book catalogue, apparently of the time of muñoz or navarette, in which a spanish life of columbus by ferdinand columbus is entered; but the fact stands without any explanation or verification. spotorno, in , in an introduction to his collection of documents about columbus, says that the manuscript of what has passed for ferdinand's memoir of his father was taken from spain to genoa by luis colon, the duke of veragua, son of diego and grandson of christopher columbus. it is not known that luis ever had any personal relations with ferdinand, who died while luis was still in santo domingo. [sidenote: character of the _historie_.] it is said that it was in that luis took the manuscript to genoa, but in that year he is known to have been living elsewhere. he had been arrested in spain in for having three wives, when he was exiled to oran, in africa, for ten years, and he died in . spotorno adds that the manuscript afterwards fell into the hands of a patrician, marini, from whom alfonzo de ullua received it, and translated it into italian. it is shown, however, that marini was not living at this time. the original spanish, if that was the tongue of the manuscript, then disappeared, and the world has only known it in this italian _historie_, published in . whether the copy brought to italy had been in any way changed from its original condition, or whether the version then made public fairly represented it, there does not seem any way of determining to the satisfaction of everybody. at all events, the world thought it had got something of value and of authority, and in sundry editions and retranslations, with more or less editing and augmentation, it has passed down to our time--the last edition appearing in --unquestioned for its service to the biographers of columbus. muñoz hardly knew what to make of some of "its unaccountable errors," and conjectured that the italian version had been made from "a corrupt and false copy;" and coupling with it the "miserable" spanish rendering in barcia's _historiadores_, muñoz adds that "a number of falsities and absurdities is discernible in both." humboldt had indeed expressed wonder at the ignorance of the book in nautical matters, considering the reputation which ferdinand held in such affairs. it began the admiral's story in detail when he was said to be fifty-six years of age. it has never been clear to all minds that ferdinand's asseveration of a youthful want of curiosity respecting the admiral's early life was sufficient to account for so much reticence respecting that formative period. it has been, accordingly, sometimes suspected that a desire to ignore the family's early insignificance rather than ignorance had most to do with this absence of information. this seems to be irving's inference from the facts. [sidenote: attacked by harrisse.] in , henry harrisse, who in had written of the book, "it is generally accepted with some latitude," made the first assault on its integrity, in his _fernando colon_, published in seville, in spanish, which was followed the next year by his _fernand colomb_, in the original french text as it had been written, and published at paris. harrisse's view was reënforced in the _additions_ to his _bibliotheca americana vetustissima_, and he again reverted to the subject in the first volume of his _christophe colomb_, in . in the interim the entire text of las casas's _historia_ had been published for the first time, rendering a comparison of the two books more easy. harrisse availed himself of this facility of examination, and made no abatement of his confident disbelief. that las casas borrowed from the _historie_, or rather that the two books had a common source, harrisse thinks satisfactorily shown. he further throws out the hint that this source, or prototype, may have been one of the lost essays of ferdinand, in which he had followed the career of his father; or indeed, in some way, the account written by oliva may have formed the basis of the book. he further implies that, in the transformation to the italian edition of , there were engrafted upon the narrative many contradictions and anachronisms, which seriously impair its value. hence, as he contends, it is a shame to impose its authorship in that foreign shape upon ferdinand. he also denies in the main the story of its transmission as told by spotorno. so much of this book as is authentic, and may be found to be corroborated by other evidence, may very likely be due to the manuscript of oliva, transported to italy, and used as the work of ferdinand columbus, to give it larger interest than the name of oliva would carry; while, to gratify prejudices and increase its attractions, the various interpolations were made, which harrisse thinks--and with much reason--could not have proceeded from one so near to columbus, so well informed, and so kindly in disposition as we know his son ferdinand to have been. [sidenote: defended by stevens and others.] so iconoclastic an outburst was sure to elicit vindicators of the world's faith as it had long been held. in counter publications, harrisse and d'avezac, the latter an eminent french authority on questions of this period, fought out their battle, not without some sharpness. henry stevens, an old antagonist of harrisse, assailed the new views with his accustomed confidence and rasping assertion. oscar peschel, the german historian, and count circourt, the french student, gave their opposing opinions; and the issue has been joined by others, particularly within a few years by prospero peragallo, the pastor of an italian church in lisbon, who has pressed defensive views with some force in his _l'autenticità delle historie di fernando colombo_ ( ), and later in his _cristoforo colombo et sua famiglia_ ( ). it is held by some of these later advocates of the book that parts of the original spanish text can be identified in las casas. the controversy has thus had two stages. the first was marked by the strenuousness of d'avezac fifteen years ago. the second sprang from the renewed propositions of harrisse in his _christophe colomb_, ten years later. sundry critics have summed up the opposing arguments with more or less tendency to oppose the iconoclast, and chief among them are two german scholars: professor max büdinger, in his _acten zur columbus' geschichte_ (wien, ), and his _zur columbus literatur_ (wien, ); and professor eugen gelcich, in the _zeitschrift der gesellschaft für erdkunde zu berlin_ ( ). harrisse's views cannot be said to have conquered a position; but his own scrutiny and that which he has engendered in others have done good work in keeping the _historie_ constantly subject to critical caution. dr. shea still says of it: "it is based on the same documents of christopher columbus which las casas used. it is a work of authority." * * * * * [sidenote: las casas.] reference has already been made to the tardy publication of the narrative of las casas. columbus had been dead something over twenty years, when this good man set about the task of describing in this work what he had seen and heard respecting the new world,--or at least this is the generally accredited interval, making him begin the work in ; and yet it is best to remember that helps could not find any positive evidence of his being at work on the manuscript before . las casas did not live to finish the task, though he labored upon it down to , when he was eighty-seven years old. he died five years later. irving, who made great use of las casas, professed to consult him with that caution which he deemed necessary in respect to a writer given to prejudice and overheated zeal. for the period of columbus's public life ( - ), no other one of his contemporaries gives us so much of documentary proof. of the thirty-one papers, falling within this interval, which he transcribed into his pages nearly in their entirety,--throwing out some preserved in the archives of the duke of veragua, and others found at simancas or seville,--there remain seventeen, that would be lost to us but for this faithful chronicler. how did he command this rich resource? as a native of seville, las casas had come there to be consecrated as bishop in , and again in , after he had quitted the new world forever. at this time the family papers of columbus, then held for luis colon, a minor, were locked up in a strong box in the custody of the monks of the neighboring monastery of las cuevas. there is no evidence, however, that the chest was opened for the inspection of the chronicler. he also professes to use original letters sent by columbus to ferdinand and isabella, which he must have found in the archives at valladolid before , or at simancas after that date. again he speaks of citing as in his own collection attested copies of some of columbus's letters. in , and during his later years, las casas lived in the monastery of san gregorio, at valladolid, leaving it only for visits to toledo or madrid, unless it was for briefer visits to simancas, not far off. some of the documents, which he might have found in that repository, are not at present in those archives. it was there that he might have found numerous letters which he cites, but which are not otherwise known. from the use las casas makes of them, it would seem that they were of more importance in showing the discontent and querulousness of columbus than as adding to details of his career. again it appears clear that las casas got documents in some way from the royal archives. we know the journal of columbus on his first voyage only from the abridgment which las casas made of it, and much the same is true of the record of his third voyage. in some portion, at least, of his citations from the letters of columbus, there may be reason to think that las casas took them at second hand, and harrisse, with his belief in the derivative character of the _historie_ of ferdinand columbus, very easily conjectures that this primal source may have been the manuscript upon which the compiler of the _historie_ was equally dependent. one kind of reasoning which harrisse uses is this: if las casas had used the original latin of the correspondence with toscanelli, instead of the text of this supposed spanish prototype, it would not appear in so bad a state as it does in las casas's book. [illustration: las casas.] if this missing prototype of the _historie_ was among ferdinand's books in his library, which had been removed from his house in to the convent of san pablo in seville, and was not removed to the cathedral till , it may also have happened that along with it he used there the _de imagine mundi_ of pierre d'ailly, columbus's own copy of which was, and still is, preserved in the biblioteca colombina, and shows the admiral's own manuscript annotations. it was in the chapel of san pablo that las casas had been consecrated as bishop in , and his associations with the monks could have given easy access to what they held in custody,--too easy, perhaps, if harrisse's supposition is correct, that they let him take away the map which toscanelli sent to columbus, and which would account for its not being in the library now. [sidenote: his opportunities.] we know, also, that las casas had use of the famous letter respecting his third voyage, which the admiral addressed to the nurse of the infant don juan, and which was first laid before modern students when spotorno printed it, in . we further understand that the account of the fourth voyage, which students now call, in its italian form, the _lettera rarissima_, was also at his disposal, as were many letters of bartholomew, the brother of columbus, though they apparently only elucidate the african voyage of diaz. in addition to these manuscript sources, las casas shows that, as a student, he was familiar with and appreciated the decades of peter martyr, and had read the accounts of columbus in garcia de resende, barros, and castañeda,--to say nothing of what he may have derived from the supposable prototype of the _historie_. it is certain that his personal acquaintance brought him into relations with the admiral himself,--for he accompanied him on his fourth voyage,--with the admiral's brother, son, and son's wife; and moreover his own father and uncle had sailed with columbus. there were, among his other acquaintances, the archbishop of seville, pinzon, and other of the contemporary navigators. it has been claimed by some, not accurately, we suspect, that las casas had also accompanied columbus on his third voyage. notwithstanding all these opportunities of acquiring a thorough intimacy with the story of columbus, it is contended by harrisse that the aid afforded by las casas disappoints one; and that all essential data with which his narrative is supplied can be found elsewhere, nearer the primal source. [sidenote: character of his writings.] this condition arises, as he thinks, from the fact that the one engrossing purpose of las casas--his aim to emancipate the indians from a cruel domination--constantly stood in the way of a critical consideration of the other aspects of the early spanish contact with the new world. it was while at the university of salamanca that the father of las casas gave the son an indian slave, one of those whom columbus had sent home; and it was taken from the young student when isabella decreed the undoing of columbus's kidnapping exploits. it was this event which set las casas to thinking on the miseries of the poor natives, which columbus had planned, and which enables us to discover, in the example of las casas, that the customs of the time are not altogether an unanswerable defense of the time's inhumanity and greed. as is well known, all but the most recent writers on spanish-american history have been forced to use this work of las casas in manuscript copies, as a license to print such an exposure of spanish cruelty could not be obtained till , when the _historia_ was first printed at madrid. * * * * * [sidenote: herrera.] herrera, so far as his record concerns columbus, simply gives us what he takes from las casas. he was born about the time that the older writer was probably making his investigations. herrera did not publish his results, which are slavishly chronological in their method, till half a century later ( - ). though then the official historiographer of the indies, with all the chances for close investigation which that situation afforded him, herrera failed in all ways to make the record of his _historia_ that comprehensive and genuine source of the story of columbus which the reader might naturally look for. the continued obscuration of las casas by reason of the long delay in printing his manuscript served to give herrera, through many generations, a prominence as an authoritative source which he could not otherwise have had. irving, when he worked at the subject, soon discovered that las casas stood behind the story as herrera told it, and accordingly the american writer resorted by preference to such a copy of the manuscript of las casas as he could get. there is a manifest tendency in herrera to turn las casas's qualified statements into absolute ones. [sidenote: later spanish writers.] the personal contributions of the later writers, muñoz and navarrete, have been already considered, in speaking of the diversified mass of documentary proofs which accompany or gave rise to their narratives. the _colon en españa_ of tomas rodriguez pinilla (madrid, ) is in effect a life of the admiral; but it ignores much of the recent critical and controversial literature, and deals mainly with the old established outline of events. * * * * * [sidenote: german writers.] [sidenote: humboldt.] among the germans there was nothing published of any importance till the critical studies of forster, peschel, and ruge, in recent days. de bry had, indeed, by his translations of benzoni ( ) and herrera ( ), familiarized the germans with the main facts of the career of columbus. during the present century, humboldt, in his _examen critique de l'histoire et de la geographie du nouveau continent_, has borrowed the language of france to show the scope of his critical and learned inquiries into the early history of the spanish contact in america, and has left it to another hand to give a german rendering to his labors. with this work by humboldt, brought out in its completer shape in - , and using most happily all that had been done by muñoz and navarrete to make clear both the acts and environments of the admiral, the intelligence of our own time may indeed be said to have first clearly apprehended, under the light of a critical spirit, in which irving was deficient, the true significance of the great deeds that gave america to europe. humboldt has strikingly grouped the lives of toscanelli and las casas, from the birth of the florentine physician in to the death of the apostle to the indians in , as covering the beginning and end of the great discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. [sidenote: henry harrisse.] it is also to be remarked that this service of broadly, and at the same time critically, surveying the field was the work of a german writing in french; while it is to an american citizen writing in french that we owe, in more recent years, such a minute collation and examination of every original source of information as set the labors of henry harrisse, for thoroughness and discrimination, in advance of any critical labor that has ever before been given to the career and character of christopher columbus. without the aid of his researches, as embodied in his _christophe colomb_ (paris, ), it would have been quite impossible for the present writer to have reached conclusions on a good many mooted points in the history of the admiral and of his reputation. of almost equal usefulness have been the various subsidiary books and tracts which harrisse has devoted to similar fields. harrisse's books constitute a good example of the constant change of opinion and revision of the relations of facts which are going on incessantly in the mind of a vigilant student in recondite fields of research. the progress of the correction of error respecting columbus is illustrated continually in his series of books on the great navigator, beginning with the _notes on columbus_ (n. y., ), which have been intermittently published by him during the last twenty-five years. harrisse himself is a good deal addicted to hypotheses; but they fare hard at his hands if advanced by others. [sidenote: french writers.] [sidenote: attempted canonization of columbus.] [illustration: roselly de lorgues.] the only other significant essays which have been made in french have been a series of biographies of columbus, emphasizing his missionary spirit, which have been aimed to prepare the way for the canonization of the great navigator, in recognition of his instrumentality in carrying the cross to the new world. that, in the spirit which characterized the age of discovery, the voyage of columbus was, at least in profession, held to be one conducted primarily for that end does not, certainly, admit of dispute. columbus himself, in his letter to sanchez, speaks of the rejoicing of christ at seeing the future redemption of souls. he made a first offering of the foreign gold by converting a mass of it into a cup to hold the sacred host, and he spent a wordy enthusiasm in promises of a new crusade to wrest the holy sepulchre from the moslems. ferdinand and isabella dwelt upon the propagandist spirit of the enterprise they had sanctioned, in their appeals to the pontiff to confirm their worldly gain in its results. ferdinand, the son of the admiral, referring to the family name of colombo, speaks of his father as like noah's dove, carrying the olive branch and oil of baptism over the ocean. professions, however, were easy; faith is always exuberant under success, and the world, and even the catholic world, learned, as the ages went on, to look upon the spirit that put the poor heathen beyond the pale of humanity as not particularly sanctifying a pioneer of devastation. [sidenote: roselly de lorgues.] it is the world's misfortune when a great opportunity loses any of its dignity; and it is no great satisfaction to look upon a person of columbus's environments and find him but a creature of questionable grace. so his canonization has not, with all the endeavors which have been made, been brought about. the most conspicuous of the advocates of it, with a crowd of imitators about him, has been antoine françois félix valalette, comte roselly de lorgues, who began in to devote his energies to this end. he has published several books on columbus, part of them biographical, and all of them, including his _christoph colomb_ of , mere disguised supplications to the pope to order a deserved sanctification. as contributions to the historical study of the life of columbus, they are of no importance whatever. every act and saying of the admiral capable of subserving the purpose in view are simply made the salient points of a career assumed to be holy. columbus was in fact of a piece, in this respect, with the age in which he lived. the official and officious religious profession of the time belonged to a period which invented the inquisition and extirpated a race in order to send them to heaven. none knew this better than those, like las casas, who mated their faith with charity of act. columbus and las casas had little in common. the _histoire posthume de colomb_, which roselly de lorgues finally published in , is recognized even by catholic writers as a work of great violence and indiscretion, in its denunciations of all who fail to see the saintly character of columbus. its inordinate intemperance gave a great advantage to cesario fernandez duro in his examination of de lorgues's position, made in his _colon y la historia postuma_. columbus was certainly a mundane verity. de lorgues tells us that if we cannot believe in the supernatural we cannot understand this worldly man. the writers who have followed him, like charles buet in his _christophe colomb_ (paris, ), have taken this position. the catholic body has so far summoned enough advocates of historic truth to prevent the result which these enthusiasts have kept in view, notwithstanding the seeming acquiescence of pius ix. the most popular of the idealizing lives of columbus is probably that by auguste, marquis de belloy, which is tricked out with a display of engravings as idealized as the text, and has been reproduced in english at philadelphia ( , ). it is simply an ordinary rendering of the common and conventional stories of the last four centuries. the most eminent catholic historical student of the united states, dr. john gilmary shea, in a paper on this century's estimates of columbus, in the _american catholic quarterly review_ ( ), while referring to the "imposing array of members of the hierarchy" who have urged the beatification of columbus, added, "but calm official scrutiny of the question was required before permission could be given to introduce the cause;" and this permission has not yet been given, and the evidence in its favor has not yet been officially produced. france has taken the lead in these movements for canonization, ostensibly for the reason that she needed to make some reparation for snatching the honor of naming the new world from columbus, through the printing-presses of saint dié and strassburg. a sketch of the literature which has followed this movement is given in baron van brocken's _des vicissitudes posthumes de christophe colomb, et de sa beatification possible_ (leipzig et paris, ). * * * * * [sidenote: english writers.] [sidenote: robertson.] of the writers in english, the labors of hakluyt and purchas only incidentally touched the career of columbus; and it was not till stevens issued his garbled version of herrera in , that the english public got the record of the spanish historian, garnished with something that did not represent the original. this book of stevens is responsible for not a little in english opinion respecting the spanish age of discovery, which needs in these later days to be qualified. some of the early collections of voyages, like those of churchill, pinkerton, and kerr, included the story of the _historie_ of . it was not till robertson, in , published the beginning of a contemplated _history of america_ that the english reader had for the first time a scholarly and justified narrative, which indeed for a long time remained the ordinary source of the english view of columbus. it was, however, but an outline sketch, not a sixth or seventh part in extent of what irving, when he was considering the subject, thought necessary for a reasonable presentation of the subject. robertson's footnotes show that his main dependence for the story of columbus was upon the pages of the _historie_ of , peter martyr, oviedo, and herrera. he was debarred the help to be derived from what we now use, as conveying columbus's own record of his story. lord grantham, then the british ambassador at madrid, did all the service he could, and his secretary of legation worked asssiduously in complying with the wishes which robertson preferred; but no solicitation could at that day render easily accessible the archives at simancas. still, robertson got from one source or another more than it was pleasant to the spanish authorities to see in print, and they later contrived to prevent a publication of his work in spanish. [sidenote: jeremy belknap.] the earliest considerable recounting of the story of columbus in america was by dr. jeremy belknap, who, having delivered a commemorative discourse in boston in , before the massachusetts historical society, afterward augmented his text when it became a part of his well-known _american biography_, a work of respectable standing for the time, but little remembered to-day. [sidenote: washington irving.] it was in that washington irving published his _life of columbus_, and he produced a book that has long remained for the english reader a standard biography. irving's canons of historical criticism were not, however, such as the fearless and discriminating student to-day would approve. he commended herrera for "the amiable and pardonable error of softening excesses," as if a historian sat in a confessional to deal out exculpations. the learning which probes long established pretenses and grateful deceits was not acceptable to irving. "there is a certain meddlesome spirit," he says, "which, in the garb of learned research, goes prying about the traces of history, casting down its monuments, and marring and mutilating its fairest trophies. care should be taken to vindicate great names from such pernicious erudition." under such conditions as irving summoned, there was little chance that a world's exemplar would be pushed from his pedestal, no matter what the evidence. the _vera pro gratis_ in personal characterization must not assail the traditional hero. and such was irving's notion of the upright intelligence of a historian. mr. alexander h. everett, who was then the minister of the united states at madrid, saw a chance of making a readable book out of the journal of columbus as preserved by las casas, and recommended the task of translating it to irving, then in europe. this proposition carried the willing writer to madrid, where he found comfortable quarters, with quick sympathy of intercourse, under the roof of a boston scholar then living there, obadiah rich. the first two volumes of the documentary work of navarrete coming out opportunely, irving was not long in determining that, with its wealth of material, there was a better opportunity for a newly studied life of columbus than for the proposed task. so irving settled down in madrid to the larger endeavor, and soon found that he could have other assistance and encouragement from navarrete himself, from the duke of veragua, and from the then possessor of the papers of muñoz. the subject grew under his hands. "i had no idea," he says, "of what a complete labyrinth i had entangled myself in." he regretted that the third volume of navarrete's book was not far enough advanced to be serviceable; but he worked as best he could, and found many more facilities than robertson's helper had discovered. he went to the biblioteca colombina, and he even brought the annotations of columbus in the copy of pierre d'ailly, there preserved, to the attention of its custodians for the first time; almost feeling himself the discoverer of the book, though it was known to him that las casas, at least, had had the advantage of using these minutes of columbus. irving knew that his pains were not unavailing, at any rate, for the english reader. "i have woven into my book," he says, "many curious particulars not hitherto known concerning columbus; and i think i have thrown light upon some points of his character which have not been brought out by his former biographers." one of the things that pleased the new biographer most was his discovery, as he felt, in the account by bernaldez, that columbus was born ten years earlier than had been usually reckoned; and he supposed that this increase of the age of the discoverer at the time of his voyage added much greater force to the characteristics of his career. irving's book readily made a mark. jeffrey thought that its fame would be enduring, and at a time when no one looked for new light from italy, he considered that irving had done best in working, almost exclusively, the spanish field, where alone "it was obvious" material could be found. when alexander h. everett, pardonably, as a godfather to the work, undertook in january, , to say in the _north american review_ that irving's book was a delight of readers, he anticipated the judgment of posterity; but when he added that it was, by its perfection, the despair of critics, he was forgetful of a method of critical research that is not prone to be dazed by the prestige of demigods. in the interval between the first and second editions of the book, irving paid a visit to palos and the convent of la rabida, and he got elsewhere some new light in the papers of the lawsuit of columbus's heirs. the new edition which soon followed profited by all these circumstances. [sidenote: prescott.] irving's occupation of the field rendered it both easy and gracious for prescott, when, ten years later ( ), he published his _ferdinand and isabella_, to say that his predecessor had stripped the story of columbus of the charm of novelty; but he was not quite sure, however, in the privacy of his correspondence, that irving, by attempting to continue the course of columbus's life in detail after the striking crisis of the discovery, had made so imposing a drama as he would have done by condensing the story of his later years. in this prescott shared something of the spirit of irving, in composing history to be read as a pastime, rather than as a study of completed truth. prescott's own treatment of the subject is scant, as he confined his detailed record to the actions incident to the inception and perfection of the enterprise of the admiral, to the doings in spain or at court. he was, at the same time, far more independent than irving had been, in his views of the individual character round which so much revolves, and the reader is not wholly blinded to the unwholesome deceit and overweening selfishness of columbus. [sidenote: arthur helps.] within twenty years arthur helps approached the subject from the point of view of one who was determined, as he thought no one of the writers on the subject of the spanish conquest had been, to trace the origin of, and responsibility for, the devastating methods of spanish colonial government; "not conquest only, but the result of conquest, the mode of colonial government which ultimately prevailed, the extirpation of native races, the introduction of other races, the growth of slavery, and the settlement of the _encomiendas_, on which all indian society depended." it is not to helps, therefore, that we are to look for any extended biography of columbus; and when he finds him in chains, sent back to spain, he says of the prisoner, "he did not know how many wretched beings would have to traverse those seas, in bonds much worse than his; nor did he foresee, i trust, that some of his doings would further all this coming misery." it does not appear from his footnotes that helps depended upon other than the obvious authorities, though he says that he examined the muñoz collection, then as now in the royal academy of history at madrid. [sidenote: r. h. major.] the last scholarly summary of columbus's career previous to the views incident to the criticism of harrisse on the _historie_ of was that which was given by r. h. major, in the second edition of his _select letters of columbus_ (london, ). * * * * * [sidenote: aaron goodrich.] there have been two treatments of the subject by americans within the last twenty years, which are characteristic. the _life and achievements of the so-called christopher columbus_ (new york, ), by aaron goodrich, mixes that unreasoning trust and querulous conceit which is so often thrown into the scale when the merits of the discoverers of the alleged vinland are contrasted with those of the imagined indies. with a craze of petulancy, he is not able to see anything that cannot be twisted into defamation, and his book is as absurdly constant in derogation as the hallucinations of de lorgues are in the other direction. [sidenote: h. h. bancroft.] when hubert howe bancroft opened the story of his pacific states in his _history of central america_ (san francisco, ), he rehearsed the story of columbus, but did not attempt to follow it critically except as he tracked the admiral along the coasts of honduras, nicaragua, and costa rica. this writer's estimate of the character of columbus conveys a representation of what the admiral really was, juster than national pride, religious sympathy, or kindly adulation has usually permitted. it is unfortunately, not altogether chaste in its literary presentation. his characterization of irving and prescott in their endeavors to draw the character of columbus has more merit in its insight than skill in its drafting. [sidenote: winsor.] [sidenote: bibliography of columbus.] the brief sketch of the career of columbus, and the examination of the events that culminated in his maritime risks and developments, as it was included in the _narrative and critical history of america_ (vol. ii., boston, ), gave the present writer an opportunity to study the sources and trace the bibliographical threads that run through an extended and diversified literature, in a way, it may be, not earlier presented to the english reader. if any one desires to compass all the elucidations and guides which a thorough student of the career and fame of columbus would wish to consider, the apparatus thus referred to, and the footnotes in harrisse's _christophe colomb_ and in his other germane publications, would probably most essentially shorten his labors. harrisse, who has prepared, but not yet published, lists of the books devoted to columbus _exclusively_, says that they number about six hundred titles. the literature which treats of him incidentally is of a vast extent. * * * * * [sidenote: varied estimates of columbus.] in concluding this summary of the commentaries upon the life of columbus, the thought comes back that his career has been singularly subject to the gauging of opinionated chroniclers. the figure of the man, as he lives to-day in the mind of the general reader, in whatever country, comports in the main with the characterizations of irving, de lorgues, or goodrich. these last two have entered upon their works with a determined purpose, the frenchman of making a saint, and the american a scamp, of the great discoverer of america. they each, in their twists, pervert and emphasize every trait and every incident to favor their views. their narratives are each without any background of that mixture of incongruity, inconsistency, and fatality from which no human being is wholly free. their books are absolutely worthless as historical records. that of goodrich has probably done little to make proselytes. that of de lorgues has infected a large body of tributary devotees of the catholic church. the work of irving is much above any such level; but it has done more harm because its charms are insidious. he recognized at least that human life is composite; but he had as much of a predetermination as they, and his purpose was to create a hero. he glorified what was heroic, palliated what was unheroic, and minimized the doubtful aspects of columbus's character. his book is, therefore, dangerously seductive to the popular sense. the genuine columbus evaporates under the warmth of the writer's genius, and we have nothing left but a refinement of his clay. the _life of columbus_ was a sudden product of success, and it has kept its hold on the public very constantly; but it has lost ground in these later years among scholarly inquirers. they have, by their collation of its narrative with the original sources, discovered its flaccid character. they have outgrown the witcheries of its graceful style. they have learned to put at their value the repetitionary changes of stock sentiment, which swell the body of the text, sometimes, provokingly. [sidenote: portraits of columbus.] [sidenote: columbus's person.] out of the variety of testimony respecting the person of the adult columbus, it is not easy to draw a picture that his contemporaries would surely recognize. likeness we have none that can be proved beyond a question the result of any sitting, or even of any acquaintance. if we were called upon to picture him as he stood on san salvador, we might figure a man of impressive stature with lofty, not to say austere, bearing, his face longer by something more than its breadth, his cheek bones high, his nose aquiline, his eyes a light gray, his complexion fair with freckles spotting a ruddy glow, his hair once light, but then turned to gray. his favorite garb seems to have been the frock of a franciscan monk. such a figure would not conflict with the descriptions which those who knew him, and those who had questioned his associates, have transmitted to us, as we read them in the pages ascribed to ferdinand, his son; in those of the spanish historian, oviedo; of the priest las casas; and in the later recitals of gomara and benzoni, and of the official chronicler of the spanish indies, antonio herrera. the oldest description of all is one made in , in the unauthorized version of the first decade of peter martyr, emanating, very likely, from the translator trivigiano, who had then recently come in contact with columbus. [sidenote: la cosa's st. christopher.] turning from these descriptions to the pictures that have been put forth as likenesses, we find not a little difficulty in reconciling the two. there is nothing that unmistakably goes back to the lifetime of columbus except the figure of st. christopher, which makes a vignette in colors on the mappemonde, which was drawn in , by one of columbus's pilots, juan de la cosa, and is now preserved in madrid. it has been fondly claimed that cosa transferred the features of his master to the lineaments of the saint; but the assertion is wholly without proof. [illustration: st. christopher. [the vignette of la cosa's map.]] [sidenote: jovius's gallery.] [illustration: jovius's columbus, the earliest engraved likeness.] paolo giovio, or, as better known in the latin form, paulus jovius, was old enough in to have, in later life, remembered the thrill of expectation which ran for the moment through parts of europe, when the letter of columbus describing his voyage was published in italy, where jovius was then a schoolboy. he was but an infant, or perhaps not born when columbus left italy. so the interest of jovius in the discoverer could hardly have arisen from any other associations than those easily suggestive to one who, like jovius, was a student of his own times. columbus had been dead ten years when jovius, as a historian, attracted the notice of pope leo x., and entered upon such a career of prosperity that he could build a villa on lake como, and adorn it with a gallery of portraits of those who had made his age famous. that he included a likeness of columbus among his heroes there seems to be no doubt. whether the likeness was painted from life, and by whom, or modeled after an ideal, more or less accordant with the reports of those who may have known the genoese, is entirely beyond our knowledge. as a historian jovius professed the right to distort the truth for any purpose that suited him, and his conceptions of the truth of portraiture may quite as well have been equally loose. just a year before his own death, jovius gave a sketch of columbus's career in his _elogia virorum illustrium_, published at florence in ; but it was not till twenty-four years later, in , that a new edition of the book gave wood-cuts of the portraits in the gallery of the como villa, to illustrate the sketches, and that of columbus appeared among them. this engraving, then, is the oldest likeness of columbus presenting any claims to consideration. it found place also, within a year or two, in what purported to be a collection of portraits from the jovian gallery; and the engraver of them was tobias stimmer, a swiss designer, who stands in the biographical dictionaries of artists as born in , and of course could not have assisted his skill by any knowledge of columbus, on his own part. this picture, to which a large part of the very various likenesses called those of columbus can be traced, is done in the bold, easy handling common in the wood-cuts of that day, and with a precision of skill that might well make one believe that it preserves a dashing verisimilitude to the original picture. it represents a full-face, shaven, curly-haired man, with a thoughtful and somewhat sad countenance, his hands gathering about the waist a priest's robe, of which the hood has fallen about his neck. if there is any picture to be judged authentic, this is best entitled to that estimation. [sidenote: the florence picture.] connection with the como gallery is held to be so significant of the authenticity of any portrait of columbus that it is claimed for two other pictures, which are near enough alike to have followed the same prototype, and which are not, except in garb, very unlike the jovian wood-cut. as copies of the como original in features, they may easily have varied in apparel. one of these is a picture preserved in the gallery at florence,--a well-moulded, intellectual head, full-faced, above a closely buttoned tunic, or frock, seen within drapery that falls off the shoulders. it is not claimed to be the como portrait, but it may have been painted from it, perhaps by christofano dell' altissimo, some time before . a copy of it was made for thomas jefferson, which, having hung for a while at monticello, came at last to boston, and passed into the gallery of the massachusetts historical society. [illustration: the florence columbus.] [sidenote: the yanez picture.] the picture resembling this, and which may have had equal claims of association with the jovian gallery, is one now preserved in madrid, and the oldest canvas representing columbus that is known in spain. it takes the name of the yanez portrait from that of the owner of it, from whom it was bought in granada, in . representing, when brought to notice, a garment trimmed with fur, there has been disclosed upon it, and underlying this later paint, an original, close-fitting tunic, much like the florence picture; while a further removal of the superposed pigment has revealed an inscription, supposed to authenticate it as columbus, the discoverer of the new world. it is said that the duke of veragua holds it to be the most authentic likeness of his ancestor. [illustration: the yanez columbus.] [sidenote: de bry's picture.] [illustration: columbus. [a reproduction of the so-called capriolo cut given in giuseppe banchero's _la tavola di bronzo_, (genoa, ), and based on the jovian type.]] another conspicuous portrait is that given by de bry in the larger series of his collection of early voyages. de bry claims that it was painted by order of king ferdinand, and that it was purloined from the offices of the council of the indies in spain, and brought to the netherlands, and in this way fell into the hands of that engraver and editor. it bears little resemblance to the pictures already mentioned; nor does it appear to conform to the descriptions of columbus's person. it has a more rugged and shorter face, with a profusion of closely waved hair falling beneath an ugly, angular cap. de bry engraved it, or rather published it, in , twenty years after the jovian wood-cut appeared, and we know of no engraving intervening. no one of the generation that was old enough to have known the navigator could then have survived, and the picture has no other voucher than the professions of the engraver of it. [illustration: de bry's columbus.] [sidenote: other portraits.] [sidenote: havana monument.] [sidenote: peschiera's bust.] these are but a few of the many pictures that have been made to pass, first and last, for columbus, and the only ones meriting serious study for their claims. the american public was long taught to regard the effigy of columbus as that of a bedizened courtier, because prescott selected for an engraving to adorn his _ferdinand and isabella_ a picture of such a person, which is ascribed to parmigiano, and is preserved in the museo borbonico, at naples. its claims long ago ceased to be considered. the traveler in cuba sees in the cathedral at havana a monumental effigy, of which there is no evidence of authenticity worthy of consideration. the traveler in italy can see in genoa, placed on the cabinet which was made to hold the manuscript titles of columbus, a bust by peschiera. it has the negative merit of having no relation to any of the alleged portraits; but represents the sculptor's conception of the man, guided by the scant descriptions of him given to us by his contemporaries. [illustration: the bust of columbus on the tomb at havana.] if the reader desires to see how extensive the field of research is, for one who can spend the time in tracing all the clues connected with all the representations which pass for columbus, he can make a beginning, at least, under the guidance of the essay on the portraits which the present writer contributed to the _narrative and critical history of america_, vol. ii. when columbus, in , ordered a tenth of his income to be paid annually to the bank of st. george, in genoa, for the purpose of reducing the tax upon corn, wine, and other provisions, the generous act, if it had been carried out, would have entitled him to such a recognition as a public benefactor as the bank was accustomed to bestow. the main hall of the palace of this institution commemorates such patriotic efforts by showing a sitting statue for the largest benefactors; a standing figure for lesser gifts, while still lower gradations of charitable help are indicated in busts, or in mere inscriptions on a mural tablet. it has been thought that posterity, curious to see the great admiral as his contemporaries saw him, suffers with the state of genoa, in not having such an effigy, by the neglect or inattention which followed upon the announced purpose of columbus. we certainly find there to-day no such visible proof of his munificence or aspect. harrisse, while referring to this deprivation, takes occasion, in his _bank of st. george_ (p. ), to say that he does not "believe that the portrait of columbus was ever drawn, carved, or painted from the life." he contends that portrait-painting was not common in spain, in columbus's day, and that we have no trace of the painters, whose work constitutes the beginning of the art, in any record, or authentic effigy, to show that the person of the admiral was ever made the subject of the art. the same writer indicates that the interval during which columbus was popular enough to be painted extended over only six weeks in april and may, . he finds that much greater heroes, as the world then determined, like boabdil and cordova, were not thus honored, and holds that the portraits of ferdinand and isabella, which editions of prescott have made familiar, are really fancy pictures of the close of the sixteenth century. chapter iii. the ancestry and home of columbus. [sidenote: the name colombo.] no one has mastered so thoroughly as harrisse the intricacies of the columbus genealogy. a pride in the name of colombo has been shared by all who have borne it or have had relationship with it, and there has been a not unworthy competition among many branches of the common stock to establish the evidences of their descent in connection, more or less intimate, with the greatest name that has signalized the family history. this reduplication of families, as well as the constant recurrence of the same fore-names, particularly common in italian families, has rendered it difficult to construct the genealogical tree of the admiral, and has given ground for drafts of his pedigree, acceptable to some, and disputed by other claimants of kinship. [sidenote: the french colombos.] there was a gascon-french subject of louis xi., guillaume de casanove, sometimes called coulomp, coullon, colon, in the italian accounts colombo, and latinized as columbus, who is said to have commanded a fleet of seven sail, which, in october, , captured two galleys belonging to ferdinand, king of sicily. when leibnitz published, for the first time, some of the diplomatic correspondence which ensued, he interjected the fore-name christophorus in the references to the columbus of this narrative. this was in his _codex juris gentium diplomaticus_, published at hannover in . leibnitz was soon undeceived by nicolas thoynard, who explained that the corsair in question was guillaume de casanove, vice-admiral of france, and leibnitz disavowed the imputation upon the genoese navigator in a subsequent volume. though there is some difference of opinion respecting the identity of casanove and the capturer of the galleys, there can no longer be any doubt, in the light of pertinent investigations, that the french colombos were of no immediate kin to the family of genoa and savona, as is abundantly set forth by harrisse in his _les colombo de france et d'italie_ (paris, ). since the french coullon, or coulomp, was sometimes in the waters neighboring to genoa, it is not unlikely that some confusion may arise in separating the italian from the french colombos; and it has been pointed out that a certain entry of wreckage in the registry of genoa, which spotorno associates with christopher columbus, may more probably be connected with this gascon navigator. bossi, the earliest biographer in recent times, considers that a colombo named in a letter to the duke of milan as being in a naval fight off cyprus, between genoese and venetian vessels, in , was the discoverer of the new world. harrisse, in his _les colombo_, has printed this letter, and from it it does not appear that the commander of the genoese fleet is known by name, and that the only mention of a colombo is that a fleet commanded by one of that name was somewhere encountered. there is no indication, however, that this commander was christopher columbus. the presumption is that he was the roving casanove. leibnitz was doubtless misled by the assertion of the _historie_ of , which allows that christopher columbus had sailed under the orders of an admiral of his name and family, and, particularly, was in that naval combat off lisbon, when, his vessel getting on fire, he swam with the aid of an oar to the portuguese shore. the doubtful character of this episode will be considered later; but it is more to the purpose here that this same book, in citing a letter, of which we are supposed to have the complete text as preserved by columbus himself, makes columbus say that he was not the only admiral which his family had produced. this is a clear reference, it is supposed, to this vice-admiral of france. it is enough to say that the genuine text of this letter to the nurse of don juan does not contain this controverted passage, and the defenders of the truth of the _historie_, like d'avezac, are forced to imagine there must have been another letter, not now known. [sidenote: the younger french admiral.] beside the elder admiral of france, the name of colombo junior belonged to another of these french sea-rovers in the fifteenth century, who has been held to be a nephew, or at least a relative, of the elder. he has also sometimes been confounded with the genoese columbus. [sidenote: genealogy.] [sidenote: pretenders.] to determine the exact relationship between the various french and italian colombos and coulons of the fifteenth century would be hazardous. it is enough to say that no evidence that stands a critical test remains to connect these famous mariners with the line of christopher columbus. the genealogical tables which spotorno presents, upon which caleb cushing enlightened american readers at the time in the _north american review_, and in which the french family is made to issue from an alleged great-grandfather of christopher columbus, are affirmed by harrisse, with much reason, to have been made up not far from , to support the claims of bernardo and baldassare (balthazar) colombo, as pretenders to the rights and titles of the discoverer of the new world. * * * * * ferdinand is made in his own name to say of his father, "i think it better that all the honor be derived to us from his person than to go about to inquire whether his father was a merchant or a man of quality, that kept his hawks and hounds." other biographers, however, have pursued the inquiry diligently. [sidenote: columbus's family line.] in one of the sections of his book on _christopher columbus and the bank of saint george_, harrisse has shown how the notarial records of savona and genoa have been worked, to develop the early history of the admiral's family from documentary proofs. these evidences are distinct from the narratives of those who had known him, or who at a later day had told his story, as gallo, the writer of the _historie_, and oviedo did. reference has already been made to the prevalence of colombo as a patronymic in genoa and the neighboring country at that time. harrisse in his _christophe colomb_ has enumerated two hundred of this name in liguria alone, in those days, who seem to have had no kinship to the family of the admiral. there appear to have been in genoa, moreover, four colombos, and in liguria, outside of genoa, six others who bore the name of christopher's father, domenico; but the searchers have not yet found a single other christoforo. these facts show the discrimination which those who of late years have been investigating the history of the admiral's family have been obliged to exercise. there are sixty notarial acts of one kind and another, out of which these investigators have constructed a pedigree, which must stand till present knowledge is increased or overthrown. [sidenote: his grandfather.] what we know in the main is this: giovanni colombo, the grandfather of the admiral, lived probably in quinto al mare, and was of a stock that seemingly had been earlier settled in the valley of fontanabuona, a region east of genoa. this is a parentage of the father of columbus quite different from that shown in the genealogical chart made by napione in and later; and harrisse tells us that the notarial acts which were given then as the authority for such other line of descent cannot now be found, and that there are grave doubts of their authenticity. [sidenote: his father.] it was this giovanni's son, domenico, who came from quinto (where he left a brother, antonio) at least as early as , and perhaps earlier, and settled himself in the wool-weaver's quarter, so called, in genoa, where in due time he owned a house. thence he seems to have removed to savona, where various notarial acts recognize him at a later period as a genoese, resident in savona. the essential thing remaining to be proved is that the domenico colombo of these notarial acts was the domenico who was the father of christopher columbus. for this purpose we must take the testimony of those who knew the genuine colombos, as oviedo and gallo did; and from their statements we learn that the father of christopher was a weaver named domenico, who lived in genoa, and had sons, christoforo, bartolomeo, and giacomo. these, then, are the test conditions, and finding them every one answered in the savona-genoa family, the proof seems incontestable, even to the further fact that at the end of the fifteenth century all three brothers had for some years lived under the spanish crown. it is too much to say that this concatenation of identities may not possibly be overturned, perhaps by discrediting the documents, not indeed untried already by peragallo and others, but it is safe to accept it under present conditions of knowledge; though we have to trust on some points to the statements of those who have seen what no longer can be found. domenico colombo, who had removed to savona in , did not, apparently, prosper there. he and his son christopher pursued their trade as weavers, as the notarial records show. lamartine, in his _life of columbus_, speaking of the wool-carding of the time, calls it "a business now low, but then respectable and almost noble,"--an idealization quite of a kind with the spirit that pervades lamartine's book, and a spirit in which it has been a fashion to write of columbus and other heroes. the calling was doubtless, then as now, simply respectable. the father added some experience, it would seem, in keeping a house of entertainment. the joint profit, however, of these two occupations did not suffice to keep him free from debt, out of which his son christopher is known to have helped him in some measure. domenico sold and bought small landed properties, but did not pay for one of them at least. there were fifteen years of this precarious life passed in savona, during which he lost his wife, when, putting his youngest son to an apprenticeship, he returned in , or perhaps a little earlier, to genoa, to try other chances. his fortune here was no better. insolvency still followed him. when we lose sight of him, in , the old man may, it is hoped, have heard rumors of the transient prosperity of his son, and perhaps have read in the fresh little quartos of plaanck the marvelous tale of the great discovery. he lived we know not how much longer, but probably died before the winter of - , when the heirs of corrado de cuneo, who had never received due payment for an estate which domenico had bought in savona, got judgment against christopher and his brother diego, the sons of domenico, then of course beyond reach in foreign lands. [sidenote: domenico's house in genoa.] within a few years the marquis marcello staglieno, a learned antiquary in genoa, who has succeeded in throwing much new light on the early life of columbus from the notarial records of that city, has identified a house in the vico dritto ponticello, no. , as the one in which domenico colombo lived during the younger years of christopher's life. the municipality bought this estate in june, , and placed over its door an inscription recording the associations of the spot. harrisse thinks it not unlikely that the great navigator was even born here. the discovery of his father's ownership of the house seems to have been made by carefully tracing back the title of the land to the time when domenico owned it. this was rendered surer by tracing the titles of the adjoining estates back to the time of nicolas paravania and antonio bondi, who, according to the notarial act of , recording domenico's wife's assent to the sale of the property, lived as domenico's next neighbors. [sidenote: columbus born.] if christopher columbus was born in this house, that event took place, as notarial records, brought to bear by the marquis staglieno, make evident, between october , , and october , ; and if some degree of inference be allowed, harrisse thinks he can narrow the range to the twelve months between march , , and march , . this is the period within which, by deduction from other statements, some of the modern authorities, like muñoz, bossi, and spotorno, among the italians, d'avezac among the french, and major in england, have placed the event of columbus's birth without the aid of attested documents. this conclusion has been reached by taking an avowal of columbus that he had led twenty-three years a sailor's life at the time of his first voyage, and was fourteen years old when he began a seaman's career. the question which complicates the decision is: when did columbus consider his sailor's life to have ended? if in , as peschel contends, it would carry his birth back no farther than - , according as fractions are managed; and peschel accepts this date, because he believes the unconfirmed statement of columbus in a letter of july , , that he was twenty-eight when he entered the service of spain in . [sidenote: - .] but if is accepted as the termination of that twenty-three years of sea life, as muñoz and the others already mentioned say, then we get the result which most nearly accords with the notarial records, and we can place the birth of columbus somewhere in the years - , according as the fractions are considered. this again is confirmed by another of the varied statements of columbus, that in it was forty years since, at fourteen, he first took to the sea. [sidenote: - .] there has been one other deduction used, through which navarrete, humboldt, irving, roselly de lorgues, napione, and others, who copy them, determine that his birth must have taken place, by a similar fractional allowance of margin, in - . this is based upon the explicit statement of andrès bernaldez, in his book on the catholic monarchs of spain, that columbus at his death was about seventy years old. so there is a twenty years' range for those who may be influenced by one line of argument or another in determining the date of the admiral's birth. many writers have discussed the arguments; but the weight of authority seems, on the whole, to rest upon the records which are used by harrisse. [sidenote: his mother, brothers, and sister.] the mother of columbus was susanna, a daughter of giacomo de fontanarossa, and domenico married her in the bisagno country, a region lying east of genoa. she was certainly dead in , and had, perhaps, died as early as , in savona. beside christoforo, this alliance with domenico colombo produced four other children, who were probably born in one and the same house. they were giovanni-pellegrino, who, in , had been dead ten years, and was unmarried; bartolomeo, who was never married, and who will be encountered later as bartholomew; and giacomo, who when he went to spain became known as diego colon, but who is called jacobus in all latin narratives. there was also a daughter, bianchinetta, who married a cheesemonger named bavarello, and had one child. [sidenote: his uncle and cousins.] antonio, the brother of domenico, seems to have had three sons, giovanni, matteo, and amighetto. they were thus cousins of the admiral, and they were so far cognizant of his fame in as to combine in a declaration before a notary that they united in sending one of their number, giovanni, on a voyage to spain to visit their famous kinsman, the admiral of the indies; their object being, most probably, to profit, if they could, by basking in his favor. [sidenote: born in genoa.] [sidenote: claim for savona,] [sidenote: and other places.] if the evidences thus set forth of his family history be accepted, there is no question that columbus, as he himself always said, and finally in his will declared, and as ferdinand knew, although it is not affirmed in the _historie_, was born in genoa. among the early writers, if we except galindez de carvajal, who claimed him for savona, there seems to have been little or no doubt that he was born in genoa. peter martyr and las casas affirm it. bernaldez believed it. giustiniani asserts it. but when oviedo, not many years after columbus's death, wrote, it was become so doubtful where columbus was born that he mentions five or six towns which claimed the honor of being his birthplace. the claim for savona has always remained, after genoa, that which has received the best recognition. the grounds of such a belief, however, have been pretty well disproved in harrisse's _christophe colomb et savone_ (genoa, ), and it has been shown, as it would seem conclusively, that, prior to domenico colombo's settling in savona in - , he had lived in genoa, where his children, taking into account their known or computed ages, must have been born. it seems useless to rehearse the arguments which strenuous advocates have, at one time or another, offered in support of the pretensions of many other italian towns and villages to have furnished the great discoverer to the world,--plaisance, cuccaro, cogoleto, pradello, nervi, albissola, bogliasco, cosseria, finale, oneglia, quinto, novare, chiavari, milan, modena. the pretensions of some of them were so urgent that in the academy of history at genoa thought it worth while to present the proofs as respects their city in a formal way. the claims of cuccaro were used in support of a suit by balthazar colombo, to obtain possession of the admiral's legal rights. the claim of cogoleto seems to have been mixed up with the supposed birth of the corsairs, colombos, in that town, who for a long while were confounded with the admiral. there is left in favor of any of them, after their claims are critically examined, nothing but local pride and enthusiasm. the latest claimant for the honor is the town of calvi, in corsica, and this cause has been particularly embraced by the french. so late as , president grévy, of the french republic, undertook to give a national sanction to these claims by approving the erection there of a statue of columbus. the assumption is based upon a tradition that the great discoverer was a native of that place. the principal elucidator of that claim, the abbé martin casanova de pioggiola, seems to have a comfortable notion that tradition is the strongest kind of historical proof, though it is not certain that he would think so with respect to the twenty and more other places on the italian coast where similar traditions exist or are said to be current. harrisse seems to have thought the claim worth refuting in his _christophe colomb et la corse_ (paris, ), to say nothing of other examinations of the subject in the _revue de paris_ and the _revue critique_, and of two very recent refutations, one by the abbé casabianca in his _le berceau de christophe colomb et la corse_ (paris, ), and the last word of harrisse in the _revue historique_ ( , p. ). chapter iv. the uncertainties of the early life of columbus. the condition of knowledge respecting columbus's early life was such, when prescott wrote, that few would dispute his conclusion that it is hopeless to unravel the entanglement of events, associated with the opening of his career. the critical discernment of harrisse and other recent investigators has since then done something to make the confusion even more apparent by unsettling convictions too hastily assumed. a bunch of bewildering statements, in despite of all that present scholarship can do, is left to such experts as may be possessed in the future of more determinate knowledge. it may well be doubted if absolute clarification of the record is ever to be possible. [sidenote: his education.] [illustration: drawing ascribed to columbus.] the student naturally inquires of the contemporaries of columbus as to the quality and extent of his early education, and he derives most from las casas and the _historie_ of . it has of late been ascertained that the woolcombers of genoa established local schools for the education of their children, and the young christopher may have had his share of their instruction, in addition to whatever he picked up at his trade, which continued, as long as he remained in italy, that of his father. we know from the manuscripts which have come down to us that columbus acquired the manual dexterity of a good penman; and if some existing drawings are not apocryphal, he had a deft hand, too, in making a spirited sketch with a few strokes. his drawing of maps, which we are also told about, implies that he had fulfilled ptolemy's definition of that art of the cosmographer which could represent the cartographic outlines of countries with supposable correctness. he could do it with such skill that he practiced it at one time, as is said, for the gaining of a livelihood. we know, trusting the _historie_, that he was for a brief period at the university of pavia, perhaps not far from , where he sought to understand the mysteries of cosmography, astrology, and geometry. [sidenote: at pavia.] bossi has enumerated the professors in these departments at that time, from whose teaching columbus may possibly have profited. harrisse with his accustomed distrust, throws great doubt on the whole narrative of his university experiences, and thinks pavia at this time offered no peculiar advantages for an aspiring seaman, to be compared with the practical instruction which genoa in its commercial eminence could at the same time have offered to any sea-smitten boy. it was at genoa at this very time ( ), that benincasa was producing his famous sea-charts. [illustration: andreas benincasa, . [from st. martin's _atlas_.]] [sidenote: goes to sea.] after his possible, if not probable, sojourn at pavia, made transient, it has been suggested but not proved, by the failing fortunes of his father, christopher returned to genoa, and then after an uncertain interval entered on his seafaring career. if what passes for his own statement be taken he was at this turn of his life not more than fourteen years old. the attractions of the sea at that period of the fifteenth century were great for adventurous youths. there was a spice of piracy in even the soberest ventures of commerce. the ships of one christian state preyed on another. private ventures were buccaneerish, and the hand of the catalonian and of the moslem were turned against all. the news which sped from one end of the mediterranean to the other was of fight and plunder, here and everywhere. occasionally it was mixed with rumors of the voyages beyond the straits of hercules, which told of the portuguese and their hazards on the african coast towards the equator. [sidenote: prince henry, the navigator.] not far from the time when our vigorous young genoese wool-comber may be supposed to have embarked on some of these venturesome exploits of the great inland sea, there might have come jumping from port to port, westerly along the mediterranean shores, the story of the death of that great maritime spirit of portugal, prince henry, the navigator, and of the latest feats of his captains in the great ocean of the west. [illustration: ship, fifteenth century. [from the _isolario_, .]] [sidenote: anjou's expedition.] it has been usual to associate the earliest maritime career of our dashing genoese with an expedition fitted out in genoa by john of anjou, duke of calabria, to recover possession of the kingdom of naples for his father, duke rené, count of provence. this is known to have been undertaken in - . the pride of genoa encouraged the service of the attacking fleet, and many a citizen cast in his lot with that naval armament, and embarked with his own subsidiary command. there is mention of a certain doughty captain, colombo by name, as leading one part of this expeditionary force. he was very likely one of those french corsairs of that name, already mentioned, and likely to have been a man of importance in the franco-genoese train. he has, indeed, been sometimes made a kinsman of the wool-comber's son. there is little likelihood of his having been our christopher himself, then, as we may easily picture him, a red-haired youth, or in life's early prime, with a ruddy complexion,--a type of the italian which one to-day is not without the chance of encountering in the north of italy, preserving, it may be, some of that northern blood which had produced the vikings. the _historie_ of gives what purports to be a letter of columbus describing some of the events of this campaign. it was addressed to the spanish monarchs in . if anjou was connected with any service in which columbus took part, it is easy to make it manifest that it could not have happened later than , because the reverses of that year drove the unfortunate rené into permanent retirement. the rebuttal of this testimony depends largely upon the date of columbus's birth; and if that is placed in , as seems well established, columbus, the genoese mariner, could hardly have commanded a galley in it at fourteen; and it is still more improbable if, as d'avezac says, columbus was in the expedition when it set out in , since the boy christopher was then but twelve. as harrisse puts it, the letter of columbus quoted in the _historie_ is apocryphal, or the correct date of columbus's birth is not . it is, however, not to be forgotten that columbus himself testifies to the tender age at which he began his sea-service, when, in , he recalled some of his early experiences; but, unfortunately, columbus was chronically given to looseness of statement, and the testimony of his contemporaries is often the better authority. in , his mind, moreover, was verging on irresponsibility. he had a talent for deceit, and sometimes boasted of it, or at least counted it a merit. much investigation has wonderfully confirmed the accuracy of that earliest sketch of his career contained in the giustiniani psalter in ; and it is learned from that narrative that columbus had attained an adult age when he first went to sea,--and this was one of the statements which the _historie_ of sought to discredit. if the notarial records of savona are correct in calling columbus a wool-comber in , and he was of the savona family, and born in , he was then twenty-six years old, and of the adult age that is claimed by the psalter and by other early writers, who either knew or mentioned him, when he began his seafaring life. in that case he could have had no part in the anjou-rené expedition, whose whole story, even with the expositions of harrisse and max büdinger, is shrouded in uncertainties of time and place. that after he disappears from every notarial record that can be found in genoa shows, in harrisse's opinion, that it was not till then that he took to the sea as a profession. we cannot say that the information which we have of this early seafaring life of columbus, whenever beginning, is deserving of much credit, and it is difficult to place whatever it includes in chronological order. we may infer from one of his statements that he had, at some time, been at scio observing the making of mastic. certain reports which most likely concern his namesakes, the french corsairs, are sometimes associated with him as leading an attack on spanish galleys somewhere in the service of louis xi., or as cruising near cyprus. so everything is misty about these early days; but the imagination of some of his biographers gives us abundant precision for the daily life of the school-boy, apprentice, cabin boy, mariner, and corsair, even to the receiving of a wound which we know troubled him in his later years. such a story of details is the filling up of a scant outline with the colors of an unfaithful limner. chapter v. the allurements of portugal. [sidenote: .] [sidenote: maritime enterprise in portugal.] columbus, disappearing from italy in , is next found in portugal, and it is a natural inquiry why an active, adventurous spirit, having tested the exhilaration of the sea, should have made his way to that outpost of maritime ambition, bordering on the great waters, that had for many ages attracted and puzzled the discoverer and cosmographer. it is hardly to be doubted that the fame of the portuguese voyaging out upon the vasty deep, or following the western coast of africa, had for some time been a not unusual topic of talk among the seamen of the mediterranean. it may be only less probable that an intercourse of seafaring mediterranean people with the arabs of the levant had brought rumors of voyages in the ocean that washed the eastern shores of africa. these stories from the orient might well have induced some to speculate that such voyages were but the complements of those of the portuguese in their efforts to solve the problem of the circumnavigation of the great african continent. it is not, then, surprising that a doughty mariner like columbus, in life's prime, should have desired to be in the thick of such discussions, and to no other european region could he have turned as a wanderer with the same satisfaction as to portugal. let us see how the great maritime questions stood in portugal in , and from what antecedents they had arisen. [sidenote: portuguese seamanship.] [sidenote: explorations on the sea of darkness.] [sidenote: marino sanuto, .] the portuguese, at this time, had the reputation of being the most expert seamen in europe, or at least they divided it with the catalans and majorcans. their fame lasted, and at a later day was repeated by acosta. these hardy mariners had pushed boldly out, as early as we have any records, into the enticing and yet forbidding sea of darkness, not often perhaps willingly out of sight of land; but storms not infrequently gave them the experience of sea and sky, and nothing else. the great ocean was an untried waste for cartography. a few straggling beliefs in islands lying westward had come down from the ancients, and the fantastic notions of floating islands and steady lands, upon which the imagination of the middle ages thrived, were still rife, when we find in the map of marino sanuto, in , what may well be considered the beginning of atlantic cartography. [sidenote: the canaries.] there is no occasion to make it evident that the islands of the west found by the phoenicians, the fortunate islands of sertorius, and the hesperides of pliny were the canaries of later times, brought to light after thirteen centuries of oblivion; but these islands stand in the planisphere of sanuto at the beginning of the fourteenth century, to be casually visited by the spaniards and others for a hundred years and more before the norman, jean de béthencourt, in the beginning of the fifteenth century ( ), settled himself on one of them. here his kinspeople ruled, till finally the rival claims of sovereignty by spain and portugal ended in the rights of spain being established, with compensating exclusive rights to portugal on the african coast. [sidenote: the genoese in portugal.] but it was by genoese in the service of portugal, the fame of whose exploits may not have been unknown to columbus, that the most important discoveries of ocean islands had been made. [sidenote: madeira.] it was in the early part of the fourteenth century that the madeira group had been discovered. in the laurentian portolano of , preserved at florence, it is unmistakably laid down and properly named, and that atlas has been considered, for several reasons, the work of genoese, and as probably recording the voyage by the genoese pezagno for the portuguese king,--at least major holds that to be demonstrable. the real right of the portuguese to these islands, rests, however, on their rediscovery by prince henry's captains at a still later period, in - , when madeira, seen as a cloud in the horizon from porto santo, was approached in a boat from the smaller island. [sidenote: azores.] [sidenote: maps.] it is also from the laurentian portolano of that we know how, at some anterior time, the greater group of the azores had been found by portuguese vessels under genoese commanders. we find these islands also in the catalan map of , and in that of pizigani of the same period ( , ). [illustration: part of the laurentian portolano. [from major's _prince henry_.]] [sidenote: robert machin.] it was in the reign of edward iii. of england that one robert machin, flying from england to avoid pursuit for stealing a wife, accidentally reached the island of madeira. here disaster overtook machin's company, but some of his crew reached africa in a boat and were made captives by the moors. in , the spaniards sent an expedition to redeem christian captives held by these same moors, and, while bringing them away, the spanish ship was overcome by a portuguese navigator, zarco, and among his prisoners was one morales, who had heard, as was reported, of the experiences of machin. [sidenote: porto santo and madeira rediscovered.] zarco, a little later, being sent by prince henry of portugal to the coast of guinea, was driven out to sea, and discovered the island of porto santo; and subsequently, under the prompting of morales, he rediscovered madeira, then uninhabited. this was in or , and though there are some divergences in the different forms of the story, and though romance and anachronism somewhat obscure its truth, the main circumstances are fairly discernible. [sidenote: the perestrello family.] this discovery was the beginning of the revelations which the navigators of prince henry were to make. a few years later ( ) he dispatched colonists to occupy the two islands, and among them was a gentleman of the household, bartolomeo perestrello, whose name, in a descendant, we shall again encounter when, near the close of the century, we follow columbus himself to this same island of porto santo. [sidenote: maps.] it is conjectured that the position of the azores was laid down on a map which, brought to portugal from venice in , instigated prince henry to order his seamen to rediscover those islands. that they are laid down on valsequa's catalan map of is held to indicate the accomplishment of the prince's purpose, probably in , though it took twenty years to bring the entire group within the knowledge of the portuguese. [sidenote: bianco's map, .] [sidenote: other maps.] the well-known map of andrea bianco in , preserved in the biblioteca marciana at venice, records also the extent of supposition at that date respecting the island-studded waste of the atlantic. between this date and the period of the arrival of columbus in portugal, the best known names of the map makers of the atlantic are those of valsequa ( ), leardo ( , , ), pareto ( ), and fra mauro ( ). this last there will be occasion to mention later. [sidenote: flores.] in , pedro de valasco, in sailing about fayal westerly, seeing and following a flight of birds, had discovered the island of flores. from what columbus says in the journal of his first voyage, forty years later, this tracking of the flight of birds was not an unusual way, in these early exploring days, of finding new islands. [illustration: map of andrea bianco. [from _allgem. geog. ephemeriden_, weimar, .]] thus it was that down to a period a very little later than the middle of the fifteenth century the portuguese had been accustoming themselves to these hazards of the open ocean. without knowing it they had, in the discovery of flores, actually reached the farthest land westerly, which could in the better knowledge of later years be looked upon as the remotest outpost of the old world. * * * * * [sidenote: the african route to india.] there was, as they thought, a much larger cosmographical problem lying to the south,--a route to india by a supposable african cape. for centuries the orient had been the dream of the philosopher and the goal of the merchant. everything in the east was thought to be on a larger scale than in europe,--metals were more abundant, pearls were rarer, spices were richer, plants were nobler, animals were statelier. everything but man was more lordly. he had been fed there so luxuriously that he was believed to have dwindled in character. europe was the world of active intelligence, the inheritor of greek and roman power, and its typical man belonged naturally with the grander externals of the east. there was a fitness in bringing the better man and the better nature into such relations that the one should sustain and enjoy the other. [sidenote: china.] the earliest historical record of the peoples of western asia with china goes back, according to yule, to the second century before christ. three hundred years later we find the first trace of roman intercourse (a. d. ). with india, china had some trade by sea as early as the fourth century, and with babylonia possibly in the fifth century. there were christian nestorian missionaries there as early as the eighth century, and some of their teachings had been found there by western travelers in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. the communication of ceylon with china was revived in the thirteenth century. [sidenote: cathay.] [sidenote: marco polo.] it was in the twelfth century, under the mongol dynasty, that china became first generally known in europe, under the name of cathay, and then for the first time the western nations received travelers' stories of the kingdom of the great khan. two franciscans, one an italian, plano carpini, the other a fleming, rubruquis, sent on missions for the church, returned to europe respectively in and . it was not, however, till marco polo returned from his visit to kublai khan, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, that a new enlargement of the ideas of europe respecting the far orient took place. the influence of his marvelous tales continued down to the days of columbus, and when the great discoverer came on the scene it was to find the public mind occupied with the hopes of reaching these eastern realms by way of the south. the experimental and accidental voyagings of the portuguese on the atlantic were held to be but preliminary to a steadier progression down the coast of africa. [sidenote: the african route and the ancients.] [sidenote: the african cape.] whether the ancients had succeeded in circumnavigating africa is a question never likely to be definitely settled, and opposing views, as weighed by bunbury in his _history of ancient geography_, are too evenly balanced to allow either side readily to make conquest of judicial minds. it is certain that hipparchus had denied the possibility of it, and had supposed the indian ocean a land-bound sea, africa extending at the south so as to connect with a southern prolongation of eastern asia. this view had been adopted by ptolemy, whose opinions were dominating at this time the western mind. nevertheless, that africa ended in a southern cape seems to have been conceived of by those who doubted the authority of ptolemy early enough for sanuto, in , to portray such a cape in his planisphere. if sanuto really knew of its existence the source of his knowledge is a subject for curious speculation. not unlikely an african cape may have been surmised by the venetian sailors, who, frequenting the mediterranean coasts of asia minor, came in contact with the arabs. these last may have cherished the traditions of maritime explorers on the east coast of africa, who may have already discovered the great southern cape, perhaps without passing it. [sidenote: african coast discovery, .] navarrete records that as early as a company had been formed in andalusia and biscay for promoting discoveries down the coast of africa. it was an effort to secure in the end such a route to asia as might enable the people of the iberian peninsula to share with those of the italian the trade with the east, which the latter had long conducted wholly or in part overland from the levant. the port of barcelona had indeed a share in this opulent commerce; but its product for spain was insignificant in comparison with that for italy. [sidenote: prince henry, the navigator.] the guiding spirit in this new habit of exploration was that scion of the royal family of portugal who became famous eventually as prince henry the navigator, and whose biography has been laid before the english reader within twenty years, abundantly elucidated by the careful hand of richard h. major. the prince had assisted king joão in the attack on the moors at ceuta, in , and this success had opened to the prince the prospect of possessing the guinea coast, and of ultimately finding and passing the anticipated cape at the southern end of africa. [sidenote: cape bojador.] this was the mission to which the prince early in the fifteenth century gave himself. his ships began to crawl down the western barbary coast, and each season added to the extent of their explorations, but cape bojador for a while blocked their way, just as it had stayed other hardy adventurers even before the birth of henry. "we may wonder," says helps, "that he never took personal command of any of his expeditions, but he may have thought that he served the cause better by remaining at home, and forming a centre whence the electric energy of enterprise was communicated to many discoverers and then again collected from them." [sidenote: sagres.] meanwhile, prince henry had received from his father the government of algaroe, and he selected the secluded promontory of sagres, jutting into the sea at the southwestern extremity of portugal, as his home, going here in , or possibly somewhat later. whether he so organized his efforts as to establish here a school of navigation is in dispute, but it is probably merely a question of what constitutes a school. there seems no doubt that he built an observatory and drew about him skillful men in the nautical arts, including a somewhat famous majorcan, jayme. he and his staff of workers took seamanship as they found it, with its cylindrical charts, and so developed it that it became in the hands of the portuguese the evidence of the highest skill then attainable. [sidenote: art of seamanship.] seamanship as then practiced has become an interesting study. under the guidance of humboldt, in his remarkable work, the _examen critique_, in which he couples a consideration of the nautical astronomy with the needs of this age of discovery, we find an easy path among the intricacies of the art. these complications have, in special aspects, been further elucidated by navarrete, margry, and a recent german writer, professor ernst mayer. [sidenote: lully's _arte de navegar_.] it was just at the end of the thirteenth century ( ) that the _arte de navegar_ of raymond lully, or lullius, gave mariners a handbook, which, so far as is made apparent, was not superseded by a better even in the time of columbus. [illustration: prince henry the navigator. [from a chronicle in the national library at paris.]] [sidenote: sacrobosco.] another nautical text-book at this time was a treatise by john holywood, a yorkshire man, who needs to be a little dressed up when we think of him as the latinized sacrobosco. his _sphera mundi_ was not put into type till , just before columbus's arrival in portugal,--a work which is mainly paraphrased from ptolemy's _almagest_. it was one of the books which, by law, the royal cosmographer of spain, at a later day, was directed to expound in his courses of instruction. [sidenote: the loadstone.] the loadstone was known in western and northern europe as early as the eleventh century, and for two or three centuries there are found in books occasional references to the magnet. we are in much doubt, however, as to the prevalence of its use in navigation. if we are to believe some writers on the subject, it was known to the norsemen as early as the seventh century. its use in the levant, derived, doubtless, from the peoples navigating the indian ocean, goes back to an antiquity not easily to be limited. [sidenote: magnetic needle.] by the year , a knowledge of the magnetic needle, coming from china through the arabs, had become common enough in europe to be mentioned in literature, and in another century its use did not escape record by the chroniclers of maritime progress. in the fourteenth century, the adventurous spirit of the catalans and the normans stretched the scope of their observations from the hebrides on the north to the west coast of tropical africa on the south, and to the westward, two fifths across the atlantic to the neighborhood of the azores,--voyages made safely under the direction of the magnet. [sidenote: observations for latitude.] [sidenote: the astrolabe.] there was not much difficulty in computing latitude either by the altitude of the polar star or by using tables of the sun's declination, which the astronomers of the time were equal to calculating. the astrolabe used for gauging the altitude was a simple instrument, which had been long in use among the mediterranean seamen, and had been described by raymond lullius in the latter part of the thirteenth century. before columbus's time it had been somewhat improved by johannes müller of königsberg, who became better known from the latin form of his native town as regiomontanus. he had, perhaps, the best reputation in his day as a nautical astronomer, and humboldt has explained the importance of his labors in the help which he afforded in an age of discovery. [sidenote: dead reckoning.] it is quite certain that the navigators of prince henry, and even columbus, practiced no artificial method for ascertaining the speed of their ships. with vessels of the model of those days, no great rapidity was possible, and the utmost a ship could do under favorable circumstances was not usually beyond four miles an hour. the hourglass gave them the time, and afforded the multiple according as the eye adjusted the apparent number of miles which the ship was making hour by hour. this was the method by which columbus, in , calculated the distances, which he recorded day by day in his journal. of course the practiced seaman made allowances for drift in the ocean currents, and met with more or less intelligence the various deterrent elements in beating to windward. [sidenote: the seaman's log.] humboldt, with his keen insight into all such problems concerning their relations to oceanic discoveries, tells us in his _cosmos_ how he has made the history of the log a subject of special investigation in the sixth volume of his _examen critique de l'histoire de la géographie_, which, unfortunately, the world has never seen; but he gives, apparently, the results in his later _cosmos_. [illustration: the astrolabe of regiomontanus.] it is perhaps surprising that the mediterranean peoples had not perceived a method, somewhat clumsy as it was, which had been in use by the romans in the time of the republic. though the habit of throwing the log is still, in our day, kept up on ocean steamers, i find that experienced commanders quite as willingly depend on the report of their engineers as to the number of revolutions which the wheel or screw has made in the twenty-four hours. in this they were anticipated by these republicans of rome who attached wheels of four feet diameter to the sides of their ships and let the passage of the water turn them. their revolutions were then recorded by a device which threw a pebble into a tally-pot for each revolution. [illustration: regiomontanus's astrolabe, . [after an original in the museum at nuremberg, shown in e. mayer's _die hilfsmittel der schiffahrtskunde_.]] from that time, so far as humboldt could ascertain, down to a period later than columbus, and certainly after the revival of long ocean voyages by the catalans, portuguese, and normans, there seems to have been no skill beyond that of the eyes in measuring the speed of vessels. after the days of columbus, it is only when we come to the voyages of magellan that we find any mention of such a device as a log, which consisted, as his chronicler explains, of some arrangements of cog-wheels and chains carried on the poop. [sidenote: prince henry's character.] such were in brief the elements of seamanship in which prince henry the navigator caused his sailors to be instructed, and which more or less governed the instrumentalities employed in his career of discovery. he was a man who, as his motto tells us, wished, and was able, to do well. he was shadowed with few infirmities of spirit. he joined with the pluck of his half-english blood--for he was the grandson of john of gaunt--a training for endurance derived in his country's prolonged contests with the moor. he was the staple and lofty exemplar of this great age of discovery. he was more so than columbus, and rendered the adventitious career of the genoese possible. he knew how to manage men, and stuck devotedly to his work. he respected his helpers too much to drug them with deceit, and there is a straightforward honesty of purpose in his endeavors. he was a trainer of men, and they grew courageous under his instruction. to sail into the supposed burning zone beyond cape bojador, and to face the destruction of life which was believed to be inevitable, required a courage quite as conspicuous as to cleave the floating verdure of the sargasso sea, on a western passage. it must be confessed that he shared with columbus those proclivities which in the instigators of african slavery so easily slipped into cruelty. they each believed there was a merit, if a heathen's soul be at stake, in not letting commiseration get the better of piety. [sidenote: cape bojador passed, .] it was not till that prince henry's captains finally passed cape bojador. it was a strenuous and daring effort in the face of conceded danger, and under the impulse of the prince's earnest urging. gil eannes returned from this accomplished act a hero in the eyes of his master. had it ever been passed before? not apparently in any way to affect the importance of this portuguese enterprise. we can go back indeed, to the expedition of hanno the carthaginian, and in the commentaries of carl müller and vivien de st. martin track that navigator outside the pillars of hercules, and follow him southerly possibly to cape verde or its vicinity; and this, if major's arguments are to be accepted, is the only antecedent venture beyond cape bojador, though there have been claims set up for the genoese, the catalans, and the dieppese. that the map of marino sanuto in , and the so-called laurentian portolano of , both of which establish a vague southerly limit to africa, rather give expression to a theory than chronicle the experience of navigators is the opinion of major. it is of course possible that some indefinite knowledge of oriental tracking of the eastern coast of africa, and developing its terminal shape southerly, may have passed, as already intimated, with other nautical knowledge, by the red sea to the mediterranean peoples. to attempt to settle the question of any circumnavigation of africa before the days of diaz and da gama, by the evidence of earlier maps, makes us confront very closely geographical theories on the one hand, and on the other a possible actual knowledge filtered through the arabs. all this renders it imprudent to assume any tone of certainty in the matter. [illustration: sketch map of african discovery.] the captains of prince henry now began, season by season, to make a steady advance. the pope had granted to the portuguese monarchy the exclusive right to discovered lands on this unexplored route to india, and had enjoined all others not to interfere. [sidenote: cape blanco passed, .] in the prince's ships passed beyond cape blanco, and in succeeding years they still pushed on little by little, bringing home in some negroes for slaves, the first which were seen in europe, as helps supposes, though this is a matter of some doubt. [sidenote: cape verde reached, .] cape verde had been reached by diniz dyàz (fernandez) in , and the discovery that the coast beyond had a general easterly trend did much to encourage the portuguese, with the illusory hope that the way to india was at last opened. they had by this time passed beyond the countries of the moors, and were coasting along a country inhabited by negroes. [sidenote: cadamosto, .] [sidenote: cape verde islands.] in , the venetian cadamosto, a man who proved that he could write intelligently of what he saw, was induced by prince henry to conduct a new expedition, which was led to the gambia; so that europeans saw for the first time the constellation of the southern cross. in the following year, still patronized by prince henry, who fitted out one of his vessels, cadamosto discovered the cape verde islands, or at least his narrative would indicate that he did. by comparison of documents, however, major has made it pretty clear that cadamosto arrogated to himself a glory which belonged to another, and that the true discoverer of the cape verde islands was diogo gomez, in . it was on this second voyage that cadamosto passed cape roxo, and reached the rio grande. [illustration: fra mauro's world, .] [sidenote: fra mauro's maps, .] [illustration: tomb of prince henry at batalha. [from major's _prince henry_.]] [sidenote: prince henry dies, .] in , prince henry sent, by order of his nephew and sovereign, alfonso v., the maps of his captains to venice, to have them combined in a large mappemonde; and fra mauro was entrusted with the making of it, in which he was assisted by andrea bianco, a famous cartographer of the time. this great map came to portugal the year before the prince died, and it stands as his final record, left behind him at his death, november , , to attest his constancy and leadership. the pecuniary sacrifices which he had so greatly incurred in his enterprises had fatally embarrassed his estate. his death was not as columbus's was, an obscuration that no one noted; his life was prolonged in the school of seamanship which he had created. [illustration: statue of prince henry at belem. [from major's _prince henry_.]] the prince's enthusiasm in his belief that there was a great southern point of africa had been imparted to all his followers. fra mauro gave it credence in his map by an indication that an indian junk from the east had rounded the cape with the sun in . in this mauro map the easterly trend of the coast beyond cape verde is adequately shown, but it is made only as the northern shore of a deep gulf indenting the continent. the more southern parts are simply forced into a shape to suit and fill out the circular dimensions of the map. [sidenote: sierra leone, gold coast.] [sidenote: la mina.] within a few years after henry's death--though some place it earlier--the explorations had been pushed to sierra leone and beyond cape mezurada. when the revenues of the gold coast were farmed out in , it was agreed that discovery should be pushed a hundred leagues farther south annually; and by , when the contract expired, fernam gomez, who had taken it, had already found the gold dust region of la mina, which columbus, in , was counseled by spain to avoid while searching for his western lands. this, then, was the condition of portuguese seamanship and of its exploits when columbus, some time, probably, in , reached portugal. he found that country so content with the rich product of the guinea coast that it was some years later before the portuguese began to push still farther to the south. the desire to extend the christian faith to heathen, often on the lips of the discoverers of the fifteenth century, was never so powerful but that gold and pearls made them forget it. chapter vi. columbus in portugal. [sidenote: date of his arrival.] [sidenote: .] it has been held by navarrete, irving, and other writers of the older school that columbus first arrived in portugal in ; and his coming has commonly been connected with a naval battle near lisbon, in which he escaped from a burning ship by swimming to land with the aid of an oar. it is easily proved, however, that notarial entries in italy show him to have been in that country on august , . we may, indeed, by some stretch of inference, allow the old date to be sustained, by supposing that he really was domiciled in lisbon as early as , but made occasional visits to his motherland for the next three or four years. [sidenote: supposed naval battle.] the naval battle, in its details, is borrowed by the _historie_ of from the _rerum venitiarum ab urbe condita_ of sabellicus. this author makes christopher columbus a son of the younger corsair colombo, who commanded in the fight, which could not have happened either in , the year usually given, or in - , the time better determined for columbus's arrival in portugal, since this particular action is known to have taken place on august , . those who defend the _historie_, like d'avezac, claim that its account simply confounds the battle of with an earlier one, and that the story of the oar must be accepted as an incident of this supposable anterior fight. the action in took place when the french corsair, casaneuve or colombo, intercepted some richly laden venetian galleys between lisbon and cape st. vincent. history makes no mention of any earlier action of similar import which could have been the occasion of the escape by swimming; and to sustain the _historie_ by supposing such is a simple, perhaps allowable, hypothesis. [sidenote: probable arrival in - .] rawdon brown, in the introduction to his volumes of the _calendar of state papers in the archives of venice_, has connected columbus with this naval combat, but, as he later acknowledged to harrisse, solely on the authority of the _historie_. irving has rejected the story. there seems no occasion to doubt its inconsistencies and anachronisms, and, once discarded, we are thrown back upon the notarial evidence in italy, by which we may venture to accept the date of - as that of the entrance of columbus into portugal. irving, though he discards the associated incidents, accepts the earlier date. nevertheless, the date of - is not taken without some hazard. as it has been of late ascertained that when columbus left portugal it was not for good, as was supposed, so it may yet be discovered that it was from some earlier adventure that the buoyancy of an oar took him to the land. [sidenote: italians as maritime discoverers.] this coming of an italian to portugal to throw in his lot with a foreign people leads the considerate observer to reflect on the strange vicissitudes which caused italy to furnish to the western nations so many conspicuous leaders in the great explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, without profiting in the slightest degree through territorial return. cadamosto and cabot, the venetians, columbus, the genoese, vespucius and verrazano, the florentines, are, on the whole, the most important of the great captains of discovery in this virgin age of maritime exploration through the dark waters of the atlantic; and yet spain and portugal, france and england, were those who profited by their genius and labors. it is a singular fact that, during the years which columbus spent in portugal, there is not a single act of his life that can be credited with an exact date, and few can be placed beyond cavil by undisputed documentary evidence. [sidenote: occupation in portugal.] it is the usual story, given by his earliest italian biographers, gallo and his copiers, that columbus had found his brother bartholomew already domiciled in portugal, and earning a living by making charts and selling books, and that christopher naturally fell, for a while, into similar occupations. he was not, we are also told, unmindful of his father's distresses in italy, when he disposed of his small earnings. we likewise know the names of a few of his fellow genoese settled in lisbon in traffic, because he speaks of their kindnesses to him, and the help which they had given him ( ) in what would appear to have been commercial ventures. it seems not unlikely that he had not been long in the country when the incident occurred at lisbon which led to his marriage, which is thus recorded in the _historie_. [sidenote: his marriage.] during his customary attendance upon divine worship in the convent of all saints, his devotion was observed by one of the pensioners of the monastery, who sought him with such expressions of affection that he easily yielded to her charms. this woman, felipa moñiz by name, is said to have been a daughter, by his wife caterina visconti, of bartolomeo perestrello, a gentleman of italian origin, who is associated with the colonization of madeira and porto santo. from anything which columbus himself says and is preserved to us, we know nothing more than that he desired in his will that masses should be said for the repose of her soul; for she was then long dead, and, as diego tells us, was buried in lisbon. we learn her name for the first time from diego's will, in , and this is absolutely all the documentary evidence which we have concerning her. oviedo and the writers who wrote before the publication of the _historie_ had only said that columbus had married in portugal, without further particulars. [sidenote: the perestrellos.] but the _historie_, with las casas following it, does not wholly satisfy our curiosity, neither does oviedo, later, nor gomara and benzoni, who copy from oviedo. there arises a question of the identity of this bartolomeo perestrello, among three of the name of three succeeding generations. somewhere about , or later, the eldest of this line was made the first governor of porto santo, after the island had been discovered by one of the expeditions which had been down the african coast. it is of him the story goes that, taking some rabbits thither, their progeny so quickly possessed the island that its settlers deserted it! such genealogical information as can be acquired of this earliest perestrello is against the supposition of his being the father of felipa moñiz, but rather indicates that by a second wife, isabel moñiz by name, he had the second bartolomeo, who in turn became the father of our felipa moñiz. the testimony of las casas seems to favor this view. if this is the bartolomeo who, having attained his majority, was assigned to the captaincy of porto santo in , it could hardly be that a daughter would have been old enough to marry in - . the first bartolomeo, if he was the father-in-law of columbus, seems to have died in , and was succeeded in , in command of the island of porto santo, by another son-in-law, pedro correa da cunha, who married a daughter of his first marriage,--or at least that is one version of this genealogical complication,--and who was later succeeded in by the second bartolomeo. the count bernardo pallastrelli, a modern member of the family, has of late years, in his _il suocero e la moglie di cristoforo colombo_ ( d ed., piacenza, ), attempted to identify the kindred of the wife of columbus. he has examined the views of harrisse, who is on the whole inclined to believe that the wife of columbus was a daughter of one vasco gill moñiz, whose sister had married the perestrello of the _historie_ story. the successive wills of diego columbus, it may be observed, call her in one ( ) philippa moñiz, and in the other ( ) philippa muñiz, without the addition of perestrello. the genealogical table of the count's monograph, on the other hand, makes felipa to be the child of isabella moñiz, who was the second wife of bartolomeo pallastrelli, the son of felipo, who came to portugal some time after , from plaisance, in italy. bartolomeo had been one of the household of prince henry, and had been charged by him with founding a colony at porto santo, in , over which island he was long afterward ( ) made governor. we must leave it as a question involved in much doubt. [sidenote: columbus's son diego born.] the issue of this marriage was one son, diego, but there is no distinct evidence as to the date of his birth. sundry incidents go to show that it was somewhere between and . columbus's marriage to doña felipa had probably taken place at lisbon, and not before at the earliest, a date not difficult to reconcile with the year ( - ) now held to be that of his arrival in portugal. it is supposed that it was while columbus was living at porto santo, where his wife had some property, that diego was born, though harrisse doubts if any evidence can be adduced to support such a statement beyond a sort of conjecture on las casas's part, derived from something he thought he remembered diego to have told him. [sidenote: perestrello's mss.] the story of columbus's marriage, as given in the _historie_ and followed by oviedo, couples with it the belief that it was among the papers of his dead father-in-law, perestrello, that columbus found documents and maps which prompted him to the conception of a western passage to asia. in that case, this may perhaps have been the motive which induced him to draw from paolo toscanelli that famous letter, which is usually held to have had an important influence on the mind of columbus. [sidenote: story of a sailor dying in columbus's house.] the fact of such relationship of columbus with perestrello is called in question, and so is another incident often related by the biographers of columbus. this is that an old seaman who had returned from an adventurous voyage westward had found shelter in the house of columbus, and had died there, but not before he had disclosed to him a discovery he had made of land to the west. this story is not told in any writer that is now known before gomara ( ), and we are warned by benzoni that in gomara's hands this pilot story was simply an invention "to diminish the immortal fame of christopher columbus, as there were many who could not endure that a foreigner and italian should have acquired so much honor and so much glory, not only for the spanish kingdom, but also for the other nations of the world." [sidenote: pomponius mela, strabo, etc.] [sidenote: manilius, solinus, ptolemy.] it is certain, however, that under the impulse of the young art of printing men's minds had at this time become more alive than they had been for centuries to the search for cosmographical views. the old geographers, just at this time, were one by one finding their way into print, mainly in italy, while the intercourse of that country with portugal was quickened by the attractions of the portuguese discoveries. while columbus was still in italy, the great popularity of pomponius mela began with the first edition in latin, which was printed at milan in , followed soon by other editions in venice. the _de situ orbis_ of strabo had already been given to the world in latin as early as , and during the next few years this text was several times reprinted at rome and venice. the teaching of the sphericity of the earth in the astronomical poem of manilius, long a favorite with the monks of the middle ages, who repeated it in their labored script, appeared in type at nuremberg at the same time. the _polyhistor_ of solinus did not long delay to follow. a latin version of ptolemy had existed since , but it was later than the rest in appearing in print, and bears the date of . these were the newer issues of the italian and german presses, which were attracting the notice of the learned in this country of the new activities when columbus came among them, and they were having their palpable effect. [sidenote: toscanelli's theory.] [sidenote: his letter to columbus.] just when we know not, but some time earlier than this, alfonso v. of portugal had sought, through the medium of the monk fernando martinez (fernam martins), to know precisely what was meant by the bruit of toscanelli's theory of a westward way to india. to an inquiry thus vouched toscanelli had replied to fernando martinez (june , ), some days before a similar inquiry addressed to toscanelli reached florence, from columbus himself, and through the agency of an aged florentine merchant settled in lisbon. it seems probable that no knowledge of martinez's correspondence with toscanelli had come to the notice of columbus; and that the message which the genoese sent to the florentine was due simply to the same current rumors of toscanelli's views which had attracted the attention of the king. so in replying to columbus toscanelli simply shortened his task by inclosing, with a brief introduction, a copy of the letter, which he says he had sent "some days before" to martinez. this letter outlined a plan of western discovery; but it is difficult to establish beyond doubt the exact position which the letter of toscanelli should hold in the growth of columbus's views. if columbus reached portugal as late as - , as seems likely, it is rendered less certain that columbus had grasped his idea anterior to the spread of toscanelli's theory. in any event, the letter of the florentine physician would strengthen the growing notions of the genoese. as toscanelli was at this time a man of seventy-seven, and as a belief in the sphericity of the earth was then not unprevalent, and as the theory of a westward way to the east was a necessary concomitant of such views in the minds of thinking men, it can hardly be denied that the latent faith in a westward passage only needed a vigilant mind to develop the theory, and an adventurous spirit to prove its correctness. the development had been found in toscanelli and the proof was waiting for columbus,--both italians; but humboldt points out how the florentine very likely thought he was communicating with a portuguese, when he wrote to columbus. this letter has been known since in the italian text as given in the _historie_, which, as it turns out, was inexact and overladen with additions. at least such is the inference when we compare this italian text with a latin text, supposed to be the original tongue of the letter, which has been discovered of late years in the handwriting of columbus himself, on the flyleaf of an Æneas sylvius ( ), once belonging to columbus, and still preserved in the biblioteca colombina at seville. the letter which is given in the _historie_ is accompanied by an antescript, which says that the copy had been sent to columbus at his request, and that it had been originally addressed to martinez, some time "before the wars of castile." how much later than the date june , , this copy was sent to columbus, and when it was received by him, there is no sure means of determining, and it may yet be in itself one of the factors for limiting the range of months during which columbus must have arrived in portugal. [sidenote: toscanelli's visions of the east.] the extravagances of the letter of toscanelli, in his opulent descriptions of a marvelous asiatic region, were safely made in that age without incurring the charge of credulity. travelers could tell tales then that were as secure from detection as the revealed arcana of the zuñi have been in our own days. two hundred towns, whose marble bridges spanned a single river, and whose commerce could incite the cupidity of the world, was a tale easily to stir numerous circles of listeners in the maritime towns of the mediterranean, wherever wandering mongers of marvels came and went. there were such travelers whose recitals toscanelli had read, and others whose tales he had heard from their own lips, and these last were pretty sure to augment the wonders of the elder talebearers. columbus had felt this influence with the rest, and the tales lost nothing of their vividness in coming to him freshened, as it were, by the curious mind of the florentine physician. the map which accompanied toscanelli's letter, and which depicted his notions of the asiatic coast lying over against that of spain, is lost to us, but various attempts have been made to restore it, as is done in the sketch annexed. it will be a precious memorial, if ever recovered, worthy of study as a reflex, in more concise representation than is found in the text of the letter, of the ideas which one of the most learned cosmographers of his day had imbibed from mingled demonstrations of science and imagination. [illustration: toscanelli's map as restored in _das ausland_.] [sidenote: the passage westward.] it is said that in our own day, in the first stages of a belief in the practicability of an atlantic telegraphic cable, it was seriously claimed that the vast stretch of its extension could be broken by a halfway station on jacquet island, one of those relics of the middle ages, which has disappeared from our ocean charts only in recent years. [sidenote: antillia.] just in the same way all the beliefs which men had had in the island of antillia, and in the existence of many another visionary bit of land, came to the assistance of these theoretical discoverers in planning the chances of a desperate voyage far out into a sea of gorgons and chimeras dire. toscanelli's map sought to direct the course of any one who dared to make the passage, in a way that, in case of disaster to his ships, a secure harbor could be found in antillia, and in such other havens as no lack of islands would supply. ferdinand claimed to have found in his father's papers some statements which he had drawn from aristotle of carthaginian voyages to antillia, on the strength of which the portuguese had laid that island down in their charts in the latitude of lisbon, as one occupied by their people in , when spain was conquered by the moors. even so recently as the time of prince henry it had been visited by portuguese ships, if records were to be believed. it also stands in the bianco map of . [sidenote: fabulous islands of the atlantic.] there are few more curious investigations than those which concern these fantastic and fabulous islands of the sea of darkness. they are connected with views which were an inheritance in part from the classic times, with involved notions of the abodes of the blessed and of demoniacal spirits. in part they were the aërial creation of popular mythologies, going back to a remoteness of which it is impossible to trace the beginning, and which got a variable color from the popular fancies of succeeding generations. the whole subject is curiously without the field of geography, though entering into all surveys of mediæval knowledge of the earth, and depending very largely for its elucidation on the maps of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, whose mythical traces are not beyond recognition in some of the best maps which have instructed a generation still living. [sidenote: st. brandan.] to place the island of the irish st. brandan--whose coming there with his monks is spoken of as taking place in the sixth century--in the catalogue of insular entities is to place geography in such a marvelous guise as would have satisfied the monk philoponus and the rest of the credulous fictionmongers who hang about the skirts of the historic field. but the belief in it long prevailed, and the apparition sometimes came to sailors' eyes as late as the last century. [sidenote: antillia, or the seven cities.] the great island of antillia, or the seven cities, already referred to, was recognized, so far as we know, for the first time in the weimar map of , and is known in legends as the resort of some spanish bishops, flying from the victorious moors, in the eighth century. it never quite died out from the recognition of curious minds, and was even thought to have been seen by the portuguese, not far from the time when columbus was born. peter martyr also, after columbus had returned from his first voyage, had a fancy that what the admiral had discovered was really the great island of antillia, and its attendant groups of smaller isles, and the fancy was perpetuated when wytfliet and ortelius popularized the name of antilles for the west indian archipelago. [sidenote: brazil island.] another fleeting insular vision of this pseudo-geographical realm was a smaller body of floating land, very inconstant in position, which is always given some form of the name that, in later times, got a constant shape in the word brazil. we can trace it back into the portolanos of the middle of the fourteenth century; and it had not disappeared as a survival twenty or thirty years ago in the admiralty charts of great britain. the english were sending out expeditions from bristol in search of it even while columbus was seeking countenance for his western schemes; and cabot, at a little later day, was instrumental in other searches. [sidenote: travelers in the orient.] foremost among the travelers who had excited the interest of toscanelli, and whose names he possibly brought for the first time to the attention of columbus, were marco polo, sir john mandeville, and nicolas de conti. [illustration: modern eastern asia, with the old and new names. [from yule's _cathay_.]] [sidenote: marco polo,] it is a question to be resolved only by critical study as to what was the language in which marco polo first dictated, in a genoese prison in , the original narrative of his experiences in cathay. the inquiry has engaged the attention of all his editors, and has invited the critical sagacity of d'avezac. there seems little doubt that it was written down in french. [illustration: eastern asia, catalan map, . [from yule's _cathay_, vol. i.]] [illustration: marco polo. [from an original at rome.]] there are no references by columbus himself to the asiatic travels of marco polo, but his acquaintance with the marvelous book of the venetian observer may safely be assumed. the multiplication of texts of the _milione_ following upon his first dictation, and upon the subsequent revision in , may not, indeed, have caused it to be widely known in various manuscript forms, be it in latin or italian. nor is it likely that columbus could have read the earliest edition which was put in type, for it was in german in ; but there is the interesting possibility that this work of the nuremberg press may have been known to martin behaim, a nuremberger then in lisbon, and likely enough to have been a familiar of columbus. the fact that there is in the biblioteca colombina at seville a copy of the first latin printed edition ( ) with notes, which seem to be in columbus's handwriting, may be taken as evidence, that at least in the later years of his study the inspiration which marco polo could well have been to him was not wanting; and the story may even be true as told in navarrete, that columbus had a copy of this famous book at his side during his first voyage, in . at the time when humboldt doubted the knowledge of columbus in respect to marco polo, this treasure of the colombina was not known, and these later developments have shown how such a question was not to be settled as humboldt supposed, by the fact that columbus quoted Æneas sylvius upon cipango, and did not quote marco polo. [sidenote: sir john mandeville.] neither does columbus refer to the journey and strange stories of sir john mandeville, whose recitals came to a generation which was beginning to forget the stories of marco polo, and which, by fostering a passion for the marvelous, had readily become open to the english knight's bewildering fancies. the same negation of evidence, however, that satisfied humboldt as respects marco polo will hardly suffice to establish columbus's ignorance of the marvels which did more, perhaps, than the narratives of any other traveler to awaken europe to the wonders of the orient. bernaldez, in fact, tells us that columbus was a reader of mandeville, whose recital was first printed in french at lyons in , within a few years after columbus's arrival in portugal. [sidenote: nicolo di conti.] it was to florence, in toscanelli's time, not far from , that nicolo di conti, a venetian, came, after his long sojourn of a quarter of a century in the far east. in conti's new marvels, the florentine scholar saw a rejuvenation of the wonders of marco polo. it was from conti, doubtless, that toscanelli got some of that confidence in a western voyage which, in his epistle to columbus, he speaks of as derived from a returned traveler. pope eugene iv., not far from the time of the birth of columbus, compelled conti to relate his experiences to poggio bracciolini. this scribe made what he could out of the monstrous tales, and translated the stories into latin. in this condition columbus may have known the narrative at a later day. the information which conti gave was eagerly availed of by the cosmographers of the time, and colonel yule, the modern english writer on ancient cathay, thinks that fra mauro got for his map more from conti than that traveler ventured to disclose to poggio. [sidenote: toscanelli's death, .] toscanelli, at the time of writing this letter to columbus, had long enjoyed a reputation as a student of terrestrial and celestial phenomena. he had received, in , the dedication by regiomontanus of his treatise on the quadrature of the circle. he was, as has been said, an old man of seventy-seven when columbus opened his correspondence with him. it was not his fate to live long enough to see his physical views substantiated by diaz and columbus, for he died in . [sidenote: columbus confers with others.] in two of the contemporary writers, bartholomew columbus is credited with having incited his brother christopher to the views which he developed regarding a western passage, and these two were antonio gallo and giustiniani, the commentator of the psalms. it has been of late contended by h. grothe, in his _leonardo da vinci_ (berlin, ), that it was at this time, too, when that eminent artist conducted a correspondence with columbus about a western way to asia. but there is little need of particularizing other advocates of a belief which had within the range of credible history never ceased to have exponents. the conception was in no respect the merit of columbus, except as he grasped a tradition, which others did not, and it is strange, that navarrete in quoting the testimony of ferdinand and isabella, of august , , to the credit of the discovery of columbus, as his own proper work, does not see that it was the venturesome, and as was then thought foolhardy, deed to prove the conception which those monarchs commended, and not the conception itself. [sidenote: columbus writes out reasons for his belief.] we learn from the _historie_ that its writer had found among the papers of columbus the evidence of the grounds of his belief in the western passage, as under varying impressions it had been formulated in his mind. these reasons divide easily into three groups: first, those based on deductions drawn from scientific research, and as expressed in the beliefs of ptolemy, marinus, strabo, and pliny; second, views which the authority of eminent writers had rendered weightier, quoting as such the works of aristotle, seneca, strabo, pliny, solinus, marco polo, mandeville, pierre d'ailly, and toscanelli; and third, the stories of sailors as to lands and indications of lands westerly. from these views, instigated or confirmed by such opinions, columbus gradually arranged his opinions, in not one of which did he prove to be right, except as regards the sphericity of the earth; and the last was a belief which had been the common property of learned men, and at intervals occupying even the popular mind, from a very early date. [sidenote: sphericity of the earth.] [sidenote: transmission of the belief in it.] the conception among the greeks of a plane earth, which was taught in the homeric and hesiodic poems, began to give place to a crude notion of a spherical form at a period that no one can definitely determine, though we find it taught by the pythagoreans in italy in the sixth century before christ. the spherical view and its demonstration passed down through long generations of greeks, under the sanction of plato and their other highest thinkers. in the fourth century before christ, aristotle and others, by watching the moon's shadow in an eclipse, and by observing the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies in different latitudes, had proved the roundness of the earth to their satisfaction; eratosthenes first measured a degree of latitude in the third century; hipparchus, in the second century, was the earliest to establish geographical positions; and in the second century of the christian era ptolemy had formulated for succeeding times the general scope of the transmitted belief. during all these centuries it was perhaps rather a possession of the learned. we infer from aristotle that the view was a novelty in his time; but in the third century before christ it began to engage popular attention in the poem of aratus, and at about b. c. crates is said to have given palpable manifestation of the theory in a globe, ten feet in diameter, which he constructed. the belief passed to italy and the latins, and was sung by hyginus and manilius in the time of augustus. we find it also in the minds of pliny, cicero, virgil, and ovid. so the belief became the heirloom of the learned throughout the classic times, and it was directly coupled in the minds of aristotle, eratosthenes, strabo, seneca, and others with a conviction, more or less pronounced, of an easy western voyage from spain to india. [sidenote: seneca's _medea_.] [sidenote: cosmas.] [sidenote: bacon, albertus magnus, pierre d'ailly.] no one of the ancient expressions of this belief seems to have clung more in the memory of columbus than that in the _medea_ of seneca; and it is an interesting confirmation that in a copy of the book which belonged to his son ferdinand, and which is now preserved in seville, the passage is scored by the son's hand, while in a marginal note he has attested the fact that its prophecy of a western passage had been made good by his father in . though the opinion was opposed by st. chrysostom in the fourth century, it was taught by st. augustine and isidore in the fifth. cosmas in the sixth century was unable to understand how, if the earth was a sphere, those at the antipodes could see christ at his coming. that settled the question in his mind. the venerable bede, however, in the eighth century, was not constrained by any such arguments, and taught the spherical theory. jourdain, a modern french authority, has found distinct evidence that all through the middle ages the belief in the western way was kept alive by the study of aristotle; and we know how the arabs perpetuated the teachings of that philosopher, which in turn were percolated through the levant to mediterranean peoples. it is a striking fact that at a time when spain was bending all her energies to drive the moor from the iberian peninsula, that country was also engaged in pursuing those discoveries along the western way to india which were almost a direct result of the arab preservation of the cosmographical learning of aristotle and ptolemy. a belief in an earth-ball had the testimony of dante in the twelfth century, and it was the well-known faith of albertus magnus, roger bacon, and the schoolmen, in the thirteenth. it continued to be held by the philosophers, who kept alive these more recent names, and came to columbus because of the use of bacon which pierre d'ailly had made. the belief in the sphericity of the earth carried with it of necessity another,--that the east was to be found in the west. superstition, ignorance, and fear might magnify the obstacles to a passage through that drear sea of darkness, but in columbus's time, in some learned minds at least, there was no distrust as to the accomplishment of such a voyage beyond the chance of obstacles in the way. [illustration: albertus magnus. [from reusner's _icones_.]] [sidenote: the belief opposed by the church.] it is true that in this interval of very many centuries there had been lapses into unbelief. there were long periods, indeed, when no one dared to teach the doctrine. whenever and wherever the epicureans supplanted the pythagoreans, the belief fell with the disciples of pythagoras. there had been, during the days of st. chrysostom and other of the fathers, a decision of the church against it. there were doubtless, as humboldt says, conservers, during all this time, of the traditions of antiquity, since the monasteries and colleges--even in an age when to be unlearned was more pardonable than to be pagan--were of themselves quite a world apart from the dullness of the masses of the people. [sidenote: pierre d'ailly's _imago mundi_.] [sidenote: roger bacon's _opus majus_.] a hundred years before columbus, the inheritor of much of this conservation was the bishop of cambray, that pierre d'ailly whose _imago mundi_ ( ) was so often on the lips of columbus, and out of which it is more than likely that columbus drank of the knowledge of aristotle, strabo, and seneca, and to a degree greater perhaps than he was aware of he took thence the wisdom of roger bacon. it was through the _opus majus_ ( ) of this english philosopher that western europe found accessible the stories of the "silver walls and golden towers" of quinsay as described by rubruquis, the wandering missionary, who in the thirteenth century excited the cupidity of the mediterranean merchants by his accounts of the inexhaustible treasures of eastern asia, and which the reader of to-day may find in the collections of samuel purchas. pierre d'ailly's position in regard to cosmographical knowledge was hardly a dominant one. he seems to know nothing of marco polo, bacon's contemporary, and he never speaks of cathay, even when he urges the views which he has borrowed from roger bacon, of the extension of asia towards western europe. any acquaintance with the _imago mundi_ during these days of columbus in portugal came probably through report, though possibly he may have met with manuscripts of the work; for it was not till after he had gone to spain that d'ailly could have been read in any printed edition, the first being issued in . [sidenote: rotundity and gravitation.] the theory of the rotundity of the earth carried with it one objection, which in the time of columbus was sure sooner or later to be seized upon. if, going west, the ship sank with the declivity of the earth's contour, how was she going to mount such an elevation on her return voyage?--a doubt not so unreasonable in an age which had hardly more than the vaguest notion of the laws of gravitation, though some, like vespucius, were not without a certain prescience of the fact. [sidenote: size of the earth.] by the middle of the third century before christ, eratosthenes, accepting sphericity, had by astronomical methods studied the extent of the earth's circumference, and, according to the interpretation of his results by modern scholars, he came surprisingly near to the actual size, when he exceeded the truth by perhaps a twelfth part. the calculations of eratosthenes commended themselves to hipparchus, strabo, and pliny. a century later than eratosthenes, a new calculation, made by posidonius of rhodes, reduced the magnitude to a globe of about four fifths its proper size. it was palpably certain to the observant philosophers, from the beginning of their observations on the size of the earth, that the portion known to commerce and curiosity was but a small part of what might yet be known. the unknown, however, is always a terror. going north from temperate europe increased the cold, going south augmented the heat; and it was no bold thought for the naturalist to conclude that a north existed in which the cold was unbearable, and a south in which the heat was too great for life. views like these stayed the impulse for exploration even down to the century of columbus, and magnified the horrors which so long balked the exploration of the portuguese on the african coast. there had been intervals, however, when men in the indian ocean had dared to pass the equator. [sidenote: unknown regions.] [sidenote: strabo and marinus on the size of the earth.] therefore it was before the age of columbus that, east and west along the temperate belt, men's minds groped to find new conditions beyond the range of known habitable regions. strabo, in the first century before christ, made this habitable zone stretch over degrees, or a third of the circumference of the earth. the corresponding extension of marinus of tyre in the second century after christ stretched over degrees. this geographer did not define the land's border on the ocean at the east, but it was not unusual with the cosmographers who followed him to carry the farthest limits of asia to what is actually the meridian of the sandwich islands. on the west marinus pushed the fortunate islands (canaries) two degrees and a half beyond cape finisterre, failing to comprehend their real position, which for the westernmost, ferro, is something like nine degrees beyond the farther limits of the main land. [sidenote: ptolemy's view.] the belt of the known world running in the direction of the equator was, in the conception of ptolemy, the contemporary of marinus, about seventy-nine degrees wide, sixteen of these being south of the equatorial line. this was a contraction from the previous estimate of marinus, who had made it over eighty-seven degrees. [sidenote: toscanelli's view.] toscanelli reduced the globe to a circumference of about , miles, losing about , miles; and the untracked ocean, lying west of lisbon, was about one third of this distance. in other words, the known world occupied about of the degrees constituting the equatorial length. few of the various computations of this time gave such scant dimensions to the unknown proportion of the line. the laon globe, which was made ten or twelve years later than toscanelli's time, was equally scant. behaim, who figured out the relations of the known to the unknown circuit, during the summer before columbus sailed on his first voyage, reduced what was known to not much more than a third of the whole. it was the fashion, too, with an easy reliance on their genuineness, to refer to the visions of esdras in support of a belief in the small part--a sixth--of the surface of the globe covered by the ocean. [illustration: laon globe. [after d'avezac.]] [sidenote: views of columbus.] the problem lay in columbus's mind thus: he accepted the theory of the division of the circumference of the earth into twenty-four hours, as it had come down from marinus of tyre, when this ancient astronomer supposed that from the eastern verge of asia to the western extremity of europe there was a space of fifteen hours. the discovery of the azores had pushed the known limit a single hour farther towards the setting sun, making sixteen hours, or two thirds of the circumference of degrees. there were left eight hours, or one hundred and twenty degrees, to represent the space between the azores and asia. this calculation in reality brought the asiatic coast forward to the meridian of california, obliterating the width of the pacific at that latitude, and reducing by so much the size of the globe as columbus measured it, on the assumption that marinus was correct. this, however, he denied. if the _historie_ reports columbus exactly, he contended that the testimony of marco polo and mandeville carried the verge of asia so far east that the land distance was more than fifteen hours across; and by as much as this increased the distance, by so much more was the asiatic shore pushed nearer the coasts of europe. "we can thus determine," he says, "that india is even neighboring to spain and africa." [sidenote: length of a degree.] the calculation of course depended on what was the length of a degree, and on this point there was some difference of opinion. toscanelli had so reduced a degree's length that china was brought forward on his planisphere till its coast line cut the meridian of the present newfoundland. [sidenote: quinsay.] we can well imagine how this undue contraction of the size of the globe, as the belief lay in the mind of columbus, and as he expressed it later (july , ), did much to push him forward, and was a helpful illusion in inducing others to venture upon the voyage with him. the courage required to sail out of some iberian port due west a hundred and twenty degrees in order to strike the regions about the great chinese city of quinsay, or kanfu, hangtscheufu, and kingszu, as it has been later called, was more easily summoned than if the actual distance of two hundred and thirty-one degrees had been recognized, or even the two hundred and four degrees necessary in reality to reach cipango, or japan. the views of toscanelli, as we have seen, reduced the duration of risk westward to so small a figure as fifty-two degrees. so it had not been an unusual belief, more or less prominent for many generations, that with a fair wind it required no great run westward to reach cathay, if one dared to undertake it. if there were no insurmountable obstacles in the sea of darkness, it would not be difficult to reach earlier that multitude of islands which was supposed to fringe the coast of china. [sidenote: asiatic islands.] [sidenote: cipango.] [sidenote: spanish and portuguese explorations.] it was a common belief, moreover, that somewhere in this void lay the great island of cipango,--the goal of columbus's voyage. sometimes nearer and sometimes farther it lay from the asiatic coast. pinzon saw in rome in a map which carried it well away from that coast; and if one could find somewhere in the english archives the sea-chart with which bartholomew columbus enforced the views of his brother, to gain the support of the english king, it is supposed that it would reveal a somewhat similar location of the coveted island. here, then, was a space, larger or smaller, as men differently believed, interjacent along this known zone between the ascertained extreme east in asia and the accepted most distant west at cape st. vincent in spain, as was thought in strabo's time, or at the canaries, as was comprehended in the days of ptolemy. what there was in this unknown space between spain and cathay was the problem which balked the philosophers quite as much as that other uncertainty, which concerned what might possibly be found in the southern hemisphere, could one dare to enter the torrid heats of the supposed equatorial ocean, or in the northern wastes, could one venture to sail beyond the arctic circle. these curious quests of the inquisitive and learned minds of the early centuries of the christian era were the prototypes of the actual explorations which it was given in the fifteenth century to the spaniards and portuguese respectively to undertake. the commercial rivalry which had in the past kept genoa and venice watchful of each other's advantage had by their maritime ventures in the atlantic passed to these two peninsular nations, and england was not long behind them in starting in her race for maritime supremacy. [sidenote: sea of darkness.] it was in human nature that these unknown regions should become those either of enchantment or dismay, according to personal proclivities. it is not necessary to seek far for any reason for this. an unknown stretch of waters was just the place for the resorts of the gorgons and to find the islands of the blest, and to nurture other creations of the literary and spiritual instincts, seeking to give a habitation to fancies. it is equally in human nature that what the intellect has habilitated in this way the fears, desires, and superstitions of men in due time turn to their own use. it was easy, under the stress of all this complexity of belief and anticipation, for this supposable interjacent oceanic void to teem in men's imaginations with regions of almost every imaginable character; and when, in the days of the roman republic, the canaries were reached, there was no doubt but the ancient islands of the blest had been found, only in turn to pass out of cognizance, and once more to fall into the abyss of the unknown. [sidenote: story of atlantis.] [sidenote: land of the meropes.] [sidenote: saturnian continent.] there are, however, three legends which have come down to us from the classic times, which the discovery of america revived with new interest in the speculative excursions of the curiously learned, and it is one of the proofs of the narrow range of columbus's acquaintance with original classic writers that these legends were not pressed by him in support of his views. the most persistent of these in presenting a question for the physical geographer is the story of atlantis, traced to a tale told by plato of a tradition of an island in the atlantic which eight thousand years ago had existed in the west, opposite the pillars of hercules; and which, in a great inundation, had sunken beneath the sea, leaving in mid ocean large mud shoals to impede navigation and add to the terrors of a vast unknown deep. there have been those since the time of gomara who have believed that the land which columbus found dry and inhabited was a resurrected atlantis, and geographers even of the seventeenth century have mapped out its provinces within the usual outline of the american continents. others have held, and some still hold, that the atlantic islands are but peaks of this submerged continent. there is no evidence to show that these fancies of the philosopher ever disturbed even the most erratic moments of columbus, nor could he have pored over the printed latin of plato, if it came in his way, till its first edition appeared in , during his stay in portugal. neither do we find that he makes any references to that other creation, the land of the meropes, as figured in the passages cited by Ælian some seven hundred years after theopompus had conjured up the vision in the fourth century before christ. equally ignorant was columbus, it would appear, of the great saturnian continent, lying five days west from britain, which makes a story in plutarch's _morals_. [sidenote: earlier voyages on the atlantic.] [sidenote: phoenicians.] [sidenote: carthaginians.] [sidenote: romans.] we deal with a different problem when we pass from these theories and imaginings of western lands to such records as exist of what seem like attempts in the earliest days to attain by actual exploration the secret of this interjacent void. the phoenicians had passed the straits of gibraltar and found gades (cadiz), and very likely attempted to course the atlantic, about years before the birth of christ. perhaps they went to cornwall for tin. it may have been by no means impossible for them to have passed among the azores and even to have reached the american islands and main, as a statement in diodorus siculus has been interpreted to signify. then five hundred years later or more we observe the carthaginians pursuing their adventurous way outside the pillars of hercules, going down the african coast under hanno to try the equatorial horrors, or running westerly under hamilko to wonder at the sargasso sea. later, the phoenicians seem to have made some lodgment in the islands off the coasts of northwestern africa. the romans in the fourth century before christ pushed their way out into the atlantic under pytheas and euthymenes, the one daring to go as far as thule--whatever that was--in the north, and the other to senegal in the south. it was in the same century that rome had the strange sight of some unknown barbarians, of a race not recognizable, who were taken upon the shores of the german ocean, where they had been cast away. later writers have imagined--for no stronger word can be used--that these weird beings were north american indians, or rather more probably eskimos. about the same time, sertorius, a roman commander in spain, learned, as already mentioned, of some salubrious islands lying westward from africa, and gave horace an opportunity, in the evil days of the civil war, to picture them as a refuge. when the romans ruled the world, commerce lost much of the hazard and enterprise which had earlier instigated international rivalry. the interest in the western ocean subsided into merely speculative concern; and wild fancy was brought into play in depicting its horrors, its demons and shoals, with the intermingling of sky and water. [sidenote: knowledge of such early attempts.] [sidenote: maps xvth cent.] [sidenote: genoese voyages, .] it is by no means certain that columbus knew anything of this ancient lore of the early mediterranean people. there is little or nothing in the early maps of the fifteenth century to indicate that such knowledge was current among those who made or contributed to the making of such of these maps as have come down to us. the work of some of the more famous chart makers columbus could hardly have failed to see, or heard discussed in the maritime circles of portugal; and indeed it was to his own countrymen, marino sanuto, pizignani, bianco, and fra mauro, that portuguese navigators were most indebted for the broad cartographical treatment of their own discoveries. at the same time there was no dearth of legends of the venturesome genoese, with fortunes not always reassuring. there was a story, for instance, of some of these latter people, who in had sailed west from the pillars of hercules and had never returned. such was a legend that might not have escaped columbus's attention even in his own country, associating with it the names of the luckless tedisio doria and ugolino vivaldi in their efforts to find a western way to india. harrisse, however, who has gone over all the evidence of such a purpose, fails to be satisfied. these stories of ocean hazards hung naturally about the seaports of portugal. [sidenote: antillia.] galvano tells us of such a tale concerning a portuguese ship, driven west, in , to an island with seven cities, where its sailors found the people speaking portuguese, who said they had deserted their country on the death of king roderigo. this is the legend of antillia, already referred to. [sidenote: islands seen.] columbus recalled, when afterwards at the canaries on his first voyage, how it was during his sojourn in portugal that some one from madeira presented to the portuguese king a petition for a vessel to go in quest of land, occasionally seen to the westward from that island. similar stories were not unknown to him of like apparitions being familiar in the azores. a story which he had also heard of one antonio leme having seen three islands one hundred leagues west of the azores had been set down to a credulous eye, which had been deceived by floating fields of vegetation. [sidenote: the basques.] there was no obstacle in the passing of similar reports around the bay of biscay from the coasts of the basques, and the story might be heard of jean de echaide, who had found stores of stockfish off a land far oceanward,--an exploit supposed to be commemorated in the island of stokafixia, which stands far away to the westward in the bianco map of . all these tales of the early visits of the basques to what imaginative minds have supposed parts of the american coasts derive much of their perennial charm from associations with a remarkable people. there is indeed nothing improbable in a hardy daring which could have borne the basques to the newfoundland shores at almost any date earlier than the time of columbus. [sidenote: newfoundland banks possibly visited.] fructuoso, writing as late as , claimed that a portuguese navigator, joão vaz cortereal, had sailed to the codfish coast of newfoundland as early as , but barrow seems to be the only writer of recent times who has believed the tale, and biddle and harrisse find no evidence to sustain it. [sidenote: tartary supposed to be seen.] there is a statement recorded by columbus, if we may trust the account of the _historie_, that a sailor at santa maria had told him how, being driven westerly in a voyage to ireland, he had seen land, which he then thought to be tartary. some similar experiences were also told to columbus by pieter de velasco, of galicia; and this land, according to the account, would seem to have been the same sought at a later day by the cortereals ( ). [sidenote: dubious pre-columbian voyages.] it is not easy to deal historically with long-held traditions. the furbishers of transmitted lore easily make it reflect what they bring to it. to find illustrations in any inquiry is not so difficult if you select what you wish, and discard all else, and the result of this discriminating accretion often looks very plausible. historical truth is reached by balancing everything, and not by assimilating that which easily suits. almost all these discussions of pre-columbian voyagings to america afford illustrations of this perverted method. events in which there is no inherent untruth are not left with the natural defense of probability, but are proved by deductions and inferences which could just as well be applied to prove many things else, and are indeed applied in a new way by every new upstart in such inquiries. the story of each discoverer before columbus has been upheld by the stock intimation of white-bearded men, whose advent is somehow mysteriously discovered to have left traces among the aborigines of every section of the coast. * * * * * [illustration: oceanic currents. [from reclus's _amérique boréale_.]] [sidenote: traces of a western land in drift.] there was another class of evidence which, as the _historie_ informs us, served some purpose in bringing conviction to the mind of columbus. such were the phenomenal washing ashore on european coasts of unknown pines and other trees, sculptured logs, huge bamboos, whose joints could be made into vessels to hold nine bottles of wine, and dead bodies with strange, broad faces. even canoes, with living men in them of wonderful aspects, had at times been reported as thrown upon the atlantic islands. such events had not been unnoticed ever since the canaries and the azores had been inhabited by a continental race, and conjectures had been rife long before the time of columbus that westerly winds had brought these estrays from a distant land,--a belief more comprehensible at that time than any dependence upon the unsuspected fact that it was the oceanic currents, rather, which impelled these migratory objects. [sidenote: gulf stream.] it required the experiences of later spanish navigators along the bahama channel, and those of the french and english farther north upon the banks of newfoundland, before it became clear that the currents of the atlantic, grazing the cape of good hope and whirling in the gulf of mexico, sprayed in a curling fringe in the north atlantic. this in a measure became patent to sir humphrey gilbert sixty or seventy years after the death of columbus. if science had then been equal to the microscopic tasks which at this day it imposes on itself, the question of western lands might have been studied with an interest beyond what attached to the trunks of trees, carved timbers, edible nuts, and seeds of alien plants, which the gulf stream is still bringing to the shores of europe. it might have found in the dust settling upon the throngs of men in the old world, the shells of animalcules, differing from those known to the observing eye in europe, which, indeed, had been carried in the upper currents of air from the banks of the orinoco. * * * * * [sidenote: influence of portuguese discoveries upon columbus.] [sidenote: _ephemerides_ of regiomontanus.] once in portugal, columbus was brought in close contact with that eager spirit of exploration which had survived the example of prince henry and his navigators. if las casas was well informed, these portuguese discoveries were not without great influence upon the genoese's receptive mind. he was now where he could hear the fresh stories of their extending acquaintance with the african coast. his wife's sister, by the accepted accounts, had married pedro correa, a navigator not without fame in those days, and a companion in maritime inquiry upon whom columbus could naturally depend,--unless, as harrisse decides, he was no navigator at all. columbus was also at hand to observe the growing skill in the arts of navigation which gave the portuguese their preëminence. he had not been long in lisbon when regiomontanus gave a new power in astronomical calculations of positions at sea by publishing his _ephemerides_, for the interval from to , upon which columbus was yet to depend in his eventful voyage. [sidenote: martin behaim.] the most famous of the pupils of this german mathematician was himself in lisbon during the years of columbus's sojourn. we have no distinct evidence that martin behaim, a nuremberger, passed any courtesies with the genoese adventurer, but it is not improbable that he did. his position was one that would attract columbus, who might never have been sought by behaim. the nuremberger's standing was, indeed, such as to gain the attention of the court, and he was thought not unworthy to be joined with the two royal physicians, roderigo and josef, on a commission to improve the astrolabe. their perfected results mark an epoch in the art of seamanship in that age. [illustration: samples of the tables of regiomontanus, - .] [illustration: the african coast, . [from nordenskiöld's _facsimile atlas_.]] [sidenote: guinea coast, .] [sidenote: the congo reached, .] it was a new sensation when news came that at last the portuguese had crossed the equator, in pushing along the african coast. in january, , they had said their first mass on the guinea coast, and the castle of san jorge da mina was soon built under the new impulse to enterprise which came with the accession of joão ii. in they reached the congo, under the guidance of diogo cam, and martin behaim was of his company. [illustration: martin behaim.] these voyages were not without strong allurements to the genoese sailor. he is thought to have been a participant in some of the later cruises. the _historie_ claims that he began to reason, from his new experiences, that if land could be discovered to the south there was much the same chance of like discoveries in the west. but there were experiences of other kinds which, in the interim, if we believe the story, he underwent in the north. chapter vii. was columbus in the north? [sidenote: columbus supposed to have sailed beyond iceland, .] there is, in the minds of some inquirers into the early discovery of america, no more pivotal incident attaching to the career of columbus than an alleged voyage made to the vicinity of what is supposed to have been iceland, in the assigned year of . the incident is surrounded with the confusion that belongs to everything dependent on columbus's own statements, or on what is put forth as such. our chief knowledge of his voyage is in the doubtful italian rendering of the _historie_ of , where, citing a memoir by columbus himself on the five habitable zones, the translator or adapter of that book makes the admiral say that "in february, , he sailed a hundred leagues beyond the island tile, which lies under the seventy-third parallel, and not under the sixty-third, as some say." the only evidence that he saw tile, in sailing beyond it, is in what he further says, that he was able to ascertain that the tide rose and fell twenty-six fathoms, which observation necessitates the seeing of some land, whether tile or not. [sidenote: inconsistencies in the statement.] there is no land at all in the northern atlantic under °. iceland stretches from ° to °; jan mayen is too small for columbus's further description of the island, and is at °, and spitzbergen is at °. what columbus says of the english of bristol trading at this island points to iceland; and it is easy, if one will, to imagine a misprint of the figures, an error of calculation, a carelessness of statement, or even the disappearance, through some cataclysm, of the island, as has been suggested. [illustration: map of olaus magnus, . [from dr. brenner's essay.]] humboldt in his _cosmos_ quotes columbus as saying of this voyage near thule that "the sea was not at that time covered with ice," and he credits that statement to the same _tratado de las cinco zonas habitables_ of columbus, and urges in proof that finn magnusen had found in ancient historical sources that in february, , ice had not set in on the southern coast of that island. [sidenote: thyle.] speaking of "tile," the same narrative adds that "it is west of the western verge of ptolemy [that is, ptolemy's world map], and larger than england." this expression of its size could point only to iceland, of all islands in the northern seas. there are elements in the story, however, not easily reconcilable with what might be expected of an experienced mariner; and if the story is true in its main purpose, there is little more in the details than the careless inexactness, which characterizes a good many of the well-authenticated asseverations of columbus. [sidenote: the zeni's frisland.] again the narrative says, "it is true that ptolemy's thule is where that geographer placed it, but that it is now called frislande." does this mean that the zeni story had been a matter of common talk forty years after the voyage to their frisland had been made, and eighty-four years before a later scion of the family published the remarkable narrative in venice, in ? it is possible that the maker of the _historie_ of , in the way in which it was given to the world, had interpolated this reference to the frisland of the zeni to help sustain the credit of his own or the other book. a voyage undertaken by columbus to such high latitudes is rendered in all respects doubtful, to say the least, from the fact that in columbus detailed for the eyes of his sovereigns the unusual advantages of the harbors of the new islands which he had discovered, and added that he was entitled to express such an opinion, because his exploration had extended from guinea on the south to england on the north. it was an occasion when he desired to make his acquaintance seem as wide as the facts would warrant, and yet he does not profess to have been farther north than england. a hundred leagues, moreover, beyond iceland might well have carried him to the upper greenland coast, but he makes no mention of other land being seen in those high latitudes. [sidenote: thyle and iceland.] thyle and iceland are made different islands in the ptolemy of , which, if it does not prove that iceland was not then the same as thyle in the mind of geographers, shows that geographical confusion still prevailed at the north. it may be further remarked that muñoz and others have found no time in columbus's career to which this voyage to the north could so easily pertain as to a period anterior to his going to portugal, and consequently some years before the of the _historie_. [sidenote: the english in iceland.] [sidenote: kolno.] [sidenote: the zeni.] a voyage to iceland was certainly no new thing. the english traded there, and a large commerce was maintained with it by bristol, and had been for many years. a story grew up at a later day, and found expression in gomara and wytfliet, that in , the year before this alleged voyage of columbus, a danish expedition, under the command of the pole kolno, or skolno, had found in these northern regions an entrance to the straits of anian, which figure so constantly in later maps, and which opened a passage to the indies; but there seems to be no reason to believe that it had any definite foundation, and it could hardly have been known to columbus. it is also easy to conjecture that columbus had been impelled to join some english trading vessel from bristol, through mere nautical curiosity, and even been urged by reports which may have reached him of the northern explorations of the zeni, long before the accounts were printed. but if he knew anything, he either treasured it up as a proof of his theories, not yet to be divulged,--why is not clear,--or, what is vastly more probable, it never occurred to him to associate any of these dim regions with the coasts of marco polo's cathay. [sidenote: madoc.] there was no lack of stories, even at this time, of venturesome voyages west along the latitude of england and to the northwest, and of these tales columbus may possibly have heard. such was the story which had been obscurely recorded, that madoc, a welsh chieftain, in the later years of the twelfth century had carried a colony westerly. nor can it be positively asserted that the estotiland and drogeo of the zeni narrative, then lying in the cabinet of an italian family unknown, had ever come to his knowledge. there are stories in the _historie_ of reports which had reached him, that mariners sailing for ireland had been driven west, and had sighted land which had been supposed to be tartary, which at a later day was thought to be the baccalaos of the cortereals. [sidenote: bresil, or brazil, island.] the island of bresil had been floating about the atlantic, usually in the latitude of ireland, since the days when the maker of the catalan planisphere, in , placed it in that sea, and current stories of its existence resulted, at a later day ( ), in the sending from bristol of an expedition of search, as has already been said. [sidenote: did columbus land on thule?] finn magnusen among the scandinavian writers, and de costa and others among americans, have thought it probable that columbus landed at hualfiord, in iceland. columbus, however, does not give sufficient ground for any such inference. he says he went beyond thule, not to it, whatever thule was, and we only know by his observations on the tides, that he approached dry land. [sidenote: bishop magnus in iceland.] laing, in his introduction to the _heimskringla_, says confidently that columbus "came to iceland from bristol, in , on purpose to gain nautical information,"--an inference merely,--"and must have heard of the written accounts of the norse discoveries recorded in" the _codex flatoyensis_. laing says again that as bishop magnus is known to have been in iceland in the spring of , "it is presumed columbus must have met and conversed with him"! a great deal turns on this purely imaginary conversation, and the possibilities of its scope. [sidenote: the norse in iceland.] [sidenote: eric the red.] [sidenote: greenland.] the listening columbus might, indeed, have heard of irish monks and their followers, who had been found in iceland by the first norse visitors, six hundred years before, if perchance the traditions of them had been preserved, and these may even have included the somewhat vague stories of visits to a country somewhere, which they called ireland the great. possibly, too, there were stories told at the firesides of the adventures of a sea-rover, gunnbiorn by name, who had been driven westerly from iceland and had seen a strange land, which after some years was visited by eric the red; and there might have been wondrous stories told of this same land, which eric had called greenland, in order to lure settlers, where there is some reason to believe yet earlier wanderers had found a home. [sidenote: _heimskringla._] [sidenote: position of greenland.] [sidenote: thought to be a part of europe.] there mightpossibly have been shown to columbus an old manuscript chronicle of the kings of norway, which they called the _heimskringla_, and which had been written by snorre sturlason in the thirteenth century; and if he had turned the leaves with any curiosity, he could have read, or have had translated for him, accounts of the norse colonization of greenland in the ninth century. where, then, was this greenland? could it possibly have had any connection with that cathay of marco polo, so real in the vision of columbus, and which was supposed to lie above india in the higher latitudes? as a student of contemporary cartography, columbus would have answered such a question readily, had it been suggested; for he would have known that greenland had been represented in all the maps, since it was first recognized at all, as merely an extended peninsula of scandinavia, made by a southward twist to enfold a northern sea, in which iceland lay. one certainly cannot venture to say how far columbus may have had an acquaintance with the cartographical repertories, more or less well stocked, as they doubtless were, in the great commercial centres of maritime europe, but the knowledge which we to-day have in detail could hardly have been otherwise than a common possession among students of geography then. we comprehend now how, as far back as , a map of claudius clavus showed greenland as this peninsular adjunct to the northwest of europe,--a view enforced also in a map of , in the pitti palace, and in one which nordenskiöld recently found in a codex of ptolemy at warsaw, dated in . a few years later, and certainly before columbus could have gone on this voyage, we find a map which it is more probable he could have known, and that is the engraved one of nicholas donis, drawn presumably in , and later included in the edition of ptolemy published at ulm in . the same european connection is here maintained. again it is represented in the map of henricus martellus ( - ), in a way that produced a succession of maps, which till long after the death of columbus continued to make this norse colony a territorial appendage of scandinavian europe, betraying not the slightest symptom of a belief that eric the red had strayed beyond the circle of european connections. [illustration: claudius clavus, . [from nordenskiöld's _studien_.]] [illustration: bordone, . [greenland is the northernmost peninsula of n. w. europe.]] [sidenote: made a part of asia.] it is only when we get down to the later years of columbus's life that we find, on a portuguese chart of , a glimmer of the truth, and this only transiently, though the conception of the mariners, upon which this map was based, probably associated greenland with the asiatic main, as ruysch certainly did, by a bold effort to reconcile the norse traditions with the new views of his time, when he produced the first engraved map of the discoveries of columbus and cabot in the roman ptolemy of . [sidenote: again made a part of europe.] it is thus beyond dispute that if columbus entertained any views as to the geographical relations of greenland, which had been practically lost to europe since communication with it ceased, earlier in the fifteenth century, they were simply those of a peninsula of northern europe, which could have no connection with any country lying beyond the atlantic; for it was not till after his death that any general conception of it associated with the asiatic main arose. it is quite certain, however, that as the conception began to prevail, after the discovery of the south sea by balboa, in , that an interjacent new world had really been found, there was a tendency, as shown in the map of thorne ( ), representing current views in spain, and in those of finæus ( ), ziegler ( ), mercator ( ), and bordone ( - ), to relegate the position of greenland to a peninsular connection with europe. there is a curious instance of the evolution of the correct idea in the ptolemy of , and repeated in the same plate as used in the editions of and . the map was originally engraved to show "gronlandia" as a european peninsula, but apparently, at a later stage, the word gronlandia was cut in the corner beside the sketch of an elephant, and farther west, as if to indicate its transoceanic and asiatic situation, though there was no attempt to draw in a coast line. [sidenote: later diverse views.] later in the century there was a strife of opinion between the geographers of the north, as represented in the olaus magnus map of , who disconnected the country from europe, and those of the south, who still united greenland with scandinavia, as was done in the zeno map of . by this time, however, the southern geographers had begun to doubt, and after we find labrador and greenland put in close proximity in many of their maps; and in this the editors of the ptolemy of agreed, when they altered their reëngraved map--as the plate shows--in a way to disconnect greenland from scandinavia. it is not necessary to trace the cartographical history of greenland to a later day. it is manifest that it was long after columbus's death when the question was raised of its having any other connection than with europe, and columbus could have learned in iceland nothing to suggest to him that the land of eric the red had any connection with the western shores of asia, of which he was dreaming. [sidenote: discovery of vinland.] if any of the learned men in iceland had referred columbus once more to the _heimskringla_, it would have been to the brief entry which it shows in the records as the leading norse historian made it, of the story of the discovery of vinland. there he would have read, "leif also found vinland the good," and he could have read nothing more. there was nothing in this to excite the most vivid imagination as to place or direction. [sidenote: scandinavian views of vinland.] [sidenote: stephanius's map, .] it was not till a time long after the period of columbus that, so far as we know, any cartographical records of the discoveries associated with the vinland voyages were made in the north; and not till the discoveries of columbus and his successors were a common inheritance in europe did some of the northern geographers, in , undertake to reconcile the tales of the sagas with the new beliefs. the testimony of these later maps is presumably the transmitted view then held in the north from the interpretation of the norse sagas in the light of later knowledge. this testimony is that the "america" of the spaniards, including terra florida and the "albania" of the english, was a territory south of the norse region and beyond a separating water, very likely that of davis' straits. the map of sigurd stephanius of this date ( ) puts vinland north of the straits of belle isle, and makes it end at the south in a "wild sea," which separates it [b of map] from "america." torfæus quotes torlacius as saying that this map of stephanius's was drawn from ancient icelandic records. if this cartographical record has its apparent value, it is not likely that columbus could have seen in it anything more than a manifestation of that vague boreal region which was far remote from the thoughts which possessed him, in seeking a way to india over against spain. [illustration: sigurd stephanius, .] [sidenote: dubious sagas.] beside the scant historic record respecting vinland which has been cited from the _heimskringla_, it is further possible that columbus may have seen that series of sagas which had come down in oral shape to the twelfth century. at this period put into writing, two hundred years after the events of the vinland voyages, there are none of the manuscript copies of these sagas now existing which go back of the fourteenth century. this rendering of the old sagas into script came at a time when, in addition to the inevitable transformations of long oral tradition, there was superadded the romancing spirit then rife in the north, and which had come to them from the south of europe. the result of this blending of confused tradition with the romancing of the period of the written preservation has thrown, even among the scandinavians themselves, a shade of doubt, more or less intense at times, which envelops the saga record with much that is indistinguishable from myth, leaving little but the general drift of the story to be held of the nature of a historic record. the icelandic editor of egel's saga, published at reikjavik in , acknowledges this unavoidable reflex of the times when the sagas were reduced to writing, and the most experienced of the recent writers on greenland, henrik rink, has allowed the untrustworthiness of the sagas except for their general scope. [sidenote: codex flatoyensis.] [sidenote: leif erikson.] less than a hundred years before the alleged visit of columbus to thule, there had been a compilation of some of the early sagas, and this _codex flatoyensis_ is the only authority which we have for any details of the vinland voyages. it is possible that the manuscript now known is but one copy of several or many which may have been made at an early period, not preceding, however, the twelfth century, when writing was introduced. this particular manuscript was discovered in an icelandic monastery in the seventeenth century, and there is no evidence of its being known before. of course it is possible that copies may have been in the hands of learned icelanders at the time of columbus's supposed voyage to the north, and he may have heard of it, or have had parts of it read to him. the collection is recognized by scandinavian writers as being the most confused and incongruous of similar records; and it is out of such romancing, traditionary, and conflicting recitals that the story of the norse voyages to vinland is made, if it is made at all. the sagas say that it was sixteen winters after the settlement of greenland that leif went to norway, and in the next year he sailed to vinland. these are the data from which the year a. d. has been deduced as that of the beginning of the vinland voyages. the principal events are to be traced in the saga of eric the red, which, in the judgment of rask, a leading norse authority, is "somewhat fabulous, written long after the event, and taken from tradition." [sidenote: peringskiöld's edition of the sagas.] such, then, was the record which, if it ever came to the notice of columbus, was little suited to make upon him any impression to be associated in his mind with the asia of his dreams. humboldt, discussing the chances of columbus's gaining any knowledge of the story, thinks that when the spanish crown was contesting with the heirs of the admiral his rights of discovery, the citing of these northern experiences of columbus would have been in the crown's favor, if there had been any conception at that time that the norse discoveries, even if known to general europe, had any relation to the geographical problems then under discussion. similar views have been expressed by wheaton and prescott, and there is no evidence that up to the time of columbus an acquaintance with the vinland story had ever entered into the body of historical knowledge possessed by europeans in general. the scant references in the manuscripts of adam of bremen (a. d. ), of ordericus vitalis (a. d. ), and of saxo grammaticus (a. d. ), were not likely to be widely comprehended, even if they were at all known, and a close scrutiny of the literature of the subject does not seem to indicate that there was any considerable means of propagating a knowledge of the sagas before peringskiöld printed them in , two hundred years after the time of columbus. this editor inserted them in an edition of the _heimskringla_ and concealed the patchwork. this deception caused it afterwards to be supposed that the accounts in the _heimskringla_ had been interpolated by some later reviser of the chronicle; but the truth regarding peringskiöld's action was ultimately known. [sidenote: probabilities.] basing, then, their investigation on a narrative confessedly confused and unauthentic, modern writers have sought to determine with precision the fact of norse visits to british america, and to identify the localities. the fact that every investigator finds geographical correspondences where he likes, and quite independently of all others, is testimony of itself to the confused condition of the story. the soil of the united states and nova scotia contiguous to the atlantic may now safely be said to have been examined by competent critics sufficiently to affirm that no archæological trace of the presence of the norse here is discernible. as to such a forbidding coast as that of labrador, there has been as yet no such familiarity with it by trained archæologists as to render it reasonably certain that some trace may not be found there, and on this account george bancroft allows the possibility that the norse may have reached that coast. there remains, then, no evidence beyond a strong probability that the norse from greenland crossed davis' straits and followed south the american coast. that indisputable archæological proofs may yet be found to establish the fact of their southern course and sojourn is certainly possible. meanwhile we must be content that there is no testimony satisfactory to a careful historical student, that this course and such sojourn ever took place. a belief in it must rest on the probabilities of the case. many writers upon the norseman discovery would do well to remember the advice of ampère to present as doubtful what is true, sooner than to give as true what is doubtful. "ignorance," says muñoz, in speaking of the treacherous grounds of unsupported narrative, "is generally accompanied by vanity and temerity." [sidenote: did columbus hear of the saga stories?] it is an obvious and alluring supposition that this story should have been presented to columbus, whatever the effect may have been on his mind. lowell in a poem pardonably pictures him as saying:-- "i brooded on the wise athenian's tale of happy atlantis; and heard björne's keel crunch the gray pebbles of the vinland shore, for i believed the poets." but the belief is only a proposition. rafn and other extreme advocates of the norse discovery have made as much as they could of the supposition of columbus's cognizance of the norse voyages. laing seems confident that this contact must have happened. the question, however, must remain unsettled; and whether columbus landed in iceland or not, and whether the bruit of the norse expeditions struck his ears elsewhere or not, the fact of his never mentioning them, when he summoned every supposable evidence to induce acceptance of his views, seems to be enough to show at least that to a mind possessed as his was of the scheme of finding india by the west the stories of such northern wandering offered no suggestion applicable to his purpose. it is, moreover, inconceivable that columbus should have taken a course southwest from the canaries, if he had been prompted in any way by tidings of land in the northwest. chapter viii. columbus leaves portugal for spain. [sidenote: columbus's obscure record, - .] it is a rather striking fact, as harrisse puts it, that we cannot place with an exact date any event in columbus's life from august , , when a document shows him to have been in savona, italy, till he received at cordoba, spain, from the treasurer of the catholic sovereigns, his first gratuity on may , , as is shown by the entry in the books, "given this day , maravedis," about $ , "to cristobal colomo, a stranger." the events of this period of about fourteen years were those which made possible his later career. the incidents connected with this time have become the shuttlecocks which have been driven backward and forward in their chronological bearings, by all who have undertaken to study the details of this part of columbus's life. it is nearly as true now as it was when prescott wrote, that "the discrepancies among the earliest authorities are such as to render hopeless any attempt to settle with precision the chronology of columbus's movements previous to his first voyage." [sidenote: his motives for leaving portugal.] [sidenote: chief sources of our knowledge.] the motives which induced him to abandon portugal, where he had married, and where he had apparently found not a little to reconcile him to his exile, are not obscure ones as detailed in the ordinary accounts of his life. all these narratives are in the main based, first, on the _historie_ ( ); secondly, on the great historical work of joam de barros, pertaining to the discoveries of the portuguese in the east indies, first published in , and still holding probably the loftiest position in the historical literature of that country; and, finally, on the lives of joão ii., then monarch of portugal, by ruy de pina and by vasconcellos. the latter borrowing in the main from the former, was exclusively used by irving. las casas apparently depended on barros as well as on the _historie_. it is necessary to reconcile their statements, as well as it can be done, to get even an inductive view of the events concerned. the treatment of the subject by irving would make it certain that it was a new confidence in the ability to make long voyages, inspired by the improvements of the astrolabe as directed by behaim, that first gave columbus the assurance to ask for royal patronage of the maritime scheme which had been developing in his mind. [sidenote: columbus and behaim.] just what constituted the acquaintance of columbus with behaim is not clearly established. herrera speaks of them as friends. humboldt thinks some intimacy between them may have existed, but finds no decisive proof of it. behaim had spent much of his life in lisbon and in the azores, and there are some striking correspondences in their careers, if we accept the usual accounts. they were born and died in the same year. each lived for a while on an atlantic island, the nuremberger at fayal, and the genoese at porto santo; and each married the daughter of the governor of his respective island. they pursued their nautical studies at the same time in lisbon, and the same physicians who reported to the portuguese king upon columbus's scheme of westward sailing were engaged with behaim in perfecting the sea astrolabe. [sidenote: columbus and the king of portugal.] the account of the audience with the king which we find in the _historie_ is to the effect that columbus finally succeeded in inducing joão to believe in the practicability of a western passage to asia; but that the monarch could not be brought to assent to all the titular and pecuniary rewards which columbus contended for as emoluments of success, and that a commission, to whom the monarch referred the project, pronounced the views of columbus simply chimerical. barros represents that the advances of columbus were altogether too arrogant and fantastic ever to have gained the consideration of the king, who easily disposed of the genoese's pretentious importunities by throwing the burden of denial upon a commission. this body consisted of the two physicians of the royal household, already mentioned, roderigo and josef, to whom was added cazadilla, the bishop of ceuta. vasconcellos's addition to this story, which he derived almost entirely from ruy de pina, resende, and barros, is that there was subsequently another reference to a royal council, in which the subject was discussed in arguments, of which that historian preserves some reports. this discussion went farther than was perhaps intended, since cazadilla proceeded to discourage all attempts at exploration even by the african route, as imperiling the safety of the state, because of the money which was required; and because it kept at too great a distance for an emergency a considerable force in ships and men. in fact the drift of the debate seems to have ignored the main projects as of little moment and as too visionary, and the energy of the hour was centered in a rallying speech made by the count of villa real, who endeavored to save the interests of african exploration. the count's speech quite accomplished its purpose, if we can trust the reports, since it reassured the rather drooping energies of the king, and induced some active measures to reach the extremity of africa. [sidenote: diaz's african voyage, .] [sidenote: passes the cape.] [illustration: portuguese mappemonde, . [sketched from the original ms. in the british museum.]] in august, , bartholomew diaz, the most eminent of a line of portuguese navigators, had departed on the african route, with two consorts. as he neared the latitude of the looked-for cape, he was driven south, and forced away from the land, by a storm. when he was enabled to return on his track he struck the coast, really to the eastward of the true cape, though he did not at the time know it. this was in may, . his crew being unwilling to proceed farther, he finally turned westerly, and in due time discovered what he had done. the first passage of the cape was thus made while sailing west, just as, possibly, the mariners of the indian seas may have done. in december he was back in lisbon with the exhilarating news, and it was probably conveyed to columbus, who was then in spain, by his brother bartholomew, the companion of diaz in this eventful voyage, as las casas discovered by an entry made by bartholomew himself in a copy of d'ailly's _imago mundi_. thirty years before, as we have seen, fra mauro had prefigured the cape in his map, but it was now to be put on the charts as a geographical discovery; and by , or thereabouts, succeeding portuguese navigators had pushed up the west coast of africa to a point shown in a map preserved in the british museum, but not far enough to connect with what was supposed with some certainty to be the limit reached during the voyages of the arabian navigators, while sailing south from the red sea. there was apparently not a clear conception in the minds of the portuguese, at this time, just how far from the cape the entrance of the arabian waters really was. it is possible that intelligence may have thus early come from the indian ocean, by way of the mediterranean, that the oriental sailors knew of the great african cape by approaching it from the east. [sidenote: portuguese missionaries to egypt.] such knowledge, if held to be visionary, was, however, established with some certainty in men's minds before da gama actually effected the passage of the cape. this confirmation had doubtless come through some missionaries of the portuguese king, who in sent such a positive message from cairo. but while the new exertions along the african coast, thus inadvertently instigated by columbus, were making, what was becoming of his own westward scheme? [sidenote: the portuguese send out an expedition to forestall columbus.] the story goes that it was by the advice of cazadilla that the portuguese king lent himself to an unworthy device. this was a project to test the views of columbus, and profit by them without paying him his price. an outline of his intended voyage had been secured from him in the investigation already mentioned. a caravel, under pretense of a voyage to the cape de verde islands, was now dispatched to search for the cipango of marco polo, in the position which columbus had given it in his chart. the mercenary craft started out, and buffeted with head seas and angry winds long enough to emasculate what little courage the crew possessed. without the prop of conviction they deserted their purpose and returned. once in port, they began to berate the genoese for his foolhardy scheme. in this way they sought to vindicate their own timidity. this disclosed to columbus the trick which had been played upon him. such is the story as the _historie_ tells it, and which has been adopted by herrera and others. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus leaves portugal, .] at this point there is too much uncertainty respecting the movements of columbus for even his credulous biographers to fill out the tale. it seems to be agreed that in the latter part of he left portugal with a secrecy which was supposed to be necessary to escape the vigilance of the government spies. there is beside some reason for believing that it was also well for him to shun arrest for debts, which had been incurred in the distractions of his affairs. [sidenote: supposed visit of columbus to genoa.] there is no other authority than ramusio for believing with muñoz that columbus had already laid his project before the government of genoa by letter, and that he now went to reënforce it in person. that power was sorely pressed with misfortunes at this time, and is said to have declined to entertain his proposals. it may be the applicant was dismissed contemptuously, as is sometimes said. it is not, however, as harrisse has pointed out, till we come down to cassoni, in his _annals of genoa_, published in , that we find a single genoese authority crediting the story of this visit to genoa. harrisse, with his skeptical tendency, does not believe the statement. [sidenote: supposed visit to venice.] eagerness to fill the gaps in his itinerary has sometimes induced the supposition that columbus made an equally unsuccessful offer to venice; but the statement is not found except in modern writers, with no other citations to sustain it than the recollections of some one who had seen at some time in the archives a memorial to this effect made by columbus. some writers make him at this time also visit his father and provide for his comfort,--a belief not altogether consonant with the supposition of columbus's escape from portugal as a debtor. [sidenote: the death of his wife.] [sidenote: shown to be uncertain.] irving and the biographers in general find in the death of columbus's wife a severing of the ties which bound him to portugal; but if there is any truth in the tumultuous letter which columbus wrote to doña juana de la torre in , he left behind him in portugal, when he fled into spain, a wife and children. if there is the necessary veracity in the _historie_, this wife had died before he abandoned the country. that he had other children at this time than diego is only known through this sad, ejaculatory epistle. if he left a wife in portugal, as his own words aver, harrisse seems justified in saying that he deserted her, and in the same letter columbus himself says that he never saw her again. [sidenote: convent of rabida.] ever since a physician of palos, garcia fernandez, gave his testimony in the lawsuit through which, after columbus's death, his son defended his titles against the crown, the picturesque story of the convent of rabida, and the appearance at its gate of a forlorn traveler accompanied by a little boy, and the supplication for bread and water for the child, has stood in the lives of columbus as the opening scene of his career in spain. this franciscan convent, dedicated to santa maria de rabida, stood on a height within sight of the sea, very near the town of palos, and after having fallen into a ruin it was restored by the duke of montpensier in . a recent traveler has found this restoration "modernized, whitewashed, and forlorn," while the refurnishing of the interior is described as "paltry and vulgar," even in the cell of its friar, where the visitor now finds a portrait of columbus and pictures of scenes in his career. [illustration: pÈre juan perez de marchena. [as given by roselly de lorgues.]] [sidenote: friar marchena.] this friar, juan perez de marchena, was at the time of the supposed visit of columbus the prior of the convent, and being casually attracted by the scene at the gate, where the porter was refreshing the vagrant travelers, and by the foreign accent of the stranger, he entered into talk with the elder of them and learned his name. columbus also told him that he was bound to huelva to find the home of one muliar, a spaniard who had married the youngest sister of his wife. the story goes further that the friar was not uninformed in the cosmographical lore of the time, had not been unobservant of the maritime intelligence which had naturally been rife in the neighboring seaport of palos, and had kept watch of the recent progress in geographical science. he was accordingly able to appreciate the interest which columbus manifested in such subjects, as he unfolded his own notions of still greater discoveries which might be made at the west. keeping the wanderer and his little child a few days, marchena invited to the convent, to join with them in discussion, the most learned man whom the neighborhood afforded, the physician of palos,--the very one from whose testimony our information comes. their talks were not without reënforcements from the experiences of some of the mariners of that seaport, particularly one pedro de velasco, who told of manifestation of land which he had himself seen, without absolute contact, thirty years before, when his ship had been blown a long distance to the northwest of ireland. [sidenote: columbus goes to cordoba.] the friendship formed in the convent kept columbus there amid congenial sympathizers, and it was not till some time in the winter of - , and when he heard that the spanish sovereigns were at cordoba, gathering a force to attack the moors in granada, that, leaving behind his boy to be instructed in the convent, columbus started for that city. he went not without confidence and elation, as he bore a letter of credentials which the friar had given him to a friend, fernando de talavera, the prior of the monastery of prado, and confessor of queen isabella. [sidenote: doubts about the visits to rabida.] this story has almost always been placed in the opening of the career of columbus in spain. it has often in sympathizing hands pointed a moral in contrasting the abject condition of those days with the proud expectancy under which, some years later, he sailed out of the neighboring harbor of palos, within eyeshot of the monks of rabida. irving, however, as he analyzed the reports of the famous trial already referred to, was quite sure that the events of two visits to rabida had been unwittingly run into one in testimony given after so long an interval of years. it does indeed seem that we must either apply this evidence of and to a later visit, or else we must determine that there was great similarity in some of the incidents of the two visits. the date of , to which harrisse pushes the incidents forward, depends in part on the evidence of one rodriguez cobezudo that in it was about twenty-two years since he had lent a mule to juan perez de marchena, when he went to santa fé from rabida to interpose for columbus. the testimony of garcia fernandez is that this visit of marchena took place after columbus had once been rebuffed at court, and the words of the witness indicate that it was on that visit when juan perez asked columbus who he was and whence he came; showing, perhaps, that it was the first time perez had seen columbus. accordingly this, as well as the mule story, points to . but that the circumstances of the visit which garcia fernandez recounts may have belonged to an earlier visit, in part confounded after fifteen years with a later one, may yet be not beyond a possibility. it is to be remembered that the _historie_ speaks of two visits, one later than that of . it is not easy to see that all the testimony which harrisse introduced to make the visit of the first and only visit of columbus to the convent is sufficient to do more than render the case probable. [sidenote: . enters the service of spain.] we determine the exact date of the entering of columbus into the service of spain to be january , , from a record of his in his journal on shipboard under january , , where he says that on the th of the same month he would have been in their highnesses' service just seven years. we find almost as a matter of course other statements of his which give somewhat different dates by deduction. two statements of columbus agreeing would be a little suspicious. certain payments on the part of the crowns of castile and aragon do not seem to have begun, however, till the next year, or at least we have no earlier record of such than one on may , , and from that date on they were made at not great intervals, till an interruption came, as will be later shown. [sidenote: changes his name to colon.] in spain the christoforo colombo of genoa chose to call himself cristoval colon, and the _historie_ tells us that he sought merely to make his descendants distinct of name from their remote kin. he argued that the roman name was colonus, which readily was transformed to a spanish equivalent. inasmuch as the duke of medina-celi, who kept columbus in his house for two years during the early years of his spanish residence, calls him colomo in , and oviedo calls him colom, it is a question if he chose the form of colon before he became famous by his voyage. [sidenote: the genoese in spain.] the genoese had been for a long period a privileged people in spain, dating such acceptance back to the time of st. ferdinand. navarrete has instanced numerous confirmations of these early favors by successive monarchs down to the time of columbus. but neither this prestige of his birthright nor the letter of friar perez had been sufficient to secure in the busy camp at cordoba any recognition of this otherwise unheralded and humble suitor. the power of the sovereigns was overtaxed already in the engrossing preparations which the court and army were making for a vigorous campaign against the moors. the exigencies of the war carried the sovereigns, sometimes together and at other times apart, from point to point. siege after siege was conducted, and talavera, whose devotion had been counted upon by columbus, had too much to occupy his attention, to give ear to propositions which at best he deemed chimerical. [sidenote: columbus in cordoba.] we know in a vague way that while the court was thus withdrawn from cordoba the disheartened wanderer remained in that city, supporting himself, according to bernaldez, in drafting charts and in selling printed books, which harrisse suspects may have been publications, such as were then current, containing calendars and astronomical predictions, like the _lunarios_ of granollach and andrès de li. [sidenote: makes acquaintances.] it was probably at this time, too, that he made the acquaintance of alonso de quintanilla, the comptroller of the finances of castile. he attained some terms of friendship with antonio geraldini, the papal nuncio, and his brother, alexander geraldini, the tutor of the royal children. it is claimed that all these friends became interested in his projects, and were advocates of them. [sidenote: writes out the proofs of a western land.] we are told by las casas that columbus at one time gathered and placed in order all the varied manifestations, as he conceived them, of some such transatlantic region as his theory demanded; and it seems probable that this task was done during a period of weary waiting in cordoba. we know nothing, however, of the manuscript except as las casas and the _historie_ have used its material, and through them some of the details have been gleaned in the preceding chapter. [sidenote: mendoza.] these accessions of friends, aided doubtless by some such systemization of the knowledge to be brought to the question as this lost manuscript implies, opened the way to an acquaintance with pedro gonzales de mendoza, archbishop of toledo and grand cardinal of spain. this prelate, from the confidence which the sovereigns placed in him, was known in martyr's phrase as "the third king of spain," and it could but be seen by columbus that his sympathies were essential to the success of plans so far reaching as his own. the cardinal was gracious in his intercourse, and by no means inaccessible to such a suitor as columbus; but he was educated in the exclusive spirit of the prevailing theology, and he had a keen scent for anything that might be supposed heterodox. it proved necessary for the thought of a spherical earth to rest some time in his mind, till his ruminations could bring him to a perception of the truths of science. [sidenote: gets the ear of ferdinand for columbus.] according to the reports which oviedo gives us, the seed which columbus sowed, in his various talks with the cardinal, in due time germinated, and the constant mentor of the sovereigns was at last brought to prepare the way, so that columbus could have a royal audience. thus it was that columbus finally got the ear of ferdinand, at salamanca, whither the monarchs had come for a winter's sojourn after the turmoils of a summer's campaign against the moors. [sidenote: characters of the sovereigns of spain.] we cannot proceed farther in this narrative without understanding, in the light of all the early and late evidence which we have, what kind of beings these sovereigns of aragon and castile were, with whom columbus was to have so much intercourse in the years to come. ferdinand and isabella, the wearers of the crowns of aragon and castile, were linked in common interests, and their joint reign had augured a powerful, because united, spain. the student of their characters, as he works among the documents of the time, cannot avoid the recognition of qualities little calculated to satisfy demands for nobleness and devotion which the world has learned to associate with royal obligations. it may be possibly too much to say that habitually, but not too much to assert that often, these spanish monarchs were more ready at perfidy and deceit than even an allowance for the teachings of their time would permit. often the student will find himself forced to grant that the queen was more culpable in these respects than the king. an anxious inquirer into the queen's ways is not quite sure that she was able to distinguish between her own interests and those of god. the documentary researches of bergenroth have decidedly lowered her in the judgments of those who have studied that investigator's results. we need to plead the times for her, and we need to push the plea very far. [sidenote: isabella.] "perhaps," says helps, speaking of isabella, "there is hardly any great personage whose name and authority are found in connection with so much that is strikingly evil, all of it done, or rather assented to, upon the highest and purest motives." to palliate on such grounds is to believe in the irresponsibility of motives, which should transcend times and occasions. she is not, however, without loyal adulators of her own time and race. we read in oviedo of her splendid soul. peter martyr found commendations of ordinary humanity not enough for her. those nearest her person spoke as admiringly. it is the fortune, however, of a historical student, who lies beyond the influence of personal favor, to read in archives her most secret professions, and to gauge the innermost wishes of a soul which was carefully posed before her contemporaries. it is mirrored to-day in a thousand revealing lenses that were not to be seen by her contemporaries. irving and prescott simply fall into the adulation of her servitors, and make her confessors responsible for her acquiescence in the expulsion of the jews and in the horrors of the inquisition. [sidenote: ferdinand.] the king, perhaps, was good enough for a king as such personages went in the fifteenth century; but his smiles and remorseless coldness were mixed as few could mix them, even in those days. if the pope regarded him from italy, that holy father called him pious. the modern student finds him a bigot. his subjects thought him great and glorious, but they did not see his dispatches, nor know his sometimes baleful domination in his cabinet. the french would not trust him. the english watched his ambition. the moors knew him as their conqueror. the jews fled before his evil eye. the miserable saw him in his inquisitors. all this pleased the pope, and the papal will made him in preferred phrase his most catholic majesty,--a phrase that rings in diplomatic formalities to-day. every purpose upon which he had set his heart was apt to blind him to aught else, and at times very conveniently so. we may allow that it is precisely this single mind which makes a conspicuous name in history; but conspicuousness and justness do not always march with a locked step. he had, of course, virtues that shone when the sun shone. he could be equable. he knew how to work steadily, to eat moderately, and to dress simply. he was enterprising in his actions, as the moors and heretics found out. he did not extort money; he only extorted agonized confessions. he said masses, and prayed equally well for god's benediction on evil as on good things. he made promises, and then got the papal dispensation to break them. he juggled in state policy as his mind changed, and he worked his craft very readily. machiavelli would have liked this in him, and indeed he was a good scholar of an existing school, which counted the act of outwitting better than the arts of honesty; and perhaps the world is not loftier in the purposes of statecraft to-day. he got people to admire him, but few to love him. [sidenote: columbus's views considered by talavera and others.] [sidenote: at salamanca.] the result of an audience with the king was that the projects of columbus were committed to talavera, to be laid by him before such a body of wise men as the prior could gather in council. las casas says that the consideration of the plans was entrusted to "certain persons of the court," and he enumerates cardinal mendoza, diego de deza, alonso de cardenas, and juan cabrero, the royal chamberlain. the meeting was seemingly held in the winter of - . the catholic writers accuse irving, and apparently with right, of an unwarranted assumption of the importance of what he calls the council at salamanca, and they find he has no authority for it, except a writer one hundred and twenty years after the event, who mentions the matter but incidentally. this source was remesal's _historia de chyapa_ (madrid, ), an account of one of the mexican provinces. there seems no reason to suppose that at best it was anything more than some informal conference of talavera with a few councilors, and in no way associated with the prestige of the university at salamanca. the registers of the university, which begin back of the assigned date for such council, have been examined in vain for any reference to it. [illustration: university of salamanca. [_españa_, p. ]] [illustration: monument to columbus erected at genoa, .] the "junta of salamanca" has passed into history as a convocation of considerable extent and importance, and a representation of it is made to adorn one of the bas-reliefs of the admiral's monument at genoa. we have, however, absolutely no documentary records of it. of whatever moment it may have been, if the problem as columbus would have presented it had been discussed, the reports, if preserved, could have thrown much light upon the relations which the cosmographical views of its principal character bore to the opinions then prevailing in learned circles of spain. we know what the _historie_, bernaldez, and las casas tell us of columbus's advocacy, but we must regret the loss of his own language and his own way of explaining himself to these learned men. such a paper would serve a purpose of showing how, in this period of courageous and ardent insistence on a physical truth, he stood manfully for the light that was in him; and it would afford a needed foil to those pitiful aberrations of intellect which, in the years following, took possession of him, and which were so constantly reiterated with painful and maundering wailing. [sidenote: find favor with deza.] discarding, then, the array of argument which irving borrows from remesal, and barely associating a little conference, in which columbus is a central figure, with that st. stephen's convent whose wondrous petrifactions of creamy and reticulated stone still hold the admiring traveler, we must accept nothing more about its meetings than the scant testimony which has come down to us. it is pleasant to think how it was here that the active interest which diego de deza, a dominican friar, finally took in the cause of columbus may have had its beginning; but the extent of our positive knowledge regarding the meeting is the deposition of rodriguez de maldonado, who simply says that several learned men and mariners, hearing the arguments of columbus, decided they could not be true, or at least a majority so decided, and that this testimony against columbus had no effect to convince him of his errors. this is all that the "junta of salamanca" meant. a minority of unknown size favored the advocate. * * * * * [sidenote: . the court at cordoba.] [sidenote: malaga surrenders, .] when the spring of came, and the court departed to cordoba, and began to make preparations for the campaign against malaga, there was no hope that the considerations which had begun in the learned sessions at salamanca would be followed up. columbus seems to have journeyed after the court in its migrations: sometimes lured by pittances doled out to him by the royal treasurer; sometimes getting pecuniary assistance from his new friend, diego de deza; selling now and then a map that he had made, it may be; and accepting hospitality where he could get it, from such as alonso de quintanilla. in these wandering days, he was for a while, at least, in attendance on the court, then surrounded with military parade, before the moorish stronghold at malaga. the town surrendered on august , , and the court then returned to cordoba. [illustration: spain, . [from the _ptolemy_ of .]] [sidenote: . intimacy of columbus with beatrix enriquez.] [sidenote: ferdinand columbus born, .] it was in the autumn of , at cordoba, that columbus fell into such an intimacy as spousehood only can sanction with a person of good condition as to birth, but poor in the world's goods. whether this relation had the sanction of the church or not has been a subject of much inquiry and opinion. the class of french writers, who are aiming to secure the canonization of columbus, have found it essential to clear the moral character of columbus from every taint, and they confidently assert, and doubtless think they show, that nothing but conjugal right is manifest in this connection,--a question which the church will in due time have to decide, if it ever brings itself to the recognition of the saintly character of the great discoverer. even the ardent supporters of the cause of beatification are forced to admit that there is no record of such a marriage. no contemporary recognition of such a relation is evinced by any family ceremonies of baptism or the like, and there is no mention of a wife in all the transactions of the crowning endeavors of his life. as viceroy, at a later day, he constantly appears with no attendant vice-queen. she is absolutely out of sight until columbus makes a significant reference to her in his last will, when he recommends this beatrix enriquez to his lawful son diego; saying that she is a person to whom the testator had been under great obligations, and that his conscience is burdened respecting her, for a reason which he does not then think fitting to explain. this testamentary behest and acknowledgment, in connection with other manifestations, and the absence of proof to the contrary, has caused the belief to be general among his biographers, early and late, that the fruit of this intimacy, ferdinand columbus, was an illegitimate offspring. he was born, as near as can be made out, on the th of august, . the mother very likely received for a while some consolation from her lover, but columbus did not apparently carry her to seville, when he went there himself; and the support which he gave her was not altogether regularly afforded, and was never of the quality which he asked diego to grant to her when he died. she unquestionably survived the making of diego's will in , and then she fades into oblivion. her son, ferdinand, if he is the author of the _historie_, makes no mention of a marriage to his mother, though he is careful to record the one which was indisputably legal, and whose fruit was diego, the admiral's successor. the lawful son was directed by columbus, when starting on his third voyage, to pay to beatrix ten thousand maravedis a year; but he seems to have neglected to do so for the last three or four years of her life. diego finally ordered these arrears to be paid to her heirs. las casas distinctly speaks of ferdinand as a natural son, and las casas had the best of opportunities for knowing whereof he wrote. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus sends his brother to england.] [sidenote: relations of england to the views of columbus.] while all this suspense and amorous intrigue were perplexing the ardent theorist, he is supposed to have dispatched his brother bartholomew to england to disclose his projects to henry vii. hakluyt, in his _westerne planting_, tells us that it "made much for the title of the kings of england" to the new world that henry vii. gave a ready acceptance to the theory of columbus as set forth somewhat tardily by his brother bartholomew, when escaping from the detention of the pirates, he was at last able, on february , , to offer in england his sea-card, embodying christopher's theories, for the royal consideration. [sidenote: the cabots in england.] william castell, in his _short discovery of america_, says that henry vii. "unhappily refused to be at any charge in the discovery, supposing the learned columbus to build castles in the air." it is a common story that henry finally brought himself to accede to the importunities of bartholomew, but only at a late day, and after christopher had effected his conquest of the spanish court. columbus himself is credited with saying that henry actually wrote him a letter of acceptance. this epistle was very likely a fruition of the new impulses to oceanic discovery which the presence, a little later, of the venetian cabots, was making current among the english sailors; for john cabot and his sons, one of whom, sebastian, being at that time a youth of sixteen or seventeen, had, according to the best testimony, established a home in bristol, not far from . if the report of the spanish envoy in england to his sovereigns is correct as to dates, it was near this time that the bristol merchants were renewing their quests oceanward for the islands of brazil and the seven cities. we have seen that these islands with others had for some time appeared on the conjectural charts of the atlantic, and very likely they had appeared on the sea-card shown by bartholomew columbus to henry vii. these efforts may perhaps have been in a measure instigated by that fact. at all events, any hazards of further western exploration could be met with greater heart if such stations of progress could be found in mid ocean. of the report of all this which bartholomew may have made to his brother we know absolutely nothing, and he seems not to have returned to spain till after a sojourn in france which ended in . [sidenote: columbus invited back to portugal.] it was believed by irving that columbus, having opened a correspondence with the portuguese king respecting a return to the service of that country, had received from that monarch an epistle, dated march , , in which he was permitted to come back, with the offer of protection against any suit of civil or criminal nature, and that this had been declined. we are left to conjecture of what suits of either kind he could have been apprehensive. humboldt commends the sagacity of navarrete in discerning that it was not so much the persuasion of diego de deza which kept columbus at this time from accepting such royal offers, as the illicit connection which he had formed in cordoba with doña beatrix enriquez, who before the summer was over had given birth to a son. on the other hand, that the permission was not neglected seems proved by a memorandum made by columbus's own hand in a copy of pierre d'ailly's _imago mundi_, preserved in the biblioteca colombina at seville, where, under date of december, , "at lisbon," he speaks of the return of diaz from his voyage to the cape of good hope. this proof is indeed subject to the qualification that las casas has considered the handwriting of the note to be that of bartholomew columbus, but harrisse has no question of its identity with the chirography of columbus. this last critic ventures the conjecture that it was in some way to settle the estate of his wife that columbus at this time visited portugal. [sidenote: spanish subsidies withheld.] columbus had ceased to receive the spanish subsidies in june, , or at least we know no record of any later largess. ferdinand was born to him in august. it was very likely subsequent to this last event that columbus crossed the spanish frontier into portugal, if harrisse's view of his crossing at all be accepted. his stay was without doubt a short one, and from to there is every indication that he never left the spanish kingdom. [sidenote: duke of medina-celi harbors columbus.] we know on the testimony of a letter of luis de la cerda, the duke of medina-celi, given in navarrete, that for two years after the arrival of columbus from portugal he had been a guest under the duke's roof in cogulludo, and it seems to harrisse probable that this gracious help on the part of the duke was bestowed after the return to spain. all that we know with certainty of its date is that it occurred before the first voyage, the duke himself mentioning it in a letter of march , . [sidenote: . columbus ordered to cordoba.] it was not till may, , when the court was again at cordoba, according to diego ortiz de zuñiga, in his work on seville, that the sovereigns were gracious enough to order columbus to appear there, when they furnished him lodgings. they also, perhaps, at the same time, issued a general order, dated at cordoba may , in which all cities and towns were directed to furnish suitable accommodations to columbus and his attendants, inasmuch as he was journeying in the royal service. [sidenote: columbus at the siege of baza.] [sidenote: friars from the holy sepulchre.] the year was a hazardous but fruitful one. the sovereigns were pushing vigorously their conquest of the moor. isabella herself attended the army, and may have appeared in the beleaguering lines about baza, in one of those suits of armor which are still shown to travelers. zuñiga says that columbus arrayed himself among the combatants, and was doubtless acquainted with the mission of two friars who had been guardians of the holy sepulchre at jerusalem. these priests arrived during the siege, bringing a message from the grand soldan of egypt, in which that potentate threatened to destroy all christians within his grasp, unless the war against granada should be stopped. the point of driving the moors from spain was too nearly reached for such a threat to be effective, and isabella decreed the annual payment of a thousand ducats to support the faithful custodians of the sepulchre, and sent a veil embroidered with her own hand to decorate the shrine. irving traces to this circumstance the impulse, which columbus frequently in later days showed, to devote the anticipated wealth of the indies to a crusade in palestine, to recover and protect the holy sepulchre. [sidenote: boabdil surrenders, december , .] [sidenote: columbus's views again considered.] the campaign closed with the surrender on december of the fortress of baza, when spain received from muley boabdil, the elder of the rival moorish kings, all the territory which he claimed to have in his power. in february, , ferdinand and isabella entered seville in triumph, and a season of hilarity and splendor followed, signalized in the spring by the celebration with great jubilation of the marriage of the princess isabella with don alonzo, the heir to the crown of portugal. these engrossing scenes were little suited to give columbus a chance to press his projects on the court. he soon found nothing could be done to get the farther attention of the monarchs till some respites occurred in the preparations for their final campaign against the younger moorish king. it was at this time, as irving and others have conjectured, that the consideration of the project of a western passage, which had been dropped when events moved the court from salamanca, was again taken up by such investigators as talavera had summoned, and again the result was an adverse decision. this determination was communicated by talavera himself to the sovereign, and it was accompanied by the opinion that it did not become great princes to engage in such chimerical undertakings. [sidenote: deza impressed.] [sidenote: delays.] it is supposed, however, that the decision was not reached without some reservation in the minds of certain of the reviewers, and that especially this was the case with diego de deza, who showed that the stress of the arguments advanced by columbus had not been without result. this friar was tutor to prince juan, and it was not difficult for him to modify the emphatic denial of the judges. it was the pride of those who later erected the tombstone of deza, in the cathedral at seville, to inscribe upon it that he was the generous and faithful patron of columbus. a temporizing policy was, therefore, adopted by the monarchs, and columbus was informed that for the present the perils and expenses of the war called for an undivided attention, and that further consideration of his project must be deferred till the war was over. it was at cordoba that this decision reached columbus. [sidenote: columbus goes to seville; but is repelled.] in his eagerness of hope he suspected that the judgment had received some adverse color in passing through talavera's mind, and so he hastened to seville, but only to meet the same chilling repulse from the monarchs themselves. with dashed expectations he left the city, feeling that the instrumentality of talavera, as peter martyr tells us, had turned the sovereigns against him. [illustration: cathedral of seville. [from parcerisa and quadrado's _españa_.]] [illustration: cathedral of cordoba. [from parcerisa and quadrado's _españa_.]] [sidenote: seeks the grandees of spain.] [sidenote: medina-sidonia and medina-celi.] columbus now sought to engage the attention of some of the powerful grandees of spain, who, though subjects, were almost autocratic in their own regions, serving the crown not so much as vassals as sympathetic helpers in its wars. they were depended upon to recruit the armies from their own trains and dependents; money came from their chests, provisions from their estates, and ships from their own marine; their landed patrimonies, indeed, covered long stretches of the coast, whose harbors sheltered their considerable navies. such were the dukes of medina-sidonia and medina-celi. columbus found in them, however, the same wariness which he had experienced at the greater court. there was a willingness to listen; they found some lures in the great hopes of eastern wealth which animated columbus, but in the end there was the same disappointment. one of them, the duke of medina-celi, at last adroitly parried the importunities of columbus, by averring that the project deserved the royal patronage rather than his meaner aid. he, however, told the suitor, if a farther application should be made to the crown at some more opportune moment, he would labor with the queen in its behalf. the duke kept his word, and we get much of what we know of his interest in columbus from the information given by one of the duke's household to las casas. this differs so far as to make the duke, perhaps as harrisse thinks in the spring of , actually fit out some caravels for the use of columbus; but when seeking a royal license, he was informed that the queen had determined to embark in the enterprise herself. such a decision seems to carry this part of the story, at least, forward to a time when columbus was summoned from rabida. [sidenote: columbus at rabida.] a consultation which now took place at the convent of rabida affords particulars which the historians have found difficulty, as already stated, in keeping distinct from those of an earlier visit, if there was such. columbus, according to the usual story, visited the convent apparently in october or november, , with the purpose of reclaiming his son diego, and taking him to cordoba, where he might be left with ferdinand in the charge of the latter's mother. columbus himself intended to pass to france, to see if a letter, which had been received from the king of france, might possibly open the way to the fulfillment of his great hopes. it is represented that it was this expressed intention of abandoning spain which aroused the patriotism of marchena, who undertook to prevent the sacrifice. [sidenote: marchena encourages him.] [sidenote: talks with pinzon.] we derive what we know of his method of prevention from the testimony of garcia fernandez, the physician of palos, who has been cited in respect to the alleged earlier visit. this witness says that he was summoned to rabida to confer with columbus. it is also made a part of the story that the head of a family of famous navigators in palos, martin alonso pinzon, was likewise drawn into the little company assembled by the friar to consider the new situation. pinzon readily gave his adherence to the views of columbus. it is claimed, however, that the presence of pinzon is disproved by documents showing him to have been in rome at this time. [sidenote: cousin's alleged voyage, ,] [sidenote: and pinzon's supposed connection with it.] an alleged voyage of jean cousin, in , two years and more before this, from dieppe to the coast of brazil, is here brought in by certain french writers, like estancelin and gaffarel, as throwing some light on the intercourse of columbus and pinzon, later if not now. it must be acknowledged that few other than french writers have credited the voyage at all. major, who gave the story careful examination, utterly discredits it. it is a part of the story that one pinzon, a castilian, accompanied cousin as a pilot, and this man is identified by these french writers as the navigator who is now represented as yielding a ready credence to the views of columbus, and for the reason that he knew more than he openly professed. they find in the later intercourse of columbus and this pinzon certain evidence of the estimation in which columbus seemed to hold the practiced judgment, if not the knowledge, of pinzon. this they think conspicuous in the yielding which columbus made to pinzon's opinion during columbus's first voyage, in changing his course to the southwest, which is taken to have been due to a knowledge of pinzon's former experience in passing those seas in . they trace to it the confidence of pinzon in separating from the admiral on the coast of cuba, and in his seeking to anticipate columbus by an earlier arrival at palos, on the return, as the reader will later learn. thus it is ingeniously claimed that the pilot of cousin and colleague of columbus were one and the same person. it has hardly convinced other students than the french. when the pinzon of the "pinta" at a later day was striving to discredit the leadership of columbus, in the famous suit of the admiral's heirs, he could hardly, for any reason which the french writers aver, have neglected so important a piece of evidence as the fact of the cousin voyage and his connection with it, if there had been any truth in it. [sidenote: pinzon aids columbus,] so we must be content, it is pretty clear, in charging pinzon's conversion to the views of columbus at rabida upon the efficacy of columbus's arguments. this success of columbus brought some substantial fruit in the promise which pinzon now made to bear the expenses of a renewed suit to ferdinand and isabella. [sidenote: and rodriguez goes to santa fé, with a letter to the queen.] [sidenote: marchena follows.] [sidenote: the queen invites columbus once more.] a conclusion to the deliberation of this little circle in the convent was soon reached. columbus threw his cause into the hands of his friends, and agreed to rest quietly in the convent while they pressed his claims. perez wrote a letter of supplication to the queen, and it was dispatched by a respectable navigator of the neighborhood, sebastian rodriguez. he found the queen in the city of santa fé, which had grown up in the military surroundings before the city of granada, whose siege the spanish armies were then pressing. the epistle was opportune, for it reënforced one which she had already received from the duke of medina-celi, who had been faithful to his promise to columbus, and who, judging from a letter which he wrote at a later day, march , , took to himself not a little credit that he had thus been instrumental, as he thought, in preventing columbus throwing himself into the service of france. the result was that the pilot took back to rabida an intimation to marchena that his presence would be welcome at santa fé. so mounting his mule, after midnight, fourteen days after rodriguez had departed, the friar followed the pilot's tracks, which took him through some of the regions already conquered from the moors, and, reaching the court, presented himself before the queen. perez is said to have found a seconder in luis de santangel, a fiscal officer of aragon, and in the marchioness of moya, one of the ladies of the household. the friar is thought to have urged his petition so strongly that the queen, who had all along been more open to the representations of columbus than ferdinand had been, finally determined to listen once more to the genoese's appeals. [sidenote: columbus reaches santa fé, december, .] [sidenote: quintanilla and mendoza.] learning of the poor plight of columbus, she ordered a gratuity to be sent to him, to restore his wardrobe and to furnish himself with the conveniences of the journey. perez, having borne back the happy news, again returned to the court, with columbus under his protection. thus once more buoyed in hope, and suitably arrayed for appearing at court, columbus, on his mule, early in december, , rode into the camp at santa fé, where he was received and provided with lodgings by the accountant-general. this officer was one whom he had occasion happily to remember, alonso de quintanilla, through whose offices it was, in the end, that the grand cardinal of spain, mendoza, was at this time brought into sympathy with the genoese aspirant. [sidenote: boabdil the younger submits.] [sidenote: the moorish wars end.] military events were still too imposing, however, for any immediate attention to his projects, and he looked on with admiration and a reserved expectancy, while the grand parade of the final submission of boabdil the younger, the last of the moorish kings, took place, and a long procession of the magnificence of spain moved forward from the beleaguering camp to receive the keys of the alhambra. wars succeeding wars for nearly eight centuries had now come to an end. the christian banner of spain floated over the moorish palace. the kingdom was alive in all its provinces. congratulation and jubilation, with glitter and vauntings, pervaded the air. [sidenote: talavera and columbus.] few observed the humble genoese who stood waiting the sovereigns' pleasure during all this tumult of joy; but he was not forgotten. they remembered, as he did, the promise given him at seville. the war was over, and the time was come. talavera had by this time gone so far towards an appreciation of columbus's views that peter martyr tells him, at a later day, that the project would not have succeeded without him. he was directed to confer with the expectant dreamer, and cardinal mendoza became prominent in the negotiations. columbus's position was thus changed. he had been a suitor. he was now sought. he had been persuaded from his purposed visit to france, in order that he might by his plans rehabilitate spain with a new glory, complemental to her martial pride. this view as presented by perez to isabella had been accepted, and columbus was summoned to present his case. [sidenote: the mistake of columbus.] here, when he seemed at last to be on the verge of success, the poor man, unused to good fortune, and mistaking its token, repeated the mistake which had driven him an outcast from portugal. his arrogant spirit led him to magnify his importance before he had proved it; and he failed in the modesty which marks a conquering spirit. true science places no gratulations higher than those of its own conscience. copernicus was at this moment delving into the secrets of nature like a nobleman of the universe. so he stands for all time in lofty contrast to the plebeian nature and sordid cravings of his contemporary. [sidenote: his pretensions.] when, at the very outset of the negotiations, talavera found this uplifted suitor making demands that belonged rather to proved success than to a contingent one, there was little prospect of accommodation, unless one side or the other should abandon its position. if columbus's own words count for anything, he was conscious of being a laughing-stock, while he was making claims for office and emoluments that would mortgage the power of a kingdom. a dramatic instinct has in many minds saved columbus from the critical estimate of such presumption. irving and the french canonizers dwell on what strikes them as constancy of purpose and loftiness of spirit. they marvel that poverty, neglect, ridicule, contumely, and disappointment had not dwarfed his spirit. this is the vulgar liking for the hero who is without heroism, and the martyr who makes a trade of it. the honest historian has another purpose. he tries to gauge pretense by wisdom. columbus was indeed to succeed; but his success was an error in geography, and a failure in policy and in morals. the crown was yet to succumb; but its submission was to entail miseries upon columbus and his line, and a reproach upon spain. the outcome to columbus and to spain is the direst comment of all. columbus would not abate one jot of his pretensions, and an end was put to the negotiations. making up his mind to carry his suit to france, he left cordoba on his mule, in the beginning of february, . chapter ix. the final agreement and the first voyage, . [sidenote: columbus leaves the court.] columbus, a disheartened wanderer, with his back turned on the spanish court, his mule plodding the road to cordoba, offered a sad picture to the few adherents whom he had left behind. they had grown to have his grasp of confidence, but lacked his spirit to clothe an experimental service with all the certainties of an accomplished fact. [sidenote: the queen relents.] the sight of the departing theorist abandoning the country, and going to seek countenance at rival courts, stirred the spanish pride. he and his friends had, in mutual counsels, pictured the realms of the indies made tributary to the spanish fame. it was this conception of a chance so near fruition, and now vanishing, that moved luis de santangel and alonso de quintanilla to determine on one last effort. they immediately sought the queen. in an audience the two advocates presented the case anew, appealing to the royal ambition, to the opportunity of spreading her holy religion, to the occasions of replenishing her treasure-chests, emptied by the war, and to every other impulse, whether of pride or patriotism. the trivial cost and risk were contrasted with the glowing possibilities. they repeated the offer of columbus to share an eighth of the expense. they pictured her caravels, fitted out at a cost of not more than , , crowns, bearing the banner of spain to these regions of opulence. the vision, once fixed in the royal eye, spread under their warmth of description, into succeeding glimpses of increasing splendor. finally the warmth and glory of an almost realized expectancy filled the queen's cabinet. the conquest was made. the royal companion, the marchioness of moya, saw and encouraged the kindling enthusiasm of isabella; but a shade came over the queen's face. the others knew it was the thought of ferdinand's aloofness. the warrior of aragon, with new conquests to regulate, with a treasury drained almost to the last penny, would have little heart for an undertaking in which his enthusiasm, if existing at all, had always been dull as compared with hers. she solved the difficulty in a flash. the voyage shall be the venture of castile alone, and it shall be undertaken. [sidenote: columbus brought back.] orders were at once given for a messenger to overtake columbus. a horseman came up with him at the bridge of pinòs, two leagues from granada. there was a moment's hesitancy, as thoughts of cruelly protracted and suspended feelings in the past came over him. his decision, however, was not stayed. he turned his mule, and journeyed back to the city. columbus was sought once more, and in a way to give him the vantage which his imperious demands could easily use. the interview with the queen which followed removed all doubt of his complete ascendency. ferdinand in turn yielded to the persuasions of his chamberlain, juan cabrero, and to the supplications of isabella; but he succumbed without faith, if the story which is told of him in relation to the demand for similar concessions made twenty years later by ponce de leon is to be believed. "ah," said ferdinand, to the discoverer of florida, "it is one thing to give a stretch of power when no one anticipates the exercise of it; but we have learned something since then; you will succeed, and it is another thing to give such power to you." this story goes a great way to explain the later efforts of the crown to counteract the power which was, in the flush of excitement, unwittingly given to the new admiral. [sidenote: the queen's jewels.] the ensuing days were devoted to the arrangement of details. the usual story, derived from the _historie_, is that the queen offered to pawn her jewels, as her treasury of castile could hardly furnish the small sum required; but harrisse is led to believe that the exigencies of the war had already required this sacrifice of the queen, though the documentary evidence is wanting. santangel, however, interposed. as treasurer of the ecclesiastical revenues in aragon, he was able to show that while isabella was foremost in promoting the enterprise, ferdinand could join her in a loan from these coffers; and so it was that the necessary funds were, in reality, paid in the end from the revenues of aragon. this is the common story, enlarged by later writers upon the narrative in las casas; but harrisse finds no warrant for it, and judges the advance of funds to have been by santangel from his private revenues, and in the interests of castile only. and this seems to be proved by the invariable exclusion of ferdinand's subjects from participating in the advantages of trade in the new lands, unless an exception was made for some signal service. this rule, indeed, prevailed, even after ferdinand began to reign alone. [sidenote: aims of the expedition.] [sidenote: end of the world approaching.] there is something quite as amusing as edifying in the ostensible purposes of all this endeavor. to tap the resources of the luxuriant east might be gratifying, but it was holy to conceive that the energies of the undertaking were going to fill the treasury out of which a new crusade for the rescue of the holy sepulchre could be sustained. the pearls and spices of the orient, the gold and precious jewels of its mines, might conduce to the gorgeous and luxurious display of the throne, but there was a noble condescension in giving columbus a gracious letter to the great khan, and in hoping to seduce his subjects to the sway of a religion that allowed to the heathen no rights but conversion. there was at least a century and a half of such holy endeavors left for the ministrants of the church, as was believed, since the seven thousand years of the earth's duration was within one hundred and fifty-five years of its close, as the calculations of king alonso showed. columbus had been further drawn to these conclusions from his study of that conglomerating cardinal, pierre d'ailly, whose works, in a full edition, had been at this time only a few months in the book stalls. humboldt has gone into an examination of the data to show that columbus's calculation was singularly inexact; but the labor of verification seems hardly necessary, except as a curious study of absurdities. columbus's career has too many such to detain us on any one. [sidenote: . april . agreement with columbus.] on april , , the king and queen signed at santa fé and delivered to columbus a passport to all persons in unknown parts, commending the admiral to their friendship. this paper is preserved in barcelona. on the same day the monarchs agreed to the conditions of a document which was drawn by the royal secretary, juan de coloma, and is preserved among the papers of the duke of veragua. it was printed from that copy by navarrete, and is again printed by bergenroth as found at barcelona. as formulated in english by irving, its purport is as follows:-- . that columbus should have for himself during his life, and for his heirs and successors forever, the office of admiral in all the lands and continents which he might discover or acquire in the ocean, with similar honors and prerogatives to those enjoyed by the high admiral of castile in his district. . that he should be viceroy and governor-general over all the said lands and continents, with the privilege of nominating three candidates for the government of each island or province, one of whom should be selected by the sovereigns. . that he should be entitled to reserve for himself one tenth of all pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and all other articles of merchandises, in whatever manner found, bought, bartered, or gained within his admiralty, the costs being first deducted. . that he or his lieutenant should be the sole judge in all causes or disputes arising out of traffic between those countries and spain, provided the high admiral of castile had similar jurisdiction in his district. . that he might then and at all after times contribute an eighth part of the expense in fitting out vessels to sail on this enterprise, and receive an eighth part of the profits. [sidenote: . april . colummbus allowed to use the prefix don.] these capitulations were followed on the th of april by a commission which the sovereigns signed at granada, in which it was further granted that the admiral and his heirs should use the prefix don. [sidenote: arranges his domestic affairs.] it is supposed he now gave some heed to his domestic concerns. we know nothing, however, of any provision for the lonely beatrix, but it is said that he placed his boy ferdinand, then but four years of age, at school in cordoba near his mother. he left his lawful son, diego, well provided for through an appointment by the queen, on may , which made him page to prince juan, the heir apparent. [sidenote: . may. reaches palos.] columbus himself tells us that he then left granada on the th of may, , and went direct to palos; stopping, however, on the way at rabida, to exchange congratulations with its friar, juan perez, if indeed he did not lodge at the convent during his stay in the seaport. [sidenote: palos described.] palos to-day consists of a double street of lowly, whitened houses, in a depression among the hills. the guides point out the ruins of a larger house, which was the home of the pinzons. the moorish mosque, converted into st. george's church in columbus's day, still stands on the hill, just outside the village, with an image of st. george and the dragon over its high altar, just as columbus saw it, while above the church are existing ruins of an old moorish castle. [sidenote: ships fitted out.] the story which las casas has told of the fitting out of the vessels does not agree in some leading particulars with that which navarrete holds to be more safely drawn from the documents which he has published. the fact seems to be that two of the vessels of columbus were not constructed by the duke of medina-sidonia, and later bought by the queen, as las casas says; but, it happening that the town of palos, in consequence of some offense to the royal dignity, had been mulcted in the service of two armed caravels for twelve months, the opportunity was now taken by royal order, dated april , , of assigning this service of crews and vessels to columbus's fateful expedition. [sidenote: the pinzons aid him.] the royal command had also provided that columbus might add a third vessel, which he did with the aid, it is supposed, of the pinzons, though there is no documentary proof to show whence he acquired the necessary means. las casas and herrera, however, favor the supposition, and it is of course sustained in the evidence adduced in the famous trial which was intended to magnify the service of the pinzons. it was also directed that the seamen of the little fleet should receive the usual wages of those serving in armed vessels, and be paid four months in advance. all maritime towns were enjoined to furnish supplies at a reasonable price. all criminal processes against anybody engaged for the voyage were to be suspended, and this suspension was to last for two months after the return. [sidenote: . may . demands two ships of palos.] [sidenote: . june . vessels and crews impressed.] [sidenote: the pinzons.] it was on the d of may that, accompanied by juan perez, columbus met the people of palos assembled in the church of st. george, while a notary read the royal commands laid upon the town. it took a little time for the simple people to divine the full extent of such an order,--its consignment of fellow-creatures to the dreaded evils of the great unknown ocean. the reluctance to enter upon the undertaking proved so great, except among a few prisoners taken from the jails, that it became necessary to report the obstacle to the court, when a new peremptory order was issued on june to impress the vessels and crews. juan de peñalosa, an officer of the royal household, appeared in palos to enforce this demand. even such imperative measures availed little, and it was not till martin alonso pinzon came forward, and either by an agreement to divide with columbus the profits, or through some other understanding,--for the testimony on the point is doubtful, and las casas disbelieves any such division of profits,--exerted his influence, in which he was aided by his brother, also a navigator, vicente yañez pinzon. there is a story traceable to a son of the elder pinzon, who testified in the columbus lawsuit that martin alonso had at one time become convinced of the existence of western lands from some documents and charts which he had seen at rome. the story, like that of his companionship with cousin, already referred to, has in it, however, many elements of suspicion. this help of the pinzons proved opportune and did much to save the cause, for it had up to this time seemed impossible to get vessels or crews. the standing of these navigators as men and their promise to embark personally put a new complexion on the undertaking, and within a month the armament was made up. harrisse has examined the evidence in the matter to see if there is any proof that the pinzons contributed more than their personal influence, but there is no apparent ground for believing they did, unless they stood behind columbus in his share of the expenses, which are computed at , maravedis, while those of the queen, arranged through santangel, are reckoned at , , of that money. the fleet consisted, as peter martyr tells us, of two open caravels, "nina" and "pinta"--the latter, with its crew, being pressed into the service,--decked only at the extremities, where high prows and poops gave quarters for the crews and their officers. a large-decked vessel of the register known as a carack, and renamed by columbus the "santa maria," which proved "a dull sailer and unfit for discovery," was taken by columbus as his flagship. there is some confusion in the testimony relating to the name of this ship. the _historie_ alone calls her by this name. las casas simply styles her "the captain." one of the pilots speaks of her as the "mari galante." her owner was one juan de la cosa, apparently not the same person as the navigator and cosmographer later to be met, and he had command of her, while pero alonso nino and sancho ruis served as pilots. [sidenote: character of the ships.] captain g. v. fox has made an estimate of her dimensions from her reputed tonnage by the scale of that time, and thinks she was sixty-three feet over all in length, fifty-one feet along her keel, twenty feet beam, and ten and a half in depth. [sidenote: the crews.] the two pinzons were assigned to the command of the other caravels,--martin alonso to the "pinta," the larger of the two, with a third brother of his as pilot, and vicente yañez to the "nina." many obstacles and the natural repugnances of sailors to embark in so hazardous a service still delayed the preparations, but by the beginning of august the arrangements were complete, and a hundred and twenty persons, as peter martyr and oviedo tell us, but perhaps the _historie_ and las casas are more correct in saying ninety in all, were ready to be committed to what many of them felt were most desperate fortunes. duro has of late published in his _colón y pinzon_ what purports to be a list of their names. it shows in tallerte de lajes a native of england who has been thought to be one named in his vernacular arthur lake; and guillemio ires, called of galway, has sometimes been fancied to have borne in his own land the name perhaps of rice, herries, or harris. there was no lack of the formal assignments usual in such important undertakings. there was a notary to record the proceedings and a historian to array the story; an interpreter to be prepared with latin, greek, hebrew, arabic, coptic, and armenian, in the hopes that one of these tongues might serve in intercourse with the great asiatic potentates, and a metallurgist to pronounce upon precious ores. they were not without a physician and a surgeon. it does not appear if their hazards should require the last solemn rites that there was any priest to shrive them; but columbus determined to start with all the solemnity that a confession and the communion could impart, and this service was performed by juan perez, both for him and for his entire company. [sidenote: sailing directions from the crown.] the directions of the crown also provided that columbus should avoid the guinea coast and all other possessions of the portuguese, which seems to be little more than a striking manifestation of a certain kind of incredulity respecting what columbus, after all, meant by sailing west. indeed, there was necessarily more or less vagueness in everybody's mind as to what a western passage would reveal, or how far a westerly course might of necessity be swung one way or the other. [sidenote: islands first to be sought.] the _historie_ tells us distinctly that columbus hoped to find some intermediate land before reaching india, to be used, as the modern phrase goes, as a sort of base of operations. this hope rested on the belief, then common, that there was more land than sea on the earth, and consequently that no wide stretch of ocean could exist without interlying lands. there was, moreover, no confidence that such things as floating islands might not be encountered. pliny and seneca had described them, and columbus was inclined to believe that st. brandan and the seven cities, and such isles as the dwellers at the azores had claimed to see in the offing, might be of this character. there seems, in fact, to be ground for believing that columbus thought his course to the asiatic shores could hardly fail to bring him in view of other regions or islands lying in the western ocean. muñoz holds that "the glory of such discoveries inflamed him still more, perhaps, than his chief design." [sidenote: asiatic archipelago.] that a vast archipelago would, be the first land encountered was not without confident believers. the catalan map of had shown such islands in vast numbers, amounting to , in all; marco polo had made them , , or was thought to do so; and behaim was yet to cite the latter on his globe. [sidenote: behaim's globe.] it was, indeed, at this very season that behaim, having returned from lisbon to his home in nuremberg, had imparted to the burghers of that inland town those great cosmographical conceptions, which he was accustomed to hear discussed in the atlantic seaports. such views were exemplified in a large globe which behaim had spent the summer in constructing in nuremberg. it was made of pasteboard covered with parchment, and is twenty-one inches in diameter. [illustration: behaim's globe, . _note._ the curved sides of these cuts divide the globe in the mid atlantic.] [illustration: behaim's globe, . [taken from ernest mayer's _die hilfsmittel der schiffahrtkunde_ (wein, ).]] [illustration: doppelmayer's engraving of behaim's globe, much reduced.] [sidenote: laon globe.] it shows the equator, the tropics, the polar circle, in a latitudinal way; but the first meridian, passing through madeira, is the only one of the longitudinal sectors which it represents. behaim had in this work the help of holtzschner, and the globe has come down to our day, preserved in the town hall at nuremberg, one of the sights and honors of that city. it shares the credit, however, with another, called the laon globe, as the only well-authenticated geographical spheres which date back of the discovery of america. this laon globe is much smaller, being only six inches in diameter; and though it is dated , it is thought to have been made a few years earlier,--as d'avezac thinks, in . [illustration: the actual america in relation to behaim's geography.] clements k. markham, in a recent edition of robert hues' _tractatus de globis_, cites nordenskiöld as considering behaim's globe, without comparison, the most important geographical document since the atlas of ptolemy, in a. d. . "he points out that it is the first which unreservedly adopts the existence of antipodes; the first which clearly shows that there is a passage from europe to india; the first which attempts to deal with the discoveries of marco polo. it is an exact representation of geographical knowledge immediately previous to the first voyage of columbus." the behaim globe has become familiar by many published drawings. [sidenote: toscanelli's map.] it has been claimed that columbus probably took with him, on his voyage, the map which he had received from toscanelli, with its delineation of the interjacent and island-studded ocean, which washed alike the shores of europe and asia, and that it was the subject of study by him and pinzon at a time when columbus refers in his journal to the use they made of a chart. that toscanelli's map long survived the voyage is known, and las casas used it. humboldt has not the same confidence which sprengel had, that at this time it crossed the sea in the "santa maria;" and he is inclined rather to suppose that the details of toscanelli's chart, added to all others which columbus had gathered from the maps of bianco and benincasa--for it is not possible he could have seen the work of behaim, unless indeed, in fragmentary preconceptions--must have served him better as laid down on a chart of his own drafting. there is good reason to suppose that, more than once, with the skill which he is known to have possessed, he must have made such charts, to enforce and demonstrate his belief, which, though in the main like that of toscanelli, were in matters of distance quite different. * * * * * [sidenote: , august , columbus sails.] so, everything being ready, on the third of august, , a half hour before sunrise, he unmoored his little fleet in the stream and, spreading his sails, the vessels passed out of the little river roadstead of palos, gazed after, perhaps, in the increasing light, as the little crafts reached the ocean, by the friar of rabida, from its distant promontory of rock. [illustration: ships of columbus's time. (from medina's _arte de navegar_, .)] [sidenote: on friday.] the day was friday, and the advocates of columbus's canonization have not failed to see a purpose in its choice, as the day of our redemption, and as that of the deliverance of the holy sepulchre by geoffrey de bouillon, and of the rendition of granada, with the fall of the moslem power in spain. we must resort to the books of such advocates, if we would enliven the picture with a multitude of rites and devotional feelings that they gather in the meshes of the story of the departure. they supply to the embarkation a variety of detail that their holy purposes readily imagine, and place columbus at last on his poop, with the standard of the cross, the image of the saviour nailed to the holy wood, waving in the early breezes that heralded the day. the embellishments may be pleasing, but they are not of the strictest authenticity. [illustration: ship, .] [sidenote: keeps a journal.] in order that his performance of an embassy to the princes of the east might be duly chronicled, columbus determined, as his journal says, to keep an account of the voyage by the west, "by which course," he says, "unto the present time, we do not know, _for certain_, that any one has passed." it was his purpose to write down, as he proceeded, everything he saw and all that he did, and to make a chart of his discoveries, and to show the directions of his track. [illustration: [from bethencourt's _canarian_, london, .]] [sidenote: the "pinta" disabled.] nothing occurred during those early august days to mar his run to the canaries, except the apprehension which he felt that an accident, happening to the rudder of the "pinta,"--a steering gear now for some time in use, in place of the old lateral paddles,--was a trick of two men, her owners, gomez rascon and christopher quintero, to impede a voyage in which they had no heart. the admiral knew the disposition of these men well enough not to be surprised at the mishap, but he tried to feel secure in the prompt energy of pinzon, who commanded the "pinta." [sidenote: reaches the canaries.] as he passed (august - , ) the peak of teneriffe, it was the time of an eruption, of which he makes bare mention in his journal. it is to the corresponding passages of the _historie_, that we owe the somewhat sensational stories of the terrors of the sailors, some of whom certainly must long have been accustomed to like displays in the volcanoes of the mediterranean. [sidenote: . september , leaves gomera.] at the gran canaria the "nina" was left to have her lateen sails changed to square ones; and the "pinta," it being found impossible to find a better vessel to take her place, was also left to be overhauled for her leaks, and to have her rudder again repaired, while columbus visited gomera, another of the islands. the fleet was reunited at gomera on september . here he fell in with some residents of ferro, the westernmost of the group, who repeated the old stories of land occasionally seen from its heights, lying towards the setting sun. having taking on board wood, water, and provisions, columbus finally sailed from gomera on the morning of thursday, september . he seems to have soon spoken a vessel from ferro, and from this he learned that three portuguese caravels were lying in wait for him in the neighborhood of that island, with a purpose as he thought of visiting in some way upon him, for having gone over to the interests of spain, the indignation of the portuguese king. he escaped encountering them. [sidenote: sunday, september , .] [sidenote: falsifies his reckoning.] up to sunday, september , they had experienced so much calm weather, that their progress had been slow. this tediousness soon raised an apprehension in the mind of columbus that the voyage might prove too long for the constancy of his men. he accordingly determined to falsify his reckoning. this deceit was a large confession of his own timidity in dealing with his crew, and it marked the beginning of a long struggle with deceived and mutinous subordinates, which forms so large a part of the record of his subsequent career. [illustration: routes of columbus's four voyages. [taken from the map in blanchero's _la tavola di bronzo_ (geneva, ).]] [illustration: columbus's track in .] the result of monday's sail, which he knew to be sixty leagues, he noted as forty-eight, so that the distance from home might appear less than it was. he continued to practice this deceit. [sidenote: his dead reckoning.] the distances given by columbus are those of dead reckoning beyond any question. lieutenant murdock, of the united states navy, who has commented on this voyage, makes his league the equivalent of three modern nautical miles, and his mile about three quarters of our present estimate for that distance. navarrete says that columbus reckoned in italian miles, which are a quarter less than a spanish mile. the admiral had expected to make land after sailing about seven hundred leagues from ferro; and in ordering his vessels in case of separation to proceed westward, he warned them when they sailed that distance to come to the wind at night, and only to proceed by day. the log as at present understood in navigation had not yet been devised. columbus depended in judging of his speed on the eye alone, basing his calculations on the passage of objects or bubbles past the ship, while the running out of his hour glasses afforded the multiple for long distances. [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: reaches point of no variation of the needle.] [sidenote: knowledge of the magnet.] on thursday, the th of september, he notes that the ships were encountering adverse currents. he was now three degrees west of flores, and the needle of the compass pointed as it had never been observed before, directly to the true north. his observation of this fact marks a significant point in the history of navigation. the polarity of the magnet, an ancient possession of the chinese, had been known perhaps for three hundred years, when this new spirit of discovery awoke in the fifteenth century. the indian ocean and its traditions were to impart, perhaps through the arabs, perhaps through the returning crusaders, a knowledge of the magnet to the dwellers on the shores of the mediterranean, and to the hardier mariners who pushed beyond the pillars of hercules, so that the new route to that same indian ocean was made possible in the fifteenth century. the way was prepared for it gradually. the catalans from the port of barcelona pushed out into the great sea of darkness under the direction of their needles, as early at least as the twelfth century. the pilots of genoa and venice, the hardy majorcans and the adventurous moors, were followers of almost equal temerity. [illustration: [from the _united states coast survey report_, , no. .]] [sidenote: variation of the needle.] a knowledge of the variation of the needle came more slowly to be known to the mariners of the mediterranean. it had been observed by peregrini as early as , but that knowledge of it which rendered it greatly serviceable in voyages does not seem to be plainly indicated in any of the charts of these transition centuries, till we find it laid down on the maps of andrea bianco in . [illustration: [from hirth's _bilderbuch_, vol. iii.]] it was no new thing then when columbus, as he sailed westward, marked the variation, proceeding from the northeast more and more westerly; but it was a revelation when he came to a position where the magnetic north and the north star stood in conjunction, as they did on this th of september, . [sidenote: columbus's misconception of the line of no variation.] [sidenote: sebastian cabot's observations of its help in determining longitude.] as he still moved westerly the magnetic line was found to move farther and farther away from the pole as it had before the th approached it. to an observer of columbus's quick perceptions, there was a ready guess to possess his mind. this inference was that this line of no variation was a meridian line, and that divergences from it east and west might have a regularity which would be found to furnish a method of ascertaining longitude far easier and surer than tables or water clocks. we know that four years later he tried to sail his ship on observations of this kind. the same idea seems to have occurred to sebastian cabot, when a little afterwards he approached and passed in a higher latitude, what he supposed to be the meridian of no variation. humboldt is inclined to believe that the possibility of such a method of ascertaining longitude was that uncommunicable secret, which sebastian cabot many years later hinted at on his death-bed. the claim was made near a century later by livio sanuto in his _geographia_, published at venice, in , that sebastian cabot had been the first to observe this variation, and had explained it to edward vi., and that he had on a chart placed the line of no variation at a point one hundred and ten miles west of the island of flores in the azores. [sidenote: various views.] these observations of columbus and cabot were not wholly accepted during the sixteenth century. robert hues, in , a hundred years later, tells us that medina, the spanish grand pilot, was not disinclined to believe that mariners saw more in it than really existed and that they found it a convenient way to excuse their own blunders. nonius was credited with saying that it simply meant that worn-out magnets were used, which had lost their power to point correctly to the pole. others had contended that it was through insufficient application of the loadstone to the iron that it was so devious in its work. [illustration: part of mercator's polar regions, . [from r. mercator's atlas of .]] [sidenote: better understood.] what was thought possible by the early navigators possessed the minds of all seamen in varying experiments for two centuries and a half. though not reaching such satisfactory results as were hoped for, the expectation did not prove so chimerical as was sometimes imagined when it was discovered that the lines of variation were neither parallel, nor straight, nor constant. the line of no variation which columbus found near the azores has moved westward with erratic inclinations, until to-day it is not far from a straight line from carolina to guiana. science, beginning with its crude efforts at the hands of alonzo de santa cruz, in , has so mapped the surface of the globe with observations of its multifarious freaks of variation, and the changes are so slow, that a magnetic chart is not a bad guide to-day for ascertaining the longitude in any latitude for a few years neighboring to the date of its records. so science has come round in some measure to the dreams of columbus and cabot. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus remarks on changes of temperature and aberrations of stars.] but this was not the only development which came from this ominous day in the mid atlantic in that september of . the fancy of columbus was easily excited, and notions of a change of climate, and even aberrations of the stars were easily imagined by him amid the strange phenomena of that untracked waste. while columbus was suspecting that the north star was somewhat willfully shifting from the magnetic pole, now to a distance of ° and then of °, the calculations of modern astronomers have gauged the polar distance existing in at ° ´, as against the ° ´ of to-day. the confusion of columbus was very like his confounding an old world with a new, inasmuch as he supposed it was the pole star and not the needle which was shifting. [sidenote: imagines a protuberance on the earth.] he argued from what he saw, or thought he saw, that the line of no variation marked the beginning of a protuberance of the earth, up which he ascended as he sailed westerly, and that this was the reason of the cooler weather which he experienced. he never got over some notions of this kind, and believed he found confirmation of them in his later voyages. [sidenote: the magnetic pole.] even as early as the reign of edward iii. of england, nicholas of lynn, a voyager to the northern seas, is thought to have definitely fixed the magnetic pole in the arctic regions, transmitting his views to cnoyen, the master of the later mercator, in respect to the four circumpolar islands, which in the sixteenth century made so constant a surrounding of the northern pole. [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: september .] [sidenote: september .] [sidenote: sargasso sea.] the next day (september ), after these magnetic observations, a water wagtail was seen from the "nina,"--a bird which columbus thought unaccustomed to fly over twenty-five leagues from land, and the ships were now, according to their reckoning, not far from two hundred leagues from the canaries. on saturday, they saw a distant bolt of fire fall into the sea. on sunday, they had a drizzling rain, followed by pleasant weather, which reminded columbus of the nightingales, gladdening the climate of andalusia in april. they found around the ships much green floatage of weeds, which led them to think some islands must be near. navarrete thinks there was some truth in this, inasmuch as the charts of the early part of this century represent breakers as having been seen in , near the spot where columbus can be computed to have been at this time. columbus was in fact within that extensive _prairie_ of floating seaweed which is known as the sargasso sea, whose principal longitudinal axis is found in modern times to lie along the parallel of ° ´, and the best calculations which can be made from the rather uncertain data of columbus's journal seem to point to about the same position. there is nothing in all these accounts, as we have them abridged by las casas, to indicate any great surprise, and certainly nothing of the overwhelming fear which, the _historie_ tells us, the sailors experienced when they found their ships among these floating masses of weeds, raising apprehension of a perpetual entanglement in their swashing folds. [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: september .] the next day (september ) the currents became favorable, and the weeds still floated about them. the variation of the needle now became so great that the seamen were dismayed, as the journal says, and the observation being repeated columbus practiced another deceit and made it appear that there had been really no variation, but only a shifting of the polar star! the weeds were now judged to be river weeds, and a live crab was found among them,--a sure sign of near land, as columbus believed, or affected to believe. they killed a tunny and saw others. they again observed a water wagtail, "which does not sleep at sea." each ship pushed on for the advance, for it was thought the goal was near. the next day the "pinta" shot ahead and saw great flocks of birds towards the west. columbus conceived that the sea was growing fresher. heavy clouds hung on the northern horizon, a sure sign of land, it was supposed. [sidenote: . september .] on the next day two pelicans came on board, and columbus records that these birds are not accustomed to go twenty leagues from land. so he sounded with a line of two hundred fathoms to be sure he was not approaching land; but no bottom was found. a drizzling rain also betokened land, which they could not stop to find, but would search for on their return, as the journal says. the pilots now compared their reckonings. columbus said they were leagues, while the "pinta's" record showed , and the "nina's" . [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: september . changes his course.] [sidenote: head wind.] [sidenote: september .] on september , other pelicans came on board; and the ships were again among the weeds. columbus was determined to ascertain if these indicated shoal water and sounded, but could not reach bottom. the men caught a bird with feet like a gull; but they were convinced it was a river bird. then singing land-birds, as was fancied, hovered about as it darkened, but they disappeared before morning. then a pelican was observed flying to the southwest, and as "these birds sleep on shore, and go to sea in the morning," the men encouraged themselves with the belief that they could not be far from land. the next day a whale could but be another indication of land; and the weeds covered the sea all about. on saturday, they steered west by northwest, and got clear of the weeds. this change of course so far to the north, which had begun on the previous day, was occasioned by a head wind, and columbus says that he welcomed it, because it had the effect of convincing the sailors that westerly winds to return by were not impossible. on sunday (september ), they found the wind still varying; but they made more westering than before,--weeds, crabs, and birds still about them. now there was smooth water, which again depressed the seamen; then the sea arose, mysteriously, for there was no wind to cause it. they still kept their course westerly and continued it till the night of september . [sidenote: appearances of land.] [sidenote: again changes his course.] [sidenote: september .] [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: september .] [sidenote: october .] [sidenote: october .] [sidenote: october .] [sidenote: october .] [sidenote: shifts his course to follow some birds.] columbus at this time conferred with pinzon, as to a chart which they carried, which showed some islands, near where they now supposed the ships to be. that they had not seen land, they believed was either due to currents which had carried them too far north, or else their reckoning was not correct. at sunset pinzon hailed the admiral, and said he saw land, claiming the reward. the two crews were confident that such was the case, and under the lead of their commanders they all kneeled and repeated the _gloria in excelsis_. the land appeared to lie southwest, and everybody saw the apparition. columbus changed the fleet's course to reach it; and as the vessels went on, in the smooth sea, the men had the heart, under their expectation, to bathe in its amber glories. on wednesday, they were undeceived, and found that the clouds had played them a trick. on the th their course lay more directly west. so they went on, and still remarked upon all the birds they saw and weed-drift which they pierced. some of the fowl they thought to be such as were common at the cape de verde islands, and were not supposed to go far to sea. on the th september, they still observed the needles of their compasses to vary, but the journal records that it was the pole star which moved, and not the needle. on october , columbus says they were leagues from ferro; but he had made his crew believe they were only . as they went on, little new for the next few days is recorded in the journal; but on october , they thought they saw among the weeds something like fruits. by the th, pinzon began to urge a southwesterly course, in order to find the islands, which the signs seemed to indicate in that direction. still the admiral would not swerve from his purpose, and kept his course westerly. on sunday, the "nina" fired a bombard and hoisted a flag as a signal that she saw land, but it proved a delusion. observing towards evening a flock of birds flying to the southwest, the admiral yielded to pinzon's belief, and shifted his course to follow the birds. he records as a further reason for it that it was by following the flight of birds that the portuguese had been so successful in discovering islands in other seas. [sidenote: cipango.] columbus now found himself two hundred miles and more farther than the three thousand miles west of spain, where he supposed cipango to lie, and he was - / ° north of the equator, according to his astrolabe. the true distance of cipango or japan was sixty-eight hundred miles still farther, or beyond both north america and the pacific. how much beyond that island, in its supposed geographical position, columbus expected to find the asiatic main we can only conjecture from the restorations which modern scholars have made of toscanelli's map, which makes the island about ° east of asia, and from behaim's globe, which makes it °. it should be borne in mind that the knowledge of its position came from marco polo, and he does not distinctly say how far it was from the asiatic coast. in a general way, as to these distances from spain to china, toscanelli and behaim agreed, and there is no reason to believe that the views of columbus were in any noteworthy degree different. [sidenote: relations of pinzon to the change of course.] in the trial, years afterwards, when the fiscal contested the rights of diego colon, it was put in evidence by one vallejo, a seaman, that pinzon was induced to urge the direction to be changed to the southwest, because he had in the preceding evening observed a flight of parrots in that direction, which could have only been seeking land. it was the main purpose of the evidence in this part of the trial to show that pinzon had all along forced columbus forward against his will. how pregnant this change of course in the vessels of columbus was has not escaped the observation of humboldt and many others. a day or two further on his westerly way, and the gulf stream would, perhaps, insensibly have borne the little fleet up the atlantic coast of the future united states, so that the banner of castile might have been planted at carolina. [sidenote: october .] [sidenote: october - .] on the th of october, columbus was pretty nearly in latitude ° ',--that of one of the bahama islands. just where he was by longitude there is much more doubt, probably between ° and °. on the next day the land birds flying along the course of the ships seemed to confirm their hopes. on the th the journal records that the men began to lose patience; but the admiral reassured them by reminding them of the profits in store for them, and of the folly of seeking to return, when they had already gone so far. [sidenote: story of a mutiny.] it is possible that, in this entry, columbus conceals the story which later came out in the recital of oviedo, with more detail than in the _historie_ and las casas, that the rebellion of his crew was threatening enough to oblige him to promise to turn back if land was not discovered in three days. most commentators, however, are inclined to think that this story of a mutinous revolt was merely engrafted from hearsay or other source by oviedo upon the more genuine recital, and that the conspiracy to throw the admiral into the sea has no substantial basis in contemporary report. irving, who has a dramatic tendency throughout his whole account of the voyage to heighten his recital with touches of the imagination, nevertheless allows this, and thinks that oviedo was misled by listening to a pilot, who was a personal enemy of the admiral. the elucidations of the voyage which were drawn out in the famous suit of diego with the crown in and , afford no ground for any belief in this story of the mutiny and the concession of columbus to it. it is not, however, difficult to conceive the recurrent fears of his men and the incessant anxiety of columbus to quiet them. from what peter martyr tells us,--and he may have got it directly from columbus's lips,--the task was not an easy one to preserve subordination and to instill confidence. he represents that columbus was forced to resort in turn to argument, persuasion, and enticements, and to picture the misfortunes of the royal displeasure. [sidenote: . october .] the next day, notwithstanding a heavier sea than they had before encountered, certain signs sufficed to lift them out of their despondency. these were floating logs, or pieces of wood, one of them apparently carved by hand, bits of cane, a green rush, a stalk of rose berries, and other drifting tokens. [sidenote: . october . steer west.] [sidenote: columbus sees a light.] their southwesterly course had now brought them down to about the twenty-fourth parallel, when after sunset on the th they shifted their course to due west, while the crew of the admiral's ship united, with more fervor than usual, in the _salve regina_. at about ten o'clock columbus, peering into the night, thought he saw--if we may believe him--a moving light, and pointing out the direction to pero gutierrez, this companion saw it too; but another, rodrigo sanchez, situated apparently on another part of the vessel, was not able to see it. it was not brought to the attention of any others. the admiral says that the light seemed to be moving up and down, and he claimed to have got other glimpses of its glimmer at a later moment. he ordered the _salve_ to be chanted, and directed a vigilant watch to be set on the forecastle. to sharpen their vision he promised a silken jacket, beside the income of ten thousand maravedis which the king and queen had offered to the fortunate man who should first descry the coveted land. this light has been the occasion of much comment, and nothing will ever, it is likely, be settled about it, further than that the admiral, with an inconsiderate rivalry of a common sailor who later saw the actual land, and with an ungenerous assurance ill-befitting a commander, pocketed a reward which belonged to another. if oviedo, with his prejudices, is to be believed, columbus was not even the first who claimed to have seen this dubious light. there is a common story that the poor sailor, who was defrauded, later turned mohammedan, and went to live among that juster people. there is a sort of retributive justice in the fact that the pension of the crown was made a charge upon the shambles of seville, and thence columbus received it till he died. whether the light is to be considered a reality or a fiction will depend much on the theory each may hold regarding the position of the landfall. when columbus claimed to have discovered it, he was twelve or fourteen leagues away from the island where, four hours later, land was indubitably found. was the light on a canoe? was it on some small, outlying island, as has been suggested? was it a torch carried from hut to hut, as herrera avers? was it on either of the other vessels? was it on the low island on which, the next morning, he landed? there was no elevation on that island sufficient to show even a strong light at a distance of ten leagues. was it a fancy or a deceit? no one can say. it is very difficult for navarrete, and even for irving, to rest satisfied with what, after all, may have been only an illusion of a fevered mind, making a record of the incident in the excitement of a wonderful hour, when his intelligence was not as circumspect as it might have been. [illustration: the landfall of columbus, . [after ruge.]] [sidenote: , october , land discovered.] [sidenote: guanahani.] four hours after the light was seen, at two o'clock in the morning, when the moon, near its third quarter, was in the east, the "pinta" keeping ahead, one of her sailors, rodrigo de triana, descried the land, two leagues away, and a gun communicated the joyful intelligence to the other ships. the fleet took in sail, and each vessel, under backed sheets, was pointed to the wind. thus they waited for daybreak. it was a proud moment of painful suspense for columbus; and brimming hopes, perhaps fears of disappointment, must have accompanied that hour of wavering enchantment. it was friday, october , of the old chronology, and the little fleet had been thirty-three days on its way from the canaries, and we must add ten days more, to complete the period since they left palos. the land before them was seen, as the day dawned, to be a small island, "called in the indian tongue" guanahani. some naked natives were descried. the admiral and the commanders of the other vessels prepared to land. columbus took the royal standard and the others each a banner of the green cross, which bore the initials of the sovereign with a cross between, a crown surmounting every letter. thus, with the emblems of their power, and accompanied by rodrigo de escoveda and rodrigo sanchez and some seamen, the boat rowed to the shore. they immediately took formal possession of the land, and the notary recorded it. [illustration: columbus's armor.] [illustration: bahama islands antonio de herrera . [from major's _select letters of columbus_, d edition.]] [illustration: bahama islands modern [from major's _select letters of columbus_, d edition.]] [sidenote: columbus lands and utters a prayer.] the words of the prayer usually given as uttered by columbus on taking possession of san salvador, when he named the island, cannot be traced farther back than a collection of _tablas chronologicas_, got together at valencia in , by a jesuit father, claudio clemente. harrisse finds no authority for the statement of the french canonizers that columbus established a form of prayer which was long in vogue, for such occupations of new lands. las casas, from whom we have the best account of the ceremonies of the landing, does not mention it; but we find pictured in his pages the grave impressiveness of the hour; the form of columbus, with a crimson robe over his armor, central and grand; and the humbleness of his followers in their contrition for the hours of their faint-heartedness. [sidenote: the island described.] columbus now enters in his journal his impressions of the island and its inhabitants. he says of the land that it bore green trees, was watered by many streams, and produced divers fruits. in another place he speaks of the island as flat, without lofty eminence, surrounded by reefs, with a lake in the interior. the courses and distances of his sailing both before and on leaving the island, as well as this description, are the best means we have of identifying the spot of this portentous landfall. the early maps may help in a subsidiary way, but with little precision. [sidenote: identification of the landfall.] there is just enough uncertainty and contradiction respecting the data and arguments applied in the solution of this question, to render it probable that men will never quite agree which of the bahamas it was upon which these startled and exultant europeans first stepped. though las casas reports the journal of columbus unabridged for a period after the landfall, he unfortunately condenses it for some time previous. there is apparently no chance of finding geographical conditions that in every respect will agree with this record of columbus, and we must content ourselves with what offers the fewest disagreements. an obvious method, if we could depend on columbus's dead reckoning, would be to see for what island the actual distance from the canaries would be nearest to his computed run; but currents and errors of the eye necessarily throw this sort of computation out of the question, and capt. g. a. fox, who has tried it, finds that cat island is three hundred and seventeen, the grand turk six hundred and twenty-four nautical miles, and the other supposable points at intermediate distances out of the way as compared with his computation of the distance run by columbus, three thousand four hundred and fifty-eight of such miles. [sidenote: the bahamas.] [sidenote: san salvador, or cat island.] [sidenote: other islands.] [sidenote: methods of identification.] [sidenote: acklin island.] the reader will remember the bahama group as a range of islands, islets, and rocks, said to be some three thousand in number, running southeast from a point part way up the florida coast, and approaching at the other end the coast of hispaniola. in the latitude of the lower point of florida, and five degrees east of it, is the island of san salvador or cat island, which is the most northerly of those claimed to have been the landfall of columbus. proceeding down the group, we encounter watling's, samana, acklin (with the plana cays), mariguana, and the grand turk,--all of which have their advocates. the three methods of identification which have been followed are, first, by plotting the outward track; second, by plotting the track between the landfall and cuba, both forward and backward; third, by applying the descriptions, particularly columbus's, of the island first seen. in this last test, harrisse prefers to apply the description of las casas, which is borrowed in part from that of the _historie_, and he reconciles columbus's apparent discrepancy when he says in one place that the island was "pretty large," and in another "small," by supposing that he may have applied these opposite terms, the lesser to the plana cays, as first seen, and the other to the crooked group, or acklin island, lying just westerly, on which he may have landed. harrisse is the only one who makes this identification; and he finds some confirmation in later maps, which show thereabout an island, triango or triangulo, a name said by las casas to have been applied to guanahani at a later day. there is no known map earlier than bearing this alternative name of triango. [sidenote: san salvador.] san salvador seems to have been the island selected by the earliest of modern inquirers, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and it has had the support of irving and humboldt in later times. captain alexander slidell mackenzie of the united states navy worked out the problem for irving. it is much larger than any of the other islands, and could hardly have been called by columbus in any alternative way a "small" island, while it does not answer columbus's description of being level, having on it an eminence of four hundred feet, and no interior lagoon, as his guanahani demands. the french canonizers stand by the old traditions, and find it meet to say that "the english protestants not finding the name san salvador fine enough have substituted for it that of cat, and in their hydrographical atlases the island of the holy saviour is nobly called cat island." [sidenote: watling's island.] the weight of modern testimony seems to favor watling's island, and it so far answers to columbus's description that about one third of its interior is water, corresponding to his "large lagoon." muñoz first suggested it in ; but the arguments in its favor were first spread out by captain becher of the royal navy in , and he seems to have induced oscar peschel in to adopt the same views in his history of the range of modern discovery. major, the map custodian of the british museum, who had previously followed navarrete in favoring the grand turk, again addressed himself to the problem in , and fell into line with the adherents of watling's. no other considerable advocacy of this island, if we except the testimony of gerard stein in , in a book on voyages of discovery, appeared till lieut. j. b. murdoch, an officer of the american navy, made a very careful examination of the subject in the _proceedings of the united states naval institute_ in , which is accepted by charles a. schott in the _bulletin of the united states coast survey_. murdoch was the first to plot in a backward way the track between guanahani and cuba, and he finds more points of resemblance in columbus's description with watling's than with any other. the latest adherent is the eminent geographer, clements r. markham, in the bulletin of the italian geographical society in . perhaps no cartographical argument has been so effective as that of major in comparing modern charts with the map of herrera, in which the latter lays guanahani down. [sidenote: samana.] [sidenote: grand turk island.] an elaborate attempt to identify samana as the landfall was made by the late capt. gustavus vasa fox, in an appendix to the _report of the united states coast survey_ for . varnhagen, in , selected mariguana, and defended his choice in a paper. this island fails to satisfy the physical conditions in being without interior water. such a qualification, however, belongs to the grand turk island, which was advocated first by navarrete in , whose views have since been supported by george gibbs, and for a while by major. it is rather curious to note that caleb cushing, who undertook to examine this question in the _north american review_, under the guidance of navarrete's theory, tried the same backward method which has been later applied to the problem, but with quite different results from those reached by more recent investigators. he says, "by setting out from nipe [which is the point where columbus struck cuba] and proceeding in a retrograde direction along his course, we may surely trace his path, and shall be convinced that guanahani is no other than turk's island." chapter x. among the islands and the return voyage. [sidenote: the natives of guanahani.] we learn that, after these ceremonies on the shore, the natives began fearlessly to gather about the strangers. columbus, by causing red caps, strings of beads, and other trinkets to be distributed among them, made an easy conquest of their friendship. later the men swam out to the ship to exchange their balls of thread, their javelins, and parrots for whatever they could get in return. the description which columbus gives us in his journal of the appearance and condition of these new people is the earliest, of course, in our knowledge of them. his record is interesting for the effect which the creatures had upon him, and for the statement of their condition before the spaniards had set an impress upon their unfortunate race. they struck columbus as, on the whole, a very poor people, going naked, and, judging from a single girl whom he saw, this nudity was the practice of the women. they all seemed young, not over thirty, well made, with fine shapes and faces. their hair was coarse, and combed short over the forehead; but hung long behind. the bodies of many were differently colored with pigments of many hues, though of some only the face, the eyes, or the nose were painted. columbus was satisfied that they had no knowledge of edged weapons, because they grasped his sword by the blade and cut themselves. their javelins were sticks pointed with fishbones. when he observed scars on their bodies, they managed to explain to him that enemies, whom the admiral supposed to come from the continent, sometimes invaded their island, and that such wounds were received in defending themselves. they appeared to him to have no religion, which satisfied him that the task of converting them to christianity would not be difficult. they learned readily to pronounce such words as were repeated to them. [sidenote: . october .] [sidenote: affinities of the lucayans.] on the next day after landing, saturday, columbus describes again the throng that came to the shore, and was struck with their broad foreheads. he deemed it a natural coincidence, being in the latitude of the canaries, that the natives had the complexion prevalent among the natives of those islands. in this he anticipated the conclusions of the anthropologists, who have found in the skulls preserved in caves both in the bahamas and in the canaries, such striking similarities as have led to the supposition that ocean currents may have borne across the sea some of the old guanche stock of the canaries, itself very likely the remnant of the people of the european river-drift. professor w. k. brooks, of the johns hopkins university, who has recently published in the _popular science monthly_ (november, ) a study of the bones of the lucayans as found in caves in the bahamas, reports that these relics indicate a muscular, heavy people, about the size of the average european, with protuberant square jaws, sloping eyes, and very round skulls, but artificially flattened on the forehead,--a result singularly confirming columbus's description of broader heads than he had ever seen. [sidenote: hammocks.] "the ceboynas," says a recent writer on these indians, "gave us the hammock, and this one lucayan word is their only monument," for a population larger than inhabits these islands to-day were in twelve years swept from the surface of the earth by a system devised by columbus. [sidenote: canoes.] the admiral also describes their canoes, made in a wonderful manner of a single tree-trunk, and large enough to hold forty or forty-five men, though some were so small as to carry a single person only. their oars are shaped like the wooden shovels with which bakers slip their loaves into ovens. if a canoe upsets, it is righted as they swim. [sidenote: gold among them.] columbus was attracted by bits of gold dangling at the nose of some among them. by signs he soon learned that a greater abundance of this metal could be found on an island to the south; but they seemed unable to direct him with any precision how to reach that island, or at least it was not easy so to interpret any of their signs. "poor wretches!" exclaims helps, "if they had possessed the slightest gift of prophecy, they would have thrown these baubles into the deepest sea." [sidenote: columbus traffics with them.] they pointed in all directions, but towards the east as the way to other lands; and implied that those enemies who came from the northwest often passed to the south after gold. he found that broken dishes and bits of glass served as well for traffic with them as more valuable articles, and balls of threads of cotton, grown on the island, seemed their most merchantable commodity. [sidenote: . october , sails towards cipango.] with this rude foretaste, columbus determined to push on for the richer cipango. on the next day he coasted along the island in his boats, discovering two or three villages, where the inhabitants were friendly. they seemed to think that the strangers had come from heaven,--at least columbus so interpreted their prostrations and uplifted hands. columbus, fearful of the reefs parallel to the shore, kept outside of them, and as he moved along, saw a point of land which a ditch might convert into an island. he thought this would afford a good site for a fort, if there was need of one. [sidenote: . october .] [sidenote: columbus proposes to enslave the natives.] [sidenote: . october .] [sidenote: . october .] it was on this sunday that columbus, in what he thought doubtless the spirit of the day in dealing with heathens, gives us his first intimation of the desirability of using force to make these poor creatures serve their new masters. on returning to the ships and setting sail, he soon found that he was in an archipelago. he had seized some natives, who were now on board. these repeated to him the names of more than a hundred islands. he describes those within sight as level, fertile, and populous, and he determined to steer for what seemed the largest. he stood off and on during the night of the th, and by noon of the th he had reached this other island, which he found at the easterly end to run five leagues north and south, and to extend east and west a distance of ten leagues. lured by a still larger island farther west he pushed on, and skirting the shore reached its western extremity. he cast anchor there at sunset, and named the island santa maria de la concepcion. the natives on board told him that the people here wore gold bracelets. columbus thought this story might be a device of his prisoners to obtain opportunities to escape. on the next day, he repeated the forms of landing and taking possession. two of the prisoners contrived to escape. one of them jumped overboard and was rescued by a native canoe. the spaniards overtook the canoe, but not till its occupants had escaped. a single man, coming off in another canoe, was seized and taken on board; but columbus thought him a good messenger of amity, and loading him with presents, "not worth four maravedis," he put him ashore. columbus watched the liberated savage, and judged from the wonder of the crowds which surrounded him that his ruse of friendship had been well played. [sidenote: columbus sees a large island.] another large island appeared westerly about nine leagues, famous for its gold ornaments, as his prisoners again declared. it is significant that in his journal, since he discovered the bits of gold at san salvador, columbus has not a word to say of reclaiming the benighted heathen; but he constantly repeats his hope "with the help of our lord," of finding gold. on the way thither he had picked up a second single man in a canoe, who had apparently followed him from san salvador. he determined to bestow some favors upon him and let him go, as he had done with the other. [sidenote: . october .] this new island, which he reached october , and called fernandina, he found to be about twenty-eight leagues long, with a safer shore than the others. he anchored near a village, where the man whom he had set free had already come, bringing good reports of the stranger, and so the spaniards got a kind reception. great numbers of natives came off in canoes, to whom the men gave trinkets and molasses. he took on board some water, the natives assisting the crew. getting an impression that the island contained a mine of gold, he resolved to follow the coast, and find samaot, where the gold was said to be. columbus thought he saw some improvement in the natives over those he had seen before, remarking upon the cotton cloth with which they partly covered their persons. he was surprised to find that distinct branches of the same tree bore different leaves. a single tree, as he says, will show as many as five or six varieties, not done by grafting, but a natural growth. he wondered at the brilliant fish, and found no land creatures but parrots and lizards, though a boy of the company told him that he had seen a snake. on wednesday he started to sail around the island. in a little haven, where they tarried awhile, they first entered the native houses. [sidenote: hammocks.] they found everything in them neat, with nets extended between posts, which they called _hamacs_,--a name soon adopted by sailors for swinging-beds. the houses were shaped like tents, with high chimneys, but not more than twelve or fifteen together. dogs were running about them, but they could not bark. columbus endeavored to buy a bit of gold, cut or stamped, which was hanging from a man's nose; but the savage refused his offers. [illustration: indian beds.] [sidenote: . october .] the ships continued their course about the island, the weather not altogether favorable; but on october they veered away to another island to the west of fernandina, which columbus named isabella, after his queen. this he pronounced the most beautiful he had seen; and he remarks on the interior region of it being higher than in the other islands, and the source of streams. the breezes from the shore brought him odors, and when he landed he became conscious that his botanical knowledge did not aid him in selecting such dyestuffs, medicines, and spices as would command high prices in spain. he saw a hideous reptile, and the canonizers, after their amusing fashion, tell us that "to see and attack him were the same thing for columbus, for he considered it of importance to accustom spanish intrepidity to such warfare." [sidenote: to find gold columbus's main object.] [sidenote: . october .] the reptile proved inoffensive. the signs of his prisoners were interpreted to repeat here the welcome tale of gold. he understood them to refer to a king decked with gold. "i do not, however," he adds, "give much credit to these accounts, for i understand the natives but imperfectly." "i am proceeding solely in quest of gold and spices," he says again. [sidenote: cuba heard of.] [sidenote: . october . isabella.] on sunday they went ashore, and found a house from which the occupants had recently departed. the foliage was enchanting. flocks of parrots obscured the sky. specimens were gathered of wonderful trees. they killed a snake in a lake. they cajoled some timid natives with beads, and got their help in filling their water cask. they heard of a very large island named colba, which had ships and sailors, as the natives were thought to say. they had little doubt that these stories referred to cipango. they hoped the native king would bring them gold in the night; but this not happening, and being cheered by the accounts of colba, they made up their minds that it would be a waste of time to search longer for this backward king, and so resolved to run for the big island. [sidenote: october .] starting from isabella at midnight on october , and passing other smaller islands, they finally, on sunday, october , entered a river near the easterly end of cuba. [sidenote: cuba.] the track of columbus from san salvador to cuba has been as variously disputed as the landfall; indeed, the divergent views of the landfall necessitate such later variations. [sidenote: pearls.] they landed within the river's mouth, and discovered deserted houses, which from the implements within they supposed to be the houses of fishermen. columbus observed that the grass grew down to the water's edge; and he reasoned therefrom that the sea could never be rough. he now observed mountains, and likened them to those of sicily. he finally supposed his prisoners to affirm by their signs that the island was too large for a canoe to sail round it in twenty days. there were the old stories of gold; but the mention of pearls appears now for the first time in the journal, which in this place, however, we have only in las casas's abridgment. [sidenote: columbus supposes himself at mangi.] when the natives pointed to the interior and said, "cubanacan," meaning, it is supposed, an inland region, columbus imagined it was a reference to kublai khan; and the cuban name of mangon he was very ready to associate with the mangi of mandeville. as he still coasted westerly he found river and village, and made more use of his prisoners than had before been possible. they seem by this time to have settled into an acquiescent spirit. he wondered in one place at statues which looked like women. he was not quite sure whether the natives kept them for the love of the beautiful, or for worship. [sidenote: columbus supposes himself on the coast of cathay.] he found domesticated fowl; and saw a skull, which he supposed was a cow's, which was probably that of the sea-calf, a denizen of these waters. he thought the temperature cooler than in the other islands, and ascribed the change to the mountains. he observed on one of these eminences a protuberance that looked like a mosque. such interpretation as the spaniards could make of their prisoners' signs convinced them that if they sailed farther west they would find some potentate, and so they pushed on. bad weather, however, delayed them, and they again opened communication with the natives. they could hear nothing of gold, but saw a silver trinket; and learned, as they thought, that news of their coming had been carried to the distant king. columbus felt convinced that the people of these regions were banded enemies of the great khan, and that he had at last struck the continent of cathay, and was skirting the shores of the zartun and quinsay of marco polo. taking an observation, columbus found himself to be in ° north latitude, and as near as he could reckon, he was leagues west of ferro. he really was . [sidenote: . november - .] [sidenote: cuba explored.] [sidenote: tobacco.] [sidenote: potatoes.] from friday, november , to monday, november , two spaniards, whom columbus had sent into the interior, accompanied by some indians, had made their way unmolested in their search for a king. they had been entertained here and there with ceremony, and apparently worshiped as celestial comers. the evidences of the early spanish voyagers give pretty constant testimony that the whites were supposed to have come from the skies. columbus had given to his envoys samples of cinnamon, pepper, and other spices, which were shown to the people. in reply, his messengers learned that such things grew to the southeast of them. columbus later, in his first letter, speaks of cinnamon as one of the spices which they found, but it turned out to be the bark of a sort of laurel. las casas, in mentioning this expedition, says that the spaniards found the natives smoking small tubes of dried leaves, filled with other leaves, which they called _tobacos_. sir arthur helps aptly remarks on this trivial discovery by the spaniards of a great financial resource of modern statesmen, since tobacco has in the end proved more productive to the spanish crown than the gold which columbus sought. the spaniards found no large villages; but they perceived great stores of fine cotton of a long staple. they found the people eating what we must recognize as potatoes. the absence of gold gave columbus an opportunity to wish more fervently than before for the conversion of some of these people. [sidenote: one-eyed and dog-faced men.] [sidenote: cannibals.] while this party was absent, columbus found a quiet beach, and careened his ships, one at a time. in melting his tar, the wood which he used gave out a powerful odor, and he pronounced it the mastic gum, which europe had always got from chios. as this work was going on, the spaniards got from the natives, as best they could, many intimations of larger wealth and commerce to the southeast. other strange stories were told of men with one eye, and faces like dogs, and of cruel, bloodthirsty man-eaters, who fought to appease their appetite on the flesh of the slain. [sidenote: . november .] [sidenote: babeque.] it was not till the th of november that columbus left this hospitable haven, at daybreak, in search of a place called babeque, "where gold was collected at night by torch-light upon the shore, and afterward hammered into bars." he the more readily retraced his track, that the coast to the westward seemed to trend northerly, and he dreaded a colder climate. he must leave for another time the sight of men with tails, who inhabited a province in that direction, as he was informed. again the historian recognizes how a chance turned the spaniards away from a greater goal. if columbus had gone on westerly and discovered the insular character of cuba, he might have sought the main of mexico and yucatan, and anticipated the wonders of the conquest of cortez. he never was undeceived in believing that cuba was the asiatic main. [sidenote: columbus captures some natives.] columbus sailed back over his course with an inordinate idea of the riches of the country which he was leaving. he thought the people docile; that their simple belief in a god was easily to be enlarged into the true faith, whereby spain might gain vassals and the church a people. he managed to entice on board, and took away, six men, seven women, and three children, condoning the act of kidnapping--the canonizers call it "retaining on board"--by a purpose to teach them the spanish language, and open a readier avenue to their benighted souls. he allowed the men to have women to share their durance, as such ways, he says, had proved useful on the coast of guinea. the admiral says in his first letter, referring to his captives, "that we immediately understood each other, either by words or signs." this was his message to expectant europe. his journal is far from conveying that impression. [sidenote: . november .] the ships now steered east-by-south, passing mountainous lands, which on november he tried to approach. after a while he discovered a harbor, which he could enter, and found it filled with lofty wooded islands, some pointed and some flat at the top. he was quite sure he had now got among the islands which are made to swarm on the asiatic coast in the early accounts and maps. he now speaks of his practice in all his landings to set up and leave a cross. he observed, also, a promontory in the bay fit for a fortress, and caught a strange fish resembling a hog. he was at this time embayed in the king's garden, as the archipelago is called. [sidenote: pinzon deserts.] [sidenote: . november .] shortly after this, when they had been baffled in their courses, martin alonso pinzon, incited, as the record says, by his cupidity to find the stores of gold to which some of his indian captives had directed him, disregarded the admiral's signals, and sailed away in the "pinta." the flagship kept a light for him all night, at the mast-head; but in the morning the caravel was out of sight. the admiral takes occasion in his journal to remark that this was not the first act of pinzon's insubordination. on friday, november , the vessels approached a headland, which the indians called bohio. [sidenote: . november .] the prisoners here began to manifest fear, for it was a spot where the one-eyed people and the cannibals dwelt; but on saturday, november , the ships were forced back into the gulf with the many islands, where columbus found a desirable roadstead, which he had not before discovered. [sidenote: . november .] on sunday, exploring in a boat, he found in a stream "certain stones which shone with spots of a golden hue; and recollecting that gold was found in the river tagus near the sea, he entertained no doubt that this was the metal, and directed that a collection of the stones should be made to carry to the king and queen." it becomes noticeable, as columbus goes on, that every new place surpasses all others; the atmosphere is better; the trees are more marvelous. he now found pines fit for masts, and secured some for the "nina." as he coasted the next day along what he believed to be a continental coast, he tried in his journal to account for the absence of towns in so beautiful a country. that there were inhabitants he knew, for he found traces of them on going ashore. he had discovered that all the natives had a great dread of a people whom they called caniba or canima, and he argued that the towns were kept back from the coast to avoid the chances of the maritime attacks of this fierce people. there was no doubt in the mind of columbus that these inroads were conducted by subjects of the great khan. while he was still stretching his course along this coast, observing its harbors, seeing more signs of habitation, and attempting to hold intercourse with the frightened natives, now anchoring in some haven, and now running up adjacent rivers in a galley, he found time to jot down in this journal for the future perusal of his sovereigns some of his suspicions, prophecies, and determinations. he complains of the difficulty of understanding his prisoners, and seems conscious of his frequent misconceptions of their meaning. he says he has lost confidence in them, and somewhat innocently imagines that they would escape if they could! then he speaks of a determination to acquire their language, which he supposes to be the same through all the region. "in this way," he adds, "we can learn the riches of the country, and make endeavors to convert these people to our religion, for they are without even the faith of an idolater." he descants upon the salubrity of the air; not one of his crew had had any illness, "except an old man, all his life a sufferer from the stone." there is at times a somewhat amusing innocence in his conclusions, as when finding a cake of wax in one of the houses, which las casas thinks was brought from yucatan, he "was of the opinion that where wax was found there must be a great many other valuable commodities." [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: leaves cuba or juana.] [sidenote: bohio. española.] [sidenote: tortuga.] the ships were now detained in their harbor for several days, during which the men made excursions, and found a populous country; they succeeded at times in getting into communication with the natives. finally, on december , he left the puerto santo, as he called it, and coasting along easterly he reached the next day the extreme eastern end of what we now know to be cuba, or juana as he had named it, after prince juan. cruising about, he seems to have had an apprehension that the land he had been following might not after all be the main, for he appears to have looked around the southerly side of this end of cuba and to have seen the southwesterly trend of its coast. he observed, the same day, land in the southeast, which his indians called bohio, and this was subsequently named española. las casas explains that columbus here mistook the indian word meaning house for the name of the island, which was really in their tongue called haiti. it is significant of the difficulty in identifying the bays and headlands of the journal, that at this point las casas puts on one side, and navarrete on the opposite side, of the passage dividing cuba from española, one of the capes which columbus indicates. changing his course for this lofty island, he dispatched the "nina" to search its shore and find a harbor. that night the admiral's ship beat about, waiting for daylight. when it came, he took his observations of the coast, and espying an island separated by a wide channel from the other land, he named this island tortuga. finding his way into a harbor--the present st. nicholas--he declares that a thousand caracks could sail about in it. here he saw, as before, large canoes, and many natives, who fled on his approach. the spaniards soon began as they went on to observe lofty and extensive mountains, "the whole country appearing like castile." they saw another reminder of spain as they were rowing about a harbor, which they entered, and which was opposite tortuga, when a skate leaped into their boat, and the admiral records it as a first instance in which they had seen a fish similar to those of the spanish waters. he says, too, that he heard on the shore nightingales "and other spanish birds," mistaking of course their identity. he saw myrtles and other trees "like those of castile." there was another obvious reference to the old country in the name of española, which he now bestowed upon the island. he could find few of the inhabitants, and conjectured that their towns were back from the coast. the men, however, captured a handsome young woman who wore a bit of gold at her nose; and having bestowed upon her gifts, let her go. soon after, the admiral sent a party to a town of a thousand houses, thinking the luck of the woman would embolden the people to have a parley. the inhabitants fled in fear at first; but growing bolder came in great crowds, and brought presents of parrots. [sidenote: columbus finds his latitude.] it was here that columbus took his latitude and found it to be °,--while in fact it was °. the journal gives numerous instances during all these explorations of the bestowing of names upon headlands and harbors, few of which have remained to this day. it was a common custom to make such use of a saint's name on his natal day. [sidenote: saints' names.] dr. shea in a paper which he published in , in the first volume of the _american catholic quarterly_, has emphasized the help which the roman nomenclature of saints' days, given to rivers and headlands, affords to the geographical student in tracking the early explorers along the coasts of the new world. this method of tracing the progress of maritime discovery suggested itself early to oviedo, and has been appealed to by henry c. murphy and other modern authorities on this subject. [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: tortuga.] finally, on friday, december , they sailed out of the harbor toward tortuga. he found this island to be under extensive cultivation like a plain of cordoba. the wind not holding for him to take the course which he wished to run, columbus returned to his last harbor, the puerto de la concepcion. again on saturday he left it, and standing across to tortuga once more, he went towards the shore and proceeded up a stream in his boats. the inhabitants fled as he approached, and burning fires in tortuga as well as in española seemed to be signals that the spaniards were moving. [sidenote: babeque.] during the night, proceeding along the channel between the two islands, the admiral met and took on board a solitary indian in his canoe. the usual gifts were put upon him, and when the ships anchored near a village, he was sent ashore with the customary effect. the beach soon swarmed with people, gathered with their king, and some came on board. the spaniards got from them without difficulty the bits of gold which they wore at their ears and noses. one of the captive indians who talked with the king told this "youth of twenty-one," that the spaniards had come from heaven and were going to babeque to find gold; and the king told the admiral's messenger, who delivered to him a present, that if he sailed in a certain course two days he would arrive there. this is the last we hear of babeque, a place columbus never found, at least under that name. humboldt remarks that columbus mentions the name of babeque more than fourteen times in his journal, but it cannot certainly be identified with española, as the _historie_ of declares it to be. d'avezac has since shared humboldt's view. las casas hesitatingly thought it might have referred to jamaica. then the journal describes the country, saying that the land is lofty, but that the highest mountains are arable, and that the trees are so luxuriant that they become black rather than green. the journal further describes this new people as stout and courageous, very different from the timid islanders of other parts, and without religion. with his usual habit of contradiction, columbus goes on immediately to speak of their pusillanimity, saying that three spaniards were more than a match for a thousand of them. he prefigures their fate in calling them "well-fitted to be governed and set to work to till the land and do whatsoever is necessary." [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: cannibals.] it was on monday, december , while lying off española, that the spaniards got for the first time something more than rumor respecting the people of caniba or the cannibals. these new evidences were certain arrows which the natives showed to them, and which they said had belonged to those man-eaters. they were pieces of cane, tipped with sticks which had been hardened by fire. [sidenote: cacique.] "they were exhibited by two indians who had lost some flesh from their bodies, eaten out by the cannibals. this the admiral did not believe." it was now, too, that the spaniards found gold in larger quantities than they had seen it before. they saw some beaten into thin plates. the cacique--here this word appears for the first time--cut a plate as big as his hand into pieces and bartered them, promising to have more to exchange the next day. he gave the spaniards to understand that there was more gold in tortuga than in española. it is to be remarked, also, in the admiral's account, that while "our lord" is not recorded as indicating to him any method of converting the poor heathen, it was "our lord" who was now about to direct the admiral to babeque. [sidenote: . december .] the next day, december , the admiral lay at anchor, both because wind failed him, and because he would be able to see the gold which the cacique had promised to bring. it also gave him an opportunity to deck his ships and fire his guns in honor of the annunciation of the blessed virgin. in due time the king appeared, borne on a sort of litter by his men, and boarding the ship, that chieftain found columbus at table in his cabin. the cacique was placed beside the admiral, and similar viands and drinks were placed before him, of which he partook. two of his dusky followers, sitting at his feet, followed their master in the act. columbus, observing that the hangings of his bed had attracted the attention of the savage, gave them to him, and added to the present some amber beads from his own neck, some red shoes, and a flask of orange-flower water. "this day," says the record, "little gold was obtained; but an old man indicated that at a distance of a hundred leagues or more were some islands, where much gold could be found, and in some it was so plentiful that it was collected and bolted with sieves, then melted and beaten into divers forms. one of the islands was said to be all gold, and the admiral determined to go in the direction which this man pointed." [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: st. thomas island.] that night they tried in vain to stand out beyond tortuga, but on the th of december, the record places the ships in a harbor between a little island, which columbus called st. thomas, and the main island. during the following day, december , he surveyed the roadstead, and going about the region in his boats, he had a number of interviews with the natives, which ended with an interchange of gifts and courtesies. [sidenote: . december .] on saturday, december , they encountered some people, sent by a neighboring cacique, whom the admiral's own indians could not readily understand, the first of this kind mentioned in the journal. writing in regard to a party which columbus at this time sent to visit a large town not far off, he speaks of having his secretary accompany them, in order to repress the spaniards' greediness,--an estimate of his followers which the admiral had not before suffered himself to record, if we can trust the las casas manuscript. the results of this foray were three fat geese and some bits of gold. as he entered the adventure in his journal, he dwelt on the hope of gold being on the island in abundance, and if only the spot could be found, it might be got for little or nothing. "our lord, in whose hands are all things, be my help," he cries. "our lord, in his mercy, direct me where i may find the gold mine." [sidenote: cibao.] the admiral now learns the name of another chief officer, nitayno, whose precise position was not apparent, but las casas tells us later that this word was the title of one nearest in rank to the cacique. when an indian spoke of a place named cibao, far to the east, where the king had banners made of plates of gold, the admiral, in his eager confidence, had no hesitation in identifying it with cipango and its gorgeous prince. it proved to be the place where in the end the best mines were found. [sidenote: . december .] in speaking of the next day, sunday, december , las casas tells us that columbus was not in the habit of sailing on sunday, not because he was superstitious, but because he was pious; but that he did not omit the opportunity at this time of coursing the coast, "in order to display the symbols of redemption." [sidenote: columbus shipwrecked.] christmas found them in distress. the night before, everything looking favorable, and the vessel sailing along quietly, columbus had gone to bed, being much in need of rest. the helmsman put a boy at the tiller and went to sleep. the rest of the crew were not slow to do the same. the vessel was in this condition, with no one but the boy awake, when, carried out of her course by the current, she struck a sand bank. the cry of the boy awakened the admiral, and he was the first to discover the danger of their situation. he ordered out a boat's crew to carry an anchor astern, but, bewildered or frightened, the men pulled for the "nina." the crew of that caravel warned them off, to do their duty, and sent their own boat to assist. help, however, availed nothing. the "santa maria" had careened, and her seams were opening. her mast had been cut away, but she failed to right herself. the admiral now abandoned her and rowed to the "nina" with his men. communicating with the cacique in the morning, that chieftain sent many canoes to assist in unloading the ship, so that in a short time everything of value was saved. this assistance gave occasion for mutual confidences between the spaniards and the natives. "they are a loving, uncovetous people," he enters in his journal. one wonders, with the later experience of his new friends, if the cacique could have said as much in return. the admiral began to be convinced that "the lord had permitted the shipwreck in order that he might choose this place for a settlement." the canonizers go further and say, "the shipwreck made him an engineer." irving, whose heedless embellishments of the story of these times may amuse the pastime reader, but hardly satisfy the student, was not blind to the misfortunes of what columbus at the time called the divine interposition. "this shipwreck," irving says, "shackled and limited all columbus's future discoveries. it linked his fortunes for the remainder of his life to this island, which was doomed to be to him a source of cares and troubles, to involve him in a thousand perplexities, and to becloud his declining years with humiliation and disappointment." [sidenote: fort built.] the saving of his stores and the loss of his ship had indeed already suggested what some of his men had asked for, that they might be left there, while the admiral returned to spain with the tidings of the discovery, if--as the uncomfortable thought sprung up in his mind--he had not already been anticipated by the recreant commander of the "pinta." accordingly columbus ordered the construction of a fort, with tower and ditch, and arrangements were soon made to provide bread and wine for more than a year, beside seed for the next planting-time. the ship's long-boat could be left; and a calker, carpenter, cooper, engineer, tailor, and surgeon could be found among his company, to be of the party who were to remain and "search for the gold mine." he says that he expected they would collect a ton of gold in the interval of his absence; "for i have before protested to your highnesses," he adds as he makes an entry for his sovereigns to read, "that the profits shall go to making a conquest of jerusalem." [sidenote: garrison of la navidad.] we know the names of those who agreed to stay on the island. navarrete discovered the list in a proclamation made in to pay what was due them to their next of kin. this list gives forty names, though some accounts of the voyage say they numbered a few less. the company included the irishman and englishman already mentioned. [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: december .] [sidenote: december .] on the th of december, columbus got the first tidings of the "pinta" since she deserted him; and he sent a spaniard, with indians to handle the canoe, to a harbor at the end of the island, where he supposed pinzon's ship to be. columbus was now perfecting his plans for the fort, and tried to make out if guacanagari, the king, was not trying to conceal from him the situation of the mines. on sunday, december , the spanish and native leaders vied with each other in graciousness. the savage put his crown upon the admiral. columbus took off his necklace and scarlet cloak and placed them on the king. he clothed the savage's naked feet with buskins and decked the dusky hand with a silver ring. on monday, work was resumed in preparing for their return to spain, for, with the "pinta" gone--for the canoe sent to find her had returned unsuccessful--and the "nina" alone remaining, it was necessary to diminish the risk attending the enterprise. [sidenote: . january .] on january , , there was to be leave-taking of the cacique. to impart to him and to his people a dread of spanish power, in the interests of those to be left, he made an exhibition of the force of his bombards, by sending a shot clean through the hull of the dismantled wreck. it is curious to observe how irving, with a somewhat cheap melodramatic instinct, makes this shot tear through a beautiful grove like a bolt from heaven! the king made some return by ordering an effigy of columbus to be finished in gold, in ten days,--as at least so columbus understood one of his indians to announce the cacique's purpose. [sidenote: . january .] [sidenote: january .] having commissioned diego de arana as commander and pedro gutierrez and roderigo de escoveda to act as his lieutenants of the fort and its thirty-nine men, columbus now embarked, but not before he had addressed all sorts of good advice to those he was to leave behind,--advice that did no good, if the subsequent events are clearly divined. it was not, however, till friday, january , , that the wind permitted him to stand out of the harbor of the villa de navidad, as he had named the fort and settlement from the fact of his shipwreck there on the day of the nativity. two days later they met the "pinta," and pinzon, her commander, soon boarded the admiral to explain his absence, "saying he had left against his will." the admiral doubted such professions; but did not think it prudent to show active resentment, as las casas tells us. the fact apparently was that pinzon had not found the gold he went in search of and so he had returned to meet his commander. he had been coasting the island for over twenty days, and had been seen by the natives, who made the report to the admiral already mentioned. some indians whom he had taken captive were subsequently released by the admiral, for the usual ulterior purpose. it is curious to observe how an act of kidnapping which emulated the admiral's, if done by pinzon, is called by the canonizers, "joining violence to rapine." [sidenote: jamaica.] at this time columbus records his first intelligence respecting an island, yamaye, south of cuba, which seems to have been jamaica, where, as he learned, gold was to be found in grains of the size of beans, while in española the grains were nearly the size of kernels of wheat. he was also informed of an island to the east, inhabited by women only. he also understood that the people of the continent to the south were clothed, and did not go naked like those of the islands. both vessels now having made a harbor, and the "nina" beginning to leak, a day was spent in calking her seams. columbus was not without apprehension that the two brothers, martin alonso pinzon of the "pinta," and vicente jañez pinzon who had commanded the "nina," might now with their adherents combine for mischief. he was accordingly all the more anxious to hasten his departure, without further following the coast of española. going up a river to replenish his water, he found on taking the casks on board that the crevices of the hoops had gathered fine bits of gold from the stream. this led him to count the neighboring streams, which he supposed might also contain gold. [sidenote: columbus sees mermaids.] it was not only gold which he saw. three mermaids stood high out of the water, with not very comely faces to be sure, but similar to those of human beings; and he recalled having seen the like on the pepper coast in guinea. the commentators suppose they may have been sea-calves indistinctly seen. [sidenote: . january . the ships sail for spain.] [sidenote: january . caribs.] the two ships started once more on the th, sometimes lying to at night for fear of shoals, making and naming cape after cape. on the th, entering a harbor, columbus discovered an indian, whom he took for a carib, as he had learned to call the cannibals which he so often heard of. his own indians did not wholly understand this strange savage. when they sent him ashore the spaniards found fifty-five indians armed with bows and wooden swords. they were prevailed upon at first to hold communication; but soon showed a less friendly spirit, and columbus for the first time records a fight, in which several of the natives were wounded. an island to the eastward was now supposed to be the carib region, and he desired to capture some of its natives. navarrete supposes that porto rico is here referred to. he also observed, as his vessels went easterly, that he was encountering some of the same sort of seaweed which he had sailed through when steering west, and it occurred to him that perhaps these islands stretched easterly, so as really to be not far distant from the canaries. it may be observed that this propinquity of the new islands to those of the atlantic, longer known, was not wholly eradicated from the maps till well into the earlier years of the sixteenth century. [sidenote: caribs and amazons.] they had secured some additional indians near where they had had their fight, and one of them now directed columbus towards the island of the caribs. the leaks of the vessels increasing and his crews desponding, columbus soon thought it more prudent to shift his course for spain direct, supposing at the same time that it would take him near matinino, where the tribe of women lived. he had gotten the story somehow, very likely by a credulous adaptation of marco polo, that the caribs visited this island once a year and reclaimed the male offspring, leaving the female young to keep up the tribe. in following the admiral along these coasts of cuba and española, no attempt has here been made to identify all his bays and rivers. navarrete and the other commentators have done so, but not always with agreement. [sidenote: . january .] on the th, they had their last look at a distant cape of española, and were then in the broad ocean, with seaweed and tunnies and pelicans to break its monotony. the "pinta," having an unsound mast, lagged behind, and so the "nina" had to slacken sail. [sidenote: homeward voyage.] columbus now followed a course which for a long time, owing to defects in the methods of ascertaining longitude, was the mariner's readiest recourse to reach his port. this was to run up his latitudes to that of his destination, and then follow the parallel till he sighted a familiar landmark. [sidenote: . february .] [sidenote: february .] [sidenote: a gale.] by february , when they began to compare reckonings, columbus placed his position in the latitude of flores, while the others thought they were on a more southern course, and a hundred and fifty leagues nearer spain. by the th it was apparent that a gale was coming on. the next day, february , the storm increased. during the following night both vessels took in all sail and scudded before the wind. they lost sight of each other's lights, and never joined company. the "pinta" with her weak mast was blown away to the north. the admiral's ship could bear the gale better, but as his ballast was insufficient, he had to fill his water casks with sea-water. sensible of their peril, his crew made vows, to be kept if they were saved. they drew lots to determine who should carry a wax taper of five pounds to st. mary of guadalupe, and the penance fell to the admiral. a sailor by another lot was doomed to make a pilgrimage to st. mary of lorette in the papal territory. a third lot was drawn for a night watch at st. clara de mogues, and it fell upon columbus. then they all vowed to pay their devotions at the nearest church of our lady if only they got ashore alive. [sidenote: a narrative of his voyage thrown overboard.] there was one thought which more than another troubled columbus at this moment, and this was that in case his ship foundered, the world might never know of his success, for he was apprehensive that the "pinta" had already foundered. not to alarm the crew, he kept from them the fact that a cask which they had seen him throw overboard contained an account of his voyage, written on parchment, rolled in a waxed cloth. he trusted to the chance of some one finding it. he placed a similar cask on the poop, to be washed off in case the ship went down. he does not mention this in the journal. [sidenote: . january .] [sidenote: january . land seen.] [sidenote: at the azores.] [sidenote: . february .] after sunset on the th there were signs of clearing in the west, and the waves began to fall. the next morning at sunrise there was land ahead. now came the test of their reckoning. some thought it the rock of cintra near lisbon; others said madeira; columbus decided they were near the azores. the land was soon made out to be an island; but a head wind thwarted them. other land was next seen astern. while they were saying their _salve_ in the evening, some of the crew discerned a light to leeward, which might have been on the island first seen. then later they saw another island, but night and the clouds obscured it too much to be recognized. the journal is blank for the th of february, except that under the next day, the th, columbus records that after sunset of the th they sailed round an island to find an anchorage; but being unsuccessful in the search they beat out to sea again. in the morning of the th they stood in, discovered an anchorage, sent a boat ashore, and found it was st. mary's of the azores. columbus was right! [sidenote: . february .] after sunset he received some provisions, which juan de casteñeda, the portuguese governor of the island, had sent to him. meanwhile three spaniards whom columbus sent ashore had failed to return, not a little to his disturbance, for he was aware that there might be among the portuguese some jealousy of his success. to fulfill one of the vows made during the gale, he now sent one half his crew ashore in penitential garments to a hermitage near the shore, intending on their return to go himself with the other half. the record then reads: "the men being at their devotion, they were attacked by casteñeda with horse and foot, and made prisoners." not being able to see the hermitage from his anchorage, and not suspecting this event, but still anxious, he made sail and proceeded till he got a view of the spot. now he saw the horsemen, and how presently they dismounted, and with arms in their hands, entering a boat, approached the ship. then followed a parley, in which columbus thought he discovered a purpose of the portuguese to capture him, and they on their part discovered it to be not quite safe to board the admiral. to enforce his dignity and authority as a representative of the sovereigns of castile, he held up to the boats his commission with its royal insignia; and reminded them that his instructions had been to treat all portuguese ships with respect, since a spirit of amity existed between the two crowns. it behooved the portuguese, as he told them, to be wary lest by any hostile act they brought upon themselves the indignation of those higher in authority. the lofty bearing of casteñeda continuing, columbus began to fear that hostilities might possibly have broken out between spain and portugal. so the interview ended with little satisfaction to either, and the admiral returned to his old anchorage. the next day, to work off the lee shore, they sailed for st. michael's, and the weather continuing stormy he found himself crippled in having but three experienced seamen among the crew which remained to him. so not seeing st. michael's they again bore away, on thursday the st, for st. mary's, and again reached their former anchorage. the storms of these latter days here induced columbus in his journal to recall how placid the sea had been among those other new-found islands, and how likely it was the terrestrial] paradise was in that region, as theologians and learned philosophers had supposed. from these thoughts he was aroused by a boat from shore with a notary on board, and columbus, after completing his entertainment of the visitors, was asked to show his royal commission. he records his belief that this was done to give the portuguese an opportunity of retreating from their belligerent attitude. at all events it had that effect, and the spaniards who had been restrained were at once released. it is surmised that the conduct of casteñeda was in conformity with instructions from lisbon, to detain columbus should he find his way to any dependency of the portuguese crown. [sidenote: . february .] [sidenote: february .] [sidenote: rock of cintra seen.] [sidenote: in the tagus.] [sidenote: sends letter to the king of portugal.] on sunday, the th, the ship again put out to sea; on wednesday, they encountered another gale; and on the following sunday, they were again in such peril that they made new vows. at daylight the next day, some land which they had seen in the night, not without gloomy apprehension of being driven upon it, proved to be the rock of cintra. the mouth of the tagus was before them, and the people of the adjacent town, observing the peril of the strange ship, offered prayers for its safety. the entrance of the river was safely made and the multitude welcomed them. up the tagus they went to rastelo, and anchored at about three o'clock in the afternoon. here columbus learned that the wintry roughness which he had recently experienced was but a part of the general severity of the season. from this place he dispatched a messenger to spain to convey the news of his arrival to his sovereigns, and at the same time he sent a letter to the king of portugal, then sojourning nine leagues away. he explained in it how he had asked the hospitality of a portuguese port, because the spanish sovereigns had directed him to do so, if he needed supplies. he further informed the king that he had come from the "indies," which he had reached by sailing west. he hoped he would be allowed to bring his caravel to lisbon, to be more secure; for rumors of a lading of gold might incite reckless persons, in so lonely a place as he then lay, to deeds of violence. [sidenote: name of india.] the _historie_ says that columbus had determined beforehand to call whatever land he should discover, india, because he thought india was a name to suggest riches, and to invite encouragement for his project. while this letter to the portuguese king was in transit, the attempt was made by certain officers of the portuguese navy in the port of rastelo to induce columbus to leave his ship and give an account of himself; but he would make no compromise of the dignity of a castilian admiral. when his resentment was known and his commission was shown, the portuguese officers changed their policy to one of courtesy. the next day, and on the one following, the news of his arrival being spread about, a vast multitude came in boats from all parts to see him and his indians. [sidenote: . march .] [sidenote: columbus visits the king.] on the third day, a royal messenger brought an invitation from the king to come and visit the court, which columbus, not without apprehension, accepted. the king's steward had been sent to accompany him and provide for his entertainment on the way. on the night of the following day, he reached val do paraiso, where the king was. this spot was nine leagues from lisbon, and it was supposed that his reception was not held in that city because a pest was raging there. a royal greeting was given to him. the king affected to believe that the voyage of columbus was made to regions which the portuguese had been allowed to occupy by a convention agreed upon with spain in . the admiral undeceived him, and showed the king that his ships had not been near guinea. we have another account of this interview at val do paraiso, in the pages of the portuguese historian, barros, tinged, doubtless, with something of pique and prejudice, because the profit of the voyage had not been for the benefit of portugal. that historian charges columbus with extravagance, and even insolence, in his language to the king. he says that columbus chided the monarch for the faithlessness that had lost him such an empire. he is represented as launching these rebukes so vehemently that the attending nobles were provoked to a degree which prompted whispers of assassination. that columbus found his first harbor in the tagus has given other of the older portuguese writers, like faria y sousa, in his _europa portuguesa_, and vasconcelles and resende, in their lives of joão ii., occasion to represent that his entering it was not so much induced by stress of weather as to seek a triumph over the portuguese king in the first flush of the news. it is also said that the resolution was formed by the king to avail himself of the knowledge of two portuguese who were found among columbus's men. with their aid he proposed to send an armed expedition to take possession of the new-found regions before columbus could fit out a fleet for a second voyage. francisco de almeida was even selected, according to the report, to command this force. we hear, however, nothing more of it, and the bull of demarcation put an end to all such rivalries. if, on the contrary, we may believe columbus himself, in a letter which he subsequently wrote, he did not escape being suspected in spain of having thus put himself in the power of the portuguese in order to surrender the indies to them. [sidenote: . march . columbus leaves the court.] [sidenote: sails from the tagus.] [sidenote: reaches palos, march , .] spending sunday at court, columbus departed on monday, march , having first dispatched messages to the king and queen of spain. an escort of knights was provided for him, and taking the monastery of villafranca on his way, he kissed the hand of the portuguese queen, who was there lodging, and journeying on, arrived at his caravel on tuesday night. the next day he put to sea, and on thursday morning was off cape st. vincent. the next morning they were off the island of saltes, and crossing bar with the flood, he anchored on march , , not far from noon, where he had unmoored the "santa maria" over seven months before. "i made the passage thither in seventy-one days," he says in his published letter; "and back in forty-eight, during thirteen of which number i was driven about by storms." [sidenote: the "pinta's" experiences.] the "pinta," which had parted company with the admiral on the th of february, had been driven by the gale into bayona, a port of gallicia, in the northwest corner of spain, whence pinzon, its commander, had dispatched a messenger to give information of his arrival and of his intended visit to the court. a royal order peremptorily stayed, however, his projected visit, and left the first announcement of the news to be proclaimed by columbus himself. this is the story which later writers have borrowed from the _historie_. [sidenote: she reaches palos.] [sidenote: death of pinzon.] oviedo tells us that the "pinta" put to sea again from the gallician harbor, and entered the port of palos on the same day with columbus, but her commander, fearing arrest or other unpleasantness, kept himself concealed till columbus had started for barcelona. not many days later pinzon died in his own house in palos. las casas would have us believe that his death arose from mortification at the displeasure of his sovereigns; but harrisse points out that when charles v. bestowed a coat-armor on the family, he recognized his merit as the discoverer of española. there is little trustworthy information on the matter, and muñoz, whose lack of knowledge prompts inferences on his part, represents that it was pinzon's request to explain his desertion of columbus, which was neglected by the court, and impressed him with the royal displeasure. chapter xi. columbus in spain again; march to september, . peter martyr tells us of the common ignorance and dread pervading the ordinary ranks of society, before and during the absence of columbus, in respect to all that part of the earth's circumference which the sun looked upon beyond gades, till it again cast its rays upon the golden chersonesus. during this absence from the known and habitable regions of the globe, that orb was thought to sweep over the ominous and foreboding sea of darkness. no one could tell how wide that sea was. the learned disagreed in their estimates. a conception, far under the actual condition, had played no small part in making the voyage of columbus possible. men possessed legends of its mysteries. fables of its many islands were repeated; but no one then living was credibly thought to have tested its glooms except by sailing a little beyond the outermost of the azores. [sidenote: palos aroused at the return of columbus.] it calls for no stretch of the imagination to picture the public sentiment in little palos during the months of anxiety which many households had endured since that august morning, when in its dim light columbus, the pinzons, and all their companions had been wafted gently out to sea by the current and the breeze. the winter had been unusually savage and weird. the navigators to the atlantic islands had reported rough passages, and the ocean had broken wildly for long intervals along the rocks and sands of the peninsular shores. it is a natural movement of the mind to wrap the absent in the gloom of the present hour; and while columbus had been passing along the gentle waters of the new archipelago, his actual experiences had been in strange contrast to the turmoil of the sea as it washed the european shores. he had indeed suffered on his return voyage the full tumultuousness of the elements, and we can hardly fail to recognize the disquiet of mind and falling of heart which those savage gales must have given to the kin and friends of the untraceable wanderers. the stories, then, which we have of the thanksgiving and jubilation of the people of palos, when the "nina" was descried passing the bar of the river, fall readily among the accepted truths of history. we can imagine how despondency vanished amid the acclaims of exultation; how multitudes hung upon the words of strange revelations; how the gaping populace wondered at the bedecked indians; and how throngs of people opened a way that columbus might lead the votive procession to the church. the canonizers of course read between the lines of the records that it was to the church of rabida that columbus with his men now betook themselves. it matters little. there was much to mar the delight of some in the households. comforting reports must be told of those who were left at la navidad. no one had died, unless the gale had submerged the "pinta" and her crew. she had not been seen since the "nina" parted with her in the gale. the story of her rescue has already been told. she entered the river before the rejoicings of the day were over, and relieved the remaining anxiety. [sidenote: the court at barcelona.] the spanish court was known to be at this time at barcelona, the catalan port on the mediterranean. columbus's first impulse was to proceed thither in his caravel; but his recent hazards made him prudent, and so dispatching a messenger to the court, he proceeded to seville to wait their majesties' commands. of the native prisoners which he had brought away, one had died at sea, three were too sick to follow him, and were left at palos, while six accompanied him on his journey. [sidenote: . march . columbus summoned to court.] the messenger with such startling news had sped quickly; and columbus did not wait long for a response to his letter. the document (march ) showed that the event had made a deep impression on the court. the new domain of the west dwarfed for a while the conquests from the moors. there was great eagerness to complete the title, and gather its wealth. columbus was accordingly instructed to set in motion at once measures for a new expedition, and then to appear at court and explain to the monarchs what action on their part was needful. the demand was promptly answered; and having organized the necessary arrangements in seville for the preparation of a fleet, he departed for barcelona to make homage to his sovereigns. his indians accompanied him. porters bore his various wonders from the new islands. his story had preceded him, and town after town vied with each other in welcoming him, and passing him on to new amazements and honors. [sidenote: . april. in barcelona.] [sidenote: received by the sovereigns.] by the middle of april he approached barcelona, and was met by throngs of people, who conducted him into the city. his indians, arrayed in effective if not accustomed ornament of gold, led the line. bearers of all the marvels of the indies followed, with their forty parrots and other strange birds of liveliest plumage, with the skins of unknown animals, with priceless plants that would now supplant the eastern spices, and with the precious ornaments of the dusky kings and princes whom he had met. next, on horseback, came columbus himself, conspicuous amid the mounted chivalry of spain. thus the procession marched on, through crowded streets, amid the shouts of lookers-on, to the alcazar of the moorish kings in the calle ancha, at this time the residence of the bishop of urgil, where it is supposed ferdinand and isabella had caused their thrones to be set up, with a canopy of brocaded gold drooping about them. here the monarchs awaited the coming of columbus. [sidenote: king ferdinand.] [sidenote: queen isabella.] ferdinand, as the accounts picture him, was a man whose moderate stature was helped by his erectness and robes to a decided dignity of carriage. his expression in the ruddy glow of his complexion, clearness of eye, and loftiness of brow, grew gracious in any pleasurable excitement. the queen was a very suitable companion, grave and graceful in her demeanor. her blue eyes and auburn tresses comported with her outwardly benign air, and one looked sharply to see anything of her firmness and courage in the prevailing sweetness of her manner. the heir apparent, prince juan, was seated by their side. the dignitaries of the court were grouped about. [sidenote: columbus before the court.] las casas tells us how commanding columbus looked when he entered the room, surrounded by a brilliant company of cavaliers. when he approached the royal dais, both monarchs rose to receive him standing; and when he stooped to kiss their hands, they gently and graciously lifted him, and made him sit as they did. they then asked to be told of what he had seen. as columbus proceeded in his narrative, he pointed out the visible objects of his speech,--the indians, the birds, the skins, the barbaric ornaments, and the stores of gold. we are told of the prayer of the sovereigns at the close, in which all joined; and of the chanted _te deum_ from the choir of the royal chapel, which bore the thoughts of every one, says the narrator, on the wings of melody to celestial delights. this ceremony ended, columbus was conducted like a royal guest to the lodgings which had been provided for him. it has been a question if the details of this reception, which are put by irving in imaginative fullness, and are commonly told on such a thread of incidents as have been related, are warranted by the scant accounts which are furnished us in the _historie_, in las casas, and in peter martyr, particularly since the incident does not seem to have made enough of an impression at the time to have been noticed at all in the _dietaria_ of the city, a record of events embodying those of far inferior interest as we would now value them. mr. george sumner carefully scanned this record many years ago, and could find not the slightest reference to the festivities. he fancies that the incidents in the mind of the recorder may have lost their significance through an aragonese jealousy of the supremacy of leon and castile. it is certainly true that in peter martyr, the contemporary observer of this supposed pageantry, there is nothing to warrant the exuberance of later writers. martyr simply says that columbus was allowed to sit in the sovereigns' presence. whatever the fact as to details, it seems quite evident that this season at barcelona made the only unalloyed days of happiness, freed of anxiety, which columbus ever experienced. he was observed of all, and everybody was complacent to him. his will was apparently law to king and subject. las casas tells us that he passed among the admiring throngs with his face wreathed with smiles of content. an equal complacency of delight and expectation settled upon all with whom he talked of the wonders of the land which he had found. they dreamed as he did of entering into golden cities with their hundred bridges, that might cause new exultations, to which the present were as nothing. it was a fatal lure to the proud spanish nature, and no one was doomed to expiate the folly of the delusion more poignantly than columbus himself. [sidenote: spread of the news.] now that india had been found by the west, as was believed, and barcelona was very likely palpitating with the thought, the news spread in every direction. what were the discoveries of the phoenicians to this? what questions of ethnology, language, species, migrations, phenomena of all sorts, in man and in the natural world, were pressing upon the mind, as the results were considered? were not these parrots which columbus had exhibited such as pliny tells us are in asia? the great event had fallen in the midst of geographical development, and was understood at last. marco polo and the others had told their marvels of the east. the navigators of prince henry had found new wonders on the sea. regiomontanus, behaim, and toscanelli had not communed in vain with cosmographical problems. even errors had been stepping-stones; as when the belief in the easterly over-extension of asia had pictured it near enough in the west to convince men that the hazard of the sea of darkness was not so great after all. [sidenote: peter martyr records the event.] spain was then the centre of much activity of mind. "i am here," records peter martyr, "at the source of this welcome intelligence from the new found lands, and as the historian of such events, i may hope to go down to posterity as their recorder." we must remember this profession when we try to account for his meagre record of the reception at barcelona. that part of the letter of peter martyr, dated at barcelona, on the ides of may, , which conveyed to his correspondent the first tidings of columbus's return, is in these words, as translated by harrisse: "a certain christopher colonus, a ligurian, returned from the antipodes. he had obtained for that purpose three ships from my sovereigns, with much difficulty, because the ideas which he expressed were considered extravagant. he came back and brought specimens of many precious things, especially gold, which those regions naturally produce." martyr also tells us that when pomponius laetus got such news, he could scarcely refrain "from tears of joy at so unlooked-for an event." "what more delicious food for an ingenious mind!" said martyr to him in return. "to talk with people who have seen all this is elevating to the mind." the confidence of martyr, however, in the belief of columbus that the true indies had been found was not marked. he speaks of the islands as adjacent to, and not themselves, the east. [sidenote: the news in england.] sebastian cabot remembered the time when these marvelous tidings reached the court of henry vii. in london, and he tells us that it was accounted a "thing more divine than human." [sidenote: columbus's first letter.] a letter which columbus had written and early dispatched to barcelona, nearly in duplicate, to the treasurers of the two crowns was promptly translated into latin, and was sent to italy to be issued in numerous editions, to be copied in turn by the paris and antwerp printers, and a little more sluggishly by those of germany. [sidenote: influence of the event.] there is, however, singularly little commenting on these events that passed into print and has come down to us; and we may well doubt if the effect on the public mind, beyond certain learned circles, was at all commensurate with what we may now imagine the recognition of so important an event ought to have been. nordenskiöld, studying the cartography and literature of the early discoveries in america in his _facsimile atlas_, is forced to the conclusion that "scarcely any discovery of importance was ever received with so much indifference, even in circles where sufficient genius and statesmanship ought to have prevailed to appreciate the changes they foreshadowed in the development of the economical and political conditions of mankind." [sidenote: . june . carjaval's oration.] it happened on june , , but a few weeks after the pope had made his first public recognition of the discovery, that the spanish ambassador at the papal court, bernardin de carjaval, referred in an oration to "the unknown lands, lately found, lying towards the indies;" and at about the same time there was but a mere reference to the event in the _los tratados_ of doctor alonso ortis, published at seville. [sidenote: columbus in favor.] while this strange bruit was thus spreading more or less, we get some glimpses of the personal life of columbus during these days of his sojourn in barcelona. we hear of him riding through the streets on horseback, on one side of the king, with prince juan on the other. [sidenote: reward for first seeing land.] we find record of his being awarded the pension of thirty crowns, as the first discoverer of land, by virtue of the mysterious light, and irving thinks that we may condone this theft from the brave sailor who unquestionably saw land the first, by remembering that "columbus's whole ambition was involved." it seems to others that his whole character was involved. [sidenote: story of the egg.] we find him a guest at a banquet given by cardinal mendoza, and the well-known story of his making an egg stand upright, by chipping one end of it, is associated with this merriment of the table. an impertinent question of a shallow courtier had induced columbus to show a table full of guests that it was easy enough to do anything when the way was pointed out. the story, except as belonging to a traditional stock of anecdotes, dating far back of columbus, always ready for an application, has no authority earlier than benzoni, and loses its point in the destruction of the end on which the aim was to make it stand. this has been so palpable to some of the repeaters of the story that they have supposed that the feat was accomplished, not by cracking the end of the egg, but by using a quick motion which broke the sack which holds the yolk, so that that weightier substance settled at one end, and balanced the egg in an upright position. so passed the time with the new-made hero, in drinking, as irving expresses it, "the honeyed draught of popularity before enmity and detraction had time to drug it with bitterness." [sidenote: . may . receives a coat of arms.] we find the sovereigns bestowing upon him, on the th of may, a coat of arms, which shows a castle and a lion in the upper quarters, and in those below, a group of golden islands in a sea of waves, on the one hand, and the arms to which his family had been entitled, on the other. humboldt speaks of this archipelago as the first map of america, but he apparently knew only oviedo's description of the arms, for the latter places the islands in a gulf formed by a mainland, and in this fashion they are grouped in a blazon of the arms which is preserved at the ministry of foreign affairs at paris--a duplicate being at genoa. harrisse says that this design is the original water-color, made under columbus's eye in . in this picture,--which is the earliest blazonry which has come down to us,--the other lower quarter has the five golden anchors on a blue ground, which it is claimed was adjudged to columbus as the distinctive badge of an admiral of spain. the personal arms are relegated to a minor overlying shield at the lower point of the escutcheon. oviedo also says that trees and other objects should be figured on the mainland. [illustration: the arms of columbus. [from oviedo's _cosmica_.]] the lion and castle of the original grant were simply reminders of the arms of leon and castile; but columbus seems, of his own motion, so far as harrisse can discover, to have changed the blazonry of those objects in the drawing of to agree with those of the royal arms. it was by the same arrogant license, apparently, that he introduced later the continental shore of the archipelago; and harrisse can find no record that the anchors were ever by any authority added to his blazon, nor that the professed family arms, borne in connection, had any warrant whatever. the earliest engraved copy of the arms is in the _historia general_ of oviedo in , where a profile helmet supports a crest made of a globe topped by a cross. in oviedo's _coronica_ of , the helmet is shown in front view. there seems to have been some wide discrepancies in the heraldic excursions of these early writers. las casas, for instance, puts the golden lion in a silver field,--when heraldry abhors a conjunction of metals, as much as nature abhors a vacuum. the discussion of the family arms which were added by columbus to the escutcheon made a significant part of the arguments in the suit, many years later, of baldassare (balthazar) colombo to possess the admiral's dignities; and as harrisse points out, the emblem of those italian colombos of any pretensions to nobility was invariably a dove of some kind,--a device quite distinct from those designated by columbus. this assumption of family arms by columbus is held by harrisse to be simply a concession to the prejudices of his period, and to the exigencies of his new position. the arms have been changed under the dukes of veragua to show silver-capped waves in the sea, while a globe surmounted by a cross is placed in the midst of a gulf containing only five islands. [sidenote: his alleged motto.] there is another later accompaniment of the arms, of which the origin has escaped all search. it is far more familiar than the escutcheon, on which it plays the part of a motto. it sometimes represents that columbus found for the allied crowns a new world, and at other times that he gave one to them. por castilla é por leon nuevo mundo halló colon. a castilla, y a leon nuevo mundo dió colon. oviedo is the earliest to mention this distich in . it is given in the _historie_, not as a motto of the arms, but as an inscription placed by the king on the tomb of columbus some years after his death. if this is true, it does away with the claims of gomara that columbus himself added it to his arms. * * * * * [sidenote: diplomacy of the bull of demarcation.] but diplomacy had its part to play in these events. as the christian world at that time recognized the rights of the holy father to confirm any trespass on the possessions of the heathen, there was a prompt effort on the part of ferdinand to bring the matter to the attention of the pope. as early as , bulls of martin v. and eugene iv. had permitted the spaniards to sail west and the portuguese south; and a confirmation of the same had been made by pope nicholas the fifth. in , the rival crowns of portugal and spain had agreed to respect their mutual rights under these papal decisions. the messengers whom ferdinand sent to rome were instructed to intimate that the actual possession which had been made in their behalf of these new regions did not require papal sanction, as they had met there no christian occupants; but that as dutiful children of the church it would be grateful to receive such a benediction on their energies for the faith as a confirmatory bull would imply. ferdinand had too much of wiliness in his own nature, and the practice of it was too much a part of the epoch, wholly to trust a man so notoriously perverse and obstinate as alexander vi. was. though muñoz calls alexander the friend of ferdinand, and though the pope was by birth an aragonese, experience had shown that there was no certainty of his support in a matter affecting the interest of spain. [sidenote: . may . the bull issued.] a folio printed leaf in gothic characters, of which the single copy sold in london in is said to be the only one known to bibliographers, made public to the world the famous bull of demarcation of alexander vi., bearing date may , . if one would believe hakluyt, the pope had been induced to do this act by his own option, rather than at the intercession of the spanish monarchs. under it, and a second bull of the day following, spain was entitled to possess, "on condition of planting the catholic faith," all lands not already occupied by christian powers, west of a meridian drawn one hundred leagues west of the azores and cape de verde islands, evidently on the supposition that these two groups were in the same longitude, the fact being that the most westerly of the southern, and the most easterly of the northern, group possessed nearly the same meridian. though portugal was not mentioned in describing this line, it was understood that there was reserved to her the same privilege easterly. [illustration: pope alexander vi. [a bust in the berlin museum.]] there was not as yet any consideration given to the division which this great circle meridian was likely to make on the other side of the globe, where portugal was yet to be most interested. the cape of good hope had not then been doubled, and the present effect of the division was to confine the portuguese to an exploration of the western african coast and to adjacent islands. it will be observed that in the placing of this line the magnetic phenomena which columbus had observed on his recent voyage were not forgotten, if the coincidence can be so interpreted. humboldt suggests that it can. [sidenote: line of no variation.] to make a physical limit serve a political one was an obvious recourse at a time when the line of no variation was thought to be unique and of a true north and south direction; but within a century the observers found three other lines, as acosta tells us in his _historia natural de las indias_, in ; and there proved to be a persistent migration of these lines, all little suited to terrestrial demarcations. roselly de lorgues and the canonizers, however, having given to columbus the planning of the line in his cell at rabida, think, with a surprising prescience on his part, and with a very convenient obliviousness on their part, that he had chosen "precisely the only point of our planet which science would choose in our day,--a mysterious demarcation made by its omnipotent creator," in sovereign disregard, unfortunately, of the laws of his own universe! [sidenote: suspicious movements in portugal.] meanwhile there were movements in portugal which ferdinand had not failed to notice. an ambassador had come from its king, asking permission to buy certain articles of prohibited exportation for use on an african expedition which the portuguese were fitting out. ferdinand suspected that the true purpose of this armament was to seize the new islands, under a pretense as dishonorable as that which covered the ostensible voyage to the cape de verde islands, by whose exposure columbus had been driven into spain. the spanish monarch was alert enough to get quite beforehand with his royal brother. before the ambassador of which mention has been made had come to the spanish court, ferdinand had dispatched lope de herrera to lisbon, armed with a conciliatory and a denunciatory letter, to use one or the other, as he might find the conditions demanded. the portuguese historian resende tells us that joão, in order to give a wrong scent, had openly bestowed largesses on some and had secretly suborned other members of ferdinand's cabinet, so that he did not lack for knowledge of the spanish intentions from the latter members. he and his ambassadors were accordingly found by ferdinand to be inexplicably prepared at every new turn of the negotiations. in this way joão had been informed of the double mission of herrera, and could avoid the issue with him, while he sent his own ambassadors to spain, to promise that, pending their negotiations, no vessel should sail on any voyage of discovery for sixty days. they were also to propose that instead of the papal line, one should be drawn due west from the canaries, giving all new discoveries north to the spaniards, and all south to the portuguese. this new move ferdinand turned to his own advantage, for it gave him the opportunity to enter upon a course of diplomacy which he could extend long enough to allow columbus to get off with a new armament. he then sent a fresh embassy, with instructions to move slowly and protract the discussion, but to resort, when compelled, to a proposition for arbitration. joão was foiled and he knew it. "these ambassadors," he said, "have no feet to hurry and no head to propound." the spanish game was the best played, and the portuguese king grew fretful under it, and intimated sometimes a purpose to proceed to violence, but he was restrained by a better wisdom. we depend mainly upon the portuguese historians for understanding these complications, and it is to be hoped that some time the archives of the vatican may reveal the substance of these tripartite negotiations of the papal court and the two crowns. * * * * * [sidenote: . may. honors of columbus confirmed.] [sidenote: may . columbus leaves barcelona.] [sidenote: june. in seville.] [sidenote: fonseca.] before columbus had left barcelona, a large gratuity had been awarded to him by his sovereigns; an order had been issued commanding free lodgings to be given to him and his followers, wherever he went, and the original stipulations as to honors and authority, made by the sovereigns at santa fé, had been confirmed (may ). a royal seal was now confided to his keeping, to be set to letters patent, and to commissions that it might be found necessary to issue. it might be used even in appointing a deputy, to act in the absence of columbus. his appointments were to hold during the royal pleasure. his own power was defined at the same time, and in particular to hold command over the entire expedition, and to conduct its future government and explorations. he left barcelona, after leavetakings, on may ; and his instructions, as printed by navarrete, were signed the next day. it is not unlikely they were based on suggestions of columbus made in a letter, without date, which has recently been printed in the _cartas de indias_ ( ). early in june, he was in seville, and soon after he was joined by juan rodriguez de fonseca, archdeacon of seville, who, as representative of the crown, had been made the chief director of the preparations. it is claimed by harrisse that this priest has been painted by the biographers of columbus much blacker than he really was, on the strength of the objurgations which the _historie_ bestows upon him. las casas calls him worldly; and he deserves the epithet if a dominating career of thirty years in controlling the affairs of the indies is any evidence of fitness in such matters. his position placed him where he had purposes to thwart as well as projects to foster, and the record of this age of discovery is not without many proofs of selfish and dishonorable motives, which fonseca might be called upon to repress. that his discrimination was not always clear-sighted may be expected; that he was sometimes perfidious may be true, but he was dealing mainly with those who could be perfidious also. that he abused his authority might also go without dispute; but so did columbus and the rest. in the game of diamond-cut-diamond, it is not always just to single out a single victim for condemnation, as is done by irving and the canonizers. it was while at seville, engaged in this work of preparation, that fonseca sought to check the demands of columbus as respects the number of his personal servitors. that these demands were immoderate, the character of columbus, never cautious under incitement, warrants us in believing; and that the official guardian of the royal treasury should have views of his own is not to be wondered at. the story goes that the sovereigns forced fonseca to yield, and that this was the offense of columbus which could neither be forgotten nor forgiven by fonseca, and for which severities were visited upon him and his heirs in the years to come. irving is confident that fonseca has escaped the condemnation which spanish writers would willingly have put upon him, for fear of the ecclesiastical censors of the press. [sidenote: council for the indies.] the measures which were now taken in accordance with the instructions given to columbus, already referred to, to regulate the commerce of the indies, with a custom house at cadiz and a corresponding one in española under the control of the admiral, ripened in time into what was known as the council for the indies. it had been early determined (may ) to control all emigration to the new regions, and no one was allowed to trade thither except under license from the monarchs, columbus, or fonseca. [sidenote: new fleet equipped.] a royal order had put all ships and appurtenances in the ports of andalusia at the demand of fonseca and columbus, for a reasonable compensation, and compelled all persons required for the service to embark in it on suitable pay. two thirds of the ecclesiastical tithes, the sequestered property of banished jews, and other resources were set apart to meet these expenses, and the treasurer was authorized to contract a loan, if necessary. to eke out the resources, this last was resorted to, and , , maravedis were borrowed from the duke of medina-sidonia. all the transactions relating to the procuring and dispensing of moneys had been confided to a treasurer, francisco pinelo; with the aid of an accountant, juan de soria. everything was hurriedly gathered for the armament, for it was of the utmost importance that the preparations should move faster than the watching diplomacy. artillery which had been in use on shipboard for more than a century and a half was speedily amassed. the arquebuse, however, had not altogether been supplanted by the matchlock, and was yet preferred in some hands for its lightness. military stores which had been left over from the moorish war and were now housed in the alhambra, at this time converted into an arsenal, were opportunely drawn upon. [sidenote: beradi and vespucius.] the labor of an intermediary in much of this preparation fell upon juonato beradi, a florentine merchant then settled in seville, and it is interesting to know that americus vespucius, then a mature man of two and forty, was engaged under beradi in this work of preparation. [sidenote: . june .] from the fact that certain horsemen and agriculturists were ordered to be in seville on june , and to hold themselves in readiness to embark, it may be inferred that the sailing of some portion of the fleet may at that time have been expected at a date not much later. [illustration: crossbow-maker. [from jost amman's _beschreibung_, .]] [sidenote: isabella's interest.] [sidenote: indians baptized.] the interest of isabella in the new expedition was almost wholly on its emotional and intellectual side. she had been greatly engrossed with the spiritual welfare of the indians whom columbus had taken to barcelona. their baptism had taken place with great state and ceremony, the king, queen, and prince juan officiating as sponsors. it was intended that they should reëmbark with the new expedition. prince juan, however, picked out one of these indians for his personal service, and when the fellow died, two years later, it was a source of gratification, as herrera tells us, that at last one of his race had entered the gates of heaven! only four of the six ever reached their native country. we know nothing of the fate of those left sick at palos. [sidenote: father buil.] the pope, to further all methods for the extension of the faith, had commissioned (june ) a benedictine monk, bernardo buil (boyle), of catalonia, to be his apostolic vicar in the new world, and this priest was to be accompanied by eleven brothers of the order. the queen intrusted to them the sacred vessels and vestments from her own altar. the instructions which columbus received were to deal lovingly with the poor natives. we shall see how faithful he was to the behest. isabella's musings were not, however, all so piously confined. she wrote to columbus from segovia in august, requiring him to make provisions for bringing back to spain specimens of the peculiar birds of the new regions, as indications of untried climates and seasons. [sidenote: astronomy and navigation.] again, in writing to columbus, september , she urged him not to rely wholly on his own great knowledge, but to take such a skillful astronomer on his voyage as fray antonio de marchena,--the same whom columbus later spoke of as being one of the two persons who had never made him a laughing-stock. muñoz says the office of astronomer was not filled. dealing with the question of longitude was a matter in which there was at this time little insight, and no general agreement. columbus, as we have seen, suspected the variation of the needle might afford the basis of a system; but he grew to apprehend, as he tells us in the narrative of his fourth voyage, that the astronomical method was the only infallible one, but whether his preference was for the opposition of planets, the occultations of stars, the changes in the moon's declination, or the comparisons of jupiter's altitude with the lunar position,--all of which were in some form in vogue,--does not appear. the method by conveyance of time, so well known now in the use of chronometers, seems to have later been suggested by alonso de santa cruz,--too late for the recognition of columbus; but the instrumentality of water-clocks, sand-clocks, and other crude devices, like the timing of burning wicks, was too uncertain to obtain even transient sanction. [sidenote: astrolabe.] the astrolabe, for all the improvements of behaim, was still an awkward instrument for ascertaining latitude, especially on a rolling or pitching ship, and we know that vasco da gama went on shore at the cape de verde islands to take observations when the motion of the sea balked him on shipboard. [illustration: the clock-maker. [from jost amman's _beschreibung_, frankfort.]] [sidenote: cross-staff and jackstaff.] whether the cross-staff or jackstaff, a seaboard implement somewhat more convenient than the astrolabe, was known to columbus is not very clear,--probably it was not; but the navigators that soon followed him found it more manageable on rolling ships than the older instruments. it was simply a stick, along which, after one end of it was placed at the eye, a scaled crossbar was pushed until its two ends touched, the lower, the horizon, and the upper, the heavenly body whose altitude was to be taken. a scale on the stick then showed, at the point where the bar was left, the degree of latitude. [sidenote: errors in latitude.] the best of such aids, however, did not conduce to great accuracy, and the early maps, in comparison with modern, show sometimes several degrees of error in scaling from the equator. an error once committed was readily copied, and different cartographical records put in service by the professional map makers came sometimes by a process of averages to show some surprising diversities, with positive errors of considerable extent. the island of cuba, for instance, early found place in the charts seven and eight degrees too far north, with dependent islands in equally wrong positions. * * * * * [sidenote: seventeen vessels ready.] as the preparations went on, a fleet of seventeen vessels, large and small, three of which were called transports, had, according to the best estimates, finally been put in readiness. scillacio tells us that some of the smallest had been constructed of light draft, especially for exploring service. horses and domestic animals of all kinds were at last gathered on board. every kind of seed and agricultural implement, stores of commodities for barter with the indians, and all the appurtenances of active life were accumulated. muñoz remarks that it is evident that sugar cane, rice, and vines had not been discovered or noted by columbus on his first voyage, or we would not have found them among the commodities provided for the second. [sidenote: ojeda.] [sidenote: their companies.] in making up the company of the adventurers, there was little need of active measures to induce recruits. many an hidalgo and cavalier took service at their own cost. galvano, who must have received the reports by tradition, says that such was the "desire of travel that the men were ready to leap into the sea to swim, if it had been possible, into these new found parts." traffic, adventure, luxury, feats of arms,--all were inducements that lured one individual or another. some there were to make names for themselves in their new fields. such was alonso de ojeda, a daring youth, expert in all activities, who had served his ambition in the moorish wars, and had been particularly favored by the duke of medina-celi, the friend of columbus. [sidenote: las casas, ponce de leon, la cosa, etc.] we find others whose names we shall again encounter. the younger brother of columbus, diego colon, had come to spain, attracted by the success of christopher. the father and uncle of las casas, from whose conversations with the admiral that historian could profit in the future, juan ponce de leon, the later discoverer of florida, juan de la cosa, whose map is the first we have of the new world, and dr. chanca, a physician of seville, who was pensioned by the crown, and to whom we owe one of the narratives of the voyage, were also of the company. [sidenote: , souls embark.] the thousand persons to which the expedition had at first been limited became, under the pressure of eager cavaliers, nearer , , and this number was eventually increased by stowaways and other hangers-on, till the number embarked was not much short of , . this is oviedo's statement. bernaldez and peter martyr make the number , , or thereabouts. perhaps these were the ordinary hands, and the more were officers and the like, for the statements do not render it certain how the enumerations are made. so far as we know their names, but a single companion of columbus in his first voyage was now with him. the twenty horsemen, already mentioned are supposed to be the only mounted soldiers that embarked. columbus says, in a letter addressed to their majesties, that "the number of colonists who desire to go thither amounts to two thousand," which would indicate that a large number were denied. the letter is undated, and may not be of a date near the sailing; if it is, it probably indicates to some degree the number of persons who were denied embarkation. as the day approached for the departure there was some uneasiness over a report of a portuguese caravel sailing westward from madeira, and it was proposed to send some of the fleet in advance to overtake the vessel; but after some diplomatic fence between ferdinand and joão, the disquiet ended, or at least nothing was done on either side. at one time columbus had hoped to embark on the th of august; but it was six weeks later before everything was ready. chapter xii. the second voyage. - . [sidenote: the embarkation.] the last day in port was a season of solemnity and gratulation. coma, a spaniard, who, if not an eyewitness, got his description from observers, thus describes the scene in a letter to scillacio in pavia: "the religious rites usual on such occasions were performed by the sailors; the last embraces were given; the ships were hung with brilliant cloths; streamers were wound in the rigging; and the royal standard flapped everywhere at the sterns of the vessels. the pipers and harpers held in mute astonishment the nereids and even the sirens with their sweet modulations. the shores reëchoed the clang of trumpets and the braying of clarions. the discharge of cannon rolled over the water. some venetian galleys chancing to enter the harbor joined in the jubilation, and the cheers of united nations went up with prayers for blessings on the venturing crews." [sidenote: . september . the fleet sails.] night followed, calm or broken, restful or wearisome, as the case might be, for one or another, and when the day dawned (september , ) the note of preparation was everywhere heard. it was the same on the three great caracks, on the lesser caravels, and on the light craft, which had been especially fitted for exploration. the eager and curious mass of beings which crowded their decks were certainly a motley show. there were cavalier and priest, hidalgo and artisan, soldier and sailor. the ambitious thoughts which animated them were as various as their habits. there were those of the adventurer, with no purpose whatever but pastime, be it easy or severe. there was the greed of the speculator, counting the values of trinkets against stores of gold. [sidenote: columbus's character.] there was the brooding of the administrators, with unsolved problems of new communities in their heads. there were ears that already caught the songs of salvation from native throats. there was columbus himself, combining all ambitions in one, looking around this harbor of cadiz studded with his lordly fleet, spreading its creaking sails, lifting its dripping anchors. it was his to contrast it with the scene at palos a little over a year before. this needy genoese vested with the viceroyalty of a new world was more of an adventurer than any. he was a speculator who overstepped them all in audacious visions and golden expectancies. he was an administrator over a new government, untried and undivined. to his ears the hymns of the church soared with a militant warning, dooming the heathen of the indies, and appalling the moslem hordes that imperiled the holy sepulchre. [sidenote: . october . canaries.] under the eye of this one commanding spirit, the vessels fell into a common course, and were wafted out upon the great ocean under the lead of the escorting galleys of the venetians. the responsibility of the captain-general of the great armament had begun. he had been instructed to steer widely clear of the portuguese coast, and he bore away in the lead directly to the southwest. on the seventh day (october ) they reached the gran canaria, where they tarried to repair a leaky ship. on the th they anchored at gomera. two days were required here to complete some parts of their equipment, for the islands had already become the centre of great industries and produced largely. "they have enterprising merchants who carry their commerce to many shores," wrote coma to scillacio. there were wood and water to be taken on board. a variety of domestic animals, calves, goats, sheep, and swine; some fowls, and the seed of many orchard and garden fruits, oranges, lemons, melons, and the like, were gathered from the inhabitants and stowed away in the remaining spaces of the ships. [sidenote: . october . at sea.] on the th the fleet sailed, but it was not till the th that the gentle winds had taken them beyond ferro and the unbounded sea was about the great admiral. he bore away much more southerly than in his first voyage, so as to strike, if he could, the islands that were so constantly spoken of, the previous year, as lying southeasterly from española. [sidenote: st. elmo's light.] his ultimate port was, of course, the harbor of la navidad, and he had issued sealed instructions to all his commanders, to guide any one who should part company with the fleet. the winds were favorable, but the dull sailing of the admiral's ship restrained the rest. in ten days they had overshot the longitude of the sargossa sea without seeing it, leaving its floating weeds to the north. in a few days more they experienced heavy tempests. they gathered confidence from an old belief, when they saw st. elmo waving his lambent flames about the upper rigging, while they greeted his presence with their prayers and songs. "the fact is certain," says coma, "that two lights shone through the darkness of the night on the topmast of the admiral's ship. forthwith the tempest began to abate, the sea to remit its fury, the waves their violence, and the surface of the waves became as smooth as polished marble." this sudden gale of four hours' duration came on st. simon's eve. the same authority represents that the protracted voyage had caused their water to run low, for the admiral, confident of his nearness to land, and partly to reassure the timid, had caused it to be served unstintingly. "you might compare him to moses," adds coma, "encouraging the thirsty armies of the israelites in the dry wastes of the wilderness." [sidenote: . november .] [sidenote: november .] [sidenote: dominica island.] [sidenote: marigalante.] [sidenote: . november . guadaloupe.] on saturday, november , the leaders compared reckonings. some thought they had come leagues from ferro; others, . there were anxiety and weariness on board. the constant fatigue of bailing out the leaky ships had had its disheartening effect. columbus, with a practiced eye, saw signs of land in the color of the water and the shifting winds, and he signaled every vessel to take in sail. it was a waiting night. the first light of sunday glinted on the top of a lofty mountain ahead, descried by a watch at the admiral's masthead. as the island was approached, the admiral named it, in remembrance of the holy day, dominica. the usual service with the _salve regina_ was chanted throughout the fleet, which moved on steadily, bringing island after island into view. columbus could find no good anchorage at dominica, and leaving one vessel to continue the search, he passed on to another island, which he named from his ship, marigalante. here he landed, set up the royal banner in token of possession of the group,--for he had seen six islands,--and sought for inhabitants. he could find none, nor any signs of occupation. there was nothing but a tangle of wood in every direction, a sparkling mass of leafage, trembling in luxurious beauty and giving off odors of spice. some of the men tasted an unknown fruit, and suffered an immediate inflammation about the face, which it required remedies to assuage. the next morning columbus was attracted by the lofty volcanic peak of another island, and, sailing up to it, he could see cascades on the sides of this eminence. [illustration: guadaloupe, marie galante, and dominica. [from henrique's _les colonies françoises_, paris, .]] "among those who viewed this marvelous phenomena at a distance from the ships," says coma, "it was at first a subject of dispute whether it were light reflected from masses of compact snow, or the broad surface of a smooth-worn road. at last the opinion prevailed that it was a vast river." [sidenote: november .] columbus remembered that he had promised the monks of our lady of guadaloupe, in estremadura, to place some token of them in this strange world, and so he gave this island the name of guadaloupe. landing the next day, a week of wonders followed. [sidenote: cannibals.] the exploring parties found the first village abandoned; but this had been done so hastily that some young children had been left behind. these they decked with hawks' bells, to win their returning parents. one place showed a public square surrounded by rectangular houses, made of logs and intertwined branches, and thatched with palms. they went through the houses and noted what they saw. they observed at the entrance of one some serpents carved in wood. they found netted hammocks, beside calabashes, pottery, and even skulls used for utensils of household service. they discovered cloth made of cotton; bows and bone-tipped arrows, said sometimes to be pointed with human shin-bones; domesticated fowl very like geese; tame parrots; and pineapples, whose flavor enchanted them. they found what might possibly be relics of europe, washed hither by the equatorial currents as they set from the african coasts,--an iron pot, as they thought it (we know this from the _historie_), and the stern-timber of a vessel, which they could have less easily mistaken. they found something to horrify them in human bones, the remains of a feast, as they were ready enough to believe, for they were seeking confirmation of the stories of cannibals which columbus had heard on his first voyage. they learned that boys were fattened like capons. [illustration: [from philoponus's _nota typis transacta navigatio_.]] the next day they captured a youth and some women, but the men eluded them. columbus was now fully convinced that he had at last discovered the cannibals, and when it was found that one of his captains and eight men had not returned to their ship, he was under great apprehensions. he sent exploring parties into the woods. they hallooed and fired their arquebuses, but to no avail. as they threaded their way through the thickets, they came upon some villages, but the inhabitants fled, leaving their meals half cooked; and they were convinced they saw human flesh on the spit and in the pots. while this party was absent, some women belonging to the neighboring islands, captives of this savage people, came off to the ships and sought protection. columbus decked them with rings and bells, and forced them ashore, while they begged to remain. the islanders stripped off their ornaments, and allowed them to return for more. these women said that the chief of the island and most of the warriors were absent on a predatory expedition. [sidenote: ojeda's expedition.] the party searching for the lost men returned without success, when alonso de ojeda offered to lead forty men into the interior for a more thorough search. this party was as unsuccessful as the other. ojeda reported he had crossed twenty-six streams in going inland, and that the country was found everywhere abounding in odorous trees, strange and delicious fruits, and brilliant birds. while this second party was gone, the crews took aboard a supply of water, and on ojeda's return columbus resolved to proceed, and was on the point of sailing, when the absent men appeared on the shore and signaled to be taken off. they had got lost in a tangled and pathless forest, and all efforts to climb high enough in trees to see the stars and determine their course had been hopeless. finally striking the sea, they had followed the shore till they opportunely espied the fleet. they brought with them some women and boys, but reported they had seen no men. [sidenote: cannibals.] among the accounts of these early experiences of the spaniards with the native people, the story of cannibalism is a constant theme. to circulate such stories enhanced the wonder with which europe was to be impressed. [sidenote: caribs.] the cruelty of the custom was not altogether unwelcome to warrant a retaliatory mercilessness. historians have not wholly decided that this is enough to account for the most positive statements about man-eating tribes. fears and prejudices might do much to raise such a belief, or at least to magnify the habits. irving remarks that the preservation of parts of the human body, among the natives of española, was looked upon as a votive service to ancestors, and it may have needed only prejudice to convert such a custom into cannibalism when found with the caribs. the adventurousness of the nature of this fierce people and their wanderings in wars naturally served to sharpen their intellects beyond the passive unobservance of the pacific tribes on which they preyed; so they became more readily, for this reason, the possessors of any passion or vice that the european instinct craved to fasten somewhere upon a strange people. [sidenote: caribs and lucayans.] the contiguity of these two races, the fierce carib and the timid tribes of the more northern islands, has long puzzled the ethnologist. irving indulged in some rambling notions of the origin of the carib, derived from observations of the early students of the obscure relations of the american peoples. larger inquiry and more scientific observation has since irving's time been given to the subject, still without bringing the question to recognizable bearings. the craniology of the caribs is scantily known, and there is much yet to be divulged. the race in its purity has long been extinct. lucien de rosny, in an anthropological study of the antilles published by the french society of ethnology in , has amassed considerable data for future deductions. it is a question with some modern examiners if the distinction between these insular peoples was not one of accident and surroundings rather than of blood. * * * * * [sidenote: . november . columbus leaves guadaloupe.] when columbus sailed from guadaloupe on november , he steered northwest for española, though his captives told him that the mainland lay to the south. he passed various islands, but did not cast anchor till the th, when he reached the island named by him santa cruz, and found it still a region of caribs. it was here the spaniards had their first fight with this fierce people in trying to capture a canoe filled with them. the white men rammed and overturned the hollowed log; but the indians fought in the water so courageously that some of the spanish bucklers were pierced with the native poisoned arrows, and one of the spaniards, later, died of such a wound inflicted by one of the savage women. all the caribs, however, were finally captured and placed in irons on board ship. one was so badly wounded that recovery was not thought possible, and he was thrown overboard. the fellow struck for the shore, and was killed by the spanish arrows. the accounts describe their ferocious aspect, their coarse hair, their eyes circled with red paint, and the muscular parts of their limbs artificially extended by tight bands below and above. [sidenote: porto rico.] proceeding thence and passing a group of wild and craggy islets, which he named after st. ursula and her eleven thousand virgins, columbus at last reached the island now called porto rico, which his captives pointed out to him as their home and the usual field of the carib incursions. the island struck the strangers by its size, its beautiful woods and many harbors, in one of which, at its west end, they finally anchored. there was a village close by, which, by their accounts, was trim, and not without some pretensions to skill in laying out, with its seaside terraces. the inhabitants, however, had fled. two days later, the fleet weighed anchor and steered for la navidad. [sidenote: . november . española.] it was the d of november when the explorers made a level shore, which they later discovered to be the eastern end of española. they passed gently along the northern coast, and at an attractive spot sent a boat ashore with the body of the biscayan sailor who had died of the poisoned arrow, while two of the light caravels hovered near the beach to protect the burying party. coming to the spot where columbus had had his armed conflict with the natives the year before, and where one of the indians who had been baptized at barcelona was taken, this fellow, loaded with presents and decked in person, was sent on shore for the influence he might exert on his people. this supposable neophyte does not again appear in history. only one of these native converts now remained, and the accounts say that he lived faithfully with the spaniards. five of the seven who embarked had died on the voyage. [sidenote: . november .] [sidenote: . november . off la navidad.] on the th, while the fleet was at anchor at monte christo, where columbus had found gold in the river during his first voyage, the sailors discovered some decomposed bodies, one of them showing a beard, which raised apprehensions of the fate of the men left at la navidad. the neighboring natives came aboard for traffic with so much readiness, however, that it did much to allay suspicion. it was the th when, after dark, columbus cast anchor opposite the fort, about a league from land. it was too late to see anything more than the outline of the hills. expecting a response from the fort, he fired two cannons; but there was no sound except the echoes. the spaniards looked in vain for lights on the shore. the darkness was mysterious and painful. before midnight a canoe was heard approaching, and a native twice asked for the admiral. a boat was lowered from one of the vessels, and towed the canoe to the flag-ship. the natives were not willing to board her till columbus himself appeared at the waist, and by the light of a lantern revealed his countenance to them. this reassured them. their leader brought presents--some accounts say ewers of gold, others say masks ornamented with gold--from the cacique, guacanagari, whose friendly assistance had been counted upon so much to befriend the little garrison at la navidad. [sidenote: its garrison killed.] these formalities over, columbus inquired for diego de arana and his men. the young lucayan, now columbus's only interpreter, did the best he could with a dialect not his own to make a connected story out of the replies, which was in effect that sickness and dissension, together with the withdrawal of some to other parts of the island, had reduced the ranks of the garrison, when the fort as well as the neighboring village of guacanagari was suddenly attacked by a mountain chieftain, caonabo, who burned both fort and village. those of the spaniards who were not driven into the sea to perish had been put to death. in this fight the friendly cacique had been wounded. the visitors said that this chieftain's hurt had prevented his coming with them to greet the admiral; but that he would come in the morning. coma, in his account of this midnight interview, is not so explicit, and leaves the reader to infer that columbus did not get quite so clear an apprehension of the fate of his colony. when the dawn came, the harbor appeared desolate. not a canoe was seen where so many sped about in the previous year. a boat was sent ashore, and found every sign that the fort had been sacked as well as destroyed. fragments of clothing and bits of merchandise were scattered amid its blackened ruins. there were indians lurking behind distant trees, but no one approached, and as the cacique had not kept the word which he had sent of coming himself in the morning, suspicions began to arise that the story of its destruction had not been honestly given. the new-comers passed a disturbed night with increasing mistrust, and the next morning columbus landed and saw all for himself. he traveled farther away from the shore than those who landed on the preceding day, and gained some confirmation of the story in finding the village of the cacique a mass of blackened ruins. cannon were again discharged, in the hopes that their reverberating echoes might reach the ears of those who were said to have abandoned the fort before the massacre. the well and ditch were cleaned out to see if any treasure had been cast into it, as columbus had directed in case of disaster. nothing was found, and this seemed to confirm the tale of the suddenness of the attack. columbus and his men went still farther inland to a village; but its inmates had hurriedly fled, so that many articles of european make, stockings and a moorish robe among them, had been left behind, spoils doubtless of the fort. returning nearer the fort, they discovered the bodies of eleven men buried, with the grass growing above them, and enough remained of their clothing to show they were europeans. this is dr. chanca's statement, who says the men had not been dead two months. coma says that the bodies were unburied, and had lain for nearly three months in the open air; and that they were now given christian burial. [sidenote: guacanagari and caonabo.] later in the day, a few of the natives were lured by friendly signs to come near enough to talk with the lucayan interpreter. the story in much of its details was gradually drawn out, and columbus finally possessed himself of a pretty clear conception of the course of the disastrous events. it was a tale of cruelty, avarice, and sensuality towards the natives on the part of the spaniards, and of jealousy and brawls among themselves. no word of their governor had been sufficient to restrain their outbursts of passionate encounter, and no sense of insecurity could deter them from the most foolhardy risks while away from the fort's protection. those who had been appointed to succeed arana, if there were an occasion, revolted against him, and, being unsuccessful in overthrowing him, they went off with their adherents in search of the mines of cibao. this carried them beyond the protection of guacanagari, and into the territory of his enemy, caonabo, a wandering carib who had offered himself to the interior natives as their chieftain, and who had acquired a great ascendency in the island. this leader, who had learned of the dissensions among the spaniards, was no sooner informed of the coming of these renegades within his reach than he caused them to be seized and killed. this emboldened him to join forces with another cacique, a neighbor of guacanagari, and to attempt to drive the spaniards from the island, since they had become a standing menace to his power, as he reasoned. the confederates marched stealthily, and stole into the vicinity of the fort in the night. arana had but ten men within the stockade, and they kept no watch. other spaniards were quartered in the adjacent village. the onset was sudden and effective, and the dismal ruins of the fort and village were thought to confirm the story. [sidenote: doña catalina.] other confirmations followed. a caravel was sent to explore easterly, and was soon boarded by two indians from the shore, who invited the captain, maldonado, to visit the cacique, who lay ill at a neighboring village. the captain went, and found guacanagari laid up with a bandaged leg. the savage told a story which agreed with the one just related, and on its being repeated to columbus, the admiral himself, with an imposing train, went to see the cacique. guacanagari seemed anxious, in repeating the story, to convince the admiral of his own loyalty to the spaniards, and pointed to his wounds and to those of some of his people as proof. there was the usual interchange of presents, hawks' bells for gold, and similar reckonings. before leaving, columbus asked to have his surgeon examine the wound, which the cacique said had been occasioned by a stone striking the leg. to get more light, the chieftain went out-of-doors, leaning upon the admiral's arm. when the bandage was removed, there was no external sign of hurt; but the cacique winced if the flesh was touched. father boyle, who was in the admiral's train, thought the wound a pretense, and the story fabricated to conceal the perfidy of the cacique, and urged columbus to make an instant example of the traitor. the admiral was not so confident as the priest, and at all events he thought a course of pacification and procrastination was the better policy. the interview did not end, according to coma, without some strange manifestations on the part of the cacique, which led the spaniards for a moment to fear that a trial of arms was to come. the chief was not indisposed to try his legs enough to return with the admiral to his ship that very evening. here he saw the carib prisoners, and the accounts tell us how he shuddered at the sight of them. he wondered at the horses and other strange creatures which were shown to him. coma tells us that the indians thought that the horses were fed on human flesh. the women who had been rescued from the caribs attracted, perhaps, even more the attention of the savage, and particularly a lofty creature among them, whom the spaniards had named doña catalina. guacanagari was observed to talk with her more confidingly than he did with the others. father boyle urged upon the admiral that a duress similar to that of catalina was none too good for the perfidious cacique, as the priest persisted in calling the savage, but columbus hesitated. there was, however, little left of that mutual confidence which had characterized the relations of the admiral and the chieftain during the trying days of the shipwreck, the year before. when the admiral offered to hang a cross on the neck of his visitor, and the cacique understood it to be the christian emblem, he shrank from the visible contact of a faith of which the past months had revealed its character. with this manifestation they parted, and the cacique was set ashore. coma seems to unite the incidents of this interview on the ship with those of the meeting ashore. [sidenote: the cacique and catalina.] there comes in here, according to the received accounts, a little passage of indian intrigue and gallantry. a messenger appeared the next day to inquire when the admiral sailed, and later another to barter gold. this last held some talk with the indian women, and particularly with catalina. about midnight a light appeared on the shore, and catalina and her companions, while the ship's company, except a watch, were sleeping, let themselves down the vessel's side, and struck out for the shore. the watch discovered the escape, but not in time to prevent the women having a considerable start. boats pursued, but the swimmers touched the beach first. four of them, however, were caught, but catalina and the others escaped. when, the next morning, columbus sent a demand for the fugitives, it was found that guacanagari had moved his household and all his effects into the interior of the island. the story got its fitting climax in the suspicious minds of the spaniards, when they supposed that the fugitive beauty was with him. here was only a fresh instance of the savage's perfidy. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus abandons la navidad.] columbus had before this made up his mind that the vicinity of his hapless fort was not a good site for the town which he intended to build. the ground was low, moist, and unhealthy. there were no building stones near at hand. there was need of haste in a decision. the men were weary of their confinement on shipboard. the horses and other animals suffered from a like restraint. accordingly expeditions were sent to explore the coast, and it soon became evident that they must move beyond the limits of guacanagari's territory, if they would find the conditions demanded. melchior maldonado, in command of one of these expeditions, had gone eastward until he coasted the country of another cacique. this chief at first showed hostility, but was won at last by amicable signs. from him they learned that guacanagari had gone to the mountains. from another they got the story of the massacre of the fort, almost entirely accordant with what they had already discovered. [sidenote: isabella founded.] [sidenote: cibao gold mines.] not one of the reports from these minor explorations was satisfactory, and december , the entire fleet weighed anchor to proceed farther east. stress of weather caused them to put into a harbor, which on examination seemed favorable for their building project. the roadstead was wide. a rocky point offered a site for a citadel. there were two rivers winding close by in an attractive country, and capable of running mills. nature, as they saw it, was variegated and alluring. flowers and fruits were in abundance. "garden seeds came up in five days after they were sown," says coma of their trial of the soil, "and the gardens were speedily clothed in green, producing plentifully onions and pumpkins, radishes and beets." "vegetables," wrote dr. chanca, "attain a more luxuriant growth here in eight days than they would in spain in twenty." it was also learned that the gold mines of the cibao mountains were inland from the spot, at no great distance. the disembarkation began. days of busy exertion followed. horses, livestock, provisions, munitions, and the varied merchandise were the centre of a lively scene about their encampment. this they established near a sheet of water. artificers, herdsmen, cavaliers, priests, laborers, and placemen made up the motley groups which were seen on all sides. [sidenote: sickness in the colony.] in later years, the spaniards regulated all the formalities and prescribed with precision the proceedings in the laying out of towns in the new world, but columbus had no such directions. the planting of a settlement was a novel and untried method. it was a natural thought to commemorate in the new christian city the great patroness of his undertaking, and the settlement bore from the first the name of isabella. his engineers laid out square and street. a site for the church was marked, another for a public storehouse, another for the house of the admiral,--all of stone. the ruins of these three buildings are the most conspicuous relics in the present solitary waste. the great mass of tenements, which were stretched along the streets back from the public square, where the main edifice stood, were as hastily run up as possible, to cover in the colony. it was time enough for solider structures later to take their places. parties were occupied in clearing fields and setting out orchards. there were landing piers to be made at the shore. so everybody tasked bodily strength in rival endeavors. the natural results followed in so incongruous a crowd. those not accustomed to labor broke down from its hardships. the seekers for pleasure, not finding it in the common toil, rushed into excesses, and imperiled all. the little lake, so attractive to the inexperienced, was soon, with its night vapors, the source of disease. few knew how to protect themselves from the insidious malaria. discomfort induced discouragement, and the mental firmness so necessary in facing strange and exacting circumstances gave way. [sidenote: columbus sick.] forebodings added greater energy to the disease. it was not long before the colony was a camp of hospitals, about one half the people being incapacitated for labor. in the midst of all this downheartedness columbus himself succumbed, and for some weeks was unable to direct the trying state of affairs, except as he could do so in the intervals of his lassitude. but as the weeks went on a better condition was apparent. work took a more steady aspect. the ships had discharged their burdens. they lay ready for the return voyage. [sidenote: sends ojeda to seek the cibao mines.] columbus had depended on the exertions of the little colony at la navidad to amass a store of gold and other precious commodities with which to laden the returning vessels. he knew the disappointment which would arise if they should carry little else than the dismal tale of disaster. nothing lay upon his mind more weightily than this mortification and misfortune. there was nothing to be done but to seek the mines of cibao, for the chance of sending more encouraging reports. gold had indeed been brought in to the settlement, but only scantily; and its quantity was not suited to make real the gorgeous dreams of the east with which spain was too familiar. so an expedition to cibao was organized, and ojeda was placed in command. the force assigned to him was but fifteen men in all, but each was well armed and courageous. they expected perils, for they had to invade the territory of caonabo, the destroyer of la navidad. [sidenote: . january. first mass.] the march began early in january, ; perhaps just after they had celebrated their first solemn mass in a temporary chapel on january . for two days their progress was slow and toilsome, through forests without a sign of human life, for the savage denizens had moved back from the vicinity of the spaniards. the men encamped, the second night, on the top of a mountain, and when the dawn broke they looked down on its further side over a broad valley, with its scattered villages. they boldly descended, and met nothing but hospitality from the villagers. their course now lay towards and up the opposite slope of the valley. they pushed on without an obstacle. [sidenote: gold found.] [sidenote: gorvalan's expedition.] the rude inhabitants of the mountains were as friendly as those of the valley. they did not see nor did they hear anything of the great caonabo. every stream they passed glittered with particles of gold in its sand. the natives had an expert way of separating the metal, and the spaniards flattered them for their skill. occasionally a nugget was found. ojeda picked up a lump which weighed nine ounces, and peter martyr looked upon it wonderingly when it reached spain. if all this was found on the surface, what must be the wealth in the bowels of these astounding mountains? the obvious answer was what ojeda hastened back to make to columbus. a similar story was got from a young cavalier, gorvalan, who had been dispatched in another direction with another force. there was in all this the foundation of miracles for the glib tongue and lively imagination. one of these exuberant stories reached coma, and scillacio makes him say that "the most splendid thing of all (which i should be ashamed to commit to writing, if i had not received it from a trustworthy source) is that, a rock adjacent to a mountain being struck with a club, a large quantity of gold burst out, and particles of gold of indescribable brightness glittered all around the spot. ojeda was loaded down by means of this outburst." it was stories like these which prepared the way for the future reaction in spain. [sidenote: columbus writes to the sovereigns.] there was material now to give spirit to the dispatch to his sovereigns, and columbus sat down to write it. it has come down to us, and is printed in navarrete's collection, just as it was perused by the king and queen, who entered in the margins their comments and orders. columbus refers at the beginning to letters already written to their highnesses, and mentions others addressed to father buele and to the treasurer, but they are not known. then, speaking of the expeditions of ojeda and gorvalan, he begs the sovereigns to satisfy themselves of the hopeful prospects for gold by questioning gorvalan, who was to return with the ships. he advises their highnesses to return thanks to god for all this. those personages write in the margin, "their highnesses return thanks to god!" he then explains his embarrassment from the sickness of his men,--the "greater part of all," as he adds,--and says that the indians are very familiar, rambling about the settlement both day and night, necessitating a constant watch. as he makes excuses and gives his reasons for not doing this or that, the compliant monarchs as constantly write against the paragraphs, "he has done well." columbus says he is building stone bulwarks for defense, and when this is done he shall provide for accumulating gold. "exactly as should be done," chime in the monarchs. he then asks for fresh provisions to be sent to him, and tells how much they have done in planting. "fonseca has been ordered to send further seeds," is the comment. he complains that the wine casks had been badly coopered at seville, and that the wine had all run out, so that wine was their prime necessity. he urges that calves, heifers, asses, working mares, be sent to them; and that above all, to prevent discouragement, the supplies should arrive at isabella by may, and that particularly medicines should come, as their stock was exhausted. he then refers to the cannibals whom he would send back, and asks that they may be made acquainted with the true faith and taught the spanish tongue. "his suggestions are good," is the marginal royal comment. [sidenote: columbus proposes a trade in slaves.] now comes the vital point of his dispatch. we want cattle, he says. they can be paid for in carib slaves. let yearly caravels conduct this trade. it will be easy, with the boats which are building, to capture a plenty of these savages. duties can be levied on these importations of slaves. on this point he urges a reply. the monarchs see the fatality of the step, and, according to the marginal comment, suspend judgment and ask the admiral's further thoughts. "a more distinct suggestion for the establishment of a slave trade was never proposed," is the modern comment of arthur helps. columbus then adds that he has bought for the use of the colony certain of the vessels which brought them out, and these would be retained at isabella, and used in making further discoveries. the comment is that fonseca will pay the owners. he then intimates that more care should be exercised in the selection of placemen sent to the colony, for the enterprise had suffered already from unfitness in such matters. the monarchs promise amends. he complains that the granada lancemen, who offered themselves in seville mounted on fine horses, had subsequently exchanged these animals to their own personal advantage for inferior horses. he says the footmen made similar exchanges to fill their own pockets. [sidenote: . january . signs his letter.] [sidenote: gold, the christians' god!] [sidenote: . february . the fleet returns to spain.] [sidenote: chanca's narrative.] so, dating this memorial on january , , the man who was ambitious to become the first slave-driver of the new world laid down his quill, praising god, as he asked his sovereigns to do. the poor creatures who wandered in and about among the cabins of the spaniards were fast forming their own comments, which were quite as astute as those of the admiral's royal masters. holding up a piece of gold, the natives learned to say,--and columbus had given them their first lesson in such philosophy,--"behold the christians' god!" benzoni, the first traveler who came among them with his eyes open, and daring to record the truth, heard them say this. intrusting his memorial to antonio de torres, and putting him in command of the twelve ships that were to return to spain, columbus saw the fleet sail away on february , . there would seem to have been committed to some one on the ships two other accounts of the results of this second voyage up to this time, which have come down to us. one of these is a narrative by dr. chanca, the physician of the colony, whom columbus, in his memorial to the monarchs, credits with doing good service in his profession at a sacrifice of the larger emoluments which the practice of it had brought to him in seville. the narrative of chanca had been sent by him to the cathedral chapter of seville. the original is thought to be lost; but navarrete used a transcript which belonged to a collection formed by father antonio de aspa, a monk of the monastery of the mejorada, where columbus is known to have deposited some of his papers. major has given us an english translation of it in his _select letters of columbus_. major's text will also be found in the late james lenox's english version of the other account, which he gave to scholars in . [sidenote: coma's narrative.] there is a curious misconception in this last document, which represents that columbus had reached these new regions by the african route of the portuguese,--a confusion doubtless arising from the imperfect knowledge which the italian translator, nicholas scillacio, had of the current geographical developments. a spaniard, guglielmo coma, seems to have written about the new discoveries in some letters, apparently revived in some way from somebody's personal observation, which scillacio put into a latin dress, and published at pavia, or possibly at pisa. this little tract is of the utmost rarity, and mr. lenox, considering the suggestion of ronchini, that the blunder of scillacio may have caused the destruction of the edition, replies by calling attention to the fact that it is scarcely rarer than many other of the contemporary tracts of columbus's voyage, about which there exists no such reason. [sidenote: verde's letters.] we get also some reports by torres himself on the affairs of the colony in various letters of a florentine merchant, simone verde, to whom he had communicated them. these letters have been recently ( ) found in the archives of florence, and have been made better known still later by harrisse. chapter xiii. the second voyage, continued. . [sidenote: life in isabella.] the departure of the fleet made conspicuous at last a threatening faction of those whose terms of service had prevented their taking passage in the ships. this organized discontent was the natural result of a depressing feeling that all the dreams of ease and plenty which had sustained them in their embarkation were but delusions. life in isabella had made many of them painfully conscious of the lack of that success and comfort which had been counted upon. the failure of what in these later days is known as the commissariat was not surprising. with all our modern experience in fitting out great expeditions, we know how often the fate of such enterprises is put in jeopardy by rascally contractors. their arts, however, are not new ones. fonseca was not so wary, columbus was not so exacting, that such arts could not be practiced in seville, as to-day in london and new york. this jobbery, added to the scant experience of honest endeavor, inevitably brought misfortune and suffering through spoiled provisions and wasted supplies. [sidenote: mutinous factions.] the faction, taking advantage of this condition, had two persons for leaders, whose official position gave the body a vantage-ground. bernal diaz de pisa was the comptroller of the colony, and his office permitted him to have an oversight of the admiral's accounts. it is said that before this time he had put himself in antagonism to authority by questioning some of the doings of the admiral. he began now to talk to the people of the admiral's deceptive and exaggerating descriptions intended for effect in spain, and no doubt represented them to be at least as false as they were. diaz drew pictures that produced a prevailing gloom beyond what the facts warranted, for deceit is a game of varying extremes. [sidenote: their schemes discovered.] he was helped on by the assayer of the colony, fermin cado, who spoke as an authority on the poor quality of the gold, and on the indian habit of amassing it in their families, so that the moderate extent of it which the natives had offered was not the accretions of a day, but the result of the labor of generations. with leaders acting in concert, it had been planned to seize the remaining ships, and to return to spain. this done, the mutineers expected to justify their conduct by charges against the admiral, and a statement of them had already been drawn up by bernal diaz. the mutiny, however, was discovered, and columbus had the first of his many experiences in suppressing a revolt. bernal diaz was imprisoned on one of the ships, and was carried to spain for trial. other leaders were punished in one way and another. to prevent the chances of success in future schemes of revolt, all munitions and implements of war were placed together in one of the ships, under a supervision which columbus thought he could trust. the prompt action of the admiral had not been taken without some question of his authority, or at least it was held that he had been injudicious in the exercise of it. the event left a rankling passion among many of the colonists against what was called columbus's vindictiveness and presumptuous zeal. with it all was the feeling that a foreigner was oppressing them, and was weaving about them the meshes of his arbitrary ambition. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus goes to the gold mines.] [sidenote: diego colon.] columbus now determined to go himself to the gold regions of the interior. he arranged that diego, his brother,--another foreigner!--should have the command in his absence. las casas pictures for us this younger of the colombos, and calls him gentle, unobtrusive, and kindly. he allows to him a priest's devotion, but does not consider him quite worldly enough in his dealings with men to secure himself against ungenerous wiles. [sidenote: . march .] it was the th of march when columbus set out on his march. he conducted a military contingent of about well-armed men, including what lancers he could mount. in his train followed an array of workmen, miners, artificers, and porters, with their burdens of merchandise and implements. a mass of the natives hovered about the procession. [sidenote: columbus makes a road.] [sidenote: the vega real.] their progress was as martial as it could be made. banners were flaunted. drums and trumpets were sounded. their armor was made to glisten. crossing the low land, they came to a defile in the mountain. there was nothing before them but a tortuous native trail winding upward among the rocks and through tangled forest. it was ill suited for the passage of a heavily burdened force. some of the younger cavaliers sprang to the front, and gathering around them woodmen and pioneers, they opened the way; and thus a road was constructed through the pass, the first made in the new world. this work of the proud cavaliers was called _el puerto de los hidalgos_. the summit of the mountain afforded afresh the grateful view of the luxuriant valley which had delighted ojeda,--royally rich as it was in every aspect, and deserving the name which columbus now gave it of the vega real. [sidenote: erects a cross.] here, on the summit of santo cerro, the tradition of the island goes that columbus caused that cross to be erected which the traveler to-day looks upon in one of the side chapels of the cathedral at santo domingo. it stood long enough to perform many miracles, as the believers tell us, and was miraculously saved in an earthquake. de lorgues does not dare to connect the actual erection with the holy trophy of the cathedral. descending to the lowlands, the little army and its followers attracted the notice of the amazed natives by clangor and parade. this display was made more astounding whenever the horses were set to prancing, as they approached and passed a native hamlet. las casas tells us that the first horseman who dismounted was thought by the natives to have parceled out a single creature into convenient parts. the indians, timid at first, were enticed by a show of trinkets, and played upon by the interpreters. thus they gradually were won over to repay all kindnesses with food and drink, while they rendered many other kindly services. the army came to a large stream, and columbus called it the river of reeds. it was the same which, the year before, knowing it only where it emptied into the sea, he had called the river of gold, because he had been struck with the shining particles which he found among its sands. here they encamped. the men bathed. they found everything about them like the dales of paradise, if we may believe their rehearsals. the landscape was very different from that which bernal diaz was to tell of, if only once he got the ears of the court in seville. [sidenote: cibao mountains.] the river was so wide and deep that the men could not ford it, so they made rafts to take over everything but the horses. these swam the current. then the force passed on, but was confronted at last by the rugged slopes of the cibao mountains. the soldiers clambered up the defile painfully and slowly. the pioneers had done what they could to smooth the way, but the ascent was wearying. they could occasionally turn from their toil to look back over this luxuriant valley which they were leaving, and lose their vision in its vast extent. las casas describes it as eighty leagues one way, and twenty or thirty the other. [sidenote: fort st. thomas.] it was a scene of bewildering beauty that they left behind; it was one of sterile heights, scraggy pines, and rocky precipices which they entered. the leaders computed that they were eighteen leagues from isabella, and as columbus thought he saw signs of gold, amber, lapis lazuli, copper, and one knows not what else of wealth, all about him, he was content to establish his fortified position hereabouts, without pushing farther. he looked around, and found at the foot of one of the declivities of the interior of this mountainous region a fertile plain, with a running river, gurgling over beds of jasper and marble, and in the midst of it a little eminence, which he could easily fortify, as the river nearly surrounded it like a natural ditch. here he built his fort. recent travelers say that an overgrowth of trees now covers traces of its foundations. the fortress was, as he believed, so near the gold that one could see it with his eyes and touch it with his hands, and so, as las casas tells us, he named it st. thomas. the indians had already learned to recognize the christian's god. they found the golden deity in bits in the streams. they took the idol tenderly to his militant people. for their part, the poor natives much preferred rings and hawks' bells, and so a basis of traffic was easily found. in this way columbus got some gold, but he more readily got stories of other spots, whither the natives pointed vaguely, where nuggets, which would dwarf all these bits, could be found. columbus began to wonder why he never reached the best places. [sidenote: country examined.] [sidenote: columbus returns to isabella.] the spaniards soon got to know the region better. juan de luxan, who had been sent out with a party to see what he could find, reported that the region was mountainous and in its upper parts sterile, to be sure, but that there were delicious valleys, and plenty of land to cultivate, and pasturing enough for herds. when he came back with these reports, the men put a good deal of heart in the work which they were bestowing on the citadel of st. thomas, so that it was soon done. pedro margarite was placed in command with fifty-six men, and then columbus started to return to isabella. [sidenote: natives of the valley.] when the admiral reached the valley, he met a train of supplies going forward to st. thomas, and as there were difficulties of fording and other obstacles, he spent some time in examining the country and marking out lines of communication. this brought him into contact with the villages of the valley, and he grew better informed of the kind of people among whom his colonists were to live. he did not, however, discern that under a usually pacific demeanor there was no lack of vigorous determination in this people, which it might not be so wise to irritate to the point of vengeance. he found, too, that they had a religion, perhaps prompting to some virtues he little suspected in his own, and that they jealously guarded their idols. he discovered that experience had given them no near acquaintance with the medicinal properties of the native herbs and trees. they associated myths with places, and would tell you that the sun and moon were but creatures of their island which had escaped from one of their caverns, and that mankind had sprung from the crannies of their rocky places. the bounteousness of nature, causing little care for the future, had spread among them a love of hospitality, and columbus found himself welcome everywhere, and continued to be so till he and his abused their privileges. [sidenote: . march . columbus in isabella.] on the th of march, columbus was back in isabella, to find that the plantings of january were already yielding fruits, and the colony, in its agricultural aspects, at least, was promising, for the small areas that had already been cultivated. but the tidings from the new fort in the mountains which had just come in by messenger were not so cheering, for it seemed to be the story of la navidad repeated. the license and exactions of the garrison had stirred up the neighboring natives, and pedro margarite, in his message, showed his anxiety lest caonabo should be able to mass the savages, exasperated by their wrongs, in an attack upon the post. columbus sent a small reinforcement to st. thomas, and dispatched a force to make a better road thither, in order to facilitate any future operations. [sidenote: condition of the town.] the admiral's more immediate attention was demanded by the condition of isabella. intermittent fever and various other disturbances incident to a new turning of a reeking soil were making sad ravages in the colony. the work of building suffered in consequence. the sick engrossed the attention of men withdrawn from their active labors, or they were left to suffer from the want of such kindly aid. the humidity of the climate and a prodigal waste had brought provisions so low that an allowance even of the unwholesome stock which remained was made necessary. in order to provide against impending famine, men were taken from the public works and put to labor on a mill, in order that they might get flour. no respect was paid to persons, and cavalier and priest were forced into the common service. the admiral was obliged to meet the necessities by compulsory measures, for even an obvious need did not prevent the indifferent from shirking, and the priest and hidalgo from asserting their privileged rights. any authority that enforced sacrifice galled the proud spirits, and the indignity of labor caused a mortification and despair that soon thinned the ranks of the best blood of the colony. dying voices cursed the delusion which had brought them to the new world, the victims, as they claimed, of the avarice and deceit of a hated alien to their race. [sidenote: ojeda sent to st. thomas.] supineness in the commander would have brought everything in the colony to a disastrous close. a steady progression of some sort might be remedial. the admiral's active mind determined on the diversion of further exploration with such a force as could be equipped. he mustered a little army, consisting of men armed with crossbows, with matchlocks, mounted lancemen, and officers. ojeda was put at their head, with orders to lead them to st. thomas, which post he was to govern while margarite took the expeditionary party and scoured the country. navarrete has preserved for us the instructions which columbus imparted. they counseled a considerate regard for the natives, who must, however, be made to furnish all necessaries at fair prices. above all, every spaniard must be prevented from engaging in private trade, since the profits of such bartering were reserved to the crown, and it did not help columbus in his dealings with the refractory colonists to have it known that a foreign interloper, like himself, shared this profit with the crown. margarite was also told that he must capture, by force or stratagem, the cacique caonabo and his brothers. [sidenote: . april .] when ojeda, who had started on april , reached the vega real, he learned that three spaniards, returning from st. thomas, had been robbed by a party of indians, people of a neighboring cacique. ojeda seized the offenders, the ears of one of whom he cut off, and then capturing the cacique himself and some of his family, he sent the whole party to isabella. columbus took prompt revenge, or made the show of doing so; but just as the sentence of execution was to be inflicted, he yielded to the importunities of another cacique, and thought to keep by it his reputation for clemency. presently another horseman came in from st. thomas, who, on his way, had rescued, single-handed and with the aid of the terror which his animal inspired, another party of five spaniards, whom he had found in the hands of the same tribe. [sidenote: diego and the junto.] such easy conquests convinced columbus that only proper prudence was demanded to maintain the spanish supremacy with even a diminished force. he had not forgotten the fears of the portuguese which were harassing the spanish court when he left seville, and, to anticipate them, he was anxious to make a more thorough examination of cuba, which was a part of the neighboring main of cathay, as he was ready to suppose. he therefore commissioned a sort of junto to rule, while in person he should conduct such an expedition by water. his brother diego was placed in command during his absence, and he gave him four counselors, father boyle, pedro fernandez coronel, alonso sanchez carvajal, and juan de luxan. he took three caravels, the smallest of his little fleet, as better suited to explore, and left the two large ones behind. [sidenote: . april . columbus sails for cuba.] it was april when columbus sailed from isabella, and at once he ran westerly. he stopped at his old fort, la navidad, but found that guacanagari avoided him, and no time could be lost in discovering why. on the th, he left española behind and struck across to the cuban shore. here, following the southern side of that island, he anchored first in a harbor where there were preparations for a native feast; but the people fled when he landed, and the not overfed spaniards enjoyed the repast that was abandoned. the lucayan interpreter, who was of the party, managed after a while to allure a single indian, more confident than the rest, to approach; and when this cuban learned from one of a similar race the peaceful purposes of the spaniards, he went and told others, and so in a little while columbus was able to hold a parley with a considerable group. he caused reparation to be made for the food which his men had taken, and then exchanged farewells with the astounded folk. [sidenote: . may . on the cuban coast.] on may , he raised anchor, and coasted still westerly, keeping near the shore. the country grew more populous. the amenities of his intercourse with the feast-makers had doubtless been made known along the coast, and as a result he was easily kept supplied with fresh fruits by the natives. their canoes constantly put off from the shore as the ships glided by. he next anchored in the harbor which was probably that known to-day as st. jago de cuba, where he received the same hospitality, and dispensed the same store of trinkets in return. [sidenote: . may . steers for jamaica.] here, as elsewhere along the route, the lucayan had learned from the natives that a great island lay away to the south, which was the source of what gold they had. the information was too frequently repeated to be casual, and so, on may , columbus boldly stood off shore, and brought his ships to a course due south. [sidenote: natives of jamaica.] [sidenote: a dog set upon them.] [sidenote: santiago or jamaica.] [sidenote: character of natives.] it was not long before thin blue films appeared on the horizon. they deepened and grew into peaks. it was two days before the ships were near enough to their massive forms to see the signs of habitations everywhere scattered along the shore. the vessels stood in close to the land. a native flotilla hovered about, at first with menaces, but their occupants were soon won to friendliness by kindly signs. not so, however, in the harbor, where, on the next day, he sought shelter and an opportunity to careen a leaky ship. here the shore swarmed with painted men, and some canoes with feathered warriors advanced to oppose a landing. they hurled their javelins without effect, and filled the air with their screams and whoops. columbus then sent in his boats nearer the shore than his ships could go, and under cover of a discharge from his bombards a party landed, and with their crossbows put the indians to flight. bernaldez tells that a dog was let loose upon the savages, and this is the earliest mention of that canine warfare which the spaniards later made so sanguinary. columbus now landed and took possession of the island under the name of santiago, but the name did not supplant the native jamaica. the warning lesson had its effect, and the next day some envoys of the cacique of the region made offers of amity, which were readily accepted. for three days this friendly intercourse was kept up, with the customary exchange of gifts. the spaniards could but observe a marked difference in the character of this new people. they were more martial and better sailors than any they had seen since they left the carib islands. the enormous mahogany-trees of the islands furnished them with trunks, out of which they constructed the largest canoes. columbus saw one which was ninety-six feet long and eight broad. there was also in these people a degree of merriment such as the spaniards had not noticed before, more docility and quick apprehension, and peter martyr gathered from those with whom he had talked that in almost all ways they seemed a manlier and experter race. their cloth, utensils, and implements were of a character not differing from others the explorers had seen, but of better handiwork. as soon as he floated his ship, columbus again stretched his course to the west, finding no further show of resistance. the native dugout sallied forth to trade from every little inlet which was passed. finally, a youth came off and begged to be taken to the spaniards' home, and the _historie_ tells us that it was not without a scene of distress that he bade his kinsfolk good-by, in spite of all their endeavors to reclaim him. columbus was struck with the courage and confidence of the youth, and ordered special kindnesses to be shown to him. we hear nothing more of the lad. [sidenote: columbus returns to cuba.] [sidenote: . may .] [sidenote: the queen's gardens.] reaching now the extreme westerly end of jamaica, and finding the wind setting right for cuba, columbus shifted his course thither, and bore away to the north. on the th of may, he was once more on its coast. the people were everywhere friendly. they told him that cuba was an island, but of such extent that they had never seen the end of it. this did not convince columbus that it was other than the mainland. so he went on towards the west, in full confidence that he would come to cathay, or at least, such seemed his expectation. he presently rounded a point, and saw before him a large archipelago. he was now at that point where the cabo de la cruz on the south and this archipelago in the northwest embay a broad gulf. the islands seemed almost without number, and they studded the sea with verdant spots. he called them the queen's gardens. he could get better seaway by standing further south, and so pass beyond the islands; but suspecting that they were the very islands which lay in masses along the coast of cathay, as marco polo and mandeville had said, he was prompted to risk the intricacies of their navigation; so he clung to the shore, and felt that without doubt he was verging on the territories of the great khan. he began soon to apprehend his risks. the channels were devious. the shoals perplexed him. there was often no room to wear ship, and the boats had to tow the caravels at intervals to clearer water. they could not proceed at all without throwing the lead. the wind was capricious, and whirled round the compass with the sun. sudden tempests threatened danger. with all this anxiety, there was much to beguile. every aspect of nature was like the descriptions of the east in the travelers' tales. the spaniards looked for inhabitants, but none were to be seen. at last they espied a village on one of the islands, but on landing (may ), not a soul could be found,--only the spoils of the sea which a fishing people would be likely to gather. another day, they met a canoe from which some natives were fishing. the men came on board without trepidation and gave the spaniards what fish they wanted. they had a wonderful way of catching fish. they used a live fish much as a falcon is used in catching its quarry. this fish would fasten itself to its prey by suckers growing about the head. the native fishermen let it out with a line attached to its tail, and pulled in both the catcher and the caught when the prey had been seized. these people also told the same story of the interminable extent westerly of the cuban coast. [sidenote: . june .] [sidenote: men with tails.] columbus now passed out from among these islands and steered towards a mountainous region, where he again landed and opened intercourse with a pacific tribe on june . an old cacique repeated the same story of the illimitable land, and referred to the province of mangon as lying farther west. this name was enough to rekindle the imagination of the admiral. was not mangi the richest of the provinces that sir john mandeville had spoken of? he learned also that a people with tails lived there, just as that veracious narrator had described, and they wore long garments to conceal that appendage. what a sight a procession of these asiatics would make in another reception at the spanish court! [sidenote: gulf of xagua.] [sidenote: white-robed men.] there was nothing now to impede the progress of the caravels, and on the vessels went in their westward course. every day the crews got fresh fruits from the friendly canoes. they paid nothing for the balmy odors from the land. they next came to the gulf of xagua, and passing this they again sailed into shallow waters, whitened with the floating sand, which the waves kept in suspension. the course of the ships was tortuous among the bars, and they felt relieved when at last they found a place where their anchors would hold. to make sure that a way through this labyrinth could be found, columbus sent his smallest caravel ahead, and then following her guidance, the little fleet, with great difficulty, and not without much danger at times, came out into clearer water. later, he saw a deep bay on his right, and tacking across the opening he lay his course for some distant mountains. here he anchored to replenish his water-casks. an archer straying into the forest came back on the run, saying that he had seen white-robed people. here, then, thought columbus, were the people who were concealing their tails! he sent out two parties to reconnoitre. they found nothing but a tangled wilderness. it has been suggested that the timorous and credulous archer had got half a sight of a flock of white cranes feeding in a savanna. such is the interpretation of this story by irving, and humboldt tells us there is enough in his experience with the habits of these birds to make it certain that the interpretation is warranted. [sidenote: columbus believes he sees the golden chersonesus,] still the admiral went on westerly, opening communication occasionally with the shore, but to little advantage in gathering information, for the expedition had gone beyond the range of dialects where the lucayan interpreter could be of service. the shore people continued to point west, and the most that could be made of their signs was that a powerful king reigned in that direction, and that he wore white robes. this is the story as bernaldez gives it; and columbus very likely thought it a premonition of prester john. the coast still stretched to the setting sun, if columbus divined the native signs aright, but no one could tell how far. the sea again became shallow, and the keels of the caravels stirred up the bottom. the accounts speak of wonderful crowds of tortoises covering the water, pigeons darkening the sky, and gaudy butterflies sweeping about in clouds. the shore was too low for habitation; but they saw smoke and other signs of life in the high lands of the interior. when the coast line began to trend to the southwest,--it was marco polo who said it would,--there could be little doubt that the golden chersonesus of the ancients, which we know to-day as the malacca peninsula, must be beyond. [sidenote: by which he would return to spain.] what next? was the thought which passed through the fevered brain of the admiral. he had an answer in his mind, and it would make a new sensation for his poor colony at isabella to hear of him in spain. passing the golden chersonesus, had he not the alternative of steering homeward by way of ceylon and the cape of good hope, and so astound the portuguese more than he did when he entered the tagus? or, abandoning the indian ocean and entering the red sea, could he not proceed to its northern extremity, and there, deserting his ships, join a caravan passing through jerusalem and jaffa, and so embark again on the mediterranean and sail into barcelona, a more wonderful explorer than before? these were the sublimating thoughts that now buoyed the admiral, as he looked along the far-stretching coast,--or at least his friend bernaldez got this impression from his intercourse with columbus after his return to spain. [sidenote: his crew rebel.] if the compliant spirit of his crew had not been exhausted, he would perhaps have gone on, and would have been forced by developments to a revision of his geographical faith. his vessels, unfortunately, were strained in all their seams. their leaks had spoiled his provisions. incessant labor had begun to tell upon the health of the crew. they much preferred the chances of a return to isabella, with all its hazards, than a sight of jaffa and the mediterranean, with the untold dangers of getting there. the admiral, however, still pursued his course for a few days more to a point, as humboldt holds, opposite the st. philip keys, when, finding the coast trending sharply to the southwest, and his crew becoming clamorous, he determined to go no farther. [sidenote: . june . he turns back.] it was now the th of june, , and if we had nothing but the _historie_ to guide us, we should be ignorant of the singular turn which affairs took. whoever wrote that book had, by the time it was written, become conscious that obliviousness was sometimes necessary to preserve the reputation of the admiral. the strange document which interests us, however, has not been lost, and we can read it in navarrete. [sidenote: enforces an oath upon his men] it is not difficult to understand the disquietude of columbus's mind. he had determined to find cathay as a counterpoise to the troubled conditions at isabella, both to assuage the gloomy forebodings of the colonists and to reassure the public mind in spain, which might receive, as he knew, a shock by the reports which torres's fleet had carried to europe. he had been forced by a mutinous crew to a determination to turn back, but his discontented companions might be complacent enough to express an opinion, if not complacent enough to run farther hazards. so columbus committed himself to the last resort of deluded minds, when dealing with geographical or historical problems,--that of seeking to establish the truth by building monuments, placing inscriptions, and certifications under oath. he caused the eighty men who constituted the crew of his little squadron--and we find their name in duro's _colón y pinzón_--to swear before a notary that it was possible to go from cuba to spain by land, across asia. [sidenote: that cuba is a continent.] it was solemnly affirmed by this official that if any should swerve from this belief, the miserable skeptic, if an officer, should be fined , maravedis; and if a sailor, he should receive a hundred lashes and have his tongue pulled out. such were the scarcely heroic measures that columbus thought it necessary to employ if he would dispel any belief that all these islands of the indies were but an ocean archipelago after all, and that the width of the unknown void between europe and asia, which he was so confident he had traversed, was yet undetermined. to make cuba a continent by affidavit was easy; to make it appear the identical kingdom of the great khan, he hoped would follow. during his first voyage, so far as he could make out an intelligible statement from what the natives indicated, he was of the opinion that cuba was an island. it is to be feared that he had now reached a state of mind in which he did not dare to think it an island. if we believe the _historie_,--or some passages in it, at least,--written, as we know, after the geography of the new world was fairly understood, and if we accept the evidence of the copyist, herrera, columbus never really supposed he was in asia. if this is true, he took marvelous pains to deceive others by appearing to be deceived himself, as this notarial exhibition and his solemn asseveration to the pope in show. the writers just cited say that he simply juggled the world by giving the name india to these regions, as better suited to allure emigration. such testimony, if accepted, establishes the fraudulent character of these notarial proceedings. it is fair to say, however, that he wrote to peter martyr, just after the return of the caravels to isabella, expressing a confident belief in his having come near to the region of the ganges; and divesting the testimony of all the jugglery with which others have invested it, there seems little doubt that in this belief, at least, columbus was sincere. * * * * * [illustration: mass on shore. [from philoponus's _nova typis transacta navigatio_.]] [sidenote: . june .] [sidenote: . june .] [sidenote: . july .] on the next day, columbus, standing to the southeast, reached a large island, the present isle of pines, which he called evangelista. in endeavoring to skirt it on the south, he was entangled once more in a way that made him abandon the hope of a directer passage to española that way, and to resolve to follow the coast back as he had come. he lost ten days in these uncertain efforts, which, with his provisions rapidly diminishing, did not conduce to reassure his crew. on june , trying to follow the intricacies of the channels which had perplexed him before, the admiral's ship got a severe thump on the bottom, which for a while threatened disaster. she was pulled through, however, by main force, and after a while was speeding east in clear water. they had now sailed beyond those marshy reaches of the coast, where they were cut off from intercourse with the shore, and hoped soon to find a harbor, where food and rest might restore the strength of the crew. their daily allowance had been reduced to a pound of mouldy bread and a swallow or two of wine. it was the th of july when they anchored in an acceptable harbor. here they landed, and interchanged the customary pledges of amity with a cacique who presented himself on the shore. men having been sent to cut down some trees, a large cross was made, and erected in a grove, and on this spot, with a crowd of natives looking on, the spaniard celebrated high mass. a venerable indian, who watched all the ceremonials with close attention, divining their religious nature, made known to the admiral, through the lucayan interpreter, something of the sustaining belief of his own people, in words that were impressive. columbus's confidence in the incapacity of the native mind for such high conceptions as this poor indian manifested received a grateful shock when the old man, grave in his manner and unconscious in his dignity, pictured the opposite rewards of the good and bad in another world. then turning to the admiral, he reminded him that wrong upon the unoffending was no passport to the blessings of the future. the historian who tells us this story, and recounts how it impressed the admiral, does not say that its warnings troubled him much in the times to come, when the unoffending were grievously wronged. perhaps there was something of this forgetful spirit in the taking of a young indian away from his friends, as the chroniclers say he did, in this very harbor. [sidenote: . july .] [sidenote: . july .] [sidenote: on the coast of jamaica.] on july , columbus left the harbor, and steering off shore to escape the intricate channels of the queen's gardens which he was now re-approaching, he soon found searoom, and bore away toward española. a gale coming on, the caravels were forced in shore, and discovered an anchorage under cabo de cruz. here they remained for three days, but the wind still blowing from the east, columbus thought it a good opportunity to complete the circuit of jamaica. he accordingly stood across towards that island. he was a month in beating to the eastward along its southern coast, for the winds were very capricious. every night he anchored under the land, and the natives supplied him with provisions. at one place, a cacique presented himself in much feathered finery, accompanied by his wife and relatives, with a retinue bedizened in the native fashion, and doing homage to the admiral. it was shown how effective the lucayan's pictures of spanish glory and prowess had been, when the cacique proposed to put himself and all his train in the admiral's charge for passage to the great country of the spanish king. the offer was rather embarrassing to the admiral, with his provisions running low, and his ships not of the largest. he relieved himself by promising to conform to the wishes of the cacique at a more opportune moment. [sidenote: . august .] [sidenote: española.] [sidenote: . august .] [sidenote: alto velo.] by the th of august, columbus had passed the easternmost extremity of jamaica, and on the next day he was skirting the long peninsula which juts from the southwestern angle of española. he was not, however, aware of his position till on the d a cacique came off to the caravels, and addressed columbus by his title, with some words of castilian interlarded in his speech. it was now made clear that the ships had nearly reached their goal, and nothing was left but to follow the circuit of the island. it was no easy task to do so with a wornout crew and crazy ships. the little fleet was separated in a gale, and when columbus made the lofty rocky island which is now known as alto velo, resembling as it does in outline a tall ship under sail, he ran under its lee, and sent a boat ashore, with orders for the men to scale its heights, to learn if the missing caravels were anywhere to be seen. this endeavor was without result, but it was not long before the fleet was reunited. further on, the admiral learned from the natives that some of the spaniards had been in that part of the island, coming from the other side. finding thus through the native reports that all was quiet at isabella, he landed nine men to push across the island and report his coming. somewhat further to the east, a storm impending, he found a harbor, where the weather forced him to remain for eight days. the admiral's vessel had succeeded in entering a roadstead, but the others lay outside, buffeting the storm,--naturally a source of constant anxiety to him. [sidenote: columbus observes eclipse of the moon.] it was while in this suspense that columbus took advantage of an eclipse of the moon, to ascertain his longitude. his calculations made him five hours and a half west of seville,--an hour and a quarter too much, making an error of eighteen degrees. this mistake was quite as likely owing to the rudeness of his method as to the pardonable errors of the lunar tables of regiomontanus (venice, ), then in use. these tables followed methods which had more or less controlled calculations from the time of hipparchus. the error of columbus is not surprising. even a century later, when robert hues published his treatise on the molineaux globe ( ), the difficulties were in large part uncontrollable. "the most certain of all for this purpose," says this mathematician, "is confessed by all writers to be by eclipses of the moon. but now these eclipses happen but seldom, but are more seldom seen, yet most seldom and in very few places observed by the skillful artists in this science. so that there are but few longitudes of places designed out by this means. but this is an uncertain and ticklish way, and subject to many difficulties. others have gone other ways to work, as, namely, by observing the space of the equinoctial hours betwixt the meridians of two places, which they conceive may be taken by the help of sundials, or clocks, or hourglasses, either with water or sand or the like. but all these conceits, long since devised, having been more strictly and accurately examined, have been disallowed and rejected by all learned men--at least those of riper judgments--as being altogether unable to perform that which is required of them. i shall not stand here to discover the errors and uncertainties of these instruments. away with all such trifling, cheating rascals!" [sidenote: . september .] [sidenote: columbus reaches isabella.] the weather moderating, columbus stood out of the channel of saona on september , and meeting the other caravels, which had weathered the storm, he still steered to the east. they reached the farthest end of española opposite porto rico, and ran out to the island of mona, in the channel between the two larger islands. shortly after leaving mona, columbus, worn with the anxieties of a five months' voyage, in which his nervous excitement and high hopes had sustained him wonderfully, began to feel the reaction. his near approach to isabella accelerated this recoil, till his whole system suddenly succumbed. he lay in a stupor, knowing little, remembering nothing, his eyes dim and vitality oozing. under other command, the little fleet sorrowfully, but gladly, entered the harbor of isabella. our most effective source for the history of this striking cruise is the work of bernaldez, already referred to. chapter xiv. the second voyage, continued. - . [sidenote: . september . columbus in isabella.] it was the th of september, , when the "nina," with the senseless admiral on board, and her frail consorts stood into the harbor of isabella. taken ashore, the sick man found no restorative like the presence of his brother bartholomew, who had reached isabella during the admiral's absence. [sidenote: finds bartholomew columbus there.] [sidenote: bartholomew's career in england.] several years had elapsed since the two congenial brothers had parted. we have seen that this brother had probably been with bartholomew diaz when he discovered the african cape. it is supposed, from the inscriptions on it, that the map delivered by bartholomew to henry vii. had shown the results of diaz's discoveries. this chart had been taken to england, when bartholomew had gone thither, to engage the interest of henry vii. in columbus's behalf. there is some obscurity about the movements of bartholomew at this time, but there is thought by some to be reason to believe that he finally got sufficient encouragement from that tudor prince to start for spain with offers for his brother. the _historie_ tells us that the propositions of bartholomew were speedily accepted by henry, and this statement prevails in the earlier english writers, like hakluyt and bacon; but oviedo says the scheme was derided, and geraldini says it was declined. bartholomew reached paris just at the time when word had come there of columbus's return from his first voyage. his kinship to the admiral, and his own expositions of the geographical problem then attracting so much attention, drew him within the influence of the french court, and charles viii. is said to have furnished him the means--as bartholomew was then low in purse--to pursue his way to spain. [sidenote: in spain.] he was, however, too late to see the admiral, who had already departed from cadiz on this second voyage. finding that it had been arranged for his brother's sons to be pages at court, he sought them, and in company with them he presented himself before the spanish monarchs at valladolid. these sovereigns were about fitting out a supply fleet for española, and bartholomew was put in command of an advance section of it. sailing from cadiz on april , , with three caravels, he reached isabella on st. john's day, after the admiral had left for his western cruise. [sidenote: his character.] [sidenote: created adelantado.] if it was prudent for columbus to bring another foreigner to his aid, he found in bartholomew a fitter and more courageous spirit than diego possessed. the admiral was pretty sure now to have an active and fearless deputy, sterner, indeed, in his habitual bearing than columbus, and with a hardihood both of spirit and body that fitted him for command. these qualities were not suited to pacify the haughty hidalgos, but they were merits which rendered him able to confront the discontent of all settlers, and gave him the temper to stand in no fear of them. he brought to the government of an ill-assorted community a good deal that the admiral lacked. he was soberer in his imagination; not so prone to let his wishes figure the future; more practiced, if we may believe las casas, in the arts of composition, and able to speak and write much more directly and comprehensibly than his brother. he managed men better, and business proceeded more regularly under his control, and he contrived to save what was possible from the wreck of disorder into which his brother's unfitness for command had thrown the colony. this is the man whom las casas enables us to understand, through the traits of character which he depicts. columbus was now to create this brother his representative, in certain ways, with the title of adelantado. it was also no small satisfaction to the admiral, in his present weakness, to learn of the well-being of his children, and of the continued favor with which he was held at court, little anticipating the resentment of ferdinand that an office of the rank of adelantado should be created by any delegated authority. [sidenote: papal bull of extension.] columbus had pursued his recent explorations in some measure to forestall what he feared the portuguese might be led to attempt in the same direction, for he had not been unaware of the disturbance in the court at lisbon which the papal line of demarcation had created. he was glad now to learn from his brother that his own fleet had hardly got to sea from cadiz, in september, , when the pope, by another bull on the th of that month, had declared that all countries of the eastern indies which the spaniards might find, in case they were not already in christian hands, should be included in the grant made to spain. this bull of extension, as it was called, was a new thorn in the side of portugal, and time would reveal its effect. alexander had resisted all importunities to recede from his position, taken in may. * * * * * [sidenote: events in española during the absence of columbus.] let us look now at what had happened in española during the absence of columbus; but in the first place, we must mark out the native division of the island with whose history columbus's career is so associated. just back of isabella, and about the vega real, whose bewildering beauties of grove and savanna have excited the admiration of modern visitors, lay the territory tributary to a cacique named guarionex, which was bounded south by the cibao gold mountains. south of these interior ridges and extending to the southern shore of the island lay the region (maguana) of the most warlike of all the native princes, caonabo, whose wife, anacaona, was a sister of behechio, who governed xaragua, as the larger part of the southern coast, westward of caonabo's domain, including the long southwestern peninsula, was called. the northeastern part of the island (marien) was subject to guacanagari, the cacique neighboring to la navidad. the eastern end (higuay) of the island was under the domination of a chief named cotabanana. it will be remembered that before starting for cuba the admiral had equipped an expedition, which, when it arrived at st. thomas, was to be consigned to the charge of pedro margarite. this officer had instructions to explore the mountains of cibao, and map out its resources. he was not to harass the natives by impositions, but he was to make them fear his power. it was also his business to avoid reducing the colony's supplies by making the natives support this exploring force. if he could not get this support by fair means, he was to use foul means. such instructions were hazardous enough; but margarite was not the man to soften their application. he had even failed to grasp the spirit of the instructions which had been given by columbus to ensnare caonabo, which were "as thoroughly base and treacherous as could well be imagined," says helps, and the reader can see them in navarrete. [illustration: native divisions of espaÑola. [from charlevoix's _l'isle espagnole_, amsterdam, .]] this commander had spent his time mainly among the luxurious scenes of the vega real, despoiling its tribes of their provisions, and squandering the energies of his men in sensual diversions. the natives, who ought to have been his helpers, became irritated at his extortions and indignant at the invasion of their household happiness. the condition in the tribes which this riotous conduct had induced looked so threatening that diego columbus, as president of the council, wrote to margarite in remonstrance, and reminded him of the admiral's instructions to explore the mountains. [sidenote: factions.] the haughty spaniard, taking umbrage at what he deemed an interference with his independent command, readily lent himself to the faction inimical to columbus. with his aid and with that of father boyle, a brother catalonian, who had proved false to his office as a member of the ruling council and even finally disregardful of the royal wishes that he should remain in the colony, an uneasy party was soon banded together in isabella. the modern french canonizers, in order to reconcile the choice by the pope of this recusant priest, claim that his holiness, or the king for him, confounded a benedictine and franciscan priest of the same name, and that the benedictine was an unlucky changeling--perhaps even purposely--for the true monk of the franciscans. in the face of diego, this cabal found little difficulty in planning to leave the island for spain in the ships which had come with bartholomew columbus. diego had no power to meet with compulsion the defiance of these mutineers, and was subjected to the sore mortification of seeing the rebels sail out of the harbor for spain. there was left to diego, however, some satisfaction in feeling that such dangerous ringleaders were gone; but it was not unaccompanied with anxiety to know what effect their representations would have at court. a like anxiety now became poignant in the admiral's mind, on his return. the stories which diego and bartholomew were compelled to tell columbus of the sequel of this violent abandonment of the colony were sad ones. the license which pedro margarite had permitted became more extended, when the little armed force of the colony found itself without military restraint. it soon disbanded in large part, and lawless squads of soldiers were scattered throughout the country, wherever passion or avarice could find anything to prey upon. the long-suffering indians soon reached the limits of endurance. a few acts of vengeance encouraged them to commit others, and everywhere small parties of the spaniards were cut off as they wandered about for food and lustful conquests. the inhabitants of villages turned upon such stragglers as abused their hospitalities. houses where they sheltered themselves were fired. detached posts were besieged. [sidenote: caonabo and fort st. thomas.] while this condition prevailed, caonabo planned to surprise fort st. thomas. ojeda, here in control with fifty men, commanded about the only remnant of the spanish forces which acknowledged the discipline of a competent leader. the vigilant ojeda did not fail to get intelligence of caonabo's intentions. he made new vows to the virgin, before an old flemish picture of our lady which hung in his chamber in the fort, and which never failed to encourage him, wherever he tarried or wherever he strayed. every man was under arms, and every eye was alert, when their commander, as great in spirit as he was diminutive in stature, marshaled his fifty men along his ramparts, as caonabo with his horde of naked warriors advanced to surprise him. the outraged cacique was too late. no unclothed natives dared to come within range of the spanish crossbows and arquebuses. ojeda met every artful and stealthy approach by a sally that dropped the bravest of caonabo's warriors. the cacique next tried to starve the spaniards out. his parties infested every path, and if a foraging force came out, or one of succor endeavored to get in, multitudes of the natives foiled the endeavor. famine was impending in the fort. the procrastinations of the arts of beleaguering always help the white man behind his ramparts, when the savage is his enemy. the native force dwindled under the delays, and caonabo at last abandoned the siege. [sidenote: caonabo's league.] the native leader now gave himself to a larger enterprise. his spies told him of the weakened condition of isabella, and he resolved to form a league of the principal caciques of the island to attack that settlement. wherever the spaniards had penetrated, they had turned the friendliest feelings into hatred, and in remote parts of the island the reports of the spanish ravages served, almost as much as the experience of them, to embitter the savage. it was no small success for caonabo to make the other caciques believe that the supernatural character of the spaniards would not protect them if a combined attack should be arranged. he persuaded all of them but guacanagari, for that earliest friend of columbus remained firm in his devotion to the spaniards. the admiral's confidence in him had not been misplaced. he was subjected to attacks by the other chieftains, but his constancy survived them all. in these incursions of his neighbors, his wives were killed and captured, and among them the dauntless catalina, as is affirmed; but his zeal for his white neighbors did not abate. [sidenote: columbus and guacanagari.] when guacanagari heard that columbus had returned, he repaired to isabella, and from this faithful ally the admiral learned of the plans which were only waiting further developments for precipitate action. [sidenote: fort conception.] columbus, thus forewarned, was eager to break any confederacy of the indians before it could gather strength. he had hardly a leader disengaged whom he could send on the warpath. it was scarcely politic to place bartholomew in any such command over the few remaining spanish cavaliers whose spirit was so necessary to any military adventure. he sent a party, however, to relieve a small garrison near the villages of guatiguana, a tributary chief to the great cacique guarionex; but the party resorted to the old excesses, and came near defeating the purposes of columbus. guatiguana was prevailed upon, however, to come to the spanish settlement, and columbus, to seal his agreement of amity with him, persuaded him to let the lucayan interpreter marry his daughter. to this diplomatic arrangement the admiral added the more powerful argument of a fort, called la concepcion, which he later built where it could command the vega real. * * * * * [sidenote: torres's ships arrive.] it was not long before four ships, with antonio torres in command, arrived from spain, bringing a new store of provisions, another physician, and more medicines, and, what was much needed, artificers and numerous gardeners. there was some hope now that the soil could be made to do its part in the support of the colony. [sidenote: . june . treaty of tordesillas.] to the admiral came a letter, dated august , from ferdinand and isabella, giving him notice that all the difficulties with portugal had been amicably adjusted. the court of lisbon, finding that pope alexander was not inclined to recede from his position, and spain not courting any difference that would lead to hostilities, both countries had easily been brought to an agreement, which was made at tordesillas, june , , to move the line of demarcation so much farther as to fall leagues west of the cape de verde islands. each country then bound itself to respect its granted rights under the bull thus modified. the historical study of this diplomatic controversy over the papal division of the world is much embarrassed by the lack of documentary records of the correspondence carried on by spain, portugal, and the pope. [sidenote: the sovereign's letter to columbus,] this letter of august must have been very gratifying to columbus. their majesties told him that one of the principal reasons of their rejoicing in his discoveries was that they felt it all due to his genius and perseverance, and that the events had justified his foreknowledge and their expectations. so now, in their desire to define the new line of demarcation, and in the hope that it might be found to run through some ocean island, where a monument could be erected, they turned to him for assistance, and they expected that if he could not return to assist in these final negotiations, he would dispatch to them some one who was competent to deal with the geographical problem. [sidenote: and to the colonists.] torres had also brought a general letter of counsel to the colonists, commanding them to obey all the wishes and to bow to the authority of the admiral. whatever his lack of responsibility, in some measure at least, for the undoubted commercial failure of the colony, its want of a product in any degree commensurate both with expectation and outlay could not fail, as he well understood, to have a strong effect both on the spirit of the people and on the constancy of his royal patrons, who might, under the urging of margarite and his abettors, have already swerved from his support. [sidenote: . february . the fleet returns to spain.] [sidenote: carrying slaves.] [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] reasons of this kind made it imperative that the newly arrived ships should be returned without delay, and with such reassuring messages and returns as could be furnished. the fleet departed on february , . himself still prostrate, and needing his brother bartholomew to act during this season of his incapacity, there was no one he could spare so well to meet the wishes of the sovereigns as his other brother. so armed with maps and instructions, and with the further mission of protecting the admiral's interest at court, diego embarked in one of the caravels. all the gold which had been collected was consigned to diego's care, but it was only a sorry show, after all. there had been a variety of new fruits and spices, and samples of baser metals gathered, and these helped to complete the lading. there was one resource left. he had intimated his readiness to avail himself of it in the communication of his views to the sovereigns, which torres had already conveyed to them. he now gave the plan the full force of an experiment, and packed into the little caravels full five hundred of the unhappy natives, to be sold as slaves. "the very ship," says helps, "which brought that admirable reply from ferdinand and isabella to columbus, begging him to seek some other way to christianity than through slavery, even for wild man-devouring caribs, should go back full of slaves taken from among the mild islanders of hispaniola." the act was a long step in the miserable degradation which columbus put upon those poor creatures whose existence he had made known to the world. almost in the same breath, as in his letter to santangel, he had suggested the future of a slave traffic out of that very existence. it is an obvious plea in his defense that the example of the church and of kings had made such heartless conduct a common resort to meet the financial burdens of conquest. the portuguese had done it in africa; the spaniards had done it in spain. the contemporary history of that age may be said to ring with the wails and moans of such negro and moorish victims. a holy religion had unblushingly been made the sponsor for such a crime. theologians had proved that the word of god could ordain misery in this world, if only the recompense came--or be supposed to come--in a passport to the christian's heaven. the merit which columbus arrogated to himself was that he was superior to the cosmographical knowledge of his time. it was the merit of las casas that he threw upon the reeking passions of the enslaver the light of a religion that was above sophistry and purer than cupidity. the existence of las casas is the arraignment of columbus. it may be indeed asking too much of weak humanity to be good in all things, and therein rests the pitiful plea for columbus, the originator of american slavery. * * * * * [sidenote: attacked by bloodhounds.] events soon became ominous. a savage host began to gather in the vega real, and all that columbus, now recovering his strength, could marshal in his defense was about two hundred foot and twenty horse, but they were cased in steel, and the natives were naked. in this respect, the fight was unequal, and the more so that the spaniards were now able to take into the field a pack of twenty implacable bloodhounds. the bare bodies of the indians had no protection against their insatiate thirst. [sidenote: . march . columbus marches,] [sidenote: and fights in the vega real.] it was the th of march, , when columbus, at the head of this little army, marched forth from isabella, to confront a force of the natives, which, if we choose to believe the figures that are given by las casas, amounted to , men, massed under the command of manicaotex. the whites climbed the pass of the hidalgos, where columbus had opened the way the year before, and descended into that lovely valley, no longer a hospitable paradise. as they approached the hostile horde, details were sent to make the attacks various and simultaneous. the indians were surprised at the flashes of the arquebuses from every quarter of the woody covert, and the clang of their enemies' drums and the bray of their trumpets drowned the savage yells. the native army had already begun to stagger in their wonder and perplexity, when ojeda, seizing the opportune moment, dashed with his mounted lancemen right into the centre of the dusky mass. the bloodhounds rushed to their sanguinary work on his flanks. the task was soon done. the woods were filled with flying and shrieking savages. the league of the caciques was broken, and it was only left for the conquerors to gather up their prisoners. guacanagari, who had followed the white army with a train of his subjects, looked on with the same wonder which struck the indians who were beaten. [sidenote: . april .] there was no opportunity for him to fight at all. the rout had been complete. this notable conflict taking place on april , , is a central point in a somewhat bewildering tangle of events, as our authorities relate them, so that it is not easy in all cases to establish their sequence. * * * * * [sidenote: caonabo captured by ojeda.] the question of dealing with caonabo was still the most important of all. it was solved by the cunning and dash of ojeda. presenting his plan to the admiral, he was commanded to carry it out. taking ten men whom he could trust, ojeda boldly sought the village where caonabo was quartered, and with as much intrepidity as cunning put himself in the power of that cacique. the chieftain was not without chivalry, and the confidence and audacity of ojeda won him. hospitality was extended, and the confidences of a mutual respect soon ensued. ojeda proposed that caonabo should accompany him to isabella, to make a compact of friendship with the viceroy. all then would be peaceful. caonabo, who had often wondered at the talking of the great bell in the chapel at isabella, as he had heard it when skulking about the settlement, eagerly sprang to the lure, when ojeda promised that he should have the bell. ojeda, congratulating himself on the success of his bait, was disconcerted when he found that the cacique intended that a large force of armed followers should make the visit with him. to prevent this, ojeda resorted to a stratagem, which is related by las casas, who says it was often spoken of when that priest first came to the island, six years later. muñoz was not brought to believe the tale; but helps sees no obstacle to giving it credence. the spaniards and the indians were all on the march together, and had encamped by a river. ojeda produced a set of burnished steel manacles, and told the cacique that they were ornaments such as the king of spain wore on solemn occasions, and that he had been commanded to give them to the most distinguished native prince. he first proposed a bath in the river. the swim over, caonabo was prevailed upon to be put behind ojeda astride the same horse. then the shining baubles were adjusted, apparently without exciting suspicion, amid the elation of the savage at his high seat upon the wondrous beast. a few sweeping gallops of the horse, guided by ojeda, and followed by the other mounted spearmen, scattered the amazed crowd of the cacique's attendants. then at a convenient gap in the circle ojeda spurred his steed, and the whole mounted party dashed into the forest and away. the party drew up only when they had got beyond pursuit, in order to bind the cacique faster in his seat. so in due time, this little cavalcade galloped into isabella with its manacled prisoner. [sidenote: meets columbus.] the meeting of columbus and his captive was one of very different emotions in the two,--the admiral rejoicing that his most active foe was in his power, and the cacique abating nothing of the defiance which belonged to his freedom. las casas tells us that, as caonabo lay in his shackles in an outer apartment of the admiral's house, the people came and looked at him. he also relates that the bold ojeda was the only one toward whom the prisoner manifested any respect, acknowledging in this way his admiration for his audacity. he would maintain only an indifferent haughtiness toward the admiral, who had not, as he said, the courage to do himself what he left to the bravery of his lieutenant. [sidenote: ojeda attacks the indians.] ojeda presently returned to his command at st. thomas, only to find that a brother of caonabo had gathered the indians for an assault. dauntless audacity again saved him. he had brought with him some new men, and so, leaving a garrison in the fort, he sallied forth with his horsemen and with as many foot as he could muster and attacked the approaching host. a charge of the glittering horse, with the flashing of sabres, broke the dusky line. the savages fled, leaving their commander a prisoner in ojeda's hands. columbus followed up these triumphs by a march through the country. every opposition needed scarce more than a dash of ojeda's cavalry to break it. the vega was once more quiet with a sullen submission. the confederated caciques all sued for peace, except behechio, who ruled the southwestern corner of the island. the whites had not yet invaded his territory, and he retired morosely, taking with him his sister, anacaona, the wife of the imprisoned caonabo. [sidenote: repartimientos and encomiendas.] the battle and the succeeding collapse had settled the fate of the poor natives. the policy of subjecting men by violence to pay the tribute of their lives and property to spanish cupidity was begun in earnest, and it was shortly after made to include the labor on the spanish farms, which, under the names of repartimientos and encomiendas, demoralized the lives of master and slave. when prisoners were gathered in such numbers that to guard them was a burden, there could be but little delay in forcing the issue of the slave trade upon the crown as a part of an established policy. to the mind of columbus, there was now some chance of repelling the accusations of margarite and father boyle by palpable returns of olive flesh and shining metal. a scheme of enforced contribution of gold was accordingly planned. each native above the age of fourteen was required to pay every three months, into the spanish coffers, his share of gold, measured by the capacity of a hawk's bell for the common person, and by that of a calabash for the cacique. in the regions distant from the gold deposits, cotton was accepted as a substitute, twenty-five pounds for each person. a copper medal was put on the neck of every indian for each payment, and new exactions were levied upon those who failed to show the medals. the amount of this tribute was more than the poor natives could find, and guarionex tried to have it commuted for grain; but the golden greed of columbus was inexorable. he preferred to reduce the requirements rather than vary the kind. a half of a hawk's bell of gold was better than stores of grain. "it is a curious circumstance," says irving, "that the miseries of the poor natives should thus be measured out, as it were, by the very baubles which first fascinated them." [sidenote: forts built.] to make this payment sure, it was necessary to establish other armed posts through the country; and there were speedily built that of magdalena in the vega, one called esperanza in cibao, another named catalina, beside la concepcion, which has already been mentioned. [sidenote: the natives debased.] the change which ensued in the lives of the natives was pitiable. the labor of sifting the sands of the streams for gold, which they had heretofore made a mere pastime to secure bits to pound into ornaments, became a depressing task. to work fields under a tropical sun, where they had basked for sportive rest, converted their native joyousness into despair. they sang their grief in melancholy songs, as peter martyr tells us. gradually they withdrew from their old haunts, and by hiding in the mountains, they sought to avoid the exactions, and to force the spaniards, thus no longer supplied by native labor with food, to abandon their posts and retire to isabella, if not to leave the island. [sidenote: guacanagari disappears.] scant fare for themselves and the misery of dank lurking-places were preferable to the heavy burdens of the taskmasters. they died in their retreats rather than return to their miserable labors. even the long-tried friend of the spaniards, guacanagari, was made no exception. he and his people suffered every exaction with the rest of their countrymen. the cacique himself is said eventually to have buried himself in despair in the mountain fastnesses, and so passed from the sight of men. the spaniards were not so easily to be thwarted. they hunted the poor creatures like game, and, under the goading of lashes, such as survived were in time returned to their slavery. so thoroughly was every instinct of vengeance rooted out of the naturally timid nature of the indians that a spaniard might, as las casas tells us, march solemnly like an army through the most solitary parts of the island and receive tribute at every demand. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus's interests in spain.] it is time to watch the effect of the representations of margarite and father boyle at the spanish court. columbus had been doubtless impelled, in these schemes of cruel exaction, by the fear of their influence, and with the hope of meeting their sneers at his ill success with substantial tribute to the crown. the charges against columbus and his policy and against his misrepresentation had all the immediate effect of accusations which are supported by one-sided witnesses. every sentiment of jealousy and pride was played upon, and every circumstance of palliation and modification was ignored. the suspicious reservation which had more or less characterized the bearing of ferdinand towards the transactions of the hero could become a background to the newer emotions. fonseca and the comptroller juan de soria are charged with an easy acceptance of every insinuation against the viceroy. the canonizers cannot execrate fonseca enough. they make him alternately the creature and beguiler of the king. his subserviency, his trading in bishoprics, and his alleged hatred of columbus are features of all their portraits of him. [sidenote: aguado sent to española.] the case against the admiral was thus successfully argued. testimony like that of the receiver of the crown taxes in rebuttal of charges seemed to weigh little. movements having been instituted at once (april , ) to succor the colony by the immediate dispatch of supplies, it was two days later agreed with beradi--the same with whom vespucius had been associated, as we have seen--to furnish twelve ships for española. the resolution was then taken to send an agent to investigate the affairs of the colony. if he should find the admiral still absent,--for the length of his cruise to cuba had already, at that time, begun to excite apprehension of his safety,--this same agent was to superintend the distribution of the supplies which he was to take. at this juncture, in april, , torres, arriving with his fleet, reported the admiral's safe return, and submitted the notarial document, in which columbus had made it clear to his own satisfaction that the golden chersonesus was in sight. whether that freak of geographical prescience threw about his expedition a temporary splendor, and again wakened the gratitude of the sovereigns, as irving says it did, may be left to the imagination; but the fact remains that the sovereigns did not swerve from their purpose to send an inquisitor to the colony, and the same juan aguado who had come back with credentials from the admiral himself was selected for the mission. [sidenote: . april . all spaniards allowed to explore.] [sidenote: nameless voyagers.] there were some recent orders of the crown which aguado was to break to the admiral, from which columbus could not fail to discover that the exclusiveness of his powers was seriously impaired. on the th of april, , it had been ordered that any native-born spaniard could invade the seas which had been sacredly apportioned to columbus, that such navigator might discover what he could, and even settle, if he liked, in española. this order was a ground of serious complaint by columbus at a later day, for the reason that this license was availed of by unworthy interlopers. he declares that after the way had been shown even the very tailors turned explorers. it seems tolerably certain that this irresponsible voyaging, which continued till columbus induced the monarchs to rescind the order in june, , worked developments in the current cartography of the new regions which it is difficult to trace to their distinct sources. gomara intimates that during this period there were nameless voyagers, of whose exploits we have no record by which to identify them, and navarrete and humboldt find evidences of explorations which cannot otherwise be accounted for. [sidenote: enemies of columbus.] how far this condition of affairs was brought about by the importunities of the enemies of columbus is not clear. the surviving pinzons are said to have been in part those who influenced the monarchs, but doubtless a share of profits, which the crown required from all such private speculation, was quite as strong an incentive as any importunities of eager mariners. the burdens of the official expeditions were onerous for an exhausted treasury, and any resource to replenish its coffers was not very narrowly scrutinized in the light of the pledges which columbus had exacted from a crown that was beginning to understand the impolicy of such concessions. [sidenote: fonseca and diego colon.] there was also at this time a passage of words between fonseca and diego colon that was not without irritating elements. the admiral's brother had brought some gold with him, which he claimed as his own. fonseca withheld it, but in the end obeyed the sovereign's order and released it. it was no time to add to the complications of the crown's relations with the distant viceroy. [sidenote: royal letter to columbus.] aguado bore a royal letter, which commanded columbus to reduce the dependents of the colony to five hundred, as a necessary retrenchment. there had previously been a thousand. directions were also given to control the apportionment of rations. a new metallurgist and master-miner, pablo belvis, was sent out, and extraordinary privileges in the working of the mines were given to him. muñoz says that he introduced there the quicksilver process of separating the gold from the sand. a number of new priests were collected to take the place of those who had returned, or who desired to come back. [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] such were the companions and instructions that aguado was commissioned to bear to columbus. there was still another movement in the policy of the crown that offered the viceroy little ground for reassurance. the prisoners which he had sent by the ships raised a serious question. it was determined that any transaction looking to the making slaves of them had not been authorized; but the desire of columbus so to treat them had at first been met by a royal order directing their sale in the marts of andalusia. a few days later, under the influence of isabella, this order had been suspended, till an inquiry could be made into the cause of the capture of the indians, and until the theologians could decide upon the justifiableness of such a sale. if we may believe bernaldez, who pictures their misery, they were subsequently sold in seville. muñoz, however, says that he could not find that the trouble which harassed the theologians was ever decided. such hesitancy was calculated to present a cruel dilemma to the viceroy, since the only way in which the clamor of the court for gold could be promptly appeased came near being prohibited by what columbus must have called the misapplied mercy of the queen. he failed to see, as muñoz suggests, why vassals of the crown, entering upon acts of resistance, should not be subjected to every sort of cruelty. humboldt wonders at any hesitancy when the grand inquisitor, torquemada, was burning heretics so fiercely at this time that such expiations of the poor moors and jews numbered , between and ! [sidenote: . october. aguado at isabella.] aguado, with four caravels, and diego columbus accompanying him, having sailed from cadiz late in august, , reached the harbor of isabella some time in october. the new commissioner found the admiral absent, occupied with affairs in other parts of the island. aguado soon made known his authority. it was embraced in a brief missive, dated april , , and as irving translates it, it read: "cavaliers, esquires, and other persons, who by our orders are in the indies, we send to you juan aguado, our groom of the chambers, who will speak to you on our part. we command you to give him faith and credit." the efficacy of such an order depended on the royal purpose that was behind it, and on the will of the commissioner, which might or might not conform to that purpose. it has been a plea of irving and others that aguado, elated by a transient authority, transcended the intentions of the monarchs. it is not easy to find a definite determination of such a question. it appears that when the instrument was proclaimed by trumpet, the general opinion did not interpret the order as a suspension of the viceroy's powers. the adelantado, who was governing in columbus's absence, saw the new commissioner order arrests, countermand directions, and in various ways assume the functions of a governor. bartholomew was in no condition to do more than mildly remonstrate. it was clearly not safe for him to provoke the great body of the discontented colonists, who professed now to find a champion sent to them by royal order. [sidenote: meets columbus.] columbus heard of aguado's arrival, and at once returned to isabella. aguado, who had started to find him with an escort of horse, missed him on the road, and this delayed their meeting a little. when the conference came, columbus, with a dignified and courteous air, bowed to a superior authority. it has passed into history that aguado was disappointed at this quiet submission, and had hoped for an altercation, which might warrant some peremptory force. it is also said that later he endeavored to make it appear how columbus had not been so complacent as was becoming. it was soon apparent that this displacement of the admiral was restoring even the natives to hope, and their caciques were not slow in presenting complaints, not certainly without reason, to the ascendant power, and against the merciless extortions of the admiral. [sidenote: accuses columbus.] the budget of accusations which aguado had accumulated was now full enough, and he ordered the vessels to make ready to carry him back to spain. the situation for columbus was a serious one. he had in all this trial experienced the results of the intrigues of margarite and father boyle. he knew of the damaging persuasiveness of the pinzons. he had not much to expect from the advocacy of diego. there was nothing for him to do but to face in person the charges as reënforced by aguado. he resolved to return in the ships. "it is not one of the least singular traits in his history," says irving, "that after having been so many years in persuading mankind that there was a new world to be discovered, he had almost an equal trouble in proving to them the advantage of the discovery." he himself never did prove it. [sidenote: ships wrecked in the harbor.] the ships were ready. they lay at anchor in the roadstead. a cloud of vapor and dust was seen in the east. it was borne headlong before a hurricane such as the spaniards had never seen, and the natives could not remember its equal. it cut a track through the forests. it lashed the sea until its expanse seethed and writhed and sent its harried waters tossing in a seeming fright. the uplifted surges broke the natural barriers and started inland. the ships shuddered at their anchorage; cables snapped; three caravels sunk, and the rest were dashed on the beach. the tumult lasted for three hours, and then the sun shone upon the havoc. [illustration: spanish settlements in espaÑola. [from charlevoix's _l'isle espagnole_ (amsterdam, ).]] there was but one vessel left in the harbor, and she was shattered. it was the "nina," which had borne columbus in his western cruise. as soon as the little colony recovered its senses, men were set to work repairing the solitary caravel, and constructing another out of the remnants of the wrecks. [sidenote: miguel diaz finds gold.] [sidenote: hayna mines.] [sidenote: solomon's ophir.] while this was going on, a young spaniard, miguel diaz by name, presented himself in isabella. he had been in the service of the adelantado, and was not unrecognized. he was one who had some time before wounded another spaniard in a duel, and, supposing that the wound was mortal, he had, with a few friends, fled into the woods and wandered away till he came to the banks of the ozema, a river on the southern coast of the island, at the mouth of which the city of santo domingo now stands. here, as he said, he had attracted the attention of a female cacique, there reigning, and had become her lover. she confided to him the fact that there were rich gold mines in her territory, and to make him more content in her company, she suggested that perhaps the admiral, if he knew of the mines, would abandon the low site of isabella, and find a better one on the ozema. acting on this suggestion, diaz, with some guides, returned to the neighborhood of isabella, and lingered in concealment till he learned that his antagonist had survived his wound. then, making bold, he entered the town, as we have seen. his story was a welcome one, and the adelantado was dispatched with a force to verify the adventurer's statement. in due time, the party returned, and reported that at a river named hayna they had found such stores of gold that cibao was poor in comparison. the explorers had seen the metal in all the streams; they observed it in the hillsides. they had discovered two deep excavations, which looked as if the mines had been worked at some time by a more enterprising people, since of these great holes the natives could give no account. once more the admiral's imagination was fired. he felt sure that he had come upon the ophir of solomon. these ancient mines must have yielded the gold which covered the great temple. had the admiral not discovered already the course of the ships which sought it? did they not come from the persian gulf, round the golden chersonesus, and so easterly, as he himself had in the reverse way tracked the very course? here was a new splendor for the court of spain. if the name of india was redolent of spices, that of ophir could but be resplendent with gold! that was a message worth taking to europe. the two caravels were now ready. the adelantado was left in command, with diego to succeed in case of his death. francisco roldan was commissioned as chief magistrate, and the fathers juan berzognon and roman pane remained behind to pursue missionary labors among the natives. instructions were left that the valley of the ozema should be occupied, and a fort built in it. diaz, with his queenly catalina, had become important. [sidenote: . march . columbus and aguado sail for spain, carrying caonabo.] there was a motley company of about two hundred and fifty persons, largely discontents and vagabonds, crowded into the two ships. columbus was in one, and aguado in the other. so they started on their adventurous and wearying voyage on march , . they carried about thirty indians in confinement, and among them the manacled caonabo, with some of his relatives. columbus told bernaldez that he took the chieftain over to impress him with spanish power, and that he intended to send him back and release him in the end. his release came otherwise. there is some disagreement of testimony on the point, some alleging that he was drowned during the hurricane in the harbor, but the better opinion seems to be that he died on the voyage, of a broken spirit. at any rate, he never reached spain, and we hear of him only once while on shipboard. [sidenote: . april .] we have seen that on his return voyage in columbus had pushed north before turning east. it does not appear how much he had learned of the experience of torres's easterly passages. perhaps it was only to make a new trial that he now steered directly east. he met the trade winds and the calms of the tropics, and had been almost a month at sea when, on april , he found himself still neighboring to the islands of the caribs. his crew needed rest and provisions, and he bore away to seek them. he anchored for a while at marigalante, and then passed on to guadaloupe. [sidenote: at guadaloupe.] [sidenote: . june.] [sidenote: . june . cadiz.] he had some difficulty in landing, as a wild, screaming mass of natives was gathered on the beach in a hostile manner. a discharge of the spanish arquebuses cleared the way, and later a party scouring the woods captured some of the courageous women of the tribe. these were all released, however, except a strong, powerful woman, who, with a daughter, refused to be left, for the reason, as the story goes, that she had conceived a passion for caonabo. by the th, the ships again set sail; but the same easterly trades baffled them, and another month was passed without much progress. by the beginning of june, provisions were so reduced that there were fears of famine, and it began to be considered whether the voyagers might not emulate the caribs and eat the indians. columbus interfered, on the plea that the poor creatures were christian enough to be protected from such a fate; but as it turned out, they were not christian enough to be saved from the slave-block in andalusia. the alert senses of columbus had convinced him that land could not be far distant, and he was confirmed in this by his reckoning. these opinions of columbus were questioned, however, and it was not at all clear in the minds of some, even of the experienced pilots who were on board, that they were so near the latitude of cape st. vincent as the admiral affirmed. some of these navigators put the ships as far north as the bay of biscay, others even as far as the english channel. columbus one night ordered sail to be taken in. they were too near the land to proceed. in the morning, they saw land in the neighborhood of cape st. vincent. on june , they entered the harbor of cadiz. chapter xv. in spain, - . da gama, vespucius, cabot. [sidenote: . columbus arrives at cadiz,] "the wretched men crawled forth," as irving tells us of their debarkation, "emaciated by the diseases of the colony and the hardships of the voyage, who carried in their yellow countenances, says an old writer, a mockery of that gold which had been the object of their search, and who had nothing to relate of the new world but tales of sickness, poverty, and disappointment." this is the key to the contrasts in the present reception of the adventurers with that which greeted columbus on his return to palos. when columbus landed at cadiz, he was clothed with the robe and girdled with the cord of the franciscans. his face was unshaven. whether this was in penance, or an assumption of piety to serve as a lure, is not clear. oviedo says it was to express his humility; and his humbled pride needed some such expression. [sidenote: and learns the condition of the public mind.] he found in the harbor three caravels just about starting for española with tardy supplies. it had been intended to send some in january; but the ships which started with them suffered wreck on the neighboring coasts. he had only to ask pedro alonso niño, the commander of this little fleet, for his dispatches, to find the condition of feeling which he was to encounter in spain. they gave him a sense, more than ever before, of the urgent necessity of making the colony tributary to the treasury of the crown. it was clear that discord and unproductiveness were not much longer to be endured. so he wrote a letter to the adelantado, which was to go by the ships, urging expedition in quieting the life of the colonists, and in bringing the resources of the island under such control that it could be made to yield a steady flow of treasure. [sidenote: . june . columbus writes to bartholomew.] to this end, the new mines of hayna must be further explored, and the working of them started with diligence. a port of shipment should be found in their neighborhood, he adds. with such instructions to bartholomew, the caravels sailed on june , . it must have been with some trepidation that columbus forwarded to the court the tidings of his arrival. if the two dispatches which he sent could have been preserved, we might better understand his mental condition. [sidenote: invited to court.] as soon as the messages of columbus reached their majesties, then at almazan, they sent, july , , a letter inviting him to court, and reassuring him in his despondency by expressions of kindness. so he started to join the court in a somewhat better frame of mind. he led some of his bedecked indians in his train, not forgetting "in the towns" to make a cacique among them wear conspicuously a golden necklace. bernaldez tells us that it was in this wily fashion that columbus made his journey into the country of castile,--"the which collar," that writer adds, "i have seen and held in these hands;" and he goes on to describe the other precious ornaments of the natives, which columbus took care that the gaping crowds should see on this wandering mission. it is one of the anachronisms of the _historie_ of that it places the court at this time at burgos, and makes it there to celebrate the marriage of the crown prince with margaret of austria. the author of that book speaks of seeing the festivities himself, then in attendance as a page upon don juan. it was a singular lapse of memory in ferdinand columbus--if this statement is his--to make two events like the arrival of his father at court, with all the incidental parade as described in the book, and the ceremonies of that wedding festival identical in time. the wedding was in fact nine months later, in april, . [sidenote: received by the sovereigns.] [sidenote: makes new demands.] columbus's reception, wherever it was, seems to have been gracious, and he made the most of the amenities of the occasion to picture, in his old exaggerating way, the wealth of the ophir mines. he was encouraged by the effect which his enthusiasm had produced to ask to be supplied with another fleet, partly to send additional supplies to española, but mainly to enable him to discover that continental land farther south, of which he had so constantly heard reports. it was easy for the monarchs to give fair promises, and quite as easy to forget them, for a while at least, in the busy scenes which their political ambitions were producing. belligerent relations with france necessitated a vigilant watch about the pyrenees. there were fleets to be maintained to resist, both in the mediterranean and on the atlantic coast, attacks which might unexpectedly fall. an imposing armada was preparing to go to flanders to carry thither the princess juana to her espousal with philip of austria. the same fleet was to bring back philip's sister margaret to become the bride of prince juan, in those ceremonials to which reference has already been made. [sidenote: . autumn. a new expedition ordered.] these events were too engrossing for the monarchs to give much attention to the wishes of columbus, and it was not till the autumn of that an appropriation was made to equip another little squadron for him. the hopes it raised were soon dashed, for having some occasion to need money promptly, at a crisis of the contest which the king was waging with france, the money which had been intended for columbus was diverted to the new exigency. what was worse in the eyes of columbus, it was to be paid out of some gold which it was supposed that niño had brought back from the mines of hayna. this officer on arriving at cadiz had sent to the court some boastful messages about his golden lading, which were not confirmed when in december the sober dispatch of the adelantado, which niño had kept back, came to be read. the nearest approach to gold which the caravels brought was another crowd of dusky slaves, and the dispatches of bartholomew pictured the colony in the same conditions of destitution as before. there was no stimulant in such reports either for the admiral or for the court, and the new world was again dismissed from the minds of all, or consigned to their derision. [sidenote: . spring. columbus's rights reaffirmed.] [sidenote: new powers.] [illustration: ferdinand of aragon. [from an ancient medallion given in buckingham smith's _coleccion_.]] when the spring months of arrived, there were new hopes. the wedding of prince juan at burgos was over, and the queen was left more at liberty to think of her patronage of the new discoveries. the king was growing more and more apathetic, and some of the leading spirits of the court were inimical, either actively or reservedly. by the queen's influence, the old rights bestowed upon columbus were reaffirmed (april , ), and he was offered a large landed estate in española, with a new territorial title; but he was wise enough to see that to accept it would complicate his affairs beyond their present entanglement. he was solicitous, however, to remove some of his present pecuniary embarrassments, and it was arranged that he should be relieved from bearing an eighth of the cost of the ventures of the last three years, and that he should surrender all rights to the profits; while for the three years to come he should have an eighth of the gross income, and a further tenth of the net proceeds. later, the original agreement was to be restored. his brother bartholomew was created adelantado, giving thus the royal sanction to the earlier act of the admiral. [sidenote: fonseca allowed to grant licenses.] in the letters patent made out previous to columbus's second voyage, the crown distinctly reserved the right to grant other licenses, and invested fonseca with the power to do so, allowing to columbus nothing more than one eighth of the tonnage; and in the ordinance of june , , in which they now revoked all previous licenses, the revocation was confined to such things as were repugnant to the rights of columbus. it was also agreed that the crown should maintain for him a body of three hundred and thirty gentlemen, soldiers, and helpers, to accompany him on his new expedition, and this number could be increased, if the profits of the colony warranted the expenditure. power was given to him to grant land to such as would cultivate the soil for four years; but all brazil-wood and metals were to be reserved for the crown. [illustration: bartholomew columbus. [from barcia's _herrera_.]] all this seemed to indicate that the complaints which had been made against the oppressive sternness of the admiral's rule had not as yet broken down the barriers of the queen's protection. indeed, we find up to this time no record of any serious question at court of his authority, and irving thinks nothing indicates any symptom of the royal discontent except the reiterated injunctions, in the orders given to him respecting the natives and the colonists, that leniency should govern his conduct so far as was safe. [sidenote: . february . makes a will.] permission being given to him to entail his estates, he marked out in a testamentary document (february , ) the succession of his heirs,--male heirs, with ferdinand's rights protected, if diego's line ran out; then male heirs of his brothers; and if all male heirs failed, then the estates were to descend by the female line. the title admiral was made the paramount honor, and to be the perpetual distinction of his representatives. the entail was to furnish forever a tenth of its revenues to charitable uses. genoa was placed particularly under the patronage of his succeeding representatives, with injunctions always to do that city service, as far as the interests of the church and the spanish crown would permit. investments were to be made from time to time in the bank of st. george at genoa, to accumulate against the opportune moment when the recovery of the holy sepulchre seemed feasible, either to help to that end any state expedition or to fit out a private one. he enjoined upon his heirs a constant, unwavering devotion to the papal church and to the spanish crown. at every season of confession, his representative was commanded to lay open his heart to the confessor, who must be prompted by a perusal of the will to ask the crucial questions. it was in the same document that columbus prescribed the signature of his representatives in succeeding generations, following a formula which he always used himself. [sidenote: columbus's signature.] .s. .s.a.s. x m y [greek: chr~o] ferens. the interpretation of this has been various: _servus supplex altissimi salvatoris, christus, maria, yoseph, christo ferens_, is one solution; _servidor sus altezas sacras, christo, maria ysabel_, is another; and these are not all. * * * * * [sidenote: unpopularity of columbus.] the complacency of the queen was soothing; her appointment of his son ferdinand as her page (february , ) was gratifying, but it could not wholly compensate columbus for the condition of the public mind, of which he was in every way forcibly reminded. there were both the whisper of detraction spreading abroad, and the outspoken objurgation. the physical debility of his returned companions was made a strong contrast to his reiterated stories of paradise. fortunes wrecked, labor wasted, and lives lost had found but a pitiable compensation in a few cargoes of miserable slaves. the people had heard of his enchanting landscapes, but they had found his aloes and mastic of no value. hidalgoes said there was nothing of the luxury they had been told to expect. the gorgeous cities of the great khan had not been found. such were the kind of taunts to which he was subjected. [sidenote: his sojourn with bernaldez.] columbus, during this period of his sojourn in spain, spent a considerable interval under the roof of andres bernaldez, and we get in his history of the spanish kings the advantage of the talks which the two friends had together. the admiral is known to have left with bernaldez various documents which were given to him in the presence of juan de fonseca. from the way in which bernaldez speaks of these papers, they would seem to have been accounts of the voyage of columbus then already made, and it was upon these documents that bernaldez says he based his own narratives. [sidenote: bernaldez's opinions.] this ecclesiastic had known columbus at an earlier day, when the genoese was a vender of books in andalusia, as he says; in characterizing him, he calls his friend in another place a man of an ingenious turn, but not of much learning, and he leaves one to infer that the book-vender was not much suspected of great familiarity with his wares. we get as clearly from bernaldez as from any other source the measure of the disappointment which the public shared as respects the conspicuous failure of these voyages of columbus in their pecuniary relations. [sidenote: scant returns of gold.] the results are summed up by that historian to show that the cost of the voyages had been so great and the returns so small that it came to be believed that there was in the new regions no gold to speak of. taking the first voyage,--and the second was hardly better, considering the larger opportunities,--harrisse has collated, for instance, all the references to what gold columbus may have gathered; and though there are some contradictory reports, the weight of testimony seems to confine the amount to an inconsiderable sum, which consisted in the main of personal ornaments. there are legends of the gold brought to spain from this voyage being used to gild palaces and churches, to make altar ornaments for the cathedral at toledo, to serve as gifts of homage to the pope, but we may safely say that no reputable authority supports any such statements. notwithstanding this seeming royal content of which the signs have been given, there was, by virtue of a discontented and irritated public sentiment, a course open to columbus in these efforts to fit out his new expedition which was far from easy. there was so much disinclination in the merchants to furnish ships that it required a royal order to seize them before the small fleet could be gathered. [sidenote: difficulties in fitting out the new expedition.] [sidenote: criminals enlisted.] the enlistments to man the ships and make up the contingent destined for the colony were more difficult still. the alacrity with which everybody bounded to the summons on his second voyage had entirely gone, and it was only by the foolish device which columbus decided upon of opening the doors of the prisons and of giving pardon to criminals at large, that he was enabled to help on the registration of his company. [sidenote: . two caravels sail.] finding that all went slowly, and knowing that the colony at española must be suffering from want of supplies, the queen was induced to order two caravels of the fleet to sail at once, early in , under the command of pedro fernandez coronel. this was only possible because the queen took some money which she had laid aside as a part of a dower which was intended for her daughter isabella, then betrothed to emmanuel, the king of portugal. [sidenote: fonseca's lack of heart.] so much was gratifying; but the main object of the new expedition was to make new discoveries, and there were many harassing delays yet in store for columbus before he could depart with the rest of his fleet. these delays, as we shall see, enabled another people, under the lead of another italian, to precede him and make the first discovery of the mainland. the queen was cordial, but an affliction came to distract her, in the death of prince juan. fonseca, who was now in charge of the fitting out of the caravels, seems to have lacked heart in the enterprise; but it serves the purpose of columbus's adulatory biographers to give that agent of the crown the character of a determined enemy of columbus. [sidenote: columbus's altercation with fonseca's accountant.] even the prisons did not disgorge their vermin, as he had wished, and his company gathered very slowly, and never became full. las casas tells us that troubles followed him even to the dock. the accountant of fonseca, one ximeno de breviesca, got into an altercation with the admiral, who knocked him down and exhibited other marks of passion. las casas further tells us that this violence, through the representations of it which fonseca made, produced a greater effect on the monarchs than all the allegations of the admiral's cruelty and vindictiveness which his accusers from española had constantly brought forward, and that it was the immediate cause of the change of royal sentiment towards him, which soon afterwards appeared. columbus seems to have discovered the mistake he had made very promptly, and wrote to the monarchs to counteract its effect. it was therefore with this new anxiety upon his mind that he for the third time committed himself to his career of adventure and exploration. the canonizers would have it that their sainted hero found it necessary to prove by his energy in personal violence that age had not impaired his manhood for the trials before him! * * * * * before following columbus on this voyage, the reader must take a glance at the conditions of discovery elsewhere, for these other events were intimately connected with the significance of columbus's own voyagings. [sidenote: da gama's passage of the african cape.] the problem which the portuguese had undertaken to solve was, as has been seen, the passage to india by the stormy cape of africa. even before columbus had sailed on his first voyage, word had come in to encourage king joão ii. his emissaries in cairo had learned from the arab sailors that the passage of the cape was practicable on the side of the indian ocean. the success of his spanish rivals under columbus in due time encouraged the portuguese king still more, or at least piqued him to new efforts. [illustration: vasco da gama. [from stanley's _da gama_.]] [sidenote: reaches calicut may , .] vasco da gama was finally put in command of a fleet specially equipped. it was now some years since his pilot, pero de alemquer, had carried diaz well off the cape. on sunday, july , , da gama sailed from below lisbon, and on november he passed with full sheets the formidable cape. it was not, however, till december that he reached the point where diaz had turned back. his further progress does not concern us here. suffice it to say that he cast anchor at calicut may , , and india was reached ten days before columbus started a third time to verify his own beliefs, but really to find them errors. towards the end of august, or perhaps early in september, of the next year ( ), da gama arrived at lisbon on his return voyage, anticipated, indeed, by one of his caravels, which, separated from the commander in april or may, had pushed ahead and reached home on the th of july. portugal at once resounded with jubilation. the fleet had returned crippled with disabled crews, and half the vessels had disappeared; but the solution of a great problem had been reached. the voyage of da gama, opening a trade eagerly pursued and eagerly met, offered, as we shall see, a great contrast to the small immediate results which came from the futile efforts of columbus to find a western way to the same regions. [illustration: southern part of africa. [from the ptolemy of .]] [sidenote: supposed voyage of vespucius.] there have been students of these early explorers who have contended that, while columbus was harassed in spain with these delays in preparing for his third voyage, the florentine vespucius, whom we have encountered already as helping berardi in the equipment of columbus's fleets, had, in a voyage of which we have some confused chronology, already in discovered and coursed the northern shores of the mainland south of the caribbean sea. [illustration: earliest representation of south american natives, - . [from stevens's reproduction in his _american bibliographer_.]] bernaldez tells us that, during the interval between the second and third voyages of columbus, the admiral "accorded permission to other captains to make discoveries at the west, who went and discovered various islands." whether we can connect this statement with any such voyage as is now to be considered is a matter of dispute. [sidenote: who discovered south america?] this question of the first discovery of the mainland of south america,--we shall see that north america's mainland had already been discovered,--whether by columbus or vespucius, is one which has long vexed the historian and still does perplex him, though the general consensus of opinion at the present day is in favor of columbus, while pursuing the voyage through which we are soon to follow him. the question is much complicated by the uncertainties and confusion of the narratives which are our only guides. the discovery, if not claimed by vespucius, has been vigorously claimed for him. its particulars are also made a part of the doubt which has clouded the recitals concerning the voyage of pinzon and solis to the honduras coast, which are usually placed later; but by oviedo and gomara this voyage is said to have preceded that of columbus. [sidenote: claimed for vespucius.] the claim for vespucius is at the best but an enforced method of clarifying the published texts concerning the voyages, in the hopes of finding something like consistency in their dates. any commentator who undertakes to get at the truth must necessarily give himself up to some sort of conjecture, not only as respects the varied inconsistencies of the narrative, but also as regards the manifold blunders of the printer of the little book which records the voyages. muñoz had it in mind, it is understood, to prove that vespucius could not have been on the coast at the date of his alleged discovery; but in the opinions of some the documents do not prove all that muñoz, navarrete, and humboldt have claimed, while the advocacy of varnhagen in favor of vespucius does not allow that writer to see what he apparently does not desire to see. the most, perhaps, that we can say is that the proof against the view of varnhagen, who is in favor of such a voyage in , is not wholly substantiated. the fact seems to be, so far as can be made out, that vespucius passed from one commander's employ to another's, at a date when ojeda, in , had not completed his voyage, and when pinzon started. so supposing a return to spain in order for vespucius to restart with pinzon, it is also supposable that the year itself may have seen him under two different leaders. if this is the correct view, it of course carries forward the date to a time later than the discovery of the mainland by columbus. it is nothing but plausible conjecture, after all; but something of the nature of conjecture is necessary to dissipate the confusion. the belief of this sharing of service is the best working hypothesis yet devised upon the question. if vespucius was thus with pinzon, and this latter navigator did, as oviedo claims, precede columbus to the mainland, there is no proof of it to prevent a marked difference of opinion among all the writers, in that some ignore the florentine navigator entirely, and others confidently construct the story of his discovery, which has in turn taken root and been widely believed. [sidenote: alleged voyage of .] a voyage of does not find mention in any of the contemporary portuguese chroniclers. this absence of reference is serious evidence against it. it seems to be certain that within twenty years of their publication, there were doubts raised of the veracity of the narratives attributed to vespucius, and sebastian cabot tells us in that he does not believe them in respect to this one voyage at any rate, and las casas is about as well convinced as cabot was that the story was unfounded. las casas's papers passed probably to herrera, who, under the influence of them, it would seem, formulated a distinct allegation that vespucius had falsified the dates, converting into . to destroy all the claims associated with pinzon and solis, herrera carried their voyage forward to . it was in that this historian made these points, and so far as he regulated the opinions of europe for a century and a half, including those of england as derived through robertson, vespucius lived in the world's regard with a clouded reputation. the attempt of bandini in the middle of the last century to lift the shadow was not very fortunate, but better success followed later, when canovai delivered an address which then and afterwards, when it was reinforced by other publications of his, was something like a gage thrown to the old-time defamatory spirit. this denunciatory view was vigorously worked, with navarrete's help, by santarem in the _coleccion_ of that spanish scholar, whence irving in turn got his opinions. santarem professed to have made most extensive examinations of portuguese and french manuscripts without finding a trace of the florentine. undaunted by all such negative testimony, the portuguese varnhagen, as early as , began a series of publications aimed at rehabilitating the fame of vespucius, against the views of all the later writers, humboldt, navarrete, santarem, and the rest. humboldt claimed to adduce evidence to show that vespucius was all the while in europe. varnhagen finally brought himself to the belief that in this disputed voyage of vespucius, acting under the orders of vicente yañez pinzon and juan diaz de solis, really reached the main at honduras, whence he followed the curvatures of the coast northerly till he reached the capes of chesapeake. thence he steered easterly, passed the bermudas, and arrived at seville. if this is so, he circumnavigated the archipelago of the antilles, and disproved the continental connection of cuba. varnhagen even goes so far as to maintain that vespucius had not been deceived into supposing the coast was that of asia, but that he divined the truth. varnhagen stands, however, alone in this estimate of the evidence. valentini, in our day, has even supposed that the incomplete cuba of the ruysch map of was really the yucatan shore, which vespucius had skirted. the claim which some french zealots in maritime discovery have attempted to sustain, of norman adventurers being on the brazil coast in - , is hardly worth consideration. * * * * * [sidenote: the english expedition under cabot.] we turn now to other problems. the bull of demarcation was far from being acceptable as an ultimate decision in england, and the spirit of her people towards it is well shown in the _westerne planting_ of hakluyt. this chronicler mistrusts that its "certain secret causes"--which words he had found in the papal bull, probably by using an inaccurate version--were no other than "the feare and jelousie that king henry of england, with whom bartholomew columbus had been to deal in this enterprise, and who even now was ready to send him into spain to call his brother christopher to england, should put a foot into this action;" and so the pope, "fearing that either the king of portugal might be reconciled to columbus, or that he might be drawn into england, thought secretly by his unlawful division to defraud england and portugal of that benefit." so england and portugal had something like a common cause, and the record of how they worked that cause is told in the stories of cabot first, and of cortereal later. we will examine at this point the cabot story only. [sidenote: newfoundland fisheries.] bristol had long been the seat of the english commerce with iceland, and one of the commodities received in return for english goods was the stockfish, which cabot was to recognize on the newfoundland banks. these stories of the codfish noticed by cabot recalled in the mind of galvano in , and again more forcibly to hakluyt a half century later, when germany was now found to be not far from the latitude of baccalaos, that there was a tale of some strange men, in the time of frederick barbarossa (a. d. ), being driven to lubec in a canoe. it is by no means beyond possibility that the basque and other fishermen of europe may have already strayed to these fishing grounds of newfoundland, at some period anterior to this voyage of cabot, and even traces of their frequenting the coast in bradore bay have been pointed out, but without convincing as yet the careful student. [sidenote: john cabot.] a venetian named zuan caboto, settling in england, and thenceforward calling himself john cabot, being a man of experience in travel, and having seen at one time at mecca the caravans returning from the east, was impressed, as columbus had been, with a belief in the roundness of the earth. it is not unlikely that this belief had taken for him a compelling nature from the stories which had come to england of the successful voyage of the spaniards. indeed, ramusio distinctly tells us that it was the bruit of columbus's first voyage which gave to cabot "a great flame of desire to attempt some notable thing." [sidenote: . march . cabot's patent.] [sidenote: . may. cabot sails.] when cabot had received for himself and his three sons--one of whom was sebastian cabot--a patent (march , ) from henry vii. to discover and trade with unknown countries beyond the seas, the envoy of ferdinand and isabella at the english court was promptly instructed to protest against any infringement of the rights of spain in the western regions. whether this protest was accountable for the delay in sailing, or not, does not appear, for cabot did not set sail from bristol till may, . [sidenote: ruysch with cabot.] it is inferred from what beneventanus says in his _ptolemy_ of that ruysch, who gives us the earliest engraved map of cabot's discoveries, was a companion of cabot in this initial voyage. when that editor says that he learned from ruysch of his experiences in sailing from the south of england to a point in degrees of north latitude, and thence due west, it may be referred to such participancy in this expedition from bristol. we know from a conversation which is reported in ramusio--unless there is some mistake in it--that cabot apprehended the nature of what we call great circle sailing, and claimed that his course to the northwest would open india by a shorter route than the westerly run of columbus. [sidenote: . june . cabot sees land.] [sidenote: date of the voyage, or ?] when cabot had ventured westerly leagues, he found land, june , . there has been some confidence at different times, early and late, that the date of this first cabot voyage was in reality three years before this. the belief arose from the date of being given in what seem to have been early copies of a map ascribed to sebastian cabot, whence the date was copied by hakluyt in , though eleven years later he changed it to . it is sufficient to say that few of the critics of our day, except d'avezac, hold to this date of . major supposes that the map of , now in the paris library and ascribed to cabot, was a re-drawn draft from the lost spanish original, in which the date in roman letters, vii, may have been so carelessly made in joining the arms of the v that it was read iiii; and some such inference was apparently in the mind of henry stevens when he published his little tract on sebastian cabot in . the country which cabot thus first saw was supposed by him to be a part of asia, and to be occupied, though no inhabitants were seen. [sidenote: cabot's landfall.] cabot was for over three hundred years considered as having made his landfall on the coast of labrador, or at least we find no record that the legend of the map of , placing it at cape breton, had impressed itself authoritatively upon the minds of cabot's contemporaries and successors. biddle and humboldt, in the early part of the present century, accepted the labrador landfall with little question. so it happened that when, in , the cabot mappemonde of was discovered, and it was found to place the landfall at the island of cape breton, a certain definiteness, where there had been so much vagueness, afforded the student some relief; but as the novelty of the sensation wore off, confidence was again lost, inasmuch as the various uncertainties of the document give much ground for the rejection of all parts of its testimony at variance with better vouched beliefs. it is quite possible that more satisfactory proofs can be adduced of another region for the landfall, but none such have yet been presented to scholars. it is commonly held now that, sighting land at cape breton, cabot coursed northerly, passed the present prince edward island, and then sailed out of the strait of belle isle,--or at least this is as reasonable a route to make out of the scant record as any, though there is nothing like a commonly received opinion on his track. there is some ground for thinking that he could not have entered the gulf of st. lawrence at all. he landed nowhere and saw no inhabitants. if he struck the mainland, it was probably the coasts of new brunswick or labrador bordering on the gulf of st. lawrence. the two islands which he observed on his right may have been headlands of newfoundland, seeming to be isolated. [sidenote: . august. cabot returns.] he reached bristol in august, having been absent about three months. raimondo de soncino, under date of the th of that month, wrote to italy of cabot's return, and a fortnight earlier (august ) we find record of a gratuity of ten pounds given to cabot in recognition of this service. it proved to be an expedition which was to create a greater sensation of its kind than the english had before known. bristol had nurtured for some years a race of hardy seamen. they had risked the dangers of the great unknown ocean in efforts to find the fabulous island of brazil, and they had pushed adventurously westward at times, but always to return without success. the intercourse of england with the northern nations and with iceland may have given them tidings of greenland; but there is no reason to believe that they ever supposed that country to be other than an extended peninsula of europe, enfolding the north atlantic. [sidenote: cabot in england.] cabot's telling of a new land, his supposing it the empire of the great khan, his tales of the wonderful fishing ground thereabouts, where the water was so dense with fish that his vessels were impeded, and his expectation of finding the land of spices if he went southward from the region of his landfall, were all stories calculated to incite wonder and speculation. it was not strange, then, that england found she had her new sea-hero, as spain had hers in columbus; that the king gave him money and a pension; and that, conscious of a certain dignity, cabot went about the city, drawing the attention of the curious by reason of the fine silks in which he arrayed himself. [sidenote: spain jealous of england.] cabot had no sooner returned than pedro de ayala, the spanish envoy in london, again entered a protest, and gave notice to the english king that the land which had been discovered belonged to his master. there is some evidence that spain kept close watch on the country at the north through succeeding years, and even intended settlement. [sidenote: cabot in seville?] this spanish ambassador wrote home from london, july , , that after his first voyage, cabot had been in seville and lisbon. this renders somewhat probable the suspicion that he may have had conferences with la cosa and columbus. [sidenote: cabot's charts.] that john cabot, on returning from his first voyage, produced a chart which he had made, and that on this and on a solid globe, also of his construction, he had laid down what he considered to be the region he had reached, now admit of no doubt. foreign residents at the english court reported such facts to the courts of italy and of spain. in the map of la cosa ( ), we find what is considered a reflex of this cabot chart, in the words running along a stretch of the northeast coast of asia, which announce the waters adjacent as those visited by the english, and a neighboring headland as the cape of the english. even la cosa's use of the cabot map was lost sight of before long, and this record of la cosa remained unknown till humboldt discovered the map in paris, in , in the library of baron walckenaer, whence it passed in into the royal museum at madrid. the views of cabot respecting this region seem to have been soon obscured by the more current charts showing the voyages of the cortereals, when the cape of the english readily disappeared in the "cabo de portogesi," a forerunner, very likely, of what we know to-day as cape race. [sidenote: - . february. the second cabot voyage.] such an appetizing tale as that of the first cabot expedition was not likely to rest without a sequel. on the d of february, - , nearly four months before columbus sailed on his third voyage, the english king granted a new patent to john cabot, giving him the right to man six ships if he could, and in may he was at sea. though his sons were not mentioned in the patent, it is supposed that sebastian cabot accompanied his father. one vessel putting back to ireland, five others went on, carrying john cabot westward somewhere and to oblivion, for we never hear of him again. stevens ventures the suggestion that john cabot may have died on the voyage of , whereby sebastian came into command, and so into a prominence in his own recollections of the voyage, which may account for the obscuration of his father's participancy in the enterprise. one of the ships would seem to have been commanded by lanslot thirkill, of london. what we know of this second voyage are mentions in later years, vague in character, and apparently traceable to what sebastian had said of it, and not always clearly, for there is an evident commingling of events of this and of the earlier voyage. we get what we know mainly from peter martyr, who tells us that cabot called the region baccalaos, and from ramusio, who reports at second hand sebastian's account, made forty years after the event. from such indefinite sources we can make out that the little fleet steered northwesterly, and got into water packed with ice, and found itself in a latitude where there was little night. thence turning south they ran down to ° north latitude. the crews landed here and there, and saw people dressed in skins, who used copper implements. when they reached england we do not know, but it was after october, . [sidenote: extent of this voyage.] the question of this voyage having extended down the atlantic seaboard of the present united states to the region of florida, as has been urged, seems to be set at rest in stevens's opinion, from the fact that, had cabot gone so far, he would scarcely have acquiesced in the claims of ponce de leon, ayllon, and gomez to have first tracked parts of this coast, when sebastian cabot as pilot major of spain ( ), and as president of the congress of badajoz ( ), had to adjudicate on such pretensions. there are some objections to this view, in that the results of _unofficial_ explorers as shown in the portuguese map of cantino--if that proposition is tenable--and the rival english discoverers, of whom cabot had been one, might easily have been held to be beyond the spanish jurisdiction. it is not difficult to demonstrate in these matters the spanish constant unrecognition of other national explorations. it has also sometimes been held that the wild character of the coast along which cabot sailed must have convinced him that he was bordering some continental region intervening between him and the true coast of asia; that with the "great displeasure" he had felt in finding the land running north, cabot, in fact, must have comprehended the geographical problem of america long before it was comprehended by the spaniards. the testimony of the la cosa and ruysch maps is not favorable to such a belief. [sidenote: england rests her claim on it.] it seems pretty certain that the success of the cabot voyage in any worldly gain was not sufficient to move the english again for a long period. still, the political effect was to raise a claim for england to a region not then known to be a new continent, but of an appreciable acquisition, and england never afterwards failed to rest her rights upon this claim of discovery; and even her successors, the american people, have not been without cause to rest valuable privileges upon the same. the geographical effect was seen in the earliest map which we possess of the new lands as discovered by spain and england, the great oxhide map of juan de la cosa, the companion of columbus on his second voyage, and the cartographer of his discoveries, which has already been mentioned, and of which a further description will be given later. [sidenote: scant knowledge of the cabot voyages.] why is it that we know no more of these voyages of the cabots? there seems to be some ground for the suspicion that the "maps and discourses" which sebastian cabot left behind him in the hands of william worthington may have fallen, through the subornation by spain of the latter, into the hands of the rivals of england at a period just after the publication ( ) of hakluyt's _divers voyages_, wherein the possession of them by worthington was made known; at least, biddle has advanced such a theory, and it has some support in what may be conjectured of the history of the famous cabot map of , only brought to light three hundred years later. [sidenote: the cabot mappemonde.] here was a map evidently based in part on such information as was known in spain. it was engraved, as seems likely, though purporting to be the work of cabot, in the low countries, and was issued without name of publisher or place, as if to elude responsibility. notwithstanding it was an engraved map, implying many copies, it entirely disappeared, and would not have been known to exist except that there are references to such a map as having hung in the gallery at whitehall, as used by ortelius before , and as noted by sanuto in . so thorough a suppression would seem to imply an effort on the part of the spanish authorities to prevent the world's profiting by the publication of maritime knowledge which in some clandestine way had escaped from the spanish hydrographical office. that this suppression was in effect nearly successful may be inferred from the fact that but a single copy of the map has come down to us, the one now in the great library at paris, which was found in germany by von martius in . [sidenote: writers on cabot.] there has been a good deal done of late years--beginning with biddle's _sebastian cabot_ in , a noteworthy book, showing how much the critical spirit can do to unravel confusion, and ending with the chapter on cabot by the late dr. charles deane in the _narrative and critical history of america_, and with the _jean et sébastien cabot_ of harrisse (paris, )--to clear up the great obscurity regarding the two voyages of john cabot in and , an obscurity so dense that for two hundred years after the events there was no suspicion among writers that there had been more than a single voyage. it would appear that this obscurity had mainly arisen from the way in which sebastian cabot himself spoke of his explorations, or rather from the way in which he is reported to have spoken. chapter xvi. the third voyage. - . [sidenote: sources. columbus's letters and journal.] in following the events of the third voyage, we have to depend mainly on two letters written by columbus himself. one is addressed to the spanish monarchs, and is preserved in a copy made by las casas. what peter martyr tells us seems to have been borrowed from this letter. the other is addressed to the "nurse" of prince juan, of which there are copies in the columbus custodia at genoa, and in the muñoz collection of the royal academy of history at madrid. they are both printed in navarrete and elsewhere, and major in his _select letters of columbus_ gives english versions. there are also some evidences that the account of this voyage given in the _itinerarium portugalensium_ was based on columbus's journal, which las casas is known to have had, and to have used in his _historia_, adding thereto some details which he got from a recital by bernaldo de ibarra, one of columbus's companions,--indeed, his secretary. the map which accompanied these accounts by columbus is lost. we only know its existence through the use of it made by ojeda and others. las casas interspersed among the details which he recorded from columbus's journal some particulars which he got from alonso de vallejo. one of the pilots, hernan perez matheos, enabled oviedo to add still something more to the other sources; and then we have additional light from the mouths of various witnesses in the columbus lawsuit. there is a little at second hand, but of small importance, in a letter of simon verde printed by harrisse. [sidenote: columbus's son diego.] before setting sail, columbus prepared some directions for his son diego, of which we have only recently had notes, such appearing in the bulletin of the italian geographical society for december, . he commands in these injunctions that diego shall have an affectionate regard for the mother of his half-brother ferdinand, adds some rules for the guidance of his bearing towards his sovereigns and his fellow-men, and recommends him to resort to father gaspar gorricio whenever he might feel in need of advice. [sidenote: . may . columbus sails.] [sidenote: rumors of a southern continent.] columbus lifted anchor in the port of san lucar de barrameda on may , . he was physically far from being in a good condition for so adventurous an undertaking. he had hoped, he says to his sovereigns, "to find repose in spain; whereas on the contrary i have experienced nothing but opposition and vexation." his six vessels stood off to the southwest, to avoid a french--some say a portuguese--fleet which was said to be cruising near cape st. vincent. his plan was a definite one, to keep in a southerly course till he reached the equatorial regions, and then to proceed west. by this course, he hoped to strike in that direction the continental mass of which he had intimation both from the reports of the natives in española and from the trend which he had found in his last voyage the cuban coast to have. herrera tells us that the portuguese king professed to have some knowledge of a continent in this direction, and we may connect it, if we choose, with the stories respecting behaim and others, who had already sailed thitherward, as some reports go; but it is hard to comprehend that any belief of that kind was other than a guess at a compensating scheme of geography beyond the atlantic, to correspond with the balance of africa against europe in the eastern hemisphere. it is barely possible, though there is no positive evidence of it, that the reports from england of the cabot discoveries at the north may have given a hint of like prolongation to the south. but a more impelling instinct was the prevalent one of his time, which accompanied what michelet calls that terrible malady breaking out in this age of europe, the hunger and thirst for gold and other precious things, and which associated the possession of them with the warmer regions of the globe. "to the south," said peter martyr. "he who would find riches must avoid the cold north!" [sidenote: jayme ferrer.] navarrete preserves a letter which was written to columbus by jayme ferrer, a lapidary of distinction. this jeweler confirmed the prevalent notion, and said that in all his intercourse with distant marts, whence europe derived its gold and jewels, he had learned from their vendors how such objects of commerce usually came in greatest abundance from near the equator, while black races were those that predominated near such sources. therefore, as ferrer told columbus, steer south and find a black race, if you would get at such opulent abundance. the admiral remembered he had heard in española of blacks that had come from the south to that island in the past, and he had taken to spain some of the metal which had been given to him as of the kind with which their javelins had been pointed. the spanish assayers had found it a composition of gold, copper, and silver. [sidenote: columbus steers southerly.] [sidenote: . june . at gomera.] so it was with expectations like these that columbus now worked his way south. he touched for wood and water at porto santo and madeira, and thence proceeded to gomera. here, on june , he found a french cruiser with two spanish prizes, but the three ships eluded his grasp and got to sea. he sent three caravels in pursuit, and the spanish prisoners rising on the crew of one of the prizes, she was easily captured and brought into port. [sidenote: sends three ships direct to española.] the spanish fleet sailed again on june . the admiral had detailed three of his ships to proceed direct to española to find the new port on its southern side near the mines of hayna. their respective captains were to command the little squadron successively a week at a time. these men were: alonso sanchez de carvajal, a man of good reputation; pedro de arona, a brother of beatrix de henriquez, who had borne ferdinand to the admiral; and juan antonio colombo, a genoese and distant kinsman of the admiral. [sidenote: columbus at the cape de verde islands.] parting with these vessels off ferro, columbus, with the three others,--one of which, the flagship, being decked, of a hundred tons burthen, and requiring three fathoms of water,--steered for the cape de verde islands. his stay here was not inspiring. a depressing climate of vapor and an arid landscape told upon his health and upon that of his crew. encountering difficulties in getting fresh provisions and cattle, he sailed again on july , standing to the southwest. [sidenote: . july .] [sidenote: calms and torrid heats.] [sidenote: . july . trinidad seen.] [sidenote: august .] calms and the currents among the islands baffled him, however, and it was the th before the high peak of del fuego sank astern. by the th of july he had reached the latitude of ° north. he was now within the verge of the equatorial calms. the air soon burned everything distressingly; the rigging oozed with the running tar; the seams of the vessels opened; provisions grew putrid, and the wine casks shrank and leaked. the fiery ordeal called for all the constancy of the crew, and the admiral himself needed all the fortitude he could command to bear a brave face amid the twinges of gout which were prostrating him. he changed his course to see if he could not run out of the intolerable heat, and after a tedious interval, with no cessation of the humid and enervating air, the ships gradually drew into a fresher atmosphere. a breeze rippled the water, and the sun shone the more refreshing for its clearness. he now steered due west, hoping to find land before his water and provisions failed. he did not discover land as soon as he expected, and so bore away to the north, thinking to see some of the carib islands. on july relief came, none too soon, for their water was nearly exhausted. a mariner, about midday, peering about from the masthead, saw three peaks just rising above the horizon. the cry of land was like a benison. the _salve regina_ was intoned in every part of the ship. columbus now headed the fleet for the land. as the ships went on and the three peaks grew into a triple mountain, he gave the island the name of trinidad, a reminder in its peak of the trinity, which he had determined at the start to commemorate by bestowing that appellation on the first land he saw. he coasted the shore of this island for some distance before he could find a harbor to careen his ships and replenish his water casks. on august he anchored to get water, and was surprised at the fresh luxuriance of the country. he could see habitations in the interior, but nowhere along the shore were any signs of occupation. his men, while filling the casks, discovered footprints and other traces of human life, but those who made them kept out of sight. [sidenote: first sees the south american coast.] he was now on the southern side of the island, and in that channel which separates trinidad from the low country about the mouths of the orinoco. before long he could see the opposite coast stretching away for twenty leagues, but he did not suspect it to be other than an island, which he named la isla santa. it was indeed strange but not surprising that columbus found an island of a new continent, and supposed it the mainland of the old world, as happened during his earlier voyages; and equally striking it was that now when he had actually seen the mainland of a new world he did not know it. [sidenote: . august .] by the d of august the admiral had approached that narrow channel where the southwest corner of trinidad comes nearest to the mainland, and here he anchored. a large canoe, containing five and twenty indians, put off towards his ships, but finally its occupants lay upon their paddles a bowshot away. columbus describes them as comely in shape, naked but for breech-cloths, and wearing variegated scarfs about their heads. they were lighter in skin than any indians he had seen before. this fact was not very promising in view of the belief that precious products would be found in a country inhabited by blacks. the men had bucklers, too, a defense he had never seen before among these new tribes. he tried to lure them on board by showing trinkets, and by improvising some music and dances among his crew. the last expedient was evidently looked upon as a challenge, and was met by a flight of arrows. two crossbows were discharged in return, and the canoe fled. the natives seemed to have less fear of the smaller caravels, and approached near enough for the captain of one of them to throw some presents to them, a cap, and a mantle, and the like; but when the indians saw that a boat was sent to the admiral's ship, they again fled. while here at anchor, the crew were permitted to go ashore and refresh themselves. they found much delight in the cool air of the morning and evening, coming after their experiences of the torrid suffocation of the calm latitudes. nature had appeared to them never so fresh. [sidenote: the gulf stream.] [sidenote: boca del sierpe.] [sidenote: gulf of paria.] [sidenote: boca del drago.] columbus grew uneasy in his insecure anchorage, for he had discovered as yet no roadstead. he saw the current flowing by with a strength that alarmed him. the waters seemed to tumble in commotion as they were jammed together in the narrow pass before him. it was his first experience of that african current which, setting across the ocean, plunges hereabouts into the caribbean sea, and, sweeping around the great gulf, passes north in what we know as the gulf stream. columbus was as yet ignorant, too, of the great masses of water which the many mouths of the orinoco discharge along this shore; and when at night a great roaring billow of water came across the channel,--very likely an unusual volume of the river water poured out of a sudden,--and he found his own ship lifting at her anchor and one of his caravels snapping her cable, he felt himself in the face of new dangers, and of forces of nature to which he was not accustomed. to a seaman's senses not used to such phenomena, the situation of the ships was alarming. before him was the surging flow of the current through the narrow pass, which he had already named the mouth of the serpent (boca del sierpe). to attempt its passage was almost foolhardy. to return along the coast stemming such a current seemed nearly impossible. he then sent his boats to examine the pass, and they found more water than was supposed, and on the assurances of the pilot, and the wind favoring, he headed his ships for the boiling eddies, passed safely through, and soon reached the placid water beyond. the shore of trinidad stretched northerly, and he turned to follow it, but somebody getting a taste of the water found it to be fresh. here was a new surprise. he had not yet comprehended that he was within a land-locked gulf, where the rush of the orinoco sweetens the tide throughout. as he approached the northwestern limit of trinidad, he found that a lofty cape jutted out opposite a similar headland to the west, and that between them lay a second surging channel, beset with rocks and seeming to be more dangerous than the last. so he gave it a more ferocious name, the mouth of the dragon (boca del drago). to follow the opposite coast presented an alternative that did not require so much risk, and, still ignorant of the way in which his fleet was embayed in this marvelous water, he ran across on sunday, august , to the opposite shore. he now coasted it to find a better opening to the north, for he had supposed this slender peninsula to be another island. the water grew fresher as he went on. the shore attracted him, with its harbors and salubrious, restful air, but he was anxious to get into the open sea. he saw no inhabitants. the liveliest creatures which he observed were the chattering monkeys. at length, the country becoming more level, he ran into the mouth of a river and cast anchor. it was perhaps here that the spaniards first set foot on the continent. the accounts are somewhat confused, and need some license in reconciling them. they had, possibly, landed earlier. [illustration: gulf of paria.] [sidenote: paria.] a canoe with three natives now came out to the caravel nearest shore. the spanish captain secured the men by a clever trick. after a parley, he gave them to understand he would go on shore in their boat, and jumping violently on its gunwale, he overturned it. the occupants were easily captured in the water. being taken on board the flagship, the inevitable hawks' bells captivated them, and they were set on shore to delight their fellows. other parleys and interchanges of gifts followed. columbus now ascertained, as well as he could by signs, that the word "paria," which he heard, was the name of the country. the indians pointed westerly, and indicated that men were much more numerous that way. the spaniards were struck with the tall stature of the men, and noted the absence of braids in their hair. it was curious to see them smell of everything that was new to them,--a piece of brass, for instance. it seemed to be their sense of inquiry and recognition. it is not certain if columbus participated in this intercourse on shore. he was suffering from a severe eruption of the eyes, and one of the witnesses said that the formal taking possession of the country was done by deputy on that account. this statement is contradicted by others. [sidenote: the natives.] as he went on, the country became even more attractive, with its limpid streams, its open and luxuriant woods, its clambering vines, all enlivened with the flitting of brilliant birds. so he called the place the gardens. the natives appeared to him to partake of the excellence of the country. they were, as he thought, manlier in bearing, shapelier in frame, with greater intelligence in their eyes, than any he had earlier discovered. their arts were evidently superior to anything he had yet seen. their canoes were handier, lighter, and had covered pavilions in the waist. there were strings of pearls upon the women which raised in the spaniards an increased sense of cupidity. the men found oysters clinging to the boughs that drooped along the shore. columbus recalled how he had read in pliny of the habit of the pearl oyster to open the mouth to catch the dew, which was converted within into pearls. the people were as hospitable as they were gracious, and gave the strangers feasts as they passed from cabin to cabin. they pointed beyond the hills, and signified that another coast lay there, where a greater store of pearls could be found. [sidenote: . august .] to leave this paradise was necessary, and on august the ships went further on, soon to find the water growing still fresher and more shallow. at last, thinking it dangerous to push his flagship into such shoals, columbus sent his lightest caravel ahead, and waited her coming back. on the next day she returned, and reported that there was an inner bay beyond the islands which were seen, into which large volumes of fresh water poured, as if a huge continent were drained. here were conditions for examination under more favorable circumstances, and on august columbus turned his prow toward the dragon's mouth. his stewards declared the provisions growing bad, and even the large stores intended for the colony were beginning to spoil. it was necessary to reach his destination. columbus's own health was sinking. his gout had little cessation. his eyes had almost closed with a weariness that he had before experienced on the cuban cruise, and he could but think of the way in which he had been taken prostrate into isabella on returning from that expedition. [sidenote: passes the boca del drago.] [sidenote: tobago and grenada.] [sidenote: cubagua and margarita.] near the dragon's mouth he found a harbor in which to prepare for the passage of the tumultuous strait. there seemed no escape from the trial. the passage lay before him, wide enough in itself, but two islands parted its currents and forced the boiling waters into narrower confines. columbus studied their motion, and finally made up his mind that the turmoil of the waters might after all come from the meeting of the tide and the fresh currents seeking the open sea, and not from rocks or shoals. at all events, the passage must be made. the wind veering round to the right quarter, he set sail and entered the boisterous currents. as long as the wind lasted there was a good chance of keeping his steering way. unfortunately, the wind died away, and so he trusted to luck and the sweeping currents. they carried him safely beyond. once without, he was brought within sight of two islands to the northeast. they were apparently those we to-day call tobago and grenada. it was now the th of august, and columbus turned westward to track the coast. he came to the islands of cubagua and margarita, and surprised some native canoes fishing for pearls. [sidenote: pearls.] his crews soon got into parley with the natives, and breaking up some valentia ware into bits, the spaniards bartered them so successfully that they secured three pounds, as columbus tells us, of the coveted jewels. he had satisfied himself that here was a new field for the wealth which could alone restore his credit in spain; but he could not tarry. as he wore ship, he left behind a mountainous reach of the coast that stretched westerly, and he would fain think that india lay that way, as it had from cuba. at that island and here, he had touched, as he thought, the confines of asia, two protuberant peninsulas, or perhaps masses of the continent, separated by a strait, which possibly lay ahead of him. [sidenote: columbus's geographical delusions.] there was much that had been novel in all these experiences. columbus felt that the new world was throwing wider open the gates of its sublime secrets. lying on his couch, almost helpless from the cruel agonies of the gout, and sightless from the malady of his eyes, the active mind of the admiral worked at the old problems anew. we know it all from the letter which a few weeks later he drafted for the perusal of his sovereigns, and from his reports to peter martyr, which that chronicler has preserved for us. we know from this letter that his thoughts were still dwelling on the mount sopora of solomon, "which mountain your highnesses now possess in the island of española,"--a convenient stepping-stone to other credulous fancies, as we shall see. the sweetness and volume of the water which had met him in the gulf of paria were significant to him of a great watershed behind. he reverted to the statement in esdras of the vast preponderance on the globe of land, six parts to one of water, and thought he saw a confirmation of it in the immense flow that argued a corresponding expansion of land. he recalled all that he recollected of aristotle and the other sages. he went back to his experiences in mid-ocean, when he was startled at the coincidence of the needle and the pole star. he remembered how he had found all the conditions of temperature and the other physical aspects to be changed as he passed that line, and it seemed as if he was sweeping into regions more ethereal. he had found the same difference when he passed, a few weeks before, out of the baleful heats of the tropical calms. he grew to think that this line of no variation of magnetism with corresponding marvels of nature marked but the beginning of a new section of the earth that no one had dreamed of. st. augustine, st. basil, and st. ambrose had placed the garden of eden far in the old world's east, apart from the common vicinage of men, high up above the baser parts of the earth, in a region bathed in the purest ether, and so high that the deluge had not reached it. all the stories of the middle ages, absorbed in the speculative philosophy of his own time, had pointed to the distant east as the seat of paradise, and was he not now coming to it by the western passage? if the scant riches of the soil could not restore the enthusiasm which his earlier discoveries aroused in the dull spirits of europe, would not a glimpse of the ecstatic pleasures of eden open their eyes anew? he had endeavored to make his contemporaries feel that the earth was round, and he had proved it, as he thought, by almost touching, in a westward passage, the golden chersonesus. it is significant that the later _historie_ of omits this vagary of paradise. the world had moved, and geographical discovery had made some records in the interim, awkward for the biographer of columbus. [illustration: pre-columbian mappemonde, preserved at ravenna, restored by gravier after d'avezac in _bulletin de la sociÉtÉ normande_, .] [sidenote: paradise found.] there was a newer belief linked with this hope of paradise. all this wondrous life and salubrity which columbus saw and felt, if it had not been able to restore his health, could only come from his progress up a swelling apex of the earth, which buttressed the garden of eden. it was clear to his mind that instead of being round the earth was pear-shaped, and that this great eminence, up which he had been going, was constantly lifting him into purer air. the great fountain which watered the spacious garden of the early race had discharged its currents down these ethereal slopes, and sweetened all this gulf that had held him so close within its embaying girth. if such were the wonders of these outposts of the celestial life, what must be the products to be seen as one journeyed up, along the courses of such celestial streams? as he steered for española, he found the currents still helped him, or he imagined they did. was it not that he was slipping easily down this wonderful declivity? [sidenote: columbus and vespucius.] that he had again discovered the mainland he was convinced by such speculations. he had no conception of the physical truth. the vagaries of his time found in him the creature of their most rampant hallucinations. this aberration was a potent cause in depriving him of the chance to place his own name on this goal of his ambition. it accounts much for the greater impression which americus vespucius, with his clearer instincts, was soon to make on the expectant and learned world. the voyage of that florentine merchant, one of those trespassers that columbus complained of, was, before the admiral should see spain again, to instigate the publication of a narrative, which took from its true discoverer the rightful baptism of the world he had unwittingly found. the wild imaginings of columbus, gathered from every resource of the superstitious past, moulded by him into beliefs that appealed but little to the soberer intelligence of his time, made known in tumultuous writings, and presently to be expressed with every symptom of mental wandering in more elaborate treatises, offered to his time an obvious contrast to the steadier head of vespucius. the latter's far more graphic description gained for him, as we shall see, the position of a recognized authority. while columbus was puzzling over the aberration of the pole star and misshaping the earth, vespucius was comprehending the law of gravitation upon our floating sphere, and ultimately representing it in the diagram which illustrated his narrative. we shall need to return on a later page to these causes which led to the naming of america. * * * * * [sidenote: . august . columbus sees española.] [sidenote: his observations of nature.] [sidenote: meets the adelantado.] for four days columbus had sailed away to the northwest, coming to the wind every night as a precaution, before he sighted española on august , being then, as he made out, about fifty leagues west of the spot where he supposed the port had been established for the mines of hayna. he thought that he had been steering nearer that point, but the currents had probably carried him unconsciously west by night, as they were at that moment doing with the relief ships that he had parted with off ferro. as columbus speculated on this steady flow of waters with that keenness of observation upon natural phenomena which attracted the admiration of humboldt, and which is really striking, if we separate it from his turbulent fancies, he accounted by its attrition for the predominating shape of the islands which he had seen, which had their greatest length in the direction of the current. he knew that its force would, perhaps, long delay him in his efforts to work eastward, and so he opened communication with the shore in hopes to find a messenger by whom to dispatch a letter to the adelantado. this was easily done, and the letter reached its destination, whereupon bartholomew started out in a caravel to meet the little fleet. it was with some misgiving that columbus resumed his course, for he had seen a crossbow in the hands of a native. it was not an article of commerce, and it might signify another disaster like that of la navidad. he was accordingly relieved when he shortly afterwards saw a spanish caravel approaching, and, hailing the vessel, found that the adelantado had come to greet him. there was much interchange of news and thought to occupy the two in their first conference; and columbus's anxiety to know the condition of the colony elicited a wearisome story, little calculated to make any better record in spain than the reports of his own rule in the island. [sidenote: events in española during the absence of columbus.] [sidenote: santo domingo founded.] [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] the chief points of it were these: bartholomew had early carried out the admiral's behests to occupy the hayna country. he had built there a fortress which he had named st. cristoval, but the workmen, finding particles of gold in the stones and sands which they used, had nicknamed it the golden tower. while this was doing, there was difficulty in supporting the workmen. provisions were scarce, and the indians were not inclined to part with what they had. the adelantado could go to the vega and exact the quarterly tribute under compulsion; but that hardly sufficed to keep famine from the door at st. cristoval. nothing had as yet been done to plant the ground near the fort, nor had herds been moved there. the settlement of isabella was too far away for support. meanwhile niño had arrived with his caravels, but he had not brought all the expected help, for the passage had spoiled much of the lading. it was by niño that bartholomew received that dispatch from his brother which he had written in the harbor of cadiz when, on his arrival from his second voyage, he had discerned the condition of public opinion. it was at this time, too, that he repeated to bartholomew the decision of the theologians, that to be taken in war, or to be guilty of slaying any of their majesties' liege subjects, was quite enough to render the indians fit subjects for the slave-block. the admiral's directions, therefore, were to be sure that this test kept up the supply of slaves; and as there was nobody to dispute the judgment of his deputy, niño had taken back to spain those three hundred, which were, as we have seen, so readily converted into reputed gold on his arrival. [sidenote: santo domingo named.] bartholomew had selected the site for a new town near the mouth of the ozema, convenient for the shipment of the hayna treasure, and, naming it at first the new isabella, it soon received the more permanent appellation of santo domingo, which it still bears. [sidenote: xaragua conquered.] [sidenote: behechio and anacaona.] bartholomew had a pleasing story to tell of the way in which he had brought behechio and his province of xaragua into subjection. this territory was the region westward from about the point where columbus had touched the island a few days before. anacaona, the wife of caonabo,--now indeed his widow,--had taken refuge with behechio, her brother, after the fall of her husband. she is represented as a woman of fine appearance, and more delicate and susceptible in her thoughts than was usual among her people; and perhaps bartholomew told his brother what has since been surmised by spanish writers, that she had managed to get word to him of her friendly sentiments for celestial visitors. bartholomew found, as he was marching thither with such forces as he could spare for the expedition, that the cacique who met him in battle array was easily disposed, for some reason or other, perhaps through anacaona's influence, to dismiss his armed warriors, and to escort his visitor through his country with great parade of hospitality. when they reached the cacique's chief town, a sort of fête was prepared in the adelantado's honor, and a mock battle, not without sacrifice of life, was fought for his delectation. peter martyr tells us that when the comely young indian maidens advanced with their palm branches and saluted the adelantado, it seemed as if the beautiful dryads of the olden tales had slipped out of the vernal woods. then anacaona appeared on a litter, with no apparel but garlands, the most beautiful dryad of them all. everybody feasted, and bartholomew, to ingratiate himself with his host, eat and praised their rarest delicacy, the guana lizard, which had been offered to them many times before, but which they never as yet had tasted. it became after this a fashion with the spaniards to dote on lizard flesh. everything within the next two or three days served to cement this new friendship, when the adelantado put it to a test, as indeed had been his purpose from the beginning. he told the cacique of the great power of his master and of the spanish sovereigns; of their gracious regard for all their distant subjects, and of the poor recompense of a tribute which was expected for their protection. "gold!" exclaimed the cacique, "we have no gold here." "oh, whatever you have, cotton, hemp, cassava bread,--anything will be acceptable." so the details were arranged. the cacique was gratified at being let off so easy, and the spaniards went their way. [sidenote: native conspiracy.] this and the subsequent visit of bartholomew to xaragua to receive the tribute were about the only cheery incidents in the dreary retrospect to which the admiral listened. the rest was trouble and despair. a line of military posts had been built connecting the two spanish settlements, and the manning of them, with their dependent villages, enabled the adelantado to scatter a part of the too numerous colony at isabella, so that it might be relieved of so many mouths to feed. this done, there was a conspiracy of the natives to be crushed. two of the priests had made some converts in the vega, and had built a chapel for the use of the neophytes. one of the spaniards had outraged a wife of the cacique. either for this cause, or for the audacious propagandism of the priests, some natives broke into the spanish chapel, destroyed its shrine, and buried some of its holy vessels in a field. plants grew up there in the form of a cross, say the veracious narrators. this, nevertheless, did not satisfy the spaniards. they seized such indians as they considered to have been engaged in the desecration, and gave them the fire and fagots, as they would have done to moor or jew. the horrible punishment aroused the cacique guarionex with a new fury. he leagued the neighboring caciques into a conspiracy. their combined forces were threatening fort conception when the adelantado arrived with succor. by an adroit movement, bartholomew ensnared by night every one of the leaders in their villages, and executed two of them. the others he ostentatiously pardoned, and he could tell columbus of the great renown he got for his clemency. [sidenote: roldan's revolt.] there was nothing in all the bad tidings which bartholomew had to rehearse quite so disheartening as the revolt of roldan, the chief judge of the island,--a man who had been lifted from obscurity to a position of such importance that columbus had placed the administration of justice in his hands. the reports of the unpopularity of columbus in spain, and the growing antipathy in isabella to the rule of bartholomew as a foreigner, had served to consolidate the growing number of the discontented, and roldan saw the opportunity of easily raising himself in the popular estimate by organizing the latent spirit of rebellion. it was even planned to assassinate the adelantado, under cover of a tumult, which was to be raised at an execution ordered by him; but as the adelantado had pardoned the offender, the occasion slipped by. bartholomew's absence in xaragua gave another opportunity. he had sent back from that country a caravel loaded with cotton, as a tribute, and diego, then in command at isabella, after unlading the vessel, drew her up on the beach. the story was busily circulated that this act was done simply to prevent any one seizing the ship and carrying to spain intelligence of the misery to which the rule of the columbuses was subjecting the people. the populace made an issue on that act, and asked that the vessel be sent to cadiz for supplies. diego objected, and to divert the minds of the rebellious, as well as to remove roldan from their counsels, he sent him with a force into the vega, to overawe some caciques who had been dilatory in their tribute. this mission, however, only helped roldan to consolidate his faction, and gave him the chance to encourage the caciques to join resistance. [sidenote: the mutineers in the vega real.] [sidenote: at isabella.] roldan had seventy well-armed men in his party when he returned to isabella to confront bartholomew, who had by this time got back from xaragua. the adelantado was not so easily frightened as roldan had hoped, and finding it not safe to risk an open revolt, this mutinous leader withdrew to the vega with the expectation of surprising fort conception. that post, however, as well as an outlying fortified house, was under loyal command, and roldan was for a while thwarted. bartholomew was not at all sure of any of the principal spaniards, but how far the disaffection had gone he was unable to determine. although he knew that certain leading men were friendly to roldan, he was not prepared to be passive. his safety depended on resolution, and so he marched at once to the vega. roldan was in the neighborhood, and was invited to a parley. it led to nothing. the mutineers, making up their minds to fly to the delightful pleasures of xaragua, suddenly marched back to isabella, plundered the arsenal and storehouses, and tried to launch the caravel. the vessel was too firmly imbedded to move, and roldan was forced to undertake the journey to xaragua by land. to leave the adelantado behind was a sure way to bring an enemy in his rear, and he accordingly thought it safer to reduce the garrison at conception, and perhaps capture the adelantado. [sidenote: coronel arrives.] this movement failed; but it resulted in roldan's ingratiating himself with the tributary caciques, and intercepting the garrison's supplies. it was at this juncture, when everything looked desperate for bartholomew, shut up in the vega fort, that news reached him of the arrival (february , ) at the new port of santo domingo of the advance section of the admiral's fleet, sent thither, as we have seen, by the queen's assiduity, under the command of pedro fernandez coronel. bartholomew could tell the admiral of the good effect which the intelligence received through coronel had on the colony. his own title of adelantado, it was learned, was legitimated by the act of the sovereigns; and columbus himself had been powerful enough to secure confirmation of his old honors, and to obtain new pledges for the future. the mutineers soon saw that the aspects of their revolt were changed. they could not, it would seem, place that dependence on the unpopularity of the admiral at court which had been a good part of their encouragement. [sidenote: bartholomew's new honors.] proceeding to santo domingo, bartholomew proclaimed his new honors, and, anxious to pacificate the island before the arrival of columbus, he dispatched coronel to communicate with roldan, who had sulkily followed the adelantado in his march from the vega. roldan refused all intercourse, and, shielding himself behind a pass in the mountains, he warned off the pacificator. he would yield to no one but the admiral. [sidenote: the rebels go to xaragua.] there was nothing for the adelantado to do but to outlaw the rebels, who, in turn, sped away to what irving calls the "soft witcheries" of the xaragua dryads. the archrebel was thus well out of the way for a time; but his influence still worked among the indians of the vega, and bartholomew had not long left conception before the garrison was made aware of a native conspiracy to surprise it. [sidenote: guarionex's revolt.] word was sent to santo domingo, and the adelantado was promptly on the march for relief. guarionex, who had headed the revolt again, fled to the mountains of ciguay, where a mountain cacique, mayobanex, the same who had conducted the attack on the spaniards at the gulf of samana during the first voyage, received the fugitive chief of the valley. it was into these mountain fastnesses that the adelantado now pursued the fugitives, with a force of ninety foot, a few horse, and some auxiliary indians. he boldly thridded the defiles, and crossed the streams, under the showers of lances and arrows. as the native hordes fled before him, he fired their villages in the hope of forcing the ciguayans to surrender their guest; but the mountain leaders could not be prevailed upon to wrong the rights of hospitality. when no longer able to resist in arms, mayobanex and guarionex fled to the hills. the adelantado now sent all of his men back to the vega to look after the crops, except about thirty, and with these he scoured the region. he would not have had success by mere persistency, but he got it by artifice and treachery. both mayobanex and guarionex were betrayed in their hiding-places and captured. clemency was shown to their families and adherents, and they were released; but both caciques remained in their bonds as hostages for the maintenance of the quiet which was now at last in some measure secured. [sidenote: . august . columbus arrives.] such was the condition of affairs when columbus arrived and heard the story of these two troubled years and more during which he had been absent. * * * * * it was the th of august when columbus and his brother landed at santo domingo. there had not been much to encourage the admiral in this story of the antecedent events. no portrayal of riot, dissolution, rapine, intrigue, and idleness could surpass what he saw and heard of the bedraggled and impoverished settlement at isabella. the stores which he had brought would be helpful in restoring confidence and health; but it was a source of anxiety to him that nothing had been heard of the three caravels from which he had parted off ferro. [sidenote: roldan and the belated ships.] these vessels appeared not long afterwards, bringing a new perplexity. forced by currents which their crews did not understand, they had been carried westerly, and had wandered about in the unknown seas in search of española. a few days before reaching santo domingo, the ships had anchored off the territory of behechio, where roldan and his followers already were. the mutineers observed the approach of the caravels, not quite sure of their character, thinking possibly that they had been dispatched against their band; but roldan boldly went on board, and, ascertaining their condition, he had the address to represent that he was stationed in that region to collect the tribute, and was in need of stores, arms, and munitions. the commander of the vessel at once sent on shore what he demanded; and while this was going on, roldan's men ingratiated themselves with the company on board the caravels, and readily enlisted a part of them in the revolt. the new-comers, being some of the emancipated convicts which columbus had so unwisely registered among his crews, were not difficult to entice to a life of pleasure. by the time roldan had secured his supplies and was ready to announce his true character, it was not certain how far the captains of the vessels could trust their crews. the chief of these commanders undertook, when the worst was known, to bring the revolters back to their loyalty; but he argued in vain. the wind being easterly, and to work up against it to santo domingo being a slow process, it was decided that one of the captains, colombo, should conduct about forty armed men by land to the new town. when he landed them, the insidious work of the mutineers became apparent. only eight of his party stood to his command, and over forty marched over to the rebels, each with his arms. the overland march was necessarily given up, and the three caravels, to prevent further desertions, hoisted sail and departed. carvajal remained behind to urge roldan to duty; but the most he could do was to exact a promise that he would submit to the admiral if pardoned, but not to the adelantado. [sidenote: . september .] the report which carvajal made to columbus, when shortly afterwards he joined his companions in santo domingo, coming by land, was not very assuring. columbus was too conscious of the prevalence of discontent, and he had been made painfully aware of the uncertainty of convict loyalty. he then made up his mind that all such men were a menace, and that they were best got rid of. accordingly he announced that five ships were ready to sail for spain and would take any who should desire to go, and that the passage would be free. [sidenote: roldan and ballester.] [sidenote: . october . the ships sail for spain.] learning from carvajal that roldan was likely soon to lead his men near fort conception, columbus notified miguel ballester, its commander, to be on his guard. he also directed him to seek an interview with the rebel leader, in order to lure him back to duty by offer of pardon from the admiral. as soon as ballester heard of roldan's arrival in the neighborhood, he went out to meet him. roldan, however, was in no mood to succumb. his force had grown, and some of the leading spaniards had been drawn towards him. so he defied the admiral in his speeches, and sent him word that if he had any further communications to make to him they should be sent by carvajal, for he would treat with no other. columbus, on receiving this message, and not knowing how far the conspiracy had extended among those about him, ordered out the military force of the settlement. there were not more than seventy men to respond; nor did he feel much confidence in half of these. there being little chance of any turn of affairs for the better with which he could regale the sovereigns, columbus ordered the waiting ships to sail, and on october they put to sea. [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] the ships carried two letters which columbus had written to the monarchs. in the one he spoke of his new discoveries, and of the views which had developed in his mind from the new phenomena, as has already been represented, and promised that the adelantado should soon be dispatched with three caravels to make further explorations. in the other he repeated the story of events since he had landed at santo domingo. he urged that roldan might be recalled to spain for examination, or that he might be committed to the custody of carvajal and ballester to determine the foundation of his grievances. at the same time he requested that a further license be given, to last two years, for the capture and transmission of slaves. it was not unlikely that the case of roldan and his abettors was represented with equal confidence in other letters, for there were many hands among the passengers to which they could be confided. [sidenote: columbus seeks to quiet the colony.] [sidenote: . october .] the ships gone, the admiral gave himself to the difficult task of pacificating the colony. the vigorous rule of the adelantado had made enemies who were to be propitiated, though las casas tells us that the rule had been strict no farther than that it had been necessarily imperative in emergencies. columbus wrote on october an expostulatory letter to roldan. to send it by carvajal, as was necessary, if roldan was to receive it, would be to intrust negotiations to a person who was already committed in some sort to the rebel's plan, or at least some of the admiral's leading councilors believed such to be the case, apparently too hastily. columbus did not share that distrust, and carvajal was sent. this letter crossed one from the leading rebels, in which they demanded from columbus release from his service, and expressed their determination to maintain independence. [sidenote: conferences with roldan.] [sidenote: . november . roldan's terms.] when carvajal reached bonao, where the rebels were gathered,--and ballester had accompanied him,--their joint persuasions had some effect on roldan and others, principal rebels; but the followers, as a mass, objected to the leaders entering into any conference except under a written guaranty of safety for them and those that should accompany them. this message was accordingly returned to columbus, and ballester at the same time wrote to him that the revolt was fast making head; that the garrisons were disaffected, and losing by desertion; and that the common people could not be trusted to stand by the admiral if it came to war. he advised, therefore, a speedy reconciliation or agreement of some sort. the guaranty was sent, and roldan soon presented himself to the admiral. the demands of the rebel and the prerogatives of the admiral were, it proved, too widely apart for any accommodation. so roldan, having possessed himself of the state of feeling in santo domingo, returned to his followers, promising to submit definite terms in writing. these were sent under date of november , , with a demand for an answer before the th. the terms were inadmissible. to disarm charges of exaction, columbus made public proclamation of a readiness to grant pardon to all who should return to allegiance within thirty days, and to such he would give free transportation to spain. carvajal carried this paper to roldan, and was accompanied by columbus's major-domo, diego de salamanca, in the hopes that the two might yet arrange some terms, mutually acceptable. [illustration: espaÑola, ramusio, .] [sidenote: columbus agrees to them.] the messenger found roldan advanced from bonao, and besieging ballester in conception. the revolt had gone too far, apparently, to be stayed, but the persuasion of the mediators at last prevailed, and terms were arranged. these provided full pardon and certificates of good conduct; free passage from xaragua, to which point two caravels should be sent; the full complement of slaves which other returning colonists had; liberty for such as had them to take their native wives, and restoration of sequestered property. roldan and his companions signed this agreement on november , and agreed to wait eight days for the signature of the admiral. columbus signed it on the st, and further granted indulgences of one kind or another to such as chose to remain in española. [sidenote: delays in carrying out the agreement.] [sidenote: new agreement.] [sidenote: signed september , .] under the agreement, the ships were to be ready in fifty days, but columbus, in the disorganized state of the colony, found it impossible to avoid delays, and his self-congratulations that he had got rid of the turbulent horde were far from warranted. while under this impression, and absent with the adelantado, inspecting the posts throughout the island, and deciding how best he could restore the regularities of life and business, the arrangements which he had made for carrying out the agreement with roldan had sorely miscarried. nearly double the time assigned to the preparation of the caravels had elapsed, when the vessels at last left santo domingo for xaragua. a storm disabling one of them, there were still further delays; and when all were ready, the procrastination in their outfit offered new grounds for dispute, and it was found necessary to revise the agreement. carvajal was still the mediator. roldan met the admiral on a caravel, which had sailed toward xaragua. the terms which roldan now proposed were that he should be permitted to send some of his friends, fifteen in number, if he desired so many, to spain; that those who remained should have grants of land; that proclamation should be made of the baseless character of the charges against him and his accomplices; and that he himself should be restored to his office of alcalde mayor. columbus, who had received a letter from fonseca in the meanwhile, showing that there was little chance of relief from spain, saw the hopelessness of his situation, and sufficiently humbled himself to accept the terms. when they were submitted to the body of the mutineers, this assembly added another clause giving them the right to enforce the agreement by compulsion in case the admiral failed to carry it out. this, also, was agreed to in despair; while the admiral endeavored to relieve the mortification of the act by inserting a clause enforcing obedience to the commands of the sovereigns, of himself, and of his regularly appointed justices. this agreement was ratified at santo domingo, september , . [sidenote: roldan reinstated.] [sidenote: repartimientos.] [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] it was not a pleasant task for columbus to brook the presence of roldan and his victorious faction in santo domingo. the reinstated alcalde had no occasion to be very complaisant after he had seen the admiral cringe before him. columbus endeavored, in making the grants of lands, to separate the restored rebels as much as he could, in order to avoid the risks of other mutinous combinations. he agreed with the caciques that they should be relieved from the ordinary tribute of treasure if they would furnish these new grantees with laborers for their farms. thus at the hands of columbus arose the beginning of that system of _repartimientos_, with all its miseries for the poor natives, which ended in their extermination. the apologists of columbus consider that the exigencies of his situation forced him into these fiendish enactments, and that he is not to be held responsible for them as of his free will. they forget the expressions of his first letter to santangel, which prefigured all the misery which fell upon myriads of these poor creatures. the record, unfortunately, shows that it was columbus who invariably led opinion in all these oppressions, and not he who followed it. his artfulness never sprang to a new device so exultingly as when it was a method of increasing the revenue at the cost of the natives. when we read, in the letter written to his sovereigns during this absence, of his always impressing on the natives, in his intercourse with them, "the courtesy and nobleness of all christians," we shudder at the hollowness of the profession. [sidenote: roldan's demands.] the personal demands of roldan under the capitulation were also to be met. they included restoration of lands which he called his own, new lands to be granted, the stocking of them from the public herds; and columbus met them, at least, until the grants should be confirmed at court. this was not all. roldan visited bonao, and made one of his late lieutenants an assistant alcalde,--an assumption of the power of appointment at which columbus was offended, as some tell us; but if the _historie_ is to be depended on, the appointment invited no unfavorable comment from columbus. when it was found that this new officer was building a structure ostensibly for farm purposes, but of a character more like a fortress, suitable for some new mutiny to rally in, columbus at last rose on his dignity and forbade it. [sidenote: . october. caravels sent to spain.] [sidenote: columbus sends ballester to support his cause in spain.] in october, , the admiral dispatched two caravels to spain. it did not seem safe for him to embark in them, though he felt his presence was needed at court to counteract the mischief of his enemies and roldan's friends. some of the latter went in the ships. the most he could do was to trust his cause to miguel ballester and garcia de barrantes, who embarked as his representatives. they bore his letters to the monarchs. in these he enumerated the compulsions under which he had signed the capitulation with roldan, and begged their majesties to treat it as given under coercion, and to bring the rebels to trial. he then mentioned what other assistants he needed in governing the colony, such as a learned judge and some discreet councilors. he ended with asking that his son, diego, might be spared from court to assist him. * * * * * [sidenote: royal infringements of columbus's privileges.] [sidenote: . ojeda's voyage.] while columbus was making these requests, he was ignorant of the way in which the spanish court had already made serious trespasses upon his prerogatives as admiral of the indies. he had said in his letter to the sovereigns, "your majesties will determine on what is to be done," in consequence of these new discoveries at paria. he was soon to become painfully conscious of what was done. the real hero of columbus's second voyage, alonso de ojeda, comes again on the scene. he was in spain when the accounts which columbus had transmitted to court of his discoveries about the gulf of paria reached seville. such glowing descriptions fired his ambition, and learning from columbus's other letters and from the reports by those who had returned of the critical condition of affairs in española, he anticipated the truth when he supposed that the admiral could not so smother the disquiet of his colony as to venture to leave it for further explorations. he saw, too, the maps which columbus had sent back and the pearls which he had gathered. he acknowledged all this in a deposition taken at santo domingo in . so he proposed to fonseca that he might be allowed to undertake a private voyage, and profit, for himself and for the crown, by the resources of the country, inasmuch as it must be a long time before columbus himself could do so. fonseca readily commended the plan and gave him a license, stipulating that he should avoid any portuguese possession and any lands that columbus had discovered before . it was the purpose, by giving this date, to throw open the paria region. [sidenote: vespucius with ojeda.] [sidenote: juan de la cosa.] [sidenote: . may . ojeda sails.] [sidenote: at venezuela.] the ships were fitted out at seville in the early part of , and some men, famous in these years, made part of the company which sailed on them. there was americus vespucius, who was seemingly now for the first time to embark for the new world, since it is likely that out of this very expedition the alleged voyage of his in has been made to appear by some perversion of chronology. there was juan de la cosa, a famous hydrographer, who was the companion of columbus in his second cuban cruise. irving says that he was with columbus in his first voyage; but it is thought that it was another of the same name who appears in the registers of that expedition. several of those who had returned from española after the paria cruise of columbus were also enlisted, and among them bartholomew roldan, the pilot of that earlier fleet. the expedition of ojeda sailed may , . they made land leagues east of the orinoco, and then, guided by columbus's charts, the ships followed his track through the serpent's and the dragon's mouths. thence passing margarita, they sailed on towards the mountains which columbus had seen, and finally entered a gulf, where they saw some pile dwellings of the natives. they accordingly named the basin venezuela, in reference to the great sea-built city of the adriatic. it is noteworthy that ojeda, in reporting to their majesties an account of this voyage, says that he met in this neighborhood some english vessels, an expedition which may have been instigated by cabot's success. it is to be observed, at the same time, that this is the only authority which we have for such an early visit of the english to this vicinity, and the statement is not credited by biddle, helps, and other recent writers. ojeda turned eastward not long after, having run short of provisions. he then approached the prohibited española, and hoped to elude notice while foraging at its western end. [sidenote: . september . ojeda touches at española.] it was while here that ojeda's caravels were seen and tidings of their presence were transmitted to santo domingo. ignorance of what he had to deal with in these intruders was one of the reasons which made it out of the question for columbus to return to spain in the ships which he had dispatched in october. ojeda had appeared on the coast on september , , and as succeeding reports came to columbus, it was divulged that ojeda was in command, and that he was cutting dyewoods thereabouts. [sidenote: columbus sends roldan to warn ojeda off.] now was the time to heal the dissensions of roldan, and to give him a chance to recover his reputation. so the admiral selected his late bitter enemy to manage the expedition which he thought it necessary to dispatch to the spot. roldan sailed in command of two caravels on september , and, approaching unobserved the place where ojeda's ships were at anchor, he landed with twenty-five men, and sent out scouts. they soon reported that ojeda was some distance away from his ships at an indian village, making cassava bread. ojeda heard of the approach, but not in time to prevent roldan getting between him and his ships. the intruder met him boldly, said he was on an exploring expedition, and had put in for supplies, and that if roldan would come on board his ships, he would show his license signed by fonseca. when roldan went on board, he saw the document. he also learned from those he talked with in the ships--and there were among them some whom he knew, and some who had been in española--that the admiral's name was in disgrace at court, and there was imminent danger of his being deprived of his command at española. moreover, the queen, who had befriended him against all others, was ill beyond recovery. ojeda promising to sail round to santo domingo and explain his conduct to the admiral, roldan left him, and carried back the intelligence to columbus. the viceroy waited patiently for ojeda's vessels to appear, and to hear the explanation of what he deemed a flagrant violation of his rights. ojeda, having got rid of roldan, had accomplished all that he intended by the promise. when he set sail, it was to pass round the coast easterly to the shore of xaragua, where he anchored, and opened communication with the spanish settlers, remnants of roldan's party, who had not been quite satisfied to find their reinstated leader acting as an emissary of columbus. ojeda, with impetuous sympathy, listened to their complaints, and had agreed to be their leader in marching to santo domingo to demand some redresses, when roldan, sent by columbus to watch him, once more appeared. ojeda declined a conference, and kept on his ship. [sidenote: . june. ojeda reaches cadiz.] roldan had harbored a deserter from one of ojeda's fleet, and as he refusedto give him up, ojeda watched his opportunity and seized two of roldan's men to hold as hostages. so the two wary adventurers watched each other for an advantage. after a while, ojeda, in his ships, stood down the coast. roldan followed along the shore. coming up to where the ships were anchored, roldan induced ojeda to send a boat ashore, when, by an artifice, he captured the boat and its crew. this game of stratagems ended with an agreement on ojeda's part to leave the island, while roldan restored the captive boat. the prisoners were exchanged. ojeda bore off shore, and though roldan heard of his landing again at a distant point, he was gone when the pursuers reached the spot. las casas says that ojeda made for some islands, where he completed his lading of slaves, and set sail for spain, arriving at cadiz in june, . * * * * * [sidenote: niño's voyage to the pearl coast.] [sidenote: guerra aids him.] while columbus was congratulating himself on being well rid of this dangerous visitor, he was not at all aware of the uncontrollable eagerness which the joyous reports of pearls had engendered in the adventurous spirits of the spanish seaports. among such impatient sailors was the pilot, pedro alonso niño, who had accompanied columbus on his first voyage, and had also but recently returned from the paria coast, having been likewise with the admiral on his third voyage. he found fonseca as willing, if only the crown could have its share, as ojeda had found him, and just as forgetful of the vested rights of columbus. so the license was granted only a few days after that given to ojeda, and of similar import. niño, being a poor man, sought the aid of luis guerra in fitting out a small caravel of only fifty tons; and in consideration of this assistance, guerra's brother, cristoval, was placed in command, with a crew, all told, of thirty-three souls. they sailed from palos early in june, , and were only fifteen days behind ojeda on the coast. they had some encounters and some festivities with the natives; but they studiously attended to their main object of bartering for pearls, and when they reached spain on their return in april, , and laid out the shares for the crown, for guerra, and for the crew, of the rich stores of pearls which they had gathered, men said, "here at last is one voyage to the new islands from which some adequate return is got." and so the first commensurate product of the indies, instead of saving the credit of columbus, filled the pockets of an interloping adventurer. * * * * * [sidenote: v. y. pinzon's voyage.] [sidenote: . december.] [sidenote: pinzon crosses the equator.] [sidenote: the southern sky.] but a more considerable undertaking of the same illegitimate character was that of vicente yañez pinzon, the companion of columbus on his first voyage. leaguing with him a number of the seamen of the admiral, including some of his pilots on his last voyage, pinzon fitted out at palos four caravels, which sailed near the beginning of december, , not far from the time when columbus was thinking, because of the flight of ojeda, that an end was at last coming to these intrusions within his prescribed seas. pinzon was not so much influenced by greed as by something of that spirit which had led him to embark with columbus in , the genuine eagerness of the explorer. he was destined to do what columbus had been prevented from doing by the intense heat and by the demoralized condition of his crew,--strike the new world in the equatorial latitudes. so he stood boldly southwest, and crossed the equator, the first to do it west of the line of demarcation. here were new constellations as well as a new continent for the transatlantic discoverer. the north star had sunk out of sight. thus it was that the southern heavens brought a new difficulty to navigation, as well as unwonted stellar groups to the curious observer. the sailor of the northern seas had long been accustomed to the fixity of the polar star in making his observations for latitude. the southern heavens were without any conspicuous star in the neighborhood of the pole: and in order to determine such questions, the star at the foot of the southern cross was soon selected, but it necessitated an allowance of ° in all observations. [sidenote: . january . sees cape consolation.] [sidenote: coasts north.] it was on january , , or thereabouts, that pinzon saw a cape which he called consolation, and which very likely was the modern cape st. augustine,--though the identification is not established to the satisfaction of all,--which would make pinzon the first european to see the most easterly limit of the great southern continent. a belief like this requires us, necessarily, to reject varnhagen's view that as early as the previous june ( ) ojeda had made his landfall just as far to the east. pinzon took possession of the country, and then, sailing north, passed the mouth of the amazon, and found that even out of sight of land he could replenish his water-casks from the flow of fresh waters, which the great river poured into the ocean. it did not occur to his practical mind, as it had under similar circumstances to columbus, that he was drinking the waters of paradise! [sidenote: . june. pinzon at española.] [sidenote: reaches palos, september, .] reaching the gulf of paria, pinzon passed out into the caribbean sea, and touched at española in the latter part of june, . proceeding thence to the lucayan islands, two of his caravels were swallowed up in a gale, and the other two disabled. the remaining ships crossed to española to refit, whence sailing once more, they reached palos in september, . * * * * * [sidenote: . january. diego de lepe's voyage.] meanwhile, following pinzon, diego de lepe, sailing also from palos with two caravels in january, , tracked the coast from below cape st. augustine northward. he was the first to double this cape, as he showed in the map which he made for fonseca, and doing so he saw the coast stretching ahead to the southwest. from this time south america presents on the charts this established trend of the coast. humboldt thinks that diego touched at española before returning to spain in june, . * * * * * [sidenote: portuguese explorations by the african route.] we must now return to the further exploration of the portuguese by the african route, for we have reached a period when, by accident and because of the revised line of demarcation, the portuguese pursuing that route acquired at the same time a right on the american coast which they have since maintained in brazil, as against what seems to have been a little earlier discovery of that coast by pinzon, in the voyage already mentioned. [sidenote: . march .] [sidenote: cabral discovers the brazil coast.] [sidenote: . may .] in the year following the return to lisbon of da gama with the marvelous story of the african route to india, the portuguese government were prompted naturally enough to establish more firmly their commercial relations with calicut. they accordingly fitted out three ships to make trial once more of the voyage. the command was given to pedro alvarez cabral, and there were placed under him diaz, who had first rounded the stormy cape, and coelho, who had accompanied da gama. the expedition sailed on march , . leaving the cape de verde islands, cabral shaped his course more westerly than da gama had done, but for what reason is not satisfactorily ascertained. perhaps it was to avoid the calms off the coast of guinea; perhaps to avoid breasting a storm; and indeed it may have been only to see if any land lay thitherward easterly of the great line of demarcation. whatever the motive, the fleet was brought on april opposite an eminence, which received then the name of monte pascoal, and is to-day, as then it became by right of discovery, within the portuguese limits of south america, the land of the true cross, as he named it, vera cruz; later, however, to be changed to santa cruz. the coast was examined, and in the bay of porto seguro, on may , formal possession of the country was taken for the crown of portugal. cabral sent a caravel back with the news, expressed in a letter drawn up by pedro vaz de caminha. this letter, which is dated on the day possession was taken, was first made known by muñoz, who discovered it in the archives at lisbon. it was not till july that the portuguese king, in a letter which is printed by navarrete, notified the spanish monarchs of cabral's discovery, and this letter was printed in rome, october , . it seems to have been the apprehension of the portuguese, if we may trust this letter, that the new coast lay directly in the route to the cape of good hope, though on the right hand. [sidenote: cabral at calicut, september , .] leaving two banished criminals to seek their chances of life in the country, and to ascertain its products, cabral set sail on may , and proceeded to the cape of good hope. fearful gales were encountered and four vessels were lost, and his subordinate, diaz, found an ocean grave off the stormy cape of his own finding. but calicut was at last reached, september . * * * * * [sidenote: date of cabral's discovery.] [sidenote: his landfall.] there is a day or two difference in the dates assigned by different authorities for this discovery of cabral. ramusio, quoting a pilot of the fleet fourteen months after the event, says april , and leading portuguese historians have followed him; but the letter which cabral sent back to portugal, as already related, says april . the question would be a trifling one, as humboldt suggests, except that it bears upon the question of just where this fortuitous landfall was made, involving estimates of distance sailed before cabral entered the harbor of porto seguro. it is probable that this was at a point a hundred and seventy leagues south of the spot reached earlier (january, ) by pinzon and de lepe. yet on this point there are some differences of opinion, which are recapitulated by humboldt. [sidenote: cabral and pinzon.] the most impartial critics, however, agree with humboldt in giving pinzon the lead, if not to the extent of the forty-eight days before cabral left lisbon, as humboldt contends. if barros is correct in his deductions, it was not known on board of cabral's fleet that columbus had already discovered in the paria region what he supposed an extension of the asiatic main. the first conclusion of the portuguese naturally was that they had stumbled either on a new group of islands, or perhaps on some outlying members of the group of the antilles. of course nothing was known at the time of the discoveries of pinzon and lepe. [sidenote: the results of the african route.] it has often been remarked that if columbus had not sailed in , cabral would have revealed america in . it is a striking fact that the portuguese had pursued their quest for india with an intelligence and prescience which geographical truth confirmed. the spaniards went their way in error, and it took them nearly thirty years to find a route that could bring them where they could defend at the antipodes their rights under the bull of demarcation. columbus sought india and found america without knowing it. cabral, bound for the cape of good hope, stumbled upon brazil, and preëmpted the share of portugal in the new world as da gama has already secured it in asia. thus the african route revealed both cathay and america. * * * * * [sidenote: the columbus lawsuit.] [sidenote: la cosa's map, .] for these voyages commingling with those of columbus along the spaces of the caribbean sea, we get the best information, all things considered, from the testimonies of the participants in them, which were rendered in the famous lawsuit which the crown waged against the heirs of columbus. the well-known map of juan de la cosa posts us best on the cartographical results of these same voyages up to the summer of . [illustration] [illustration: sketch of la cosa's map.] la cosa was, as las casas called him, the best of the pilots then living, and there is a story of his arrogating to himself a superiority to columbus, even. as la cosa returned to spain with ojeda in june, , and sailed again in october with bastidas, this famous map was apparently made in that interval, since it purports in an inscription to have been drafted in . in posting the geographical knowledge which he had acquired up to that date, la cosa drew upon his own experiences in the voyages which he had already made with columbus ( - ), and with ojeda ( - ). it is to be regretted that we have from his pencil no later draft, for his experience in these seas was long and intimate, since he accompanied bastidas in - , led expeditions of his own in - and - , and went again with ojeda in . la cosa, indeed, does not seem to have improved his map on any subsequent date, and that he puts down cape st. augustine so accurately is another proof of that headland being seen by pinzon or lepe in , and that news of its discovery had reached the map makers. [sidenote: objections to la cosa's map.] the objections to la cosa's map as a source of historical information have been that ( ) he gives an incorrect shape to cuba, and makes it an island eight years before ocampo sailed around it; and that ( ) he gives an unrecognizable coast northward from where the gulf of mexico should be. henry stevens, in his _historical and geographical notes_, undertakes to answer these objections. [sidenote: insularity of cuba.] first, stevens reverts to the belief of la cosa that he did not imagine cuba to be an island, because no one ever knew of an island leagues long, as columbus and he, sailing along its southern side, had found it to be, taking the distance they had gone rather than the true limits. stevens depends much on the belief of columbus that the bay of islands which he fancied himself within, when he turned back, was the gulf of ganges,--supposing that peter martyr quoted columbus, when he wrote to that effect in august, . if varnhagen is correct in his routes of vespucius, that navigator, in , making the circuit of the gulf of mexico, had established the insularity of cuba. few modern scholars, it is fair to say, accept varnhagen's theories. it became a question, after humboldt had made the la cosa chart public in , how its maker had got the information of the insularity of cuba. humboldt was convinced that though a "complacent witness" to columbus's ridiculous notarial transaction during his second voyage, la cosa had dared to tell the truth, even at the small risk of having his tongue pulled out. [illustration: ribero's antilles, .] the admiral's belief, bolstered after his own fashion by suborning his crew, was far from being accepted by all. peter martyr not long afterward voiced the hesitancy which was growing. it was beginning to be believed that the earth was larger than columbus thought, and that his discoveries had not taken him as far as cathay. every new report veered the vane on this old gossiper's steeple, and he went on believing one day and disbelieving the next. [illustration: wytfliet's cuba.] we may perhaps question now if the official promulgation of the cuban circumnavigation by sebastian ocampo in was much more than the spanish acknowledgment of its insularity, when they could no longer deny it. henry stevens has claimed to put la cosa's island of cuba in accord with columbus, or at least partly so. he finds this western limit of cuba on the la cosa map drawn with "a dash of green paint," which he holds to be a color used to define unknown coasts. he studied the map in jomard's colored facsimile, and trusted it, not having examined the original to this end,--though he had apparently seen it in the paris auction-room in , when, as a competitor, he had run up the price which the spanish government paid for it. he says that the same green emblem of unknown lands is also placed upon the coast of asia, where a peninsular cuba would have joined it. he seems to forget that he should have found, to support his theory, a gap rather than a supposable coast, and should rather have pointed to the vignette of st. christopher as affording that gap. [illustration: wytfliet's cuba.] ruysch in marked in his map this unknown western limit with a conventional scroll, while he made his north coast not unlike the asiatic coast of mauro ( ) and behaim ( ), and with no gap. stevens also interprets the st. dié map of - as showing this peninsular cuba in what is there placed as the main, with a duplicated insular cuba in what is called isabella. the warrant for this supposition is the transfer under disguises of the la cosa and ruysch names of their cuba to the continental coast of the st. dié map, leaving the "isabella" entirely devoid of names. stevens ventures the opinion that la cosa may have been on the first voyage of columbus as well as on the second, and his reason for this is that the north coast of cuba, which columbus then coasted, is so correctly drawn; but this opinion ignores the probability, indeed the certainty, that this approximate accuracy could just as well be reached by copying from columbus's map of that first voyage. it should be borne in mind, however, that varnhagen, who had faith in the voyage of vespucius as having settled the insular character of cuba, interprets this st. dié map quite differently, as showing a rudimentary gulf of mexico and the mississippi mouth instead of the gulf of ganges. [sidenote: la cosa's coast of asia.] second, stevens grasps the obvious interpretation that la cosa simply drew in for this northern coast that of asia as he conceived it. this hardly needs elucidation. but his opinion is not so well grounded that the northern part of this asiatic coast, where la cosa intended to improve on the notions which had come from marco polo and the rest, is simply the _northern_ coast of the gulf of st. lawrence as laid down by the explorations of cabot. if it be taken as giving from cabot's recitals the trend of the coasts found by him, it seems to show that that navigator knew nothing of the southern entrance of that gulf. this adds further to the uncertainty of what is called the cabot mappemonde of . that la cosa intended the coasts of the cabots' discoveries to belong to inland waters stevens thinks is implied by the sea thereabouts being called _mar_ instead of _mar oceanus_. it is difficult to see the force of these supplemental views of stevens, and to look upon the drawing of la cosa in this northern region as other than asia modified vaguely by the salient points of the outer coast lines as glimpsed by cabot. if the spanish envoy in england carried out his intention of sending a copy of cabot's chart to spain, it could hardly have escaped falling into the hands of la cosa. we have already mentioned the chance of john cabot having visited the peninsula in the interval between his two voyages. [sidenote: columbus and the cabot voyages.] the chief ground for believing that columbus ever heard of the voyages of the cabots--for there is no plain statement that he did--is that we know how la cosa had knowledge of them; and that upon his map the vignette of st. christopher bearing the infant christ may possibly have been, as it has sometimes been held to be, a direct reference to la cosa's commander, who may be supposed in that case to have been acquainted with the compliment paid him, and consequently with the map's record of the cabots. [sidenote: the cantino map.] whether la cosa understood the natives better than columbus, or whether he had information of which we have no record, it is certain that within two years rumor or fact brought it to the knowledge of the portuguese that the westerly end of cuba lay contiguous to a continental shore, stretching to the north, in much the position of the eastern seaboard of the united states. this is manifest from the cantino map, which was sent from lisbon to italy before november, , and which prefigured the so-called admiral's map of the ptolemy of . there will be occasion to discuss later the over-confident dictum of stevens that this supposed north american coast was simply a duplicated cuba, turned north and south, and stretching from a warm region, as the spaniards knew it, well up into the frozen north. cosa's map seems to have exerted little or no influence on the earliest printed maps of the new world, and in this it differs from the cantino map. [sidenote: minor expeditions.] we know not what unexpected developments may further have sprung from obscure and furtive explorations, which were now beginning to be common, and of which the record is often nothing more than an inference. stories of gold and pearls were great incentives. the age was full of a spirit of private adventure. the voyages of ojeda, niño, and pinzon were but the more conspicuous. chapter xvii. the degradation and disheartenment of columbus. . columbus, writing to the spanish sovereigns from española, said, in reference to the lifelong opposition which he had encountered:-- [sidenote: opponents of columbus.] "may it please the lord to forgive those who have calumniated and still calumniate this excellent enterprise of mine, and oppose and have opposed its advancement, without considering how much glory and greatness will accrue from it to your highnesses throughout all the world. they cannot state anything in disparagement of it except its expense, and that i have not immediately sent back the ships loaded with gold." [sidenote: charges against columbus.] was this an honest statement? columbus knew perfectly well that there had been much else than disappointment at the scant pecuniary returns. he knew that there was a widespread dissatisfaction at his personal mismanagement of the colony; at his alleged arrogance and cupidity as a foreigner; at his nepotism; at his inordinate exaltation of promise, and at his errant faith that brooked no dispute. he knew also that his enthusiasm had captivated the queen, and that as long as she could be held captive he could appeal to her not in vain. if there had been any honesty in the queen's professions in respect to the selling of slaves, he knew that he had outraged them. even when he was writing this letter, it came over him that there was a fearful hazard for him both in the persistency of this denunciation of others against him and in the heedless arrogance of such perverseness on his own part. "i know," he says, "that water dropping on a stone will at length make a hole." we shall see before long that foreboding cavity. [sidenote: columbus and roldan.] [sidenote: guevara.] [sidenote: anacaona's daughter.] [sidenote: adrian do moxica.] the defection of roldan turned so completely into servility is but one of the strange contrasts of the wonderful course of vicissitudes in the life of columbus. there presently came a new trial for him and for roldan. a young well-born spaniard, fernando de guevara, had appeared in española recently, and by his dissolute life he had created such scandals in santo domingo that columbus had ordered him to leave the island. he had been sent to xaragua to embark in one of ojeda's ships; but that adventurer had left the coast when the outlaw reached the port. while waiting another opportunity to embark, guevara was kept in that part of the island under roldan's eye. this implied no such restraint as to deny him access to the society of anacaona, with whose daughter, higuamota, who seems to have inherited something of her mother's commanding beauty and mental qualities, he fell in love, and found his passion requited. he sought companionship also with one of the lieutenants of roldan, who had been a leader in his late revolt, adrian de moxica, then living not far away, who had for him the additional attachment of kinship, for the two were cousins. las casas tells us that roldan had himself a passion for the young indian beauty, and it may have been for this as well as for his desire to obey the admiral that he commanded the young cavalier to go to a more distant province. the ardent lover had sought to prepare his way for a speedy marriage by trying to procure a priest to baptize the maiden. this caused more urgent commands from roldan, which were ostentatiously obeyed, only to be eluded by a clandestine return, when he was screened with some associates in the house of anacaona. this queenly woman seems to have favored his suit with her daughter. he was once more ordered away, when he began to bear himself defiantly, but soon changed his method to suppliancy. roldan was appeased by this. guevara, however, only made it the cloak for revenge, and with some of his friends formed a plot to kill roldan. this leaked out, and the youth and his accomplices were arrested and sent to santo domingo. this action aroused roldan's old confederate, moxica, and, indignant at the way in which the renegade rebel had dared to turn upon his former associates, moxica resolved upon revenge. [sidenote: moxica's plot.] [sidenote: moxica taken.] to carry it out he started on a tour through the country where the late mutineers were settled, and readily engaged their sympathies. among those who joined in his plot was pedro riquelme, whom roldan had made assistant alcalde. the old spirit of revolt was rampant. the confederates were ready for any excess, either upon roldan or upon the admiral. columbus was at conception in the midst of the aroused district, when a deserter from the plotters informed him of their plan. with a small party the admiral at once sped in the night to the unguarded quarters of the leaders, and moxica and several of his chief advisers were suddenly captured and carried to the fort. the execution of the ringleader was at once ordered. impatient at the way in which the condemned man dallied in his confessions to a priest, columbus ordered him pushed headlong from the battlements. the french canonists screen columbus for this act by making roldan the perpetrator of it. the other confederates were ironed in confinement at conception, except riquelme, who was taken later and conveyed to santo domingo. the revolt was thus summarily crushed. those who had escaped fled to xaragua, whither the adelantado and roldan pursued them without mercy. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus and his colony.] columbus had perhaps never got his colony under better control than existed after this vigorous exhibition of his authority. such a show of prompt and audacious energy was needed to restore the moral supremacy which his recusancy under the threats of roldan had lost. the fair weather was not to last long. [sidenote: . august . bobadilla arrives.] early in the morning of august , , two caravels were descried off the harbor of santo domingo. the admiral's brother diego was in authority, columbus being still at conception, and bartholomew absent with roldan. diego sent out a canoe to learn the purpose of the visitors. it returned, and brought word that a commissioner was come to inquire into the late rebellion of roldan. diego's messengers had at the same time informed the newcomer of the most recent defection of moxica, and that there were still other executions to take place, particularly those of riquelme and guevara, who were confined in the town. as the ships entered the river, the gibbets on either bank, with their dangling spaniards, showed the commissioner that there were other troublous times to inquire into than those named in his warrant. while the commissioner remained on board his ship, receiving the court of those who early sought to propitiate him, and while he was getting his first information of the condition of the island, mainly from those who had something to gain by the excess of their denunciations, it is necessary to go back a little in time, and ascertain who this important personage was, and what was the mission on which he had been sent. [illustration: ville de s^t. domingue. santo domingo. .] [sidenote: growth of the royal dissatisfaction with columbus.] the arrangements for sending him had been made slowly. they were even outlined when ojeda had started on his voyage, for he had, in his interviews with roldan, blindly indicated that some astonishment of this sort was in store. evidently fonseca had not allowed ojeda to depart without some intimations. [sidenote: charges against columbus.] notwithstanding columbus professed to believe that nothing but the lack of pecuniary return for the great outlays of his expeditions could be alleged against them, he was well aware, and he had constantly acted as if well aware, of the great array of accusations which had been made against him in spain, with a principal purpose of undermining the indulgent regard of the queen for him. he had known it with sorrow during his last visit to spain, and had found, as we have seen, that he could not secure men to accompany him and put themselves under his control unless he unshackled criminals in the jails. he little thought that such utter disregard of the morals and self-respect of those whom he had settled in the new world would, by a sort of retributive justice, open the way, however unjustly, to put the displaced gyves on himself, amid the exultant feelings of these same criminals. such reiterated criminations were like the water-drops that wear the stone, and he had, as we have noted, felt the certainty of direful results. [sidenote: his exaggerations of the wealth of the indies.] [sidenote: columbus deceives the crown.] [sidenote: columbus's sons hooted at in the alhambra.] how much the disappointment at the lack of gold had to do with increasing the force of these charges, it is not difficult to imagine. columbus was certainly not responsible for that; but he was responsible for the inordinate growth of the belief in the profuse wealth of the new-found indies. his constantly repeated stories of the wonderful richness of the region had done their work. his professions of a purpose to enrich the world with noble benefactions, and to spend his treasure on the recovery of the holy sepulchre, were the vain boastings of a man who thought thereby to enroll his name among the benefactors of the church. he did not perceive that the populace would wonder whence these resources were to come, unless it was by defrauding the crown of its share, and by amassing gold while they could not get any. there is something ludicrous in the excuse which he later gave for concealing from the sovereigns his accumulation of pearls. he felt it sufficient to say that he thought he would wait till he could make as good a show of gold! there were some things that even fifteenth-century christians held to be more sacred than wresting jerusalem from the moslem, and these were money in hand when they had earned it, and food to eat when their misfortunes had beggared their lives. it was not an uncalled-for strain on their loyalty to the crown, when the notion prevailed that the sovereigns and their favorite were gathering riches out of their despair. there was little to be wondered at, in the crowd of these hungry and debilitated victims, wandering about the courts of the alhambra, under the royal windows, and clamoring for their pay. there was nothing to be surprised at in the hootings that followed the admiral's sons, pages of the queen, if they passed within sight of these embittered throngs. [sidenote: ferdinand's confessed blunder.] it was quite evident that ferdinand, who had never warmed to the admiral's enthusiasm, had long been conscious that in the exclusive and extended powers which had been given to columbus a serious administrative blunder had been made. he said as much at a later day to ponce de leon. the queen had been faithful, but the recurrent charges had given of late a wrench to her constancy. was it not certain that something must be wrong, or these accusations would not go on increasing? had not the great discoverer fulfilled his mission when he unveiled a new world? was it quite sure that the ability to govern it went along with the genius to find it? these were the questions which isabella began to put to herself. [sidenote: isabella begins to doubt.] [sidenote: columbus to be superseded.] [sidenote: witnesses against columbus.] she was not a person to hesitate at anything, when conviction came. she had shown this in the treatment of the jews, of the moors, and of other heretics. the conviction that columbus was not equal to his trust was now coming to her. the news of the serious outbreak of roldan's conspiracy brought the matter to a test, and in the spring of the purpose to send out some one with almost unlimited powers for any emergency was decided upon. still the details were not worked out, and there were occurrences in the internal and external affairs of spain that required the prior attention of the sovereigns. very likely the news of columbus's success in finding a new source of wealth in the pearls of paria may have had something to do with the delay. when the ships which carried to spain a crowd of roldan's followers arrived, the question took a fresh interest. columbus's friends, ballester and barrantes, now found their testimony could make little headway against the crowd of embittered witnesses on the other side. isabella, besides, was forced to see in the slaves that columbus had sent by the same ships something of an obstinate opposition to her own wishes. las casas tells us that so great was the queen's displeasure that it was only the remembrance of columbus's services that saved him from prompt disgrace. to be sure, the slaves had been sent in part by virtue of the capitulation which columbus had made with the rebels, but should the viceroy of the indies be forced to such capitulations? had he kept the colony in a condition worthy of her queenly patronage, when it could be reported to her that the daughters of caciques were found among these natives bearing their hybrid babes? "what authority had my viceroy to give my vassals to such ends?" she asked. [sidenote: columbus and the slave trade.] [sidenote: bobadilla appointed commissioner.] there were two things in recent letters of columbus which damaged his cause just at this juncture. one was his petition for a new lease of the slave trade. this isabella answered by ordering all slaves which he had sent home to be sought out and returned. her agents found a few. the other was the request of columbus for a judge to examine the dispute between himself and roldan. this ferdinand answered by appointing the commissioner whose arrival at santo domingo we have chronicled. he was francisco de bobadilla, an officer of the royal household. before disclosing what bobadilla did in santo domingo, it is best to try to find out what he was expected to do. [sidenote: his character.] there is no person connected with the career of columbus--hardly excepting fonseca--more generally defamed than this man, who was, nevertheless, if we may believe oviedo, a very honest and a very religious man. the historians of columbus need to mete out to bobadilla what very few have done, the same measure of palliation which they are more willing to bestow on columbus. with this parallel justice, it may be that he will not bear with discredit a comparison with columbus himself, in all that makes a man's actions excusable under provocation and responsibility. an indecency of haste may come from an excess of zeal quite as well as from an unbridled virulence. it may be in some ways a question if the conditions this man was sent to correct were the result of the weakness or inadaptability of columbus, or merely the outcome of circumstances, enough beyond his control to allow of excuses. there is, however, no question that the spanish government had duties to perform towards itself and its subjects which made it properly disinclined to jeopardize the interests which accompany such duties. [sidenote: bobadilla's powers.] bobadilla was, to be sure, invested with dangerous powers, but not with more dangerous ones than columbus himself had possessed. when two such personations of unbridled authority come in antagonism, the possessor of the greater authority is sure to confirm himself by commensurate exactions upon the other. bobadilla's commission was an implied warrant to that end. he might have been more prudent of his own state, and should have remembered that a trust of the nature of that with which he was invested was sure to be made accountable to those who imparted to him the power, and perhaps at a time when they chose to abandon their own instructions. he ought to have known that such an abandonment comes very easy to all governments in emergencies. he might have been more considerate of the man whom spain had so recently flattered. he should not have forgotten, if almost everybody else had, that the admiral had given a new world to spain. [sidenote: columbus and the criminals.] he should not have been unmindful, if almost every one else was, that this new world was a delusion now, but might dissolve into a beatific vision. but all this was rather more than human nature was capable of in an age like that. it is to be said of bobadilla that when he summoned columbus to santo domingo and prejudged him guilty, he had shown no more disregard of a rival power, which he was sent to regulate, than columbus had manifested for a deluded colony, when he selfishly infected it with the poison of the prisons. it must not, indeed, be forgotten that the strongest support of the new envoy came from the very elements of vice which columbus had implanted in the island. he grew to understand this, and later he was forced to give a condemnation of his own act when he urged the sending of such as are honorably known, "that the country may be peopled with honest men." [sidenote: bobadilla's character.] [sidenote: did he exceed his powers?] las casas tells us of bobadilla that his probity and disinterestedness were such that no one could attack them. if it be left for posterity to decide between the word of las casas and columbus, in estimates of virtue and honesty, there is no question of the result. when bobadilla was selected to be sent to española, there was every reason to choose the most upright of persons. there was every reason, also, to instruct him with a care that should consider every probable attendant circumstance. after this was done, the discretion of the man was to determine all. we can read in the records the formal instructions; but there were beside, as is expressly stated, verbal directions which can only be surmised. bobadilla was accused of exceeding the wishes of the queen. are we sure that he did? it is no sign of it that the monarchs subsequently found it politic to disclaim the act of their agent. such a desertion of a subordinate was not unusual in those times, nor indeed would it be now. if isabella, "for the love of christ and the virgin mary," could depopulate towns, as she said she did, by the ravages of the inquisition, and fill her coffers by the attendant sequestrations, it is not difficult to conceive that, with a similar and convenient conviction of duty, she would give no narrow range to her vindictiveness and religious zeal when she came to deal with an admiral whom she had created, and who was not very deferential to her wishes. [sidenote: bobadilla's powers.] a synopsis of the powers confided to bobadilla in writing needs to be presented. they begin with a letter of march , , referring to reports of the roldan insurrection, and directing him, if on inquiry he finds any persons culpable, to arrest them and sequestrate their effects, and to call upon the admiral for assistance in carrying out these orders. two months later, may , a circular letter was framed and addressed to the magistrates of the islands, which seems to have been intended to accredit bobadilla to them, if the admiral should be no longer in command. this order gave notice to these magistrates of the full powers which had been given to bobadilla in civil and criminal jurisdiction. another order of the same date, addressed to the "admiral of the ocean sea," orders him to surrender all royal property, whether forts, arms, or otherwise, into bobadilla's hands,--evidently intended to have an accompanying effect with the other. of a date five days later another letter addressed to the admiral reads to this effect:-- "we have directed francisco de bobadilla, the bearer of this, to tell you for us of certain things to be mentioned by him. we ask you to give faith and credence to what he says, and to obey him. may , ." [sidenote: his verbal orders.] [sidenote: . july. bobadilla leaves spain.] this is an explicit avowal on the sovereigns' part of having given verbal orders. in addition to these instructions, a royal order required the commissioner to ascertain what was due from the crown for unpaid salaries, and to compel the admiral to join in liquidating such obligations so far as he was bound for them, "that there may be no more complaints." if one may believe columbus's own statements as made in his subsequent letter to the nurse of prince juan, it had been neglect, and not inability, on his part which had allowed these arrears to accrue. bobadilla was also furnished with blanks signed by the sovereigns, to be used to further their purposes in any way and at his discretion. with these extraordinary documents, and possessed of such verbal and confidential directions as we may imagine rather than prove, bobadilla had sailed in july, , more than a year after the letters were dated. his two caravels brought back to española a number of natives, who were in charge of some franciscan friars. [sidenote: bobadilla lands at santo domingo.] we left bobadilla on board his ship, receiving court from all who desired thus early to get his ear. it was not till the next day that he landed, attended by a guard of twenty-five men, when he proceeded to the church to mass. [sidenote: his demands.] this over, the crowd gathered before the church. bobadilla ordered a herald to read his original commission of march , , and then he demanded of the acting governor, diego, who was present, that guevara, riquelme, and the other prisoners should be delivered to him, together with all the evidence in their cases, and that the accusers and magistrates should appear before him. diego referred him to the admiral as alone having power in such matters, and asked for a copy of the document just read to send to columbus. this bobadilla declined to give, and retired, intimating, however, that there were reserved powers which he had, before which even the admiral must bow. the peremptoriness of this movement was, it would seem, uncalled for, and there could have been little misfortune in waiting the coming of the admiral, compared with the natural results of such sudden overturning of established authority in the absence of the holder of it. urgency may not, nevertheless, have been without its claims. it was desirable to stay the intended executions; and we know not what exaggerations had already filled the ears of bobadilla. at this time there would seem to have been the occasion to deliver the letter to columbus which had commanded his obedience to the verbal instructions of the sovereigns; and such a delivery might have turned the current of these hurrying events, for columbus had shown, in the case of agueda, that he was graciously inclined to authority. instead of this, however, bobadilla, the next day, again appeared at mass, and caused his other commissions to be read, which in effect made him supersede the admiral. this superiority diego and his councilors still unadvisedly declined to recognize. the other mandates were read in succession; and the gradual rise to power, which the documents seemed to imply, as the progress of the investigations demanded support, was thus reached at a bound. this is the view of the case which has been taken by columbus's biographers, as naturally drawn from the succession of the powers which were given to bobadilla. it is merely an inference, and we know not the directions for their proclamations, which had been verbally imparted to bobadilla. it is this uncertainty which surrounds the case with doubt. it is apparent that the reading of these papers had begun to impress the rabble, if not those in authority. that order which commanded the payment of arrears of salaries had a very gratifying effect on those who had suffered from delays. nothing, however, moved the representatives of the viceroy, who would not believe that anything could surpass his long-conceded authority. [sidenote: bobadilla assaults the fort.] there is nothing strange in the excitement of an officer who finds his undoubted supremacy thus obstinately spurned, and we must trace to such excitement the somewhat overstrained conduct which made a show of carrying by assault the fortress in which guevara and the other prisoners were confined. miguel diaz, who commanded the fort,--the same who had disclosed the hayna mines,--when summoned to surrender had referred bobadilla to the admiral from whom his orders came, and asked for copies of the letters patent and orders, for more considerate attention. it was hardly to be expected that bobadilla was to be beguiled by any such device, when he had a force of armed men at his back, aided by his crew and the aroused rabble, and when there was nothing before him but a weak citadel with few defenders. there was nothing to withstand the somewhat ridiculous shock of the assault but a few frail bars, and no need of the scaling ladders which were ostentatiously set up. diaz and one companion, with sword in hand, stood passively representing the outraged dignity of command. bobadilla was victorious, and the manacled guevara and the rest passed over to new and less stringent keepers. [sidenote: bobadilla in full possession.] bobadilla was now in possession of every channel of authority. he domiciled himself in the house of columbus, took possession of all his effects, including his papers, making no distinction between public and private ones, and used what money he could find to pay the debts of the admiral as they were presented to him. this proceeding was well calculated to increase his popularity, and it was still more enhanced when he proclaimed liberty to all to gather gold for twenty years, with only the payment of one seventh instead of a third to the crown. [sidenote: columbus hears of bobadilla.] [sidenote: columbus and the franciscans.] let us turn to columbus himself. the reports which reached him at fort conception did not at first convey to him an adequate notion of what he was to encounter. he associated the proceedings with such unwarranted acts as ojeda's and pinzon's in coming with their ships within his prescribed dominion. the greater audacity, however, alarmed him, and the threats which bobadilla had made of sending him to spain in irons, and the known success of his usurpation within the town, were little calculated to make columbus confident in the temporary character of the outburst. he moved his quarters to bonao to be nearer the confusion, and here he met an officer bearing to him a copy of the letters under which the government had been assumed by bobadilla. still the one addressed to columbus, commanding him to acquiesce, was held back. it showed palpably that bobadilla conceived he had passed beyond the judicial aim of his commission. columbus, on his part, was loath to reach that conclusion, and tried to gain time. he wrote to bobadilla an exculpating and temporizing letter, saying that he was about to leave for spain, when everything would pass regularly into bobadilla's control. he sent other letters, calculated to create delays, to the franciscans who had come with him. he had himself affiliated with that order, and perhaps thought his influence might not be unheeded. he got no replies, and perhaps never knew what the spirit of these friars was. they evidently reflected the kind of testimony which bobadilla had been accumulating. we find somewhat later, in a report of one of them, nicholas glassberger,--who speaks of the , natives whom they had made haste to baptize in santo domingo,--some of the cruel insinuations which were rife, when he speaks of "a certain admiral, captain, and chief, who had ill treated these natives, taking their goods and wives, and capturing their virgin daughters, and had been sent to spain in chains." [sidenote: bobadilla sends the sovereigns' letter to columbus.] columbus as yet could hardly have looked forward to any such indignity as manacles on his limbs. nor did he probably suspect that bobadilla was using the signed blanks, entrusted to him by the sovereigns, to engage the interests of roldan and other deputies of the viceroy scattered through the island. columbus, in these uncertainties, caused it to be known that he considered his perpetual powers still unrevoked, if indeed they were revocable at all. this state of his mind was rudely jarred by receiving a little later, at the hands of francisco velasquez, the deputy treasurer, and of juan de trasierra, one of the franciscans, the letter addressed to him by the sovereigns, commanding him to respect what bobadilla should tell him. here was tangible authority; and when it was accompanied by a summons from bobadilla to appear before him, he hesitated no longer, and, with the little state befitting his disgrace, proceeded at once to santo domingo. [sidenote: columbus approaches santo domingo.] [sidenote: . august . columbus is imprisoned in chains.] the admiral's brother diego had already been confined in irons on one of the caravels; and bobadilla, affecting to believe, as irving holds, that columbus would not come in any compliant mood, made a bustle of armed preparation. there was, however, no such intention on columbus's part, nor had been, since the royal mandate of implicit obedience had been received. he came as quietly as the circumstances would permit, and when the new governor heard he was within his grasp, his orders to seize him and throw him into prison were promptly executed (august , ). in the southeastern part of the town, the tower still stands, with little signs of decay, which then received the dejected admiral, and from its summit all approaching vessels are signaled to-day. las casas tells us of the shameless and graceless cook, one of columbus's own household, who riveted the fetters. "i knew the fellow," says that historian, "and i think his name was espinosa." while the adelantado was at large with an armed force, bobadilla was not altogether secure in his triumph. he demanded of columbus to write to his brother and counsel him to come in and surrender. this columbus did, assuring the adelantado of their safety in trusting to the later justice of the crown. bartholomew obeyed, as the best authorities say, though peter martyr mentions a rumor that he came in no accommodating spirit, and was captured while in advance of his force. it is certain he also was placed in irons, and confined on one of the caravels. it was bobadilla's purpose to keep the leaders apart, so there could be no concert of action, and even to prevent their seeing any one who could inform them of the progress of the inquest, which was at once begun. [sidenote: charges against columbus.] it seems evident that bobadilla, either of his own impulse or in accordance with secret instructions, was acting with a secrecy and precipitancy which would have been justifiable in the presence of armed sedition, but was uncalled for with no organized opposition to embarrass him. columbus at a later day tells us that he was denied ample clothing, even, and was otherwise ill treated. he says, too, he had no statement of charges given to him. it is a later story, started by charlevoix, that such accusations were presented to him in writing, and met by him in the same method. the trial was certainly a remarkable procedure, except we consider it simply an _ex parte_ process for indictment only, as indeed it really was. irving lays stress on the reversal by bobadilla of the natural order of his acts, amounting, in fact, to prejudging a person he was sent to examine. he also thinks that the governor was hurried to his conclusions in order to make up a show of necessity for his precipitate action. it has something of that look. "the rebels he had been sent to judge became, by this singular perversion of rule," says irving, "necessary and cherished evidences to criminate those against whom they had rebelled." this is the mistake of the apologists for columbus. bobadilla seems to have been sent to judge between two parties, and not to assume that only one was culpable. even irving suspects the true conditions. he allows that bobadilla would not have dared to go to this length, had he not felt assured that "certain things," as the mandate to columbus expressed it, would not be displeasing to the king. the charges against the admiral had been stock ones for years, and we have encountered them more than once in the progress of this narrative. they are rehearsed at length in the documents given by navarrete, and are repeated and summarized by peter martyr. it is perhaps true that there was some novelty in the asseveration that columbus's recent refusal to have some indians baptized was simply because it deprived him of selling them as slaves. this accusation, considering columbus's relations to the slave trade which he had created, is as little to be wondered at as any. [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] las casas tells us how indignant isabella had been with his presumptuous way of dealing with what she called her subjects; and by a royal order of june , , she had ordered, as we have seen, the return in bobadilla's fleet of nineteen of the slaves who had been sold. there was no better way of commending bobadilla's action to the queen, apparently, than by making the most of columbus's unfortunate relations to the slave trade. as the accusations were piled up, bobadilla saw the inquest leading, in his mind, to but one conclusion, the unnatural character of the viceroy and his unfitness for command,--a phrase not far from the truth, but hardly requiring the extraordinary proceedings which had brought the governor to a recognition of it. there is little question that the public sentiment of the colony, so far at least as it dare manifest itself, commended the governor. columbus in his dungeon might not see this with his own eyes, but if the reports are true, his ears carried it to his spirit, for howls and taunts against him came from beyond the walls, as the expression of the hordes which felt relieved by his fate. columbus himself confessed that bobadilla had "succeeded to the full" in making him hated of the people. all this was matter to brood upon in his loneliness. he magnified slight hints. he more than suspected he was doomed to a violent fate. when alonso de villejo, who was to conduct him to spain, in charge of the returning ships, came to the dungeon, columbus saw for the first time some recognition of his unfortunate condition. las casas, in recounting the interview, says that villejo was "an hidalgo of honorable character and my particular friend," and he doubtless got his account of what took place from that important participant. "villejo," said the prisoner, "whither do you take me?" "to embark on the ship, your excellency." "to embark, villejo? is that the truth?" "it is true," said the captain. for the first time the poor admiral felt that he yet might see spain and her sovereigns. [sidenote: . october. columbus sent to spain.] [sidenote: his chains.] the caravels set sail in october, , and soon passed out of earshot of the hootings that were sent after the miserable prisoners. the new keepers of columbus were not of the same sort as those who cast such farewell taunts. if the _historie_ is to be believed, bobadilla had ordered the chains to be kept on throughout the voyage, since, as the writer of that book grimly suggests, columbus might at any time swim back, if not secured. villejo was kind. so was the master of the caravel, andreas martin. they suggested that they could remove the manacles during the voyage; but the admiral, with that cherished constancy which persons feel, not always wisely, in such predicaments, thinking to magnify martyrdom, refused. "no," he said; "my sovereigns ordered me to submit, and bobadilla has chained me. i will wear these irons until by royal order they are removed, and i shall keep them as relics and memorials of my services." * * * * * [sidenote: degradation of columbus.] [sidenote: his letter to the nurse of prince juan analyzed.] [sidenote: charges against columbus.] the relations of columbus and bobadilla bring before us the most startling of the many combinations of events in the history of a career which is sadder, perhaps, notwithstanding its glory, than any other mortal presents in profane history. the degradation of such a man appeals more forcibly to human sympathy than almost any other event in the record of humanity. that sympathy has obscured the import of his degradation, and that mournful explanation of the events, which, either on his voyage or shortly after his return, columbus wrote and sent to the nurse of prince juan, has long worked upon the sensibilities of a world tender for his misfortunes. we cannot indeed read this letter without compassion, nor can we read it dispassionately without perceiving that the feelings of the man who wrote it had been despoiled of a judicial temper by his errors as well as by his miseries. his statements of the case are wholly one-sided. he never sees what it pains him to see. he forgets everything that an enemy would remember. he finds it difficult to tell the truth, and trusts to iterated professions to be taken for truths. he claims to have no conception why he was imprisoned, when he knew perfectly well, as he says himself, that he had endeavored to create an opposition to constituted authority "by verbal and written declarations;" and he reiterates this statement after he had bowed to royal commands that were as explicit as his own treatment of them had been recalcitrant. indeed, he puts himself in the rather ridiculous posture of answering a long series of charges, of which at the same time he professes to be ignorant. in the course of this letter, columbus set up a claim that he had been seriously misjudged in trying to measure his accountability by the laws that govern established governments rather than by those which grant indulgences to the conqueror of a numerous and warlike nation. the position is curiously inconsistent with his professed intentions, as the sole ruler of a colony, to be just in the eyes of god and men. the crown had given him its authority to establish precisely what he claims had not been established, a government of laws kindly disposed to protect both spaniard and native, and yet he did not understand why his doings were called in question. he had boasted repeatedly how far from warlike and dangerous the natives were, so that a score of spaniards could put seven thousand to rout, as he was eager to report in one case. the chief of the accusations against him did not pertain to his malfeasance in regard to the natives, but towards the spaniards themselves, and it was begging the question to consider his companions a conquered nation. if there were no established government as respects them, he would be the last to admit it; and if it were proved against him, there was no one so responsible for the absence of it as himself. again he says: "i ought to be judged by cavaliers who have gained victories themselves,--by gentlemen, and not by lawyers." the fact was that the case had been judged by hidalgoes without number, and to his disgrace, and it was taken from them to give him the protection of the law, such as it was; and, as he himself acknowledges, there is in the indies "neither civil right nor judgment seat." as he was the source of all the bulwarks of life and liberty in these same indies, he thus acknowledges the deficiencies of his own protective agencies. there is something childishly immature in the proposition which he advances that he should be judged by persons in his own pay. [sidenote: palliation.] it is of course necessary to allow the writer of this letter all the palliation that a man in his distressed and disordered condition might claim. columbus had in fact been perceptibly drifting into a state of delusion and aberration of mind ever since the sustaining power of a great cause had been lifted from him. from the moment when he turned his mule back at the instance of isabella's message, the lofty purpose had degenerated to a besetting cupidity, in which he made even the divinity a constant abettor. in this same letter he tells of a vision of the previous christmas, when the lord confronted him miraculously, and reminded him of his vow to amass treasure enough in seven years to undertake his crusade to jerusalem. this visible godhead then comforted him with the assurance that his divine power would see that it came to pass. "the seven years you were to await have not yet passed. trust in me and all will be right." it is easy to point to numerous such instances in columbus's career, and the canonizers do not neglect to do so, as evincing the sublime confidence of the devoted servant of the lord; but one can hardly put out of mind the concomitants of all such confidence. the most that we can allow is the unaccountableness of a much-vexed conscience. chapter xviii. columbus again in spain. - . [sidenote: . october. columbus reaches cadiz.] [sidenote: public sympathy at his degradation.] it was in october, , after a voyage of less discomfort than usual, that the ships of villejo, carrying his manacled prisoners, entered the harbor of cadiz. if bobadilla had precipitately prejudged his chief prisoner, public sentiment, when it became known that columbus had arrived in chains, was not less headlong in its sympathetic revulsion. bobadilla would at this moment have stood a small chance for a dispassionate examination. the discoverer of the new world coming back from it a degraded prisoner was a discordant spectacle in the public mind, filled with recollections of those days of the first return to palos, when a new range had been given to man's conceptions of the physical world. this common outburst of indignation showed, as many times before and since, how the world's sense of justice has in it more of spirit than of steady discernment. the hectic flush was sure to pass,--as it did. [sidenote: columbus's letter to the nurse of prince juan.] it was while on his voyage, or shortly after his return, that columbus wrote the letter to the lady of the court usually spoken of as the nurse of prince juan, which has been already considered. before the proceedings of the inquest which bobadilla had forwarded by the ship were sent to the court, then in the alhambra, columbus, with the connivance of martin, the captain of his caravel, had got this exculpatory letter off by a special messenger. the lady to whom it was addressed was, it will be remembered, doña juana de la torre, an intimate companion of the queen, with whom the admiral's two sons, as pages of the queen, had been for some months in daily relations. the text of this letter has long been known. las casas copied it in his _historia_. navarrete gives it from another copy, but corrected by the text preserved at genoa; while harrisse tells us that the text in paris contains an important passage not in that at genoa. [sidenote: the sovereigns order columbus to be released.] while its ejaculatory arguments are not well calculated to impose on the sober historian, there was enough of fervor laid against its background of distressing humility to work on the sympathies of its recipient, and of the queen, to whom it was early and naturally revealed. "i have now reached that point that there is no man so vile, but thinks it his right to insult me," was the language, almost at its opening, which met their eyes. the further reading of the letter brought up a picture of the manacled admiral. very likely the rumor of the rising indignation spreading from cadiz to seville, and from seville elsewhere, as well as the letters of the alcalde of cadiz, into whose hands columbus had been delivered, and of villejo, who had had him in custody, added to the tumult of sensations mutually shared in that little circle of the monarchs and the doña juana. if we take the prompt action of the sovereigns in ordering the immediate release of columbus, their letter of sympathy at the baseness of his treatment, the two thousand ducats put at his disposal to prepare for a visit to the court, and the cordial royal summons for him to come,--if all these be taken at their apparent value, the candid observer finds himself growing distrustful of bobadilla's justification through his secret instructions. as the observer goes on in the story and notes the sequel, he is more inclined to believe that the sovereigns, borne on the rising tide of indignant sympathy, had defended themselves at the expense of their commissioner. we may never know the truth. [sidenote: . december . columbus at court.] that was a striking scene when columbus, delivered from his irons on the th of december, , held his first interview with the spanish monarchs. oviedo was an eyewitness of it; but we find more of its accompaniments in the story as told by herrera than in the scant narrative of the _historie_. humboldt fancies that it was the admiral's son who wrote it. the author of that book had no heart to record at much length the professions of regret on the part of the king, since they were not easily reconcilable with what, in that writer's judgment, would have been the honorable reception of bobadilla and roldan, had they escaped the fate of the tempests which later overwhelmed them. when the first warmth of columbus's reception had subsided, there would have been no reason to suspect that those absent servants of the crown would have been denied a suitable welcome. herrera tells us of the touching character of this interview of december ; how the queen burst into tears, and the emotional admiral cast himself on the ground at her feet. when columbus could speak, he began to recall the reasons for which he had been imprisoned, and rehearsed them with humble and exculpatory professions. he forgot that in the letter which so excited their sympathy he had denied that he knew any such reasons, and the sovereigns forgot it too. the meeting had awakened the tenderer parts of their natures, and their hearts went out to him. they made verbal promises of largesses and professions of restitution, but harrisse could find no written expressions of this kind, till in the instructions of march , , when they expressed their directions for his guidance during his next voyage. the admiral grew confident, as of old, in their presence. he had always reached a coign of vantage in his personal intercourse with the queen. he had evidently not lost that power. he began to picture his return to santo domingo with the triumph that he now enjoyed. it was a hollow hope. he was never again to be viceroy of the indies. [sidenote: columbus suspended from power.] [sidenote: other explorers in american waters.] [sidenote: portuguese claims.] the disorders in española were but a part of the reasons why it was now decided to suspend the patented rights of the admiral, if not permanently to deny the further exercise of them. we have seen how the government had committed itself to other discoveries, profiting, as it did, by the maps which columbus had sent back to spain. these discoveries were a new source of tribute which could not be neglected. rival nations too were alert, and ships of the portuguese and of the english had been found prowling about within the unquestioned limits allowed to spain by the new treaty line of tordesillas. at the north and at the south these same powers were pushing their search, to see if perchance portions of the new regions could not be found to project so far east as to bring them on the portuguese side of that same line. portugal had already claimed that cabral had found such territory under the equator and south of it. an eastward projection of brazil at the south, twenty degrees and more, is very common in the contemporary portuguese maps. [sidenote: . may . coelho's voyage.] [sidenote: was vespucius on this voyage?] on the th of may, , a new portuguese fleet of three ships, under the command of gonçalo coelho, sailed from lisbon to develop the coast of the southern vera cruz, as south america was now called, and to see if a way could be found through it to the moluccas. in june, the fleet, while at the cape de verde islands, met cabral with his vessels on their return from india. here it was that cabral's interpreter, gasparo, communicated the particulars of cabral's discovery to vespucius, who was, as seems pretty clear, though by no means certain, on board this outward-bound fleet. a letter exists, brought to light by count baldelli boni, not, however, in the hand of vespucius, in which the writer, under date of june , gave the results of his note-takings with cabral to pier francisco de medici. varnhagen is in some doubt about the genuineness of this document. indeed, the historian, if he weighs all the testimony that has been adduced for and against the participancy of vespucius in this voyage, can hardly be quite sure that the florentine was aboard at all, and santarem is confident he was not. navarrete thinks he was perhaps there in some subordinate capacity. humboldt is staggered at the profession of vespucius in still keeping the great bear above the horizon at ° south, since it is lost after reaching °. [sidenote: the _mundus novus_ of vespucius.] with all this doubt, we have got to make something out of another letter, which in the published copy purports to have been written in about this voyage by vespucius himself, and from it we learn that his ship had struck the coast at cape st. roque, on august , . the discoverers reached and named cape st. augustine on august . on november , they were at bahia. by the d of april, , they had reached the latitude of ° south, when, driven off the coast in a severe gale, they made apparently the island of georgia, whence they stood over to africa, and reached lisbon on september, , . by what name vespucius called this south american coast we do not know, for his original italian text is lost, but the _mundus novus_ of the latin paraphrase or version raised a feeling of expectancy that something new had really been found, distinct from the spicy east. varnhagen is convinced that vespucius, different from columbus, had awakened to the conception of an absolutely new quarter of the earth. there is little ground for the belief, however, in its full extent and confidence. the little tract had in it the elements of popularity, and in and the german and french presses gave it currency in several editions in the latin tongue, whence it was turned into italian, german, and dutch, spreading through europe the fame of vespucius. we trace to this voyage the origin of the nomenclature of the coast of the south american continent which then grew up, and is represented in the earlier maps, like that of lorenz fries, for instance, in . [illustration: mundus novus, first page.] [sidenote: discoveries of vespucius.] [sidenote: maps of early voyages.] a letter dated august , , preserved in tritemius's _epistolarum familiarum libri duo_ ( ), has been thought to refer to a printed map which showed the discoveries of vespucius down to ° south. this map is unknown, apparently, as the particulars given concerning it do not agree with the map of ruysch, the only one, so far as known, to antedate that epistle. it is possibly the missing map which waldseemüller is thought to have first made, and which became the prototype of the recognized waldseemüller map of the ptolemy of , and was possibly the one from which the cantino map, yet to be described, was perfected in other parts than those of the cortereal discoveries. this anterior map may have been merely an early state of the plate, and lelewel gives reasons for believing that early impressions of this map were in the market in . [sidenote: columbus and vespucius.] thus while columbus was nurturing his deferred hopes, neglected and poor, and awaiting what after all was but a tantalizing revival of royal interest, the rival portuguese, acting most probably under the influences of columbus's own countryman, this florentine, were stretching farther towards the true western route to the moluccas than the admiral had any conception of. vespucius was also at the same time unwittingly asserting claims which should in the end rob the great discoverer of the meed of bestowing his name on the new continent which he had just as unwittingly discovered. the contrast is of the same strange impressiveness which marks so many of the improbable turns in the career of columbus. * * * * * [sidenote: . spanish purposes at the north.] meanwhile, what was going on in the north, where portugal was pushing her discoveries in the region already explored by cabot? the spaniards had been dilatory here. the monarchs, may , , while they were distracted with the reports of the disquietude of española, had turned their attention in this direction, and had thought of sending ships into the seas which "sebastian cabot had discovered." they had done nothing, however, though navarrete finds that explorations thitherward, under juan dornelos and ojeda, had been planned. [illustration: straits of belle isle, showing site of early norman fishing station at bradore. [after reclus's _l'amerique_.]] [illustration: ms. of gaspar cortereal. [from harrisse's _cortereal_, _postscriptum_, .]] [sidenote: bretons and normans at the north.] if we may believe some of the accounts of explorations this way on the part of the bretons and normans, they had founded a settlement called brest on the labrador coast, just within the straits of belle isle, on a bay now called bradore, as early as . it is said that traces of their houses can be still seen there. but there is no definite contemporary record of their exploits. we have such records of the portuguese movements, though not through spanish sources. unaccountably, peter martyr, who kept himself alert for all such impressions, makes no reference to any portuguese voyages; and it is only when we come down to gomara ( ) that we find a spanish writer reverting to the narratives. in doing so, gomara makes, at the same time, some confusion in the chronology. [sidenote: cortereal voyages.] portugal had missed a great opportunity in discrediting columbus, but she had succeeded in finding one in da gama. she was now in wait for a chance to mate her southern route with a western, or rather with a northern,--at any rate, with one which would give her some warrant for efforts not openly in violation of the negotiations which had followed upon the bull of demarcation. opportunely, word came to lisbon of the successes of the cabot voyages, and there was the probability of islands and interjacent passages at the north very like the geographical configuration which the spaniards had found farther south. to appearances, cabot had met with such land on the portuguese side of the division line of the treaty of tordesillas. [sidenote: . gaspar cortereal.] [sidenote: . gaspar cortereal again.] king emanuel had a vassal in gaspar cortereal, who at this time was a man about fifty years old, and he had already in years past conducted explorations oceanward, though we have no definite knowledge of their results. it has been conjectured that columbus may have known him; but there is nothing to make this certain. at any rate, there was little in the surroundings of columbus at española, when he was subjected to chains in the summer of , to remind him of any northern rivalry, though the visits of ojeda and pinzon to that island were foreboding. it was just at that time that cortereal sailed away from portugal to the northwest. he discovered the terra do labrador, which he named apparently because he thought its natives would increase very handily the slave labor of portugal. to follow up this quest, gaspar sailed again with three ships, may , , which is the date given by damian de goes. harrisse is not so sure, but finds that gaspar was still in port april , . cortereal ran a course a little more to the west, and came to a coast, two thousand miles away, as was reckoned, and skirted it without finding any end. he decided from the volume of its rivers, that it was probably a continental area. the voyagers found in the hands of some natives whom they saw a broken sword and two silver earrings, evidently of italian make. the natural inference is that they had fallen among tribes which cabot had encountered on his second voyage, if indeed these relics did not represent earlier visitors. cortereal also found in a high latitude a country which he called _terra verde_. two of the vessels returned safely, bringing home some of the natives, and the capture of such, to make good the name bestowed during the previous voyage, seems to have been the principal aim of the explorers. the third ship, with gaspar on board, was never afterwards heard of. [illustration: ms. of miguel cortereal. [from harrisse's _cortereal, postscriptum_.]] [sidenote: original sources on the cortereal voyages.] [sidenote: portuguese habit of concealing information.] it so happened that pasqualigo, the venetian ambassador in lisbon, made record of the return of the first of these vessels, in a letter which he wrote from lisbon, october , ; and it is from this, which made part of the well-known _paesi novamente retrovati_ (vicenza, ), that we derive what little knowledge we have of these voyages. the reports have fortunately been supplemented by harrisse in a dispatch dated october , , which he has produced from the archives of modena, in which one alberto cantino tells how he heard the captain of the vessel which arrived second tell the story to the king. this dispatch to the duke of ferrara was followed by a map showing the new discoveries. this cartographical record had been known for some years before it was reproduced by harrisse on a large scale. it is apparent from this that the discoverers believed, or feigned to believe, that the new-found regions lay westward from ireland half-way to the american coasts. the evidence that they feigned to believe rather than that they knew these lands to be east of their limitary line may not be found; but it was probably some such doubt of their honesty which induced robert thorne, of bristol, to speak of the purpose which the portuguese had in falsifying their maps. nor were the frauds confined to maps. translations were distorted and narratives perverted. biddle, in his _life of cabot_, points out a marked instance of this, where the simple language of pasqualigo is twisted so as to convey the impression of a long acquaintance of the natives with italian commodities, as proving that the italians had formerly visited the region,--a hint which biddle supposed the zeni narrative at a later date was contrived to sustain, so as to deceive many writers. we shall soon revert to this cantino map. [sidenote: . miguel cortereal.] the voyage which miguel cortereal is known to have undertaken in the summer of , which has been connected with this series of northwest voyages, is held by harrisse, in his revised opinions, not to have been to the new world at all, but to have been conducted against the grand turk, and cortereal returned from it on november , . [sidenote: . miguel cortereal again.] to search for the missing gaspar cortereal, miguel, on may , , again sailed to the northwest with two or three ships. they found the same coast as before, searched it without success, and returned again without a leader; for miguel's ship missed the others at a rendezvous and was never again heard of. [sidenote: terre des cortereal.] [sidenote: straits of anian.] the endeavors of the portuguese in this direction did not end here; and the region thus brought by them to the attention of the cartographer soon acquired in their maps the name of _terre des cortereal_, or _terra dos corte reals_, or, as latinized by sylvanus, _regalis domus_. there is little, however, to connect these earliest ventures with later history, except perhaps that from their experiences it is that a vague cartographical conception of the fabled straits of anian confronts us in many of the maps of the latter half of the sixteenth century. no one has made it quite sure whence the appellation or even the idea of such a strait came. by some it has been thought to have grown out of marco polo's ania, which was conceived to be in the north. by navarrete, humboldt, and others it has been made to grow in some way out of these cortereal voyages, and humboldt supposes that the entrance to hudson bay, under ° north latitude, was thought at that time to lead to some sort of a transcontinental passage, going it is hardly known where. the name does not seem at first to have been magnified into all its later associations of a kingdom, or "regnum" of anian, as the latin nomenclature then had it. its great city of quivira did not appear till some time after the middle of the sixteenth century, and then it was not always quite certain to the cosmographical mind whether all this magnificence might not better be placed on the asiatic side of such a strait. this imaginary channel was made for a long period to run along the parallels of latitudes somewhere in the northern regions of the new world, after america had begun generally to have its independent existence recognized, south of the arctic regions at least. the next stage of the belief violently changed the course of the straits across the parallels, prefiguring the later discovered bering's straits; and this is made prominent in maps of zalterius ( ) and mercator ( ), and in the maps of those who copied these masters. [sidenote: spanish maps.] [sidenote: maps of the cortereal discoveries.] it took thirty years for the cortereal discoveries to work their way into the conceptions of the spanish map makers. whether this dilatory belief came from lack of information, obliviousness, or simply from an heroic persistence in ignoring what was not their boast, is a question to be decided through an estimate of the spanish character. there seems, however, to have been interest enough on the part of a single italian noble to seek information at once, as we see from the cantino map; but the knowledge was not, nevertheless, apparently a matter of such interest but it could escape ruysch in . not till sylvanus issued his edition of ptolemy, in , did any signs of these cortereal expeditions appear on an engraved map. [illustration: the cantino map.] [sidenote: the cantino map. .] only a few years have passed since students of these cartographical fields were first allowed free study of this cantino map. it is, after la cosa, the most interesting of all the early maps of the american coast as its configuration had grown to be comprehended in the ten years which followed the first voyage of columbus. [sidenote: the cortereal discoveries east of the line of demarcation.] [sidenote: terra verde.] there are three special points of interest in this chart. the first is the evident purpose of the maker, when sending it ( ) to his correspondent in italy, to render it clear that the coasts which the portuguese had tracked in the northwest atlantic were sufficiently protuberant towards the rising sun to throw them on the portuguese side of the revised line of demarcation. it is by no means certain, however, in doing so, that they pretended their discoveries to have been other than neighboring to asia, since a peninsula north of these regions is called a "point of asia." the ordinary belief of geographers at that time was that our modern greenland was an extension of northern europe. so it does not seem altogether certain that the _terra verde_ of cortereal can be held to be identical with its namesake of the sagas. [sidenote: columbus and the cantino map in the paria region.] [sidenote: columbus in want.] the second point of interest is what seems to be the connection between this map and those which had emanated from the results of the columbus voyages, directly or indirectly. columbus had made a chart of his track through the gulf of paria, and had sent it to spain, and ojeda had coursed the same region by it. we know from a letter of angelo trivigiano, the secretary of the venetian ambassador in spain, dated at granada, august , , and addressed to domenico malipiero, that at that time columbus, who had ingratiated himself with the writer of the letter, was living without money, in great want, and out of favor with the sovereigns. this letter-writer then speaks of his intercession with peter martyr to have copies of his narrative of the voyages of columbus made, and of his pleading with columbus himself to have transcripts of his own letters to his sovereigns given to him, as well as a map of the new discoveries from the admiral's own charts, which he then had with him in granada. there are three letters of trivigiano, but the originals are not known. foscarini in used them in his _della letteratura veneziana_, as found in the library of jacopo soranzo; but both these originals and foscarini's copies have eluded the search of harrisse, who gives them as printed or abstracted by zurla. what we have is not supposed to be the entire text, and we may well regret the loss of the rest. trivigiano says of the map that he expected it to be extremely well executed on a large scale, giving ample details of the country which had been discovered. he refers to the delays incident to sending to palos to have it made, because persons capable of such work could only be found there. no such copy as that made for malipiero is now known. harrisse thinks that if it is ever discovered it will be very like the cantino map, with the cortereal discoveries left out. this same commentator also points out that there are certainly indications in the cantino map that the maker of it, in drafting the region about the gulf of paria at least, worked either from columbus's map or from some copy of it, for his information seems to be more correct than that which la cosa followed. [sidenote: what is the coast north of cuba?] the third point of interest in this cantino map, and one which has given rise to opposing views, respects that coast which is drawn in it north of the completed cuba, and which at first glance is taken with little question for the atlantic coast of the united states from florida up. is it such? did the cartographers of that time have anything more than conjecture by which to run such a coast line? a letter of pasqualigo, dated at lisbon, october , , and found by von ranke at venice in the diary of marino sanuto,--a running record of events, which begins in ,--has been interpreted by humboldt as signifying that at this time it was known among the portuguese observers of the maritime reports that a continental stretch of coast connected the spanish discoveries in the antilles with those of the portuguese at the north. harrisse questions this interpretation, and considers that what humboldt thinks knowledge was simply a tentative conjecture. if this knowledge is represented in the cantino map, there is certainly too great remoteness in the regions of the cortereal discoveries to form such a connection. it is of course possible that the map is a falsification in this respect, to make the line of demarcation serve the portuguese interests, and such falsification is by no means improbable. [sidenote: the cantino and la cosa maps at variance.] [sidenote: bimini.] it will be remembered that the la cosa map showed no hesitancy in placing the antilles on the coast of asia, and put the region of the cabot landfall on the coast of cathay. consequently, the difference between the la cosa and the cantino maps for this region north of cuba is phenomenal. in these two or three years ( - ), something had come to pass which seemed to raise the suspicion that this northern continental line might possibly not be asiatic after all, or at least it might not have the trend or contour which had before been given it on the asiatic theory. it is an interesting question from whom this information could have come. was this coast in the cantino map indeed not north american, but the coast of yucatan, misplaced, as one conjecture has been? but this involves a recognition of some voyage on the yucatan coast of which we have no record. was it the result of one of the voyages of vespucius, and was varnhagen right in tracking that navigator up the east florida shore? was it drawn by some unauthorized spanish mariners, who were--we know columbus complained of such--invading his vested rights, or perhaps by some of those to whom he was finally induced to concede the privilege of exploration? was it found by some english explorer who answers the description of ojeda in , when he complains that people of this nation had been in these regions some years before? was it the discovery of some of those against whom a royal prohibition of discovery was issued by the catholic kings, september , ? was it anything more than the result of some vague information from the lucayan indians, aided by a sprinkling of supposable names, respecting a land called bimini lying there away? eight or nine years later, peter martyr, in the map which he published in , seems to have thought so, and certain stories of a fountain of youth in regions lying in that direction were already prevalent, as martyr also shows us. the fact seems to be that we have no spanish map between the making of la cosa's in and this one of peter martyr in , to indicate any spanish acquaintance with such a northern coast. [sidenote: peter martyr's map. .] this map of , if it is honest enough to show what the spanish government knew of florida, is indicative of but the vaguest information, and its divulgence of that coast may, in brevoort's opinion, account for the rarity of the chart, in view of the determination of spain to keep control as far as she could of all cartographical records of what her explorers found out. it is evident, if we accept the theory of this cantino map showing the coast of the united states, that we have in it a delineation nearer the source by several years than those which modern students have longer known in the waldseemüller map of , the stobnicza map of , the reisch map of , and the so-called admiral's map of ,--all which arose, it is very clear, from much the same source as this of cantino. what is that source? there are some things that seem to indicate that this source was the description of portuguese rather than of other seamen. this belief falls in with what we know of the cordial relations of portugal and duke rené, under whose auspices waldseemüller at least worked. thus it would seem that while spain was impeding cartographical knowledge through the rest of europe, portugal was so assiduously helping it that for many years the ptolemies and other central and southern european publications were making known the cosmographical ideas which originated in portugal. it has been already said that humboldt in his _examen critique_ (iv. ) refers to a letter which indicates that in october, , the portuguese had already learned, or it may be only conjectured, that the coast from the region of the antilles ran uninterruptedly north till it united with the snowy shores of the northern discoveries. this, then, seems to indicate that it was a portuguese source that supplied conjecture, if not fact, to the maker of the cantino map. harrisse's solution of this matter, as also mentioned already, is that the letter found by von ranke and the letter which we know pasqualigo sent to venice about the cortereal voyages were one and the same, and that it was rather conjecture than fact that the portuguese possessed at this time. the obvious difficulty in the cartographical problem for the portuguese was, as has been said, to make it appear that they were not disregarding the agreement at tordesillas while they were securing a region for sovereignty. we have already said that this accounts for the extreme eastern position found in the cantino and the cognate maps of the newfoundland region, which, as thus drawn, it was not easy to connect with the coast line of eastern florida. hence the open sea-gap which exists between them in the maps, while the evidence of the descriptions would make the coast line continuous. we have thus suggested possible solutions of this continental shore above florida. it must be confessed that the truth is far from patent, and we must yet wait perhaps a long time before we discover, if indeed we ever do, to whom this mapping of the coast, as shown in the cantino map, was due. [sidenote: was the florida coast known?] there are evidences other than those of this cantino map that the portuguese were in this floridian region in the early years of the sixteenth century, and lelewel tried to work out their discoveries from scattered data, in a conjectural map, which he marks - , and which resembles the ptolemy map of . the bringing forward of the cantino map confirms much of the supposed cartography. there is one theory which to some minds gives a very easy solution of this problem, without requiring belief in any knowledge, clandestine or public, of such a land. brevoort in his _verrazano_ had already been inclined to the view later emphasized by stevens in his _schöner_, and reiterated by coote in his editorial revision of that posthumous work. stevens is content to allow ocampo, in , to have been the earliest probable discoverer of this coast, and ponce de leon as the original attested finder in . [sidenote: this cantino coast a duplicated cuba.] the stevens theory is that this seeming florida arose from a portuguese misconception of the first two voyages of columbus, by which two regions were thought to have been coasted instead of different sides of the same, and that what others consider an early premonition of florida and the upper coasts was simply a duplicated cuba, to make good the portuguese conception. it is not explained how so strange a misconception of very palpable truths could have arisen, or how a coast trending north and south so far could have been confounded with one stretching at right angles to such a course for so short a distance. stevens traces the influence of his "bogus cuba" in a long series of maps based on portuguese notions, in which he names those of waldseemüller ( ), stobnicza ( ), schöner ( , ), reisch ( ), bordone ( ), solinus ( ), friess ( ), and grynæus ( --made probably earlier), as opposed to the spanish and more truthful view, which is expressed by ruysch ( - ) and peter martyr, ( ). it is a proposition not to be dismissed lightly nor accepted triumphantly on our present knowledge. we must wait for further developments. the fancy that this coast was asia and that cuba was asia might, indeed, have led to the transfer to it at one time of the names which columbus had placed along the north coast of his supposed peninsular cuba; but that proves a misplacement of the names, and not a creation of the coast. for a while this continental land was backed up on the maps against a meridian scale, which hid the secret of its western limits, and left it a possible segment of asia. then it stood out alone with a north and southwestern line, but with asia beyond, just as if it were no part of it, and this delineation was common even while there was a division of geographical belief as to north america and asia being one. [sidenote: cuba an island.] the fact that cuba, in the drafting of the la cosa and cantino maps, is represented as an island has at times been held to signify that the views of columbus respecting its peninsular rather than its insular character were not wholly shared by his contemporaries. that foolish act by which, under penalty, the admiral forced his crew to swear that it was a part of the main might well imply that he expected his assertions would be far from acceptable to other cosmographers. if varnhagen's opinion as to the track of vespucius in his voyage of , following the contour of the gulf of mexico, be accepted as knowledge of the time, the insularity of cuba was necessarily proved even at that early day; but it is the opinion of henry stevens, as has been already shown, that the green outline of the western parts of cuba in la cosa's chart was only the conventional way of expressing an uncertain coast. consequently it did not imply insularity. if it is to be supposed that the portuguese had a similar method of expressing uncertainties of coast, they did not employ it in the cantino map, and cuba in is unmistakably an island. it is, moreover, sufficiently like the cuba of la cosa to show it was drawn from one and the same prototype. if the maker of the cantino map followed la cosa, or a copy of la cosa, or the material from which la cosa worked, there is no proof that he ever suspected the peninsularity of cuba. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus looking on at other explorations.] columbus, in his hours of neglect, and amid his unheeded pleas for recognition, during these two grewsome years in spain, may never have comprehended in their full significance these active efforts of the portuguese to anticipate his own hopes of a western passage beyond the golden chersonesus; but the doings of mendoza, cristobal guerra, and other fellow-subjects of spain were not wholly unknown to him. [sidenote: . october. bastidas's expedition.] in october, , and before columbus knew just what his reception in spain was going to be, rodrigo de bastidas, accompanied by la cosa and vasco nuñez balboa, sailed from cadiz on an expedition that had for its object to secure to the crown one quarter of the profits, and to make an examination of the coast line beyond the bay of venezuela, in order that it might be made sure that no channel to an open sea lay beyond. the two caravels followed the shore to nombre de dios, and at the narrowest part of the isthmus, without suspecting their nearness to the longed-for sea, the navigators turned back. finding their vessels unseaworthy, for the worms had riddled their bottoms, they sought a harbor in española, near which their vessels foundered after they had saved a part of their lading. a little later, this gave bobadilla a chance to arrest the commander for illicit trade with the natives. this transaction was nothing more, apparently, than the barter of trinkets for provisions, as he was leading his men across the island to the settlements. [sidenote: portuguese and english in these regions.] it was while with bastidas, in - , that la cosa reports seeing the portuguese prowling about the caribbean and mexican waters, seeking for a passage to calicut. it was while on a mission of remonstrance to lisbon that la cosa was later arrested and imprisoned, and remained till august, , a prisoner in portugal. [sidenote: . january. ojeda's voyage.] we have seen that in ojeda had met or heard of english vessels on the coast of terra firma, or professed that he had. the spanish government, suspecting they were but precursors of others who might attempt to occupy the coast, determined on thwarting such purposes, if possible, by anticipating occupation. ojeda was given the power to lead thither a colony, if he could do it without cost to the crown, which reserved a due share of his profits. he obtained the assistance of juan de vegara and garcia de ocampo, and with this backing he sailed with four ships from cadiz in january, , while columbus was preparing his own little fleet for his last voyage. it was a venture, however, that came to naught. the natives, under ample provocation, proved hostile, food was lacking, the leaders quarreled, and the partners of ojeda, combining, overpowered (may, ) their leader, and sent him a prisoner to española, where he arrived in september, . [sidenote: english in the west indies.] there has never been any clear definition as to who these englishmen were, or what was their project, during these earliest years of the sixteenth century. there is evidence that henry vii. about this time authorized some ventures in which his countrymen were joint sharers with the portuguese, but we know nothing further of the regions visited than that the privy purse expenses show how some bristol men received a gratuity for having been at the "newefounde launde." there is also a vague notion to be formed from an old entry that sebastian cabot himself again visited this region in , and brought home three of the natives,--to say nothing of additional even vaguer suspicions of other ventures of the english at this time. * * * * * in enumerating the ocean movements that were now going on, some intimation has been given of the tiresome expectancy of something better which was intermittently beguiling the spirits of columbus during the eighteen months that he remained in spain. it is necessary to trace his unhappy life in some detail, though the particulars are not abundant. [sidenote: columbus's life in spain. - .] ferdinand had not been unobservant of all these expeditionary movements, and they were quite as threatening to the spanish supremacy in the new world as his own personal defection was to the dejected admiral. it had become very clear that by tying his own hands, as he had in the compact which columbus was urging to have observed, the king had allowed opportunities to pass by which he could profit through the newly aroused enthusiasm of the seaports. [sidenote: ferdinand allows other expeditions.] we have seen that he had, nevertheless, through fonseca sanctioned the expeditions of ojeda, pinzon, and others, and had notably in that of niño got large profits for the exchequer. he had done this in defiance of the vested rights of columbus, and there is little doubt that to bring columbus into disgrace by the loss of his admiral's power served in part to open the field of discovery more as ferdinand wished. with the viceroy dethroned and become a waiting suitor, there was little to stay ferdinand's ambition in sending out other explorers. his experience had taught him to allow no stipulations on which explorers could found exorbitant demands upon the booty and profit of the ventures. anybody could sail westward now, and there was no longer the courage of conviction required to face an unknown sea and find an opposite shore. columbus, who had shown the way, was now easily cast off as a useless pilot. it was not difficult for the king to frame excuses when columbus urged his reinstatement. there was no use in sending back an unpopular viceroy before the people of the colony had been quieted. give them time. it might be seasonable enough to send to them their old master when they had forgotten their misfortunes under him. perhaps a better man than bobadilla could be found to still the commotions, and if so he might be sent. in the face of all this and the king's determination, columbus could do nothing but acquiesce, and so he gradually made up his mind to bide his time once more. it was not a new discipline for him. [sidenote: bobadilla's rule in española.] it was clear from the intelligence which was reaching spain that bobadilla would have to be superseded. freed from the restraints which had created so much complaint during the rule of columbus, and even courted with offers of indulgence, the miserable colony at española readily degenerated from bad to worse. the new governor had hoped to find that a lack of constraint would do for the people what an excess of it had failed to do. he erred in his judgment, and let the colony slip beyond his control. licentiousness was everywhere. the only exaction he required was the tribute of gold. he reduced the proportion which must be surrendered to the crown from a third to an eleventh, but he so apportioned the labor of the natives to the colonists that the yield of gold grew rapidly, and became more with the tax an eleventh than it had been when it was a third. this inhuman degradation of the poor natives had become an organized misery when, a little later, las casas arrived in the colony, and he depicts the baleful contrasts of the indians and their attractive island. gold was potent, but it was not potent enough to keep bobadilla in his place. the representations of the agony of life among the natives were so harrowing that it was decided to send a new governor at once. [sidenote: ovando sent to española.] the person selected was nicholas de ovando, a man of whom las casas, who went out with him, gives a high character for justice, sobriety, and graciousness. perhaps he deserved it. the sympathizers with columbus find it hard to believe such praise. ovando was commissioned as governor over all the continental and insular domains, then acquired or thereafter to be added to the crown in the new world. he was to have his capital at santo domingo. he was deputed, with about as much authority as bobadilla had had, to correct abuses and punish delinquents, and was to take one third of all gold so far stored up, and one half of what was yet to be gathered. he was to monopolize all trade for the crown. he was to segregate the colonists as much as possible in settlements. no supplies were to be allowed to the people unless they got them through the royal factor. new efforts were to be made through some franciscans, who accompanied ovando, to convert the indians. the natives were to be made to work in the mines as hired servants, paid by the crown. [sidenote: negro slaves to be introduced.] it had already become evident that such labor as the mining of gold required was too exhausting for the natives, and the death-rate among them was such that eyes were already opened to the danger of extermination. by a sophistry which suited a sixteenth-century christian, the existence of this poor race was to be prolonged by introducing the negro race from africa, to take the heavier burden of the toil, because it was believed they would die more slowly under the trial. so it was royally ordered that slaves, born of africans, in spain, might be carried to española. the promise of columbus's letter to sanchez was beginning to prove delusive. it was going to require the degradation of two races instead of one. that was all! [sidenote: . columbus's property restored.] [sidenote: his factor.] to assuage the smart of all this forcible deprivation of his power, columbus was apprised that under a royal order of september , , ovando would see to the restitution of any property of his which bobadilla had appropriated, and that the admiral was to be allowed to send a factor in the fleet to look after his interests under the articles which divided the gold and treasure between him and the crown. to this office of factor columbus appointed alonso sanchez de carvajal. [sidenote: ovando's fleet.] [sidenote: . february . it sails.] the pomp and circumstance of the fleet were like a biting sarcasm to the poor admiral. one might expect he could have no high opinions of its pilots, for we find him writing to the sovereigns, on february , a letter laying before them certain observations on the art of navigation, in which he says: "there will be many who will desire to sail to the discovered islands; and if the way is known those who have had experience of it may safest traverse it." perhaps he meant to imply that better pilots were more important than much parade. he in his most favored time had never been fitted out with a fleet of thirty sail, so many of them large ships. he had never carried out so many cavaliers, nor so large a proportion of such persons of rank, as made a shining part of the , souls now embarked. he could contrast his franciscan gown and girdle of rope with ovando's brilliant silks and brocades which the sovereigns authorized him to wear. there was more state in the new governor's bodyguard of twenty-two esquires, mounted and foot, than columbus had ever dreamed of in santo domingo. instead of vile convicts there were respectable married men with their families, the guaranty of honorable living. so that when the fleet went to sea, february , , there were hopes that a right method of founding a colony on family life had at last found favor. [sidenote: . april. reaches santo domingo.] the vessels very soon encountered a gale, in which one ship foundered, and from the deck-loads which were thrown over from the rest and floated to the shore it was for a long time apprehended that the fleet had suffered much more severely. a single ship was all that failed finally to reach santo domingo about the middle of april, . let us turn now to columbus himself. he had not failed, as we have said, to reach something like mental quiet in the conviction that he could expect nothing but neglect for the present. so his active mind engaged in those visionary and speculative trains of thought wherein, when his body was weary and his spirits harried, he was prone to find relief. [sidenote: columbus's _libros de las proficias_.] he set himself to the composition of a maundering and erratic paper, which, under the title of _libros de las proficias_, is preserved in the biblioteca colombina at seville. the manuscript, however, is not in the handwriting of columbus, and no one has thought it worth while to print the whole of it. [sidenote: isaiah's prophecy.] [sidenote: conquest of the holy land.] in it there is evidence of his study, with the assistance of a carthusian friar, of the bible and of the early fathers of the church, and it shows, as his letter to juan's nurse had shown, how he had at last worked himself into the belief that all his early arguments for the westward passage were vain; that he had simply been impelled by something that he had not then suspected; and that his was but a predestined mission to make good what he imagined was the prophecy of isaiah in the apocalypse. this having been done, there was something yet left to be accomplished before the anticipated eclipse of all earthly things came on, and that was the conquest of the holy land, for which he was the appointed leader. he addressed this driveling exposition, together with an urgent appeal for the undertaking of the crusade, to ferdinand and isabella, but without convincing them that such a self-appointed instrument of god was quite worthy of their employment. [sidenote: end of the world.] the great catastrophe of the world's end was, as columbus calculated, about years away. he based his estimate upon an opinion of st. augustine that the world would endure for , years; and upon king alfonso's reckoning that nearly , years had passed when christ appeared. the , years since made the sum , , leaving out of the , the years of his belief. [sidenote: defeated by satan.] he also fancied, or professed to believe, in a letter which he subsequently wrote to the pope, that the present deprivation of his titles and rights was the work of satan, who came to see that the success of columbus in the indies would be only a preparation for the admiral's long-vaunted recovery of the holy land. the spanish government meanwhile knew, and they had reason to know, that their denial of his prerogatives had quite as much to do with other things as with a legion of diabolical powers. unfortunately for columbus, neither they nor the pope were inclined to act on any interpretation of fate that did not include a civil policy of justice and prosperity. [sidenote: his geographical whimsies.] [sidenote: would seek a passage westerly through the caribbean sea.] [sidenote: columbus misunderstands the currents.] these visions of columbus were harmless, and served to beguile him with pious whimsies. but the mood did not last. he next turned to his old geographical problems. the portuguese were searching north and south for the passage that would lead to some indefinite land of spices, and afford a new way to reach the trade with calicut and the moluccas, which at this time, by the african route, was pouring wealth into the portuguese treasury in splendid contrast to the scant return from the spanish indies. he harbored a belief that a better passage might yet be found beyond the caribbean sea. la cosa, in placing that vignette of st. christopher and the infant christ athwart the supposed juncture of asia and south america, had eluded the question, not solved it. columbus would now go and attack the problem on the spot. his expectation to find a desired opening in that direction was based on physical phenomena, but in fact on only partial knowledge of them. he had been aware of the strong currents which set westward through the caribbean sea, and he had found them still flowing west when he had reached the limit of his exploration of the southern coast of cuba. bastidas, who had just pushed farther west on the main coast, had turned back while the currents were still flowing on, along what seemed an endless coast beyond. bastidas did not arrive in spain till some months after columbus had sailed, for he was detained a prisoner in española at this time. some tidings of his experiences may have reached spain, however, or the admiral may not have got his confirmation of these views till he found that voyager at santo domingo, later. columbus had believed cuba to be another main, confining this onward waste of waters to the south of it. [sidenote: gulf stream.] it was clear to him that such currents must find an outlet to the west, and if found, such a passage would carry him on to the sea that washed the golden chersonesus. he indeed died without knowing the truth. this same current, deflected about honduras and yucatan, sweeps by a northerly circuit round the great gulf of mexico, and, passing out by the cape of florida, flows northward in what we now call the gulf stream. there is nothing in all the efforts of the canonizers more absurdly puerile than de lorgues's version of the way in which columbus came to believe in this strait. he had a vision, and saw it! the only difficulty in the matter was that the poor admiral was so ecstatic in his hallucination that he mistook the narrowness of an isthmus for the narrowness of a strait! [sidenote: a convenient relief to ferdinand to send columbus on such a search.] [sidenote: . columbus prepares to equip his ships.] [sidenote: . february. columbus writes to the pope.] the proposition of such a search was not inopportune in the eyes of ferdinand. there were those about the court who thought it unwise to give further employment to a man who was degraded from his honors; but to the king it was a convenient way of removing a persistent and active-minded complainant from the vicinity of the court, to send him on some quest or other, and no one could tell but there was some truth in his new views. it was worth while to let him try. so once again, by the royal permission, columbus set himself to work equipping a little fleet. it was the autumn of when he appeared in seville with the sovereign's commands. he varied his work of preparing the ships with spending some part of his time on his treatise on the prophecies, while a friar named gaspar gorricio helped him in the labor. early in he had got it into shape to present to the sovereigns, and in february he wrote the letter to pope alexander vii. which has already been mentioned. [sidenote: forbidden to touch at española.] as the preparations went on, he began to think of española, and how he might perhaps be allowed to touch there; but orders were given to him forbidding it on the outward passage, though suffering it on the return, for it was hoped by that time that the disorders of the island would be suppressed. it was arranged that the adelantado and his own son ferdinand should accompany him, and some interpreters learned in arabic were put on board, in case his success put him in contact with the people of the great khan. the suspension of his rights lay heavily on his mind, and early in march, , he ventured to refer to the subject once more in a letter to the sovereigns. they replied, march , in some instructions which they sent from valencia de torre, advising him to keep his mind at ease, and leave such things to the care of his son diego. they assured him that in due time the proper restitution of all would be made, and that he must abide the time. [sidenote: . january . columbus's care to preserve his titles, etc.] he had already taken steps to secure a perpetuity of the record of his honors and deeds, if nothing else could be permanent. it was at seville, january , , that columbus, appearing before a notary in his own house, attested that series of documents respecting his titles and prerogatives which are so religiously preserved at genoa. these papers, as we have seen, were copies which columbus had lately secured from the documents in the spanish admiralty, among which he was careful to include the revocation of june , , of the licenses which, much to columbus's annoyance, had been granted in , to allow others than himself to explore in the new regions. we may not wonder at this, but we can hardly conjecture why a transaction of his which had caused as much as anything his wrongs, mortification, and the loss of his dignities should have been as assiduously preserved. these are the royal orders which enabled columbus, at his request, to fill up his colony with unshackled convicts. this he might as well have let the world forget. the royal order requiring bobadilla or his successor to restore all the sequestered property of columbus, and the new declaration of his rights, he might well have been anxious to preserve. [sidenote: columbus and the bank of st. george.] there was one other act to be done which lay upon his mind, now that the time of sailing approached. he wished to make provision that his heirs should be able to confer some favor on his native city, and he directed that investments should be made for that purpose in the bank of st. george at genoa. he then notified the managers of that bank of his intention in a letter which is so characteristic of his moods of dementation that it is here copied as harrisse translates it:-- high noble lords:--although the body walks about here, the heart is constantly over there. our lord has conferred on me the greatest favor to any one since david. the results of my undertaking already appear, and would shine greatly were they not concealed by the blindness of the government. i am going again to the indies under the auspices of the holy trinity, soon to return; and since i am mortal, i leave it with my son diego that you receive every year, forever, one tenth of the entire revenue, such as it may be, for the purpose of reducing the tax upon corn, wine, and other provisions. if that tenth amounts to something, collect it. if not, take at least the will for the deed. i beg of you to entertain regard for the son i have recommended to you. nicolo de oderigo knows more about my own affairs than i do myself, and i have sent him the transcripts of any privileges and letters for safe-keeping. i should be glad if you could see them. my lords, the king and queen endeavor to honor me more than ever. may the holy trinity preserve your noble persons and increase your most magnificent house. done in sevilla, on the second day of april, . the chief admiral of the ocean, viceroy and governor-general of the islands and continent of asia and the indies, of my lords, the king and queen, their captain-general of the sea, and of their council. .s. .s.a.s. x m y [greek: chr~o] ferens. [sidenote: . december . the bank's reply.] the letter was handed by columbus to a genoese banker, then in spain, francisco de rivarolla, who forwarded it to oderigo; but as this ambassador was then on his way to spain, harrisse conjectures that he did not receive the letter till his return to genoa, for the reply of the bank is dated december , , long after columbus had sailed. this response was addressed to diego, and inclosed a letter to the admiral. the great affection and good will of columbus towards "his first country" gratified them inexpressibly, as they said to the son; and to the father they acknowledged the act of his intentions to be "as great and extraordinary as that which has been recorded about any man in the world, considering that by your own skill, energy, and prudence, you have discovered such a considerable portion of this earth and sphere of the lower world, which during so many years past and centuries had remained unknown to its inhabitants." the letter of columbus to the bank remained on the files of that institution--a single sheet of paper, written on one side only, and pierced in the centre for the thread of the file--undiscovered till the archivist of the bank, attracted by the indorsement, m d ii, epla d. admirati don xrophori columbi, identified it in , when, at the request of the authorities of genoa, it was transferred to the keeping of its archivists. it is to be seen at the city hall, to-day, placed between two glass plates, so that either side of the paper can be read. chapter xix. the fourth voyage. - . [sidenote: . march. columbus commanded to sail.] [sidenote: may - . sailed.] their majesties, in march, , were evidently disturbed at columbus's delays in sailing, since such detentions brought to them nothing but the admiral's continued importunities. they now instructed him to sail without the least delay. nevertheless, columbus, who had given out, as trivigiano reports, that he expected his discoveries on this voyage to be more surprising and helpful than any yet made, his purpose being, in fact, to circumnavigate the globe, did not sail from cadiz till may or , ,--the accounts vary. he had four caravels, from fifty to seventy tons each, and they carried in all not over one hundred and fifty men. [sidenote: his instructions.] apparently not forgetting the admiral's convenient reservation respecting the pearls in his third voyage, their majesties in their instructions particularly enjoined upon him that all gold and other precious commodities which he might find should be committed at once to the keeping of françois de porras, who was sent with him to the end that the sovereigns might have trustworthy evidence in his accounts of the amount received. equally mindful of earlier defections, their further instructions also forbade the taking of any slaves. [sidenote: the physical and mental condition of columbus.] years had begun to rest heavily on the frame of columbus. his constitution had been strained by long exposures, and his spirits had little elasticity left. hope, to be sure, had not altogether departed from his ardent nature; but it was a hope that had experienced many reverses, and its pinions were clipped. there was still in him no lack of mental vitality; but his reason had lost equipoise, and his discernment was clouded with illusory visions. there was the utmost desire at this time on the part of their majesties that no rupture should break the friendly relations which were sustained with the portuguese court, and it had been arranged that, in case columbus should fall in with any portuguese fleet, there should be the most civil interchange of courtesies. the spanish monarchs had also given orders, since word had come of the moors besieging a portuguese post on the african coast, that columbus should first go thither and afford the garrison relief. [sidenote: columbus stops on the african coast.] [sidenote: . may. at the canaries.] it was found, on reaching that african harbor on the th, that the moors had departed. so, with no longer delay than to exchange civilities, he lifted anchor on the same day and put to sea. it was while he was at the canaries, may - , taking in wood and water, that columbus wrote to his devoted gorricio a letter, which navarrete preserves. "now my voyage will be made in the name of the holy trinity," he says, "and i hope for success." [sidenote: . june . reaches martinico.] there is little to note on the voyage, which had been a prosperous one, and on june he reached martinino (martinico). he himself professes to have been but twenty days between cadiz and martinino, but the statement seems to have been confused, with his usual inaccuracy. he thence pushed leisurely along over much the same track which he had pursued on his second voyage, till he steered finally for santo domingo. [sidenote: determines to go to española.] it will be recollected that the royal orders issued to him before leaving spain were so far at variance with columbus's wishes that he was denied the satisfaction of touching at española. there can be little question as to the wisdom of an injunction which the admiral now determined to disregard. his excuse was that his principal caravel was a poor sailer, and he thought he could commit no mistake in insuring greater success for his voyage by exchanging at that port this vessel for a better one. he forgot his own treatment of ojeda when he drove that adventurer from the island, where, to provision a vessel whose crew was starving, ojeda dared to trench on his government. when we view this pretense for thrusting himself upon an unwilling community in the light of his unusually quick and prosperous voyage and his failure to make any mention of his vessel's defects when he wrote from the canaries, we can hardly avoid the conclusion that his determination to call at española was suddenly taken. his whole conduct in the matter looks like an obstinate purpose to carry his own point against the royal commands, just as he had tried to carry it against the injunctions respecting the making of slaves. we must remember this when we come to consider the later neglect on the part of the king. we must remember, also, the considerate language with which the sovereigns had conveyed this injunction: "it is not fit that you should lose so much time; it is much fitter that you should go another way; though if it appears necessary, and god is willing, you may stay there a little while on your return." roselly de lorgues, with his customary disingenuousness, merely says that columbus came to santo domingo, to deliver letters with which he was charged, and to exchange one of his caravels. [sidenote: . june . columbus arrives off santo domingo.] [sidenote: columbus forbidden to enter the harbor.] it was the th of june when the little fleet of columbus arrived off the port. he sent in one of his commanders to ask permission to shelter his ships, and the privilege of negotiating for another caravel, since, as he says, "one of his ships had become unseaworthy and could no longer carry sail." his request came to ovando, who was now in command. this governor had left spain in february, only a month before columbus received his final instructions, and there can be little doubt that he had learned from fonseca that those instructions would enjoin columbus not to complicate in any way ovando's assumption of command by approaching his capital. las casas seems to imply this. however it may be, ovando was amply qualified by his own instructions to do what he thought the circumstances required. columbus represented that a storm was coming on, or rather the _historie_ tells us that he did. it is to be remarked that columbus himself makes no such statement. at all events, word was sent back to columbus by his boat that he could not enter the harbor. irving calls this an "ungracious refusal," and it turned out that later events have opportunely afforded the apologists for the admiral the occasion to point a moral to his advantage, particularly since columbus, if we may believe the doubtful story, confident of his prognostications, had again sent word that the fleet lying in the harbor, ready to sail, would go out at great peril in view of an impending storm. it seems to be quite uncertain if at the time his crew had any knowledge of his reasons for nearing española, or of his being denied admittance to the port. at least porras, from the way he describes the events, leaves one to make such an inference. [sidenote: ovando's fleet.] [sidenote: bobadilla, roldan, and others on the fleet.] [sidenote: columbus's factor had placed his gold on one of the ships.] this fleet in the harbor was that which had brought ovando, and was now laden for the return. there was on board of it, as columbus might have learned from his messengers, the man of all men whom he most hated, bobadilla, who had gracefully yielded the power to ovando two months before, and of whom las casas, who was then fresh in his inquisitive seeking after knowledge respecting the indies and on the spot, could not find that any one spoke ill. on the same ship was columbus's old rebellious and tergiversating companion, roldan, whose conduct had been in these two months examined, and who was now to be sent to spain for further investigations. there was also embarked, but in chains, the unfortunate cacique of the vega, guarionex, to be made a show of in seville. the lading of the ships was the most wonderful for wealth that had ever been sent from the island. there was the gold which bobadilla had collected, including a remarkable nugget which an indian woman had picked up in a brook, and a large quantity which roldan and his friends were taking on their own account, as the profit of their separate enterprises. carvajal, whom columbus had sent out with ovando as his factor, to look after his pecuniary interests under the provisions which the royal commands had made, had also placed in one of the caravels four thousand pieces of the same precious metal, the result of the settlement of ovando with bobadilla, and the accretions of the admiral's share of the crown's profits. [sidenote: ovando's fleet puts to sea and is wrecked;] undismayed by the warnings of columbus, this fleet at once put to sea, the admiral's little caravels having meanwhile crept under the shore at a distance to find such shelter as they could. the larger fleet stood homeward, and was scarcely off the easterly end of española when a furious hurricane burst upon it. the ship which carried bobadilla, roldan, and guarionex succumbed and went down. [sidenote: but ship with columbus's gold is saved.] others foundered later. some of the vessels managed to return to santo domingo in a shattered condition. a single caravel, it is usually stated, survived the shock, so that it alone could proceed on the voyage; and if the testimony is to be believed, this was the weakest of them all, but she carried the gold of columbus. among the caravels which put back to santo domingo for repairs was one on which bastidas was going to spain for trial. this one arrived at cadiz in september, . [sidenote: columbus's ships weather the gale.] the ships of columbus had weathered the gale. that of the admiral, by keeping close in to land, had fared best. the others, seeking sea-room, had suffered more. they lost sight of each other, however, during the height of the gale; but when it was over, they met together at port hermoso, at the westerly end of the island. the gale is a picture over which the glow of a retributive justice, under the favoring dispensation of chance, is so easily thrown by sympathetic writers that the effusions of the sentimentalists have got to stand at last for historic verity. de lorgues does not lose the opportunity to make the most of it. [sidenote: . july . columbus sails away.] [sidenote: july . at guanaja.] [sidenote: meets a strange canoe.] columbus, having lingered about the island to repair his ships and refresh his crews, and also to avoid a second storm, did not finally get away till july , when he steered directly for terra firma. the currents perplexed him, and, as there was little wind, he was swept west further than he expected. he first touched at some islands near jamaica. thence he proceeded west a quarter southwest, for four days, without seeing land, as porras tells us, when, bewildered, he turned to the northwest, and then north. but finding himself (july ) in the archipelago near cuba, which on his second voyage he had called the gardens, he soon after getting a fair wind (july ) stood southwest, and on july made a small island, off the northern coast of honduras, called guanaja by the natives, and isla de pinos by himself. he was now in sight of the mountains of the mainland. the natives struck him as of a physical type different from all others whom he had seen. a large canoe, eight feet beam, and of great length, though made of a single log, approached with still stranger people in it. [sidenote: on the honduras coast.] they had apparently come from a region further north; and under a canopy in the waist of the canoe sat a cacique with his dependents. the boat was propelled by five and twenty men with paddles. it carried various articles to convince columbus that he had found a people more advanced in arts than those of the regions earlier discovered. they had with them copper implements, including hatchets, bells, and the like. he saw something like a crucible in which metal had been melted. their wooden swords were jagged with sharp flints, their clothes were carefully made, their utensils were polished and handy. columbus traded off some trinkets for such specimens as he wanted. if he now had gone in the direction from which this marvelous canoe had come, he might have thus early opened the wondrous world of yucatan and mexico, and closed his career with more marvels yet. his beatific visions, which he supposed were leading him under the will of the deity, led him, however, south. the delusive strait was there. he found an old man among the indians, whom he kept as a guide, since the savage could draw a sort of chart of the coast. he dismissed the rest with presents, after he had wrested from them what he wanted. approaching the mainland, near the present cape of honduras, the adelantado landed on sunday, august , and mass was celebrated in a grove near the beach. again, on the th, bartholomew landed some distance eastward of the first spot, and here, by a river (rio de la posesion, now rio tinto), he planted the castilian banner and formally took possession of the country. the indians were friendly, and there was an interchange of provisions and trinkets. the natives were tattooed, and they had other customs, such as the wearing of cotton jackets, and the distending of their ears by rings, which were new to the spaniards. [sidenote: seeking a strait.] [sidenote: columbus oppressed with the gout.] [illustration: bellin's honduras.] tracking the coast still eastward, columbus struggled against the current, apparently without reasoning that he might be thus sailing away from the strait, so engrossed was he with the thought that such a channel must be looked for farther south. his visions had not helped him to comprehend the sweep of waters that would disprove his mock oaths of the cuban coast. so he wore ship constantly against the tempest and current, and crawled with bewildered expectation along the shore. all this tacking tore his sails, racked his caravels, and wore out his seamen. the men were in despair, and confessed one another. some made vows of penance, if their lives were preserved. columbus was himself wrenched with the gout, and from a sort of pavilion, which covered his couch on the quarter deck, he kept a good eye on all they encountered. "the distress of my son," he says, "grieved me to the soul, and the more when i considered his tender age; for he was but thirteen years old, and he enduring so much toil for so long a time." "my brother," he adds further, "was in the ship that was in the worst condition and the most exposed to danger; and my grief on this account was the greater that i brought him with me against his will." [sidenote: . september. cape gracios à dios.] [sidenote: loses a boat's crew.] [sidenote: . september . the garden.] it was no easy work to make the seventy leagues from cape honduras to cape gracios à dios, and the bestowal of this name denoted his thankfulness to god, when, after forty days of this strenuous endeavor, his caravels were at last able to round the cape, on september (or ). a seaboard stretching away to the south lay open before him,--now known as the mosquito coast. the current which sets west so persistently here splits and sends a branch down this coast. so with a "fair wind and tide," as he says, they followed its varied scenery of crag and lowland for more than sixty leagues, till they discovered a great flow of water coming out of a river. it seemed to offer an opportunity to replenish their casks and get some store of wood. on the th of september, they anchored, and sent their boats to explore. a meeting of the tide and the river's flow raised later a tumultuous sea at the bar, just as the boats were coming out. the men were unable to surmount the difficulty, and one of the boats was lost, with all on board. columbus recorded their misfortune in the name which he gave to the river, el rio del desastre. still coasting onward, on september they came to an alluring roadstead between an island and the main, where there was everything to enchant that verdure and fragrance could produce. he named the spot the garden (la huerta). here, at anchor, they had enough to occupy them for a day or two in restoring the damage of the tempest, and in drying their stores, which had been drenched by the unceasing downpour of the clouds. the natives watched them from the shore, and made a show of their weapons. the spaniards remaining inactive, the savages grew more confident of the pacific intent of their visitors, and soon began swimming off to the caravels. columbus tried the effect of largesses, refusing to barter, and made gifts of the spanish baubles. such gratuities, however, created distrust, and every trinket was returned. [sidenote: character of the natives.] two young girls had been sent on board as hostages, while the spaniards were on shore getting water; but even they were stripped of their spanish finery when restored to their friends, and every bit of it was returned to the givers. there seem to be discordant statements by columbus and in the _historie_ respecting these young women, and columbus gives them a worse character than his chronicler. when the adelantado went ashore with a notary, and this official displayed his paper and inkhorn, it seemed to strike the wondering natives as a spell. they fled, and returned with something like a censer, from which they scattered the smoke as if to disperse all baleful spirits. these unaccustomed traits of the natives worked on the superstitions of the spaniards. they began to fancy they had got within an atmosphere of sorceries, and columbus, thinking of the two indian maiden hostages, was certain there was a spell of witchcraft about them, and he never quite freed his mind of this necromantic ghost. the old indian whom columbus had taken for a guide when first he touched the coast, having been set ashore at cape gracios à dios, enriched with presents, columbus now seized seven of this new tribe, and selecting two of the most intelligent as other guides, he let the rest go. the seizure was greatly resented by the tribe, and they sent emissaries to negotiate for the release of the captives, but to no effect. [sidenote: . october. cariari.] [sidenote: gold sought at veragua.] departing on october from the region which the natives called cariari, and where the fame of columbus is still preserved in the bahia del almirante, the explorers soon found the coast trending once more towards the east. they were tracking what is now known as the shore of costa rica. they soon entered the large and island-studded caribaro bay. here the spaniards were delighted to find the natives wearing plates of gold as ornaments. they tried to traffic for them, but the indians were loath to part with their treasures. the natives intimated that there was much more of this metal farther on at a place called veragua. so the ships sailed on, october , and reached that coast. the spaniards came to a river; but the natives sent defiance to them in the blasts of their conch-shells, while they shook at them their lances. entering the tide, they splashed the water towards their enemies, in token of contempt. columbus's indian guides soon pacified them, and a round of barter followed, by which seventeen of their gold disks were secured for three hawks' bells. the intercourse ended, however, in a little hostile bout, during which the spanish crossbows and lombards soon brought the savages to obedience. [illustration: bellini's veragua.] [sidenote: ciguare.] [sidenote: at the isthmus.] still the caravels went on. the same scene of startled natives, in defiant attitude, soon soothed by the trinkets was repeated everywhere. in one place the spaniards found what they had never seen before, a wall laid of stone and lime, and columbus began to think of the civilized east again. coast peoples are always barbarous, as he says; but it is the inland people who are rich. as he passed along this coast of veragua, as the name has got to be written, though his notary at the time caught the indian pronunciation as cobraba, his interpreters pointed out its villages, and the chief one of all; and when they had passed on a little farther they told him he was sailing beyond the gold country. columbus was not sure but they were trying to induce him to open communication again with the shore, to offer chances for their escape. the seeker of the strait could not stop for gold. his vision led him on to that marvelous land of ciguare, of which these successive native tribes told him, situated ten days inland, and where the people reveled in gold, sailed in ships, and conducted commerce in spices and other precious commodities. the women there were decked, so they said, with corals and pearls. "i should be content," he says, "if a tithe of this which i hear is true." he even fancied, from all he could understand of their signs and language, that these ciguare people were as terrible in war as the spaniards, and rode on beasts. "they also say that the sea surrounds ciguare, and that ten days' journey from thence is the river ganges." humboldt seems to think that in all this columbus got a conception of that great western ocean which was lying so much nearer to him than he supposed. it may be doubted if it was quite so clear to columbus as humboldt thinks; but there is good reason to believe that columbus imagined this wonderful region of ciguare was half-way to the ganges. if, as his canonizers fondly suppose, he had not mistaken in his visions an isthmus for a strait, he might have been prompted to cross the slender barrier which now separated him from his goal. [sidenote: . november .] [sidenote: porto bello.] [sidenote: nombre de dios.] on the d of november, the ships again anchored in a spacious harbor, so beautiful in its groves and fruits, and with such deep water close to the shore, that columbus gave it the name of puerto bello (porto bello),--an appellation which has never left it. it rained for seven days while they lay here, doing nothing but trading a little with the natives for provisions. the indians offered no gold, and hardly any was seen. starting once more, the spaniards came in sight of the cape known since as nombre de dios, but they were thwarted for a while in their attempts to pass it. they soon found a harbor, where they stayed till november ; then going on again, they secured anchorage in a basin so small that the caravels were placed almost beside the shore. columbus was kept here by the weather for nine days. the basking alligators reminded him of the crocodiles of the nile. the natives were uncommonly gentle and gracious, and provisions were plenty. the ease with which the seamen could steal ashore at night began to be demoralizing, leading to indignities at the native houses. the savage temper was at last aroused, and the spanish revelries were brought to an end by an attack on the ships. it ceased, as usual, after a few discharges of the ships' guns. [sidenote: bastidas's exploration of this coast.] columbus had not yet found any deflection of that current which sweeps in this region towards the gulf of mexico. he had struggled against its powerful flow in every stage of his progress along the coast. whether this had brought him to believe that his vision of a strait was delusive does not appear. whether he really knew that he had actually joined his own explorations, going east, to those which bastidas had made from the west is equally unknown, though it is possible he may have got an intimation of celestial and winged monsters from the natives. if he comprehended it, he saw that there could be no strait, this way at least. bastidas, as we have seen, was on board bobadilla's fleet when columbus lay off santo domingo. there is a chance that columbus's messenger who went ashore may have seen him and his charts, and may have communicated some notes of the maps to the admiral. some of the companions of bastidas on his voyage had reached spain before columbus sailed, and there may have been some knowledge imparted in that way. if columbus knew the truth, he did not disclose it. porras, possibly at a later day, seems to have been better informed, or at least he imparts more in his narrative than columbus does. he says he saw in the people of these parts many of the traits of those of the pearl coast at paria, and that the maps, which they possessed, showed that it was to this point that the explorations of ojeda and bastidas had been pushed. [sidenote: columbus turns back.] [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: a gale.] there were other things that might readily have made him turn back, as well as this despair of finding a strait. his crew were dissatisfied with leaving the gold of veragua. his ships were badly bored by the worms, and they had become, from this cause and by reason of the heavy weather which had so mercilessly followed them, more and more unseaworthy. so on december , , when he passed out of the little harbor of el retrete, he began a backward course. pretty soon the wind, which had all along faced him from the east, blew strongly from the west, checking him as much going backward as it had in his onward course. it seemed as if the elements were turned against him. the gale was making sport of him, as it veered in all directions. it was indeed a coast of contrasts (la costa de los contrastes), as columbus called it. the lightning streaked the skies continually. the thunder was appalling. for nine days the little ships, strained at every seam, leaking at every point where the tropical sea worm had pierced them, writhed in a struggle of death. at one time a gigantic waterspout formed within sight. the sea surged around its base. the clouds stooped to give it force. it came staggering and lunging towards the fragile barks. the crews exorcised the watery spirit by repeating the gospel of st. john the evangelist, and the crazy column passed on the other side of them. added to their peril through it all were the horrors of an impending famine. their biscuit were revolting because of the worms. they caught sharks for food. [sidenote: . december .] [sidenote: bethlehem river.] [sidenote: . january .] [sidenote: bartholomew seeks the mines.] at last, on december , the fleet reunited,--for they had, during the gales, lost sight of each other,--and entered a harbor, where they found the native cabins built in the tree tops, to be out of the way of griffins, or some other beasts. after further buffeting of the tempests, they finally made a harbor on the coast of veragua, in a river which columbus named santa maria de belen (bethlehem), it being epiphany day; and here at last they anchored two of the caravels on january , and the other two on the th ( ). columbus had been nearly a month in passing thirty leagues of coast. the indians were at first quieted in the usual way, and some gold was obtained by barter. the spaniards had not been here long, however, when they found themselves (january , ) in as much danger by the sudden swelling of the river as they had been at sea. it was evidently occasioned by continued falls of rain in distant mountains, which they could see. the caravels were knocked about like cockboats. the admiral's ship snapped a mast. "it rained without ceasing," says the admiral, recording his miseries, "until the th of february;" and during the continuance of the storm the adelantado was sent on a boat expedition to ascend the veragua river, three miles along the coast, where he was to search for mines. the party proceeded on february as far as they could in the boats, and then, leaving part of the men for a guard, and taking guides, which the quibian--that being the name, as he says, which they gave to the lord of the country--had provided, they reached a country where the soil to their eyes seemed full of particles of gold. columbus says that he afterwards learned that it was a device of the crafty quibian to conduct them to the mines of a rival chief, while his own were richer and nearer, all of which, nevertheless, did not escape the keen spanish scent for gold. bartholomew made other excursions along the coast; but nowhere did it seem to him that gold was as plenty as at veragua. [sidenote: mines of aurea.] columbus now reverted to his old fancies. he remembered that josephus has described the getting of gold for the temple of jerusalem from the golden chersonesus, and was not this the very spot? "josephus thinks that this gold of the chronicles and the book of kings was found in the aurea," he says. "if it were so, i contend that these mines of the aurea are identical with those of veragua. david in his will left , quintals of indian gold to solomon, to assist in building the temple, and according to josephus it came from these lands." he had seen, as he says, more promise of gold here in two days than in española in four years. it was very easy now to dwarf his ophir at hayna! those other riches were left to those who had wronged him. the pearls of the paria coast might be the game of the common adventurer. here was the princely domain of the divinely led discoverer, who was rewarded at last! [sidenote: columbus seeks to make a settlement.] a plan was soon made of founding a settlement to hold the region and gain information, while columbus returned to spain for supplies. eighty men were to stay. they began to build houses. they divided the stock of provisions and munitions, and transferred that intended for the colony to one of the caravels, which was to be left with them. particular pains were taken to propitiate the natives by presents, and the quibian was regaled with delicacies and gifts. when this was done, it was found that a dry season had come on, and there was not water enough on the bar to float the returning caravels. [sidenote: diego mendez's exploits.] [sidenote: the quibian taken,] [sidenote: but escapes.] meanwhile the quibian had formed a league to exterminate the intruders. columbus sent a brave fellow, diego mendez, to see what he could learn. he found a force of savages advancing to the attack; but this single spaniard disconcerted them, and they put off the plan. again, with but a single companion, one rodrigo de escobar, mendez boldly went into the quibian's village, and came back alive to tell the admiral of all the preparations for war which he had seen, or which were inferred at least. the news excited the quick spirits of the adelantado, and, following a plan of mendez, he at once started (march ) with an armed force. he came with such celerity to the cacique's village that the savages were not prepared for their intrusion, and by a rapid artifice he surrounded the lodge of the quibian, and captured him with fifty of his followers. the adelantado sent him, bound hand and foot, and under escort, down the river, in charge of juan sanchez, who rather resented any intimation of the adelantado to be careful of his prisoner. as the boat neared the mouth of the river, her commander yielded to the quibian's importunities to loosen his bonds, when the chief, watching his opportunity, slipped overboard and dove to the bottom. the night was dark, and he was not seen when he came to the surface, and was not pursued. the other prisoners were delivered to the admiral. the adelantado meanwhile had sacked the cacique's cabin, and brought away its golden treasures. [sidenote: . april .] [sidenote: the settlement attacked.] columbus, confident that the quibian had been drowned, and that the chastisement which had been given his tribe was a wholesome lesson, began again to arrange for his departure. as the river had risen a little, he succeeded in getting his lightened caravels over the bar, and anchored them outside, where their lading was again put on board. to offer some last injunctions and to get water, columbus, on april , sent a boat, in command of diego tristan, to the adelantado, who was to be left in command. when the boat got in, tristan found the settlement in great peril. the quibian, who had reached the shore in safety after his adventure, had quickly organized an attacking party, and had fallen upon the settlement. the savages were fast getting their revenge, for the unequal contest had lasted nearly three hours, when the adelantado and mendez, rallying a small force, rushed so impetuously upon them that, with the aid of a fierce bloodhound, the native host was scattered in a trice. only one spaniard had been killed and eight wounded, including the adelantado; but the rout of the indians was complete. [sidenote: tristan murdered.] it was while these scenes were going on that tristan arrived in his boat opposite the settlement. he dallied till the affair was ended, and then proceeded up the river to get some water. those on shore warned him of the danger of ambuscade; but he persisted. when he had got well beyond the support of the settlement, his boat was beset with a shower of javelins from the overhanging banks on both sides, while a cloud of canoes attacked him front and rear. but a single spaniard escaped by diving, and brought the tale of disaster to his countrymen. the condition of the settlement was now alarming. the indians, encouraged by their success in overcoming the boat, once more gathered to attack the little group of "encroaching spaniards," as columbus could but call them. the houses which sheltered them were so near the thick forest that the savages approached them on all sides under shelter. the woods rang with their yells and with the blasts of their conch-shells. the spaniards got, in their panic, beyond the control of the adelantado. they prepared to take the caravel and leave the river; but it was found she would not float over the bar. they then sought to send a boat to the admiral, lying outside, to prevent his sailing without them; but the current and tide commingling made such a commotion on the bar that no boat could live in the sea. the bodies of tristan and his men came floating down stream, with carrion crows perched upon them at their ghastly feast. it seemed as if nature visited them with premonitions. at last the adelantado brought a sufficient number of men into such a steady mood that they finally constructed out of whatever they could get some sort of a breastwork near the shore, where the ground was open. here they could use their matchlocks and have a clear sweep about them. they placed behind this bulwark two small falconets, and prepared to defend themselves. they were in this condition for four days. their provisions, however, began to run short, and every spaniard who dared to forage was sure to be cut off. their ammunition, too, was not abundant. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus at anchor outside the bar.] meanwhile columbus was in a similar state of anxiety. "the admiral was suffering from a severe fever," he says, "and worn with fatigue." his ships were lying at anchor outside the bar, with the risk of being obliged to put to sea at any moment, to work off a lee shore. tristan's prolonged absence harassed him. another incident was not less ominous. the companions of the quibian were confined on board in the forecastle; and it was the intention to take them to spain as hostages, as it was felt they would be, for the colony left behind. those in charge of them had become careless about securing the hatchway, and one night they failed to chain it, trusting probably to the watchfulness of certain sailors who slept upon the hatch. the savages, finding a footing upon some ballast which they piled up beneath, suddenly threw off the cover, casting the sleeping sailors violently aside, and before the guard could be called the greater part of the prisoners had jumped into the sea and escaped. such as were secured were thrust back, but the next morning it was found that they all had strangled themselves. [sidenote: ledesma's exploit.] after such manifestations of ferocious determination, columbus began to be further alarmed for the safety of his brother's companions and of tristan's. for days a tossing surf had made an impassable barrier between him and the shore. he had but one boat, and he did not dare to risk it in an attempt to land. finally, his sevillian pilot, pedro ledesma, offered to brave the dangers by swimming, if the boat would take him close to the surf. the trial was made; the man committed himself to the surf, and by his strength and skill so surmounted wave after wave that he at length reached stiller water, and was seen to mount the shore. in due time he was again seen on the beach, and plunging in once more, was equally successful in passing the raging waters, and was picked up by the boat. he had a sad tale to tell the admiral. it was a story of insubordination, a powerless adelantado, and a frantic eagerness to escape somehow. ledesma said that the men were preparing canoes to come off to the ships, since their caravel was unable to pass the bar. [sidenote: resolve to abandon the region.] there was long consideration in these hours of disheartenment; but the end of it was a decision to rescue the colony and abandon the coast. the winds never ceased to be high, and columbus's ships, in their weakened condition, were only kept afloat by care and vigilance. the loss of the boat's crew threw greater burdens and strains upon those who were left. it was impossible while the surf lasted to send in his only boat, and quite as impossible for the fragile canoes of his colony to brave the dangers of the bar in coming out. there was nothing for columbus to do but to hold to his anchor as long as he could, and wait. [sidenote: columbus in delirium hears a voice.] our pity for the man is sometimes likely to unfit us to judge his own record. let us try to believe what he says of himself, and watch him in his delirium. "groaning with exhaustion," he says, "i fell asleep in the highest part of the ship, and heard a compassionate voice address me." it bade him be of good cheer, and take courage in the service of god! what the god of all had done for moses and david would be done for him! as we read the long report of this divine utterance, as columbus is careful to record it, we learn that the creator was aware of his servant's name resounding marvelously throughout the earth. we find, however, that the divine belief curiously reflected the confidence of columbus that it was india, and not america, that had been revealed. "remember david," said the voice, "how he was a shepherd, and was made a king. remember abraham, how he was a hundred when he begat isaac, and that there is youth still for the aged." columbus adds that when the voice chided him he wept for his errors, and that he heard it all as in a trance. the obvious interpretation of all this is either that by the record columbus intended a fable to impress the sovereigns, for whom he was writing, or that he was so moved to hallucinations that he believed what he wrote. the hero worship of irving decides the question easily. "such an idea," says irving, referring to the argument of deceit, and forgetting the admiral's partiality for such practices, "is inconsistent with the character of columbus. in recalling a dream, one is unconsciously apt to give it a little coherency." irving's plea is that it was a mere dream, which was mistaken by columbus, in his feverish excitement, for a revelation. "the artless manner," adds that biographer, "in which he mingles the rhapsodies and dreams of his imagination with simple facts and sound practical observations, pouring them forth with a kind of scriptural solemnity and poetry of language, is one of the most striking illustrations of a character richly compounded of extraordinary and apparently contradictory elements." we may perhaps ask, was irving's hero a deceiver, or was he mad? the chances seem to be that the whole vision was simply the product of one of those fits of aberration which in these later years were no strangers to columbus's existence. his mind was not infrequently, amid disappointments and distractions, in no fit condition to ward off hallucination. humboldt speaks of columbus's letter describing this vision as showing the disordered mind of a proud soul weighed down with dead hopes. he has no fear that the strange mixture of force and weakness, of pride and touching humility, which accompanies these secret contortions will ever impress the world with other feelings than those of commiseration. it is a hard thing for any one, seeking to do justice to the agonies of such spirits, to measure them in the calmness of better days. "let those who are accustomed to slander and aspersion ask, while they sit in security at home, why dost thou not do so and so under such circumstances?" says columbus himself. it is far easier to let one's self loose into the vortex and be tossed with sympathy. but if four centuries have done anything for us, they ought to have cleared the air of its mirages. what is pitiable may not be noble. [sidenote: the colony embark.] the voice was, of course, associated in columbus's mind with the good weather which followed. during this a raft was made of two canoes lashed together beneath a platform, and, using this for ferrying, all the stores were floated off safely to the ships, so that in the end nothing was left behind but the decaying and stranded caravel. this labor was done under the direction of diego mendez, whom the admiral rewarded by kissing him on the cheek, and by giving him command of tristan's caravel, which was the admiral's flagship. [sidenote: . april, columbus sails away.] it is a strange commentary on the career and fame of columbus that the name of this disastrous coast should represent him to this day in the title of his descendant, the duke of veragua. never a man turned the prow of his ship from scenes which he would sooner forget, with more sorrow and relief, than columbus, in the latter days of april, , with his enfeebled crews and his crazy hulks, stood away, as he thought, for española. and yet three months later, and almost in the same breath with which he had rehearsed these miseries, with that obliviousness which so often caught his errant mind, he wrote to his sovereigns that "there is not in the world a country, whose inhabitants are more timid; added to which there is a good harbor, a beautiful river, and the whole place is capable of being easily put into a state of defense. your people that may come here, if they should wish to become masters of the products of other lands, will have to take them by force, or retire empty-handed. in this country they will simply have to trust their persons in the hands of a savage." the man was mad. it was easterly that columbus steered when his ships swung round to their destined course. it was not without fear and even indignation that his crews saw what they thought a purpose to sail directly for spain in the sorry plight of the ships. mendez, indeed, who commanded the admiral's own ship, says "they thought to reach spain." the admiral, however, seems to have had two purposes. he intended to run eastward far enough to allow for the currents, when he should finally head for santo domingo. he intended also to disguise as much as he could the route back, for fear that others would avail themselves of his crew's knowledge to rediscover these golden coasts. he remembered how the companions of his paria voyage had led other expeditions to that region of pearls. he is said also to have taken from his crew all their memoranda of the voyage, so that there would be no such aid available to guide others. "none of them can explain whither i went, nor whence i came," he says. "they do not know the way to return thither." [sidenote: at puerto bello.] [sidenote: at the gulf of darien.] [sidenote: . may .] [sidenote: may . on the cuban coast.] [sidenote: . june . reaches jamaica.] by the time he reached puerto bello, one of his caravels had become so weakened by the boring worms that he had to abandon her and crowd his men into the two remaining vessels. his crews became clamorous when he reached the gulf of darien, where he thought it prudent to abandon his easterly course and steer to the north. it was now may . he hugged the wind to overcome the currents, but when he sighted some islands to the westward of española, on the th, it was evident that the currents had been bearing him westerly all the while. they were still drifting him westerly, when he found himself, on may , among the islands on the cuban coast which he had called the gardens. "i had reached," he says in his old delusion, "the province of mago, which is contiguous to that of cathay." here the ships anchored to give the men refreshment. the labor of keeping the vessels free from water had been excessive, and in a secure roadstead it could now be carried on with some respite of toil, if the weather would only hold good. this was not to be, however. a gale ensued in which they lost their anchors. the two caravels, moreover, sustained serious damage by collision. all the anchors of the admiral's ship had gone but one, and though that held, the cable nearly wore asunder. after six days of this stormy weather, he dared at last to crawl along the coast. fortunately, he got some native provisions at one place, which enabled him to feed his famished men. the currents and adverse winds, however, proved too much for the power of his ships to work to windward. they were all the while in danger of foundering. "with three pumps and the use of pots and kettles," he says, "we could scarcely clear the water that came into the ship, there being no remedy but this for the mischief done by the ship worm." he reluctantly, therefore, bore away for jamaica, where, on june , he put into puerto buono (dry harbor). [sidenote: . july, august. his ships stranded]. finding neither water nor food here, he went on the next day to port san gloria, known in later days as don christopher's cove. here he found it necessary, a little later (july and august ), to run his sinking ships, one after the other, aground, but he managed to place them side by side, so that they could be lashed together. they soon filled with the tide. cabins were built on the forecastles and sterns to live in, and bulwarks of defense were reared as best they could be along the vessels' waists. columbus now took the strictest precautions to prevent his men wandering ashore, for it was of the utmost importance that no indignity should be offered the natives while they were in such hazardous and almost defenseless straits. it became at once a serious question how to feed his men. whatever scant provisions remained on board the stranded caravels were spoiled. his immediate savage neighbors supplied them with cassava bread and other food for a while, but they had no reserved stores to draw upon, and these sources were soon exhausted. [sidenote: mendez seeks food for the company.] diego mendez now offered, with three men, carrying goods to barter, to make a circuit of the island, so that he could reach different caciques, with whom he could bargain for the preparation and carriage of food to the spaniards. as he concluded his successive impromptu agreements with cacique after cacique, he sent a man back loaded with what he could carry, to acquaint the admiral, and let him prepare for a further exchange of trinkets. finally, mendez, left without a companion, still went on, getting some indian porters to help him from place to place. in this way he reached the eastern end of the island, where he ingratiated himself with a powerful cacique, and was soon on excellent terms with him. from this chieftain he got a canoe with natives to paddle, and loading it with provisions, he skirted westerly along the coast, until he reached the spaniards' harbor. his mission bade fair to have accomplished its purpose, and provisions came in plentifully for a while under the arrangements which he had made. [sidenote: mendez prepares to go to española.] columbus's next thought was to get word, if possible, to ovando, at española, so that the governor could send a vessel to rescue them. columbus proposed to mendez that he should attempt the passage with the canoe in which he had returned from his expedition. mendez pictured the risks of going forty leagues in these treacherous seas in a frail canoe, and intimated that the admiral had better make trial of the courage of the whole company first. he said that if no one else offered to go he would shame them by his courage, as he had more than once done before. so the company were assembled, and columbus made public the proposition. every one hung back from the hazards, and mendez won his new triumph, as he had supposed he would. he then set to work fitting the canoe for the voyage. he put a keel to her. he built up her sides so that she could better ward off the seas, and rigged a mast and sail. she was soon loaded with the necessary provisions for himself, one other spaniard, and the six indians who were to ply the paddles. * * * * * [sidenote: . july . letter of columbus to the sovereigns.] the admiral, while the preparations were making, drew up a letter to his sovereigns, which it was intended that mendez, after arranging with ovando for the rescue, should bear himself to spain by the first opportunity. at least it is the reasonable assumption of humboldt that this is the letter which has come down to us dated july , . [sidenote: _lettera rarissima._] it is not known that this epistle was printed at the time, though manuscript copies seem to have circulated. an italian version of it was, however, printed at venice a year before columbus died. the original spanish text was not known to scholars till navarrete, having discovered in the king's library at madrid an early transcript of it, printed it in the first volume of his _coleccion_. it is the document usually referred to, from the title of morelli's reprint ( ) of the italian text, as the _lettera rarissima di cristoforo colombo_. this letter is even more than his treatise on the prophets a sorrowful index of his wandering reason. in parts it is the merest jumble of hurrying thoughts, with no plan or steady purpose in view. it is in places well calculated to arouse the deepest pity. it was, of course, avowedly written at a venture, inasmuch as the chance of its reaching the hands of his sovereigns was a very small one. "i send this letter," he says, "by means of and by the hands of indians; it will be a miracle if it reaches its destination." he not only goes back over the adventures of the present expedition, in a recital which has been not infrequently quoted in previous pages, but he reverts gloomily to the more distant past. he lingers on the discouragements of his first years in spain. "every one to whom the enterprise was mentioned," he says of those days, "treated it as ridiculous, but now there is not a man, down to the very tailors, who does not beg to be allowed to become a discoverer." he remembers the neglect which followed upon the first flush of indignation when he returned to spain in chains. "the twenty years' service through which i have passed with so much toil and danger have profited me nothing, and at this very day i do not possess a roof in spain that i can call my own. if i wish to eat or sleep i have nowhere to go but to a low tavern, and most times lack wherewith to pay the bill. another anxiety wrings my very heartstrings, when i think of my son diego, whom i have left an orphan in spain, stripped of the house and property which is due to him on my account, although i had looked upon it as a certainty that your majesties, as just and grateful princes, would restore it to him in all respects with increase." "i was twenty-eight years old," he says again, "when i came into your highnesses' services, and now i have not a hair upon me that is not gray, my body is infirm, and all that was left to me, as well as to my brother, has been taken away and sold, even to the frock that i wore, to my great dishonor." and then, referring to his present condition, he adds: "solitary in my trouble, sick, and in daily expectation of death, i am surrounded by millions of hostile savages, full of cruelty. weep for me, whoever has charity, truth, and justice!" he next works over in his mind the old geographical problems. he recalls his calculation of an eclipse in , when he supposed, in his error, that he had "sailed twenty-four degrees westward in nine hours." he recalls the stories that he had heard on the veragua coast, and thinks that he had known it all before from books. marinus had come near the truth, he gives out, and the portuguese have proved that the indies in ethiopia is, as marinus had said, four and twenty degrees from the equinoctial line. "the world is but small," he sums up; "out of seven divisions of it, the dry part occupies six, and the seventh is entirely covered by water. i say that the world is not so large as vulgar opinion makes it, and that one degree from the equinoctial line measures fifty-six miles and two thirds, and this may be proved to a nicety." [sidenote: columbus on gold.] and then, in his thoughts, he turns back to his quest for gold, just as he had done in action at darien, when in despair he gave up the search for a strait. it was gold, to his mind, that could draw souls from purgatory. he exclaims: "gold is the most precious of all commodities. gold constitutes treasure, and he who possesses it has all he needs in this world, as also the means of rescuing souls from purgatory, and restoring them to the enjoyment of paradise." then his hopes swell with the vision of that wealth which he thought he had found, and would yet return to. he alone had the clues to it, which he had concealed from others. "i can safely assert that to my mind my people returning to spain are the bearers of the best news that ever was carried to spain.... i had certainly foreseen how things would be. i think more of this opening for commerce than of all that has been done in the indies. this is not a child to be left to the care of a stepmother." these were some of the thoughts, in large part tumultuous, incoherent, dispirited, harrowing, weakening, and sad, penned within sound of the noise of mendez's preparations, and disclosing an exultant and bewildered being, singularly compounded. this script was committed to mendez, beside one addressed to ovando, and another to his friend in spain, father gorricio, to whom he imparts some of the same frantic expectations. "if my voyage will turn out as favorable to my health," he says, "and to the tranquillity of my house, as it is likely to be for the glory of my royal masters, i shall live long." * * * * * [sidenote: mendez starts.] mendez started bravely. he worked along the coast of the island towards its eastern end; not without peril, however, both from the sea and from the indians. finally, his party fell captives to a startled cacique; but while the savages were disputing over a division of the spoils, mendez succeeded in slipping back to the canoe, and, putting off alone, paddled it back to the stranded ships. [sidenote: mendez starts again.] another trial was made at once, with larger preparation. a second canoe was added to the expedition, and the charge of this was given to bartholomew fiesco, a genoese, who had commanded one of the caravels. the daring adventurers started again with an armed party under the adelantado following them along the shore. the land and boat forces reached the end of the island without molestation, and then, bidding each other farewell, the canoes headed boldly away from land, and were soon lost to the sight of the adelantado in the deepening twilight. the land party returned to the admiral without adventure. there was little now for the poor company to do but to await the return of fiesco, who had been directed to come back at once and satisfy the admiral that mendez had safely accomplished his mission. [sidenote: the revolt of porras.] many days passed, and straining eyes were directed along the shore to catch a glimpse of fiesco's canoe; but it came not. there was not much left to allay fear or stifle disheartenment. the cramped quarters of the tenements on the hulks, the bad food which the men were forced to depend upon, and the vain watchings soon produced murmurs of discontent, which it needed but the captious spirit of a leader to convert into the turmoil of revolt. such a gatherer of sedition soon appeared. there were in the company two brothers, francisco de porras, who had commanded one of the vessels, and diego de porras, who had, as we have seen, been joined to the expedition to check off the admiral's accounts of treasures acquired. the very espionage of his office was an offense to the admiral. it was through the caballing of these two men that the alien spirits of the colony found in one of them at last a determined actor. it is not easy to discover how far the accusations against the admiral, which these men now began to dwell upon, were generally believed. it served the leaders' purposes to have it appear that columbus was in reality banished from spain, and had no intention of returning thither till mendez and fiesco had succeeded in making favor for him at court; and that it was upon such a mission that these lieutenants had been sent. it was therefore necessary, if those who were thus cruelly confined in jamaica wished to escape a lingering death, to put on a bold front, and demand to be led away to española in such canoes as could be got of the indians. [sidenote: . january . demands of porras.] [sidenote: the flotilla of porras sails.] it was on the d of january, , that, with a crowd of sympathizers watching within easy call, francisco de porras suddenly presented himself in the cabin of the weary and bedridden admiral. an altercation ensued, in which the admiral, propped in his couch, endeavored to assuage the bursting violence of his accuser, and to bring him to a sense of the patient duty which the conditions demanded. it was one of the times when desperate straits seemed to restore the manhood of columbus. it was, however, of little use. the crisis was not one that, in the present temper of the mutineers, could be avoided. porras, finding that the admiral could not be swayed, called out in a loud voice, "i am for castile! those who will may come with me!" this signal was expected, and a shout rang in the air among those who were awaiting it. it aroused columbus from his couch, and he staggered into sight; but his presence caused no cessation of the tumult. some of his loyal companions, fearing violence, took him back to his bed. the adelantado braced himself with his lance for an encounter, and was pacified only by the persuasions of the admiral's friends. they loyally said, "let the mutineers go. we will remain." the angry faction seized ten canoes, which the admiral had secured from the indians, and putting in them what they could get, they embarked for their perilous voyage. some others who had not joined in their plot being allured by the flattering hope of release, there were forty-eight in all, and the little flotilla, amid the mingled execrations and murmurs of despair among the weak and the downcast who stayed behind, paddled out of that fateful harbor. the greater part of all who were vigorous had now gone. there were a few strong souls, with some vitality left in them, among the small company which remained to the admiral; but the most of them were sorry objects, with dejected minds and bodies more or less prostrate from disease and privation. the conviction soon settled upon this deserted community that nothing could save them but a brotherly and confident determination to help one another, and to arouse to the utmost whatever of cheer and good will was latent in their spirits. they could hardly have met an attack of the natives, and they knew it. this made them more considerate in their treatment of their neighbors, and the supply of provisions which they could get from those who visited the ship was plentiful for a while. but the habits of the savages were not to accumulate much beyond present needs, and when the baubles which the spaniards could distribute began to lose their strange attractiveness, the incentive was gone to induce exertion, and supplies were brought in less and less frequently. it was soon found that hawks' bells had diminished in value. it took several to appease the native cupidity where one had formerly done it. [sidenote: porras's men still on the island.] there was another difficulty. there were failures on the part of the more distant villages to send in their customary contributions, and it soon came to be known that porras and his crew, instead of having left the island, were wandering about, exacting provisions and committing indignities against the inhabitants wherever they went. * * * * * [sidenote: his voyage a failure.] it seems that the ten canoes had followed the coast to the nearest point to española, at the eastern end of the island, and here, waiting for a calm sea, and securing some indians to paddle, the mutineers had finally pushed off for their voyage. the boats had scarcely gone four leagues from land, when the wind rose and the sea began to alarm them. so they turned back. the men were little used to the management of the canoes, and they soon found themselves in great peril. it seemed necessary to lighten the canoes, which were now taking in water to a dangerous extent. they threw over much of their provisions; but this was not enough. they then sacrificed one after another the natives. if these resisted, a swoop of the sword ended their miseries. once in the water, the poor indians began to seize the gunwales; but the sword chopped off their hands. so all but a few of them, who were absolutely necessary to manage the canoes, were thrown into the sea. such were the perils through which the mutineers passed in reaching the land. a long month was now passed waiting for another calm sea; but when they tempted it once more, it rose as before, and they again sought the land. all hope of success was now abandoned. from that time porras and his band gave themselves up to a lawless, wandering life, during which they created new jealousies among the tribes. as we have seen, by their exactions they began at last to tap the distant sources of supplies for the admiral and his loyal adherents. [sidenote: . february . eclipse of the moon.] columbus now resorted to an expedient characteristic of the ingenious fertility of his mind. his astronomical tables enabled him to expect the approach of a lunar eclipse (february , ), and finding it close at hand he hastily summoned some of the neighboring caciques. he told them that the god of the spaniards was displeased at their neglect to feed his people, and that he was about to manifest that displeasure by withdrawing the moon and leaving them to such baleful influences as they had provoked. when night fell and the shadow began to steal over the moon, a long howl of horror arose, and promises of supplies were made by the stricken caciques. they hurled themselves for protection at the feet of the admiral. columbus retired for an ostensible communion with this potent spirit, and just as the hour came for the shadow to withdraw he appeared, and announced that their contrition had appeased the deity, and a sign would be given of his content. gradually the moon passed out of the shadow, and when in the clear heavens the luminary was again swimming unobstructed in her light, the work of astonishment had been done. after that, columbus was never much in fear of famine. * * * * * [sidenote: the canoe voyage of mendez.] [sidenote: at navasa island.] it is time now to see how much more successful mendez and fiesco had been than porras and his crew. they had accomplished the voyage to española, it is true, but under such perils and sufferings that fiesco could not induce a crew sufficient to man the canoe to return with him to the admiral. the passage had been made under the most violent conditions of tropical heat and unprotected endurance. their supply of water had given out, and the tortures of thirst came on. they looked out for the little island of navasa, which lay in their track, where they thought that in the crevices of the rocks they might find some water. they looked in vain. the day when they had hoped to see it passed, and night came on. one of the indians died, and was dropped overboard. others lay panting and exhausted in the bottom of the canoes. mendez sat watching a glimmer of light in the eastern horizon that betokened the coming of the moon. [sidenote: they see española.] [sidenote: mendez lands at española.] presently a faint glisten of the real orb grew into a segment. he could see the water line as the illumination increased. there was a black stretch of something jagging the lower edge of the segment. it was land! navasa had been found. by morning they had reached the island. water was discovered among the rocks; but some drank too freely, and paid the penalty of their lives. mussels were picked up along the shore; they built a fire and boiled them. all day long they gazed longingly on the distant mountains of española, which were in full sight. refreshed by the day's rest, they embarked again at nightfall, and on the following day arrived at cape tiburon, the southwestern peninsula of española, having been four days on the voyage from jamaica. they landed among hospitable natives, and having waited two days to recuperate, mendez took some savages in a canoe, and started to go along the coast to santo domingo, one hundred and thirty leagues distant. he had gone nearly two thirds of the distance when, communicating with the shore, he learned that ovando was not in santo domingo, but at xaragua. so mendez abandoned his canoe, and started alone through the forests to seek the governor. [sidenote: ovando delays sending relief to columbus.] ovando received him cordially, but made excuses for not sending relief to columbus at once. he was himself occupied with the wars which he was conducting against the natives. there was no ship in santo domingo of sufficient burden to be dispatched for such a rescue. so excuse after excuse, and promises of attention unfulfilled, kept mendez in the camp of ovando for seven months. the governor always had reasons for denying him permission to go to santo domingo, where mendez had hopes of procuring a vessel. this procrastinating conduct has naturally given rise to the suspicion that ovando was not over-anxious to deliver columbus from his perils; and there can be little question that for the admiral to have sunk into oblivion and leave no trace would have relieved both the governor and his royal master of some embarrassments. at length ovando consented to the departure of mendez to santo domingo. there was a fleet of caravels expected there, and mendez was anxious to see if he could not procure one of them on the admiral's own account to undertake the voyage of rescue. his importunities became so pressing that ovando at last consented to his starting for that port, seventy leagues distant. [sidenote: ovando sends escobar to observe columbus.] no sooner was mendez gone than ovando determined to ascertain the condition of the party at jamaica without helping them, and so he dispatched a caravel to reconnoitre. he purposely sent a small craft, that there might be no excuse for attempting to bring off the company; and to prevent seizure of the vessel by columbus, her commander was instructed to lie off the harbor, and only send in a boat, to communicate with no one but columbus; and he was particularly enjoined to avoid being enticed on board the stranded caravels. the command of this little craft of espionage was given to one of columbus's enemies, diego de escobar, who had been active as roldan's lieutenant in his revolt. when the vessel appeared off the harbor where columbus was, eight months had passed since mendez and fiesco had departed. all hopes of hearing of them had been abandoned. a rumor had come in from the natives that a vessel, bottom upwards, had been seen near the island, drifting with the current. it is said to have been a story started by porras that its effect might be distressing to columbus's adherents. it seems to have had the effect to hasten further discontent in that stricken band, and a new revolt was almost ready to make itself known when escobar's tiny caravel was descried standing in towards shore. the vessel was seen to lie to, when a boat soon left her side. as it came within hailing, the figure of escobar was recognized. columbus knew that he had once condemned the man to death. bobadilla had pardoned him. the boat bumped against the side of one of the stranded caravels; the crew brought it sidewise against the hulk, when a letter for the admiral was handed up. columbus's men made ready to receive a cask of wine and side of bacon, which escobar's companions lifted on board. all at once a quick motion pushed the boat from the hulks, and escobar stopped her when she had got out of reach. he now addressed columbus, and gave him the assurances of ovando's regret that he had no suitable vessel to send to him, but that he hoped before long to have such. he added that if columbus desired to reply to ovando's letter, he would wait a brief interval for him to prepare an answer. the admiral hastily made his reply in as courteous terms as possible, commending the purposes of mendez and fiesco to the governor's kind attention, and closed with saying that he reposed full confidence in ovando's expressed intention to rescue his people, and that he would stay on the wrecks in patience till the ships came. escobar received the letter, and returned to his caravel, which at once disappeared in the falling gloom of night. columbus was not without apprehension that escobar had come simply to make sure that the admiral and his company still survived, and las casas, who was then at santo domingo, seems to have been of the opinion that ovando had at this time no purpose to do more. the selection of escobar to carry a kindly message gave certainly a dubious ostentation to all expressions of friendly interest. the transaction may possibly admit of other interpretations. ovando may reasonably have desired that columbus and his faithful adherents should not abide long in española, as in the absence of vessels returning to spain the admiral might be obliged to do. there were rumors that columbus, indignant at the wrongs which he felt he had received at the hands of his sovereigns, had determined to hold his new discoveries for genoa, and the admiral had referred to such reports in his recent letter to the spanish monarchs. such reports easily put ovando on his guard, and he may have desired time to get instructions from spain. at all events, it was very palpable that ovando was cautious and perhaps inhuman, and columbus was to be left till escobar's report should decide what action was best. [sidenote: columbus communicates with porras.] columbus endeavored to make use of the letter which escobar had brought from ovando to win porras and his vagabonds back to loyalty and duty. he dispatched messengers to their camp to say that ovando had notified him of his purpose to send a vessel to take them off the island. the admiral was ready to promise forgiveness and forgetfulness, if the mutineers would come in and submit to the requirements of the orderly life of his people. he accompanied the message with a part of the bacon which escobar had delivered as a present from the governor. the lure, however, was not effective. porras met the ambassadors, and declined the proffers. he said his followers were quite content with the freedom of the island. the fact seemed to be that the mutineers were not quite sure of the admiral's sincerity, and feared to put themselves in his power. they were ready to come in when the vessels came, if transportation would be allowed them so that their band should not be divided; and until then they would cause the admiral's party no trouble, unless columbus refused to share with them his stores and trinkets, which they must have, peacefully or forcibly, since they had lost all their supplies in the gales which had driven them back. it was evident that porras and his company were not reduced to such straits that they could be reasoned with, and the messengers returned. [sidenote: bartholomew and his men confront the porras mutineers.] the author of the _historie_, and others who follow his statements, represent that the body of the mutineers was far from being as arrogant as their leaders, was much more tractable in spirit, and was inclined to catch at the chance of rescue. the leaders labored with the men to keep them steady in their revolt. porras and his abettors did what they could to picture the cruelties of the admiral, and even accused him of necromancy in summoning the ghost of a caravel by which to make his people believe that escobar had really been there. then, to give some activity to their courage, the whole body of the mutineers was led towards the harbor on pretense of capturing stores. the adelantado went out to meet them with fifty armed followers, the best he could collect from the wearied companions of the admiral. porras refused all offers of conference, and led his band to the attack. there was a plan laid among them that six of the stoutest should attack the adelantado simultaneously, thinking that if their leader should be overpowered the rest would flee. the adelantado's courage rose with the exigency, as it was wont to do. he swung his sword with vigor, and one after another the assailants fell. at last porras struck him such a blow that the adelantado's buckler was cleft and his hand wounded. the blow was too powerful for the giver of it. his sword remained wedged in the buckler, affording his enemy a chance to close, while an attempt was made to extricate the weapon. others came to the loyal leader's assistance, and porras was secured and bound. [sidenote: porras taken.] [sidenote: sanchez killed.] [sidenote: ledesma wounded.] this turned the current of the fight. the rebels, seeing their leader a prisoner, fled in confusion, leaving the field to the party of the adelantado. the fight had been a fierce one. they found among the rebel dead juan sanchez, who had let slip the captured quibian, and among the wounded pedro ledesma, who had braved the breakers at veragua. las casas, who knew the latter at a later day, deriving some help from him in telling the story of these eventful months, speaks of the many and fearful wounds which he bore in evidence of his rebellion and courage, and of the sturdy activity of his assailants. we owe also to ledesma and to some of his companions, who, with himself, were witnesses in the later lawsuit of diego colon with the crown, certain details which the principal narrators fail to give us. a charm had seemed throughout the conflict to protect the admiral's friends. none were killed outright, and but one other beside their leader was wounded. this man, the admiral's steward, subsequently died. [sidenote: . march . the rebels propose to submit.] the victors returned to the ships with their prisoners; and in the midst of the gratulations which followed on the next day, march , , the fugitives sent in an address to the admiral, begging to be pardoned and received back to his care and fortunes. they acknowledged their errors in the most abject professions, and called upon heaven to show no mercy, and upon man to know no sympathy, in dealing retribution, if they failed in their fidelity thereafter. the proposition of surrender was not without embarrassment. the admiral was fearful of the trial of their constancy when they might gather about him with all the chances of further cabaling. he also knew that his provisions were fast running out. accordingly, in accepting their surrender, he placed them under officers whom he could trust, and supplying them with articles of barter, he let them wander about the island under suitable discipline, hoping that they would find food where they could. he promised, however, to recall them when the expected ships arrived. [sidenote: ships come to rescue them.] it was not long they had to wait. one day two ships were seen standing in towards the harbor. one of them proved to be a caravel which mendez had bought on the admiral's account, out of a fleet of three, just then arrived from spain, and had victualed for the occasion. having seen it depart from santo domingo, mendez, in the other ships of this opportune fleet, sailed directly for spain, to carry out the further instructions of the admiral. the other of the approaching ships was in command of diego de salcedo, the admiral's factor, and had been dispatched by ovando. las casas tells us that the governor was really forced to this action by public sentiment, which had grown in consequence of the stories of the trials of columbus which mendez had told. it is said that even the priests did not hesitate to point a moral in their pulpits with the governor's dilatory sympathy. [sidenote: . june . columbus leaves jamaica.] finally, on june , everything was ready for departure, and columbus turned away from the scene of so much trouble. "columbus informed me afterwards, in spain," says mendez, recording the events, "that in no part of his life did he ever experience so joyful a day, for he had never hoped to have left that place alive." four years later, under authority from the admiral's son diego, the town of sevilla nueva, later known as sevilla d'oro, was founded on the very spot. [sidenote: events at española during the absence of columbus.] [sidenote: ovando's rule.] the admiral now committed himself once more to the treacherous currents and adverse winds of these seas. we have seen that mendez urged his canoe across the gap between jamaica and the nearest point of española in four days; but it took the ships of columbus about seven weeks to reach the haven of santo domingo. there was much time during this long and vexatious voyage for columbus to learn from salcedo the direful history of the colony which had been wrested from him, and which even under the enlarged powers of ovando had not been without manifold tribulations. we must rehearse rapidly the occurrences, as columbus heard of them. he could have got but the scantiest inkling of what had happened during the earliest months of ovando's rule, when he applied by messenger, in vain, for admission to the harbor, now more than two years ago. the historian of this period must depend mainly upon las casas, who had come out with ovando, and we must sketch an outline of the tale, as columbus heard it, from that writer's _historia_. it was the old sad story of misguided aspirants for wealth in their first experiences with the hazards and toils of mining,--much labor, disappointed hopes, failing provisions, no gold, sickness, disgust, and a desponding return of the toilers from the scene of their infatuation. it took but eight days for the crowds from ovando's fleet, who trudged off manfully to the mountains on their landing, to come trooping back, dispirited and diseased. [sidenote: columbus and slavery.] [sidenote: . december . forced labor of the natives.] columbus could hardly have listened to what was said of suffering among the natives during these two years of his absence without a vivid consciousness of the baleful system which he had introduced when he assigned crowds of the poor indians to be put to inhuman tasks by roldan's crew. the institution of this kind of distribution of labor had grown naturally, but it had become so appalling under bobadilla that, when ovando was sent out, he was instructed to put an end to it. it was not long before the governor had to confront the exasperated throngs coming back from the mines, dejected and empty-handed. it was apparent that nothing of the expected revenue to the crown was likely to be produced from half the yield of metal when there was no yield at all. so, to induce greater industry, ovando reduced the share of the crown to a third, and next to a fifth, but without success. it was too apparent that the spaniards would not persist in labors which brought them so little. at a period when columbus was flattering himself that he was laying claim to far richer gold fields at veragua, ovando was devising a renewal of the admiral's old slave-driving methods to make the mines of hayna yield what they could. he sent messages to the sovereigns informing them that their kindness to the natives was really inconsiderate; that the poor creatures, released from labor, were giving themselves up to mischief; and that, to make good christians of them, there was needed the appetizing effect of healthful work upon the native soul. the appeal and the frugal returns to the treasury were quite sufficient to gain the sovereigns to ovando's views; and while bewailing any cruelty to the poor natives, and expressing hopes for their spiritual relief, their majesties were not averse, as they said (december , ), to these indians being made to labor as much as was needful to their health. this was sufficient. the fatal system of columbus was revived with increased enormities. six or eight months of unremitting labor, with insufficient food, were cruelly exacted of every native. they were torn from their families, carried to distant parts of the island, kept to their work by the lash, and, if they dared to escape, almost surely recaptured, to work out their period under the burden of chains. at last, when they were dismissed till their labor was again required, las casas tells us that the passage through the island of these miserable creatures could be traced by their fallen and decaying bodies. this was a story that, if columbus possessed any of the tendernesses that glowed in the heart of las casas, could not have been a pleasant one for his contemplation. [sidenote: anacaona treacherously treated.] [sidenote: the indians slaughtered.] there was another story to which columbus may have listened. it is very likely that salcedo may have got all the particulars from diego mendez, who was a witness of the foul deeds which had indeed occurred during those seven months when ovando, then on an expedition in xaragua, kept that messenger of columbus waiting his pleasure. anacaona, the sister of behechio, had succeeded to that cacique in the rule of xaragua. the licentious conduct and the capricious demands of the spaniards settled in this region had increased the natural distrust and indignation of the indians, and some signs of discontent which they manifested had been recounted to ovando as indications of a revolt which it was necessary to nip in the bud. so the governor had marched into the country with three hundred foot and seventy horse. the chieftainess, anacaona, came forth to meet him with much native parade, and gave all the honor which her savage ceremonials could signify to her distinguished guest. she lodged him as well as she could, and caused many games to be played for his divertisement. in return, ovando prepared a tournament calculated to raise the expectation of his simple hosts, and horseman and foot came to the lists in full armor and adornment for the heralded show. on a signal from ovando, the innocent parade was converted in an instant into a fanatical onslaught. the assembled caciques were hedged about with armed men, and all were burned in their cabins. the general populace were transfixed and trampled by the charging mounted spearmen, and only those who could elude the obstinate and headlong dashes of the cavalry escaped. anacaona was seized and conveyed in chains to santo domingo, where, with the merest pretense of a trial for conspiracy, she was soon hanged. [sidenote: xaragua and higuey over-run.] [sidenote: esquibel's campaign.] and this was the pacification of xaragua. that of higuey, the most eastern of the provinces, and which had not yet acknowledged the sway of the spaniards, followed, with the same resorts to cruelty. a cacique of this region had been slain by a fierce spanish dog which had been set upon him. this impelled some of the natives living on the coast to seize a canoe having eight spaniards in it, and to slaughter them; whereupon juan de esquibel was sent with four hundred men on a campaign against cotabanama, the chief cacique of higuey. the invaders met more heroism in the defenders of this country than they had been accustomed to, but the spanish armor and weapons enabled esquibel to raid through the land with almost constant success. the indians at last sued for peace, and agreed to furnish a tribute of provisions. esquibel built a small fortress, and putting some men in it, he returned to santo domingo; not, however, until he had received cotabanama in his camp. the spanish leader brought back to ovando a story of the splendid physical power of this native chief, whose stature, proportions, and strength excited the admiration of the spaniards. [sidenote: new revolt in higuey.] the peace was not of long duration. the reckless habits of the garrison had once more aroused the courage of the indians, and some of the latest occurrences which salcedo could tell of as having been reported at santo domingo just before his sailing for jamaica were the events of a new revolt in higuey. [sidenote: . august . columbus at beata.] [sidenote: . august . at santo domingo.] such were the stories which columbus may have listened to during the tedious voyage which was now, on august , approaching an end. on that day his ships sailed under the lea of the little island of beata, which lies midway of the southern coast of española. here he landed a messenger, and ordered him to convey a letter to ovando, warning the governor of his approach. salcedo had told columbus that the governor was not without apprehension that his coming might raise some factious disturbances among the people, and in this letter the admiral sought to disabuse ovando's mind of such suspicions, and to express his own purpose to avoid every act of irritation which might possibly embarrass the administration of the island. the letter dispatched, columbus again set sail, and on august his ship entered the harbor of santo domingo. ovando received him with every outward token of respect, and lodged him in his own house. columbus, however, never believed that this officious kindness was other than a cloak to ovando's dislike, if not hatred. there was no little popular sympathy for the misfortunes which columbus had experienced, but his relations with the governor were not such as to lighten the anxieties of his sojourn. it is known that cortes was at this time only recently arrived at santo domingo; but we can only conjecture what may have been his interest in columbus's recitals. [sidenote: columbus and ovando.] there soon arose questions of jurisdiction. ovando ordered the release of porras, and arranged for sending him to spain for trial. the governor also attempted to interfere with the admiral's control of his own crew, on the ground that his commission gave him command over all the regions of the new islands and the main. columbus cited the instructions, which gave him power to rule and judge his own followers. ovando did not push his claims to extremities, but the irritation never subsided; and columbus seems to have lost no opportunity, if we may judge from his later letters, to pick up every scandalous story and tale of maladministration of which he could learn, and which could be charged against ovando in later appeals to the sovereigns for a restitution of his own rights. the admiral also inquired into his pecuniary interests in the island, and found, as he thought, that ovando had obstructed his factor in the gathering of his share. indeed, there may have been some truth in this; for carvajal, columbus's first factor, had complained of such acts to the sovereigns, which elicited an admonishment from them to ovando. [sidenote: . september . columbus sails for spain.] [sidenote: . november . reaches san lucar.] such money as columbus could now collect he used in refitting the ship which had brought him from jamaica, and he put her under the order of the adelantado. securing also another caravel for his own conveyance, he embarked on her with his son, and on september both ships started on their homeward voyage. they were scarcely at sea, when the ship which bore the admiral lost her mast in a gale. he transferred himself and his immediate dependents to the other vessel, and sent the disabled caravel back to santo domingo. his solitary vessel now went forward, amid all the adversities that seemed to cling inevitably to this last of columbus's expeditions. tempest after tempest pursued him. the masts were sprung, and again sprung; and in a forlorn and disabled condition the little hapless bark finally entered the port of san lucar on november , . he had been absent from spain for two years and a half. chapter xx. columbus's last years.--death and character. - . [sidenote: columbus in seville till may, .] [sidenote: letters to his son.] from san lucar, columbus, a sick man in search of quiet and rest, was conveyed to seville. unhappily, there was neither repose nor peace of mind in store for him. he remained in that city till may, , broken in spirits and almost helpless of limb. fortunately, we can trace his varying mental moods during these few months in a series of letters, most of which are addressed by him to his son diego, then closely attached to the court. these writings have fortunately come down to us, and they constitute the only series of columbus's letters which we have, showing the habits of his mind consecutively for a confined period, so that we get a close watch upon his thoughts. they are the wails of a neglected soul, and the cries of one whose hope is cruelly deferred. they have in their entirety a good deal of that haphazard jerkiness tiresome to read, and not easily made evident in abstract. they are, however, not so deficient in mental equipoise as, for instance, the letter sent from jamaica. this is perhaps owing to the one absorbing burden of them, his hope of recovering possession of his suspended authority. [sidenote: . november .] he writes on november , , a fortnight after his landing at san lucar, telling his son how he has engaged his old friend, the dominican deza, now the bishop of palencia, to intercede with the sovereigns, that justice may be done to him with respect to his income, the payment of which ovando had all along, as he contends, obstructed at española. he tries to argue that if their highnesses but knew it, they would, in ordering restitution to him, increase their own share. he hopes they have no doubt that his zeal for their interests has been quite as much as he could manifest if he had paradise to gain, and hopes they will remember, respecting any errors he may have committed, that the lord of all judges such things by the intention rather than by the outcome. he seems to have a suspicion that porras, now at liberty and about the court, might be insidiously at work to his old commander's disadvantage, and he represents that neither porras nor his brother had been suitable persons for their offices, and that what had been done respecting them would be approved on inquiry. "their revolt," he says, "surprised me, considering all that i had done for them, as much as the sun would have alarmed me if it had shot shadows instead of light." he complains of ovando's taking the prisoners, who had been companions of porras, from his hands, and that, made free, they had even dared to present themselves at court. "i have written," he adds, "to their highnesses about it, and i have told them that it can't be possible that they would tolerate such an offense." he says further that he has written to the royal treasurer, begging him to come to no decision of the representations of such detractors until the other side could be heard, and he adds that he has sent to the treasurer a copy of the oath which the mutineers sent in after porras had been taken. "recall to all these people," he writes to his son, "my infirmities, and the recompense due to me for my services." diego was naturally, from his residence at court, a convenient medium to bring all columbus's wishes to the notice of those about the sovereigns. the admiral writes to diego again that he hopes their highnesses will see to the paying of his men who had come home. "they are poor, and have been gone three years," he says. "they bring home evidences of the greatest of expectations in the new gold fields of veragua;" and then he advises his son to bring this fact to the attention of all who are concerned, and to urge the colonizing of the new country as the best way to profit from its gold mines. for a while he harbored the hope that he might at once go on to the court, and a litter which had served in the obsequies of cardinal mendoza was put at his disposal; but this plan was soon given up. [sidenote: . november .] a week later, having in the interim received a letter of the th, from diego, columbus writes again, under date of november . in this epistle he speaks of the severity of his disease, which keeps him in seville, from which, however, he hopes to depart the coming week, and of his disappointment that the sovereigns had not replied to his inquiries. he sends his love to diego mendez, hoping that his friend's zeal and love of truth will enable him to overcome the deceits and intrigues of porras. [sidenote: . november . queen isabella dies.] [sidenote: isabella's character.] columbus was not at this time aware that the impending death of the queen had something to do with the delays in his own affairs at court. two days (november ) before the admiral wrote this note, isabella had died, worn out by her labors, and depressed by the afflictions which she had experienced in her domestic circle. she was an unlovely woman at the best, an obstructor of christian charity, but in her wiles she had allured columbus to a belief in her countenance of him. the conventional estimate of her character, which is enforced in the rather cloying descriptions of prescott, is such as her flatterers drew in her own times; but the revelations of historical research hardly confirm it. it was with her much as with columbus,--she was too largely a creature of her own age to be solely judged by the criteria of all ages, as lofty characters can be. the loss of her influence on the king removed, as it proved, even the chance of a flattering delusiveness in the hopes of columbus. as the compiler of the _historie_ expresses it, "columbus had always enjoyed her favor and protection, while the king had always been indifferent, or rather inimical." she had indeed, during the admiral's absence on his last voyage, manifested some new appreciation of his services, which cost her little, however, when she made his eldest son one of her bodyguard and naturalized his brother diego, to fit him for ecclesiastical preferment. [sidenote: . december .] on december , ignorant of the sad occurrences at court, columbus writes again, chiding diego that he had not in his dutifulness written to his poor father. "you ought to know," he says, "that i have no pleasure now but in a letter from you." columbus by this time had become, by the constant arrival of couriers, aware of the anxiety at court over the queen's health, and he prays that the holy trinity will restore her to health, to the end that all that has been begun may be happily finished. he reiterates what he had previously written about the increasing severity of his malady, his inability to travel, his want of money, and how he had used all he could get in española to bring home his poor companions. he commends anew to diego his brother ferdinand, and speaks of this younger son's character as beyond his years. "ten brothers would not be too many for you," he adds; "in good as in bad fortune, i have never found better friends than my brothers." nothing troubles him more than the delays in hearing from court. a rumor had reached him that it was intended to send some bishops to the indies, and that the bishop of palencia was charged with the matter. he begs diego to say to the bishop that it was worth while, in the interests of all, to confer with the admiral first. in explaining why he does not write to diego mendez, he says that he is obliged to write by night, since by day his hands are weak and painful. he adds that the vessel which put back to santo domingo had arrived, bringing the papers in porras's case, the result of the inquest which had been taken at jamaica, so that he could now be able to present an indictment to the council of the indies. his indignation is aroused at the mention of it. "what can be so foul and brutal! if their highnesses pass it by, who is going again to lead men upon their service!" [sidenote: . december .] two days later (december ), he writes again to diego about the neglect which he is experiencing from him and from others at court. "everybody except myself is receiving letters," he says. he incloses a memoir expressing what he thought it was necessary to do in the present conjunction of his affairs. this document opens with calling upon diego zealously to pray to god for the soul of the queen. "one must believe she is now clothed with a sainted glory, no longer regretting the bitterness and weariness of this life." the king, he adds, "deserves all our sympathy and devotion." he then informs diego that he has directed his brother, his uncle, and carvajal to add all their importunities to his son's, and to the written prayers which he himself has sent, that consideration should be given to the affairs of the indies. nothing, he says, can be more urgent than to remedy the abuses there. in all this he curiously takes on the tone of his own accusers a few years before. he represents that pecuniary returns from española are delayed; that the governor is detested by all; that a suitable person sent there could restore harmony in less than three months; and that other fortresses, which are much needed, should be built, "all of which i can do in his highness's service," he exclaims, "and any other, not having my personal interests at stake, could not do it so well!" then he repeats how, immediately after his arrival at san lucar, he had written to the king a very long letter, advising action in the matter, to which no reply had been returned. [sidenote: . january . the _casa de contratacion_ established.] it was during columbus's absence on this last voyage that, by an ordinance made at alcalá, january , , the famous _casa de contratacion_ was established, with authority over the affairs of the indies, having the power to grant licenses, to dispatch fleets, to dispose of the results of trade or exploration, and to exercise certain judicial prerogatives. this council was to consist of a treasurer, a factor, and a comptroller, to whom two persons learned in the law were given as advisers. alexander vi. had already, by a bull of november , , authorized the payment to the constituted spanish officials of all the tithes of the colonies, which went a long way in giving spain ecclesiastical supremacy in the indies, in addition to her political control. it was to this council that columbus refers, when he says he had told the gentlemen of the _contratacion_ that they ought to abide by the verbal and written orders which the king had given, and that, above all, they should watch lest people should sail to the indies without permission. he reminded them of the sorry character of the people already in the new world, and of the way in which treasure was stored there without protection. [sidenote: . december .] ten days later (december ), he writes again to diego, recurring to his bitter memories of ovando, charging him with diverting the revenues, and with bearing himself so haughtily that no one dared remonstrate. "everybody says that i have as much as , or , castellanos in española, and i have not received a quarter. since i came away he must have received , ." he then urges diego to sue the king for a mandatory letter to be sent to ovando, forcing immediate payment. "carvajal knows very well that this ought to be done. show him this letter," he adds. then referring to his denied rights, and to the best way to make the king sensible of his earlier promises, he next advises diego to lessen his expenses; to treat his uncle with the respect which is due to him; and to bear himself towards his younger brother as an older brother should. "you have no other brother," he says; "and thank god this one is all you could desire. he was born with a good nature." then he reverts to the queen's death. "people tell me," he writes, "that on her death-bed she expressed a wish that my possession of the indies should be restored to me." [sidenote: . december .] a week later (december ), he once more bewails the way in which he is left without tidings. he recounts the exertions he had made to send money to his advocates at court, and tells diego how he must somehow continue to get on as best he can till their highnesses are content to give them back their power. he repeats that to bring his companions home from santo domingo he had spent twelve hundred castellanos, and that he had represented to the king the royal indebtedness for this, but it produced no reimbursement. he asks diego to find out if the queen, "now with god, no doubt," had spoken of him in her will; and perhaps the bishop of palencia, "who was the cause of their majesties' acquiring the indies, and of my returning to the court when i had departed," or the chamberlain of the king could find this out. columbus may have lived to learn that the only item of the queen's will in which he could possibly have been in mind was the one in which she showed that she was aroused to the enormities which columbus had imposed on the indians, and which had come to such results that, as las casas says, it had been endeavored to keep the knowledge of it from the queen's ears. she earnestly enjoined upon her successors a change of attitude towards the poor indians. [sidenote: columbus writes to the pope.] columbus further says that the pope had complained that no account of his voyage had been sent to rome, and that accordingly he had prepared one, and he desired diego to read it, and to let the king and the bishop also peruse it before it was forwarded to rome. it is possible that the adelantado was dispatched with the letter. the canonizers say that the mission to rome had also a secret purpose, which was to counteract the schemes of fonseca to create bishoprics in española, and that the advice of columbus in the end prevailed over the "cunning of diplomacy." [sidenote: . february . columbus allowed to ride a mule.] there had been some time before, owing to the difficulty which had been experienced in mounting the royal cavalry, an order promulgated forbidding the use of mules in travel, since it was thought that the preference for this animal had brought about the deterioration and scarcity of horses. it was to this injunction that columbus now referred when he asked diego to get a dispensation from the king to allow him to enjoy the easier seat of a mule when he should venture on his journey towards the court, which, with this help, he hoped to be able to begin within a few weeks. such an order was in due time issued on february , . [sidenote: . december .] on december , columbus wrote again. the letter was full of the same pitiful suspense. he had received no letters. he could but repeat the old story of the letters of credit which he had sent and which had not been acknowledged. no one of his people had been paid, he said, neither the faithful nor the mutineers. "they are all poor. they are going to court," he adds, "to press their claims. aid them in it." he excepts, however, from the kind interest of his friends two fellows who had been with him on his last voyage, one camacho and master bernal, the latter the physician of the flagship. bernal was the instigator of the revolt of porras, he says, "and i pardoned him at the prayer of my brother." [sidenote: columbus and the bank of st. george.] it will be remembered that, previous to starting on his last voyage, columbus had written to the bank of st. george in genoa, proposing a gift of a tenth of his income for the benefit of his native town. the letter was long in reaching its destination, but a reply was duly sent through his son diego. it never reached columbus, and this apparent spurning of his gift by genoa caused not a small part of his present disgust with the world. [sidenote: . december .] on december , , he wrote to nicolo oderigo, reminding him of the letter, and complaining that while he had expected to be met on his return by some confidential agent of the bank, he had not even had a letter in response. "it was uncourteous in these gentlemen of st. george not to have favored me with an answer." the intention was, in fact, far from being unappreciated, and at a later day the promise became so far magnified as to be regarded as an actual gift, in which the genoese were not without pride. the purpose never, however, had a fulfillment. [sidenote: . january .] on january , , the admiral wrote to his friend father gorricio, telling him that diego mendez had arrived from the court, and asking the friar to encase in wax the documentary privileges of the admiral which had been intrusted to him, and to send them to him. "my disease grows better day by day," he adds. [sidenote: . january .] on january , , he again wrote. the epistle was in some small degree cheery. he had heard at last from diego. "zamora the courier has arrived, and i have looked with great delight upon thy letter, thy uncle's, thy brother's, and carvajal's." diego mendez, he says, sets out in three or four days with an order for payment. he refers with some playfulness, even, to fonseca, who had just been raised to the bishopric of placentia, and had not yet returned from flanders to take possession of the seat. "if the bishop of placentia has arrived, or when he comes, tell him how much pleased i am at his elevation; and that when i come to court i shall depend on lodging with his grace, whether he wishes it or not, that we may renew our old fraternal bonds." his biographers have been in some little uncertainty whether he really meant here fonseca or his old friend deza, who had just left that bishopric vacant for the higher post of archbishop of seville. a strict application of dates makes the reference to fonseca. one may imagine, however, that columbus was not accurately informed. it is indeed hard to understand the pleasantry, if fonseca was the bitter enemy of columbus that he is pictured by irving. some ships from española had put into the tagus. "they have not arrived here from lisbon," he adds. "they bring much gold, but none for me." [sidenote: conference with vespucius.] [sidenote: vespucius's account of his voyage.] we next find columbus in close communion with a contemporary with whose fame his own is sadly conjoined. some account of the events of the voyage which vespucius had made along the coast of south america with coelho, from which he had returned to lisbon in september, , has been given on an earlier page. those events and his descriptions had already brought the name of vespucius into prominence throughout europe, but hardly before he had started on another voyage in the spring or early summer of , just at the time when columbus was endeavoring to work his way from the veragua coast to española. the authorities are not quite agreed whether it was on may , , or a month later, on june , that the little portuguese fleet in which vespucius sailed left the tagus, to find a way, if possible, to the moluccas somewhere along the same great coast. this expedition had started under the command of coelho, but meeting with mishaps, by which the fleet was separated, vespucius, with his own vessel, joined later by another with which he fell in, proceeded to bahia, where a factory for storing brazil-wood was erected; thence, after a stay there, they sailed for lisbon, arriving there after an absence of seventy-seven days, on june , . it was later, on september , that vespucius wrote, or rather dated, that account of his voyage which was to work such marvels, as we shall see, in the reputation of himself and of columbus. there is no reason to suppose that columbus ever knew of this letter of september , so subversive as it turned out of his just fame; nor, judging from the account of their interview which columbus records, is there any reason to suppose that vespucius himself had any conception of the work which that fateful letter was already accomplishing, and to which reference will be made later. [sidenote: . february .] on february , , columbus wrote to diego: "within two days i have talked with americus vespucius, who will bear this to you, and who is summoned to court on matters of navigation. he has always manifested a disposition to be friendly to me. fortune has not always favored him, and in this he is not different from many others. his ventures have not always been as successful as he would wish. he left me full of the kindliest purposes towards me, and will do anything for me which is in his power. i hardly knew what to tell him would be helpful in him to do for me, because i did not know what purpose there was in calling him to court. find out what he can do, and he will do it; only let it be so managed that he will not be suspected of rendering me aid. i have told him all that it is possible to tell him as to my own affairs, including what i have done and what recompense i have had. show this letter to the adelantado, so that he may advise how vespucius can be made serviceable to us." [sidenote: . april . vespucius naturalized.] we soon after this find vespucius installed as an agent of the spanish government, naturalized on april as a castilian, and occupied at the seaports in superintending the fitting out of ships for the indies, with an annual salary of thirty thousand maravedis. we can find no trace of any assistance that he afforded the cause of columbus. [sidenote: columbus's effects sold.] meanwhile events were taking place which columbus might well perhaps have arrested, could he have got the royal ear. an order had been sent in february to española to sell the effects of columbus, and in april other property of the admiral had been seized to satisfy his creditors. [sidenote: . may. columbus goes to segovia.] [sidenote: august . attests his will.] [sidenote: columbus and ferdinand.] in may, , columbus, with the friendly care of his brother bartholomew, set out on his journey to segovia, where the court then was. this is the statement of las casas, but harrisse can find no evidence of his being near the court till august, when, on the th, he attested, as will appear, his will before a notary. the change bringing him into the presence of his royal master only made his mortification more poignant. his personal suit to the king was quite as ineffective as his letters had been. the sovereign was outwardly beneficent, and inwardly uncompliant. the admiral's recitals respecting his last voyage, both of promised wealth and of saddened toil, made little impression. las casas suspects that the insinuations of porras had preoccupied the royal mind. to rid himself of the importunities of columbus, the king proposed an arbiter, and readily consented to the choice which columbus made of his old friend deza, now archbishop of seville; but columbus was too immovably fixed upon his own rights to consent that more than the question of revenue should be considered by such an arbiter. his recorded privileges and the pledged word of the sovereign were not matters to be reconsidered. such was not, however, the opinion of the king. he evaded the point in his talk with bland countenance, and did nothing in his acts beyond referring the question anew to a body of counselors convened to determine the fulfillment of the queen's will. they did nothing quite as easily as the king. las casas tells us that the king was only restrained by motives of outward decency from a public rejection of all the binding obligations towards the admiral into which he had entered jointly with the queen. [sidenote: . august . his will.] [sidenote: columbus pleads for his son.] [sidenote: rejects offers of estates.] columbus found in all this nothing to comfort a sick and desponding man, and sank in despair upon his couch. he roused enough to have a will drafted august , which confirmed a testament made in , before starting on his last voyage. his disease renewed its attacks. an old wound had reopened. from a bed of pain he began again his written appeals. he now gave up all hopes for himself, but he pleaded for his son, that upon him the honors which he himself had so laboriously won should be bestowed. diego at the same time, in seconding the petition, promised, if the reinstatement took place, that he would count those among his counselors whom the royal will should designate. nothing of protest or appeal came opportunely to the determined king. "the more he was petitioned," says las casas, "the more bland he was in avoiding any conclusion." he hoped by exhausting the patience of the admiral to induce him to accept some estates in castile in lieu of such powers in the indies. columbus rejected all such intimations with indignation. he would have nothing but his bonded rights. "i have done all that i can do," he said in a pitiful, despairing letter to deza. "i must leave the issue to god. he has always sustained me in extremities." "it argued," says prescott, in commenting on this, "less knowledge of character than the king usually showed, that he should have thought the man who had broken off all negotiations on the threshold of a dubious enterprise, rather than abate one tittle of his demands, would consent to such abatement, when the success of that enterprise was so gloriously established." [sidenote: columbus at salamanca.] [sidenote: mendez and columbus.] the admiral was, during this part of his suit, apparently at salamanca, for mendez speaks of him as being there confined to his bed with the gout, while he himself was doing all he could to press his master's claims to have diego recognized in his rights. in return for this service, mendez asked to be appointed principal alguazil of española for life, and he says the admiral acknowledged that such an appointment was but a trifling remuneration for his great services, but the requital never came. [sidenote: columbus unable to leave valladolid to greet philip and juana.] there broke a glimmer of hope. the death of the queen had left the throne of castile to her daughter juana, the wife of philip of austria, and they had arrived from flanders to be installed in their inheritance. columbus, who had followed the court from segovia to salamanca, thence to valladolid, was now unable to move further in his decrepitude, and sent the adelantado to propitiate the daughter of isabella, with the trust that something of her mother's sympathy might be vouchsafed to his entreaties. bartholomew never saw his brother again, and was not privileged to communicate to him the gracious hopes which the benignity of his reception raised. [sidenote: negroes sent to española.] a year had passed since the admiral had come to the neighborhood of the court, wherever it was, and nothing had been accomplished in respect to his personal interests. indeed, little touching the indies at all seems to have been done. there had been trial made of sending negro slaves to española as indicating that the native bondage needed reinforcement; but ovando had reported that the experiment was a failure, since the negroes only mixed with the indians and taught them bad habits. ferdinando cared little for this, and at segovia, september , , he notified ovando that he should send some more negroes. whether columbus was aware of this change in the methods of extracting gold from the soil we cannot find. [sidenote: . may . codicil to his will.] as soon as bartholomew had started on his mission the malady of columbus increased. he became conscious that the time had come to make his final dispositions. it was on may , , according to the common story, that he signed a codicil to his will on a blank page in a breviary which had been given to him, as he says, by alexander vi., and which had "comforted him in his battles, his captivities, and his misfortunes." this document has been accepted by some of the commentators as genuine; harrisse and others are convinced of its apocryphal character. it was not found till . it is a strange document, if authentic. [sidenote: thought to be spurious.] itholds that such dignities as were his under the spanish crown, acknowledged or not, were his of right to alienate from the spanish throne. it was, if anything, a mere act of bravado, as if to flout at the authority which could dare deprive him of his possessions. he provides for the descent of his honors in the male line, and that failing, he bequeaths them to the republic of genoa! it was a gauge of hostile demands on spain which no one but a madman would imagine that genoa would accept if she could. he bestowed on his native city, in the same reckless way, the means to erect a hospital, and designated that such resources should come from his italian estates, whatever they were. certainly the easiest way to dispose of the paper is to consider it a fraud. if such, it was devised by some one who entered into the spirit of the admiral's madness, and made the most of rumors that had been afloat respecting columbus's purposes to benefit genoa at the expense of spain. [sidenote: . may . ratified his will.] about a fortnight later (may ), he ratified an undoubted will, which had been drafted by his own hand the year before at segovia, and executed it with the customary formalities. its testamentary provisions were not unnatural. he made diego his heir, and his entailed property was, in default of heirs to diego, to pass to his illegitimate son ferdinand, and from him, in like default, to his own brother, the adelantado, and his male descendants; and all such failing, to the female lines in a similar succession. he enjoined upon his representatives, of whatever generation, to serve the spanish king with fidelity. upon diego, and upon later heads of the family, he imposed the duty of relieving all distressed relatives and others in poverty. he imposed on his lawful son the appointment of some one of his lineage to live constantly in genoa, to maintain the family dignity. he directed him to grant due allowances to his brother and uncle; and when the estates yielded the means, to erect a chapel in the vega of española, where masses might be said daily for the repose of the souls of himself and of his nearest relatives. he made the furthering of the crusade to recover the holy sepulchre equally contingent upon the increase of his income. he also directed diego to provide for the maintenance of donna beatrix enriquez, the mother of ferdinand, as "a person to whom i am under great obligations," and "let this be done for the discharge of my conscience, for it weighs heavy on my soul,--the reasons for which i am not here permitted to give;" and this was a behest that diego, in his own will, acknowledges his failure to observe during the last years of the lady's life. then, in a codicil, columbus enumerates sundry little bequests to other persons to whom he was indebted, and whose kindness he wished to remember. he was honest enough to add that his bequests were imaginary unless his rights were acknowledged. "hitherto i neither have had, nor have i now, any positive income." he failed to express any wish respecting the spot of his interment. the documents were committed at once to a notary, from whose archives a copy was obtained in by his son diego, and this copy exists to-day among the family papers in the hands of the duke of veragua. [sidenote: . may . columbus dies.] this making of a will was almost his last act. on the next day he partook of the sacrament, and uttering, "into thy hands, o lord, i commit my spirit," he gasped his last. it was on the th of may, ,--by some circumstances we might rather say may ,--in the city of valladolid, that this singular, hopeful, despondent, melancholy life came to its end. he died at the house no. calle de colon, which is still shown to travelers. [illustration: house where columbus died. [from ruge's _geschichte des zeitalters der entdeckungen_.]] [sidenote: his death unnoticed.] there was a small circle of relatives and friends who mourned. the tale of his departure came like a sough of wind to a few others, who had seen no way to alleviate a misery that merited their sympathy. the king could have but found it a relief from the indiscretion of his early promises. the world at large thought no more of the mournful procession which bore that wayworn body to the grave than it did of any poor creature journeying on his bier to the potter's field. it is hard to conceive how the fame of a man over whose acts in learned men cried for joy, and by whose deeds the adventurous spirit had been stirred in every seaport of western europe, should have so completely passed into oblivion that a professed chronicler like peter martyr, busy tattler as he was, should take no notice of his illness and death. there have come down to us five long letters full of news and gossip, which martyr wrote from valladolid at this very time, with not a word in them of the man he had so often commemorated. fracanzio da montalboddo, publishing in some correction of his early voyages, had not heard of columbus's death; nor had madrignano in dating his latin rendering of the same book in . it was not till twenty-seven days after the death-bed scene that the briefest notice was made in passing, in an official document of the town, to the effect that "the said admiral is dead!" [sidenote: his burial.] [sidenote: his coffin carried to seville.] it is not even certain where the body was first placed, though it is usually affirmed to have been deposited in the franciscan convent in valladolid. nor is there any evidence to support another equally prevalent story that king ferdinand had ordered the removal of the remains to seville seven years later, when a monument was built bearing the often-quoted distich,-- À castilla y À leon nuevo mundo diÓ colon,-- it being pretty evident that such an inscription was never thought of till castellanos suggested it in his _elegias_ in . if diego's will in can be interpreted on this matter, it seems pretty sure that within three years ( ) after the death of columbus, instead of seven, his coffin had been conveyed to seville and placed inside the convent of las cuevas, in the vault of the carthusians, where the bodies of his son diego and brother bartholomew were in due time to rest beside his own. here the remains were undisturbed till , when the records of the convent affirm that they were given up for transportation, though the royal order is given as of june , . from that date till there is room for conjecture as to their abiding-place. [sidenote: . removed to santo domingo.] [sidenote: remains removed to havana.] it was during this interval that his family were seeking to carry out what was supposed to be the wish of the admiral to rest finally in the island of española. from to the government are known to have issued three different orders respecting the removal of the remains, and it is conjectured the transference was actually made in , shortly after the completion of the cathedral at santo domingo. if any record was made at the time to designate the spot of the reëntombment in that edifice, it is not now known, and it was not till that somebody placed an entry in its records that the burial had been made on the right of the altar. a few years later ( ), the recollections of aged people are quoted to substantiate such a statement. we find no other notice till a century afterwards, when, on the occasion of some repairs, a stone vault, supposed in the traditions to be that which held the remains, was found on "the gospel side" of the chancel, while another on "the epistle side" was thought to contain the remains of bartholomew columbus. this was the suspected situation of the graves when the treaty of basle, in , gave the santo domingo end of the island to france, and the spanish authorities, acting in concert with the duke of veragua, as the representative of the family of columbus, determined on the removal of the remains to havana. it is a question which has been raised since whether the body of columbus was the one then removed, and over which so much parade was made during the transportation and reinterment in cuba. there has been a controversy on the point, in which the bishop of santo domingo and his adherents have claimed that the remains of columbus are still in their charge, while it was those of his son diego which had been removed. the academy of history at madrid have denied this, and in a long report to the spanish government have asserted that there was no mistake in the transfer, and that the additional casket found was that of christopher colon, the grandson. [illustration: cathedral at santo domingo.] [sidenote: question of the identity of his remains.] it was represented, moreover, that those features of the inscription on the lately found leaden box which seemed to indicate it as the casket of the first admiral of the indies had been fraudulently added or altered. the question has probably been thrown into the category of doubt, though the case as presented in favor of santo domingo has some recognizably weak points, which the advocates of the other side have made the most of, and to the satisfaction perhaps of the more careful inquirers. the controversial literature on the subject is considerable. the repairs of in the santo domingo cathedral revealed the empty vault from which the transported body had been taken; but they showed also the occupied vault of the grandson luis, and another in which was a leaden case which bore the inscriptions which are in dispute. [sidenote: alleged burial of his chains with him.] it is the statement of the _historie_ that columbus preserved the chains in which he had come home from his third voyage, and that he had them buried with him, or intended to do so. the story is often repeated, but it has no other authority than the somewhat dubious one of that book; and it finds no confirmation in las casas, peter martyr, bernaldez, or oviedo. humboldt says that he made futile inquiry of those who had assisted in the reinterment at havana, if there were any trace of these fetters or of oxide of iron in the coffin. in the accounts of the recent discovery of remains at santo domingo, it is said that there was equally no trace of fetters in the casket. * * * * * [sidenote: the age of columbus.] the age of columbus is almost without a parallel, presenting perhaps the most striking appearances since the star shone upon bethlehem. it saw martin luther burn the pope's bull, and assert a new kind of independence. it added erasmus to the broadeners of life. ancient art was revivified in the discovery of its most significant remains. modern art stood confessed in da vinci, michael angelo, titian, raphael, holbein, and dürer. copernicus found in the skies a wonderful development without great telescopic help. the route of the portuguese by the african cape and the voyage of columbus opened new worlds to thought and commerce. they made the earth seem to man, north and south, east and west, as man never before had imagined it. it looked as if mercantile endeavor was to be constrained by no bounds. articles of trade were multiplied amazingly. every movement was not only new and broad, but it was rapid beyond conception. it was more like the remodeling of japan, which we have seen in our day, than anything that had been earlier known. [illustration: statue of columbus at santo domingo.] the long sway of the moors was disintegrating. the arab domination in science and seamanship was yielding to the western genius. the turks had in the boyhood ( ) of columbus consummated their last great triumph in the capture of constantinople, thus placing a barrier to christian commerce with the east. this conquest drove out the learned christians of the east, who had drunk of the arab erudition, and they fled with their stores of learning to the western lands, coming back to the heirs of the romans with the spirit which rome in the past had sent to the east. but what christian europe was losing in the east portugal and prince henry were gaining for her in the great and forbidding western waste of waters and along its african shores. as the hot tide of mahometan invasion rolled over the bosphorus, the burning equatorial zone was pierced from the north along the coasts of the black continent. [sidenote: italian discoverers.] [sidenote: his growing belief in the western passage.] italy, seeing her maritime power drop away as the naval supremacy of the atlantic seaboard rose, was forced to send her experienced navigators to the oceanic ports, to maintain the supremacy of her name and genius in cadamosto, columbus, vespucius, cabot, and verrazano. those cosmographical views which had come down the ages, at times obscured, then for a while patent, and of which the traces had lurked in the minds of learned men by an almost continuous sequence for many centuries, at last possessed by inheritance the mind of columbus. by reading, by conference with others, by noting phenomena, and by reasoning, in the light of all these, upon the problem of a western passage to india, obvious as it was if once the sphericity of the earth be acknowledged, he gradually grew to be confident in himself and trustful in his agency with others. he was far from being alone in his beliefs, nor was his age anything more than a reflection of long periods of like belief. [sidenote: deficiencies of character.] there was simply needed a man with courage and constancy in his convictions, so that the theory could be demonstrated. this age produced him. enthusiasm and the contagion of palpable though shadowy truths gave columbus, after much tribulation, the countenance in high quarters that enabled him to reach success, deceptive though it was. it would have been well for his memory if he had died when his master work was done. with his great aim certified by its results, though they were far from being what he thought, he was unfortunately left in the end to be laid bare on trial, a common mortal after all, the creature of buffeting circumstances, and a weakling in every element of command. his imagination had availed him in his upward course when a serene habit in his waiting days could obscure his defects. later, the problems he encountered were those that required an eye to command, with tact to persuade and skill to coerce, and he had none of them. [sidenote: roger bacon and columbus.] [sidenote: pierre d'ailly's _imago mundi_.] the man who becomes the conspicuous developer of any great world-movement is usually the embodiment of the ripened aspirations of his time. such was columbus. it is the forerunner, the man who has little countenance in his age, who points the way for some hazardous after-soul to pursue. such was roger bacon, the english franciscan. it was bacon's lot to direct into proper channels the new surging of the experimental sciences which was induced by the revived study of aristotle, and was carrying dismay into the strongholds of platonism. standing out from the background of arab regenerating learning, the name of roger bacon, linked often with that of albertus magnus, stood for the best knowledge and insight of the thirteenth century. bacon it was who gave that tendency to thought which, seized by cardinal pierre d'ailly, and incorporated by him in his _imago mundi_ ( ), became the link between bacon and columbus. humboldt has indeed expressed his belief that this encyclopædic survey of the world exercised a more important influence upon the discovery of america than even the prompting which columbus got from his correspondence with toscanelli. how well columbus pored over the pages of the _imago mundi_ we know from the annotations of his own copy, which is still preserved in the biblioteca colombina. it seems likely that columbus got directly from this book most that he knew of those passages in aristotle, strabo, and seneca which speak of the asiatic shores as lying opposite to hispania. there is some evidence that this book was his companion even on his voyages, and humboldt points out how he translates a passage from it, word for word, when in he embodied it in a letter which he wrote to his sovereigns from española. [sidenote: his acquaintance with the elder writers.] if we take the pains, as humboldt did, to examine the writings of columbus, to ascertain the sources which he cited, we find what appears to be a broad acquaintance with books. it is to be remembered, however, that the admiral quoted usually at second hand, and that he got his acquaintance with classic authors, at least, mainly through this _imago mundi_ of pierre d'ailly. humboldt, in making his list of columbus's authors, omits the references to the scriptures and to the church fathers, "in whom," as he says, "columbus was singularly versed," and then gives the following catalogue:-- aristotle; julius cæsar; strabo; seneca; pliny; ptolemy; solinus; julius capitolinus; alfrazano; avenruyz; rabbi samuel de israel; isidore, bishop of seville; the venerable bede; strabus, abbé of reichenau; duns scotus; françois mayronis; abbé joachim de calabre; sacrobosco, being in fact the english mathematician holywood; nicholas de lyra, the norman franciscan; king alfonso the wise, and his moorish scribes; cardinal pierre d'ailly; gerson, chancellor of the university of paris; pope pius ii., otherwise known as Æneas sylvius piccolomini; regiomontanus, as the latinized name of johann müller of königsberg is given, though columbus does not really name him; paolo toscanelli, the florentine physician; and nicolas de conti, of whom he had heard through toscanelli, perhaps. humboldt can find no evidence that columbus had read the travels of marco polo, and does not discover why navarrete holds that he had, though polo's stories must have permeated much that columbus read; nor does he understand why irving says that columbus took marco polo's book on his first voyage. [sidenote: columbus and toscanelli.] we see often in the world's history a simultaneousness in the regeneration of thought. here and there a seer works on in ignorance of some obscure brother elsewhere. rumor and circulating manuscripts bring them into sympathy. they grow by the correlation. it is just this correspondence that confronts us in columbus and toscanelli, and it is not quite, but almost, perceptible that this wise florentine doctor was the first, despite humboldt's theory, to plant in the mind of columbus his aspirations for the truths of geography. it is meet that columbus should not be mentioned without the accompanying name of toscanelli. it was the genoese's different fortune that he could attempt as a seaman a practical demonstration of his fellow italian's views. many a twin movement of the world's groping spirit thus seeks the light. progress naturally pushes on parallel lines. commerce thrusts her intercourse to remotest regions, while the church yearns for new souls to convert, and peers longingly into the dim spaces that skirt the world's geography. navigators improve their methods, and learned men in the arts supply them with exacter instruments. the widespread manifestations of all this new life at last crystallize, and gama and columbus appear, the reflex of every development. [sidenote: opportuneness of his discoveries.] thus the discovery of columbus came in the ripeness of time. no one of the anterior accidents, suggesting a western land, granting that there was some measure of fact in all of them, had come to a world prepared to think on their developments. vinland was practically forgotten, wherever it may have been. the tales of fousang had never a listener in europe. madoc was as unknown as elidacthon. while the new indies were not in their turn to be forgotten, their discoverer was to bury himself in a world of conjecture. the superlatives of columbus soon spent their influence. the pioneer was lost sight of in the new currents of thought which he had started. not of least interest among them was the cognizance of new races of men, and new revelations in the animal and physical kingdoms, while the question of their origins pressed very soon on the theological and scientific sense of the age. * * * * * [sidenote: not above his age.] [sidenote: claims for palliation.] no man craves more than columbus to be judged with all the palliations demanded of a difference of his own age and ours. no child of any age ever did less to improve his contemporaries, and few ever did more to prepare the way for such improvements. the age created him and the age left him. there is no more conspicuous example in history of a man showing the path and losing it. it is by no means sure, with all our boast of benevolent progress, that atrocities not much short of those which we ascribe to columbus and his compeers may not at any time disgrace the coming as they have blackened the past years of the nineteenth century. this fact gives us the right to judge the infirmities of man in any age from the high vantage-ground of the best emotions of all the centuries. in the application of such perennial justice columbus must inevitably suffer. the degradation of the times ceases to be an excuse when the man to be judged stands on the pinnacle of the ages. the biographer cannot forget, indeed, that columbus is a portrait set in the surroundings of his times; but it is equally his duty at the same time to judge the paths which he trod by the scale of an eternal nobleness. [sidenote: test of his character.] [sidenote: not a creator of ideas.] the very domination of this man in the history of two hemispheres warrants us in estimating him by an austere sense of occasions lost and of opportunities embraced. the really great man is superior to his age, and anticipates its future; not as a sudden apparition, but as the embodiment of a long growth of ideas of which he is the inheritor and the capable exemplar. humboldt makes this personal domination of two kinds. the one comes from the direct influence of character; the other from the creation of an idea, which, freed from personality, works its controlling mission by changing the face of things. it is of this last description that humboldt makes the domination of columbus. it is extremely doubtful if any instance can be found of a great idea changing the world's history, which has been created by any single man. none such was created by columbus. there are always forerunners whose agency is postponed because the times are not propitious. a masterful thought has often a long pedigree, starting from a remote antiquity, but it will be dormant till it is environed by the circumstances suited to fructify it. this was just the destiny of the intuition which began with aristotle and came down to columbus. to make his first voyage partook of foolhardiness, as many a looker-on reasonably declared. it was none the less foolhardy when it was done. if he had reached the opulent and powerful kings of the orient, his little cockboats and their brave souls might have fared hard for their intrusion. his blunder in geography very likely saved him from annihilation. * * * * * [sidenote: his character differently drawn.] [sidenote: prescott.] [sidenote: irving.] the character of columbus has been variously drawn, almost always with a violent projection of the limner's own personality. we find prescott contending that "whatever the defects of columbus's mental constitution, the finger of the historian will find it difficult to point to a single blemish in his moral character." it is certainly difficult to point to a more flagrant disregard of truth than when we find prescott further saying, "whether we contemplate his character in its public or private relations, in all its features it wears the same noble aspects. it was in perfect harmony with the grandeur of his plans, and with results more stupendous than those which heaven has permitted any other mortal to achieve." it is very striking to find prescott, after thus speaking of his private as well as public character, and forgetting the remorse of columbus for the social wrongs he had committed, append in a footnote to this very passage a reference to his "illegitimate" son. it seems to mark an obdurate purpose to disguise the truth. this is also nowhere more patent than in the palliating hero-worship of irving, with his constant effort to save a world's exemplar for the world's admiration, and more for the world's sake than for columbus's. irving at one time berates the biographer who lets "pernicious erudition" destroy a world's exemplar; and at another time he does not know that he is criticising himself when he says that "he who paints a great man merely in great and heroic traits, though he may produce a fine picture, will never present a faithful portrait." the commendation which he bestows upon herrera is for precisely what militates against the highest aims of history, since he praises that spanish historian's disregard of judicial fairness. in the being which irving makes stand for the historic columbus, his skill in softened expression induced humboldt to suppose that irving's avoidance of exaggeration gave a force to his eulogy, but there was little need to exaggerate merits, if defects were blurred. [sidenote: humboldt.] the learned german adds, in the opening of the third volume of his _examen critique_, his own sense of the impressiveness of columbus. that impressiveness stands confessed; but it is like a gyrating storm that knows no law but the vagrancy of destruction. one need not look long to discover the secret of humboldt's estimate of columbus. without having that grasp of the picturesque which appeals so effectively to the popular mind in the letters of vespucius, the admiral was certainly not destitute of keen observation of nature, but unfortunately this quality was not infrequently prostituted to ignoble purposes. to a student of humboldt's proclivities, these traits of observation touched closely his sympathy. he speaks in his _cosmos_ of the development of this exact scrutiny in manifold directions, notwithstanding columbus's previous ignorance of natural history, and tells us that this capacity for noting natural phenomena arose from his contact with such. it would have been better for the fame of columbus if he had kept this scientific survey in its purity. it was simply, for instance, a vitiated desire to astound that made him mingle theological and physical theories about the land of paradise. such jugglery was promptly weighed in spain and italy by peter martyr and others as the wild, disjointed effusions of an overwrought mind, and "the reflex of a false erudition," as humboldt expresses it. it was palpably by another effort, of a like kind, that he seized upon the views of the fathers of the church that the earthly paradise lay in the extreme orient, and he was quite as audacious when he exacted the oath on the cuban coast, to make it appear by it that he had really reached the outermost parts of asia. [sidenote: observations of nature.] humboldt seeks to explain this errant habit by calling it "the sudden movement of his ardent and passionate soul; the disarrangement of ideas which were the effect of an incoherent method and of the extreme rapidity of his reading; while all was increased by his misfortunes and religious mysticism." such an explanation hardly relieves the subject of it from blunter imputations. this urgency for some responsive wonderment at every experience appears constantly in the journal of columbus's first voyage, as, for instance, when he makes every harbor exceed in beauty the last he had seen. this was the commonplace exaggeration which in our day is confined to the calls of speculating land companies. the fact was that humboldt transferred to his hero something of the superlative love of nature that he himself had experienced in the same regions; but there was all the difference between him and columbus that there is between a genuine love of nature and a commercial use of it. whenever columbus could divert his mind from a purpose to make the indies a paying investment, we find some signs of an insight that shows either observation of his own or the garnering of it from others, as, for example, when he remarks on the decrease of rain in the canaries and the azores which followed upon the felling of trees, and when he conjectures that the elongated shape of the islands of the antilles on the lines of the parallels was due to the strength of the equatorial current. [sidenote: roselly de lorgues and his school.] [sidenote: harrisse.] since irving, prescott, and humboldt did their work, there has sprung up the unreasoning and ecstatic french school under the lead of roselly de lorgues, who seek to ascribe to columbus all the virtues of a saint. "columbus had no defect of character and no worldly quality," they say. the antiquarian and searching spirit of harrisse, and of those writers who have mainly been led into the closest study of the events of the life of columbus, has not done so much to mould opinion as regards the estimate in which the admiral should be held as to eliminate confusing statements and put in order corroborating facts. the reaction from the laudation of the canonizers has not produced any writer of consideration to array such derogatory estimates as effectually as a plain recital of established facts would do it. hubert bancroft, in the incidental mention which he makes of columbus, has touched his character not inaptly, and with a consistent recognition of its infirmities. even prescott, who verges constantly on the ecstatic elements of the adulatory biographer, is forced to entertain at times "a suspicion of a temporary alienation of mind," and in regard to the letter which columbus wrote from jamaica to the sovereigns, is obliged to recognize "sober narrative and sound reasoning strangely blended with crazy dreams and doleful lamentations." [sidenote: aaron goodrich.] "vagaries like these," he adds, "which came occasionally like clouds over his soul to shut out the light of reason, cannot fail to fill the mind of the reader, as they doubtless did those of the sovereigns, with mingled sentiments of wonder and compassion." an unstinted denunciatory purpose, much weakened by an inconsiderate rush of disdain, characterizes an american writer, aaron goodrich, in his _life of the so-called christopher columbus_ (new york, ); but the critic's temper is too peevish and his opinions are too unreservedly biased to make his results of any value. [sidenote: humboldt.] the mental hallucinations of columbus, so patent in his last years, were not beyond recognition at a much earlier age, and those who would get the true import of his character must trace these sorrowful manifestations to their beginnings, and distinguish accurately between columbus when his purpose was lofty and unselfish and himself again when he became mercenary and erratic. so much does the verdict of history lodge occasionally more in the narrator of events than in the character of them that, in humboldt's balancing of the baser with the nobler symptoms of columbus's nature, he does not find even the most degraded of his actions other than powerful in will, and sometimes, at least, clear in intelligence. there were certainly curiously transparent, but transient gleams of wisdom to the last. humboldt further says that the faith of columbus soothed his dreary and weary adversities by the charm of ascetic reveries. so a handsome euphuism tries to save his fame from harsher epithets. it was a faith, says the same delineator, which justified at need, under the pretext of a religious object, the employment of deceit and the excess of a despotic power; a tenderer form, doubtless, of the vulgar expression that the end sanctifies the means. it is not, however, within the practice of the better historical criticism of our day to let such elegant wariness beguile the reader's mind. if the different, not to say more advanced, condition of the critical mind is to be of avail to a new age through the advantage gained from all the ages, it is in precisely this emancipation from the trammels of traditionary bondage that the historian asserts his own, and dispels the glamour of a conventionalized hero-worship. [sidenote: dr. j. g. shea.] dr. shea, our most distinguished catholic scholar, who has dealt with the character of columbus, says: "he accomplished less than some adventurers with poor equipped vessels. he seems to have succeeded in attaching but few men to him who adhered loyally to his cause. those under him were constantly rebellious and mutinous; those over him found him impracticable. to array all these as enemies, inspired by a satanic hostility to a great servant of god, is to ask too much for our belief;" and yet this is precisely what irving by constant modifications, and de lorgues in a monstrous degree, feel themselves justified in doing. [sidenote: the french canonizers.] there is nothing in columbus's career that these french canonizers do not find convertible to their purpose, whether it be his wild vow to raise , horse and , foot in seven years, wherewith to snatch the holy sepulchre from the infidel, or the most commonplace of his canting ejaculations. that columbus was a devout catholic, according to the catholicism of his epoch, does not admit of question, but when tried by any test that finds the perennial in holy acts, columbus fails to bear the examination. he had nothing of the generous and noble spirit of a conjoint lover of man and of god, as the higher spirits of all times have developed it. there was no all-loving deity in his conception. his lord was one in whose name it was convenient to practice enormities. he shared this subterfuge with isabella and the rest. we need to think on what las casas could be among his contemporaries, if we hesitate to apply the conceptions of an everlasting humanity. [sidenote: converts and slaves.] the mines which columbus went to seek were hard to find. the people he went to save to christ were easy to exterminate. he mourned bitterly that his own efforts were ill requited. he had no pity for the misery of others, except they be his dependents and co-sharers of his purposes. he found a policy worth commemorating in slitting the noses and tearing off the ears of a naked heathen. he vindicates his excess by impressing upon the world that a man setting out to conquer the indies must not be judged by the amenities of life which belong to a quiet rule in established countries. yet, with a chance to establish a humane life among peoples ready to be moulded to good purposes, he sought from the very first to organize among them the inherited evils of "established countries." he talked a great deal about making converts of the poor souls, while the very first sight which he had of them prompted him to consign them to the slave-mart, just as if the first step to christianize was the step which unmans. the first vicar apostolic sent to teach the faith in santo domingo returned to spain, no longer able to remain, powerless, in sight of the cruelties practiced by columbus. isabella prevented the selling of the natives as slaves in spain, when columbus had dispatched thither five shiploads. las casas tells us that in - columbus was generally hated in española for his odiousness and injustice, and that the admiral's policy with the natives killed a third of them in those two years. the franciscans, when they arrived at the island, found the colonists exuberant that they had been relieved of the rule which columbus had instituted; and the benedictines and dominicans added their testimony to the same effect. [sidenote: he urges enslaving the natives from the first.] the very first words, as has been said, that he used, in conveying to expectant europe the wonders of his discovery, suggested a scheme of enslaving the strange people. he had already made the voyage that of a kidnapper, by entrapping nine of the unsuspecting natives. on his second voyage he sent home a vessel-load of slaves, on the pretense of converting them, but his sovereigns intimated to him that it would cost less to convert them in their own homes. then he thought of the righteous alternative of sending some to spain to be sold to buy provisions to support those who would convert others in their homes. the monarchs were perhaps dazed at this sophistry; and columbus again sent home four vessels laden with reeking cargoes of flesh. when he returned to spain, in , to circumvent his enemies, he once more sought in his turn, and by his reasoning, to cheat the devil of heathen souls by sending other cargoes. at last the line was drawn. it was not to save their souls, but to punish them for daring to war against the spaniards, that they should be made to endure such horrors. it is to columbus, also, that we trace the beginning of that monstrous guilt which spanish law sanctioned under the name of _repartimientos_, and by which to every colonist, and even to the vilest, absolute power was given over as many natives as his means and rank entitled him to hold. las casas tells us that ferdinand could hardly have had a conception of the enormities of the system. if so, it was because he winked out of sight the testimony of observers, while he listened to the tales prompted of greed, rapine, and cruelty. the value of the system to force heathen out of hell, and at the same time to replenish his treasury, was the side of it presented to ferdinand's mind by such as had access to his person. in , we find the dominicans entering their protest, and by this ferdinand was moved to take the counsel of men learned in the law and in what passed in those days for christian ethics. this court of appeal approved these necessary efforts, as was claimed, to increase those who were new to the faith, and to reward those who supported it. peter martyr expressed the comforting sentiments of the age: "national right and that of the church concede personal liberty to man. state policy, however, demurs. custom repels the idea. long experience shows that slavery is necessary to prevent those returning to their idolatry and error whom the church has once gained." all professed servants of the church, with a few exceptions like las casas, ranged themselves with columbus on the side of such specious thoughts; and las casas, in recognizing this fact, asks what we could expect of an old sailor and fighter like columbus, when the wisest and most respectable of the priesthood backed him in his views. it was indeed the misery of columbus to miss the opportunity of being wiser than his fellows, the occasion always sought by a commanding spirit, and it was offered to him almost as to no other. [sidenote: progress of slavery in the west indies.] there was no restraining the evil. the cupidity of the colonists overcame all obstacles. the queen was beguiled into giving equivocal instructions to ovando, who succeeded to bobadilla, and out of them by interpretation grew an increase of the monstrous evil. in , every atrocity had reached a legal recognition. labor was forced; the slaves were carried whither the colonists willed; and for eight months at least in every year, families were at pleasure disrupted without mercy. one feels some satisfaction in seeing columbus himself at last, in a letter to diego, december , , shudder at the atrocities of ovando. when one sees the utter annihilation of the whole race of the antilles, a thing clearly assured at the date of the death of columbus, one wishes that that dismal death-bed in valladolid could have had its gloom illumined by a consciousness that the hand which lifted the banner of spain and of christ at san salvador had done something to stay the misery which cupidity and perverted piety had put in course. when a man seeks to find and parades reasons for committing a crime, it is to stifle his conscience. columbus passed years in doing it. [sidenote: talavera.] [sidenote: the franciscans.] back of isabella in this spasmodic interest in the indians was the celebrated archbishop of granada, fernando de talavera, whom we have earlier known as the prior of prado. he had been since the confessor of the queen, and when the time came for sending missionaries to the antilles it was natural that they were of the order of st. jerome, of which talavera was himself a member. columbus, through a policy which induced him to make as apparent as possible his mingling of interests with the church, had before this adopted the garb of the franciscans, and this order was the second in time to be seen in española in . they were the least tolerant of the leading orders, and had already shown a disposition to harass the indians, and were known to treat haughtily the queen's intercessions for the poor souls. it was not till after the death of columbus that the dominicans, coming in , reinforced the kindly spirit of the priests of st. jerome. still later they too abandoned their humanity. * * * * * [sidenote: columbus's mercenary impulses.] [sidenote: his praise of gold.] the downfall of columbus began when he wrested from the reluctant monarchs what he called his privileges, and when he insisted upon riches as the accompaniment of such state and consequence as those privileges might entail. the terms were granted, so far as the king was concerned, simply to put a stop to importunities, for he never anticipated being called upon to confirm them. the insistency of columbus in this respect is in strange contrast to the satisfaction which the captains of prince henry, da gama and the rest, were content to find in the unpolluted triumphs of science. the mercenary columbus was forced to the utterance of solomon: "i looked upon the labor that i had labored to do, and behold all was vanity and vexation of spirit." the preacher never had a better example. columbus was wont to say that gold gave the soul its flight to paradise. perhaps he referred to the masses which could be bought, or to the alms which could propitiate heaven. he might better have remembered the words of warning given to baruch: "seekest thou great things for thyself? seek them not. for, saith the lord, thy life will i give unto them for a prey in all places whither thou goest." and a prey in all places he became. humboldt seeks to palliate this cupidity by making him the conscious inheritor of the pecuniary chances which every free son of genoa expected to find within his grasp by commercial enterprise. such prominence was sought because it carried with it power and influence in the republic. if columbus had found riches in the new world as easily as he anticipated, it is possible that such affluence would have moulded his character in other ways for good or for evil. he soon found himself confronting a difficult task, to satisfy with insufficient means a craving which his exaggerations had established. this led him to spare no device, at whatever sacrifice of the natives, to produce the coveted gold, and it was an ingenious mockery that induced him to deck his captives with golden chains and parade them through the spanish towns. [sidenote: nicolas de conti.] [sidenote: the world's disgust.] after da gama had opened the route to cathay by the cape of good hope, and columbus had, as he supposed, touched the eastern confines of the same country, the wonderful stories of asiatic glories told by nicolas de conti were translated, by order of king emanuel (in ), into portuguese. it is no wonder that the interest in the development of soon waned when the world began to compare the descriptions of the region beyond the ganges, as made known by marco polo, and so recently by conti, and the apparent confirmation of them established by the portuguese, with the meagre resources which columbus had associated with the same country, in all that he could say about the antilles or bring from them. an adventurous voyage across the sea of darkness begat little satisfaction, if all there was to show for it consisted of men with tails or a single eye, or races of amazons and cannibals. [sidenote: columbus's lack of generosity.] when we view the character of columbus in its influence upon the minds of men, we find some strange anomalies. before his passion was tainted with the ambition of wealth and its consequence, and while he was urging the acceptance of his views for their own sake, it is very evident that he impressed others in a way that never happened after he had secured his privileges. it is after this turning-point of his life that we begin to see his falsities and indiscretions, or at least to find record of them. the incident of the moving light in the night before his first landfall is a striking instance of his daring disregard of all the qualities that help a commander in his dominance over his men. it needs little discrimination to discern the utter deceitfulness of that pretense. a noble desire to win the loftiest honors of the discovery did not satisfy a mean, insatiable greed. he blunted every sentiment of generosity when he deprived a poor sailor of his pecuniary reward. that there was no actual light to be seen is apparent from the distance that the discoverers sailed before they saw land, since if the light had been ahead they would not have gone on, and if it had been abeam they would not have left it. the evidence is that of himself and a thrall, and he kept it secret at the time. the author of the _historie_ sees the difficulty, and attempts to vaporize the whole story by saying that the light was spiritual, and not physical. navarrete passes it by as a thing necessary, for the fame of columbus, to be ignored. [sidenote: his enforced oath at cuba.] a second instance of columbus's luckless impotence, at a time when an honorable man would have relied upon his character, was the attempt to make it appear that he had reached the coast of asia by imposing an oath on his men to that effect, in penalty of having their tongues wrenched out if they recanted. one can hardly conceive a more debasing exercise of power. [sidenote: his ambition of territorial power.] his insistence upon territorial power was the serious mistake of his life. he thought, in making an agreement with his sovereigns to become a viceroy, that he was securing an honor; he was in truth pledging his happiness and beggaring his life. he sought to attain that which the fates had unfitted him for, and the spanish monarchs, in an evil day, which was in due time their regret, submitted to his hallucinated dictation. no man ever evinced less capacity for ruling a colony. [sidenote: his professed inspiration.] the most sorrowful of all the phases of columbus's character is that hapless collapse, when he abandoned all faith in the natural world, and his premonitions of it, and threw himself headlong into the vortex of what he called inspiration. everything in his scientific argument had been logical. it produced the reliance which comes of wisdom. it was a manly show of an incisive reason. if he had rested here his claims for honor, he would have ranked with the great seers of the universe, with copernicus and the rest. his successful suit with the spanish sovereigns turned his head, and his degradation began when he debased a noble purpose to the level of mercenary claims. he relied, during his first voyage, more on chicanery in controlling his crew than upon the dignity of his aim and the natural command inherent in a lofty spirit. this deceit was the beginning of his decadence, which ended in a sad self-aggrandizement, when he felt himself no longer an instrument of intuition to probe the secrets of the earth, but a possessor of miraculous inspiration. the man who had been self-contained became a thrall to a fevered hallucination. the earnest mental study which had sustained his inquisitive spirit through long years of dealings with the great physical problems of the earth was forgotten. he hopelessly began to accredit to divinity the measure of his own fallibility. "god made me," he says, "the messenger of the new heaven and the new earth, of which he spoke in the apocalypse by st. john, after having spoken of it by the mouth of isaiah, and he showed me the spot where to find it." he no longer thought it the views of aristotle which guided him. the greek might be pardoned for his ignorance of the intervening america. it was mere sacrilege to impute such ignorance to the divine wisdom. [sidenote: lost his friends.] there is no excuse but the plea of insanity. he naturally lost his friends with losing his manly devotion to a cause. i do not find the beginning of this surrender of his manhood earlier than in the will which he signed february , , when he credits the holy trinity with having inspired him with the idea that one could go to the indies by passing westward. in his letter to the nurse of don juan, he says that the prophecy of isaiah in the apocalypse had found its interpreter in him, the messenger to disclose a new part of the world. "human reason," he wrote in the _proficias_, "mathematics, and maps have served me in no wise. what i have accomplished is simply the fulfillment of the prophecy of david." [sidenote: his pitiable death.] we have seen a pitiable man meet a pitiable death. hardly a name in profane history is more august than his. hardly another character in the world's record has made so little of its opportunities. his discovery was a blunder; his blunder was a new world; the new world is his monument! its discoverer might have been its father; he proved to be its despoiler. he might have given its young days such a benignity as the world likes to associate with a maker; he left it a legacy of devastation and crime. he might have been an unselfish promoter of geographical science; he proved a rabid seeker for gold and a viceroyalty. he might have won converts to the fold of christ by the kindness of his spirit; he gained the execrations of the good angels. he might, like las casas, have rebuked the fiendishness of his contemporaries; he set them an example of perverted belief. the triumph of barcelona led down to the ignominy of valladolid, with every step in the degradation palpable and resultant. chapter xxi. the descent of columbus's honors. [sidenote: his kinsfolk.] columbus had left behind him, as the natural guardians of his name and honors, the following relatives: his brother bartholomew, who in december, , had issue of an illegitimate daughter, his only child so far as known; his brother diego, who, as a priest, was precluded from having lawful issue; his son diego, now become the first inheritor of his honors; his natural son, ferdinand, the most considerable in intellectual habit of all columbus's immediate kin. [sidenote: his son diego.] the descent of his titles depended in the first instance on such a marriage as diego might contract. within a year or two diego had had by different women two bastard children, francisco and cristoval, shut off from heirship by the manner of their birth. diego was at this time not far from four and twenty years of age. ten or twelve days after diego succeeded to his inheritance, philip the handsome, now sharing the throne of castile as husband of juana, daughter of isabella, ordered that what was due to columbus should be paid to his successor. this order reached española in june, , but was not obeyed promptly; and when ferdinand of aragon returned from italy in august, , and succeeded to the castilian throne, he repeated the order on august . [sidenote: diego's income.] [sidenote: diego presses for a restitution of columbus's honors.] it would seem that in due time diego was in receipt of , ounces of gold annually from the four foundries in española. this, with whatever else there may have been, was by no means satisfactory to the young aspirant, and he began to press ferdinand for a restitution of his inherited honors and powers with all the pertinacity which had characterized his father's urgency. [sidenote: . suit against the crown.] upon the return of ferdinand from naples, diego determined to push the matter to an issue, but ferdinand still evaded it. diego now asked, according to las casas and herrera, to be allowed to bring a suit against the crown before the council of the indies, and the king yielded to the request, confident, very likely, in his ability to control the verdict in the public interests. the suit at once began ( ), and continued for several years before all was accomplished, and in december of that same year ( ), we find diego empowering an attorney of the duke of alva to represent his case. the defense of the crown was that a transmission of the viceroyalty to the admiral's son was against public policy, and at variance with a law of , which forbade any judicial office under the crown being held in perpetuity. it was further argued in the crown's behalf that columbus had not been the chief instrument of the first discovery and had not discovered the mainland, but that other voyagers had anticipated him. in response to all allegations, diego rested his case on the contracts of the crown with his father, which assured him the powers he asked for. further than this, the crown had already recognized, he claimed, a part of the contract in its orders of june , , and august , , whereby the revenues due under the contracts had been restored to him. it was also charged by the defense that columbus had been relieved of his powers because he had abused them, and the answer to this was that the sovereigns' letter of had acknowledged that bobadilla acted without authority. a number of navigators in the western seas were put on the stand to rebut the allegation of existing knowledge of the coast before the voyages of columbus, particularly in substantiating the priority of the voyage of columbus to the coast of paria, and the evidence was sufficient to show that all the alleged claims were simply perverted notions of the really later voyage of ojeda in . it is from the testimony at this time, as given in navarrete, that the biographers of columbus derive considerable information, not otherwise attainable, respecting the voyages of columbus,--testimony, however, which the historian is obliged to weigh with caution in many respects. [sidenote: diego wins.] the case was promptly disposed of in diego's favor, but not without suspicions of the crown's influence to that end. the suit is, indeed, one of the puzzles in the history of columbus and his fame. if it was a suit to secure a verdict against the crown in order to protect the crown's rights under the bull of demarcation, we can understand why much that would have helped the position of the fiscal was not brought forward. if it was what it purported to be, an effort to relieve the crown of obligations fastened upon it under misconceptions or deceits, we may well marvel at such omission of evidence. [sidenote: diego marries maria de toledo.] [sidenote: diego waives his right to the title of viceroy.] it was left for the king to act on the decision for restitution. this might have been by his studied procrastination indefinitely delayed but for a shrewd movement on the part of diego, who opportunely aspired to the hand of doña maria de toledo, the daughter of fernando de toledo. this nobleman was brother of the duke of alva, one of the proudest grandees of spain, and he was also cousin of ferdinand, the king. the alliance, soon effected, brought the young suitor a powerful friend in his uncle, and the bride's family were not averse to a connection with the heir to the viceroyalty of the indies, now that it was confirmed by the council of the indies. harrisse cannot find that the promised dower ever came with the wife; but, on the contrary, diego seems to have become the financial agent of his wife's family. a demand for the royal acquiescence in the orders of the council could now be more easily made, and ferdinand readily conceded all but the title of viceroy. diego waived that for the time, and he was accordingly accredited as governor of española, in the place of ovando. [sidenote: ovando recalled.] isabella had indeed, while on her death-bed, importuned the king to recall ovando, because of the appalling stories of his cruelty to the indians. ferdinand had found that the governor's vigilance conduced to heavy remittances of gold, and had shown no eagerness to carry out the queen's wishes. he had even ordered ovando to begin that transference of the poor lucayan indians from their own islands to work in the española mines which soon resulted in the depopulation of the bahamas. now that he was forced to withdraw ovando he made it as agreeable for him as possible, and in the end there was no lack of commendation of his administration. indeed, as spaniards went in those days, ovando was good enough to gain the love of las casas, "except for some errors of moral blindness." [sidenote: . june . diego sails for española.] it was on may , , that ferdinand gave diego his instructions; and on june , the new governor with his noble wife sailed from san lucar. there went with diego, beside a large number of noble spaniards who introduced, as oviedo says, an infusion of the best spanish blood into the colony, his brother ferdinand, who was specially charged, as oviedo further tells us, to found monasteries and churches. his two uncles also accompanied him. bartholomew had gone to rome after columbus's death, with the intention of inducing pope julius ii. to urge upon the king a new voyage of discovery; and harrisse thinks that this is proved by some memoranda attached to an account of the coasts of veragua, which it is supposed that bartholomew gave at this time to a canon of the lateran, which is now preserved in the megliavecchian library, and has been printed by harrisse in his _bibliotheca americana vetustissima_. it was perhaps on this visit that the adelantado took to rome that map of columbus's voyage to those coasts which it is usually said was carried there in , when he may possibly have borne thither the letter of columbus to the pope. [sidenote: bartholomew columbus, and diego mendez.] the position which bartholomew now went with diego to assume, that of the chief alguazil of santo domingo, caused much complaint from diego mendez, who claimed the credit of bringing about the restitution of diego's power, and who had, as he says, been promised both by columbus and by his son this office as recompense for his many services. [sidenote: . july . diego reaches his government.] the fleet arrived at its destination july , . the wife of the governor had taken a retinue, which for splendor had never before been equaled in the new world, and it enabled her to maintain a kind of viceregal state in the little capital. it all helped diego to begin his rule with no inconsiderable consequence. there was needed something of such attraction to beguile the spirits of the settlers, for, as benzoni learned years afterwards, when he visited the region, the coming of the son of columbus had not failed to engender jealousies, which attached to the imposition of another foreigner upon the colony. [sidenote: ojeda and nicuessa.] the king was determined that diego's rule should be confined to española, and, much to the governor's annoyance, he parceled out the coasts which columbus had tracked near the isthmus of panama into two governments, and installed ojeda in command of the eastern one, which was called new andalusia, while the one beyond the gulf of uraba, which included veragua, he gave to diego de nicuessa, and called it castilla del oro. [illustration: pope julius ii.] [sidenote: porto rico.] [sidenote: faction of passamonte.] [sidenote: . october . _audiencia._] this action of the king, as well as his effort to put porto rico under an independent governor, incited new expostulations from diego, and served to make his rule in the island quite as uncomfortable as its management had been to his father. there also grew up the same discouragement from faction. the king's treasurer, miguel passamonte, became the head of the rebellious party, not without suspicion that he was prompted to much denunciations in his confidential communications with the king. reports of diego's misdeeds and ambitions, threatening the royal power even, were assiduously conveyed to the king. the sovereign devised a sort of corrective, as he thought, of this, by instituting later, october , , a court of appeals, or _audiencia_, to which the aggrieved colonists could go in their defense against oppression or extortion. its natural effect was to undermine the governor's authority and to weaken his influence. he found himself thwarted in all efforts to relieve the indians of their burdens, as nothing of that sort could be done without disturbing the revenues of leading colonists. there was no great inducement to undo measures by which no one profited in receipts more than himself, and the cruel devastation of the native population ran on as it had done. he certainly did not show himself averse to continuing the system of _repartimientos_ for the benefit of himself and his friends. diego, who had been for a while in spain, returned in to española, and later new orders were sent out by the king, and these included commands to reduce the labor of the indians one third, to import negro slaves from guinea as a measure of further relief to the natives, and to brand carib slaves, so as to protect other indians from harsh treatment intended for the caribs alone. [sidenote: bartholomew columbus died.] diego was again in spain in , and the attempts of ojeda and nicuessa having failed, later orders in so far reinstated diego in his viceregal power as to permit him to send his uncle bartholomew to take possession of the veragua coast. but the life of the adelantado was drawing to a close, and his death soon occurring nothing was done. [sidenote: . diego in spain.] affairs had come to such a pass that diego again felt it necessary to repair to court to counteract his enemies' intrigues, and once more getting permission from the king, he sailed for spain, april , , leaving the vice-queen with a council in authority. diego found the king open and kindly, and not averse to acknowledging the merits of his government. he again pressed his bonded rights with the old fervency. "i would bestow them willingly on you," said the king; "but i cannot do so without intrusting them also to your son and to his successors." "is it just," said diego, "that i should suffer for a son which i may never have?" las casas tells us that diego repeated this colloquy to him. [illustration: charles the fifth.] [sidenote: . january . ferdinand died.] the king found it reasonable to question if columbus had really sailed along all the coasts in which diego claimed a share, and ordered an examination of the matter to be made. while these claims were in abeyance, the king died, january , . [sidenote: diego again in española.] [sidenote: . diego in spain.] [sidenote: diego partially reinstated.] this event much retarded the settlement of the difficulties. cardinal ximenes, who held power for a while, was not willing to act, and nothing was done for four years, during part of which period diego was certainly in española. we know also that he was present at the convocation of barcelona, presided over by the emperor, when las casas made his urgent appeals for the indians and pictured their hardships. finally, in , when charles v. was about to embark for flanders, diego was in a position to advance to the emperor so large a sum as ten thousand ducats, which was, as it appears, about a fifth of his annual income from española at this time. this financial succor seemed to open the way for the emperor to dismiss all charges against diego, and to reinstate him in qualified authority as viceroy over the indies. [sidenote: . september. diego returns to española.] this seeming restitution was not without a disagreeable accompaniment in the appointment of a supervisor to reside at his viceregal court and report on the viceroy's doings. in september, , diego sailed once more for his government, and on november we find him in santo domingo, and shortly afterwards engaged in the construction of a lordly palace, which he was to occupy, and which is seen there to-day. the substantialness of its structure gave rise to rumors that he was preparing a fortress for ulterior aims. [sidenote: negro slaves increase.] diego soon found that various administrative measures had not gone well in his absence. commanders of some of the provinces had exceeded their powers, and it became necessary to supersede them. this made them enemies as a matter of course. the raising of sugar-cane had rapidly developed under the imported african labor, and the revenues now came for the most part from the plantations rather than from the mines. the negroes so increased that it was not long before some of them dared to rise in revolt, but the mischief was stopped by a rapid swoop of armed horsemen. [illustration: ruins of diego colon's house.] [sidenote: . diego in spain.] [sidenote: . february . diego dies.] the jealousies and revengeful accusations of diego's enemies were not so easily quelled, and before long he was summoned to spain to render an account of his doings, for lucas vasquez de ayllon had presented charges against him. on september , , diego embarked, and landed at st. lucar november . he presented himself before the emperor at vittoria in january, , and reviewed his conduct. this he succeeded in doing in a manner to disarm his foes; and this success encouraged him to press anew for his inherited rights. the demand ended in the questions in dispute being referred to a board; and diego for two years followed the court in its migrations, to be in attendance on the sessions of this commission. his health gave way under the strain, so that, with everything still unsettled, he died at montalvan, february , , having survived his father for twenty troublous years. his remains were laid in the monastery of las cuevas by the side of columbus. being later conveyed to the cathedral at santo domingo, they were, if one may credit the quite unproved statements of the priests of the cathedral, mistaken for those of his father, and taken to havana in . [sidenote: his family.] [sidenote: luis colon succeeds.] the vice-queen and her family were still in santo domingo, and her children were seven in number, four daughters and three sons. the descent of the honors came eventually to the descendants of one of these daughters, isabel, who married george of portugal, count of gelves. of the three sons, luis succeeded his father, who was in turn succeeded by diego, a son of luis's brother cristoval. the vice-queen, after making an ineffectual attempt to colonize veragua, in which she was thwarted by the royal _audiencia_ at española, returned to spain in . her son luis, the heir, was still a child, having been born in or . for fourteen years his mother pressed his claims upon the emperor, charles v., and she was during a part of the time in such distress that she borrowed money of ferdinand columbus and pledged her jewels. she lived till , and died at santo domingo. [sidenote: . the crown's compromise with luis.] [sidenote: duke of veragua.] [sidenote: . luis in española.] early in the cardinal garcia de loyasa, in behalf of the council of the indies, rendered a decision in which he and ferdinand columbus had acted as arbiters, which was confirmed by the emperor in september of the same year. this was that, upon the abandonment by luis of all claims upon the revenues of the indies, of the title of viceroy, and of the right to appoint the officers of the new world, he should be given the island of jamaica in fief, a perpetual annuity of ten thousand ducats, and the title of duke of veragua, with an estate twenty-five leagues square in that province, to support the title and functions of admiral of the indies. in luis returned to española with the title of captain-general, and in married at santo domingo, much against his mother's wish, maria de orozco, who later lived in honduras and married another. while she was still living, luis again espoused at santo domingo maria de mosquera. in he returned to spain. [sidenote: columbus's privileges gradually abridged.] [sidenote: . all columbus's territorial rights abandoned.] whatever remained of the rights which columbus had sought to transmit to his heirs had already been modified to their detriment by charles, under decrees in , , and ; and when charles was succeeded by philip ii., early in , one of the first acts of the latter was to force luis to abandon his fief of veragua and to throw up his power as admiral. the council of the indies took cognizance of the case in july, , and on september following, philip ii., at ghent, recompensed the grandson of columbus, for his submission to the inevitable, by decreeing to luis the honorary title of admiral of the indies and duke of veragua, with an income of seven thousand ducats. so in fifty years the dreams of columbus for territorial magnificence came to naught, and the confident injunctions of his will were dissipated in the air. [sidenote: luis a polygamist.] [sidenote: . luis dies.] immediately after this, luis furtively married, while his other wives were still living, ana de castro ossorio. the authorities found in these polygamous acts a convenient opportunity to get another troublesome colon out of the way, and arrested luis in . he was held in prison for nearly five years, and when in judgment was got against him, he was sentenced to ten years of exile, half of which was to be passed in oran, in africa. while his appeal was pending, his scandalous life added crime to crime, and finally, in november, , his sentence being confirmed, he was conducted to oran, and there he died february , . the columbus pedigree. note. dotted lines mark illegitimate descents; the dash-and-dot lines mark pretended descents. the heavy face numerals show the successful holders of the honors of columbus. the lines _a a_, _b b_, and _c c_ join respectively. _fadrique enriquez_, adm. of castile. | +-----+------+ | | alvarez = maria. juana = juan ii. de | |of aragon. _toledo_ | | +----------------------_a_ +-----+------+ +----+----+ | | | |ferdinand| = isabella of filipe = cristoforo = beatrix duke of fernando. |of aragon| castile. moniz | = = ¦ henriquez, _alba_. | +---------+ | ¦ living in . | +-----------------------------------+ ¦ | | fernando, maria de = diego, b. , toledo | = = d. . d. . | +---------+-----------------+---------------+-----------------------+-------------------------_b_ | | | | | felipa, maria juana isabel luisa de = luis = maria de nun. = sancho = luis de = jorge de carvajal ¦ = = | mosquira. | de cardona, | la cueva. portogallo. ¦ | | adm. of | | ¦ +------------+ | aragon. | | ¦ | | +----------+-------+ | | ¦ | | | | | maria, =alvaro.= cristoval. maria, filipa, _c_ =cristoval=, luis, maria = carlos de | of the d. . d.s.p. d.s.p. = fr. | arellano, | convent . de mendoza| d. bef. . +-------+------+ of san d. . | | | quirce. | | jorge nuÑo de = = | | alberti, portogallo, | | d. . established in | | . maria juana | d.s.p. = fr. pacheco, | | d. . alvaro = = +---------+ | jacinto. |james ii.| = arabella carlos. | |england. | ¦ churchill. | | +---------+ ¦ | pedro nuÑo. = = ¦ | | duke of various | berwick. lines. | | pedro manuel. = = | | | +----------------------------+---+ | | | james stuart, = catarina pedro nuÑo, = = duke of liria, | ventura, d. , d. . | d. . without legitimate | issue. jacobo eduardo. | = = | carlos fernando. | = = | jacobo filipe, = = dispossessed in ; the decree of reversed. | | continued to our day. dominico susanna colombo, of domenico = fontanarosa. _cuccaro_. | | _a_---------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ ¦ | | | | | bartolomeo. giovanni giacomo blanchinetta ¦ ¦ | pelegrino, or diego, = giacomo | ¦ ¦ d. s. p. priest. paravello. ¦ ¦ | | maria, ¦ ¦ nun, | | b. . .----.----.----.----.----.----. ¦ | | _b_---------------+--------------------+ ¦ ¦ | | | | ana = cristoval = magdalena diego ¦ ¦ de | | de = isabel | | pravia | | guzman. justenian. ¦ ¦ | | | | +------+-----+ +---------+ ¦ ¦ | | | | | _c_ = diego, francesca maria ¦ ¦ = = d.s.p. = diego = luis de | | . | ortegon. avila. ¦ ¦ | | | | | | ¦ ¦ josefa | bernardo balthazar = de paz de la _luis de_ colombo, colombo, | serra. avila, of cogoleto. of cuccaro. | d. . | josefa = martín de | larreategui. | diego. | | francisco. | | pedro isidoro. | | maniano( ). = = | | pedro. = = | | cristoval. = = | | son b. . [sidenote: his heirs.] [sidenote: his daughter marries her cousin diego, the male heir.] [sidenote: columbus's male line extinct.] luis left two illegitimate children, one a son; but his lawful heirs were adjudged to be the children of maria de mosquera, two daughters, one a nun and the other filipa. this last presented a claim for the titles in opposition to the demands of diego, the nephew of her father. she declared this cousin to be the natural, and not the lawful, son of luis's brother. it was easy enough to forget such imputations in coming to the final conclusion, when filipa and diego took each other in marriage (may , ) to compose their differences, the husband becoming duke of veragua. filipa died in november, , and her husband january , . as they had no children, the male line of columbus became extinct seventy years after his death. [sidenote: the long lawsuit and its many contestants.] the lawsuit which followed for the settlement of the succession was a famous one. it lasted thirty years. the claimants were at first eight in number, but they were reduced to five by deaths during the progress of the trials. the first was francesca, own sister of diego, the late duke. her claim was rejected; but five generations later the dignities returned to her descendants. the second was the representative of maria, the daughter of luis, and sister-in-law of diego. the claim made by her heir, the convent of san quirce, was discarded. the third was cristoval, the bastard son of luis, who claimed to be the fruit of a marriage of luis, concluded while he was in prison accused of polygamy. cristoval died in , before the cause was decided. the fourth was alvaro de portogallo, count of gelves, a son of isabel, the sister of luis. he had unsuccessfully claimed the titles when luis died, in , and again put forth his claims in , when diego died, but he himself died, pending a decision, in . his son, jorge alberto, inherited his rights, but died in , before a decision was reached, when his younger brother, nuño de portogallo, became the claimant, and his rights were established by the tribunal in , when he became duke of veragua. his enjoyment of the title was not without unrest, but the attempts to dispossess him failed. the fifth was cristoval de cardona, admiral of aragon, son of maria, elder sister of luis. this claimant died in , while his claim, having once been allowed, was held in abeyance by an appeal of his rivals. his sister, maria, was then adjudged inheritor of the honors, but she died in , before the final decree. the sixth was maria de la cueva, daughter of juana, sister of luis, who died before december, , while her daughter died in , leaving carlos pacheco a claimant, whose rights were disallowed. the seventh was balthazar colombo, a descendant of a domenico colombo, who was, according to the claim, the same domenico who was the father of columbus. his genealogical record was not accepted. the eighth was bernardo colombo, who claimed to be a descendant of bartholomew columbus, the adelantado, a claim not made good. these last two contestants rested their title in part on the fact that their ancestors had always borne the name of colombo, and this was required by columbus to belong to the inheritors of his honors. the lineal ancestors of the other claimants had borne the names of cardona, portogallo, or avila. * * * * * [sidenote: nuño de portogallo succeeds, and the line later changes.] from nuño de portogallo the titles descended to his son alvaro jacinto, and then to the latter's son, pedro nuño. his rights were contested by luis de avila (grandson of cristoval, brother of luis colon), who tried in to reverse the verdict of , and it was not till that pedro nuño defeated his adversaries. he was succeeded by his son, pedro manuel, and he by his son, pedro nuño, who died in , when this male line became extinct. the titles were now illegally assumed by pedro nuño's sister, catarina ventura, who by marriage gave them to her husband, james fitz-james stuart, son of the famous duke of berwick, and by inheritance in his own right, duke of liria. when he died, in , the titles passed to his son, jacobo eduardo; thence to the latter's son, carlos fernando, who transmitted them to his son, jacobo filipe. this last was obliged, by a verdict in , which reversed the decree of , to yield the titles to the line of francesca, sister of diego, the fourth holder of them. this francesca married diego ortegon, and their grandchild, josefa, married martin larreategui, whose great-great-grandson, mariano (by decrees - ), became duke of veragua, from whom the title descended to his son, pedro, and then to his grandson, cristoval, the present duke, born in , whose heir, the next duke, was born in . the value of the titles is said to-day to represent about eight or ten thousand dollars, and this income is chargeable upon the revenues of cuba and porto rico. in concluding this rapid sketch of the descent of the blood and honors of columbus, two striking thoughts are presented. the larreateguis are a basque family. the blood of columbus, the genoese, now mingles with that of the hardiest race of navigators of western europe, and of whom it may be expected that if ever earlier contact of europe with the new world is proved, these basques will be found the forerunners of columbus. the blood of the supposed discoverer of the western passage to asia flows with that of the earliest stock which is left to us of that oriental wave of population which inundated europe, in the far-away times when the races which make our modern christian histories were being disposed in valleys and on the coasts of what was then the western world. appendix. the geographical results. [sidenote: progress of discovery.] there was a struggling effort of the geographical sense of the world for thirty years and more after the death of columbus, before the fact began to be grasped that a great continent was interposed as a substantial and independent barrier in the track to india. it took nearly a half century more before men generally recognized that fact, and then in most cases it was accepted with the reservation of a possible asiatic connection at the extreme north. it was something more than two hundred and twenty years from the death of columbus before that severance at the north was incontestably established by the voyage of bering, and a hundred and thirty years longer before at last the contour of the northern coast of the continent was established by the proof of the long-sought northwest passage in . we must now, to complete the story of the influence of columbus, rehearse somewhat concisely the narrative of this progressive outcome of that wonderful voyage of . the spirit of western discovery, which columbus imparted, was of long continuance. [sidenote: the influence of ptolemy and his career.] "if we wish to make ourselves thoroughly acquainted," says dr. kohl, "with the history of discovery in the new world, we must not only follow the navigators on their ships, but we must look into the cabinets of princes and into the counting-houses of merchants, and likewise watch the scholars in their speculative studies." there was no rallying point for the scholar of cosmography in those early days of discovery like the text and influence of ptolemy. we know little of this ancient geographer beyond the fact of his living in the early portion of the second century, and mainly at alexandria, the fittest home of a geographer at that time, since this egyptian city was peerless for commerce and learning. here he could do best what he advises all geographers to do, consult the journals of travelers, and get information of eclipses, as the same phenomena were observed at different places; such, for instance, as that of the moon noted at arbela in the fifth, and seen at carthage in the second hour. [sidenote: portolanos.] the precision of ptolemy was covered out of sight by graphic fancies among the cosmographers of succeeding ages, till about the beginning of the fourteenth century italy and the western mediterranean islands began to produce those atlases of sea-charts, which have come down to us under the name of "portolanos;" and still later a new impetus was given to geographical study by the manuscripts of ptolemy, with his maps, which began to be common in western europe in the beginning of the fifteenth century, largely through the influence of communications with the byzantine peoples. [illustration: ptolemy. [from reusner's _icones_.]] the portolanos, however, never lost their importance. nordenskiöld says that, from the great number of them still extant in italy, we may deduce that they had a greater circulation during the sixteenth century than printed cartographical works. about five hundred of these sea-charts are known in italian libraries, and the greater proportion of them are of italian origin. [sidenote: latin text of ptolemy.] [sidenote: the donis maps.] it is a composite latin text, brought into final shape by jacobus angelus not far from - , which was the basis of the early printed editions of ptolemy. this version was for a while circulated in manuscript, sometimes with copies of the maps of the old world having a latinized nomenclature; and the public libraries of europe contain here and there specimens of these early copies, one of which it is thought was known to pierre d'ailly. it is a question if angelus supplied the maps which accompanied these early manuscripts, and which got into the bologna edition of (wrongly dated for ), and into the metrical version of berlingièri. these maps, whether always the same in the early manuscripts or not, were later superseded by a new set of maps made by a german cartographer, nicolaus donis, which he added to a revision of angelus's latin text. these later maps were close copies of the original greek maps, and were accompanied by others of a similar workmanship, which represented better knowledge than the greeks had. in these donis maps were first engraved on copper, and were used in the later editions of , and slightly corrected in those of and . the engravers were schweinheim and buckinck, and their work, following copies of it in the edition of , has been admirably reproduced in _the facsimile atlas_ of nordenskiöld (stockholm, ). [illustration: donis, .] [sidenote: greenland in maps.] meanwhile, editions of the text of angelus had been issued at ulm in , and giving additions in , with woodcut maps, the same in both issues on a different projection, assigned to dominus nicolaus germanus, who had, according to nordenskiöld, completed the manuscript fifteen years earlier. it is significant, perhaps, of the slowness with which the bruit of portuguese discoveries to the south had traveled that there is in the maps of africa no extension of ptolemy's knowledge. but if they are deficient in the south, they are remarkable in the north for showing the coming america in a delineation of greenland, which, as we have already pointed out, was no new object in the manuscript portolanos, even as far back as the early part of the same century. [illustration: ruysch, .] two years after the death of columbus, we find in the edition of , and sometimes in the edition of ,--there is no difference between the two issues except in the title-page,--the first engraved map which has particular reference to the new geographical developments of the age. [sidenote: - . the ruysch map.] this ruysch map shows the african coast discoveries of the portuguese, with the discoveries of marco polo towards the east. in connection with the latter, the same material which behaim had used in his globe seems to have been equally accessible to ruysch. the latter's map has a legend on the sea between iceland and greenland, saying that an island situated there was burnt up in . this statement has been connected by some with another contained in the sagas, that from an island in this channel both greenland and iceland could be seen. we also learn from another legend that portuguese vessels had pushed down the south american coast to ° south latitude, and the historians of these early voyages have been unable to say who the pioneers were who have left us so early a description of brazil. [sidenote: columbus and the ruysch map.] it is inferred from a reference of beneventanus, in his ptolemy, respecting this map, that some aid had been derived from a map made by one of the columbuses, and a statement that bartholomew columbus, in rome in , gave a map of the new discoveries to a canon of san giovanni di laterano has been thought to refer to such a map, which would, if it could be established, closely connect the ruysch map with columbus. it is also supposed to have some relation to cabot, since a voyage which ruysch made to the new regions westward from england may have been, and probably was, with that navigator. in this case, the reference to that part of the coast of asia which the english discovered may record ruysch's personal experiences. if these things can be considered as reasonably established, it gives great interest to this map of ruysch, and connects columbus not only with the earliest manuscript map, la cosa of , but also with the earliest engraved map of the new world, as ruysch's map was. [sidenote: sources of the ruysch map.] in speaking of the ruysch map, henry stevens thinks that the cartographer laid down the central archipelago of america from the printed letter of columbus, because it was the only account in print in ; but why restrict the sources of information to those in print, when la cosa's map might have been copied, or the material which la cosa employed might have been used by others, and when the cantino map is a familiar copy of portuguese originals, all of which might well have been known in the varied circles with which ruysch is seen by his map to have been familiar? [sidenote: portuguese geography and maps.] while it is a fact that central and northern europe got its cartographical knowledge of the new world almost wholly from portugal, owing, perhaps, to the exertions of spain to preserve their explorers' secrets, we do not, at the same time, find a single engraved portuguese map of the early years of this period of discovery. [sidenote: portuguese portolano.] [sidenote: pedro reinel.] a large map, to show the portuguese discoveries during years then recent, was probably made for king emanuel, and it has come down to us, being preserved now at munich. this chart wholly omits the spanish work of exploration, and records only the coasts coursed by cabral in the south, and by the cortereals in the north. we have a further and similar record in the chart of pedro reinel, which could not have been made far from the same time, and which introduces to us the same prominent cape which in la cosa's map had been called the english cape as "cavo razo," a name preserved to us to-day in the cape race of newfoundland. [illustration: the so-called admiral's map.] [sidenote: spain and portugal conceal their geographical secrets.] there is abundant evidence of the non-communicative policy of spain. this secretiveness was understood at the time robert thorne, in , complained, as well as sir humphrey gilbert in his _discoverie_, that a similar injunction was later laid by portugal. in veitia linage's _norte_ we read of the cabinets in which these maps were preserved, and how the spanish pilot major and royal cosmographer alone kept the keys. there exists a document by which one of the companions of magellan was put under a penalty of two thousand ducats not to disclose the route he traversed in that famous voyage. we know how columbus endeavored to conceal the route of his final voyage, in which he reached the coast of veragua. [illustration: mÜnster, .] [illustration: globus mundi.] [sidenote: a strait to india.] in the two maps of nearly equal date, being the earliest engraved charts which we have, the ruysch map of and the so-called admiral's map of ( ), the question of a strait leading to the asiatic seas, which columbus had spent so much energy in trying to find during his last voyage, is treated differently. we have seen that la cosa confessed his uncertain knowledge by covering the place with a vignette. in the ruysch map there is left the possibility of such a passage; in the other there is none, for the main shore is that of asia itself, whose coast line uninterruptedly connects with that of south america. the belief in such a strait in due time was fixed, and lingered even beyond the time when cortes showed there was no ground for it. we find it in schöner's globes, in the tross gores, and even so late as , in the belated map of münster. [illustration: eden.] [sidenote: earliest map to show america made north of the alps.] the map of the _globus mundi_ (strassburg, ) has some significance as being the earliest issued north of the alps, recording both the portuguese and spanish discoveries; though it merely gives the projecting angle of the south american coast as representing the developments of the west. [sidenote: english references to america.] [sidenote: richard eden.] it is doubtful if any reference to the new discoveries had appeared in english literature before alexander barclay produced in a translation of brant's _ship of fools_, and for a few years there were only chance references which made no impression on the literary instincts of the time. it was not till after the middle of the century, in , that richard eden, translating a section of sebastian münster's _cosmographia_, published it in london as a _treatyse of the newe india_, and english-reading people first saw a considerable account of what the rest of europe had been doing in contrast with the english maritime apathy. two years later ( ), eden, drawing this time upon peter martyr, did much in his _decades of the newe world_ to enlarge the english conceptions. [sidenote: the naming of america.] but the most striking and significant of all the literary movements which grew out of the new oceanic developments was that which gave a name to the new world, and has left a continent, which columbus unwittingly found, the monument of another's fame. [sidenote: . september. letter of vespucius.] it was in september, , that vespucius, remembering an old schoolmate in florence, piero soderini, who was then the perpetual gonfalonière of that city, took what it is supposed he had written out at length concerning his experiences in the new world, and made an abstract of it in italian. dating this on the th of that month, he dispatched it to italy. it is a question whether the original of this abridged text of vespucius is now known, though varnhagen, with a confidence few scholars have shared, has claimed such authenticity for a text which he has printed. [sidenote: st. dié.] [sidenote: duke rené.] it concerns us chiefly to know that somehow a copy of this condensed narrative of vespucius came into the hands of his fellow-townsman, fra giovanni giocondo, then in paris at work as an architect constructing a bridge over the seine. it is to be allowed that r. h. major, in tracing the origin of the french text, assumes something to complete his story, and that this precise genesis of the narrative which was received by duke rené of lorraine is open to some question. the supposition that a young alsatian, then in paris, mathias ringmann, had been a friend of giocondo, and had been the bearer of this new version to rené, is likewise a conjecture. whether ringmann was such a messenger or not matters little, but the time was fast approaching when this young man was to be associated with a proposition made in the little village of st. dié, in the vosges, which was one of those obscure but far-reaching mental premonitions so often affecting the world's history, without the backing of great names or great events. this almost unknown place was within the domain of this same duke rené, a wise man, who liked scholars and scholarly tomes. his patronage had fostered there a small college and a printing-press. there had been grouped around these agencies a number of learned men, or those ambitious of knowledge. scholars in other parts of europe, when they heard of this little coterie, wondered how its members had congregated there. one walter lud, or gualterus ludovicus, as they liked to latinize his name, a dependent and secretary of duke rené, was now a man not much under sixty, and he had been the grouper and manager of this body of scholars. there had lately been brought to join them this same mathias ringmann, who came from paris with all the learning that he had tried to imbibe under the tutoring of dr. john faber. if we believe the story as major has worked it out, ringmann had come to this sparse community with all the fervor for the exploits of vespucius which he got in the french capital from associating with that florentine's admirer, the architect giocondo. [illustration: vespucius.] coming to st. dié, ringmann had been made a professor of latin, and with the usual nominal alternation had become known as philesius; and as such he appears a little later in connection with a latin version of the french of giocondo, which was soon made by another of the st. dié scholars, a canon of the cathedral there, jean bassin de sandacourt. still another young man, walter waldseemüller, had not long before been made a teacher of geography in the college, and his name, as was the wont, had been classicized into hylacomylus. there have now been brought before the reader all the actors in this little st. dié drama, upon which we, as americans, must gaze back through the centuries as upon the baptismal scene of a continent. [sidenote: waldseemüller.] [sidenote: _cosmographiæ introductio._] the duke had emphasized the cosmographical studies of the age by this appointment of an energetic young student of geography, who seems to have had a deft hand at map-making. waldseemüller had some hand, at least, in fashioning a map of the new discoveries at the west, and the duke had caused the map to be engraved, and we find a stray note of sales of it singly as early as , though it was not till that it fairly got before the world in the ptolemy of that year. waldseemüller had also developed out of these studies a little cosmographical treatise, which the college press was set to work upon, and to swell it to the dignity of a book, thin as it still was, the diminutive quarto was made to include bassin's latin version of the vespucius narrative, set out with some latin verses by ringmann. the little book called _cosmographiæ introductio_ was brought out at this obscure college press in st. dié, in april and august, . there were some varieties in each of these issues, while that part which constituted the vespucius narrative was further issued in a separate publication. [illustration: title of the cosmographiÆ introductio.] it was in this form that vespucius's narrative was for the first time, unless varnhagen's judgment to the contrary is superior to all others, brought before the world. the most significant quality of the little book, however, was the proposition which waldseemüller, with his anonymous views on cosmography, advanced in the introductory parts. it is assumed by writers on the subject that it was not waldseemüller alone who was responsible for the plan there given to name that part of the new world which americus vespucius had described after the voyager who had so graphically told his experiences on its shores. the plan, it is supposed, met with the approval of, or was the outcome of the counsels of, this little band of st. dié scholars collectively. it is not the belief of students generally that this coterie, any more than vespucius himself, ever imagined that the new regions were really disjoined from the asiatic main, though varnhagen contends that vespucius knew they were. [sidenote:_mundus novus._] one thing is certainly true: that there wasno intention to apply the name which was now proposed to anything more than the continental mass of the brazilian shore which vespucius had coasted, and which was looked upon as a distinct region from the islands which columbus had traversed. it had come to be believed that the archipelago of columbus was far from the paradise of luxury and wealth that his extravagant terms called for, and which the descriptions of marco polo had led the world to expect, supposing the regions of the overland and oceanic discoverers to be the same. further than this, a new expectation had been aroused by the reports which had come to europe of the vaster proportions and of the brilliant paroquets--for such trivial aspects gave emphasis--of the more southern regions. it was an instance of the eagerness with which deluded minds, to atone for their first disappointment, grasp at the chances of a newer satisfaction. this was the hope which was entertained of this _mundus novus_ of vespucius,--not a new world in the sense of a new continent. the española and its neighboring regions of columbus, and the baccalaos of cabot and cortereal, clothed in imagination with the descriptions of marco polo, were nothing but the old world approached from the east instead of from the west. it was different with the _mundus novus_ of vespucius. here was in reality a new life and habitation, doubtless connected, but how it was not known, with the great eastern world of the merchants. it corresponded with nothing, so far as understood, in the asiatic chorography. it was ready for a new name, and it was alone associated with the man who had, in the autumn of , so described it, and from no one else could its name be so acceptably taken. europe and asia were geographically contiguous, and so might be asia and the new "america." [sidenote: eclipse of columbus's name.] the sudden eclipse which the name of columbus underwent, as the fame of vespucius ran through the popular mind, was no unusual thing in the vicissitudes of reputations. factitious prominence is gained without great difficulty by one or for one, if popular issues of the press are worked in his interest, and if a great variety of favoring circumstances unite in giving currency to rumors and reports which tend to invest him with exclusive interest. the curious public willingly lends itself to any end that taxes nothing but its credulity and good nature. [sidenote: fame of vespucius.] we have associated with vespucius just the elements of such a success, while the fame of columbus was waning to the death, namely: a stretch of continental coast, promising something more than the scattered trifles of an insalubrious archipelago; a new southern heavens, offering other glimpses of immensity; descriptions that were calculated to replace in new variety and mystery the stale stories of cipango and cathay: the busy yearnings of a group of young and ardent spirits, having all the apparatus of a press to apply to the making of a public sentiment; and the enthusiasm of narrators who sought to season their marvels of discovery with new delights and honors. the hold which vespucius had seized upon the imagination of europe, and which doubtless served to give him prominence in the popular appreciation, as it has served many a ready and picturesque writer since, was that glowing redundancy of description, both of the earth and the southern constellations, which forms so conspicuous a feature of his narratives. it was the later voyage of vespucius, and not his alleged voyage of , which raised, as humboldt has pointed out, the great interest which his name suggested. [sidenote: columbus and vespucius.] just what the notion prevailing at the time was of the respective exploits of columbus and vespucius is easily gathered from a letter dated may , , which appears in a _dyalogus johannis stamler de diversarum gencium sectis, et mundi regionibus_, published in . in this treatise a reference is made to the letters of columbus ( ) and vespucius ( ) as concerning an insular and continental space respectively. it speaks of "cristofer colom, the discoverer of _new islands_, and of albericus vespucius concerning the new discovered _world_, to both of whom our age is most largely indebted." it will be remembered that an early misnaming of vespucius by calling him albericus instead of americus, which took place in one of the early editions of his narrative, remained for some time to confuse the copiers of them. [sidenote: vespucius on gravitation.] if we may judge from a diagram which vespucius gives of a globe with two standing men on it ninety degrees apart, each dropping a line to the centre of the earth, this navigator had grasped, together with the idea of the sphericity of the globe, the essential conditions of gravitation. there could be no up-hill sailing when the zenith was always overhead. curiously enough, the supposition of columbus, when as he sailed on his third voyage he found the air grow colder, was that he was actually sailing up-hill, ascending a protuberance of the earth which was like the stem end of a pear, with the crowning region of the earthly paradise atop of all! such contrasts show the lesser navigator to be the greater physicist, and they go not a small way in accounting for the levelness of head which gained the suffrages of the wise. * * * * * [illustration: part of map in the ptolemy of .] [illustration: part of map in the ptolemy of .] [sidenote: . duke rené died.] [sidenote: . _globus mundi._] when duke rené, upon whom so much had depended in the little community at st. dié, died, in , the geographical printing schemes of waldseemüller and his fellows received a severe reverse, and for a few years we hear nothing more of the edition of ptolemy which had been planned. the next year ( ), waldseemüller, now putting his name to his little treatise, was forced, because of the failure of the college press, to go to strassburg to have a new edition of it printed ( ). the proposals for naming the continental discoveries of vespucius seem not in the interim to have excited any question, and so they are repeated. we look in vain in the copy of this edition which ferdinand columbus bought at venice in july, , and which is preserved at seville, for any marginal protest. the author of the _historie_, how far soever ferdinand may have been responsible for that book, is equally reticent. there was indeed no reason why he should take any exception. the fitness of the appellation was accepted as in no way invalidating the claim of columbus to discoveries farther to the north; and in another little tract, printed at the same time at grüniger's strassburg press, the anonymous _globus mundi_, the name "america" is adopted in the text, though the small bit of the new coast shown in its map is called by a translation of vespucius's own designation merely "_newe welt_." [sidenote: . the strassburg ptolemy.] the ptolemy scheme bore fruit at last, and at strassburg, also, for here the edition whose maps are associated with the name of waldseemüller, and whose text shows some of the influence of a greek manuscript of the old geographer which ringmann had earlier brought from italy, came out in . here was a chance, in a book far more sure to have influence than the little anonymous tract of , to impress the new name america upon the world of scholars and observers, and the opportunity was not seized. it is not easy to divine the cause of such an omission. the edition has two maps which show this vespucian continent in precisely the same way, though but one of them shows also to its full extent the region of columbus's explorations. on one of these maps the southern regions have no designation whatever, and on the other, the "admiral's map," there is a legend stretched across it, assigning the discovery of the region to columbus. we do not know, in all the contemporary literature which has come down to us, that up to there had been any rebuke at the ignorance or temerity which appeared in its large bearing to be depriving columbus of a rightful honor. that in waldseemüller should have enforced the credit given to vespucius, and in revoked it in favor of columbus, seems to indicate qualms of conscience of which we have no other trace. perhaps, indeed, this reversion of sympathy is of itself an evidence that waldseemüller had less to do with the edition than has been supposed. it is too much to assert that waldseemüller repented of his haste, but the facts in one light would indicate it. [sidenote: the name america begins to be accepted.] [illustration: the tross gores.] like many such headlong projects, however, the purpose had passed beyond the control of its promoters. the euphony, if not the fitness, of the name america had attracted attention, and there are several printed and manuscript globes and maps in existence which at an early date adopted that designation for the southern continent. nordenskiöld (_facsimile atlas_, p. ) quotes from the commentaries of the german coclæus, contained in the _meteorologia aristotelis_ of jacobus faber (nuremberg, ) a passage referring to the "nova americi terra." [sidenote: - . first in a map.] to complicate matters still more, within a few years after this an undated edition of waldseemüller's tract appeared at lyons,--perhaps without his participation,--which was always found, down to , without a map, though the copies known were very few; but in that year a copy with a map was discovered, now owned by an american collector, in which the proposition of the text is enforced with the name america on the representation of south america. a section of this map is here given as the tross gores. in the present condition of our knowledge of the matter, it was thus at a date somewhere about - that the name appeared first in any printed map, unless, indeed, we allow a somewhat earlier date to two globes in the hauslab collection at vienna. on the date of these last objects there is, however, much difference of opinion, and one of them has been depicted and discussed in the _mittheilungen_ of the geographische gesellschaft ( , p. ) of vienna. here, as in the descriptive texts, it must be clearly kept in mind, however, that no one at this date thought of applying the name to more than the land which vespucius had found stretching south beyond the equator on the east side of south america, and which balboa had shown to have a similar trend on the west. the islands and region to the north, which columbus and cabot had been the pioneers in discovering, still remained a mystery in their relations to asia, and there was yet a long time to elapse before the truth should be manifest to all, that a similar expanse of ocean lay westerly at the north, as was shown by balboa to extend in the same direction at the south. [illustration: the hauslab globe.] this vespucian baptism of south america now easily worked its way to general recognition. it is found in a contemporary set of gores which nordenskiöld has of late brought to light, and was soon adopted by the nuremberg globe-maker, schöner ( , etc.); by vadianus at vienna, when editing pomponius mela ( ); by apian on a map used in an edition of solinus, edited by camers ( ); and by lorenz friess, who had been of duke rené's coterie and a correspondent of vespucius, on a map introduced into the grüniger ptolemy, published at strassburg ( ), which also reproduced the waldseemüller map of . this is the earliest of the ptolemies in which we find the name accepted on its maps. [sidenote: . the name first in a ptolemy.] [illustration: the nordenskiÖld gores.] [illustration: apianus, .] [illustration: schÖner globe, .] [illustration: friess (_frisius_), in the ptolemy of .] there is one significant fact concerning the conflict of the crown with the heirs of columbus, which followed upon the admiral's death, and in which the advocates of the government sought to prove that the claim of columbus to have discovered the continental shore about the gulf of paria in was not to be sustained in view of visits by others at an earlier date. this significant fact is that vespucius is not once mentioned during the litigation. it is of course possible, and perhaps probable, that it was for the interests of both parties to keep out of view a servant of portugal trenching upon what was believed to be spanish territories. the same impulse could hardly have influenced ferdinand columbus in the silent acquiescence which, as a contemporary informs us, was his attitude towards the action of the st. dié professors. there seems little doubt of his acceptance of a view, then undoubtedly common, that there was no conflict of the claims of the respective navigators, because their different fields of exploration had not brought such claims in juxtaposition. [sidenote: who first landed on the southern main?] [sidenote: vespucius's maps.] [sidenote: vespucius not privy to the naming.] following, however, upon the assertion of waldseemüller, that vespucius had "found" this continental tract needing a name, there grew up a belief in some quarters, and deducible from the very obscure chronology of his narrative, which formulated itself in a statement that vespucius had really been the first to set foot on any part of this extended main. it was here that very soon the jealousy of those who had the good name of columbus in their keeping began to manifest itself, and some time after ,--if we accept that year as the date of his beginning work on the _historie_,--las casas, who had had some intimate relations with columbus, tells us that the report was rife of vespucius himself being privy to such pretensions. unless las casas, or the reporters to whom he referred, had material of which no one now has knowledge, it is certain that there is no evidence connecting vespucius with the st. dié proposition, and it is equally certain that evidence fails to establish beyond doubt the publication of any map bearing the name america while vespucius lived. he had been made pilot major of spain march , , and had died february , . we have no chart made by vespucius himself, though it is known that in such a chart was in the possession of ferdinand, brother of charles the fifth. the recovery of this chart would doubtless render a signal service in illuminating this and other questions of early american cartography. it might show us how far, if at all, vespucius "sinfully failed towards the admiral," as las casas reports of him, and adds: "if vespucius purposely gave currency to this belief of his first setting foot on the main, it was a great wickedness; and if it was not done intentionally, it looks like it." with all this predisposition, however, towards an implication of vespucius, las casas was cautious enough to consider that, after all, it may have been the st. dié coterie who were alone responsible for starting the rumor. [sidenote: "america" not used in spain.] [sidenote: . mercator first applied the name to both north and south america.] it is very clear that in spain there had been no recognition of the name "america," nor was it ever officially recognized by the spanish government. las casas understood that it had been applied by "foreigners," who had, as he says, "called america what ought to be called columba." just what date should attach to this protest of las casas is not determinable. if it was later than the gore-map of mercator in , which was the first, so far as is known, to apply the name to both north and south america, there is certainly good reason for the disquietude of las casas. if it was before that, it was because, with the progress of discovery, it had become more and more clear that all parts of the new regions were component parts of an absolutely new continent, upon which the name of the first discoverer of any part of it, main or insular, ought to have been bestowed. that it should be left to "foreign writers," as las casas said, to give a name representing a rival interest to a world that spanish enterprise had made known was no less an indignity to spain than to her great though adopted admiral. [sidenote: spread of the name in central europe.] it happens that the suggestion which sprang up in the vosges worked steadily onward through the whole of central europe. that it had so successful a propagation is owing, beyond a doubt, as much to the exclusive spirit of the spanish government in keeping to itself its hydrographical progress as to any other cause. we have seen how the name spread through germany and austria. it was taken up by stobnicza in poland in , in a cracow introduction to ptolemy; and many other of the geographical writers of central and southern europe adopted the designation. the _new interlude_, published in england in , had used it, and towards the middle of the century the fame of vespucius had occupied england, so far as sir thomas more and william cunningham represent it, to the almost total obscuration of columbus. it was but a question of time when vespucius would be charged with promoting his own glory by borrowing the plumes of columbus. whether las casas, in what has been quoted, initiated such accusations or not, the account of that writer was in manuscript and could have had but small currency. [sidenote: . schöner accuses vespucius of participation in the injustice.] the first accusation in print, so far as has been discovered, came from the german geographer, johann schöner, who, having already in his earlier globes adopted the name america, now in a tract called _opusculum geographicum_, which he printed at nuremberg in , openly charged vespucius with attaching his own name to a region of india superior. two years later, servetus, while he repeated in his ptolemy of the earlier maps bearing the name america, entered in his text a protest against its use by alleging distinctly that columbus was earlier than vespucius in finding the new main. within a little more than a year from the death of vespucius, and while the maps assigned to waldseemüller were pressed on the attention of scholars, the integralness of the great southern continent, to which a name commemorating americus had been given, was made manifest, or at least probable, by the discovery of balboa. * * * * * [sidenote: a barrier suspected.] let us now see how the course of discovery was finding record during these early years of the sixteenth century in respect to the great but unsuspected barrier which actually interposed in the way of those who sought asia over against spain. [sidenote: discoveries in the north.] [sidenote: . normans and bretons.] in the north, the discoveries of the english under cabot, and of the portuguese under the cortereals, soon led the normans and bretons from dieppe and saint malo to follow in the wake of such predecessors. as early as the fishermen of these latter peoples seem to have been on the northern coasts, and we owe to them the name of cape breton, which is thought to be the oldest french name in our american geography. it is the "gran capitano" of ramusio who credits the bretons with these early visits at the north, though we get no positive cartographical record of such visits till , in a map which is given by kunstmann in his _atlas_. [sidenote: . portuguese.] again, in , some portuguese appear to have been on the newfoundland coast under the royal patronage of henry vii. of england, and by the portuguese fishermen were regular frequenters of the newfoundland banks. we find in the old maps portuguese names somewhat widely scattered on the neighboring coast lines, for the frequenting of the region by the fishermen of that nation continued well towards the close of the century. [sidenote: . spaniards.] there are also stories of one velasco, a spaniard, visiting the st. lawrence in , and juan de agramonte in entered into an agreement with the spanish king to pursue discovery in these parts more actively, but we have no definite knowledge of results. [sidenote: . sebastian cabot.] [sidenote: . portuguese.] the death of ferdinand, january , , would seem to have put a stop to a voyage which had already been planned for spain by sebastian cabot, to find a northwest passage; but the next year ( ) cabot, in behalf of england, had sailed to hudson's strait, and thence north to ° ', finding "no night there," and observing extraordinary variations of the compass. somewhat later there are the very doubtful claims of the portuguese to explorations under fagundes about the gulf of st. lawrence in . [sidenote: . ango's captains.] [sidenote: denys's map.] [sidenote: . léry.] by also there is something like certainty respecting the normans, and under the influence of a notable dieppese, jean ango, we soon meet a class of adventurous mariners tempting distant and marvelous seas. we read of pierre crignon, and thomas aubert, both of dieppe, jean denys of honfleur, and jean parmentier, all of whom have come down to us through the pages of ramusio. it is of jean denys in , and of thomas aubert a little later, that we find the fullest recitals. to denys there has been ascribed a mysterious chart of the gulf of st. lawrence; but if the copy which is preserved represents it, there can be no hesitation in discarding it as a much later cartographical record. the original is said to have been found in the archives of the ministry of war in paris so late as , but no such map is found there now. the copy which was made for the canadian archives is at ottawa, and i have been favored by the authorities there with a tracing of it. no one of authority will be inclined to dispute the judgment of harrisse that it is apocryphal. we are accordingly left in uncertainty just how far at this time the contour of the golfo quadrago, as the gulf of st. lawrence was called, was made out. aubert is said to have brought to france seven of the natives of the region in . ten years or more later ( , etc.), the baron de léry is thought to have attempted a french settlement thereabouts, of which perhaps the only traces were some european cattle, the descendants of his small herd landed there in , which were found on sable island many years later. [sidenote: . nicholas don.] we know from herrera that in nicholas don, a breton, was fishing off baccalaos, and rut tells us that in norman and breton vessels were pulling fish on the shores of newfoundland. such mentions mark the early french knowledge of these northern coasts, but there is little in it all to show any contribution to geographical developments. [illustration: peter martyr, .] [illustration: ponce de leon. [from barcia's _herrera_.]] [sidenote: attempts to connect the northern discoveries with those of the spanish.] [sidenote: . peter martyr's map.] [sidenote: . ponce de leon.] [sidenote: . march.] [sidenote: florida.] before this, however, the first serious attempt of which we have incontrovertible evidence was made to connect these discoveries in the north with those of the spanish in the antilles. as early as the map given by peter martyr had shown that, from the native reports or otherwise, a notion had arisen of lands lying north of cuba. in ponce de leon was seeking a commission to authorize him to go and see what this reported land was like, with its fountain of youth. he got it february , , when ferdinand commissioned him "to find and settle the island of bimini," if none had already been there, or if portugal had not already acquired possession in any part that he sought. delays in preparation postponed the actual departure of his expedition from porto rico till march, . on the d of that month, easter sunday, he struck the mainland somewhere opposite the bahamas, and named the country florida, from the day of the calendar. he tracked the coast northward to a little above ° north latitude. then he retraced his way, and rounding the southern cape, went well up the western side of the peninsula. whether any stray explorers had been before along this shore may be a question. private spanish or portuguese adventurers, or even englishmen, had not been unknown in neighboring waters some years earlier, as we have evidence. we find certainly in this voyage of ponce de leon for the first time an unmistakable official undertaking, which we might expect would soon have produced its cartographical record. the interdicts of the council of the indies were, however, too powerful, and the old lines of the cantino map still lingered in the maps for some years, though by the floridian peninsula began to take recognizable shape in certain spanish maps. [illustration: ponce de leon's track.] [sidenote: bimini.] just what stood for bimini in the reports of this expedition is not clear; but there seems to have been a vague notion of its not being the same as florida, for when ponce de leon got a new patent in september, , he was authorized to settle both "islands," bimini and florida, and diego colon as viceroy was directed to help on the expedition. seven years, however, passed in delays, so that it was not till that he attempted to make a settlement, but just at what point is not known. sickness and loss in encounters with the indians soon discouraged him, and he returned to cuba to die of an arrow wound received in one of the forays of the natives. [sidenote: . pineda.] it was still a question if florida connected with any adjacent lands. several minor expeditions had added something to the stretch of coast, but the main problem still stood unsolved. in pineda had made the circuit of the northern shores of the gulf of mexico, and at the river panuco he had been challenged by cortes as trenching on his government. turning again eastward, pineda found the mouth of the river named by him del espiritu santo, which passes with many modern students as the first indication in history of the great mississippi, while others trace the first signs of that river to cabeça de vaca in , or to the passage higher up its current by de soto in . believing it at first the long-looked-for strait to pass to the indies, pineda entered it, only to be satisfied that it must gather the watershed of a continent, which in this part was now named amichel. it seemed accordingly certain that no passage to the west was to be found in this part of the gulf, and that florida must be more than an island. [sidenote: . ayllon.] [sidenote: spaniards in virginia.] while these explorations were going on in the gulf, others were conducted on the atlantic side of florida. if the pompey stone which has been found in new york state, to the confusion of historical students, be accepted as genuine, it is evidence that the spaniard had in penetrated from some point on the coast to that region. in we get demonstrable proof, when lucas vasquez de ayllon sent a caravel under gordillo, which joined company on the way with another vessel bound on a slave-hunting expedition, and the two, proceeding northward, sighted the main coast at a river which they found to be in thirty-three and a half degrees of north latitude, on the south carolina coast. they returned without further exploration. ayllon, without great success, attempted further explorations in ; but in he went again with greater preparations, and made his landfall a little farther north, near the mouth of the wateree river, which he called the jordan, and sailed on to the chesapeake, where, with the help of negro slaves, then first introduced into this region, he began the building of a town at or near the spot where the english in the next century founded jamestown; or at least this is the conjecture of dr. shea. here ayllon died of a pestilential fever october , , when the disheartened colonists, one hundred and fifty out of the original five hundred, returned to santo domingo. [illustration: the ayllon map.] [sidenote: . gomez.] [sidenote: chaves's map.] [sidenote: . ribero's map.] while these unfortunate experiences were in progress, estevan gomez, sent by the spanish government, after the close of the conference at badajos, to make sure that there was no passage to the moluccas anywhere along this atlantic coast, started in the autumn of , if the data we have admit of that conclusion as to the time, from corunna, in the north of spain. he proceeded at once, as charles v. had directed him, to the baccalaos region, striking the mainland possibly at labrador, and then turned south, carefully examining all inlets. we have no authoritative narrative sanctioned by his name, or by that of any one accompanying the expedition; nor has the map which alonso chaves made to conform to what was reported by gomez been preserved, but the essential features of the exploration are apparently embodied in the great map of ribero ( ), and we have sundry stray references in the later chroniclers. from all this it would seem that gomez followed the coast southward to the point of florida, and made it certain to most minds that no such passage to india existed, though there was a lingering suspicion that the gulf of st. lawrence had not been sufficiently explored. * * * * * [sidenote: shores of the caribbean sea.] [sidenote: ojeda and nicuessa.] let us turn now to the southern shores of the caribbean sea. new efforts at colonizing here were undertaken in - . by this time the coast had been pretty carefully made out as far as honduras, largely through the explorations of ojeda and juan de la cosa. the scheme was a dual one, and introduces us to two new designations of the regions separated by that indentation of the coast known as the gulf of uraba. here ojeda and nicuessa were sent to organize governments, and rule their respective provinces of nueva andalusia and castilla del oro for the period of four years. mention has already been made of this in the preceding chapter. they delayed getting to their governments, quarreled for a while about their bounds on each other, fought the natives with desperation but not with much profit, lost la cosa in one of the encounters, and were thwarted in their purpose of holding jamaica as a granary and in getting settlers from española by the alertness of diego colon, who preferred to be tributary to no one. all this had driven ojeda to great stress in the little colony of san sebastian which he had founded. he attempted to return for aid to española, and was wrecked on the voyage. this caused him to miss his lieutenant enciso, who was on his way to him with recruits. so ojeda passes out of history, except so far as he tells his story in the testimony he gave in the suit of the heirs of columbus in - . [sidenote: pizarro.] [illustration: balboa. [from barcia's _herrera_.]] new heroes were coming on. a certain pizarro had been left in command by ojeda,--not many years afterwards to be heard of. one vasco nuñez de balboa, a poor and debt-burdened fugitive, was on board of enciso's ship, and had wit enough to suggest that a region like san sebastian, inhabited by tribes which used poisoned arrows, was not the place for a colony struggling for existence and dependent on foraging. so they removed the remnants of the colony, which enciso had turned back as they were escaping, to the other side of the bay, and in this way the new settlement came within the jurisdiction of nicuessa, whom a combination soon deposed and shipped to sea, never to be heard of. it was in these commotions that vasco nuñez de balboa brought himself into a prominence that ended in his being commissioned by diego colon as governor of the new colony. he had, meanwhile, got more knowledge of a great sea at the westward than columbus had acquired on the coast of veragua in . balboa rightly divined that its discovery, if he could effect it, would serve him a good purpose in quieting any jealousies of his rule, of which he was beginning to observe symptoms. [sidenote: . balboa and the south sea.] so on the st of september, , he set out in the direction which the natives hadindicated, and by the th he had reached a mountain from the topof which his guides told him he would behold the sea. on the th his party ascended, himself in front, and it was not long before he stood gazing upon the distant ocean, the first of europeans to discern the long-coveted sea. down the other slope the spaniards went. the path was a difficult one, and it was three days before one of his advanced squads reached the beach. not till the next day, the th, did vasco nuñez himself join those in advance, when, striding into the tide, he took possession of the sea and its bordering lands in the name of his sovereigns. it was on saint miguel's day, and the bay of saint miguel marks the spot to-day. towards the end of january, , he was again with the colony at antigua del darien. thence, in march, he dispatched a messenger to spain with news of the great discovery. [sidenote: pedrarias.] [sidenote: . balboa executed.] this courier did not reach europe till after a new expedition had been dispatched under pedrarias, and with him went a number of followers, who did in due time their part in thridding and designating these new paths of exploration. we recognize among them hernando de soto, bernal diaz, the chronicler of the exploits of cortes, and oviedo, the historian. it was from april till june, , that pedrarias was on his way, and it was not long before the new governor with his imposing array of strength brought the recusant balboa to trial, out of which he emerged burdened with heavy fines. the new governor planned at once to reap the fruits of balboa's discovery. an expedition was sent along his track, which embarked on the new sea and gathered spoils where it could. pedrarias soon grew jealous of balboa, for it was not without justice that the state of the augmented colony was held to compare unfavorably with the conditions which balboa had maintained during his rule. but constancy was never of much prevalence in these days, and balboa's chains, lately imposed, were stricken off to give him charge of an exploration of the sea which he had discovered. once here, balboa planned new conquests and a new independency. pedrarias, hearing of it through a false friend of balboa, enticed the latter into his neighborhood, and a trial was soon set on foot, which ended in the execution of balboa and his abettors. this was in . it was not long before pedrarias removed his capital to panama, and in and during the few following years his captains pushed their explorations northerly along the shores of the south sea, as the new ocean had been at once called. [sidenote: . biru.] [sidenote: . panama founded.] as early as pizarro and morales had wandered down the coast southward to a region called biru by the natives, and this was as far as adventure had carried any spaniard, during the ten years since balboa's discovery. they had learned here of a rich region farther on, and it got to be spoken of by the same name, or by a perversion of it, as peru. in this interval the town of panama had been founded ( ), and pizarro and almagro, with the priest luque, were among those to whom allotments were made. [sidenote: peru.] [sidenote: chili.] [sidenote: chiloe.] it was by these three associates, in and , that the expeditions were organized which led to the exploration of the coasts of peru and the conquest of the region. the equator was crossed in ; in they reached ° south. it was not till that, in the progress of events, a knowledge of the coast was extended south to the neighborhood of lima, which was founded in that year. in the autumn of , almagro started south to make conquest of chili, and the bay of valparaiso was occupied in september, . eight years later, in , explorations were pushed south to °. it was only in that expeditions reached the archipelago of chiloe, and the whole coast of south america on the pacific was made out with some detail down to the region which magellan had skirted, as will be shortly shown. * * * * * [sidenote: . ocampo and cuba.] it will be remembered that in columbus had struck the coast of honduras west of cape gracias à dios. he learned then of lands to the northwest from some indians whom he met in a canoe, but his eagerness to find the strait of his dreams led him south. it was fourteen years before the promise of that canoe was revealed. in ocampo had found the western extremity of cuba, and made the oath of columbus ridiculous. [sidenote: . yucatan.] in a slave-hunting expedition, having steered towards the west from cuba, discovered the shores of yucatan; and the next year ( ) the real exploration of that region began when juan de grijalva, a nephew of the governor of cuba, led thither an expedition which explored the coast of yucatan and mexico. [sidenote: . cortes.] [sidenote: .] when grijalva returned to cuba in , it was to find an expedition already planned to follow up his discoveries, and hernando cortes, who had been in the new world since , had been chosen to lead it, with instructions to make further explorations of the coast,--a purpose very soon to become obscured in other objects. he sailed on the th of november, and stopped along the coast of cuba for recruits, so it was not till february , , that he sunk the shores of cuba behind him, and in march he was skirting the yucatan shore and sailed on to san juan de uloa. in due time, forgetting his instructions, and caring for other conquests than those of discovery, he began his march inland. the story of the conquest of mexico does not help us in the aim now in view, and we leave it untold. [illustration: grijalva. [from barcia's _herrera_.]] [sidenote: quinsay.] it was not long after this conquest before belated apostles of the belief of columbus appeared, urging that the capital of montezuma was in reality the quinsay of marco polo, with its great commercial interests, as was maintained by schöner in his _opusculum geographicum_ in . [illustration: globe given in schÖner's _opusculum geographicum_, .] [sidenote: . garay.] [sidenote: gulf of mexico.] [sidenote: . cortes's gulf of mexico.] [sidenote: yucatan as an island.] we have seen how pineda's expedition to the northern parts of the gulf of mexico in had improved the knowledge of that shore, and we have a map embodying these explorations, which was sent to spain in by garay, then governor of jamaica. it was now pretty clear that the blank spaces of earlier maps, leaving it uncertain if there was a passage westerly somewhere in the northwest corner of the gulf, should be filled compactly. still, a belief that such a passage existed somewhere in the western contour of the gulf was not readily abandoned. cortes, when he sent to spain his sketch of the gulf, which was published there in , was dwelling on the hope that some such channel existed near yucatan, and his insular delineation of that peninsula, with a shadowy strait at its base, was eagerly grasped by the cartographers. such a severance finds a place in the map of maiollo of , which is preserved in the ambrosian library at milan. grijalva, some years earlier, had been sent, as we have seen, to sail round yucatan; and though there are various theories about the origin of that name, it seems likely enough that the tendency to give it an insular form arose from a misconception of the indian appellation. at all events, the island of yucatan lingered long in the early maps. [illustration: gulf of mexico, .] [sidenote: . cortes.] in cortes had sent expeditions up the pacific, and one up the atlantic side of north america, to find the wished-for passage; but in vain. * * * * * [sidenote: spanish and portuguese rivalries.] meanwhile, important movements were making by the portuguese beyond that great sea of the south which balboa had discovered. these movements were little suspected by the spaniards till the development of them brought into contact these two great oceanic rivals. [illustration: gulf of mexico, by cortes.] [sidenote: . moluccas.] [sidenote: a western passage sought at the south.] the portuguese, year after year, had extended farther and farther their conquests by the african route. arabia, india, malacca, sumatra, fell under their sway, and their course was still eastward, until in the coveted land of spices, the clove and the nutmeg, was reached in the molucca islands. this progress of the portuguese had been watched with a jealous eye by spain. it was a question if, in passing to these islands, the portuguese had not crossed the line of demarcation as carried to the antipodes. if they had, territory neighboring to the spanish american discoveries had been appropriated by that rival power wholly unconfronted. this was simply because the spanish navigators had not as yet succeeded in finding a passage through the opposing barrier of what they were beginning to suspect was after all an intervening land. meanwhile, columbus and all since his day having failed to find such a passage by way of the caribbean sea, and no one yet discovering any at the north, nothing was left but to seek it at the south. this was the only chance of contesting with the portuguese the rights which occupation was establishing for them at the moluccas. [sidenote: . pinzon and solis.] on the th of june, , a new expedition left san lucar under pinzon and solis. they made their landfall near cape st. augustine, and, passing south along the coast of what had now come to be commonly called brazil, they traversed the opening of the broad estuary of the la plata without knowing it, and went five degrees beyond ( ° south latitude) without finding the sought-for passage. [illustration: maiollo map, .] [sidenote: . portuguese at rio de janeiro.] [sidenote: ferdinand columbus and the western passage.] there is some reason to suppose that as early as the portuguese had become in some degree familiar with the coast about rio de janeiro, and there is a story of one juan de braza settling near this striking bay at this early day. it was during the same year ( ) that ferdinand columbus prepared his _colon de concordia_, and in this he maintained the theory of a passage to be found somewhere beyond the point towards the south which the explorers had thus far reached. [illustration: de costa's drawing from the lenox globe.] [sidenote: . solis.] [illustration: schÖner's globe, .] [illustration: magellan.] [sidenote: . magellan.] a few years later ( ) the spanish king sent juan diaz de solis to search anew for a passage. he found the la plata, and for a while hoped he had discovered the looked-for strait. magellan, who had taken some umbrage during his portuguese service, came finally to the spanish king, and, on the plea that the moluccas fell within the spanish range under the line of demarcation, suggested an expedition to occupy them. he professed to be able to reach them by a strait which he could find somewhere to the south of the la plata. it has long been a question if magellan's anticipation was based simply on a conjecture that, as africa had been found to end in a southern point, america would likewise be discovered to have a similar southern cape. it has also been a question if magellan actually had any tidings from earlier voyages to afford a ground for believing in such a geographical fact. it is possible that other early discoverers had been less careful than solis, and had been misled by the broad estuary of the la plata to think that it was really an interoceanic passage. some such intelligence would seem to have instigated the conditions portrayed in one early map, but the general notion of cartographers at the time terminates the known coast at cape frio, near rio de janeiro, as is seen to be the case in the ptolemy map of . there is a story, originating with pigafetta, his historian, that magellan had seen a map of martin behaim, showing a southern cape; but if this map existed, it revealed probably nothing more than a conjectural termination, as shown in the lenox and earliest schöner globes of and . still, wieser and nordenskiöld are far from being confident that some definite knowledge of such a cape had not been attained, probably, as it is thought, from private commercial voyage of which we may have a record in the _newe zeitung_ and in the _luculentissima descriptio_. it is to be feared that the fact, whatever it may have been, must remain shadowy. magellan's fleet was ready in august, . his preparation had been watched with jealousy by portugal, and it was even hinted that if the expedition sailed a matrimonial alliance of spain and portugal which was contemplated must be broken off. magellan was appealed to by the portuguese ambassador to abandon his purpose, as one likely to embroil the two countries. the stubborn navigator was not to be persuaded, and the spanish king made him governor of all countries he might discover on the "back side" of the new world. in the late days of , magellan touched the coast at rio de janeiro, where, remaining awhile, he enjoyed the fruits of its equable climate. then, passing on, he crossed the mouth of the la plata, and soon found that he had reached a colder climate and was sailing along a different coast. the verdure which had followed the warm currents from the equatorial north gave way to the concomitants of an icy flow from the antarctic regions which made the landscape sterile. so on he went along this inhospitable region, seeking the expected strait. his search in every inlet was so faithful that he neared the southern goal but slowly. the sternness of winter caught his little barks in a harbor near ° south latitude, and his spanish crews, restless under the command of a portuguese, revolted. the rebels were soon more numerous than the faithful. the position was more threatening than any columbus had encountered, but the portuguese had a hardy courage and majesty of command that the genoese never could summon. magellan confronted the rebels so boldly that they soon quailed. he was in unquestioned command of his own vessels from that time forward. the fate of the conquered rioters, juan de carthagena and sanchez de la reina, cast on the inhospitable shore of patagonia in expiation of their offense, is in strong contrast to the easy victory which columbus too often yielded, to those who questioned his authority. the story of magellan's pushing his fleet southward and through the strait with a reluctant crew is that of one of the royally courageous acts of the age of discovery. [sidenote: . october. magellan enters the strait.] on october , , the ships entered the longed-for strait, and on the th of november they sailed into the new sea; then stretching their course nearly north, keeping well in sight of the coast till the chiloe archipelago was passed, the ships steered west of juan fernandez without seeing it, and subsequently gradually turned their prows towards the west. [illustration: magellan's straits by pizafetta. [the north is at the bottom.]] [sidenote: the western way discovered.] it is not necessary for our present purpose to follow the incidents of the rest of this wondrous voyage,--the reaching the ladrones and the asiatic islands, magellan's own life sacrificed, all his ships but one abandoned or lost, the passing of the cape of good hope by the "victoria," and her arrival on september , , under del cano, at the spanish harbor from which the fleet had sailed. the emperor bestowed on this lucky first of circumnavigators the proud motto, inscribed on a globe, "primus circumdedisti me." the spaniards' western way to the moluccas was now disclosed. [illustration: magellan's strait.] [sidenote: pacific ocean.] the south sea of balboa, as soon as magellan had established its extension farther south, took from magellan's company the name pacific, though the original name which balboa had applied to it did not entirely go out of vogue for a long time in those portions contiguous to the waters bounding the isthmus and its adjacent lands. [sidenote: north america and asia held to be one.] for a long time after it was known that south america was severed, as magellan proved, from asia, the belief was still commonly held that north america and asia were one and continuous. while no one ventures to suspect that columbus had any prescience of these later developments, there are those like varnhagen who claim a distinct insight for vespucius; but it is by no means clear, in the passages which are cited, that vespucius thought the continental mass of south america more distinct from asia than columbus did, when the volume of water poured out by the orinoco convinced the admiral that he was skirting a continent, and not an island. that columbus thought to place there the region of the biblical paradise shows that its continental features did not dissociate it from asia. the new world of vespucius was established by his own testimony as hardly more than a new part of asia. [sidenote: . loyasa.] [sidenote: de hoces discovers cape horn.] in loyasa was sent to make further examination of magellan's strait. it was at this time that one of his ships, commanded by francisco de hoces, was driven south in february, , and discovered cape horn, rendering the insular character of tierra del fuego all but certain. the fact was kept secret, and the map makers were not generally made aware of this terminal cape till drake saw it, fifty-two years later. it was not till - that schouten and lemaire made clear the eastern limits of tierra del fuego when they discovered the passage between that island and staten island, and during the same interval schouten doubled cape horn for the first time. it was in - that the observations of nodal first gave the easterly bend to the southern extremity of the continent. [sidenote: . chili.] the last stretch of the main coast of south america to be made out was that on the pacific side from the point where magellan turned away from it up to the bounds of peru, where pizarro and his followers had mapped it. this trend of the coast began to be understood about ; but it was some years before its details got into maps. the final definition of it came from camargo's voyage in , and was first embodied with something like accuracy in juan freire's map of , and was later helped by explorations from the north. but this proximate precision gave way in to a protuberant angle of the chili coast, as drawn by mercator, which in turn lingered on the chart till the next century. * * * * * [sidenote: cartographical views.] we need now to turn from these records of the voyagers to see what impression their discoveries had been making upon the cartographers and geographers of europe. [sidenote: sylvanus's ptolemy. .] bernardus sylvanus ebolensis, in a new edition of ptolemy which was issued at venice in , paid great attention to the changes necessary to make ptolemy's descriptions correspond to later explorations in the old world, but less attention to the more important developments of the new world. nordenskiöld thinks that this condition of sylvanus's mind shows how little had been the impression yet made at venice by the discoveries of columbus and da gama. the maps of this ptolemy are woodcuts, with type let in for the names, which are printed in red, in contrast with the black impressed from the block. [sidenote: nordenskiöld gores.] sylvanus's map is the second engraved map showing the new discoveries, and the earliest of the heart-shaped projections. it has in "regalis domus" the earliest allusion to the cortereal voyage in a printed map. sylvanus follows ruysch in making greenland a part of asia. the rude map gores of about the same date which nordenskiöld has brought to the attention of scholars, and which he considers to have been made at ingolstadt, agree mainly with this map of sylvanus, and in respect to the western world both of these maps, as well as the schöner globe of , seem to have been based on much the same material. [illustration: freire's map, .] [illustration: sylvanus's ptolemy of .] [illustration: stobnicza's map.] [sidenote: . stobnicza map.] we find in , where we might least expect it, one of the most remarkable of the early maps, which was made for an introduction to ptolemy, published at this date at cracow, in poland, by stobnicza. this cartographer was the earliest to introduce into the plane delineation of the globe the now palpable division of its surface into an eastern and western hemisphere. his map, for some reason, is rarely found in the book to which it belongs. nordenskiöld says he has examined many copies of the book in the libraries of scandinavia, russia, and poland, without finding a copy with it; but it is found in other copies in the great libraries at vienna and munich. he thinks the map may have been excluded from most of the editions because of its rudeness, or "on account of its being contrary to the old doctrines of the church." its importance in the growth of the ideas respecting the new discoveries in the western hemisphere is, however, very great, since for the first time it gives a north and south continent connected by an isthmus, and represents as never before in an engraved map the western hemisphere as an entirety. this is remarkable, as it was published a year before balboa made his discovery of the pacific ocean. it is not difficult to see the truth of nordenskiöld's statement that the map divides the waters of the globe into two almost equal oceans, "communicating only in the extreme south and in the extreme north," but the south communication which is unmistakable is by the cape of good hope. the extremity of south america is not reached because of the marginal scale, and because of the same scale it is not apparent that there is any connection between the pacific and indian oceans, and for similar reasons connection is not always clear at the north. there must have been information at hand to the maker of this map of which modern scholars can find no other trace, or else there was a wild speculative spirit which directed the pencil in some singular though crude correspondence to actual fact. this is apparent in its straight conjectural lines on the west coast of south america, which prefigure the discoveries following upon the enterprise of balboa and the voyage of magellan. [sidenote: the lenox globe.] [sidenote: da vinci globe.] if stobnicza, apparently, had not dared to carry the southern extremity of south america to a point, there had been no such hesitancy in the makers of two globes of about the same date,--the little copper sphere picked up by richard m. hunt, the architect, in an old shop in paris, and now in the lenox library in new york, and the rude sketch, giving quartered hemispheres separated on the line of the equator, which is preserved in the cabinet of queen victoria, at windsor, among the papers of leonardo da vinci. this little draft has a singular interest both from its association with so great a name as da vinci's, and because it bears at what is, perhaps, the earliest date to be connected with such cartographical use the name america lettered on the south american continent. major has contended for its being the work of da vinci himself, but nordenskiöld demurs. this swedish geographer is rather inclined to think it the work of a not very well informed copier working on some portuguese prototype. [sidenote: - . admiral's map.] [sidenote: . reisch's map.] it is worthy of remark that, in the same year with the discovery of the south sea by balboa, an edition of ptolemy made popular a map which had indeed been cut in its first state as early as , but which still preserved the contiguity of the antilles to the region of the ganges and its three mouths. this was the well-known "admiral's map," usually associated with the name of waldseemüller, and if this same cartographer, as franz wieser conjectures, is responsible for the map in reisch's _margarita philosophica_ ( ), a sort of cyclopædia, he had in the interim awaked to the significance of the discovery of balboa, for the ganges has disappeared, and cipango is made to lie in an ocean beyond the continental zoana mela (america), which has an undefined western limit, as it had already been depicted in the stobnicza map of . [illustration: the alleged da vinci sketch. [_combination._]] [sidenote: first modern atlas.] it was in this strassburg ptolemy of that ringmann, who had been concerned in inventing the name of america, revised the latin of angelus, using a greek manuscript of ptolemy for the purpose. nordenskiöld speaks of this edition as the first modern atlas of the world, extended so as to give in two of its maps--that known as the "admiral's map," and another of africa--the results following upon the discoveries of columbus and da gama. this "admiral's map," which has been so often associated with columbus, is hardly a fair representation of the knowledge that columbus had attained, and seems rather to be the embodiment of the discoveries of many, as the description of it, indeed, would leave us to infer; while the other american chart of the volume is clearly of portuguese rather than of spanish origin, as may be inferred by the lavish display of the coast connected with the descriptions by vespucius. on the other hand, nothing but the islands of española and cuba stand in it for the explorations of columbus. both of these maps are given elsewhere in this appendix. [illustration: reisch, .] [illustration: the world of pomponius mela. [from bunbury's _ancient geography_.]] [sidenote: asiatic connection of north america.] we could hardly expect, indeed, to find in these maps of the ptolemy of the results of balboa's discovery at the isthmus; but that the maps were left to do service in the edition of indicates that the discovery of the south sea had by no means unsettled the public mind as to the asiatic connection of the regions both north and south of the antilles. within the next few years several maps indicate the enduring strength of this conviction. a portuguese portolano of - , in the royal library at munich, shows moslem flags on the coasts of venezuela and nicaragua. a map of ayllon's discoveries on the atlantic coast in , preserved in the british museum, has a chinaman and an elephant delineated on the empty spaces of the continent. still, geographical opinions had become divided, and the independent continental masses of stobnicza were having some ready advocates. [illustration: vadianus.] [illustration: apianus. [from reusner's _icones_.]] [sidenote: vienna geographers.] [sidenote: pomponius mela.] [sidenote: solinus.] [sidenote: vadianus.] [sidenote: . apianus.] there was at this time a circle of geographers working at vienna, reëditing the ancient cosmographers, and bringing them into relations with the new results of discovery. two of these early writers thus attracting attention were pomponius mela, whose _cosmographia_ dated back to the first century, and solinus, whose _polyhistor_ was of the third. the mela fell to the care of johann camers, who published it as _de situ orbis_ at vienna in , at the press of singrein; and this was followed in by another issue, taken in hand by joachim watt, better known under the latinized name of vadianus, who had been born in switzerland, and who was one of the earlier helpers in popularizing the name of america. the solinus, the care of which was undertaken by camers, the teacher of watt, was produced under these new auspices at the same time. two years later ( ) both of these old writers attained new currency while issued together and accompanied by a map of apianus,--as the german bienewitz classicized his name,--in which further iteration was given to the name of america by attaching it to the southern continent of the west. [sidenote: a strait at the isthmus of panama.] [sidenote: . schöner.] [sidenote: antarctic continent.] in this map apianus, in , was combining views of the western hemisphere, which had within the few antecedent years found advocacy among a new school of cartographers. these students represented the northern and southern continents as independent entities, disconnected at the isthmus, where columbus had hoped to find his strait. this is shown in the earliest of the schöner globes, the three copies of which known to us are preserved, one at frankfort and two at weimar. it is in the _luculentissima descriptio_, which was written to accompany this schöner globe of , where we find that statement already referred to, which chronicles, as wieser thinks, an earlier voyage than magellan's to the southern strait, which separated the "america" of vespucius from that great antarctic continent which did not entirely disappear from our maps till after the voyage of cook. [sidenote: . reisch.] [sidenote: brazil.] it is a striking instance of careless contemporary observation, which the student of this early cartography has often to confront, that while reisch, in his popular cyclopædia of the _margarita philosophica_ which he published first in , gave not the slightest intimation of the discoveries of columbus, he did not much improve matters in , when he ignored the discoveries of balboa, and reproduced in the main the so-called "admiral's map" of the ptolemy of . it is to be observed, however, that reisch was in this reproduced map of the first of map makers to offer in the word "prisilia" on the coast of vespucius the prototype of the modern brazil. it will be remembered that cabral had supposed it an island, and had named it the isla de santa cruz. the change of name induced a pious portuguese to believe it an instigation of the devil to supplant the remembrance of the holy and sacred wood of the great martyr by the worldly wood, which was commonly used to give a red color to cloth! [sidenote: theories of seamanship.] in , in the _suma de geographia_ of fernandez d'enciso, published later at seville, in , we have the experience of one of ojeda's companions in . this little folio, now a scarce book, is of interest as first formulating for practical use some of the new theories of seamanship as developed under the long voyages at this time becoming common. it has also a marked interest as being the earliest book of the spanish press which had given consideration at any length to the new possessions of spain. [sidenote: . frisius.] we again find a similar indisposition to keep abreast of discovery, so perplexing to later scholars, in the new-cast edition of ptolemy in , which contains the well-known map of laurentius frisius. it is called by nordenskiöld, in subjecting it to analysis in his _facsimile atlas_, "an original work, but bad beyond all criticism, as well from a geographical as from a xylographical point of view." one sees, indeed, in the maps of this edition, no knowledge of the increase of geographical knowledge during later years. we observe, too, that they go back to behaim's interpretation of marco polo's india, for the eastern shores of asia. the publisher, thomas ancuparius, seems never to have heard of columbus, or at least fails to mention him, while he awards the discovery of the new world to vespucius. the maps, reduced in the main from those of the edition of , were repeated in those of , , and , without change and from the same blocks. [illustration: schÖner.] the results of the voyage of magellan and del cano promptly attained a more authentic record than usually fell to the lot of these early ocean experiences. [sidenote: . magellan's voyage described.] the company which reached spain in the "victoria" went at once to valladolid to report to the emperor, and while there a pupil and secretary of peter martyr, then at court, maximilianus transylvanus by name, got from these men the particulars of their discoveries, and, writing them out in latin, he sent the missive to his father, the archbishop of salzburg,--the young man was a natural son of this prelate,--and in some way the narrative got into print at cologne and rome in . [sidenote: . schöner.] [sidenote: rosenthal gores.] schöner printed in a little tract, _de nuper ... repertis insulis ac regionibus_ to elucidate a globe which he had at that time constructed. it was published at timiripæ, as the imprint reads, which has been identified by coote as the grecized form of the name of a small village not far from bamberg, where schöner was at that time a parochial vicar. when a new set of engraved gores were first brought to light by ludwig rosenthal, in munich, in , they were considered by wieser, who published an account of them in , as the lost globe of schöner. stevens, in a posthumous book on _johann schöner_, expressed a similar belief. this was a view which stevens's editor, c. h. coote, accepted. the opinion, however, is open to question, and nordenskiöld finds that the rosenthal gores have nothing to do with the lost globe of schöner, and puts them much later, as having been printed at nuremberg about . * * * * * [sidenote: political aspects of magellan's voyage.] [sidenote: gomez.] the voyage of magellan had reopened the controversy of spain with portugal, stayed but not settled by the treaty of tordesillas. estevan gomez, a recusant captain of magellan's fleet, who had deserted him just as he was entering the straits, had arrived in spain may , , and had his own way for some time in making representation of the foolhardiness of magellan's undertaking. on march , , gomez received a concession from the emperor to go on a small armed vessel for a year's cruise in the northwest, to make farther search for a passage, but he was not to trespass on any portuguese possession. the disputes between portugal and spain intensifying, gomez's voyage was in the mean time put off for a while. [sidenote: dispute over the moluccas.] [sidenote: congress at badajos.] [illustration: rosenthal or nuremberg gores.] gomara tells us that, in the opinion of his time, the spaniards had gained the moluccas, at the conference at tordesillas, by yielding to the demands of the portuguese, so that what portugal gained in brazil and newfoundland she lost in asia and adjacent parts. the portuguese historian, osorius, viewed it differently; he counted in the american gain for his country, but he denied the spanish rights at the antipodes. so the longitude of the moluccas became a sharp political dispute, which there was an attempt to settle in in a congress of the two nations that was convened alternately at badajos and elvas, situated on opposite sides of the caya, a stream which separates the two countries. [sidenote: council of the indies.] ferdinand columbus, by a decree of february , , had been made one of the arbiters. after two months of wrangling, each side stood stiff in its own opinions, and it was found best to break up the congress. following upon the dissolution of this body, the spanish government was impelled to make the management of the indies more effective than it had been under the commissions which had existed, and on august , , the council of the indies was reorganized in more permanent form. [sidenote: gomez's voyage.] an immediate result of the interchange of views at badajos was a renewal of the gomez project, to examine more carefully the eastern coast of what is now the united states, in the hopes of yet discovering a western passage. of that voyage, which is first mentioned in the _sumario_ of oviedo in , and of the failure of its chief aim, enough has already been said in the early part of this appendix. it has been supposed by harrisse that the results of this voyage were embodied in the earliest printed spanish map which we have showing lines of latitude and longitude,--that found in a joint edition of martyr and oviedo ( ), and which is only known in a copy now in the lenox library. the purpose which followed upon the congress of badajos, to penetrate the atlantic coast line and find a passage to the western sea, was communicated to cortes, then in mexico, some time before the date of his fourth letter, october , . the news found him already convinced of the desirableness of establishing a port on the great sea of the west, and he selected zucatula as a station for the fleets which he undertook to build. [sidenote: . cortes sends ships to the moluccas.] [sidenote: the moluccas sold to portugal.] other projects delayed the preparations which were planned, and it was not till september , , that cortes signified to the emperor his readiness to send his ships to the moluccas. after a brief experimental trip up the coast from zucatula, three of his vessels were finally dispatched, in october, , on a disastrous voyage to those islands, where the purpose was to confront the portuguese pretensions. it so happened, meanwhile, that charles v. needed money for his projects in italy, and he called ferdinand columbus to court to consult with him about a sale of his rights in the moluccas to portugal. ferdinand made a report, which has not come down to us, but a decision to sell was reached, and the portuguese king agreed to the price of purchase on june , . thus the moluccas, which had been so long the goal of spanish ambition, pass out of view in connection with american discovery. there is some ground for the suspicion, if not belief, that the portuguese from the moluccas had before this pushed eastward across the pacific, and had even struck the western verge of that continent which separated them from the spanish explorers on the atlantic side. [illustration: martyr-oviedo] [illustration: map, .] [sidenote: north america, east coast.] [sidenote: verrazano.] we come next to some further developments on the eastern coast of north america. a certain french corsair, known from his florentine birth as juan florin, had become a terror by preying on the spanish commerce in the indies. in january, , he was on his way, under the name of verrazano, in the expedition which has given him fame, and has supplied not a little ground for contention, and even for total distrust of the voyage as a fact. he struck the coast of north carolina, turned south, but, finding no harbor, retraced his course, and, making several landings farther north, finally entered, as it would seem from his description, the harbor of new york. the only point that he names is a triangular island which he saw as he went still farther to the east, and which has been supposed to be block island, or possibly martha's vineyard. at all events, the name luisa which he gave to it after the mother of francis i. clung to an island in this neighborhood in the maps for some time longer. so he went on, and, if his landings have been rightly identified, he touched at newport, then at some place evidently near portsmouth in new hampshire, and then, skirting the islands of the maine coast, he reached the country which he recognized as that where the bretons had been. he now ended what he considered the exploration of seven hundred leagues of an unknown land, and bore away for france, reaching dieppe in july, whence, on the th, he wrote the letter to the king which is the source of our information. attempts have been made, especially by the late henry c. murphy, to prove this letter a forgery, but in the opinion of most scholars without success. [illustration: the verrazano map.] [illustration: agnese, .] [sidenote: the verrazano map.] fortunately for the student, hieronimo da verrazano made, in , a map, still preserved in the college of the propaganda at rome, in which the discoveries of his brother, giovanni, are laid down. in this the name of nova gallia supplants that of francesca, which had been used in the map of maiollo ( ), supposed, also, to have some relation to the verrazano voyage. [illustration: mÜnster, .] the most distinguishing feature of the verrazano map is a great inland expanse of water, which was taken to be a part of some western ocean, and which remained for a long while in some form or other in the maps. it was made to approach so near the atlantic that at one point there was nothing but a slender isthmus connecting the discoveries of the north with the country of ponce de leon and ayllon at the south. [illustration: mÜnster, .] [sidenote: the sea of verrazano.] it is in the _sumario_ ( ) of oviedo that we get the first idea of this sea of verrazano, as brevoort contends, and we see it in the maiollo map of the next year, called "mare indicum," as if it were an indentation of the great western ocean of balboa. it was a favorite fancy of baptista agnese, in the series of portolanos associated with his name during the middle of the century, and in which he usually indicated supposable ocean routes to asia. as time went on, the idea was so far modified that this indentation took the shape of a loop of the arctic seas, or of that stretch of water which at the north connected the atlantic and pacific, as shown in the münster map in the ptolemy of ,--a map apparently based on the portolanos of agnese,--though the older form of the sea seems to be adopted in the globe of ulpius ( ). this idea of a carolinian isthmus prevailed for some years, and may have grown out of a misconception of the carolina sounds, though it is sometimes carried far enough north, as in the lok map of , to seem as if buzzard's bay were in some way thought to stretch westerly into its depths. the last trace of this mysterious inner ocean, so far as i have discovered, is in a map made by one of ralegh's colonists in , and preserved among the drawings of john white in the de bry collection of the british museum, and brought to light by dr. edward eggleston. this drawing makes for the only time that i have observed it, an actual channel at "port royal," leading to this oceanic expanse, which was later interpreted as an inland lake. thus it was that this geographical blunder lived more or less constantly in a succession of maps for about sixty years, until sometimes it vanished in a large lake in carolina, or in the north it dwindled until it began to take a new lease of life in an incipient hudson's bay, as in the great lake of tadenac, figured in the molineaux map of , and in the lago dagolesme in the botero map of . [illustration: michael lok, .] [illustration: john white's map. [communicated by dr. edward eggleston.]] [sidenote: norumbega.] it was apparently during the voyage of verrazano that an indian name which was understood as "aranbega" was picked up along the northern coasts as designating the region, and which a little later was reported by others as "norumbega," and so passed into the mysterious and fabled nomenclature of the coast with a good deal of the unstableness that attended the fabulous islands of the atlantic in the fancy of the geographers of the middle ages. as a definition of territory it gradually grew to have a more and more restricted application, coming down mainly after a while to the limits of the later new england, and at last finding, as dr. dee ( ), molineaux ( ), and champlain ( ) understood it, a home on the penobscot. still the region it represented contracted and expanded in people's notions, and on maps the name seemed to have a license to wander. * * * * * [illustration: robert thorne, .] [sidenote: the english on the coast.] [sidenote: william hawkins.] during this period the english also were up and down the coast, but they contributed little to our geographical knowledge. slave-catching on the coast of guinea, and lucrative sales of the human plunder in the spanish west indies and neighboring regions, seem to have taken william hawkins and others of his countrymen to these coasts not infrequently between and . [sidenote: john rut.] there is some reason to believe that john rut, an englishman, may have explored the northeast coasts of the present united states in , a proposition, however, open to argument, as the counter reasonings of dr. kohl and dr. de costa show. it is certain that at this time robert thorne, an english merchant living in seville, was gaining what knowledge he could to promote english enterprise in the north, and there has come down to us the map which in he gave to the english ambassador in spain, edward leigh, to be transmitted to henry viii. * * * * * [sidenote: progress of maritime art.] it was in when the spanish authorities thought that the time was fitting for making a sort of register of the progress of discovery and of the attendant cartographical advances. nordenskiöld says that "from the beginning of the printing of maps the graduations of latitude and longitude were marked down in most printed maps, at least in the margin;" the most conspicuous example of omitting these being, perhaps, in the work of sebastian münster, at a period a little later than the one we have now reached. [sidenote: latitude and longitude.] in reisch for the first time settled upon something like the modern methods of indicating latitude and longitude in the map which he annexed to his _margarita philosophica_ at freiburg, though so far as climatic lines could stand for latitudinal notions, pierre d'ailly had set an example of scaling the zones from the equator in his map of . the spaniards, however, did not fall into the method of reisch, so far as published maps are concerned, till long afterwards ( ). [sidenote: italian maps.] up to the time when the strassburg ptolemy was issued, in , the chief activity in map-making had been in italy. the cartographers of that country got what they could from spain, but the main dependence was on portuguese sources, though the rivals of spain were not always free in imparting the knowledge of their hydrographical offices, since we find robert thorne, in , charging the portuguese with having falsified their records. it is worthy of remark that no official map of the indies was published in spain till . [illustration: sebastian mÜnster. [from reusner's _icones_, .]] [sidenote: cartographical activity north of the alps.] [sidenote: map projections.] after , and so on to the middle of the century, it was to the north of the alps that the cosmographical students turned for the latest light upon all oceanic movements. the question of longitude was the serious one which both navigators and map makers encountered. the cartographers were trying all sorts of experiments in representing the converging meridians on a plane surface, so as not to distort the geography, and in order to afford some manifest method for the guidance of ships. [sidenote: lunar observations.] [sidenote: chronometers.] these experiments resulted, as nordenskiöld counts, in something like twenty different projections being devised before . for the seaman the difficulty was no less burdensome in trying to place his ship at sea, or to map the contours of the coasts he was following. the navigator's main dependence was the course he was steering and an estimate of his progress. he made such allowance as he could for his drift in the currents. we have seen how the imperfection of his instruments and the defects of his lunar tables misled columbus egregiously in the attempts which he made to define the longitude of the antilles. he placed española at ° west of seville, and la cosa came near him in counting it about °, so far as one can interpret his map. the dutch at this time were beginning to grasp the idea of a chronometer, which was the device finally to prove the most satisfactory in these efforts. [sidenote: earliest sea-atlas.] reinerus gemma of friesland, known better as gemma frisius, began to make the dutch nautical views better known when he suggested, a few years later, the carrying of time in running off the longitudes, and something of his impress on the epoch was shown in the stand which a pupil, mercator, took in geographical science. the _spieghel der zeevaardt_ of lucas wagenaer, in (leyden), was the first sea-atlas ever printed, and showed again the dutch advance. there were also other requirements of sea service that were not forgotten, among which was a knowledge of prevalent winds and ocean currents, and this was so satisfactorily acquired that the return voyage from the antilles came, within thirty years after columbus, to be made with remarkable ease. oviedo tells us that in two caravels were but twenty-five days in passing from san domingo to the river of seville. two of the duties imposed by the spanish government upon the casa de la contratacion, soon after the discovery of the new world, were to patronize invention to the end of discovering a process for making fresh water out of salt, and to improve ships' pumps,--the last a conception not to take effective shape till ribero, the royal cosmographer, secured a royal pension for such an invention in . * * * * * [sidenote: congress of pilots at seville.] it was in the midst of these developments, both of the practical parts of seamanship and of the progress of oceanic discovery, that in there was held at seville a convention of pilots and cosmographers, called by royal order, to consolidate and correlate all the cartographical data which had accumulated up to that time respecting the new discoveries. [sidenote: ferdinand columbus.] ferdinand columbus was at this time in seville, engaged in completing a house and library for himself, and in planting the park about them with trees brought from the new world, a single one of which, a west indian sapodilla, was still standing in . it was in this house that the convention sat, and ferdinand columbus presided over it, while the examinations of the pilots were conducted by diego ribero and alonso de chaves. [illustration: house and library of ferdinand columbus.] [sidenote: - . maps.] there have come down to us two monumental maps, the outgrowth of this convention. one of these is dated at seville, in , purporting to be the work of the royal cosmographer, and has been usually known by the name of ferdinand columbus; and the other, dated , is known to have been made by diego ribero, also a royal cosmographer. these maps closely resemble each other. [illustration: spanish map, . [after sketch in e. mayer's _die entwicklung der seekarten_ (wien, ).]] the weimar chart of , which kohl, stevens, and others have assigned to ferdinand columbus, has been ascribed by harrisse to nuño garcia de toreno, but by coote, in editing stevens on _schöner_, it is assigned to ribero, as a precursor of his undoubted production of . [sidenote: idea of a new continent spreading.] we have seen how, succeeding to the belief of columbus that the new regions were asia, there had grown up, a few years after his death, in spite of his audacious notarial act at cuba, a strong presumption among geographical students that a new continent had been found. we have seen this conception taking form with more or less uncertainty as to its western confines immediately upon, and even anticipating, the discovery of the actual south sea by balboa, and can follow it down in the maps or globes of stobnicza and da vinci, in that known as the lenox globe, in those called the tross and nordenskiöld gores, the schöner and hauslab globes, the ptolemy map of , and in those of reisch, apianus, laurentius frisius, maiollo, bordone, homem, and münster,--not to name some others. in twenty years it had come to be a prevalent belief, and men's minds were turned to a consideration of the possibility of this revealed continent having been, after all, known to the ancients, as glareanus, quoting virgil, was the earliest to assert in . [illustration: the nancy globe.] [sidenote: reaction in the monk franciscus.] about there came a partial reaction, as if the discovery of balboa had been pushed too far in its supposed results. we find this taking form in , in an identification of north america with eastern asia in a map ascribed to the monk franciscus, while south america is laid down as a continental island, separated from india by a strait only. the strait is soon succeeded by an isthmus, and in this way we get a solution of the problem which had some currency for half a century or more. [sidenote: orontius finæus.] orontius finæus was one of these later compromisers in cartography, in a map which he is supposed to have made in , but which appeared the next year in the _novus orbis_ ( ) of simon grynæus, and was used in some later publications also. we find in this map, about the gulf of mexico, the names which cortes had applied in his map of mingled with those of the asiatic coast of marco polo. we annex a sketch of this map as reduced by brevoort to mercator's projection. a map very similar to this and of about the same date is preserved in the british museum among the sloane manuscripts, and the same bold solution of the difficulty is found in the nancy globe of about , and in the globe of gaspar vopel of . [illustration: the nancy globe.] [sidenote: johann schöner.] there is a good instance of the instability of geographical knowledge at this time in the conversion of johann schöner from a belief in an insular north america, to which he had clung in his globes of and , to a position which he took in , in his _opusculum geographicum_, where he maintains that the city of mexico is the quinsay of marco polo. [illustration: orontius finÆus, . [after cimelinus's copperplate of .]] [illustration: orontius finÆus, . [reduced by brevoort to mercator's projection.]] [sidenote: the pacific explored.] [sidenote: california.] [illustration: cortes.] previous to cortes's departure for spain in , he had, as we have seen, dispatched vessels from tehuantepec to the moluccas, but nothing was done to explore the pacific coast northward till his return to mexico. in the spring or early summer of he sent hurtado de mendoza up the coast; but little success attending the exploration, cortes himself proceeded to tehuantepec and constructed other vessels, which sailed in october, . a gale drove them to the west, and when they succeeded in working back and making the coast, they found themselves well up what proved to be the california peninsula. they now coasted south and developed its shape, which was further brought out in detail by an expedition led by cortes himself in , and by a later one sent by him under francisco de ulloa in . cortes had supposed the peninsula an island, but this expedition of demonstrated the fact that no passage to the outer sea existed at the head of the gulf, which these earliest navigators had called the sea of cortes. the conqueror of mexico had now made his last expedition on the pacific, and his name was not destined to be long connected with this new field of discovery, unless, indeed, it was a prompting of cortes--hardly proved, however--which attached to this peninsular region the euphonious name of california, and which, after an interval when the gulf was called the red sea, was applied to that water also. the views of ulloa were confirmed in part, at least, by castillo in , who has left us a map of the gulf. [illustration: castillo's california.] the outer coast of the peninsula as far north as ° ' had been established in . it was ten years later, in , that cabrillo, making his landfall in the neighborhood of °, just within the southern bounds of the present state of california, coasted up to cape mendocino, and perhaps to °, or nearly, to that spot, in the present state of oregon. if cabrillo, who had died january , , did not himself go so high, the credit belongs to ferrelo, his chief pilot. late in mendoza sent an expedition under ruy lopez de villalobos, across the pacific, and if a map of juan freire, made in , is an indication of his route, he seems to have gone higher up the coast than any previous explorer. * * * * * [sidenote: the atlantic coast of north america.] while this development of the northwest coast of north america was going on, there were other discoverers still endeavoring on the atlantic side to connect the waters of the two oceans. [sidenote: . cartier.] in april, , jacques cartier, a jovial and roistering fellow, as father jouon des longrais, his latest biographer, makes him out (_jacques cartier_, paris, ), and who had led the roving life of a corsair in the recent wars of france, was now turning his energy to solve the great problem of this western passage. he sailed from st. malo, and for the first time laid open, by an official examination, the inner spaces of the st. lawrence gulf, which might have been, indeed, and probably were, known earlier to the hardy breton and norman fishermen. we are deficient in a knowledge of the early frequenting of these coasts because the charts of such fishermen, and of those who visited the region for trade in peltries, have not come down to us, though kohl thinks there is some likelihood of such records being preserved in a portolano of the british museum. the track of cartier about the gulf of st. lawrence has caused some discussion and difference of opinion in the publications of kohl, de costa, laverdière, and w. f. ganong, the latter writer claiming, in a careful paper in the _transactions_ of the royal society of canada for , that in the correct interpretation of cartier's first voyage we find a key to the cartography of the gulf for almost a century. the rotz map of seems to be the earliest map which we know to show a knowledge of cartier's first voyage. the henri ii. map of still more develops his work of exploration. the chance of further discovery in this direction induced the french king once more to commission cartier, october , , and early in his little fleet sailed, and by august, after some discouragements, not lessened when he found the water freshening, he began to ascend the st. lawrence river, reaching the site of montreal. no map by cartier himself is preserved, though it is known that he made such. thenceforward the cartography of this northeastern region showed the st. lawrence gulf in a better development of the earlier so-called square gulf and of the great river of canada. it is of record that francis i., in commissioning cartier, considered that he was dispatching him to ascend an asiatic river, and the name of lachine even to-day is preserved as evidence of the belief which cartier entertained that he was within the bounds of china. [illustration: sketch from a portolano in the british museum.] [sidenote: john rotz's map.] john rotz's _boke of idiography_--a manuscript of , preserved in the british museum--shows, in his drawing of the region about the gulf of st. lawrence, certain signs, as kohl thinks, of having had access to the charts of cartier, and harrisse traces in them the combined influence of the portuguese and dieppe navigators. the cartier voyages seem to have made little impression outside of france, and we find for some years few traces of his discoveries in the portolanos of italy and in the maps of the rest of europe. it was only when the expedition of roberval, in - , excited attention that the rest of europe seemed to recognize these french efforts. [illustration: homem, .] [illustration: ziegler's schondia.] [sidenote: cartier's later voyages.] [sidenote: allefonsce.] the later voyages of cartier, in and , revealed nothing more of general geographical interest. indeed, the hope of a western passage in this direction had been abandoned in effect after cartier's second voyage, although the pilot allefonsce, who accompanied a later expedition, had been detailed to explore the labrador coast to that end, and had been turned back by ice. after this he seems to have gone south into a great bay, under °, the end of which he did not reach. this may have been the large expanse partly shut in by cape sable (nova scotia) and cape cod, now called in the coast survey charts the gulf of maine; or perhaps it may conform, taking into account his registered latitude, to the inner bight of it called massachusetts bay. at all events, allefonsce believed himself on coasts contiguous to tartary, through which he had hopes to find access to the more hospitable orient (occident) farther south. he apparently had something of the same notion regarding the westerly stretch of water which he found below cape cod, extending he knew not where, along the inclosure of the present long island sound. in the years both before and after the middle of the century, french vessels were on this coast in considerable numbers for purposes of trade or for protecting french interests, but we know nothing of any accessions to geographical knowledge which they made. [illustration: ruscelli, .] allefonsce speaks of the saguenay as widening, when he went up, till it seemed to be an arm of the sea, and "i think the same," he adds, "runs into the sea of cathay;" and so he draws it on one of his maps,--an idea made more general in the map of homem in , where the st. lawrence really becomes a channel, locked by islands, bordering an arctic sea. ramusio, in , has inferred from such reports as he could get of cartier's explorations, that his track had lain in channels bounded by islands, and a similar view had already been expressed in a portolano of , preserved in the bodleian, which kohl associates with homem or agnese. the oceanic expansion of the saguenay is preserved as late as the molineaux map of . [sidenote: river of norumbega.] it is to the work of allefonsce that we probably owe another confusion of this northern cartography in the sixteenth century. what we now know as penobscot bay and river was called by him the river of norumbega, and he seems to have given some ground for believing that this river connected the waters of the atlantic with the great river of canada, just as we find it later shown upon gastaldi's map in ramusio, by ruscelli in , by martines in , by lok in , and by jacques de vaulx in . [sidenote: greenland connects europe and america.] while this idea of the north was developing, there came in another that made the peninsular greenland of the ante-columbian maps grow into a link of land connecting europe with the americo-asiatic main, so that one might in truth perambulate the globe dryshod. we find this conception in the maps of the bavarian ziegler ( ), and in the italians ruscelli ( ) and gastaldi ( ),--the last two represented in the ptolemies of those years published in italy. but these italian cosmographers were by no means constant in their belief, as ruscelli showed in his ptolemy of , and gastaldi in his ramusio map of . [illustration: carta marina, .] [sidenote: asia and america joined in the higher latitudes.] [illustration: myritius, .] as the pacific explorations were stretched northward from mexico, and the peninsula of california was brought into prominence, there remained for some time a suspicion that the western ocean made a great northerly bend, so as to sever north america from asia except along the higher latitudes. we find this northerly extension of the pacific in a map of copper preserved in the carter-brown library, which seems to have been the work of a florentine goldsmith somewhere about ; in the carta marina of gastaldi in ; and it even exists in maps of a later date, like that of paolo de furlani ( ) and that of myritius ( ). [illustration: zaltiÈre, .] [sidenote: entanglement of the american and asiatic coasts.] [sidenote: . bering.] this map of myritius, which appeared in his _opusculum geographicum_, published at ingolstadt in , is the work of, perhaps, the last of the geographers who did not leave more or less doubt about the connection of north america with asia. so it took about a full century for the entanglement of the coasts of asia and america, which columbus had imagined, to be practically eradicated from the maps. not that there were not doubters, even very early, but the faith in a new continent grew slowly and had many set-backs; nor did the asiatic connection fade entirely out, as among the possibilities of geography, for considerably more than a century yet to come. the uncertainties of the higher latitudes kept knowledge in suspense, and even the english settlers on the northerly coasts of the united states were not quite sure. thomas morton, the chronicler of a colony on the massachusetts shores, felt it necessary, so late as , to make a reservation that possibly the mainland of america bordered on the land of the tartars. indeed, no one could say positively, though much was conjectured, that there was not a terrestrial connection in the extreme northwest, under arctic latitudes, till bering in , two hundred and thirty-six years after columbus offered his prayer at san salvador, passed from the pacific into the polar waters. this became the solution of the fabled straits of anian, an inheritance from the very earliest days of northern exploration, which, after the middle of the sixteenth century, was revived in the maps of martines, zaltière, mercator, porcacchi, furlani, and wytfliet, prefiguring the channel which bering passed. much in the same way as the southern apex of south america was a vision in men's minds long before magellan found his way to the pacific. [illustration: porcacchi, .] [sidenote: . chaves.] [sidenote: . mercator.] [sidenote: . hartmann gores.] but we have anticipated a little. coincident with the efforts of cartier to discover this northern passage we mark other navigators working at the same problem. the spaniard alonso de chaves made a chart of this eastern coast in ; but we only know of its existence from the description of it written by oviedo in . in the earliest map which we have from the hand of gerard mercator, and of which the only copy known was discovered some years ago by the late james carson brevoort, of new york, we find the northern passage well defined in , and a broad channel separating the western coast of america from a parallel coast of asia,--a kind of delineation which is followed in some globe-gores of about , which nordenskiöld thinks may have been the work of george hartmann, of nuremberg. this map is evidently based on portuguese information, and that swedish scholar finds no ground for associating it with the lost globe of schöner, as stevens has done. a facsimile of part of it has already been given. [sidenote: - . münster.] sebastian münster, in his maps in the ptolemy of - , makes a clear seaway to the moluccas somewhere in the latitude of the strait of belle isle. münster was in many ways antiquated in his notions. he often resorted to the old device of the middle ages by supplying the place of geographical details with figures of savages and monsters. * * * * * we come now to two significant maps in the early history of american cartography. [illustration: mercator's globe of .] columbus had been dead five and thirty years when a natural result grew out of those circumstances which conspired to name the largest part of the new discoveries after a secondary pathfinder. we have seen that there seemed at first no injustice in the name of america being applied to a region in the main external to the range of columbus's own explorations, and how it took nearly a half century before public opinion, as expressed in the protest of schöner in , recognized the injustice of using another's name. [sidenote: . mercator.] whether that protest was prompted by a tendency, already shown, to give the name to the whole western hemisphere is not clear; but certainly within eight years such a general application was publicly made, when mercator, in drafting in some gores for a globe, divided the name ame--rica so that it covered both north and south america, and qualified its application by a legend which says that the continent is "called to-day by many, new india." thus a name that in the beginning was given to a part in distinction merely and without any reference to the entire field of the new explorations, was now become, by implication, an injustice to the great first discoverer of all. the mischief, aided by accident and by a not unaccountable evolution, was not to be undone, and, in the singular mutations of fate, a people inhabiting a region of which neither columbus nor vespucius had any conception are now distinctively known in the world's history as americans. [illustration: mercator's globe of .] these gores of mercator were first made known to scholars a few years ago, when the belgian government issued a facsimile edition of the only copy then known, which the royal library at brussels had just acquired; but since there have been two other copies brought to light,--one at st. nicholas in belgium, and the other in the imperial library at vienna. * * * * * [sidenote: henry ii. map.] [sidenote: . cabot map.] there are some indications on spanish globes of about , and in the desceliers or henry ii. map of , that the spanish government had sent explorers to the region of canada not long after cartier's earliest explorations, and it is significant that the earliest published map to show these cartier discoveries is the other of the two maps already referred to, namely, the cabot mappemonde of , which has been supposed a spanish cartographical waif. early publications of southern and middle europe showed little recognition of the same knowledge. [illustration: mÜnster, .] the cabot map has been an enigma to scholars ever since it was discovered in germany, in , by von martius. it was deposited the next year in the great library at paris. it is a large elliptical world-map, struck from an engraved plate, and it bears sundry elucidating inscriptions, some of which must needs have come from sebastian cabot, others seem hardly to merit his authorship, and one acknowledges him as the maker of the map. there is, accordingly, a composite character to the production, not easily to be analyzed so as to show the credible and the incredible by clear lines of demarcation. we learn from it how it proclaimed for the first time the real agency of john cabot in the discovery of north america, confirmed when hakluyt, in , printed the patent from henry vii. there is an unaccountable year given for that discovery, namely, , but we seem to get the true date when michael lok, in , puts down "j. cabot. ," against cape breton in his map of that year. as this last map appeared in hakluyt's _divers voyages_, and as hakluyt tells us of the existence of cabot's maps and of his seeing them, we may presume that we have in this date of an authoritative statement. we learn also from this map of that the land first seen was the point of the island now called cape breton. without the aid of this map, biddle, who wrote before its discovery, had contended for labrador as the landfall. [illustration: mercator, . [sketched from his gores.]] [illustration: from the sebastian cabot mappemonde. .] [sidenote: scarcity of spanish printed maps.] we know, on the testimony of robert thorne in , if from no other source, that it was a settled policy of the spanish government to allow no one but proper cartographical designers to make its maps, "for that peradventure it would not sound well to them that a stranger should know or discover their secrets." this doubtless accounts for the fact that, in the two hundred maps mentioned by ortelius in as used by him in compiling his atlas, not one was published in spain; and every bibliographer knows that not a single edition of ptolemy, the best known channel of communicating geographical knowledge in this age of discovery, bears a spanish imprint. the two general maps of america during the sixteenth century, which dr. kohl could trace to spanish presses, were that of medina in and that of gomara in , and these were not of a scale to be of any service in navigating. [sidenote: cabot's connection with the map of .] there seem to be insuperable objections to considering that sebastian cabot had direct influence in the production of the map now under consideration. it is full of a lack of knowledge which it is not possible to ascribe to him. that it is based upon some drafts of cabot is most probably true; but they are clearly drafts, confused and in some ways perverted, and eked out by whatever could be picked up from other sources. that the cabot map was issued in more than one edition is inferred partly from the fact that the legends which chytræus quotes from it differ somewhat from those now in the copy preserved in paris; and indeed harrisse finds reason to suppose that there may have been four different editions. that in some form or other it was better known in england than elsewhere is deduced from certain relations sustained with that country on the part of those who have mentioned the map,--livio sanuto, ortelius, sir humphrey gilbert, richard willes, hakluyt, and purchas. whoever its author and whatever its minor defects, this so-called cabot map of may reasonably be accepted as the earliest really honest, unimaginative exhibition of the american continent which had been made. there was in it no attempt to fancy a northwest passage; no confidence in the marine or terrestrial actuality of the region now known to be covered by the north pacific; no certainty about the entire western coast line of south america, though this might have been decided upon if the maker of the map had been posted to date for that region. the maker of it further showed nothing of that presumption, which soon became prevalent, of making tierra del fuego merely but one of the various promontories of an immense antarctic continent, which later stood in the planispheres of ortelius and wytfliet. [illustration: medina, .] [sidenote: geographical study transferred to italy.] this map of cabot was the last of the principal cartographical monuments made north of the alps in this early half of the sixteenth century. the centre of geographical study was now transferred to italy, where it had begun with the opening of the interest in oceanic discovery. for the next score years and more we must look mainly to venice for the newer development. [illustration: medina, .] [sidenote: , gastaldi.] in the venice ptolemy of , we have for the first time a _series_ of maps of the new world by gastaldi, which were simply enlarged by ruscelli in the edition of , except in a few instances, where new details were added, like the making of yucatan a peninsula instead of the island which gastaldi had drawn. they were repeated in the edition of . [sidenote: sea manuals.] meanwhile the most popular sea manuals of this period were spanish; but they studiously avoided throwing much light on the new geography. [illustration: wytfliet, .] that of martin cortes was the first to suggest a magnetic pole as distinct from the terrestrial pole. its rival, the _arte de navegar_ of pedro de medina, published at valladolid in , never reached the same degree of popularity, nor did it deserve to, for his notions were in some respects erratic. the english in their theories of navigation had long depended on the teachings of the spaniards, and eden had translated the chief spanish manual in his _arte of navigation_ of . [illustration: wytfliet, .] [sidenote: ship's log.] a great advance was possible now, for a new principle had been devised, and an estimate of the progress of a ship was no longer dependent on visual observation. the log had made it possible to put dead reckoning on a pretty firm basis. this was the great new feature of the _regiment of the sea_, which the englishman, william bourne, published in ; and sixteen years later, in , another englishman, blunderville, made popularly known the new instrument for taking meridian altitudes at sea, the cross-staff, which had very early superseded the astrolabe on shipboard. the inclination or dip of the needle, showing by its increase an approach to a magnetic pole, was not scaled till , when robert norman made his observations, and it is not without some service to-day in that combination of phenomena of which columbus noted the earliest traces in his first voyage of . [illustration: the cross-staff.] [sidenote: italian discoverers.] [sidenote: english discoverers.] it is significant how large a part in the cardinal discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was taken by italian navigators, seamen, shipwrights, mathematicians, and merchants, whether in portugal or spain, france or england. it is curious, too, to observe how, when the theoretical work and confirmatory explorations were finished, and the commercial spirit succeeded to that of science, england embarked with her adventurous spirit. the death of queen mary in was the signal for english exertion, and that exertion became ominous to all europe in the reign of elizabeth, accompanied by an intellectual movement, typified in bacon and shakespeare, similar to that which stirred the age of columbus and the italian renaissance. [sidenote: john hawkins.] john hawkins and african marauders of his english kind were selling negro slaves in española in and subsequent years, and from them we get our first english accounts of the florida coast, which on their return voyages they skirted. [sidenote: new france.] [sidenote: spanish settlements fail at the north.] america had at this time been abandoned for a long while to spain and france, and the latter power had only entered into competition with charles v., when francis i., as we have seen, had sent out verrazano in to take possession of the north atlantic coasts. out of this grew upon the maps the designation of new france, which was attached to the main portion of the north american continent. and this french claim is recognized in the maps, painted about , on the walls of the geographical gallery in the vatican. so the french stole upon the possession of spain in the west indies; and the english followed in their wake, when the death of mary rendered it easier for the english to smother their inherited antipathy to france. this done, the english in due time joined the french in efforts to gain an ascendency over spain in the indies, to compensate for the loss of such power in italy. the spaniards, though they had attempted to make settlements along the chesapeake at different times between and , never succeeded in making any impression on the history of this northern region. * * * * * the cartography of the north was at this period subject to two new influences; and both of them make large demands upon the credulity of scholarship in these latter days. [sidenote: andré thevet.] attempts have been made to trace some portion of the development of the coasts of the northeastern parts of the united states to the publications of a mendacious monk, andré thevet. he had been sent out to the french colony of rio de janeiro in , where he remained prostrated with illness till he was able to reëmbark for france, january , . in he published his _singularitez de la france antarctique_, a descriptive and conglomerate work, patched together from all such sources as he could pillage, professing to follow more or less his experiences on this voyage. he says nothing in it of his tracking along the east coast of the present united states. seeking notoriety and prestige for his country, he pretends, however, in his _cosmographie_ published in , to recount the experiences of the same voyage, and now he professes to have followed this same eastern coast to the region of norumbega. well-equipped scholars find no occasion to believe that these later statements were other than boldly conceived falsehoods, which he had endeavored to make plausible by the commingling of what he could filch from the narratives of others. * * * * * [sidenote: the zeni story.] [illustration: the zeni map.] it was at this time also ( ) that there was published at venice the strange and riddle-like narrative which purports to give the experiences of the brothers zeni in the north atlantic waters in the fourteenth century. the publication came at a time when, with the transfer of cartographical interest from over the alps to the home of its earliest growth, the countrymen of columbus were seeking to reinstate their credit as explorers, which during the fifteenth century and the early part of the sixteenth they had lost to the peoples of the iberian peninsula. anything, therefore, which could emphasize their claims was a welcome solace. this accounts both for the bringing forward at this time of the long-concealed zeni narrative,--granting its genuineness,--and for the influence which its accompanying map had upon contemporary cartography. this map professed to be based upon the discoveries made by the zeni brothers, and upon the knowledge acquired by them at the north in the fourteenth century. it accordingly indicated the existence of countries called estotiland and drogeo, lying to the west, which it was now easy to identify with the baccalaos of the cabots, and with the new france of the later french. [sidenote: the zeni map.] "if this remarkable map," says nordenskiöld, "had not received extensive circulation under the sanction of ptolemy's name," for it was copied in the edition of of that geographer, "it would probably have been soon forgotten. during nearly a whole century it had exercised an influence on the mapping of the northern countries to which there are few parallels to be found in the history of cartography." it is nordenskiöld's further opinion that the zeni map was drawn from an old map of the north made in the thirteenth century, from which the map found in the warsaw codex of ptolemy of was also drawn. he further infers that some changes and additions were imposed to make it correspond with the text of the zeni narrative. [illustration: the zeni map.] * * * * * the year is marked by a stride in cartographical science, of which we have not yet outgrown the necessity. [illustration: the warsaw codex, ; after nordenskiöld.] [sidenote: . mercator's projection.] the plotting of courses and distances, as practiced by the early explorers, was subject to all the errors which necessarily accompany the lack of well-established principles, in representing the curved surface of the globe on a plane chart. cumbrous and rude globes were made to do duty as best they could; but they were ill adapted to use at sea. nordenskiöld (_facsimile atlas_, p. ) has pointed out that pirckheimer, in the ptolemy of , had seemingly anticipated the theory which mercator now with some sort of prevision developed into a principle, which was applied in his great plane chart of . the principle, however, was not definite enough in his mind for the clear exposition of formulæ, and he seems not to have attempted to do more than rough-hew the idea. the hint was a good one, and it was left for the englishman edward wright to put its principles into a formulated problem in , a century and more after columbus had dared to track the ocean by following latitudinal lines in the simplest manner. [illustration: the warsaw codex, ; after nordenskiöld.] it has been supposed that wright had the fashioning of the large map which, on this same mercator projection, hakluyt had included in his _principall navigations_ in . hondius had also adopted a like method in his _mappemonde_ of the same year. [sidenote: . the _theatrum_ of ortelius.] [sidenote: decline of ptolemy.] [illustration: mercator, .] in the publication of the great atlas of abraham ortelius showed that the centre of map-making had again passed from italy, and had found a lodgment in the netherlands. the _theatrum_ of ortelius was the signal for the downfall of the ptolemy series as the leading exemplar of geographical ideas. the editions of that old cartographer, with their newer revisions, never again attained the influence with which they had been invested since the invention of printing. this influence had been so great that nordenskiöld finds that between and the ptolemy maps had been five times as numerous as any other. they had now passed away; and it is curious to observe that ortelius seems to have been ignorant of some of the typical maps anterior to his time, and which we now look to in tracing the history of american cartography, like those of ruysch, stobnicza, agnese, apianus, vadianus, and girava. [sidenote: ortelius.] it has already been mentioned that when ortelius published his _theatrum_, and gave a list of ninety-nine makers of maps whom he had consulted, not a solitary one of spanish make was to be found among them. it shows how effectually the council of the indies had concealed the cartographical records of their office. [illustration: mercator.] [sidenote: . english explorations.] [sidenote: . sebastian cabot.] it was eighty years since the english under john cabot had undertaken a voyage of discovery in the new world. the interval passed not without preparation for new efforts, which had for a time, however, been extended to the northwest rather than to the northeast. in sebastian cabot had returned to his native land to assume the first place in her maritime world. his influence in directing, and that of richard eden in informing, the english mind prepared the way for the advent of frobisher, the younger hawkins, and drake. [sidenote: . frobisher.] [illustration: ortelius.] [sidenote: - . frobisher.] frobisher's voyage of was the true beginning of the arctic search for a northwest passage, all earlier efforts having been in lower latitudes. he had sought, by leaving greenland on the right, to pass north of the great american barrier, and thus reach the land of spices. he congratulated himself on having found the long-desired strait, when, naming it for himself, he returned to england. frobisher attempted to add to these earlier discoveries by a voyage the next year, , but he made exploration secondary to mining for gold, and not much was done. a third voyage in brought him into hudson's straits, which he entered with the hope of finding it the channel to cathay. but in all his voyages frobisher only crossed the threshold of the arctic north. [illustration: ortelius, .] [sidenote: the zeni influence.] [illustration: sebastian cabot.] it was one of the results of frobisher's voyages that they served to implant in the minds of the cartographers of the northern waters the notions of the zeni geography, and aided to give those notions a new lease of favor. it is conjectured that frobisher had the zeni map with him, or its counterpart in one of the recent ptolemies. this map had placed the point of greenland under ° instead of °, and under the last latitude this map had shown the southern coast of its insular frisland. therefore, when frobisher saw land under °, which was in fact greenland, he supposed it to be frisland, and thus the maps after him became confused. a like mischance befell davis, a little later. when this navigator found greenland in °, he supposed it an island south of greenland, which he called "desolation," and the fancy grew up that frobisher's route must have gone north of this island and between it and greenland, and so we have in later maps this other misplacement of discoveries. [illustration: frobisher.] [sidenote: . francis drake.] while frobisher was absent, drake developed his great scheme of following in the southerly track of magellan. [sidenote: drake sees cape horn.] four years before ( ), being at panama, he had seen from a treetop the great pacific, and had resolved to be the first of the english to furrow its depths. in , starting on his great voyage of circumnavigation, he soon added a new stretch of the pacific coast to the better knowledge of the world. when he returned to england, he proved to be the first commander who had taken his ship, the "pelican," later called the "golden hind" wholly round the globe, for magellan had died on the way. passing through magellan's strait and entering the pacific, drake's ship was separated from its companions and driven south. it was then he saw the cape horn of a later dutch navigator, and proved the non-existence of that neighboring antarctic continent, which was still persistently to cling to the maps. bereft of his other ships, which the storm had driven apart, drake, during the early months of , made havoc among the spanish galleons which were on the south american coasts. [illustration: frobisher, .] in march, , surfeited with plunder, he started north from the coast of mexico, to find a passage to the atlantic in the upper latitudes. [sidenote: in the north pacific.] in june he had reached ° north, though some have supposed that he went several degrees higher. he had met, however, a rigorous season, and his ropes crackled with the ice. the change was such a contrast to the allurements of his experiences farther to the south that he gave up his search for the strait that would carry him, as he had hoped, to the atlantic, and, turning south, he reached a bay somewhere in the neighborhood of san francisco, where he tarried for a while. having placed the name of new albion on the upper california coast, and fearing to run the hazards of the southern seas, where his plundering had made the spaniards alert, he sailed westerly, and, rounding the cape of good hope, reached england in due time, and was acknowledged to be the earliest of english circumnavigators. [illustration: francis drake.] it is one of the results of drake's explorations in - that we get in subsequent maps a more northerly trend to the california coast. [sidenote: confusion in the pacific coast cartography.] shortly after this, a great confusion in the maps of this pacific region came in. from what it arose is not very apparent, except that absence of direct knowledge in geography opens a wide field for discursiveness. the michael lok map of indicates this uncertainty. it seemed to be the notion that the arctic sea was one and the same with that of verrazano; also, that it came down to about the latitude of puget sound, and that the gulf of california stretched nearly up to meet it. * * * * * [sidenote: francisco gali.] [sidenote: proves the great width of the pacific.] francisco gali, a spanish commander, returning to acapulco from china in , tried the experiment of steering northward to about °, when he turned west and sighted the american coast in that latitude. at this point he steered south, and showed the practicability of following this circuitous route with less time than was required to buffet the easterly trades by a direct eastern passage. his experiment established one other fact, namely, the great width of water separating the two continents in those upper latitudes; for he had found it to be leagues across instead of there being a narrow strait, as the theorizing geographers had supposed. gali seems also to have shown that the distance south from cape mendocino to the point of the california peninsula was not more than half as great as the maps had made it. his voyage was a significant source of enlightenment to the cartographers. * * * * * [sidenote: eastern coast of north america.] [sidenote: . the english on the coast.] to return to the eastern coasts, an english vessel under simon ferdinando spent a short season in somewhere about the gulf of maine, and was followed the next year by another under john walker, and in by still a third under richard strong. [sidenote: sir humphrey gilbert.] for eighty years england might have rested her claim to north america on the discoveries of the cabots; but queen elizabeth first gave prominence to these pretensions when she granted to sir humphrey gilbert in the right to make a settlement somewhere in these more northerly regions. gilbert's first voyage accomplished nothing, and there was an interdict to prevent a second, since england might have use for daring seamen nearer home. "first," says robert hues, "sir humphrey gilbert, with great courage and forces, attempted to make discovery of those parts of america which were yet unknown to the spaniards; but the success was not answerable." the effort was not renewed till , when gilbert took possession of newfoundland and attempted to make settlements farther south; but disaster followed him, and his ship foundered off the azores on his return voyage. [illustration: gilbert's map, .] [sidenote: sir walter ralegh.] it was at this time that sir walter ralegh came into prominence in pushing english colonization in america. he had been associated with his half-brother, gilbert, in the earlier movements, but now he was alone. in he got his new charter, partly by reason of the urgency of hakluyt in his _westerne planting_. ralegh had his eye upon a more southern coast than gilbert had aimed for,--upon one better fitted to develop self-dependent colonization. he knew that north of what was called florida the spaniards had but scantily tracked the country, and that they probably maintained no settlements. therefore to reach a region somewhere south of the chesapeake was the aim of the first company sent out under ralegh's inspiration. these adventurers made their landfall where they could find no good inlet, and so sailed north, searching, until at last they reached the sounds on the north carolina coast, and tarried awhile. satisfied with the quality of the country, they returned to england; and their recitals so pleased ralegh and the queen that the country was named virginia, and preparations were made to dispatch a colony. it went the next year, but its history is of no farther importance to our present purpose than that it marks the commencement of english colonization, disastrous though it was, on the north american continent, and the beginning of detailed english cartography of its coast, in the map, already referred to, which seems to open a passage, somewhere near port royal, to an interior sea. * * * * * [sidenote: - . john davis.] in - john davis had been buffeting among the icebergs of greenland and the north in hopes to find a passage by the northwest; on june , , he reached ° ' on the greenland coast, and discovered the strait known by his name, and in when he published his _world's hydrographical description_, he maintained that he had touched the threshold of the northwest passage. he tells us that the globe of molineaux shows how far he went. [sidenote: english seamanship.] seamanship owes more to davis than to any other englishman. in , or thereabout, he improved the cross-staff, and giving somewhat more of complexity to it, he produced the back-staff. this instrument gave the observer the opportunity of avoiding the glare of the sun, since it was used with his back to that luminary; and when flamsteed, the first astronomer royal at greenwich, used a glass lens to throw reflected light, the first approach to the great principle of taking angles by reflection was made, which was later, in , to be carried to a practical result in hadley's quadrant. [illustration: back-staff.] the art of finding longitude was still in an uncertain state. gemma frisius, as we have noted, had as early as divined the method of carrying time by a watch; but it was not till that anything really practicable came of it, in a timekeeper constructed by harrison. this watch was continually improved by him up to , when the method of ascertaining longitude by chronometer became well established; and a few years later ( ) the first nautical almanac was published, affording a reasonably good guide in lunar distances, as a means in the computations of longitude. [sidenote: .] in the greenwich observatory had been founded to attempt the rectification of lunar tables, then so erroneous that the calculations for longitude were still uncertain. in edmund halley had published his great variation charts. these dates will fix in the reader's mind the advance of scientific skill as applied to navigation and discovery. it will be well also to remember that in davis published his _seaman's secrets_, the first manual in the english tongue, written by a practical sailor, in which the principles of great circle sailing were explained. * * * * * [sidenote: - . earliest marine atlas.] [sidenote: . dutch west india company.] [sidenote: .] the first marine atlas had been printed at leyden in - ; but the dutch had not at that time taken any active part in the development of discovery in the new world. their longing for a share in it, mated with a certain hostile intention towards the spaniards, instigated the formation of the west india company, which had first been conceived in the mind of william usselinx in , though it was not put into execution till twenty-five years later. it was claimed by the dutch that in the ships of their greenland company had discovered the hudson river, though there can be little doubt that the french, spanish, and perhaps english had been there much earlier. it is also claimed that the straits shown in lok's map in had instigated heinrich hudson to his later search. but the truth in all these questions which involve national rights is very much perplexed with claim and counter-claim, invention and perversion, in which historical data are at the beck of political objects. [sidenote: . the dutch on the north american coasts.] [sidenote: the english.] by the end of the sixteenth century the dutch began to appear on the coasts of the middle and new england states, and the cartography of those regions developed rapidly under their observation; but it was through the boating explorations of captain john smith in that it took a shape nearer the truth. it is to him that the northerly parts owe the name of new england, which prince charles confirmed for it. the reports from hudson, may, and others instigated a plan marked out in , but not directly ordered by the states general till , which led to the dutch occupation of manhattan and the neighboring regions, introducing more strongly than before a dutch element into the maps. [sidenote: the english leaders in maritime discovery.] [sidenote: richard hakluyt.] when the seventeenth century opened, the english had come well to the front in maritime explorations. a large-minded and patriotic man, sir thomas smith, did much in his capacity as governor of the "merchants trading into the east indies" to direct contemporary knowledge into better channels. dr. thomas hood gave public lectures in london on the improvements in methods of navigation. richard hakluyt, the historiographer of the new company, had already shown that he had inherited the spirit of helpful patronage which had characterized the labors of eden. [sidenote: .] [sidenote: the search for a western passage at the north.] [sidenote: . george waymouth.] we find the peninsula made by the st. lawrence and the atlantic insularized from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the transverse channel being now on the line of the hudson, then of the penobscot, then of the st. croix, and when the seventeenth century came in, it was not wholly determined that the longed-for western passage might not yet be found somewhere in this region. on july , , george waymouth, a navigator, as he was called, applied to the london east india company to be assisted in making an attempt to discover a northwest passage to india, and the company agreed to his proposition. the muscovy company protested in vain against such an infringement of its own rights; but it found a way to smother its grief and join with its rival in the enterprise. through such joint action waymouth was sent by the northwest "towards cataya or china, or the back side of america," bearing with him a letter from queen elizabeth to the emperor of "china or kathia." the attempt failed, and waymouth returned almost ignominiously. [sidenote: hudson at the north.] in , under instructions from the east india company, he again sailed, and now pushed a little farther into hudson's strait than any one had been before. in hudson had made some explorations, defining a little more clearly the northern coasts of the present united states; and in he sailed again from england to attempt the discovery of the northwest passage, in a small craft of fifty-five tons, with twenty-three souls on board. following the tracks of davis and waymouth, he went farther than they, and revealed to the world the great inland sea which is known by his name, and in which he probably perished. [sidenote: hudson's bay.] [sidenote: . baffin's bay.] in - sir thomas button developed more exactly the outline in part of this great bay, and in the _discovery_, under robert bylot and william baffin, passed along the coasts of hudson's strait, making most careful observation, and baffin took for the first time at sea a lunar observation for longitude, according to a method which had been suggested as early as . it was on a voyage undertaken in the next year, , that baffin, exceeding the northing of davis, found lying before him the great expanse of baffin's bay, through which he proceeded till he found a northern exit in sir thomas smith's sound, under °. baffin did all this with an accuracy which surprised sir john ross, who was the next to enter the bay, two centuries later. it was in these years of hudson and baffin that napier invented logarithms and simplified the processes of nautical calculations. [illustration: luke fox, .] [sidenote: . luke fox.] [sidenote: thomas james.] the voyage of luke fox in developed some portions of the western shores of hudson's bay, and he returned confident, from his observation of the tides farther north, that they indicated a western passage; and in the same year thomas james searched the more southern limits of the great bay with no more success. these voyages put a stay for more than a hundred years to efforts in this direction to find the passage so long sought. [sidenote: . gosnold.] up to the explorations of our northern coasts seem to have been ordinarily made either by a sweep northerly from europe, striking newfoundland and then proceeding south, or by a southerly sweep following the spanish tracks and coasting north from florida. in this year, , the englishman gosnold, without any earlier example that we know of since the time of verrazano, stood directly to the new england coast, and in the accounts of his voyage we begin to find some particular knowledge of the contour of this coast, which opens the way to identifications of landmarks. the explorations of pring ( ), champlain ( ), waymouth ( ), popham ( ), hudson ( ), smith ( ), dermer ( ), and others which followed are of no more importance in our present survey than as marking further stages of detailed geography. even dermer was dreaming of a western passage yet to be found in this region. * * * * * [sidenote: discoveries on the pacific coast.] we must now turn to follow the development during the seventeenth century of the discoveries on the pacific coast. [sidenote: . viscaino.] sebastian viscaino, in his voyage up the coast from acapulco in , sought the hidden straits as high as °, and one of his captains reporting the coast to trend easterly at °, his story confused the geography of this region for many years. this supposed trend was held to indicate another passage to the gulf of california, making the peninsula of that name an island, and so it long remained on the maps, after once getting possession, some years later ( ), of the cartographical fancy. [sidenote: . de vries.] some explorations of the dutch under de vries, in , were the source of a notion later prevailing, that there was an interjacent land in the north pacific, which they called "jesso," and which was supposed to be separated by passages both from america and from asia; and for half a century or more the supposition, connected more or less with a land seen by joão da gama, was accepted in some quarters. indeed, this notion may be said to have not wholly disappeared till the maps of cook's voyage came out in - , when the aleutian islands got something like their proper delineation. [sidenote: confused geographical notions of a western sea.] in fact, so vague was the conception of what might be the easterly extension of the northern sea in the latitudinal forties that the notion of a sea something like the old one of verrazano was even thought in by briggs in purchas, and again in in farrer's map of virginia, to bathe the western slope of the alleghanies. [sidenote: .] [sidenote: maldonado, da fuca, de fonte.] early in the eighteenth century, even the best cartographers ran wild in their delineations of the pacific coast. a series of multifarious notions, arising from more or less faith in the alleged explorations of maldonado, da fuca, and de fonte, some of them assumed to have been made more than a century earlier, filled the maps with seas and straits, identified sometimes with the old strait of anian, and converting the northwestern parts of north america into a network of surmises, that look strangely to our present eyes. some of these wild configurations prevailed even after the middle of the century, but they were finally eliminated from the maps by the expedition of that james cook who first saw the light in a yorkshire cabin in . [illustration: jesso. [after hennepin.]] [sidenote: . bering.] [sidenote: .] in peter the great equipped vitus bering's first expedition, and in december, , five weeks before his death, the czar gave the commanding officer his instruction to coast northward and find if the asiatic and american coasts were continuous, as they were supposed to be. there were, however, among the siberians, some reports of the dividing waters and of a great land beyond, and these rumors had been prevailing since . peter the great died january , (old style), just as bering was beginning his journey, and not till march, , did that navigator reach the neighborhood of the sea. in july he spread his sails on a vessel which he had built. [illustration: domina farrer's map, .] [illustration: domina farrer's map, .] [illustration: buache's theory, .] [illustration: bering's straits.] [sidenote: .] [sidenote: . bering.] by the middle of august he had passed beyond the easternmost point of asia, and was standing out into the arctic ocean, when he turned on his track and sailed south. neither in going nor in returning did he see land to the east, the mists being too thick. he had thus established the limits of the russian empire, but he had not as yet learned of the close proximity of the american shores. his discoveries did not get any cartographical record till kiriloff made his map of russia in , using the map which bering had made in moscow in . the following year ( ), gvosdjeff espied the opposite coast; but it was not till that bering sailed once more from the asiatic side to seek the american coast. he steered southeast, and soon found that the land seen by da gama, and which the delisles had so long kept on their maps, did not exist there. [sidenote: aleutian islands.] thence sailing northward, bering sighted the coast in july and had mount st. elias before him, then named by him from that saint's day in the calendar. on his return route some vague conception of the aleutian islands was gained, the beginning of a better cartography, in which was also embodied the stretch of coast which bering's associate, chirikoff, discovered farther east and south. [sidenote: northern pacific.] in venegas, uninformed as to these russian discoveries, confessed in his _california_ that nothing was really known of the coast line in the higher latitudes,--an ignorance that was the source of a great variety of conjectures, including a large inland sea of the west connecting with the pacific, which was not wholly discarded till near the end of the century, as has already been mentioned. * * * * * [sidenote: the search for the northwest passage.] the search for the northwest passage to asia, as it had been begun by the english under cabot in , was also the last of all the endeavors to isolate the continent. the creation of the hudson bay company in was ostensibly to promote "the discovery of a new passage into the south sea," but the world knows how for two centuries that organization obstinately neglected, or as far as they dared, the leading purpose for which they pretended to ask a charter. they gave their well-directed energies to the amassing of fortunes with as much persistency as the spaniards did at the south, but with this difference: that the wisdom in their employment of the aborigines was as eminent as with the southrons it was lacking. it was left for other agencies of the british government successfully to accomplish, with the aid of the votaries of geographical science, what the pecuniary speculators of fen church street hardly dared to contemplate. [sidenote: . james cook.] the spirit of the old navigators was revived in james cook, when in he endeavored to pass eastward by bering's straits; but it was not till forty years later that a series of arctic explorations was begun, in which the english races of both continents have shown so conspicuous a skill and fortitude. [sidenote: kendrick in the "columbia."] while the english, french, and spaniards were dodging one another in their exploring efforts along this upper coast, a boston ship, the "columbia," under captain kendrick, entered the columbia river, then named; and to these american explorations, as well as to the contemporary ones of vancouver, the geographical confusion finally yielded place to something like an intelligible idea. [sidenote: - . vancouver.] it had also been the aim of vancouver in - "to ascertain the existence of any navigable communication between the north pacific and the north atlantic oceans," and the correspondence of the british government leading to this expedition has only been lately printed in the _report_ of the dominion archivist, douglas brymner, for . [illustration: the northwest passage.] [sidenote: arctic explorers.] [sidenote: . mcclure finds the northwest passage.] the names of barrow, ross, parry, and franklin, not to mention others of a later period, make the story of the final severance of the continent in the arctic seas one of conspicuous interest in the history of maritime exploration. captain robert l. mcclure, in the "investigator," late in passed into bering's straits, and before september closed his ship was bound in the ice. in october mcclure made a sledge journey easterly over a frozen channel and reached the open sea, which thirty years before parry had passed into from the atlantic side. the northwest passage was at last discovered. we have seen that within thirty years from the death of columbus the outline of south america was defined, while it had taken nearly two centuries and a quarter to free the coast lines of the new world from an entanglement in men's minds with the outlines of eastern asia, and another century and a quarter were required to complete the arctic contour of america, so that the new world at last should stand a wholly revealed and separate continent. nor had all this labor been done by governments alone. the private merchant and the individual adventurer, equipping ships and sailing without national help, had done no small part of it. dr. kohl strikingly says, "the extreme northern limit of america, the desolate peninsula boothia, is named after the english merchant who fitted out the arctic expedition of sir john ross; and the southernmost strait, beyond patagonia, preserves the name of le maire, the merchant at whose charge it was disclosed to the world!" index. acklin island, . adam of bremen, . adda, g. d', . admiral's map, , , . _see_ waldseemüller. africa, circumnavigations of, ; discoveries along its coast, , ; early maps, ; ptolemy's map of its southern part, . agnese baptista, his maps, , . aguado, juan, sent to española, ; his conduct, . ailly, pierre d', _de imagine mundi_, , , , , ; his map ( ), . albertus magnus, ; portrait, . aleutian islands, , . alexander vi., letter to, from columbus, ; pope, ; his bull of demarcation, ; his bust, . alfonso v. (portugal), . aliacus. _see_ ailly. allefonsce, . allegetto degli allegetti, _ephemerides_, . almagro, . alto velo, . alva, duke of, , . amazons, , . america, mainland first seen by columbus, ; gradually developed as a continent, , , , ; history of its name, , ; earliest maps bearing the name, - ; the name never recognized in spain, ; earliest on maps, ; was it known to the ancients? . _see_ north _and_ south america. anacaona, ; entertains bartholomew columbus, ; captured, . ancuparius, . angelus, jacobus. . ango, jean, . anian, straits of, , . antarctic continent, , . antillia, belief in, , , . apianus, his map ( ), , ; portrait, . archipelago on the asiatic coast, . arctic explorations, , , , . asia, as known to marco polo, etc., map, , . aspa, ant. de, his documents, . astrolabe, - , , , , . atlantic ocean, early cartography of, , ; floating islands in, ; its archipelago, ; as defined by behaim compared with its actual condition, ; early voyages on, . atlantis, story of, . aubert, thomas, . audiencia, . avila, luis de, . ayala, pedro de, . ayllon, lucas vasquez de, ; and diego colon, ; his map, , ; settlement on the potomac, . azores discovered, , . babeque, , , . baccalaos, . back-staff, . bacon, roger, _opus majus_, , . badajos, congress at, . baffin, wm., . baffin's bay, . bahamas, herrera's map, ; modern map, ; character of, ; their peoples, ; depopulated, . balboa, ; portrait, ; discovers the south sea, , ; executed, . ballester, miguel, , . bancroft, h. h., on columbus, , . bank of st. george, and its records, , . barclay, alex., translates brant, . barlow, s. l. m., his library, . barrentes, garcia de, . barros, joão de. _decada_, , , . bastidas, rodrigo de, on the south american coast, , . basques on the atlantic, ; fishermen, . baza, siege of, . behaim, martin, in lisbon, ; improves the astrolabe, ; at sea, ; portrait, ; and columbus, ; his globe, - , . behechio, , . belknap, dr. jeremy, on columbus, . belloy, marquis de, life of columbus, . beneventanus, . benincasa, maps, . benzoni, , . beradi, juonato, , . bergenroth, _calendar_, , . bergomas, his chronicle, . bering's straits, , . bering, his discoveries, , , . bernaldez, andrès, friend of columbus, , ; _historia_, , , . berwick, duke of, . béthencourt, jean de, . bianco, andrea, his map, , ; helps fra mauro, . bienewitz. _see_ apianus. bimini, , , . birds, flight of, . blanco, cape, passed, . bloodhounds, . blunderville, . bobadilla, francisco de, sent to santo domingo, ; his character, ; his instructions, , ; reaches española, ; his acts, ; their effect upon columbus, ; arrests bastidas, ; his rule in santo domingo, ; superseded, ; to return to spain, ; lost, . bohio, . bojador, cape, passed, . bordone, map, . bossi, l., on columbus, . bourne, wm., _the regiment of the sea_, . boyle. _see_ buil. brandt, _shyppe of fools_, . brazil coast visited by cabral, ; early explorers, . brazil, island of, , . breton explorations, , . breviesca, ximeno de, . brevoort, j. c., , , . briggs in purchas, . bristol, england, and its maritime expeditions, . brocken, baron van, _colomb_, . brymner, douglas, . buache, his map, . büdinger, max, _acten zur columbus geschichte_, ; _zur columbus literatur_, . buet, c., _colomb_, . buil, bernardo, sent to the new world, . bull of demarcation, , , . bull of extension, . button, sir thomas, . bylot, robert, . cabot, john, in england, , ; sails on a voyage of discovery, ; earliest engraved map of his discoveries, ; great circle sailing, ; discovers land, ; question of his landfall, ; returns to bristol, ; question of his going to seville, ; his second voyage, ; its extent, ; lack of knowledge respecting these voyages, ; authorities on, ; was his voyage known to columbus? ; and the ruysch map, ; his explorations, . cabot, sebastian, his observation of the line of no variation, ; on columbus's discovery, ; his participancy in his father's voyages, ; his papers, ; alleged voyage, ; voyages, ; his mappemonde, , , , , ; returns to england, ; portrait, . cabral, pedro alvarez, on the south american coast, . cabrero, juan, . cabrillo, . cacique, . cadamosto, his voyage, . cado, fermin, . california, peninsula of, ; its name, ; map, ; mapped as an island, ; drake on the coast, , . cam, diogo, . camargo on the coast of chili, . camers, johann, . canaries, their history, ; map of, . cannibals, , , , , , . canoes, . cantino, alberto, ; cantino map, ; sketched, ; its traits examined, ; its relation with columbus, . caonabo, ; attacks la navidad, , ; attacks st. thomas, ; forms a league, ; captured, ; dies, . cape blanco, . cape bojador, . cape breton, . cape of good hope discovered, . cape horn discovered, ; seen by drake, . cape race, . cape verde island discovered, . cardenas, alonso de, . cardona, cristoval de, admiral of aragon, , , . caribs, , , . carpini, plano, . carthaginians as voyagers, . cartier, jacques, his explorations, , . carvajal, alonso sanchez de, factor of columbus, . carvajal, bernardin de, . casa de contratacion, . casaneuve. _see_ colombo the corsair. casanove, . casoni, f., annals of genoa, , . casteñeda, juan de, . castellanos, _elegias_, . castillo, . catalan seamanship, . catalina, doña, , . cathay, , ; early name of china, ; map of, , ; as found by the portuguese, . cazadilla, . chanca, dr., his narrative, ; goes to the new world, , . charles v., portrait, . chaves, alonso, his map, , ; at the seville conference, . chesapeake bay, spaniards in the, . chili discovered, , . china, early known, . _see_ cathay. chronica delphinea, , . chronometers, , . chytræus, . cibao, ; its mines visited by ojeda, . ciguare, . cipango, ; map, . circourt, count, . clavus, claudius, , . clemente, claudio, _tablas_, . climatic lines, . codex flatoyensis, . coelho's voyage, . colombo, balthazar, , . colombo, bernardo, , . colombo, corsair, , , , . colon, cristoval (bastard son of luis, grandson of columbus), . colon, diego (brother of columbus), born, ; in spain and in columbus's second expedition, ; his character, ; placed by columbus in command at isabella, ; goes to spain, ; quarrels with fonseca, . colon, diego (son of columbus), ; page to the queen, ; at court, , ; receives letter from columbus, ; his illegitimate children, ; receives what was due to his father, ; urges the king to restore his father's privileges, ; his suit against the crown, , ; wins, ; marriage, ; denied the title of viceroy, ; governor of española, , ; in spain, ; lends money to charles v., ; his income, ; viceroy, ; builds a palace, ; its ruins, ; in spain pressing his claims, ; dies, ; his children, . colon, diego (great-grandson of columbus), marries and becomes duke of veragua, , ; his connection with the _historie_ of , . colon, luis (grandson of columbus), succeeds his father, ; makes compromise with the crown, ; holds jamaica, ; made duke of veragua, ; governs española, ; his marriages, ; imprisoned and dies, ; his children, . colon. _see_ columbus. columbia river, . columbus, bartholomew (brother of columbus), born, ; in portugal, ; affects columbus's views, ; with diaz on the african coast, , ; sent to england, , , ; in france, , ; reaches española, ; made adelantado, ; left in command by columbus, ; confirmed by the crown as adelantado, ; portrait, ; attacks the quibian, ; sees columbus for the last time, ; survives him, ; goes to rome, ; takes a map, , ; goes to española, ; dies, ; reputed descendant, . columbus, christopher, sources of information, ; biographers, ; his prolixity and confusion, ; his writings, ; _libro de las proficias_, ; facsimile of his handwriting, ; his private papers, ; letters, , ; written in spanish, ; his privileges, ; _codex diplomaticus_, ; the custodia at genoa, , ; bank of st. george, ; marginalia, ; _declaracion de tabla navigatoria_, , ; _cinco zonas_, ; lost manuscripts, ; ms. annotations, ; missing letters, , , ; missing commentary, ; journal of his first voyage, , ; printed in english, ; letters on his discovery, ; printed editions, ; catalan text, ; latin text, ; his transient fame, ; in england, ; autographs, ; edition of the latin first letter, ; facsimile of a page, ; libraries possessing copies, ; bibliography of first letter, ; other accounts of first voyage, ; lawsuits of heirs, , , ; account of his second voyage, , ; _libro del segundo viage_, , ; letters owned by the duke de veragua, ; accounts of his third voyage, , ; of his fourth voyage, ; _lettera rarissima_, ; _libros de memorias_, ; work on the arctic pole, ; his maps, ; _memorial del pleyto_, ; italian accounts of, ; influenced by his spanish life, ; portuguese accounts, ; spanish accounts, ; documents preserved by las casas, ; canonization, ; english accounts, ; life by irving, ; bibliography, ; his portraits, - ; his person, ; tomb at havana, ; his promise to the bank of st. george, , ; ancestry, ; early home, ; name of colombo, ; the french family, ; professes he was not the first admiral of his name, ; spurious genealogies, , ; prevalence of the name colombo, ; his grandfather, ; his father, ; life at savona, ; genoa, ; his birth, ; disputed date, ; his mother, ; her offspring, ; place of his birth, ; many claimants, ; uncertainties of his early life, ; his early education, ; his penmanship and drawing, ; specimen of it, ; said to have been at pavia, ; at genoa, ; in anjou's expedition, ; his youth at sea, ; drawn to portugal, , ; living there, ; alleged swimming with an oar, ; marries, ; supposed interview with a sailor who had sailed west, ; knew marco polo's book, ; mandeville's book, ; the ground of his belief in a western passage, ; inherits his views of the sphericity of the earth, ; of its size, ; his ignorance of the atlantis story, etc., , ; learns of western lands, ; in portugal, ; in iceland, ; _tratado de las cinco zonas_, ; and the sagas, ; his first gratuity in spain, ; difficulty in following his movements, ; interviews the portuguese king, ; abandons portugal, , ; did he lay his project before the authorities of genoa? ; did he propose to those of venice? ; did he leave a wife in portugal? ; enters spain, , , ; at rabida, , ; calls himself colon, ; receives gratuities, , ; sells books and maps, ; writes out his proofs of a new world, ; interview with ferdinand of spain, ; his monument at genoa, ; at malaga, ; connection with beatrix enriquez, ; his son ferdinand born, ; his views in england, ; invited back to portugal, ; lived in spain with the duke of medina-celi, ; at cordova, ; at baza, ; his views again rejected, ; at santa fé, ; his arrogant demands, ; starts for france, ; recalled and agreed with, ; his passport, ; the capitulations, ; allowed to use don, ; at palos, ; his fleet fitted out, ; expenses of the first voyage, ; his flag-ship, ; her size, ; hopes to find mid-ocean islands, ; sails, ; keeps a journal, ; the "pinta" disabled, ; sees teneriffe, ; at the canaries, ; falsifies his reckoning, ; map of the routes of his four voyages, ; of the first voyage, ; his dead reckoning, ; his judgment of his speed, ; observes no variation of his needle, ; watches the stars, ; believed the earth pear-shaped, ; meets a west wind, ; thinks he sees land, ; follows the flight of birds, ; pacifies his crew, ; alleged mutiny, ; claims to see a light, ; receives a reward for first seeing land, , ; map of the landfall, ; land actually seen, ; land taken possession of, ; his armor, ; question of his landfall, ; trades with the natives, , ; first intimates his intention to enslave them, ; finds other islands, ; eager to find gold, ; reaches cuba, ; mentions pearls for the first time, ; thought himself on the coast of cathay, ; takes an observation, ; meets with tobacco, ; with potatoes, ; hears of cannibals, ; seeks babeque, ; difficult communication with the natives, , ; in the king's garden, ; deserted by pinzon, ; at española, ; takes his latitude, ; entertains a cacique, ; meets with a new language, ; seeks gold, ; shipwrecked, ; builds a fort, ; names it la navidad, ; hears of jamaica, ; of amazons, ; fears the pinzons, ; sees mermaids, ; sails for spain, ; meets a gale, ; separates from the "pinta," ; throws overboard an account of his discoveries, ; makes land at the azores, ; gets provisions, ; his men captured on shore, ; again at sea, ; enters the tagus, ; reason for using the name indies, ; goes to the portuguese court, ; leaves the tagus, having sent a letter to the spanish court, ; reaches palos, ; the "pinta" arrives the same day, , ; his indians, , , ; summoned to court, ; at barcelona, ; reception, ; his life there, , , , ; his first letter, ; scant impression made by the announcement, ; the egg story, ; receives a coat-of-arms, , ; his family arms, ; his motto, ; receives the royal seal, ; leaves the court, ; in seville, ; relations with fonseca begin, ; fits out the second expedition, , , ; embarks, ; sails, ; his character, ; at the canaries, ; at dominica, ; at marigalante, ; at guadaloupe, ; fights the caribs at santa cruz, ; reaches española, ; arrives at la navidad, ; finds it destroyed and abandons it, , ; disembarks at another harbor, ; founds isabella, ; grows ill, ; expeditions to seek gold, , ; writes to the sovereigns, ; the fleet leaves him, ; harassed by factions, ; leads an expedition inland, ; builds fort st. thomas, ; returns to isabella, ; sends ojeda to st. thomas, ; sails to explore cuba, ; discovers jamaica, ; returns to cuba, ; imagines his approach to the golden chersonesus, ; exacts an oath from his men that they were in asia, ; doubts as to his own belief, ; return voyage, ; on the jamaica coast, ; calculates his longitude on the española coast, ; falls into a stupor, ; reaches isabella, ; finds his brother bartholomew there, ; learns what had happened in his absence, ; receives supplies, ; sends the fleet back, ; sends diego to spain, ; sends natives as slaves, ; battle of the vega real, ; oppresses the natives, ; his enemies in spain, ; receives a royal letter by aguado, ; the fleet wrecked, ; thinks the mines of hayna the ophir of solomon, ; sails for spain, ; reaches cadiz, ; lands in the garb of a franciscan, ; proceeds to court, ; asks for a new fleet, ; delays, ; his rights reaffirmed, ; new proportion of profits, ; his will, ; his signature, ; lives with andres bernaldez, ; his character drawn by bernaldez, ; enlists criminals, ; his altercation with fonseca's agent, ; had authorized voyages, ; the third voyage and its sources, ; leaves directions for his son diego, ; sails from san lucar, ; his course, ; letter to him from jayme ferrer, ; captures a french prize, ; at the cape de verde islands, ; at trinidad, ; first sees mainland, ; touches the gulf stream, ; grows ill, , ; his geographical delusions, ; compared with vespucius, ; observations of nature, ; meets the adelantado, ; reaches santo domingo, ; his experience with convict settlers, , , , ; sends letters to spain, ; treats with roldan, , ; institutes repartimientos, ; sends other ships to spain, ; his prerogatives as admiral infringed, ; sends roldan against ojeda, ; did he know of cabot's voyage? ; his wrongs from furtive voyagers, - ; opposition to his rule in the antilles, ; his new relations with roldan, ; quells moxica's plot, ; bobadilla arrives, ; charges against the admiral, , , ; his deceiving the crown, ; receives copies of bobadilla's instructions, ; reaches santo domingo, ; imprisoned and fettered, ; sent to spain in chains, ; his letter to prince juan's nurse, , , ; his alienation of mind, ; reaches cadiz, ; his reception, , ; suspended from power, ; his connection with the cantino map, , ; his destitution, ; his vested rights invaded, ; his demands unheeded, ; sends a factor to española, ; _libros de las proficias_, ; his projected conquest of the holy land, ; defeated by satan, ; dreams on a hidden channel through the new world, ; still seeking the great khan, ; his purposed gift to genoa, ; writes to the bank of st. george, ; his fourth voyage, ; his mental and physical condition, ; at martinico, ; touches at the forbidden santo domingo, ; but is denied the port, ; his ships ride out a gale, ; on the honduras coast, ; meets a large canoe, ; says mass on the land, ; on the veragua coast, ; touches the region tracked by bastidas, ; sees a waterspout, ; returns to veragua, ; finds the gold mines of solomon, ; plans settlement at veragua, ; dangers, ; has a fever, ; hears a voice, ; the colony rescued, ; sails away, ; abandons one caravel, ; on the cuban coast, ; goes to jamaica, ; strands his ships, ; sends mendez to ovando, , ; writes a letter to his sovereigns, ; _lettera rarissima_, ; his worship of gold, ; the revolt of porras, ; porras sails away, ; but returns to the island and wanders about, ; predicts an eclipse of the moon, ; escobar arrives, ; and leaves, ; negotiations with porras, ; fight between the rebels and the adelantado, ; porras captured, ; the rebels surrender, ; mendez sends to rescue him, ; leaves jamaica, ; learns of events in española during his absence, ; reaches santo domingo, ; relations with ovando, ; sails for spain, ; arrives, ; in seville, ; his letters at this time, ; his appeals, ; fears porras, , ; appeals to mendez, ; his increasing malady, ; sends a narrative to rome, ; suffered to ride on a mule, ; relations with the bank of st. george in genoa, ; his privileges, ; doubtful reference to fonseca, ; later relations with vespucius, ; his property sold, ; goes to segovia, ; deza asked to arbitrate, ; makes a will, ; at salamanca, ; at valladolid, ; seeks to propitiate juana, ; makes a codicil to his will, ; its doubtful character, ; ratifies his will, ; its provisions, ; dies, ; his death unnoticed, ; later distich proposed for his tomb, ; successive places of interment, ; his bones removed to santo domingo, ; to havana, ; controversy over their present position, ; his chains, ; the age of columbus, ; statue at santo domingo, ; his character, his dependence on the _imago mundi_, ; on other authors, ; relations with toscanelli, ; different delineations of his character, ; his observations of nature, ; his overwrought mind, ; hallucinations, , ; arguments for his canonization, ; purpose to gain the holy sepulchre, ; his catholicism, ; his urgency to enslave the indians, , ; his scheme of repartimientos ; adopts garb of the franciscans, ; mercenary, , ; the moving light of his first voyage, ; insistence on territorial power, ; claims inspiration, ; his heirs, ; his discoveries denied after his death, , ; his territorial power lost by his descendants, ; table of his descendants, , ; his male line becomes extinct, ; lawsuit to establish the succession, ; female line through the portogallos fails, ; now represented by the larreategui family, ; present value of the estates, ; the geographical results of his discoveries, ; connection with early maps, , ; his errors in longitude, ; his observations of magnetic influence, . columbus, ferdinand (bastard son of columbus), , ; his _historie_, ; doubts respecting it, ; his career, ; his income, ; his library, ; its catalogue, ; english editions of the _historie_, ; his birth, ; at school, ; made page of the queen, ; his ability, ; goes with diego to española, ; aids his brother's widow, ; an arbiter, ; owns ptolemy ( ), ; his disregard of the claims urged for vespucius, ; his _colon de concordia_, ; arbiter at the congress of badajos, ; advises the king, ; his house at seville, ; at the seville conference, ; map inscribed to him, . coma, guglielmo, . conti, nicolo di, , . cook, james, voyage, , . cordova, cathedral of, . coronel, pedro fernandez, , . correa da cunha, pedro, , . correnti, c., . corsairs, . corsica, claim for columbus's birth in, . cortereal discoveries, . cortereal, gaspar, manuscript, facsimile, ; his voyage to labrador, . cortereal, joão vaz, . cortereal, miguel, his handwriting, facsimile, ; his voyages, . cortes, hernando, in santo domingo, ; sails for mexico, ; his map of the gulf of mexico, , , ; his exploring expeditions, ; planning to explore the pacific, ; his pacific explorations, ; his portrait, . cortes, martin, . cosa, juan de la, ; goes to the new world, ; his charts, , , - ; with ojeda, . cosco, leander de, . costa rica, map, . cotabanama, , . coulomp, . cousin, jean, on the brazil coast, . crignon, pierre, . criminals enlisted by columbus, . crossbows, . cross-staff, , , . _see_ back-staff. cuba, reached by columbus, ; believed to be asia, ; named juana, ; its southern coast explored, ; insularity of, ; wytfliet's map, - ; its cartography, ; columbus's views, ; circumnavigated, . cubagua, . cushing, caleb, on the everett ms., ; on navarrete, ; on columbus's landfall, . darien, isthmus, map, . dati, versifies columbus's first letter, . d'avezac on the _historie_, . davis, john, in the north, , ; his _seaman's secrets_, . dead reckoning, . de bry, ; his engraving of columbus, , . degree, length of, . del cano, . demarcation. _see_ bull of. demersey, a., on the muñoz mss., . denys, jean, . desceliers (or henri ii.) map, , . deza, diego de, , , ; asked to arbitrate between columbus and the king, . diaz, bart., on the african coast, . diaz, miguel, , . diaz de pisa, bernal, . dogs used against the natives, , . dominica, . dominicans in española, . don, nicholas, . donis, nicholas, his map, , . drake, francis, sees cape horn, ; his voyages, ; portrait, , . drogeo, . duro, c. f., _colon_, etc., . dutch, the, their american explorations, . earth, sphericity of, ; size of, ; how far known before columbus, . east india company, . eden, r., _treatyse of the newe india_, , ; _decades_, ; _arte of navigation_, ; influence in england, . eden (paradise), situation of, . eggleston, edward, , . enciso, fernandes d', _geographia_, . encomiendas, . england, reception of columbus's news in, ; earliest mention of the spanish discoveries, ; sea-manuals in, ; effects on discovery of her commercial spirit, ; her explorations, ; beginning of her colonization, ; her later explorations, ; her seamen in the caribbean sea, , , ; on the eastern coast of north america, . enriquez, beatrix, connection with columbus, ; noticed in columbus's will, . equator, crossed by the portuguese, ; first crossed on the american side, . eric the red, , , , . escobar, diego de, sent to jamaica by ovando, . escobar, roderigo de, . escoveda, rodrigo de, . española, discovered and named, , ; its divisions, ; charlevoix's map, ; ramusio's map of, ; ovando recalled, ; diego colon governor, ; sugar cane raised, . esquibel, juan de, . estotiland, . evangelista, . everett, a. h., on irving's columbus, . everett, edward, possessed a copy of columbus's privileges, . faber, jacobus, _meteorologia_, . faber, dr. john, . fagundes, . faria y sousa, _europa portuguesa_, . farrer, domina, her map, , , . ferdinand of spain, his character, ; his unwillingness to embark in columbus's plans, ; his appearance, ; grows apathetic, ; his portrait, ; his distrust of columbus, , , , ; sends bobadilla to santo domingo, ; dies , . ferdinando, simon, . fernandina, . ferrelo, . ferrer, jayme, letter to columbus, . fieschi, g. l., . fiesco, b., . finæus, orontius, his map, - . flamsteed, . floating islands, . flores discovered, . florida coast early known, ; discovered, ; english on the coast, . fonseca, juan rodriguez de, relations with columbus begin, ; his character, , , ; quarrel with diego colon, ; allowed to grant licenses, ; lukewarm towards the third voyage of columbus, ; made bishop of placentia, . fontanarossa, g. de, . fonte, de, . fort concepcion, . fox, g. a., on columbus's landfall, , . fox, luke, his map, . france, her share in american explorations, . franciscus, monk, his map, . franciscans in española, . freire, juan, his map, , , . friess. _see_ frisius. frisius, laurentius, his map ( ), , . frisland, , . frobisher, his voyages, ; portrait, ; his map, . fuca, da, . fulgoso, b., _collectanea_, . furlani, paolo de, . fuster, _bibl. valenciana_, . gali, francisco, . gallo, ant., on columbus, . gama, joão da, . gama, vasco da, portrait, ; his voyage, . ganong, w. f., . garay, ; his map, . gastaldi, his map, - , . gelcich, e., on the _historie_, . gemma frisius, nautical improvements, , . genoa, records, ; columbus's early life in, , ; citizens of, in spain, ; columbus's monument, ; favored in columbus's will, ; bank of st. george, , ; her citizens in portugal, ; on the atlantic, . geraldini, antonio, . gilbert, sir humphrey, his voyages, ; his map, . giocondo, . giovio. _see_ jovius. giustiniani, his psalter, , ; his annals of genoa, . glareanus on the ancients' knowledge of america, . glassberger, nicholas, . _globus mundi_, , , . gold mines, ; scant returns, . gomara, the historian, . gomera (canaries), . gomez, estevan, on the atlantic coast, , , ; cartographical results, - . gonzales, keeper of the spanish archives, . goodrich, aaron, _columbus_, , , . gorricio, gaspar, , ; friend of columbus, ; adviser of diego colon, . gorvalan, . gosnold on the new england coast, granada, siege of, . grand turk island, . great circle sailing, , . great khan, letter to, . greenland, , ; held to be a part of europe, , , ; part of asia, ; a link between europe and asia, ; delineated on maps (zeni), , ; ( ), ; ( ), , ; ( ), ; ( ), ; ( ), ; ( ), ; ( ), ; ( ), . grenada, . grimaldi, g. a., . grijalva, ; portrait, . grönlandia, . _see_ greenland. grothe, h., _da vinci_, . grynæus, simon. _novus orbis_, . guacanagari, the savage king, , , , ; faithful, ; maltreated, . guadaloupe, , . guanahani, seen by columbus, . guarionex, , ; his conspiracy, , ; embarked for spain, ; lost, . guelves, count of, , . guerra, luis, . guevara, fernand de, watched by roldan, . gulf stream, , , . gutierrez, pedro, . hadley's quadrant, . hakluyt, richard, _principall navigations_, ; _western planting_, ; his interest in explorations, . hall, edw., _chronicle_, . halley, edmund, his variation charts, . hammocks, , . hanno, the carthaginian, . harrison's chronometer, . harrisse, henry, his works on columbus, , , ; on the biblioteca colombina, ; attacks the character of the _historie_ of , ; his _fernando colon_, ; _les colombo_, ; _bank of st. george_, . hartmann, george, his gores, . hauslab globes, , . hawkins, john, . hawkins, wm., . hayna mines, . hayna country, . hayti. _see_ española. heimskringla, , . helleland, . helps, arthur, on the spanish conquest and columbus, . henry the navigator, prince, death, , ; his navigators, , ; his relations to african discovery, ; his school, ; his portrait, ; his character, ; his tomb, ; his statue, . henri ii., map. _see_ desceliers. herrera, the historian, ; map of bahamas, . higuay, ; conquered, . hispaniola. _see_ española. hoces, f. de, discovers cape horn. . holy sepulchre at jerusalem, ; columbus's purpose to rescue it, , . holywood. john, _sphera mundi_, . homem's map, , . hondius, . honduras, early voyages to, , ; map, ; coast explored, . hood, dr. thomas, . hudson's bay, . hudson bay company, . hudson river, . hudson, heinrich, his voyages, , . hues, robert, _tractatus_, , , . humboldt, alex. von, _exam. critique_, ; on columbus, , . ibarra, bernaldo de, . iceland, columbus at, ; early map, . india, african route to, ; strait to, sought, , , , , , ; discovered at the south, . indies, name why used, . irving, w., _columbus_, , ; his historical habit, , ; on columbus, , . isabella of spain, her character, , ; yields to columbus's views, ; her appearance, ; her interest in columbus's second voyage, ; her faith in columbus shaken, , , ; dies, ; her will about the indians, . isabella (island), . isabella (town) founded, . italy, her relations to american discovery, ; her conspicuous mariners, , ; and the new age, ; cartographers of, , . jack-staff, . jacquet island, . jamaica, possibly babeque, ; called yamaye, ; discovered by columbus, ; again visited, ; columbus at, during his last voyage, . januarius, hanibal, . japan, supposed position, . _see_ cipango. jayme, . jesso, , . john of anjou, , . jorrin, j. s., _varios autografos_, . jovius (giovio) paulus, his biography, ; his picture of columbus, , ; _elogia_, . juana. _see_ cuba. julius ii., pope, portrait, . kettell, samuel, . khan, the great, , . king's garden, . kolno (skolno), . kublai khan, , . labrador coast, normans on, ; portuguese on, . lachine, . lafuente y alcántara, . lake, arthur, . lamartine on columbus, . la mina (gold coast), . laon globe, , . larreategui family, representatives of columbus, . las casas, b., his abridgment of columbus's journal, ; his papers of columbus, , ; his _historia_, , ; his career, ; his portrait, ; his pity for the indians, ; his father goes to the new world, ; at santo domingo, ; appeals for the indians, ; on the respective merits of columbus and vespucius, . latitude, errors in observing, . latitude and longitude on maps, , . laurentian portolano ( ), . ledesma, pedro, , . leibnitz, _codex_, . leigh, edward, . lemoyne, g. b., _colombo_, . lenox globe, . lepe, diego de, on the south american coast, . léry, baron de, . liria, duke of, . lisbon, naval battle near, ; genoese in, . loadstone, its history. . _see_ magnet. log, ship's, , , . lok, michael, map ( ), , , , , . long island sound, . longitude, methods of ascertaining, ; difficulties in computing, , , . _see_ latitude. longrais, jouon des, _cartier_, . lorgues, roselly de, on columbus, , , , . loyasa, . luca, the florentine engineer, . lucayans, , , ; destroyed, , . lud, walter, . lully, raymond, _arte de navegar_, . luxan, juan de, . machin, robert, at madeira, . mcclure, r. l., . madeira discovered, , . madoc, . magellan's voyage, , ; his portrait, ; compared with columbus, ; maps of his straits, , . magnet, its history, ; use of, ; needle, ; pole, , . _see_ needle. magnus, bishop, . maguana, . maine, gulf of, , . maiollo map ( ), , , . major, r. h., on columbus, ; on the naming of america, . malaga, columbus at the siege of, . maldonado, melchior, , . mandeville, sir john, his travels, . mangon, , . manhattan, . manicaotex, . manilius, . mappemonde, portuguese ( ), . maps, fifteenth century, ; projections of, . _see_ portolano. marchena, antonio de, . marchena, juan perez de, ; portrait, ; intercedes for columbus, . marchesio, f., . margarita, . margarite, pedro, at st. thomas, ; his career, . mariéjol, j. h., _peter martyr_, . marien, . marigalante, . mariguana, . marin, on venetian commerce, . marine atlases, . markham, clements r., his _hues_, . markland, . martens, t., printer, . martines, his map, . martinez, fernando, . martyr, peter, has letters from columbus, ; account of, ; knew columbus, ; his letters, ; _de orbe novo_, or _decades_, ; on isabella, ; on columbus's discovery, ; his map, ( ), , , ; fails to notice the death of columbus, . massachusetts bay, . mastic, . matheos, hernan perez, . mayobanex, . mauro, fra, his world map, , , . medina, pedro de, _arte de navegar_, ; map, , . medina-celi, duke of, ; entertains columbus, . medina-sidonia, duke of, . mela, pomponius, ; his world-map, ; _cosmographia_, . mendez, diego, his exploits, , , , ; sails from jamaica for española, ; arrives, ; sends to rescue columbus, ; goes to spain, ; appealed to by columbus, , ; denied office by diego colon, . mendoza, hurtado de, , . mendoza, pedro gonzales de, , . mercator, gerard, pupil of gemma, ; his earliest map, - ; his globe of , , , ; his projection, ; his map ( ), ; portrait, . mercator, r., his map of the polar regions, . mermaids, . meropes, . mississippi river discovered, . molineaux, his map, , . moluccas occupied by the portuguese, ; dispute over their longitude, ; sold by spain to portugal, . moniz, felipa, wife of columbus, ; her family, . monte peloso, bishop of, . moon, eclipse of, . morton, thos., _new english canaan_, . mosquito coast, . moxica, adrian de, . moya, marchioness of, , . müller, johannes, . muñoz, j. b., his labors, ; his _historia_, . münster, seb., his maps, , ( ); , ( ); , ; portrait, . muratori, his collection, . murphy, henry c., ; his library, . muscovy company, . myritius, his map, . nancy globe, , . napier, logarithms, . nautical almanac, . navasa, island, . navarrete, m. f. de, his _coleccion_, ; the french edition, ; criticised by caleb cushing, . navidad, la, destroyed, . navigation, art of, ; columbus's method, , . needle, no variation of the, , ; its change of position, , , . _see_ magnet. negroes, first seen as slaves in europe, ; early introduced in española, , . new albion, . new england, named, . newfoundland banks, early visits, , . newfoundland, visited by gilbert, . new france, . nicaragua, map of, . nicuessa, diego de, in castilla del oro, , . niño, pedro alonso, ; on the pearl coast, . nombre de dios, cape, . nordenskiöld on columbus's discovery, ; his _facsimile atlas_, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; map gores discovered by him, . norman seamanship, ; explorations, , . norman, robt., . north america held to be continuous with asia, , . _see_ america. northwest passage, the search for, , , , - , ; mapped, . norumbega, , , . notarial records in italy, ; in spain, ; in portugal, . nuremberg, behaim's globe at, . ocampo, . oceanic currents, , . odericus vitalis, . oderigo, nicolo, . ojeda, alonso de, in columbus's second expedition, , ; at st. thomas, ; attacked by caonabo, ; captures caonabo, ; fired by columbus's experiences in paria, ; is permitted by fonseca to sail thither, ; reaches venezuela, ; at española, ; returns to spain, ; voyage ( ), ; his ( ) voyage, ; in new andalusia, , . oliva, perez de, on columbus, , . ophir of solomon, . orient, european notions of, , . ortegon, diego, . ortelius, his _theatrum_, , ; portrait, ; his map of america, . ortis, alonso, _los tratados_, . ovando, nicholas de, sent to santo domingo, ; receives mendez, ; his rule in española, , ; sends a caraval to jamaica to observe columbus, ; sends to rescue him, ; receives him at santo domingo, ; recalled from española, . oviedo, on the first voyage, ; as a writer, ; his career, ; _historia_, ; on isabella, ; on the arms of columbus, ; on his motto, . oysters, . pacheco, his _coleccion_, . pacheco, carlos, . pacific ocean named, ; explorations, ; drake in the, ; sees cape horn, ; gali's explorations, ; discoveries, ; wild theories about its coast, , , . _paesi novamente retrovati_, . palos, . panama founded, . papal authority to discover new lands, . paria, gulf of, map, ; land of, . parmentier, jean, . passamonte, miguel, . pavia, university at, . pearls, . pedrarias, . peragallo, prospero, _historie di f. colombo_, . perestrello, bart., . perestrello family, . peringskiöld, . peru discovered, , . pesaro, f., . peschel, oscar, on the _historie_, . peter the great, . pezagno, the genoese, . phoenicians as explorers, . philip ii., of spain, . philip the handsome, . pineda, . pinelo, francisco, . pinilla, t. r., _colon en españa_, . pinzon, martin alonso, at rabida, ; engages with columbus, ; deserts columbus, ; returns, ; reaches palos and dies, . pinzon, vicente yañez, with columbus, ; his voyage ( ) across the equator, ; sees cape st. augustine, ; at española, . pinzon and solis's expedition, . piracy, . pirckheimer, . pizarro, , . plaanck, the printer, . plato and atlantis, . plutarch's saturnian continent, . polar regions, map of, . polo, marco, , ; annotations of columbus in, ; in cathay, ; his narrative _milione_, ; his portrait, ; known to columbus, . pompey stone, . ponce de leon, juan, , ; goes to the new world, ; portrait, ; his track, . porcacchi, his map, . porras, françois de, ; his revolt, ; ended, ; at court, . porto bello, . porto rico, , , . porto santo discovered, , , . portolanos, . _see_ maps. potatoes, . portogallo, alonso de, count of guelves, . portogallo, nuño de, becomes duke of veragua, , . portugal, archives, ; attractions for columbus, ; spirit of exploration in, ; her expert seamen, , ; genoese in her service, ; discovers madeira, ; and the azores, ; columbus in, , ; the king sends an expedition to anticipate columbus's discovery, ; columbus's second visit, ; the bull of demarcation, ; negotiations with spain, ; her pursuit of african discovery, ; establishes claims in south america, through the voyage of cabral, ; sends out coelho ( ), ; settlements on the labrador coast, ; maps in, falsified, ; the spread of cartographical ideas, ; earliest maps, , ; denies them to other nations, ; her seamen on the newfoundland coast, , ; push the african route to the moluccas, ; on the coast of brazil, ; on the pacific coast, ; cartographical progress in, . prado, prior of, . prescott's, w. h., _ferdinand and isabella_, ; on columbus, , . ptolemy, influence of, , , ; portrait, ; maps in, , , ; editions, ; ( ), ; ( ), , , , , ; (stobnicza), ; ( ), ; ( ), ; ( ), , ; ( ), . queen's gardens, , . quibian, ; his attacks, ; captured, ; escapes, . quinsay, , , , . quintanilla, alonzo de, , , , . rabida, convent of, ; at what date was columbus there? , . rae, j. e. s., . ralegh, sir walter, his american projects, . ramusio on columbus, . regiomontanus, , ; his astrolabe, , ; _ephemerides_, . reinel, pedro, his map, . reisch, _margarita phil._, , , ; map, , . remesal's _chyapa_, . rene, duke of provence, , , . repartimientos, , , , . resende, garcia de, _choronica_, . ribero, map of the antilles, ; map ( ), , ; invents a ship's pump, ; at the seville conference, . ringmann, m., . rink, henrik, . riquelme, pedro, , . robertson, wm., _america_, . robertus monarchus, _bellum christianorum principum_, . roberval, . rodriguez, sebastian, . roldan revolts, , ; reinstated, ; sent to confront ojeda, ; watched by moxica, ; sails for spain, ; lost, . romans on the atlantic, . roselly de lorgues, his efforts to effect canonization of columbus, , , , . ross, sir john, . rotz, map, ; _boke of idiography_, . roxo, cape, passed, . rubruquis, , . ruscelli, his map, , . rut, john, . ruy de pina, archivist of portugal, , . ruysch, map, , ; _ptolemy_, . sabellicus, . sacrobosco. _see_ holywood. sagas, . saguenay river, . st. brandan's island, . st. dié, college at, . st. jerome, monks of, . st. lawrence, gulf of, . st. thomas (fort), . st. thomas (island), . saints' days, suggest geographical names, . salamanca, council of, , ; university, . salcedo, diego de, goes to jamaica, . samaot, . san jorge da mina, . san salvador, , . sanarega, bart., , . sanchez, gabriel, letter to, . sanchez, juan, ; killed, . sanchez, rodrigo, . sandacourt, j. b. de, . santa cruz, alonso de, . santa cruz (island), . santa maria de la concepcion, . santa maria de las cuevas, . santangel, luis de, , , . santo domingo, archives, ; founded, ; cathedral at, , . sanuto, livio, _geographia_, . sanuto, marino, his diary, ; cartographer, . sargasso sea, . savona, records of, ; the colombos of, . saxo grammaticus, . schöner, johann, his globe, , ; his charges against vespucius, ; _opusculum geographicum_, , , ; _luculentissima descriptio_, ; portrait, ; _de insulis_, ; his alleged globe, , ; his variable beliefs, . schouten defines tierra del fuego, . sea-atlases, . sea of darkness, , ; fantastic islands of, . sea-manuals, . seamanship, early, . seneca, his _medea_, . servetus, his _ptolemy_, . seven cities, island of. _see_ antillia. sevilla d'oro, . seville, archives at, ; cathedral of, ; cartographical conference at, . shea, j. g., on the _historie_, ; on the canonization of columbus, ; oncolumbus, . ships (fifteenth century), ; speed of, ; of columbus's time, , . sierra leone discovered, . silber, franck, the printer, . simancas, archives, , ; view of the building, . skralingeland, . slavery, efforts of columbus to place the indians in, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; after columbus's time, , . smith, captain john, his explorations, . smith, sir thomas, . solinus, . soria, juan de, . sousa, a. c. de, _hist. geneal._, . south america, earliest picture of the natives, ; earliest seen, ; its coast nomenclature, ; supposed southern cape, . _see_ america. southern cross first seen, , . spain, archives of, ; publication of, , ; _cartas de indias_, ; columbus in, ; the genoese in, ; map of ( ), ; powerful grandees, ; the bull of demarcation, ; suspicious of portugal, ; council for the indies, ; plans expedition to the north, ; her authority in the indies, ; the crown's suit with diego colon, , ; king ferdinand dies, ; charles v., ; philip ii., ; her secretiveness about maps, , , , , ; earliest accounts of america, ; her seamen in the st. lawrence region, ; on the atlantic coast, ; council of the indies instituted, ; failure to publish map in, ; casa de la contratacion, ; her sea-manuals, . spotorno, father, _codice diplom. colom. americano_, ; _la tavola di bronzo_, . square gulf, . staglieno, the genoese antiquary, , . stamler, johannis, . stephanius, sigurd, his map, , . stevens, henry, ; on the _historie_, ; on la cosa's map, ; his _schöner_, . stevens, edition of herrera, . stimmer, tobias, . stobnicza's introduction to ptolemy, ; his map, , , . stockfish, , . strabo, . straits of hercules, voyages beyond, . strong, richard, . sumner, george, . sylvanus, his edition of ptolemy first gave maps of the cortereal discoveries, ; edits ptolemy, ; his map, . sylvius, Æneas, _historia_, . talavera, fernando de, , ; and columbus's projects, , . teneriffe, . terra verde, , . thevet, andré, his stories, . thorne, robt., map ( ), - . thyle, . ticknor, george, . tobacco, . tobago, . tordesillas, treaty of, . torre do tombo, archives, . torres, antonio de, returns to spain in command of fleet, , . tortuga, , . toscanelli, paolo, ; his letters, , - ; his map, , , , ; dies, . triana, rodrigo de, . trinidad, . tristan, diego, his fate, , . tritemius, _epistolarum libri_, . trivigiano, a., translates peter martyr, ; _libretto_, ; his letters, . tross gores, . ulloa, francisco de, . ullua, alfonso de, . ulpius globe, . usselinx, w., , . vadianus, portrait, . vallejo, alonso de, . valsequa's map, . vancouver, . variation. _see_ needle. varnhagen on the first letter of columbus, ; and the early cartography, , . vasconcellos, . vatican archives, ; maps, . vaulx, . velasco, pedro de, . vega real, ; its natives, . venegas, _california_, . venezuela, named by ojeda, . venice, cartographers of, . veradus, . veragua, map, ; characteristics of its coast, ; its abortive settlement, ; duke of, title given to columbus's grandson, . verde, simone, , . verde, cape, reached, . verrazano on the atlantic coast, , ; map, ; his voyage disputed, ; his so-called sea, , ; discoveries, . verzellino, g. v., his memoirs, . vespucius, americus, and the naming of america, ; engaged in fitting out the second expedition of columbus, ; supposed voyage ( ), ; controversy over, ; his character as a writer, ; his first voyage, ; in coelho's fleet, ; his _mundus novus_, , , ; relations to the early cartography, ; his name bestowed on the new world, , , - ; personal relations with columbus, ; his narrative, ; writes an account of his voyage, ; portrait, ; his narrative published, ; his discoveries compared with those of columbus, , ; miscalled albericus, ; suspects gravitation, ; not called in the columbus lawsuit, ; charged with being privy to the naming of america, , ; pilot major, ; dies, ; his map, ; his fame in england, . vienna, geographers at, . villalobos, . vinci, leonardo da, his map, , . vinland, , . virginia, named, ; map, , . viscaino, sebastian, . vopel, gaspar, his globe, . volterra, maffei de, . vries, de, . wagenaer, lucas, his _spieghel_, . waldseemüller, his career, ; _cosmographiæ introductio_, ; its title, ; edits ptolemy, , ; his map, . walker, john, . warsaw codex (ptolemy), map, - . watling's island, . watt, joachim. _see_ vadianus. waymouth, george, . west india company, . white, john, his map, , . winsor, justin, _america_, . wright, edw., improves mercator's projection, . wytfliet, his maps, , . xaragua, ; made subject, , . ximenes in power, . yucatan, ; discovered, , . zarco, . zeni, the, , ; their map, , ; their influence, . ziegler, _schondia_ and its map, , . zoana mela, , . zorzi _or_ montalboddo, _paesi novamente retrovati_, . zuñiga, diego ortiz de, on seville, . images generously made available by the internet archive/canadian libraries) [illustration: wm. h. atherton.] montreal - under the french rÉgime - by william henry atherton, ph. d. _qui manet in patria et patriam cognoscere temnit is mihi non civis, sed peregrinus erit_ volume i [illustration] illustrated the s. j. clarke publishing company montreal vancouver chicago contents chapter i - hochelaga the arrival of jacques cartier at hochelaga on his second voyage to canada--his royal commission--the fruitless device of donnacona to frighten cartier from visiting hochelaga--the difficulty of crossing lake st. peter--the arrival and reception at hochelaga--jacques cartier the first historian of montreal--description of the town--cartier recites the first chapter of st. john's gospel over agohanna, the lord of the country--mount royal named and visited--cartier's account of the view from the mountain top--cartier's second visit in to hochelaga and to tutonaguy, the site of the future montreal--the probable visit of de roberval in . notes: the site of hochelaga--hochelaga's civilization--canada--geological survey of mount royal and the monteregian hills. chapter ii - colonization under the early trading companies of new france french colonization, a christianizing movement--the cross and crown--roberval's commission to colonize canada and hochelaga--feudalism projected--criminals and malefactors to be sent as colonists--jacques cartier sails in advance--charlesbourg royal, the first colony, started--cartier sails for hochelaga and passes tutonaguy--cartier sails secretly for france--charlesbourg a failure--death of cartier--his great nephew, noel, visits the great sault in --the first private monopoly to noel and others--the first royal trade monopoly to de la roche--the edict of nantes--chauvin, a huguenot, secures a trade monopoly--tadoussac, the court of king petaud--eymard de chastes receives a commission and engages the services of a royal geographer, samuel de champlain--champlain's first visit to the sault--de monts, succeeding de chastes, retains champlain as his lieutenant--quebec chosen by champlain--champlain becomes a company promoter and managing director, the shareholders being mostly huguenots, the prince de conde, governor general--champlain's blunder in allying himself with the algonquins and hurons against the iroquois, afterwards the cause of iroquois hostilities against the future montreal--the coming of the "recollects"--champlain's attempt at a real colonizing settlement at quebec--the jesuits arrive--the company of one hundred associates chapter iii - the great sault champlain the first trader the history of hochelaga after cartier's visit--champlain, the first cartographer of the island of montreal--its description in --champlain explores the neighborhood--place royale in --st. helen's island named--the first trading transaction recorded--champlain shoots the rapids, --the exploration of the ottawa valley-- the first mass in canada at riviere des prairies-- the drowning of viel and ahuntsic at sault-au-recollet--the intention of champlain to make a permanent settlement on the island chapter iv - colonization under the company of one hundred associates the charter of the hundred associates the basis of the seigneurial system to be afterwards established at montreal--the english in capture quebec-- , canada again ceded to the french-- , the coming of the jesuits--the recollects do not return--three rivers is established--description of colonial life at quebec--death of champlain in --the religious institutions to be imitated afterwards at montreal--the "relations des jesuites"--the iroquois begin their attacks--the news of a reinforcement and disappointment that montreal has been chosen as its headquarters chapter v - montreal the company of notre dame de montreal previous colonization reviewed--montreal ceded to sieur de chaussee in and later to de lauson--the design of the settlement of montreal enters the mind of m. de la dauversiere--the first associates of the company of notre dame de montreal--the cession of the island of montreal to them in --the religious nature of the new colonizing company--trading facilities crippled--political dependence on quebec safeguarded--m. olier founds the congregation of st. sulpice in paris in view of the montreal mission--preparations for the foundation and establishment of the fully organized settlement of "villa marie"--paul de chomedey de maisonneuve chosen as local governor--the call of jeanne mance to found the hotel dieu--the expedition starts--maisonneuve arrives at quebec--the first clash of the governors--montmagny offers the isle of orleans for the new settlement--maisonneuve is firm for the island of montreal--the first formal possession of montreal at place royale--winter at st. michel and ste. foy--friction between the rival governors chapter vi - ville marie founded by paul de chomedey de maisonneuve the departure of the expedition from montreal--the arrival at place royale--the "veni creator spiritus" and mass on the "common"--vimont's prophecy--activities of encampment--the first reinforcement--the first quasi-parochial chapel built in wood--algonquins visit the camp--floods and the pilgrimage to the mountain--peaceful days--primitive fervour and simplicity--the dreaded iroquois at last appear--first attack--the first cemetery--"castle dangerous"--the arrival of the second reinforcement--_les véritables motifs_. notes: the hurons, algonquins and iroquois chapter vii - progress and war the company of montreal confirmed by louis xiv--maisonneuve reappointed governor--a syndic elected; the first step in representative government--the building of the hotel-dieu--military history--pilot, the watchdog of the fort--the exploit of place d'armes--fear of iroquois--labarre's reinforcement--agriculture begins--montreal's free trade movement--the first iroquois war is over--maisonneuve goes to france--the promotion in paris of a bishopric for montreal--charles le moyne--the fortifications of the fort--war again--the salaries of the governor of quebec, three rivers and montreal--the camp volant--financial gloom in montreal--mutual benefit association--a picture of montreal--a tax perilous, sudden and frequent--the hotel-dieu a fortress for four years--the abandonment of the settlement threatened--maisonneuve goes to france for succour--the skeleton soldiers--montreal a forlorn hope chapter viii - critical years lambert closse, commandant maisonneuve's success in paris--madame de bullion's donations--"parmenda"--the exploit of lambert closse--the phantom ship--montreal reported at quebec to be blotted out--proposals of peace from the onondagas--march of mohawks on montreal--charles le moyne and anontaha to parley for peace--a patched up peace--the end of the second iroquois war chapter ix - the second foundation of montreal the great reinforcement of maisonneuve returns with a relief force--the montreal contingent the saviours of canada--the origin and trades of the new colonists--marguerite bourgeoys, the first schoolmistress, arrives--her call--ship fever--arrival at quebec--the governor of quebec would retain the relief contingent--maisonneuve firm for montreal--the work of consolidating the enlarged colony at ville marie--building activities--agricultural and industrial occupations--marriage contracts--jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys, the mothers of the settlement--the knightly maisonneuve, a "_chevalier sans reproche_"--the military confraternity--the mountain cross replaced--medical contracts--the government of montreal--the election of a syndic--the "new" cemetery--the new "parish" church--the marriage of charles le moyne with catherine primot--a rare scandal--the primitive fervour still maintained chapter x - iroquois and jesuits the departure of the jesuits renewal of hostilities in the spring--peace--wampum necklaces and belts--montreal headquarters of peace parleys--autumn attacks--"la barrique"--montreal left severely alone--chief "la grande armes"--m. de lauson persecuting montreal--the completion of the parish church--pending ecclesiastical changes in montreal--notes: biographical notices on the early jesuit missionaries in montreal--poncet--jogues--le moyne--buteaux--druillettes--albanel--le jeune--parkman's estimate of the success of the jesuit missions--dr. grant's appreciation of their work chapter xi - the coming of the sulpicians ( ) maisonneuve goes to france--arranges for hospitalieres and sulpicians--bishopric for new france--the nominations of de queylus and laval--the appointment delayed--the death of m. olier--the arrival of de queylus and maisonneuve at quebec--two rival "grands vicaires"--de queylus goes to montreal and quickly returns to rule the church in quebec--the intrusion resented--the sulpicians in montreal--tribute to them as civic and religious administrators--iroquois hostilities resumed--the head of jean st. pere--the church in montreal takes on "parish" pretensions--church wardens and "la fabrique"--the first school house--the flight to montreal from onondaga--precautionary ordinances by maisonneuve--fortified redoubts--the ecclesiastical dispute settled--de quen "grand vicaire" of quebec, de queylus of montreal--bon secours church delayed--jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys visit france chapter xii the new reinforcement for montreal the coming of laval retrospect of maisonneuve's judicial sentences--first death sentence--injurious language--calumny--banishment--games of chance, drunkenness and blasphemy, etc., forbidden--the governor general and the local governor of montreal--a pessimistic picture of montreal in --a bishop for new france--laval, consecrated bishop of petrea in arabia, arrives at quebec as vicar apostolic--de queylus recalled to france--the reinforcement arrives with jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys--the story of its journey--difficulties at la fleche--ship fever on the st. andre--difficulties at quebec--laval would retain the hospitalieres brought by jeanne mance--they are finally allowed to proceed to the hotel-dieu of montreal chapter xiii how montreal saved new france dollard's exploit at the long sault universal fear of iroquois in the colony--the garrison officers at montreal--adam dollard, sieur des ormeaux--the permission from the governor to lead an attack up country--his companions--preparations--wills and the sacraments--the flotilla of canoes--the long sault reached--the dilapidated iroquois war camp--anontaha and mitiwemeg--the ambush and attack--the retreat to the stockade--the siege--thirst--the algonquins desert--five hundred iroquois allies arrive--the terrible attack and resistance--a glorious defeat--radisson's account--the inventory of dollard--unpaid bills--the names of the "companions"--new france saved--a convoy of beaver skins reaches montreal--a reinforcement of troops from france asked for to wipe out the iroquois chapter xiv - hostilities and losses montreal the theatre of iroquois carnage--the first sulpician slaughtered, m. le maitre--the second, m. vignal--the first visit of laval to montreal--the abbe de queylus again appears--ecclesiastical disputes legal, not personal--the death of lambert closse--the exploit of picote de belestre--maisonneuve's ordinance against sale of liquor to indians--indian orgies and bloodshed--the governor general at quebec disapproves of maisonneuve's action--the famous liquor traffic disputes--jeanne mance leaves for france chapter xv - the sovereign council and the seigneurs of the island great changes, physical and political militia squads established--the formation of the confraternity of the holy family--the earthquake at montreal--political changes--the resignation of the company of one hundred associates--canada becomes a crown colony--the transfer of the seigneury of the island from the company of montreal to the "gentlemen of the seminary"--royal government--the appointment of the sovereign council--change in the montreal judicial system--former home rule privileges rescinded--montreal under quebec--pierre boucher's description of canada and montreal--social life of the period--montreal soldiery--the election of police judges--attempt to supplant maisonneuve as local governor--discord in the sovereign council chapter xvi the recall of de maisonneuve the governor general de courcelles and the intendant talon arrive--the dual reign inharmonious--sieur de tracy, lieutenant general of the king for north america, arrives--the carignan-sallieres regiment--capture of charles le moyne by iroquois--building of outlying forts--preparations for war--the dismissal of maisonneuve--an unrecognized man--his monument--maisonneuve in paris--a true canadian chapter xvii - the subdual of the iroquois the end of the heroic age primitive expeditions under de courcelles, sorel and de tracy--the royal troops and the montreal "blue coats"--dollier de casson, the soldier chaplain--the victory over the iroquois--the hotel-dieu at montreal receives the sick and wounded--the confirmation of the gentlemen of the seminary as seigneurs--the lieutenant general and intendant in montreal--the "dime"--the census of --more clergy needed--the abbe de queylus returns, welcomed by laval and made vicar general--reinforcement of sulpicians--their first mission at kente--the return of the recollects--the arrival of perrot as local governor of montreal chapter xviii - the feudal system established the seigneurs of the montreal district suburban growth--the earliest outlying fiefs--praedia militaria--military seigneuries of the montreal district--the feudal system--the "noblesse"--the "parishes"--"cens et rentes"--"lods et ventes"--tribute to the feudalism of the clerical "seigneurs of montreal"--municipal officers--order in processions--the church wardens--the soldier colonists--cattle breeding, horses, asses--agriculture--new concessions--laws regulating opening up the land--first public roads and bridges at montreal--note: forts and redoubts chapter xix - economical progress industries, trade and labour commerce--mining--ship building--industries--a "municipal" brewery--the first market--prices--labour--medical men chapter xx - colonization and population encouragement of marriage--bachelors taxed--"filles du roi"--dowries--pensions for large families--montreal healthy for women--note on immigration chapter xxi - expeditions from montreal la salle--dollier de casson--de courcelles a feudal village and its young seigneur--la salle's jesuit training--an ex-jesuit--the seigneury of st. sulpice--sold--the fever for exploration--la salle, dollier de casson and galinee--soldier outrages on indians--the expedition to lakes erie and ontario--la salle returns--his seigneury nicknamed "la chine"--the sulpicians take possession of lake erie for louis xiv--return to montreal--de galinee's map--the subsequent expedition of the governor general, de courcelles chapter xxii - education at quebec: jacques leber, jeanne leber, charles le moyne (of longueuil), louis prudhomme--marguerite bourgeoys' school at montreal--"gallicizing" indian children--gannensagonas--the sulpicians at gentilly--the jesuits at madeleine la prairie chapter xxiii - garrison life--slackening morals sieur de la frediere--liquor traffic with the indians--soldiers murder indians--the carion-de lormeau duel--the first ball in canada--larcenies, etc.--a corner in wheat--the "voluntaires," or day labourers--the taverns--a police raid--"hotel" life--blasphemy punished--the lords' vineyards ruined chapter xxiv - notable losses de queylus finally leaves ville marie--de courcelles and talon recalled--tribute to their administration--mgr. de laval absent for three years--three deaths--madame de peltrie--marie l'incarnation--jeanne mange--her last will and testament chapter xxv - town planning and architecture the foundation of the parish church and bon secours chapel the first street survey--"low" town and "upper" town--the origin of the names of the streets--complaints against citizens still cultivating the streets--orders to begin building--the new parish church--the foundation stones and plaques--the demolition of the fort forbidden--the church of bon secours--the powder magazine in its garret--a picture of montreal chapter xxvi - altercations frontenac's first term of governorship i. the rival governors ii. church and state iii. the governor, the intendant and the sovereign council i. the two governors--perrot--ile perrot--remonstrances of citizens--frontenac--a "vice-roi"--generous attempt to grant representative government restrained--fort frontenac (or kingston)--corvees--the governor general--expedition starts for montreal--la salle--the frontenac-perrot duel commences--perrot imprisoned--coureurs de bois--duluth--chicago--frontenac rules montreal ii. the frontenac-fenelon duel--the easter sermon in the hotel-dieu--la salle present in the chapel--m. fenelon resigns from the sulpicians--the trial before the sovereign council--the montreal party present their case in france--frontenac and fenelon reprimanded, perrot in prison--perrot quickly released and sent back as local governor of montreal iii. the montreal complaints have a result--the rearrangement of the positions of honour in the sovereign council--the governor and the intendant, duchesneau--rival factions--centralization and home rule the cause of french failure in canada--perrot made governor of acadia chapter xxvii - trade at montreal under frontenac and perrot west india company suppressed--montreal head of fur industry--expeditions--marquette--joliet--the annual fairs--laval returns--the "congregation" confirmed--the indian missions--catherine tekakwitha--the "fort des messieurs"--explorations--la salle, duluth, hennepin--louisiana named--the governor general and the intendant--factions at montreal, "a plague on both your houses!"--frontenac and duchesneau recalled chapter xxviii - war again. the iroquois. new york and hudson's bay the governments of de la barre and denonville governor de la barre opposes la salle--the pow-wow in the new parish church--war preparations at montreal--the disease-stricken expeditions return--laval leaves for france--the pioneer paper money invented to pay the soldiers--notes on "cards" and currency during french regime--governor denonville and mgr. de st. vallier arrive--callieres becomes governor of montreal--a gloomy report on the "youth" and dramshops--mgr. de st. vallier's mandement of the vanity of the women--the fortifications repaired--sale of arms condemned--the struggle for canada by the english of new york--the struggle for hudson's bay--the party from montreal under the sons of charles le moyne--the death of la salle--other montreal discoverers--a psychological appreciation of la salle's character chapter xxix - iroquois revenge denonville's treachery and the massacre of lachine st. helen's island a military station--fort frontenac--denonville's treachery--the feast--indians for the galleys of france--the war march against the senecas--the return--montreal an inclosed fortress--de callieres' plan for the invasion of new york--the struggle for trade supremacy--montreal besieged--kondiaronk, the rat, kills the peace--denonville recalled--callieres' plan fails--the massacre at lachine--denonville's treachery revenged. note: the exploit at the riviere des prairies chapter xxx - montreal prowess at home and abroad frontenac's second term of government frontenac returns--review at montreal--indians from the galleys sent with peace overtures--new england to be attacked--the montreal leaders--three successful expeditions--retaliation meditated by the english--trade flowing back to montreal--the grand council in the market--frontenac leads the war dance--john schuyler's party against montreal retires--sir william phipps seizes quebec--the montreal contingent--peter schuyler defeated at la prairie--the colony in dire danger--madeleine de vercheres, her deed of armes--the expedition via chambly--arrival of furs from michillimackinac--frontenac, the saviour of the country--montreal prowess east and west--a pleiad of montreal names--the le moyne family--newfoundland--hudson's bay--fort frontenac again--the death of frontenac chapter xxxi - social, civil and religious progress the picket enclosure--fortifications strengthened--garrison jealousies--preseance--the "congregation" burnt down--a poor law board--to quebec on foot--the church of the "congregation" on fire--the enclosing of a recluse--the jesuit residence--the recollects--the "prie dieu" incident--mgr. de st. vallier's benefactions--the freres charon--first general hospital--technical education--the seminary being built--sulpician administration--the market place. note: the gentlemen of the seminary chapter xxxii - the great indian peace signed at montreal. the foundation of detroit the government of de callieres de callieres--preparations for peace--death of the "rat"--the great peace signed at montreal--la motte-cardillac--the foundation of detroit--the death of marguerite bourgeoys chapter xxxiii - from the treaty of ryswick to the treaty of utrecht queen anne's war montreal saved by land and water "the french have always commenced hostilities in canada"--samuel vecht in montreal--montreal to be invaded by wood creek--nicholson's army routed by dysentery--the "bostonnais" plan a second descent on montreal--jeanne leber's standard--the expedition of sir hovender walker against quebec--the vow of the montreal ladies--"our lady of victories" built in commemoration--peace of utrecht--comparison between new england and new france. note: the chateau de ramezay chapter xxxiv - half a century of peace and progress civic side lights i. the long peace--the two governors--tavern licenses--permit to marry--cultivation of hemp--first attempt of the lachine canal by the seigneurs--gedeon de catalogne--chaussegros de lery--"seditious assemblies"--claude de ramezay--war prices--linen and cloth industries developed--an ordinance against dirty streets--against pigs in the houses--market regulations--the use of the commons--sale of liquor to savages--the seigneurs and the habitants--regulations concerning tanners, shoemakers and butchers--english merchandise not to be tolerated at montreal--a market for canadian products desired--concentration in the east versus expansion in the west--conges--fast driving--road making--horse breeding restrained--pigs to be muzzled--liquor licenses overhauled--snow-shoeing to be cultivated--diverse national origins--a marble quarry--the death of a recluse--murderer burnt in effigy--card money--a "bourse" for the merchants--patents of nobility to the leber and le moyne families--partridge shooting--a "cure all" patent medicine--postal service--a picture of montreal about by charlevoix chapter xxxv - side lights of civic progress ii the fire of --building regulations--stone encouraged--town embellishment--city planning--the fortifications--pew renting--chateau de vaudreuil--trade with new england forbidden--illicit liquor traffic--deaths of de ramezay and de vaudreuil--even naturalized strangers forbidden to trade--description of indian life at montreal--montreal is followed by quebec in the reform of weights and measures--verendrye's expedition from montreal--religious asylum forbidden--first sailing vessel of lake superior--the "outraged crucifix"--sorcery, magic and sacrilege--the legend of the red cross--punishment of "breaking alive" in the market place--care of foundlings--sulpicians found la presentation--skating in the streets; fast driving. notes: the discoveries of la verendrye--chateau vaudreuil chapter xxxvi - sidelights of civic progress iii peter kalm--the first swedes in montreal--the french women contrasted with those of the american colonies--domestic economy--the men extremely civil--mechanical trades backward--watchmakers--the treaty of aix-la-chapelle celebrated--paper money--wages--pen picture of montreal in --its buildings and their purposes--friday, market day--thermometrical and climatic observations--natural history cultivated--montreal the headquarters of the indian trade--the goods for barter--the ladies more polished and volatile at quebec but more modest and industrious at montreal--economic facts--wine and spruce beer--prices and cost of living--consents to marriage--social and domestic customs--franquet's journey from quebec to montreal by river, five days--pouchot's appreciations of canadians--the trade system of the country--governmental magazines and up-country forts--private trade at the posts--itinerant peddlers. note: the development of the parish church chapter xxxvii education--primary, secondary and technical a record from to french pronunciation--school for girls--the congregation--boarding schools--schools of domestic economy--normal schools--schools for boys--abbe souart first schoolmaster--the first association of teachers--school books--books on pedagogy--latin schools, the high schools of the period--latin books--attempt at a classical college--failure--technical education--jean franÇois charon--the general hospital--arts and manufactures--les freres charon--a normal school for canada at rochelle projected--frere turc goes to st. domingo--the brothers of the christian schools invited twice to come to canada--brother denis and pacificus in montreal--the freres charon in evil days--the hospital transferred to madame d'youville chapter xxxviii the general hospital of montreal under madame d'youville madame d'youville--timothee de silvain--confraternity of the holy family--"soeurs grises"--perseverance through opposition--fire of --provisional control of hospital--attempt to annex the general hospital to that of quebec--the "grey nuns" formerly approved as "sisters of charity" chapter xxxix montreal, military headquarters the final struggle for supremacy--the seven years, - --the campaign of (oswego)--the winter at montreal review--celeron de bienville--de vaudreuil--montcalm--his military and household staff--de levis, bourlamaque, bougainville--chateau de vaudreuil--the meeting of montcalm and de vaudreuil--montcalm's position--the three military arms--the militia, marine, regulars--the red allies--capitulation of oswego--sacking--te deum in the parish church--the two prejuges--winter in montreal--gaming at quebec--a winter war party--social gayeties at montreal--scarcity of provisions--ships awaited chapter xl the campaign of the siege of william henry--winter gayety and gaunt famine ships arrive--news of great international war--red allies in montreal--strong liquor--preparations for war--fort william henry falls--arrival of savages and two hundred english prisoners--cannibalism--the paper money--fear of famine--montcalm's letter to troops on retrenchment--a self-denying ordinance--gaming amid social misery--horse flesh for the soldiers--de levis puts down a revolt--the "hunger strike"--the letters of montcalm--bigot and la grande societe--"la friponne" at montreal--murray's criticism. note: the peculators chapter xli the victory of carillon a winter of gayety and foreboding sixty leagues on the ice--ships arrive--famine ceases--english mobilization--ticonderoga (carillon)--military jealousies--saint-sauveur--reconciliation of montcalm and vaudreuil--enmities renewed--winter in montreal--high cost of living--the "encyclopedia"--avarice and graft--madame de vaudreuil chapter xlii the fall of quebec montreal the seat of government the spring ice shove--news from france--military honours sent but poor reinforcements--projected french invasion of england--gloom in canada--the montreal militia at the siege of quebec--fall of quebec, montreal seat of government--the winter attempt to regain quebec--the expected french fleet never arrives--retreat of french to montreal chapter xliii the fall of montreal the capitulation the last stand at montreal--the approach of the british armies--surrender of arms by french on the route--paper money valueless--murray's advance from quebec--haviland's progress from lake champlain--amherst's descent from oswego--montreal within and without--the council of war in the chateau vaudreuil--the terms of capitulation--the negotiations with amherst--honours of war refused--de levis' chagrin--the capitulation signed--the conditions--formal possession of town by the british--the end of the french regime appendix i the government of la nouvelle france the government of montreal under la nouvelle france--royal commissions--viceroys--governors--intendants--bishops--french and english sovereigns--local governors of montreal--the seigneurs of the seminary appendix ii an inventory of the charts and plans of the island and town of montreal up to author's foreword the history now being prepared seems necessary; for we are at a period of great flux and change and progress. the city is being transformed, modernized and enlarged before our very eyes. old landmarks are daily disappearing and there is a danger of numerous memories of the past passing with them. we are growing so wonderfully in wealth through the importance of our commerce and in the size of our population by the accretion of newcomers of many national origins and creeds, to whom for the most part the history of the romantic story of montreal is a sealed books, that a fuller presentation of our development and growth is called for, to supplement previous sketches and to meet the conditions of the hour. it is hardly needful, therefore, to offer any apology for the present undertaking. for if the continuity of a city's growth and development is to be preserved in the memory of the citizens of each generation, this can only be done through the medium of an historical survey, issued at certain suitable intervals, such as the one now offered, connecting the present with the past, and presenting to the new generation, out of the intricate chain of events and varying vicissitudes that have woven themselves into the texture of the city's organic life, the story of those forces which have moulded its growth and have produced those resultant characteristic features which make it the individualized city of today and none other. montreal being a unique city, with a personality of its own, its history, beyond that of any city of the new world, is particularly interesting and fruitful for such a retrospect. dealing with the fortunes of several peoples, the original inhabitants of hochelaga visited by jacques cartier in , the french colonists from and the anglo-saxons and gaels from their influx in , together with the steady addition of those of other national origins of later years, the story of montreal, passing over the greater part of four centuries, is full of romance and colour and quickly moving incidents; of compelling interest to the ordinary student, but how much more so to those who have any way leagued their fortunes with it, and assisted in its progress and in its making! such cannot dip into the pages of the history of this ancient and modern city without finding fresh motives for renewed enthusiasm and for deeper pride. for montreal is still in the making, with its future before it. the present work is especially dedicated to those who would realize the duties of good citizenship and it is the hope of the writer that it may serve to deepen the sense of civic pride now happily being cultivated here. to foster this civic pride is the justifying reason why he has been induced by his friends to launch on a long and laborious task, sweetened though it may be by the pleasure anticipated of communion with the scenes and thoughts and deeds of a romantic past and a wonderfully progressive present. all history is profitable. perhaps, however, civic history has not been cultivated sufficiently. the present work is an attempt to repair this by interesting montrealers in their citizenship so that by placing before them the deeds of the doers of the past, they may realize they are dwellers in no mean city. we would hope that something of the spirit of love for their cities, of the romans, athenians, or florentines, might be reincarnated, here in montreal. good citizenship would then be thoroughly understood as the outcome of a passionate love of all that is upright, noble and uplifting in human conduct, applied to the life of a city by which it shall be made beautiful and lovable in the sight of god and man. for this purpose the life story of any city that has reached any eminence and has a worthy past should be known by good citizens so that they begin to love it with a _personal_ love. for like each nation, each city has its own individuality, its own characteristic entity, its own form of life which must be made the most of by art and thoughtful love. this is not merely true of the physical being of a city from the city planner's point of view. there is also a specific character in the spiritual, artistic, moral and practical life of every city that has grown into virility and made an impress on the world. every such city is unique; it has its predominant virtues and failings. you may partially eliminate the latter and enlarge the former, but the city being human--the product of the sum total of the qualities and defects of its inhabitants--it takes on a character, a personality, a mentality all its own. civic history then leads us to delve down into the origins of things to find out the causes and sources of that ultimate city character which we see reflected today in such a city as montreal. the research is fascinating and satisfactory to the citizen who would know his surroundings, and live in them intelligently with consideration for the diverse view points of those of his fellow citizens who have different national origins and divergent mental outlooks from his own. yet while this city character is in a way fixed, still it is not so stable but that it will be susceptible to further development in the times that are to come with new problems and new situations to grapple with. the peculiar pleasure of the reading of the history of montreal will be to witness the development of its present character from the earliest date of the small pioneering, religious settlement of french colonists, living simple and uneventful days, but chequered by the constant fear of the forays of indian marauders on to the "castle dangerous" of ville marie, through its more mature periods of city formation, then onward through the difficult days of the fusion of the french and english civilization starting in , to the complex life of the great and prosperous cosmopolitan city of today, the port and commercial centre of canada--the old and new _régimes_ making one harmonious unity, but with its component parts easily discernible. the city's motto is aptly chosen, "_concordia salus_." much there will be learned in the history of montreal of the past that will explain the present and the mentality of its people. _tout savoir, c'est tout pardonner._ a clue to the future will also be afforded beforehand. certainly it will be seen that montreal is great and will be greater still, because great thoughts, high ideals, strenuous purposes have been born and fostered within its walls. the thinking student will witness the law of cause and effect, of action, and reaction, ever at work, and will read design where the undisciplined mind would only see chaos and blind forces at work. recognizing that the city is a living organism with a personality of its own, he will watch with ever increasing interest the life emerging from the seed and at work in all the varying stages of its growth and development. he will see the first rude beginning of the city, its struggles for existence, its organized life in its social and municipal aspects, its beginnings of art and learning, the building of its churches, the conscious struggles of its people to realize itself, the troubles of its household, the battle of virtue and vice, its relation to other cities, the story of its attacks from without, the conflicts with opposing ideas, the influx of new elements into the population, the adaptation of the organism to new habits of government and thought, to new methods of business, and the inauguration of untried and new industrial enterprises, the growth of its harbour, and its internal and external commerce, the conception of its own destiny as one of the great cities of the world--all these and more it is the purpose of a history of montreal to unfold to the thoughtful citizen who would understand the life in which he is playing his part not as a blind factor but as an intelligent co-operator in the intricate and absorbing game of life. but let it not be thought that while peering into the past we shall become blind to the present. in this "history of montreal" we shall picture the busy world as we see it round us. here are heroic and saintly deeds being done today in our midst. the foundations of new and mighty works even surpassing those of the past are being laid in the regions of religion, philanthropy, art, science, commerce, engineering, government and city planning this very hour, and their builders are unconsciously building unto fame. besides, therefore, portraying the past, we would wish to present a moving picture of the continued development of montreal from the beginning, tracing it to the living present from the "mustard seed" so long ago spoken of by père vimont in reference to the handful of his fellow pioneers assembled at mass on the day of the arrival on may , , at the historic spot marked today by the monument in place royale, to the _mighty_ tree of his prophecy that now has covered the whole island of montreal, and by the boldness, foresight and enterprise of montreal's master builders, has stretched its conquering arms of streams and iron across the mighty continent discovered by jacques cartier in . what montreal was and is, we know. its future we can only surmise. but it is bound to be a great one. its position, with its mountain in the centre and its encircling waterways, with the glorious st. lawrence at its feet, proclaims it as the ideal location for one of the greatest cities in the world. it is no cause for wonder that jacques cartier, visiting it in , after naming the mountain "mount royal" in honour of his king, francis i of france, should have commended it as favourable for a settlement in his description of his voyage to hochelaga, and that champlain in should have made it his trading post and further endorsed it as a suitable place for a permanent settlement, and that maisonneuve should have carried it into execution in . they had the instinct of the city planner--that is all. that they did not err, the history of montreal will abundantly show. william henry atherton. preface "qui manet in patria et patriam cognoscere temnit is mihi non civis, sed peregrinus erit" in placing before the public the first volume of the history of montreal, under the title of "under the french régime," i would first dedicate it to a group of prominent lovers of the city, truly deserving the name of good citizens, who originally encouraged me to undertake the historical researches necessary for this work in the view that an orderly narration of the city's origins and gradual development would thereby foster the right spirit of civic pride in those who do not merely dwell in this ancient and new city, but have linked their fortunes with it at least for a while. secondly, it is dedicated to those who endorsed the above invitation by subscribing for copies, thus making publication possible. thirdly, it is dedicated to all good citizens of montreal, whether by birth or adoption, who will welcome this attempt to interest them in their citizenship. further, it is offered to all students of the civic life and progress of our canadian cities through the medium of the historical method. may it encourage a healthy canadian civic consciousness begotten of the records of the doings of the early makers of our canadian cities. may it encourage the careful keeping of early historical documents, especially among those new municipalities now growing up in the new canada of today. * * * * * i wish to take this opportunity of thanking those who have especially made my way easy in this first volume by affording me access to books or documents. among these are: mr. w. d. lighthall, president of the numismatic and antiquarian society of montreal, who was also the first to encourage this present work, dr. a. doughty, mr. c. h. gould, of the mcgill university library, mr. crevecoeur, of the fraser institute, and to other representatives of public and private libraries. to mr. e. z. massicotte, the careful archivist of the district of montreal, i am especially indebted for much courteous and valuable assistance of which the following pages will give many indications. in general, the sources consulted are sufficiently indicated in the text or foot notes. they will be seen to be the best available. i beg to thank those who have helped me to illustrate the work and particularly mr. edgar gariépy, who has keenly aided me. september, . william henry atherton. history of montreal chapter i - hochelaga the arrival of jacques cartier at hochelaga on his second voyage to canada--his royal commission--the fruitless device of donnacona to frighten cartier from visiting hochelaga--the difficulty of crossing lake st. peter--the arrival and reception at hochelaga--jacques cartier the first historian of montreal--description of the town--cartier recites the first chapter of st. john's gospel over agohanna, the lord of the country--mount royal named and visited--cartier's account of the view from the mountain top--cartier's second visit in to hochelaga and to tutonaguy, the site of the future montreal--the probable visit of de roberval in . notes: the site of hochelaga--hochelaga's civilization--canada--geological survey of mount royal and the monteregian hills. the story of montreal, as far as authentic historical documents are concerned, begins with saturday, october , . on that day, the indian natives of hochelaga had been quickly apprised that two strange large vessels containing many palefaced wanderers, wonderfully attired and speaking an unknown tongue, had come up the river, and were now lying off its sloping margin. the people immediately prepare quickly to receive them with a hospitality of which we shall hear. the women busy themselves in preparing their presents while the men hurriedly run down the hill slope to the water's edge, to be soon also followed by the women and children. there they found a good gathering of swarthy and bronzed men of the sea, mariners from st. malo, to the number of twenty-eight, simple men, but adored by the natives as superior beings. all hail to them! would that of the seventy-four[ ] names we have preserved to us, of those who sailed from st. malo, we had those of them who were privileged to come up to hochelaga, as we must yet call it. besides the sailors, there are, however, six whose dress and bearing mark them out as men of some distinction, as indeed they are; for one is claude du pont briand, cup bearer to my lord the dauphin; the second and third, gentlemen adventurers of some rank, charles de la pommeraye and jehan gouion; the fourth and fifth are the bronzed and rugged captains of the small fleet lying down the river at lake st. peter, guillaume le breton, captain of the emerillon, and marc jalobert, captain of the petite hermine, brother-in-law of the sixth. this last, a firm set man of forty-five years, and of commanding appearance, is none other than jacques cartier, captain of the grande hermine, pilot and captain general of the fleet, and he has come with a royal commission[ ] explore new seas and lands for his sovereign maste francis i of france, whose flags proudly wave from the prows of either vessel now tossing in the hochelagan waters. jacques cartier claims notice, for he is at once the discoverer and the first historian of montreal. he is a mariner, of a dignified profession, and was born in , though de costa and others say, in , at the seaport of st. malo in brittany, the fertile cradle of many hardy daring corsairs and adventurers on the waters. early the young son of jamet cartier and geseline jansart seems to have turned his thoughts to a seafaring life as he met the bronzed mariners arriving at the wharves of st. malo, and telling strange stories of their perils and triumphs. on the d of may, , being now a master pilot, he married catherine des granches, the daughter of the high constable of the city. [illustration: jacques cartier (after a traditional drawing)] [illustration: manor house of cartier at limoilou near st. malo (interior view)] we know only imperfectly of his wanderings on the sea after this. he seems to have gone to brazil. but he probably joined the band of those norman ships going to newfoundland on their fishing expeditions, and became well acquainted with the waters thereabout, and able to pilot them to some good purpose. how cartier became interested in discovering the passage to the northwest we do not know; though it was the dream of so many navigators at that time to find a way to china and the east ports of india. to the man who should find it there would be undying fame, and many there were who strove for it. probably cartier believed that he should find the long expected route to india through one of the openings in the coast in the vicinity of newfoundland, then thought to be but a projection of the eastern coast of asia! at any rate, in , we find him being introduced to francis i of france by the high admiral of france, phillipe chabot, sieur de brion, to endeavour to persuade the king to allow him the means to secure the western passage for his royal master and the flag of france. the permission was granted, the vice admiral, the sieur de meilleraye personally undertaking to supervise the equipment of the vessels, and cartier now is to be ranked among those others whose names have come down to us as leaders of expeditions. [illustration: this wooden medallion, inches in diameter, bears on the back the deeply carved date and the initials j. c. it was found between outer and inner "skins" of an ancient house in the french fishing village of cape des roziers at the mouth of the st. lawrence river, november, , and was the stern shield of some french vessel wrecked on that coast. the face is alleged to be that of jacques cartier, the discoverer of canada, and is the oldest known portrait of him. the claim is made by dr. john m. clarke of albany, state geologist of new york.] we next find him armed with the royal commission, preparing to fit his vessels, and seeking for st. malo men to man them in the service of the king. he had his difficulties in meeting the obstructions and jealousies that stood in his way. but on the th of april, , he sailed with pilots, masters and seamen to the number of sixty, who were solemnly sworn by the vice admiral, sieur de meilleraye. it is not the purpose of this book to describe the discovery of canada which cartier made on this first voyage although the task is a fascinating one, since we have his own recital to follow. on july th, having planted on the coast of gaspé a cross of the length of thirty feet bearing a shield adorned with the _fleur-de-lys_ and inscribed "vive le roi de france," he made preparations for the return home, reaching st. malo on september th. but he had not, as yet, stumbled upon the discovery of the mouth of the st. lawrence, up which the kingdom of the hochelagans lay, on which we are to fix our gaze. the news of his discoveries were received with enthusiasm, and on the friday in pentecost week, may , , we find jacques cartier and his men sailing away from st. malo, after having confessed themselves and received the benedictions of the archbishop and the godspeeds of their friends. the names of those accompanying cartier--"pilots, masters and seamen, and others"--are preserved in the archives of st. malo, numbering seventy-four, of whom several were of some distinction and twelve at least were related to him by blood or marriage, some led thither perhaps by the hope of trade. two of the names are those of dom guillaume le breton and dom antoine. it has been claimed the title dom indicates that they were probably secular priests, and acted as chaplains, according to the general custom when the expedition was a royal mission. but this is not likely; in this case guillaume le breton was the captain of the emerillon. among those not mentioned in the list of carrier's men were two young indians, taignoagny and agaya, whom cartier had seized at gaspé before leaving to return to france, after his first voyages, and whose appearance in france created unusual interest. these were now to be useful as interpreters to the tribes to be visited. cartier had however to regret some of their dealings on his behalf. charity begins at home and so it did with these french-veneered indians on mingling with their own. the royal commission signed by phillipe de chabot, admiral of france, and giving greeting "to the captain and master pilot jacques cartier of st. malo," dated october , , may here be quoted in part. "we have commissioned and deputed, commission and depute you by the will and command of the king to conduct, direct, and employ three ships, equipped and provisioned each for fifteen months for the accomplishment of the voyage to the lands by you already begun and discovered beyond the newlands; * * * the said three ships you shall take, and hire the number of pilots, masters and seamen as shall seem to you to be fitting and necessary for the accomplishment of this voyage. * * * we charge and command all the said pilots, masters and seamen, and others who shall be on the same ships, to obey and follow you for the service of the king in this as above, as they would do to ourselves, without any contradiction or refusal, and this under pains customary in such cases to those who are found disobedient and acting contrary." [illustration: jacques cartier's ships in the st. lawrence] [illustration: the closing portion of jacques cartier's list of seamen] the three ships that had been assigned to him were the grande hermine, the petite hermine and the emerillon, the first being a tall ship of burthen and the others of sixty and forty respectively, and they were provisioned for fifteen months. how the expedition encountered storms and tempests, delaying its progress until they reached the strait of st. peter, where familiar objects began to meet the eyes of the captive indians on board; how they eagerly pointed out to cartier the way into canada; how they told him of the gold to be found in the land of the saguenay; how cartier visited the lordly donnacona, lord of canada; how at last on his resolve to pursue the journey to the land of hochelaga he found himself in the great river of canada which he named st. lawrence; how he passed up the river by mountain and lowland, headlands and harbours, meadows, brush and forests, scattering saints' names on his way to stadaconé[ ] whence he determined to push his way to hochelaga before winter--can be read at length in the recital of the second voyage of jacques cartier. [illustration: a conference with the indians at stadacone] it is legitimate only for us to place before our readers that part concerning the approach to hochelaga. hitherto, on his journey, cartier had received all help in his progress from the friendly natives; but effort was made to dissuade him from going up to hochelaga. cartier, however, always made reply that notwithstanding every difficulty he would go there if it were possible to him "because he had commandment from the king to go the farthest that he could." on the contrary the lordly savage donnacona and the two captives, dom agaya and taignoagny, used every device to turn the captain from his quest. an attempt will be made hereafter to prevent a visit to montreal as we shall see when we speak of maisonneuve and the settlement of ville marie. [illustration: manuscript of no. of cartier's second voyage] carrier's account has the following for september th:[ ] "how the said donnacona, taignoagny, and others devised an artifice and had three men dressed in the guise of devils, feigning to have come from cudouagny, their god, for to hinder us from going to the said hochelaga.[ ] "the next day, the th of the said month, thinking always to hinder us from going to hochelaga, they devised a grand scheme which they effected thus: they had three men attired in the style of three devils, that had horns as long as one's arms, and were clothed in skins of dogs, black and white, and had their faces painted as black as coal, and they caused them to be put into one of their boats unknown to us, and then came with their band near our ships as they had been accustomed, who kept themselves in the woods without appearing for two hours, waiting till the time and the tide should come for the arrival of the said boat, at which time they all came forth, and presented themselves before our said ships without approaching them as they were wont to do; and asked them if they wanted to have the boat, whereupon the said taignoagny replied to them, not at that time, but that presently he would enter into the said ships. and suddenly came the said boat wherein were the three men appearing to be three devils, having put horns on their heads, and he in the midst made a marvelous speech in coming, and they passed along our ships with their said boat, without in any wise turning their looks toward us, and went on striking and running on shore with their said boat; and, all at once, the said lord donnacona and his people seized the said boat and the said three men, the which were let fall to the bottom of it like dead men, and they carried the whole together into the woods, which were distant from the said ships a stone's throw; and not a single person remained before our said ships, but all withdrew themselves. and they, having retired, began a declamation and a discourse that we heard from our ships, which lasted half an hour. after which the said taignoagny and dom agaya marched from the said woods toward us, having their hands joined, and their hats under their elbows, causing great admiration. and the said taignoagny began to speak and cry out three times, 'jesus! jesus! jesus!' raising his eyes toward heaven. then dom agaya began to say, 'jesus maria! jacques cartier,' looking toward heaven like the other, the captain seeing their gestures and ceremonies, began to ask what was the matter, and what it was new that had happened, who responded that there were piteous news, saying 'nenny, est il bon,' and the said captain demanded of them afresh what it was, and they replied that their god, named cudouagny, had spoken at hochelaga, and that the three men aforesaid had come from him to announce to them the tidings that there was so much ice and snow that they would all die. with which words we all fell to laughing and to tell that their god cudouagny was but a fool, and that he knew not what he said, and that they should say it to his messengers and that jesus would guard them well from the cold if they would believe in him. and then the said taignoagny and his companion asked the said captain if he had spoken to jesus and he replied that his priests[ ] had spoken to him and that he would make fair weather; whereupon they thanked the said captain very much, and returned into the woods to tell the news to the others, who came out of the said woods immediately, feigning to be delighted with the said words thus spoken by the said captain. and to show that they were delighted with them, as soon as they were before the ships they began with a common voice to utter three shrieks and howls, which is their token of joy, and betook themselves to dancing and singing, as they had done from custom. but for conclusion, the said taignoagny and dom agaya told our said captain that the said donnacona would not that any of them should go with him to hochelaga if he did not leave a hostage, who should abide ashore with the said donnacona. to which he replied to them that if they had not decided to go there with good courage they might remain and that for him he would not leave off making efforts to go there." we have seen the manifest disinclination of donnacona's party to allow the discoverers to proceed to hochelaga. was it because the hochelagans were a hostile people or was it from selfish reasons to keep the presents of the generous strangers for themselves? at any rate, cartier sets out for hochelaga and on tuesday, september th, enters lake st. peter with a pinnace and two boats. this lake was not named by cartier, but subsequently it was named lac d'angoulesme, either in honour of his birthplace or more probably that of francis i, who was count of angoulême. it was left for champlain entering upon the lake, on the feast of ss. peter and paul, june , , to give it its present name. cartier's pinnace could not cross lake st. peter owing to the shallowness of the water[ ] which forced him to take the boats to hochelaga, starting about six miles below st. mary's current. the journey through lake st. peter and the arrival at hochelaga must now be followed in the words of jacques cartier, the first historian of montreal (phinney baxter, pp. - ). [illustration: the reception of jacques cartier at hochelaga (a section of the palisaded town is shown. d in the center is king agohama's abode.)] "the said twenty-eighth day of september we came into a great lake and shoal of the said river, about five or six leagues broad and twelve long, and navigated that day up the said lake without finding shallowing or deepening, and coming to one of the ends of the said lake, not any passage or egress appeared to us; it seemed rather to be completely closed without any stream. and we found at the said end but a fathom and a half, wherefore it behooved us to lay to and heave out our anchor, and go to seek passage with our boats. and we found that there were four or five streams all flowing from the said river into this lake and coming from the said hochelaga; but, by their flowing out so, there are bars and passages made by the course of the water, where there was then only a fathom in depth. and the said bars being passed, there are four or five fathoms, which was at the time of year of the lowest waters, as we saw by the flow of the said waters that they increased more than two fathoms by pike. "all these streams flow by and surround five or six fair islands[ ] which form the head of said lake; then they come together about fifteen leagues above all into one. that day we went to one of them, where we found five men, who were hunting wild beasts, the which came as familiarly to our boats as if they had seen us all their lives, without having fear or apprehension; and our said boats having come to land, one of these men took our captain in his arms and carried him ashore as lightly as he would have carried a child of five years, so large and strong was this man. we found they had a great pile of wild rats,[ ] which live in the water, and are as large as rabbits, and wonderfully good to eat, of which they made a present to our captain, who gave them knives and paternosters for recompense. we asked them by sign if that was the way to hochelaga; they answered us yes, and that it was still three days journey to go there. "how the captain had the boats fitted out for to go to the said hochelaga, and left the pinnace, owing to the difficulty of the passage; and how he came to the said hochelaga, and the reception that the people gave us at our arrival. "the next day our captain, seeing that it was not possible then to be able to pass the said pinnace, had the boats victualed and fitted out, and put in provisions for the longest time that he possibly could and that the said boats could take in, and set out with them accompanied with a part of the gentlemen,--to wit, claude du pont briand, grand cupbearer to my lord the dauphin, charles de la pommeraye, jehan gouion, with twenty-eight mariners, including with them marc jalobert and guillaume le breton, having the charge under the said cartier,--for to go up the said river the farthest that it might be possible for us. and we navigated with weather at will until the second day of october, when we arrived at the said hochelaga, which is about forty-five leagues distant from the place where the said pinnace was left, during which time and on the way we found many folks of the country, the which brought fish and other victuals, dancing and showing great joy at our coming. and to attract and hold them in amity with us, the said captain gave them for recompense some knives, paternosters, and other trivial goods, with which they were much content. and we having arrived at the said hochelaga, more than a thousand persons presented themselves before us, men, women and children alike, the which gave us a good reception as ever father did to child, showing marvelous joy; for the men in one band danced, the women on the other side and the children on the other, the which brought us store of fish and of their bread made of coarse millet,[ ] which they cast into our said boats in the way that it seemed as if it tumbled from the air. seeing this, our said captain landed with a number of his men, and as soon as he was landed they gathered all about him, and about all the others, giving them an unrestrained welcome. and the women brought their children in their arms to make them touch the said captain and others, making a rejoicing which lasted more than half an hour. and our captain, witnessing their liberality and good will, caused all the women to be seated and ranged in order, and gave them certain paternosters of tin and other trifling things, and to a part of the men knives. then he retired on board the said boats to sup and pass the night, while these people remained on the shore of the said river nearest the said boats all night making fires and dancing, crying all the time 'aguyaze,' which is their expression of mirth and joy. "how the captain with gentlemen, and twenty-five seamen, well armed and in good order, went to the town of hochelaga, and of the situation of the said place. "the next day, in the early morning, the captain attired himself and had his men put in order to go to see the town and habitation of the said people, and a mountain that is adjacent to their said town, whither the gentleman and twenty mariners went with the said captain, and left the rest for the guard of the boats, and took three men of the said town of hochelaga to bring and conduct them to the said place. and we, being on the road, found it as well beaten as it might be possible to behold, and the fairest and best land, all full of oaks as fine as there be in a forest of france under the which all the ground was covered with acorns. and we, having marched about a league and a half, found on the way one of the chief lords of the town of hochelaga, accompanied by a number of persons, the which made us a sign that we should rest at the said place near a fire that they had made by the said road, which we did, and then the said lord began to make a discourse and oration, as heretofore is said to be their custom of showing joy and familiarity, this lord thereby showing welcome to the said captain and his company; the which captain gave him a couple of hatchets and a couple of knives, with a cross and memorial of the crucifixion, which he made him kiss, and hung it on his neck, for which he rendered thanks to the said captain. this done, we marched farther on, and about half a league from there we began to find the land cultivated, and fair, large fields full of grain of their country, which is like brazil millet, as big or bigger than peas, on which they live just as we do on wheat; and in the midst of these fields is located and seated the town of hochelaga, near to and adjoining a mountain, which is cultivated round about it and highly fertile, from the summit of which one sees a very great distance. we named the said mountain mont royal. the said town is quite round and inclosed with timbers in three rows in the style of a pyramid, crossed at the top, having the middle row in the style of a perpendicular line; and ranged with timbers laid along, well joined and tied in their manner, and is in height about two pikes. there is in this town but one gate and entrance, which fastens with bars, upon which and in many places of the said inclosure there are kinds of galleries and ladders to mount to them, which are furnished with rocks and stones for the guard and defense of it. "there are within this town about fifty long houses of about fifty paces or more each, and twelve or fifteen paces wide and all made of timbers covered and garnished with great pieces of bark and strips of the said timber, as broad as tables, well tied artificially according to their manner. and within these there are many lodgings and chambers, and in the middle of these houses there is a great room on the ground where they make their fire and live in common; after that the men retire with their wives and children to their said chambers. likewise they have granaries at the top of their houses where they put their corn of which they make their bread, which they call 'carraconny,'[ ] and they make it in the manner following: they have mortars of wood as for braying flax, and beat the said corn into powder with pestles of wood; then they mix it into paste and make round cakes of it, which they put on a broad stone which is hot; then they cover it with hot stones, and so bake their bread instead of in an oven. they make likewise many stews of the said corn, and beans and peas of which they have enough, and also of big cucumbers and other fruits. they have also in their houses great vessels like tons, where they put their fish, eels and others, the which they dry in the smoke during the summer and live upon it in the winter. and of this they make a great store, as we have seen by experience. all their living is without any taste of salt, and they lie on barks of trees stretched upon the earth, with wretched coverings of skins from which they make their clothing--namely, wolves, beavers, martens, foxes, wild cats, deer, stags, and other wild beasts; but the most part of them go almost entirely naked. the most precious thing that they have in their world is 'esnogny,'[ ] the which is white as snow, and they take it into the same river from the cornibotz[ ] in the manner which follows: when a man heserved death, or when they have taken any enemies in war, they kill them, then cut them into the buttocks, thighs, and shoulders with great gashes; afterward in the places where the said esnogny is they sink the said body to the bottom of the water, and leave it ten or twelve hours, then draw it up and find within the said gashes and incisions the said cornibots, of which they make bead money and use it as we do gold and silver, and hold it the most precious thing in the world. it has the virtue of stanching blood from the nostrils, because we have tried it. "all the said people give themselves only to tillage and fishing for a living; for the goods of this world they make no account, because they have no knowledge of them, and as they budge not from their country, and do not go about like those of canada[ ] and of the saguenay. notwithstanding the said canadians are their subjects, with eight or nine other peoples who are upon the said river. "how we arrived at the said town and of the reception which was made up there, and how the captain made them presents; and other things that the said captain did, as shall be seen in this chapter. "when we had arrived near the town, a great number of the inhabitants of it presented themselves before us, who after their fashion of doing, gave us a good reception; and by our guides and conductors we were brought to the middle of the town, where there was a place between the houses the extent of a stone's throw or about in a square, who made us a sign that we should stop at the said place, which we did. and suddenly all the women and girls of the said town assembled together, a part of whom were burdened with children in their arms, and who came to us to stroke our faces, arms, and other places upon our bodies that they could touch; weeping with joy to see us; giving us the best welcome that was possible to them, and making signs to us that it might please us to touch their said children. after the which things the men made the women retire, and seated themselves on the ground about us, as if we might wish to play a mystery. and, suddenly, a number of men came again, who brought each a square mat in the fashion of a carpet, and spread them out upon the ground in the middle of the said place and made us rest upon them. after which things were thus done there was brought by nine or ten men the king and lord of the country, whom they all call in their language agohanna, who was seated upon a great skin of a stag; and they came to set him down in the said place upon the said mats beside our captain, making us a sign that he was their lord and king. this agohanna was about the age of fifty years and was not better appareled than the others, save that he had about his head a kind of red band for a crown, made of the quills of porcupines and this lord was wholly impotent and diseased in his limbs. "after he had made his sign of salutation to the said captain and to his folks, making them evident signs that they should make them very welcome, he showed his arms and legs to the said captain, praying that he would touch them, as though he would beg healing and health from him; and then the captain began to stroke his arms and legs with his hands; whereupon the said agohanna took the band and crown that he had upon his head and gave it to our captain: and immediately there were brought to the said captain many sick ones, as blind, one-eyed, lame, impotent, and folks so very old that the lids of their eyes hung down even upon their cheeks, setting and laying them down nigh to our said captain for him to touch them, so that it seemed as if god had descended there in order to cure them. "our said captain, seeing the mystery and faith of this said people, recited the gospel of st. john; to wit, the _in principio_, making the sign of the cross on the poor sick ones, praying god that he might give them knowledge of our holy faith and the passion of our saviour, and the grace to receive christianity and baptism. then our said captain took a prayer book and read full loudly, word by word, the passion of our lord, so that all the bystanders could hear it, while all these poor people kept a great silence and were marvelously good hearers, looking up to heaven and making the same ceremonies that they saw us make; after which the captain made all the men range themselves on one side, the women on another, and the children another, and gave to the chiefs hatchets, to the others knives, and to the women paternosters and other trifling articles; then he threw into the midst of the place among the little children some small rings and agnus dei of tin, at which they showed a marvelous joy. this done the said captain commanded the trumpets and other instruments of music to sound, with which the said people were greatly delighted; after which things we took leave of them and withdrew. seeing this, the women put themselves before us for to stop us, and brought us of their victuals, which they had prepared for us, as fish, stews, beans and other things, thinking to make us eat and dine at the said place; and because their victuals were not to our taste and had no savor of salt, we thanked them, making them a sign that we did not need to eat. "after we had issued from the said town many men and women came to conduct us upon the mountain aforesaid, which was by us named mont royal, distant from the said place some quarter of a league; and we, being upon this mountain, had sight and observance of more than thirty leagues round about it. toward the north of which is a range of mountains which stretches east and west, and toward the south as well; between which mountains the land is the fairest that it may be possible to see, smooth, level, and tillable; and in the middle of the said lands we saw the said river, beyond the place where our boats were left, where there is a waterfall,[ ] the most impetuous that it may be possible to see, and which it was impossible for us to pass. and we saw this river as far as we could discern, grand, broad and extensive, which flowed toward the southwest and passed near three fair, round mountains which we saw and estimated that they were about fifteen leagues from us. and we were told and shown by signs by our said three men of the country who had conducted us that there were three such falls of water on the said river like that where our said boats were, but we could not understand what the distance was between the one and the other. then they showed us by signs that, the said falls being passed, one could navigate more than three moons by the said river; and beyond they showed us that along the said mountains, being toward the north, there is a great stream, which descends from the west like the said river.[ ] we reckoned that this is the stream which passed by the realm and province of saguenay, and, without having made them any request or sign, they took the chain from the captain's whistle, which was of silver, and the haft of a poniard, the which was of copper, yellow like gold, which hung at the side of one of our mariners, and showed that it came from above the said river, and that there were agojuda, which is to say evil folk, the which are armed even to the fingerhowing us the style of their armor, which is of cords and of wood laced and woven together, giving us to understand that the said agojuda carried on continual war against one another; but by default of speech we could not learn how far it was to the said country. our captain showed them some red copper,[ ] which they call _caignetdaze_, pointing them toward the said place, and asking by signs if it came from there, and they began to shake their heads, saying no, and showing that it came from saguenay, which is to the contrary of the preceding. after which things thus seen and understood, we withdrew to our boats, which was not without being conducted by a great number of the said people, of which part of them, when they saw our folk weary, loaded them upon themselves, as upon horsesd carried them. and we, having arrived at our said boats, made sail to return to our pinnace, for doubt that there might be some hindrance; which departure was not made without great regret of the said people, for as far as they could follow us down the said river they would follow us, and we accomplished so much that we arrived at our said pinnace monday, the fourth day of october." the reader must have been struck with the pride of the hochelagans in conducting their visitors to the mountain as well as at the accurate and picturesque description given by cartier of the scene that met his delighted gaze. today the same beautiful sight may be seen by the visitor who makes his way to the "lookout" or the observatory. the landscape at his feet has been covered with a busy city and its suburbs, its manufactories, its public buildings and its homes and villas, but still it appears as if all these were peeping out of a garden. all around the green fields and pleasant meadows are there as of yore. from this height the disfigurements of the lower city are not visible. montreal has been described as a beautiful lady handsomely gowned, but whose skirt fringes are sadly mud and dust stained. the river has been spanned by gigantic bridges but the main grand lines of the landscape are those that cartier gazed upon. there at the south is the great st. lawrence with its islands on its bosom, now studded with ocean going steamers; beyond there is the great sweep of the st. lawrence valley, broken abruptly by the solitary mountain ridges of montarville, st. bruno, beloeil, rougemont, yamaska, and mount johnson--a volcanic sisterhood of which mount royal is itself a member--and hemmed in on the horizon by the cloudlike ridges of the green and adirondack mountains. looking to the west are the lachine rapids and beyond the lake st. louis, and to the north the rivière des prairies or the back river is seen, at the head of which lies the bright surface of the lake of the two mountains. far away hemming in the horizon on that side runs the hoary laurentian range, the oldest hills known to geology. all this apart from the works of civilization cartier saw from the mountain which has only of late years been planned to intensify its beauty and usefulness. we are now looking forward to the day when that same city around the mountain will also bear the mark of an intelligible plan to intensify the beauty of the city and make it by art, as it is by nature, one of the finest cities in the world, worthy of the jewel standing out--the pride of its city--mount royal. cartier saw the island from the point of view of greater mount royal. in this he resembles those who today see a greater montreal. modern hochelagans are as proud of their mountain as those of old. d'arcy mcgee imagines jacques cartier telling of it on his return to st. malo: he told them of the algonquin braves--the hunters of the wild, of how the indian mother in the forest rocks her child; of how, poor souls, they fancy in every living thing a spirit good or evil, that claims their worshipping; of how they brought their sick and maim'd for him to breathe upon, and of the wonders wrought for them through the gospel of st. john. he told them of the river whose mighty current gave its freshness for a hundred leagues to ocean's briny wave; he told them of the glorious scene presented to his sight, what time he rear'd the cross and crown on hochelaga's height, and of the fortress cliff that keeps of canada the key, and they welcomed back jacques cartier from his perils o'er the sea. on tuesday, september th, jacques cartier regained his pinnace and on wednesday, september th, he passed thence on his way to stadaconé. at stadaconé, on may d, the festival of the holy cross, he planted the cross and inscribed it with the royal name and title, "franciscus primus dei gratia." there he treacherously seized donnacona and his friends dom agaya and taignoagny and took them to france. on july th, , he reached st. malo "by the grace of the creator, whom we pray, making an end of our navigation to grant us his grace and paradise at the end. amen." cartier's second visit to hochelaga, when cartier appeared before the king, francis i, after his second voyage there is no doubt that he would have enthusiastically recommended the country of hochelaga, especially that island, on which was the mountain to which he had given the title "mont royal" as the site of a settlement, for in jacques cartier's commission, dated october , , in preparation for the third voyage, we read: "and among others we have sent there our dear and well beloved jacques cartier, who has discovered the large countries of canada and hochelaga, making an end of asia, on the western side, which country he found, as he reported to us, furnished with many good commodities, and the people thereof well formed in body and limb, and well disposed in spirit and understanding, of whom he likewise brought us a certain number, whom we have for a long time supported and instructed in our holy faith[ ] with our said subjects, in consideration of which and seeing their good intentions, we have considered and decided to send back the said cartier to the said country of canada and hochelaga, and as far as the land of saguenay, if we can reach there with a good number of ships of our said subjects of good intentions and of all conditions, arts and industries, in order to enter farther into the said countries to converse with the said peoples thereof, and if necessary, live with them in order to accomplish better our said intention and to do a thing agreeable to god our creator and redeemer and which may be for the promoting of his holy sacred name and of our mother the holy catholic church, of which we are called and named the first son." yet before he signed this commission five years had passed. for up to this francis had troubles enough at home, with his kingdom invaded by charles v of spain and his throne threatened, to prevent his giving thought to hochelaga in the west. but on june , , the truce between france and spain gave him more leisure for colonization schemes and the extension of the empire. especially did he desire it to turn to the western hemisphere, for he looked with jealous eyes upon the activity of the king of spain in that direction. "i should like to see the clause in our father adam's will which bequeathed to him this fine heritage." there is no doubt that cartier's action in seizing donnacona, taignoagny and dom agaya and others, and taking them to france, from which they never returned, was the beginning of the cause of the hostility of the indians. at first these had received cartier kindly, but they could not be expected to forget this treachery in the loss of their friends. mather, alluding to a similar piece of treachery by an english captain some time before the arrival of the pilgrim colony declares that "it laid the foundation of grievous annoyances to all the english endeavors of settlements, especially in the northern parts of the island, for several years ensuing. the indians would never forget or forgive this injury." we have no record of hochelaga till september - , . for this we are again indebted to cartier's account of his third voyage. luckily this has been partially preserved in hakluyt's translation, which is that of the "bref récit," the only version known. on wednesday (september , ) cartier left the proposed french settlement, charlesbourg royal, about four leagues beyond the harbour of st. croix, with two boats, to visit hochelaga and the rapids above it. following hakluyt we learn: "how after the departure of the two ships which were sent back to brittany, and that the fort was begun to be builded, the captain prepared two boats to go up the great river to discover the passage of the three saults or falls of the river." while awaiting the arrival of roberval in command of the first colonizing party cartier went up to the sault from charlesbourg royal on september th, "and we sailed with so prosperous a wind that we arrived the th day of the month at the first sault of water, which is two leagues distant from the town of tutonaguy."[ ] there is no further description of tutonaguy, which we take to be the site of montreal. cartier mentions that finding it impossible to get up against the course of the sault he came on shore to a beaten path going towards the first sault. "and on the way and soon after, we found an habitation of people which made us great cheer and entertained us very hospitably." four young men conducted them to another hospitable people who lived over against the second sault. we may perhaps conclude that those of the first sault were islanders of montreal and we are pleased that their hospitality was forthcoming as is always that of our modern city. but we regret that jacques cartier appears to have made no stay at tutonaguy. with this we take leave of cartier. canadians have one grudge against him, for there seems no doubt that his description of the severity of our climate delayed colonization here, but his account of montreal is satisfactory to us. we are not writing his life, but montreal can rejoice in having been discovered by a worthy man. we are glad that francis i recognized his merits as we find him spoken of, in an act of the chapter of st. malo, september , , as sieur de limoilou, and in another act, of february , , as a "noble man." unfortunately as he did not leave any child by his wife, catherine desgranges, he did not pass on his title of nobility to anyone. jacques cartier is worthy of recognition as among the great men of his time, and montreal is proud of its discoverer and first historian. roberval's probable visit to hochelaga, the next french visit to hochelaga can only be surmised. we have the record as follows, which gives us an indication of such a possible visit: it is found in hakluyt's description of the "course of jean alphonse, chief pilot to monsieur roberval . "by the nature of the climate the lands towards hochelaga are better and better and more fruitful; and this land is fit for figs and pears; and i think that gold and silver will be found here according as the people of the country say." it is likely that it received a visit from "john francis de la rocque, knight, lord of roberval," whose voyage from his fort in canada is related by hakluyt "to the countries of canada, saguenay and hochelaga with three tall ships and persons, both men and women, and children, begun in april, , in which parts he remained the same summer and all the next winter." on the th of june about o'clock in the morning, monsieur roberval, the king's lieutenant general in the countries of canada, saguenay and hochelaga, "set sail for the country of the saguenay and sailed against the stream in which voyage their whole furniture was of eight barks, as well great as small and to the number of three score and ten persons, with the aforesaid general." unfortunately the rest of this voyage is wanting. we know that de roberval's party contained many undesirables and not good matter for citizenship and we are glad, that if these did visit montreal, they did not stay there. montreal would never have been proud of itself with such an origin. note i the site of hochelaga where did jacques cartier land on the island of montreal in ? we should very much like to know this. all we know is the naming of the mountain. there is a portion of montreal called hochelaga, being to the southwest of the present city, but there is no contention that this is the original part of the island, on which jacques cartier landed. the "bref récit" of cartier's voyage states that he landed two leagues from the indian town, which was a quarter of a league from the mountain. hakluyt makes the latter distance a league. the abbé faillon in "la colonie française" thinks that cartier ascended the river to the lachine rapids. there is more reason to believe he stayed on his way opposite nun's island. a theory advanced in november , , by sir william dawson, principal of mcgill college, in a discourse before the natural history society of montreal, locates the site of hochelaga in the space between metcalfe and mansfield streets in one direction and burnside place and sherbrooke street in the other. "doctor dawson founded his opinion after the examination of some indian relics excavated by some workmen in november, , near mansfield street, in the sandy ridge of a terrace immediately north of sherbrooke street. they exhumed two skeletons, and with them or near them were found jawbones of a beaver and of a dog, with a fragment of an earthen vessel and of a hollow cylinder of red clay. the skeletons were in a sitting or crouching posture, as was the mode of burial with certain early indian tribes. among other relics previously found and exhibited on this occasion was an instrument made of bone, found among the remains, which exactly fitted the marks on some of the pottery, the large end having been fashioned like a cup, and the small end artificially tapered to a point. there were also several knives and chisels of sharpened bone, in tolerable preservation and some singular counters which are supposed to have been used in play, the indians being inveterate gamblers. the most interesting relics were tobacco pipes, handsomely fashioned in the shape of lotus flowers, with the hole through the stem perfectly preserved. i have thought it well to enumerate these finds because they are now at the natural history museum of the city, and several gentlemen, antiquarians and archæologists have also private collections of their own. may not they serve the reader's imagination to conjure up and reconstruct for himself a picture of the village life of the earliest known inhabitants of montreal in place of a labored description of the present writer."[ ] describing cartier's walk toward hochelaga mr. stanley bagg (numa), in the "canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, july, , vol. ii, p. , says: "where the brook crosses mcgill college ground, he was met by a deputation of the aborigines; afterwards he came into the presence of their king, was conducted through corn-fields to the town and subsequently ascended the mountain. cartier's description of the locality, taken in connection with the statement of the missionaries, and the discovery of indian antiquities, place the town of hochelaga on the space between mansfield street to a little west of metcalfe street in one direction and in the other from a little south of burnside place to within sixty yards of sherbrooke street. in this area, several skeletons, hundreds of old fireplaces, indications of huts, bones of wild animals, pottery and implements of stone and bone have been found." note ii hochelaga civilization in order to present a picture of these early settlers around mount royal the following description from jacques cartier's second voyage may be of avail: "of the manner of living of the people of the said land, and of certain conditions, belief, and manner of making what they have "the said people have not any belief in god which may avail, for they believe in one whom they call cudouagny, and they say that he speaks frequently to them and tells them what the weather should be. they say also that when he is angry with them he throws dirt in their eyes. they believe also that when they depart they go to the stars, then go declining to the horizon like the said stars, then pass into fair fields toward plains of beautiful trees, flowers and sumptuous fruits. after they had given us to understand these things we showed them their error and said that their cudouagny is an evil spirit who abuses them, and said that there is only one god, who is in heaven, who gives us all things necessary, and is the creator of all things, and that in him only should we believe, and that it was necessary to be baptised or go to hell. many other things of our faith were shown them which they readily believed, and called their cudouagny, agojuda, so that many times they prayed our captain to have them baptised. and the said lord taignoagny, dom agaya, and all the people of their town, came there for the purpose of being baptised; but because we knew not their intention and sincerity and that there was none that could show them the faith there, excuse was made to them, and it was told taignoagny and dom agaya that they should make them understand that we should return another voyage, and would bring priests and holy oil, giving them to understand for excuse that one could not be baptised without the said holy oil, which they believed because they saw several children baptised in brittany, and of the promise that the captain made them to return they were very joyous and thanked him. "the said people live in almost a community of goods, rather of the style of the brazilians, and are wholly clothed with skin of wild beasts, and poorly enough. in winter they are shod with stockings and shoes, and in summer they go barefoot. they keep the order of marriage, save that they take two or three wives, and after the husband is dead the wives never remarry, but wear mourning for the said dead all their lives, and besmear their faces with coal-dust and with grease as thick as the thickness of a knife; and by that one knows that they are widows. they have another custom very bad for their girls; for after they are of age to marry they are all put into a common house, abandoned to everybody who desires them until they have found their match. and all this we have seen by experience, for we have seen the houses as full of the said girls as is a school of boys in france. and, moreover, gaming according to their manner is held in the said houses, where they stake all that they have, even to the covering of their nature. they do not any great work, and with little pieces of wood about the size of a half-sword cultivate their land whereon they raise their corn, which they call zis, the which is as big as peas, of the same grain in growth as in brazil. likewise they have a great quantity of great melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins, peas and beans of all colours, not of the kind of ours. they have also an herb of which during the summer they make a great store for the winter, the which they greatly esteem, and the men only use it in the manner following: they have it dried in the sun and carry it about their necks in a little beast's skin in place of a bag, with a horn of stone or wood; then by and by they make powder of the said herb and put it in one of the ends of the said horn, then put a coal fire thereon and suck at the other end so long that they fill their bodies with smoke; insomuch that it comes out by the mouth and nostrils as by a chimney funnel; and they say that it keeps them healthy and warm, and they never go without having their said things. we have tried the said smoke, which, after being put into our mouths, seemed to be powder of pepper put therein, it was so hot. the women of the said country work beyond comparison more than the men, as well in fishing, of which they make a great business, as in tilling and other things; and men, women and children alike are more hardened to the cold than beasts, for with the greatest cold that we may have seen, the which was extreme and bitter, they came over the ice and snow every day to our ships, the most part of them almost entirely naked, which is an incredible thing to one who has not seen it. they take during the said ice and snow a great quantity of wild beasts, as deer, stags, and bears, of which they brought us but very little, because they were stingy of their victuals. they eat their flesh wholly raw, after having been dried by the smoke, and likewise their fish. by what we have seen and been able to learn of this said people it seems to me that they might be easy to tame in such fashion as one might desire. god by his divine compassion bestow upon them his regard. amen." note iii--canada canada was limited by cartier to the region between the isle of bacchus (isle d'orleans) and hochelaga. there can be no doubt that the word canada is derived from cannata or kannata, which in iroquois signifies a collection of dwellings, in other words a settlement, and it is probable that when the indians were asked by the french the name of their country, they replied pointing to their dwellings, "cannata," which their interrogators applied in a broader sense than was intended. note iv--geological survey of mount royal the following geological study of mount royal prepared by dean f. d. adams of mcgill university for the geological survey department of the federal government cannot fail to be of interest to students of montreal: "in the province of quebec, between the enormous expanse of the laurentian highlands to the northwest, constituting the 'canadian shield,' and the disturbed and folded tract of country which marks the appalachian uplift, there is a great plain underlain by nearly horizontal rocks of lower palæozoic age. this plain, while really showing slight differences of level from place to place, seems to the casual observer perfectly flat. its surface is mantled with a fertile soil consisting of drift redistributed upon its surface by the sea, which covered it at the close of the glacial times. the uniform expanse of this plain, however, is broken by several isolated hills composed of igneous rocks, which rise abruptly from it and which constitute very striking features of the landscape. "from the top of mount royal the other hills referred to can all be seen rising from the plain to the east; while to the north the plain stretches away unbroken to the foot of the laurentian plateau. "the hills under consideration, while by no means 'mere hummocks,' being situated in such a country of low relief, seem to be higher than they really are and are always referred to locally as 'mountains.' "these mountains, whose positions are shown on the accompanying map, are eight in number, their names and their height above sea level being as follows: "mount royal . feet. montarville or st. bruno " (o'neil) beloeil , " (leroy) rougemont , " yamaska , " (young) shefford , " brome , " mount johnson or monnoir " "they have been called the monteregian hills from mount royal ('mons regius'), which is the best known member of the group and may be taken as their type. "brome mountain is by far the largest member of the group, having an area of square miles. shefford comes next in size, having an area of rather less than nine square miles; while mount johnson, which is very much smaller than any of the others, has an area of only . of one square mile. "of these eight, the first six, as logan notes, 'stand pretty nearly in a straight line,' running approximately east and west, mount royal being the most westerly, and the others following in the order in which they are enumerated above, until shefford mountain, the most easterly member of the series, is reached. mount johnson and brome mountain lie on a line parallel to them, a short distance to the south, rougemont being the nearest neighbour to mount johnson and brome mountain immediately south of shefford. it is highly probable, in view of this distribution, that these ancient volcanic mountains are, as is usual in such occurrences, arranged along some line or lines of weakness or deep-seated fracture. the 'pretty nearly straight line' referred to by logan, on which the first six mountains of the group are situated, must be considered either as a single line with a rather sharp curve in the middle or as made up of two shorter straight lines, each with three mountains, diverging from one another at an angle of about thirty degrees, with montarville at the point of intersection. mount johnson and brome mountain might then be considered as situated on short subsidiary fractures. "the distance from brome mountain, the most easterly member of the monteregian hills, to mount royal the most westerly, is miles ( km.). for a few miles to the east and west of these mountains respectively, however, evidences of the igneous activity of the system are manifested in the occurrence of occasional dykes or small stocks of the consanguineous rocks of the series, the extreme easterly representative of these being a little stock exposed about a mile and a half east of eastman, on the line of the canadian pacific railway, and the most westerly being a series of dykes and a small stock at la trappe, on the lake of two mountains. similarly, the most northerly extension is represented by a sheet intercalated between strata of the chazy limestone in the bed of the little river, near st. lin, miles ( km.) north of st. lin junction. it is difficult to say just how far to the south the last evidences of the monteregian activity are found, but scattered dykes of bostonite, camptonite and monchiquite have been described by kemp and marsters from the shores of lake champlain (out of which flows the river richelieu), to a distance of miles ( km.) or more south of mount johnson. "the monteregian hills are a series of ancient plutonic intrusions. some of them (e. g. brome mountain) are apparently denuded laccoliths, one of them (mount johnson) is a typical neck or pipe, and it is probable that some, if not all, of them, represent the substructures of volcanoes which at one time were in active eruption in this region. "it is impossible to determine accurately the date of these intrusions. in the case of mount royal, however, inclusions of lower devonian limestone are found in the intruded rock, so that the intrusions forming the mountain are later than lower devonian time. "since dresser by another line of evidence, has shown that the intrusion of mount shefford probably took place before late carboniferous time, the monteregian intrusions probably date back to the late devonian or early carboniferous period. "it must be noted that while six of these mountains rise from the horizontal strata of the plain, the two most easterly members of the group, namely shefford and brome, while still to the west of the axis of that range, lie well within the folded belt of the appalachians, although, owing to the extensive denudation from which the region has suffered, this folding has had but little influence on the local topography. about la trappe, at the extreme westerly extension of the monteregian area, the dykes of the series cut rocks of laurentian age, which here form an outlier of the great laurentian protaxis on the north. "the monteregian hills form an exceptionally distinct and well marked petrographical province, being composed of consanguineous rocks of very interesting and rather unusual type. these are characterized by a high content of alkali and in the main intrusion of almost every mountain two distinct types are found associated with one another, representing the products of the differentiation of the original magma. "these are-- "(a) nepheline syenite, in some cases replaced by or associated with pulaskite, tawite, akerite or nordmarkite. "(b) essexite, in some cases represented by theralite, yamaskite, rougemonite, or rouvillite. "it may be mentioned that yamaskite is a very basic rock type characterized by a great predominance of pyroxene, basaltic hornblende and ilmenite, with about two per cent of anorthite. rougemonite consists largely of anorthite with pyroxene as the only important ferro-magnesian constituent. rouvillite is a highly feldspathic variety of theralite. geology of mount royal "mount royal consists of a body of intrusive plutonic rock penetrating the nearly horizontal limestone of the trenton formation (ordovician). it consists of two main intrusions composed of essexite and nepheline syenite respectively, of which the nepheline syenite is the later followed by a swarm of dykes and sheets of consanguineous rocks which cut not only the main intrusions, but also penetrate the surrounding limestones in all directions. the intrusive rock in some places tilts up the limestones while elsewhere about the mountain these maintain their horizontal attitude. the intrusion may be essentially laccolitic in character, or it may represent the plutonic basis of a volcano. the erosion has been so long continued that it has been impossible as yet to reach a definite conclusion on this point. "the greater part of the plain through which the mountain rises, and which is underlaid by ordovician strata, is mantled by drift which also covers the slopes of the mountain. this drift, and in some places the underlying rock, has been terraced by a series of well defined beaches, which mark the successive stages of the retreat of the sea at the close of the glacial age. "the city of montreal is built upon these drift deposits, and lies upon the slopes of mount royal and upon the plain about its foot. the development of the city was largely influenced by the position of the main beaches above mentioned. "at a number of places on the slopes of mount royal and in its vicinity there are remarkable developments of igneous breccia. this has as a matrix one or other of the dyke rocks of the series, while the included fragments consist in part of the trenton limestone, often associated with fragments of the other underlying stratified rocks traversed by the dykes in their upward passage. these fragments are frequently so numerous that they constitute a large part of the whole mass. perhaps the most remarkable of these breccias is that which occurs on st. helen's island in the harbor of montreal, and which is unique among these occurrences in that it contains fragments of rocks which are more recent in age than any of the sedimentary strata now found in the district. "at the present time a tunnel, about three and a half miles in length, is being driven through mount royal by the canadian northern railway, in order to gain an entrance from the westward to their proposed terminals in the vicinity of the corner of dorchester and ste. monique streets, in the city of montreal. it has afforded an excellent opportunity of studying the distribution of dykes, sheets, etc., as well as fresher specimens of many of the rock types of the district. already about two miles and a half of the sub-heading have been driven. more minute description, in detail, of the various explored strata of rock is to be found in the same work." footnotes: [ ] the company is said to be . [ ] this commission was dated october , . [ ] stadaconé is the site of quebec. stadaconé is "wing" in huron iroquois, so called because of the formation of the point between the st. lawrence and the st. charles rivers. [ ] the translation of the second voyage of jacques cartier which we are using with his permission is that made by mr. james phinney baxter and published in in his "memoir of jacques cartier." we have not chosen hakluyt's for the following reasons: in the bibliothèque nationale of paris there are three contemporary manuscripts, numbered and , which vary very slightly. that numbered was probably the copy used for a publication of the second voyage issued at paris in under the title of "bref récit" and appeared translated into english by hakluyt in . in comparing the other manuscript it has been found that numerous errors and omissions occurred in the version printed under the title of the bref récit including the omission of two entire chapters. doctor baxter has therefore translated the manuscript and it is a portion of this that we present to the readers. [ ] hochelaga is huron iroquois for "at the beavers dam." [ ] this might indicate that there were chaplains with cartier, if he had perhaps not deluded the savages, as likely he did. [ ] the history of the efforts of the montreal merchants to deepen the channels dates from the same cause. the success of the navigation to montreal has followed the varying increases in depth of this channel. [ ] the present sorel islands, the streams being the channels between them. [ ] the algonquin word is mooskouessou. [ ] maize or indian corn. [ ] lescarbot has it caracona. the word is huron iroquois. [ ] "esnogny," the wampum of the abenaki. [ ] shells. [ ] cartier's canada was limited to the region between the isle bacchus and hochelaga. [ ] the lachine rapids. [ ] the ottawa. [ ] probably from the region of lake superior. [ ] donnacona, dom agaya and taignoagny were baptized, as it appears by the register of st. malo. donnacona, being the so-called king of the savages, was doubtless named françois for the king. the following is a translation in the entry in the registry: "this day, notre dame xxvth of march, the year one thousand five hundred and thirty-eight, were baptized three savage men from the party of canada, taken in the said country by the honest man, jacques cartier, captain for the king, our sire, for the discovery of the said lands. the first was named charles, by the venerable and discreet master charles de champ girault, dean and canon of the said places principal sponsor; and secondary sponsor, monsieur the lieutenant and seigneur de la verderye; and godmother catherine des granges. and the second was named françois, the name of the king, our sire, by the honest man, jacques cartier, principal godfather; and secondary godfather master pierre le gobien; godmother, madame le lieutenant seigneur de la verderye. the third was named ---- by master servan may ---- of the said place, and secondary godfather, jehan nouël; and godmother guillemette maingard." [ ] montreal is known in iroquois as "tioktiaki" which the abbé faillon has identified as tutonaguy. [ ] sandham's "ville marie past and present." chapter ii - colonization under the early trading companies of new france french colonization, a christianizing movement--the cross and the crown--roberval's commission to colonize canada and hochelaga--feudalism projected--criminals and malefactors to be sent as colonists--jacques cartier sails in advance--charlesbourg royal, the first colony, started--cartier sails for hochelaga and passes tutonaguy--cartier sails secretly for france--charlesbourg a failure--death of cartier--his great nephew, noel, visits the great sault in --the first private monopoly to noel and others--the first royal trade monopoly to de la roche--the edict of nantes--chauvin, a huguenot, secures a trade monopoly--tadoussac, the court of king petaud--eymard de chastes receives a commission and engages the services of a royal geographer, samuel de champlain--champlain's first visit to the sault--de monts, succeeding de chastes, retains champlain as his lieutenant--quebec chosen by champlain--champlain becomes a company promoter and managing director, the shareholders being mostly huguenots, the prince de conde, governor general--champlain's blunder in allying himself with the algonquins and hurons against the iroquois, afterwards the cause of iroquois hostilities against the future montreal--the coming of the "recollects"--champlain's attempt at a real colonizing settlement at quebec--the jesuits arrive--the company of one hundred associates. as the origin of montreal is bound up so closely with the history of the colonization of la nouvelle france, it is well to place it in relation with this movement, otherwise montreal will appear as detached from its mission in the growth and development of canada. the date usually assigned for the discovery of canada is april , , but the knowledge of canada begins only with jacques cartier. long, however, before him, the fishing grounds of newfoundland had seen navigators from dieppe, st. malo, la rochelle, honfleur and other ports of france, besides those of cornwall, devonshire and the channel islands. brave mariners, normands, bretons and basques, besides being familiar with newfoundland, knew vaguely of the existence of canada, although that name had not been yet attached to this country. other nations also were represented in these fishing regions, but it was reserved to cartier definitely to discover it, and to francis i of france, to attempt to colonize and christianize it. it must be conceded that the religious policy played a great part, as the commissions granted to cartier, champlain, and others, as well as the report of these and the relations of their discoveries, amply testify. lescarbot, no good catholic, acknowledges that: "our kings in enterprising these movements for discovery, have had another end than that of our neighbours (the english and the dutch). for i see by their commissions that these smack only of the advancement of the christian religion without any present profit." it is this lofty missionary spirit that we must read into the adventurous motives of the first discoverers and founders of canada--la nouvelle france--of quebec and montreal in particular, else nothing but a sordid desire for trade, mixed perhaps with adventure, is to be the story of the origin of our great country. unless the religious character and close touch with the supernatural, possessed by the first inhabitants are appreciated, the romance of the accounts of the early historians will have no attraction for our readers nor will the key to the understanding of the history of canada till the occupation by the british in be supplied. we must look upon jacques cartier, when as the bearer of a royal commission, he left st. malo, on april , , to conquer new lands for christianity, as dignified by this side of his duty--to promote the glory of god and that of france. consequently his progress up the river st. lawrence to hochelaga is marked by such incidents as the distribution of rosaries and pious objects, emblems of the faith he believed in, and the planting at gaspé of a cross thirty feet high, in the middle of which was a shield with three _fleurs de lis_, with the inscription, cut into the wood, "vive le roi de france." his course and that of champlain, up the st. lawrence is strewn with a number of places named after the festivals of the church, all dignifying an otherwise prosaic catalogue of discoveries. the cross and the crown of france may therefore be considered the emblems of the french occupation. it is not the purpose of this book to detail cartier's voyages, three of which we have recounted by himself, those of , - , and . we have, however, chosen several extracts from the second voyage, as these relate especially to montreal. we wish to gather the results of his work. he left no permanent settlement and established no trading posts but he claimed the land for france and his accounts to the king and the ministers and his published voyages of the country of canada, hochelaga and saguenay, kept before his countrymen the existence of a great land in the west worth the colonizing. cartier's commission in the first voyage was that of "captain and master pilot of the king;" in the second, "captain general and master pilot." when he was sent on his third voyage, a new element entered into the view of canada. at the head of the expedition was placed a gentleman of picardy, jean françois de la rocque seigneur de roberval, whom francis i playfully styled the petty king of vimeux, and whom he appointed his lieutenant and governor in the countries of canada and hochelaga, with jacques cartier as "the captain general and leader of the ships." his commission is dated october , . this was to be the first colonizing movement. jean françois de la rocque's letters patent were granted by francis i, on january , . it reads, having learnt of the discovery of countries, "the which have been found furnished with very good commodities, and the people thereof well formed in body and limb and well disposed in disposition and understanding, of which have also been brought us others having the appearance of good inclination. in consideration of which things we have considered and determined to send again into the same countries of canada and hochelaga and others circumjacent, as well as into all transmarine and maritime countries inhabited, not possessed nor granted, by any christian princes, some goodly number of gentlemen, our subjects, as well men of war as common people of each sex, and other craftsmen and mechanics in order to enter further into the said countries; and as far as into the land of the saguenay and all other countries aforesaid, for the purpose of discoursing with the said peoples therein, if it can be done, and to dwell in the said lands and countries, there to construct and build towns and forts, temples and churches in the communication of our holy catholic faith and christian doctrine, to constitute and establish laws in our name, together with officers of justice to make them live according to equity and order and in the fear and love of god, to the end that they may better conform to our purpose and do the things agreeable to god, our creator, saviour and redeemer, which may be to the sanctification of his holy name and to the increase of our holy faith and the growth of our mother of the holy catholic church, of the which we are said to be and entitled the first son," etc. the text of the letters patent following is a very long one, it enters most minutely, and in a most legal and formal manner, into the details of the powers of the governor which are to be very great and foresee a thoroughly organized kingdom with all the elements of feudalism with his fiefs and seigneuries--in fact a nouvelle france! on january th, roberval's royal commission empowering him to take the means for the equipment, was signed at fontainebleau. it gave to "our said lieutenant full authority, charge, commission and special mandate to provide and furnish of himself all things necessary to said army and to levy or cause to be levied in all parts, places and precincts of our realm as shall seem to him good, paying therefor reasonably, and as is meet, and to take men of war, or artisans and others of divers conditions in order to carry them with him on the said voyage, provided that this may be of their own good will and accord, and likewise also provisions, victuals, arms, artillery, arquebuses, powder, saltpeter, pikes and other offensive and defensive weapons, and generally all clothing, instruments and other things suitable for the equipment, despatch and efficiency of this army," etc. the supply of volunteers for this expedition does not seem to have been sufficiently encouraging, for, dated february th, we have an order by francis i, for delivery of prisoners to jehan françois de la rocque. this document after re-stating the terms of the commissions, already given, in view of the wish of the king that the expedition shall sail on the th of april, at the latest, states "and on account of the long distance from the said country and the fear of shipwreck and maritime risks, and others regretting to leave their goods, relatives and friends, fearing to make the said voyage; and, peradventure as a number, who would willingly make the same journey, might object to remain in the same country after the return of our said lieutenant, by means of which, through want of having a competent number of men for service, and other volunteers to people the said countries, the undertaking of the said voyage could not be accomplished so soon, and as we desire, and as it is requisite for the weal of the human creatures dwelling in the said country without law and without knowledge of god and of his holy faith, which we wish to increase and augment by a great zeal, a thing if it were not accomplished, which would cause us very great regret, considering the great benefit and public weal which would proceed from the said enterprise, and as we have enjoined and verbally commanded our said lieutenant to diligently execute our said will and intention, to depart and commence the said voyage by the fifteenth of april next ensuing, at farthest if it can be accomplished," etc. * * * "we desire to employ clemency, in doing a good and meritorious work, towards some criminals and malefactors, that by this they may recognize the creator by rendering him thanks and amending their lives, we have thought proper to have given and delivered to our said lieutenant, his clerks and deputies, to the full number that he shall advise of the said criminals and malefactors detained in the jails and state prisons of our parliament and of other jurisdictions, * * * such as they shall desire to choose and select, condemned and judged as has been said, always excepting the imprisoned criminals to whom we are not accustomed to give pardon * * * commuting the penalty of death into an honest and useful voyage, with the condition that when the said persons return home again from the said voyage without permission from us, they shall be executed in the place in which they may have been condemned, immediately and without hope of pardon." an extract from the parliament registers at rouen of march th, giving power to roberval to have the prisoners transferred from its jails to him limits the choice somewhat by "excepting the prisoners who shall be held in cases and crimes of heresy and high treason in the first degree, of counterfeiting money and other too monstrous cases and crimes." roberval could not get his party together for april. indeed it seemed that he needed jacques cartier's assistance, for on october , , we find him receiving a commission similar to roberval's to take over fifty prisoners. in this charge he is allowed and permitted "to take the little galleon, called l'emerillon which he now has of us, the which is already old and rotten, in order to serve in repairing those of the ships which shall have need of it," without rendering any account of it. but it was not till may d of the year following, , that cartier set sail with five ships, well furnished and victualed for two years. he went without roberval, because as the king had sent cartier letters "whereby he did expressly charge him to depart and set sail immediately upon the sight and receipt thereof, on pain of incurring his displeasure, and as roberval had not got his artillery, powder and ammunitions ready he told cartier to go on ahead and he would prepare a ship or two at honfleur whither he expected his things were to come. having mustered and reviewed "the gentleman soldiers and mariners which were retained and chosen for the performance of the said voyage, he gave unto captain cartier full authority to depart and go before and to govern all things as if he had been there in person." so cartier sailed away, on may d. we will leave the misfortunes on the way to be read in cartier's memoir of the third voyage. at last, however, cartier arrived at the mouth of what is now cape rouge river and found a spot where a fort should be built on the high point now called redclyffe. this fort he called charlesbourg royal, doubtless after charles, duke of orléans, son of francis i. he put three of the vessels in haven, and after the two others were emptied of all that was destined for the colony, cartier sent them back and with them in command marc jalobert, his brother-in-law, and etienne noël, his nephew, to tell king francis that they had begun to construct a fort, but that monsieur de roberval was not yet come and that he feared that by occasion of contrary winds and tempests he was driven back to france. they departed for st. malo on september d. things were progressing at the fort; the land was tilled and the fort was begun to be built; but now a party consisting of cartier, martin de painport, with other gentlemen, and the remnant of the mariners, departed with two boats "with victuals to go as far as hochelaga of purpose to view and understand the fashion of the saults of water." the viscount de beaupré stayed behind for the guarding and government of all things in the fort. cartier's party reached the rapids passing tutonaguy, which we identify as the site of montreal, but we have no record of his staying there. cartier's memoirs of the voyage break off here. however, as we are interested only in the colonizing movement, we get sufficient information from roberval's account of his voyage of the fate of the charlesbourg attempt. roberval says that cartier left for france at the end of september, , and that he himself after having set sail from honfleur, on the th of april, , arrived at newfoundland on the th of june following, where he found cartier on his way home. cartier explained that he had left the fort because he had not been able, with his little troupe, to resist the savages who roamed daily around the fort, and were very harassing. however, cartier and his men praised the country highly, as being very rich and fertile, adding that they had taken away many diamonds, and a certain quantity of gold ore which roberval examined and found good. roberval had arrived with three great vessels fitted out at the expense of the king, with souls, men and women and some gentlemen, among them being the sieur de lenneterre, his lieutenant, lespinay, his ensign, the captain guinecourt, and the pilot, jean alphonse. he ordered cartier to retrace his steps to charlesbourg, believing that the new recruitment was able to resist the attacks of the enemy. but cartier, and his following, departed secretly the following night. whether or not this flight was disloyal, or born of fear, or of vainglory, since roberval asserted, that cartier had fled being desirous of getting first to france to acquaint the king of his discoveries, certain it is that it was wise. for this first royal colonizing party composed of so many men and women from the jails of france was fated to be a most lamentable failure. famine and lawlessness marked its sojourn at charlesbourg. it was well that new france should not be born of such material for citizenship. this voyage has an interest for montrealers in that roberval passed by it on a voyage to the sault. cartier never seems to have been blamed by the king for his desertion of roberval, but, it is said, he was sent back to recall him for more useful service in france. of this fourth voyage of jacques cartier we have no record. we find him settled in france, ennobled and known as the sieur de limoilou, although there is a tradition, not well founded, that he made a fifth voyage to canada. he lived an honoured man in st. malo to his death. in the margin of the old record of the town of st. malo under date of september , , we find the following: "this said wednesday about five o'clock in the morning died jacques cartier." cartier's name is no longer to be associated with the further history of canada, except in the memory of a grateful people, who will come to admire the memory of this brave sailor, daring adventurer, missionary and historian--the discoverer of canada and montreal. we shall see, however, how this spirit of enterprise for canadian extension was carried on by his nephews. we cannot help feeling sorry for roberval. he was a young man of energy and had great ideas as a colonizer. he went out, according to charlevoix, with the royal commission as "lord of norumberga, viceroy and lieutenant general of canada, hochelaga, saguenay, newfoundland, belle-isle, carpunt, labrador, the great bay and baccalaos." he was recalled for more useful service! after cartier had ceased visiting the st. lawrence, the care of the french government for the development and colonization of canada seems to have been neglected from to . cartier's discoveries were not appreciated; it was reserved for champlain three-quarters of a century later, to follow in his footsteps. as champlain is the trader _par excellence_ of canada and of montreal, we may now briefly trace the history of our trade. although discovery and colonization were so long abandoned still the banks of newfoundland and the mouth of the st. lawrence were frequented yearly by hardy normans and bretons as before, for the cod and whale fishery there.[ ] trading with the natives in peltry became insensibly mingled with the occupation of fisherman and tadoussac grew to be a public market for this sort of commerce and exchange. there we would have found many good friends of jacques cartier, among them capt. marc jalobert, his brother-in-law, who visited hochelaga in and etienne noël, his nephew, also a sturdy captain under cartier in his third voyage. there, too, would have been jacques noël, his great-nephew, who reports in a letter of that he had gone on his uncle's traces up the st. lawrence as far as the great sault. this visit to hochelaga makes us interested in him, the more so, as it was this noël, associated with sieur de la jaunaye-chaton and the nephew of jacques cartier, who in applied to henry iii for a charter similar to that granted by francis i to their uncle, appealing for this favour on the ground that their uncle had spent, from his own pocket in the service of the king in the voyage of , a sum in excess of that which he had received from the king, and had been allowed no recompense; nor had indeed his heirs. warned by the failures and the expenses of the past the king demurred. cartier's nephew then compromised. they offered to renew their uncle's design and to form a french colony in canada to christianize the savages, all at their own expense, provided that the king would grant them the sole privilege for twelve years of trading with the inhabitants, principally in peltry and that he would forbid interference of rivals with them in this privilege and in the exploitation of a mine discovered by them. to this the king consented by a favour of january , . this monopoly, the first of its kind, was soon revoked at the instance of jealous rival traders of st. malo who obtained a revocation of the charter on the th of may following for they considered that the good things coming from jacques cartier's discoveries were to be shared in by all of st. malo, since they belonged to all and not to his nephews alone. this attempt to obtain a private monopoly having failed, we are surprised to find a monopoly being granted in by henry iv to a gentleman of brittany, the sieur de la roche, apparently in accordance with a promise given verbally or otherwise by henry iii at sometime before his assassination in august, . this document was one similar to that granted by francis i to roberval and it made de la roche the king's lieutenant governor in new france--with real vice-regal privileges. the commission differed in this from roberval's that it gave power to the lieutenant general to choose merchants to accompany him and forbade all others to trade in the same regions without his consent under penalty of confiscation of merchandise and vessels. again a miserable fiasco was to take place. the lieutenant governor had to draw upon the jails and galleys for his colonists. he arrived with sixty men under the direction of pilot chedotel at sable island, twenty-five leagues to the south of the island of cape breton. arrived there he disembarked, according to lescarbot, the greater part of those he had drawn from the prisons, left them provisions and merchandise, and promised to return for them as soon as he had found on the mainland, a suitable place for settlement. taking a little bark, he went to the acadian coast, but on returning was surprised by so violent a wind that he was driven back to france in less than twelve days. the fate of the abandoned colonists had better be told by champlain. in the description of his voyages, dedicated to cardinal richelieu and published in , champlain's criticism of de la roche's expedition was "that the fault of this attempt at colonizing was that this marquis did not have some one experienced in such matters explore and reconnoitre, before assuming so excessive an outlay." on the other hand we can be glad that canada did not start her origin as a colony with such stuff as composed the greater part of roberval's and de la roche's consignments. in the edict of nantes had been published in france and it was soon to affect canada in this wise. in france it had restored civil and religious liberty to the huguenots, protestants or french calvinists. the spirit of conciliation was in the air and huguenots now began to take their place in the judicature and financial posts, and in the army. next year we find a sailor merchant of st. malo named dupont gravé soliciting a commission for sieur chauvin, of normandy, a huguenot, a man of great skill and experience in navigation, captain in the king's navy and of some influence at the court. as the king remembered the good services of m. chauvin he granted a monopoly to him on the condition that no one should trade in canada unless he had chauvin's permission and should settle in the country and make a home there. chauvin was to bear all the expenses, and he was to take men to fortify the country and defend it, and to teach the catholic faith to the indians. tadoussac was chosen as the headquarters. thither chauvin and dupont gravé and a huguenot, pierre dugas, sieur de monts, a prospector who came out on "pleasure," went with an advance party. tadoussac had been well enough for a summer trading post but, says champlain, "if there is an ounce of cold forty leagues up the river there is a pound at tadoussac." however, they fixed up a guardlike building of wood, feet long by wide, and feet high. this was to harbour seventeen men and provisions. "behold them there very warm for the winter," chuckles champlain, who had no love for the huguenots. the leaders went to france and during the winter the settlement at tadoussac was "the court of king pétaud; each one wished to command. laziness, idleness, and the diseases that attacked those remaining, reduced them to great want and obliged them to give themselves up to the savages, who kindly harboured them and they left their lodging. some died miserably; others suffered a great deal while waiting for the return of the ships." in the next year a second voyage as fruitless as the first was made, by chauvin. he assayed another but fell into an illness which sent him to another world. we have champlain's comment in the account published in on this attempt at colonization. "the trouble with this undertaking was giving to a man of opposing religion a commission to establish a nursery for the catholic apostolic and roman faith[ ] of which the heretics have such a horror and abomination. these are the defects that must be mentioned in regard to the enterprise." after the death of chauvin, the same commission of lieutenant general was applied for, by eymard de chastes, knight of malta, commander of lormetan, grand master of the order of st. lazarus and governor of dieppe. henry iv granted it and de chaste should have made a good colonizer for he intimated that in making his application it was in the intention of betaking himself thither in person and of devoting the rest of his years to the service of god and that of his king, but he was not to live long. in order to meet the expenses of the expedition commander de chastes formed a company of several of the principal merchants of rouen and elsewhere. he chose the explorer, dupont gravé, to direct the flotilla as before to tadoussac, and he desired him to associate with himself in his further explorations for which he had received a commission from the king, a young captain of saintonge, who had already given undoubted proof of his ability as a zealous, courageous and intelligent explorer. this was none other than samuel de champlain, whose name is to be connected this very year of with montreal and more lastingly in . he is to become entitled to be called the founder of la nouvelle france. de champlain had been living at dieppe after his return from a visit of two years to the west indies and new spain, for which he had started early in in command of a french ship chartered by the spanish authorities and in which he had sailed under his uncle, a man of distinction, in the previous year. during this period he had the opportunity of observing and studying a european colony before trying to found one himself. his "_brief discours des choses plus remarquables que samuel champlain de brouage a reconnues aux indes occidentales, au voyage qu' il y a fait_," was the result of this experience. champlain was now thirty-six years of age, having been born about the year at brouage, a small seaport town in the old province of saintonge, southeast of rochefort and opposite the island of oléron. champlain's father was a sailor, being a captain of the marine; his uncle's position we have seen. hence we do not wonder, when he tells us of himself: "from my earliest years the art of navigation attracted me, made me love the sea and drove me to expose myself nearly all my life to the wild waves of the ocean. it has made me explore the coasts of a part of the lands of america, and principally those of 'la nouvelle france,' where i have always had the desire to cause the lily to flourish with the only catholic religion, apostolic and roman." but champlain was also a soldier, for, having taken up the cause of henry iv in the troublous times of the league, he had served in brittany under maréchals de daumont de st. luc and de brissac and held during several years the rank of maréchal de logis in the royal army. he held this position till may , , when peace between france and spain was established by the treaty of vervins. then again he turned to the sea and went with his uncle to spain, and afterward to spanish america as we have said. on his return he seems to be in favour with, and in the service of, the king. he is in receipt of a pension, either for his services in the army, or, as it has been supposed, because the king, having been shown the notes and topographical sketches taken by champlain in his late voyage, had given him the title of royal geographer; but when commander de chastes, who doubtless also had seen the manuscripts, offered him a post in his new expedition, champlain told him he must obtain the king's permission for him to embark as indeed de chastes did. moreover, the king commissioned champlain to report faithfully on his discoveries. so dupont gravé and champlain set out for tadoussac and on the th of june, reaching it, made for the grand sault. they passed by quebec, "which is a strait of the river of canada, and anchored till monday, june th, and thence proceeding examined and named three rivers and found it good for a future settlement." finally on wednesday, july , the feast of the visitation, they reached the entrance of the sault. we will reserve this visit to its proper chapter. after their exploration on july th they turned back to tadoussac and thence to france, where they learned of the death of the worthy commander de chastes at dieppe on tuesday, may , . to replace de chastes, that same sieur de monts, who prospected tadoussac with chauvin, now took command of the reins of government as lieutenant general, having applied for a similar charter as the last. he was a huguenot and was governor of paris for the protestant party. he continued the same association, employing dupont gravé and champlain. with them was the gentleman adventurer, the sieur de poutrincourt. they set sail from havre on the th of march, , this time for acadia. a site, since called "port royal," was chosen by poutrincourt and granted on condition he should return. after having abandoned acadia in , de monts now turned his attention to canada. he did this the more readily because the king gave him for one year the exclusive right of the fur trade. champlain, hitherto a man subordinate, was charged by the lieutenant general as his lieutenant. champlain sailed from france on the th of april, arrived at tadoussac on the d of june and ascending the st. lawrence, named cape tourment and montmorency falls and, reaching stadaconé, he chose that place called kébec by the natives and began to take possession of it in the name of m. de monts, and to construct a fort. champlain's instinct as a city planner was distinctly manifested in the choice of the bold promontory whose bases are washed by the rivers st. lawrence, cap rouge and st. charles and whose outlook from the promontory above is one of the grandest in the world. there were twenty-eight men sent by de monts for the expedition. a plot having arisen among these to kill champlain, one of the conspirators was beheaded and three others were sent back to france. soon, also, some twenty died of scurvy or of dysentery caused by the eating of eels to excess. the colony was now a cipher. meanwhile, in france, de monts' one year's monopoly was revoked owing to the jealousy of the merchants there. the question of the sale of the habitation of quebec came up, as the post appeared to be unnecessary if there was to be no monopoly. sieur de monts remained governor general. seeing the danger of de monts' enterprise breaking up, through the trading with the savages being thrown open to other traders, champlain began to look out for himself and to cast his eyes on the great sault as a trading post for himself. thither he now went, as shall be related hereafter. about this time, as the prohibition of trading had been removed from private individuals, the gulf of st. lawrence and the river was a scene of rival barks of greedy, avaricious, envious people without harmony and without chief. on his return to france as de monts wished to resign his command, champlain went to court to get permission to form a company with exclusive rights and he was advised to invite charles de bourbon, count of soissons, to accept the governor generalship on the ground that his powerful protectorate would control order among the traders in canadian waters. this was accepted, and after the necessary documents had been made out, but before being published, the count died. the prince de condé, henri de bourbon, then accepting the protectorate, received his commission, and named samuel de champlain his lieutenant. but the commission was not published, owing to representations being made to the prince de condé that such an association was prejudicial to trade. the delay was doubtless annoying to champlain. however, as the old company was not yet dissolved, champlain, not wishing to lose the fur trade for the current year, ran off again to canada. on his return to france he went to fontainebleau, where the king and the prince of condé were. champlain was now successful as a company promoter. he contrived to get his opposing merchants to come into the scheme themselves, and form a company, of which they made him the managing director in canada, with a yearly salary of two hundred écus for looking after their interests. the prince of condé became the governor general and the commission gave a monopoly for eleven years. the usual powers were given as we have seen before of absolute power, the proviso of bringing the savages to the light of the holy roman and catholic and apostolic religion being included as usual. this seems strange considering that all the merchants of the new company were huguenot protestants. on arriving in canada champlain soon made his first great mistake. he was about to commence the great work of colonization of la nouvelle france, in which he was to succeed, but his first important step was a great blunder and one from which la nouvelle france was to suffer for many years. the whole story of the iroquois attacks, which terrorized the french settlements and montreal for so many years, is bound up in the policy now initiated by the colonial builder of canada. it will be remembered that in the commissions granted to those sent out to canada, side by side with the duty of taking every means to attract the natives to christianity, was the privilege to contract alliances with the natives and if they did not keep their treaties to force them by open warfare, and to make peace or war--but all this, be it understood, in accordance with the dignity of a great power and following established methods of diplomacy. champlain's fault lies in this, that having arrived in canada in the spring of as the representative of the king of france, he was tempted, for the sake of the petty reason of securing traffic facilities, to jeopardize the future by taking sides with the algonquins and hurons, who were then in open warfare with the iroquois. instead of remembering that the future peace of the colony depended on his neutrality, he went with the few men of the colony against the iroquois, and with his modern weapons caused deadly havoc among the bewildered iroquois, who thenceforth became the irreconcilable enemy of the frenchmen. they never forgot this needless intrusion of the frenchmen into their quarrels; thus they were implacable in their attacks on their algonquin allies, and were ready later to ally themselves with the english in their campaign against the colony. it certainly made the work of christianizing and civilizing the people later very difficult. champlain's blunder at the battle of lake champlain on july , , has been avoided in subsequent colonization schemes of other nations as far as possible. this is one of the uses of history. [illustration: champlain's picture of his fight with the iroquois] so far we have seen that the two chief conditions, on which the trading companies were granted their monopolies, were those of taking steps to colonize and to christianize. neither had been observed. the merchants were there for business and nothing else. be it said, however, to champlain's credit that he was more ready than any of the others to carry out both conditions. in he secured the four recollect fathers of whom we shall speak. their memoirs reveal a pitiable state of irreligion, and apathy towards the policy of french colonization and christianizing the natives. thus in quebec, in , there were only fifty to sixty frenchmen, in only sixty men, women and children and religious all told. there seems to have been only one family, that of the colonist, louis hébert, and he had a sorry time to make a living. louis hébert was an apothecary and thus he was useful to be tolerated, by the merchants. some day hébert will have a monument raised to him to commemorate his efforts to commence agriculture in canada. towards the end of the year champlain's blunder begins to have its fruits, for the savages around quebec determined to exterminate the french settlement. in the sequel, they satisfied their vengeance by killing only two secretly, but it was a sign of more to follow. meanwhile what were the gentlemen with the high sounding titles of governor general and viceroy of the king doing to carry on the wonderful scheme outlined in their commissions? they were like modern titled directors of speculating companies, drawing their fees. thus the prince of condé drew , _écus_, then while he was in prison his successor to the fees, the maréchal de thémines drew , , to be followed by , drawn by the duke de montmorency, a young man of twenty-five years, appointed governor general in . this was a drain on the merchants. still it was better than losing their privileges. the new governor general, montmorency, appointed champlain his particular lieutenant. in fact, champlain may be called the acting governor. this looked at last like a real attempt to make a true settlement. champlain now brought madame de champlain out and others, and with them madame champlain brought her furniture. the recollect father, denis jamay, came back with two other recollects. the day after arrival at quebec, after mass and a sermon in the chapel exhorting all the colonists to obedience to the king, they all assembled and the commission of his majesty to montmorency was read, as well as that of montmorency to champlain as his lieutenant. the cannon spoke amid the cries of "vive le roi" and champlain took possession of the habitation in the name of the duke of montmorency. it became government house. obliged by his commission to carry on justice, champlain now looked out for the most capable men in the country to act with him on the bench of justice. the king's procuratorship fell to louis hébert, while the office of _lieutenant de prevost_ was taken by gilbert coursera, and a man named nicholas became the clerk of the court of quebec. champlain took the direction of the "_police_." building activities were now taking place. the recollects commenced the foundations for a convent and a seminary, for the native children, under the name of notre dame des anges, the stone being laid by father jean d'olbeau on june d. champlain began to build another habitation on the hill which he named the fort st. louis. he also began tilling the ground and making a garden, a work which he delighted in. he was seconded in such enterprises by the recollects. he next prepared to receive cattle. but there were only forty-five people at the habitation and the company was not sending more. in order to better things montmorency in formed another company opposed to that of which m. de monts was still head and he placed in command two huguenots, guillaume de caen and emery de caen, uncle and nephew. the new company was opposed to the old but a union was effected between them: still with no better results. in the beginning of henri de lévy, duke de vantadour, a pious nobleman who afterwards became a religious, succeeded his uncle, the duke de montmorency, as governor general. negotiations pending the introduction of jesuits, on the request of the recollects, were now concluded. accordingly he sent at his own expense fathers lalement, brébeuf, massé and two lay brothers, who arrived in the absence of champlain and were coldly received by de caen, who offered them no hospitality. the recollects, however, entertained them at their convent, for two years and a half, until their own buildings were ready. in , a year of great famine, the above company was supplanted by the famous company of one hundred partners or associates. footnotes: [ ] for the purposes of trade the connection with canada never ceased. in there were french vessels at newfoundland besides spanish, portugese and english vessels. (kingsford, vol. i, page .) [ ] in a note by kingsford, vol. i, page , he wishes to substantiate his theory that champlain was huguenot by quoting his words: "c'est plus facile de planter la fois chrestienne" as meaning christianity distinguished from the roman catholic point of view. taken in conjunction with these words above kingsford's theory cannot be upheld. chapter iii - the great sault champlain the first trader the history of hochelaga after cartier's visit--champlain, the first cartographer of the island of montreal--its description in --champlain explores the neighborhood--place royale in --st. helen's island named--the first trading transaction recorded--champlain shoots the rapids, --the exploration of the ottawa valley-- the first mass in canada at riviere des prairies-- the drowning of viel and ahuntsic at sault-au-recollet--the intention of champlain to make a permanent settlement on the island. the name of samuel de champlain is next to be more closely associated with montreal. for, although the date connecting him with his first visit to this site is , and that of cartier's visit in , montreal had not been visited or dwelt upon by any distinguished european that we can attach a name to, with any certainty. during all this time, according to tradition, sad things had occurred at hochelaga. "the fate of this indian town," says mr. arthur weir in "montreal, the metropolis of canada," "is shrouded in the mists of antiquity. there is reason to believe that here was enacted a tragedy similar to that which resulted in the destruction of troy. according to mr. peter dooyentate clarke, the historian of the wyandots, himself a descendant of the tribe, the senecas and wyandots, or hurons, lived side by side at hochelaga, until in an evil moment a stern chief of the senecas refused to permit his son to marry a huron maiden. the damsel thereupon rejected all suitors and promised to marry only him who should kill the chief who had thus offended her. "a youthful huron, more amorous than wise, fulfilled the terms of the vow and won the girl. but the senecas adopted the cause of their murdered chief, and made war upon the hurons, whom they almost exterminated with the assistance of the other tribes of the iroquois, driving their more peaceful and civilized neighbours to the very lake that now bears their name." however true or false this legend, it is certain that when champlain visited the island in the indian town was gone and desolation prevailed. another version of the same tradition is given by mr. bourinot, in "the story of canada," where he tells the popular tradition handed down by the indians, "that the hurons and iroquois, branches of the same family, speaking dialects of one common language, were living at one time in villages, not far from each other,--the hurons probably at hochelaga and the senecas on the other side of the mountain. it was against the law of the two communities for their men and women to intermarry, but the potent influence of true love, so rare in an indian's bosom, soon broke this command. a huron girl entered a cabin of an iroquois chief as his wife. it was an unhappy marriage, the husband killed the wife in an angry moment. this was a serious matter, requiring a council meeting of the two tribes. murder must be avenged or liberal compensation given to the friends of the dead. the council decided that the woman deserved death, but the verdict did not please all her relatives, one of whom went off secretly and killed an iroquois warrior. then, both tribes took up the hatchet, and went on the warpath against each other, with the result, that the village of hochelaga, with all the women and children, was destroyed, and the hurons, who were probably beaten, left the st. lawrence and eventually found a new home on lake huron."--see horatio hale's "fall of hochelaga" in journal of american folklore, cambridge, massachusetts, . if cartier was the discoverer of "hochelaga," the island of montreal, it is to champlain's honour that he was the first trader and the first designator of the site of the present city of montreal. he was the first city planner in that he saw the possibilities of montreal as a trading port, having all the attractions for a future settlement. it had a beautiful mountain with gentle slopes to the river at its base, and a natural harbour; it was the natural rendezvous of all the tribes bordering on the river beyond the _saults_, the last of which is that now known as the lachine rapids; it was the port for the fur trade of the hinterland beyond. both cartier and champlain also noted the wonderful fertility of its soil and the beauty of its surroundings. as then, so today, montreal's position, placed at the head of atlantic navigation, the natural headquarters of the gulf trade, that of the st. lawrence and of the great lakes, centre of attraction and terminus of all the great railroads of the west and from the united states, secures it an undoubted future as a great commercial centre. it is to champlain's credit that in his own day he realized the geographical value of montreal as a trading centre, indicated by the natural laws for shipment and transportation, albeit he contemplated it only with the limited vision of a fur trader whose clients were the savages from the back country and their freight vessels, canoes laden with peltry. he looked ahead. [illustration: the first trader at montreal] in july, , champlain reached the rapids of the sault above montreal. champlain says that it used to be called hochelaga but now the sault. when he reached it there was nothing of the old villages left. luckily champlain was a cartographer and historian, and we have the account of visits to montreal which we now reproduce; but it must be remembered that he always speaks of the site as "the sault," "the grand sault," or "the sault st. louis." the first quotations shall be from the account of his voyage in . this was published in in paris under the title, "_des sauvages, ou voyage de sammuel champlain de brouage faict en la france nouvelle, l'an mil six cens trois_." this was made into english and published in "purchas', his pilgrimes," london, . "at length we came this very day to the entrance of the sault or fall of the great river of canada with favourable wind; and we met with an ile, which is almost in the middest of the said entrance, which is a quarter of a league long, and passed on the south side of the said ile, where there was not past three, four or five feet water, and sometimes a fathome or two, and straight on the sudden we found again not past three or foure foot. there are many rockes and small islands, whereon there is no wood, and they are even with the water. from the beginning of the aforesaid ile, which is in the middest of the entrance the water beginneth to run with a great force. although we had the wind very good, yet we could not with all our might make any great way; neuerthelesse wee passed the said ile which is at the entrance of the sault or fall. when wee perceived that we could go no further, we came to an anchor on the north shoare ouer against a small iland, which aboundeth for the most part with those kinds of fruits which i have spoken of before. without all delay we made ready our skiffe which wee had made of purpose to pass the said sault: whereinto the said monsieur du pont and my selfe entered with certaine sauages, which we had brought with vs to show vs the way. departing from our pinnace, we were scarce gone three hundred paces, but we were forced to come out, and caused certain mariners to free our skiffe. the canoa of the sauages passed easily. wee met with an infinite number of small rockes, which were euen with the water, on which we touched often times. there be two great ilands one on the north side which containeth some fifteene leagues in length, and almost as much in breadth, beginning some twelve leagues vp within the river of canada, going towards the river of the irocois and endeth beyond the sault. the iland which is on the south side is some four leagues long and some halfe league broad. there is also another island which is neare to that on the north side which may bee some halfe a league long, and some quarter broad; and another small iland which is between that on the north side, and another nearer to the south shoare, whereby we passed the entrance of the sault. this entrance being passed, there is a kind of lake, wherein all these ilands are, some five leagues long and almost as broad, wherein are many small ilands which are rockes. there is a mountaine neere the said sault which discovereth farre into the countrie and a little river which falleth from the said mountaine into the lake. on the south side there are some three or foure mountaines which seem to be about fifteen or sixteen leagues within the land. there are also two rivers; one which goeth to the first lake of the river of the irocois by which sometimes the algoumequins invade them: and another which is neer unto the sault, which runneth not farre into the countrey." on this voyage he describes the sault. since he is later, in , to shoot it, we may record his impression of it in . "at our coming neere to the said sault with our skiffe and canoa, i assure you, i neuer saw any stream of water to fall down with such force as this doth; although it be not very high, being not in some places past one or two fathoms, and at the most three. it falleth as it were steppe by steppe: and in euery place where it hath some small height, it maketh a strong boyling with the force and strength of the running of the water. in the breadth of the said sault, which may containe some league, there are many broad rockes, and almost in the middest, there are very narrow and long ilands, where there is a fall as well on the side of the said iles which are toward the south, as on the north side: where it is so dangerous that it is not possible for any man to pass with any boat how small so-euer it be." in his voyage in he makes mention of an island of a quarter of a league in length and of another on the north about fifteen leagues long which overlooked the lands for a long distance. he does not mention the name of either, but the former was st. paul's island or nuns' island and the latter hochelaga. up to champlain no one has recorded or noticed that montreal was an island. as early as lescarbot had remarked that of all the islands in the river st. lawrence, the most suitable for commerce was without contradiction that of montreal. ("la conversion des sauvages baptisés en canada.") champlain certainly looked upon the locality of the sault as a suitable place for a permanent establishment, when he commenced operations at place royale. he continued in this belief. "my savage arontal," he says in his "voyages of - ," published in , "being at quebec that to attract his people to us we should make a habitation at the sault, which would give them the surety of the passage of the river and would protect them against their enemies and that as soon as we should have built a house, they would come in numbers to live with us as brothers, a thing which i promised them and answered them i would do as soon as possible." there is reason to believe that the spot he had in mind to do this is the island which he had noted in his voyage of , but to which he later gave the name of st. helen.[ ] this is most probable in view of his late marriage five months before with hélène boullé, for it could not have been given, as other names in the river had been, owing to the coincidence of a church feast day with the day of discovery, for champlain arrived at place royale on the th of may and the feast of st. helen fell on the th of august following, when he was in france. we know that champlain had gone to the "sault" in , but he makes no mention of the site of montreal in his account. however, with regard to the year of , he gives us many interesting details. from these excerpts from the account of we may, therefore, sum up the following conclusions: ( ) that (according to laverdière) the place where champlain "came to an anchor on the north shoare over against one small island," was the little island formerly existing opposite the place royale (which was not, however, named till ) and now joined to the main land by the present harbour piers; ( ) that incidentally he thus indicates the site of the present harbour of montreal; that champlain was the first to note that montreal, or hochelaga, was an island, this being deduced from his description of the great island (not named by him) "on the north side which continueth some fifteen leagues in length and almost as much in breadth," etc; ( ) that the "mountain neere the said sault which discovereth farre into the country" is the same as that named by jacques cartier as mount royal while "the little river which falleth from the said mountain into the lake" is the rivière des prairies; ( ) that while he gives no names beyond that of sault yet he has left us a very clear indication that he was familiar with the site of the present island of montreal. from the above quotations there is no explicit mention of the suitability of the island of montreal as a future trading post, yet there is little doubt but that champlain had it in his mind as such when the occasion should serve. [illustration: figurative map sketch of sault st. louis (kahnawake) and part of the south shore of the island of montreal made by champlain in (see opposite page for explanation)] explanation of map on opposite page a--piece of land which i ordered to be cleared. b--small pond. c--small island where i had a stone wall erected. d--small stream where barques are lying. e--prairies where indians encamp when coming to this country. f--mountains seen at a distance. g--small pond. h--mount royal. i--small stream. l--the "saut." m--place where the indians from the north begin their "portage." n--place where one of our men and an indian were drowned. o--small, rocky island. p--other small island where birds build their nests. q--"heron" island. r--other islands of the "saut." s--small island. t--round islet. v--other islet, half of which is covered with water. w--other islet where water fowls are found. y--prairies. z--small river. --rather fine and large island. --places which appear bare at low water and where the current is very strong. --prairies covered with water (swamps). --rather low and marshy land. --other small island. --small rocks. s--helen's island. --small island barren of trees. --marshes in the "grand saut." their adventurers afterward went up to the sault which became the goal of many of the "free" traders and prospectors who coursed the st. lawrence during the period, already described, of the temporary removal of the prohibition against private traders. certain it is that as early as lescarbot had remarked that of all the islands in the river st. lawrence the most suitable for commerce was without contradiction that of montreal. (cf. "la conversion des sauvages baptisés en canada.") but it was reserved for champlain in to put this notion into effect and to become the pioneer trader and the first harbour builder of montreal. his own narration of the events of may serve to prove these claims. the choice of montreal as a trading post "in the year , i took back my savage to those of his tribe, who were to come to sault st. louis, intending to get my servant whom they had as a hostage. i left quebec, may ( ), and arrived at these great rapids[ ] the th of the month. i immediately went in a canoe with the savage which i had taken to france and one of our men. after having looked on all sides, not only in the woods, but also along the river bank, to find a suitable place for the site of a settlement, and to prepare a place in which to build, i went eight leagues by land, along the rapids through the woods, which are rather open, and as far as the lake,[ ] where our savages took me. there i contemplated the country very much in detail. but in all that i saw i did not find any place at all more suitable than a little spot which is just where the barks and shallops can come easily, either with a strong wind or by a winding course, because of the strength of the current. above this place (which we named la place royale), a league from mount royal, there are a great many little rocks and shoals, which are dangerous." the situation of place royale described "and near this place royale there is a little river running back a goodly way into the interior, all along which there are more than sixty acres of cleared land, like meadows, where one might sow grain and make gardens. formerly savages tilled there. there were also a great number of other beautiful meadows, to support as many cattle as one wishes, and all kinds of trees that we have in our forests at home, with a great many vines, walnuts, plum trees, cherries, strawberries and other kinds which are very good to eat. among others there is one very excellent, which has a sweet taste resembling that of plantains (which is a fruit of the indies), and is as white as snow, with a leaf like that of the nettle, and running on trees or the ground like ivy. fishing is very good there, and there are all the kinds that we have in france, and a great many others that we do not have, which are very good; as is also game of all kinds; and hunting is good, stags, hinds, does, caribous, rabbits, lynxes, bears, beavers and other little animals which so abound that while we were at these rapids we never were without them." place royale cleared and a harbour revetment wall built "after having made a careful exploration, then, and found this place one of the most beautiful on this river, i at once had the woods cut down[ ] and cleared from this place royale, to make it level and ready for building. water can easily be made to flow around it, making a little island of it, and a settlement can be made there as one may wish. "there is a little island[ ] twenty fathoms from this place royale which is about one hundred paces long, whereon could be put up a good, well defended set of buildings. there are also a great many meadows containing good potter's clay, whether for bricks or to build with, which is a great convenience. i had some of it worked up, and made a wall of it four feet thick, and from three to four feet high and ten fathoms long, to see how it would last in the winter when then the floods came down, which in my opinion, would not rise to this wall although the land is about twelve feet above that river, which is quite high." st. helen's island named "in the middle of the river there is an island about three-quarters of a league in circumference, where a good and strong town could be built and i named it ile de ste. hélène.[ ] these rapids descend into a sort of lake where there are two or three islands and some beautiful meadows." champlain plants gardens "while waiting for the savages i had two gardens made: one in the meadows and the other in the woods which i had cleared; and the second day of june i sowed some seeds in them, which came up in perfect condition and in a little while, which showed the goodness of the soil. "i resolved to send savignon, our savage, with another, to meet those of his country, in order to make them come quickly; and they hesitated to go in our canoe which they distrusted, for it was not good for much." champlain explores the neighbourhood "on the seventh i went to explore a little river[ ] by which sometimes the savages go to war, which leads to the rapids of the river of the iroquois.[ ] it is very pleasant, with meadows on it, more than three leagues in circumference, and a great deal of land which could be tilled. it is one league from the great rapids[ ] and a league and a half from place royale. "on the ninth our savage arrived. he had been a little way beyond the lake,[ ] which is about ten leagues long, that i have seen before. he did not meet anything there, and could not go any further, because their canoe gave out and they were obliged to return." this savage reported the loss of the life of a young man, louis, who had lost his life in the rapids. there is a discussion as to whether champlain called the rapids the sault "st. louis" in commemoration of this event or in honour of louis xiii of france, who began reigning the year previously and from whom champlain had received a commission to build storehouses for the fur trade near the rapids. the solution i leave to the choice of the reader. at this time "heron" island at the st. louis rapids received its name. there seems no doubt that if champlain had as thoroughly investigated the possibilities and advantages of climate, soil and natural position as a trading centre of montreal in as he did in , he would have chosen montreal, for the settlement in , instead of quebec, which was after all de monts' choice. in the account of champlain had said: "the air is softer and more temperate than at any other place that i have seen in this country." in this same account of we get a picture of the first trading reported at montreal which is worth recording. the first trading transaction at montreal "on the th of this month (june , ), huron savages with the chiefs, ochateguin, iroquet, and tregourote, brothers of our savage, brought back my lad. we were very glad to see them, and i went to meet them with a canoe and our savage. meantime, they advanced quietly in order, our men preparing to give them a salvo with the arquebuses and some small pieces. as they were approaching, they began to shout all together, and one of their chiefs commanded their addresses to be made, in which they praised us highly, calling us truthful, in that i had kept my word to them, to come to find them at these rapids. after they had given three more shouts, a volley of musketry was fired twice, which astonished them so much that they asked me to tell them that there should not be any shooting, saying that the greater number of them never had seen christians before, nor heard thunderings of that sort, and that they were afraid of its doing them harm.... after a good deal of discourse they made me a present of beavers. i gave them in exchange some other kinds of merchandise." champlain the first white man to shoot the rapids these indians camped about with champlain for some days till they returned to their own part of the rapids, "some leagues into the woods." champlain accompanied them. he now tells of his historic shooting the rapids which we may place as happening on the th of june, . "when i had finished with them i begged them to take me back in our despatch boat. to do this they prepared eight canoes to run the rapids, and stripped themselves naked, and made me take off everything but my shirt; for often it happens that some are lost in shooting the rapids; therefore they keep close to one another, to aid one another promptly if a canoe should happen to capsize. they said to me, 'if by chance yours should happen to turn over, as you do not know how to swim, on no account abandon it, but hold on to the little sticks that are in the middle, for we will save you easily.' i assure you that those who have not seen or passed this place in these little boats that they have, could not pass it without great fear, even the most self-possessed persons in the world. but these people are so skillful in shooting these rapids that it is easy for them. i did it with them--a thing that i never had done, nor had any christian, except my youth--and we came to our barks where i lodged a large number of them." the next day, the th of june, the party broke up; champlain set out for quebec, which he says he reached on the th, shortly to leave for france. he describes the parting at montreal thus: "after they had traded the little that they had, they separated into three groups--one to go to war, one to go up the rapids--they set out on the th day of this month, and we also." the quotations i have chosen cover nearly four weeks of champlain's dwelling at his new post. i have let him speak himself. the picture he draws enables us to construct in our imagination the picturesque situation of our city at this time. grand sault, in champlain tells us in his journal published in , that having left quebec on march th he arrived at the sault on the st. he does not mention stopping at his trading post at place royale; he must have visited it and done some trading and put his boats up; but he set out on may th in his canoes "from the isle of st. hélène" with four frenchmen and a savage. his object was at present to discover the mer du nord, lately discovered by hudson and of which a map had appeared in paris in . one of the four frenchmen with him in his canoes was named nicholas de vignau. this man had been sent in preceding years to make discoveries for champlain and in , while in paris, this man reported to champlain that he had seen this same "mer du nord." champlain consequently took him with him to lead the way, with the result that can be judged from his own description of de vignau, as "the boldest liar that had been seen for a long time." it was on this fruitless exploration that on the portage route by way of muskrat and mudlakes, champlain lost his astrolabe, the instrument then used for astronomical observation. near this place he ceases giving the correct latitudes as he had been doing. two hundred and fifty-four years later, a farmer on an august day unearthed an old brass astrolabe of paris make, dated . we may safely conclude it was champlain's. on the voyage up the ottawa he described the visit to allumette island, ° '. "after having observed the poorness of the soil, i asked them how they enjoyed cultivating so poor a country, in view of the fact that there was some much better, than that they left deserted and abandoned at the rapids of st. louis. they answered me that they were obliged to do so to keep themselves secure and that the roughness of the place served them as a bulwark against their enemies. but they said that if i would make a settlement a frenchman at the rapids of st. louis, as i had promised to do, they would leave their dwelling place to come and settle near us, being assured that their enemies would not do them harm while we were with them. i told them that this year we should make preparations with wood and stones to make a fort next year and cultivate the land. when they heard this they gave a great shout, as a sign of applause. after this the conference finished." after having explored the ottawa river they returned from the fruitless search for the northern sea on june th and continued their course till "we reached the barks and were saluted by some discharges of canon, at which some of the savages were delighted and others very much astonished, never having heard such music. having landed, sieur de maisonneuve[ ] de saint malo came to me with the passport for three vessels from monseigneur the prince. as soon as i had seen it, i let him and his men enjoy the benefit of it, like ourselves, and had the savages told that they might trade the next day." the place of the barks would, undoubtedly, be the little harbour at place royale described in the account of , and near his trading fort. after having made de vignau confess himself of his lie, "as the savages would not have him, no matter how much i begged them, we left him to the protection of god." champlain then left for tadoussac, at which he arrived on july th, whence he shortly sailed to france. [illustration: modern tadoussac] on this journey in france, champlain set about to secure clergy and through the intervention of sieur hoüel, secretary of the king, he got the recollect fathers whom he said "would be the right ones there, both for residence at our settlement and for the conversion of the infidels. i agreed with this opinion, as they are without ambition and live altogether in conformity to the rule of st. francis." on april , , champlain left honfleur with four franciscan recollects denis jamay, jean d'olbeau, joseph le caron and the lay brother, pacifique du plessis, reaching tadoussac on may th. the recollects he left at quebec whence he hastened to the sault, soon to be followed by father jean le caron. the importance that champlain gives to his trading post at the rapids to which he hurried will be seen from the following quotation. on arriving at tadoussac, "we began to set men to work to fit up our barks, in order to go to quebec, the place of our settlement, and to the great rapids of st. louis, the great gathering place of the savages who come there to trade. immediately upon my arrival at the rapids i visited these people who were very anxious to see us and delighted at our return, from their hopes that we would give them some of our number to help them in their wars against their enemies. they explained that it would be hard for them to come to us if we did not assist them, because the iroquois, their old enemies, were always along the trail and kept the passage closed to them. besides i had always promised to aid them in their wars, as they gave us to understand through their interpreter. whereupon i perceived that it was very necessary to assist them, not only to make them love us more, but also to pave the way for my undertakings and discoveries, which to all appearance could not be accomplished except by their help; and also because this would be to them a sort of first step and preparation to coming into christianity; and to secure this i decided to go thither and explore their country and aid them in their wars, in order to oblige them to show me what they had so many times promised to. "i had them all gather to tell them my intention, upon hearing which they promised to furnish us , men of war, who would do wonders, while i on my part, was to bring, for the same purpose as many men as i could; which i promised them, being very glad to see them come to so wise a decision. then i began to explain to them the methods to follow in fighting in which they took a singular pleasure. when all the matters were decided upon, we separated with the intention of returning to carry out our undertaking." this alliance which champlain then made against the iroquois will help to explain the prolonged animosity of these against the hurons, and later their allies, the settlers of ville marie, under maisonneuve. but, as yet champlain's fort was only a summer trading post, and such it remained till . he had it in his mind to make it a regular settlement, and it would seem likely to become so. on the occasion of the above gathering mass was said by the recollects for the first time in canada, at least since the time of cartier. we may briefly narrate the events leading up to this. owing to the trading monopolies being granted on condition that the conversion of the savages to the catholic faith should be attempted and owing to the discontentment existing at the continued unfulfillment of this condition, de monts and other merchants found that they would have to take means to comply with it or lose their monopoly. the merchants were keener on the peltry trade than on the civilization of the country. they did not welcome colonists from france nor did they desire the indians to settle down in their neighbourhood. they wanted them to get busy to bring in their furs. they were there for business solely, although their charter said otherwise. so it was, with bad grace, they had to yield. champlain must, however, be disassociated from this opposition. for he had willingly undertaken the negotiations to obtain the recollect fathers through the intermediary of the pious sieur de hoüel, the controller general of the salt mines of brouage, one of the few members of the de monts company that was not a huguenot; accordingly after some negotiations during the winter of and , the four franciscan recollects mentioned, three priests, denis jamay, superior, jean d'olbeau, joseph le caron, and brother pacifique du plessis embarked with champlain at honfleur on april , , on the st. etienne, one of the company's ships commanded by dupont gravé. they arrived at tadoussac in a month. on their arrival in quebec in the beginning of june three of them stayed to lay out their dwelling and build their chapel, but father joseph le caron, a very eager and apostolic man, went straight off to the indians at the sault. becoming quickly acquainted with the mode of life of the natives there and desirous of their conversion to the knowledge of jesus christ, he determined to spend the winter with them. "in canada and its provinces," father lewis drummond says that on his journey down, le caron met champlain and father denis jamay at rivière des prairies. they tried to persuade him not to winter with the indians. but he hastened to quebec, reaching it on june , and on his return to rivière des prairies met champlain and father jamay there, and mass was celebrated. his object in hurrying back to quebec was to obtain the necessary altar equipment and other missionary necessaries. on arriving at the isle of montreal he met champlain and his canoes at the entrance of the rivière des prairies. these no doubt were preparing for the exploration of the ottawa. there on june , , the feast of st. jean baptiste, afterwards taken for the patronal feast of canada, fathers denis and joseph sang mass at their portable altar on the banks of the rivière des prairies. "with all devotion," champlain chronicles, "before these peoples who were in admiration at the ceremonies and at the vestments which seemed to them so beautiful as being something they had never seen before; for these religious are the first who had celebrated the holy mass there."[ ] (this solemn occasion was followed by the chanting of the te deum to the accompaniment of a fusillade of small artillery with all the pomp that circumstances permitted.) father denis jamay went back to quebec to minister to the french catholics and to form a sedentary mission for the natives; while there also he could excur to threvers as a mission post. he was helped by brother pacifique du plessis. jean le caron now joined a band of hurons and passed the winter with them in one of their stockades called carhagouaha defended by a triple palisade of wood to the height of thirty feet. father jean d'olbeau departed for quebec, on december d, to share the fortunes of the montagnais below tadoussac. [illustration: the first mass in canada at riviere des prairies, june , (after george delfosse)] while treating of the early history of the recollects we may now anticipate by a few years a circumstance of tragic importance. in the year there occurred at the sault-au-récollet an event which has given it its name. this year, the recollect father, nicholas viel, had gone two years before with fathers joseph le caron and gabriel sagard, to the country of the hurons. they were now invited by the hurons to descend the river to trade with the settlement at quebec. father viel had accepted the invitation because he wished to make his annual spiritual retreat at the convent of notre dame des anges and he took with him one of his indian neophytes, whom he had instructed and baptized, a young boy named ahuntsic. among the convoy, in the same canoe, were some indians who were secretly ill disposed to the missionary and when they found themselves separated from the other canoes by bad weather on the river, they fell upon father viel and ahuntsic in the last sault near to montreal and the swift flowing rapids soon submerged them in their deep waters. the spots of ahuntsic and sault-au-récollet commemorate this event although the disaster occurred at the latter place as said. [illustration: the martyrdom of the recollet viel and the neophyte ahuntsic at sault-au-recollet. (after george delfosse)] later in the summer of champlain redeemed his pledge to explore the indian country. on the th of july, , champlain left the fort with two men, one of whom was his servant, and another an interpreter, and ten savages to manage the two canoes on a voyage of exploration. father le caron had already gone ahead. champlain's expedition with the allied tribes into the country of the iroquois was one of the most important undertakings of his life--both on account of the length of the journey and the knowledge he obtained of the lake region. he lost prestige by this journey, however, both with the indians and his french canadians. it is not to our purpose to follow him on this voyage but we cannot refrain from mentioning the huron village of carhagouaha which lay between nottawasaga bay and lake simcoe. it was to this village that father le caron bent his steps, and where champlain joined him on august th. the triple palisades, long houses, containing several households and other distinctive features of the village of hochelaga discovered by cartier, were there reproduced. he returned to the post at the end of june, , and there he found sieur du pont. "we also saw," he says, "all the holy fathers (father jamay and brother du plessis) who had remained at our settlement and they were very glad to see us and we to see them." thus the recollect fathers having left "our" settlement at quebec had come up to montreal as we may call the post at the rapids. from their arrival dates the ecclesiastical life of our city and the introduction of christianity. champlain left the sault on the th day of july, , reaching quebec on july . shortly, on august d, he sailed to france. champlain was a good advertising agent, as the following shows: "during my sojourn at the settlement i had some of the common corn cut--that is, the french corn that had been planted there--which was very beautiful, in order to carry some to france, to show that this soil is very good and fertile. there was also some very fine indian corn and some grafts and trees that we had brought thither." this contrasts favourably with the gloomy report given to france by jacques cartier of the canadian climate, which doubtless influenced the delay of organized colonization. it is evident that champlain was still thinking of making montreal a permanent settlement. from the memoirs of - we learn that champlain before leaving for france took with him to quebec an indian, daronthal or aronthal, whom he called his host. this man, after admiring the buildings and the civilization of the settlement of quebec, and being desirous that his people should become better acquainted with the religion of the christians "in order to learn to serve god and to understand our way of living," suggested that they should be attracted to live with the settlers. "he suggested," says champlain, "that for the advancement of this work, we should make another settlement at the st. louis rapids, so as to give them a safe passage of the river, for fear of their enemies; and said that once they would come in great numbers to us to live there like brothers. i promised to do this as soon as i could." daronthal was sent back with this promise to his companions at st. louis rapids, but it was reserved for paul de chomedey, sieur de maisonneuve, twenty-six years later to carry it out. footnotes: [ ] through the intervention of and in the presence of pierre du gas, sieur de monts, as the matrimonial contract dated paris, december , , states, champlain had contracted to marry after two years hélène de boullé, a young girl not yet in her twelfth year and not yet marriageable, the daughter of nicolas boullé, secretary of the king's chamber, a huguenot like his friend de monts. in this contract champlain made her heiress of all the property that he might be able to leave, and her parents consented to give him before the marriage , _livres_. on the th of december, in the church of saint-germain l'auxerrois, champlain was handed over four thousand five hundred of the promised _livres_. on the next day the marriage took place. hélène boullé became a catholic after two years. shortly after the marriage champlain left for new france, leaving his wife behind. we find him at the grand sault on may , . [ ] the lachine rapids. [ ] lake of two mountains. [ ] dollier de casson says in his "historic de montréal" that champlain cut down many trees for firewood and also to guarantee himself against ambuscades. [ ] ile normandin. [ ] registers of notre dame record that, on the th of august, , two young men, pierre magnan and jacques dufresne, were slain here by iroquois. it was used sometimes by the french as a military station; for in june, , the chevalier de vaudreuil posted both the regular troops and the militia there in readiness to march against the iroquois. thither it is alleged the marquis de lévis, commanding the last french army in , withdrew, and here burnt his flags in the presence of his army the night previous to surrendering the colony to the english. louis honoré frechette, the national french-canadian poet, bases upon this his poem, entitled "all lost but honour." in the island was acquired by charles le moyne, sieur de longueuil, who gave the name of ste. hélène to one of his most distinguished sons. during the eighteenth century (from before ), his descendants, the barons of longueuil, whose territory lay just opposite, had a residence here, the ruins of which, once surrounded with gardens, are to be seen upon it on the east side. the government acquired it from them by arrangement during the war of , and later by purchase in , for military purposes. it ceded the park portion to the city in . almost adjoining it, at the lower extremity, is ile ronde, a small low island. both islands are interesting geologically from the occurrence there of a remarkable breccia containing inclusions of devonian limestone, and also from the existence of some rare types of dyke rock. [ ] the st. lambert river. [ ] the richelieu. [ ] sault st. louis rapids, now known as the lachine rapids. [ ] the lake of two mountains. [ ] who is this maisonneuve appearing as a privileged trader with the passport of the prince, doubtless the prince de condé, henri de bourbon, viceroy of canada and head of champlain's company? evidently he was a person of some consequence from the ease with which champlain granted him permission to trade at his settlement. can it be, as kingsford and others ingeniously try to prove, paul chomedey de maisonneuve, who was later to found montreal as a settlement in , acting for "la compagnie de montreal?" ( ) no. chomedey was from paris; the de maisonneuve mentioned above is from st. malo. ( ) de maisonneuve was a common enough name. there were even several of that name in montreal in . [ ] mass was only said at quebec for the first time on june , , by which time they had built their chapel. the priority of the island of montreal in its claim to the first mass is substantiated by the "_mémoires des recollects_" of which distinctly say that "the first mass was celebrated at rivière des prairies and the second at quebec." chapter iv - colonization under the company of one hundred associates the charter of the hundred associates the basis of the seigneurial system to be afterwards established at montreal--the english in capture quebec-- , canada again ceded to the french-- , the coming of the jesuits--the recollects do not return--three rivers is established--description of colonial life at quebec--death of champlain in --the religious institutions to be imitated afterwards at montreal--the "relations des jesuites"--the iroquois begin their attacks--the news of a reinforcement and disappointment that montreal has been chosen as its headquarters. on april , , richelieu, the superintendent of marine and commerce, securing the resignation of the duke de vantadour and annulling the privileges of de caen and his associates with suitable indemnities, formed a new association under the title of the "hundred associates of the company of new france," among whom were many gentlemen of rank. it was resolved that in the following year of a colony of two to three hundred men of all trades, all professing the catholic religion, would be sent over--to be increased in the following fifteen years to four thousand, of both sexes. at that time the sole population of new france was seventy-six souls. it is well here to consider the conditions of the charter now given, for it is the ground plan of all subsequent french canadian colonization schemes, and montreal will be affected by it. we have seen the huguenots were now to be excluded (not, however, from engaging in commerce in canada, but only from _settling_ there). from all points of view, political and religious and colonial, this was necessary. to show that there was to be no harshness in the execution of this we may only point out that champlain was in charge and he knew huguenots well and had worked harmoniously with them. we have seen that since the companies had been mainly huguenots, colonization had not succeeded owing to mutual jealousies. if canada was to be saved, it was by colonization, and this could never be carried out with a divided people. even huguenots realized this point. for at the time they were enjoying full privileges of citizenship as has been said. hence it was only by imposing law and order and uniformity of religious belief, that happy and contented communities could be expected to spread in canada. richelieu at this time was eager to form a powerful navy and he thought the possession of thriving colonies would advance the scheme. hence it was a wise policy that was now inaugurated. unfortunately engrossing interests at home did not allow richelieu to pursue his scheme for government promotion of colonization on the broad basis originally projected by him. to carry out the conditions of receiving the number of colonists the king obliged the company of one hundred associates to lodge, board and maintain for three years all the french they should transport to the colony. after which, they could be discharged from their obligation, if they had put the colonists in the way of making their own living, either by distributing them on cleared land and supplying them with grain for a first crop, or otherwise. to provide for the maintenance of the established church there should be three ecclesiastics in each of the settlements to be formed during fifteen years, maintained in food and lodging and in everything necessary for the exercise of their ministry. in compensation for their outlay in advance, the king handed over to the associates the seigneury of quebec and of the whole of new france, with the reserve of fealty and homage and a crown of gold of the weight of eight marks, to be paid at each succeeding reign, and finally, of the institution of officers of sovereign justice to be nominated and presented by the associates, when it should be deemed proper to have them appointed. moreover, louis xiii made a gift to the associates of two war vessels of three hundred tons, ready equipped for sailing, and four culverins, with this clause, however, that if at the end of the first ten years they had not carried over fifteen hundred french of both sexes, they should pay the price of the aforesaid vessels. among other privileges the king granted twelve patents of nobility signed, sealed and delivered, with a blank space left for the names of those of the associates who shall be presented by the company and who shall enjoy with their heirs, born in lawful wedlock, these privileges for all time, thus starting the seigneurial land tenure system which in yielded to that of freehold. with regard to commerce, the company should have perpetual privileges in the peltry traffic of new france, and for fifteen years only, all other commerce by land and sea with the reservation of the cod and whale fishery which should be free to all french traders. the colonists not maintained at the expense of the associates should be free to trade with the natives for peltry provided that they forthwith hand over the peltry to the company which shall be obliged to purchase at the rate of forty _sols_, tours currency, for each beaver skin. in consequence, the privileges accorded previously to guillaume de caen and his associates were revoked by the same edict, and trade in canada was interdicted to them and other subjects of the kingdom, under pain of confiscation of their vessels and merchandise to the benefit of the new company. cardinal richelieu, however, allowed guillaume de caen, the privilege of the peltry trade for one year in indemnification for the loss of his charter. so started the company of the one hundred associates under the happiest auspices, endowed with almost sovereign power and having a leader of the state as its patron, for at its head was cardinal richelieu, who, without the title of lieutenant general which he perhaps thought unnecessary, seeing that he connected the work of colonization with his position as head of the navy, exercised the same authority. on the th of april, , louis xiii sent champlain his commission as "commander in new france in the absence of our very dear and well beloved cousin, the cardinal de richelieu, grand master, chief and superintendent of the navigation and commerce of france." champlain did not receive his commission on behalf of the company until he reached dieppe in , after the occupation of quebec by the english. the first attempt to carry out the charter was in , when vessels were equipped and victualled under the orders of de roquemont, one of the chief associates. their first object was to succour quebec, then in famine. a number of artisans and their families started and never reached their destination, for in the gulf their ships were seized by david kerth, a master mariner of dieppe in pay of the english government and in command of its fleet attacking the colonies. war had broken out between england and france and hostilities soon extended to america, and a fleet of ships was sent to invade the settlements of new france and in particular to capture quebec. it is not our duty to tell the story of quebec or to recount the noble defence of champlain till the fall of the city on july , , when louis kerth, the brother of the admiral, installed himself as the governor general, representing the english. the state of the colony at the end of this siege interests us. of the french, there only remained at quebec the families of the widow of hébert and of their son-in-law, couillard, and these intended to leave after the harvest, but in the event they were constrained to stay. the rest passed over by way of tadoussac into france and with them champlain, who went to england to call upon the french ambassador, urging him to demand the restitution of quebec on the ground that it had been captured two months after the expiration of the short war between the two nations. canada as a province _quoad civilia_ was under normandy, and hence it became to be believed that it was also _quoad sacra_ under normandy. [illustration: the taking of quebec in (from hennepin, edition .)] it is now , the year of the treaty of st. germain-en-laye when acadia and canada were again ceded to the french. for three years louis kerth kept quebec in the name of england and on july , he formally handed over a heap of ruins to emery de caen, who conducted the first contingent of the returning french. "but for our habitation," says champlain, "my people have found it utterly consumed along with good beaver skins valued at , _livres_." meanwhile, the company of the hundred associates was again empowered to resume possession and champlain was commissioned anew as acting governor of all the country along the st. lawrence, and was appointed commander of the fleet of three vessels bearing new colonists. he arrived at quebec with a good nucleus for the revived colony on may , , and was received by a salute of cannon by emery de caen. among the colonists brought by him there were persons of distinction who, wearied with religious dissensions in their own provinces, sought in new france that tranquility denied them in the old, and many rural labourers and artisans of different trades. as these were mostly from the diocese of rouen, the clergy now arriving were the jesuits, fathers massé and brébeuf, sent under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of rouen. the recollects were no longer allowed to return, on the ground that, theirs being an order which could not own property or revenues, they were unsuitable for a country where means were needed to gather together the indians in settlements in buildings in which they could band together to be instructed. the chapel of the recollects destroyed by the english was rebuilt. the work of reconstruction of the settlement now began in earnest. what interests us now is to learn that on july st of this year champlain, at the request of the indian allies, sent many workmen to three rivers to construct a fort and a fur factory there. although three rivers had been used as a trading post, it had only been so temporarily, in the same manner that montreal, or the post of the sault st. louis, had been the meeting place for the natives and traders engaged in the fur traffic. [illustration: this view of fort amsterdam on the manhattan is copied from an ancient engraving executed in holland. the fort was erected in , but finished upon the above model by governor van twiller in .] at quebec there was now great harmony. a lasting colony was established. piety and religion flourished and the seeds of a good and noble population for canada were sown. after many struggles success seemed now to be rewarding the efforts of champlain. one shudders to think of what the future of canada had been if the "convict" colonies of roberval and la roche had come to any permanency. we may note now two important movements helping to civilize the natives, which show the real desire of the new régime to fulfill its vocation. the first was the endeavour made by champlain to nip in the bud the sale of intoxicating liquors to the natives in exchange for peltry already introduced by the preceding companies and by the english under kerth. champlain forbade anyone to trade wine or _eau de vie_ with the natives under penalty of corporal punishment and the loss of their salaries as servants of the company. the second was the establishment by the jesuits of a free boarding school for boys in the house of notre dame des anges left them by the recollects for the instruction of the huron children. this method of civilization of the natives already employed by the recollects was considered a most useful preliminary to the civilization of the natives by thus gallicizing and christianizing them, and attracted many. [illustration: champlain's fortified residence at quebec] that all these institutions were in line with champlain's policy we see in champlain's letter to cardinal richelieu, dated august , . after saying that some of the indians were sedentary and lived in villages and towns, while others were migratory hunters and fishers, all led by no other desire than to have a number of frenchmen and religious teachers to instruct them in the faith, he adds, "we require but men light armed for protection against the arrows. possessing them, with two or three thousand more indians, our allies, in a year we can render ourselves absolute masters of all these peoples by bringing among them the necessary good government and this policy would increase the worship of religion and an inconceivable commerce. the whole for the glory of god." in the last phrase we may see champlain's whole policy unfolded. but the days of samuel de champlain, sieur de brouage, were drawing to a close. to found this colony he had suffered many perils by land and sea, many fatigues, privations and opposition of friends and enemies. paralysis now weakened his splendid physique and sturdy form, and after two months and a half of suffering he died on christmas day, december , . his death was most edifying, as the jesuit chronicler relates. his obsequies were attended by the grief-stricken colony in a body, the settlers, the soldiers, the captains and the religious. father lalemant officiated and father lejeune pronounced the funeral oration: samuel de champlain merits well of canada. his death was apparently foreseen, for after the above ceremony while the gathering was still present, letters which had been left in the hands of father lejeune by the company, to be opened after the death of champlain, were publicly read announcing the appointment by letters patent of the messieurs de la compagnie of m. bras-de-fer de chateaufort, the commandant of the young fort at three rivers, as acting governor _ad interim_ for mgr. the duke of richelieu, while awaiting the successor of champlain to be named by the king. the arrival of the ships from france, the next year, were eagerly looked forward to, albeit with some anxiety, for france being at war with spain many doubted whether they would arrive, but to their delight they came in greater number than could have been expected, and on the night preceding the eleventh day of june, the new governor nominated by the company and approved by the king arrived. this was charles hualt de montmagny, knight of malta. the reception he received next morning was most imposing. he was met officially at the harbour, and conducted to the chapel of notre dame de recouvrance, and thence to the parish church where a te deum was sung with prayers for the king. then he mounted to the fortress where m. de chateaufort, the temporary governor, handed over the keys amid the roar of cannon and the salvos of musketry. with m. de montmagny there arrived a convoy of forty-five colonists--a notable increase. among these were some families of note such as those of m. de repentigny and m. de la potherie. next year, there came others, with many persons of distinction. a certain element of official dignity now began to prevail. it was de montmagny's chief work to organize and strengthen the defences of the colony in preparation against the attacks of the iroquois. at quebec the governor reinforced the redoubt built by champlain on the river by a platform and added more cannon to the battery. this new military aspect of the colony is described by the chronicler in the "relations of the jesuits for ." "the morning gun (or the beat of the drum at dawn in the garrison) awakens us every morning. we see the sentinels put on post; the guard house is always well manned; each squad has its days of duty. it is a pleasure to see our soldiers at military exercises in the sweet time of peace ... in a word, our fortress of quebec is guarded in peace so as to be a place of importance, in the heat of war." with the assistance of m. chateaufort, reinstated as commandant of the growing fort at three rivers, the palisaded stockade there was reinforced with two main buildings, a storehouse and a platform for the cannons. these external signs of power were necessary to impress the natives, both their allies, the hurons and algonquins, should they prove treacherous, as well as the fierce iroquois, the deadly enemies of both. the little garrisons had need to be well prepared for eventualities. at this time several foundations in the colony were established, by private charity, to christianize the natives and to encourage them to live a sedentary life and to till the ground. a mission village was built for them by the jesuits in at sillery, on the banks of the st. lawrence, at a distance of four miles from quebec, the funds being supplied by the charity of a member of the hundred associates, a distinguished commander of malta, noël brulart de sillery, a former minister of state. at three rivers in similar action was taken. a third was desired by the missionaries at the rivière des prairies at the north of the island of montreal, as a central position for missionary effort among the up-country tribes. tadoussac was visited by the missionaries from time to time, but was too desolate a spot to attract the natives to dwell there permanently. the jesuits had thought of establishing themselves at ile jésus, for there is an act of august , , giving it to them at three rivers and signed by montmagny. we have seen the establishment of a school for the indian boys by the jesuits. we are now to record a similar one for girls, but who should undertake inch a work for them? two noble ladies of france were to answer this question. the year saw the arrival at quebec, on august st, of a party of brave ladies whom we may know as the pioneers of all those numerous philanthropic organizations and good works controlled by the devoted women of canada of today. these were the ladies sent from france by madame la duchesse d'aiguillon, the niece of cardinal richelieu, and by madame de la peltrie, to assist the struggling colony there. i will here introduce the reader to what are known as the "relations." these are a series of letters or reports which were written by the jesuit missionaries in nouvelle france, starting from the arrival of fathers lalemant and lejeune and continued long after. they have now been collected and published, and are the most valuable historical sources of this early period. they are written to the superiors of their order in france, sent by the company's boats, and were the source of encouragement and inspiration to their religious brethren who eagerly read them and desired to follow in their writers' footsteps in the mission field of new france. many others besides the jesuits saw these letters. the news contained in them was eagerly looked for by many good ladies and gentlemen of france who were interested in the progress of this romantic settlement among the savages in a far-off land. the birth struggles of the new colony, the devotion and self sacrifices of the pioneers, attracted their imagination and stirred their sympathy and generosity.[ ] in - father lejeune had written exposing the need of some establishment to take care of the girls abandoned by the indians and of another for education similar to that, for boys, already constructed. this "relation" was read by the niece of cardinal richelieu, madame la duchesse d'aiguillon, and she wrote to the jesuits: "god having given me the desire to aid in the salvation of these poor savages, after having read the report you have made of them, it seems to me that what you believe would be of most service to their conversion is the establishment of the religeuses hospitalières in new france; in consequence i have resolved to send there this year six labourers to clear the land and construct dwellings for these good ladies." [illustration: paul lejeune the first writer in the jesuit "relations."] the foundation of a community of ursuline nuns to undertake the education of the young indian girls was also similarly inspired this year, by a good lady whose name is associated with the foundation of montreal. this was madeleine de chauvigny, the widow of m. de la peltrie, a gentleman of means who had died five and a half years previously. madame de la peltrie had long felt impelled to the religious life, but had been obliged by her father to marry. being now free she was anxious to devote her life to good works. but not having decided whether it should be in new france or elsewhere she fell dangerously ill, whereupon she made a vow that if she regained her health she would devote her life and her property to new france. she recovered quickly. it is related that the physician on visiting her, remarked in surprise: "madame, your illness has fled to canada." the coincidence of this remark with her own thoughts struck her imagination and her only thought was now to make the necessary preparations. [illustration: madame de la peltrie] there was at tours an ursuline nun named mother marie de l'incarnation, who was very interested in new france. this was known to madame de la peltrie who now approached her so that shortly permission was granted by the archbishop of tours to mother marie to be joined by mother marie de savonnine de st. joseph of the same convent, and by mother cécile de ste. croix from the ursuline convent of dieppe. thus it was that madame de la peltrie found herself at quebec with these three and the three "hospitalières" sent by madame d'aiguillon, viz.: sisters marie de st. ignace, superior, anne de st. bernard and marie de st. bonaventure. [illustration: venerable mere marie de l'incarnation] we must imagine the religious enthusiasm of the colonists at their arrival and the eagerness with which the two new institutions were begun, that of the hospital at quebec and of the ursuline convent at sillery. but soon gloom was cast upon the little colony. money and workmen from the company in france were needed and they came not. the explanation is that the small sum of , _livres_, the original capital subscribed by the one hundred associates, was dwindling, the expenses being necessarily great, and the company of ladies and gentlemen composing it, not being as practical as they were pious, so that although they placed the commercial side of their affairs in the hands of traders, these mainly looked after their own interests rather than those of the colony. the development of the struggling institutions lately mentioned was hindered. to add to the general distress, on the th day of june, , a fire quickly consumed the church of notre dame de recouvrance, the house of the jesuits and the governor's chapel, which were all of resinous wood. what a loss this must have been to the handful of colonists who numbered in all in the year only ! the mention of this number reminds us of the charter given to the company in , and the reader is advised to turn back and see how its conditions of colonization have been filled. outside the three religious communities and the persons engaged in their service, the rest was composed of the servants of the company engaged in commerce. to add to their other troubles the iroquois again began their hostilities, declaring war against the french and the hurons. in the autumn of they captured two of the french belonging to the garrison of three rivers. these were eventually recaptured and the governor, m. de montmagny, offered terms of peace if they would conclude a universal peace with the huron allies. during the night, which the iroquois had demanded to think over this proposition, they treacherously laid plans to fall upon the french next day, in which they were routed, escaping however at night in the shadows of the woods. meanwhile news had also arrived of the ill treatment of the jesuit missionaries, chaumont, garnier, poncet and pijart, scattered away the indian tribes. all quebec was in alarm and consternation, and nowhere was there more fear than at the indian village under the charge of the hospitalières sisters at sillery, four miles from the garrison. such was the depression in the colony that in father viniont, now superior of the jesuits in quebec, wrote home: "it is going to be destroyed if it is not strongly and quickly succoured. the trade of the company, the colony of the french and the religion which is now beginning to flourish among the savages, are at the lowest point, if they do not quell the iroquois. fifty iroquois, since the dutch have given them fire-arms, are capable of driving the colonists out of the country." it was in these desperate straits that news came of a reinforcement to be sent to the colony; but what must have been their disappointment and misgivings when they realized that the new company had resolved upon montreal, sixty leagues away up at the sault st. louis, as their rendezvous. and that the projected expedition was determined on definitely, was made clear when the supply of provisions for the new colony arrived at quebec in , very opportunely, however, for they served for the use of the famished garrison, since the company of one hundred associates had neglected to provide their usual supply. footnote: [ ] the earliest relation was written in ; then follows one for ; and after a break of six years, they proceed in regular succession from - . chapter v - montreal the company of notre dame de montreal[ ] previous colonization reviewed--montreal ceded to sieur de chaussee in and later to de lauson--the design of the settlement of montreal enters the mind of m. de la dauversiere--the first associates of the company of notre dame de montreal--the cession of the island of montreal to them in --the religious nature of the new colonizing company--trading facilities crippled--political dependence on quebec safeguarded--m. olier founds the congregation of st. sulpice in paris in view of the montreal mission--preparations for the foundation and establishment of the fully organized settlement of "villa marie"--paul de chomedey de maisonneuve chosen as local governor--the call of jeanne mance to found the hotel-dieu--the expedition starts--maisonneuve arrives at quebec--the first clash of the governors--montmagny offers the isle of orleans for the new settlement--maisonneuve is firm for the island of montreal--the first formal possession of montreal at place royale--winter at st. michel and ste. foy--friction between the rival governors. the survey of the colonization of new france up to shows that it had been singularly unfruitful. the government of france had never been more than lukewarm after cartier's voyages. he had given a poor account of the climate of the country, and the loss of a quarter of his crew from scurvy must have confirmed it. roberval sent on a government expedition, lost fifty of his company and thereafter the private companies all had their disasters from famine and disease to record, beginning with that of chauvin's, who, having left sixteen men at tadoussac for the winter, found eleven there on his return. were it not for the insatiable desire for commercial gain, through fur monopolies, canada would have been utterly deserted. there were no industries developed to attract colonists. there had been no gold mines or other treasures exploited to create rushes into a new and harsh country, such as that of the yukon of late years. agriculture, under difficult circumstances, and unsupported by government, or by the companies pledged to encourage it, had also failed. at the end of little more than one hundred years after jacques cartier's visit to the st. lawrence there were only frenchmen near its waters. of these about a hundred were fur traders, and their employees, at once furriers and soldiers; and the rest for the greater part were the religious, of three institutions, and their dependents. as a further anti-colonizing influence, there was to be reckoned with, the love of the french for their own land. the traveler and historian, lescarbot, himself a frenchman and a good colonist, speaking of colonizing had said: "if we fail, we must attribute it partly to ourselves who are located in too goodly a land to wish to leave it, and need be in no fear of finding a subsistence therein." the same sentiment had prevailed up to . but there had been one element alone, which can justly claim to have had some lasting influence and success in the colonizing movement, and that had been the spirit of religious adventure fostered by champlain, which made the small garrison of quebec into a small, but not insignificant or undignified, centre of colonization. we are to see this same desire to bear the light of christianity and civilization, as the prime moving force of the new movement to settle in canada, animating the founders of the new company of montreal, which is now to appear. hence it is necessary to read into the story of the foundation of montreal that of the heroism of virtue and of high purpose, of spiritual and physical endurance. we have followed the history of montreal from its discovery by jacques cartier in , to the coming of champlain in , and his choice in of la place royale as the site of a future settlement, ratified by him and others for a period of many years. still the site of the port at the grand sault had never become more than an annual trading port towards which it was the aim of the traders to push, at the opening of navigation, to meet the natives at this most convenient spot at the end of the ottawa valley. it was reserved for the new company of montreal, by the powers given it by their charter granted on december , , to put this long cherished idea of a permanent settlement into realization. the various steps leading to this must now be traced. we have seen that the company of new france, that of the hundred associates or partners, was in possession of the country from . among other powers the associates had the privilege of making certain concessions, but it was not until the death of champlain, anticipated as we have seen during the two months' illness and more before it occurred on christmas day, , that the privilege seems to have been used under the following circumstances. [illustration: the foundation of montreal. the first associates of the company of montreal. (a bas relief from the maisonneuve monument by philippe hébert)] we have seen that champlain had clearly meditated a settlement at montreal and no doubt meant to make it his own headquarters. circumstances had not allowed him to pursue his design. his important position at quebec since had left him little leisure for that in the troublous times following. still it is curious to note that his fortifications placed on ile ronde in seemed to have given him a lien on the site of montreal, for we hear of no private person being granted it till after his death in december, . it is only on the th of january, following, that such a transaction is announced at the annual meeting of the hundred associates in paris, held in the house of m. jean de lauson, the intendant of the company. in the edict of the establishment of this company, in order to facilitate the exercise of his functions, the king had ordered, that as the whole of the members could not be expected to participate in the active administration of its affairs, a dozen of them could be elected directors with sole and full power under the presidency of the intendant to buy, sell and distribute the lands. in order to limit the powers of this executive, the eleventh article of the edict declared that no concession of land exceeding two hundred arpents could be valid, without the signature of twenty of the associates made in the presence of the intendant of the company. m. lauson had been named intendant since , being at that time councillor of state and president of the great council. at the annual meeting of the associates, on january , , some most important concessions were granted which affect montreal. m. jacques gérard, chevalier, sieur de la chaussée, made application in due form for the island of montreal. sieur simon le maitre made application for the seigneury, afterwards called de lauson, and another, jacques castillon, for that part of the isles of orleans called hereafter the seigneurie de charny, after the name of one of de lauson's sons. these concessions were granted and signed by de lauson as the intendant. shortly afterward when de lauson relinquished the post of intendant, these three, who were his friends, and had lent their names for his purpose, transferred the properties to him. indeed in the act of april , , by which m. de chaussée ceded the "ile de montréal" he expressly says that he had accepted it only to give de lauson pleasure and to lend his name. at the same meeting several other concessions were put through in behalf of the eldest son of de lauson, viz.: with the reserve of the islands of montreal and orleans, all the other islands formed by the river st. lawrence, and the exclusive right of fishing and navigation of the whole extent of this river. finally, as if these islands, without number, were not sufficient, the same eldest son received more than sixty leagues of land facing the river st. lawrence, beginning from the river st. francis, on lake st. pierre, and reaching up the river to above sault st. louis. this concession, known hereafter under the name of la citière, comprised, according to the deed of possession july , , a part of the territory now belonging to the united states--the whole little lot making what would have been a european kingdom. certainly m. de lauson was feathering his nest and that of his children before giving up the intendancy. there was the obligation, however, which the company placed on the above persons that they should send men to the relief of the colony. this was evidently looked upon as a legal formality, of no serious moment. similar clauses had been inserted in so many new france company charters already and this could be equally disregarded, as it was. however, this illegal omission of duty was made use of, later, as we shall see, when these concessions were annulled and revoked by the company of one hundred associates by their ordinance of december , . the design of the settlement of the island of montreal, however, was soon to enter into the mind of a pious, enthusiastic, and some would say, visionary person, m. jérome le royer sieur de la dauversière, a "receveur général des finances" at la flèche in anjou. [illustration: jerome le royer de la dauversiere founder of the la flèche hospitalières to serve the hôtel dieu at montreal.] the abbé faillon relates the conception of this design as occurring to the devout m. de la dauversière when present at mass with his wife and children on february , the feast of the purification, or , when, after having received holy communion, he became convinced that it was his duty to establish an order of lady hospitalières, to take st. joseph as their patron; to establish in montreal a hôtel-dieu to be directed by these nuns; that the holy family should be particularly honoured in this island; that the effect of this inspiration was a revelation to him, as he had never conceived the project before, even remotely; and, moreover, his knowledge of montreal had hitherto been as vague as that of canada. but dollier de casson, who was afterwards the parish priest of montreal, an old-time soldier, a learned and pious, but practical man, although a great believer in providence, gives a less mystical account in his history of montreal written from to . there he relates the origin of the design of the establishment of montreal as due to the reading of one of the "jesuit relations," which had fallen into de la dauversière's hands. there the writer spoke strongly of the island of montreal as being the most suitable place in the country for the purpose of establishing a mission and receiving the savages. in reading this, m. de la dauversière was at once much touched. he became enthusiastic and already saw the vision of a french colony settled at montreal christianizing the natives. montreal seems to have so obsessed his mind that he was never tired of speaking of it, depicting its position, the geography of its location, its beauty, its fertility, its size, with such minuteness and vividness, that all who heard him felt that he had been directly inspired with this knowledge, for little was known of montreal owing to the wars which had left so little opportunity for exploring it well, that it was with difficulty that even a rough idea of it could be furnished. de la dauversière saw himself called to give himself up to the conversion of the savages; but still doubtful as to whether this idea was from god or not, he betook himself to his jesuit friend and confessor, father chauveau, rector of the college at la flèche. "have no doubt, monsieur," was the reply. "engage in it in good earnest." there was then at la flèche under the roof of m. de la dauversière, a gentleman of ample means who had come to live with him "as in a school of piety so as to learn to serve our lord better," this was m. pierre chevrier, baron de fancamp, who afterwards forsook the world and joined the new order of secular priests under the name of the "seminary of st. sulpice." according to dollier de casson, m. fancamp had also read with similar emotion the same account which had influenced his friend. on his return from the "jesuits" m. de la dauversière immediately related the reply he had received and forthwith m. le baron offered to associate himself with him in his design and they both resolved to go to paris together to form some charitable body which should be ready to contribute to the enterprise. a dramatic meeting took place there.[ ] "m. de la dauversière," so says dollier de casson, "betook himself to a mansion whither our lord conducted m. olier." this is the celebrated m. olier who was afterwards the founder of the seminary of st. sulpice in paris and, indirectly, that of montreal. [illustration: m. jean-jacques olier founder of saint sulpice in paris and montreal.] dollier de casson continues: "these two servants of jesus christ meeting in this mansion, were on a sudden enlightened by a heavenly and altogether extraordinary gleam. they forthwith saluted one another and embraced. they knew one another to the very depths of their souls, like st. francis and st. dominic, without speaking, without anyone having said a word to either of them, and without having previously seen one another. after these tender embraces m. olier said to m. dauversière: "i know your design. i am going to recommend it to god at the holy altar." this said, he left them and went to say holy mass, which m. dauversière heard, with a devotion altogether difficult to express when the mind is not aglow with the same fire that consumed these great men. thanksgiving over, m. olier gave m. de la dauversière one hundred pistoles, saying to him: "take this then to commence the work of god!" thus the first interview ended. dollier de casson leaves his readers to imagine with what joy and eagerness this news is received by the "dear baron le fancamp." this m. fancamp afterwards became a priest and joined dollier de casson at montreal and no doubt he had told the first historian of ville marie his story himself _per longum et latum_. three new associates, friends of m. olier, were induced to finance the new venture, of whom the first was the baron de renty, a man of admirable qualities, pious and filled with apostolic zeal. these six, forming the nucleus of the société de notre dame de montréal, determined to fit out an expedition to embark in the spring of . but as yet they had no claim on the island of montreal. as we have learned, this had been ceded to m. de la chaussée in and transferred to m. de lauson in , who had become the intendant of dauphigny where he was now residing. with daring boldness m. de la dauversière and m. de fancamp, journeyed to vienne in dauphigny to arrange terms with him for the cession of the island to them. de lauson had not colonized it, or carried out any of the conditions requiring its being tilled, but he was not easily disposed to relinquish what was a valuable possession for the advancement of his family, the more so as he learned that his interests were jeopardized by the new company. he therefore refused to discuss the question. a second attempt and visit were made, this time with success, for m. de la dauversière had secured in the meantime the powerful co-operation of father charles lalemant, who had been the first jesuit superior of the canadian missions, having been sent out in . lalemant knew canada well and had great influence with the company of the hundred associates. he had been superior of the church of notre dame de recouvrance in quebec, as well as champlain's confessor, and had had naturally many official relations with m. de lauson in his capacity as intendant of the company. as he was held in great esteem by m. de lauson, father lalemant, who since his return from canada two years before was now the procurator of the missions of the society, was a powerful advocate for the cession. accordingly the cession was granted by deed dated vienne, august , , to pierre chevrier, écuyer, sieur de fancamp, and jérome de royer, sieur de la dauversière. this declares "that m. jean de lauson cedes, has given and transferred, purely and simply the island of montreal, situated on the river st. lawrence, above lake st. peter, entirely as it was given by the gentlemen of the company of new france to m. de la chaussée for them and theirs to enjoy, having regard to the same duties and conditions expressed in the act of the fifteenth of january, ." a second contract was signed, the same afternoon, by which "m. de lauson as much in his own name as the legitimate administrator for francis de lauson, écuyer, sieur de lyrée, his son, yields to them the right of navigation and passage on all the extent of the river st. lawrence as well as the right of fishing in this river, within ten leagues around the island of montreal and that in consideration of the great number of men which they are to cause to pass into this island to people the colony and to aid to till the lands adjoining those of the said sieur de lyrée, with the duty of giving him each year six pounds of fish, as a token of simple acknowledgment." in december following the general assembly of the company of the hundred associates or the "société de nouvelle france" was held in paris in the house of m. bordier, secretary of his majesty's council and a former director of the company. the whole project of the establishment of the new company for montreal was discussed and its conclusions drawn up in a deed of concession, to m. de fancamp and m. de la dauversière, dated december , . it annulled and revoked all the concessions granted by the act of the company dated january , , to m. de chaussée as well as the concessions and transferences made thereafter of the same "pretended rights," the whole being null and revoked through failure of the execution of the conditions imposed within the time ordered. in the perusal of this act we can see the relations of the two companies. that of the associates of montreal is clearly regarded as a purely religious body anxious to aid the parent body in its very great desire to establish a strong colony in new france to instruct the savage peoples of that place in the knowledge of god and to draw them to civilized life. thus they are very ready to grant them lands to aid in this praiseworthy enterprise, to wit: etc., which are clearly defined. in granting this they restricted the concession originally made to m. de chaussée of the _whole_ island by reserving to themselves the head of the island by a line drawn from the rivière des prairies up to lake st. louis to the distance of about four leagues from the mountain. in compensation they granted what afterwards became known as la seigneurie de st. sulpice. "moreover, an extent of land two leagues wide along the river st. lawrence by six leagues deep in the aforesaid lands, to be taken on the north side of the same bank where the assumption river empties into the said st. lawrence river, and to begin at a post which will be planted on that same bank at a distance of two leagues from the mouth of the same assumption river, the rest of the said two leagues of frontage to be taken in a direction running towards the said st. lawrence river; whatever lies between the rivière des prairies and assumption river and between assumption river and the above mentioned fort, being reserved to the said company proposing to set up thereon later as forts and habitations."--edits et ord., quebec, p. . the object of the above restriction is clear. the company of new france was primarily a trading concern and it wished to secure its rights to the north of montreal as a trading centre for which it was so well adapted by nature, as it was the natural goal of all the indian peltry from beyond the sault. it reserved rights therefore to build forts and habitations there. it next outlined the political and municipal position of the future colony in respect to the company. the sieurs chevrier (de fancamp), de la dauversière and their successors were obliged, to show their faith and homage, to take to the fort st. louis at quebec in new france, or other place afterwards designated by the company, at each change of possessor, as payment, a piece of gold of the weight of one ounce stamped with the seal of the company of new france; to present besides other signs of acknowledgments of feudal tenure; even to furnish their aveux et dénombrement,[ ] the whole in conformity with the custom of paris,--a land tenure system which prevailed for so long afterward in canada. in the matter of justice, dependence was to be placed on the sovereign court which was to be established at quebec or otherwise, to which appeal could be made from the local judges appointed by the montreal company. montreal was, thus, crippled beforehand, in its trade extension. the fur trade with the indians was only allowed as far as the need and use of private persons were concerned. all peltry, over and above this, was to be handed over to the agents of the company of new france at a price fixed by it, on the pain of confiscation. montreal's pretensions to future independence were guarded against, by it being forbidden to build any fortress or citadel, this privilege being reserved to the company should it afterward desire land for these forts and for the settlement and housings of the officers and men around them. in case the company desired a fort on the mountain, it required five arpents around it, etc. nevertheless the seigneurs of montreal might retrench or fortify themselves as much as necessary to protect themselves against the incursions of the savages. further limitations were placed on the sources of future population. no grants of land were to be given to those already settled in new france, at quebec, three rivers or elsewhere, but only to those who came expressly to people the lands. in order to insure this, the seigneurs chevrier and le royer were to send a number of men by the next shipment made by the company. finally after the clause annulling the gift of de lauson as stated above, the document gives order to m. de montmagny, the governor, to put the said seigneurs in possession of the lands. throughout this document there is no mention of the "company of montreal." the deed is made out to the two named and to their successors, but it was evidently understood that these were acting for others with no other pretension than belonging to a number of associates of the "company of montreal."[ ] let us return to m. olier. at the time we are speaking of, this young priest, a man of less than twenty-eight years of age, was a missionary for the country people. he had returned from these to paris to take a decision on a most important subject, which was, whether or not he should accept the episcopal see of a pious prelate who had been urging its acceptance by him for over eighteen months. on the feast of the purification, february , , with this need for decision on his mind, m. olier having retired to the abbey church of st. germaies-prés to seek in prayer the solution to his perplexity, believed that he had received a supernatural light. "having prayed for some time," he relates in after years, "at morning prayer i heard these words, 'you need to consume yourself in me, so that i may work my whole will in you; and i wish that you may be a light to illumine the gentiles; _lumen ad revelationem gentium_.'" this appeared to him a clear call to refuse the offer of the episcopate, which was not among the gentiles. at this same time his spiritual director, père de coudreu, the general of the oratorians, and the holy st. vincent de paul, were also thinking out olier's decision for him. on this same day, then, père de coudreu's decision that he ought to renounce the episcopacy coming to olier, he believed that it was his mission to remain a simple priest, and go at once to canada to be allied to the gentiles there. with difficulty he is restrained by his director. he is all aglow with zeal, he prays god, as his autobiographical memoirs tell, "to send me to montreal in canada, where they should build the first chapel, under the title of the ever-blessed virgin and a christian town under the name of ville marie, which is a work of marvelous importance." olier retired towards the end of , to the village of vaugiraud, where he surrounded himself with some young ecclesiastics who placed themselves under his direction.[ ] thus he founded the seminary of st. sulpice, the early fruits of which were directed towards canada. thus we shall see, that through his sons, he became the _lumen ad revelationem_ of his prayers. m. olier is therefore to be considered one of the founders of canada as he is already one of the first three associates who are to form the new company of notre dame de montréal. m. fancamp must shortly have been introduced to olier, for we learn that conjointly with m. olier he sent out to quebec in , twenty tons of provisions and tools, begging the jesuit superior of the mission to hold them in reserve for the reinforcement they proposed to send to montreal the year following before commencing the projected establishment. it can but be said that the concession of the great company was liberal and well meaning. indeed the same day of the concession, december , , it engaged itself to transport on its own vessels at its own expense, thirty men chosen by the messieurs de montréal as well as thirty tons of provisions destined for their sustenance; also to write to m. de montmagny to give them two sites, one at the port of quebec and the other at three rivers, where they might house their provisions in safety. great preparations were now the order of the day. exhaustive plans were prepared for the gradual development of the colony of montreal, year by year ahead. rarely has any settlement ever been thought out so completely. it had the experience of the colony of quebec to fall back upon. quebec had its three organized institutions, its clergy residence, its hospital and its school for the young savages. ville marie should have its similar ones. in the place of the jesuits it should have a community of resident secular priests. this was not to oust the jesuits, who consented to this from the beginning, as they wished to follow their vocation to evangelize the country far and wide, the constitution of their order not designing them to be parish priests. in the meantime they undertook to look after the spiritual needs of the young settlement from their headquarters at quebec. the plan for the personnel to take charge of the other institutions had not yet matured. documents, in the archives of the seminary of st. sulpice, at paris, relating to this period, show the fervour of those now planning "by the goodness of god to see in a short time a new church arise which shall imitate the purity and the charity of the primitive church." the associates, being in the necessity of sending out their first consignment of men according to their agreement, it became necessary to choose a governor, dignified, brave and wise, and a good christian, a man to command against the attacks of the fierce iroquois and to build up the civil life of the community. how the choice fell upon paul de chomedey, sieur de maisonneuve, a gentleman of champagne, must now be told. here we follow dollier de casson and contemporary chroniclers. paul de chomedey, though still young, being commonly thought to be within his fortieth year, had followed the career of arms since his thirteenth year, and had given the first proofs of his courage in the war against the dutch. amid the dissipations of a soldier's life, colonel de maisonneuve had retained his probity and purity unsullied. he loved his profession, but he often desired to exercise it in some far-off country, where the gaieties and distractions in which he now found himself a solitary man should not be forced upon him, so that he might serve god more easily, and remain faithful to his high purposes. thus he was in the world but not of it. de chomedey had a sister to whom he was devoted, a member of the congregation of notre dame at troyes, that ancient birthplace of warriors, poets and saints, on the seine. this good woman, they say, desired to partake of the romantic and apostolic life of the ursulines hospitalières at quebec, as related by the jesuits in their letters then being printed and circulated in france. doubtless by her whole-souled enthusiasm she had already turned her brother's thoughts in the same direction of self-sacrifice. in the dispositions, happening while visiting the house of a friend, to put his hand by chance upon a copy of these "relations," in turning over the leaves he came across the name of father lalemant, the former superior of the canadian missions, whom he knew to be now in paris. the thought came to him that perhaps he might find congenial occupation in canada. thereupon visiting the good jesuit, he opened his heart to him. about this same time m. de la dauversière called upon father lalemant and told him of the difficulty of the associates in finding a suitable leader for their enterprise. "i know," said lalemant, "a gentleman of champagne who perhaps will suit your purpose," and he advocated the qualities of his recent visitor. he told m. de la dauversière of the address of maisonneuve's hôtel. desirous of becoming acquainted with maisonneuve, m. dauversière took up his abode there also, and sought an early opportunity of becoming casually acquainted with him at table. in order to sound him, he placed before the guests his embarrassment in the choice of a leader of his expedition. m. de maisonneuve apparently did not manifest more interest than his fellow guests at table, but on rising he took m. de la dauversière aside and invited him to his apartment. when alone, maisonneuve told him frankly of his interest in the conversation at table. he explained in addition to his own experience in arms, that he had a yearly income of , _livres_. "i have no view of personal interest. i can live on my revenue, which is sufficient for me, and i would glad-heartedly employ my purse and my life in this new enterprise, with no other ambition but that of serving god and the king, in my profession." if his services were agreeable to the company he would gladly command the expedition himself, and was ready to start at once. it is needless to say that such a man was a god-send to the six associates who had only , écus, according to dollier de casson, but , , according to mother jucherau in her history of the hôtel-dieu of quebec. preparations were made for departure. the king, in confirming the cession of montreal, had given power to name its governors and to have artillery and other munitions of war. m. maisonneuve was appointed governor and he was charged, together with m. de fancamp, to prepare the equipment of provisions and implements, etc., and to find only unmarried men, strong and able, to till the ground, or to work at different trades, and to bear arms against the iroquois. m. de maisonneuve had some difficulty in persuading his father to give his consent to his departure. paul was the only son, and the only hope of his noble and ancient family, and could he wreck his career? paul assured him that on the contrary his reputation lay before him in the new country. at last the father gave his willing consent. [illustration: paul de chomedey de maisonneuve] to troyes paul de chomedey then journeyed to bid adieux to his sister, madame de chuly, and to soeur louise de marie, his other sister, at the convent. there he had to refuse the offer of four of the nuns to accompany him, to emulate at montreal the example of the ursulines of quebec. but judging the time not yet ripe for such an institution at ville marie, he gave a promise that when it should be more peopled he would employ them. his sister wrote on a statue, which they gave him to take away as a pledge of their mutual engagement, this inscription in letters of gold "sainte mère de dieu, pure vierge au coeur loyal, gardez-nous une place en votre montréal." the spring had come; the expedition was ready to depart from rochelle, but the mother of the future colony was wanting. these hardy men needed the solicitude and refining influence of a woman in their midst. the call of jeanne mance to fill this rôle is full of romance. this devoted lady was then about thirty-three years of age, having been born towards the year at nogent-le-roi, about four leagues from langres, of one of the most honourable families of the district. she was a modest girl, of great virtue, who from an early age had taken a vow of perpetual chastity, but although she never entered the religious life, she always nevertheless remained an unmarried lay woman. towards the middle of april of she had heard for the first time of the devotedness of madame de la peltrie, who had just taken the ursulines to quebec, and of the generosity of the duchesse d'aiguillon, who had founded the house for the "hospitalières." though of frail health, yet she had a daring spirit that dominated her soul so that a strong attraction for a like sacrifice came to her. she, too, would offer her services for canada. seeking advice she was told to seek father lalemant in paris. thither she went from langres on may th. she saw father lalemant, but the future of the foundation of montreal was then uncertain, and he was then going to dauphigny with m. dauversière to see m. de lauson, as related. he could give no decided advice. [illustration: jeanne mance administratrix of the first hospital in montreal.] jeanne now consulted father de st. jure, the rector of the novitiate of the society of jesus in paris. he confirmed her in her vocation, and she now acquainted her reluctant relatives with her firm intention of going to the mission field of canada. that winter, in paris, she visited père rapin, provincial of the recollects, who entering into her designs, introduced her to madame de bullion, a rich and charitable lady, the widow of claude de bullion, the superintendent of finance and keeper of the seals under louis xiii. he was a rich man, very worldly, clever and courageous, but he had a good heart and had endowed a hospital for the franciscan cordeliers, and in which he had died on the night of december - , , leaving behind him four sons and one daughter. when jeanne mance called upon the surviving widow, a few weeks later, there was laid the foundations of a life-long friendship. at jeanne's fourth visit, madame de bullion asked her if she could undertake the charge of a hospital which she had herself resolved to found in new france, when opportunity occurred. the remembrance of her frail health now made jeanne recoil before such a responsibility. still, though she feared that she could not be of much service in this regard, she left herself in the hands of god. nothing more was then settled. jeanne was still determined to reach the vessels soon about to start for new france, and on calling on madame de bullion to take leave before departing to embark this good lady gave her a purse of _livres_ to help her in her good work, with a pledge of more to come, when jeanne should have arrived at her destination and had written an account of the state of affairs, as she found them, regarding the foundation of a hospital. for many years madame de bullion's name remained a secret to the colonists. jeanne mance was even instructed to write to her, under cover of the name of père rapin. neither jeanne nor her benefactress then knew of the venture of montreal. this she did not learn till visiting the jesuit la place at rochelle, where she met the baron de fancamp who told her of its details. the following day, jeanne mance met m. de la dauversière, whose enthusiasm made her resolve to accept his offer and that of the associates, to join the montreal expedition. while they were waiting to sail she begged m. de la dauversière to put the plan of the new venture into writing and to give her copies so that she might send one with a letter in her own handwriting to madame la princesse de condé, to madame la chancelière, and, above all, to madame de bullion. these parcels m. de la dauversière took with him back to paris, with fruitful result. all was now ready, and one of the ships had set sail. the carpenter, upon whom they relied so much, had deserted, but on putting the vessel back, luckily another was found on shore willing to go. jeanne mance was now on her vessel.[ ] her only anxiety was that she should be the only woman at the new settlement of montreal, among a good-hearted but rough body of men. shortly before this a circumstance occurred at dieppe, whence the other ships of the expedition were embarking, which gave her great joy. two of the workmen engaged were found to be married men, and on their refusing to go without their wives, their condition had been accepted. in addition a young and virtuous girl of dieppe, seized with a sudden desire to join the expedition, had forced her way on to the ship, against all opposition. she too was accepted for montreal, and mademoiselle mance not only would have companions but she would find in the young girl a faithful assistant to nurse the sick at ville marie. the expedition was divided into three ships. on one was m. de maisonneuve with about twenty-five, including a priest, m. antoine fauls, destined for the ursulines at quebec. on the second was jeanne mance and a dozen men for montreal with the jesuit, father la place. the third ship had sailed ahead from dieppe with the three women spoken of and ten men. these were the first to arrive at quebec and they set to work to build a store at the water's edge, at the spot directed by m. de montmagny, the governor. the vessel bearing jeanne mance reached quebec on august , ; that of m. de maisonneuve did not arrive till august th. after having sailed for eight days together, the vessels were separated by the wind, for the rest of the voyage. great as was the joy at receiving mademoiselle mance at the garrison, the delay of m. de maisonneuve, while causing his friends uneasiness and apprehension, gave many of the great company's agents at quebec an opportunity of further criticising the "foolhardy enterprise" (la folle entreprise) of _les messieurs de montréal_, so inauspiciously begun. at last maisonneuve's vessel arrived, sadly leaking and battered by the winds which had made him thrice put back to france, causing him to lose on the occasions three or four of his men, one of them, a most needed man for the settlement, his surgeon. arriving, however, at tadoussac, the undaunted maisonneuve met m. de courpon, the admiral of the fleet of the company of new france, one of his intimate friends. m. de courpon offered his own surgeon and this man straightway gaily accepting, put his belongings on board. against all expectation maisonneuve's vessel sailed into quebec on august th.[ ] on arriving at quebec, maisonneuve must have found himself the centre of anxious thoughts and criticisms. jeanne mance would have told him of this. he would soon gauge public opinion on his official visits. it would have been the governor of quebec that maisonneuve visited first. to governor montmagny, the position of maisonneuve was, at least, strange. quebec was designed to be the seat of government as the act of december , , had clearly marked out. montreal was to derive her power from it. yet maisonneuve came with the governor's commission for montreal and power from the king himself, to have artillery, munitions of war and soldiers, and a right to appoint officers of the future colony on a basis of home rule. both men must have scented a future clash at montreal. yet hostility must not be read too quickly into montmagny's action. he was a gentleman and a broadminded man although he was one of those who thought the expedition "a foolish enterprise." dollier de casson has recorded the result of this interview. montmagny's words were: "you know that the war with the iroquois has recommenced, and that they declared it last month at lake st. peter, in a fashion that makes them appear more active than ever against us. you cannot then, reasonably, think of settling in a place so far removed from quebec as montreal. you must change your resolution; if you wish it, you will be given the island of orleans, instead. besides, the season would be too advanced for you to be able to settle at montreal before the winter, even had you thought of so doing." m. maisonneuve's reply was dignified and calm. "what you say sir, would be good, if they had sent me to canada to deliberate on the choice of a suitable post, but the company which sends me, having determined that i shall go to montreal, my honour is at stake, and you will not take it ill that i proceed thither to start a colony. but owing to the season being so far advanced, you will take it kindly if i am satisfied to go with the more active young men, to reconnoitre this post before winter, so as to see in what place i can encamp next spring with all my party." maisonneuve's next visit would have been to the clergy represented by father vimont, superior of the jesuits. strong in influence with the company, his views are worth recording. for this we must fall back on the "relations." the jesuits in france had promoted the new settlement of montreal. in the past the writers of the "relations" had foreseen the need of utilizing the position at the sault for a permanent centre for religious activities, and this meant a settled garrison to withstand the inroads of the fury and impetuosity of the iroquois. yet of late, the perilous position of the tottering garrison of quebec had been so patent that they felt that concentration was the policy of the hour. as a result of the interview father vimont wrote this year to france: "we have received pleasure at the sight of the gentlemen of montreal because their design, if it is successful, is entirely to the glory of our god. m. de maisonneuve, who commands these men, has arrived so late that he will have wisdom enough, not to ascend higher than quebec for this year; but god grant that the iroquois close not the way, when there is question of advancing further.... some one will say," he continues, "this enterprise is full of expense and difficulties; these gentlemen will find mountains where they expect to find valleys. i will not say to these gentlemen that they will find the roads strewn with roses; the cross, suffering, and great outlays are the foundation stones of the house of god.... but patience will put the last touch to this great work." we may imagine de maisonneuve's conversation with this serious sympathizer would have been on these lines and his courage would not have been diminished. in spite of de maisonneuve's firm resolution, montmagny still hoped to win him over. he called a meeting of the principal inhabitants to consider the position. it was a question of concentration or disintegration--the island of orleans under the shadow of quebec; or montreal, miles away in advance of civilization, at the mercy of the hostile iroquois? it was a serious question for "la colonie française." when the meeting assembled, and before anything had been decided, de maisonneuve spoke like a man of courage and one accustomed to the profession of a soldier. he explained that he had not come to settle in the island of orleans, but to lay the foundation of a town on the island of montreal, and that even should this project be more perilous than they had told him it was, he would carry it on, should it cost him his life. "i am not come to deliberate," he concluded, "but to act. were all the trees on the island of montreal to be changed into so many iroquois it is a point of duty and honour for me to go there and establish a colony." the meeting broke up without any further deliberation. the clear and courageous expression of the governor of montreal had won the day. dollier de casson tells us that montmagny was gained over by this straight-forward speech. he was a chevalier of the order of st. john of jerusalem, a soldier and a gentleman. he put no further opposition, but was anxious to put the governor of montreal in possession of his post according to the instructions from his company. on october th, he, himself, with father vimont and others, left quebec, and arrived with de maisonneuve at montreal, on october th. the customary formalities of taking possession were concluded on october th. the site chosen was that we know as la place royale. on his way down to quebec, de maisonneuve stayed a day with a venerable old man, m. pierre de puiseaux, sieur de montrenault, who had built a house at a post called ste. foy. this house, as well as that of st. michel, at which madame de la peltrie was living, he generously offered to maisonneuve, together with all his farm stock and furniture, for the use of the expedition. this unexpected gift maisonneuve accepted only conditionally on its acceptance being ratified by the company of montreal. the offer of st. michel,[ ] which was then considered the bijou house of canada, was most opportune for m. de maisonneuve, besides having quarters for the winter time for mademoiselle jeanne mance, madame de la peltrie, who had associated herself with the montreal project, and himself, might with m. de puiseaux superintend the necessary preparations for the voyage, while at ste. foy, at which he had left the surgeon and the carpenters, the oaks were being cut down, and barks were being constructed large enough to carry the party and all their effects to montreal. meanwhile, the care of the stores for all the montreal party, during this winter of - , was under the skillful management of jeanne mance, who endeared herself to all. moreover the colonists learned to know one another and their future governor, who went among them day by day, encouraged them. it seemed already montreal. soon de maisonneuve's feast day, the conversion of st. paul, coming round on january th, paul de chomedey gave his men a little feast in honour of the occasion. the men fired salutes from the artillery they had brought. nearby, in quebec, the noise of the cannon was heard. its governor, touchy for his official prerogatives, interpreted this as an infringement of his dignity, and he caused jean gorry, who had fired the cannon, to be seized and imprisoned. on the first day of february jean gorry being now released, maisonneuve gave a feast and paid particular honour to the unfortunate jean. the governor of montreal knew that montmagny had exceeded his power, but it was not then the time to provoke an open quarrel. montmagny heard of this second exploit and summoned several of maisonneuve's men, who had been present at the feast, to testify on oath what had happened. the affair blew over, and the governors resumed pleasant relations, probably because montmagny found that he was in the wrong and had read a petty challenge in the harmless salute which was quite permissible under the commission, given by the king to the governor of montreal, for his men to bear arms. still this incident is significant and worth recording, in view of the friction and jealousy to arise between the future governors of the rival cities of quebec and montreal. footnotes: [ ] ville marie is the name of the town appearing in all the official documents till , when for the first time that of montreal appears. montreal, in the form of the "island of montreal," had, however, been used long before. the document containing the transition from ville marie to montreal has been recently brought to public attention by mr. e. z. massicotte, city archivist. [ ] it was in one of the galleries of the "château de meudon" where the two unexpectedly met. dauversière, it is thought, had gone there to the keeper of the seals who was then at the palace. the second conference after thanksgiving was in the park grounds of the château and lasted three hours. (cf. faillon.) [ ] consisted in an avowal of the grant of the seigneury from the crown and the census of the seigneury with the names of the concessionaires, the amount of the lands granted them and under cultivation, together with the number of heads of cattle, etc. [ ] in fact both of these swore to this explicitly before the notaries of the king, pourcelle and chaussiere, on march , . (edits et ord., quebec i, pp. - .) on march , , there was also signed an act by the associates which gave to the last survivor, excluding all heirs, the forts, habitations, etc., conceded to the members of the company of montreal. (edits et ord., p. .) [ ] "la compagnie de prêtres de st. sulpice" was founded at vaugirard, near paris, in january, , by m. jean jacques olier de verneuil, who was born in paris on september , , and died april , . the establishment of the seminary at st. sulpice, in paris, was commenced on august , . it was erected into a community on october , , and was confirmed by letters patent by cardinal chighi, legate a latere for france. [ ] for jeanne mance's future assistants de la dauversière had established, in , a young community of "filles hospitalières" at la flèche, although it had been in existence elsewhere since , who were to prepare themselves for the hôtel-dieu of ville marie. the order at la flèche was erected on october , , by mgr. claude de rueil, bishop of angers, and approved by pope alexander vii by a brief of january , . the sisters for montreal did not arrive till . [ ] dollier de casson, de belmont and de la tour put the date for august th, sister morin for october, montgolfier for september. the "relations" say that the season was "very advanced." [ ] st. michel is the site of the present "spencer wood." chapter vi - ville marie founded by paul de chomedey de maisonneuve the departure of the expedition from montreal--the arrival at place royale--the "veni creator spiritus" and mass on the "common"--vimont's prophecy--activities of encampment--the first reinforcement--the first quasi-parochial chapel built in wood--algonquins visit the camp--floods and the pilgrimage to the mountain--peaceful days--primitive fervour and simplicity--the dreaded iroquois at last appear--first attack--the first cemetery--"castle dangerous"--the arrival of the second reinforcement--_les véritables motifs._ notes: the hurons, algonquins and iroquois. during the months of february, march and april, the boat construction went busily on at ste. foy. at length when the ice-bound river broke up and the last floes had swept past to the gulf beyond, m. de maisonneuve's flotilla, loaded with provisions, furniture and tools, besides little pieces of artillery and ammunition, set sail to montreal on may th. it consisted of a pinnace, a little vessel with three masts, a gabarre or flat-bottomed transport barge with sails, and two barques or chaloupes. on one of these latter m. de montmagny, the governor of quebec, fittingly led the way with m. de maisonneuve; with the expedition were several black-robed jesuits, including father barthélemy vimont, the superior of the canadian mission, and father poncet, the first missionary for ville marie. there were also m. de puiseaux, madame de la peltrie, and her maid, charlotte barré, jeanne mance, and the rest of the twenty-one colonists, six of whom belonged to the household of nicholas godé, the joiner. on the th, as evening fell, they came in sight of montreal and cantiques rent the air. on this day m. montmagny again[ ] put m. de maisonneuve formally in possession of the island. setting sail early next morning, before daybreak, the rising sun delighted their eyes with the beautiful meadows smiling with a profusion of flowers of variegated colours. at last they reached the islet at the mouth of the stream, which, so long ago, champlain spoke of as a safe haven, until they reached hard by the spot named by him, _la place royale_. within this watered mead, de maisonneuve had decided to build his settlement and fort. as he put foot to the soil, inspired by the solemnity of the moment, lie fell on his knees in thanksgiving to god, and was quickly followed by all his party. they broke forth into heartfelt psalms or hymns of joyful gratitude. in the meadow, a spot was chosen for the mass of thanksgiving. quickly the altar was arranged under the direction of mademoiselle mance and madame de la peltrie. when all were gathered round it in this open air temple,--the silence only broken by the twittering of the numerous birds, the flapping of wings of the wild fowl and their shrill cries as they winged their flight above the river to the south, the sighing of the trees; the swish of the meadow plants swaying in the morning breeze and the murmuring of the little haven-stream on which the chaloupes were tossing; the subdued, sonorous rush of the water on the mighty st. lawrence at its mouth, where the pinnace and gabare were riding at anchor,--the superior of the missions of canada, father vimont, intoned the grand old solemn chant of christian ritual, the _veni creator spiritus_, and the voices of all joined in with heartfelt unison. then followed the grand mass, the first that had ever been celebrated at villa marie,[ ] and all the while the growing sun shone full upon the slopes of mount royal, ever mounting upward and onward to its wooded peak. [illustration: the colonists' memorial] the scene is one of life and colour. the rich hues of the vestments of the priests, the shining white linen of the altar, the gleaming sacred ornaments, the picturesque costumes of montmagny and de maisonneuve, the ladies and gentlemen around them, the varied dresses of the artisans and the arquebusiers, whose weapons glint in the sun, fill in a picture worthy of the mountain background, such as should inspire any artist's brush. and now the action of the sacrifice was suspended and father vimont broke the sice and earnestly spoke to the worshippers. his words have become famous, pregnant as they were with prophetic meaning. we thank dollier de casson for having preserved them. "that which you see, gentlemen, is only a grain of mustard seed, but it is cast by hands so pious and so animated with faith and religion, that it must be that god has great designs for it, since he makes use of such instruments for his work. i doubt not, but that this little grain may produce a great tree, that it will make wonderful progress some day, that it will multiply itself, and stretch out on every side." [illustration: vimont's prophecy. the first mass on the site of montreal] never was prophecy more true, when we realize the present greatness of montreal and remember the distinguished sons and daughters it has sent over the world. for montreal has been the home of great discoverers, religious founders, missionaries and pioneers of civilization, and captains of industry. it is the mother of the cities of the northwest and its future is still before it. the mass ended, the sacred host is left exposed throughout the day, as though the island were a cathedral shrine. for a sanctuary lamp the women, not having any oil, placed with pious zeal a number of "fireflies" in a phial, which, as evening stole on, shone like little clusters of tapers in the vesper gloom. next morning the actuaries of an encampment occupied all. around the temporary altar, the camp tents were pitched, a chapel of bark was constructed,[ ] and trees were cut down to surround the colony with an intrenchment of stakes and a ditch, the governor, montmagny, felling the first tree, after which he proceeded to quebec. but madame de la peltrie and m. de puiseaux remained. on august th the first reinforcement of thirteen men arrived, sent under m. de repentigny, as admiral of the company's vessels by the associates at paris, through the funds collected, as mentioned, on february d. with them there came a most useful man to the colony, the pious and brave carpenter, gilbert barbier, surnamed "minimus" for his short stature. altar, furniture and other valuables arrived, and gilbert barbier immediately set about constructing a worthy chapel of wood, while wings were added to make the mission settlement house. meanwhile, during the summer, the vessels plied between yule marie and st. michel to bring up the rest of the stores and ammunition left behind. these reduced the guard to but a score of men, but as yet, the iroquois had not got scent of the new settlement. on august the new chapel was completed and used for service--a framework building of about ten feet square which did service as a conventual and quasi parochial chapel till the beginning of .[ ] so passed the happy days unmolested by any foe. a friendly band of algonquins visited the camp and after witnessing a religious procession on assumption day, , journeyed with the governor to the summit of mount royal. while there, it is related that two of their body, aged men, told the bystanders that they belonged to the race formerly inhabiting this island. stretching out their arms to the slopes on the west and the south sides of the mountain they exclaimed: "behold the places where once there were villages flourishing in numbers, whence our ancestors were driven by our enemies. thus it is that this island became deserted and uninhabited." "my grandfather," said one old man, "tilled the earth at this place. the indian corn grew well then." and taking up the soil in his hands: "see the richness of it," he cried, "how good it is!" charmed with this discourse they were pressed to stay and live happily with their friends, the white men, but the wandering habits of these forest children finally prevailed. in the month of december, the safety of the colony was threatened by the floods of the st. lawrence which advanced over the low lying lands towards the fort. with simple faith, m. maisonneuve planted a cross over against the invading waters, and the "relations" of this year, tell how the floods receded on christmas day. in pious gratitude m. maisonneuve would erect a permanent cross on the mountain. a trail was blazed and cut, and on the feast of the epiphany, january , , a procession formed, m. maisonneuve leading, carrying the cross on his shoulders and followed by others bearing the wood for its pedestal. on reaching the summit, père duperon had an altar erected, and celebrated mass after the cross had been blessed and erected. at this time, there seemed to have been two priests attached to the mission. this was the origin of the annual pilgrimage, since discontinued. on the feast of st. joseph, march , , the main building, or the habitation, containing the chapel of notre dame, the stores, and dwelling rooms for sixty persons, was completed. in front they placed the small pieces of artillery and then celebrated the occasion with a cannonade. the life within resembled that of a religious community. for the most part they lived in common, offering a picture of the fervour and simplicity of the primitive church. closed up for nearly eleven years for mutual safety within the fort, they learned to live a life of charity and holiness. the days were as yet uneventful, and the round of work and prayer and recreation bound them together in peace and comfort. not only the governor and the leaders of the settlement, but all the rough soldiers and workmen led a fervent and exemplary life. the hand of obedience pressed lightly on them, and a willing service was granted by all. the "relations" of the annals of this period are full of praise of the sanctity and peace of these early days. "one saw," says sister morin in the annales of the hôtel-dieu, "no public sins, nor enmities, nor bitternesses; they were united in charity, ever full of esteem and affection one for another, and ready to serve one another on all occasions." the ideal of the pious associates of the company of notre dame de montreal at paris was being fulfilled. the governor, in his apostolic zeal, established confraternities among the men and women, for the conversion of the savages, for this was the motive that had inspired the foundation of this far off outpost of civilization. the singleness of purpose of the settlers at montreal was not lost upon the hurons, who spoke of it to their different tribes, so that many now began to arrive. in february of a band of algonquin braves came by, leaving their wives and children in camp while they went forth on the warpath against their enemies, the iroquois. a few days later they were visited by algonquin hunters, for there was much sport around. the chief of this band stayed behind with his wife, desirous to live a civilized life, and the parish register records their baptism and their christian marriage, on march th, of that year, the first to be recorded in the marriage book. soon, this was followed by the baptism of the wife and children of his uncle, a famous orator among the algonquins, who was known as "borgne de l'ile." the registers finally record his baptism and his christian marriage. montreal was soon to experience the effects of the alliance of the hurons with the french, as well as some of the disasters prophesied by montmagny to maisonneuve at quebec, from the war which had been declared a month before maisonneuve's arrival. other parts of the country had already been suffering. in father vimont in the "relations" had written that the iroquois had sworn a cruel war against the french. they blocked up all the passage of our great river, hindering commerce and menacing the whole country with ruin. on the d of august, , at three rivers, an attack was made by them on the fort and they killed or took prisoners a party of twenty-three to twenty-eight huron allies, and with them the heroic and saintly jesuit, isaac jogues, and two young frenchmen. the saintly jogues was subjected to much in treatment. after having cut off the thumb of his right hand and bitten off one of his fingers, they tore his nails out with their teeth, and put fire under the extremities of his mutilated fingers. having done this they tore off his cassock and clothed him in the garb of a savage. though he escaped, he was reserved for a martyr's death, on october , , among the onondagas. the year previously he had ministered to the infant church at montreal. at the new fort on the iroquois river, designed by montmagny, on august , , the iroquois swept down after seven days, and captured some prisoners whom they told that of them were banding together and would fall upon the french colony in the beginning of next spring. great fear for montreal, the solitary and most advanced port, was entertained in the spring at quebec. still this concerted attack was not yet to be realized. yet the immunity of montreal was not to last long. there was a method in the madness of the iroquois. they hated the french because of their alliance with the christian hurons and they did their best to cut off the peltry trade of the northwest from them and divert it to albany and new amsterdam. this naturally suited the dutch. to carry this plan out, the iroquois, small in numbers but expert military tacticians, had established an uninterrupted line of lookout posts from three rivers to the portage of the chaudières (ottawa). starting from this as their working point, they divided their fighting men into ten sections, two of which remained at this exposed post. the third section was stationed at the foot of the long sault, the fourth above montreal, the fifth on the island, the sixth on the rivière des prairies, the seventh on lac st. pierre, the eighth not far from fort richelieu on the sorel, the ninth near three rivers, while the tenth formed a flying squadron to carry devastation when the opportunity presented itself. few could break past them in safety. even jogues had not been successful. soon the number of baptisms registered for this year reached the number of seventy or eighty. these were busy days for the few ladies of montreal.[ ] the frequent visitations of the savages were a drain on the stores of the community, and we learn from dollier de casson that in the spring of more serious efforts were made under d'ailleboust to raise wheat. to the delight of all, this was abundantly successful. up to only vegetables had been cultivated. thus passed the peaceful days along, for though there was much hardship incidental to a pioneering life in a new country so far removed from communication with civilization, still, all were happy, since so far the dreaded iroquois had not appeared. but in july of that year, , a friendly troupe of algonquins passed by. there was great joy in the camp, for it was the occasion of the baptism of the four-year-old child of one of the chiefs. m. maisonneuve and jeanne mance were happy to be its godparents. the indians were invited to return with their families next spring, and live with them. they promised to do so. no doubt they told others of their trip, for the colony was again shortly visited.[ ] the hurons came to be regarded by the iroquois as the allies of the hated white men. the establishment of the fort of montreal was an additional reason for exterminating the hurons. in consequence the register of baptism, for the year of , only records one ceremony. this is significant, for it marked the presence in the neighbourhood at last of the dreaded iroquois, who kept the hurons from visiting this year. the circumstance of the presence of the iroquois in the neighbourhood became known to this fort one day in , when a party of ten algonquins ran terror-stricken into camp, trembling and afraid of their shadows. outside the fort were the baffled pursuers too small in numbers to attack it. one of their tribe had been slain by the fugitive algonquins, who had directed their steps to friendly shelter without being overtaken. from that time forward, there was dread of iroquois surprises in the camp. it was now at last discovered; stealthily and noiselessly the balked enemy reconnoitered the camp and retired to the woods to spread the news to the tribe and to prepare for an attack. for, unknown to the fort, the country was infested with them--sworn to make war upon the french. in june, a party of them were at lachine, being joined by a party of unarmed hurons whom they had surprised with their canoes laden with peltry. the treacherous hurons, who had been in the past kindly received at the fort, to conciliate their captors, now pointed it out to them for an attack. unsuspecting any attack, six men from the fort, cutting wood about two hundred feet distant, were surprised by forty iroquois on the th of june. they fought bravely; but three were killed and the rest taken prisoners. the body of guillaume boissier _dit_ güilling was found that day and buried but the bodies of bernard berté from lyons and pierre laforest _dit_ l'auvergnat were not found till later, and were buried three days after by father davost. the archæologist will be pleased that the place of the first cemetery is recorded by the chroniclers. at the corner of the angle of the meadow, where the river st. pierre joined the st. lawrence, a little cemetery was made and fenced around with piles[ ] to save the dead from molestation. on the day after, some of the treacherous hurons fled into the camp and told the awful tale of slaughter committed by the iroquois during the night. the hurons had spent the night insulting the french prisoners until sleep had closed their eyes, when the iroquois fell upon them and slashed to pieces those who could not escape. then taking the thirteen huron canoes they loaded them with peltry; they descended the river with the three french prisoners in the sight of the onlookers of the fort, who were too few to pursue them. what happened to the prisoners was graphically told later when one of them arrived at the camp. he told how the design of his captors had been to descend to a point whence they could land and cut their way through the woods, to the place now known as chambly. but having too heavy a load of beaver skins to carry, on landing they destroyed their canoes with their axes, as their custom was to render them useless. when they were in the woods, some four or five leagues from the place whence they left the river, their care of their prisoners became less guarded. he had been set to boil a kettle, and taking the opportunity of being sent to gather wood for the fire, he had eluded his captors and had come to the spot where he had landed. finding one of the canoes less damaged than the others, he plugged up the dents made by the iroquois hatchets, and loading it with a few skins, had then paddled up to ville marie. the soldiers of the fort went for the rest of the peltries and m. de maisonneuve distributed them, but kept none fur himself.[ ] the fate of the other two prisoners was told later by a huron who escaped from the iroquois. we are not told their names by the "relations" of , but one whose christian name was henri, having seen his companion, as well as two hurons, burnt at a slow fire, had escaped, only to be recaptured for the same terrible fate. for the rest of that year, apprehension of ambuscades kept the colony within the walls of the fort as far as possible. even to leave the threshold of their homes was to risk danger. "tant il est vrai," adds m. dollier de casson, "que dans ces temps on était plus en assurance de ce qu'on avait franchi le seuil de sa porte." from this time begins the history of "castle dangerous," as we may term this period of the _nascent city_, now commencing, when there began a constant struggle with the daily risks of life. it was during this early anxiety that good news came to allay some of the alarm, and this was brought by the governor of quebec. for, meanwhile in france, during the winter, the eyes of many were turned onto the infant colony. praise and criticism alike were freely distributed. the great company, stung by reflections on their own inactivity, repented of having given their charter to a company which they feared might prove a rival, and would have revoked it, but for the ratification it had received from the king. there were many, however, who in high places strongly approved of the aims and objects of the company of montreal.[ ] a letter is extant, from louis xiii himself, written at st. germain-en-laye, on february st, which was written to m. montmagny, the agent of the great company at quebec, bidding him "assist and favour in every way in his power, the seigneur de maisonneuve in such manner that there shall be no trouble or hindrance." this was one of the last acts of this noble prince, who died on may th following, but his kindness to montreal will always be remembered. it was he who gave the company of montreal besides presents of artillery the vessel of tons, which, under the name of notre dame de montréal, was now crossing the ocean bringing new colonists and their effects. in the month of july, , the colony was delighted with the presence of m. montmagny, who announced the approaching convoy sent by the associates, under the guidance of one who was destined to be an able lieutenant to m. maisonneuve. this was m. louis d'ailleboust, seigneur de coulonges, a man of an illustrious family that had given distinguished sons to the church and state. the vessels, bringing him and his party of colonists for montreal, arrived at quebec on assumption day, , and soon they reached the fort. among them, to the great delight of jeanne mance, was his noble lady, barbe de boulogne. jean de saint-père, the first notary, was also with them. for jeanne mance, m. d'ailleboust brought a message, of which we shall hear later. m. d'ailleboust was a skillful engineer, and under his guidance the wooden stockade was reinforced with two bastions, which the fear of attacks from the iroquois had rendered most desirable. this enclosure now began to be called the "fort" or the "château." the religious care of the colony at this time was that exercised by the jesuit fathers,[ ] whose headquarters were at quebec. as we have seen, they willingly consented to serve this mission until m. olier had prepared for the associates a succession of secular priests formed by his hand for the special purpose of montreal. the time was now come for m. olier's company to leave vaugirard, to which he had gone in , and to follow him to paris to the parish of st. sulpice, where he was now training in his seminary of st. sulpice, a goodly number of young priests suitable for the canadian mission of ville marie. these were ready to go, but as yet a technical difficulty of ecclesiastical canon law stood in the way. since the re-occupation of quebec by the french in , after the departure of the english under kerth, the jesuits had been sent under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of rouen, and this see had continued to claim the catholics of new france as its diocesans. to m. olier it appeared that canada, being a foreign mission, the privilege of sending clergy belonged directly to rome; accordingly the associates of montreal addressed a letter to pope urbain viii, asking him to authorize the papal nuncio then in paris to give the ordinary powers of missioners, to those whom they would send to ville marie. this document, preserved in the archives of versailles, contains, in addition to the above request, others asking for certain routine grants and privileges. the answer from rome, while granting the latter, ignored the main request. there seemed to be no desire at present, at rome, to conflict with the privileges of rouen, or with the prescriptive rights of the jesuits. then too there was opposition then being threatened by the great company. matters, therefore, stood where they were. indeed any other course taken at this time would have been very unwise. especially as the state of feeling of unrest reflected in france this year by the "véritables motifs" was doubtless known at the vatican through the papal nuncio, who was at this period in paris, as we have seen. before passing from the events of , notice must be taken of a remarkable document which appeared in paris this year. this was "les véritables motifs," one of the historical documental sources of this early period. it was published in a volume of pages in quarto, very likely having been printed in paris, but bearing no names of place, printer or author. m. l'abbé faillon, the author of "la colonie française," thinks it was written by a former judge, m. laisné de la marguerie, who had left the world to associate himself with m. olier. on the contrary, however, the abbé verreau thinks that it is the production of m. olier himself, for reasons which we prefer to follow. the full title of the book, "véritables motifs de messieurs et dames de la société de notre dame de montréal, pour la conversion des sauvages," is an indication at once, of an apologia for the erection of the montreal mission for the conversion of the infidels. it seems strange in these days that such self-defence should be necessary. but the document reveals that there was strong opposition to, and misunderstanding of, the "raison d'être" of a purely religious colony. we may suspect that the objections formulated must have been from the company of new france in a spirit of jealousy. the chief objections were ( ) that it was contrary to the established custom of the catholic church to have lay people, and especially ladies, enterprising a mission for the conversion of infidels. ( ) that this work was not needed for the salvation of the heathen, as they argued in the case of infidel peoples in the absence of revelation, they were invincibly ignorant, and that the light of reason alone sufficed for their salvation. ( ) that the work of the associates was a piece of ostentatious piety; that in the past it had sufficed for pious people to give their alms secretly to be administered by others for the good of religion. there was no need to establish a company for the purpose. ( ) that this company injured the interests of others, viz: the company of the hundred associates, the jesuits, who had been given the charge of the canadian missions, and finally the poor of france, for charity begins at home. ( ) that the association of montreal, not having any other foundation but that of christian charity, it is bound to be a financial failure, and that the enterprise would fall through, owing to lack of enthusiasm and consequent shortage of funds. ( ) finally, that the enterprise was ill considered, badly planned and rash; that south america would have been a better place for such a settlement; that montreal was unfitted for french people to live in on account of the cruel cold and the excessive length of the winter; that they would be more exposed than ever to the butcheries of the iroquois, who would infallibly cut them into pieces; that a work of such consequence could only be carried on by the king's government on account of the enormous expenses entailed, and it was folly for private persons to dare to tempt god openly. the answer to these objections is continued in the pages of quarto alluded to. we will leave them to the imagination. without giving the reply we need only refer the reader to the year and the practical solution now going on at montreal in the year of .[ ] on the d of february, another scene in the romantic story of montreal was enacted in paris in the church of notre dame. there at six o'clock in the morning olier said mass at the altar of the holy virgin, surrounded by the members of the association of montreal, who now had reached as many as thirty-five. the lay members, many of distinguished rank, (for jeanne mance's letter on her departure to m. dauversière had helped in this), communicated, while the priests celebrated at neighbouring altars in the vast cathedral. they consecrated the island of montreal to the holy family and placed it particularly under the protection of mary, whose name they gave to the city of "ville marie," and from that day the seal of the associates bore the virgin's statue with the legend "notre dame de montréal." on this day the associates gave a sum of , _livres_, to be devoted to defray the expenses of a new expedition. [illustration: the holy family] note the hurons, algonquins and iroquois hurons the hurons were the wendots or wyandots, and were divided into various clans or families, such as the bears, the rocks, the cords, etc. they were the parent stock of the five iroquois nations and were related to the petuns and neutrals, their neighbours on lake huron, or attegouestan, as they called it. they were also connected by blood with the undastes or susquehannas of pennsylvania. the derivation of the name of hurons, as the wyandots were called by the french, is fanciful but apparently authentic. when champlain, in , was visited at quebec by a tribe of these wyandots to sell peltry from the far-off northwest regions, the irregular tufts of hair on their half-shaven heads seemed to the frenchman to represent bristles (_la hure_) on the back of an angry boar. "quelle hure!" they exclaimed, and those possessing the stock of bristles they called "hurons." their country was eight hundred or nine hundred miles away from quebec, around lake huron. "roughly speaking," says the rev. t. j. campbell in his "pioneer priests of north america," "the territory of the hurons was at the head of georgian bay, with lake simcoe on the east, the severn river and matchedash bay on the north, nottawasaga bay on the west, and was separated from the neutrals on the south by what would now be a line drawn from the present town of collingwood over to hawkstone on lake simcoe. the train for toronto, north of midland and penetanguishena, runs through the old habitat of the hurons." many of the clergy who served montreal had laboured among them. in the beginning the hurons would not listen to any allusion to christianity. success only began in , and lasted but for ten years, for before the end of as a distinct people they had vanished, being exterminated by their implacable foe, the iroquois. the algonquins the algonquins are said to derive their name from the word algonquin, "the place where they spear the fish," i. e., the front of the canoe. they were once a great race. indeed today they number , of which , are in the united states and the rest in canada. their hereditary enemy, the iroquois, were not so numerous, and thus we find champlain allying himself with the algonquins against the scanty sixteen or seventeen thousand iroquois who lived in the new york territory. but herein lay champlain's mistake. the algonquins were wanderers and not warriors. they were a simple, stupid people, who neither cultivated the ground nor learned any textile arts and had no settled habitations. they were all worshipers of the manitou, shameless in their immoralities and just as cruel to their captives, as were the iroquois. they were, owing to their nomadic life, a prey to the latter and a difficulty to the few missionaries to christianize them adequately, for every group would have necessitated a priest to follow them in the hunt for game or fish, as they wandered from place to place. yet, portions of them, being less fierce than other tribes of their race, welcomed the missionaries, who sympathized with them in their poverty and wretchedness. thus at montreal, as at three rivers and quebec, these were the basis of the indian converts. "when the algonquins were a great nation they claimed," says the author of the "pioneer priests of north america," "as their own, almost all the upper regions of the north american continent, and even out in the atlantic there was no one to dispute newfoundland with them, except an inconsiderable and now forgotten people, known as the beothuken. cape breton, prince edward island and nova scotia, and all the country from labrador to alaska was theirs, except where the esquimaux lived in the east, the kitunabaus in the far northwest, and the hurons, petuns and neutrals in the region near georgian bay. in what is now the united states, new england was counted as their country, and though their deadly enemy, the iroquois, had somehow or other seized the greater portion of new york, yet the strip along the hudson belonged to the algonquins, as also new jersey, a part of virginia, and north carolina, kentucky, illinois and wisconsin." algonquin is the generic name, but its many subdivisions and tribes have their specific names such as those set down in ethnological tables as the abenaakis, arapahoes, cheyennes, crees, delawares, foxes, illinois, kickapoos, mohicans, massachusetts, menominees, montagnais, mohawks, narragansetts, nepinues, ojibways, ottawas, powhattans, sacs, shawnees, wampanoags, wappingers, etc. iroquois the iroquois were descendants of the indians whom jacques cartier had met on the banks of the st. lawrence, in . but at this time they had drifted mysteriously to what is now new york territory, their central seat, that of their confederacy or league of five nations, being at onondaga. they were never numerous but they were very warlike. although they lost many in war, by disease and drunkenness, for they were filthy and immoral in their habits, they recruited their strength by adopting captives seized in their raids. they lived in palisaded towns and were more intelligent than the other races. their houses, unsanitary and overrun with vermin, were arched constructions, sometimes of feet in length and were covered with bark. in the centre of the lodge were the fires of the separate families, who were divided into stalls. the smoke escaped as best it could. they did not cultivate the land because they were so often on the warpath, neither did they devote much energy in cultivating the textile arts; hence they wore the skins of animals. they had very vague notions of a supreme being, their chief object of worship being agreskoué, the god of war, who had to be propitiated with gifts and even by human sacrifices. theirs has been described by general clark as literally "devil worship." they had no priesthood as such, but each brave had his _oki_ or _manitou_, adopted after a protracted period of seclusion and fasting. they had their medicine men, who seemed to the missionaries to use diabolical arts in their incantations, spells and dances. many of their sorcerers, however, were childish charlatans. they were immoral, thieves, liars, gamblers; they allowed their children to run wild, their women to grow up depraved and corrupt from girlhood. they were cruel and cannibals. the orgies of the dream feasts were unspeakably atrocious, especially after the introduction of "fire water." they were called by the french collectively "iroquois," by the english the "five nations," whereas they styled themselves the _hodenosaunee_, a people of the long house, because of the shape of their lodges. they were joined by the tuscaroras about and from then on they were called by the english the "six nations." as to their name the bureau of american ethnology derives it from an algonquin word, "iriakhoué," meaning "real adders." charlevoix gives a descriptive derivation from _hero_, or _hiro_, meaning "i have spoken," with which they terminated their discourses with the suffix _que_, or some equivalent gutteral sound which expressed pain or pleasures, according to the intonation. thus the french called them "iroquois." the five nations were named as follows: (english) (french) (iroquois) _the five _hodenosaunee_ nations_ _iroquois_ (people of the long house) mohawks, agniers, ganeagono (people of the flint), oneidas, onneyutus, oneyotekiano (granite people), onondagas, onontagués, onundagono (hill people), cayuga, gogogouins, gwengwhehons (muckland people), senecas. tsonnontouans. mundawono (great hill people). "the six nations, indians in canada," by j. b. mackenzie, gives some modern characteristics of the iroquois, observed on the grand river, after a length of experience and intimate knowledge of the appearance and manners and racial customs, which may be quoted to illustrate the life of their ancestors of the period we are now treating. the reserve, the writer notices, comprises the township of tuscarora (about twelve miles square) with an insignificant strip of territory in the township of onondaga--both of these lying within the county of brant and a small portion of the township of oneida, in the adjoining county of haldimand. the following present-day characteristics are noted: the indian maintains a better average as to height than his white brother, say at about ft. - / in. he is straight and is rarely "bowlegged." the indian would appear to be built more for fleetness than for strength; litheness and agility are with him, marked characteristics. the dignity of chief among the indians is attained upon the principle of heredity succession. in case of the death of a chief, this did not necessarily devolve upon the next of kin. the naming of his successor with the privilege of determining whether or not he fulfills, in point of character and capacity, the qualifications requisite to maintain worthily the position, is confided to the women of the dead chief's family, whose tribe has been deprived of one of its heads. they are given a wide latitude in choosing; so long as they recognize through their appointment the governing, basic theory of kinship to the deceased ruler, their nomination will be unreservedly approved. the chiefs are looked upon as the fathers of the tribe. in the earlier days when the demon of war was about, wisdom and bravery were the chief requisites. oratory is still of supreme importance with the modern indian. in this he is well equipped with a deep, powerful voice of rare volume and resonance. he has great facility of gesture and marvelous control of facial expression, which becomes the index of his emotions--a perfect mirror of his imaginative soul. it is no wonder then that, we hear of chiefs and orators of old haranguing for hours, for, even today, the undivided, keen attention bestowed on an orator, the unflagging interest evinced, the genuine and sympathetic appreciation his more ambitious flights evoke, the liberal applause exhorted by periods, when denunciation, scorn, or other strong mood that may possess the speaker is expressed--periods at which he has been aroused to withering, or flaming invective--all make us vividly realize the powerful oratory of their predecessors. the contemplative and esthetic bent of the indian, living amidst nature's simplicities and deeply impressed by them, overflowed in the similes and metaphors of his speech. there is no doubt of his rightful claim to eloquence. the present-day christian indian "believes vaguely in the existence of a supreme being, though his idea of that being's benignity and consideration relates solely to an earthly oversight of him, a parental concern for his daily wants. his conception of future happiness is wholly sensual--bound up, in many cases, with the theories of an unrestrained indulgence of animal appetite, and a whole-souled abandonment to riotous diversion. that estimate of an hereafter, which has gained his unreserved, his heartfelt approbation--one, in the more complete idealizing of which these coarser fancies constitute familiar adjuvants--adopts for cardinal, for constant factor, his thoroughgoing addiction, in some renovated state of being, to pastimes found congenial and appeasing in life--their undisturbed enthroning, as it were. joyously, anticipation clings to a haunt delectable--happily and charmingly contrived to embosom spacious parks immure seductive coverts; refreshed soothingly his spirits by dreams of illimitable, virgin preserves, which should be stocked with unnumbered game, and where--equipped to perfection for the chase--he should plunge with satiety into its vehement pursuit." "it has been said that the indian, agog for some ample scheme of ethics, is much more prone to follow the evil than the moral practices of the whites.... there can be no doubt, i fancy, that were the indian to be thrown continuously with a corrupt community amongst the whites--should he consort freely with a class with whom a lower order of morality obtains--his acquisition of higher knowledge, instead of giving him better and finer tastes, must inevitably make him more skilled in planning works of iniquity." the writer draws attention to the sardonic delight the humorous indian takes in perpetrating some dire practical joke on his victim. the same trait was shown in this early period, when the brave would calmly smoke his pipe and grimly watch the christian missionary's finger forcibly placed in it, gradually frizzle away. the modern iroquois is a supremely indolent creature--fasting stoically when food does not come easily, but ever ready for unbounded feasting. the effect of spirituous liquors on him is the same as of old, and justifies the attempts of the montreal clergy to suppress its traffic to the natives. "intoxicants," says the writer quoted, "when freely used by the indian, cloud, often wholly dethrone his reason, annul his self-control; madly slaying all the gentler, enkindle and set ablaze all the baser, emotions of his nature, impelling him to acts vile, inhuman, bestial; with direful transforming power, make the man a fiend, leave him, in short, the mere sport of demoniac passion. it may be thought that this is an overdrawn sketch, and that, even if it were true--which i aver it to be--full exposure of its fearsome aspect, its sombre outlines, might well have been withheld." footnotes: [ ] dollier de casson says that montreal was all handed over on october , . vimont, who was an eye witness, gives the date as may , . see "relations for ." we combine both accounts. [ ] the scene was the angular tongue of low-lying land, known by dollier de casson who came in , on september , as "the common," its memory being preserved by common street, watered on the south by the lapping waters of the great st. lawrence and on the east by the narrow river st. peter, long since dried up, which, meandering from the northwest, skirted the meadow on the north and emptied itself into the main stream. at this point and up this harbour the flotilla came to anchor. on the third side of this triangle was a marshy land which was dried up by dollier de casson and became the "domaine des seigneurs." [ ] later this chapel gave place to another feet long by broad, the former room now becoming a "parloir." the new meeting place in the fort is sometimes spoken of as the chapel or the church. the abbé, louis bertrand de la tour, says there was a _church_ in . we may thus put it earlier.--"annales des hospitalières par la soeur morin." [ ] "the house of the fort," says sister morin in her annals, "existed till or , when they finished demolishing it, although it was only of wood, where is at present the house of m. de callières, our governor today." on july nd, , de callières obtained a concession of the land occupied by the fort. the land book (_livre terrier_) of the seminary has the description: "_quinze perches et demie de front sur le fleuve, à continuer à pareille larguer jusqu'au bord de la petite rivière; en superficie / touses, avec droit de passage, sur la pointe en avant, appartenant aux seigneurs._" this point was the original cemetery till . from callières' building the place royale began to be spoken of as the pointe à callières. jacques viger, one of the fathers of historical researches in montreal, said that in his early days he had seen the ruins of de callières' house. [ ] the parish register has frequent records of their names as sponsors for the baptized indian children. they were proud of the honour. among the names frequently occurring in the following few years are madame d'ailleboust, jeanne mance, philipine de boulogne, charlotte barré, catherine lezeau and madame de la peltrie. next year, , there is only one baptism recorded; the iroquois were on the warpath and had driven the hurons away. the godmother on this occasion was madame de la peltrie. the date, january , , in the parish register fixing this, shows that she had spent the winter of - in montreal. she left, when the river opened in the spring, to return to the ursulines of quebec, whose establishment she had founded and with whom she resided till her death. her stay in montreal had been prolonged by her interest in the new foundation, and by her desire to help it in its early struggles. her departure was deeply regretted by the colony, and by none more than by jeanne mance, for there were all too few ladies to help in the devoted work. m. de puiseaux left at the same time. madame de la peltrie's character has been frequently discussed. kingsford in his "history of canada" devotes two pages to her. as montreal only had her presence for less than two years we have given this note as the impression left of her by all the montreal chroniclers. kingsford says, vol. i, p. : "much romance has been thrown over a somewhat commonplace character. her portraits remain. a more coquettish, heartless form of beauty is seldom to be found, either under the adornment of fashion or the hood and veil of the devotee." madame de la peltrie never became a nun. it is to be feared that kingsford theorized on matters of catholic custom through lack of adequate knowledge, or appreciation. [ ] in the parish church of notre dame there is still preserved the first register of the births, marriages and deaths. it is a manuscript volume in quarto composed of five note-books. the earliest entries are in latin and are ratified by either père poncet or père duperon, who served the mission. the first registers were probably written on fly sheets in and afterwards copied, for until june th the handwriting appears to be that of a copyist. there are certain blanks as if the names had been forgotten. the baptismal book appears to start with an error. the first baptism, that of an indian child, is put down for april , (this is probably the date of father poncet's appointment), whereas père vimont in his "relations" for , says it was on july st. the second baptism took place on october th. several other baptisms are marked down for the month of march, , but the copyist, better informed, has written "august" between the lines. in those days handwriting and spelling were not "de rigueur." [ ] this spot, named pointe à callières, "ad confluxium magni et parvi fluminis," was at the junction of the river st. peter and the st. lawrence opposite ile normandin, and took its name from the house of the governor, then chevalier hector de callières, built there in . it is now occupied by the custom house ( ). the plans of the château callières are preserved in the plans of montreal, , by m. de catalogne, and in those of by m. p. labrosse. this remained a cemetery till , when, owing to the inundations, the burials were transferred to a plot occupied in part today by that place d'armes, which, being in the neighbourhood of the hospital, was called in the act of burial of the "new hospital cemetery." the bodies were not removed, out of respect, till , when the land had been ceded by the seigneurs to louis guy, notary, by an act passed before joseph papineau, november , . the hôtel-dieu ground was used as the cemetery for twenty-five years. [ ] dollier de casson tells this story, which he had from eye-witnesses; de maisonneuve was a very generous and unselfish man. [ ] the more so, as the publication of the "véritables motifs," issued by the associates of the company of montreal in defense of the settlement in clearly stating its aims and justifying the singlemindedness of its promoters, had gained it many friends, among whom were many in high places. [ ] the jesuits had charge of the mission from april , , and continued it up to august , . the sulpicians then took it over, their first act recorded in the first registers of births, marriages and sepultures being on august , . [ ] one value of the "motifs" for modern day readers is that it gives the foundation of montreal the note of inspiration which is a mark not claimed by many other cities. chapter vii - progress and war the company of montreal confirmed by louis xiv--maisonneuve reappointed governor--a syndic elected; the first step in representative government--the building of the hotel-dieu--military history--pilot, the watchdog of the fort--the exploit of place d'armes--fear of iroquois--labarre's reinforcement--agriculture begins--montreal's free trade movement--the first iroquois war is over--maisonneuve goes to france--the promotion in paris of a bishopric for montreal--charles le moyne--the fortifications of the fort--war again--the salaries of the governor of quebec, three rivers and montreal--the camp volant--financial gloom in montreal--mutual benefit association--a picture of montreal--a tax perilous, sudden and frequent--the hotel-dieu a fortress for four years--the abandonment of the settlement threatened--maisonneuve goes to france for succour--the skeleton soldiers--montreal a forlorn hope. louis xiii, who died on may , , was succeeded by his young son, louis xiv, then a child of five years of age. the policy of his father in regard to montreal was continued by him, through the queen regent under the advice of the duke of orléans, uncle of the king, and of prince henri de condé, former viceroy of canada, who gave the "company of montreal" by new letters patent, dated february , , in the name of the king, the most powerful and honourable recognition, ratifying all previous powers given. in particular, it gave it power to make and receive pious legacies and foundations for the savages and for other christian movements. the position of the governor of montreal is again made clear, "and to allow the inhabitants of montreal to live in peace, police and concord, we permit the associates to commission a captain or local governor whom they shall desire to name themselves for us."--(edits et ordonnances, i, - .) the king ordered m. de montmagny to promulgate these letters. to make m. de maisonneuve's position clearer, the associates, in accord with the above royal permit, confirmed him anew by a commission, dated march , , as local governor (_gouverneur particulier de ce pays_). this year de maisonneuve's initiative had brought about that the town was erected into a municipal corporation and that the civil interests should be watched by a syndic or tribune of the people. this officer was elected to represent the colonists, to look after the general good of the island, to see after the taxes for the upkeep of the garrison and to bring to justice those who damaged others' property. it was, however, an honorary position and was subject to election, no one being allowed to continue for more than three successive years. the election was usually held in the "hangar" or the dépôt of "the company of montreal," whither the inhabitants for the most part usually resorted for all necessary clothing, utensils, and even provisions. later on, the elections took place in the hall of the seminary or that of the fort. this first step of popular representation was then an advanced movement. montreal was thus ahead of quebec, which did not have a syndic till . in , as we shall see, even this slight concession to self government was deplored, and frontenac, who started with broad views of interesting the people in their affairs, by continuing them in their separate classes, was told from france by the minister colbert to desist and even gradually to suppress the syndic's office. when d'ailleboust arrived in august, , he had brought an important communication for jeanne mance from her friend the "unknown benefactress," whom we know as madame de bullion. this good lady was resolved to establish a hospital. she had set aside an annual income of , _livres_ for this purpose and now in addition sent , _livres_ to build and furnish it, besides _livres_ to be employed according to the discretion of jeanne mance. but sickness had been singularly absent up to this. a few rooms reserved in the mission house had so far sufficed for hospital purposes. indeed, jeanne mance had recommended that the money should be devoted to the upkeep of the jesuit missions among the hurons, a proposition which did not please madame de bullion, who insisted in carrying on her pious design. thus on january th of this year ( ) she had placed a fund, , _livres_, to endow the hospital, , of which were to be employed at once on building operations. so, confident that the work was now completed, she sent a convoy of furniture and a present of , _livres_ for jeanne mance for current expenses. this persistency forced de maisonneuve to postpone other activities and he now diverted the work of his carpenters to the new foundation. in choosing the site for it, mindful of the danger of floods, he chose an elevated spot a short distance outside the fort across the streamlet st. pierre,[ ] and built the first hôtel-dieu of montreal, a building feet long by broad, containing a room for jeanne mance, one for the attendants and two for the sick. a little stone chapel was annexed, about nine to ten feet square, which was furnished with requirements for the altar next year by the company. on october th, the hospital, dedicated according to the pious wish of its founder "au nom et en honneur de st. joseph," was ready to receive the sick. it was also furnished by the associates with all the appliances necessary.[ ] jeanne mance must have felt at last happy on entering on her life-long vocation. the hospital had its modest farm of four arpents, with its two bulls, three cows and twenty sheep. m. de maisonneuve's carpenters surrounded it with a strong palisade as a protection, should the iroquois venture to attack it by night. hardly had the hospital been completed than the anxiety of jeanne mance as to its utility was dispersed, for it was immediately needed for the sick and wounded who filled it on account of the daily attacks of the iroquois. indeed they were soon obliged to add another hall, the two rooms mentioned not being sufficient. we now resume the military history of montreal. after the loss of five of his men in june, , de maisonneuve issued orders to safeguard his handful of men and women. when the men went out of the fort to their work, the sound of the bell gathered them so that they should go forth together, armed, and at dinner time it again recalled them in the same fashion. this precaution was necessary to guard them against the surprises of the iroquois who sometimes remained for days together hidden in the adjoining woods or brush, watching, cat-like, on the ground or in the trees for an opportunity to sally forth and cut off any straggler. then they would retreat with extreme agility back to their accustomed lairs. [illustration: crouching iroquois (by philippe hébert)] the more impatient of his men were all for attacking the enemy in the woods, but the governor restrained them, urging the extreme imprudence of so slight a force attempting to cope with an unknown number, in a mode of warfare in which the enemy were so experienced. nor could he run the risk of losing one of his brave defenders. a valuable assistance was provided by the watch dogs of the fort brought from france. we are responsible to dollier de casson, and father lalemant in the "relations" of , for the story of a bitch named pilot who every morning made the tour of the fort's environs, accompanied by her pups, to discover the hiding places of the iroquois. should they scent the iroquois they would turn quickly on their course, and barking and yelping furiously in the direction of the enemy, would convey the news to the fort. thus many a lurking snare was avoided by the settlers. the mother was indefatigable in her duty. if one of the pups became lazy or stubborn she would bite it to make it go on. should, however, one of them turn back and escape, in the midst of the round, a beating assuredly awaited it when pilot returned into camp.[ ] on an occasion when the barking and yelping were more insistent than usual, proclaiming the nearness of the foe, the impetuous ones of the camp would again approach the governor, asking if they were never to oust the iroquois by an attack. the governor's policy of delay was still maintained. "my brave boys," he said, "it is most unwise." but now rendered impatient, murmurs arose in camp and doubt was cast upon the governor's courage. this coming to his ears, and fearing, lest his prudence, being taken for pusillanimity should thus lower his prestige and power of command, he determined for once to change his tactics. the chance offered shortly, for on may th of this year ( ), the persistent barking of the dogs brought the malcontents to him with their querulous cry again: "monsieur, shall we never go against the foe?" to their surprise the calm, brusque reply of the soldier met them: "yes, you shall meet the foe; prepare at once for attack; but let each one be as brave as his word. i myself will lead you!" there was hurry in the camp, each one of the men sought his gun, his ammunition, and his _racquettes_, or indian snowshoes, for the snow was deep. but there was an insufficiency of the latter. at last the scanty force of forty men was mustered. the governor put the fort into the hands of m. d'ailleboust, and giving him directions to follow out should he himself never return from the fray, he led his men towards the foe. when the iroquois had noticed this, dividing their force of two hundred into several bands, they put themselves in ambuscades and awaited the approach of the men from the fort. as these entered into the woods, they were met with shots from the iroquois' muskets on all sides. seeing his men thus attacked by so large a force, m. de maisonneuve ordered them to get behind the trees, as the iroquois were, and then ensued a brisk exchange of shots on either side, so long and furious that their ammunition giving out and several of his men being already killed or wounded, de maisonneuve ordered a retreat. this was no easy matter, for they were badly equipped with the snowshoes, and those who had none sank deep into the snow and were hindered in their retreat while the iroquois were all well shod and skillful in their use, so that, as dollier de casson relates: "qu'à peine étions-nous de l'infanterie, au rapport de cavalerie." at this period of unrest and danger the hospital was being built outside the tort, a quadrilateral building, feet in length and an enclosure flanked by four stone bastions which were connected by a wooden curtain twelve feet high. in carrying the wood for construction a beaten path had been made to it, so that the snow was hard and firm, and progress was easy here without the need of snowshoes. thither, under maisonneuve's directions, the frenchmen hurried as best they could, turning to face the enemy, from time to time, to return their shots. when they reached the footpath, they ran headlong to the fort at the top of their speed, terrified by the number of iroquois pursuing them, and leaving their commander to fall behind, alone and unprotected. meanwhile those left behind in the fort, hearing the uproar, and seeing their approach, and mistaking them for the enemy, one of them imprudently fired the cannon which stood already directed towards that road to guard it during the building operations. providentially the fuse failed.[ ] the abandoned leader was now face to face with the iroquois with a pistol in either hand, fearful each moment of being seized by them. thus he kept them at bay. meanwhile the iroquois, recognizing him as the governor, wished to capture him alive to make a show of him to their tribes and to reserve him for greater cruelties, and so they delayed a little till their captain came up, to leave to him the honour of the capture. the chief now leaped forward towards de maisonneuve and was almost on his shoulders, when the governor fired one of his pistols. the pistol did not act and the savage leaped upon him in fury and seized him by the neck, but raising his other pistol above his shoulders the governor laid the chief stiff and dead upon the ground, to the indignation of the surrounding iroquois watching this single combat. they hurried at once to secure the dead body of the chief. in their anxiety lest there should be any force returning from the fort to seize their chieftain's body, and bear it away as a trophy of victory against the iroquois, their attention was diverted from the governor who, on the fall of his opponent, had fled and been allowed to escape to the fort. [illustration: maisonneuve's exploit (a bas relief from the maisonneuve monument by philippe hébert)] this act of courage silenced all suspicion of personal cowardice on the part of the governor. his former policy was now commended, and the men protested they would never expose themselves rashly, again. the parish records of ville marie this year reveal the absence of indian baptisms. this is due to the fear of the hurons in approaching the beleaguered fort. in addition the approaches were cut off. for in the spring of this year the iroquois were divided into ten bands, scattered here and there on the st. lawrence, breathing fury against the french, the hurons and the algonquins. the island of montreal itself had been visited by one of these bands at the rivière des prairies, and by another, with whom the recent fight described, took place. thus the whole country was in alarm, when, in the summer of , a reinforcement from france arrived, sent by the queen regent and the company of one hundred associates, of sixty men to be divided among the various posts. with them came another force for montreal sent at the expense of the company of montreal. at this time fort richelieu was in great danger and the new addition was much valued. the new expedition was under the command of the sieur labarre, who then came on to settle at montreal in the summer with a number of new colonists. the early historians speak very slightingly of this man. he appears to have had the reputation of being very religious. at rochelle he carried a large string of rosary beads in his girdle, and he also had a crucifix which he had almost incessantly before his eyes, so as to be considered an apostolic man. hence his appointment. but this great "hypocrite" was found out in the intimate village life of montreal and he was asked very shortly to retire to france as we shall see. this year marks the beginning of agriculture in montreal. wheat had been sown principally through the initiative of louis d'ailleboust, who had come in the previous year. but the difficulty of tilling and sowing the ground, when the workers had to carry their arms with them amid the danger of such surprises as we have described, rendered agriculture precarious, and in consequence the grain produced this year was not sufficient to support even the small colony. its provisions had still to be sent from france. the year started with an important change in the attitude of the company of new france. public opinion in the motherland had been drawn to canadian affairs. the montreal venture and the publication of the "véritables motifs" had thrown discredit on the company as a colonizing force. this body at first no doubt blustered somewhat, but finally, from fear of being looked upon as mere private speculators, it was ready to listen to reason. there had been representation from quebec from the colonists there that the monopoly of the fur trade by the company menaced commerce and prevented frenchmen coming to canada. a modification or suppression of this monopoly as the only means of increasing and firmly "establishing the colony" was demanded. accordingly, after having considered these matters at its annual meeting in december, we find the company at a subsequent one, on january th, making, at the demand of the queen regent and the solicitation of the jesuits, a treaty with the colonists of new france, by which they handed over to them the trade in peltry excluding that of acadia, miscou and cape breton. this treaty was concluded between the company and the representatives of the colonists, mm. de repentigny and godefroi, on january , , and ratified by the king on july , .--(edits et ordonnances.) the history, therefore, of free trade for montreal starts from this period, for we have seen how it had been crippled in its original charter. still the troublous times it had been undergoing had not allowed them at montreal to feel their restrictions, just as the times still ahead were not suitable for availing themselves of their new privileges, for war paralyzed commerce. if truth be told, the deputation from canada had obtained a beautiful scheme on paper; the company came out the winner. the document is worthy of consideration. after conceding to the "habitans du dit pays," present and to come, the right and license of the trade in skins and peltry in new france ... it orders that the said "habitans" shall for the future keep up the colony of new france, and shall discharge for the company the ordinary expenses hitherto paid by it for the maintenance and appointments of ecclesiastics, governor, lieutenants, captains, soldiers and garrisons in the forts and habitations, and that in consideration of the expenses already incurred by the company. the company, however, was to retain the name, titles, authority, rights and powers accorded in its original edict of establishment and to remain in full ownership, possession, judiciary, seigneurial tenure of all the country and extent of the lands of new france. thus it placed all responsibility on the inhabitants themselves. montreal would not suffer very much, because, being a private corporation, it had already offered to maintain itself at its own cost. the year opened again with iroquois attacks, "but," says dollier de casson, "god has been favourable to us." the men of the fort even killed some of their assailants, and owing to the wise soldiership of the governor, not one of his own were killed, all this year. [illustration: a. the fort built in . e. first cemetery in montreal. b. hôtel-dieu, founded in . c. residence of m. de chomedey de maisonneuve. d. windmill built in .] [illustration: residence of m. de chomedey de maisonneuve] meanwhile, the indian allies still kept away. but on september th the fort welcomed a body of sixty of them who came under the escort of a band of the soldiers sent out from france the previous year. these latter had been ordered on arriving to winter with the hurons and protect them from the iroquois, and they were now on their way back to the governor of quebec with a load of skins to the value of thirty to forty thousand _livres_. it will be remembered that the disposition of the peltry was now in the hands of the colonists themselves on condition that they should maintain the upkeep of the departments of church and state. on arriving in quebec there was a disagreement as to the disposal of the profits of the sale. finally the colonists devoted part of their proceeds to the construction of the jesuit house there. this year also de montmagny and the inhabitants applied the product of , beaver skins to their new church being constructed at quebec and dedicated to our lady of peace in view of the conclusion of peace, now heartily desired. the possibilities of trade must have appealed to the montrealers from the arrival of the above party, the more so as their restrictions had been removed. this month, the negotiations for peace were concluded at a representative gathering of iroquois and the french allies with the french party under de montmagny and thus the first iroquois war was over. peace now gave m. de maisonneuve an opportunity to go to france to arrange the affairs of his father; so putting his own in order, he left the government of ville marie in the good hands of his lieutenant, louis d'ailleboust. he departed, to the great grief of all the fort gathered at the harbour mouth, but with the promise of a speedy return. m. de maisonneuve left quebec on october th, on one of the company's ships bearing their season's fur skins to france. he "deported," as we would say, with him the "undesirable" sieur de labarre, whose hypocrisy had been unmasked in montreal, "when it became known," as dollier de casson quaintly relates, "he was frequently taking promenades in the wood with an indian woman whom he had defiled (qu'il engrossa). there was no more of the saint about this man than his chapelet and his deceitful look, for under the guise of virtue he hid a very wicked life which has made him since finish his days behind a 'bar' which was heavier than his name of barre." this year the jesuit missioners in charge of ville marie were fathers buteaux and isaac jogues. both of these men were zealous pioneers. each bore on his body the marks of iroquois' ill treatment. yet they did not ask to be recalled to france and rest on their laurels. father jogues had, however, been recalled after his mutilation, but his missionary zeal prompted him to return. he profited by the peace, which brought many of the iroquois out of curiosity to the fort, to make friends with them as he wished to work among their tribes shortly. after maisonneuve had concluded the arrangement of his father's affairs he was free for many conferences with members of the company of montreal. ever since they had written to the pope in it was their great desire, and that of maisonneuve especially, it being thought that peace was concluded, to establish a bishopric in canada. as they had agreed to support the expense of maintaining such a post, preferably at montreal, they arranged that one of their number, a m. legauffre, a secular priest who had a private fortune of his own, should be nominated to fill the episcopal see. his unexpected death now came, but he left a legacy of , _livres_ towards the founding of a see. in the meeting of the bishops at the general assembly of the clergy on may , , mgr. godeau, bishop of grasse, promoted the movement for the establishment of the see, and in july, at the meeting of july th, cardinal mazarin promised to employ his services with his majesty towards that end, while he also promised , _écus_. but as at quebec and three rivers there was no desire for a bishop, especially in view of the uncertain nature of the peace, the negotiations were eventually discontinued, as it became evident that the state of the country was too unsettled. still the progressive montrealers had by their enterprise and initiative suggested the establishment of a see, which was erected later on the coming of laval. a notable personage now enters into the story of montreal, charles le moyne. he was then a young man of twenty years of age, but he had been already in the colony since and had traveled in the service of the jesuits on their huron missions. thus he had acquired the knowledge of their language and that of the iroquois, and it was with the purpose of being useful to the fort at montreal, as an interpreter with the iroquois, that he had been sent by de montmagny to supply a need which the fort had experienced in dealing with the indians. [illustration: charles le moyne (by philippe hébert)] m. de maisonneuve returned at quebec on september th, but hardly had he arrived there than he received a letter from m. dauversière that his brother-in-law had been assassinated and that his mother was contemplating a second marriage; the latter, seeming to be looked upon as a ruinous event for the family, he had to cross back immediately to france to stay its execution. he sailed for that country on october st, but while waiting for the boat to go he transacted some business in quebec and returned to m. puiseaux his original donation to the company of montreal, of the fiefs of st. michel and st. foy and the other gifts which he had given in his early enthusiasm, but which he afterwards reclaimed. in recompense the company of montreal was reimbursed for the improvements made on the land at st. michel. this action of m. puiseaux is attributed to his failing faculties. however, by his will made at rochelle next year, june st, he gave the land of ste. foy for the maintenance of the future bishop. during the calm, which was soon to be perturbed, charles d'ailleboust completed his fortifications with four regular bastions, so well constructed that the fort exterior was the pride of canada. the fault was the delay in not having chosen another site, for even now the floods and the ice-pushes from the st. lawrence threatened many times to upheave the fortifications, and by the fort was in ruins. yet for the present they were of avail and inspired fear in the iroquois and pride in the colonists. agriculture was largely advanced by d'ailleboust by cultivating lands for himself and having the same done for the settlement. but war was again looming ahead. signs were not wanting by the gradual dispersal of the indian allies from the fort during the late autumn. on november th, three hurons who were at ville marie, having gone to the hunt, returned, with the loss of one of their companions. a few days after, having gone in search of him, they were captured by a band of iroquois. on november , , two frenchmen were taken at a distance from the camp. thus it became evident that the peace had never been thoroughly intended, for news came in on all sides of disasters from the iroquois. the year passed in troublous vexations. to the great joy of the settlement m. de maisonneuve returned in the spring of and found that life was indeed a warfare. the wars of the iroquois were fiercer than ever. fear filled the hearts of all the montrealers. the fort was the centre of surprises. yet this year the first windmill was constructed by de maisonneuve, at what is still known as windmill point. it was built with loopholes for musketry, so that the mill was intended not only to grind the wheat but to be an advanced redoubt and a challenge to the iroquois to show them that the french were not ready to abandon their field of glory. on october st charles d'ailleboust went to france whence he would return as the governor general. a word should now be said of the government of the country. by a decree of the king in it had been arranged that the government of the country should be left in the matter of police, commerce and war in the hands of three, viz., the governor general, the superior of the jesuits and the governor of montreal. the governor of quebec was given a salary of , _livres_, with the privilege of having sent to him each year, without expense, seventy tons of freight by the vessels of the fleet on the condition that he should provide the fort with arms and ammunitions. he was to have, besides, his own private lieutenant, another at three rivers, and finally sixty-six garrison men who should be maintained at the expense of the stores. it was further settled that the governor general should journey into the country as he should judge fit. as to the local governor of montreal his salary should be , _livres_, with thirty tons of freight, and he was to support a garrison of thirty men. finally , _livres_ were granted annually to the superior of the jesuits for their missions. these privileges of the royal decision did not give pleasure to many in the colony. m. de maisonneuve seems to have opposed them in france. it was alleged that m. de montmagny, in the frequent absence from quebec, of the superior of the jesuits on missions, and that of the governor of montreal, was practically sole ruler; that he was drawing too large a salary and was not fulfilling the conditions imposed upon him in safeguarding the other outposts of the colony. thus there was dissatisfaction among the colonists, and m. charles d'ailleboust with m. des chastelets went to france to procure amendments. m. de montmagny was about to be recalled. his rule was considered inefficient. a mémoire by m. de la chesnaye says that there was a secret cabal intriguing against the governor, composed of a few of the chief families, who went to france to enrich themselves, and got one of their own named as governor general. this alludes to de maisonneuve, des chastelets and d'ailleboust. the former is known to have refused a nomination to the post and des chastelets and d'ailleboust, among other things, asked for a reduction of the salary of the governor general from , _livres_ to , . on the th of march, , these amendments passed. in addition the governing council of canada was now to be composed of the governor general, the superior of the jesuits, and mm. de chavigny, godefroy of quebec, and giffard, to which body the local governors of three rivers and montreal should be added when they should happen to be in quebec. [illustration: the last page of the first deed of concession made by m. de maisonneuve to pierre gadoys. the deed itself is completely written in the handwriting of the governor himself. under the signature of paul de chomedey is the acceptance of the concession by pierre gadoys before the notary, jean de st. pierre. this is at once the first deed of concession and the first notarial act registered in montreal, january , .] finally the king ordered that it would be necessary for two at least of the councillors to deliberate with the governor. the salary of the governor general was reduced to , _livres_, the sixty tons of freight to twelve, and his garrison to twelve men, and it was ruled that the local governors of montreal and three rivers should each receive , _livres_, six tons of freight and six soldiers. the , _livres_ over should be partially employed in raising a "camp volant," or flying squadron drawn from men of existing garrisons if there should be sufficient so disposable, or if not, it should be raised as soon as possible. in the summer this flying squadron should guard all the passages by land and water under the command of some capable officer to be appointed by the governor, and in the winter it should be distributed in the garrisons to sally forth thence to beat the bush and to rove around. the rest of the , _livres_ should be employed in purchasing arms and ammunition. besides this flying squadron the king allowed a company formed by the settlers at their own expense to act as the necessary escort to the hurons or the missionaries. for the support of this, trading was allowed on these journeys on the condition of bringing the skins to the government stores at quebec and sold at the price fixed by the quebec council. these changes were not received with favour by the old party and d'ailleboust was made to realize this on his way back. however, he came to quebec as governor general on august th and was received with "generous magnanimity" by montmagny, who left on september d. madame d'ailleboust and her sister, phillipine de boulogne, joined the governor at quebec. there was grief at montreal in losing them, but this was tempered by its pride in furnishing the governor general from its midst. a few words are needed in further explanation of the "camp volant" above alluded to. "in ," according to benjamin suite, canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, , "there were no less than seventy soldiers at three rivers whose duty it was, not only to defend that place against the iroquois, but to patrol lake st. peter also. the same year only fifteen soldiers were quartered at quebec--a much less exposed position than three rivers. in the year some troops were sent to canada by anne d'autriche. twenty-three of these soldiers accompanied the hurons, the missionaries and a few frenchmen, who went to the georgian bay that summer. m. ferland says that the garrison of montreal numbered thirty men in ; but he evidently means the thirty men placed under the orders of jean bourdon for reconnaissance purposes on lake st. peter." these were "soldiers" from ; from there were volunteers, and from , if not before, a sedentary militia was established. about montmagny had considered a project for forming an active militia to be on the lookout against the iroquois, but his resources were too slender. in the spring of the "camp volant" was organized under the command of charles j. d'ailleboust de musseaux, nephew of the new governor general, m. d'ailleboust. it numbered forty men and its duty consisted in patrolling on the st. lawrence between montreal and three rivers. after the slaughter of sieur duplessis kerbodot, nephew of m. lauson, now governing and the successor of de musseaux, on august th, together with fifteen frenchmen, the "camp volant" became disorganized for the winter, but it was apparently reformed in the summer of . after that it seems to have been neglected during the government of d'argenson and d'avaugour. in fact a body of regular troops was required to check the iroquois, and not mere militia, whose men could not attend to their farm and other business and at the same time keep beating the country nearly all the year round. hence the request for troops, of father lejeune in , and pierre boucher in . in a body of militia was organized at montreal. the next spring, , the "camp volant" of forty men was sent to montreal under the command of the nephew of the new governor, charles d'ailleboust des musseaux, to help to repulse the iroquois. about the same time the new governor went to pay his first official visit to ville marie. he communicated the king's order as above, and among other instructions he communicated directions from the company of montreal. one, touching the administration of the hôtel-dieu, regulated that the surgeon of this house should attend the sick of the island gratuitously, both french and indians, and that the administration accounts of the hospital should be rendered annually to the governor of montreal, the ecclesiastical superior and to the syndics of the inhabitants, who should sign an act to be sent to paris. during this stay the governor, on may rd, put the jesuits[ ] formally in possession of the seigneurie de madeleine on the south side of the st. lawrence, comprising land two leagues in length by four in depth, stretching from st. helen's island towards the sault st. louis. this had been granted by françois de lauson on april , . sad news had been brought to jeanne mance by the governor that many of the associates were losing their interest in montreal and were diverting their charities to the missions in the levant. anxious to get further news she went to quebec in the summer and there she found that père rapin, the recollect, her intermediary with madame de bullion, was dead; that the company of montreal was almost dissolved; that m. de la dauversière was dangerously ill; that his affairs had become entangled, and he was now a bankrupt. as he had money in trust for madame de bullion, this was a blow for the colony. the outlook for montreal was now financially gloomy. ville marie was also surrounded by war. jeanne mance therefore set sail from quebec on september th to interest her friends in the struggling settlement. in this she was very successful. madame de bullion received her with kindness and gave her a sum of money to engage workmen to till lands to support the hospital. the associates renewed their interest, and in order to guarantee the continuance of their _seigneurie_ a new act was drawn up to supplement that of march , , in which m. de fancamp and m. de la dauversière had sworn that they were occupiers of montreal in the name of a company, so that these nine remaining members were now publicly named and signed their names, making at the same time a mutual donation, reciprocal and irrevocable, by which they handed over to the last surviving of them the forts, habitations and outhouses, etc., belonging to the said company. this was signed before the notaries pourcelle and chaussiere on march , .[ ] the company gave the hospital also arpents of land. jeanne mance saw many of the associates privately and stimulated their interest, as well as that, of others. in the month of september, , she arrived at quebec with some labourers and some virtuous marriageable girls, leaving it on september th for montreal and arriving there three days before the feast of all saints (november st).[ ] the year may be chronicled as that of the first general movement towards agriculture. the constant fear of iroquois' attacks had kept the settlers pent up within the walls of the fort, although there had been since individual attempts by charles d'ailleboust and others outside.[ ] the activity started by jeanne mance in putting into cultivation the arpents lately conceded by the associates of the company of montreal to the hôtel-dieu encouraged others to take to the land and to build their dwellings on the concessions which they now demanded from m. maisonneuve, since it was now thought there was a likelihood of peace. these early grants were only of thirty arpents and to ensure as great protection as possible against iroquois attacks, they were clustered around the fort and the brewery. in granting these lands, however, the seigneurs stipulated that they could be exchanged later for others at a remote distance, for the location at present used was reserved for the future city, for the building of the market place, the port and other public purposes. what may be called the history of mutual building societies now starts, for as the number of workmen were limited, the inhabitants, led by the motives of fraternal charity and public spirit, formed associations to help one another in the clearing of their lots and in the construction of their homes. thus a contract dated november , , between jean des carris and jean le duc, binds them to assist each other to build at common expense a ho, for each, on a clearing, of ten acres each, made by them, and that if one of them fell sick the work should be continued by the other without remuneration. in the present case after the clearing had been made and the house built on jean des carris' concession, the war intervening would not allow similar work to be done on that of jean le duc, and in consequence jean le duc received from his partner _livres_ in recompense for his services. the harvest of this year was very successful; "particularly at montreal where the lands are very excellent," is the account in the "relations." it is not difficult now to present a picture of montreal or ville marie of this period. on the northeast portion of the triangular piece of land watered on the east and north by the little river st. peter and on the south by the st. lawrence, there was the fort and the new concessions with their wooden buildings being erected thereon; on the southern portion there was a long sweep of ground, an arpent in depth and forty in length, along the banks of the river westward, on which the cattle of the soldiers and others who were now becoming farmers were allowed to stray. this was known as "the common"[ ] and was granted to jean de saint père as the syndic for the people in october, , on the understanding that it should revert to the seigneurs when they should need it for city expansion. in this common, which was protected by the fort and the houses above, the animals, under the care of a watchman, were safe from immediate attack, since all approaching this pasturage must necessarily venture from afar and be visible. at the west end of the common was the windmill near the river.[ ] across the little river there were the houses of m. maisonneuve and that of the hôtel-dieu. this comprised the situation. in spite of the pictures of progress and contentment we have presented as existing towards the end of and the earlier part of , we must remember that montreal was frequently the rendezvous of bands of hurons and their jesuit missionaries, who told of their flight from the cruelty of the iroquois; of forts destroyed, pillaged, of burnings and massacres. montreal itself, they were told, was soon be the object of attack. hence the bands did not delay. after the horrible scenes that had occurred at st. louis[ ] in july of the missionaries brought down three or four hundred lake hurons, the relics of three to four thousand, to ville marie, where they stayed only two days. the "relation" of this year says: "this is an advantageous situation for the settlement of the savages, but as it is the frontier of the iroquois, whom our hurons flee from, more than death itself, they could not determine to start their colony then." dollier de casson gives us this insight into the fear caused at ville marie by these visits and their recitals of disaster. the evident reflection then was, "if we who are only a handful of europeans, do not offer a firmer and more vigorous resistance than , hurons have done, then we must reconcile ourselves to be burnt alive at a slow fire with all the refinements of unheard of cruelty." but this year montreal was able to breathe in comparative peace. a picture of montreal of this year is presented by père p. ragueneau, the jesuit superior of the missions, writing from quebec on october th to father picolomini, the general of the order at rouen: "at montreal there are barely sixty frenchmen, twenty hurons, a few algonquins and two of our fathers. they cannot leave this fort, which is always very much exposed." in the spring of , a perilous period began. speaking of this year the jesuit "relations" say in general: "it is a marvel that the french of ville marie were not exterminated by the frequent surprises of iroquois bands." other contemporaneous chroniclers repeat the same. sister morin, in the "annals of the hôtel-dieu of montreal," writes: "often ten men of ville marie, or less, have been seen holding their own against fifty or eighty iroquois, who have acquired for themselves a great reputation in all canada and in france, and the iroquois have several times avowed that three men of montreal have inspired them with more fear than six from elsewhere." the attacks now were very frequent and sudden. although the garrison fought well and bravely, its losses were severe compared with those of the iroquois, who though losing more men, yet were able to replace them. some of these encounters have been preserved to us. the following occurred on may , : on this day, jean boudard had left his house with a man named jean chicot when suddenly they found themselves surprised by eight or ten iroquois. chicot ran for safety to a tree recently cut down and hid himself there, but boudard, making headlong for his home, met his wife, catherine mercier, not far from it. asking her whether the dwelling was open she replied: "no, i have locked it!" "ah!" cried he, "then it is death for both of us! let us fly at once." in their flight, the wife could not keep pace with him and, being left behind, was seized by the indians. hearing her cries the husband returned and attacked them with fisticuffs, so violently that, not being able to master him otherwise, they massacred him on the spot. the cries and confusion aroused three of the settlers, charles le moyne, archambault and another, who, running to render assistance, were seen falling into an ambuscade of forty indians behind the hospital. discovering their mistake they made a retreat to the front door of the hospital which luckily was open, having escaped a brisk fusillade, as le moyne well knew by the hole in his hat. with the captive woman, the indians who had surprised boudard then sought the hiding place of chicot. he defended himself with his feet and hands so vigorously that fearing, lest he should be assisted by the frenchmen they now saw approaching, they took his scalp, taking a piece of his skull with it. this they carried with them as a trophy, as well as the head of boudard, who was commonly known as "grand jean." jean chicot did not die, however, till nearly fourteen years later, but catherine mercier was brutally burned after having been inhumanly disfigured,[ ] during the summer of the same year in the iroquois camp. four days later another alarm aroused the fort. about two hours after midnight, a band of forty iroquois attacked the brewery and some of the houses. two of these, belonging to urbain tessier _dit_ lavigne and michel chauvin, they burned, and the brewery would have been reduced to ashes if the guard of four men within, had not repulsed their attack with vigour and put them to flight. on the th of june, on a sunday morning, a party of four, probably returning to their newly constructed houses from the church in the fort, was surprised between the fort and point st. charles by a large body of iroquois. these four ran to a hut used as a kind of watch house or redoubt, overlooking a quantity of felled timber, where they were quickly joined by urbain tessier and, resolving to sell their lives dearly, they kept up a lively fusillade on the enemy. the noise attracted de maisonneuve in camp and he sent a relief party under charles le moyne with such success that the iroquois were put to flight, leaving behind them twenty-five to thirty men dead on the field, independently of those who were taken prisoners. on the french side only four were wounded, although one of them, léonard lucault _dit_ barbot, died two days afterwards, being buried in the cemetery. belmont, in his "histoire du canada," mentions another among the dead, but the parish register only mentions one. thus, amid such daily hostilities, was life insecurely led by the settlers, since it was not safe to venture even a few yards from their houses without pistol, musket or sword. jeanne mance, in a memoir to be found among the archives of the seminary at quebec, tells how the governor now obliged all the colonists to leave their newly constructed houses and retire with their families to the safety of the fort. she herself was forced to leave the hospital. maisonneuve turned this into a military outpost to guard the isolated redoubts scattered here and there in the field and to protect the workmen, by placing in it a squad of soldiers. he had two pieces of cannon taken there and swivel guns for the windows of the granaries, and he had loopholes cut into the walls of the building all around, even in the chapel which served as an artillery armoury. in this way the hospital became a fortress for four years and a half. on july th the wisdom of maisonneuve's arrangement was evident. marguerite bourgeoys is responsible for the story. on this day iroquois had concealed themselves in a trench originally built as a defence for the hospital, and which, descending from a height nearby, close to the place where st. jean baptiste street is today, crossed the site of st. paul street. all of a sudden the concealed foes disclosed their presence by attempting to take possession of the building and to set it on fire. meanwhile the garrison within, consisting of lambert closse,[ ] the town major, and sixteen of his men made a vigorous and valorous defence against the from o'clock in the morning to at night, and losing only one man, denis archambault, who met his death by a splinter from the cast iron cannon which had exploded, killing him on the spot, but without dealing death to the enemy outside. the cannon was fired by himself. finally the enemy were forced to retreat, burning a neighbouring house in revenge for their loss of men. other engagements of a like nature took place but the details have not been recorded. three rivers and quebec were in similar straits. disaster, loss, and want of reinforcement for two years had reduced montreal to but about fifty defenders, so that there was now open talk of abandoning it and leaving canada. one hope remained, suggested to the governor by jeanne mance; it was that the , _livres_ put aside as the revenue for the hospital might be diverted to the expense of sending out a reinforcement to save montreal, and she thought that she might interpret her "unknown benefactress'" goodwill as agreeable to this, seeing the extremity in which montreal now stood. but de maisonneuve accepted the offer only on the condition that in exchange mademoiselle mance should receive for the hospital arpents of the domain of the seigneurs. meanwhile he could go to france and call on the unknown benefactress herself whose name was now divulged to him. mademoiselle mance tells how "m. de maisonneuve determined on departing for france, told me that if he could not obtain at least men, he would return no more to ville marie; and in this case he would order me to return to france with all our party." thus the abandonment of the settlement was now threatened. before leaving m. de maisonneuve named the nephew of louis d'ailleboust, m. charles d'ailleboust, sieur des musseaux, to be the governor of montreal in his stead. in the meantime the new governor general, m. de lauson, of whom we have spoken already, had arrived on october th to succeed m. louis d'ailleboust at quebec. this was no good tidings for montreal, for as dollier de casson remarks, the new governor made known "his good feelings towards the messieurs de montréal" and the good treatment they ought to hope from him by retrenching , from the , _livres_ granted by the general company for the upkeep of the governor and his garrison.[ ] "i do not wish," says he, "to say anything touching the conduct of this gentleman towards this island, more especially as i wish to believe that he has always had the very best of intentions, although he was always wise to his own interest since if he had more frequently strengthened the embankment here, the iroquois inundations would not have so easily taken their course towards quebec and they would not have done the mischief they did, for they have not always respected even his own family." de maisonneuve before leaving for france persuaded the governor of quebec to send ten men as a reinforcement to ville marie. dollier de casson, the quondam soldier now priest, treating this quaintly as follows, says facetiously that de lauson kept his promise, "sending their arms in advance," meaning that he sent none at all. this is confirmed by m. de belmont, who says that "m. de lauson sent, in spite of his own wish, ten soldiers without arms and provisions." "but he sent them so late," says dollier, probably on the testimony of eye-witnesses, "and put them on a chaloupe so poorly clad that they almost froze to death, and they were taken for living spectres coming, as mere skeletons, to confront the hardships of the winter. it was a rather surprising thing to see them arrive in this turnout at this season, considering that it was the th of december; so much so that it seemed doubtful whether they were men or not, this only being cleared up when they were seen close at hand; moreover in constitution these men were most sickly, two of them being mere boys, though in truth they have become since very good settlers, of whom one is called saint ange and the other, lachapelle. these poor soldiers were no sooner here than their hosts proceeded to warm them up as well as they could, by giving them good cheer and good clothing, and then they came to be of service in repelling the iroquois whom we had to deal with at close quarters every day." surely montreal must have been looked upon as a forlorn hope! note the exploit of place d'armes the site of this is claimed by the abbé rousseau in his "maisonneuve," page , as the space in front of the fort known as the place d'armes, afterwards the market place and now known as custom house square, and the road abutting the new buildings of the hôtel-dieu arising at the corner of st. joseph street (st. sulpice) and the corner of st. paul street. the abbé faillon, vol. ii, page , "histoire de la colonie française," argues for the present place d'armes in front of notre dame parish church. m. l. a. huguet latour, the first editor of the _annuaire de ville marie_, holds the same view. there was a blazed trail, running up the slope of st. sulpice street, which probably went up to the mountain where de maisonneuve placed his cross. in a map of such a road ran by the northwest corner of the present place d'armes. faillon claims it was here that the exploit took place; the argument of time and distance for the action as related by de casson being more congruous for this position than at the lower position just outside the fort in the sight of the defenders within. but it must be remembered that the present _place d'armes_ did not get its name from this exploit. this name does not appear till , when chassegros de léry, engineer of new france, forwarded to france a lengthy report as to the advantage of montreal for the purposes of fortifications. in this report he said: "i have marked a _place d'armes_, in front of the parish church where might afterwards be moved a number of barracks, the houses which are in that place being of small value." during the year the work was commenced, but from lack of funds it was discontinued. up to no further progress was made but in that year it was fairly entered upon and de léry superintended it. (_vide_ "canadiana," vol. i, pp. , , ; notes of john talon lespérance, henry platt, wm. mclennan.) let us compromise and say that most of the action took place on st. sulpice street, between the present and the old _place d'armes_, the latter incidents of the story taking place near the old _place d'armes_. footnotes: [ ] the position now can be located as at the east corner of st. sulpice (originally st. joseph) street and st. paul street. [ ] there are still preserved in the present hôtel-dieu some jars and other articles of the original dispensary, as well as mademoiselle bullion's gifts of furniture. [ ] the dog pilot has been immortalized in hébert's de maisonneuve monument in place d'armes, montreal. [ ] the parish register of march , , records that the french lost in this encounter j. matenac and p. bizot, besides guillaume lebeau, mortally wounded. [ ] at this time in the huron country and its neighbourhood there were eighteen jesuit priests, four lay brothers, twenty-three men serving without pay, seven hired men and eight soldiers. [ ] names of associates signing: jean jacques olier, priest, curé of the church of st. sulpice; alexandre de rageois de bretonvilliers; nicholas barreau, priest; roger duplessis, seigneur de liancourt; henri louis hubert, seigneur de montmart, king's councillor and master of requests; bertrand drouart, esquire; and louis séguier, seigneur de st. germain, who all occupied the isle of montreal as well for themselves as for mm. d'ailleboust and paul de chomedey, sieur de maisonneuve. [ ] the first concession and notarial act known, signed by jean st. père, dates from this year, as also does the first of the acts of the government of m. de maisonneuve. (see hist. soc. records.) [ ] among others pierre gadbois, lucien richomme, blaise juillet, léonard lucault dit barbier, françois godé and godefroy de normanville. from to ninety-four houses were built. [ ] the name of "common" street records the locality of this "common." [ ] at the present windmill point. [ ] the jesuits, jean de brébeuf and gabriel lalemant, nephew of father charles lalemant, s. j., were killed by the iroquois at st. louis on the th and th of march, . [ ] "relations," . [ ] lambert closse came in . he was second in command of the garrison. he was of noble family. contemporary writers call him indifferently sergeant-major of the garrison, major of the garrison, major of this place, or "of the fort" or "of the town" or "of montreal." he also acted as notary. [ ] montreal fared ill, whereas the salary of the governor of quebec was raised , _livres_ and that of three rivers reached , and horses, the , _livres_ granted to the governor of montreal had been increased to , . this news had been brought to montreal by louis d'ailleboust. it was now reduced again to , . chapter viii - critical years lambert closse, commandant maisonneuve's success in paris--madame de bullion's donations--"parmenda"--the exploit of lambert closse--the phantom ship--montreal reported at quebec to be blotted out--proposals of peace from the onondagas--march of mohawks on montreal--charles le moyne and anontaha to parley for peace--a patched up peace--the end of the second iroquois war. m. de maisonneuve was absent for nearly three years and during that time montreal was in a critical position. the inhabitants were cooped up within the fortress or in the hôtel-dieu for fear of the iroquois. the danger of going out of these limits was only too clearly seen when the cattle guardian, antoine roos, was slain at his work on the common in front, on may th. anxiety was felt as to m. de maisonneuve's success in paris. news was accordingly eagerly awaited. thus it was that in june jeanne mance went to three rivers under the escort of major closse and proceeded on the way to quebec under that of m. duplessis kerbodot, the governor of three rivers. on arriving there she had almost dared to hope to hear that m. de maisonneuve had already arrived, but instead a long letter awaited her. in this, the governor related his visit to madame de bullion, telling how he had approached madame adroitly, without discovering to her his knowledge of her benefactions as the founder of the hôtel-dieu. not only did this lady not take any steps to show her disapproval of mademoiselle mance's action in making the exchange of the hospital revenue, but she gave in addition , _livres_ more as an anonymous gift, placing it in the hands of the president of the company of montreal, m. de lamoignon, for the purpose of raising a convoy for montreal under m. de maisonneuve. thus, in all, this good lady had contributed , towards the , _livres_ for the new expedition of men provided by the company. the letter then informed mademoiselle mance that he would return the next year; meanwhile the preparations would be hastened. with this good news jeanne mance returned as soon as possible to montreal. new hope was thus infused into the settlement. on july th, however, the state of hostilities is again revealed to us by the record of the brave exploit of martine messier, the wife of antoine primot. three iroquois, who had hidden themselves in the wheat at a distance of two musket shots from the fort, fell upon her unexpectedly. she defended herself like a lioness, fighting with her hands and feet. to quell her loud cries for help they gave her three or four stunning blows with their axes. thinking her dead, as she sank to the ground, one of them threw himself over the prostrate body to take her scalp as his trophy, when suddenly our amazon, coming to herself, raised herself, more furious than ever, seized him with such violence "par un endroit que la pudeur nous défend de nommer," that he could not free himself, although he did not cease striking her with the head of the axe. but she held on tightly, until at last she fell to the ground exhausted, thus affording her assailant what he most wanted at that moment, an opportunity to escape from the relief party now running from all parts of the fort to her rescue. on reaching the spot where the poor woman lay bathed in her blood, one of the men assisting her to rise, moved by a natural sentiment of friendship and compassion, embraced her. but this seems to have made her confused, for she administered a sound slap in the face of this affectionate sympathizer, to the great surprise of the bystanders, who exclaimed: "what are you doing? this man was only showing his sympathy to you, without any thought of ill. why do you strike him?" "par menda!" she exclaimed in her _patois_. "i thought he wanted to kiss me!" madame primot did not die, but she was long afterwards known as "parmenda," whose valour and modesty were lovingly held in tradition, as typical of the noble women of these early pioneering days, in which virtue and courage flourished side by side. [illustration: "parmenda" (by philippe hébert.)] the severe treatment received at montreal turned the iroquois to three rivers, and in a skirmish on august th they killed the governor, m. duplessis kerbodot. in october, however, montreal was the scene of fresh fighting. dollier de casson has rescued the story of this from oblivion, from so many others not recorded. on the th of this month, the barking of the dogs indicated the direction of an iroquois ambuscade. the brave town major, lambert closse, ever ready to fly to the post of peril, started out at once with twenty-four armed men to reconnoitre the situation. but though brave, he was prudent; he therefore sent three of his soldiers ahead. la lochetière,[ ] baston (or bastoin) and another, ordering them to proceed within gunshot no further than a certain position marked out by him. la lochetière, however, in his eagerness pushed a little ahead of his companions, and the more easily to discover the whereabouts of the enemy, he climbed a tree, intending to discover from this lookout if the enemy were hiding in a thicket. but, without him knowing it, there was an ambush of them at the foot of the tree, and as soon as he had climbed it they raised their usual war cry, and were about to fire on him. no less alert than brave, la lochetière seized his musket, fired straight at one of them, who was aiming at himself, killing his man, but paying the penalty of death at the same instant from his victim's gun. the other two scouts also received a volley, from which they were lucky to escape. major chase quickly put his men in order, but, finding his party surrounded, he directed them to make a rush to a wretched shack near at hand, belonging to an old settler, m. prud'homme, who had eagerly invited them to enter as quickly as possible, for the enemy were surrounding it. this done, the party made loopholes in the walls for their guns and prepared to open a brisk fire on the besiegers--all except one coward, who, falling flat on the ground, could not be induced by threats or blows to rise. but the iroquois were now firing at close quarters all around the house and their balls riddled the scanty walls so that one of them struck laviolette, one of the fighters of the fort, completely disabling him. the loopholes now being ready, the french party answered the iroquois with such effect that after the first rounds the ground was strewn with the dusky bodies of the slain. the hurly-burly went on, the iroquois fighting while they attempted to carry away their wounded and dead, until, fearing a dearth of ammunition, major closse was only too glad to accept the offer of baston, whose prowess as a runner was well known, to make a dash to the fort and bring back a reinforcement of men. accordingly, under cover of the fire of the defenders of the house, the door was opened and baston, speeding forth, escaped while the iroquois were recovering from this last fusillade. soon he returned with eight or ten men, all that could be spared, and two pieces of cannon charged with canister shot. between the scene of battle and the fort there was a screen of trees under cover of which the reinforcement made its way and thus escaped the attention of the savages till it suddenly appeared in view on this side of the screen and commenced firing on the iroquois. major closse's party now went into the open to join fire also and a brisk and hot interchange took place. but the enemy were being overmastered and made their best to retreat, carrying with them their dead as far as possible, according to their custom. dollier de casson does not give the number of the enemy slain. "usually," he says, "they decimated their losses, but, speaking of this occasion, they owned that 'we all died there.'" m. de belmont in his history states that more than fifty of the iroquois were wounded and twenty killed. on the french side the only one killed was la lochetière, and one wounded, laviolette. this was only one of the brave actions which surrounded the fame of the warlike lambert closse as revealed in the early chronicles. [illustration: lambert closse (by philippe hébert)] thus the fort of montreal was the scene of many such conflicts, unassisted by the "camp volant," which de lauson had suppressed in . père mercier, in his "relations of the year ," writes: "there has passed no month of the year in which the iroquois have not stealthily visited ville marie, attempting to surprise it. but they have had no great success. the settlers have assisted one another with so much determination and courage that as soon as a gunshot is heard in any direction, they run thither quickly, without any dread of the dangers besetting them." at quebec, it was announced that montreal had been blotted out. in the spring of the governor of quebec, anxious for news of this advanced post, had sent a barque thither, giving the commander instructions that he should not approach the fort, unless he had proof certain that the french were there, adding that if he did not see any, he was to come back to quebec, for fear that the iroquois, having captured ville marie, might be lying in ambush to capture them also. the barque advanced near the fort in a dense fog, and anchored. but seeing no one and hearing no signal, they obeyed their instructions literally enough, and went back to quebec with the dire tale of the destruction of the french colonists. the wiseacres no doubt said that the inevitable had occurred at last. meanwhile in the fort, the keen-eyed had seen the vague outline of a vessel, but others said it was a phantom of the imagination, and when later the mist rolled away and they saw no ship, these were satisfied with their diagnosis until news came later from quebec that it was a veritable vessel after all. in this abandoned state, we are told by the chroniclers how the montrealers, under the direction of the jesuits of the fort, earnestly prayed for peace. as if in answer to their petition, on june , , an embassy of sixty iroquois of the nation of the onondagas (onontaquis) appeared at the fort with a proposal of peace. as they came unarmed, they were treated kindly, presents were exchanged, and the day was one of public rejoicing. on returning to their country, passing by the village of the oneidas (onneyuts), they exhibited their presents and spoke in high praise of the french of montreal. "they are devils when attacked," they said, "but most courteous and affable when treated as friends." and they protested that they were about to enter into a firm and solid alliance with them. touched by these discourses, the oneida iroquois (onneyuts) would also enter into an alliance with montreal, and they sent an embassy with a great porcelain necklace, asking for peace, which was concluded. but there were three others of the five nations who had not made peace, for though they were allied amongst themselves they reserved their independence. these were the mohawks (agniers), the senecas (the tsonnoutouans), and the cayugas (gogogouins). three weeks after this, mohawks marched on montreal. we have no records of this attack, but they retired to three rivers to seize the port there. quebec now also trembled for itself, and it was at this time that de lauson reestablished the "camp volant." in september of this year peace was again concluded, for a time, between the french and the iroquois. as montreal had a large share in bringing this about we must relate the following circumstances leading to it. at the time of the descent, of the iroquois above mentioned, on montreal, there was present in the fort a band of hurons, and among them one, the bravest of all, named anontaha. on one occasion these hurons had discovered the tracks of a party of lurking iroquois meditating mischief for montreal. they combined with the french and on august th they surrounded the iroquois, and after a sharp struggle beat them off, leading four or five iroquois chiefs, or men of importance, to the fort. these captives told of the projected raids of extermination on three rivers and quebec. the acting governor, knowing of the importance of these iroquois in the camp, called a meeting of his counsellors, and it was determined that charles le moyne, the interpreter, should persuade anontaha to go to three rivers and parley for peace with the iroquois, offering to hand them over their chiefs in captivity in montreal. this was done on august th and peace was concluded later. dollier de casson says of this: "finally there was made a sudden patched-up peace in which our enemies acquiesced, solely to regain their own people and to have an opportunity of surprising us later. we well knew their rascally motives, but, as they were stronger than we, we accepted their conditions, 'et en passions par là où ils voulaient.'" thus ended the second iroquois war. footnote: [ ] the parish register gives etienne thibault. the abbé faillon reads etienne thibault dit la lochetière. (massicotte gives the date as october .) chapter ix - the second foundation of montreal the great reinforcement of maisonneuve returns with a relief force--the montreal contingent the saviours of canada--the origin and trades of the new colonists--marguerite bourgeoys, the first schoolmistress, arrives--her call--ship fever--arrival at quebec--the governor of quebec would retain the relief contingent--maisonneuve firm for montreal--the work of consolidating the enlarged colony at ville marie--building activities--agricultural and industrial occupations--marriage contracts--jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys, the mothers of the settlement--the knightly maisonneuve, a "_chevalier sans reproche_"--the military confraternity--the mountain cross replaced--medical contracts--the government of montreal--the election of a syndic--the "new" cemetery--the new "parish" church--the marriage of charles le moyne with catherine primot--a rare scandal--the primitive fervour still maintained. the arrival of m. de maisonneuve's expedition was eagerly awaited by the whole french colony of canada. for the addition of newcomers, men able to bear arms, meant more resources against the common enemy, and consequently surer stability for the whole french population. the picture presented at this period of war is distressing. montreal was a besieged fortress; three rivers similarly, and the town of quebec was described, on the arrival of de maisonneuve, as only holding five or six houses in upper town, while in the lower there were only the storehouses of the jesuits and that of montreal. the "relation" of says "that the store of montreal has not bought a single beaver skin for a year. at three rivers, the little sold has gone to strengthen the fortifications. at quebec, there is only poverty." thus there was extreme discontent through inability to pay private debts or those due to the government for the upkeep of the colony, which by the cession of the trading rights to the people now devolved upon them and not on the great company. thus they looked for a continuation of the peace just declared and a return to trade. it was hoped that maisonneuve's contingent would make for both. consequently it was with great joy and a solemn _te deum_ in the church that its arrival at quebec was hailed on september nd. the governor of montreal and his new colonists were the saviours of the country! we may now briefly relate the history of the organization of this relief force. when de maisonneuve had made sure of the necessary funds, he proceeded with m. de la dauversière, the procurator of the company of montreal, to gather the right men. they must be young, brave, have a trade, be of irreproachable morals, and able to bear arms; in other words, be ready to help to found and organize a settlement, and put up with the variety of trying difficulties incidental to such a dangerous pioneering outpost. these men were hired for the work, and they guaranteed their services to the company for five years at montreal, on the condition of being fed and lodged, in addition to wages paid them, besides being provided with tools, etc., for the exercise of their callings. after the five years expired, they might return to france at the expense of the company. these were recruited from picardy, champagne, normandy, l'ile de france, touraine, burgundy, but principally from maine and anjou, and especially from the neighbourhood of la flèche, the home of m. de la dauversière. we are able to locate the origin and point out the profession of nearly each one of those coming with maisonneuve's force, since we have the old original acts of notary lafousse, of la flèche, giving the contracts between of the men and the agents of the company of montreal, signed during the course of march, april and may of . there were others who signed in other places, making the total, according to faillon, of , all able to bear arms. of these, some deserted, some died on the passage out, and, according to m. de belmont, only reached montreal.[ ] but these were all picked men and chosen with care; there were three surgeons, three millers, two bakers, a brewer, a cooper, a coppersmith, a pastry cook, four weavers, a tailor, a hatter, three shoemakers, a maker of sabots, a cutler, two armourers, three masons, a stonecutter, four tilers, nine carpenters, two joiners, an edgetool maker, a nail maker, a saw maker, a paviour, two gardeners, a farrier, sixty tillers or labourers for cultivating the soil, of whom several were sawyers, etc. the absence of womankind is noticeable in this list, but a few ladies were provided for the settlement in this way. before the day for the departure, fixed for june , , de maisonneuve visited his sisters, madame de chuly and la soeur louise de ste. marie, who both lived at troyes, the latter being a nun of the congregation of notre-dame there, to bid them adieu. it will be remembered that the good nuns of troyes were very anxious to emulate the example of the ursulines of quebec by sending representatives of their order to montreal to found an establishment there. de maisonneuve had promised to make use of their offer of services, when the time should be ready, but no one who has followed the story of the chequered days of the city so far, will blame the governor of montreal for still refusing to receive as yet a cloistered nunnery in his beleaguered fort. but there happened to be a young woman of thirty-three years of age then living with madame de chuly at troyes, a lay woman belonging to a pious association under the direction of the sisters of the congregation, who had long heard of the thrilling story of the doings at ville marie from madame de chuly and the ladies of the convent. she had, indeed, communicated her idea to de maisonneuve's sister, of devoting herself to the work in montreal, so that marguerite bourgeoys, as was her name, had been promised to be received into their institute when they should realize their project of going to canada. it was then, in the convent _parloir_, that the good nuns introduced this young person to de maisonneuve, who doubtless asked her kindly, gravely and courteously, if she dared brave the ocean and live in a little settlement among rough soldiers and teach school to little indian children of the forests, and make christians of them, and thus do good work for god. needless to say his offer was accepted. all necessary permissions were granted,[ ] but marguerite momentarily hesitated to give herself to the conduct of a strange gentleman whom she had only met on this occasion. "fear not, my child," was the reply of her spiritual adviser, who knew the integrity of the upright governor. "put yourself in his hands as into those of one of the first knights of the queen of angels. go to ville marie with all confidence." thus she arrived at st. nazaire, the port of departure, near nantes; but to her great surprise and pleasure she found a small group of her own sex to accompany her on the voyage--several young girls, and one or two married women accompanying their husbands. the expedition started on june th in the saint nicholas de nantes, and barely had it made leagues on its way than it was found necessary to put back to st. nazaire, for the ship's timbers were rotten and she made water fast. at first it was thought, with so many hands on board, that by working at the pumps they could proceed, there being then over one hundred men of the montreal party. but "having turned back at last, when they were nearing land they would have perished," says marguerite bourgeoys, "without the succour which, by the grace of god, the people of this place (st. nazaire) gave us." in the annals of the hôtel-dieu, an instance is related as occurring on this voyage which illustrates the character of simplicity of m. de maisonneuve, with whom marguerite bourgeoys was now to become acquainted. madame de chuly had taken care to provide her brother with a wardrobe of very fine linen and such lace work as gentlemen of position then wore. it happened that a few days after the ship had set sail, the package which marguerite bourgeoys had made of these was swept into the sea and, despite all her efforts, she was unable to recover it. not knowing m. de maisonneuve's character, and fearing that this loss, which could not be repaired in canada, might grieve a gentleman of fashion such as she considered m. de maisonneuve might be, she told him of the misfortune with great apprehension, but to her relief the governor of montreal made light of it, laughingly remarking that "both he and she were well rid of the care of such vanities." later marguerite bourgeoys was to learn of his extreme simplicity in all that surrounded his private life. marguerite tells how m. de maisonneuve on putting back to st. nazaire placed all his soldiers on a small island nearby to prevent them from deserting, for they now feared the journey, having become excited and alarmed and believing "they were being led to perdition." some of them threw themselves into the waves to escape. another ship was chartered, and set sail on july th, taking up the men from the island. but soon fresh disaster--"ship" fever--broke out and many were laid low. in these days of commodious sailing in a well appointed and sanitary steamer that takes less than a week to come from europe to canada we do not realize sufficiently the hardships of the early immigrant days. this voyage took two months; the ship, maybe, a crazy tub of a sailing vessel--the overcrowded accommodation of the most primitive order; the provisions of the coarsest kind, and water scarce. can we wonder that before the journey ended we learn that out of the men hired by the company of montreal, eight had died? we may well imagine the great grief of de maisonneuve, for every man to him was a cherished possession. this period brought out the sterling character of marguerite bourgeoys, who undertook the care of the nursing. throughout the sickness she was indefatigable, taking the men their meals, assisting the surgeons, preparing the men for death, and nursing the others into convalescence. night and day she was lavish of her charity. it is related that she would not accept a place with de maisonneuve's party at table, but would take her food and whatever delicacies there might be given by them to distribute among the sufferers, while she herself was satisfied with the common rations, and scarce portions at that. her zeal knew no relaxation, for, whether in sickness or in health, the soldiers welcomed her as their nurse, their friend, their instructress, their leader at the morning and night prayers, and singing and spiritual reading. thus she laid the foundations of that lasting respect which the men of montreal ever had for her. at last the hoped-for recruitment reached the enfeebled garrison of quebec on september nd. there was mademoiselle jeanne mance awaiting the vessel to receive m. de maisonneuve, to tell him of the perilous fate of montreal and to hear from him all the news of the good things in store for it, for she was keen to hurry back to carry the glad tidings thither. we can imagine the courtly maisonneuve now introducing to the lady of the hôtel-dieu the new assistant that she was to have in the care and training of the young of montreal, marguerite bourgeoys of troyes, whom she would find of good sense and kindly heart, a virtuous and excellent companion, and a powerful aid for the good work in the settlement. thus began an enduring friendship between these noble women. it will be noticed that at this second foundation of montreal, which is now about to begin, history repeats itself. m. de lauson, seeing quebec in its own dire necessity of defenders, would now prevent m. de maisonneuve from taking his convoy up country. but the governor of montreal firmly insisted on carrying out the project and he would not leave behind him a single man of those who had cost the company of montreal so much. moreover, maisonneuve had a _lettre de cachet_ which the king, louis xiv, had granted the company of montreal on april , , in which he approved of the renewed appointment of maisonneuve as governor, giving him all power to continue the establishment of the settlement at montreal. thus silenced, the governor of quebec could only resist by refusing to provide transportation facilities by river. thus it was that the necessity of obtaining boats delayed maisonneuve at quebec for a month. meanwhile marguerite nursed those still sick from the voyage and presided over the distribution of the stores and the provisions as jeanne mance had done in . it was during this time that the ursulines of quebec made overtures to her to join their party; thus they thought that they might have a branch establishment in montreal.[ ] but the future schoolmistress of montreal already saw her own vocation clearly before her. at length the boats were ready and maisonneuve sailed, last of all, with the satisfaction of seeing that he did not leave one of his men behind him. ville marie was reached on november , . on reaching montreal, de maisonneuve set about the work of consolidating his colony. the elements he had chosen in his contingent of men, who, together with those already on the ground, formed the nucleus of his future city, had in them the potentialities of a well-constituted and progressive civic society. they were of different trades, so that mutual help of a diversified nature could be given, albeit they were all soldiers in that they each bore arms, ready to build up the city of god, even as the builders of the temple of old had gone about their work with trowel in one hand and sword in the other. he found his men, whom the hardships of the journey may have daunted, now enthusiastic for the ideal christian life opening up to them and disposed to make a permanent home with him. consequently, in the course of december they were ready to listen at the sunday services, in the fort chapel, to his overtures, made in the public announcements before the sermon, stating the terms on which those that were willing to forego their contract of remaining only for five years and then being taken back to france, might be encouraged to build their permanent homes and take up land. the governor's intention was to induce them to abandon the advances of money made in france, and later, on their arrival in canada, on condition of building their houses on an arpent of land granted on the site chosen for the town and cultivating thirty acres on the slopes of st. louis or st. joseph, in the vicinity, with the additional consideration of a certain sum of money to provide the means to settle, the latter sum being forfeited if they should ever quit the island of montreal. on the first day of january, , andré demers thus received _livres_ and two days afterwards jean des carris and jean le duc received on the above promise, soon to be followed in the same month and that of february by many others on similar terms. these sums may seem modest, but it was an age of simplicity and they were adequate. the wooden homes the settlers built on their one arpent were of the simplest, and on the arrival of the last immigration there was much activity in felling and carpentering. they assisted one another in building their little houses of thirty feet, and the bachelors lived in common till they had built their own homes or "shacks," as the contracts prove. the number of houses outside the fort began to grow. m. de maisonneuve increased the buildings of the hospital, and jeanne mance went back to live there, protected from the iroquois attacks by two redoubts he had constructed hard by, in which were placed two pieces of cannon and other artillery. the houses of the _habitants_ were built detached from one another, but clustered, facing one another for mutual protection. in the walls they had loopholes made so that each home was a fortress with armed men inside. by there were about forty of these. the fort began to be abandoned. repairs were neglected on the bastions, already battered by the ice shoves. soon it sheltered the governor, the d'ailleboust family, the town major and his ordinary garrison, and some others, among whom was marguerite bourgeoys. the lands cultivated were mostly on the st. louis slopes, and to protect them maisonneuve built a redoubt of twenty feet square and sixteen in height, with a chimney. in he built another in this section and gave the workers an indemnity of _livres_. all were very busy at their trades, for everything now had to be made "in canada." no one disdained manual labor, following the example of the governor and d'ailleboust and others, such as the town major, lambert closse; charles le moyne, interpreter and storekeeper for the company; the notary saint père. gilbert barbier, the carpenter, who was now dignified as fiscal procurator and justice of the peace, had a busy time superintending and lending a hand to the rapidly arising homesteads. on their side, the women were not less engaged, baking the bread and preparing the meals, combing the wool, spinning and weaving and making the simple garments. thirteen years later, when marguerite bourgeoys formed her first community of two helpers, marie barbier, daughter of gilbert, the first canadian girl to be received into the congregation of notre-dame of montreal, could be seen in her religious habit going to and from the pasturage grounds of the common, leading the cattle and often bearing on her shoulders the flour which she had previously taken as wheat to be ground at the mill. in similar attire could have been seen sister crolo, tending the farm. and when not thus occupied, marguerite bourgeoys and her companions were busy sewing and cutting, to clothe the women and natives. but in marguerite bourgeoys, the future schoolmistress, had not gathered her community together, and she was not overburdened in this office, for there was only one french girl, jeanne loisel, who, born in montreal on july , , was now about - / years of age. this girl, who remained with marguerite bourgeoys till she was married, was the first child to live to any age. for hitherto all that had been born had died in their tender years. one child, the adopted daughter of parmenda, who had been born a year before coming to montreal, had, however, prospered, and she was shortly to be married, as we shall see. the contracts of marriage, preserved in the city archives of this period, gave an insight in the life of the time. the contract of marriage of louis prud'homme with roberte gadois reveals that her father gave his daughter, besides the sum of _livres_, a complete bed, fifty ells of silk, a cow and its calf, six dishes, six plates and a pewter pot--luxuries in these primitive times.[ ] in a contract of the year , we find that the bridegroom, of well-to-do means, as a gift to his bride, gave, in his marriage settlement, the sum of fifty to sixty _livres_ and his residence in his principal house; and on her part she would bring her dowry of _livres_. up to there had been only ten marriages between the french settlers, the first having taken place in , after the return of maisonneuve on his first visit to france, when he brought with him for this purpose "some virtuous young women." marriages flourished again in , when jeanne mance also returned with some eligible partners. we find in november of this year that louis prud'homme, of whom we have spoken, married roberte gadois; and gilbert barbier, catherine de lavaux. in the notary, jean saint père, married maturine godé, the daughter of nicholas godé, whose family came over with maisonneuve at the first foundation of montreal. on the occasion of his marriage, in recompense "for his good and faithful service rendered during eight years," maisonneuve, in addition to the gift of forty arpents, promised him six arpents of land, to be cultivated by him, meanwhile granting him the enjoyment of six others already tilled near to the fort. in there were naturally more marriages, and thirteen are therefore registered. of these early marriages, especially of this year, there are many descendants still living. thus for some time marguerite bourgeoys, with the exception of jeanne loisel, would have to exercise her care with jeanne mance in assisting the newly-born children, visiting the sick, consoling the afflicted, washing the linen or mending the clothing of the poor and the soldiers, burying the dead and following the call of self-sacrifice everywhere. otherwise she dwelt within the fort with m. de maisonneuve, looking after his domestic arrangements, in a position of friendship and trust but not of domestic service. indeed, with jeanne mance she became his wise adviser, for both seemed to have been largely consulted in the affairs of the settlement. it will be remembered that marguerite bourgeoys, who had taken a vow of perpetual chastity in france, had been heard to place herself in the hands of m. de maisonneuve as in those of "one of the first chevaliers of the angels." scrutiny into the life of de maisonneuve, a "chevalier sans reproche," reveals us a singularly pure character. about this time the governor had doubts whether he should take a wife, but, not feeling himself called to the married state, he took, according to custom of the time, a vow of virginity, so that his biographers speak of him as being a religious without the habit. he was a man of prayer and devoted to duty, sincere, unaffected and unostentatious, seeking neither praise nor flattery, and undepressed by slights and contradictions. his life ideals were high and saintly, and his whole conduct was that of a christian knight, a model to all under him. his household was simply furnished; his table was frugal; he had only one servant, and this man was the cook and general servant. in his dress ordinarily he followed the habits of the people, wearing the _tuque_, or _capot_, and grey tunic which have come down to us in some of the costumes of the snowshoe clubs of montreal of today. yet, not unmindful of his dignity as governor, on important occasions he would be habited as fitting his rank as a soldier and a gentleman. he never strove to make his post serve to increase his fortune, although, like his lieutenants, he could have legitimately traded in peltry, then beginning to be very profitable. he seems rather to have embraced the "lady poverty" and to have been singularly unselfish and altruistic. dollier de casson tells us, as an example of his magnanimity and generosity, how, ever ready to recompense the good actions of his soldiers, he would deprive himself of his provisions, even those on his own table, to give them away. "on one occasion," says this historian, "when the savages came to trade at this place, noticing that one of his soldiers who had often given proofs of courage against the enemy was in extreme depression, and having found out on enquiry that it was caused by having nothing to trade with the indians who were then here, he thereupon led him into his own room, and, since the man was a tailor, gave him all the cloth stuffs he could find, even to the curtains of his bed, to make into wearing apparel which he might sell to the indians." thus he sent the young soldier away happy. such generosity endeared him to his men. the military organization of montreal may be said to have become solidified this year. for hitherto, beyond readiness to respond to the call to arms, the soldier's sense of duty and _esprit de corps_ had not been cultivated. the governor took this work of formation into his own hands and chose sixty-three of his most devoted men and erected a military confraternity with the title of the "soldiers of the blessed virgin." he was proud to command these himself. these met in religious meetings and the knightly de maisonneuve would address them with glowing words of encouragement to acquit themselves like good christians and soldiers. these were the governor's guard of honour, which came into prominence whenever there was a great religious ceremony or civil function, such as the reception of a distinguished visitor to the island. during the week, each of these in turn had the duty of sentinel, parading the fields, on the lookout for traces of the dreaded iroquois. to be selected one of this military order was a high favour. one of the privileges of this guard of honour was to escort mademoiselle bourgeoys, shortly after her arrival, to the mountain to visit the cross placed there by de maisonneuve in , but now found to have been destroyed by the iroquois in the recent war. it was immediately replanted, under her direction, by gilbert barbier and four other men, who placed a palisading around it. this monument was the mecca of pilgrimages until the occupation by the british in . the necessity of providing themselves with the needful and indispensable objects of life stimulated the industry and inventiveness of all, so that each man fulfilled many rôles. in addition, the spirit of enterprise and initiative was encouraged by the cancellation of their contracts made with the company in france for mostly all now were independent workers, anxious to make good for their own interests. still the company had the onus of providing the public works, and the contracts of this period show that it paid just salaries for services rendered. we have an insight into the medical history of the city in a contract made by the first surgeon, etienne bouchard, on march , , with twenty-six families to treat them regularly for a certain sum. to these were shortly added others to the number, in all, of forty-six. this shows that the cancellation of the original contract, by which the surgeon was appointed to give free medical treatment to all the inhabitants, was a consequence of the new order of things. the government of the settlement was very simple. besides the governor, there was a fiscal procurator or treasurer, a public notary, a keeper of the storehouse of the company, and a syndic. the last named office was first filled in , when louis xiv gave the company of montreal the right to erect a corporation. the syndic was elected by a plurality of votes from the inhabitants themselves to represent their interest and thus became a tribune of the people. he had the privilege with those of quebec and three rivers of assisting at the election of the two councillors (or three in the absence of the governor), who were chosen to compose the general council of nouvelle france, with the governor general and the ecclesiastical superior, for the time being, in canada. they were even privileged to represent the interests of their corporation at the council meetings and to have a "voix délibérative" in these same matters. by a royal act of the syndics could only be appointed for three years, and by another of they could not negotiate any loan for their corporations without the express sanction of the council at quebec, under pain of nullity, damages and interests incurred by the syndics themselves. the election of a syndic was a simple matter at montreal. the inhabitants had first to get the leave of the governor to call a meeting. the public notary employed by the company called this and presided. placing before the electors the names of likely persons for the office, he called upon them to subscribe their names or their marks to the candidate of their choice. on the votes being counted, the person elected might refuse the honour, but the spirit of civic duty always prompted him to respond to the call. he then promised to discharge his duties faithfully, and the retiring syndic would hand over to his successor the care of the documents of the corporation, the contracts of property, etc., and other titles such as that already granted to the syndic for the people in , when forty arpents were given over to them for a "common." in the year it would have been the syndic who received the grant made to the corporation by the governor on behalf of the seigneurs of montreal, of land for the new cemetery, given on the condition that if this changed its place, it should revert to the seigneurs. the little cemetery, in which for twelve years the first brave defenders of the castle dangerous of montreal had been buried, had this year to be abandoned and the bodies removed to higher ground, for the constant floods of the st. lawrence had sadly ill used the little palisaded god's acre at "the point," or the corner of the junction of the rivulet st. pierre and the main stream. the "new cemetery," as it was called in the burial register on the date december , , was placed on a portion of the ground belonging to the hôtel-dieu, bun above the latter, at a point today occupied by the southern portion of the place d'armes and the piazza steps of notre dame church. it was at the head of what was the second street or tract called st. joseph street, and nowadays st. sulpice, while at the bottom, at the southwest corner bounded by st. paul street, was the hôtel-dieu. this cemetery was used for the next twenty-four years.[ ] the expense of these changes was borne by the parishioners and not by the company--another sign of the times. we know this, for the salaries paid are still to be seen in the original document in which it is recorded that gilbert barbier, the carpenter who erected the cross, gave the half of his salary as a contribution, to the church. the church towards which gilbert barbier gave his donation was probably not the mission chapel which had been so long the centre of parish life and piety in the fort itself, but towards a new one that already, on june th of this year, had been determined on to be started as soon as possible owing to the increase of population from the reinforcement of . on this day, the feast of ss. peter and paul, the syndic had called a meeting of the habitants in the presence of the governor, when jean saint père was elected by a majority of votes to act as the "receiver of alms," or treasurer for funds for a new church. he was to keep account of all sums given to him, with the names of the donors and should furnish a financial statement every three months to the governor. in addition it was ruled that all donations in grain, or in kind, subject to deterioration, should be sold by the treasurer to the highest bidder, provided that the auction should be publicly announced by a notice affixed to the fort gate three days in advance of the sale. finally, the treasurer should hand over the sums received by him, when required, to the director of the church building to be erected by the citizens in the presence of the governor when there shall be need for such an appointment. besides the private donations m. de maisonneuve, as the administrator of justice, applied the court fines to the church fund. but it was not till august , , that the foundations of the new church were laid. in the meantime the people still worshiped in the fort chapel, now become too small for its increased population through the recent influx of the troops of soldiers and the women. it had many dear memories symbolized by the baptisms, marriages and deaths, and the feasts and festivals of the year. at its services the jesuit missionaries, such as isaac jogues, poncet, buteaux and others, had officiated with mutilated limbs, a living instance of the ever brooding presence of the revengeful iroquois.[ ] in this little mission chapel many a prayer had gone forth for the relief which tardily came. but it was too small and must give place to another--a real parish church, large, dignified and commodious, to meet the needs of the expanding corporation. the cherished decorations and the altar furniture and plate, which were gifts from rich friends in france, would still be a link between the old and the new, and thus its memory would be kept forever green. the old chapel church still continued its work. it witnessed, on may th of the year following, , the marriage of charles le moyne with the adopted daughter of antoine primot and martine mercier, his wife, whom we know as the valiant and chaste parmenda. this girl, catherine thierry, probably a niece of madame primot, had been brought as a child of one year to montreal in , and she was commonly known as catherine primot and was now fourteen years of age. this union begot the famous le moyne family. their first home was on the arpent town lot near the hospital. on february rd the fort chapel witnessed the marriage of jean gervaise and anne archambault, who also reared one of the most numerous and honourable families of montreal. this was the fourth marriage of the thirteen occurring this year. the history of anne archambault gives us an insight into one of the few scandals of the time. this was anne's second marriage, having been married before the church in quebec in july, , to a michel chauvin, _dit_ ste suzanne who had been sent out by de la dauversière to montreal in the service of the company in . in louis prud'homme, of whom we have made mention already, had on a voyage to france discovered that chauvin had deserted his wife, and on returning to montreal he had notified the authorities, so that on october , , chauvin acknowledged freely before jean saint père, the official notary of justice, that some seven years before leaving france for canada he had married louise de liles. he then hurriedly departed for quebec and took the first boat back to france. anne archambault had one child by this scoundrel, born on april th following. to sympathize with her jeanne mance and m. charles d'ailleboust des musseaux were the godparents. to the great joy of the colony, anne archambault was honourably remarried on february , , to jean gervaise, one of the recruits brought over by de maisonneuve in the previous autumn. the esteem of the public was manifested to offset the unaccustomed scandal that had arisen in their midst. one child, charlotte chauvin, was reared by these two and for this purpose the governor gave special assistance on behalf of the company. at this time there were also several orphans, children of soldiers that had died in battle with the iroquois, and for these de maisonneuve also provided. thus the spirit of fervour, charity and uprightness of morals was exercised in the life of this primitive church of the settlement. sister morin, in the annals of the hôtel-dieu, writes of these early times: "nothing was put under key in these days, neither the houses, chests, or cellars; everything was left open without anyone repenting of their trustfulness. those who were in easy circumstances hastened to lend their assistance to others less fortunate, and gave it spontaneously without waiting to be called upon, making it a pleasure to forestall all needs and to give their marks of affection and esteem to one another." the words of longfellow, written so long after, of grandpré, the home of evangeline, might be well applied to ville marie at this date: "neither locks had they to their doors, nor bars to their windows; but their dwellings were open as day, and the hearts of the owners. there the richest were poor, and the poorest lived in abundance." footnotes: [ ] how many of those hired sailed for montreal? an unedited list containing names has lately been found in the archives of the seminary of st. sulpice at montreal by mr. c. o. bertrand, and has been reproduced with notes by mr. e. z. massicotte in the canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal for october, (third series, vol. x). the original number of engagés, according to faillon, taken from the notarial contracts before maître lafousse at la flèche, was . but examination shows that, owing to several duplications, this must be reduced to . before sailing at st. nazaire only , according to faillon, answered the call. but on the examination of faillon's list, it is seen that the number was , which corresponds with the newly found list. marguerite bourgeoys says that there were about passengers, of whom were "soldiers," as she calls the engagés. the abbé de belmont gives soldiers. mr. massicotte, from a study of the contracts of marriages shortly after the arrival of the recruits of and other sources, supplies the eighteen missing members thus: a married woman, two single women, four men, m. de maisonneuve, marguerite bourgeoys, and nine others who are mentioned by the latter as "quelques filles," who were brought for marriageable purposes. marguerite bourgeoys mentions that eight were buried at sea. of the in the list mentioned above, mr. massicotte finds eleven names that never occur in any of the documents of the period at montreal. hence he concludes that their owners never reached montreal and that therefore eight at least of them correspond to those that were buried in the ocean. [ ] for she was now thirty-three years of age, having been born on april , , in the town of troyes in champagne. her mother had died when marguerite was still young, and early she developed that motherly thoughtfulness and mature judgment which fitted her later in the settlement for her matronly solicitude for soldiers and children of the fort at montreal, as since her mother's death she had had the care of her father's children. he, too, had lately died and she was now free to follow a life of sacrifice. [ ] it was with the view of seeing the possibility of establishing such a branch that madame de la peltrie had delayed in montreal till the spring of . [ ] the simplicity of life in a pioneering settlement in new france less than a century later can be more readily understood if we but glance at the simple and severe customs prevailing in england previously to this. it is related of queen elizabeth that in the third year of her reign she received a present of knitted black silk stockings, an unheard of thing hitherto; in she appeared, in public, mounted on the crupper of her horse, behind her chamberlain, for it was after this date that carriages came into vogue. [ ] the act of november th by père pijart mentions only "cemeterio," that is the old cemetery at pointe à callières. the act of december th, however, has clear mention of the change to the new cemetery. "_in novo hospitalis domus cemeterio franciscus lachot sepultus a me claudio pijart, societatis jesu sacerdote_"--in the new cemetery of the hospital francis lachot was buried by me claude pijart, priest of the society of jesus. [ ] most of the earliest jesuits had served them at least in passing through, on their adventurous work of christianizing the redskins of canada; of such bancroft, the historian, has said: "not a cape was turned, not a river entered, but a jesuit led the way." chapter x - iroquois and jesuits the departure of the jesuits renewal of hostilities in the spring--peace--wampum necklaces and belts--montreal headquarters of peace parleys--autumn attacks--"la barrique"--montreal left severely alone--chief "la grande armes"--m. de lauson persecuting montreal--the completion of the parish church--pending ecclesiastical changes in montreal--notes: biographical notices of the early jesuit missionaries in montreal--poncet--jogues--le moyne--buteaux--druillettes--albanel--le jeune--parkman's estimate of the success of the jesuit missions--dr. grant's appreciation of their work. the fictitious and temporary peace which had intervened when de maisonneuve arrived in the autumn of , and had allowed the settlers to resume the work of building their homes outside the fort, was shortly to be broken. indeed, during the year just described there were not wanting indications, early in the spring of , of the renewal of hostilities, when a young surgeon engaged in setting his beaver traps was carried off in a canoe by the lurking onondaga indians. in the beginning of may a band of the same iroquois, who had not heard of this act of perfidy, were well received when coming for trade and they sent a canoe back for the stolen man. in the meantime, about seven hundred hurons descended to montreal with thirteen iroquois captives made on the journey down. these were given to the iroquois captain, who remained as a hostage till the canoe returned, in the hope of making peace. soon the surgeon was brought back with a delegation, bearing twenty necklaces of wampum as signs of peace from the iroquois nation. [illustration: sans merci (by hébert)] one of the significant gifts was to recognize and consolidate the position of ville marie as the headquarters of peace treaties, which had been lately so constituted by the governor of quebec, who had transferred to montreal the treaty pole which had been erected at quebec in the autumn of as a sign of peace. its position at montreal signified the recognized place for parley councils for peace overtures. this was an adroit move on the part of de lauson. it recognized that montreal was the frontier post and the most accessible, and also it was a standing eulogium of the diplomatic ability of de maisonneuve to deal with the natives, and it might keep the enemy higher up the river away from quebec. unfortunately, as we have said, these iroquois were divided into five nations, who often acted without concert, so that protestations of peace by wampum belts had always to be taken for what they were worth. montreal was soon to be in daily dread of assault. thus in the autumn, when in fancied security, owing to the recent renewal of peace, the ordinary precautions were being neglected at montreal in the busy building and farming operations, a band of iroquois were in ambuscade around. the sentinel was standing on a tree stump, leisurely surveying the country around, when an iroquois who had stealthily approached, hiding at intervals behind other stumps, suddenly pounced upon him and seizing him by the legs, threw him over his shoulders and set off in flight with the bewildered soldier shrieking for his life and fighting as best he could. his cries aroused the men in the field and they pursued them until they came up to the iroquois band with their chief at their head. they would have fared badly had not lambert closse come up with his men. recognizing the chief, who was known by the french as "la barrique," or "the hogshead," because of his barrel-like corpulency, he ordered one of his best shots cautiously to get within fighting distance, and pick him off. meanwhile hogshead, unaware of impending disaster, was standing on a stump haranguing his men and urging them to the attack, when he received a charge of heavy lead full in his body and he fell to the ground bathed in blood. thinking him dead, his followers fled incontinently. but he did not die, for under the skillful care of the doctors and jeanne mance, he was tended at the hospital and recovered, though he was seriously crippled for the rest of his days. their charity changed his fierce disposition. when he left he promised never to go on the warpath against them again but that he would return later to conclude a peace, as indeed he did, though not so easily as he could have wished. for a time the iroquois left montreal severely alone. "let us not go thither," they would say. "they are devils there." they turned to attack the settlement of the ile des oies below quebec instead. but later, on may , , they attacked the colony and killed one dabigeon. then they passed over to the other side of the st. lawrence and pretended to be another tribe, and sent delegates to parley with the fort. charles le moyne, who had just come from quebec, recognized them as the assailants at the ile des oies and, suspecting treachery, they were told to come the next day. finally, an engagement took place and five iroquois were taken prisoners to the camp, among them chief la plume (or "the feather"). another parley now took place, and a peace was agreed upon on the proposition of chief la grande armée, on condition that all the captives on both sides should be exchanged, and that peace with the hurons and algonquins should be observed as long as they should not advance above three rivers. among the french restored were the captives taken at ile des oies, one of whom, elizabeth moyen, then a child, married lambert closse in , and her sister marie who remained with jeanne mance twenty years. peace concluded, the work of agriculture was pushed on although, taught by sad experience, the men went to the fields armed as usual. in order to pursue this in greater safety, de maisonneuve, by a permission given on august , , in the name of the company allowed the colonists to cultivate and enjoy the fruits of the lands on the "domain of the seigneurs," which were nearer to the fort than their own concessions. when the time came for them to be able to till the latter, the lands on the domain should be handed back. these negotiations were put into the hands of lambert closse, for de maisonneuve had chosen him to hold the reins of government while he himself made a third journey to france this autumn, as the next chapter will relate. these peace arrangements at montreal always meant the interchange of presents which were a burden on the community instead of on the governor of quebec, whom the early historians, with m. de belmont, accuse of "persecuting montreal." in addition to what we know, de lauson wanted to levy a tax on all imports to montreal. he took it ill that montreal had its storehouse at quebec, wishing it to purchase its necessities from quebec. he also wanted the company of montreal to send out more men than they found convenient. all this brought him a letter of louis xiv in favour of montreal. misfortunes clouded the last days of de lauson. he left for france in the summer of and died in paris on february , , at the age of eighty-two years. his sons, for whom he had planned great possessions in canada, did not live long after their father's departure from canada, and he saw nearly all his family extinct before his death and all their properties reverting to the king on account of their conditions of grant not being fulfilled. his ineffectual tenure of office was due to his inefficiency, aggravated by the cruel abandonment of the french colony by the great company. m. de lauson was succeeded in the post of governor general by his son, charles de lauson-charny. but his administration was no more successful than that of his father. indeed the office was not to his taste and he prevailed upon m. d'ailleboust, who had arrived from france on september , , to take his place, and six days after he sailed back home, disgusted with the vanities of the world, so that he entered the ecclesiastical state, returning later to work in the sacred ministry in canada. meanwhile the new parish church, begun two years ago, was being completed, the funds, owing to the poverty of the colonists, being largely supplied by the seigneurs. it was adjoined to the hôtel-dieu on st. paul street, so that it might suffice for the citizens and the sick. it was dedicated to st. joseph, the patron of the hospital, and was opened in . in the foundation and under the doorway of entrance there was placed, within the first stone, the following inscription, engraven as a leaden plate: "cette première pierre a été posée en l'honneur de st. joseph, l'an , le août. jesus! maria! joseph!" this building, which served up to as the parish church of the colony, was adjoined to the hospital situated on the street which was formed a little afterwards by the first houses constructed at ville marie and called st. paul, and was placed at the corner of another street which was called from the name of the church, st. joseph, today known as st. sulpice. the body of the building was of wood, about eighty feet long, thirty broad, and twenty feet high; the church being at one end, covering about fifty feet, and surmounted by a bell tower with two bells. the good folk of ville marie were proud to see their new temple. affairs were now in a bad state; the iroquois were uncurbed and unsettled through the weak administration of de lauson, and thus prepared for the bitter war again to be proclaimed at the end of . but at present, in the summer of , there was nothing but anticipation of the arrival of the governor and the four sulpicians who were to be the parish clergy, with a permanent abode and a settled ecclesiastical status. the jesuits who had so long served the mission were to be free to go to the up-country indians--their long connection with the settlement was to be severed. note the jesuit missionaries at montreal (from to august , , when the sulpicians succeeded them.) the first mayor of montreal, commander jacques viger, has collected in a little manuscript book preserved in the archives of st. marie's college at montreal the list of jesuits serving montreal from - as follows: joseph poncet, - ; joseph imbert duperon, - ; ambroise daoust, ; gabriel druillettes, - ; isaac jogues, ; jacques buteaux, ; paul le jeune, - ; adrien daran, ; georges d'eudemare, - ; jean de quen, - ; pierre bailloquet, ; charles albanel, ; andré richard, ; siméon le moyne, ; claude pijart, to august , . fifteen jesuits resident in fifteen years. this does not account for names of other distinguished missionaries visiting, whose names appear on the registers as having officiated at ville marie baptisms, marriages, deaths and other documents during this early period. mr. e. z. massicotte in his "les colons de montreal de - ," gives some of these as follows: --jérome lalemant, june st to th, may th to th. --paul ragueneau, two days. --claude dablon passed through montreal in october, also on the th of march, . he would also have signed - -' a document concerning hudson bay. --joseph marie chaumont, october, the bearer of a message for the iroquois in , was at montreal in , resided at montreal in . --léonard gareau, wounded in a combat on august th, buried september d. --françois? le mercier, july th. of the montreal jesuits, there are some who merit special mention here. joseph antoine poncet de la riviere joseph antoine poncet de la rivière, of aristocratic birth, was born in paris and entered the society of jesus in his nineteenth year as a novice. his studies finished, he came to new france in . he shortly went to the huron mission. we next find him, - , the first priest in charge of the mission chapel at the fort of montreal. after this he ministered at quebec. on his return from a visit to the iroquois, he went down the st. lawrence and was the first white man to glide through the thousand islands. he was giving the alarm to the colonists at cape rouge in the summer of , when he was himself seized by the savages. he bore a remembrance of the ill treatment of his captivity in the form of a lost finger, which a little child had been ordered to cut off. he was afterwards released to the dutch at fort orange and returned to quebec on november th, "just nine times nine days after my capture," he says. we next know him as the storm centre of ecclesiastical differences between montreal and quebec. as a result of this poncet was sent back to europe. he was installed as french penitentiary at loretto, and later was sent to martinique, where he died on june , . isaac jogues isaac jogues was born at orléans, france, january , . his first schooling was at rouen and he entered the jesuit novitiate at paris in his seventeenth year. having finished his studies and period of teaching we find him in his twenty-ninth year reaching canada in in the same vessel as champlain's successor, montmagny. two or three weeks later, that same october, jogues began his missionary work, joining a flotilla of huron canoes and sailing miles over dangerous rivers and lakes, skirting rapids and precipices and making many toilsome "portages" through dense forests, pools and marshes, to the great lake huron which was known as "fresh water sea." [illustration: jogues, the jesuit missionary] such was jogues' first experience of missionary life. living on indian corn and water, sleeping on rocks and in the woods, battling day after day against a rapid current, dragging heavy burdens over the long portages, a part of the time with a sick boy on his shoulder--till he staggered through the triple stockade of the indian town of ihonitiria and fell into the arms of de brébeuf and his jesuit companions. in this new mission field one of the first works entrusted to his practical sagacity, which stood his fellow missionaries in good stead, was the construction of fort ste. marie, whose ruins, discovered in , testify to the solidity of the outworks. his first apostolic work away from fort ste. marie was among the petuns, or tobacco indians. in september, , he went with the jesuit raimbault to found a mission among the ojibways or chippewas on the upper reaches of lake huron at a place called by the missionaries sault ste. marie, today a great centre of commerce. they were the first white men to stand on the shores of lake superior. we next find him back at georgian bay. supplies were being exhausted and jogues offered to go to quebec, a thousand miles off, for them. this done, on the way back in the first week of august, , his party was surprised by the hostile mohawks and captured. while being taken up country he was most brutally tortured, beaten by sticks, clubs and knives, and his wounds torn open by the long nails of the indians. the joints of his fingers were gnawed off or burned off at intervals. on the arrival of the party at ossernenon, on the north bank of the mohawk, a captive christian woman was compelled, under threat of death, to saw off with a jagged shell the thumb of the priest. but he was not killed, as so many of his party were. on the th of september, , rené goupil, his faithful companion, was tomahawked in the skull for making the sign of the cross on the head of a child. the place is identified as auriesville. when goupil was dead, jogues was alone and began his awful captivity of more than a year, each moment of which was a martyrdom. in the "relation," which his superior commanded him to write, he has left us a partial account of the horrors he endured. employed in the filthiest and most degrading of occupations he was regarded with greater contempt than the most degraded squaw of the village. heavy burdens were heaped on his crippled and mangled shoulders, and he was made to tramp fifty, sixty and sometimes a hundred miles after his savage masters, who delighted to exhibit him wherever they went. his naked feet left bloody tracks upon the ice or flints of the road; his flesh was rotting with disease, and his wounds were gangrened; he was often beaten to the earth by the fists or clubs of crazy and drunken indians, and more than once he saw the tomahawk above his head and heard his death sentence pronounced. the wretched deerskin they persuaded him to wear was swarming with vermin; he was often in a condition of semi-starvation as he crouched in a corner of the filthy wigwam and saw the savages gorging themselves with meat, which had been first offered to the demons, and which he therefore refused to eat, though his savage masters raged against the implied contempt to their gods. for thirteen months he thus remained a captive. yet he baptized more than seventy persons, most of them huron captives, at the point of death. often jogues would rush into the flames up to the stake for this purpose. during this time, on june , , he secured a scrap of paper on which he wrote to montmagny that the mohawks were about to make a raid on fort richelieu. this message, carried for him by a huron, warned the garrison in time and the indians were repulsed. this defeat was traced to jogues and his death was expected. but in the meantime an order came from governor kieft of manhattan to the commandant at fort orange to secure his release at all costs. this required the co-operation of jogues. in spite of his harsh treatment the prisoner was unwilling at first to enter into the plot, feeling it to be his duty to remain at his post. at last he consented. he was conveyed to the dutch settlement of fort orange (albany), which the angry mohawks threatened to burn, but fearful of risking a war with the dutch while they were fighting with the french, after a parley they consented to relinquish their claim on the black robe for _livres_. a six-day journey brought him to manhattan which he described as "seven leagues in circuit and on it is a fort to serve as a commencement of a town to be built there, and to be called new amsterdam." at this town, as at the place of his escape, he was kindly treated by the famous dominic johannes megapolensis, jr., the first person who went to new york at the invitation of killaen van rensselaer to look after the spiritual affairs of the colony. after a month's sojourn at manhattan, father jogues left on november , , in a wretched little vessel which, after a severe tossing on the atlantic, reached falmouth, in cornwall, at the end of december, hotly pursued by some of cromwell's ships, for the rebellion against charles i was then in progress. [illustration: new york as seen by le moyne] in falmouth he was robbed, at the point of the pistol, of all his belongings, by some marauders lurking round the port. at last, having secured a free passage in a dirty collier, he was flung on christmas morning, , on the coast of brittany, but after eight days he reached the jesuit college at rennes--and at last the emaciated, haggard tramp was recognized as the lost isaac jogues, of whose capture the "relations" had warned them. honour was now meted out to this humble jesuit much to his discomfiture. anne of austria, mother of louis xiv, called him to court and compelled him to throw back his cloak and tell of the hideous manner in which his fingers had been eaten or burned. the queen, descending from the throne, took his hand in hers and, with tears streaming down her cheeks, devoutly kissed the mutilated members and exclaimed: "people write romances for us--but was ever a romance like this? and it is all true." this form of public exhibition was displeasing to jogues but the permission granted by pope urbain viii, at the request of some of his admirers, to have the canonical impediment raised against his faculty to say mass because of his mutilated fingers, was a source of gratification. the answer of urbain to the request was "_indignum esset martyrum christi, christi non bibere sanguinem_"--"it would be wrong to prevent the martyr of christ from drinking the blood of christ." isaac jogues did not loiter to be lionized in paris, but in june was in quebec, and was now appointed to serve the sick and hearten the defenders of the stockade of montreal. in july he was present at a parley with the indians at a conference held at three rivers, where he met father bressani, who had also had a similar experience of the tortures of the iroquois and whose fingers were also wanting. after a treaty had been made jogues returned to montreal. one result of this treaty was that an ambassador was to be sent to the mohawks and father jogues, as he spoke the iroquois tongue, was appointed to revisit those who had so ill used him. but it was two years later before the actual embassy started from three rivers, on may , . father jogues reached lake andiatarocté on the eve of corpus christi, the feast of the blessed sacrament, and called it the "lake of the blessed sacrament." a century later this was renamed by sir william johnson "lake george" in honour of the english king. on june th jogues reached ossernenon, and in his character as ambassador was well received. at the council held on june th or june th the party returned, reaching quebec on july rd. jogues petitioned to be sent back to the mohawks as a missionary. on september th he left quebec for the iroquois country. he wrote to a friend: "ibo sed non redibo--i go but i shall not return," as though his fate were revealed to him. [illustration: lake of the blessed sacrament] before he reached ossernenon he learned that the hatchet had been dug up to meet him. as an ambassador he had been respected, but as a christian missionary a hostile reception awaited him. an innocent box of vestments left behind him on his previous visit was the cause. a pestilence had broken out and the crops were withered. therefore these misfortunes were due to the _manitou_ in the box. jogues could have avoided ossernenon and returned to quebec, but he faced his enemies, who met him with the sorcerer, ondersonk. jogues wore his clerical garb. his garments were stripped off him; he was slashed with knives and led, mangled and bleeding, to the scene of his recent triumph as an ambassador. a council was held at tionnontoguen to see what was to be done with him. the wolf-tortoise family were against killing him, as were most of the bears, and he was spared. but the bears, bent on vengeance, invited the wounded jogues to a feast on october th. he left his cabin and followed to the festive wigwam, and as he entered a mohawk, waiting behind the door brought down his axe with a crash on to his skull. his head was hacked off and fixed on a stake of the palisade, and his body was flung into the mohawk river hard by. there is no reasonable doubt but that the place of his martyrdom occurred at auriesville on the south shore of the mohawk just above the schoharie. "so died," says ingram kip, the protestant bishop of california, "one of that glorious band that had shown greater devotion in the cause of christianity than has ever been seen since the time of the apostles; men whose lives and sufferings reveal a story more touching and pathetic than anything in the records of our country, and whose names should ever be kept in grateful remembrance; stern, high-wrought men who might have stood high in court or camp, and who could contrast their desolate state in the lowly wigwam with the refinement and affluence that waited on them in their earlier years, but who had given up home and love of kindred and the golden ties of relationship for god and man." another famous missionary who served montreal and who often passed through it on his journeys to and fro, was siméon le moyne, who was born about . he entered the society at the age of nineteen and in he was at work in the canadian mission field, chiefly among the hurons, among whom he was known as "wane," or phonetically in english "won," the "w" taking the place of the missing "m" in their language, the result being an attempt to reproduce the french pronunciation of "moyne." his early experiences at lake huron brought him in touch with those other heroes, brébeuf, daniel, lalemant, jogues, and others, many of whom were to be killed. he saw the annihilation of the hurons and wandered with the remnants over hill and dell and stream, ministering to them. in he accepted the dangerous mission to the iroquois at onondaga, leaving his life in the hands of the almighty. his object was to pacify the iroquois as an ambassador, to give comfort to the huron captives and to prepare the way for a permanent mission. on his return to quebec he recommended this, and the jesuits dablon and chauminot were appointed. he held several councils and distributed presents.[ ] le moyne was endowed with a sense of humour. "le moyne," says the rev. t. j. campbell, "tells us that on this occasion he strutted around like an actor, gesticulating extravagantly, imitating the manners of their great orators, each time winning great grunts of applause from the attendant chiefs and keeping up his eloquence for two hours." the amusing part is that it was told in huron, of which the iroquois had only a general knowledge: it was the parent stock. the impressive manner he assumed--he was a past master in mimicry--no doubt overwhelmed them and possibly whimpered interpretations were being given at the same time to let them know what he was saying. on his return, before reaching montreal, we are told by charlevoix that le moyne was in a canoe with two onondagas, the hurons and algonquins following. as they approached montreal they were surprised to find themselves surrounded by several canoes full of mohawks, who poured a volley upon them from their muskets. the hurons and algonquins were all killed, as well as one of the onondagas. le moyne was taken and bound as a prisoner of war, and the onondaga was told to return home, but he protested that he could not abandon the missionary, who had been confided to him by the sachems of his canton and he menaced the mohawks with all the wrath of the upper iroquois. at first they laughed at his threats, but when they saw that he would not flinch they unbound their prisoner and put him in the hands of his faithful conductor, who led him to montreal. the chief, who was at the head of these mohawks, was known as the flemish bastard. the upper iroquois, the agnieronnons, those among whom isaac jogues had been killed in , jealous of the distinction paid to their kinsman, the onondagas, desired an envoy to be sent to them. accordingly the "relation" of tells how father le moyne left montreal on august th with twelve iroquois and a frenchman. he arrived at the village of agniée (auriesville) on september th. he then visited ossernenon and later went on to manhattan to visit the dutch, after which he returned to ossernenon, leaving for montreal in november, lucky to escape with his life, having however promised the mohawks to give them missionaries. in the meantime the onondagas had been already favoured by missionaries, and a body of fifty frenchmen, the nucleus of a trading post. again the jealousy of the mohawks of ossernenon caused a second and a third visit from the diplomatic le moyne. the trading post at onondaga collapsed through the frenchmen, hearing of a plot to massacre them, decamping by night and making their way to montreal. the perfidious iroquois of onondaga, angry at their discovered treachery, were now joined by the mohawks and for two years the st. lawrence witnessed bloody fights. christian huron settlements were burned and pillaged, and white and red men massacred. montreal was the storm centre of war. "one day in july ( ), when the storm was at its height, a number of iroquois canoes were seen coming down the river towards montreal. the garrison rushed to the stockade and watched them as they approached the shore. in front was a flag of truce. the savage warriors, in paint and feathers, stepped out as if assured of a friendly reception. the gate was thrown open and, followed by four french captives, the iroquois advanced into the town. the spokesman was the redoubtable cayuga chief, named saonchiowaga. solemnly he broke the bonds of the french prisoners and promised the liberation of others still in the onondaga country. then he began his address, offering his presents meanwhile. coming to the fifth present he said: 'this is to bring the frenchman back to us. we still keep his mat; his house is still standing in ganentoa. his fire is still lighted, and his fields have been tilled and await his return for his hand to gather the harvest.' then, altering his tone and raising aloft the last belt, he exclaimed: a black gown must come to us; otherwise there will be no peace. on his coming depends the lives of twenty frenchmen at onondaga.' and he placed in the governor's hand a leaf of a book, on the margin of which the twenty unfortunate captives had written their names." campbell, vol. i, p. . although many thought this a trick to lure others to death father le moyne offered to go to test its sincerity, and on july , , he left montreal for onondaga. there he was successful in concluding peace with the help of garagontié, "the sun that advances," who shortly went down to montreal to negotiate peace. but his withdrawal was a sorry turn for le moyne, whom the iroquois lads would have burned alive on the scaffold at the stake. he escaped on one occasion with some frightful scalds which took six months to heal. at another time he was nearly tomahawked. the return of garagontié alone made his work of charity among the onondagas possible. he had plenty to do to look after the french captives and to secure their ransom. in this he was largely successful and returned to montreal in the summer of . the "relations" record this as follows: "on the last day of august, , the father made his appearance in a canoe below the falls of st. louis, having around him all the happy rescued ones and a score of onondagas, who from being enemies, had become their boatmen. they landed amid the cheers and embraces of all the french of montreal, and following father le moyne proceeded to the church to thank god." wars prevented him going back to onondaga, but he applied for the post in . his shattered health, however, stood in the way, and he died in , sick of a fever at cape madeleine, opposite three rivers. he may be called the apostle of the onondagas. james buteaux james buteaux was born at abbeville, in france, on april , , and joined the canadian mission shortly after it was handed over to the french. he served the algonquin missions and while at montreal not only did he accompany the christian indians in their fights, but he heartened the little garrison at home, as also the good maisonneuve, who was then realizing what his declaration had meant when he had told montmagny that he would stay in montreal if every tree were an iroquois. he was a most devoted missionary, although he was a frail man. "i have often seen him," says father de quen, "tramping in the dark through three or four feet of snow, groping along by the light of a lantern which the howling wind would often tear from his hand or extinguish, while he himself would perhaps be flung by the violence of the storm down some icy trail into the snowdrifts below. this would be surprising news," continues the writer, "for those who remember him in france, frail to the last degree and almost always a valetudinarian." this happened at sillery and his devotedness, no doubt, was similar at montreal. his whole life was led midst the alarms of war. on the th of may, , when, with a huron and a frenchman, on a journey from his beloved three rivers on a mission to the white fish tribe, he was fallen upon by iroquois. the huron was seized and the priest and frenchman fell riddled with bullets. the savages then rushed upon them with their knives and tomahawks, stripped them naked and flung them into the river. gabriel druillettes gabriel druillettes, it is said, was born in , but it is certain he came to canada on august , , in the same ship with the jesuits garreau and chabanel, both subsequently being slain by the indians. he served montreal for a short time, but his after-career as the "apostle of maine" entitles him to considerable fame in early american history. in he went to the west. in the white-haired missionary was at the solemn "_prise de possession_" at sault ste. marie, ordered by talon. he remained at the sault till , whence he journeyed to quebec to rest after his long missionary wanderings, dying two years later, full of years and good works. charles albanel charles albanel was born in and came to america on august , , and in the following year was at montreal. his after-career was one of adventure. he may be called the missionary of the hudson bay. in his second visit there in he went expressly as frontenac's secret agent to induce radisson to abandon the service of the hudson's bay company; in fact he handed radisson a letter from colbert offering him a position in the french navy, the payment of all his debts and a gratuity of pounds sterling if he would return to his allegiance. the adventurer eventually accepted the proposition. charles albanel was taken prisoner to england because he did endeavour to convert "ye indians and persuade them not to trade with ye english." he is described as a "little ould man born of english parentage." he was set free, and was in france in , on july d set sail for america. coming back from canada his superiors kept him away from the hudson bay territory and sent him west, and the "little ould man" of died twenty-two years later, as a missionary at sault ste. marie on january , . paul le jeune paul le jeune, whom the distinguished historian of new york, dr. o'callaghan, calls the father of the canadian missions, one among many reasons for this title being, that, when canada was restored to the french, he was elected as superior of the missions, was born at châlons-sur-marne in july, , and arrived in canada in .[ ] he was the friend of champlain, whose funeral oration he pronounced in . he was highly esteemed by montmagny. as superior of the missions he ruled from miscou to lake huron, but he was glad enough to serve humbly in the ranks when father vimont became provincial. thus it is that we find him serving the mission of montreal. in he returned to france as procurator of the french missions in canada. later on when there was a question of naming a bishop of quebec, father le jeune was the choice of the queen regent. charles lalemant and ragueneau were also mentioned, but the general of the jesuits forbade the consideration of any jesuit for that post. laval, as we know, was eventually appointed. in , it was le jeune who made the touching and fearless appeal to louis xiv himself for the perishing colony. this helped to open the eyes of the monarch and was the herald of better times which, however, did not occur till , two years after the death of le jeune, when de tracy's and de courcelles' handful of men brought the peace which lasted for fifteen years. it would be tedious to the reader to give further autobiographical notes. yet the importance of these montreal missionaries for the colonization of new france and the civilization of the indians justifies the space we have allotted. parkman in his "jesuits," pages - , sums up the success of their missions thus: "when we look for the results of those missions we soon become aware that the influence of the french and the jesuits extended far beyond the circle of converts. it eventually modified and softened the manners of many unconverted tribes. "in the wars of the next century we do not find those examples of diabolical atrocity with which the earlier annals are crowded. the savage burned his enemies alive, it is true, but he rarely ate them; neither did he torment them with the same deliberation and persistency. he was a savage still, but not so often a devil. * * * in this softening of manner, such as it was, and in the obedient catholicity of a few hundred tamed savages gathered at stationary missions in canada, we find after a century had elapsed all the results of the heroic toil of the jesuits. the missions had failed because the indians had ceased to exist. of the great tribes on whom rested the hopes of the early canadian fathers, nearly all were virtually extinct. the missionaries built laboriously and well, but they were doomed to build on a falling foundation. the indians melted away, not because civilization destroyed them, but because their own ferocity and untractable indolence made it impossible that they should exist in its presence. either the plastic energies of a higher race, or the servile pliancy of a lower one, would each in its way have preserved them; as it was, their extinction was a foregone conclusion. as for the religion which the jesuits taught them, however protestants may carp at it, it was the only form of christianity likely to take root in their crude and barbarous nature." the following appreciation of the early jesuits, taken from "the dominion of canada--the brave days of old," by a protestant writer, professor grant, of kingston, may be of interest as coming from a later day pen: "eyes and heart alternately glow and fill as we read the endless 'relations' of their faith and failures, their heaped-up measure of miseries, their boundless wisdom, their heroic martyrdoms. we forget our traditional antipathy to the name of jesuit. the satire of pascal, the memories of the inquisition and the political history of the order, is all forgotten. we dislike to have our sympathies checked by reminders, that in canada as elsewhere, they were the consistent, formidable foes of liberty; that their love of power not only embroiled them continually with the civil authorities, but made them jealous of the recollects and sulpicians, unwilling that any save their own order--or, as we say, sect--should share in the dangers and glory of converting the infidels of new france. how can we, sitting at home in ease, we who have entered into their labours, criticize men before whose spiritual white heat every mountain melted away; who carried the cross in advance of the most adventurous 'coureurs de bois,' or guides, who taught agriculture to the indian on the georgian bay before a dozen farms had been cleared on the st. lawrence--drove or carried cattle through unbroken forest around the countless rapids and cataracts of the ottawa and french rivers that they might wean the hurons from nomadic habits and make of them a nation; who shrank from no hardship and no indignity if by any means they might save some of the miserable savages who heaped indignities upon themselves; who instituted hospitals and convents wherever they went, always (in the spirit of their masters) caring most for the weak, the decrepit, the aged; and submitted themselves, without thinking of escape, to inutterable tortures rather than lose an opportunity of administering the last sacraments to those who had fallen under the hatchets of the iroquois! few protestants have any idea of the extraordinary missionary activity of the church of rome in the seventeenth century. few englishmen know to what extent french society was inspired then by religious fervour. few canadians have any knowledge of the spiritual inheritance of which they are the heirs. it would be well for all of us to read parkman's 'jesuits in north america,' if we cannot get hold of the original 'relations;' for the story, looked at even from a protestant and republican standpoint, is one to do us all good, revealing as it does the spiritual bonds that link into oneness of faith protestant and roman catholic, and teaching that beneath the long black robe of the dreaded jesuit is to be found, not so much that disingenuousness and those schemes of worldly ambition usually associated with the name, but a passionate devotion to the saviour, love for the souls of men and the fixed steadfastness of the martyr's spirit that remains unshaken when heart and flesh faint and fail. "the prophetic words of the father superior of the jesuits in stir the heart of the christian--by whatsoever name known among men--like the blasts of a trumpet: 'we shall die; we shall be captured, burned, butchered. be it so. those who die in their beds do not always die the best death. i see none of our company cast down.' and truly, in spite of failures, these men did a great work. seeds of divine truth they sowed broadcast over the wilderness. gradually they tempered the ferocity of the indian character, and mitigated the horrors of indian war. they induced the remnants of many tribes to settle under the shadow of their missions protected by forts. portions even of the terrible iroquois settled in canada and the church has, on the whole, no children more obedient, and queen victoria certainly no subjects more loyal."--(scribner's magazine, quoted in canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, .) footnotes: [ ] he discovered the salt springs at onondaga (syracuse). [ ] paul le jeune in wrote the first letter of the relations of the jesuits. chapter xi - the coming of the sulpicians ( ) maisonneuve goes to france--arranges for hospitalieres and sulpicians--bishopric for new france--the nominations of de queylus and laval--the appointment delayed--the death of m. olier--the arrival of de queylus and maisonneuve at quebec--two rival "grands vicaires"--de queylus goes to montreal and quickly returns to rule the church in quebec--the intrusion resented--the sulpicians in montreal--tribute to them as civic and religious administrators--iroquois hostilities resumed--the head of jean st. pere--the church in montreal takes on "parish" pretensions--church wardens and "la fabrique"--the first school house--the flight to montreal from onondaga--precautionary ordinances by maisonneuve--fortified redoubts--the ecclesiastical dispute settled--de quen "grand vicaire" of quebec, de queylus of montreal--bon secours church delayed--jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys visit france. in the autumn of , profiting by the peace concluded, and seeing the progress of the town well under way, the governor left montreal under the charge of lambert closse, and sailed for france. his object was threefold ( ) to promote the erection of an episcopal seat in canada; ( ) to secure, as originally arranged, permanent parish priests for montreal from m. olier's seminary of st. sulpice, since the jesuits, being missionaries, desired their men to be ready to visit the far-off tribes; and ( ) to bring back the sisters of the institute of hospitalières, erected lately by m. de la dauversière, in view of the service of the hôtel-dieu. on arriving in france, an agreement was entered into by which three or four of the hospitalières of la flèche should come to montreal when all was ready. m. olier, who had wished to finish his days in canada, chose for maisonneuve three of his priests, gabriel de queylus, whom he named superior; gabriel souart, dominic galinier, and a deacon, m. d'allet. in the choice of m. gabriel de thubières de lévy queylus as superior, the associates saw their likely nominee as the bishop whom they wished to have in the see of new france. they had him in view in promoting the creation of the episcopal see before the assembly of the bishops on august , , through the good services of mgr. godeau, bishop of vence. this was again brought up before the assembly on january , , and cardinal mazarin, then present, undertook to interest the king in the formation of the episcopal see as desired. on this occasion the name of the abbé de queylus was mentioned to cardinal mazarin by the bishop of vence as a man of approved "probity, capacity and zeal, who possesses an abbacy of considerable value. he is willing to sacrifice himself in this new episcopate, in a barbarous country, so far from all consolation; and his person is agreeable to the jesuit fathers." (procès verbal of the general assembly, january , .) m. de queylus had many and great qualifications. he was a doctor of theology. his capacity and zeal had been shown as the superior of the community of the parish of st. sulpice at paris, when he was olier's right hand man. he had laboured in the ecclesiastical reform of several dioceses in languedoc and had established the diocesan seminary of viviers, which he sustained by his liberality. he enjoyed the abbacy of loc dieu. he had a private income--a valuable thing for a bishop in a poor diocese; and his choice, it was alleged, was likely to please the jesuits. this latter was an important argument, for this order had been on the ground so long, that they were the most fitted to understand the needs of a missionary country, and of the natives whose languages they spoke. they were zealous, able men, who had become necessary, and their blood had been freely spent in the work of colonization and christianity. it would have been most appropriate to have chosen a bishop from among them, except that the democratic spirit of the order is against the acceptance of dignities, unless forced upon them. seeing this, it was etiquette and the wisdom of the church not to impose an ecclesiastical superior above them, without consulting their wishes. but there is no proof of the above assertion that the jesuits approved of de queylus; indeed, on the contrary, as soon as they learned of his nomination in the same month of january, they proposed the abbé françois de laval de montmorency, to the king, as their candidate for the projected see of new france. this opposition shelved the immediate question of the appointment of a bishop, which was delayed till the consecration of laval on december , . meanwhile m. olier thought that there should be no delay in the sulpicians taking up the pastoral work of montreal. accordingly we find m. de queylus and his three companions at nantes waiting to embark, when the sad news came that m. olier had died at paris on easter monday, april , . this was a great blow, since m. olier was looked upon as the soul of the montreal mission. the departure was postponed till the middle of may. in the meantime the missionaries had recourse to the archbishop of rouen with whom, by prescription, the jurisdiction of new france lay, seeing that it had not been revoked by the holy see in . from him they received by letters dated april , , all the accustomed powers granted on such occasions to canadian missionaries. but the abbé de queylus received, in addition a "proprio motu" from the archbishop, appointing him his "grand vicar for all new france." this was a false step on the part of the archbishop of rouen and m. de queylus, for it put, even the superior of the jesuit missionaries under the local superior of montreal, a most unwise proceeding. secondly, the archbishop forgot that already the jesuit superior had been granted similar powers and he had not revoked them. he should certainly have foreseen inevitable friction. to rouen is to be attributed the long drawn out battle now to commence between quebec and montreal. on may , , the four missionaries set sail with m. de maisonneuve, m. and mme. d'ailleboust and other passengers. on reaching the isle of orleans, two leagues from quebec, maisonneuve and the montreal party disembarked, desirous to proceed immediately by another vessel to montreal. but m. d'ailleboust, arriving at quebec on july th, announced the coming of the sulpicians, so that kind-hearted père de quen, formerly in charge of montreal and now superior of the jesuit missions, immediately set forth for the ile d'orleans to call upon them. he congratulated queylus on his letters of vicar general, and induced him to come to quebec. it is strange that de queylus, with the letters he bore, did not call directly upon the jesuit superior whom he was to supplant. there is no doubt that the position of the abbé queylus was not understood by the jesuits. faillon, in his history of "la colonie française," says quite wrongly that there was an express clause, in the authorization of the new grand vicar, now disclosed to father de quen, especially mentioning the immediate cession of those powers already granted to the jesuit superior of the missionaries. m. de queylus, no doubt in good faith read this into his letters but he weakly explained that he would confine the exercise of his powers to montreal. the letter of the archbishop certainly did not specifically revoke previous powers given to the jesuits. father de quen as a canonist pointed out that it was more consistent that the abbé de queylus, in doubt as to the revocation of the jesuits' powers, should follow out the full powers of universal jurisdiction claimed by him. on this the grand vicar, who did not need much pressure, made with the assent of père de quen an official visit of the parish church which was under the charge of father poncet, the first jesuit missionary at montreal in . father de quen's action was weak, but wise, as he thought, at this time. m. de queylus confirmed the friendly father poncet in the government of the parish of quebec and handed to him the bull of indulgence of pope alexander vii on the occasion of his exaltation to the pontificate. father de quen explained his temporizing acquiescence in a manuscript letter, in latin to the general of the society, of september , . "it is true that i did not wish to exercise any act [of jurisdiction, as a vicar general] from that day on which m. l'abbé queylus laid his letters patent of authority before me lest any evil should thence arrive; however, i could not, nor would not, yield my jurisdiction (potestatus et res) until i became certain that it had been revoked by his eminence the archbishop of rouen, who had granted it to me." thus the jesuit acted constitutionally and wisely. rouen would now be approached by him. in the meantime, after having been recognized as "grand vicaire" m. de queylus with the sulpicians proceeded to ville marie. on august th père claude pijart, the missionary, gave over the exercise of his ministry to m. gabriel souart who now became the _curé_ or parish priest. father pijart remained in montreal for some time, but, on september rd, he was in quebec, where he was appointed to take the place of père poncet, in the charge of the parish church. père poncet, though a zealous and enterprising man, had shown himself a difficult subject, and his obedience and his spirit of independence had been already called in question in a letter to rome. as this may be accounted the beginning of the ecclesiastical trouble between montreal and quebec we will follow père pijart. on arriving at quebec, père pijart found that the injudicious père poncet had been deposed from his office by his superior, père de quen, as a consequence of his promulgation of the bull left behind by the grand vicar, announcing the opening of the jubilee for august th. père de quen, now no longer acting as grand vicar, but still the superior of the jesuit missions of canada, had apparently been ignorant of the arrival of this bull, and he considered that as his religious superior and that of most of the clergy in the country he should have had notification of it and he deposed the parish priest, père poncet,--a power which he had arranged with m. de queylus to retain as a religious superior according to acknowledged ecclesiastical etiquette. the position was a new one. time only could straighten out the inevitable difficulties arising in a double régime now commencing. père poncet meanwhile, appointed to the indian mission of onondaga started the year previously, left quebec on august th and, passing by montreal, informed the "grand vicaire" of the loss of his parish. the latter impetuously prevailed on him to suspend his journey, forgetful that in his inexperience he was committing a new breach of church etiquette in interfering with the orders of the jesuit superior to his own subject, and together they arrived, with m. d'ailleboust and the deacon, m. d'allet, acting as queylus' secretary, at quebec on september th. on september th, father poncet was sent by de quen back to france, a sad return for an heroic man but obedience for the jesuit is the formal test of heroism. m. d'ailleboust was now called upon to act as governor general, replacing m. de lauson-charny _ad interim_, till another was formally appointed. on arriving m. queylus, superseding father pijart, unwisely and ambitiously took up the functions of parish priest himself in the hitherto jesuit church and remained there for a year. this was open hostility. he was assisted on occasions by the chaplain of the ursulines, m. guillaume vignal, and that of the hôtel-dieu, m. jean lebey, both secular priests. m. queylus lived at the château with the governor general while the jesuits inhabited the official presbytery. the position was electrical and there was open hostility. there were two factions. occasional interchange of courtesies and ministry were, however, carried on and a semblance of diplomatic peace at last arrived at, so that d'argenson, the new governor general, writing on september , , a year later, says: "i was surprised, after having heard in france of the little differences between the reverend jesuits and m. l'abbé de queylus, to see the union between them and the church entirely at peace." he recommended, however, the appointment of a bishop as a solution of the difficulty. d'argenson had arrived unexpectedly at quebec on july th. he brought over powers to settle the ecclesiastical "impasse." during the year the jesuits had communicated with the archbishop of rouen, mgr. de harlay, and a brief of march , , written in french, arranged that there should be two "grands vicaires," one for the quebec district in the person of the superior of the jesuits, and m. de queylus, who should exercise his jurisdiction in that of montreal only. this was not communicated to m. de queylus till august th. he was at first inclined to dispute the situation, but d'argenson, assuring him of the cognizance of the company of montreal of this matter, he "peacefully" acquiesced, departing from quebec on august st with m. and mme. d'ailleboust, whose presence was no longer required there. during his stay in quebec m. queylus founded the church of ste. anne de beaupré, since, the great canadian shrine, the scene of many pilgrimages, and in many ways showed himself a progressive administrator. he was certainly an active man, with the defects of his qualities. the explanation of the letter brought by d'argenson is as follows: shortly after the surprise received by the appearance of the sulpician vicar general the superior of the jesuits, père de quen wrote to father brisacier, the jesuit rector of the college at rouen, to ask him to enquire of his grace the archbishop of rouen if he had withdrawn his faculties as vicar general or not. he also wrote at the same time to the general of the order, goswin nickel, acquainting him of the new situation in canada. on december , , the general himself also wrote to father brisacier in latin as follows: "father j. de quen, superior of the canadian missions, has written to me on september th of this year, that he and his subjects are being harassed by the abbé de queylus, sent out there last summer by his eminence the archbishop of rouen, to act as his vicar general, asserting that the marriages celebrated by fathers acting as parish priests are null; that they are abusing the power and jurisdiction of the vicar general which they had obtained; that he could dispose of our men 'ad libitum,' and other things which have no little disturbed the nascent church. the evil might increase from day to day unless his grace the archbishop, through his zeal and piety, will early look into the matter. your reverence will see whether you can obtain from him either that the power of this abbé may be revoked or that he shall so treat with ours that he shall have come to new france not for its destruction but for its upbuilding." (arch. gen., .) the final response to the difficulty came to quebec on july , , when the letter of mgr. de harlay, the archbishop of rouen, arrived. "to put an end to the differences," he says, "which have intervened between the sieur abbé de queylus and the venerable superior of the jesuits of the house of quebec, both our _grands vicaires_ in the part of our diocese called la nouvelle france, until it may be more amply provided for by your authority, we have ordered that sieur abbé de queylus shall exercise hereafter and from the day of the present ordinance, the vicariate which we have given him, according to the powers we have given him, in the extent of the island of montreal; as also the superior of the jesuits of the house of quebec shall exercise _the same powers_ that we have accorded him, without either one or the other of the two grands vicaires being able to undertake anything in their different territories without the consent of the one and the other." this act was made and signed at paris on march , . it would certainly appear then that father de quen's powers had never been revoked, that abbé de queylus had forced the sense of his letters patent accorded april , , since in giving him an extended jurisdiction he did not revoke previous powers given. there were to be two independent parallel vicariates under rouen. in a later letter of september , , of father de quen to the general of his order, he interprets the above as a _confirmation_ of his previous powers, and not a _new concession_. "the most eminent archbishop of rouen has sent me letters in which he _confirms_ the power conceded by him to us _now since many years_, of vicar general of quebec and in other adjacent places. he has written also to the abbé de queylus a letter which has constituted him vicar general in the island of montreal only." (arch. gen., s. j.) in spite of the storm clouds gathered over them, the arrival of the sulpicians at montreal was welcomed. they represented to the colonists, the company of notre-dame de montreal that had brought them out. m. de queylus was wealthy and a member of the company of montreal, and the others were self supporting members of a body, to whom it had already been proposed by the company to hand over the seigneury of the whole island, as indeed happened in . this meant material advancement for the church and progress for the settlement. although the jesuits were very much loved by the people, their number was small, they had no settled income and frequently they were called to absent themselves from montreal. the permanent presence of four sulpicians, with the prospects of an assured continuity, was indeed gratifying also from a spiritual point of view. the honour of receiving them fell to jeanne mance, and they were allotted the large room in the hospital, which was at once the refectory, recreation, study, and bedroom, all in one. there they remained till the stone house named the seminary was built for them. m. souart being a doctor could also be on hand for assistance to the hospital sick. meanwhile, the peaceful situation at ville marie, during the above negotiations, claims our attention. the advent of the sulpicians marks the growth of organized progress in the development of the religious and civic life of montreal. it was due to them that the church began to take on parish proportions, one of their first acts being the foundation of the "oeuvre de fabrique" soon to be chronicled. it was the mission of the jesuits to be the hardy pioneers to succour the spiritual needs during their early days of the handful of struggling settlers; that of the sulpicians to develop the sense of civic administration and to guide it for many generations. a modern historian[ ] writing in , pays the following tribute to the sulpicians: "thus not only the city but the entire island of montreal today possesses an ecclestiastico-civil status, that is now denied even to rome. this circumstance must never be overlooked, for it has been far-reaching in its influence. montreal's first lessons in christian civilization were taken under the auspices i have just described--among the best, it may safely be said, that the france of the period could furnish--and every protestant church, as well as every other institution in the city, has felt the powerful sway of the gentlemen of the seminary." the position of the catholic church in the city with its many beautiful churches and educational establishments stands largely as a monument to the important seeds sown in this coming in . m. de queylus did not stay long in ville marie, for on september rd he started for quebec, as said, to assume the control of the parish church. on october , , the sulpicians were to experience their first taste of war, for they had three burials in one day in the same sepulchre. on this day, nicholas godé was building his house at point st. charles, assisted by his son-in-law, jean saint père, the notary, and jacques noël, their hired assistant, when several of a band of indians who had been in the neighbourhood, approached the house and were hospitably treated. after a meal the three had gone unarmed on the roof, which they were covering, when their guests treacherously fired at them, and their hosts came toppling off the roof like wounded sparrows. nicholas godé and jacques noël they scalped, but cutting the head off jean saint père, they fled with it, to exhibit his handsome headpiece to their braves. dollier de casson, who arrived in montreal later, says that he heard the following story from the lips of trustworthy persons, among them a man, whom marguerite bourgeoys in her _memoirs_ names a m. cuillérier, who having been a prisoner among the iroquois spoke their language, and had heard the story from the savages themselves, that the head of jean saint père proved a trouble to them, for he reproached them in very good iroquois in such words as these: "you kill us, and you do many cruel things to us; you wish to wipe out the french in this country. you will not come to your wish. you will have to take care, for one day we shall be your masters and you will obey us." and this, although the deceased knew no word of iroquois; wherever they were, day and night, they heard the voice; in their vexation they scalped the head and threw the troublesome skull away, but they still heard the accusing voice. dollier de casson believed the story and thought he must not pass it over in obscurity. a modern historian would explain that the frightened indians only heard subjectively the voice of their accusing conscience. not ignoring this sign of the approaching outbreak of hostilities, d'ailleboust, at quebec, gave instructions, on november st, that all iroquois approaching the forts should be seized, looking upon the late act as a declaration of war. two iroquois had been seized by de maisonneuve, one of them an onondagan, but not wishing by these arrests to compromise the jesuits at the mission at onondaga he sent this indian with three letters addressed to them, asking them to explain the massacre at point st. charles and telling them that the prisoners were being retained in honourable custody, until it was learned whether the late attack had been made by their people or not. amid such anxious times the new church, begun in , was rapidly nearing completion, assisted by the funds provided by the sulpicians. it was a modest building of wood and stood on the corner of st. joseph (st. sulpice street of today) and st. paul. there it stood till , the first "parish" church, till it was given over entirely to the hospital for the sick. the church at montreal now took on parochial airs and pretentions although it was not canonically erected as a parish till , and it must have its _marguilliers_, or church wardens. accordingly at an election held november , , louis prud'homme, jean gervaise and gilbert barbier were appointed. this day must be taken as the birthday of the foundation of the parish of montreal. the parish or at least the establishment of the "fabrique" or corporation for the management of the temporals of the church school was next to be set up. a stable in stone, by feet, situated near the hospital, with a plot of playing ground of forty-eight perches, was donated by the company through maisonneuve by act of january , . "the present concession made to be of service for the instruction of the girls of montreal as well as for the dwelling for the said marguerite bourgeoys, and after her decease, to perpetuity," this latter being inserted because it was understood that marguerite would found a body to continue the work after her. she was then thirty-eight years of age. the donation was accepted and witnessed by the chief officers of the community: m. souart, _curé_; m. galinier, _vicaire_; the then church wardens; marin jannot, syndic; lambert closse, "major of the island," mademoiselle mance, administratrice of the hospital, and charles le moyne, storekeeper of the company. montreal of today is perhaps the greatest educational centre on this continent. it receives its students from all parts. let us then glance at the description given by marguerite bourgeoys, in her memoirs, of the humble beginnings of the first home of education in montreal: "four years after my arrival m. de maisonneuve was good enough to give me a stone stable to make a school of it and to lodge there persons to conduct it. this stable has served as a dovecot and a home for cattle. it had a granary loft above to sleep in, to which it was necessary to ascend by an outside staircase. i had it cleaned and a chimney put in, and all that was necessary for schoolkeeping." school was opened on april . she was assisted by marguerite picard who on november married nicholas godé and afterwards became madame lamontagne, sieur de la montague, son of nicholas, the joiner, who came in . the girls too old to go to school marguerite formed, on july , , into a pious girls' club, or sodality, on the lines of the congregation of externes at troyes, of which she herself had been a member. thus the house became known as the "congregation." the next date of interest this year ( ) is that of april rd, "when," says dollier de casson, "fifty frenchmen reached here under the command of m. dupuis, with the jesuit fathers who had been forced to leave the mission of onondaga for fear of being burned alive by the iroquois. several of their people, less disposed than they to death by being burned alive, as well as to any other kind which providence might please to send, had such a fright that they were only cured when they came in sight of montreal, a like miracle occurring here several times." this is the sequel of the letters sent by maisonneuve, and its story must be told. the letters were not delivered, but instead the treacherous indian messenger told the onondagas that the french had just allied themselves with the algonquins to make war against them. this angering the onondagans, they concerted with the mohawks and a delegation went to quebec, arriving on january , , to demand the return of their twelve prisoners detained as hostages. but m. d'ailleboust gave them little satisfaction and they departed in february. in the same month a secret gathering was held, at agnié of a few of the most influential heads of all the iroquois nations, and there was sworn a war of extermination of the whites if their captives were not returned, and they would commence with the settlement of the black robes at onondaga, which had been settled with them at their own invitation in . a christian iroquois revealed this plot to the missionaries at onondaga and these communicated it to quebec. but how to escape from their own impending slaughter, the like of which had been witnessed on august , , when seven christians had been slain, by these same onondagas before the horrified eyes of father ragueneau, then on his way, to be similarly repeated when, on reaching onondaga, some of the christian captives were burned, including several women and their infant children. as father ragueneau was among the fugitives that came to montreal with zacharie dupuis, we may take his story as substantially that which the terrified party told to the horror-stricken montrealers but with more harrowing details. but first a note on the relater. paul ragueneau, born in paris in , came to canada when he was thirty-one years of age. in he was superior of the huron missions. he was an ideal superior and was very much valued by de lauson and d'avaugour on the supreme council. he left canada in and acted as the procurator for the canadian missions in paris. he died in , on september . a year after father dablon had sailed with his fifty frenchmen over lake onondaga he was followed by paul ragueneau in august, , with a band of thirteen or sixteen senecas, thirty onondagas and about fifty christian hurons. on the way there was a general butchery of the hurons by the rest of the party which ragueneau was forced to witness. when he reached onondaga his practiced eye took in the unsettled situation. the lives of the french colonists were treacherously foresworn to indian butchery. this plot became clearer as the autumn passed. in the early months of , ragueneau, who was superior, called in gradually the missionaries from the outstations and it was arranged with dupuis, the french commandant, to make a secret flight on the night of march , . ragueneau's official account of this, to be found in the "relations" of this year, is as follows: "the resolution was taken to quit the country forthwith, even though the difficulties seemed unsurmountable. to supply the want of canoes we built, in secret, two boats of a novel structure to pass the rapids. they were flat-bottomed and could carry considerable freight, with fourteen or fifteen men on each. we had, besides, four algonquin and four iroquois canoes. the difficulty was to build and launch them without being detected, for without secrecy we could only expect a general massacre. "after succeeding in finishing the boats we invited the savages in our neighbourhood to a solemn banquet, and spared neither the noise of drums nor instruments of music, to deceive them as to our purpose. at the feast, every one vied with each other in uttering the most piercing shrieks, now of revelry, now of war. the savages sang and danced in french fashion, and the french after the manner of the indians. presents were given and the greatest tumult was kept up to cover the noise of forty of our people outside, who were launching the boats. the feast was concluded, the guests retired and were soon overpowered by sleep, and we slipped out by the back way to the boats. "the little lake on which we sailed in the darkness of the night froze as we advanced. god, however, delivered us and, after having advanced all night and all the following day, we arrived in the evening at lake ontario. the first day was the most dangerous. ten or twelve iroquois could have intercepted us, for the river was narrow, and ten leagues down the stream it leaped over a frightful precipice. it took us four hours to carry our boats around it, through a dense and unknown forest. the perils in which we walked made us shudder after we escaped them. we had no bed at night but the snow, after having passed entire days in icy water. "ten days after our departure we reached the st. lawrence, but it was frozen and we had to cut a channel through the ice. two days after our little fleet nearly foundered in the rapids. we were in the long sault without knowing it. we found ourselves in the midst of breakers, with rocks on all sides, against which the mountains of water flung us at every stroke of our paddles. the cries of our people, mingling with the roar of the waters, added to the horror of the scene. one of our canoes was engulfed in the breakers and barred the passage through which we all had to pass. three frenchmen were drowned there; a fourth fortunately saved himself by clinging to the canoe. he was picked up at the foot of the sault just as his strength was giving out and he was letting go his hold. on the rd of april we landed at montreal at the beginning of the night." at montreal, the fugitives were received with tender solicitude and the graphic details recounted at length. thus the first attempt to plant christianity in new york territory, after two years had come to a disastrous end. radisson, the half-civilized frenchman, who had spent his early manhood as an adopted iroquois, had accompanied ragueneau from montreal to onondaga and back, tells the story in his "travels." he dwells mostly on the occurrences of the feast, when the indians gorged themselves so, that it was suggested to the priest by a frenchman, probably by radisson himself, that the fugitives should massacre them in their helpless drunken stupor and sleep--a suggestion which ragueneau repudiated. the surprise of the onondagas next day was afterwards learned. "when night had given place to day," wrote ragueneau, "darkness to light, the barbarians awoke from sleep and, leaving their cabins, roved around our well-locked house. they were astonished at the profound silence that reigned there. they saw no one going in or out. they heard no voice. they thought at first that we were at prayer or in council but, the day advancing, and the prayers not coming to an end, they knocked at the door. the dogs, which we had designedly left behind, answered by barking." radisson's account adds that the idea of a religious ceremony going on within was stimulated by a pig who had a bell rope attached to his leg, so that whenever he moved the bell pealed. "the cock crows which they heard in the morning," says ragueneau, "and the noise of the dogs, made them think that the masters were not far off, and they recovered their patience, which they had lost. but at length the sun began to go down, and no person answering either to the voice of men or the cries of the dogs, they scaled the house to see what might be the condition of our men in this terrible silence. astonishment now gave place to fright. they opened the door; the chiefs enter, descend to the cellar and mount to the garret. not a frenchman made his appearance, dead or alive. they thought they had to deal with devils." this was further borne in upon them, because they had seen no boats. a search in the woods not revealing the fugitives, they came to the conclusion that the frenchmen had vanished, and might as mysteriously reappear, to fall upon their village. the news of this disaster and the fear of a terrible uprisal at the hands of the frustrated iroquois caused the governor to issue the ordinance of march , , which was promulgated by bénigne basset, the successor to notary saint père. in this the habitants were again ordered as formerly to provide themselves with arms and to fortify their houses; not to endanger their lives, but to work as far as possible in groups; to retire to their homes at the sound of the bell at night and not to leave until next morning without absolute necessity. they were not to go far for their hunting expeditions without special permission, and they were not to use any of the canots or chaloupes that were not their own without the express consent of the proprietors, unless it was a case of saving life. such precautions as these manifested the prudence of the governor and was the reason why there had been only one frenchman killed between the date of the point st. charles massacre, october, , to april, . this solitary death was that of sylvester vacher dit saint julien, who was slain in near the lac des loutres close to the town. we may mention here several of the means adopted this year and the following to secure public safety. on the east, a new mill was built on a rising mound, afterwards called citadel hill, which was later the site of dalhousie square and is now the site of the viger station. this was fortified as a redoubt and, together with the old fort mill at windmill point on the west, guarded the river front. in addition the sulpicians built two fortified farmhouses as redoubts or citadels in the extreme ends of the settlement to guard the labourers there--that of ste. marie on the east and that of st. gabriel, named after m. gabriel de queylus, on the west. m. de queylus interested himself in city planning also and he mapped out the lines on which the city should extend. an important protection was also secured by the construction of a well of one hundred feet in diameter, built by jacques archambault at the order of the governor, "in the middle of the court," or of the "place d'armes" of the fort, as it read in the contract of october , . so far the water used had been supplied by the river, but fear of invasion and siege, and possible burning of the fort by the iroquois, rendered this precaution very wise. in the next year, , a similar well was placed in the hospital garden by order of m. de queylus, and in the following year, , a third contract was signed by jacques archambault for charles le moyne, jacques leber and jacques tessard, for the mutual assistance of their houses near the hospital; and during this year also a storehouse of by feet was built by francis bailly dit lafleur in the interior of the fort to guard the grain of the hospital. [illustration: st. gabriel's farm house] [illustration: the original or actual chapel, st. gabriel's farm house] [illustration: community hall, st. gabriel's farm house] the war was now in full swing. after the visit of the refugees from onondaga, the montrealers in were in daily fear, for while three rivers was being attacked about june th by the iroquois, a similar onslaught was valiantly repulsed at ville marie. at quebec the new governor general, pierre de voyer, vicomte d'argenson, who had arrived on july th, experienced his first acquaintance with his hazardous position, when he was aroused at his meal on the next day by the cry of "aux armes." such excitements added to his anxieties in settling the dispute as to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, occupied him constantly. these being solved satisfactorily for a time, to the great delight of the montrealers, the "grand vicaire" of the district of montreal, m. de queylus, arrived about the end of august, . "on august st, he had left quebec 'aegre' (with chagrin)," wrote father vimont in a later letter to the general: "but to the great joy of the jesuits, who had a stormy time with m. de queylus during his conflict there." on the th of august father pijart, now at quebec, writes to his superior in rome, "vivimus hic quieti, ex quo dominus abbas de queylus mandato domini archiepiscopi rhotomagensis alio abiit--we are living here in peace since the abbé de queylus has gone elsewhere by order of the archbishop of rouen." (arch. gen. s. j.) the sulpician, dollier de casson's, account runs thus: "he went to console montreal by his presence and to dwell there to the great happiness of all, especially to the lively satisfaction of mm. souart and galinier, who did not fear to advance well in front in the wood without any apprehension of the iroquois, to get ahead of his bark coming up the river to testify to the joy that they had at his return." he was followed by six persons from quebec who filled three chaloupes. in this dangerous time such protection was necessary. m. faillon, in his history, says that it seems that the greater part of this company "joined to do him honour." certainly his advent would have given no one at montreal more satisfaction than marguerite bourgeoys and mademoiselle mance, who were waiting for him. in the spring of marguerite bourgeoys became interested in building a chapel in wood on land granted for the purpose by maisonneuve, at some distance from her home. the ecclesiastical superior was then père pijart, who gave her permission and named it in advance "notre-dame de bon secours." "our lady of good help," as a standing prayer against the iroquois. père siméon le moyne laid the first stone in the spring of , and lambert closse, acting governor during the absence of m. de maisonneuve, placed the necessary inscriptions on a copper plate. marguerite and her sisters laboured themselves and were helped by the settlers; some carted sand, others wood, and others acted as masons. everyone was personally approached by her for some service, however small. in the spring of she applied to obtain the permission of m. de queylus, then still in quebec, but he ordered her to suspend her work till his return, which was not until the last week of august, for he did not wish any other enterprise to conflict with the establishment of the parish church. thus the operations came to a standstill till , when it was finished.[ ] the arrival, therefore, of m. de queylus was awaited with anxiety by marguerite bourgeoys and jeanne mance. the latter, having fallen on the ice on january th, , had been suffering with a dislocated right wrist and had lost the use of her hand in spite of the efforts of the local surgeons. she had found herself useless for her hospital work. thus she was desirous of the help of the hospitalières of st. joseph, promised but not sent, since the buildings to accommodate them had not yet been constructed. besides, there were not enough funds to maintain them, so that now jeanne mance approached m. queylus with her idea of visiting madame de bullion for the additional funds and then to bring back the hospitalières. in addition she could consult the best physicians in france on the cure of her wrist. the grand vicaire approved of her journey. at the same time marguerite bourgeoys, seeing herself without workers for the future development of her teaching institution, asked permission to accompany mademoiselle mance, who needed assistance in her crippled condition, and to seek teachers among her old friends of the congregation of troyes. but although m. de queylus had consented to the plan of jeanne mance, he nevertheless was desirous of seeing the hospital work undertaken by a branch of the quebec hospitalières, whose acquaintance he had made. consequently under the pretext of change of air, he had two of them sent on to montreal, and these arrived two days before the departure of jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys. jeanne mance, however, had no intention of giving the control of the hospital to any but the la flèche hospitalières, and being, by the act of foundation, the administratrix of the hôtel-dieu, she appointed a pious widow known as "mademoiselle" de la bardillère, to replace her, and the continuance of the quebec nuns in montreal was only justified by the acceptance of the invitation of marguerite bourgeoys to teach school during her absence. the two foundresses left ville marie on september , , and embarked at quebec on a merchant vessel on october th. they proceeded to la flèche to see m. de la dauversière and thence to paris. at the touch of the casket containing the heart of m. olier, her biographers tell of the complete cure of jeanne mance's helpless wrist and hand, the news of which spread among the pious ladies and supporters of the company of montreal, and created a great sensation in paris. footnotes: [ ] "a history of the scotch presbyterian church, st. gabriel street, montreal," by the rev. robert campbell, m. a., the last pastor, . [ ] m. huguet latour in his note on l'église de notre dame de bonsecours in the annuaire de montreal, , says that it was finished in . the second chapel, which was of stone, was also built by marguerite bourgeoys and by her given to the marguilliers of the parish in june, . the benediction of the first stone was given on june , , by m. gabriel souart, curé, and the church was blessed and the first mass said there on august , . this was the first stone church in the whole of the island of montreal. it was reduced to ashes in , but was rebuilt in and altered since several times. chapter xii the new reinforcement for montreal the coming of laval retrospect of maisonneuve's judicial sentences--first death sentence--injurious language--calumny--banishment--games of chance, drunkenness and blasphemy, etc., forbidden--the governor general and the local governor of montreal--a pessimistic picture of montreal in --a bishop for new france--laval, consecrated bishop of petrea in arabia, arrives at quebec as vicar apostolic--de queylus recalled to france--the reinforcement arrives with jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys--the story of its journey--difficulties at la fleche--ship fever on the st. andre--difficulties at quebec--laval would retain the hospitalieres brought by jeanne mance--they are finally allowed to proceed to the hotel dieu of montreal. before we narrate the outcome of the visit to france of jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys, who returned on september th to quebec, and also the events leading up to the coming of laval on june th, we shall still keep the setting of montreal as the background of our story. so far we have considered maisonneuve as a military governor. he was also a judge. this was a special privilege superadded to his commission as a "gouverneur particulier," which office, _per se_, did not include the administration of justice. several of his judgments being extant, a study of them reveals a picture of the social life of montreal hitherto unconsidered. the journal of the jesuits relates that towards september, , a drummer had been condemned to death at montreal for a detestable crime not specified, but as the clergy were secretly opposed to the execution of the sentence, it was arranged that he should be sent to quebec to use his right of appeal. there the sentence was commuted to service in the galleys or, in exchange for his liberty, he should exercise the duty of public executioner, which latter condition was accepted. heretofore there is no record of any condemnation to death. sometimes the cases coming before maisonneuve were of a purely domestic nature. on july , , two women having quarrelled, each laid a complaint against the other of bad language. the wrong appearing to be on both sides, maisonneuve gave each twenty-four hours, for their anger to evaporate, and to declare before basset, the greffier, and two witnesses, that they had spoken in pure anger. if either of them refused she should pay fifty _livres_ to the parish church and besides be forcibly constrained to acknowledge her fault. both wisely took the cheaper course, as the acts of basset prove.[ ] de maisonneuve's skill had been shown in a judgment of july , . a brave soldier, saint jacques, one sunday morning when coming out of church after mass, had been attacked with a stick at the hands of an irate woman. he gallantly did not retaliate but contented himself with taking the case before the governor. the good lady was present, confident in the justice of her cause, for she accused the soldier of having got his deserts by her trouncing for having uttered a calumny against her honour. on cross-examination it appears that she heard the calumny, through another soldier, who related it to her as coming from the lips of saint jacques. this witness being called, he now owned that he had told the calumny to the woman but he had invented the story himself out of frivolousness, and that saint jacques was guiltless. this malicious meddler was ordered by maisonneuve to pay a fine of twenty _livres_ to the church, as his offence had been against god, and fifty to the woman for her wounded honour. she, in turn, for having struck an innocent man was condemned to pay twenty _livres_ to the church for the offence against god, and to pay back to the wounded victim of her misplaced energy, the fifty _livres_ received from the meddler. in the case of grave public scandals de maisonneuve had recourse to the sentence of banishment. a soldier of the garrison, having been appointed to be on guard at point st. charles, was accused of daily absenting himself from the guardhouse of the redoubt, and being found annoying an honest woman with his unseemly and scandalous discourse. in his sentence of november , , maisonneuve says: "we have cast him out of the garrison and condemned him to pay a penalty of _livres_, applicable to some poor girls, to help them to get married at ville marie." in maisonneuve, who was no respecter of persons, ordered perpetual banishment to one of the principal men of montreal[ ] for an offence with a woman; and her he permitted the husband either to send back to her father and mother, or to keep her shut up for the rest of her days. we have referred to an ordinance issued in to insure public safety. he had now to issue proclamations to safeguard public morals. accordingly, as his short notice of july th forbidding, under pain of confiscation, liquor to be smuggled from the boats arriving in the harbour, and requiring his permission, had not apparently been sufficiently observed, on the th day of january, , he drew up a long proclamation, that was posted up by basset, the official clerk of justice, at the parish church next day at the end of vespers, so that no one might be ignorant of it. maisonneuve, forced by circumstances revealed in the proclamation, was determined to put down the passion for games of chance, strong drink and blasphemy, as soon as they should show themselves. it is not difficult to imagine excesses creeping in during the long winter evenings in a small enclosed garrison town, where there was no outlet for higher forms of amusement, especially as fear of invasion kept the inhabitants closely confined. three of his garrison, sébastien dupuis, nicholas duval and pierre papin, having, through drink and gambling, found themselves unable to pay their debts, had deserted the garrison and fled the neighbourhood. they were arrested at a distance of only four leagues from ville marie, brought back and confined in irons in the fort on january , . after stating the causes leading to his proclamation of january th the governor continued: "in consequence we forbid ( ) any person whatsoever, of whatever rank or condition, an inhabitant of this place or elsewhere, to sell, wholesale or retail, under any pretext whatsoever, without an order from us, expressed in writing, any intoxicating liquor, under penalty of an arbitrary fine, the payment of which will be rigidity and forcibly exacted (à lesquelles on sera contraint par corps). "( ) moreover, we interdict all games of chance. "( ) we rescind and annul any promise, written or verbal, direct or indirect, made or to be made, as well for the aforesaid game or for any other sort of game, with a prohibition to tavern keepers to sue in a court of justice for the recovery of this kind of debts under a penalty of twenty _livres'_ fine, and of the confiscation of the sums demanded. "( ) as for those who shall be convicted of having taken to excess wine, _eau de vie_, or other intoxicating liquors, or having sworn by or blasphemed the holy name of god, they shall be chastised, either by an arbitrary fine or by corporal punishment, according to the exigency of the case. "( ) to obviate the above mentioned desertions we declare, by the present observance, that all the fugitives shall be by the same convicted of the crime of desertion; and, moreover, that all who shall abet them in their flight, whether by concealment or assistance of any kind, shall be considered to be guilty of the same crime." this vigilance and firmness had its results, for we do not find any record of any contravention of any section of the above till february , , when a man was severely punished for drunkenness and blasphemy. when spring was approaching this same year of , by a decree of april th, knowing the restlessness of the men to go fishing and hunting, and thus risk their own individual lives besides hindering the establishment of a lasting peace by provoking the enemy, he forbade them, under pain of punishment, to go to any place for hunting or fishing where they might be in danger of falling into the enemy's hands. later on in the year, on pentecost sunday, maisonneuve published a decree of his majesty, already given in council march , , forbidding the sale of wine or _eau de vie_ to the indians under pain of corporal punishment. a picture of montreal of this year is preserved for us in the state papers under date of march , , by the new governor-general, the young vicomte d'argenson, who had arrived less than a year ago in canada and who now came in the spring of to visit montreal. [illustration: pierre de voyer d'argenson] he was a man of upright conduct, virtuous life and full of devotion for the development of the colony. he came with great ideas of his prerogatives as governor-general in relation to the subordinate position of a local governor such as obtained in other provinces of the kingdom of france. but he had to be made aware of the special privileges granted to maisonneuve as the representative of the company of montreal. arriving at montreal, he expected honours paid to him such as a governor-general would receive in france, when on entering a fortress he would have the keys given to him with other like signs of submission. the governor of montreal received him with politeness, but without absolutely refusing the keys, put difficulties in the way lest he should seem to acknowledge his inferior position to the representative of the company of one hundred associates. the case required diplomacy and adroitness, and maisonneuve acted tactfully. as for receiving the "mot d'ordre" he only accepted this on the third day and then he sent his major for it. d'argenson realized the situation which the independent maisonneuve had created, and doubtless it is in consequence of these painful impressions that he penned the following pessimistic description of the settlement. after complaining of his reception he adds: "i must talk with you about montreal, a place which makes a deal of noise and is of little consequence. i speak from knowledge; i have been there this spring, and i can assure you that if i were a painter i should soon finish my picture of it. "montreal is an island, difficult enough to land at, even in a chaloupe, by reason of the great currents of the st. lawrence river. these meet each other at its landing place, and particularly at a half league below. there is a fort where the chaloupes lay by, and which is falling into ruins. a redoubt has been commenced and a mill has been erected on a little eminence very advantageously situated for the defence of the settlement. there are about forty houses, nearly all facing one another, and in this they are well placed, since they in part defend one another. there are fifty heads of families and one hundred and sixty men in all. finally, there are only two hundred arpents of land tilled, belonging to the gentlemen of the company, of which a half is appropriated to the hospital, so that no more than a hundred remains to them; and the enjoyment of these is not entirely theirs, these arpents having been cultivated by private individuals, to whom have been given the fruits of their labour until these gentlemen of the company of montreal shall have furnished the equivalent of their work on the concessions belonging to the habitants." governor d'argenson's short stay in montreal makes his account slightly inaccurate for, besides the portion of the hundred acres already cultivated, which were only lent temporarily, the habitants were allowed, at a convenient time, to break land on the rest of the domain of the seigneurs, in quantity they required according to their concessions, whether it was land on which timber was still standing or where it was simply felled and not cut. if d'argenson had arrived later, when the reinforcement of men sent out by the sulpicians in the fall had built the fortified houses of st. gabriel and ste. marie, his picture would have taken longer to paint; but he arrived at a time when the labourers had to abandon their fields for fear of iroquois ambuscades. still the long stretch of land, dotted with charred and blackened stumps, between which the few tilled arpents could be seen sparse and thin in the early spring, would have looked a barren and a gloomy sight to a jaundiced critic had he been able to be unimpressed by the beauty of mount royal dignifying the landscape. moreover, the little progress made after seventeen years must have surprised him. we must not, therefore, be too hard on the young governor-general, then thirty-three years old. for his government was one of the best of those yet sent to represent france, and his bravery and good judgment did much to restrain the iroquois; but he was abandoned by the company he represented as well as by the french government. he could not depend on the help of montreal to share his expenses, nor upon the poverty-stricken habitants of quebec. the main support of the colony, trade in peltry, was bad at quebec. living was very expensive and no laughing matter. his own salary of , _écus_ and the grant of , others for the upkeep of the garrison were not enough to sustain the situation. it is no wonder that we find him writing, in august, that he did not see the advantage of continuing in his office, especially as he urged the plea of bad health. still he was not recalled from his arduous and unremunerative position, but continued to give fresh proof of his zeal for the good of the colony. meanwhile in france, steps were being taken which would bring m. de laval to the ecclesiastical rule of canada, thus unifying the ecclesiastical system, at present endangered by the presence of two vicar generals of the diocese of rouen. we have related the early events of the montreal company to secure a bishop for canada as far back as . but the contention of the jesuits that the time was not ripe in the then unprogressive state of the colony, together with the unsettled times, with war nearly always impending, had delayed such an appointment. we have seen the agitation renewed by the company on de maisonneuve's late visit when their candidate was m. de queylus; while that of the jesuits, who were now more ready to admit the advisability of a bishop, was one of their former students at the collège royal of la flèche and now a secular priest, françois de laval de montmorency. they had not desired one of themselves to be appointed, since it was not in accordance with their constitution to seek dignities, and consequently in the names of the canadian jesuits, charles lalemant, ragueneau and le jeune, submitted by the company of the hundred associates, were withdrawn as candidates by goswin nickel, the vicar general of the order. we have seen sufficient of the ecclesiastical troubles between père de quen, the ecclesiastical superior of quebec, and m. de queylus, that of montreal, both "grands vicaires" of the archbishop of rouen, to see that a bishop was necessary to restore the unity of government. the experience that the jesuits had had of m. de queylus made them more anxious than ever to push their candidate. françois de laval was born on april , , in the château de montigny-sur-aure in the diocese of chartres, of the illustrious house of montmorency. at the age of nine years he was sent to the royal college of la flèche, taught by the jesuits, to commence his literary studies. he finished his philosophy course in , and during that time he had made the acquaintance of many jesuit priests who afterwards joined the canadian mission. the next four years he studied theology at paris, till . it was thought that he would take priest's orders, but on the death of his two brothers in and he was persuaded by his cousin, the bishop of evreux, to renounce his canonship in the cathedral of evreux and take his brother's place in the family in caring for his mother, madame de montigny. the bishop died on july , , not before repenting of his advice to françois, whom he exhorted to go back to the priesthood, and he named him archdeacon of the church of evreux. laval now renounced his right of primogeniture and his title to the seigneury of montigny in favor of his brother, jean louis de laval, and taking his degree in canon law, received priesthood orders on september , . [illustration: mgr. franÇois de laval de montmorency] fur three years he remained in paris and associated with the congregation of pious laymen and others, mostly graduates from jesuit colleges. in he joined a small group of five of these earnest men who lived in common in a kind of religious life under the direction of the jesuit, père bagot, and a society was formed under the title of the "society of good friends," with the purpose of charitable and social work. these five men were increased to twelve, of whom some were priests. in the jesuit, père de rhodes, one of the most remarkable men of the cochin-china missions, came to paris in search of recruits to form an ecclesiastical hierarchy, and it fell to the lot of three of the priests of the society of good friends to be chosen to have their names sent to rome as suitable bishops for the purpose, françois paillu, canon of st. martin de tours; bernard picquet (or piques), doctor of the sorbonne, and françois de laval, archdeacon of evreux. the long negotiations did not end till , when paillu was named vicar apostolic of tonkin, and two others of the above society vicars apostolic of cochin-china and china. in the meantime in , on the nomination of queylus for the bishopric of new france, the jesuits made their overtures to laval to adopt him as their candidate for the same post, and he accepted. the curia at rome moved slowly and it was not till fifteen months later that the bull naming the abbé françois de laval de montigny, bishop of petrea in arabia and vicar apostolic of canada was promulgated. on december th, the papal nuncio consecrated him in the church of the abbey of st. germain-des-prés. when the archbishop of rouen, mgr. de harlay, who had looked upon new france as a part of his diocese, heard of this, he resented it and obtained a decree of the parliament of rouen ordering word to all the officers of the kingdoms and the subjects of the king, to refuse to accept the new vicar apostolic. louis xiv on march , , retorted by letters patent bidding acceptance of laval, but on the other side he wished "that these episcopal functions should be exercised _without prejudice to the rights of the jurisdiction of the ordinary_, that is to say the archbishop of rouen; and that, while awaiting the erection of a bishopric, of which the titulary occupant shall be the suffragan of the archbishop." rome objected to the concession granted in the clause "without prejudice to the rights of the jurisdiction of the ordinary" because it could not admit the pretensions of the archbishop of rouen. however, m. de harlay, supported by mazarin, maintained his position and laval left la flèche on easter sunday, april , , for canada, accompanied by the new superior of the jesuit missions, father jérome lalemant, who had formerly worked in the missions and now came, sent by the general of the jesuits, goswin nickel, at the special request of laval. he arrived unannounced at quebec, on june th, as a simple vicar apostolic, a bishop indeed, but with his see in far-off arabia, and shorn of the dignity of canons and a chapter, and the external emblems of a bishop in his own see. the colony could not support, with its scanty revenues, such a position. still he was the first ecclesiastical superior, and thus he brought unity to the church government, then split between the superior of the jesuits at quebec and the abbé de queylus, at montreal. on arriving laval found the colony in two divisions: on the one side, the majority, composed of the missionaries, the communities of religious women, and those colonists most sincerely devoted to the church; on the other the governor, the partisans of the abbé de queylus and a group of traders who scented trouble on the appearance of a man whose unflinching character would not allow him to truckle his duty or his conscience. the situation was greatly cleared when, seven weeks after the arrival of laval, de queylus went down from montreal, reaching quebec on september th, and gave his submission and ceased to be grand vicaire. at first he was uncertain whether his own powers as independent head of the church in montreal still held good, but the letters patent of the king, dated march , , received by d'argenson, left no doubt on the point. thus submission was made all the easier because de queylus did not know of the determination of the archbishop of rouen to maintain him in his function in montreal. indeed new letters patent, with a letter from the king, dated may , , were now on the way, confirming him in his position without prejudice to the jurisdiction of the vicar apostolic. on may , , the king, repenting of his letter to mgr. de harlay, sent two _lettres de cachet_, one to laval and the other to governor d'argenson, derogating the appointment of may th. the king's letter to d'argenson contained this: "the letter that i have accorded to the archbishop of rouen, it is my intention that neither he nor the grands vicaires shall avail themselves of, until by the authority of the church it has been declared if this archbishop is in the right in his pretension that new france is in his diocese." all these letters arrived by the st. andré on september th, with the reinforcement brought back by marguerite bourgeoys and jeanne mance. after the conflicting nature of their contents were mastered the position of de queylus remained as after his submission. queylus returned to montreal and later came back to quebec, from which he departed on october d on the st. andré on its return voyage. the causes of his departure are shrouded in silence, and in guarded words d'argenson writes: "i do not send you the reasons in writing for fear lest the letter shall fall into other hands." dollier de casson says: "after the arrival of the reinforcement and of the hospitalières at ville marie we witnessed the return of m. de queylus to france, which afflicted this place very much," adding as a commentary: "thus in this life are its sweets mixed with bitterness." laval in his letter to the propaganda laconically says: "in galliam ipse transfretavit" (he sailed over to france). this would look as if the voyage was of a voluntary nature. it was otherwise. laval feared the opposition of de queylus; he looked upon him as a rival, a disturber of the peace by his continued presence in the country, and had written to france shortly after his arrival, asking a _lettre de cachet_ for his removal. m. de queylus was a powerful personality and had the support of an active minority. already on his return to montreal in the previous year the two other secular priests, chaplains of the convent, at quebec, had left canada on this account, and sixty persons had accompanied him on his journey back to montreal on that occasion. after his recent visit to laval and while he was welcoming new recruits at montreal, the _lettre de cachet_ arrived for his departure. speaking of the position of laval after the receipt of the letter of may th, the journal of the jesuits on september th says that "he disposed all things sovereignly at quebec and montreal." laval's critics would translate it "imperiously" or "high-handedly," for, according to the history of canada by m. belmont, laval, in acquainting de queylus of his recall persuaded the governor to assist the departure of his friend from montreal with a squad of soldiers; or rather, as m. d'allet, his secretary, reports in his _mémoire_, "with a considerable number of our men as for some military expedition." but may not this escort have been one of honour and protection in war time rather than one of ignominy? the governor general himself carried out this order and this escort may therefore have been appropriate on such an occasion, both for the governor and his friend. two others were removed with the late grand vicaire, m. d'allet and another sulpician, though d'allet got no further than quebec, at which place sickness detained him during the winter. we can imagine the grief of the montrealers watching their departure at the little harbour at the mouth of the st. peter river near the fort. but though silenced at present, queylus is not finally suppressed, for we shall find him back again at montreal before the end of two years. in the meantime he was determined to clinch the matter of the disputed jurisdiction. before leaving, however, he had the satisfaction of having received on september th at quebec, and having accompanied to montreal, the new recruits led by jeanne mance and marguerite bourgeoys, whose experiences, since leaving ville marie in the previous year, must now be chronicled. after the cure of her hand and wrist on february , , jeanne mance visited madame de bullion, who gave her , _livres_, of which , were to be set aside for the annual income to support four hospitalières at montreal, from m. de la dauversière's foundation at la flèche. in addition, this lady paid jeanne's passage and gave her presents for the church as well as money to assist struggling families in montreal. in all, madame de bullion had given , _écus_ or , , _francs_ to the montreal work. at troyes, marguerite bourgeoys had been equally successful, having received the co-operation of three workers, edmée chastel (aimée chatel), catherine crolo, and marguerite raisin. mademoiselle catherine gauchet de belleville also joined the party. she was the cousin of m. souart and came from the parish of st. sulpice in paris. she was then sixteen years old. in she married migeon de brausaat. at la flèche three hospitalière sisters of st. joseph were chosen: judith moreau de brésoles, catherine massé and marie maillé, with marie polo, their servant, and the departure of the party from la flèche was fixed for may th. [illustration: departure of the three hospitalieres from la fleche for canada] but they did not leave peaceably, for there was a party at la flèche, which had resented the previous consignments of "pious young girls" that had been previously taken to montreal through the instrumentality of m. de la dauversière, it being alleged that this enthusiast, as he was thought, had done it against the wishes of their parents. open persecution broke out against him. dollier de casson tells us that there was a popular resentment; each one murmured, "m. de la dauversière is leading these girls away by force; we must stop it." in their anxiety many could not sleep that night; but next morning, may th, m. robert saint andré, an admirer of m. de la dauversière, who, with his wife, was returning to montreal, forced, with the assistance of other gentlemen, a way on to the ship for the girls, at the point of the sword. on reaching rochelle m. dauversière's party was met by agents from mgr. laval, who wished to restrain their departure on the ground that they were not wanted in canada, as one institute of hospitalières was sufficient. we have seen that even m. de queylus was of this opinion. but m. de la dauversière's resolution was unshaken. "if they do not go this year they will never go." the la flèche institute had been founded for montreal; the departure of the hospitalières had been delayed several years. he now carried his point. new embarrassments arose. the owner of the ship, doubtless influenced by the agents, refused to weigh anchor without the passage money being paid in advance; he appears even to have profited by this circumstance to raise the price. but jeanne mance, never to be taken by surprise, immediately obtained the money from a merchant in consequence of a contract which she made with a group of colonists who were coming "en famille." these latter obliged themselves, on june th, before notary demontreau, as a body to reimburse their debts to her in two years. in addition they were indebted to jeanne mance for _livres_ _sols_, which she turned over for hotel expenses to daniel guerry, mine host of the grâce-de-dieu.[ ] the above money was not to be paid, however, till ten years after, when mademoiselle mance gave them a deed of acquittance in , made out by maître basset, the town clerk. at last the recruit force for montreal was ready and it embarked on the st. andré (captain poulet) on june th. besides the ladies with the two foundresses, there were two sulpicians, mm. de vignal and le maître, and a body of sixty-two men, and forty-seven women, or marriageable girls honest families, most of whom were from marans in saintonge and more or less interrelated, who were sent out at the expense of the company and of the hôtel-dieu, the third of the trilogy of religious institutions to minister at montreal in this early period. there were other settlers who paid their own expenses. in addition there were sixteen or seventeen young women for quebec. the st. andré, containing about two hundred souls, set sail for rochelle on july d. it was a veritable pesthouse of infection, having been used as a hospital troop-ship two years ago, and it had never been quarantined, so that hardly were they on their way when the contagion declared itself. the food of the emigrants was the poorest; the accommodations of the barest and most primitive description; the supply of fresh water very limited. for two months sickness and furious tempests and contrary winds afflicted the wretched vessel. eight or ten died, but most were sick, among them marguerite bourgeoys but principally jeanne mance, who was reduced to the last extremity. the ship became a hospital and among the devoted nurses none were more so than the women for the hôtel-dieu of montreal. at last quebec harbour was reached on september th but disembarkation took place next day. here the sick were landed, a work in which mgr. de laval gave his personal service, "tending the sick and making their beds," as the annales of the hôtel-dieu relate. the hospital was filled with the convalescents but the rest of the montreal party put up at the storehouse sheds of the "magasin de montréal." marguerite bourgeoys was the first to be able to lead her party from quebec and she arrived at montreal just a year after her departure, on september th, carrying the little thibaudeau baby (the three other thibaudeau children had died on the ocean) that she had tended on the voyage and which she had allowed the father to nurse at quebec, but he, unlucky wight, having let it get burned, she had again taken care of the poor sufferer on the journey up the river. mademoiselle mance remained behind, still too sick to travel. moreover, the opposition of the vicar apostolic monseigneur de laval, to the hospitalières for montreal, had to be met. he examined their constitution, drawn up by a married man, m. de la dauversière, and found it different from other congregations. they wore secular clothing. though erected canonically in october, , they only took simple vows and they had not yet received the approbation of rome. he thought it would be better for them to go back to france or seek admission to the hospitalières of the hôtel-dieu of quebec, a constituted regular institution, which could form a branch to serve montreal. but their superior, judith de moreau de brésoles, and her companions, did not acquiesce with either suggestion. moreover, a practical difficulty of money matters prevented this, for the associates of montreal had declared they would withdraw their alms altogether, if any others went to the hôtel-dieu but those already chosen, and in addition if the quebec sisterhood should take up the hôtel-dieu at montreal, that part of the foundation given by madame d'aiguillon for quebec should be diverted to montreal. this solved the difficulty for, as mère jucherau, in the annales of the hôtel-dieu of quebec, says: "monseigneur liked to keep up our community with its revenue rather than to share our funds between two houses, neither of which could support the other." on october d the hôtel-dieu sisters of montreal left with full authorization to exercise their work until ordered otherwise. on october th they received from maisonneuve the act of the "prise de possession" of the hôtel-dieu, dated from the governor's house, which was still in the fort. on october th the st. andré returned to france, bearing the abbé de queylus, as before related. jeanne mance started a week later for montreal but she was here on november d and had the satisfaction of being present at the marriage of the widow, "miss" bardillières, whom she had left in charge of the hospital and who now wedded jacques testard, sieur de la forest. it was a notable wedding, the witnesses' names including, besides jeanne mance, those of maisonneuve and the governor of three rivers and many notables. hospital work has since conduced to match-making in montreal as heretofore.[ ] footnotes: [ ] records of punishment for injurious words are also to be found on may , ; september , ; august, ; june, . women figure largely in these cases. [ ] this man was afterwards allowed to return, perhaps on appeal. it is certain he reformed and gave a perpetual foundation to the church. [ ] the original copies of these documents lately transcribed by mr. e. z. massicotte, city archivist, can be seen at the archives' office or printed in the numismatic and antiquarian journal, published at the château ramezay, third series, no. , vol. x. [ ] on the reinforcement of mr. e. z. massicotte, city archivist of montreal, has recently published in the "canadian antiquarian and numismatic society journal, third series, no. , vol x," a copy of the statement of men, women and girls who crossed to montreal in , found lately in the city archives of the courthouse. the contingent, including those from quebec and those who died from the ship fever, consisted of about two hundred souls. of those who arrived at montreal the list contains names. the list made of those of jeanne mance's party before sailing enumerates persons. two of these did not embark and a note in the margin mentions that they were "hidden"; of the remaining , there were men and youths, women--married and single--and children of tender age. of the men there were two priests--m. jacques le maistre, slain by the iroquois on the th of august, , and m. guillaume, also slain by the iroquois on the th of october, ; "soldiers for the fort," of whom one was pierre picoté de bélestre; masons, sawyers, carpenter, tillers, woodcutters and tillers, baker and tiller, joiners, and whose occupations are unknown. of the unmarried women the mother superior, judith moreau de brésoles, and sisters catherine macé and marie maillet came to found the "hospitalières de st. joseph," the religious order to carry on the hôtel-dieu. these, with the addition of their servant, marie polo, came with jeanne mance. with marguerite bourgeoys there came the future sisters for the foundation of the "congregation of notre dame," mademoiselles catherine croleau (or crolo), marie raisin and anne hiou (or iou). chapter xiii how montreal saved new france dollard's exploit at the long sault universal fear of iroquois in the colony--the garrison officers at montreal--adam dollard, sieur des ormeaux--the permission from the governor to lead an attack up country--his companions--preparations--wills and the sacraments--the flotilla of canoes--the long sault reached--the dilapidated iroquois war camp--anontaha and mitiwemeg--the ambush and attack--the retreat to the stockade--the siege--thirst--the algonquins desert--five hundred iroquois allies arrive--the terrible attack and resistance--a glorious defeat--radisson's account--the inventory of dollard--unpaid bills--the names of the "companions"--new france saved--a convoy of beaver skins reaches montreal--a reinforcement of troops from france asked for to wipe out the iroquois. ever since the flight to montreal of the french from onondaga under dupuis on april , , there had been constant fear of a concerted attempt by the five nations to exterminate, by fire and slaughter, the whole french population. in a huron refugee to quebec brought the news of the preparation of a great allied army for this fell purpose. this was confirmed at quebec in the spring of by an iroquois captive ally; that iroquois had assembled at roche fondue, near montreal, to be joined by more who were even then pouring down upon quebec by way of montreal and three rivers. believing that montreal and three rivers were besieged, quebec was in the throes of alarm. the outlying houses were abandoned. most of the settlers were either concentrated in the fort or in the jesuit house, while the ursulines and hospitalières and others were in upper town; the rest barricaded themselves with many guards in the lower town. the monasteries, denuded of their occupants, were also guarded, and the cries of "qui vive?" of the patrol, each night warned the iroquois lurking around that all were on the alert, and restrained any attempt to set fire to the houses. that the enemy never came, is due to the heroic venturesomeness of a band of young montrealers who had meanwhile bearded the lion in his den, and diverted the attack from the french, thus saving new france. the garrison of montreal had thought long of how to meet the threatened invasion, till at last the daring plan of a young officer of twenty-five years of age, adam dollard, was accepted. in the spring of the officers were now, besides the governor, major raphael lambert closse, m. zacharie dupuis, pierre picoté de bélestre and the young adam dollard, sieur des ormeaux. major lambert closse had been married on july , , and he was now no longer living in the fort, for he had been given by the associates, in recognition of his bravery and his merits, his own lands, the first fief granted in montreal, a hundred arpents, "à simple hommage et sans justice." he had now received letters of nobility, for whereas before he has simply been styled sergeant major of the garrison, in his marriage contract he is named "écuyer" (esquire), on december th after the arrival of maisonneuve and that of the sulpicians, he is called "noble homme, écuyer." we have already mentioned that he was the commandant of the island of montreal. on leaving the fort lambert closse still retained his office of major, but he was replaced at the fort by m. zacharie du puis, the same who had been received coldly at quebec after the retreat under him from onondaga, but whose services were welcomed and esteemed at montreal by the governor, de maisonneuve, who named him assistant major; and he is also spoken of as "commandant of the island of montreal," a title found ascribed also to lambert closse. then we may class charles le moyne, the official interpreter and storekeeper, as in some way an officer. among the late arrivals two others had been at least adjoined to the military staff. one of these was picoté de bélestre, a doctor as well as a fighting man, and he proved of valuable assistance to the settlement. dollier de casson says of him that "he adorned this place, as well in war as in peace, on account of the advantageous qualities he possessed for one and the other." he is spoken of sometimes as a "commandant," sometimes as an officer of the garrison. the other is adam dollard, sieur des ormeaux, a young man of twenty-five years of age. there is little known of his antecedents. the actual date of his arrival is not certain but, according to the latest researches made by mr. e. z. massicotte, city archivist of montreal (april, ), the first document, in which his name appears as witnessing a land transfer, is dated september , . as he figures frequently in acts after this, it is not likely that he came much before that date, for he was not present on december , , at the marriage of jeanne le moyne with jacques leber, a young man of his own age, nor at that of michel messier and of anne le moyne, february , ; while after the above date, on september , , he was present at that of jacques mousseaux and of marguerite soviot, and on october , , he was godfather to elizabeth moyen, daughter of lambert closse and elizabeth moyen, married the year previously, and thenceforward he appeared frequently at public ceremonies. in this act, dollard is styled "_volontaire_," a volunteer, which may signify that he was only as yet attached to the garrison or that he had taken service freely and not on wages. the notary basset gives him, sometimes, the title of "commandant"; at others that of "officer of the garrison." mr. massicotte proves, from the inventory of dollard's effects after his death, that he had intended to settle, having formed a building society, explained before as then customary, with picoté de bélestre, to break land and to cultivate it in view of a future homestead. we have the record of de bélestre's concession and of a debt to be paid to the succession of "the late adam dollard" the sum of _livres_, _sols_, for fifty-three days' work, by men employed by the deceased to work on the same concession. it is therefore probable that dullard was contemplating his own homestead and that, in his turn, de bélestre would assist, according to the contracts before noticed. dollard was by no means wealthy; indeed the number of his personal effects at his death was less than those shown in the inventories of the greater part of the settlers dying before him, even of the bachelors. the sum total of these possessions has been estimated at eighty-five _livres_, or , _sous_! but we must remember that a _sou_ would at that time buy five to ten times more than now. the quality, however, of his varied but slight wardrobe and of the articles of toilette not mentioned in other inventories gives ground for the tradition that he was of a superior caste to the ordinary colonist. the ordinary tradition is, following dollier de casson, that this young man of good family had already had some command in the army in france, but had done some foolish act, and that he had joined maisonneuve with the desire of doing some notable deed of valour or self-sacrifice to rehabilitate himself in his own eyes, and those of his friends. the spelling of his name has been a subject of controversy. mr. massicotte has established that there is no doubt, since we have his signature at the city hall archives, that he signed himself "dollard." "daulat" and "daulac," the variant readings, are the mistakes of copyists writing phonetically rather than orthographically, since the three are pronounced practically the same. there is a scarcely imperceptible nuance of sound differing.[ ] we have given these minute facts, since the exploit we are about to relate is one of the most stirring and notable in canadian history, and the story of montreal can well expatiate on one of its own heroes. adam dollard it was who, by his boldness, persuaded de maisonneuve from his fabian policy of defence which had, as we have seen, made him, so far, content to drive the iroquois away from the fort to their ambuscades around. in april, , he obtained permission from the governor to take a band of volunteers up country and there do battle. the fear of the iroquois must have been indeed desperate for one so young to have secured such a permission from maisonneuve. dollard's enthusiasm, which had led the sixteen young men, two of whom were thirty and thirty-one years of age and the rest between twenty-one and twenty-seven, and most of whom had arrived in , to strike hands with him to follow him if the governor gave consent, now spurred them on to make all the needful preparations. in order to purchase the necessary arms, food and boats to man the expedition, we find records extant of loans being sought as, for example, the following, signed by dollard with his own private _paraphe_, or flourish, after his name, according to the custom of the time: "i, the undersigned, acknowledge my indebtedness to jean haubichon of the sum of forty _livres_ plus three _livres_ which i promise to pay to him on my return. done at ville marie, the fifteenth of april, sixteen hundred and sixty. dollard (with paraphe)." major closse, picoté de bélestre and charles le moyne would gladly have thrown in their lot with him, but prudence suggested to them that they should finish the spring seeding, and then to lead forth a body of forty men. the impetuous dollard could not brook delay. besides he wanted the command, and this was his opportunity in life. moreover, his young men were eager to start. before leaving on their perilous path to glory, they swore a sacred oath of fidelity among themselves not to ask for quarter, and the better to keep their plighted word and to face death without fear, they resolved each to make his will and to clear his consciences by a confession of his sins, and to approach in a body the sacrament of the holy eucharist, the symbol of unity and fellowship. each point was faithfully carried out. the sight of these young men at this last solemn event in the parish church must have been thrilling to their friends and families, fearful, yet proud of the warriors who were setting out, perchance to die for their king and their faith.[ ] at last, on april th the flotilla of canoes started up the stream, but when nearby to an adjacent island (probably st. paul) they heard a cry of alarm. thinking that, near at hand, was the quarry they were going, so far, to seek, dollard bore down upon the iroquois, repulsing them with such vigour that had they not taken to the woods, leaving behind their canoes and spoils to save their lives, they would assuredly all have been captured. but this victory was attended by the loss of three of his men--nicholas duval, a servant at the fort, killed by the indians, and two others who, unaccustomed to the management of their canoe, had been drowned in the engagement. dollard seized the spoils, left behind by the iroquois, and, moreover, a canoe which served him in good stead later in the expedition. meanwhile the party made their way back sadly to ville marie with the dead body, without doubt to assist at the burial of nicholas duval on april th, for the parish registers give this date. the other bodies had not as yet been discovered. they were joined by one of the young men who had failed in his oath and penitently sought to redeem himself. thus the seventeen was now complete. as men, who might never see their friends again, they bade a general adieu to ville marie, and again embarked on the fateful journey whence no one returned to tell the tale. though bold of heart, many of them were not expert at handling their canoes, so that they were delayed eight days at a rapid (ste. anne's) at the end of the island of montreal. but their indomitable courage surpassed their inexperience, and they reached, on may st, the end of the tumultuous rapids of the long leap, or the "long sault," at the foot of the chaudières fall, on the ottawa river, at a distance of about eight or ten leagues above montreal. there dollard found a dilapidated war camp abandoned by the iroquois, the previous autumn. it was not flanked, but defended only by a wretched palisading. it was dangerously overlooked too by a neighbouring wooden slope. within this feeble fortress, for want of better protection, he cantoned his men and there awaited the canoes of the enemy who must come down the sault in single file on their return from the chase. soon, to their surprise, a body of forty hurons and four algonquins came with credentials from the governor of montreal, requesting dollard to admit them to a share in their glorious enterprise. these were led by the chief, anontaha, the huron, and mitiwemeg, the algonquin. anontaha had descended from quebec with his hurons, the relics of a once powerful nation, to waylay iroquois returning from hunting, and at three rivers he had met mitiwemeg with his algonquins on a like quest. having challenged each other's valour, they determined to push to montreal, where likely there would be an opportunity with the iroquois to test each other's courage in the fight. arrived at montreal the french, "whose fault, it is," says dollier de casson, "to talk too much," told them of the whereabouts of dollard's expedition. amazed at the daring of so slight a force, and jealous of having been forestalled in the work of falling upon the iroquois, they sought permission to join them; there the vaunting chiefs could show their valour. accordingly they arrived with de maisonneuve's letter which warned dollard not to put his trust in their bravery, but to act as if he had his frenchmen alone to help him. dollard received their parties to his future sorrow. thus reinforced the anxious warriors bivouacked around the redoubt, near the hoarse-sounding waters of the leaping rapids. at last, those on scout duty reported the coming of the advance guard of iroquois down the stream. these were on their way to join the more at the richelieu islands to attack three rivers, quebec and then montreal. down to the place where they would likely land, dollard led his men and ensconced them in ambush, till two canoes filled with iroquois arrived, and no sooner had these put foot on land than the land force fired into their midst, but so precipitously that some escaped, and running across the woods to meet their party on the shore above, cried out: "we have been defeated at the little fort, which is quite near here. there is a party of french and indians there." their approach found the party in prayer from which they arose hurriedly, seeking the shelter of the palisading and leaving in the confusion their kettles slung over the camp fires preparing for their meal. the iroquois quickly advanced towards the redoubt, thinking to reduce it easily, but they were frequently repulsed, with much loss and confusion. driven back, and refused a parley, by which they sought to entice the frenchmen from the fort, the enemy began to construct a retrenchment facing the redoubt, determined to begin the siege. meanwhile, during this delay, the brave defenders strengthened their outworks (it would seem an obvious duty too long delayed) by building a second palisading within and filling in the space between, with stones and earth to a man's height, in such way, however, that they were loopholes large enough to put three gunmen at each. when the enemy began next to approach, they poured their scrap iron and lead into them with deadly effect. to add to their rage and humiliation the iroquois saw the heads of their comrades placed on the tops of the stockade palisades. they now broke up the french and huron canoes, and putting them into a blaze sought to fire the stockade with them. but finding themselves unable, even with their numbers, to capture the fort, they sent a canoe to warn the at the richelieu islands to come to their assistance. while delaying for their reinforcement they blockaded the fort, thinking at least to force it to capitulate, through thirst. for a week the enemy's fire could not be of avail. thirst, consequent on the dearth of water in the interior of the fort, might yet effect their surrender. water was so scarce that the defenders could hardly swallow their hominy (rough indian corn). their efforts at digging were rewarded only by a little trickling stream of muddy water, altogether insufficient to quench their thirst. thus they were forced to make sudden sallies to the river, feet away, under shelter of the guns from the fort, to fill their small pots of water, since they had already lost their kettles and tin pans. the iroquois now called upon the parched hurons cooped up within the wretched hole to give themselves up and receive good quarter. else they would surely die, since a reinforcement of men was coming. these perfidious weaklings, listening to the voice of the tempters, yielded, and they were to be seen deserting stealthily by the gate or scrambling over the palisadings. this heartbreaking sight was too much for the brave chief anontaha, who aimed his pistol at his fleeing nephew, "the fly," but missed his aim in his bitter rage. there were now only twenty-three to guard the fort, dollard and his dauntless sixteen, anontaha, and mitiwemeg and his four faithful followers. on the fifth day the allies arrived. on they came to the fort with their frightful war cries but quickly they retired, leaving their dead around the fort and many others escaping, having lead within them that made them ill content. thus for three days the fight was hourly renewed by the iroquois, sometimes attacking in a body, sometimes in bands; sometimes they battered the fortress with trunks of trees; still the defenders would not yield, resolved to die to a man first. this obstinate and unexpected resistance made the enemy think that the fugitive hurons had given a false tale of the numbers within the fort. so the time passed for the hungering and thirsting men within, weary and sleepless, but full of resolution, which they renewed with prayer, till called to fight again for dear life's sake. on the eighth day, many iroquois would fain have given up, but the eyes of others blazed with rage at the immortal disgrace they foresaw if they should be set to naught by a handful of whites. they determined to carry the fort by main force or perish in the attempt. but this was a hardy and dangerous deed courting death. on such an occasion it was the custom when volunteers for the first ranks were needed, that sticks were thrown on to the ground and those that dared pick them up were considered the bravest, and took the foremost place of danger; so now the self-elected braves led the way for a bloody encounter, carrying each an impromptu shield or fence made of united logs each four or five feet in height lashed together, under shelter of which they moved with bowed heads and crouched forms. they crept nearer and nearer the palisade under the shower of shot from arquebus and musketoon that rained fire and shot upon them from the loopholes of the fort. at the gates, and on the palisade wall, the good axe and sabre of the frenchmen dealt out death upon the stormers. at length, they had reached the palisade and strove to break their way in with axe and battering ram. as a last despairing act, dollard, having loaded a heavy musketoon to the muzzle, and having lit the fuse, attempted to throw it over the palisading so that it would explode in the midst of the foe clambering up the posts or pulling them down. by ill luck it caught an obstacle on the inside of the palisading and it rebounded back, exploding in the fort, blinding many with its charge and killing several of the gallant whites. this gave great courage to the besiegers and the piles were wrenched away, and the gates forced. breaches were made on all sides in the fortification and a fierce hand to hand fight of axe and sword and pistol ensued, and in the mêlée the brave dollard fell at last. their leader fallen, each survivor fought like a lion brought to bay, dealing death around until his own turn came. with sword or hatchet in one hand and a knife in the other, maddened with hunger, thirst and exposure, and ablaze with religious and martial enthusiasm, they turned each upon their enemies, like madmen. but, unable to take them alive with their overpowering numbers, the iroquois shot them down mercilessly, to fall upon the camp enclosure already heaped up high with their own dead. [illustration: dollard's exploit at the long sault, may, (by henri julien)] at last not one of the defenders was standing and quickly the revengeful iroquois searched among the bodies to see if any christian lived and could be reserved for torture later. three others were found on the point of death. these they shortly consigned to the flames but a fourth they took prisoner and reserved for cruel refinements later. among those fallen were anontaha, the huron, and mitiwemeg, the algonquin, with his three faithful companions. as to the treacherous hurons, they did not keep their word to them as they promised, but sent them to their iroquois villages to be afterwards burned alive to satisfy their baulked revenge at their rough handling by the heroic seventeen. some five, however, escaped and it was through one of them louis, "a good christian but a poor soldier"--that the first news was brought at last to montreal, on june d, that so many of the enemy had been killed within and without the fort that the bodies served to make a path to ascend the palisades and pass over into the fort. gradually the news was confirmed by others arriving, and the truth was sifted from the conflicting accounts of these cowards, whose stories strove to shield their shameful desertion of their friends. shortly after the disaster the fur trader, radisson, passed down the long sault after a brush with the iroquois. he visited the palisaded fort and saw the gaping wounds in the stockade burnt by the assailants and saw the scalps of the indians still flaunting from the pickets. in the neighbourhood there was not a tree, he remarks, that was not shot with bullets. "it was terrible," he says, "for we came there eight days after the defeat." not until he reached montreal did he learn of the full significance of what he had seen. the dearly bought victory made the iroquois shy for a time of engaging with the french, for if, they said, but seventeen could hold out so long in a paltry palisaded picket against such odds, and with such great loss to their assailants, it would be better to leave them alone in their own houses and settlements. thus the tide of war was checked. the threatened extermination of the whites was averted. quebec and three rivers breathed again. it was the voluntary sacrifice of the picked flowers of the montreal youth, that found its thermopylae at the long sault, and thus saved canada! "this was the common belief at the time," says dollier de casson, who arrived in montreal in the sixth year after this event and whose relation is the basis of all modern accounts of this magnificent disaster, "for otherwise the country would have been swept away and lost, which leads men to say that even if the establishment of montreal had only had the advantage of having saved the country in this adventure, and of having served as a public victim in the persons of seventeen of its sons who then lost their lives, it ought, for all posterity, if ever canada comes to anything, to be accounted as of some considerable importance since it has saved it on this occasion, without mentioning others."[ ] "what though beside the foaming flood entombed their ashes lie, all earth becomes the monument of men who nobly die." we must now descend from the poetic to the commonplace of prose. in doing so, we shall have an insight into the customs of the time. the inventory of the belongings of adam dullard, then in the possession of his partner, picoté de bélestre, is preserved in the city archives dated october , , as well as the record of the sale by auction which took place november , , before the door of the house of jean gervaise. every item is recorded, belonging to the deceased down to his night cap. such things as a sword with a broken handle; a baldric, of english cow leather, with iron buckles; a poor jerkin of gray with a poor lining in the same colour; a little packet of poor linen; a poor black hat; a bad pair of indian racquettes, and so on. the most valuable article was a jerkin with breeches and white hose, the whole of superior material, estimated at eighteen _livres_. but this apparel, according to the note adjoined, was returned by order of the governor to sieur de brigeac, to whom they belonged. [illustration: inventory of dollard's effects] [illustration: dollard's promissory note] in the inventory is added the following unpaid bill: "declared by jacques beauchamp, fourteenth september, . seven days' work in the winter at _sols_ a day, _livres_ _sols_; plus days and a half at _sols_, _livres_; plus for his washing during six months, _livres_ _sols_; plus for the making of shirts and other smaller linens _livres_; plus the sale of a black hat _livres_." the names of dollard's companions are to be found in the parish register for june , , as follows: . adam dollard (sieur des ormeaux), commander, aged years; . jacques brassier, aged years; . jean tavernier dit la lochetière, armourer, aged years; . nicholas tillemont, sawyer, aged years; . laurent hébert dit la rivière, aged years; . alonié des lestres, lime burner, aged years; . nicolas josselin, aged years; . robert jurié, aged years; . jacques boisseau dit cognac, aged years; . louis martin, aged years; . christophe augier dit des jardins, aged years; . etienne robin dit des forges, aged years; . jean valets, aged years; . rené doussin (sieur de ste. cécile), soldier of the garrison, aged years; . jean lecomte, aged years; . simon grenet; . françois crusson dit pilote, aged years. [illustration: the holograph will of jean tavernier, _armurier_ (gunsmith), another companion of dollard, made on the th of april, , two days before the departure of the ill-fated expedition. it is also the first holograph will in the archives of montreal and the only holograph found of any of dollard's companions. (cf. "canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal," , no. , "les compagnons de dollard.")] [illustration: the will made by bassit for jean valets, companion of dollard. this is the only notarial will found of the members of the expedition. the translation of the deed is to found in the "canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal" of , no. , accompanying the article "les compagnons de dollard," by e. z. massicotte.] the date of the heroic adventure of the long sault is put by dollier de casson to may th or th, following the notice by m. souart in the parish register for june rd, which says, on the testimony of the huron louis, that the exploit took place eight days before. but m. de belmont places it on may st. this is more likely to be correct, since we have the records of the inventory of the goods of jacques boisseau, made on may th, and of jean valets, on may th. similar sales were made of the goods of the other heroes. it is to be noticed that nearly all left racquettes, or snowshoes, behind them, it then being spring. though montreal was for the moment the saviour of new france, de maisonneuve had learned enough from the fugitives from the long sault to make him fear the downpour of the revengeful iroquois either that autumn or the next spring. consequently he put the town in a state of defence--by fortifying the fort, the hôtel-dieu, the mill on the hill, the lonely redoubts, st. gabriel and ste. marie, recently constructed by de queylus and the sulpicians, and then hastened to give the news of the exploit of dollard to three rivers and quebec. the joyful tidings gave quebec pause to breathe again in peace. for five months public prayers had been daily held in the churches for god's protection of the country and for the five weeks preceding the news, there had been no repose by day or by night. yet d'argenson, the governor, also feared a descent upon quebec before the harvest, and there would then be utter famine. on july th he wrote to france to have provisions sent back immediately, for "we are more in war than ever and in still greater famine.... we have little or no wheat, and there are three months to await for the harvest, which we are in great danger of not gathering, if the iroquois carry out their resolution to ravage our lands." luckily there was no such disaster. instead great joy was brought to the colony, for on august th[ ] sixty canoes, led by friendly ottawan indians, came to ville marie, laden with , _livres_' worth of beaver peltry. a quarter of this was left at montreal and the rest taken to three rivers. this resumption of trade, so necessary for the colony, gave courage, for many were thinking of leaving the country on account of the continued warfare which crippled commerce. the merchants were in great part recouped for their losses and the people were enabled to buy from france the many necessities of life, which the money from the sale of beaver skins could alone provide. but trade and peace and the progress of christianity could only be secured by reinforcement from france, and this year we find d'argenson writing to france to show the necessity of sending troops. the jesuit "relation" of this year urges the same. "let france only say 'i wish it,' and with this word it opens heaven to an infinity of heathens; it gives life to this colony; it preserves for itself its new france and acquires a glory worthy of a most christian kingdom. "saint louis formerly planted the _fleur-de-lys_ in the soil of the crescent. today it would be a no less glorious conquest to make a country of infidels into a holy land than to wrest the holy land from the hands of the infidel. once more, let france's will destroy the iroquois and it is done. two regiments of brave soldiers would overthrow them." hope entered into the hearts of the colonists now, since france was at peace, having concluded a treaty with spain, and it was thought that now was the acceptable hour, the time of salvation, and for this purpose father le jeune, then the procurator of the jesuit missions in paris, before the end of the year was asked to present a petition to louis xiv and to plead for new france across the sea. the king heard the "sighs and sobs of the poor afflicted colony," and promised troops; but again new france was forgotten, except by the company of one hundred associates, inasmuch as they claimed the annual rental of a thousand beaver skins. the call was not to be heard for some years yet. footnotes: [ ] to explain the "c" in daulac it must be remembered that in french manuscripts of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the final "t" and final "c" were interchangeable, or rather written in the same character which stood for a "t" or a "c." (canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, third series, no. , vol. ix, april, .) [ ] parkman, speaking of this event in "the old régime in canada," says: "the spirit of the enterprise was purely mediæval. the enthusiasm of honour, the enthusiasm of adventure and the enthusiasm of faith were its motive forces. daulac (sic) was a knight of the early crusades among the forests and savages of the new world." [ ] it appears that thirty years after the famous defence of the long sault, a band of a hundred iroquois were fired upon as they passed bout de l'isle to help phipps in his attack on quebec. four of the indians were shot, and the remainder turned upon the attacking band of twenty-five habitants recruited from the district about pointe-aux-trembles and led by a certain sieur colombain. sixteen of the frenchmen were killed, but the indians abandoned their intended voyage to quebec. (cf. the recent discovery by mr. e. z. massicotte, recorded in the antiquarian and numismatic journal of august, .) [ ] cf. faillon, "histoire de colonie française." an act by bénigne basset of july , , is recorded of a "société" or partnership made by médard chod de groseilliers with charles le moyne. cf. e. z. massicotte in "les colons de montréal de - " and "bulletin des reserches historiques" ( ). the circumstances are as follows: in chouard de groseilliers and pierre d'esprit de radisson started from three rivers for an expedition for the west. they stopped at montreal and were joined by some frenchmen. they were the first europeans to go as far as the south of lake superior, making chouamigon their headquarters, and thence brought down to montreal the largest convoy of furs hitherto known. they arrived shortly after dollard's disaster in the month of july. to make the convoy as profitable as possible chouard de groseilliers made the act of "société" with charles le moyne to divide the profits of the sales of the peltry brought down by his indians, at montreal, three rivers and quebec. this is doubtless one and the same party as that of august th, mentioned above, who may have reached montreal later with de groseilliers. chapter xiv - hostilities and losses montreal the theatre of iroquois carnage--the first sulpician slaughtered, m. le maitre--the second, m. vignal--the first visit of laval to montreal--the abbe de queylus again appears--ecclesiastical disputes legal, not personal--the death of lambert closse--the exploit of picote de belestre--maisonneuve's ordinance against sale of liquor to indians--indian orgies and bloodshed--the governor general at quebec disapproves of maisonneuve's action--the famous liquor traffic disputes--jeanne mance leaves for france. the year saw the renewal of hostilities of the iroquois from montreal to cape tourment, "but," says marie de l'incarnation writing in september of this year, "montreal has been the principal theatre of their carnage." on february th a party of montrealers were going to work in the fields unarmed, not fearing any ill, since there was usually no fear of iroquois attacks at this early season, when suddenly they found themselves surrounded by sixty of their foes. there was only one weapon among them and that a small pistol borne by charles le moyne, and, unable to defend themselves with their tools, they sought safety in flight to the town, but not without thirteen being captured. on march th iroquois fell upon a body of montrealers and captured ten. had they not been now armed the numbers would have been more. the "relation" of this year, speaking of these losses says: "after the capture of the thirteen in the month of february, ten others fell into the same captivity. then later more, and still more, in such sort that, during the whole summer this island was constantly harassed by these goblin imps who sometimes appeared on the outskirts of the woods, contenting themselves with hurling insults at us; sometimes they glided stealthily into the midst of the field, to fall upon the workmen by surprise; sometimes they drew near our houses, ceaselessly annoying us, and like unfortunate harpies or evil birds of prey, would swoop down on us unawares." of the ten captured in march four were butchered in the neighbouring woods; their bodies, brutally dismembered, hacked and burned, were discovered by the dogs of the town, who came back each day glutted with blood. this led to their being followed to their foul feasting place. "such disasters made the people turn their thoughts to eternity," says the pious dollier de casson. "vice was then almost unknown at ville marie, and in the time of war, religion flourished there on all sides in quite a different manner than it does today, in that of peace." three rivers and quebec suffered similarly. near quebec the sénéchal of new france, m. jean de lauson, son of the former governor, fell a victim on june nd. on this same day a picturesque scene occurred at montreal, when two canoes of iroquois arrived under the protection of a white flag of peace, and bringing with them four french prisoners. it was an embassy of the two nations onondaga and oi guere, who professed to be neutral. they parleyed offering the release of the four prisoners and twenty others at onondaga; requesting that hospital sisters such as those at quebec should be sent them, and insisting as the main condition of the release that a black robe be sent. m. maisonneuve sent this proposal on to quebec with the result that father le moyne, the jesuit, was deputed to accompany the ambassadors to onondaga. on the arrival of father le moyne at montreal the four frenchmen were exchanged for the eight iroquois prisoners held, for a year past, in montreal. after their departure other iroquois onslaughts resulted in the death of jean valets, at point st. charles, on august th, of the sulpician m. lemaître, and that of gabriel de rée with him on august th, near st. gabriel's fortified farmhouse. m. lemaître was saying his breviary in the fields and acting as a lookout, somewhat apart from the fourteen or fifteen workmen, when he suddenly came across an ambush of sixty iroquois. seizing a cutlass and facing the savage crew, he called out to the workers to hurry with their arms. he was now shot by the iroquois and running towards his friends he dropped down dead. these managed to make their way to the farmhouse but left one man, gabriel de rée, dead on the field. the iroquois cut off the heads of each, and one of them, a christian renegade, put on the dead priest's soutane, and wearing a shirt over it for a surplice, went stalking around the body in mockery of the christian burial service. the early memoirs of this event further tell that the head of the murdered priest had spoken after being severed from the body, and that when it had been carried away in a white handkerchief, probably taken from the pockets of his soutane, the features of the dead man became perfectly imprinted upon it. this handkerchief had been seen in the camp by a french prisoner, lavigne, who tried in vain to obtain possession of it for, recognizing the features of the dead priest, he had learned of his massacre. this story he told to dollier de casson, who records it in his "histoire de montréal." meanwhile the party that had taken father le moyne to onondaga with the promise of leading back the twenty french prisoners in forty days had not returned, and great fear was entertained at montreal for their safety. on october th, however, nine were brought back by the intercession of the friendly chief named garacontié, the rest having been kept behind with father le moyne during the coming winter. on october th another disaster occurred in the little island à la pierre, above st. helen's island,[ ] whither a party had gone the day before to quarry stone for the new seminary, for up to this the sulpicians still dwelt in the hôtel-dieu. along with the party, joining them on the second day, was m. lemaître's successor as "economus;" another sulpician priest, m. vignal, who went to supervise the work. hardly had the party in the first boat, in which was m. vignal, put foot to land, when they fell into an ambuscade, and m. vignal was pierced with a sword, along with sieur de brigeac, a young soldier of thirty years of age; m. maisonneuve's private secretary, rené cuillérier, and jacques dufresne. m. vignal was thrown in the enemy's canoes and taken to la prairie de la madeleine, facing montreal. the rest of the french escaped, except jean baptiste moyen, who was left mortally wounded. after two days they put the priest to death, roasted his body on a funeral pyre and ate it. his bones were never found. this death gave great grief at montreal as well as quebec, for m. vignal it will be remembered had been the chaplain of the hospitalières there. after this cruel and horrible repast the party broke up; the mohawks took jacques dufresne with them, while the oneidas led away the sieur de brigeac and rené cuillérier. both of these were condemned to be burned and de brigeac, after being horribly mutilated and slowly burned, succumbed after twenty-four hours' torture, "praying," as the historian de casson relates, "for the conversion of his tormentors without uttering a cry of complaint." the same fate awaited cuillérier, but he had an intercessor in the person of the sister of the chief, who wished to adopt him as her brother. eventually he escaped to the dutch at fort orange, and he finally made his way back to montreal in the following year. during the summer the vicar apostolic, mgr. laval, made his first visit to montreal. he was received with honour on the evening of august st. on this occasion he showed great solicitude for the hospitalières of the hôtel-dieu, who, by the failure of m. dauversière, now become a bankrupt, had lost the funds entrusted to him, and had nothing to live on, unless the one thousand _livres_' income, granted to the company of montreal by madame de bullion for the support of a hospital, was transferred to them. they were now thinking of going back to france, but mgr. laval arranged, on the request of the inhabitants of montreal, that the income of the hospital could support them. at the same time montreal was visited again by the abbé de queylus. he arrived at quebec, incognito, on the third day of august. since his absence he had not been idle in pushing the ecclesiastical position of montreal, for on calling on the vicar apostolic, he astonished him by communicating to him the results of his visit to rome, viz., the apostolic bull of the dateria, creating montreal into an independent parish, and a mandate from the archbishop of rouen charging the bishop of petrea to preside at the installation of m. de queylus as the canonical "parochus." finally the vicar general reminded m. de queylus of the _lettre de cachet_ of february , , forbidding his return. queylus retorted by quoting a contradictory "_lettre de cachet_" annulling it. the vicar general refused to accept the bull of the dateria on the ground that it was obtained surreptitiously, and he cancelled the jurisdiction of rouen as incompatible with his own as vicar apostolic. on august th he forbade queylus to go to montreal under penalty of disobedience. this he communicated to d'argenson, but the night of the th or th of august saw de queylus making for montreal furtively by canoe, with no obstacle placed in his way by the sympathetic governor. m. de queylus had large landed property interests in montreal, in fact he was one of the largest proprietors and one of its chief mainstays. it was therefore argued that he could not, as a private individual, be stayed from attending to his business there. on the th, laval issued the ecclesiastical suspension of de queylus unless he returned to quebec. meanwhile the abbé remained at montreal and no doubt received laval on his official visit of august st, already mentioned. on august th he grieved with his brethren over the massacre of his fellow sulpician, m. lemaître, and he performed several important business transactions as "superior of ecclesiastics associated for the conversion of the savages." in the meantime laval had written to rome exposing his case. he looked upon the peculiar pretensions for ecclesiastical monopoly of montreal and the presence of queylus, as injurious to the interests of the church in canada, as menacing its unity and fostering schism. accordingly prevailing in this view, his protests brought letters demanding the return to france of m. de queylus, which took place october d, from quebec, the new governor d'avaugour being intrusted with its execution. it is well to avoid reading into these ecclesiastical disputes personal hostility or the clash of rancour among high placed churchmen. each would have fought, lawyer-like, on principle, for a case of canonical jurisdiction not yet settled in the ecclesiastical courts, owing to the doubt remaining as to the validity of the overlordship of rouen and the acquiescence of rome in its pretensions. law at that time seems also to have been unsatisfactorily managed, and the facility with which "lettres de cachet" were sent to and fro, countermanding one another, did not tend to simplify matters, as we have seen. add to these the difficulties inherent in the foundation of a young french colony and the inevitable struggles for precedence and "locus standi," especially among representatives of a nation that adored etiquette and the preceding quarrel will be looked upon as an interesting episode in a difficult period of history rather than as an ecclesiastical scandal needlessly resuscitated by the historian, for the purpose of opening old sores. later on it will be seen that when the archbishop of rouen had relinquished his pretension, de queylus returned in as laval's appointed vicar general at montreal, and the sulpicians had no greater friend than the fighting bishop. the same remarks could apply to the struggles that had been going on in quebec between laval and d'argenson in the matter of social precedence. the relations of the church to the state had not been clearly defined in a new country, primarily established for the promotion of christianity, and it would still take some time to straighten them out. on september th of this year d'argenson was formally succeeded in the reins of office by the baron du bois d'avaugour, arrived on august st, but it must not be understood that his quarrels with laval were the cause of this. the vicomte's term of office, as we know, had already been renewed for a second term, and he had sent in his resignation more than once, urging ill health as an explanation. his loss was, however, felt at montreal by the sulpicians, on whose side he had ranged himself in the above disputes with laval. his administration would have been more successful if he could have been more impersonal in such encounters. m. d'argenson was shortly followed to france by the founder of boucherville, pierre boucher, ex-governor of three rivers. he left on october st on a mission as special agent to promote the recognition of the need of national help from france, if canada was to remain a white man's land. he was sustained by the new governor, d'avaugour, and by d'argenson, now in france; with what success we shall hear. [illustration: seal of the boucherville family] the parish register of montreal has the following sad entry: " -february . le sieur lambert closse, sergeant-major de la garnison; simon le roy, jean lecompte et louis brisson,[ ] tué par les iroquois." on this date, february th, the brave lambert closse met his death at the hands of those he had so often withstood. the place of the combat was somewhere near the corner of craig street and st. lambert hill. a tablet placed by the antiquarian society erected on the south corner of st. lambert hill and st. james street, near the site of his house, reads: "near to this place raphael lambert closse, first town major of ville marie, fell bravely defending some colonists attacked by iroquois, th february, . in his honour st. lambert's hill received its name." his biographer, dollier de casson, says he died "as a good soldier of christ and the king." he was one of those chivalrous knights who looked upon the montreal venture as a holy crusade against the infidels, and death to him was victory. "gentlemen," he once explained, "i am not come here, except to die for god in the service of arms. if i did not believe i should die so, i should leave this land and go to fight against the turk so as not to be deprived of this glory." he left behind his young widow of nineteen years, elizabeth moyen, and a child, jeanne cécile closse, now two years old. some colonists, being fallen upon in the fields by the iroquois, lambert ran, as was his wont, to their assistance. he would have saved them had he not been basely deserted by a cowardly fleming, his serving man. the historian of the "relations" for says, "he has justly merited the praise of having saved montreal by his arms and his reputation." on may , , picoté de bélestre signalized that montreal had still brave men to follow in his footsteps by the brilliant defense of the fort ste. marie. this redoubt on the east, with the corresponding outlying one, on the west, of st. gabriel, was a most valuable fortress, without which, as a writer has remarked, montreal "would have been snuffed like a penny dip." the fort ste. marie was opposite the little rapid, down the harbour, still known as ste. marie's current, and was placed among some fifty acres which had been cleared and cultivated in prehistoric days by the indians. the site of the above event is recorded by a tablet on the corner of campeau and lagauchetière streets: "here trudeau, roulier and langevin-lacroix resisted fifty iroquois." the three men were returning to the habitation after their day's work in the fields, when suddenly one of them cried: "to arms! the enemy is upon us!" at the same moment a large party of iroquois, who had been lurking here all day, rose and fired. each frenchman seized his musket and fled to a hole nearby, called "the redoubt." this they held stoutly till rescued by bélestre, the commandant of ste. marie. after a brisk fight the enemy finally retired to the woods. apart from these alarms from the iroquois, a new danger to life had arisen from the drunken fits of the indian allies. on the night of june - michel louvard dit desjardins had been slain before his door in montreal by a savage, "wolf." this produced the following ordinance from de maisonneuve on june th: "in consequence of the murder committed last night on the person of one named desjardins by drunken savages, caused by the sale of intoxicating liquors, notwithstanding previous prohibitions given both by the baron du bois d'avaugour, lieutenant general of his majesty, and mgr. the bishop of petrea, vicar apostolic; after having considered, in consequence of the sales of these drinks, the dangers of a general massacre of the inhabitants by the savages, for which there are weighty presumptions, having regard to the ordinary insolences of these latter, and considering, besides, the ordinary crimes committed on this subject by the french, of which we shall shortly inform the baron d'avaugour and the bishop of petrea, so that there shall be established good order on the subject of the sale of liquors, as well as for the good of the inhabitants and for the savages; we, while awaiting this order by virtue of the power we have received from his majesty, have prohibited and do now prohibit all kinds of persons, of whatsoever quality and condition, from selling, giving or trading intoxicating drinks to the savages, under such pains and punishments as we shall judge proper to inflict, to procure the service of god and the good of this habitation." this looks but just and wise; but it was also bold, seeing that the prohibition of the sale of liquor was at that moment a burning question at quebec. it was especially bold, seeing that maisonneuve adroitly challenged the governor general to stand by his own previous legislation, which he was now tacitly neglecting to enforce. it will be seen that de maisonneuve made reference to powers "we have received from the king." shortly after the publication of this ordinance the baron d'avaugour visited montreal and he flatly doubted the right to introduce these words, especially as he had lately taken the stand of permitting liquor traffic with the indians. as the governor of montreal had been used slightingly and jealously of late by the governor general, he did not show him his documentary authority, although the reader will remember that the royal edict of march , , warranted the words. [illustration: signatures to marriage contract of lambert closse] key to signatures on opposite page _paul de chomedey_ _l. closse_ _issabelle moyen_ _paul ragueneau_ _jeanne mance_ _claude pijart_ _marie moyen_ _françois le mercier_ _françois duperon_ _marin jannot_ _jacques vautié_ _p. gadoys_ _n. g._ (_nicolas gadois_) _r. le cavelier_ _jehan gervaise_ _nicolas hubert_ _marguerite_ _gilbert barbier_ _landreau_ _jacques picot_ _catherine primoit_ _maturine godé_ _caterine de la vaux_ _janne lemoine_ _chartier_ this marriage contract between lambert closse and elizabeth moyen must have been signed by jean de st. père, the first notary of montreal, but his signature appears to have faded. the flourishes or _paraphes_ at the end of the names were customary at the period to insure against imitation. this is now the place to introduce the famous quarrels about the liquor trade, which were of passionate interest in new france in the seventeenth century. it is claimed by the french that the english were the first to introduce the liquor curse to the natives, in payment for furs. when the french returned to quebec the traders followed suit in spite of the prohibitions of champlain, montmagny, d'ailleboust, de maisonneuve, de queylus and laval. the letters of the jesuit missionaries and the contemporary memorialists reveal a shameful story of vice, mingled with that of the establishment of a christian civilization. drink made the savages and the christian neophytes yield to the most deplorable depths of immorality and barbarous brutality. the delights of conviviality gave way to disgusting debaucheries, quarrels and bloody fights. fathers slaughtered their children; husbands, their wives; and the women became veritable furies. children, boys and girls, were all demoralized. after a night's carouse the cabins of the indians were a gruesome sight, heartbreaking to those responsible for the morality of the country. the good nuns were shocked at naked men and women running amuck in the streets of quebec, clearing all before them at the point of the sword. notwithstanding prohibitions and ordinances, the scenes of carouses and of carnage continued, because the minority, the traders, maintained the right as necessary for trade alliances with the natives, asserting that they were not responsible for the abuse. on his arrival laval fought the custom fiercely and finally found himself forced, on may , , to fulminate the terrors of the church's excommunication "ipso facto" against the traffickers, and in this he was supported by the jesuit missionaries. this had a decided effect, backed up by the severe sanctions, even those of death, promulgated by the secular arm of the state, represented by the baron d'avaugour. an unfortunate incident, trivial in itself, destroyed this harmony. it came from the characteristic inflexibility of the soldier governor. he had all the qualities of a soldier who, having made up his mind, is immovable, but he had the defects of these same qualities. what in a good cause would have been constancy in maintaining a point of honour became pigheadedness and impracticability in another. a woman of quebec had been taken, selling a bottle of wine to the indians. her friends and relatives interceded for her to the priest, father lalemant, who in turn approached the governor. the governor must have been in a bad humour and not very philosophical, for he did not distinguish between clemency and justice, between a general command and an extenuating circumstance, or legitimate exemption. it was the priest's part to urge clemency, the governor's to exercise justice. father lalemant was answered brusquely: "since the selling of _eau de vie_ is not punishable for this woman, it shall not be so for anyone"--the answer of the man of the sword and not of the lawyer or statesman. soon the word went around that the governor tolerated the liquor traffic. the obstinate and headstrong soldier would not retract his hasty words and disorders began again. the governor was inactive and shut his eyes, but laval levelled his threats again at the traders, who now openly revolted, saying they would not be dictated to by bishop, priest, preacher or confessor, since the viceroy was on their side. it was under these circumstances that de maisonneuve issued his ordinance forbidding at montreal what was known to be permitted at quebec. hence the passage of arms between the two governors as described. maisonneuve was supported by the clergy of montreal. affairs went from bad to worse at quebec and on august , , the vicar apostolic went to france to place the liquor situation before the king. thither also went the secretary of the baron d'avaugour, péronne de mazé, to justify his master and the traders. charge and countercharge, and recriminations, exercised the french court. the bishop and the jesuits were accused of too much severity and clericalism, the governor and traders of too much laxity and avarice. the problem of the relations of church and state had still to be worked out in new france. in the meantime the bishop won; the sorbonne in had justified his action; the liquor traffic was forbidden and d'avaugour was to be recalled. when laval returned next year, the new governor, de mésy, accompanied him, the man of his own choice--an unfortunate one as we shall see. the month following, september, , de maisonneuve wished to go to france, his object being to secure troops and to arrange for the transfer of the seigneurship of the island from the nearly moribund company of montreal to the seminary of st. sulpice. before leaving he appointed the town major, zacharie dupuis to take his place and an ordinance to that effect was put up at the door of the parish church dated september , . on september th he started with jeanne mance and the abbé souart, conducted by m. jacques leber. when at quebec d'avaugour forbade maisonneuve to depart on the ground that he was needed in montreal to quell the sedition that had arisen there in july in reference to the establishment of a storehouse by the company of one hundred associates. this was but a pretext. maisonneuve, however, consented to return. mademoiselle mance set sail alone on september th. on his return to montreal maisonneuve busied himself in promoting agriculture. there were four classes now living at montreal: the "habitants," or settlers, who took up the lands and were self-supporting, these alone having the rights of trading in peltry; the soldiers of the garrison; hired workers by contract for a definite time; and day labourers. by an ordinance of november , , maisonneuve gave permission to soldiers and hired workers to cultivate four arpents on the seigneurs' domain, till four others equally cultivated were given them elsewhere. as a further inducement, those taking up land would be granted peltry privileges like the habitants. sixty-three responded to this before the end of the year. footnotes: [ ] moffatt's island, five-eighths of a mile from the south shore, now the wharf terminus of the champlain branch of the grand trunk railway. [ ] two of these were "travailleurs ou volontaires," or day labourers. in his ordinance of november , , maisonneuve showed no favour to these who, for the most part, were rather a charge on the young colony than a benefit. at three rivers they early became a considerable nuisance. in , on january , pierre boucher, the local governor, ordered them to become habitants, or servants of habitants, and on march , , he made a new ordinance conceived in these terms: "on the advice which has been given us that there are still labourers who are neither habitants, nor servants of habitants, and who live under the name of 'volontaires' (free workers), we forbid them to take more than twenty sous a day and fifteen _livres_ a month with their food, under penalty of prison and of the cat-o'-nine tails (fouet) at the hands of the hangman, and it is forbidden them to trade any peltry with the savages." at montreal at this date the labourers were not so troublesome, but out of them later developed many of the restless "coureurs de bois." chapter xv - the sovereign council and the seigneurs of the island great changes, physical and political militia squads established--the formation of the confraternity of the holy family--the earthquake at montreal--political changes--the resignation of the company of one hundred associates--canada becomes a crown colony--the transfer of the seigneury of the island from the company of montreal to the "gentlemen of the seminary"--royal government--the appointment of the sovereign council--change in the montreal judicial system--former home rule privileges rescinded--montreal under quebec--pierre boucher's description of canada and montreal--social life of the period--montreal soldiery--the election of police judges--attempt to supplant maisonneuve as local governor--discord in the sovereign council. meanwhile the war was still in progress and news had come that the iroquois had determined to seize montreal, by surprise or force, as their own post, after putting the inhabitants to fire and sword. to meet this threat, de maisonneuve issued an ordinance, january , , inviting the colonists to form into militia squads of seven persons of which one should be elected corporal, for the purpose of supplementing the regular garrison soldiers. on february th "to the end that the country may be saved," he established a _camp volant_, or flying squadron, composed of twenty such squads, to be known under the title of the militia of the holy family of jesus, mary and joseph, "since this island is the property of the holy virgin." it will be remembered that already de maisonneuve had established his military confraternity, or guard of sixty-two. in all things the religious character of the foundation of montreal is seen. at quebec the liquor traffic with the indians went on more boldly, owing to the absence of mgr. laval, and disorders were multiplied, such as the burning of one of the houses on the night of january d. an event, which is reported from many sources and was regarded as a supernatural visitation was, however, more effective in putting the fear of the lord into the liquor traffickers than all the previous thunderings of the clergy. on february th, the eve of carnival monday, or "lundi gras," the first hoarse rumblings of an earthquake which were noted all over canada, were heard at ville marie while m. souart, the curé, was holding prayers in the church, and after five or six minutes the earth began to swell and move. the terror-stricken people left the church lest they should perish in the ruins. at the hôtel-dieu, many of the sick ran out and spent the night on the rolling snow-covered ground. the gayeties of carnival were abandoned and fear fell upon the people. the tremblings lasted for seven or eight minutes. one direct effect of the earthquake was to make the ladies form, under the suggestion of père chaumonot, the jesuit, then on a visit to montreal, and with the co-operation of m. souart, a pious association under the name of the "confraternity of the holy family." its formation, on july st, was greatly promoted by madame d'ailleboust, widow of louis d'ailleboust, the former governor general, who, since his death in , had taken up her abode at the hôtel-dieu. it was approved in march , by mgr. laval. subsequent associations spread all over canada for two centuries. the pictures given of the earthquake are most graphically painted by writers of the period, such as those in the "relations." in the forest the trees were apparently at war, being uprooted and cast against one another, so that the indians said the forest was intoxicated. the hills and mountains were in the same confusion. mountains were laid low and the valleys were filled up. the ice beds of the rivers broke up and the water, mingled with mud, poured up in jets on high. the streams quitted their beds or changed the colours of their waters, some yellow, others red; the great st. lawrence was whitish for eight days. to the affrighted people it seemed that the spirits of darkness and the powers of the air were permitted to league themselves. but there was little loss of life "and the harvest," says sister marie de l'incarnation, "was never more fruitful. there were no sicknesses. you see by this that god only wounds to bless and that his inflictions which we have experienced, are only the chastisement of a good father." the effects of this earthquake still are visible. from cape tourment to tadoussac there were changes in the contour of the land and of the banks of the st. lawrence. the picturesque name, les eboulements, in the bay of st. paul, records the fall of a hill nearby into the river, thus forming the present island. the earthquake spread to new england and the new netherlands, and similar terrors affected the minds of the people as in canada. while these warlike physical changes were terrifying canada, in france the constitution of the bodies governing its temporal law and order were also being overhauled in a more peaceful manner. on february th the few remaining rich members of the company of one hundred associates, which had the monopoly of new france since , were constrained, seeing impending dissolution by force, to offer the resignation of their charters, by a renunciation pure and simple. in the march following this was accepted by the king. the colony came at last directly under the crown and happier times were in store for it. splendid colonizing ideas were being prepared by louis xiv and jean baptiste colbert, the successor of mazarin, which if carried out would have prevented the necessity of the cession of . the words of the edict will not surprise our readers. [illustration: colbert] "since it has pleased god," says this prince, "to give peace to our kingdom, we have nothing more strongly to heart than the re-establishment of commerce, as being the source and the principle of the abundance which we take upon ourselves to procure for our people. this has led us to inform ourselves of the state of new france which our king, our very honoured lord and father, had given over by a treaty of to a company of one hundred persons. but in place of learning that this country had been populated as it should be, considering the long time of its possession, we have recognized with regret that not only the number of its inhabitants is very small, but that they are every day in danger of being driven out by the iroquois. recognizing, besides, that this company of one hundred men is nearly extinct owing to the voluntary retirement of a great number, and that the few remaining are not powerful enough to maintain this country, by sending forces and men necessary to swell and defend it, we have resolved to take it from the hands of this company, which has resigned it to our good purposes. for which reasons we declare that all the rights of property, justice and _seigneurie_ granted by our most honoured lord and father, by the charter of april , , shall be and do remain reunited to our crown, to be henceforth exercised in our name by the officers whom we shall name to this effect." thus the future canadian society was being thought out on the basis of an over-parental feudalism, probably the best form for the times, though it sadly crippled the initiative of the french-canadian population, with results seen to this day. yet the population was no more than twenty-five hundred souls, of which eight hundred were at quebec. at the same time the negotiations for the transfer of the seigneury of the island of montreal were completed. during the visit of mademoiselle mance several meetings of the company of montreal had been held, the members of which, with the exception of some directors of the seminary of paris, and m. de maisonneuve, were reduced to five. on march th the act of transfer, to be found in the edicts and ordinances of the province of quebec, states that: "considering the great blessings, which god has poured upon the island of montreal for the conversion of the savages and the edification of the french, by the help of mm. olier, de renty and others, for twenty years; and now, in later years the gentlemen of the seminary of st. sulpice have laboured by their care and zeal to uphold this good work, having exposed their persons and having made contributions for the good of the colony and increase of the glory of god; the associates desiring moreover to contribute on their part by seconding the pious designs of the gentlemen of the seminary, and in honour of the memory of the founder and one of the promoters and benefactors of the work of montreal, they have, after several conferences on the subject, and in furtherance of the greater glory of god, given to these gentlemen all the proprietorial rights which they have in the island of montreal, as also the seigneurial manor house, called the fort, the farm, the tilled lands and all the rights that they have in their island."[ ] in this donation special reference was made to the services of m. de maisonneuve. he was to continue, during his life, governor and captain of the island and of the seigneurial manor house under, however, the pleasure of the gentlemen of the seminary. he was to have, in place of remuneration, half of the farm lands and the revenues of the mill. he was to have his apartments in the seigneurial manor house, in which the gentlemen of the seminary, as seigneurs, shall henceforth have the right to live. after some hesitation, in view of the expense of the undertaking, the seminary of st. sulpice at paris, on march st, finally undertook the work for which their founder had always intended them, and montreal was saved from the abandonment which at one time during the negotiations looked imminent. there was a desire to have m. de queylus sent back, but laval, then in paris, was adamant in his firmness. on his part, he was very well received at court. the king would have laval made "bishop of quebec" and he gave him the abbey revenues of maubec in the diocese of bourges to sustain the position when the see of quebec should be erected, which was not to be for many years. the most important preparation for the better government of new france, and one in favor of laval, was the edict, published in march by the king, of the appointment of a sovereign council to sit at quebec, unless judged more convenient elsewhere. this was to consist of the governor general, the bishop, or in default the highest ecclesiastic on the spot, the intendant when appointed, five councillors and a _procureur du roi_. the nomination of these councillors was to be made conjointly by the governor general and the bishop, and they could dismiss them or continue them at pleasure. this gave laval greater power than before, for hitherto under d'avaugour, he had only a right to be called to the council with a "voix délibératrice," as a simple councillor among creatures chosen by the governor general. the baron d'avaugour was recalled,[ ] and laval was constrained to name his successor, his choice falling unfortunately on m. saffray de mézy, then town major of caen, whom he had formerly met at the hermitage of caen, where m. bernières gathered his pious friends whom he thought he could rely on to extend the glory of god. de mézy's letters were signed on may st, before d'avaugour's second year of the usual term of three years was completed. on march th laval, in preparation for rearing a colonial clergy, erected a seminary and united it with that of the foreign missionaries of paris, from whom he wished to draw some volunteers. in the april following he obtained an edict from the king regulating the "dime" for church support and the poor rate, to be fixed at the thirteenth part of the income of each colonist. it was arranged also that the curés should be removable at the will of the bishop and his successors. the bishop of petrea reached quebec on september th with the new governor general, de mézy, and m. louis gaudais, sieur du pont. the latter had been sent by the king as an envoy to enquire into the government of d'avaugour, and in addition to report on the most convenient means for the colonization and cultivation of the country. the troops which the king had desired to send to subdue the iroquois were not as yet at liberty to come, but in their place, families containing persons, with expenses defrayed for a year, were dispatched this year. by september th the new councillors, rouer de villeray, keeper of the seals; jucherau de la ferté, m. ruette d'auteuil, legardeur de tilly, d'amours; and the new king's procurator, m. bourdoin, with gaudais, the royal commissioner acting as intendant _ad interim_, had collaborated with de mézy and laval and had issued a severe edict forbidding the liquor traffic with the indians. there was now great stir under the new form of royal government. mézy and laval were announced as chiefs of the council. the inhabitants made offer of their "foi et hommage" for their land tenures. officers for the administration of justice, according to civil law, were appointed. regulations for commerce and social progress were promulgated. new france was declared a province or a kingdom and quebec a "town." a mayor, legardeur de repentigny, and two aldermen, jean maudry and claude charron, were elected, and municipal life seemed promised. these officers met on october th, but by november th their election was revoked by the council and the office of syndic again restored. this abortive municipal life was apparently too great a stride in the autocratic government then in vogue. yet canada was beginning to emerge from its petty parish condition and its struggling state. the privilege granted laval of exacting one-thirteenth part of the fruits of the earth and of a man's labour on the earth for church establishment was not satisfactory, and finally it was reduced to one-twentieth for the rest of monseigneur's life; later it was reduced by laval to a twenty-sixth. the taking over of the colony as a royal possession began to affect other places than quebec. at montreal, the assumption of the seigneurial duties and privileges was not without difficulty. on august th, the commission which had been privately given by m. de bretonvilliers to m. souart was publicly ratified. but hardly had the sovereign council been installed than it took away the right of the seigneurs to administer justice in civil and criminal cases, and on september th appointed m. arthur de sailly as judge, charles le moyne, king's procurator, bénigne basset as chief clerk and notary of the sénéchal's court, all of whom took the oath on october th. similar inferior courts of justice were also established at three rivers; appeal could be made on trivial causes to the supreme council. the customary law of paris, or "_coutume de paris_," based on the civil law of rome, was the fundamental law of canada, and still governs the civil rights of the people. hitherto maisonneuve had acted as administrator of justice, but now the seigneurs named charles d'ailleboust des musseaux as judge and retained bénigne basset as clerk of the seigneurs. the new appointments, made over their heads in defiance of their rights, caused m. souart, on behalf of the seigneurs, to go to quebec with m. de maisonneuve, to protest. but while there, de mézy dealt a further blow by presenting maisonneuve with his commission of governor of montreal, thereby intimating that the seigneurs had no right of appointment. m. souart, relying on the decree of giving this power to the seigneurs, then the company of montreal, protested, and he was ordered to produce the letters patent for proof; meanwhile de maisonneuve was to act as governor of montreal, by the power just granted by the governor general, till the king should order otherwise. in the meantime de maisonneuve acted on his new commission but always without prejudice to the rights of the seigneurs. this loyalty was also shared by bénigne basset for, in a contract of marriage for november , , he signs himself as clerk in the royal sénéchal's court, notary royal, and clerk for the seigneurs. it may be for this reason that he was supplanted later in his office in the sénéchal's court by sieur de mouchy, who had been appointed by the sovereign council "for good reasons." maisonneuve's position at montreal was also getting insecure. there was now an effort on foot to bring montreal under control of quebec as the seat of the royal government and the veteran, de maisonneuve, as an adherent of the old ways, was jealously viewed by de mézy and perhaps by laval. certainly montreal was now being dominated by the newly-imported royal policy. but the new colonial policy was to bring good results from the new blood infused. if wisely handled, the new régime would have worked permanent good. the resignation of the company of new france, on february , , was accepted by the king in march of the same year, and the edict on the creation of the supreme council followed in the april following. from the date of the establishment of the supreme council, september , , civil government may be said to have begun. hitherto no deliberative board had sat to discuss the affairs of the colony. there had been a vague and indefinite system of government by the chartered companies, but there had been no constituted hierarchy, either in the political or in the judicial order. the council was modeled on that of the parliament of paris. the terms of the "ordonnance" of its creation indicated that the king wished to create here, in canada, an authority to supply what the parliament of paris, seeing its great distance away, could not provide for. yet the sovereign council was never a real parliament, although it contained in germ, if not actually, all the power of one. the dignity of the new body was so great later that when frontenac came as a governor he considerably astonished the simple burgesses of the little fortress of quebec with all the pomp at his command. he would be in truth a "viceroy," and gascon that he was, he would play the part. others also in their sphere would reproduce the usages of the paris mother parliament; hence the troubles about "préséance," among the counsellors, which seem so trivial to us, but not so to them, punctilious in their observance of their high positions. with paris for an example, it is not surprising that frontenac dismissed his counsellors, when it suited him, for did not louis le soleil do the same himself? the "ordonnance" of the creation of the council, after indicating the composition of its members and outlining its general powers, then continues: "moreover we give power to the said council to commission, at quebec, montreal, three rivers and in all other places, as many, and in the manner as it shall deem necessary, persons as shall judge in the first instance without chicanery and delay, the procedures of different proceedings which may arise between private persons, and shall name clerks, notaries and scriveners, surgeons and other officers of justice whom they shall judge proper, our desire being to drive all chicanery as far as possible out of the said country of new france, with the end that prompt and speedy justice may be rendered." the sovereign council was held at quebec but it ruled over montreal, not in broad lines of general policy only, but in what we would call village politics. it went into very small details indeed and the parish church portals were frequently posted with proclamations from quebec. there does not seem to have been much home rule for montreal in those days. a picture of this period is presented in the "histoire véritable et naturelle de la nouvelle france," dedicated to colbert, the minister, by a letter written from three rivers on october , , by pierre boucher, who had been sent to france by the inhabitants of la nouvelle france for help, in , when he had conversed with colbert personally. his object was to explain the physical and natural history of the country to encourage colonization. he expresses surprise that the country still remained inadequately populated, but he warns colbert against any policy of sending criminals to this country. tramps were not wanted in canada. if any insinuated themselves they knew, how to hang them, as elsewhere. doubtful women were not tolerated either. those women that came were vouched for by responsible persons or relatives. speaking of the climate he says: "from the beginning of may, the heat is extremely great, though we are only coming out of the depth of winter. this is the reason why everything goes ahead and in less than no time the earth is covered with verdure. it is remarkable that the wheat sown at the end of april or as late as may st is harvested in september. the winter is very cold, but it is a bright frost, and for the most part the days are beautiful and serene. "mont royal, the last of our settlements, is situated on a beautiful and great island. the lands are very good and produce grain in abundance; everything is going on well there; fishing and hunting are also very good." montreal is described as having a rich soil, but requiring horses[ ] to till it. as these are expensive he hopes the "bon roi" would assist, especially by exterminating the iroquois, who killed the cattle. most of its trees were oak. there was no hemp, but the soil was suitable for its cultivation. speaking of the caribous he says that the males have forked feet, which in running, open so widely that they never sink in the winter snows no matter how deep these may be. he speaks of the skill of the beavers in constructing their dams, which the waters cannot break through, saying that they thus arrest the courses of little streams, inundating a great part of the country and forming pools for them in which to play and to have their dwellings. the savages had the greatest difficulty on their hunting expeditions in destroying these dams. describing social life, he says that the country produced strong boys and girls, but they were led to study with difficulty. wine was drunk in the best houses, beer in others, and a favourite drink in common use was "bouillon." some houses were built of stone covered with pine boards, some were built with upright posts filled in with masonry; others were framework buildings of wood. there were no women servants in canada. most of the men started as servants and in a few years were at their ease working for themselves. he advised all who came to canada to be ready to put their hands to anything, building or land clearing. they should bring provisions for two years, especially flour. he gives many other details showing the value of money and the price of things. the great difficulty beyond the mosquitoes and the length of the winter was the fear of the stealthy iroquois who were here, there and everywhere, never attacking but when they were in strong force. when discovered they take to flight, and as they are so agile in their movements, it is difficult to pursue them. he trusted the "bon roi" would assist in destroying them. "and," says boucher, "it would not be a difficult thing to get rid of them, for they consist but of eight to nine hundred men capable of bearing arms. it required only prudence and sufficient force to destroy them." boucher was accompanied from france by dumont, an officer in charge of soldiers. in dumont's account of his visit, written in in the "relations," he says of montreal that the inhabitants were the most soldierly in the country--a remark made also by boucher. boucher's mission to france helped to persuade the king to take over the colony as a royal possession. when the king's forces came to exterminate the iroquois the montreal fighting men did justice to their reputation, as we shall see. at this period the mode of living was very simple. the house was one long room lighted by three windows, in which all the family ate, slept and worked. at the bottom of the apartment was the bed of the parents, against the wall; in a corner a contrivance which served as a bench by day and a bed by night for the children. on the right, as you entered, you would have seen the open chimney rising a little above the room, and slung from a chain was the family cooking pot. near the fireside was a small staircase or ladder leading to the grain loft above lighted by one or two small windows. a table and a few chairs or benches or a collapsible chair and table in one, completed the primitive furniture in the living room. but we must not forget the old gun hanging over the bed, ready at hand during the night should the iroquois suddenly attack. this served also as the family forager for meat, and game, both feathered and "red skins." there was good shooting in the neighbourhood of montreal, with plenty of ducks and partridges. it is recounted that in a hunter in quebec brought down thirty-two grey turtle doves with one shot. on the rivers they were so numerous that the rowers could hit the troublesome birds with their paddles. the settlers, when they had collected all they needed and salted there for the winter, had abundance left over to give to the dogs and the pigs. there was not much hunting in the woods by montrealers, but the indians brought into the market near the fort, the original "place d'armes," a goodly amount of bear, elk, venison, wild cow, moose, beaver and muskrats, and other meats. on "fish days" the good montrealer had no excuse for not keeping church abstinence, for eels sold at an _écu_ a hundred, and sturgeons, shad, dory, pike, carp, groundlings, brill and maskinongé abounded. from quebec they received the salmon and the herring, trout from malbaie and white fish from three rivers. provisions, clothing and property originally were exchanged by barter, e. g., a small lot of land went for two cows and a pair of stockings; a larger piece would go for two bulls, a cow and a little money. money became less rare when the troops arrived. meanwhile the war with the iroquois was carried on with the usual incidents, as already described. at montreal there seems to have been more fear of the exactions of quebec than of the incursions of iroquois. quebec had endeavoured to restrain all trade to itself, and in consequence of this monopoly prices were very high in montreal, and many households were in want. at the same time there were complaints as to the adequacy of the police arrangement, so that there seemed to be ground for fearing some sedition. accordingly on february , , paul de chomedey published an ordinance ordering the habitants to assemble on the sunday following, february th, to the place called the "hangar," to elect five of the principal inhabitants to regulate the matters of police for the town. this day, the weather being bad, saw very few at the voting place, and we find the syndic, urbain bauderau, asking for a reannouncement of the same ordinance for next sunday, march d. this was done, and at least were present, to judge by the votes recorded. the following were elected police judges: louis prud'homme, votes; jacques le moyne, ; gabriel le sel, sieur du clos, ; jacques picot, sieur de la brie, ; jean leduc, . [illustration: votes recorded of an election of civic officers] dated march th, another document of de maisonneuve is preserved, in which it is recorded that the above five had been ordered to appear before the governor to take the oath, and had done so, but le sel and leduc, having said and declared that they did not know how to write or sign, the three others signed the commission of appointment. meanwhile the position of de maisonneuve as governor of montreal was becoming insecure and in june of this year he was called to quebec by m. de mézy who named captain etienne pézard, sieur de la touche, to succeed him in his position. what the reason was, beyond the jealousy of the governor general, or a possible secret instruction from the government, we do not know. yet this latter appointment never took place, for we find de maisonneuve still governor till his final removal by tracy at the end of , and even then m. dupuis, the town major, was only appointed as commandant till perrot was officially appointed in .[ ] at quebec the early months of were signalized by the outburst in flame of the smouldering dissatisfactions and the growing discord marring the harmony hitherto existing between laval and de mézy, the joint chiefs of the sovereign council. the dual rule was found impossible, especially as the council was considered by de mézy to be a packed one in favour of laval. it came to a head on february d, when the governor sent his major, the sieur d'angouville, to announce to the bishop that he had forbidden three of the council, de villeray, d'auteuil and bourdon, the king's procurator, to appear at the council until they had been justified by the king for the cabals he alleged had been fomented against himself by them. he prayed the bishop to confirm this interdiction of those "who had been named in his favour" and to proceed in the nomination of three others. he did more: he proclaimed the same interdiction at the sound of the drum by a proclamation signed also by the three other councillors. further, on february th, he published another declaration forbidding several practices which he said he felt bound to stop, so as not to betray the interests of the king. this rupture was inevitably the result of the impossible dual government. in france the vesting of temporal power in a bishop was not so likely to prove unsuccessful as in a new country needing a military governor. but to place the spiritual and civil authorities "ex aequo" in civil government was not the wise move for the good of the church it had been intended to be. m. de mézy no doubt felt the weakness of his position. the moral strength of government would be dominated by the bishop and in a conflict the councillors and others would side with the bishop as vicar apostolic, who was irremovable, except by the pope, until death, while the governor general could be recalled even before his three years were completed. hence his patience was tried and his dignity hurt; thus he lost his head and went beyond his powers. on the other hand, the bishop would honestly not have been prepared for this outburst. with pain and astonishment laval replied, on february th, that he could not in honour or in conscience ratify the suspension of the councillors until they should be convicted of their alleged crimes against the governor. the suspension of bourdon, the king's procurator, held up the administration of justice. this mézy endeavoured to correct by appointing, on march th, against the will of laval, another, in the person of the sieur chartier. he went further and arbitrarily dissolved the council on september th, and on the th established another without the consent and participation of the bishop. on september d m. bourdon sailed to france at the command of de mézy to render an account of his service to the king. in october de mézy published again, at the beat of the drum, another proclamation, which incensed the ecclesiastical party. the dissentions in quebec could not but have a disquieting effect on montreal, now politically more dependent on quebec than ever. footnotes: [ ] the seigneury of st. sulpice, already granted, is included in this as part of the whole. [ ] d'avaugour received the news as a magnanimous soldier. on his way home he wrote from gaspé a memorial to colbert in which he commends new france to the king. "the st. lawrence," he says, "is the entrance to what may be made the greatest state in the world." in his purely military way he recounts the means of making this grand possibility by a military colonization. [ ] one horse only had reached canada previously. it arrived june , , and was presented to the governor, montmagny. [ ] etienne pézard de la touche never acted as governor of montreal owing to the rigorous protestations raised by the seigneurs of the island. m. de la touche seems to have arrived in canada in and by the th of october of that year he is to be found acting as lieutenant of the garrison of three rivers, in which locality he remained till , when he became a captain. on june th he married madeleine mulois de la borde and m. de maisonneuve as governor assisted at the ceremony. on the same day or the next by a curious irony of fate there is found the nomination of the newly married captain, dated from quebec, as maisonneuve's successor. when the news became known at montreal it was looked upon by the governor general de mésy as an arrogation of the powers of the seigneurs of montreal, and an attempt on the part of the recently created sovereign council to test its jurisdiction over montreal. the triumph of the seigneurs was evident, for on july d following, de maisonneuve was accorded by the sovereign council his emoluments for the upkeep of the garrison for the current year, and on july th is found as governor granting a new concession of land, a practice he continued till may, . on the other hand, on july d, de la touche is recorded as in charge of the accounts of the garrison of three rivers. on august th m. de mésy apparently by way of a consolation accorded him the seigneury of batiscan and of cap de la madeleine, and the new seigneur busied himself in his new position. meanwhile de maisonneuve's days were numbered. (cf. canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, , no. , article by e. z. massicotte.) chapter xvi the recall of de maisonneuve the governor general de courcelles and the intendant talon arrive--the dual reign inharmonious--sieur de tracy, lieutenant general of the king for north america, arrives--the carignan-sallieres regiment--capture of charles le moyne by iroquois--building of outlying forts--preparations for war--the dismissal of maisonneuve--an unrecognized man--his monument--maisonneuve in paris--a true canadian. the strained relations at quebec and montreal were soon to be relieved for a time by the death of de mézy, who died on the night of may - , , thus being saved the painful investigations into his government which were ordered by louis xiv, and were to be conducted by the new governor, m. de courcelles, and the intendant, jean baptiste talon. they, having received their letters of appointment on march d, were now on their way with a secret commission to look into the administration of the spiritual and temporal power of new france. m. de courcelles was given power over all the local governors of canada, and the sovereign council, to settle differences between its members, and to have command over all his majesty's subjects, ecclesiastics, nobles, soldiers and others of whatever dignity or condition, but this under the supervision of m. alexandre de pourville, sieur de tracy, who was shortly expected to be in canada. this latter had been appointed on november , , the lieutenant general of the king for _l'amérique méridionale et septentrionale_, and was to proceed to canada as soon as possible. as for talon, the colbert of new france, and the first intendant in canada, he was given unlimited authority in police, civil, judiciary and financial matters, independently of m. de courcelles. [illustration: the intendant talon] this distribution of power was bound, in the beginning, to create trouble. perfect harmony could not be expected while the intendant, though not of equal dignity with the governor, was treated with great consideration and was looked upon to act as a check and spy on the governor. this dual reign was as likely to cause friction as had that of the governor and the bishop hitherto. still it was a most valuable and useful office in the progress of the country, and talon used it well. before the arrival of de courcelles and talon, on april th, an attack had been made on the hôtel-dieu at montreal, when four of their men were fallen upon by the indians; one was killed, another mortally wounded and two others were taken prisoners. this made montreal look more eagerly for the arrival of the troops promised to exterminate the iroquois. on june th and th, four companies of the carignan-sallières regiment, which had sailed from rochelle, arrived at quebec, while de tracy himself, with the four others which had served with him in the french islands, reached quebec on june th. in the train of the tall and portly veteran of sixty-two, was a gay and glittering throng of finely dressed young noblemen, and gentlemen adventurers, eager to witness the wonders of new france. never was such splendour seen in canada as that, when laval received de tracy and his bronzed veterans recently come from hungary, where they had fought the turks, and who now, with their picturesque soldiery accoutrements and trained movements marched stately to the fort to the beat of the drums. assuredly at last the iroquois would be exterminated by such disciplined forces. this infantry regiment, which at the conclusion of the war was to leave many of its soldiers to settle down near montreal and become the founders of many of the best canadian families, had originally been raised in by thomas françois de savoie, prince of carignan, the head of the house of carignan, who fought for france in italy. his son, after him, also commanded this regiment, which took henceforth the name of carignan. in , after having joined the regiment of colonel balthasar, he incorporated this with his own and it was handed over to the french king, who placed m. henri de chapelais, sieur de sallières, the colonel of another regiment incorporated with it, to command it in the absence of the prince, under his orders. hence the combination became known as the carignan-sallières regiment and consisted of about , men from the carignan-balthasar regiment and of the sallières. the portion of the troop which returned to france became the nucleus of a reconstructed regiment which under the name of lorraine existed till . the regiment had, however, not yet all arrived. that portion led by colonel de sallières himself did not come till august th or th, while the last companies reached new france with de courcelles and talon, on september th. these latter added to the splendour of quebec "for," says mother jucherau, "m. de courcelles, our governor, had a superb train and m. talon, who naturally loves glory, forgot nothing which could do honour to the king." at last the numbers were complete, but many were put into the hospitals, sick from disease, and from the long voyage, which had taken m. talon's party days at sea. this sickness was one of the reasons which delayed the war against the iroquois till next year. meanwhile at montreal news had arrived of the capture on the ile ste. thérèse, of charles le moyne who, in july, had been given leave by de maisonneuve to join the friendly "wolves" in a hunting expedition. he, however, escaped death, for he threatened them with dire revenge. "there will come a great number of french soldiers," he said, "who will burn your villages; they are even now arriving at quebec. of that i have certain information." in preparation for the coming war, de tracy, soon after his arrival, determined to build forts at the entrances to the routes leading to and from the iroquois country. these were to be garrisoned by the soldiers of the carignan regiments so far arrived. the first fort was placed at the mouth of the richelieu river, to replace that originally built by de montmagny, and quickly ruined in . it was built under the direction of one of the officers, m. sorel, whose name was afterwards given to this place, a second was constructed at the foot of a rapid of the richelieu river and it received the name of chambly, from another carignan officer. m. de sallières constructed the third at another rapid of the same river and it gained its name of fort ste. thérèse from the saint's day occurring on october th, the day of its completion. a fourth, st. john, was built at the foot on another rapid of the richelieu. the fifth was built by another officer, m. lamothe, on an island of lake champlain, at a distance of four leagues from its mouth and was named ste. anne. after their completion, the soldiers were distributed for winter to quebec, three rivers and montreal. colonel de sallières was in command at the latter. as provisions were scarce in the storehouses of the company, talon wrote to colbert on october , : "i have sent merchandise to montreal and on the advice of m. de tracy i have added some ammunition from the king's stores to be distributed to the inhabitants. but in return i expect to receive from them wheat and vegetables, as well as elk skins, to make stronger canoes than those covered with birch bark." hearing of the preparation for war, an embassy from the three upper nations under garacontié, the chief friendly to the french, met de tracy at quebec, bringing back with them charles le moyne unscathed, and parleying for peace. but the two insolent lower tribes against whose marauderings the forts had been built, were still contumacious and to be punished presently. by november, the forts were completed and the peace from iroquois attacks was so secure that the body of father duperon, the old jesuit missioner at montreal, who had died at chambly, was taken to quebec to be buried. this same month, on november th, another jesuit well known at montreal, simon le moyne, died at cap de la madeleine. he was a man of remarkable courage, tact and ability, and his name will ever be remembered in canadian history as the first european recorded to have ascended the st. lawrence river. [illustration: le moyne memorial at salina, new york] a greater sorrow than the imprisonment of le moyne was to afflict montreal in the enforced departure of "its father, and very dear governor," who had served the colony for nearly twenty-four years, and was now to be a sacrifice to the centralizing policy of the new government, which had long looked with envy on the power of the seigneurs of montreal to name their governor. the policy pursued by de mézy, and temporarily checked, was now adopted by the marquis de tracy, with no uncertain significance. the joy at the arrival of the troops, now turned to bitterness. the nature of de maisonneuve's dismissal was conveyed in the appointment, on october d, of his successor. "having permitted," ran de tracy's letter, "m. de maisonneuve, governor of montreal, to make a journey to france for his own private affairs, we have judged that we can make no better choice for a commander in his absence than the person of sieur dupuis, and this as long as we shall judge convenient." under the glove of velvet, can be seen the hand of iron. this stroke of diplomacy, delicate enough in its way, cut deep enough to wound de maisonneuve's friends. the charge of inefficiency was read into the veiled dismissal by marguerite bourgeoys, his faithful adviser. "he was ordered to return to france," says sister morin, "as being incapable of the place and rank of governor he held here; which i could scarcely have believed, had not sister bourgeoys assured me of it. he took the order as that of the will of god and crossed over to france, not to make complaint of the bad treatment he had received but to live simply and humbly, an unrecognized man." de maisonneuve was left a poor man; he had made no fortune in canada, as others had done. he had contented himself with being the father of his people. his devotion and attachment to montreal had stood in the way of his acceptance of the governor generalship. he left under a cloud, but his memory has been vindicated in the noble monument to him in the place d'armes of montreal. there is hardly to be found a higher ideal of christian knighthood in the whole history of our canadian heroes. [illustration: statue of maisonneuve in place d'armes (by philippe hébert)] on his return to france, he led a simple christian life. his heart was in montreal, and in his modest home at the fossé st. victor, his greatest delight was sometimes to receive a canadian visitor, for whom he felt a fatherly affection. his retreat was visited in by marguerite bourgeoys, who thus describes it in the account of her journey to obtain the letters patent for her new institution: "the morning of my arrival i went to the seminary of st. sulpice to learn where i could find m. de maisonneuve. he was lodged at the fossé st. victor, near the church of the fathers of christian doctrine, and i arrived at his house rather late. only a few days before he had constructed a cabin and furnished a little room after the canadian manner so as to entertain any persons who should come from canada. i knocked at the door and he himself came down to open it, for he lived on the second floor with his servant, louis frins, and he opened the door for me with very great joy." many other kindnesses did this simple gentleman do for her and for other canadians, for whom he acted as the kindly agent while they were in paris. a true canadian! may his memory remain forever green at montreal! he died on september , , and his funeral obsequies were carried out in the church hard by his home, above mentioned. dollier de casson, in his history of the city, treats the painful incident of the governor's departure thus: "speaking of the arrival of the ships and of the 'grand monde' which came to montreal this year, and of the extreme joy because of the king's goodness in making his victorious arms glare and glitter, all the same these joys were diluted for the more intelligent with much bitterness when they saw m. maisonneuve, their father and very dear governor, depart this time for good, leaving them in the hands of others, from whom they could not expect the same freedom, the same love, and the same fidelity in putting down the vices, which have since taken effect with those other disgraces and miseries, which had never up to then appeared to the point at which they have since been seen." it is commonly thought that maisonneuve arrived at montreal in his fortieth year. he lived there twenty-three years. after that he spent eleven in france, thus dying at the age of seventy-four years. chapter xvii - the subdual of the iroquois the end of the heroic age primitive expeditions under de courcelles, sorel and de tracy--the royal troops and the montreal "blue coats"--dollier de casson, the soldier chaplain--the victory over the iroquois--the hotel-dieu at montreal receives the sick and wounded--the confirmation of the gentlemen of the seminary as seigneurs--the lieutenant general and intendant in montreal--the "dime"--the census of --more clergy needed--the abbe de queylus returns, welcomed by laval and made vicar general--reinforcement of sulpicians--their first mission at kente--the return of the recollects--the arrival of perrot as local governor of montreal. so eager was de courcelles to carry on the war, for which the troops had come, that they started from quebec on january th, in the depth of winter, a rash venture as de maisonneuve could have told the europeans. yet they marched out, each soldier with his unaccustomed snowshoes and with twenty to thirty pounds of biscuits and provisions strapped on his back, crossing the frozen streams and waterfalls, to the number of of the carignan regiment, and french canadians. they were joined by others on the route, among them a party of good montrealers under charles le moyne. these latter were de courcelles' most valued men, being seasoned woodmen used to wars' alarms. he called them his "blue coats," and found they served and obeyed him, better than the rest. the expedition was an utter failure, for not counting the frozen fingers, noses and limbs, they lost many men, sixty dying from want of provisions, so that de courcelles returned to quebec disconsolate. a second expedition, under sorel, started in july. this time there were only "thirty good montrealers." when within twenty leagues of the iroquois camps, they were met by the famous chief, called the "flemish bastard," with some european captives. he asked for peace, and sorel, believing him, marched back to quebec with the bastard. de tracy led the next expedition with de courcelles on the feast of the exaltation of the cross, september th. never had so large an army started out-- carignans, friendly indian allies from the missions and french canadians, of which were the "blue coats" from montreal under le moyne and picoté de bélestre, who led the van to meet the brunt of all disasters as they were chosen to be at the rear in retreat. the canoes and flat-bottomed boats started from quebec crossed lake champlain; then, they landed and portaged their boats on their backs till they launched them again on lake st. george (then called lake st. sacrament), and proceeded up the narrows to where fort william henry was afterwards built. there were miles of marching now to be endured, through forests, streams and marshes gleaming in the indian summer sun. marie de l'incarnation tells some adventures of this journey. as each one, even the officers, had to carry his knapsack of provisions, the fair chevalier de chaumont got a humour on his shoulders. others suffered likewise. general de tracy was placed in a dangerous predicament when crossing a ford. "he was one of the biggest men i have ever seen," says the good sister, "and a swiss soldier was trying to carry him. when in the middle, de tracy found himself overthrown, but luckily clung to a rock and saved himself. from this undignified position he was rescued by a hardy huron, who conveyed him safely to the other side." but the character of this journey was the genial chaplain of the montreal forces, none other than dollier de casson, whom we have quoted so often. dollier had arrived in canada on september th. his venturesome spirit was enlisted at once in this expedition, in which he was quite at home being, besides a "man of god," a "man of war," having but ten years ago served and fought, as a cavalry officer under marshal de turenne. he was a very large man, as tall as de tracy, and stronger. grandet, who left a manuscript note on dollier, says that he had such extraordinary strength, that he could hold two men seated in his hands. he was cheerful, courtly, courteous and genial. he had a merry and quick jest to cheer up the "blue coats" and others, in many a tight corner. he was doubtless the most popular man in camp.[ ] if he had lived in these days, the newspapers would have called him the "fighting parson." grandet, in his manuscript note on dollier, tells how on one occasion, being at prayer on his knees in an algonquin camp, an insolent savage came to interrupt him. without rising from his knees, the big burly missioner sent the astonished indian sprawling on the ground by a blow from his fist--a proceeding which gained him admiration from the algonquins, who exclaimed with pride in his physical prowess: "this is indeed a man!" probably this strength helped him to become the great peacemaker he afterwards became at montreal. dollier says little of himself in his account of the march, speaking modestly and impersonally of himself. the big man seems to have suffered hunger very much on the small rations dealt out to him, for he says that "this priest made a good noviceship under a certain captain who could be called the grand master of fasting; at least this officer could have served as novice master in this point to the fathers of the desert." this "ecclesiastic of st. sulpice," he says, "was strongly built, but what enfeebled him was hearing the confessions of the men by night while the others were asleep. he felt the marching pretty badly, for his wretched pair of shoes gave way, so that having nothing left but the uppers the sharp stones of the water beds and banks played havoc with his bare feet. so weak and weary did he become that he could not save a man drowning in the water into which he had plunged to the rescue. this man happened to belong to the train of the jesuits and dollier explained that it was hunger that had so enfeebled him, whereat the good jesuit took the good sulpician aside and gave him a piece of bread, made palatable with two different _sucres_, one of _madeira_ and the other of _appétit_." we cannot pursue the story of the war, as it takes us too far from montreal. suffice it to say that there was a complete victory, the greatest that had ever been won against the iroquois. after the capture of the last stronghold of the mohawk iroquois, the warrior priest chanted a te deum and said mass. after that, the cross was planted with the arms of france and possession was taken of the country in the name of louis xiv. "vive le roi!" at quebec, when the news arrived, on november d, there were great rejoicings, and when de tracy returned on the th the te deum boomed out anew. but the army was sorely depleted; many had died from cold, hunger and the chances of war, as also by accidents on the road, whereas the iroquois had lost little else than their birch bark cabins. after the termination of the expedition, some of the soldiers were picketed in the new forts. a chaplain was needed for fort ste. anne, and dollier de casson, now returned to montreal, volunteered, although he suffered from a swelling on the knee, to cure which he underwent a severe bleeding at the hands of one of the local medicos of montreal, who did it so effectually that the big man fainted. however, he started out in two days, accompanied by jacques leber, charles le moyne and migeon de branssat. at ste. anne's, he had busy work, with young forestier, a surgeon from montreal, in attending the sick men who suffered from famine and scurvy, while eleven died. though himself sick the cheery chaplain did good, self-sacrificing service, none the less excellent, because it was seasoned with a plenteous fund of raillery and bantering. among the officers there was la durantaye, famous hereafter in canadian annals. so the winter wore away at ste. anne's, relieved by provisions sent by the good folks of montreal. that winter the hôtel-dieu of montreal was filled to overflowing with the sick and wounded, which it had received from the army under de courcelles after the terrible war of the early winter. during the next year it continued its good work, for which dollier de casson says it deserved unspeakable praise, receiving the sick from the forts of ste. anne, st. louis and st. jean. before closing the narration of the events of this year we must not forget the joy at montreal caused by the news spread in september that the king had settled all doubts of the rights of the seigneurs of montreal by confirming the letters patent of . this confirmation m. talon put into practice on september th when he received the fealty and homage of the seminary for the seigneurs of montreal "with high, low and middle justice," and two days afterwards, in virtue of the extraordinary powers granted him by the king, ordered the seigneurs to be maintained in the possession of the administration of justice, thus supplanting the royal court of the sénéchal already established, as before mentioned. the seminary had right to name its own governor also, but no one was appointed to the vacant post of maisonneuve till . thus the year closed in a peace to last for twenty years. the king's arms had battered iroquois insolence. but the heroic age was at an end.[ ] after the successful war, de tracy engaged himself before departing in may for montreal, in consolidating the paternal government lately introduced and in conciliating the habitants on behalf of his royal master. he came to montreal to take cognizance of it as a place which was most commonly resorted to by the savage as the most advanced point on the river. he left quebec on may th, and two days later talon, as intendant, set out to pay his official visit to montreal. he acquitted himself to the satisfaction of the settlers on all the côtes "for," says dollier de casson, "he went to the great edification of the public from house to house, even to the poorest, asking if all were being treated according to equity and justice, and when pecuniary assistance was needed, it was forthcoming." we shall speak later of many of the progressive movements initiated through m. talon at this time. this year the seigneurs of montreal were given back the possession of the storehouse at quebec, about which there had been much contention. the question of the "dime" had agitated montreal as elsewhere. originally fixed by laval at one-thirteenth it had been reduced to one-twentieth and then to one-twenty-sixth. even then in view of the difficulties of a young country it was not payable for five years, to allow the settler to cultivate his lands more easily. but at the same time, it was arranged that in the future, better times might allow it to be increased. this was regulated by an act of the clerk's office at montreal of august , ; but a further act of an assembly, held on august , , shows appreciation on the part of the syndic and inhabitants of a desire to meet the seigneurs in the upkeep of the church by fixing the dime at one-twenty-first part for wheat and one-twenty-sixth for other grains. the arrangements for the payment of the dime had been made jointly by de tracy, de courcelles and talon. de tracy left quebec on september th, to the great regret of laval and the clergy. [illustration: plan of montreal, - ] the census of montreal for this year ( ) is given as souls; three rivers and its dependencies, ; côte de beaupré, ; isle of orleans, ; quebec, ; other settlements under the government of quebec, , ; beauport, ; côte de lauson (south shore), . in this year there were , arpents under cultivation in new france. there were , heads of cattle, besides sheep. these latter began to be imported in , at the same time as the horses. in the following year , arpents were cultivated and the production of wheat amounted to , minots. but more clergy was needed, so this year m. souart, the curé of montreal, went over to france to seek new missioners for the work of the sulpicians. he left behind him m. giles pérot as curé and mm. galinier, barthélemy and trouvé. at the hôtel-dieu the venerable superioress, mother macé, had five nuns under her direction, and at the house of the "congregation" marguerite bourgeoys, with three helpers, continued her good work. m. souart brought back a most enthusiastic worker who was none other than the redoubtable abbé de queylus. there was at last no opposition on the part of laval. the elements leading to this change of front are twofold: firstly, the archbishop of rouen had some time ago renounced all pretension to jurisdiction in new france, and thus was removed laval's contentious attitude against de queylus, for it was not a question of persons with him, but of prerogatives. he had looked upon de queylus as the representative of a rival authority which might tend to raise "altar against altar," and lead to schism and so destroy his policy of church centralization. secondly, de queylus had received an invitation from the king, who had been apprised of his good qualities through the papal nuncio, picolomini, now become a cardinal, and the king's word went with laval. accordingly, when de queylus arrived in the spring with three sulpicians, m. rené de brébant de galinée, m. françois saturnin lascares d'urfé,[ ] and his former secretary, m. antoine d'allet, laval received them most cordially and gave de queylus letters patent as his vicar general, a post held by him in montreal during all his further stay. laval has described this reception himself in a letter to his friend, m. poitevin, the curé of st. fossé at paris. speaking of the consolation in receiving m. de queylus and the new workers he says: "we have embraced them all in the name of jesus christ. what gives us most sensible joy is that we see our clergy disposed, with one heart and one soul, to procure the glory of god and the salvation of souls, both french and indian. the fatherly tenderness which the king has made apparent to new france and the notable contributions he has made to make it more numerous and flourishing, furnishes an ample harvest field for all to employ their zeal and spend their lives for the love of jesus christ, who has given them the first inspirations to consecrate themselves to him and his church." this was not a diplomatic change of attitude with laval. he was incapable of dissimulation or subterfuge. he saw the glory of god in the new situation and thenceforward the sulpicians had a true friend and admirer. on their part the jesuits were no less cordial in their welcome. the "relation" for speaks of the same powerful reinforcement of the clergy for montreal and hoped for much good from "these great missionaries." there were now about fifteen sulpicians in montreal when, in the month of june, , an embassy of iroquois came from the bay of kenté, on the banks of lake ontario, asking for a black robe to instruct their people in the religion of the white man. two young priests, m. fénelon and m. trouvé, having offered themselves, on september th, mgr. laval gave them letters to establish their mission, and they embarked at lachine on october d, and arrived at the bay of kenté (quinté) on october th. this was the first mission of the sulpicians. their good work, begun at montreal, was to stretch far and wide. if we do not follow them in detail it is because we are sketching only the original and cradle events of great movements in these annals. in the winter m. de queylus sent m. dollier de casson and m. barthélemy to lake nipissing. the peace with the iroquois left further opportunity for self-sacrificing missioners to work among them, so that in the clergy were glad to welcome the return of the recollects. not only did laval welcome them, but the jesuits, who succeeded them on the renewal of the french possession, after the occupation by the english under kirke, though they are represented by mischief-making historians as having "supplanted" them, wrote as follows of their joy at their coming, in the "relations" of : "the reverend recollect fathers, who have come from france to be a new succour to the missionaries in the growth of this church, have given us an excess of joy and consolation. we have received them as the first apostles of this country, and in recognition of the obligation due to them by the french colony, the inhabitants of quebec have been delighted to receive these good religious, now established on the same ground where they dwelt forty years before the french were driven from canada by the english." in fact, arrangements were made by those who had been put into possession of the recollects' former estates, held prior to , to cede them, and the friars now had an estate of ten by ten arpents, for which the governor general gave them new titles by an act of october , . we have now to record the appointment of a new governor for montreal, left officially vacant since de maisonneuve's departure, three and a half years ago, although several commandants had represented the seigneurs. the choice fell upon m. marie françois perrot, a _gentilhomme_ by birth, and captain of an auvergne regiment, who was then on the point of crossing over with his regiment to establish himself with his wife in canada and doubtless make his fortune. m. perrot had married talon's niece, madeleine de laguide, and it was the former intendant, then about to revisit canada for a second time, who solicited the vacant post from m. de bretonvilliers, the superior of the seminary of st. sulpice in paris who granted it by a letter addressed to m. perrot on june , , being "duly informed of your good life and character, talents, capacity and good qualities, we have made choice of your person to fill and exercise the office of governor ... without you at the same time being able to make pretensions to any salary or remuneration other than the country has been accustomed to give." on the voyage, perrot, his wife and talon were shipwrecked, and they saved their lives on a broken mast by having promised a large sum of money to the sailors for having assisted them to it. five hundred emigrants came with this expedition. but on perrot's arrival in montreal, where he and his wife were well received, in pity for their shipwreck and out of interest in the lady governor--for maisonneuve had been a sorry bachelor--he sought to have his commission made more certain by letters patent from the king. accordingly, this was finally effected through talon and colbert, by letters dated march , , and with the consent of m. bretonvilliers, whose rights seemed not to be infringed, since it had been the custom for the governor generals named by the seigneur companies, also to receive a royal commission. footnotes: [ ] m. jacques viger, the antiquarian and mayor of montreal, by comparing grandet's notice of dollier de casson with the "ecclesiastic" spoken of in the "histoire de montreal," established in the identity of dollier with the "ecclesiastic," the writer and sulpician who came in . hence the "histoire de montreal" is now attributed to dollier de casson. [ ] abridged family roll of the colony of new france-- : quebec beaupré beauport island of orleans st. jean, st. françois and st. michel sillery notre-dame des anges and rivière st. charles côte de lauson montreal trois rivières ---- number of males between the ages of and years of age, capable of bearing arms there are doubtless some omissions in the above roll, which will be supplied in the coming winter, this year. (signed) talon. [ ] the "_baie d'urfé_," in the north of the island, is named after this missionary, who had an indian settlement there later. chapter xviii - the feudal system established the seigneurs of the montreal district suburban growth--the earliest outlying fiefs--praedia militaria--military seigneuries of the montreal district--the feudal system--the "noblesse"--the "parishes"--"cens et rentes"--"lods et ventes"--tribute to the feudalism of the clerical "seigneurs of montreal"--municipal officers--order in processions--the church wardens--the soldier colonists--cattle breeding, horses, asses--agriculture--new concessions--laws regulating opening up the land--first public roads and bridges at montreal--note: forts and redoubts. so far we have kept our attention on the little straggling village of montreal, the home of de maisonneuve and the seigneurs of the island. we have left it occasionally for quebec, to consider it, as affected in its governmental relations with the headquarters of the governor general, but as we have in view also the greater montreal of today, we must ask the reader's patience to allow us to record some vital elements in the suburban growth of the latter, the seeds of which are now being sown, and to watch the origins of the canadian "noblesse" now being manufactured by letters patent in the neighbourhood of montreal. for years the fear of the iroquois had huddled the montrealers within narrow limits, and in the neighbourhood of the fort. there were few outlying stations, save that of the fortified house of lambert closse, who had been given on february , , the first "noble fief" at montreal, and the two redoubts or strongholds established by m. de queylus for the seigneurs of the seminary. on the arrival of the troops the _curé_, m. souart, had created a second "noble fief" for his nephew m. hautmesnil between the river st. lawrence and the rivière des prairies, and a third followed on the return of m. queylus, given to la salle. peace enabled the colonists to go further afield, and in the seigneurs determined to establish seigneurial manors for further protection against iroquois incursions and to place on them, for the most part, the officers of the regiments left behind. a debt of gratitude was first paid to sieur picoté de bélestre by a concession of land at pointe aux trembles, taking in bout de l'isle and extending to the rivière des prairies. the northern part of the island facing the rivière des prairies and ile jésus--a dangerous spot--was chosen for two contiguous "noble fiefs" by dollier de casson on december , and given to phillipe de carion de fresnoy, lieutenant in lamothe's company, and paul de morel, ensign in the same company. to strengthen the position of these seigneurs, carion and de morel, smaller concessions were granted nearby in the early months of . on december th m. zacharie dupuis, the commandant of the town, received the letters patent of his seigneury of verdun. the southwest of the island, facing the lake of the two mountains, had yet to be guarded, and on january th dollier de casson gave a fief to m. sidrac de gué, now sieur de boisbriant, and added "the neighbouring island and shallows" at a given denomination, which afterwards caused a lawsuit. m. de gué shortly sold his fief to charles le moyne, sieur de longueuil, and jacques leber, his brother-in-law. it passed later to the son of the latter and became the fief of the sieur de senneville, as it was then named. in april[ ] following, a seigneury was given to charles d'ailleboust des musseaux, the judge. on july th the fief adjoining called "belleville" was given to the brothers louis de bertet de chailly and gabriel de bertet de la joubardière. finally a fourth, adjoining the latter, was assigned to m. claude robutel de saint andré. the vulnerable points on the island of montreal thus being provided for, talon determined to revert, as he says, "to the ancient custom of the romans of distributing _proedia militaria_ to the soldiers of a subjugated country," and the large distribution of "noble fiefs" and patents of nobility of officers and others likely to guard a country, dates mostly from the months of october and november of the year . in order to further strengthen montreal and the entrance of the richelieu river,--both principal positions for iroquois descents,--fiefs were given to sieurs de laubia, de labadie, de moras, de normanville, de berthier, de comporte, de randin, de la valterie, m. jean baptiste legardeur de repentigny, the son of captain de saint ours, and the sieur de berthelot, to whom was given ile jésus, originally conceded to the jesuits but not having been cultivated, was yielded up by them on november , . all the above concessions were made on the left bank of the st. lawrence, from lake st. peter to the head of the island, ascending to the rivière des prairies. from the mouth of the richelieu and ascending up stream on the other side of the river many other concessions were made by talon to de sorel, du pas, de chambly, chevalier pierre de saint ours (captain of the carignan-sallières regiment), antoine pécaudy de contrecoeur, de vitré, de verchères, de varenne, de grandmaison, michel messier, of montreal, to whom was given the seigneury of st. michel, and jacques le moyne, also of montreal, that of cap de la trinité; to sidzac du gué de boisbriant, was given the ile thérèse facing bout de l'isle; to m. boucher, the seigneur de boucherville, to charles le moyne, two fiefs, one of which he called longueuil, from his place of origin at dieppe, in normandy, and the other chateauguay. to zacharie dupuis was given heron island; to m. perrot the island below the southwest corner of the island, afterwards named ile perrot, after him, as well as ile á la paix, iles aux pins, ste. geneviève and st. gilles. this list of names has been given, since it is synonymous with that of many of the parishes hereafter erected in these districts, for not many of the seigneurs were as yet wealthy, and they could not fulfill the double condition of providing a village mill and a village church. though noble in name, many were as poor as church mice. having been granted their lands, for a nominal sum, in return for "fealty and homage," the new noble had to work hard to clear his land within a limited time, else he would forfeit it, for few had capital to work it. to make his claim permanent he had to subdivide his domain to cultivators _en censive_, or _censitaires_ who tilled the land and paid his "cens et rente" on st. martin's day to the seigneur, as was common at montreal, in the shape of half a sou and a pint of wheat for each arpent. there were, however, restrictions such as having to grind his corn at the seigneur's mill, when there was one, for such was an expensive luxury. this was practically the only one of the "banalités," as they were called, of the french feudal system introduced into canada, and it was not very much of a hardship. the "corvée" still existed, by which the seigneur could demand personal labor. in canada this was about six days a year and was frequently remitted, as the seigneur found that the expense of food for the workers, etc., made it not worth his while to use their labour. not all the seigneurs were as diligent and as fortunate as charles le moyne, of montreal, who, from being the son of an innkeeper at dieppe, founded the noble house of longueuil and whose son charles, baron longueuil, built a fort and a home which frontenac said, gave an idea of the fortified châteaux of france. still many of these struggling nobles, with the revenue of a peasant, but who did sell their seigneuries, became fairly wealthy in time, and were the nucleus of the canadian "noblesse" and "gentilhommes" for many a long day, though it must not be understood that all seigneurs were also ennobled, as in france. some of the lazier sort, who perchance looked to the "get rich quick" method of peltry trading, rather than the laborious toil of tilling the earth, were soon the victims of their own circumstances; for a few years later, in , duchesneau, the intendant, writing to the minister in france, says: "many of our gentilhommes, officers and other holders of seigneuries, lead what in france is called the life of a country gentleman and spend most of their time in hunting and fishing. as their requirements in food and clothing are greater than those of the simple 'habitants' and as they do not devote themselves to improving their land, they mix themselves up in trade, run into debt on all hands, incite their young 'habitants' to range the woods and send their own children there to trade for furs in the indian villages and in the depths of the forest, in spite of the prohibition of his majesty. yet, with all this, they are miserably poor."[ ] "it is pitiable," says another intendant, champigny, in , "to see their children, of which they have great numbers, passing all summer with nothing on them but a shirt, and their wives and daughters working in the fields." later, an intendant wrote to france not to create any more _gentilhommes_, for it meant making "beggars." but it must be remembered that later letters of patent of nobility were not so easily granted as at this early tentative period, when noble, habitant, and peasant had a hard struggle with the soil to make all ends meet. to form an idea of the establishment of a parish, it must be remembered that each seigneur was required to build a mill and a chapel to be served by a priest. the mill meant a heavy expense; the machinery had all to come from france, and the miller's wages had to be paid; the farmers, bringing grain, small in number. beyond the three mills belonging to the seigneurs of the island at this period there was the one erected at pointe aux trembles and that erected by jean milot, a toolmaker, at a cost of , _écus_, after purchasing on november , , la salle's lands at lachine, and that was finally taken over by the seminary also, on november , . la salle had been required to construct a mill, since his concession was larger than the military fiefs of arpents granted to the other petty seigneurs. to these latter, the necessity of erecting their own mills was foregone on the stipulation that their grain and that of their _censitaires_, should be ground in the seminary mill. the building of a parish church and providing a priest, both difficult tasks in this poverty-stricken time, were delayed for some time. the seminary meanwhile sent out its missioners to conduct services at lachine and pointe aux trembles and the surrounding district. a temporary chapel was made in the rooms of farmers' houses as is done in country districts in the northwest today. it was not till november , , that the people of pointe aux trembles took definite steps for church erection, which resulted in the church of l'enfant jésus, blessed by the superior of the seminary on march , , with the assistance of the curé of the new church and m. jean cavelier, brother of la salle and a priest of the seminary. the feudal system, prefigured by richelieu long ago in his commission to the marquis de la roche and "following the custom of paris," based on the tenure of land, was established as soon as peace was obtained, as the best method of building up the colony and of looking after private interests. it was a most suitable method for the time. the feudal absolutism then created, both of church and state, were necessary for the french at a period when they had not learned the first elements of self-government. the pity was that this system of leading strings was too prolonged and overdone, especially as later the french government did not do its duty by the people, thus preventing its progress by ruining its initiative. had not the bolder spirits broken through it, we should not have had the redeeming point in the history of these times--the brilliant geographical discoveries. but in those early wild times the military civilization now forming and the paternal influence of the clergy at montreal, seigneurs and parish priests, did much for that distinctively canadian love of discipline and order, which is the foundation of the great and mighty people canada is destined to be. talon, writing to colbert on november , , says: "i have already commenced the enfiefments by montreal, the principal fief of this country, in receiving its 'foi et hommage' as also its 'aveux et dénombrements.'" a _papier terrier_, or land roll, was ordered to be made and a list of all the lands, houses and other properties accurately defined and registered. uncertain titles were made clear and others made out that had been neglected. the condition of land tenure was not onerous; the "cens and rentes" paid annually were not an equivalent for value received but a simple recognition of the legal primitive right of the seigneurs, on property given. thus at montreal, land sites on the portion reserved for the future town, had been given on the annual payment of five _sous_ an arpent, while on those in the town itself all the annual revenue demanded was a _liard_ for each fathom. in all the island of montreal the tax for each arpent of land was two liards and a half pint of wheat. thus the receiver of arpents only paid fifty _sous_ and fifty pints of wheat. in the first years, as the soil was not thought to be at its full value, he was relieved of all taxation. sometimes, even the above slight tax was, for sufficient reason, modified. when any farm or small holding was sold or it passed by inheritance to collaterals, the seigneurs were entitled to "lods et ventes," a tax of one-twelfth of the estimated value of the land. this was usually paid within forty days of the transfer and a rebate was generally given of one-third, but not necessarily. if the farm was sold at a price lower than the seigneur thought proper, he had the right to purchase it back at the estimated value on which the tax of one-twelfth had been demanded. this system was by no means unjust. the seigneur gained very little, for during two centuries there were many lands which passed from father to son, or were passed on by donation without anything accruing to the seigneur who, it must be remembered, had practically granted the lands free to the "censitaires." it was only in later years when the lands became of substantial value that the "lods et rentes" gave a real source of income to them. the feudal system worked well. being based on land tenure, it centralized the people and made them powerful against attack, out of proportion to their numbers, as new england found later. it was as wise a system for new france as the introduction into massachusetts "of free and common soccage." it was wisely handled, on a more democratic basis than that of france, and there were no real grievances. the habitants and seigneurs moved side by side; indeed they frequently exchanged places. the class distinctions were never thus very arbitrarily defined as in france. whatever we may think of the military seigneuries, that of the sulpicians of montreal was very beneficial. their rule was progressive and zealous. speaking of such religious seigneurs william bennett munroe, ph. d., professor of government, harvard university, in his chapter in volume ii of "canada and its provinces, ," entitled "the seigniorial system and the colony," says: "the priests seem to have had faith in the colony--which was more than could be said of all the carignan officers who took lands from the king. this faith and optimism the priests often communicated to the people around them, and the results were seen in the neighbouring farms. the church in new france never lost, as at home, its grip on the confidence of those from whom it drew its chief strength--the rural classes. while it may seem that the crown was lavish to a fault in satisfying its claim to landed property, yet the church really gave the colony far more than it took away; for, if ever there abode on this earth labours worthy of their hire, these were the pioneer priests whose loyalty and devotion to france appear on every page of early canadian history. the church owed much to the seigniorial system, but it made ample repayment." (p. .) the parish life of montreal, as that also of subsequent parishes, was that of an organized community or civil corporation. the head was the seigneur. one section, composed of those able to bear arms, formed the militia with its officers. the seigneur could appoint its judge, and if unable to provide one, he could turn the cases arising to a neighbouring court, such as at montreal. in addition, there would be the _greffier_, or clerk of the court, sergeants and the gaoler. municipal affairs were, at this time, managed at the "hangar," on the common of montreal, through the syndic who had been appointed by a plurality of votes of the inhabitants in council, summoned thither by church bell. at these elections the judge was present as presiding officer, replacing the _greffier_, as mentioned in a previous chapter, and he was accompanied by the _procureur fiscal_ and the _greffier_. sometimes this election, for greater formality, was made in the hall of the seigneurs or at the château of the fort, as in the case of the election of syndic, louis chevalier, on may , . the syndic controlled the general law and order, and when necessary, called in the judge to his assistance, as on april , , when the judge fined some delinquents, on the complaint of louis chevalier, then syndic, for damage done by straying cattle. in order to surround the officers of the community with some dignity, various ranks were assigned, so that there should be an order of procedure in church or elsewhere, and notably in processions. in the latter the order was as follows: the governor general, the local governor, the officers of justice, the churchwardens. in the processions and in other religious ceremonies the military could claim no rank. the _marguilliers_, or churchwardens, for their election needed an official document drawn up by the public notary, since they were an important body, being empowered to make contracts in the name of the _fabrique_, and to make acquisitions and alienations. zacharie dupuis, major of the island, in is mentioned in such an act as honorary churchwarden. up to these officers were elected by a general gathering, but at this date laval ordered that the system, obtaining at quebec since , of election by secret votes, certified by past and present churchwardens, should be adopted in other parishes. in some localities, besides the _marguilliers_ there was appointed a treasurer, or receiver of gifts or of fines made applicable to the _fabrique_ by the judge and other magistrates. according to custom, the parish church of each place was maintained by the inhabitants, as well as the establishment of the cemetery, and the preservation of its enclosure from damage. on one occasion we find at montreal that cattle had broken into the enclosure, and the palisading had to be repaired. no general taxation was made but it was ordered, in a general assembly, that m. frémont, one of the priests of the cemetery, should go accompanied by one of the parishioners to canvass all the sections of the parish for a subscription for the purpose. nevertheless we find that if the parishioners neglected their easter duty of providing "blessed bread" for the church or chapel, an ordinance of quebec of january , , condemned them to an arbitrary fine. as to the soldiers remaining after tracy's departure, they had other duties beside the peopling of the colony. according to the feudal system incorporated by talon, they were to take up land and incidentally be thus, by their presence, a safeguard for others against iroquois attack. montreal district, being the head and front of iroquois invasion, consequently welcomed these colonists, and from lake st. peter to lachine, on both sides of the st. lawrence, fiefs were granted large and small to officers and men. chambly, sorel, saint ours, contrecoeur, de berthier, de la valterie, varenne, verchères, soldiers' names, mark military seigneuries established about this time. thus strong sentinel posts were, by talon's masterly statesmanship, gradually linked together by this band of soldiers now turned husbandmen after the fashion prevailing since the roman invasions of gaul and britain. the holdings were near one another and were called "côtes." we have named several of them as already existing in the vicinity of montreal. the work of opening up the land was the great hope of the king. about this time horses began to be employed, for up to july , , they were unknown to the indians, and great was their astonishment to see the twelve french "elks" that arrived that day, and the docility with which they obeyed their masters. it was a great honour indeed to possess one of these. of the consignment of one stallion and twelve mares in , the following distribution was made: the stallion and a mare to m. chambly, two to m. lachenaye, and one each to mm. talon the intendant, saint ours, sorel, contrecoeur, varenne, latouche, repentigny, la chesnaye, and leber. they were given with a view to their multiplication and, indeed, of all the other animals sent, the horses were the most prolific and successful. the conditions to be observed were: they should be kept in condition for three years; if any died during that time through the fault of the "donné," he should pay the king's receiver the sum of _livres_. after the expiration of three years he might sell it and the foals, one of which he was to keep for the king's receiver, as well as the sum of _livres_. it was further ordered that when these foals, given to the king's receiver, had reached the third year, they were to be given to private individuals as before on the same terms. thus the stock breeding was merrily continued. cattle were sent to new france at this period, thus: , mares, stallions, sheep; , mares, stallions, sheep; , horses, sheep; , horses, sheep; , horses; , horses and asses. the asses sent in were distributed as follows: sieur marsollet, a male ass; sieur neveau, a female ass; the jesuit fathers, one male and one female ass; m. dudouyt, a female; m. damours, a female; m. de villieu, a female; sieur de longchamps, a female; bourg royal, a female; sieur morin, a female. these did not suit the climate so readily.[ ] the cost of these horses and sheep was great. each mare cost _livres_, each stallion, , the sheep, about _livres_ apiece. in the transportation and feed of the consignment cost , _livres_. by november, , talon wrote that there were enough horses. cows and pigs had already become as familiar as in france. it will be remembered that in a horse was sent for m. montmagny, the governor general. in these early days the birch bark canoe was more useful than the horse, for the rivers were then the only highways. later on montrealers became so interested in horse rearing that, "ignorant of their true interests," they had to be forbidden by intendant raudot in to possess more than two horses or mares, and one foal, for fear of neglecting the rearing of horned cattle. but it must not be supposed that these seigneuries and small holdings grew up like mushrooms. the farmer's initiation for the first two or three years was a rough one. it was only by very patient labour, and, little by little, that the lands were cleared, tilled, and the modest house put up, and an assured means of easy livelihood secured. the cultivators had to follow the same strenuous methods that those, opening their concessions in the northwest, employ today. at montreal, while there was still fear of the iroquois, we have seen how difficult it was to work the fields, and how, for mutual protection, they had temporarily to till small portions of the seigneur's domain till they could safely go farther afield. but in , when it was known that the king's troops were coming, many obtained new concessions on côte st. louis, some towards the mountain, some at the foot of the current near the fortified farm of ste. marie. in many resolved to go below the foot of the current and beyond the river st. peter, for the lands on this side of the river, and especially those at point st. charles, had already been conceded, and although abandoned during the wars, were still claimed. east and west, the colonists now went afield to côte st. martin, côte st. françois (later called longue pointe), côte st. anne, côte st. jean (later called pointe aux trembles). at the latter place in , land was given to jean oury with the intention of a village church and mill, being erected thereon. these côtes were restricted to their river neighbourhood to guard the settlements from iroquois descents by the stream. this same plan was adopted along the whole length of the st. lawrence. "it is pleasant to see at present," says the "relation" of , "nearly all the banks of our river st. lawrence peopled with new colonies, with new villages rising, which facilitate navigation and render the journey, more agreeable by the sight of the houses, and more convenient by the frequent resting places offered." all were not as diligent as could be desired in putting up within the year stipulated hearth and home (_feu et lieu_), or in clearing their concessions. consequently when talon was in montreal in may, , in consequence of just complaints he ordered that in future no copyholder should be granted land unless, in addition to building his homestead, he should put two arpents under cultivation yearly under penalty of forfeiting his grant, unless he could prove illness or other strong cause restraining him. moreover, in the new contract, it was to be stipulated that no one could claim title to his land until he had put up his buildings and had placed two arpents in cultivation, with a pickaxe, for up to this, as seen by the concessions preserved in the archives up to , a man had been thought to have tilled his ground if he had felled the trees and had uprooted all the roots which were a foot in diameter or upwards, and had used the others in such a way that a cart could pass along without obstacle. yet there were still difficulties, for on january , , the seigneurs put up the following public notice at the parish church, the fort, and the different mills: "we have learned from many complaints, that several of our tenants take no trouble, not only to establish their homes on their lands and to put them to use, but even neglect to fell the timber, or to keep in order the little space they have cleared on taking possession. this negligence retards the advancement of the colony and prevents many strangers coming to take up land in this island and to dwell here. it causes a dearth of wheat and grain from which the people have suffered during the past two years. finally it entirely ruins the adjoining lands already tilled, both because of the continued shadows which the standing woods cast on them, and because the squirrels and other small animals left on these uncultivated lands leave them to eat and destroy the greater part of the grain to the ruin of other lands." to remedy this the seigneurs gave their tenants four months to put their lands in order and to cut down all standing timber on pain of forfeiture to the seigneurial domain. even in cutting down the timber there were abuses at montreal. to provide against the carelessness of riverside cultivators, as all were at this time, in dumping their lumber into the river, talon issued the following order in october, : "whereas it has been pointed out to us that the inhabitants of montreal between ste. marie and la petite chine (lachine) have cut their timber so that, having fallen into the river, it prevents navigation and blocks communication, we order them to cut their wood into logs and to place them on the stream in such a way that they may be carried away with the ice when it melts this year." these logs could then be sold at quebec in return for the necessities of life. the history of the first public roads and bridges at montreal now begins as the outcome of all this clearing and passing of carts to and fro. in the _procès verbal_ of the road from pointe aux trembles to the stream, jean des roches gives us an insight into the formalities usually pursued. when the habitants had asked for a road, the seigneurs or their representatives would meet them at the place indicated, when the projected road was traced and landmarks placed at intervals stamped with the lead seal of the seigneurs. after the new road was clearly defined, a statement was drawn up, and then each proprietor set to work to clear the road space running through his property; if a bridge was necessary, one of logs was constructed; if a stream had to be crossed, being common property, all contributed to the construction of this as a public work. thus the first bridge was thrown over the st. pierre by order of m. talon, dated october , . several roads had already been partially made, e. g., from the redoubt of l'enfant jésus to petit lac (or the marsh which is now occupied by place viger and a part of st. denis and craig streets); from the coteau st. louis to that of ste. marie; and provisional roads were made through the woods on either side of the river st. pierre, and the marshy roads made practicable by log foundations or log bridges. all these roads were eighteen feet broad, with the exception of the road bordering the river st. lawrence, which talon fixed at twenty feet; but the seigneurs raised it to thirty-six feet seeing that it was used as a towing path for the horses drawing the bateaux between the currents and the rapids, and as it was the principal means of communication and circulation between the lower and higher parts of the island, they ordered the riverside owners to keep it in order. to indemnify them for the loss of this extra space, other land was added to the other extremity of their concessions. as most of these improvements took place under intendant talon, abbé de queylus and dollier de casson, city planners may know to whom honour is due. [illustration: erroneously called "old la salle homestead" (la salle never built in stone)] [illustration: leber's mill] [illustration: king's fort and powder house (as standing today) fort callerier] [illustration: old windmill, lower lachine road] [illustration: windmill point] note forts and redoubts built on the island of montreal (according to h. beaugrand and p. l. morin "le vieux montréal.") ste. marie (barriere), fort in wood, ; st. gabriel, fort in wood, ; verdun, fort in wood, ; rolland, fort in wood, ; rémy, redoubt in wood, ; lachine, redoubt in wood, ; cuillérier, redoubt in wood, ; gentilly (afterwards la présentation), redoubt in wood, ; pointe aux trembles, fort in wood, ; the mountain, fort in stone, ; ste. anne (bellevue), redoubt in wood, ; rivière des prairies, redoubt in wood, ; mission de lorette, redoubt in wood, ; senneville, fort in stone, ; pointe st. charles, redoubt in wood, ; bout de l'isle, redoubt in wood, ; longue pointe, redoubt in wood, ; sault-au-récollet, redoubt in wood, . outside the island of montreal st. lambert, redoubt in wood, ; boucherville, redoubt in wood, ; la prairie, fort in wood, ; varennes, redoubt in wood, ; ste. thérèse (island), redoubt in wood, ; brucy (ile perrot), redoubt in wood, ; longueuil, fort in stone, ; le tremblay, redoubt in wood, ; st. laurent, redoubt in wood, ; lake of two mountains, fort in stone, ; st. louis, redoubt in wood, ; chateaugay, redoubt in wood, ; beauharnois, redoubt in wood, ; ste. geneviève, redoubt in wood, . names of fiefs erected in the island of montreal carion, morel, verdun, boisbriant, st. andré, d'ailleboust, bellevue, st. augustine, lachine, lagauchetière, st. joseph, nazareth, hôtel-dieu. [illustration: historical map of the island of montreal showing the position of forts, redoubts and missionary chapels with the dates of their construction. carion, morel, verdun, boisbriant, st. andré, d'ailleboust, bellevue, st. augustin, closse, lachine, lagauchetière, st. joseph, nazareth, hôtel-dieu.] footnotes: [ ] these dates mark the actual conferring of the patents of the noble fief. in many instances, concessions had been granted and worked, in anticipation of the honour. [ ] quoted by parkman, old régime, page . [ ] etat de la distribution des anesses et anons envoyés de france en canada en l'année . chapter xix - economical progress industries, trade and labour commerce--mining--ship building--industries--a "municipal" brewery--the first market--prices--labour--medical men farming is the backbone of a nation's prosperity. hence louis xiv, through colbert and talon, made this as we have seen their first solicitude. commerce comes next, and in may, , the king gave letters patent to the company of the western indies, which should equip vessels to trade with the french colonies, giving it the exclusive right of trading with america. he gave it extensive backing, but in spite of his sacrifices he had to suppress it in , ten years after its formation. it was accused of abuses of power, like the preceding monopolies. talon turned his attention to the exploitation of mines, which might give many an occupation. in the month of october, , mère de l'incarnation writes: "they have discovered a fine lead or tin mine forty leagues beyond montreal, with a slate quarry and a coal mine. copper mines were also discovered near lake superior." in the first ship built in canadian waters was launched. its capacity was four to five hundred tons. previously canadian wood had been sent to france for the royal dockyards. perhaps some of the montreal oaks that had been sent floating down stream to quebec found a destination in the wooden walls of france. general industries were favoured by the king, and talon was told to spare no effort in opening out its various branches. soon the enterprising intendant was accredited by marie l'incarnation and the historians of the "relations" with initiating hemp, cloth, serge, soap, woolen, tanning, shoe, pots and brewing industries. the latter was especially encouraged as an offset against the dangerous evil dimensions of the strong liquor traffic in canada. the records of the city archives for june , , give the details of a general assembly of the principal representatives of montreal to build a large brewery to supplant that already in existence, and now found by experience, after the advent of the soldiers to be too small for the needs of the growing community. the money for this apparently municipal venture was borrowed from the gentlemen of the seminary, the only bankers of the time. two water mills now began to be constructed, since with the advent of the soldiers, the old windmill at the fort and that of the "côteau" no longer sufficed. the manufacture of homespun materials was encouraged by talon, but as yet it did not make much headway. still talon, writing in to colbert, could report that he had caused drugget, coarse camlet, étamine, serge, woolen cloth and leather to be manufactured in canada, adding: "i have, of canadian make, the wherewithal to clothe myself from head to foot." the first market place was opened in opposite the seigneurial manor house, which was established on st. paul street, and its site was the land now occupied today by the inland revenue and that running down to the river. up to its opening, all sales had been conducted in private houses. the market was held every tuesday and friday from o'clock a. m. in summer and a. m. in winter to o'clock a. m., and as there was no public clock then in the city the hour of commencing and closing were sounded by the parish church bell. some market prices of the period may be cited. m. boucher, in his "natural history of new france," written about , says that a minot of wheat (french measure, litres) cost sous and sometimes francs. after the arrival of the troops it sold for no more than _livres_. in , creditors were bound to receive the wheat of their debtors at _livres_ the minot. under m. d'argenson a barrel of eels was sold for to francs. a hundred planks, feet long, inches broad and inch thick, were worth _livres_. butter was sold at to sous a pound. an ox of seven to eight years, good for slaughter, went for _livres_; an ordinary sow, _livres_; a pig, good for killing, from to _livres_. the day's work of a mason, a carpenter and a joiner was paid at the rate of sous; that of a good manual labourer, sous. hired servants, after their time of service was completed, obtained to écus yearly, although their board cost their masters _livres_, and in bad times . in , day labourers, when boarded, were paid in winter at the rate of sous and in the summer. but after the arrival of the soldiers and the increase of population, prices were raised accordingly. by a judgment of the court of montreal in the daily wage of manual labourers was valued at sous and of artisans at _livres_. the master and apprentice system was not in vogue in canada in these days, and everyone could set up for himself. let us hope it was not so with the doctors, of whom there were from july , , to the end of the following year, at least five, practicing in montreal: etienne bouchard and forestier, partners; rené sauvageau de maisonneuve and jean rouxelle de la rousillière, partners; and jean martinet de fontblanche. the latter, later, had an "apprentice," for in the act of january , , by notary basset, we find him promising to teach his brother-in-law, paul prud'homme, in the three years and a half with him, his art of surgeon and everything connected with that profession. in these days the first health officers of canada were surgeons, pharmacists, doctors, dentists, apothecaries, all in one. they were officially mentioned as "surgeons" probably because the art of surgery in the time of hostility with the iroquois was more in demand than that of any other department of medicine. montreal was a small enough place to support five medical men, especially as the treatment at the hôtel-dieu was gratuitous. in , in the month of august, the letters patent confirming this body as a permanent and authorized corporation were granted. chapter xx - colonization and population encouragement of marriage--bachelors taxed--"filles du roi"--dowries--pensions for large families--montreal healthy for women--note on immigration. one of the outstanding failures in new france so far had been that of inadequate attempts to increase the number of colonists. this the king was now anxious to remedy. to this end, when the war was over, through the efforts of colbert and talon and before tracy had left with his glittering train, he offered inducements to the carignan soldiers to remain as colonists and to take up land. to each such concessions of land were granted with a bonus of _livres_, or fifty _livres_ and provisions for one year. the sergeants would receive a year's provisions and one hundred to one hundred and fifty _livres_. thus of the carignan regiment remained to swell the population. to increase this number six infantry companies of fifty-three men each were sent back in . to each of the six captains he gave a bonus of , _livres_, with another , to be divided among the lieutenants and ensigns. this military colonization largely influenced the future of canada. to encourage permanent settlement efforts were now redoubled to provide wives for the men. in , girls were sent over. in , twice as many; in , and , still more; in , and the same in . an ordinance published in montreal november , , shows the efforts of the government to promote match-making--all _volontaires_ and others not married being forbidden the privilege of hunting, fishing and trading with the savages[ ] and even of entering the bush under any pretext whatever, the latter prohibition probably being intended to prevent a bachelor finding a temporary indian substitute for a french wife. bachelors had a hard time. colbert, writing to talon on february , , says: "it will be appropriate that those, who seem to have renounced wedlock, shall have to bear additional charges and to be deprived of all honours and even to have some marks of infamy added to them." to press the execution of these commands, all those soldiers and unattached workers not having taken up land, were ordered to marry within fifteen days of the arrival of the ships bearing the girls. thus, marie de l'incarnation tells us, in , that no sooner are the vessels arrived than the young men go wife hunting, and marriages are celebrated thirty at a time. among the children of those already settled, early marriages were encouraged. "i pray you," wrote colbert to talon on february , , "to command it to the consideration of the whole people that their property, their subsistence, and all that is dear to them, depend on a general resolution, never to be departed from, to marry youths at eighteen or nineteen years, and girls at fourteen or fifteen; since abundance can never come to them except through the abundance of men." and for this purpose the "king's present" of twenty _livres_ to each of the contracting parties was given. fathers of families, according to the decrees of the state council of this period, who did not marry their boys and girls when they had reached the ages of twenty-one and sixteen were fined, and following this up, they had to appear every six months after before the clerk of the court to give reason for further delays under penalty of fines to be made applicable to the hospitals. we have already given indication of the extreme care that had been exercised at montreal in the reception of such prospective mothers of the colony; how marguerite bourgeoys had herself brought over on her different voyages girls of noted virtue, whom she trained to become good housewives, and for many she found eligible partners in life. at quebec a similar work was carried on, by a madame bourdon, with motherly skill and devotion. if she was not as successful as marguerite bourgeoys this was not surprising, since the latter was singularly endowed by nature for such a task. these girls were chaperoned, across the ocean, by the nuns or pious persons, or by madame bourdon herself, and then placed under her charge until marriage. we find an item of expense for paid by the king to a demoiselle etienne for the care she had taken in taking girls from the general hospital to canada and in looking after them till they were married. these were received by madame bourdon. human nature, being very much the same then as now, we can imagine that some of these girls, drawn from the orphanages of paris and lyons, and carefully trained by the nuns, were rude and difficult to handle, but on the whole the venture was a great success. there was, of course, as marie de l'incarnation says, in , "mixed goods," and in , "along with honest people a great deal of 'canaille,' of both sexes who cause a great deal of scandal." but such care was taken from the very beginning of colonization, since new france was viewed in the nature of a mission field, only to send persons of good repute and to deport undesirables, that french canadians have no need to blush at their parentage. the families descending from the carignan soldiers may point with pride to their origins. a caustic writer, la hontan, writing twenty years after, by his amusing, witty, and scurrilous descriptions of the matrimonial market of this period, has done much to slander these early marriages, but he is discredited, and his version is regarded as a caricature and maliciously untrue, as parkman points out. these girls were called "les filles du roi," since they were maintained at the charge of the king's bounty in the philanthropic orphanages of france. at montreal, under marguerite bourgeoys, they were lodged with her in a house bought by saint ange, since the old stable was too small. there, they were carefully instructed in religion and practical affairs to become good mothers of families, and they did not leave her till the day of their marriages. at this time, a pious congregation of lay women was formed by marguerite bourgeoys; these met on sundays for the practice of virtue and many of the newly arrived girls were kept in touch with the gentle and motherly marguerite, long after their marriages. it was from this date that her home began to be affectionately spoken of as "the congregation." in addition to girls of a humble class, _demoiselles_ of a more superior station were also encouraged to come to provide wives for the officers and others, of whom colbert wished to form the nucleus of a canadian _noblesse_. several others, who first thought of passing through the noviceship at the hôtel-dieu and joining the hospitalières sisters, found their vocation otherwise, like perrine de bélestre, sister of picoté, who married michel godefroy, sieur de linlot, at three rivers. when the king's daughters married, they were given the king's dowry, varying in form and value. sometimes it was a house with provisions for eight months, more often, fifty _livres_ in household supplies, besides a barrel or two of salted meat.[ ] and when they were married they were encouraged to rear up a fruitful progeny, for in the "edits et ordonnances" of the province of quebec, p. , a decree is found that "in future all inhabitants of the said country of canada, who shall have living children to the number of ten, born in lawful wedlock, not being priests, monks or nuns, shall each be paid out of the moneys sent by his majesty to the said country a _pension_ of _livres_ a year, and those who shall have twelve children a pension of _livres_; and that to this effect they shall be required to declare the number of their children every year, in the months of june or july, to the intendant of justice, police and finance, established in the same country, who having verified the same, shall order the payment of the said pensions, one-half in cash, and the other half at the end of eight years." furthermore, he ordered that fathers of large families should have preference over others unless there was strong contrary reason. the decreasing birth rate in france at that period prompted such regulations in new france. the king's activity through colbert in peopling his colony is seen in numerous letters to his officials. in an instruction to the intendant bouteroue in colbert writes: "the end and rule of all your conduct should be the increase of the colony; and on this point i should never be satisfied, but labour without ceasing to find every imaginable expedient for preserving the inhabitants, attracting new ones and multiplying marriages." these encouragements bore fruit. laval, writing in , says: "the families of our french people in this country are very numerous; for the most part they consist of eight, ten, twelve, and sometimes as many as fifteen or sixteen children. the savages, on the contrary, have only two or three and rarely do they go beyond four." the abbé de queylus, now superior of the seminary at montreal, wrote to colbert on may , , that owing to the efforts of the king "the number of the inhabitants of new france has increased two-thirds." the population propaganda at montreal was left largely to the seigneurs of the seminary. in , there were persons; in , there were ; in , the population was doubled to , or , souls, as dollier de casson relates in his account of this year, which is the concluding chapter of his "history of montreal." we may fitly conclude this chapter by giving two of the worthy dollier's reflections: "first reflection, on the advantage that the women have in this place (montreal) over men, which is, that although the cold climate is very healthy for the one and the other sex, it is incomparably to the advantage of the feminine, which finds itself here almost immortal--this is what everyone says since the birth of this settlement and what i myself have remarked for six years, for although there are fourteen to fifteen thousand souls here, there has only been the death of one woman for the last six years." "the second reflection will be on the facility which people of this sex have of marrying here, a fact which is apparently clear to all the world since it is practiced every year, but which is admirably shown by an example i am going to tell you of one _qui sera assez rare_. it is of a woman who, having this year lost her husband, has had one of the bans published, and being dispensed of the two others had her marriage performed and consummated before her first husband was buried. these two reflections in my opinion will be sufficiently strong to thin out the _hôpital de la pitié_ and to secure a good party of girls from all the paris orphanages if only they are desirous, to live long, or to cultivate a devotion to the seventh of our sacraments." note immigration-- - the compagnie des indes occidentales, which had been granted the domain of new france from may , , one year after the forced retirement of the hundred associates, brought over on the king's account, in ,[ ] men and women and girls; in ,[ ] men and women and girls; and in ,[ ] of both sexes. in addition, during the above period officers and soldiers of carignan regiment were established in the colony. in the company sent out on its own account hired men (engagés); in ,[ ] men and women; in ,[ ] men and women; in ,[ ] men and women; in , the war in holland stopped the movement. in there came five companies of fifty men each, making with their officers an effective force of . thus for the first period we have sent at the king's account about one thousand four hundred persons, and for the second , about two thousand five hundred and sixteen in all. but there was a certain number of others who came to find a position, or were brought over by the owners of fiefs or by the seigneurs of montreal. talon encouraged marriages so that with the establishments of the officers and the soldiers, joined to the activity of the emigration movement from to , the families had more than doubled their numbers, and the population was also almost doubled during this period. in the first census under talon shows, at the commencement of , , souls and families; at the commencement of , , souls and , families. yet the official report of frontenac in after the departure of talon gave only a population of , . this seems incredible and colbert expressed surprise. from to the king had sent over persons without counting the soldiers arriving in . add to this the material increase, the six to seven hundred births of and those of , estimated in advance by laval at , , and it is difficult to admit that the population had only increased by souls from to . the census of gives , . this is more reasonable and leads to the conclusion that the returns of were too small. the population of montreal, according to morin "le vieux montreal," was as follows: , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , . footnotes: [ ] françois le noir was summoned before the judge at montreal in december, , for breaking this ordinance. [ ] in the manuscript notes by jacques viger kept in st. mary's college, montreal, the writer mentions one extract from the deliberations of the "conseil souverain," held at quebec on october , , showing how these marriageable girls were disposed of, and the dowry given by his most christian majesty. "_des filles arrivées cette année par les vaisseaux du roy il en sera envoyé dix à montréal et quatre aux trois rivières, et leur sera donné à chacune une barrique de farine, une paire de souliers, une paire de bas, une couverte, un just'a corps, cinquante livres de lard, dix pots d'eau de vie pour aider à marier, comme on a fait à celles qui ont été envoyées icy à québec._ (_signé_) _peuvret_." [ ] see letters of marie l'incarnation, vol. ii. [ ] see letters of colbert. chapter xxi - expeditions from montreal la salle--dollier de casson--de courcelles a feudal village and its young seigneur--la salle's jesuit training--an ex-jesuit--the seigneury of st. sulpice--sold--the fever for exploration--la salle, dollier de casson and galinee--soldier outrages on indians--the expedition to lakes erie and ontario--la salle returns--his seigneury nicknamed "la chine"--the sulpicians take possession of lake erie for louis xiv--return to montreal--de galinee's map--the subsequent expedition of the governor general, de courcelles. one of the feudal villages rising at this period was that now known as lachine. its original name was st. sulpice. it was granted provisionally in as a fief to rené robert cavelier de la salle, a brother of m. jean cavelier, a young doctor in theology and a sulpician who had joined the seminary at montreal on september , . [illustration: rene-robert cavelier de la salle] la salle, as the former is known to us, became afterwards the celebrated discoverer of the mississippi down to the sea and as a montrealer deserves special notice here. he was born at rouen, november , , and was educated at the jesuit college there. in his fifteenth year he entered the jesuit noviceship, on october , . during the two years of noviceship, the père maître, or novice master, had a difficult task to train the impetuous, vigorous, impressionable, headstrong, exuberant, healthy youth of fifteen, to the calm regularity of obedience, and the soldierly, intellectual routine demanded by the jesuit traditions; but it is just this type of strong character, so powerful for good, if brought under wise subjection, that the jesuits love to mould; and so the young man was allowed to take the simple vows of evangelical poverty, chastity and obedience on october , . the next two years he spent as a jesuit scholastic at the royal college of la flèche studying philosophy and the physical sciences, showing ability in the latter courses. instead of finishing the third year, the restless young man went out to teach as a jesuit professor at alençon for a year. he then resumed his delayed third year. from october, , to october, , he taught at tours, and from to at blois. in the september of he returned to la flèche to study theology. he was then only twenty-three years of age, and had been promoted to the theology course seven or eight years ahead of the usual jesuit course, because his inability to stay long in any one place and his want of success in a humdrum professorship for which he had no taste, and which was irritating to him and his students, forced his superiors to allow him to hurry through his studies, thinking doubtless that this ardent spirit might find congenial work in the distant mission fields with every facility for exercising his fiery zeal, with less restraint, and under less conventional circumstances than in france. this resolution was brought about by cavelier's own insistency in demanding immediately the foreign missions, in a letter of april th, written from blois, to the general of the jesuits, jean paul oliva. the general on may , , answered temporizingly to the young man, advising him to continue his studies and prepare himself usefully for the sacred ministry, and in the meantime maintain that most "perfect indifference," which is one of the most striking characteristics of the jesuit philosophical training and has been subjected to so much criticism of praise or blame. to this cavelier replied that he had still the same desire, but the general wrote that he could give no different reply. to understand cavelier's nature he is described in the jesuit informations of the time as "inquietus" and "scrupulosus," which words are very nearly english. hardly had the theological studies at la flèche commenced than he wrote to the general, on december , , asking to be sent to portugal for his studies. no doubt the restless cavelier was undergoing a nervous strain of scrupulosity and doubt as to his fitness for religious and priestly life, and he thought that he could find peace of mind again in a change of scene. the general replied kindly, bidding him remain quietly in his own "province," to conclude his studies, and after the third year of probational novitiate, which all jesuits undergo after being ordained and before taking their final "solemn" vows, his zealous desire for the foreign missions would be satisfied. this answer brought to a head cavelier's doubts as to his fitness for the calmer repose of a studious life. on the one hand there were holding him his three simple vows, not lightly to be laid down, and to which he had been doubtless substantially faithful; on the other, he felt that his natural character was impelling him to a freer life than that of restrained self-sacrifice he had honourably tried to follow up. so that making use of the privilege of a jesuit scholastic, not irrevocably bound to the society till the taking of the last vows, and after laying his conscience open to his superior and not "hiding his moral infirmities," and probably exaggerating them, he applied, canonically, for his letters of release. by january th, in the year following, the final application was sent to rome by the jesuit rector of la flèche, and on march st, the general, jean paul oliva, wrote to the jesuit provincial of france: "after a serious examination of the informations which you have sent us, we authorize you to accept the resignation of robert ignatius cavelier, approved scholastic." ignatius was a name taken by cavelier on taking his simple vows in in admiration of ignatius loyola, the soldier saint and founder of the society of jesus. robert ignatius cavelier left the college of la flèche on march , , an ex-jesuit. before his final letters of freedom were given him he received a kind letter from the general, in which he was told that the french provincial had been instructed by him "to absolve you from your vows and set you free." he added in latin, "but do you, dearest brother, wheresoever and in whatever state you shall find yourself, be ever mindful of the state from which you have gone forth, and attend to the rock from which you have been hewed, and although you may be separated from us in time and place, strive always to be in heart with us and to live in christ with us. may his grace be always with you!" (archives general s. j.) cf. rochemonteix "les jésuites et la nouvelle france." circumstances in later life separated him largely from intercourse with the jesuits, as his career took him across the sulpicians and the recollects. cavelier de la salle is free! where will he turn his steps? he has no position and very little of a fortune, for on becoming a jesuit he had yielded up his inheritance to others of his family. canada calls him, for his brother françois, the priest, had gone there in the september of . canada, therefore, had doubtless been luring him during his late mental struggles at la flèche, and the summer of found the ex-jesuit with his brother, the sulpician, at montreal. the abbé de queylus received the young man of twenty-four years kindly, and doubtless for his brother's sake gave him a "_fief noble_" of great extent opposite the sault st. louis. to encourage him to make good, the title was not given in writing to him till january , , when he paid a medal of fine gold, which was to be repaid to the seminary at every subsequent change of seigneur. the adventurous sieur de la salle set whole-heartedly to work in his new vocation. he gratefully called the seigneury "st. sulpice" and, commencing the clearing of the land, he mapped out the borders of his future village and subdivided his land as grants to his feudal tenants in lots of sixty arpents, with half an arpent in the village itself. he relieved them of any seigneurial dues till the year , provided they had built their homes by the feast of st. john, . he gave them the right of hunting on their lands and of fishing in front. he took off arpents of land from his fief towards lake st. peter for a "common," whereon each could feed his beasts at a feudal fine of five sous a year, while he reserved arpents for his seigneurial manor. this, however, he sold in , when the passion for travel and discovery seized him, as shall be later described. we have ventured to give the romantic details of the history of one of the early seigneurs because they illustrate the adventuresome period and also because many of these facts surrounding the life of la salle were not generally known, even by many of the leading historians of canada. they will help as a key to explain the temperament and character of the celebrated discoverer, in his canadian life, his enterprises and his misfortunes, his extreme need of movement, his uncertainty, his passion for travel, his reputation for learning, and also his active and ardent faith deepened by his jesuit training. his robust health and his commanding figure were of powerful avail to him in his adventurous tasks. the generous blood of normandy flowed freely in his veins and, like his countrymen, he was active, intelligent, industrious, resourceful and self-regarding. he made a better pioneer than a patient, plodding land owner, as we shall see, and the defects of an untractable youth made the success of the man as an explorer. we left the young la salle organizing his seigneury, but before long he is to be found, gun on his shoulder and knapsack on his back, traversing the woods and in his canoe exploring all the rivers and lakes around the neighbourhood. trading his merchandise for beaver skins with the indians and coming in contact with the _coureurs de bois_, he learns the directions of the rivers and the products of the countries through which they pass, and soon there seizes him the great desire to discover the long-sought-for northwest passage to china and japan and thus to open out a fruitful field for commerce for france, and glory and fortune for himself. during the autumn of some seneca (tsonnontouan) indians stopped at st. sulpice and from them he learned that the river he called the ohio entered into the mississippi, which emptied its waters into the "river of the sault," which he thought to be the pacific.[ ] with the aid of these he started to master the iroquois language. meanwhile, a similar idea of exploring and evangelizing the shawnee district had presented itself to dollier de casson who was now at quebec, making arrangements with m. de queylus for his departure. dollier had spent the winter of in the woods with the indians at lake nipissing, learning an algonquin dialect from a nipissing chief named nitaukyk. this latter had a shawnee slave who, on a visit to montreal, so enthused queylus, that he sent a letter back by the slave, telling m. de casson of his desire to convert the shawnee people who seemed to provide special aptitude for christianity, and offering this mission to the zealous dollier, who hastened to his superior at once and thence to quebec. to raise the money for la salle's expedition the seigneurs bought back a great part of his land for , _livres_, payable in merchandise to arrive by the vessels at quebec. but he still wished to retain his seigneurial domain of arpents. indeed on january th he received the written titles of these from the seminary. but on february th, following, la salle, still in need of funds, sold his seigneurial domain for , _livres_ to jean milot--a very good bargain considering that he had been granted it for very little, and that the documents of the transaction reveal that he had only cleared nine or ten arpents; and that, on the other part, the wood had only been felled, and not logged, and buildings had only been commenced.[ ] then he set out to quebec to interest m. de courcelles, the governor, in his project and to obtain all the necessary passports and authorizations to range the woods and lakes. de courcelles warmly approved of his enthusiasm, seeing glory for his own administration at no cost to himself, and he even allowed soldiers to quit their companies and join la salle. he also persuaded dollier de casson, then in quebec, consulting de queylus on the shawnee mission, to combine with la salle's expedition, thus giving it a certain governmental éclat and public importance. dollier de casson received his letters from laval on may , . on returning to montreal, preparations were made for departure. la salle engaged four canoes and fourteen men, among whom was the sieur thoulonnier and the surgeon, la roussillière. to meet additional expenses he had to sell another piece of land above st. sulpice to jacques leber, for _livres_ _tournois_, on july , , the day of departure. de casson had three canoes and seven men, and with them m. de galinée, a sulpician deacon, an astronomer and mathematician, who joined only three days before the departure. they took a hollander to interpret the iroquois language. before leaving montreal the party witnessed the execution of three french soldiers of the carignan regiment, who were put to death for the assassination, near point claire on lake st. louis, of an iroquois chief of the senecas (tsonnontouans). on the eve of this date it was found out, by a confession to la salle, that three other frenchmen had committed, near montreal, on the river mascouche, a more atrocious assassination of six oneida iroquois (onneiouts), three of whom were a woman and two children. yet the bodies were never found, so this remains a mystery. rewards were offered for the capture of the prisoners, but they were never taken. both of these horrible slaughters had been caused by a desire of seizing the peltry belonging to the indians. such treachery was likely to rekindle war with the natives. on this occasion, therefore, m. de courcelles came up to conciliate the assembled indians and to assure them, by presents, of the governmental displeasure at these acts. under these critical and dangerous circumstances, the expedition of seven canoes containing twenty-two frenchmen and guided by two other canoes of those tsonnontouans who had lived with la salle, left montreal. they made their way to the great village of tsonnontouan and stayed there a month, trembling in fear of their lives, for the chief, lately murdered at montreal, came from this place. added to this one of those drunken bouts, the results of the liquor traffic, seized the inhabitants and threatened the europeans' safety. while here dollier de casson, worn out by the unaccustomed hardships of the journey, fell into a great fever and was near his end, but happily recovering, the explorers left and arrived at a river whose cataracts marked the descent of the waters of lake erie into those of lake ontario. five days' journey brought them to the other side of lake ontario. while here a fever also fell upon la salle which in a few days imperilled his life. on september d, they journeyed again and on the th reached a village named tenaoutoua, where they met the explorer, joliet, arrived there the evening before. he had previously set out from montreal with canoes and merchandise, under instructions from m. de courcelles, to seek the whereabouts of a copper mine said to be situated on lake superior. finding the winter coming on, he had relinquished this project and was about to return to montreal. he gave a description of the places he had visited and galinée, the sulpician geographer, entered them on his map. la salle now determined that he also would return to montreal, urging for excuse the state of his health and the inexperience of his men to stand a winter in the woods, where they were likely to perish of hunger. but the missionary party was firm in its resolution to proceed to the mississippi indians. thus it was that some of la salle's party arrived the autumn of in montreal alone. whether la salle returned with them is doubted, for his traces for two years are hard to follow. the failure of his expedition to discover la chine was commemorated in derision by the wags of montreal who henceforth dubbed his seigneury of st. sulpice, as that of "la chine." such it soon began to be named, even in the official documents, as for example one of june , , "this place la chine, so called." so la chine it has remained to this day. meanwhile the montreal missionaries, after leaving tenaoutoua on october , , arrived, the th or th, on the banks of lake erie, which seemed to them like a great sea lashed and tossed by the tempestuous winds. at the mouth of a pleasant river, after three days they built their cabin and there they remained for fifteen days, till the fierce lake winds drove them to a more sheltered place in the woods, about a quarter of a league away, on a bank of a stream. there they reconstructed their cabin, but more strongly, and wintered for five months and eleven days. when spring came, they determined to push on to the mississippi indians, but before doing so, an event is to be chronicled in the history of discovery, from montreal. on march d, on passion sunday, descending to the banks of lake erie, the explorers took possession of the country in the name of louis xiv. the following _procès verbal_, then drawn up and preserved in the marine archives of france, fully explains the picturesque ceremony: "we, the undersigned, certify having affixed the arms of the king of france, on the lands of the lake named erie, with this inscription: "in the year of salvation , clement ix being seated on the chair of st. peter, louis xiv reigning in france, m. de courcelles being governor of new france and m. talon intendant there for the king, two missionaries of the seminary of montreal, arrived at this spot accompanied by seven other frenchmen, who are the first europeans to have wintered on this lake, the lands of which being unoccupied, they take possession of in the name of their king, by placing up his arms which they have affixed to this cross. "in testimony of which we have signed the present certification. "françois dollier, "priest of the diocese of nantes, in brittany; "de galinée, "deacon of the diocese of rennes, in brittany." on the th of march they proceeded further on their journey, but in easter week, having halted by the side of lake erie, and drawn some of their canoes onto the land, leaving others on the sandy shore near the water's edge, wearied out with fatigue after a day's journey of twenty leagues, the party fell asleep. a great wind arose and heaped up the waters so that the awakened sleepers had difficulty in rescuing their canoes. one they utterly lost, as well as apparel and chapel accoutrements. a barrel of gunpowder floating on the waves was saved but the ammunition was lost. this disaster made them resolve to turn back to montreal. they chose for their return voyage the route passing by the mission of sault ste. marie. on their way, after leagues' navigation, they destroyed a rude indian idol, and after entering lake huron arrived on may th at sault ste. marie fort, where they were joyously received by the jesuits, dablon and marquette, with the little colony of twenty to twenty-five frenchmen. thence they started on may th, with a guide from the fort, and after a strenuous journey of twenty-two days reached montreal on june , . [illustration: old map of montreal] m. de galinée on his return made a corrected copy of his map, which he sent to m. talon, with a copy of the "_prise de possession_," already described, and these were of great use later, to the french government, which sent them to london in as evidences of the pretensions which the french claimed over lakes erie and ontario, and the neighbouring countries. [illustration: galinee's map, ] dollier de casson wrote a history of this voyage but no copy has been found. though the journey was unsuccessful in the conversion of the indians, yet it paved the way to succeeding explorations which were quickly sent by talon, and to the eventual evangelization of these parts. of la salle's experience, after leaving the sulpicians, we have little to record, as he was lost to civilization; but we see him coming back at intervals to montreal as his base to obtain supplies for his explorations. on the th of august, , he received on credit "in his great need and necessity" from the hands of migeon de branssat, procureur fiscal of ville marie, merchandise to the sum of _livres_ _tournois_. again on december , , being in montreal, there is an "obligation" recorded at the city _greffe_ of a promise to pay, on the august following, the same sum in peltry or money, either at the house of jacques leber, where he lived, or at rouen at the house of his relative, m. nicholas crevêt, king's councillor and master of accounts. montreal, being at the head of navigation, became the starting point of many subsequent expeditions. we may add here the expedition of governor general de courcelles to lake ontario, which left montreal on june , . the object of the voyage was to conciliate the indians who had made peace but who were in danger of breaking it, irritated as they had been by such breaches of faith as that related to have recently occurred at montreal, by the brutal assassinations, and to show them by a dignified appearance among them not, in canoe, but "en bateau" that their waters were not inaccessible, and that the french knew how to punish and keep them in check. another motive was to explore the lands bordering on lake ontario with the view of establishing a fort and colony and of diverting the peltry trade into french instead of english hands, and of claiming those lands for the french. accordingly de courcelles arrived at montreal with a specially constructed bateau of two or three tons under the management of sergeant champagne and eight other soldiers. the governor's daring expedition was joined at montreal by m. perrot, the local governor of montreal; m. de varennes, that of three rivers; charles le moyne, m. de laubia, m. de la vallière, m. de normanville and several others, as a mark of esteem for the governor; finally the genial dollier de casson as chaplain. it is from him that we have the history of the expedition. the party of fifty-two went by road to la chine and embarked above st. louis rapids on the governor's barque and thirteen birch bark canoes. on june th it reached the mouth of lake ontario. on the way a party of iroquois had been met and impressed with fear and respect. these were now sent with letters to the missionaries to publish around news of the mission of the governor general. the iroquois were overwhelmed by the dignity of the governor and his party, and for a time they kept dumb with their hands and their mouths, in astonishment. of the french they said that they were demons and brought to a conclusion everything they wanted. the governor, they thought an incomparable man. he made capital of his success and menaced destruction to those who should revolt, whose settlements he would take and destroy at will. the party returned on june th and soon arrived in montreal, the whole expedition having taken only fifteen days. it was most successful with the indians and restrained their trade with the dutch and english, and even the latter, according to marie l'incarnation (letter no. ) feared lest they should be driven from their trading posts. footnotes: [ ] la salle wondered where the ohio emptied itself. his mind wavered between the gulf of mexico or the vermillion river (the gulf of california). he seems to have favoured the latter hypothesis. [ ] the abbé véreault says la salle hired a small house in montreal in november, . at the southeast corner of st. peter and st. paul streets a tablet commemorates such a house. on january th he was again in montreal. probably he found lachine lonely and naturally sought the town. chapter xxii - education at quebec: jacques leber, jeanne leber, charles le moyne (of longueuil), louis prudhomme--marguerite bourgeoys' school at montreal--"gallicizing" indian children--gannensagonas--the sulpicians at gentilly--the jesuits at madeleine la prairie. another effort of louis xiv, through his minister colbert, was the furtherance of education in the colony. it was naturally of a very rudimentary character in these early days of scarce population. to help, colbert sent from the king, , _livres_ on april , . the work of education was in the hands of the clergy and religious with the exception of that done at montreal by marguerite bourgeoys, who had not yet established her order. at quebec, the jesuits had since commenced a college for boys at which later young joliet, who afterward with père marquette, was the discoverer of illinois, was taught to defend philosophical theses. the ursulines had a _pensionnat_ of thirty girls, of whom marie l'incarnation, writing in , says: "they gave more trouble than sixty in france. the _externes_ give us some more trouble." still she says that there is a great desire to educate the french girls and "they learn to read and write, to say their prayers, learn christian morals and all that a girl ought to know." among the _pensionnaires_ was jeanne leber, the daughter of jacques leber, the montreal merchant, and she was pious, and clever at elocution and lace work. [illustration: jacques marquette] at montreal, as the population began to grow, marguerite bourgeoys now handed over the boys, who were beginning to be educated with the girls in the little primary school in the stable, to m. souart, who, since the return of m. de queylus, had been supplanted as curate by m. gilles pérot, and we find him styled in the documents of the time "former curé--schoolmaster." in this occupation he was assisted by m. rémy, a deacon, who was afterwards entrusted for some time with the primary education of the town. the education was given gratuitously, but to maintain the schoolmaster, the syndic, accompanied by the clerk of the court, canvassed subscriptions from private individuals. in the fall, the seminary made up the deficit. marguerite bourgeoys, and her four companions, still taught during the day for nothing, without any assistance as before, but during the night they worked at manual labour for their support. "thus," says dollier de casson writing of , "what i admire most about these young women, is that being without goods and willing to teach gratuitously, they have nevertheless acquired by the grace of god and without being a charge to anyone, houses and lands in the island of montreal." in fact on august , , marguerite bourgeoys bought a house thirty-six feet square adjoining the "congregation" from the widow of claude fézeret. on september , , she acquired from françois leber a grant of land, with a house on it, at pointe st. charles. the site of this house, with its buildings, can be seen to this day. in , she acquired, from maturin roulier, another piece of land with a granary and a meadow, situated in the direction of sault st. louis. all this, added to the original donation from m. de maisonneuve, and sixty arpents and more granted through the seigneurs, out of which she had put thirty-two under cultivation and on which she had placed a granary, went in great part to support her community of pious lay associates. in addition, on july , , she bought an arpent of land adjoining the "congregation" and built on it a larger establishment, as the number of her pupils surpassed the limited space of her stable school. on october , , laval at quebec started his "petit séminaire," out of the boys of which he hoped to draw the nucleus of a canadian clergy. he started with six hurons, to whom were added eight french boys. in there were three montrealers being educated there, probably on a _bourse_ from the king's bounty, viz., charles le moyne, de longueuil; jacques leber, brother of jeanne, and louis prud'homme. the french boys, supported by the king's bounty, boarded, however, at the jesuit college. soon others joined, but as it was found that many of them did not care for study, they were sent to cap au tourment, where they learned mechanical trades and arts suitable to young colonists. in , there were only five teachers for the many calls on the education of the girls, so marguerite bourgeoys went to france for assistance, and after six months she saw colbert, who promised to assist her so that her congregation in may, , received the approval of the "roi soleil," louis xiv, who was then with his brilliant court at dunkerque. she returned to quebec in , on august th, bringing back a miraculous oaken statue of the blessed virgin, of some eight inches in height for the church of bonsecours, already projected in and to be built shortly. with her came several novices to join her order, some of noble families, elizabeth de la bertache, madeleine de constantin, thérèse soumillard, pierrette laurent, geneviève durosoy, marguerite soumillard, and marguerite sénécal, who was the bursar of the very slender funds of the party. in addition to the _externes_ the congregation was beginning to have boarders and was reaching such a point of utility, when she might extend her work throughout the colony, that she had been persuaded to ask for the above royal letters patent of incorporation. her eventual aim was to establish a regular congregation, with religious vows of its own. for the present, laval did not favour such a plan; he rather wished to avoid a multiplicity of religious congregations in a poor country, and he would have preferred her companions to join the ursulines at quebec, becoming if necessary a branch establishment. to this the independent marguerite bourgeoys was opposed. the ursulines was an enclosed order and the montreal _congréganistes_ wished indeed to live in community, but to circulate freely among the people--a new idea then among religious congregations of women, very untried and to which consequently the conservative bishop of petrea was not favourable. yet, in , on a visit of laval to montreal, the foundress was authorized to spread her fellow workers over his diocese, and it was about this time that they began to adopt a form of dress based on an acadian model. the education of indian children was greatly promoted under the new policy of louis xiv, and laval, in the intention of "gallicizing" the natives in language, religion and customs, and eventually of allying them in marriage with the colonists from france. this had been one of laval's objects in founding the "petit séminaire" of quebec. he persuaded the jesuits and the ursulines to start indian schools for algonquin boys and huron and algonquin girls at quebec. on september , , marie de l'incarnation announced the marriage of some of her girls to frenchmen, with domestic success. laval also induced the sulpicians at montreal to undertake the work for the children of those algonquin and huron parents who had been captured by the iroquois. the city archives contain the contracts of july , , by which jacques akimega, thirteen years of age, and louise resikouki, an algonquin girl of twelve years, bind themselves to be lodged and educated like french people till eighteen years of age, at the seminary on a gift of _livres_, provided by dollier de casson on the stipulation that if the contract was broken the money shall go for the education of other savage children. other indian girls being forthcoming, marguerite bourgeoys undertook their training at the congregation, and on november , , we have the contract of marriage between one of them, marie magdalene catherine nachital, and pierre hogue, born at belle-fontaine, near amiens. one of the pupils of the congregation, called gannensagouas and baptized marie thérèse, after the queen of france, later in made her religious profession as a nun in the congregation order, by that time erected. but the work of gallicizing and civilizing these wayward, liberty-loving, capricious children of the woods was an ungrateful task. most of those who entered the cloister of the ursulines were like birds of passage and they flew over the cloister walls to escape the melancholy of their restrained lives, even when their parents did not take them away. nor did the jesuits succeed any better. the sulpicians made a bold attempt by taking their indian school into the country. m. de fénelon, one of their number, was charged to form an establishment under the name of la présentation at gentilly, situated on the bank of the st. lawrence above lachine, and in addition he secured a concession on january , , of the three islands opposite between lachine and cap st. gilles, which had been granted originally to picoté de bélestre and were now exchanged for land on the island. these islands were then named the iles de courcelles, after the governor general, and on one of them at a place called the baie d'urfé, after the name of one of the sulpician missionaries, an indian mission was established. we may here mention the jesuit missions, on the south shore facing montreal of the seigneuries of madeleine la prairie and st. lambert, which commenced with a few savages in , the progenitor of the fifth site, the caughnawaga reservation, as known today. note caughnawaga, or sault st. louis, an iroquois reservation, situated on the south bank of the st. lawrence, about ten miles above montreal. area, , acres. population in , , , all catholics except five or six families. the language is the mohawk dialect. the sault (or rapids) was an old seigniory, or concession, granted to the jesuits in . to père ruffeix, s. j., is due the idea of thus grouping the iroquois neophytes on the banks of the st. lawrence to guard them from the persecution and temptation to which they were subject amid the pagan influences of their own villages. in the missionary prevailed upon seven communities to take up their residence at la prairie, opposite montreal. other christian iroquois from different localities soon came to join the settlement, and in there were twenty families. as the proximity of the whites was prejudicial to the indians, the mission was transferred, in , several miles higher up the river. this second site is memorable as the scene of the saintly life and death of catherine tekakwitha (died ). in a granite monument was erected on the site, in memory of the humble iroquois virgin. in , to escape the threatened attacks of their pagan tribesmen, the christian iroquois sought refuge in montreal, where they remained eight or nine months. when the danger had passed they founded another settlement a mile or two above the last. in another migration took place to a fourth site. here it was that père lafitau, s. j., discovered the famous "ginseng" plant, so valuable in the eyes of the chinese. the discovery created a great sensation, and was for a time the source of lucrative commerce. the fourth site still proving unsatisfactory, the settlement was moved to the present site of caughnawaga in . from to the mission was conducted by the jesuits; from to by secular priests and oblates. in it was again confided to the jesuits. among the more noted missionaries were fathers bruyas, s. j.; chauchetière, s. j.; lafitau, s. j.; burtin, o. m. i.; marcoux, who composed an iroquois dictionary and grammar; and forbes, who drew up complete genealogical tables of the settlement. the indians are intelligent and industrious. some are engaged in farming, others take rafts down the lachine rapids. the industries are principally bead work and the making of lacrosse rackets and snowshoes. besides the presbytery, dating from , and the church built in and restored in , there are in the village the ruins of a french fort of , two schools and a hospital. the government by chiefs was, in , replaced by that of a mayor and council. note by joseph gras, s. j. n. b.--joseph gras, s. j., the writer of this monograph, is assistant missionary at caughnawaga. [illustration: la tortue the old flour mill about . walls of solid stone] [illustration: la tortue another view of the same house showing stream running underneath] [illustration: the sites of the south shore indian settlement, sault st. louis village, in its various removals from la prairie to the present caughnawaga] chapter xxiii - garrison life--slackening morals sieur de la frediere--liquor traffic with the indians--soldiers murder indians--the carion-de lormeau duel--the first ball in canada--larcenies, etc.--a corner in wheat--the "voluntaires," or day labourers--the taverns--a police raid--"hotel" life--blasphemy punished--the lords' vineyards ruined. the history of garrison towns, sad to relate, seems always to be besmirched with scandals having their origin among the soldiers. so it was with montreal after the settlement of the officers and men of the carignan and other regiments, in marked contrast with the times of de maisonneuve and his brave "milice," who had been especially trained under religious influences and had not been reared in the atmosphere of camp or barrack life. among the officers sent to montreal, after the war of , to command the garrison, was the sieur de la fredière, a nephew of m. de sallières and a major in the sallières-carignan regiment. this man, disfigured by the loss of an eye, has left a name as one who was repulsive alike in mind, in conscience, and in honour. he was banished to france after the visit of talon in , who heard from the inhabitants such a catalogue of acts of tyranny, injustice, and immorality against this officer of the king that, having referred the charges to de tracy, the latter ordered the expulsion of the offender. on de sallières' remonstrance at the severity of the sentence, talon ordered on september , , a judicial investigation into the charges so that they might be presented in legal form. accordingly the copies of records of the judicial archives of montreal of september - , preserved in the _greffe_ of the city, containing these informations against la fredière before m. d'ailleboust, remain as standing evidence produced by jean beaudoin, mathurin marsta, andré demers, claude jaudoin, anne thomasse, his wife, and marie anne hardye, wife of pierre malet, of the justice of the above charges. those who wish to read the scandalous details can do so at will. one of the charges against la fredière had been that of selling liquor to the savages, and of fraudulently diluting it, at that. he was not without imitators among the officers who, not content with selling them liquor in their settlements, followed them to their hunting fields, so that through their continual drunken orgies, the savages brought back but few skins, and thus the habitants of montreal, who had gone to great expense in advancing them on credit, arms, powder and provisions, were reduced to great want. dollier de casson, contrasting the singlemindedness of m. de maisonneuve with the new régime of avaricious officers, says that if things went on so, the country would be ruined. "it is impossible that it can hold together," he says in his account of the year , "if individuals have not the wherewith to buy utensils, linen, clothes, in a country where wheat has no value. owing to the cupidity of the officers, the inhabitants, not having any peltry for exchange, are forced to sell their arms to provide the wherewith to cover themselves, and having only their feet and arms to defend themselves, they will become the prey of the iroquois, should they wish to begin to war again." speaking of this period marie l'incarnation (letter of october, ) says "that it would have been better to have less inhabitants and better christians," and dollier de casson in his history of the year , bewailing the departure of m. de maisonneuve, says that "since montreal had fallen into other hands, vices unknown before had crept in." the common soldiers followed the licenses of their betters and were within an ace of endangering the safety of the colony by rekindling the smouldering embers of iroquois hatred. in their greed the soldiers of the montreal garrison had killed a seneca chief for his peltry, having plied him with brandy and killed him. his body they loaded with weights to sink it, but it was found floating by some iroquois who brought it to montreal, and thus the murder was out. as we have related they were put to death, on the day of the departure of la salle for the west. about the same time, in the winter of - , three other scamps who had left the carignan regiment and settled at montreal cruelly massacred six oneidas (onneiouts) on the banks of the river mascouche, first intoxicating them in their cabin, and then during the night falling on them, not even sparing the woman and her young children. and this for a load of fifty elk and beaver skins! one of the assassins confessed the brutal deed to la salle, as we have said, before departing. the first armed attack on life at montreal among frenchmen was also committed by a soldier, viz., by carion, a lieutenant of la motte's regiment, on the person of m. de lormeau, an ensign of m. de gué's company, in payment of a grudge. the case was brought up before m. d'ailleboust in may, , and the records of the _greffe_ giving the depositions of the witnesses, tell an exciting story, of how, on pentecost evening, after vespers and just before the first sound of the "salut" pealed, the sieur de lormeau was walking with his wife towards the common and had passed the seminary enclosure, apparently on the way to his dwelling, when nearing the house of charles le moyne, of longueuil, who was at table entertaining picoté de bélestre and a merchant of rochelle named baston, they saw m. de carion coming to meet them. they advanced towards him and they were near migeon de branssat's house when carion, seeking a pretext for provocation, called out, "coward! why have you struck this child? why don't you attack me?" "coward yourself!" was the reply. "go away!" on the instant carignan's sword is out and de lormeau follows suit. three or four blows are struck and they clinch one another. in the struggle carion, taking his sword by the blade, tries to plunge its point into de lormeau's stomach. de lormeau's péruque now falling to the ground, carion takes the opportunity of seizing his sword by the hilt and deals blows with its pommel on de lormeau's unprotected head till the blood began to flow. whereupon de lormeau's lady, marie roger lepage, terror-stricken and beside herself, runs back to charles le moyne's house and disturbs the supper party by crying, "murder! murder! m. de bélestre, come out!" the three, leaving the table, rushed to separate the struggling officers but in vain. picoté de bélestre then exclaimed in indignation: "since you won't separate, then kill yourselves if you want to." and now, one called gilles, a former servant of m. carion, comes on the scene with drawn sword, brandishing it in defence of his master, but doing no damage. m. morel, an ensign in the same company as carion and a partner in the same quarrel against de lormeau, also comes on with naked sword and makes a thrust at de lormeau, much to charles le moyne's disgust strongly expressed, at seeing an unarmed man so struck. by this time de lormeau had received three wounds, when two priests from the seminary ran out to separate them, m. de frémont and m. dollier de casson, the strapping soldier priest, whose presence soon acted as a peacemaker. but de lormeau took the affair to the court, as we have seen. the military introduced a love of gayety, good cheer and dissipation into the colony. in quebec in , on february th, the first ball was held and the jesuit journal of the period adds this reflection: "may god grant that there are no sad consequences." at montreal, larcenies, breaches of respect for authority, blasphemies and sabbath breaking are now recorded. in an attempt was made for the first time, in montreal to make a corner in wheat to the detriment of the poor. by an act of january , , talon fixed the price at three _livres_ and two sous the bushel, and punished a refractory miller, de la touche-champlain who, profiting by the dearth of wheat, sold it at twenty sous, and even then it was mixed with indian corn. the "_volontaires_," or day labourers, began to be a trouble, as they were more numerous at montreal than elsewhere. many of these were lazy and wanderers, and would not hire themselves out or take up land, and doubtless many of the petty larcenies now commencing, were due to these gentlemen living on their wits. the woods appealed to them and the "_coureurs de bois_" would soon be recruited from them. the simplicity of primitive manners was going. an ordinance of the "_procureur fiscal_" in the records of the city for march , , shows that precautions had to be now taken to prevent sacks of wheat and flour from being willfully changed at the mill, and their amounts from being falsified. theft was severely punished, according to the "_greffe_" of april , . a man who had stolen thirteen bushels of wheat was condemned to be marked with the royal "_fleur de lys_" and to be sent to the canadian galleys for three years. on december , , another was sentenced to stand outside the parish church for a quarter of an hour, as the people were leaving after mass on sunday. the town clerk read his sentence out to the people and an officer of justice affixed to the culprit's breast a notice in large characters so that all might read the legend, "_voleur de blé_" (wheat thief). again, on march , , a man convicted of stealing from a store by night was condemned by m. d'ailleboust, under the good pleasure of the sovereign council, to be hanged on a market day, so that by "this dire example, the evil disposed might be intimidated and prevented from committing greater larcenies and other crimes." the condemned man, however, appealed to the sovereign council, and the execution does not appear to have taken place. tavern frequentation was also a source of dissipation and trouble. the cabarets became the rendezvous of montrealers, although they were only licensed for strangers and marketers. in , the intendant came to town and on this occasion at the request of the seigneurs brought about a special ordinance dated april , , which ran as follows: "desirous of doing all in our power to stop these dissipations and debaucheries, which serve only for the corruption of morals and the destruction of families and of the colony, we, in execution of this ordinance of the king, very expressly forbid all those who shall keep cabarets or taverns, in the town as well as in the bourgs, villages or other places, to open them to receive any person on sundays and holy days and during divine service, under a penalty of a fine for the first offence, and of prison for the second. we forbid, under the same penalties, all those domiciled in towns, bourgs and villages where there are cabarets or taverns, even those who are married and have families or households, to go to eat or to drink in these places, and those who keep these cabarets or taverns to give them food or drink, or gaming, under any pretext whatever. they can only sell them wine by the pot, which they shall take home to drink. "we forbid them also, under the same penalties, to receive in these places any dissolute or lewd men or women, or to give them food or 'aliment' of any kind, or likewise to give to any _engagé_ (hired man) or 'volontaire' food or drink. "they shall, however, be allowed to give drink in moderation to travelers and to give board and lodging to those who shall be obliged to reside in this town to manage their affairs. finally we forbid all innkeepers to give credit for their dues or to exact any promise or obligation of payment under the penalty of loss of their stock, for which they shall not take any action of recovery, conformably to article of the 'custom of paris.'" this ordinance appears to have been strictly enforced for some time, for we find the syndic himself on august , , appearing before m. d'ailleboust to answer a charge of eating and drinking at an inn on a sunday or a feast day during divine service. the syndic owned up to having contravened the law on a week day, but brought witnesses to prove that he had not broken the ordinance of the sunday and feast day observance. the innkeeper was condemned to pay the law expenses of the case and to pay a fine to the church. even those who broke the ecclesiastical abstinence in these cabarets seem to have been in danger of the secular arm. a watch was kept by the seigneurs on the weights and measures and they had them stamped with their seal. in order to see that innkeepers did not substitute others, the _procureur fiscal_, or his substitute, accompanied by the clerk of the justices and two sergeants, went on a tour of inspection from time to time. (greffe de ville marie, june , .) in , on a surprise visit after vespers one sunday,--"on information received" doubtless,--these officers found four men being entertained at one of the cabarets, now beginning to open up without authorization and apparently contravening all the above-quoted ordinance. one june th the four men and the innkeeper were fined. on september th the judge of the seigneurs, forced to cut down the growing abuses, ordered all inns to be closed under penalty of a _livres_, provided that the autumn then ending and the forthcoming winter did not bring any strangers to montreal. he declared at the same time that in the spring there would be established one or two "cabaretiers hôteliers," which we may translate as "hostelry innkeepers," to board and lodge traveling merchants coming to montreal. shall we consider this the first indication of the hotel life of montreal, the commercial metropolis of canada? the crime of blasphemy was severely punished. on ascension day, , the new royal edict, supplementing a former one of , was placarded at the door of the parish church at montreal.[ ] various fines and imprisonments are meted out to those who shall sin. at the sixth offence it is ordered that the blasphemer's upper lip shall be cut with a hot iron, the lower lip on the seventh, and if after this he still continues his blasphemy, his tongue is to be cut out. a man near lachine, having attempted outrage on two young girls of eleven and seven years, was fined and banished, on june , , from the isle of montreal, for seven years. evil livers were punished even after death. a former corporal, who had been killed by accident by an ottawan at the "little" river, was, in july, , refused burial in holy ground but was allowed to be buried on the commons by one who offered to do that service on the condition that the clothing covering the deceased man should be left him.[ ] we may sum up the history of the transition of morals from the pristine fervour of the early days of maisonneuve to the early years of royal colonization, in the words of sister morin in her annals: "but this happy time is past. the war with the iroquois having obliged our good king to send us troops at several times, the officers and soldiers have ruined the lord's vineyards, and vice and sin are almost as common in canada as in old france. this it is that makes good people grieve, especially the missioners who wear themselves out in preaching and exhortation almost without fruit, regretting with tears and sobs those happy bygone years, when virtue flourished, as it were, without any labour on their part." footnotes: [ ] edits et ordonnances, page - . [ ] the "greffe" of montreal, dated july, . chapter xxiv - notable losses de queylus finally leaves ville marie--de courcelles and talon recalled--tribute to their administration--mgr. de laval absent for three years--three deaths--madame de peltrie--marie l'incarnation--jeanne mance--her last will and testament. in the autumn of the abbé queylus left montreal with m. d'allet and m. de galinée, the cartographer. it was his hope to further the interests of his beloved ville marie, but his failing health kept him in france, where he died on march , . towards the end of de courcelles was recalled, to be followed by talon in the following year. this was the result of the growing estrangement between the governor and the intendant. both had wisely written asking for their recalls and each had urged the plea of ill health. both received characteristic letters from the king accepting their resignations, and colbert wrote to talon: "as you are both returning to france, the little difficulties that have arisen between m. de courcelles and yourself will have no consequences." all's well that ends well! the administration of both had been excellent and their influence on montreal was productive of great good. on april , , louis buade, comte de frontenac, was appointed governor general. on his arrival talon and de courcelles left together, towards the end of . we cannot do better than repeat the skillful appreciation of the "relation" for that year which gracefully ignored in silence the blamable acts of their administrations and remembered the good, so that, commenting on the chagrin felt at the sight of the vessels in the harbour bearing m. de courcelles and talon away, it said: "'eternellement,' we shall remember the first, who has so well reduced the iroquois to their duty, and 'éternellement' we shall desire the return of the latter to put the finishing touches to the projects he has begun so profitably for the good of the country." this same year mgr. de laval went to france to settle the long deferred question of the establishment of a bishopric of quebec and was absent for three years, as we shall relate. but although the king created talon comte d'orsainville in , having already made him baron des islets in , he never returned, and canada was without an intendant for three consecutive years, when on june , , m. duchesneau was appointed to succeed him. various griefs fell upon the colony at this time. on november , , madame de la peltrie, one of the earliest pioneers of montreal, died at the ursuline convent at quebec, where she had dwelt in humble seclusion for eighteen years, in charge of the linen of the community. six months later another, marie de l'incarnation, whose valuable letters of this early period, from - , we have frequently quoted, also went to her reward. but a greater grief fell upon montreal on june , , when the beloved and venerable jeanne mance, now aged sixty-six to sixty-seven years[ ] passed away at o'clock in the evening in the quiet of the hôtel-dieu which she had so lovingly founded and administered. according to her wish, made verbally to m. souart, the executor of her last will and testament, her body was buried in the church of the hôtel-dieu and her heart was encased in a double vase of metal and placed "en dépôt" under the lamp of the tabernacle of the blessed sacrament until the new parochial church, then being built, should be ready to receive it. unfortunately it never reached its destination, for during the delay of the church erection a fire, breaking out in the hôtel-dieu, consumed the venerable relic. [illustration: monument to jeanne mance] footnote: [ ] her friend, marguerite bourgeoys, did not die until june , , in her eightieth year and the forty-seventh since her arrival in montreal. chapter xxv - town-planning and architecture the foundation of the parish church and bon secours chapel the first street survey--"low" town and "upper" town--the origin of the names of the streets--complaints against citizens still cultivating the streets--orders to begin building--the new parish church--the foundation stones and plaques--the demolition of the fort forbidden--the church of bon secours--the powder magazine in its garret--a picture of montreal. in , peace prospects being bright, town planning received its first conscious impetus. hitherto "low town," the neighbourhood of the fort and principally the portion near the hôtel-dieu and maisonneuve's house, now the manor of the seigneurs of the seminary, with the small collection of houses around the fortified redoubts at ste. marie and st. gabriel, had housed the slender population, fearful of attack. the advent of the troops enabled them to think of opening up higher land, and of forming a future "upper town," on which some had already taken concessions. there it was intended to build a parish church; for at present the chapel of the hôtel-dieu served the purpose. accordingly, following the _procès verbal_, of march , , we find dollier de casson, representing the seigneurs, accompanied among others by bénigne basset, at once town clerk and town surveyor, tracing the first streets,[ ] starting from the site of the land reserved for the projected parish church of notre-dame, and making out the limits of the concessions granted. notre-dame street was first marked out, starting from a well opened by a former syndic, gabriel le sel _dit_ duclos, and extending eastward to the mill redoubt on the elevated portion of ground called afterwards "citadel hill."[ ] notre-dame street, then the greatest street of the city, was thirty feet broad. bénigne basset placed a post at intervals on either side of this road, affixing the leaden stamp of the seminary to each. st. joseph street, now known as st. sulpice, having been already named and used as a trail and in some sort a street, had a breadth of eighteen feet assigned it, and the property lines marked out. a similar breadth was given to st. peter street, in honour of st. peter, the prince of the apostles, the patron saint of m. pierre chevrier, baron de fanchamp, one of the first founders of the company of montreal. [illustration: plan of first streets laid out in ville marie] st. peter street ran down to the common and the street skirting this common was named st. paul street, after the patron saint of paul de chomedey de maisonneuve. this was now formally traced, because the line of houses already built on the north side of this common had been constructed along it. a fourth street was named st. james, the patron saint of m. jacques olier. this was north beyond notre-dame, beginning with calvary street and terminating with st. charles street, of which we shall speak later. a fifth street, eighteen feet broad, was that of st. francis xavier, parallel to st. peter. it was called by dollier de casson st. francis, after his own name, francis, in honour of st. francis d'assissi. later on, xavier was added in deference to st. francis xavier, the apostle of the indies. calvary street, at the extremity of st. james street, was given a breadth of twenty-four feet; it went north towards the mountain. another street of twenty-four feet, going in the same direction from notre-dame street, was called st. lambert, in honour of the brave lambert closse. these streets were broader than the rest, for they were meant for carriage service.[ ] a ninth street, eighteen feet broad, parallel to that of st. joseph, and abutting on st. james street, de casson called st. gabriel, after the patron saint of gabriel de queylus and gabriel souart. finally the tenth street, parallel to the latter and also abutting st. james street, was named st. charles, after charles le moyne, sieur de longueuil. the city plan being made, it was necessary to carry it out. some of the streets afterwards formally laid out, had already been marked out by pathways that had grown up. thus, that running from the fort to the hôtel-dieu, became st. paul street; that to st. jean-baptiste street, opened in , was started as early as . st. dizier street, opened in , was traced as a path in . another pathway was traced from the fort to bon secours chapel in . the original place d'armes, opposite the fort, was opened in .[ ] those who had taken land adjoining these streets were, by their contract, obliged to build houses, this same year. but some of the proprietors of lands crossed by these traced roads seemed to have neglected the landmarks placed by dollier de casson and went on cultivating and sowing as before. this was resented by those anxious to build, as it blocked the way to the hauling of their building materials. accordingly in march and june of there are records of an assembly of inhabitants, including mademoiselle jeanne mance and m. d'ailleboust, addressing a request to m. dollier de casson that as he had himself mapped out the boundaries of the streets, apportioning to each its line, length, breadth, angles, and its name for the building and decoration of the town, he should take means to prevent individuals tilling and sowing any of these streets. to this just demand, dollier acceded, and he forbade any further cultivation of the roadways, leaving each one free to enclose his lot with stakes or quick-thorn hedges. the offending parties submitted, especially so as they saw that the roads crossing their properties increased their value--an elementary principle of city planning.[ ] by , some had neglected to enclose their ground, and in consequence of the complaint of those that had done so, the seigneurs put up a notice, dated january , , warning the tardy ones that if they did not bring the necessary building materials immediately after the following spring seeding, "to rear their buildings, destined for the ornamentation and decoration of their town and to facilitate trade both with the inhabitants and the strangers, the seigneurs would reclaim these concessions, redistribute them, on demand, to others presenting themselves." one of the delays leading to the erection of houses on the streets, of the upper town section, traced in was the interruption of the building of the new parish church determined on, on the occasion of a pastoral visit of mgr. laval, when at an assembly of the inhabitants, held on may , , it was settled that operations should begin on june th under the direction of bénigne basset at a monthly honorarium of thirty _livres_. but though stones were brought to commence the work at once, two years elapsed before the site could be agreed upon. that which had been chosen, once the property of jean saint-père, was considered as being too low down. two years later, the naming of notre-dame street indicated the resolution arrived at by the seminary to build the church of notre-dame higher up, at the head of st. joseph street and facing notre-dame street. at a meeting held on june , , the proposition to build on such land bought by the seminary from nicholas godé and the wife of jacques le moyne, was accepted. besides, a promise of the grant of the land, the sum of a , _livres_ _tournois_ for three years was offered in the name of m. de bretonvilliers, the superior of the sulpicians in paris. on june th, at a new assembly, it was agreed upon to engage françois bailli, a master mason, to take charge of the construction and to receive one écu for every day's work and thirty _livres_ a month while the operations lasted. if there had hitherto been delay, the next steps were very swift. next day, on june th, the land transfer was made, the contour of the new church traced, and on june st the foundations were laid. on june th, the feast of ss. peter and paul, after vespers, a procession formed from the hôtel-dieu chapel at the foot of st. joseph street, to the head of the street, and dollier de casson, as superior of the seminary, planted the cross, with a great gathering of people witnessing the ceremony. next day, june th, after high mass the same gathering repaired thither again in procession. the first five stones were placed, each bearing the following inscription on a leaden plate: "d. o. m. et beatae mariae virginis sub titulo purificationis."[ ] these five stones were each accompanied by the arms of the persons placing them. the first was placed in the middle of the _rondpoint_ by the governor general of canada, daniel rémy, seigneur de courcelles, being one of his last public acts before being succeeded by comte frontenac in the september following. the second bore the arms of jean talon, intendant, inscribed in advance, for being unable to be present he was represented in the ceremony by phillipe de carion, lieutenant of m. de la motte--saint paul's regiment. the third was placed by the governor of montreal, chevalier françois marie perrot, seigneur of st. geneviève.[ ] the fourth was placed by dollier de casson in the name of m. bretonvilliers, superior general of the congregation of st. sulpice in paris. the last was fittingly placed by jeanne mance, the administratrix of the hôtel-dieu, who had seen montreal grow from its earliest infancy and had been so long the mother of the colony.[ ] [illustration: foundation stone placques] there was great desire to have the church soon completed. divers persons imposed voluntary assessments on themselves, some in money, others in materials and labour. the priests of the seminary resolved to demolish the ancient fort, now being allowed to fall into ruins, so as to employ the wood of the buildings and the stone bastions of the enclosure, in the church construction. indeed in their eagerness they started the demolition before waiting to receive m. de bretonvilliers' consent from france. eventually he disapproved, fearing that it was premature, for if the iroquois renewed their attacks they would repent their action. the officers of the king also forbade them to proceed further, and thus the final demolition of the battered old fort of de maisonneuve and his harassed and beleaguered veterans, did not take place till ten years later, in or . in a meeting was held, on january th, to raise funds for the completion of the church, and it was determined to hold a canvass in the island, which resulted in a collection of , _livres_; and finally, although m. souart had engaged himself to furnish the necessary wood, all this assistance was insufficient, and the church building, dragging on for two years, was not finished till . the church was in the form of a latin cross, with "bas côtés," terminated by a circular apse; its front entrance at the south end, built of cut stone, was composed of two orders, indian and doric, the last being surmounted by a triangular pediment. the beautiful entrance, erected after the plans of the king's engineer, chaussegros de léry, in , was flanked on the right by a square tower with a square belfry tower, surmounted by a fleur-de-lys cross twenty-four feet high. the church was built directly in the middle of notre-dame street and projected into place d'armes square, measuring feet long, broad, while the tower was feet high. this first church of notre-dame was of rough stone pointed with mortar.[ ] the erection of the parish church now being on its way permitted funds for the long deferred church of bon secours, also to be gathered. the miraculous statute brought from france was meanwhile housed in the little wooden chapel raised in by marguerite bourgeoys before leaving for france and there it remained till the new stone building was commenced. it was not, however, till june th, the feast of ss. peter and paul, in the year , that m. souart placed the first stone in the name of m. de fanchamp, bearing a medal of the blessed virgin and a leaden tablet bearing the inscription: d. o. m. beatae mariae virginis et sub titulo assumptionis[ ] the bell was cast from the metal of a broken cannon used against the iroquois and given some time previously by m. de maisonneuve. it weighed a little less than _livres_ and the casting was paid for by m. souart.[ ] the site chosen was still thought to be far from the town, but near enough for easy pilgrimages. in order to secure its perpetuity the sisters requested the bishop to make it an inseparable annex to the parish church, to be served by the parish clergy. to this the bishop of quebec[ ] acceded in the _mandement_ of november , . in addition he imposed upon the _curé_ the duty of having mass celebrated there each feast of the visitation, the principal feast of the new order, and of going thither in procession every assumption day. these conditions still obtain. a sulpician of notre dame church today is known as the chaplain of notre dame de bon secours, the first being m. frémont. [illustration: the church of notre dame de bonsecours dates from three different periods. the first chapel was erected in . it was built of oak and the foundations were in stone and it measured only forty feet in length by thirty feet in width. in the basement of this chapel a school was kept (the first in montreal, in ) for the education of little children. this small chapel was replaced in by a stone building which measured seventy-five feet in length by forty feet in width. the latter was destroyed by fire with a part of the town in . the present church of notre dame de bonsecours dates from . it measures one hundred and twenty feet in length by forty-six feet in width. it was reconstructed in .] as the chapel was at some distance from the chief buildings, its garret was used for the storage of powder for the safety of ville marie, there being no other magazine. m. de denonville, governor general, writing on november , , to the minister said: "at montreal i have found the powder in the top of a chapel towards which the people have great devotion. the bishop has strongly urged me to take it away, but this i have not been able to do since i have found no other place where to put it without danger of fire." the church was burned down in .[ ] to give the reader a comprehensive view of the outlook for montreal at this period ( - ) we may quote from parkman's "old régime," where he imagines a journey up the river to inspect the lines of communication by the formation of settlements and villages resting under the newly established feudal system: "as you approached montreal, the fortified mill built by the sulpicians at pointe aux trembles towered above the woods; and soon after the newly built chapel of the infant jesus more settlements followed, till at length the great fortified mill of montreal rose in sight, then the long row of compact wooden houses, the hôtel-dieu and the rough masonry of the seminary of st. sulpice. beyond the town the clearings continued at intervals till you reached lake st. louis, where young cavelier de la salle had laid out his seigniory of lachine and abandoned it to begin his hard career of western exploration. above the island of montreal the wilderness was broken only by a solitary trading station on the neighbouring ile pérot."--parkman, "old régime," p. . footnotes: [ ] a description of the first thoroughfares has already been given. [ ] this hill has been removed since to add to the extension of the champ de mars, and the site, once dalhousie square, is now covered by the southeastern portion of the canadian pacific railway yardage at place viger station. [ ] the widow of lambert closse, elizabeth moyen, was, on june th of this year ( ) given a new seigneurial fief. [ ] the early streets of montreal, according to h. beaugrand and p. l. morin "le vieux montreal": the first pathway, , was replaced by st. paul street in ; second pathway, , was replaced by jean baptiste street in ; third pathway, , was replaced by st. claude street in ; fourth pathway, , was replaced by capitol street in ; fifth pathway, , was replaced by st. vincent street in ; first place d'armes was opened in . notre dame street was opened in ; st. joseph (st. sulpice) in ; st. peter street in ; st. paul street in ; st. charles street in ; st. james street in ; st. françois xavier street in ; dollard street in ; st. lambert street in ; st. gabriel street in ; st. victor street in ; st. jean baptiste street in ; st. vincent street in ; st. thérèse street in ; st. eloi street in ; st. giles street (barracks) in ; st. francis street in ; frippone street in ; hospital street in ; st. john street in ; st. alexis street in ; st. denis street (vaudreuil) in ; st. sacrement street in ; st. augustine street (mcgill) in ; st. nicholas street in ; st. anne street (bonsecours) in ; callières street in ; port street in . st. helen, récollets, le moine, st. william, common, commissioners and gosford streets were opened shortly after . some of the earliest lanes were: st. dizier, donnacona, chonamigon and capitale. [ ] about this time a road was constructed from montreal along the river to pointe aux trembles, and another from sorel to chambly, a distance of six miles. (kingsford history of canada i, page ). [ ] "to the almighty and good god, and to the ever blessed virgin mary, under the title of the purification." [ ] the old church, of which the first stone was placed in honour of st. joseph on the th of august, , now became exclusively destined to the service of the sisters of the hôtel-dieu and their sick. [ ] these plaques were found in september, , during the work of demolition. [ ] it stood till , when it was demolished at the completion of the present notre-dame church begun in and opened on july , . the belfry tower, however, remained standing till . [ ] "to the almighty and all good god and to the blessed virgin mary under the title of the assumption." [ ] cf. autobiographical notes by sister bourgeoys. [ ] in quebec was erected into a bishopric and the erstwhile bishop of petrea became the titular of the see on october st. [ ] the bon secours church was rebuilt between and . it has been several times restored, but it still stands a venerable link connecting the old and the new montreal. chapter xxvi - altercations frontenac's first term of governorship i. the rival governors ii. church and state iii. the governor, the intendant and the sovereign council i. the two governors--perrot--ile perrot--remonstrances of citizens--frontenac--a "vice-roi"--generous attempt to grant representative government restrained--fort frontenac (or kingston)--corvees--the governor general--expedition starts for montreal--la salle--the frontenac-perrot duel commences--perrot imprisoned--coureurs de bois--duluth--chicago--frontenac rules montreal. ii. the frontenac-fenelon duel--the easter sermon in the hotel-dieu--la salle present in the chapel--m. fenelon resigns from the sulpicians--the trial before the sovereign council--the montreal party present their case in france--frontenac and fenelon reprimanded, perrot in prison--perrot quickly released and sent back as local governor of montreal. iii. the montreal complaints have a result--the rearrangement of the positions of honour in the sovereign council--the governor and the intendant, duchesneau--rival factions--centralization and home rule the cause of french failure in canada--perrot made governor of acadia. we have now to consider the fortunes of montreal under the reign of frontenac, as governor general, and m. perrot, as local governor. louis de buade, count de pallua et de frontenac, arrived in canada in september of , whereas m. perrot had been in montreal since as governor, by the goodwill of the seigneurs, and by the letters patent of march , , he held the rank also by royal commission. he considered himself in a strong position, but frontenac was also a strong man, and when the clash came in the autumn of next year, the old opposition of quebec and montreal was renewed. both antagonists had powerful protectors at court. unfortunately perrot's character was haughty and violent, and his unworthy attempts to enrich himself by engaging in the nefarious liquor trade, leaves us unable to sympathize with his case, as we did with that of the gentle and single-minded de maisonneuve. to illustrate this, perrot, as governor of montreal, could not openly engage in the trade, yet he chose a situation on an island given to him by talon as his seigneury and named after him, "ile perrot," lying at the toe of montreal, between the seigneuries of bellevue and vaudreuil and at the western end of lake st. louis, an excellent spot for a receiving station for peltry from the indians, descending from above. there, he placed a former lieutenant of his company, antoine de fresnay, sieur de brucy, who acted as his agent and gave protection to the deserting _volontaires_ now illegally becoming _coureurs de bois_, who were growing numerous around montreal and were being more or less openly encouraged by the local government. these were given liquor and merchandise in exchange for the products of their hunting expeditions. the consequence was that frequent disorders occurred through their irregularities. a delegation consisting of the foremost citizens called on m. perrot, respectfully remonstrating on this situation. among them were migeon de branssat, charles le moyne, picoté de bélestre, jacques leber, and vincent de hautmesnil. the haughty governor received them with insult and he imprisoned their spokesman, migeon de branssat, who as _procureur fiscal_ was acting as judge in place of m. d'ailleboust, then absent. "i am not like m. de maisonneuve," said he, "i know how to keep you in your proper places." next day, dollier de casson as a representative of the seigneurs expostulated at such imprisonment, especially as the course of justice was being held up; but to no avail at the moment. perrot was governor by royal commission, and he meant to show it. eventually, however, the _procureur fiscal_ was freed and the court sittings continued. it will be remembered that marie françois perrot had espoused madeleine de la guide, niece of talon, and under the régimes of courcelles and his uncle, talon, the illicit commerce had either passed unperceived or authority had closed its eyes. but he was to meet his match under the new government. let us now turn to frontenac, who was soon to cross swords with perrot of montreal. the new governor general, now a man of fifty, having been born in , was a very complex character with high qualities and serious defects. he was every inch a gascon, a boastful talker, an exaggerator, fond of posing and a little of a bully. yet he could be gay, was a lover of a good table, a man of the world, brilliant, communicative, and generous with his friends, as he was haughty and distant with those he disliked. [illustration: statue of frontenac (by philippe hébert)] from the age of fifteen he followed camp life, serving at first under maurice, prince of orange, and his reputation for bravery was sound. he was placed at the head of a norman regiment and distinguished himself in flanders, germany and italy; at the battle of orvietto he broke his arm. in , while at st. gothard, turenne sent him to fight against the turks, to the island of candia, whence he returned to paris, covered with glory. he rose to the rank of a _maréchal de camp_ or brigadier general. his married life was not too domestic. himself, the godchild of louis xiii, his father being the chief majordomo and captain of the château de st. germain-en-laye, he married the daughter of one of his neighbours in paris, lagrange trianon, a master of accounts. madame de frontenac was handsome, gallant, witty, fond of high society, imperious, and very independent. in these qualities, she resembled monsieur and after a time frontenac found warring more to his taste than the fireside, and madame lived with mademoiselle montpensier, and together these two "divines" held a kind of court of their own in their "apartment," in which they set the tone for the best society of paris. it was, therefore, no doubt through her influence, combined with his services as a distinguished soldier to the king, that the office of governor general of canada was secured for him, to help him in his poverty. as a governor he had high gifts of administration; according to charlevoix, "his work and his capacity were equal; ... his views for the development of the country were great and just." he knew how to maintain his position, and even to gain the affection of those he ruled, especially the indians. but he was absolute, dominating, despotic, violent, headstrong, ambitious, jealous, choleric and impatient of opposition. he also came full of prejudice against the clergy and especially the jesuits. on arriving at quebec, this "high and puissant seigneur," as he prefixed to his title of "governor, lieutenant-general for the king in france," introduced a gayety and high style of living, somewhat surprising and unaccustomed to the canadian _bourgeoisie_. in official, governmental life he assumed the reins with a high hand. he was, as he thought himself, a "vice-roi" and he would model the colony on the lines of france. thus his preliminary act was to call a representative convocation of the people in three several orders or estates, the clergy, the noblesse, and the third estate, to receive the oath of fealty from them, a proceeding which colbert evidently disapproved of as too democratic, and opposed to the centralizing policy, then in favour in france, a policy which eventually ruined the initiative and delayed the progress of the colony. the minister wrote on june , : "it is good for you to know that in the government of canada you always ought to follow the forms practiced in france, where the kings have for some time considered it better for their service, not to assemble the 'etats généraux.' also, you ought but rarely, or better say, never, give this form to the body of habitants of your country; it will even be necessary, in a little time, and when the colony is stronger than it is now, gradually to suppress the office of the syndic, who presents the requests in the name of all the inhabitants; it being good that each speaks for himself and not one for all." what is everybody's business is no one's, was evidently colbert's view. thus the people never learned the art of self-government. the new governor very soon showed his desire to be sole master of the situation. of his own responsibility he had made several police regulations and had established aldermen at quebec and, contrary to the rights of the company of the west indies, then still existing, he had attributed to them the power of administering police regulations. this brought a letter from colbert, dated may , : "his majesty orders me to tell you, that you have therein passed the limits of the power given by him. besides, the police regulations ought to be made by the sovereign council, and not by you alone. the power which you have been given by the king gives you entire authority in the command of the army, but with regard to what concerns the administration of justice, your authority consists in presiding at the sovereign council. the intention of his majesty is that you take the advice of the councillors and that it is for the council, to pronounce on all matters which belong to its jurisdiction." on his arrival he quickly turned his gaze on lake ontario, lately visited by m. de courcelles, and already the construction of a fort was in his mind, to divert the fur trade towards montreal, and on to quebec in place of it descending to albany. writing to colbert, on november , , two months after his arrival, he says: "you will have heard from m. de courcelles of a post which he has projected on lake ontario and which he believes to be of the utmost necessity, in order to prevent the iroquois taking peltry to the dutch and to force them to trade with us, as it is but just, seeing that they hunt on our lands. "the establishment of such a post will strengthen the mission at kenté, already settled there by the _messieurs de montréal_. i beg you to believe that i will spare no trouble or pains or even my life to attempt to do something to please you." it is alleged by the duke de st. simon in his mémoires (paris , vol. ii), that frontenac came to france a "ruined man," that he was given the governorship for his means of living, and that he would sooner go to quebec than die of hunger in paris. his disinterestedness in setting up a trading post for the good of the colony is therefore somewhat discounted. frontenac determined to construct this fort before the return of the vessels from france. in order to obtain the necessary men, boats and canoes, he relied on the precedent of m. de courcelles' official visit as governor general to lake ontario. to impress the indians with the dignity of the french conquerors, he called a _corvée_ from quebec, montreal, three rivers and other places to supply the above at their own expense. in the meantime he had built two bateaux to face the rapids and currents and mounted on them two pieces of cannon. these he had painted, which was considered a novelty. at montreal there was no little murmuring at his novel and burdensome _corvées_, for to avoid the rapids of st. louis, he made the inhabitants repair the road leading to lachine. he requisitioned about canoes and men and kept them at work until he finished his fort there. la salle was then in montreal, and frontenac, seeing an ally in this already experienced traveler, wrote to him to proceed to onondaga, the ordinary rendezvous of the iroquois nation, and there to explain, that the projected expedition was a visit of courtesy to the mission of kenté and to the neighbouring tribes. la salle, nothing loath, set out ahead, leaving montreal in the beginning of may, . frontenac left quebec on june d and arrived at montreal on june th, having delayed his journey, being received in the other towns on his way. arriving at o'clock that evening, the governor general was met at the wharf by perrot, the governor of montreal--no doubt with some jealousy and some resentment at the _corvées_ demanded by his superior--and the principal citizens, with their military companies. after the volleys of musketry and cannon, there came the addresses of the officers of justice and that by sieur chevalier, the syndic of the people. then they made their way to the temporary parish church attached to the hôtel-dieu and there the clergy held their reception and also harangued him. after which the te deum was sung in thanksgiving for his happy voyage and the governor retired to the hospitality of fort maisonneuve, not as yet demolished as we know. for thirteen days, there was a great bustle at montreal, fixing up canoes and loading them, and arranging the men in companies,--all requisitioned in the name of the king. the last preparations for the important journey were broken, however, by the celebration of feast of st. jean baptiste; on this occasion m. de salignac fénelon, the brother of the famous archbishop of cambrai, returned from kenté with m. durfé, and about to return together, with the expedition, pronounced an elegant eulogium on the governor-general. at last all to join the vice-regal party had left the town and gone by road to lachine, whence on june th, all being reunited, the expedition started--two flat bateaux, nearly one hundred and twenty canoes and about four hundred men, among them being charles le moyne, who was a skilled interpreter. we cannot follow its progress. for us, it is interesting to record it in connection with montreal as resulting in the establishment of fort frontenac, or cataracqui, the modern kingston, the construction and management of which was now entrusted to a montrealer, sieur de la salle to whom, on may , , on the occasion of his visit to france, letters of nobility were given with the property and government of the new fort and some adjacent leagues of land. la salle had gone to france in , well recommended by frontenac. his family, seeing a fortune in the new trading station, procured the necessary funds for him to pursue his career, and presented a memorial of la salle's discoveries and his good actions, which secured the above privilege. la salle named his seigneury fort frontenac in honour of his patron. his enemies say that he became frontenac's agent, as de brucy was that of perrot. on returning from lake ontario, frontenac and perrot soon began their duel. towards the end of autumn, , frontenac, receiving perrot at quebec, reprimanded him severely for the continued disturbances already mentioned at montreal. perrot respectfully promised better care, in regard to the observances of the king, for the future, and returned to montreal. but hardly had he been back eight days, when trouble began. two _coureurs de bois_ had returned and gone to lodge with m. carion, the officer of whom we have spoken. charles d'ailleboust, the judge, sent sergeant bailly to arrest him, whereupon carion obstructed and ill treated the sergeant. instead of punishing carion, perrot sent for d'ailleboust and reprimanded him for having sent the sergeant to the house of an officer, without warning him, and threatened him with prison himself, if he repeated his conduct, notwithstanding any orders from the governor-general. the astonished d'ailleboust acquainted frontenac with this incident, and he, scenting rebellion, immediately dispatched three of his guards with their lieutenant, sieur bizard, to arrest carion. bizard did this faithfully, leaving a guard over him. but he had made a grave error in etiquette in so doing. before leaving quebec he had received from frontenac a letter for perrot, acquainting him of the intended arrest in his jurisdiction, but fearful of the wrath of the local governor, bizard sought the house of jacques leber, to leave the letter there, so that it might be delivered to perrot after the departure of the guard from the town. meanwhile madame carion had quickly acquainted perrot of her husband's arrest and immediately the indignant governor, with a sergeant and a guard from the garrison, angrily confronted bizard at leber's house and threw frontenac's letter, presented him, back in bizard's face. "take it back," he said, "to your master and warn him to teach you your official duties, better, a second time." he then put him into prison but released him the next day with a letter to m. frontenac. bizard, however, had a statement of his arrest made out which was signed by jacques leber, la salle and a domestic, the witnesses of it. four or five days later, perrot, coming to hear of this, sent leber to prison without any form of justice; but la salle he left alone, keeping him under watch during the day. but by night the nimble explorer, with norman adroitness, leaped the enclosure of the house and hurried secretly to quebec to tell his patron frontenac of his flouted authority. thither also journeyed later the friends of m. leber to make their protestation. if frontenac's officer had erred in trespassing on the prerogatives of the governor of montreal, the latter, by imprisoning bizard, had similarly encroached on those of the governor-general. they could have cried quits, but it is alleged that frontenac was eager to deprive montreal of its autonomy, and herein was his excuse. it was frontenac's policy to appear to smoothen out the situation. he wrote to perrot inviting him to set leber at liberty and to come himself to quebec to render an account of his conduct, and to m. de salignac fénelon, the sulpician, who had eulogized him in the parish church of montreal before departing to fort frontenac, he wrote another, saying that he wished to terminate amicably the differences between himself and m. perrot. both fell into the trap. m. fénelon, determined to accompany m. perrot, started with him on the ice of the river in the heart of winter, and they arrived at nightfall in quebec on the th of january, . the next morning m. perrot made his call on the governor and hardly had he set his foot across his threshold than he was arrested by lieutenant bizard, his sword being taken from him and then led to prison in solitary confinement in the château st. louis without any formal process, and there he remained till the following november. the simplicity of m. fénelon was rudely shocked by this "_volte face_." he sought the governor to intercede for his friend and when he strove to obtain a pass to see the prisoner he only angered frontenac, who accused him of wishing to corrupt his guards. back went fénelon on the st. lawrence on his snowshoes. hardly had he reached montreal when dollier de casson received several letters from the governor-general, complaining of the conduct of m. fénelon "as unworthy of a man of his character and birth." there is reason from after-events to believe that fénelon's zeal was not sufficiently tempered with discretion. montreal having now need of a governor, frontenac speedily appointed on the th of february, as commandant in his absence, one of his devoted friends, m. de la nouguère,[ ] an ensign in a cavalry regiment. in the act, making this appointment, he explains his superseding of the town major, sieur dupuis, as due to the advanced stage of his age, but he bids him to have de la nouguère recognized by the officers of the garrison. (vide this document in the city hall archives, dated february , .) he then ordered the new commandant to arrest sieur de brucy and two of his servants, and to send m. gilles de boisvinet, the judge of three rivers, to conduct the trial and to inform against all _coureurs de bois_ in montreal--an insult to m. charles d'ailleboust, whose faith and sympathy he distrusted. certainly frontenac had made himself master of montreal. these actions, derogatory to the privileges of the seigneurs granted in , were borne with wise moderation, though under protest, to avoid undue friction in a difficult position. a document of dollier de casson, dated march , , on the occasion of a protest against boisvinet, who had gone beyond the limits of his commission, following a former juridical protestation against the infringement of their right to appointment of a governor, dated march , , shows this clearly and explains the neutral policy now adopted. meanwhile in his prison at quebec, the deposed governor of montreal refused to be judged by frontenac and the sovereign council, and asked to have his case tried by the king. in justification of his firm action at montreal, frontenac wrote to colbert some months later, that he had hanged one of the _coureurs de bois_, the same that had lodged with carion, and that the others, to the number of thirty, had been thus intimidated and had submitted to fines and had taken up lands as habitants. "i can assure you," he says, "with certainty, that there are now not more than five _coureurs de bois_ in canada, of whom three belong to m. perrot's garrison, whom he allowed to desert; the fourth is a farmer on the island bearing his name. you will gather from this whether i have reason or not, in retaining him as a prisoner." that there were only five _coureurs de bois_ in canada seems an exaggeration unless we take it that they were dispersed over the north american continent. for from montreal there wandered many an expedition which left its mark there. accompanying these were the "voyageurs," "coureurs de bois" and "_bois brulés_," as they were variously named. these often allied themselves with women of the indian tribes and united the vices of both races. restlessly they pursued their vagabond life, and it would be impossible to find a northern indian tribe unaffected by these wanderers. in david greysolon duluth or the sieur du luth built the first trading post at the western end of lake superior. the only post of minnesota bears his name. he was by no means a saint--he was a worthy gentleman of the wild woods--a knight of the fur trade--a great leader of the coureurs de bois, and he enhanced his fortunes with illicit trading in spirits. but he was a power among the indians in the land of the dakotas (minnesota), which was the name of one of the principal tribes formed into a league, or dakota, and given to the general body. they were called the ojibways north of lake superior and nadowaysioux, the last syllable of which, "sioux," being used as a nickname for them by the french. other historical sites as that of chicago were first visited by those who started from montreal, such as marquette, the jesuit, and joliet, who arrived at the site of modern chicago in august, . [illustration: voyageurs running the rapids] meanwhile frontenac was exercising a control and overlordship over montreal as the following document will indicate: "count frontenac, king's councillor, governor and lieutenant general for his majesty in canada, acadia, newfoundland and other countries in western france. "being necessary to create and establish a captain of militia in the town and island of montreal, under the authority of its local governor, to exercise and manoeuvre with army, and to put it in a better state of defence, in the event of an attack from enemies. we have appointed and do establish, the sieur le moyne in the said position of captain, under the authority of its local governor, commandant of the militia of the said town and island. to whom we ordain, that he must be careful that he drills the said inhabitants of the said place as often as he can, and at least once or twice a month; to take care that they keep their arms in good condition; to prevent as much as in his power, that they trade or do away with their arms, and to execute all orders that we may give to him, being assured of his fidelity to the service of the king, of which he has given many proofs in numerous engagements, as well as of his bravery and experience in drill. this warrant is given to sieur de la nougère, present commandant in the said town and island of montreal, that he may make the appointment known to the inhabitants of the said island, to whom we commend that they must obey in all duties appertaining to his functions, on penalty of disobedience, and we give him full power and authority to command the same, in virtue of powers confided to us by his majesty. on proof of which we have signed these presents and have appended the seal of our arms and have further signed by one of our secretaries. "given at quebec, the th day of april, . "frontenac. "by his lordship's orders, "b. chasseur." the sieur de la nougère, above mentioned, is m. th. x. tarieu de lanaudière. the spelling of the period was not as hidebound as today. frontenac's secretary spelled phonetically like so many of his contemporaries--a source of embarrassment to historians. [illustration: plan de montreal de a early map of montreal] church and state the difficult equipoise of neutrality, aimed at by the seigneurs in the frontenac-perrot dispute, was rudely jolted on easter day, little more than a month later, in a most dramatic manner. the scene was the crowded hôtel-dieu chapel, then being used as a parish church, while the new parish church higher up the street was being slowly raised, and all the notables of montreal were present at the high mass. the celebrant was m. perrot, the curé, in the absence of the superior of the seminary, dollier de casson, who was confined to his bed in the hospital from the effects of fever, after an accident on the st. lawrence, when the ice having broken he had almost lost his life through cold from the long immersion in the water, before rescue came. the deacon was m. de cavelier, la salle's brother, and the subdeacon m. rémy, the lawyer sulpician. after the gospel, m. de fénelon, the same who had preached the eulogium of frontenac the year previously, mounted the pulpit. the preacher announced that he would speak on the christian's double necessity, of dying with christ, and of rising with him. following the scholastic divisions of st. thomas acquinas he divided the life of man into the vegetative, sensitive and rational states. the sinful vices, destroying the vitality of this threefold life, must die in christ and the new man must arise with christ, purified and reestablished in his threefold life. in pursuing this second point the preacher entered into the details of the various dispositions that risen christians of different conditions should manifest as a sign of the new easter life in them. turning to those vested with temporal authority, he said, "that the magistrate, animated with the spirit of the risen christ, should have as much diligence in punishing those faults committed against the person of the prince, as he had of readiness in pardoning those against his own person...." la salle, who had been sitting towards the back of the chapel, near the door, and had listened with approbation to the familiar doctrine of st. thomas, which as a jesuit he had studied in his philosophical course, began now to show unusual interest in the preacher's application. in order to get a better view of the speaker, he rose from his seat. he saw that m. de fénelon, a man who was known to have been in sympathy with perrot and to have had trouble with his own patron, frontenac, was treading on delicate ground and might commit himself. la salle had, what journalists call, the reportorial instinct for "news." besides, since the famous expedition of , his relations with the sulpicians were cold. as the preacher proceeded, la salle's face flushed with anger, and casting his eyes around, he drew the special attention of several to what the preacher was saying. among these was jean baptiste montgaudon de bellefontaine, the brigadier of de frontenac's guard. soon la salle's gestures attracted the attention of the celebrant, seated in the sanctuary, to what was being said; but he shrugged his shoulders in return, as though to convey that no personal allusions were being made. the preacher had also noticed la salle, "and changed colour," said bellefontaine later in giving his _procès verbal_. the preacher went on: "the christian magistrate should be full of respect for the ministers of the altar, and should not maltreat them, when in the exercise of their duty, they strove to reconcile enemies and to establish peace everywhere; that he should not make creatures to praise him, nor oppress under specious pretexts persons also vested with authority and who, serving the same prince, were opposed to his enterprises; that he should make use of his power to maintain the authority of the monarch and not to further his own interests; that looking upon his subjects as his own children and treating them as a father, he should be content with the rewards which he received from the prince, without troubling the commerce of the country and without ill using those who did not share their profits with him; and, that in fine, he should not harass the people with extraordinary and unjust _corvées_ for his own interests, under cover of the king's name, who was unaware of their extent and that they bore so heavily on them." these phrases were shortly afterwards attested to, in the official declarations of mm. de la salle, jean baptiste montgaudon de bellefontaine, jacques leber, de la nouguère, commandant of montreal, rémy, and jean baptiste migeon de branssat, procurator fiscal of the seigneury of montreal and others, before commissioners legardeur de tilly and dupont, sent from quebec as the court of investigation which opened on may d and lasted for a fortnight. to la salle, every phrase appeared leveled at the conduct of the governor general, especially as the preacher was m. de fénelon. jacques leber testified that the curé, who came to visit him the same day, declared that the words of the preacher appeared to him so imprudent and out of place that he was very near intoning the credo to cut the sermon short. others saw in them only generalities within the legitimate sphere of a preacher. the sulpicians took immediate steps to disclaim to m. de la nouguère all responsibility for the utterance of one of its members. it was in no way authorized or foreseen, and dollier de casson left his sick bed to confirm this and to assure the commandant that m. de fénelon should never preach again. they also wrote immediately to frontenac a similar disclaimer. that afternoon m. de fénelon, before his fellow clergy, gave his word of honour as a man and a priest, that he had meant no conscious personal allusion, but had spoken in general terms of all bearing authority. there is no doubt, however, that m. de fénelon, though a virtuous and zealous missionary, had been "blazingly indiscreet." in his want of prudence, he had also but recently personally canvassed the householders of the island of montreal for signatures to a petition to be sent to court, on behalf of madame perrot, in which the subscribers stated that they had no complaint to make against her husband. the memorial was signed by many prominent men, such as louis chevalier, the syndic, zacharie dupuis, sieur de verdun and mayor of the isle of montreal, philippe de hautmesnil, picoté de bélestre and others. madame perrot had previously approached d'ailleboust to make the canvass, but the judge, already in hot water, was too wary. m. de fénelon fell an easier victim, and his action was not calculated to prejudice m. de frontenac in favour of his pretentious of absence of _malice prepense_, in his easter sermon. la salle communicated the details of the latter to frontenac. on april d, in his anger, the governor wrote, ordering the sulpicians to expel the offending preacher from their community. this they could not do, without a formal conviction of rebellion, as required by canon and civil law. m. de fénelon, however, resigned from the "congregation," using his right to do so, as the sulpicians was not a "religious order," and thus saved the situation. in this way, there was no acquiescence to any claim of jurisdiction of the governor general over ecclesiastics. m. de fénelon retired to lachine as a secular priest, and is reckoned one of the first _curés_ of this place. with the above letter m. de frontenac sent out a set of questions to be answered by each of the sulpicians. this was equivalent to giving evidence against m. de fénelon in a civil court, whereas they claimed the right of trying such a case in a prior ecclesiastical court, according to precedent. they, therefore, refused, but later consented when assured that their information would not be used juridically. commissioners legardeur de tilly and dupont accordingly arrived at montreal, and opened a court of investigation, beginning on may d. on august st m. de fénelon appeared by command before the sovereign council at quebec. he came determined to protest against the competency of the civil court to try him, relying on the privileges granted by the kings of france. "clericus, si cogatur ad forum laici, debet protestari," was an axiom of many jurisconsults of the period, such as aufrerius, president of the parliament of rouen.[ ] among other privileges, a cleric summoned before the lay court, unless sent there for misdemeanour by his bishop, could reply seated and uncovered. on entering the hall of justice, m. de fénelon, uncovered, made for a seat. the governor reproved him, and fénelon quoted his canonical privilege. the heated head of the council then told him, he might walk out if he would not take the attitude ordered. m. de fénelon demanded rather that m. de frontenac should leave the council, as he was acting not as his judge and the head of the council, but as his opponent. the council, however, sustained the governor and m. de fénelon was taken as prisoner to the brewery under the conduct of an usher. on august d m. de fénelon again appeared, presenting his protest in writing, and refusing to be tried till sent by his bishop, when he would give his reasons for alleging that the governor was his opposing party and was not acting as the president of the council. again the recalcitrant de fénelon went back to his prison. the council, however, began to doubt their power to try the case, and it sent to the king the judgment on m. de fénelon, with the statement that there remained only three judges whom he did not refuse. similar action was taken in m. perrot's case. the unfortunate governor of montreal had been kept a close prisoner since january th and had not ceased sending to the council protest upon protest,[ ] refusing to accept his judges, and demanding, without avail, to have his case concluded and sent to be tried before the king in france. in the month of september some of the council wavered and m. de villeray refused to act against either, alleging that there was such a natural connection between the affairs of m. de fénelon and m. perrot that having refused to act in the case of m. perrot, fearing to displease the late intendant talon, the uncle of madame perrot, who had given him his own nomination to the council, he could do not less for m. de fénelon, and his reasons were accepted by the council. (archives de la marine, october , .) thus it was that frontenac had to allow m. perrot and m. de fénelon to go for a time to france by the last vessels sailing in november. with them went dollier de casson, now broken in health and suffering from the loss of sight in one of his eyes since his fall on the ice, and m. l'abbé d'urfé, on important business to the country. the latter intended to complain at court of the vexatious conduct of m. de frontenac in regard to the missionaries, whose letters to france he opened and to whom he handed, among those arriving for them, only such as he pleased. perhaps it was knowledge of his intention, added to his displeasure at m. d'urfé's friendship for fénelon, that made the governor refuse to allow m. d'urfé's servant to accompany him on the voyage. thus the montreal party sailed, hoping for redress in france. at the same time m. de frontenac, scenting recrimination, wrote, on november , , to colbert: "i am sending m. perrot to france and with him m. l'abbé fénelon, so that you may judge of their conduct. on my part, i submit mine to everything that it shall please his majesty to impose on me; if i have been found wanting, i am ready to accept the correction pleasing to him. a governor would be very much to be pitied, if he was not sustained, having no one in whom he can trust, and being ever obliged to distrust everybody; and when he should commit any fault, it should assuredly be very pardonable, since there are not wanting snares stretched for him, so that having to avoid a hundred of them, it would be difficult not to fall into one. the distance, too, from the court and the impossibility of receiving new orders, except after a long interval, make his faults necessarily no short ones. thus, monseigneur, if it shall have happened that i have made any false step, which may displease his majesty, he will have the goodness to pass it over and to believe that it has occurred rather by an excess of zeal to do my duty and to carry out his intentions, than from any other motive." but colbert was likely to be sympathetic to the montrealers. when m. d'urfé arrived he was warmly welcomed by the minister, for on the th of february following, his son, the marquis de seignelay contracted a marriage with m. d'urfé's cousin-germain, the rich and youthful heiress, the marquise marie-marguerite d'allègre, only daughter of claude-ives d'allègre. the chosen intermediary in the marriage was also m. de bretonvilliers, the superior general of the sulpicians at paris. hence m. d'urfé's mémoire on the conduct of m. de frontenac, received by colbert and communicated to the king, on april , , brought from the latter the following series of counsels to guide the governor in his future conduct: "i have noted with attention," wrote the king, "all that is contained in your dispatches of february th and november th last, and to explain to you my designs and all they contain, i will tell you that in a feeble colony, such as yours, your principal and almost sole employment ought to be, to maintain and conserve all the inhabitants there and to induce others to come thither. you ought then to use the power i give you, only with the greatest moderation and gentleness, more particularly with regard to the ecclesiastics whom it is your duty to uphold in their functions, in peace and concord, without giving them any trouble: being assured, as i am, that they will never be wanting in the obedience due me, nor in their readiness to inspire my people with the same sentiments.[ ] although i do not attach importance to all that has been told me of many petty annoyances, given by you to the ecclesiastics, i deem it necessary all the same for the good of my government, to warn you of them, so that you correct what is amiss, if they are true. but my present order is, that you make known to no one, that i have written to you about them; and that even when the bishop or the ecclesiastics speak of them, you will not cherish any resentment against them.... they say, then here, that you are not willing to allow the ecclesiastics power to attend to their missions and their other functions, or to leave their stations without passports, even to go from montreal to quebec; that you cause them to journey to you often for very slight reasons; that you intercept their letters and do not allow the liberty of writing; that you have not been willing to allow m. d'urfé's valet to cross over to france with his master; nor permitted the grand vicar of the bishop of petrea to take his place at the sovereign council, in accordance with the regulation of the month of april, . if any part of the things is true, or even the whole, you must make amends." in a similar delicate strain colbert wrote on may , , adding that he wished frontenac to pay some mark of consideration to m. d'urfé, now that he had become allied to him as his daughter-in-law's first cousin. the conduct of m. de fénelon at montreal, both for his sermon and his support of m. perrot, was blamed, and caused a letter dated may , , to be written by m. de bretonvilliers to the sulpicians at montreal: "i exhort you all to profit by the example of m. de fénelon. for being too much mixed up with the world, and with affairs which did not concern him, he has mismanaged his own affairs, and has done wrong to those of his friends, while wishing to serve them. in these kinds of affairs, which have regard only to personal quarrels, neutrality is to always be approved...." the upshot was that m. de fénelon was not allowed to return to canada by the king, on recommendation of m. de bretonvilliers. the criminal procedure instituted by de frontenac was not allowed to proceed. a letter from the king to frontenac, dated april , , explains this: "i have blamed the action of m. de fénelon and i have ordered him not to return to canada. but i must tell you that it was difficult to institute criminal procedure against this cleric and also to oblige the priests of the seminary of montreal to testify against him; at least, he should have been left in the hands of the bishop or the grand vicar. besides, the differences between you and the priests of the seminary of montreal are entirely settled and can have no consequences. as, moreover, the superior of the seminary of st. sulpice (m. de bretonvilliers) has assured me that all the priests of his community, who are at montreal, live in the respect and obedience due to me, and to your dignity, i desire that you forget all that has passed. strive then, assiduously to reunite to yourself all minds, that these differences may have divided." on the th of may a characteristic letter of colbert followed this up: "it is to the good estate and good government of the king and the colony, that you show particular consideration for the community of the seminary of st. sulpice at montreal, of which m. de bretonvilliers, the superior, is one of my best friends." m. perrot did not escape as easily as did m. de fénelon, at the hands of the king, being sent to the bastille prison for three weeks. on the same april d as above, the king writing to frontenac said: "i have seen, and examined with care, all that you have sent me concerning the sieur perrot; and after having also seen the memoirs, which he has put in for his defense, i have condemned his action in having imprisoned the officer of the guards sent to montreal. to punish him, i have put him for some time in the bastille, in order that this punishment may not only render him more circumspect in the future regarding his duty but will serve moreover as an example to restrain others. but having given this satisfaction to my authority, which has been violated in your person, i must tell you, to direct you in my views, that you ought not, without absolute necessity, carry out an order in the territory of a local governor, without having apprised him of it, and also that the punishment of ten months, accorded him, has appeared to me too great in proportion to the fault committed. this is why i have made him undergo the punishment in the bastille only long enough to repair publicly the violation of my authority. another time, i direct that in a like fault, you must be content with the satisfaction offered you, or with some months in prison, or to transfer the case for decision to me, sending over to france the defaulting officer; imprisonment for ten months being a little too rigorous." but thanks doubtlessly to m. talon's interest in his relative, m. perrot was confirmed by the king in the government of montreal, as the above letter continues: "after having left m. perrot some days in the bastille i will send him back to his government and i will order him to call on you and to offer you his apologies for all that has passed. after which i desire that you will not retain any resentment against him, but that you will treat him in accordance with the power i have given him. finally you ought to punish the _habitants_ only for capital faults, avoiding lengthy punishments, because minds are thus divided, and embittered and are diverted from their principal work, which is to provide for the surety and subsistence of the family." colbert's letter of may th begged frontenac to live in good harmony with m. perrot, urging his family alliance "with persons for whom i have great consideration," of whom, no doubt, talon was one. the governor, the intendant and the sovereign council one of the gravest charges alleged against frontenac, by the montrealers now in france, was that he had usurped the powers of the council and that he had rendered himself absolute and all powerful. this brought about that, at colbert's instigation, the king himself named the councillors and fixed the rank they should hold in the sovereign council. in consequence, on april th of this year, louis xiv named m. denis-joseph ruette d'auteuil as his _procureur général_; on may th following, the seven councillors in order of rank: louis rouer de villeray, first councillor, charles legardeur de tilly, mathieu d'amours, nicholas dupont, rené-louis chartier de lothbinière, jean baptiste de peyras and charles denys. to render them the more independent of the governor, the king named on june th m. jacques duchesneau, then treasurer of france at tours, as the intendant, making him the real president of the council and reserving for the governor general only a simple presidency of honour. he arrived on september th. he further endowed the new intendant[ ] with full powers concerning the administration of justice, police and finance, with the order, to see to it that all the inferior judges and other officers of justice should be upheld in the exercise of their functions without any interference--a privilege often demanded by the montrealers. he arranged that the intendant should judge conjointly with the sovereign council all civic and criminal cases, in conformity with the _coutume de paris_ and that the council should make all police regulations; with this clause, however, that the intendant could, if he deemed it opportune, act alone as supreme judge in civil matters, and could make all police regulations and ordinances.[ ] at this time the remuneration of the governor general was , _livres_, of the local governors of montreal and three rivers , , and the members of the sovereign council each. this was small, but there were not many inhabitants as yet. a letter of the minister to duchesneau, dated april , , showing surprise that there are only , persons in canada, , guns and , horned cattle helps us to understand the situation. the smallness of salaries would certainly tempt the governors to engage in commerce. finally the king, on june th, by a new declaration confirmed the establishment of the sovereign council, reserving the right to name the councillors after a place fell vacant. the council was to be composed as before, of the governor general, the bishop of quebec or in case of his absence in france, of his representative, the grand vicar, the intendant and seven councillors. to take away from the governor general every pretext of mixing himself in the transactions of the council, the king ordered that in conformity with the custom of the sovereign or supreme courts of the kingdom of france, the intendant, although only holding the third place of honour, should, however, as president of the council, consult the opinions of the councillors, count their votes, pronounce their resolutions and enjoy the same advantages as the first presidents of the courts of the kingdom. (edits et ordonnances, quebec, , pp. , .) still, four years later, bitter animosities continued in the council for some months to the exclusion of all other business, as to the exact position of the governor and the intendant. in spite of the ordinance of , frontenac claimed to be entered in the minutes as the chief and president of the council, in that the intendant was only the acting president. thus was the governor general "cribbed, cabined and confined." his wings were cut and his powers more closely defined and limited than ever. moreover, a rival was placed by his side, to be a thorn in it for many a long day. he was no longer absolute in the council chamber. thence began the long series of vexatious complaints of frontenac and duchesneau of encroachment on one another's authority,--this intolerable bickering eventually ending in the recall of both, by the instructions of the king on may , . the new form of legislation, however, was a marked improvement, and since it was the outcome of montreal agitation for clearly defined and responsible government, hence, the length of treatment that has been accorded to its constitutional history of this picturesque period may be not out of place. letters went to and fro; one from the minister to duchesneau on april th severely blames him, that in relying on the great power given him and by his title of president, he was wrong in thinking himself nearly equal to the governor, and that the latter can do nothing without consulting him. the reverse should be the position. when the governor interdicts any affair at the council, he had only to submit. the council can only make representations and if the governor does not listen to them, let the matter be submitted to the king. even then the governor should be shown the complaints, so that he may be in a position to make his reply. this would seem to show that frontenac's position was upheld. still the trouble went on and finally produced on may , , a decision of the council of state, that in the minutes of the sovereign council m. de frontenac shall be solely intitled, the governor and lieutenant general of his majesty in new france and m. duchesneau as the intendant of justice, police and finance, but that he should also exercise the functions of the first president of the council--a re-affirmation of the declaration of his majesty of june , ,--a victory for the intendant duchesneau. in a letter from the king to frontenac this latter had been styled, "chief and president of the council," and relying on this, frontenac wished to force the recording clerk to inscribe this intitulation. on the other side it was argued, that a private letter giving incidentally this title to the governor, could not prevail against the formal ordinance of june , , not revoked. the quarrel became so envenomed that all the business of the council was paralyzed during many months. for as surely as the time came for the minutes to be read and the titles of those present to be enumerated, the pother began anew. the clerk received contrary orders, and nothing was done. finally he was sent to prison by m. de frontenac. some of the councillors, opposing this, came also under his condemnation, and m. de villeray, m. de tilly and m. d'auteuil were sent to "rusticate" with their friends while awaiting the order to go to france to answer for their conduct. rival factions were also created in the colony, and montreal was divided. even with this new restatement of the position, the spheres of authority of the governor and of the intendant were still ill-defined. there were apparently two independent heads, yet overlapping; still one was supposedly subordinate to the other. consequently harmony was impossible and the history of the french régime up to the final fall is one continual attempt to harmonize contradictions. had the french government been less paternal, less desirous of centralization and less jealous of delegating its powers; had it given a measure of home rule or representative government, the rulers in canada would have found a way to solve their difficulties, even those of church and state, without having to recur, like children in every trivial dispute, to the jealously guarded center of authority at headquarters, thousands of miles away. "_l'état c'est moi_," said louis xiv, le soleil, in his brilliant court at versailles, while canada was a big growing boy confined to petticoats. if the french government had even given the governor and intendant some real initiative power, instead of expecting them to be the mere executive arm of a not too well informed directing mind, far away, the sense of responsibility would have kept things in order, with less friction and with more progress. if only it had trusted its own appointed official advisers, instead of encouraging every subordinate jack-in-office to write to his majesty criticizing, misrepresenting, and offering suggestions on the administration of colonial affairs, there might have been some unity. the policy of _espionage_ of the departments, on one another, encouraged by the mother country, only provoked tale bearing, tittle-tattle, suspicion, jealousy, cabals, intrigues, discord and infringement on one another's privileges, and was one of the chief causes leading to the slow development of colonization, the paralyzation of the trade and the delay of the progress of new france. it must not be imagined that m. perrot was entirely free from further trade arrangements and scandals at montreal. a document, believed to have been written by duchesneau in to the king, speaks of the ill-treatment meted out by him or his employés to many persons. he is accused of ruining the country, of trading publicly, of having a store on the "common" and holding open market there, of trading himself and through his representatives and soldiers, in the camp of the indians, and of monopolizing the market by having a guard at the end of the bridge leading to it which allowed only his friends to pass. thus the _habitants_ had only the fringes of the trade with the indians. he still encouraged the _coureurs de bois_ and had fitted out a great number of them. his avidity is thus described: "he has been seen filling barrels of brandy with his own hands and mixing it with water to sell to the indians. he bartered with one of them his hat, sword, coat, ribbons, shoes and stockings and boasted that he had made thirty _pistoles_ by the bargain, while the indian walked about town equipped as 'governor.'" it is further stated that last year his commerce was valued at , _livres_. in his reply in march, , to the above mémoire, he states that he has made little trade since, the result of his business transactions reaching only , _livres_. the money of the country being the beaver, trading in peltry was one of the necessities of life. he continued to have troubles with the seminary and in august, , he was removed during the first year of m. de la barre's governorship and given the government of acadia! footnotes: [ ] the real name was thomas tarieu de la naudière. his son, pierre thomas de la naudière, married the heroine madeleine de verchères. [ ] a subplot in this drama is the refusal of m. trancheville and m. rémy, montreal sulpicians, to appear against de fénelon before secular judges. m. rémy, who was fined several times for not appearing, claimed exemption on the same ground that as a son is not obliged to witness against a father, a brother against a brother, similarly an ecclesiastic is not obliged to face a situation which would make him fall into sin and ecclesiastical irregularity. they pleaded the privilege of canon law, recognized in france. [ ] august , . september , . october , . [ ] archives de la marine, registre des dépêches, - , vol. qq, . [ ] duchesneau arrived on september th. [ ] complément des ordinances, quebec, , pp. , . chapter xxvii - trade at montreal under frontenac and perrot west india company suppressed--montreal head of fur industry--expeditions--marquette--joliet--the annual fairs--laval returns--the "congregation" confirmed--the indian missions--catherine tekakwitha--the "fort des messieurs"--explorations--la salle, duluth, hennepin--louisiana names--the governor general and the intendant--factions at montreal, "a plague on both your houses!"--frontenac and duchesneau recalled. trade at montreal was prospering. in the west india company, which had fulfilled none of its obligations, was suppressed, being succeeded by that of oudiette and others, till . speaking of this period, garneau (i, ) in his "histoire du canada" says: "the new impulses which had been given to canada by colbert and talon began to bear fruits. commerce revived, immigration increased and the natives, dominated by the genius of civilization, feared and respected everywhere the power of france." montreal was to share in this prosperity. it was the centre of the fur trade and the starting place and base of expeditions such as the one of joliet and marquette, who had set out in to discover the mississippi. la salle frequently made montreal his home at this period, as well as duluth. at the east corner of the present royal insurance building on the place d'armes, a tablet placed by the antiquarian society records the dwelling of another explorer: "here lived in daniel de greysolon, sieur duluth, one of the explorers of the upper mississippi, after whom the city of duluth was named." meanwhile, on may th, father marquette died on the west shores of michigan. in the "place du marché" was granted by the seigneurs of the seminary to the people. it was situated where now stands the place royale and faced the historic landing place of the first pioneers arriving with de maisonneuve. the growing trade needed a regular market and on this site subsequently were held the annual fairs in june, the first recorded being held in . the picturesque description of francis parkman in his "old régime in canada," dealing with this period, may be here introduced: "to induce the indians to come to the colonists, in order that the fur trade might be controlled by the government, a great annual fair was established, by order of the king, at montreal. thither every summer a host of savages came down from the lakes in their bark canoes. a place was assigned them a little distance from the town. they landed, and drew up their canoes in a line up the bank, took out their packs of beaver skins, set up their wigwams, slung their kettles and encamped for the night. "on the next day there was a grand council on the common, between st. paul street and the river. speeches were made amid a solemn smoking of pipes. the governor was usually present, seated in an armchair, while the visitors formed a ring about him, ranged in the order of their tribe. on the next day the trade began in the same place. merchants of high and low degree brought up their goods from quebec, and every inhabitant of montreal of any substance, sought a share in the profits. their booths were set up along the palisades of the town and each had an interpreter to whom he usually promised a certain portion of his gains. the scene abounded in those contrasts, which mark the whole course of french canadian history. here was a throng of indians, armed with bows and arrows, war clubs, and the cheap guns of the trade, some of them, completely naked, except for the feathers on their heads and the paint on their faces; french bush rangers, tricked out with savage finery; merchants and _habitants_ in their coarse and plain attire, and the grave priests of st. sulpice robed in black." in june, , monseigneur laval, on his return from france as bishop of quebec, visited montreal to receive postulants into the new religious communicants of the "congregation," which approved by him in and later confirmed by royal letters, was now confirmed by him in an authentic act, shortly after his arrival at quebec--but whose rules were still to be examined and approved, which did not occur until january , . historians date from the above epoch the adoption of the religious habit, worn by the sisters of the congregation of notre dame to this day. in order to prepare her rules wisely marguerite bourgeoys determined to go to france for advice and experience, having been previously elected as the first superior. the opportunity was offered her in november as a companion to the wife of the governor, madame perrot, who had been advised to go to france for the good of her health. on her return she was followed to montreal by louis frins, the servant of m. de maisonneuve, who had died in paris on september , , as well as by several young girls, who were sent out to the colony at the expense of the seminary. in the mountain mission was commenced.[ ] to encourage the indians to settle with the europeans, various attempts had already been made. this nomadic people could not be civilized as long as the trail, by the lakes and rivers and through the forest, called them to the pursuit of the chase or the lust of battle. thus we have seen the jesuits had already formed their christian indian settlements at madeleine la prairie on the south shore across the st. lawrence. but now the sulpicians would do the same on the island, on the slope of mount royal, and today the site of montreal college, on sherbrooke street, with its old-time martello towers, marks the scene of the mountain mission. quarrels had arisen among the chiefs at la prairie and thus the dissentients joined the christian band at the mountain, while the la prairie mission was transferred to the sault st. louis, known as the caughnawaga reservation. by , it was determined to conduct schools for the children of redskins, and m. françois vachon de belmont, who came as a deacon to canada in this year, was named director of the boys' school. that for the girls was to be under the care of the sisters of the congregation. marguerite bourgeoys says that the mountain mission was the first place on the island where the indians came for instruction. on arriving, m. de belmont began to build a little chapel, dedicated to notre dame des neiges, and a straggling village of a few irregularly built bark huts clustered round it. in these lived the missionaries and the sisters, and round them were the wigwams of their neophytes, huron and iroquois. fearing attack from the non-christian tribes, m. de belmont, a priest since september , , had built by a palisade surrounding his settlement which boasted of four bastions. these fortifications were gradually strengthened. the schools were soon in operation. "in the mountain mission and that of the sault de la prairie de la madeleine (sault st. louis); in those of sillery and lorette, the only indian villages we have, boys are now being taught to read and write. in the mountain mission of montreal the congregation nuns apply themselves to the instruction of the little girls and make them do needle work," is the description of m. duchesneau in a letter to the minister of finance, dated november , . later on these children were taught to knit, spin and do lace work, the government providing grants of money for women to instruct them. in monseigneur de st. vallier, laval's successor, visited the mountain mission and gave this account of its success: "the daughters of the congregation, now spread over the different parts of canada, have in the mountain mission a school of about forty indian girls, whom they clothe and bring up 'à la française.' they are also taught the mysteries of faith, manual labour, the hymns and prayers of the church, not only in their own tongue, but also in ours, that they may be brought little by little to our manners and customs." [illustration: plan of the fort of the lake of two mountains a. church. b. missionaries' dwelling. c. the "congregation sisters." d. farm workers. e. entrance to fort. f. towers. part of the lake of two mountains.] [illustration: plan of the mountain fort erected in a. residence of the missionaries. b. chapel. c. village of catholic indians. d. vegetable garden. e. towers and walls in stone. f. bastions and palisades in woods. g. redoubts and palisades in woods.] [illustration: the priest's fort] [illustration: two old watch towers built in by m. de belmont, a sulpician missionary at the "mountain fort." in the western tower marguerite bourgeoys taught the indian children. in the eastern tower, which was used afterward as a chapel, an indian brave and his grandchild are buried. these towers still stand on sherbrooke street, west, in the grounds of the grand seminary.] two of the indian maidens of the mountain mission stand out, marie barbe attontinon and marie thérèse gannensagouas. both were received into the congregation community. the latter was one of the first pupils of the mission, receiving baptism on the th of june, , at the age of fourteen, and was a teacher in the mission until her saintly death at the age of twenty-seven. the chapel at caughnawaga preserves the bones of the holy mohawk maiden, catherine tekakwitha, born in of an iroquois father, a pagan, and an algonquin mother, a christian, who both died in her infancy. on holy wednesday, , she died, leaving behind her the reputation of sanctity. the anniversary of "la bonne catherine" is kept each year with great devotion by the caughnawaga indians. charlevoix, the historian, speaking of the appearance of the face of this holy maiden, says: "nothing could be more beautiful, but with that beauty, which the love of virtue inspires. the people were never weary of gazing at her." the latter's grandfather, the warrior, françois thoronhiongo, who had been baptized by the martyr jesuit, père de brébeuf, lived at the mountain mission. in the east martello tower, now standing on sherbrooke street, wherein the sisters of the congregation had lived while teaching, was transferred into a chapel and the bodies of the grandfather and grandchild, which had rested there since , were allowed to remain. the tower on the west was a school for the indian girls. these towers, still remaining, are all that is left to mark the site of the priests' fort and jacques viger's manuscripts tell us that this fort was so called to distinguish it from the enclosure next to it and which, being surrounded by a palisade, was known as "the indian's fort." both structures formed part of the same outwork and are mentioned under the common title of "the mountain fort." the priests' fort was built in by the sulpician, françois vachon de belmont, at his own expense. it was, first a square enclosed by a stone wall with portholes and flanked by a tower at each angle; secondly, the fort proper or manor, in the middle of the enclosure where the missionaries lived; thirdly, the chapel which was opposite the manor and between the two towers. in the erection of the vast edifice now used as a college and as a seminary was begun on this very site. the two towers still standing and the wall connecting them are over two hundred years old and are after the seminary of st. sulpice on notre dame street the oldest building in montreal. long may the towers stand as sentinels guarding the traditions of the past!... the sulpicians accompanied the indians when the mission was transplanted to sault-au-récollet and thence later to the lake of the two mountains. leaving the mountain mission whose commencement we have placed in and traversing the streets down town, we notice the unpaved state of the streets. in this year, , an ordinance stipulated that proprietors should pave to the middle of the roadway every street passing in front of their dwellings. but it seems that up to the cession, these regulations had fallen into desuetude. the year of saw great preparations at montreal for new ventures on the part of la salle and duluth, in which the governor general was reported by intendant duchesneau to be commercially interested. in july, , la salle left france armed with a royal patent allowing him "to build forts through which it would seem that a passage to mexico can be found." he had made good friends in france since his previous visit in and found financial supporters, "bringing with him about thirty artisans and labourers, with much of the gearing and equipment necessary for rigging a vessel, including anchors, with the usual assortment of the articles required for his intercourse with the indians." with him was henri de tonti, an italian officer, who was to prove a most devoted and loyal lieutenant to la salle. at the siege of gaëta, de tonti had had a hand blown off and it was now replaced with a metal substitute, which, though covered with a glove, could deal a heavy blow, as the surprised indians afterwards learned. a third was with them, the sieur de la motte. arriving at quebec on september th, la salle was shortly afterwards joined by the recollect father, hennepin, eager to explore the mississippi. while at quebec, la salle was named one of the twenty commissioners, then sitting to investigate the murders and other crimes reported to have arisen during the past six years from the use of liquors. in consequence, the old dispute was arising again as to the propriety of preventing liquors being taken to the indians, to encourage traffic with the french instead of the dutch. it was urged that the fur trade would leave montreal for albany, as beaver skins, if they got there, would fetch a higher price. for prohibition, were laval and the intendant duchesneau, whilst against it was frontenac backed up by colbert, who supported talon, one of whose last actions in canada had been to permit the use of spirits as an article of commerce. the report of the commission to france was in favour of the traffic in spirits as necessary for the support of the fur trade, which was the one source of wealth for the country. m. laval started for france with a counter memorial. finally a compromise was arranged to the effect that strong liquors might not be taken to the woods openly, and if clandestinely, punishment was to follow. but as liquor was permitted in the houses of the french and those houses could be built anywhere, the law was easily evaded, so that in reality liquor became to be recognized currency in the trade for fur. shortly after the above event la salle left montreal, doubtless with a good supply of "eau de vie," for his fief, mount cataracqui, and in the second week of november he started thence to make his way to the mississippi, returning at intervals to montreal for supplies. at last after thrilling and hazardous adventures la salle and his men reached the mouth of the mississippi, where he declared the basin of the river to be the territory of louis the great and named it louisiana. all honour to montreal, the fruitful home of discoverers! david greysolon du luth left montreal on the st of september, , with seven frenchmen on a similar adventure. it was he who built the fort at the entrance of the kaministiquia, lake superior, known under hudson bay rule as fort william, and who strove persistently to foil the rival english traders of this company. he was a man equally at home in camp, in society, or in the indian wigwams--a type of the many roving adventurers, fighters, traders and explorers, whom canada was then alluring and who were little removed from the _coureurs de bois_, at whom so many ordinances were leveled, but whose number was steadily increasing.[ ] meanwhile relations had become more and more strained between frontenac and duchesneau. as early as the troubles began with the questions of precedence and of the degrees of courtesy that should be paid to the governor and the intendant. on may , , colbert wrote to the intendant warning him not to take sides against the governor and on may th he wrote to the governor exhorting him to live amicably with the intendant. on april , , the king wrote to frontenac complaining of his arbitrary conduct and threatening to recall him unless he mended his ways. he was accused of being too lenient with the _coureurs de bois_ and in consequence the king ordered that whoever went to the woods without a license should be branded and whipped for the first offence, and sent to the galleys for life, for the second. every ship to france carried complaints from duchesneau and frontenac against one another. the rivalry was intense. the last official act of frontenac in the _registre du conseil supérieur_ is a formal declaration that his rank in that body is superior to the intendant's. finally the untenable position was relieved by the king, who recalled them by an act of may st. before leaving and early in the august of this year frontenac was at montreal to meet the ottawas and the hurons on their yearly descent from the lakes and there he met the famous huron iroquois chief, the rat, and at a solemn council succeeded in averting, for the time, the war then brewing about michillimackinac, when the illinois and some of the tribes of the lakes were in likely danger of speedy and complete destruction at the hands of the iroquois. this would have been fatal to the trade of canada. shortly afterwards, frontenac sailed for france, leaving canada when he was most needed. when he sailed, "it was a day of rejoicing to more than half of the merchants of canada" (who were not in his ring), says parkman ("frontenac," p. ), "and excepting the recollects, to all the priests; but he left behind him an impression, very general among the people, that if danger threatened the colony, count frontenac was the man for the hour." montreal was no little concerned with this division between the disputants, for whereas the merchants, traders and _habitants_ over the country took sides with either party, those of montreal, such as le moyne and his sons, jacques leber, and left many more of the leading men sided with duchesneau, while perrot, the local governor, seems to have come to a mutual understanding with frontenac and carried on illicit trade as before. "frontenac had," as the intendant wrote to the minister on november , , "gradually made himself master of the trade of montreal; as soon as the indians arrived, he sets guard in his camp, which would be very well, if these soldiers did their duty and protected the savages from being annoyed and plundered by the french, instead of being employed to discover how many furs they have brought with a view to future operations. monsieur, the governor, then compels the indians to pay his guards for protecting them; and he has never allowed them to trade with the inhabitants till they have first given him a certain number of packs of beaver skins, which he calls his presents. his guards trade with them openly at the fair, with their bandoliers on their shoulders." moreover, duchesneau in the same communication accused frontenac of sending up goods to montreal to be traded in his behalf, so that with the presents exacted and his trading, only little ever reached the people of the colony of what the indians brought to market. it is only fair to add that frontenac made similar charges against the intendant for engaging in trade. meanwhile partisan spirit ran high and the streets of quebec and montreal witnessed brawls such as those between the capulets and montagues of romeo and juliet. "a plague on both your houses!" the count de frontenac and the intendant duchesneau were respectively replaced on may , , by m. de la barre and m. de meulles, although they did not enter upon their functions until friday, october th, of the same year. note a writer who visited quebec in in his "memoirs of north america" tells us that the merchant who had carried on the greatest trade in canada was the sieur samuel bernon of rochel, who had great warehouses at quebec, from which the inhabitants of the other towns were supplied with such commodities as they wanted. "there is no difference," he says, "between the pirates that scour the seas and the canada merchants, unless it be this, that the former sometimes enrich themselves all of a sudden by a good prize; and the latter cannot make their fortune without trading for five or six years, and that, without running the hazard of their lives. i have known twenty little peddlers that had not above a thousand crowns stock when i arrived at quebec in the year , and when i left that place, had got to the tune of , crowns. it is an unquestioned truth that they get per cent upon all goods they deal in, whether they buy them up, upon the arrival of the ships at quebec, or have them from france by way of commissions: but over and above that, there are some gaudy trinkets, such as ribbands, laces, embroideries, tobacco-boxes, watches, and an infinity of other baubles of iron ware, upon which they get per cent, all costs clear. "as soon as the french ships arrive at quebec the merchants of that city, who have their factors in other towns, load their barks with goods in order to transport them to these other towns. such merchants as act for themselves at trois rivières, or montreal, come down in person to quebec to market for themselves, and then put their effects on board of barks to be conveyed home. if they pay for their goods in skins, they buy cheaper than if they made their payments in money or letters of exchange; by reason that the seller gets considerably by the skins, when he returns to france. now you must take notice, that all these skins are bought up from the inhabitants, or from the savages, upon which the merchants are considerable gainers. to give you an instance of this matter, a person that lives in the neighbourhood of quebec, carries a dozen of marten skins, five or six fox skins, and as many skins of wild cats, to a merchant's house, in order to sell them for woolen cloth, linen, arms, ammunition, etc. in the trade of those skins, the merchant draws a double profit, one upon the score of his paying no more for these skins than one-half of what he afterwards sells them for, in the lump, to the factors, for the rochel ships; and the other, by the exorbitant rate he puts upon the goods which the poor planter takes in exchange for his skins. if this be duly weighed, we will not think it strange that these merchants have a more beneficial trade than a great many tradesmen in the world."--canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, , p. . footnotes: [ ] some authors have supposed that the mountain mission began as early as , but this appears impossible, when we recollect that for twenty-seven years or more settlers scarcely dared to leave the town for fear of the iroquois, who tracked them to their very doorsteps! moreover, the first registrations of the mountain mission date from , and, note, that all previous baptisms had been set down in the ville marie registre. the latter before makes no mention of the aforesaid mission. (cf. note by mary drummond in the "life and times of marguerite bourgeoys.") [ ] in duchesneau reported on november th the population of canada at , ; of this number there were five or six hundred coureurs de bois. "there is not a family," wrote the intendant, "of any condition or quality soever, who have not children, brothers, uncles and nephews among them." chapter xxviii - war again. the iroquois. new york and hudson's bay the governments of de la barre and denonville governor de la barre opposes la salle--the pow-wow in the new parish church--war preparations at montreal--the disease-stricken expeditions return--laval leaves for france--the pioneer paper money invented to pay the soldiers--notes on "cards" and currency during french regime--governor denonville and mgr. de st. vallier arrive--callieres becomes governor of montreal--a gloomy report on the "youth" and dramshops--mgr. de st. vallier's mandement of the vanity of the women--the fortifications repaired--sale of arms condemned--the struggle for canada by the english of new york--the struggle for hudson's bay--the party from montreal under the sons of charles le moyne--the death of la salle--other montreal discoverers--a psychological appreciation of la salle's character. the recall of frontenac had great influence on la salle's career, for the new governor, de la barre, an aged man wanting in firmness and decision, intended to enrich himself[ ] and had accordingly connected himself with a clique of merchants in the colony, intent on the monopoly of the western fur trade. he believed in their representations that by acting with them, he would be enabled to obtain large profits. the principals in this arrangement were aubert de la chesnaye, jacques leber and charles le moyne, the latter two of montreal. accordingly, when on april , , after hearing that his protector, frontenac, had sailed for france, la salle wrote the new governor, telling of his success in the expedition to the mouth of the mississippi, and dwelling on the necessity of establishing colonists along the route which he had opened, and asked that such of his men as were sent to montreal for supplies should not be arrested, he little knew how poorly his exploration was valued by the governor. in a second letter he speaks of the threatened rising of the iroquois in the michillimackinac district, and of the danger he was in, at his fort st. louis, on the river illinois, on the top of "starved rock" (as it was afterwards called after pontiac's war in ), with but twenty men, and only pounds of powder. he asks that his men should not be detained, as he was in need of reinforcements; likewise, that no seizure of his property in montreal should be permitted as he was in want of munitions and supplies. no supplies were sent him and his men were made prisoners in montreal as transgressors of the law. moreover, on pretense that the conditions, on which his fort at frontenac had been granted, had not been carried out, the governor sent leber and de la chesnaye to seize it in the royal name. la salle determined to appeal in person to the minister in france and coming down the lakes he met the chevalier de baugis, who had been sent by de la barre to seize his fort st. louis. in the next year, , the king wrote to the governor and the intendant, de moules, commanding them to make restitution to la salle for the injury done him at fort frontenac and fort st. louis. hardly had la barre arrived in canada than he learned of the declaration of war by the iroquois against the illinois, the allies of the french. a deliberation of the highest in the land resulted in a request to the king for help to restrain the iroquois, which brought the promise of a convoy of soldiers to be sent without delay from france! wishing, however, to compromise with the iroquois and to make peace rather than war which would damage his personal trade relations at cataracqui, the governor sent charles le moyne as envoy to onondaga to invite a deputation of their chiefs to visit montreal. this was fixed for june, but it was not till august that a meagre delegation from but five cantons arrived, and the grand council was held in the newly built church of montreal. parkman tells the story thus: "presents were given to the deputies (forty-three iroquois chiefs) to the value of more than two thousand crowns. soothing speeches were made them and they were urged not to attack the tribes of the lakes, nor to plunder french traders, _without permission_. they assented and la barre then asked, timidly, why they made war on the illinois. 'because they deserve to die,' haughtily returned the iroquois orator. la barre dared not answer. they complained that la salle had given guns, powder and lead to the illinois; or in other words, that he had helped the allies of the colony to defend themselves. la barre, who hated la salle and his monopolies, assured them that he should be punished. it is affirmed on good authority that he said more than this, and told them that they were welcome to plunder and kill him. the rapacious old man was playing with a two-edged sword." ("frontenac," p. ). montreal that summer witnessed the preparations of la barre and his men, who left quebec on july th ostensibly to fight the iroquois around fort frontenac; among them was de la chesnaye. the new intendant, jacques de meulles, sieur de la source, grieving no doubt that he had to finance this new war, has the lowest opinion of this enterprise and writes to the minister (july - ): "in a word, monseigneur, this war has been decided upon in the cabinet of monsieur, the general (la barre) along with six of the chief merchants of the country," and in a postscript he added, "i will finish this letter, monseigneur, by telling you that he set out yesterday, july th, with a detachment of men. all quebec was filled with grief to see him embark on an expedition of war, _tête à tête_ with the man la chesnaye. everybody says that the war is a sham, that these two will arrange everything between them and in a word do whatever will help their trade. the whole country is in despair to see how matters are managed." (quoted by parkman, "frontenac," p. .) after a long stay at montreal the little army of regular soldiers, canadians and savages, principally iroquois from caughnawaga and hurons from lorette near quebec, embarked at lachine. the party from montreal landed under the palisades of fort frontenac or cataracqui, on a low, damp plain and became the victims of a malarial fever of which the men sickened. on the d of september le moyne was sent to la famine at the mouth of the salmon river, bringing with him the wily and astute orator of the iroquois, big mouth, latinized by la hontan, who was present, as "grangula." at the council which followed at la famine, whither la barre with such of his men who were well enough to move, had crossed to meet the iroquois in their own territory, big mouth had all the honours and the ending was humiliating for the french. he declared the iroquois could fight the illinois to the death, and la barre dared not utter a word in behalf of his allies. "he promised to decamp," says parkman, "and set out for home on the following morning, being satisfied with the promise that the iroquois would repair the damage done the french traders in the war against the illinois--a promise never realized. la barre embarked and hastened home in advance of his men. his camp was again full of the sick. their comrades placed them, shivering with ague fits, on board the flatboats and canoes; and the whole force, scattered and disordered, floated down the current to montreal. nothing had been gained but a thin and flimsy peace, with new troubles and dangers plainly visible behind it." ("frontenac," p. ). at montreal, as a consequence of this disease-stricken expedition, the hôtel-dieu was filled with the sick, as was that of quebec. the end was humiliating to la barre; the honour was with the iroquois and the illinois allies had been shamefully abandoned. the treaty of la famine was received by the colony with contumely and shortly afterwards the inefficient governor received his recall, polite, but unmistakable in its import. on november th, monseigneur de laval left for france, sixty-one years of age, but broken down by his austere duties and unremitting labours. he attended the sovereign council on august th, and fought against the making of the secular clergy into "irremovable curés"--a policy which has been continued to this day. on november d, he established the chapter of quebec cathedral, consisting of twelve canons and four chaplains. he came back to quebec again on august , , and took up his quarters at his beloved seminary founded by him, not any longer with the burdens and honours of the episcopate, but as a simple retired prelate, the father-in-god of his seminarists--till nearly his death on may , . he was a man who was a sign for contradiction to many, yet always firm, zealous, unbending and of upright principles, which even his enemies recognized, though they might have quailed before him and have withstood him. de meulles still continued as intendant, not being recalled till . he was endowed with much initiative and executive ability, which la barre wanted, so that he nearly brought the country to ruin. after the disgraceful treaty with the iroquois, on september th, de meulles found that the drain on the exchequer was so great that he was at his wits' end to pay the soldiers who belonged to "le détachement in french de la marine"--in spite of the name, purely a land body, supported by the department "of the marine," there being no colonial office to france. this detachment was organized in france about the year , from among the disbanded soldiers who had taken part in the dutch or other wars, to protect the inhabitants of new france from the relentless raids of ever-roving bands of ruthless iroquois, which had become so persistent as almost to paralyze the agricultural pursuits as well as the trade and commerce of the country. how was the intendant, de meulles, to pay these soldiers? there was little or no coin currency. beaver skins and wheat were legal tender, but very bulky and very inconvenient for small accounts. the dearth of currency may be explained as follows: in new france currency difficulties had always prevailed because any few doles of coin that came from the home government were returned as remittances by the importers as the balance of trade was always against the colony and therefore exchange was necessarily high. in a special coinage of and _sol_ pieces of silver and _doubles_ in copper were struck at paris and sent out with a proviso that they should not be circulated in the mother country. but notwithstanding this interdiction these also were sent as remittances. thus there was little or no coin currency in the country with which to trade. the ready witted intendant therefore invented the pioneer paper money, which originally circulated in the form of a note, on the back of an ordinary playing card signed by de meulles, in . it was the beginning of the paper money which is now so largely used all over the world. de meulles hit upon the plan of using whole, or cutting up, ordinary playing cards into halves or quarters, with the word "_bon_" inserted on each, for a certain sum, signed and sealed in wax with his own hand and countersigned by the clerk of the treasury as they were issued. this emergency card money is claimed by mr. r. w. mclachlan as the first regular paper money issued in any caucasian nation. he claims that the massachusetts paper money, issued first five years after that of canada, for the similar purpose of paying soldiers, was an imitation. [illustration: card money] a new supply of these cards was issued in october, . the old issue disappeared and there is not one left even for antiquarian collections. further issues were made in and , but in this latter year the total withdrawal of the old cards was ordered. by these cards had all been redeemed by the government. in a copper currency was struck for the colony at the mint of la rochelle and rouen of nine denier pieces. though issued with a proclamation throughout new france they were never acceptable to the canadians and were at last withdrawn. there was then after the issue of the cards of a lull of about ten years, when in recourse was again had to the convenient paper money, but the playing card was superseded by a plain white card with clipped edges and with various other changes in stamps and signatures. this system was continued until intendant bigot's time and the fall of new france. the inventory of jacques leber of montreal, dated june , , showing coins to the value of _livres_ _sols_ _deniers_, and card money to the value of . . , indicates the early predominance of card money. about bigot introduced, as a new currency, an unauthorized note called an "ordonnance," which, unlike the card issue, did not seek the governor's approval by seal or signature. they were more than twice as large, on forms printed in france on ordinary writing paper, with blank spaces for filling in the amount, the date, and number in writing. these "ordonnances" were orders on the treasury of quebec or, in the case of the fall of the capital, of montreal, which could pass as cash and were redeemable in bulk, either in card money, or by drafts on the treasurer of the marine in france. this method afforded ample scope for peculation both from the government and the people. at first bigot's issue of "ordonnances" was slight but by the end of the french régime, it exceeded , , _livres_ or nearly $ , , . this was a large sum for an impoverished country to refund. it was years after it was redeemed and some never so by the french government, after the fall of the french régime in canada. the cards and "ordonnances" were a drug on the market for many years pending redemption, so that the original holders gained very little. the introduction of specie did much to reconcile the french to the british régime.[ ] la barre's successor was the marquis of denonville, a pious colonel of dragoons, who had seen much active service, and who could act when occasion required with firmness and vigour. in the same boat with him and his wife there arrived at quebec in the beginning of august, , laval's successor, the bishop-elect, the young, impetuous, zealous and rigid monseigneur de saint-vallier--and a lasting friendship was then cemented. denonville's instructions ordered him to uphold the allies of france, to humiliate the iroquois and to establish peace on a solid basis. he was to spare no effort to maintain a good understanding with the english but should they and the iroquois be allied in their battles, they were to be treated as enemies. on the th of august he presided at the sovereign council. after staying a short time at quebec he went to montreal and there set up the chevalier de callières, a former captain of the navarre regiment, as the governor in place of m. perrot, who had been sent to acadia (being appointed in ), where as governor he pursued the same tactics as at montreal and was replaced in . denonville's reign with the english and the iroquois was stormy, but he was singularly peaceful in his relations with the bishop, the intendant and the governor of montreal. [illustration: mgr. j. b. de la croix chevrieres de saint-vallier] [illustration: marquis jacques-rene de brisay denonville] a gloomy picture of canadian life, which applies equally to montreal, was sent by denonville to france in his letters of august , september and november , . "the youths," he says, "are so badly trained that the moment they are able to shoulder a gun their fathers dare not speak reprovingly to them. they do not take kindly to labour, having no occupation but hunting; they prefer the life of the _coureur de bois_, where there is no curé or father to restrain them, and in which they adopt the life of the indian even to going about naked. the life has great attractions for them, for on carnival days and other days of feasting and debauchery they imitate the indian in all things, their company being frequently lawless and unruly. the noblesse of canada is in a condition of extreme poverty. to increase their number is to multiply a class of lounging idlers. the sons of the councillors are not more industrious than the other youths. the men are tall, well made, well set up, robust, active, accustomed to live on little. they are wayward, lightminded and inclined to debauchery but have intelligence and veracity; the women and girls, pretty, but idle from want of occupation in the minor work of the sex. "nothing," says denonville, "can be finer or better conceived than the regulations formed for the government of this country; but nothing, i assure you, is so ill-observed as regards both the fur trade and the general discipline of the colony. one great evil is the infinite number of drinking shops, which makes it almost impossible to remedy the disorders resulting from them. all the rascals and idlers of the country are attracted to this business of tavern keeping. they never dream of tilling the soil, but on the contrary they deter the other inhabitants from it, and end with ruining them. i know seignories where there are but twenty houses, and more than half of them dram shops. at three rivers there are twenty-five houses and liquor may be had at eighteen or twenty of them. ville marie (montreal) and quebec are on the same footing. the villages governed by the jesuits and sulpicians are models. drunkenness there is not seen. but it is sad to see the ignorance of the population at a distance from the abodes of the _curés_, who are put to the greatest trouble to remedy the evils, traveling from place to place through the parishes in their charges." (denonville au ministre, parkman, "old régime," pp. - - ; vide, résumé of kingsford, i, .) the clergy, however, did their work manfully and unflinchingly and it was their devotion to their work of upbuilding the morality and character of the french canadians that assured them the prestige which is enjoyed by them to this day. bishop st. vallier confirms denonville, la barre, duchesneau and other contemporary writers when he says that, "the canadian youths are for the most part demoralized," and although previously, in , he had written very favourably on the religious state of canada, in a pastoral mandate of october , , he says: "before we first knew our flock we thought that the english and the iroquois were the only wolves we had to fear; but god having opened our eyes to the disorders of this diocese and made us feel more and more the weight of our charge, we are forced to confess that our most dangerous foes are drunkenness, impurity, and slander." the canadian drank hard and many a man was old at forty. "but," says parkman ("old régime," p. ), "nevertheless the race did not die out. the prevalence of early marriages and the birth of numerous offspring before the vigour of the father had been wasted ensured the strength and hardihood which characterized the canadians." bishop st. vallier soon visited montreal and his description of the mountain settlement we have already given. here we may add a scathing picture which occurs in the ordinance of monseigneur jean baptiste de saint-vallier, dated october , , touching modesty and the want of veneration in the churches. it may justly apply to the montreal ladies of the period, since it complains, "of the luxury and the vanity reigning, throughout _the whole country_ among the girls and grown-up women, with more licence and scandal than ever. they are not content to have on them habits, the price and style of which are much above the means or the condition of life of those wearing them, but they affect moreover immodest head-dresses within and without their homes, and often even in the churches, leaving heads uncovered or only decked with a transparent veil and with an assemblage of ribbons, lace work, curls and other vanities. but what is still more to be deplored, and what pierces our soul with sorrow, is that they have no difficulty in rendering themselves the instruments of the demon and in cooperating with the loss of souls, bought by the blood of jesus christ, by uncovering the _nudités_ of their neck and shoulders, the sight of which makes an infinite number of persons to fall." the good bishop might be similarly shocked if he visited montreal today.[ ] in the spring of , m. de callières, the governor of montreal, employed men under the direction of m. du luth, royal engineer, to erect a palisade around the town.[ ] it was made of wood stakes furnished by the citizens and had to be constantly repaired. this palisade, with curtains and bastions, was feet in height and there were five gates, those of lachine, the recollects, the port, st. martin and st. lawrence; and five posterns, de maricourt, the barracks, the general hospital, the hôtel-dieu and de callières. about this time there was apparently laxity in the retention of arms. for one cause or another many households were very scantily accommodated, through sale or truck, or on account of seizure for debt. accordingly a notice of the supreme council was affixed to the door of the parish church of montreal by the sergeant, quesneville, on february , . after emphasizing the importance of the obligation which the marquis de denonville had laid upon every house-holder in the colony of being well armed, the council forbade all persons of whatever quality or condition to deprive themselves of their arms by sale or otherwise, unless they had weapons beyond what was necessary, to arm each father of the family, and his children and domestics, who shall have attained to the age of fourteen years; it forbade all "huissiers and sergeants of justice to seize these arms, all tavern keepers and others to buy them, or truck them, under penalties named." with denonville's advent as the representative of louis xiv, the struggle for supremacy between canada and the english, under thomas dongan, the irish catholic governor of new york representing james ii, of england, began to assume warlike proportions. the english of new york were laying claim to the whole country south of the great lakes and were anxious to control the great western fur trade. the northern fur trade was being bid for by the hudson's bay company, and the fisheries of new acadia were being seized upon by the new englanders. in the regions of michillimackinac the english were striving to alienate the hurons, ottawas and other like tribes; they had already on their side, the iroquois, whose arrogance to the french, especially that of the senecas, was so galling that it seemed necessary for french prestige to humble them. such were de denonville's instructions. this was one of the reasons why he wished to build his fort at niagara as early as may, --a project highly displeasing to dongan--to counteract the english desire for the same purpose, namely to obtain supremacy over the tribes in that direction and to be masters of the trade, for that was what most mattered.[ ] this was de denonville's motive also for his projected forts at toronto, or lake erie, and that at détroit, for which latter enterprise he commissioned du luth of montreal. the intense rivalry showed itself in in the organized attempt of the french to dispute the supremacy claimed by the hudson's bay company, then in its infancy, on the western shore of that dreary inland sea. as so many montrealers joined in this effort, it may be recorded more fully than could otherwise be permitted. let us, then, turn to the rivalry existing between the english and french in hudson's bay, represented by the great company of that name and the canadian rival body, "la compagnie du nord." the english firm had discovered the bay under hudson and, with the help of the two renegade frenchmen, médard chouart des groseilliers and pierre esprit de radisson,[ ] both well known at montreal, as bold and unscrupulous _coureurs de bois_ and fur traders, had formed a company with english capital from london and had established fort nelson near the mouth of the nelson river, and then other forts, albany, rupert and monsipi or monsoni (fort hayes) on the southern end of the bay. but the french had a grant of the fur industry from louis xiv and had done some trading there before the advent of the english. it had been taken possession of, in , in the name of louis xiv by the jesuit albanel (one of the early montreal missionaries) and m. de st. simon, and the french had built fort thérèse, which, on being taken from them by the english, was named fort nelson. the french merchants desiring to oust their competitors appealed to denonville and he commissioned the chevalier de troyes, a captain of infantry, to chase the english from the bay and retake their own. with him went the young d'iberville (then twenty-four years of age) and his brothers maricourt and st. hélène, seventy canadians and thirty soldiers, "all," says ferland, "accustomed to long marches, able to manage canoes, to withstand the most piercing colds and well versed in 'la petite guerre.'" their chaplain was the jesuit silvy. the party left montreal in the month of march, , when the rivers were still frozen and the snow was on the ground. they mounted the rivers and lakes on their snowshoes, dragging their provisions, arms and materials for canoe construction on their sleds, reaching the river monsipi, near fort hayes, the first english fort, in june or so, which shortly afterwards fell with forts rupert and albany, largely on account of the brilliant exploits of d'iberville, whose reputation was established on this occasion. the whole expedition lasted only two months. this brave buccaneering angered the english. a treaty of neutrality intervening between the two powers of france and england left them helpless for the moment, but in the hudson's bay company were again in possession. in , as we shall see, d'iberville will again be in their waters and attacking these forts. the year marks the tragic death of la salle. in his last expedition had sailed from la rochelle directly for the mississippi, carrying three priests at least, his brother, the sulpician, jean cavelier, and the recollects, zendbre membre and anastase douay; twelve gentlemen of france and also soldiers, artisans and labourers, in all to the number of persons, with a full supply of provisions and implements. there were four vessels, le joly, a frigate of thirty-six cannons; la belle, six cannons; st. françois, a transport; and l'aimable, a fluke of tons. m. de beaujean, sailing in le joly, was commander of the squadron and la salle led the land forces. disaster after disaster befell the expedition. m. de beaujean passed the mouth of the mississippi without noticing it, it being reserved for le moyne d'iberville in to be the first white man to descend it by the sea. one vessel ran aground, another was captured by the spaniards, with those that carried the greater part of the ammunition, implements and provisions. beaujean in consequence of serious disagreements with la salle returned to france with le joly and the luckless explorer found himself reduced, by these losses and by sickness, to the number of thirty-six despairing colonists. in this plight la salle conceived the plan of reaching canada on foot. sixteen of his party consented to follow him, among them his brother jean, his nephew moranget, the faithful joutel, du hault and his servant larchevêque, hiens of wurtembourg a buccaneer, ruter liotot or lanquetot, the surgeon of the expedition, sager and nika, and the faithful recollect, père douay, who accompanied la salle to his last hour. on march , , two months after the departure from the bay of matagorda, on the coast of texas, which the expedition had reached at the end of january, the surgeon, liotot, slew with his axe moranget, sager and nika. he was but the cowardly executor of the order of a band of assassins of the rest of the party, consisting of hiens, larchevêque and their leader du hault. fearing the vengeance of la salle, two days later, the mutineers determined to make away with him, and on march th, between the rivers, san jacinto and la trinité, robert rené de cavelier, at the age of forty-three years and four months, fell a victim to the musket of the treacherous du hault.[ ] joutel, who accompanied the expedition and whom charlevoix met in rouen in and described as a very honest man and one of the few of his troop that la salle could count on, says of his friend in the "_journal historique du dernier voyage que feu m. de la salle fit dans le golfe du mexique, paris, _," written on the notes taken from - : "thus unhappily ended the life of m. de la salle, at the time when he had all to hope for from his great labours. he had the intelligence and talent to crown his enterprise with success--firmness, courage, a great knowledge of sciences and arts, which rendered him capable of anything, and an indefatigable perseverance which made him surmount every obstacle. these fine qualities were balanced by too haughty manners, which made him sometimes unsupportable, and by a harshness towards those who were under him, which drew upon him their implacable hatred and was the cause of his death." ferland (cours d'histoire t. ii, p. ) has a similar judgment. we have different writings on the death of la salle: first, the story of father douay, the eye witness of the assassination; he gave the details to joutel, who was not present at the moment of the crime; second, "la relation of the death of sieur de la salle, following the report of one named couture." this couture of rouen, who had remained with tonti, had learned the circumstances of the assassination of la salle from a frenchman. this description shows animosity to la salle; third, the "mémoire" of henry tonti. the "relation" of abbé cavelier stops before the death of his brother. all the assassins perished miserably. liotot and du hault died at the hands of ruter, a breton sailor. hiens and ruter were also slain by one of their accomplices. (parkman, great west, p. .) larchevêque was discovered in texas by the spaniards and was sent to mexico to work in the mines as a galley slave. père douay, l'abbé cavelier, joutel and others finished by arriving at arkansas and from there they went to fort st. louis on the illinois. thus ended the career of one of the most remarkable men of this continent. the lights and shades of this man's story are fascinating but we cannot pursue them. for montrealers he is interesting in that he, one of their predecessors, it was who discovered by land the ohio and the mouth of the mississippi, and the vast district of louisiana, of which he had taken solemn possession on april , , in the name of louis xiv. it remained for another montrealer, le moyne d'iberville, to build a stockade fort at biloxi in to hold the country for the king, thus laying the first foundations of louisiana in mississippi, which soon saw also the forts of mobile bay and dauphin island. the first governors of louisiana the brothers d'iberville and de bienville, are also proudly remembered as of montreal origin. it is foreign to the scope of this history to settle the dispute as to how far la salle discovered the mississippi.[ ] but granting that father marquette and louis joliet commenced the discovery in , of the upper inland reaches, its completion to the mouth by land must be conceded to la salle, its discovery from the sea having been made a century before by de soto. in many ways la salle differed very much from the type of men exploring north america at this time. he had little of the traditional gayety and insouciance of the leader of _coureurs de bois_; he did not seek, primarily, wealth or glory; nor is his life marked with any of the excesses of a scandalous time. this silent and uncommunicative man, of a hardy and uncommon physiognomy, active in body and restless in mind, with those powerful and tyrannical instincts, ever latent, which push strong and energetic natures to the arduous search after the unknown and the vague was one of those characters that feel the need of fleeing from society to go out of themselves and to lose themselves in movement and action. repose is to them irksome and wearisome. such men are the victims of the perpetual tempests agitating them and it is no wonder that sometimes they break forth impetuously into anger or brutality against friend or foe alike. such a one was la salle; and the above psychological explanation of his career, it seems, is the key of understanding to this original personality. footnotes: [ ] kingsford, history of canada, ii, p. . [ ] see r. w. mclachlan, the canadian card money, montreal, . [ ] to the student of morals and to social reformers, we draw attention to a "mémoire" of the king on march , , to denonville and champigny, the new intendant, in which his majesty does not approve of their proposition to send back to france the women of evil life; that, he says, would not be a punishment great enough. "it would be better to employ them by force on the public works, to draw water, saw wood and serve the masons." [ ] the citadel was also built in . the wooden fortifications were demolished in . [ ] speaking of the hurons of michillimackinac, denonville wrote to the minister on june , : "they like the manners of the french but they like the cheap goods of the english better." in a letter to dongan in october he expostulated with him for furnishing the indians with rum: "certainly," replied dongan on december st, "our rum does as little hurt as your brandy and in the opinion of christians is much more wholesome." [ ] radisson was in montreal as early as july, , and frequently afterwards started his wanderings from montreal. other early references are found in documents of , and . chouart des groseilliers, was here in . in he entered into a partnership with charles le moyne. (cf. see massicotte "les colons de montreal," p. .) [ ] on august , , père douay related to the marquis de seignelay the details of the unhappy expedition of the discoverer. [ ] according to a recent writer, pierre d'esprit radisson, and médard chouart, sieur de groseilliers, of three rivers, but both well known at montreal, whence they drew members of their party, had in their wide wanderings traversed the ottawa, the st. lawrence, the great lakes, labrador, the return west of the mississippi, the great northwest and the overland route to hudson's bay, the west, the northwest and the west. in it is stated radisson and groseilliers discovered the upper mississippi and the lands of the great northwest ten years before marquette joliet, twenty years before la salle, a hundred years before la vérendrye. radisson's manuscripts being rescued from oblivion in are alleged to prove their claims. the course of the first exploration of radisson seems to have circled over the territory now known as wisconsin, perhaps eastern iowa and nebraska, south dakotas, montana and back over north dakota and minnesota to the north shore of lake superior. this was the southwest. on his return he passed by the scene of dollard's exploit at the long sault. at quebec they were feted but when afterwards it had leaked out that they had heard of the famous sea of the north and they had asked to continue their explorations, the french governor refused except on condition of receiving half the profits. on this the adventurers with two indian guides for the upper country, who chanced to be in montreal and whom they had taken to three rivers, stole out thence to the north country and in discovered hudson's bay by the overland route with the aid of friendly crees. by the spring of they were back to the lake of the woods region, accompanied by indians of the upper country. eventually they made their way to quebec and were received with salvos of canon. their fortune of pelts was valued in modern money at $ , , of which the governor claimed for the revenue so much that but $ , worth was left. they then turned their allegiance elsewhere. the stories of their various changes of allegiance to and fro, from the french both in the new and old france to the english, does not concern us. this has blackened their name but does not gainsay their claims to a share in the great discoveries mentioned. at the same time as they never appear to have made a formal claim or took a formal "prise de possession" for france, it is not to be wondered that historians will continue to give the credit to the already accredited discoverers. the five writers who according to the author we are noticing, have attempted to redeem radisson's memory from ignominy are: dr. n. g. dionne, of the parliament library of quebec; mr. justice prud'homme, of st. boniface, manitoba; dr. george bryce, of winnipeg; mr. benjamin sulte, of ottawa, and judge j. z. brower, of st. paul. (vide the "pathfinders of the west," toronto, , by a. c. laut.) chapter xxix - iroquois revenge denonville's treachery and the massacre of lachine st. helen's island a military station--fort frontenac--denonville's treachery--the feast--indians for the galleys of france--the war march against the senecas--the return--montreal an inclosed fortress--de callieres' plan for the invasion of new york--the struggle for trade supremacy--montreal besieged--kondiaronk, the rat, kills the peace--denonville recalled--callieres' plan fails--the massacre at lachine--denonville's treachery revenged. note: the exploit at the riviere des prairies. [illustration: view of island of ste. helen] in the commencement of the summer of , denonville, who had made his preparations secretly and had received reinforcements of men with , _livres_ in money or supplies from france, determined to carry to a finish his long projected war policy against the iroquois supported by the english under dongan, by stealing upon them unawares. st. helen's island opposite montreal was the scene of a great military camp. thither the new intendant, de champigny-noroy--the successor of de meulles, who had been recalled upon the complaints of the governor--had gone on june th with the chevalier de vaudreuil, lately arrived in the colony with the title of commander of the forces. the army of four battalions, commanded by the governor de denonville in person, was composed, says bibaud, of regular soldiers, about a thousand canadians and indians, mostly from the missions of sault st. louis and the mountain. m. de callières, the governor of montreal, also was there. it started on june th on flatboats and as many birch bark canoes, and struggling against the rapids made its way for fort frontenac. just after the departure the regulars arrived from france and were left at montreal to protect the settler. we have not usually related the details of these expeditions from montreal and its vicinity, but the opening incident on this occasion, known as denonville's treachery, resulting in the massacre of lachine on august , , was so fateful in its dire results for montreal that it must be told. [illustration: plan of montreal, - ] arriving at fort frontenac, it was found that there were in the neighbourhood a number of iroquois of the two neutral villages of kenté (quinté) and ganneious or ganeyout, on the north shore of lake ontario, forming a sort of colony, where the sulpicians of montreal had established their mission. they were on excellent terms with the garrison of fort frontenac and hunted and fished for them. these denonville determined to seize, partially because of the fear that they might communicate with their relatives, the hostile seneca iroquois, but principally because he wished to satisfy the desire of louis xiv that the iroquois prisoners of war should be sent to france to be put in the galleys, "because," said the royal letters, "the savages being strong and robust, they will serve usefully on our convict gangs." accordingly by various artifices, such as by the invitation to a feast, the unsuspecting and friendly indians were enticed to the fort by the advances of the new intendant, champigny, and then seized, the men being sent to quebec and then deported to the galleys in france.[ ] this was a breach of faith, unjustifiable according to the natural law of nations; these men could in no way have been called prisoners of war. the other indians were deeply incensed at this treason and they brooded over it long and deeply. a sad incident in the story is that the jesuit missionary lamberville was unwittingly the instrument used to induce the onondaga chief to accept the invitation to a parley at fort frontenac. when the news of the capture was made known, he was summoned before a council of the angry iroquois. the magnanimity of the iroquois saved his life. one of them addressed him thus: "you cannot but agree that all sorts of reasons, authorize us to treat you as an enemy, but we cannot agree to that; we know you too well not to be persuaded that your heart has had no part in the treason against us in which you have shared, and we are not unjust enough to punish you for a crime of which we believe you are innocent, and for which without doubt you are in despair for having been the instrument. but it is not fitting that you should remain here, for when once our young men have sung the war cry, they will see in you for the future nothing but a traitor, who has delivered our chiefs to the most disgraceful slavery. then fury will fall on you and we shall not be able any longer to save you."[ ] they gave him guides and sent him back to denonville.[ ] meanwhile la durantaye arrived with news of the capture of the dutch and english traders under rosenboom and major patrick mcgregor, who had been carried to niagara and afterward to quebec, a proceeding which mightily angered the english governor of new york, dongan. the war soon began; the rendezvous was at irondequoit bay on the borders of the seneca country. there were gathered the armies of denonville, joined by the flotilla of la durantaye, with duluth and his cousin tonti, who had come from niagara, the ottawas from michillimackinac and savages of every nation. there were the regulars from france, the canadian militia under de callières of montreal, the jesuit chaplains, the sulpician, de belmont, from montreal, the noblesse, the christian indians from the montreal district, the hardy explorer nicholas perrot and others, such as le moyne de longueuil. nearly three thousand men, red and white, were under denonville on july , when the march against the senecas began and most men of note in the colony seemed to be there. on the th of july the army returned to the fortified fort at irondequoit bay and shortly descended to montreal, victorious in name. but the senecas were only scotched, not killed. the expedition returned to montreal in august. in october the iroquois, to the number of , attacked the upper part of montreal, where they burned five houses and killed six _habitants_. the consequence was that de callières (the governor) caused a redoubt to be constructed in each seignory, so that the troops quartered there and the inhabitants could find refuge in the hour of attack. a contemporary writer says that there were twenty-eight such forts in the government of montreal. a corps of men picked from the _coureurs de bois_ was placed at lachine, but the great massacre there was not to occur till . thus montreal was virtually enclosed in de callières' palisaded picket. "new troops were called for from france and the plan of the next campaign was to advance with two columns in distinct expeditions against the iroquois. "the possession of new york by the french as a desirable acquisition was advocated by the leading men in canada more than ever." de callières, the governor of montreal, was conceiving a plan for such an invasion.[ ] this became more popular as james ii, on november , , formally claimed the iroquois as subjects and ordered dongan to protect them. this was the beginning of the long struggle between the two powers, the supremacy of the west being the bone of contention, for the trade of which the english were always "itching." as this trade was montreal's support we may realize the anxiety present during the next year, . for two years the trade had been stopped. montreal was again in a siege. the iroquois moved about mysteriously in small bands, and paralyzed agriculture. the early history of montreal was being reproduced; yet the country had far more troops than formerly. at the head of the island of montreal a large body of militia under vaudreuil was on guard. in the midst of this anxiety negotiations took place with the great and crafty diplomatist, big mouth, the chief of the onondagas, who on the promise of denonville to return the prisoners captured up west, made his way to montreal, in spite of the prohibitions of sir edward andros, who had now succeeded dongan, with six onondaga, cayuga and oneida chiefs; but, it is said, he had sent ahead a force of , men. he arrived at montreal on june , . a declaration of neutrality was drawn up and he promised that within a certain time the whole confederacy should come to montreal to conclude a general peace. they never came. for, although they were on their way, kondiaronk, surnamed the rat, the renowned chief of the hurons at michillimackinac, a most astute man, treacherously "killed" the peace as he boasted, by intercepting and firing on them, pretending he had been prompted to this action by denonville. thus he aroused the iroquois against the french. for his fear was that should peace be concluded with the iroquois, the french allies, such as the hurons, would not be protected against their hereditary enemies, the iroquois. hence montreal never saw the delegation. but the danger still hovered around, although denonville with false security still wrote to france that there was hope of peace. the iroquois, however, had not forgotten his treachery at fort frontenac. their brethren in the galleys of france called for vengeance. the winter of and part of the summer of passed quietly enough. changes had occurred in the government. denonville received his recall by a letter of may , , being needed for the war in europe. st. vallier had been consecrated bishop of quebec on january th. count frontenac was named governor for a second time. de callières, the governor of montreal, being replaced in his absence by de vaudreuil, was in france communicating his ambitious plans of conquering new york as the only means of preserving the colony.[ ] incidentally he was to be new york's new governor. it could be done, he argued, with the forces in canada, , regulars and militia, and two royal ships of war. the king modified the scheme and adopted it, but it never came into execution. the long delay in the preparation of the ships and the unexpectedly long passage of callières and frontenac across the atlantic, caused by head winds, ruined the enterprise. the two governors did not reach quebec until october th, bringing back with them from the galleys of france the remnant of the iroquois. thence they left on october th and arrived at montreal on october th, where denonville, with duluth in charge of the garrison, was still making the last arrangements for maintaining the peace of montreal before departing for france. but this was not to be till after the horrible massacre of reprisal, so long threatened, that fell upon the island at lachine on the night of august , . the story of the disaster at lachine, saddening the last days of denonville, must now be told in the graphic words of parkman (frontenac, pp. - ). "on the night before the th and th of august a violent hailstorm burst over lake st. louis, an expansion of the st. lawrence, a little above montreal. concealed by the tempest and the darkness, , warriors landed at lachine and silently posted themselves about the houses of the sleeping settlers, then screeched the war whoop and began the most frightful massacre in canadian history. the houses were burned and men, women and children indiscriminately butchered. in the neighbourhood were three stockade forts, called rémy, rolland and la présentation; and they all had garrisons. there was also an encampment of regulars about three miles distant, under an officer named subercasse, then absent from montreal on a visit to denonville, who had lately arrived with his wife and family. at four o'clock in the morning the troops in this encampment heard a cannon shot from one of the forts. they were at once ordered under arms. soon after, they saw a man running toward them just escaped from the butchery. he told his story and passed on with the news to montreal, six miles distant. then several fugitives appeared, chased by a band of iroquois who gave up the pursuit at sight of the soldiers but pillaged several houses before their eyes. the day was well advanced before subercasse arrived. he ordered the troops to march. about a hundred armed inhabitants had joined them and they moved together toward lachine. here they found the houses still burning and the bodies of the inmates strewn among them or hanging from the stakes where they had been tortured. they learned from a french surgeon, escaped from the enemy, that the iroquois were all encamped a mile and a half further on, behind a tract of forest. subercasse, whose force had been strengthened by troops from the forts, resolved to attack them; and had he been allowed to do so, he would probably have punished them severely, for most of them were hopelessly drunk with brandy taken from the houses of the traders. sword in hand, at the head of his men, the daring officer entered the forest; but at that moment a voice from the rear commanded him to halt. it was that of the chevalier de vaudreuil, just come from montreal, with positive orders from denonville to run no risks and stand solely on the defensive. subercasse was furious. high words passed between him and vaudreuil, but he was forced to obey. [illustration: algonquins (from the hébert group before the palais legislatif, quebec.)] [illustration: war dance] "the troops were led back to fort rolland, where about five hundred regulars and militia were now collected under command of vaudreuil. on the next day eighty men from fort rémy attempted to join them, but the iroquois had slept off the effects of their orgies and were again on the alert. the unfortunate detachment was set upon by a host of savages and cut to pieces in full sight of fort rolland. all were killed or captured except le moyne de longueuil, and a few others who escaped within the gate of fort rémy. "montreal was wild with terror. it had been fortified with palisades since the war began and though there were troops in the town under the governor himself, the people were in mortal dread. no attack was made either on the town or on any of the forts, and such of the inhabitants who could reach them were safe while the iroquois held undisputed possession of the open country, burned all the houses and barns over an extent of nine miles, and roamed in small parties pillaging and scalping over more than twenty miles. there is no mention of their having encountered opposition, nor do they seem to have met with any loss but that of some warriors killed in the attack on the detachment from fort rémy, and that of three drunken stragglers who were caught and thrown into a cellar in fort la présentation. when they came to their senses they defied their captors and fought with such ferocity that it was necessary to shoot them. charlevoix says that the invaders remained in the neighbourhood of montreal till the middle of october, or for more than two months. but this seems incredible, since troops and militia enough to drive them all into the st. lawrence might easily have been collected in less than a week. it is certain, however, that their stay was strangely long. troops and inhabitants seemed to have been paralyzed with fear. at length the most of them took to their canoes and recrossed lake st. louis in a body, giving ninety yells to show that they had ninety prisoners in their clutches. this was not all, for the whole number carried off was more than a hundred and twenty, besides about two hundred who had the good fortune to be killed on the spot. as the iroquois passed the forts they shouted: 'onontio! you deceived us! and now we have deceived you!' towards evening they encamped on the farther side of the lake and began to torture and devour their prisoners. on that miserable night, stupefied and speechless groups stood gazing from the strand of the lachine at the lights that gleamed along the distant shore of chateauguay, where their friends, wives, parents or children agonized in the fires of the iroquois and scenes were enacted of indescribable and nameless horror. the greater part of the prisoners were, however, reserved to be distributed among the towns of the confederacy and there tortured for the diversion of the inhabitants. while some of the invaders went home to celebrate their triumph others roamed in small parties through all the upper parts of the colony, spreading universal terror."[ ] note the exploit at the riviere des prairies, since writing the last chapter important facts almost forgotten concerning the brilliant exploit against the iroquois at the rivière des prairies, which almost rivals that of dollard's companions at the long sault, have been made public by mr. e. z. massicotte in the "canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal" no. , . the intendant, champigny, had officially and briefly reported it and it had been also commented on sparsely or inaccurately by ferland, "histoire du canada," volume ii, pp. - , by de belmont, "histoire du canada," and by tanguay in his "dictionnaire" and in a mémoire attributed to delery. from these authorities and the study of the registers of pointe aux trembles for and mr. massicotte has been enabled to reconstruct the story and identify the heroes. four days after the horrible hecatomb of lachine, i.e., on the th of august, , the iroquois, emboldened by their success, spread over the island of montreal and below it they massacred pierre dagenets dit lespine and probably burned his wife, anne brandon, whose disappearance is recorded at this time. they also besieged the mill of rivière des prairies recently constructed. but this was only by way of prelude. in the spring of the indians, who had sown terror the preceding year, now probably on their way to combine with phipps in the attack on quebec, invaded anew the neighbourhood of montreal and committed several acts of brigandage. on the d of july, warned of the presence of iroquois on the rivière des prairies, some inhabitants of pointe aux trembles, under the command of sieur de colombet, a former lieutenant, went to meet the enemy. posted near the river, they fired on the marauders and killed four of their men in a canoe. the iroquois, numbered a hundred, and as the opposing force of _habitants_ formed only a little group of twenty to twenty-five, champigny's account "le combat fut rude" was very descriptive. sixteen of the french remained on the field dead or taken prisoners. the rest in all haste partook themselves for safety to the little fort not far distant. the enemy lost thirty warriors and made their way to ile jésus to burn some of their captives; the rest they carried away to suffer the like fate, with the exception of one, whom father pierre millet, himself a prisoner among the onneyouts at the time, records as having been spared. such was the fear of the lurking iroquois that the eight bodies were buried in all haste on the field of glory, but on november , , the registry of pointe aux trembles tells us the bodies were exhumed and reburied together in consecrated ground. the list of the slain is as follows: ( ) de colombet, commandant; ( ) joseph de maintenon, sieur de la rue; ( ) jean gallot, surgeon; ( ) guillaume richard, dit lafleur, captain, "de la milice" de pointe aux trembles; ( ) joseph cartier, dit larose; ( ) jean baudoin (fils); ( ) pierre marsta (fils); ( ) jean delpne, dit parisot; ( ) nicholas joly; ( ) a hired man of one beauchamp; ( ) isaac, a soldier. made prisoners and burnt: ( ) jean rainaud, dit planchard; ( ) jean grou; ( ) paschange; ( ) le bohême. made prisoners and released: ( ) pierre payet, dit st. amour; ( ) wounded, probably, antoine chaudillon, surgeon. footnotes: [ ] on october dongan wrote to denonville demanding that these iroquois should be surrendered to the english ambassador at paris. on august , , denonville wrote to france begging the king to send back the captured indians to canada, and on october , , thirteen iroquois returned with frontenac--all that remained of those sent to the galleys. [ ] bibaud, "histoire du canada," following charlevoix. [ ] this scandalous act of treachery on the part of a christian nation was bewailed by the abbé de belmont, the montreal sulpician and historian who was present on this expedition. "it is pitiable," he wrote, "that the indians under our protection were thus seized, pillaged and chained, seduced under the bait of a feast." and he adds, "if in the beginning we were too violent, we were too weak and humble at the close." [ ] kingsford, history of canada, vol. ii, . [ ] this expedition was meant to be a serious check to the english pretensions of supremacy over the iroquois. a memoir of this period shows the claims of the french as follows: that the iroquois had submitted in ; that champlain had taken possession of their lands in the name of the king; that they had declared themselves to be the subjects of france in the treaty with m. de tracy in - , and that the subsequent treaty of the iroquois with the english in could not prevail against rights already acquired. frontenac and de callières were to attack orange and if that expedition succeeded, they were to attack manhattan and m. de vaudreuil was to undertake the government in their absence. [ ] bibaud, in his "histoire du canada," says that "the island of montreal was not free from the presence of these ferocious enemies (the iroquois) until the middle of october when denonville sent duluth and de mantet, well accompanied, to the lake of two mountains to make certain whether the retreat of the iroquois was real or only simulated. these officers met twenty-two iroquois in two canoes, who came to attack them with much determination. they withstood the first gunshots without firing but after that they boarded them and killed eighteen. of the few that remained, one saved himself by swimming, but the others were taken prisoners and given over to the fire of the indian allies." chapter xxx - montreal prowess at home and abroad frontenac's second term of government frontenac returns--review at montreal--indians from the galleys sent with peace overtures--new england to be attacked--the montreal leaders--three successful expeditions--retaliation meditated by the english--trade flowing back to montreal--the grand council in the market--frontenac leads the war dance--john schuyler's party against montreal retires--sir william phipps seizes quebec--the montreal contingent--peter schuyler defeated at la prairie--the colony in dire danger--madeleine de vercheres, her deed of armes--the expedition via chambly--arrival of furs from michillimackinac--frontenac, the saviour of the country--montreal prowess east and west--a pleiad of montreal names--the le moyne family--newfoundland--hudson's bay--fort frontenac again--the death of frontenac. on arriving at quebec on october , , frontenac, learning that the colony was seized with a sort of paralysis caused by discouragement and stupor, set out by the boats for montreal in spite of the incessant rains, and he found it a scene of desolation and dejection,[ ] after the disaster of lachine. frontenac was now a man of seventy years, but it was felt that with all his imperious failings, now mellowed by age, he possessed in a high degree, military knowledge and valour and was the man to meet the desperate state of affairs. encouraged by the consciousness of this, he accordingly left the gay court of louis xiv, _le soleil_, determined to prove his loyal attachment to his prince. on his arrival he was ostensibly welcomed on all hands. and on his part he was mindful of his charge dated june , , to forget his former dissensions and to govern with moderation and wisdom and to favour the clergy, although he was to keep an eye on the jesuits. at montreal he reviewed the troops, seven or eight hundred of whom were in garrison, the rest being scattered in the forts. having restored confidence, he turned his attention quickly toward conciliating or subduing the iroquois. his first move was to send a deputation to onondaga from "the great onontio, who as you all know has come back again." with it he sent three of the released indians whom he had brought back from the galleys of france, to invite them to meet the onontio at fort frontenac and to give back allegiance. these overtures were spurned. later came news to montreal from father carheil, the jesuit, saying that the huron and ottawa tribes, their allies, around michillimackinac were on the point of revolt, going over to the iroquois and the english. nicholas perrot was sent with a haughty message. "i am strong enough," says onontio, "to kill the english, destroy the iroquois and whip you if you fail in your duty." a temporary peace was secured by the adroitness of nicholas perrot. frontenac now turned his attention to the english and planned his descent on albany and the border settlements of new hampshire and maine. of the three war parties of picked men, organized at quebec, three rivers and montreal, the latter, which was to attack maine, was first ready, consisting of men, ninety-six of whom were christian iroquois from sault st. louis or the mountain settlement, and the rest being hardy and venturesome bush rangers skilled in woodcraft and indian warfare. their leaders were men equal to the task, d'ailleboust de mantet and le moyne de st. hélène. other brave sons of charles le moyne also supported them, le moyne d'iberville, le moyne de bienville and others of the _noblesse_, men of nerve, and adventurous. "it was the depth of winter," says parkman, "when they began their march, striding on snowshoes over the vast white field of the frozen st. lawrence, each with the hood of his blanket coat drawn over his head, a gun in his mittened hand, a knife, a hatchet, a tobacco pouch and a bullet pouch at his belt, a pack over his shoulders and his inseparable pipe hung at his neck in a leather case. they dragged their blankets and provisions over the snow on indian sledges." they crossed to chambly. how on february , , this party (montreal losing but two men) put corlaer (schenectady), about fifteen miles from albany and the furthest outpost of the colony of new york, to massacre and ashes, and finally, although victorious, had to retreat to montreal across the ice of lake champlain, worn out and closely pursued almost to the very gates of the town by iroquois and fifty men from albany, so that fifteen or more of a party of stragglers were killed or taken prisoners, it is not necessary to relate in detail, nor is it necessary to recount the furthest story of the universal war now kindled like wildfire. the three expeditions were, however, victorious. retaliation was being prepared by the iroquois and the english during the spring. a combined attack was to be made on canada. the colonial militia of new york were to meet at albany and thence advance on montreal by way of lake champlain; massachusetts and the other new england states were to attack quebec under sir william phipps, the former coarse ship-carpenter, rough sailor-captain and brusque governor of massachusetts, proud of his obscure origin and his career as a self-made man, blunt in speech and manner, doubtfully honest in private dealing, but believing that all was fair in war and business, patriotic and devoted withal to new england. while these hostile preparations against quebec and montreal were being matured, frontenac was at quebec, sparring with the council as to the degree of dignity with which he was to be received at the meetings of the supreme council when he should visit it for the first time. then he turned his attention to _saving_ the country, which was his _forte_, strengthening the rear of quebec, fortifying the settlements and keeping strong scouting parties in montreal to guard the settlers, who were being occasionally broken in upon and burned and butchered as of old, by the war parties of their hereditary enemies, the iroquois. then, late in july, he left for montreal, the chief point of danger, and with him went the intendant champigny, leaving town major prevost to finish the fortifications of quebec. montreal was reached on july st. a few days of august had passed when the commandant of fort lachine came in hot haste to report that lake st. louis was "full of canoes," as frontenac wrote to the minister on november th and th. fright gave way to pleasure when it was found that it was a friendly party of indians coming with canoes, laden with beaver skins to the value of nearly a hundred thousand crowns from the upper lakes, descending from michillimackinac to trade at montreal. a few days later la durantaye, the recent commander of michillimackinac, arrived with fifty-five more canoes loaded with valuable furs and manned by french traders. the trade was flowing back from the english market to montreal.[ ] frontenac was in high feather at the success of his policy, at least with the lake tribes. soon a grand council was prepared to precede the market, according to custom. such a crowd there was of painted, greased and befeathered hurons, ottawas, ojibways, pottawattomies, crees and nipissings, mingling with the officials and traders around frontenac. they talked of trade and war and politics, and they exhorted one another to fight the english and the iroquois to the death. then old frontenac took a hatchet and brandishing it sang the war song and led the war dance, in which all the motley crowd joined, like a screeching mass of frenzied madmen, possessed by devils it would seem to judge by their wild contortions. nor did onontio lose caste with the indians; he knew his people and he gained in estimation with them. then came the solemn war feast--two oxen and six large dogs chopped into pieces and basted with prunes, and two barrels of wine and plenty of tobacco. during the market days following there was an alarm of iroquois and english coming down the richelieu to attack montreal. to la prairie went frontenac with , men to meet the attack. but he did not find the expected assailants; so leaving a small force he returned to montreal and paid the final courtesies to his indian guests, with whom he had ingratiated himself. hard on their departure, news came from la prairie that the expected assailants had arrived and fallen on the soldiers and inhabitants as they were reaping in the fields, twenty-five being killed or captured, cattle being destroyed and houses burned. the news was quickly boomed around by the answering guns of chambly, la prairie and montreal. little damage was done, for it was but a small remnant, under captain john schuyler, of the vaunted expedition against montreal, which had been reduced by dissension and disease; it soon retired. on the th of october major prevost sent a note from quebec telling of the advance of sir william phipps' navy against quebec. that evening frontenac departed for quebec by canoe, ordering men to follow him. on the next day a fresh message from prevost confirmed the former saying that the english fleet was already above tadoussac. frontenac sent back captain de ramezay to de callières, the governor of montreal, bidding him to descend to quebec with all the force at his disposal, and to beat up the inhabitants on the way to join the muster. he arrived in quebec on october th and on the th phipps entered the harbour. we must resist the temptation to describe the defence of quebec. one incident in the siege, which must be related, is the arrival, on the evening of october th, of the montreal contingent, the noise of the welcome in upper town being heard by phipps as his vessels were lying idly at their moorings down below. the officers asked a french prisoner, granville, the meaning of the noise. "ma foi! messieurs," said he, "you have lost the game. it is the governor of montreal arriving with the people from the country above. there is nothing for you now but to pack and go home." the montreal contingent was a powerful body of men, regulars and _coureurs de bois_ and gay young volunteers spoiling for the fight. nearly all the manhood of canada was gathered in the precincts of the fortressed rock of quebec. finally, on october th, phipps retired behind the island of orleans to mend his rigging and repair his ships. his expedition was a failure. to this the montrealers had largely contributed. among their noblesse were the gallant sons of le moyne, who distinguished themselves, although jacques le moyne de ste. hélène died of the wounds received in the siege, a great loss to the colony, for he was, says charlevoix, one of its bravest knights and citizens. when louis xiv wrote on the th of may, , to frontenac and champigny, the intendant, the king gave le moyne de longueuil, and his brother, de maricourt, commands of companies and a promise of good things in store for d'iberville and a commission to undertake the enterprise of fort nelson and hudson bay to drive the english away. later de callières and others were to be remembered by the king for their good services. frontenac himself received a gratification of , _livres_, which no doubt he needed, for he had consumed all his property. next spring, that of , the iroquois, after the winter hunting, gathered at the mouth of the ottawa, and parties went forth to harass the settlements. soon pointe aux trembles and the mountain mission were attacked. near fort repentigny, young françois de bienville, one of le moyne's sons, was killed in an attack of the marauders. in midsummer, a detachment of men-- english and dutch and the rest iroquois allies--under major peter schuyler, advancing upon montreal, met the french at la prairie de la madeleine, opposite montreal. thither, de callières had moved. at first the english had the day, but owing to the intrepid conduct of valrennes they were forced to flee. for before reaching their canoes on the richelieu they were intercepted by valrennes, who gave schuyler's party, according to frontenac's statement, "the most hot and stubborn fight ever known in canada." thus, was montreal and canada in a state of great trial in the summer of and the year of . frontenac wrote home, "what with fighting and hardship, our troops and militia are wasting away. the enemy is upon us by sea and land. send us a thousand men next spring, if you want the country to be saved. we are perishing by inches; the people are in the depth of poverty; the war has doubled prices, so that nobody can live; many families are without bread. the inhabitants desert the country and crowd into the towns." the fortifications of montreal and quebec needed strengthening but there was little money to further the work. still something was done. the country round montreal during these years of and was in fear and trembling. the farmers worked in the fields with sentinels, and a guard of regulars protected them, and at night they shivered in their huts in the rudely fashioned palisaded stockades reared to protect them. their anger was so great that fearful reprisals took place. at montreal a number of iroquois captured by vaudreuil were burned at the demand of the canadians and the mission indians. it was a troublous time around montreal and even the women and children were called upon to fight. a picture has been preserved to us in the heroic story of the defence, of fort verchères, eight leagues from montreal, by madeleine de verchères, the fourteen-year-old daughter of the seigneur of the place, who by her wonderful presence of mind, coolness and courage saved the lives of a number of women and children, two soldiers, her young brothers, aged twelve and ten, and an old man and kept the iroquois at bay holding the fort for a week in the absence of her father at quebec and her mother at montreal. then help arrived after the firing had been heard from montreal and the iroquois were driven off by the relief force from montreal under m. de la monnerie at the head of forty men.[ ] this deed of arms, beginning at eight o'clock in the morning of october , , deserves to be commemorated among the noblest actions of heroic womanhood. there is room for the painter, the romancist, or the sculptor, justly to celebrate the glory of a national heroine in marie-madeleine de verchères. in , in january, a great expedition which was largely followed by the mission indians of sault st. louis (caughnawaga) and the mountain, those from lorette at quebec, abenakis from the chaudière and algonquins from three rivers, left chambly on snowshoes for the iroquois towns--a party of men under mantet, courtemanche and noue. on february th they took three of these towns. this year, there was again great rejoicing in montreal. frontenac had planned to escort the indians with their furs to montreal from michillimackinac, and he came to montreal to witness their arrival with canoes plentifully filled with beaver skins, the escort being under commandant de louvigny. frontenac was the hero of the hour. "it is impossible," says the chronicle, "to conceive the joys of the people when they beheld these riches. canada had awaited them for years. the merchants and the farmers were dying of hunger. credit was gone and everybody was afraid that the enemy would waylay and seize this last resource of the country. therefore, it was that none could find words strong enough to praise and bless him, by whose care all the wealth had arrived. _father of the people, preserver of the country_, seemed terms too weak to express their gratitude."[ ] we are not writing the history of canada or of frontenac, consequently we must pass over much contemporary history of this period. but we may be rightfully concerned with the history of notable montrealers then consolidating new france. during the latter administration of frontenac, montreal's sons reached the height of their careers. these latter were here, there, and everywhere, engaging in the struggle for mastery in the west or for that of hudson's bay, or of newfoundland or lastly of acadia--these four regions all coming under the government of frontenac and each of them being largely influenced by the canadian noblesse whose center was at montreal. in the west, on the banks of the mississippi, among the illinois, there were to be found men who had at one time or other made montreal their headquarters, and who had taken their share in the discovery of the great river and had founded posts and cities and colonies and had become the governors of provinces such as that of louisiana, which from to was ruled by d'iberville, de bienville, la motte-cardillac, and de vaudreuil. men like la salle, the sons of charles le moyne, the montreal interpreter, viz., d'iberville, de bienville, de sérigny, de chateauguay; de tonti, du luth, de la forêt and others--a pleiad of illustrious montreal names--men of courage and audacity--are not only captains of whom any city may be proud but they belong to the history of the continent of north america. their discoveries, their adventures, their exploits, oftentimes heroic, are recorded in the pages of history, dealing with regions stretching from hudson's bay and newfoundland to the gulf of mexico. [illustration: chateau de longueuil] [illustration: hudson bay] it is often forgotten that montreal is the mother of the west. these men, living in a time of faith, hope, and romantic chivalry, held their lives in daily peril, exposed themselves to unheard of privations led on by the desire, for glory or for gain, of conquering the unknown and acquiring territories for their beloved france and for the expansion of christendom.[ ] thus they rose above the ranks of mere soldiers of fortune, vulgar adventurers, or careless _coureurs de bois_. we are fascinated by the story of their wanderings accompanied by their jesuit, récollet or sulpician chaplains,[ ] to primeval forests and plains, over lofty mountain peaks and through deep dales, nowploring mines of copper or land on the mississippi or restlessly crossing the mighty rivers and lakes in their birch bark canoes or their flat bottomed bateaux; now as hunters or fishermen, sometimes in want and disease, but always gay; now trading in skins or acting as captains of vessels of war, or as commanders defending their far off posts, or attacking the iroquois or the rival english. an atmosphere of the marvelous and heroic surrounds these makers of canada and creates in one the desire to relate their histories and their wanderings by land and water, in detail. out of all these one family stands out preëminently--that of charles le moyne, settled in montreal since . he was the father of eleven sons, of whom the third, pierre le moyne, d'iberville (born in montreal in ), was the most famous. others were de longueuil, de sérigny, de maricourt, d'assigny, ste. hélène, the two chateauguays, the two bienvilles and antoine le moyne, who died young--types of the hardy canadian _noblesse_. [illustration: franÇois le moyne de bienville] [illustration: le moyne d'iberville] seven of these sons lived long enough to die heroically on the field of battle or to become distinguished administrators of the colonies. these were native born and of obscure parentage, yet they aspired to positions which were in those days rarely given but to those of noble birth coming from france. from all these notable sons, d'iberville stands out giantlike; his actions being almost legendary in their records of heroism. we now treat of his invasion of newfoundland made conjointly with de sérigny, his brother, after he had seized a frigate of twenty-four cannons at the entrance of the river st. jean and captured pemaquid on august , , whither he had sailed in command of the envieux; thence he sailed again to placentia in newfoundland. there he set out to take st. john, the chief port of the english, which he burned to the ground. during the winter he led a hardy party through hamlet after hamlet--each man provided with a musket, a battle axe, a dagger knife and snowshoes, and when the spring of opened all the english posts were destroyed according to orders received from the minister dated march , , except those of bona vista and the island of carbonnière. thus the safety from invasion of canada by the english was hoped to be rendered secure. when d'iberville had returned to placentia, of which he had been appointed governor in advance, as well as of all the posts seized by him, and was preparing to attack the two remaining british strongholds, his brother de sérigny arrived, commissioner by the king in the march previously to thrust the english from hudson's bay. with him came five ships of war, the pelican, the palmier, the profond, the violent and the wasp; the latter with the dragon, not arrived apparently, was for d'iberville. sérigny's instructions were to take the advice of his brother, who was undertaking the expense of the expedition. he was to destroy all the english forts in the bay and to leave no vestiges of them; the prisoners were to be sent to france or even england. it was to be a war of extermination of english influence and a strife for the possession by new france of the fur trade. fort bourbon (fort york of today), or fort nelson, as the english called it, was the chief object of attack. already the two brothers had captured it, three years before, but it had been retaken by the english, to whom it was valuable as it commanded the fur trade of the interior. how d'iberville, sailing on the pelican, and sérigny on the palmier after storms arrived at the bay and steered mid the threatening ice of the bay into the open sea to fort nelson, miles of those bleak inland waters, and how he triumphed over ice and storms and the english, this also takes us too far from montreal to describe with justice. suffice it to say, this glorious campaign assured france for many years of the possession of the countries of the north and the intrepid sailor commandant left in a few days for europe, leaving his brother de sérigny in command of the bay. on november th he reached the shores of france and having obtained from the government permission to reconnoitre the mouths of the mississippi, he left in and never saw canada again. léon guérin in his "histoire maritime de france," draws this picture of d'iberville: "he was a hero in the full significance of the expression." he adds, "if his campaigns, prodigious in their results, obtained by the most feeble materials, had had europe for their witness, instead of the echoless seas bounding the neighbourhood of the pole, he would have had, in life and after death, a name as celebrated as those of jean bart, duguay, trouin and des tourvilles." we must now turn to the conquest of the west which was being planned by frontenac and the success of which meant continued prosperity for montreal as the centre of the paltry trade rather than albany. la motte-cardillac at michillimackinac, tonti and la forêt at the fortified rock of st. louis on the illinois, nicholas perrot, the _voyageur_, among the mississippi tribes--all were trying to keep their allies at peace with one another and the french. frontenac was determined to strike a blow up west against the resolute iroquois who were the scourge of canada, supplied with arms from albany. things had been going so badly that a memoir to champigny and frontenac on may th tells how the king for the present had decided to abandon michillimackinac and all the posts of the west, to withdraw all the congés to the _coureurs de bois_ and to return to the ancient custom of relying on the savages themselves to bring their peltries to montreal. on april , , the king wrote to frontenac from marly, arranging for him to attack boston and perhaps manhattan; but on april th, while still outlining the same offensive measures against the english, he allowed the posts of michillimackinac, st. louis and frontenac to be continued but forbade the soldiers to trade there. meanwhile he had been considering frontenac's plan of attacking the iroquois, and it had his entire approval, expressed in his letter written next day. these conflicting instructions probably arrived by the same ship. champigny and others had been writing to the king and directing his various policies. fort frontenac--his darling first love--it was the cherished hope of the governor to re-establish and repair. others opposed him and wrote to the minister, who informed frontenac that fort frontenac "must absolutely be abandoned." the letter arrived the day after the governor had sent men to lake ontario to repair it. the intendant champigny wanted their early recall, but the inflexible frontenac refused and the fort was repaired, garrisoned and victualed for a year. it would have been a blunder to give up these forest posts. they were necessary for the trade and the growth of the country. the early isolation of the colony could never be repeated. on july , , men set out with frontenac from montreal and on july th he reached frontenac. with him was de callières, suffering from the gout and mounted on a horse, commanding the first line, and vaudreuil the second, as they marched to onondaga, with the aged governor carried in an armchair when they reached it; they found it burned by the inhabitants, who had saved themselves by flight. the campaign was not successful. frontenac had not delivered his blow; but it was the forerunner of the peace of with the iroquois, for they feared the old indefatigable man. early in may, , a party of dutch with "sieur abraham," an iroquois, arrived in montreal with the news that peace had been declared in europe and at the end of may, major peter schuyler arrived accompanied by delius, the minister of albany, with a copy of the treaty of ryswick[ ] in french and latin and bringing back french prisoners in exchange for english, who nearly all preferred to remain. but the iroquois free nations still remained unpacified and frontenac was again prepared to direct his force against them to press the french claims to sovereignty over them as opposed to those of the british. on november d the aged governor, now in his seventy-eighth year and seized with a mortal illness, was strong enough to make his last will and testament. on the th he died, having become reconciled to the intendant champigny, who wrote that the governor had died with the sentiments of a true christian. he was buried by his desire on the friday after his death in the church of the recollects at quebec, whom he had favoured so considerably. his great faults were overtowered by his many eminent qualities. he was the greatest captain in the seventeenth century in canada. the jesuit historian, charlevoix, says: "new france owed to him all that it was at his death," "he found the colony enfeebled," says another cleric historian, abbé gauthier, "attacked on all sides, despised by its enemies; he left it in peace, increased and respected; again he has been called the saviour of new france." he had succeeded in suppressing the iroquois and had warred successfully against the english. he had encouraged and upheld the expedition of that brave son of montreal, d'iberville, in acadia, newfoundland and at hudson's bay and the enterprises of that intrepid explorer, la salle, in the west; surely, he merits a tribute in the history of montreal! note we are indebted for the story of madeleine de verchères to a document found in the "collection moreau saent-mery," vol. , entitled, "relation des faits héroïques de mademoiselle marie madeleine de verchères (âgée de ans) contre les iroquois en l'année , le octobre à huit heures du matin." this description was made by madeleine verchères herself on the request of the intendant (named april , ), m. le marquis de beauharnois, arriving from france to take possession of his office. the event it seems had caused a stir at court and therefore a more detailed account was desired. in a previous letter written on october , , a modest account of the story had been told accompanying a petition to madame la comtesse de maurepas, wife of the secretary of the marine department, requesting a pension of crowns, as was commonly given to the widows of officers, in view of her father's poverty--"he has been fifty-five years in the king's service." in default she asked the promotion of one of her brothers, a cadet in the army, to be an ensign. "he knows service, he has been engaged in several expeditions against the iroquois. i have even had one of my brothers burned by them." thus even the very young fought. this young cadet was then only about nineteen years of age. at this period many of the sons of the noblesse were sent to france to enter the army or navy as cadets. there are to be found complaints from the ministers of these departments that youths as young as thirteen and fifteen years are being sent. these youths were early accustomed to bear arms; hence the haste to get into the regular service and to obtain commissions. d'iberville was only fourteen years of age when he entered the french navy, and only twenty-five when he was sent by denonville to hudson's bay. the following version of the story of madeleine de verchères, based on her own description above, may be fitly recorded here. not far from montreal and the st. lawrence stands the village of verchères, near which was the scene of madeleine jarret's heroism. in early years that countryside had been erected into a seigneury and at the time of the exploit, madeleine jarret's father was the seigneur of verchères. the defence of verchères took place during the last week of october, . at the time seigneur jarret was in quebec on official business and his wife was in montreal. the head of the household was the daughter madeleine, a girl of fourteen years, the other members of the family in the fort being two brothers of madeleine, who were mere lads, both younger than herself. on the morning of october d, the inhabitants of the seigneury went as usual to their work in the adjacent fields--and most of them never to return--leaving in the fort madeleine, her two brothers, an old man of eighty and a number of women and children. such were the conditions at the seigneury of verchères when the iroquois suddenly burst upon the place. [illustration: mlle. de vercheres] during the forenoon, madeleine went down to the little wharf, or landing place, not far from the fort, accompanied by a hired man named la violette. suddenly the sounds of firing came from the direction of the field where the settlers were at work, and the next instant the servant, la violette, cried out, "run, run, here come the iroquois!" turning, she saw forty or fifty iroquois at a distance of a pistol shot. she and the man made a dash for the fort, and seeing that they could not overtake her, the iroquois fired at the fleeting girl and man, but missed both. reaching the fort, she caused the gates to be closed and fastened, and then set about making the place as secure as possible. a few palisades had fallen, through which an indian could enter the enclosure. she helped to carry palisades, or pickets, to the places where they were required, and assisted in setting them up. then madeleine went to the blockhouse where the ammunition was kept and here she said, "i found two soldiers, one hiding in a corner and the other with a lighted fuse in his hand. 'what are you going to do with that?' i asked. he answered: 'light the powder and blow us all up.' 'you are a miserable coward,' said i, 'go out of this place.' i spoke so resolutely that he obeyed. i then threw off my bonnet and, after putting on a hat and taking a gun, i said to my brothers: 'let us fight to the death. we are fighting for our country. remember that our father has taught you that gentlemen are born to shed their blood for the service of god and the king." to understand fully the courage of this girl of fourteen, it must be remembered that these words were addressed to mere lads, twelve and ten years of age respectively. the brothers were worthy of their heroic sister. they responded to the call, which also inspired the two soldiers with some courage, for they took up their guns and began firing from the loopholes upon the iroquois, who, ignorant of the weakness of the garrison, and always reluctant to attack a fortified place, occupied themselves with chasing and butchering the people in the neighbouring fields. shortly after the appearance of the iroquois, a settler with his family in a canoe, was seen approaching the landing. the soldiers would not venture from the fort, so madeleine went to the landing alone, and with a musket in hand, escorted the family to the fort. the very boldness of the affair caused the iroquois to think it was a ruse to draw them near the fort, so that the garrison could rush out upon them, and they did not dare to attack madeleine and those she was conducting to the fort. the arrival of the settler added one to the fighting strength of the garrison, and madeleine now gave orders that the iroquois should be fired upon whenever seen within range. when night came on a gale began to blow, accompanied by snow and hail; and the iroquois hoped to be able to climb into the fort under cover of darkness. madeleine now made the distribution of her small force, upon whose vigilance the lives of all depended. the two soldiers she stationed in the blockhouse, and as it was the strongest part of the post, she led there the women and children. "if i am taken," she said to the two soldiers, "do not surrender, even if i am cut to pieces and burned before your eyes. the enemy cannot hurt you in the blockhouse, if you make the least show of fight." the outer and chief defence of the fort was a wooden wall, or palisade, at each corner of which stood a small tower, or bastion. in two of these towers madeleine placed her two young brothers, in the third tower she placed the old man of eighty, while she took the fourth tower herself. all night long, through the howling wind and driving snow, the cries of "all's well" were kept up from the fort to the blockhouse. "one would have thought," related madeleine to governor beauharnois, "that the place was full of soldiers. the iroquois thought so, and were completely deceived, as they confessed afterwards." they had held a council to make a plan for capturing the fort in the night, but had done nothing because such a constant watch was kept. "at last, the daylight came again; and, as the darkness disappeared, our anxiety seemed to disappear with it. everybody took courage, except the wife of sieur fontaine, who, being extremely timid, asked her husband to carry her to another fort. he said: 'i will never abandon this fort while mademoiselle madeleine is here.' i answered him that i would never abandon it; that i would rather die than give it up to the enemy; and that it was of the greatest importance that they (the iroquois) should never get possession of any french fort, because if they got one, they would think that they could get others and would grow more bold and presumptuous than ever. i may say with truth that i did not eat or sleep for twice twenty-four hours, but kept always on the bastion, or went to the blockhouse to see how the people there were behaving. i always kept a cheerful and smiling face and encouraged my little company with hope of speedy succour." seven days passed, and although the weather continued to be raw and cold, the iroquois kept the field, still hoping to be able to capture the fort and scalp its garrison. "we were a week in constant alarm, with the enemy always about us," relates madeleine in her narrative to governor beauharnois. "at last m. de la monnerie, a lieutenant, sent by m. de callières (then commanding at montreal), arrived in the night with forty men. as he did not know whether the fort was taken or not, he approached as silently as possible. one of our sentinels, hearing a strange sound, cried out, 'qui vive?' i was at the time dozing, with my head on a table and my gun lying across my arms. the sentinel told me he heard a voice from the river. i went up at once to the bastion to see whether it was indians or frenchmen. i asked, 'who are you?' one of them answered, 'we are frenchmen, it is la monnerie, who comes to bring you help.' i caused the gate to be opened, placed a sentinel there and went down to the river to meet them. as soon as i saw m. de la monnerie, i saluted him and said, 'monsieur, i surrender my arms to you.' he answered gallantly, 'mademoiselle, they are in good hands.' 'better than you think,' i returned. he inspected the fort and found everything in order and a sentinel on each bastion. 'it is time to relieve them, monsieur,' i said, 'we have not been off our bastions for a week.'" so ended the siege of verchères, for learning that the garrison had received reinforcements, the iroquois abandoned the undertaking, and sneaked away to try their fortunes at other little posts, where there might be a garrison numerically stronger. footnotes: [ ] montreal had now about , inhabitants. [ ] indian trade in montreal in . differences of prices in the indian trade at montreal and orange (albany), new york, in : _the indian pays for_ _at albany_ _at montreal_ eight-pounds of powder beaver beavers a gun " " forty pounds of lead " " a blanket of red cloth " " a white blanket " " four shirts " " six pairs of stockings " " "the english have no black or brazilian tobacco, they sell that of virginia at discretion to the indians. "the other small wares, which the french truck with the indians, are supplied by the english in the market. "the english give six quarts (pots) of _eau de vie_ for one beaver. it is rum or spirits or, in other words, liquor distilled from the sugar cane, imported from the west indies. the french have no fixed rate in trading brandy, some give more, some give less, but they never give as much as a quart for a beaver. it depends on places and circumstances and on the honesty of the french trader. "remark:--the english do not discriminate in the quality of the beaver; they take all at the same rate, which is more than per cent higher than the french, there being besides more than per cent difference in the price of their trade and ours." [ ] marie madeleine jarret de verchères was born in april, ; married pierre thomas tarieu de la naudière and m. de la pérade or prade in . a pension for life was given to her through the intervention of madame de pontchartrain, wife of the minister. for the story of the heroic defence and the relief from montreal see note at the end of the chapter. [ ] see parkman, frontenac, p. , and parkman's note "relation de ce que s'est passé de plus remarquable au canada, , ," attributed to de callières. compare la potherie, iii, . [ ] on the duluth building, at the southeast corner of place d'armes square, is a tablet: "here lived, in , daniel de grésolon, sieur duluth, one of the explorers of the upper mississippi, after whom the city of duluth was named." this was a rented house. duluth also lived on st. paul street south side. the house was bought by de vaudreuil when constructing his _château_ hard by. [ ] , june th, hudson's bay discovered by land by albanel, a jesuit, afterward stationed at montreal. , july th, st. johns was discovered by de quen, a jesuit, afterwards stationed at montreal. , dollier de casson and de galinée, both sulpicians of montreal, take possession of lands on lake erie for louis xiv. , june th, the northern part of the mississippi discovered by joliet and marquette, a jesuit, who started from montreal. , niagara falls described by hennepin, a recollect, who started from montreal. [ ] treaty of ryswick. this ended the great anglo-french struggles known as king william's war, which started in . chapter xxxi - social, civil and religious progress the picket enclosure--fortifications strengthened--garrison jealousies--preseance--the "congregation" burnt down--a poor law board--to quebec on foot--the church of the "congregation" on fire--the enclosing of a recluse--the jesuit residence--the recollects--the "prie dieu" incident--mgr. de st. vallier's benefactions--the freres charon--first general hospital--technical education--the seminary being built--sulpician administration--the market place. note: the gentlemen of the seminary. the last chapter has treated of montreal as the base of many military operations under frontenac and callières and has followed the history of some of its celebrated citizens. we must now survey the town at closer range. as said, the inhabitants were virtually confined to the picket enclosure, constructed by de callières in , yet the king did not approve of enclosing montreal with fortifications, thinking that this expense would be better employed by strengthening the forts in the west. (vide mémoire du roi à m. de denonville et à champigny, mars , .) it is not till may , , that the minister wrote to de callières saying he might repair the palisades.[ ] in the garrison petty jealousies and struggles for precedence were being maintained. by an ordinance of intendant champigny of june , , confirming a previous one, it was decided that the officers of justice should hold _préséance_ over the church wardens, both without and within the church, such as the first places in receiving the _pain bénit_ and the offertories on sundays, the receiving of tapers on candle-mass day and palms on palm sunday. the time was one of unsettlement and of terrorized conditions, yet the religious communities were growing stronger. in the home of the congregation founded by marguerite bourgeoys had been burned down. writing to the minister, denonville says: "they have lost everything. it would be necessary for them to build, but they have not a penny to begin with." yet they started again, for, says sister juchereau in her "histoire de quebec:" "they were so full of confidence in god, they began to build with only forty _sous_ in their possession." sister morin, the historian of the hôtel-dieu says: "after their second house, a stone one, had been destroyed by fire, the congregation nuns built a convent on the site they still occupy; their house touches our enclosure, making us neighbours; the house is large and spacious, and one of the best built in town." monseigneur de st. vallier, having seen the nuns some time after the fire, remarks: "how they subsisted, since the accident befell them three or four years ago, is truly a marvel. their entire house was burned in one night; they saved neither their furniture nor their wardrobes, happy enough in this that they were themselves rescued; even then two of their number perished in the flames. the courage of the survivors bore them up in their extreme poverty." again he wrote to the minister of marine in this same year of a group of grown-up girls to the number of twenty, called the daughters of providence, who were trained and prepared for work by sister bourgeoys. he recommended that a gratuity should be given them to undertake some manufacture. in their mission of free and popular education was extended by marguerite bourgeoys' trained workers to quebec, at the invitation of st. vallier, who had bought a house with a yard and garden on november , , as the initial step of a foundation and in the free schools were opened for the smaller girls. those concerned with the history of the birth of philanthropic agencies in city life will find of interest a decree of the supreme council of thursday, april , , ordering a "bureau des pauvres," a poor law board, to be established in the towns of quebec, montreal and three rivers, and other parishes dependent on them, and also in the country parishes. the object was to discriminate between the honest poor and the lazy shirkers and the ne'er-do-wells of the period. the lengthy decree gives elaborate instructions for this purpose and would delight modern charity organizers. it insists that work should be carried on by the poor applying for relief. the directors should be the curé; an executive director of the poor, to do the research work by investigating into the real state and cause of the poverty and to find work and to supervise the hiring of the poor and fixing the remuneration; a third was to be the treasurer, who should keep account of all the revenues coming from church collections, or public canvasses for money or gifts in kind; a fourth should be the secretary, who should keep the records and lists of those applying to the bureau for assistance. these directors were to be on an equal footing, the secretary to count their votes and the decisions to be signed by all the directors present, two to form a _quorum_. there does not seem to be any grant from the government for the support of this voluntary charity organization society established by order of the council, christian charity and alms giving being, seemingly, considered to suffice in providing its funds. the directors could, according to circumstances, chastise the poor by imprisonment in the dungeon on a bread and water diet, or by retrenchment on their victuals for a time, according to the enlightenment of the said directors, to whom the council, under the good pleasure of his majesty, gives the power for the case required. prohibitions were also issued to all the poor and necessitous against begging under any pretext whatever, on pain of such punishment as should be adjudged by the council. the directors were to put themselves in touch with the procurator general or his substitutes in each jurisdiction. thus the volunteer and official sides of civic philanthropy were brought together--an admirable combination to be more widely imitated these days. in order to start the new bureau, the council chose directors from out of its own members, appointing as the first _directeur des pauvres_ the procurator general of the king, françois madaleine ruette d'auteuil; for the post of treasurer paul dupuy, his substitute on the _prévôté_; and for secretary the clerk of the supreme council, jean baptiste peuvret de mesnu. though admirably mapped out the organization of the bureaux des pauvres in quebec, three rivers and montreal, ordered by the sovereign council in , appears to have grown weak shortly. ten years later, in , as the zeal of the citizens needed new inspiration, the order was renewed and the rev. father leblanc, a jesuit, was charged by the bishop of the diocese of quebec, mgr. de st. valier, to preach in the towns the reorganization of the bureaux. he came for this object to montreal on june , . in consequence of his sermon two days later a meeting of the most notable citizens met in one of the halls of the seminary to form a bureau composed of priests and lay people. its business was to place poor children as apprentices to learn a trade, to put the sick poor into hospitals or to place them with relations in easier circumstances, to distribute wheat, bread, boots and merchandise to the poor. the voluntary contributions necessitated a house-to-house canvass, which was started in june by madame de maricour, the mademoiselles de repentigny, and followed in december by madame jucherau de st. denis and madame d'argenteuil. the ladies kept to the town and immediate suburbs while the men collected in the outlying districts. in st. vallier called sister bourgeoys to quebec to execute a project, by him, of the establishment of a home where the poor could be usefully employed in work. it was early spring; the shifting ice on the river would not allow a vehicle on the st. lawrence; there were no roads to quebec for carriages, and the aged woman, now sixty-nine years of age, traveled the whole distance of miles, thither, on foot through the slushy snow of the woods and across melting ice-bound streams. arriving at quebec, she found that the bishop had changed his mind and he asked her to undertake a "general hospital," instead of the more humble house of providence originally contemplated. this hospital her companions directed till it was transferred to the hospitalières de st. joseph in . in the "congregation" started to build a church in their own grounds with the help of jeanne leber, who offered to share the expenses, and of her brother, pierre leber, who promised to furnish all the stone required. it was finished in february, . "during the night of the th of february," says one of the latest historians of the congregation,[ ] "a lurid flame leaped up in the steeple of the hôtel-dieu church. fiercely it blazed, until the pealing of alarm bells roused the townspeople and brought them, half dressed, into the ruddily illuminated streets. as the tumult of a terrified crowd filled the air, and the red signal of destruction spread over the sky, a panic seized on many hearts. each man looked on the white face of his neighbour, ghastly in the fire's glare, and there read the same question, 'will the town be saved?' then it was that dollier de casson, followed by the priests from the seminary, came to the place of danger, bearing the blessed sacrament. a passionate prayer went up, 'lord, save us, have mercy on us.' the wind veered suddenly, and carried the roaring flame away from the town. at that manifestation of divine clemency, a mighty shout of thanksgiving rent the air. but the maddened element had to find some fuel. a moment later, the hospital itself was a mass of flames and smoke. père denys, a récollet, went fearlessly into the burning church, took out the blessed sacrament and carried it, at first, to the house of a certain merchant named arnaud." at dawn of day it found its home in the new church. later in the day the homeless hôtel-dieu sisters were brought to the house of the congregation by dollier de casson, and there they lived and worshipped side by side with the daughters of marguerite bourgeoys, thus carrying on the friendship begun between jeanne mance and marguerite, the two founders. a solemn spiritual alliance was drawn up by the two communities, "to love one another," and years have not severed this friendship. this new church, the original notre dame de pitié, witnessed, on august th of , a curious and reverent ceremony--the enclosing of a recluse in a little room behind the altar. this was none other than jeanne leber, the daughter of the rich trader, jacques leber, of montreal, who was a brother of jean leber du chesne, wounded mortally at prairie la madeleine. she was now in her thirty-third year, being born on january , . after her school days at quebec were ended in , she led an austere life--practically that of an enclosed nun, in her own home--scarcely seeing anyone, not even her parents--and this with her parents' permission. this craving for solitude is hard to understand for moderns, and we tell the story to give an indication of the intense religious faith of those days. _autre temps, autres moeurs._ in jeanne leber promised to build the church, as said, if she were to be received as a sister of the congregation and allowed a cell behind the altar. "she wished the church to be as near as possible a reproduction of the holy house of nazareth, oblong in shape, with the altar placed in the most conspicuous part, between the doors opening right and left. her apartment, behind the altar, was to be about ten or twelve feet in depth, consisting of three stories. the first was to be a vestry; the second and third reserved for her use." [illustration: madame leber] "on the evening of august th, solemn vespers were chanted in the parish church, after which a procession was formed, headed by the clergy. it wended its way to m. leber's house, where jeanne was absorbed in prayer. she wore a woolen gown of light grey, confined to the waist by a black belt. quitting forever the home of her childhood, breaking asunder the last and closest ties that bound her to earth, she followed the clergy accompanied by her father and several other relatives. it was a striking scene. along the crowded street they passed: the recluse, clad in penitential garb, with downcast eyes, quiet bearing and firm step; and the white-haired man, bowed down by age and sorrow, who seemed, like abraham and jeptha, to be leading the victim to sacrifice. scarce had the procession reached the church before jacques leber, no longer master of his anguish, turned back and went to hide his grief in the now deserted home.[ ] "dollier de casson blessed the cell, and as she knelt before him, exhorted jeanne leber to persevere therein like magdalen in the grotto. he then led her to the threshold and she calmly passed into her new abode, closing and fastening the door while the choir chanted the litany of the blessed virgin. the following morning, feast of the transfiguration, dollier de casson celebrated mass for the first time in the congregation church. among the faithful knelt m. leber, strong in his heroic resignation."[ ] she lived in that cell for nineteen years, until her death in october, . between and another block of buildings, consisting of a residence and flanked by a public church and a private chapel, was being erected by the jesuits, now returning. its site is today covered by a portion of the city hall and the court of justice of notre dame street, facing jacques cartier square. these buildings of the jesuits were destroyed by fire in .[ ] we have to take notice of a new community that is now arising. it is that of the recollects, so long absent from the neighbourhood of montreal. the letters patent of the king confirming their permission to continue their establishments at quebec, montreal, plaisance (newfoundland) and the isle of st. peter, and to extend them to other places with the consent of the governor, were issued from versailles in march, . by they had their church built, and this, with their monastery and farm, occupied the large space now covered by notre dame street from st. peter to mcgill streets and extending south. the street called recollect today marks their home, and between this and the corner of mcgill and notre dame streets was the western gate of the city, known as that of the "recollects." [illustration: church of the recollets] a ridiculous event occurred in this church in , which is recorded as the "_prie dieu_ incident," and which caused a certain amount of taking of sides and dissension and scandal at montreal and quebec, and was the subject of dispatches to france; it illustrates how very human men were at this time. m. de callières, the governor of montreal, was present with all the _élite_ of montreal, at the ceremony of the initiation of two recollect novices into the order and he was kneeling at a _prie dieu_, or kneeling desk, in the middle of the church, "near the altar," in the place of honour. mgr. de st. vallier, who was present, notified him--"in a low voice," says the intendant champigny, who was present--that such a position was reserved for the governor general and too honourable for a local governor and requested him to relinguish it, otherwise he would leave the church and take no further part in the ceremony. "it is my right," said the obstinate de callières, who retook the _prie dieu_, and the prelate withdrew so as not to create a public scandal. before the entrance of de callières the bishop had already noticed the position of the _prie dieu_ and ordered the récollets to remove it, but, although they obeyed, two of de callières' officers and a soldier replaced it, and it was allowed to remain. next day the bishop wrote to the superior to have the obnoxious _prie dieu_ removed, as with his own, until the governor general came. the superior "reluctantly" obeyed, but de callières had his taken back. on the refusal of the superior to have it again removed, the bishop interdicted the church on may , , forbidding the use of the church for any ceremonies or the administration of the sacraments, "until his majesty's intentions were learned." this was followed on july th, by a further monition and was later followed by two others full of more serious charges against de callières and the superior of the recollects.[ ] the orders were obeyed for two months by the recollects and then, influenced by the government party, with whom they were popular, and refusing to obey any longer, they opened their church again with public ceremonies more solemn than before, urging that the form of interdict was null. the disagreement went before the sovereign council at quebec, whiceclared that the bishop had gone beyond his powers, and that with regard to the further charges against de callières, he had acted without collecting sufficient information. it decided to refer the decision to his majesty. on the th of june, , the case was called to the notice of the privy council to be settled. at the same meeting the several other subsequent interdicts, for use of the sacraments, issued by the bishop were discussed, as well as the tartuffe interdict, which was against mareuil, a half-pay officer, who la motte-cardillac--himself no lover of the clergy--owns was not an exemplary character, indeed he had been two years before accused of using language capable of making heaven blush. this man was reported to be cast to play the part of tartuffe in molière's play, in frontenac's private theatricals at quebec--it being thought that this was meant to be a scurrilous skit on the clergy and in revenge on the bishop for the montreal affair. mareuil and his friends insulted the bishop and mareuil was ordered to prison. the council, however, decided that the bishop had not gone beyond his legitimate sphere in his mandate against the "tartuffe" performance. many clerics and laymen asked for mgr. de st. vallier's recall. even laval in his retirement expressed himself strongly on his successor, who had gone to france to defend himself against his enemies, and did not return for three years. after that he lived in peace with de callières and de frontenac. the above calm description of the scene is that following the intendant champigny's account to the minister on october , , and "le mémoire pour m. l'evêque de québec concernant l'interdit prononcé contre les récollets de ville marie, ." la motte-cardillac's bantering account, which is splenetic and bitter, must be read with caution, as he never shows any mercy to the clerics, whom he whips with fine scorn for what we should call their "puritanism." witness has oft quoted attack on their condemnation of plays. parkman, commenting on these troubles of the austere and overzealous bishop, says: "an adjustment was effected: order, if not harmony, was restored; and the usual distribution of advice, exhortation, reproof and menace was made to the parties in the strife. frontenac was commended for defending the royal prerogative, censured for violence and admonished to avoid future quarrels.... callières was mildly advised not to take part in the disputes of the bishop and the recollects. thus was conjured down one of the most bitter, as well as the most needless, trivial and untimely of the quarrels that enliven the annals of new france," ("frontenac," p. .) parkman tries to make out a case, that "tartuffe" was never meant to be acted and that it was an elaborate joke on the part of frontenac to frighten and annoy the bishop. he does not succeed. the unfortunate mgr. de st. vallier deserves not to be forgotten at montreal. he was most liberal with his private fortune, having expended over , _livres_, of which , went to the seminary of montreal. this side of his character has not been sufficiently recognized. we have seen his interest in the establishment of the montreal schools; we have now to record his approval of the first general hospital at montreal, initiated by the frères charron or the hospitaliers of st. joseph de la croix. in , on august , he wrote to frontenac and champigny informing them of his intention to allow the establishment of a hospital at montreal following the authorization and letters patent which he had already received from his majesty. its object was to cope with the increased needs of the poor and sick of the growing town. "in ," says ferland, t. i-ii, p. , "the sieur françois charron offered his fortune, which was considerable, for the foundation of a general hospital.... several persons, animated with the same spirit, joined him, consecrated their wealth to the good work and devoted themselves to the services of the poor.... on the request of the bishop of quebec, the governor and the intendant, the king approved in of this institution, which received the name of the 'frères hospitaliers de st. joseph de la croix.'"[ ] montreal is noted for its citizen charities. this may be reckoned one of its first. in (may th) this hospital had letters patent to establish manual instruction in trades and in arts. later, in , in their collective letter of october th, addressed to the minister, callières and champigny speak in high terms of this establishment. "a house which will be very useful to the colony is that of the hospital brothers established at montreal. it has not yet cost the king or country anything. however, it has done much good work. it has a hall filled with the poor. they have commenced to draw here some persons of distinction, of reduced and necessitous circumstances. they have private rooms which are well looked after.... his majesty is prayed to accord them the exemption of duty on three tuns of _eau de vie_ and six tuns of wine.... if his majesty would have the goodness to add , _livres_ to aid them more easily to establish the _manufactures_ which they have commenced, this will procure a great advantage to them and the colony, because they will attract a number of poor young people to receive employment." (arch, col. canada corresp. gen., vol. , fol. - .) this may be considered the first attempt at technical education in montreal and the origin of the "écoles des arts et métiers." unfortunately this establishment fell upon evil days in later days and it was replaced by the grey sisters, who were founded by madame de youville in , to administer the general hospital as shall be told in its place. the site for the hospital was granted by dollier de casson near windmill point, on the spot where the lately demolished grey nuns' building stood. its nine _arpents_ (acres) thus covered the property adjoining the lower part of the present st. peter street, east and west. a glance around the town in the latter years of frontenac's rule will see the sulpician seigneurs consolidating their work, ministering to the parishes on the island, providing chaplains to the hôtel-dieu and the congregation of notre-dame and instructing the indians of the mountain settlement and making good frenchmen of their dark charges, of whom there were dwelling in their thirty-two _cabanes_.[ ] meanwhile their seminary was being built, its foundations being laid in ; it was not, however, completed till . it was doing for education in a smaller degree what the seminary was accomplishing at quebec. [illustration: ground plan of the seminary of montreal] [illustration: seminary of montreal residence seigneuriale and curiate of the gentleman of the seminary. the erection of this residence dates from . the principal side of the building faces partly on notre dame street and place d'armes square. it is ornamented by a clock (supposed to be the oldest in north america), which is regulated by a chronometer and kept perfect time. the building measures feet front by in depth.] in the meantime the sulpicians administered the island as its seigneurs, though their duties as judges were gradually being undertaken by the king's officers. by order of the king, march , , "royal justice" was established; a "juge royal" was appointed in the person of jean baptiste migeon de branssat, the nominee of the seminary, and chosen as a mark of respect to the seigneurs. four _procureurs postulants_ with minor officers were also appointed by the king to administer justice but there was still reserved to the seigneurs within their enclosures of the seminary and the st. gabriel farm the privileges of _haute, moyenne et basse_ justice. nine years later this decree was explained by an order of july, , as not meant to take away _basse_ justice from the ecclesiastics in the isle of montreal; in addition it explained that in future they shall have the same privilege in the newly established côte st. sulpice, the iles courcelles and their other dependencies. this was to allow the ecclesiastical seigneurs to create inferior judges for the recovery of debts, _cens_ and _rentes_, fines, _lods_ and _ventes_, and all the other rights and duties of feudal seigneurs, apart from the rights relinquished as above noted. the market place was busy and prosperous. owing to the great number of skins, the king, by a declaration of may , , determined to limit the number of permissions to trade with the indians and gave order to have delinquents condemned to the galleys. the number of beaver skins now being taken to france exceeded the demand and to avoid too large a quantity of inferior skins being sent, he gave orders that skins should not be sold outside of the public market. about this time, there was a general recall of officers, soldiers and _coureurs de bois_, and a great desire to concentrate the people in the chief settlements and to encourage the indians to bring their peltries to montreal. the market place no doubt saw some strange sights. about , in the official record sent home to france, "relation of the most remarkable things," in that year, we are told that frontenac once invited a band of ottawas who came to trade at montreal to roast an iroquois "newly caught by the soldiers," but as they had hamstrung him to prevent his escape he bled to death before the torture began. next spring callières abandoned four iroquois to be burned by the soldiers, _habitants_ and indian allies, in reprisal for the similar fate that befell two of the sault indians at michillimackinac. (callières to the minister, october , .) this now seems cruel, but at the time it appeared necessary to thus impress the iroquois with "the fear of the lord." it was done all over the country and thought righteous. la motte-cardillac, writing on august , , says: "if any more prisoners are brought me, i promise you that their fate will be no sweeter." note the gentlemen of the seminary the early superiors of the seminary before the canonical erection of the parish were: m. gabriel de thubières de lévis de queylus, july , , to october , ; m. gabriel souart, october , , to autumn, ; m. gabriel de queylus, autumn, , to autumn, ; m. françois dollier de casson, autumn, , to autumn, ; m. gabriel souart, autumn, , to autumn, ; m. françois lefebre, autumn, , to autumn, . missionary curés: m. gabriel souart, september , , to november , ; m. giles pérot, november , , to october , . first titular curé as superior of the seminary (after the canonical erection of the parish, on october , ): m. françois dollier de casson, october , , to september , . curés d'office (actual parish priests): m. giles pérot, october , , to july , ; m. pierre rémy, july , , to november , ; m. jean frémont, november , , to october , ; m. etienne guyotte, october , , to october , ; m. jean frémont, october , , to june , ; m. michel caille, june , , to october , ; m. rené de breslay, november , , to september , . second titular curé as superior of the seminary: françois vachon de belmont, september , , to may , . curés d'office: m. de breslay (continued), september , , to november , ; m. yves priat, november , , to april , ; m. jentien rangeard, june , , to july , ; m. benoit baret, july , , to october , ; m. yves priat, october , , to august , ; m. jn. gab. marie le pape du lescöat, august , , to february , ; m. antoine deat, february , , to may , . third titular curé as superior of the seminary: m. louis normant, may , , to june , . curé d'office: m. antoine deat (continued). may , , to june, . fourth titular curé as superior of the seminary: m. etienne montgolfier, june , , to august , . curé d'office: m. antoine deat (continued), june , , to september , . footnotes: [ ] this tardiness in city planning and city improvement seems to be one of the heritages of the montreal of today. [ ] marguerite mary drummond-- --"the venerable marguerite bourgeoys." [ ] madame leber had died on november , . [ ] "the venerable marguerite bourgeoys," by marguerite mary drummond, . [ ] superiors of the jesuits of montreal from - ; françois vaillant, jacques lamberville, claude chauchetière, pierre cholenec, françois vaillant, pierre lagrenée, louis d'avaugour, jacques d'heu, j. b. saint pé, rené hoquet. father j. b. well, the last montreal jesuit, died in . [ ] this angered de callières so much that he had a "writing injurious to mgr. l'evêque" affixed to the church door, says the "mémoire pour l'evêque," and had it published with the roll of the drum. [ ] the ordonnance of april , , reveals the broad character of this "general" hospital. its charter authorized it to look after "poor children, orphans, cripples, aged men, the sick and needy of the same sex, to be lodged and boarded and assisted by them and their successors, in their needs; to occupy them in works suitable to them; to teach trades to the said children and to give them the best education that is possible, and all for the great glory of god and for the good and utility of the colony." [ ] etat présent de l'église by bishop st. vallier. chapter xxxii - the great indian peace signed at montreal. the foundation of detroit the government of de callieres de callieres--preparations for peace--death of the "rat"--the great peace signed at montreal--la motte-cardillac--the foundation of detroit--the death of marguerite bourgeoys. by a writ of june , , louis hector de callières, the governor of montreal ( - ), had already received the appointment of commander general of new france during the projected absence of m. de frontenac. also in , on march th, an order of the king gave him the command of the troops in the absence of m. de denonville, which indicated that he was a "persona grata" and reserved for some higher post. on the death of frontenac, de callières, who had been frontenac's right-hand man in his campaigns and had supported him in his indian policy, naturally assumed the government of canada _ad interim_. de callières had every qualification for the position, having been opportunely trained as an apprentice by his government of montreal and as second in command in the wars with the iroquois. he was the man of the hour. for as we know that, although by the peace of ryswick hostilities had ceased between the two colonial rival powers in north america, yet, the iroquois loudly protested their independence of the treaty and were ever taking means to continue their warfare on canada. luckily, like frontenac, the new governor held the iroquois in awe and respect of him, a respect arising from his firmness in keeping his word and in holding them to theirs. a solid and strong man was needed. de callières was this; and according to the jesuit historian charlevoix, "he had straight and disinterested views, without prejudices and without passions; a firmness always in accord with reason; a valour which always knew how to moderate itself and render useful service; great common sense, much uprightness and honour, a clear mental vision and great application to duty, joined to great experience."[ ] the same writer also speaks of him as the most accomplished general the colony had ever received and the man who had rendered the most important services. but champigny, the intendant, and la potherie, the controller of the marine department in canada, writing home at this period, say he was haughty, ambitious, vain and fond of incense and flattery. perhaps they were jealous. la potherie, writing on june , , accuses the governor _ad interim_ of wanting more honors paid to him than the governor generals themselves, adding, "m. de frontenac is no sooner dead than the cockle is spread in this country. we have seen m. de callières take all of a sudden, a control so despotic that it seems as if the intendant himself must obey him blindly." on his part champigny had never "seen such _hauteur_ since he had come to the colony." all the same de callières inaugurated his government by an honourable and successful piece of statesmanship. seeing that there was now by the treaty of ryswick (september , ), a temporary peace, at least, between the english and the french, he desired to make all the indians of the north of america share in it--a no easy task, since the english desired to keep the iroquois in hostility toward the french still. it was not for nearly two years after the overtures had commenced that peace was definitely settled. in march, , three iroquois deputies had arrived at montreal before the death of frontenac, and besides desiring an exchange of prisoners, asked de callières to conclude peace at albany. according to la potherie, they asked for the jesuits bruyas and lamberville, for whom they had great esteem, to be sent with m. de maricourt for this purpose. but de callières, seeing through their ruse, that they wanted their prisoners while they still would keep the french captives with the five nations, firmly told them that the peace had to be signed at montreal and nowhere else. on july , , a further embassy came to montreal with six iroquois ambassadors, two from the onondagas and four from the senecas, to pray the governor to send father bruyas and de maricourt, and in place of father lamberville, then in france, the interpreter, joncaire, who had married an iroquois squaw and whose valour was much respected by them, so that they might seek the french prisoners themselves. the governor consented on condition that they should bring back with the prisoners the ambassadors from onneyout and gogogouen, with full powers to treat of peace. he did not speak of the others of the five nations, e. g. the agniers (mohawks), who living near albany, were under english influence. the mission of father bruyas, de maricourt and joncaire was successful, and towards the beginning of september they returned with nineteen deputies from the country, and but ten french prisoners, the rest either not being able to secure their liberty, or preferring to adopt the indian life. on september th de callières received the embassy in solemn audience, when a provisional treaty of peace was signed by all the chiefs of the tribes present. it was witnessed by the governor, intendant, the ecclesiastical, civil and military authorities, the hurons, the ottawas, the abenakis and the christian iroquois from the missions of the mountain and of sault st. louis. the month of august of the following year was appointed by de callières for the final treaty to be signed at montreal, for he aimed at a general alliance with all the five nations, to be preceded by a complete exchange of prisoners. but would they ever return? the governor with his calm confidence determined that they should and for this purpose he made use of the missionaries. to prepare the minds of the people for peace, father de bruyas, de maricourt and joncaire were again sent to onondaga; father enjalran and m. de courtmanche to the nations above. among the abenakis, father vincent bigot, the recollect fathers in acadia, and father carheil at michillimackinac, and others, were also to promote the same great universal peace. at last the great assembly opened at montreal on july , . never had there been seen such a representative union of the five nations. there were present the abenakis with father vincent bigot; the iroquois with father bruyas; the hurons with father garnier; the ottawas with father enjalran, and the illinois and miamis with the intrepid voyageur, nicolas perrot. there were also the christian indians from the mission settlements of sault st. louis, the mountain, lorette, sillery, of the river st. francis and st. francis de sales with the algonquins, the micmacs and many tribes from the west. but all was not harmony; there were mutual recriminations and disputes and it looked as if the treaty would never be signed, had not the rat, the huron chief kondiaronk, swayed the minds of the assembly with his eloquence and saved the peace. it was he who had formerly broken the peace between denonville and the iroquois, but now he was to win the undying gratitude of the french by his masterly and tragic espousal of their cause. the historian charlevoix speaking of kondiaronk (vol. , p. ) says: "never had savage more merit than he, a more noble character, more valour, more prudence and more discernment in knowing how to treat with others." he was so eloquent that he aroused the plaudits even of his enemies and those jealous of him; since he had so much intelligence and animation, he made such lively and witty repartees, and had ever such ready reply, that he was the only man in canada who could cope with the count de frontenac. when the latter wished to divert his officers he invited the rat to his table. on his side the rat knew how to esteem his french contemporaries. "among the french," he said, "i know only two men of sense, the count de frontenac and father carheil," the latter being the jesuit missionary who had converted him, and for whom he had the tenderest veneration. amid the havoc of dissentient voices at the great assembly, the rat, though suffering from great feebleness of health, demanded to be heard. he was accorded an arm chair in the middle of the assemblage and all drew near to hear him. "he spoke long," says charlevoix, "and was listened to with infinite attention. he explained the necessity of peace, of the advantages accruing therefrom for the country in general and each tribe in particular." the emotion he aroused was great and he drew forth unanimous applause. but the brave orator had outpassed his strength and his once vigorous constitution was now broken. at the end of the discourse he was taken, a dying man, to the hôtel-dieu, where he died the following night with sentiments of religious fervour and fortified by the sacraments of the church. his funeral obsequies were magnificent. he was buried in the parish church and over his tomb was inscribed: "ci-gît le rat, chef huron" (here lies the huron chieftain, the rat.) four days after his death, on august th, the ceremony of the signing of the peace took place. high placed on a dais sat the representative of france, her lieutenant governor, m. de callières, having by his side the intendant, champigny, the governor of montreal, de vaudreuil, and principal officers of the county. before him passed in single file all the contracting nations. then took place the exchange of prisoners. the customary calumet of peace, was offered the governor de callières, who after smoking it passed it on till it had circulated among the encircling throng of indian deputies. thirty-eight of these then signed singly, each his own peculiar mark, a bear for the agniers (mohawk), a spider for the onnontagues (onondagas) and the tsonnontouans (senecas), a beaver for the hurons, a caribou for the abenakis, for the ottawas a hare, etc. then resounded the te deum of thanksgiving and the assemblage dispersed to be regaled by a grand and monstrous banquet, with salvos of artillery and fireworks, to terminate this auspicious day. [illustration: some signatures of the indian chiefs at the great peace] it was a momentous occasion. it was looked upon as the triumph of civilization and christianity over barbarism and paganism. montreal, so long the beleaguered outpost, the scene of many a bloody onslaught and carnage, was fittingly the arena of the joyous peace celebrations of that evening of august , , heralding brighter days for the colony. in the meantime, while the indians were gathering at montreal for the conclusion of the peace, a body of fifty regular soldiers and fifty canadians left lachine on june , , under the command of antoine de la motte-cardillac and accompanied by capt. alphonse de tonti, the younger brother of henri de tonti, and the lieutenants dugué and chacornelle. not to draw the attention of the iroquois, the expedition ascended the ottawa river, entered lake huron and thence proceeded to détroit to the new fort of pontchartrain (or détroit) rapidly rising and situated on the strait (détroit) between lakes erie and huron. the establishment of this fort was the great desire of la motte-cardillac, for he deemed it of utmost importance and had obtained the permission from the secretary of the marine, jérome count de pontchartrain. it secured the communications of the colony with the countries of the miamis and the illinois, and thence with louisiana by the mississippi. it was the key of the three upper lakes, a most desirable possession for the french. moreover the climate of the strait was pleasant, the air healthful, the soil excellent and fruitful, and the hunting good. incidentally the commandant saw an opportunity of enriching himself. but, to make such a settlement profitable, it was necessary to induce the indians to settle there. at the congress of montreal, the governor de callières, who had at first been hostile to the settlement of détroit, as he feared with others like champigny that it would be the ruin of michillimackinac, invited the hurons and ottawas of michillimackinac then present to change over to the new fort, and finally many of them did so. thus was born the germ of the present détroit. its founder was a familiar figure in montreal. antoine de la motte-cardillac belonged to a good family of languedoc. at first a cadet in the regiment of dampierre-lorraine, then lieutenant in that of clairembault, he passed over into canada about , desirous of making his fortune, being then not more than twenty-three years of age. his ready wit, intelligence, active ambition and never failing humour soon saw him advanced to a lieutenancy in the colonial troops, then to the rank of ensign of the navy and captain of the troops. being a thorough gascon, he gained the confidence of frontenac, especially as he had no great love for the clergy, particularly the jesuits. he was a railler, a skeptic and a critic of religion and morality, but knew how to play the game to suit his interests. he had undoubted ability and he acted as the ready tool of frontenac. on september , , he became the governor of michillimackinac following durantaye, and de louvigny de la port. his reign there was marked with the abuses prevalent among the trading posts of the period, where private commerce and self-interest among the soldiers were of more importance than the good of the natives or the development of the country. his frequent mêlées with the jesuits, about whom he related contrary accusations of self-interested trading, brought it about that the french court determined to abandon michillimackinac and when the order was rescinded, la motte was so chagrined that finding it no longer likely to serve his interests, he refused to return there, being replaced by alphonse de tonti. instead, he went to france to justify himself and to push the establishment of fort pontchartrain or détroit as narrated, for he considered that wealth was in store for détroit if the fur trade was restricted to it as he desired. this was likely to happen, for the policy of concentration was then in the ascendant, it being intended that the trade should seek the cities, while the western posts were being discouraged. eventually the new trading company, which had been founded in october by the _habitants_ of the colony for the exploitation of the beaver traffic and had most of the principal men as its shareholders, among them being many montrealers who desired to concentrate the peltry trade towards montreal, was restricted to forts frontenac and détroit of the western forts. finally, owing to trouble with the directors of the company, whom he bitterly accused of no desire but for gain, so that the fields were not sown and the cattle were destroyed, détroit was handed over to cardillac as commandant. but his ambitions were clipped, for by the ordinances of june, , he could not trade in castors to more than fifteen to twenty thousand _livres_ a year, so as not to increase the number of beaver skins, with which the company was already overloaded. he was forbidden, moreover, to trade except in his fort. his voluminous letters of this period are full of complaints against the jesuits, the company and the head of the government. thus détroit struggled through a critical infancy but was gaining strength so that it had reached souls, when its founder,[ ] by letters of may , , was appointed governor of louisiana to succeed de bienville. on the first day of january, , marguerite bourgeoys, now in her eightieth year, passed into her agony and on the th breathed her last, surrounded by the community she had founded and whose rule of life had at last been approved by bishop st. vallier on june , . the funeral, which took place on january th in the parish church, was attended by all classes of montreal from the governor general down to the simplest _habitant_, for she had been looked upon as the universal mother of the community. the vicar general of the diocese and the superior of the seminary, the aged dollier de casson, now bent under the weight of fourscore years of life and labours, pronounced the funeral oration. on the tablet of steel placed on the coffin, the epitaph ordered by him read as follows: here lies sister marguerite bourgeoys, teacher, founder and first superior of the congregation of notre-dame, established in the island of montreal for the instruction of girls in town or country, deceased on the th of january, . pray for the repose of her soul! thirty days after the death of marguerite bourgeoys a solemn requiem was chanted in the congregation church and an eloquent panegyric was delivered by m. de belmont. after mass the preacher carried the heart of the deceased founder, embalmed in a leaden box, to a shrine prepared in a niche, and solemnly blessed the resting place and then closed the opening with a leaden slab, over which lay a copper tablet, bearing the following lines in french: "beneath this stone is hid a heart to flesh a foe, from earth apart, its treasure sole, the virgin band its zeal had gathered in this land."[ ] then her daughters hung her portrait over the shrine. for sixty-eight years the sacred relics remained there until a fire broke out in the church and convent of the congregation on april , , when the ashes were recovered and placed in a silver box that is still preserved. the memory of the saintly life of mother bourgeoys remained long in the land. on december , , in the opening years of the pontificate of leo xiii, a decree of the sacred congregation of rites, at rome, pronounced marguerite bourgeoys, venerable. the title of "blessed" was pronounced by pius x. her daughters look forward to the day when she may be invoked by them as st. margaret of canada. thus passed away one of the earliest figures of the infant colony of montreal. we may aptly quote parkman's tribute to this saintly woman: "to this day in crowded schoolrooms of montreal and quebec,[ ] fit monuments of her unobtrusive virtue, her successors instruct the children of the poor, and embalm the pleasant memories of margaret bourgeois. in the martial figure of maisonneuve and the fair form of this gentle nun, we find the true heroes of montreal." (jesuits, p. .) footnotes: [ ] charlevoix i, . charlevoix lived for some time at the caughnawaga settlement, about , and there prepared his manuscript for his history. at the presbytery of the church is shown his old hard wood writing desk, still containing the historian's books in their sixteenth and seventeenth century bindings. [ ] the canadian antiquarian and numismatic journal, published quarterly by the numismatic and antiquarian society of montreal, started , has the following note: "in june, , la motte-cardillac was sent to construct a fort at détroit. a fort, where fort gratiot now stands south of the present city, had been built in but had decayed. modern inquiry establishes that the site (chosen by cardillac) was in the center of the city, the present jefferson avenue, in the neighbourhood of the exchange and is described by la motte-cardillac as being three miles from lake erie and two miles from lake st. claire. the fort was surrounded by a picket fence. its fate was to be partially destroyed by fire in ; to be rebuilt in - and to be extended at intervals." [ ] faillon's vie de la soeur bourgeoys, vol. ii, p. . [ ] at present the congregation founded by marguerite bourgeoys, has under its control missions (including the schools depending on them) divided among six provinces, under the direction of a provincial superior. these provinces are: ( ) montreal, ( ) quebec, ( ) notre dame, ( ) ville marie, ( ) ontario and the united states, ( ) the maritime provinces (prince edward island, nova scotia, new brunswick). the following seven missions were founded by mother bourgeoys: ( ) the mission of the mountain--notre dames des neiges. ( ) l'enfant jésus at pointe aux trembles. ile d'orleans near quebec. ( ) les saint anges at lachine. ( ) la visitation at champlain. ( ) ste. famille at the notre dame des victoires at quebec (lower town). ( ) notre dame de la visitation at château richer. chapter xxxiii - from the treaty of ryswick to the treaty of utrecht queen anne's war montreal saved by land and water "the french have always commenced hostilities in canada"--samuel vecht in montreal--montreal to be invaded by wood creek--nicholson's army routed by dysentery--the "bostonnais" plan a second descent on montreal--jeanne leber's standard--the expedition of sir hovender walker against quebec--the vow of the montreal ladies--"our lady of victories" built in commemoration--peace of utrecht--comparison between new england and new france. note: the chateau de ramezay. the peace of ryswick, signed september , , was only a temporary lull. queen anne began to reign in england on march , , and another war with france, that known as queen anne's war or the war of the spanish succession, was declared on the th of may, . but it can be said that in canada the english were not always the guilty causes. the canadians, even before the declaration, were not adverse to war, as they considered themselves more warlike, better disciplined and could rely on their indian allies since the peace of . they held the "new englanders"--a term often applied by them to the british colonists in general--as an easy mark. in their mind's eye they already saw themselves in possession of boston and new york. even le moyne d'iberville had such visions and drew up a memoir on the project. on their side the greater number of the english colonists were not anxious for hostilities. certainly not the new york and albany dutchmen, who feared for their trade. meanwhile the borders of massachusetts and new hampshire were the theatre of war. an interesting light is thrown on the subject in the abstract of a dispatch, sent by m. de vaudreuil, now governor, and m. beauharnois, november , , to be found in the state documents of new york (doc. col. hist. n. y., ix, p. ). the minister, pontchartrain, after the french attack on wells and other places under beaubassin, in , has annotated the abstract thus: "it would have been desirable that this expedition had not taken place. m. de vaudreuil was wishing for it in m. de callières' time, who would never consent to it. i have a perfect knowledge that the english only want peace, aware that war is contrary to the interests of all the colonies; _the french have always commenced hostilities in canada_." yet pontchartrain later, when the suffering english retaliated by planning the invasion of canada, naturally enough was ready to counsel war parties against them. in we find samuel vetch in montreal. he had come on a diplomatic mission on the part of massachusetts. he remained at quebec from august to the middle of october, having ascended the st. lawrence to reach the city and returning the same way. he kept his eyes open, and having been educated at utrecht, he probably knew french, so that he likely discussed canadian affairs. he boasted afterwards of the completeness of his knowledge of canada and he made use of it. "vetch visited montreal and its governor, de ramezay, wrote to the minister on the subject, complaining that in quebec he had been left at liberty to obtain all the information desired; whereas in montreal, de ramezay himself had taken care that he should always be accompanied by an officer and an interpreter. there had been old dealings between vetch and de ramezay. vetch, when engaged in his commercial operations for years previously, had advanced de ramezay the amount of his appointments, paying him in card currency, and had received authority to draw his money in france. the war broke out and the power to obtain the money had been given by de ramezay to another person in france. it was the object of vetch in visiting montreal to be repaid this advance, but de ramezay professed himself not in the condition to give it back, without the approval of the minister."--kingsford ("history of canada"), ii, p. . about the conquest of canada was designed as a means of bringing the struggles of the english colonists of north america in their desire for supremacy to a close. to the charge of this bold venture samuel vetch was appointed, an energetic, astute and ambitious agent for his party, who boasted he knew the st. lawrence and its shores better than the canadians themselves. his visit to montreal had not been in vain. on march , , he sailed from england, whither he had gone from the general court of massachusetts to ask for aid from queen anne's government. a squadron bearing five regiments of regular troops was promised. the colonies, too, had to muster their forces, and the plan was to attack montreal, advancing by way of wood creek, lake champlain and chambly on the richelieu, and to take quebec by way of the st. lawrence. the command of the advance on montreal was entrusted to col. francis nicholson, late lieutenant governor of new york, who had sailed from portsmouth with vetch. nicholson was to proceed to montreal and wait there until the promised british squadron should arrive at boston about may. news of his approach to wood creek reaching de vaudreuil, he sent de ramezay, the governor of montreal, with , canadians and indians to surprise his camp. montreal and quebec were meanwhile in the greatest consternation, brought on by most exaggerated reports. nothing less than the total conquest of the colony was feared. the result of the expedition led by the governor of montreal may be told by parkman ("a half century of conflict," chapter vii), relying on state documents of this year, : "ramezay's fleet of canoes had reached lake champlain and was half way to the mouth of wood creek, when his advance party was discovered by english scouts, and the french commander began to fear that he should be surprised in turn; in fact some of his indians were fired upon from an ambuscade. all was now doubt, perplexity and confusion. ramezay landed at the narrows of the lake, a little south of the place now called crown point. here in the dense woods, his indians fired on some canadians whom they took for english. this was near producing a panic. 'every tree seemed an enemy,' writes an officer present. ramezay lost himself in the woods and could not find his army. one deruisseau, who had gone out as a scout, came back with the report that englishmen were close at hand. seven english canoes did in fact appear, supported, as the french in their excitement imagined, by a numerous though invisible army in the forest; but being fired upon, and seeing they were entering a hornet's nest, the english sheered off, ramezay having at last found his army, and order being gradually restored, a council of war was held, after which the whole force fell back to chambly, having accomplished nothing." yet the advance on montreal never went beyond wood creek. while waiting months and weeks for the order from boston to proceed to montreal, nicholson's little army succumbed to the attacks of pestilence, probably a malignant dysentery, caused by being long penned up in an insanitary palisaded camp during the midsummer heat. it is said on the authority of charlevoix, that the iroquois had poisoned the waters of the creek, by throwing into it, above the camp, the skins and offal of the animals they had killed in their hunting. whatever the cause, when a party of french came later upon the scene they found innumerable graves. the remnant of nicholson's army turned back, as the british squadron was countermanded for portugal, where british interests needed it. thus was montreal saved and with it quebec. in , however, nicholson was again attempting to move against montreal. again great consternation prevailed in the town, for the news had reached canada early in august, when vaudreuil had been informed by de cortebelle, the french commandant at placentia in newfoundland, that english prisoners had reported mighty preparations being made by the "bostonnais" against quebec by water and montreal by land. dismay and confusion seized both towns. montreal, fortified only by its palisade of stakes and incapable of resisting the artillery of the english invaders, believed that it was on the eve of its death throes, seeing that an army was setting out from new york with , men with cannons. in these straits the people turned to god, and the priests of st. sulpice preached penitence to them. the chronicles of the time tell how hearts were moved, how there were penitential processions, in which all the montrealers joined barefooted and with cords around their necks; it was a time of general communions, voluntary fasting and like mortifications. mother juchereau in the annals of the hôtel-dieu of quebec confesses that "the ladies of montreal outbid those of quebec, for the former obliged themselves not to wear ribbons or laces for a year,"--no small sacrifice, doubtlessly. finally, the young "externe" ladies of the congregation and others, made a vow that if they were saved from the evils apprehended, seemingly inevitable, they would build in honour of the mother of god a chapel under the name of our lady of victory. meanwhile in her self-imposed retirement jeanne leber, the recluse, was acquainted of the disasters impending, and her prayers were besought on all hands. even the baron de longueuil, then governor of the town, and surnamed the "macchabbeus of montreal" prevailed on her to compose a prayer which should be inscribed on his standard, which he would take with a handful of men, to prepare, in their desperation, an ambuscade near chambly, by which nicholson's men were expected to pass. the recluse, thus prevailed on by her cousin, wrote this inscription: "_our enemies place all their confidence in their arms, but we place ours under the name of the queen of angels, whom we invoke. she is terrible as an army in battle array; under her protection we hope to conquer our enemies._" the standard was solemnly blessed and put into the hands of m. de longueuil by m. de belmont, in the parish church of notre dame, whither all the people had gathered for this edifying spectacle. bearing this ensign himself, m. de longueuil set out to encounter general nicholson's land force, but the latter now retreated, on hearing of the disastrous termination of the expedition of the fleet making for the capture of quebec. not finding nicholson's forces, and ignorant as yet of the cause of his retreat, the montrealers journeyed down to quebec to assist that town against the attack by water. there they waited till in the middle of october, when on the th the sieur de la valterie, who had come from labrador in september and had been sent down the river again by de vaudreuil to watch for the english fleet, appeared at quebec with tidings of joy. the deposition of françois de marganne, sieur de la valterie, before paul dupuy, esquire, king's councillor, on october th, relates that, "he had descended the st. lawrence in a canoe, with two frenchmen and an indian, till landing at the ile aux oeufs on the st of october, they met two french sailors or fishermen loaded with plunder and presently discovered the wrecks of seven english ships, with, as they declared, fifteen or sixteen hundred dead bodies, on the strand hard by, besides dead horses, sheep, dogs and hens, three or four hundred large iron-hooped casks, a barrel of wine and a barrel and keg of brandy, cables, anchors, chains, planks, boards, shovels, picks, mattocks and piles of old iron three feet high." (parkman, "a half century of conflict.") later visits to the wrecks brought back news that, though the autumn tides had swept away many corpses, more than two thousand lay on the rocks, naked and in attitudes of despair. denys de la ronde, writing to the minister on december , , says that nearly one thousand men were drowned, and about two thousand died of injuries. whatever there is of exaggeration in this, still colonel lee of the rhode island contingent, writing to governor cranston, september , , says that a day or two after the wreck, he saw "the bodies of twelve or thirteen hundred brave men, with women and children, lying in heaps." so perished the ill-fated expedition under admiral sir hovenden walker, that was to have subjugated canada. the fleet, which set sail from boston on july th "consisted of nine ships of war and two bomb ketches with about sixty transports, store ships, hospital ships and other vessels, british and provincial. they carried the seven british regiments, numbering with the artillery train about five thousand five hundred men, besides marines and , provincials; counting with the sailors nearly twelve thousand in all." samuel vetch commanded the provincials--the same who had boasted of his knowledge of the canadian coasts; but he was no sailor, and the pilots with the fleet had little serious knowledge of the st. lawrence after all. how this mighty expedition met disaster at the mercy of the elements leads us too far from montreal to tell. suffice it to say that quebec and montreal were saved.[ ] the dramatic routing of their enemies was regarded by canadians as a manifest effect of divine providence watching over them. m. de vaudreuil, writing to the minister on october , and november , , says: "we are going to give thanks to god for the visible protection which he benignantly granted to this country. all our people, though well determined to defend themselves, agree that god has granted them great favours in the destruction of the english fleet, without it costing a single drop of blood to this colony." in his "life of sieur leber," m. de belmont claimed that the mother of god obtained for the canadians this greatest miracle, "which has happened since the time of moses when the egyptians were swallowed up in the waters of the red sea." at montreal, in thanksgiving, the ladies set about to procure the necessary funds to redeem their vows. the sisters of the congregation gave a plot of ground within their enclosure, near to their church, and in the foundation stone of the little shrine of "our lady of victories" was ceremoniously laid.[ ] [illustration: church of our lady of victory] peace for the two great rival nations was obtained by the treaty of utrecht on april , . but it was not without a pang for the old king louis xiv, who lost fair jewels from his crown, in then ceding to the english, acadia, newfoundland, hudson's bay and the iroquois country. to france was reserved only prince edward island and the adjoining islands, and cape breton. "the treaty of utrecht," says ganneau, "was followed by a period of peace almost without example in the annals of canada." the whole colony increased in population, the island of montreal growing from , souls in to , in . montreal profited by the peace less advantageously than quebec and three rivers. formerly this town was the principal headquarters of the fur trade, as we have seen. but after the treaty of utrecht, by the loss to the french of the hudson's bay trade, new york at last gained considerably over montreal. yet none the less, prosperity ruled there. an interesting comparison of the two great races contending at this time for the mastery of the north of this continent may be here quoted from the "journal d'un voyage en amérique," vol. v, published in , and written by the jesuit historian of canada, charlevoix. he is describing the condition prevailing about this period. "there reigns in new england and in the other provinces of the continent of america, belonging to the british empire, an opulence which, it seems, they do not know how to profit by; while in new france there is poverty hidden by an appearance of easy circumstances, which appears unstudied; commerce and cultivation of the plantations strengthen the first, the industry of the inhabitants sustain the second, and the taste of the people spreads around infinite comfort. the english colonist amasses wealth and makes no superfluous expenditure; the frenchman enjoys what he has and often makes a parade of what he has not. the former labours for his heirs, while the latter leaves his in the same necessity in which he finds himself, allowing them to get out of the situation as well as they can. the english americans do not desire war, because they have much to lose; they do not humour the savages, because they do not believe they have any need of them. the french youths for contrary reasons detest peace and live on good terms with the aborigines of the country, whose esteem they easily secure during periods of war, as well as their friendship at all times." note the chateau de ramezay claude de ramezay, eleventh governor of montreal, appointed , was born in france, , and came to canada in , with a number of other young officers, in the suite of governor de denonville. he was then a lieutenant in de troye's company of marine troops, which later took part in the expedition to hudson's bay. his promotion was rapid, being captain in , later colonel, then commandant of troops, and finally governor of the town and its district. in he took part in the expedition against the iroquois and in , when phipps appeared before quebec, he brought over men from montreal for the defense of the former town. history tells of the spirited defense made by frontenac and his gallant officers, the latter, no doubt, being encouraged by the bright smiles of some of quebec's fair daughters who, it seems, lost no time in rewarding their brave defenders with their heart and hand. scarcely had the last of phipp's fleet disappeared around point levi, than de ramezay led to the altar melle marie-charlotte denys, a daughter of denys de la ronde, one of the wealthiest families of canada. his companion in arms, de vaudreuil, at the same time married louise, daughter of pierre de joybert de soulanges. could they have seen into the future their happiness would have been clouded by sorrow, for it was destined that a son of de ramezay should be the one to open the gates of quebec to the english in , and a son of de vaudreuil should do likewise, at montreal, the following year. de ramezay was one of the most prominent men of this time, occupying an official position in canada for a term exceeding forty years. he was seigneur de la gesse, de montigny, et boisfleurent in france, and in canada was seigneur de monnoir and de ramezay, knight of the military order of st. louis, governor of montreal, and commandant of all the militia in the country, and was administrator of the governor-generalship during the two years' absence of de vaudreuil in france. the château was built in . it is a long, low, cottage-built building, standing quaintly out of date before the city hall. the neighborhood was then the fashionable part of the town, and was occupied by the baron de longueuil, the contrecoeurs, d'eschambaults, d'aillebousts and madame de portneuf, the widow of baron becancourt. situated on a hill, and opposite to the magnificent garden of the jesuits, this plain unembellished house had an open view to the river front. the vaults were of ancient castle construction. even the attic floors were of stone slabs. [illustration: kitchen of chateau de ramezay] [illustration: front vault] [illustration: chateau de ramezay] [illustration: original fireplace with mantel taken from the becancourt house] [illustration: original mantel piece] under de ramezay's régime, to , this venerable edifice was the hall of entertainment of the illustrious of the country. the many expeditions to the distant fur fields, the voyages of discovery of new lands, the councils of war, the military expeditions, the conferences with the indians, the annual fairs and fur trading market, attracted to the shores of montreal not only the governor general, the intendant, and their suites, but a considerable number of the most important people of the country, including all classes of society. to one and all the portals of this hospitable mansion were ever open. to the lowly indian and his squaw, and to the exalted nobleman and his consort, the noble and beneficent ramezay and his family showed equal attention. fearless to the indian or enemy, his bravery and charity were equally exemplified in the personal care and attention he and his family gave to the suffering citizens of montreal during the pest which devastated the town in . de ramezay died in , and his family sold the château to the _compagnie des indes_ in . the latter retained possession until the cession in , when it was bought by william grant, who, in turn, disposed of it to the english government for the sum of , guineas. it thus became again the residence of the governors, and remained such up to . in - the château was the headquarters for the continental army under montgomery, and in the spring of there came benjamin franklin, carroll of carrollton, and samuel chase, envoys sent by congress to influence the french canadians to join the colonies in the revolt against british rule. then came benedict arnold, who occupied the château for several weeks. the mark of the old reception dias is still seen on the salon walls. lord metcalfe was the last resident governor, but for some years after his establishment in a new government house the château was used for departmental offices. when the government was withdrawn from montreal, the château served several purposes. for some years courts were held here, and later the normal school, then courts again. in the château was sold by the provincial government and purchased by the corporation of the city of montreal for the numismatic and antiquarian society, which in obtained the building for the purpose of founding their historical portrait gallery and museum. next to the château de ramezay on the west stood the house of the baron de becancourt, built at the beginning of the th century. it also passed into the hands of the _compagnie des indes_, and became their _commissariat_. in this building came into the possession of the mcgill family and was long known as the "old mcgill house." footnotes: [ ] the account of this disaster may be found in parkman's "half century of conflict," pp. - - - - . [ ] this chapel of "notre dame de la victoire" was burned on april , , but was rebuilt in the same year and opened for service on december th. it was demolished about . chapter xxxiv - half a century of peace and progress civic side lights i. the long peace--the two governors--tavern licenses--permit to marry--cultivation of hemp--first attempt of the lachine canal by the seigneurs--gedeon de catalogne--chaussegros de lery--"seditious assemblies"--claude de ramezay--war prices--linen and cloth industries developed--an ordinance against dirty streets--against pigs in the houses--market regulations--the use of the commons--sale of liquor to savages--the seigneurs and the habitants--regulations concerning tanners, shoemakers and butchers--english merchandise not to be tolerated at montreal--a market for canadian products desired--concentration in the east versus expansion in the west--conges--fast driving--road making--horse breeding restrained--pigs to be muzzled--liquor licenses overhauled--snow-shoeing to be cultivated--diverse national origins--a marble quarry--the death of a recluse--murderer burnt in effigy--card money--a "bourse" for the merchants--patents of nobility to the leber and le moyne families--partridge shooting--a "cure all" patent medicine--postal service--a picture of montreal about by charlevoix. having already recorded the treaty with the indians in , and the history of queen anne's war which terminated in the peace of utrecht, we may now survey in several chapters the civil progress of montreal from the beginning of the eighteenth century and during the long peace which lasted to the beginning of the final war with the english, which ended in the capitulation of montreal in . m. philippe de rigaud marquis de vaudreuil, as governor of montreal ( - ), early renewed some of the old trouble of infringing on the authority of the governor general, for in , on may th, the king's minister wrote to vaudreuil that his majesty did not wish him to interfere directly or indirectly in the administration of justice, nor would the king pardon him for putting the inhabitants in prison without the orders of m. de callières.[ ] otherwise the ordinary administration of the town progressed. we have preserved the granting of a montreal tavern license from may th to pierre billeron de lafatigue and marie fortier, his wife, to sell and retail drinks, _a pot et a pinte_," and refreshments _par assiette_" (plate), with the injunction, "not to intoxicate the savages, and to make observed among them the regulations of our seigneurs of the council, with the prohibition of giving drink and food during the celebration of divine service or past o'clock in the evening." license holders were to allow the police to inspect and they were to keep copies of these regulations posted in their inns. the civil, military and ecclesiastical hours of the day were told by the parish church clock, which had existed up to ; its remains were found in a lumber room in . but about , the superior of the seminary, m. de belmont, brought from france the famous timepiece at the cost of francs, about the value of the same number of dollars nowadays. in it got out of order for the first time but it was thoroughly renovated during montgolfiers' rule of the seminary and it served faithfully as the only public clock till recent times.[ ] a permit to marry, granted by de callières to a soldier coming to the montreal district, and dated from quebec, january , , gives us a glimpse of the military jurisdiction of the time. "we give permission to one named poitevin, a soldier of the company of longueuil, to espouse the daughter of julien blois of long point. the civic seigneur will not make any difficulty in marrying them. "(signed) le chevalier de callières." at this time m. de vaudreuil was thinking of building his château in montreal, and on may th, the minister writes to the intendant champigny "that the king has granted , _livres_ to help m. de vaudreuil to build his home." on the same day he wrote to the latter telling him "that as the inhabitants of montreal are too far from the sea to take up the fishery industry otherwise than by associating themselves with those of quebec, he should urge his people to the cultivation of the soil and especially of hemp, which the kingdom of france has to import from the northern countries." on the same day, the minister wrote to de ramezay,[ ] who had recently arrived, congratulating him on the good condition of the recruits taken by him from france. m. de ramezay at the same time was appointed, in the absence of de callières and de vaudreuil, to the command of the whole extent of the colony, thus clearly designating him for future honours. montreal's destiny as the head of navigation was early forced upon the attention of the enterprising missionaries and traders who embarked from montreal for the west. the rapids of the sault st. louis presented an initial difficulty, and eyes had long been cast on the possibility of avoiding them by constructing a canal, connecting the _lac à loutre_ on the west side, by a channel, to the lake st. louis, so that canoes could start from the little river st. pierre, near place royale, and pursue their way inland and westward until they reached the lake st. louis. thus, therefore, was evolved the first attempt at a lachine canal in . m. ernest marceau in gave the results of some of his investigations among the papers of the sulpicians, for the history of the efforts of the seigneurs of montreal to overcome the difficulties of the navigation between lachine and montreal. he relates these as follows:[ ] "a few years only had elapsed since the establishment of the french at montreal, when the necessity for bettering the means of communication between the rising city and the settlements already existing at lachine, ste. anne, etc., became apparent. the young colony was too poor, however, to think of building a canal with locks to overcome the very considerable fall in the nine miles of river from pointe-à-callières to lachine. "the route followed by the canoes at the time was along the north shore of the st. lawrence, but it was exceedingly dangerous, and many portages intervened between navigable stretches. even in these so-called navigable stretches, towing had to be resorted to. a number of accidents had already happened, in which men and canoes had been lost. in the year , the superior of the sulpicians, mr. dollier de casson,[ ] undertook to improve the little river st. pierre, and to make it navigable for canoes, from its mouth to lake st. pierre, a shallow body of water lying about half way between montreal and lachine (this lake has long disappeared, owing chiefly to the works done in connection with the lachine canal), and to open up a cut from the lake to a point on the st. lawrence above the worst part of the rapids. [illustration: chart of a part of the island of montreal showing the lachine canal (la morandière)] "a notarial contract was passed, between the contractor, gédéon de catalogne,[ ] and mr. dollier de casson, for the excavation of a canal twenty-four arpents, or about one mile, in length, twelve feet wide at the surface of the ground, and of varying width at the bottom, according to the depth of cutting. the water flowing through the canal was to be at least eighteen inches deep, at the period of lowest water in the st. lawrence. "the work was begun in october, , and in february of the year following the contractor failed, after having performed the greater part of his contract, the whole of the cut being completed at the time, except for a depth of three or four feet on some , feet in length. "the canal was excavated for about one-third of its length through clay mixed with boulders, the balance being through quarry rock. "a settlement was made with the contractor in the spring, the amount paid being , _livres_, which represents about $ , of our present currency. [illustration: rear view of maison de catalogne, rue st. vincent] [illustration: maison de catalogne, rue st. vincent] [illustration: this house commonly reputed in late years to be that of a rich trader, charles hubert _dit_ lacroix, cannot be substantiated as such by any document. what is true is that the house is built on the original concession to nicholas hubert _dit_ lacroix, a tailor of some civic distinction, who appears in montreal for the first time in . houses then were built of logs. to archæologists the house appears to have been built at the same period as the château de ramezay, in the first part of the eighteenth century. the interior decorations are of a later period.] "the work was left in this unfinished condition, notwithstanding the repeated attempts to push it to completion, the sulpicians' revenues, which were very unimportant at that time, finding better use in other directions. "in , louis xiv ordered plans and estimates of the work to be submitted to him, the undertaking having been recognized as devolving upon the royal authorities, but, owing to the conditions of affairs in france during the latter part of the reign, the scheme had to be again postponed. "almost every year after this, the canal de la chine is mentioned in the correspondence between the superiors of the montreal house and the head of the sulpician order in paris, as also in letters addressed to the governors of the colony. "in , mr. chaussegros de léry, who had charge of all military and civil engineering works in montreal, reported that three-fourths of the work was done. the crown could not yet at the time give the necessary help to perfect the canal, but instructions were given not to abandon the idea. "again in , the same engineer made a complete survey of the route and prepared fresh plans and estimates. the old line had evidently been abandoned, as the probable cost of the work is put down at , _livres_, or about $ , . the new scheme contemplated a canal with locks. unfortunately, no copy of the report of mr. chaussegros is on record in the documents referred to. "from that date nothing can be found in the seminary papers relating to the canal, which would seem to indicate that the work was never completed. it is quite likely, however, that the imperfect channel could be used by canoes during the periods of high water. be that as it may, traces of it in the shape of a half-filled ditch, are still to be seen in a field near the canadian pacific railway embankment at rockfield." in the year , on may th, de callières died, and m. de vaudreuil succeeded him on august st as governor general, while m. claude de ramezay replaced the latter as governor of montreal, being appointed by the king as such in august. the minister, this same month recommended de vaudreuil, beauharnois and the marquis d'alogny to make use of his advice in regard to the police and the management of the troops. in we hear of an ordinance of the governor general de vaudreuil, dated december th, being sent to montreal to forbid seditious assemblies. it had been brought to his notice that there had been a large gathering of the inhabitants near montreal for the purpose of obliging the merchants to furnish them salt and other merchandise at a lower price. but on the explanation of the governor de ramezay and the superior of the seminary, m. de belmont, that there had been nothing seditious in the meeting which had been called simply to protest and to draw attention to their complaints, things went no further than the issue of the ordinance, although the "meeting" was still the subject of letters to france in . in that year de ramezay had been having his troubles with the authorities of quebec. in a letter from the minister (pontchartrain) the latter strongly disapproves of his conduct in heading a cabal against de vaudreuil and beauharnois, and of the impropriety of raising himself up as a reformer of the higher powers of the colony. an insight into the hardships experienced at montreal as a result of the wars with the english colonies, may now be presented. the vessel, la seine, which was carrying to canada provisions and merchandise of all kinds and the cargo of which was estimated at a million _livres_ (_tournois_), left rochelle in the summer of and was captured by a virginian fleet in spite of the heroic resistance of the chevalier de maupeon. the vessel was seized and its passengers, among whom was mgr. de st. vallier, were taken as prisoners to england. such and similar disasters made living conditions dear at montreal and famine was frequent. a missionary of this period says that wearing apparel and houses were of an extraordinary price at montreal. the innkeepers made their fortune in diluting the drink, especially that which they sold to the indians, who drank all that they could get, in exchange for their peltry. "you have served me out of the savages' barrel," grumbled one of the workmen to the servant who had just given him some liquor. the scarcity of clothing material, caused by the loss of la seine, brought with it, however, an advantage to the colony. on the suggestion of the intendant raudot, the king's council permitted the inhabitants to make linen and druggets with the homemade yarn and worsted of the country. for hitherto france had insisted on the right of supplying canada with its manufactured articles. it forbade home industries. even the wool gathered on the st. lawrence banks was shipped to france and returned in the form of a coarse cloth. all clothing therefore had been very expensive in the colony. necessity became, therefore, the mother of invention and we thus find madame de repentigny, who had greatly contributed to the progress of this industry, writing in : "there is at present a considerable quantity of handicrafts which work at making linen in canada. women and men work at them. the men have a taste for deerskin clothing, which costs them much less than the cloths from france; they nearly all wear it with homemade drugget _surtouts_ over it." on his side m. bigot wrote in : "there are in montreal as many as twenty-five looms for making linen and worsted goods. the sisters of the congregation have shown me the collender which they have made for their clothing, which latter is as fine as that made in france; there are also made here, materials of black for the clothes of the priests, and of blue for those of the '_pensionnaires_.'" how the ladies of montreal were participating in the industrial progress of the city may be seen in the letters of the minister, the intendant and to madame de repentigny. in he writes to intendant raudot, asking for samples of the cloth which madame had made from nettles and bark and which she says is better than that made from linen and hemp. on june , , he writes to madame de repentigny that he has received the samples of cloth and the little tablets of cotton syrup; that he has noticed with pleasure what she has told him of the number of cloth workers in the island of montreal, but he finds the price of her cloth too high.[ ] he is pleased to be informed of the sugar that is made in montreal and of the blue earth that has been found by the indians thirty leagues from montreal. another year, he records his pleasure at her discoveries of dye woods near montreal and on july , , he writes of his satisfaction at her zeal for the progress of the colony. on june th he writes that he will recommend her son for the post of ensign and encourages her to redouble her efforts for the increase of her manufactures. a survey of the various _ordonnances_ issued by the intendants of this period supplies much insight into the life of the city. during the months of june and july, , jacques raudot was in montreal. the _ordonnances_ issued by him there are of valuable historical usefulness in providing an insight into conditions then prevailing. that dated june d concerns the streets, primarily. "having learnt," it begins, "on arriving in this town the state of disorder in which the streets are, being almost impracticable at all seasons not only for foot passengers, but for carriage and cart traffic, and this on account of the mire which is found in the said streets, and which comes not so much from the bad nature and inequality of the land as from the filth which the inhabitants throw there daily, and being persuaded that this comes from not giving the streets the slope necessary for the flow of the drainage, not being able to do anything of more utility for the town than to remedy these disorders, and having conferred with sieur de bellemont (sic), superior of the seminary, fleury deschambault, lieutenant general, raimbault, king's procurator of the department of _justice royale_ of this town, we order that, hereafter, there shall be given the following slopes." then follow the list of streets to be altered, directions for the remaking of the roads and footpaths, and the sharing of the expenses, the order for the observance of the new alignments, penalties for throwing rubbish into the streets, etc. then also follow penalties and confiscations for keeping pigs in the houses, and for allowing cattle to stray in the streets. the renewal of the prohibitions against unlicenced liquor houses is also made. it concludes with instructions for the establishment of a market on the _place d'armes_ to meet the needs of the growing town. the market days are to be on tuesdays and fridays, weekly. this is for the convenience of the country vendors, who are not to sell their produce elsewhere, in private stores, as formerly. in order to enable the inhabitants to purchase in the market and to prevent the hotel keepers and _cabaretiers_ from buying up everything before the citizens were astir, raudot enjoins, that the former shall not buy in the market before o'clock in the morning under a penalty of _livres_. another _ordonnance_ of july d settles the disputes amongst themselves of the inhabitants as to the use of the commons of the island _vis à vis_ their homes. another of the same date relieves the _habitants_ of notre-dame des neiges from an obnoxious clause in their concessions of land, granted by the seigneurs, by which these would be confiscated if they sold spirituous and intoxicating liquors to the savages. they represented that this clause was now useless, since the prohibitions had been made so severe by the king's _ordonnances_, they were not likely to do so, but they might falsely be accused and thus their lands might be in danger of confiscation. with the consent of mr. cailhé, (caille), who acted for the seigneurs, their petition was granted. on the same day another order from raudot straightened out the doubts of some _habitants_ as to the meaning of clauses in their concessions, granting the seigneurs rights of claiming lumber. it was decided on the representation of m. cailhé that the seigneurs would be content with lumber rights on one _arpent_ in every location of sixty _arpents_, never having meant to claim universal rights. they still, however, reserved all their rights to claim from the habitations all the wood that was necessary for their own buildings and for public works. again on the same day: "the seigneurs are justified in demanding their rents and arrears from certain _habitants_ holding concessions from them, who had claimed that their lands were not staked out." the seigneurs prevailed, representing that the dearth of landmarks was the fault of the land owners, who had to provide them and had failed to pay for them, rather than through any difficulty on the part of the seminary. the growth of montreal brought new settlers who wished to set up in business; in consequence, jacques raudot, in , drew up an _ordonnance_ on july th, limiting the number of tanners, shoemakers and butchers. "seeing that the town of montreal is daily growing in the number of inhabitants who come to establish themselves, and that the number of every kind of trade increases in proportion, while awaiting the pleasure of his majesty in establishing a _corps de métier_, we believe that it is fitting time for us to prescribe certain rules, particularly for the tanners and shoemakers, the observation of which, while being useful to the inhabitants, in that it will provide the workers themselves with emulation, while giving them the means of a livelihood, and of confining them to the special functions of their separate trades, we ordain: "i. that there shall only be two tanners in the town, viz., delaunay and barsalot, so that they may both have work; the five butchers who are at present in business will share in equal portions both in number and in quality the skins of all the beasts slaughtered on their premises unless the said tanners prefer to make an arrangement among themselves to have the skins furnished to each by two butchers apiece whom they shall agree upon, and the fifth butcher to furnish his share every six months. "ii. that the said tanners shall be obliged to give the said skins all the necessary and required dressings, so that the public may have good merchandise, and this under penalty of _livres_ for each hide not found, on our prescribed visits, to conform to the quality demanded by our present _ordonnance_. "iii. we forbid the said butchers to retain any skins and make french shoes, under a penalty of _livres_ for each skin retained, but we permit them to retain some of an inferior quality to make shoes for the savages. "iv. we forbid them to purchase skins from those coming in from the country, whom we order to take their goods to the market set up in this town, where they shall be exposed for sale for tanners only. "v. while awaiting an opportunity to make regulations, to confine each to his allotted trade, we permit delaunay, in consideration of the business set up by him, to have only three _garçons_ shoemakers and one apprentice, etc." on the th of the same month raudot ordered thirteen who had rented lots from the seigneurs on "lower" street, either to pay their rent or to hand them over by a certain date to the seigneurs on the reimbursement of the expenses for the buildings thereon and other improvements, the value of the same to be settled by experts mutually agreed upon. the students of mercantile economy will find that on november , , the intendants raudot (père et fils), writing to the minister pontchartrain, speak of the sad state of the country produced by the low price of the beaver, but still more by the loss of per cent on the money given in france for the canadian letter of exchange. in m. de pontchartrain is surprised to hear that montreal is filled with english merchandise--a thing not to be tolerated. this was not surprising, seeing that the canadians were not producers, and the purchase of all their supplies from france became very expensive. a memoir of raudot of july, , gives an explanation that suffices. too much reliance had been placed on the beaver trade which had been the pivotal point of the prosperity of the country, but it was necessarily a precarious resource. sooner or later, there must result either a rarity of this product or a decrease in price. at present the colony was suffering from the latter. agriculture, he pointed out, should be the principal object, but it was only an accessory. the beaver had been the gold mine of the country. the inhabitants had sought the woods first, preferring an adventurous and profitable life to a laborious one on the soil. thus they had cultivated laziness and negligence. there was, however, a great quantity of cattle and easy food supplies, but a great scarcity of clothing. the trade of the country turned on a sum of , _livres_ and it was with this sum that it had to settle for its purchases in france. this is too little for a population of eighteen to twenty thousand souls. everyone pays in kind for the merchandise bought in france, in such a way that money does not even come this way. merchandise is very dear and the _habitant_ will not work except for a fat salary, saying that he uses up more wearing apparel in working than he can gain by his work. the remedy for this state of affairs is, to urge the population to the production of wheat, cattle, timber, oils, ships, by finding a market for canadian products. he further deprecates the policy then in vogue of thinking too much of the trade interests of france. he urges the minister to be wide-minded, and to realize that by providing a wider field for the colony, the interest and prosperity of the colony ought sooner or later increase the prosperity of the mother country. if france had learned this lesson of colonization, there would never have been the loss of this country to the english a half century later. the pupildom of new france was continued far too long by an overstrained, narrow and jealous paternalism. we have made these lengthy notes on the trade relations of the colony because montreal was the center of the beaver traffic. indeed, as we have seen, there were not wanting those who were opposed to the expansion of the colony through outlying posts, but wished to concentrate in the lower part of the colony--the same principle already prevailing, which was to stand in the way of the growth and development of ontario and upper canada in later years under the british rule. a memoir presented to m. de pontchartrain in makes this position clear, while the replies in the margin by m. de vaudreuil, the governor, and mm. raudot (father and son), joint-intendants, show the opposite view. the memoir hopes that the _congés_ or permits to trade up-country will not be repeated; they have been the source of all the evils, lawlessness and pernicious traffic in _eau de vie_ and of the stagnation of agriculture, contrary to the aim of this colony, which was to humanize and evangelize the savages. this suppression of _congés_ would have the effect of raising the value of beaver skins, whose present abundance cheapens the market at this time. it would be of more avail to allow the indians to bring their poultry to montreal in exchange for merchandise, for the expense of transporting merchandise to them in the west raised the price so much that the indians were constrained to go to the english for their supplies. the english did not allow their people to trade far afield. it was because m. de la barre had not followed a similar policy that the french had had a war of fourteen years with the iroquois. the marquis' reply was to the effect that it was the abuse of the _congés_, too frequently granted, and not their moderate use that was at fault. rightly exploited and curtailed, they would favor the conversion of the indians, the increase of the colony and the preservation of peace. the chief thing was to stop the liquor traffic. as for the savages going to the english, three or four hundred leagues, for cheaper merchandise, that was unreasonable if the goods were taken to them. but if they were not, and the choice lay between montreal and orange, then they would certainly choose the latter place because of cheaper prices. the fourteen years' war was not a result of the _congés_, but of m. de la barre's action in allowing the iroquois to pillage the french. it is true that the english do not mingle with the affairs of the indians, but prefer to allow them to destroy one another; thus they are not loved and have no influence. our policy is otherwise, and hence our strength. we maintain the peace of the whole west. if michillimackinac had been reestablished, the "sauteux" would not have attacked the pottawatomies, or attempted to cut the ears of the iroquois--a failure which may still lead us to war again. what restrains the iroquois from striking a blow at any of the savage tribes is, that they know, that by our efforts they will not have the opportunity of destroying these nations one after another, as they did formerly, but that they will have all of them on their back, at one and the same time. a picture of a sunday morning or feast day crush at the church door after service is to be found in an _ordonnance_ of jacques raudot of january , , when on account of the disorders arising, from those _habitants_ with carriages and those on horseback, urging their horses to depart so quickly that they butt into one another and even into the foot passengers, to the risk of wounds and even of life, he enjoins under a penalty of _livres_, applicable to the local parish church, that none should put their horses into a trot or a gallop until they are ten _arpents_ from the church. this notice was fixed at the door of notre dame. it is to be hoped the _curé_ had no occasion to look for any fines, after it had been sufficiently promulgated. road traveling in was no easy thing at all times, but in the winter least of all.[ ] yet it was necessary to keep up communication between montreal and quebec, so we can appreciate the wisdom of jacques raudot's _ordonnance_ of december th of this year, enjoining all the _habitants_ of the country in the districts north of the st. lawrence to cut out, each one, before his habitation, a roadway in the places most convenient, as well as to make a roadway across the lake in the accustomed places.[ ] in we find raudot dealing a blow at horse breeding. in an _ordonnance_ of june , , being informed that the _habitants_ of the government of montreal are rearing too great a number of horses to the detriment of horned and wool bearing cattle, whose pastures are eaten by the horses and whose number was decreasing, and as the attention of the government ought to be principally directed to their increasing abundance, it is ordered that each inhabitant shall not have more than two horses, or mares, and a colt, after the seeding time of the year , to give time to get rid of the superfluous ones; after which they will be obliged to slaughter those not disposed of. pigs straying in the streets, in , brought an _ordonnance_ from raudot of june th; they had been the cause not only of filth, but of sanitary disorders and infection, and owners were given five days to enclose them, otherwise the pig were to be permitted to be killed and the proceeds to go to the poor of the hôtel-dieu. on the th of august, raudot enjoined on all the owners of pigs in the colony to put muzzles on them so that those found doing damage to grain or field produce, without their muzzles on, could be killed for recompense. the licencing permits of montreal were overhauled by antoine denis raudot, conjoint intendant, during his stay in montreal in june, , when by an _ordonnance_ dated june d, having found that there were many selling liquors without permission of the local government, he ordered that there should only be ten licenced "cabaretiers-aubergistes," who shall sell all kinds of drink to the french, but not after o'clock in the evening, and never to the indians, under penalty of losing their licences. in addition, he licenced nine other innkeepers, to sell _beer only_, and then in moderation, to the indians, three for those of the st. louis district, two for that of sault-au-récollet, two for the nepissingués, and two others for the abenakis, ottowans and other savages, who came to the town to trade. those with this beer licence had to refuse liquor to the indians after the _retraite battue_, and never to let them take drink away with them; while they were obliged to give lodging to the savages if they wanted to stay. this second set of licence holders, however, had the privilege of selling any kind of drink to the french. we can imagine that these latter outlying saloons were in danger of being disorderly. yet the number of illicit "houses" increased so that in claude thomas dupuy issued an _ordonnance_, dated november d, which affected montreal as well as other cities in the regulation of the sale of liquors. by this new order, which contained fourteen articles on the subject of innkeepers and liquor sellers of all kinds, from the fashionable _hôtel_ of the time to the humbler vendor of wine who had his piece of evergreen bush outside his door--a bundle of pine sprigs, maybe, to show that drink was served inside. even all those who had been given licences previously by local authorities were now to send in their titles and credentials before receiving in return a new licence expressly signed by the intendant himself. it was a necessary measure borne in upon him by many officers of troops, masters and fathers of families, who complained that the numerous cabarets were turning the youth, the soldiers and the servants away from duty, respect and service. hence the intendant's drastic measure in striking at the root of the evil by putting down illicit vendors and restricting the legitimate licences. as an instance of the methods of the day we may cite an instruction of the king to mm. de vaudreuil and bégon of june , . "m. bégon will take in hand the reduction of the number of horses. the _habitants_ have only need of them to till the soil, to haul their timber and to transport their wheat. it is not natural that the inhabitants should make use of them during the winter to communicate with other places instead of going on snowshoes, as they ought to do. too great attention cannot be paid to make the people take to this usage, now almost a lost art, and the _habitants_ should be prevented as far as possible from leading an easy life by these soft methods, since such diminishes their strength and breaks down their courage." [illustration: michel begon] those interested in the first mention of immigrants of various nationalities, settling in montreal, will find that in two ladies, english catholics, marie silver and esther o'wellen, had obtained the favor of naturalization. at the same time, june th, the king demands a complete list of all english catholics settled in canada. in we find mention, by intendant bégon, of an irishman, "jean la haye, un irlandais" (probably john lahy, leahy, or lahey, who had been settled in the district of lachine for twenty-two years), who had been arrested with an englishman, jean joublin, anglais (probably a john jobling), for counterfeiting card money. these were probably prisoners of war who had remained behind. on the date of march , , at versailles, a brevet to practice medicine in montreal under the orders of sieur tarrazin, royal physician of quebec, was granted to one timothy silvain (sullivan), an irishman by birth. on march , , letters of naturalization were granted to an englishman, claude mathias senif, settled at montreal. engineers and others will note the reply of the king on march , , concerning the proposition of m. de breslay, who had sent the king a specimen of a marble taken from a mountain situated twenty-one leagues from montreal and at a league and a half from long sault, and who recommended the completion of the lachine canal. the king replied that the canal was not practicable by reason of the expense and the marble did not appear excellent enough to warrant it either. in the course of this history we have given indications of the lives of some of the outstanding characters of montreal whom the genius of the place fostered. it is fitting that we should take notice of the last days of the recluse, jeanne leber, whose extraordinary career was one of the products of the age now being treated. she died on october , , in her fifty-third year, after having lived fifteen years as a recluse in her parents' house and twenty more in the retreat made by herself in the convent of the congregation. the manner of her life was thus described as early as by m. bacqueville de la potherie in his "histoire de l'amérique septentrionale." "i can not pass by in silence," he says, "an extraordinary trait of virtue of a young lady, making her abode in the community of the sisters of the congregation, miss leber, the only daughter of the richest merchant in canada. she has an apartment in which she is enclosed, having no outside communication than that offered by a window looking out into the chapel. her food is brought her, through a little opening in the door of her chamber. she sleeps on the hard floor. her spiritual director is m. leguenot, an ecclesiastic of st. sulpice, and she sees her father, m. leber, only once or twice a year. in this solitude in which she has been for eight or nine years, she has formed a new temperament so that she could, with difficulty, now embrace any other manner of life. she has, however, a peaceful and docile disposition: the kind of life she lives does not consist in the abstract speculations of mental prayer, though she employs two hours daily in its practice. all the rest of the time she gives herself to good works of which she makes a present to the community." her benefactions were very great. by a contract of october , , she gave the sum of , _livres_ for the maintenance of a sister to worship day and night before the blessed sacrament in the community chapel. on the th of october, , she gave another foundation of , _livres_ for a daily mass, , of which was to be expended in the upkeep of the lights and sacred vessels. she also was desirous of adding to the convent suitable buildings for the boarding house of the _pensionnaires_ and for the schools and of founding a number of burses for the education of poor girls who could not afford the pension. the foundation stone was placed on may , , and on september , , she disposed of the sum of , _livres_ for the burses mentioned. after this act she did not live more than twenty-four days, having contracted an affection of the chest through rising during the night, as was her wont, to worship the blessed sacrament. her death was the signal of an outburst of reverence. in the "history of the hôtel-dieu of quebec," mother jucherau chronicles the event thus: "her body was exposed for two days for the consolation and devotion of the whole of montreal and the neighbourhood, whence crowds came to look upon and wonder at the holy body of this virgin. her intercession was invoked with confidence. her poor tattered garments and even her straw slippers were seized, as well as anything belonging to her, as revered relics. several persons, afflicted with diverse maladies, approached her coffin and touched her with much reverence and faith, and we are assured that they have been cured. after this great gathering her body was carried to the door of the parish church, where a most solemn burial service was held; the greatest marks of veneration were paid her; and m. de belmont, superior of the seminary, pronounced a very beautiful funeral oration." the text chosen was from the book of judith, chapter xv, v. , "_tu honorificentia populi nostri_." "it is thou who art the glory of our people," indicated the degree of veneration and sanctity in which the deceased recluse was held by the people, most of whom had only heard of her by repute, never having seen her. her body was then taken to the chapel of the congregation and buried by the side of her father. the following inscription was placed above her resting place: ci-gist venerable soeur jeanne leber, bienfaitrice de cette maison, qui, ayant ete recluse quinze ans dans la maison de ses pieux parents, en a passe vingt dans la retraite qu'elle a faite ici. elle est decedee le octobre , agee de ans. in there occurred a charge of murder against jean d'ailleboust d'argenteuil. the major of the town and of the government of montreal was then jean bouillet, sieur de la chassaigne. acting as procureur of the king, he demanded that d'argenteuil should be declared guilty of the crime and condemned to have his head cut off, and, as he was absent, this should be done in effigy. the court martial came to the same conclusions, the judges being captains le verrier and d'esgly, the count de vaudreuil, de beaujeu, du vivier and de buisson. as m. de vaudreuil was a relative of the accused, the place of president was taken by the baron de longueuil, who held the trial in his own house. bankers and numismatists will learn that in the process of withdrawing the "card" money and putting an end to its circulation, the minister in a letter, dated february , , to m. de norisbel says, that out of , _livres_, so withdrawn by m. bégon, the intendant, there has thus accrued to the profit of the king a benefit of , _livres_, which private persons lose. it was precisely this kind of impoverishment suffered by the people which eventually reconciled them to the english rule later. in , by a decree of may th, the merchants of montreal were given the same privileges of the merchants in france of meeting in a convenient place to transact business in an exchange or _bourse_ with the instruction to name one of their number to make representations in the name of all for the good of commerce to the governor general and the intendant of new france. genealogical students of the origins of montreal families will learn from an edict of march , , that it was decreed to maintain the children and grandchildren of jacques leber, the montreal merchant. this was in consequence of a request presented by his son, jacques leber de senneville, and the children of another son, jacques leber de st. paul. it is alleged in this report that the letters patent of nobility were promised to jacques leber by m. de frontenac, but that subsequently by an edict of march, , it was settled that letters of nobility should not be forthcoming except for a financial consideration. as jacques leber conformed to this condition he received his letters of nobility in november, . but by another edict of august, , all the titles of nobility accorded since for a financial consideration, were suppressed and revoked. hence the present request relies on the representation of the services rendered by jacques leber and his sons during all the wars; that one of them was slain in , when he was commanding a party of eighty men, in a fight against the english, at la prairie de la madeleine. in the same year letters patent of april , , were issued giving permission to the le moynes to register at the parliament court of paris and the _cour des aydes_, the letters of nobility accorded in the month of march, , to charles le moyne de longueuil and en-registered at the _chambre des comptes_ on february , . this document cites the service of the founder of the family, charles le moyne de longueuil, and of his sons: charles (baron de longueuil), pierre (d'iberville), joseph (de sérigny), jean baptiste (de bienville), and antoine (de chateauguay). there is also a notice of francis, son of pierre d'iberville. this document states, that the founder, charles, had eleven sons, six of whom had died in the king's service after distinguished careers. the survivors at this date were charles, baron de longueuil, de sérigny, de bienville and de chateauguay. of these, at this period de bienville and de chateauguay were in louisiana. charles was in canada and an active member of the montreal district, holding important appointments. de sérigny was probably in france, for he was then the seigneur of the château de loire in aunis. the bones of the brave d'iberville were resting in a cemetery of havana. sportsmen may learn that partridge shooting was prohibited between march th and july th by an _ordonnance_ of mm. de vaudreuil and bégon, dated january , . in the same year the lieutenant-general of the jurisdiction of montreal on may th forbids the merchants and private persons to keep more than ten pounds of powder on their premises. on may st an _ordonnance_ of the intendant bégon forbade gunshots in the town and in the barns and other buildings in the country places. a similar injunction was repeated by intendant dupuy on march , , with the addition of a fine of _livres_, for catching them by net or snare, or taking their eggs. the druggists of today will hear with satisfaction of the recommendation by the king in a letter to mm. de vaudreuil and bégon, on june , , of a powder, and the details of its composition, that was very much valued in sicknesses. this had just been recently made public. it was an alkermes or _aurifique de glaubec_, prepared by bolduc and la serre, apothecaries to the king: it could cure the fevers, dropsy, vertigo, apoplexy, dysentery, gravel, smallpox, etc. english and american journals of that period contain numerous advertisements of similar "quack" medicines. there is an act, dated july , , of a land sale on the coteau st. louis at montreal by the seigneurs of the seminary to m. charles de ramezay de la gesse. this was to establish a brickyard and tile works. to we may date the first beginnings of our canadian postal service. in this year a posting system for the transportation of letters and travelers was created between montreal and quebec and the monopoly was rented for twenty years to m. lanouiller on the condition of observing a certain tariff, according to distances, imposed by the intendant bégon. we may now give a picture of montreal in , as described by charlevoix: "this town has a very pleasing appearance. it is well situated, well laid out and well built. the charm of its surroundings and its streets inspires a certain gayety, which everybody feels. it is not fortified. a simple palisade with bastions, badly enough maintained, offers the sole defence with a rather wretched redoubt on a little rising ground, which serves as a boulevard and shelves down to a little square. this is the first point which one meets on arriving from quebec. it is not forty years since the town was quite unprotected and exposed daily to be burned by the savages or by the english. it was the chevalier de callières who had it closed in. for some years there has been a project afoot to surround it with walls, but it will not be an easy task to induce the inhabitants to contribute to its expense. they are brave, and they are not rich. there has already been found difficulty in persuading them of the necessity of this expense since they are strongly convinced that their valour is more than sufficient to defend their town against any force that would dare to attack it.... "montreal is a long square, situated on the bank of the river which, rising insensibly, divides the whole into high and low town, without any appreciable line of demarkation. the hôtel-dieu, the king's storehouses and the place d'armes are in the lower town; this is also the merchants' quarter. in the upper town are the seminary, the parish church, the recollects, the jesuits, the ladies of the congregation, the governor and the greater part of the officers. beyond a little stream which comes from the northwest and bounds the town on this side, there are to be found some houses and the general hospital and on the right, above the recollects, whose convent is at the end of the town, or the same side, there is commencing to form a kind of suburb, which in time will be a very beautiful district. the jesuits have only a small house here, but their church, which they have just finished covering in, is large and well built. the convent of the recollects is much larger and its community more numerous. the seminary is in the middle of the town. it would seem that the object has been to make it solid and commodious rather than handsome. its dignity, however, is such that one is not allowed to forget that it is the seigneurial manor; it communicates with the parochial church, which has more the air of a cathedral than that at quebec. the services are conducted with a modesty and a dignity which inspire respect for the majesty of god, adored there. the house of the ladies of the congregation, although one of the largest in the town, is too small as yet for its numerous community. it is the mother house of the order and the novitiate of an institute which ought to be all the dearer to new france and to this town in particular, since it originated here and the whole colony partakes in the advantages which so worthy an establishment brings to it.... the hôtel-dieu is served by nuns, whose first members were drawn from the hôtel-dieu of la flèche in anjou. they are poor; yet this is seen neither in their hall, which is large and well furnished and well supplied with beds, nor in their church, which is handsome and well ornamented, nor in their dwelling house, which is well built, becoming and spacious. but they are badly fed, although they are all occupied indefatigably, whether with the instruction of children, or the care of the sick. "there can still be seen, from time to time, little flotillas of indians arriving at montreal, but this is nothing in comparison with the past. it is the iroquois wars which have interrupted this great gathering of the nations in the colony. to remedy this, storehouses with forts have been established among the greater part of them, where there is always a commandant and soldiers enough to place the stores in safety. the savages always wish to have a gunsmith with them. in many places there are missionaries among them, who would do more good, if they were the only frenchmen there. it would seem good to put things again on their former basis, seeing that throughout the length and breadth of the colony there is now peace. this would be the means of restraining the _coureurs de bois_, whose cupidity, without speaking of the other disorders brought about by their looseness of life, brings on daily instances of dishonesty, which make us despicable in the eyes of these barbarian people." footnotes: [ ] a decree of may , , forbids local or particular governors to arrest or imprison any of the french inhabitants without the express order of the governor and lieutenant-general, or that of the sovereign council, or to condemn any to _l'amende_," or to exercise any judgment of their private authority in this respect. [ ] in it was still the only one, though the post office clock was shortly expected to rival it. [ ] in - he again acted as administrator of the colony. [ ] the origins of our canal system. president's address before the canadian society of civil engineers, , by ernest marceau. [ ] he died the next year. a tablet on the seminary wall today reads: "françois dollier de casson, first historian of montreal, captain under marshal de turenne, then priest of st. sulpice during thirty-five years. he died in , curé of the parish." [ ] going up st. gabriel street to st. thérèse, and then turning to the east and going down st. vincent to st. amable and along the latter street to jacques cartier square, several old houses may be seen. in one, on st. vincent street, erected in , lived de catalogne, who was the engineer of the first lachine canal. [ ] apparently some of the employees engaged by madame were english protestants, for in a letter of the same date written to vaudreuil and raudot, it is asked if the english employees of madame de repentigny have yet been made catholics. [ ] a vehicle on wheels first went from quebec to montreal in . [ ] there is a similar disposition today to procrastinate in all city planning and health movements. chapter xxxv - side lights of civic progress ii the fire of --building regulations--stone encouraged--town embellishment--city planning--the fortifications--pew renting--chateau de vaudreuil--trade with new england forbidden--illicit liquor traffic--deaths of de ramezay and de vaudreuil--even naturalized strangers forbidden to trade--description of indian life at montreal--montreal is followed by quebec in the reform of weights and measures--verendrye's expedition from montreal--religious asylum forbidden--first sailing vessel of lake superior--the "outraged crucifix"--sorcery, magic and sacrilege--the legend of the red cross--punishment of "breaking alive" in the market place--care of foundlings--sulpicians found la presentation--skating in the streets; fast driving. notes: the discoveries of la verendrye--chateau vaudreuil. a disastrous fire having occurred on june , , an _ordonnance_ was prepared by intendant bégon, who was in montreal, to regulate the reconstruction of the buildings. the preamble gives us an insight into the architectural construction of the town. "on the representation to us by sieur de léry, king's engineer, after the examination made by him, it has been noticed that the greater part of the houses were only of wood, or of framework, and roofed with carpentry, and this has increased the spread of the fire, and that like accidents so prejudicial to the inhabitants of the town, could be avoided to the further good of the town, by making the streets regular, for they are not large enough nor straight enough; that while this cannot be done without individuals suffering, yet at the present moment, seeing that there are only ruins in the streets, it would be easy for individuals, before rebuilding, to conform with the alignment which shall be drawn up by the engineer, the following precautions should be observed...." the employment of stone is greatly encouraged. in the living part of the town only buildings of stone and of two stories should replace the burned ones. this added to the beauty of the town and we are gratified to learn that the example of montreal led the intendant claude thomas dupuy, on june , , to issue an _ordonnance_ for quebec and the other towns, to take similar precautions against fire, adding that this would also be a means to beautify this town (_embellir cette ville_). a further _ordonnance_ on fire prevention was issued by gilles hocquart, the intendant, when present in montreal on july , . [illustration: hocquart] to the year we may attribute the beginning of work on the fortifications of montreal under chaussegros de léry. up to that date there had been much talk of building a worthy defence around the city, but still the old wooden palisading was continued. the truth is that the montrealers ever have been sluggards in city planning; they have never taken a forward move until forced by a crisis. "prevention being better than cure," never rose beyond a theory. the same tardiness has been shown in hygienic and sanitary and general civic improvement. the wars with the indians had produced a brave race of montrealers, so that they relied rather on their personal valour than on fortifications. in the moment of danger, the wisdom of having strong fortifications was felt by all, but the danger passed, they became forgetful and apathetic again. in the palisade built by de callières was restored, and in de longueuil had called a meeting in the seminary hall, "where," says the engineer de catalogue, "each one was given the liberty to speak out his mind; as there were no troups and few inhabitants, it was proposed to curtail the town by a fourth, by making a palisading at st. francis xavier street, cutting down the fruit gardens of the recollects (in the northwest) and others; but as i thought differently, i made them see that fifty men in the mill and granary of the seigneurs were sufficient to defend this part and the more retrenchments and enclosures the enemy should find to force, the more obstacles he would find in forcing the rest of the town." thus all things remained in the same state as before. [illustration: references extent of walls from a to b, ft.; a to c ft.; c to d, ft.; b to d, ft.; e--entrance; f--mill; g g g g--small towers; h--walls.] [illustration: elevations of fortifications erected at chaus. de lery.] [illustration: de lery's plans of the fortification] but other counsels prevailed in when the government determined to improve the fortifications and the regent imposed on the town a contribution of , _livres_, of which , had to be paid by the seigneurs and the rest by the religious communities and the inhabitants, without exception. the works, however, did not begin till . the new walls of rough stone, ornamented with barbicans, were eighteen feet high, four feet thick at their base and three feet at the top. they presented thirteen bastions, four facing the st. lawrence, four giving on the little river, and the five others, which were armed with little pieces of artillery, faced three on the north, and two on the west. there were five gates and five posterns. the space enclosed was about _arpents_ (ninety-three acres). the fortifications were never completely finished. as intended by de léry they might have been strong for he wrote to france on august , , "i have determined to commence an inclosure capable to resist the artillery that the english might bring from orange." yet a french officer, quoted by sandham, in "montreal and its fortifications," as present in the city during amherst's siege of montreal in , which was to end in the capitulation, writes of the results as follows: "montreal was in no way susceptible of a defense. it was surrounded with walls built with design only to preserve the inhabitants from the incursions of the indians, little imagining at that time that it would become the theatre of a regular war and that one day they would see formidable armies of well disciplined troops before its walls. we were, however, all pent up in that miserable bad place without provisions, a thousand times worse than a position in an open field, whose pitiful walls could not resist two hours' cannonade without being leveled to the ground, when we would have been forced to surrender at discretion if the english had insisted upon it."[ ] the extent of the paternal supervision of france, over what we should consider trifles, is shown in a royal decree of june , , on the subject of the renting of pews in the churches, to the following effect: that widows, remaining such, shall enjoy those pews granted to their husbands by paying the same rent; that with regard to children, whose father and mother are dead, their seats shall be put up for auction, and given to the highest bidder, but they shall have the preference, if they pay the same price as that offered by the last bidder. in , de vaudreuil commenced the building of his _château_. in the king found it necessary by a decree of may d to prohibit peltry being conveyed into new england or the returning from there with merchandise. as montreal was evidently the recognized business point of distribution, whence the trouble had arisen, the king ordered all who should have permission from the governor general or his representative to cross the frontier, to declare at montreal the quantity and quality of the effects taken, making a similar declaration on their return. students watching the progress of the liquor traffic will not be surprised at the skillful adroitness of illicit traders, in evading detection. an edict of de vaudreuil and intendant bégon of may , , ordered all those who possessed birch bark canoes to make a declaration of them to the nearest _greffe_ (record office) within a fortnight of the publication. the object was to frustrate illicit traders who made use of the light weight of these canoes to carry liquor into the woods and then to hide there and thence distribute the liquor without arousing the attention of the authorities. the canoe was also doubtless to be watched as a means of illicit trade in furs. no less a person than the lieutenant-general of the government of montreal, sieur françois marie bouat, was condemned in , to a month's imprisonment, and was suspended from his office, for having sent a canoe up-country for trading purposes. the deliberations of the court martial are dated october , . the suspension was raised by the king on june , . the year saw the death of the governor of montreal, claude de ramezay, who was succeeded by charles lemoyne, first baron of longueuil. on october , , the governor general de vaudreuil also died. he was succeeded as administrator by the baron of longueuil. in the marquis de beauharnois became governor general and thomas claude dupuy intendant, his first act being signed on december st of the same year. in , a special edict concerning commerce with outsiders was issued by the king.[ ] title vi enacts that "strangers established in our colonies, even naturalized, cannot be merchants, brokers or commercial agents under any form, on a penalty of , _livres_, applicable to the denounceand of perpetual banishment from our colonies. we permit them only to make use of their lands and dwellings, and to trade only in provisions which come from their lands. we forbid all merchants and traders established in old said colonies to have any clerk, assistant, bookkeeper or other persons engaged in their business who are strangers, although they may be naturalized...." clearly the modern cosmopolitan character of montreal was not foreseen. a decree of the sovereign council of february , , had already been made, forbidding the transportation by _habitants_ or others of peltries to manhattan or orange or other places, and back, under pain of confiscation of their peltry, money, attire, canoes and other effects seized on their departure or return. this was promulgated at montreal by sergeant lorry about march th of the same year. a letter of ,[ ] giving a description of indian dress, love making, feasts, burials, fills in the picture of this period and keeps us in touch with the indian population of montreal and its district. "would you like to learn how they dress--how they marry--how they are buried? first you must know that several tribes go completely naked and wear but the fig leaf. in montreal you may meet many stately and well proportioned savages, walking about in a state of nudity, as proud in their bearing as if they wore good clothes. some have on a shirt only; others have a covering negligently thrown over one shoulder. "christianized indians are differently habited. the iroquois put the shirt over their wearing apparel, and over the shirt another raiment which encloses a portion of the head, which is always bare. the men generally wear garments over their shirts; the latter, when new, is generally very white, but is used until it gets perfectly dark and disgustingly greasy. they sometimes shave a portion of their head, or else they comb one-half of their hair back, the other half front. they occasionally tie up a tuft of hair very tight on the top of the head, so as to look like a plume on a horse's head, rising towards the skies. at other times, some allow a long tress of hair to fall over their face: it interferes with their eating, but that has to be put up with. they smear their ears with a white substance or their face with blue, vermillion, black. they are more elaborate in their war-toilet--lavish of paint--than a coquette would be in dressing,--so that they may conceal the paleness which fear might engender. they are profuse of gold and silver brocade, porcelain necklaces, bracelets of beads--the women, especially in their youth. this is their jewelry, their diamonds, the value whereof sometimes reach , francs. the abenakis enclose their heads in a small cap embroidered with beads or ornamented with brocade. they wrap their legs in leggings with a fringe three or four inches long. their shoes consist of socks, with plaits around the toe, covering the foot. all this has its charm in their eyes: they are as vain of dress as any frenchman. "the pagan tribe, whenever any love is felt, marry without any ceremonial. the pair will discover whether they love one another in silence--indian-like. one of the caresses consists in throwing the loved one a small pebble, or grains of indian corn, or else some other object which cannot hurt. the swain, on throwing the pebble, is bound to look in the opposite direction, to make believe he did not do it. should the adored one return it, matters look well, else the game is up. [illustration: montreal . plan de la ville de montreal en canada] "the christianized indians are married before the church, without contract of marriage and without stipulations, because an indian cannot hold real estate and cannot bequeath to his children. the wealthiest is the mightiest hunter. this favored individual in his village passes for a grand match. "bravery and great warriors they think much of--they constitute them their chiefs. poverty is no disgrace at the council board, and an orator in rags will speak out as boldly, as successfully, as if he were decked out in gold cloth. they come thus badly habited in the presence of the governor, indulge in long harangues and touch his hand fearlessly. when ladies are present at these interviews, they honour them thus--seize their hand and shake it in token of friendship. before i was a nun, i was present at some of these ceremonies and, having won their good opinion, they would extend to me a hand which was disgusting in the extreme, but which i had cheerfully to accept for fear of offending them. they are sometimes asked to dine at the governor's table. unlucky are their neighbours, especially when they happen to be ladies,--they are so filthy in their persons."[ ] gilles hocquart no doubt struck terror into the hearts of some of the defaulters at montreal on july , , when he ordered all the merchants and other business men without exception to repair immediately to the governor of montreal to have their weights and measures reformed, verified, sealed and marked with the _fleur de lis_. although there had been legislation before, still complaints had been brought to him that there was wanting uniformity in the city on this hand, some giving too short measure and others, strangely, too long. two years later, on august , , hocquart did the same good turn for quebec. in business methods montrealers like to be pioneers and it is to be noticed that the preamble of this _ordonnance_ hocquart gives as a reason for the new move, the success at montreal, "_ainsi que nous l'avons pratiqué pour la ville de montréal_." in montreal traders sent out the chevalier varennes de la vérendrye to hunt, trade and to find the pacific. in he built fort rouge, on the site of the city of winnipeg and in he and his sons were the first white men to see the rocky mountains. a decree of february , , strikes a blow at the system of religious asylum being granted to fugitives from justice. "we forbid all curés, ecclesiastics, and secular and regular communities of either sex, harbouring or giving asylum to all deserters, vagabonds and persons charged with crimes, under penalty of loss of our favour, and of the seizure of their property and of deprivation of their privileges." about the first sailing vessel on lake superior was constructed and furnished through montreal commercial enterprise.[ ] in a letter, dated october , , it is mentioned that governor beauharnois had that spring sent orders to the officer commanding chouamigon (la plante) to make an examination of the copper mine alleged to have been discovered in the vicinity. nothing very satisfactory eventuated. the sieur denys de la ronde, who succeeded as commandant, had faith, however, in the mines and had obtained a concession to work copper mines at lake superior. in , a son of de la ronde, visited an isle in search of copper. de la ronde, the father, in , on his way to la pointe, was taken sick at mackinac and returned to montreal, but he did not despair of finding valuable copper mines. the colonial officers, in a dispatch, wrote as to de la ronde, that "this officer has been ordered with his son to build at the river ste. anne, a house of logs feet long, with a fort and curtain, which he assures us he has executed. he has had other expenses on account of the mines, such as the voyage and presents for the indians. he has constructed, at his own expense, a bark of forty tons on lake superior, and was obliged to transport the rigging and materials for the vessel as far as sault ste. marie in canoes. the post of chouamigon was given to him as gratuity to defray expenses. a merchant of montreal, named charley st. ange, furnished de la ronde with goods, and miners named forestier were employed in prospecting." to the date of belong the following sidelight of the methods of execution of justice: "under the title of 'the outraged crucifix,' in the 'choses et autres,' of m. faucher de st. maurice, an interesting historical sidelight is given of the first half of the eighteenth century, of a charge of sorcery, magic and sacrilege in montreal against a soldier named flavart de beaufort, then belonging to the garrison. he was a "_farceur_," who had only wished to amuse himself at the expense of the credulity of the poor. but as the good montrealers of the period did not suffer any ridicule of holy things, the affair had a tragic ending. "on august , , the king's procurator brought him in guilty under the three heads of accusation,--sorcery, magic, and sacrilege,--and demanded that in fitting reparation charles françois flavart de beaufort should be condemned "in his shirt, the rope round his neck, holding between his hands a torch of burning wax of the weight of two pounds, bare-headed and on his knees, before the great door and the principal entrance of the parish church of this town, on the first day of the market, to say and to declare aloud and intelligibly, that wickedly and ill advised he had profaned the words of our lord jesus christ crucified for the purposes of divination ... and moreover he is condemned to be beaten and whipped with rods, through the squares and public thoroughfare of this town and to be banished from the boundaries of this jurisdiction for three years and be held to keep his ban. "on the th these conclusions were ratified by the judgment of the court of montreal, which further added that "flavart de beaufort should be conducted by the hangman, the 'executeur de haute justice,' bearing the inscription in front and behind--'profaner of holy things,'--this done, we have condemned him to serve as a convict in the galleys of the king for the space of five years. "(signed) guiton de monrepos." flavart, however, appealed against this sentence to the sovereign council at quebec, which but confirmed the above sentence, remitting, however, two years from his services in the galleys. the above sentence was carried out as a certificate bears out, dated friday, october , , and signed by m. fr. daine, councillor, and m. porlier, greffier. the incident left a lasting impression, for the clergy was shocked at the sacrilege. by a _mandement_ of september , , the bishop, monseigneur de pont briand, ordered an amende honorable and a procession from the parish church to that of bonsecours. two years later, having obtained the cross from the authorities, the bishop instituted the feast of the outraged crucifix. this was to be celebrated the first friday in march, each year; and in monseigneur du plessis changed the day to the first day of october, attaching to this a day of plenary indulgence, obtained by a papal brief, dated march , . the legend of the red cross, illustrating further the methods of civil punishment of this period, may be here told. over one hundred and fifty years ago, this part of the island, from the summit of the mountain to the pebbly shore of the st. lawrence, was a thickly wooded forest. where dorchester street exists today, there was then a narrow path, beaten by the feet of the passers-by from lachine, st. laurent and the environs. it bore, however, the high sounding title of: "the king's highway." here and there, at irregular distances, a few farms bordered the simple thoroughfare. at the point where today guy street crosses dorchester lived an honest farmer, jean favre and his wife, marie-anne bastien. being an industrious couple, they were supposed to have realized a good sum from the produce of their prosperous farm, which sum, in all probability, they hoarded away in some corner of their dwelling. in the same spot where now stand the iron gates, which open on the avenue going up to the convent church, was a small house occupied by a petty farmer, named belisle. the demon of covetousness had taken hold of his soul and the unfortunate man brooding constantly over his neighbour's supposed wealth, resolved to become its possessor. the month of may, , had again decked nature in its garb of green. the sun, his daily course over, had sunk behind the mountain and the last echoes of the evening _angelus_ bell had ceased to vibrate on the air. peace and security seemed to reign throughout the colony, as the shades of night crept over the island, lulling its inhabitants to slumber and to rest. alas! an unholy shadow lured on by the evil one, glided through the darkness, with the tread of the panther to seize its prey, and drew near the dwelling of favre. suspecting no ill, the honest man sat quietly smoking near the hearth, from whence a brisk fire cast a mellow light through the room, showing the table, with its two covers set for the evening meal. finally rising, the farmer took from his pocket a key with which he opened a cupboard near at hand,--drew forth a small well filled sack and added to its contents the proceeds of the day's sale. through the open shutter, from outside, the wretched belisle, with glaring eyes, watched every movement of favre, while his hands kept spasmodically clutching the knife he held. wresting from his bosom the pistol, hid therein, he burst, like a wild beast, into the dwelling and fired at the old man, then finished him with the knife. the wife, terrified by the unusual noise, rushed in from an adjoining room and was at once attacked by the murderer, who plunged the knife repeatedly into her breast, and then crushed in her skull with the blow of a spade which he found near by. side by side lay the unfortunate husband and wife, victims of man's cupidity. for a moment the murderer contemplated his work, then, like another cain, he fled from the spot, haunted by the dread spectre of the "_lex talionis_." the absence of the old couple gave rise to surmises. search was made and the horrible crime discovered. suspicion rested on belisle, who was soon after arrested, tried and convicted. the following copy of the "réquisitoire du procureur du roi," dated th june, , shows that the terrible punishment of "breaking alive" was then in force under the french régime in canada. belisle was condemned to "torture ordinary and extraordinary," then to be broken alive on a scaffold erected in the market place (the present custom house square) in this city. this awful sentence was carried out to the letter, his body buried in guy street,[ ] and the red cross erected to mark the spot, as fully described in the following document historically valuable:-- _extract from the requisition of the king's attorney_ "i require for the king that jean baptiste goyer dit belisle be arraigned and convicted of having wilfully and feloniously killed the said jean favre by a pistol shot and several stabs with a knife, and of having similarly killed the said marie-anne bastien, wife of the said favre, with a spade and a knife; and of having stolen the money that was in their house; for punishment of which that he be condemned to have his arms, legs, thighs and backbone broken at noon, he alive, on a scaffold which shall be erected for that purpose in the market place of this city: then, on a rack, his face turned towards the sky, he be left to die. the said jean baptiste goyer dit belisle, being previously put to the torture ordinary and extraordinary, his dead body shall be carried by the executioner to the highway which lies between the house lately occupied by the said accused and the house lately occupied by the said jean favre and his wife. the goods and chattels of the said jean baptiste goyer dit belisle confiscated to the king, or for the benefit of those who may have a right to them, or of those not liable to confiscation, the sum of _livres_ fine being previously set apart, in case that confiscation could not be made for the benefit of his majesty. "done at montreal this th june, . "(signed) foucher." an _ordonnance_ with respect to the care of the foundlings of montreal was issued by intendant hocquart on march , . it allows us to see how the government undertook the preliminary cost of child rearing by providing nurses for the first eighteen months; after that the children should be "hired out" to good _habitants_ of town or country until the age of eighteen to twenty years. hocquart notices with surprise that of the bastards, who survived the first eighteen months, there were four born in , six in , ten in , who are still being cared for in at the expense of the king; they were to be soon "hired;" and the sieur foucher, then _procureur du roi_, who seems to have been responsible for the great delay, is informed that if the like occurs again he will have to pay out of his own purse the expense incurred during the long time intervening. students following the story of explorations from montreal will find that in september, , a sulpician, m. l'abbé picquet, began a fort at la présentation (ogdensburg). he is to be found early in the summer of with six canadians and five indians, beginning the circuit of lake ontario. on june th he reached toronto, where he found a band of messessagas. on june th he reached niagara and on july th the mouth of the genessee, where he visited the falls. two of intendant bigot's[ ] earliest _ordonnances_ are of interest in that the first, issued on december , , evidently in view of the christmas and new year season, forbids sliding or skating on the streets, which, "it has come to our knowledge," is practiced by children and even grown-ups; the reason alleged being danger to the passers by, who are not able to get out of the way quick enough; children who are caught will be put into prison until their parents or guardians have paid the fine of _livres_. the second is leveled against fast drivers, who are to be fined _livres_ for galloping their horses in the street. this is dated december th. these, however, mostly concerned quebec, as far as we know, but probably similar regulations were needed at montreal. note i the discoveries of la verendrye sieur pierre gaultier de varennes de la vérendrye was born in three rivers, the home of radisson, in . he was the son of rené gaultier de varennes and marie boucher, daughter of the governor of three rivers, who was married as a young girl of twelve years on september , . at the age of fourteen he, too, determined to be a discoverer. at eighteen he was fighting in new england, at nineteen in newfoundland and at twenty-three in europe at the battle of malplaquet, where he was carried off the field with nine wounds. in his twenty-ninth year he returned to canada and was relegated to the obscure fur posts in the north, eating his heart out till between - at nepigon, a lonely post north of michilimackinac. he heard of a "great river flowing west." perhaps this was the great western sea which russia and france both wished to secure. accordingly he descended to quebec and in the winter of - he placed his dreams of discovery before the governor, the marquis charles de beauharnois. he obtained the government prestige and patronage and a monopoly of the fur trade in the countries he might discover. he turned to montreal traders for the goods to trade and a company was formed. on june , , he left montreal with his three sons, jean pierre, françois and louis, the eldest only being eighteen years of age, among the band of fifty adventurers, _coureurs de bois_, voyageurs and indian interpreters, to discover the fabled western sea and so acquire great glory and probably wealth. he reached familiar ground at michilimackinac and then after seventy-eight days from montreal he touched kaministiquia after a month's coasting from the straits of mackinaw. as he went onward he established fur posts and sent east cargoes of furs but not enough for his partners so that in the winter of - vérendrye was back in montreal, leaving his party up-country. he managed to get credit and back he went with the jesuit aulneau to his search. little fur could he send to redeem his debts. instead he was to meet misfortune in the loss of his eldest son, jean, the jesuit aulneau, and a party of voyageurs who were treacherously slaughtered by the sioux on massacre island on the night of june , , five years after most of the party had left montreal. in september, , vérendrye entered, the first white man, the red river for the forks of the assiniboine. but he found not the western sea but the great western canadian prairie lands. on december , , he entered the village of the indians. there he learned vaguely of a people in the west who lived on the shores of water bitter for drinking. after that his sons went on courageously for the western sea, while he went back to montreal for supplies and to contest the lawsuits of his partners who had seized all his posts and properties to meet his creditors. but his sons found only a sea of prairie, a sea of mountains and two great rivers, the saskatchewan and the missouri, and reached the foothills of the northern rockies on new year's day, in . at the end of july they were back again at the assiniboine river. [illustration: massacre island] vérendrye had failed as a trader; moreover he was the object of the jealousy of the traders who wrongfully accused him of private speculation and who now desired to exploit the trade of the trail he had blazed along the assiniboine and the missouri. the ruined man was recalled to quebec in and m. de noyelles was given his command. governors beauharnois and de la galissonière were believers in his honesty. he was decorated with the order of the cross of st. louis and given permission to continue his explorations. his constitution was broken and on december , , while preparing for a further quest, he died suddenly at montreal. but he had opened the door to the west, leaving it to another fur trader of montreal, alexander mackenzie, to be the first to cross the rockies and to reach, by land, on july , , the pacific ocean--the western sea, the dream of cartier, lasalle and vérendrye at last come true! note ii chateau vaudreuil [illustration: marquis philippe de rigaud de vaudreuil] [illustration: chateau vaudreuil] the château de vaudreuil was commenced in , as it appears from the following inscription, found may , , under the foundation stone at the southwest angle. cetter pierre. a. esté posée par dame louise elizabeth. jouabere. femme. du haut. et. puissent, seigneur, philippe. de rigaud chevalier. marquis. de vaudreuil. grand croix. de l'ordre militaire, de st. louis gouverneur et lieutenant, general pour le roy. de toute. la nouvelle france septentrionale en le may. sept maison appartien à monsieur le marquis de vaudreuil. the château vaudreuil or hôtel de vaudreuil occupied with its ground, acquired in , a large tract of land between st. paul street and notre-dame and included what is now known as jacques cartier square. after the cession in , on april th, the son of the builder, the marquis pierre de rigaud, and his lady, then living at paris in their hotel, rue de deux boulles, sold the estate to messire michel chartier, chevalier et seigneur de lothbinière, ordinarily dwelling in the town of quebec, canada, but being at present in paris. in m. de lothbinière sold the château vaudreuil to m. joseph fleury deschambault de la gorgendière. in the latter sold it on july th to the church wardens of the parish of notre-dame, for the establishment of a colony. the building was opened as a school on the following october st under the name of collège de st. raphael. this was the continuation of a college founded about in the priests' house at longue pointe by a priest of st. sulpice, j. b. curatteau de la blaiserie. st. raphael's college remained here till june , , when it was reduced to ashes. it was then transferred to college street in , being rebuilt at the expense of the seminary of st. sulpice. in , on october th, it was opened under the name of the collège ou petit séminaire de montréal. on december , , the vaudreuil estate with the ruined college and its dependencies was sold by the church wardens to two merchants, mm. jean baptiste durocher and joseph périnault, for a sum of , guineas. during the month of december, , these divided their land as well as that which they had bought from the seminary, as follows: . they have left for the public use a place named the new market, french feet in breadth on notre-dame street and on st. paul street, without comprising st. charles street, which terminated this market on the northeast and that of "la fabrique," which terminated it at the southwest. the said place extending in length from notre dame street to st. paul street, a distance of about feet. . the rest of the land on the southwest of the market and fabrique street was divided into eight holdings and sold to eight persons on december th and th. footnotes: [ ] the work of demolition of the useless fortifications began in to make room for local expansion. [ ] the marquis de beauharnois became governor-general in , holding the post till . in dealing with his government and that of his successors, till the seven years' war, we shall pursue the chronological method as before. [ ] from a mss. letter of soeur ste. hélène-- . [ ] translated from the "revue canadienne" for february, , pp. - . [ ] the first ship built in canada to sail the inland waters was that built by a montrealer, sieur de la salle, in , when, with his ship carpenters from france, he constructed the griffon on lake erie, near niagara, to explore the waters of the west. [ ] the exigencies of the time requiring the highway to be widened, the red cross was removed inside the fence, on property belonging to the seminary st. sulpice, to which land it gave its name. when the grey nuns, in , became, in turn, proprietors of the land, which they purchased from st. sulpice, in order to erect thereon the new convent, the sisters had the red cross raised, about , on a mound, within their grounds. it occupies a pretty spot inside the enclosure, where dorchester and guy streets meet, and from its elevated position can be partly seen by persons passing outside. [ ] françois bigot was commissioned on january , ; he arrived at quebec on august th. chapter xxxvi - sidelights of civic progress iii peter kalm--the first swedes in montreal--the french women contrasted with those of the american colonies--domestic economy--the men extremely civil--mechanical trades backward--watchmakers--the treaty of aix-la-chapelle celebrated--paper money--wages--pen picture of montreal in --its buildings and their purposes--friday, market day--thermometrical and climatic observations--natural history cultivated--montreal the headquarters of the indian trade--the goods for barter--the ladies more polished and volatile at quebec but more modest and industrious at montreal--economic facts--wine and spruce beer--prices and cost of living--consents to marriage--social and domestic customs--franquet's journey from quebec to montreal by river, five days--pouchot's appreciations of canadians--the trade system of the country--governmental magazines and up-country forts--private trade at the posts--itinerant peddlers. note: the development of the parish church. for a final picture of montreal life in the closing years before the seven years' war, which ended in the capitulation of the city, we may rely on a visitor's account. in the year peter kalm, a professor of economy in the university of aobo in swedish finland, and a member of the swedish royal academy of sciences, was in canada and visited montreal. he had also in the preceding years been in the english states, and he afterwards published his "travels into north america," containing its natural history, with the civil, ecclesiastical and commercial state of the country, the manners of the inhabitants and several curious and important remarks on various subjects. this work was translated into english by john reinhold forster, f. a. s., and printed in , from which little known work we quote. on july th on his arrival at montreal he was met at the gate of the town by a great crowd of people, anxious to see the _swedes_. "we were assured we were the first swedes that ever came to montreal." he was most courteously received by baron de longueuil, then vice governor, but daily expecting his promotion from france.[ ] "the difference," he remarks, "between the manner and customs of the french in montreal and canada, and those of the english in the american colonies, is as great as that between the manners of those two nations in europe. the women in general are handsome here; they are well bred, and virtuous with an innocent and becoming freedom. they dress out very fine on sundays, and though on the other days they do not take much pains with other parts of their dress, yet they are very fond of adorning their heads, the hair of which is always curled and powdered, and ornamented with glittering bodkins and aigrettes. every day but sunday they wear a little neat jacket, and a short petticoat which hardly reaches half the leg, and in this particular they seem to imitate the _indian_ women. the heels of their shoes are high, and very narrow, and it is surprising how they walk on them. "in their knowledge of economy, they greatly surpass the _english_ women in the plantations, who indeed have taken the liberty of throwing all the burthen of housekeeping upon their husbands and sit in their chairs all day with folded arms. the women in _canada_ on the contrary do not spare themselves, especially among the common people, where they are always in the fields, meadows, stables, etc., and do not dislike any work whatsoever. however, they seem rather remiss in regard to the cleaning of the utensils and apartments; for sometimes the floors, both in the town and country, were hardly cleaned once in six months, which is a disagreeable sight to one who comes from amongst the dutch and english, where the constant scouring and scrubbing of the floors is reckoned as important as the exercise of religion itself. to prevent the thick dust which is thus left on the floor, from being noxious to the health, the women wet it several times a day, which renders it more consistent; repeating the aspersion as often as the dust is dry and rises again. upon the whole, however, they are not averse to the taking a part in all the business of housekeeping; and i have with pleasure seen the daughters of the better sort of people, and of the governor himself, not too finely dressed, and going into kitchens and cellars, to look that everything be done as it ought. "the men are extremely civil and take their hats off to every person indifferently whom they meet on the streets. it is customary to return a visit the day after you have received one; though one should have some scores to pay in one day." after some digressions on the natural history of the country, he continues: "mechanics, such as architecture, cabinet making, turning and the like, were not as yet so forward here as this ought to be; and the _english_ in that respect outdo the _french_. the chief cause of this is that scarce any other people than dismissed soldiers come to settle here, who have not had any opportunity of learning a mechanical trade but have sometimes accidentally and through necessity been obliged to turn to it. there are, however, some who have a good notion of mechanics, and i saw a person here who made very good clocks, and watches, though he had but very little instruction." [illustration: plan of montreal - reference: a. chapelle ste. anne. b. hospital général. c. residence de mr de callières. d. monastère des récollets. e. tribunaux. f. séminaire. g. eglise paroissiale n-d. h. hôtel-dieu. i. congrégation n-d. j. prison. k. jésuites. l. château vaudreuil. m. l'intendance. n. résidence de m. de ramezay. o. ancien site de la citadelle. p. eglise bonsecours.] m. benjamin sulte on this remarks: "a few years before the conquest there was a canadian named dubois, a carpenter by trade, residing in montreal. i believe he was the man alluded to by kalm. dubois, having been asked on several occasions to repair and regulate timepieces belonging to people who had procured them from france, readily perceived that he could understand their mechanism and he soon went into that business on an extensive scale. his name became famous all around the island and his customers increased considerably. most of the tools required for the art he had thus adopted were not to be obtained in canada, but his imaginative power was great and he made them himself without much trouble. it is said that he even invented new models for clocks and introduced many clever improvements, which were looked upon in those days as really marvelous." another canadian, called champagne, also a carpenter of montreal, closely followed dubois' steps. his remarkable skill often attracted the attention of men of high class. he seems to have been gifted with indomitable energy. one day, m. brassier, a priest of st. sulpice congregation, described to him some of the beautiful clocks he had seen while living in france (before ), especially those ornamented with _carillons_ (chimes), sounding the hours and other fractions of time. champagne dreamed over this and finally set to work. the result was an elaborate and astonishing mechanism, to which the whole of montreal paid a tribute of admiration. (see "le spectateur," montreal, september, .) champagne died about the year . in an entry on july th, kalm alludes probably to the treaty of aix-la-chapelle, proclaimed on october , : "the peace, which was concluded between france and england, was proclaimed this day. the soldiers were under arms, the artillery on the walls was fired off, and some salutes were given by the small fire-arms. all night some fireworks were exhibited and the whole town was illuminated. all the streets were crowded with people till late at night. the governor invited me to supper and to partake of the joy of the inhabitants. there were present a number of officers and persons of distinction; and the festival concluded with the greatest joy." on july th kalm went with the governor, now charles le moyne, d baron de longueuil, to a little island named magdalene, "which is his own property." for august st he remarks that the governor general, though commonly residing in quebec, so as to be near the ships arriving in summer, spent the winter in montreal. "the governor de la galissonière[ ] is said to like montreal better than quebec, and indeed the situation of the former is by far the more agreeable one." kalm adds to our knowledge some notes to explain the practice at this period of the card money already recorded as instituted by de meulles. "they have in canada," he recites, "scarce any other but paper money. i hardly ever saw any coin, except french sols, consisting of brass, with a very small mixture of silver; they were quite thin by constant circulation, and were valued at a sol and a half. the bills are not printed, but written. their origin is as follows: the french king having found it very dangerous to send money for the pay of the troops, and other purposes, over to canada, on account of privateers, shipwrecks, and other accidents; he ordered that instead of it the intendant, or king's steward, at quebec, or the commissary at montreal, is to write bills for the value of the sums which are due to the troops, and which he distributes to each soldier. on these bills is inscribed, that they bear the value of such or such a sum, till next october; and they are signed by the intendant, or the commissary; and in the interval they bear the value of money. in the month of october, at a certain stated time, every one brings the bills in his possession to the intendant at quebec, or the commissary at montreal, who exchanges them for bills of exchange upon france, which are paid there in lawful money, at the king's exchequer, as soon as they are presented. if the money is not yet wanted, the bill may be kept till next october, when it may be exchanged by one of those gentlemen, for a bill upon france. the paper money can only be delivered in october, and exchanged for bills upon france. they are of different values, and some do not exceed a livre, and perhaps some are still less. towards autumn when the merchants' ships come in from france, the merchants endeavor to get as many bills as they can and change them for bills upon the french treasury. these bills are partly printed, spaces being left for the name, sum, etc. but the first bill, or paper currency is all wrote, and is therefore subject to be counterfeited, which has sometimes been done, but the great punishments, which have been inflicted upon the authors of these forged bills, and which generally are capital, have deterred people from attempting it again; so that examples of this kind are very scarce at present. as there is a great want of small coin here, the buyers, or sellers, were frequently obliged to suffer a small loss, and could pay no intermediate prices between one livre and two." the wages given could not fail to interest this student of affairs. "they commonly give one hundred and fifty _livres_ a year to a faithful and diligent footman, and to a maid-servant of the same character, one hundred _livres_. a journeyman to an artist gets three or four _livres_ a day, and a common labouring man gets thirty or forty _sols_ a day. the scarcity of labouring people occasions the wages to be so high; for almost everybody finds it so easy to set up as a farmer in this uncultivated country, where he can live well, and at a small expense, that he does not care to serve and work for others." we have given pen pictures of montreal at various periods. here is kalm's for : "montreal is the second town in canada, in regard to size and wealth; but it is the first on account of its fine situation and mild climate. somewhat above the town, the river st. lawrence divides into several branches, and by that means forms several islands, among which the isle of montreal is the greatest. it is ten french miles long, and near four broad, in its broadest part. the town of montreal is built on the eastern side of the island, and close to one of the most considerable branches of the river st. lawrence; and thus it receives a very pleasant and advantageous situation. the town has a quadrangular form, or rather it is a rectangular parallelogram, the long and eastern side of which extends along the great branch of the river. on the other side it is surrounded with excellent corn-fields, charming meadows, and delightful woods. it has got the name of montreal from a great mountain, about half a mile westwards of the town, and lifting its head far above the woods. mons. cartier, one of the first frenchmen who surveyed canada more accurately, called this mountain, on his arrival in this island, in the year , when he visited the mountain, and the indian town hochelaga near it. the priests who, according to the roman catholic way, would call every place in this country after some saint or other, called montreal, ville marie, but they have not been able to make this name general, for it has always kept its first name. "it is pretty well fortified, and surrounded with a high and thick wall. on the east side it has the river st. lawrence, and on all the other sides a deep ditch filled with water, which secures the inhabitants against all danger from the sudden incursions of the enemy's troops. however, it cannot long stand a regular siege, because it requires a great garrison, on account of its extent; and because it consists chiefly of wooden houses. here are several churches, of which i shall only mention that belonging to the friars of the order of st. sulpitius, that of the jesuits, that of the franciscan friars, that belonging to the nunnery, and that of the hospital, of which the first is, however, by far the finest, both in regard to its outward and inward ornaments, not only in this place, but in all canada. the priests of the seminary of st. sulpitius have a fine, large house, where they live together. the college of the franciscan friars is likewise spacious, and has good walls, but it is not so magnificent as the former. the college of the jesuits is small, but well built. to each of these three buildings are annexed fine large gardens, for the amusement, health and use of the communities to which they belong. "some of the houses in the town are built of stone, but most of them are of timber, though very neatly built. each of the better sort of houses has a door towards the street, with a seat on each side of it, for amusement and recreation in the morning and evening. the long streets are broad and strait, and divided at right angles by the short ones; some are paved, but most of them very uneven. the gates of the town are numerous; on the east side of the town towards the river are five, two great and three lesser ones; and on the other side are likewise several. the governor general of canada, when he is at montreal, resides in the castle, which the government hires for that purpose of the family of vaudreuil; but the governor of montreal is obliged to buy or hire a house in town; though i was told that the government contributed towards paying the rents. "in the town is a nunnery, and without its walls half a one;[ ] for though the last was quite ready, however, it had not yet been confirmed by the pope. in the first they do not receive every girl that offers herself; for their parents must pay about five hundred écus, or crowns, for them. some indeed are admitted for three hundred écus, but they are obliged to serve those who pay more than they. no poor girls are taken in. "the king has erected a hospital for sick soldiers here. the sick person there is provided with everything he wants, and the king pays twelve _sols_ every day for his stay, attendance, etc. the surgeons are paid by the king. when an officer is brought to this hospital, who is fallen sick in the service of the crown, he receives victuals and attendance gratis; but if he has got sickness in the execution of his private concerns, and comes to be cured here, he must pay it out of his own purse. when there is room enough in the hospital, they likewise take in some of the sick inhabitants of the town and country. they have the medicines, and the attendance of the surgeons, gratis, but must pay twelve _sols_ per day for meat, etc. "every friday is a market-day, when the country people come to the town with provisions, and those who want them must supply themselves on that day, because it is the only market-day in the whole week. on that day likewise a number of indians come to town, to sell their goods and buy others." he had some conversations with the priests of the seminary, one of whom, monsieur gillion, who had a particular taste for mathematics and astronomy, had drawn a meridian in the garden of the seminary, which kalm said he had examined repeatedly by the sun and stars and found to be very exact. according to monsieur gillion's observation, the latitude of montreal is forty-five degrees and twenty-seven minutes.... he then viewed the thermometrical observations made in montreal by monsieur pontarion from the beginning of . he made use of réaumur's thermometer, which he placed sometimes in a window half open, and sometimes in one quite open, and accordingly it will seldom mark the greatest degree of cold in the air. however, i shall give a short abstract of his observations for the winter months: "in january the greatest cold was on the th day of the month, when the réaumurian thermometer was twenty-three below the freezing point. the least degree of cold was on the st of the same month, when it was just at the freezing point, but most of the days of this month it was from twelve to fifteen degrees below the freezing point. in february the greatest cold was on the th and th, when the thermometer was fourteen degrees below freezing point; and the least was on the rd day of that month, when it rose eight degrees above the freezing point; but it was generally eleven degrees below it. in march the greatest cold was on the rd, when it was ten degrees below the freezing point, and on the nd, rd and th it was mildest, being fifteen degrees above it; in general it was four degrees below it. in april the greatest degree of cold happened on the th, the thermometer being five degrees below the freezing point; the th was the mildest day, it being twenty-five degrees above the freezing point; but in general it was twelve degrees above it. these are the contents chiefly of mons. pontarion's observations during those months. but i found, by the manner he made his observations, that the cold had every day been from four to six degrees greater than he had marked it." he had likewise marked in his journal that the ice in the river st. lawrence broke on the d of april at montreal, and only on the th day of that month at quebec. "on the d of may some trees began to flower at montreal, and on the th the hoary frost was so great that the trees were quite covered with it, as with snow. the ice in the river close to this town is every winter above a french foot thick, and sometimes it is two of such feet, as i was informed by all whom i consulted on that head. "several of the friars here told me that the summers were remarkably longer in canada, since its cultivation, than they used to be before; it begins earlier, and ends later. the winters, on the other hand, are much shorter; but the friars were of opinion that they were as hard as formerly, though they were not of the same duration; and likewise, that the summer at present was no hotter than it used to be. the coldest winds at montreal are those from the north and northwest." kalm in several places speaks in praise of the efforts of the advancement of natural history in canada. "great efforts are here made for the advancement of natural history, and there are few places in the world where such good regulations are made for this useful purpose." he speaks of the governor's interest in it. on august d early in the morning he set out on the river with the second major of montreal, m. de sermonville, for quebec. on september th he returned to montreal in the evening at o'clock. his next item of historical interest occurs on september d in his journal. as it has relation to montreal as the headquarters of the indian trade, it is worth reproducing. "september the d. the french in canada carry on a great trade with the indians; and though it was formerly the only trade of this extensive country, yet its inhabitants were considerably enriched by it. at present, they have besides the indian goods, several other articles which are exported from hence. the indians in this neighbourhood, who go hunting in winter like the other indian nations, commonly bring their furs and skins to sale in the neighbouring french towns; however this is not sufficient. the indians who live at a greater distance, never come to canada at all; and, lest they should bring their goods to the english as the english go to them, the french are obliged to undertake journeys, and purchase the indian goods in the country of the indians. this trade is chiefly carried on at montreal, and a great number of young and old men every year, undertake long and troublesome voyages for that purpose, carrying with them such goods as they know the indians like, and are in want of. it is not necessary to take money on such a journey, as the indians do not value it; and indeed i think the french, who go on these journeys, scarce ever take a sol or penny with them. "i will now enumerate the chief goods which the french carry with them for this trade, and which have a good run among the indians. "muskets, powder, shot, and balls. the europeans have taught the indians in their neighbourhood the use of fire-arms, and they have laid aside their bows and arrows, which were formerly their only arms, and make use of muskets. if the europeans should now refuse to supply the indians with muskets, they would be starved to death; as almost all their food consists of the flesh of the animals, which they hunt; or they would be irritated to such a degree as to attack the europeans. the indians have hitherto never tried to make muskets or similar fire-arms; and their great indolence does not even allow them to mend those muskets which they have got. they leave this entirely to the europeans. as the europeans came into north america, they were very careful not to give the indians any fire-arms. but in the wars between the french and english, each party gave their indian allies fire-arms, in order to weaken the force of the enemy. the french lay the blame upon the dutch settlers in albany, saying that they began, in , to give their indians fire-arms, and taught them the use of them in order to weaken the french. the inhabitants of albany, on the contrary, assert, that the french first introduced this custom, as they would have been too weak to resist the combined force of the dutch and english in the colonies. be this as it will, it is certain that the indians buy muskets from the europeans, and know at present better how to make use of them, than some of their teachers. it is likewise certain, that the europeans gain considerably by their trade in muskets and ammunition. "pieces of white cloth, or of a coarse uncut cloth. the indians constantly wear such pieces of cloth, wrapping them round their bodies. sometimes they hang them over their shoulders; in warm weather, they fasten them round the middle; and in cold weather, they put them over the head. both their men and women wear these pieces of cloth, which have commonly several blue or red stripes on the edge. "blue or red cloth. of this the indian women make their petticoats, which reach only to their knees. they generally choose the blue colour. "shirts and shifts of linen. as soon as an indian fellow, or one of their women, have put on a shirt, they never wash it, or strip it off, till it is entirely torn in pieces. "pieces of cloth, which they wrap round their legs instead of stockings, like the russians. "hatchets, knives, scissors, needles, and a steel to strike fire with. these instruments are now common among the indians. they all take these instruments from the europeans, and reckon the hatchets and knives much better, than those which they formerly made of stones and bones. the stone hatchets of the ancient indians are very rare in canada. "kettles of copper or brass, sometimes tinned in the inside. in these the indians now boil all their meat, and they have a very great run with them. they formerly made use of earthen or wooden pots, into which they poured water, or whatever else they wanted to boil. they do not want iron boilers, because they cannot be easily carried on their continual journeys, and would not bear such falls and knocks as their kettles are subject to. "ear-rings of different sizes, commonly of brass, and sometimes of tin. they are worn by both men and women, though the use of them is not general. "vermillion. with this they paint their face, shirt, and several parts of the body. they formerly made use of a reddish earth, which is to be found in the country; but, as the europeans brought them vermillion, they thought nothing was comparable to it in colour. many persons have told me, that they had heard their fathers mention, that the first frenchmen who came over here, got a great heap of furs from the indians, for three times as much cinnabar as would lie on the tip of a knife. "verdigrease, to paint their faces green. for the black colour, they make use of the soot at the bottom of their kettle, and daub their whole face with it. "looking glasses. the indians are very much pleased with them, and make use of them chiefly when they want to paint themselves. the men constantly carry their looking glasses with them on all their journeys; but the women do not. the men, upon the whole, are more fond of dressing than the women. "burning glasses. these are excellent pieces of furniture in the opinion of the indians, because they serve to light the pipe without any trouble, which an indolent indian is very fond of. "tobacco is bought by the northern indian, in whose country it will not grow. the southern indians always plant as much of it as they want for their own consumption. tobacco has a great run amongst the northern indians, and it has been observed that the further they live to the northward, the more they smoke of tobacco. "wampum, or, as they are here called, porcelanes. they are made of a particular kind of shells, and turned into little short cylindrical beads, and serve the indians for money and ornament. "glass beads, of a small size, and white or other colours. the indian women know how to fasten them in their ribbands, pouches, and clothes. "brass and steel wire, for several kinds of work. "brandy, which the indians value above all other goods than can be brought them; nor have they anything, though ever so dear to them, which they would not give away for this liquor. but, on account of the many irregularities, which are caused by the use of brandy, the sale of it has been prohibited under severe penalties; however, they do not always pay an implicit obedience to this order. "these are the chief goods which the french carry to the indians, and they have a good run among them. "the goods which they bring back from the indians consist entirely in furs. the french get them in exchange for their goods, together with all the necessary provisions they want on the journey. the furs are of two kinds; the best are the northern ones, and the worst sort those from the south. "it is inconceivable what hardships the people in canada must undergo on their journeys. sometimes they must carry their goods a great way by land; frequently they are abused by the indians, and sometimes they are killed by them. they often suffer hunger, thirst, heat, and cold, and are bit by gnats, and exposed to the bites of poisonous snakes, and other dangerous animals and insects. these destroy a great part of the youth in canada, and prevent the people from growing old. by this means, however, they become such brave soldiers, and so inured to fatigue, that none of them fear danger or hardships. many of them settle among the indians far from canada, marry indian women, and never come back again." under the same date, september d, he reverts to the ladies of montreal. having seen those of quebec he can now compare them. montreal ladies owe him a debt of gratitude. "the ladies in canada are generally of two kinds; some come over from france, and the rest native; the former possess the politeness peculiar to the french nation; the latter may be divided into those of quebec and montreal. the first of these are equal to the french ladies in good breeding, having the advantage of frequently conversing with the french gentlemen and ladies, who come every summer with the king's ships, stay several weeks at quebec, but seldom go to montreal. the ladies of this last place are accused by the french of partaking too much of the pride of the indians, and of being much wanting in french good breeding. what i have mentioned above of their dressing their heads too assiduously, is the case with all the ladies throughout canada. their hair is always curled, even when they are at home in a dirty jacket, and short, coarse petticoat, that does not reach to the middle of their legs. on those days when they pay or receive visits, they dress so gayly that one is almost induced to think their parents possessed the greatest dignities in the state. the frenchmen, who considered things in their true light, complained very much that a great part of the ladies in canada had got into the pernicious custom of taking too much care of their dress, and squandering all their fortunes, and more, upon it instead of sparing something fur future times. they are no less attentive to have the newest fashions; and they laugh at each other, when they are not dressed to each other's fancy. but what they get as new fashions, are grown old, and laid aside in france; for the ships coming but once every year from thence, the people in canada consider that as the new fashion for the whole year, which the people on board brought with them, or which they imposed upon them as new. "the ladies in canada, or especially at montreal, are very ready to laugh at any blunders strangers make in speaking; but they are very excusable. people laugh at what appears uncommon and ridiculous. in canada nobody ever hears the french language spoken by any but frenchmen; for strangers seldom come thither; and the indians are naturally too proud to learn french, but oblige the french to learn their language. from hence it naturally follows that the nice canada ladies cannot hear anything uncommon without laughing at it. one of the first questions they propose to a stranger is, whether he is married? the next, how he likes the ladies in the country and whether he thinks them handsomer than those of his own country? and the third, whether he will take one home with him? there are some differences between the ladies of quebec and those of montreal; those of the last place seemed to be generally handsomer than those of the former. their behaviour likewise seemed to me to be somewhat too free at quebec, and of a more becoming modesty at montreal. "the ladies at quebec, especially the unmarried ones, are not very industrious. a girl of eighteen is reckoned very poorly off, if she cannot enumerate at least twenty lovers. these young ladies, especially those of a higher rank, get up at seven, and dress till nine, drinking their coffee at the same time. when they are dressed, they place themselves near a window that opens into the street, take up some needlework, and sew a stitch now and then; but turn their eyes into the street most of the time. when a young fellow comes in, whether they are acquainted with him or not, they immediately lay aside their work, sit down by him, and begin to chat, laugh, joke, and invent double-entendres; and this is reckoned being very witty. in this manner they frequently pass the whole day, leaving their mothers to do all the business in the house. "in montreal, the girls are not quite so volatile, but more industrious. they are always at their needlework, or doing some necessary business in the house. they are likewise cheerful and content; and nobody can say that they want either wit, or charm. their fault is, that they think too well of themselves. however, the daughters of people of all ranks, without exception, go to market, and carry home what they have bought. they rise as soon and go to bed as late as any of the people in the house. i have been assured that, in general, their fortunes are not considerable; which are rendered still more scarce by the number of children, and the small revenues in a house. the girls at montreal are very much displeased that those at quebec get husbands sooner than they. the reason of this is, that many young gentlemen who come over from france with the ships, are captivated by the ladies at quebec, and marry them; but as these gentlemen seldom go up to montreal, the girls there are not often so happy as those of the former place." a few economic facts noted by kalm on this second visit are: "wine is almost the only liquor which people above the vulgar are used to drink.[ ] they make a kind of spruce beer of the top of the white fir, which they drink in summer; but the use of it is not general; and it is seldom drank by people of quality. thus great sums go annually out of the country for wine; as they have no vines here, of which they could make a liquor that is fit to be drank. the common people drink water; for it is not yet customary here to brew beer of malt; and there are not orchards large enough to supply the people with apples for making cider. some of the people of rank, who possess large orchards, sometimes, out of curiosity, get a small quantity of cider made. the great people here, who are used from their youth to drink nothing but wine, are greatly at a loss in time of war, when all the ships which brought wine are intercepted by the english privateers. towards the end of the last war, they gave two hundred and fifty francs and even one hundred écus, for a barrique, or hogshead of wine. "the present price of several things, i have been told by some of the greatest merchants here, is as follows: a middling horse costs forty francs and upwards; a good horse is valued at an hundred francs or more. a cow is now sold for fifty francs; but people can remember the time when they were sold for ten écus. a sheep costs five or six _livres_ at present; but last year, when everything was dear, it cost eight or ten francs. a hog of one year old, and two hundred, or an hundred and fifty pound weight, is sold at fifteen francs. m. couagne, the merchant, told me that he had seen a hog of four hundred weight among the indians. a chicken is sold for ten or twelve _sols_; and a turkey for twenty _sols_. a minot of wheat sold for an écu last year; but at present it costs forty _sols_. maize is always of the same price with wheat because here is but little of it; and it is all made use of by those who go to trade with the indians. a minot of oats costs sometimes from fifteen to twenty _sols_; but of late years it has been sold for twenty-five or thirty _sols_. pease bear always the same price with wheat. a pound of butter costs commonly about eight or ten _sols_; but last year it rose up to sixteen _sols_. a dozen of eggs used to cost but three _sols_; however, now are sold for five. they make no cheese at montreal; nor is there any to be had, except what is got from abroad. a watermelon generally costs five or six _sols_; but if of a large size, from fifteen to twenty. "there are as yet no manufacturers established in canada; probably because france will not lose the advantage of selling off its own goods here. however, both the inhabitants of canada and the indians are very ill off for want of them in times of war. "those persons who want to be 'married must have the consent of their parents. however, the judge may give them leave to marry, if the parents oppose their union, without any valid reason. likewise, if the man be thirty years of age, and the woman twenty-six, they may marry, without further waiting for their parents' consent." a few social customs may conclude this chapter, as illuminative of the times. according to m. gaspé, the frugality of the canadians was exemplary. meats only appeared on the table on feast days, or days of great rejoicing. a vegetarian diet mostly required but milk, eggs, fish, pea soup, a porridge of crushed indian wheat, pancakes, coarse bread, fruit and vegetables, did not prevent them from enjoying vigorous health and strength. "a poor man," says marie de l'incarnation, "would have eight children or more, who during the winter go bare-headed and barefooted, with a little covering on their backs and living only on eels and a little bread; with all that, they are big and fat." simplicity ruled at table; pocket knives served the _habitants_ at their meals, the men having homemade ones. a blacksmith manufactured the blade, and the wooden handles made by the man were decorated with engravings on tin. as these instruments were not supplied with a spring, the owners had to constantly keep the blade down in position by the pressure of their fingers. but the ingenious made the operation easier by means of a little button placed at the part of the blade joining the handle. the practiced _habitant_ was quite skillful in its use, but the novice pinched his fingers horribly--a little apprenticeship being necessary. the women made use of ordinary pocket knives bought at the shop keeper's.[ ] the _habitants_, says m. de baudoncourt, did not drink tea. each one carried his knife when invited to dinner anywhere. for breakfast in the morning, a small crust of bread moistened in cognac sufficed. in the province of quebec the ancient _dîme_ (tithe) still exists. it consists in the twenty-sixth of all the crops. to be exempt, it is sufficient to declare that one is not a catholic. this _dîme_ is paid without difficulty and is even popular. the curé himself pays it also, in this wise: when a family has a twenty-sixth child it is taken with great pomp to the presbytery, and the curé becomes its godfather and is charged with its upbringing. the fecundity of the french canadian race is such that this method of reprisal on the curé is not rare. one of the late ministers of state was a "twenty-sixth" child, brought up by the curé of his parish.[ ] the children of the farming classes formerly did not eat at table with their parents, until after their first communion. in the families of easier circumstances, a little low table was reserved for their use; but generally the children took their meal on a log block. there were many of these in the kitchen, which was sometimes the only room the _habitant_ possessed. these logs supplied the dearth of chairs and were useful also to cut up and chop the meat upon, for the mince pies and _patés_ for feast days. it was only necessary to turn the block over, according to need.[ ] travel in this period was a very difficult matter. there were few roads and these not very passable; there were no highroads but the rivers and lakes. we have an idea of the length of a journey from quebec to montreal from the narration of franquet, who, as king's engineer, was visiting canada in . he left quebec on july th, at : p. m., and did not arrive at montreal until july th, at a. m. but he had stayed a day at three rivers, and thus the journey was only of five days' duration! however, it was very enjoyable on the intendant's gondola, for bigot was always hospitable and he wined and dined the distinguished official under the silken awnings of the cabin on his flat _bateau_. m. pouchot's "memoirs upon the late war in north america between the french and english, - ," gives a contemporary impression of value, which may fill up the gallery of pictures of montreal life before the close of the french régime. "it appears strange," he says, "from the little care and aid given to increase it, that this colony, which was so long very feeble and often ready to perish with misery, for the little help it got from france, should, notwithstanding this, have gained a population of , souls.[ ] from this we may infer that the climate is fine and the soil fertile. it is not unusual to find from grandfather to grandchildren as many as sixty persons. "the canadians are very well formed. robust, active, endure pain and fatigue admirably, and are accustomed to long and painful journeys for their trade, which they accomplish with great address and patience. these voyages are usually made very deliberately, on account of the kind of life which they lead on these occasions. they are brave, love war, and are ardent patriots. they evince a strong attachment to their mother country, and their little knowledge of the world renders them volunteer braggarts and liars, being little informed upon any subject. "there is no country where women lead a happier life than in canada. the men show them great attentions and spare them all the fatigues they can. we might also add that they deserve all this, being modest, of comely figure, vivacious in spirit and full of intrigue. it is only through them that their husbands procure employment, which puts them at ease and above the common lot. there prevails in the villages a tone of good society which we could not expect in a country so remote. they dance and demean themselves very gracefully, and this without master." before concluding this chapter we may here also quote pouchot's appreciation of the trade conditions of canada at the end of the french régime, since it supplements former notes on this head and helps us to understand the position of montreal as the center of the up-country fur trade at the end of the french régime. the trade of canada, he tells us, "is made on the king's account and by individuals. the intendant has the general direction of this business. the king has magazines at quebec, montreal, st. johns, chambly and carillon, and for the posts further up at la présentation, niagara, frontenac, the fort at the portage, at presqu'lle, rivière aux boeufs and at fort duquesne. "the magazine at quebec is a dépôt to supply that at montreal and also issues supplies for trade with our domiciliated indians, the abenakis, and others down the river. the magazine at montreal furnishes merchandises to all the posts above mentioned. its trade directly with them was but small until the king appointed a commissary. these magazines furnish all the provisions for the war, as well as for trade and for the king's service. they also in part supply the artillery. "the king has at all these places storekeepers nominated by the intendant, to whom they report direct. the intendant has under him a commissary of ordnance of the marine, who remains at montreal to attend to the details of the upper country." the writer criticizes as unsuitable for indians much of the merchandise sent out, as mirrors mounted on morocco, silk stuffs and remnants of various other fabrics, handkerchiefs, hose, and in short, all the remnants of the shops. there was much waste for the king--much reversion of his profits--but still it was a very profitable trade. "the indians gave in exchange for these goods the skins of roebucks, stags, bears, beavers, otters, pécans, squirrels, martens, lynxes, foxes, muskrats, wood-rats, wolves, caribous and moose. they trade also for bread, pork, salt, prunes, molasses, all kinds of meats and fish, bears' oil, which they value more than goose oil, and the down of aquatic birds. all these different exchanges are reduced in value to the beaver skin, which is commonly reckoned as a bottle of brandy at thirty _sols_. a pound of castor is valued at four _livres_, ten _sols_, and skins weigh from two and a half to three pounds. the price of our goods varies with the distance of the localities." the second kind of trade was carried by individuals. the posts in the interior were assigned to officers in favour. they took with them a storekeeper to trade for them. "as they had no money, they found merchants at quebec and montreal who supplied, upon credit, all the goods necessary, which they called equipping them. they agreed upon their prices, and gave peltry to the merchants in return. they had to earn profits for both parties. these officers had often to negotiate for the king with the natives near the posts and to give them goods as presents. they were paid by the intendant upon the approval and order of the governor. this occasioned many hypothecated accounts which turned to the most certain profit of these commandants, especially in time of war. "these commandants, as well as private traders, were obliged to take out licenses from the governor, which cost from four to five hundred _livres_, in order to be allowed to carry their goods to the post and to charge some effects to the king's account. this feature always presented a prominent obstacle to trade establishments of canada, as they were obliged to take out these licenses every time they wished to go into the interior of the country. the most distant posts in the northwest were the most highly coveted, on account of the abundance and low prices of peltries and the high price of goods. "a third kind of trade was followed by these traders, or coureurs de bois, who, having laden some canoes with merchandise and halving the licenses, went to the homes of the natives outside the gates of our posts, where they awaited the indians in their villages, to which they followed them, till their return from the chase, and came back after trading with their canoes laden, at considerable profit. those especially who were in condition to purchase goods at first hand made a fortune very quickly; but to do this it was necessary to determine to lead a most miserable and painful life. these different traders, upon their return to france, might show an amount of , , _livres_." [illustration: houses of the latter part of the french regime, on st. gabriel, st. therese and st. vincent streets, still standing after a process of gradual modernization] note the development of the parish church the parish church, being the center of many of the activities of the small community, deserves special mention, as its history affords students of manners and customs interesting glimpses of the period. the new parish church was not finished till . examination of the records of the church will supplement the previous chapters of "sidelights" of the spirit and practices of the time. , april th, there is a donation to the church of a miraculous statue of the blessed virgin by m. de fancamp, with a certificate of a miracle operated in his presence by the said image. , mm. charles lemoyne, of longueuil, and jacques leber, merchants, give a lamp of silver of the weight of ten marks, or about the value of _livres_ of french money. , june th, there is the blessing of a bell, given by m. l'abbé? pierre chevrier, baron de fancamp, january, . in there is a record on july d of a deliberation on the construction of benches for the church. , january th, there is mention of increase of wages of thirty-six _livres_ for tourangeau, the bedel, on condition that he will take charge of winding the clock of the church. , march st, this is a _mandement_ of mgr. de st. vallier approving of the building of the church and inducing the marguilliers to undertake the construction of a tower and a choir. in pierre leber, _bourgeois_, of montreal, touched with the particular devotion to the blessed anne, mother of the blessed virgin, formed the design of building, in her honour, a chapel outside the town on the common, and having addressed himself for that purpose to m. dollier de casson, superior of the seminary, he was granted an arpent square on may , , and the chapel was built. the place was known as st. anne's. the ruins of the chapel were to be seen in . , january th, the right of sepulture in the chapel of l'enfant jesus, built on the right hand transept of the church, was granted to the sisters of the congregation. in , at a meeting on august th, the citizens contributed the sum of , livres, of which , was from m. de belmont for the seminary, for the erection of the tower. , april th, m. de belmont, superior of the seminary, and m. yves priat, curé, made a vow to build a chapel in honor of st. roch. this was apparently built at the base of the bell tower meanwhile erected. , august th, and , , january , , record foundations for masses in perpetuity by mlle. jeanne leber, mme. jeanne dumouchel, pierre biron, merchant, the latter's husband, and m. françois de belmont and m. and mme. pierre biron respectively. such donations occur regularly in after years. in the organist, m. dubrisson, was given on may st, _livres_ salary for a year. , july th, there was a meeting on the subject of the tower again and the construction of a _portail_, or entrance _façade_. , august th, there is recorded a deliberation for the construction of a belfry, capable of housing four bells, the whole in cut stone, with "une flèche de charpentier couverte d'ardoise," and _livres_ were given by the citizens to the effect. , june th, at a meeting of the church wardens it is determined that the belfry cannot be placed in front of the church but on the southeast, and that one shall be made to the right of the _portail_ similar to the first one. this was approved by the citizens on june st. , june th, there is a change of opinion recorded. at a meeting of wardens and citizens it was resolved that the belfry should not be continued on the southeast corner, but on the northwest. this regulation was never afterwards changed. , february th, a contract for masonry was made with one jourdain for the construction of a belfry. , june th, nicholas bourdeau is named the second bedel in place of the late quenneville, first bedel, with _livres_ salary; he is to furnish besom brushes, water for the blessed waters at easter and pentecost, to clear away the spider webs, to make visits every evening around the church, to close the door well and finally to do all that the late quenneville did; he is to see after the payment of bench dues under the marguilliers, to sweep the church, to take care to close the doors well morning and evening, to sound the "angelus" and ring the bells in times of thunder storms. , may st, the benches in the rood loft are to be let for hire, ten _livres_ for the first row, those four behind, one _livre_ less in proportion for each until the last; moreover, ten _livres_ are to be charged for their making. on the same day a _capot_ and vest of kazamet, valued at forty-five _livres_, was to be given to the organist, caron, each year. , june th, the tower is commenced, but as the rain and bad weather are damaging it and funds are low for affairs, a loan of money is to be obtained. , may st, a sieur pierre latour, a founder, engages to make a bell for the parish of the weight of , pounds, or thereabouts, the "fabrique" furnishing him the materials and paying him besides _livres_ in addition to his salary of fifteen _francs_ a month until the work is finished. , september th, the same engages to make another bell on similar terms. , january th, it is agreed that there shall be a canvass for the building of st. amable chapel. , february th, a chapel to st. anne parallel to that of st. amable is determined, upon the ground chosen for burial purposes. [illustration: notre dame church] [illustration: portal of notre dame] [illustration: plan of notre dame reference: a. choir. b. nave. c. chapel dedicated to the infant jesus. d. chapel dedicated to st. joseph. e. chapel dedicated to st. ann. f. chapel dedicated to st. amable. g. tower built in , steeple erected in , cross erected in . h. chapel dedicated to souls of purgatory.] , march th, it is agreed that the chapel of st. anne shall extend from the apse of the st. joseph chapel to the tower which serves as a belfry, that it shall have three casements similar to those of the tower and of the same height, a doorway below four feet long, the window sashes glazed and fixed with iron fittings, with timber work, covering and vault following the plan given by sieur anger; that it shall have a cellar of the length and breadth of the chapel, dug eight feet below with a stone vaulting, with an opening to pass the bodies to be buried there, and to be whitewashed above; that the excavation shall be transported to the "new cemetery" or the hôtel dieu cemetery, as the second burial place was sometimes called. , february th, there shall be a chapel joining the church of this parish on the cemetery side when the chapel of st. amable is built, following the plan and arrangement made with sieur labrosse. december th, périnault _dit_ le marche, the organist, is given the sum of thirty _livres_ annually. , april th, an agreement is made with dominique janson de la palme for the windows of the church in consideration of francs for each window. , june th, the nomination occurs of pierre compe, second bedel, in place of the defunct mongineau, chief bedel, without other salaries and perquisites. december th, the sacristy is to be lengthened. , may st, a "suisse," or head porter, shall be appointed for the guardianship of the church. , september th, an indication of war alarms is seen in the authorization of m. thomas dufy desaulniers to have brought over from france the tapestry hangings for the _reposoire_ for holy thursday, but if war is declared he is not to have them come. for the year the parish church, commenced in , being found too small, a larger one was thought of and the principal citizens, in view of building a church of feet in length, agreed among themselves to buy certain lands (afterwards bought in ). it was agreed on january , , at a meeting of the church wardens, that a suitable place for the church would be the place d'armes, and that it would be necessary to buy another place for the place d'armes;[ ] that opposite the jesuit residence there were several pieces of land belonging to private individuals, among others a plot of about sixty feet frontage and eighty feet in depth belonging to mlle. demuy. the place d'armes then commenced in the middle of what was afterwards st. james street and occupied the site on which the bank of montreal and the royal trust buildings stand in . the war interrupted their building projects till . the intervening poverty caused by their losses and the departure of many of their rich parishioners was a cause of the delay. footnotes: [ ] the governor of montreal was jean baptiste roch de ramezay, - . charles le moyne, second baron, received his commission in and governed till . in he acted as administrator of the colony till the appointment of de vaudreuil. [ ] comte de la galissonière acted as governor for de la jonquière in captivity; the latter undertook the government of the colony from to . [ ] this was the general hospital first established by the charon frères and taken over by madame d'youville in . [ ] there was a brewery in montreal near the fort before the arrival of talon and there were private breweries for homemade beer elsewhere, but it is to talon's initiative that breweries on a commercial basis and on a larger scale were started as a means of making use of the superfluous wheat after harvest and to counteract the disorders caused by the traffic of _eau de vie_, by making a less harmful drink manufactured for more general consumption. in the sovereign council gave the monopoly of selling beer for ten years to those who should establish breweries, though it left the liberty of families making their own for private consumption. [cf. faillon, histoire de la colonie française, vol. iii.] [ ] les anciens canadiens--p. a. de gaspé. [ ] "histoire populaire du canada," by jacques de baudoncourt. [ ] les anciens canadiens.--p. a. de gaspé. [ ] this is erroneous. [ ] the site contemplated was that afterwards bought. it was described in by roy portelance, toussaint peltier (père) and charles coté (père) as situated on the place d'armes, containing a frontage of feet and of depth, stretching from fortification lane bounded on one side by mr. dillon's house and on the other by dr. leodel's. on this ground there was built a house in stone of two stories covered in white metal, of sixty feet frontage, thirty-two in depth, with other houses in wood. chapter xxxvii education--primary, secondary and technical a record from to french pronunciation--school for girls--the congregation--boarding schools--schools of domestic economy--normal schools--schools for boys--abbe souart first schoolmaster--the first association of teachers--school books--books on pedagogy--latin schools, the high schools of the period--latin books--attempt at a classical college--failure--technical education--jean franÇois charon--the general hospital--arts and manufactures--les freres charon--a normal school for canada at rochelle projected--frere turc goes to st. domingo--the brothers of the christian schools invited twice to come to canada--brother denis and pacificus in montreal--the freres charon in evil days--the hospital transferred to madame d'youville. at various points in this story there has been indicated the first beginnings of the educational system of montreal under the french régime. we may now present a short _résumé_ of the various systems in vogue from to . we have seen that the education began with marguerite bourgeoys in a very humble way, such as was needed in a community composed mainly of the children of labourers, mechanics and soldiers; for there were few of the _bourgeois_ class, and less of the gentry. many there were of the first colonists who could not read or write, a fact not to be wondered at, from those who came from small provincial towns or country places in the days when the three r's were rare. yet they were not ignorant or unpolished, for great care was taken in their choice. it must, also, be fairly conceded from an examination of their signatures that a good number could read, write and count.[ ] even their french accent was not barbarous. it seems to have preserved a singular purity, although naturally marked with an admixture of the patois of normandy, and of the northern districts of maine and poitou. yet a surprising democratic uniformity seems to have arisen in their speech which struck talon in , as it did also subsequent serious writers such as leclerc, charlevoix and la potherie. a similar uniformity in speaking english among canadians of diverse national origins is noticed by those coming from england today. although some attempt at teaching had been made as early as at three rivers by the recollect lay brother, pacifique duplessis, and at tadoussac by father joseph le caron about the same time, the first regular school in the colony was opened in quebec, in , by the inhabitants, who built a schoolhouse near the fort, under the auspices of the jesuits, lejeune, lalemant and de quen. the latter was replaced in by davost. we mention these since all but lalemant later served the montreal mission. in the jesuits established their college at quebec for primary instruction in the first instance to young french and indian children. this was the origin of the "petites écoles" of canada. later, latin, grammar, mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy were added to the college course.[ ] school for girls school was not begun in montreal till , when the first schoolmistress, marguerite bourgeoys, assisted by soeur pacaud, opened her school in a stable given by m. de maisonneuve. till that date there had been no children of school age, and marguerite had remained four years after her arrival in charge of the governor's domestic affairs, waiting to fulfill the mission of teaching she had come upon. the first school certainly was a mixed one of boys and girls. later, the sulpicians taught the boys about at the earliest date. in the autumn of she went to france to obtain other teachers, and in the meantime handed over her work to two of the "hospitalières de québec" sisters, de la nativité and st. paul, who came to take charge of the hospital during the absence of jeanne mance, who was accompanied by marguerite bourgeoys. the three new workers for the schools of montreal were sisters chatel, crolo and raisin. on may , , permission was given by bishop laval to the teachers to instruct children throughout his diocese. the beginning of the congregation of notre dame as a teaching order now must be noticed. in the foundress visited france again and obtained letters patent for her congregation from the king, dated may, , and registered at the parliament on june th following. it was not till august , , that laval formally approved of the congregation. on june th following the sisters of the mother house accepted the rules drawn up for them by bishop de st. vallier and on august th following the missionary sisters, established at the island of orleans and of château richer, accepted the same community rules. a regulation of to the missionary sisters states that "although the sisters ought to teach the children gratuitously, they may, however, take twenty _sols_ a year from them to furnish the latin and french books necessary, for which they shall pay each year on entrance. the children shall furnish, also, the wood to maintain the school fires. the origin of boarding schools may be traced to the same date, for in consideration of their great poverty the sisters could take _pensionnaires_ if they could find suitable accommodations which would give them a more easy means of livelihood." mgr. de laval wrote in that the sisters were teaching in montreal and other places. faillon interprets this as including the parishes of champlain and batiscan. the house at champlain was burned in . the school of pointe aux trembles was established about . lachine had its school about , the ile d'orleans, in . another form of education undertaken was through the formation of the "congregation of extern girls" beyond school age, who met on sundays for religious instruction. in on the occasion of a visit to montreal of bishop de st. vallier the sisters were then teaching more than twenty older girls in domestic arts, to enable them to earn their living in service. this may be accounted the origin of the "écoles ménagères" or schools of domestic economy. in this same year the governor of new france, denonville, recommended to the minister in france that the sisters could commence some manufactures "if you would have the goodness to make them some subsidy." the origin of the normal school for girls may be traced to the novitiate which was now preparing future teachers for montreal and the rural districts of the province. to aid the community in their work, bishop de st. vallier gave a perpetual grant on september , , of _livres_ of france, or of this country, to aid the communities to furnish teachers in the other parishes. this was followed by additional grants. in the sisters were called by st. vallier to quebec where, besides managing a house of charity, they established a free school in the lower town to supplement the education given by the ursulines, working, however, outside the class at female occupations to support themselves. the sisters remained in quebec till , when the siege forced them to return to montreal. their convent in lower town was burned and it was not till that they returned to lower town. schools for boys the date of origin of the schools for boys in montreal is in some doubt. the sulpicians came in . but the abbé faillon in his "histoire de la colonie française au canada" says that marguerite bourgeoys taught the boys at her school till about . it is almost certain that the abbé souart was what he loved to sign himself, "superior of the seminary of montreal, first curé of the town and the first schoolmaster of this country," doubtless meaning montreal district, for already the jesuits had been schoolmasters in quebec since . the good abbé was superior of the seminary from to , he was curé from to and the manuscript of the seminary cited by jacques viger bears out that "m. souart during his superiority, made several foundations, among others the steps for the commencement of the establishment of _les petites écoles_." in an act of he is spoken of as the former curé of notre dame of this town, "who formed (_a fait_) the first schools of this place." let him, therefore, have the credit of the first schoolmaster of montreal under the french régime. he was, however, assisted in the formation of the schools by two sulpicians, mm. guillaume bailly and mathieu ranuyer, who arrived after some time. m. bailly was charged with the mountain mission. six years later, in , m. rémy, a subdeacon, came from france to teach. m. barthélemy, a priest, also helped for a time. m. certin arrived in , m. de la faye in , and both taught in the school. about there was talk of a boarding school for scholars from afar. m. certin, who died in , seems to have been the director, urging this with m. tronson, the superior in paris. in there was the first attempt at a new school commission, which was to carry on the existing schools or others if judged convenient, through the formation of an association of citizens of ville marie. the associates were mathurin rouiller, nicholas barbier, philibert roy, an ecclesiastical student, and jacob thomolet. the object was favoured by the sulpicians, who seemed to have desired to found schools to be taught by others than themselves. hence it was that in the act of september th we find m. souart giving , _livres_, and m. de la faye a half _arpent_ of land with a house on it (in fact, his own schoolhouse and grounds on notre dame street opposite the seminary) to sieur mathurin rouiller, a devoted and pious man of exemplary life, and his associates, who would all seem to have acted as schoolmasters. this association did not succeed longer than seven years, for by october , , all the school grounds, properties and furnishings were returned to the gentlemen of st. sulpice. the abbé chaigneau now took the direction. m. antoine forget, a simple tonsured cleric, who arrived in july, , and left for france in , taught during these fourteen years. he was followed in by m. jean jacques talbot, a cleric in minor orders, who taught for about forty years. m. jean girard, a simple tonsured cleric, arrived in and died here february , . during this forty years, besides teaching he was the parish organist and choirmaster. besides these teachers named there were others, either simple clerics or laymen, who furthered the work of the director of the _petites écoles_. the schools were opened gratuitously, but the public were invited to give voluntary subscriptions, and for the purpose the syndic, accompanied by the clerk of justice, made a canvass of private persons each year. if it was not successful the seminary supplied the deficit. (faillon, "histoire de la colonie française," vol. iii, page .) since there was no printing press in canada, the books used in the schoolrooms were brought over from france, such as the "petit alphabet," the "grand alphabet;" then the psalter and the "pensées chretiennes," the "introduction to a devout life;" for the more advanced, books on pedagogy, politeness, and deciphering of manuscripts and contracts. the last two were important branches of a finished education in the days when printing was undeveloped. a note found in the papers of the late abbé verreau tells us that in and the gentlemen of the seminary received from france alphabets, psalters, and offices of the blessed virgin and numerous copies of "l'instruction de la jeunesse" and "l'instruction chretienne" for the girls. on the list of for m. talbot, schoolmaster at montreal, there were twelve copies "l'ecole paroissiale." this was a handbook on pedagogy for teachers. while some of these may have been for the sisters of the congregation, it was likely that others were for his assistant teachers or the masters of branch schools for boys which were doubtless being established in the rural parishes, following the example of lachine, which already had its schools before . probably there was a little school at contrecoeur, boucherville, longueuil, or pointe aux trembles, served by the sulpicians, which needed a guide book for the school, in the curé's presbytery, taught by himself or by a pious layman. the education was of a simple character, with religion playing a dominant part in it. latin schools in addition to the primary education of the _petites écoles_, there were latin schools. these classes were started by the jesuits in quebec about and were introduced by them into montreal about , at least after they had taken up their residence in . about the sulpicians were anxious also to undertake the work, but as the jesuits were already in the field, such work being in their institute, the project of regular latin classes was abandoned. yet the teaching of latin was in time included in their courses. gervais lefebre, a young man of eighteen years, entered the seminary of quebec in , after having made his course of humanities and a year of philosophy with the gentlemen of the seminary of montreal. the account books of the seminary of quebec for show that this year six "rudiments," four "methods," six "phèdre" and a dozen "despanticière" were sent to the seminary of montreal. in the latter in obtaining from france its own books received the letters of cicero, a dozen rudiments, six "imitation of christ" in latin. the latin teachers in the beginning were probably the clerics who taught the primary schools, such as m. léonard chaigneau, françois vachon de belmont, mathieu ranuyer, pierre rémy, antoine forget, jean jacques talbot, and jean girard. later the latin class was intrusted to the priests, among whom were guillaume chambon, jean claude methevet, mathieu guillon, charles de metry creitte, and jean baptiste curatteau.[ ] the jesuits had been permitted by bishop de st. vallier to found on august , , a residence in montreal. it was their ambition to reproduce here their successful college courses started so humbly in . in , as we learn from two letters of the jesuit, père claude de la chauchetière, written from montreal, in the months of august and september, there was an attempt to found a classical college. already, at least for a year, school had been kept by him for fifteen scholars and some grown-up young officers of the troops. but funds were scarce and he needed teachers, for he says that he himself expected to be necessary for the missions and might be called away any time. at this time there were only two or three jesuits available for the church, residence, and the care of transient indians, as well as for the direction of the first congregation of men erected canonically in their church under the title of the assumption of our lady.[ ] father de la chauchetière's letter of september , , tells us: "i am here like a bird on a branch, ready to fly on the first opportunity.... we have a kind of college here which is not founded. i have some scholars who are good _cinquiesmes_, but i have others who have beards on their chins, to whom i teach marine and fortification, and other mathematical subjects. one of my scholars is a pilot in the fleet going north.[ ] we are very badly housed as far as the buildings are concerned, but we have a very good view, on an _arpent_ of land outside the town. our church is about half an _arpent_ distant from us. the garden is between us and to get to the church we are exposed to the rain, the wind and the snow, because we have no means of building. we ask our reverend superior only for a little building of twenty feet at the end of the church, but he has no means of helping us." [illustration: the jesuits' convent] this "kind of a college" having no funds but maintained at the expense of the jesuits, never rose beyond the dignity of a latin school, with the added splendour of teaching a few of his majesty's pilots. for thirty-three years, the jesuits allowed the i that they had caressed for a while, a college like that of quebec, to slumber. although the view was good, funds were scarce and father de la chauchetière went to his dear savages again. in the inhabitants, desirous of a classical college in their town, to avoid sending their boys to quebec for the purpose, petitioned the governor, beauharnois. their preamble shows that all the population, "military officers, law officers, the _bourgeoise_, the merchants and the inhabitants, moved very keenly by the ignorance and laziness of their children that had given rise to lamentable disorders, have recourse to you to pray you, humbly and very urgently, to second their good intentions, by procuring them the means of maintaining youths in order, and of inspiring them with those sentiments of submission necessary to render these children, at the same time good servants of the king, as well as of god." the petition then prays for the choice of the jesuits for the purpose and for government subsidy for the foundation. this request was well received by beauharnois, who transmitted it to the minister, at the same time announcing that the intendant dupuy would join to the common letter, a memorial of the jesuits on the same subject. this the intendant did not choose to send. indeed, he wrote discountenancing the expenditure on the ground that it was better to complete the courses at quebec before establishing another college at montreal, thus avoiding two imperfect foundations. he had a brilliant alternative. "unless," he wrote, "you should so arrange that the classes wanting at quebec should be supplied at montreal, which would give the youths the opportunity of seeing the whole of the colony and forming connections, by those of montreal going to quebec to commence their course or those from quebec finishing at montreal, or _vice-versa_, if the contrary was more expedient." on may , , maurepas wrote to beauharnois that the enterprise of the college at montreal would be too burdensome on the king. in beauharnois with the intendant hocquart again exerted his efforts to obtain a subsidy for a classical course at montreal under the control of the jesuits, but in vain. in hocquart, seeing that he could not get all he asked, determined to ask for less and advised the appointment by the government of a technical master at quebec and montreal to teach geometry, fortification and geography to the cadets who were not able to follow the courses already in vogue at both places. this failed again. thus the college of the jesuit residents never rose beyond the dignity of a latin school, or the high school of the period.[ ] technical education at montreal the beginning of technical education in montreal must be attributed to jean françois charon, the founder of the _frères hospitaliers de st. joseph de la croix_, who was born at quebec, where he was baptized on september , . he was blessed with a considerable fortune for the time, which he wished to consecrate to the relief of the sick, the weak and orphans. as far back as it was his desire to found a hospital for this purpose and he gathered around him among other associates pierre leber, brother of the recluse, and jean fredin. on october , , he had conceded to him by dollier de casson, under private seal, a piece of ground on which to found a house of charity. in the king had by letters patent, given permission for the establishment at quebec and in other places where they were necessary, a general hospital and houses of charity. montreal was not slow in availing themselves of this privilege. champigny, writing to the minister in november, , says: "the establishment of a hospital at montreal with the king's permission, has started with the building of a very fine house to which sieur charon, the principal founder, has joined two good farms which will support eighty to one hundred persons. this will effect all the good that can be desired, in instructing the young and in employing them in manufactures and in teaching them trades. as they have expressed a wish to commence next spring a brickyard near their house, i believe that you will not disapprove of the permission given by me to a soldier, a tiler and brickmaker to work there." the letters patent for m. charon's hospital, signed by the king in , on the request of bishop st. vallier, frontenac and de champigny specifically adds to the hospital aims that of teaching trades to the young. five years later, in , new letters patent were granted, permitting the establishment of art manufactures and handicrafts in the house and inclosure of the hospital brothers of montreal. thus it is clearly seen that charon laid great stress on the technical educational side of his charitable work. he cannot, however, claim to be the pioneer of technical education in canada. laval must be ever remembered in this regard. he had solemnly opened the _petit séminaire_ at quebec on october , , with thirteen scholars, seven french and six savages, out of which he desired to find candidates for a native clergy. he quickly found that some were not apt for study or the ecclesiastical state and he bethought himself of establishing a second course where the pupils might learn to earn their livelihood. a school of "_arts et métiers_" of considerable importance for the time, grew up simultaneously, both at the seminary and at its country branch of st. joachim at cap tourment where the bishop owned two farms and to which boys were sent for their elementary education and to apply themselves to those works to which they showed the greatest aptitude. in mgr. de st. vallier in the absence of mgr. laval and with the assistance of denonville, had great schemes for the aggrandizement of st. joachim as a classical college also, but after a year's trial it came to naught. on his return in , laval reverted to his original plan of st. joachim as mainly a technical school and in founded six burses for its pupils. by it appears to have been, properly speaking, an agricultural school or a model farm. by it became both an elementary and a latin school and continued as such till the end of the french domination, whether it maintained its purpose as a school of _arts et métiers_ not being so certain. in at st. joachim the "arts and métiers" were flourishing with joinery, sculpture, painting, gilding, etc. there were tailors, shoemakers, edged-tool makers, sawyers, tilers, etc., engaged to teach their trades to the young students. when charon and his associates were planning their hospital and school, they had st. joachim in view as an ideal to reproduce in montreal. they essayed also to make it a normal school to form teachers for the rural parishes and in this they were seconded by the intendant, raudot, who wrote in , in their favour for government support. in passing, it may be noted that in , at least, the charon frères were teaching navigation and fortification. unfortunately at this time other matters, concerning the _frères hospitaliers_ as a body having pretentions to be recognized as a religious community, began to occupy the attention of france. the minister, de pontchartrain, ordered raudot to publish an ordinance as he did on december , , enjoining the _hospitaliers_ to quit their religious uniform, the black _capot_, the silk _ceinture_ and the _rabat_ and to take no vows, those being declared null, already made. they were to be only laymen living in a community. there was great opposition at this time to the multiplication of religious orders of the more severe types. on june , , we find that the king expressed, through the minister, his desire that the sisters of the congregation should not be cloistered, as he thought this would render him less useful. he also hears that the hospitaliers of the general hospital under m. charon wished to take a religious uniform and that they are wearing the rabat and taking simple vows. he desires that this shall cease. later, on may , , the king still refuses their insistent demand for recognition as a religious fraternity, on the grounds that their letters patent were granted on the condition that they should take no vows. in the charon brothers, assisted by the sulpicians, opened a school for boys at pointe aux trembles, near montreal. in , however, the marine department came tardily to their assistance and decided to allow a sum of , livres for the maintenance of the public school of the hospital, and that of six masters for the parishes of the diocese, and on july , , announced to bégon that the funds for this purpose were to be taken from those originally allotted since for the encouragement of marriages. in and françois charon was in paris and he then preferred a request to the king to confirm by letters patent a normal school to be taught by a religious community to be settled at rochelle to train up teachers for canada. this community, not named, was undoubtedly the sons of st. john baptiste de la salle, or the brothers of the christian schools. indeed the abbé guibert in his "histoire de st. jean baptiste de la salle" tells us that two days after certain brothers had been designated for this far off mission and their passage money paid, the permission was cancelled, one of the contributing causes being that it was learned from m. charon, that de la salle's brothers would be separated throughout the parishes, an idea militating directly against the spirit of community life. the normal school at rochelle was not realized. in the autumn of , while bringing over six teachers from france, on the chameau, françois charon died on the vessel. his loss was a great blow to his institute. his name should be ever held in respect. frère turc was now nominated superior by bishop de st. vallier and the sulpicians made it possible for schools to be opened in their parishes of pointe aux trembles, boucherville, longueuil, batiscan and three rivers. but although vaudreuil, the governor, and bégon, the intendant, may have, in , looked propitiously on the needfulness of the scheme, it was left to de ramezay to vilify the brothers. on october , , the governor of montreal wrote in exaggerated terms to the council of the marine department that the new teachers were mostly inefficient and incapable, neglectful of their duties to the children and to the eleven old men in the hospital, consuming the goods of the poor instead of being at work in the parishes as expected, that three of those brought by m. charon had left the community and those remaining were as worthless. he concluded by asking that the money granted up to this time to the frères charon should be given to the nuns of the hôtel dieu. in spite of de ramezay's protest the grant of , _livres_ accorded since , was ratified on march , , viz., that _livres_ should be paid annually for the support of eight teachers, two in the hospital, six in the parishes. the instruction was free though voluntary contributions were allowable from the inhabitants to supplement the grant. in the spring of the home government, taking interest in the movement, gave a passage on the king's ship to twelve men for the service of the hospital and the schools. on their arrival they were distributed according to the orders of brother chretien turc, now superior. in spite of this apparent progress, a rumour was prevalent in canada that the charon frères were about to be suppressed by the court. this was due to the imprudence of brother chretien, who, having gone to france to renew the question of a normal school at la rochelle, was accused of escaping[ ] his financial embarrassments caused by the loan raised by him in the name of his community by fleeing from his creditors to the spanish portion of the isle of st. domingo. the charon brothers began now to lose the confidence of the people, although they were sustained by the bishop and the continuance of the government grant. even this was withdrawn in on the alleged grounds of inefficiency in carrying out the duties for which it was given. in a second futile attempt was made to induce the brothers of the christian schools to come to canada. indeed, brothers denis and pacificus came to montreal to survey the situation. at last, on october , , the two remaining brothers of the moribund institute asked to be relieved of the direction of the hospital. this was acceded to in . the last superior, michel andré, died in june and on august th following, by a regulation of the bishop, the governor and the intendant, the charge of the hospital was transferred to madame d'youville, who became the foundress of the grey nuns, who still continue the work to this day. the people received the change as inevitable. the charon frères had outlived their usefulness. françois charon deserves well of montreal. he initiated a system admirably progressive for the time. had his followers been as self-sacrificing and as competent as their founder, the noble work he planned would not have fallen on evil days. none the less, their work does not meet from some modern french historians the just appreciation it undoubtedly received from competent authors in its early flourishing days. [illustration: madame d'youville] [illustration: the hospital general after the first additions by madame d'youville] [illustration: the hospital general under the charon freres] footnotes: [ ] garneau, histoire du canada, edit. of , vol. ii, page ; joseph edmond roy, histoire de la seigneurie de lauson, vol. i, page ; benjamin suite, histoire de la ville de trois rivières, vol. i, page ; phileas gagnon, recensements du canada, , vol. iv. the student of the educational system of new france should consult the work by m. l'abbé amédée gosselin of laval university, quebec, entitled "l'instruction au canada sous le régime français." [ ] harvard was founded in . on october , , the general court of boston voted pounds sterling for the foundation of a school destined for ministers. john harvard arrived in . he died in , leaving a legacy to the school, founded two years previously, of four to five hundred pounds sterling and his library. [ ] it was this latter, who was afterwards, under the english rule, to be the first superior at the _petit séminaire_, opened officially in as the classical college of st. raphael, the foundations of which he had laid at his presbytery at longue pointe. st. raphael's college is continued under the name of the "college de montreal" situated on sherbrooke street, adjoining the _grand séminaire_, both being on the historical site of the mountain mission. [ ] this still flourishes in its various branches in the parishes of montreal. [ ] in an expedition was being prepared for hudson's bay, but the voyage being long, it was thought good to give the officers a professor of mathematics to occupy them on their way. father de la chauchetière was thought of, but eventually another jesuit, father de silvy, an excellent mathematician, was chosen. [ ] in under the british régime the society was suppressed by the papal brief "dominus ac redemptor." gradually the members became extinct in canada. the last of the number in montreal, whose death was registered in , was father j. b. well, celebrated for the length of his sermons, as well as for his goodness of heart. the last jesuit in quebec was father casot, who died in . the jesuit estates then were annexed by the crown. it was not till that the second attempt at a clerical college was made with success when the jesuits rehabilitated, as an order, after having been recalled to canada by bishop ignace bourget of montreal, commenced the present college of ste. marie on bleury street, which was not ready for occupation till . a school was, however, opened in in a frame house still standing in on the southeast corner of st. alexander and dorchester streets. the church of the gesu on bleury street was not opened for service till december , . [ ] in justice to chretien turc it must be said that his object was rather to raise funds by embarking on a mercantile project so as to restore the fortunes of the montreal hospital. here he failed again, being a man of good heart, but of no business capacity. he left an honoured name in st. domingo as a worker in charitable causes, but he begged to be relieved of the financial responsibility. chapter xxxviii the general hospital of montreal under madame d'youville madame d'youville--timothee de silvain--confraternity of the holy family--"soeurs grises"--perseverance through opposition--fire of --provisional control of hospital--attempt to annex the general hospital to that of quebec--the "grey nuns" formerly approved as "sisters of charity." it was only in that the tottering fortunes of the _hôpital général_ were handed over to madame d'youville, but she had long before been designated for this work by m. louis normant du faradon, who had become the superior of the seminary as the successor of m. de belmont, who died on may , . this lady who now enters into the life of montreal deserves more than passing notice. marie marguerite de lajemmerais was born at varennes, near the island of montreal, on october , . her father, christophe dufrost de lajemmerais, or la gesmerais, a breton _gentil homme_, came to new france in and served bravely as an ensign under de denonville against the iroquois, when he risked his life a number of times and escaped being burned alive by the savages. he was raised to the lieutenancy and under frontenac he became the commandant of cataracoui. in , on january , he married marie renée de varennes, daughter of rené gauthier de varennes, who died governor of three rivers, and granddaughter of pierre boucher de boucherville. marie marguerite was the first of six children left at the death of captain la gesmerais, in , in poor circumstances. the widow was married to an irish gentleman of the name of timothée de silvain (or sullivan), who had received his letters of naturalization and an honorary brevet as king's physician in . he accordingly practiced medicine in montreal to the satisfaction of the seminary and the general public and with the favour of his patron, m. de vaudreuil. but on the latter's death the other doctors of canada disputed his right to practice, but unsuccessfully. m. de silvain as a good irishman got into trouble with the sieur de monrepos, the justice of montreal, , and a warrant for his arrest was issued. but owing to the mediation of his brother-in-law, captain of the guard, m. de varennes, he escaped. but de varennes was permanently deprived of his command in consequence. whatever his qualities as a medical man, madame de vaudreuil, writing to the minister of marine in , in favor of a cadetship for the youngest of his stepsons, states that m. de silvain had been a true father and had spared no efforts to give the children an education. on august , , marie marguerite de lajemmerais married, in the parish church, a gentleman of montreal, m. françois madeleine you d'youville. it was an unhappy marriage, ending in great poverty through the dissipation and extravagance of the husband who died unexpectedly on july , , after eight years of married life, leaving considerable debts, and two boys. three other children had already died and a fourth died a little after its birth, on july , . the widow d'youville in her grief, without neglecting the education of her children, found consolation in devoting herself to the poor, especially of the hospital of the charon frères. in addition she gave proof of executive ability as a member of the ladies of the confraternity of the holy family, as treasurer, assistant and superior. such qualities pointed her out to m. lescöat, her sulpician director, and to m. normant, who succeeded him, as the one who could save the utter decay of the hospital. in madame d'youville associated with herself in her charitable work for the poor a virtuous girl, louise thaumur lasource, a daughter of a physician of the town, to whom were added on december st two others, mademoiselle demers and mademoiselle cusson. these finally on october , , having rented a house, undertook the care of four or five poor persons, whose numbers soon rose to six. this move met opposition in certain quarters since it was shrewdly guessed that it was the intention of the seigneurs of the seminary, the directors of the new formation, to prepare this band of women to succeed to the care of the hospital. on all saints' day, november st, as they were leaving their new home, the women were subjected to insults and stone throwing. the foul calumny was quickly insinuated that they supported themselves by selling intoxicating liquors to the savages and were not above indulging in them themselves. hence they called them the _soeurs grises_, the word, _grises_, besides meaning grey, also conveying the approbrious suggestion of drunkenness. in france the name "soeurs grises" was given to the devoted daughters of saint vincent de paul, whose grey habits were familiar among the poor and wretched. it was an honoured name. but in montreal the wits used it in another sense. time has since had its revenge. the hubbub was so great that one of the recollect fathers publicly refused holy communion to madame d'youville and her companions. a petition signed by m. boisberthelot de beaucourt, the governor of montreal, by eight officers of the troops and twenty others, was sent to m. maurepas, minister of marine, protesting the action being taken by m. normant in preparing to seize the house for the soeurs grises as soon as the hospital should cease. they prayed the minister to engage the brothers of the christian schools to incorporate the remaining hospital brothers into their institute and thus perpetuate the institution, now ready to close for want of subjects. the sons of de la salle could not accept canada, as we have seen. unless the sulpicians trained up madame d'youville's devoted band, none others were forthcoming to continue the hospital and it must inevitably close. and as to the seminary seizing on the property of the charon frères, this was but rightful, as m. tronson, the superior of the seminary of st. sulpice at paris, in the original donation of the vast amount of ground for their institution had stipulated that if the hospital should cease, the lands and the buildings thereon should revert to the seigneurs, unless the brothers should prefer to reimburse the price of the land. this had now become impossible. meanwhile the four ladies pursued their course, providing the means of sustenance for themselves and their poor by their own needlework till death struck down mademoiselle cusson on february , . to add to her afflictions madame d'youville was afflicted with a knee trouble for six or seven years, which kept her inactive to her chair. hardly had she recovered when on the last day of january, , an hour after midnight, the house was burned down to the delight of her enemies, who according to her biographer, m. sattin, exclaimed: "you see that violet flame? it is caused by the burning of the _eau de vie_ kept for the savages." the fire drew the sisterhood nearer to one another and on february d, by an act passed before m. normant, they put all their goods in common and drew up a religious rule of life. a house was offered them by a rich trader, m. fontblanche, but this the governor, m. de beaucourt, seized on as more suitable for himself. a charitable madame lacorne offered her house, but this was shortly afterwards relinquished for a more commodious one near the parish church to house the three ladies and their nine poor dependants. meanwhile, things were going from bad to worse at the _hôpital général_, so that at last the administrators of the hospital by letters of august , , handed over the provisional control to madame d'youville, one of the conditions being that the two remaining hospital brothers should be cared for. this happened under the governor general, the marquis de beauharnois, and intendant hocquart. the work of making the sadly needed repairs to the dilapidated buildings occupied september and on october th madame d'youville and her companions took up residence. these latter were _mlles_, thaumur, demers, rainville, laforme, verroneau and _mlle._ despuis, who remained nine years as a boarder. the hospital now began to realize its title of _général_, for none but four old men were found there. soon the number of sick and weak began to increase of either sex without exception of age or condition and the aims of its original charter were being realized. an early side development was the establishment in the top part of the building of a refuge for fallen women, which the soldiers of the town called "jericho." but changes in government were occurring. m. de beauharnois was replaced by m. de la galissonière while awaiting the release of m. de la jonquière, detained a prisoner in england. the intendant hocquart was replaced by m. bigot. [illustration: charles de beauharnois] [illustration: comte roland-michel barrin de la galissonniere] new schemes were soon on foot, one of which was to unite the general hospital to the hôtel dieu of quebec or of montreal, or to general hospital of quebec, which latter was approved of by m. de la jonquière, recently arrived in the colony, and m. bigot, in a letter to the minister on october , . the object was to lessen expenses by curtailing the number of public institutions. but its justice did not appeal to the montrealers, who were asked to transfer their aged and sick to quebec, when the _hôpital général_ had been founded by montreal charity for the infirm of their own town. accordingly, madame d'youville and her companions, backed up by m. normant, petitioned the governor general, the intendant and the bishop, but with little success, owing to the predilection of m. bigot for the general hospital at quebec. on november , , an ordinance secretly prepared at quebec on october th, was suddenly proclaimed in montreal announcing by the sound of the drum that the transfer of the hospital to quebec was to take place and that the nuns of quebec could at once sell all the buildings, together with furniture, not easily removable to quebec, and that those who were opposed to the sale could make their protests to m. bigot with three months! a curious derangement of the usual practice. it is related that madame d'youville was out marketing for her poor when she heard the announcement, for the first time, of her downfall. the people, who by this had changed in their opinions toward the "soeur grises" murmured long and loud against this injustice to montreal in favour of quebec. a petition was drawn up by m. normant addressed to the minister and a copy was made to be sent by way of a request to the bishop, the governor general and the intendant, both being signed by the ecclesiastics of the seminary and by more than eighty notables of the town, as the head of whom were the governor, then m. de longueuil, the lieutenant of the king, the town major, the officers and the magistrates. this petition showed that the union of the hospitals of montreal and quebec was null, being contrary to the express word of louis xiv, given to the citizens in , two years before the foundation of this establishment, namely, that the hospital should subsist in perpetuity at montreal without being able to change its place or the nature of its pious work, and concluded that as the private charity of many had founded this hospital the ordinance of october th could not be legitimate. this petition madame d'youville took to quebec. but while being kindly received by the governor she received scant courtesy from m. bigot. meanwhile the case had gone to france, the quebec religious had begun to take legal possession of the hospital lands and to remove the furniture to quebec, and july, the time for the evacuation of the hospital by madame d'youville, was approaching. at last m. bigot received the letter of july , , of the minister to the governor general and the intendant, ordering the suspension of the execution of the ordinance of october , . finally on june , , letters patent were signed by the king at versailles, handing over the privileges granted in to madame d'youville and her companions to the number of twelve _administratrices_. the community received their habit, which was approved by a mandement, of mgr. de pontbriant on june , . the sisters chose the grey costume, now so familiar, and which was then known in france as "_café au lait_." they wished to preserve the name of "grey sisters" or _soeur grises_ given them first in derision. they received their formal investiture of their habits on august th at the hands of their patron, m. normant. their formal name was, however, "sisters of charity." chapter xxxix montreal, military headquarters the final struggle for supremacy--the seven years, - --the campaign of (oswego)--the winter at montreal review--celeron de bienville--de vaudreuil--montcalm--his military and household staff--de levis, bourlamaque, bougainville--chateau de vaudreuil--the meeting of montcalm and de vaudreuil--montcalm's position--the three military arms--the militia, marine, regulars--the red allies--capitulation of oswego--sacking--te deum in the parish church--the two prejuges--winter in montreal--gaming at quebec--a winter war party--social gayeties at montreal--scarcity of provisions--ships awaited. the long peace during which montreal had made great progress was at last to end. the seven years' war began formally in , when france, austria and russia entered the lists against england and prussia, and ended with the treaty of paris in . we are now to study the history of montreal in the period during which the final struggle for the mastery between the english and the french powers was being fiercely maintained. montreal played a peculiar part as the headquarters of military operations, to be directed for defence and offence, by way of lake champlain, against the heart of the british settlements. this was the most natural point of attack, as the other two routes for the invasion of canada offered little encouragement--the lower st. lawrence on the east being guarded by the natural and almost impregnable fortress of quebec, the upper st. lawrence on the west being protected by a long chain of dangerous rapids. if we delay on the events of - , it is because this was the crucial and pivotal point of canadian history and montreal was for the most part the headquarters of de vaudreuil and montcalm, who directed the military operations thence. before entering on these fateful years, let us review the situation. the treaty of aix-la-chapelle was concluded on october , . by it an official and fictitious peace ruled between england and france, but in the colonies the rival powers were still disputing the possession of territories and influence, whether in india or in america. in the latter country there were frequent skirmishes on the frontiers of acadia. in the summer of galissonière, the hump-backed but high-minded administrator general, sent out to vindicate french rights in the valley of ohio, céleron de bienville, one of the le moynes, a chevalier of st. louis and a captain in the colonial troops. leaving lachine on june th, he took with him twenty-three birchwood canoes, with fourteen officers and cadets, twenty soldiers, a hundred and eighty canadians and a band of indians, to the district of the ohio and the alleghenies, where he buried six leaden plates at various places, to mark french occupation. the same policy of vindication was followed under the sieur de la jonquière, made governor, on august th of the same year, and the marquis du quesne, succeeding him august , . this activity provoked the recriminations of virginia and the other colonies west of the alleghenies, the treacherous slaying of the young coulon de jumonville and nine of his band, on may , , being one of the events which woke up canada and france to the farcical make-believe of peace between the two nations. england was ready to declare war, but france, weakened after the austrian succession, impoverished in her finances, with a decadent marine service, immersed in religious and parliamentary troubles, and its people loaded with taxes, sought to temporize and to stave off the inevitable crisis. in the month of january, , the english government provoked the french to defend canada, by sending major general braddock, with two regiments, to command the regular and colonial troops. accordingly on may , , a squadron of fourteen ships sailed from brest, bearing about three thousand soldiers for america, under the command of admiral dubois de la motte. with the fleet were m. de vaudreuil, son of the former governor of montreal, himself now governor general elect, his appointment being dated from july oth, and the baron de dieskau, commissioned as commandant of the troops which were sent out. their journey was interrupted by the english pirates, who captured the _alcide_ and the _lis_, making prisoners of m. rigaud de vaudreuil, brother of the governor general, and himself the governor of three rivers, several officers and eight companies. similar acts of piracy, directly countenanced by the english government, were being committed on the seas, and they provoked lively indignation in france. but, although the marquis de mirepoix, the french ambassador at the court of st. james in london, was recalled and shots were being interchanged in america, so that baron de dieskau was wounded and taken prisoner at lake george by general william johnson, yet conflicting views in france between the parties led by the count d'argenson, minister of war, and m. de machault, minister of marine, delayed any decision that year. in january, , however, it became necessary to look around in france for a successor to dieskau and to prepare a new body of troops for canada, to be sent that spring. d'argenson's choice fell upon the marquis louis-joseph de montcalm, then at montpellier, a soldier of forty-four years of age, who had seen many campaigns. montcalm lost no time in arranging his staff and household retinue. since these are to figure in the life of montreal of their period, we give their names. his first _aide-de-camp_ was louis antoine de bougainville, of whom montcalm wrote in his journal: "he is a young man of light, and literary ability, a great geometrician, known for his work on the integral calculus; he belongs to the royal society of london, and aspires to the academy of sciences in paris, where he could have had a place, had he not preferred to go to america to learn the trade of war and to give proofs of his good will." he was highly recommended to the new maréchal de camp, a dignity equivalent to that of a general of brigade. bougainville was named, before leaving, _capitaine réformé_. the second _aide_ was m. de la rochebeaucour, "a gentleman of good birth from poitou, a lieutenant in montcalm's cavalry," the third, a working _aide-de-camp_, acting as secretary, was an under-officer of the flanders regiment, named marcel, a sergeant, who now became lieutenant réformé. [illustration: louis antoine de bougainville] among his household attendants he included "a cook and his assistant, a demi _valet-de-chambre_, grison, joseph, dejean, as first lacqueys, and two other men in livery." "i am going away in great style, with the young surgeons whom the king is sending." his military staff appointed by the king included, as brigadier, françois gaston, chevalier de lévis, cousin of the marquis de mirepoix, recently the french ambassador in london but now named lieutenant general of languedoc, and m. de bourlamaque as colonel. the chevalier de lévis was in his thirty-seventh year, being born in ; he had served in one of the regiments of the marine department in the campaign in bohemia in - ; he was at the battle of dettingen and took an active part in the campaigns on the rhine from to . this gallant soldier, already distinguished for his bravery and military qualities, has left his name in canadian history. colonel bourlamaque had been captain and staff adjutant in the dauphin regiment. with montcalm's staff there were also two engineers, des combles and desandrouins. [illustration: chevalier de levis] at brest, the point of departure, the two battalions of the la sarre and royal-roussillon, each composed of thirteen companies, were ready to depart, when montcalm arrived on march st, and met the _personnel_ of his staff. by the th the battalions were all embarked on three vessels. montcalm and bougainville were on the _licorne_, commanded by m. de la rigaudière, and with captain pelegrin, of whom montcalm wrote to his family before departing that "he could sail the saint lawrence with his eyes shut," the rest were distributed on the other vessels, the _sauvage_ and the _sirène_. but the _licorne_ was prevented from leaving the roadstead till april d. [illustration: marquis de montcalm] at last, after a stormy voyage, the _licorne_ reached quebec on may th, a few hours before montcalm, who, in his eagerness to reach quebec, had disembarked the day before to make the rest of the journey by _calèche_. on arriving at the capital the honours were paid to the new general by the intendant bigot in the absence of the governor de vaudreuil, then in montreal.[ ] speaking of the magnificence of the dinner and the good cheer provided by bigot, montcalm wrote in his journal that a "parisian would have been surprised at the profusion of the good things of every kind." in their turn monseigneur de pontbriand and the chevalier de longueuil and others entertained him. [illustration: mgr. henri-marie dubreuil de pontbriand] [illustration: chevalier frs-pierre de rigaud de vaudreuil] montcalm sent a courier at once to montreal to announce his arrival, but contrary winds and the bad state of the roads prevented his own departure till may d. reaching montreal on may th, he was received with courtesy by the governor general, pierre de rigaud, marquis de vaudreuil, the son of philippe de vaudreuil, governor of new france from to . he was announced with the welcome of cannon, "an honour which was not due me in france," he wrote in his journal, "but in point of honours there are particular usages in the colonies." [illustration: marquis pierre de rigaud de vaudreuil--cavagnal] the meeting was at the château de vaudreuil, the almost permanent residence of the governor since the outbreak of the war and his military headquarters during the years of - , although quebec still continued to be the capital of government and the religious vatican of canada till . montreal was thus a focus of activity, of military and social splendour, such as it had never been before. château vaudreuil was the centre of much official life and formality. staff officers, officers, soldiers and redskins, brilliant extremes in their picturesque costumes, were to be seen hurrying to and fro, the esplanade and quay fronting the château presenting a busy and ever changing coloured throng. then there was the constant arrival of fresh convoys, and the military movements of the soldiers through the streets to the sound of fife and drum. all this gave montreal an unaccustomed animation and brilliancy. with montcalm's advent there would soon arrive his own fashionable _entourage_, his household staff and his military staff from france, to add still greater _éclat_. soon, too, the regiments of la sarre and royal-roussillon would come to invade the town's resources and to add to its gayety, its love adventures and its scandal, before they were sent out to various danger points to offset the perilous war preparations now being made by the english. already the béarn regiment had been sent to niagara; those of la reine and languedoc were at carillon; guyenne was on the road to fort frontenac, whither shortly la sarre would join them. the destination of royal-roussillon regiment was not so quickly made known. the la sarre regiment left quebec in two divisions on june th and th and arrived at montreal by water on june th and th. the royal-roussillon made the journey by land, the first division leaving quebec on june th and the second on june th, reaching montreal after eight or nine days' march. relative to the water journey, an officer of la sarre thus describes the arrival at montreal: "we arrived at montreal, where m. le général awaited us, to dispose of his army. montreal is a very large town and very exposed to conflagrations, its houses being all built of wood. the 'ton français' prevails; the vocation for marriage is in favour, and there are very pretty girls who entertain us. we have already had five of our officers married. '_on y est orgueilleux quoique pauvre, et il n'y a que le particulier qui y régit des postes en état de suffire au train qu'ils menent._'" the meeting of the governor general with his commander in chief may be thus described: montcalm was a thorough frenchman, and vaudreuil a native canadian. born in quebec on november , , vaudreuil had served most of his time in this colony save when he exercised the functions of governor in louisiana from to . he was the embodiment of that _préjugé colonial_, which existed against officials from the mother country; while montcalm stood for a corresponding _préjugé métropolitain_. this antipathy was the fruitful seed of much discord, and increased the agonies of the death struggle of the french _régime_. therefore, although vaudreuil received montcalm with affability, it was not unmixed with jealousy. before the arrival of montcalm, vaudreuil had protested to the minister of war, that there was no need of a general officer from france at the head of the canadian battalions, which preferred to fight under one of their own commanders, who understood the mode of warfare suitable in this country, while those from france were disdainful of the canadian troops. this was the prevalent opinion shared by the greater part of the canadian officers. indeed, it was the ordinary conflict between colonial susceptibility and european haughtiness, not unknown even today. the interview, however, seems to have left a good impression on both sides. in the letter of vaudreuil, written to d'argenson, the minister of war, on june th, and that of montcalm to de machault, minister of marine, both express mutual admiration of one another. at the same time, writing more freely to d'argenson, his patron, montcalm says, "m. de vaudreuil pays particular _respect_ to the savages, _loves_ the canadians, knows the country, has good sense, but is tame and a little weak, and i get on well with him." vaudreuil's natural weakness for the canadians, due to his birth and education, was enhanced by his marriage with fleury de la gorgendière, a canadian, the widow of françois de verrier, an officer of the marine troops, by whom she had a son and daughter. madame de vaudreuil had no children by the second marriage, but she had many relatives in the colony and maintained the reputation of being exceedingly jealous of their advancement. what was montcalm's position? his commission, signed by louis xv, at versailles, on march , , places him in all things under "our governor general in new france," and the instructions of his majesty to montcalm are still more precise. he was to be the executive officer, with power of representation. "in a word," says his majesty, "it will be the duty of the governor general to rule and arrange everything for the military operations. the sieur de montcalm will be held to execute the orders given him. he will, however, be able to make suitable representations in accordance with the projects entrusted to his execution. but if the governor general believes he has reason sufficient, not to defer to them, and to persist in his dispositions, the sieur de montcalm will conform without difficulty or delay." this definition of duties, while it clipped somewhat the wings of the initiative of the ambitious maréchal de camp, nevertheless had the merit of clearness. let us now see the threefold composition of the forces in the little canadian army, over which vaudreuil and montcalm are to have control--the land troops, the marine and the militia forces. the militia or yeomanry forces were composed of all the male population from fifteen to sixty years of age. this was, as we know, the oldest part of the service. every parish and district had been organized in companies with _capitaines de la côte_, chosen from the most substantial men of the district, who would muster their men when required for war purposes. their dress and equipment was similar to the regular soldiers and when in service they were fed at the king's expense, but received no pay, although they had a right for remuneration when called upon for _corvées_, for convoys and transports. in the canadian militia numbered as high as , men, but, except at the end of the war, when the final crisis approached, there were never more than , in active service at once, since the necessity of having to attend to their crops made frequent returns to their parishes imperative. canada had reason to be proud of her sturdy and brave yeoman militia. the second military arm was the marine service or the marine troops. not that they served on the sea or inland waters, but they were so denominated because they were under the jurisdiction of the minister of marine affairs. this service had been in canada for over fifty years and constituted a permanent standing force, having charge of the garrisons and posts, and were employed for the defence of the frontier and the maintenance of order in the colony. most of the officers were canadian by birth; some came from france and became settled colonists here. many of the prominent explorers and military leaders had held commissions in this force. in these troops formed thirty companies of sixty-five men, making a total of , men. the third and main branch was the land troops or regulars, specially sent from france. we have seen this method pursued before in former emergencies. at present the troops in canada were the second battalions of the regular infantry belonging to the regiments, called after the names of the provinces or regions, from which they were raised, of la reine, guyenne, béarn and languedoc. these made a contingent of , men, being composed of forty-eight companies of fusiliers of forty men each, and four companies of grenadiers of forty-five men each. disasters on the voyage out, sickness, and the battle at lake george had reduced their numbers, at the arrival of montcalm, to an effective force of , men. add to these the , men belonging to the second battalions of the la sarre and royal-roussillon regiments. in the month of june, of this year , the chevalier de montreuil, major general of the troops, made the following recapitulation: la reine, men; languedoc, ; guyenne, ; béarn, ; la sarre, ; royal-roussillon, ; to which it is necessary to add volunteers and recruits, giving a total of , men, not counting the officers. such were the three forces to be directed from the military capital of montreal. montcalm, settled in montreal, had a busy time keeping his staff in constant activity, only hoping, however, for peace for that winter, which was not to be. among those whom he met constantly were m. doreil of the commissary department, the boastful and somewhat inefficient chevalier de montreuil, adjutant major general of the troops, and the notorious intendant bigot, who came from quebec to organize the provisions of the regiments and whose activity, at first, very favourably impressed montcalm. he soon became acquainted with his red allies. on june d, according to his journal, he received a complimentary visit from the iroquois of sault st. louis, who came with their "ladies" to compliment him on his arrival and to felicitate onontio, the governor. they gave montcalm a necklace and he assured them that he would visit them in return. writing on june th to his wife, he describes this occasion: "they are a dirty gentry, even when fresh from their toilet, at which they pass all their time; you would hardly believe it, but the men always carry to war, along with their tomahawks and guns, a mirror, by which they daub their faces with various colours, and arrange feathers on their heads, and rings in their ears and noses. they think it a great beauty to mutilate the lobes of their ears at an early age, so as to stretch them till they fall on the shoulders. often they wear no shirt at all, but only a laced jacket; you would take them for devils or masqueraders. they would exercise the patience of an angel. moreover, these gentry wage war with astonishing cruelty, slaying women and children alike: they scalp you most skilfully, an operation from which one ordinarily dies.... in general all that père charlevoix[ ] says is true--with the exception of their burning their prisoners; that has almost gone out of fashion." meanwhile the military plans were being completed. as news came that the english were mostly menacing the frontier of lake st. sacrement (lake george), it was decided to send the royal-roussillon regiment to carillon (called by the savages ticonderoga), where the forces were concentrating. thither also, at the command of the governor, went montcalm, on june th, accompanied by the chevaliers de lévis and montreuil. there he worked hard for twelve days with indefatigable zeal, preparing the forts to be able to resist english attacks and organizing the military and commissariat departments. leaving lévis in command, he returned to montreal on july th at the call of the governor. he had had his first experience of the home infantry and the differences between canadian conditions in campaigning and those of france. he had learned that the canadian soldier was very independent, and that the savages needed special treatment. yet he wrote to his family at this time that he had succeeded at present with the canadians, and with the indians, whose bearings he had also taken. montcalm was recalled to undertake the siege and capture of chouaguen (oswego), a stronghold of the english and the key of the situation. this project, being meditated by vaudreuil from the first days of his governorship, was undoubtedly hazardous and problematical, and montcalm and lévis and the others from france had always feared failure, unless a combination of lucky conditions should favour them. vaudreuil, in spite of a certain hesitancy, still believed it was possible, as indeed did bigot, and montcalm set out from lachine on july st with his _aide-de-camp_ bougainville. they made their portages successfully around the rapids of the sault, so that they reached the post of la présentation on the th, arriving at frontenac on the th, where he hoped to find the battalions of la sarre, guyenne and béarn already there, with de bourlamaque, m. rigaud de vaudreuil, brother of the governor general, and a body of colonial troops, canadians and indians, to the number of , men, and engineers and artillery, and then he would attempt to make a landing, hard by oswego, in preparation for the siege. we cannot follow the story of the fall of oswego. suffice it to say that within ten days after embarking from frontenac on august th, fort chouaguen or oswego, hitherto thought impregnable, had capitulated on august th to montcalm. that same night he sent an officer to vaudreuil at montreal to bear to him the five flags of the regiments of shirley, pepperell and schuyler. the story of the riotous sacking of the post is sad reading but montcalm cannot be justly accused of countenancing it. "the canadians and indians," says parkman (wolfe and montcalm, i, p. ), "broke through all restraint and fell to plundering. there was an opening of rum barrels and a scene of drunkenness in which some of the prisoners had their share; while others tried to escape in the confusion and were tomahawked by the excited savages. many more would have been butchered but for the efforts of montcalm, who by unstinted promises succeeded in appeasing his ferocious allies, whom he dared not offend. 'it will cost the king,' he says, 'eight or ten thousand _livres_ in presents.'" from the th to the th of august the work of demolition was continued. by the st at the place where five days before the powerful english fort of oswego stood nothing but burning ruins remained, on which montcalm caused a cross and a stake with the arms of france to be placed, bearing these inscriptions: _in hoc signo vincunt_," and _manibus date lilia plenis._" after the fall of oswego, montcalm having embarked on august d, arrived at montreal on the th, wearied out but buoyed up by his triumph after a month's absence, during which he had traversed over six hundred and fifty miles, taken three forts, captured a war flotilla, made prisoner an army and seized from the enemy an immense store of provisions, and secured for france the undisputed rule over the majestic ontario. chouaguen had been the apple of discord and its fall was a decisive success for the colony. the joyful colony met in the churches to celebrate the victory. in the parish church of montreal, three days after montcalm's return, an imposing ceremony occurred at which the solemn te deum was sung and m. de bourlamaque and m. de rigaud, in the name of the governor general, publicly presented the conquered english flags to the abbé de tonnancour, a member of the diocesan chapter. outside the church the public joy was made manifest by many effusions of the canadian muse. one set of song verses from an anonymous pindar, addressed to the governor general, comes down to us, beginning: _nous célebrons du grand vaudreuil la sagesse et la gloire toute l'angleterre est en deuil au bruit de sa victoire._ the bishop of quebec, monseigneur de pontbriand, published a _mandement_, of thanksgiving, full of patriotic enthusiasm and appreciation of vaudreuil, and calling the taking of oswego the "action, the most memorable that has taken place since the founding of the colony, ... it is the more astonishing since we have had only three of our men killed and ten to twelve wounded. the canadians, the troops from france and the colonial forces, even the savages, have signalized by their mutual emulation their zeal for the fatherland and the service of his majesty." not all were entirely pleased with this _mandement_, for there were allusions to "timid spirits," which montcalm and his chief officers took to refer to themselves for their previous doubts on the hazardous possibility of capturing fort chouaguen, for they knew the prevalent opinion, held by the canadians, that the french troops, because unaccustomed, did not understand guerrilla warfare, in which, however, the colonial troops had become very expert. vaudreuil was triumphant, success justified him. in his dispatches to the minister he has no praise for montcalm, whom he represents as timorous, vacillating, and indisposed to undertake the siege. on the other hand, the canadian officers, pierre de rigaud de vaudreuil, his brother, and the chevalier de mercier, were accredited with being the moving and dominant spirits. family pride manifests itself frequently in such expressions, as "my brother" did this, "my brother" did that, while his own egotism finds play in similar uses of the first person, varied by "my brother and i." montcalm's private judgment of these was written on august th from oswego to de lévis at carillon: "do you remember that mercier is an ignoramus and a weak man ... all the rest are not worth the trouble of speaking about, even my first lieutenant general, rigaud." of the canadian militia he wrote this appreciation to d'argenson, the minister of war, "i have employed them usefully but not at works exposed to the fire of the enemy. they know neither discipline nor subordination; _j'en ferais dans six mois des grenadiers, et, actuellement, je me garderais bien d'y faire autant de cas que le malheureux monsieur dieskau y en a fait, pour avoir trop écouté les propos avantageux des canadiens, qui se croient, sur tous les points, la première nation du monde_." once more in the above conflict we see the presence of the _préjugé colonial_ and the _préjugé métropolitain_ again in evidence. it existed between the two protagonists of the period, vaudreuil and montcalm, and it was there with the officers and rank and file of both parties. five months of acquaintance had formed for vaudreuil a profound aversion to montcalm, while the latter judged the former a mediocre and vain man, suspected his sincerity, thought him a double dealer, a victim to favoritism, and conceived an antipathy which unhappily daily increased. after the fall of oswego, montcalm visited st. jean and carillon, and as it became evident by the end of october that the campaign was finished for the year, the troops were disposed for winter quarters, the regiment of la sarre being placed at pointe aux trembles, longue pointe, rivière des prairies, lachine and pointe claire; that of béarn at boucherville, longueuil and la prairie, and the languedoc regiment at montreal itself. the other regiments from france were placed at quebec, chambly, st. charles and st. antoine, along the richelieu river. three rivers had no french troops. montcalm spent the winter in montreal, with the exception of a trip to quebec in january, for a month. on november th his letter to bourlamaque from montreal gives an indication of a time of leisure, for amusement. "m. le chevalier (de lévis) passes the time socially at madame de pénisseault's house. he has been to a great supper party at m. martel's. as for myself i play at backgammon, or i have a hand at whist with my general, madame varin occasionally, or madame d'eschambault." from the end of november to the end of december the audiences with visiting delegations of indians occupied the attention of vaudreuil and the military authorities. montcalm spent the new year's day alone but on january d he joined vaudreuil and de lévis at quebec, whither they had gone on december st. his object was to visit the troops garrisoned there under bourlamaque. the presence of the distinguished visitors in quebec gave rise to a series of brilliant receptions and balls in an already brilliant season, at which the intendant bigot surpassed even himself by his splendour. the fashionable gayety of the capital, then numbering about twelve hundred souls, at this period of peril, is saddening, being only equalled by the venality and corruption abounding. montcalm reports, "quebec has appeared to me as a town of very high tone; i do not believe that in france there are a dozen surpassing quebec in society." he had to note that excessive gaming was the order of the day. the intendant bigot indulged his taste in it and vaudreuil also complacently permitted the extravagances, although many of the officers were ruined by them. during his stay in quebec, montcalm carried out the policy, so energetically inaugurated by talon, of inducing the soldiery to marry with the view of settling down. but he did not approve so much of the marriages of his officers, for he feared that they would make mediocre marriages, as some indeed did, with the rashness of youth. montcalm enjoyed his stay in quebec; its gayeties appealed to him more than those of montreal, whither he returned shortly. during the months of february, march and april, vaudreuil organized from montreal one of those winter war parties at which the canadians were past masters. having received news at three rivers, where he was ill from pleurisy, that there had been a brush between an english and a french party at carillon, he conceived the project of sending a war party to try a _coup de main_ against fort william henry, at the head of lake st. sacrement (lake george). this enterprise, directed from montreal, resulted in an appreciable success, in that it broke down the preparations of the english in that part, for a campaign against the french. this war aroused fresh dissensions between vaudreuil and montcalm, the latter complaining of the expense and also imagining that the governor wished to put in relief the colonial and militia forces to the detriment of the battalions from france. montcalm in his letter to the minister of marine on april th could not, however, but acknowledge the success of these severe manoeuvres, with their snowshoe marches over lakes and through forests, and terrible tempests, and the bivouacs by night under the cold stars. yet he added with pride that "the canadians have been astonished to see that our officers and soldiers have not been a whit behind them in method of war and march, to which they were not accustomed. it must, however, be admitted that in europe they have no idea of the hardships which one is obliged to endure during the six weeks of marching and sleeping, as it were, always on the snow or the ice, and of being reduced to bread and lard, and often having to drag or to carry provisions, for fifteen days." he also mentions that the winter had been very severe, "the thermometer being many times down to twenty-seven, often eighteen to twenty, and nearly always from twelve to fifteen, _minus_. there has been an astonishing quantity of snow." yet these military preoccupations did not hinder the gay routine of social engagements at headquarters during this winter of . the presence of the governor general, montcalm, de lévis and the military staff gave much éclat and life to montreal with its succession of balls, receptions and dinners. never had montreal seen such a carnival. in all this, as befitting his high rank, the general had to share. in his correspondence with bourlamaque, montcalm gives us in his letter of february th a picture of the fashionable society of the time. "since being here i pass my time giving big dinners to parties of fifteen or sixteen persons and sometimes suppers, _aussi nombreux sans en être plus gaillards. il faut souhaiter que l'hiver prochain on en puisse faire qui puissent dédommager._ on sunday, i gathered together the ladies from france, with the exception of madame parfouru, who did me the honour to visit me, three days ago; in seeing her i perceived that love has powerful attractions, of which one can render no reasonable account; not by the impression which she has made on my part, but especially by that which she has made on her husband. wednesday, a gathering at the house of madame varin;[ ] thursday, a ball at that of the chevalier de lévis, who had invited sixty-five 'dames ou demoiselles.' thirty would have been enough, so many men being away in the war. the hall was brilliantly illuminated; it is as large as the intendant's; much ceremony and attentive hospitality, refreshments, in abundance, all the night, of every kind and species, and the party did not leave till seven o'clock in the morning. i, however, who had given up the gay life of my stay at quebec, went to bed at an early hour. i had had, however, the same day, a supper for eight ladies, in honour of madame varin. tomorrow i shall give another for half a dozen. i do not know yet to whom it is to be given, but i am inclined to think it will be madame rochebeaucour. the gallant chevalier is giving us another ball. the public imagined that our _aides-de-camp_ were to give a _mardi gras_; but i have advised them to wait until after easter and after the success of our detachment, when it will be more suitable to give public marks of joy." [illustration: map of fashionable quarters at the end of the french regime] amidst these gayeties and his official duties in preparation for the hazardous campaigns of spring, montcalm did not neglect to write to his family, for whom he prepares, for the departure of the boats in spring, chatty accounts of his daily doings, interspersing them with amusing canadian sketches. he tells his wife on april th of the doings of his household staff, his men, the gayeties. "everything is very expensive. one must live according to one's rank and i do it. every day, sixteen persons at table. once a week with the governor general, and with m. de lévis, who also lives well. he has given three fine balls. as for myself,--up to lent, besides the dinners, great supper parties with ladies three times a week." he speaks of the games of chance he could not refuse, the impromptu dancing parties after the suppers; very expensive, not very entertaining and oftentimes boresome. "... i have had my assistant cook married, for i am bent on peopling the colony. eighty soldier marriages this winter and two of officers.... the ladies are witty, courteous and pious. at quebec, they are gamesters; at montreal conversations and the dance prevail." he speaks highly of his good relations with de lévis, bourlamaque, the colonial and militia troops, the savages; of his intense desire to rejoin them and his impatient desire for peace; of the likelihood of the commencement of military operations on the frontier of lake st. sacrement on the th or th of may. "... adieu, my sweetheart, i adore and love you, i embrace my daughter, my mother." the winter gayeties of montreal this year did not close without an additional zest being imparted by the visit of a contingent of ladies from quebec. "mesdames de st. ours[ ] and de beaubassin and mesdemoiselles de longueuil and drucour arrived yesterday evening," wrote montcalm on march th to bourlamaque at quebec; this meant renewed exchange of hospitality. meanwhile spring had arrived and as yet the boats from france had not appeared with the provisions for the troops. quebec was menaced with a famine. the intendant was obliged to distute , bushels of grain to the _habitants_ to seed their lands and there was a fear of want of flour, as the th of may had already passed. montreal, less poor in wheat, sent some down to quebec. this penury paralyzed operations, for it was impossible to put the troops in motion without provisions. their objective was the frontier of lake st. sacrement. the governor wished to concentrate at carillon as great an army as possible, to attempt the siege of fort william henry. this scarcity of provisions became daily more alarming, as may came to an end. there was talk of horse flesh being supplied instead of pork. at last the news came that the _david_ and the _jason_ of bordeaux, laden with provisions, arms, and men, were coming up the river, bringing news from france, that would give new zest to the conversation, after being so long sequestered, during the winter seclusion, from contact with the mother country. footnotes: [ ] henri marie dubreuil de pontbriand had been consecrated bishop of quebec on april , . [ ] "l'histoire de la nouvelle france," published in . [ ] m. varin was in charge of the commissariat of the marine department of montreal. in he had married at montreal, charlotte de beaujeu, daughter of louis de beaujeu, chevalier de st. louis, major in the colonial troops. [ ] madame de st. ours was a daughter of louis henri deschamps, seigneur de la rivière-ouelle. madame beaubassin, whose society was sought by montcalm, was the wife of pierre hertel, sieur de beaubassin, and daughter of jean jarret de verchères, seigneur de verchères. she was therefore a niece of madeleine de verchères, of heroic fame. the mesdemoiselles de longueuil were daughters of the lieutenant of the king at quebec, and the mesdemoiselles de drucour, probably those of the commandant of louisbourg. chapter xl the campaign of the siege of william henry--winter gayety and gaunt famine ships arrive--news of great international war--red allies in montreal--strong liquor--preparations for war--fort william henry falls--arrival of savages and two hundred english prisoners--cannibalism--the paper money--fear of famine--montcalm's letter to troops on retrenchment--a self-denying ordinance--gaming amid social misery--horse flesh for the soldiers--de levis puts down a revolt--the "hunger strike"--the letters of montcalm--bigot and la grande societe--"la friponne" at montreal--murray's criticism. note: the peculators. the ships brought news of grave changes in france. the result of the alliance between austria and france, concluded on may , , had been that france had now become embroiled in a great international war. there had also been an attempt of assassination on the life of louis xv. but what particularly affected the government of montreal was the information that the minister of war, d'argenson, and of marine, de machault, had been succeeded respectively by m. de paulmy and m. de mauras--due to the influence of madame de pompadour. these changes were not looked upon with too much favour by those responsible for canada in the critical period it was now in. to montcalm the serious loss of his patron, d'argenson, was somewhat mitigated by the knowledge that m. de paulmy, the minister succeeding, was d'argenson's nephew. the change of m. de machault, with whom montcalm had had less relations, was less distasteful, as the new minister, de mauras, was the brother-in-law of madame hérault, the protectress of his first _aide-de-camp_, bougainville; moreover, there were common ties between the de hérault family and that of montcalm. the vessels from france had lightened the strain of provisioning the army, but the needs of the army and the gatherings at montreal of a vast number of redskins, attracted by the success at oswego to take up the axe against the english and share in the campaign, caused vaudreuil, acting on a suggestion made by montcalm as early as march, to send martel, the storekeeper, around the montreal district to commandeer rations for a month for , men. on june d, more than eight hundred of these wild allies were encamped around montreal, and more were expected from détroit. according to the enumeration in montcalm's journal there were: ottawans,[ ] poutéouatamies, about four hundred puants, sakés, folles-avoines and iowas. the latter had never been seen before at montreal and their language was unknown. the streets and public places saw an incessant passing to and fro of dusky braves, armed for the warpath, with lances, bows and arrows, with bodies almost entirely naked, or loosely draped in their beaver or buffalo coverings, vividly painted in red or blue or black, with their heads shaven except for the topknots, in which were stuck the tufts of multicoloured feathers. a great number were of colossal stature; and these copper-coloured giants, fierce in aspect, guttural in speech, and strikingly tattooed, moved around the town, ight to the citizens, and mingled with the french officers and soldiers, whose brilliant european uniforms produced a strange contrast with their barbaric but picturesque accoutrements. sometimes they would be seen wending their way, with their interpreters, to the château de vaudreuil to pay their respects to the governor, whose inexhaustible patience offered no rebuff to their interminable deputations. now, they would go in a band to carry on their indian dances before the houses of the chief officials. montreal with its bronzed soldiery, who had warred beyond the rhine, crossed the alps and braved the suns of italy, presented in this meeting of two races, two civilizations so widely divergent, a wonderfully moving and dramatic spectacle. but there was a pitiable reverse to this picture. at times when the strong liquors had seized them, their camps became veritable pandemoniums, and revolting scenes were enacted. already presentiments of horrible extravagances were experienced by the officers from france, such as bougainville, who wrote of his fierce, drunken and bloodthirsty allies to madame de hérault on june th: "i will tell you that we count on two sieges and a battle, and your child trembles at the horrors he will be forced to witness. there will be difficulty in restraining the savages from up country, who are the fiercest of men and great cannibals. listen to what their chiefs said just three days ago to m. de montcalm, 'my father, do not count upon our giving quarter to the english. we have with us young men, who have not yet drunk of this broth (blood). this fresh flesh has led them hither from the ends of the universe. they have to learn to wield the knife and to plunge it into an english heart.' such are our companions, ... what a spectacle for a human heart!" everything was now ready for the campaign. by the th of june montcalm was with de lévis at st. john; thence he proceeded to chambly to inspect the troops, and the military roads, and suitable places for camping. by the end of june the troops were ordered to move, and on july d de lévis went to take command of the troops at carillon. on july th vaudreuil gave his instructions to general montcalm. he was to take fort george (or fort william henry) and then, on its fall, he was to go to the siege of fort lydius (or fort edward), situated fifteen miles from fort george and from lake st. sacrement. that same day montcalm with bougainville went to the lake of two mountains to join in the war song with the algonquins and the nipissings of the district and he returned to montreal on july th, having received the name of goroniatsigoa, that is to say, the "great sky in anger." on the th, montcalm departed for montreal for st. john, which he left on july th with the colonial officers, de rigaud, dumas, de st. ours, de bonne and many others under the escort of the guyenne grenadiers and a small detachment of ottawans. three days afterwards he arrived at carillon. meanwhile vaudreuil remained at montreal, directing the war from his cabinet. we cannot follow this campaign in detail, but we may pursue the fortunes of montcalm somewhat. on july th he found himself, with , men, advancing to fort william henry, his force composed of , land troops; colonials and militia, , ; gunners, ; and indian allies, , . on august st he began the siege of william henry, held by colonel monroe with , men. on august th colonel monroe perforce capitulated, having hung out the white flag at a. m. that morning. it was a glorious victory, but marred by the shameful extravagances, feared by montcalm and the others, of the indians, who, glutted with victory, broke the capitulation agreement. this event may be summed up in the account given in bancroft's "history of the united states," ii, p. : "to make the capitulation inviolably binding on the indians, montcalm summoned their war chiefs to council. the english were to depart under an escort with the honors of war on a pledge not to serve against the french for eighteen months; they were to abandon all but their private effects; every canadian or french indian captive was to be liberated. the indians applauded; the capitulation was signed. late on the th the french entered the fort and the english retired to their entrenched camp. montcalm had kept all intoxicating drinks from the savages; but they obtained them of the english, and all night long were wild with dances, songs and revelry. the abenakis of acadia inflamed other tribes by recalling their sufferings from english perfidy and power. at daybreak, they gathered round the entrenchments, and as the terrified english soldiers filed off, began to plunder them, and incited one another to use the tomahawk. twenty, perhaps even thirty,[ ] persons were massacred, while very many were made prisoners. officers and soldiers, stripped of everything, fled to the woods, to the fort, to the tents of the french. to arrest the disorder lévis plunged into the tumult, daring death a thousand times. french officers received wounds in rescuing the captives, and stood at their tents as sentries over those they recovered. 'kill me,' cried montcalm, using prayers and menaces and promises, 'but spare the english who are under my protection,' and he urged the troops to defend themselves. the march to fort edward (fort lydius) was a flight; not more than six hundred reached there in a body. from the french camp montcalm collected together more than four hundred, who were dismissed with a great escort, and he sent vaudreuil[ ] to ransom those whom the indians had carried away." bougainville's journal tells how "the savages (those from up country) arrived in a mob at montreal with about two hundred english. m. de vaudreuil reprimanded them for having violated the capituion treaty; they excused themselves and threw the blame on the domiciliated tribes settled with the french. it was announced that they must give up the english prisoners unjustly captured and they would be paid two barrels of _eau-de-vie_ apiece for them." even with this shameful ransom the savages released their prisoners only with reluctance, "for," says bougainville, "on the th, at two o'clock in the afternoon, in the presence of the whole town, they killed one of them, put him into the kettle and forced his unfortunate compatriots to feed on him." on the same evening, at lake george, the columns of smoke from the heaps of cinders and the last flickering flames from the dying fires were the only indications of the site where eight days before the bastions of fort william henry had stood. the campaign was virtually over and montcalm returned to montreal at the beginning of september, a victorious general. but he had not attempted to take fort edward or lydius, much to the chagrin of vaudreuil. the reasons for this, as given by his _aide-de-camp_, in a letter to the minister of war on august th, seem sufficient. "the extreme difficulty of making a portage of ten leagues without oxen or horses, with an army almost worn out with fatigue and want of food, the lack of ammunition, the necessity of sending the canadians back to gather in their harvests, already ripe, the departure of all the redskins from the upper countries, as well as nearly all of the more civilized ones nearer home: such are the invincible obstacles which did not permit us to march immediately to fort edward." grave reasons, enough, but they did not satisfy the governor general, who had watched the situation from the comfortable quarters of government house, eighty leagues from the theatre of war, and he did not hesitate to send his complaints to france, insinuating the inefficiency of montcalm, his strained relations with the colonial officers and want of consideration for the home forces and unwise treatment of the savages. on the other hand, the letters of bougainville go to show the extreme popularity of the general with all classes. we cannot enter into a discussion of the rights and wrongs of their bitter controversy; we quote it as a sidelight, illustrating the division in the highest circles of montreal during this period--the _préjugé colonial_ and the _préjugé métropolitain_, over again![ ] when montcalm went to quebec in september after the victory of william henry he tells us that he found the air of the town "very commercial and stock jobbing." it was the time of the year when the card money was exchanged for letters of exchange on the treasurer of the marine department in france. the same activity would therefore be engaging montreal. from september st to september th the people were bringing in to the treasurer the card money and the money orders which, besides the current coinage, which was very scarce, constituted the monetary system of the colony. the card money, created by the intendant de meulles, was equivalent to our bills on the government of canada. but with the increase of the public expenditures, it was thought fit to have recourse to another instrument of exchange, and the intendants had sent out, under their sole signatures, "ordonnances" bearing an order number and an indication of their nominal value, inscribed in figures and in writing. these cards and ordonnances had currency only in the limits of canada. it was necessary, therefore, that they should be transformed into other values, for commercial needs of importation and the financial relations between the colony and france. thus, every autumn the treasurer exchanged them for paper negotiable outside the country. from the st of september to the th he gave "bonds" or their equivalent, and these were taken from the st of october to the th to the bureaux of the intendant, who gave in return the letters of exchange on the marine deparment of france. thus the colony paid its bill to the mother country. the system worked well till . but afterwards, owing to the deplorable financial conditions and the growing expenditures in canada, the ministers adopted a system of delayed payments in three terms. montcalm, in his journal, alludes to this practice. "the intendant regulates the terms of payments. last year they were made payable during the year in three payments. this year they are made payable in three years, viz., a quarter in , a half in , and another quarter in ."[ ] in the middle of october, news came to the garrison of montreal by an open letter of montcalm on october th, sent through de lévis, to the lieutenant colonels of his regiments, of the retrenchments ordered in the food supplies owing to the harvests having been ruined by frosts and rains that year, and to the provisions expected from france not having been sent through error. "we are about to find ourselves," ended the letter in an eloquent and soldierly appeal, "in most critical circumstances for want of good supplies. we are in need of bread this year; the means that they are about taking to supply it will make us in need of meat next year. whatever difficulties the troops in the country experience in living with the _habitants_, their soldiers will have less to complain of than will those who are in the town garrisons. the times are going to be harder than at prague in certain respects. i am, at the same time, persuaded that this is going to be the finest opportunity of glory for the land troops, as i am sure, in advance, that they will lend themselves to it entirely in the best taste, and that we shall hear no complaints or jeremiads on the rarity of supplies, seeing there is no remedy. thus we are ready to give the example of frugality necessary by the retrenchment of our table fare and expenses, and i venture to say that that officer, who in place of priding himself on his good cheer, on spending and entertaining, like every french officer accustomed to notions of rank and liberality, will live the most meanly, will give the surest marks of his love for his country, for the king's service, and will be worthy of the greatest praise." this letter, which did honour to the general, was written in consequence of a meeting called in quebec on october th by vaudreuil, at which montcalm, bigot, péan and the commissary general, cadet, were present to consider the terrible question of failing provisions. the intendant bigot submitted an _exposé_ of the situation. the commissariat department contained only , quarts of flour; the quests in the southern districts had only returned , hundredweights; the government of montreal could only furnish , to that of quebec. it was then decided that, commencing from november st, each soldier would receive the following rations every eight days: a half pound of bread every day, and a quarter pound of peas, six pounds of beef and two pounds of codfish for the eight days. in december they would begin to be given horseflesh--this to continue in january and february; pork was to be kept for the autumn. montcalm made several judicious propositions, one being that soldiers should be dispersed into those villages where none were as yet quartered, and that the example of frugality, and retrenchment should be immediately set by himself, the governor general, the intendant and the others. this self-denying ordinance was at once generously acted upon. writing to de lévis next day, enclosing the open letter as above, montcalm, speaking of the new régime of retrenchment, says: "all the colony applauds; the intendant not so much. he loves display." yet, sad to relate, in spite of these noble resolutions, the gayeties among the rulers of the colony, were soon revived at quebec, while misery and famine were gnawing at the vitals of the common people. bigot continued giving his luxurious receptions; music, sumptuous fêtes, dances and balls, illicit amours and gaming, went on fast and furiously in his house, with vaudreuil complacently assisting. even montcalm was present at the great banquets and lost his money at the gaming tables like the rest. many of his officers were becoming ruined. at times he would get qualms of conscience and he would write in his journal: "we are amusing ourselves and thinking of nothing; all is going and will go to the devil!" again: "in spite of the public misery, balls and fearful gaming!" then he would write to the batallions that if they played in any but the privileged houses (such as those of the intendant "out of the consideration due to him") he would punish them, adding that even in this case, he would expect them to play discreetly. then he would make a resolution only to go to the intendant's house in the morning. "the tone of decency, of polite manners, of good society is banished from the home where it ought to be." yet he frequented the house of bigot and that of his paramour, la péan, as at montreal de lévis was the constant visitor of madame pénisseault. meanwhile misery reigned in the colony. the people in quebec continued to have no bread. in the country places wheat was rare, and an ordinance was passed to prevent the inhabitants from milling the grain necessary for seeding purposes. from october th the rations of the troops had been reduced to a pound of bread, a quarter pound of pork and four ounces of peas. on november st, they were further reduced. finally in december the troops and the people had to eat horseflesh. at montreal when the first distribution of this was made it was perceived that a revolt was fermenting among them and that they had been incited by the people to make resistance. being warned that the soldiers were refusing the rations and were leaving the canteen, de lévis ran thither, ordered the company to be reassembled and in their presence made them cut some horseflesh for himself and commanded the grenadiers also to take some. these wished to make some representations, but he checked them, enjoining on them obedience and threatening to hang the first man that flinched, adding that he would listen to them after the distribution. the grenadiers, thus subdued, took their meat and their example was followed by all the companies. then they had the liberty to air their grievances. after having listened to them, de lévis harangued them, disabusing them of the popular prejudice being aroused against horseflesh. "horse meat was a healthy dish; that it was often eaten in besieged towns; that he would have an eye to it that the animals slaughtered should be in good condition; that he himself dined on it daily;[ ] that the land troops ought to give a good example, etc." there were no more difficulties. they seem even to have taken to the dish, according to the following incident related in de lévis' journal: "on 'the day of the kings' (january ), , eight grenadiers of the béarn regiment brought m. de lévis a dish of horse meat prepared in their own fashion, which was very good. the chevalier made them sit down and dine, and ordered them some wine and two dishes of horse prepared by his own cooks, who proved to be not as good as theirs. in addition he gave them four louis, so that the company should celebrate the feast and drink to his health." the ladies of montreal were among the first to stir up resistance. when the first partial substitution of horseflesh for beef was made, they trouped tumultuously to the doors of the château vaudreuil. the governor allowed four of them to enter and asked them what they wanted. they replied that they wanted bread. vaudreuil told them that he had none to give them; that even the troops were on short rations, but that he was going to kill horses and cattle to assist the poor in this time of misery. they replied that horseflesh was repugnant to them; that the horse was the friend of man; that religion forbade it to be killed, and that they would rather die than eat it. the governor then told them that this was mere nonsense; that horse was good meat, and he dismissed them, affirming that if they created any more disturbance he would put them in prison and hang half of them. thus was the "hunger strike" of dealt with. the letters of montcalm from montreal, which have been carefully studied by m. thomas chapais in his "montcalm," published in , reveal to us a sad state of corruption and venality in high places at quebec and montreal. we may quote m. chapais' estimate of the situation. in answer to the charge that montcalm hated the canadians he says: "this is not so; he loved our people and appreciated their real qualities at their true value. he wrote to m. moras (the minister of marine) on july , : 'what a colony! what a people!... they are all thoroughly men of character and courage!' he had sympathy for the 'canadian simple habitant,' who for his part loved and respected him, and montcalm had reason to believe, as he said, that he was popular. but he had little esteem for a great number of the canadian high functionaries and officers of the country. he criticized their vanity, their spirit of boastfulness, their duplicity and their unscrupulousness. we believe that he was too inclined to generalize to the point of pushing his antipathies too far. he did not guard himself against the _anti-colonial prejudice_, with which the troops of the line were certainly affected and which, in spite of himself, made his judgment err at times. a canadian historian is wounded in his national '_amour propre_' in reading the journal and letters of montcalm. the allusions to canadian insincerity, canadian braggadocio, canadian rudeness, occurred too frequently for our liking. and we rightly find that the spirit of ill-humour and caustic carping is too easily indulged in, to the detriment of the sons of the soil. but we must not, for this reason, tax with injustice and with blind prejudice all the severe strictures passed by montcalm. hélas! we are forced to agree that he had under his eyes spectacles of a nature calculated to ruffle an honest soul and a clear-sighted mind, pretentious incapacity, insatiable cupidity, shameless indelicacy and dishonesty. and we ought not to be astonished that bitter expressions had been ready to mount from his heart to his lips. doubtless distinctions have to be made and montcalm knew how to make them. thus we find frequently from his pen eulogiums on de villiers, de contrecoeur, de ligneris, de la naudière, de langy, marin and many other canadian officers. but when he denounces the robberies of cadet, of péan, of duchesneau and of so many other peculators, can we accuse him with injustice because these were born in canada?" this leads us to speak of the "grande société" of functionaries who were waxing rich at the public expense at quebec and montreal. the chief of these was bigot, the intendant, a frenchman; with him were the canadians, cadet, péan, duchesnaux; and acting in concert with them at montreal was the frenchman varin, in charge of the commissariat department, who had associated with him martel, the keeper of the stores, and the sieur de pénisseault, whom they placed in charge of a store to monopolize the commerce of montreal. this is known as "la friponne," or "the cheat," after the parent one at quebec. this notorious group of men, with whom were others less conspicuous, were then in the very height of their successful efforts to "get rich quick," in the system of peculation and robbery established by bigot. bigot was a type of the adventurer that helped to ruin canada. his great objective was to make his fortune as quickly as possible. eager for pleasure, a dissolute gamester, fastidious in his tastes, pushing his love of luxury to incredible excesses, he had need to make money quickly to satisfy his craving for the enjoyments of life. withal, he was an intelligent, active worker, full of resources and address, clever to surmount obstacles and even to render great services to the country in difficult situations. from his arrival in canada he had joined illicitly in commerce with the gradis, shipowners of bordeaux, as well as with bréard, controller of the marine at quebec, whom he had interested in his business affairs in order to buy his complicity. the intendant juggled away the rights of his majesty's customs in declaring the merchandise brought in by his bordeaux accomplices, as that of the king. the royal stores were always found to be needing just those articles, which their vessels always had in abundance. the sales were concluded under fictitious names or of those who lent them for the nefarious purpose. the controller, bréard, complacently signed the invoices and marked fictitious prices. finally bigot bought these goods for the king at an extravagant rate. others became associated with the embezzlers and soon it became a public scandal. among those daring speculators were the infamous triumvirate, of whom two were men of low extraction but of undoubted ability, duchesneau, bigot's secretary, the son of a quebec shoemaker; cadet, the son of a butcher and himself once a cattle watcher of a charlesbourg habitant; the third was hugues péan, sieur de levandière, son of a former adjutant at quebec. the illicit liaison of this man's wife with bigot and the complacent acquiescence of péan in the arrangement was public property. like louis xv, bigot had his pompadour and her influence was considerable. the extent of misery to which these schemers drove the common people seems almost incredible. these associates, with whom bigot and the triumvirate were popularly connected and whom the public designated "la grande société" soon came to lay their hands on all "le grande commerce." a spacious building was constructed near the intendancy, on ground belonging to the crown. vast storehouses were built there. the ostensible object was to sell goods by retail, but in reality the design was to warehouse all the goods habitually needed by the government stores. each year bigot had to send to the court a list of the goods necessary for government purposes for the coming year. this was always left incomplete. hence in a short time there was a dearth, and then it was found by the luckiest of chances that the stores of the associates always had just the desired articles in stock. thus retail merchants were excluded by this monopoly and prices were raised, and the privileged establishment was baptized by the long-suffering public under the name of "la friponne" (the cheat). [illustration: la friponne] [illustration: palace of the intendant] it has been thought useful to describe the methods of "la friponne" of quebec in order to explain the similar one, set up in montreal by varin, the head of the government commissariat here. he is described as born in france, of low extraction, small in figure and of an unattractive appearance, a liar, arrogant, capricious, headstrong and a libertine. in order to become rich, in imitation of the quebec monopolists, he laid violent hands on the supplies for the posts above montreal, and not to compromise himself personally he associated with himself martel, the king's storekeeper of the town. varin and martel equipped the camps and did large business. they set up a store on similar lines to those at quebec, which also the people were not slow in nicknaming "la friponne." over this was placed the sieur de pénisseault, an able manager, but who had the reputation of having left france under a cloud. the newsmongers of the salons of this period say that péan stood in well with madame pénisseault regardless of consequences until he gallantly yielded his place to a more brilliant star in the person of the dashing chevalier de lévis. the morals of paris and versailles were being reflected in the humbler salons of quebec and montreal. before leaving pénisseault it may be added that he was the appointed agent at montreal of cadet, who had been appointed in commissary general of the stores in canada. herein was a new opportunity for battening on the treasury which was exercised to its utmost. pénisseault was assisted in montreal by the hunchback, maurin, deformed in mind as in body, but a clever and avaricious trader, though at times ostentatiously generous. these two had been terribly scourged by the pen of the annalist of the period. ("mémoires de sieur de c.," p. .) another source of illicit revenue came to these latter in conjunction with the associates of "la grande société," which is attested in the final judgment rendered in paris in , when tardy justice meted out more or less adequate reward to this ring of embezzlers. we may conclude this chapter with general murray's criticism as follows: "the small salaries given by the french government to the civil officers in general made them neglect their duty and wreck their invention to cheat and trick both king and people. this was carried to such a length that many instances may be cited of clerks and men in petty offices with yearly salaries of only six or eight hundred _livres_, raising to themselves, in the compass of three or four years, fortunes of three or four hundred thousand." (observation in general murray's report in on the state of the government during the french administration.) note the peculators the number of those afterwards accused of peculation[ ] was fifty-five, including the governor, pierre de rigaud; marquis de vaudreuil and his secretary, saint-sauveur; the intendant, bigot; varin, his sub-delegate; and duchesneau, his secretary; bréard, controller of the marine department; estèbe, the keeper of the king's stores in quebec; cadet, commissary general of supplies for canada; corpron, merchant, and his agent; péan, captain and aide-major of the marine troops in canada; le mercier, the commander of artillery in canada. all these were well known at montreal, but we may add to them the following who were stationed here and who acted as the associates of the peculators whose headquarters had been at quebec before the change of government to montreal; martel de saint-antoine, la barthe, fayolle, keepers of the king's stores at montreal; maurin, pénisseault, merchants, partners and agents of cadet in his offices here; le moyne-despins, a merchant employed in furnishing provisions to the army; martel, of the marine commissariat; and salvat, employed in the stores department. the rest were either commandants of forts or storekeepers. of the fifty-five accused, twenty-one, and these the chiefs, alone appeared, having undergone a long imprisonment in the bastille; the rest were judged in their absence. the final judgment was pronounced on december , , of which the following is a partial résumé: bigot--perpetual banishment; property confiscated; , _livres_ of fine and , , _livres_ restitution. varin--perpetual banishment; property confiscated; , _livres_ of fine and , _livres_ restitution. cadet--nine years' banishment; _livres_ of fine and , _livres_ restitution. duchesnaux--five years' banishment; _livres_ of fine and , _livres_ restitution. pénisseault--nine years' banishment; _livres_ of fine and , _livres_ restitution. maurin--nine years' banishment; _livres_ of fine and , _livres_ restitution. corpron--condemned to be admonished in parliament; _livres_ to the poor and , _livres_ restitution. martel de saint-antoine--six _livres_ to the poor and , _livres_ restitution. estèbe--six _livres_ to the poor and , _livres_ restitution. with incarceration of the offenders until the amounts should be paid. the marquis de vaudreuil, le mercier and fayolle were acquitted; la barthe, _hors de cours_, or "not proven." péan's sentence was not pronounced till june , ; he was then declared _hors de cours_, but in view of his illegitimate gains he was condemned to restore , _livres_ and to be kept in the bastille until restitution had been made. footnotes: [ ] the ottawans or the "sauteux" from michilimackinac were the first to arrive and on the th they waited on montcalm to compliment him on the victory of oswego. the slight and small figure of the general astonished them, but the light that leaped from the piercing eyes of the little man revealed to them a great leader: "my father," they said, "when we heard news of the great things you have done we counted on finding you tall like the great pines of the forest, but now we see you, we find the grandeur of the pines in your eyes. we look upon you as an eagle and your children are ready to do great deeds with you." [ ] father roubard, who was an eye witness, says: "the massacre was not, however, as considerable as so much fury would seem to make us fear; it hardly amounted to forty or fifty men"; and, lévis wrote on his side, "that fifty scalps had been taken." [ ] i. e., sent them to vaudreuil in montreal. [ ] those wishing to follow this interesting _causerie_ should read "montcalm" by m. thomas chapais, . it is a notable contribution to the history of the period. [ ] cf. general murray's report, constitutional documents, canadian archives, english version, p. . [ ] at quebec, the people took more kindly to the new fare. montcalm was the first to give a good example. he had it served up at his own table in every form except as soup, and he enumerates some of them: "_petits pâtés de cheval à l'espagnol: cheval à la mode; escaloppe de cheval; filet de cheval à la broche avec une poivrade bien liée; semelles de cheval au gratin; langue de cheval au miroton; frigoussé de cheval; langue de cheval boucanée, meilleure que celle d'orignal; gâteau de cheval, comme les gâteaux de lièvre._" [ ] cf. "jugement rendu souverainement et en dernier resort dans l'affaire du canada, decembre, ." dussieux, p. . chapter xli the victory of carillon a winter of gayety and foreboding sixty leagues on the ice--ships arrive--famine ceases--english mobilization--ticonderoga (carillon)--military jealousies--saint-sauveur--reconciliation of montcalm and vaudreuil--enmities renewed--winter in montreal--high cost of living--the "encyclopedia"--avarice and graft--madame de vaudreuil. in the last week of february, , montcalm returned to montreal. writing on february d, he adds: "i have just arrived at montreal, having made sixty leagues on the ice, a delightful though cold manner of traveling." evidently montreal was much quieter than quebec, for montcalm was now able to attend steadily to his correspondence and to his military preparations until the opening of navigation. meanwhile the famine still continued; yet we find the spoilers, varin and bréard, returning to france, péan about to do the same, to put their booty in safety, already sensing the impending crisis which will end this period of sad memories in the last days of the french régime. at length, on the evening of may th, eight vessels, laden with , quarts of flour, arrived at quebec, with news of some more to come, and the spectre of famine ceased to haunt the colony. with the arrival of the vessels came the news that interested the military circles of montreal; the replacement of m. de paulmy, the minister of war, by the maréchal de belle-isle. there came, too, information of the energetic efforts being made by william pitt in england to complete the conquest of india and america, the humiliation of france, and the british supremacy of the seas. this was no idle scheme. already a formidable fleet and a powerful army were preparing to besiege louisbourg under admiral boscawen and major general jeffrey amherst, with brigadiers whitmore, lawrence and james wolfe as their able lieutenants. on june th twenty-three vessels of the line, eighteen frigates and fireships, and transports, bearing about , troops, left halifax and ran before the wind towards the maritime boulevard of france in america, surnamed the dunkerque of the new world. on the frontier of lake st. sacrement, lord loudon had been replaced by major general abercromby, who with more than six thousand regulars and nine thousand provincials was to take carillon and invade canada by lake champlain and the richelieu river. finally brigadier john forbes was organizing an army of six to seven thousand men destined to wrest from france the fort duquesne and the ohio region. the last terrible struggle was soon to commence. montreal was the scene of much activity. the troops had been moved to carillon, the district around ticonderoga and the frontier of lake st. sacrement, but it was not until june th that montcalm, after a serious conflict with vaudreuil, left montreal to direct the campaign and on june th at o'clock in the afternoon arrived at the dilapidated fort of carillon with a force of about , men. on july st he had chosen his camp at lachute, at the sawmill.[ ] [illustration: map of montreal, , before the capitulation the city was then bounded: on the north by a stream and marsh, now marked by craig street: on the west by fortification lane and upper part of mcgill street of today; on the east by the place viger station of today; on the south by the little river st. pierre and the st. lawrence. this plan of the fortifications was published in london by thomas jefferys, geographer to his royal highness, the prince of wales, january, .] under him were the staff officers whom he brought from france and with whom montrealers had become well acquainted. we would desire to follow this campaign out for this reason, but we must content ourselves with chronicling how, on july th, abercromby embarked his army of , men in small boats and whale boats on lake george (st. sacrement), and moved down to ticonderoga; how on july th the english army disembarked at the head of the rapids; how on the same day lord howe, "the soul of the army," was killed in a skirmish, and how the great victory of july th was due to montcalm, when the english retreated, leaving behind them, according to general abercromby's account, in killed, wounded and missing, , officers and men. the loss of the french, not counting that of langy's detachment, was but . montcalm announced the victory thus to his wife: "without indians, almost without canadian or colony troops--i had only --along with lévis and bourlamaque and the troops of the line, , fighting men,--i have beaten an army of , men."[ ] and he wrote to his friend doreil: "what a day for france! if i had had two hundred indians to send out at the head of a thousand picked men, under the chevalier de lévis, not many would have escaped. ah, my dear doreil, what soldiers are ours! never saw i the like. why were they not at louisbourg?" on the day of the victory he caused a great cross to be erected on the battlefield inscribed with these lines, attributing the victory to divine interposition: "quid dux! quid miles! quid strata ingentia ligna! en signum! en victor! deus hic, deus ipse triumphat." "soldier and chief and ramparts' strength are nought; behold the conquering cross! 'tis god the triumph wrought." it was a famous victory, on the height of ticonderoga, and no sweeter name than carillon falls from a french canadian's lips to this day. [illustration: ticonderoga in ] once more was montcalm victorious, but it was to bring him bitter trouble with vaudreuil and those surrounding him at montreal, since the glory was due to the troops from france. on july th, when the english under abercromby were in full retreat, m. de rigaud and several colonial officers, with a good number of colonials and savages, arrived at carillon, to be followed by more than two thousand others, on july th. the object of this manoeuvre of vaudreuil in sending this tardy reinforcement seemed to montcalm and his officers an excuse for vaudreuil to complain to the court, that having been reinforced he had not pursued the english, as the previous year he had not taken fort lydius, being unwilling to complete the victory and so give glory to the colonial troops. at montreal feelings ran high and bitter; there were two camps, those who found fault with every action of the royal troops, and those who--the ladies especially--saw in the delay in sending the reinforcement a desire to abandon the poor battalions to the enemy. at carillon the colonial troops could not hide their chagrin and jealousy at not having participated more fully in the victory of the th of july, nor could the french regulars on their part dissimulate their satisfaction at having won the battle almost without canadian "colony troops." again the two hostile prejudices were in evidence and manifested themselves even in the letters of their leaders, montcalm from carillon, and vaudreuil from montreal, to the minister of war. this acrimonious rivalry which existed between the higher military officers and the canadian officers and functionaries, though not so largely shared by the soldiers and common people, who for the most part maintained good relations amongst themselves, is a mark of this unhappy period, and must be mentioned if we are to present a true picture of montreal as the headquarters of military life of this period. an epistolary duel was carried on from montreal and carillon veiled in the language of courtesy, but none the less bitter. in justification of the uselessness of pursuing the enemy, montcalm relied on the experience of the men on the spot, while vaudreuil, seated in his bureau at montreal, "believed himself in a position at a distance of fifty leagues to determine war operations in a country he has never seen, and where the best generals would be embarrassed even after having seen it." there are few generals who can so conduct campaigns. von moltke was one, vaudreuil was not another; nor was his secretary. montcalm in his letters to the governor saw the hand of an enemy--that of the governor's secretary, grasset de saint-sauveur.[ ] the author of the "mémoires du canada (mémoires et réflections politiques et militaires sur la guerre du canada depuis jusqu'à )," says of this secretary: "m. de la jonquière has placed too much confidence, as he explained himself, in a secretary named saint-sauveur. for this man, without honour and without sentiment, has employed all means, licit or illicit, to make his fortune. he asked and obtained from his master the exclusive right to sell _eau de vie_ to the indians. from that moment he attracted public enmity as well as did his master, who was said to be a half partner in the proceeds of the traffic." at the end of the same "mémoire," speaking of the functionaries who remained in canada in the author writes again: "saint-sauveur, the governor's secretary, has remained also. i have had the pleasure of hearing the english governor, murray, speak in of this man, saying that he desired this man to fall into his hands; that if france, or rather the french government, had tolerated vice in this man, he wished to correct him; that he was a traitor to his master; that he had abused the confidence given him; that they only saw in him cheating (_friponnerie_) and illicit trading; that he himself was grieved at the blindness of this general (vaudreuil). it is doubtful whether this man dare cross over into france. it is an established fact that he is worth more than , , _livres_." with a view of a reconciliation, on august th montcalm sent bougainville from carillon to the governor of montreal to make personal explanations, and on the th the _aide-de-camp_ returned. we learn the success of his mission from his letter written to the minister of war on august th: "union appears to me today perfectly established in good faith between our chiefs." in his journal on his return to carillon he writes of his impressions and his delicate mission at montreal: "i have been sent by the marquis of montcalm to the marquis de vaudreuil with the order to stifle, if possible, this leaven of discord which is being fermented and which perhaps may have been hurtful to the good of the service. thus our general still makes the advances. public interest is the rule of his conduct and he has acted ceaselessly in the spirit of the words of themistocles, 'strike! but hear!' it appears that the marquis de vaudreuil in all his bickerings has followed the impressions of subalterns interested in creating variances, rather than his own ideas. what is, however, his own is his 'amour propre' and a jealousy of a rival--a foundation on which the mischief makers readily build. the appearances are that my journey has not been unfruitful. i hope that facts will prove it so." meanwhile montcalm remained at carillon, holding the position so as effectively to prevent any return of the english. on september st a courier came from montreal with news that the english were on lake ontario and had arrived within three leagues of fort frontenac. this was followed shortly by the news of the fall of louisbourg. this latter was at first discredited by montcalm, but the entry in his journal, at once heartbreaking and laconic, tells its own tale: "september , --news from quebec announcing the capture of louisbourg; from montreal, that of frontenac." that night montcalm left carillon secretly with pontleroy and bougainville, called by vaudreuil to consult on the critical conjuncture in which the french possessions in america were now placed. never since the beginning of the "seven years' war" was the situation so menacing for the colony. with the loss of frontenac, the french were no longer masters of lake ontario; niagara was in a perilous position and french prestige had suffered a mortal blow in the regions of the great lakes. with the capture of louisbourg, the english held the gateway of canada. their return to lake ontario and the destruction of frontenac would open to them the route of the higher reaches of the st. lawrence, onward to montreal. montreal was reached on september th and montcalm stayed there four days. during that time he drew up for vaudreuil three "mémoires," one on the defence of the frontier of lake ontario, another on that of lake champlain, and a third on the defence of quebec, as well as on general operations and regulations. these, in spite of the apparent cessation of personal hostilities, and the renewal of courtesies, seem to have displeased vaudreuil. the latter "mémoire" on the reorganization of the army and the future methods of conducting war in canada was looked upon by vaudreuil and his secretary as a personal offence. in his letter of november st to the minister of marine, vaudreuil calls to his attention "the faults of this 'mémoire,' the passion with which it is treated, the desire to censure the government, the desire of innovation, and more particularly that of lording it over the colonists." the montreal clique saw in the frank attempt of montcalm to solve the situation another depreciation of the colonial forces. while in montreal it was arranged, with vaudreuil's consent, that bougainville should be sent to france at the end of the campaign to expose the canadian situation to the king. on september th montcalm was on his way back to carillon. but the enemy never returned. at the end of october news arrived that the english had broken up their camp at william henry and had left lake st. sacrement. on november th, leaving behind at carillon a garrison of men, montcalm left montreal with the languedoc battalion, which was soon to be followed by the other battalions. the war of was over. the rigorous winter season set in very early this year and the return to montreal from carillon was a painful journey to montcalm and his troops. a disastrous wind on lake champlain separated the vessels and nigh foundered several. the cold was intense and the last vessels found themselves hampered by the ice. yet the victorious general reached st. john without harm. "i will venture to say," he wrote to bourlamaque, "that my vessels carry caesar and his fortunes." on november th he reached montreal. then started the work of distributing the troops for winter quarters, many of them being stationed round about the montreal district. the battalion of la sarre was stationed on the ile jésus, lachenaie, terrebonne, mascouche and l'assomption; the royal roussillons at la prairie, longueuil, boucherville, varennes and verchères; that of languedoc, in the governmental district of three rivers, from ste. anne to batiscan; that of guyenne, at contrecoeur, the river chambly, st. ours, sorel; the first battalion of the berry regiment in the beaupré district, and the second on the ile d'orleans; and that of béarn at sault-au-récollet, longue pointe, pointe aux trembles, the rivière des prairies, st. sulpice, la valtrie and repentigny. in montreal montcalm's first care was to make representations to the governor and the intendant bigot, of the insufficient salary of the soldiers and the officers especially, owing to the high cost of living. in his journal montcalm gives a comparative table of the tariffs of , , and . for example, in a sheep cost four _livres_; in , ten; and in , forty. in a pound of pork cost three _sous_, ten in , one _livre_ and ten _sous_ in . in a pound of butter cost five _sous_; twelve _sous_ in , and forty _sous_ in . this application brought a supplementary payment of forty-five _livres_ a month to the captains, and thirty to the lieutenants. yet it must be added that the officers affected much disedifying ostentation and magnificence in their high rate of living, and many abused the facility they had of borrowing money. on november th de bougainville and m. de doreil, of the commissary department, were sent as representatives to the court to tell of the condition of affairs in canada. the governor, vaudreuil, somewhat distrusted these as friends of montcalm but he had an ally in péan, who had left as early as august th, with warm recommendations. the ostensible purpose of the adjutant major of quebec was to take the waters at barèges for the cure of a wounded arm, but m. doreil, writing to the minister in the same month and warning him that péan was one of the chief causes of the maladministration of the colony, suggests that he was anxious to clear away with his fortune of , , , which he had rapidly amassed. "i have not dared to say , , , although according to public report i could have done so." the mails to france and the favourable envoys bore montcalm's urgent demand for peace, peace, peace at any price to meet the contingencies of the hour. montcalm had no illusions; he foresaw final disaster owing to the weakness of the mother country, worn out by the european war, and to the supremacy of the english force by sea which would effectively cut off all supplies and reinforcements, could they be sent. yet he did not despair, but prepared to meet the imminent invasion should peace not be declared. his letters to his family reveal a secret presentiment that he might never again see his dear candiac or montpellier. montcalm remained in montreal till december d. his letters to bourlamaque show that he spent the time intervening in a very quiet manner, going out little, reading much and finding the days very long. he read with interest the "dictionnaire encyclopédique," then in all its novelty and vogue. this vast literary, philosophic and scientific enterprise, which was to have such an effect on french thought, pernicious in its skepticism and anti-religious spirit, had been interdicted in after the publication of the first two volumes; but on its resumption by it had already given forth eight volumes. montcalm wrote to bourlamaque that he was skipping over the articles he did not wish to know about, and leaving those he could not understand. montcalm spent january and february amid the gayeties of quebec and the pleasant company of the _rue du parloir_, which appealed to him so strongly. his correspondence with his lieutenant gives us an insight into the causes leading to the impending ruin which he foresaw surely stealing onward. he was not happy; he had a presentiment of the brooding catastrophe and foresaw the supreme crisis. thus he wrote of january , : "a ball on sunday. peace, or all will go wrong; will be worse than . ah! how black i see things!" another day: "the colony is lost if peace does not come. i see nothing that can save her. those who govern it have serious cause to reproach themselves. i have none for myself." again: "pleasures at quebec have been most keenly pursued in spite of the prevailing misery and the approaching loss of the colony. there have never been so many balls, nor such heavy games of chance in spite of the prohibition of last year. the governor general and the intendant have authorized it." in march, montcalm was again in the more sober atmosphere of montreal, preparing military memoirs, and reading, according to his letter to bourlamaque, in the third volume of the encyclopedia, "the beautiful articles on christianity, citation, comedy, comic, college, council, colony, commerce, etc." he was also preparing his letters for france. in a letter dated april , , to the minister of war, the maréchal de belle-isle, he threw away all reserve and decided to tell all he saw and knew, thus to expose in its heartbreaking reality the desperate state of the colony, to lay bare the plagues that were gnawing it, the corruption and the depredations which were conspiring with the english invasions to precipitate its downfall. "except for an unexpected good fortune," he wrote, "of a great diversion into the english colonies by sea, or of great mistakes on the side of the enemy, canada will be taken this campaign or certainly next. "the english have sixty thousand men, we at most ten thousand to eleven thousand. our government has no money. advance pay and provisions are wanting. in default of these the english will win. the fields are uncultivated. we need cattle. the canadians are discouraged. there is no confidence in m. de vaudreuil or in m. bigot. m. de vaudreuil is in no position to direct a war campaign. he is inactive; he gives his confidence to experimenters rather than to the general sent from france. m. bigot appears to be engaged only in making a great fortune for himself, his adherents and hangers-on. avarice has obtained the master hand. the officers, the government storekeepers and clerks, ... are making astounding fortunes.... the expenses which have been paid at quebec by the treasurer of the colony reach twenty-four millions; the year before they were only twelve to thirteen millions. this year they will mount up to thirty-six millions. it seems that all are hurrying to make their fortunes before the loss of the colony, which many perhaps desire as an impenetrable veil to hide their bad conduct." he then enumerates particular instances of glaring acts of "grafting" and illicit trading. for example: "is it necessary to transport the artillery, gun carriages, wagons and utensils? m. mercier, who commands the artillery, is the contractor under different names; everything is done badly and dearly; this officer, who came as a simple soldier twenty years ago, will soon become rich to the amount of about six hundred thousand or seven hundred thousand _livres_, perhaps a million if this lasts. i have often spoken of this to m. de vaudreuil or to m. bigot. each one throws the fault onto his colleague." "the people," he continues, "frightened by these expenses, fear a deterioration in the value of the paper money of the country; a bad effect follows--the cost of living increases. the canadians who have not taken part in illicit profits hate the government.... even should peace come, the colony is ruined if the whole government is not changed." thus he wrote to his responsible chief in france. in his journal he is naturally fuller in his condemnations and he remarks: "one would need to have the pen always in hand to write down all these 'friponneries.' o! tempora! o mores!" this season was a painful one for him; he laments over the present and the future. "pauvre roi! pauvre france! cara patria!" in another letter to bourlamaque he surveys his own position: "in a short time i shall be forty-seven years of age. the dignity of a marshal of france would flatter me as well as any other man; it would be fine to have it in six years, but to buy it by this kind of life would be at too dear a price." in his journal he unburdens himself more fully. "o, king, worthy of being better served," he writes. "dear fatherland, crushed with taxes, to enrich cheats and greedy ones!... shall i keep my innocence as i have done up to the present, in the midst of corruption? i shall have defended the colony; i shall have owed , écus; but i shall see men enriching themselves like a ralig, a coban, a cécile, a set of men without faith, rascals interested in the provision enterprise, gaining in one year four or five hundred thousand _livres_, arising from their outrageous expenditures; a maurin, a clerk at crowns, an abortion by nature, a snail in figure, traveling with a suite of calèches and carriages, spending more in conveyances, harness and in horses than a young coxcomb and giddy-headed farmer-general of revenues. and this uphold of provisions, an enterprise formed since the time of m. de la porte, who went shares in it! will france never produce an enlightened head of its marine department, a reformer of abuses? the peculations of a verres, of a marius, of which juvenal speaks, do not come near these." when not otherwise engaged in his literary and military studies--for social life seems to have been not very attractive to him in montreal--montcalm would confer with the governor, with whom the appearance of courtesy at least was preserved, though at times with underlying mutual antipathies. on one occasion he entered the office of vaudreuil, whom he surprised listening indulgently to m. d'eschambault, his nephew by marriage, inveighing against the french officers, accusing them of insubordinate speech against the authorities after the unfortunate events following carillon. caught in the act, the governor, flushing up, took the opportunity to complain bitterly of the french officers. montcalm profited by the occasion also to unburden his heart on the subject of all the unworthy hawking of tittle-tattle and exaggerations productive of harm to the service, and he dealt "a long and strong, but respectful" lesson to both of them. "i should trust," wrote montcalm to bourlamaque, "that this will correct tale-bearers and those who listen to them." another incident related to bourlamaque also gives a picture of the strained relations of the two military factions in montreal. one day, in the governor's office, an officer of the colonial militia saw fit to say in the presence of vaudreuil, montcalm and others, that during the siege of william henry, general webb had great fear at fort lydius, that orange and new york were without troops, and that this fort could have been easily taken. this being a favourite topic with the governor, he commented on it with eagerness. stung to the quick by this recurrence to an old sore, montcalm gave anew the reasons which had prevented him making the second siege in , adding that it was no use feeding still on chimeras. "i concluded, by saying modestly, that i did my best at the seat of war, following my feeble lights, and that if he was not satisfied with his second in command, he had better make the campaign in person, so as to carry out his own ideas. the tears sprang to his eyes and he muttered between his teeth that such might be the case. the conversation finished on my part by saying: 'i shall be delighted and i shall willingly serve under you.' "madame de vaudreuil wished to intervene. 'madame,' i said, 'permit me, without departing from the respect due to you, to have the honour to tell you that ladies ought not to mix in war affairs.' madame again wished to interrupt. 'madame,' i said, 'without departing from the respect due to you, allow me to have the honour to inform you that if madame de montcalm were here and heard us speaking of war affairs with m. le marquis de vaudreuil, she would maintain silence.'" "this scene, before his officers, three of them colonials, will be embroidered and reimbroidered; but here it is." footnotes: [ ] the following, according to montcalm's journal, was the military strength of the french on july th: the marquis de montcalm, maréchal des camps; chevalier de lévis, brigadier; sieur de bourlamaque, colonel; the sieur de bougainville, aide maréchal des logis; chevalier de montreuil, aide major général; brigade de la reine, men; béarn, ; guyenne, ; brigade de la sarre, ; languedoc, ; brigade de royal roussillon, ; first batallion of the berry brigade, ; second batallion, a guard of at fort carillon; troops of the marine department, ; canadian forces, ; savages, ; total , . [ ] there were only , men, including reserves, engaged in the attack. [ ] saint-sauveur had been employed in the same secretarial functions by m. de la jonquière, and under both he seems to have used his position unduly to increase his fortune. chapter xlii the fall of quebec montreal the seat of government the spring ice shove--news from france--military honours sent but poor reinforcements--projected french invasion of england--gloom in canada--the montreal militia at the siege of quebec--fall of quebec, montreal seat of government--the winter attempt to regain quebec--the expected french fleet never arrives--retreat of french to montreal. at the commencement of april, the violent breaking up of the ice of the st. lawrence proclaimed that spring had arrived. "it was a sight," said montcalm, "to see the masses of ice heaping up, mountain-like, amidst great noise. the ice shove took place at . a. m. it happens from time to time and makes one fear for a part of montreal, which is built too near the river. one year it bore down all the walls of the town. this year it has battered the château de callières, a house at the extremity of the town, so called, because it was the dwelling of the governor general of that name." the troops began to be moved. at last the vessels from france reached quebec and bougainville returned to montreal on may th to render his report to the governor general, confirming his letters, arriving ahead. the situation now unfolded by bougainville, with the letters from the court at versailles and the ministers of war and marine to vaudreuil and montcalm, was one of intense anxiety. france was in a pitiable state of degeneracy. a weak king sat without honour on its throne, surrounded by ministers without pride and without patriotism, sad successors of a henry iv, a richelieu, a louis xiv and a colbert. there was no consistent policy in the king's council. the king, who had boasted "_après moi, le déluge_," was a nobody, and madame la marquise de pompadour virtually prime minister, all powerful. there was no credit. the finances were inadequate to pay for the toilettes and the shameful splendours of the pompadour, whose budget was greater than that of canada under the infamous government of louis xv. france saw its erstwhile moral and political grandeur in decay; its administration of its foreign and home affairs a by-word heightened by the scandalous disorders of the court of a king who was a gamester and a high liver. it is no wonder then that bougainville, after three months' insistent solicitations in france with m. berryer, the minister of marine, the marshal de belle-isle and the pompadour, could only obtain the reinforcement for canada of men and some ammunition, and inadequate supplies of provisions. in his journal he notes that "m. berryer who, from being a lieutenant of the police in paris, had been made minister of marine, would not understand that canada was the barrier of our other colonies and that the english would not attack any others until they had chased us out of it. this minister was fond of proverbs and he told me pertinently that one did not seek to save the stables when the house was on fire." hence the small reinforcements for the stables of canada. honours, however, were thickly scattered. montcalm had been made a lieutenant-general, with an increase of salary, with the red ribbon of knighthood of the order of st. louis; de lévis became a maréchal de camp; bourlamaque had been created a brigadier, bougainville a colonel, and both had received supplementary pensions; m. de vaudreuil was named grand croix of the order of st. louis; m. de rigaud, his brother, received for life the concession of the port of baie verte (green bay). many other officers received pensions, promotions or the cross of st. louis. without the necessary reinforcements the colony appeared abandoned. the argument given for this to vaudreuil and bigot in a letter dated february d from the minister of marine was that "the continuation of the war in europe, the too great risks by sea and the necessity of reuniting the naval forces, did not allow of their separation or the hazarding of a part of them to afford the uncertain succour which would be employed more usefully for the state and the relief of canada, in expeditions more prompt and decisive later." yet in spite of the news that the english counted on invading carillon and quebec--amherst at carillon and wolfe at quebec--montcalm's instructions were "to hearken to no capitulation, but to defend himself foot by foot, and not to imitate the shameful conduct of louisbourg."[ ] vaudreuil had to keep his foot in canada at any price. the letter of m. berryer to montcalm and vaudreuil, dated february , , put this explicitly: "your principal object, which you ought not to lose sight of, must be to preserve at least a sufficient portion of this colony and to hold it, in view of recovering the whole on the declaration of peace, it being a very different thing, in a treaty to stipulate for the restitution of the whole of a colony, than for that only of dependent portions lost in the hazard of war.... moreover, his majesty will not lose sight of you during this campaign.... he will busy himself about means to assist you effectively, not only through the new reinforcements he may send you, but still more by efficient manoeuvres to procure diversions of the strength likely otherwise to oppose you." this enigmatic, mysterious allusion, not then understood, was to nothing less than to the projected invasion of england which, it was thought, would withdraw the english forces from canada. this plan, conceived by m. machault, prompted by the maréchal de belle-isle and enthusiastically adopted by choiseul, forty-six years before napoleon, was actually attempted. but pitt, becoming aware of the preparations, quickly encircled the british isles and ireland with a powerful fleet and organized the militia forces on land, and sent rodney, boscawen and hawke to attack the french fleets when mobilizing. lavisse, in the "histoire de france," , ii, p. , tells the result: "the atlantic fleet was rendered as powerless as was that of the mediterranean with the loss to france of twenty-nine vessels of the line and thirty-five frigates; its fleet was reduced to nearly nothing. it was no longer in the position to defend its colonies."[ ] it was a gloomy lookout for the military authorities at montreal. to them it seemed as if the government at home, unmindful of the sacrifice of its heroes in canada by field, flood and ice, was ready to abandon the "few _arpents_ of snow" as too great a burden for its weak shoulders and to shamefully lower the _fleur-de-lys_ to the flag of england.[ ] the forces at the disposal of canada were, according to the census taken in january, only , . the census of february, , gave a total population in canada of , , with , able to bear arms. (cf., rameau, "la france aux colonies," p. .) this would not include the regular army and the domiciliated indians. smith, in his "history of canada," states that "when the government wanted the services of the militia as soldiers, the colonel of militia, or the town major, in consequence of a requisition from the governor general, sent orders to the several captains of militia in the country parishes to furnish a certain number of militiamen, chosen by those officers, who ordered the drafts into town under an escort commanded by an officer of militia, who conducted them to the town major, where they were each furnished with a gun, a capot, a canadian cloak, a breechclout, a cotton shirt, a cap, a pair of leggings, a pair of indian shoes and a blanket; after which they were marched to the garrison for which they were destined. the militia were generally reviewed once or twice a year to inspect their arms." they acted as bushrangers and would march with the french regulars to the tune of "malbrouk s'en va-t'en guerre." to these had been communicated, by vaudreuil, the king's order to fight even to extinction, and the governor general, to his honour, added: "for my part, i am determined to consent to no capitulation, convinced of its dangerous consequences for all the canadians. the thing is so certain that it would be incomparably sweeter for them, their wives and their children, to be buried under the ruins of the colony." with these few but resolute troops canada had now to defend herself, attacked at three points--quebec, carillon and niagara--against overwhelming odds. quebec was the first objective of attack by the english, and on may st montcalm left montreal to put it in a position, as far as it was possible, to stand the siege. on may th he was joined by vaudreuil. the story of the siege of quebec, which lasted two months and twelve days--from july th to september th--is foreign to our purpose; but we must know that the militia of the town of montreal, to the number of , , acquitted themselves honourably on that heroic occasion. on september th quebec dates its fall. it was the fatal day of the disaster on the plains of abraham, where montcalm, bearing his death wound, was led on his horse by three soldiers by the st. louis gate to the city. at o'clock on the morning of september th he breathed his last like a christian hero, believing in the promises of immortality. wolfe also had met his fate in the same engagement.[ ] [illustration: wolfe and montcalm monument, quebec one of the few instances known in which a monument has been erected to two opposing generals.] [illustration: montcalm statue] [illustration: wolfe statue] on october th the english fleet left quebec. the town was desolate. after the death of wolfe, monckton put murray in command of the garrison, with twenty gunships. brigadier general murray remained there with , men, at once governor and commander in chief. lord townshend and admiral saunders, with the rest of the fleet, returned to england with the embalmed body of wolfe. the city of champlain was in other hands. it is attributed to madame de pompadour that on receipt of the news she uttered the frivolous comment, "at last, the king will sleep in peace." by louis xv, this new wound to french national pride was received with indifference. already beaten at rosbach, crevelt and meudon, what mattered another loss so far away? nevertheless he sent, at the entreaty of vaudreuil, inadequate forces, which the english fleet never allowed to reach their destination. the loss of quebec was looked upon by the english, at home and in america, as the virtual conquest of canada. england rejoiced with bonfire celebrations and the new england pulpits resounded with the oratory of thanksgiving for the conquest. france received the news with pain, but with no surprise. patriotism was dead and there was little talk of sending a strong reinforcement. the ministers were content with sending men, with three or four vessels loaded with provisions and warlike stores, and convoyed by a frigate.[ ] yet the canadians did not despair. with indomitable courage, and buoyed up perhaps by the hope that some big scheme for their succour was being devised in paris, they held to their policy under general de lévis, now in command, of disputing the position foot by foot. with the loss of the capital, montreal became the seat of civil and religious governments, as well as the military headquarters. by the end of it was a small remnant that now remained to the french--the narrow strip of territory on the st. lawrence from jacques cartier and kingston, montreal and ile aux noix being the only posts of importance still to be reduced. during the winter of - , while petty hostilities were kept up with the enemy to divert their attention, busy preparations were being made in montreal to advance to the recapture of quebec at the breaking up of the ice. the historian, parkman, in his "montcalm and wolfe," vol. ii, ch. , thus describes this period: "the difficulty was to find means of transportation. the depth of the snow and the want of draught animals made it necessary to wait till the river became navigable; but preparation was begun at once. lévis was the soul of the enterprise. provisions were gathered from afar and near; cannon, mortars and munitions of war were brought from the frontier posts, and butcher knives weritted to the muzzles of guns to serve the canadians in place of bayonets. all the working men about montreal were busied in making tools and gun carriages. stores were impressed from the merchants; and certain articles which could not otherwise be had, were smuggled, with extraordinary address, out of quebec itself. early in spring the militia received orders to muster for the march. there were doubts and discontent, 'but,' says a contemporary, 'sensible people dared not speak, for if they did they were set down as english.' some there were who in secret called the scheme 'lévis' folly.' yet it was perfectly rational, well conceived and conducted with vigour and skill. two frigates, two sloops of war and a number of smaller craft still remained in the river, under the command of vauquelin, the brave officer who had distinguished himself at the siege of louisbourg. the stores and cannon were placed on board these vessels and the army embarked in a fleet of bateaux, and on the th of april the whole set out together for the scene of action. they comprised eight battalions of troops of the line and two of colony troops, with the colonial artillery, , canadians and indians. when they left montreal, their effective strength, besides indians, is said by lévis to have been , , a number which was increased as they advanced by the garrisons of jacques cartier, deschambault and pointe aux trembles, as well as by the canadians on both sides of the st. lawrence below three rivers, for vaudreuil had ordered the militia captains to join his standard with all their followers, armed and equipped, on pain of death. (vaudreuil aux capitaines de milice, avril .) these accessions appear to have raised his force to between eight and nine thousand." the story of the journey to quebec, of the battle of st. foy and the second battle on the plains of abraham, although engrossing in its interest, takes us too far afield. suffice it to say that the siege of quebec was raised by the french during the night of may - , after a short but brave campaign. then followed their retreat. the victory would have been with them if the expected fleet from france had arrived. the moment was critical; each side was scanning the st. lawrence for their countries' flags, the red for england and the white for france. the british frigate lowestoffe was the first to arrive on may th, to be followed a week later by the ship of the line, vanguard, and the frigate, diana. these latter arrived in the harbour on the evening of the th and on the next morning passed the town to attack vauquelin's fleet in the river above, with the result of their destruction and the loss of the stores of food and ammunition.[ ] the little french fleet never arrived. they had run into the baie des chaleurs to escape from pursuing enemies. there they were found, and the frigate and the four vessels convoyed by it were burned by captain byron, then cruising with a powerful fleet in the gulf of st. lawrence. france was responsible for her delay and niggardliness in succouring her own. footnotes: [ ] berryer wrote to vaudreuil: "m. de montcalm ought to be consulted not only on the operations but on all points of administration which shall have a bearing on the defence and the administration of the colony." [ ] the very walls of versailles, the residence of the king, were placarded with doggerels, among which were many of a mo treasonable character. all of these pointed to the feminine influence over the king. such couplets as these: bateaux plats à vendre[ ] soldats à louer ministres à vendre généraux à louer o, france! le sexe femelle fit toujours ton destin. tel bonheur fait d'une pucelle ton malheur vient d'une catin. [ ] referring to the numerous boats built for the invasion of england but never used. this scheme originated with la pompadour. (walpole's memoirs of george ii, vol. ii.) [ ] the phrase "a few arpents of ice" had been used by voltaire in a letter dated march , . later, in , in his "romance candide," he wrote: "you know that these two nations (france and england) are at war for 'some arpents of snow' towards canada and that they expend for this fine war more than the whole of canada is worth." [ ] in there was erected in quebec, under the auspices of lord dalhousie, then governor-general, a stone obelisk to the memory of the two illustrious rivals, bearing this inscription: "mortem virtus, communem famam historia, monumentum posteritas dedit." (valour gave them death in common; history, a common fame; posterity, a monument.) [ ] the influx of refugees increased the cost of living. a dozen eggs or a pound of butter were sold for six francs; a pound of mutton eighty francs. (cf. archives de la marine. november , .) [ ] the arrival of the three ships in may was followed by lord colville's fleet, so that shortly there were six ships of the line, and eight smaller war vessels, before quebec. the land force under lord rollo did not arrive till early in july. chapter xliii the fall of montreal the capitulation the last stand at montreal--the approach of the british armies--surrender of arms by french on the route--paper money valueless--murray's advance from quebec--haviland's progress from lake champlain--amherst's descent from oswego--montreal within and without--the council of war in the chateau vaudreuil--the terms of capitulation--the negotiations with amherst--honours of war refused--de levis' chagrin--the capitulation signed--the conditions--formal possession of town by the british--the end of the french regime. after the retreat from quebec, de lévis made preparations for the last stand at montreal. along the trail, posts were stationed: rochebeaucour with men at pointe aux trembles; repentigny with at jacques cartier; dumas with , at deschambault; bougainville at ile aux noix to bar the approach from lake champlain, and la corne to defend the rapids above montreal. each of these points was important, as the plan of campaign of the english, organized by amherst, was to descend to montreal, the remaining stronghold of the french, by three routes simultaneously--east, west and south--and uniting there at the same time, to invest it with an army of , and to take it as an easy prey, for its weaknesses were known. maps were not wanting of it. it was known that its fortifications, made for defence against the indians alone, could not resist english cannon. from three widely separated points, three armies were surely and with deadly certainty moving on montreal. murray was to ascend the st. lawrence from quebec, brigadier haviland to force his entrance by way of lake champlain, while amherst was to lead the main army to montreal, down the st. lawrence from lake ontario. the latter, though the more difficult journey to execute, the rapids being numerous, was undertaken to prevent the french from attempting to escape up-country, and so defer the inevitable day of their humiliation. at montreal the governor general, vaudreuil, waited for the inevitable, but with dogged resistance and hope till the last. "at this time," he wrote to the minister, "i am taking the most just measure to unite our forces, and if our situation permits, fight a battle or several battles. it is to be feared that we shall go down before an enemy so numerous and strong; but whatever may be the event, we shall save the honour of the king's arms. i have the honour to repeat to you, monseigneur, that if any resource were left me, whatever progress the english might make, i would maintain myself in some part of the colony with my remaining troops, after having fought with the greatest obstinacy; but i am absolutely without the least remnant of the necessary means. in these unhappy circumstances i shall continue to use every manoeuvre and device to keep the enemy in check; but if we succumb in the battles we shall fight, i shall apply myself to obtaining a capitulation which may avert the total ruin of a people who will remain forever french, and who could not survive their misfortunes but for the hope of being restored by the treaty of peace to the rule of his most christian majesty." if we follow the route of each of the armies whose objective was montreal, we shall find them making easy progress, for the country was ripe for the change of government. the militia, seeing the colony was lost to france, gave up their arms, as did the regulars, famished and despairing. the greatest cause of despair in the old régime now passing away was the news that not only the home government could not send military succour, but that the royal treasury could not meet colonial bills, the payment of which was now suspended for a time. the people had advanced much money to the government and now they found their paper money almost valueless and discredited. vaudreuil and bigot at montreal were informed of this deferred payment by an official circular, in which "they were assured, however, that the exchequer bills (_letters de change_), drawn in and , would be paid in three months after the anticipated peace, with interest; that those drawn in would be discharged in like manner, eighteen months after peace; and as for the intendant's promissory notes (_ordonnances_), they would be liquidated as soon as convenient. this news startled those concerned like a thunderbolt; there was owing by france to the colonials more than forty million francs (say , , pounds sterling), and there was scarcely any one of them who was not a creditor of the state." (bell's translation of garneau's "history of canada," vol. ii, p. .) murray began his advance on montreal on july th and ascended the st. lawrence with , men, convoyed by three frigates and twelve gunboats, carrying twenty-four and -pounders. with the bateaux they amounted to thirty-five vessels. later in the journey, these were joined by some thirteen hundred men under lord rollo, arriving from louisbourg. on august th the fleet was in sight of three rivers. beyond some skirmishes along the banks, the progress had been triumphant, notwithstanding the elaborate preparations made by de lévis to prevent its advance. the habitants, previously warned, on july th, to remain quietly in their homes offered little resistance, but for the most part accepted the oath of allegiance or at least neutrality. this done, they gladly enough sold their eggs and farm produce. three rivers was passed on august th. no attack was made on the french garrison, "because," says knox, the soldier historian, who was with murray, "a delay here would be absurd, as that wretched place must share the fate of montreal. our fleet sailed this morning. the french troops, apparently two thousand, lined their different works and were, in general, clothed as regulars, except a very few canadians and about fifty picts, or savages, their bodies being painted of a reddish colour and their faces of different colours, which i plainly discerned with my glass. "their light cavalry, which paraded along shore, seemed to be well appointed, clothed in blue faced with scarlet, but their officers had white uniforms. in fine, their troops, batteries, fair-looking houses; their situation on the banks of a delightful river; our fleet sailing triumphantly before them, with our floating batteries drawn up in line of battle; the country on both sides interspersed with neat settlements, together with the verdure of the fields and trees and the clear, pleasant weather, afforded as agreeable a prospect as the most lively imagination can conceive." (knox, ii.) as the fleet advanced among the islands of st. peter, the writer had new material for his picturesque pen. "i think nothing could equal the beauties of our navigation this morning; the meandering course of the narrow channel; the awfulness and solemnity of the dark forests with which these islands are covered; the fragrancy of the spontaneous fruits, shrubs and flowers; the verdure of the water by the reflection of the neighbouring woods; the wild chirping notes of the feathered inhabitants; the masts and sails of ships appearing as if among the trees, both ahead and astern, formed together an enchanting diversity." on august th the british were before sorel. hither bourlamaque had come and had intrenched two or three thousand troops and militia along the strand, while dumas, with another body, was on the northern shore. his object, and that of de lévis, was to prevent the juncture of haviland's force, reported to be coming from lake champlain by the richelieu river, at its mouth at sorel, with murray's force. the one hope of the french was to be able to attack, in detail, each of the three portions of the advancing army, for once these united, there was no hope of success. murray fired on sorel. it was quickly deserted, the inhabitants joining bourlamaque. on landing murray burned a settlement near sorel as a lesson, following on his proclamation advising the habitants to remain quietly at home and not engage as combatants, for fear of retribution to follow. "i was under the cruel necessity of burning the greatest part of these poor unhappy people's houses," he wrote to pitt on august , . "i pray god this example may suffice, for my nature revolts when this becomes a necessary part of my duty." the effect was immediate, for, in spite of counter proclamations of vaudreuil from montreal, before the end of the month, half of bourlamaque's army gave in their allegiance. on the th of august murray's fleet reached contrecoeur, about eighteen miles east of the island of montreal, and there he waited until he could communicate with haviland and amherst. meanwhile haviland's force from lake champlain was advancing to montreal with uninterrupted success. on august th he had left crown point with , regulars, provincials and indians, convoyed by one brig, three sloops and four floating stages bearing the artillery. it had been hoped that there was a good chance to stop this advance and for this reason bougainville, with , men, had been stationed at ile aux noix. by the st the english force had passed around the east of the island and had constructed batteries, from which shells were thrown into the defences. by the th bougainville was compelled to realize that the port could not be held. accordingly he left the garrison of fifty men, of wounded and invalids, with orders to surrender on the th. on the th he landed above the fort on the west bank unobserved, and passing through the woods, joined roquemaure at st. johns in safety, twelve miles below. next day the surrender of ile aux noix took place. haviland followed on to st. johns and chambly, driving bougainville and roquemaure to join bourlamaque on the st. lawrence. now came fresh desertions from the canadian ranks and new oaths of allegiance. haviland desirous to get in touch with murray's army sent rogers, of the rangers, to announce his arrival. but it was not until september th that rogers was able to reach colonel haldimand at the head of the light infantry and grenadiers. meanwhile, haldimand crossed the country to longueuil, opposite montreal, and encamped immediately opposite murray's forces on september th. the main body of the english army under amherst, , strong, including indians under sir william johnson, had meanwhile proceeded by the mohawk river and oneida lake to oswego. the story of its descent to montreal may be told by parkman.[ ] "the army of amherst had gathered at oswego in july. on the th of august it was all afloat on lake ontario, to the number , men, besides about seven hundred indians under sir william johnson. before the th, the whole had reached 'la présentation,' otherwise called oswegatchie, or la galette, the seat of father piquet's mission. nearby was a french armed brig, the ottawa, with ten cannon and a hundred men, threatening destruction to amherst's bateaux and whaleboats. five gunboats attacked and captured her. then the army advanced again and were presently joined by two armed vessels of their own which had lingered behind, bewildered among the channels of the thousand islands. "near the head of the rapids, a little below la galette, stood fort lévis, built the year before on an islet in midchannel. amherst might have passed its batteries with slight loss, continuing his voyage without paying it the honour of a siege; and this is what the french commanders feared that he would do. 'we shall be fortunate,' lévis wrote to bourlamaque, 'if the enemy amuse themselves with capturing it. my chief anxiety is, lest amherst should reach montreal so soon, that we may not have time to unite our forces to attack haviland or murray.' if he had better known the english commander, lévis would have seen that he was not the man to leave a post of the enemy in his rear under any circumstances; and amherst had also another reason for wishing to get the garrison into his hands, for he expected to find among them the pilots whom he needed to guide his boats down the rapids. he therefore invested the fort, and on the d cannonaded it from his vessels, the mainland and the neighbouring islands. it was commanded by pouchot, the late commandant of niagara, made prisoner in the last campaign and since exchanged. as the rocky islet had but little earth, the defences, though thick and strong, were chiefly of logs, which flew in splinters under the bombardment. the french, however, made a brave resistance. the firing lasted all day, was resumed in the morning, and continued two days more, when pouchot, whose works were in ruins, surrendered himself and his garrison. on this johnson's indians prepared to kill the prisoners, and being compelled to desist, three-fourths of them went home in a rage.[ ] "now began the critical part of the expedition, the descent of the rapids. the galops, the rapide plat, the long sault, the côteau du lac, were passed in succession, with little loss, till they reached the cedars, the buisson and the cascades, where the reckless surges dashed and pounded in the sun, beautiful and terrible as young tigers at play. boat after boat, borne on their foaming crests, rushed hard by down the torrent. forty-six were totally wrecked, eighteen were damaged, and eighty-four men were drowned. luc la corne was watching the rapids with a considerable body of canadians, and it is difficult to see why this bold and enterprising chief allowed the army to descend undisturbed through passes so dangerous. at length the last rapid was left behind, and the flotilla, gliding in peace over the smooth breast of lake st. louis, landed at isle perrot, a few leagues from montreal. in the morning, september th, the troops embarked again, landing unopposed at lachine, nine miles from the city, marched down without delay and encamped before its walls.[ ] "the montreal of that time was a long, narrow assemblage of wooden or stone houses, one or two stories high, above which rose the peaked towers of the seminary, the spires of three churches, the walls of four convents, with the trees of their adjacent gardens; and, conspicuous at the lower end, a high mound of earth crowned by a redoubt, where a few cannon were mounted. the whole was surrounded by a shallow moat and a bastioned stone wall, made for defence against indians and incapable of resisting cannon."[ ] an idea of montreal on this evening may now be conceived. within forty-eight hours the three english armies, with wonderful precision and generalship, had united and invested the city--amherst in the northwest, haviland at longeuil on the south shore, and murray also at a distance of a four hours' march. within the island the forces of bourlamaque, bougainville and roquemaure, abandoned by the militia, had gathered from the south shore over the river. the corps of bourlamaque was placed below the city; that of roquemaure was stationed above; dumas was posted on the eastern part of the island; bougainville apparently remained in the town. "the town," says parkman, "was crowded with noncombatant refugees. here, too, was nearly all the remaining force of canada, consisting of twenty-two hundred troops of the line and some two hundred colony troops; for all the canadians had by this time gone home. many of the regulars, especially of the colony troops, had also deserted; and the rest were so broken in discipline that their officers were forced to use entreaties instead of commands. the three armies encamped around the city amounted to seventeen thousand men."[ ] on the night of the th a council of the officers was held by vaudreuil in his château, when a memoir proposing a capitulation was read by bigot. it set forth that by the desertion of the canadians and of a great number of the soldiers, the whole force available was , men. the indians had made peace with the english and had even offered to aid in conquering the french. it was to be expected, that on the morning, murray would land on the island of montreal, and a corps on the southern bank of the river would join the main army; and that it was for the benefit of the colony to obtain an advantageous capitulation. the conclusion was accepted by all present. at o'clock on the morning of the th, de bougainville was sent with a proposal to amherst for a cessation of arms for a month. it was refused, and after some conversation, amherst consented that no movement should be made until o'clock. vaudreuil, however, at o'clock sent a messenger to amherst. on this occasion he offered to capitulate and he enclosed the terms on which he proposed to surrender. these contained fifty-five articles of capitulation. amherst granted the greater part, modified others and some he flatly refused. among these latter was a clause that the french troops should march out of the city with arms, cannon and the honours of war. the answer was: "the whole garrison of montreal, and all of the french troops in canada, must lay down their arms and shall not serve during the present war."[ ] this hurt the pride of general de lévis. at this request "vaudreuil sent back du lac with a letter asking a reconsideration of the terms."[ ] amherst replied that he had set forth the terms he had determined to grant, and he desired an immediate reply to their acceptance, for the conditions would not be changed. again de vaudreuil sent de bougainville with a request that he would hear his explanation. amherst gave the same answer, that he could make no change in the conditions; and he desired an immediate reply to know if they were accepted or not. the conditions, however, were not concluded, for de lévis sent de la pause, his quartermaster general, to treat with amherst on the subject of the too rigorous article imposed upon the troops, which he said they could not accept, and he asked amherst to consider its hardship. amherst briefly repeated the substance of his former letters and demanded a definite answer by the bearer.[ ] these denials so piqued de lévis that he threatened to return to st. helen's island and defend it to the last extremity; but vaudreuil ordered him to disarm. vaudreuil was wise, but no doubt de lévis' design was to show france that its heroes were staunch to the end and ready literally to preserve some territory, small as it might be, for the _fleur-de-lys_ to wave over in defiance. that night the english slept on their arms again. it was not until the th that de vaudreuil sent his unconditional acceptance of the articles, which were signed on the same day by himself and jeffrey amherst.[ ] amherst, in his despatch to pitt, tells the circumstances of the actual signature: "the troops passed the night (the th) under arms, and early in the morning i received a letter from the marquis de vaudreuil to which i replied; then i sent major abercromby to the town to bring back the articles of capitulation signed by the marquis de vaudreuil. i had then forwarded to the latter a duplicate bearing my signature. then colonel haldimand, with the grenadiers and the light infantry, took possession of the fort and tomorrow he will put into execution the articles of capitulation."--"archives canadiennes," doc. const. (translated from french version). [illustration: about the year of capitulation published by jefferys, the corner of st. martin's lane in the strand] the articles of capitulation were written in french, no signed copy in english being extant. the terms are those of the surrender of a conquered people, though the spirit of generosity marks them, on the part of the conquerors. as had been said the troops were to lay down their arms, were not to serve again during the war and were to be sent back to france, to the first port, by the shortest route. protection to deserters on both sides was refused; the sick and wounded were to be treated kindly. the demand that the indians under british arms should be sent away after the signing of the articles was refused on the ground "that there had never been any cruelties practiced by the savages of our army." the demand for protection against disorders on the part of the victorious troops was answered by amherst laconically: "good order will be maintained." m. de vaudreuil, m. de rigaud, governor of montreal, and their officers and suites shall be treated with consideration, maintained in the houses till their embarkation. they could carry away their private papers, except those archives that may be necessary for the good government of the country. it was asked that if peace were proclaimed, matters should return to the previous state and the capitulation should be null and void. amherst answered that the orders of the king on this point would be obeyed. full facilities were given for the free transportation of officers of state, of justice, of police, etc., and for the soldiers and their wives; a hospital ship for the sick and wounded was to be provided. all who had business in the country could remain with the permission of m. de vaudreuil until they had arranged their affairs. the chief of the commissary department or his representative should be allowed to remain in the country till the following year to satisfy the debts contracted in the colony. the "company of the indies" shall maintain the possession of its peltry, but if it is found that his very christian majesty has any share in it, that would be transferred to the benefit of the english king. all in general engaged in trade or possessing property shall be allowed to go to france with their families, etc., but they shall pay for the freightage of their merchandise and furniture, etc. there was no mention of the use of the french language made on either side. the free exercise of the "roman catholic and apostolic religion" was accorded, the obligation of paying the "dime" to the clergy being reserved to the good will of the king. the ordinary ecclesiastical functions were to be continued, but the demand that the king of france should continue to name the bishop of the colony, who should always be a roman catholic, was refused. as mgr. de pontbriand was but lately dead,[ ] and as his successor was not yet appointed, this seemed an opportunity for the english, if desired, to control future episcopal elections. in the meantime the power to create new parishes was refused. the nuns were maintained in their constitutions and privileges; the same considerations for the jesuits, recollects and sulpicians were refused "until the king's pleasure be known." all these communities, however, should be allowed to retain their property with the right of disposing of their possessions and withdrawing with the money to france. in answer to the condition asked for by de vaudreuil, that those who remained is the colony should not be liable to bear arms, directly or indirectly, against the king of france or his allies, but should be allowed to observe a strict neutrality, amherst answered laconically but significantly, "_they become the subjects of the king_." article demanded that the french canadians shall continue to be governed according to the "coutume de paris" and the laws and usages established for this country; and they shall not be liable to be subjected to any other taxes than those which were established under the french domination. this is again met by a similar reply as above. the remaining articles were such as would safeguard the people and would provide for the ordinary rights of seigneurial tenure, of real property, of commerce, of negro and indian slaves and the exercise of justice. the whole was fairminded, being the offer of the conquered party, almost entirely accepted, with the distinctions recorded above. by the signatures of vaudreuil and amherst, half a continent had been ceded to british arms. the newspapers of the british-american colonies, at the news of the fall of montreal, recount joyful celebrations. the pulpits of new england spoke in exultant tones, but not of ill will against the conquered race. their manuscripts are still extant.[ ] thomas foxcroft, pastor of the old church in boston, proclaimed: "long had it been the common opinion, 'delenda est carthago,' canada must be conquered, as we could hope for no lasting peace in these parts and now, through the good hand of our god upon us, we see the happy day of its accomplishment." the british progressivism of some of the pulpit utterances is interesting. eli forbes, speaking of amherst, says: "the renowned general, worthy of that most honourable of all titles, the christian hero; for he loves his enemies and while he subdues them he makes them happy. he transplants british liberty to where till now it was unknown. he acts the general, the briton, the conqueror, and the christian. what fair hopes arise from the peaceful and undisturbed enjoyment of this good land, and the blessing of our gracious god with it! methinks, i see towns enlarged, settlements increased and this howling wilderness becomes a fruitful field which the lord hath blessed; and to complete the scene, i see churches rise and flourish in every christian grace where has been the seat of satan and indian idolatry." a sentiment thoroughly admirable, but somewhat faulty in the want of recognition of the heroic missionary work already done for the christian cause. on the morning, following the signing of the capitulation, september th, the "place d'armes" was the rendezvous of a detachment of troops and artillery, who thus formally took possession of the town.[ ] thither the french regiments repaired, and one after another laid down their arms, returning to their own camp on the ramparts. after this act of submission, the british took possession of the gates and placed guards in the town. on citadel hill, to the east of the town, the british flag supplanted the _fleur-de-lys_ of france. thus ended montreal under the french régime. footnotes: [ ] "montcalm and wolfe," vol. ii. [ ] sir william johnson informed amherst that he was apprehensive the indians would leave the army. amherst replied "that he believed his army was fully sufficient the service he was going upon, without their assistance; that although he wished to preserve their friendship, he could not prevail on himself to purchase it at the expense of countenancing the horrid barbarities they wanted to perpetrate;" and he added "that if they quitted the army and committed any acts of cruelty, he would on his return assuredly chastise them." upon this the whole retired with the exception of , who were afterwards distinguished upon their arrival in montreal by the gift of a medal from the general, that they might be known at the english posts and receive the civil treatment their conduct deserved.--maubé, p. . mr. g. e. hart, in "the fall of new france," says this medal is well known to numismatists. the obverse has a view of montreal; the reverse plain, with the name and tribe of the indians engraved. as it was given before the general's departure, and is very archaic, it must have been made at montreal at the time. [ ] "the landing was made at lachine. two new york and two connecticut regiments were left to hold the place and guard the boats, while the main force proceeded to the open ground, traversed by the river st. pierre, which then existed to the west of montreal, through which the grand trunk now runs on leaving the city. there the british troops established themselves, the men, on the night of the th of september, lying on their arms."--kingsford, "history of canada," vol. iv, p. . [ ] "i locate his (amherst's) position about the foot of côte des neiges, between guy street and clarke avenue on the one side; sherbrooke street and dorchester street on the other. the house in which the capitulation was signed existed until quite recently, and was at the head of the hill, near the site of the côte des neiges' old tollgate."--g. e. hart, "the fall of new france," note on p. . there are several other houses claiming to be capitulation house.--ed. [ ] a list of the forces employed in the expedition against canada. see smith, "history of canada," i, appendix xxx. "vaudreuil writes to charles langlade, on the th, that the three armies amount to , , and raises the number to , in a letter to the minister next day. burrows says , ; lévis, for obvious reasons, exaggerates the number to , ." parkman, "montcalm and wolfe," vol. ii, p. . [ ] kingsford, iv, p. . [ ] an account of the capitulation of montreal from a french source may be found in the document entitled "suite de la campagne en canada, ," which is a part of the "collection de documents relatifs a l'histoire de la nouvelle france," quebec, , vol. iv, pp. - . [ ] knox gives an account of this interview which is not authenticated by other evidence. it must, however, be borne in mind that knox was present with the troops, and that he was generally well informed of what took place. his work was published within a few years after , and there is every reason to believe it was seen by amherst. "when," says knox, "the bearer of this billet saw that the general had perused its contents he attempted to support the chevalier's complaint respecting the article alluded to; but his excellency commanded him to silence and told him he was fully resolved, for the infamous part the troops of france had acted in exciting the savages to perpetrate the most horrid and unheard of barbarities in the whole progress of war, and for open treacheries as well as flagrant breaches of faith, to manifest to all the world by this capitulation his detestation of such ungenerous practices, and disapprobation of their conduct; he therefore insisted he might decline any remonstrance on the subject."--knox, ii, p. . [ ] kingsford, vol. iv, p. . [ ] m. de pontbriand died at the seminary on june , . the loss of their bishop was looked upon as a veritable disaster. in the funeral oration of june th the curé d'office, m. jolivet, did not dissimulate the fear of all that the catholic religion was now to be extinguished. but the conquerors were far more merciful than was expected. [ ] parkman, "montcalm and wolfe." vol. ii, p. . [ ] at the corner of notre dame and mcgill streets is the following tablet: "récollets gate. by this gate amherst took possession, th september, . general hull, u. s. army, officers, men, entered prisoners of war, th september, ." appendix i the government of la nouvelle france the government of montreal under la nouvelle france--royal commissions--viceroys--governors--intendants--bishops--french and english sovereigns--local governors of montreal--the seigneurs of the seminary. under royal commission jacques cartier, captain general. jean françois de la roque, sieur de roberval. marquis de la roche. capitaine de chauvin (acting as administrator). commandeur de chastes. pierre du guast de monts. leading constitutional events of the french regime governor, sole ruler. governor and council. april. conseil souverain created. april th. conseil souverain last session. viceroys of new france de soissons, chas. de bourbon, october , , to november , . condé, henri de bourbon, prince de, november , , to february , . thémines, maréchal pons de lausière, september , , to october , . montmorency, henri, duc de, february , , to ----, . ventadour, henri de lévis, duc de, march, , to june, . damville, françois c. de lévis, duc de, november, , to ----, . feuquières, isaac de pas, marquis de, august , , to october , . d'estrades, godefroy, comte, ----, , to february , . d'estrées, jean, comte, may, , to december , . governors of canada (la nouvelle france) (n. b.--the dates of arrival in canada are followed rather than that of their commissions.) champlain, samuel de (lieutenant general), october , , to july , . champlain, samuel de (governor), may , , to december , . chateaufort, marc antoine bras de fer de (administrator), december , , to june , . montmagny, chevalier charles hualt de, june , , to august , . d'ailleboust de coulonge, louis, august , , to october , . lauson, jean de, october , , to ----, . lauson-charny, charles de (administrator), ----, , to september , . d'ailleboust de coulonge, louis (administrator), september , , to july , . d'argenson, pierre de voyer, vicomte, july , , to august , . d'avaugour, pierre dubois, august , , to july , . mézy, augustin de saffray, september , , to may , . courcelles,[ ] daniel de rémy de, september , , to september , . frontenac, louis de buade, comte de pallua et de, september , , to ----, . la barre, lefebre de, october , , to july , . denonville, jacques rené de brisay, marquis de, august , , to october , . frontenac, louis de buade (second term), october , , to november , . callières, hector de (administrator), november , , to september , . callières, hector de (governor), september , , to may , . vaudreuil, philippe, de rigaud (administrator), may , , to september , . vaudreuil, philippe de rigaud (governor), september , , to october , . ramezay, claude de (administrator), - . longueuil, charles le moyne ( st), baron de (administrator), - . beauharnois, charles, marquis de, september , , to september , . le galissonière,[ ] rolland michel barrin comte de (administrator), september , , to august , . la jonquière, jacques pierre de taffanel, marquis de, august , , to march , . longueuil, charles le moyne ( d) baron de (administrator), march, , to june , . duquesne-de menneville, marquis de, july, , to june , . vaudreuil-cavagnal, pierre de rigaud ( d), marquis de, june , , to september , . intendants of la nouvelle france (robert, commission dated march , . never came to canada.) talon, jean, first intendant ( st term), september , , to october , . bouteroue, claude de, october , , to october , . talon, jean ( d term), october , , to october, . duchesnaux, jacques, september , , to october , . de meulles, jacques, october , , to september , . champigny, jean bochart, september , , to october , . beauharnois, françois? de, october , , to september , . raudot, jacques (father), september , , to november , . raudot, antoine denis (son), september , , to ----. bégon, michel, october , , to september , . (robert died at sea on board le chameau on the day he left la rochelle, june , .) (de chazel was lost in the wreck of le chameau on his way to canada on august , .) dupuy, claude thomas, september , , to august , . hocquart, gilles, august , , to september , . bigot, françois, september , , to september , . bishops of quebec (including montreal) laval,[ ] françois de, october , , to january , . st. vallier,[ ] jean, bte. de la croix chevrières de, january , , to december , . mornay,[ ] louis françois duplessis de, december , , to september , . dosquet, pierre herman, august , , to september , . dosquet, pierre herman, september , , to june , . l'auberivière,[ ] françois louis de pourroy de, august , , to august, , . pontbriand, henri marie dubreuil de, april , , to november , . french ministers of marine and colonies ruzé de beaulieu, september , , to november , . de loménie, de la ville-aux-clercs, november , , to august , . de loménie, de brienne, august , , to february , . guénégaud de plancy, february , , to february , . de lyonne, february , , to february, . colbert, february , , to september , . colbert, de seignelay, september , , to november , . phélipeaux, comte de pontchartrain, louis, november , , to september , . phélipeaux, de pontchartrain, jérome, september , , to november , . "council of marine," september , , to september , . fleuriau d'armenonville, october, , to april , . morville fleuriau, comte de, april , , to august , . maurepas, phélipeaux, comte de, november , , to april , . rouillé comte de jouy, april , , to july , . machault d'arnouville, july , , to february , . peraine de mauras, february , , to june , . de massiac, june , , to november , . (le normand de mézy, assistant), june , , to november , . berryer, november , , to october , . choiseul, etienne françois, duc de, october , , to april , . french sovereigns since the discovery of montreal, - françois i, january , . henri ii, march , . françois ii, july , . charles ix, december , . henri iii, may , . henri iv, august , . louis xiii, may , . louis xiv, may , ( years' reign). louis xv, september , , to may , . english sovereigns, - henry viii, april , . edward vi, january , . mary, july , . elizabeth, november , . james i, july , . charles i, march , . "the commonwealth," january , . charles ii, may , . james ii, february , . william and mary, february , . william iii, december , . anne, march , . george i, august , . george ii, june , . george iii, october , , to . local governors of montreal --paul de chomedey de maisonneuve, - . --etienne pézard de la touche,[ ] . --zacharie dupuis (commandant), - . --pierre de st. paul de lamothe (commandant), . --de la fredière (commandant), . --françois marie perrot, - and . --th. x. tarieu de lanaudière (commandant), - (sometimes written "de la nougère"). --henault des rivaux,[ ] - . --louis hector de callières, - . --philippe de rigaud, marquis de vaudreuil, - . --claude de ramezay, - . --charles le moyne, st baron de longueuil, - . --jean bouillet de la chassaigne, - . --du bois berthelot de beaucourt, - . --jean nicholas roch de ramezay, - . --charles le moyne, d baron de longueuil, - . --pierre de rigaud, - . m. de maisonneuve was kept in office by the seigneurs until june, , the seigneurs having opposed the nomination made by the _conseil souverain_. seigneurs of the seminary the names of the superiors of the seminary of st. sulpice, so long the seigneurs of montreal, deserve to be put on record. --gabriel de queylus, july , -october , . --gabriel souart, october , -autumn of . gabriel de queylus, autumn -autumn . --françois dollier de casson, - . gabriel souart, -autumn . --françois lefebre, august, -july, . françois dollier de casson, july, -september , . --françois vachon de belmont, september , -may , . --louis normant de farradon, may , -june , . --etienne montgolfier, june , -august , . --gabriel jean brassier, august , -october , . --jean henry auguste roux, october , -april , . --joseph vincent quiblier, april , -april , . --pierre louis billaudèle, august , -april , . --dominique granet, april , -february , . --joseph alexander baile, march , -april , . --frederick louis colin, april , -november , . --jean marie charles lecoq, december , . footnotes: [ ] the marquis de tracy was king's lieutenant-general in america. he arrived at quebec, june , , and was virtually governor-general of canada till his departure, august , . [ ] rolland michel barrin, comte de la galissonière, was sent out to act as minister during the captivity of de la jonquière, who on his way was made a prisoner by the english in a naval engagement off cape finisterre, may , . [ ] bishop laval was consecrated as vicar apostolic for new france december , , and landed at quebec, june , . [ ] bishop st. vallier was on his way back from france on la seine when it was captured by the english on july , . he was made a prisoner and detained in england till june , . he then spent four years in france and arrived in quebec on the th of august, . [ ] bishop mornay never came to america. he was consecrated at paris april , , as coadjutor to the bishop of quebec and in that capacity governed that part of the diocese of quebec which extended along the mississippi. françois louis de pourroy de l'auberivière arrived at quebec august , , but died eight days later of the fever. [ ] also bulletin des recherches historiques. beauceville, quebec, february, . [ ] named only. [ ] named only. appendix ii an inventory of the charts and plans of the island and town of montreal up to by the kindness of the archivist of the district of montreal, mr. e. z. massicotte, we include the following list of plans, etc., of montreal, up to . it is not offered as a complete list. such would necessitate a voluminous book. it is, however, a very representative one, and a contribution to history and archaeology. the compiler has consulted the following works: dionne, "inventaire chronologique," volume iv; holmden, "catalogue des cartes et plans des archives fedérales;" gagnon, "essai de bibliographie;" in addition he has noted the collections in the city hall, the château de ramezay, the court house, of montreal, and finally those in his own collection.[ ] no. . . carte figurative du saut saint louis et d'une partie de la rive sud de l'ile de montréal. dressée par champlain. morin, vieux montréal, pl. , × . no. . . montréal vu à vol d'oiseau de à . morin, vieux montréal, pl. , - / × . no. . . montréal de à . morin, vieux montréal, pl. , × . no. . . carte historique de l'ile de montréal indiquant la position des forts, redoutes et chapelles de mission avec la date de leur construction de à . morin, vieux montreal, pl. , - / × . no. . . plan de villemarie. "jésuit relations," cleveland, t . frontispiece, × . dionne, iv, no. . no. . . plan of the district of montreal or villemarie. "jésuit relations," etc. t , p. . dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan de villemarie et des rues projetées pour l'embellissement de la haute ville. gravé par martin, - / × - / . dans faillon, iii, . dionne, iv, no. , gives to this plan a date which accords neither with the context nor with the _procès verbal_ of the bounds of the streets, which was made in . see, also, morin, vieux montréal. no. . . plan de villemarie en . abbé rousseau, vie de maisonneuve, p. , - / × . no. . . plan of villemarie showing first streets laid out and projected new streets and churches, also the old château and fort, - / × - / . sandham, fortifications, etc. dionne, iv, no. . no. . . plan de montréal de à . morin, vieux montréal, pl. , - / × - / . no. . . the first map of montreal, from a photograph in the possession of wm. mclennan, esq. semi centennial. no. . . plan de villemarie dans l'isle de montréal. copy from the archives of the parliament at quebec. dionne, iv, no. . no. . . villemarie dans l'isle de montréal envoyé par m. denonville, le novembre, , × - / . manuscript chart in colour. dionne, iv, no. a. no. . . plan de villemarie, faillon, vie de mll. leber, p. . - / × - / . no. . . deshaies' map of the island of montreal and vicinity. copy of a. l. pinard, deposited in the parliament library, ottawa, girouard. supplement to lake st. louis, p. . this must be an extract of no. , below. no. . . plan de montréal de à , morin vieux montréal, pl. . × - / . no. . . côtes du canada. cartes des côtes habitées du canada par paroisses et par seigneuries. signé: deshaies, - / × . dionne, iv, . no. . . carte du gouvernement de montréal, - / × . b. de la potherie, hist. de l'amérique sept. dionne, iv, no. . no. . . plan de villemarie dressé en par levasseur de néré. dépôt des fortifications des colonies à paris, no. . cité par faillon , . no. . . plan de la ville de montréal en la nouvelle france dans l'amérique septentrionale. fait à montréal, ce août , par chaussegros delery, ingénieur du roy, × - / . dionne, iv, . copy by p. l. morin made in paris in january, , sulte, h. des c. f. , . no. . . plan de villemarie ou montréal, au canada. deux feuilles de - / × - / chacune. dans pinart, "recueil de cartes, plans et vues relatifs aux etats-unis et au canada." paris, . nos et . dionne, no. . no. . . carte de l'ile de montréal indiquant la position de chaque fort, manoir, moulin, fortification, cours d'eau, etc. m. dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan de la ville de montréal en canada, à d., m. de latitude septentrionale. paris, . par moullard sanson, g. o. d. r. avec priv. dédié à m. de catalogne. × . dionne iv, no. . also in l'opinion publique. no. . . plan de montréal de à . morin, vieux montréal, pl. . - / × - / . no. . . plan de la ville de montréal, en canada. par moullard sanson, dédié à catalogne, nouvelle édition. dionne iv, no. . also in morin, vieux montréal pl. , × - / . no. . . plan de la ville de montréal dans la nouvelle-france fait à montréal ce août . chaussegros delery avec "renvoy." × - / . coloured copy. ottawa, holmden, no. . no. . . carte d'une partie de l'ile de montréal, depuis la pointe à cardinal jusqu'au courant ste-marie avec la ville de montréal et le canal commencé par mm. du séminaire. dionne iv, no. . no. . . carte de l'isle de montréal et de ses environs dressée sur les manuscrits du depost des cartes plans et journaux de la marine par n. bellin ingénieur et hidrographe. . × - / . civic library at montreal. dionne iv, no. , says that it is taken from charlevoix ii, p. . no. . . general map of the parishes of the island of montreal and of the neighbourhood. about , girouard, supplmt. to the lake st. louis, p. . no. . . plan de l'enceinte de la ville de montréal et du profil de ses différentes fortifications. dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan de ville marie et de cayenne, × - / . dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan of the town and fortifications of montreal or ville marie in canada by jeffreys, london. × - / . jeffreys, general topography, , no. . dionne iv, no. . no. . . same plan. in jeffreys, natural and civil history of the french domination, etc., london, , p. . dionne iv, . no. . . plan of the town and fortifications of montreal or villemarie in canada, montreal. published by w. greig and engraved by p. christie from a plan published by thos. jeffreys, geographer to his royal highness, the prince of wales, january, . in bosworth, hochelaga depicta, p. . no. . . an accurate wholesheet plan of the town and fortifications of montreal or ville marie, in canada; with an exact description of the same, the manner of the trading therein with the indian natives and a general idea of the commerce carried on between france and canada. - / × - / . taken from "the universal magazine" of november and december, , accompanied by pp. in of descriptive text. gagnon, essai de biblio. can. no. et dionne, inv. iv, no. . no. . . tabula cornea being a projection of a map engraved on a powder horn in the possession of fred w. lucas, a fac-simile reproduction from a plan on which are seen montréal, three rivers, fort chambly, forts george, niagara. dionne iv, no. . no. . . a new and correct map of canada with a perspective view of the town of montreal on the river st. lawrence. r. bennett sculp. × - / . in the grand magazine, london. dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan of the town and fortifications of montreal or villemarie, in canada. engraved for the london magazine. about . in folio. gagnon, essai de biblio. no. . no. . . plan of the town and fortification of montreal or villemarie, in canada. engraved for the london magazine. sandham, villemarie, , p. . dionne iv, no. . no. . ibid. - / × . sandham, fortif. dionne iv, no. . no. . fortifications de montréal, . d. pomarede sculp., × - / . sulte. hist. c. f. iii. dionne iv, no. . no. . . montreal from an old print, × - / . sandham, fortif. dionne iv, no. . no. . . a perspective view of montreal in . × - / . hart, fall of new france, p. . dionne iv, no. . no. . . plan of the town of montreal at the date of the british occupation. n. m. hinshelwood, montreal and vicinity, . p. , × - / . no. . . plan of the town and fortifications of montreal, or villemarie in canada. inset. view of montreal. engraved for the london magazine, . uncoloured print from atlas f, × - / . holmden, no. and . no. . . a perspective view of the town and fortifications of montreal, in canada, eng. for the royal magazine, . b. cole, sculp. × . gagnon, essai de biblio. no. . footnote: [ ] cf. also bulletin des recherches historiques. beauceville, quebec, february, . when the source of the map is of a french origin, the description is left in french for more convenient reference by the student. transcriber's note punctuation and accented words have been standardised. additional changes have been made as follows: page(s) original -----> correction viii, picote de belestie -----> picote de belestre "... he made preparations for return home...." -----> "... he made preparations for the return home...." agohama's -----> agohanna's , joilette -----> joliet iroquios -----> iroquois "... and in manner they go...." -----> "... and in summer they go...." "... the romantic story of montreal in a sealed book...." -----> "... the romantic story of montreal is a sealed book...." "... au voyait, qu' il y a fait...." -----> "... au voyage, qu' il y a fait...." thémimes -----> thémines bréboeuf -----> brébeuf "... within the the river...." -----> "... within the river...." hennipin -----> hennepin druilletes -----> druillettes thubière -----> thubières harrassed -----> harassed "... foundation of parish of montreal." -----> "... foundation of the parish of montreal." d'avagour -----> d'avaugour sabastian dupuis -----> sébastien dupuis "... at three rivers he had mitiwemeg...." -----> "... at three rivers he had met mitiwemeg...." , chomédy -----> chomedey barthélmy -----> barthélemy carrignan-sellières -----> carignan-sallières may , -----> may , germaine-en-laye -----> germain-en-laye madelene -----> madeleine ojibeways -----> ojibways gorgondière -----> gorgendière lotbinière -----> lothbinière kamanistiquia -----> kaministiquia de la croix chevriere -----> de la croix de chevrières , vandreuil -----> vaudreuil perrade -----> pérade chuchlière -----> chauchetière nicholas perrott -----> nicolas perrot "the following seven missions were founded by mother bourgeoys: ( ) the mission of the mountain--notre dames des neiges. ( ) l'enfant jésus at pointe aux trembles. ile d'orléans near quebec. ( ) notre dame de la visitation at château richer. ( ) notre ( ) les saint anges at lachine. ( ) la visitation at champlain. ( ) ste. famille at the dame des victoires at quebec (lower town)." -----> "the following seven missions were founded by mother bourgeoys: ( ) the mission of the mountain--notre dames des neiges. ( ) l'enfant jésus at pointe aux trembles, ile d'orléans near quebec. ( ) les saint anges at lachine. ( ) la visitation at champlain. ( ) ste. famille at the notre dame des victoires at quebec (lower town). ( ) notre dame de la visitation at château richer." hoquart -----> hocquart , deschambeault -----> deschambault tadousac -----> tadoussac longueil -----> longueuil , lagalissonière, le galissoniere -----> la galissonière bourgainville -----> bougainville bourlemaque -----> bourlamaque m. de la jonquière, detained a prisoner in english -----> m. de la jonquière, detained a prisoner in england d'alleboust -----> d'ailleboust moullart sanson -----> moullard sanson abenaquis, abenrakis -----> abenakis deschesnaux, duchesnau -----> duchesnaux dupéron, duperron -----> duperon galinee, gallinée, galinèe -----> galinée groseillers -----> groseilliers lauzon -----> lauson le ber -----> leber ragenau, rageneau -----> ragueneau tegakwita, tegakwitha -----> tekakwitha the following variants were retained: recollect and récollet lamothe-cardillac, lamotte-cardillac and la motte-cadillac duchesnaux and duchesneau agné and agnée arontal and aronthal bardillère and bardillière chauminot and chaumonot chouart and chouard des groseillers cornibotz and cornibots courtemanche and courtmanche duchesnaux and duchesneau garagontié and garacontié gannensagonas and gannensagouas gogogouen and gogogouin irocois and iroquois la chine and lachine maillet and maillé maricour and maricourt nougère and nouguère onneiouts, onneyouts, onneyuts and onneyutus pottawatomies, pottawattomies and poutéouatamies rousillière and roussillière sidzac du gué and sidrac de gué la valterie and la valtrie varenne and varennes other notes: page : "... assassination in august, ." henry iii was assassinated on august , . page : "... if i would make a settlement a frenchman at the rapids of st. louis...." meaning uncertain. could it be "... settlement as a frenchman?..." page : oi guere are the cayugas. see this text: "at the gloomiest moment, in july, , 'there appeared above montreal two canoes of iroquois, who, bearing a white flag,.... they were sent by the onondagas and cayugas, and brought back four french captives....'" william martin beauchamp, past and present of syracuse and onondaga county, new york: from prehistoric times to the beginning of . vol. . new york: s.j. clarke, , p. . file was produced from images generously made available by the posner memorial collection (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/posner/)) transcriber's note led by the belief that the spelling and punctuation of each entry is based directly on the original title pages no intentional 'corrections' have been made to the content. the text in this e-book is as close to the original printed text as pgdp proofing and postprocessing could get it. in some entries larger spaces are used as spacers between bibliographic fields instead of punctuation. these have been retained to the best of our ability and are represented as non-breaking spaces. a catalogue of books in english later than , forming a portion of the library of robert hoe new york ex libris robert hoe volume i catalogue volume i one hundred copies only, including three upon imperial japanese vellum. printed by the university press, cambridge a catalogue of books in english later than forming a portion of the library of robert hoe [illustration] volume i privately printed new york · this catalogue was compiled by carolyn shipman the catalogue abbadie, jaques.--chemical change in the eucharist. in four letters shewing the relations of faith to sense, from the french of jaques abbadie, by john m. hamersley, . . . london: sampson low, son, and marston, . . . published for the editor. [ ]   _ to, vellum boards, red edges._ À beckett, gilbert abbott.--the comic history of england. by gilbert abbott à becket. [vignette] with ten coloured etchings, and one hundred and twenty woodcuts, by john leech. . . . [london]   published at the punch office, . . . mdcccxlvii. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ À beckett, gilbert abbott.--the comic history of rome. by gilbert abbott à beckett. illustrated by john leech. [london] bradbury and evans. [n. d.] _ vo, cloth, uncut edges_. first edition. ten steel plates, coloured, engraved title and ninety-eight other woodcut illustrations. abÉlard and hÉloise.--a nineteenth century, and familiar history of the lives, loves, & misfortunes, of abeillard and heloisa, a matchless pair, who flourished in the twelfth century: a poem, in twelve cantos. illustrated with ten engravings. by robert rabelais, the younger. . . . london: printed for j. bumpus, . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ the engravings are in aquatint by landseer and lewis after the designs of thurston. acland, sir henry.--see ruskin and acland. act of parliament.--[first page] anno regni decimo quarto georgii iii. regis. . regulation of massa-chuset's bay. [woodcut arms] an act of parliament passed in the fourteenth year of the reign of his majesty king george the third. . an act for the better regulating the government of the province of the massachuset's bay, in new-england. &c. [colophon] boston: printed by m. draper, printer to his excellency the governor, and the honorable his majesty's council, . _folio, brown morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no title, a -a , and b -b (verso blank). pages - . adamson, john.--memoirs of the life and writings of luis de camoens. by john adamson. . . . london: printed for longman . . . mdcccxx. _royal vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, back and sides in gold and green mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ large paper copy, with nine portraits of camoens, three in two states, proofs before and after letters, and nine illustrations after the designs of harding and others, proofs on india paper. all but two of these plates are inserted. addison, joseph.--a poem to his majesty [william iii.], presented to the lord keeper. by mr. addison, of mag. coll. oxon. london: printed for jacob tonson, at the judge's-head near the inner-temple-gate in fleetstreet, mdcxcv. _folio, figured silk._ _bound with_ yalden's _"conquest of namur," _. first edition. collation: title, a (verso blank). dedication to sir john sommers, lord keeper of the great seal, a . poem, b -d in twos. pages - . addison and steele. [first page] numb. i the spectator. [two lines from horace] to be continued every day. thursday, march , . [two columns of text] [at the bottom of the verso] london: printed for sam. buckley, at the dolphin in little britain: and sold by a. baldwin in warwick lane. _folio, two volumes, green vellum, gilt sides, uncut edges._ the complete file of the "spectator" as originally issued in numbers, seven volumes, nos. i-dlv from thursday, march , , through saturday, december , , every day except sunday. it was resumed on friday, june , and published mondays, wednesdays and fridays through no. (misprinted ) monday, december , . the numbering of vol. viii. is incorrect: is misprinted ; - , - , - misprinted - , - , - ; - misprinted - , there is no , and is misprinted . volume viii. has the imprint: "london: printed by s. buckley in amen corner, and j. tonson in the strand; where advertisements will be taken in." the first two numbers ( and ) contain the announcement: "to be continued every monday, wednesday, and friday." each number consists of one folio leaf, similar to number i described above, with a classical quotation varying each day. the words "to be continued every day" were not printed after the first number, and in no. xvi the imprint on the verso was increased by the addition: "where advertisements are taken in; as also by charles lillie, perfumer, at the corner of beauford-buildings in the strand." nos. xvii and cccclxxiv do not contain the addition, and it is discontinued from ccccxcix to the end of volume vii. "price two-pence" first appears at the bottom of no. ccccxliv. inserted are two legal papers containing contracts and agreements between the publisher and addison and steele. there was a ninth volume, from monday, jan. , , through august , a spurious continuation by william bond. the present copy was formerly in the libraries of lord hope and the earl of munster. addison, joseph.--cato. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by her majesty's servants. by mr. addison. [six lines in latin from seneca] london: printed for j. tonson at shakespear's head over-against catherine-street in the strand. mdccxiii. _ to, blue straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . the prologue is by pope, the epilogue by dr. garth. addison, joseph.--poems on several occasions. with a dissertation upon the roman poets. by mr. addison. london: printed for e. curll . . . . [second title] a dissertation upon the most celebrated roman poets. written originally in latin by joseph addison, esq; made english by christopher hayes, esq; london, printed for e. curll. . . . m dcc xviii. _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portrait by van der gucht after kneller and a plate by e. kirkall after la vergne. the signatures and pagination of the poems and the dissertation are different. addison, joseph.--the works of the right honourable joseph addison, a new edition, with notes by richard hurd, d.d., lord bishop of worcester. london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies. . . . . _royal vo, six volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. illustrated by the insertion of fifty plates in addition to the usual illustrations, including twenty-six portraits of the author, and engravings after the designs of stothard, smirke, westall, corbould, etc., many in two states and nearly all proofs, either on india paper, or before letters. addison, joseph.--the miscellaneous works of joseph addison. . . . oxford, published by d. a. talboys. mdcccxxx. _crown vo, four volumes, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. addison, joseph.--days with sir roger de coverley a reprint from "the spectator" with illustrations by hugh thomson. london: macmillan and co. . . . . . . . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy. adventurer, the.--see british essayists. Æschylus.--the agamemnon of Æschylus. translated from the greek, illustrated by a dissertation on grecian tragedy, etc. by john s. harford . . . [vignette]. london: john murray mdcccxxxi. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ engraved title and seventeen plates, chiefly from antique gems. Æsop.--select fables of esop and other fabulists. in three books. . . . [vignette]. birmingham, printed by john baskerville, for r. and j. dodsley. . . . . price bound five shillings. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ dodsley's first edition. frontispiece, fifteen plates in compartments, and seven vignettes by grignion after wale. life of Æsop by de meziriac and essay on fable by r. dodsley. Æsop.--select fables of esop and other fabulists in three books. birmingham, printed by john baskerville, for r. and j. dodsley . . . . _ vo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by derome the younger, with his ticket._ second edition. frontispiece and six smaller illustrations by grignion after the designs of wale. Æsop.--select fables of esop and other fabulists. in three books . . . birmingham, printed by john baskerville for r. and j. dodsley &c [n. d.] _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ frontispiece, and one hundred and fifty-nine illustrations on fifteen plates, also seven vignettes. Æsop.--the fables of Æsop, with a life of the author: and embellished with one hundred & twelve plates. london: printed for john stockdale . . . . _imperial vo, two volumes, olive levant morocco, gilt back, quintuple fillet on the sides, gilt over uncut edges, by cuzin._ the illustrations are by landseer, audinet, bromley, anker smith, grainger, and others. Æsop.--the fables of Æsop, . _imperial vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, back and sides richly ornamented in gold and mosaic, gilt edges, by rivière._ another copy. Æsop, &c.--the fables of Æsop, and others, with designs on wood, by thomas bewick . . . newcastle: printed by e. walker . . . . _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt edges, by bedford._ imperial paper copy, with portrait of bewick by nicholson after ramsay, and the certificate or receipt signed by thomas and robert elliot bewick. Æsop.--the fables of Æsop selected, told anew and their history traced by joseph jacobs done into pictures by richard heighway. london macmillan & co. new york . _imperial vo, buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred printed. aikin, john.--essays on song-writing; with a collection of such english songs as are most eminent for poetical merit. by john aikin. a new edition, with additions and corrections, and a supplement, by r. h. evans [vignette] london: printed for r. h. evans . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by matthews._ aikin, lucy.--the life of joseph addison. by lucy aikin. london: printed for longman . . . [&c] . . . . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by j. brown after kneller. ainsworth, william harrison.--rookwood: a romance. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . (successor to henry colburn.) . _post vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. presentation copy from the author, with his book-plate on a fly-leaf. ainsworth, william harrison.--jack sheppard: a romance. by w. harrison ainsworth, esq. . . . with illustrations by george cruikshank. london: richard bentley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with portrait and duplicate set of the twenty-six plates from the original numbers. ainsworth, william harrison.--jack sheppard: a romance. by w. harrison ainsworth, esq. . . . with illustrations by george cruikshank. london: g. routledge & co. . . . m dccc liv. _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first octavo edition, with fifteen plates. ainsworth, william harrison.--old saint paul's: a tale of the plague and the fire. by william harrison ainsworth. . . . with illustrations by john franklin. . . . london: hugh cunningham, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side fillets, gilt over uncut edges._ first edition, with twenty plates. ainsworth, william harrison.--old saint paul's: a tale of the plague and the fire. by william harrison ainsworth esq . . . new edition, with illustrations by john franklin and h. k. browne. london: parry, blenkarn & c^{o} . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first octavo edition, with twenty-one plates, including the engraved title. ainsworth, william harrison.--the miser's daughter: a tale. by william harrison ainsworth, . . . with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank . . . . london: cunningham and mortimer, [t. c. savill, printer] . . . . _post vo, three volumes, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. ainsworth, william harrison.--windsor castle. an historical romance, by w. harrison ainsworth . . . new edition. illustrated by george cruikshank and tony johannot, with designs on wood, by w. alfred delamotte. london: henry colburn . . . mdcccxliv. _ vo, citron levant morocco, back panel and side corner ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, by reymann._ first octavo edition, with a portrait of the author, engraved title, eighteen plates, and eighty-seven woodcuts. ainsworth, william harrison.--mervyn clitheroe. by william harrison ainsworth. illustrated by hablot k. browne. london: george routledge & co., . . . . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. frontispiece, engraved title, and twenty-two other plates. akenside, mark.--the pleasures of imagination. a poem. in three books. london: printed for r. dodsley . . . m.dcc.xliv. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ akenside, mark.--the pleasures of imagination. by mark akenside, m.d. to which is prefixed a critical essay on the poem, by mrs. barbauld. london: printed for t. cadell, jun . . . mdccxcv. _post vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ portrait of the author (inserted) and four plates engraved on copper from the designs of stothard. akenside, mark.--odes on several subjects. london: printed for r. dodsley . . . and sold by m. cooper . . . m.dcc.xlv. _ to, mottled calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ akenside, mark.--the poetical works of mark akenside [with a memoir by the rev. alexander dyce, and a portrait of akenside]   london   william pickering . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ akenside, mark.--the poetical works of mark akenside [with life of the poet by the rev. alex. dyce] london. bell and daldy . . . . _crown vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with four portraits of the author and fifteen other plates inserted, for the most part proofs. alciatus, andreas.--andreæ alciati emblematum fontes quatuor; namely an account of the original collection made at milan, , and photo-lith fac-similes of the editions, augsburg , paris , and venice . edited by henry green, . . . with a sketch of alciat's life and bibliographical observations respecting the early reprints. published for the holbein society by a. brothers, . . . manchester, &c . . . m.dccc.lxx. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ alciatus, andreas.--andreæ alciati emblematum flumen abundans; or, alciat's emblems in their full stream. being a photo-lith fac-simile reprint of the lyons edition, by bonhomme, ; and of titles, &c., of similar editions, - . edited by henry green, . . . with an introduction and an alphabetical list of all the latin mottoes. published for the holbein society by a. brothers, . . . manchester; &c . . . m.dccc.lxxi. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ aldrich, thomas bailey.--the poems of thomas bailey aldrich. household edition with illustrations. boston . . . houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ mo, tree calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ aleman, mateo.--the life of guzman d'alfarache; or, the spanish rogue. to which is added, the celebrated tragi-comedy, celestina . . . written in spanish by mateo aleman. done into english from the new french version, and compar'd with the original. by several hands. adorn'd with sculptures by gaspar bouttats. london, printed for r. bonwick, . . . - . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ frontispiece and sixteen plates engraved on copper. aleman, mateo.--see mendoza, diego hurtado. alexander, francesca.--christ's folk in the apennine. reminiscences of her friends among the tuscan peasantry. by francesca alexander. edited by john ruskin, . . . i. the peace of polissena. ii. 'ponsatevi voi!' iii. the mother of the orphans. iv. the nun's school in florence. george allen, sunnyside, orpington, kent. . _ vo, four parts, original paper covers._ alexander, william.--a journey to beresford hall the seat of charles cotton esq^{re}. the celebrated author and angler. by w. alexander . . . london. john russell smith . . . mdcccxli. _ to, original cloth._ one hundred copies printed, being a facsimile of the original manuscript with a title-page and frontispiece lithographed, and (inserted) a coloured portrait of walton, as well as a proof mezzotint of cotton. alison, sir archibald.--history of europe from the commencement of the french revolution to the restoration of the bourbons in mdcccxv. by archibald alison . . . new edition with portraits william blackwood and sons edinburgh and london mdcccxlix-l. _royal vo, fourteen volumes bound in seventeen, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ in addition to the portraits published with this work, nearly fifteen hundred plates have been added, portraits, views, military costumes, battle-scenes, etc., etc. nearly every plate is in proof state, generally before letters, and the majority on india paper. forty drawings in water-colour and sepia have been added, including a portrait of tom paine by collins. allen, charles dexter.--a talk on book-plates   a paper read by charles dexter allen at a meeting of the club of odd volumes of boston, massachusetts boston   the club of odd volumes . _ to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ no. of fifty-five copies printed. allston, washington.--lectures on art, and poems, by washington allston. edited by richard henry dana, jr.   new york: baker and scribner mdcccl. _ mo, blue levant morocco, back and sides paneled with quintuple lines, gilt edges, by motte._ almanac--the ladies diary: or woman's almanack, for the year of our lord, . being the third after bissextile, or leap-year. containing an improvement of arts and sciences, for the use and pleasure of the fair-sex. being the forty eighth almanack publish'd of this kind. . . . printed by a. wilde, for the company of stationers, . _small vo, original blue morocco, covered with tooling in the "cottage" pattern, with flap, silver catch, and pockets._ almanac.--the comic almanack, for ; [and each succeeding year to ] an ephemeris in jest and earnest, containing "all things fitting for such a work." by rigdum funnidos, gent. adorned with a dozen of "righte merrie" cuts, pertaining to the months, sketched and etched by george cruikshank. [&c] london: imprinted for charles tilt . . . [ - ]. _post vo, nineteen years bound in five volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ a complete set of the original issue, with covers preserved. the title-pages show no alteration of importance until , when the imprint changes to "tilt and bogue," again changing, in , to "david bogue." in - the size is reduced one third, and the abbreviated title has the line, "edited by horace mayhew." in the almanac renews its original size, and h. g. hine is introduced by name as the co-illustrator with cruikshank. the last year of publication is "edited by robert b. brough." from the commencement to cruikshank contributed twelve plates to each year, but in the number was reduced to six, in to five (including a folded frontispiece), and the four concluding years have each a folded frontispiece in colours, as well as six plates. each year a large number of woodcut illustrations supplement the plates. the original issue of thackeray's "stubbs's calendar," or the "fatal boots" appeared in the volume for , and his "barber cox" the year following. almanac.--the book-lover's almanac for the year with illustrations by henriot. duprat & co. new york . _small to, original covers, uncut edges._ japan paper copy, two hundred printed, with twelve coloured plates, a frontispiece, and floral borders. almanac.--the book-lover's almanac for the year , with etchings by robida, and other illustrations. new york: duprat & co. . . . second year. _small to, original covers, uncut edges._ japan paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed, with four etchings, seven studies in designs for ex-libris by henriot, and vignettes by e. mas. almanac.--the book-lover's almanac for . duprat & co. new york. _small to, original covers, uncut edges._ japan paper copy, one hundred printed, with four plates and other illustrations. almanac.--the book-lover's almanac for the year . duprat & co. publishers   new york. _small to, original covers, uncut edges._ japan paper copy, one hundred printed, no. , with thirty illustrations, the frontispiece in two states, black and coloured. a border of printer's marks surrounds each page of text. almanac.--the book-lover's almanac for duprat & co., . . . new york. _small to, original covers, by louis j. rhead, uncut edges._ japan paper copy, one hundred printed, with title-page and page border by w. h. lippincott, and thirteen other illustrations, two of them coloured. amadis of gaul.--see southey, robert. ames, joseph.--typographical antiquities: being an historical account of printing in england: with some memoirs of our antient printers, and a register of the books printed by them, from the year mcccclxxi to the year mdc. with an appendix concerning printing in scotland and ireland to the same time. by joseph ames, . . . london: printed by w. faden, and sold by j. robinson, . . . mdccxlix. _ to, old red morocco, rich gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ engraved frontispieces, portrait of caxton, and facsimiles. amicis, edmondo de.--holland and its people by edmondo de amicis zuyder zee edition [ illustrations] new york . . . g. p. putnam's sons the knickerbocker press    . _royal vo, one volume extended to two, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ no. of twenty-five copies printed, with an extra set of proof etchings printed upon satin. extra illustrated by the insertion of eighty-eight portraits and views, including etchings by hollar, ostade, many scenic illustrations, proofs on india paper, engravings of famous paintings, etc. amory, thomas.--the life of john buncle, esq. by thomas amory, gent. a new edition. . . . london: septimus prowett, . . . mdcccxxv. _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ southey's copy, with his autograph on the title-page, and the date, "london, june, ." anacreon: with thomas stanley's translation. edited by a. h. bullen. illustrated by j. r. weguelin. london: lawrence & bullen . . . mdcccxciii. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one thousand copies printed, with ten plates. ancient metrical tales.--see hartshorne, c. h. ancient philosophers.--the lives and most remarkable maxims of the antient philosophers. london: printed for b. barker, . . . and r. francklin, . . . . price bound _ s. d._ _ mo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ anderdon, j. l.--the river dove with some quiet thoughts on the happy practice of angling. london: william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ anderdon, j. l.--the river dove. . _post vo, green calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ another copy. andersen, hans christian.--danish fairy legends and tales by hans christian andersen. london   william pickering    . _post vo, half orange morocco, uncut edges._ anderson, alexander.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood, chiefly copied from the original of t. bewick, by a. anderson. first american edition, with an appendix, containing some american animals not hitherto described. new york: printed by g. & r. waite, . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and edges, by rivière._ anderson, alexander.--a collection of one hundred and seventy engravings by alexander anderson, m.d. executed on wood after his ninetieth year. privately printed by charles l. moreau. new york. . _ vo, cloth._ twelve copies, printed for the first time from the original blocks, with an introduction by e. a. duyckinck. anderson, hugh.--see tailfer, patrick. anderson, james.--the constitutions of the antient and honourable fraternity of free and accepted masons, containing their history, charges, regulations, &c collected and digested, by order of the grand lodge, from their old records, faithful traditions, and lodge-books, for the use of lodges, by james anderson d.d. and carefully revised, continued, and enlarged by john entick m.a. a new edition, with alterations and additions, by a committee appointed by the grand lodge. london: printed for brother w. johnston . . . mdcclxvii   in the vulgar year of masonry . _ to, old red morocco, the back and sides covered with gilt tooling of birds, flowers, etc., doubled with green morocco, wide floral border, gilt edges, by robert black in ._ frontispiece by cole after boitard. a remarkable specimen of scotch bookbinding, from the collection of the earl of gosford. reproduced in quaritch's fac-similes of book-binding. andrews, miles peter.--fire and water! a comic opera: in two acts. performed at the theatre royal in the hay-market. by miles peter andrews. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m.dcc.lxxx. _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a-f in fours, half-title on a . andrews, william loring.--a choice collection of books from the aldine presses in the possession of * * * * * * with a short introductory account of the aldus family, taken mostly from horne's introduction to bibliography. new york: privately printed. [de vinne press] mdccclxxxv. _ mo, original vellum covers, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed upon vellum, with two illustrations. andrews, william loring.--jean grolier de servier, viscount d'aguisy some account of his life and of his famous library   by william loring andrews. new york   mdcccxcii. the de vinne press. _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred and forty copies printed on hand-made paper, with fourteen illustrations, some in gold and colours. andrews, william loring.--roger payne and his art   a short account of his life and work as a binder   by william loring andrews   new york printed at the de vinne press    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ holland paper copy, one hundred and twenty printed, with eleven plates. andrews, william loring.--roger payne and his art.    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ another copy. one of ten printed on japan paper, with eleven plates, nine in gold and colours. presentation copy from the author. andrews, william loring.--the bradford map   the city of new york at the time of the granting of the montgomerie charter   a description thereof compiled by william loring andrews to accompany a fac-simile of an actual survey made by james lyne and printed by william bradford in    new york   printed at the de vinne press    . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ eleven full-page plates and numerous illustrations in the text. one hundred and forty-two copies printed. andrews, william loring.--a stray leaf from the correspondence of washington irving and charles dickens by william loring andrews. printed at the de vinne press new-york, and embellished with engravings on copper and zinc. _small to, cloth, uncut edges._ one of fifteen copies printed on japan paper, with the frontis-piece in three states. andrews, william loring.--"among my books" printed for william loring andrews at the de vinne press. new-york. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of ten copies printed on japan paper, with twenty-seven illustrations, some in gold and colours. andrews, william loring.--an essay on the portraiture of the american revolutionary war being an account of a number of the engraved portraits connected therewith, remarkable for their rarity or otherwise interesting by william loring andrews   to which is added an appendix containing lists of portraits of revolutionary characters to be found in various english and american publications of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth century   illustrated with reproductions by the photogravure process of twenty of the original engravings   new york    printed by gilliss brothers for the author and sold by dodd, mead & co. mdcccxcvi. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of fifteen copies printed on japan paper, with eighteen plates. andrews, william loring.--the journey of the iconophiles around new york in search of the historical and picturesque   printed at new york in the year of our lord, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven . . . and of the discovery of the island of manhattan by hendrik hudson the two hundred and eighty-eighth. _ vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ one of eighty-seven copies on japan paper, with twelve full-page plates by e. d. french. andrews, william loring.--new amsterdam new orange   new york   a chronologically arranged account of engraved views of the city from the first picture published in mdcli until the year mdccc by william loring andrews [arms of new amsterdam and new york in colour]   published and for sale by dodd, mead and company, new york   anno domini mdcccxcvii. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ thirty-six full-page plates and fifteen other illustrations. one of thirty copies printed on japan paper, with extra impressions of the fourteen engravings on copper by e. davis french and of the duke's plan in colour. andrews, william loring.--a prospect of the colledges in cambridge in new england . . . engraved by wm. burgis in the description compiled by william loring andrews   published and for sale by dodd, mead and company   new york   mdcccxcvii. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of twenty-five copies printed on japan paper, with six illustrations. andrews, william loring.--fragments of american history illustrated solely by the works of those of our own engravers who flourished in the xviiith century   privately printed for william loring andrews   new york   mdcccxcviii. _ vo, half calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author, eighty printed on hand-made paper, with eighteen reproductions of rare engravings, four being in colours. andrews, william loring.--a trio of eighteenth century french engravers of portraits in miniature. ficquet. savart. grateloup. william loring andrews [the gilliss press]   mdcccxcviiii. _ vo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and sixty-one copies on japan paper, with twenty-eight illustrations. andrews, william loring.--james lyne's survey or, as it is more commonly known the bradford map a plan of the city of new york at the time of the granting of the montgomery charter in    an appendix to an account of the same compiled in by william loring andrews. new york   dodd, mead & company [the gilliss press]   mdcccc. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of thirty-two copies printed on japan paper, with three facsimile maps. andrews, william loring.--gossip about book collecting by william loring andrews   new york published by dodd, mead and company. . . . [the gilliss press]   m :: c :: m. _ vo, two volumes, original paper covers, gilt top, uncut edges._ thirty-two copies printed on japan paper, with twelve illustrations, of which six are coloured. andrews, william loring.--paul revere and his engraving by william loring andrews   new york   charles scribner's sons   mcmi. _ vo, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of thirty-five copies printed on japan paper, with engraved title by e. d. french, seventeen full-page plates, one of them printed in colour, and fifteen other illustrations. andrews, william loring.--the iconography of the battery and castle garden by william loring andrews [vignette] new york   charles scribner's sons   mcmi. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred and thirty-five copies printed on american hand-made paper, with twenty illustrations, three of them in colour. andrews, william loring.--bibliopegy in the united states and kindred subjects by william loring andrews   dodd, mead and company new york . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ one hundred and forty-one copies printed on van gelder paper, with thirty illustrations, some coloured. annual anthology.--see southey, robert. antidote.--an antidote against melancholy. being a collection of fourscore merry songs, wherein those on the same subject and key, are placed in an agreeable succession, in relation to the different measures of time, after the manner of suits of lessons. the music of them all entirely new, and several of the songs never before set to music. london: printed for daniel browne, . . . mdccxlix. _post vo, tree calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ anti-jacobin.--poetry of the anti-jacobin. london: printed for j. wright, . . . . _foolscap vo, half purple levant morocco, uncut edges._ anti-jacobin.--poetry of the anti-jacobin: comprising the celebrated political & satirical poems, parodies, and jeux-d'esprit of the right hon. george canning, the earl of carlisle, marquis wellesley, the right hon. j. h. frere, w. gifford, esq. the rt. hon. w. pitt, g. ellis, esq. and others. with explanatory notes, by charles edmonds. second edition, considerably enlarged. with six etchings by the famous caricaturist james gillray. london g. willis, . . . mdcccliv. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ antommarchi, f.--the last days of the emperor napoleon. by doctor f. antommarchi, his physician. . . . london: printed for henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ original sepia drawing of napoleon on horseback, inserted. apuleius.--cupid and psyche: a mythological tale, from the golden ass of apuleius. second edition. [translated by hudson gurney]   london: printed for j. wright . . . . _royal vo, half calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by kaufmann._ large paper copy. printed by bulwer, with two plates after the designs of cipriani. arabian nights.--the arabian nights . . . translated by the reverend edward forster. with engravings, from pictures by robert smirke . . . london: printed for william miller . . . . _ vo, five volumes, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ george daniel's copy on large paper (?), with ten plates by corbould, kirk, etc., and a portrait of smirke, in addition to the regular series of twenty-four illustrations. arabian nights.--the thousand and one nights, commonly called, in england, the arabian nights' entertainments. a new translation from the arabic, with copious notes. by edward william lane . . . illustrated with many hundred engravings on wood, from original designs by william harvey . . . london: charles knight and c^{o} mdcccxxxix-xl-xli. _royal vo, three volumes, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. arabian nights.--the thousand and one nights   the arabian nights entertainments   with an introduction illustrative of the religion, manners, and customs of the mohammedans by jonathan scott, . . . with nineteen original etchings by ad. lalauze   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. arabian nights.--see burton, sir richard and payne, john. aristÆnetus.--see propertius. aristophanes.--the comedies of aristophanes translated into familiar blank verse, with notes, preliminary observations on each play, etc. by c. a. wheelwright . . . to which is added a dissertation on the old greek comedy from the german of wachsmuth. oxford: d. a. talboys . . . mdcccxxxvii. _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ aristotle.--[works, translated from the greek by thomas taylor] london: printed for the translator, . . . by robert wilks, . . . . [- ] _royal to, ten volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ the contents are as follows: i. the physics or physical auscultation, ; ii. the organon or logical treatises, ; iii. treatises on the heavens, on generation and corruption, and on meteors, ; iv. treatises on the soul, etc., ; v. the history of animals and treatise on physiognomy, ; vi. treatises on the parts and progressive motion of animals, problems, and treatise on indivisible lines, ; vii. rhetoric, poetic, and nicomachean ethics, ; viii. great, and eudemian, ethics, politics, and economics, ; ix. metaphysics, etc., ; x. dissertation on the philosophy of aristotle, . aristotle.--the politics and economics of aristotle, translated, with notes, original and selected, and analyses. to which are prefixed, an introductory essay and a life of aristotle; by dr. gillies. by edward walford. . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . mdcccviii. _post vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ aristotle.--aristotle's history of animals. in ten books. translated by richard cresswell, . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . . _post vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ armorial book plates.-- examples [one coloured] of armorial book plates. from various collections. (second series.) london: w. griggs & sons, . . . . _royal to, half cloth, decorated sides._ armstrong, john.--miscellanies; by john armstrong, m.d. . . . london, printed for t. cadell, . . . mdcclxx. _small vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. arne, thomas augustine.--phoebe at court, an operetta, of two acts. written originally by r. lloyd, esq. the dialect necessarily contracted and turned into hudibrastic verse for recitative, new songs added, and the music entirely new; composed by dr. arne. london: printed by cox and bigg, in the savoy. mdcclxxvi. [price one shilling and sixpence.] _ to, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by pratt._ first edition. a-k in twos, title on a . altered from lloyd's "capricious lovers." arnett, john andrews.--bibliopegia; or, the art of bookbinding, in all its branches. illustrated with engravings. by john andrews arnett. london: richard groombridge . . . . _ mo, half red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ arnett, john andrews.--bibliopegia, . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._. another copy. arnett, john andrews.--an inquiry into the nature and form of the books of the ancients; with a history of the art of bookbinding, from the times of the greeks and romans to the present day; interspersed with bibliographical references to men and books of all ages and countries. illustrated with numerous engravings. by john andrews arnett. london: richard groombridge. . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, sir edwin.--the light of asia or the great renunciation (mahabhinishkramana) being the life and teaching of gautama, prince of india and founder of buddhism (as told in verse by an indian buddhist) by sir edwin arnold . . . a new [lotus] edition london: trübner & co., . . . . _square vo, original covers, uncut edges._ etched portrait by damman, and woodcuts. no. of one hundred and twenty-six copies printed. arnold, matthew.--the strayed reveller, and other poems. by a. london: b. fellowes . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. one hundred copies printed. withdrawn from circulation after a few copies had been sold. arnold, matthew.--poems. by matthew arnold. third edition. london: longman, brown, green, longmans, & roberts. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, matthew.--merope. a tragedy. by matthew arnold   london: longman, brown, green, longmans, & roberts. mdccclviii. _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. arnold, matthew.--new poems by matthew arnold. london   macmillan and co. mdccclxvii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. arnold, matthew.--new poems by matthew arnold. second edition. london macmillan and co. mdccclxviii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, matthew.--poems by matthew arnold . . . london   macmillan and co.   mdccclxix. _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, thomas.--christian life, its course, its hindrances, and its helps. sermons, preached mostly in the chapel of rugby school. by thomas arnold, . . . london: b. fellowes, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. arnold, thomas.--fragment on the church. second edition: in which are contained appendices on the same subject. by thomas arnold, . . . london: b. fellowes, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, thomas.--the miscellaneous works of thomas arnold, . . . collected and republished. [by arthur penrhyn stanley] london: b. fellowes, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, thomas.--history of rome. by thomas arnold, . . . fourth edition. london: b. fellowes; f. and j. rivington; &c . . . . [- .] _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ the title-pages of volumes ii and iii say "third edition," and the latter is dated . arnold, thomas.--introductory lectures on modern history, delivered in lent term, m dccc xlii. with the inaugural lecture delivered in december, m dccc xli. by thomas arnold, . . . fourth edition. london: b. fellowes, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ arnold, thomas.--see stanley, a. p. arnold, william harris.--a record of first editions of bryant, emerson, hawthorne, holmes, longfellow, lowell, thoreau, whittier. collected by william harris arnold with an essay on book-madness by leon h. vincent. printed at the marion press. jamaica . . . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ facsimiles of title-pages. ashbee, h. s.--see graham, alexander. astle, thomas.--the origin and progress of writing, as well hieroglyphic as elementary, illustrated by engravings taken from marbles, manuscripts and charters, ancient and modern: also some account of the origin and progress of printing. second edition, with additions. by thomas astle, . . . london: printed by t. bensley, . . . for j. white, . . . . _folio, russia, gilt back and sides._ large paper copy. portrait and thirty-one plates of characters, some in colour. athenÆus.--the deipnosophists or banquet of the learned of athenæus. literally translated by c. d. yonge, b.a. with an appendix of poetical fragments, rendered into english verse by various authors, and a general index. . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . mdcccliv. _post vo, three volumes, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ atkinson, t. d.--see foster, j. e. aucassin and nicolete done into english by andrew lang. london: published by david nutt . . . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, à l'oiseau, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ japan paper copy on large paper, sixty-three printed. no. , with woodcut border to title, etched frontispiece by head, and nine etchings by bida, proofs on india paper (inserted). aucassin and nicolette, a love story; edited in old french and rendered in modern english (with introduction, glossary, etc.) by f. w. bourdillon, m.a. london kegan paul, trench, & co. mdccclxxxvii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. aucassin & nicolete: being a love story translated out of the ancient french by andrew lang. roycrofters . . . east aurora, new york mdcccxcix. _ mo, green ooze calf, uncut edges._ audubon, john james.--the birds of america, from drawings made in the united states and their territories. by john james audubon, . . . new york: published by j. j. audubon. . . . . _royal vo, seven volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, with the original covers bound in, by bedford._ five hundred coloured plates. audubon and bachman.--the quadrupeds of north america. by john james audubon and the rev. john bachman . . . new york   published by v.g. audubon. [mdcccli- ]. _royal vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred and fifty-five coloured plates. audubon and bachman.--the quadrupeds of north america. - . _royal vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, emblematic gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, with the original covers bound in, by bedford._ another copy. austen, jane.--pride and prejudice: a novel . . . by the author of "sense and sensibility." london: printed for t. egerton . . . . _ mo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. austen, jane.--emma: a novel. in three volumes. by the author of "pride and prejudice," &c. &c. . . . london: printed for john murray, [by c. roworth] . _ mo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to his royal highness, the prince regent. austen, jane.--northanger abbey: and persuasion. by the author of "pride and prejudice," "mansfield-park," &c. with a biographical notice of the author. . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ mo, four volumes in two, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first editions. the notice is dated london, december , , and the postscript, december . austin, alfred.--the season: a satire. by alfred austin. with [tinted] frontispiece of "the modern muse," by thomas george cooper. . . . london: robert hardwicke, . . . . _post vo, half grey morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ avery, samuel putnam.--some account of the "gibbs-channing" portrait of george washington painted by gilbert stuart   privately printed   new york. [devinne press] . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of two hundred copies printed, with portrait. ayre, william.--memoirs of the life and writings of alexander pope, esq; faithfully collected from authentic authors, original manuscripts, and the testimonies of many persons of credit and honour: with critical observations. adorned with the heads of divers illustrious persons, treated of in these memoirs, curiously engrav'd by the best hands. in two volumes. by william ayre, esq; london: printed by his majesty's authority, for the author, and sold by the book-sellers of london and westminster. m dcc xlv. _small vo, two volumes, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ thirteen portraits engraved by parr. aytoun, william edmondstoune, _editor_.--the ballads of scotland edited by william edmondstoune aytoun, . . . second edition revised and augmented . . . william blackwood and sons, edinburgh and london m dccc lix. _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ aytoun, william edmondstoune.--lays of the scottish cavaliers and other poems by william edmonstoune aytoun . . . twelfth edition. william blackwood and sons edinburgh and london mdccclix. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ b., g.--love the leveller: or the pretty purchase. acted at the theatre royal, in bridges-street, covent-garden. written by g. b. gent. [two lines from hor. sat. l. .]   london, printed for e. rumbal, and are to be sold by j. nutt, . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. a-k in fours, title on a . babbage, charles.--the ninth bridgewater treatise. a fragment. by charles babbage, esq. . . . london: john murray, . . . mdcccxxxvii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bachman, john.--see audubon, j. j. bailey, philip james.--festus: a poem   london   william pickering mdcccxxxix. _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ first edition, with many portions that were suppressed in the later editions. bailey, philip james.--festus a poem. by philip james bailey . . . second edition   london   william pickering    . _post vo, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ baillie, joanna.--the family legend: a tragedy. by joanna baillie. edinburgh: printed by james ballantyne and co. for john ballantyne and co. . . . and longman, hurst, rees, and orme, . . . . _ vo, scotch plaid silk, gilt edges._ first edition. dedicated to walter scott. baillie, joanna.--dramas, by joanna baillie. london: printed for longman, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, half orange levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by smith-mansell._ bainbridge, george c.--the fly fisher's guide, illustrated by coloured plates, representing upwards of forty of the most useful flies, accurately copied from nature. by geo. c. bainbridge esq . . . third edition. london: longman &c . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, rose decoration on back and side panels, a rose as central ornament within a border worked with dotted tools, gilt edges, by david._ nine plates of fish and flies, all but one coloured. baird, henry m.--history of the rise of the huguenots. by henry m. baird, . . . london: hodder and stoughton, . . . m dccclxxx. _crown vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ baker, reed, and jones.--biographia dramatica; or, a companion to the playhouse: containing historical and critical memoirs, and original anecdotes, of british and irish dramatic writers, from the commencement of our theatrical exhibitions; among whom are some of the most celebrated actors: also an alphabetical account, and chronological lists, of their works, the dates when printed, and observations on their merits: together with an introductory view of the rise and progress of the british stage. originally compiled, to the year , by david erskine baker. continued thence to , by isaac reed . . . and brought down to the end of november . . . by stephen jones. london: printed for longman . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ baker, reed, and jones.--biographia dramatica. . _ vo, four volumes, russia, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ j. payne collier's copy, annotated by the duke of devonshire with his own additions and transcriptions from his catalogue of all the notes of j. p. kemble. ballads.--a collection of old ballads. corrected from the best and most ancient copies extant. with introductions historical, critical, or humorous. illustrated with [ ] copper plates. . . . london: printed for j. roberts, and d. leach; and sold by j. brotherton &c . . . m dcc xxiii. [-m dcc xxv.] _ mo, three volumes, calf, gilt edges._ volume i is second edition. ballads.--a collection of old ballads. corrected from the best and most ancient copies extant. with introductions historical and critical or humourous. illustrated with copper plates . . . london . . . mdccxxiii (reprint). _ vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ large paper copy. a reprint of the original edition. ballads.--popular ballads and songs, from tradition, manuscripts, and scarce editions; with translations of similar pieces from the ancient danish language, and a few originals by the editor. by robert jameeson. edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and c^{o} . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ ballads.--a book of roxburghe ballads, edited by john payne collier . . . london: longman &c . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with red morocco, borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ john payne collier's copy, with india proofs of the woodcuts by fairholt, and many manuscript additions and notes. ballads.--the book of british ballads . . . edited by s. c. hall. london: jeremiah how   mdcccxlvii-iv. _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by j. wright._ both series complete. illustrated by ward, kenny meadows, pickersgill, tenniel, corbould, gilbert, fairholt, selous, paton, crowquill, creswick, frith, and others. ballads.--english and scottish ballads. edited by francis james child. boston: little, brown, and company. m.dccc.lx. _ mo, eight volumes, calf, gilt top, uncut edges._ ballads.--four books of choice old scotish ballads, m.dccc.xxiii.--m.dccc.xliv. edinburgh: reprinted for private circulation. m.dccc.lxviii. _crown vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of charles kirkpatrick sharpe. one of one hundred and fifty-five copies printed. ballads.--a book of old english ballads with an accompaniment of decorative drawings by george wharton edwards: and an introduction by hamilton w. mabie   new york   the macmillan company [ ]. _ mo, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ ballads of scotland.--see aytoun, w. e. ballads and songs of lancashire.--see harland, john. ballantine, james.--the life of david roberts, r. a. compiled from his journals and other sources by james ballantine with etchings and facsimiles of pen-and-ink sketches by the artist [and portrait] edinburgh   adam and charles black, . . . m dccc lxvi. _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ balmanno, mary.--pen and pencil, by m^{rs} balmanno. new york: d. appleton & c^{o}    . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ many of the woodcuts, including the etruscan vase, page , are by anderson. balzac, honorÉ.--balzac's contes drolatiques. droll stories collected from the abbeys of touraine. translated [by henry van laun] into english, complete and unabridged. [vignette] illustrated with designs by gustave doré. london: chatto and windus, . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. bandello, matteo.--the novels of matteo bandello bishop of agen now first done into english prose and verse by john payne . . . london: m dccc xc: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only. _ to, six volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, no. . bannatyne club.--the bannatyne club. lists of members and the rules, with a catalogue of the books printed for the bannatyne club since its institution in . edinburgh: m.dccc.lxvii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ barbauld, anna lÆtitia.--see richardson, samuel. correspondence, . barham, richard harris dalton.--the ingoldsby legends or mirth and marvels by thomas ingoldsby esquire   london. richard bentley. m dccc xl. [-m dccc xlii.-m dccc xlvii]. _ vo, three volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition of the three series, with two portraits, three engraved titles, and seventeen other plates by cruikshank and leech. barham, richard harris dalton.--the life and remains of theodore edward hook. by the rev. r. h. dalton barham, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ first edition. portraits by g. cook after bennett and w. greatbatch after e. w. eddis, and a full-page woodcut. barham, richard harris dalton.--the life and letters of the rev. richard harris barham, author of the ingoldsby legends: with a selection from his miscellaneous poems. by his son. london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by j. brown after r. j. lane. barker, edmund henry.--literary anecdotes and contemporary reminiscences, of professor porson and others: from the manuscript papers of the late e. h. barker . . . london: printed and published by j. r. smith, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ autograph of the author and numerous plates inserted. barlaam and josaphat   english lives of buddha   edited and induced by joseph jacobs   london. m dccc xcvi. published by david nutt, . . . _royal vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ frontispiece by h. ryland in two states, black and bistre. no. of sixty large paper copies printed. barlow, joel.--the columbiad, a poem. by joel barlow   printed by fry and kammerer for c. and a. conrad and c^{o} . . . philadelphia, . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ portrait and eleven copper-plate engravings by a. smith, etc., after fulton and smirke, some of the plates in four states, proofs both on india and plate paper, before and after letters, and in addition sixteen inserted plates, four being first proofs by w. blake, portrait of louis xvi by bartolozzi, the burning of new york, and others of the series by barbier, and five portraits of washington, including that of roger after tardieu. barrÈre, a.--argot and slang   a new french and english dictionary of the cant words, quaint expressions, slang terms and flash phrases used in high and low life of old and new paris by a. barrère . . . with a frontis-piece drawn by godefroy durand   london   privately printed at the chiswick press by c. whittingham and co    . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ barry, alfred.--the life and works of sir charles barry, . . . by rev. alfred barry, . . . london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait on steel, and thirty-nine woodcut illustrations. barye, antoine louis.--catalogue of the works of antoine-louis barye exhibited at the american art galleries, . . . new york under the auspices of the barye monument association also of paintings by j. f. millet, th. rousseau &c . . . his contemporaries and friends for the benefit of the barye monument fund november th, , to january th, . . . [new york, ]. _ to, boards, uncut edges._ limited edition, with portrait after f. millet and facsimile. basile, giovanni battista.--il pentamerone; or the tale of tales. being a translation by the late sir richard burton, . . . of il pentamerone; overo lo cunto de li cunte, trattenemiento de li peccerille, of giovanni battista basile, count of torone (gian alessio abbattutis). . . . london: henry and co., . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and sixty-five large paper copies printed. bate, henry.--the rival candidates: a comic opera in two acts; as it is now performing at the theatre royal in drury-lane. by the rev. henry bate. london: printed: sold by t. becket, . . . and by w. griffin, . . . m,dcc,lxxv. _ vo, morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to mrs. garrick. batty, robert.--french scenery from drawings made in by captain batty . . . london . . . rodwell & martin . . . mdcccxxii. _folio, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with the sixty-four plates in two states, engraver's etchings and finished plates, proofs on india paper before letters. batty, robert.--scenery of the rhine, belgium and holland, from drawings by capt^{n}. batty . . . london. robert jennings . _folio, purple morocco, gilt back and sides (with arms)._ large paper copy. sixty large plates and two vignettes engraved by goodall, le keux, heath, finden, j. landseer, woolnoth, etc., each plate in two states, the engraver's etching and finished proof, each on india paper. the text is in english and french. batty, robert.--scenery of the rhine, belgium and holland, . _folio, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ another copy printed on large paper, with the sixty plates and two vignettes, proofs on india paper in two states, the engraver's etching and the finished plate before letters. batty, robert.--select views of some of the principal cities of europe. from original paintings by lieut. col^{l} batty. f.r.s. with illustrative notices   london: moon, boys, and graves . . . . _royal folio, red morocco, back and sides heavily tooled, crest and shield in the centre, gilt edges._ large paper copy, with the thirty-five plates each in two states, unfinished and finished proofs on india paper; an outline plate, with references to each. beames, thomas.--the rookeries of london: past, present, and prospective. by thomas beames . . . london: thomas bosworth . . . m.dccc.l. _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ woodcut illustrations. beardsley, aubrey.--the early work of aubrey beardsley with a prefatory note by h. c. marillier. john lane. . . . london and new york. m dccc xcix. _royal to, decorated buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred and twenty copies printed on japanese vellum, with two portraits and one hundred and fifty-five other illustrations. beattie, james.--original poems and translations. by james beattie, a.m. london: printed; and sold by a. millar . . . m dcc lx. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides (original gilt edges), by the club bindery._ first edition. presentation copy on thick paper, from the author. beattie, james.--the minstrel; or, the progress of genius: in two books. with some other poems. by james beattie . . . london: printed by t. gillet, for c. dilly . . . mdccxcvii. _post vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ four plates engraved by fittler, neagle, and heath, after the designs of burney. beattie, james.--the minstrel: or, the progress of genius. with some other poems. by james beattie, ll.d. a new edition, to which are prefixed, memoirs of the life of the author. by alex. chalmers, . . . london: printed for j. mawman, . . . by t. bensley, . . . . _ mo, half orange levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by j. heath, and four plates by heath, fittler, and neagle, after e. f. burney. beattie, james.--the minstrel; or, the progress of genius: in two parts. with some other poems. by james beattie, ll.d. with designs by mr. thurston: and engraved on wood by mr. clennel. alnwick: printed by catnach and davison . . . . _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, with five portraits of beattie inserted, and numerous other illustrations by westall, etc., including proofs in two, three, and four states. beattie, james.--the poetical works of james beattie [with a memoir by the rev. alexander dyce, and a portrait of beattie.] london william pickering . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ beatty, charles.--the journal of a two months tour; with a view of promoting religion among the frontier inhabitants of pennsylvania, and of introducing christianity among the indians to the westward of the alegh-geny mountains. to which are added, remarks on the language and customs of some particular tribes among the indians, with a brief account of the various attempts that have been made to civilize and convert them, from the first settlement of new england to this day; by charles beatty . . . london: printed for william davenhill . . . m dcc lxviii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ beauty: or the art of charming. a poem . . . london: printed for lawton gilliver . . . mdccxxxv. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ beauty: or the art of charming. . _folio, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery. bound with james bramston's "man of taste," _. another copy, uncut. becker, w. a.--gallus: or roman scenes of the time of augustus; with notes and excursuses illustrative of the manners and customs of the romans. by professor w. a. becker. translated by the rev. frederick metcalfe. london: john w. parker . . . m dccc xliv. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ two folded plates, coloured. becker, w. a.--charicles. illustrations of the private life of the ancient greeks with notes and excursuses. from the german of professor becker. a new edition collated and enlarged. london   john w parker and son . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ beckford, william.--an arabian tale, [vathek] from an unpublished manuscript: with notes critical and explanatory. london: printed for j. johnson, . . . mdcclxxxvi. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by holloway._ large paper copy of the first edition in english, with portrait and two plates inserted, all proofs. the notes are by mr. henley. beckford, william.--vathek. a londres: chez clarke . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by cuzin._ large paper copy, with a vignette "eye and turban" on the title-page, and three inserted plates by isaac taylor, westall and heim, proofs on india paper. the first english edition in the french language. originally written in french, the editions printed in paris and lausanne became so scarce that the author consented to this publication of the first text. beckford and johnson.--the history of the caliph vathek by william beckford, . . . with preface and notes, critical and explanatory also rasselas prince of abyssinia by samuel johnson, . . . with four etchings and portrait of beckford by a. h. tourrier etched by damman. london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two works in one volume, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. beckford, william.--biographical memoirs of extraordinary painters. by the author of "vathek" a new edition. london: richard bentley . . . . _ mo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by c. lewis._ engraved frontispiece. beckford, william.--italy; with sketches of spain and portugal. by the author of "vathek." london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. beckford, william.--italy; with sketches of spain and portugal. by the author of "vathek." third edition. london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. beckwith, arthur.--majolica and fayence: italian, sicilian, majorcan, hispano-moresque and persian. by arthur beckwith. with photo-engraved illustrations. new york: d. appleton and company, . . . . _ mo, cloth._ beddoes, thomas lovell.--the brides' tragedy. by thomas lovell beddoes of pembroke college, oxford. london: printed for f. c. & j. rivington . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. a -a , and b-k in eights, title on a . beddoes, thomas lovell.--the poems posthumous and collected of thomas lovell beddoes. london   william pickering    . _small vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ a memoir of one hundred and thirty pages, signed "b," prefaces the first volume. bedford, arthur.--the great abuse of musick. in two parts. containing an account of the use and design of musick among the antient jews, greeks, romans, and others; with their concern for, and care to prevent the abuse thereof. and also an account of the immorality and profaneness, which is occasioned by the corruption of that most noble science in the present age. by arthur bedford, . . . london: printed by j. h. for john wyatt, . . . . _ vo, blue morocco, gilt back, sides elaborately tooled in gold, heightened with colours to the "cottage" pattern, gilt edges, by mearne._ belcher, sir edward.--the last of the arctic voyages; being a narrative of the expedition in h. m. s. assistance, under the command of captain sir edward belcher, c. b., in search of sir john franklin, during the years - - . with notes on the natural history, by sir john richardson, professor owen, thomas bell, j. w. salter, and lovell reeve . . . . london: lovell reeve, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ four charts, thirty-six plates, many of them coloured, and twenty-five wood-engravings. bell, sir charles.--the anatomy and philosophy of expression as connected by the fine arts. by sir charles bell . . . third edition, enlarged. london: john murray . . . m.dccc.xliv. _imperial vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ forty-five engravings by scriven, etc., after the designs of the author. bell, sir charles.--the hand its mechanism and vital endowments as evincing design by sir charles bell k.g.h. . . . [fourth edition] london    william pickering    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. . woodcuts. bell, thomas.--a history of british quadrupeds, including the cetacea. by thomas bell, . . . illustrated by nearly woodcuts. london: john van voorst, . . . m.dccc.xxxvii. _imperial vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. bell, thomas.--a history of british reptiles. by thomas bell, . . . [vignette] illustrated by more than forty woodcuts. london: john van voorst, . . . m.dccc.xxxix. _imperial vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. beloe, william.--anecdotes of literature and scarce books. by the rev. william beloe . . . london: printed for f. c. and j. rivington . . . -' -' -' -' . _ vo, six volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ beloe, william.--the sexagenarian; or, the recollections of a literary life . . . second edition. london: printed for f. c. and j. rivington . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half russia, uncut edges._ a manuscript key to the characters is inserted. benjamin, park.--see holmes, o. w. the harbinger. bentley ballads.--the bentley ballads, comprising the tipperary hall ballads, now first republished from "bentley's miscellany," ( ). with preface and notes biographical and critical by john sheehan, . . . an entirely new edition. london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ frontispiece-title by j. brown after g. cruikshank. beowulf.--the anglo-saxon poems of beowulf the travellers song and the battle of finnesburh edited by john m. kemble . . . [also] a translation . . . with a copious glossary preface and philological notes by john m. kemble . . . london   william pickering    - . _foolscap vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ bÉranger, p. j. de.--songs of beranger translated by the author of the "exile of idria" etc. [j. c. h. bourne] with a sketch of the life of béranger up to the present time   london   william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the translator to thomas campbell. berington, joseph.--the history of the lives of abeillard and heloisa; comprising a period of eighty-four years, from to . with their genuine letters, from the collection of amboise. . . . by the rev. joseph berington. birmingham: printed by m. swinney; for g. g. j. robinson, . . . and r. faulder, . . . m.dcc.lxxxvii. _ to, calf, gilt back._ berry, mary.--extracts from the journals and correspondence of miss berry from the year to . edited by lady theresa lewis. second edition. london: longmans, green, and c^{o} . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ three frontispiece portraits and a view of the berry residence, engraved on steel. best, thomas.--a concise treatise on the art of angling, confirmed by actual experience, and minute observations. with the proper methods for breeding and feeding fish, and of making fish-ponds, stews, &c. with several arcana, never before made public. to which is added the complete fly-fisher; the game-laws relative to angling: and prognostics of the weather, independent of the barometer. by thomas best. . . . the fourth edition, corrected and improved. london: printed for b. crosby . . . . _ mo, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ frontispiece engraved by wooding. best, w. t.--eighty chorales newly harmonized in four parts, with organ accompaniment, by w. t. best. . . . london: j. alfred novello, . . . [n. d.] _oblong to, cloth._ beverley, robert.--the history and present state of virginia, in four parts. i. the history of the first settlement of virginia, and the government thereof, to the present time. ii. the natural productions of conveniences of the country, suited to trade and improvement. iii. the native indians, their religion, laws, and customs, in war and peace. iv. the present state of the country, as to the polity of the government, and the improvements of the land. _by_ a native and inhabitant of the place. london: printed for r. parker, . . . m dcc v. _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side border, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: dedicated to robert harley, speaker of the house of commons, and "one of her majesty's principal secretaries of state." frontispiece and fourteen plates by gribelin, reduced from originals by de bry in hariot's virginia, and a folded table at the end. each of the four parts has separate pagination. beverley, robert.--the history of virginia, in four parts. i. the history of the first settlement of virginia, and the government thereof, to the year . ii. the natural productions and conveniences of the country, suited to trade and improvement. iii. the native indians, their religion, laws, and customs, in war and peace. iv. the present state of the country, as to the polity of the government, and the improvements of the land, the th. of june . by a native and inhabitant of the place. the second edition revis'd and enlarg'd by the author. london: f. fayram and j. clarke . . . and t. bickerton . . . . _ vo, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ frontispiece and fourteen plates by gribelin, as in the first edition. the pagination of the four parts is continuous. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick, [wood cut]   newcastle upon tyne: printed by and for s. hodgson, b. beilby, & t. bewick . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. one hundred and eighty-six cuts of animals and numerous tail-pieces. four hundred and fifty-six pages, the last two leaves addenda, "the american elk," with cut, and "wild cattle," with tail-piece. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. . _royal vo, citron levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, printed on large paper, and formerly owned by marmaduke tunstall, who commissioned bewick to make the famous woodcut of the chillingham bull. tunstall has pencilled notes on several pages. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. the second edition. [cut] newcastle upon tyne: printed by and for s. hodgson, r. beilby, & t. bewick, . . . . [price nine shillings in boards.] _ vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ thick paper copy. pages instead of , as in the first edition, and no addenda. "the american elk" in the addenda of the first edition is incorporated in the text, and "wild cattle" is omitted. fourteen varieties of bat are added, with three cuts, and two tail-pieces, the second the same as the last of the first edition. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. the third edition. [cut] newcastle upon tyne: printed by and for s. hodgson, r. beilby, & t. bewick. . . . . . . . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. the fourth edition. newcastle upon tyne: printed by and for s. hodgson, r. beilby, and t. bewick, . . . . price _s._ _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by l. broga._ large paper copy. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by thomas bewick. the fifth edition. newcastle-upon-tyne: printed by edward walker . . . . _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels after the manner of roger payne, gilt edges, by bedford._ imperial paper copy with the following plates inserted: a print from the last work of bewick, the unfinished block "waiting for death," with the original wrapper and printed description, the large print of kyloe ox, unique impressions of the chillingham bull cut on india paper and three other states, portrait of bewick by meyer after ramsay, facsimile letter and a drawing. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. . _imperial vo, half russia, uncut edges._ another copy on largest and thick paper. bewick, thomas.--a general history of quadrupeds. the figures engraved on wood by thomas bewick. the seventh edition. newcastle upon tyne: printed by edw. walker, for t. bewick . . . . _ to, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by marius michel._ large paper copy, with portrait of bewick, proof on india paper before letters. bewick, thomas.--(i.) history of british birds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. vol. i. containing the history and description of land birds. [cut] newcastle: printed by sol. hodgson, for beilby & bewick:. . . [price _s._ in boards.] . (ii.) history of british birds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. vol. ii. containing the history and description of water birds. [cut] newcastle: printed by edward walker, for t. bewick: . . . [price _s._ in boards.] . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first issue of the first edition, with the misprint above the date, " _s_ in boards" instead of " _s_" as in volume ii. the last page of volume i contains an advertisement of the third edition of "a general history of quadrupeds," , "lately was published," etc. in some issues of this edition the last page is blank, in some the fourth edition of "quadrupeds" is advertised. bewick, thomas.--history of british birds. - . _royal vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ another copy of the first issue, printed on large and thick paper, with inserted portrait of bewick by summerfield after murphy. bound at the end of volume ii is the supplement, , also printed on large and thick paper. bewick, thomas.--history of british birds. - . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ second issue of the first edition, printed upon thick paper. the misprint " _s_" above the date is corrected to " _s_," and volume ii is priced _s_. the last page of volume i contains an advertisement of the fourth edition of "a general history of quadrupeds," , "in the press, and speedily will be published," etc. bewick, thomas.--a history of british birds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick . . . containing the history and description of land [and water] birds newcastle . . . edward walker . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt edges with many rough leaves, by bedford._ large paper copy of the second edition, with inserted portrait engraved by t. ranson after a painting by w. nicholson. bewick, thomas.--a history of british birds. . _imperial vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, uncut, printed upon largest paper. bewick, thomas.--a supplement to the history of british birds. the figures engraved on wood by t. bewick. part i. containing the history and description of land birds. [part ii. containing the history and description of water birds.] [cut] newcastle: printed by edward walker, . . . for t. bewick . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ thick paper copy of the first edition, with final leaf of advertisement of "history of quadrupeds" and "fables of Æsop." bewick, thomas.--a supplement to the history of british birds. . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, printed upon somewhat thinner paper. bewick, thomas.--a supplement to the history of british birds. . _royal vo, bound with volume ii of "british birds," on page ._ another copy, printed upon large paper. bewick, thomas.--select fables: with cuts, designed and engraved by thomas and john bewick, and others, previous to the year : together with a memoir; and a descriptive catalogue of the works of messrs. bewick. newcastle: printed by s. hodgson . . . m.dccc.xx. _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy, with a portrait of thomas bewick, proof on india paper. bewick, thomas.--select fables; . _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and side panels in the manner of roger payne, gilt edges, by bedford._ another copy, printed upon largest paper, with proof portrait of bewick added. bewick, william.--see landseer, thomas. bibliographica   volume i   [ plates] london: kegan paul, trench, trübner & co. . . . . _imperial vo, four parts, paper, uncut edges._ bickerdyke, john.--the book of the all-round angler. a comprehensive treatise on angling in both fresh and salt water. by john bickerdyke. with over engravings. london: l. upcott gill . . . . _ vo, half brown roxburghe morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, two hundred and one printed. bickerstaffe, isaac.--the romp. a musical entertainment in two acts. altered from love in the city, by mr. bickerstaff. as it has been acted at the theatres royal in dublin and york, and now performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. london: printed for w. lowndes, . . . and j. barker, . . . . [price one shilling.] _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. a-d in fours, title on a . portrait of dora jordan in the character of priscilla tomboy, engraved by angus after a drawing from life by stothard. "love in a city" was printed in vo, . bierstadt, oscar a.--the library of robert hoe   a contribution to the history of bibliophilism in america by o. a. bierstadt . . . with one hundred and ten illustrations taken from manuscripts in the collection. new york   duprat & co, . . . . _ vo, citron levant morocco, back and sides elaborately tooled in fleurs-de-lys ornaments, etc., gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of three hundred and fifty copies printed on japan paper. extra plates and facsimiles added. bierstadt, oscar a.--the library of robert hoe. . _ vo, green levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, an original design with monogram, doubled with red morocco, floral border, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. no. of three hundred and fifty printed on japan paper. bigelow, john.--some recollections of the late edouard laboulaye by john bigelow   privately printed   [new york, ]. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. bijou.--the bijou; or annual of literature and the arts. london william pickering, . . . --mdcccxxix   mdcccxxx. _post vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ proof copies, with the plates on india paper. see cameo. binns, r. w.--a century of potting in the city of worcester   being the history of the royal porcelain works, from to , to which is added   a short account of the celtic, roman, and mediæval pottery of worcester. by r. w. binns, . . . second edition. illustrated. london: bernard quaritch, . . . mdccclxxvii. _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ binny, john.--see mayhew and binny. biographical mirror.--the biographical mirrour, comprising a series of ancient and modern english portraits, of eminent and distinguished persons, from original pictures and drawings. [vignette] london: published by s. and e. harding, . . . - . _ to, three volumes in one, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred and fifty-one portraits. volume iii was printed for silvester harding, n. d. birch, jonathan.--fifty-one original fables, with morals and ethical index, written by j. c. [job crithannoh, anagram of jonathan birch] embellished with eighty-five original designs by r. cruikshank, engraved on wood by slader, d. dodd, s. williams, bonner, and others. also a translation of plutarch's banquet of the seven ages, revised for this work   london: printed for hamilton, adams and c^{o}. . . . m.dccc.xxxiii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by louise reymann._ birch, samuel.--history of ancient pottery. by samuel birch . . . egyptian, assyrian, and greek [etruscan and roman]   illustrated with coloured plates [ ] and numerous engravings [ ]   london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth._ autograph letter of the author inserted. birch, samuel.--history of ancient pottery, egyptian, assyrian, greek, etruscan, and roman. by samuel birch, . . . new and revised edition. with coloured plates and woodcuts. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ birch, walter de gray.--the history, art and palæography of the manuscript styled the utrecht psalter: by walter de gray birch, . . . [ folded plates]   london: samuel bagster and sons, . . . m.dccc.lxxvi. _ vo, cloth._ birdwood, george c m.--the industrial arts of india. by george c. m. birdwood, . . . with maps and woodcuts. . . . published for the committee of council on education by chapman and hall, . . . [ ]. _post vo, two volumes in one, cloth, uncut edges._ birrell, augustine.--life of charlotte brontë by augustine birrell london   walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ black, charles christopher.--. . . michael angelo buonarroti   sculptor, painter, architect   the story of his life and labours by charles christopher black, . . . [ plates] london   macmillan and co.    . _royal vo, decorated cloth, gilt edges._ blackburn, charles f.--rambles in books by charles f. blackburn [portrait] . . . london: sampson low marston & company . . . m dccc xciii. _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of five hundred copies printed. blacker, william.--blacker's art of fly making, &c, comprising angling & dyeing of colours, with engravings of salmon & trout flies, shewing the process of the gentle craft as taught in the pages. with descriptions of flies for the season of the year as they come out on the water. rewritten and revised by the author blacker, himself, fishing tackle maker of dean st. soho, london . _ mo, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by trioullier._ frontispiece, engraved title, seventeen coloured plates of artificial flies, and three plates of tackle. blackie, john stuart.--on self-culture. intellectual, physical, and moral . . . by john stuart blackie . . . second edition. edinburgh edmonston and douglas    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ blackie, john stuart.--life of robert burns by john stuart blackie london   walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ blackmore, richard d.--lorna doone: a romance of exmoor. by r. d. blackmore, . . . london: sampson low, son, & marston, . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, blue cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. blackmore's own copy. bladen, martin.--solon: or, philosophy no defence against love. a tragi-comedy. with the masque of orpheus and euridice. written by captain martin bladen. . . . london: printed for r. smith, . . . and sold by j. nutt . . . . . . . _ to, blue morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ never acted, and printed without the author's knowledge. blades, william.--the life and typography of william caxton, england's first printer, with evidence of his typographical connection with colard mansion, the printer at bruges. compiled from original sources by william blades. published by joseph lilly . . . london [- ]. _ to, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ fifty-seven plates, specimens of caxton's types, etc. blades, william.--the life and typography of william caxton. - . _ to, two volumes, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ another copy, with portrait and fifty-nine facsimile plates on india paper. blades, william.--a list of medals, jettons, tokens, &c. in connection with printers and the art of printing by william blades. london. . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ ninety-three plates, including three double ones. one of one hundred copies printed. presentation copy from the author. blades, william.--how to tell a caxton with some hints where and how the same might be found. by william blades, . . . [ plates]   london: henry sotheran & co., . . . . _foolscap vo, boards, uncut edges._ blades, william.--the enemies of books. by william blades, typograph. . . . trübner & co., . . . . _post vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, centre ornaments, gilt over uncut edges, by katherine adams._ frontispiece portrait of john bagford and six other plates. blades, william.--the pentateuch of printing, with a chapter on judges. by william blades. with a memoir of the author, and list of his works, by talbot b. reed.   [ illustrations]   london: elliot stock, . . . . _ to, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. blair, robert.--the grave, a poem. by robert blair. illustrated by twelve etchings executed [by louis schiavonetti] from original designs, [by william blake]   london: printed by t. bensley, . . . . _folio, brown levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ proof copy of the first edition, most of which was printed in quarto. besides the twelve designs are a portrait on india paper after t. phillips, and an engraved title. blair, robert.--the grave, a poem. by robert blair. illustrated by twelve etchings [by lewis schiavonetti] executed from original designs, [by william blake]   to which is added a life of the author. [also biographical sketches of schiavonneti and robert hartley cromek.] london: printed by t. bensley, . . . for the proprietor, r. ackermann, . . . &c . . . . _royal to, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ portrait by schiavonetti after t. phillips. blake, william.--songs of innocence       the author & printer w blake   _post vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side borders in floral mosaic design of citron, blue and green morocco on a red ground, doubled with red morocco, corner ornaments in floral mosaic, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ coloured by blake and presented by him to his physician. the plates are arranged as follows, by pages: page . blank. . frontispiece of piper. . title of "songs of innocence," as above. . blank. . introduction, "piping down the valleys wild," etc. . blank. . the shepherd. . infant joy. - . cradle song. . laughing song. - . the little black boy. . the voice of the ancient bard. - . the ecchoing green. . nurses song, "when the voices of children are heard on the green, and laughing is heard on the hill." . holy thursday, "'t was on a holy thursday." . on anothers sorrow. - . spring. . the school boy. . a dream. - . the little girl lost, "in futurity i prophetic see." - . the little girl found, "all the night in woe." . the blossom. . the lamb. . the little boy lost. . the little boy found. - . night. . the chimney sweeper, "when my mother died," etc. . the divine image. blake, william.--songs of innocence. . _post vo, original calf, gilt back, side borders, centre ornaments._ another copy, also coloured by blake, and more delicately than the preceding, pale green and blue predominating. the plates are the same as in the preceding copy. on the basis of the numbers in that copy, their arrangement is as follows: , , , , , , , - , , - , , - , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , - , - . john linnell's copy. blake, william.--the marriage of heaven and hell. [ ] _royal vo, spanish calf, gilt back, side borders._ the arrangement is as follows, by pages:-- . title-page. . blank. . the argument. . blank. . "as a new heaven is begun," with two drawings. . the voice of the devil, with one drawing. - . "those who restrain desire," with one drawing. - . a memorable fancy, "as i was walking among the fires of hell." - . proverbs of hell, one drawing. . "the ancient poets," etc., two drawings. - . a memorable fancy, "the prophets isaiah and ezekiel." . "the ancient tradition," etc., one drawing. . a memorable fancy, "i was in a printing house in hell," one drawing. - . "the giants who formed this world," one drawing. - . a memorable fancy, "an angel came to me," one drawing. - . "i have always found," etc., one drawing. - . a memorable fancy, "once i saw a devil," one drawing. - . a song of liberty. . blank. blake, william.--the marriage of heaven and hell. _ to, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred copies reproduced from the original in the collection of lord houghton. blake, william.--songs of experience       the author & printer w blake. _post vo, maroon straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side panels, corner ornaments, gilt edges._ the plates are arranged as follows, by leaves, the versos being blank: . title-page. . introduction. . earth's answer. . the clod & the pebble. . the chimney sweeper, "a little black thing among the snow." . a poison tree. . infant sorrow. . the tyger. . the fly. . the sick rose. . the human abstract. . a little girl lost, "children of the future age." - . the little girl lost, "in futurity i prophetic see" [found also in both copies of "songs of innocence"]. - . the little girl found, "all the night in woe" [found in "songs of innocence"]. . the garden of love. . the angel. . my pretty rose tree, ah! sunflower, and the lilly. . a little boy lost, "nought loves another as itself." . to tirzah. . london. . the little vagabond. . holy thursday, "is this a holy thing to see." . nurses song, "when the voices of children are heard on the green, and whisperings are in the dale" [a different version from that in "songs of innocence"]. . the school boy, "i love to rise in a summer morn." blake, william.--songs of innocence and songs of experience   by william blake   london: r. brimley johnson. guildford: a. c. curtis. m dccc i. _square mo, red levant morocco, side border of mosaic in green and blue morocco, doubled with red morocco, wide floral borders of gilt and green mosaic, the intervals filled with dots, vellum guards, gauffred gilt top, uncut edges, by the guild of women-binders._ aquatint frontispiece after blake. blake, william.--songs of innocence and experience with other poems   by w blake   london   basil montagu pickering . . .    _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first issue, printed without the name of the editor, richard herne shepherd. fifty copies were printed containing the cancelled lines on pages and , where the asterisks occur in this copy. "long john brown and little mary bell" is here printed for the first time. it was omitted in the appendix to gilchrist's "life of blake," for the reasons stated there. the present copy was the editor's, and contains the substance of the preceding notes, in his handwriting. blake, william.--milton, a poem in books. the author & printer w. blake    . to justify the ways of god to men. _ to, original calf binding._ forty-five pages, ten being entirely illustration, thirteen partly so, and the rest in script text with background in many colours. in all probability the best of three copies of this book known to exist, though it is said that blake made twelve copies in all. the other known copies are in the british museum and lenox library. mr. muir, who reproduced the copy in the british museum, places this example as better than either of the others, the scheme of colour being more perfect. blake, william.--illustrations of the book of job   invented & engraved by william blake       london   published . . . march : , by william blake. . . . _folio, half red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy. engraved title and twenty-one proof plates on india paper. blake, william.--poetical sketches   by william blake now first reprinted from the original edition of    edited and prefaced by richard herne shepherd   london   basil montagu pickering . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ blake, william.--the poems of william blake   comprising songs of innocence and of experience together with poetical sketches and some copyright poems not in any other edition   london   basil montagu pickering . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ blake, william.--volume i. (i.) number    songs of innocence. w. blake     [rep. ] (ii.) number . songs of experience. w^{m} blake    [rep. ] (iii.) number . the book of thel. w^{m} blake    [rep. ] (iv.) number . visions of the daughters of albion. w blake [repr. ] (v.) number . the marriage of heaven and hell. will^{m} blake. [rep. ] volume ii. (i.) copy no. . milton, a poem in books, by wm. blake, , facsimiled at edmonton, anno , by wm. muir, j. d. watts, h. t. muir, and e. druitt. for whom bernard quaritch, . . . is agent. (ii.) no. . the gates of paradise, by wm. blake, lambeth, . facsimiled at edmonton, anno , by mary hughes and wm. muir. bernard quaritch, . . . (iii.) no. . the first book of urizen, by wm. blake, lambeth, . facsimiled at edmonton in by wm. muir, h. t. muir, j. d. watts, and a. f. westcott, from the splendid original belonging to mr. macgeorge, of glasgow. . . . blake calls this the "first" book, but he composed no second. . . . bernard quaritch, . . . (iv.) copy no. . there is no natural religion. by wm. blake. facsimilied at edmonton anno by wm. muir, e. druitt, h. t. muir, and j. d. watts. . . . _ to, two volumes, half green straight-grain morocco, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ blake, william.--facsimile of what is believed to be the last replica of the songs of innocence and of experience executed by william blake with an introduction   by edwin j. ellis . . . london   bernard quaritch, . . . . _royal to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies in water-colours, on printed outlines, touched with gold, in exact imitation of blake's own work. blake, william.--the poems of william blake edited by w. b. yeats. london: laurence & bullen, . . . . _post vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait. no. of two hundred copies printed on large paper. blake, william.--selections from the writings of william blake with an introductory essay by laurence housman   london   c. kegan paul, trench, trübner & co. ltd.   mdcccxciii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with a frontispiece. blake, william.--[illustrations to dante's "inferno."] _oblong to, half cloth, gilt top._ seven plates on india paper. blake, william.--see blair, robert. blakey, robert, _editor_.--the angler's song book. compiled and edited by robert blakey . . . london: george cox . . . . _ vo, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ presentation copy from the author to octave delepierre. printed on paper of various colours and tints. blakey, robert.--historical sketches of the angling literature of all nations. by robert blakey . . . to which is added a bibliography of english writers on angling   london: john russell smith . . . mdccclvi. _ mo, calf, gilt and inlaid back, gilt edges._ bleecker and faugeres.--the posthumous works of ann eliza bleecker, in prose and verse. to which is added, a collection of essays, prose and poetical, by margaretta v. faugeres. new york: printed by t. and j. swords . . . . _ mo, red calf, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by pratt._ portrait by tiebout. blennerhassett, lady.--madame de staël   her friends, and her influence in politics and literature. by lady blennerhassett. with a portrait of madame de staël. . . . london: chapman and hall . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ a slightly abridged translation by j. e. gordon cumming. "blinkinsop, vicesimus."--see hook, theodore. bloemart, abraham.--twenty-five etchings by abraham bloemart, original impressions, depicting beggars, soldiers, &c. _ mo, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ bloodgood, s. dewitt.--the sexagenary: or, reminiscences of the american revolution. . . . albany, . . . j. munsell, . . . . _ vo, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed upon large paper, with three inserted portraits. bloomfield, robert.--(i.) the farmer's boy; a rural poem. by robert bloomfield. . . . [vignette] london: printed for vernor and hood, . . . by t. bensley, . . . mdccc. (ii.) rural tales, ballads, and songs: by robert bloomfield, . . . london: printed for vernor and hood, . . . and longman and rees, . . . by t. bensley, . . . . _ to, two works in one volume, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ first editions. in addition to the woodcuts by bewick, over one hundred engravings have been inserted, including nine portraits of the author, also forty-five views and sixty miniature vignettes, for the greater part proofs on india paper. bloomfield, robert.--the farmer's boy. . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, with the title on india paper. bloomfield, robert.--the farmer's boy; a rural poem. by robert bloomfield. the fourteenth edition. london: printed for longman . . . . _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ nine woodcut illustrations by bewick. bloomfield, robert.--may day with the muses. by robert bloomfield, . . . [vignette] london: printed for the author; and for baldwin, cradock, and joy. . _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ eight woodcut vignettes. bloomfield, robert.--poems by robert bloomfield, the farmer's boy. with thirteen illustrations, designed and drawn by t. sidney cooper, j. callcott horsley, j. frederick tayler, and thomas webster, . . . engraved by thurston thompson. london: john van voorst, . . . m dccc xlv. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ blunderella: or, the impertinent. a tale. . . . to which is added the beau monde, or, the pleasures of st. james's. a new ballad. to the tune of, oh! london, is a fine town, &c. london: printed for a. dodd, . . . m dccxxx. _folio, cloth, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ blunt, wilfrid scawen.--the love songs of proteus with frontispiece by the author. london c. kegan paul & co. . . . mdccclxxxi. _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ blunt, wilfrid scawen.--the love lyrics & songs of proteus by wilfrid scawen blunt, with the love sonnets of proteus by the same author. now reprinted in their full text with many sonnets omitted from the earlier editions   [reeves & turner]   london   mdcccxcii. _small to, parchment covers, uncut edges._ three hundred copies printed by william morris at the kelmscott press. blunt, wilfrid scawen.--in vinculis. by wilfrid scawen blunt. london kegan paul, trench & co. . . . mdccclxxxix. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with etched portrait of the author, japan proof. boaden, forster, and others.--(i.) an inquiry into the authenticity of various pictures and prints, which, from the decease of the poet to our own times, have been offered to the public as portraits of shakspeare: containing a careful examination of the evidence on which they claim to be received; by which the pretended portraits have been rejected, the genuine confirmed and established. illustrated by accurate and finished engravings, by the ablest artists, from such originals as were of indisputable authority. by james boaden, . . . london: printed for robert triphook, . . . . (ii.) a few remarks by henry rumsey forster on the chandos portrait of shakspeare, recently purchased at stowe, for the right hon. the earl of ellesmere. and a letter upon the same, by h. rodd. london: [no. of] fifty copies printed for private distribution, . (iii.) on the principal portraits of shakspeare. (from "notes & queries," april , ). by george scharf. (iv.) an inquiry into the history, authenticity, and characteristics of the _shakspere_ portraits; the death mask   martin droeshout's engraving, the chandos picture, the janssen, and others of that period; together with the stratford monument, roubiliac's, and the one in westminster abbey. _royal to, four works in one volume (the last three inlaid to to), half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ large paper copy. besides the seven portraits published with the first work, there are inserted five views, one facsimile, and ten other portraits, including those engraved by r. cooper, neagle, scriven, j. cochran, lud. du guernier, w: sharp, and w. holl. the second and fourth works contain woodcuts. boaden, james.--the life of mrs. jordan; including original private correspondence, and numerous anecdotes of her contemporaries. by james boaden . . . london: edward bull . . . . _ vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. portrait of mrs. jordan by worthington after romney, another (inserted) in the character of the country girl, and a facsimile. boccaccio, giovanni.--the decameron; or, ten days entertainment of boccaccio. translated from the italian. to which are prefixed, remarks on the life and writings of boccaccio; and an advertisement, by the author of old nick [edward dubois] . . . london: printed for . . . all booksellers. . _ vo, calf, gilt back, citron edges, by bedford._ portrait and ten plates by stothard inserted. boccaccio, giovanni.--the decameron or ten days' entertainment of boccaccio. a revised translation, by w. k. kelly. london: henry g. bohn . . . m dccc lv. _post vo, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ portrait of boccaccio by hinchliff after van dalen. boccaccio, giovanni.--the decameron of giovanni boccacci (il boccaccio) now first completely done into english prose and verse by john payne . . . london: m dccc lxxxvi: printed for the villon society by private subscription and for private circulation only, _ to, three volumes, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, no. . boccaccio, giovanni.--a translation of giovanni boccaccio's life of dante with an introduction and a note on the portraits of dante by g. r. carpenter. the grolier club of the city of new york   mdcccc. _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ three hundred copies printed, with portrait of dante, and folded plate of florence. boccaccio, giovanni.--a translation of giovanni boccaccio's life of dante. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, rich gilt back and side borders, doubled with vellum, gilt borders, vellum guards, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. one of three printed upon vellum. bohn, henry g.--the biography and bibliography of shakespeare. by henry g. bohn. [ ] _ to, red levant morocco, doubled with russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ nineteen plates. published by the philobiblon society, and dedicated to its members. the author's own copy. bohn, henry g.--the biography and bibliography of shakespeare. [ ] _small to, red levant morocco, back and sides blind tooled, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ another copy. bohn, henry g., _editor_.--a dictionary of quotations from the english poets. by henry g. bohn, . . . london: printed for private distribution. . _ to, red levant morocco, doubled with russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ bookbinding.--a collection of facsimiles from examples of historic or artistic bookbinding, illustrating the history of binding as a branch of the decorative arts. [ coloured plates] london: bernard quaritch, . . . . _royal vo, half red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by stikeman._ bookbinding.--catalogue raisonnée   works on bookbinding practical and historical   examples of bookbindings of the xvith to xixth centuries from the collection of samuel putnam avery, a. m.   exhibited at columbia university library m dcccc iii [compiled by charles alexander nelson]   privately printed   [at the de vinne press] new york   [ ]. _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece on japan paper from a water-colour drawing and autograph note by maurice leloir. one of one hundred copies printed for mr. avery, with addenda and frontispiece not in the first edition. presentation copy. book of fun.--the book of fun. london   j. gilbert. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ this volume comprises: "the illustrated english grammar; or, lindley murray simplified"; "the comic speaker"; "illustrated arithmetic; or, cyphering made comical"; and "the comic history of rome." lithographic title-page, numerous woodcut illustrations, and the original cloth covers. book of gems.--the book of gems. the poets and artists of great britain. edited by s. c. hall. london: saunders and otley . . . -' -' . _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. one hundred and forty-nine vignette illustrations engraved on steel by finden, greatbach, goodall, cousins, etc., after the designs of mulready, eastlake, lawrence, etty, prout, beechey, stanfield, wilkie, reynolds, maclise, turner, stothard, flaxman, leslie, constable, gainsborough, landseer, and others. boosey, thomas.--piscatorial reminiscences and gleanings by an old angler and bibliopolist [t. boosey]. to which is added a catalogue of books on angling [by william pickering]   london   william pickering . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece. the catalogue of books on angling has a separate title, dated . booth, edwin.--excerpts from the many good words uttered in honor of edwin booth   at the supper given on saturday night, march , , by augustin daly and a. m. palmer. printed for the players. new york . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ booth, mary l.--history of the city of new york by mary l. booth . . . illustrated . . . new york   w. r. c. clark . . . . _imperial vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. no. of one hundred large paper copies printed. borrow, george.--faustus: his life, death, and descent into hell. translated from the german. . . . london: w. simpkin and r. marshall. . _post vo, half russia, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. coloured frontispiece. borrow, george.--romantic ballads, translated from the danish; and miscellaneous pieces; by george borrow. norwich: printed and published by s. wilkin . . . . _ vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. original autograph poems of borrow and allan cunningham inserted. borrow, george.--targum. or metrical translations from thirty languages and dialects. by george borrow . . . st. petersburg. printed by schulz and beneze. . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george, _translator_.--the talisman. from the russian of alexander pushkin. with other pieces. st. petersburg. printed by schulz and beneze. . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ borrow, george, _translator_.--embéo e majaró lucas. broto-boro randado andré la chipe griega, acána chibado andré o romanó, ó chipe es zincales de sesé. el evangelio segun s. lucas, traducido al romaní, ó dialecto de los gitanos de españa. . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george.--the zincali; or, an account of the gypsies of spain. with an original collection of their songs and poetry, and a copious dictionary of their language. by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. borrow, george.--the bible in spain; or, the journeys, adventures, and imprisonments of an englishman, in an attempt to circulate the scriptures in the peninsula. by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george.--lavengro; the scholar--the gypsy--the priest. by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. portrait by w. holl after h. w. phillips. borrow, george.--the romany rye; a sequel to "lavengro." by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george, _translator_.--the sleeping bard; or visions of the world, death, and hell, by elis wyn. translated from the cambrian british by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george.--wild wales: its people, language, and scenery. by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. borrow, george.--romano lavo-lil: word-book of the romany; or, english gypsy language. with many pieces in gypsy, illustrative of the way of speaking and thinking of the english gypsies; with specimens of their poetry, and an account of certain gypsyries or places inhabited by them, and of various things relating to gypsy life in england. by george borrow, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _crown vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. boswell, james.--the journal of a tour to the hebrides, with samuel johnson, l.l.d. by james boswell, esq. containing some poetical pieces by d^{r} johnson, relative to the tour, and never before published; a series of his conversation, literary anecdotes, and opinions of men and books: with an authentick account of the distresses and escape of the grandson of king james ii, in the year    london: printed by henry baldwin, for charles dilly . . . m.dcc.lxxxv. _ vo, original russia binding, gilt back panels, edges entirely untrimmed._ boswell's own copy, with manuscript corrections and additions in his autograph. boswell, james.--the life of samuel johnson, ll.d. comprehending an account of his studies and numerous works, in chronological order; a series of his epistolary correspondence and conversations with many eminent persons; and various original pieces of his composition, never before published. the whole exhibiting a view of literature and literary men in great-britain, for near half a century, during which he flourished. . . . by james boswell, esq. . . . london: printed by henry baldwin, for charles dilly, . . . m dcc xci. _ to, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portrait by j. heath after sir joshua reynolds, to whom the work is dedicated. inserted is an autograph letter from william forbes to miss boswell. boswell, james.--the life of samuel johnson, l.l.d.   by james boswell, esq.   oxford, published by talboys and wheeler; and william pickering, london   m dccc xxvi. _royal vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ one of the fifty large paper copies. portrait of boswell by worthington after reynolds, proof on india paper, and a facsimile. boswell, james.--the life of samuel johnson, . _royal vo, four volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy. one of fifty printed on large paper, illustrated by the insertion of three hundred and fifty-eight engravings, comprising thirty-two portraits of johnson. one hundred and twenty-five are either proofs on india paper or before letters. two original drawings by harding, etc., and fifteen views and facsimiles are among the illustrations. boswell, james.--the life of samuel johnson, ll.d. including a journal of his tour to the hebrides; by james boswell, esq.   to which are added, anecdotes by hawkins, piozzi, murphy, tyers, reynolds, steevens, &c. and notes by various hands [also johnsoniana]   london: john murray . . . m dccc xxxv. _foolscap vo, ten volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ forty-five portraits, views, and facsimile autographs engraved on steel. botta, anne charlotte lynch.--memoirs of anne c. l. botta written by her friends with selections from her correspondence and from her writings in prose and poetry . . . [portrait]   new-york   j. selwin tait & sons . . . m dccc xc iv. _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ bournelle.--annotations on the tatler. written in french by monsieur bournelle; and translated into english by walter wagstaff, esq; part i. . . . london: printed for bernard lintott, . . . . _ mo, half blue calf, uncut edges._ bourrienne, louis antoine fauvelet de.--private memoirs of napoleon bonaparte, during the periods of the directory, the consulate, and the empire. by m. de bourrienne, private secretary to the emperor. . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, four volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ bouterwek, frederick.--history of spanish and portuguese literature. by frederick bouterwek . . . translated from the original german, by thomasina ross. . . . london: boosey and sons . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half citron morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ bowes, james l.--a vindication of the decorated pottery of japan. by james l. bowes . . . [liverpool]   printed for private circulation. not for sale. mdcccxci. _ vo, original boards._ three plates, two printed in colours. bowlker, richard.--the art of angling improved, in all its parts, especially fly-fishing: containing a particular account of the several sorts of fresh-water fish, with their most proper baits. also the names, colours, and seasons of all the most useful flies. with directions for making each fly artificially in the most exact manner, &c. the whole interspers'd with many curious and uncommon observations. by richard bowlker. [line from martial] worcester: printed by m. olivers, in high-street. [ ]. _ mo, old sprinkled calf, gilt fillets._ first edition. collation: title, a (verso blank). dedication to henry arthur, earl of powis, and baron herbert of cherbury, a . text, b -n (verso blank) in fours. pages - . bowman and irwin.--sherman and his campaigns: a military biography. by col. s. m. bowman and lt.-col. r. b. irwin. new york: charles b. richardson. . . . . _ vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ eight portraits and four maps. bowyer, william.--see nichols, john. boyer, abel.--achilles: or, iphigenia in aulis. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane. written by mr. boyer. [two lines from horace] london. printed for tho. bennet, at the half-moon in st. pauls church-yard. . _ to, half green calf._ first edition. a-g in fours, title on a . boyer, abel.--the victim, or, achilles and iphigenia in aulis: a tragedy. as it was acted at the theatre-royal, in drury-lane. written by mr. boyer . . . the second edition. to which is added, an advertisement about the late irregular reviving of this tragedy; with a copy of verses to the plagiary. london: printed for james knapton . . . mdccxiv. _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ translated from racine. see johnson, charles. bradley, john w.--a dictionary of miniaturists, illuminators, calligraphers, and copyists, with references to their works, and notices of their patrons, from the establishment of christianity to the eighteenth century. compiled from various sources, many hitherto inedited. by john w. bradley, . . . london: bernard quaritch, . . . .-' -' . _ vo, three volumes, half red morocco, uncut edges._ bradley, john w.--the life and works of giorgio giulio clovio, miniaturist, with notices of his contemporaries, and of the art of book decoration in the sixteenth century. by john w. bradley, . . . with eighteen plates. london: bernard quaritch, . . . . _royal vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. bradstreet, anne.--the poems of mrs. anne bradstreet ( - ) together with her prose remains with an introduction by charles eliot norton   the duodecimos   [new york, the de vinne press] m dccc xcvii. _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ etched frontispiece-portrait and eleven other illustrations. edited by frank e. hopkins. no. of one hundred and thirty-two copies printed on hand-made paper. bramston, james.--the art of politicks, in imitation of horace's art of poetry. [vignette of horace] london: printed for lawton gilliver, . . . m dcc xxix. _ vo, brown straight-grain morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ grotesque frontispiece with the legend "--risum teneatis amici?" illustrating the opening lines of the poem, /p "if to a human face sir james [thornhill] should draw a gelding's mane, and feathers of maccaw, a lady's bosom, and a tail of cod, who could help laughing at a sight so odd? just such a monster, sirs, pray think before ye, when you behold one man both whig and tory," p/ a-f in fours, title on a . bound with this work are swift's "epistle to a lady," b -b recto; "on reading dr. young's satire," b verso-c recto; "on poetry," c verso-d recto. "on the words, brother-protestants, and fellow-christians," d verso-d (verso blank), without title-page. bramston, james.--the man of taste. occasion'd by an epistle of mr. pope's on that subject. by the author of the art of politicks. london: printed by j. wright, for lawton gilliver . . . . . . . _folio, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery. bound with "beauty: or, the art of charming," ._ first edition, with engraving by g. van der gucht on the verso of the half-title. bray, anna eliza.--life of thomas stothard, r.a., with personal reminiscences. by mrs. bray. with numerous illustrations from his works. london: john murray . . . . _ to, green morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ bray, anna eliza.--life of thomas stothard, . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ another copy. bray, anna eliza.--life of thomas stothard, . _ to, enlarged to seven volumes, folio, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by matthews._ another copy, enlarged by inlaying the text on whatman's drawing paper to folio ( × - / inches), and further illustrated by the insertion of seven hundred and thirty-five plates, etc., and an autograph letter of stothard. the illustrations include forty-one original drawings and studies, forty portraits, six hundred and fifty engravings after stothard's designs and his original etchings. nearly all the plates are proofs, some in three or four states from the trial proof to the finished plate, and in addition many prints retouched by stothard with his autograph instructions on the margin. breval, john durant, capt.--the petticoat: an heroi-comical poem. in two books. by mr. [joseph] gay . . . london: printed for r. burleigh in amen corner, mdccxvi. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt edges._ first edition, written over breval's pseudonym. breval, john durant, captain.--the progress of a rake: or, the templar's exit. in ten cantos, in hudibrastick verse. containing. i. his coming out of the west of england, being put under the care of his uncle, a middlesex justice. ii. his learning at westminster-school; and his creeping to bed with the maid, for fear of the spirits. iii. his going to brasen-nose college at oxford; being expell'd for his debaucheries; and return into the country; with his whoring, roaring, ranting, swearing, fighting, &c. iv. his coming again to london; falling among pettifoggers, and solicitors; and the disputes among his friends, whether he should be a priest, a lawyer, or a physician. v. his following all three successively; and his vast improvement in each faculty, especially that of a cushion-thumper. vi. his natural philosophy; other natural parts, and natural impudence. vii. his conversation with old bauds, young whores, and town sharpers. viii. his ruining his reputation, estate, and constitution. ix. his pains, and repentance; sickness without pity; and misery without mercy. x. his death by a halter; burial by a dung-hil; and funeral-sermon by a converted rake of covent-garden. the whole interspers'd with innocent mirth, good morals, and too much of the author's own experience. by the author of the harlot's progress. ["joseph gay," _i.e._, captain john durant breval]   london: printed for b. dickinson. . . . and r. montague . . . : and sold by e. nutt, and j. brotherton . . . ; a. dodd . . . ; j. brindly . . . ; j. jolliff . . . ; mr. critchly . . . ; and j. stagg. . . .    [price one shilling.] _ vo, green morocco, gilt edges. bound with "spiller's jests" and three other works._ george daniel's copy, with the following note on the fly-leaf: "'the progress of a rake' i believe to be very rare." breval, john durant, captain.--the harlot's progress: or, the humours of drury-lane. being the life of the noted moll hackabout, in six hudibrastick cantos, with a curious print to each canto, engrav'd from the originals of mr. hogarth. i. her coming to town in the york waggon; and being betray'd by an old baud into the arms of colonel ch[arteri]s; with several comical dialogues, &c. ii. her being kept by a jew; with her intrigues in his house. iii. her living in a baudy-house in drury-lane. a diverting list of the decorations of her lodging. her being detected by sir j----n g----n, &c. iv. her usage at tothil-fields bridewell; and the humours of the place. v. her sickness and death. disputes between two noted quacks. her last will. vi. her burial. characters of the principal persons who constituted the funeral pomp, &c. the fifth edition. to which is now first added, a curious riddle, which moll learned of the jew, while in his keeping, and which the learned col. ch----s could never answer to her full satisfaction. n.b. those who have had of the former impressions, may have the riddle singly, at the price of six pence. london: printed for r. montagu . . . ; and sold by mrs. nut . . . ; mrs. dod . . . ; mr. brindley . . . ; mr. jollife . . . ; and mr. stag . . . [n. d.] price two shillings. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt edges. bound with "spiller's jests" and three other works._ copper-plate frontispiece, and six aquatints after hogarth. george daniel's copy. the first edition was an octavo, published in . brewer, j. s.--the reign of henry viii from his accession to the death of wolsey. reviewed and illustrated from original documents by the late j. s. brewer, . . . edited by james gairdner . . . with portrait. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ bridges, robert.--prometheus the firegiver by robert bridges   printed at the private press of h. daniel ffllow of worcester college   oxford . _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ first edition. no. of one hundred copies printed. bridges, robert.--prometheus the firegiver. by robert bridges. london george bell and sons . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ bridges, robert.--eros & psyche   a poem in twelve measures by robert bridges   the story done into english from the latin of apuleius . . . london: george bell and sons    . _square crown vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ bridges, robert.--the feast of bacchvs by robert bridges. privately printed by h. daniel: oxford: . _ to, half parchment, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and five copies printed. bridges, robert.--the growth of love. printed by h. daniel: oxford: . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed. bridges, robert.--eden   an oratorio by robert bridges set to music by c. v. stanford. london   geo bell & sons . . . . _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and ten copies printed on hand-made paper. bridges, robert.--eden. . _ mo, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ another copy. no. of one hundred and ten copies printed. bridges, robert.--achilles in scyros by robert bridges. london: geo. bell & sons . _ mo, parchment, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred and fifty-six printed. bridges, robert.--the humours of the court   a comedy and other poems. new york   macmillan and co . . . . _ vo, buckram, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. british classics.--[half title] the british classics . . . [- ] [imprint on engraved titles] london. printed by c. whittingham, . . . published by john sharpe, . . . [w. suttaby] [- - ]. _ mo, twenty-four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ large paper copy. the tatler, four volumes, , contains twenty plates, including the frontispieces, by neagle, schiavonetti, fittler, anker smith, and others after stothard, fuseli, tresham, westall, singleton, etc. the spectator, eight volumes, , contains forty plates by the same artists and others. the guardian, two volumes, , contains ten plates after r. smirke. the adventurer, four volumes, with half-titles dated and engraved titles , , , and , contains four portraits by schiavonetti after reynolds and highmore and twelve plates after westall. the rambler, four volumes, , "published by w. suttaby," contains a portrait of dr. johnson by schiavonetti after reynolds and fifteen plates after r. smirke. the idler, two volumes, , "published by w. suttaby," contains a portrait of sir joshua reynolds by schiavonetti after reynolds and seven plates after richard cook. british drama.--the british drama; comprehending the best plays in the english language. [edited by sir walter scott] london: published by william miller . . . printed by james ballantyne, edinburgh. . _royal vo, five volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ comprising comedies, two volumes, tragedies, two volumes, and operas and farces, one volume. british drama.--the ancient british drama. london: printed for william miller . . . by james ballantyne and c^{o}   edinburgh . _royal vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ sir walter scott is believed to have edited these volumes. the matter is chiefly taken from dodsley's old plays. british essayists.--the british essayists; with prefaces, historical and biographical, by a. chalmers. [with a general index] london: printed for nichols and son &c . _ mo, forty-five volumes, calf, gilt back and sides._ portraits of steele, addison, pope, johnson, swift, horace walpole, joseph and thomas warton, bonnell thornton, chesterfield, mackenzie, colman, hawksworth, edward moore, hughes, and bishop berkeley. british essayists.--the british essayists: with prefaces, historical and biographical. by a. chalmers, . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, thirty-eight volumes, half green morocco, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed on large paper, with fourteen portraits on india paper. the contents are as follows: vols. i-iv, tatler; v-xii, spectator; xiii-xv, guardian; xvi-xviii, rambler; xix-xxi, adventurer; xxii-xxiv, world; xxv-xxvi, connoisseur; xxvii, idler; xxviii-xxix, mirror; xxx-xxxi, lounger; xxxii-xxxiv, observer; xxxv-xxxvii, looker-on; xxxviii, index. british poets.--_ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panel, gilt edges._ twelve drawings by j. thurston in india ink, sepia, and pencil, being portraits of john gower, chaucer, shakespeare, jonson, massinger, shirley, john fletcher, milton, d'urfey, young, gray, and george colman. british theatre.--[a collection of one hundred and eighty plays &c from the series edited by bell and cawthorn, with the addition of six dramas written by james wild. london    -' -' -' -' -' -' and -' . _crown vo, forty-one volumes, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ large paper copy. includes cawthorn's minor british theatre complete in six volumes; the whole illustrated with one hundred and seventy-six portraits and scenes, proofs lettered and before letters. british theatre.--bell's british theatre. consisting of the most esteemed english plays. . . . london: printed for, and under the direction of, george cawthorn, . . . . _ vo, thirty-four volumes, green morocco, gilt back, crest on the sides, gilt edges, by j. clarke._ large paper copy, with proof impressions of the plates, including portraits of famous actors and actresses. british theatre.--bell's british theatre, . _ vo, volumes i-xxii, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by triquilier._ another copy, also upon large paper, and uncut. britton, john.--picturesque antiquities of the english cities illustrated by a series of engravings of antient buildings, street scenery, etc. with historical and descriptive accounts of each subject. by john britton . . . london: longman . . . . _royal to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, with india proof impressions of the sixty plates after bartlett, and numerous woodcuts. brodrick, thomas.--historia sacra: or the holy history; giving an exact and comprehensive account of all the feasts and fasts of the church of england, after a new and curious method; with their various etymologies and appellations, and the true reasons and grounds of their celebration; . . . london: printed for john wyat, . . . . _ vo, old blue morocco, gilt back, sides richly tooled in compartments introducing the rose, thistle, and tulip, gilt edges._ portrait of the author by w. sherwin and fifty plates, including, in the appendix, the illustrations to the gunpowder plot, the execution of charles i, and the restoration of charles ii. brontË, charlotte.--poems by currer, ellis, and acton bell. london: smith, elder and c^{o} . . . . _post vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. brontË, charlotte.--jane eyre. an autobiography. edited by currer bell. london: smith, elder, and co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. brontË, charlotte.--shirley. a tale. by currer bell. london: smith, elder and co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. brontË, charlotte.--villette. by currer bell. london: smith, elder & co., . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. brontË, charlotte.--the professor, a tale. by currer bell. . . . london: smith, elder & co . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. brooke, henry.--see moore, edward. brookes, richard.--the art of angling, rock and sea-fishing: with the natural history of river, pond and sea-fish. illustrated with cutts. london: printed by and for john watts . . . mdccxl. _ mo, calf, gilt back and edges, by bedford._ first edition. brookes, richard.--the art of angling. by r. brookes, m.d. now improved with additions, and formed into a dictionary. . . . illustrated with one hundred and thirty-five cuts, exactly describing the different kinds of fish that are found in the fresh or salt waters. the whole forming a sportsman's magazine; and comprising all that is curious and valuable in the art of angling. . . . london, printed for t. lowndes . . . mdcclxvi. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by cuzin._ the additional cuts in this edition are the frontispiece and the vignette at the head of the first page. brougham and vaux, henry peter, lord.--historical sketches of statesmen who flourished in the time of george iii. to which is added, remarks on party, and an appendix. . . . by henry lord brougham, . . . london: charles knight & co., . . . mdcccxxxix. [-mdcccxliii.]. _royal vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ the first series is second edition, and the third is dated . thirty-four portraits. brougham and vaux, henry peter, lord.--albert lunel; or, the château of languedoc. . . . london: charles knight & co., . . . . _post vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ dedicated to samuel rogers. suppressed on the eve of publication. brougham, and vaux, henry peter, lord.--lives of men of letters and science, who flourished in the time of george iii. by henry, lord brougham, f.r.s., . . . with [ ] portraits, engraved on steel. london: charles knight and co., . . . . [- .] _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ brown, john.--horæ subsecivæ. by john brown, m.d. . . . a second series. edinburgh: edmonston and douglas. . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ brown, john j.--the american angler's guide; or, complete fisher's manual, for the united states: containing the opinions and practices of experienced anglers of both hemispheres; with the various modes adopted in ocean, river, lake and pond fishing . . . fourth edition, revised, corrected, and greatly improved, with the addition of a second part . . . new york: h. long & brother . . . and john j. brown & c^{o} . . . . _ vo, orange morocco, gilt back with emblematic tool in the panels, gilt edges, by matthews._ every page illustrated with engravings either on steel, stone, or wood. brown, john william.--the life of leonardo da vinci, with a critical account of his works, by john william brown, esq. . . . london: william pickering. m dccc xxviii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, centre ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ besides the portrait of da vinci and the lord's supper engraved by w. h. worthington, on india paper, thirty-five other illustrations, including eleven portraits of da vinci, have been inserted in this volume, some in three states. brown, thomas.--a description of mr. d[ryde]n's funeral. a poem. the third edition, with additions. london, printed for a. baldwin in warwicklane, m.dcc. price d. _folio, cloth, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ brown, thomas.--the works of mr. thomas brown, serious and comical, in prose and verse . . . the fourth edition, corrected, and much enlarged from his originals never before publish'd. with a key to all his writings. london, printed for sam. briscoe, . . . . _ mo, four volumes in two, old red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ frontispieces. brown, thomas.--the works of mr. thomas brown, serious and comical, in prose and verse: with his remains. in four volumes compleat. with the life and character of mr. brown, and his writings, by james drake, m. d. and a key to the whole. the ninth edition, carefully corrected. adorned with a new set of copper-plates. london: printed for al. wilde, c. hitch and l. hawes, . . . m.dcc.lx. _ mo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ twenty-seven plates by e. kirkall and r. smith. browne, irving.--doctor polyanthus, or, where there's a will there's a way; a farce in two acts. by irving browne. privately printed. [troy, n.d.]. _ vo, original paper wrappers._ presentation copy from the author. browne, irving.--ballads of a book-worm being a rythmic record of thoughts, fancies, & adventures a-collecting   by irving browne   done into a printed book by the roycrofters, . . . east aurora, . . . m dccc xcix. _ mo, boards, uncut edges._ no. of eight hundred and fifty copies "illumined by hand." browne, matthew.--chaucer's england. by matthew browne. . . . london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with a steel portrait of chaucer and numerous woodcut illustrations. browning, elizabeth barrett.--an essay on mind, with other poems. london: james duncan . . . mdcccxxvi. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. browning, elizabeth barrett.--the seraphim, and other poems. by elizabeth b. barrett. london: saunders and otley . . . . _small vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. browning, elizabeth barrett.--poems. by elizabeth barrett barrett . . . london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxliv. _small vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. browning, elizabeth barrett.--the earlier poems of elizabeth barrett browning. - . london   bartholomew robson: . . . m.dccc.lxxviii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ browning, elizabeth barrett.--elizabeth barrett browning's poetical works . . . new-york: dodd, mead and company   mdccclxxxiv. _ mo, five volumes, citron levant morocco, back and side panels inlaid with blue morocco and ornamented with scroll and floral tooling, gilt tops, uncut edges, by david._ no. of twenty copies printed on japan paper. portrait by s. hollyer. browning, elizabeth barrett.--elizabeth barrett browning's poetical works. . _ mo, five volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, with corner ornament, gilt edges, by david._ another copy. no. of four printed on vellum. browning, robert.--sordello. by robert browning. london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xl. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. browning, robert.--(i.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. i.--pippa passes. by robert browning, author of "paracelsus." london: edward moxon, [bradbury and evans, printers] . . . m dccc xli. (ii.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. ii.--king victor and king charles. by robert browning, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlii. (iii.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. iii.--dramatic lyrics. by robert browning, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlii. (iv.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. iv.--the return of the druses. a tragedy. in five acts. by robert browning. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xliii. (v.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. v.--a blot in the 'scutcheon. a tragedy, in three acts. by robert browning, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xliii. (vi.) bells and pomegranates. n^{o}. vi.--colombe's birthday. a play, in five acts. by robert browning, . . . [three lines from hanmer] london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xliv. (vii.) bells and pomegranates. no. vii. dramatic romances & lyrics. by robert browning, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlv. (viii.) bells and pomegranates. no. viii. and last. luria; and a soul's tragedy. by robert browning, . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xlvi. _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, wide side borders in conventional floral design, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. "a blot in the 'scutcheon" was first acted at the theatre royal, drury lane, february , , with helen faucit as mildred tresham. "colombe's birthday" is dedicated to barry cornwall, march, , "dramatic romances and lyrics" to john kenyon, november, , and "luria" to walter savage landor, march , . there are two final leaves of advertisements. browning, robert.--men and women. by robert browning. . . . london: chapman and hall, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. browning, robert.--selections from the poetry of robert browning. with an introduction by richard grant white. new york: dodd, mead & company . . . . [ ]. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, and corner ornaments on the sides, gilt edges, by cuzin._ the portrait of browning is in two states, before and after the letters. no. of seventy copies printed on large, japanese paper. browning, robert.--asolando: fancies and facts. by robert browning. london: smith, elder, & co., . . . . _post vo, red levant morocco, back and sides beautifully tooled, rose-vine decoration, gilt edges, by lloyd._ first edition. bryan, michael.--a biographical and critical dictionary of painters and engravers, from the revival of the art under cimabue, and the alledged discovery of engraving by finiguerra, to the present time: with the ciphers, monograms, and marks, used by each engraver; and an ample list of their principal works. together with two indexes, alphabetical and chronological. to which is prefixed, an introduction, containing a brief account of the painters of antiquity. by michael bryan. . . . [ plates] london: printed for carpenter and son, . . . . _imperial to, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ large and thick paper copy. bryan and stanley.--a biographical and critical dictionary of painters and engravers, from the revival of the art under cimabue, and the alleged discovery of engraving by finiguerra, to the present time: with the ciphers, monograms, and marks, used by each engraver: by michael bryan. a new edition, revised, enlarged, and continued to the present time, comprising above one thousand additional memoirs, and large accessions to the lists of pictures and engravings, also new plates of ciphers and monograms, by george stanley. london: h. g. bohn, . . . m dccc lviii. _royal vo, cloth._ portrait of bryan by w. haines after a. pope, and nine plates of monograms. bryant, william cullen.--the embargo, or sketches of the times; a satire. by a youth of thirteen. boston: printed for the purchasers. . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by alfred matthews._ first edition. bryant, william cullen.--the embargo; or, sketches of the times. a satire. the second edition, corrected and enlarged. together with the spanish revolution, and other poems. by william cullen bryant. boston: printed for the author, by e. g. house, . . . . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by alfred matthews._ presentation copy with inscription "l. hyde's from the author ." bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant. cambridge: printed by hilliard and metcalf. . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, concluding with "thanatopsis." bryant, longfellow, and others.--miscellaneous poems selected from the united states literary gazette. boston: cummings, hilliard and company, and harrison gray. . _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side border, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ contains twenty-three poems by bryant and fourteen by longfellow. bryant, william cullen, and others.--tales of the glauber-spa. by several american authors. [bryant, miss sedgwick, paulding, sands, and leggett.] . . . new york: printed and published by j. & j. harper, . . . m dccc xxxii. _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ first edition. bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant [including many now first collected]   new york: published by e. bliss, . . . m.dccc.xxxii. _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ part of this edition was issued with a boston imprint. bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant, an american. edited by washington irving. london: j. andrews . . . mdcccxxxii. _crown vo, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ four portraits of bryant and one of irving inserted. this edition is famous for a change made by irving in the "song of marion's men," as follows,-- /p "the foeman trembles in his camp," p/ instead of as in the original. bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant. third edition. [newly revised, with additions]   new york: harper & brothers, . . . . _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ engraved title-frontispiece by cushman after weir. the copies dated "third edition, ," were copyrighted in the same year; those dated "fourth edition" were copyrighted in . bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant. collected and arranged by the author. illustrated with seventy-one engravings, from drawings by eminent artists. new york: d. appleton & co. . . . [n. d.]. _ to, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by thomas dalziel after lawrence, and seventy other woodcuts by the brothers dalziel after birket foster, j. tenniel, edward and thomas dalziel, harrison weir, and others. bryant, william cullen.--the fountain and other poems. by william cullen bryant. new york & london: wiley and putnam.    . _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over rough edges, by david._ first edition. bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant. with illustrations by e. leutze, engraved by american artists. fourth edition. philadelphia: carey and hart. . _ vo, brown morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ portrait by j. cheney from a drawing by s. w. cheney, and nineteen other plates. bryant, william cullen.--poems by william cullen bryant. collected and arranged by the author. new york: d. appleton and company . . . m.dccc.lv. _ mo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ bryant, william cullen.--thirty poems   william cullen bryant   new york: d. appleton and company . . . mdccclxiv. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ autograph of "william cullen bryant. march " on the fly-leaf. bryant, william cullen.--thirty poems. . _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy. bryant, william cullen.--the song of the sower. by william cullen bryant. illustrated with forty-two engravings on wood. new york: d. appleton & company   mdccclxxi. _ to, green morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ first edition. bryant and gay.--a popular history of the united states, from the first discovery of the western hemisphere by the northmen, to the end of the first century of the union of the states. preceded by a sketch of the pre-historic period and the age of the mound builders. by william cullen bryant and sydney howard gay. . . . fully illustrated. new york: scribner, armstrong, and company. . [ , , .] _royal vo, four volumes, half red straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. portrait of bryant by charles burt, sixteen other steel plates, and numerous full-page woodcuts and illustrations in the text. brydges and haslewood.--the british bibliographer. by sir egerton brydges . . . and joseph haslewood. london: printed for r. triphook . . . by t. bensley . . . -' -' . _ vo, four volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ two hundred and fifty copies printed. six portraits inserted. brydges, sir samuel egerton.--bertram, a poetical tale. by sir egerton brydges . . . kent: printed at the private press of lee priory . . . . _royal vo, mottled calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ one hundred copies printed, with woodcuts. brydges, sir samuel egerton.--restituta; or titles, extracts, and characters of old books in english literature revived. by sir egerton brydges . . . london: printed by t. bensley . . . for longman . . . -' -' . _ vo, four volumes, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ two hundred and fifty copies printed. brydges, sir samuel egerton.--censura literaria. containing titles, abstracts, and opinions of old english books, with original disquisitions, articles of biography, and other literary antiquities. by sir egerton brydges, . . . second edition. with the articles classed in chronological order under their separate heads. london: printed for longman, . . . . _ vo, ten volumes (in five), half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by smith-mansell._ two hundred and fifty copies printed. brydges, sir samuel egerton.--sir ralph willoughby: an historical tale of the sixteenth century. in which are inserted the dedicatory sonnets of edmund spenser, with sketches of character, by the author of coningsby. florence   printed by i. magheri    . _ mo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by mackenzie._ large paper copy. brydges, sir samuel egerton.--an impartial portrait of lord byron, as a poet and a man, compared with all the evidences and writings regarding him, up to . by sir egerton brydges, . . . paris: published by a. and w. galignani, . . . . _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back._ brydges, sir samuel egerton.--the autobiography, times, opinions, and contemporaries of sir egerton brydges, . . . [vignette] . . . london: cochrane and m'crone. mdcccxxxiv. _ vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. buchanan, robert.--the fleshly school of poetry and other phenomena of the day   by robert buchanan . . . strahan & co. . . . london    . _crown vo, original paper covers._ buchanan, robert.--the city of dream an epic poem by robert buchanan . . . london   chatto & windus . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece and vignette. buckingham and chandos, richard grenville, (second) duke of.--memoirs of the court and cabinets of george the third. from original family documents. by the duke of buckingham and chandos . . . london: hurst and blackett . . . .- . _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portraits of george, marquis of buckingham, lord grenville, the hon. thomas grenville, and c. j. fox. buckland, william.--geology and mineralogy considered with reference to natural theology by the rev. william buckland, d.d. . . . london william pickering    . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bridgewater treatise, no. vi. buckle, henry thomas, _editor_.--[half-title] library illustrative of social progress. from the original editions collected by the late henry thomas buckle, . . . no. . [and ] "exhibition of female flagellants." [no. . "lady bumtickler's revels." no. . "the use of flogging in venereal affairs." no. . "madame birchini's dance." no. . "sublime of flagellation." no. . "fashionable lectures"]   [london, n. d.]. _crown vo, seven volumes, boards, uncut edges._ buckley, theodore alois.--the natural history of tuft-hunters [vignette] and toadies. illustrated by h. g. hine. [ woodcuts]   london: d. bogue, . . . m dccc xlviii. _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original front cover bound in._ budget of momus.--the budget of momus or a preservative against melancholy, [vignette] london. printed for j. coxhead, . . . [n. d.]. _ mo, mottled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ bullen, george, _editor_.--caxton celebration, . catalogue of the loan collection of antiquities, curiosities, and appliances connected with the art of printing south kensington. edited by george bullen, . . . london: printed at the elzevir press. _royal to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of twelve copies printed on hand-made paper. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--eugene aram. a tale. by the author of "pelham," . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--ernest maltravers by the author of "pelham," . . . london saunders and otley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--alice or the mysteries a sequel to "ernest maltravers." by the author of "pelham," . . . london saunders and otley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--zanoni. by the author of "night and morning," . . . london: saunders & otley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--the last of the barons by the author of "rienzi." . . . london   saunders and otley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--harold, the last of the saxon kings; by the author of "rienzi;" &c . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original half cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--the caxtons   a family picture by sir e. bulwer lytton, bart. . . . william blackwood and sons edinburgh and london m dccc xlix. _post vo, three volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--the poetical and dramatic works of sir edward bulwer lytton . . . london: chapman and hall . . . - - . _post vo, five volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first collected edition, with portrait and engraved titles on steel. bulwer-lytton, sir edward.--see schiller, friedrich. [bunbury, h.]--annals of horsemanship: containing accounts of accidental experiments, and experimental accidents, both successful and unsuccessful: communicated by various correspondents to geoffrey gambado, . . . together with most instructive remarks thereon, and answers thereto, by that accomplished genius. and now first published by the editor of the academy for grown horsemen. illustrated with cuts by the most eminent artists. london: printed for w. dickinson, &c . . . mdccxci. _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with seventeen plates after bunbury's designs. ascribed also to francis grose, with caricatures by bunbury. burgon, john william.--the life and times of sir thomas gresham; compiled chiefly from his correspondence preserved in her majesty's state-paper office: including notices of his contemporaries. with illustrations. by john william burgon. . . . london: robert jennings, . . . m dccc xxxix. _ vo, two volumes, half maroon morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by r. woodman, proof before letters, facsimile, eight other full-page illustrations, and numerous woodcuts in the text. burgoyne, john.--the heiress. a comedy in five acts. as performed at the theatre-royal drury-lane. . . . london: printed for j. debrett, mdcclxxxvi. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. title and a-o in fours. dedication to the earl of derby, dated hartford street, feb. , , and prologue in verse by the rt. hon. richard fitzpatrick. burgoyne, john.--the dramatic and poetical works of the late lieut. gen. j. burgoyne; to which is prefixed, memoirs of the author. embellished with [ ] copper-plates. london: printed by c. whittingham . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by smith-mansell._ large paper copy. burke, bernard.--the knightage of great britain and ireland, [woodcuts] london: edward churton, . . . [bradbury and evans]    . _ mo, ivory calf, back and sides covered with a graceful floral and scroll design in mosaic of various colours, inside panel of mosaic and gilt representing a cathedral window, purple silk guards, gilt edges._ dedication copy of john maude with his arms painted in colour on vellum, a duplicate frontispiece-title by h. beckwith after j. e. jones, and a duplicate page of dedication, both coloured. burlington fine arts club. exhibition of portrait miniatures. [ plates] london: printed for the burlington fine arts club. . _ to, buckram._ burlington fine arts club. exhibition of bookbindings. london: printed for the burlington fine arts club. . _royal to, cloth, uncut edges._ one hundred and thirteen coloured plates. burlington fine arts club. catalogue of a collection of european enamels    from the earliest date to the end of the xvii. century. london: printed for the burlington fine arts club. . _imperial to, green buckram, uncut edges._ seventy-two plates, some coloured. burlington fine arts club. exhibition of english mezzotint portraits from circa to circa    london   printed for the burlington fine arts club    . _folio, blue buckram, uncut edges._ thirty plates after van dyck, romney, reynolds, gainsborough, lawrence, and others. burnaby, charles.--the reform'd wife. a comedy: as it is acted, at the theatre-royal, in drury-lane. london, printed for thomas bennet, at the half-moon, in st. paul's church-yard, . _ to, half sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ a-g in fours, title on a . dedicated to lord lorn. burnand, sir francis cowley.--the incompleat angler. after master izaak walton. edited by f. c. burnand . . . and illustrated by harry furniss. london: bradbury, agnew, & c^{o} . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ thirty-one coloured illustrations. burnet, john.--practical hints on light and shade in painting. illustrated by examples from the italian, flemish, and dutch schools. by john burnet. . . . london: printed for the proprietor, and sold by james carpenter and son, . . . . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy: thirty-nine illustrations [eight plates] on india paper. burnet, john.--[general title] a treatise on painting. in four parts. consisting of an essay on the education of the eye with reference to painting, and practical hints on composition, chiaroscuro, and colour. the whole illustrated by examples from the italian, venetian, flemish, and dutch schools. by john burnet, . . . london: james carpenter, . . . [chiswick press] . (i.) an essay on the education of the eye with reference to painting. illustrated by [ ] copper plates and [ ] wood cuts. . . . second edition. london: james carpenter, . . . . (ii.) practical hints on composition in painting. illustrated by examples from the great masters of the italian, flemish, and dutch schools. . . . fifth edition. [ plates] london: printed for the proprietor, and sold by james carpenter and son, . . . . (iii.) practical hints on light and shade in painting. . . . fifth edition. [ plates] london: james carpenter, . . . . (iv.) practical hints on colour in painting. illustrated by examples from the works of the venetian, flemish, and dutch schools. . . . fourth edition. [ plates] london: printed for the proprietor, . . . . _royal to, four parts in one volume, cloth, uncut edges._ figures on plates. burnet and cunningham.--turner and his works: illustrated with [ ] examples from his pictures, and critical remarks on his principles of painting. by john burnet, f.r.s. . . . the memoir by peter cunningham, f.s.a. . . . re-edited by henry murray, f.s.a. london: james s. virtue, . . . . _royal to, cloth, uncut edges._ second edition. dedicated to samuel rogers. burnet, thomas.--a second tale of a tub: or, the history of robert powel the puppet-show-man. . . . london: printed for j. roberts . . . . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt fillets on the sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece and preliminary leaf containing the imprimatur, dated oct. , . a satire on sir robert walpole, sometimes attributed to thomas duffet. the jolley copy. burney, charles.--a general history of music, from the earliest ages, to the present period. to which is prefixed, a dissertation on the music of the ancients. by charles burney . . . london, printed for the author . . . mdcclxxvi.-lxxxix. _ to, four volumes, calf, gilt back._ brilliant portrait of the author engraved by bartolozzi after reynolds, and ten other plates, including five by bartolozzi after the designs of cipriani. dr. samuel johnson is believed to have written the preface. burney, charles.--memoirs of doctor burney, arranged from his own manuscripts, from family papers, and from personal recollections. by his daughter, madame d'arblay. . . . london: edward moxon . . . [bradbury and evans]    . _crown vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ burney, fanny.--see d'arblay, madame. burns, robert.--poems chiefly in the scottish dialect, by robert burns. [four lines of english verse]   kilmarnock: printed by john wilson. m,dcc,lxxxvi. _ vo, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, the original blue covers bound in, blue straight-grain morocco case, by bedford._ first edition. autograph letter of burns (two pages) inserted. burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. kilmarnock: printed by john wilson, m.dcc.lxxxvi [_rep. _]. _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ no. of fifty largest paper copies printed. eighty-seven plates have been inserted in this copy, many proofs, and some of stothard's illustrations retouched for the engraver. at the end is bound a facsimile of the original manuscript of the "jolly beggars," glasgow, . burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. edinburgh: printed for the author, and sold by william creech. m,dcc,lxxxvii. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first issue of the first edinburgh edition, with the misprints "stinking" and "haggis" in the last stanza on page . portrait by beugo after a. nasmyth, and an original water-colour drawing by uwins, representing the witches in the church in "tam o' shanter." burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. edinburgh: printed for the author, and sold by william creech. m,dcc,lxxxvii. _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ second issue of the first edinburgh edition, with the errors on page corrected to "skinking" and "haggis." portrait by beugo after a. nasmyth. burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. the third edition. london: printed for a. strahan; t. cadell in the strand; and w. creech, edinburgh. m dcc lxxxvii. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first london edition, copied from the first issue of the first edinburgh edition, with the misprints in the last stanza of the poem "to a haggis," on page . portrait by beugo after a. nasmyth. burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. philadelphia: printed for, and sold by peter stewart and george hyde m,dcc,lxxxviii. _ mo, olive levant morocco, richly tooled on back and sides, gilt edges, by lortic._ first american edition, published in april. the text of this edition gives unmistakable evidence that it was printed from the first issue of the first edinburgh edition, with the two errors in the lines, "to a haggis." burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. to which are added, scots poems, selected from the works of robert ferguson. new york: printed by j. and a. m'lean, franklin's head, no. , hanover-square. m,dcc,lxxxviii. _post vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, wide side borders of interlacing fillets and foliage, doubled with green morocco, green silk guard, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ second american edition, published in june. printed from the first issue of the first edinburgh edition, with the two errors in the poem "to a haggis," last stanza, page . portrait by scot. burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. belfast: printed and sold by william magee, . . . m,dcc,xc. _ mo, green morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side panels in mosaic of orange, red, ivory, and maroon morocco, the intervals studded with dots, corner ornaments in gilt and red mosaic, gilt edges, by "e. s. aurifex" [sir edward sullivan]._ the misprints in the last stanza of the poem, "to a haggis," are repeated, page . burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns . . . . the second edition considerably enlarged. edinburgh: printed for t. cadell, london, and william creech, edinburgh. m.dcc.xciii. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by beugo after nasmyth. burns, robert.--poems. . _ vo, two volumes in one, original half calf, uncut edges, in a maroon morocco case._ another copy, on the verso of the half-title of which is the following presentation inscription: "mr. white will accept of this book as a mark of the most sincere friendship, from a man who has ever had too much respect for his friends, & too much contempt for his enemies, to flatter either the one or the other--the author." in the back of the book is pasted a folio sheet containing stanzas "to the memory of robert burns. by t. white, author of st. guerdun's well," dated dumfries, . burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns . . . a new edition, considerably enlarged. edinburgh: printed for t. cadell jun. and w. davies, london; and william creech, edinburgh. mdccxcviii. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by beugo after nasmyth. burns, robert.--poems ascribed to robert burns, the ayrshire bard, not contained in any edition of his works hitherto published. glasgow, printed by chapman & lang, for thomas stewart, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ burns, robert.--(i.-iv.) the works of robert burns; with an account of his life, and a criticism on his writings. to which are prefixed, some observations on the character and condition of the scottish peasantry . . . . the second edition. london: printed for t. cadell, jun. and w. davies, . . . . printed by r. noble, . . . (v.) reliques of robert burns; consisting chiefly of original letters, poems, and critical observations on scottish songs. collected and published by r. h. cromek . . . . london: printed by j. m'creery, for t. cadell, and w. davies, . . . . _ vo, five volumes, calf, gilt back._ large paper copy. portrait by neagle after nasmyth. burns, robert.--select scotish songs, ancient and modern; with critical observations and biographical notices, by robert burns. edited by r. h. cromek . . . [vignette]   london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies, . . . by j. m'creery, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes in one, half blue levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ burns, robert.--poems by robert burns: with an account of his life and miscellaneous remarks on his writings. containing also many poems and letters, not printed in dr. currie's edition . . . edinburgh: printed for the trustees of the late james morison, by john moir . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ twenty plates by burnet and (inserted) four portraits and eleven additional plates, seven being india proofs. burns, robert.--the works of robert burns; with his life, by allan cunningham. . . . london: john cochrane and co. . . . . _post vo, eight volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait, frontispieces, and engraved titles, sixteen plates in all. burns, robert.--the poetical works of robert burns [with a memoir by sir harris nicolas, and a portrait of burns]   london   william pickering . _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ burns, robert.--the works of robert burns; with a complete life of the poet, and an essay on his genius and character, by professor wilson. also numerous notes, annotations, and appendices. embellished by eighty-one portraits and landscape illustrations. . . . blackie and son, . . . glasgow, . . . m dccc xlvi. _royal vo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. [posthumous poems]   kilmarnock: printed by james m'kie   m.dccclxix. _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ no. of thirty copies printed on largest paper. forty-six plates inserted, including eight portraits of burns, one an original drawing. burns, robert.--poems, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. [poems as they appeared in the early edinburgh edition]   kilmarnock: printed by james m'kie m.dccclxix. _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ no. of thirty copies printed on largest paper. ninety-eight plates inserted, including eight portraits. burns, robert.--songs, chiefly in the scottish dialect. by robert burns. kilmarnock: printed by james m'kie. m.dccclxix. _imperial vo, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ no. of thirty copies printed on largest paper. in this copy ninety plates have been inserted, including seven portraits of burns, and illustrations on copper and steel after designs by stothard and others. many of the plates are in two states, before and after letters, a fair proportion being on india paper. burns, robert.--the poetical works of robert burns edited from the best printed and manuscript authorities, with glossarial index and a biographical memoir   by alexander smith. . . . london: macmillan & co.     . _post vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ portrait on india paper by g. b. shaw after j. nasmith. one of five hundred copies printed. burns, robert.--selected poems of robert burns with an introduction by andrew lang. london   kegan paul, trench, trübner & c^{o}. ltd. mdcccxci. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. burns, robert.--letters addressed to clarinda, &c. by robert burns, the ayrshire poet. never before published. glasgow: printed by niven, napier and rhull; for t. stewart . . . . _small vo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ burton, john hill.--the book-hunter etc. by john hill burton. william blackwood & sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclxii. _foolscap vo, half morocco, uncut edges._ first edition. burton, john hill.--the book-hunter etc. . _square vo, half olive morocco, uncut edges._ large paper copy of the first edition, twenty-five printed. burton, john hill.--the book hunter, etc. by john hill burton . . . a new edition with a memoir of the author   william blackwood and sons edinburgh: . . . mdccclxxxii. _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, mosaic side compartments in maroon and green morocco, richly tooled, silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ one thousand copies printed. etched portrait of the author by w. b. hole. burton, john hill.--a history of the reign of queen anne by john hill burton, . . . william blackwood and sons   edinburgh and london   m dccc lxxx . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ burton, sir richard f.--(i.) benares: m dccc lxxxv: printed by the kamashastra society for private subscribers only. . . . a plain and literal translation of the arabian nights' entertainments, now entituled the book of the thousand nights and a night with introduction explanatory notes on the manners and customs of moslem men and a terminal essay upon the history of the nights by richard f. burton (xi.) benares: m dccc lxxxvi: printed &c . . . supplemental nights to the thousand nights and a night with notes anthropological and explanatory by richard f. burton. _ vo, sixteen volumes, original cloth, red top._ the supplement consists of six volumes. burton, sir richard.--see basile, giovanni battista. bury, lady charlotte.--diary illustrative of the times of george the fourth, interspersed with original letters from the late queen caroline, and from various other distinguished persons. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . m dccc xxxviii. _ vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ bury, richard de.--philobiblon, a treatise on the love of books, by richard de bury, . . . first american edition, with the literal english translation of john b. inglis. collated and corrected, with notes, by samuel hand. albany: joel munsell. m dccc lxi. _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of thirty large paper copies printed. bury, richard de.--the philobiblon of richard de bury bishop of durham treasurer and chancellor of edward iii   edited and translated by ernest c. thomas . . . london   kegan paul, trench and co. [chiswick press] . _ vo, original paper, uncut edges._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. bury, richard de.--(i.) ricardi de bury philobiblon ex optimis codicibus recensuit versione anglica necnon et prolegomenis adnotationibusque auxit andreas fleming west in collegio princetoniæ professor pars prima. textus. novi eboraci [** symbol] typis et impensis societatis grolierianæ    mdccclxxxix. (ii-iii.) the philobiblon of richard de bury edited from the best manuscripts and translated into english with an introduction and notes by andrew fleming west . . . part second . . . [part third] new york   printed for the grolier club    . _ to, three volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with citron morocco, borders and corner ornaments, vellum guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ one of two hundred and ninety-seven copies printed. bury, richard de.--philobiblon. . _ to, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with vellum, borders, gilt over uncut edges, in maroon levant morocco cases, by cuzin._ one of three copies printed upon vellum. butler, charles.--the life of hugo grotius: with brief minutes of the civil, ecclesiastical, and literary history of the netherlands. by charles butler . . . london: john murray . . . m.dccc.xxvi. _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ butler, frances anne.--see kemble, fanny. butler, joseph, bishop.--the analogy of religion, natural and revealed, to the constitution and course of nature. to which are added two brief dissertations: i. of personal identity. ii. of the nature of virtue. by joseph butler, ll.d. rector of stanhope, in the bishoprick of durham. . . . london: printed for james, john and paul knapton, at the crown in ludgate street. m dcc xxxvi. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with the half-title. butler, joseph, bishop.--the analogy of religion, natural and revealed to the constitution and course of nature. by joseph butler l.l.d. late lord bishop of durham. with analytical index by edward steere . . . london. bell and daldy . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ butler, joseph, bishop.--the works of . . . joseph butler . . . late lord bishop of durham. to which is prefixed, a preface, giving some account of the character and writings of the author. by samuel halifax, d.d., late lord bishop of gloucester. oxford: at the university press mdcccxlix. _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, by hayday._ butler, lilly.--a discourse, proving, that the faith and practice of true christians, are no just matter of shame or reproach. being eight sermons preached at the cathedral church of st. paul, in the year , at the lecture founded by the honourable robert boyle, esq;. by lilly butler, . . . london: printed for brabazon aylmer, . . . . _ vo, old blue morocco, gilt back and sides, with the crowned cipher of queen anne on both covers, gilt edges._ from the collection of francis wrangham, with his autograph on the title-page. butler, william allen.--home poems and rhymes for the nursery with "sea scribblings" and "the animal book"   by william allen butler   printed for private circulation   new york   printed at the de vinne press . _ mo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred and fifty copies printed, with portrait and one other illustration. byerley, thomas.--relics of literature. by stephen collet. [thomas byerley]   london: thomas boys . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ byerley had still another _nom de guerre_. he was the "reuben percy" of the percy anecdotes. the two hundred subjects in this volume include book destroyers, the ancient value of books, voltaire and the booksellers, etc., etc. a leaf of facsimile autographs precedes the title. byerley, thomas.--see percy anecdotes. byrom, john.--miscellaneous poems, by john byrom, m.a. f.r.s. sometime fellow of trinity college, cambridge, and inventor of the universal english short-hand. . . . manchester: printed by j. harrop. m dcc lxxiii. _ vo, two volumes, original calf._ inserted is a portrait of dr. byron [_sic_] "a sketch after spending an evening at a coffee house." byron, george gordon, lord.--hours of idleness, a series of poems, original and translated, by george gordon, lord byron, a minor . . . newark: printed and sold by s. and j. ridge; . . . . _ vo, maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ large paper copy of the first edition of byron's first publication. byron, george gordon, lord.--hours of idleness: a series of poems, original and translated. by lord byron . . . london: printed for sherwin and co. . . . . _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ thick paper copy, with frontispiece. byron, george gordon, lord.--english bards, and scotch reviewers. a satire. /p i had rather be a kitten, and cry, mew! than one of these same metre ballad-mongers. p/ shakspeare. /p such shameless bards we have; and yet 't is true, there are as mad, abandon'd critics too. p/ pope. london: printed for james cawthorn, british library, no. , cockspur street. [ ]. _ mo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, the original brown paper front cover bound in, by the club bindery._ presumably the first edition, with a misprint "aulhor," line of the preface. byron, george gordon, lord.--english bards, and scotch reviewers. a satire . . . london: printed for james cawthorn . . . [ .]   _ mo, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ presumably the second edition, with the misprint "aulhor," line of the preface, corrected. a thick paper copy. the type of the title-page is larger and heavier than in the preceding edition; the ornament above the imprint is two arrow-like figures joined by a slender thread, whereas in the first edition it is two parallel lines, the upper much the heavier of the two. "printed" here begins with a large "p" and "james cawthorn" is in larger type. the text is reset throughout. the ornament on b recto has here a star-like centre; in the first edition it is an elongated diamond. the parallel head-lines beginning on page are here heavier. on page , line , "wizard" is spelled with one "z"; in the first edition with two. "dispatch" in the same line is spelled with an "i"; in the first with an "e." other slight variations of punctuation, etc., are observable on nearly every page. the present copy has a half-title. byron, george gordon, lord.--english bards and scotch reviewers. by lord byron with the additional passages from the subsequent editions illustrated with forty engravings   [london]    . _ to, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt edges._ unique copy, from the drury collection, with special title-page as above, the original text inlaid to quarto. manuscript interpolations written in a neat hand show the various changes in the poem. the portraits are well selected and include a coloured print of madame catalani. byron, george gordon, lord.--the giaour, a fragment of a turkish tale. by lord byron . . . london: . . . john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--lara, a tale. jacqueline, a tale. london: printed for j. murray . . . . _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the corsair, a tale. by lord byron. london: . . . john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--hebrew melodies. by lord byron. london: printed for john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the prisoner of chillon, and other poems. by lord byron. london: printed for john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the siege of corinth. a poem. parisina. a poem. london: printed for john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--lord byron's farewell to england; with three other poems, viz. ode to st. helena, to my daughter, on the morning of her birth, and to the lily of france. . . . london: published by j. johnston, . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--manfred, a dramatic poem. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--mazeppa, a poem. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--don juan. . . . london: printed by thomas davison, whitefriars. . _ to, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, by birdsall & son, northampton._ first edition of cantos i and ii. byron, george gordon, lord.--don juan . . . london: printed by thomas davison . . . . don juan, cantos iii, iv, and v. london: printed by thomas davison . . . . don juan. cantos vi.-vii.- and viii . . . london, : printed for john hunt . . . don juan. cantos ix.-x.- and xi . . . london, : printed for john hunt . . . don juan. cantos xii.-xiii.- and xiv. london, : printed for john hunt . . . don juan. cantos xv. and xvi. london, : printed for john and h. l. hunt . . . _ vo, six volumes in three, green morocco, gilt ornaments on back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by birdsall._ first octavo edition, and first editions of all but the first two cantos. the second volume has the original wrapper with the following inscription in byron's handwriting: "from the author to t. grant with his best regards." byron, george gordon, lord.--waltz: an apostrophic hymn. by horace hornem, esq. (the noble author of don juan.) . . . london: printed and published by w. clark, . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ byron, george gordon, lord.--marino faliero, doge of venice. an historical tragedy, in five acts. with notes. the prophecy of dante, a poem. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--letter to **** ******, on the rev. w. l. bowles' strictures on the life and writings of pope. by the right hon. lord byron. . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--sardanapalus, a tragedy. the two foscari, a tragedy. cain, a mystery. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portrait of byron engraved by page. byron, george gordon, lord.--werner, a tragedy. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. published in december, . byron, george gordon, lord.--the age of bronze; or, carmen seculare et annus haud mirabilis. . . . london, : printed for john hunt, . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the island, or christian and his comrades. by the right hon. lord byron. london, : printed for john hunt . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the parliamentary speeches of lord byron. printed from the copies prepared by his lordship for publication. london: printed for rodwell and martin, . . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the deformed transformed; a drama. by the right hon. lord byron. london, : printed for j. and h. l. hunt, . . . _ vo, silk covers, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. byron, george gordon, lord.--the works of lord byron: with his letters and journals, and his life, by thomas moore . . . london: john murray . . . -' . _foolscap vo, seventeen volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first issue. portrait and thirty-three frontispieces and vignettes. byron, george gordon, lord.--the poetical works of lord byron . . . london: john murray, . . . m dccc xxxix. _ vo, eight volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by e. finden after t. phillips, and one hundred and thirty-four portraits and views, including frontispieces by e. and w. finden, etc., after the designs of stanfield, westall, turner, and others. byron, george gordon, lord.--poetical works. . . . . _ vo, eight volumes extended to fifteen, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of five hundred and thirty selected engravings, for the most part proofs on india paper and generally before letters, and an autograph, pass "below the bar of the house of lords" in favour of john galt, by byron. the plates include the stothard, finden, johannot, westall, turner, corbould, and other series, a brilliant group of portraits, and many unpublished plates. the portraits include sixteen of byron. byron, george gordon, lord.--childe harold's pilgrimage. a romaunt. by lord byron. london: john murray . . . mdcccxli. _royal vo, brown morocco, back and sides panelled in mosaic with foliated ornaments, inside border, tapestry panels and end leaves, gilt over uncut edges, by marius michel._ proofs on india paper of the sixty-two engravings by finden, after the designs of creswick, warren, aylmer, etc. byron, george gordon, lord.--poetry of byron chosen and arranged by matthew arnold. [vignette]   london   macmillan and co.    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. byron, george gordon, lord.--fugitive pieces by george gordon lord byron a fac-simile reprint of the suppressed edition of    london printed for private circulation [chiswick press]    . _royal to, boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed. byron, george gordon, lord.--memoirs of the life and writings of the right honourable lord byron with anecdotes of some of his contemporaries. london: printed for henry colburn and co. . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ portrait by g. h. harlowe, on india paper. byron, george gordon, lord.--conversations of lord byron with the countess of blessington . . . london: published for henry colburn, by r. bentley, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait of byron after count d'orsay. byron, george gordon, lord.--see clinton, george. hunt, leigh. the liberal. cambridge, richard owen.--the scribleriad: an heroic poem. in six books [vignette]   london: printed for r. dodsley . . . m dcc li. _royal to, olive levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges._ first edition: with notes by george chalmers. seven plates by l. p. boitard after j. wall and boitard, and vignette of tully on the title, by c. mosley after h. gravelot. cameo.--the cameo; a melange of literature and the arts selected from the bijou. london   william pickering. mdcccxxxi. _post vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ fifteen plates after lawrence, wilkie, reynolds, etc. campbell, john, lord.--the lives of the lord chancellors and keepers of the great seal of england, from the earliest times till the reign of king george iv. by john lord campbell, . . . third edition. london: john murray, . . . . [- ]. _ vo, eight volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ campbell, john, lord.--lives of lord lyndhurst and lord brougham, lord chancellors and keepers of the great seal of england. by the late john lord campbell, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ campbell, john, lord.--the lives of the chief justices of england. from the norman conquest till the death of lord mansfield. by john lord campbell . . . london: john murray . . . . [- ]   _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ campbell, thomas.--the pleasures of hope; with other poems. by thomas campbell. edinburgh: printed for mundell & son; . . . . _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage._ first edition. four plates engraved by scott, somerville, and mitchell after the designs of graham. campbell, thomas.--(i.) the pleasures of hope, with other poems. by thomas campbell . . . london: printed for longman, . . . . (ii.) gertrude of wyoming, and other poems. by thomas campbell . . . ninth edition. london: printed for longman, . . . . _ mo, two volumes in one, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, the fore edge bearing a beautifully painted landscape in the neighbourhood of eton college._ the first of these volumes has an engraved title and three plates, the second an engraved title and two plates, all by heath after westall's designs. campbell, thomas.--theodric; a domestic tale; and other poems. by thomas campbell. london: printed for longman, . . . . _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage._ first edition, printed on thick paper. campbell, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas campbell. london: henry colburn, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant, gilt back panels and side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait by j. burnet after sir thomas lawrence and in addition forty portraits and scenes, for the most part proofs on india paper, including fifteen portraits of campbell, westall's illustrations to the poems, proofs before and after the letters. campbell, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas campbell. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxxxvii. _small to, red levant morocco, back and corner ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage._ portrait and twenty vignettes after the designs of turner. campbell, thomas.--poetical works. . _small to, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by brany._ another copy. inserted are a portrait of campbell by holl and an illustration to the "pleasures of hope" by westall, proof on india paper. campbell, thomas.--the pilgrim of glencoe, and other poems. by thomas campbell. london: edward moxon . . . mdcccxlii. _small to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ sixty-seven plates inserted, many india proofs, including ten portraits, views by turner, vignettes, etc. campbell, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas campbell. with notes, and a biographical sketch, by the rev. w. a. hill, . . . illustrated by thirty-seven wood-cuts. from designs by harvey. london: edward moxon, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by w. h. watt after lawrence. campbell, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas campbell. with a memoir . . . . boston: little, brown, and company. . _ mo, half green cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portrait on india paper. campbell, thomas.--specimens of the british poets; with biographical and critical notices, and an essay on english poetry. by thomas campbell. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, seven volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt tops, uncut edges, by matthews._ illustrated by the insertion of fifty-two portraits of the poets, thirty being on india paper, many proofs before letters. included is the rare portrait of sir thomas overbury by payne, james i. by gaywood, and southerne by evans. campbell, thomas.--specimens of the british poets. . _ vo, seven volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ another copy, with one hundred and fifty-three portraits and vignettes inserted, ninety being proofs on india paper, and many before letters. campbell, thomas.--life of mrs. siddons. by thomas campbell. london: effingham wilson . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of mrs. siddons by lupton after sir thomas lawrence. campbell, thomas.--life of mrs. siddons. . _ vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back and sides elaborately tooled in the manner of dérome, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ another copy, illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and eighty-six portraits, etc., including forty-one portraits of mrs. siddons, a brilliant mezzotint of e. kean, coloured portrait of kynaston, and a water-colour drawing of glasgow cathedral. a large number of the plates are in proof state. campbell, thomas.--life of mrs. siddons. . _ vo, two volumes, extended to four, red morocco, gilt edges._ william upcott's copy, containing in addition to the portrait of mrs. siddons, by lupton after sir thomas lawrence, two hundred and fourteen portraits, of which sixty are of mrs. siddons, including the oval by ogborn after harding, in two states, red (proof) and black, and the "grecian daughter" by trotter after lawrence. autographs and letters of mrs. bracegirdle, henry and cecilia siddons, e. carll, thomas davies, the duchess of devonshire and many others have been inserted, several bills of the play, , etc., a "pass" to the gallery, written by sarah siddons, a water-colour drawing of the actress's home at westbourne and a sepia drawing of her tomb at paddington church, together with a number of contemporary newspaper announcements, etc. canning, george.--speeches of the right hon. george canning delivered on public occasions in liverpool. with a portrait of mr. canning, [by w. t. fry after george hargreaves] liverpool: thos. kaye, . . . . _ vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ carcanet.--the carcanet, a literary album, containing select passages from the most distinguished english writers. london   william pickering    mdcccxxviii. _ mo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ engraved title with vignette. carey, henry.--the dramatick works of henry carey. [large ornament] london: printed by s. gilbert, m dcc xliii. _ to, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ contains . amelia, an opera set to music by john frederick lampe. . teraminta, an opera set to music by john christopher smith. . the dragon of wantley, a burlesque opera with music by lampe. . the dragoness, a burlesque opera with music by lampe. . chrononhotonthologos, a tragedy. . the contrivances, a ballad opera. . the honest yorkshire-man, a ballad opera. . nancy: or, the parting lovers. an interlude set to music by the author. "carleton, george, captain."--see defoe, daniel. carleton, will.--farm ballads. by will carleton. illustrated. new york: harper & brothers, . . . [ ] _ vo, brown morocco, gilt edges._ carlyle, thomas.--past and present. by thomas carlyle . . . london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxliii. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. carlyle, thomas.--past and present. by thomas carlyle . . . second edition. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxlv. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ carlyle, thomas.--critical and miscellaneous essays: collected and republished. by thomas carlyle . . . third edition. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxlvii. _ mo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ carlyle, thomas.--the french revolution: a history. by thomas carlyle . . . third edition   london: chapman and hall . . . m.dccc.xlviii. _ mo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ carlyle, thomas, _editor_.--latter-day pamphlets. edited by thomas carlyle. london: chapman and hall . . . . _small vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. includes the present time, model prisons, downing street, the new downing street, stump-orator, parliaments, hudson's statue and jesuitism. carlyle and emerson.--the correspondence of thomas carlyle and ralph waldo emerson - . . . boston   james r. osgood and company . _ vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred and fifty copies printed, with two etched portraits by s. a. schoff. carlyle, thomas.--[works]   boston   dana estes and charles e. lauriat . _ vo, twenty volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet's._ one of thirty-five copies printed on japanese paper, with portraits and maps. carlyle, thomas.--sartor resartus: the life and opinions of herr teufelsdröckh in three books by thomas carlyle   london   kegan paul, trench & co.   mdccclxxxix. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of fifty large paper copies printed, with etched portrait of the author. carlyle, thomas.--two note books of thomas carlyle from d march to th may . edited by charles eliot norton   new york   the grolier club   mdcccxcviii. _ vo, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and eighty-seven copies printed, with two portraits of carlyle etched by alfred jones, and facsimiles of the original manuscript. carpenter, william hooker.--pictorial notices: consisting of a memoir of sir anthony van dyck, with a descriptive catalogue of the etchings executed by him: and a variety of interesting particulars relating to other artists patronized by charles i . . . by william hooker carpenter. london: james carpenter . . . . _ to, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges._ two portraits by william carpenter, and in addition forty-six inserted plates, consisting of portraits by van dyck engraved by p. de jode, bolswert, gallé, etc., etc., including a proof of the portrait of peter oliver. "carroll, lewis."--see dodgson, charles. carter, charles franklin.--the missions of nueva california   an historical sketch by charles franklin carter with illustrations from drawings by the author, from photographs, and reproductions of old prints   san francisco   the whitaker and ray company . . . . _royal vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ carter, r.--see lowell, j. r. the pioneer. cartwright, julia.--the life and art of sandro botticelli by julia cartwright (mrs. ady) . . . new york: e. p. dutton and co.   london: duckworth and co. [chiswick press] . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ forty-two full-page plates, and thirty-seven illustrations in the text. cary, henry francis.--lives of english poets, from johnson to kirke white, designed as a continuation of johnson's lives. by the late rev. henry francis cary, . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . m dccc xlvi. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ cary, henry francis.--the early french poets, a series of notices and translations, by the late rev. henry francis cary, . . . with an introductory sketch of the history of french poetry, by his son the rev. henry cary, . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . m dccc xlvi. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ cary, john.--cary's new itinerary; or, an accurate delineation of the great roads both direct and cross, throughout england and wales; with many of the principal roads in scotland . . . london: printed for john cary . . . . _ vo, red morocco, back and sides richly tooled, wide inside border, green silk panel and linings, gilt over uncut edges, by roger payne._ printed on india paper. dedicated to the earl of chesterfield and a presentation copy from that nobleman. castellani, carlo.--early venetian printing illustrated [portrait] . . . london: john c. nimmo . . . m. dccc. xcv. _folio, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ castiglione, a. p., _translator and editor_.--il cortegiano, or the courtier: written by conte baldssar castiglione. and a new version of the same into english. together with several of his celebrated pieces, as well latin as italian, both in prose and verse. to which is prefix'd, the life of the author. by a. p. castiglione, of the same family. london: printed by w. bowyer, for the editor. mdccxxvii. _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ portrait of the author engraved by vertue. the original text and english translation are printed in parallel columns. castle, egerton.--english book-plates   an illustrated handbook for students of ex-libris by egerton castle . . . london: george bell & sons, . . . [chiswick press]   m dccc xcij. _ vo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ frontispiece in red and black, and numerous woodcuts in the text. no. of sixty-five copies printed on japanese vellum. catalogue.--effigies of the most famous english writers from chaucer to johnson exhibited at the grolier club   new-york, december, . [devinne press] _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of two hundred large paper copies printed, with two reproductions. catalogue.--catalogue of an exhibition of illuminated and painted manuscripts together with a few early printed books with illuminations--also some examples of persian manuscripts--with plates in facsimile and an introductory essay   new-york the grolier club [de vinne press] . _ vo, olive levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ one of three hundred and fifty copies printed, with twenty-two plates in facsimile. catalogue.--[** symbol] catalogue of original and early editions of some of the poetical and prose works of english writers from langland to wither   with collations & notes & eighty-seven facsimiles of title-pages and frontispieces   being a contribution to the bibliography of english literature   ¶ imprinted at new-york for the grolier club, [de vinne press]   mdcccxciij. _ vo, original half brown morocco, uncut edges._ one of four hundred copies printed. catalogue.--[** symbol] catalogue of original and early editions. . _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges._ another copy; one of three printed on vellum. catalogue.--the catalogue of books from the libraries or collections of celebrated bibliophiles and illustrious persons of the past with arms or devices upon the bindings exhibited at the grolier club in the month of january    new-york   published by the grolier club [de vinne press]    mdcccxcv. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and fifty copies printed, with twenty-four illustrations. catalogue.--the catalogue of books from the libraries or collections of celebrated bibliophiles &c    . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with vellum, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, one of three printed on vellum. catalogue.--a description of the early printed books owned by the grolier club with a brief account of their printers and the history of typography in the fifteenth century   printed for the grolier club new-york, [de vinne press] may, mdcccxcv. _folio, half calf, uncut edges._ one of four hundred copies printed, with twenty-five facsimiles   the books described are from the collection of david wolfe bruce. catalogue.--a description of the early printed books owned by the grolier club. . _folio, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with vellum, vellum guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, one of three printed on vellum. catalogue of an exhibition illustrative of a centenary of artistic lithography-- - --with examples by different artists. illustrated with photo-engravings, from the originals by bonington, cassatt, chauvel, daumier, decamps, engelmann, fantin-latour, gavarni, hanfstaengl, homer, jacque, jacob, millet, newsam, olis, prout, raffet, vernet, and wagenbauer   at the grolier club . . . new york [de vinne press]   march m.d.ccc.xcvi. _ vo, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ one of four hundred copies printed. catalogue of etchings and dry points by rembrandt selected for exhibition at the grolier club of the city of new york   april-may,    new york   published by the grolier club [de vinne press]   m c m. _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and ten copies printed, with etched frontispiece. catalogue of an exhibition of first and other editions of the works of john dryden ( - ) together with a few engraved portraits and two oil paintings--commemorative of the two hundredth anniversary of his death   new york   the grolier club [de vinne press]    . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of two hundred copies printed, with frontispiece. catalogue of an exhibition of selected works of the poets laureate of england   new york   the grolier club [de vinne press]   mcmi. _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of three hundred copies printed, with portrait of ben jonson by s. arlent edwards after honthorst. catholic religion.--an essay upon the reasonableness and usefulness of the catholick religion. humbly offered to the serious consideration of such persons as may be unhappily seduced, either into atheistick doubts &c   london, printed and sold by j. roberts . . . . _ vo, original green morocco, back and sides covered with a floral design of english workmanship, gilt edges._ catlin, george.--letters and notes on the manners, customs, and condition of the north american indians. by geo. catlin. written during eight years' travel amongst the wildest tribes of indians in north america. in , , , , , , , and . in two volumes, with four hundred illustrations, carefully engraved from his original paintings. . . . london: published by the author, . . . printed by tosswill and myers, . . . . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ cato.--cato's moral distichs englished in couplets. philadelphia: printed and sold by b. franklin, . _ to ( leaves), green levant morocco, gilt back, corner ornaments on the sides (roger payne style), uncut edges, by rivière._ "cato parvus."--see dibdin, t. f. catullus, caius valerius.--the poems of caius valerius catullus translated. with a preface and notes by the hon. george lamb . . . london: john murray . . . . _post vo, two volumes in one, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ catullus, caius valerius.--the poems of catullus. translated into english verse with an introduction and notes by theodore martin. london    parker son and brown . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ catullus, caius valerius.--the attis of caius valerius catullus translated into english verse, with dissertations on the myth of attis, on the origin of tree-worship, and on the galliambic metre by grant allen, b. a., formerly postmaster of merton college, oxford. london. mdcccxcii. published by david nutt . . . _royal vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of sixty large paper copies printed. catullus, caius valerius.--the carmina of caius valerius catullus   now first completely englished into verse and prose, the metrical part by capt. sir richard f. burton, . . . and the prose portion, introduction, and notes explanatory and illustrative by leonard c. smithers   london: m dccc xciiii: printed for the translators: . . . for private subscribers only. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ portrait by blake after della rosa. no. of one thousand copies printed. caulfield, james.--calcographiana: the print-sellers chronicle and collectors guide to the knowledge and value of engraved british portraits. by james caulfield   london: printed by and for g. smeeton . _ vo, brown morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by j. mackenzie._ illustrated by the insertion of ninety portraits, including originals by faithorne, white and magdalen de passe, also the portrait of henry, prince of wales, from the hieroologia. from the collection of john allan. caurtier, peter l.--see courtier, peter l. cavalcaselle, g. b.--see crowe and cavalcaselle. caxton celebration.--see bullen, george. cellini, benvenuto.--memoirs of benvenuto cellini, a florentine artist; written by himself. containing a variety of information respecting the arts, and the history of the sixteenth century. third edition. corrected and enlarged from the last milan edition. with the notes and observations of g. p. carpani, now first translated by thomas roscoe, . . . london: printed for henry colburn and co.   m dccc xxiii. _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by j. collyer after g. vasari. cervantes-saavedra, miguel de.--don quixote de la mancha. translated from the spanish of miguel de cervantes saavedra. embellished with engravings from pictures painted by robert smirke . . . london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies . . . by w. bulwer and c^{o} . . . . _ to, four volumes, russia, gilt back and sides._ largest paper, with proofs on india paper of the forty-eight plates and twenty-six vignettes, engraved by anker smith, heath, engleheart, warren, raimbach, fittler, etc. cervantes-saavedra, miguel de.--the exemplary novels of miguel de cervantes saavedra, the author of don quixote de la mancha, published at madrid in ; so called, because in each of them he proposed useful example, to be either imitated or avoided   london: printed for t. cadell . . . . _ vo, two volumes, calf, citron edges over rough leaves, by bedford._ cervantes-saavedra, miguel de.--the history and adventures of the renowned don quixote: from the spanish of miguel de cervantes saavedra. by t. smollett, m. d. to which is prefixed a memoir of the author, by thomas roscoe. illustrated by george cruikshank. . . . london: effingham wilson, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ three imaginary portraits by j. smith after meadows, and fifteen other plates by cruikshank. cervantes-saavedra, miguel de.--don quixote de la mancha. translated from the spanish of miguel de cervantes saavedra, by charles jarvis, esq. carefully revised and corrected. illustrated by tony johannot. london: j. j. dubochet & co., . . . . [ , ]. _royal vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ extra-illustrated by the insertion of a few portraits, views, etc. cervantes-saavedra, miguel de.--the exemplary novels of miguel de cervantes saavedra: to which are added el buscapié, or, the serpent; and la tia fingida, or, the pretended aunt. translated from the spanish by walter k. kelly. london: henry g. bohn . . . mdccclv. _post vo, half blue morocco, uncut edges._ portrait of cervantes by hinchliff after van der gucht. cesnola, louis palma di.--cyprus: its ancient cities, tombs, and temples. a narrative of researches and excavations during ten years' residence in that island   by general louis palma di cesnola, . . . with maps and illustrations. new york: harper & brothers, . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author. chaffers, william.--marks and monograms on pottery & porcelain of the renaissance and modern periods, with historical notices of each manufactory, preceded by an introductory essay on the vasa fictilia of the greek, romano-british, and mediæval eras. by william chaffers, . . . fourth edition, revised and considerably augmented. with potters' marks and illustrations. london: bickers & son, . . . ci[** inverted c].i[** inverted c].ccc.lxxiv. _royal vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ the printer's copy, one of two printed on thick paper, with many of the plates in colour. chaffers, william.--the collector's hand book of marks and monograms on pottery & porcelain . . . with nearly marks. by william chaffers . . . london: bickers and son, . . . . _ vo, cloth._ chalkley, thomas.--a collection of the works of thomas chalkley. [part ii. containing his epistles, and other writings.] philadelphia: printed by b. franklin, and d. hall, mdccxlix. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ chalmers, thomas.--on the power wisdom and goodness of god as manifested in the adaptation of external nature to the moral and intellectual constitution of man by the rev. thomas chalmers d.d. . . . [second edition]   london   william pickering    . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ bridgewater treatise no. i. chambers, robert.--(i.) vestiges of the natural history of creation. third edition   london: john churchill . . . mdcccxlv. (ii.) explanations: a sequel to "vestiges of the natural history of creation." by the author of that work. london: john churchill . . . mdcccxlv. _ mo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ champion and owen.--two centures of ceramic art in bristol being a history of the manufacture of "the true porcelain" by richard champion with a biography compiled from private correspondence journals and family papers; containing unpublished letters of edmund burke, richard and william burke the duke of portland, the marquis of rockingham and others   with an account of the delft, earthenware and enamel glass works from original sources   by hugh owen, . . . illustrated with one hundred and sixty engravings   london   bell and daldy, . . . . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of champion by w. t. davey. chandos the herald.--the black prince. an historical poem, written in french, by chandos herald; with a translation and notes by the rev. henry octavius coxe, . . . printed for the roxburghe club. london: w. nicol, . . . m dccc xlii. _royal to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ engraved title and facsimile. chantry, john.--a book of portraicture. john chantry, sculp. . sold by godfrey richards at the signe of the peacock in cornhil neere the royall exchange. london. _oblong to, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ twenty-one plates engraved by chantry after the designs of godfrey richards. chap-books, &c--(i.) the delightful new academy of complements. . . . [cut] york: printed and sold by thomas g   (ii.) anacreon's feast. to which are added, . a new irish and scotch song. . the german mare. . a new song on alderman wilkes. [cut] [colophon]   worcester: printed for s. gamidge; &c . . . [n. d.]   (iii.) the baffled knight; or, the lady's policy. [cut] . . . worcester: . . . s. gamidge: &c . . . [n. d.] . . . (iv.) the berkshire tragedy: or, the whittham miller. . . . [cut]    york: pirnted for john keed, . (v.) britannia's charter a choice collection of new songs. . . . [cut] printed for s. gamidge, . . . worcester. . . . [n. d.]. (vi.) the witty and entertaining exploits of sir geo. buhanan, commonly called the king's fool. printed by s. gamidge, in worcester; &c . . . [n. d.]   (vii.) the wandering young gentlewoman; or catskin. to which is added, the sailor's return   [cut]    ludlow: printed by j. turner. [n. d.] (viii.) a collection of new songs. containing, . jockey and jenny. &c . . . sold by s. gamidge, in worcester. [n. d.] (ix.) a choice collection of scotch songs. part the first. . . . [cut]   sold by s. gamidge, in worcester; . . . [n. d.] (x.) part the fourth of a choice collection of scotch songs. . . . [cut]    worcester: printed for s. gamidge; &c--[n. d.] (xi.) a collection of new songs. containing. . an ode to echo. . . . [cut containing "num. vi."] sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester. [n. d.] (xii.) a collection of new songs. containing. . cymon and iphigenia. . . . [cut containing "num. viii"] sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester, . . . [n. d.] (xiii.) cupid's magazine. being a choice collection of songs. . . . london: printed for c. sheppard, . . . [n. d.] [cut] . . . (xiv.) the life and adventures of capt. john deane. . . . [cut] sold by s. gamidge, in worcester. [n. d.] (xv.) the devonshire nymph; or, the knight's happy choice. . . . [cut] sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester. [n. d.] (xvi.) a diverting dialogue both serious and comical: that passed the other day between a noted shoemaker and his wife, living in this neighbourhood. [cut] een tered according to order [n. d.] (xvii.) fair maudlin; or, the merchant's daughter of bristol. [cut] . . . [colophon] printed for s. gamidge, . . . worcester. [n. d.] (xviii.) the five strange wonders of the world: or, a new merry book of all fives. . . . sold by s. gamidge, in worcester; . . . [n. d.] (xix.) the glocestershire tragedy; being an account of miss mary smith, of thornbury, who poisoned her father, sir john smith, for love of a young man. . . . printed and sold by howard and evans, . . . london. [n. d.] (xx.) the golden bull; or, the crafty princess. . . . [cut] . . . [n. p., n. d.] (xxi.) undutiful daughter: or the hampshire wonder. . . . [cut] printed by c. james . . . [london, n.d.]   (xxii.) a mournful tragedy. being a true copy of verses, shewing the unparallelled sufferings of the heer van ussell, a dutchman, his lady, two children, and sixteen sailors, who underwent such hardships at sea, as forced them to kill and eat one another. [cut] sold by s. gamidge, in worcester, [n. d.]   (xxiii.) the overthrow of proud holofernes; and the triumph of virtuous queen judith. [cut]   worcester: printed for s. gamidge . . . [n. d.]   (xxiv.) the hull tragedy, or unnatural ingratitude. . . . sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester. . . . (xxv.) joaks upon joaks, or no joak like a true joak. containing, the merry pranks of the earls of warwick and pembroke, lord rochester, lord mohun, &c. sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester; &c . . . [n. d.]   (xxvi.) the pleasant and delightful history of lawrence lazy: containing his birth and slothful breeding: . . . [cut] printed, for james hodges, at the looking-glass on london-bridge. (xxvii.) the liverpool tragedy. [n. d.] (xxviii.) love at the first sight: or, the gay in a flutter; . . . london: printed by t. thomas, near st. pauls. [n. d.] (xxix.) a collection of love-letters. to which is added the history of sylvia. [cut] sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester. . . . [n. d.] (xxx.) the amusement, being a collection of thirteen love songs. [n. d.] (xxxi.) the loyal martyrs: or, bloody inquisitor. . . . worcester: printed for s. gamidge; . . . [n. d.] (xxxii.) the maiden's prize; or, batchelor's puzzle. . . . printed for s. gamidge, . . . worcester. [n. d.] (xxxiii.) the miraculous farmer: or, no cock like the west-country cock. [cut] ludlow: printed by j. turner. [n. d.] (xxxiv.) the nottingham tragedy. . . . london: prinsed by j. johnson. [n. d.] (xxxv.) the oxfordshire tragedy; or, rosanna's overthrow. . . . [cut] printed for s. gamidge, in worcester. . . . [n. d.] (xxxvi.) a choice penny-worth of wit; . . . [n. d.] (xxxvii.) pills to purge melancholy: or, england's witty and ingenious jester. . . . [cut] sold by s. gamidge, . . . worcester . . . [n. d.] (xxxviii.) plymouth tragedy: or, fair susan's overthrow. . . . [cut] [n. d.] (xxxix.) the politick chambermaid: or, the merchant outwitted. . . . [cut]   sold by s. gamidge, in worcester; . . . [n. d.] (xl.) the somersetshire tragedy: or, the unnatural mother. sold by s. gamidge, in worcester; . . . [n. d.] (xli.) the history and lives of all the most notorious pirates, and their crews. . . . [cut] sold by s. gamidge, in worcester; . . . [n. d.] _ vo, forty-one works in one volume, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ chap-books, - .--(i.) the coalman's courtship to the creel-wife's daughter. in three parts. . . . stirling: printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (ii.) odd history of a scottish thief, who imposed on the city of london, bristol, &c. under the title of a lord's eldest son. also a wonderful escape from death. [cut] [stirling]   printed by m. randall. [n. d.] (iii.) the london spy. or the frauds of london described. being a complete discourse of all the dark transactions in and about that great city. edinburgh: printed for the booksellers. . (iv.) the exploits of wise willie, and witty eppie the ale-wife, of buchaven. [cut]   stirling: printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (v.) thrummy cap: a tale. to which are added. young whip stich, and the gig demolished. [cut] stirling: printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (vi.) history of the king and the cobler. in two parts. . . . a new edition enlarged. [cut]   sold wholesale by j. fraser & co. . . . stirling. [n. d.] (vii.) the comical transactions of lothian tom. in six parts. . . . [cut]   paisley: printed by j. neilson. . (viii.) fun upon fun! or, the comical merry tricks of leper the taylor. in two parts. . . . [cut]   paisley: printed by j. neilson. . (ix.) the history of the seven wise masters of rome. . . . falkirk: printed by t johnston. . (x.) the history of moll. flanders. . . . [cut] paisley, printed by j. neilson, . (xi.) the history of john cheap the chapman, . . . in three parts. [cut] glasgow: published and sold by r. hutchinson & co. . . . . (xii.) the comical history of simple john and his twelve misfortunes; . . . [cut] glasgow: . . . r. hutchinson & co. . . . . (xiii.) the history of the wicked life and horrid death of dr. john faustus. . . . [cut] printed in the year . (xiv.) the laird of cool's ghost. . . . [cut] paisley: . . . j. neilson. . (xv.) the ancient and modern history of buck-haven in fifeshire . . . . [cut] glasgow: . . . r. hutchinson & co. . . . (xvi.) the pleasant history of poor robin, the merry sadler of walden. . . . [cut] printed in the year . (xvii.) the friar & boy, or, the young piper's pleasant pastime. . . . stirling, printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (xviii.) the merry tales of the wise men of gotham. . . . stirling: . . . m. randall. [n. d.] (xix.) wanton tom: or, the merry history of tom stitch the tailor. . . . stirling: printed by m. randall. [n. d.] (xx.) the life and transations of mrs. jane shore, concubine to k. edward th, . . . [cut] paisley: . . . j. neilson. . (xxi.) the comical sayings of paddy from cork, with his coat button'd behind, . . . [cut] paisley: . . . j. neilson, . (xxii.) the dominie depos'd; or some reflections on his intrigue with a young lass, . . . with the sequel. by william forbes, . . . to which is added, maggy johnston's elegy. [cut] glasgow: . . . r. hutchinson & co. . . . [n. d.] (xxiii.) the merry and diverting exploits of george buchanan, commonly called the king's fool. . . . [cut] paisley: . . . j. neilson. . (xxiv.) the whole proceedings of jockey and maggy: . . . carefully corrected and revised by the author. stirling: . . . m. randall. . _ mo, twenty-four works in one volume, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ twenty-four old popular tracts, all reprinted from earlier editions at edinburgh, glasgow, stirling, falkirk, and paisley, from to . they all relate to scotland and scottish manners, with the exception of two or three, viz., the friar and the boy, the london spy, and the history of poor robin. thirty-seven curious woodcuts. john payne collier's copy, with his notes on the fly-leaf. chap-books, - .--(i.) the history of the haverel wives, or the folly of witless women displayed . . . [cut] stirling: printed by william macnie, . . . [n. d.] (ii.) fun upon fun: or the comical and merry tricks of leper, the taylor, . . . [cut] stirling: printed by william macnie, . . . . (iii.) the comical sayings of paddy from cork, . . . [cut] paisley: printed by j. neilson . . . [n. d.] (iv.) the laird of cool's ghost . . . [cut] paisley: printed by j. neilson. . (v.) the intrepid & daring adventures of sixteen british seamen to which is added, a cure for the toothach. [cut] paisley: printed and published by g. caldwell. . (vi.) the history of moll flanders . . . [cut] paisley, printed by j. neilson, . (vii.) the history of the devil, ancient and modern . . . [cut] ayr: printed and sold by d. macarter & co. . (viii.) account of the royal visit of george the ivth to scotland. [cut] kilmarnock: printed by h. crawford, . . . . (ix.) the last words of christian ker, . . . by mr. archibald deans, . . . kilmarnock: printed by h. crawford, . . . . (x.) honesty the best policy: exemplified in the life of the english water-man. [cut] kilmarnock: printed by h. crawford, . . . . (xi.) the comical history of the king and the cobler. [cut] kilmarnock: printed by h. crawford, . . . [n. d.] (xii.) the history of jack and the giants . . . [cut] kilmarnock: printed by h. crawford, . . . . (xiii.) the history of redmond o'hanlon, captain of the irish robbers . . . [cut] kilmarnock: printed by h crawford. . (xiv.) the way to wealth; or, poor richard's maxims improved, . . . falkirk: printed for the booksellers. [n. d.] (xv.) the travels & adventures of will^{m}. lithgow, in europe, asia, & africa, during nineteen years. [cut] falkirk: printed by t. johnstone. . (xvi.) the pleasing art of money-catching and the way to thrive, by turning a penny to advantage: . . . falkirk: printed for the booksellers. [n. d.] (xvii.) a description of north america, and the british settlements in canada: . . . [cut] falkirk: printed by t. johnston: . (xviii.) the art of courtship, or, the school of love . . . [cut] [n. d.] (xix.) the comical transactions of lothian tom . . . [cut] paisley: printed by j. neilson. . (xx.) the witty and entertaining exploits of george buchannan, who was commonly called the king's fool . . . edinburgh: printed by j. morren, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, twenty works in one volume, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ chap-books. - .--(i.) the sleeping beauty in the wood, an entertaining tale. [cut] edinburgh; printed and sold by j. morren, cowgate. [n. d.] (ii.) prophecies of thomas the rhymer, . . . containing the wonderful fulfilment of many of his predictions; and those not yet accomplished. collected, examined, and now promulgated by mr. allan boyd, . . . with, subjoined, an account of the battle of bannockburn, . . . and, impartiality, a turkish tale. sold wholesale by j. fraser & co. printers, stirling, [n. d.] (iii.) a groat's worth of wit for a penny: or, the interpretation of dreams, moles, &c. [cut] edinburgh: printed for the booksellers in town and country. [n. d.] (iv.) the adventures of thrummy cap: a tale. to which are added, the london tailor on horseback: and the gig demolish'd. [cut] falkirk: printed & sold by t. johnston, . (v.) the scots piper's queries, or john falkirk's carriches. to which is added his comical and witty jokes. when in courtship with an old fiddler's widow, . . . edinburgh, printed by j. morren, [n. d.] (vi.) the comical transactions of lothian tom. in six parts. wherein is contained a collection of roguish exploits, done by him, both in scotland and england. stirling: printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (vii.) the life & transactions of mrs. jane shore. concubine to king edward iv. containing an account of her parentage, wit and beauty, her marriage with mr shore, the king,s visits to her; her going to court, leaving her husband; her great distress and misery after the king's death, &c. [cut] edinburgh: printed by j. morren. [n. d.] (viii.) the comical history of the collier's wedding, at benwell, near new castle upon tyne. by edward chicken. . . . edinburgh: printed for the booksellers. . (ix.) the history of the devil, ancient and modern, in two parts. . . . edinburgh; printed by j. morren, campbell's close, cowgate. [n. d.] (x.) the interesting history of the amiable lady jane gray, who reigned only nine days queen of england. [cut] falkirk: printed by t. johnston. . (xi.) the history of the seven wise masters, of rome. . . . [cut] stirling. printed and sold by m. randall. [n. d.] (xii.) the fortunes & misfortunes of the famous moll flanders. who was born in newgate, . . . [cut] edinburgh, printed by j. morren, [n. d.] (xiii.) the history of the frolicksome courtier, and the jovial tinker. [cut] stirling: printed and sold by c. randall. [n. d.] (xiv.) the witty and entertaining exploits of george buchannan, who was commonly called the king's fool. . . . edinburgh: printed and sold by j. morren, . . . [n. d.] (xv.) the merry tales, of the wise men of gotham . . . . [cut] stirling: printed by m. randall. [n. d.] (xvi.) the history of the famous valentine and orson [cut] . . . edinburgh: printed for the company of flying stationers. (xvii.) fun upon fun. or t h comical and merry tricks of leper the taylor. in two parts. [cut] edinburgh; printed and sold by j. morren, . . . [n. d.] (xviii.) a wonderful account of mr. george spearing, a lieutenant in the navy, who fell into a coal pit in northwoodside, near glasgow; . . . also, the surprising manner of his deliverance, . . . to which is added, a hymn of praise for his deliverance. published by himself, for the information of his friends and the public. kilmarnock: printed for the booksellers. [n. d.] (xix.) the comical adventures of the late comedian, mr james spiller, at epsom, in england. a true humorous tale. to which is added, the pleasant story of obadiah mousetrap. . . . edinburgh: printed and sold by j. morren, . . . [n. d.] (xx.) the comical sayings of pady from cork. with his coat button'd behind. . . . to which is added his creed for all romish believers. [cut] edinburgh: printed, by j. morren, . . . [n. d.] (xxi.) the history of whittington and his cat. [cut] edinburgh: printed for the booksellers in town and country. (xxii.) the history of fortunatus. to which are added, the lives and adventures of ampedo, and andolocia, his two sons. [cut] edinburgh: printed for the booksellers in town and country [n. d.] (xxiii.) a true tale of robin hood; setting forth the life and death of that renowned out-law robert, earl of huntington, vulgarly called robin hood. . . . carefully collected out of the truest writers of our english chronicles; . . . by martin parker, gent. [cut] haddington: printed by g. miller: . . . [n. d.] _ mo, twenty-three works in one volume, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ presentation copy to joseph haslewood, september, . chap-books, , &c--(i.) the haughs of crumdel; giving a full account of that memorable battle fought by the great montrose and the clans, against oliver cromwell; to which are added, the broom of cowdenknowes, the highland plaid. [cut] stirling: printed and sold, wholesale and retail, by w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (ii.) the tragedy of sir james the rose. [cut] stirling: printed and sold, . . . by w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (iii.) the blackamoor of the wood; being a tragical end of a gallant lord and virtuous lady; . . . [cut] stirling: printed by w. macnie. [n. d.] (iv.) the woodman; to which are added, the galley slave, i'm well sair'd wi' spunk, jock of hazeldean, william's farewell, jenny the maid of the moor, oh! lady fair. [cut] stirling: printed and sold, . . . by w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (v.) hills o' gallowa; to which are added, last may a braw wooer, green grow the rashes, o, sweet the rose blaws. [cut] stirling: printed by w. macnie. . (vi.) soldier's dream; to which are added, hap me with thy petticoat, at the dead of the night, bonny mally stewart, lochaber no more, down the burn davie. [cut] stirling: printed and sold, . . . by w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (vii.) bundle and go; . . . [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (viii.) sair sair was my heart; . . . [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie. . (ix.) the bonny lass of banaphie; to which is added, the banks of clyde. [cut] stirling   printed by w. macnie. . (x.) the duke of gordon's daughters; to which is added, the challenge. [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (xi.) allan tine o'harrow; . . . [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (xii.) welcome charlie o'er the main; to which are added, the day returns, &c . . . [cut] stirling: printed and sold, . . . by w. macnie, . . . . (xiii.) captain wedderburn's courtship. . . . [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (xiv.) the same as xiii. (xv.) the bonny lassie's plaidy awa, flora's lament for charlie, . . . [cut] stirling: . . . w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (xvi.) andrew lammie, or, mill of tiftie's annie. [cut] stirling: printed and sold, . . . by w. macnie, . . . [n. d.] (xvii.) a garland of new songs. muirland willie . . . [cut] printed by j. marshall, . . . [n. d.] (xviii.) no. . excellent new songs, viz. the soldier's return, &c . . . [cut] alnwick: printed and sold by w. davison. . . . [n. d.] _ mo, eighteen works in one volume, half green morocco, uncut edges._ chap-books.--the haughs of crumdel &c the tragedy of sir james the rose. the blackamoor of the wood   the woodman &c   hills o' gallowa; &c soldier's dream &c   bundle and go; &c   sair, sair was my heart   the bonny lass of banaphie &c   the duke of gordon's daughters &c   allan tine o'harrow &c   welcome charlie o'er the main &c   and five others stirling . . . w. macnie    . _ mo, seventeen pieces in one volume, half bound, uncut edges._ chap-books, american.--(i.) an exact account of the trial and execution of captain jeane who was hang'd in chains on the th of last month, for the most vile and unheard of cruel murder of richard peyne, his cabbin-boy, in his passage homewards from south carolina, in which is repeated his particular barbarities   all which being so inhuman that after the judge had pronounced sentence of death against him, he said, a more cruel and horrible crime he never heard of, and and hoped such another would never come before him again. licenced and entered according to order   (ii.) the great and wonderful news from america, on the arrival of captain williams, commander of the ship, called the dolphin, who was seven weeks and three days in their passage from hallifax, in north america, being bound for bristol, but by contrary winds was forced to put in at parkgate: with an account how he brought with him the most wonderful jew together with his most surprizing examination before four reverend divines, to which is added, a hymn which he is heard to sing when he is by himself. [cut] (iii.) the havannah's garland, consisting of three excellent new songs. i. on the siege and taking of havannah. ii. o to be married if this the way. iii. the ale-wife's supplication. [cut] licensed and entered according to order. (iv.) the poor unhappy transported felon's sorrowful account of his fourteen years transportation at virginia, in america. in six parts. being a remarkable and succinct history of the life of james revel, the unhappy sufferer. . . . licensed and enterter'd according to order. _ mo, four volumes, citron levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, in a blue levant morocco case, by rivière._ charles i.--a catalogue and description of king charles the first's capital collection of pictures, || bronzes, limnings, || medals, and statues, || other curiosities; now first published from an original manuscript in the ashmolean musæum at oxford. the whole transcribed and prepared for the press, and a great part of it printed, by the late ingenious mr. vertue, and now finished from his papers. london, printed for w. bathoe, . . . m dcc lvii. _ to, red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ charley chalk; or, the career of an artist: being sketches from real life; comprising a narrative of his extraordinary adventures in great britain and ireland, france and greece. with illustrations by jacob parallel. london: g. berger, . . . [n. d.]. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ frontispiece, vignette title-page, and eighteen plates. chatelain, heli, _editor_.--folk-tales of angola   fifty tales, with ki-mbundu text literal english translation introduction, and notes collected and edited by heli chatelain . . . boston and new york published for the american folk-lore society by houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top._ chatelain, madame de.--the silver swan. a fairy tale. by madame de chatelain   london: grant and griffith . . . m.dccc.xlvii. _square post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, sextuple fillet inside, silk linings, gilt edges, and the original covers bound in, by rivière._ four coloured plates by john leech. chatterton, thomas.--the works of thomas chatterton. . . . containing his life, by g. gregory d.d., and miscellaneous poems. london: printed by biggs and cottle . . . for t. n. longman and o. rees &c. . _ vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ edited by southey and cottle, and published for the benefit of miss newton, chatterton's niece. facsimiles and other plates, and (inserted) a portrait of chatterton, proof on india paper. chatterton, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas chatterton with notices of his life, history of the rowley controversy, a selection of his letters, and notes critical and explanatory. . . . cambridge: printed for w. p. grant. m dccc xlii. _crown vo, two volumes, half maroon morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. engraved title-pages and three facsimiles. chatto, william andrew.--the angler's souvenir, by p. fisher, esq, [william andrew chatto]   assisted by several eminent piscatory characters, with illustrations by beckwith & topham. london, charles tilt . . . . _small vo, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ engraved title, dedication, and thirty-one steel plates on india paper. the text is printed within appropriate woodcut borders. chatto, william andrew.--the angler's souvenir. . _small vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ another copy, with the plates on india paper. chatto, william andrew.--the angler's souvenir by p. fisher esq. london, henry g. bohn, . . . . _small vo, green calf, gilt back and edges._ the illustrations to this book are in proof state, and in addition are inserted gosden's facsimile-title to the first edition of walton's angler, the frontispieces (proofs) to pickering's miniature edition of walton, portraits of walton and cotton from the pickering edition of , and other plates of fish, etc., from various editions of the complete angler, with the milkmaid's song and other extracts in manuscript, ornamented, fifty-four plates in all. chatto, william andrew.--scenes and recollections of fly-fishing, in northumberland, cumberland, and westmoreland. by stephen oliver, the younger. london: chapman and hall . . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ printed by whittingham, with numerous woodcut illustrations. chatto, william andrew.--see jackson and chatto. chaves, a.--the cares of love, or, a night's adventure. a comedy. as it is now acted at the theatre-royal in little lincolns-inn fields, by her majesties servants. [one line from ovid]   london: printed for w. davis . . . and j. chantry, . . . . price s. d. _ to, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt and blind-tooled side borders, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-h in fours, final leaf of advertisement, h , title on a . dedication to sir william read, the mountebank oculist, prologue by booth, who took the part of florencio. chesterfield, earl of.--miscellaneous works of the late philip dormer stanhope, earl of chesterfield: consisting of letters to his friends, never before printed, and various other articles. to which are prefixed memoirs of his life, tending to illustrate the civil, literary and political history of his time. by m. maty . . . the second edition . . . with an appendix, containing sixteen characters of great personages. &c london: printed for edward and charles dilly . . . mdcclxxix. _ vo, four volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ portraits engraved by bartolozzi, sherwin, etc. chesterfield, earl of.--letters written by the earl of chesterfield to his son. [portrait] london: printed for thomas tegg . . . [at the chiswick press] . _ mo, three volumes, green morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges._ with several other pieces, on various subjects, published by mrs. eugenia stanhope from the originals. chesterfield, earl of.--the letters [and works] of philip dormer stanhope, earl of chesterfield; including numerous letters now first published from the original manuscripts. edited, with notes, by lord mahon . . . london: richard bentley . . . -' . _ vo, five volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ five steel portraits. chesterfield travestie; or, school for modern manners. embellished with ten caricatures, engraved by woodward from original drawings by rowlandson . . . london: printed by t. plummer . . . for thomas tegg . . . . _post vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ the ten plates by rowlandson are coloured, and the original paper covers are preserved. chiene, john.--lectures on surgical anatomy by john chiene, m. d. &c . . . illustrated by plates ( figures) drawn on stone [and tinted or coloured] by charles berjeau, from original dissections   edinburgh david douglas    . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ child, francis james.--see lowell, j. r. chippendale, thomas.--the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director. being a large collection of the most elegant and useful designs of household furniture in the gothic, chinese and modern taste . . . to which is prefixed, a short explanation of the five orders of architecture, and rules of perspective; with proper directions for executing the most difficult pieces, the mouldings being exhibited at large, and the dimensions of each design specified: the whole comprehended in one hundred and sixty copper-plates, neatly engraved . . . by thomas chippendale . . . the second edition. london, printed by j. haberkorn . . . for the author . . . mdcclv. _royal folio, mottled calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by rivière._ christie, james.--an inquiry into the early history of greek sculpture. by the late james christie, . . . london: printed by william clowes, . . . mdcccxxxiii. _ to, boards._ india proof portrait. christie, richard copley.--etienne dolet the martyr of the renaissance a biography by richard copley christie, . . . [portrait] london macmillan and co. . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ six illustrations. christie, richard copley.--Étienne dolet the martyr of the renaissance - a biography by richard copley christie . . . new [second] edition, revised and corrected [wood cut portrait] london   macmillan and co., . . . . . . _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ christmas with the poets: a collection of songs, carols, and descriptive verses, relating to the festival of christmas, from the anglo-norman period to the present time. embellished with fifty tinted illustrations by birket foster, and with initial letters and other ornaments   london: david bogue . . . mdcccli. _royal vo, green morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ printed within gold borders, the ornamental initials also in gold. churchill, charles.--(i.) poems. by c. churchill. containing the rosciad. the apology. night. the prophecy of famine. an epistle to william hogarth. and the ghost, in four books. london: printed for the author, by dryden leach . . . mdcclxiii. (ii.) poems. by c. churchill. containing the conference. the author. the duellist. gotham, in three books. the candidate. the farewell. the times. independence. and fragment of journey. volume ii. london: printed for john churchill . . . and w. flexney . . . mdcclxv. _ to, two volumes, old red morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ first edition. volume i is a presentation copy from the author. churchill, charles.--the works of c. churchill. . . . [vignette by i. taylor] the fifth edition. london: printed for john churchill (executor to the late c. churchill.); and w. flexney, . . . m dcc lxx iv. _post vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, citron edges._ the same vignette on the four title-pages, and one plate in volume i. churchill, charles.--the poetical works of charles churchill, with copious notes and a life of the author by w. tooke [portrait] london william pickering    . _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ cibber, theophilus.--the lives of the poets of great britain and ireland to the time of dean swift. compiled from ample materials scattered in a variety of books, and especially from the ms. notes of the late ingenious m^{r} coxeter and others, collected for this design, by m^{r} cibber. london: printed for r. griffiths . . . mdccliii. _ mo, five volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ the title-pages to volumes iv and v read, after "ireland," "by m^{r} cibber and other hands." these lives were chiefly written by a scotchman named shiels, and embrace names, from the period of chaucer to the middle of the eighteenth century. cicero, marcus tullius.--m. t. cicero's cato major, or his discourse of old-age: with explanatory notes. philadelphia: printed and sold by b. franklin, mdccxliv. _small to, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ clark, edward l.--daleth or the homestead of the nations egypt illustrated by edward l. clark   boston   ticknor and fields    . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ eleven coloured plates and numerous illustrations in the text. clark, john willis.--the care of books   an essay on the development of libraries and their fittings, from the earliest times to the end of the eighteenth century   by john willis clark, . . . [ illustrations] cambridge at the university press    . _imperial vo, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ clarke, william.--repertorium bibliographicum; or some account of the most celebrated british libraries . . . london: william clarke, . . . mdcccxix. _royal vo, red morocco, gilt edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with india proof impressions of the plates. bound at the end: "a dialogue in the shades, and a ballad entitled rare doings at roxburghe-hall. london ." also "a diary of roger payne, with an engraved sketch of a monument to be erected to his memory by the bibliomaniacal club, ," and a portrait (inserted). claudin, antoine.--the first paris press   an account of the books printed for g. fichet and j. heynlin in the sorbonne -    by a. claudin   london   printed for the bibliographical society at the chiswick press   february for . _ to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ frontispiece by j. hyatt after a miniature, and ten facsimiles. no. vi of illustrated monographs issued by the bibliographical society. clayton, ellen creathorne.--queens of song: being memoirs of some of the most celebrated female vocalists who have appeared on the lyric stage, from the earliest days of opera to the present time. to which is added a chronological list of all the operas that have been performed in europe. by ellen creathorne clayton. . . . with six portraits. london: smith, elder and co., . . . m. dccc. lx iii. _ vo, two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ clayton, ellen creathorne.--english female artists. by ellen c. clayton, . . . london: tinsley brothers, . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ clinton, george.--memoirs of the life and writings of lord byron. by george clinton, . . . london: james robins and co. . . . m dccc xxvii. _ vo, half calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait and thirty-four woodcuts by g. bonner, and a facsimile. clio and euterpe.--(i.) clio and euterpe or british harmony   a collection of celebrated songs and cantatas   by the most approv'd masters curiously engrav'd with the thorough bass for the harpsicord and transposition for the german flute   embelish'd with designs adapted to each song. in two volumes   volume the first containing near two hundred airs. london. sold by the proprietor henry roberts engraver & printseller . . . [n.d.] (ii.) clio and euterpe . . . in two volumes volume the second containing near two hundred airs   london   sold by the proprietor henry roberts . . . m dcc lix   iii. clio and euterpe . . . in iii volumes   volume the third containing near two hundred airs london   sold by the proprietor henry robert . . . m dcc lxii. _ vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ these volumes are engraved throughout, and have the same frontispiece, the one in volume i being in an earlier state than the other two. each has three pages of contents, the third containing at the end a vignette by t. bonnor. volumes i and ii have pages of musical score and words, each page headed by a vignette. volume iii has pages of text, but only vignettes. cobbold, richard.--the history of margaret catchpole, a suffolk girl. with [ ] illustrations [by j. harris after the author]   london: henry colburn, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, figured red and blue silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ cobbold, richard.--mary anne wellington, the soldier's daughter, wife, and widow. by the rev. richard cobbold . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, figured silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ eight plates from the author's designs. cockton, henry.--the life and adventures of valentine vox, the ventriloquist. by henry cockton. . . . london: robert tyas, . . . mdcccxl. _ vo, calf, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by tout._ first edition: with sixty etchings by t. onwhyn. colden, cadwallader.--the history of the five indian nations depending on the province of new-york in america. printed and sold by william bradford in new york, . _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ coleridge, hartley.--essays and marginalia. by hartley coleridge. edited by his brother [derwent coleridge]   london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ portrait. coleridge, hartley.--poems by hartley coleridge. with a memoir of his life by his brother . . . [derwent coleridge]   second edition   london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back panels, gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ portrait of the author in his tenth year by w. holl after sir david wilkie. coleridge, hartley.--lives of northern worthies. by hartley coleridge. edited by his brother. a new edition, with the observations of the author, and the marginal observations of s. t. coleridge   london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, henry nelson.--introductions to the study of the greek classic poets. . . . by henry nelson coleridge . . . second edition. [map]   london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxiv. _foolscap vo, boards, uncut edges._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--the fall of robespierre. an historic drama. by s. t. coleridge, of jesus college, cambridge. cambridge: printed by benjamin flower, for w. h. lunn, and j. and j. merrill; and sold by j. march, norwich. . [price one shilling.] _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. a -a , b-e in fours, final leaf of advertisement, e , title on a . dedication to h. martin, dated jesus college, september , . coleridge, samuel taylor.--osorio, a tragedy. . _ to, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ the original manuscript of "remorse," written by coleridge at sheridan's request. it was sent to drury lane theatre in october, , but was not accepted, and remained there until the fire of , when it was one of the few objects saved. rewritten under the title "remorse," the play ran for twenty nights. the manuscript covers the rectos of one hundred and four leaves, between each two of which are one or more blank leaves for annotations and portions of the printed drama. coleridge, samuel taylor.--osorio: a tragedy as originally written in by samuel taylor coleridge. now first printed . . . london: john pearson . . . . _post vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--remorse. a tragedy, in five acts. by s. t. coleridge . . . london: printed for w. pople, . . . . price three shillings. _ vo, half calf, uncut edges._ first edition. two leaves and a-k in fours. prologue in verse by charles lamb. this copy is interleaved throughout, and contains many corrections and notes in the handwriting of coleridge. the author has also written on the title-page "(a corrected copy)   m^{r} arnold from his greatly obliged friend, s. t. coleridge. 'più vorrëi: più non posso.'" coleridge, samuel taylor.--christabel: kubla khan, a vision; the pains of sleep. by s. t. coleridge, esq. london: printed for john murray, . . . by william bulmer and co. . . . . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ large paper copy of the first edition. coleridge, samuel taylor.--sibylline leaves: a collection of poems. by s. t. coleridge. london: rest fenner . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition. coleridge, samuel taylor.--zapolya: a christmas tale, in two parts: the prelude entitled "the usurper's fortune;" and the sequel entitled "the usurper's fate." by s. t. coleridge, esq. london: printed for rest fenner, . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ first edition. w. motherwell's copy, with his autograph. coleridge, samuel taylor.--biographia literaria; or biographical sketches of my literary life and opinions. by s. t. coleridge, esq. . . . london: rest fenner, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ large paper copy of the first edition. coleridge, samuel taylor.--biographia literaria; or biographical sketches of my literary life and opinions by samuel taylor coleridge. second edition prepared for publication in part by the late henry nelson coleridge, completed and published by his widow. london: william pickering    . _foolscap vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ fourteen portraits, etc., inserted. coleridge, samuel taylor.--aids to reflection in the formation of a manly character on the several grounds of prudence, morality, and religion: illustrated by select passages from our elder divines, especially from archbishop leighton. by s. t. coleridge. . . . london: printed for taylor and hessey, . . . . _crown vo, brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. two final leaves of advertisement. coleridge, samuel taylor.--aids to reflection by samuel taylor coleridge. edited by henry nelson coleridge   [sixth edition, enlarged]    london   william pickering    . _foolscap vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and blue mosaic in panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--the poetical works of s. t. coleridge, including the dramas of wallenstein, remorse, and zapolya. london: william pickering. mdcccxxviii. _ vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by hayday._ no. of twelve copies printed on large paper, with autograph attestation of william pickering. coleridge, samuel taylor.--the poetical and dramatic works of s. t. coleridge, london: william pickering, . _foolscap vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--the poetical and dramatic works of samuel taylor coleridge founded on the author's latest edition of with many additional pieces now first included and with a collection of various readings. london   basil montagu pickering . . . . _ vo, four volumes, boards, uncut edges._ no. of twenty-four large paper copies printed on whatman paper. coleridge, samuel taylor.--the poetical works of samuel taylor coleridge edited with a biographical introduction by james dykes campbell london macmillan and co. . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait after peter vandyke. coleridge, samuel taylor.--the poetry of samuel taylor coleridge edited by richard garnett, . . . london lawrence and bullen, . . . . _post vo, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait after a drawing by c. r. leslie. no. of one hundred copies printed on large paper. coleridge, samuel taylor.--the literary remains of samuel taylor coleridge. collected and edited by henry nelson coleridge london, william pickering -' -' . _ vo, four volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--letters, conversations and recollections of s. t. coleridge. london: edward moxon, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--the friend: a series of essays to aid in the formation of fixed principles in politics, morals, and religion, with literary amusements interspersed: by samuel taylor coleridge. third edition: with the author's last corrections, and an appendix, and with a synoptical table of the contents of the work. by henry nelson coleridge . . . london: william pickering . _foolscap vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--(i.) on the constitution of the church and state according to the idea of each. (ii.) lay sermons. i the statesman's manual   ii "blessed are ye that sow beside all waters." by samuel taylor coleridge, edited from the author's corrected copies with notes by henry nelson coleridge   london   william pickering    . _foolscap vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--confessions of an inquiring spirit and some miscellaneous pieces by samuel taylor coleridge. edited from the author's ms. by henry nelson coleridge   london. william pickering . _foolscap vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--notes and lectures upon shakespeare and some of the old poets and dramatists, with other literary remains of s. t. coleridge. edited by mrs. h. n. coleridge. london: william pickering, . _foolscap vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--essays on his own times forming a second series of the friend. by samuel taylor coleridge. edited by his daughter. london: william pickering    . _foolscap vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--specimens of the table talk of the late samuel taylor coleridge. third edition london: john murray . . . . _foolscap vo, red levant morocco, back in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ portrait by finden after phillips. coleridge, samuel taylor.--notes on english divines. by samuel taylor coleridge. edited by the rev. derwent coleridge   london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--notes, theological, political, and miscellaneous. by samuel taylor coleridge. edited by the rev. derwent coleridge   london: edward moxon . . . . _foolscap vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ coleridge, samuel taylor.--see gillman, james. (life.) wordsworth and coleridge. coleridge, sara.--phantasmion london: william pickering    . _post vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ "collet, stephen."--see byerley, thomas. collier, jane.--an essay on the art of ingeniously tormenting; with proper rules for the exercise of that pleasant art. humbly addressed, in the first part, | in the second part, to the { master | to the { wife { husband, &c. | { friend, &c. with some general instructions for plaguing all your acquaintance. [line from shakespeare]   london: printed for a. millar, . . . m. dcc. liii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy of the first edition, with frontispiece by hogarth. collier, john payne.--the poetical decameron, or ten conversations on english poets and poetry, particularly of the reigns of elizabeth and james i. by j. payne collier . . . printed for archibald constable and co. edinburgh; . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ collier, john payne.--lives of the original actors in shakespeare's plays. by j. payne collier. [london] printed for the shakespeare society. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ the second title, "memoirs of the principal actors in the plays of shakespeare," is dated . collier, john payne.--a bibliographical and critical account of the rarest books in the english language, alphabetically arranged, which during the last fifty years have come under the observation of j. payne collier. f.s.a. new york, david g. francis . . . . _ vo, four volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. collier's last literary labour, and one of the two copies printed on drawing-paper, at the riverside press. seven autograph letters of the author are inserted. collier, john payne.--a bibliographical and critical account of the rarest books in the english language . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ one of five copies printed on india paper. collier, john payne.--trilogy. conversations between three friends on the emendations of shakespeare's text contained in mr. collier's corrected folio, , and employed by recent editors of the poet's works. printed for private circulation only. part i.--comedies. [part ii.--histories. part iii.--tragedies.]   london: t. richards, , great queen street. [ ]   _ to, three parts in one volume, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ collier, john payne.--the history of english dramatic poetry to the time of shakespeare: and annals of the stage to the restoration. by j. payne collier, esq., f.s.a. a new edition. [woodcut] . . . london: george bell & sons, . . . . _ to, three volumes, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ collier, john payne.--see cunningham, planché, and collier. wheatley, henry b. collins, william.--odes on several descriptive and allegoric subjects. by william collins . . . london: printed for a. miller, . . . m.dcc.xlvii. _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ the author destroyed most of this edition. collins, william.--the poetical works of mr. william collins. with memoirs of the author; and observations on his genius and writings. by j. langhorne . . . london: printed for t. becket and p. a. dehondt, . . . mdcclxv. _post vo, old half calf._ presentation copy "to jean lorimer, a small but sincere mark of friendship from rob^{t} burns. the autograph of jane lorimer with the date follows this inscription. other lines in the autograph of the scotch poet occupy the front fly-leaf, as well as an "ode to fancy" facing the title. collins, william.--the poetical works of william collins, enriched with elegant engravings. to which is prefixed a life of the author, by dr. johnson. second edition. london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _crown vo, half red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty illustrations by harding and gardiner. collins, william.--the poetical works of william collins; with the life of the author by dr johnson; observations on his writings by dr langhorne; and biographical and critical notes, by the rev. alexander dyce . . . london, william pickering . . . mdccc.xxvii. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ collins, william.--poetical works. . _ vo, citron levant morocco, back panels and side corners richly decorated, and inlaid in green and red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy. no. of nine copies printed on large and tinted paper. illustrated by the insertion of forty plates, for the most part proofs on india paper, and many before letters, including engravings by bartolozzi, the westall illustrations, etc., etc. collins, william.--the poetical works of william collins [with a memoir by sir harris nicolas, and a portrait of collins.]   london   william pickering    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ collins, william wilkie.--memoirs of the life of william collins, esq., r.a. with selections from his journals and correspondence. by his son w. wilkie collins. london: longman, . . . mdcccxlviii. _ mo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of the artist and frontispiece-titles. collins, william wilkie.--the woman in white. by wilkie collins. london: sampson low, son, & co . . . . _ mo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. collins, william wilkie.--armadale. by wilkie collins. with twenty illustrations by george h. thomas. . . . london: smith, elder and co., . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. collins, william wilkie.--poor miss finch. a novel. by wilkie collins . . . london: richard bentley and son. . _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. colman, george.--the dramatick works of george colman . . . london, printed for t. becket, . . . mdcclxxvii. _ vo, four volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, citron edges, by bedford._ colman, george, the younger.--broad grins; by george colman, the younger; comprising, with new additional tales in verse, those formerly published under the title of "my night-gown and slippers" . . . the sixth edition. london: . . . t. cadell and w. davies . . . . _post vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ steel portrait of the author (inserted) and numerous woodcut illustrations. colonial society.--the colonial society of america. instituted new york    [philadelphia, wm. f. fell & co., ]. _ to, half red straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. rutter._ printed on vellum, with trial pages and illustrations in various states. unique, not published, and printed tentatively, for dr. j. stockton-hough. colonial society.--the colonial society of america. . _ to, light brown levant morocco, filleted panels on the back, narrow side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ the only complete copy printed on vellum. it contains several proofs before letters, and the plates of the crest with two crowns, used for only a few proofs before alteration and not found in any of the few copies of the regular edition. the two illustrations and the cancelled title-page are on paper. inserted is an autograph letter from dr. john stockton-hough. colonna, francesco.--the strife of love in a dream being the elizabethan version of the first book of the hypnerotomachia of francesco colonna a new edition   by andrew lang, . . . london   published by david nutt . . . m dccc x c. _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of five hundred copies printed. columbus letter.--the letter of columbus on the discovery of america a facsimile of the pictorial edition, with a new and literal translation, and a complete reprint of the oldest four editions in latin. printed by order of the trustees of the lenox library new-york, [de vinne press] m dccc xcii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty copies printed on hand-made paper. colvin, sidney.--see cust and colvin. combe, taylor.--a description of the collection of ancient terracottas in the british museum; with engravings. [vignette]   london: printed by w. bulmer and co . . . . _royal to, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ large paper copy. seventy-nine copper-plate engravings, on forty plates, by schiavonetti, worthington, moses, bromley, heath, etc., in addition to the vignette on the title-page. combe, william.--the english dance of death, from the designs of thomas rowlandson, with metrical illustrations, by the author of "doctor syntax.". . . london: printed by j. diggens, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, russia, gilt back, side panels of interlaced fillets, centre ornaments, gilt edges, by petit._ fifty-six coloured plates, including frontispieces and title-pages. combe, william.--the dance of life, a poem, by the author of "doctor syntax"; illustrated with [ ] coloured engravings, by thomas rowlandson. . . . london: published by r. ackermann, [printed by j. diggens] . . . . _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition: with last leaf of advertisement. combe, william.--the history of johnny quæ genus, the little foundling of the late doctor syntax: a poem, by the author of the three tours. . . . london: published by r. ackermann, . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-four coloured plates after rowlandson. combe, william.--(i.) the tour of doctor syntax in search of the picturesque ["picturesque" in a vignette] a poem. . . . pub^{d}. by r. ackermann, london, . (ii.) the second tour of doctor syntax, in search of consolation; a poem. . . . london: published by r. ackermann, . . . . (iii.) the third tour of doctor syntax, in search of a wife. a poem. [vignette]   london, pub^{d}. , by r. ackermann, . . . _ mo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ eighty coloured plates, including two frontispiece-titles. volume ii contains the only printed title. combe, william.--the tour of doctor syntax, in search of the picturesque; a poem. . . . third edition. london: r. ackermann, . . . [n. d.] _royal vo, three volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ eighty coloured plates dated - by rowlandson, including title to volume i, which reads "sixth edition with new plates." the text of volume i reads "ninth edition" on page . the preface in volume iii is dated may , . comic drawing.--the comic drawing for the million. [ woodcuts] london: gilbert, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, original boards._ comic etiquette.--the comic etiquette; or manners for the million. by "a nice young man." with numerous [ ] illustrations. london: gilbert, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, original boards._ comic geography.--the comic geography; [cut] or, world "turned inside out." [ woodcuts]   [n. p., n. d.] _ mo, original boards._ comic history.--the comic history of england [ woodcuts]   [n. p., n. d.] _ mo, original boards._ comic history.--the comic history of rome, and the rumuns. [ woodcuts]    london: gilbert, . . . [n. d.] _ mo, original boards._ communion.--order for the administration of the holy communion and occasional offices according to the use of the church of england london   william pickering    . _ to, vellum boards, gilt tooled, uncut edges._ communion.--the new week's preparation for a worthy receiving of the lord's supper, as recommended and appointed by the church of england . . . the thirty-sixth edition. london: printed by assignment from the executors of the late edw^{d}. wicksteed, for jn^{o}. hinton, . . . _ mo, original green morocco, gilt back, sides richly tooled within and around a mosaic ornament, gilt edges._ engraved title and frontispiece. condorcet, marquis de.--see paine, thomas. confession of faith.--a confession of faith owned and consented to by the elders and messengers of the churches in the colony of connecticut in new-england, assembled by delegation at say brook   september th . . . . new-london in n. e. printed by thomas short, . _ mo, original sheep._ congressional journals.--extracts from the journals of congress relative to the capture and condemnation of prizes, and the fitting out privateers; together with the rules and regulations of the navy, and instructions to the commanders of private ships of war. philadelphia: printed by john dunlap, m,dcc,lxxvi. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ constable, john.--see leslie, c. r. connoisseur, the.--see british essayists. continental congress.--extracts from the votes and proceedings of the american continental congress, held at philadelphia on the th of september . containing the bill of rights, a list of grievances, occasional resolves, the association, an address to the people of great-britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of the british american colonies. published by order of the congress. philadelphia: printed by william and thomas bradford, october th. m.dcc.lxxiv. _ vo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, uncut edges, by pratt._ conway, moncure daniel.--barons of the potomack and the rappahannock by moncure daniel conway   new york   the grolier club [the de vinne press]     . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of three hundred and sixty copies printed on italian hand-made paper. conway, william martin.--early flemish artists and their predecessors on the lower rhine   by william martin conway . . . with twenty-nine illustrations   london   seeley & co., . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth._ cooke, william.--memoirs of samuel foote, esq. with a collection of his genuine bon-mots, anecdotes &c. mostly original. and three of his dramatic pieces, not published in his works . . . by william cooke, esq. london: printed for richard phillips . . . . _post vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ portrait engraved by caroline watson after f. colson. cooper, james fenimore.--the spy; a tale of the neutral ground; referring to some particular occurrences during the american war: also pourtraying american scenery and manners. . . . london: g. and w. b. whittaker, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the last of the mohicans; a narrative of . by the author of "the spy," &c . . . london: john miller, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the prairie, a tale, by the author of the spy &c . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the red rover, a tale. by the author of "the spy," &c . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the bravo. a venetian story. by the author of "the pilot", &c . . . london: henry colburn and richard bentley, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the headsman; or, the abbaye des vignerons. a tale. by the author of "the bravo," &c. &c. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . (successor to henry colburn.) . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--eve effingham; or, home. by j. fenimore cooper, esq. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--mercedes of castile: or, the voyage to cathay. by the author of "the bravo", "the headsman," "the last of the mohicans," &c. . . . in two volumes. . . . philadelphia: lea and blanchard. . _ mo, two volumes, original brown cloth._ first edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the deerslayer: or, the first war-path. by the author of "the last of the mohicans", "the pathfinder", "the pioneers", and "the prairie". . . . in two volumes. . . . philadelphia: lea & blanchard. . _ mo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, by stikeman._ first edition. cooper, james fenimore.--wyandotté; or, the hutted knoll. by j. fenimore cooper, esq., . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--satanstoe; or, the family of littlepage. a tale of the colony. by j. fenimore cooper, esq. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. cooper, james fenimore.--the chain-bearer; or, the littlepage manuscripts. by j. fenimore cooper, esq. . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ mo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first english edition. copper plate magazine &c--(i.) the copper plate magazine, or monthly cabinet of picturesque prints, consisting of sublime and interesting views in great britain and ireland, beautifully engraved by the most eminent artists from the paintings and drawings of the first masters. london. printed for harrison and c^{o}. . . . [ - ]   (ii.) select views of the principal buildings and other interesting and picturesque objects in the cities of bath and bristol, and their environs. drawn and engraved by w. watts. with topographical illustrations. london: printed by bensley and son, . . . for r. bowyer, . . . . _royal vo, six volumes in three, citron morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by j. wright._ five volumes of the copper plate magazine, with engravings. the views of bath and bristol contain fifteen plates, proofs on india paper. cordelier.--tales of the cordelier metamorphosed, as narrated in a manuscript from the borromeo collection; and in the cordelier cheval of m. [alexis] piron. with translations. [vignette]   london: printed at the shakspeare press, by w. bulmer and w. nicol. . _ to, red morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith_. one of sixty-four copies privately printed by george hibbert, with eleven etchings on india paper by j. r. cruikshank. the italian text is on the upper half of the page, the english on the lower. piron's "cordelier-cheval" is on pages - . corey, john.--the metamorphosis: or, the old lover out-witted. a farce. as it is now acted at the new theatre in lincolns-inn-fields. written originally by the famous moliere. london: printed for bernard lintott at the middle-temple gate in fleet-street. . priee s. d. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-h in fours, title on a . dedication to clayton milbourn, first prologue and epilogue by charles johnson. corey, john.--a cure for jealousie. a comedy. as it was acted at the new theatre in little lincolns-inn-fields, by his majestys servants. [three lines from horace]   london: printed for richard harrison, at his shop in new-inn, without temple barr: : _ to, half cloth._ first edition. a-h in fours, title on a . dedicated to edmund fullwood. coridon's song and other verses from various sources   with illustrations by hugh thomson and an introduction by austin dobson london   macmillan and co. . . . . _imperial vo, buckram, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and fifty-two large paper copies printed. "cornwall, barry."--see procter, bryan waller. corser, thomas.--collectanea anglo-poetica: or, a bibliographical and descriptive catalogue of a portion of a collection of early english poetry, with occasional extracts and remarks biographical and critical. by the rev. thomas corser, . . . [manchester]   printed for the chetham society. m.dccc.lx. [-m.dccc.lxxxiii] _ to, eleven volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by j. hargreaves after h. walker. presentation copy from the author to w. c. hazlitt. cory, isaac preston.--ancient fragments of the phoenician, chaldæan, egyptian, tyrian, carthaginian, indian, persian, and other writers; with an introductory dissertation: and an inquiry into the philosophy and trinity of the ancients. by isaac preston cory . . . second edition. london: william pickering. . _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ cory, isaac preston.--metaphysical inquiry into the method, objects and result of ancient and modern philosophy by isaac preston cory . . . london: william pickering. . _post vo, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ costello, louisa stuart, _editor_.--specimens of the early poetry of france from the time of the troubadours and trouveres to the reign of henri quatre by louisa stuart costello . . . london. william pickering . _crown vo, half green morocco, uncut edges._ four plates in gold and colours from ancient miniatures. costello, louisa stuart.--the rose garden of persia. by louise stuart costello: . . . london: longman, brown, green, & longmans. m dccc xlv. _post vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, sides covered with panels tooled in geometrical designs, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition, with illuminated pages and coloured borders. cottle, joseph.--early recollections; chiefly relating to the late samuel taylor coleridge, during his long residence in bristol. by joseph cottle   london: longman . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ six portraits by woodman. cotton, william.--sir joshua reynolds, and his works. gleanings from his diary, unpublished manuscripts, and from other sources. by william cotton, . . . edited by john burnet, . . . london: longman, brown, green, longmans, and roberts, . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ three portraits drawn by julian brewer, facsimiles and wood-cuts. couch, jonathan.--a history of the fishes of the british islands. by jonathan couch, . . . [ coloured plates, from drawings by the author]    london: groombridge and sons, . . . m dccc lxviii. [-ix] _royal vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ courtier, peter l.--the lyre of love . . . london: printed by charles whittingham . . . for john sharpe . . . . _crown vo, two volumes in one, green morocco, gilt back, wide border on the sides, gilt edges._ large paper copy, with proof impressions of the frontispieces by cosway and westall. cousin, victor.--the philosophy of the beautiful from the french of victor cousin translated with notes and an introduction by jesse cato daniel . . . london william pickering . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ cowley, hannah parkhouse.--the belle's stratagem, a comedy, as acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. by mrs. cowley. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. title, dedication to the queen and b-m in fours. cowley, hannah parkhouse.--the town before you, a comedy, as acted at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. by mrs. cowley. london: printed by g. woodfall, for t.n. longman . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. a -h in eights, title on a . cowper, william, _editor_.--olney hymns, in three books. book i. on select texts of scripture. book ii. on occasional subjects. book iii. on the progress and changes of the spiritual life. . . . london: printed and sold by w. oliver . . . j. buckland . . . and j. johnson . . . mdcclxxix. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. many of the hymns are by cowper, and this copy has his autograph on the fly-leaf. cowper, william.--poems by william cowper, of the inner temple, esq. . . . london: printed for j. johnson, . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. cowper, william.--the history of john gilpin, as related by the late mr. henderson. shewing how he went farther than he intended, and came home safe at last. [woodcut]   london: printed for w. lane, leadenhall-street, london: and sold by all other booksellers. (price two-pence.)    [ ]. _small vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first printed anonymously in the "public advertiser," (november?) . recited in in freemason's hall by henderson, the comedian, it attained so great a popularity that it was frequently printed. cowper wrote to his friend unwin, november , :--"you are perfectly at liberty to deal with them [gilpin and his feats] as you please. _auctore tantùm anonymo, imprimantur_; and when printed, send me a copy." according to southey, "the ballad, which had then become the town talk, was reprinted from the newspaper, wherein it had lain three years dormant." the present edition is in chap-book form, and was presumably published ("price two-pence") in consequence of the popularity of the ballad due to henderson's recitation of it. there is no means of determining which is the first edition. probably several editions were published in the present form for distribution when the poem was recited. cowper, william.--the history of john gilpin, how he went farther than he intended, and came home safe at last. [woodcut]   london: printed for j. fielding pater-noster-row   (price three-pence.)   [ ]. _small vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt edges, by rivière._ another chap-book edition. cowper, william.--the diverting history of john gilpin: showing how he went farther than he intended, and came safe home again. with six illustrations by george cruikshank, engraved on wood by thompson, branston, wright, slader, and white. london: charles tilt . . . mdcccxxviii. _square mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ cowper, william.--the task, a poem, in six books. by william cowper, . . . to which are added, by the same author, an epistle to joseph hill, esq: tirocinium, or a review of schools, and the history of john gilpin. london: printed for j. johnson, . . . . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition of the "task," and the first appearance of "john gilpin" among cowper's works. in a letter subsequent to april , , cowper wrote to mr. newton: "when i sent the copy of the _task_ to johnson [his publisher], i desired, indeed, mr. unwin to ask him the question, whether or not he would choose to make it a part of the volume? this i did merely with a view to promote the sale of it. johnson answered, 'by all means.' some months afterward, he enclosed a note to me in one of my packets, in which he expressed a change of mind, alleging, that to print john gilpin would only be to print what had been hackneyed in every magazine, in every shop, and at the corner of every street. i answered, that i desired to be entirely governed by his opinion; and that if he chose to waive it, i should be better pleased with the omission. nothing more passed between us upon the subject, and i concluded that i should never have the immortal honour of being generally known as the author of john gilpin. in the last packet, however, down came john, very fairly printed, and equipped for public appearance. the business having taken this turn, i concluded that johnson had adopted my original thought, that it might prove advantageous to the sale; and as he had had the trouble and expense of printing it, i corrected the copy, and let it pass."--southey's life of cowper, volume ii, pages - . southey continues (page ): "if johnson had persisted in his first intention of excluding that ballad [john gilpin] from the volume, because it had already been printed in so many forms and dispersed everywhere through town and country, he would have committed a greater mistake than when he suppressed mr. newton's preface. upon second thoughts he not only admitted it, but specified it in the title-page and in the advertisement.". . . "the first volume [poems, ] had sold so slowly that it was not thought prudent to publish the task and its appendants as a second; but the first, with a complete list of its contents, was advertised at the end of the book; and of the many who were induced to read the task because it was written by the author of john gilpin, not a few were led to inquire for the previous volume because it was by the author of the task. in the second edition which was called for in the ensuing year, the two volumes were connected as first and second, and in the numerous editions that have succeeded each other they have never been disunited." cowper, william.--poems, by william cowper . . . a new edition london: printed for j. johnson . . . . _foolscap vo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, yellow edges, by bedford._ ten engravings on copper by angus, heath, medland, parker, and others, after the designs of stothard, with a duplicate set coloured in imitation of the original drawings. cowper william.--poems. . _foolscap vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ george daniel's copy, with ten plates after the designs of stothard. cowper, william.--the poetical works of william cowper . . . london william pickering . _post vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait by h. robinson. cowper, william.--the works of william cowper, esq. comprising his poems, correspondence, and translations. with a life of the author, by the editor. robert southey, esq . . . london: baldwin and cradock . . . - - . _foolscap vo, fifteen volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ eleven portraits and twenty-nine frontispieces and vignettes. cowper, william.--poems: by william cowper. with a biographical and critical introduction, by the rev. thomas dale: and seventy-five illustrations, engraved by j. orrin smith, from drawings by john gilbert. london: tilt and bogue . . . mdcccxli. _small to, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ cowper, william.--the poetical works of william cowper [with a memoir by sir harris nicolas, and a portrait of cowper.]   london   william pickering    . _foolscap vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ cowper, william.--the poetical works of william cowper [with a memoir] london. william pickering    . _ vo, two volumes, russia, gilt back, gilt over red edges, by matthews._ portrait engraved by h. robinson. cowper, william.--poetical works. . _ vo, two volumes bound in four, blue levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, with red mosaic in the corners, gilt over uncut edges, by matthews._ another copy, illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and fifty-six fine portraits and scenes illustrative of the poems; also a singularly interesting letter of four pages from cowper to lady hesketh. the illustrations include all the known series, comprising cruikshank's vignettes to john gilpin, india proofs, the plates by storer, westall, harvey, etc., many fine portraits and views, the great majority on india paper, and frequently in two states, before and after letters. cowper, william.--poetical works. . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, rich border on the sides, silk linings, gilt edges, by rivière._ another copy, illustrated by the insertion of two hundred and six engravings on steel, copper, and wood, including seventeen portraits of cowper. these illustrations include the series by storer and greig, stothard, george cruikshank (the six plates to john gilpin), westall, harvey, etc., and are with few exceptions proofs on india paper, in two and three states. cowper, illustrated by a series of views, in, or near, the park of weston-underwood, bucks. accompanied with copious descriptions, and a brief sketch of the poet's life. london: printed by j. swan, . . . . _royal to, half blue straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. portrait, engraved title and twelve other plates by james storer and john greig. cowper, william.--memoir of the early life of william cowper, esq. written by himself, and never before published. with an appendix, containing some of cowper's religious letters, and other interesting documents, illustrative of the memoir. london: printed for r. edwards, . . . . _post vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side corners, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait by j. kennerley. coxe, edward.--miscellaneous poetry: by edward coxe, esq; of hampstead-heath, middlesex. . . . bath, printed by r. cruttwell; . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author to henry rhodes. coxe, william.--memoirs of horatio, lord walpole. selected from his correspondence and papers, and connected with the history of the times, from to . illustrated with portraits. by william coxe . . . london, printed at the oriental press . . . for t. cadell, jun. and w. davies . . . . _royal to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by motte._ large paper copy. twenty-one portraits by collyer, birrell, taylor, etc., after drawings by harding, gardiner, etc., proofs in three states, on satin and plate paper, also with the plate coloured. coxe, william.--sketches of the lives of correggio, and parmegiano. london: printed for longman, . . . . _ vo, original boards, uncut edges._ portrait of correggio engraved by w. bond. crabbe, george.--(i.) the library. a poem. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m.dcc.lxxxi. [price s.]   (ii.) the village: a poem. in two books. by the rev^{d}. george crabbe, chaplain to his grace the duke of rutland, &c. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m.dcc.lxxxiii. (iii.) the news-paper: a poem. by the reverend george crabbe, chaplain to his grace the duke of rutland. [six lines in latin from ovid] london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m. dcc. lxxxv. [price s.]   _ to, three works in one volume, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ first editions. preliminary and final blank leaves to "the village." "the newspaper" is dedicated to edward, lord thurlow, lord high chancellor of great britain from "belvoir castle, february th, ." e of this work is a leaf of advertisement. crabbe, george.--tales of the hall. by the rev. george crabbe, ll.b. . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. dedicated to the duchess of rutland. crabbe, george.--the works of the rev. george crabbe . . . london: john murray . . . . _ vo, five volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, illustrated by the insertion of ten portraits, three views, thirty-one plates by heath after westall, and nine by adlard after corbould. six of the westall plates are in two states, india proofs before and after letters; the rest are before the letters, and one is the engraver's etching. the portraits are for the most part proofs. crabbe, george.--the poetical works of the rev. george crabbe: with his letters and journals, and his life, by his son . . . london: john murray . . . mdcccxxxiv. _post vo, eight volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ frontispieces and vignettes by finden after stanfield. cradock, joseph.--zobeide. a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. . . . london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxxi. _ vo, morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, dedicated to lady scarsdale. prologue by goldsmith, epilogue by murphy. a-m in fours. craig, w. m.--a course of lectures on drawing, painting, and engraving, considered as branches of elegant education. delivered in the saloon of the royal institution, in successive seasons, and read subsequently at the russell institution, by w. m. craig, . . . [woodcut]   london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . . . . _ vo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ aquatint frontispiece in five states. the dedication is dated january , . crane, walter.--renascence a book of verse by walter crane. london: elkin mathews . . . . _ to, boards, uncut edges._ no. of sixty-five large paper copies printed. crane, walter.--the claims of decorative art by walter crane   london lawrence and bullen . . . m dccc xcii. _ to, decorated cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and ten fine paper copies printed. craufurd, david.--love at first sight. a comedy, acted at the new theatre in little lincoln's-inn-fields. by her majesties servants. written by david craufurd, gent. [line of latin]   london: printed for r. basset, . . . william turner. . . . and john chantry . . . [ ] [five lines of advertisement]. _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt back and edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-k in fours, half-title on a , title on a . crawford, francis marion.--a rose of yesterday by f. marion crawford london   macmillan and co., . . . . . . _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. cripps, wilfred joseph.--old french plate: with tables of the paris date-letters, and fac-similes of other marks. a handbook for the collector. by wilfred joseph cripps, . . . with illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth._ croker, thomas crofton, _editor_.--the popular songs of ireland. collected and edited, with introductions and notes, by t. crofton croker, esq. london: henry colburn . . . m.dccc.xxxix. _ mo, green calf, gilt back, scored sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ croly and dagley.--gems, principally from the antique, drawn and etched by richard dagley . . . with illustrations in verse by the rev. george croly . . . london: printed for hurst, robinson, and co. . . . . _post vo, orange levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by smith-mansell._ twenty-one plates. croly, george.--the poetical works of the rev. george croly . . . embellished with twenty etchings by dagley from antique gems. london: willis and sotheran . . . [ ] _crown vo, two volumes, green calf, gilt back, gilt edges._ cromek, r. h., _editor_.--remains of nithsdale and galloway song: with historical and traditional notices relative to the manners and customs of the peasantry. now first published by r. h. cromek . . . london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies . . . . _ vo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bradstreet._ large paper copy, with the title-page printed on india paper. cross, john walter.--see eliot, george. crowe, catherine.--the night side of nature; or, ghosts and ghost seers. by catherine crowe. . . . london: t. c. newby, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ crowe and cavalcaselle.--a new history of painting in italy from the second to the fourteenth century. drawn up from fresh materials after recent researches in the archives of italy; as well as from personal inspection of the works of art scattered throughout europe. by j. a. crowe & g. b. cavalcaselle london: john murray . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ crowe and cavalcaselle.--a history of painting in north italy; venice, padua, vicenza, verona, ferrara, milan, friuli, brescia, from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. drawn up from fresh materials &c . . . by j. a. crowe & g. b. cavalcaselle . . . with illustrations. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ crowe and cavalcaselle.--the early flemish painters. notices of their lives and works. by j. a. crowe and g. b. cavalcaselle. second edition london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ seventeen illustrations. crowe and cavalcaselle.--titian: his life and his times. with some account of his family, chiefly from new and unpublished records. by j. a. crowe and g. b. cavalcaselle . . . with portrait and illustrations. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ steel portrait and eighteen woodcuts. crowe and cavalcaselle.--raphael: his life and works, with particular reference to recently discovered records, and an exhaustive study of extant drawings and pictures. by j. a. crowe and g. b. cavalcaselle, . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ crowe, sir joseph.--reminiscences of thirty-five years of my life by sir joseph crowe . . . with [ ] plans london   john murray . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ cruikshank, george.--george cruikshank's illustrations of humphrey clinker. | joseph andrews. roderick random. | amelia. peregrine pickle. | vicar of wakefield. tom jones. | sir lancelot greaves. forty-one plates, with extracts describing each subject. london: charles tilt, . . . m dccc xxxvi. _post vo, olive morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ the first nine plates have the imprint, "london, printed for cochrane and pickersgill, ," nos. to , "for james cochrane & co. ," and nos. - , "for james cochrane & co. ." cruikshank, george.--george cruikshank's table-book. edited by gilbert abbott à beckett. illustrated by george cruikshank. london: published at the punch office, . . . m dccc xlv. _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ twelve steel plates, woodcut title-page, and numerous illustrations in the text. cruikshank, robert.--cruikshank at home: a new family album of endless entertainment. with numerous illustrations engraved on wood . . . [three volumes]   the odd volume; or book of variety: illustrated by two odd fellows,--seymour and cruikshank london: henry g. bohn . . . . _post vo, four volumes in two, half citron levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ in consequence of a disagreement between the brothers cruikshank, the designs intended for a fourth series of "cruikshank at home," incorporated with the work of seymour, produced "the odd volume." cumberland, g.--inventions by g. cumberland [london] publish'd jan . . _royal to, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ engraved frontispiece title and other outline plates. the preface is dated june, . cumberland, george.--an essay on the utility of collecting the best works of the ancient engravers of the italian school; accompanied by a critical catalogue with interesting anecdotes of the engravers, of a chronological series of rare and valuable prints, from the earliest practice of the art in italy to the year , now deposited in the british museum and royal academy, in london, by george cumberland.--london. printed by w. nicol, . . . . _ to, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ portrait of the author and double plate of engraver's marks. cumberland, george.--outlines from the ancients. [with an introduction by g. c. umberland] [london ]   _folio, half blue morocco, gilt back._ sixty plates, proofs on india paper, engraved by f. c. lewis. cumberland, richard.--the mysterious husband. a tragedy in five acts. as it is acted at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. by richard cumberland, esq. london: printed for c. dilly, . . . and j. walter, . . . m. dcc. lxxxiii. _ vo, red morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. cumberland, richard.--the posthumous dramatic works of the late richard cumberland, esq . . . london: printed for g. and w. nicol, . . . by w. bulmer and co . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half calf, gilt back, uncut edges._ edited by t. w. jansen. cundall, joseph, _editor_.--on bookbindings ancient and modern edited by joseph cundall . . . [woodcut]   london: george bell and sons . . . . _ to, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ twenty-eight plates. cunningham, allan.--sir marmaduke maxwell, a dramatic poem; the mermaid of galloway; the legend of richard faulder; and twenty scottish songs. by allan cunningham . . . london: printed for taylor and hessey, . . . . _ mo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ cunningham, allan, _editor_.--the songs of scotland, ancient and modern; with an introduction and notes, historical and critical, and characters of the lyric poets. . . . by allan cunningham, . . . london: printed for john taylor, . . . . _crown vo, four volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ cunningham, allan.--the lives of the most eminent british painters, sculptors, and architects. by allan cunningham. second edition. london: john murray, . . . mdcccxxx. _foolscap vo, six volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ illustrated with thirty-one steel portraits and nine woodcuts. cunningham, allan, _editor_.--the cabinet gallery of pictures, selected from the splendid collections of art, public and private, which adorn great britain; with biographical and critical descriptions by allan cunningham. london: john major . . . mdcccxxxiii. _royal vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges._ first issue. large paper copy. seventy-three engravings, proofs on india paper. the plate of the blind fiddler, by wilkie, inserted in this copy, is not mentioned in the index, though the publishers evidently projected it as one of the series. a letter inserted from edmund hodgson explains the usual defection. cunningham, allan.--the life of sir david wilkie; with his journals, tours, and critical remarks on works of art; and a selection from his correspondence. by allan cunningham. london: john murray . . . . _ vo, three volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt edges, by bedford._ illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and seventy portraits, and plates engraved from wilkie's paintings, of which a large number are brilliant proofs, some in two states. cunningham, allan.--poems and songs by allan cunningham. with an introduction, glossary, and notes by peter cunningham. london: john murray . . . . _small vo, cloth, uncut edges, with the original covers._ cunningham, henry winchester.--christian remick   an early boston artist    a paper read by henry winchester cunningham at a meeting of the club of odd volumes of boston, massachusetts, february ,    boston the club of odd volumes [university press]    . _ to, half brown morocco, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred copies printed. cunningham, john.--poems, chiefly pastoral. by john cunningham . . . london: printed for the author; . . . m.dcc.lxvi. _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allo._ frontispiece by isaac taylor, and (inserted) a portrait of the author, proof on india paper. cunningham, planchÉ, and collier.--inigo jones. a life of the architect; by peter cunningham, esq. remarks on some of his sketches for masques and dramas; by j. r. planché, esq. and five court masques; edited from the original mss. of ben jonson, john marston, etc. by j. payne collier, esq.   accompanied by facsimiles [ ] of drawings by inigo jones; and by a portrait from a painting by vandyck. london: printed for the shakespeare society. . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ cunningham, peter.--the story of nell gwyn: and the sayings of charles the second. related and collected by peter cunningham, . . . [vignette] . . . london: bradbury & evans, . . . m dccc lii. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first separate edition, with woodcuts. originally published in "the gentleman's magazine," . cunningham and laing.--inigo jones and ben jonson: being the life of inigo jones. by peter cunningham. illustrated with numerous facsimiles of his designs for masques. and ben jonson's conversations with drummond of hawthornden. edited by david laing. [london]   printed for the shakespeare society, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of inigo jones, by w. holl after vandyke. the first sub-title is dated , the second, . cunningham, peter.--see burnet and cunningham. cupid.--the cupid: a collection of love songs reprinted from the first edition   privately printed for subscribers only at   the moray press derby    . _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, doubled with brown morocco ornamented with a gilt and chiselled panel of floral and peacock design, blue silk guards, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by pomey._ one hundred copies printed on van gelder paper. fifteen illustrations on japan paper by paul avril, milius, and others. curran, john philpot.--a new and enlarged collection of speeches, by the right honourable john philpot curran, . . . containing several of importance, in no former collection; with memoirs of mr. curran, and his portrait. london: printed for william hone, . . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ bound with hone's "annals of the revolution in france," . curtis, george william.--washington irving: a sketch. by george william curtis. new york: the grolier club   mdcccxci. _ to, red morocco, with club seal on the sides, gilt top, uncut edges._ portraits of matilda hoffman and irving, and cut of cockloft hall summer house. one of three hundred and forty-four copies printed. curtis, george william.--prue & i   by george william curtis illustrated from drawings by albert edward storner . . . harper & brothers   new york   mdcccxcii. _ vo, vellum, uncut edges._ two hundred and fifty copies printed, with etched frontispiece signed by the artist. a signature of the artist is also inserted. cust and colvin.--history of the society of dilettanti compiled by lionel cust, . . . and edited by sidney colvin, . . . printed for the society   london   macmillan and co., . . . . _ vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred and fifty copies printed, with seventeen illustrations. dallas, robert charles.--recollections of the life of lord byron, from the year to the end of ; exhibiting his early character and opinions, detailing the progress of his literary career, and including various unpublished passages of his works. taken from authentic documents, in the possession of the author. by the late r. c. dallas, esq. to which is prefixed, an account of the circumstances leading to the suppression of lord byron's correspondence with the author, and his letters to his mother, lately announced for publication. london: printed for charles knight, . . . mdcccxxiv. _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ facsimile frontispiece. dallaway, james.--of statuary and sculpture among the antients. with some account of specimens preserved in england. by james dallaway, . . . london: printed by t. bensley and son, . . . for j. murray, . . . . _royal vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders, uncut edges._ large paper copy: twenty-nine outline etchings printed in red. [dalton, ----] the gentleman in black. with illustrations, by george cruikshank. engraved by j. thompson and c. landells. london: william kidd . . . mdcccxxxi. _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ a portion of this work appeared originally in a periodical called "the literary magnet." dana and wilson.--the life of ulysses s. grant, general of the armies of the united states. by charles a. dana, . . . and j.h. wilson, . . . published by gurdon bill & company, springfield, mass. &c . . . . _ vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by w. matthews._ portrait by f.t. stuart, and three maps. dana, richard h.--poems; by richard h. dana. boston, bowles and dearborn . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side border, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dance of death.--the dance of death exhibited in elegant engravings on wood with a dissertation on the several representations of that subject but more particularly on those ascribed to macaber and hans holbein. by francis douce &c london: william pickering    . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with dark brown silk, narrow borders, silk guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ forty-nine woodcut illustrations from the lyons series, and six others. large paper copy. dance of death.--holbein's dance of death, with an historical and literary introduction. london: john russell smith, . . . m. d. ccc. xlix. _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ frontispiece and fifty-three illustrations on india paper. dance of death.--the celebrated hans holbein's alphabet of death, illustrated with old borders engraved on wood with latin sentences and english quatrains selected by anatole de montaiglon [cut]   paris. printed for edwin tross [by firmin didot brothers]   m.dccc.lvi. _small to, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ vellum paper copy. the engraved borders, etc., are by leon le maire, and are partly copied from the well-known _horæ_ of simon vostre. dance of death.--holbein's dance of death exhibited in elegant engravings on wood, with a dissertation on the several representations of that subject, by francis douce, . . . also, holbein's bible cuts, consisting of ninety illustrations on wood, with introduction by thos. frognall dibdin. london: henry g. bohn, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ daniel, george.--the modern dunciad   virgil in london and other poems london   william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ daniel, george.--the modern dunciad. . _post vo, green straight-grain morocco, back and sides tooled in the manner of roger payne, with the initials g. d., gilt edges, by c. lewis._ george daniel's own copy, in which he has inserted his own private portrait, proof on india paper, also portraits of samuel johnson, proof before the letters, r. owen, l. sterne, scott and his family, etc. daniel, george.--merrie england in the olden time. by george daniel . . . london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with five plates by leech and twenty-three woodcut illustrations. daniel, george.--democritus in london with the mad pranks and comical conceits of motley and robin good-fellow to which are added notes festivous etc. london   william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. dante alleghieri.--the vita nuova of dante, translated, with an introduction and notes, by theodore martin. london: parker son, and brown, . . . . _small to, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of dante. dante alleghieri.--the comedy of dante alleghieri. part i--the hell. translated into english blank verse by william michael rossetti, with introductions and notes. london . . . macmillan and co. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. dante.--see boccaccio, giovanni. rossetti, dante gabriel. rossetti, william michael. d'anvers, n.--an elementary history of art. architecture--sculpture--painting by n. d'anvers . . . second edition with introduction by professor roger smith. london. sampson low, . . . . _crown vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ one hundred and eighty-five woodcut illustrations. d'arblay, madame.--evelina, or, a young lady's entrance into the world. [by fanny burney]   london: printed for t. lowndes . . . m.dcc.lxxviii. _ mo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. d'arblay, madame.--cecilia, or memoirs of an heiress. by the author of evelina. london: printed for t. payne and son . . . mdcclxxxii. _ mo, five volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. d'arblay, madame.--camilla: or, a picture of youth. by the author of evelina and cecilia. london: printed for t. payne . . . and t. cadell jun. and w. davies . . . . _ mo, five volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. d'arblay, madame.--the wanderer; or, female difficulties. by the author of evelina; cecilia; and camilla. in five volumes. . . . london: printed for longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . . . . _ mo, five volumes, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedication to dr. burney, dated march , , and signed f. b. d'arblay. d'arblay, madame.--the romance of private life. by miss burney. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition. d'arblay, madame.--diary and letters of madame d'arblay . . . edited by her niece . . . london: henry colburn . . . - - . _crown vo, seven volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ in addition to the seven portraits and two facsimiles belonging to this edition, one hundred and eight additional portraits have been inserted. darius's feast: or, the force of truth. a poem, addressed to the right honourable the earls of salisbury and exeter. london: printed by lawton gilliver . . . . _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ darley, felix octavius carr.--sketches abroad with pen and pencil. by felix o. c. darley. the [ ] drawings engraved on wood by j. augustus bogert and james l. langridge. new york: published by hurd and houghton, . . . . _ mo, half red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ davenport, cyril.--. . . english embroidered bookbindings by cyril davenport, . . . london   kegan paul, trench, trübner and company, . . . . _ to, green silk, back and sides embroidered in a floral and scroll design of yellow, pink, lavender, and green, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ japanese vellum copy, fifty printed. fifty-two plates, some coloured, and illustrations in the text. davenport, cyril.--thomas berthelet royal printer and bookbinder to henry viii. king of england with special reference to his bookbindings by cyril davenport . . . chicago   published by the caxton club   m dcccc i. _royal to, half cloth, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty-two copies printed. eighteen plates, for the most part coloured. davey, samuel.--see scott and davey. davidson, john.--plays by john davidson being: an unhistorical pastoral: a romantic farce: bruce a chronicle play: smith a tragic farce: and scaramouch in naxos a pantomime [vignette]   london: elkin mathews and john lane . . . . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece. davies, c. m.--history of holland, from the beginning of the tenth to the end of the eighteenth century. by c. m. davies. london: john w. parker . . . m.dccc.xli. _ vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by holloway._ original issue with the genuine title-pages. illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and fifty-eight portraits, etc., brilliant copper-plate engravings, by crispin de pass, wierix, houbraken (some unlettered proofs), sadeler, ficquet, savart, peter de jode, marcenay de ghuy (unlettered proofs), delaram, raphael morghen, moncornet, etc. davis, william.--a journey [and second journey] round the library of a bibliomaniac: or, cento of notes and reminiscences concerning rare, curious, and valuable books. by william davis . . . london: printed for w. davis . . . - . _crown vo, two volumes in one, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ the two series complete. davy, sir humphrey.--salmonia: or days of fly fishing. in a series of conversations. with some account of the habits of fishes belonging to the genus salmo. london: john murray . . . mdcccxxix. _small vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition: illustrated by the insertion of twenty-five portraits, forty-six views of lakes, etc., seventeen vignettes of fish, for the most part on india paper, and some india proof woodcuts laid on the beginning and end of chapters, in addition to the six plates and numerous woodcuts of fish belonging to the book. day, thomas.--the history of sandford and merton, a work intended for the use of children . . . london; printed for j. stockdale, . . . mdcclxxxiii.-vi-ix. _small vo, three volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by roger de coverly._ first edition. frontispieces by cooper after stothard, etc., from a later edition. defoe, daniel.--the true-born englishman. a satyr. [five lines in latin]   printed in the year mdcci. _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition (?). the second edition has a preface in which defoe vindicates himself from the charge of depreciating his countrymen. the ninth edition was also printed in , and it is said that , copies were sold in the streets. the king honoured defoe for the first time with an audience. collation: title, a (verso blank). preface beginning, "the end of satyr is reformation," a . part i, a -d recto in fours. part ii, d verso-h . pages - ; and reversed, - misprinted - . defoe, daniel.--(i.) reasons against a war with france, or an argument shewing that the french king's owning the prince of wales as king of england, scotland and ireland; is no sufficient ground of a war. london    printed in the year, . (ii.) the double welcome. a poem to the duke of marlbro'. london: printed, and sold by b. bragg . . . . (iii.) a fair shell, but a rotten kernel: or, a bitter nut for a factious monkey. . . . london, printed: and sold by b. bragge, . . . . . . . _ to, three works in one volume, brown morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first editions. defoe, daniel.--the mock mourners. a satyr, by way of elegy on king william. by the author of the true-born englishman. london, printed . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges._ first edition. a, two leaves, b-d in fours, e and ¶, two leaves each. dedicated to the queen. defoe, daniel.--a hymn to the pillory. london: printed in the year, mdcciii. _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, uncut edges, by david._ first edition. defoe, daniel.--the storm: or, a collection of the most remarkable casualties and disasters which happen'd in the late dreadful tempest, [nov. , ] both by sea and land . . . london: printed for g. sawbridge . . . mdcciv. _ vo, half brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. [defoe, daniel].--(i.) moderation display'd: a poem. [three lines from lucret. lib. .]   by the author of faction display'd. london: printed in the year . (ii.) the sequel: or moderation further display'd, a poem. by the author of faction display'd. [two lines from aul. per. . sat. .]   printed in the year . _ to, two works in one volume._ both works: two leaves and b-d in fours. "faction displayed" is attributed to defoe and also to w. shippen. defoe, daniel.--the consolidator: or, memoirs of sundry transactions from the world in the moon. translated from the lunar language, by the author of the true-born english man. london: printed, and are to be sold by benj. bragg . . . . _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition; with the half-title marked "a." defoe, daniel.--the dyet of poland, a satyr. printed at dantzick, in the year mdccv. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. defoe, daniel.--the history of the wars, of his present majesty charles xii. king of sweden; from his first landing in denmark, to his return from turkey to pomerania. by a scots gentleman in the sweedish service. london: printed for a. bell in cornhil, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. defoe, daniel.--(i.) the life and strange surprizing adventures of robinson crusoe, of york, mariner: who lived eight and twenty years, all alone in an un-inhabited island on the coast of america, near the mouth of the great river of oroonoque; having been cast on shore by shipwreck, wherein all the men perished but himself. with an account how he was at last as strangely deliver'd by pyrates. written by himself. [frontispiece]   london: printed for w. taylor . . . mdccxix. (ii.) the farther adventures of robinson crusoe; being the second and last part of his life, and of the strange surprizing accounts of his travels round three parts of the globe. written by himself. to which is added a map of the world, in which is delineated the voyages of robinson crusoe. london: printed for w. taylor . . . mdccxix. (iii.) serious reflections during the life and surprising adventures of robinson crusoe: with his vision of the angelick world. written by himself. [folded frontispiece]    london: printed for w. taylor, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bedford._ first editions. defoe, daniel.--the life and strange surprizing adventures of robinson crusoe, of york, mariner, who lived eight and twenty years all alone in an uninhabited island on the coast of america near the mouth of the great river of oroonoque, having been cast on shore by shipwreck, wherein all the men perished but himself. with an account how he was at last as strangely delivered by pyrates. written by himself. [with a life of the author by george chalmers]   london: printed for john stockdale . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, olive morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ large paper copy with a portrait, fourteen plates and two vignette titles engraved by medland after the designs of stothard. defoe, daniel.--la vie et les aventures de robinson crusoë, par daniel defoe; traduction revue et corrigée sur la edition donnée par stockdale en , augmentée de la vie de l' auteur, qui n'avoit pas encore paru; edition ornée de gravures [en couleur] par delignon, d'après les dessins originaux de stothart, d'une carte géographique, et accompagnée d'un vocabulaire de marine. . . . [coloured vignette]   a paris chez h. verdière, . . . [ .]   _ vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges._ defoe, daniel.--the life and adventures of robinson crusoe. embellished with engravings from designs by thomas stothard . . . london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies . . . . _royal vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, with some rough leaves, by c. lewis._ large paper copy, with twenty plates and two vignettes engraved by c. heath. defoe, daniel.--engravings illustrative of robinson crusoe, from drawings by thomas stothard, engraved by c. heath. [london, cadell and davies, . . . .] _folio, half green morocco portfolio._ twenty-two proofs on india paper. defoe, daniel.--robinson crusoe, par daniel de foe, traduction de l'anglais, entièrement revue et corrigée par f. d'a. a paris, chez crevot . . . mdcccxxv. _ vo, two volumes, blue straight-grain morocco, back and sides gilt and blind tooled, gilt edges._ large paper copy, illustrated by six plates after the designs of deveria, each in three states, viz., engraver's etching, india proof, and plain print, also the original drawings. defoe, daniel.--the life and surprising adventures of robinson crusoe, of york, mariner. with introductory verses by bernard barton, and illustrated with numerous engravings from drawings by george cruikshank expressly designed for this edition. . . . london: printed at the shakspeare press, by w. nicol, for john major, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by louise reymann._ large paper copy, with frontispieces on india paper, by aug. fox and w. raddon after cruikshank, and thirty-seven woodcuts in the text. defoe, daniel.--the life and adventures of robinson crusoe. with a biographical sketch of de foe, written expressly for this edition, and illustrations from original designs. . . . london: cochrane and pickersgill, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ portrait by freeman, and sixteen other plates. defoe, daniel.-- . . . the life and adventures of robinson crusoe mariner, of hull by daniel defoe with biographical memoir and illustrative notes [by john ballantyne] . . . with eight etchings by m. mouilleron and portrait by l. flameng   london   j. c. nimmo and bain . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with proof etchings on japan paper. defoe, daniel.--the history of the life and adventures of mr. duncan campbell, a gentleman, who, tho' deaf and dumb, writes down any stranger's name at first sight; with their future contingencies of fortune. now living in exeter court over-against the savoy in the strand. [three lines from cicero] london: printed for e. curll: and sold by w. mears and t. jauncy. . . , w. meadows. . . , a. bettesworth. . . , w. lewis. . . , and w. graves . . . m. dcc. xx. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. portrait by price after hill, and three plates. after page , an entirely different fount of type is used from that in the first part of the book. defoe, daniel.--the fortunes and misfortunes of the famous moll flanders, &c. who was born in newgate, and during a life of continu'd variety for threescore years, besides her childhood, was twelve year a whore, five times a wife (whereof once to her own brother) twelve year a thief, eight year a transported felon in virginia, at last grew rich, liv'd honest, and died a penitent. written from her own memorandums. london: printed for, and sold by w. chetwood, . . . m ddc xxi. [m dcc xxi] _ vo, red levant morocco, narrow side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with the blank leaf, a . defoe, daniel.--a journal of the plague year: being observations or memorials, of the most remarkable occurrences, as well publick as private, which happened in london during the last great visitation in . written by a citizen who continued all the while in london. never made publick before london: printed for e. nutt. . . ; j. roberts. . . ; a. dodd. . . ; and j. graves. . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with the half-title. defoe, daniel.--a narrative of all the robberies, escapes, &c. of john sheppard: giving an exact description of the manner of his wonderful escape from the castle in newgate, and of the methods he took afterward for his security. written by himself during his confinement in the middle stone-room, after his being retaken in drury-lane. to which is added, a true representation of his escape from the condemn'd hold, curiously engraven on a copper plate. the whole publish'd at the particular request of the prisoner. london: printed and sold by john applebee, . . . . (price six pence.) _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ a perfect copy, with frontispiece, "the manner of escape," a second plate, inserted, "jack shepherd in the stone room in newgate," probably from charles johnson's "history of the lives and actions of the most famous highwaymen," etc., and, also inserted, a plate in seven compartments by n. parr, representing scenes relative to newgate. the narrative is dated "middle-stone-room in newgate, novem. . ," and ends with a "postscript," d (verso blank). seven editions were printed in , on november , , , , , and december . defoe, daniel.--a tour thro' the whole island of great britain, divided into circuits or journies. giving a particular and diverting account of whatever is curious and worth observation, viz. i. a description of the principal cities and towns, their situation, magnitude, government, and commerce. ii. the customs, manners, speech, as also the exercises, diversions, and employment of the people. iii. the produce and improvement of the lands, the trade, and manufactures. iv. the sea ports and fortifications, the course of rivers, and the inland navigation. v. the publick edifices, seats, and palaces of the nobility and gentry. with useful observations upon the whole. particularly fitted for the reading of such as desire to travel over the island. by a gentleman. london: printed, and sold by g. strahan, . . . w. mears, . . . r. francklin, . . . s. chapman, . . . r. stagg, . . . and j. graves, . . . m dcc xxiv. [m dcc xxv. and m dcc xxvii.] _ vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition of volumes i and ii, second of volume iii. volume i contains a folded plate of the siege of colchester in , and consists of three letters, with separate pagination and signatures, the last leaf containing addenda and errata. volume ii contains a folded map of england and wales, by herman moll, geographer, and consists of three letters, the third with separate pagination and signatures, and an index of xxxvi pages to the first two volumes. volume iii contains a folded map of scotland by moll. the three letters, pages - , are followed by an "introduction to the account and description of scotland," pages - , two indexes ( pages) and pages of advertisements. defoe, daniel.--the fortunate mistress: or, a history of the life and vast variety of fortunes of mademoiselle de beleau, afterwards call'd the countess de wintselsheim, in germany. being the person known by the name of the lady roxana, in the time of king charles ii. london: printed for t. warner . . . ; w. meadows . . . ; w. pepper . . . ; s. harding . . . ; and t. edlin. . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, rich gilt back and side borders, doubled with red morocco, gilt borders, red silk guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. full-length portrait of roxana. defoe, daniel.--the life and adventures of roxana, the fortunate mistress; or, most unhappy wife. i. an account of her birth in france, in . ii. her marriage in london with a brewer, who ran out his estate, and left her in a destitute condition with five children. iii. her cohabiting with her landlord, their journey to paris, where her gallant was robbed, and murdered. iv. her being in love with by the prince of ---- by whom she had a son; her going with the prince to the palace of mendon, where she saw her husband, who had entered in the gens d'arms guard, the prince leaves her. v. the dealings she had with a dutch merchant and a jew, the latter of whom wanted to defraud her of a great parcel of her jewels, her return, in a dangerous storm to england; her going afterwards to rotterdam, where she sees the dutch merchant, to whom she soon after became a bedfellow. vi. her return to england again, living a great lady, where she had the name of roxana. her marriage with the dutch merchant in london, who was naturalized, and created a baronet; the miseries she and her maid amy fell afterwards into. embellished with curious copper plates. london: printed for h. owen, . . . and c. sympson, . . . m dcc lv. _small vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and edges, by chambolle-duru._ portrait by parr, and folded plate, "roxana in her turkish habit." a later edition of "the fortunate mistress," divided into chapters, as the first edition was not, and containing two leaves of contents. the text of the first edition ends on page , in the middle of chapter xvii, but the work has been extended by the unknown editor through page into twenty-two chapters in the manner of defoe. (chapter xx is misprinted xix.) the last page contains a paragraph headed "the continuation of the life of roxana, by isabel johnson, who had been her waiting-maid, from the time she was thrown into jail, to the time of her death." the text of the last page of the first edition is not here included. defoe, daniel.--a new voyage round the world, by a course never sailed before. being a voyage undertaken by some merchants, who afterwards proposed the setting up an east-india company in flanders. illustrated with copper plates.   london:   printed for a. bettesworth, . . . and w. mears, . . . m.dcc.xxv. _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, in two parts, with separate pagination and signatures. frontispiece by j. clark, and three other plates. defoe, daniel.--a new voyage round the world. . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ another copy. defoe, daniel.--an essay upon literature: or, an enquiry into the antiquity and original of letters; proving that the two tables, written by the finger of god in mount sinai, was the first writing in the world; and that all other alphabets derive from the hebrew. with a short view of the methods made use of by the antients, to supply the want of letters before, and improve the use of them, after they were known. london; printed for tho. bowles, . . . john clark, . . . and john bowles, . . . m.dcc.xxvi. _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. defoe, daniel.--the political history of the devil, as well ancient as modern: in two parts. part i. containing a state of the devil's circumstances, and the various turns of his affairs, from his expulsion out of heaven, to the creation of man; with remarks on the several mistakes concerning the reason and manner of his fall. also his proceedings with mankind ever since adam, to the first planting of the christian religion in the world. part ii. containing his more private conduct, down to the present times: his government, his appearances, his manner of working, and the tools he works with. [four lines of english verse] london: printed for t. warner, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition, with frontispiece. defoe, daniel.--a system of magick; or, a history of the black art. being an historical account of mankind's most early dealing with the devil; and how the acquaintance on both sides first began. . . . london, printed: and sold by j. roberts . . . mdcc xxvii. _crown vo, red levant morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ frontispiece by j. van der gucht after eberlein. defoe, daniel.--an essay on the history and reality of apparitions. being an account of what they are, and what they are not; whence they come, and whence they come not. as also how we may distinguish between the apparitions of good and evil spirits, and how we ought to behave to them. with a great variety of surprizing and diverting examples, never publish'd before. . . . london, printed: and sold by j. roberts. . . . m dcc xxvii. _ vo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with six plates by j. van der gucht. defoe, daniel.--conjugal lewdness: or, matrimonial whoredom. [ten lines of verse beginning "loose thoughts, at first, like subterranean fires"] london: printed for t. warner, . . . m dcc xxvii. _ vo, panelled calf, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition, issued january . defoe, daniel.--a treatise concerning the use and abuse of the marriage bed: shewing i. the nature of matrimony, its sacred original, and the true meaning of its institution. ii. the gross abuse of matrimonial chastity, from the wrong notions which have possessed the world, degenerating even to whoredom. iii. the diabolical practice of attempting to prevent child-bearing by physical preparations. iv. the fatal consequences of clandestine or forced marriage, thro' the persuasion, interest, or influence of parents and relations, to wed the person they have no love for, but oftentimes an aversion to. v. of unequal matches, as to the disproportion of age; and how such, many ways, occasion a matrimonial whoredom. vi. how married persons may be guilty of conjugal lewdness, and that a man may, in effect, make a whore of his own wife. also, many other particulars of family concern. [ten lines of verse as in the first issue]   london; printed for t. warner, . . . m. dcc. xxvii. price s. _ vo, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by pratt._ second issue of "conjugal lewdness," printed june , with a new title-page, but the same sheets, including the uncorrected errata at the end. defoe, daniel.--the memoirs of an english officer, who serv'd in the dutch war in . to the peace of utrecht, in . containing several remarkable transactions both by sea and land, and in divers countries, but chiefly those wherein the author was personally concern'd. together with a description of many cities, towns, and countries, in which he resided; their manners and customs, as well religious as civil, interspers'd with many curious observations on their monasteries and nunneries, more particularly of the famous one in montserat. on the bull-feasts, and other publick diversions; as also on the genius of the spanish people, amongst whom he continued several years a prisoner of war. no part of which has before been made publick. by capt. george carleton. london, printed for e. symon, . . . m dcc xxviii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy of the first edition. dedicated to spencer, lord wilmington. defoe, daniel.--the life and adventures of mrs. christian davies, commonly call'd mother ross; who, in several campaigns under king william and the late duke of marlborough, in the quality of a foot-soldier and dragoon, gave many signal proofs of an unparallell'd courage and personal bravery. taken from her own mouth when a pensioner of chelsea-hospital, and known to be true by many who were engaged in those great scenes of action. london: printed for and sold by r. montagu, . . . . _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. in two parts, with separate pagination and signatures, and the final leaf of advertisement, q . defoe, daniel.--the novels and miscellaneous works of daniel de foe. with a biographical memoir of the author, literary prefaces to the various pieces, illustrative notes, etc., including all contained in the edition attributed to the late sir walter scott, with considerable additions. oxford: printed by d. a. talboys, for thomas tegg . . . london -' . _foolscap vo, twenty volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ the twentieth volume contains a life of defoe by george chalmers, and a chronological list of his works. [delepierre, joseph octave.]--joseph octave delepierre   born, march ; died, august    in memoriam   for friends only   [london, .] _ to, brown levant morocco, doubled with russia, russia guards, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ published by the philobiblon society. portrait. delille (or delisle), jacques.--the gardens, a poem. translated from the french of the abbé de lille. by mrs. montolieu. the second edition. london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, half red levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ whatman paper copy with four plates and four vignettes, engraved by bartolozzi. de lolme, john louis.--the history of the flagellants, or the advantages of discipline; being a paraphrase and commentary on the historia flagellantium of the abbé boileau, doctor of the sorbonne, canon of the holy chapel, &c. by somebody who is not of the sorbonne. . . . [vignette]   london: printed for fielding and walker, . . . m dcc lxxvii. _royal to, half cloth, gilt top, many lower edges uncut._ four plates and four vignettes by le roy after le clerc. dennis, george.--the cities and cemeteries of etruria. by george dennis    london: john murray . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition, with ten maps and one hundred and five illustrations. dennistoun, james.--memoirs of the dukes of urbino, illustrating the arms, arts, and literature of italy from to . by james dennistoun. london: longman &c    . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ thirty-four illustrations on steel and wood. dennistoun, james.--memoirs of sir robert strange, knt., engraver . . . and of his brother-in-law andrew lumisden, private secretary to the stuart princes, . . . by james dennistoun . . . london: longman, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of sir robert by w. c. edwards after j. b. greuse, and three other plates. de quincey, thomas.--confessions of an english opium-eater. london: printed for taylor and hessey . . . . _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. de quincey, thomas.--confessions of an english opium-eater reprinted from the first edition, with notes of de quincey's conversations by richard woodhouse, and other additions   edited by richard garnett. london   kegan paul, trench, & co . . . mdccclxxxv. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. derby, george horatio.--phoenixiana by capt. george horatio derby ("john phoenix") edited by john vance cheney   chicago   the caxton club   mdcccxcvii. _ mo, two volumes, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of one hundred and sixty-five copies printed on american hand-made paper. etched portrait by w. h. w. bicknell, and fifteen other illustrations, five in colours. de tocqueville, alexis.--democracy in america. by alexis de tocqueville. translated by henry reeve, esq. edited, with notes, the translation revised and in great part rewritten, and the additions made to the recent paris editions now first translated, by francis bowen, . . . cambridge: sever and francis. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ de vinne, theodore low.--the invention of printing. a collection of facts and opinions descriptive of early prints and playing cards, the block-books of the fifteenth century, the legend of lourens janszoon coster, of haarlem, and the work of john gutenberg and his associates. illustrated with facsimiles of early types and wood-cuts. [ ] by theo. l. de vinne. . . . new york: francis hart and co. . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ de vinne, theodore low.--historic printing types a lecture read before the grolier club of new-york, january , , with additions and new illustrations by theo. l. de vinne   new-york   the grolier club mdccclxxxvi. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by william matthews._ one of two copies printed on vellum. a presentation copy from the author. de vinne, theodore low.--christopher plantin and the plantin-moretus museum at antwerp by theo. l. de vinne with illustrations by joseph pennell, and others   printed for the grolier club   new york    . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels of interlacing fillets, corner ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original paper covers bound in, by rivière._ one of three hundred copies printed on paper. de vinne, theodore low.--the practice of typography a treatise on the processes of type-making the point system, the names, sizes styles and prices of plain printing types by theodore low de vinne   new york   the century co.    . _ mo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author. de vinne, theodore low.--the practice of typography correct composition a treatise on spelling abbreviations, the compounding and division of words, the proper use of figures and numerals, italic and capital letters, notes, etc. with observations on punctuation and proof-reading by theodore low de vinne, . . . new york   the century co.    . _ mo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author. de vinne, theodore low.--title-pages as seen by a printer with numerous illustrations in facsimile and some observations on the early and recent printing of books by theodore low de vinne   the grolier club of the city of new york   m c m i. _ vo, original half red straight-grain morocco, uncut edges._ three hundred and twenty-five copies printed on italian hand-made paper. de vinne, theodore low.--the practice of typography   a treatise on title-pages with numerous illustrations in facsimile and some observations on the early and recent printing of books by theodore low de vinne, . . . new york   the century co.    . _ mo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author. de vinne, theodore low.--the practice of typography   modern methods of book composition   a treatise on type-setting by hand and by machine and on the proper arrangement and imposition of pages by theodore low devinne, a. m.   new york   the century co.    . _ mo, cloth._ presentation copy from the author. dialogue.--the dialogue or communing between the wise king salomon and marcolphus. edited by e. gordon duff   london: lawrence & bullen . . . mdcccxcii. _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ three hundred and fifty copies printed, with woodcut frontispiece, etc., and facsimile of the original antwerp edition, probably put forth in . dibdin, charles.--the cobler: or, a wife of ten thousand. a ballad opera. in two acts. as it is performed at the theatre-royal, drury-lane. london: printed for t. becket, . . . . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. dibdin, charles.--songs, naval and national, of the late charles dibdin; with a memoir and addenda. collected and arranged by thomas dibdin . . . with characteristic sketches by george cruikshank   london: john murray . . . . _post vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by krafft._ dibdin, thomas frognall.--an introduction to the knowledge of the most rare and valuable editions of the greek and latin classics, with some account of polyglot bibles and the best editions of the greek septuagint and testament. by tho. frognall dibdin . . . second edition, enlarged & corrected. london: printed for the author . . . . _royal vo, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with a portrait of bishop fell, a vignette designed by the author, and three facsimile plates. dibdin, thomas frognall.--an introduction to the knowledge of rare and valuable editions of the greek and latin classics. together with an account of polyglot bibles, polyglot psalters, hebrew bibles, greek bibles and greek testaments; the greek fathers, and the latin fathers. by the rev. thomas frognall dibdin, . . . fourth edition; greatly enlarged and corrected. . . . london: printed for harding and lepard, . . . and g. b. whittaker, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by william matthews._ dibdin, thomas frognall.--specimen bibliothecæ brittanicæ. specimen of a digested catalogue of rare, curious, and useful books in the english language, or appertaining to british literature and antiquities. by the rev. t. f. dibdin. london: . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ forty copies privately printed. dibdin, thomas frognall.--specimen of an english de bure. london. . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies privately printed. dibdin, thomas frognall.--typographical antiquities; or the history of printing in england, scotland, and ireland: containing memoirs of our ancient printers, and a register of the books printed by them. begun by the late joseph ames, . . . considerably augmented by william herbert, . . . and now greatly enlarged, with copious notes, and illustrated with appropriate engravings; comprehending the history of english literature, and a view of the progress of the art of engraving, in great britain; by the rev. thomas frognall dibdin. . . . london: printed by william savage, . . . for william miller, . . . [ ]- . _folio, four volumes, pigskin, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, sixty-six printed, with twenty-three mezzo-tint portraits, etc., and numerous facsimiles. dibdin, thomas frognall.--here begyneth a little tome and hathe to name the lincolne nosegay: beynge a brefe table of certaine bokes in the posession of maister thomas dibdin clerk. which bookes be to be sold to him who shal gyue the moste for ye same   london: printed by w. bulmer and co, . . . [ ] _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, sides covered with flowers and leaf sprays in compartments, doubled with blue morocco, inside border, gilt end papers, gilt edges, by lewis._ the genuine edition. thirty-six copies printed. the nineteen books described went into the spencer and heber collections. dibdin, thomas frognall.--bibliography, a poem, in six books. with preface and notes. london: . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ fifty copies, privately printed, the greater part destroyed by fire. dibdin, thomas frognall.--bibliotheca spenceriana; or a descriptive catalogue of the books printed in the fifteenth century, and of many valuable first editions, in the library of george john earl spencer, k. g. . . . by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin. . . . london: printed for the author, by w. bulmer and co. shakspeare press. . . . -[ ] _royal vo, four volumes, brown morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ frontispiece, the quarterings of lord spencer's arms, by v. woodthorpe after sir isaac heard, dedicatory page engraved by woodthorpe, and numerous facsimiles. dibdin, thomas frognall.--the bibliographical decameron; or ten days pleasant discourse upon illuminated manuscripts and subjects connected with early engraving, typography and bibliography by the rev. t. f. dibdin   london: printed for the author by w. bulmer & co. shakespeare press    . _royal vo, three volumes, red morocco, gilt back, sunken panels on the sides, gilt tooled, doubled with red morocco, gilt borders, gilt edges, by lewis._ dibdin, thomas frognall.--a bibliographical, antiquarian and picturesque tour in france and germany, by the rev. tho. frognall dibdin . . . london: printed for the author by w. bulmer and w. nicol, shakespeare press &c . _royal vo, three volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels and corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ in addition to the eighty-three plates published with this book, two hundred and thirty-six have been added, embracing the lewis etchings, proofs on india paper, sixty-eight portraits, including the author by thomson after phillips, evelyn by worthington after walker, aldus and paulus manutius, etc. with a few exceptions, every plate inserted is a proof on india paper. dibdin, thomas frognall.--a bibliographical, antiquarian and picturesque tour &c, . _royal vo, three volumes, half russia, gilt back, uncut edges._ another copy printed upon large paper. dibdin, thomas frognall.--voyage bibliographique, archéologique et pittoresque en france, par le rev. th. frognall dibdin . . . traduit de l'anglais, avec des notes, par théod. licquet . . . a paris, chez crapelet . . . mdcccxxv. _imperial vo, four volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by capé._ large paper copy, with portrait of the author by thomson after phillips, india proof, and seventy other portraits and views inserted, including many proofs after turner and others. dibdin, thomas frognall.--aedes althorpianæ; or an account of the mansion, books, and pictures, at althorp; the residence of george john earl spencer, k. g. to which is added a supplement to the bibliotheca spenceriana. by the rev. thomas frognall dibdin, . . . london: printed by w. nicol, . . . shakspeare press, . . . . _royal vo, two volumes in one, brown morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ frontispiece-portrait of lord spencer by w. finden after thomas phillips, on india paper, twenty-nine other portraits and views, five illustrations on india paper in the text, and numerous facsimiles. dibdin, thomas frognall.--a descriptive catalogue of the books printed in the fifteenth century, lately forming part of the library of the duke di cassano serra, and now the property of george john earl spencer, k. g. with a general index of authors and editions contained in the present volume, and in the bibliotheca spenceriana and Ædes althorpianæ. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin, . . . london: printed for the author by william nicol, shakspeare press, . . . . _royal vo, brown morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ dibdin, thomas frognall.--bibliophobia. remarks on the present languid and depressed state of literature and the book trade. in a letter addressed to the author of the bibliomania. by mercurius rusticus. with notes by cato parvus. . . . london: henry bohn, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author to william palmer. dibdin, thomas frognall.--reminiscences of a literary life; [with anecdotes of books, and of book collectors] by the reverend thos. frognall dibdin d. d. london: john major . . . mdcccxxxvi. _ vo, two volumes, tree calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ ten steel portraits and plates and many woodcuts. includes the index, which is generally missing. dibdin, thomas frognall.--reminiscences of a literary life. . _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, printed upon large paper, and with a few additional portraits, some proofs. dibdin, thomas frognall.--a bibliographical, antiquarian and picturesque tour in the northern counties of england and in scotland. by the reverend thomas frognall dibdin   london: printed for the author by c. richards . . . mdcccxxxviii. _royal vo, two volumes, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ one of the few copies with the ninety plates and vignettes, proofs on india paper. dibdin, thomas frognall.--a bibliographical . . . tour in the northern counties. . _royal vo, two volumes extended to three, red levant morocco, rich gilt back and side corners, gilt edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and fifty-two plates. the original illustrations are in duplicate, and there are many other rare proof portraits and views, besides thirteen of the cancelled pages. dibdin, thomas frognall.--(i.) bibliomania; or book-madness; a bibliographical romance. illustrated with cuts. by thomas frognall dibdin, . . . new and improved edition, to which are now added preliminary observations, and a supplement including a key to the assumed characters in the drama, [vignette by s. freeman]   london: henry g. bohn, . . . m dccc xlii. (ii.) the bibliomania; or book-madness; containing some account of the history, symptoms, and cure of this fatal disease. in an epistle to richard heber, esq. by the rev. thomas frognall dibdin, . . . london: reprinted from the first edition, published in . _ vo, two works in one volume, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ frontispiece, vignette on the title, and numerous woodcuts. dickens, charles.--the village coquettes: a comic opera, in two acts. by charles dickens. the music by john hullah. london: richard bentley . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--sunday under three heads. as it is; as sabbath bills would make it; as it might be made. by timothy sparks. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the strange gentleman: a comic burletta, in two acts. by "boz." first performed at the st. james theatre, on thursday, september . . london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxxxvii. _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--sketches of young ladies; in which these interesting members of the animal kingdom are classified according to their several instincts, habits, and general characteristics. by "quiz." with six illustrations by "phiz". london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxxxvii. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the posthumous papers of the pickwick club. by charles dickens. with forty-three illustrations by r. seymour and phiz. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxxxvii. _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the posthumous papers of the pickwick club. by charles dickens. with a frontispiece from a design by c. r. leslie, . . . engraved by j. thompson. london: chapman and hall, . . . mdcccxlvii. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original green paper covers bound in, by rivière._ dickens, charles.--sketches of young gentlemen. dedicated to the young ladies. with six illustrations by "phiz." london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxxxviii. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--memoirs of joseph grimaldi. edited by "boz" with illustrations by george cruikshank. london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with the ornamental part of the original binding bound in, portrait of grimaldi, and thirteen plates. dickens, charles.--oliver twist; or the parish boy's progress. by "boz." london: richard bentley . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. twenty-four plates by cruikshank. dickens, charles.--the adventures of oliver twist; or the parish boy's progress. by charles dickens. with twenty-four illustrations on steel, by george cruikshank. a new edition, revised and corrected. london: published for the author, by bradbury & evans, . . . mdcccxlvi. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first octavo edition, with the original covers inserted. dickens, charles.--sketches by boz illustrative of every-day life and every-day people. with forty illustrations by george cruikshank. new edition, complete. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges_. dickens, charles.--the life and adventures of nicholas nickleby. by charles dickens. with illustrations by phiz. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxxxix. _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition, with a portrait of the author by maclise, and thirty-nine plates by h. k. browne. dickens, charles.--sketches of young couples; with an urgent remonstrance to the gentlemen of england (being bachelors or widowers) on the present alarming crisis. by the author of "sketches of young gentlemen". with six illustrations by "phiz". london: chapman and hall mdcccxl. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles, _editor_.--the pic nic papers. by various hands. edited by charles dickens, . . . with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank, phiz, &c. . . . london: henry colburn, . . . m dccc xli. _crown vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. dickens, charles.--master humphrey's clock. by charles dickens. with illustrations by george cattermole and hablot browne. london: chapman and hall   mdcccxl-xli. _royal vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--american notes for general circulation. by charles dickens. london: chapman and hall   mdcccxlii. _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--a christmas carol. in prose. being a ghost story of christmas. by charles dickens. with illustrations by john leech. london: chapman & hall, . . . m dccc xliii. _post vo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition, with four coloured plates and four woodcuts by linton. dickens, charles.--the life and adventures of martin chuzzlewit. by charles dickens. with illustrations by phiz. london: chapman and hall mdcccxliv. _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the chimes: a goblin story of some bells that rang an old year out and a new year in. by charles dickens. thirteenth edition. london: chapman and hall . . . mdcccxlv. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ frontispiece, engraved title by maclise, and eleven other illustrations by leech, doyle and stanfield. dickens, charles.--the battle of life, a love story. by charles dickens. london: bradbury & evans . . . mdcccxlvi. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the cricket on the hearth, a fairy tale of home. by charles dickens. london: printed and published for the author by bradbury and evans   m dccc xlvi. _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--pictures from italy. by charles dickens. the vignette illustrations on wood by samuel palmer. london: . . . bradbury & evans . . . mdcccxlvi. _post vo, calf gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the haunted man and the ghost's bargain. a fancy for christmas time. by charles dickens. london: bradbury & evans . . . . _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ dickens, charles.--dombey and son. by charles dickens. with illustrations by h. k. browne. london: bradbury and evans, . . . . _ vo, one volume in two, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. the engraved title is in extenso, reading, "dealings with the firm of dombey and son, wholesale, retail and for exportation." dickens, charles.--the personal history of david copperfield. by charles dickens. with illustrations by h. k. browne. london: bradbury & evans . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--a child's history of england. by charles dickens. with a frontispiece by f. m. topham. london: bradbury & evans    [' -' ]   _post vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ dickens, charles.--bleak house. by charles dickens. with illustrations [ ] by h. k. browne. london: bradbury and evans . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original blue covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. dickens, charles.--hard times, for these times. by charles dickens. london: bradbury & evans . . . . _post vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--little dorrit. by charles dickens. with illustrations by h. k. browne. london: bradbury and evans . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the story of little dombey   by charles dickens. london: bradbury & evans, . . . _foolscap vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the poor traveller: boots at the holly-tree inn: and mrs. gamp. by charles dickens. london: bradbury & evans, . . . . _foolscap vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, with the original green paper wrappers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. dickens, charles.--a tale of two cities. by charles dickens. with illustrations by h. k. browne. london: chapman and hall   mdccclix. _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--[the original christmas numbers to "all the year round", containing the "christmas books" by charles dickens. london - ]   _royal vo, half olive levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ dickens, charles.--[the original numbers from "all the year round" containing "the uncommercial traveller"   london    ]   _royal vo, half olive levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ dickens, charles.--the uncommercial traveller by charles dickens. london: chapman and hall, . . . mdccclxi. _post vo, red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dickens, charles.--great expectations. by charles dickens   london: chapman and hall . . . m dccc lxi. _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ dickens, charles.--our mutual friend. by charles dickens. with illustrations [ ] by marcus stone. london: chapman and hall, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original blue covers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. dickens, charles.--the mystery of edwin drood. by charles dickens. with twelve illustrations by s. l. fildes, and a portrait. london: chapman and hall . . . . _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. dickens, charles.--hunted down: a story by charles dickens. with some account of thomas griffiths wainewright, the poisoner. london: john camden hotten   [ ] _ vo, calf, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ dickens, charles.--see forster, john. (life.) diderot, denis.--see gessner, s. digby, kenelm henry.--the broad stone of honour; or rules for the gentlemen of england. london: printed (with alterations from the first edition) for c. & j. rivington . . . . _ vo, blue morocco, back and sides richly tooled, gilt edges, by lewis._ large paper copy of the second edition, published anonymously, while the author was a protestant. on becoming a roman catholic, he rewrote the work. digby, kenelm henry.--the broad stone of honour: or, the true sense and practice of chivalry. the first book, godefridus. [the second book, tancredus, m.d ccc. xxviii. the third book, morus, m. dccc. xxviii. the fourth book, orlandus. m.dccc.xxix.]   by kenelm henry digby, esq. [vignette]   london, m dccc. xxix. [-xxviii.] sold by joseph booker, . . . _ mo, four volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ dilke, lady emilia f. s.--french painters of the xviiith century   by lady dilke . . . [ illustrations]   london: george bell and sons . . . [chiswick press]    . _imperial vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ dilke, lady emilia f. s.--french architects and sculptors of the xviiith century   by lady dilke . . . [ illustrations]   london: george bell and sons . . . [chiswick press]    . _imperial vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ dilke, lady emilia f. s.--french furniture and decoration in the xviiith century   by lady dilke . . . [ illustrations]   london: george bell and sons . . . [chiswick press]    . _imperial vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ dilke, lady emilia f. s.--french engravers and draughtsmen of the xviiith century   by lady dilke . . . london: george bell and sons . . . . _imperial vo, gilt top, uncut edges._ fifty illustrations. dillon, john.--retribution; or, the chieftain's daughter. a tragedy, in five acts. by john dillon. performed at the theatre royal covent garden. london: printed for longman, &c . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. dilworth, w. h.--the life of alexander pope, esq; with a view of his writings. and many curious anecdotes of his noble patrons. as well as of his cotemporary wits, friends, and foes. by w. h. dilworth. london: printed for g. wright, . _ mo, red morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ portrait by aveline. dircks, henry.--the life, times, and scientific labours of the second marquis of worcester. to which is added, a reprint of his century of inventions, , with a commentary thereon, by henry dircks, . . . london: bernard quaritch, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ two steel portraits by j. cochran, a plan, and numerous woodcuts from drawings and sketches made, and ciphers and autographs traced, by the author. disraeli, benjamin.--the wondrous tale of alroy. the rise of iskander . . . london: saunders and otley, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. disraeli, benjamin.--. . . vivian grey. london: published for henry colburn . . . septr. . _ mo, five volumes in four, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ prefixed to the first volume is the "key to vivian grey . . . london: printed for william marsh . . . ," with the original covers and two inserted portraits. disraeli, benjamin.--the revolutionary epick. the work of disraeli the younger, author of "the psychological romance." london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxxxiv. _ to, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. fifty copies printed. disraeli, benjamin.--the letters of runnymede.--london: john macrone, . . . mdcccxxxvi. _crown vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. disraeli, benjamin.--the tragedy of count alarcos. by the author of "vivian grey." london: henry colburn, publisher, . . . [printed by j. l. cox and sons] . . . . _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a -a and b-h in eights, title on a , two final leaves of advertisement, h and h . dedication to lord francis egerton, dated london, may, , and signed "[greek: delta]." disraeli, benjamin.--sybil; or, the two nations. by b. disraeli . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. disraeli, benjamin.--tancred; or, the new crusade. by b. disraeli . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition, with portrait inserted. disraeli, benjamin.--lothair. by the right honorable b. disraeli . . . london: longmans, green, and co . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. disraeli, benjamin.--endymion by the author of lothair. london: longmans, green, and co . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by david._ first edition. d'israeli, isaac.--an essay on the manners and genius of the literary character. by i. d'israeli. london: printed for t. cadell, junr. and w. davies. . . . . _crown vo, boards, uncut edges._ first edition. d'israeli, isaac.--miscellanies; or, literary recreations. by i. d'israeli. london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies. . . . . _crown vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ thick paper copy of the first edition. d'israeli, isaac.--romances, [arabian, roman, and arcadian] by i. d'israeli. london: printed for cadell and davies, &c . . . . . . . _post vo, blue levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with frontispiece by a. smith. d'israeli, isaac.--flim-flams! or the life and errors of my uncle and his friends with illustrations and obscurities, by messieurs tag, rag, and bobtail. a literary romance . . . with eleven plates, a new edition, with material alterations and additions. london: printed for john murray, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ second edition, the eleven plates by dagley, all coloured. d'israeli, isaac.--calamities of authors; including some inquiries respecting their moral and literary characters. by the author of "curiosities of literature"   london: printed for john murray . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, by bedford._ first edition. d'israeli, isaac.--quarrels of authors; or, some memoirs for our literary history, including specimens of controversy to the reign of elizabeth. by the author of "calamities of authors," . . . london: printed for john murray . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, by bedford._ first edition. d'israeli, isaac.--quarrels of authors. . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half russia, gilt top, uncut edges._ another copy. portrait of d'israeli by ridley after drummond inserted. d'israeli, isaac.--curiosities of literature. sixth edition . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ d'israeli, isaac.--a second series of curiosities of literature: consisting of researches in literary, biographical, and political history; of critical and philosophical inquiries; and of secret history. by i. d'israeli . . . london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, half russia, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ d'israeli, isaac.--curiosities of literature, by i. d'israeli, esq., . . . illustrated by bolton corney, esq., . . . second edition, revised and acuminated. to which are added, ideas on controversy: deduced from the practice of a veteran; and adapted to the meanest capacity. london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ d'israeli, isaac.--the literary character, illustrated by the history of men of genius, drawn from their own feelings and confessions. by i. d'israeli. third edition, considerably enlarged and improved . . . london: john murray . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, by bedford._ d'israeli, isaac.--commentaries on the life and reign of charles the first, king of england. by i. d'israeli . . . london: henry colburn . . . - - . _ vo, five volumes, boards, uncut edges._ d'israeli, isaac.--amenities of literature, consisting of sketches and characters of english literature. by i. d'israeli . . . london: edward moxon, . . . mdcccxli. _ vo, three volumes, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ dix, john.--the life of thomas chatterton, including his unpublished poems and correspondence. by john dix. london: hamilton, adams, & co., . . . mdcccxxxvii. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ large paper copy, with portrait of chatterton by woodman after branwhite. dixon, william hepworth.--spiritual wives. by william hepworth dixon. . . . [portrait]   london: hurst and blackett, . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ dobree, samuel.--the book of death. london: printed by w. bulmer and co . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ sixty copies privately printed, with two plates on india paper. dobson, henry austin.--vignettes in rhyme and vers de société (now first collected) by austin dobson. henry s. king & co . . . london . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. dobson, henry austin.--proverbs in porcelain and other verses. by austin dobson. henry s. king & co., london. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. dobson, henry austin.--proverbs in porcelain   to which is added "au revoir" a dramatic vignette. by austin dobson. london   kegan paul, trench, trübner, & co. . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ twenty-four illustrations. dobson, henry austin, _editor_.--eighteenth century essays selected and annotated by austin dobson. london   kegan paul, trench, & co. mdccclxxxii. _crown vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with frontispiece on india paper. dobson, henry austin.--old-world idylls and other verses   by austin dobson . . . london   kegan paul, trench & co   m dccc lxxxiii. _post vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. dobson, henry austin.--old-world idylls and other verses by austin dobson. london   kegan paul, trench & co.   m dccc lxxxvi. _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece. dobson, henry austin.--old-world idylls and other verses   by austin dobson   london   kegan paul, trench & co.   mdccclxxxviii. _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ eighth edition, with a frontispiece by abbey. dobson, henry austin.--thomas bewick and his pupils by austin dobson with ninety-five illustrations   london   chatto and windus, . . . . _royal to, half vellum, uncut edges._ special edition. no. of two hundred copies printed for england. dobson, henry austin.--at the sign of the lyre by austin dobson   london    kegan paul, trench & co.   m dccclxxxv. _foolscap vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, with a frontispiece by abbey. dobson, henry austin.--at the sign of the lyre. . _crown vo, original covers, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with a frontispiece by abbey. dobson, henry austin.--life of oliver goldsmith by austin dobson london   walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition. dobson, henry austin.--horace walpole a memoir with an appendix of books printed at the strawberry hill press by austin dobson with illustrations by percy and leon moran   new york   dodd, mead and company [de vinne press]    . _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ first edition. no. of four hundred and twenty-five copies printed on dickinson paper. dobson, henry austin.--horace walpole. . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed on japan paper. dobson, henry austin.--horace walpole. . _ vo, red levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ one of four copies printed upon vellum, with ten original drawings by léon moran, and a set of the plates, in three states, inserted. dobson, henry austin.--four frenchwomen by austin dobson with a frontispiece   london   chatto & windus, . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, center panel, doubled with blue figured silk, silk guards, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. no. of fifty large paper copies printed; illustrated by the insertion of over twenty portraits on japan and india paper. dobson, henry austin.--william hogarth by austin dobson . . . london sampson low, marston and company . . . . _ to, half brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. frontispiece portrait, eleven other photogravures, and numerous full-page and vignette woodcuts. dobson, henry austin.--william hogarth. . _ to, olive levant morocco, gilt panels on the back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and three plates after the designs of hogarth. dobson, henry austin.--william hogarth. . _ to, one volume extended to two, light brown levant morocco, gilt fillets on the back, side panels, doubled with green silk, gilt borders, silk guards, gilt over uncut edges, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. besides the frontispiece portrait, forty-four full-page illustrations, some on japan paper, and thirteen vignettes on india paper, one hundred and ninety plates have been inserted, portraits of hogarth and engravings by t. cook and others after his designs. dobson, henry austin.--william hogarth. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with green morocco, narrow borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed, with proofs of the plates on india and japan paper. presentation copy from the author. dobson, henry austin.--the ballad of beau brocade and other poems of the xviii^{th} century by austin dobson with fifty illustrations by hugh thomson   london   kegan paul, trench, trübner, & co.   m dccc x cii. _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of four hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with full-page illustrations on japan paper and vignettes on india paper. dobson, henry austin.--eighteenth century vignettes by austin dobson . . . london   chatto & windus, . . . . _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ first edition. no. of two hundred and fifty specially illustrated, large paper copies printed, with seven plates. dobson, henry austin.--eighteenth century vignettes by austin dobson. illustrated. new york   dodd, mead and company. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, two hundred and fifty printed, with fourteen portraits, etc., on japan paper. dobson, henry austin.--eighteenth century vignettes   second series   by austin dobson . . . london   chatto & windus, . . . . _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ first edition. no. of two hundred specially illustrated, large paper copies printed; sixteen illustrations. dobson, henry austin.--the story of rosina and other verses by austin dobson   illustrated by hugh thomson   london   kegan paul, trench, trübner & co.   m dccc xcv. _ to, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed, with illustrations on japan and india paper. dobson, henry austin.--poems on several occasions by austin dobson. new edition revised and enlarged   with illustrations. new york: dodd, mead and company . . . . _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, quadruple fillet on back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ japan paper copy, fifty printed, with portrait by w. strang and etchings by lalauze in two states, proofs and unfinished proofs, the latter signed by the artists. dobson, henry austin.--a postscript to dr. goldsmith's retaliation, being an epitaph on samuel johnson, ll.d.   [oxford, clarendon press] printed in june, . _ to, half red morocco._ half-title and three pages of text, at the beginning of which is the following note: "[after the fourth edition of doctor goldsmith's retaliation was printed, the publisher received a supplementary epitaph on the wit and punster caleb whitefoord. though it is found appended to the later issues of the poem, it has been suspected that whitefoord wrote it himself. it may be that the following, which has recently come to light, is another of his forgeries.]" mr. dobson writes in a letter: "i wrote the 'postscript' in , to be read at the johnson dinner at pembroke college, oxford. johnson had not been treated in goldsmith's _retaliation_, and i thought i might add a 'postscript' like the one which is now appended to that poem, on caleb whitefoord, which many think whitefoord wrote himself. i printed it in to to read, and the clarendon press reprinted it in to to sell. in it was reproduced in an annual called _the pageant_. then it took its place in my _poems_." dobson, henry austin.--verses read at the dinner of the omar khayyám club on thursday, th march,    by austin dobson   london   printed at the chiswick press   mdcccxcvii. _ vo, half red morocco, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in._ no. of one hundred copies printed for edmund gosse in march, , to be presented to the members of the omar khayyám club as a memento of his presidency. dobson, henry austin.--carmina votiva and other occasional verses by austin dobson . . . london   printed for private circulation    . _post vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt over uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by the club bindery._ no. of a limited edition. dobson, henry austin.--see lang, andrew. the library. dodgson, charles.--alice's adventures in wonderland. by lewis carroll. with forty-two illustrations by john tenniel. london: macmillan and co. . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt edges._ first published edition. a few copies were printed in new york, . dodington, george bubb.--the diary of the late george bubb dodington, baron of melcombe regis: from march , , to february , . with an appendix containing some curious and interesting papers, which are either referred to, or alluded to, in the diary. a new edition. by henry penruddocke   wyndham . . . salisbury: printed and sold by e. easton: . . . mdcclxxxiv. _ vo, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ dodsley, robert.--the oeconomy of human life. translated from an indian manuscript, written by an ancient bramin. to which is prefixed, an account of the manner in which the said manuscript was discover'd. in a letter from an english gentleman, now residing in china, to the earl of * * * *   london: printed for m. cooper, . . . . _small vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage. bound with goldsmith's "bee._" first edition, with engraved frontispiece. dodsley, robert.--the oeconomy of human life. translated from an indian manuscript, written by an ancient bramin. to which is prefixed an account of the manner in which the said manuscript was discovered. in a letter from an english gentleman now residing in china to the earl of e * * * *. london: printed by t. rickaby, for s. and e. harding, . . . . _royal vo, calf, gilt back, side panels._ forty-nine vignettes by gardiner and others after harding. one of twenty-five copies printed upon large paper, with some proof plates. dodsley, robert.--the oeconomy of human life, translated from an indian manuscript, written by an ancient bramin [by robert dodsley] to which is prefixed an account of the manner in which the said manuscript was discovered. in a letter from an english gentleman now residing in china to the earl of e. * * * *. london. printed by t. rickaby, for e harding . . . . _small vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. in addition to the forty-nine vignettes after the style of bartolozzi, with which this book is identified, several other proof illustrations have been added. doran, john.--new pictures and old panels. by dr. doran, . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _crown vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ portrait of doran, and fifty-nine inserted portraits and views. doran, john.--"their majesties' servants". annals of the english stage from thomas betterton to edmund kean by dr. doran. f.s.a. edited and revised by robert w. lowe with fifty copperplate portraits and eighty wood engravings. london. john c. nimmo . . . mdccclxxxviii. _royal vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, three hundred printed, with the portraits in two states, on japan and india paper. the plates were intended to develop a new process of reproduction, but had to be finished by the burin. douce, francis.--illustrations of shakespeare, and of ancient manners: with dissertations on the clowns and fools of shakespeare; on the collection of popular tales entitled gesta romanorum; and on the english morris dance. by francis douce. the illustrations on wood by j. berryman [and nine plates]   london: longman . . . mdcccvii. _ vo, two volumes, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ douce, francis.--see dance of death. douglas, david.--see tailfer, patrick. dowson, ernest christopher.--the pierrot of the minute   a dramatic phantasy in one act written by ernest dowson   with a frontispiece, initial letter, vignette, and cul-de-lampe by aubrey beardsley   london    leonard smithers . . . mdcccxcvii. _royal vo, cloth, gilt top._ one of three hundred copies printed. doyle, sir arthur conan.--the adventures of sherlock holmes. by a. conan doyle. [illustrated]   london: george newnes, . . . . . . . _ vo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition. d'oyly, sir charles.--tom raw, the griffin: a burlesque poem, in twelve cantos: illustrated by twenty-five engravings, descriptive of the adventures of a cadet in the east india company's service . . . by a civilian and an officer of the bengal establishment   london: printed for r. ackermann . . . m.dccc.xxviii. _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by amand._ the twenty-five plates, coloured, are somewhat in the manner of rowlandson. drake, joseph rodman.--the culprit fay and other poems. by joseph rodman drake. new york: george dearborn, . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. portrait, frontispiece-title, three inserted plates and two vignettes, proofs on india paper. drake and halleck.--the croakers, by joseph rodman drake and fitz-greene halleck. first complete edition. new york   mdccclx. _royal vo, blue morocco, back and sides in gilt tools and mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by pawson and nicholson._ portraits of the authors, and (inserted) an autograph letter from halleck and forty-one portraits and views of new york. no. of the bradford club publications, and no. of one hundred and fifty subscriber's copies printed. drake and halleck.--the croakers. . _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ no. of one hundred club copies printed, extra-illustrated by the insertion of sixty-six plates, including portraits and early views of new york, many in proof state. drake, joseph rodman.--see halleck, fitz-greene. drake, nathan.--essays, biographical, critical, and historical, illustrative of the tatler, spectator, and guardian. by nathan drake, m.d. . . . london: printed by c. whittingham, . . . for john sharpe, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with three portraits in volume i, by p. w. tomkins, f. bartolozzi, and n. schiavonetti after h. thomson, j. richardson, and kneller; and twelve portraits in volume iii after kneller, woolaston, zinck and five others. in volume ii are two inserted views. the portraits in the eight volumes of "the spectator" (see british classics) were designed to illustrate the present work, in which are pages of references. drake, nathan.--essays, biographical, critical, and historical, illustrative of the rambler, adventurer, & idler, and of the various periodical papers which, in imitation of the writings of steele and addison, have been published between the close of the eighth volume of the spectator, and the commencement of the year . by nathan drake, m.d. . . . printed by j. seeley, buckingham, for w. suttaby, . . . london. . [- .] _post vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with a view and a portrait of warton by n. schiavonetti after reynolds. drake, nathan.--evenings in autumn; a series of essays, narrative and miscellaneous. by nathan drake . . . london: printed for longman . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ drake, nathan.--noontide leisure; or, sketches in summer, outlines from nature and imagination, and including a tale of the days of shakespeare. by nathan drake . . . london: printed for t. cadell . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ drake, nathan.--mornings in spring; or retrospections, biographical, critical, and historical. by nathan drake . . . london: john murray . . . mdcccxxviii. _crown vo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ dramatists.--english comic dramatists edited by oswald crawfurd   london    kegan paul trench & co., mdccclxxxiii. _crown vo, red levant morocco, blind-tooled back and side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed, illustrated by the insertion of two sepia drawings and nine portraits, some proofs and some on india paper. drury, drew.--illustrations of natural history. wherein are exhibited upwards of two hundred and forty figures of exotic insects, according to their different genera; very few of which have hitherto been figured by any author, being engraved and coloured from nature, with the greatest accuracy, and under the author's own inspection, on fifty copper-plates. with a particular description of each insect: interspersed with remarks and reflections on the nature and properties of many of them. by d. drury. to which is added a translation into french . . . london: printed for the author, and sold by b. white, . . . - - . _ to, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ the title, as above, refers chiefly to the first volume: the second volume contains figures on plates and the third, figures on plates; in all, figures on plates. du bois, edward, _translator_.--the wreath; composed of selections from sappho, theocritus, bion, and moschus. accompanied by a prose translation, with notes. to which are added remarks on shakespeare, &c and a comparison between horace and lucian. by edward du bois . . . london: printed by t. bensley . . . . _royal vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large paper copy, with a frontispiece and thirty-two inserted plates, proofs on india paper and before letters, some in two states. du bois, edward.--my pocket book; or, hints for "a ryghte merrie and conceitede" tour, in quarto; to be called "the stranger in ireland", in . by a knight errant. . . . a new edition. in which will be found, amongst other pleasant and satirical novelties, an introduction; a description of the plates; illustrative anecdotes from my "tour through holland" in ; an appendix, containing three mss. found in st. patrick's abbey; and an essay in defence of bad spelling. london: printed for vernor, hood, and sharpe, &c . . . . _ mo, scotch plaid silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ fourth edition, with five tinted plates. du bois, henri pÈne.--american book bindings in the library of henry william poor described by henri pène du bois   illustrated in gold-leaf and colors by edward bierstadt   printed at the marion press   jamaica . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of thirty-five copies printed on imperial japan paper. duel.--the duel; a poem: inscribed to the right-honourable w---- p----y esq; . . . london: printed for a. moore, . . . and sold by a. dodd, . . . e. nutt, . . . and j. joliffe, . . . [n.d.]   _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ duer, william a.--reminiscences of an old yorker. by the late william a. duer, ll.d., president of columbia college, etc. new york: printed for w. l. andrews, . _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ no. of thirty-five copies printed. duff, edward gordon.--early printed books by e. gordon duff, london: kegan paul, trench, trübner & co., . . . mdcccxciii. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty large paper copies printed: with woodcut title and eleven facsimile plates on japan paper. duff, plomer, and proctor.--handlists of english printers - . part i. by e. gordon duff. [part ii. by e. gordon duff, h. r. plomer and r. proctor.]   london: printed by blades, east & blades, for the bibliographical society, september, . [-december, .] _ to, two volumes, original paper covers, uncut edges._ part i treats of wynkyn de worde, julian notary, r. & w. faques, and john skot; part ii, of r. pynson, r. copland, j. rastell, p. treveris, r. bankes, l. andrewe, w. rastell, t. godfray, and j. byddell. duff, edward gordon.--william caxton by e. gordon duff, m. a. . . . chicago   the caxton club   m c m v. _ to, half cloth, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty-two copies printed on american hand-made paper, with twenty-five illustrations. dufief, nicolas gouÏn.--. . . nature displayed in her mode of teaching language to man; being a new and infallible method of acquiring languages with unparalleled rapidity; deduced from the analysis of the human mind, and consequently suited to every capacity: adapted to the french by n. g. dufief . . . the ninth edition. london: printed for the author, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, ivory levant, richly decorated on back and sides with flowers and leaf spray, and the arms of charles x on both covers, wide inside borders with shield in corners, silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by c. lewis._ special copy printed and bound for presentation to charles x of france, with india proof portrait of the author engraved by edwin inserted, the presentation inscription, and facsimiles on silk, etc. dufresnoy, charles alphonse.--the art of painting of charles alphonse du fresnoy. translated into english verse by william mason, m. a. with annotations by sir joshua reynolds . . . york: printed by a. ward . . . m. dcc.lxxxiii. _ to, old green morocco, with the arms of horace walpole on each cover, gilt edges._ horace walpole's copy with notes in his handwriting. he has also added portraits of dryden, pope, gray, mason, and reynolds, a view of strawberry hill, and his book-plate. dunlap, william.--history of the rise and progress of the arts of design in the united states. by william dunlap . . . new york: george p. scott and co. . . . . _ vo, two volumes, boards, uncut edges._ dunlap, william.--thirty years ago; or the memoirs of a water drinker. by the author of memoirs of george frederick cooke, &c . . . new york: published by bancroft & holley, . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ dunlop, john.--the history of fiction: being a critical account of the most celebrated prose works of fiction, from the earliest greek romances to the novels of the present age. by john dunlop. edinburgh: printed by james ballantyne and co. . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ first edition. dunlop, john.--the history of fiction: being a critical account of the most celebrated prose works of fiction, from the earliest greek romances to the novels of the present age. by john dunlop . . . second edition. edinburgh: printed by james ballantyne and co. for longman, hurst, rees, . . . . _post vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ dunlop, john.--history of roman literature from its earliest period to the augustan age . . . by john dunlop . . . second edition. london: printed for longman . . . . [- ] _ vo, three volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ dunton, john.--the life and errors of john dunton, citizen of london; with the lives and characters of more than a thousand contemporary divines, and other persons of literary eminence. to which are added, dunton's conversation in ireland; selections from his other genuine works; and a faithful portrait of the author . . . printed by and for j. nichols, son, and bentley . . . london    . _ vo, two volumes, half calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ dunton, john.--see harley pamphlets. duppa, richard.--the life of michel angelo buonarroti, with his poetry and letters. by r. duppa, . . . second edition. london: printed for john murray, &c . . . m. dccc. vii. _royal to, half red morocco, uncut edges._ portrait by f. bartolozzi, and forty-nine plates, six of them double and one folded. duppa and de quincy.--. . . michel angelo, by r. duppa, l.l.b. raffaello, by quatremere de quincy . . . london: david bogue, . . . mdcccxlvi. _ vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ the second biography was translated by william hazlitt. a medallion portrait of michael angelo is prefixed to the volume. durand, john.--the life and times of a. b. durand by john durand with illustrations   new york   charles scribner's sons    . _ to, buckram, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of taine, to whom the work is dedicated, and fifteen other illustrations. dÜrer, albrecht.--the passion of our lord jesus christ pourtrayed by albert durer. edited by henry cole . . . london: joseph cundall . . . [printed by c. whittingham at the chiswick press]    . _small to, brown morocco, back and sides covered with blind tooling adapted from a german binding of the xvth century, gilt edges, by clarke and bedford._ thirty-seven illustrations in facsimile of dürer's "small passion." with the exception of two subjects, this work is taken from the thirty-seven original blocks drawn upon by dürer for the engraver. dÜrer, albrecht.--the passion of our lord jesus christ. . _ vo, red velvet, overlapped and doubled with silk, the sides decorated with brass ornaments, center showing the monogram of dürer, clasp, gilt edges._ printed entirely on vellum. dusimitier, pierre eugÈne.--portraits of the generals, ministers, magistrates, members of congress, and others, who have rendered themselves illustrious in the revolution of the united states of north america. drawn from the life, by m. dusimitier, painter, and member of the philosophical society of philadelphia. and engraved by the most eminent artists in london. london: published by r. wilkinson, . . . and j. debrett, . . . mdcclxxxiii. _ to, half russia, gilt back._ twelve portraits, brilliant original impressions, engraved by b. b. e., and the original cover on which the continuation of the series was announced. dwight, timothy.--the conquest of canäan; a poem, in eleven books. by timothy dwight . . . hartford: printed by elisha babcock. m.dcc.lxxxv. _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ portrait of the author by leney after trumbull. dyce, alexander, _editor_.--specimens of british poetesses; selected and chronologically arranged, by the rev. alexander dyce. london: t. rodd, . . . . _crown vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ dyce, alexander.--remarks on mr. j. p. collier's and mr. c. knight's editions of shakespeare. by the rev. alexander dyce. . . . london: edward moxon, . . . m dccc xliv. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ dyce, alexander.--see sonnets. dyer, charles george.--biographical sketches of the lives and characters of illustrious and eminent men. by charles george dyer. illustrated with whole length portraits. . . . london: published by c. g. dyer, &c . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ forty-eight plates by j. romney and t. priscott after reynolds, bartolozzi, zoffany, vandyke, vertue, and others. dyer, john.--the fleece: a poem. in four books. by john dyer, ll.b. [vignette]   london: printed for r. and j. dodsley, in pall-mall. m. dcc. lvii. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. eastlake, sir charles lock.--materials for a history of oil painting. by charles lock eastlake . . . london: printed for longman, . . . . [- ] _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ eastlake, sir charles lock.--a history of the gothic revival   an attempt to show how the taste for mediæval architecture which lingered in england during the two last centuries has since been encouraged and developed by charles l. eastlake . . . london   longmans, green, and co. . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top._ thirty-six full-page woodcuts, and twelve illustrations in the text. eastlake, sir charles lock.--see kugler, franz theodor. eastlake, lady, _editor_.--life of john gibson, r. a. sculptor. edited by lady eastlake. london: longmans, green, and co.    . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of gibson engraved by adlard. eaton, charlotte a.--rome, in the nineteenth century; . . . by charlotte a. eaton. fifth edition. to which is now first added a complete index, and thirty-four engraved illustrations. . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ ebsworth, j. w.--cavalier lyrics: 'for church and crown'. by j. w. ebsworth, . . . london and hertford: stephen austin and sons: now first imprinted, for private circulation. . _ vo, paper, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and fifty copies printed; with woodcut frontispiece. edgeworth, maria.--tales and novels by maria edgeworth. london: printed for baldwin and cradock: . . . . _post vo, eighteen volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispieces and special engraved titles for each volume. edwards, charles lincoln.--bahama songs and stories   a contribution to folk-lore by charles l. edwards, . . . [ illustrations]   boston and new york   published for the american folk-lore society by houghton, mifflin and company . . . . _ vo, cloth, gilt top._ edwards, edward.--memoirs of libraries; including a hand book of library economy. by edward edwards. london: trübner & co. . _ vo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by f. bedford._ large paper copy, with numerous illustrations. edwards, edward.--libraries and founders of libraries. by edward edwards. london: trübner and co.    . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by f. bedford._ large paper copy, thirty printed. edwards, edward.--the life of sir walter raleigh based on contemporary documents preserved in the rolls house, the privy council office, hatfield house, the british museum, and other manuscript repositories, british and foreign. together with his letters: now first collected. by edward edwards. . . . macmillan and co. . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait by c. h. jeens after francis zucchero, armorial bearings, genealogical table, and two facsimiles. effigies poeticÆ.--see proctor, b. w. egan, pierce.--life in london; or, the day and night scenes of jerry hawthorn, esq. and his elegant corinthian tom, accompanied by bob logic, the oxonian, in their rambles and sprees through the metropolis. by pierce egan, . . . dedicated to his most gracious majesty king george the fourth. [woodcut]   embellished with thirty-six [coloured] scenes from real life, designed and etched by i. r. & g. cruikshank; and enriched also with numerous original designs on wood, by the same artists. london: printed for sherwood, neely, and jones, . . . . _royal vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original covers bound in, by rivière._ first edition. eglesfield, francis.--monarchy revived; being the personal history of charles the second, from his earliest years to his restoration to the throne. reprinted from the edition of . with fourteen portraits. london: printed for charles baldwyn . . . mdcccxxii. _royal vo, red calf, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy. the portraits, engraved by r. cooper, are proofs on india paper. eliot, george.--scenes of clerical life by george eliot . . . william blackwood and sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclviii. _ vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--adam bede by george eliot   william blackwood and sons edinburgh . . . mdccclix. _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--the mill on the floss by george eliot   william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . md ccc lx. _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--silas marner: the weaver of raveloe by george eliot william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclxi. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--romola by george eliot   london: smith, elder and co. mdccclxiii. _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--romola by george eliot with illustrations by sir frederick leighton, . . . london. smith, elder, and co., . . . . _imperial vo, two volumes, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of one thousand copies printed, with twenty-four plates and numerous vignettes on india paper. eliot, george.--felix holt the radical by george eliot   william blackwood and sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclxvi. _crown vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--the spanish gypsy, a poem, by george eliot. william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclxviii. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--middlemarch; a study of provincial life by george eliot    william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclxxi-ii. _crown vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--the legend of jubal and other poems by george eliot william blackwood and sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclxxiv. _post vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--daniel deronda by george eliot. a new edition . . . william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclxxvi. _crown vo, four volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ eliot, george.--impressions of theophrastus such by george eliot william blackwood and sons, edinburgh . . . mdccclxxix. _crown vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. eliot, george.--george eliot's life as related in her letters and journals. arranged and edited by her husband j. w. cross   william blackwood and sons   edinburgh . . . mdccclxxxv. _post vo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. three portraits, proofs on india paper, and eight woodcut illustrations. elliott, grace dalrymple.--journal of my life during the french revolution. by grace dalrymple elliott. london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ three portraits after cosway, sir joshua reynolds, etc. ellis, edwin j.--fate in arcadia and other poems by edwin j. ellis with [ ] illustrations by the author   london    . ward & downey. . . . _imperial vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ ellis, george.--history of the late revolution in the dutch republic london, printed for edwards . . . . _ to, red morocco, gilt back, silk linings, by h. walther, with his ticket._ large paper copy. ellis, henry.--original letters illustrative of english history; including numerous royal letters: from autographs in the british museum, and one or two other collections. with notes and illustrations by henry ellis, . . . london   printed for harding, triphook, and lepard. mdcccxxv. [-mdcccxlvi.] _crown vo, eleven volumes, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ the three volumes of the first series are dated , "second edition;" the four volumes of the second series, "printed for harding and lepard," ; the four volumes of the third series, published by richard bentley, . six portraits by g. thomson, t. a. dean, b. holl, j. cooke, and s. freeman after h. corbould, nicholas hilliard, and t. wageman. elmes, james.--the arts and artists, or anecdotes and relics of the schools of painting, sculpture, & architecture, by james elmes [vignette]   london: john knight & henry lacy . . . mdcccxxv. _post vo, three volumes, half blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ engraved title-pages, fourteen portraits, and two plates of autographs in facsimile. elmes, james.--sir christopher wren and his times. with illustrative sketches and anecdotes of the most distinguished personages in the seventeenth century. by james elmes . . . london:--chapman & hall, . . . mdccclii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ steel portrait of wren. elton, charles isaac, and mary augusta.--the great book-collectors . . . london   kegan paul, &c . . . mdcccxciii. _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ large paper copy, one hundred and fifty printed, with ten illustrations. elwood, anne katharine.--memoirs of the literary ladies of england, from the commencement of the last century. by mrs. elwood . . . london: henry colburn . . . . _ mo, two volumes, half citron levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ two portraits. elze, karl.--lord byron a biography with a critical essay on his place in literature   by karl elze translated with the author's sanction, and edited with notes   with portrait and facsimile. london. john murray, . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ emblems of mortality; representing, in upwards of fifty cuts, death seizing all ranks and degrees of people; imitated from a painting in the cemetery of the dominican church at basil, in switzerland: with an apostrophe to each, translated from the latin and french. intended as well for the information of the curious, as the instruction and entertainment of youth. to which is prefixed a copious preface, containing an historical account of the above, and other paintings on this subject, now or lately existing in divers parts of europe. london: printed for t. hodgson, . . . m dcc lxxxix. _ mo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back and side corners in the manner of roger payne, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. woodcut frontispiece and fifty-one cuts of holbein's dance of death, modernized and engraved by bewick. after the third edition, the blocks were destroyed by fire. emblems, for the entertainment and improvement of youth: containing hieroglyphical and enigmatical devices, relating to all parts and stations of life; together with explanations and proverbs, in french, spanish, italian, and latin, alluding to them, and translated into english: the whole curiously engrav'd on copper plates. sold by r. ware . . . [n.d.] _ vo, old blue calf, gilt back, side borders, panels blind-tooled in diamonds._ frontispiece, "delectando moneo," engraved title, and plates, each in compartments. plates xli and xlviii are transposed, but not the text. emerson, ralph waldo.--nature . . . boston: james munroe and company. mdcccxxxvi. _ mo, original cloth._ first edition, with autograph letter of the author inserted. emerson, ralph waldo.--(i.) essays: by r. w. emerson. boston: james munroe and company. mdcccxli. (ii.) essays: second series. by r. w. emerson. boston: james munroe and company. mdcccxliv. _ mo and mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over untrimmed edges, by david._ first edition of both series. emerson, ralph waldo.--poems. by r. w. emerson. boston: james munroe and company. . _ mo, green levant morocco, back and sides covered with trefoil and star ornaments, gilt over uncut edges, by the doves bindery. ._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--poems by ralph waldo emerson. london: chapman, brothers, . . . m.dccc.xlvii. _ mo, citron levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by alfred matthews._ english copyright edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--representative men: seven lectures. by r. w. emerson. boston: phillips, sampson and company, . . . . _ mo, maroon morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--miscellanies; embracing nature, addresses, and lectures. by r. w. emerson. boston: phillips, sampson, and company. m.dccc.lvi. _ mo, red morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--english traits. by r. w. emerson. boston: phillips, sampson, and company. . _ mo, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--the conduct of life. by r. w. emerson. boston: ticknor and fields. m dccc lx. _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--society and solitude. twelve chapters. by ralph waldo emerson. boston: fields, osgood, & co. . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--letters and social aims. by ralph waldo emerson. boston: james r. osgood and company, . . . . _ mo, original cloth._ first edition. emerson, ralph waldo.--see carlyle and emerson. engineers.--personal recollections of english engineers, and of the introduction of the railway system into the united kingdom. by a civil engineer, author of the "trinity of italy." london: hodder and stoughton, . . . m dccclxviii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ english drama.--the new english drama, [ comedies, tragedies, operas, farces, and melodramas] with prefatory remarks, biographical sketches, and notes, critical and explanatory; being the only edition existing which is faithfully marked with the stage business and stage directions, as performed at the theatres royal. edited by w. oxberry, comedian. . . . london. published for the proprietors by w. simpkin and r. marshall, . . . c. chapple, . . . and sold by w. and j. lowndes, . . . . [- ] _ mo, twenty-two volumes, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by pratt._ large paper copy, with portraits of celebrated players. english lyrics   london   kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxiii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. english odes   selected by edmund w. gosse   london   c. kegan paul & co., . . . mdccclxxxi. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with a frontispiece on india paper. english poets.--passages from modern english poets. illustrated by the junior etching club. forty-seven etchings. [by tenniel, whistler, millais, &c.] london: published by day & son, . . . [ ] _ to, cloth, gilt edges._ engravings.--india proofs from the annuals. literary souvenir, &c. seventy five plates after corbould, westall, smirke, stephanoff, leslie, &c.   london    . _folio, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ epictetus.--the works of epictetus. consisting of his discourses, in four books, the enchiridion, and fragments. a translation from the greek based on that of elizabeth carter, by thomas wentworth higginson. boston: little, brown, and company. [university press] . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ one of seventy-five large paper copies printed. epictetus   [reprinted from the translation of george long] london arthur l. humphreys    . _ to, two volumes, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ erasmus, desiderius.--proverbs, chiefly taken from the adagia of erasmus, with explanations; and further illustrated by corresponding examples from the spanish, italian, french & english languages. by robert bland . . . london: printed for t. egerton . . . . _crown vo, two volumes in one, blue morocco, back and sides richly gilded, embossed gilt edges, by j. wright._ estcourt, richard.--the fair example: or the modish citizens. a comedy. as it was acted at the theatre royal in drury lane. by mr. estcourt. [one line in latin, four in english]   london, printed for bernard lintott . . . . price s. d. _ to, blue calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a-k in fours, title on a , a misprinted h . dedicated to christopher rich, chief patentee, governor and manager of the theatre royal. evans, abel.--vertumnus. an epistle to mr. jacob bobart, botany professor to the university of oxford, and keeper of the physick-garden. by the author of the apparition. [two lines from virgil]   oxford: printed by l. l. for stephen fletcher book-seller: . . . . _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ engraved frontispiece of a triumphal arch erected to king charles and the earl of danby, celebrated in the poem (page ) as the generous patron who planted while bobart tilled. title and a-d in fours. evans, john.--the progress of human life: shakspeare's seven ages of man; illustrated by a series of extracts in prose and poetry. . . . by john evans, . . . second edition. [cut]   chiswick: printed by charles whittingham; . . . . _crown vo, half cloth, uncut edges._ evelyn, alexander john.--english alice, a poem in five cantos, by alexander john evelyn, esq. london: william pickering. . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ everett, edward.--the life of george washington. by edward everett. new york: sheldon and company . . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy. [eyton, joseph walter king.]--catalogue of the library of joseph walter king eyton . . . london    . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with coloured frontispiece and seven book-plates of the owner, a facsimile of one of roger payne's remarkable bills for binding, and india proof impressions of portraits of bishop andrews, thomas frognall dibdin, and thomas sharpe. facetiÆ: being a general collection of the jeux d'esprits which have been illustrated by robert cruikshank . . . containing nearly sixty engravings. london: william king . . . m.dccc.xxxi. _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rousselle._ some of the thirteen separate titles bear the date . the series includes "the devil's walk," by coleridge and southey; "the real devil's walk"; "the high-mettled racer," by charles dibdin; and "monsieur tonson," by john taylor. faction.--an essay on faction . . . london, printed for j. peele . . . mdccxxxii. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ fagan, louis.--the life of sir anthony panizzi, k. c. b., late principal librarian of the british museum, senator of italy, &. &c. by louis fagan, . . . with an etching and other illustrations by the author. . . . london: remington & co., . . . . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ fagan, louis.-- . . . the art of michel' angelo buonarroti as illustrated by the various collections in the british museum. by louis fagan. . . . with [ ] illustrations and a frontispiece [portrait] by the author. london: dulau & co., . . . m. dccc. lxxxiii. _royal vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ fagan, louis.--collectors' marks by louis fagan . . . with frontispiece [etched portrait of thomas earl of arundel] by the author. london: field & tuer . . . . _square vo, vellum, uncut edges._ twenty-eight plates of "collectors' marks." fagan, louis.--a descriptive catalogue of the engraved works of william faithorne, by louis fagan, . . . . bernard quaritch [gutenberg presse] . . . london. _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fairholt, frederick w.--an illustrated descriptive catalogue of the collection of antique silver plate formed by albert, lord londesborough; now the property of lord londesborough. by frederick w. fairholt, . . . printed for private reference, by t. richards, . . . m.dccclx. _ to, cloth._ twenty steel plates and several woodcut illustrations. fairholt, frederick w.--see irving and fairholt. fair suicide.--the fair suicide: being an epistle from a young lady to the person who was the cause of her death. london, printed for richard wellington . . . mdccxxxiii. _folio, red levant morocco, by the club bindery. bound with ten other works._ fairy feast.--the fairy feast, written by the author of a tale of a tub, and the mully of mountown. london: printed in the year, . _folio, cloth, by the club bindery._ these two poems are not found among swift's poetical works, , although written "by the author of a tale of a tub." falconer, william.--the shipwreck, a poem by william falconer a sailor: . . . the text illustrated by additional notes, and corrected from the first and second editions, with a life of the author, by james stanier clarke, . . . london. printed for william miller, . . . by t. bensley, . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ falconer, william.--the shipwreck, a poem, by william falconer, a sailor: . . . the text illustrated by additional notes, and corrected from the first and second editions; with a life of the author, by j. s. clarke, . . . london: printed for william miller, . . . . _ vo, etruscan calf, gilt back, gilt edges, with painting of a landscape under the gilding._ four full-page plates and six vignettes by james fittler after nicholas pocock. falconer, william.--the poetical works of william falconer [with a memoir by the rev. john mitford.]   london.   william pickering    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ falk, von mÜller, and others.--characteristics of goethe, from the german of falk, von müller, &c. with notes, original and translated, illustrative of german literature, by sarah austin. . . . london: published by effingham wilson, . . . . _crown vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ portrait on india paper, and two other frontispieces. fane, julian.--poems by the hon. julian fane   london   william pickering    . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fanshawe, catherine maria.--memorials of miss catherine maria fanshawe. [edited by w. harness.]   privately printed. [london, ]   _royal to, half brown morocco, gilt top._ farmer and henley, _editors_.--slang and its analogues past and present. a dictionary, historical and comparative, of the heterodox speech of all classes of society for more than three hundred years. with synonyms in english, french, german, italian, etc. compiled and edited by john s. farmer, . . . [and w. e. henley]   [london]   printed for subscribers only. m dccc xc. [-xcvi] _ to, seven volumes, half red calf, uncut edges._ no. of seven hundred and fifty copies printed. volume ii is dated , iii, , iv, (the last two edited by farmer and w. e. henley), v, , vi, , vii, . farmer, john s., _editor_.--national ballad and song   merry songs and ballads prior to the year a. d. edited by john s. farmer . . . privately printed for subscribers only m d ccc xcvii. _ to, five volumes, boards, uncut edges._ farrago. [by "pilgrim plowden"]   printed for the author. price s. d. stitcht. to be sold only by lawton gilliver . . . london. . _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt and blind-tooled back and side borders, gilt edges._ fau, j.--the anatomy of the external forms of man, intended for the use of artists, painters and sculptors. by doctor j. fau. atlas containing twenty-eight [coloured] drawings from nature; . . . edited with additions by robert knox, m. d. . . . london: hippolyte bailliere, . . . . _ to, half cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ faugeres, margaretta v.--see bleecker and faugeres. fea, allan.--the flight of the king being a full true and particular account of the miraculous escape of his most sacred majesty king charles ii. after the battle of worcester   by allan fea with numerous sketches & photographs by the author & portraits in photogravure   john lane, . . . london & new york   m:d·ccc·xcvii. _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ felissa; or, the life and opinions of a kitten of sentiment. . . . [ coloured plates]   london: printed for j. harris, . . . . _ mo, silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ fellowes, w. d.--a visit to the monastery of la trappe, in : with notes taken during a tour through le perchie, normandy, bretagne, poitou, anjou, le bocage, touraine, orleanois, and the environs of paris. by w. d. fellowes, esq. illustrated with numerous coloured engravings, from drawings made on the spot. london: printed for william stockdale, . . . . _ vo, figured brown silk, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ twelve coloured plates, one etching, one outline plate, and one vignette on india paper. felltham, owen.--resolves, divine moral and political by owen felltham esq.   london, pickering    . _post vo, citron morocco, back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges._ title-page within a border and rubricated. female faction.--the female faction: or, the gay subscribers. a poem. . . . london: printed for j. roberts, . . . m. dcc. xxix. . . . _folio, cloth, by the club bindery._ fenelon, franÇois de salignac de la mothe.--the lives and most remarkable maxims of the antient philosophers   london: printed for b. barker . . . and r. francklin . . . . _ mo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ fenn, george manville.--benjamin franklin stevens   by g. manville fenn    london printed at the chiswick press for private distribution    . _crown vo, buckram, uncut edges._ seven illustrations. fenton, elijah.--poems on several occasions. [large printer's ornament]   london: printed for bernard lintot . . . . _ vo, blue straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. engraved frontispiece by e. kirkall, and arms of the earl of orrery, to whom the work is dedicated. ferguson, james.--(i-ii.) the illustrated handbook of architecture: being a concise and popular account of the different styles of architecture prevailing in all ages and countries. by james ferguson, . . . with illustrations on wood. london: john murray, . . . . (iii.) history of the modern styles of architecture: being a sequel to the handbook of architecture . . . with illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, three volumes, russia, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition of both series. fergusson, james.--the illustrated handbook of architecture: being a concise and popular account of the different styles of architecture prevailing in all ages and all countries. by james fergusson, . . . second edition, with nearly illustrative engravings. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ fergusson, james.--(i.-ii.) a history of architecture in all countries, from the earliest times to the present day. by james fergusson . . . second edition. [ illustrations] london: john murray, . . . (iii.) history of indian and eastern architecture; by james fergusson, . . . [ illustrations]   london: john murray, . . . (iv.) history of the modern styles of architecture: being a sequel to the handbook of architecture. by james fergusson . . . with illustrations. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ ferriar, john.--illustrations of sterne: with other essays and verses. by john ferriar, m.d.   second edition   london: printed for cadell and davis . . . . _small vo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ fiddes, richard.--a prefatory epistle concerning some remarks to be published on homer's iliad: occasioned by the proposals of mr. pope towards a new english version of that poem. to the reverend dr. swift, dean of st. patrick's. by richard fiddes, b.d. chaplain to the right honourable the earl of oxford. [line in greek]   london: printed for john wyat, . . . and henry clements, . . . . _ mo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ fielding, henry.--(i.) love in several masques. a comedy, as it is acted at the theatre-royal, by his majesty's servants. written by mr. fielding. . . . london: printed for john watts, . . . . (ii.) the temple beau. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre in goodman's-fields. written by mr. fielding. . . . london: printed for j. watts, . . . m dcc xxx. (iii.) the coffee-house politician; or, the justice caught in his own trap. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in lincoln's-inn-fields. written by mr. fielding. london: printed for j. watts, . . . m dcc xxx. . . . (iv.) the grub-street opera. as it is acted at the theatre in the hay-market. by scriblerus secundus. . . . to which is added, the masquerade, a poem. printed in mdcc xxviii. london, printed, and sold by j. roberts, . . . m dcc xxx i. . . . (v.) the universal gallant: or, the different husbands. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by his majesty's servants. by henry fielding, esq; . . . london: printed for john watts, . . . m dccxxxv. . . . (vi.) miss lucy in town. a sequel to the virgin unmasqued. a farce; with songs. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by his majesty's servants. london: printed for a. millar, . . . . . . . (vii.) tumble-down dick: or, phaeton in the suds. a dramatick entertainment of walking, in serious and foolish characters: interlarded with burlesque, grotesque, comick interludes, call'd harlequin a pick-pocket. as it is perform'd at the new theatre in the hay-market. being ('tis hop'd) the last entertainment that will ever be exhibited on any stage. invented by the ingenious monsieur sans esprit: the musick compos'd by the harmonious signior warblerini. and the scenes painted by the prodigious mynheer van bottom-flat. . . . london: printed for j. watts . . . m dcc xliv. . . . (viii.) the intriguing chambermaid. a comedy of two acts. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by his majesty's servants. taken from the french of regnard, by henry fielding, esq; . . . london: printed for j. watts . . . m dccl. . . . (ix.) the letter-writers: or, a new way to keep a wife at home. a farce, in three acts. as it is acted at the theatre in the hay-market. written by henry fielding, esq; . . . london: printed for j. watts . . . m dccl. _ vo, nine works in one volume, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt edges_. first editions. the running head-line of "the coffee-house politician" is "rape upon rape." fielding, henry.--the dramatic works of henry fielding, esq. . . . london, printed for a. millar, . . . m dcc lv. _post vo, three volumes, spanish calf, gilt back, citron edges._ first collected edition. the sub-titles have different dates, and the plays contained in each volume are not those indicated on the general titles. i. . the covent garden tragedy, . . historical register for , . . the mock doctor, . . the lottery, th ed., . . tumble-down dick, . . the intriguing chambermaid, . . miss lucy in town, nd ed., . . the debauchees, rd ed., . . the universal gallant, . ii. . pasquin, rd ed., . . the miser, th ed., . . grub-street opera, . . the masquerade, . . the letter-writers, or a new way to keep a wife home, . . life and death of tom thumb, th ed., . . author's farce, rd ed., . iii. . don quixote in england, . . the modern husband, nd ed., . . an old man taught wisdom, or the virgin unmasked, th ed., . . love in several masques, . . the coffee-house politician, or the justice caught in his own trap (the running-title is rape upon rape; or, the justice caught in his own trap), . . the temple beau, . volume ii contains a plate by van der gucht after hogarth. fielding, henry.--the history of the adventures of joseph andrews, and of his friend mr. abraham adams. written in imitation of the manner of cervantes, author of don quixote. london: printed for a. millar . . . m.dcc.xlii. _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. fielding, henry.--the adventures of joseph andrews. by henry fielding, esq. with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank. london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ fielding, henry.--miscellanies, by henry fielding: . . . london: printed for the author: and sold by a. millar . . . mdccxliii. _ vo, three volumes, brown levant morocco, centre ornaments on the sides, gilt edges, by rivière._ large paper copy of the first edition. fielding, henry.--the history of tom jones, a foundling . . . by henry fielding. london: printed for a. millar . . . mdccxlix. _ mo, six volumes, old calf._ first edition. fielding, henry.--the history of tom jones, a foundling. by henry fielding, esq; . . . paris: printed by fr. amb. didot the eldest . . . m.dcc.lxxx. _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ holland paper copy from the collection of a. a. renouard, with his autograph in the third volume. illustrated by the addition of six portraits of fielding and over one hundred plates, proofs on india paper and before letters, etc., by moreau le jeune, borel, unwins, stothard, clennell, johannot, corbould, etc., many in two and three states. fielding, henry.--the history of tom jones, a foundling. by henry fielding, esq. with a memoir of the author by thomas roscoe esq. and illustrations by george cruikshank   london: james cochrane and co. . . . . _post vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ portrait, eight plates by cruikshank, also (inserted) the illustrations by moreau (coloured) and johannot, proofs on india paper. fielding, henry.--an enquiry into the causes of the late increase of robbers, &c. with some proposals for remedying this growing evil. in which the present reigning vices are impartially exposed; and the laws that relate to the provision for the poor, and to the punishment of felons are largely and freely examined. . . . by henry fielding, esq; barrister at law, and one of his majesty's justices of the peace for the county of middlesex, and for the city and liberty of westminster. london: printed for a. millar, . . . m. dcc. li. [price s. d.]   _ vo, red levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedicated to philip lord hardwick, lord high chancellor. fielding, henry.--amelia. by henry fielding, esq; . . . london: printed for a. millar, . . . m.dcc.lii. _ mo, four volumes, old calf, gilt back._ first edition. fielding, henry.--the history of amelia. by henry fielding, esq. with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ fielding, henry.--(i.) a clear state of the case of elizabeth canning, who hath sworn that she was robbed and almost starved to death by a gang of gipsies and other villains in january last, for which one mary squires now lies under sentence of death. [three lines from cicero. parad.]   by henry fielding, esq; london: printed for a. millar . . . m. dcc. liii. (price one shilling.) (ii.) a clear state of the case of elizabeth canning, . . . [same text as above]   the second edition. london: printed for a. millar . . . m. dcc. liii. (price one shilling.) _ vo, three works in one volume, brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with these two editions is dr. hill's "story of elizabeth canning considered."_ etched portrait by worlidge inserted. fielding, henry.--the journal of a voyage to lisbon, by the late henry fielding, esq; london: printed for a. millar, . . . mdcclv. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. fielding, henry.--the journal of a voyage to lisbon by henry fielding with introduction and notes by austin dobson. london printed and issued by charles whittingham & co . . . mdcccxcii. _ mo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of twenty-five copies printed on japanese vellum paper, with a portrait of fielding. fielding, henry.--the works of henry fielding, esq; with the life of the author [by arthur murphy]. a new edition, in ten volumes. to which is now added, the fathers; or, the good-natured man. london: printed for w. strahan &c mdcclxxxiv. _ vo, ten volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ portrait, by basire after hogarth, and twelve plates by collyer after rooker's designs. fielding, henry.--the works of henry fielding, esq. with an essay on his life and genius, by arthur murphy, . . . a new edition, . . . london: printed for f. c. and j. rivington, &c . . . . _ vo, ten volumes, original boards, uncut edges._ portrait after hogarth. printed from the quarto edition of . fielding, henry.--the fathers: or, the good-natur'd man. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal, in drury-lane. by the late henry fielding, esq. author of tom jones, etc. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . m dcc lxxviii. (price one shilling and six pence.) _ vo, sprinkled calf, gilt back, some edges uncut._ first edition. a-p in fours, title on a . written many years before fielding's death, and mentioned by him in the preface to his miscellanies, , as "the good natured man." dedication by john fielding to the duke of northumberland, prologue and epilogue by garrick. fielding, sir john.--see jest-books. fielding, sarah.--the lives of cleopatra and octavia. by the author of david simple. london: printed for the author, and sold by andrew millar, . . . r. and j. dodsley, . . . and j. leake, . . . m. dcc. lvii. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges._ fielding, theodore henry adolphus.--the theory and practice of painting in oil and water colours, for landscape and portraits; including the preparation of colours, vehicles, varnishes, etc., method of painting in wax, or encaustic; remarks on the chemical properties and permanency of colours, etc.; and a manual of lithography. illustrated with [ ] plain and coloured plates. by t.h. fielding, . . . fifth edition. london: david bogue, . . . m dccc lii. _royal vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ fields, james thomas.--poems by james t. fields. boston: william d. ticknor & company. mdccc xlix. _ mo, original cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. filson, john.--the discovery, settlement and present state of kentucke: and an essay towards the topography, and natural history of that important country. to which is added, an appendix, containing, i. the adventures of col. daniel boon, one of the first settlers, comprehending every important occurrence in the political history of that province. ii. the minutes of the piankashaw council, held at post st. vincents, april , . iii an account of the indian nations inhabiting within the limits of the thirteen united states, their manners and customs, and reflections on their origin. iv. the stages and distances between philadelphia and the falls of the ohio, from pittsburg to pensacola, and several other places.--the whole illustrated by a new and accurate map of kentucke and the country adjoining, drawn from actual surveys. by john filson. wilmington: printed by james adams. . _ vo and to, green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges; the book by bradstreet's, the map by joly._ the excessively rare map, for many years believed to be a mistaken promise of the title-page, is found with this copy, though bound separately. manuscript by daniel boone and portrait inserted. firdusi (firdausi: abul kasim mansur).--the epic of kings stories retold from firdusi by helen zimmern   with two etchings by l. alma tadema,--and a prefatory poem by edmund w. gosse   london   t. fisher unwin   m dccc lxxxii. _ to, decorated cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ large paper copy. fisher, joseph.--eighty-four etched fac-similes, on a reduced scale, after the original studies by michael angelo and raffaelle in the university galleries, oxford. etched and published by joseph fisher . . . second series. oxford, m dccc lxii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fisher, richard.--catalogue of a collection of engravings, etchings, and woodcuts. [with sixty-five illustrations] . [printed by john c. wilkins.] _royal vo, half maroon morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ fisher, richard.--introduction to a catalogue of the early italian prints in the british museum by richard fisher--london   printed at the chiswick press    . _royal vo, cloth, uncut edges._ fisher's garland.--a collection of right merrie garlands for north country anglers. newcastle: printed for emerson charnley   mdcccxxxvi. _ vo, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ woodcuts by bewick. these "garlands" begin with the "tyne fisher's farewell to his favourite stream," , followed by the fisher's garland from to , and end with "the angler's progress; a poem" [by herman boaz], each with a separate title and woodcut, the dates from to . robert roxby and thomas doubleday wrote the fisher's garland for - - - - -' , and ' , william gill thompson, , ' (and the "tyne fisher's farewell"), william green in , thomas doubleday, and ' . fisher's garland.--a collection of right merrie garlands for north country anglers. edited by joseph crawhall and continued to this present year   newcastle-on-tyne: george rutland . . . . _ vo, half roxburghe morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ woodcuts by bewick, etc. the authors were herman boaz, robert roxby, thomas doubleday, william gill thompson, william green, robert nichol, and william andrew chatto. fishing.--the whole art of fishing. being a collection and improvement of all that has been written upon this subject: with many new experiments. shewing the different ways of angling, and the best methods of taking fresh-water fish. to which is added, the laws of angling. [twelve lines from pope]   london, printed for e. curll, . . . . price s. or s. d. _small vo, panelled calf, gilt back._ frontispiece by h. halsbergh. fitzgerald, edward.--euphranor a dialogue on youth   london   william pickering    . _ mo, cloth._ first edition. fitzgerald, edward.--see omar khayyám. fitzgerald, percy.--the life of david garrick; from original family papers, and numerous published and unpublished sources. by percy fitzgerald . . . [two portraits]   london: tinsley brothers . . . . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ fitzgerald, percy.--the romance of the english stage. by percy fitzgerald . . . london: richard bentley & son . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half green morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ flaubert, gustave.--bouvard and pécuchet authorised edition translated from the french with an introduction by d. f. hannigan, . . . illustrated with nine original designs after s. gorski   london   h. s. nichols . . . . . . _ vo, decorated green satin, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed upon japan paper, with illustrations in two states, blue and bistre. flaxman, john.--compositions from the tragedies of Æschylus designed by iohn flaxman engraved by thomas piroli   london   published for i. flaxman jun^{r}. jan. . , by j. matthews . . . _oblong to, boards, uncut edges._ engraved title and thirty other outline plates. flaxman, john.--lectures on sculpture. by john flaxman . . . with a brief memoir of the author. london: john murray . . . mdcccxxix. _royal vo, red morocco, gilt and blind-tooled, gilt edges._ portrait of flaxman on india paper and fifty-one plates. the plates are numbered from one to fifty-two, but plate eighteen was cancelled. from the library of sir thomas lawrence, with his autograph. flaxman, john.--lectures on sculpture. . . . . _royal vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy. flaxman, john.--see homer. fletcher, william younger.--english book-bindings in the british museum    illustrations of sixty-three examples selected on account of their beauty or historial interest   with introduction and descriptions   by william younger fletcher . . . the plates printed in facsimile by w. griggs . . . london   kegan paul, trench, trübner and company, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of five hundred copies printed. sixty-six plates in colour. fletcher, william younger.--foreign book-bindings in the british museum    illustrations of sixty-three examples selected on account of their beauty or historical interest   with introduction and descriptions   by william younger fletcher . . . the plates printed in facsimile by w. griggs . . . london   kegan paul, trench, trübner and company, . . . . _ to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of five hundred copies printed. sixty-five coloured plates. fletcher, william younger.--english book collectors by william younger fletcher . . . london   kegan paul, trench, trübner and company, . . . . _ to, vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed on japanese paper. woodcut title-page and forty-six illustrations. flora. songs in the opera of flora, with the humorous scenes of hob, design'd by ye celebrated mr gravelot, & engrav'd by g. bickham jun^{r}. the music proper for ye violin, german, & common flute, harpsichord or spinet with a new base, & thoro' base to each song. london. sold by t. cooper . . . . _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ twenty-eight engraved pages, twenty-five with illustrations by gravelot. flowers of fable, from northcote, Æsop, croxall, gellert, dodsley, gay, la fontaine, lessing, krasicki, herder, merrick, cowper, etc. with numerous engravings. new york: harper & brothers, . . . . _ mo, original silk binding, gilt edges._ foote, samuel.--the maid of bath; a comedy in three acts: as performed at the theatre-royal in the haymarket [ ]: written by the late samuel foote, esq. and published by mr. colman. london: printed for w. lowndes, and s. bladon. . _ vo, scotch plaid silk._ prologue by garrick, epilogue by cumberland. title and b-e in eights. foote, samuel.--the dramatic works of samuel foote, esq. to which is prefixed a life of the author . . . london: printed for a. millar . . . m,dcc,xcvii. _ mo, two volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ foote, samuel.--the works of samuel foote, esq. with remarks on each play, and an essay on the life and writings of the author, by john bee esq. . . . london: sherwood, gilbert, and piper . . . . _ mo, three volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait of foote after reynolds. foote and hook.--bon-mots of samuel foote and theodore hook edited by walter jerrold with grotesques by aubrey beardsley   london: published by j. m. dent and company . . . mdcccxciv. _foolscap vo, buckram, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred large paper copies printed, with portraits of foote and hook. ford, richard.--twelve etchings, after drawings and engravings by parmigianino, and andrea meldolla: in the collection of richard ford. london    . _ to, original boards._ the twelve etchings by ford are in two, three, and four states, and eight additional etchings, also by ford, show various stages of progress. the issue was limited and privately printed. this copy contains the autograph of ford and his presentation inscription to henry wellesley. forster, henry rumsey.--see boaden, forster, and others. forster, john.--the life and adventures of oliver goldsmith. a biography: in four books [portrait]   by john forster, . . . london: bradbury & evans, . . . and chapman & hall, . . . . _crown vo, original cloth, gilt edges._ first edition. numerous woodcuts. forster, john.--the life and times of oliver goldsmith. by john forster . . . second edition. london: bradbury and evans . . . . _ vo, two volumes in four, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by william matthews._ illustrated by the insertion of two hundred and five portraits, including many fine proofs and plates in two states. forster, john.--the life of charles dickens. by john forster . . . london: chapman and hall . . . [ -' ]. _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ six portraits, and numerous other illustrations. forsyth, william.--hortensius: or, the advocate, an historical essay. by william forsyth . . . london: john murray . . . . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ forsyth, william.--history of trial by jury. by william forsyth . . . london: john w. parker and son . . . m.dccc.lii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ forsyth, william.--history of the captivity of napoleon at st. helena; from the letters and journals of the late lieut.-gen. sir hudson lowe, and official documents not before made public. by william forsyth, . . . with portrait and map. [and two other illustrations]   london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ fortnum, c. drury e.--a descriptive catalogue of maiolica hispano-moresco, persian, damascus, and rhodian wares, in the south kensington museum. with historical notices, marks, & monograms. by c. drury e. fortnum, . . . london: printed by george e. eyre and william spottiswoode, . . . . _royal vo, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ twelve coloured plates and numerous woodcuts. fortnum, c. drury e.--maiolica a historical treatise on the glazed and enamelled earthenwares of italy, with marks and monograms also some notice of the persian damascus, rhodian, and hispano-moresque wares by c. drury e. fortnum with illustrations [ plates, including coloured frontispiece]   oxford at the clarendon press    . _royal to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ foss, henry.--see payne and foss. foster and taylor.--birket foster's [ ] pictures of english landscape. (engraved by the brothers dalziel) with pictures in words by tom taylor. london: routledge, warne, and routledge. . . . mdccc lxiii. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ foster, john.--an essay of the evils of popular ignorance: and a discourse on the communication of christianity to the people of hindoostan. by john foster. third edition. london: holdsworth and ball . . . . _ vo, half green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ foster and atkinson, _editors_.--an illustrated catalogue of the loan collection of plate exhibited in the fitzwilliam museum may by j. e. foster, . . . and t. d. atkinson   cambridge   deighton bell & co and macmillan & bowes for the cambridge antiquarian society    . _royal to, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and sixty copies printed. sixteen plates and fifteen illustrations in the text. fouchÉ, joseph.--the memoirs of joseph fouché, duke of otranto, minister of the general police of france. with a portrait. [engraved by vincent from the rare print suppressed by the french police]   translated from the french. . . . london: printed for charles knight, . . . m dccc xxv. _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ first edition. fouquÉ, lamotte.--peter schlemihl: from the german of lamotte fouqué. with [ ] plates by george cruikshank. london: g. and w. b. whittaker . . . . _ mo, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. though attributed to fouqué, the real author was adalbert von chamisso. fouqué, however, suggested the plot. fouquÉ, la motte.--see woltmann and fouqué. francis, john w.--old new york: or, reminiscences of the past sixty years. by john w. francis, . . . with a memoir of the author, by henry t. tuckerman. new york: w. j. widdleton, . . . m dccc lxv. _royal vo, unbound._ large paper copy. two portraits and a view. francklin, thomas.--matilda: a tragedy. as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. by the author of the earl of warwick. london: printed for t. cadell, . . . . . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. franklin, benjamin.--an account of the newly invented pennsylvanian fire-places: wherein their construction and manner of operation is particularly explained; their advantages above every other method of warming rooms demonstrated; and all objections that have been raised against the use of them, answered and obviated. with directions for putting them up, and for using them to the best advantage. and a copper-plate, in which the several parts of the machine are exactly laid down, from a scale of equal parts. philadelphia: printed and sold by b. franklin. . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, by the club bindery._ includes the folded plate as well as the original covers. franklin, benjamin.--poor richard improved: being an almanack and ephemeris of the motions of the sun and moon; the true places and aspects of the planets; the rising and setting of the sun; and the rising, setting and southing of the moon, for the year of our lord : [ :] being the first [second] after leap-year. . . . by richard saunders, philom. philadelphia: printed and sold by b. franklin, and d. hall. _ mo, two volumes, light brown levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, in a brown straight-grain morocco case, by bedford._ franklin, benjamin.--the way to wealth or poor richard improved by benjamin franklin. paris. printed for ant. aug. renouard . . . m.dcc.xcv. _ vo, blue morocco, back richly tooled, panelled sides, silk linings, gilt over uncut edges, by bozerian._ large and thick paper copy: six printed, with proof impression of the portrait by tardieu after duplessis. the greater part of this book is accompanied by a french translation. following the well-known epitaph are twenty-eight pages preceded by the sub-title, "observations sur les sauvages du nord de l'amérique, par franklin," with a separate pagination and not included in the table. charles nodier's copy. franklin, benjamin.--the way to wealth. . _ mo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ another copy printed upon large paper, with proof impression of the portrait of franklin by tardieu after duplessis. franklin, benjamin.--the way to wealth or poor richard improved by benj. franklin. paris, printed for ant. aug. renouard, [by p. causse at dijon] . . . m.dcc.xcv. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners after the manner of roger payne, uncut edges, by rivière._ large paper copy, with two impressions of the exquisite portrait of franklin by alex. tardieu after duplessis, one a proof before the name on the tablet. franklin, benjamin.--[poor richard. bowles's moral pictures; being lessons for the young and the old, on industry, temperance, frugality, &c. or poor richard illustrated. by the late dr. benj. franklin.] _ to, half green morocco, gilt edges._ a portfolio containing the twenty-four original water-colour drawings by dighton, with the engravings published by bowles; also original water-colour drawings of franklin and his press, and two engraved portraits. franklin, benjamin.--the private life of the late benjamin franklin, ll. d. late minister plenipotentiary from the united states of america to france, &c. &c. &c. originally written by himself, and now translated from the french. to which are added, some account of his public life, a variety of anecdotes concerning him, by m. m. brissot, condorcet, rochefoucault, le roy, &c. &c. and the eulogium of m. fauchet, . . . london: printed for j. parsons, . . . . _ vo, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ franklin, benjamin.--the works of benjamin franklin; containing several political and historical tracts not included in any former edition, and many letters official and private not hitherto published; with notes and a life of the author. by jared sparks. . . . boston: hilliard gray, and company. . _royal vo, ten volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ large paper copy. twenty-two plates, including five portraits. franks, david.--see new york directory. frankum, richard.--the bee and the wasp. a fable.--in verse. with [ ] designs and etchings, by g. cruikshank. . . . london: charles tilt, . . . . _small vo, half blue calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, with the original yellow paper covers bound in._ first edition. frankum, richard.--the bee and the wasp   a fable in verse with [ ] illustrations designed and etched by george cruikshank   london   basil montagu pickering . . . . _small to, original boards, uncut edges._ second edition. the preface is signed r. f. freer, martha walker.--the life of marguerite d'angoulême, queen of navarre, duchesse d'alencon and de berry, sister of francis i., king of france. from numerous unpublished sources, including ms. documents in the bibliotheque imperiale, and the archives du royaume de france, and also the private correspondence of queen marguerite with francis i., &c. . . . by martha walker freer. . . . [mrs. john robinson]   london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with three steel plates. freer, martha walker.--the life of jeanne d'albret, queen of navarre. . . . by martha walker freer, . . . london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with two steel plates. freer, martha walker.--elizabeth de valois, queen of spain, and the court of philip ii. from numerous unpublished sources, in the archives of france, italy, and spain. by martha walker freer. london: hurst and blackett . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portraits of elizabeth de valois and catherine de medici, engraved by a. t. heath. freer, martha walker.--henry iii. king of france and poland: his court and times. from numerous unpublished sources, including ms. documents in the bibliotheque impériale, and the archives of france and italy, etc. by martha walker freer. london: hurst and blackett . . . . _post vo, three volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. three portraits engraved by baker. freer, martha walker.--history of the reign of henry iv. king of france and navarre . . . part i. henry iv and the league. by martha walker freer. . . . london: hurst and blackett, . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with two steel plates. freer, martha walker.--henry iv. and marie de medici. part ii. of the history of the reign of henry iv. king of france and navarre . . . by martha walker freer . . . london: hurst and blackett . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with portraits of marguerite de valois and marie de medici. freer, martha walker.--the last decade of a glorious reign. part iii. of the history of the reign of henry iv. king of france and navarre . . . by martha walker freer . . . london: hurst and blackett . . . . _post vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. portraits of the marquise de verneuil and the princesse de condé and her children. freer, martha walker.--the married life of anne of austria, queen of france, mother of louis xiv. and don sebastian, king of portugal. historical studies. from numerous unpublished sources, . . . by martha walker freer, . . . london: tinsley brothers, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with steel portrait of the queen. freer, martha walker.--the regency of anne of austria, queen regent of france, mother of louis xiv. from numerous unpublished sources, . . . by martha walker freer, . . . london: tinsley brothers, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with steel portrait. freneau, philip.--poems written between the years & , by philip freneau, of new jersey: a new edition, revised and corrected by the author; including a considerable number of pieces never before published. . . . monmouth [n. j.] printed at the press of the author, at mount-pleasant, near middletown-point; m, dcc, xcv: and, of--american independence--xix. _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ freneau, philip.--poems written and published during the american revolutionary war, and now republished from the original manuscripts; interspersed with translations from the ancients, and other pieces not heretofore in print. by philip freneau. . . . the third edition, in two volumes. . . . philadelphia: from the press of lydia r. bailey, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, brown levant morocco, doubled with dark green russia, tooled in gilt, russia guards, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ two frontispieces, king tammany and captain paul jones's victory, engraved by joh. eckstein. according to freneau's declaration in a letter to jefferson, may , , this is the first edition of his poems that received his personal attention, "the other two having been published, while i was wandering over gloomy seas, until _embargoed_ by the necessity of the times." later he wrote to madison, "that edition [ ] was published by _subscription_ merely for the benefit of, and to assist mrs. bailey, an unfortunate but deserving widowed female, niece to general steele, and this consideration alone induced me to pay some attention to that third edition." freneau, philip.--a bibliography of the separate and collected works of philip freneau together with an account of his newspapers   by victor hugo paltsits . . . new york   dodd, mead and company    . _ mo, original gray paper covers._ frere, john hookham.--the works of the right honourable john hookham frere in verse and prose . . . memoir by the right hon. sir bartle frere    second edition   revised with additions   london   basil montagu pickering . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait. large paper copy. frith, william.--john leech   his life and work by william powell frith, r.a. with portrait and numerous illustrations . . . london   richard bentley and son . . . . _ vo, two volumes, vellum cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. presentation copy from the author, with inscription. froude, james anthony.--history of england from the fall of wolsey to the death of elizabeth. by james anthony froude, . . . london: john w. parker and son, . . . . [- ] _ vo, twelve volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ volumes i-ii are dated ; iii-iv, ; v-vi, ; vii-viii, , "fourth edition" with portrait of queen elizabeth engraved by c. h. jeens; xi-xii, , "a new edition." froude, james anthony.--short studies on great subjects. by james anthony froude, . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . [- , , .] _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ froude, james anthony.--the cat's pilgrimage by james anthony froude, . . . [vignette]   with six illustrations by j. b.   edinburgh: edmonston and douglas. . _ to, original boards._ reprinted from "short studies of great subjects." fulcher, george williams.--life of thomas gainsborough, r. a.   by the late george williams fulcher, edited by his son. london: longman . . . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ frontispiece, title, and birthplace of gainsborough engraved on steel. fuller, margaret.--memoirs of margaret fuller ossoli. boston: phillips, sampson and company. mdccclii. _ mo, two volumes, cloth._ the chapters on concord and boston were written by ralph waldo emerson. fulton, robert.--a treatise on the improvement of canal navigation; exhibiting the numerous advantages to be derived from small canals. and boats of two to five feet wide, containing from two to five tons burthen. with a description of the machinery of facilitating conveyance by water through the most mountainous countries, independent of locks and aqueducts: including observations on the great importance of water communications, with thoughts on, and designs for, aqueducts and bridges of iron and wood. illustrated with seventeen plates. by r. fulton, civil engineer. london. published by i. and j. taylor . . . . _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with forty figures on seventeen plates, and two final leaves of advertisement. inserted are two portraits, one after the original painting by chappel, the other by w. s. leney after benjamin west. fulton, robert.--torpedo war, and submarine explosions. by robert fulton, . . . new york: printed by william elliot, . . . . _oblong to, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ eight figures on five plates. presentation copy from the author to dr. thornton, with inscription on the fly leaf. fuseli, henry.--see pilkington, matthew. gaine, hugh.--the journals of hugh gaine printer   edited by paul leicester ford . . . new york   published by dodd, mead & company . . . mcmii. _royal vo, two volumes, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of thirty copies printed on imperial japan paper: with portrait and thirty-six other illustrations. gainsborough, thomas.--a collection of prints illustrative of english scenery, from the drawings and sketches of tho^{s}. gainsborough, r. a. in the various collections of the right honourable baroness lucas; viscount palmerston; george hibbert, esq.; dr. monro and several other gentlemen    london: engraved by w. f. wells and j. laporte; and published by john and josiah boydell, . . . [n. d.]   _folio, old red straight-grain morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ sixty plates, for the most part coloured. gale, norman.--marsh marigolds, by the author of primulas and pansies, etc. rugby: george e. over . . . . _royal vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of sixty copies printed. gale, norman.--anemones, a collection of simple songs from unleavened bread, primulas and pansies, marsh marigolds, with fresh flowers from the author's garden   rugby: george e. over . . . . _royal vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of sixty copies printed. gale, norman.--meadowsweet. by the author of marsh marigolds. rugby: printed by george e. over, at the rugby press. [ ]   _ mo, original covers, uncut edges._ no. of fifty copies printed in red, black, and gold. gale, norman.--thistledown essays whereof the tale is six penned in the studies of rusticus & one who is a friend of his. rugby: george e. over     . _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of twenty-two large paper copies printed, with title printed in gold and colour. gale, norman.--cricket songs and other trifling verses penned by one of the authors of "thistledown." . . . rugby: george e. over. . _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of twenty large paper copies printed, in gold and green. gale, norman.--cricket songs by norman gale. methuen and co., . . . london . _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of fifteen copies printed on japanese vellum paper. gale, norman.--here be blue and white violets from the garden wherein grew meadowsweet. rugby: printed by george e. over. [ ] _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of twenty-five large paper copies printed, with etched frontispiece in two states, black and green; by herbert dicksee. gale, norman.--prince redcheek. printed by g. e. over, at the rugby press. [ ] _post vo, original covers, uncut edges._ fifty copies printed. gale, norman.--gorillas   rugby   printed by george e. over, the rugby press. [ ] _post vo, original covers, uncut edges._ sixty copies printed. gale, norman.--a june romance. norman gale. rugby printed and published by george e. over. [ ] _ mo, original covers, uncut edges._ one of twenty-three large paper copies printed. gale, norman.--a country muse by norman r. gale. london david nutt . . . [rugby press] . _ mo, cloth, uncut edges._ five hundred copies printed. gale, norman.--a country muse. new series by norman r. gale . . . london david nutt . . . . _ vo, half vellum, uncut edges._ one of seventy-five large paper copies printed. gale, norman.--a cotswold village by norman gale   fifteen copies privately printed at the rugby press june . _ vo, original covers, uncut edges._ presentation copy from the author, with autograph inscription. gale, hayes, and le gallienne.--a fellowship in song alfred hayes [from midland meadows] richard le gallienne [nightingales] norman gale [a verdant county] rugby george e. over . . . . _post vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy. gale, norman.--orchard songs by norman gale. london. elkin mathews & john lane . . . . _post vo, vellum, uncut edges._ special edition on hand-made paper, one hundred and fifty printed. galt, john.--the autobiography of john galt . . . london: cochrane and m'crone . . . . _ vo, two volumes, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of galt by graves after irvine. gambado, geoffrey.--see bunbury, h. gammer gurton's garland: or, the nursery parnassus. a choice collection of pretty songs and verses, for the amusement of all little good children who can neither read nor run. london: printed for r. triphook, . . . by harding and wright, . . . . _ vo, tree calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ on the verso of the title is a note: "parts i. and ii. were first collected and printed by a literary gentleman deceased; who supposed he had preserved each piece according to its original idiom: an opinion not easily refuted, if worth supporting. parts. iii. and iv. are now first added." gammer gurton's garland.--see ritson, joseph. garcilasso de la vega.--see vega, garcilasso de la. garden, alexander.--anecdotes of the revolutionary war in america, with sketches of character of persons the most distinguished, in the southern states, for civil and military services. by alexander garden. charleston: printed for the author    . _ vo, brown calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ garden, alexander.--anecdotes of the american revolution, illustrative of the talents and virtues of the heroes and patriots, who acted the most conspicuous parts therein. by alexander garden. second series. charleston . . . a. e. miller . . . . _ mo, half red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by allô._ garnett, richard, _translator_.--iphigenia in delphi a dramatic poem with homer's "shield of achilles" and other translations from the greek by richard garnett . . . t. fisher unwin . . . london . . . mdcccxc. _ mo, vellum, uncut edges._ no. of thirty copies printed on japan paper, with frontispiece. garnett, richard, _editor_.--three hundred notable books added to the library of the british museum under the keepership of richard garnett -    printed by t. and a. constable for the editors and subscribers   march m dccc xcix. _royal vo, half red morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait and woodcuts. garrick, david.--the lying valet; in two acts. as it is performed gratis, at the theatre in goodman's-fields. by d. garrick. london: printed for and sold by paul vaillant,. . . ; and j. roberts, . . . . (price one shilling.) _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. acted later at the theatre royal in drury lane. an alteration of "all without money," the second of motteux's five plays "the novelty. every act a play," . half-title, title, and "dramatis personæ," three leaves, and b-h in fours. garrick, david.--lethe. a dramatic satire. by david garrick. as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by his majesty's servants. london: printed for and sold by paul vaillant, . . . m dcc xlix. _ vo, brown morocco, gilt edges, lower ones uncut, by the club bindery._ first edition. half-title and title, and b-g in fours. garrick, david.--the gamesters: a comedy. alter'd from shirley. as it is perform'd, by his majesty's servants, at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. london: printed for j. and r. tonson, . . . m dcc lviii. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. garrick, david.--the farmer's return from london. an interlude. as it is performed at the theatre royal in drury-lane. london: printed by dryden leach, for j. and r. tonson, in the strand. mdcclxii. _ to, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition: frontispiece by james basire after hogarth. written for mrs. pritchard's benefit. garrick took the part of the farmer. half-title, a , title, a , and b-d in twos. garrick, david.--the poetical works of david garrick, esq. now first collected . . . with explanatory notes. london: printed for george kearsley, at johnson's head, fleet-street, mdcclxxxv. _small vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ garrick, david.--the dramatic works of david garrick, esq. to which is prefixed a life of the author . . . london: printed for a. millar . . . mdccxcviii. _ mo, three volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ portrait of garrick by w. sharp, inserted, artist's proof. garrick, david.--see colman and garrick. gaskell, elizabeth cleghorn stevenson.--the life of charlotte bronte . . . by e. c. gaskell . . . london: smith, elder & co., . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ first edition, with portrait by armytage. certain passages were afterwards suppressed because of statements challenged by persons concerned. gaskell, elizabeth cleghorn stevenson.--cranford [knutsford] by mrs. gaskell with a preface by anne thackeray ritchie and illustrations by hugh thomson london macmillan and co. . . . . _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy. gay, john.--the present state of wit, in a letter to a friend in the country. london printed in the year, m dcc xi. (price d.) _small vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, by the club bindery._ first edition. the letter is signed j. g. and dated westminster, may , . contains half-title and postscript, c . gay, john.--the wife of bath. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in drury-lane, by her majesty's servants. by mr. gay . . . london: printed for bernard lintott, . . . mdccxiii. _ to, half brown levant morocco._ first edition. a-i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . gay, john.--the shepherd's week. in six pastorals. by mr j. gay . . . london, printed: and sold by ferd. burleigh . . . mdccxiv. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. seven plates by lud. du guernier. gay, john.--the shepherd's week. . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy. gay, john.--trivia: or the art of walking the streets of london. by mr. gay . . . [device of crossed keys] london: printed for bernard lintott, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition: large and thick paper copy. three head-piece vignettes by gribelin, and the device of the publisher on the title-page. in the second edition, also n. d., the head-piece on the first page, the view of a london street, is substituted for the title device. gay, john.--trivia. [n. d.] _ vo, calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ another issue of the first edition, and probably later, as the plates of the tail-pieces appear to be worn. for the three engraved vignettes by gribelin on pages , , and --view of a london street, musical instruments, and pegasus rising into the clouds--woodcut headbands are substituted, the first containing an eagle, the second two cherubs supporting a basket of flowers, the third flowers and foliage. the title and letter-press of the two issues are identical, and the three errata on a verso are uncorrected. gay, john.--(i.) two epistles; one, to the right honourable richard earl of burlington; the other, to a lady. by mr. gay. london, printed for bernard lintot, . . . price d. [n. d.] (ii.) an epistle to a lady, occasion'd by the arrival of her royal highness the princess of wales. the fifth edition. london, printed for bernard lintot, . . . [n. d.] _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ a -d in eights, and two leaves of advertisement, d and d , title on a . gay, john.--poems on several occasions. by mr. john gay. . . . london: printed for jacob tonson, . . . and bernard lintot, . . . m d cc xx. _ to, two volumes in one, red morocco, gilt fillets on the side, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, with frontispiece by w. kent, and two other plates. the pagination is continuous. gay, john.--poems on several occasions. by mr. john gay . . . london: printed for j. and r. tonson, . . . mdcclxvii. _ mo, two volumes, red levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy. nine plates engraved by fourdrinier and isaac taylor after the designs of du guernier. gay, john.--(i.) fables. by mr. gay [mask vignette by p. f.] london: printed for j. tonson and j. watts. mdccxxvii. (ii.) fables. by the late mr. gay. volume the second. [vignette portrait] london: printed for j. and p. knapton, in ludgate-street; and t. cox, under the royal-exchange. mdccxxxviii. _ to, two volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. volume i contains a mask vignette on the title-page by fourdrinier, an introductory vignette and vignettes to each fable ( ) by fourdrinier, van der gucht, and others, from the designs of kent and wootton; volume ii has a frontispiece by scotin, the monument of gay, a vignette of gay on the title-page by scotin, and the illustrations ( ) are full-page, by the same engraver after the designs of gravelot. gay, john.--fables by the late mr. gay. in one volume complete. london, printed for j. and r. tonson, &c . . . mdcclxvii. _crown vo, two parts in one volume, red levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ dedicated to william duke of cumberland. frontispiece and sixty-seven other plates. gay, john.--fables by john gay. with a life of the author, and embellished with seventy plates. london: printed for john stockdale . . . . _imperial vo, two volumes bound in one, green levant morocco, back and sides richly ornamented in gold and mosaic, gilt edges, by rivière._ twelve of the illustrations are by william blake. gay, john.--fables. . _imperial vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, - / inches tall. gay, john.--fables by john gay, with a life of the author, and embellished with a plate to each fable. [vignette] london printed by darton & harvey, for f. & c. rivington, . . . m dcc xciii. _ vo, red morocco, gilt back, narrow side borders, gilt edges, by c. lewis._ large paper copy, with frontispiece by g. neagle, title-vignette and thirty-four other plates, each with two illustrations, all proofs. gay and moore.--fables by john gay, in two parts; to which are added fables by edward moore paris, printed by p. didot, the elder . . . [ ] _ mo, green vellum, uncut edges._ one of two copies printed on vellum: from the collection of junot, duc d'abrantes. gay, john.--fables by mr. john gay with a memoir by austin dobson. london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxii. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed, with a portrait. gay, john.--the beggar's opera. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in lincolns-inn-fields. written by mr. gay . . . to which is added, the musick engrav'd on copper-plates. london: printed for john watts, . . . mdccxxviii. [price s. d.] _ vo, light brown levant morocco, gilt edges._ first authorized edition. two leaves, b-d in eights, e, four leaves, f, one leaf, g and h, four leaves each. gay, john.--the beggar's opera. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in lincolns-inn-fields. written by mr. gay . . . the third edition: with the overture in score, the songs, and the basses, (the ouverture and basses compos'd by dr. pepusch) curiously engrav'd on copper plates. london: printed for john watts, . . . mdccxxix. _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ text: a-i in fours, musical score, a-e in fours, f, two leaves, and g, one leaf. title printed in red and black on a . gay, john.--polly: an opera. being the second part of the beggar's opera. written by mr. gay . . . london: printed for the author. mdccxxix. _ to, light brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ first edition. title printed in red and black and a-k in fours. musical score, a-d in fours. gay, john.--achilles. an opera. as it is perform'd at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. [two lines from ovid, one from horace] written by the late mr. gay. with the musick prefix'd to each song. london: printed for j. watts . . . m dcc xxx iii. price one shilling and six pence. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. half-title, a ; title, a ; text, a -a and b-f in fours, advertisements, f -f . gay, john.--achilles in petticoats. an opera. as it is performed at the theatre-royal, in covent-garden. . . . written by mr. gay, with alterations. the music entirely new by dr. arne. london, printed for w. strahan, t. lowndes, t. caslon, t. becket, w. nicoll, and r. snagg. m dcc lxxiv. _ vo, red straight-grain morocco, gilt fillets, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ an alteration by george colman of gay's "achilles," . a-f in fours, f blank, half-title on a , title on a . gay, john.--the distress'd wife. a comedy. by the late mr. gay, author of the beggar's opera. london: printed for thomas astley, . . . . _ vo, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. a-l in fours, half-title on a . gay, john. plays written by mr. john gay, viz. the captives, a tragedy. the beggar's opera. polly, or, the second part of the beggar's opera. achilles, an opera. the distress'd wife, a comedy. the rehearsal at goatham, a farce. to which is added, an account of the life and writings of the author. london: printed for j. and r. tonson, . . . m dcc lx. _crown vo, red levant morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with portrait. gay, john.--plays written by m^{r} john gay, viz. the captives, a tragedy. the beggar's opera. polly, or the second part of the beggar's opera. achilles, an opera. the distress'd wife, a comedy. the rehearsal at gotham, a farce. to which is prefixed an account of the life and writings of the author. london: printed for w. strahan . . . mdcclxxii. _ mo, calf, gilt back._ second edition. portrait, with quotation from martial beneath it. gay, john.--the miscellaneous works of m^{r} john gay. london. printed for john bell . . . mdcclxxiii. _ mo, six volumes, sprinkled calf, gilt back, yellow edges, by bedford._ frontispiece engraved by fourdrinier, portrait, etc. sub-titles as follows: vol. i. poems on several occasions. by mr. john gay, lintot and tonson, . ii. the same, . iv. plays written by mr. john gay. life and a portrait. w. strahan &c, . vi. fables by the late mr. gay: illustrations, w. strahan, . gay, john.--gay's chair. poems, never before printed, written by john gay, author of the beggar's opera, fables, &c. with a sketch of his life, from the mss. of the rev. joseph baller his nephew. edited by henry lee, author of poetic impressions, caleb quotem, &c. to which are added two new tales, the world, and gossip, by the editor. london: longman, . . . . _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ the original ms. of baller's life of gay, and the commission as lieutenant of gay's elder brother jonathan (signed by the duke of marlborough), are inserted in this volume, also mss. of "the maid's petition" and "answer to a predestinarian," the former said to be in the handwriting of gay. gay, john.--the poetical works of john gay. with a life of the author by dr. johnson. boston: little, brown and company . . . m.dcccliv. _ mo, two volumes, green morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ portrait of gay in oval. gay, john.--the poetical works of john gay. with a memoir [by samuel johnson] boston: little, brown, and company . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back with purple mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by david._ no. of one hundred copies printed on large paper. portrait of gay, proof on india paper, and (inserted) a series of thirty-three outline illustrations engraved by muss for an edition of gay's fables that was never published; also two portraits of gay and ten other proof plates, one in four states. gay, john.--the poetical works of john gay edited with a life and notes by john underhill . . . london: lawrence and bullen . . . . _post vo, two volumes, half vellum, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait. no. of two hundred copies printed on large paper. gay, john.--see pope, alexander. miscellaneous poems. . swift, jonathan. miscellanies, . "gay, joseph."--see breval, john durant. gay, sydney howard.--see bryant, william cullen. - . ged, william.--biographical memoirs of william ged; including a particular account of his progress in the art of block-printing. london, printed by and for j. nichols. mdcclxxxi. _ vo, calf, gilt back._ first edition: edited by j. nichols. ged was the inventor of stereotype printing in great britain, and his efforts to introduce the art brought nothing but ruin. foules and mack were engaged at the time on a similar plan, which they had to abandon. ged, william.--biographical memoirs of william ged; including a particular account of his progress in the art of block printing. newcastle: printed by s. hodgson, . . . m dccc xix. _ vo, russia, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ one hundred and sixty copies printed. woodcut frontispiece-title. edited by thomas hodgson. gell, sir william and john p. gandy.--pompeiana: the topography, edifices, and ornaments of pompeii. by sir william gell . . . and john p. gandy . . . london: printed for rodwell and martin - . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back panels, side corners, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ large paper copy of the first series. the charming head-pieces are duplicated on separate sheets, proofs on india paper, the large plates are in two states, the unfinished etching and the finished plate, generally on india, and the frescoes are duplicated in colour. gell, sir william.--pompeiana: the topography, edifices and ornaments of pompeii, the result of excavations since . by sir william gell . . . london: jennings and chaplin   mdcccxxxii. _ to, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back panels, side corners, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ only twenty-five copies were printed in this form, and of these only a portion were absolutely perfected. the portrait and other engravings in this second series are in two states, both on india paper, the first being the engraver's etching before all letters. general cashiered.--the general cashier'd: a play, as design'd for the stage. humbly inscrib'd to his highness prince eugene of savoy. london: printed for j. baker, . . . . (price s. d.) _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, some lower ones uncut, by zaehnsdorf._ first edition. a -k in fours, title on a . genest, john.--some account of the english stage, from the restoration in to . . . . bath: printed by h. e. carrington. . . . . _ vo, ten volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ german novelists, the.--see roscoe, thomas. gessner, salomon.--the death of abel in five books attempted from the german of m^{r}. gessner. london, published jan^{y}. ^{th}. . by t. heptinstall . . . [printed by c. whittingham] _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with portrait, engraved title, and four plates by blackberd after stothard. following "the death of abel" are "new idyls, by s. gessner. with a letter to m. fuslin, on landscape painting; and the two friends of bourbon, a moral tale, by m. diderot," with two plates, also by blackberd after stothard. ghost.--the surprizing appearance of a ghost, with the message he brought from the unseen and eternal world: being a brief paraphrase and improvement, (agreeable to our time and day) on the th. chap. of job, the ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, ^{th}, & ^{st} verses. viz. i. on the appearance of a spirit to eliphaz. ii. on the holiness and justice of god, and the pride and imperfection of man: (ver. .) iii. on the distrust of god towards his rational creatures, more especially man: (ver. , .) iv. on the destruction of man, occasioned by mortality: (ver. .) v. on the excellency of man; and it's defects, without true wisdom: (ver. ) vi. a poem on the day of judgment: vii. another, on the transcendent joys of heaven. boston: printed by fowle and draper, . . . . _ mo, brown levant morocco, gilt back and sides, uncut edges, in a blue levant morocco case, by rivière._ gibbon, edward.--the history of the decline and fall of the roman empire. by edward gibbon. oxford, talbays and wheeler; and william pickering, london   mdcccxxvii. _royal vo, eight volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, gilt over uncut edges, by brany._ one of fifty large paper copies, with proof portraits and frontispieces added. gibbons, thomas.--britannia's alarm: a poem, occasioned by the present rebellion. to which is added, a fable of the vine and bramble. by thomas gibbons. . . . london: printed for r. king, . . . j. buckland, and m. cooper . . . and m. marshal . . . m dcc xlv. . . . _small vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ first edition, with half-title. presentation copy from the author, with inscription on the title-page. gibbons, thomas.--an elegy on the death of the reverend mr. peter goodwin, who departed this life november , . in the lxivth year of his age. by thomas gibbons. . . . london: printed for j. oswald, . . . m dcc xlviii. _small vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ title in a mourning border, and mourning bands at the beginning and end of the poem. gibson, strickland.--early oxford bindings by strickland gibson [ plates] printed for the bibliographical society at the oxford university press january . _ to, original paper covers, uncut edges._ gift, the.--see leslie, eliza. gilbert, davies, _editor_.--some ancient christmas carols, with the tunes to which they were formerly sung in the west of england. collected by davies gilbert, . . . london: printed by john nichols and son, . . . . _ vo, half olive morocco, gilt top, uncut edges. bound with hone's "ancient mysteries" and one other work._ first edition. gilbert, josiah.--cadore or titian's country. by josiah gilbert, . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . _imperial vo, cloth, uncut edges._ thirty-five plates and nine woodcuts in the text. gilchrist, alexander.--life of william etty, r. a. by alexander gilchrist, . . . london: david bogue, . . . mdccclv. _small vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ gilchrist, alexander.--life of william blake, "pictor ignotus." with selections from his poems and other writings by the late alexander gilchrist, . . . illustrated from blake's own works, in facsimile by w. j. linton, and in photolithography; with a few of blake's original plates. london. . . : macmillan and co. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. gilchrist, alexander.--life of william blake with selections from his poems and other writings by alexander gilchrist . . . a new and enlarged edition illustrated from blake's own works with additional letters and a memoir of the author . . . london macmillan and co. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ in this edition the full-page illustrations are printed on india paper. gilliss, walter.--the story of a motto and a mark   being a brief sketch of a few printers' "marks" and containing the facts concerning the mark of the gilliss press   by walter gilliss. new york the gilliss press   m c m ii. _ mo, vellum boards, uncut edges._ one of twelve copies printed on french vellum paper. presentation copy from the author. gillman, james.--the life of samuel taylor coleridge. by james gillman. london, william pickering    . _ vo, red levant morocco, back panels in gilt and blue mosaic, gilt top, uncut edges, by champs._ only volume i was published. giovanni.--the pecorone of ser giovanni now first translated into english by w. g. waters illustrated by e. r. hughes, . . . london: laurence and bullen, . . . m dccc xc vii. _ to, half vellum, uncut edges._ no. of one hundred and ten copies printed on japanese vellum, with twelve plates. glanville, john.--variety; or poetical prolusions. by john glanville . . . london: printed for the author, by g. sidney . . . . _ vo, boards, uncut edges._ the author in his preface states that the best of this "variety" is from "the glowing pen of mr. samuel blake frome." a frontispiece is prefixed. glover, richard.--leonidas, a poem, by richard glover. adorned with plates. . . . the sixth edition. london: printed by t. bensley; for f. j. du roveray, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt fillets on the back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ large paper copy. frontispiece-portrait by fittler from a drawing by burney after a portrait by hone, with proof on india paper added, and six other plates, by bartolozzi after w. hamilton, delatre after burney, and j. neagle, holloway, and j. heath after stothard, with proofs of the bartolozzi and holloway engravings added. five other plates have been inserted, two by p. w. tomkins after tresham, both of them in three states; two by c. warren after j. thurston, two states; and one by smith after thurston, in two states. godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--a vindication of the rights of woman: with strictures on political and moral subjects. by mary wollstonecraft. london: printed for j. johnson . . . . _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. two portraits of the author are inserted, one a proof on india paper, by heath after opie. godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--défense des droits des femmes, suivie de quelques considérations sur des sujets politiques et moraux. ouvrage traduit de l'anglais de mary wollstonecraft . . . a paris, chez buisson . . . . _ vo, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--original stories, from real life; with conversations, calculated to regulate the affections, and form the mind to truth and goodness. london: printed for j. johnson, . . . m. dcc. lxxxviii. _ mo, brown straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--original stories from real life; with conversations, calculated to regulate the affections, and form the mind to truth and goodness. by mary wollstonecraft. a new edition. london: printed for j. johnson, . . . . _ mo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ illustrated with six plates designed and engraved by william blake. godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--maria, ou le malheur d'être femme, ouvrage posthume de mary wollstonecraft godwin: imité de l'anglais par b. ducos. a paris, chez maradan, . . . an vi- . _ mo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--posthumous works of the author of a vindication of the rights of woman . . . london: printed for j. johnson, . . . and g. g. and j. robinson, . . . . _small vo, four volumes, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ godwin, mary wollstonecraft.--a defence of the character and conduct of the late mary wollstonecraft godwin, founded on principles of nature and reason, as applied to the peculiar circumstances of her case; in a series of letters to a lady . . . london: printed for james wallis, . . . by slatter and munday, oxford. . _small vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ godwin, william.--memoirs of the author of a vindication of the rights of woman. by william godwin. london: printed for j. johnson, . . . and g. g. and j. robinson, . . . . _small vo, green straight-grain morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ portrait of mary wollstonecraft godwin by heath after opie. godwin, william.--mandeville. a tale of the seventeenth century in england. by william godwin. . . . in three volumes. . . . edinburgh: printed for archibald constable and co. and longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, london. . _ mo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, brown figured silk sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. the dedication to john philpot curran is dated october , . goethe, johann wolfgang von.--faustus, a dramatic mystery; the bride of corinth; the first walpurgis night. translated from the german of goethe, and illustrated with notes, by john anster, . . . london: printed for longman, rees, orme, brown, green, & longman, . . . .[- .] _crown vo, two volumes, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ goethe, johann wolfgang von.--(i.) faust: a tragedy, by j. wolfgang von goethe. translated into english verse by j. birch . . . [embellished with twenty-nine engravings on steel, after moritz retszch.] london: black and armstrong. . . . mdcccxxxix. (ii.) faust: a tragedy, in two parts, . . . the second part. translated into english verse, by jonathan birch, . . . embellished with eleven engravings on steel, by john brain, after moritz retszch. london: chapman and hall, . . . mdcccxliii. _royal vo, original cloth, uncut edges._ goethe, johann wolfgang von.--faust: a dramatic poem, by goethe. translated into english verse by theodore martin. william blackwood and sons, edinburgh and london. [whittingham press.] mdccclxv. _crown vo, cloth, uncut edges._ goethe, johann wolfgang von.--reynard the fox after the german version of goethe by thomas james arnold . . . london, nattali and bond, . . . . _ vo, citron morocco, back and sides covered with tooling in a geometrical design, gilt edges, by bedford._ engraved frontispiece-title, with the imprint, "william pickering, ," and twelve steel plates after the designs of joseph wolf. goethe, johann wolfgang von.--poems and ballads of goethe. translated by w. edmondstoune aytoun, d.c.l. and theodore martin. second edition william blackwood and sons: edinburgh . . . mdccclx. _post vo, calf, gilt back._ goethe, johann wolfgang von.--[first page] goethe's helena. translated by theodore martin. [n. p., n. d.] _crown vo, half brown straight-grain morocco, gilt top._ thirty-one pages of text, with no title-page, date, or place of publication. presentation copy from the translator, with inscription on the first page. goldsmith, oliver, _translator_.--the memoirs of a protestant, condemned to the galleys of france, for his religion. written by himself. comprehending an account of the various distresses he suffered in slavery; and his constancy in supporting almost every cruelty that bigotted zeal could inflict or human nature sustain; also a description of the galleys, and the service in which they are employed. the whole interspersed with anecdotes relative to the general history of the times, for a period of thirteen years; during which the author continued in slavery, 'till he was at last set free, at the intercession of the court of great britain. in two volumes. . . . translated from the original, just published at the hague, by james willington. [oliver goldsmith] london: printed for r. griffiths, . . . and e. dilly, . . . m. dcc. lviii. _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ these are the memoirs of jean marteilhe of bergerac. goldsmith took the name of james willington, an old classmate at trinity college, from "prudential motives," and the book is actually a translation. inserted is a receipt dated jan. , , and signed oliver goldsmith, to the effect that he received of mr. edward dilly £ . . for his third share of goldsmith's translation of the book. goldsmith, oliver.--the bee. being essays on the most interesting subjects . . . london: printed for j. wilkie, . . . mdcclix. _small vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by ramage. bound with dodsley's "oeconomy of human life."_ first edition, issued in eight numbers, from october to november , . goldsmith, oliver.--an enquiry into the present state of polite learning in europe. [vignette] london:   printed for r. and j. dodsley, . . . m.dcc.lix. _small vo, red niger skin, gilt back, wide side borders, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition, entirely uncut. inserted is an autograph letter from goldsmith to john dodsley, dated gray's inn, march , , and asking for ten guineas "as a favour." goldsmith, oliver.--an enquiry into the present state of polite learning in europe. by oliver goldsmith, m.b. the second edition, revised and corrected. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m dcc lxxiv. _ vo, red niger skin, gilt back, wide side borders, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ goldsmith, oliver.--the mystery revealed; containing a series of transactions and authentic testimonials, respecting the supposed cock-lane ghost; which have hitherto been concealed from the public . . . london: printed for w. bristow, . . . mdccxlii. [mdcclxii] _ vo, brown levant morocco, gilt back, rich side ornaments, gilt edges, by chambolle-duru._ first edition. the date is a typographical error; it should be , the lx being transposed. forster, in his life of goldsmith, states that this pamphlet "has not survived"--a sufficient proof of its rarity. goldsmith, oliver.--the art of poetry on a new plan: illustrated with a great variety of examples from the best english poets; and of translations from the ancients: together with such reflections and critical remarks as may tend to form in our youth an elegant taste, and render the study of this part of the belles lettres more rational and pleasing. london: printed for j. newbery, . . . m dcc lxii. _ mo, two volumes, calf, gilt and mosaic back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ first edition. frontispiece engraved by ant. walker. goldsmith, oliver.--the life of richard nash, of bath, esq; extracted principally from his original papers. . . . london: printed for j. newbery, . . . and w. frederick, at bath. mdcclxii. _ vo, maroon levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with blue morocco, wide borders of architectural design, gilt top, uncut edges, by meunier._ portrait by a. walker after a painting by hoare, and two final leaves of advertisement. not republished in the miscellaneous works. goldsmith, oliver.--the citizen of the world; or letters from a chinese philosopher, residing in london, to his friends in the east. . . . london: printed for the author; and sold by j. newbery and w. bristow, in st. paul's church-yard; j. leake and w. frederick, at bath; b. collins, at salisbury; and a. m. smart and co. at reading. m dcc lxii. _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side borders and centre ornaments, doubled with blue silk, gilt borders, silk guards, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ presumably the first issue of the first edition, "printed for the author." these letters were first published in the "ledger." goldsmith, oliver.--the citizen of the world; or letters from a chinese philosopher, residing in london, to his friends in the east. . . . london: printed for j. newbery, . . . mdcc lxii. _ mo, two volumes, brown morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ presumably the second issue of the first edition. the same sheets as the first issue, with a new title-page. [goldsmith, oliver.]--the history of england, in a series of letters from a nobleman to his son. . . . london, printed for j. newbery, . . . m dcc lxiv. _ mo, two volumes, red straight-grain morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ sometimes attributed to the earl of orrery and to george lord lytelton. goldsmith, oliver.--the history of england, from the earliest times to the death of george ii. by dr. goldsmith. . . . london, printed for t. davies, . . . m dcc lxx i. _ vo, four volumes, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the traveller, or a prospect of society. a poem. inscribed to the rev. mr. henry goldsmith. by oliver goldsmith, m.b. london: printed for j. newbery, in st. paul's church-yard. mdcclxv. _ to, light green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition. collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). "to the rev. henry goldsmith," signed "your most affectionate brother," a -a . pages i-iv. poem, b -g in twos. pages - . advertisement, g . goldsmith, oliver.--the traveller. . _ to, citron levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, scroll border of green and red mosaic on the sides, foliage and pointillé tooling, doubled with citron morocco, yellow figured silk guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy of the first edition, with inserted portrait of goldsmith after sir joshua reynolds. goldsmith, oliver.--the traveller, or a prospect of society. a poem. inscribed to the rev. mr. henry goldsmith. by oliver goldsmith, m. b. the second edition. london: printed for j. newbury, in st. pauls church-yard. m dcc lxv. _ to, green levant morocco, side borders, doubled with green morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ this is not a new issue of the date , but a new edition. the type is lighter faced, and occasional changes of phraseology occur, e.g., line , page , in the first edition, "amidst the store, 't were thankless to repine" here reads "amidst the store, should thankless pride repine?" on the half-title is the inscription, "with the author's best esteem." collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). dedication, a -a . poem, b -g (verso blank) in twos. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--essays. by m^{r}. goldsmith. collecta revirescunt. [vignette] london: printed for w. griffin in fetter lane, m dcclxv. _ mo, spanish calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ one of two editions printed in , with engraved title-page. collation: title designed and engraved by isaac taylor, one leaf (verso blank). preface, a -a . (verso blank). text, twenty-seven essays, b -l in twelves. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--essays. by mr. goldsmith. collecta revirescunt. london: printed for w. griffin, in fetter-lane. mdcclxv. _ mo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, partly untrimmed, by rivière_. portrait, engraved by scott, inserted. one of two editions printed in . the preface occupies one leaf instead of four, as in the preceding edition, and the signatures are in sixes instead of twelves. the type throughout is smaller, making the text occupy pages instead of . collation: title with woodcut ornament of two horns of plenty, between which is a face surrounded by rays of light, one leaf (verso blank). preface, one leaf. text, twenty-seven essays, b -r (verso blank) in sixes. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--essays by m^{r}. goldsmith. collecta revirescunt. london. printed for i. & f. rivington, . . . mdcclxxv. _ mo, orange levant morocco, janseniste, gilt top, uncut edges, by smith-mansell._ engraved title-page. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield: a tale. supposed to be written by himself . . . salisbury: printed by b. collins, for f. newbery, in pater-noster-row, london. mdcclxvi. _ mo, two volumes, original calf, gilt back, side border._ first edition; the second was printed in london in the same year. presentation copy "from the author." goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. a tale . . . by dr. goldsmith . . . london: printed by sammells and ritchie, for e. harding, . . . and j. good, . . . mdccxcii. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ three inserted portraits of goldsmith and six plates by stothard, all proofs. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield; a tale, by doctor goldsmith. illustrated with twenty-four [coloured] designs, by thomas rowlandson . . . london: published by r. ackermann, . . . . _royal vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by cuzin._ goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. a tale. by oliver goldsmith, m.d. with [ ] illustrations by george cruikshank. . . . london: james cochrane and co., . . . . _post vo, half maroon levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges, by v. krafft._ portrait by freeman after sir joshua reynolds. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. by oliver goldsmith. with thirty-two illustrations, by william mulready, . . . london: john van voorst . . . mdcccxliii. _small to, cloth, uncut edges._ goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. . _small to, blue levant morocco, rich gilt back and sides, doubled with red morocco, wide dentelle borders, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, extra-illustrated by the insertion of a duplicate set of the mulready illustrations, engraved by thompson, proofs on india paper, stothard's plates (proofs), the johannot plates (india proofs), etc., seventy-seven inserted plates in all, the majority proof impressions. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. by oliver goldsmith. with thirty-two illustrations, by william mulready, r. a. london: john van vorst, . . . mdccclv. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield a tale. by oliver goldsmith. illustrated by george thomas. london: published for joseph cundall mdccclv. _ vo, red morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by hayday._ forty woodcut illustrations, and numerous head-pieces, etc., by t. macquoid. goldsmith, oliver.--le vicaire de wakefield . . . par goldsmith, traduit en français avec le texte anglais en regard, par charles nodier . . . précédé d'une notice par le même sur la vie et les ouvrages de goldsmith, et suivi de quelques notes. paris, bourgueleret . . . . _ vo, blue calf, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by bauzonnet._ portrait of goldsmith and ten plates by tony johannot, proofs before letters, also numerous woodcut illustrations. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield. by oliver goldsmith. new york: frank h. dodd, . . . . _ mo, half blue straight-grain morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ goldsmith, oliver.--le vicaire de wakefield par olivier goldsmith. traduction de m. aignan revue par rémond. illustrations anglaises par m. georges thomas. fleurons et vignettes par m. macquoid. paris, delarue [n. d.] _square vo, green morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges._ printed on rose-tinted paper. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield by oliver goldsmith with prefatory memoir by george saintsbury and one hundred and fourteen coloured illustrations [coloured vignette] london john c. nimmo . . . . _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, by stikeman._ extra-illustrated by the insertion of a portrait, proof before letters, and eleven plates, including the series by a. revel after tony johannot. goldsmith, oliver.--the vicar of wakefield by oliver goldsmith with a preface by austin dobson and illustrations by hugh thomson   london macmillan & co . . . mdcccxc. _royal vo, buckram, uncut edges._ large paper copy of the first issue, with the suppressed woodcut on page . goldsmith, oliver.--the beauties of english poesy. selected by oliver goldsmith . . . london: printed for william griffin, . . . . _ mo, two volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt edges, by smith-mansell._ first edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the good natur'd man: a comedy. as performed at the theatre royal in covent-garden. by mr. goldsmith. london: printed for w. griffin . . . mdcclxviii. _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. title, preface, and prologue by dr. johnson, three leaves. text, b-l in fours, epilogue, l . goldsmith, oliver.--the roman history, from the foundation of the city of rome, to the destruction of the western empire. by dr. goldsmith. . . . london: printed for s. baker and g. leigh, &c . . . m dcc lxix. _ vo, two volumes, red morocco, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the life of henry st. john, lord viscount bolingbroke. london: printed for t. davies, . . . . _ vo, red niger skin, gilt back, side panels, doubled with olive silk, silk guards, uncut edges, with the original blue wrappers bound in, by the club bindery._ first edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the life of thomas parnell, d. d. archdeacon of clogher. compiled from original papers and memoirs: in which are included several letters of mr. pope, mr. gay, dr. arbuthnot, &c. &c. by dr. goldsmith. london: printed for t. davies, . . . m dcc lxx. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the deserted village, a poem. by dr. goldsmith. london: printed for w. griffin, at garrick's head, in catharine-street, strand. . . . mdcclxx. _small vo, boards, uncut edges, in brown levant morocco case, gilt back, floral ornament on the sides._ second issue of the first octavo edition, with the misprint "head," page , line , corrected to "hand." the poem was issued in two sizes in , octavo and quarto, but it cannot be absolutely determined which was the first edition. the former is without question by far the rarer, and as there is an issue of this edition containing the misprint "head," which is not found in the quarto, it is fair to suppose that the octavo is the earlier. collation: half-title, "the deserted village," a (verso blank). title, a (verso blank). dedication to sir joshua reynolds, a . text, a -b in sixes. pages i-vi. and - . goldsmith, oliver.--the deserted village, a poem. by dr goldsmith. london: printed for w. griffin, at garrick's head, in catharine-street, strand. m dcc lxx. _small vo, green levant morocco, rich gilt back and wide side borders, doubled with green morocco, borders, green silk guards, uncut edges, with the original wrappers bound in, by the club bindery._ another vo edition of , entirely reset, with larger type and different ornaments. the type on the title-page is much narrower faced, the period after "poem" is raised above the line, and there is no period after "dr." the dedication is preceded by a band of small printer's ornaments, terminating at each side in a fleur-de-lis. in the other edition, two parallel lines, the upper one the heavier, precede the dedication. as in the other edition, the misprint "head," page , line , is corrected to "hand." collation: the same as the preceding edition. goldsmith, oliver.--the deserted village, a poem. by dr. goldsmith [vignette "the sad historian of the pensive plain," by isaac taylor] london: printed for w. griffin, at garrick's head, in catharine-street, strand. m dcc lxx. _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, sides decorated with interlaced mosaic ribbon design in compartments, doubled with blue morocco, borders, red silk guards, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ an unusually large and entirely uncut copy of the first quarto edition. the misprint "head," page , line , is corrected to "hand." collation: half-title, "the deserted village. [price s.]," a (verso blank). title, with vignette, a (verso blank). dedication to sir joshua reynolds, a -a (verso blank). text, b -b and d -g (verso blank) in twos. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--the deserted village. . _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, doubled with green morocco, borders, silk guards, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ another copy, somewhat taller than the preceding. goldsmith, oliver.--the deserted village. by oliver goldsmith. illustrated by the etching club. london: published for joseph cundall . . . mdccclvii. _small to, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by hayday._ thirty-five woodcut illustrations, drawn from the original etchings by e. k. johnson, and engraved by harral, bolton, and cooper. goldsmith, oliver.--she stoops to conquer: or, the mistakes of a night. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. written by doctor goldsmith. london: printed for f. newbery . . . mdcclxxiii. _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, doubled with citron morocco with rich gold frame, gilt over rough edges, by chambolle-duru._ first issue of the first edition, with the numerous errors in pagination and the absence of diggory (mr. saunders) from the dramatis personæ. collation: title, a (verso blank). dedication "to samuel johnson, ll d," signed "your most sincere friend, and admirer, oliver goldsmith," a recto. prologue by david garrick, a verso and a recto. epilogue by goldsmith, a recto and verso. epilogue by j. craddock, a (verso dramatis personæ). text, b -p in fours. pages - ( misprinted ), , - , - , - , - , - , - , , and - . goldsmith, oliver.--she stoops to conquer: or the mistakes of a night. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. written by doctor goldsmith. london: printed for f. newbery, in st. paul's church-yard. mdcclxxiii. _ vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by rivière._ second issue of the first edition, with the pagination corrected. the title-page and text are the same sheets as in the first issue, but the preliminary matter has been reset, possibly also the epilogue, and diggory's name added to the dramatis personæ, from which it was omitted by mistake in the first issue. collation: title, one leaf (verso blank). dedication to dr. johnson, prologue, epilogue, and dramatis personæ, two leaves. text, b -p in fours. epilogue, p (verso blank). pages - , last leaf unnumbered. goldsmith, oliver.--retaliation: a poem. by doctor goldsmith. including epitaphs on the most distinguished wits of this metropolis. [vignette portrait of goldsmith] london: printed for g. kearsly, . . . m. dcc. lxxiv. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by rivière_. first edition: published posthumously. in the first collected edition of the "poems and plays," , the following note appears on the verso of the half-title of this poem: "dr. goldsmith and some of his friends occasionally dined at the st. james's coffee-house.--one day it was proposed to write epitaphs on him. his country, dialect, and person, furnished subjects of witticism. he was called on for retaliation, and at their next meeting, produced the following poem." collation: half-title, a (verso blank). title with medallion portrait, a (verso blank). "to m^{r}. kearsly, book-seller, in fleet-street," b -b (verso blank). pages i-iii. text, c -e in twos. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--a survey of experimental philosophy, considered in its present state of improvement.   illustrated with cuts. . . . by oliver goldsmith, m.b. london: printed for t. carnan and f. newbery . . . mdcclxxvi. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, janseniste, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with twenty-four plates engraved by proud. goldsmith, oliver.--the haunch of venison, a poetical epistle to lord clare. by the late dr. goldsmith. with a head of the author, drawn by henry bunbury, esq; and etched by bretherton. london: printed for j. ridley, . . . and g. kearsly, . . . mdcclxxvi. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt and mosaic back, side panels in ribbon and foliage designs of blue, brown, citron, and ivory mosaic, doubled with green morocco, gilt and mosaic borders, vellum guards, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ first edition: with half-title and etched portrait. goldsmith, oliver.--poems and plays, by oliver goldsmith, m. b. to which is prefixed, the life of the author. printed for w^{m}. wilson bookseller & stationer at homer's head n^{o}. dame street the corner of palace street, dublin. m,dcc,lxxvii. _small vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side borders, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ first collected edition. thomas jolley's copy, with his book-plate, and a manuscript note, "given me by edm^{d}. malone esq: thos. jolley-- ." all the text of imprint on the title-page, except the date, is in an oval vignette. preceding the life by w. glover is a medallion portrait of goldsmith by esdall. a plate illustrating "she stoops to conquer" has been inserted. the date on the half-title of "the deserted village" should be instead of , and that of "she stoops to conquer," instead of . collation: title with vignette, one leaf (verso blank). contents, one leaf (verso blank). life by glover, b -b . w. woty's epitaph on the death of goldsmith, b (verso blank). pages i.-xi. half-title, "poems, by dr. goldsmith," b (verso blank). four poems, b -c (verso blank). half-title, "the hermit, a ballad. first printed in m dcc lxv," c (verso blank). letter respecting "the hermit," c . "the hermit," and two other poems, c -d . half-title, "the traveller; or, a prospect of society. a poem. first printed in m, dcc,lxv," d (verso blank). "to the rev. henry goldsmith," d -d (verso blank). "the traveller," d -e (verso blank). half-title, "the deserted village, a poem. first printed in m, dcc,lxix," e (verso blank). "to sir joshua reynolds," e . "the deserted village," f -f . three other poems, f -g . half-title, "the haunch of venison, a poetic epistle, to lord clare. first printed in mdcclxxv.," g (verso blank). text, g -g recto, songs, etc, five poems, g verso-g (verso blank). half-title, "retaliation: a poem. first printed in m, dcc, lxxiv. after the author's death," g (verso note). poem, h -h (verso blank). half-title, "plays, by dr. goldsmith," h (verso blank). second half-title, "the good-natur'd man: a comedy. as performed at the theatre-royal in covent-garden. first printed in m, dcc, lxviii," h (verso blank). preface, h . prologue by dr. johnson, i, , ending with "dramatis personæ." text, i, -p (verso blank). half-title, "she stoops to conquer: or, the mistakes of a night. a comedy. as it is acted at the theatre-royal, covent-garden. first printed in m, dcc, lxxii," p (verso blank). dedication to dr. johnson, p recto. prologue by garrick, p verso-p (verso "dramatis personæ"). text, q -z , ending with the second epilogue by j. craddock. pages - . goldsmith, oliver.--poems and plays. by oliver goldsmith, m. b. to which is prefixed the life of the author. london. printed for b. newbery and t. johnson, . . . mdcclxxx. _ mo, calf, gilt back, gilt edges, by f. bedford._ portrait, engraved title, and three other plates. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical and dramatic works of oliver goldsmith, m. b. now first collected. with an account of the life and writings of the author. london: printed by h. goldney . . . mdcclxxx. _ vo, two volumes, citron levant morocco, gilt back, sides richly tooled, double panel, floral design, gilt over uncut edges, by meunier._ portrait by cook. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical and dramatic works of oliver goldsmith, m.b. a new edition. with an account of the life and writings of the author. in two volumes. london: printed by h. goldney, for messieurs rivington, t. carnan, e. newbery, and w. nicoll, &c . . . m dcc lxxxvi. _small vo, two volumes, spanish calf, gilt back._ portrait by cook. the dedication to sir joshua reynolds is signed by t. evans and dated strand, january , . goldsmith and parnell.--poems by goldsmith and parnell. [vignette] london: printed by w. bulmer and co. shakespeare printing office, . . . . _ to, original boards, uncut edges._ first edition, printed upon whatman paper. eight woodcut vignettes and five full-page illustrations by thomas and john bewick, after r. and j. johnson. the text consists of the deserted village, the traveller, the hermit, and the lives of goldsmith and parnell by isaac reed and goldsmith, respectively. goldsmith and parnell.--poems by goldsmith and parnell. . _ to, green morocco, gilt back and sides, silk linings, gilt edges, by staggemeier._ one of three copies printed on vellum, with one of the five full-page cuts in duplicate. goldsmith and parnell.--poems by goldsmith and parnell. london: printed for t. cadell and w. davies . . . . _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ printed on whatman paper, with woodcut illustrations by the bewicks. goldsmith, oliver.--the poems of oliver goldsmith. a new edition. adorned with plates. london: printed by t. bensley, . . . for f. j. du roveray, . . . . _ vo, citron levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, centre ornaments, doubled with red morocco, gilt borders in the manner of derome, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ largest paper copy. frontispiece-portrait by anker smith after e. f. burney, and six plates by t. medland, neagle, j. heath, and a. smith after wheatley and hamilton, all with proofs added. besides these, one hundred extra illustrations have been inserted, including seventeen portraits of goldsmith, the bewick and westall series of illustrations, and two original drawings, one in sepia of dr. dodd and one in water-colours of the covent garden theatre. most of the plates are in proof state, and at page is a brilliant impression of the mezzotint of general wolfe by spooner after smith. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical works of oliver goldsmith, m.b. with the life of the author. embellished with wood cuts by t. bewick. glocester printed and sold by d. walker . . . . _foolscap vo, boards, uncut edges._ goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical works of oliver goldsmith. with remarks, attempting to ascertain, chiefly from local observation, the actual scene of the deserted village; and illustrative engravings, by mr. alkin, from drawings taken upon the spot. by rev. r. h. newell, b. d. fellow of st. john's college, cambridge. london: printed by ellerton and henderson, . . . for suttaby, evance, and company, . . . . _ to, olive levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ six tinted plates, and an engraved leaf of dedication to william payne, with a vignette at the foot. goldsmith, oliver.--the miscellaneous works of oliver goldsmith, with an account of his life and writings . . . edited by washington irving, esq. paris: published by a. and w. galignani . . . [printed by jules didot] . _royal vo, four volumes, blue morocco, gilt back and sides, with the arms of charles x on the sides, gilt edges, by purgold._ large paper copy, with finished and unfinished proofs on india paper of the portraits of goldsmith and irving, engraved by wedgwood from originals by reynolds and sieurac. goldsmith, oliver.--the miscellaneous works of oliver goldsmith, m. b. including a variety of pieces now first collected. by james prior, . . . london: john murray, . . . m dccc xxx vii. _ vo, four volumes, boards, uncut edges._ four engraved frontispiece-titles by e. finden after t. creswick. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical works of oliver goldsmith london william pickering . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ memoir by the rev. john mitford, and a portrait of goldsmith. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical works of oliver goldsmith, . . . illustrated by wood engravings from the designs of . . . members of the etching club. with a biographical memoir and notes on the poems. edited by bolton corney . . . london: longman . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by chambolle-duru._ thirty-eight woodcut illustrations by creswick, redgrave, cope, and others. goldsmith, oliver.--the poetical works of oliver goldsmith with thirty illustrations by john absolon, birket foster, james godwin, and harrison weir. london cundall & addey, . . . . _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ goldsmith, oliver.--the works of oliver goldsmith.   edited by peter cunningham . . . london: john murray . . . . _ vo, four volumes, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by matthews._ illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and thirteen plates, including fifty-two portraits, the remainder illustrating "the vicar of wakefield" and other works; engraved by stothard, burney, westall, johannot, etc. most of the plates are proofs, and some are in two and three states. goldsmith, oliver.--the poems and plays of oliver goldsmith. edited by austin dobson with [ ] etchings by john jellicoe & herbert railton. london j. m. dent and co . . . . _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ one of two hundred and fifty large paper copies printed. goldsmith, oliver.--a pretty book of pictures for little masters and misses, or, tommy trip's history of beasts and birds. with a familiar description of each in verse and prose. to which is prefix'd the history of little tom trip himself, of his dog jouler, and of woglog the great giant. written by oliver goldsmith . . . embellished with charming engravings on wood from the original blocks engraved by thomas bewick . . . london: printed for, and published by, edwin pearson . . . mdccclxvii. _ to, red straight-grain morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ two hundred and fifty copies printed, with seventy-seven woodcuts on india paper. goldsmith, oliver.--see dobson, austin. forster, john. goody twoshoes. percy, bishop. scarron, paul. goldziher, ignaz.--mythology among the hebrews and its historical development by ignaz goldziher . . . translated from the german, with additions by the author   by russell martineau, . . . london longmans, green, and co. . . . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ gomez, madeleine angelique poisson de.--la belle assemblée: being a curious collection of some very remarkable incidents which happen'd to persons of the first quality in france. interspers'd with entertaining and improving observations made by them on several passages in history, both ancient and modern. written in french for the entertainment of the king, and dedicated to him by madam de gomez. adorn'd with copper-plates. . . . the eighth edition. london: printed for h. woodfall . . . mdcclxv. _ mo, four volumes in two, sprinkled calf, citron edges._ twenty plates by basire. goody twoshoes.--the history of little goody twoshoes; otherwise called mrs. margery twoshoes. with the means by which she acquired her learning and wisdom, and in consequence thereof her estate. set forth at large for the benefit of those, /p who from a state of rags and care, who having shoes but half a pair, their fortune and their fame would fix, and gallop in their coach and six. p/ see the original manuscript in the vatican at rome, and the cuts by michael angelo; illustrated with the comments of our great modern criticks. the first worcester edition. printed at worcester, massachusetts. by isaiah thomas, and sold, wholesale and retail, at his book store. m dcc lxxxvii. _ mo, calf, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges._ woodcut frontispiece and thirty-four illustrations in the text. sometimes attributed to oliver goldsmith. gordon, john brown.--reminiscences of the civil war by general john b. gordon of the confederate army with [ ] portraits. new york   charles scribner's sons . _ vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ goring, charles.--irene; or, the fair greek, a tragedy: as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane, by her majesty's sworn servants. london: printed for john bayley at the judge's head in chancery-lane, near fleetstreet. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by david._ first edition. a -a , a -a , and b -i in fours, half-title on a , title on a . dedicated to henry, duke of beaufort. gorringe, henry h.--egyptian obelisks by henry h. gorringe . . . fifty-one full-page illustrations thirty-two artotypes, eighteen engravings, and one chromolithograph   published by the author . . . new york [ ] _ to, cloth, uncut edges._ gorton, john.--a general biographical dictionary. by john gorton, . . . a new edition, to which is added a supplementary volume completing the work to the present time. . . . london: henry g. bohn, . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half blue morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ gospel.--the gospel according to matthew, mark, and luke   london kegan paul, trench & co., . . . mdccclxxxv. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges._ large paper copy, fifty printed. gosse, edmund.--from shakespeare to pope an inquiry into the causes and phenomena of the rise of classical poetry in england. by edmund gosse. new york dodd, mead & company    . _small vo, half brown morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by stikeman._ original manuscript of the preface inserted. gosse, edmund.--firdausi in exile and other poems by edmund gosse london kegan paul, trench, & co., mdccclxxxv. _crown vo, original covers, uncut edges_. one of fifty large paper copies printed, with a frontispiece. gosse, edmund.--life of william congreve by edmund gosse, . . . london walter scott, . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ gosse, edmund.--see english odes. gourgaud, gaspard.--napoleon and the grand army in russia, or a critical examination of the work of count ph. de segur, by general gourgaud, late principal orderly officer and aid-de-camp to the emperor napoleon. . . . london: martin bossange and co., . . . . _ vo, blue morocco, gilt back, gilt edges._ gozzi, count carlo.--the memoirs of count carlo gozzi translated into english by john addington symonds with essays on italian impromptu comedy, gozzi's life, the dramatic fables, and pietro longhi by the translator with portrait and six original etchings by adolphe lalauze also eleven subjects illustrating italian comedy by maurice sand engraved on copper by a. manceau, and coloured by hand . . . london. john c. nimmo . . . mdcccxc. _royal vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ no. of two hundred and ten large paper copies printed, with the seven etchings in duplicate. graham and ashbee.--travels in tunisia with a glossary, a map, a bibliography, and fifty illustrations. by alexander graham, . . . and h. s. ashbee, . . . london: dulau & co., . . . . . . . _royal vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ presentation copy from mr. ashbee. graham, maria.--memoirs of the life of nicholas poussin. by maria graham . . . london: printed for longman, . . . . _ vo, half blue morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges._ portrait of poussin and folded plate of his house. grahame, james.--the history of the united states of north america, from the plantation of the british colonies till their revolt and declaration of independence. by james grahame, esq. london: smith, elder and co. . . . . _ vo, four volumes, half green levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ grammont, count.--see hamilton, count anthony. granger, james.--a biographical history of england, from egbert the great to the revolution: consisting of characters disposed in different classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of engraved british heads; intended as an essay towards reducing our biography to system, and a help to the knowledge of portraits; interspersed with a variety of anecdotes, and memoirs of a great number of persons, not to be found in any other biographical work. with a preface, shewing the utility of a collection of engraved portraits to supply the defect, and answer the various purposes, of medals. by the rev. j. granger, . . . fifth edition, with upwards of four hundred additional lives. . . . london: printed for william baynes and son, . . . . _royal vo, six volumes, half russia, uncut edges._ two hundred and ninety-four portraits of the richardson series inserted, and twenty-nine from other sources. grant, francis.--life of samuel johnson by lieut.-col. f. grant. london walter scott . . . . _crown vo, cloth, gilt top, uncut edges._ grant, ulysses simpson.--personal memoirs of u. s. grant. . . . [with maps and illustrations] new york: charles l. webster & company. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ gray, george j.--the earlier cambridge stationers & bookbinders and the first cambridge printer by george j. gray   printed for the bibliographical society at the ox. ford university press october . _ to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ no. xiii. of illustrated monographs issued by the bibliographical society. twenty-nine plates. gray, thomas.--an elegy wrote in a country church yard. london: printed for r. dodsley . . . and sold by m. cooper . . . . _ to, blue levant morocco, gilt back, gilt edges, by bedford._ first edition, with bands containing emblems of death at head and foot of title, repeated at the head of the fifth page. gray, thomas.--an elegy written in a country church yard. a new edition. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . m dcc lxxi. [price six pence.] _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, uncut edges._ engraved frontispiece and two vignettes. gray, thomas.--elegy written in a country church-yard. [vignette] london: john van vorst, [printed by samuel bentley] mdcccxxxvi. _ to, original blue cloth, gilt edges._ dedication to samuel rogers, and preface by john martin dated london, october , . vignette on the title-page by powis after constable, and thirty-two other illustrations after constable, stothard, cattermole, charles and thomas landseer, westall, callcott, mulready, copley and thales fielding, and others. gray, thomas.--odes by mr. gray. [greek: phÔnanta] [greek: spsnetoisi] . . . pindar, olymp. ii. [vignette of strawberry hill] printed at strawberry-hill, for r. and j. dodsley in pall-mall. m dcc lvii. _ to, red levant morocco, gilt fillets, gilt top, uncut edges._ first edition, and the first work issued by the strawberry hill press. half-title, a , title, a , and b-e in twos. gray, thomas.--poems by mr. gray. london: printed for j. dodsley, . . . mdcclxviii. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side corners, gilt top, uncut edges, by joly._ first collected edition. gray, thomas.--the poems of mr. gray. with notes by gilbert wakefield . . . london: printed for g. kearsley . . . . _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ two portraits and twelve other plates inserted, one in two states. gray, thomas.--poems by mr. gray. parma printed by bodoni m dccxc iii. _royal vo, boards, uncut edges._ one of two hundred copies printed. portrait of gray sitting, by j. hopwood after richardson. gray, thomas.--poems. . _ to, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, corner ornaments, gilt top, uncut edges, by ramage._ large paper copy, one hundred printed, with four inserted plates. gray, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas gray . . . with some account of his life and writings. the whole carefully revised; and illustrated by notes. to which are annexed, poems addressed to, and in memory of, mr gray; several of which were never before collected. second edition, considerably enlarged and improved. london: printed by c. whittingham . . . . _foolscap vo, red morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by bozerian the younger._ portrait of gray and six plates, after the designs of burney, including the caricature of "tophet" [mr. tyson]. gray, thomas.--the poems of gray. a new edition. adorned with plates. london: printed by t. bensley, . . . for f. j. du roveray, . . . . _crown vo, blue levant morocco, gilt back and sides, gilt top, uncut edges, by the club bindery._ besides the frontispiece-portrait by a. smith after burney, and six plates by neagle, heath, and holloway after hamilton and fuseli, eleven plates, some proofs on india paper, have been inserted, including four portraits of gray and engravings after the westall designs. gray, thomas.--poems. . _ vo, citron straight-grain morocco, gilt back, blind-tooled and brown mosaic borders on the sides, gilt edges._ large paper copy. portrait and six plates. gray, thomas.--poems. . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with red morocco, gilt border in the manner of derome, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ another copy, printed upon largest paper, and extra-illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and twelve proof portraits and views, many proofs in different states and a fragment of manuscript. the portraits include eleven of gray, one engraved by caroline watson. gray, thomas.--poems. . _ vo, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, doubled with red morocco, borders in the manner of derome, gilt over uncut edges, by matthews._ another copy, printed upon largest paper, and extra-illustrated by the insertion of over seventy plates, including numerous portraits of gray, duplicates in the earliest state of the illustrations published with the book, and many other plates, proofs on india paper and before letters. gray, thomas.--the works of thomas gray, containing his poems and correspondence, with memoirs of his life and writings. a new edition, containing some additions, not before printed, with notes of the various editors. london: printed for harding, triphook, and lepard . . . m.dcccxxv. _ vo, two volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, wide side borders, gilt over uncut edges, by holloway._ large paper copy, with fifty-five extra plates inserted, for the most part in proof state, including all the known portraits of gray. some of the plates are in three states. gray, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas gray. london: printed for john sharpe, . . . by c. and c. whittingham, chiswick. m dccc xxvi. _post vo, cloth, uncut edges._ engraved frontispiece-title and five other plates by w. finden after richard westall. gray, thomas.--the works of thomas gray london william pickering    [- ]   _post vo, five volumes, red levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by bedford._ thick paper copy. portrait engraved by adcock, and memoir by the rev. john mitford. gray, thomas.--the works of thomas gray. - . _post vo, five volumes, brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ large and thick paper copy, only twenty printed. gray, thomas.--the poetical works of thomas gray   london william pickering    . _foolscap vo, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait and memoir by the rev. j. mitford. gray, thomas.--gray's poetical works, english and latin, illustrated; and edited with introductory stanzas by the rev. john moultrie . . . eton, e. p. williams . . . m.dcccxlv. _ vo, green morocco, gilt back and side panels, gilt edges, by hayday._ portrait and seven steel engravings by radclyffe, also four woodcuts by sly. gray, thomas.--five original water-colour drawings illustrating gray's poems, by richard westall, accompanied by the engravings from them by w. radclyffe, j. h. robinson, george corbould, r. rhodes, and w. finden; also a portrait of gray, proof on india paper, by anker smith after burney. _ to, green levant morocco, gilt back, side panels, gilt edges, by w. matthews._ great-britain and america.--the case of great-britain and america, addressed to the king and both houses of parliament . . . london: printed, philadelphia, re-printed by william and thomas bradford, . . . mdcclxix. _ vo, red levant morocco, gilt back, side panel, uncut edges, by zaehnsdorf._ greatheed, bertie.--the regent: a tragedy. as it is acted at the theatre royal in drury-lane. london: printed for j. robson and w. clarke, . . . m. dcc. lxxxviii. _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. dedication to mrs. siddons, epilogue by mrs. piozzi. greeley, horace.--the american conflict: a history of the great rebellion in the united states of america, -' : its causes, incidents, and results: intended to exhibit especially its moral and political phases, with the drift and progress of american opinion respecting human slavery, from to the close of the war for the union. by horace greeley. illustrated by portraits on steel of generals, statesmen, and other eminent men: [two frontispieces] views of places of historic interest. maps, diagrams of battle-fields, naval actions, etc.: from official sources. . . . hartford: published by o. d. case & company. . . . . [- ] _royal vo, two volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ twelve steel plates containing one hundred and forty-three portraits, and seventy-nine other illustrations. greeley, horace.--recollections of a busy life by horace greeley   new york   j. b. ford and company . . . . _ vo, half green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by matthews._ green, henry.--shakespeare and the emblem writers; an exposition of their similarities of thought and expression. preceded by a view of emblem-literature down to a. d. . by henry green, m. a. with numerous illustrative devices from the original authors. [vignette] london: trübner & co., . . . . . . . _royal vo, decorated cloth, uncut edges._ large paper copy, with seventeen plates and numerous illustrations in the text. green, henry.--andrea alciati and his books of emblems a biographical and bibliographical study by henry green, m. a. london trübner & co. m. dccc. lxxii. _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ only two hundred and fifty copies printed. title in a woodcut border, portrait, and eighteen other illustrations. green, john richard.--history of the english people. by john richard green, . . . london: macmillan and co. . [ , , ] _ vo, four volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition: with fifteen maps. green, matthew.--the spleen. an epistle inscribed to his particular friend mr. c. j. . . . by the late mr. matthew green, of the custom-house, london. london; printed: and sold by a. dodd, . . . and at all the pamphlet-shops in town. m. dcc. xxx vii. . . . _small vo, paper wrappers, by the club bindery._ greenaway, kate.--marigold garden pictures and rhymes by kate greenaway printed in colours by edmund evans london george routledge and sons . . . n.d. _ to, half cloth, citron edges._ greg, walter wilson.--a list of english plays written before and printed before . by walter wilson greg. london: printed for the bibliographical society, by blades, east & blades. march, , for . _ to, original paper covers, uncut edges._ greg, walter wilson.--a list of masques, pageants, &c. supplementary to a list of english plays, by walter wilson greg. london: printed for the bibliographical society, by blades, east & blades. february, , for . _ to, original paper wrappers, uncut edges._ gregory, j. w.--see hutchinson, gregory, and lydekker. grenville, george.--see nugent, lord. grenville, thomas.--see payne and foss. gresset, jean baptiste louis de.--see snow, robert. greville, charles cavendish fulke.--the greville memoirs. a journal of the reigns of king george iv. and king william iv. by the late charles c. f. greville, . . . edited by henry reeve . . . london: longmans, green & co., . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. greville, charles cavendish fulke.--the greville memoirs (second part) a journal of the reign of queen victoria from to . by charles c. f. greville . . . london: longmans, green, and co., . . . . _ vo, three volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. greville, charles cavendish fulke.--the greville memoirs (third part.) a journal of the reign of queen victoria from to . by the late charles c. f. greville, . . . london: longmans, green, and co. . _ vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ first edition. grey, douglas.--see wilson and grey. grey, lady jane.--see nicolas, sir nicholas harris. griffith, elizabeth.--the school for rakes: a comedy. as it is performed at the theatre-royal in drury-lane. london. printed for t. becket and p. a. de hondt, . . . m dcc lxix. . . . _ vo, morocco, by the club bindery._ first edition. griffiths, a. f., _editor_.--bibliotheca anglo-poetica: or a descriptive catalogue of a rare and rich collection of early english poetry: in the possession of longman & co. illustrated by occasional extracts and remarks, critical and biographical. london: printed by thomas davison, for the proprietors of the collection. . _imperial vo, blue levant morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of fifty copies printed on large paper, with coloured frontispiece and woodcuts. the collection here described was commenced by t. park and completed by thomas hill. grimm, herman.--life of michael angelo, by herman grimm. translated with the author's sanction by fanny elizabeth bunnètt . . . boston: little, brown, and company . _royal vo, two volumes, green levant morocco, gilt back, gilt over uncut edges, by r. w. smith._ no. of fifty large paper copies printed. illustrated by the insertion of one hundred and twenty portraits and views, and an original drawing of st. mark's, venice. thirty of the plates are proofs on india paper, and others are proofs before letters. grimston, william luckyn, (first) viscount.--the lawyer's fortune: or, love in a hollow tree. a comedy. london: printed and sold by e. hill, . . . m, dcc, xxxvi. _small vo, brown morocco, gilt edges, by the club bindery._ this play, first printed in quarto, , was written when the author was only thirteen years of age. he tried to buy up the edition, but was only partially successful. in , when he was parliamentary candidate for st. alban's, sarah, duchess of marlborough caused this edition to be printed at her own expense, with a woodcut (page ) representing the author as an elephant walking a tight-rope. this edition also he bought up as far as possible. engraved frontispiece of a hollow tree. title, a (verso blank). "to the right sensible, the lord flame" [samuel johnson], signed "the publisher," a . "the preface," a -a (verso "dramatis personæ"). text, b -k in fours. grose, francis.--see bunbury, h. grote, george.--plato, and the other companions of sokrates. by george grote, . . . london: john murray, . . . . . . . _ vo, three volumes, half brown levant morocco, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by rivière._ first edition. grote, harriet lewin.--memoir of the life of ary scheffer. by mrs. grote. london: john murray, . . . . _ vo, original cloth, uncut edges_. first edition. portrait and facsimile. growoll, adolf.--american book clubs their beginnings and history, and a bibliography of their publications by a. growoll new york dodd, mead and company . _ mo, half olive calf, uncut edges._ no. of three hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. guaras, antonio de.--the accession of queen mary: being the contemporary narrative of antonio de guaras, a spanish merchant resident in london. edited with an introduction, translation, notes, and an appendix of documents, including a contemporary ballad in facsimile, by richard garnett . . . london: lawrence and bullen . . . . _square vo, cloth, uncut edges._ three hundred and fifty copies printed. guardian, the.--see british classics and british essayists. gueulette, thomas simon.--the thousand and one quarters of an hour (tartarian tales) edited by leonard c. smithers london h. s. nichols and co. . . . m dccc xciii. _royal vo, flexible vellum boards, gilt top, uncut edges._ one of seventy-five copies printed on hand-made paper. guiccioli, countess teresa.--. . . my recollections of lord byron; and those of eye-witnesses of his life. "the long promised work of the countess guiccioli . . . london: richard bentley, . . . . _ vo, two volumes, original cloth, uncut edges._ guizot, franÇois pierre guillaume.--the fine arts their nature and relations by m. guizot. translated with the assistance of the author by george grove. with illustrations drawn on wood by george scharf, jun. london: thomas bosworth. . _ vo, cloth, uncut edges._ gutch, john, _editor_.--collectanea curiosa; or miscellaneous tracts, relating to the history and antiquities of england and ireland, the universities of oxford and cambridge, and a variety of other subjects. chiefly collected, and now first published, from the manuscripts of archbishop sancroft . . . oxford, at the clarendon press . . . mdcclxxxi. _ vo, two volumes, cambridge panelled calf, gilt back, gilt top, uncut edges, by bedford._ gutch, john mathew, _editor_.--a lytell geste of robin hode with other ancient & modern ballads and songs relating to this celebrated yeoman to which is prefixed his history and character, grounded upon other documents made use of by his former biographer, "mister ritson." edited by john mathew gutch, . . . and adorned with cuts by f. w. fairholt, . . . [vignette] london: longman, brown, green, & longmans. m. dccc. xlvii. _crown vo, two volumes, cloth, uncut edges._ portrait of ritson, another plate, and numerous woodcuts in the text. [gutenberg, john.]--john gutenberg, first master printer, his acts, and most remarkable discourses, and his death. from the german, by c. w. london: trübner and co. . . . . _ to, half brown morocco, gilt top, uncut edges._ one hundred copies printed. images of public domain material from the google print project.) early american poetry - a list of works in the new york public library _compiled by_ john c. frank new york _note_ _this list includes titles of works in the new york public library on august , . they are in the reference department of the library, in the central building at fifth avenue and forty-second street._ reprinted october from the bulletin of the new york public library of august form p- [x- - c] early american poetry, - a list of works in the new york public library * * * * * compiled by john c. frank * * * * * =adams=, john, - . poems on several occasions, original and translated. by the late reverend and learned john adams, m.a. boston: printed for d. goodkin, in marlborough-street, over against the old south meeting house. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= =adams=, john quincy, - . on the discoveries of captain lewis. (in: the monthly anthology and boston review. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =* da= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck's _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb._ =agricola=, pseud. _see_ the =squabble=; a pastoral eclogue. =albany= register. the humble address of the carriers of the albany register, to their generous customers, greeting them with a happy new year. [albany, n. y.: jan. , .] broadside. =reserve= =all= the world's a stage. a poem, in three parts. the stranger. newburyport: printed by william barrett. . [really ] p. º. =reserve= the name "i. storey" is written on the title in a contemporary hand, in the place where the author's name is usually printed; the reference being undoubtedly to isaac story, who was born at marblehead in , and published his first poem, _an epistle from yarico to inkle_, in . =allen=, benjamin, - . miscellaneous poems, on moral and religious subjects: by osander [pseud. of benjamin allen]. hudson: printed by wm. e. norman no. , warren street. . p.l., ( ) p., l., - p. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new-york: printed by j. seymour, sold by griffin and rudd, agents for the publisher; , greenwich-st. . p.l., - p. º. =nbhd= published to aid the author to study for the ministry. ---- urania, or the true use of poesy; a poem. by b. allen, jun. new-york: published by a. h. inskeep, and bradford & inskeep. philadelphia. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= page is wrongly numbered p. . =allen=, mrs. brasseya, or - --? pastorals, elegies, odes, epistles, and other poems. by mrs. allen. (copy right secured.) abingdon, (md.): printed by daniel p. ruff. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= dedicated to thomas jefferson. =allen=, james, - . an intended inscription written for the monument on beacon-hill in boston, and addressed to the passenger. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_, and in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- lines on the [boston] massacre. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= written in but not published till . ---- [poem] on washington's visit to boston, . (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. p. - .) =nbh= ---- poem, written in boston, at the commencement of the late revolution. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the retrospect. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =allen=, paul, - . original poems, serious and entertaining. by paul allen, a.m. published according to act of congress. printed by joshua cushing, salem, . p.l., (i)vi-xi, p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= ---- a poem, delivered in the baptist meeting house in providence, september th a. d. , being the anniversary commencement of rhode island college. by paul allen. (in: massachusetts magazine. boston, . º. october, , p. - .) =reserve= =allston=, washington, - . the sylphs of the seasons, with other poems. by w. allston. first american from the london edition. boston: published by cummings and hilliard, no. , cornhill. cambridge.... hilliard & metcalf. . p.l., (i)vi-vii p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= the first edition was published in london, . _contents_: the sylphs of the seasons, a poet's dream, p. - .--the two painters, a tale, p. - .--eccentricity, p. - .--the paint-king, p. - .--myrtilla, p. - .--to a lady, who spoke slightingly of poets, p. - .--sonnets, p. - .--the mad lover at the grave of his mistress, - .--first love, a ballad, p. - .--the complaint, p. p. - .--will, the maniac, a ballad, p. - . ---- lectures on art, and poems, by washington allston. edited by richard henry dana, jr. new york: baker and scribner, . xi, p. º. =nbi= in addition to the poems mentioned in the previous entry, includes _america to great britain_. this poem, written in , was inserted by coleridge in the first edition of his _sibylline leaves_, london, , p. - , with the following note: "this poem, written by an american gentleman, a valued and dear friend, i communicate to the reader for its moral, no less than its poetic spirit." =alsop=, george, b. . a character of the province of maryland, wherein is described in four distinct parts, (viz.) i. the situation, and plenty of the province. ii. the laws, customs, and natural demeanor of the inhabitant. iii. the worst and best usage of a maryland servant, opened in view. iv. the traffique, and vendable commodities of the countrey. also a small treatise on the wild and naked indians (or susquehanokes) of mary-land, their customs, manners, absurdities, & religion. together with a collection of historical letters. by george alsop. london, printed by t. j. for peter dring, at the sign of the sun in the poultrey: . p.l., p., l., port. ( º.) =reserve= facsimile portrait inserted. poems on the following pages: p.l. - ; p. , - , , - , - , - , - . ---- ---- a new edition with an introduction and copious historical notes. by john gilmary shea.... new york: william gowans, . p., map, port. º. (gowans' bibliotheca americana, no. .) =isg= and =iag= includes a type-facsimile title-page. reissued as _fund publication_, no. , of the mary-land historical society, _iaa_. ---- ---- reprinted from the original edition of . with introduction and notes by newton d. mereness.... cleveland: the burrows brothers company, . p., map, pl., port. º. =isg= includes a reduced photo-facsimile of original title-page. no. of copies printed. =alsop=, richard, - . the charms of fancy: a poem in four cantos, with notes. by richard alsop. edited from the original manuscripts, with a biographical sketch of the author, by theodore dwight. new york: d. appleton and company, m.dccc.lvi. xii p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= this poem was mostly written before . ---- elegy. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= ---- an elegy written in february . (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- extract from the conquest of scandinavia; being the introduction to the fourth book. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- habakkuk, chap. iii. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the incantation of ulfo. from the conquest of scandinavia. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- a poem; sacred to the memory of george washington, late president of the united states, and commander in chief of the armies of the united states. adapted to the d of feb. . by richard alsop. hartford: printed by hudson and goodwin. . p. º. =reserve= this poem was delivered by richard alsop before the citizens of middletown, conn., at the memorial service of february , . ---- twilight of the gods; or destruction of the world, from the edda, a system of ancient scandinavian mythology. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- verses to the shearwater--on the morning after the storm at sea. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- versification of a passage from the fifth book of ossian's temora. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- _see also_ the =echo=; the =political= greenhouse for the year . an =american=, pseud. crystalina; a fairy tale. _see_ harney, john milton. an =american=, pseud. _see_ =oppression=, a poem. an =american=, pseud. _see_ =prime=, benjamin young. =american= poems, selected and original. vol. . litchfield: printed by collier and buel. [ .] (the copy right secured as the act directs.) viii, p., l. º. =reserve= and =nbh= no more published. "the first general collection of poetry ever attempted in this country."--c. w. everest, _poets of connecticut_, hartford, , p. . the editorship is attributed by everest to dr. elihu hubbard smith, but the postscript to the preface of the work p. [vi] refers to "the ill health of one of the editors." the reserve copy contains the autographs of daniel crocker, samuel austin, and samuel g. drake. _contents_: elegy on the times; elegy on the death of mr. buckingham st. john; ambition; prophecy of balaam; downfall of babylon; speech of proteus to aristæus; by john trumbull.--trial of faith; address to genius of columbia; columbia; the seasons moralized; a hymn; a song; the critics; epistle to col. humphreys; by timothy dwight.--the prospect of peace; a poem spoken at commencement at yale college; elegy on titus hosmer; by joel barlow.--elegy on burning of fairfield, connecticut; elegy on lieut. de hart; mount vernon; an ode addressed to laura; genius of america; epistle to dr. dwight; a song translated from the french; by david humphreys.--epitaph on a patient killed by cancer quack; hypocrite's hope; on general ethan allen; by lemuel hopkins.--an oration which might have been delivered to students in anatomy on the late rupture between two schools in philadelphia, by francis hopkinson.--philosophic solitude, by william livingston.--descriptive lines upon prospect from beacon-hill in boston; ode to the president on his visiting the northern states; invocation to hope; prayer to patience; lines addressed to della crusca; by philenia, a lady of boston.--alfred to philenia.--philenia to alfred.--poem written in boston at the commencement of the revolution; an intended inscription for monument on beacon-hill in boston; by james allen.--elegiac ode to general greene, by george richards. country school.--speech of hesper.--[poem on the distress of inhabitants of guinea.]--new year's wish; from a gentleman to a lady who had presented him with a cake heart; by dr....--utrum horum mavis elige.--ella, a norwegian tale, by william dunlap.--eulogium on rum, by j. smith.--country meeting, by t. c. james.--written at sea in a heavy gale, by philip freneau.--to ella, from bertha.--an elegy written in february ; versification of passage from fifth book of ossian's temora; habakkuk, chap. iii; twilight of the gods; extract from conquest of scandinavia; by richard alsop.--ode to conscience, by theodore dwight.--collolloo, an indian tale, by william dunlap.--an ode to miss ****, by joseph howe.--message from mordecai to esther, by timothy dwight. the =american= poetical miscellany. original and selected. philadelphia: published by robert johnson, c. & a. conrad & co. and mathew carey, booksellers and stationers. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh= john binns, printer. includes the following poems by american authors: the burning of fairfield, by d. humphreys.--mercy, by salleck osborn.--eulogium on rum, by joseph smith.--the country meeting, by t. c. james.--the house of sloth, by timothy dwight.--extract from a dramatic manuscript, by salleck osborn. =american= taxation [a poem], . (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= attributed to samuel st. john of new canaan, connecticut, and to peter st. john of norwalk, connecticut. also printed in frank moore, _songs and ballads of the american revolution_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. the =american= times, a satire, in three parts. _see_ =odell=, jonathan. an =american= youth, pseud. _see_ the =spunkiad=: or heroism improved. =ames=, nathaniel, - . an essay upon the microscope. (in his: an astronomical diary, or an almanac for the year of our lord christ, . boston, . º.) =reserve= reprinted in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. additional poems without titles will be found in his _an astronomical diary, or an almanac ... for the years , - , - , - _, copies of which are in the _reserve room_ of the library. ---- a poetical essay on happiness. (in his: ames's almanac revived and improved: or, an astronomical diary for the year of our lord christ, . boston, . º.) =reserve= ---- victory implor'd for success against the french in america. (in his: an astronomical diary, or an almanac for the year of our lord christ, . boston, . º.) =reserve= ---- the waking of sun. (in his: an astronomical diary, or an almanac for the year of our lord christ, . boston, . º.) =reserve= reprinted in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. the =anarchiard=: a new england poem. written in concert by david humphreys, joel barlow, john trumbull, and dr. lemuel hopkins. now first published in book form. edited, with notes and appendices, by luther g. riggs. new haven: published by thomas h. pease, chapel street. . viii, p. º. =nbhd= the library has another copy with the following portraits inserted: david humphreys, joel barlow, john trumbull, nathanael greene, robert morris. this poem was originally published in the following numbers of _the new haven gazette and connecticut magazine_: oct. , nov. , dec. , ; jan. , , feb. , march , , april , may , aug. , sept. , . the library possesses all the numbers of the _new haven gazette_ in which this poem appeared, except the last one, sept. , . nos. - of _the anarchiard_ were also printed in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. - , - . the projector of this poem was colonel david humphreys; and it was written in concert with barlow, trumbull, and hopkins; but what particular installment or number was written by each has never been definitely ascertained. =andré=, john, - . cow-chace, in three cantos, published on occasion of the rebel general wayne's attack of the refugees block-house on hudson's river, on friday the st of july, . [by major john andré.] new-york: printed by james rivington, mdcclxxx. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= included with the cow-chace, are the following poems: yankee doodle's expedition to rhode island, written at philadelphia, p. - ; on the affair between the rebel generals howe and gaddesden, written at charlestown, p. - ; the american times, a satire. in three parts.... by camillo querno, p. - . inserted, a portrait of andré, engraved by hapwood, from a drawing by major andré, ornamented by shirt. the _cow-chace_ appeared originally in _the royal gazette_, in the following numbers: canto i, aug. , ; canto ii, aug. , ; canto iii, sept. , . also printed in william dunlap, _andré; a tragedy_, new york, , p. - , _reserve_, and in winthrop sargent, _the life of major andré_, boston, , and new york, , p. - , _igm_. =andrews=, edward w. an address before the washington benevolent society, in newburyport, on the d. feb. . by edward w. andrews, a.m. published by request of the society. newburyport: published by william b. allen & co. no. , cornhill. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = =aquiline nimble-chops=, pseud. democracy: an epic poem. _see_ =livingston=, henry brockholst. =aristocracy.= an epic poem. philadelphia: printed for the editor. . v. º. =reserve= in two parts issued separately. [part] has p. and is dated on p. vii: philadelphia, january , . [part] , without imprint, has [really ] p., pages numbered - , , and dated, on p. [ ]: philadelphia, march th, . =armstrong=, william clinton, --, editor. patriotic poems of new jersey. [newark, n. j., .] p.l., ii-v, p., pl., ports. º. (sons of the american revolution.--new jersey society. new jersey and the american revolution.) =nbh= =arnold=, josias lyndon, - . poems. by the late josias lyndon arnold, esq; of st. johnsbury (vermont) formerly of providence, and a tutor in rhode-island college. printed at providence, by carter and wilkinson, and sold at their bookstore, opposite the market. m.dcc.xcvii. xii, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= introduction by the editor, signed and dated: james burrill, jun. providence, april, . "the last words of sholum; or, the dying indian," p. - , is not by arnold, but by philip freneau. several of arnold's poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; also in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. =arouet=, poems of. _see_ =ladd=, joseph brown. the =art= of domestic happiness and other poems: by the recluse, author of the independency of the mind, affirmed. pittsburgh: published by robert patterson. . p.l., (i)vi p., l., ( ) - p., l. º. =nbhd= printed by butler and lambdin. =avalanche=, sir anthony, pseud. fashion's analysis; or, the winter in town. a satirical poem. by sir anthony avalanche. with notes, illustrations, etc. by gregory glacier, gent. part . new-york: printed for j. osborn, no. park. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =b.=, b., esq. entertainment for a winter's evening. _see_ =green=, joseph. =bacon's= epitaph, made by his man. (massachusetts historical society. collections for . boston, . º. series , v. , p. - .) =iaa= this epitaph is in the manuscript account of bacon and ingram's rebellion found among the papers of capt. nathaniel burwell, printed in this volume of the _collections_. also printed in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =ballads= and poems relating to the burgoyne campaign. annotated by william l. stone.... albany, n. y.: joel munsell's sons, . , p., pl. (front.) º. (munsell's historical series, no. .) =iag= and =nbhd= =ballston= springs. _see_ =law=, thomas. =banks=, louis albert. immortal songs of camp and field. the story of their inspiration together with striking anecdotes connected with their history.... cleveland: the burrows brothers company, . p., pl., ports. º. =nbh= contains the following songs, written before : the american flag, by j. r. drake, p. - ; adams and liberty, by r. t. paine, p. - ; the star-spangled banner, by f. s. key, p. - ; hail columbia, by j. hopkinson, p. - . =barlow=, joel, - . the columbiad a poem. by joel barlow. printed by fry and kammerer for c. and a. conrad and co. philadelphia; conrad, lucas and co. baltimore. philadelphia: . p.l., (i)iv-xvi, p., front, (port.), pl. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= the reserve copy is extra illustrated, having plates and portraits inserted. _the columbiad_ is an amplification of the author's _vision of columbus_. this work, which is a fine example of early american bookmaking, was published at the expense of robert fulton, the inventor, who also "designated the subjects to be painted for engravings" at his own expense. ---- ---- philadelphia: published by c. and a. conrad and co. philadelphia; conrad, lucas and co. baltimore. fry and kammerer, printers. . v. º. =nbhd= the library has volume only. v. . p.l., ( ) - p. ---- ---- london: printed for richard phillips, bridge street, blackfriars. . p.l., (i)iv-xxxiii p., l., p. º. =nbhd= frontispiece, portrait of author, inserted. ---- ---- with the last corrections of the author. by joel barlow. paris: printed for f. schoell, bookseller. . p.l., (i)vi-xl, p., pl. (incl. front.), ports. º. =nbhd= ---- the conspiracy of kings; a poem: addressed to the inhabitants of europe, from another quarter of the world. by joel barlow, author of the vision of columbus, advice to the privileged orders &c. &c. printed and sold by robinson & tucker: newburyport-- . p. º. =reserve= inserted, the portrait of the author engraved by edwin. also printed in _the new-york magazine_, new-york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_; the author's _a letter to the national convention of france, on the defects in the constitution of _, new york [ ?], p. - , _reserve_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; and in _the political writings of joel barlow_, new york, , p. - . _reserve._ ---- description of the first american congress; american revolution; american sages; american painters; american poets. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- an elegy on the late honorable titus hosmer, esq. one of the counsellors of the state of connecticut, a member of congress, and a judge of the maritime court of appeals for the united states of america. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the hasty-pudding: a poem, in three cantos. written at chambery, in savoy, january . [by joel barlow. new haven: tiebout & o'brien, .] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= first printed in _the new-york magazine_. new york, , new series, v. , p. - , _reserve_. also printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_. boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- ---- brooklyn: published by wm. bigelow, fulton-street. a. spooner, printer. . p.l., (i)iv-v, - p. º. =* c p.v. , no. = ---- ---- new york: c. m. saxton [ ?]. p. º. =vpc= bd. with: r. l. allen. the american farm book. new york, . º. ---- a poem, spoken at the public commencement at yale-college, in new-haven, sept. , . (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the prospect of peace. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the vision of columbus; a poem in nine books. by joel barlow, esquire. hartford: printed by hudson and goodwin, for the author. m.dcc.lxxxvii. p., l. º. =reserve= this is the original edition, with twelve pages containing the names of upwards of five hundred subscribers, leading men of the day, including washington, franklin, burr, gov. george clinton, etc. ---- ---- hartford, n. e. printed: london re-printed, for c. dilly, in the poultry; and j. stockdale, piccadilly. m.dcc.lxxxvii. xx, p. º. =reserve= portraits inserted. frontispiece is portrait of joel barlow, painted by robert fulton, engraved by a. b. durand. facing p. , portrait of columbus painted by m. macella, engraved by p. maverick. ---- ---- the second edition. hartford: printed by hudson and goodwin, for the author. m.dcc.lxxxvii. p., l. º. =reserve= the last three leaves contain the names of subscribers. ---- ---- the first edition, corrected.... to which is added, the conspiracy of kings: a poem, by the same author. paris: printed at the english press, rue de vaugirard, no. ; and sold by barrois, senior, quai des augustins; and r. thomson, rue de l'anciene comedie française, no. . . p.l., p. º. =reserve= lacks portrait. the conspiracy of kings, a poem, p. - . ---- _see also_ the =anarchiard=. =bartlett=, joseph, - . physiognomy, a poem, delivered at the request of the society of phi beta kappa, in the chapel of harvard university, on the day of their anniversary, july th, . by joseph bartlett. boston, printed by john russell, . p. º. =reserve= trimmed down from º, cropping text and margins. the =battle= of bunkers hill, a dramatic piece, in five acts. _see_ =brackenridge=, hugh henry. =battle= of niagara, a poem. _see_ =neal=, john. the =battle= of the thames, october , ; from an unpublished poem, entitled tecumseh. by a young american. new york: published at the log cabin office, no. ann-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =iih p.v. , no. = the =bay= psalm book. _see_ =bible.= old testament: psalms. english. . =bayard.= address to the robin redbreast. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- woman's fate. written in the character of a lady under the influence of a strong, but unfortunate attachment. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= the =beauties= of poetry, british and american: containing some of the productions of waller, milton, addison, pope, shirley, parnell, watts, thomson, young, shenstone, akenside, gray, goldsmith, johnson, moore, garrick, cowper, beattie, burns, merry, cowley, wolcott, palmerton, penrose, evans, barlow, dwight, freneau, humphreys, livingston, j. smith, w. m. smith, bayard, hopkinson, james, markoe, prichard, fentham, bradford, dawes, lathrop, osborne. philadelphia: from the press of m. carey. no. , market-street. m.dcc.xci. p.l. (incl. leaf of adv.), vii, viii, p. º. =reserve= american contributions include: columbia, by dwight.--benevolence, by dawes.--woman's fate, by bayard.--future state of the western territory; american winter; on love and the american fair; depredations and destruction of the algerines; by humphreys.--excellent logic; british favours to america; extreme humanity; omens; nobility anticipated; by trumbull.--description of the first american congress; american revolution; american sages; american painters; american poets; by barlow.--eulogium on rum, by jos. smith.--faith, an ode; hope, an ode; charity, an ode; by markoe.--on a lady's birth day, by w. m. smith.--description of jehovah, from the xviiith psalm, by ladd.--the country meeting, by t. c. james.--on the birth-day of gen. washington, by markoe.--art and nature, by w. m. smith.--the old soldier, by fentham.--the war-horse, by ladd.--on the migration to america and peopling the western country, by freneau.--a pastoral song, by bradford.--the seasons moralized, by dwight.--character of st. tamany, by pritchard.--a song, by dwight.--the federal convention.--a fair bargain, by hopkinson.--song sung in st. andrew's society, new york, on tuesday august , , when colonel alexander m'gillwray was present.--address to the robin red-breast, by bayard.--a winter piece, by lathrop.--elegiac epistle on the death of his sisters--and sent to another, by osborn.--hymn sung at the universal meeting house in boston, easter sunday, april , .--the deity, and his dispensations; creation; original state of man; three fold state of man emblematized; prospect of america; by dwight.--progress of science, by evans.--philosophic solitude, by livingston.--sketches of american history, by freneau.--an indian eclogue, by jos. smith. =belknap=, jeremy, - . an eclogue, occasioned by the death of the reverend alexander cummings, a.m., on the th of august a. d. . Ætat. .... (by j. belknap, b.a.) boston: printed by d. & j. kneeland, for j. edwards, . p. º. =reserve= text cropped by trimming. =benedict=, david, - . a poem delivered in taunton, september th, a.d. , at the anniversary election of the philandrian society. by david benedict. boston: belcher & armstrong, printers, no. , state-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = ---- the watery war: or, a poetical description of the existing controversy between the pedobaptists and baptists, on the subjects and mode of baptism. by john of enon. boston: printed and sold by manning & loring, no. , cornhill. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= =bernard=, francis. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =beveridge=, john. epistolae familiares et alia quædam miscellanea. familiar epistles, and other miscellaneous pieces, wrote originally in latin verse, by john beveridge, a.m. professor of languages in the college and academy of philadelphia. to which are added several translations into english verse, by different hands, &c. philadelphia. printed for the author by william bradford, at the london coffee-house, at the corner of market and front-streets. m,dcc,lxv. xi, p. º. =reserve= =bible.= old testament: psalms. english. . the whole booke of psalmes faithfully translated into english metre. whereunto is prefixed a discourse declaring not only the lawfullness, but also the necessity of the heavenly ordinance of singing scripture psalmes in the churches of god. imprinted, . [cambridge: stephen daye.] l. º. =reserve= slightly imperfect. the first book printed in english in north america. the version of the psalms was made about the year , the principal divines of the country each translating a portion. the principal part of the work was committed to mr. richard mather, minister of the church in dorchester, who probably wrote the preface also, and to mr. thomas weld and mr. john eliot, associate ministers of the church in roxbury. the work of printing was completed in , and the new psalm book was adopted at once by nearly every congregation in the colony of massachusetts bay, and for that reason it came to be known as the bay psalm book. of this famous book there are only ten copies known to be extant, of which only four are perfect. for detailed statement and description see the facsimile reprint with the introduction by wilberforce eames. ---- the bay psalm book; being a facsimile reprint of the first edition, printed by stephen daye at cambridge, in new england in . with an introduction by wilberforce eames. new york: dodd, mead & company, . p.l., v-xvii p., l. º. =reserve= one of copies on plain paper. ---- ---- prepared for the new england society in the city of new york [ -?]. p.l., v-xvii p., l. º. =reserve= with an introduction by wilberforce eames. introduction dated: october, . ---- a literal reprint of the bay psalm book, being the earliest new england version of the psalms, and the first book printed in america.... cambridge: c. b. richardson, . vii p., l. º. =stuart = no. of fifty copies printed. =bigelow=, samuel, fl. . a poem suitable for the present day, in five parts, worcester, . new york: repr. for c. f. heartman, . p.l., - p. º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) =reserve= facsimile reprint, including title-page of original edition, worcester, . no. of forty copies printed on fabriano hand-made paper. =biglow=, william, - . commencement, a poem: or rather commencement of a poem, recited before the phi beta kappa society, in their dining hall, in cambridge, aug. , . by a brother [i.e., william biglow]. salem: printed by thomas c. cushing. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= with bookplate of henry b. anthony. ---- education; a poem: spoken at cambridge at the request of the phi beta kappa society; july th ; by william biglow. salem: joshua cushing. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = first l. and last leaf lacking. title-page supplied in ms. ---- re-re-commencement: a kind of a poem: calculated to be recited before an "assemblage" of new-england divines, of all the various denominations; but which never was so recited, and in all human probability never will be. by a friend of every body and every soul. salem: printed by thomas c. cushing. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = the =bladensburg= races. written shortly after the capture of washington city, august , . [probably it is not generally known, that the flight of mahomet, the flight of john gilpin, and the flight of bladensburg, all occurred on the twenty-fourth of august.] printed for the purchaser. . p.l., - p. º. =reserve= ---- printed for the purchaser. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =* iih= a reprint issued in . no. of seventy-five copies. ---- n.t.-p. n.p., n.d. p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = a reprint. =bland=, theodoric, - . [patriotic poem on the battle of lexington.] (in: the bland papers. edited by charles campbell. petersburg, . º. v. , p. xxi-xxiii.) =ig= =bleecker=, mrs. ann eliza schuyler, - . an evening prospect. (in: the new-york magazine. new-york. . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- lines, written by the late mrs. ann e. bleecker. (in: the new-york magazine. new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- lines, written by the late mrs. ann e. bleecker. (in: the new-york magazine. new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- on reading dryden's virgil. [written in , by the late mrs. ann e. bleecker.] (in: the new-york magazine. new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- the posthumous works of ann eliza bleecker, in prose and verse. to which is added, a collection of essays, prose and poetical, by margaretta v. faugeres. new-york: printed by t. and j. swords, no. , william-street. . p.l., xviii, ( ) - p., front. (port.) º. =reserve= frontispiece, the portrait of mrs. bleecker engraved by tiebout. "poetics," p. - . several of these poems have been reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =bonaparte=; with the storm at sea, madaline, and other poems. new-york: published by haly and thomas, no. broadway. . p.l., (i)iv p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =boston bard=, poems of. _see_ =coffin=, robert stevenson. =bosworth=, benjamin. signs of apostacy lamented. [by benjamin bosworth.] n.t.-p. [boston? ?] p. º. =reserve= "a caution to prevent scandal," p. . signed and dated at end: "benjamin bosworth of new-england. in the st year of my age, ." photostat copy from an original in brown university library. =botsford=, mrs. margaret. viola or the heiress of st. valverde, an original poem, in five cantos. to which is annexed, patriotic songs, sonnets, &c. by a lady of philadelphia, author of adelaide [i.e., mrs. margaret botsford]. louisville, ky. printed by s. penn, jr. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =bowdoin=, james, - . a paraphrase on part of the oeconomy of human life. inscribed to his excellency thomas pownall, esq; governor of the province of the massachusetts-bay. [by james bowdoin.] boston new-england: printed and sold by green and russell, at their printing-office, in queen-street. mdcclix. p.l., - p. º. =reserve= ---- woman. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- _see also_ =pietas= et gratulatio. =boyd=, william, - . woman: a poem, delivered at a public exhibition, april , at harvard university, in the college chapel. by william boyd. boston: printed by john w. folsom. m,dcc,xcvi. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = also printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =brackenridge=, hugh henry, - . the battle of bunkers hill. a dramatic piece, of five acts, in heroic measure. by a gentleman of maryland ... [i.e., hugh henry brackenridge.] philadelphia: printed and sold by robert bell, in third-street, mdcclxxvi. p.l., ( ) - ( ) p., pl. (front.) º. =reserve= title-page lacking; supplied by a photostat facsimile. frontispiece imperfect. contains the following poems: prologue, p.l. ; epilogue, p. - ; an ode on the battle of bunkers-hill, p. - ; speech by general washington, on his entering the town of boston, p. - ; a military song by the army: on general washington's victorious entry into the town of boston, p. - . the prologue and epilogue were written by john parke. ---- the death of general montgomery, at the siege of quebec. a tragedy. with an ode, in honour of the pennsylvania militia, and the small band of regular continental troops, who sustained the campaign, in the depth of winter, january, , and repulsed the british forces from the banks of the delaware. by the author of a dramatic piece on the battle of bunker's-hill [i.e., hugh henry brackenridge]. to which are added, elegiac pieces, commemorative of distinguished characters. philadelphia: printed and sold by robert bell, in third-street, next door to st. paul's church. m,dcc,lxxvii. p.l., ( ) - ( ) p., l., front. º. =reserve= contains the following poems: an ode in honour of pennsylvania militia, p. - ; elegiac pieces commemorative of distinguished characters, p. - . the "prologue on the death of general montgomery" which is at the end, was written by john parke. ---- ---- norwich: printed by j. trumbull, for and sold by j. douglass m'dougall, on the west side of the great-bridge, providence, . p.l., - p. º. =reserve= contains the following poems: an ode in honour of pennsylvania militia, p. - ; elegiac pieces commemorative of distinguished characters, p. - . =bradford=, william, - . certain verses left by ... william bradford ... penned by his own hand, declaring the dispensation of god's providence towards him in the time of his life, and his preparation and fittedness for death. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- copy of verses left by him for his children. (in: william and mary college quarterly. richmond, va., . º. v. , p. - .) =iaa= ---- a descriptive and historical account of new england in verse; from a ms. of william bradford, governour of plymouth colony. (massachusetts historical society. collections. boston, . º. series , v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- of boston in new england; a word to new england. (massachusetts historical society. collections. boston, . º. series , v. , p. - .) =iaa= ---- a pastoral elegy on o****. r***. (in: the new-york magazine. new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- a pastoral song. ascribed to w. bradford, esq. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. . p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; _the new-york magazine_, new york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- providence and the pilgrim. (in: e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, a library of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= ---- some observations of god's merciful dealing with us in this wilderness, and his gracious protection over us these many years. (massachusetts historical society. proceedings, - . boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =iaa= ---- a word to new plymouth. (massachusetts historical society. proceedings, - . boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =iaa= =bradstreet=, mrs. anne dudley, - . a dialogue between old england and new and other poems, by mrs. anne dudley bradstreet. boston [ ]. p. º. (old south leaflets. [general series.] v. , no. .) =* r-room = _contents_: a dialogue between old england and new concerning their present troubles, anno .--in honor of that high and mighty princess queen elizabeth of happy memory.--to the memory of my dear and ever honored father thomas dudley, esq., who deceased july , , and of his age .--an epitaph on my dear and ever honored mother mrs. dorothy dudley, who deceased december , , and of her age .--the author to her book.--to my dear and loving husband.--in reference to her children june, .--in thankful remembrance for my dear husband's safe arrival, september , . ---- the poems of mrs. anne bradstreet ( - ). together with her prose remains. with an introduction by charles eliot norton. [new york:] the duodecimos, mdcccxcvii. p.l., xliv p., l., p., l., pl., ports. º. =nbg= no. of copies on hand-made paper. contains facsimiles of title-pages of the first three original editions, and of the edition edited by j. h. ellis. ---- several poems compiled with great variety of wit and learning, full of delight; wherein especially is contained a compleat discourse, and description of the four elements, constitutions, ages of man, seasons of the year. together with an exact epitome of the three first monarchyes viz. the assyrian, persian, grecian, and beginning of the romane common-wealth to the end of their last king: with diverse other pleasant & serious poems; by a gentle-woman in new-england [i.e., anne bradstreet]. the second edition, corrected by the author and enlarged by an addition of several other poems found amongst her papers after death. boston, printed by john foster, . p.l., p. º. =reserve= title-page mutilated; pages - lacking. ---- several poems compiled with great variety of wit and learning, full of delight; wherein especially is contained, a compleat discourse and description of the four elements, constitutions, ages of man, seasons of the year. together with an exact epitome of the three first monarchies, viz. the assyrian, persian, grecian, and roman common wealth, from its beginning to the end of their last king. with divers other pleasant and serious poems. by a gentle-woman in new-england [i.e., anne bradstreet]. the third edition, corrected by the author, and enlarged by an addition of several other poems found amongst her papers after her death. re-printed from the second edition, in the year m.dcc.lviii. p.l., iii-xiii, p. º. =reserve= p. - , - , lacking. ---- the tenth muse lately sprung up in america. or severall poems, compiled with great variety of wit and learning, full of delight. wherein especially is contained a compleat discourse and description of the four: elements, constitutions, ages of man, seasons of the year. together with an exact epitomie of the four monarchies, viz. the assyrian, persian, grecian, roman. also a dialogue between old england and new, concerning the late troubles. with divers other pleasant and serious poems. [by anne bradstreet.] printed at london for stephen bowtell at the signe of the bible in popes head-alley. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= ---- the works of anne bradstreet in prose and verse. edited by john harvard ellis. charlestown: abram e. cutter, . p.l., vii-lxxvi, p., pl., port. º. =nbhd= no. of copies printed. =branagan=, thomas. avenia, or a tragical poem, on the oppression of the human species; and infringement on the rights of man. in five books. with notes explanatory and miscellaneous. written in imitation of homer's iliad.--a new edition.--to which is added the constitution of the state of pennsylvania. by thomas branagan. author of preliminary essays, serious remonstrance, penitential tyrant, &c. &c. philadelphia: printed, and sold by j. cline, no. , south eleventh street. . p.l., - p., front. º. =nbhd= =branch=, william. life, a poem in three books; descriptive of the various characters in life; the different passions, with their moral influence; the good and evil resulting from their sway; and of the perfect man. dedicated to the social and political welfare of the people of the united states. by william branch, junior, of prince edward, virginia. richmond [va.]: from the franklin press. w. w. gray, printer. . p.l., (i)iv-xii p., l., - p., l. º. =nbhd= the =breechiad=, a poem. theresa. boston: printed by belcher and armstrong. state street. . p.l., - p., l. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =brockway=, thomas. the gospel tragedy: an epic poem. in four books. [by thomas brockway.] published according to act of congress. printed at worcester, massachusetts, by james r. hutchins, mdccxcv. p.l., (i)iii-iv p., l., ( ) - p., front. º. =reserve= frontispiece, an engraving of the crucifixion, by amos doolittle. a =brother=, pseud. commencement, a poem.... _see_ =biglow=, william. =brown=, charles brockden, - . monody, on the death of gen. george washington, delivered at the new-york theatre [sic] on monday evening, dec. , ' . [by charles brockden brown.] (in: commercial advertiser, new york, jan. , . fº. no. , p. .) =reserve= a poem in ninety-six lines. title from caption. with heading: for the commercial advertiser. according to dunlap, _history of the american theatre_, , p. , this was written by c. b. brown and delivered at the theatre by mr. cooper. reprinted in _the spectator_, new york, jan. . , no. , p. . =brown=, solyman, - . an essay on american poetry, with several miscellaneous pieces on a variety of subjects, sentimental, descriptive, moral, and patriotic. by solyman brown, a.m. new haven: published by hezekiah howe, flagg & gray, printers. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= with bookplate of henry b. anthony. several of these poems are reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =bryan=, daniel. the mountain muse: comprising the adventures of daniel boone; and the power of virtuous and refined beauty. by daniel bryan. of rockingham county, virginia. harrisonburg: printed for the author: by davidson & bourne. . p.l., ( ) - , p. º. =nbhd= =bryant=, william cullen, - . the embargo; or, sketches of the times. a satire. the second edition, corrected and enlarged. together with the spanish revolution, and other poems. by william cullen bryant. boston: printed for the author, by e. g. house, no. , court street. . p.l., ( ) - ( ) p. º. =reserve= ---- thanatopsis. (in: the north american review for . boston, . second edition. º. v. , p. - .) =* da= also in _specimens of the american poets_, london, , p. - , _nbh_. =bulkley=, edward. a threnodia upon our churches second dark eclipse, happening july , by deaths interposition between us and that great light and divine plant, mr. samuel stone, late of hartford in new-england. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- upon the death of that truely godly, reverend, and faithful servant of christ, mr. jonathan mitchell, pastor of the church at cambridge, who deceased july , . (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =bulkley=, peter. a lamentation for the death of that precious and worthy minister of jesus christ, mr. thomas hooker, who died july , , as the sun was setting: the same hour of the day died blessed calvin, that glorious light. (in: n. morton, new englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =burgoyne's= proclamation. _see_ =livingston=, william. =burk=, john daly, d. . bunker-hill; or, the death of general warren: an historic tragedy, in five acts. by john burk, late of trinity-college, dublin. as performed at the theatres in america, for fourteen nights, with unbounded applause. new-york: published by d. longworth, at the dramatic repository, shakespeare-gallery. july-- . p., l. º. =nco p.v. , no. = first published in . "ode for the fourth march, . written for the occasion by mr. samuel woodworth, and sung by mr. abraham stage." l. following p. . =byles=, mather, - . the comet: a poem. [by mather byles.] boston: printed and sold by b. green and comp. in newbury-street, and d. goodkin, at the corner of water-street, cornhil. . p. º. =reserve= woodcut on title-page of a comet. also printed in _the massachusetts magazine_, boston, , v. , p. , _reserve_. ---- the conflagration. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- a full and true account of how the lamentable wicked french and indian pirates were taken by the valliant englishmen. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= ---- the god of tempest and earthquake. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- hymn written during a voyage. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. .) =nbh= first appeared in _a collection of poems, by several hands_, boston, . also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_; stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- to his excellency governour belcher, on the death of his lady. an epistle. by the reverend mr. byles. [boston, .] p.l., ii, p. º. =reserve= also printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =c.=, e., gent. sotweed redivivus. _see_ =cook=, ebenezer. =c.=, g. a little looking-glass for the times; or, a brief remembrancer for pennsylvania. containing some serious hints, affectionately addressed to the people of every rank and station in the province: with an appendix, by way of supplication to almighty god. by g. c. wilmington, printed and sold by james adams, . p. º. =reserve= reprinted with a type-facsimile title-page in _magazine of history with notes and queries_, extra no. , p. - , _iag_. =caldwell=, charles, - . an elegiac poem on the death of general washington. by charles caldwell, a.m. m.d. philadelphia: printed at the office of "the true american." . p.l., p. º. =reserve= with the statement on the second leaf that "part of the following poem has been already printed in a hand bill, and circulated, at the commencement of the present year, among patrons of _the true american_," a copy of which, upon satin, is described and quoted in _the historical magazine_, boston, , v. , p. - , _iaa_. the =camp= meeting. the extravagant zeal of religious fanatics and the licentious rioting of unprincipled people who attend these meetings, deserve the severest censure: but the truly pious of all denominations, both in the camp and out of it, will ever be respected and revered. by the druid of the lakes. the meeting here celebrated was held in a deep forest of wild woods, five miles from the east bank of the cayuga lake, in the western district of new-york. printed in the year . to be had at no. north fourth-street. p.l., - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =capen=, joseph, - . funeral elegy, upon the much to be lamented death and most deplorable expiration of the pious, learned, ingenious, and eminently usefull servant of god, mr. john foster, who expired and breathed out his soul quietly into the arms of his blessed redeemer, at dorchester, sept. th, anno dom: . Ætatis anno . (in: t. c. simonds, history of south boston. boston, . º. p. - .) =iqh= =carey=, mathew, - . the porcupiniad: a hudibrastic poem. in three cantos. addressed to william cobbett, by mathew carey. philadelphia: printed and sold by the author. . v. º. =reserve= issued separately. title taken from canto ii and iii; canto i reads: in four cantos. canto i dated: march , ; l. of adv., front., viii, ( ) - p. canto ii and iii dated: april , ; front., iv, ( ) - p. ---- the prayer of an american citizen. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= =carpenter=, william. a poem on the execution of william shaw, at springfield, december th, , for the murder of edward east in springfield gaol, by william carpenter. [new york:] c. f. heartman, . l., folded fac. º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) =reserve= =case=, wheeler. revolutionary memorials, embracing poems by the rev. wheeler case, published in .... edited by the rev. stephen dodd. new york: m. w. dodd, . iv p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= includes reprint of original title-page (with author's name inserted): poems, occasioned by several circumstances and occurrences in the present grand contest of america for liberty. new haven: printed by tho. and samuel green. . _contents_: a contest between the eagle and the crane. composed february, .--a dialogue between col. paine and miss clorinda fairchild, when taking leave of her to go on the northern expedition.--st. clair's retreat, and burgoyne's defeat.--the first chapter of the lamentations of general burgoyne.--the fall of burgoyne.--the vanity of trusting in an arm of flesh.--the tragical death of miss jane m'crea, who was scalped and inhumanly butchered by a scouting party of burgoyne's army, on his way towards albany.--an answer for the messengers of the nation. =caustic=, christopher, pseud. _see_ =fessenden=, thomas green. =church=, benjamin, - . the choice: a poem, after the manner of pomfret. written in the year . by dr. benjamin church, while at college, and at the age of eighteen years. printed at worcester: by isaiah thomas, jun. april-- . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= reprinted in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- lines on the accession of george ii. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. . p. - .) =nbh= ---- the times a poem. [by benjamin church. boston, .] p. º. =reserve= title-page lacking, supplied with a photostat facsimile. a satire on and against the stamp act. reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- _see also_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =church=, edward. the dangerous vice ******* (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= a =citizen= of baltimore, pseud. original poems. _see_ =townsend=, richard h. a =citizen= of boston, pseud. the declaration of independence; a poem. _see_ =richards=, george. the =clerical= candidates. a poem. washington city, nov. , . p. º. =reserve= this poem was written to point out "the advantages to society, of a clergy whose lives have been devoted to literature and a preparation for their profession, over any to be expected from upstart pretenders without any solid qualification, other than external effrontery." =cleveland=, aaron, - . the family blood. a burlesque. (in: charles w. everest. the poets of connecticut. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbh= first published in c. w. everest, _the poets of connecticut_, hartford, . also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- the philosopher and boy. (in: charles w. everest, the poets of connecticut. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbh= written when the author was nineteen years of age. first published in c. w. everest, _the poets of connecticut_, hartford, . =cliffton=, william, - . the group: or an elegant representation illustrated. embellished with a beautiful head of s. verges, c.s. philadelphia: printed for thomas stevens, by lang and ustick. m.dcc.xcvi. p.l., ( ) - ( ) p., front. (port.) º. =reserve= a satire in support of jay's treaty. ---- poems, chiefly occasional, by the late mr. cliffton. to which are prefixed, introductory notices of the life, character and writings, of the author, and an engraved likeness. new-york: printed for j. w. fenno, by g. & r. waite. . xviii, ( ) p., front. (port.) º. =reserve= the leaf preceding p. [ ] is a special title reading: some account of a manuscript, found among the papers of a french emigrant in london, entitled talleyrand's descent into hell. "from the anchor club." frontispiece, the portrait of the author engraved by d. edwin, after field. library has another copy in _nbhd_, lacking portrait. some of cliffton's poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; also in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck. _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- to william gifford, esquire. (in: william gifford, the baviad, and mæviad. philadelphia, . º. p. v-xi.) =reserve= written for this edition of gifford's _baviad, and maviad_, at the request of the publisher, william cobbett. signed and dated: c. philadelphia th may, . reprinted in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, v. , p. - , _nbb_. =club= of odd volumes. early american poetry [reprints]. v. - . boston: the club of odd volumes, - . v. sq. º. =reserve= [v.] i. tompson, benjamin. new-england's crisis. [v.] ii. morrell, william. new-england. [v.] iii. mather, cotton. a poem and an elegy. [v.] iv. elegies and epitaphs, - . [v.] v. wolcott, roger. the poems of roger wolcott, esq., . =cobbett=, william, - . french arrogance; or "the cat let out of the bag"; a poetical dialogue between the envoys of america, and x. y. z. and the lady. [by william cobbett] philadelphia: published by peter porcupine, opposite christ-church, and sold by the principal booksellers. . [price cents.] [copyright secured according to law.] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= reprinted with type-facsimile title-page in _magazine of history with notes and queries_, extra no. , p. - , _iag_ =cobby=, john. poetic essays on the glory of christ, and on the divinity and work of the holy spirit. by john cobby. price eight cents. new-york: printed by john tiebout, no. , pearl-street, for the author. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p. v. , no. = an hymn, composed for, and sung on new-year's day, , p. [ ]- . =cockloft=, pindar, pseud. _see_ =irving=, william. =coffin=, robert stevenson, - . the miscellaneous poems of the boston bard [i.e., robert stevenson coffin]. philadelphia: printed for the author, by j. h. cunningham. . p.l., (i)iv-xv(i), ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =cogswell=, mason f. _see_ the =echo=. =colman=, benjamin, - . on elijah's translation, occasioned by the death of the reverend and learned mr. samuel willard. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- a quarrel with fortune. (in: ebenezer turell, the life and character of the reverend benjamin colman. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- to urania on the death of her first child. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= first published in ebenezer turell, _the life and character of the reverend benjamin colman_, boston, , p. - , _reserve_. =columbia's= naval triumphs. new-york: published by inskeep & bradford, no. broadway. j. seymour, printer. no. john-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. nar. º. =nbhd= the =columbiad=: or a poem on the american war. _see_ =snowden=, richard. the =columbian= muse. a selection of american poetry from various authors of established reputation. new york: printed by j. carey, for mathew carey, philadelphia. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= _contents_: conspiracy of kings; prospects of peace; by joel barlow.--philosophic solitude, by william livingston.--an oration which might have been delivered to students in anatomy on the late rupture between the two schools of philadelphia, by francis hopkinson.--address to the genius of america; columbia; seasons moralized; by timothy dwight.--elegy on the times; elegy on the death of mr. buckingham st. john; ambition; the critics; by john trumbull.--epistle to col. humphreys, by timothy dwight.--sketches of american history, by philip freneau.--description of the first american congress; american revolution; american sages; american painters; american poets; by joel barlow.--eulogium on rum, by joseph smith.--an elegy on the burning of fairfield, connecticut; elegy on lieut. de hart; mount vernon; an ode to laura; genius of america; by david humphreys.--the country meeting, by t. c. james.--poem written at sea, by philip freneau.--the american warrior; doctrine of consequences; song; by a south carolinian aged .--stanzas on the president's birthday.--the fire fly.--the thunder storm.--an epistle to dr. dwight; a song translated from the french: by david humphreys.--epitaph on a patient killed by a cancer quack; hypocrite's hope; by lemuel hopkins.--an intended inscription, by james allen.--depredations and destruction of the algerines, by david humphreys.--a winter piece, by lathrop.--an indian eclogue, by joseph smith.--future state of the western territory; american winter; on love and the american fair; by david humphreys.--benevolence, by dawes.--the old soldier, by fentham.--the war-horse, by doctor ladd.--on the migration to america, by philip freneau.--a pastoral song, by bradford.--address to the robin red-breast, by bayard.--progress of science, by evans.--on a lady's birthday, by w. m. smith.--description of jehovah, by doctor ladd.--nature and art, by w. m. smith.--cololoo, by william dunlap.--an elegy, written in february , by richard alsop.--the deity; creation; new england described; picture of a new england village; house of sloth; a female worthy; miseries of war; by timothy dwight.--ella, a norwegian tale, by william dunlap.--the country school.--invocation to hope.--prayer to patience,--character of st. tamany, by william pritchard. the =columbian= naval melody; a collection of songs and odes, composed on the late naval victories and other occasions. boston: printed by hans lund. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. º. =nbhd= the =comet=: a poem. _see_ =byles=, mather. =commencement=, a poem. _see_ =biglow=, william. =commercial= advertiser, new york. the embassina; addressed to the patrons of the commercial advertiser, by the carriers--with the compliments of the season. january , . (in: commercial advertiser. new-york, jan. , . fº. no. , p. .) =reserve= a poem relating to the events of the preceding year, and washington's death. reprinted in _the spectator_, new-york, jan. , , no. , p. . =cook=, ebenezer. an elegy [on] the death of the honourable nicholas lowe, esq: by e. cooke. laureat. (maryland historical society. fund publication, no. , p. - .) =iaa= this elegy appeared originally in the _maryland gazette_, december , . ---- the sot-weed factor: or, a voyage to maryland. a satyr. in which is describ'd, the laws, government, courts and constitutions of the country; and also the buildings, feasts, frolicks, entertainments and drunken humours of the inhabitants of that part of america. in burlesque verse. by eben. cook, gent. london: printed and sold by b. bragg, at the raven in pater-noster-row. . (price d.) p.l., p. º. =reserve= reprinted in in "the maryland muse. containing the history of colonel n. bacon's rebellion in virginia. done into hudibrastic verse from an old ms. ii. the sotweed factor or, voyage to maryland. annapolis: printed by william parks. . fº." reprinted in in number two of shea's _early southern tracts, isg_. third reprint, in modern type, with a photo-facsimile title-page in maryland historical society, _fund publication_, no. , _iaa_. ---- sotweed redivivus: or the planters looking-glass. in burlesque verse. calculated for the meridian of maryland. by e. c. gent, [i.e., ebenezer cook.] annapolis: printed by william parks, for the author. m.dcc.xxx. vii, p. º. =reserve= reprinted in modern type, with a photo-facsimile title-page in maryland historical society, _fund publication_, no. , p. - , _iaa_. =cooper=, samuel. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =corlet=, elijah. epitaphium thomas hooker. (in: cotton mather, johannes in eremo.... boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =cotton=, john, - . [elegy] on my reverend and dear brother, mr. thomas hooker, late pastor of the church at hartford on conecticot. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- [an epitaph for sara and roland cotton.] (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º. book , p. .) =reserve= also in the hartford, , edition, v. , p. - and hartford, , edition, v. , p. of the _magnalia christi americana_. also reprinted in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- upon the death of that aged, pious, sincere-hearted christian john alden, esq: late magistrate of new-plimouth colony, who dyed sept th. . being about eighty nine years of age. [by] j. c. [i.e., john cotton.] n.p., n.d. broadside. =reserve= photo-facsimile. text in two columns, enclosed in mourning borders. a =country= treat upon the second paragraph in his excellency's speech. _see_ =m.=, s. =cow-chace=, in three cantos. _see_ =andré=, john. =crafts=, william, - . a selection, in prose and poetry, from the miscellaneous writings of the late william crafts. charleston: c. c. sebring and j. s. burges, . , p. º. =nbg= poetry, p. - . the =croakers=. _see_ =drake=, joseph rodman, and fitz-greene halleck. =croswell=, joseph. an ode to liberty. composed by mr. joseph croswell, and sung at the civic feast at plymouth, january , . (in: chandler robbins, an address delivered at plymouth, on the th day of january, .... boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =crystalina=; a fairy tale. _see_ =harney=, john milton. =currie=, helen. poems, by helen currie. philadelphia: printed by thomas h. palmer. . p.l., (i)vi-viii p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =dabney=, richard, - . poems, original and translated. by richard dabney. second edition. philadelphia: published by m. carey, no. , chestnut street. . p.l., (i)iv-viii p., l., ( ) - p. nar. º. =nbhd= =danforth=, john. ad politum literaturæ, atque sacrarum literaturum antistitem. angliæque americanæ antiquarium callentissimum, reverendum dominum, d. cottonum matherum. (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º.) =reserve= text in latin and english. also in later editions of the _magnalia christi americana_, as follows: hartford, , v. , p. ; hartford, , v. , p. . ---- an elegy upon the much lamented decease of the reverend and excellent mr. joseph belcher. late faithful pastor of the church of christ in dedham, n. e. qui obiit, april . anno dom. . Ætat. suæ . (in: cotton mather, a good character. or, a walk with god characterized. with some dues paid unto the memory of mr. joseph belcher.... boston, . º. p. [ - .]) =reserve= reprinted in ebenezer burgess, editor, _dedham pulpit_, boston, , p. - , _ziy_. ---- greatness & goodness elegized, in a poem, upon the much lamented decease of the honourable & vertuous madam hannah sewall, late consort of the honourable judge sewall, in boston, in new-england. she exchanged this life for a better, october, th. anno dom. . Ætatis suæ . [boston? .] broadside. =reserve= text in two columns, enclosed in mourning borders. =danforth=, samuel, - . an almanack for the year of our lord .... cambridge by mathew day. are to be solde by hez. usher at boston. . l. º. =reserve= photostat facsimile copy. poems on leaves - . ---- an almanack for the year of our lord .... printed at cambridge, . l. º. =reserve= photostat facsimile copy. poems on leaves - . ---- an almanack for the year of our lord .... printed at cambridge. . l. º. =reserve= poems on leaves - . =danforth=, samuel, - . an elegy in memory of the worshipful major thomas leonard esq. of taunton in new-england; who departed this life on the th. day of november, anno domini . in the d. year of his age. [by] samuel danforth. [boston: printed by b. green? .] broadside. =reserve= photo-facsimile. text in two columns, enclosed in mourning borders. the =dartmoor= massacre. _see_ =w.=, i. h. =d'aubigne=, richard. _see_ =dabney=, richard. =davis=, abijah. an oration, delivered at port-elizabeth, state of new-jersey, on the st day of march, . by the rev. abijah davis. philadelphia: printed for mathew carey, no. , high-street, robert carr, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =io( ) p.v. , no. = p. - in verse. =davis=, john, - ? coosohatchie. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= the village of coosohatchie is situated about half way between charleston and savannah. ---- horace, book , ode , imitated; the shipwreck, a wandering of fancy. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- ode to charleston college; ode to a cricket; horace imitated, ode xi, b. ; swift imitated, to lucus george. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- ode on home; ode to a medical friend; ode to the mocking-bird; plague at philadelphia; in me-ipsum. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- ode to lucus george, on his arrival at new-york from south-carolina; to flavia; ad puerum; horace imitated, book ii ode xxii; ode to lucus george written in south-carolina; sonnet to charlotte smith, written at savannah, in georgia; ode to the honourable judge grimke, of south-carolina. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- ode to a medical friend. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- sonnet to the chick-willow. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- to the evening star; paraphrase of buchanan's latin epigram from the greek; ode on ashley river; on my house at sullivan's island; ode to a cricket. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= =davis=, richard bingham, - . poems by richard b. davis; with a sketch of his life. new york: printed and sold by t. and j. swords, no. pearl-street. . p.l., (i)viii-xxxi p., l., p. º. =nbhd= edited by john t. irving. reviewed in _the monthly anthology and boston review_, boston, , v. , p. - , * _da_. =dawes=, thomas, - . benevolence. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_ and in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the law given at sinai. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- ode on the opening of the bridge over charles river, from boston to charlestown, on the th day of june, , being the eleventh anniversary of the battle of bunker's-hill. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= the =day= of doom. _see_ =wigglesworth=, michael. =deane=, samuel. pitchwood hill. a poem. written in the year . by samuel deane, d.d. printed at portland. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = "the following elegant little poem is now published without the knowledge of the author. it appeared originally in the _cumberland gazette_, march , ...."--_editor_. ---- _see also_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... the =death= of general montgomery, at the siege of quebec. _see_ =brackenridge=, hugh henry. the =declaration= of independence; a poem. _see_ =richards=, george. =democracy=: an epic poem. _see_ =livingston=, henry brockholst. the =democratiad=, a poem. _see_ =hopkins=, lemuel. =denison=, edward. the lottery, a poem, in two parts. and an ode to war. by st. denis le cadet [pseud. of edward denison]. baltimore: printed by j. robinson, for the author. . p.l., ( ) - ( ) p. º. =nbhd= =dennie=, joseph, editor. _see_ the =spirit= of the farmers' museum, and lay preacher's gazette. =de peyster=, arent schuyler, - . miscellanies, by an officer. volume . dumfries. printed at the dumfries and galloway courier office, by c. munro. . p. º. =reserve= no more published. reprinted, new york: a. e. chasmar & co. . , ccii, p., map, ports. º., _hbc_. =de sillè=, nicasius. memoir and poems. (in: henry c. murphy, anthology of new netherland. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbh= =dexter=, samuel, - . the progress of science. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =diabolou= machia; or battle of dragon. _see_ =hill=, george. a =dialogue= between a southern delegate, and his spouse, on his return from the grand continental congress. a fragment, inscribed to the married ladies of america, by their most sincere, and affectionate friend, and servant, mary v. v. [new york:] printed in the year m,dcc,lxxiv. [by james rivington?] p. º. =reserve= attributed to thomas jefferson, by j. sabin. =dinsmore=, robert, - . a short view of burgoyne's expedition. (in: ballads and poems relating to the burgoyne campaign. albany, n. y., . º. p. - .) =nbhd= =dodge=, paul. a poem: delivered at the commencement of rhode-island college, september , a.d. . by paul dodge, a.b. published by request. providence: printed by carter and wilkinson, and sold at their book-store, opposite the market. . p. º. =reserve= =drake=, joseph rodman, - . the american flag. by joseph rodman drake. illustrated from original drawings by f. o. c. darley. illuminated cover by john a. davis. music from bellini, by geo. danskin. new york: james g. gregory, . f., l. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = written in , and published in the new york _evening post_, may , . also printed in _the croakers_. ---- the culprit fay and other poems. new-york: george dearborn, publisher. . p.l., p., port. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. written in . ---- ---- new-york: george dearborn, publisher. . p.l., ( ) - p., port. º. =nbhd= also has engraved title-page. ---- ---- new-york: van norden and king, wall street. . p.l., ( ) - p., port. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. ---- the culprit fay. new york: rudd & carleton, . p.l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york: rudd & carleton, . p.l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york: rudd & carleton, . p.l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york: carleton, publisher (late rudd & carleton.) . p.l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york: kilbourne tompkins, . l. sq. º. =nbhd= =drake=, joseph rodman, and fitz-greene halleck. the croakers. first complete edition. new york, mdccclx. p.l., (i)vi-viii, p., ports. º. (bradford club series. number two.) =nbhd= no. of club copies. the library has a second copy, no. of subscriber's copies, _nbhd_; also a third copy, no. of club copies, which has inserted pl., ports., _iag_; also a fourth copy with ports. inserted, in _reserve_. _the croakers_ was published originally in the new york _evening post_, march -july , ; _new york mirror_, jan. , ; new york _evening post_, nov. , ; _home journal_, may , . some unpublished poems are also included in this edition. ---- poems by croaker, croaker & co. and croaker, jr. as published in the evening post. l., - p., l. =* nbi= excerpt: waldie's octavo library. the =druid= of the lakes, pseud. _see_ the =camp= meeting. =dudley=, thomas, - . [epitaph.] (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. .) =reserve= "these verses were found in his pocket after his death." reprinted in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =dunlap=, william, - . cololoo,--an indian tale, thrown into english verse. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= "this poem was originally published, in an imperfect state, in no. of the d volume of the _gazette of the united states_, for july th, ...." also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- ella, a norwegian tale. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_ =dutton=, warren, - . the present state of literature; a poem, delivered in new-haven, at the public commencement of yale-college, september , . by warren dutton. hartford: printed by hudson and goodwin. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= =dwight=, theodore, - . lines addressed to a mother, who had been absent from home several weeks, on her seeing her infant child. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- lines on the death of washington. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- ode to conscience. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- picture of african distress. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - . _nbh_. ---- _see also_ the =echo=; the =political= green-house for the year . =dwight=, timothy, - . address of the genius of columbia to the continental convention. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_. new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- columbia. [by timothy dwight.] (in: the salem gazette. thursday, january , . fº. p. .) =reserve= reprinted in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. , _reserve_; _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the conquest of canäan; a poem, in eleven books. by timothy dwight. hartford: printed by elisha babcock. m,dcc,lxxxv. p.l., p., l. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= dedicated to george washington. ---- creation. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the critics, a fable. written september . (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= this poem was first printed in _the gazette of the united states_, july , . ---- the deity, and his dispensations. (in: the columbian muse. new york. . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the destruction of the pequods; the farmer's advice to the villagers; columbia; the critics, a fable; the worship of the gibeonites; battle before the walls of ai; evening after a battle; procession of israelitish virgins to meet the returning army; lamentation of selima for the death of irad. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- epistle from dr. dwight to col. humphreys, greenfield, . (in: david humphreys, the miscellaneous works of colonel humphreys. new-york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in _american poems, selected and original_. litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_, and in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - . _nbh_. ---- a female worthy. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- greenfield hill: a poem, in seven parts. i. the prospect. ii. the flourishing village. iii. the burning of fairfield. iv. the destruction of the pequods. v. the clergyman's advice to the villagers. vi. the farmer's advice to the villagers. vii. the vision, or prospect of the future happiness of america. by timothy dwight, d.d. new-york: printed by childs and swaine. . [really ] ( ) p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= written mainly in ; introduction dated june , . dedicated to vice-president adams. advertised in _new york daily advertiser_, october , , p. , col. . ---- the house of sloth. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= reprinted in _the port folio_, philadelphia, , v. , p. , * _da_; _the american poetical miscellany_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- a hymn sung at the public exhibition of the scholars, belonging to the academy in greenfield, may , . by dr. dwight. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- message of mordecai to esther. from a manuscript poem. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the miseries of war. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- new-england described. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- ode on the glory of columbia. (in: david humphreys, the miscellaneous works of colonel humphreys. new-york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- picture of a new-england village. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also in _the new-york magazine_, new-york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- the seasons moralized. (in: the american magazine. new york, . º. december, , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the american museum_. philadelphia, , v. , p. - , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_. litchfield, , p. - ; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the seasons moralized; a song; the deity, and his dispensations; creation; original state of man; three fold state of man emblematized; prospect of america. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - , - .) =reserve= ---- the trial of faith. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= in three parts: part i, daniel, chap, i; part ii, daniel, chap, ii; part iii, daniel, chap. iii. this poem appeared originally in the following numbers of _the new-haven gazette, and connecticut magazine_: part i. sept. , , v. , no. , p. - ; part ii. oct. , , v. , no. , p. - ; part iii. oct. , , v. , no. , p. - . ---- the triumph of infidelity: a poem. supposed to be written by timothy dwight, d.d. of greenfield in connecticut, in . london: printed for j. mathews, no. , strand. mdccxci. p. º. =reserve= =eastburn=, james wallis, - , and robert charles sands, - . yamoyden, a tale of the wars of king philip: in six cantos. by the late rev. james wallis eastburn, a.m. and his friend [i.e., robert charles sands]. new york: published by james eastburn, clayton & kingsland, printers. . p.l., (i)vi-xii, ( ) p., front. º. =nbhd= and =hbc= engraved title-page. =eaton=, theophilus. review of new-york, or rambles through the city. original poems. moral, religious, sarcastic, and descriptive. by th. eaton. second edition. new-york: printed and published by john low, no. chatham-street. . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p. nar. º. =nbhd= the =echo=, with other poems. [printed at the porcupine press by pasquin petronius.] . p.l., (i)iv-xv, p., l., pl. º. =reserve= and =nbh= the reserve copy has inserted, plates ( double). contains poems by theodore dwight, richard alsop, mason f. cogswell, and l. hopkins. "the first number of 'the echo' appeared in 'the american mercury,' at hartford, in august, . it was written at middletown, by richard alsop and theodore dwight. the authors, at the time of writing it, had no expectation of its being published. their sole object was to amuse themselves and a few of their personal friends. the general account of its origin and design is given in the preface to the volume, in which the numbers were afterward collected and published in new york. with the exception of a few lines written by drs. mason f. cogswell and elihu h. smith, and a part of one or two numbers by dr. lemuel hopkins, the entire work was the production of messrs. alsop and dwight. judge trumbull never wrote a line in it."--c. w. everest, _poets of connecticut_. an =eclogue=, occasioned by the death of the rev. alexander cummings. _see_ =belknap=, jeremy. =eggleston=, george cary. american war ballads and lyrics. a collection of the songs and ballads of the colonial wars, the revolution, the war of - , the war with mexico and the civil war. edited by george cary eggleston. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xiv p., l., p., pl. º. =nbi= =eleazar.= in obitum viri verè reverendi d. thomæ thacheri, qui ad dom. ex hac vitâ migravit, , , . (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º. book , p. .) =reserve= composed by eleazar, an indian youth who was then a student at harvard. reprinted in later editions of the _magnalia christi americana_, as follows: hartford, , v. , p. ; hartford, , v. , p. . text in latin and english. =elegiac= ode, sacred to the memory of general [nathanael] greene. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= =elegiac= verses on the decease of his late excellency ... general george washington. _see_ =searson=, john. an =elegie= upon the death of the reverend mr. thomas shepard. _see_ =oakes=, urian. =elegies= and epitaphs, - . [by cotton mather and urian oakes.] boston: the club of odd volumes, . p., l., p., l., - p., l., - p., l., [ ]- p., l., - p. sq. º. (the club of odd volumes. early american poetry. [reprints. v.] .) =reserve= no. of one hundred copies on hand-made paper. _contents_: elegie on the reverend thomas shepard, . by the reverend urian oakes. three elegies and an epitaph, by cotton mather: [ .] on the rev. john wilson. from _johannes in eremo_, ; [ .] on seven young ministers. from _vigilantius_, ; [ .] on ezekiel cheever. from _corderius americanus_, ; [ .] on the hon. wait winthrop. from _hades look'd into_, . =elegy= on the death of brigadier general [hugh] mercer, of virginia, slain in the action near princeton, january , . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. , part , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= an =elegy= on the death of general george washington. (colonial society of massachusetts. publications. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =iaa= a poem of eight stanzas of six lines each. printed from a contemporary manuscript belonging to the boston athenæum. =elegy= on the death of general washington. (in: the port folio. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =* da= an =elegy= on the much-to-be-deplored death of ... reverend nathaniel collins. _see_ =mather=, cotton. an =elegy= on a patriot. occasioned by the awful and untimely death of the honourable william wimble, who by the coroner's inquest was found to have come to his end by suffocation. (in: the new-haven gazette, and the connecticut magazine. new haven, . º. march , , v. , no. , p. .) =reserve= an =elegy= upon his excellency william burnet, esq; who departed this life sept. th. . Ætat. . boston: printed and sold by t. fleet in pudding-lane, near the town-house, where may be had his excellency's character [ ]. broadside. =reserve= nine stanzas; text enclosed in mourning borders. =elisha=, patrick n. i. patent right oppression exposed; or, knavery detected. in an address, to unite all good people to obtain a repeal of the patent laws. by patrick n. i. elisha, esq. to which is added an alarming law case; also, reflections on the patent laws. illustrated with notes and anecdotes by the author. philadelphia: published by r. folwell, . xi(i), ( ) p. º. =patent room= an =emetic= for aristocrats! or a chapter, respecting governor jay, and his treaty. also, a history of the life and death of independence. to which is added, a poem on the treaty. boston. printed, . p. º. =reserve= a poem on jay's treaty, p. - . =entertainment= for a winter's evening. _see_ =green=, joseph. =epistle= to his excellency general washington. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= an =epistle= to the hon. arthur dobbs, esq; in europe. from a clergyman in america. [in three parts.] london: printed for the author, and sold by r. dodsley, in pall-mall, and m. cooper, in pater-noster-row. . p.l., iii-v, - p., l. º. =reserve= =epistle= from the marquis de la fayette, to general washington. edinburgh: printed by mundell & son, royal bank close; for mundell & son, edinburgh; and longman & rees, and j. wright, london. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= according to _sabin_ "this exceedingly rare poetical piece was written during the lifetime of general washington, but was not printed until after his death." attributed to george hamilton. an =epistle= to a member of the general court of massachusetts, for . n.t.-p. [n.p., -?] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= half-title only. an =epistle= from yarico to inkle. _see_ =story=, isaac. an =epistle= to zenas. _see_ =gardiner=, john s. t. =estlake=, restore, pseud. ethick diversions. in four epistles to emphasian, r. t. to which is added, the convent. by restore estlake. new-york: printed by t. and j. swords, no. pearl-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= =evans=, nathaniel, - . elegy to the memory of [mr. thomas godfrey]. (in: thomas godfrey, juvenile poems on various subjects. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- poems on several occasions with some other compositions. by nathaniel evans, a.m. late missionary (appointed by the society for propagating the gospel) for gloucester county, in new jersey; and chaplain to lord viscount kilmorey, of the kingdom of ireland. philadelphia: printed by john dunlap, in market-street. m.dcc.lxxii. xxviii, , p. º. =reserve= leaf of errata lacking. some of these poems are reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- progress of science. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= not in his _poems on several occasions_. also in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_. =everett=, david, - . a branch of maple. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- daranzel; or, the persian patriot. an original drama. in five acts. boston: john russell, . p., l. º. =nbl p.v. , no. = =ewing=, samuel. reflections in solitude. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =extracts= in prose and verse, by a lady of maryland. together with a collection of original poetry, never before published, by citizens of maryland. in two volumes. annapolis: printed by frederick green. . v. º. =nbf= v. . p.l., ( ) - p., l.; v. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. the last leaves of v. contain a list of subscribers. the poems by american authors include the following: v. . epitaph on mrs. grove, of litchfield, by william grove, p. - . a similie, by j. l. b. esq. of md., p. - .--to lady harriet ackland, on her coming into the american camp to attend her husband, by miss lee, of md., p. - . v. . sonnet to mr.--, in india, by miss lee, of md., p. - .--sonnet to the memory of her sisters, mrs. f-nd-l and mrs. pl-t-r, by miss lee, of md., p. - .--the genius of america; pyrocles to lucinda; impromptu; epigram on a young gentleman; chloe; to monimia; an imitation of horace, bk. iii, ode xxix; epitaph on a miser; to amanda; [lines] written under a young lady's picture; thoughts at christmas; absence; an ode to a friend; an ode, ; song, to the tune of the flowers of the forest; on the taking of louisburgh by admiral boscawen, ; verses written at mount radnor, april, ; a hymn to monimia; a song to the tune wae's my heart that we should sunder; by john thomas, of md., p. - .--verses on presenting mr. j. t. with a piece of work to wear in his watch, by miss lee, of md., p. - .--to a young lady, on receiving from her a watch-paper, by john thomas, of md., p. - .--to a young lady, on the author's omitting to send her as promised, a present of flowers, on may-day, , by john thomas, of md., p. - .--on the vicissitudes of human life, an elegy, addressed to a friend by mr. smith of phila., p. - .--the enamour'd philosopher, by a maniac in the hospital at philadelphia, p. - .--lampoon, by mr. smith, of phila., p. - .--the student's sigh; to miss a. t.; morning, a hymn; the student's resolve; elegy on the death of hon. j. rogers; despair, an elegy; a burlesque invitation; to miss a. o., by ---- of anne-arundel county, p. - .--to miss h. hill; on the death of mrs.--'s humming bird; by miss lee, of md., p. - .--sonnet by charlotte smith, p. . a =family= tablet: containing a selection of original poetry. boston: printed and sold by william spotswood. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= edited by abiel holmes. this collection was almost entirely composed by members of the family of president stiles, and dr. holmes and his wife were the largest contributors.--dexter, _yale annals_. _contents_: elegy.--a dirge.--on the sudden death of a lovely child.--lines addressed to miss s. w. on the death of her brother who fell in battle at miami village, .--lines occasioned by the war, .--andré's ghost.--epistle to myra.--lines presented to the parents of mr. j. f.--lines to the memory of mrs. t. h.--elegy to memory of mrs. t. w.--elegiac sonnet.--farewell.--the adieu.--invocation to religion.--hymn written at sea.--invocation to piety.--lines written in a gale at sea.--birth-day reflection.--hymn, my times are in thy hand.--conscience.--to myra.--origin of the fire-screen.--a fragment.--inscription on a mall at c.--the flower-de-luce.--reply.--to myron with a purse.--reply.--to myra with a paper-basket.--lines accompanying a needle-book.--to a gentleman, who presented myra seven robins.--address to a young robin.--to myron, with a jonquil.--reply.--on reading the above pieces.--the transformation of eliza into a poplar.--the soldier.--the seasons.--to a gentleman, who presented louisa with a pen.--reply.--to strephon.--to amanda.--lines occasioned by seeing a portrait of the goddess of liberty.--elegiac fragment on the death of e. s.--elegiac sonnet on mrs. k. t. s.--elegy on doctor *******--yaratildia: an epic poem. =fanny= [a poem]. _see_ =halleck=, fitz-greene. =farmer=, henry tudor. the battle of the isle. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- imagination; the maniac's dream, and other poems; by henry t. farmer, m.d. member of the historical society of new-york. new-york: published by kirk & mercein, and john miller, covent garden, london. william a. mercein, printer. . p.l., (i)viii-xi, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =fashion's= analysis; or, the winter in town. _see_ =avalanche=, sir anthony, pseud. =father= abbey's will. _see_ =seccomb=, john. =faugeres=, margaretta v., - . essays, in prose and verse. by margaretta v. faugeres. (in: the posthumous works of ann eliza bleecker. new-york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= poems, p. - . =fenno=, miss j. original compositions, in prose and verse. on subjects moral and religious. by miss j. fenno, of boston. printed in boston, by joseph bumstead, at his office, no. , union-street. mdccxci. p.l., iii, p. º. =reserve= =fentham.= the old soldier. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_. new york, , p. - , _nbh_. =fessenden=, thomas green, - . democracy unveiled; or, tyranny stripped of the garb of patriotism. by christopher caustic, l.l.d. [pseud. of thomas green fessenden.] second edition. boston: printed by david carlisle, for the author. . p.l., (i)iv-viii, p. º. =reserve= canto i. the tocsin; ii. illuminism; iii. mobocracy; iv. the jeffersoniad; v. the gibbet of satire; vi. monition. ---- ---- in two volumes. third edition, with large additions. new-york: printed for i. riley & co. . v. in . º. =reserve= v. . xxiv, p.; v. . p., l. the library has another copy of this edition in which v. is dated ; v. , dated . ---- the modern philosopher; or terrible tractoration! in four cantos, most respectfully addressed to the royal college of physicians, london. by christopher caustick [pseud. of thomas green fessenden], fellow of the royal college of physicians, aberdeen and honorary member of no less than nineteen very learned societies. second american edition, revised, corrected, and much enlarged by the author. philadelphia: from the lorenzo press of e. bronson. . p.l., (i)vi-xxxii, p., pl. (incl. front.) º. =nbhd= ---- original poems. by thomas green fessenden, esq. author of terrible tractoration, or caustic's petition to the royal college of physicians, and democracy unveiled. philadelphia: printed at the lorenzo press of e. bronson. . p.l., (i)vi-xii, ( ) p. º. =nbhd= some of fessenden's poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- pills, poetical, political and philosophical. prescribed for the purpose of purging the publick of piddling philosophers, of puny poetasters, of paltry politicians, and petty partisans. by peter pepper-box, poet and physician [i.e., thomas green fessenden]. philadelphia: printed for the author. . p.l., (i)iv-xviii, p. º. =nbhd= ---- poetical dialogue between lionel lovelorn, esq. and geoffry ginger, esq. (in: the port folio. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =* da= ---- terrible tractoration!! a poetical petition against galvanising trumpery, and the perkinistic institution. in four cantos. most respectfully addressed to the royal college of physicians, by christopher caustic.... first american from the second london edition.... new york: s. stansbury, . xxxv(i), p. º. =nbhd= first published in london, . the =field= of orleans, a poem. _see_ =hutton=, joseph. =first= church of universalists, boston, mass. ode performed ... on the day devoted to funeral testimonies of respect to the memory of ... washington. (in: the independent chronicle. boston, jan. , .) =reserve= a poem of eight stanzas. =fitch=, elijah, - . the beauties of religion. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american literature. boston, . º. p. - .) =nbh= ---- the choice. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= first published in providence, . ---- the true christian. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= =folger=, peter, - . a looking-glass for the times, or the former spirit of new england revived in this generation. by peter folger. april , . l. º. =reserve= "this was reprinted in . copies of it are very rare. we are indebted for the one from which we have reprinted, to a ms. copy in possession of mr. bancroft." excerpt from: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck's _cyclopædia of american literature_. also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =forrest=, michael. travels through america. a poem. by michael forrest. philadelphia: printed by johnston & justice, at franklin's head, no. , chestnut-street. m.dcc.xciii. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= address to fortune (supposed to have been written by an old bachelor), p. - ; verses addressed to a young gentleman at the charleston college academy, in , p. - ; a specimen of unlimited sublime poetry, p. - ; man shall be free. a new song written february , , p. . =franklin=, benjamin, - . the mechanic's song. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= ---- the mother country. (in his: select works. by epes sargent. boston, . º. p. .) =iaw= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- my plain country joan. (in his: select works. by epes sargent. boston, . º. p. .) =iaw= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- paper: a poem. (in his: works. london, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in _the massachusetts magazine_, boston, , v. , p. , _reserve_; samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; and in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. also printed in many editions of franklin's _works_. =french= arrogance; or "the cat let out of the bag." _see_ =cobbett=, william. =freneau=, philip, - . the american village. a poem by philip freneau. reprinted in facsimile from the original edition published at new york in , with an introduction by harry lyman koopman and bibliographical data by victor hugo paltsits. providence, rhode island, . xxi p., l., p. º. (club for colonial reprints of providence, rhode island. third publication.) =iag= no. of copies printed. ---- a collection of poems, on american affairs, and a variety of other subjects, chiefly moral and political; written between the year and the present time. by philip freneau, author of poems written during the revolutionary war, miscellanies, &c. &c. in two volumes. new-york: published by david longworth, at the dramatic repository, shakspeare-gallery. . v. º. =nbhd= v. . p.l., v-viii, ( ) - p., l. of adv.; v. . p.l., ( ) - p. ---- the miscellaneous works of mr. philip freneau. containing his essays, and additional poems. philadelphia: printed by francis bailey, at yorick's head, in market street. mdcclxxxviii. xii, p. º. =reserve= ---- the poems of philip freneau. written chiefly during the late war. philadelphia: printed by francis bailey, at yorick's head, in market street. mdcclxxxvi. vii(i), p. º. =reserve= ---- the poems of philip freneau poet of the american revolution. edited for the princeton historical association by fred lewis pattee.... princeton, n. j.: the university library, . v. º. =nbhd= ---- poems relating to the american revolution by philip freneau. with an introductory memoir and notes. by evert a. duyckinck. new york: w. j. middleton, publisher, . p.l., (i)vi-xxxviii, p., ports. (incl. front.), fac. º. =nbhd= no. of copies printed. ---- poems on various subjects, but chiefly illustrative of the events and actors in the american war of independence. by philip freneau. reprinted from the rare edition printed at philadelphia in . with a preface. london: john russell smith, soho square. . p.l., (i)vi-xxii, p. º. =nbhd= ---- poems written between the years & , by philip freneau, of new jersey. a new edition, revised and corrected by the author; including a considerable number of pieces never before published. monmouth [n. j.] printed at the press of the author, at mount-pleasant, near middletown-point; m,dcc,xcv: and, of--american independence--xix. p.l., (i)x-xv, ( ) p. º. =reserve= advertised by freneau in his newspaper, _the jersey chronicle_, no. , july , . the library has a second copy of this edition; both were formerly owned by evert a. duyckinck, who annotated them, in pencil, for his edition of freneau's poems published in . the annotations of the one supplement those of the other. ---- poems written and published during the american revolutionary war, and now republished from original manuscripts; interspersed with translations from the ancients, and other pieces not heretofore in print. by philip freneau. the third edition in two volumes. philadelphia: from the press of lydia r. bailey, no. , north-alley. . v. º. =reserve= v. . p.l., ( ) , iv, ( ) - p., front.; v. . p.l., ( ) - , xii p., front. =g.=, g. the shunamite. _see_ =green=, g. =gardiner=, john s. j., - . an epistle to zenas. [by john s. j. gardiner, assistant rector, trinity church, boston.] boston: printed by peter edes [ ?]. p.l., ii, ( ) - ( ) p., l. º. =reserve= cerberus. very curious and uncommon character, p. [ - ]. ---- [funeral poem on fisher ames.] (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= a =gentleman= of connecticut, pseud. the democratiad, a poem. _see_ =hopkins=, lemuel. a =gentleman= of maryland, pseud. _see_ =brackenridge=, hugh henry. a =gentleman= of rhode island colony, pseud. verses on doctor mayhew's book of observations on the charter and conduct of the society for the propagation of the gospel. _see_ =goddard=, william. the =ghost= of christopher columbus, visiting the united states in the year . a poem. cop. . p.l., - p. º. =* c p.v. = bd. with: m. l. weems, the philanthropist or political peacemaker. philadelphia, . page - lacking. =goddard=, william, - . verses on doctor mayhew's book of observations on the charter and conduct of the society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts: with note, critical and explanatory. by a gentleman of rhode-island colony [i.e., william goddard]. providence, in new-england: printed and sold by william goddard, at the signe of shakespear's head, . p. º. =reserve= =godfrey=, thomas, - . juvenile poems on various subjects. with the prince of parthia, a tragedy. by the late mr. thomas godfrey, junr. of philadelphia. to which is prefixed some account of the author and his writings [by n. evans]. philadelphia, printed by henry miller, in second-street. mdcclxv. xxvi p., l., p. º. =reserve= "elegy to the memory of mr. thomas godfrey," by j. green, p. - ; "elegy, to the memory of the same," by n. evans, october , , p. - . =good= news from nevv-england: with an exact relation of the first planting that countrey: a description of the profits accruing by the worke. together with a briefe, but true discovery of their order both in church and common-wealth, and maintenance allowed the painfull labourers in that vineland of the lord. with the names of the severall towns, and who be preachers to them. london; printed by mathew simmons, . p.l., p. º. =reserve= pages , , , wrongly numbered , , , . reprinted with modern type-facsimile title-page in massachusetts historical society, _collections for _, boston, , series , v. , p. - , _iaa_. the identity of the author has been lost, except that he is known to have been a resident of plymouth colony. the =gospel= tragedy: an epic poem. see =brockway=, thomas. =gratitude=, a poem spoken at the boston theatre, by mrs. whitlock. (in: the polyanthos. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =* da= this poem appeared in _the mirror of taste_ in . =green=, g. the shunamite. recommended to the candid perusal of all denominations of christians. by g. g.--, [i.e., g. green] m.m.m. new york: printed by southwick and pelsue. no. , new-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = p. - lacking. =green=, joseph, - . elegy to the memory of mr. thomas godfrey. (in: thomas godfrey, juvenile poems on various subjects. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- entertainment for a winter's evening being a full and true account of a very strange and wonderful sight seen in boston on the twenty-seventh of december at noon-day. the truth of which can be attested by a great number of people, who actually saw the same with their own eyes. by me, the hon^{ble} b. b. esq. (joseph green).... boston: printed and sold by g. rogers, next to the prison in queen-street. tarrytown, new york. reprinted william abbatt, . p. º. (in: magazine of history with notes and queries, extra no. , p. - .) =iag= modern type reprint with type facsimile of title-page. ---- a mournful lamentation for the death of mr. old tenor. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= also printed in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- a parody on mather byles's stanzas written at sea. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= also printed in stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- the poet's lamentation for the loss of his cat, which he used to call his muse. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york. . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= also printed in stedman and hutchinson. _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. the =group=: or an elegant representation illustrated. _see_ =cliffton=, william. =guest=, moses. poems on several occasions. to which are annexed, extracts from a journal kept by the author while he followed the sea, and during a journey from new-brunswick, in new-jersey, to montreal and quebec. by moses guest. cincinnati: looker & reynolds, printers; . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p. . ed. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= the =guillotina=, or a democratic dirge, a poem. _see_ =hopkins=, lemuel. =haight=, mrs. sarah. a medley of joy and grief; being a selection of original pieces in prose and verse, chiefly on religious subjects. by a lady of new-york [i.e., mrs. sarah haight]. new-york: published by w. b. gilley, broadway. gray & bunce, printers. . p., l. º. =nbf= includes the following pieces written before : a retrospect of past and present mercies, jan. st, , p. - .--meditation, june, , p. - .--meditation, a walk to mount olivet on a summer's eve, july, , p. - .--complaint, etc. under pain and trouble, february, , p. - .--complaint under great bodily pain, and darkness of mind, greenwich, april, , p. - .--on the death of mrs. m. wilkinson, , p. - .--all is vanity but the creator, , p. - .--complaining of hardness of heart. mount pleasant, august, , p. - .--to rosamond, on her departure for england, june, , p. - .--reflections, may, , p. - . =halleck=, fitz-greene, - . fanny. [by fitz-greene halleck.] new-york: published by c. wiley & co. no. wall-street. clayton & kingsland, printers. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- second edition. new-york: published by wiley & halsted, no. , wall-street. william grattan, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york, . p.l., ( ) - p., port. º. =reserve= no. of copies printed for w. l. andrews. also printed in _specimens of the american poets_. london, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- fanny, with other poems. [by fitz-greene halleck.] new-york. harper & brothers. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. º. =reserve= engraved title-page. ---- the poetical writings of fitz-greene halleck, with extracts from those of joseph rodman drake. edited by james grant wilson. new york: d. appleton and company, . p.l., (i)vi-xviii p., l., ( ) - p., pl., ports. (incl. front.) º. =* nbi= =hamilton=, george. _see_ =epistle= from the marquis de la fayette to general washington. =hammon=, jupiter, b. ? jupiter hammon, american negro poet; selections from his writings and a bibliography, by oscar wegelin. new york: c. f. heartman, . p.l., - p., facs. (incl. front.) º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) =reserve= one of copies printed on alexandra japan paper. facing p. , facsimile of broadside: an address to miss philis wheatley, ethiopian poetess, in boston, who came from africa at eight years of age, and soon became acquainted with the gospel of jesus christ. hartford, august , . text in two columns. text also printed on p. - . facing p. facsimile of broadside: an evening thought. salvation by christ, with penetential cries. composed ... th of december, . text in two columns. text also printed on p. - . a poem for children with thoughts on death, p. - ; a dialogue intitled the kind master and the dutiful servant [in verse], p. - . =harney=, john milton, - . crystalina; a fairy tale. by an american [i.e., john milton harney]. new-york: printed by george f. hopkins. . p.l., p. º. =nbhd= =harwood=, john edmund, - . poems by john edmund harwood. new-york: published by m. & w. ward, no. city-hotel, for joseph osborn, . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= elegies, p. - ; odes, p. - ; miscellaneous pieces, p. - . =haslett=, andrew. original poems, by a. haslett. author of various miscellaneous pieces. baltimore: printed by r. gamble--no. light-street. . p.l., ii(i), viii-ix, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =hastings=, sally. poems, on different subjects. to which is added, a descriptive account of a family tour to the west; in the year, . in a letter to a lady. by sally hastings. lancaster, printed and sold, by william dickson, for the benefit of the authoress. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= the =hasty-pudding=: a poem. _see_ =barlow=, joel. =haven=, nathaniel appleton, - . the remains of nathaniel appleton haven. with a memoir of his life, by george ticknor. [cambridge: milliard, metcalf & company,] mdcccxxvii. xl, p. º. =nbg= poems written during the years - , p. - . ---- ---- second edition. boston: hilliard, gray, little, and wilkins. . viii, p. º. =nbg= poems written during the years - , p. - . =hazard=, joseph. poems, on various subjects. by joseph hazard. brooklyn, n. y. published by the author, [a. spooner, printer.] . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= the =heroes= of the lake. a poem, in two books. written in the autumn of . new-york: printed and published by s. woodworth & co. war office, chatham-street. . p.l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbhd= =hill=, george, - . diabolou machia; or battle of dragon. [a poem written at yale college, , by george hill?]. n.t.-p. . l. º. =ssx p.v. , no. = this poem describes an affair in which several students came to blows; it took place in a tavern on an evening of the fall term of . =hillhouse=, james abraham, - . the judgment, a vision. by the author of percy's masque [i.e., james abraham hillhouse]. new-york: published by james eastburn, . p., front. º. =nbhd= this poem was delivered at the yale college commencement of . =hine=, benjamin. miscellaneous poetry: or, the farmer's muse. by benjamin hine. new-york: printed for the author, by h. ludwig, vesey-st. . p.l., (i)iv-x p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= poems written between - , p. - . =hitchcock=, david, b. . a poetical dictionary; or popular terms illustrated in rhyme; with explanatory remarks. for the use of society in general, and politicians in particular. part first. by david hitchcock, author of the "shade of plato," &c. from lewis's press, lenox. henry starr, printer. . p.l., (i)iv-vi, ( ) - p., l. of errata. º. =nbhd= ---- the poetical works of david hitchcock. containing, the shade of plato. knight and quack, and the subtlety of foxes. boston: published by etheridge and bliss, no. , cornhill. . oliver & munroe, printers. p.l., (i)iv-xvi. ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =nbhd= ---- the social monitor; or, a series of poems, on some of the most important and interesting subjects. by david hitchcock, author of the "shade of plato." second edition. new-york: printed for gould, banks & gould, prior & dunning, isaac riley, and collins & co. . p.l., (i)iv-v(i), ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =hoar=, leonard, - . [verses in latin.] (massachusetts historical society. proceedings, - . boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =iaa= the original verses are appended to the first triennial catalogue of harvard university, published in , and were undoubtedly prepared by leonard hoar. =holland=, edwin c. the pillar of glory; rise columbia. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston. . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= originally published in the _port folio_, philadelphia, , series , v. , p. , * _da_. =holme=, john. a true relation of the flourishing state of pennsylvania. (historical society of pennsylvania. bulletin. philadelphia, . º. v. , - , p. - .) =iaa= written in . printed for the first time, from the original manuscript. this poem is believed to be the first metrical composition written in pennsylvania. =holmes=, abiel. _see_ a =family= tablet: containing a selection of original poetry. =holyoke=, edward. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =honeywood=, st. john, - . a poem on reading the president's address; with a sketch of the character of a candidate for the presidency. [by st. john honeywood.] philadelphia: printed by ormrod & conrad. no. chestnut-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- poems by st. john honeywood, a.m. with some pieces in prose. copyright secured. new-york: printed by t. & j. swords. no. pearl-street. . p.l., (i)viii, ( ) p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= reviewed in _the american review, and literary journal_ for the year , new york, , v. , p. - . =hopkins=, lemuel, - . the democratiad, a poem, in retaliation, for the "philadelphia jockey club." by a gentleman of connecticut [i.e., lemuel hopkins]. philadelphia: published by thomas bradford, printer, . iv, ( ) - p., l. º. =reserve= at head of title: second edition. also ascribed to william cobbett. contains sarcastic references to the democrats in the united states senate who opposed jay's treaty. ---- ---- philadelphia: published by thomas bradford, printer, book-seller & stationer, no. south front street. . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= and =nbh p.v. , no. = at head of title: third edition. ---- epitaph on a patient killed by a cancer quack. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- the guillotina, or a democratic dirge, a poem. by the author of the "democratiad" [i.e., lemuel hopkins]. philadelphia: sold at the political book-store [by thomas bradford], south front-street, no. . [ .] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= and =nbh p.v. , no. = a political satire, erroneously attributed to william cobbett. ---- the hypocrite's hope. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; and in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- on general ethan allen. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- a plea for union and the constitution. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= ---- _see also_ the =anarchiard=; the =echo=; the =political= green-house for the year . =hopkinson=, francis, - . the battle of the kegs. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; and in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- an exercise, containing a dialogue and ode on the accession of his present gracious majesty george iii. performed at the public commencement in the college of philadelphia, may th . [by francis hopkinson.] philadelphia. printed by w. dunlap, in market-street, m,dcc,lxii. p. º. =reserve= ---- a fair bargain. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- the miscellaneous essays and occasional writings of francis hopkinson, esq. philadelphia: printed by t. dobson, at the stone-house, no. second-street. m,dcc,xcii. v. º. =reserve= v. , after p. , "poems on several subjects," p. ---- the raising: a song for federal mechanics. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= =howe=, joseph. an ode, addressed to miss ****. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= =humphreys=, david, - . address to the armies of the united states of america. written in the year . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= first published in new haven in . also in his _life of ... israel putnam_, new york, , p. - , _an_; and in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- american winter. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- depredations and destruction of the algerines. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- an elegy on the burning of fairfield, in connecticut. written on the spot by col. humphreys. . (in: the new-haven gazette, and the connecticut magazine. new-haven, . º. june , , v. , no. , p. .) =reserve= also printed in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; and _american poetical miscellany_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- an elegy on lieutenant de hart, volunteer aid to gen. wayne. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- an elegy, on lieutenant de hart, volunteer aid-de-camp to general wayne. an ode, to laura. a song, translated from the french. an epitaph written the day after the capitulation of lord cornwallis, at york-town in virginia. an impromptu, for the pocket-book of a young lady who expected to embark soon for europe. the genius of america, a song. the monkey, who shaved himself and his friends. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- an epistle to dr. dwight. on board the courier de l'europe, july , . (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the farmers' harvest hymn. (in his: a discourse on the agriculture of the state of connecticut. new-haven, . º. p. .) =vpy= ---- future state of the western territory. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- future state of the western territory; american winter; on love and the american fair; depredations and destruction of the algerines. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- the genius of america--an ode: inscribed to his excellency george washington, esq. on his return to mount vernon, december, . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - . _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the miscellaneous works of colonel humphreys. new-york: printed by hodge, allen, and campbell, and sold at their respective book-stores. m.dcc.xc. [with copy-right according to law.] p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= contains the following poems: address to the armies of the united states of america, p. - ; a poem on the happiness of america, p. - ; mount vernon: an ode, p. - ; the genius of america, p. - ; an elegy on lieutenant de hart, p. - ; the monkey, who shaved himself and his friends, p. - ; a letter to a young lady in boston, p. - ; an epistle to dr. dwight, p. - ; elegy on the burning of fairfield in connecticut, p. - . ---- the miscellaneous works of david humphreys, late minister plenipotentiary from the united states of america to the court of madrid. new-york: printed by t. and j. swords, no. pearl-street. . xv, p., l., front. (port.) º. =nbg= ---- mount vernon, an ode, inscribed to general washington. written at mount vernon, august . (in: the new-haven gazette, and the connecticut magazine. new-haven, . º. nov. . , v. , no. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_. new york, , p. - , _nbh_; and e. a. and g. l. duyckinck. _cyclopædia of american literature_, v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- an ode, inscribed to general washington. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- a poem on the death of general washington, pronounced at the house of the american legation in madrid, on the . day of july, . [signed d. humphreys.] n.p. [ .] p.l., - p. º. =an= excerpt: the miscellaneous works of david humphreys. new-york: t. & j. swords, . ---- a poem, on the happiness of america; addressed to the citizens of the united states. (in: the boston magazine. boston, . º. july, , p. - ; august, , p. - .) =reserve= the poem was continued in later numbers of the magazine, which the library lacks. also printed in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. - , _reserve_; and in the author's _life of israel putnam_, new york, , p. - , _an_. ---- a poem on the happiness of america. addressed to the citizens of the united states. by col. david humphreys, aid-de-camp to general washington during the american revolutionary war. new york: the new york printing company, . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbi= ---- a poem on industry. addressed to the citizens of the united states of america. by colonel david humphreys, minister resident at the court of lisbon. philadelphia: printed for mathew carey, no. , market-street. october , . p.l., (i)iv p., l., ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= ---- poems by col. david humphreys, late aid-de-camp to his excellency general washington. second edition:--with several additions. philadelphia: printed by mathew carey. m,dcc,lxxxix. p.l., p., l. º. =reserve= ---- _see also_ the =anarchiard=. =hunn=, anthony. sin and redemption. a religious poem, by anthony hunn. lexington: printed by w. w. worsley ... "reporter" press. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= "the following is an episode only of a much larger epic poem entitled 'the columbiad,' which is formed out of most eminent scenes of the american revolution and the hero of which is the immortal washington."--_preface._ =huntley=, lydia. _see_ =sigourney=, mrs. lydia howard huntley. =hutton=, joseph. the field of orleans. a poem. by the author of several fugitive pieces [i.e., joseph hutton].... philadelphia: published by w. anderson, , cherry-street. . p., l. º. =nbhd= =indian= songs of peace. _see_ =smith=, william. =irving=, washington, - . [lines spoken by thomas a. cooper, on the night of the opening of the park theatre. sept. , .] (in: washington irving, life and letters. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =an= also in the new york edition of the _life and letters_ of , v. , p. - . =irving=, william, - . [poems.] (in: salmagundi. new york, - . º. v. . p. - , - , - , - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - .) =reserve= the poems were written under the pseud. of "pindar cockloft, esq." the library has many other editions of _salmagundi_ besides the one given here. =jacob=, stephen. a poetical essay, delivered at bennington, on the anniversary of the th of august, . by stephen jacob, a. b. . hartford: printed by watson and goodwin, m.dcc.lxxix. p. º. =reserve= =james=, t. c. the country meeting, or friends' place of worship. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - . _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; and _the american poetical miscellany_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. the =jeffersoniad=; or, an echo to the groans of an expiring faction. by democraticus. march , : first year of the triumph of republican principle. price-- cents. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= "the author ... presents his best respects to his fellow-citizens, and congratulates them on the event of the late election [of jefferson as president]...." "theodore dwight" is written in a contemporary hand on verso of title-page. =john of enon=, pseud. _see_ =benedict=, david. =johnson=, edward, - . a history of new-england. from the english planting in the yeere . untill the yeere . declaring the form of their government, civill, military, and ecclesiastique. their wars with the indians, their troubles with the gortonists, and other heretiques. their manner of gathering of churches, the commodities of the country, and description of the principall towns and havens, with the great encouragements to increase trade betwixt them and old england. with the names of all their governours, magistrates, and eminent ministers.... london, printed for nath: brook at the angel in corn-hill, . p., l. º. =reserve= better known by the running title: wonder-working providence of sion's saviour in new england. contains many poems. ---- ---- (massachusetts historical society. collections. boston, - . º. series , v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) =iaa= ---- johnson's wonder-working providence, - . edited by j. franklin jameson.... new york: c. scribner's sons, . viii p., l., - p., facs., map. º. (original narratives of early american history.) =* r-hae= ---- wonder-working providence of sion's saviour in new england.... with an historical introduction and an index by william frederick poole. andover, published by warren f. draper, . p.l., cliv l., p., fac. º. =iq= this is a modern type-facsimile reprint. no. of copies on small paper. =johnson=, william martin, - . poems. (in: gabriel harrison, the life and writings of john howard payne. albany, n. y., . º. p. - .) =an= the following poems: on a snow-flake falling on a lady's breast, winter, spring, fame, epitaph on a lady, are printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_. new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. ---- ---- (in: gabriel harrison, john howard payne ... his life and writings. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =an= =johnston=, archibald. the mariner; a poem in two cantos. by archibald johnston. philadelphia: published by edward earle, corner of fourth and library streets. william fry, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. miscellanea, p. [ ]- . =jones=, elizabeth c. poems on different subjects, original and selected. by elizabeth c. jones. providence: h. h. brown, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =josselyn=, john, fl. - . new-englands rarities discovered: in birds, beasts, fishes, serpents, and plants of that country. together with the physical and chyrurgical remedies wherewith the natives constantly use to cure their distempers, wounds, and sores. also a perfect description of an indian squa, in all her bravery; with a poem not improperly conferr'd upon her. lastly a chronological table of the most remarkable passages in that country amongst the english. illustrated with cuts. by john josselyn, gent. london. printed for g. widdowes at the green dragon in st. paul's church-yard, . p.l., p., l., pl. illus. ( º.) º. =reserve= "the poem," p. - . reprinted in american antiquarian society, _archæologia americana. transactions and collections_, [worcester,] , v. , p. - , _iaa_. "the poem" appears on p. . ---- new-england's rarities discovered in birds, beasts, fishes, serpents, and plants of that country. by john josselyn, gent. with an introduction and notes, by edward tuckerman. boston: william veazie, . p.l., (i)viii, p. º. =iq= one of copies printed. "the poem," p. . a =journey= from patapsco to annapolis. (in: the american museum. philadelphia. . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= the =judgment=, a vision. _see_ =hillhouse=, james abraham. =keimer=, samuel, fl. - . an elegy on the much lamented death of the ingenious and well-beloved aquila rose, clerk to the honourable assembly at philadelphia, who died the th of the th month, . aged . (in: the register of pennsylvania, edited by samuel hazard. philadelphia, . º. nov., , p. - .) =iaa= the original was printed in as a hand-bill with imprint: philadelphia: printed, and sold by s. keimer, in high-street. (price two-pence.) also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =kettell=, samuel. specimens of american poetry, with critical and biographical notices. boston: s. g. goodrich and co., . v. º. =nbh= contains selections from the works of the following authors, writing before : j. adams, v. , p. - ; j. allen, v. , p. - ; w. allston, v. , p. - ; r. alsop, v. , p. - ; j. l. arnold, v. , p. - ; j. barlow, v. , p. - ; a. e. bleecker, v. , p. - ; j. bowdoin, v. , p. - ; m. byles, v. , p. - ; b. church, v. , p. - ; e. church, v. , p. - ; w. cliffton, v. , p. - ; b. coleman, v. , p. - ; w. crafts, v. , p. - ; r. dabney, v. , p. - ; r. b. davis, v. , p - ; t. dawes, v. , p. - ; s. deane, v. , p. - ; r. devens, v. , p. - ; s. dexter. v. , p. - ; theodore dwight, v. , p. - ; timothy dwight, v. , p. - ; n. evans, v. , p. - ; d. everett, v. , p. - ; s. ewing, v. , p. - ; h. t. farmer, v. , p. - ; m. v. faugeres, v. , p. - ; t. g. fessenden, v. , p. - ; e. fitch, v. , p. - ; b. franklin, v. , p. - ; p. freneau, v. , p. - ; t. godfrey, v. , p. - ; j. green, v. , p. - ; s. h. hale, v. , p. - ; j. a. hillhouse, v. , p. - ; st. j. honeywood, v. , p. - ; l. hopkins, v. , p. - ; f. hopkinson, v. , p. - ; j. hopkinson, v. , p. - ; d. humphreys, v. , p. - ; f. s. key, v. , p. - ; h. c. knight, v. , p. - ; j. b. ladd, v. , p. - ; john lathrop, v. , p. - ; joseph lathrop, v. , p. - ; e. lincoln, v. , p. - ; j. b. linn, v. , p. - ; w. livingston, v. , p. - ; s. low, v. , p. - ; j. lowell, v. , p. - ; j. d. m'kinnon, v. , p. - ; c. mather, v. , p. - ; w. maxwell, v. , p. - ; j. maylem, v. , p. - ; s. w. morton, v. , p. - ; p. oliver, v. , p. - ; j. osborn, v. , p. - ; s. osborn, v. , p. - ; r. t. paine, v. , p. - ; j. k. paulding, v. , p. - ; h. pickering, v. , p. - ; w. l. pierce, v. , p. - ; j. pierpont, v. , p. - ; s. porter, v. , p. - ; b. pratt, v. , p. - ; j. ralph, v. , p. - ; w. ray, v. , p. - ; g. richards, v. , p. - ; r. c. sands, v. , p. - ; l. m. sargent, v. , p. - ; j. m. sewall, v. , p. - ; s. sewall, v. , p. - ; j. shaw, v. , p. - ; l. h. sigourney, v. , p. - ; w. m. smith, v. , p. - ; j. story, v. , p. - ; j. trumbull, v. , p. - ; st. g. tucker, v. , p. - ; j. turrell, v. , p. - ; r. tyler, v. , p. - ; w. b. walter, v. , p. - ; k. a. ware, v. , p. - ; m. warren, v. , p. - ; m. wigglesworth, v. , p. - ; r. wolcott, v. , p. - ; s. woodworth, v. , p. - . =key=, francis scott, - . the star spangled banner. (in his: poems of the late francis s. key. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbhd= also in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_; e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_; and e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _library of american literature_. new york, , v. , p. . _nbd_. written in during the bombardment of fort mchenry by the english. =knight=, henry coggswell, b. . the broken harp; poems. by h. c. knight. philadelphia: published by j. conrad and co. . p.l., (i)vi-x p., l., ( ) - p., l. º. =nbhd= ---- the cypriad in two cantos: with other poems and translations. by henry c. knight. boston: j. belcher, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =knox=, samuel. ode to education in seven stanzas. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- an ode, most respectfully inscribed to his excellency, general washington, on being chosen president of the united states. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= dated: bladensburgh, april , . =ladd=, john. lyric poems, chiefly in two books, never before published. . a thought on man in paradise; his expulsion. a compendium on his restoration by grace. the saints' travail through time, and final state in glory. . sacred to honor, virtue and independence--and to the memory of the dead. the wild man and the apes--a muthony. by john ladd. schenectady: printed for the author. . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - ( ) p., l. º. =nbhd= =ladd=, joseph brown, - . charlotte's soliloquy, to the manes of werter. sweet polly of plymouth's lament. the wish. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- description of jehovah, from the xviiith psalm. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- description of jehovah, from the xviiith psalm. the war-horse, paraphrased from job. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - , .) =reserve= ---- the dove, a fragment. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- the incurable. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= ---- the literary remains of joseph brown ladd, m.d. collected by his sister, mrs. elizabeth haskins, of rhode island. to which is prefixed, a sketch of the author's life, by w. b. chittenden. new york: h. c. sleight, clinton hall, . xxiv, ( ) - p. º. =nbg= poems, p. [ ]- . some of these poems are reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_, where they are credited to william ladd, the father of joseph brown. ---- on the resignation of his excellency general washington. retirement. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- the poems of arouet [by joseph brown ladd]. charleston, south carolina: printed by bowen and markland, no. , church-street, and no. , elliot-street. . p.l, (i)viii-xvi, p. º. =reserve= half-title lacking. ---- the war-horse, paraphrased from job. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. a =lady= of new-york, pseud. a medley of joy and grief. _see_ =haight=, mrs. sarah. a =lady= of philadelphia, pseud. viola or the heiress of st. valverde. _see_ =botsford=, mrs. margaret. =lathrop=, john, the younger, - . the influence of civil institutions on society and the moral faculties, a poem. delivered at the university in cambridge, on the day of public commencement, july , . by john lathrop, jun. (in: the massachusetts magazine. boston, . º. v. , july, , p. - .) =reserve= ---- a monody, sacred to the memory of the rev. john lovejoy abbot, a.m. pastor of the church in chauncey-place, boston; who died october , , ætat. . by j. lathrop, jun.... boston: published by munroe, francis & parker, . p. º. =an= ---- ode for the twentieth anniversary of massachusetts charitable fire society. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= ---- speech of canonicus. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =lathrop=, joseph, - . the existence of a deity. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the majesty and grace of god. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= ---- reflexions of a libertine reclaimed by sickness. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- a winter piece. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; and in _the columbian muse_. new york, , p. - . _nbh_. =law=, thomas. ballston springs. [by thomas law] new-york: printed by s. gould, opposite the city-hall. . p.l., - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = last leaf mutilated. =lawson=, john. the maniac, with other poems. by john lawson. philadelphia: published by hellings and aitken. dennis heartt, printer. . p.l., (i)vi-xiv p., l., p. º. =nbhd= =le cadet=, st. denis, pseud. _see_ =denison=, edward. =lewis=, mr. a description of maryland, from carmen seculare, a poem, addressed, anno , to lord baltimore, proprietor of that province. by mr. lewis. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= =liberty=: a poem, on the independence of america. dedicated to his excellency the president of the united states. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= =lincoln=, enoch. the village; a poem. [by enoch lincoln.] with an appendix. portland: published by edward little and co. . c. norris & co. printers. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= extract reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =lines= on the death of ebenezer ball, who was executed at castine, october , , for the murder of john tileston downs. blue hill, nov. . printed, and for sale by a. h. holland, buckstown. broadside. =reserve= =linn=, john blair, - . the death of washington. a poem. in imitation of the manner of ossian. by rev. john blair linn, a.m., minister of the first presbyterian congregation of philadelphia.... philadelphia: printed by john ormrod, . iv, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- miscellaneous works, prose and poetical. by a young gentleman of new-york [i.e., john blair linn]. new-york: printed by thomas greenleaf. , p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- the powers of genius, a poem, in three parts. by john blair linn, a.m. co-pastor of the first presbyterian church in the city of philadelphia. philadelphia: published by asbury dickens, opposite christ-church: h. maxwell, printer, columbia-house. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= reviewed in _the american review, and literary journal_ for the year , new-york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- ---- second edition, corrected and enlarged. published by john conrad. & co., no. , chestnut-street, philadelphia; and sold by m. and j. conrad & co. no. , market-street, baltimore; and washington city. h. maxwell, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= reviewed in _the american review, and literary journal_ for the year , new york, , v. , p. - . ---- ---- [london:] albion press: printed by cundee, ivy lane, for t. williams, stationers'-court, and t. hurst, paternoster-row. . p.l., (i)iv-xv p., l., ( ) p., l. of adv., pl. º. =nbhd= ---- valerian, a narrative poem: intended, in part, to describe the early persecutions of christians, and rapidly to illustrate the influence of christianity on the manners of nations. by john blair linn, d.d. late pastor of the first presbyterian congregation, in philadelphia. with a sketch of the life and character of the author. philadelphia, printed by thomas and george palmer, , high street. . p.l., (i)iv-xxvi p., l., p., front. (port.) º. =nbhd= the frontispiece, portrait silhouette of j. b. linn engraved by b. tanner. reviewed in _the monthly anthology and boston review_, boston, , v. , p. - . a =little= looking-glass for the times. _see_ =c.=, g. =livingston=, henry brockholst, - . democracy: an epic poem, by aquiline nimble-chops, democrat [i.e., henry brockholst livingston]. canto first. new-york: printed for the author [ ]. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= extracts from the first and second cantos of this poem are reprinted in _the echo_, new york, , p. - , with the following notice prefixed: "the following extracts are from a poem entitled _democracy_, the first canto of which was printed in new-york, in march, , and at the time excited no inconsiderable share of the public attention. this poem was written in consequence of a tumultuous meeting of the citizens of that place, instigated by a few popular demagogues, for the purpose of prescribing to congress the adoption of hostile measures against great britain. the second canto, which was of much greater length, was prepared for the press immediately after the appearance of the first, but the timidity of the booksellers, and the peculiar circumstances of the times prevented its publication." =livingston=, william, - . address to his excellency general washington. by his excellency governor livingston of new-jersey. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- [burgoyne's] proclamation. (in: new york journal and the general advertiser. kingston, n. y., . fº. september , , p. [ ], col. - .) =reserve= "a burlesque ballad by governor william livingston, of new jersey." reprinted in _ballads and poems relating to the burgoyne campaign_, albany, n. y., , p. - , _nbhd_. also printed in frank moore, _songs and ballads of the american revolution_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- a morning hymn. by his excellency william livingston, esq. governor of new-jersey. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- philosophic solitude. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= first published in new york in . also in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =lomax=, judith. the notes of an american lyre. by judith lomax, a native of the state of virginia. richmond: printed by samuel pleasants, near the market-bridge. . p.l., - p. nar. º. =nbhd= inscribed to thomas jefferson. page misnumbered . =longstreet=, augustus baldwin. patriotic effusions; by bob short [pseud. of augustus baldwin longstreet]. new-york: published by l. and f. lockwood, no. broadway. j. & j. harper, printers. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. nar. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = the =lottery=, a poem. _see_ =denison=, edward. =love=, charles. a poem on the death of general george washington, late president of the united states. in two books. by charles love. [copy-right secured according to law.] alexandria, virginia, a.d. m,dccc. p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= dedicated to john adams. =lovell=, john. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =lovett=, john. - . a tribute to washington, for february d, . [by john lovett.] troy: printed by r. moffitt & co. . p. sm. º. =reserve= ---- washington's birth day: an historical poem, with notes and appendix. by a washingtonian [i.e., john lovett]. albany: printed and published by e. and e. hosford. . [copy-right secured.] p.l., (i)iv-viii, ( ) - , p., front. (port.) sq. º. =nbi= frontispiece, the portrait of george washington, engraved for the washington benevolent society. last p. contain: "odes for washington's birth day." =low=, samuel, b. . poems, by samuel low. new-york: printed by t. & j. swords, no. pearl-street. . v. º. =reserve= v. . p.l., ( ) - p.; v. . p.l., ( ) - p. v. , p. - lacking, p. mutilated; v. , one leaf, probably half-title, lacking, p. and mutilated, p. - , lacking. =lowell=, john. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... the =loyalist= poetry of the revolution. [edited by winthrop sargent.] philadelphia: [collins, printer,] . xi, p. º. =nbh= the =lyric= works of horace, translated into english verse: to which are added a number of original poems. _see_ =parke=, john. =m.=, s. a country treat upon the second paragraph in his excellency's speech, decemb. , . [boston, ?] broadside. =reserve= photostat facsimile. text in two columns. =m'fingal=: a modern epic poem. _see_ =trumbull=, john. =m'kinnon=, john d. descriptive poems, by john d. m'kinnon. containing picturesque views of the state of new-york. new-york: printed by t. & j. swords, no. pearl-street. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =nbhd= reviewed in _the american review and literary journal_ for the year , new-york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. =mansfield=, joseph. hope, a poem, delivered in the chapel of harvard university, at a public exhibition, july th, . by joseph mansfield, a junior sophister. cambridge. printed by william milliard. . p.l., ( ) - p. sq. º. =reserve= =markoe=, peter. faith, an ode. hope, an ode. charity, an ode, sacred to the memory of william penn. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- ode on the birth-day of general washington. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- the times; a poem. [by peter markoe.] philadelphia: printed by william spotswood. m.dcc.lxxxviii. p.l., p. º. =reserve= "a considerable part of the following poem has already appeared in one of the public papers." preface dated, jan., . =mather=, cotton, - . [elegy on the death of seven young ministers.] (in: club of odd volumes. early american poetry. [reprints.] boston, . º. [v.] , p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in type-facsimile, with facsimile of title-page. appeared originally in his _vigilantius_. ---- [elegy] upon the death of sir william phips, knt. late captain general and governour in chief, of the province of the massachuset-bay, new england, who expired in london, feb. , / . l. (in his: pietas in patriam: the life of his excellency sir william phips, knt.... london, . º.) =reserve= ---- an elegy on the much-to-be-deplored death of that never-to-be-forgotten person, the reverend nathanael collins; who after he had been many years a faithful pastor to the church at middletown of connecticut in new-england, about the forty third year of his age expired; on th. . moneth . [by cotton mather.] boston in new-england. printed by richard pierce for obadiah gill. anno christi, . p.l., p. º. =reserve= the pages are numbered one to sixteen, eighteen to twenty. by an oversight of the printer, the number of page was omitted; the number inserted on page , and continued consecutively, making but pages of text. reprinted in modern type, page for page, with a facsimile title-page and a biographical sketch of the rev. n. collins, in club of odd volumes, _early american poetry_ [reprints], boston, , v. , _reserve_. ---- [epitaph upon] the excellent wigglesworth, remembered by some good tokens. (in his: a faithful man, described and rewarded.... boston, . º. p. .) =reserve= ---- epitaphium [on the honourable wait winthrop]. (in: club of odd volumes. early american poetry. [reprints.] boston, . º. [v.] , p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in type facsimile, with facsimile of title-page. appeared originally in his _hades look'd into_, boston, . ---- gratitudinis ergo. an essay on the memory of my venerable master; ezekiel cheever. (in his: corderius americanus. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= epitaphium, p. - . reprinted in type facsimile, with facsimile of title-page, in club of odd volumes, _early american poetry_ [reprints, v.] , p. - , _reserve_. ---- magnalia christi americana: or, the ecclesiastical history of new-england, from its first planting in the year unto the year of our lord, . in seven books.... by the reverend and learned cotton mather.... london: printed for thomas parkhurst, at the bible and three crowns in cheapside, mdccii. p.l., p., l., p., l., - p., , , p., l., map. º. =reserve= contains elegies and epitaphs by various authors; also the following three elegies by cotton mather: [elegy] upon the death of sir william phips ... who expired in london, feb. , / , book , p. - .--some offers to embalm the memory of ... john wilson, book , p. - .--remarks on the bright and dark side of ... william thompson ... who triumphed on dec. , , book , p. - . ---- ---- in two volumes. first american edition, from the london edition of . hartford: published by silas andrus, roberts & burr, printers, . v. º. =iq= ---- ---- with an introduction and occasional notes, by the rev. thomas robbins and translations of the hebrew, greek, and latin quotations by lucius f. robinson. to which is added, a memoir of cotton mather, by samuel g. drake.... also, a comprehensive index by another hand. in two volumes. hartford: silas andrus and son, . v. º. =iq= ---- a poem and an elegy. by cotton mather. boston: the club of odd volumes, . p., l., p., l., p. sq. º. (the club of odd volumes. early american poetry. [reprints. v.] .) =reserve= no. of one hundred copies on hand-made paper. reprinted from copies in the library of brown university. contains modern type reprints, page for page, with facsimile title-pages of: a poem dedicated to the memory of ... mr. urian oakes.... boston in new-england, printed for john ratcliff, . an elegy on the much-to-be-deplored death ... of ... the reverend mr. nathanael collins.... boston in new-england. printed by richard pierce for obadiah gill. . ---- some offers to embalm the memory of the truly reverend and renowned, john wilson [with] epitaphium. (in his: johannes in eremo. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in the club of odd volumes, _early american poetry_ [reprints, v.] , _reserve_. also in his _magnalia christi americana_, london, , book , p. - , _reserve_. ---- to the memory of the reverend jonathan mitchel. (in his: ecclesiastes. the life of the reverend & excellent jonathan mitchel. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- _see_ also =elegies= and epitaphs, - . =maxwell=, william. poems by william maxwell, esq. philadelphia: published by m. thomas, no. , chestnut-street. william fry, printer. . p.l., (i)vi-vii p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. several of these poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =maylem=, john. the conquest of louisburg. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- gallic perfidy: a poem. by john maylem, philo-bellum. boston: new-england: printed and sold by benjamin mecom, at the new printing-office, july , . where may be had that noted little book, called father abraham's speech. p.l., - p. º. =reserve= lacks half-title. has woodcut on title-page of indian holding bow and arrow. =mead=, charles. mississippian scenery; a poem, descriptive of the interior of north america. by charles mead. philadelphia: published by s. potter and co. no. , chestnut street. w. fry, printer. . p.l., (i)vi-ix p., l., ( ) - p., front. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = a =medley= of joy and grief. _see_ =haight=, mrs. sarah. the =mercies= of the year, commemorated: a song for little children in new-england. december th . l. º. =reserve= facsimile reprint. "reprinted december , to convey this season's happier greetings to a few friends of george parker winship." =mills=, john henry. poetic trifles by john henry mills. comedian. baltimore: printed by g. dobbin & murphy, , market-street, for cole & i. bonsal. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= the =mirror= of merit and beauty. _see_ =smith=, isaiah. the =miscellaneous= poems of the boston bard. _see_ =coffin=, robert stevenson. =miscellaneous= poems on moral and religious subjects. _see_ =allen=, benjamin. =miscellaneous= works, prose and poetical. _see_ =linn=, john blair. =miscellanies=, moral and instructive, in prose and verse; collected from various authors, for the use of schools, and improvement of young persons of both sexes. philadelphia: printed by joseph james, in chestnut-street, between front and second-street. m.dcc.lxxx.vii. pl., l. º. =reserve= review by b. franklin on p. iv. =mitchel=, john, d. . [poem] on the following work [the day of doom] and it's author [michael wigglesworth]. (in: michael wigglesworth. the day of doom. boston, . º.) =reserve= also in the boston ed. of , p. - ; and the newburyport ed. of , p. - . =mitchel=, jonathan, - . [elegy on henry dunster.] (in: cotton mather, ecclesiastes. the life of the reverend & excellent jonathan mitchel. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in cotton mather, _magnalia christi americana_, london, , book , p. - , _reserve_. ---- upon the death of that reverend, aged, ever-honoured, and gracious servant of christ, mr. john wilson, pastor of a church in boston: interred august , . (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= the =modern= philosopher; or terrible tractoration. _see_ =fessenden=, thomas green. =monody.= on the decease of his excellency george washington. (in: bache's philadelphia aurora. monday, december [ ].) =reserve= signed and dated, r. n. dec. , . a poem in stanzas. =monody=, on the death of gen. george washington. _see_ =brown=, charles brockden. =monody= on the death of george washington. _see_ =smith=, elihu h. a =monumental= inscription on the first of march together with a few lines on the enlargement of ebenezer richardson, convicted of murder. [worcester: printed by isaiah thomas, .] broadside, fº. (in emmet collection.) =manuscript div.= reprinted in facsimile in woodrow wilson, _a history of the american people_, new york, , v. , p. . _iae_. known as "the massacre hand-bill." =moore=, frank, -. illustrated ballad history of the american revolution, - . by frank moore. volume . new york: johnson, wilson & company, . p.l., p., pl., ports. (incl. front.), maps. º. =ig= this was to be completed in parts. parts - are all that were issued. title on cover of part : ballad history of the american revolution. by contemporary poets and prose writers. collected and arranged by frank moore. ---- songs and ballads of the american revolution. with notes and illustrations by frank moore. new york: d. appleton & company, . p.l., (i)vi-xii, p., front. º. =ig= also has engraved title-page. =morrell=, william, fl. . new-england or a briefe enarration of the ayre, earth, water, fish and fowles of that country, with a description of the natures, orders, habits, and religion of the natiues; in latine and english verse. [by william morrell.] boston: the club of odd volumes, . p.l., , p. sq. º. (the club of old volumes. early american poetry. [reprints, v.] .) =reserve= originally published in london, . this is a facsimile reprint of a copy in the british museum. no. of one hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. this poem is also printed in the _collections_ of the massachusetts historical society, v. , for , p. - , but without title, address to the reader, dedicatory epistle, postscript, or form, style, type, and arrangement of the original. =morton=, nathaniel, - . new-englands memoriall: or, a brief relation of the most memorable and remarkable passages of the providence of god, manifested to the planters of new-england in america; with special reference to the first colony thereof, called new-plymouth. as also a nomination of divers of the most eminent instruments deceased, both of church and common-wealth, improved in the first beginning and after progress of sundry of the respective jurisdictions in those parts; in reference unto sundry exemplary passages of their lives, and the time of their death. published for the use and benefit of present and future generations, by nathaniel morton, secretary to the court for the jurisdiction of new-plimouth.... cambridge: printed by s. g. and m. j. for john usher of boston. . p.l., p., . ( º.) º. =reserve= contains the following poems, elegies and epitaphs: on ... mr. thomas hooker ..., by j. c., p. - .--a lamentation for the death of ... mr. thomas hooker ..., by p. b., p. - .--a funeral elegy upon the death of ... mr. john cotton ..., by j. n., p. - .--upon the tomb of ... mr. john cotton ..., by b. w., - .--[verses found in his pocket after his death], by william bradford, p. .--certain verses left by ... william bradford ..., p. - .--[poem] on ... william bradford, by josias winslow, p. - .--a few verses ... on william bradford, p. - .--[elegy] presented at the funerall of ralph partridge, p. - .--[elegy on mr. william paddy], p. .--an elegie on the death of ... john norton ..., by t. s., p. - .--a threnodia upon ... samuel stone ..., by e. b., p. - .--upon the death of ... john wilson ..., by j. m., p. - .--upon the death of ... john wilson ..., by t. s., p. - .--upon the death of ... jonathan mitchell ..., by e. b., p. - .--to the memory of ... jonathan mitchell ..., by f. d., p. - .--an epitaph upon the ... death of ... jonathan mitchell, by j. s., p. . ---- ---- boston, reprinted for nicholas boone, at the signe of the bible in cornhill. . p.l., p., l. ( º.) º. =reserve= ---- ---- boston: printed. newport: reprinted, and sold by s. southwick. m,dcc,lxxii. viii, p., l. ( º.) º. =reserve= ---- ---- plymouth, mass. reprinted by allen danforth, . p. º. =iq= ---- ---- fifth edition. containing besides the original work, and the supplement, annexed to the second edition, large additions in marginal notes, and an appendix; with a lithographic copy of an ancient map. by john davis.... boston: printed by crocker and brewster, . ( ) p., map. º. =iq= ---- ---- sixth edition. also governor bradford's history of plymouth colony; portions of prince's chronology; governor bradford's dialogue; gov. winslow's visits to massasoit; with numerous marginal notes and an appendix containing numerous articles relating to the labors, principles, and character of the puritans and pilgrims. boston: congregational board of publication, . xxii p., l., p., pl. (front.), port. º. =iq= ---- ---- with an introduction by arthur lord. boston: the club of odd volumes, . p.l., ( ) - p., l., p., l. º. =reserve= no. of copies printed. this is a facsimile reprint. =morton=, sarah wentworth apthorp. the african chief. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- descriptive lines, written at the request of a friend, upon the surrounding prospect from beacon-hill in boston; ode to the president on his visiting the northern states; invocation to hope; prayer to patience; lines, addressed to the inimitable author of the poems under the signature of delia crusca; by philenia, a lady of boston. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- invocation to hope. prayer to patience. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- lines written, at the request of a friend, on the view from beacon-hill, near boston, where a sumptuous monument has lately been erected to perpetuate the principal events of the late revolution. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. .) =reserve= ---- ouâbi: or the virtues of nature. an indian tale. in four cantos. by philenia, a lady of boston [i.e., mrs. sarah wentworth morton]. printed at boston, by i. thomas and e. t. andrews, at faust's statue, no. , newbury street. mdccxc. p.l., (i)iv-viii, ( ) - ( ) p., front. º. =nbhd= ---- the virtues of society. a tale founded on fact. by the author of the virtues of nature [i.e., sarah wentworth a. morton]. published according to act of congress. boston. printed by manning & loring, for the author. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= based upon an occurrence in the american revolution, contained in letters of general burgoyne. poem entitled "to time," p. - . =morton=, thomas. new english canaan, or new canaan containing an abstract of new england, composed in three bookes.... written by thomas morton.... printed at amsterdam, by jacob frederick stam. in the yeare . p., l. º. =reserve= poems on pages - , , - , , - , - , , . reprinted in peter force, _tracts and other papers_, washington, , v. , no. , _if_. the =mournfull= elegy of mr. jona. frye, . (new england historical and genealogical register. boston, . º. v. , p. .) =apga= jonathan frye was mortally wounded in "lovewell's fight," at fryeburg, me., may th, . these lines, tradition says, were written when the news of mr. frye's death reached andover, by a young girl to whom he had engaged himself against the wishes of his parents whose objections were, want of property and education. her name is lost. reprinted in _magazine of history with notes and queries_, extra no. , p. - , _iag_. =munford=, william, - . poems, and compositions in prose on several occasions. by william munford, of the county of mecklenburg, and state of virginia. richmond: printed by samuel pleasants, jun. . p.l., ( ) - ( ) p. º. =reserve= and =nbhd= =murphy=, henry c. anthology of new netherland or translations from the early dutch poets of new york with memoirs of their lives. by henry c. murphy. new york, . ( ) p., facs., pl., port. º. (bradford club series. no. .) =nbh= no. of copies printed. memoir and poems of jacob steendam, p. - .--memoir and poems of henricus selyns, p. - .--memoir and poems of nicasius de sillè. p. - . a =native= of america, pseud. lyric works of horace, translated into english verse: to which are added, a number of original poems. _see_ =parke=, john. =neal=, john, - . battle of niagara, a poem, without notes; and goldau, or the maniac harper. "eagles and stars! and rainbows!" by john o'cataract, author of keep cool, &c. [i.e., john neal.] baltimore: published by n. g. maxwell. from the portico press. geo. w. grater, printer. . p.l., (i)vi-xiii, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- the battle of niagara: second edition--enlarged: with other poems. by john neal. baltimore: published by n. g. maxwell. b. edes. printer. . p.l., (i)viii-lxvii, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. a =neighbour's= tears sprinkled on the dust of the amiable virgin, mrs. rebekah sewall. _see_ =tompson=, benjamin. a =new= collection of verses applied to the first of november, a.d. , &c. including a prediction that the s---p a-t shall not take place in north-america. together with a poetical dream, concerning stamped papers. new-haven: printed and sold by b. mecom. [ .] p. º. =reserve= =new-england= or a briefe enarration of the ayre, earth, water, fish and fowles of that country. _see_ =morrell=, william. a =new= history of a true book in verse. for sale at a. march's bookstore; price cents single, and to those who buy to give away, dols. pr. hundred. [newburyport, ?] p. º. =reserve= a note on the title-page in a contemporary hand reads: "v. shepherd of salisbury plain by mrs. h. more, p. ." possibly imperfect; pages after p. may be lacking. =new york= gazette. the news-boy's verses, for new-year's day, . humbly address'd to his patrons, to whom he carries the thursday's new-york gazette. [new york: john holt, .] broadside. =reserve= fifty stanzas in three columns. =niles=, nathaniel, - . the american hero. a sapphic ode. by nat. niles, a.m. norwich (connecticut), oct. . (in: wheeler case, revolutionary memorials.... edited by stephen dodd, new york, . º. p. - .) =nbhd= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_; and in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =niles=, samuel, - . a brief and plain essay on god's wonder-working providence for new-england, in the reduction of louisburg, and fortresses thereto belonging on cape-breton. with a short hint in the beginning, on the french taking & plundering the people of canso, which led the several governments to unite and pursue the expedition. with the names of the leading officers in the army and the several regiments to which they belonged. by samuel niles. n. london, printed and sold by t. green, . p.l., p. º. =reserve= =nimble-chops=, aquiline, pseud. democracy: an epic poem. _see_ =livingston=, henry brockholst. =norton=, john, - . a funeral elegie upon the death of the truely reverend mr. john cotton, late teacher of the church of christ at boston in new england. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= also printed in john scottow, _a narrative of the planting of the massachusetts colony anno _. boston, , p. - , _reserve_. =norton=, john, - . a funeral elogy upon that pattern and patron of virtue, the truely pious, peerless & matchless gentlewoman mrs. ann bradstreet, right panaretes, mirror of her age, glory of her sex, whose heaven-born-soul leaving its earthly shrine, chose its native home, and was taken to its rest, upon th. sept. . (in: anne bradstreet, the works of ann bradstreet in prose and verse. edited by john harvard ellis. charlestown, . º. p. - .) =nbhd= this "elogy" appears on pages - of the boston, edition of anne bradstreet's poems. the library's copy of this edition lacks these pages. also reprinted under the title _dirge for the tenth muse_, in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =noyes=, nicholas, - . a consolatory poem dedicated unto mr. cotton mather, soon after the decease of his excellent and vertuous wife, mrs. abigail mather. (in: e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, a library of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= originally published in cotton mather's _meat out of the eater_, boston, , p. - . ---- an elegy upon the death of the reverend mr. john higginson, pastor of the church of christ in salem, who dyed december, th. . in the ninety-third year of his age. [by nicholas noyes.] p. (in: cotton mather, nunc dimittis, briefly descanted on.... boston, . º. p. following p. .) =reserve= reprinted in _new england historical genealogical register_, boston, , v. , p. - , _* r-room _. ---- an elegy upon the much lamented death of the reverend mr. joseph green, pastor of the church at salem village, who departed this life november , , aged forty years and two days. (essex institute. historical collections. salem, . º. v. , p. - .) =* r-room = appeared originally in joseph capen, _a funeral sermon occasioned by the death of mr. joseph green_, boston, , reprinted in the _collections_ of the topsfield historical society, v. , p. - , topsfield, mass., , _iqh_. the elegy fills p. - . ---- a prefatory poem, on that excellent book, entitled magnalia christi americana: written by the reverend mr. cotton mather.... (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º.) =reserve= printed in later editions of the _magnalia_ as follows: hartford, , v. , p. - ; hartford, , v. , p. - . =nugent=, henry. the orphans of wyoming, or, the fatal prayer. a moral poem. by the late henry nugent. with memoirs of the author. first edition. city of washington, apollo press, printed and published by h. c. lewis. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = no title-page; title from cover. =oakes=, urian, - . an elegie upon the death of the reverend mr. thomas shepard, late teacher of the church at charlstown in new-england: by a great admirer of his worth, and true mourner for his death [i.e., urian oakes]. cambridge. printed by samuel green. . p. º. =reserve= reprinted in modern type, page for page, with a facsimile title-page, in club of odd volumes, _early american poetry_ [reprints], boston, , [v.] , _reserve_. also reprinted in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- _see also_ =elegies= and epitaphs, - . =o'cataract=, john, pseud. battle of niagara, a poem. _see_ =neal=, john. an =occasional= ode, sung at the baptist meeting-house in wrentham, february , . (in: benjamin gleason, an oration, pronounced at the baptist meeting-house in wrentham, february , .... wrentham, mass., . º. p. [ .]) =reserve= =ode=, distributed among the spectators, during the federal procession, at new-york, july, . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. . p. - .) =reserve= =odell=, jonathan, - . the american times, a satire, in three parts. in which are delineated the characters of the leaders of the american rebellion. amongst the principal are franklin, laurens, adams, hancock, jay, duer, duane, wilson, pulaski, witherspoon, reed, m'kean, washington, roberdeau, morris, chase, &c. by camillo querno, poet-laureat to the congress. [new-york: printed by james rivington, mdcclxxx.] (in: john andré. cowchace. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= attributed by wegelin to rev. jonathan boucher. reprinted in _the loyalist poetry of the revolution_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the congratulation. a poem. (in: the royal gazette. new-york, . fº. november , , p. [ ].) =reserve= reprinted in supplement to the _royal gazette_, november , , _reserve_. also reprinted in _the loyal verses of joseph stansbury and doctor jonathan odell.... edited by winthrop sargent_, albany, , p. - , _nbhd_. ---- the feu de joie. a poem. (in: the royal gazette. new-york, . fº. november , , p. [ ].) =reserve= reprinted in _the loyal verses of joseph stansbury and doctor jonathan odell.... edited by winthrop sargent_, albany, , p. - , _nbhd_. ---- the loyal verses of joseph stansbury and doctor jonathan odell; relating to the american revolution. _see_ =stansbury=, joseph. ---- to sir james wallace, on sending in the dutch prize. (in: the royal pennsylvania gazette. philadelphia, . fº. march , , p. [ ].) =reserve= reprinted in _the loyal verses of joseph stansbury and doctor jonathan odell.... edited by winthrop sargent_, albany, , p. , _nbhd_. ---- the word of congress, a poem. (in: the royal gazette. new-york, . fº. september , , p. [ .]) =reserve= reprinted in _the loyalist poetry of the revolution_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. =odiorne=, thomas, - . the progress of refinement, a poem, in three books. to which are added, a poem on fame, and miscellanies. by thomas odiorne. boston: printed by young and etheridge, opposite the entrance of the branch-bank, state-street. mdccxcii. x p., l., ( ) - p., front. º. =reserve= half-title probably lacking. reviewed in _the massachusetts magazine_, boston, , v. , no. , p. - , _reserve_. =olio=; or, satirical poetic-hodge-podge, with an illustrative or explanatory dialogue, in vindication of the motive. addressed to good nature, humour, and fancy. philadelphia, printed. . p.l., (i)iv. ( ) - p. º. =ii p.v. , no. = with copy-right notice on title-page. parody, p. - . dialogue between the author and his friend, upon the subject of olio, p. - . =oliver=, andrew. elegy upon john winthrop. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= written in . =oliver=, isabella. poems, on various subjects. by isabella oliver, of cumberland county, pennsylvania. carlisle: from the press of a. loudon, (whitehall.) . p.l., ( ) - , (i)vii-ix, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =oliver=, thomas. _see_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =on= the death of the very learned, pious and excelling gershom bulkley esq. m.d. who had his mortality swallowed up of life, december the second . Ætatis suæ . new-london: printed by t. green, . broadside. =reserve= photo-facsimile. text in two columns, enclosed in mourning borders. =one= year in savannah; a poem. _see_ =young=, edward r. =oppression.= a poem. by an american. with notes, by a north briton. london: printed for the author; and sold by c. moran, in the great piazza, covent garden. mdcclxv. p.l., p. º. =reserve= =original= poems, by a citizen of baltimore. _see_ =townsend=, richard h. =osander=, pseud. miscellaneous poems. _see_ =allen=, benjamin. =osborn=, john, - . an elegiac epistle, written by john osborn, at college, in the year , upon the death of a sister, aged , and sent to another sister at eastham. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; and in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- a whaling song. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =osborn=, salleck, - . extract from an unfinished manuscript. (in: the american poetical miscellany. philadelphia. . º. p. - .) =nbh= ---- mercy. (in: the american poetical miscellany. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =nbh= ---- poems by salleck osborn. boston, i. p. orcutt, printer [ ]. p.l., x, p., l. º. =nbhd= has engraved title-page. the greater number of these poems were written before . several of the poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =paine=, robert treat, - . adams and liberty. (in: the philadelphia monthly magazine. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- the invention of letters: a poem, written at the request of the president of harvard university, and delivered, in cambridge, on the day of annual commencement, july , . by thomas paine. boston: printed for the subscribers. july , . p. º. =reserve= ---- a monody on the death of lieut. general sir john moore. with notes, historical and political. by r. t. paine, jun. esq. to which is prefixed, a sketch of the life of general moore.... boston, published by j. belcher. . p. º. =an= ---- the ruling passion: an occasional poem. written by the appointment of the society the [greek: =phbk=], and spoken, on their anniversary, in the chapel of the university, cambridge, july , . by thomas paine, a.m. published according to act of congress. boston: printed by manning & loring, for the author. . p.l., ( ) - p. sq. º. =reserve= ---- ---- a second copy. =nbh p.v. , no .= ---- the works, in verse and prose, of the late robert treat paine, jun. esq. with notes. to which are prefixed, sketches of his life, character and writings. boston: printed and published by j. belcher. . p.l., (i)vi-lxxxviii p., l., ( ) - p., l., port. º. =nbg= _contents_: sketches of the life, character and writings of the late r. t. paine, by charles prentiss.--tributary lines, to the memory of the late r. t. paine.--part , juvenile poems, consisting chiefly of college exercises.--part , miscellaneous poems.--part , odes and songs.--part , prose writings.--notes. part includes the following: the prize prologue; the invention of letters, a poem; the ruling passion, an occasional poem; dedicatory address spoken at the new federal theatre; monody on the death of lieutenant general sir john moore. =paine=, thomas, - . miscellaneous poems. by thomas paine. london: printed and published by r. carlile, , fleet street. . p.l., p. º. =* c p.v. , no. = _contents_: the farmer's dog. song on the death of general wolfe. the snow-drop and critic. account of the burning of bachelor's hall. liberty tree. verses on war. song to the tune of rule britannia. lines occasioned by the question--"what is love?" epigram on a long-nosed friend. on the british constitution. story of korah, dathan, and abiram. a commentary on the eastern wise men. lines from "the castle in the air" to "the little corner of the world." reprinted in _the writings of thomas paine_, edited by m. d. conway, new york, , v. , p. - , _iaw_, with the addition of the following poems: the monk and the jew, the boston patriotic song, columbia, contentment, federalist feast, and lines extempore. the "verses on war," which is printed in conway's edition under the title "an address to lord howe," is printed under the title "to the king of england" in _the columbian museum_, philadelphia, , part , january to june, p. - , _reserve_. "the liberty tree" is also in _the pennsylvania magazine_, philadelphia, may, , p. - , _reserve_, and in stedman and hutchinson's _a library of american literature_. new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. a =paraphrase= on part of the oeconomy of human life. _see_ =bowdoin=, james. =parke=, john, - . the lyric works of horace, translated into english verse: to which are added, a number of original poems. by a native of america [i.e., john parke]. philadelphia: printed by eleazer oswald, at the coffee-house. m,dcc,lxxxvi. xli, p., l. º. =reserve= ---- prologue on the death of general montgomery. by colonel j. p. [i.e. john parke.] (in: h. h. brackenridge, the death of general montgomery at the siege of quebec. philadelphia, . º. l. at end.) =reserve= ---- prologue and epilogue to the battle of bunkers-hill. (in: h. h. brackenridge, the battle of bunkers-hill. philadelphia, . º. p.l. , p. - .) =reserve= a =parnassian= shop. _see_ =story=, isaac. =pasquin=, anthony, pseud. _see_ =williams=, john. =patriotic= effusions. _see_ =longstreet=, augustus baldwin. the =patriots= of north-america: a sketch. with explanatory notes. new-york: printed in the year m,dcc,lxxv. new york: reprinted, william abbatt, . p. º. (magazine of history with notes and queries, extra no. .) =iag (magazine)= only two copies of the original are known to exist in the united states. =paulding=, james kirke, - . the backwoodsman. a poem. by j. k. paulding. philadelphia: published by m. thomas, , chestnut st. j. maxwell, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= extract printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- the lay of the scottish fiddle: a tale of havre de grace. supposed to be written by walter scott, esq. [by james kirke paulding.] first american from the fourth edinburgh edition. new-york: published by inskeep & bradford, and bradford & inskeep, philadelphia. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= reviewed in the _london quarterly_, v. , p. - , jan., . ---- the lay of the scottish fiddle. a poem. in five cantos. supposed to be written by w--s--, esq. [by james kirke paulding.] first american from the fourth edinburgh edition. london: printed for james cawthorn, cockspur-street. . p.l., (i)iv-xvi, p., l. of adv. º. =nbhd= "a free parody of the _lay of the last minstrel_.... the production is principally devoted to satirizing the predatory warfare of the british on chesapeake bay, and, what is somewhat remarkable, was published in a very handsome style in london with a preface highly complimentary to the author. the hero is admiral cockburn, and the principal incident the burning and sacking of the little town of havre de grace on the coast of maryland. it had at that time what might be called the distinction of provoking a fierce review from the london quarterly. it is clever as a parody, and contains many passages entirely original and of no inconsiderable beauty."--duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new-york, , v. , p. . =payne=, john howard, - . the life and writings of john howard payne, the author of home, sweet home; the tragedy of brutus; and other dramatic works. by gabriel harrison. albany, n. y.: joel munsell, . ix, p., l., port. º. =an= lispings of the muse: a selection of juvenile poems, chiefly written at and before the age of sixteen, p. - .--poems of later days, p. - . ---- john howard payne, dramatist, poet, actor, and author of home, sweet home! his life and writings. by gabriel harrison. with illustrations. revised edition. philadelphia: j. b. lippincott & co., . p., front. (port.), fac., pl. º. =an= lispings of the muse. juvenile poems, p. - .--poems of later days, p. - . =payson=, edward, - . a small contribution to the memorial of that truely worthy, and worthily man of god, mr. samuel phillips, pastor to the church of christ in rowley; who deceased, april d, , ætatis . (in: thomas gage, the history of rowley. boston, . º. p. - .) =iqh= =peck=, john. a short poem, containing a descant on the universal plan: also, lines on the happy end of the righteous, and the prosperity and death of the rich man, spoken of in st. luke's gospel ... chap. xvi. by john peck. boston: printed for nath'l coverly. . p.l., - p. º. =reserve= =pennsylvania= gazette. the new-year verses of the printers lads, who carry the pennsylvania gazette to the customers. january , . [philadelphia, .] broadside. =reserve= text in two columns. ---- ---- january , . [philadelphia, .] broadside. =reserve= text in one column. ---- ---- january , . [philadelphia, .] broadside. =reserve= text in one column. ---- the new-year verses of the printers lads, who carry about the pennsylvania gazette to the customers. january , . [philadelphia, .] broadside. =reserve= text in one column enclosed in a border. ---- new-year verses, for those who carry the pennsylvania gazette to the customers. january , . [philadelphia. .] broadside. =reserve= text in one column enclosed in a border. =pepper-box=, peter, pseud. _see_ =fessenden=, thomas green. =philenia=, a lady of boston, pseud. _see_ =morton=, mrs. sarah wentworth apthorp. =phillis=, a servant girl, pseud. an elegiac poem on the death of ... reverend and learned mr. george whitefield. _see_ =wheatley=, phillis. =pierce=, william. an epitaph--intended for the monument of major general greene. by william pierce, esq. of savannah. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. .) =reserve= =pierce=, william leigh. the year: a poem, in three cantos. by william leigh pierce, esq. new-york: published by david longworth. at the shakspeare-gallery. . p.l., ( ) - p., l., ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =nbhd= extract printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_. boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =pierpont=, john, - . airs of palestine; a poem: by john pierpont. esq.... baltimore: published for the author. b. edes, printer. . xxvi, p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. reprinted in _specimens of the american poets_, london, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- ---- second edition. boston: published by wells and lilly, . p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. ---- ---- third edition--revised. boston: published by wells and lilly, . p.l., (i)iv-vii, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= has also an engraved title-page. ---- the portrait. a poem delivered before the washington benevolent society, of newburyport, on the evening of october , . by john pierpont, esq. boston: published by bradford and read. t. b. wait & co., printers. . p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = =pietas= et gratulatio collegii cantabrigiensis apud novanglos. bostoni--massachusettensium: typis j. green & j. russell. mdcclxi. xiv p., l., p. º. =reserve= these are poems addressed to his majesty king george iii., on his accession to the throne, by the president and fellows of harvard college. there are thirty-one papers by the following contributors: . by president edward holyoke; . by john lovell; . by stephen sewall; . by benjamin church; . by stephen sewall; . by francis bernard; . by john lowell; - . by james bowdoin; . by samuel deane; . by benjamin church; . by stephen sewall; . by samuel cooper; - . by stephen sewall; . by james bowdoin; - . by francis bernard; - . by john lovell or stephen sewall; . by stephen sewall; . by john lovell or stephen sewall; . by john lovell; - . by samuel deane; . by samuel cooper; . by thomas oliver; . by james bowdoin; . by francis bernard. for fuller details about this work and its contributors consult duyckinck's _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. reviewed in _the critical review_, london, , v. , p. - , _naa_; _the monthly review_, london. , v. , p. - , _naa_. =pills=, poetical, political and philosophical. _see_ =fessenden=, thomas green. =pindar=, jonathan, pseud. the probationary odes. _see_ =tucker=, saint george. a =poem=, addressed to the people of virginia, on new-year's day, . alexandria, january , . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= a =poem= dedicated to the memory of the reverend and excellent mr. urian oakes. _see_ =mather=, cotton. [=poem=] on the death of gen. george washington. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= a =poem= on reading the president's address. _see_ =honeywood=, st. john. a =poem= presented to his excellency william burnet esq; on his arrival at boston, n.p. [ ?] p.l., p. º. =reserve= one of "fifty copies reprinted from the edition of ." "the only known copy of this poem in america, so far as the writer has been able to ascertain, is in the boston public library, where it was acquired a few years ago. the british museum has also a copy. the author is unknown. it is quite inferior to the verses of mather byles on the same occasion, and its publication lacks the governor's sanction, which was given to the former. both poems are printed in similar type, and probably were from the same press. the rarity of this publication has induced the present reprint, which is approximately in fac-simile of the original. paterson, n. j., july , . william nelson." a =poem=, upon the present times, with a brief [and] humble address to the almighty, in behalf of the [case] of our cause. composed by philoleuthers americanus. [ ?] broadside. =reserve= text in three columns. =poem=, written in boston, at the commencement of the late revolution. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= the =poems= of arouet. _see_ =ladd=, joseph brown. =poems= moral and divine, on the following subjects: i. man's fall and exhaltation: or, the christian triumph. in seven cantos, ii. modern infidelity: or, the principles of atheism exposed and refuted. inscrib'd to a friend. iii. a paraphrase on the following psalms: cxix, cxliii, cxlii, cxx, xiii, cxliv and cxxx. iv. the prince and the patriot. in three dialogues. by an american gentleman. to which is added, some account of the author. london: printed by charles rivington, for john and james rivington in st. paul's churchyard. mdcclvi. p.l., ( ) p. º. =reserve= =poems=, occasioned by several circumstances and occurrences in the present grand contest for liberty. _see_ =case=, wheeler. =poetic= testimonials of respect for the virtues and character of our illustrious chief, gen. george washington, who died december , . the following hymn and ode were sung on the th of january, , in the old south meeting-house, in boston, before a numerous concourse of citizens. hymn, by the rev. john s. j. gardner.--ode, by thomas paine. a.m.--a monody, by john lathrop, esq.--ode to content.--ode to science.--new-year's address.--lines extracted from title-page of mr. thomas paine's eulogy on gen. washington. (in: the columbian phenix and boston review. boston. . º. v. for , p. - .) =reserve= a =poetical= description of song birds: interspersed with entertaining songs, fables, and tales, adapted to each subject: for the amusement of children. the first worcester edition. printed at worcester, massachusetts, by isaiah thomas, sold at his bookstore in worcester, and by him and company in boston. mdcclxxxviii. p. illus. º. =reserve= a =poetical= epistle to his excellency george washington ... from an inhabitant of the state of maryland. _see_ =wharton=, charles henry. the =poetical= nosegay; or the swindler james geo. semple revived in the person of hugh workman, a native of ireland. price for single copy, cents viz: for original-- cents. notes part and ditto. per dozen--two cents each copy--viz: for original cents--notes and , cents each. copy-right secured, according to law. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= lines on verso of title-page and dedication signed: d. w. a satire on the duel between mathew lyon and roger griswold in congress, jan. and feb. , . for a full account of this affair see the _historical magazine_, jan., . all leaves after p. lacking. a =poetical= picture of america. _see_ =ritson=, mrs. anne. the =poetical= vagaries of a knight of the folding-stick, of paste-castle. to which is annexed, the history of the garret, &c. &c. translated from the hieroglyphics of the society. by a member of the order of the blue-string. gotham. printed for the author. . p., pl. º. =reserve= attributed to john bradford by wegelin. the =political= green-house, for the year . addressed to the readers of the connecticut courant, january st, . published according to act of congress. hartford: printed by hudson & goodwin. [ .] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= written by richard alsop, lemuel hopkins, and theodore dwight, in unequal proportions. reprinted in _the echo_, new york, , p. - , _reserve_ and _nbh_. the =political= nursery, for the year eighteen hundred two. packet-office, norwich, january st, . p. º. =reserve= bd. with: the jeffersoniad. . º. the =political= passing bell. _see_ =richards=, george. the =poor= man's advice to his poor neighbours: a ballad, to the tune of chevy-chase. new york: printed in the year m.dcc.lxxiv. p. º. =reserve= =porter=, jacob. poems, by jacob porter. hartford: printed by peter gleason and co., . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= =porter=, sarah. the royal penitent. part ii. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =pownall=, mary a. mrs. pownall's address, in behalf of the french musicians, delivered on her benefit concert night, at oeller's hotel, chestnut-street, philadelphia. to which are added, pastoral songs, written by herself at an early period of life. also the songs performed at the concerts ... new theatre. philadelphia: printed and sold at story's office, (no. ) fourth-street nearly opposite the indian queen tavern. [ .] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= the "pastoral songs," p. [ ]- , have a special title-page, with imprint reading: philadelphia, mdccxiii [i.e., ]. "new songs sung at the concerts. new theatre, philadelphia," p. [ ]- . =pratt=, benjamin, - . death. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =prentiss=, charles, - . child of pallas: devoted mostly to the belles-lettres. by charles prentiss.--baltimore--printed weekly, by warner & hanna. . p. º. =reserve= ---- new england freedom: a poem delivered before the washington benevolent society, in brimfield, february d, . by charles prentiss. brookfield: printed by e. merriam & co. march, . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = ---- a poem delivered at brookfield, july th, , before the washington benevolent societies of that and adjacent towns. by charles prentiss. published at the request of the audience. brookfield: printed by e. merriam & co. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd p.v. , no. = p. wrongly printed . =prichard=, william. character of st. tamany. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. =prime=, benjamin young, - . muscipula sive cambromyomachia: the mouse-trap, or the battle of the welsh and the mice; in latin and english: with other poems, in different languages. by an american [i.e., benjamin young prime]. new-york: published by m. w. dodd [ ]. p., map. º. =nbhd= _contents_: preface.--muscipula, the mouse-trap.--dr. watts' latin ode, english translation; english ode, latin translation.--ode of sappho in english; the same in french.--horatii, od. , lib. ; same in greek; same in english.--meditation over a dying patient.--a pindaric ode.--an elegy and palinody.--the desperate wish.--a song for the sons of liberty.--to a certain brave officer.--appendix. the =probationary= odes of jonathan pindar. _see_ =tucker=, saint george. the =progress= of dulness. _see_ =trumbull=, john. the =progress= of society. a poem. in three parts. new-york: published by d. longworth, park. clayton & kingsland, printers. . p.l., (i)vi-vii p., l., ( ) - p., l. º. =nbhd= =querno=, camillo, pseud. _see_ =odell=, jonathan. =quince=, peter, pseud. a parnassian shop. _see_ =story=, isaac. =quincey=, vernon h. a parody on some of the most striking passages in a late pamphlet, entitled "a letter to a federalist," with large additions & improvements, by vernon h. quincey, esq. portsmouth, n. h. printed at the oracle press, . p.l., (i)vi-viii, ( ) - p. º. =io( ) p.v. , no. = a satire on democracy and its abettors. =ralph=, james, d. . clarinda: or the fair libertine. a poem. in four cantos. london: printed for john gray, at the cross-keys in the poultry. . p.l., p. º. (in his: miscellaneous poems. london, .) =reserve= the author was a native of pennsylvania. ---- night: a poem. in four books.... by j. ralph. the second edition. london: printed by c. ackers, for w. meadows at the angel in cornhill; and s. billingsley at the judge's head in chancery-lane. mdccxxix. p.l., xi(i) p., l., p., l. º. (in his: miscellaneous poems. london, .) =reserve= ---- the tempest: or the terrors of death. a poem in blank verse. by james ralph. london: printed for w. meadows, at the angel in cornhill. m.dcc.xxvii. ii, p. º. (in his: miscellaneous poems. london, .) =reserve= ---- zeuma: or the love of liberty. a poem. in three books. by james ralph. london: printed by c. ackers, for s. billingsley at the judge's-head in chancery-lane. . p.l., vi p., l., p. º. (in his: miscellaneous poems. london, .) =reserve= =ray=, william, - . horrors of slavery: or, the american tars in tripoli. containing an account of the loss and capture of the united states frigate philadelphia; treatment and suffering of the prisoners; description of the place; manners, customs, &c. of the tripolitans; public transactions of the united states with that regency, including gen. eaton's expedition, interspersed with interesting remarks, anecdotes, and poetry, on various subjects. written during upwards of nineteen months' imprisonment and vassalage among the turks. by william ray. troy: printed by oliver lyon, for the author. . new york. reprinted. william abbatt, . p. º. (the magazine of history with notes and queries, extra number .) =iag= the poetical pieces are the following: the american tars in tripolitan slavery. exordium, p. - .--invocation to neptune, p. .--the loaf, p. - .--elegy on the death of john hilliard, who died jan. d, , in the prison of tripoli, p. - .--elegy on the death of lieutenant james decatur, who fell august d, , in an action with the tripolitan gun-boats, p. - .--song, p. - .--lines addressed to gen. eaton, on reading the congressional debate respecting his golden medal, written on board the u. states frigate essex, p. - .--poetry, published in the albany register, during the summer of , p. - .--spring [published in the northern budget, troy, may , ], p. - . contains also many other poems without titles. ---- tripoli; the way to be happy; village greatness. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= =re-re-commencement=: a kind of a poem: calculated to be recited before an "assemblage" of new-england divines.... _see_ =biglow=, william. the =recluse=, pseud. _see_ the =art= of domestic happiness. the =revelation= of nature, with the prophecy of reason. _see_ =stewart=, john. =rich=. r., fl. . newes from virginia ( ). a tract in verse by r. rich, soldier. reprinted after the only existing copy of the original edition. london: printed for private circulation, . p. º. =itc= one of twenty-five copies printed. the first published metrical effusion relating to america, by one who had lived in america. original title-page reads: nevves from virginia. the lost flocke triumphant. with the happy arriual of that famous and worthy knight sr. thomas gates: and the well reputed and valiant captaine mr. christopher newporte, and others, into england. with the maner of their distresse in the iland of deuils (otherwise called bemoothawes) where they remayned . weekes, and builded two pynaces, in which they returned into virginia. by r. rich, gent., one of the voyage. london printed by edw: allde, and are to be solde by iohn wright, at christ-church dore. . also printed in stedman and hutchinson, _library of american literature_. new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =richards=, george, d. . the declaration of independence; a poem: accompanied by odes, songs, &c. adapted to the day. by a citizen of boston [i.e., george richards]. printed at boston [by isaiah thomas and e. t. andrews]. faust's statue, no. , newbury street, mdccxciii. p.l, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= library also has one of copies reprinted, new york, , in _nbh p.v. , no. _. the declaration of independence is reprinted in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. ---- elegiac ode, sacred to the memory of general greene. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the political passing bell; an elegy. written in a country meeting house, april, . parodized from gray; and accompanied with a correct copy of the sublime original. for the entertainment of those, who laugh at all parties. [by george richards].... boston: printed by isaiah thomas and company, . tarrytown, n. y., reprinted, w. abbatt, . p. º. (the magazine of history with notes and queries, extra number .) =iag (magazine)= original edition published anonymously. in the present reprint the facsimile of t.-p. of original has author's name inserted in brackets. gray's elegy (including three verses usually omitted) appears on alternate pages with the parody. =richmond=, william ebenezer, - . mount hope, an evening excursion. by william e. richmond, barrister at law. providence: printed by miller & hutchens, . p.l., ( ) - ( ) p. º. =reserve= the poem was read, in an unfinished state, before the federal adelphi society, september, . =ritson=, mrs. anne. a poetical picture of america, being observations made, during a residence of several years, at alexandria, and norfolk, in virginia; illustrative of the manners and customs of the inhabitants: and interspersed with anecdotes, arising from a general intercourse with society in that country, from the year to . by a lady [i.e., mrs. anne ritson]. london: printed for the author; and sold by vernor, hood, and sharpe, , poultry. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbi= _contents_: a voyage across the atlantic.--passage up the patomak.--alexandria.--norfolk.--manners and customs of norfolk.--customs general in virginia. =rivington's= new-york gazetteer. ode on the new year . delivered by hugh duncan, one of the carriers of rivington's new-york gazetteer. [new york, .] broadside. =reserve= eight stanzas of four lines each. text in one column. =rogers=, john, - . [a poem.] upon mrs. ann bradstreet her poems, &c. (in: anne bradstreet, several poems compiled with great variety of wit and learning.... boston: john foster, . º. p.l. - .) =reserve= reprinted in the _new england historical and genealogical register_, boston, , v. , p. - , _* r-room _ and in stedman and hutchinson's _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =rogers=, robert, - . ponteach: or the savages of america. a tragedy [by major robert rogers]. london: printed for the author; and sold by j. millan, opposite the admiralty, whitehall. m.dcc.lxvi. [price s. d.] p. º. =reserve= and =nco p.v. = reviewed in _the monthly review or literary journal_, london, , v. , p. , _naa_. ---- ---- with an introduction and a biography of the author by allen nevins. chicago: the caxton club, . p., front. (port.) º. =reserve= one of copies on old stratford paper. =rose=, robert h. sketches in verse. [by robert h. rose.] printed for c. & a. conrad & co., philadelphia, by smith & maxwell. . p.l., (i)vi-viii, ( ) - p., pl. º. =nbhd= also has an engraved title-page. =rowson=, mrs. susanna haswell, - . miscellaneous poems; by susanna rowson, preceptress of the ladies' academy, newton, mass. author of charlotte, inquisitor, reuben and rachel, &c &c. printed for the author, by gilbert and dean, state-street, sold by them, and by w. p. and l. blake, cornhill, boston.-- . p.l., (i)iv-x p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= contains bookplate of thomas jefferson mckee. =rugeley=, rowland. the story of Æneas and dido burlesqued. [by rowland rugeley.] charlestown [i.e., charleston, s. c.]. printed and sold by robert wells, . xvi, p. sm. º. =reserve= the above copy has the author's name written in ink on the title-page by a former owner. the preface, which is dated "south-carolina, " shows by its contents that the work is undoubtedly an american production. =s.=, j. to the rev^{end} mr. william hubbard on his most exact history of new-englands troubles. (in: william hubbard, the present state of new-england. london, . º. p.l. .) =reserve= also in reprint of hubbard's work, with notes by s. g. drake, roxbury, , v. , p. - , _hbc_. attributed to john sherman by s. g. drake and to jeremiah shepard by j. l. sibley. =s.=, t. an almanack for the year of our lord .... by t. s.... cambridg printed by samuel green. . l. º. =reserve= photostat facsimile of a copy in the library of the american antiquarian society. poems on leaves - . probably by thomas shepard of charlestown. ---- an elegie on the death of that eminent minister of the gospel, mr. john norton, the reverend teacher of the church of christ at boston, who exchanged this life for a better april , . (in: n. morton, new englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =st. denis le cadet=, pseud. the lottery, a poem. _see_ =denison=, edward. =st. john=, peter. american taxation, . _see_ =american= taxation. =st. john=, samuel. american taxation, . _see_ =american= taxation. =sands=, robert charles, joint author. _see_ =eastburn=, james wallis. =sargent=, lucius manlius, - . caelii symposii ænigmata. hanc novam editionem, juxta lectiones optimas diligenter congestam, curavit lucius m. sargent. bostoniae. nov-angl: prelo belcher et armstrong. mdcccvii. p.l., (i)iv, - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = ---- hubert and ellen. with other poems. the trial of the harp.... billowy water.... the plunderer's grave.... the tear-drop.... the billow. by lucius m. sargent. boston: published by chester stebbins. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= "the plunderer's grave" is also printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =sargent=, winthrop, - . boston. a poem. by winthrop sargent. second edition. corrected and enlarged. boston: printed by hosea sprague, sold at no , marlboro' street. . p.l., (i)vi, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =schoolcraft=, henry rowe, - . transallegania, or the groans of missouri. a poem. [by henry howe schoolcraft.] new-york: printed for the author, by j. seymour. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = autograph inscription on cover reads: to e. a. duyckinck esq. with the respects of the author h. r. schoolcraft. washington, th may, . =scott=, jonathan m. blue lights, or the convention. a poem, in four cantos. by jonathan m. scott, esq. new-york: printed and published by charles n. baldwin, bookseller, chatham, corner of chamber-street. . p.l., (i)vi-xi p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- the sorceress, or salem delivered. a poem, in four cantos. by jonathan m. scott, esq. new-york: printed and published by charles n. baldwin, bookseller, corner of chamber and chatham street. . xii p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =scott=, moses y. fatal jest, a tale: and other poems. by moses y. scott. new-york: published by elam bliss, broadway. j. seymour, printer. . p.l., (i)iv-vi p., l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh= =sears=, reuben. a poem on the mineral waters of ballston and saratoga, with notes illustrating the history of the springs and adjacent country. by reuben sears, a.m. ballston spa: published by the author, j. comstock, printer. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =irm= p. [ ]- contain: notes illustrating the history of the springs and adjacent country. p. - contain poem entitled: philosoph; p. - , one entitled immortality. =searson=, john. elegiac verses on the decease of his late excellency, the illustrious and ever-memorable, great and good general george washington, of immortal memory. [by john searson. philadelphia, ?] p. º. =reserve= title from caption. bound with and usually appended to, the author's _mount vernon, a poem_.... philadelphia [ ?]. ---- mount vernon, a poem: being the seat of his excellency george washington, in the state of virginia; lieutenant-general and commander in chief of the land forces of the united states of america. this rural, romantic and descriptive poem of the seat of so great a character, it is hoped may please, with a copper-plate likeness of the general. it was taken from an actual view on the spot by the author, th may, . also a cursory view of georgetown, city of washington, and the capitol. by john searson, formerly of philadelphia, merchant. philadelphia: printed for the author by folwell [ ]. vi p., l., ( ) - , p., front. (port.) º. =reserve= and =nbhd= the last p. contain: elegiac verses on the decease of his late excellency the illustrious and ever-memorable, great and good general george washington, of immortal memory. [philadelphia, ?] also contains the following poems: thoughts in mount-vernon garden, p. - ; poetic address to the deity, p. - ; spring hymn, in praise of the creator, p. - : poetic description of a grand parade, at baltimore, on the th of november, : occasioned by his excellency general washington's passing through baltimore, in his way to the northward, on some public business, p. - ; acrostic on mount-vernon, the seat of his excellency george washington, p. - ; alexandria, p. - ; george-town, p. ; city washington, p. - ; lines on st. tammany's day, p. - ; ode to liberty, p. - ; advice to every member of congress, p. - ; on a rural life, p. - ; on the dissolution of the world, p. ; an evening hymn, p. ; a hymn of praise, or solemn address, to the god of seasons, by james thomson, p. - ; paraphrase of part of the book of job, p. - ; in imitation of pope's universal prayer, p. - ; on the decease of his excellency general anthony wayne, p. - ; on the return of the epidemic fever to philadelphia, in , p. - ; valedictory, p. . ---- poems on various subjects and different occasions, chiefly adapted to rural entertainment in the united states of america. by john searson, formerly of philadelphia, merchant. philadelphia: printed by snowden & m'corkle, no. north fourth-street. . vi, - p., l. º. =reserve= =seccomb=, john, - . father abbey's will; to which is added a letter of courtship to his virtuous and amiable widow. [by john seccomb.] with historical and biographical notes [by john langdon sibley]. privately printed. cambridge, . p. º. =agz p.v. , no. = the poem was first published in _the gentleman's magazine_, london, , v. , p. , under the following title: the last will of mr. mathew a ...y, late bed-maker and sweeper in cambridge. reprinted in _the massachusetts magazine_, boston, , v. , no. , p. - , _reserve_. also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_; stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =selyns=, henricus, - . in jesu christi magnalia americana, digesta in septem libros, per magnum, doctissimumque virum, d. cottonum matherum. (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º.) =reserve= in latin. also in later editions of the _magnalia_, as follows: hartford, , v. , p. - ; hartford, , v. , p. , with english translation on p. . ---- memoir and poems. (in: henry c. murphy, anthology of new netherland. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbh= =several= poems compiled with great variety of wit and learning. _see_ =bradstreet=, mrs. anne dudley. =sewall=, jonathan mitchell, - . miscellaneous poems, with several specimens from the author's manuscript version of the poems of ossian. by j. m. sewall, esq. published agreeably to an act of congress. portsmouth: printed by william treadwell, & co for the author. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- versification of president washington's excellent farewell-address to the citizens of the united states. by a gentleman of portsmouth, n. h. [i.e., jonathan mitchell sewall.] published according to act of congress. portsmouth, new-hampshire: printed and sold by charles peirce, at the columbian bookstore, no. . daniel-street. . p. º. =reserve= =sewall=, stephen, - . [poem.] on the death of george ii. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. p. - .) =nbh= ---- _see also_ =pietas= et gratulatio.... =shaw.= john, - . poems by the late doctor john shaw. to which is prefixed a biographical sketch of the author. [by john e. hall.] published by edward earle, philadelphia, and by edward j. coale, baltimore. fry and kammerer, printers. . p.l., (i)vi-viii, p. º. =nbhd= some of shaw's poems are printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_, boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. =shaw-standish=, thomas. a mournful song, occasioned by the shipwreck of the schooner armistice, captain douglass, on cohasset rocks, august , ... bound from portland for baltimore ... on which occasion five persons perished. by thomas shaw-standish. n. p. [ ?] p. º. =nbhd= at head of title: no. . [cut of coffins.] cut of a ship on title-page. ---- peace. [verses, n.p., ?] broadside. fº. =reserve= =shepard=, jeremiah. _see_ =s.=, j. =shepard=, thomas, - . [extract from an elegy on the death of john wilson.] (in: cotton mather, johannes in eremo. boston, . º. p. .) =reserve= reprinted in the club of odd volumes, _early american poetry_ [_reprints_, v.] , _reserve_. =sherman=, john. _see_ =s.=, j. =short=, bob, pseud. patriotic effusions. _see_ =longstreet=, augustus baldwin. the =shunamite=. _see_ =green=, g. =shurtleff=, james, - . the substance of a late remarkable dream, in which were presented the celestial worlds and the infernal regions, with the arch enemy of mankind, with his legions paraded, together with his instructions to them, in which was discovered, his deep-laid plot against the united states of america. [by james shurtleff.] hallowell (district of maine) printed by peter edes. . p. º. =reserve= introduction signed: james shurtleff. litchfield [me.], february, . =signs= of apostacy lamented. _see_ =bosworth=, benjamin. =sigourney=, mrs. lydia howard huntley, - . moral pieces in prose and verse. by lydia huntley. hartford: sheldon & goodwin, . xii, ( ) p., l. º. =nby= the =simple= cobler of aggawam in america. _see_ =ward=, nathaniel. =sketches= in verse. _see_ =rose=, robert h. =smith=, eaglesfield. william and ellen: a poem in three cantos; with other poetical works of an american [i.e., eaglesfield smith]. published for the benefit of a helpless child. new-york: printed by j. seymour, no. , john-street. . p.l. (i)vi-xii, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =smith=, elihu hubbard, - . epistle to the author of the botanic garden [erasmus darwin]. new york, march, . (in: erasmus darwin, the botanic garden. a poem. new-york, . º. p.l. - .) =reserve= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- monody on the death of george washington. delivered at the new-york theatre, on monday evening, december , . [by elihu h. smith.] (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- occasional address. spoken by mr. hodgkinson, on the opening of the new theatre, in new-york, monday, the th of january, . written by the late dr. e. h. smith. (in: the monthly magazine and american review for the year . new-york, . º. v. . p. - .) =reserve= ---- _see also_ the =echo; american= poems, selected and original. =smith=, isaiah. the mirror of merit and beauty: fifty female sketches, drawn from nature. by a friend to the fair, i. s. m. d. [i.e., isaiah smith.] new-york: printed for the author, by d. & g. bruce. . ( ) p. º. =reserve= =smith=, john, - . the generall historie of virginia, new-england, and the summer isles: with the names of the adventurers, planters, and governours from their first beginning an: . to this present . with the proceedings of those severall colonies and the accidents that befell them in all their journyes and discoveries. also the maps and descriptions of all those countryes, their commodities, people, government, customes, and religion yet knowne. divided into six bookes. by captaine john smith sometymes governour in those countryes & admirall of new england. london. printed by i. d. for michael sparkes. . p.l., p. fº. =reserve= poems on pages , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . reprinted in capt. john smith, _works, - . edited by edward arber_. birmingham, . v. º. _* r-room _. ---- ---- richmond: republished at the franklin press, william w. gray printer. . v. º. =itc= ---- ---- glasgow: james maclehose and sons, . v. º. =itc= ---- the sea marke. (in his: advertisements for the planters of new-england, or anywhere. london, . º. p.l. .) =reserve= reprinted in massachusetts historical society, _collections_, cambridge, , series , v. , p. , _iaa_. also reprinted in capt. john smith, _works. edited by edward arber_, birmingham, , v. , p. . _* r-room _. =smith=, joseph. eulogium on rum. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - . _nbh_; and _american poetical miscellany_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- an indian eclogue. scene, the banks of the ohio. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. .) =reserve= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. =smith=, william, - . art and nature. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in _the beauties of poetry, british and american_, philadelphia, , p. - , _reserve_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- indian songs of peace: with a proposal, in a prefatory epistle, for erecting indian schools. and a postscript by the editor, introducing yariza, an indian maid's letter, to the principal ladies of the province and city of new-york. by the author of the american fables [i.e., william smith]. new-york: printed by j. parker, and w. wayman, at the new printing-office in beaver-street, mdcclii. p. º. =reserve= =smith=, william moore, - . the fall of zampor, a peruvian ode; ode to meditation; lampoon. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- the man of sorrow. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- on a lady's birthday. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. .) =reserve= and =nbh= =snowden=, richard. the columbiad: or, a poem on the american war, in thirteen cantoes. [by richard snowden.] philadelphia: printed by jacob johnson & co. , market-street. . iv, p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- baltimore: printed by w. pechin, no. , second-street. [ ?] p. º. =reserve= bd. with his: the american revolution. baltimore. [ ?]. º. =some= excellent verses on admiral vernon's taking the forts and castles of carthagena in the month of march last. sold at the heart and crown in cornhill. [boston, .] broadside. =reserve= eighteen stanzas in two columns. a =song= made upon the election of new magistrates for this city.... a song made upon the foregoing occasion. [new york. .] broadside. =reserve= the two scandalous songs that figured in the zenger-cosby affair, . a =song=, on the surrendery of general burgoyne, who gave up his whole army to the brave general gates, of glorious memory, october , . [ .] broadside. =reserve= forty-six stanzas in three columns. =sotweed= redivivus: or the planters looking-glass. _see_ =cook=, ebenezer. =specimens= of the american poets; with critical notices and a preface. london: printed for t. and j. allman, . iv, p. º. =nbh= w. c. bryant. poems, p. - .--r. dabney. poems, p. - .--j. w. eastburn. yamoyden, proem and canto ii, p. - .--f. g. halleck. fanny, p. - .--w. maxwell. poems, p. - .--j. k. paulding. the backwoodsman, p. - .--j. pierpont. airs of palestine, p. - . the =spirit= of the farmers' museum, and lay preacher's gazette. being a judicious selection of the fugitive and valuable productions, which have occasionally appeared in that paper, since the commencement of its establishment. consisting of a part of the essays of the lay preacher, colon and spondee, american biography, the choicest efforts of the american muse, pieces of chaste humour, the early essays of the hermit, the most valuable part of the weekly summaries, nuts, epigrams, and epitaphs, sonnets, criticism, &c. &c. walpole, (n. h.) printed, for thomas & thomas, by d. & t. carlisle. . p.l., ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =reserve= p. - contain list of subscribers. edited by joseph dennie. the =spunkiad=: or heroism improved. a congressional display of spit and cudge. a poem, in four cantoes. by an american youth. newburgh: printed and sold by d. denniston. m,dcc,xcviii. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= a satire on the duel between mathew lyon and roger griswold in congress, jan. and feb. , . for a full account of this affair see the _historical magazine_, jan., . the =squabble=; a pastoral eclogue. by agricola. with a curious and well-design'd frontispiece. printed [from the first edition] by andrew steuart, in second-street philadelphia. [ .] p. º. =reserve= the frontispiece, which is on page , is a crude woodcut representing "thyrsis with a pr*sb*t*rian nose. conn, with a q**k*ronian nose." =standish=, miles, the younger, pseud.? the times; a poem, addressed to the inhabitants of new-england, and of the state of new-york, particularly on the subject of the present anti-commercial system of the national administration. by miles standish, jun. plymouth: printed for the author, . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =ii= at head of title: no. . a poem on "the exterminating war, now carrying on by the national administration against commerce" of new york and new england. copyright notice on verso of title-page. =stansbury=, joseph, and jonathan odell, - . the loyal verses of joseph stansbury and doctor jonathan odell; relating to the american revolution. now first edited by winthrop sargent. albany: j. munsell, state street. . p.l., (i)x-xxi p., l., p. º. (munsell's historical series, no. .) =nbhd= poems by odell, p. - , - , - , , - . the =state= triumvirate, a political tale. _see_ =verplanck=, gulian crommelin. =stearns=, charles, - . the ladies' philosophy of love. a poem, in four cantos. written in . by charles stearns. a.b. since pastor of the church, and preceptor of the liberal school in lincoln. now first published--according to act of congress. leominster, for the author. . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p. sq. º. =reserve= =steendam=, jacob, b. . a memoir of the first poet in new netherland [i.e., jacob steendam] with his poems descriptive of the colony. [by henry c. murphy.] the hague, the brothers giunta d'albani, . p., front, (port.) º. =an= poems in dutch and english on opposite pages; the "complaint of new amsterdam" and "the praise of new netherland" include reproductions of the original title-pages. _contents_: memoir.--poems on new netherland: complaint of new amsterdam in new netherland, to her mother, . the praise of new netherland, .--spurring-verses. ---- memoir and poems. (in: henry c. murphy, anthology of new netherland. new york, . º. p. - .) =nbh= =stewart=, john. the revelation of nature, with the prophesy of reason. [by john stewart.] new york: printed by mott & lyon, for the author. in the fifth year of intellectual existance, or the publication of the apocalypse of nature, years from the grecian olympiads, and from recorded knowledge in the chinese tables of eclipses, beyond which chronology is lost in fable. [ .] xxxix, p. º. =reserve= =stiles=, ezra. _see_ a =family= tablet: containing a selection of original poetry. =stoddard=, amos, - . the president's birth day ode. performed at taunton, at the civick festival, february, . written by a. stoddard. (in: the massachusetts magazine. boston. . º. v. , no. , p. - .) =reserve= =stoddard=, lavina, - . the soul's defiance. (in: r. w. griswold, the female poets of america. philadelphia, . º. p. .) =nbh= =story=, isaac, - . an epistle from yarico to inkle, together with their characters, as related in the spectator. [by isaac story.] marblehead: printed for the sons and daughters of columbia. m.dcc.xcii. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= printed at salem. the monogram "i. s." appears above the imprint. ---- a parnassian shop, opened in the pindaric stile; by peter quince, esq. [pseud. of isaac story.] copy right secured. boston: printed by russell and cutler. . p.l., (i)viii, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= reviewed in _the american review, and literary journal_ for the year , new york, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- _see also_ =all= the world's a stage. a poem. =story=, joseph, - . elegy to the memory of general george washington. (in his: an eulogy on general george washington. salem: j. cushing, . º. p. [ ]- .) =reserve= "the subsequent elegy, added by advice of some friends, was originally designed for newspaporial currency. as some sentiments of it are perhaps enlarged on in the eulogy, it is necessary to observe, that it was written previous to the suggestion of the other, and could not be altered without impairing its structure." ---- the power of solitude. a poem. in two parts. by joseph story. a new and improved edition. salem: published by barnard p. macanulty. . p.l., p., front. º. =nbhd= extract printed in samuel kettell, _specimens of american poetry_. boston, , v. , p. - , _nbh_. the =story= of Æneas and dido burlesqued. _see_ =rugeley=, rowland. the =substance= of a late remarkable dream. _see_ =shurtleff=, james. =sumner=, charles pinckney, - . the compass. a poetical performance at the literary exhibition in september. m,dcc,xcv, at harvard university. by charles p. sumner. boston: printed by william spotswood for the subscribers. [ .] p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- an ode for the sixth anniversary of the massachusetts charitable fire society. boston, may, . (in: the columbian phenix and boston review. boston, . º. v. for , p. .) =reserve= =swanwick=, john. poems on several occasions. by john swanwick, esq. one of the representatives in the congress of the united states, from the state of pennsylvania. philadelphia: printed by f. and r. bailey, at yorick's head, no. . high-street. mdccxcvii. p.l., p. º. =reserve= =sympson=, j. science revived or the vision of alfred. a poem in eight cantos. with biographical notes. by the rev. j. sympson, b.d. philadelphia: printed by john bouvier, for john wilson. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =t.=, b. _see_ =tompson=, benjamin. the =tenth= muse lately sprung up in america. or several poems. _see_ =bradstreet=, mrs. anne dudley. =terrible= tractoration!! a poetical petition against galvanising trumpery.... _see_ =fessenden=, thomas green. =theresa=, pseud. _see_ the =breechiad=, a poem. =thomas=, daniel. a poem, delivered in middleborough, september th, a.d. . at the anniversary election of the philandrian society. by daniel thomas, student of rhode-island college. wrentham, (mass.) printed by nathaniel heaton, jun. . p. º. =reserve= =thomas=, john. the genius of america. inscribed to his excellency general george washington, on his return to mount vernon in december, . [and other poems.] (in: extracts in prose and verse, by a lady of maryland. annapolis, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= =thomas=, joseph. a poetical descant on the primeval and present state of mankind; or, the pilgrim's muse. by joseph thomas, minister of the gospel. winchester, va. j. foster, printer. . p.l., (i)iv-vii(i), - ( ) p. º. =nbhd= =tileston=, thomas. funeral elegy, dedicated to the memory of his worthy friend, the learned and religious mr. john foster, who deceased in dorchester the of septr. . (in: t. c. simonds, history of south boston. boston, . º. p. - .) =iqh= the =times=, a poem. _see_ =church=, benjamin. the =times=; a poem. _see_ =markoe=, peter. =tompson=, benjamin, - . celeberrimi cottoni matheri, celebratio.... (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º.) =reserve= text in latin and english. also in later editions of the _magnalia_, as follows: hartford, , v. , p. , and hartford, , v. , p. . reprinted in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. ---- [elegy] upon the very reverend samuel whiting. (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º. book iii, p. - .) also in later editions as follows: hartford, , v. , p. - ; hartford, , v. , p. - . ---- the grammarians funeral, or an elegy composed upon the death of mr. john woodmancy, formerly a school-master in boston: but now published upon the death of the venerable mr. ezekiel chevers, the late and famous school-master of boston in new-england; who departed this life the twenty-first of august . early in the morning. in the ninety-fourth year of his age. [by] benj. tompson. broadside. (in: s. a. green, ten fac-simile reproductions relating to new england. boston, . fº.) =reserve= enclosed in mourning borders. photo-facsimile, exact size. ---- a neighbour's tears sprinkled on the dust of the amiable virgin, mrs. rebekah sewall, who was born december . . and dyed suddenly, august . . Ætatis . [by] b. t. [i.e., benjamin tompson.] broadside. (in: s. a. green, ten fac-simile reproductions relating to new england. boston, . fº.) =reserve= thirty-two lines, enclosed in mourning border. photo-facsimile, exact size. ---- new-england's crisis. by benjamin tompson. boston: the club of odd volumes, . p., l., ( ) - p. sq. º. (the club of odd volumes. early american poetry [reprints, v.] .) =reserve= no. of one hundred copies printed on hand-made paper. this is a modern type reprint, without title-page, of a copy of the original, boston, , in the boston athenæum. the boston _evening transcript_, july , , records the sale of the only known perfect copy, which was disposed of at the sale of thomas gray's library, at sotheby's on june , . ---- [poem] upon the elaborate survey of new-englands passions from the natives, by the imperial pen of that worthy divine mr. william hubbard. p. (in: william hubbard, the present state of new-england. being a narrative of the troubles with the indians.... london. . º. p.l. .) =reserve= also in reprint of hubbard's work, with notes by s. g. drake, roxbury, , v. , p. - , _hbc_. =touchstone=, geoffry, pseud. the house of wisdom in a bustle. a poem, descriptive of the noted battle lately fought in c--ng--ss. by geoffry touchstone. new-york: printed for the purchasers. . [price cents.] p. º. =reserve= a satire on the duel between mathew lyon and roger griswold in congress, jan. and feb. , . for a full account of this affair see the _historical magazine_, jan., . first published at philadelphia, in . =townsend=, eliza. - . an occasional ode. (in: the monthly anthology, and boston review. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =* da= also printed in r. w. griswold, _the female poets of america_, philadelphia, , p. - , _nbh_. =townsend=, richard? h. original poems, by a citizen of baltimore [i.e., richard? h. townsend]. published by samuel jefferis, , baltimore-street. robinson, printer. . p.l., (i)vi-x, ( ) p. l. of adv. º. =nbhd= =transallegania=, or the groans of missouri. a poem. _see_ =schoolcraft=, henry rowe. a =tribute= to washington, for february d, . _see_ =lovett=, john. the =true= american, tom tackle, fair kate of portsmouth, had neptune, roger and kate. new-york: printed and sold at no. , and , maiden-lane. . p. º. =reserve= =trumbull=, john, - . ambition, an elegy. (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_; and, under the title an elegy, in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- the critics, a fable. (in: the columbian muse. new york, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= ---- the downfall of babylon.--an imitation of sundry passages in the th and th chapters of the prophecy of isaiah, and the th chapter of the revelations of st. john. written, anno . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- an elegy on the death of mr. buckingham st. john, tutor of yale college, who was drowned in his passage from new haven to norwalk, may the th, . new york: c. f. heartman, . p.l., - p., front, (fold. fac.) º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) =reserve= contains facsimile of original broadside. one of copies printed on fabriano hand-made paper. also printed in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. - , _reserve_; _the massachusetts magazine_, boston, april, , p. - , _reserve_; _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_; _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- elegy on the times. first printed at boston, sept. th, . (in: american poems, selected and original. litchfield, . º. p. - .) =reserve= and =nbh= also printed in _the columbian muse_, new york, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- excellent logic; british favours to america; extreme humanity; nobility anticipated. (in: the beauties of poetry, british and american. philadelphia, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- mcfingal: a modern epic poem. or, the town meeting. [by john trumbull.] philadelphia, printed: london, reprinted for j. almon, opposite burlington-house, piccadilly. mdcclxxvi. [price one shilling.] p. º. =reserve= the first part was written in at the request of some members of the american congress, with a view to influence public opinion in favor of the war then beginning against the mother country. ---- m'fingal: a modern epic poem, in four cantos. [by john trumbull.] hartford: printed and sold by byail webster, a few rods south-east of the court-house, . p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- hartford: printed by hudson and goodwin, near the great bridge, . p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- boston: printed by peter edes, in state-street. mdcclxxxv. p.l., ( ) - p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- philadelphia: from the press of mathew carey. m.dcc.xci. ( ) p. º. =reserve= this is the first edition in which the author's name appears on the title-page. ---- ---- the fifth edition, with explanatory notes. london: printed for j. s. jordan, no. , fleet-street. m,dcc,xcii. xv, p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- the sixth edition, with explanatory notes. london: printed for chapman and co. no. , fleet-street. m,dcc,xciii. p.l., (i)vi-xv, p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- embellished with nine copper plates; designed and engraved by e. tisdale. the first edition with plates, and explanatory notes. new-york: printed by john duel, no. . fly-market. m,dcc,xcv. vii, p., front. (port.), pl. º. =reserve= frontispiece, the portrait of the author. ---- ---- with explanatory notes. boston: printed by manning & loring, for ebenezer larking, no. , cornhill. . ( ) p., l. º. =reserve= ---- ---- embellished with plates. with explanatory notes. baltimore. printed and sold by a. miltenberger, no. , north howard-street. . p.l., (i)iv-vi, ( ) - p., pl. (incl. front.) º. =nbhd= ---- ---- with explanatory notes. albany: printed by e. & e. hosford. . p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- with explanatory notes. published and sold by ezekiel goodale, at the hallowell bookstore. . vi, ( ) - p., l. (one l. of adv.) º. =nbhd= peter edes, printer, augusta. ---- ---- with explanatory notes and plates. hudson: published by w. e. norman. . vi, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ashbel stoddard, printer. the library has another copy of this edition, ending with p. . the publisher probably had a number of copies lacking the last leaf, and in order to sell them had the missing part reprinted on one page, and inserted it. this must have been done some years after the printing of the original. this copy also has an engraved frontispiece. ---- ---- with explanatory notes. boston: printed by john g. scobie, . p.l., ( ) - p. nar. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- with explanatory notes. fine edition. philadelphia: published by c. p. fessenden. . iv, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- m'fingal, a modern epic poem, revised and corrected, with copious and explanatory notes, by john trumbull, ll.d. with a memoir of the author. hartford: s. andrus and son, . p.l., ( ) - p., l. of adv., front. º. =nbhd= ---- m'fingal: an epic poem. by john trumbull. with introduction and notes, by benson j. lossing. new york: g. p. putnam, nassau street, . p., front. (port.) º. =nbhd= large paper copy. ---- ---- new york: g. p. putnam: hurd and houghton, . p., front. (port.) º. =nbhd= ---- ---- new york: american book exchange, . p. º. =nbhd= also printed in _the american museum_, philadelphia, , v. , p. - , _reserve_. ---- poems: the speech of proteus to aristæus, translated from the fourth book of virgil's georgics, ; the downfall of babylon, written ; the prophecy of balaam, written ; an elegy, on the death of mr. buckingham st. john, who was drowned in his passage from new-haven to norwalk, may th, . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= ---- the poetical works of john trumbull, ll.d. containing m'fingal, a modern epic poem, revised and corrected, with copious explanatory notes; the progress of dulness; and a collection of poems on various subjects, written before and during the revolutionary war. in two volumes. hartford: printed for samuel g. goodrich, by lincoln & stone. mdcccxx. v. º. =nbhd= v. . p.l., ( ) - p., front, (port.), eng. t.-p.; v. . p.l., ( ) - p., pl., eng. t.-p. _contents_: v. . memoir of the life and writings of john trumbull.--m'fingal. v. . progress of dulness.--genius of america.--lines to messrs. dwight and barlow.--ode to sleep.--to a young lady, a fable.--speech of proteus, translation.--prophecy of balaam.--owl and sparrow, a fable.--prospect of the future glory of america.--on the vanity of youthful expectations.--advice to ladies of a certain age.--characters.--elegy on the death of mr. st. john.--destruction of babylon.--elegy on the times.--appendix. ---- the progress of dulness, part first, or the rare adventures of tom brainless; shewing what his father and mother said of him; how he went to college, and what he learned there; how he took his degree, and went to keeping school; how afterwards he became a great man and wore a wig; and how any body else may do the same. the like never before published. very proper to be kept in all families. [by john trumbull.] the second edition, corrected. re-printed in the year m,dcc,lxxiii. vi, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= also printed in _the american magazine_, dec., , p. - , jan., , p. - , _reserve_. ---- the progress of dulness, part second: or an essay on the life and character of dick hairbrain, of finical memory; being an astronomical calendar, calculated for the meridian of new-york, north latitude, °. west longitude °: '; but which may serve without material error, for any of the neighboring climates: containing, among other curious and surprizing particulars, dick's soliloquy on a college-life ... a description of a country-fop ... receipt to make a gentleman, with the fop's creed and exposition, of the scriptures.... dick's gradual progress from a clown to a coxcomb ... his travels, gallantry, and opinion of the ladies ... his peripætia and catastrophe, with the moral and application of the whole. [by john trumbull.] published for the universal benefit of mankind. printed in the year m,dcc,lxxiii. x, ( ) - ( ) p. º. =reserve= ---- the progress of dulness, or the rare adventures of tom brainles. by the celebrated author of mcfingall [i.e., john trumbull]. printed at exeter, by henry ranlet, and sold at his office, also, by most of the booksellers in boston. mdccxciv. p. º. =reserve= lacks p. - (the preface), and - . ---- the prophecy of balaam. numbers: chap. xviii, xiv. an irregular ode. written anno . (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , p. - .) =reserve= also printed in _american poems, selected and original_, litchfield, , p. - , _nbh_. ---- _see also_ the =anarchiard=. =tucker=, saint george, - . the probationary odes of jonathan pindar, esq. [pseud. of saint george tucker.] a cousin of peter's, and candidate for the post of poet laureat to the c. u. s. in two parts. philadelphia: printed for benj. franklin bache, m.dcc.xcvi. [copy-right secured.] viii, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= erroneously attributed to philip freneau. part originally published in his _gazette_, . page is a special title reading: the probationary odes of jonathan pindar.... part second. with notes, critical and explanatory by christopher clearsight, esq. ---- stanzas. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston. . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_, and e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =turell=, jane, - . an invitation into the country, in imitation of horace. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. this and the following poems appeared originally in _memoirs of the life and death of mrs. jane turell_, by ebenezer turell, boston, . ---- a paraphrase of the one hundred and thirty-fourth psalm. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- on the poems of sir richard blackmore. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- on reading the warning by mrs. singer. on the incomparable mr. waller. (in: e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, a library of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. , .) =nbb= ---- to my muse. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= also printed in e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, _cyclopædia of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_; stedman and hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. , _nbb_. =two= new england poems. [the mercies of the year, commemorated: a song for little children in new-england. december th , and psalm cvii, last part. translated by the reverend mr. isaac watts and by him intitled, a psalm for new england.] boston: the merrymount press, . l. fº. =reserve= "one hundred copies reprinted in facsimile from the original in the john carter brown library for the patrons of the club for colonial reprints, providence, rhode island, december , ." =tyler=, royal, ?- . address to della crusca, humbly attempted in the sublime style of that fashionable author. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= some of tyler's poems appeared originally in _spirit of the farmer's museum_, , and _columbian centinel_, . ---- country ode for the fourth of july; my mistresses; address to della crusca; choice of a wife; on a ruined house in a romantic country; the town eclogue. (in: samuel kettell, specimens of american poetry. boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbh= ---- love and liberty. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= ---- ode composed for the fourth of july, calculated for the meridian of some country towns in massachusetts, and rye in new hampshire. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= ---- spondee's mistresses. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. .) =nbb= =umphraville=, angus, pseud.? the siege of baltimore, and the battle of la tranche; with other original poems. by angus umphraville. aged nineteen. baltimore: printed by schaeffer and maund. . p.l., p. º. =nbhd= the =untaught= bard. an original work. new-york: deare and andrews, printers. . p. º. =nbhd= =upham=, thomas cogswell, - . american sketches. by thomas c. upham. new-york: published by david longworth, at the shakspeare-gallery, for the author. feb.-- . vii, ( ) - p. illus. º. =nbhd= ---- [poem written on visiting the scene of lovewell's fate.] (in: magazine of history with notes and queries. new york, . º. extra no. , p. - .) =iag (magazine)= =upon= the death of g. b. [i.e., general bacon.] (massachusetts historical society. collections for . boston, . º. series , v. , p. - .) =iaa= this elegy is in the manuscript copy of an account of bacon and ingram's rebellion found among the papers of capt. nathaniel burwell, printed in this volume of the _collections_. also printed in stedman and hutchinson, _library of american literature_. new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =verplanck=, gulian crommelin, - . the state triumvirate, a political tale: and the epistles of brevet major pindar puff. [by gulian crommelin verplanck.] new-york: printed for the author, and sold by w. b. gilley, no. broadway, and other booksellers. j. seymour, printer. . p. º. =nbhd= =verses=, composed and sung at trenton, on the delivery of the funeral eulogium in honor of the memory of general george washington. [ ?] broadside. =reserve= text in two columns, enclosed in mourning borders. facsimile. =verses= on doctor mayhew's book of observations on the charter and conduct of the society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts. _see_ =goddard=, william. =verses=, sacred to the memory of benjamin franklin, l.l.d. (in: the american museum. philadelphia, . º. v. , appendix , p. - .) =reserve= =versification= of president washington's excellent farewell-address. _see_ =sewall=, jonathan mitchell. the =village=; a poem. _see_ =lincoln=, enoch. =viola= or the heiress of st. valverde, an original poem. _see_ =botsford=, mrs. margaret. =virtues= of society. _see_ =morton=, mrs. sarah wentworth apthorp. =w.=, i. h. the dartmoor massacre. by i. h. w. . (in: magazine of history with notes and queries, extra no. , p. - .) =iag (magazine)= reprint with type-facsimile title-page of original. "transposed in verse from the new york commercial advertiser of the th june last and boston papers of the same month." "being an authentic and particular account of the tragic massacre at dartmoor prison in england on the th of april, last, , in which sixty-seven american prisoners there fell the victims of the jailor's revenge, for obtaining their due allowance of bread which had been withheld from them by the jailor's orders." the =wages= of sin; or, robbery justly rewarded: a poem; occasioned by the untimely death of richard wilson, who was executed on boston neck, for burglary, on thursday the th of october, . boston: printed and sold at the heart and crown in cornhill. n. d. broadside. =reserve= photostat facsimile. nineteen stanzas in two columns. =ward=, nathaniel, c. - . the simple cobler of aggawam in america. willing to help 'mend his native country, lamentably tattered, both in the upper-leather and sole, with all the honest stitches he can take. and as willing never to bee paid for his work, by old english wonted pay. it is his trade to patch all year long, gratis. therefore i pray gentlemen keep your purses. by theodore de la guard [i.e., nathaniel ward]. london, printed by john dever & robert ibbitson, for stephen bowtell, at the signe of the bible in popes head-alley, . p.l., p. sq. º. =reserve= ---- ---- [second edition.] london, printed by j. d. & r. i. for stephen bowtell, at the signe of the bible in popes head-alley, . p.l., p. sq. º. =reserve= ---- ---- the third edition, with some additions. london, printed by j. d. & r. i. for stephen bowtell, at the signe of the bible in popes head-alley, . p.l., p. sq. º. =reserve= ---- ---- the fourth edition, with some amendments. london, printed by j. d. & r. i. for stephen bowtell, at the signe of the bible in popes head-alley, . p.l., p. sq. º. =reserve= =warren=, john, - . an eulogy on the honourable thomas russell, esq. ... who died at boston, april , . delivered, may , .... by john warren. boston: printed by benjamin sweetser, corner of wings-lane. m,dcc,xcvi. p.l., ( ) - , p. º. =reserve= last three pages contain: a monody on the death of the honourable thomas russell, esq. sung after the eulogy of doctor john warren ... may , . =warren=, mrs. mercy otis, - . poems, dramatic and miscellaneous. by mrs. m. warren. printed at boston, by i. thomas and e. t. andrews. at faust's statue, no. , newbury street. mdccxc. viii, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= =washington's= birthday: an historical poem. _see_ =lovett=, john. a =washingtonian=, pseud. washington's birthday: an historical poem. _see_ =lovett=, john. the =washingtoniana=: containing a sketch of the life and death of the late gen. george washington; with a collection of elegant eulogies, orations, poems, &c. sacred to his memory. also, an appendix, comprising all his most valuable public papers, and his last will and testament. lancaster: printed and sold by william hamilton, franklin's head, in west king-street. . viii, ( ) - p. º. =reserve= edited by f. johnston and w. hamilton. frontispiece, the portrait of washington, engraved by david edwin, after stuart. p. - misnumbered - , but total correct. tribute by doctor aiken, p. ; elegiac ode, p. - ; extract from elegiac poem on the death of general george washington, by charles caldwell, p. - ; extract from a poem, sacred to the memory of general george washington, by richard alsop, p. - ; tribute, by mr. paine, of massachusetts, p. ; on the death of washington from a london newspaper, p. - . the =watery= war: or a poetical description of the existing controversy between the pedobaptists and baptists.... _see_ =benedict=, david. =webb=, george, fl. - . batchelors' hall: a poem. (in: e. a. and g. l. duyckinck, cyclopædia of american literature. new york, . º. v. , p. - .) =nbb= first published in . =webster=, noah, - . to the author of the conquest of canaan. (in: the american magazine. new york, . º. march, , p. - .) =reserve= ---- to a lady on the approach of spring. (in: the american magazine. new york, . º. march, , p. .) =reserve= ---- the triumph of infidelity. a poem. . addressed to mon. de voltaire. (in: the american magazine. new york, . º. july, , p. - .) =reserve= ---- verses on the new year, january , . (in: the american magazine. new york, . º. december, , p. .) =reserve= =weekes=, refine. poems, on religious and historical subjects. by refine weekes. new-york: printed for the author, by james oram, no. burling-slip. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- ---- second edition, corrected and enlarged. new-york: printed for the author, by mahlon day, no. , pearl-street. . p.l., (i)vi, ( ) - p., l. of adv. º. =nbhd= =weems=, mason locke, - . hymen's recruiting sergeant; or, the new matrimonial tattoo for old bachelors. philadelphia: the author, . p., pl. . ed. º. =* c p.v. = first published in . ---- ---- hartford, ct.: published by andrus & judd, . p. º. =snv p.v. , no. = ---- ---- hartford: s. andrus and son. . p. º. =nby= ---- ---- hartford: silas andrus and son, . p., l. º. =snv p.v. , no. = =weller=, catharine. the medley. by catharine weller. new-york: printed by t. & j. swords, no. pearl-street. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= p. - lacking. contains poems and prose selections. =wharton=, charles henry, - . an elegy to the memory of mrs. mary wharton, who died at philadelphia, on the second day of june, . by her husband. [colophon:] printed by john ormrod, chestnut-street [ ]. p. º. =reserve= no title-page; title from caption. signed c. h. w. reprinted in _the remains of the rev. charles henry wharton, d.d. with a memoir of his life by george washington doane_, philadelphia, , v. , p. lxxix-lxxxi, _zep_. also reprinted in george c. perine, _the poets and verse writers of maryland_, cincinnati, , p. - . _nbb_. ---- a poetical epistle to his excellency george washington, esq. commander in chief of the armies of the united states of america, from an inhabitant of the state of maryland. [by charles henry wharton.] to which is annexed, a short sketch of general washington's life and character. [by john bell of md.] annapolis printed : london reprinted for c. dilly, in the poultry; j. almon, piccadilly, w. tesseyman, york; t. and j. merrill, cambridge; r. cruttwell, bath; and t. becket, bristol. mdcclxxx. [price half a crown.] p.l., (i)iv, ( ) - p., front. (port.) sq. º. =reserve= frontispiece, the portrait of george washington, engraved by w. sharp, from an original picture. reprinted, new york, , by j. munsell, in an edition of seventy-five copies, of which five were printed on whatman's drawing paper. no. of five copies on whatman's drawing paper, _reserve_; no. of five copies on whatman's drawing paper, _an_ (_washington_) _p.v. , no. _. also printed in george c. perine, _the poets and verse-writers of maryland_. cincinnati, , p. - , _nbb_. ---- ---- from the original manuscript belonging to david pulsifer.... with an appendix. boston: printed for david pulsifer, . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =an= =wheatley=, phillis, - . an elegiac poem on the death of that celebrated divine, and eminent servant of jesus christ, the reverend and learned mr. george whitefield.... by phillis, a servant girl of seventeen years of age, belonging to mr. j. wheatley of boston.... (in: e. pemberton, heaven the residence of the saints. a sermon.... boston, printed: london, reprinted, . º. p. [ ]- .) =reserve= ---- the following thoughts on his excellency major general lee being betray'd into the hands of the enemy by the treachery of a pretended friend; to the honourable james bowdoin esq. are most respectfully inscrib'd, by his most obedient and devoted humble servant, phillis wheatley. boston, decr. , . (massachusetts historical society. proceedings, - . boston, . º. p. - .) =iaa= printed from original manuscript, found among the bowdoin papers. ---- memoir and poems of phillis wheatley, a native african and a slave. dedicated to the friends of the africans. second edition. boston: light & horton, & cornhill. samuel harris, printer. . viii, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= ---- phillis wheatley (phillis peters), poems and letters. first collected edition. edited by chas. fred. heartman. with an appreciation by arthur a. schomburg. new york: c. f. heartman [ ]. p.l., - p., front. (port.) º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) =reserve= no. of copies printed on ben day paper. poems, p. - . ---- the poems of phillis wheatley as they were originally published in london, . re-published by r. r. and c. c. wright. philadelphia, pa. . p.l., - p., front. (port.) º. =nbhd= ---- poems on various subjects, religious and moral. by phillis wheatley, negro servant to mr. john wheatley, of boston, in new england. london: printed for a. bell, bookseller, aldgate; and sold by messrs. cox and berry, king-street, boston. mdcclxxiii. p., l., front. (port.) º. =reserve= and =nbhd= ---- ---- albany: re-printed, from the london edition, by barber & southwick, for thomas spencer, book-seller, market-street,-- --viii, ( ) - ( ) p., l. º. =reserve= ---- ---- dedicated to the countess of huntingdon. philadelphia: printed by and for william b. woodward, no. , chestnut street. . p.l., - p. º. =reserve= the library has a second copy bound in joseph lavallée, _the negro equalled by few europeans_, philadelphia, . º. v. , p. [ ]- . also in _reserve_. ---- six broadsides relating to phillis wheatley (phillis peters) with portrait and facsimile of her handwriting. new york: c. f. heartman, . p.l., front. (port.), pl. fº. =reserve= one of twenty-five copies printed. no. . an elegiac poem on the death of ... george whitefield.... by phillis.... sold by ezekiel russell, in queen-street, and john boyles, in marlboro-street. [ ?] no. . phillis's poem on the death of mr. whitefield. no. . to mrs. leonard, on the death of her husband. no. . to the rev. mr. pitkin, on the death of his lady. boston, june th, . no. . to the hon'ble thomas hubbard, esq; on the death of mrs. thankfull leonard. boston, january , . no. . an address to miss phillis wheatley.... composed by jupiter hammon. hartford, august , . no. . facsimile of manuscript of "to the university of cambridge wrote in ." nos. , , , , are also in c. f. heartman, _phillis wheatley_, new york, . º. (heartman's historical series, no. .) ---- verses presented to his excellency gen. washington, providence, oct. , . (in: the pennsylvania magazine: or american monthly museum. april, , p. .) =reserve= =whitman=, benjamin, the younger. hero of the north--or battle of lake erie. by mr. benjamin whitman, jun. of boston. (in: b. badger, the naval temple. boston, . . ed. º. p. - .) =vye= ---- the heroes of the north, or the battles of lake erie, and champlain. two poems. by benjamin whitman, jr. esq. boston: published by barber badger, . p.l., ( ) - p., pl. º. =reserve= two portraits inserted. ---- victory on lake champlain. by benjamin whitman, jun. esq. (in: b. badger, the naval temple. boston, . . ed. º. p. - .) =vye= =whitwell=, benjamin. experience, or, folly as it flies. a poem, delivered at cambridge, on the anniversary of the [greek: phbk] society. aug. , . by benjamin whitwell. boston: printed at the anthology office, by munroe & francis. . p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = =wigglesworth=, michael, - . the day of doom: or, a description of the great and last judgement. with a short discourse about eternity. [by michael wigglesworth.] london, printed by w. g. for john sims, at the kings-head at sweetings-alley-end in cornhill, next house to the royal-exchange, . p.l., p. º. =reserve= first edition was printed in . _contents_: the day of doom, p. - .--a short discourse on eternity, p. - .--a postscript unto the reader, p. - .--vanity of vanities, p. - . ---- the day of doom: or, a poetical description of the great and last judgement. with a short discourse about eternity. by michael wigglesworth, teacher of the church at maldon in n. e. the fifth edition, enlarged with scripture and marginal notes. boston: printed by b. green, and j. allen, for benjamin eliot at his shop under the west end of the town-house. . p.l., p. º. =reserve= bd. with his: meat out of the eater.... boston, . . ed. º. contents same as previous entry. ---- ---- by michael wigglesworth, a.m. teacher of the church in maldon, new-england. the seventh edition, enlarged. with a recommendatory epistle (in verse) by the rev. mr. john mitchel: also mr. wigglesworth's character, by dr. cotton mather. boston: printed and sold by thomas fleet, at the heart and crown in cornhill, . p. º. =reserve= _contents_: the day of doom, p. - .--a short discourse on eternity, p. - .--a postscript to the reader, p. - .--vanity of vanities, p. - .--death expected, and welcomed, p. - .--a farewell to the world, p. - .--mr. wigglesworth's character, by the reverend dr. cotton mather, p. - .--epitaph, p. . ---- ---- by michael wigglesworth, a.m. teacher of the church at malden, n. e. to which is prefixed a biographical sketch of the character of the author. from the sixth boston edition, printed in . newburyport: published by e. little and company, . c. norris & co. printers. p. º. =reserve= ---- ---- by michael wigglesworth, a.m. teacher of the church at malden in n. e. from the sixth edition, . boston: charles ewer, washington street. . ( ) p. º. =nbhd= ---- the day of doom; or, a poetical description of the great and last judgement: with other poems. by michael wigglesworth, a.m. teacher of the church at malden in new england, . also a memoir of the author, autobiography, and a sketch of his funeral sermon by rev. cotton mather. from the sixth edition, . new york: american news company. . p., l. º. =nbhd= ---- death expected and welcome. (in: cotton mather, a faithful man, described and rewarded. boston, . º. p. .) =reserve= ---- a farewell to the world. (in: cotton mather, a faithful man, described and rewarded. boston, . º. p. - .) =reserve= ---- meat out of the eater or meditations concerning the necessity, end, and usefulness of afflictions unto gods children. all tending to prepare them for, and comfort them under the cross. by michael wigglesworth. the fourth edition. boston: printed by r. p. for john usher. . p. º. =reserve= page is a special title reading: riddles unriddled, or christian paradoxes broke open.... pages - mutilated; p. - , - , - lacking. meat out of the eater, p. - ; riddles unriddled, or christian paradoxes, p. - . the first edition was probably published in or early in . ---- ---- corrected and amended by the author in the year . the fifth edition. boston, printed by j. allen, for n. boone, at the sign of the bible in cornhill. . p. º. =reserve= ---- upon the much lamented death of that precious servant of christ, mr. benjamin buncker, pastor of the church at maldon, who deceased on the d of ye th moneth . (new-england historical and genealogical register.... boston, . º. v. , p. - .) =* r-room = "the original in the author's handwriting, is among the ewer manuscripts, , - of the new england historic genealogical society." =william= and ellen: a poem. _see_ =smith=, eaglesfield. =williams=, john, - . a bachelor's prayer. by anthony pasquin [pseud.]. (in: the columbian phenix and boston review. boston, . º. v. for , p. - .) =reserve= ---- a dirge, or sepulchral service, commemorating the sublime virtues and distinguished talents of general george washington. composed at the request of the mechanics association of boston. words by anthony pasquin [pseud.]. p. (in: [oliver holden], sacred dirges, commemorative of the death of washington. boston [ ]. ob. º.) =reserve= reprinted in _the columbian phenix and boston review_, boston, , v. for , p. - , _reserve_. ---- the hamiltoniad. by john williams, (anthony pasquin.) new york: printed for the hamilton club, . p.l., p., port. º. (hamilton club series, no. .) =an (hamilton)= one of octavo copies printed. includes type-facsimile title-page of original which was published in boston, . the library has another copy which is one of quarto copies printed, * _an_. ---- an ode to the union, as recited by the american roscius, [mr. hopkinson] at various theatres on the continent. by anthony pasquin [pseud.]. (in: the columbian phenix and boston review. boston, . º. v. for , p. - .) =reserve= =williams=, roger, - . a key into the language of america: or, an help to the language of the natives in that part of america, called new-england. together, with briefe observations of the customes, manners and worships, &c of the aforesaid natives, in peace and warre, in life and death. on all which are added spirituall observations, general and particular by the authour, of chiefe and speciall use (upon all occasions) to all the english inhabiting those parts; yet pleasant and profitable to the view of all men: by roger williams of providence in new-england. london, printed by gregory dexter, . p.l., ( ) [correctly ( )] p. º. =reserve= p. and wrongly numbered and ; p. - wrongly numbered - . poems on p. , , , - , , , - , , - , , , - , - , - , , , , , , - , , , , , , - , - , - , , , . reprinted in _collections_ of the rhode island historical society, providence, , v. , _iaa_. =wilson=, alexander, - . the foresters: a poem, descriptive of a pedestrian journey to the falls of niagara, in the autumn of . by alexander wilson, author of american ornithology. west chester, pa. printed by joseph painter.-- .-- p.l., ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =wilson=, john, - . a copy of verses made by that reverend man of god mr. john wilson, pastor to the first church in boston; on the sudden death of mr. joseph brisco, who was translated from earth to heaven jan. . . [cambridge? samuel green? ?] broadside. (in: s. a. green, ten fac-simile reproductions relating to new england. boston, . fº.) =reserve= enclosed in mourning borders. photo-facsimile, exact size. ---- [extract from] a poem upon the death of the first and only child of his daughter mrs. danforth. (in: cotton mather, johannes in eremo. boston, . º. p. .) =reserve= ---- in pientissimum, reverendissimumque virum, johannem harvardum, è suggesto sacro caroloensi ad coelos evectum, ad alumnos cantabrienses literatos, poëma. (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º. book iv, p. .) =reserve= also printed in later editions of the _magnalia_ as follows: hartford, , v. , p. , and hartford, , v. , p. . ---- a song of deliverance for the lasting remembrance of gods wonderful works never to be forgotten. containing in it the wonderful defeat of the spanish-armado, anno, . the woful plague, anno, . soon upon the entrance of king james of famous memory, unto the crown of england. with the discovery of the powder plot, anno, . and down fall of black fryers, when an hellish crew of papists met to hear drury a popish priest, an . also the grievous plague, anno . with poems both latin and english, and the verses of that learned theodore beza. by that reverend, and eminent man of god, mr. john wilson, formerly christs faithful shepherd in sudbury, in suffolk in great brittain, where these heavenly poems and spiritual songs were compiled, and at london printed, anno, . since pastor to the first church of christ in boston in new-england. for the sake of several who have much desired to see and read this work it is reprinted.... boston; printed in the year, . p.l. - p. º. =reserve= all pages after p. lacking. =winchester=, elhanan, - . the process and empire of christ; from his birth to the end of the mediatorial kingdom; a poem, in twelve books. by elhanan winchester. brattleboro. printed by william fessenden. . iv, ( ) - p. º. =nbhd= =winslow=, josias. [elegy] on the said william bradford. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= =wolcott=, roger, - . a brief account of the agency of the honourable john winthrop, esq. in the court of king charles the second, anno dom. ; when he obtained a charter for the colony of connecticut. written by roger wolcott, esq. his successor in the government of connecticut, from - . (massachusetts historical society. collections. boston, . º. series , v. , p. - .) =iaa= reprinted from his _poetical meditations, being the improvement of some vacant hours_, new-london, , p. - , _reserve_. ---- the poems of roger wolcott, esq., . boston: the club of odd volumes, . p., l., ii, p., l. sq. º. (the club of odd volumes. early american poetry. [reprints, v.] .) =reserve= no. of one hundred copies on hand-made paper. this is a modern type reprint, page for page, with facsimile title-page, of the next entry. ---- poetical meditations, being the improvement of some vacant hours. by roger wolcott, esq; with a preface by the reverend mr. bulkley of colchester. new-london: printed and sold by t. green, . p.l., lvi, ii, p., l. º. =reserve= for a modern reprint see previous entry. =wood=, william. new englands prospect. a true, lively, and experimentall description of that part of america, commonly called new england: discovering the state of that countrie both as it stands to our new-come english planters; and to the old native inhabitants. laying downe that which may both enrich the knowledge of the mind-travelling reader, or benefit the future voyager. by william wood. printed at london by tho. cotes, for john bellamie, and are to be sold at his shop, at the three golden lyons in cornehill, neere the royall exchange. . p.l., ( ) p., l., map. º. =reserve= poems on p. , , , . =woodbridge=, benjamin, - . upon the tomb of the most reverend mr. john cotton, late teacher of the church of boston in new-england. (in: n. morton, new-englands memoriall. cambridge, . º. p. - .) =reserve= reprinted in cotton mather, _magnalia christi americana_, london, , book , p. - , _reserve_, hartford, , v. , p. - , and hartford, , v. , p. . also printed in e. c. stedman and e. m. hutchinson, _a library of american literature_, new york, , v. , p. - , _nbb_. =woodbridge=, timothy. to the reverend cotton mather on his history of new england. (in: cotton mather, magnalia christi americana. london, . º.) =reserve= also printed in later editions as follows: hartford, , v. , p. , and hartford, , v. , p. . =woodworth=, samuel, - . the poems, odes, songs, and other metrical effusions, of samuel woodworth, author of "the champions of freedom," &c. new-york: published by abraham asten and mathias lopez. . xii, ( ) - p., front. (port.) º. =nbhd= several of woodworth's poems first appeared in _the complete coiffeur_, by j. b. m. d. lafoy, new york, . =wright=, judah. poems on various subjects. by judah wright. boston: printed by samuel avery, no. newbury street. . p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = leaf of errata mounted on verso of title-page. =wright=, n. hill. monody, on the death of brigadier general zebulon montgomery pike: and other poems. by n. hill wright. middlebury, (vt.) printed by slade & ferguson. . p. º. =nbhd= _contents_: monody, p. - .--lines on the battle of the enterprise and boxer, p. - .--the sailor's dying hour, p. - .--ode on the capture of the british frigate java, by the united states' frigate constitution, december , , p. - .--henry and julia, a tale of real life, p. - .--hymn for the anniversary of a charitable institution, p. - .--the slanderer's tomb, p. - .--the power of sympathy, p. - .--the faded rose, p. - .--the hour of rest, p. - .--appeal to the affluent, p. - .--lines addressed to a lady, p. - .--to misfortune, p. - .--lines on seeing a beautiful infant expire in the arms of her mother, p. - .--tribute to the memory of mrs. juliet r*****, p. - .--pity's tear, p. - .--retrospection, p. - .--ode, written for the fourth of july, , p. - .--freedom's natal day, an ode, written for the fourth of july, , p. - . =young=, edward r. one year in savannah; a poem in five parts. [by edward r. young.] providence: printed by brown & danforth. . p. º. =nbh p.v. , no. = a =young= american. _see_ the =battle= of the thames. a =young= gentleman of new york, pseud. miscellaneous works, prose and poetical. _see_ =linn=, john blair. * * * * * transcriber's notes punctuation has been standardized. italic text has been denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps. non-printable superscripts are represented by a caret followed by the character, i.e. x^n. if the superscript is more than one character, they will be placed in {}, i.e. x^{ }. the non-printable characters have been replaced as shown below: 'oe' ligature --> oe 'ue' ligature --> ue names, words, and copyright dates are presented in many styles and spellings, apparently as copied from the individual volumes that were printed at different times and places. these variations have been left unchanged except noted below: alsop - george replaced 'scituation' with 'situation' copyright - inconsistent use of spaces following punctuation in roman numerals has been standardized without spaces for this ebook. fessenden - thomas (---- original poems.) replaced 'authur' with 'author' file was produced from images generously made available by the internet archive.) transcriber's note: this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. italics are delimited with the underscore character as _italic_. bold text is delimited with the equals sign character as =bold=. a short list of scientific books published by e. & f. n. spon, limited a short list of scientific books published by e. & f. n. spon, limited, , haymarket, london, s.w. sole english agents for the books of-- myron c. clark, new york spon & chamberlain, new york contents agriculture architecture artillery aviation bridges and roofs building cement and concrete civil engineering curve tables dictionaries domestic economy drawing earthwork electrical engineering foreign exchange gas and oil engines gas lighting historical: biographical horology hydraulics: pumps industrial chemistry interest tables irrigation logarithm tables marine engineering materials mathematics mechanical engineering metallurgy metric tables mineralogy and mining miscellaneous model making organization physics price books railway engineering sanitation structural design telegraph codes useful tables warming: ventilation water supply workshop practice all books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated. _note: the prices in this catalogue apply to books sold in the united kingdom only._ agriculture =hemp.= a practical treatise on the culture for seed and fibre. by =s. s. boyce=. illus., pp., crown vo. 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(english edition.) proceedings of th congress, _s._ net. proceedings of th congress, _s._ net. transactions of the american institute of chemical engineers. published annually, vo. _s._ net. _printed by_ butler & tanner, _frome and london_. transcriber's notes: missing or obscured punctuation was corrected. typographical errors were silently corrected. english book-illustration of to-day english book-illustration of to-day appreciations of the work of living english illustrators with lists of their books by r. e. d. sketchley with an introduction by alfred w. pollard [illustration] london kegan paul, trench, trÜbner and co., ltd. paternoster house, charing cross road, w.c. chiswick press: charles whittingham and co. tooks court, chancery lane, london. note. the four articles and bibliographies contained in this volume originally appeared in "the library." in connection with the bibliographies, i desire to express cordial thanks to the authorities and attendants of the british museum, without whose courtesy and aid, extending over many weeks, it would have been impossible to bring together the particulars. most of the artists, too, have kindly checked and supplemented the entries relating to their work, but even with the help given me i cannot hope to have produced exhaustive lists. my thanks are due to the publishers with whom arrangements have been made for the use of blocks. r. e. d. sketchley. contents. page note v introduction xi i. some decorative illustrators ii. some open-air illustrators iii. some character illustrators iv. some children's-books illustrators bibliographies. i. some decorative illustrators ii. some open-air illustrators iii. some character illustrators iv. some children's books illustrators index of artists list of illustrations from page "les quinze joies de mariage" xii the "dialogus creaturarum" xiii a venetian chapbook xvii the "rappresentazione di un miracolo del corpo di gesù" xviii the "rappresentazione di s. cristina" xix "la nencia da barberino" xxi the "storia di ippolito buondelmonti e dianora bardi" xxii ingold's "guldin spiel" xxiv the malermi bible xxv a french book of hours xxvii from by "a farm in fairyland." _laurence housman_ xxx grimm's "household stories." _walter crane_ "undine." _heywood sumner_ "keats' poems." _r. anning bell_ "stories and fairy tales." _a. j. gaskin_ "the field of clover." _laurence housman_ and "cupide and psyches." _charles ricketts_ "daphnis and chloe." _charles ricketts and c. h. shannon_ "the centaur." _t. sturge moore_ "royal edinburgh." _sir george reid_ facing "the warwickshire avon." _alfred parsons_ "the cinque ports." _william hyde_ "italian journeys." _joseph pennell_ facing "the holyhead road." _c. g. harper_ "the formal garden." _f. inigo thomas_ "the natural history of selborne." _e. h. new_ "british deer and their horns." _j. g. millais_ "death and the ploughman's wife." _william strang_ "the bride of lammermoor." _fred pegram_ "shirley." _f. h. townsend_ "the heart of midlothian." _claude a. shepperson_ "the school for scandal." _e. j. sullivan_ "the ballad of beau brocade." _hugh thomson_ "the essays of elia." _c. e. brock_ "the talk of the town." _sir harry furniss_ "hermy." _lewis baumer_ "to tell the king the sky is falling." _alice b. woodward_ "fairy tales of the brothers grimm." _arthur rackham_ "indian fairy tales." _j. d. batten_ "the pink fairy book." _h. j. ford_ "fairy tales by q." _h. r. millar_ introduction. some present-day lessons from old woodcuts. by alfred w. pollard. some explanation seems needed for the intrusion of a talk about the woodcuts of the fifteenth century into a book dealing with the work of the illustrators of our own day, and the explanation, though no doubt discreditable, is simple enough. it was to a mere bibliographer that the idea occurred that lists of contemporary illustrated books, with estimates of the work found in them, might form a useful record of the state of english book-illustration at the end of a century in which for the first time (if we stretch the century a little so as to include bewick) it had competed on equal terms with the work of foreign artists. fortunately the bibliographer's scanty leisure was already heavily mortgaged, and so the idea was transferred to a special student of the subject, much better equipped for the task. but partly for the pleasure of keeping a finger in an interesting pie, partly because there was a fine hobby-horse waiting to be mounted, the bibliographer bargained that he should be allowed to write an introduction in which his hobby should have free play, and the reader, who has got a much better book than he was intended to have, must acquiesce in this meddling, or resort to his natural rights and skip. [illustration: from 'les quinze joies de mariage,' paris, treperel, c. .] it is well to ride a hobby with at least a semblance of moderation, and the thesis which this introduction is written to maintain does not assert that the woodcuts of the fifteenth century are better than the illustrations of the present day, only that our modern artists, if they will condescend, may learn some useful lessons from them. at the outset it may frankly be owned that the range of the earliest illustrators was limited. they had no landscape art, no such out-of-door illustrations as those which furnish the subject for one of miss sketchley's most interesting chapters. again, they had little humour, at least of the voluntary kind, though this was hardly their own fault, for as the admission is made the thought at once follows it that of all the many deficiencies of fifteenth-century literature the lack of humour is one of the most striking. the rough horseplay of the life of aesop prefixed to editions of the fables can hardly be counted an exception; the wit combats of solomon and marcolphus produced no more than a title-cut showing king and clown, and outside the 'dialogus creaturarum' i can think of only a single valid exception, itself rather satirical than funny, this curious picture of a family on the move from a french treatise on the joys of marriage. on the 'dialogus' itself it seems fair to lay some stress, for surely the picture here shown of the lion and the hare who applied for the post of his secretary may well encourage us to believe that in two other departments of illustration from which also they were shut out, those of caricature (for which we must go back to thirteenth-century prayer-books) and christmas books for children, the fifteenth-century artist would have made no mean mark. it is, indeed, our children's gift-books that come nearest both to his feeling and his style. [illustration: from the 'dialogus creaturarum.' gouda, .] what remains for us here to consider is the achievement of the early designers and woodcutters in the field of decorative and character illustrations with which miss sketchley deals in her first and third chapters. here the first point to be made is that by an invention of the last twenty years they are brought nearer to the possible work of our own day than to that of any previous time. it has been often enough pointed out that, not from preference, but from inability to devise any better plan, the art of woodcut illustration began on wholly wrong lines. starting, as was inevitable, from the colour-work of illuminated manuscripts, the illustrators could think of no other means of simplification than the reduction of pictures to their outlines. with a piece of plank cut, not across the grain of the wood, but with it, as his material, and a sharp knife and, perhaps, a gouge as his only tools, the woodcutter had to reproduce these outlines as best he could, and it is little to be wondered at if his lines were often scratchy and angular, and many a good design was deplorably ill handled. after a time, soft metal, presumably pewter, was used as an alternative to wood, and perhaps, though probably slower, was a little easier to work successfully. but save in some florentine pictures and a few designs by geoffroy tory, the craftsman's work was not to cut the lines which the artist had drawn, but to cut away everything else. this inverted method of work continued after the invention of crosshatching to represent shading, and was undoubtedly the cause of the rapid supersession of woodcuts by copper engravings during the sixteenth century, the more natural method of work compensating for the trouble caused when the illustrations no longer stood in relief like the type, but had to be printed as incised plates, either on separate leaves, or by passing the sheet through a different press. the eighteenth-century invention of wood-engraving as opposed to woodcutting once again caused pictures and text to be printed together, and the amazing dexterity of successive schools of wood-engravers enabled them to produce, though at the cost of immense labour, work which seemed to compete on equal terms with engravings on copper. at its best the wood-engraving of the nineteenth century was almost miraculously good; at its worst, in the wood-engravings of commerce--the wood-engravings of the weekly papers, for which the artist's drawing might come in on a tuesday, to be cut up into little squares and worked on all night as well as all day, in the engravers' shops--it was unequivocally and deplorably, but hardly surprisingly, bad. upon this strange medley of the miraculously good and the excusably horrid came the invention of the process line-block, and the problem which had baffled so many fifteenth-century woodcutters, of how to preserve the beauty of simple outlines was solved at a single stroke. have our modern artists made anything like adequate use of this excellent invention? my own answer would be that they have used it, skilfully enough, to save themselves trouble, but that its artistic possibilities have been allowed to remain almost unexplored. as for the trouble-saving--and trouble-saving is not only legitimate but commendable--the photographer's camera is the most obliging of craftsmen. only leave your work fairly open and you may draw on as large a scale and with as coarse lines as you please, and the camera will photograph it down for you to the exact space the illustration has to fill and will win you undeserved credit for delicacy and fineness of touch as well. thus to save trouble is well, but to produce beautiful work is better, and what use has been made of the fidelity with which beautiful and gracious line can now be reproduced? the caricaturists, it is true, have seen their opportunity. cleverness could hardly be carried further than it is by mr. phil may, and a caricaturist of another sort, the late mr. aubrey beardsley, degenerate and despicable as was almost every figure he drew, yet saw and used the possibilities which artists of happier temperament have neglected. with all the disadvantages under which they laboured in the reproduction of fine line the craftsmen of venice and florence essayed and achieved more than this. witness the fine rendering into pure line of a picture by gentile bellini of a tall preacher preceded by his little crossbearer in the 'doctrina' of lorenzo giustiniano printed at venice in , or again the impressiveness, surviving even its little touch of the grotesque, of this armed warrior kneeling at the feet of a pope, which i have unearthed from a favourite volume of venetian chapbooks at the british museum. a florentine picture of jacopone da todi on his knees before a vision of the blessed virgin (from bonacorsi's edition of his 'laude,' ) gives another instance of what can be done by simple line in a different style. we have yet other examples in many of the illustrations to the famous romance, the 'hypnerotomachia poliphili,' printed at venice in . of similar cuts on a much smaller scale, a specimen will be given later. here, lest anyone should despise these fifteenth-century efforts, i would once more recall the fact that at the time they were made the execution of such woodcuts required the greatest possible dexterity, in cutting away on each side so as to leave the line as the artist drew it with any semblance of its original grace. in many illustrated books which have come down to us what must have been beautiful designs have been completely spoilt, rendered even grotesque, by the fine curves of the drawing being translated into scratchy angularities. but draw he never so finely no artist nowadays need fear that his work will be made scratchy or angular by photographic process. it is only when he crowds lines together, from inability to work simply, that the process block aggravates his defects. [illustration: la lega facta nouamente a morte e destructione de li franzosi & suoí seguaci. venice. c. .] [illustration: from the rappresentazione di un miracolo del corpo di gesÙ, . jac. chiti.] [illustration: from the rappresentazione di s. cristina, .] i pass on to another point as to which i think the florentine woodcutters have something to teach us. if we put pictures into our books, why should not the pictures be framed? a hard single line round the edge of a woodcut is a poor set-off to it, often conflicting with the lines in the picture itself, and sometimes insufficiently emphatic as a frame to make us acquiesce in what seems a mere cutting away a portion from a larger whole. our florentine friends knew better. here (pp. xiv-xv), for instance, are two scenes, from some unidentified romance, which in and respectively (by which time they must have been about fifty and sixty years old) appeared in florentine religious chapbooks, with which they have nothing to do. the little borders are simple enough, but they are sufficiently heavy to carry off the blacks which the artist (according to what is the true method of woodcutting) has left in his picture, and we are much less inclined to grumble at the window being cut in two than we should be if the cut were made by a simple line instead of quite firmly and with determination by a frame. [illustration: from lorenzo de' medici's la nencia da barberino, s.a.] i have given these two florentine cuts, much the worse for wear though they be, with peculiar pleasure, because i take them to be the exact equivalents of the pictures in our illustrated novels of the present day of which miss sketchley gives several examples in her third paper. they are good examples of what may be called the diffused characterization in which our modern illustrators excel. every single figure is good and has its own individuality, but there is no attempt to illustrate a central character at a decisive moment. decisive moments, it may be objected, do not occur (except for epicures) at polite dinner parties, or during the 'mauvais quart d'heure,' which might very well be the subject of our first picture. but it seems to me that modern illustrators often deliberately shun decisive moments, preferring to illustrate their characters in more ordinary moods, and perhaps the florentines did this also. where the illustrator is not a great artist the discretion is no doubt a wise one. what for instance could be more charming, more completely successful than this little picture of a messenger bringing a lady a flower, no doubt with a pleasing message with it? in our next cut the artist has been much more ambitious. preceded by soldiers with their long spears, followed by the hideously masked 'battuti' who ministered to the condemned, ippolito is being led to execution. as he passes her door, dianora flings herself on him in a last embrace. the lady's attitude is good, but the woodcutter, alas, has made the lover look merely bored. in book-illustration, as in life, who would avoid failure must know his limitations. [illustration: from the storia di ippolito buondelmonti e dianora bardi, s.a.] whatever shortcomings these florentine pictures may have in themselves, or whatever they may lose when examined by eyes only accustomed to modern work, i hope that it will be conceded that as character-illustrations they are far from being despicable. nevertheless the true home of character-illustration in the fifteenth century was rather in germany than in italy. inferior to the italian craftsmen in delicacy and in producing a general impression of grace (partly, perhaps, because their work was intended to be printed in conjunction with far heavier type) the german artists and woodcutters often showed extraordinary power in rendering facial expression. my favourite example of this is a little picture from the 'de claris mulieribus' of boccaccio printed at ulm in , on one side of which the roman general scipio is shown with uplifted finger bidding the craven massinissa put away his carthaginian wife, while on the other sophonisba is watched by a horror-stricken messenger as she drains the poison her husband sends her. but there is a naïveté about the figure of scipio which has frequently provoked laughter from audiences at lantern-lectures, so my readers must look up this illustration for themselves at the british museum, or elsewhere. i fall back on a picture of a card-party from a 'guldin spiel' printed at augsburg in , in which the hesitation of the woman whose turn it is to play, the rather supercilious interest of her vis-à-vis, and the calm confidence of the third hand, not only ready to play his best, but sure that his best will be good enough, are all shown with absolute simplicity, but in a really masterly manner. facial expression such as this in modern work seems entirely confined to children's books and caricature, but one would sacrifice a good deal of our modern prettiness for a few more touches of it. [illustration: from ingold's 'guldin spiel.' augsburg, .] the last point to which i would draw attention is that a good deal more use might be made of quite small illustrations. the full-pagers are, no doubt, impressive and dignified, but i always seem to see written on the back of them the artist's contract to supply so many drawings of such and such size at so many guineas apiece, and to hear him groaning as he runs through his text trying to pick out the full complement of subjects. the little sketch is more popular in france than in england, and there is a suggestion of joyous freedom about it which is very captivating. such small pictures did not suit the rather heavy touch of the german woodcutters; in italy they were much more popular. at venice a whole series of large folio books were illustrated in this way in the last decade of the fifteenth century, two editions of malermi's translation of the bible, lives of the saints, an italian livy, the decamerone of boccaccio, the novels of masuccio, and other works, all in the vernacular. at ferrara, under venetian influence, an edition of the epistles of s. jerome was printed in , with upwards of one hundred and eighty such little cuts, many of them illustrating incidents of monastic life. both at venice and ferrara the cuts are mainly in outline, and when they are well cut and two or three come together on a page the effect is delightful. in france the vogue of the small cut took a very special form. by far the most famous series of early french illustrated books is that of the hours of the blessed virgin (with which went other devotions, making fairly complete prayer-books for lay use), which were at their best for some fifteen years reckoning from . these hour-books usually contained some fifteen large illustrations, but their most notable features are to be found in the borders which surround every page. on the outer and lower margins these borders are as a rule about an inch broad, sometimes more, so that they can hold four or five little pictures of about an inch by an inch and a half on the outer margin, and one rather larger one at the foot of the page. the variety of the pictures designed to fill these spaces is almost endless. figures of the saints and their emblems and illustrations of the games or occupations suited to each month fill the margins of the calendar. to surround the text of the book there is a long series of pictures of incidents in the life of christ, with parallel scenes from the old testament, scenes from the lives of joseph and job, representations of the virtues, the deadly sins being overcome by the contrary graces, the dance of death, and for pleasant relief woodland and pastoral scenes and even grotesques. the popularity of these prayer-books was enormous, new editions being printed almost every month, with the result that the illustrations were soon worn out and had frequently to be replaced. i have often wished, if only for the sake of small children in sermon time, that our english prayer-books could be similarly illustrated. an attempt to do this was made in the middle of the last century, but it was pretentious and unsuccessful. the great difficulty in the way of a new essay lies in the popularity of very small prayer-books, with so little margin and printed on such thin paper as hardly to admit of border cuts. the difficulty is real, but should not be insuperable, and i hope that some bold illustrator may soon try his hand afresh. [illustration: from the malermi bible. venice, giunta, .] [illustration: from a french book of hours. paris, kerver, .] i should not be candid if i closed this paper without admitting that my fifteenth-century friends anticipated modern publishers in one of their worst faults, the dragging in illustrations where they are not wanted. in the fifteenth century the same cuts were repeated over and over again in the same book to serve for different subjects. modern publishers are not so simple-hearted as this, but they add to the cost of their books by unpleasant half-tone reproductions of unnecessary portraits and views, and i do not think that book-buyers are in the least grateful to them. miss sketchley, i am glad to see, has not concerned herself with illustrators whose designs require to be produced by the half-tone process. to condemn this process unreservedly would be absurd. it gives us illustrations which are really needed for the understanding of the text when they could hardly be produced in any other way, and while it does this it must be tolerated. but by necessitating the use of heavily-loaded paper--unpleasant to the touch, heavy in the hand, doomed, unless all the chemists are wrong, speedily to rot--it is the greatest danger to the excellence of our english book-work which has at present to be faced, while by wearying readers with endless mechanically produced pictures it is injurious also to the best interests of artistic illustration. [illustration: from mr. housman's "a farm in fairyland." by leave of messrs. kegan paul.] english book-illustration of to-day. i. some decorative illustrators. of the famous 'poems by alfred tennyson,' published in by edward moxon, mr. gleeson white wrote in : 'the whole modern school of decorative illustrators regard it, rightly enough, as the genesis of the modern movement.' the statement may need some modification to touch exact truth, for the 'modern movement' is no single-file, straightforward movement. 'kelmscott,' 'japan,' the 'yellow book,' black-and-white art in germany, in france, in spain, in america, the influence of blake, the style of artists such as walter crane, have affected the present form of decorative book-illustration. such perfect unanimity of opinion as is here ascribed to a large and rather indefinitely related body of men hardly exists among even the smallest and most derided body of artists. still, allowing for the impossibility of telling the whole truth about any modern and eclectic form of art in one sentence, there is here a statement of fact. what rossetti and millais and holman hunt achieved in the drawings to the 'tennyson' of , was a vital change in the intention of english illustrative art, and whatever form decorative illustration may assume, their ideal is effective while a personal interpretation of the spirit of the text is the creative impulse. the influence of technical mastery is strong and enduring enough. it is constantly in sight and constantly in mind. but it is in discovering and making evident a principle in art that the influence of spirit on spirit becomes one of the illimitable powers. to rossetti the illustration of literature meant giving beautiful form to the expression of delight, of penetration, that had kindled his imagination as he read. he illustrated the 'palace of art' in the spirit that stirred him to rhythmic translation into words of the still music in giorgione's 'pastoral,' or of the unpassing movement of mantegna's 'parnassus.' not the words of the text, nor those things precisely affirmed by the writer, but the spell of significance and of beauty that held his mind to the exclusion of other images, gave him inspiration for his drawings. as mr. william michael rossetti says: 'he drew just what he chose, taking from his author's text nothing more than a hint and an opportunity.' it is said, indeed, that tennyson could never see what the st. cecily drawing had to do with his poem. and that is strange enough to be true. it is clear that such an ideal of illustration is for the attainment of a few only. the ordinary illustrator, making drawings for cheap reproduction in the ordinary book, can no more work in this mood than the journalist can model his style on the prose of milton. but journalism is not literature, and pictured matter-of-fact is not illustration, though it is convenient and customary to call it so. however, here one need not consider this, for the decorative illustrator has usually literature to illustrate, and a commission to be beautiful and imaginative in his work. he has the opportunity of rossetti, the opportunity for significant art. the 'classics' and children's books give greatest opportunity to decorative illustrators. those who have illustrated children's books chiefly, or whose best work has been for the playful classics of literature, it is convenient to consider in a separate chapter, though there are instances where the division is not maintainable: walter crane, for example, whose influence on a school of decorative design makes his position at the head of his following imperative. representing the 'architectural' sense in the decoration of books, many years before the supreme achievements of william morris added that ideal to generally recognized motives of book-decoration, walter crane is the precursor of a large and prolific school of decorative illustrators. many factors, as he himself tells, have gone to the shaping of his art. born in at liverpool, he came to london in , and there after two years was 'apprenticed' to mr. w. j. linton, the well-known wood-engraver. his work began with 'the sixties,' in contact with the enthusiasm and inspiration those years brought into english art. the illustrated 'tennyson,' and ruskin's 'elements of drawing,' were in his thoughts before he entered mr. linton's workshop, and the 'once a week' school had a strong influence on his early contributions to 'good words,' 'once a week,' and other famous magazines. in messrs. warne published the first toy-book, and by - the 'walter crane toy-book' was a fact in art. the sight of some japanese colour-prints during these years suggested a finer decorative quality to be obtained with tint and outline, and in the use of black, as well as in a more delicate simplicity of colour, the later toy-books show the first effect of japanese art on the decorative art of england. italian art in england and italy, the prints of dürer, the parthenon sculptures, these were influences that affected him strongly. 'the baby's opera' ( ) and 'the baby's bouquet' ( ) are classics almost impossible to criticise, classics familiar from cover to cover before one was aware of any art but the art on their pages. so that if these delightful designs seem less expressive of the greece, germany, and italy of the supreme artists than of the 'crane' countries by whose coasts ships 'from over the sea' go sailing by with strange cargoes and strange crews, it is not in their dispraise. as a decorative draughtsman mr. crane is at his best when the use of colour gives clearness to the composition, but some of his most 'serious' work is in the black-and-white pages of 'the sirens three,' of 'the shepheardes calendar,' and especially of 'the faerie queene.' the number of books he has illustrated--upwards of seventy--makes a detailed account impossible. nursery rhyme and fairy books, children's stories, spenser, shakespeare, the myths of greece, 'pageant books' such as 'flora's feast' or 'queen summer,' or the just published 'masque of days,' his own writings, serious or gay, have given him subjects, as the great art of all times has touched the ideals of his art. [illustration: from mr. walter crane's 'grimm's household stories.' by leave of messrs. macmillan.] but whatever the subject, how strong soever his artistic admirations, he is always walter crane, unmistakable at a glance. knights and ladies, fairies and fairy people, allegorical figures, nursery and school-room children, fulfil his decorative purpose without swerving, though not always without injury to their comfort and freedom and the life in their limbs. an individual apprehension that sees every situation as a conventional 'arrangement' is occasionally beside the mark in rendering real life. but when his theme touches imagination, and is not a supreme expression of it--for then, as in the illustrations to 'the faerie queene,' an unusual sense of subservience appears to dull his spirit--his humorous fancy knows no weariness nor sameness of device. the work of most of mr. crane's followers belongs to 'the nineties,' when the 'arts and crafts' movement, the 'century guild,' the birmingham and other schools had attracted or produced artists working according to the canons of kelmscott. mr. heywood sumner was earlier in the field. the drawings to 'sintram' ( ) and to 'undine' ( ) show his art as an illustrator. undine--spirit of wind and water, flower-like in gladness--seeking to win an immortal soul by submission to the forms of life, is realized in the gracefully designed figures of frontispiece and title-page. where mr. sumner illustrates incident he is 'factual' without being matter-of-fact. the small drawing reproduced is hardly representative of his art, but most of his work is adapted to a squarer page than this, and has had to be rejected on that account. some of the most apt decorations in 'the english illustrated' were by mr. sumner, and during the time when art was represented in the magazine mr. ryland and mr. louis davis were also frequent contributors. the graceful figures of mr. ryland, uninterested in activity, a garden-world set with statues around them, and the carol-like grace of mr. davis's designs in that magazine, represent them better than the one or two books they have illustrated. [illustration: from mr. heywood sumner's 'undine.' by leave of messrs. chapman and hall.] among those associated with the 'arts and crafts' who have given more of their art to book-decoration, mr. anning bell is first. he has gained the approval even of the most exigent of critics as an artist who understands drawing for process. since , when the 'midsummer night's dream' appeared, his winning art has been praised with discrimination and without discrimination, but always praised. trained in an architect's office, widely known as the recreator of coloured relief for architectural decoration, mr. anning bell's illustrations show constructive power no less than that fairy gift of seeming to improvise without labour and without hesitancy, which is one of its especial charms. in feeling, and in many of his decorative forms, his drawings recall the art of florentine bas-relief, when agostino di duccio, or rossellino or mino da fiesole, created shapes of delicate sweetness, pure, graceful--so graceful that their power is hardly realized. the fairy by-play of the 'midsummer night's dream' is exactly to mr. anning bell's fancy. he knows better than to go about to expound this dream, and it is not likely that a more delightful edition will ever be put into the hands of children, or of anyone, than this in the white and gold cover devised by the artist. of his illustrations to the 'poems by john keats' ( ), and to the 'english lyrics from spenser to milton' of the following year--as illustrations--not quite so much can be said, distinguished and felicitous as many of them are. the simple profile, the demure type of beauty that he affects, hardly suit with isabella when she hears that lorenzo has gone from her, with lamia by the clear pool "wherein she passionëd to see herself escaped from so sore ills," or with madeline, 'st. agnes' charmëd maid.' mr. anning bell's drawings to 'the pilgrim's progress' ( ) reveal him in a different mood, as do those in 'the christian year' of three years earlier. his vision is hardly energetic enough, his energy of belief sufficient, to make him a strong illustrator of bunyan, with his many moods, his great mood. a little these designs suggest howard pyle, and anning bell is better in a way of beauty not gothic. [illustration: from mr. anning bell's 'keats.' by leave of messrs. george bell.] so if mr. anning bell represents the 'arts and crafts' movement in the variety of decorative arts he has practised, and in the architectural sense underlying all his art, his work does not agree with the form in which the influence of william morris on decorative illustration has chiefly shown itself. that form, of course, is gothic, as the ideal of kelmscott was gothic. the work of the 'century guild' artists as decorative illustrators is chiefly in the pages of 'the hobby horse.' mr. selwyn image and mr. herbert horne can hardly be included among book illustrators, so in this connection one may not stop to consider the decorative strength of their ideal in art. the birmingham school represents gothic ideals with determination and rigidity. morris addressed the students of the school and prefaced the edition of 'good king wenceslas,' decorated and engraved and printed by mr. a. j. gaskin 'at the press of the guild of handicraft in the city of birmingham,' with cordial words of appreciation for the pictures. these illustrations are among the best mr. gaskin has done. the commission for twelve full-page drawings to 'the shepheardes calendar' (kelmscott press, ) marks morris's pleasure in mr. gaskin's work--especially in the illustrations to andersen's 'stories and fairy tales.' if not quite in tune with spenser's elizabethan idyllism, these drawings are distinctive of the definite convictions of the artist. [illustration: from mr. gaskin's 'hans andersen.' by leave of mr. george allen.] these convictions represent a splendid tradition. they are expressive, in their regard for the unity of the page, for harmony between type and decoration, of the universal truth in all fine bookmaking. only at times, birmingham work seems rather heavy in spirit, rather too rigid for development. still, judging by results, a code that would appear to be against individual expression is inspiring individual artists. some of these--as mr. e. h. new--have turned their attention to architectural and 'open-air' illustration, in which connection their work will be considered, and many have illustrated children's books. their quaint and naïve fancy has there, at times, produced a portentous embodiment of the 'old-fashioned' child of fiction. mr. gere, though he has done little book-illustration, is one of the strongest artists of the school. his original wood engravings show unmistakably his decorative power and his craftsmanship. with mr. k. fairfax muckley he was responsible for 'the quest' ( - ). mr. fairfax muckley has illustrated and decorated a three-volume edition of 'the faerie queene' ( ), wherein the forest branches and winding ways of woodland and of plain are more happily conventionalized than are spenser's figures. some of the headpieces are especially successful. the artist uses the 'mixed convention' of solid black and line with less confusion than many modern draughtsmen. once its dangers must have been evident, but now the puzzle pattern, with solid blacks in the foreground, background, and mid-distance--only there is no distance in these drawings--is a common form of black and white. miss celia levetus, mr. henry payne, mr. f. mason, and mr. bernard sleigh, are also to the credit of the school. miss levetus, in her later work, shows that an inclination towards a more flexible style is not incompatible with the training in gothic convention. mr. mason's illustrations to ancient romances of chivalry give evidence of conscientious craftsmanship, and of a spirit sympathetic to themes such as 'renaud of montauban.' mr. bernard sleigh's original wood-engravings are well known and justly appreciated. strong in tradition and logic as is the work of these designers, it is, for many, too consistent with convention to be delightful. perhaps the best result of the birmingham school will hardly be achieved until the formal effect of its training is less patent. the 'sixties' might have been void of art, so far as these designers are concerned, save that in those days morris and burne-jones and walter crane, as well as millais and houghton and sandys, were about their work. far other is the case with artists such as mr. byam shaw, or with the many draughtsmen, including messrs. p. v. woodroffe, henry ospovat, philip connard, and herbert cole, whose art derives its form and intention from the sixties. differing in technical power and fineness of invention, in all that distinguishes good from less good, they have this in common--that the form of their art would have been quite other if the illustrated books of that period were among things unseen. mr. byam shaw began his work as an illustrator in with a volume of 'browning's poems,' edited by dr. garnett. he proved himself in these drawings, as in his pictures and later illustrations, an artist with a definite memory for the forms, and a genuine sympathy with the aims of pre-raphaelite art. evidently, too, he admires the black-and-white of mr. abbey. he has the gift of dramatic conception, sees a situation at high pitch, and has a pleasant way of giving side-lights, pictorial asides, by means of decorative head and tailpieces. his illustrations to the little green and gold volumes of the 'chiswick shakespeare' are more emphatic than his earlier work, and in the decorations his power of summarizing the chief motive is put to good use. there is no need of his signature to distinguish the work of byam shaw, though he shows himself under the influence of various masters. probably he is only an illustrator of books by the way, but in the meantime, as the 'boccaccio,' 'browning,' and 'shakespeare' drawings show, he works in black and white with vigorous intention. mr. ospovat's illustrations to 'shakespeare's sonnets' and to 'matthew arnold's poems' are interesting, if not very markedly his own. he illustrates the sonnets as a celebration of a poet's passion for his mistress. as in these, so in the matthew arnold drawings, he shows some genuine creative power and an aptitude for illustrative decoration. mr. philip connard has made spirited and well-realized illustrations in somewhat the same kind; miss amelia bauerle, and mr. bulcock, who began by illustrating 'the blessed damozel' in memory of rossetti, have made appearance in the 'flowers of parnassus' series, and mr. herbert cole, with three of these little green volumes, prepared one for more important work in 'gulliver's travels' ( ). the work of mr. woodroffe was, i think, first seen in the 'quarto'--the organ of the slade school--where also mr. a. garth jones, mr. cyril goldie, and mr. robert spence, gave unmistakable evidence of individuality. mr. woodroffe's wood-engravings in the 'quarto' showed strength, which is apparent, too, in the delicately characterized figures to 'songs from shakespeare's plays' ( ), with their borders of lightly-strung field flowers. his drawings to 'the confessions of s. augustine,' engraved by miss clemence housman, are in keeping with the text, not impertinent. mr. a. garth jones in the 'quarto' seemed much influenced by japanese grotesques; but in illustrations to milton's 'minor poems' ( ) he has shown development towards the expression of beauty more austere, classical, controlled to the presentment of milton's high thought. his recent 'essays of elia' remind one of the forcible work of mr. e. j. sullivan in 'sartor resartus.' mr. sullivan's 'sartor' and 'dream of fair women' must be mentioned. his mastery over an assertive use of line and solid black, the unity of his effects, the humour and imagination of his decorative designs, are not likely to be forgotten, though the balance of his work in illustrations to sheridan, marryat, sir walter scott, obliges one to class him with "character" illustrators, and so to leave a blank in this article. mr. laurence housman stands alone among modern illustrators, though one may, if one will, speak of him as representing the succession of the sixties, or as connected with the group of artists whose noteworthy development dates from the publication of 'the dial' by charles ricketts and charles shannon in . to look at mr. housman's art in either connection, or to record the effect of dürer, of blake, of edward calvert, on his technique, is only to come back to appreciation of all that is his own. as an illustrator he has hardly surpassed the spirit of the 'forty-four designs, drawn and written by laurence housman,' that express his idea of george meredith's 'jump to glory jane' ( ). these designs were the result of the appreciation which the editor, mr. harry quilter, felt for mr. housman's drawings to 'the green gaffer' in 'the universal review.' jane--the village woman with 'wistful eyes in a touching but bony face,' leaping with countenance composed, arms and feet 'like those who hang,' leaping in crude expression of the unity of soul and body, making her converts, failing to move the bishop, dying at last, though not ingloriously, by the wayside--this most difficult conception has no 'burlesque outline' in mr. housman's work, inexperienced and unacademic as is the drawing. 'weird tales from northern seas,' by jonas lie, was the next book illustrated by mr. housman. christina rossetti's 'goblin market' ( ), offered greater scope for freakish imagination than did 'jane.' the goblins, pale-eyed, mole and rat and weasel-faced; the sisters, whose simple life they surround with hideous fantasy, are realized in harmony with the unique effect of the poem--an effect of simplicity, of naïve imagination, of power, of things stranger than are told in the cry of the goblin merchants, as at evening time they invade quiet places to traffic with their evil fruits for the souls of maidens. the frail-bodied elves of 'the end of elfin town,' moving and sleeping among the white mushrooms and slender stalks of field flowers, are of another land than that of the goblin merchant-folk. illustrations to 'the imitation of christ,' to 'the sensitive plant,' and drawings to 'the were-wolf,' by miss clemence housman, complete the list of mr. housman's illustrations to writings not his own, with the exception of frontispiece drawings to several books. [illustration: mercury god of merchandise look on with favourable eyes by leave of messrs. kegan paul.] to explain mr. housman's vision of 'the sensitive plant' would be as superfluous as it would be ineffectual. in a note on the illustrations he has told how the formal beauty, the exquisite ministrations, the sounds and fragrance and sweet winds of the garden enclosed, seem to him as 'a form of beauty that springs out of modes and fashions,' too graceful to endure. in his pictures he has realized the perfect ensemble of the garden, its sunny lawns and rose-trellises, its fountains, statues, and flower-sweet ways; realized, too, the spirit of the sensitive plant, the lady of the garden, and pan, the great god who never dies, who waits only without the garden, till in a little while he enters, 'effacing and replacing with his own image and superscription, the parenthetic grace ... of the garden deity.' of a talent that treats always of enchanted places, where 'reality' is a long day's journey down a dusty road, it is difficult to speak without suggesting that it is all just a charming dalliance with pretty fancies, lacking strength. of the strength of mr. housman's imagination, however, his work speaks. his illustrations to his own writings, fairy tales, and poems, cannot with any force be discussed by themselves. the words belong to the pictures, the pictures to the words. the drawings to 'the field of clover' are seen to full advantage in the wood-engravings of miss housman. only so, or in reproduction by photogravure, is the full intention of mr. housman's pen-drawings apparent. [illustration: the field of clover by laurence housman, engraved by clemence housman be kindly to the weary drover & pipe the sheep into the clover by leave of messrs. kegan paul.] one may group the names of charles ricketts, c. h. shannon, t. sturge moore, lucien pissarro, and reginald savage together in memory of 'the dial,' where the activity of five original artists first became evident, though, save in the case of mr. ricketts and mr. shannon, no continuance of the classification is possible. the first number of 'the dial' ( ) had a cover design cut on wood by mr. c. h. shannon--afterwards replaced by the design of mr. ricketts. twelve designs by mr. ricketts may be said to represent the transitional--or a transitional--phase of his art, from the earlier work in magazines, which he disregards, to the reticent expression of 'vale press' illustrations. in the first book decorated by these artists appeared, 'the house of pomegranates,' by oscar wilde. there was, however, nothing in this book to suggest the form their joint talent was to take. many delightful designs by mr. ricketts, somewhat marred by heaviness of line, and full-page illustrations by mr. shannon, printed in an almost invisible, nondescript colour, contained no suggestion of 'daphnis and chloe.' the second 'dial'( ) contained mr. ricketts' first work as his own wood-engraver, and in the following year the result of eleven months' joint work by mr. ricketts and mr. shannon was shown in the publication of 'daphnis and chloe,' with thirty-seven woodcuts by the artists. fifteen of the pictures were sketched by mr. shannon and revised and drawn on the wood by mr. ricketts, who also engraved the initials. it is a complete achievement of individuality subordinated to an ideal. here and there one can affirm that mr. shannon drew this figure, composed this scene, mr. ricketts that; but generally the hand is not to be known. the ideal of their inspiration--the immortal 'hypnerotomachia'--seems equally theirs, equally potent over their individuality. speaking with diffidence, it would seem as though mr. shannon's idea of the idyll were more naïve and humorous. incidents beside the main theme of the pastoral loves of young daphnis and chloe--the household animals, other shepherds--are touched with humorous intent. mr. ricketts shows more suavity, and, as in the charming double-page design of the marriage feast, a more lyrical realization of delight and shepherd joys. the 'hero and leander' of is a less elaborate, and, on the whole, a finer production. i must speak of the illustrations only, lest consideration of vale press publications should fill the remaining space at my disposal. obviously the attenuated type of these figures shows mr. ricketts' ideal of the human form as a decoration for a page of type. the severe reticence he imposes on himself is in order to maintain the balance between illustrations and text. one has only to turn to illustrations to lord de tabley's 'poems,' published in , to see with what eager imagination he realizes a subject, how strong a gift he has for dramatic expression. that a more persuasive beauty of form was once his wont, much of his early and transitional work attests. but i do not think his power to achieve beauty need be defended. after the publication of 'hero and leander,' mr. shannon practically ceased wood-engraving for the illustration of books, though, as the series of roundel designs in the recent exhibition of his work proved, he has not abandoned nor ceased to go forward in the art. [illustration: from mr. ricketts' 'cupide and psyches.' reproduced by his permission.] [illustration: of the apparition of the three nymphs to daphnis in a dream. from messrs. ricketts and shannon's 'daphnis and chloe.' (mathews and lane.) reproduced by their leave and the publishers'.] 'the sphinx,' a poem by oscar wilde, 'built, decorated and bound' by mr. ricketts--but without woodcuts--was published in , just after 'hero and leander,' and designs for a magnificent edition of 'the king's quhair' were begun. some of these are in 'the dial,' as are also designs for william adlington's translation of 'cupide and psyches' in 'the pageant,' 'the dial,' and 'the magazine of art.' the edition of the work published by the new vale press in , is not that projected at this time. it contains roundel designs in place of the square designs first intended. these roundels are, i think, the finest achievement of mr. ricketts as an original wood-engraver. the engraving reproduced shows of what quality are both line and form, how successful is the placing of the figure within the circle. on the page they are what the artist would have them be. with the beginning of the sequence of later vale press books--books printed from founts designed by mr. ricketts--a consecutive account is impossible, but the frontispiece to the 'milton' and the borders and initials designed by mr. ricketts, must be mentioned. as a designer of book-covers only one failure is set down to mr. ricketts, and that was ten years ago, in the cover to 'the house of pomegranates.' mr. reginald savage's illustrations to some tales from wagner lack the force of designs in 'the pageant,' and of woodcuts in essex house publications. of m. lucien pissarro, in an article overcrowded with english illustrators, i cannot speak. his fame is in france as the forerunner of his art, and we in england know his coloured wood-engravings, his designs for 'the book of ruth and esther' and for 'the queen of the fishes,' printed at his press at epping, but included among vale press books. [illustration: from mr. sturge moore's 'the centaur.' reproduced by permission of mr. ricketts.] 'the centaur,' 'the bacchant,' 'the metamorphoses of pan,' 'siegfried'--young siegfried, wood-nurtured, untamed, setting his lusty strength against the strength of the brutes, hearing the bird-call then, and following the white bird to issues remote from savage life--these are subjects realized by the imagination of mr. t. sturge moore. there are few artists illustrating books to-day whose work is more unified, imaginatively and technically. it is some years since first mr. moore's wood-engravings attracted notice in 'the dial' and 'the pageant,' and the latest work from his graver--finer, more rhythmic in composition though it be--shows no change in ideals, in the direction of his talent. he has said, i think, that the easiest line for the artist is the true basis of that artist's work, and it would seem as though much deliberation in finding that line for himself had preceded any of the work by which he is known. the wood-engraving of mr. sturge moore is of some importance. always the true understanding of his material, the unhesitating realization of his subject, combine to produce the effect of inevitable line and form, of an inevitable setting down of forms in expression of the thought within. only that gives the idea of formality, and mr. moore's art handles the strong impulse of the wild creatures of earth, of the solitary creatures, mighty and terrible, haunting the desert places and fearing the order men make for safety. designs to wordsworth's 'poems,' not yet published, represent with innate perception the earth-spirit as wordsworth knew it, when the great mood of 'impassioned contemplation' came upon his careful spirit, when his heart leapt up, or when, wandering beneath the wind-driven clouds of march, at sight of daffodils, he lost his loneliness. 'the evergreen,' that 'northern seasonal,' represented the pictorial outlook of an interesting group of artists--robert burns, andrew k. womrath, john duncan, and james cadenhead, for example--and the racial element, as well as their own individuality, distinguishes the work of mr. w. b. macdougall and mr. j. j. guthrie of 'the elf.' mr. macdougall has been known as a book-illustrator since , when 'the book of ruth,' with decorated borders showing the fertility of his designing power, and illustrations that were no less representative of a unique use of material, appeared. the conventionalized landscape backgrounds, the long, straightly-draped women, seemed strange enough as a reading of the hebrew pastoral, with its close kinship to the natural life of the free children of earth. their unimpassioned faces, unspontaneous gestures, the artificiality of the whole impression, were undoubtedly a new reading of the ancient charm of the story. two books in , and 'isabella' and 'the shadow of love,' , showed beyond doubt that the manner was not assumed, that it was the expression of mr. macdougall's sense of beauty. the decorations to 'isabella' are more elaborate than to 'ruth,' and inventive handling of natural forms is as marked. again, the faces are de-characterized in accordance with the desire to make the whole figure the symbol of passion, and that without emphasis. mr. j. j. guthrie is hardly among book-illustrators, since 'wedding bells' of does not represent mr. guthrie, nor does the child's book of the following year, while the illustrations to edgar allan poe's 'poems' are still, i think, being issued from the pear tree press in single numbers. his treatment of landscape is inventive, his rhythmic arrangements, his effects of white line on black, are based on a real sense of the beauty of earth, of tall trees and wooded hills, of mysterious moon-brightness and shade in the leafy depths of the woodlands. mr. granville fell made his name known in by his illustrations to 'the book of job.' in careful detail, drawn with fidelity, never obtrusive, his art is pre-raphaelite. he touches japanese ideals in the rendering of flower-growth and animals, but the whole effect of his decorative illustrations is far enough away from the art of japan. in the 'book of job' he had a subject sufficient to dwarf a very vital imaginative sense by its grandeur. in the opinion of competent critics mr. granville fell proved more than the technical distinction of his work by the manner in which he fulfilled his purpose. the solid black and white, the definite line of these drawings, were laid aside for the sympathetic medium of pencil in 'the song of solomon' ( ). again, his conception is invariably dramatic, and never crudely dramatic, robust, with no trace of morbid or sentimental thought about it. the garden, the wealth of vineyard and of royal pleasure ground, is used as a background to comely and gracious figures. his other work, illustrative of children's books and of legend, the cover and title-page to mr. w. b. yeats's 'poems,' shows the same definite yet restrained imagination. mr. patten wilson is somewhat akin to mr. granville fell in the energy and soundness of his conceptions. each of these artists is, as we know, a colourist, delighting in brilliant and iridescent colour-schemes, yet in black and white they do not seek to suggest colour. mr. patten wilson's illustrations to coleridge's 'poems' have the careful fulness of drawings well thought out, and worked upon with the whole idea realised in the imagination. he has observed life carefully for the purposes of his art. but it is rather in rendering the circumstance of poems, such as 'the ancient mariner,' or, in a chaucer illustration--constance on the lonely ship--that he shows his grasp of the subject, than by any expression of the spiritual terror or loneliness of the one living man among the dead, the solitary woman on strange seas. few decorative artists habitually use 'wash' rather than line. among these, however, is mr. weguelin, who has illustrated anacreon in a manner to earn the appreciation of greek scholars, and his illustrations to hans andersen have had a wider and not less appreciative reception. his drawings have movement and atmosphere. mr. w. e. f. britten also uses this medium with fluency, as is shown by his successful illustrations to mr. swinburne's 'carols of the year' in the 'magazine of art' in - . since that time his version of 'undine,' and illustrations to tennyson's 'early poems,' have shown the same power of graceful composition and sympathy with his subject. ii. some open-air illustrators. open-air illustration is less influenced by the tradition of rossetti and of the romanticists of 'the sixties' than any other branch of illustrative art. the reason is obvious. of all illustrators, the illustrator of open-air books has least concern with the interpretation of literature, and is most concerned with recording facts from observation. it is true that usually he follows where a writer goes, and studies garden, village or city, according to another man's inclination. but the road they take, the cities and wayside places, are as obvious to the one as to the other. the artist has not to realize the personal significance of beauty conceived by another mind; he has to set down in black and white the aspect of indisputable cities and palaces and churches, of the actual highways and gardens of earth. no fugitive light, but the light of common day shows him his subject. so, although stevenson's words, that reaching romantic art one becomes conscious of the background, are completely true in application to the drawings of rossetti, of millais, sandys and houghton, these 'backgrounds' have had no traceable effect on modern open-air illustration. nor are the landscape drawings in works such as 'wayside poesies,' or 'pictures of english landscape,' at the beginning of the style or styles--formal or picturesque--most in vogue at present. birket foster has no followers; the pensive landscape is not suited to holiday excursion books; and, though mr. j. w. north is among artists of to-day, as a book-illustrator he has unfortunately added little to his fine record of landscape drawings made between and . one cannot include his work in a study of contemporary illustration, though it is a pleasure passed over to leave unconsidered drawings that in 'colour,' in effects of winter-weather, of leaf-thrown light and shade amid summer woods and over the green lanes of english country, are delightfully remote from obvious and paragraphic habits of rendering facts. with few exceptions the open-air illustrators of to-day began their work and took their place in public favour, and in the estimation of critics, after . mr. joseph pennell, it is true, had been making sketches in england, in france, and in italy for some years; mr. railton had made some preliminary illustrations; mr. alfred parsons illustrated 'old songs' with mr. abbey in ; and mr. fulleylove contributed to 'the picturesque mediterranean,' and published his 'oxford' drawings, in the same year. still, with a little elasticity, 'the nineties' covers the past activity of these men. the only important exception is sir george reid, president of the royal scottish academy, much of whose illustrative work belongs to the years prior to . the one subject for regret in connection with sir george reid's landscape illustrations is that the chapter is closed. he makes no more drawings with pen-and-ink, and the more one is content with those he has made, the less does the quantity seem sufficient. those who know only the portraits on which sir george reid's reputation is firmly based will find in his landscape illustrations a new side to his art. here, as in portraiture, he sees distinctly and records without prejudice the characteristics of his subject. he renders what he sees, and he knows how to see. his conception being clear to himself, he avoids vagueness and obscurity, finding, with apparent ease, plain modes of expression. a straight observer of men and of the country-side, there is this directness and perspicuity about his work, whether he paints a portrait, or makes pen-drawings of the village worthies of 'pyketillim' parish, or draws pyketillim kirk, small and white and plain, with the sparse trees beside it, or great river or city of his native land. but in these pen-stroke landscapes, while the same clear-headed survey, the same logical record of facts, is to be observed as in his work as a portrait painter, there is besides a charm of manner that brings the indefinable element into one's appreciation of excellent work. of course this is not to estimate these drawings above the portraits of sir george reid. that would be absurd. but he draws a country known to him all his life, and unconsciously, from intimate memory, he suggests more than actual observation would discover. this identification of past knowledge with the special scrutiny of a subject to be rendered is not usually possible in portraiture. the 'portrait in-time' is a question of occasion as well as of genius. the first book in which his inimitable pen-drawing of landscape can be properly studied is the illustrated edition of 'johnny gibb of gushetneuk, in the parish of pyketillim,' published in . here the illustrations are facsimile reproductions by amand-durand's heliogravure process, and their delicacy is perfectly seen. these drawings are of the aberdeenshire country-folk and country, the native land of the artist; though, as a lad in aberdeen, practising lithography by day, and seizing opportunities for independent art when work was over, the affairs and doings of gushetneuk, of smiddyward, of pyketillim, or the quiet of benachie when the snow lies untrodden on its slopes, were things outside the city of work. it is as difficult to praise these drawings intelligibly to those who have not seen them, as it is unnecessary to enforce their charm on those who have. unfortunately, a reproduction of one of them is not possible, and admirable as is the drawing from 'royal edinburgh,' it is in subject and in treatment distinct from the 'gushetneuk' and 'north of scotland' illustrations. the 'twelve sketches of scenery and antiquities on the great north of scotland railway,' issued in , were made in , and have the same characteristics as the 'gushetneuk' landscapes. the original drawings for the engraved illustrations in 'the life of a scotch naturalist,' belonging to --drawings made because the artist was 'greatly interested' in the story of thomas edward--must have been of the same delicate force, and the splendid volumes of plates illustrating the 'river clyde,' and the 'river tweed,' issued by the royal association for the promotion of the fine arts in scotland, contain more of his fine work. it was this society, that, in the difficult days following the artist's abandonment of aberdeen and lithography for edinburgh and painting, gave him the opportunity, by the purchase of two of his early landscapes, for study in holland and in paris. there is something of bosboom in a rendering of a church interior such as 'the west kirk,' but of israels, who was his master at the hague, there is nothing to be seen in sir george reid's illustrations. they are never merely picturesque, and when too many men are 'freakish' in their rendering of architecture, the drawings of north of scotland castles--well founded to endure weather and rough times of war--seem as real and true to scottish romance as the "pleasant seat," the martlet-haunted masonry of macbeth's castle set among the brooding wildness of inverness by the fine words of duncan and banquo. the print-black of naked boughs against pale sky, a snow-covered country where roofs are white, and the shelter of the woods is thin after the passing of the autumn winds--this black and white is the black and white of most of sir george reid's studies of northern landscape. to call it black and white is to stretch the octave and omit all the notes of the scale. pure white of plastered masonry, or of snow-covered roof or field in the bleak winter light, pure black in some deep-set window, in the figure of a passer-by, or in the bare trees, are used with the finesse of a colourist. look at the 'pyketillim kirk' drawing in 'johnny gibb.' between the white of the long church wall, and the black of the little groups of village folk in the churchyard, how quiet and easy is the transition, and how true to colour is the result. of the edinburgh drawings the same may be said; but, except in facsimile reproduction, one has to know the scale of tone used by sir george reid in order to see the original effect where the printed page shows unmodified black and white. in 'holyrood castle' the values are fairly well kept, and the rendering of the ancient building in the deep snow, without false emphasis, yet losing nothing of emphatic effect, shows the dominant intellectual quality of the artist's work. [illustration: holyrood castle. by sir george reid. from mrs. oliphant's "royal edinburgh." by leave of messrs. macmillan.] it does not seem as though sir george reid as an illustrator had any followers. he could hardly have imitators. if a man had delicacy and patience of observation and hand to produce drawings in this 'style,' his style would be his own and not an imitation. the number of artists in black and white who cannot plausibly be imitated is a small number. sir george reid is one, mr. alfred parsons is another. inevitably there are points of similarity in the work of artists, the foundation of whose black and white is colour, and who render the country-side with the understanding of the native, the understanding that is beyond knowledge. the difference between them only proves the essential similarity in the elements of their art; but that, like most paradoxes, is a truism. mr. parsons is, of course, thoroughly english in his art. he has the particularity of english nature-poets. pastoral country is dear to him, and homesteads and flowering orchards, or villages with church tower half hidden by the elms, are part of his home country, the country he draws best. it is interesting to compare his drawings for 'the warwickshire avon' with the scottish artist's drawings of the northern rivers. the drawings of shakespeare's river show spring trees in a mist of green, leafy summer trees, meadowsweet and hayfields, green earth and blue sky, and a river of pleasure watering a pleasant country. if a man can draw english summer-time in colour with black and white, he must rank high as a landscape pen-draughtsman. mr. alfred parsons has illustrated about a dozen books, and his work is to be found in 'harper's magazine,' and 'the english illustrated' in early days. two books, the 'old songs' and 'the quiet life,' published in and , were illustrated by e. a. abbey and alfred parsons. the drawings of landscape, of fruit and flowers, by mr. parsons, the chippendale people and rooms of mr. abbey, fill two charming volumes with pictures whose pleasantness and happy art accord with the dainty verses of eighteenth-century sentiment. 'the warwickshire avon,' and another river book, 'the danube from the black forest to the sea,' illustrated in collaboration with the author, mr. f. d. millet, belong to . the slight sketches--passing-by sketches--in these books, are among fortunate examples of a briefness that few men find compatible with grace and significance. sketches, mostly in wash, of a farther and more decorated country--'japan, the far east, the land of flowers and of the rising sun, the country which for years it had been my dream to see and paint'--illustrate the artist's 'notes in japan,' . in the written notes are memoranda of actual colour, of the green harmony of the japanese summer--harmony culminating in the vivid tint of the rice fields--of sunset and butterflies, of delicate masses of azalea and drifts of cherry-blossom and wisteria, while in the drawings are all the flowers, the green hills and gray hamlets, and the temples, shrines and bridges, that make unspoilt japan one of the perpetual motives of decorative art. illustrations to wordsworth--to a selected wordsworth--gave the artist fortunate opportunities to render the england of english descriptive verse. [illustration: elms by bidford grange. by alfred parsons. reproduced from quiller couch's 'the warwickshire avon.' by leave of osgood, mcilvaine and co.] it is convenient to speak first of these painter-illustrators, because, in a sense, they stand alone among illustrative artists. obviously, that is not to say that their work is worth more than the work of illustrators, who, conforming to the laws of 'process,' make their drawings with brain and hand that know how to win profit by concession. but popularisers of an effective topographical or architectural style are indirectly responsible for a large amount of work besides their own. in one sense a leader does not stand alone, and cannot be considered alone. before, then, passing on to a draughtsman such as mr. joseph pennell, again, to mr. railton, or to mr. new, whose successful and unforgettable works have inspired many drawings in the books whereby authors pay for their holiday journeys, other artists, whose style is no convenience to the industrious imitator, may be considered. another painter, known for his work in black and white, is mr. john fulleylove, whose 'pictures of classic greek landscape,' and drawings of 'oxford,' show him to be one of the few men who see architecture steadily and whole, and who draw beautiful buildings as part of the earth which they help to beautify. compare the greek drawings with ordinary archæological renderings of pillared temples, and the difference in beauty and interest is apparent. in mr. fulleylove's drawings, the relation between landscape and architecture is never forgotten, and he draws both with the structural knowledge of a landscape painter, who is also by training an architect. in aim, his work is in accord with classical traditions; he discerns the classical spirit that built temples and carved statues in the beautiful places of the open-air, a spirit which has nothing of the museum setting about it. the 'oxford' drawings show that mr. fulleylove can draw gothic. though not a painter, mr. william hyde works 'to colour' in his illustrations, and is generally successful in rendering both colour and atmosphere. he has done little with the pen, and it is in wash drawings, reproduced by photogravure, that he is best to be studied. of his early training as an engraver there is little to be seen in his work, though his appreciation of the range of tone existing between black and white may have developed from working within restrictions of monotone, when the colour sense was growing strong in him. at all events he can gradate from black to white with remarkable minuteness and ease. his earliest work of any importance after giving up engraving, was in illustration of 'l'allegro' and 'il penseroso,' , and shows his talent already well controlled. there are thirteen illustrations, and the opportunities for rendering aspects of light, from the moment of the lark's morning flight against the dappled skies of dawn, to the passing of whispering night-winds over the darkened country, given in the verse of a poet sensitive as none before him to the gradations of lightness and dark, are realized. so are the hawthorns in the dale, and the towered cities. but it is as an illustrator of another towered city than that imagined by milton, that some of mr. hyde's most individual work has been produced. in the etchings and pictures in photogravure published with mrs. meynell's 'london impressions,' london beneath the strange great sky that smoke and weather make over the gray roofs, london when the dawn is low in the sky, or when the glow of lamps and lamp-lit windows turns the street darkness to golden haze, is drawn by a man who has seen for himself how beautiful the great city is in 'between lights.' his other work is superficially in contrast with these studies of city light and darkness; but the same love for 'big' skies, for the larger aspects of changing lights and cloud movements, are expressed in the drawings of the wide country that is around and beyond the cinque ports, and in the illustrations to mr. george meredith's 'nature poems.' the reproduction is from a pen drawing in mr. hueffer's book, 'the cinque ports.' there is no pettiness about it, and the 'phrasing' of castle, trees and sky shows the artist. [illustration: saltwood castle. by william hyde. from f. m. hueffer's 'the cinque ports.' by leave of messrs. blackwood.] mr. d. y. cameron has illustrated a book or two with etchings--notably white's 'selborne' ,--but to consider him as a book-illustrator would be to stretch a point. a few of his etchings are to be seen in books, and one would like to make them the text for the consideration of other etchings by him, but it would be a digression. he is not among painter-illustrators, but among painters who have illustrated, and that would bring more names into this chapter than it could hold except in catalogue arrangement. coming to artists who are illustrators, not on occasion but always, there is no question with whom to begin. it is true that mr. pennell is american, but he is such an important figure in english illustration that to leave him out would be impossible. he has been illustrating europe for more than fifteen years, and the forcible fashion of his work, and all that he represents, have influenced black-and-white artists in this country, as his master rico influenced him. in range and facility, and in getting to the point and keeping there, there is no open-air illustrator to put beside mr. pennell. always interested and always interesting, he is apparently never bewildered, always ready and able to draw. surely there was never a mind with a greater faculty for quick study; and he can apply this power to the realization of an architectural detail, or of a cathedral, of miles of country with river curves and castles, trees, and hills and fields, and a stretch of sky over all; or of a great city-street crowded with traffic, of new or old buildings, of tuscany or of the stock exchange, with equal ease. to attempt a record of mr. pennell's work would leave no room for appreciation of it. as far as the english public is concerned, it began in with the publication of 'a canterbury pilgrimage,' and since then each year has added to mr. pennell's notes of the world at the rate of two or three volumes. the highways and byways of england--east, west, south and north--france from normandy to provence, the cities and spaces of italy, the saone and the thames, the 'real' alps and the new zealand alps, london and paris, the cathedrals of europe, the gipsy encampment and the ghetto, chelsea and the alhambra--mr. pennell has been everywhere and seen most things as he went, and one can see it in his drawings. he draws architecture without missing anything tangible, and his buildings belong to cities that have life--and an individual life--in their streets. but where he is unapproachable, or at all events unapproached among pen-draughtsmen, is in drawing a great scheme of country from a height. if one could reproduce a drawing such as that of the country of le puy in mr. wickham flower's 'aquitaine,' or, better still, the etching of the same amazing country, one need say no more about mr. pennell's art in this kind. unluckily the page is too small. this strange and lovely landscape, where curving road and river and tree-bordered fields are dominated by two image-crowned rocks, built about with close-set houses, looks like a design from a dream fantasy worked out by a master of definite imagination. one knows it is not. mr. pennell is concerned to give facts in picturesque order, and here he has a theme that affects us poetically, however it may have affected mr. pennell. his eye measures a landscape that seems outside the measure of observation, and his ability to grasp and render the characteristics of actuality serves him as ever. it is an unforgettable drawing, though the skill displayed in the simplification and relation of facts is no greater than in other drawings by the artist. that power hardly ever fails him. the 'devils of notre dame' again stands out in memory, when one thinks generally of mr. pennell's drawings. and again, though it seems as if he were working above his usual pitch of conception, it is only that he is using his keenness of sight, his logical grasp of form and power of expression, on matter that is expressive of mental passion. the man who carved the devils, like those who crowned the rocks of le puy with the haloed figures, created facts. the outrageous passion that made these evil things made them in stone. you can measure them. they are matter-of-fact. mr. pennell has drawn them as they are, with so much trenchancy, such assertion of their hideous decorativeness, their isolation over modern paris, that no drawings could be better, and any others would be superfluous. it is impossible to enumerate all that mr. pennell has done and can do in black-and-white. he is a master of so many methods. from the sheer black ink and white paper of the 'devils,' to the light broken line that suggests moorish fantastic architecture under a hot sun in the 'alhambra' drawings, there is nothing he cannot do with a pen. nor is it only with a pen that he can do what he likes and what we must admire. he covers the whole field of black-and-white drawing. [illustration: the harbour, sorrento. by joseph pennell. from howell's "italian journeys." by leave of mr. heinemann.] after mr. pennell comes mr. herbert railton. no architectural drawings are more popular than his, and no style is better known or more generally 'adopted' by the illustrators of little guide-books or of magazine articles. an architect's training and knowledge of structure underlies the picturesque dilapidation prevalent in his version of anglo-gothic architecture. his first traceable book-illustrations belong to , though in 'the english illustrated,' in 'the portfolio,' and elsewhere, he had begun before then to formulate the style that has served him so admirably in later work with the pen. the illustrations to mr. loftie's 'westminster abbey' ( ) show his manner much as it is in his latest pen drawings. there is a lack of repose. one would like to undecorate some of the masonry, to reveal the austere lines under the prevalence of pattern. at the same time one realizes that here is the style needed in illustration of picturesquely written books about picturesque places, and that the stone tracery of westminster, or the old brick and tiles of the inns of court, are more interesting to many people in drawings such as these than in actuality. but rico's 'broken line' is responsible for much, and not every draughtsman who adopts it direct, or through a mixed tradition, has the architectural knowledge of mr. railton to support his deviations from stability. mr. railton is the artist of the cathedral guide; he has drawn westminster, st. paul's, winchester, gloucester, peterborough, and many more cathedrals, inside and out, within the last ten years. in illustrations to books where a thread of story runs through historical fact, books such as those written by miss manning concerning mary powell, and the household of sir thomas more, the artist has collaborated with mr. jellicoe, who has put figures in the streets and country lanes. there are so many names in the list of those who, in the beginning, profited by the initiative of mr. pennell or of mr. railton that generally they may be set aside. of artists who have made some position for themselves, there are enough to fill this chapter. mr. holland tringham and mr. hedley fitton were at one time unmistakable in their railtonism. mr. fitton has illustrated cathedral books, and in later drawings by mr. tringham exaggeration of his copy has given place to a more direct record of beautiful buildings. miss nelly erichsen and miss helen james[ ] are two artists whose work is much in request for illustrated series, such as dent's 'mediæval towns.' miss james' drawings to 'rambles in dickens' land' ( ) showed study of mr. railton, which is also observable in other books, such as 'the story of rouen.' at the same time, she carries out her work from individual observation, and gets an effect that belongs to study of the subject, whether from actuality or from photographs. miss james and miss erichsen have collaborated in certain books on italian towns, but architectural drawing is only part of miss erichsen's illustrative work, though an important part, as the illustrations to the recently-published 'florentine villas' of mrs. ross show. illustrating stories, she works with graceful distinctness, and many of the drawings in the 'story of rome'--though one remembers that rome is in mr. pennell's province--show what she can do. mr. c. g. harper and mr. c. r. b. barrett are the most prominent among those writers of travel-books who are also their own illustrators. they belong, though with all the difference of time and development, to the succession of mr. augustus hare. mr. hissey also has made many books out of his driving tours through england, and may be said to have first specialized the subject that mr. harper and mr. barrett have made their own. it is plain that the kind of book has nothing to do with the kind of art that is used in its making. mr. hare's famous 'walks' may be the prototypes of later books, but each man makes what he can out of an idea that has obvious possibilities in it. mr. harper has taken to the ancient high-roads of england, and has studied their historical and legendary, past, present, and imagined aspects. of these he has written; while his illustrations rank him rather among illustrators who write than among writers who illustrate. since he has published a dozen books and more. in 'royal winchester'--the first of these--he is illustrator only. 'the brighton road' of is the first of the road-books, and the illustrations of the road as it was and is, of town and of country, have colour and open air in their black-and-white. since then mr. harper has been from paddington to penzance, has followed dick turpin along the exeter road, and bygone fashion from london to bath, while accounts of the dover road from southwark bridge to dover castle, by way of dickens' country and hop-gardens, and of the great north road of which stevenson longed to write, are written and drawn with spirited observation. his drawing is not so picturesque as his writing. it has reticence and justness of expression that would not serve in relating tales of the road, but which, together with a sense of colour and of what is pictorial, combine to form an effective and frequently distinctive style of illustration. the drawing reproduced, chosen by the artist, is from mr. harper's recent book on the holyhead road. [illustration: dunchurch. by c. g. harper. from 'the holyhead road.' by his permission.] mr. barrett has described and illustrated the 'highways and byways and waterways' of various english counties, as well as published a volume on the battlefields of england, and studies of ancient buildings such as the tower of london. he is always well informed, and illustrates his subject fully from pen-and-ink drawings. mr. f. g. kitton also writes and illustrates, though he has written more than he has drawn. st. albans is his special town, and the old inns and quaint streets of the little red city with its long cathedral, are truthfully and dexterously given in his pen drawings and etchings. mr. alexander ansted, too, as a draughtsman of english cathedrals and of city churches, has made a steady reputation since , when his etchings and drawings of riviera scenery showed ambition to render tone, and as much as possible of colour and atmosphere, with pen and ink. since then he has simplified his style for general purposes, though in books such as 'london riverside churches' ( ), or 'the romance of our ancient churches' of two years later, many of the drawings are more elaborate than is common in modern illustration. the names of mr. c. e. mallows and of mr. raffles davison must be mentioned among architectural draughtsmen, though they are outside the scope of a study of book-illustration. some of mr. raffles davison's work has been reprinted from the 'british architect,' but i do not think either of them illustrates books. an extension of architectural art lies in the consideration of the garden in relation to the house it surrounds, and mr. reginald blomfield's 'formal garden' treats of the first principles of garden design as distinct from horticulture. the drawings by mr. inigo thomas, whether one considers them as illustrating principles or gardens, are worth looking at, as 'the yew walk' sufficiently shows. [illustration: the yew walk; melbourne derbyshire by f. inigo thomas. from blomfield's 'the formal garden.' by leave of messrs. macmillan.] the sobriety and decorum of mr. new's architectural and landscape drawings are the antithesis of the flagrantly picturesque. i do not know whether mr. gere or mr. new invented this order of landscape and house drawing, but mr. new is the chief exponent of it, and has placed it among popular styles of to-day. it has the effect of sincerity, and of respectful treatment of ancient buildings. mr. new does not lapse from the perpendicular, his hand does not tremble or break off when house-walls or the ridge of a roof are to be drawn. his is a convention that is frankly conventional, that confines nature within decorous bounds, and makes formality a function of art. but though a great deal of mr. new's work is mechanical and done to pattern, so that sometimes little perpendicular strokes to represent grass fill half the pictured space, while little horizontal strokes to represent brick-work, together with 'touches' that represent foliage, fill up the rest except for a corner left blank for the sky; yet, at his best, he achieves an effective and dignified way of treating landscape for the decoration of books. sensational skies that repeat one sensation to monotony, scattered blacks and emphasized trivialities, are set aside by those who follow mr. new. when they are trivial and undiscriminating, they are unaffectedly tedious, and that is almost pleasant after the hackneyed sparkle of the inferior picturesque. mr. new's reputation as a book-illustrator was first made in , when an edition of 'the compleat angler' with many drawings by him appeared. the homely architecture of essex villages and small towns, the low meadows and quiet streams, gave him opportunity for drawings that are pleasant on the page. two garden books, or strictly speaking, one--for 'in the garden of peace' was succeeded by 'outside the garden'--contain natural history drawings similar to those of fish in 'the compleat angler' and of birds in white's 'selborne.' the illustrations to 'oxford and its colleges,' and 'cambridge and its colleges,' are less representative of the best mr. new can do than books where village architecture, or the irregular house-frontage of country high-streets are his subject. illustrating shakespeare's country, 'sussex,' and 'the wessex of thomas hardy,' brought him into regions of the country-town; but the most important of his recent drawings are those in 'the natural history of selborne,' published in . the drawing of 'selborne street' is from that volume. [illustration: selborne street by e. h. new. from white's 'selborne.' by leave of mr. lane.] with mr. new, mr. r. j. williams and mr. h. p. clifford illustrated mr. aymer vallance's two books on william morris. their illustrations are fit records of the homes and working-places of the great man who approved their art. mr. frederick griggs, who since has illustrated three or four garden books, also follows the principles of mr. new, but with more variety in detail, less formality in tree-drawing and in the rendering of paths and roads and streams and sunshine, in short, with more of art outside the school, than mr. new permits himself. the open-air covers so much that i have little room to give to another aspect of open-air illustration--drawings of bird and animal-life. the work of mr. harrison weir, begun so many years ago, is chiefly in children's books; but mr. charles whymper, who has an old reputation among modern reputations, has illustrated the birds and beasts and fish of great britain in books well known to sportsmen and to natural historians, as also books of travel and sport in tropical and ice-bound lands. the work of mr. john guille millais is no less well known. no one else draws animals in action, whether british deer or african wild beast, from more intelligent and thorough observation, and of his art the graceful rendering of the play of deer in cawdor forest gives proof that does not need words. birds in flight, beasts in action--mr. millais is undisputably master of his subject. many drawings show the humour which is one of the charms of his work. [illustration: figure-of-eight ring in cawdor forest. by j. g. millais. from his 'british deer and their horns.' by leave of messrs. sotheran.] footnotes: [footnote : since this book was in type, i have learned with regret of the death of miss helen james.] iii. some character illustrators. so far, in writing of decorative illustrators and of open-air illustrators, the difference in scheme between a study of book-illustration and of 'black-and-white' art has not greatly affected the scale and order of facts. the intellectual idea of illustration, as a personal interpretation of the spirit of the text, finds expression, formally at least, in the drawings of most decorative black-and-white artists. the deliberate and inventive character of their art, the fact that such qualities are non-journalistic, and ineffective in the treatment of 'day by day' matters, keeps the interpretative ideal, brought into english illustration by rossetti, and the artists whose spirits he kindled, among working ideals for these illustrators. for that reason, with the exception of page-decorations such as those of mr. edgar wilson, the subject of decorative illustration is almost co-extensive with the subject of decorative black-and-white. the open-air illustrator represents another aspect of illustration. to interpret the spirit of the text would, frequently, allow his art no exercise. much of his text is itinerary. his subject is before his eyes in actuality, or in photographs, and not in some phrase of words, magical with suggested forms, creating by its gift of delight desire to celebrate its beauty. still, if the artist be independent of the intellectual and imaginative qualities of the book, his is no independent form of black and white. it is illustration; the author's subject is the subject of the artist. open-air facts, those that are beautiful and pleasurable, are too uneventful to make 'news illustration.' unless as background for some event, they have, for most people, no immediate interest. so it happens that open-air drawings are usually illustrations of text, text of a practical guide-book character, or of archæological interest, or of the gossiping, intimate kind that tells of possessions, of journeys and pleasurings, or, again, illustrations of the open-air classics in prose and verse. but in turning to the work of those draughtsmen whose subject is the presentment of character, of every man in his own humour, the illustration of literature is a part only of what is noteworthy. these artists have a subject that makes the opportunities of the book-illustrator seem formal; a subject, charming, poignant, splendid or atrocious, containing all the 'situations' of comedy, tragedy or farce; the only subject at once realized by everyone, yet whose opportunities none has ever comprehended. the writings of novelists and dramatists--life narrowed to the perception of an individual--are limitary notions of the matter, compared with the illimitable variety of character and incident to be found in the world that changes from day to day. and 'real' life, purged of monotony by the wit, discrimination or extravagance of the artist, or--on a lower plane--by the combination only of approved comical or sentimental or melodramatic elements, is the most popular and marketable of all subjects. the completeness of a work of art is to some a refuge from the incompleteness of actuality; to others this completeness is more incomplete than any incident of their own experience. the first bent of mind--supposing an artist who illustrates to 'express himself'--makes an illustrator of a draughtsman, the second makes literature seem no more than _la reste_ to the artist as an opportunity for pictorial characterization. character illustration is then a subject within a subject, and if it be impossible to consider it without overseeing the limitations, yet a different point of view gives a different order of impressions. caricaturists, political cartoonists, news-illustrators and graphic humorists, the artists who pictorialize society, the stage, the slums or some other kind of life interesting to the spectator, are outside the scheme of this article--unless they be illustrators also. for instance, the illustrations of sir harry furniss are only part of his lively activities, and mr. bernard partridge is the illustrator of mr. austin dobson's eighteenth-century muse as well as the 'j. b. p.' of 'socials' in 'punch.' an illustrator of many books, and one whose illustrations have unusual importance, both as interpretations of literature and for their artistic force, mr. william strang is yet so incongruous with contemporary black-and-white artists of to-day that he must be considered first and separately. for the traditions of art and of race that find a focus in the illustrative etchings of this artist, the creative traditions, and instinctive modes of thought that are represented in the forms and formation of his art, are forces of intellect and passion and insight not previously, nor now, by more than the one artist, associated with the practice of illustration. to consider his work in connection with modern illustration is to speak of contrasts. it represents nothing that the gift-book picture represents, either in technical dexterities, founded on the requirements of process reproduction, or in its decorative ideals, or as expressive of the pleasures of literature. one phase of mr. strang's illustrative art is, indeed, distinct from the mass of his work, with which the etched illustrations are congruous, and the line-drawings to three masterpieces of imaginary adventure--to lucian, to baron munchausen and to sindbad--show, perhaps, some infusion of aubrey beardsley's spirit of fantasy into the convictions of which mr. strang's art is compounded. but these drawings represent an excursion from the serious purpose of the artist's work. the element in literature expressed by that epithet 'weird'--exiled from power to common service--is lacking in the extravagances of these _voyages imaginaires_, and, lacking the shadows cast by the unspeakable, the intellectual _chiaroscuro_ of mr. strang's imagination, loses its force. these travellers are too glib for the artist, though his comprehension of the grotesque and extravagant, and his humour, make the drawings expressive of the text, if not of the complete personality of the draughtsman. the 'types, shadows and metaphors' of 'the pilgrim's progress,' with its poignancies of mental experience and conflict, its transcendent passages, its theological and naïve moods, gave the artist an opportunity for more realized imagination. the etchings in this volume, published in , represent little of the allegorical actualities of the text. not the encounters by the way, the clash of blows, the 'romancing,' but the 'man cloathed with rags and a great burden on his back,' or christiana his wife, when 'her thoughts began to work in her mind,' are the realities to the artist. the pilgrims are real and credible, poor folk to the outward sight, worn with toil, limited, abused in the circumstances of their lives; and these peasant figures are to mr. strang, as to his master in etching, professor legros, symbols of endurance, significant protagonists in the drama of man's will and the forces that strive to subdue its strength. to both artists the peasant confronting death is the climax of the drama. in the etchings of professor legros death fells the woodman, death meets the wayfarer on the high-road. there is no outfacing the menace of death. but to mr. strang, the sublimity of bunyan's 'poor man,' who overcomes all influences of mortality by the strength of his faith, is a possible fact. his ballad illustrations deal finely with various aspects of the theme. in 'the earth fiend,' a ballad written and illustrated with etchings by mr. strang in , the peasant subdues and compels to his service the spirit of destruction. he maintains his projects of cultivation, conquers the adverse wildness of nature, makes its force productive of prosperity and order; then, on a midday of harvest, sleeps, and the 'earth fiend,' finding his tyrant defenceless, steals on him and kills him as he lies. 'death and the ploughman's wife' ( ) has a braver ending. it interprets in an impressive series of etchings how 'death that conquers a'' is vanquished by the mother whose child he has snatched from its play. the title-page etching shows a little naked child kicking a skull into the air, while the peasant-mother, patient, vigilant, keeps watch near by. in 'the christ upon the hill' of the succeeding year, a ballad by cosmo monkhouse with etchings by mr. strang, the artist follows, of course, the conception of the writer; but here, too, his work is expressive of the visionary faith that discerns death as one of those 'base things' that 'usher in things divine.' [illustration: from william strang's ballad, 'death and the ploughman's wife' (reduced from the original etching). by leave of mr. a. h. bullen.] the twelve etchings to 'paradise lost' ( ) do not, as i think, represent mr. strang's imagination at its finest. it is in the representation of rude forms of life, subjected to the immeasurable influences of passion, love, sorrow, that the images of mr. strang's art, at once vague and of intense reality, primitive and complex, have most force. adam and eve driven from paradise by the angel with the flaming sword, are not directly created by the artist. they recall masaccio, and are undone by the recollection. eve, uprising in the darkness of the garden where adam sleeps, the speech of the serpent with the woman, the gathering of the fruit, are traditionary in their pictorial forms, and the tradition is too great, it imposes itself between the version of mr. strang and our admiration. but in the thirty etchings illustrative of mr. kipling's works, as in the ballad etchings, the imagination of the artist is unfettered by tradition. the stories he pictures deal, for all their cleverness and definition, with themes that, translated out of mr. kipling's words into the large imagination of mr. strang, have powerful purpose. as usual, the artist makes his picture not of matter-of-fact--and the etching called 'a matter of fact' is specially remote from any such matter--but of more purposeful, more overpowering realities than any particular instance of life would show. he attempts to realize the value, not of an instance of emotion or of endeavour, but of the quality itself. he sets his mind, for example, to realize the force of western militarism in the east, or the attitude of the impulses of life towards contemplation, and his soldiers, his 'purun bhagat,' express his observations or imaginations of these themes. certainly 'a country's love' never went out to this kind of tommy atkins, and the india of mr. strang is not the india that holds the gadsbys, or of which plain tales can be told. but he has imagined a country that binds the contrasts of life together in active operation on each other, and in thirty instances of these schemed-out realities, or of dramatic events resulting from the clash of racial and national and chronological characteristics, he has achieved perhaps his most complete expression of insight into essentials. mr. strang's etchings in the recently published edition of 'the compleat angler,' illustrated by him and by mr. d. y. cameron, are less successful. the charm of his subject seems not to have entered into his imagination, whereas forms of art seem to have oppressed him. the result is oppressive, and that is fatal to the value of his etchings as illustrations of the book that 'it would sweeten a man's temper at any time to read.' intensity and large statement of dark and light; fine dramatizations of line; an unremitting conflict with the superfluous and inexpressive in form and in thought; an art based on the realities of life, and without finalities of expression, inelegant, as though grace were an affectation, an insincerity in dealing with matters of moment: these are qualities that detach the illustrations of mr. strang from the generality of illustrations. save that mr. robert bryden, in his 'woodcuts of men of letters' and in the portrait illustrations to 'poets of the younger generation,' shows traces of studying the portrait-frontispieces of mr. strang, there is no relation between his art and the traditions it represents and any other book-illustrations of to-day. turning now to illustrators who are representative of the tendencies and characteristics of modern book-illustration, and so are less conspicuous in a general view of the subject than mr. strang, there is little question with whom to begin. mr. abbey represents at their best the qualities that belong to gift-book illustration. it would, perhaps, be more correct to say that gift-book illustration represents the qualities of mr. abbey's black and white with more or less fidelity, so effective is the example of his technique on the forms of picturesque character-illustration. it is nearly a quarter of a century since the artist, then a young man fresh from harper's drawing-office in new york, came to england. that first visit, spent in studying the reality of english pastoral life in preparation for his 'herrick' illustrations, lasted for two years, and after a few months' interval in the states he returned to england. resident here for nearly all the years of his work, a member of the royal academy, his art expressive of traditions of english literature and of the english country to which he came as to the actuality of his imaginings, one may include mr. abbey among english book-illustrators with more than a show of reason. in , when the 'selections from the poetry of robert herrick' was published, few of the men whose work is considered in this chapter had been heard of. chronologically, mr. abbey is first of contemporary character-illustrators, and nowhere but first would he be in his proper place, for there is no one to put beside him in his special fashion of art, and in the effect of his illustrative work on his contemporaries. there is inevitable ease and elegance in the pen-drawings of mr. abbey, and for that reason it is easy to underestimate their intellectual quality. he is inventive. the spirit of herrick's muse, or of 'she stoops to conquer,' or of the comedies of shakespeare, is not a quality for which he accepts any formula. he finds shapes for his fancies, rejecting as alien to his purpose all that is not the clear result of his own understanding of the poet. accordingly there is, in all his work, the expression of an intellectual conception. he sees, too, with patience. if he isolates a figure, one feels that figure has stepped forward into a clear place of his imagination as he followed its way through the crowd. if he sets a pageant on the page, or some piece of turbulent action, or moment of decision, the actors have their individual value. he thinks his way through processes of gradual realization to the final picture of the characters in the play or poem. one writes now with special reference to the illustrations of the comedies of shakespeare--so far, the illustrative work most exigent to the intellectual powers of the artist. herrick's verse, full of sweet sounds and suggestive of happy sights, 'she stoops to conquer,' where all the mistakes are but for a night, to be laughed over in the morning, the lilt and measure of 'old songs,' and of the charming verses in 'the quiet life,' called for sensitive appreciation of moods, lyrical, whimsical, humorous, idyllic, but--intellectually--for no more than this. as to mr. abbey's technique, curious as he is in the uses of antiquity as part of the pleasure of a fresh realization, clothing his characters in textiles of the great weaving times, or of a dainty simplicity, a student of architecture and of landscape, of household fittings, of armoury, of every beautiful accessory to the business of living, his clever pen rarely fails to render within the convention of black and white the added point of interest and of charm that these things bring into actuality. truth of texture, of atmosphere, and of tone, an alertness of vision most daintily expressed--these qualities belong to all mr. abbey's work, and in the shakespearean drawings he shows with greater force than ever his 'stage-managing' power, and the correctness and beauty of his 'mounting.' the drawings are dramatic: the women have beauty and individuality, while the men match them, or contrast with them as in the plays; the rogues are vagabonds in spirit, and the wise men have weight; the world of shakespeare has been entered by the artist. but there are gestures in the text, moments of glad grace, of passion, of sudden amazement before the realities of personal experience, that make these active, dignified figures of mr. abbey 'merely players,' his isabella in the extremity of the scene with claudio no more than an image of cloistered virtue, his hermione incapable of her undaunted eloquence and silence, his perdita and miranda and rosalind less than themselves. as illustrations, the drawings of mr. abbey represent traditions brought into english illustrative art by the pre-raphaelites, and developed by the freer school of the sixties. but, as drawings, they represent ideas not effective before in the practice of english pen-draughtsmen; ideas derived from the study of the black and white of spain, of france, and of munich, by american art students in days when english illustrators were not given to look abroad. technically he has suggested many things, especially to costume illustrators, and many names might follow his in representation of the place he fills in relation to contemporary art. but to work out the effect of a man's technique on those who are gaining power of expression is to labour in vain. it adds nothing to the intrinsic value of an artist's work, nor does it represent the true relationship between him and those whom he has influenced. for if they are mere imitators they have no relation with any form of art, while to insist upon derived qualities in work that has the superscription of individuality is no true way of apprehension. what a man owes to himself is the substantial fact, the fact that relates him to other men. the value of his work, its existence, is in the little more, or the much more, that himself adds to the sum of his directed industries, his guided achievements. and to estimate that, to attempt to express something of it, must be the chief aim of a study, not of one artist and his 'times,' but of many artists practising a popular art. so that if, in consideration of their 'starting-point,' one may group most character-illustrators, especially of wig-and-powder subjects, as adherents either of mr. abbey and the 'american school,' or of mr. hugh thomson and the caldecott-greenaway tradition, such grouping is also no more than a starting-point, and everything concerning the achievements of the individual artist has still to be said. considering the intention of their technique, one may permissibly group the names of mr. fred pegram, mr. f. h. townsend, mr. shepperson, mr. sydney paget, and mr. stephen reid as representing in different degrees the effect of american black and white on english technique, though, in the case of mr. paget, one alludes only to pen-drawings such as those in 'old mortality,' and not to his sherlock holmes and martin hewitt performances. the art of mr. pegram and of mr. townsend is akin. mr. pegram has, perhaps, more sense of beauty, and his work suggests a more complete vision of his subject than is realized in the drawings of mr. townsend, while mr. townsend is at times more successful with the activities of the story; but the differences between them seem hardly more than the work of one hand would show. they really collaborate in illustration, though, except in cassell's survey of 'living london,' they have never, i think, made drawings for the same book. mr. pegram served the usual apprenticeship to book-illustration. he was a news-illustrator before he turned to the illustration of literature; but he is an artist to whom the reality acquired by a subject after study of it is more attractive than the reality of actual impressions. neither sensational nor society events appeal to him. the necessity to compose some sort of an impression from the bare facts of a fact, without time to make the best of it, was not an inspiring necessity. that mr. pegram is a book-illustrator by the inclination of his art as well as by profession, the illustrations to 'sybil,' published in , prove. in these drawings he showed himself not only observant of facial expression and of gesture, but also able to interpret the glances and gestures of disraeli's society. from the completeness of the draughtsman's realization of his subject, illustrable situations develop themselves with credibility, and his graceful women and thoughtful men represent the events of the novel with distinction. with 'sybil' may be mentioned the illustrations to 'ormond,' wherein, five years later, the same understanding of the ways and activities of a bygone, yet not remote society, found equally satisfactory expression, while the technique of the artist had gained in completeness. in 'the last of the barons' ( ), mr. pegram had a picturesque subject with much strange humanity in it, despite lord lytton's conventional travesty of events and character. the names of richard and warwick, of hastings and margaret of anjou, are names that break through conventional romance, but the illustrator has to keep up the fiction of the author, and, except that the sham-mediævalism of the novel did not prevent a right study of costumes and accessories in the pictures, the artist had to be content to 'bulwerize.' illustrations to 'the arabian nights' gave him opportunity for rendering textures and atmosphere, and movements charming or grave, and the 'bride of lammermoor' drawings show a sweet-faced lucy ashton, and a ravenswood who is more than melancholy and picturesque. mr. pegram's drawings are justly dramatic within the limits prescribed by a somewhat composed ideal of bearing. a catastrophe is outside these limits, and the discovery of lucy after the bridal lacks real illustration in the artist's version, skilful, nevertheless, as are all his drawings, and expressed without hesitation. averse to caricature, and keeping within ideas of life that allow of unbroken expression, the novels of marryat, where action so bustling that only caricatures of humanity can endure its exigencies, and sentimental episodes of flagrant insincerity, swamp the character-drawing, are hardly suited to the art of mr. pegram. still, he selects, and his selection is true to the time and circumstance of marryat's work. in itself it is always an expression of a coherent and definite conception of the story. [illustration: from mr. pegram's 'the bride of lammermoor.' by leave of messrs. nisbet.] mr. townsend has illustrated hawthorne and peacock, as well as charlotte brontë and scott. hawthorne's men and women--embodiments always of some essential quality, rather than of the combination of qualities that make 'character'--lend themselves to fine illustration as regards gesture, and mr. townsend's drawings represent, not insensitively, the movement and suggestion of 'the blithedale romance' and 'the house of the seven gables.' in the peacock illustrations the artist had to keep pace with an essentially un-english humour, an imagination full of shapes that are opinions and theories and sarcasms masquerading under fantastic human semblances. mr. townsend kept to humanity, and found occasions for representing the eccentrics engaged in cheerful open-air and society pursuits in the pauses of paradoxical discussion. one realizes in the drawings the pleasant aspect of life at gryll grange and at crotchet castle, the courtesies and amusements out of doors and within, while the subjects of 'maid marian,' of 'the misfortunes of elphin' and of 'rhododaphne' declare themselves in excellent terms of romance and adventure. mr. townsend has humour, and he is in sympathy with the vigorous spirit in life; whether the vigour is intellectual as in jane eyre and in shirley keeldar, or muscular as in 'rob roy,' in drawings to a manual of fencing, and in marryat's 'the king's own,' or eccentric as in the fantasies of peacock. his work is never languid and never formal; and if in technique he is sometimes experimental, and frequently content with ineffectual accessories to his figures, his conception of the situation, and of the characters that fulfil the situation, is direct and effective enough. [illustration: from mr. townsend's 'shirley.' by leave of messrs. nisbet.] as an illustrator of current fiction, mr. townsend has also a considerable amount of dexterous work to his name, but a record of drawings contributed to the illustrated journals cannot even be attempted within present limits of space. mr. shepperson in his book-illustrations generally represents affairs with picturesqueness, and with a nervous energy that takes the least mechanical way of expressing forms and substances. illustrating the modern novel of adventure, he is happy in his intrigues and conspiracies, while in books of more weight, such as 'the heart of midlothian' or 'lavengro,' he expresses graver issues of life with un-elaborate and suggestive effect. the energy of his line, the dramatic quality of his imagination, render him in his element as an illustrator of events, but the vigour that projects itself into subjects such as the murder of sir george staunton, or the fight with the flaming tinman, or the alarms and stratagems of mr. stanley weyman, informs also his representation of moments when there is no action. technically mr. shepperson represents very little that is traditional in english black and white, though the tradition seems likely to be there for future generations of english illustrators. [illustration: "ye are ill, effie," were the first words jeanie could utter; "ye are very ill." from mr. shepperson's 'the heart of midlothian.' by leave of the gresham publishing company.] in a recent work, illustrations to leigh hunt's 'old court suburb,' mr. shepperson collaborates with mr. e. j. sullivan and mr. herbert railton, to realize the associations, literary, historical and gossiping, that have kensington palace and holland house as their principal centres. on the whole, of the three artists, the subject seems least suggestive to mr. shepperson. mr. sullivan contributes many portraits, and some subject drawings that show him in his lightest and most dexterous vein. these drawings of _beaux_ and _belles_ are as distinct in their happy flattery of fact from the rigid assertion of the artist's 'fair women,' as they are from the undelightful reporting style that in the beginning injured mr. sullivan's illustrations. one may describe it as the 'daily graphic' style, though that is to recognize only the basis of convenience on which the training of the 'daily graphic' school was necessarily founded. mr. sullivan's early work, the news-illustration and illustrations to current fiction of mr. reginald cleaver and of his brother mr. ralph cleaver, the black and white of mr. a. s. boyd and of mr. crowther, show this journalistic training, and show, too, that such a training in reporting facts directly is no hindrance to the later achievement of an individual way of art. mr. a. s. hartrick must also be mentioned as an artist whose distinctive black and white developed from the basis of pictorial reporting, and how distinctive and well-observed that art is, readers of the 'pall mall magazine' know. as a book-illustrator, however, his landscape drawings to borrow's 'wild wales' represent another art than that of the character-illustrator. nor can one pass over the drawings of mr. maurice greiffenhagen, also a contributor to the 'pall mall magazine,' if better known in illustrations to fiction in 'the ladies' pictorial,' though in an article on book-illustration he has nothing like his right place. as an admirable and original technician and draughtsman of society, swift in sight, excellent in expression, he ranks high among black-and-white artists, while as a painter, his reputation, if based on different qualities, is not doubtful. [illustration: from mr. e. j. sullivan's 'school for scandal.' by leave of messrs. macmillan.] mr. sullivan's drawings to 'tom brown's schooldays' ( ) are mechanical and mostly without charm of handling, having an appearance of timidity that is inexplicable when one thinks of the vigorous news-drawings that preceded them. the wiry line of the drawings appears in the 'compleat angler,' and in other books, including 'the rivals' and 'the school for scandal,' 'lavengro' and 'newton forster,' illustrated by the artist in ' and ' ; but the decorative purpose of mr. sullivan's later work is, in all these books, effective in modifying its perversity. increasing elaboration of manner within the limits of that purpose marks the transition between the starved reality of 'tom brown' and the illustrations to 'sartor resartus' ( ). these emphatic decorations, and those illustrative of tennyson's 'dream of fair women and other poems,' published two years later, are the drawings most representative of mr. sullivan's intellectual ideals. they show him, if somewhat indifferent to charm, and capable of out-facing beauty suggested in the words with statements of the extreme definiteness of his own fact-conception, yet strongly appreciative of the substance and purpose of the text. carlyle gives him brave opportunities, and the dogmatism of the artist's line and form, his speculative humour, working down to a definite certainty in things, make these drawings unusually interesting. tennyson's 'dream,' and his poems to women's names, are not so fit for the exercise of mr. sullivan's talent. he imposes himself with too much force on the forms that the poet suggests. there is no delicacy about the drawings and no mystery. they do not accord with the inspiration of tennyson, an inspiration that substitutes the exquisite realities of memory and of dream for the realities of experience. mr. sullivan's share of the illustrations to white's 'selborne' and to the 'garden calendar,' are technically more akin to the carlyle and tennyson drawings than to other examples by him. in these volumes he makes fortunate use of the basis of exactitude on which his work is founded, exactitude that includes portraiture among the functions of the illustrator. no portrait is extant of gilbert white, but the presentment of him is undertaken in a constructive spirit, and, as in 'the compleat angler' and 'the old court suburb,' portraits of those whose names and personalities are connected with the books are redrawn by mr. sullivan. except mr. abbey, no character-illustrator of the modern school has so long a record of work, and so visible an influence on english contemporary illustration, as mr. hugh thomson. in popularity he is foremost. the slight and apparently playful fashion of his art, deriving its intention from the irresistible gaieties of caldecott, is a fashion to please both those who like pretty things and those who can appreciate the more serious qualities that are beneath. for mr. thomson is a student of literature. he pauses on his subject, and though his invention has always responded to the suggestions of the text, the lightness of his later work is the outcome of a selecting judgment that has learned what to omit by studying the details and facts of things. in rendering facial expression mr. thomson is perhaps too much the follower of caldecott, but he goes much farther than his original master in realization of the forms and manners of bygone times. some fashions of life, as they pass from use, are laid by in lavender. the fashions of the eighteenth century have been so laid by, and mr. abbey and mr. thomson are alike successful in giving a version of fact that has the farther charm of lavender-scented antiquity. when 'days with sir roger de coverley,' illustrated by hugh thomson, was published in , the young artist was already known by his drawings in the 'english illustrated,' and recognized as a serious student of history and literature, and a delightful illustrator of the times he studied. his powers of realizing character, time, and place, were shown in this earliest work. sir roger is a dignified figure; mr. spectator, in the guise of steele, has a semblance of observation; and if will wimble lacks his own unique quality, he is represented as properly engaged about his 'gentleman-like manufactures and obliging little humours.' mr. thomson can draw animals, if not with the possessive understanding of caldecott, yet with truth to the kind, knowledge of movement. the country-side around sir roger's house--as, in a later book, that where the vicarage of wakefield stands--is often delightfully drawn, while the leisurely and courteous spirit of the essays is represented, with an appreciation of its beauty. 'coaching days and coaching ways' ( ) is a picturesque book, where types and bustling action picturesquely treated were the subjects of the artist. the peopling of high-road and county studies with lively figures is one of mr. thomson's successful achievements, as he has shown in drawings of the cavalier exploits of west-country history, illustrative of 'highways and byways of devon and cornwall,' and in episodes of romance and warfare and humour in similar volumes on donegal, north wales, and yorkshire. here the presentment of types and action, rather than of character, is the aim, but in the drawings to 'cranford' ( ), to 'our village,' and to jane austen's novels, behaviour rather than action, the gentilities and proprieties of life and millinery, have to be expressed as a part of the artistic sense of the books. that is, perhaps, why jane austen is so difficult to illustrate. the illustrator must be neither formal nor picturesque. he must understand the 'parlour' as a setting for delicate human comedy. mr. thomson is better in 'cranford,' where he has the village as the background for the two old ladies, or in 'our village,' where the graceful pleasures of miss mitford's prose have suggested delightful figures to the illustrator's fancy, than in illustrating miss austen, whose disregard of local colouring robs the artist of background material such as interests him. three books of verses by mr. austin dobson, 'the ballad of beau brocade' ( ), 'the story of rosina,' and 'coridon's song' of the following years, together with the illustrations to 'peg woffington,' show, in combination, the picturesque and the intellectual interests that mr. thomson finds in life. the eight pieces that form the first of these volumes were, indeed, chosen to be reprinted because of their congruity in time and sentiment with mr. thomson's art. and certainly he works in accord with the measure of mr. austin dobson's verses. both author and artist carry their eighteenth-century learning in as easy a way as though experience of life had given it them without any labour in libraries. [illustration: from mr. hugh thomson's 'ballad of beau brocade.' by leave of messrs. kegan paul.] mr. c. e. brock and mr. h. m. brock are two artists who to some extent may be considered as followers of mr. thomson's methods, though mr. c. e. brock's work in 'punch,' and humorous characterizations by mr. h. m. brock in 'living london,' show how distinct from the elegant fancy of mr. thomson's art are the latest developments of their artistic individuality. mr. c. e. brock's illustrations to hood's 'humorous poems' ( ) proved his indebtedness to mr. thomson, and his ability to carry out caldecott-thomson ideas with spirit and with invention. an active sense of fun, and facility in arranging and expressing his subject, made him an addition to the school he represented, and, as in later work, his own qualities and the qualities he has adopted combined to produce spirited and graceful art. but in work preceding the pen-drawing of , and in many books illustrated since then, mr. brock at times has shown himself an illustrator to whom matter rather than a particular charm of manner seems of paramount interest. in the illustrated gulliver of there is little trace of the daintiness and sprightliness of caldecott's illustrative art. he gives many particulars, and is never at a loss for forms and details, representing with equal matter-of-factness the crowds, cities and fleets of lilliput, the large details of brobdingnagian existence, and the ceremonies and spectacles of laputa. in books of more actual adventure, such as 'robinson crusoe' or 'westward ho,' or of quiet particularity, such as galt's 'annals of the parish,' the same directness and unmannered expression are used, a directness which has more of the journalistic than of the playful-inventive quality. the jane austen drawings, those to 'the vicar of wakefield,' and to a recent edition of the 'essays of elia,' show the graceful eighteenth-centuryist, while, whether he reports or adorns, whether action or behaviour, adventure or sentiment, is his theme, mr. brock is always an illustrator who realizes opportunities in the text, and works from a ready and observant intelligence. [illustration: from mr. c. e. brock's 'the essays of elia.' by leave of messrs. dent.] mr. henry m. brock is also an effective illustrator, and his work increases in individuality and in freedom of arrangement. 'jacob faithful' ( ) was followed by 'handy andy' and thackeray's 'songs and ballads' in . less influenced by mr. thomson than his brother, the lively thackeray drawings, with their versatility and easy invention, have nevertheless much in common with the work of mr. charles brock. on the whole, time has developed the differences rather than the similarities in the work of these artists. in the 'waverley' drawings and in those of 'the pilgrim's progress,' mr. h. m. brock represents action in a more picturesque mood than mr. charles brock usually maintains, emphasizing with more dramatic effect the action and necessity for action. the illustrations of mr. william c. cooke, especially those to 'popular british ballads' ( ), and, with less value, those to 'john halifax, gentleman,' may be mentioned in relation to the caldecott tradition, though it is rather of the art of kate greenaway that one is reminded in these tinted illustrations. mr. cooke's wash-drawings to jane austen's novels, to 'evelina' and 'the man of feeling,' as well as the pen-drawings to 'british ballads,' have more force, and represent with some distinction the stir of ballad romance, the finely arranged situations of miss austen, and the sentiments of life, as evelina and harley understood it. in a study of english black-and-white art, not limited to book-illustration, 'punch' is an almost inevitable and invaluable centre for facts. few draughtsmen of notability are outside the scheme of art connected with 'punch,' and in this connection artists differing as widely as sir john tenniel and mr. phil may, or mr. linley sambourne and mr. raven hill, form a coherent group. but, in this volume, 'punch' itself is outside the limits of subject, and, with the exception of mr. bernard partridge in the present, and sir harry furniss in the past, the wits of the pencil who gather round the 'mahogany tree' are not among character-illustrators of literature. mr. partridge has drawn for 'punch' since , and has been on the staff for nearly all that time. his drawings of theatrical types in mr. jerome's 'stage-land' ( )--which, according to some critics, made, by deduction, the author's reputation as a humorist--and to a first series of mr. anstey's 'voces populi,' as well as work in many of the illustrated papers, were a substantial reason for 'punch's' invitation to the artist. from the 'bishop and shoeblack' cut of , to the 'socials' and cartoons of to-day, mr. partridge's drawings, together with those of mr. phil may and of mr. raven hill, have brilliantly maintained the reputation of 'punch' as an exponent of the forms and humours of modern life. his actual and intimate knowledge of the stage, and his actor's observation of significant attitudes and expressions, vivify his interpretation of the middle-class, and of bank-holiday makers, of the 'artiste,' and of such a special type as the 'baboo jabberjee' of mr. anstey's fluent conception. if his 'socials' have not the prestige of mr. du maurier's art, if his women lack charm and his children delightfulness, he is, in shrewdness and range of observation, a pictorial humorist of unusual ability. as a book-illustrator, his most 'literary' work is in the pages of mr. austin dobson's 'proverbs in porcelain.' studied from the model, the draughtsmanship as able and searching as though these figures were sketches for an 'important' work, there is in every drawing the completeness and fortunate effect of imagination. the ease of an actual society is in the pose and grouping of the costumed figures, while, in the representation of their graces and gallantries, the artist realizes _ce superflu si nécessaire_ that distinguishes dramatic action from the observed action of the model. problems of atmosphere, of tone, of textures, as well as the presentment of life in character, action, and attitude, occupy mr. partridge's consideration. he, like mr. abbey, has the colourist's vision, and though the charm of people, of circumstance, of accessories and of association is often less his interest than characteristic facts, in non-conventional technique, in style that is as un-selfconscious as it is individual, mr. abbey and mr. partridge have many points in common. sir harry furniss, alone of caricaturists, has, in the many-sided activity of his career, applied his powers of characterization to characters of fiction, though he has illustrated more nonsense-books and wonder-books than books of serious narrative. sir john tenniel and mr. linley sambourne among cartoonists, sir harry furniss, mr. e. t. reed, and mr. carruthers gould among caricaturists, mark the strong connection between politics and political individualities, and the irresponsible developments and creatures of nonsense-adventures, as a theme for art. to summarize sir harry furniss' career would be to give little space to his work as a character-illustrator, but his character-illustration is so representative of the other directions of his skill, that it merits consideration in the case of a draughtsman as effective and ubiquitous in popular art as is 'lika joko.' the pen-drawings to mr. james payn's 'talk of the town,' illustrated by sir harry furniss in , have, in restrained measure, the qualities of flexibility, of imagination so lively as to be contortionistic, of emphasis and pugnacity of expression, of pantomimic fun and drama, that had been signalized in his parliamentary antics in 'punch' for the preceding five years. his connection with 'punch' lasted from to , and the 'parliamentary views,' two series of 'm.p.s in session,' and the 'salisbury parliament,' represent experience gained as the illustrator of 'toby m.p.' his high spirits and energy of sight also found scope in caricaturing academic art, 'pictures at play' ( ), being followed by 'academy antics' of no less satirical and brilliant purpose. as caricaturist, illustrator, lecturer, journalist, traveller, the style and idiosyncrasies of sir harry furniss are so public and familiar, and so impossible to emphasize, that a brief mention of his insatiable energies is perhaps as adequate as would be a more detailed account. [illustration: from sir harry furniss' 'the talk of the town.' by leave of messrs. smith, elder.] other book-illustrators whose connection with 'punch' is a fact in the record of their work are mr. a. s. boyd and mr. arthur hopkins. mr. jalland, too, in drawings to whyte-melville used his sporting knowledge on a congenial subject. mr. a. s. boyd's 'daily graphic' sketches prepared the way for 'canny' drawings of scottish types in stevenson's 'lowden sabbath morn,' in 'days of auld lang syne,' and in 'horace in homespun,' and for other observant illustrations to books of pleasant experiences written by mrs. boyd. mr. arthur hopkins, and his brother mr. everard hopkins, are careful draughtsmen of some distinction. without much spontaneity or charm of manner, the pretty girls of mr. arthur hopkins, and his well-mannered men, fill a place in the pages of 'punch,' while illustrations to james payn's 'by proxy,' as far back as , show that the unelaborate style of his recent work is founded on past practice that has the earlier and truer du maurier technique as its standard of thoroughness. mr. e. j. wheeler, a regular contributor to 'punch' since , has illustrated editions of sterne and of 'masterman ready,' other books also containing characteristic examples of his rather precise, but not uninteresting, work. save by stringing names of artists together on the thread of their connection with some one of the illustrated papers or magazines, it would be impossible to include in this chapter mention of the enormous amount of capable black-and-white art produced in illustration of 'serial' fiction. such name-stringing, on the connection--say--of 'the illustrated london news,' 'the graphic,' or 'the pall mall magazine,' would fill a page or two, and represent nothing of the quality of the work, the attainment of the artist. neither is it practicable to summarize the illustration of current fiction. one can only attempt to give some account of illustrated literature, except where the current illustrations of an artist come into the subject 'by the way.' mr. frank brangwyn may be isolated from the group of notable painters, including mr. jacomb hood, mr. seymour lucas and mr. r. w. macbeth, who illustrate for 'the graphic,' by reason of his illustrations to classics of fiction such as 'don quixote' and 'the arabian nights,' as well as to michael scott's two famous sea-stories. to some extent his illustrations are representative of the large-phrased construction of mr. brangwyn's painting, especially in the drawings of the opulent orientalism of 'the arabian nights,' with its thousand and one opportunities for vivid art. mr. brangwyn's east is not the vague east of the stay-at-home artist, nor of the conventional traveller; his imagination works on facts of memory, and both memory and imagination have strong colour and concentration in a mind bent towards adventure. one should not, however, narrow the scope of mr. brangwyn's art within the limits of his work in black and white, and what is no more than an aside in the expression of his individuality, cannot, with justice to the artist, be considered by itself. other 'graphic' illustrators--mr. frank dadd, mr. john charlton, mr. william small, and mr. h. m. paget, to name a few only--represent the various qualities of their art in black-and-white drawings of events and of fiction, and the 'illustrated,' with artists including mr. caton woodville, mr. seppings wright, mr. s. begg, m. amedée forestier and mr. ralph cleaver, fills a place in current art to which few of the more recently established journals can pretend. mr. frank dadd and mr. h. m. paget made drawings for the 'dryburgh' edition of the waverleys. in this edition, too, is the work of well-known artists such as mr. william hole, whose scott and stevenson illustrations show his inbred understanding of northern romance, and together with the character etchings to barrie, shrewd and valuable, represent with some justice the vigour of his art; of mr. walter paget, an excellent illustrator of 'robinson crusoe,' and of many boys' books and books of adventure, of mr. lockhart bogle, and of mr. gordon browne. in the same edition mr. paul hardy, mr. john williamson and mr. overend, showed the more serious purpose of black and white that has earned the appreciation of a public critical of any failure in vigour and in realization--the public that follows the tremendous activity of mr. henty's pen, and for whom dr. gordon stables, mr. manville fenn and mr. sydney pickering write. of m. amedée forestier, whose illustrations are as popular with readers of the 'illustrated' and with the larger public of novel-readers as they are with students of technique, one cannot justly speak as an english illustrator. he, and mr. robert sauber, contributed to ward lock's edition of scott illustrated by french artists. their work, m. forestier's so admirable in realization of episode and romance, mr. sauber's, vivacious up to the pitch of 'the impudent comedian'--as his illustrations to mr. frankfort moore's version of nell gwynn's fascinations showed--needs no introduction to an english public. the black and white of mr. sauber and of mr. dudley hardy--when mr. hardy is in the vein that culminated in his theatrical posters--has many imitators, but it is not a style that is likely to influence illustrators of literature. mr. hal hurst shows something of it, though he, and in greater measure mr. max cowper, also suggest the unforgettable technique of charles dana gibson. iv. some children's-books illustrators. leigh hunt is one of many authors gratefully to praise the best-praised publisher of any day, mr. newbery, who, at "the bible and sun" in st. paul's churchyard, dispensed to long-ago children 'goody two shoes,' 'beauty and the beast,' and other less famous little books, bound in gilt paper and rich with many pictures. charming memories prompt leigh hunt's mention of the little penny books 'radiant with gold,' that 'never looked so well as in adorning literature,' and if the radiance of his estimate of these nursery volumes is from an actual memory of gilt-paper binding, his words exemplify the spirit that makes right appreciation of the newest picture-books so difficult. in no other part of the subject of book-illustration are the books of yesterday fraught with charm so inimical to delight in the books of to-day. the modern child's book--except, let us hope, to the child-owner--is merely a book as other books are. its qualities are as patent as its size, or number of illustrations. the pictures are to the credit or discredit of a known and realized artist; they are, moreover, generally plain to see as a development of the ideas of some 'school' or 'movement.' one knows about them as examples of english book-illustration of to-day. but the pictures between the worn-out covers of the other child's books were known with another kind of knowledge, discovered in a long intimacy, and related, not to any artist, or fashion of art, but to all manner of unreasonable and delightful things. so it is well, perhaps, that the break between a subject of enthralling associations and a subject whose associations are unsentimental, should, by the ordering of facts, occur before the proper beginning of a study of contemporary illustration in children's books. for one reason or another, little work by artists whose reputation is of earlier date than to-day comes within present subject-limits. some, like randolph caldecott and kate greenaway, are dead, some have ceased to draw, or draw no longer for children. happily, the witching drawings of arthur hughes are still among nursery pictures, in reprints of 'at the back of the north wind,' and its companions--though the illustrator of these books, of 'the boy in grey,' and of 'tom brown's schooldays,' has long ceased to weave his fortunate dreams into pictures to content a child. the drawings of robert barnes, of mrs. allingham and of miss m. e. edwards--illustrators of a sound tradition--are known to the present nursery generation; and so are the outline and tinted drawings of 't. pym,' who devised, so far back as the seventies, the naïve and sympathetic style of illustration that is pleasantly unchanged in recent child-books, such as 'the gentle heritage' ( ), and 'master barthemy' ( ). the later work of walter crane is so bent to decorative and allegorical purpose, that the creator of the best nursery-rhyme pictures ever printed in colours--randolph caldecott's are rather ballad than nursery-rhyme pictures--is in his place among decorative illustrators rather than in this connection. sir john tenniel's neat, immortal little alice, with her ankle-strap shoes and pocketed apron, is still followed to wonderland by as many children as in , when she and the splendid prototypes of the degenerate jargon-beasts of to-day first captivated attention. the drawings of these artists, and perhaps also of 'e. v. b.'--for 'child's play,' though published in , is familiar to present children in a reprint--are mentioned because of the place they still take on nursery book-shelves. but from such brief record of some among the books 'radiant with gold' that 'never looked so well as in adorning literature,' one must turn to work that has no such radiance of sentiment and association over its merits and defects. since the eighties mr. gordon browne has been in the forefront of illustrators popular with story-book publishers and with readers of story-books. he is the son of hablot browne, but no trace of the 'caricaturizations' of 'phiz' is in mr. gordon browne's work. probably his earliest published work appeared in 'aunt judy's magazine' some time in the seventies. these unenlivening drawings suggest nothing of the picturesque and unhesitating invention that has shaped his style to its present serviceableness in the rapid production of effective illustrations. the range and quantity of his work is best realized in the bibliographical list, which records his illustrations to shakespeare and henty, to fairy-tales and boys' stories, girls' stories and toy-books, gulliver, cervantes, and sunday-school books, at the rate of six or seven volumes a year. in addition, one must remember unnumbered illustrations in domestic magazines. and, on the whole, the stories illustrated by gordon browne are adequately illustrated. it is true that as a general rule he illustrates stories whose plan is within limits of familiarity, such as those by mrs. ewing, mrs. l. t. meade, or, in a different vein, the boys' stories of henty, manville fenn, or ascott hope. romance and the clash of swords engaged the artist in the pages of 'sintram,' of froissart, of sir walter scott, and--pre-eminently--in the illustrations to the 'henry irving shakespeare,' numbering nearly six hundred, and representing the work of five years. illustrating these subjects, though in varying degree, the vitality and importance of an artist's conception of life and of art is put to the test. so far as prompt and definite representation of persons, places, and encounters, and unflagging facility in devising effective forms of composition constitute interpretation, the artist maintained the level of the undertaking. the illustration of stories such as those collected by the brothers grimm, or those andersen discovered in his exile of dreams among the facts of life, demands a quality of thought differing from, yet hardly less rare than, the thought needed to interpret shakespeare. a fine aptitude for discerning and rendering 'the mysterious face of common things,' a fancy full of shapes, perception of the _rationale_ of magic, are essential to the writer or artist who elects to send his fancy after the elusive forms of fairyland. the recent drawings to andersen, a volume of tales from grimm, published in , and illustrations to modern inventions, such as 'down the snow stairs' ( ), and mr. andrew lang's 'prince prigio,' show that mr. gordon browne's ideas of fairyland, ancient and modern, are no less brisk and picturesque than are his ideas of everyday and of romance. his technique is so familiar that it is surely unnecessary to make even a brief disquisition on its merits in expressing facts as they exist in a popular scheme of reality and imagination. it is a healthy style, the ideals of beauty and of strength are never coarse, wanton or listless, the humour is friendly, and if the pathos occasionally verges on sentimentality, the writer, perhaps, rather than the artist is responsible. mr. gordon browne draws the average child, and represents fun, fancy and adventure as the average child understands them. his art is unsophisticated. to him, the child is no _motif_ in a decorative fantasy, nor a quaint diagram figuring in nursery-gothic elements of design, nor a bold invention among picture-book monsters. the artists whose basis of art is the unadapted child, may, perhaps, be classed as the 'realists' among children's illustrators. among these realists are the illustrators of mrs. molesworth--with the exception of walter crane, first and chief of them. mr. leslie brooke succeeded mr. crane in as the illustrator of mrs. molesworth's stories, and the careful un-selfconscious fashion of his drawing, his understanding of child-life and home-life as known to children such as those of whom and for whom mrs. molesworth writes, make these pen-drawings true illustrations of the text. his drawings are the result of individual observation and of a sense of what is fit and pleasant, though neither in his filling of a page, nor in the conception of beauty, is there anything definitely inventive to be marked. on the whole, his children and young people are rather representative of a class that maintains a standard of good looks among other desirable things, than of a type of beauty; and if they are not artistic types, neither are they strongly individualized. in his 'everyday' illustrations mr. leslie brooke does not idealize, but that his talent has a range of fancy is proved in illustrations to 'a school in fairyland' ( ), and to some imaginings by roma white. graceful, regardful of an unspoilt ideal in the fairies, elves and flower-spirits, there are also frequent hints in these drawings of the humour that finds more complete expression in 'the nursery rhyme book' of , and in the happy extravagance of 'the jumblies' and 'the pelican chorus' ( ). outside the scope of picture-book drawings are the dainty tinted designs to nash's 'spring song,' and the skilful pen-drawings to 'pippa passes.' mr. lewis baumer's drawings of children, whether in 'the boys and i' and other stories by mrs. molesworth, or in less known child-stories, have distinction that is partly a development of an admiration for du maurier, though mr. baumer is too quick-sighted and appreciative of charm to remain faithful to any model in art with the model in life before his eyes. the children of mr. baumer are of to-day. the effect of the earlier 'punch' artist on the work of the younger man is hardly more than suggested in certain felicities of pose and expression added to those that a delightful kind of child discovers to an observer unusually sensitive to the vivid and engaging qualities of his subject. these children are swift of movement and of spirit, and the _verve_ of the artist's style is rarely forced, and still more rarely inadequate to the occasion. [illustration: from mr. lewis baumer's 'hermy.' by leave of messrs. chambers.] the acceptance of a formula, rather than the expression of a hitherto unexpressed order of form, is the basis of page-decoration by members of the birmingham school, whose work in its wider aspect has already been considered. originality finds exercise in modifying details, but, pre-eminent over differences in style, is the similarity of style that suggests 'birmingham' before the variations in detail suggest the work of an individual artist. the influence of kate greenaway is strongly marked in the work of many of these designers for children's books. indeed, miss winifred green's drawings to charles and mary lamb's 'poetry for children,' and to 'mrs. leicester's school,' contain figures that, if one allows for some assertion necessary to justify their reappearance, might have come direct from 'under the window.' the typical illustrative art of birmingham is, however, of another kind. the quaint propriety of 'old-fashioned' childhood, which kate greenaway's delicate pencil first represented at its artistic value, is akin to the conception of the child that prevails on the pages decorated by mrs. arthur gaskin, but the work of mrs. gaskin shows nothing of the stothard-like ideal that seems to have been the suggesting cause of 'greenaway' play-pictures. in the arabesques of flowers and leaves which decorate many pages designed by mrs. gaskin one sees a freedom and fluency of line that are checked to quaintness and naïve angularity when the child is the subject. her conception of a pictorial child is very definite, and in her later work, one must confess, it is a conception hardly corroborated by observation of fact. 'horn book jingles' and 'the travellers' of and show the culmination of a style that had more sympathetic charm in the tinted pages of the 'a. b. c.' ( ), or the 'divine and moral songs' of the following year. book-illustration is with mrs. gaskin, as with many members of the school, only a part of craftsmanship. miss calvert's winsome drawings in 'baby lays' and 'more baby lays' are obviously related to the drawings of mrs. gaskin, though observation of real babies seems to have come between a rigid adherence to the model. the decorative illustrations by the miss holdens to 'jack and the beanstalk' ( ), and to 'the real princess,' show evidence of fancy that finds expression while nothing of mr. gaskin's teaching is forgotten. as different in spirit from the drawings of the birmingham designers as is the lambs' 'poetry for children' from 'a child's garden of verses,' the captivating illustrations of mr. charles robinson seem a direct pictorial evocation of the mood of stevenson's child's rhymes, or of eugene field's lullabies. familiar now, and exaggerated in imitations and in some of the artist's later work, the children and child-fantasies of mr. robinson, as they were realized in the first unspoilt freshness of improvisation, are among the delightful surprises of modern book-illustration. in the pages of 'a child's garden of verses' ( ), of 'the child world,' and of field's 'lullaby land,' the frolic babes of his fancy play hide and seek wherever the text leaves space for them, rioting, or attitudinizing with spritely ceremony, from cover to cover. the mood of imaginative play, of daylight make-believe with its realistic and romantic excesses, and of the make-believe enforced by flickering fire-light, and by the shadows in the darkened house, is expressed in mr. robinson's drawings. not children, but child's-play, and the unexplored shadows and mysteries that lie 'up the mountain side of dreams' are the motives of the fantasies he sets on the page beside stevenson's rhymes of old delights, and the rhymes of the land of counterpane, where wynken blynken and nod, the rockaby lady from hushaby street, and all kind drowsy fancies close round and shut away the crooked shadows into the night outside the nursery. the three books mentioned represent, as i think, the artist's work at its truest value. there is variety of touch and of method, and the heavier fact-enforcing line of 'child voices,' of 'lilliput lyrics,' or of the coloured pictures to 'jack of all trades' is used, as well as the fanciful line of the by-the-way drawings, and the arabesques and delicate detail of the fantasy and dream pictures. a scheme of solid black and white, connected and rendered fully valuable by interweaving with line, white lines telling against black masses, and black lines relieved against white, with pattern as a resource to fill spaces when plain black or plain white seem uninteresting, is, of course, the scheme of the majority of decorative illustrators. but of this scheme mr. charles robinson has made individual use. whether his lines trace a fairy's transparent wing on a background of night-sky, of drifting cloud or of dream mountain-side, or make the child visible among dream-buildings, or seated on the world of fancy in the immensity of night, or passing in a sleep-ship through faëry seas, they have the quality of imagination, imagination in their disposition to form a decorative effect, and in the forms they express. the full-page drawings to 'king longbeard' have this quality, and hardly a drawing to any theme of fancy, whether in old or in new fairy tales, or in verses, but is the result of a vision of charm and distinction. it would seem that the imagination of mr. charles robinson realizes a subject with more delight when the text is suggestive, rather than impressive with definite conceptions. the mighty forms of 'the odyssey,' the chivalric symbolism of 'sintram and aslaugas knight,' even the magical particularity of hans andersen, are not, apparently, supreme in his imagination, as is his vision of fairy-seeing childhood. one is unenlightened by the graceful drawings to 'the adventures of odyseus,' or the romances of de la motte fouqué. that miss alice woodward has, on occasion, made one of the many illustrators who have profited by the example of mr. charles robinson, various drawings seem to show, but few of these illustrators have the originality and purpose that allow miss woodward to enlarge her range of expression without nullifying the spontaneity of her work. she has illustrated over a dozen books, beginning with 'banbury cross' in , and mostly she treats her subject with humour and variety and with a consistent idea of the pictorial aspect of things. she has quick appreciation of unconscious humour in attitude and in expression, though she seems at times to rely too much on memory, thereby diminishing vividness. when most successful she can draw a pleasing child with lines almost as few as those used by any modern artist. miss gertrude bradley is another pleasant illustrator. her later drawings of children are modified from the print-pinafore freshness of those in 'songs for somebody' ( ), to a type that has evident affinities with the charles robinson child, though in 'just forty winks' ( ) miss bradley proves her individual sense of humour. the taking simplicity of miss marion wallace-dunlop's illustrations of elf-babies in 'fairies, elves and flower babies,' and of the human twins who adventure in 'the magic fruit garden' also suggests the influence of the fortunate inventor of an admirable child. [illustration: from miss woodward's 'to tell the king the sky is falling.' by leave of messrs. blackie.] the greater amount of mr. bedford's work for children consists of coloured illustrations to nursery-books, and, when the humour of half-penny paper journalism is supposed to be entertainment for babies, one may be thankful for the pleasant and peaceful drawings of this artist. little miss muffet, wee willie winkie, and the activities of town and country, are a relief from the _jeunesse dorée_, and the lethargy of the war office as toy-book subjects, while 'the battle of the frogs and mice'--though miss barlow's version of aristophanes, with mr. bedford's effective decorations, is hardly a nursery-book--is a better child's subject than the punishable pretensions of other nations. in work hitherto noticed, the child may be regarded as the central figure of the design, whether fact or fancy be set about his little personality. besides the illustrators whose subject is childhood in some aspect or another, and those children's illustrators who pictorialize the wide imaginings of the national fairy tales, there are others in whose work the child figures incidentally, but not as the central fact. in this connection one may consider those draughtsmen who illustrate modern wonder-books with zankiwanks, krabs and wallypugs. mr. archie macgregor should be classed, perhaps, among artists of the child in wonderland, but the personalities of tomakin and his sisters, though judge parry sets them forth in prose and in verse with his usual high spirits, are not the illustrator's first care. 'katawampus,' 'the first book of krab,' and 'butterscotia,' have made mr. macgregor's robust and strongly-defined drawings familiar, and, within the limits of the author's hearty imagination, his droll and unflagging representations of adventures, ceremonies and humours, are extremely apt. children, goblins, animals and queer monsters are drawn with unhesitating spirit and humour, and with decorative invention that would be even more successful if it were less fertile in devising detail. more fortunate in rendering action than facial expression, without the mystery that is the atmosphere of the magical fairy-land, the fact and fancy of mr. macgregor are so admirably illustrative of judge parry's text that one is almost inclined to attribute the absence of glamour to the artist's strong conception of the function of an illustrator. mr. alan wright's work, again, is inevitably associated with the invention of an author, though mr. farrow's 'wallypug' books have not all been illustrated by one artist. mr. wright's drawings are proof of an energetic and serviceable conception of all sorts of out-of-the-way things. his humour is unelaborate, he goes straight to the fact, and, having expressed its extraordinary and fantastic characteristics, he does not linger to develop his drawing into a decorative scheme. apparently he draws 'out of his head,' whether his subject is fact or extravagance. the three small humans who figure in 'the little panjandrum's dodo,' and the ambassador's son of 'the mandarin's kite,' are as briefly sketched as the whimsicalities with whom they consort. mr. arthur rackham's illustrations to 'two old ladies, two foolish fairies, and a tom-cat' ( ), and to 'the zankiwank and the bletherwitch' show inspiriting talent for nursery extravaganza. the children, whirled from reality into a phantasmagoria of adventure, are deftly and happily drawn, the fairies have fairy grace, and the rout of hobgoblins and grotesques fill their parts. drawing real animals, mr. rackham is equally quick to note what is characteristic, and his facility in realizing fact and magic finds expression in the illustrations to 'grimm's fairy tales' ( ). this is the most important work of mr. rackham as a child's illustrator, and if the drawings are somewhat calculated to impress the horrid horror of witches and forest enchantments on uneasy minds, the charm of princesses and peasant maids, the sagacious humour of talking animals and the grotesque enlivenment of cobolds and gnomes are no less vividly represented. that mr. rackham admires mr. e. j. sullivan's scheme of decorative black-and-white is evident in these drawings, but not to the detriment of their inventive worth. [illustration: from mr. arthur rackham's 'grimm's fairy tales.' by leave of messrs. freemantle.] mr. j. d. batten, mr. h. j. ford, and mr. h. r. millar represent, in various ways, the modern art of fairy-tale illustration at its best. mr. batten's connection with mr. joseph jacob's treasuries of fairy-lore, mr. ford's long record of work in the multicoloured fairy and true story books edited by mr. lang, and the drawings of mr. millar in various collections of fairy tales, entitle them to a foremost place among contemporary illustrators of the world's immortal wonder-stories. mr. batten knows the rules of chivalry, of sentiment, humour, and horridness, as they exist in the magical convention of the real fairy-tales, and whether their purpose be merry or sad, heroic or grotesque, he illustrates the old tales of celt and saxon, of india, arabia and greece with appreciation of the largeness and splendour of their conception. one might wish for more vitality in his women, and think that a representation of the mournful beauty of deirdre, the passion of circe or of medea, should differ from the untroubled sweetness of the king's daughter of faery. still one appreciates the dignity of these smooth-browed women, and, after all, the passionate figures of greek and celtic epics need translation before they can figure in fairy-tale books. mr. batten's ideas are never trite and never morbid. his giants are gigantic, his monsters of true devastating breed, and his drawings--especially the later ones--are as able technically as they are apt to the occasion. [illustration: from mr. batten's 'indian fairy tales.' by leave of david nutt.] there can hardly be an existent fairy-story among the hundreds told before the making of books that mr. ford has not illustrated in one version or another. the telling-house of every nation has yielded stories for mr. lang's annual volumes; and since the appearance of 'the blue fairy book' in , mr. ford, alone or in collaboration with mr. jacomb hood, mr. lancelot speed and other well-known artists, has illustrated the stories mr. lang has gathered. moreover, in addition to seven volumes of fairy tales, and many true story and animal story books, mr. ford has made drawings for Æsop, for the 'arabian nights,' and for 'early italian love stories.' his decorative and illustrative ideal has never lacked distinction, and his recent work is the coherent development of that of fourteen years ago, though he has gained in freedom and variety of conception and in quality of expression. mr. ford's art is obviously founded on that of walter crane, but he looks at a subject with greater interest in its dramatic possibilities, and in the facts of place and time than the later 'crane' convention admits. an abundant fancy, familiarity with the facts of legendary, romantic and animal life, over a wide tract of country and through long ages of time, fill the decorative pages of the artist with a plentitude of graceful, vigorous and persuasive forms. the well-devised pages of miss emily j. harding's 'fairy tales of the slav peasants and herdsmen,' are akin in form to the drawings of mr. batten and of mr. ford, though regard for the national tone of the stories gives these illustrations individuality and interest. [illustration: from mr. ford's 'pink fairy book.' by leave of messrs. longmans.] the principles of art represented by the drawings of mr. ford have little in common with those which determine the scheme of mr. millar's many illustrations. vierge, and gigoux, the master of vierge, are the indubitable suggesters of his style, and the antitheses of sheer black and white, the audacities, evasions and accentuations of these jugglers with line and form, are dexterously handled by mr. millar. he has not invented his convention, he has accepted it, and begun original work within accepted limits. a less original artist would thereby have doomed himself to extinction, but mr. millar has a lively apprehension of romance, especially in an oriental setting, and interest in subject is incompatible with merely imitative work. illustrations to 'hajji baba' ( ), and to 'eothen,' show how dramatic and true to picturesque notions of the east are the conceptions, and the same vigour projects itself into themes of western adventure in 'frank mildmay' and 'snarleyow.' but his right to be considered here is determined by the rapid visions of fairy romance realized in the pages of 'fairy tales by q.' ( ), of 'the golden fairy book' with its companions, and on the more concrete but not less sufficient drawings to 'the book of dragons,' and 'nine unlikely tales for children.' [illustration: from mr. millar's 'fairy tales by q.' by leave of messrs. cassells.] the pen-drawings of mr. t. h. robinson in the "andersen" illustrated by the brother artists, show ability to realize not only the incidents and ideas of the stories, but also something of the national inspiration that is an element in all _märchen_. at times determinedly decorative, his work is generally in closer alliance with actuality than is the typical work of mr. charles or of mr. w. h. robinson. character, action, costume, picturesque facts of life and scenery are suggested, and suggested with interest in the actual geographical and chronological circumstances of the stories, whether a poet's denmark, the arabia of scheherazade, the greece of kingsley's 'the heroes,' or the rivers and mountains of carmen sylva's stories determine the fact-scheme for his decorative invention. in addition to these vigorous and generally harmonious illustrations, the artist's drawings to 'cranford,' 'the scarlet letter,' 'lichtenstein,' 'the sentimental journey,' and 'esmond,' prove his interest and inventive sense to be effective in realizing actual historical and local conditions. if mr. w. h. robinson is also an apt illustrator of legends and of folk-tales, whose setting demands attention to the facts of life as they were to story-tellers in far countries of once-upon-a-time, the more individual side of his talent is discovered in work of wilder and more intense fancy. andersen's 'marsh king's daughter,' the snow queen with her frozen eyes, the picaresque mood of little claus, or the doom of proud inger, are to his mind, and in illustrations to 'don quixote' ( ), to 'the pilgrim's progress,' and especially in the fully decorated volume of poe's 'poems,' the forcible conceptions of the text find pictorial expression. mr. a. g. walker, though a sculptor by profession, claims notice as an illustrator of various children's books, notably 'the lost princess' ( ), 'stories from the faerie queene' ( ), and 'the book of king arthur.' his pen-drawings are expressive of a thoughtful realization of the subject in its actual and moral beauty. the nobility of spenser's conceptions, the remote beauty of the arthurian legend, appeal to him, and the careful rendering of costume, landscape and the aspect of things, is only part of a scheme of execution that has as its complete intention the rendering of the 'mood' of the narrative. these drawings are realizations rather than illuminations of the text, and one appreciates their thoroughness, clearness, and dignity. miss helen stratton published some pleasant but not very vigorous drawings of children in 'songs for little people' ( ), and illustrations to a selection from andersen suggested the later direction of her ability. this, as the copiously illustrated 'fairy tales from hans christian andersen' ( ), and the large number of drawings contributed to messrs. newnes' edition of 'the arabian nights,' show, is in realizing themes less actual than those of nursery lyrics. a sense of drama in the pose and grouping of the multitudes of figures on the pages of the danish and arabian stories, and a sufficient care for the background, as the poet's eyes might have seen it behind the dream-figures that passed between him and reality, are qualities that give miss stratton's competent work imaginative value. the work of miss r. m. m. pitman comes within the subject in her illustrations to lady jersey's fairy tale, 'maurice and the red jar,' and to 'the magic nuts' of mrs. molesworth. but though their decorative intention and technique represent the forms of the artist's work, the spirit of fantasy that informs her illustrations to 'undine' finds only modified expression. the symbolism of 'undine' is wrought into decorations of inventive elaborateness. the technical ideal of miss pitman suggests study of dürer's pen-drawing, and though at times there is too much sweetness and luxury in her representation of beauty, at her best she expresses free fancy with distinction not common in modern book-illustration. brief allusion only--where drawings of more definitely illustrative purpose over-crowd the available space--can be made to the numerous animal books, serious and comic. mr. percy j. billinghurst's full-page designs to 'a hundred fables of Æsop,' 'a hundred fables of la fontaine,' and 'a hundred anecdotes of animals' deserve more than passing mention for their decorative and observant qualities and their enlivening humour. another decorative draughtsman of animals for children's books is mr. carton moore park, who, since , when the 'alphabet of animals' and 'the book of birds' appeared, has published seven or eight volumes of his strongly devised designs. one can hardly conclude without reference to mr. louis wain, the cats' artist of twenty years' standing, and to mr. j. a. shepherd, chief caricaturist of animals; but while toy-book artists such as mrs. percy dearmer, mrs. farmiloe, miss rosamond praeger, mr. aldin, and mr. hassall (whose subject--the child--takes precedence of zoological subjects) must be left unconsidered, the humourists of the zoo can hardly be included. bibliography. bibliography. (_to september, ._) some decorative illustrators. amelia bauerle. _happy-go-lucky._ ismay thorn. º. (innes, .) f. p. _a mere pug._ nemo. º. (long, .) f. p. _allegories._ frederic w. farrar. º. (longmans, .) f. p. _sir constant._ w. e. cule. º. (melrose, .) f. p. _glimpses from wonderland._ º. j. ingold. (long, .) f. p. _the day-dream._ alfred tennyson. º. (lane, . 'flowers of parnassus.') illust. ( f. p.) r. anning bell. _jack the giant-killer_ and _beauty and the beast_. edited by grace rhys. º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. ( f. p.) _the sleeping beauty_ and _dick whittington and his cat_. edited by grace rhys. º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. ( f. p.) _the christian year._ º. (methuen, .) f. p. _a midsummer night's dream._ º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the riddle._ walter raleigh. º. (privately printed, .) illust. ( f. p.) _an altar book._ fol. (merrymount press, u.s.a., .) f. p. _keats' poems._ edited by walter raleigh. º. (bell, . endymion series.) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the milan._ walter raleigh. º. (privately printed, .) f. p. _english lyrics from spenser to milton._ º. (bell, . endymion series.) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _pilgrim's progress._ º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _lamb's tales from shakespeare._ º. (fremantle, .) f. p. w. e. f. britten. _the elf-errant._ moira o'neill. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) f. p. _undine._ translated from the german of baron de la motte fouqué by edmund gosse. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) f. p., photogravure. _the early poems of alfred lord tennyson._ edited by john churton-collins. º. (methuen, .) f. p., photogravure. percy bulcock. _the blessed damozel._ dante gabriel rossetti. º. (lane, . 'flowers of parnassus.') illust. ( f. p.) herbert cole. _gulliver's travels._ j. swift. º. (lane, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the rubaiyat._ º. (lane, . 'flowers of parnassus.') illust. ( f. p.) _the nut-brown maid._ a new version by f. b. money-coutts. º. (lane, . 'f. of p.') illust. ( f. p.) _a ballade upon a wedding._ sir john suckling. º. (lane, . 'f. of p.') illust. ( f. p.) _the rime of the ancient mariner._ s. t. coleridge. º. (gay and bird, .) f. p. philip connard. _the statue and the bust._ robert browning. º. (lane, . 'flowers of parnassus.') illust. ( f. p.) _marpessa._ stephen phillips. º. (lane, . 'f. of p.') illust. ( f. p.) walter crane. _the new forest._ j. r. wise. º. (smith, elder, .) illust. engraved by w. j. linton. (a new edition, published by henry sotheran, , with the original illust. and etchings by heywood sumner.) _stories from memel._ mrs. de haviland. º. (william hunt, .) f. p. _walter crane's toy-books._ issued in single numbers, from - . ---- _collected editions_, all published in º, by george routledge, and printed throughout in colours. _walter crane's picture book._ ( .) pp. _the marquis of carabas' picture book._ ( .) pp. _the blue beard picture book._ ( .) pp. _song of sixpence toy-book._ ( .) pp. _chattering jack's picture book._ ( .) pp. _the three bears picture book._ ( .) pp. _aladdin's picture book._ ( .) pp. _the magic of kindness._ h. and a. mayhew. º. (cassell, petter and galpin, .) f. p. _sunny days, or a month at the great stowe._ author of 'our white violet.' º. (griffith and farran, .) f. p., in colours. _our old uncle's home._ 'mother carey.' º. (griffith and farran, .) f. p. _the head of the family._ mrs. craik. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _agatha's husband._ mrs. craik. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _tell me a story._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the quiver of love._ a collection of valentines, ancient and modern. º. (marcus ward, .) with kate greenaway. f. p. in colours. _carrots._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _songs of many seasons._ jemmett browne. º. (simpkin, marshall, .) with others. f. p. by walter crane. _the baby's opera._ º. (routledge, .) pictured pages in colours. ( f. p.) _the cuckoo clock._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _grandmother dear._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the tapestry room._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the baby's bouquet._ º. (routledge, .) pictured pages, in colours. ( f. p.) _a christmas child._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the necklace of princess fiorimonde._ mrs. de morgan. º. (macmillan, .) illust. _herr baby._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the first of may._ a fairy masque. j. r. wise. fol. (henry sotheran, .) decorated pages. ( f. p.) _household stories._ translated from the german of the brothers grimm by lucy crane. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _rosy._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _pan-pipes._ a book of old songs. theo. marzials. oblong folio. (routledge, .) pictured pages, in colours. _christmas tree land._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _walter crane's new series of picture books._ º. (marcus ward, - .) _slate and pencilvania._--_little queen anne._--_pothooks and perseverance._ pages each, in colours. _the golden primer._ j. m. d. meiklejohn. º. (blackwood, .) part i. and part ii. decorated pages in colours in each part. _folk and fairy tales._ c. c. harrison. º. (ward and downey, .) f. p. _"us."_ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the sirens three._ walter crane. º. (macmillan, .) pictured pages. _the baby's own Æsop._ º. (routledge, .) pictured pages, in colours. _echoes of hellas._ the tale of troy and the story of orestes from homer and aeschylus. with introductory essay and sonnets by prof. george c. warr. fol. (marcus ward, .) decorated pages. _four winds farm._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _legends for lionel._ º. (cassell, .) pictured pages, in colours. _a christmas posy._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the happy prince, and other tales._ oscar wilde. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations with g. p. jacomb-hood. f. p. by walter crane. _the book of wedding days._ quotations for every day in the year, compiled by k. e. j. reid, etc. º. (longmans, .) pictured pages. _the rectory children._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _flora's feast._ a masque of flowers. walter crane. º. (cassell, .) pictured pages, in colours. _the turtle dove's nest._ º. (routledge, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. _chambers twain._ ernest radford. º. (elkin matthews, .) f. p. _a sicilian idyll._ dr. todhunter. º. (elkin matthews, .) f. p. _renascence._ a book of verse. walter crane. including 'the sirens three' and 'flora's feast.' º. (elkin mathews, .) illust. and decorations, some engraved on wood by arthur leverett. _a wonder book for girls and boys._ nathaniel hawthorne. (osgood, .) illust. and decorations in colours. ( f. p.) _queen summer, or the tourney of the lily and the rose._ walter crane. º. (cassell, .) pictured pages in colours. _the tempest._ illust. to shakespeare's 'tempest.' engraved and printed by duncan c. dallas. (dent, .) _under the hawthorn._ augusta de gruchy. º. (mathews and lane, .) f. p. _the old garden._ margaret deland. º. (osgood, .) decorated pages. _the two gentlemen of verona._ illust. to shakespeare's 'two gentlemen of verona.' engraved and printed by duncan c. dallas. (dent, .) _the story of the glittering plain._ william morris. º. (kelmscott press. .) illust. borders, titles and initials by william morris. _the history of reynard the fox._ english verse by f. s. ellis. º. (david nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the merry wives of windsor._ illust. to shakespeare's 'merry wives of windsor.' engraved and printed by duncan c. dallas. º. (george allen, .) _the vision of dante._ miss harrison. º. . f. p. _the faerie queene._ edited by thomas j. wise. vols. º. (george allen, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _a book of christmas verse._ selected by h. c. beeching. º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the shepheard's calendar._ edmund spenser. º. (harper, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the walter crane readers._ nelle dale. vols. º. (dent, .) pictured pages, in colours. ( f. p.) _a floral fantasy in an old english garden._ walter crane. º. (harper, .) pictured pages, in colours. h. granville fell. _our lady's tumbler._ a twelfth century legend transcribed for lady day, . º. (dent, .) f. p. _wagner's heroes._ constance maud. º. (arnold, .) f. p. _cinderella_ and _jack and the beanstalk_. º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. ( f. p.) _ali baba_ and _the forty thieves_. º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. ( f. p.) _the fairy gifts_ and _tom hickathrift_. º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. ( f. p.) _the book of job._ º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., double pages.) _the song of solomon._ º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _wonder stories from herodotus._ re-told by c. h. boden and w. barrington d'almeida. º. (harper, .) illust. in colours. ( f. p.) a. j. gaskin. _a book of pictured carols._ designed by members of the birmingham art school under the direction of a. j. gaskin. º. (george allen, .) illust. and decorations with c. m. gere, henry payne, bernard sleigh, fred. mason, and others. ( f. p. by a. j. gaskin.) _stories and fairy tales._ hans andersen. º. (george allen. .) illust. ( f. p.) _a book of fairy tales._ re-told by s. baring gould. º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _good king wenceslas._ dr. neale. º. (cornish brothers, birmingham, .) f. p. _the shepheard's calendar._ e. spenser. º. (kelmscott press, .) f. p. c. m. gere. _russian fairy tales._ r. nisbet bain. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) f. p. _news from nowhere._ william morris. º. (kelmscott press, .) f. p. _the imitation of christ._ thomas à kempis. introduction by f. w. farrar. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _a book of pictured carols._ see _a. j. gaskin_. j. j. guthrie. _wedding bells._ a new old nursery rhyme by a. f. s. and e. de passemore. º. (simpkin, marshall, .) decorated pages. _the little men in scarlet._ frances h. low. (jarrold, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the garden of time._ mrs. davidson. º. (jarrold, .) illust. ( f. p.) _an album of drawings._ fol. (the white cottage, shorne, kent, .) f. p. from various magazines. laurence housman. _jump-to-glory jane._ george meredith. º. (swan, sonnenschein, .) illust. ( f. p.) _goblin market._ christina rossetti. º. (macmillan, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _weird tales from northern seas._ from the danish of jonas lie. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the end of elfin-town._ jane barlow. º. (macmillan, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _a farm in fairyland._ laurence housman. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the house of joy._ laurence housman. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _poems._ francis thompson. º. (mathews and lane, .) f. p. _sister songs._ francis thompson. º. (lane, .) f. p. _green arras._ laurence housman. º. (lane, .) f. p. _all-fellows._ laurence housman. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the were-wolf._ clemence housman. º. (lane, .) f. p. _the sensitive plant._ p. b. shelley. º. (aldine house, .) f. p. photogravure. _the field of clover._ laurence housman. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p., engraved by clemence housman. _the little flowers of saint francis._ translated by t. w. arnold. º. (dent, , temple classics.) f. p. _of the imitation of christ._ thomas à kempis. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the little land._ laurence housman. º. (grant richards, .) f. p. _at the back of the north wind._ g. macdonald. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _the princess and the goblin._ g. macdonald. º. (blackie, .) f. p. a. garth jones. _the tournament of love._ w. t. peters. º. (brentano, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the minor poems of john milton._ º. (bell, . endymion series.) illust., and decorations. ( f. p.) _contes de haute-lisse._ jérome doucet. (bernoux and cumin, .) illust. and decorations. _contes de la fileuse._ jérome doucet. (tallandier, .) illust. and decorations. celia levetus. _turkish fairy tales._ trans. by r. nisbet bain. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _verse fancies._ edward l. levetus. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) _songs of innocence._ william blake. º. (wells, gardner, and darton, .) illust. ( f. p.) w. b. macdougall _chronicles of strathearn._ º. (david philips, .) f. p. _the fall of the nibelungs._ in two books. translated by margaret armour. º. (dent, .) f. p. in each book. _thames sonnets and semblances._ margaret armour. º. (elkin mathews, .) f. p. _the book of ruth._ introduction by ernest rhys. º. (dent, .) f. p. _isabella, or the pot of basil._ john keats. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the shadow of love and other poems._ margaret armour. º. (duckworth, .) f. p. fred. mason. _a book of pictured carols._ see _a. j. gaskin_. _the story of alexander._ robert steele. º. (david nutt, .) illust. ( f. p.) _huon of bordeaux._ robert steele. º. (george allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _renaud of montauban._ robert steele. º. (george allen, .) f. p. t. sturge moore. _the centaur._ _the bacchant._ translated from the french of maurice de guérin by t. sturge moore. (vale press, .) º. wood engravings. _some fruits of solitude._ william penn. º. (essex house press, .) wood engraving on title-page. l. fairfax muckley. _the faerie queene._ e. spenser. introduction by prof. hales. vols. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., double page.) _fringilla._ r. d. blackmore. º. (elkin mathews, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) by james linton. henry ospovat. _shakespeare's sonnets._ º. (lane, .) illust. ( f. p.) _poems._ matthew arnold. º. edited by a. c. benson. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) charles ricketts. _a house of pomegranates._ oscar wilde. º. (osgood, .) illust. with c. h. shannon. by c. ricketts. _poems, dramatic and lyrical._ lord de tabley. º. (mathews and lane, .) f. p., photogravure. _daphnis and chloe._ longus. translated by geo. thornley. º. (mathews and lane, .) illust. drawn on the wood by charles ricketts from the designs of charles ricketts and charles shannon. engraved by both artists. _the sphinx._ oscar wilde. º. (ballantyne press, .) illust. ( f. p.) _hero and leander._ christopher marlowe and george chapman. º. (vale press, .) illust., border and initials, drawn on the wood, engraved by charles ricketts and charles shannon. _nymphidia and the muses elizium._ michael drayton. º. (vale press, .) frontispiece, border and initials, engraved on wood. _spiritual poems._ t. gray. º. (vale press, .) frontispiece and border, engraved on wood. _milton's early poems._ º. (vale press, .) frontispiece, border and initials, engraved on wood. _songs of innocence._ w. blake. º. (vale press, .) frontispiece, border and initials, engraved on wood. _sacred poems of henry vaughan._ º. (vale press, .) frontispiece and border, engraved on wood. _the excellent narration of the marriage of cupide and psyches._ translated from the latin of lucius apuleius, by william adlington. º. (vale press, .) illust. engraved on wood. _the book of thel_, _songs of innocence_ and _songs of experience_. william blake. º. (vale press, .) frontispiece, initials and border, engraved on wood. _blake's poetical sketches._ º. (vale press, .) frontispiece and initials, engraved on wood. reginald savage. _der ring des nibelungen._ described by r. farquharson sharp. º. (marshall, russell, .) f. p. essex house press. _the pilgrim's progress._ _venus and adonis._ _the eve of st. agnes._ _the journal of john woolman._ _epithalamium._ ( - .) frontispiece engraved on wood to each volume. charles shannon. see _charles ricketts_. 'house of pomegranates,' 'hero and leander,' 'daphnis and chloe.' byam shaw. _poems by robert browning._ º. (bell, . endymion series.) illust. ( f. p.) _tales from boccaccio._ joseph jacobs. º. (george allen, .) f. p. _the chiswick shakespeare._ º. (bell, , etc.) illust. and decorations ( f. p.), in each volume. bernard sleigh. _the sea-king's daughter, and other poems._ amy mark. printed at the press of the birmingham guild of handicraft. (g. napier, birmingham, .) decorated pages ( f. p.), engraved with l. a. talbot. _a book of pictured carols._ see _a. j. gaskin_. f. p., by bernard sleigh. heywood sumner. _the itchen valley._ fol. (seeley, jackson and halliday, .) _the avon from naxby to tewkesbury._ fol. (seeley, jackson and halliday, .) etchings. _cinderella:_ a fairy opera. john farmer and henry leigh. º. (novello, ewer, .) illust. _epping forest._ e. m. buxton. º. (stamford, .) illust. ( f. p.) _sintram and his companions._ translated from the german of de la motte fouqué. º. (seeley, jackson and halliday, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the new forest._ j. r. wise. see _walter crane_. _undine._ º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the besom maker, and other country folk songs._ collected by heywood sumner. º. (longmans, .) decorated pages. f. p. _jacob and the raven._ frances m. peard. º. (george allen, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) j. r. weguelin. _lays of ancient rome._ lord macaulay. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the cat of bubastes._ g. a. henty. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _anacreon: with thomas stanley's translation._ edited by a. h. bullen. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) f. p. _the little mermaid and other stories._ hans andersen. translated by r. nisbet bain. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) illus. ( f. p.) _catullus: with the pervigilium veneris._ edited by s. g. owen. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) f. p. _the wooing of malkatoon_; _commodus_. lewis wallace. º. (harper, .) f. p. with du mond. by j. r. weguelin. patten wilson. _miracle plays. our lord's coming and childhood._ katherine tynan hinkson. º. (lane, .) f. p. _a houseful of rebels._ walter c. rhoades. º. (archibald constable, .) f. p. _selections from coleridge._ andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) f. p. _king john._ edited by j. w. young. º. (longmans, . swan shakespeare.) f. p. paul woodroffe. _shakespeare's songs._ edited by e. rhys. º. (dent, .) f. p. _the little flowers of st. francis._ º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _the confessions of st. augustine._ º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. title-page by laurence housman. _the little flowers of st. benet._ º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. some open-air illustrators. alexander ansted. _the rivers of devon._ j. l. warden-page. º. (seeley, .) illust. ( etched plates.) _the riviera._ notes by the artist. fol. (seeley, .) illust. ( etched plates.) _the coasts of devon._ j. l. warden-page. º. (h. cox, .) illust. _episcopal palaces of england._ canon venables and others. º. (isbister, .) etched frontispiece and illust. ( f. p.) _the master of the musicians._ emma marshall. º. (seeley, .) f. p. _london riverside churches._ a. e. daniell. º. (constable, .) illust. ( f. p.) english cathedral series. º. (isbister, - .) _salisbury cathedral._ the very rev. dean boyle. illust. ( f. p.) _york minster._ the very rev. dean purey-cust. illust. ( f. p.) _norwich cathedral._ the very rev. dean lefroy. f. p. _ely cathedral._ the rev. canon dickson. f. p. _carlisle cathedral._ chancellor r. s. ferguson. f. p. _the romance of our ancient churches._ sarah wilson. º. (constable, .) illust. ( f. p.) _boswell's life of johnson._ edited by augustine birrell. (constable, .) vols. frontispiece to each vol. c. r. b. barrett. _the tower._ c. r. b. barrett. fol. (catty and dobson, .) illust. ( etched plates.) _essex: highways, byways and waterways._ c. r. b. barrett. º. (lawrence and bullen, - .) series i. illust. ( etched plates.) series ii. illust. ( etched plates.) _the trinity house of deptford strond._ c. r. b. barrett. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( etched plate.) _barrett's illustrated guides._ º. (lawrence and bullen, - .) numbers. _somersetshire: highways, byways and waterways._ c. r. b. barrett. º. (bliss, sands and foster, .) illust. ( etched plates.) _shelley's visit to france._ charles j. elton. º. (bliss, sands, .) illus. ( etched plates.) _charterhouse, in pen and ink._ by c. r. b. barrett. preface by george e. smythe. º. (bliss, sands and foster, .) illust. ( f. p.) _surrey: highways, byways and waterways._ c. r. b. barrett. º. (bliss, sands and foster, .) illust. ( etched plates.) _battles and battlefields of england._ c. r. b. barrett. º. (innes, .) illust. ( f. p.) d. y. cameron. _charterhouse, old and new._ e. p. eardley-wilmot and e. c. streatfield. º. (nimmo, .) etchings. _scholar gipsies._ john buchan. º. (lane, . the arcady library.) etchings. nelly erichsen. _the novels of susan edmonstone ferrier._ introduction by r. brimley johnson. º. (dent, .) vols. f. p. _the promised land._ translated from the danish of henrik pontoppidan by mrs. edgar lucas. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) _emanuel, or children of the soil._ translated from the danish of henrik pontoppidan by mrs. edgar lucas. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) mediæval towns. º. (dent, - .) _the story of assisi._ lina duff gordon. illust., with others. ( f. p.) by nelly erichsen. _the story of rome._ norwood young. illust., with others. ( f. p.) by nelly erichsen. _the story of florence._ edmund g. gardner. illust., with others. f. p. by nelly erichsen. hedley fitton. english cathedral series. º. (isbister, - .) _worcester cathedral._ the rev. canon teignmouth shore. f. p. _rochester cathedral._ the rev. canon benham. illust. ( f. p.) _hereford cathedral._ the very rev. dean leigh. illust. ( f. p.) _Æschylos._ translated by g. h. plumtre. vols. º. (isbister, .) f. p. john fulleylove. _henry irving._ austin brereton. º. (bogue, .) f. p. with others. _the picturesque mediterranean._ º. (cassell, .) with others. illust. by john fulleylove. _oxford._ with notes by t. humphry ward. fol. (fine art society, .) illust. ( plates.) _in the footprints of charles lamb._ see _herbert railton_. _pictures of classic greek landscape and architecture._ with text in explanation by henry w. nevinson. º. (dent, .) plates. _the stones of paris._ b. e. and c. m. martin. vols. º. (smith, elder, .) illust. ( f. p.) by j. fulleylove. frederick l. griggs. _seven gardens and a palace._ e. v. b. º. (lane, .) illust. with arthur gordon. by frederick l. griggs. _stray leaves from a border garden._ mary pamela milne-home. º. (lane, .) f. p. _the chronicle of a cornish garden._ harry roberts. º. (lane, .) f. p. charles g. harper. _royal winchester._ rev. a. g. l'estrange. º. (spencer, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the brighton road._ c. g. harper. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _from paddington to penzance._ c. g. harper. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the marches of wales._ c. g. harper. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _the dover road._ c. g. harper. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _the portsmouth road._ c. g. harper. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _some english sketching grounds._ c. g. harper. º. (reeves, .) illust. ( f. p.) _stories of the streets of london._ h. barton baker. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _the exeter road._ c. g. harper. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _the bath road._ c. g. harper. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. _the great north road._ c. g. harper. vols. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) by c. g. harper. william hyde. _an imaged world._ edward garnett. º. (dent, .) f. p. _milton's l'allegro and il penseroso._ º. (dent, .) f. p. _london impressions._ alice meynell. fol. (constable, .) etchings, photogravures. ( f. p.) _the nature poems of george meredith._ º. (constable, .) etched frontispiece and photogravures. _the cinque ports._ ford madox hueffer. º. (blackwood, .) illust. ( f. p., in photogravure.) _the victoria history of the counties of england. hampshire; norfolk._ º. (constable, .) f. p. frederic g. kitton. _charles dickens and the stage._ t. edgar pemberton. º. (redway, .) f. p., photogravure. _charles dickens by pen and pencil._ f. g. kitton. º. (sabini and dexter, - .) with others. by f. g. kitton. _in tennyson land._ j. cuming walters. º. (redway, .) f. p. _a week's tramp in dickens' land._ wm. r. hughes. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust., chiefly by f. g. kitton. ( f. p.) _hertfordshire county homes._ (published by subscription, .) f. p. _st. albans, historical and picturesque._ c. h. ashdown. º. (elliot stock, .) illust., chiefly by f. g. kitton ( f. p.) _st. albans abbey._ the rev. canon liddell. º. (isbister, . english cathedral series.) illust. ( f. p.) _the romany rye._ george borrow. (murray, .) f. p. john guille millais. _a fauna of sutherland, caithness and west cromarty._ j. harvie brown and t. e. buckley. º. (douglas, .) illust., with others. ( f. p.) by j. g. millais. _shooting._ lord walsingham and sir r. payne gallwey. (badminton library.) º. (longmans, .) with others. illust. ( f. p.) by j. g. millais. _a monograph of the charadriidae._ henry seebohm. º. (sotheran, .) illust. _a fauna of the outer hebrides._ j. harvie brown and t. e. buckley. º. (douglas, .) illust., with others. by j. g. millais. _a fauna of the orkney islands._ j. harvie brown and t. e. buckley. º. (douglas, .) illust., with others. f. p. photogravures by j. g. millais. _a fauna of argyll and the inner hebrides._ j. harvie brown and t. e. buckley. º. (douglas, .) illust., with others. photogravure by j. g. millais. _game-birds and shooting sketches._ j. g. millais. º. (sotheran, .) illust., plates. _a breath from the veldt._ j. g. millais. º. (sotheran, .) illust. ( plates.) _letters to young shooters._ rd series. sir r. payne gallwey. (longmans, .) illust. _elephant hunting in east equatorial africa._ arthur newmann. º. (ward, .) f. p. _british deer and their horns._ j. g. millais. º. (sotheran, .) illust., mostly by the author. ( plates.) _pheasants._ w. b. tegetmeier. º. (cox, .) illust. ( f. p. by j. g. millais.) with others. _encyclopaedia of sport._ edited by the earl of berkshire. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( f. p. in photogravure.) _the wildfowler in scotland._ j. g. millais. º. (longmans, .) illust., plates. ( f. p.) edmund h. new. _the compleat angler._ izaak walton and charles cotton. edited by richard le gallienne. º. (lane, .) illust. ( f. p.) _in the garden of peace._ helen milman. º. (lane, . the arcady library.) illust. _oxford and its colleges._ j. wells. º. (methuen, .) drawings from photographs. _cambridge and its colleges._ a. hamilton thompson. º. (methuen, .) drawings from photographs. _the life of william morris._ j. w. mackail. vols. º. (longmans, .) illus. ( f. p.) _shakespeare's country._ bertram c. a. windle. º. (methuen, .) f. p. drawings from photographs. _the natural history of selborne._ gilbert white. edited by grant allen. º. (lane, .) illust. ( f. p.) _outside the garden._ helen milman. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. _sussex._ f. g. brabant. º. (methuen, .) f. p. drawings from photographs. _the malvern country._ bertram c. a. windle. º. (methuen, .) f. p. drawings from photographs. alfred parsons. _god's acre beautiful._ w. robinson. º. ("garden" office, .) f. p. _selections from the poetry of robert herrick._ º. (sampson low, .) illust. ( f. p.) with e. a. abbey. _springhaven._ r. d. blackmore. º. (sampson low, .) illust. ( f. p.) with f. barnard. _old songs._ º. (macmillan, .) illust. with e. a. abbey. _the quiet life._ certain verses by various hands: prologue and epilogue by austin dobson. º. (sampson low, .) illust. with e. a. abbey. by alfred parsons. ( f. p.) _a selection from the sonnets of william wordsworth._ º. (osgood, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the warwickshire avon._ notes by a. t. quiller-couch. º. (osgood, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the danube from the black forest to the sea._ f. d. millet. º. (osgood, .) illust. with f. d. millet. by alfred parsons. ( f. p.) _the wild garden._ w. robinson. º. (murray, .) wood-engravings. ( f. p.) _the bamboo garden._ a. b. freeman-mitford. º. (macmillan, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _notes in japan._ alfred parsons. º. (osgood, .) illust. ( f. p.) _wordsworth._ andrew lang. º. (longmans, . selections from the poets.) illust., and initials to each poem. ( f. p.) joseph pennell. _a canterbury pilgrimage._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (seeley, .) illust. ( f. p.) _tuscan cities._ w. d. howells. º. (ticknor, boston, .) illust., chiefly by joseph pennell. ( f. p.) _the saone._ p. g. hamerton. º. (seeley, .) illust. with the author. by joseph pennell; by j. pennell after pencil drawings by p. g. hamerton. ( f. p.) _an italian pilgrimage._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (seeley, .) f. p. _our sentimental journey through france and italy._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _old chelsea._ benjamin ellis martin. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _our journey to the hebrides._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _personally conducted._ f. r. stockton. º. (sampson low, .) illust. with others. _charing cross to st. paul's._ justin mccarthy. fol. (seeley, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the stream of pleasure._ joseph and elizabeth robins pennell. with a practical chapter by j. g. legge. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _play in provence._ joseph and elizabeth robins pennell. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the jew at home._ joseph pennell. º. (heinemann, .) illust. ( f. p.) _english cathedrals._ mrs. schuyler van rensselaer. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. _to gipsyland._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the devils of notre dame._ illust., with descriptive text by r. a. m. stevenson. fol. ('pall mall gazette,' .) _cycling._ the earl of albemarle and g. lacy hillier. º. (longmans, . the badminton library.) illust. with the earl of albemarle, and george moore. by joseph pennell. ( f. p.) _tantallon castle._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (constable, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by joseph pennell. _the makers of modern rome._ mrs. oliphant. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with henry p. riviere, and from old engravings. by joseph pennell. ( f. p.) _the alhambra._ washington irving. introduction by elizabeth robins pennell. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _on the broads._ anna bowman dodd. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _climbs in the new zealand alps._ e. a. fitzgerald. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. with others. ( f. p. by joseph pennell from paintings). _highways and byways in devon and cornwall._ arthur h. norway. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) with hugh thomson. by joseph pennell. _aquitaine, a traveller's tales._ wickham flower. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p.) _over the alps on a bicycle._ elizabeth robins pennell. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _highways and byways in north wales._ a. g. bradley. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) with hugh thomson. by joseph pennell. _highways and byways in yorkshire._ arthur h. norway. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) with hugh thomson. by joseph pennell. _highways and byways in normandy._ percy dearmer. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _a little tour in france._ henry james. º. (heinemann, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the stock exchange in ._ w. eden hooper. º. (spottiswoode, .) with dudley hardy. illust. by joseph pennell. proof plates. _highways and byways in the lake district._ a. g. bradley. º. (macmillan, .) illust. _east london._ walter besant. º. (chatto, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by joseph pennell. _highways and byways in east anglia._ william a. dutt. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _italian journeys._ w. d. howells. º. (heinemann, .) illust. ( f. p.) herbert railton. _coaching days and coaching ways._ º. (macmillan, .) illust. with hugh thomson. by herbert railton. _the essays of elia._ charles lamb. edited by augustine birrell. º. (dent, . the temple library.) etchings. _select essays of dr. johnson._ edited by george birkbeck hill. º. (dent, . the temple library.) vols. etchings. figures by john jellicoe. _the poems and plays of oliver goldsmith._ edited by austin dobson. º. (dent, . the temple library.) vols. etchings with john jellicoe. by herbert railton. _pericles and aspasia._ w. s. landor. º. (dent, . the temple library.) vols. etchings. _westminster abbey._ w. j. loftie. fol. (seeley, .) illust. _the citizen of the world._ oliver goldsmith. edited by austin dobson. º. (dent, . the temple library.) vols. etchings. _the poetical works of thomas lovell beddoes._ edited, with a memoir, by edmund gosse. º. (dent, . the temple library.) vols. etchings. _in the footsteps of charles lamb._ benjamin ellis martin. º. (bentley, .) f. p. with john fulleylove. by herbert railton. _the collected works of thomas love peacock._ edited by richard garnett. º. (dent, .) vols. etchings. _essays and poems of leigh hunt._ selected and edited by r. brimley johnson. º. (dent, .) vols. etchings. _dreamland in history._ the very rev. dean spence. º. (isbister, .) illust. ( f. p.) engraved by l. chefdeville. _the peak of derbyshire._ john leyland. º. (seeley, .) illust. ( f. p.) with alfred dawson. by herbert railton. _ripon millenary._ º. (w. harrison, ripon, .) illust. with others, also from old prints. by herbert railton. ( f. p.) _the inns of court and chancery._ w. j. loftie. fol. (seeley, .) illust. ( f. p.) by herbert railton. _the household of sir thomas more._ anne manning. º. (nimmo, .) illust. ( f. p.) with john jellicoe. by herbert railton, figures by john jellicoe. _the haunted house._ thomas hood. introduction by austin dobson. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _cherry and violet._ anne manning. º. (nimmo, .) illust. with john jellicoe. _hampton court._ william holden hutton. º. (nimmo, .) illust. ( f. p.) english cathedral series. º. (isbister, - .) _westminster abbey._ the very rev. dean farrar. f. p. _st. paul's cathedral._ the rev. canon newbolt. f. p. _winchester cathedral._ the rev. canon benham. f. p. _wells cathedral._ the rev. canon church. illust. ( f. p.) _gloucester cathedral._ the very rev. dean spence. f. p. _peterborough cathedral._ the very rev. dean ingram. f. p. _lincoln cathedral._ the rev. canon venables. f. p. _durham cathedral._ the rev. canon fowler. f. p. _chester cathedral._ the very rev. dean darby. f. p. _ripon cathedral._ the ven. archdeacon danks. illust. ( f. p.) _the maiden and married life of mary powell and deborah's diary._ anne manning. º. (nimmo, .) illust. with john jellicoe. _the old chelsea bun shop._ anne manning. º. (nimmo, .) illust. with john jellicoe. _travels in england._ richard le gallienne. º. (grant richards, .) f. p. _the natural history and antiquities of selborne_ and _a garden kalendar_. gilbert white. º. (freemantle, .) vols. illust. ( f. p.) with others. by herbert railton. _the story of bruges._ ernest gilliat smith. º. (dent, . mediæval towns.) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by herbert railton. _boswell's life of johnson._ edited by a. glover. introduction by austin dobson. º. (dent, .) illust. and portraits. sir george reid. _the selected writings of john ramsay._ alexander walker. º. (blackwood, .) portrait and illust. _life of a scotch naturalist._ samuel smiles. º. (murray, .) portrait and illust. ( f. p.) _george paul chalmers._ a. gibson. º. (david douglas, .) heliogravure plates. _johnny gibb of gushetneuk in the parish of pyketillim._ w. alexander. º. (david douglas, .) portrait, title-page and heliogravure plates. _twelve sketches of scenery and antiquities on the line of the great north of scotland railway._ heliogravure plates with illustrative letterpress by w. ferguson of kinmundy. º. (david douglas, .) _natural history and sport in norway._ charles st. john. º. (douglas, .) f. p., heliogravure. _the river tweed from its source to the sea._ fol. (royal association for the promotion of fine arts in scotland, .) f. p., heliogravure. _george jamesone, the scottish van dyck._ john bulloch. º. (david douglas, .) heliogravure plates. _the river clyde._ fol. (royal association for the promotion of fine arts in scotland, .) f. p., heliogravure. _salmon fishing on the ristigouche._ dean sage. º. (douglas, .) illust. ( f. p. photogravure). _lacunar basilicae sancti macarii aberdonensis._ º. (new spalding club, aberdeen, ). f. p., photogravure. _cartularium ecclesiae sancti nicholai aberdonensis._ vols. º. (new spalding club, aberdeen, - .) f. p., photogravure. _st. giles', edinburgh, church, college and cathedral._ j. cameron lees. º (chambers, .) f. p., heliogravure. _royal edinburgh._ mrs. oliphant. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _familiar letters of sir walter scott._ edited by d. douglas. vols. º. (douglas, .) vignettes, photogravure. f. inigo thomas. _the formal garden in england._ reginald blomfield and f. inigo thomas. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) by f. inigo thomas. charles whymper. _wild sport in the highlands._ charles st. john. º. (murray, .) illust. _the game-keeper at home._ richard jefferies. º. (smith, elder, .) illust. _siberia in europe._ henry seebohm. º. (murray, .) illust. _matabele land and victoria falls._ frank oates. º. (kegan paul, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. _siberia in asia._ henry seebohm. º. (murray, ). illust. _the fowler in ireland._ sir r. payne gallwey. º. (van voorst, .) illust. ( f. p.) _a highland gathering._ e. lennox peel. º. (longmans, .) illust. _a highland gathering._ e. lennox peel. º. (longmans, .) illust, engraved on wood by e. whymper. ( f. p.) _our rarer birds._ charles dixon. º. (bentley, .) illust. ( f. p.) _story of the rear-guard of emin relief expedition._ j. s. jameson. º. (porter, .) illust. _travel and adventure in south africa._ f. c. selous. º. (ward, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by charles whymper. _birds of the wave and moorland._ p. robinson. º. (isbister, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. _sporting days in southern india._ lieut.-colonel pollock. º. (cox, .) illust. ( f. p.) _big game shooting._ clive phillipps-wolley and other writers. º. (longmans, . the badminton library.) vols. illust. with others. ( f. p.) by charles whymper. _the pilgrim fathers of new england and their puritan successors._ john brown. º. (religious tract society, .) illust. ( f. p.) _icebound on kolguev._ a. trevor-battye. º. (constable, .) illust. with others. f. p. by charles whymper. _the hare._ the rev. h. a. macpherson and others. º. (longmans, . fur, feather and fin series.) illust. with others. f. p. by charles whymper. _on the world's roof._ j. macdonald oxley. º. (nisbet, .) f. p. _in haunts of wild game._ frederick vaughan kirby. º. (blackwood, .) illust. ( f. p.) _in and beyond the himalayas._ s. j. stone. º. (arnold, .) f. p. _sunshine and storm in rhodesia._ f. c. selous. º. (ward, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by charles whymper. _letters to young shooters._ sir r. payne gallwey. (longmans, .) illust., with j. g. millais. _the art of wildfowling._ abel chapman. º. (cox, .) illust. ( f. p.). with author. _wild norway._ abel chapman. º. (arnold, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. _travel and big game._ percy selous and h. a. bryden. º. (bellairs, .) f. p. _lost and vanishing birds._ charles dixon. º. (john macqueen, .) f. p. _off to klondyke._ gordon stables. º. (nisbet, .) f. p. _the rabbit._ james edmund harting. º. (longmans, . fur, feather and fin series.) illust. with others. f. p. by charles whymper. _exploration and hunting in central africa._ a. st. h. gibbons. º. (methuen, .) f. p. by charles whymper. _the salmon._ hon. a. e. gathorne hardy. º. (longmans, . fur, feather and fin series.) illust. by charles whymper. _homes and haunts of the pilgrim fathers._ alexander mackennal. º. (the religious tract society, .) illust. from original drawings and photographs. ( f. p.) _bird life in a southern county._ charles dixon. (scott, .) f. p. _the cruise of the marchesa to kamschatka and new guinea._ f. h. h. guillemard. º. (murray, .) illust. with others. engraved by e. whymper. _among the birds in northern shires._ charles dixon. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _shooting._ lord walsingham and sir ralph payne-gallwey. º. (longmans, . the badminton library.) illust. with others. by charles whymper. some character illustrators. edwin a. abbey. _selections from the poetry of robert herrick._ º. (sampson low, .) illust. with alfred parsons. ( f. p.) _the rivals and the school for scandal._ r. b. sheridan. edited by brander matthews. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. with others. f. p. by e. a. abbey. _sketching rambles in holland._ george h. boughton. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by e. a. abbey. _old songs._ º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) with alfred parsons. by e. a. abbey. _the quiet life._ certain verses by various hands. prologue and epilogue by austin dobson. º. (sampson low, .) illust. ( f. p.) with alfred parsons. by e. a. abbey. _the comedies of shakespeare._ vols. º. (harper, .) photogravure plates. _she stoops to conquer._ oliver goldsmith. º. (harper, .) illust. ( f. p.) a. s. boyd. _peter stonnor._ charles blatherwick. º. (chapman, .) illust. with james guthrie. by a. s. boyd. _the birthday book of solomon grundy._ will roberts. º. (gowan and gray, .) illust. ( f. p.) _novel notes._ j. k. jerome. º. (leadenhall press, .) illust. with others. by a. s. boyd. _at the rising of the moon._ frank mathew. º. (mcclure, .) illust. with f. pegram. by a. s. boyd. _ghetto tragedies._ i. zangwill. º. (mcclure, .) f. p. _a protègèe of jack hamlin's._ bret harte. º. (chatto, .) illust. with others. by a. s. boyd. _the bell-ringer of angel's._ bret harte. º. (chatto, .) illust. with others. by a. s. boyd. _john ingerfield._ jerome k. jerome. º. (mcclure, .) f. p. with john gulich. _the sketch-book of the north._ george eyre todd. º. (morrison, .) illust. with others. f. p. by a. s. boyd. _pictures from punch._ vol. vi. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) with others. illust. by a. s. boyd. _rabbi saunderson._ ian maclaren. º. (hodder, .) f. p. _a lowden sabbath morn._ r. l. stevenson. º. (chatto and windus, .) f. p. _the days of auld lang syne._ ian maclaren. º. (hodder and stoughton, .) f. p. _horace in homespun._ hugh haliburton. º. (blackwood, .) f. p. _our stolen summer._ mary stuart boyd. º. (blackwood, .) illust. _a versailles christmas-tide._ m. s. boyd. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) frank brangwyn. _collingwood._ w. clark russell. º. (methuen, .) illust. f. p. by frank brangwyn. _the captured cruiser._ c. j. hyne. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _tales of our coast._ s. r. crockett, etc. º. (chatto and windus, .) f. p. _the arabian nights._ º. (gibbings, .) f. p. _the history of don quixote._ translated by thomas shelton. introduction by j. h. mccarthy. vols. º. (gibbings, .) illust. _tom cringle's log._ michael scott. º. (gibbings, .) vols. _the cruise of the midge._ michael scott. º. (gibbings, .) vols. _a spliced yarn._ g. cupples. º. (gibbings, .) f. p. _naval yarns._ collected and edited by w. h. long. º. (gibbings, .) f. p. charles e. brock. _the parachute and other bad shots._ j. r. johnson. º. (routledge, .) illust. ( f. p.) _hood's humorous poems._ preface by alfred ainger. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _scenes in fairyland._ canon atkinson. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the humour of america._ edited by j. barr. º. (scott, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the humour of germany._ edited by hans mueller-casenov. º. (scott, .) illust. ( f. p.) _english fairy and folk tales._ edited by e. s. hartland. º. (scott, .) f. p. _gulliver's travels._ preface by henry craik. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _history readers._ book ii. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with h. m. brock. by c. e. brock. _nema and other stories._ hedley peek. º. (chapman and hall, .) illust. ( f. p. photogravure plates.) _annals of the parish and the ayrshire legatees._ john galt. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _w. v. her book and various verses._ william canton. º. (isbister, .) f. p. _westward ho!_ charles kingsley. vols. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the poetry of sport._ edited by hedley peek. º. (longman, .) illust. with others. ( f. p. by c. e. brock.) _pride and prejudice._ jane austen. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) illust. ( f. p.) _racing and chasing._ see _h. m. brock_. _ivanhoe._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, . illustrated english library.) f. p. _the invisible playmate and w. v. her book._ william canton. º. (isbister, .) f. p. _the lady of the lake._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, .) f. p. _robinson crusoe._ daniel defoe. º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _dent's second french book._ º. (dent, .) f. p. _the novels of jane austen._ edited by r. brimley johnson. º. (dent, .) vols. f. p. in each by c. e. and h. m. brock. by c. e. brock. in colours. _the vicar of wakefield._ oliver goldsmith. º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _john gilpin._ william cowper. º. (dent, . illustrated english poems.) illust. ( f. p.) _the bravest of them all._ mrs. edwin hohler. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _m. or n._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) f. p. coloured frontispiece. _the works of jane austen._ º. (dent, . temple library.) vols. f. p. in colours. with h. m. brock. by c. e. brock. _ivanhoe._ sir walter scott. º. (dent, .) f. p., in colours. _une joyeuse nichée._ º. (dent's modern language series, .) f. p. _the path finder._ _the prairie._ fenimore cooper. vols. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) f. p. each. _penelope's english experiences._ kate douglas wiggin. º. (gay and bird, .) illust. ( f. p.) _penelope's experiences in scotland._ kate douglas wiggin. º. (gay and bird, .) illust. ( f. p.) _ivanhoe._ sir w. scott. º. (dent, . temple classics for young people.) vols. f. p. with h. m. brock. by c. e. brock reproduced from edition. _the essays and last essays of elia._ edited by augustine birrell. º. (dent, .) vols. illust. ( f. p.) _the holly tree inn_ and _the seven poor travellers_. charles dickens. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p. photogravure plates.) henry m. brock. _macmillan's history readers._ see _c. e. brock_. _jacob faithful._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) illust. ( f. p.) _tales of the covenanters._ robert pollok. º. (oliphant anderson, .) illust. ( f. p.) _racing and chasing._ a. g. t. watson. º. longmans, . with others. illust. ( f. p.) by h. m. brock. _scenes of child life._ mrs. j. g. fraser. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _scenes of familiar life._ mrs. j. g. fraser. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _uncle john._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) illust. with e. caldwell. f. p. by h. m. brock. _song and verses._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) illust. ( . f. p.) _the little browns._ mabel e. wotton. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _asinette._ mrs. j. g. frazer. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p. in colours.) by fenimore cooper. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) _the deerslayer_, f. p.; _the last of the mohicans_, f. p.; _the pioneers_, f. p. _digby grand._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) f. p. _the old curiosity shop._ charles dickens. º. (gresham pub. co., .) f. p. _japhet in search of a father._ captain marryat. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _handy andy._ samuel lover. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _ballads and songs._ w. m. thackeray. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _cranford._ mrs. gaskell. º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _the novels of jane austen._ . see _c. e. brock_. _waverley._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _the works of jane austen._ . see _c. e. brock_. _black but comely._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) f. p. _the drummer's coat._ hon. j. w. fortescue. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _king richard ii._ edited by w. j. abel. º. (longmans, . swan edition.) f. p. _ivanhoe._ . see _c. e. brock_. _the pilgrim's progress._ john bunyan. º. (pearson, .) f. p. _ben hur._ general lew wallace. º. (pearson, .) f. p. _sister louise_ and _rosine_. _kate coventry._ _cerise._ g. j. whyte-melville. º. (thacker, .) f. p. each. frontispiece in colours. w. cubitt cooke. _evelina._ frances burney. vols. º. (dent, .) photogravure plates and portrait. _cecilia._ vols. uniform with above. f. p. _the man of feeling._ henry mackenzie. º. (dent, .) photogravure plates and portrait. _my study fire._ h. w. mabie. º. (dent, .) f. p., photogravure. _the vicar of wakefield._ o. goldsmith. º. (dent, .) f. p. _reveries of a bachelor._ d. g. mitchell. º. (dent, .) frontispiece. _the master beggars._ cope cornford. º. (dent, .) f. p. _the singer of marly._ ida hooper. º. (methuen, .) f. p. by charles dickens. º. (dent, . the temple dickens.) _sketches by boz_, vols.; _dombey and son_, vols.; _martin chuzzlewit_, vols.; _a christmas carol_, vol. f. p. in each vol. _the novels of jane austen._ edited by r. brimley johnson. vols. º. (dent, .) photogravure plates in each vol. _popular british ballads._ chosen by r. brimley johnson. vols. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) _by stroke of sword._ andrew balfour. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _john halifax._ mrs. craik. º. (dent, .) illust. in colours, with others. f. p. by w. c. cooke. sir harry furniss. _tristram shandy._ laurence sterne. º. (nimmo, .) etchings from drawings by harry furniss. _a river holiday._ º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the talk of the town._ james payn. vols. º. (smith, elder, .) f. p. _all in a garden fair._ walter besant. º. (chatto and windus, .) f. p. _romps at the sea-side_ and _romps in town_. verses by horace leonard. º. (routledge, .) pictured pages in colours. _parliamentary views._ º. (bradbury, agnew, .) f. p. _hugh's sacrifice._ c. m. norris. º. (griffith, farran, .) f. p. _more romps._ verses by e. j. milliken. º. (routledge, .) pictured pages in colours. _the comic blackstone._ arthur w. a'beckett. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) parts. illust. ( f. p. in colours.) _travels in the interior._ l. t. courtenay. º. (ward and downey, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the incompleat angler._ f. c. burnand. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) illust. ( f. p.) _how he did it._ harry furniss. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the moderate man and other verses._ edwin hamilton. º. (ward and downey, .) f. p. _pictures at play._ º. (bradbury, agnew, .) illust. ( f. p.) _sylvie and bruno._ lewis carroll. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _perfervid._ john davidson. º. (ward and downey, .) illust. ( f. p.) _m.p.s in session._ obl. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) illust. _wanted a king._ maggie browne. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _brayhard._ f. m. allen. º. (ward and downey, .) illust. ( f. p.) _academy antics._ º. (bradbury, agnew, .) illust. _flying visits._ h. furniss. º. (simpkin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _olga's dream._ norley chester. º. (skeffington, .) illust. ( f. p.) with irving montague. by h. furniss. _a diary of the salisbury parliament._ henry w. lucy. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _sylvie and bruno concluded._ lewis carroll. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the grand old mystery unravelled._ º. (simpkin, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the wallypug of why._ g. e. farrow. º. (hutchinson, .) illust. with dorothy furniss. by h. furniss. ( f. p.) _golf._ horace g. hutchinson. º. (longmans, . badminton library.) illust. with others. f. p. by h. furniss. _the missing prince._ g. e. farrow. º. (hutchinson, .) illust. with d. furniss. f. p. by h. furniss. _cricket sketches._ e. b. v. christian. º. (simpkin, .) illust. _pen and pencil in parliament._ harry furniss. º. (sampson low, .) illust. ( f. p.) _miss secretary ethel._ elinor d. adams. º. (hurst and blackett, .) illust. ( f. p.) _australian sketches._ harry furniss. º. (ward, lock, .) illust. ( f. p.) william b. hole. _the master of ballantrae._ r. l. stevenson. º. (cassell, .) f. p. _a window in thrums._ j. m. barrie. º. (hodder and stoughton, .) etchings. ( f. p.) _the heart of midlothian._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition.) woodcuts. ( f. p.) _the little minister._ j. m. barrie. º. (cassell, .) f. p. woodcuts. _auld licht idylls._ j. m. barrie. º. (hodder and stoughton, .) etchings. ( f. p.) _catriona._ r. l. stevenson. º. (cassell, .) woodcuts. _kidnapped._ r. l. stevenson. º. (cassell, .) woodcuts. _beside the bonnie brier bush._ ian maclaren. º. (hodder and stoughton, .) etchings. _the century edition of the poetry of robert burns._ vols. º. (jack, .) f. p. etchings. h. m. paget. _kenilworth._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition.) woodcuts. ( f. p.) _quentin durward._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition.) woodcuts. ( f. p.) _pictures from dickens._ º. (nister, .) coloured illust. with others. _annals of westminster abbey._ e. t. bradley. º. (cassell, .) illust. with others. _the vicar of wakefield._ oliver goldsmith. º. (nister, .) illust. ( f. p. heliogravure plates.) also illustrations to boys' books by g. a. henty, etc. sidney paget. _adventures of sherlock holmes._ conan doyle. º. (newnes, .) illust. _rodney stone._ conan doyle. º. (smith elder, .) f. p. _the tragedy of the korosko._ conan doyle. º. (smith elder, .) f. p. _old mortality._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, . illustrated english library.) f. p. _terence._ b. m. croker. º. (chatto and windus, .) f. p. _the sanctuary club._ l. t. meade and robert eustace. º. (ward, lock, .) f. p. walter paget. _the black dwarf._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition). f. p. _castle dangerous._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition.) illust. ( f. p.) _the talisman._ sir walter scott. º. (ward, lock, .) illust. with others. _a legend of montrose._ sir walter scott. º. (ward, lock, .) illust. with a. de parys. _robinson crusoe._ daniel defoe. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _treasure island._ r. l. stevenson. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _tales from shakespeare._ charles and mary lamb. º. (nister, .) illust. ( f. p. printed in colours.) j. bernard partridge. _stage-land._ jerome k. jerome. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) _voces populi._ f. anstey. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _voces populi._ second series. . illust. ( f. p.) _my flirtations._ margaret wynman. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the travelling companions._ f. anstey. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _mr. punch's pocket ibsen._ f. anstey. º. (heinemann, .) f. p. _the man from blankley's._ f. anstey. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _when a man's single._ _a window in thrums._ _the little minister._ _my lady nicotine._ j. m. barrie. º. scribner, . f. p. each. _tommy and grizel._ j. m. barrie. º. (copp, torontono, .) f. p. _proverbs in porcelain._ austin dobson. º. (kegan paul, .) f. p. _under the rose._ f. anstey. º. (bradbury, agnew, .) f. p. _lyre and lancet._ f. anstey. º. (smith, elder, .) f. p. _puppets at large._ f. anstey. º. (bradbury, agnew, ). f. p. _baboo jabberjee, b.a._ f. anstey. º. (dent, .) f. p. _the tinted venus._ f. anstey. º. (harper, .) f. p. _wee folk; good folk._ l. allen harker. º. (duckworth, .) f. p. fred pegram. _at the rising of the moon._ see _a. s. boyd_. _mr. midshipman easy._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) f. p. _sybil or the two nations._ benjamin disraeli. introduction by h. d. traill. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _the last of the barons._ lord lytton. º. (service and paton, . illustrated english library.) f. p. _masterman ready._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _poor jack._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _the arabian nights entertainments._ º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _the bride of lammermoor._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, . ill. eng. lib.) f. p. _the orange girl._ walter besant. º. (chatto and windus, .) f. p. _ormond._ maria edgeworth. introduction by austin h. johnson. º. (gresham publishing company, .) f. p. _concerning isabel carnaby._ e. thorneycroft fowler. º. (hodder and stoughton, .) f. p. _the wide wide world._ miss wetherell. º. (pearson.) f. p. _martin chuzzlewit._ º. c. dickens. (blackie.) f. p. claude a. shepperson. _shrewsbury._ stanley j. weyman. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the merchant of venice._ edited by john bidgood. º. (longmans, . swan edition.) f. p. _the heart of mid-lothian._ sir walter scott. introduction by william keith leask. º. (gresham publishing company, .) f. p. _lavengro._ george borrow. introduction by charles e. beckett. º. (gresham publishing company, .) f. p. _coningsby._ benjamin disraeli. introduction by william keith leask. º. (gresham publishing company, .) f. p. _as you like it._ edited by w. dyche. º. (longmans, . swan edition.) f. p. william strang. _the earth fiend._ william strang. º. (elkin mathews and john lane, .) etchings. _lucian's true history._ translated by francis hickes. º. (privately printed, .) illust. with others. f. p. by william strang. _death and the ploughman's wife._ a ballad by william strang. fol. (lawrence and bullen, .) etchings. _nathan the wise._ g. e. lessing. translated by william jacks. º. (maclehose, .) etchings. _the pilgrim's progress._ john bunyan. º. (nimmo, .) etchings. _the christ upon the hill._ cosmo monkhouse. fol. (smith, elder, .) etchings. _the surprising adventures of baron munchausen._ introduction by thomas seccombe. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( f. p.) with j. b. clark. by william strang. _paradise lost._ john milton. fol. (nimmo, .) etchings. _sindbad the sailor_, _ali baba and the forty thieves_. º. (lawrence and bullen, .) illust. ( f. p.) with j. b. clark. by william strang. _a book of ballads._ alice sargant. º. (elkin mathews, .) etchings. _a book of giants._ william strang. º. (unicorn press, . unicorn quartos.) f. p. woodcuts in colours. _western flanders._ laurence binyon. fol. (unicorn press, .) etchings. _a series of thirty etchings illustrating subjects from the writings of rudyard kipling._ fol. (macmillan, .) _the praise of folie._ erasmus. translated by sir thomas chaloner. edited by janet e. ashbee. (arnold, .) woodcuts, drawn by william strang and cut by bernard sleigh. edmund j. sullivan. _the rivals_ and _the school for scandal_. r. b. sheridan. introduction by augustine birrell. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _lavengro._ george borrow. introduction by augustine birrell. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) illust. ( f. p.) _the compleat angler._ izaak walton. edited by andrew lang. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) _tom brown's school-days._ º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the pirate_ and _the three cutters_. captain marryat. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) f. p. _newton forster._ captain marryat. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) f. p. _sartor resartus._ thomas carlyle. º. (bell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the pirate._ sir walter scott. º. (service and paton, . illustrated english library.) f. p. _the natural history and antiquities of selborne_ and _a garden kalendar_. gilbert white. º. (freemantle, .) vols. illust. ( f. p.) with others. by e. j. sullivan. _a dream of fair women._ lord tennyson. º. (grant richards, .) f. p. photogravure plates. hugh thomson. _days with sir roger de coverley._ º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _coaching days and coaching ways._ w. outram tristram. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with herbert railton. by hugh thomson. _cranford._ mrs. gaskell. preface by anne thackeray ritchie. º. (macmillan, .) illust. _the vicar of wakefield._ oliver goldsmith. preface by austin dobson. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the ballad of beau brocade._ austin dobson. º. (kegan paul, .) illust. ( f. p.) _our village._ mary russell mitford. introduction by anne thackeray ritchie. º. (macmillan, .) illust. _the piper of hamelin. a fantastic opera._ robert buchanan. º. (heinemann, .) plates. _st. ronan's well._ sir walter scott. º. (black, . dryburgh edition.) woodcuts. ( f. p.) _pride and prejudice._ jane austen. preface by george saintsbury. º. (allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _coridon's song and other verses._ austin dobson. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _the story of rosina and other verses._ austin dobson. º. (kegan paul, .) illust. ( f. p.) _sense and sensibility._ jane austen. introduction by austin dobson. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) f. p. _emma._ jane austen. introduction by austin dobson. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) f. p. _the chace._ william somerville. º. (george redway, .) f. p. _the poor in great cities._ robert a. woods and others. º. (kegan paul, .) illust. ( f. p.) with others. by hugh thomson. _highways and byways in devon and cornwall._ arthur h. norway. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with joseph pennell. f. p. by hugh thomson. _mansfield park._ jane austen. introduction by austin dobson. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _northanger abbey and persuasion._ jane austen. introduction by austin dobson. º. (macmillan, . ill. stan. nov.) illust. ( f. p.) _cranford._ mrs. gaskell. preface by anne thackeray ritchie. º. (macmillan, .) illust. in colours. _riding recollections._ g. j. whyte-melville. (thacker, .) f. p. coloured frontispiece. _highways and byways in north wales._ arthur g. bradley. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with joseph pennell. f. p. by hugh thomson. _highways and byways in donegal and antrim._ stephen gwynn. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _highways and byways in yorkshire._ arthur h. norway. º. (macmillan, .) illust. with joseph pennell. f. p. by hugh thomson. _peg woffington._ charles reade. introduction by austin dobson. º. (allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _this and that._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _ray farley._ john moffat and ernest druce. º. (fisher unwin, .) f. p. _a kentucky cardinal_ and _aftermath_. james lane allen. º. (macmillan, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) f. h. townsend. _a social departure._ sara jeannette duncan. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) _an american girl in london._ sara jeannette duncan. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the simple adventures of a memsahib._ sara jeannette duncan. º. (chatto and windus, .) illust. ( f. p.) illustrated standard novels. º. (macmillan, - .) the novels of thomas love peacock. edited by george saintsbury. _maid marian and crotchet castle._ illust. ( f. p.) _gryll grange._ f. p. _melincourt._ illust. ( f. p.) _the misfortunes of elphin and rhododaphne._ illust. ( f. p.) _the king's own._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. illust. ( f. p.) illustrated english library. º. (service and paton, - .) _jane eyre._ charlotte brontë. f. p. _shirley._ charlotte brontë. f. p. _rob roy._ sir walter scott. f. p. _bladys of the stewponey._ s. baring gould. º. (methuen, .) illust. with b. munns. f. p. by f. h. townsend. the works of nathaniel hawthorne. edited by moncure d. conway. º. (service and paton, - .) _the scarlet letter._ f. p. _the house of the seven gables._ f. p. _the blithedale romance._ f. p. _the path of a star._ sara jeannette duncan. º. (methuen, .) f. p. some children's books illustrators. john d. batten. _oedipus the wreck; or, 'to trace the knave.'_ owen seaman. º. (f. johnson, cambridge, .) illust. ( f. p.) with lancelot speed. _english fairy tales._ collected by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. by henry ryland. ( f. p.) _celtic fairy tales._ selected and edited by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _indian fairy tales._ selected and edited by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _fairy tales from the arabian nights._ edited and arranged by e. dixon. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p. in photogravure.) _more english fairy tales._ collected and edited by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _more celtic fairy tales._ selected and edited by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _more fairy tales from the arabian nights._ edited and arranged by e. dixon. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p. in photogravure.) _a masque of dead florentines._ maurice hewlett. obl. fol. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the book of wonder voyages._ edited by joseph jacobs. º. (nutt, .) illust. ( f. p. in photogravure.) _the saga of the sea-swallow and greenfeather the changeling._ º. (innes, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) with hilda fairbairn. lewis baumer. _jumbles._ lewis baumer. º. (pearson, .) pictured pages. ( f. p., in colours.) _hoodie._ mrs. molesworth. º. (chambers, .) illust. ( f. p.) _elsie's magician._ fred whishaw. º. (chambers, ) illust. ( f. p.) _the baby philosopher._ ruth berridge. º. (jarrold, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the story of the treasure seekers._ e. nesbit. º. (fisher unwin, .) f. p.; by gordon browne. by mrs. molesworth. º. (chambers, - .) _hermy._ _the boys and i._ _the three witches._ illust. ( f. p.) in each. f. d. bedford. _old country life._ s. baring-gould. º. (methuen, .) illust. and decorations. _the deserts of southern france._ s. baring-gould. vols. º. methuen, . illust. and diagrams; by f. d. bedford. ( f. p.) _the battle of the frogs and mice._ rendered into english by jane barlow. (methuen, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _old english fairy tales._ s. baring-gould. º. (methuen, .) illust. _a book of nursery rhymes._ º. (methuen, .) pictured pages. ( f. p. in colours.) _the vicar of wakefield._ o. goldsmith. º. (dent, .) f. p. in colours. _the history of henry esmond._ w. m. thackeray. º. (dent, .) f. p., in colours. _the book of shops._ e. v. lucas. obl. º. (grant richards, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p. in colours.) _four and twenty toilers._ e. v. lucas. obl. º. (grant richards, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p. in colours.) _westminster abbey._ g. e. troutbeck. º. methuen, . illust. ( f. p.) percy j. billinghurst. _a hundred fables of Æsop._ from the english version of sir roger l'estrange. introduction by kenneth grahame. º. (lane, .) f. p. _a hundred fables of la fontaine._ º. (lane, .) f. p. _a hundred anecdotes of animals._ º. (lane, .) f. p. gertrude m. bradley. _songs for somebody._ dollie radford. º. (nutt, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _the red hen and other fairy tales._ agatha f. º. (wilson, dublin, .) f. p. _new pictures in old frames._ gertrude m. bradley and amy mark. º. (mark and moody, stourbridge, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _just forty winks._ hamish hendry. º. (blackie, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _tom, unlimited._ m. l. warborough. º. (grant richards, .) illust. ( f. p.) _nursery rhymes._ º. (review of reviews, .) pictured pages. with brinsley le fanu. ( f. p. in colours.) _puff-puff._ gertrude bradley. obl. fol. (sands, .) f. p. in colours. _pillow stories._ s. l. howard and gertrude m. bradley. (grant-richards, ). illust. l. leslie brooke. _miriam's ambition._ evelyn everett-green. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _thorndyke manor._ mary c. rowsell. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _the secret of the old house._ evelyn everett-green. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _the light princess._ george macdonald. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _brownies and rose leaves._ roma white. º. (innes, .) illust. ( f. p.) _bab._ ismay thorn. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _marian._ annie e. armstrong. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _a hit and a miss._ hon. eva knatchbull-hugessen. º. (innes, . dainty books.) illust. ( f. p.) _moonbeams and brownies._ roma white. º. (innes, . dainty books.) illust. ( f. p.) _penelope and the others._ amy walton. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _school in fairy land._ e. h. strain. º. (fisher unwin, .) f. p. _the nursery rhyme book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (warne, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _a spring song._ t. nash. º. (dent, .) pictured pages, in colours. _pippa passes._ robert browning. º. (duckworth, .) f. p. lemerciergravures. _the pelican chorus and other nonsense verses._ edward lear. º. (warne, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _the jumblies and other nonsense verses._ edward lear. º. (warne, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) by mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, - .) _nurse heatherdale's story._ _the girls and i._ _mary._ _my new home._ _sheila's mystery._ _the carved lions._ _the oriel window._ _miss mouse and her boys._ illust. ( f. p.) in each. gordon browne. _stories of old renown._ ascott r. hope. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _a waif of the sea._ kate wood. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _miss fenwick's failures._ esme stuart. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _thrown on the world._ edwin hodder. º. (hodder, .) f. p. _winnie's secret._ kate wood. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _robinson crusoe._ daniel defoe. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _kirke's mill._ mrs. robert o'reilly. º. (hatchards, .) f. p. _the champion of odin._ j. f. hodgetts. º. (cassell, .) f. p. _'that child.'_ by the author of 'l'atelier du lys.' º. (hatchards, .) f. p. _christmas angel._ b. l. farjeon. º. (ward, .) illust. _the legend of sir juvenis._ george halse. obl. º. (hamilton, .) f. p. _mary's meadow._ juliana horatia ewing. º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. _fritz and eric._ john c. hutcheson. º. (hodder, .) f. p. _melchior's dream._ juliana horatia ewing. º. (bell, .) f. p. _the hermit's apprentice._ ascott r. hope. º. (nimmo, .) illust. ( f. p.) _gulliver's travels._ jonathan swift. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _rip van winkle._ washington irving. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _devon boys._ geo. manville fenn. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _the log of the 'flying fish.'_ harry collingwood. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _down the snow-stairs._ alice corkran. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _dandelion clocks._ juliana horatia ewing. º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. by gordon browne, etc. ( f. p.) _the peace-egg._ juliana horatia ewing. º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. ( f. p.) _the seven wise scholars._ ascott r. hope. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _chirp and chatter._ alice banks. º. (blackie, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the henry irving shakespeare. the works of william shakespeare._ edited by henry irving and frank a. marshall. º. (blackie, , etc.) vols. illust. by gordon browne, w. h. margetson and maynard brown. ( f. p. etchings.) by gordon browne. ( etchings.) _snap-dragons._ juliana horatia ewing. º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. ( f. p.) _a golden age._ ismay thorn. º. (hatchards, .) f. p. _fairy tales by the countess d'aulnoy._ translated by j. r. planché. º. (routledge, .) illust. ( f. p.) _harold the boy-earl._ j. f. hodgetts. º. (religious tract society, .) f. p. with alfred pearse. _bunty and the boys._ helen atteridge. º. (cassell, .) f. p. _tom's nugget._ j. f. hodgetts. º. (sunday school union, .) illust. ( f. p.) _claimed at last._ sibella b. edgcumb. º. (cassell, .) f. p. _great-uncle hoot-toot._ mrs. molesworth. º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. ( f. p.) _my friend smith._ talbot baines reed. º. (religious tract society, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the origin of plum pudding._ frank hudson. º. (ward, .) illust. ( f. p., in colours.) _prince prigio._ andrew lang. º. (arrowsmith, bristol, .) illust. ( f. p.) _a flock of four._ ismay thorn. º. (wells, gardner, .) f. p. _a apple pie._ º. (evans, .) pictured pages. _syd belton._ g. manville fenn. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _great-grandmamma._ georgina m. synge. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _master rockafellar's voyage._ w. clarke russell. º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the red grange._ mrs. molesworth. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _a pinch of experience._ l. b. walford. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _the doctor of the 'juliet.'_ h. collingwood. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _a young mutineer._ l. t. meade. º. (wells, gardner, .) f. p. _graeme and cyril._ barry pain. º. (hodder, .) f. p. _the two dorothys._ mrs. herbert martin. º. (blackie, .) f. p. _one in charity._ silas k. hocking. º. (warne, .) f. p. _the book of good counsels._ hitopadesa. translated by sir edwin arnold. º. (w. h. allen, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _beryl._ georgina m. synge. º. (skeffington, .) f. p. _fairy tales from grimm._ with introduction by s. baring gould. º. (wells, gardner, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _prince boohoo and little smuts._ harry jones. º. (gardner, darton, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _sintram and his companions_ and _undine_. baron de la motte fouqué. º. (gardner, darton, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the surprising adventures of sir toady lion._ s. r. crockett. º. (gardner, darton, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _an african millionaire._ grant allen. º. (grant richards, .) illust. _butterfly ballads and stories in rhyme._ helen atteridge. º. (milne, .) illust. ( f. p.) with louis wain and others. by gordon browne. _paleface and redskin and other stories._ f. anstey. º. (grant richards, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _dr. jollyboy's a. b. c._ º. (wells, gardner, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _paul carah cornishman._ charles lee. º. (bowden, .) f. p. _macbeth._ wm. shakespeare. º. (longmans, . swan edition.) f. p. _miss cayley's adventures._ grant allen. º. (grant richards, .) illus. ( f. p.) _the story of the treasure seekers._ (see _baumer_.) _stories from froissart._ henry newbolt. º. (wells, gardner, .) illust. ( f. p.) _eric, or little by little._ f. w. farrar. º. (black, .) illust. _hilda wade._ grant allen. º. (grant richards, .) illust. ( f. p.) _st. winifred's._ f. w. farrar. º. (black, .) illust. _daddy's girl._ l. t. meade. º. (newnes, .) illust. ( f. p.) _gordon browne's series of old fairy tales._ º. (blackie, - .) _hop o' my thumb._ pictured pages. ( f. p.) _beauty and the beast._ pictured pages. ( f. p.) _ivanhoe._ _guy mannering._ _count robert of paris._ walter scott. º. (black. dryburgh edition.) woodcuts from drawings by gordon browne. by g. a. henty. º. (blackie, , etc.) _bonnie prince charlie._ _with wolfe in canada._ _true to the old flag._ _in freedom's cause._ _with clive in india._ _under drake's flag._ f. p. in each vol. _with lee in virginia._ _the lion of st. mark._ f. p. in each vol. _orange and green._ _for home and fame._ _st. george for england._ _hold fast for england._ _facing death._ f. p. in each vol. edith calvert. _baby lays._ a. stow. º. (elkin matthews, .) illust. ( f. p.) _more baby lays._ a stow. º. (elkin matthews, .) illust. ( f. p.) marion wallace-dunlop. _fairies, elves and flower babies._ m. rivett-carnac. obl. º. (duckworth, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _the magic fruit garden._ marion wallace-dunlop. º. (nister, .) illust. ( f. p.) h. j. ford. _Æsop's fables._ arthur brookfield. º. (fisher unwin, .) illust. _the blue fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) with g. p. jacomb hood. _the red fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) with lancelot speed. _when mother was little._ s. p. yorke. º. (fisher unwin, .) f. p. _a lost god._ francis w. bourdillon. º. (elkin matthews, .) photogravures. _the blue poetry book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) with lancelot speed. _the green fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the true story book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) with l. bogle, etc. _the yellow fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the animal story book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the blue true story book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) with lucien davis, etc. some from _the true story book_. _the red true story book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the pink fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the arabian nights' entertainment._ selected and edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _early italian love stories._ taken from the original by una taylor. º. (longmans, .) illust. and photogravure frontispiece. _the red book of animal stories._ selected and edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the grey fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the violet fairy book._ edited by andrew lang. º. (longmans, .) illust. ( f. p., in colours.) mrs. arthur gaskin. _a. b. c._ mrs. arthur gaskin. º. (elkin matthews, .) pictured pages. _divine and moral songs for children._ isaac watts. º. (elkin matthews, .) illust. ( f. p.) in colours. _horn-book jingles._ mrs. arthur gaskin. º. (leadenhall press, - .) pictured pages. _little girls and little boys._ mrs. arthur gaskin. º. (dent, .) pictured pages, in colours. _the travellers and other stories._ mrs. arthur gaskin. º. (bowden, .) pictured pages, in colours. winifred green. _poetry for children._ charles and mary lamb. prefatory note by israel gollancz. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _mrs. leicester's school._ charles and mary lamb. obl. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) emily j. harding. _an affair of honour._ alice weber. º. (farran, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the disagreeable duke._ ellinor davenport adams. º. (geo. allen, .) f. p. _fairy tales of the slav peasants and herdsmen._ from the french of alex. chodsko. translated by emily j. harding. (allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _hymn on the morning of christ's nativity._ (see _t. h. robinson_.) violet m. and e. holden. _the real princess._ blanche atkinson. º. (innes, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the house that jack built._ º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) archie macgregor. _katawampus: its treatment and cure._ judge parry. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _butterscotia, or a cheap trip to fairyland._ judge parry. º. (nutt, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the first book of krab._ judge parry. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the world wonderful._ charles squire. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) h. r. millar. _the humour of spain._ selected with an introduction and notes by susan m. taylor. º. (scott, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the golden fairy book._ george sand, etc. (hutchinson, .) illust. ( f. p.) _fairy tales far and near._ º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the adventures of hajji baba of ispahan._ james morier. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the silver fairy book._ sarah bernhardt, etc. º. (hutchinson, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the phantom ship._ captain marryat. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) f. p. _headlong hall, and nightmare abbey._ t. love peacock. with introduction by george saintsbury. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _frank mildmay._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) illust. ( f. p.) _snarleyyow._ captain marryat. introduction by david hannay. º. (macmillan, . illustrated standard novels.) illust. ( f. p.) _the diamond fairy book._ isabel bellerby, etc. º. (hutchinson, .) illust. ( f. p.) _untold tales of the past._ beatrice harraden. º. (blackwood, .) illust. ( f. p.) _eothen._ a. w. kinglake. º. (newnes, .) illust. ( f. p.) _phroso._ anthony hope. º. (methuen, .) f. p. _the book of dragons._ e. nesbit. º. (harper, .) f. p. decorations by h. granville fell. _nine unlikely tales for children._ e. nesbit. º. (fisher unwin, .) f. p. _booklets by count tolstoi._ º. (walter scott, - .) f. p. in each vol. _master and man._ _ivan the fool._ _what men live by._ _where love is there god is also._ _the two pilgrims._ carton moore park. _an alphabet of animals._ carton moore park. º. (blackie, .) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _a book of birds._ carton moore park. fol. (blackie, .) f. p. _a child's london._ hamish hendry. º. (sands, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the confessions of harry lorrequer._ charles lever. with introduction by w. k. leask. º. (gresham publishing co., .) f. p. _a book of elfin rhymes._ norman. º. (gay and bird, .) illust., in colours. _the child's pictorial natural history._ º. (s.p.c.k., .) illust. ( f. p.) rosie m. m. pitman. _maurice, or the red jar._ the countess of jersey. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _undine._ baron de la motte fouqué. º. (macmillan, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the magic nuts._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) arthur rackham. _the dolly dialogues._ anthony hope. º. ('westminster gazette,' .) f. p. _sunrise-land._ mrs. alfred berlyn. º. (jarrold, .) illust. ( f. p.) _tales of a traveller._ washington irving. vols. º. (putman, . buckthorne edition.) illust., with borders and initials. photogravures by arthur rackham. _the sketch book._ washington irving. vols. º. (putman, . van tassel edition.) illust., with others. borders. photogravures by arthur rackham. _the money spinner and other character notes._ henry seton merriman and s. g. tallintyre. º. (smith, elder, .) f. p. _the zankiwank and the bletherwitch._ s. j. adair fitzgerald. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) _two old ladies, two foolish fairies and a tom cat._ maggie browne. º. (cassell, .) illust. ( f. p., in colours.) _charles o'malley._ charles lever. º. (service and paton, .) f. p. _the grey lady._ henry seton merriman. º. (smith, elder, .) f. p. _evelina._ frances burney. º. (newnes, .) f. p. _the ingoldsby legends._ h. r. barham. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) printed in colours. _feats on the fjords._ harriet martineau. º. (dent, . temple classics for young people.) f. p. _tales from shakespeare._ charles and mary lamb. º. (dent, . temple classics for young people.) f. p. _fairy tales of the brothers grimm._ translated by mrs. edgar lucas. º. (freemantle, .) illust. ( f. p., in colours.) charles robinson. _Æsop's fables._ º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _animals in the wrong places._ edith carrington. º. (bell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the child world._ gabriel setoun. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _make-believe._ h. d. lowry. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _a child's garden of verses._ robert louis stevenson. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _dobbie's little master._ mrs. arthur bell. (bell, .) illust. ( f. p.) _king longbeard, or annals of the golden dreamland._ barrington macgregor. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _lullaby land._ eugene field. selected by kenneth grahame. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _lilliput lyrics._ w. b. rand. edited by r. brimley johnson. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _fairy tales from hans christian andersen._ translated by mrs. e. lucas. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) with messrs. t. h. and w. h. robinson. _pierrette._ henry de vere stacpoole. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _child voices._ w. e. cule. º. (melrose, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the little lives of the saints._ rev. percy dearmer. º. (wells, gardner, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the adventures of odysseus._ retold in english by f. s. marion, r. j. g. mayor, and f. m. stawell. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _the true annals of fairy land. the reign of king herla._ edited by william canton. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _sintram and his companions_ and _aslauga's knight_. baron de la motte fouqué. º. (dent, . temple classics for young people.) f. p., in colours. _the master mosaic-workers._ george sand. translated by charlotte c. johnston. º. (dent, . temp. class. for young people.) f. p., in colours. _the suitors of aprille._ norman garstin. º. (lane, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _jack of all trades._ j. j. bell. º. (lane, .) f. p., in colours. t. h. robinson. _old world japan._ frank rinder. º. (allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _cranford._ mrs. gaskell. º. (bliss, sands, .) illust. ( f. p.) _legends from river and mountain._ carmen sylva and alma strettell. º. (allen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the history of henry esmond._ w. m. thackeray. º. (allen, .) illust. and decorations, ( f. p.) _the scarlet letter._ nathaniel hawthorne. º. (bliss, sands, .) f. p. _a sentimental journey through france and italy._ laurence sterne. º. (bliss, sands, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _hymn on the morning of christ's nativity._ john milton. º. (allen, .) f. p. with emily j. harding. _a child's book of saints._ w. canton. º. (dent, .) f. p. ( in colours.) _the heroes, or greek fairy tales for my children._ chas. kingsley. º. (dent, . temple classics for young people.) f. p., in colours. _fairy tales from the arabian nights._ f. p., in colours. _fairy tales from hans christian andersen._ º. (dent, .) (see _c. h. robinson_.) _a book of french songs for the young._ bernard minssen. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _lichtenstein._ adapted from the german of wilhelm hauff by l. l. weedon. º. (nister, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the scottish chiefs._ jane porter. º. (dent, .) illust. ( f. p.) w. h. robinson. _don quixote._ translated by charles jarvis. º. (bliss, sands, .) f. p. _the pilgrim's progress._ john bunyan. edited by george offer. º. (bliss, sands, .) f. p. _the giant crab and other tales from old india._ retold by w. h. d. rouse. º. (nutt, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _danish fairy tales and legends._ hans christian andersen. º. (bliss, sands, .) f. p. _the arabian nights' entertainments._ º. (newnes, by arrangement with messrs. constable, .) illust. with helen stratton, a. d. mccormick, a. l. davis and a. p. norbury. ( f. p.) _the talking thrush and other tales from india._ collected by w. cooke. retold by w. h. d. rouse. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _fairy tales from hans christian andersen._ (see _charles robinson_.) _the poems of edgar allan poe._ introduction by h. noel williams. º. (bell, . the endymion series.) illust. and decorations. ( double-page, f. p.) _tales for toby._ ascott r. hope. º. (dent, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) with s. jacobs. helen stratton. _songs for little people._ norman gale. º. (constable, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _tales from hans andersen._ º. (constable, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _beyond the border._ walter douglas campbell. º. (constable, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the fairy tales of hans christian andersen._ º. (newnes, by arrangement with messrs. constable, .) illust. some reprinted from _tales from hans andersen_. _the arabian nights' entertainments._ (see _w. h. robinson_.) a. g. walker. _the lost princess, or the wise woman._ george macdonald. º. (wells, gardner, .) illus. ( f. p.) _stories from the faerie queene._ mary macleod. with introduction by j. w. hales. º. (gardner, darton, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the book of king arthur and his noble knights._ stories from sir thomas malory's _morte d'arthur_. mary macleod. º. (wells, gardner, .) illust. ( f. p.) alice b. woodward. _eric, prince of lorlonia._ countess of jersey. º. (macmillan, .) f. p. _banbury cross and other nursery rhymes._ º. (dent, . banbury cross series.) pictured pages. ( f. p.) _to tell the king the sky is falling._ sheila e. braine. º. (blackie, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _bon-mots of the eighteenth century._ º. (dent, .) grotesques. ( f. p.) _bon-mots of the nineteenth century._ º. (dent, .) grotesques. ( f. p.) _brownie._ alice sargant. music by lilian mackenzie. obl. folio. (dent, .) pictured pages, in colours. _red apple and silver bells._ hamish hendry. º. (blackie, .) pictured pages. ( f. p., in colours.) _adventures in toyland._ edith hall king. º. (blackie, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _the troubles of tatters and other stories._ alice talwin morris. º. (blackie, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p.) _the princess of hearts._ sheila e. braine. º. (blackie, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _the cat and the mouse._ obl. º. (blackie, .) pictured pages. ( f. p., in colours.) _the elephant's apology._ alice talwin morris. º. (blackie, .) illust. _the golden ship and other tales._ translated from the swahili. º. (universities' mission, .) illust. and decorations, with lilian bell. ( f. p., by a. b. woodward.) _the house that grew._ mrs. molesworth. º. (macmillan, .) illust. ( f. p.) alan wright. _queen victoria's dolls._ frances h. low. º. (newnes, .) illust. and decorations. ( f. p., in colours.) _the wallypug in london._ g. e. farrow. º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _adventures in wallypug land._ g. e. farrow. º. (methuen, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the little panjandrum's dodo._ g. e. farrow. º. (skeffington, .) illust. ( f. p.) _the mandarin's kite._ g. e. farrow. º. (skeffington, .) illust. index of artists. abbey, e. a., , , , . allingham, mrs., . ansted, alexander, , . barnes, robert, . barrett, c. r. b., , , . batten, j. d., , , . bauerle, amelia, , . baumer, lewis, , . bedford, f. d., , . bell, r. anning, , . billinghurst, p. j., , . boyd, a. s., , , . bradley, gertrude m., , . brangwyn, frank, , . britten, w. e. f., , . brock, c. e., , . brock, h. m., , , . brooke, l. leslie, , . browne, gordon, , . bryden, robert, . bulcock, percy, , . burns, robert, . cadenhead, james, . calvert, edith, , . cameron, d. y., , , . cleaver, ralph, . cleaver, reginald, . clifford, h. p., . cole, herbert, , , . connard, philip, , , . cooke, w. cubitt, , . cowper, max, . crane, walter, , , , . dadd, frank, . davis, louis, . davison, raffles, . duncan, john, . dunlop, marion wallace, , . edwards, m. e., . erichsen, nelly, , . fell, h. granville, , . fitton, hedley, , . ford, h. j., , , . forestier, amedée, , . fulleylove, j., , , . furniss, sir harry, , , , . gaskin, a. j., , . gaskin, mrs. arthur, , . gere, c. m., , , . goldie, cyril, . gould, f. carruthers, . green, winifred, , . greiffenhagen, maurice, . griggs, f. l., , . guthrie, j. j., , , . harding, emily j., , . hardy, dudley, . hardy, paul, . hare, augustus, . hartrick, a. s., . harper, c. g., , . hill, l. raven, , . holden, violet m. and e., , . hole, william b., , . hood, g. p. jacomb, . hopkins, arthur, . hopkins, edward, . horne, herbert, . housman, laurence, , . hughes, arthur, . hurst, hal, . hyde, william, , . image, selwyn, . jalland, g. p., . james, helen, . jones, a. garth, , , . kitton, f. g., , . levetus, celia, , . macdougall, w. b., , . macgregor, archie, , . mallows, c. e., . mason, fred, , . may, phil, , . millais, j. g., , . millar, h. r., , , . millet, f. d., . moore, t. sturge, , , . muckley, l. fairfax, , . new, e. h., , , , . north, j. w., . ospovat, henry, , , . paget, h. m., , . paget, sidney, , . paget, walter, , . park, carton moore, , . parsons, alfred, , , . partridge, j. bernard, , , . payne, henry, . pegram, fred, , , . pennell, joseph, , , , . pissarro, lucien, , . pitman, rosie m. m., , . "pym, t.," . rackham, arthur, , . railton, herbert, , , , , reed, e. t., . reid, sir george, , . reid, stephen, . ricketts, charles, , . robinson, charles, , , . robinson, t. h., , . robinson, w. h., , , . ryland, henry, . sambourne, linley, , . sauber, robert, . savage, reginald, , , . shannon, c. h., , . shaw, byam, , . shepherd, j. a., . shepperson, c. a., , , . sleigh, bernard, , . speed, lancelot, . spence, robert, . strang, william, , . stratton, helen, , . sullivan, e. j., , , , . sumner, heywood, , . tenniel, sir john, , , . thomas, f. inigo, , . thomson, hugh, , , . townsend, f. h., , , , . tringham, holland, . wain, louis, . walker, a. g., , . weguelin, j. r., , . weir, harrison, . wheeler, e. j., . whymper, charles, , . williams, r. j., . wilson, edgar, . wilson, patten, , . woodroffe, p. v., , , . woodward, alice b., , . wright, alan, , . [illustration] chiswick press: charles whittingham and co. tooks court, chancery lane, london. * * * * * transcriber's notes italicized text is shown within _underscores_. quarto, (normally to), is shown as º, and octavo, (normally vo), is shown as º. illustrations were moved outside of paragraphs and closer to their pertinent paragraphs. although the list of illustrations displays the original page number, the html version of this book links the page numbers to the illustrations. made minor punctuation corrections and the following changes: page vii: contents, bibliographies: changed "book" to "books" and "illustrations" to "illustrators". orig.: some children's-book illustrations. page : illustration: changed "homes" to "horns". orig.: from his 'british deer and their homes.' page : indented essex house press under author reginald savage. changed "woolam" to "woolman". orig.: essex house press ... the journal of john woolam. page : changed "tho" to "the". orig.: ripon cathedral. tho ven. archdeacon danks. page : changed "ohe" to "the", and "hesla" to "herla". orig.: the true annals of fairy land. ohe reign of king hesla. note: the remainder of this text matches the original publication, which might contain additional title, author, or spelling errors. _the publication committee of the caxton club certifies that this is one of an edition of two hundred and fifty-two copies printed on american hand-made paper, of which two hundred and forty are for sale, and three copies printed on japanese vellum. the printing was done from type which has been distributed._ _this is also one of one hundred and forty-eight copies into which has been incorporated a leaf from an imperfect copy of the first edition of chaucer's "canterbury tales," printed by william caxton, and formerly in lord ashburnham's library, having been purchased for this purpose by the caxton club. the copies so treated comprise the three japanese vellum copies and one hundred and forty-five of the american hand-made paper copies; all of the latter are for sale._ william caxton [illustration: binding with caxton's dies (frontispiece, and see page ) ] william caxton by e. gordon duff, m. a. oxon. sandars reader in bibliography in the university of cambridge [illustration] chicago the caxton club mcmv copyright by the caxton club nineteen hundred and five table of contents. chapter page preface i. caxton's early life ii. caxton's press at bruges iii. the early westminster press iv. - v. - vi. - vii. caxton's death appendix index list of illustrations. plate page binding with caxton's dies _frontispiece_ [from the cover of a book in the library of corpus christi college, oxford.] i. prologue from the bartholomaeus this contains the verse relating to caxton's first learning to print. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] (erratum: read _prologue_ for _epilogue_ on plate i.) ii. the recuyell of the historyes of troye printed in caxton's type . leaf , the first of the third book. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] iii. epilogue to boethius printed in caxton's type . [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] iv. the dictes or sayengis of the philosophres printed in caxton's type . [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] v. caxton's advertisement printed in caxton's type . intended as an advertisement for the pica or directorium ad usum sarum. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] vi. the mirrour of the world printed in caxton's type *. the woodcuts in this book are the first used in england. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] vii. the mirrour of the world printed in caxton's type *. this shows a diagram with the explanations filled in in ms. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] viii. the game and playe of the chesse printed in caxton's type *. the wood-cut represents the philosopher who invented the game. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] ix. liber festivalis printed in caxton's type *. the colophon to the second part of the book entitled "quattuor sermones." [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] x. chaucer's canterbury tales printed in caxton's type *. this is the second edition printed by caxton, but the first with illustrations. [from the copy in the british museum.] xi. the fables of esope printed in caxton's type *. these two cuts show the ordinary type of work throughout the book. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] xii. the fables of esope the wood-cut here shewn is engraved in an entirely different manner from the rest. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] xiii. the fables of esope shewing the only ornamental initial letter used by caxton. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] xiv. the image of pity [from the unique wood-cut in the british museum.] xv. speculum vitÆ christi printed in caxton's type . the wood-cut depicts the visit of christ to mary and martha. [from the copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] xvi. caxton's device [from an example in the bodleian library, oxford.] xvii. legenda ad usum sarum printed at paris by w. maynyal, probably for caxton. the book is known only from fragments. [from a leaf in the university library, cambridge.] xviii. the indulgence of printed in caxton's type . this type is not mentioned by blades in his life of caxton. [from a copy in the british museum.] xix. the boke of eneydos printed in caxton's type . this page gives caxton's curious story about the variations in the english language. [from the copy in the british museum.] xx. ars moriendi printed in caxton's type [text] and [heading]. [from the unique copy in the bodleian library, oxford.] xxi. servitium de transfiguratione jesu christi printed in caxton's type . [from the unique copy in the british museum.] xxii. the crucifixion used by caxton in the fifteen oes, and frequently afterwards by wynkyn de worde. [from an example in the bodleian library, oxford.] xxiii. the lyf of saint katherin printed by w. de worde with a modification of caxton's type *. the large initials serve to distinguish de worde's work from caxton's. [from the copy in the british museum.] xxiv. and xxv. the metamorphoses of ovid two leaves, one with the colophon, from a manuscript prepared by caxton for the press, and perhaps in his own hand. [from the ms. in the pepysian library, magdalene college, cambridge.] preface. a life of caxton must of necessity be little more than an account of his work. as in the case of the great inventor gutenberg, nothing but a few documents are connected with his name. in those days of tedious communication and imperfect learning, the new art was considered as merely a means of mechanically producing manuscripts, which the general public must have looked on with apathy. by the time that its vast importance was fully perceived, the personal history of the pioneers was lost. caxton, however, indulged now and then in little pieces of personal expression in his prefaces, which, if they tell us little of his life, throw a certain amount of pleasant light on his character. in the present book i have tried to avoid as far as possible the merely mechanical bibliographical detail, which has been relegated in an abridged form to an appendix, and have confined myself to a more general description of the books, especially of those not hitherto correctly or fully described. since william blades compiled his great work, _the life and typography of william caxton_, some discoveries have been made and some errors corrected, but his book must always remain the main authority on the subject, the solid foundation for the history of our first printer. where i have pointed out mistakes in his book or filled up omissions, it is in no spirit of fault-finding, but rather the desire of a worker in the same field to add a few stones to the great monument he has built. e. g. d. chain bridge, berwyn, may, . chapter i. caxton's early life. amongst those men to whom belongs the honour of having introduced the art of printing into the various countries of europe, none holds a more marked or a more important position than william caxton. this is not the place to discuss the vexed questions, when, where, or by whom the art was really discovered; but the general opinion may be accepted, that in germany, before the year , gutenberg had thought out the invention of movable type and the use of the printing-press, and that before the end of the year a dated piece of printing had been issued. from town to town down the waterways of germany the art spread, and the german printers passed from their own to other countries,--to italy, to switzerland, and to france; but in none of these countries did the press in any way reflect the native learning or the popular literature. germany produced nothing but theology or law,--bibles, psalters, and works of aquinas and jerome, clement or justinian. italy, full of zeal for the new revival of letters, would have nothing but classics; and as in italy so in france, where the press was at work under the shadow of the university. fortunately for england, the german printers never reached her shores, nor had the new learning crossed the channel when caxton set up his press at westminster, so that, unique amongst the nations of europe, england's first printer was one of her own people, and the first products of her press books in her own language. many writers, such as gibbon and isaac disraeli, have seen fit to disparage the work of caxton, and have levelled sneers, tinged with their typical inaccuracy, at the printer and his books. gibbon laments that caxton "was reduced to comply with the vicious taste of his readers; to gratify the nobles with treatises on heraldry, hawking, and the game of chess [caxton printed neither of the first two]; and to amuse the popular credulity with romances of fabulous knights and legends of more fabulous saints." "the world," he continues, "is not indebted to england for one first edition of a classic author." disraeli, following gibbon, writes: "as a printer without erudition, caxton would naturally accommodate himself to the tastes of his age, and it was therefore a consequence that no great author appears among the caxtons." and again: "caxton, mindful of his commercial interests and the taste of his readers, left the glory of restoring the classical writers of antiquity, which he could not read, to the learned printers of italy." it is idle to argue with men of this attitude of mind. of what use would it have been to us, or profit to our printer, to reprint editions of the classics which were pouring forth from foreign presses, and even there, where most in demand, were becoming unsaleable? those who wanted classics could easily and did easily obtain them from the foreign stationers. caxton's work was infinitely more valuable. he printed all the english poetry of any moment then in existence. chaucer he printed at the commencement of his career, and issued a new edition when a purer text offered itself. lidgate and gower soon followed. he printed the available english chronicles, those of brut and higden, and the great romances, such as the history of jason and the morte d'arthur. while other printers employed their presses on the dead languages he worked at the living. he gave to the people the classics of their own land, and at a time when the character of our literary tongue was being settled did more than any other man before or since has done to establish the english language. caxton's personal history is unfortunately surrounded by considerable obscurity. apart from the glimpses which we catch here and there in the curious and interesting prefaces which he added to many of the books he printed, we know scarcely anything of him. thus the story of his life wants that variety of incident which appeals so forcibly to human sympathy and communicates to a biography its chief and deepest interest. the first fact of his life we learn from the preface of the first book he printed. "i was born and lerned myn englissh in kente in the weeld where i doubte not is spoken as brode and rude englissh as is in ony place of englond." this is the only reference to his birthplace, and such as it is, is remarkably vague, for the extent or limits of the weald of kent were never clearly defined. william lambarde, in his _perambulation of kent_, writes thus of it: "for it is manifest by the auncient saxon chronicles, by asserus menevensis, henrie of huntingdon, and almost all others of latter time, that beginning at winchelsea in sussex it reacheth in length a hundred and twenty miles toward the west and stretched thirty miles in breadth toward the north." the name caxton, cauxton, or causton, as it is variously spelt, was not an uncommon one in england, but there was one family of that name specially connected with that part of the country who owned the manor of caustons, near hadlow, in the weald of kent. though the property had passed into other hands before the time of the printer's birth, some families of the name remained in the neighbourhood, and one at least retained the name of the old home, for there is still in existence a will dated of john cawston of hadlow hall, essex. the weald was largely inhabited by the descendants of the flemish families who had been induced by edward iii. to settle there and carry on the manufacture of cloth. privileged by the king, the trade rapidly grew, and in the fifteenth century was one of great importance. this mixture of flemish blood may account in certain ways for the "brode and rude englissh," just as the flemish trade influenced caxton's future career. in the prologue to _charles the great_, caxton thanks his parents for having given him a good education, whereby he was enabled to earn an honest living, but unfortunately does not tell us where the education was obtained, though it would probably be at home, and not in london, as some have suggested. after leaving school caxton was apprenticed to a london merchant of high position in the year . this is the first actual date in his life which we possess, and one from which it is possible to arrive with some reasonable accuracy at his age. although then, as now, it was customary for a man to attain his majority at the age of twenty-one, there was also a rule, at any rate in the city of london, that none could attain his civic majority, or be admitted to the freedom of the city, until he had reached the age of twenty-four. the period for which a lad was bound apprentice was based on this fact, for it was always so arranged that he should issue from his apprenticeship on attaining his civic majority. the length of servitude varied from seven to fourteen years, so it is easy to calculate that the time of caxton's birth must lie between the years and . when we consider also that by he was not only out of his apprenticeship, but evidently a man of means and position, we are justified in supposing that he served the shortest time possible, and was born in or very little later. the master to whom he was bound, robert large, was one of the most wealthy and important merchants in the city of london, and a leading member of the mercers' company. in he was warden of his company, in he was made a sheriff of london, and in - rose to the highest dignity in the city, and became lord mayor. his house, "sometime a jew's synagogue, since a house of friars, then a nobleman's house, after that a merchant's house, wherein mayoralties have been kept, but now a wine tavern ( )," stood at the north end of the old jewry. here caxton had plenty of company,--robert large and his wife, four sons, two daughters, two assistants, and eight apprentices. only three years, however, were passed with this household, for large did not long survive his mayoralty, dying on the th of april, . amongst the many bequests in his will the apprentices were not forgotten, and the youngest, william caxton, received a legacy of twenty marks. on the death of robert large, in april, , caxton was still an apprentice, and not released from his indentures. if no specific transfer to a new master had been made under the will of the old, the executors were bound to supply the apprentices with the means of continuing their service. that caxton served his full time we know to have been the case, since he was admitted a few years later to the livery of the mercers' company, but it is clear that he did not remain in england. in the prologue to the _recuyell of the historyes of troye_, written in , he says: "i have contynued by the space of xxx yere for the most part in the contres of braband, flandres, holand, and zeland"; and this would infer that he finished his time of apprenticeship abroad. about or caxton had served his time, and he became a merchant trading on his own account, and apparently with considerable success, a result naturally to be expected from his conspicuous energy. by he was settled at bruges, and there exists in the town archives the report of a lawsuit in which he was concerned in that year. caxton and another merchant, john selle, had become sureties for the sum of £ owed by john granton, a merchant of the staple of calais, to william craes, another merchant. as granton had left bruges without paying his debt, craes had caused the arrest of the sureties. these admitted their liability, but pleaded that craes should wait the return of granton, who was a very rich man, and had perhaps already repaid the debt. the verdict went against caxton and his friend, who were compelled to give security for the sum demanded; but it was also decreed that should granton, on his return to bruges, be able to prove that the money had been paid before his departure, the complainant should be fined an amount double that of the sum claimed. in caxton paid a short visit to england in company with two fellow-traders, when all three were admitted to the livery of the mercers' company. for the next ten years we can only conjecture what caxton's life may have been, as no authentic information has been preserved. all that can be said is, that he must have succeeded in his business and have become prosperous and influential, for when the next reference to him occurs, in the books of the mercers' company for , he was acting as governor of that powerful corporation, the merchant adventurers. this company, which had existed from very early times, had been formed to protect the interests of merchants trading abroad, and though many guilds were represented, the mercers were so much the most important, both in numbers and wealth, that they took the chief control, and it was in their books that the transactions of the adventurers were entered. in the company obtained from edward iv. a larger charter, and in it a certain william obray was appointed "governor of the english merchants" at bruges. this post, however, he did not fill for long, for in the year following we find that his duties were being performed by caxton. up to at least as late as may, , he continued to hold this high position. his work at this period must have been most onerous, for the duke of burgundy set his face against the importation of foreign goods, and decreed the exclusion of all english-made cloth from his dominions. as a natural result, the parliament of england passed an act prohibiting the sale of flemish goods at home, so that the trade of the foreign merchants was for a time paralyzed. with the death of philip in , and the succession of his son charles the bold, matters were entirely changed. the marriage of charles with the princess margaret, sister of edward iv., cemented the friendship of the two countries, and friendly business relations were again established. the various negotiations entailed by these changes, in all of which caxton must have played an important part, perhaps impaired his health, and were responsible for his complaint of a few years later, that age was daily creeping upon him and enfeebling his body. somewhere about caxton's business position and manner of life appear to have undergone a considerable change, though we have now no clue as to what occasioned it. he gave up his position as governor of the adventurers and entered the service of the duchess of burgundy, but in what capacity is not known. in the greater leisure which the change afforded, he was able to pursue his literary tastes, and began the translation of the book which was destined to be the first he printed, _le recueil des histoires de troyes_. but there is perhaps another reason which prevailed with him to alter his mode of life. he was no doubt a wealthy man and able to retire from business, and it seems fairly certain that about this time he married. in his daughter elizabeth was divorced from her husband, gerard croppe, owing apparently to some quarrels about bequests; and assuming caxton to have been married in the daughter would have been twenty-one at the time of his death. the rules of the various companies of merchants trading abroad were extremely strict on the subject of celibacy, a necessary result of their method of living. each nation had its house, where its merchants lived together on an almost monastic system. each had his own little bed-chamber in a large dormitory, but meals were all taken together in a common room. caxton's duties in the service of the duchess had most probably to do with affairs of trade, in which at that time even the highest nobility often engaged. the duchess obtained from her brother edward iv. special privileges and exemptions in regard to her own private trading in english wool, and she would naturally require some one with competent knowledge to manage her affairs. this, with her interest in caxton's literary work, probably determined her choice, and under her protection and patronage caxton recommenced his work of translation. in he finished and presented to the duchess the translation of _le recueil des histoires de troyes_, which had been begun in bruges in march, , continued in ghent, and ended in cologne in september, . the completion of this manuscript was no doubt the turning-point in caxton's career, as we may judge from his words in the epilogue to the printed book. "thus ende i this book whyche i have translated after myn auctor as nyghe as god hath gyven me connyng to whom be gyven the laude and preysyng. and for as moche as in the wrytyng of the same my penne is worn, myn hande wery and not stedfast, myn eyen dimmed with overmoche lokyng on the whit paper, and my corage not so prone and redy to laboure as hit hath ben, and that age crepeth on me dayly and febleth all the bodye, and also because i have promysid to dyverce gentilmen and to my frendes to addresse to hem as hastely as i myght this sayd book. therefore i have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to ordeyne this said booke in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may here see. and it is not wreton with penne and ynke as other bokes ben to thende that every man may have them attones. for all the bookes of this storye named the recule of the historyes of troyes thus enprynted as ye here see were begonne in oon day, and also fynysshed in oon day." the trouble of multiplying copies with a pen was too great to be undertaken, and the aid of the new art was called in. caxton ceased to be a scribe and became a printer. chapter ii. caxton's press at bruges. in what city and from what printer caxton received his earliest training in the art of printing has been a much debated question amongst bibliographers. the only direct assertion on the point is to be found in the lines which form part of the prologue written by wynkyn de worde, and added to the translation of the _de proprietatibus rerum_ of bartholomaeus anglicus, issued about . "and also of your charyte call to remembraunce, the soule of william caxton, the fyrste prynter of this book, in laten tongue at coleyn, hymself to avaunce, that every well disposed man may thereon look." as wynkyn de worde was for long associated with caxton in business and became after his death his successor, it seems impossible to put aside his very plain statement as entirely inaccurate. william blades, in his _life of caxton_, utterly denies the whole story. "are we to understand," he writes, "that the editio princeps of bartholomaeus proceeded from caxton's press, or that he only printed the first cologne edition? that he issued a translation of his own, which is the only way in which the production of the work could advance him in the latin tongue? or that he printed in latin to advance his own interests? the last seems the most probable reading. but though the words will bear many constructions, they are evidently intended to mean that caxton printed bartholomaeus at cologne. now, this seems to be merely a careless statement of wynkyn de worde; for if caxton did really print bartholomaeus in that city, it must have been with his own types and presses, as the workmanship of his early volumes proves that he had no connexion with the cologne printers, whose practices were entirely different." [illustration: plate i epilogue from the bartholomaeus (see page ) ] the meaning which mr. blades has read into the lines seems hardly a reasonable one. surely, the expression "hymself to avaunce" cannot apply to the advancement of his own interests, but rather to knowledge; nor can we imagine a sensible person who wished to learn latin entering a printing-office for that purpose. it must rather apply to the printing itself, and point to the fact that when at cologne he printed or assisted to print an edition of the _bartholomaeus_ in latin in order to learn the practical details of the art. it must also be borne in mind that in , when caxton paid his visit to cologne, printing had been introduced into few towns. printed books were spread far and wide, and some of schoeffer's editions have inscriptions showing that they had been bought at an early date, within a year of their issue, at bruges; but cologne was the nearest town where the press was actually at work, and where already a number of printers were settled. blades adds as another argument the fact that no edition of a _bartholomaeus_ has been found printed in caxton's type, but when starting as a mere learner in another person's office he could hardly be expected to have type of his own. but there is an edition of the _bartholomaeus_, which, though without date or name of place or printer, was certainly printed at cologne about the time of caxton's visit. it is a large folio of leaves, with two columns to the page and lines to a column. it is described by dibdin in his _bibliotheca spenceriana_ (vol. iii., p. ), though with his usual inaccuracy he gives the number of leaves as . there is little doubt that the words of wynkyn de worde refer to this edition. cologne, as might be expected from its advantageous position on the rhine, was one of the earliest towns to which the art of printing spread from mainz. ulric zel, its first printer, was settled there some time before , when he issued his first dated book, and by several others were at work. the study of early cologne printing is extremely complex, for the majority of books which were produced there contain no indication of printer, place of printing, or date. some printers issued many volumes, and their names are still unknown, so that they can only be referred to under the name of some special book which they printed; as, the "printer of _dictys_," the "printer of _dares_," and so on. m. madden, the french writer on early printing, who had a genius for obtaining from plausible premisses the most utterly preposterous conclusions, was possessed with the idea that the monastery of weidenbach, near cologne, was a vast school of typography, where printers of all nations and tongues learned their art. he ends up his article on caxton, as he ended up those on other early printers, "je finis cette lettre en vous promettant de revenir, tôt ou tard, s'il plaît à dieu, sur william caxton se faisant initier à la typographie, non pas à bruges, par colard mansion, comme le veut m. w. blades, mais à _weidenbach_, par les frères de la vie commune." as we know from caxton's own statements, he had when at cologne considerable leisure, which was partly employed in writing out his translation of _le recueil_, and like all literary persons, must have felt great interest in the new art. it was no longer a secret one, and there would be little difficulty for a rich and important man like caxton to obtain access to a printing-office, where he might learn the practical working and master the necessary details. the mechanical part of the work was not at that time a complicated process, and would certainly not have taken long to master. caxton no doubt learned from observation the method of cutting and the mechanism of casting type, and by a little practical work the setting up of type, the inking, and the pulling off the impression. at the close of caxton returned to bruges, and presented to the duchess of burgundy the manuscript of the _recuyell of the historyes of troye_, which he had finished while at cologne. this work, which had been undertaken at the request of the duchess, proved to be exceedingly popular at the court. caxton was importuned to set to work on other copies for rich noblemen. the length of time which the production of these copies would take reminded him of the excellent invention which he had seen at work at cologne, that art of writing by mechanical means, "ars artificialiter scribendi," as the earliest printers called it, by which numerous copies could be produced at one and the same time. mr. blades, in common with almost every writer, assumes that printing was introduced into bruges at a very much earlier date than there is any warrant for supposing. he speaks of colard mansion as having "established a press shortly after at bruges." other writers put back the date as much as three years earlier, confusing, as is often the case, the date of the writing of a book with the date of its printing. colard mansion's name does not occur in a dated colophon before , in his edition of the french translation of a work of boccaccio, and we have no reason to suppose that he began to work more than two years at the outside before this date. in the guild-books at bruges he is entered as a writer and illuminator of manuscripts from to , so that we are certainly justified in considering that he did not commence to print until after the latter date. other writers have brought forward a mysterious and little known printer, jean brito, as having not only introduced the art into bruges, but as being the inventor of printing. an ambiguous statement in one of his imprints, where he says that he learned to print by himself with no one to teach him, refers more probably to some method of casting type, and not to an independent discovery, and his method of work and other details point almost certainly to a date about . some of his type is interesting as being almost identical with a fount used a few years later in london. now, there is one very important point in this controversy which appears to have been quite overlooked. caxton, we may suppose, learned the art of printing about at cologne, the nearest place to bruges where the printing-press was then at work. but, say the opponents of this theory, his type bears no resemblance to cologne type, so that the theory is absurd. it must, however, be remembered that in the interval between caxton's learning the art and beginning to practice it printers had begun to work in utrecht, alost, and louvain. if he required any practical assistance in the cutting or casting of type or the preparation of a press, he would naturally turn to the printers nearest to him,--thierry martens, with john of westphalia at alost, or to john veldener or john of westphalia (who had moved from alost in ) at louvain. caxton's preparations for setting up a printing-press on his own account were most probably made in . his assistant or partner, colard mansion, by profession a writer and illuminator of manuscripts, is entered as such in the books of the guild of st. john from to , when his connexion with the guild ceases. this may point to two things: he had either left bruges, perhaps in search of printing material, or had changed his profession; and the former seems the most probable explanation. if caxton was assisted by any outside printer in the preparation of his type, there can be little doubt that that printer was john veldener of louvain. veldener was matriculated at louvain in the faculty of medicine, july , . in august, , in an edition of the _consolatio peccatorum_ of jacobus de theramo, printed by him, there is a prefatory letter addressed "johanni veldener, artis impressoriae magistro," showing that he was by that time a printer. he was also, as he himself tells us, a type-founder, and in he made use of a type in many respects identical with one used by caxton. in body they are precisely the same, and in most of the letters they are to all appearance identical; and the fact of their making their appearance about the same time in the _lectura super institutionibus_ of angelus de aretio, printed at louvain by veldener, and in the _quatre derrenieres choses_, printed at bruges by caxton, would certainly appear to point to some connexion between the two printers. furnished with a press and two founts of type, both of the west flanders kind and cut in imitation of the ordinary book-hand, william caxton and colard mansion started on their career as printers. unlike all other early printers, caxton looked to his own country and his own language for a model, and although in a foreign country, issued as his first work the first printed book in the english language. other countries had been content to be ruled by the new laws forced upon them by the revival of learning. caxton then, as through his life, spent his best energies in the service of our english tongue. the _recuyell of the hystoryes of troye_, a translation by caxton from the french of raoul le fevre, who in his turn had adapted it from earlier writers on the trojan war, was the first book to be issued. the prologue to the first part and the epilogues to the second and third contain a few interesting details of caxton's life. that to the third contains some remarks about the printing. "therefore i have practysed and lerned at my grete charge and dispense to ordeyne this said booke in prynte after the maner and forme as ye may here see, and it is not wreton with penne and ynke as other bokes ben to thende that every man may have them attones. for all the bookes of this storye named the recule of the historyes of troyes thus enprynted as ye here see were begonne in oon day, and also fynysshed in oon day." the wording of this sentence, which is perhaps slightly ambiguous, has caused several writers to fall into a curious error in supposing that caxton meant to assert that the printed books were begun and finished in one day. his real meaning, of course, was, that while in written books the whole of a volume was finished before another was begun, in printed books the beginnings of all the copies of which the edition was to consist were printed off in one day, so also the last sheet of all the copies would be printed off in one day, and the whole edition finished simultaneously. the _recuyell_ is a small folio of leaves, the first being blank, and each page contains lines, spaced out in a very uneven manner. the second leaf, on which the book begins, contains caxton's prologue, printed in red ink. the book is without signatures, headlines, numbers to the pages, or catchwords. although a considerable number of copies--some twenty in all--are still in existence, almost every one is imperfect. the very interesting copy bought by the duke of devonshire at the roxburghe sale in for £ , _s._ which had at one time belonged to elizabeth, wife of edward iv., wanted the last leaf; lord spencer's wanted the introduction. blades, it should be noticed, in his lists of existing copies of caxton's books, uses the word "perfect" in a misleading way, often taking no notice of the blank leaves being missing, which are essential to a perfect copy, and often also omitting to distinguish between a made-up copy and one in genuine original condition. [illustration: plate ii the recuyell of the historyes of troye (see page ) ] the finest copy is probably that formerly in the library of the earl of jersey, which was sold in . it was described as perfect, and possessed the blank leaf at the beginning. valued in , when bryan fairfax's library was bought by lord jersey's ancestor, mr. child, at £ _s._, it produced the high price of £ , . the next book to appear from the bruges press was the _game and playe of the chess_, "in which i fynde," as caxton says in his prologue, "thauctorites, dictees, and stories of auncient doctours philosophres poetes and of other wyse men whiche been recounted and applied unto the moralite of the publique wele as well of the nobles as of the comyn peple after the game and playe of the chesse." the original of the work was the _liber de ludo scacchorum_ of jacobus de cessolis, which had been translated into french by jean faron and jean de vignay, both belonging to the order of preaching friars, but who worked quite independently of each other. caxton appears to have made use of both versions, part of his book being translated from one and part from the other. it is a considerably shorter book than the _recuyell_, containing only leaves, of which the first and last were blank. like the last, it is a folio, with lines to the page. it is not a very scarce book, as about twelve copies are known, but of these almost every one is imperfect. the best copy known is probably that belonging to colonel holford, of dorchester house, which still remains in its old binding, and another beautiful copy was obtained by lord spencer from the library of lincoln minster, the source of many rarities in the spencer collection. the story has often been told how dibdin, the well-known writer of romantic bibliography, persuaded the lax dean and chapter of lincoln to part with their caxtons to lord spencer. we must, however, give even dibdin his due, and point out that he was quite ignorant of the transaction, which was carried out by edwards, the bookseller. the letter from lord spencer to dibdin is still in existence, in which he describes the new caxtons he had acquired, carefully omitting to say through whom or from what source. this, however, dibdin found out for himself some time after, and raided lincoln on his own account. he issued a small catalogue of his purchases, under the title of _a lincoln nosegay_, and a few were bought by lord spencer, the remainder finding their way into the libraries of heber and other collectors. the last book printed by caxton and mansion in partnership at bruges was the _quatre derrenieres choses_, a treatise on the four last things, death and judgment, heaven and hell, commonly known under the latin titles of _de quattuor novissimis_ or _memorare novissima_, and later issued in english by caxton as the _cordyale_. in this book first appears caxton's type no. , which bears so strong a resemblance to the fount used by veldener. the book is a folio of leaves (not , as stated by blades), and has lines to the page. there is a certain amount of printing in red, which was produced in a peculiar way. it was not done by a separate pull of the press, as was the general custom, but the whole page having been set up and inked, the ink was wiped off from the portions to be printed in red, and the red colour applied to them by hand, and the whole printed at one pull. for long but one copy of this book was known, preserved in the british museum, and bound up with a copy of the _meditacions sur les sept pseaulmes_, to be described shortly. some years ago, however, another copy wanting two leaves was found, and it is now in a private collection in america. this was the last book printed abroad with which caxton had any connexion, and the new type used in it was no doubt specially prepared for him to carry to england. it contained far more distinct types than the first, which had , for it began with , which were increased on recasting to at least . supplied with new type and other printing material, caxton made his preparations to return to his own country. the exact date cannot now be determined, but it was probably early in the year . it is curious that just about this time one of the cologne presses issued the first edition of the breviary for the use of the church of salisbury, the use adopted by all the south of england, and it may be that caxton, who had had dealings with the cologne printers, may have been connected in some way with its production and publication in england. after caxton had left bruges his former partner, colard mansion, continued to print by himself. in caxton's first type, which had been left behind at bruges, he printed three books, _le recueil des histoires de troyes_, _les fais et prouesses du chevalier jason_, and the _meditacions sur les sept pseaulmes_. all three are in folio, with lines to the page. as they are often confused by writers with books really printed by caxton, and as they are produced from type which was at one time in his possession, they may perhaps merit a short description. the _recueil_ contains leaves, of which two are blank. six copies are known, of which by far the finest was sold at the watson taylor sale in to lord spencer. it was then in its original binding and uncut, but lord spencer, who, like most collectors of his day, despised old bindings, had it rebound in morocco, and the edges trimmed and gilt. another very fine copy, probably "conveyed" from some continental library, was purchased from m. libri by the british museum in . the _jason_ contains leaves, of which the first and last two are blank. a magnificent copy, the only one in england, is in the library of eton college, and there are two other copies, slightly imperfect, at paris. of the third book, the _meditacions sur les sept pseaulmes_, only one copy is known to exist. it is in the british museum, bound up with a copy of the _quatre derrenieres choses_, and is quite perfect. it contains leaves, the last being blank. mansion continued for some time onwards to print at bruges in the workshop which perhaps he had shared with caxton, over the church porch of st. donatus, but later in life seems to have been unsuccessful and fallen on evil times. the books which he then printed with such little success are now by the chance of fate the most sought for and valuable amongst the productions of the early continental press. chapter iii. the early westminster press. in caxton returned to england and took up his residence in the precincts of westminster abbey, at a house with the sign of the "red pale" in the "almonesrye." this locality is thus described by stow: "now will i speake of the gate-house, and of totehill streete, stretching from the west part of the close.... the gate towards the west is a gaile for offenders.... on the south-side of this gate, king henry the . founded an almeshouse.... near unto this house westward was an old chappel of s. anne, over against the which, the lady margaret, mother to king henry the . erected an almeshouse for poore women ... the place wherein this chappell and almeshouse standeth was called the elemosinary or almory, now corruptly the ambry, for that the almes of the abbey were there distributed to the poore." in the account roll of john estenay, sacrist of westminster from september , , to september , , we find, under the heading "firme terrarum infra sanctuarium," the entry "de alia shopa ibidem dimissa willelmo caxton, per annum x^s." another account-book, still preserved at westminster, shows that in caxton paid for two shops or houses, and in besides these for a loft over the gateway of the almonry, described in as the room over the road (camera supra viam), and in as the room over the road at the entrance to the almonry (camera supra viam eundo ad elemosinariam). this latter was perhaps rented as a place to store the unsold portion of his stock. the neighbourhood of the abbey seems to have been a place much favoured by merchants of the staple and dealers in wool, and this may have had something to do with caxton's choice. he always continued to be a member of the mercers' company, and many of his fellow-members must have formed his acquaintance, or learned to esteem him, while he held his honourable and responsible post of governor of the english nation in the low countries. like himself, many were members of the fraternity of our blessed lady assumption and benefactors to the church of st. margaret. the abbots of westminster themselves were in the wool trade, and according to stow had six wool-houses in the staple granted them by king henry vi. some such special causes, or perhaps certain privileges obtained from margaret, henry vii.'s mother, who was one of the printer's patrons, must have made caxton fix his choice on westminster rather than on london, the great centre for all merchants, and which might have been supposed more suitable for a printer. the first book with a date issued in england was the _dictes or sayengis of the philosophres_, which was finished on the th of november, . that caxton should have allowed more than a year to elapse before issuing any work from his press seems improbable, especially considering the untiring energy with which he worked. on this point a curious piece of evidence is to be found in the prologue to the edition of _king apolyn of tyre_, printed by wynkyn de worde in . robert copland, an assistant of de worde and the translator of the book, says: "my worshipful master wynken de worde, having a little book of an ancient history of a kyng, sometyme reigning in the countree of thyre called appolyn, concernynge his malfortunes and peryllous adventures right espouventables, bryefly compyled and pyteous for to here, the which boke i robert coplande have me applyed for to translate out of the frensshe language into our maternal englysshe tongue at the exhortacion of my forsayd mayster, accordynge dyrectly to myn auctor, gladly followynge the trace of my mayster caxton, begynnynge with small storyes and pamfletes and so to other." now, taking all the books printed by caxton before the end of the year , in number twenty-one, and considering that the first dated book was not issued until almost the end of , and that caxton had then presumably been in england for over a year, there does seem some reasonable ground for believing the statement of copland, especially as there are amongst these early books a number which exactly answer to the description of "small storyes and pamfletes." an exactly analogous case occurs in regard to the introduction of printing into scotland. the first printer, andrew myllar, while preparing for the publication of the aberdeen breviary, which was issued at edinburgh in - , published in a series of small pamphlets, consisting of stories and poems by dunbar, chaucer, and others. as might naturally be expected, such small books were especially liable to destruction, both on account of their size and the popularity of their subjects. it is not surprising to find that the majority have been preserved to us in single copies only. all the ten edinburgh books are unique, and almost all the early caxton quartos, so that it is impossible under these conditions to estimate what the output of caxton's first year's working may have been. in writing of these earliest books, it will be perhaps best to take the folios first, and then the numerous small works, since, as they all agree so exactly as regards printing, they cannot be arranged in any definite order. the first of the folios issued was most probably the _history of jason_, translated by caxton himself from the french version of raoul le fevre immediately after he had finished those of the _recueil_ and the _game of chess_. the translation was undertaken under the patronage of edward iv., with a view to the presentation of the book when finished to the ill-fated prince of wales, afterwards edward v., "to thentent he may begynne to lerne rede englissh." the book has every appearance of having been one of the very earliest issues of the westminster press, and at the end of or beginning of the young prince would have been about four years old, a very suitable age to begin his education. the book contains leaves, of which the first and last are blank, and a full page has lines. like all early caxtons, it has no signatures, which were not introduced until ; no headlines, which were rarely used; no numbers to the pages, which occur still more rarely; and no catch-words, which were never used at all. as in all other early printed books, spaces were left for the insertion of illuminated initials at the beginnings of the chapters. now, while in contemporary french, italian, and low country books such spaces were often filled with the most gracefully designed and beautifully illuminated initials, rich in scrollwork and foliage, and ornamented with coats of arms or miniatures, there is not, so far as i know, any early english book in existence containing any attempt at such decoration. as a rule, the spaces were left blank as they came from the printer. in some cases, where the paragraph marks have been filled in by the rubricator, he has roughly daubed in the initial with his brush, making no attempt at ornament, or even neatness in the letter itself. [illustration: plate iii epilogue to boethius (see page ) ] seven copies of the _jason_ are still extant, the majority imperfect. by far the finest copy known was that sold at the ashburnham sale in , and which is now in a private collection in america. it is in the original leather binding as it issued from caxton's workshop, and is quite uncut. this copy has generally been considered the finest caxton in existence, and its various changes of ownership can be traced back for over two hundred years. the great admiration which caxton had for the work of chaucer would no doubt make him anxious to issue it from his press as soon as possible, and we may therefore ascribe to an early date the publication of the _canterbury tales_ and the translation of _boethius_. the _canterbury tales_ is a small folio of leaves, with lines to the page, and so rare that it is believed that no genuine perfect copy is in existence. blades, in his account of the book, censures dibdin for describing the copy at merton college, oxford, as imperfect, which, however, in dibdin's time it certainly was, though through the kindness of lord spencer the missing leaves were afterwards supplied. one other copy, complete as regards text, is in the british museum, having formed part of the library of george iii. the _boethius_ contains leaves, and is a much more common book. one copy is worthy of special mention, as it was the means of bringing to light the existence of three books printed by caxton which up to that time were unknown. it was found by mr. blades in the old grammar-school library at st. alban's, and he has left us an interesting account of its discovery. "after examining a few interesting books, i pulled out one which was lying flat upon the top of others. it was in a most deplorable state, covered thickly with a damp, sticky dust, and with a considerable portion of the back rotted away by wet. the white decay fell in lumps on the floor as the unappreciated volume was opened. it proved to be geoffrey chaucer's english translation of _boecius de consolatione philosophiae_, printed by caxton, in the original binding, as issued from caxton's workshop, and uncut!" "on dissecting the covers they were found to be composed entirely of waste sheets from caxton's press, two or three being printed on one side only. the two covers yielded no less than fifty-six half-sheets of printed paper, proving the existence of three works from caxton's press quite unknown before." these fragments came from thirteen different books, and though other examples of one of the unknown works have been found, two, the sarum _horae_ and sarum _pica_, are still known from these fragments only. the _dictes or sayengis of the philosophres_, though most probably by no means the first book printed in england, must still hold the important position of being the first with a definite date, november , . the book was translated from the french by lord rivers, who had borrowed the original while on a voyage to the shrine of st. james of compostella from a fellow-traveller, the famous knight lewis de bretaylles. having finished his translation, he handed it to caxton to "oversee" and to print, and the printer himself added a chapter "touchyng women." to this a quaint introduction is prefixed, in which it is pointed out that the gallant earl had omitted the chapter, perhaps at request of some fair lady, "or ellys for the very affeccyon, love and good wylle that he hath unto alle ladyes and gentyl women." "but," continues caxton, "for as moche as i am not in certeyn wheder it was in my lordis copye or not, or ellis peradventure that the wynde had blowe over the leef at the tyme of translacion of his booke, i purpose to wryte tho same saynges of that greke socrates, whiche wrote of tho women of grece and nothyng of them of this royame, whom i suppose he never knewe." [illustration: plate iv the dictes or sayengis of the philosophres (see page ) ] it is curious that with one exception no copy of this first edition has a colophon. the copy in which it occurs was in lord spencer's library and is now at manchester, but beyond this small addition, it varies in no way from the other copies. all the examples of the second edition, which was issued a few years later, contain a reprint of this colophon. the _dictes_ when perfect contained leaves (not, as stated by blades, ), of which the first and last two are blank, and though more than a dozen copies of the book are known, not one is quite perfect. in the library of lambeth palace is a manuscript of this work on vellum, copied from caxton's edition, and dated december , . it contains one poor illumination showing earl rivers presenting the copy to the prince of wales, afterwards edward v. by the side of the earl is an ecclesiastic, probably "haywarde," the writer of the manuscript, and this figure has by some been considered, quite erroneously, to be intended for a portrait of caxton. the _dictes or sayengis_ was followed shortly by another dated folio, the _morale proverbes of cristyne_, issued on the th of february, . it contains only four printed leaves, and three copies are known. the two verses added at the end of the book tell us of the author, translator, and printer, and are interesting as being the earliest printed specimen of caxton's poetical attempts. "of these sayynges cristyne was aucteuresse whiche in makyng hadde suche intelligence that thereof she was mireur and maistresse hire werkes testifie thexperience in frenssh languaige was writen this sentence and thus englished dooth hit rehers antoin widevylle therl ryvers. "go thou litil quayer and recommaund me unto the good grace of my special lorde therle ryveris, for i have enprinted the at his commandement, followyng eury worde his copye, as his secretaire can recorde at westmestre, of feuerer the xx daye and of kynd edward the xvjj yere vraye." the author, christine de pisan, wife of Étienne castel, was one of the most famous women of the middle ages. left early a widow, with but narrow means, she had three children and her own parents to provide for. being a woman of high attainments and considerable learning, she took up the profession of literature, and for many years worked incessantly. _les proverbes moraulx_ was written as a supplement to _les enseignemens moraulx_, an instructive work addressed to her young son, jean castel, who was for some time in england in the service of the earl of salisbury. another point to be noticed about this book is the date, which here, fortunately, is quite clear. among the early printers there is very considerable variation as to the day on which the new year began. putting on one side the foreign and considering only the english printers, the dates narrow themselves to two, january st and march th, so that any date falling between these two may be in two different years, according to the habit of the printer. for instance, march , , will really mean if the printer began his year on january st. if, on the other hand, he did not begin it until march th, the real date will be . fortunately, caxton frequently added to his dates the regnal year, which gives at once a definite solution. for instance, his edition of the _cordyale_ was begun the day after lord rivers handed him the manuscript, on february , , and finished on march th following, in the nineteenth year of edward iv. now, the nineteenth year of edward iv. ran from march , , to march , , so that caxton's was really , and his custom was, therefore, to begin his years on the th of march. as has been said earlier, it is probable that caxton began his printing in england with small pamphlets, and of these a considerable number have come down to our time, but as the majority are unique, it is impossible to conjecture how many may have utterly perished. the most considerable collection is in the university library, cambridge, which owns a series, originally bound in one volume, which was in the collection of bishop moore presented to the university in by george the first. this library was peculiarly rich in early english books; indeed, the great majority of those now at cambridge formed part of it, and their acquisition was mainly due to the exertions of that much maligned person, john bagford, whom moore employed to search for such rarities, and who did so with conspicuous success. amongst these priceless volumes one stands out pre-eminent. it was until recently in an old calf binding, lettered on the back, "old poetry printed by caxton," and contained eight pieces, the _stans puer ad mensam_, the _parvus catho_, _the chorle and the bird_, _the horse, the shepe and the goose_, _the temple of glas_, _the temple of brass_, _the book of courtesy_, and _anelida and arcyte_. five of these are absolutely unique; of the others a second copy is known. these books must have caught the popular taste, for of several we find second editions issued almost at once. a second issue of the _parvus catho_ is known from a unique copy belonging to the duke of devonshire. york cathedral possesses the only known copy (with the exception of a few leaves at cambridge) of the second edition of _the horse, the shepe and the goose_, and a unique second edition of _the chorle and the bird_. all these little poetical pieces agree typographically. they contain nothing but the bare text, and are without signatures, headlines, or pagination. probably they were all issued at intervals of a few days, and not many printed, so that the second editions may have been issued only a few months after the first. there are three other early quartos to be noticed, which are of quite a different class from those just mentioned. these are the sarum _ordinale_, the _propositio johannis russell_, and the _infancia salvatoris_. the sarum _ordinale_, or _pica_, was a book giving the rules for the concurrence and occurrence of festivals, containing an explanation for adapting the calendar to the services of each week, in accordance with the thirty-five varieties of the almanac. this book would be in very considerable demand amongst those officiating in services, and would be a good method of attracting the attention of the priests to the new art, so that no sooner had the book been printed than caxton struck off a little advertisement about it. "if it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to bye ony pyes of two and thre comemoracions of salisburi use enpryntid after the forme of this present lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, late hym come to westmonester in to the almonesrye at the reed pale and he shal have them good chepe. supplico stet cedula." the quaint latin ending, "pray don't tear down the advertisement," was then perhaps a customary formula attached to notices put up in ecclesiastical or legal precincts, but it might naturally be supposed that those most likely to damage or tear down advertisements would be uneducated people, who would be ignorant of latin. [illustration: plate v caxton's advertisement (see page ) ] when the advertisement first came before the notice of writers on printing, the existence of the _ordinale_ was unknown, and it is amusing to read the various conjectures as to the buying of "pyes" hazarded by them. one of the most ingenious occurred in a letter from henry bradshaw to william blades, which was that the syllable "co" had dropped out by accident, and that the word should read "copyes," and this appeared all the more probable, as the word "pyes" comes at the end of the first line, which is slightly shorter than the rest. this is the only specimen of an early english book advertisement known, though foreign examples are not uncommon. the _propositio johannis russell_ is one of the very few pieces printed by caxton dealing with current affairs or politics. it is the oration delivered at ghent, early in , on the occasion of the investiture of the duke of burgundy with the order of the garter. it has often been considered as one of caxton's very earliest pieces,--perhaps printed at bruges. blades writes, rather vaguely: "to me it appears most likely that it was issued at bruges at no long period after its delivery, and before caxton's final departure for england. at that town, both with the subjects of the duke of burgundy and the 'english nation' there resident, it would secure a good circulation; not so if issued seven years after its delivery in another country." it could not have been printed anywhere by caxton before , and everything seems to point to its having been printed at westminster in - , perhaps at the instance of the author himself, then bishop of rochester. it is a little quarto tract of four leaves, and two copies only are known, one belonging to the earl of leicester at holkham, the other, formerly in the spencer library, now at manchester. this latter was originally bound up, apparently by mistake, amongst the blank leaves of a note-book used for miscellaneous manuscript treatises of the fifteenth century, which run on over the first and last blank pages of the tract itself. it appeared, unrecognized, at the brand sale in , and was described amongst the mss., "a work on theology and religion, with five leaves at the end a very great curiosity, very early printed on wooden blocks, or type." it was bought by lord blandford for forty-five shillings, and purchased at his sale in by lord spencer for £ . blades speaks of it as in its original binding, a quite inexplicable mistake, for it was bound between the years and in resplendently gilt morocco, double, with gauffered gilt edges! the copy at holkham, which used to be in an old vellum wrapper, has also been rebound, and the two inner leaves, by some unfortunate mistake, transposed. of the _infancia salvatoris_, a version of one of the smaller treatises among the apocryphal books of the new testament, but one copy is known. it was in the celebrated harleian library, which was bought entire by osborne in . the caxton collectors of the period seem to have passed it over, for it did not get sold, even at its very modest price, until three years later, when it was bought for the university library of göttingen. it is still in its old red morocco harleian binding, with osborne's price-- --on the fly-leaf. another note records, "aus dem katalogen thomas osborne in london d. maij (no ) erkauft." blades, in his description of the book, which he had not examined, conjectured that it was made up in three quires, the first of eight leaves, the second and third of six each, making in all twenty leaves, including a blank both at beginning and end. an examination of the water-marks of the paper shows that this was not the case, and that it consisted of two quires, the first of eight leaves, the second of ten, and that there were no blank leaves. this tract, and the _compassio lamentationis beate marie virginis_, are the only two unique caxtons in libraries outside england. some time towards the end of caxton recast his fount no. , in which almost all the books so far mentioned were printed, and added a few extra types. with this new fount he printed the _margarita eloquentiae_ of laurentius de saona, saona being the earlier form of savona, the birthplace of columbus, a city not far from genoa. at the end of the book, which contains neither name of printer nor place, is a notice that the work was completed at cambridge on the th of july, . in an old catalogue of books bequeathed by archbishop parker to the library of corpus christi college, cambridge, the entry occurs, "rethorica nova impressa canteb. fo. ." strype, in writing his life of the archbishop, came across this notice and communicated it to bagford, who reported it in his turn to tanner, the antiquary. ames, from their information, placed it at the head of cambridge books in his _typographical antiquities_, and herbert, in his reprint, merely reproduced the account. dibdin does not mention it, and it was not until that henry bradshaw, coming across it by accident, discovered that it was a genuine production of caxton's press. the book is a folio of leaves, and besides the copy at cambridge, one other is known, now in the university library at upsala. on the th of march, , was issued the _cordyale_, a translation from the french _quatre derrenieres choses_, by earl rivers. the translation, as the colophon tells us, was handed to caxton on the day of the purification (february d), and the printing was begun "the morn after the saide purification of our blissid lady, which was the daye of seint blase, bisshop and martir: and finisshed on the even of the annunciacion of our said bilissid lady fallyng on the wednesday the daye of marche." the _cordyale_ contains leaves, with a blank at each end, and is not very uncommon. the second edition of the _dictes or sayengis_ was issued this year, and is considerably rarer than the first, only four copies being known. its collation is exactly the same as the first, and blades has fallen into the same mistake, and gives it two leaves too few. chapter iv. - . the year saw a considerable change in caxton's methods of printing. hitherto he had been content to print his books without signatures, although these were generally in use abroad, but their obvious utility appears to have impressed him, and henceforward he always printed them. the earlier books were of course signed, but the signatures were written in by hand, a very laborious process compared with setting them up with the type, and the greater clearness of the printed letter must have been an advantage to the bookbinder. about this time also he began to decorate his books with illustrations, a concession perhaps to popular taste, for his own inclination seems to have led him more to the literary than the artistic side of book production. another matter also may have helped to bring about this change, the settlement of a rival printer in london. two other presses had before this started in england, one at oxford in , and one at st. alban's about a year later, but their distance rendered them little dangerous as rivals, while the nature of their productions was mainly scholastic and little suited to the popular taste. but with a press setting up work some two miles away matters were quite different. there was no knowing what it might not print. john lettou, this first london printer, came apparently from rome, bringing with him a small, neat gothic type, which had already been used in that city to print several books. to judge from his name, he was a native of lithuania, of which lettou is an old english form. he was certainly a practised workman, and his books are very foreign in appearance, and quite unlike the work of any other early english printer. caxton's first piece of work in was a broadside _indulgence_, issued by john kendale by authority of sixtus iv., to all persons who would contribute towards the defence of rhodes, which was being besieged by the turks. the copy in the british museum, which is the only one at present known, is filled in with the names of symon mountfort and emma, his wife, and is dated the last day of march. another example which was in existence about , but has now disappeared, was filled in with the names of richard and john catlyn, and dated april th. this _indulgence_ begins with a wood-cut initial letter, the first to be used in england. john kendale, in the proclamation of edward iv. of april, , which relates to this appeal for assistance, is styled "turcopolier of rhodes and locum tenens of the grand master in italy, england, flanders, and ireland," and he was at a later date implicated in a plot against the king's life. he is the subject of the earliest known existing contemporary english medal, which was struck in . no sooner had caxton issued this _indulgence_, which is printed in the large no. * type, and very unsuitable for that kind of work, than the rival printer, john lettou, issued two editions printed in his small, neat type. this attracted caxton's attention, and he immediately set to work on a new small type, no. , which came into use soon afterwards. two books only in this new type are without signatures, so that they may presumably be taken to be the earliest; these are a _vocabulary in french and english_, and a _servitium de visitatione beatae mariae virginis_. the first is a small folio of leaves, of which the first is blank, and consists of words and short phrases in the two languages, arranged in opposite columns. it is an uninteresting book to look at, but must have been useful, for it was reprinted in the fifteenth century both by wynkyn de worde and richard pynson, and also in the early sixteenth. four copies are known, in bamburgh castle, ripon cathedral, the rylands library, and an imperfect copy in the duke of devonshire's library. the second book, the _servitium_, has, i think, been always wrongly described. all that now remains of it are seven leaves in the british museum, the last being blank; and the whole book was considered to have consisted of a quire of eight leaves, the first being wanting. the _servitium_ was a special service intended to be incorporated into the _breviary_ and _missal_. the pope had announced it in , but it was not until that the archbishop of canterbury received from the prolocutor a proposal to order the observance of july d as a fixed feast of the visitation, "sub more duplicis festi secundum usum sarum, cum pleno servitio." the book would therefore contain the full service for the day itself, the special parts for the week days following (except the fourth which was the octave of ss. peter and paul), and the service for the octave. almost the whole of the principal service, which would have occupied a considerable space, is wanting, so that it may be assumed that the book consisted originally of at least two quires, or sixteen leaves. an edition of the _psalter_ must have been printed about this time, and is perhaps the first book in which caxton made use of signatures; it is at any rate the only one, with the exception of _reynard the fox_, in which he went so far wrong as to necessitate the insertion of an extra leaf in one quire. this book, a quarto of leaves, has a handsome appearance, as it is printed throughout with the formal church-type no. , the only complete book in which this type alone is used. the only copy known is in the british museum, to which it came with the royal library, having belonged at one time to queen mary, whose initials are on the back of the binding. an edition of the _book of hours_ of salisbury use was printed about the same time in the same type, but nothing remains of it now except two fragments found in the binding of a caxton _boethius_ in the grammar school at st. alban's, and since purchased by the british museum. it was a quarto of the same size as the _psalter_, and a full page contained lines. on the th of june, , caxton finished his first edition of the _chronicles of england_, a folio of leaves, which, as he says in his preface, "atte requeste of dyverce gentilmen i have endevourd me to enprinte." though mainly derived from the ordinary manuscript copies, the history has been brought down to a later date, and this continuation may very well have been written by caxton himself. in august of the same year, the _description of britain_ was issued. it is taken from higden's _polycronicon_, and was clearly intended to form a supplement to the _chronicles_, with which it is commonly found bound up. more copies of it appear to have been printed than of the _chronicles_, for it is found also with the second edition of the _chronicles_, though it was not reprinted. john lidgate's poem, _curia sapientiae_, or _the court of sapience_, a poem in seven-line stanzas, containing descriptions of animals, birds, and fishes, with a survey of the arts and sciences, was published about this time. it is a folio of leaves, of which the first and last two are blank. three copies only are known, all of which are in public libraries. [illustration: plate vi the mirrour of the world (see page ) ] [illustration: plate vii the mirrour of the world (see page ) ] early in caxton finished his translation of _the mirror of the world_, and it must have been printed immediately after. the work was a commission from his friend hugh bryce, a fellow-member of the mercers' company, and who must often have met caxton on his official visits to bruges. in this book for the first time the printer made use of illustrations. these are of two kinds. the first consists of little pictures, rudely designed and coarsely cut, of masters engaged in teaching their pupils various sciences, or of single figures engaged in scientific pursuits. these are original and introduced by caxton. the second series are diagrams more or less carefully copied from the mss. in his prologue he says that there are twenty-seven figures, "without whiche it may not lightly be understande." curiously enough, he himself goes astray, for in the first part, which should contain eight diagrams, he puts the second and third in their wrong places and omits the fourth. the nine diagrams of the second part are wrongly drawn, and in some cases misplaced, owing to the original text having been misunderstood. the diagrams of the third part are most correct, but although ten are mentioned, only nine appear. an interesting point about these diagrams is, that they have short explanations written in them in ink, and in all copies where these inscriptions are found they are in the same handwriting. oldys, who first drew attention to this peculiarity, supposed the handwriting to be that of caxton himself, and though this is not impossible, it is more probable that this simple and monotonous task would be done by one of his assistants. the _history of reynard the fox_ was translated by caxton in from the dutch edition printed at gouda in by gerard leeu, a printer who later on at antwerp reprinted some of caxton's english books. the story of reynard was extremely popular and widely spread, yet it appears that no manuscripts exist with the story in the form given by caxton. five copies of this book are known; one of them, the fine copy which was in the spencer collection, is part of the spoil obtained from lincoln minster. a mistake of the printer necessitated the insertion of a half printed leaf in all copies between leaves and . on the th of august, , caxton issued a translation of two treatises of cicero, _de senectute_ and _de amicitia_, and a work of bonaccursus de montemagno, entitled _de nobilitate_. the translation of the first two into french was made by command of louis, duke of bourbon, in , by laurence de premierfait, and the last by jean mielot. the english translation seems to have been made by tiptoft, earl of worcester, at the desire of sir john fastolfe, for whom his son-in-law, scrope, a kinsman of tiptoft, had translated the _dictes or sayengis_. cicero apparently did not appeal so much to the popular taste as such stories as _reynard_, so that it is now one of the commonest of caxton's books, some twenty-five to thirty copies being known. on the th of november, in the same year, appeared another romance, _the history of godfrey of bologne_, or _the conquest of jerusalem_, translated by caxton from the french. almost every copy known of this book is imperfect, but there is a beautiful example in the possession of colonel holford. it was edward the fourth's own copy, and at the end of the fifteenth century had come by some means into the possession of roger thorney, a mercer of london and a patron of caxton's successor, wynkyn de worde, who printed, at his request, his edition of the _polycronicon_. after various changes of ownership, it came into the possession of a noted collector, richard smith, and at his auction in was bought by the earl of peterborough for the not excessive sum of eighteen shillings and two pence. [illustration: plate viii the game and playe of the chesse (see page ) ] about this time two more illustrated books were issued, a third edition of burgh's _cato parvus et magnus_, and a second edition of the _game of chess_. the _cato_ contains two wood-cuts out of the set made for the _mirror of the world_. it is a folio of leaves, of which the first was blank, and is wanting in the two known copies, those in st. john's college, oxford, and the spencer collection. the _game of chess_ contains twenty-four illustrations, but the wood-cuts used number only sixteen, for many served their purpose twice. the first cut is of the son of nebuchadnezzar, named evilmerodach, described in the text as "a jolly man without justice, who did do hew his father his body into three hundred pieces." most of the remainder are pictures of the various pieces. the suggestion which has sometimes been made that caxton's wood-cuts were engraved abroad is quite without foundation. they are very often copied from those in foreign books, but their very clumsy execution would be well within the capacity of the veriest tyro in wood-engraving. mr. linton suggested that they might have been cut in soft metal, but as the blocks when found in later books often have marks clearly showing that they had been injured by worm-holes, this conjecture is untenable. as with all illustrated books, most of the remaining copies of the _game of chess_ are more or less imperfect. the dated books of are two in number, and both historical; these are higden's _polycronicon_ and the second edition of the _chronicles of england_. the first was finished on the d of july, and is a large, thick folio of leaves. the work was originally compiled by ralph higden in the fourteenth century from various earlier sources, and was translated into english in by john of trevisa, chaplain to the earl of berkeley. the whole of this caxton revised, and continued the chronicle up to the year , this continuation being the only important piece of caxton's own composition which we possess. this book shares with the _golden legend_ the position of being the commonest of caxton's books, and like it is unrepresented by a single absolutely perfect copy, the blank leaves, five of which occur throughout the book, being always in part wanting. a copy which belonged to tutet contained the inscription, "presens liber pertinet ad willelmum perde emptus a willelmo caxton, regio impressore vicessimo novembrio anno regis edwardi quarti vicessimo secundo." this would be november , , immediately after the issue of the book. the printing of the second edition of the _chronicles_ was finished on october , . it agrees exactly with the first edition, and curiously enough, almost the same number of copies are known, though none are quite perfect. the _pilgrimage of the soul_ came out on june , , during edward the fifth's short reign. it was an adaptation by jehan de gallopes from the larger work of guillaume de deguilleville, translated into english by lidgate. five copies are known, of which the finest is in the british museum. i traced out some time ago the history of two copies of this book, which is worth mentioning as showing the extraordinary manner in which caxtons were mutilated and made up. about the year there were in existence two copies, a and b. a had two leaves in the middle, and , taken from b, and after these leaves had been taken b came into the possession of w. herbert, the bibliographer. a still wanted one leaf at end; b wanted three at the beginning, the two taken from the middle, and the leaf at the end. in b belonged to heber, the celebrated collector, who parted with it to lord spencer in exchange for some other books. in the same year lord spencer obtained a duplicate last leaf from the british museum, which he added to this copy b. in , at the "white knights" sale, lord spencer bought copy a, took out the last leaf from b and inserted it in a, thus making a practically complete. b was then sold as a duplicate, repurchased by heber, and is now in the splendid library formed by mr. christie miller at britwell court. fortunately in these days collectors are beginning to recognize that such doctored and made-up books are of little value or interest compared to genuine even if imperfect copies. like paintings which have been "restored," the charm is gone. a few wealthy buyers who acquire libraries as part of the suitable furniture of a great house, and to whom the name and fine appearance of a rare book is all that is necessary, keep up such books to a fictitious value, but their day is slowly but surely passing and giving way to intelligent appreciation. chapter v. - . the publication of the _liber festivalis_ on the last day of june, , marks the beginning of a new group of books, for in it first appears a recasting of type no. on a slightly larger body, and with one or two different letters, thus giving us a clear date by which to divide all books in this type into two divisions. the _liber festivalis_, or _festial_ as it should more properly be called, was compiled by john mirk, canon of the abbey of st. mary at lilleshall, in shropshire. it was intended, as the compiler tells us, to supply short sermons for ignorant priests to expound to their congregations on saints' days, and the stories were obtained from the _golden legend_ and the _gesta romanorum_. it was in no way a service book, though often so considered, indeed, it is included in dickinson's _list of printed service books according to the ancient uses of the anglican church_, but was more in the nature of a preacher's assistant, such as are published to the present day, giving a series of headings and anecdotes applicable to particular subjects. this first edition of caxton's differs considerably in the text from all later editions, which follow the version printed at oxford by rood and hunte in . it is a folio of leaves, of which the first is blank, and has lines to the page. with it was issued a supplement of leaves, called _quattuor sermones_, which were homilies on such matters as the seven sacraments, seven deadly sins, and the like. [illustration: plate ix liber festivalis (see page ) ] about this time was issued the _sex epistolae_, edited by petrus carmelianus, an italian scholar settled in england, who afterwards became latin secretary to henry vii. the letters were published in the interest of the venetians, who were indignant at the separate terms made between pope sixtus iv. and the duke of ferrara. this book, one of the earliest known separate publications of diplomatic correspondence, is quite different in character from any of caxton's other books, except perhaps the _oration_ of john russell. the only known copy of the tract was discovered in in the hecht-heine library at halberstadt, bound up in a volume of late theological pamphlets, by dr. könnecke, archivist at marburg, and after various cautious overtures, was finally secured by the trustees for the british museum. it is a very uninteresting-looking quarto of leaves, of which the first is blank. lidgate's _life of our lady_, a folio of leaves, appeared about this time. there were apparently two editions issued, one of which has almost entirely disappeared, with the exception of a few leaves, which evidently varied very considerably in the text. blades mentions only the one edition, and in this connexion a rather curious and amusing point may be noticed. when he published his _enemies of books_ he was anxious to give an illustration of the ravages of a book-worm, and for this purpose gave a fac-simile of two fragments of a caxton almost destroyed by these pests. now, the very pages which he reproduced were from this variant edition of the _life of our lady_, and yet, not thinking of comparing them with the ordinary edition, he missed the opportunity of adding another to his list of caxtons. the second edition of chaucer's _canterbury tales_, also ascribed to the year , is an interesting book in many ways. the prologue shows very strongly how much enthusiasm caxton took in the literary side of his work. i give the following quotation in his own words: "whyche book i have dylygently oversen and duly examyned to thende that it be made acordyng unto his owen makyng. for i fynde many of the sayd bookes whyche wryters have abrydgyd it and many thynges left out. and in somme place have sette certayn versys that he never made ne sette in hys booke, of whyche bookes so incorrecte was one brought to me vj yere passyd whyche i supposed had ben veray true and correcte. and accordyng to the same i dyde do enprynte a certayn nombre of them whyche anon were sold to many and dyverse gentyl men of whome one gentylman cam to me and said that this book was not accordyng in many places unto the book that gefferey chaucer had made. to whom i answered that i had made it accordyng to my copye and by me was nothyng added ne mynusshyd. thenne he sayd he knewe a book whyche hys fader had and moche lovyd that was very trewe and accordyng unto hys owen first book by hym made; and sayd more, yf i wold enprynte it agayn he wold gete me the same book for a copye, how be it he wyst wel that hys fader wold not gladly departe fro it. to whom i said, in caas that he could gete me suche a book trewe and correcte yet i wold ones endevoyre me to enprynte it agayn. and thus we fyll at accord. and he ful gentylly gate of hys fader the said book and delyverd it to me, by whiche i have corrected my book." besides revising his text, caxton added illustrations. there are twenty-four of these, but several are made to do duty twice over, a common custom with early printers. thus the "poor parson" and the "doctor of physick," the "somnour" and the "franklin," are represented by the same cuts; while the large illustration depicting the pilgrims sitting at supper at a round table does duty in some later publications for the "assembly of the gods." [illustration: plate x chaucer's canterbury tales (see page ) ] as might have been expected, such a book became very popular, and is now consequently very rare. besides a few more or less imperfect copies, only one perfect one is known, now in the library of st. john's college, oxford, which unfortunately has the cuts rudely daubed with colour. when perfect, the book should contain leaves, the first being blank. chaucer's _troilus and creside_ and _hous of fame_, as well as a little tract of six leaves called the _curial_, were also printed about this time. september , , is another definite date, for on that day caxton finished an edition of gower's well-known poem, the _confessio amantis_, or _lover's confession_, written by command of richard ii., who, meeting the poet rowing on the thames, near london, invited him into the royal barge, and after much conversation requested him to "book some new thing." the book is a folio of leaves, of which no less than four are blank, and only one copy is now in existence in which these blank leaves have been preserved. otherwise the book is not uncommon, though nearly every copy is imperfect. an extremely fine copy, wanting only the blank leaves, is in the library of shrewsbury school, and is mentioned here to correct an error of blades, who goes out of his way to state, "the copy ascribed by n. carlisle to edward vi. grammar school, shrewsbury, is not from the press of caxton." the _life of the holy and blessed virgin saint winifred_ is a small folio of leaves, printed about this date. caxton states that he "reduced" this book into english, but there is some difficulty as to the source from which he took it. the life of the celebrated welsh saint was written in latin in the twelfth century by robert, prior of shrewsbury, and this caxton may have translated, but as no copy of the manuscript is now in existence the point cannot be determined. only three copies of the printed book are known. the book called _caton_ was translated by the end of december, , and must therefore have been printed at the beginning of . the _catonis disticha_ was the best known school-book of the middle ages, and with the _donatus_, was the groundwork of latin learning over europe. about a certain daniel church added a few latin precepts to the original book, which acquired the name of _parvus cato_, and after his time the two are generally found together as _cato, parvus et magnus_. in the second half of the fifteenth century it was, as caxton himself tells us, "translated in to englysshe by mayster benet burgh, late archdeken of colchestre and hye chanon of saint stephens at westmestre, which ful craftly hath made it in balade ryal for the erudicion of my lord bousher, sone and heyr at that tyme to my lord the erle of estsex." of this version caxton printed three editions, which have already been noticed, but the present is a different and considerably larger work. it contains, besides the "disticha" and moral maxims, very extensive glosses or commentaries containing "histories and examples," translated by caxton from a french original. it is a folio of leaves, of which four are blank and usually wanting. about twelve copies are known, and a good example is in the lenox library, new york. on the st of january, , caxton issued the _booke whiche the knyght of the toure made to the enseygnement and techyng of his doughters_. this work was compiled about the year by geoffrey de la tour-landry, a literary knight of celebrated family, and was translated by caxton, "at the request of a noble lady which hath brought forth many noble and fair daughters, which be virtuously nourished." in his preface he advises "every gentleman or woman having children desiring them to be virtuously brought forth to get and have this book," though it would in these days be considered anything but suitable for young persons,--or for the matter of that, for their elders. [illustration: plate xi the fables of esope (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xii the fables of esope (see page ) ] the _fables of aesop_ was issued on march th, the first day of the year . this is certainly one of the finest and rarest amongst the books which caxton printed. it begins with a large full-page frontispiece containing a figure of Æsop similar in treatment to those occurring in some foreign editions. this is found only in the copy at windsor castle. in the text there are no less than one hundred and eighty-five wood-cuts, the work of two or perhaps even three different engravers, one of whom apparently cut the illustrations to the second edition of the _game of chesse_. one illustration is engraved in quite a different manner from the rest, and was probably cut hurriedly to replace one accidentally lost or broken, and has an appearance much more resembling modern work than the others, which are simply the ordinary heavy black outline cuts of the period. a complete copy of the book should contain leaves, the last two being blank, and the leaves are numbered. it was twice reprinted in the fifteenth century by richard pynson at london, and these two reprints are even rarer than the original, one copy of each being known, and both of them imperfect. the only perfect copy known of caxton's edition is in the king's library at windsor, and was one of the very few books retained when the royal library was handed over to the nation by george iv. a note on the fly-leaf shows the reason for this. "left to his majesty by the late mr. hewett of ipswich in suffolk and delivered to mr. allen by philip broke, esq. and sir john hewett, bart. to present to the king." it is in magnificent condition and uncut. the british museum was fortunate enough to be able to purchase a copy in , which, with the one imperfection of not having the frontispiece, is in as fine condition as the windsor copy, and in an early sixteenth-century binding by john reynes. the third and last copy is in the bodleian, to which it was presented in , with other caxtons, by moses pitt, a london bookseller. it is imperfect, wanting in all about twelve leaves. a curious broadside was published about this time, which is generally known as the _death-bed prayers_. it contains two prayers to be said by a priest at the bedside of dying persons, and the only known copy, which was formerly in the spencer library, was found bound up with a copy of the _pilgrimage of the soul_. the _order of chivalry_, which was printed in the reign of richard iii., may be ascribed to . the author of the book is not known, but it was translated from the french, and agrees exactly with a manuscript in the bibliothèque nationale, entitled _l'ordre de chivallerie_, beautifully illuminated, and written in flanders for edward iv. caxton used in this book and the _aesop_ a large floriated initial letter a, the only large ornamental capital which he seems to have possessed. five copies are known, two in the british museum, two in the spencer collection at manchester, and one in a private library in america. the book, which is a small quarto, should contain leaves, the first and last being blank. one copy in the british museum and one at manchester are complete as regards text, but neither has both blanks. [illustration: plate xiii the fables of esope (see page ) ] the _golden legend_, caxton's most important work, was finished, so far as regards the translation, on the th of november, . in the second prologue the printer tells us that when beginning the translation the magnitude of the task and the heavy expenses of printing made him "halfe desperate to have accomplissd it," and he proposed to put what he had already done to one side and leave the work. the earl of arundel, however, encouraged him to proceed, not only by promising to take a certain number of copies when finished, but by the offer of an annual gift of a buck in summer and a doe in winter. thus assisted, caxton finished his translation and printed the book, and some idea of the task involved may be gathered from the fact that the work consists of printed pages, each page containing two columns of lines. it is illustrated with a frontispiece, eighteen large and fifty-two small wood-cuts. the translator compiled his version from three sources, for he tells us that he had beside him "a legende in frensshe, another in latyn and the thyrd in englysshe." the french edition which caxton used has been clearly identified in a curious manner. in one or two places it contains bad misprints which caxton translated blindly. in the life of st. stephen the words "femmes veuves" have been misprinted "saine venue," which caxton renders "hole comen," in spite of the words making no sense. in the life of st. genevieve "a name" occurs in place of "a navire," which appears in the english version as "at name" in place of "by ship." this french version is of great rarity, the only two copies known being in the british museum and the cambridge university library. fortunately, the _golden legend_ is one of the commonest of caxton's books, though every copy is more or less imperfect. the finest is that which formerly belonged to lord spencer, which was made perfect as regards the text with leaves from other copies, and is, with the exception of these leaves, very large and in fine condition. in it belonged to robert hedrington, who appears to have owned many caxtons. the three books which follow the _golden legend_, and which are all dated , are of very great interest. these are the _morte d'arthur_, the _lyf of charles the great_, and the _history of paris and vienne_, all printed in folio. sir thomas malory's _morte d'arthur_, that cycle of stories connected with king arthur and the knights of the round table, and as sir walter scott called it, the best of all english romances, is perhaps the most interesting volume that caxton ever printed. two copies only, one perfect, the other wanting a few leaves, are now known. the first has a long and interesting pedigree. it first appeared at dr. bernard's sale in , when it produced the magnificent sum of two shillings and ten pence, passing into the vast library of the earl of oxford. osborne, the bookseller who bought that library _en bloc_, sold the volume to bryan fairfax for five pounds, and in it passed with the whole of his library to mr. child, the banker, at a valuation of two pounds, twelve shillings, and six pence. while safely preserved at osterley at the beginning of last century, it raised the most covetous feelings in the breasts of the two great caxtonian collectors, lord spencer and his nephew, the duke of devonshire, who both made overtures for its acquisition. it had almost been ceded to the latter in exchange for some work of art, when it was discovered that it could not legally be parted with, and it remained at osterley until , when lord jersey's library was sold. at this sale it was purchased by mr. pope for a sum little under two thousand pounds, and left england for america, where it still remains. the second copy was obtained by lord spencer in at the sale of the library of mr. lloyd of wygfair. both copies are in very fine condition. the complete book consists of leaves, the first being blank. there are lines to a page, and as these run straight across, instead, as is so often the case, being made up into two columns, the effect of the whole, with the wide margins, is very striking. sir thomas malory's translation from the french was finished in the ninth year of king edward iv.,--that is, about ,--but apparently no manuscript of it is now in existence. the _life of the noble and christian prince, charles the great_, was translated by caxton from an anonymous french version compiled at the request of henry bolomyer, canon of lausanne. in it the various stories and legends relating to charlemagne have been gathered together from various sources. caxton finished his translation on the th of june, when he had nearly finished the printing of the _morte d'arthur_, and the printing of the book was finished on the st of december. the only copy known, which is perfect with the exception of the last blank leaf, is in the king's library in the british museum. the moment caxton had finished the translation of _charles the great_ he set to work on another short romance, the _history of the knight paris and the fair vienne_. this he finished on the st of august, and the book was printed by the th of december. like the last, only one copy, and that quite perfect, is known; and it is also in the king's library in the british museum. it seems very probable that at an early date these two books were bound together, but either before or on their coming into the possession of the earl of oxford they were bound separately. they agree entirely in size and typographical particulars, both having lines to the page in two columns. the _paris and vienne_ was reprinted in by gerard leeu at antwerp in small folio, with illustrations. he reprinted also in the same month the _history of jason_, and in the year following the _chronicles of england_. the apathy in book production which seems to have immediately succeeded caxton's death may have encouraged him to attempt printing for the english market, but his own death while his edition of the _chronicles_ was passing through the press put an end to the trade. he printed one other english book, the _dialogue of salomon and marcolphus_, of which one copy exists. this, like the rest, may have been copied from an edition printed by caxton, but if so, all traces of it have disappeared. no dated book of is known, but several may be ascribed to this date. first the _directorium sacerdotum_, or _pica_, a work compiled by clement maydeston, containing the rules for adapting the calendar to the services of each week in accordance with the thirty-five varieties of the almanac. of this book, so interesting to liturgical students, but one copy is known, now in the british museum, a library, however, to which it should not rightly belong. the volume formed part of the collection bequeathed to the cambridge university library by dr. holdsworth in , but it was stolen from there in or shortly before , and soon afterwards "bought of a man introduced by dr. nugent" by william bayntun, esq., of gray's inn, after whose death it came into the possession of king george iii., and passed with the rest of the king's library into the british museum. at the beginning of the book a single leaf containing a large wood-cut has been inserted which does not really belong to the volume. in the centre is a half-length figure of our lord with the hands crossed. behind the head and shoulders is the cross, and on either side the spear and the reed with the sponge. below is the text of an _indulgence_, which in this case has been cut out, while round the whole is a framework composed of twenty-eight small square compartments, each containing some emblem of the crucifixion. these early english prints, several of which exactly similar in treatment are known, go under the name of the _image of pity_. [illustration: plate xiv the image of pity (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xv speculum vitae christi (see page ) ] the _directorium_ is a folio of leaves, the first, which is wanting in the only known copy, having been most probably blank. about this year the first edition of bonaventura's _speculum vitae christi_ was issued, remarkable for its illustrations. these, though not large, are much more graceful in design and better in execution than any which preceded them, and are clearly the work of a new engraver. it is a curious fact that in neither edition which he printed did caxton use the full series of these cuts, for odd illustrations appear in later books which clearly belong to the set, but which had not been made use of before. besides the regular series, a few smaller cuts occur, much ruder in execution. these belong to a set cut for an edition of the _horae ad usum sarum_, but the early editions of this book are known only from fragments, so that we cannot ascertain how many there were in the original series. several of these _speculum_ cuts reappear in the _royal book_, a translation of _la somme des vices et vertus_, published very shortly after. this book at present enjoys the distinction of having brought the highest price hitherto paid for a caxton, a copy having been sold (march , ) for the sum of £ , . the history of this particular copy is an interesting one. it belonged early in the seventeenth century to thomas archer, parson of houghton conquest, bedfordshire, who bequeathed it to the church library of st. john's, bedford. this library was afterwards moved to st. paul's church, bedford, and about transferred to the bedford literary institute. the council of this institute, entirely ignoring their moral obligations, determined to make money out of so valuable a book, and not only did they do so, but they also did their best to destroy one of the very few existing evidences of caxton's work. the book when i examined it several years ago was in its original binding, tooled with stamps which we have many reasons for believing belonged to caxton himself. this bedford book afforded the strongest proof of all, for the boards of the binding were lined with unused copies of one issue of caxton's _indulgences_. of these there had originally been four, two at each end, but two had been abstracted. when the book was sold the remaining two were taken out and sold separately, thus destroying for ever a most valuable piece of evidence. this book, together with one of the _indulgences_, is now in a private library in america. a few years ago mr. robert proctor, working in the library of new college, oxford, found in the binding of a book two small slips of vellum with some printing upon them in caxton's type no. . these turned out to be portions of a leaf of a hitherto unknown caxton, an edition of the _donatus melior_, revised by mancinellus, printed in folio. they are also the earliest specimens of caxton's use of vellum. the date of the book would be about . in may, , caxton finished the printing of the _book of good manners_, which he had translated from the french at the request of one of his friends, william pratt, a mercer of london who had lately died. the original book was written by jacobus magnus or jacques legrand, the author of the _sophologium_, and was evidently popular, for it was frequently reprinted, no less than four other english editions having been issued in the fifteenth century. caxton's edition is a small folio of leaves, and three copies, all in public libraries, are known. the finest is in the cambridge university library, and another, also perfect, is in the royal library at copenhagen. this latter, which was sold by auction in for the sum of two shillings, was purchased by the copenhagen library in for one guinea. the third copy, wanting some leaves, is at lambeth. so far caxton had worked entirely with his own materials and without any assistance from outside. his work had been confined to the most ordinary kind of printing, which required no special trouble and no great variety of type or ornament. the close of the year, however, saw a change in this respect, and the first influences of the french press, which were gradually later on to assume such large proportions, began to make themselves felt. chapter vi. - . in december, , caxton issued an edition of the sarum _missal_, though he was not himself the printer. the work was done for him by a printer at paris named guillaume maynial, about whom but little is known. he is presumed to be a relation, son, perhaps, or nephew, of george maynial, the partner of ulrich gering in . he printed only three books, of which this _missal_ is the earliest, the other two being the _statutes_ and the _manual_ of the church of chartres, issued in and . the only copy of this book at present known is in the library of lord newton. it is a folio, and when perfect should have contained leaves, but of these are now missing. the page is printed in two columns, with lines to a column. one point which gives this book a peculiar interest is, that in it is found for the first time caxton's well-known device. it consists of his initials, divided by his merchant's mark, with a deep ornamental border at top and bottom. many ingenious writers have attempted to read into this mark several items of information. the merchant's mark they say is not a merchant's mark at all, but the figures significant of the time when he began to print. two small ornaments shaped like an s and c stand for sancta colonia, where he learned the art of printing. the mark is, however, merely an ordinary merchant's mark, which in some shape or another all printers introduced into their devices, and the letters s c merely ornamental flourishes. [illustration: plate xvi caxton's device (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xvii legenda ad usum sarum (see page ) ] another question has been raised as to whether this device was cut in england or in france, but it has no resemblance to french work, and is almost certainly a native production. as mr. blades justly remarks: "caxton, desirous of associating his press more directly with this issue than by the colophon only, which many people might overlook, probably designed his mark for the purpose of attracting attention. he no doubt stamped this device on the last blank page of the books after they had been received from abroad and before putting them into circulation." it seems not improbable that besides the _missal_, maynial printed for caxton another service-book, the _legenda_ according to the salisbury use. the existence of this book is known only from a few odd leaves, for the most part rescued from old bindings and preserved in different libraries, but it agrees in every respect typographically with the _missal_. the type is identical, the number of lines and size of page the same, and everything points to the same printer. perhaps some day a copy with the colophon may be found and our doubts on the subject set at rest. about appeared a new issue of the _golden legend_. it is not an entire reprint of the first, but only of certain parts of it. it contains leaves, being one less than the first issue, and of these are reprinted and are of the original edition. it is difficult to explain this reprinting, but it was probably caused by the destruction of a large part of the stock of the original issue. caxton took the opportunity to make two improvements in the reprint. he compressed the quires signed x and y, which contained the awkward number of nine leaves, into a single quire x of eight leaves, and instead of having a blank leaf at the end of the book he added the life of st. erasmus. the parts of the book which are of the second issue may be readily distinguished from the first by the head-lines. in the first issue they are in the larger type no. ; in the second, in the smaller type no. . on the th of july, , caxton finished printing a translation of the work of christine de pisan, entitled the _fayts of arms and of chivalry_. this translation, as he tells us in the epilogue, he undertook at the express desire of henry vii., who himself lent him the manuscript with the original french text. it is not improbable that the identical manuscript which caxton used is one which is now in the british museum, and which formed part of the old royal collection. it was written for john talbot, earl of shrewsbury, who died in , and by whom it was presented to queen margaret, and it agrees very closely in every way with caxton's english version. considerable doubt has been thrown on the authorship of christine de pisan, but apparently unjustly. in the prologues of many manuscripts, and in caxton's edition, the writer apologizes as a woman for treating of such warlike subjects, and appeals to the goddess minerva, saying, "i am, as thou wert, a woman italian." a complete copy should contain leaves, the first being blank, and over twenty copies are known. a perfect copy in the cambridge university library contains a manuscript note showing that it was bought in for three shillings and eight pence. [illustration: plate xviii the indulgence of (see page ) ] in , also, caxton issued two editions of an _indulgence_ of john de gigliis, or rather a license to confessors, giving them power to grant indulgences to any christian person in england or ireland who should contribute four, three, two, or even one gold florin to assist a crusade against the turks. these _indulgences_ are of peculiar interest, as they were printed in a new type of caxton's, the smallest which he ever cut, and of which he never again made use. the first to draw attention to them was archdeacon cotton, who in the second part of his "typographical gazetteer" mentions one which he had found in the library of trinity college, dublin, and which he considered to be a product of the early oxford press. henry bradshaw, the university librarian at cambridge, obtained a photograph of it, and at once conjectured from the appearance of the type that it must have been printed by caxton. he immediately communicated this discovery to blades, who, however, refused to accept it as the work of caxton's press without some further and more convincing proof, and never even alluded to either the type or _indulgence_ in later issues of his book. the necessary proof was soon afterwards found, for bradshaw discovered at holkham an edition of the _speculum vitae christi_, printed by wynkyn de worde in , which had the side-notes printed in this type, and as de worde inherited all caxton's materials, this fount must have belonged to him. the _statutes_ of the first, third, and fourth years of henry vii. may also be put down to the end of , for the fourth year of henry vii. ended on august , , and the _statutes_ would no doubt be printed at once. with the exceptions just given, none of caxton's books printed between may, , and his death in bear any date, so that although all may be approximately dated, their exact order cannot be determined. one very common error in the method of arranging caxton's books may be pointed out here, which arises from the method adopted by blades. in his _life of caxton_ the books are arranged according to types, which would be an excellent plan if the use of one type had been discontinued as soon as a newer one was made. this, however, was not the case, for several were often in use at one time, and thus blades's system, though correct in one way, is very misleading to a superficial reader. for instance, caxton started at westminster with types nos. and , and both are used in his first books, but blades puts the books in type no. after all those in type no. , and thus the sarum _ordinale_, certainly one of the earliest books printed in england, comes thirty-sixth on his list, and while one book with the printed date of is number , another with the printed date of is number . it will thus be seen that blades's arrangement was not a chronological one, though most writers have made the mistake of thinking so, and have followed it as such, as may be seen, for instance, in the list appended to caxton's life in the _dictionary of national biography_, which blindly follows blades's arrangement without any reference to his system or mention of the types. two interesting romances were printed about , the _history of the four sons of aymon_ and the _history of blanchardyn and eglantine_. the first was an extremely popular story both at home and on the continent; indeed, it still circulates abroad in the form of a pedler's chap-book, which perpetuates in a very mutilated state the story of renaud, alard, richard, and guichard, with their famous horse bayard, on which all four rode at once. the early english editions of this book almost suffered extermination. the earliest edition of which a complete copy is known is that printed at london by william copland in . the colophon of this book speaks of an edition printed by wynkyn de worde in , of which no trace remains except perhaps some fragmentary leaves in the cambridge university library; while of the edition printed by caxton only one copy, and that imperfect, is known. it is in folio, and probably contained when complete leaves. the unique copy, wanting some leaves at the beginning, was obtained by lord spencer from triphook, the bookseller, and is now, with the rest of the spencer library, in manchester. the _history of blanchardine and eglantine_ is also known only from an imperfect copy which was in the spencer library. it is impossible to settle what the correct collation may have been, as the book breaks off abruptly at leaf and all the remainder is wanting. as, however, the last chapter of the work is just beginning on the last remaining page, it seems probable that only the last quire is missing. on the fly-leaf is a curious note in lord spencer's handwriting relating to its purchase. "this book belonged to mr. g. mason; at whose sale it was bought by john, duke of roxburghe. the duke and i had agreed not to oppose one another at the sale, but, after the book was bought, to toss up who should win it; when i lost it. i bought it at the roxburghe sale, on the th of june, for £ _s._" at the earlier sale the duke had paid £ for it. this book was undertaken at the request of margaret, duchess of somerset, who brought to caxton a copy of the french version, which she had long before purchased from him, commanding him to translate it into english. during the last two years of his life at least half of caxton's books were merely new editions of some of his earlier works, and therefore hardly call for much detailed notice. the _dictes or sayings_ was reprinted for the third time, and the _directorium sacerdotum_, _reynard the fox_, and the _mirror of the world_ for the second. of the _directorium_ but one copy is known, which is in the selden collection in the bodleian. blades remarks about it that it is "still in the original parchment wrapper as issued from caxton's workshop." all evidence goes to prove that caxton never made use of parchment or vellum as a binding material, and in the case of the present book it is quite clear, on close examination, that it has been made up from two imperfect copies, and that the binding is not earlier than the seventeenth century. the _reynard the fox_ is also unique, and buried in that almost inaccessible collection, the pepysian library at magdalene college, cambridge. it wants, unfortunately, the last two leaves, so that the colophon, if it had one, is wanting. the _mirror_ is a fairly common book, and is an exact reproduction, though in different type, of the first edition. in the interval between the printing of the two editions one wood-cut had been lost or destroyed, so that the illustration for chapter ii., "why god made and created the world," instead of being the correct picture of the almighty with the globe in his hand (which blades strangely calls "the figure of a philosopher"), is the inappropriate cut of the transfiguration of christ. the _doctrinal of sapience_, a translation from a french version of the _manipulus curatorum_, was doubtless printed in the latter half of , as the translation had been finished on the th of may of that year. the book itself is not of much interest, though one copy deserves special mention. it is preserved in the royal library at windsor castle, to which it was presented by a mr. bryant. it is printed throughout upon vellum, and contains three leaves found in no other copy. in the text of the book, chapter is not printed, but the following heading is inserted: "of the neclygences of the masse and of the remedyes i passe over for it apperteyneth to prestes and not to laie men. c. lxiiij." in the windsor copy this chapter is printed at the end of the book on three extra leaves, and ends as follows: "this chapitre to fore i durst not sette in the boke by cause it is not convenyent ne aparteynyng that every laye man sholde knowe it." [illustration: plate xix the boke of eneydos (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xx ars moriendi (see page ) ] in june, , caxton finished the translation of two books, _the art and craft to know well to die_ and the _eneydos_. the first is not a translation of the complete book, but merely a small abridgment, running to thirteen printed leaves in folio. blades mentions only three copies, and curiously enough makes no mention of the peculiarly fine one which belonged to lord spencer, though he made a careful examination of all the caxtons at althorp. the _eneydos_ is not, as might be expected from the name, a translation of virgil's _aeneid_, but is more in the nature of a romance founded upon it. caxton's version was translated from "a lytyl booke in frenshe, named eneydos," probably the work called _le livre des eneydes_, printed at lyons in by g. le roy. the most interesting part of the work is the prologue, for in it caxton sets out at length his views and opinions on the english language, its changes and dialects. he notes that it was rapidly altering. "and certaynly our langage now used varyeth ferre from that whiche was used and spoken when i was borne." while some were anxious to preserve the old style, others were equally wishful to introduce the new. "and thus bytwene playn rude and curious i stande abasshed, but in my judgemente the comyn termes that be dayli used ben lyghter to be understonde than the olde and auncyent englysshe." in order to make the style as good as possible, caxton obtained the assistance of john skelton, lately created a "poeta laureatus" at oxford, who revised the work for the press. a second edition of the _speculum vitae christi_ and the _liber festivalis_ belong probably to . the latter book is not a reprint of the first edition, but another version, and is reprinted from the oxford edition of . the last five books printed by caxton are theological or liturgical. the _ars moriendi_, a unique little quarto of eight leaves, was discovered in a volume of early tracts in the bodleian by henry bradshaw, and is described by blades in the second edition of his book. he there states that no other edition in any language is known; but it was certainly reprinted by wynkyn de worde. the _fifteen oes_, a little quarto containing fifteen prayers, each commencing with o, is known from a unique copy in the british museum. the book was no doubt intended as a supplement to the sarum _book of hours_, but no edition agreeing with it typographically is known. it differs from all other of caxton's books in having wood-cut borders round each page of text. it also contains a beautiful wood-cut of the crucifixion, one of a series intended for a _book of hours_. no doubt caxton possessed the set, and we find it later on in the hands of wynkyn de worde. the _servitium de transfiguratione jesu christi_ and the _commemoratio lamentationis beatae mariae virginis_ are special issues of new services to be incorporated into the _breviary_. the first contains leaves, and is one of the very few books in which caxton introduced printing in red. the only copy known, bound up with a unique tract printed by pynson, and some foreign books, was formerly in the congregational library, london, but was purchased by the british museum in for £ . the _commemoratio_, a quarto of leaves, is known only from the unique copy, wanting two leaves, presented to the university of ghent by the learned librarian, dr. ferdinand vander haeghen. this little book was purchased for a trifle at a sale in ghent and remained unrecognized for many years, until m. campbell of the hague identified it as a production of caxton's press. the book generally considered to have been the last printed by caxton consists of three treatises printed with separate signatures. these are the _orologium sapientiae_, the _twelve profits of tribulation_, and the _rule of st. benet_. [illustration: plate xxi servitium de transfiguratione jesu christi (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xxii the crucifixion (see page ) ] a writer in the british museum speaking of these three books, says that they "are in most of the known copies bound together, and have been usually treated as a single volume under the title, probably dating from the eighteenth century, _a book of divers ghostly matters_. there is, however, no reason to suppose the connexion to be due to any other cause than similarity of subject and form, combined with nearly simultaneous publication." no doubt this idea commends itself to the museum authorities, since they possess only one of the three portions, ruthlessly abstracted by a thief some years ago from a perfect copy in a private library, but unfortunately it is quite incorrect. the compiler distinctly speaks of the books having been printed together, and on account of their treating different subjects, his wish that the compilation should be called the _book of divers ghostly matters_. when complete the book consisted of leaves in quarto. it contains, at the end of the second tract, a wood-cut which belongs to the series specially cut for the _speculum vitae christi_, though it was not used in it. the number of books actually printed by caxton in england, counting separate editions, is ninety-six, and with the three printed at bruges and the _missal_ makes altogether one hundred genuine caxtons. blades describes ninety-nine books, but amongst these he includes two which were certainly printed at bruges after caxton had left, and three printed by wynkyn de worde after caxton's death, so that the number of genuine books which he describes is ninety-four. the finest collection is now, as is right, in the british museum, which by judicious purchases in recent years has quite outstripped any possible rival. five more books remain to be described, which although not printed by caxton himself, were printed with his types, and have therefore often been ascribed by different writers to his press. these are the _life of st. katherine_, the _chastising of god's children_, the _treatise of love_, the _book of courtesy_, and the third edition of the _golden legend_. the first of these books is a small folio of leaves, and contains, besides the life of st. katherine of siena, the revelations of st. elizabeth of hungary. the type used is a modification of caxton's type no. *, recast on a slightly smaller body and with several new additions. unlike caxton's books which were made up in quires of eight leaves, this has been made up in quires of six. another point which distinguishes it and the remaining books from caxton's work is the introduction of several remarkable capital letters. these were obtained along with a fount of type and some wood-cuts from godfried van os, apparently about the year , when he moved from gouda to copenhagen. the fount of type was not used until , and then only for one book. the _chastising of god's children_, a folio of leaves, printed in caxton's type no. , is notable as being the first book issued at the westminster press with a genuine title-page. it is printed in three lines, and runs as follows: "the prouffytable boke for mannes soule, and right comfortable to the body, and specyally in adversitee and trybulacyon, whiche boke is called the chastysing of goddes chyldern." why so obvious an improvement as a title-page never commended itself to caxton it is hard to say. it could not have been for want of examples, for, introduced in germany as far back as the year , they had at any rate during the last ten years of caxton's life been in common use abroad. even the london printer, william de machlinia, had prefixed one to an edition of the _treatise on the pestilence_, by canutus, bishop of aarhaus, which he printed about the year . of the _chastising_, about twelve copies are known. [illustration: plate xxiii the lyf of saint katherin (see page ) ] the _treatise of love_ is also a folio of leaves, and agrees typographically with the _chastising_; indeed, the two were often bound together, and are quoted by dibdin as two parts of one book. the introduction tells us that it was translated in from french into english by a person "unperfect in such work," but no mention is made either of the original author or the translator. it was most probably printed also in , for at the end of that year de worde introduced his own type and ceased the use of caxton's for the text of his books. at the end his first device is found, consisting of caxton's initials and mark, much reduced in size, in black on a white ground, and apparently engraved on metal. blades quotes four copies of this book, all of them perfect, but does not mention the copy in the university library at göttingen, and there are probably at least two other copies in private libraries in england. of the _book of courtesy_, which, like the earlier editions, was in quarto, nothing now remains but two leaves printed on one side in the douce collection at the bodleian. these two leaves, which have been used at some time to line a binding, are waste proof of the beginning and end of the second and last quire of the book, which probably consisted, like the earlier edition, of leaves. on the last page, under the colophon, "here endeth a lytyll treatyse called the booke of curtesye or lytyll john. enprynted atte westmoster," is de worde's device printed upside down, the reason no doubt for the rejection of the sheet. the last book, the _golden legend_, is a small, thick folio of leaves, with a number of illustrations which had been used in previous editions. the colophon is reprinted verbatim from the first edition, with the simple alteration of the date and regnal year. it ends, as do those of the preceding editions, "by me william caxton," a circumstance which gives blades the opportunity of remarking on the carelessness of wynkyn de worde. "this is only another instance," he writes, "of the utter disregard of accuracy by wynken de worde, who has here reprinted caxton's colophon, with the date only altered, and thus caused what might have been a puzzling anomaly." this is, i think, hardly fair criticism. the book is the largest which caxton translated, and the words "by me william caxton" may apply quite as much to the translation as to the printing, and it is no doubt that de worde retained it as applying to the former. as caxton was but recently dead, and well known to every one, he could not possibly have intended to signify that he was the printer. one point in connexion with this book is curious. how was it that this third edition was printed when the stock of the earlier edition was not exhausted? caxton, by his will, bequeathed a certain number to the churchwardens of st. margaret's, to be sold for the benefit of the church, but these were not exhausted even by , when a fourth edition was printed. in caxton's son-in-law received twenty, and a number still remained in possession of his daughter. a solution of this difficulty has occurred to me, which, though it may be considered as improbable, is by no means impossible. this is, that the "legends" mentioned in the various documents were not copies of the _golden legend_ at all, but were copies of the _legenda_ of salisbury use, which, as pointed out on page , were probably printed for caxton. being a book printed specially for the use of the clergy in church, such a bequest would be very suitable. in these "legends" were valued in the law-court at thirteen shillings and four pence apiece, but the twelve copies sold by the churchwardens of westminster between and gradually decreased in price from six shillings and eight pence in the first year to five shillings in the last. [illustration: plate xxiv the metamorphoses of ovid (see page ) ] [illustration: plate xxv the metamorphoses of ovid (see page ) ] considering the number of caxton's productions that are now known to us only from mere fragments, it is probable that many have disappeared altogether. amongst these may be reckoned one of considerable importance, the _metamorphoses of ovid_. in the introduction to the _golden legend_ caxton writes: "whan i had parfourmed and accomplisshed dyvers werkys and hystoryes translated out of frensshe into englysshe at the requeste of certeyn lordes, ladyes and gentylmen, as thystorye of the recuyel of troye, the book of the chesse, the hystorye of jason, the hystorye of the myrrour of the world, the xv bookes of metamorpheseos in whyche been conteyned the fables of ouyde, and the hystorye of godefroy of boloyn ... wyth other dyuers werkys and bookes, etc." these, like all caxton's translations, were done for the press, so there is every reason for believing that the _ovid_ also was printed. fortunately we have further evidence, for in the pepysian collection at magdalene college, cambridge, is a manuscript on paper bought by pepys at an anonymous auction, which contains the last six books of the _metamorphoses_, with the following colophon: "translated and fynysshed by me william caxton at westmestre the xxij day of apryll, the yere of our lord. m. iiijc iiijxx. and the xx yere of the regne of kyng edward the fourth." though the point can never be settled, it is not unlikely that this manuscript has preserved for us a genuine specimen of caxton's own writing, not, of course, the ordinary current hand, but the book hand used in copying manuscripts. at that time there was still a prejudice amongst the nobles against printed books, so that the presentation copy to the patron generally took the form of a neatly written manuscript. there is another interesting point to be noticed about this manuscript. it contains the autograph of lord lumley, who inherited the library formed by the earls of arundel. now, william fitzalan, earl of arundel, was one of caxton's patrons, so that it seems extremely probable that this manuscript was presented to him by caxton himself. another translation of which no trace remains is mentioned in the prologue to the _four sons of aymon_. the only known copy of caxton's edition is imperfect, and wants the earlier part containing this prologue, but it occurs in full in the later edition printed by william copland in , from which the following quotation is taken: "therefore late at the request and commandment of the right noble and virtuous earl, john earl of oxford, my good singular and especial lord, i reduced and translated out of french into our maternal and english tongue the life of one of his predecessors named robert earl of oxford tofore said with divers and many great miracles, which god showed for him, as well in his life as after his death, as it is showed all along in his said book." what this romance may have been is difficult to say, but it probably refers to the favourite of richard the second, the duke of ireland, who was killed in france while engaged in a boar-hunt. caxton, like all other printers at that time, numbered bookbinders amongst his workmen and issued his books ready bound. every genuine binding from his workshop is of brown calf, ornamented with dies. his general method of covering the sides of his bindings was to make a large centre panel contained by a framework of dies. this panel was divided into lozenge-shaped compartments by diagonal lines running both ways from the frame, and in each of these compartments a die was stamped. the die most commonly found has a winged dragon or monster engraved upon it. the framework was often composed of repetitions of a triangular die pointing alternately right and left, also containing a dragon. this die is interesting, not only because the use of a triangular die was uncommon, but because it was an exact copy of one used by a london binder of the twelfth century. chapter vii. caxton's death. the exact date of caxton's death has never been settled, but from the position of the entry in the parish accounts relating to his burial, it would appear to have taken place towards the end of the year . all the early writers fixed on as the date, no doubt because his name appears in the colophon of the edition of the _golden legend_ printed in that year. his will, could this be recovered, would doubtless throw light on this and many another obscure point, but the hope of finding it grows daily less and less. the ordinary repositories have been searched in vain; though it was still considered possible that it might be found amongst the large collection of documents preserved in westminster abbey. mr. scott, of the british museum, who is at present engaged in calendaring these documents, and to whom i wrote on the subject, replied: "i believe it to be quite impossible that caxton's will can be in the muniment rooms at the abbey, because all the wills are together in one bundle, arranged chronologically, and also i have calendared, so far as i can see, all papers and deeds relating to westminster." there is just the possibility that at some period the will, having been recognized as of supreme interest, has been removed to some place of greater security and its whereabouts forgotten. in a copy of the _fructus temporum_ printed by julyan notary in , which belonged at one time to a mr. ballard of cambden, in gloucestershire, a friend of joseph ames, the bibliographer, there was written in a very old hand the following epitaph on caxton: "of your charitee pray for the soul of mayster wyllyam caxton, that in hys time was a man of moche ornate and moche renommed wysdome and connyng, and decessed ful crystenly the yere of our lord m.cccc.lxxxxj. "moder of merci shyld him from thorribul fynd and bryng hym to lyff eternall that neuyr hath ynd." there seems great probability that this is a genuine copy of a genuine inscription, for had it been a forgery of the time when it is first mentioned, early in the eighteenth century, the forger would have given the date as , which was then supposed to be the date of caxton's death, rather than , the genuine date. two years later we find in the colophon to gerard leeu's reprint of _caxton's chronicles_ the same epithets applied to him by his workmen (by one of whom he had been killed during the progress of the work) as are applied to caxton, "a man of grete wysedom in all maner of kunnying." of caxton's domestic affairs we know hardly anything. a lucky discovery made by mr. gairdner in the public record office proves that he was a married man. this is a copy of a document produced in a lawsuit relating to a separation between gerard croppe, a tailor of westminster, and his wife elizabeth, daughter of william caxton, and dated the th of may, . each was bound over, under penalty of one hundred pounds, not to vex, sue, or trouble the other about any matters relating to their marriage, and to live for the future apart, unless the said gerard could recover the love and favour of the said elizabeth. this having been agreed to, gerard was to receive out of the bequest of william caxton twenty printed legends at thirteen shillings and four pence a legend, giving a general quittance to the executors of william caxton. could the record of the original trial be recovered, the evidence of the various witnesses would no doubt afford much information. in the churchwarden's accounts of st. margaret's church, westminster, there occurs an entry in the year . "item atte bureyng of mawde caxston for torches and tapres iij_s._ ij_d._" this has been supposed to refer to caxton's wife, but beyond the similarity of names there is no evidence to support the conjecture. in the same way, too, the entry of a william caxton's burial in in the parish records of st. margaret's has caused several to conjecture that this may have been the printer's father. it appears almost certain that caxton left no son, for all his printing material passed into the hands of wynkyn de worde, who had for some time been his assistant. wynkyn de worde, who took out letters of denization in april, , is described as a printer, and a native of the duchy of lorraine. many writers have mistakenly derived his name from the town of woerden in holland, whereas he really came from the town of worth in alsace, and sometimes uses the name worth in place of worde. the suggestion, too, that he came with caxton from bruges would appear improbable, for as that event took place in , and de worde did not die until , he would have been too young to be an assistant. amongst the documents, however, in westminster abbey is one dated , relating to the giving up of a tenement by elizabeth, wife of wynand van worden. if this really refers to the printer, it is clear that he must have married an englishwoman, who would be able to hold property, which the husband, as an alien, could not. it makes it also appear probable that he was an assistant of caxton when he established himself as an english printer in , but de worde must at that time have been a fairly young man. several other printers have been quoted as apprentices of caxton by different writers, but without any authority. blades mentions pynson, and even goes so far as to say that he used caxton's device, a mistake which may be traced to an imperfect copy of pynson's _speculum vitae christi_ in the british museum, formerly in the offor library, which has a leaf with caxton's device inserted at the end. although caxton makes frequent mention of the homeliness and rudeness of his language, yet it is clear that these expressions must not be taken quite literally. he was born in the weald of kent, where the peasants no doubt spoke a very marked dialect, but his own english shows no signs of this. his family was not of the peasant class, and he had received a good education, though where he does not say. living as an apprentice in the house of one of the richest and most important london merchants, and in the company of his fellow-apprentices, he would soon lose any provincialisms he might possess. his position as head of the english merchants abroad, and his confidential position at the court of the duchess of burgundy, could hardly have been reached by one who spoke rude and provincial language. his statements must be taken rather as expressions of the mock humility which it was the fashion of the time to insert in prefaces, especially when they were addressed to people in high rank. in the same way we must hardly take as literal his expressions as to his own want of education and learning. french and dutch he knew fluently, and we know from his own words in the _golden legend_ that he could read latin, for he made use of both a french and a latin version in making his translation. he seems, indeed, to have been a really well-educated man of the middle classes, at a time when learning was difficult to obtain, and was generally confined to the professions and the members of the universities. his work as a printer and a translator is the best evidence as to what manner of man he was. it shows clearly that he did not look upon the printing-press merely as a means of making money, or his publications would have been of a very different character. his mind seems to have grasped the great possibilities of his art, though he could not have foreseen the immensity of the power it was destined to become. he laboured steadily to give to the english-speaking public the literature of their country, and where a suitable book was not to be found in the vernacular, he set to work and translated it. death found him at his work. "thus endyth," writes his successor in the colophon of jerome's _vitas patrum_, "the moost vertuouse hystorye of the devoute and right renommed lyves of holy faders lyvynge in deserte, worthy of remembraunce to all well dysposed persones, whiche hath be translated out of frensshe in to englysshe by wyllyam caxton of westmynstre late deed, and fynysshed it at the laste daye of his lyff." appendix. list of caxton's books, with collations. [when the signatures are within brackets it denotes that the book has no printed signatures.] books printed at bruges. cessolis (i. de). the game and play of the chess fol. [ ] [a-h^ , i^ ]; leaves. leaves , blank. cordiale. les quartre derrenieres choses fol. [ ] [a-d^ , e^ , f-i^ ]; leaves. leaves , blank. le fevre. the recuyell of the histories of troye fol. [ ] [a-o^ , p^ ; a-i^ , k^ , l^ ; aa-kk^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. books printed at westminster. aesop. fables fol. a-s^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. ars moriendi to [ ] a^ ; leaves. art and craft to know well to die fol. a^ , b^ , b ^ ; leaves. leaf blank. blanchardyn and eglantine fol. [ ] [ ] a-m^ ... full collation unknown. boethius de consolatione philosophiae fol. [ ] [a-l^ , m^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. bonaventura. speculum vitae christi fol. [ ] a-s^ , t^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. bonaventura. speculum vitae christi. ed. fol. [ ] a-s^ , t^ ; leaves. leaf blank. book of courtesy to [ ] [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. book of divers ghostly matters to [ ] a-m^ ; leaves ( - ) seven points. a-d^ ; leaves ( - ) twelve profits. aa, bb^ , cc^ ; leaves ( - ) rule of st. benet. cato. cato, parvus et magnus to [ ] [a-c^ , d^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. cato. cato, parvus et magnus. [ed. ] to [ ] [a-c^ , d^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. cato. cato, parvus et magnus. [ed. ] fol. [ ] a-c^ , d^ ; leaves. leaf blank. cato. cathon. fol. [ ] [ ] a-h^ , i^ ; leaves. leaves , , , blank. caxton. advertisement of sarum pica [ ] single sheet. cessolis (i. de). game of chess fol. [ ] a-i^ , k, l^ ; leaves. leaf blank. charles the great, life fol. a-m^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. chartier (alain). the curial fol. [ ] i, ii, iii^ ; leaves. chaucer (geoffrey). the book of fame fol. [ ] a-c^ , d^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. chaucer (geoffrey). the canterbury tales fol. [ ] [a-z, a-i^ , k^ , l-q^ , r^ , s-z^ , aa^ ]; leaves. leaves , , blank. chaucer (geoffrey). the canterbury tales. [ed. ] fol. [ ] a-t^ , v^ , aa-hh^ , ii^ , a-k^ , l^ ; leaves. leaf blank. chaucer (geoffrey). queen anelida and the false arcyte to [ ] [a^ ]; leaves. chaucer (geoffrey). the temple of brass to [ ] [a-c^ ... ]. end not known. chaucer (geoffrey). troilus and creside fol. [ ] a-g^ , h^ , l-o^ , p^ ; leaves. leaves , , blank. christine of pisan. moral proverbs fol. [a^ ]; leaves. christine of pisan. fayts of arms and chivalry fol. [ ] a-r^ , s^ ; leaves. leaf blank. chronicles of england fol. [ ] a-x^ , y^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. chronicles of england. ed. fol. [ ] a-x^ , y^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. cicero (m. t.). of old age and friendship fol. , a^ , b-h^ , i^ ; leaves ( - ) old age. a-f^ ; leaves ( - ) friendship. leaves , , blank. commemoratio lamentationis del. b. v. mariae to [ ] a-c^ , d^ ; leaves. cordyale fol. [a-i^ , k^ ]; leaves. leaves , blank. death-bed prayers fol. [ ] single leaf. description of britain fol. [a-c^ , d^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. dictes or sayings fol. [a-i^ , k^ ]; leaves. leaves , , blank. dictes or sayings. [variant copy with colophon.] fol. [a-i^ , k^ ]; leaves. leaves , , blank. dictes or sayings. ed. fol. [ ] [a-i^ , k^ ]; leaves. leaves , , blank. dictes or sayings. ed. fol. [ ] [ ] a-g^ , h-i^ ; leaves. leaf blank. doctrinal of sapience fol. a-i^ , k, l^ ; leaves. [the windsor copy has four extra leaves at end, the last blank.] donatus (ae). donatus melior fol. [ ] collation not known. festum transfigurationis jesu christi to [ ] a^ , b^ ; leaves. festum visitationis beate mariae virginis to [ ] collation not known. fifteen oes to [ ] a, b^ , c^ ; leaves. four sons of aymon fol. [ ] collation not known. godfrey of bologne fol. a^ , b^ , - ^ , ^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. governal of helthe to [ ] a, b^ , [ ]; leaves. gower (john). confessio amantis fol. [ ], , b-z, &, a, b^ , c^ ; leaves. leaves , , , blank. higden (ranulph). polycronicon fol. a, b^ , c^ , - ^ , *^ , - ^ , ^ , , - ^ ; leaves. leaves , , , , blank. horae ad usum sarum ^o [ ] collation not known. horae ad usum sarum to [ ] collation not known. horae ad usum sarum ^o [ ] collation not known. horae ad usum sarum ^o [ ] collation not known. image of pity fol. [ ] single sheet. image of pity to [ ] single sheet. indulgence of john kendale. singular issue, no year of pontificate single sheet. indulgence of john kendale. plural issue, with year of pontificate single sheet. indulgence of i. de gigliis. singular issue, with year of pontificate single sheet. indulgence of i. de gigliis. plural issue, with year of pontificate single sheet. indulgence of i. de gigliis single sheet. indulgence of i. de gigliis single sheet. infancia salvatoris to [ ] [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. landry (de la tour). the knight of the tower fol. [ ] a-m^ , n^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. lefevre (raoul). the history of jason fol. [ ] [a-s^ , t^ ]; leaves. leaves , blank. legrand (i.). the book of good manners fol. a-g^ , h^ ; leaves. lidgate (john). the churl and the bird to [ ] [a^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). the churl and the bird. ed. to [ ] [a^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). curia sapientiae fol. [ ] a-e^ ; leaves. leaves , , blank. lidgate (john). the horse, the sheep and the goose to [ ] [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). the horse, the sheep and the goose. to [ ] ed. [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). the life of our lady fol. [ ] [ ] a-l^ , m^ ; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). the life of our lady. ed. fol. [ ] collation not known. lidgate (john). the pilgrimage of the soul fol. [ ] a-n^ , o^ ; leaves. leaves , , , blank. lidgate (john). stans puer ad mensam to [ ] [a^ ]; leaves. lidgate (john). the temple of glass to [ ] [a-c^ , d^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. malory (sir t.). morte d'arthur fol. ^ , ^ , a-z, &, a-z, aa-dd^ , ee^ ; leaves. leaf blank. maydeston (c.). directorium sacerdotum fol. [ ] [ ] a-q^ , r^ , s, t^ ; leaves. maydeston (c.). directorium sacerdotum fol. [ ] a^ , a-y^ , z^ ; leaves. mirk (john). liber festivalis fol. a-n^ , o, p^ ; leaves. leaf blank. mirk (john). liber festivalis fol. [ ] a-p^ , q^ , r^ , s^ ; leaves. leaf blank. order of chivalry to [ ] a-f^ , g^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. ordinale secundum usum sarum to [ ] collation not known. paris and vienne fol. a-c^ , d, e^ ; leaves. leaf blank. psalterium to [ ] a-x (+ * incipiunt), y^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. quattuor sermones fol. [ ] a-c^ , d^ ; leaves. quattuor sermones fol. [ ] a-c^ , d^ ; leaves. reynard the fox fol. a-h (+ * your children), i^ , k, l^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. reynard the fox. ed. fol. [ ] [ ] a-h^ , i^ ; leaves. royal book fol. [ ] a-t^ , u^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. russell (john). propositio to [ ] [a^ ]; leaves. saona (l. g. de). nova rhetorica fol. [ ] [a^ , b^ , c-n^ , o^ ]; leaves. sixtus iv. sex epistolae to [ ] a-c^ ; leaves. leaf blank. statutes of henry vii. an. , , fol. [ ] a-d^ , e^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. vincentius. the mirror of the world fol. [ ] a-m^ , n^ ; leaves. leaf blank. vincentius. the mirror of the world. ed. fol. [ ] a-l^ ; leaves. virgilius. eneydos fol. a^ , a ^ , b-l^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. vocabulary in french and english fol. [ ] [a, b^ , c^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. voragine (i. de). the golden legend fol. aa^ , a-z, &^ , ^ , a-v^ , x^ , y^ (+ *)^ , aa-ff^ , gg^ , hh, ii^ , kk^ ; leaves. leaves , blank. voragine (i. de). the golden legend fol. [ ] aa^ , a-z, &^ , [greek: rho]^ , a-x^ , aa-ff^ , gg^ , hh, ii^ , kk^ ; leaves. leaf blank. winifred, life fol. [ ] a, b^ ; leaves. leaf blank. books printed for caxton. legenda secundum usum sarum [maynyal, paris, fol. ] collation not known. missale secundum usum sarum maynyal, paris, fol. [ ] a^ , b-z, &, [greek: rho], a-f^ , g^ ; leaves. leaves , blank (?). books printed by w. de worde with caxton's types. book of courtesy to [ ] collation not known. chastising of god's children fol. [ ] [ ] a-g^ , h^ ; leaves. treatise of love fol. [ ] a-h^ ; leaves. vineis (r. de). life of st. katherine of senis fol. [ ] a^ , b-p^ , q^ ; leaves. voragine (i. de). the golden legend fol. [ ] a-e^ , f^ , f-z, &, [greek: rho]^ , [=e]^ , a-y, aa-ee^ , ff^ , gg^ ; leaves. index. page a, only ornamental initial used by caxton, pl. xiii., aberdeen breviary, advertisement, caxton's, pl. v., , , aesop. _fables. see fables of aesop._ alost, printing at, ames, joseph, error in _typographical antiquities_, _anelida and arcyte. see queen anelida, etc._ angelus de aretio. _lectura super institutiones_, printed by veldener at louvain, appendix, - archer, thomas, _ars moriendi_, printed by caxton, , , pl. xx. collation, _art and craft to know well to die_, translated and printed by caxton, , collation, arundel, william fitzalan, earl of, , ashburnham sale, , bagford, john, book-buyer, ballard of camden, bamburgh castle, bartholomaeus anglicus. _bartholomaeus de proprietatibus rerum_, , , pl. i. bayntun, william, of gray's inn, bedford literary institute, bernard sale, , bibliothèque nationale, manuscript of _l'ordre de chevallerie_, bindings. _see_ forward, bookbindings. blades, william. arguments concerning caxton at cologne, - arrangement of caxton's books by types, , _boethius_ at st. alban's, , book-worms, dibdin censured, errors with regard to: _ars moriendi_, _confessio amantis_, _dictes_, _eneydos_ (spencer's copy), _indulgence_, , _infancia salvatoris_, _mirrour_, number of books printed by caxton, perfect copies, _propositio johannis russell_, , pynson as apprentice, _treatise of love_, w. de worde, _blanchardyn and eglantine_, printed by caxton, , , blandford, lord, copy of _propositio_, boccaccio, work printed by c. mansion, , bodleian library, oxford. copies of: advertisement for _pica_, pl. v. _ars moriendi_, , pl. xx. _bartholomaeus_, pl. i. _boethius_, pl. iii. _dictes_, pl. iv. _directorium_, _mirrour_, pl. vi., vii. _fables of aesop_, _fifteen oes_, pl. xxii. _game of the chess_, pl. viii. _liber festivalis_, pl. ix. _recuyell_, pl. ii. _boethius de consolatione philosophiae_, tr. by chaucer, printed by caxton, , , , pl. iii. _boke of eneydos. see eneydos._ bolomyer, henry, canon of lausanne, bonaccursus de montemagno. _de nobilitate. see de nobilitate._ bonaventura, st. _speculum vitae christi. see speculum, etc._ _book of courtesy_, printed by caxton, , by w. de worde, , _book of divers ghostly matters_, printed by caxton, , _book of fame_ (chaucer, g.). _see hous of fame_. _book of good manners_, tr. and printed by caxton, _book of hours_ of salisbury use. _see horae ad usum sarum._ bookbindings, , , , caxton's method, , , frontispiece _booke which the knight of the toure made_ (la tour-landry, g.), translated and printed by caxton, , book-worms, ravages of, bourbon, louis, duke of, brabant, caxton in, bradshaw, henry, conjecture as to "pyes" in caxton's advertisement, discovery of: _ars moriendi_, - _indulgence_ of j. de gigliis, _margarita eloquentiae_, _breviary_ of the church of salisbury, issued at cologne, _breviary_, _commemoratio_ and _servitium_, intended for, british museum. copies of: _canterbury tales_, , ed. , pl. x. _charles the great_, _directorium_, _fables of aesop_, _fayts of arms_ (french manuscript), _fifteen oes_, _golden legend_ (french version), _image of pity_, , pl. xiv. _indulgence_ of j. kendale, , _meditacions_, printed by mansion, _order of chivalry_, _paris and vienne_, _psalter_, _quatre dernierres choses_, _servitium_, _sex epistolae_, _speculum_, printed by pynson, broadside, printed by caxton, bruges, caxton's press at, , , _et seq._, mansion's, brut, printed by caxton, bryce, hugh, burgh, benet, translator _cato parvus et magnus_, , _see also_ cato. burgundy, duchess of, , , burgundy, duke of, calendar, rules for adapting to the church services, , _see also directorium_ and _ordinale_. cambridge, caxton at, cambridge university library, collection of caxton pamphlets, copies of: _book of good manners_, _directorium_, _fayts of arms_, _four sons of aymon_ (de worde's), _golden legend_ (french version), _legenda_ (maynial), pl. xvii. campbell of the hague, _canterbury tales_ (chaucer, g.), printed by caxton, second edition, revised and illustrated, - ; fac-simile pl. x. collations, canutus, bishop of aarhaus. _treatise on pestilence_, capital letters. _see_ initials, woodcut. carlisle, n., castel, Étienne and jean, _cato parvus et magnus_ (cato, d.), translated by b. burgh, printed by caxton , , collations, _caton_ or _cathon_ (cato d.), translated and printed by caxton, collation, caxton, william. advertisement, , , ; fac-simile pl. v. apprentices employed, , apprenticeship, , birth, , bookbindings. _see_ bookbindings, in general alphabet. "braband, flandres, holand, and zealand," residence, bruges press, , _et seq._ collections of caxtons. _see_ collectors, in general alphabet; _also_ names of individual collectors. cologne, printing learned at (?), - dates, method of reckoning, , daughter, , death, - device, , , pl. xvi. duchess of burgundy's service, , education, , , england, first printer of, _et seq._ return to, english language, changes remarked in, services to, , spoken by, epitaph, french influence first felt, gibbon and disraeli, sneers of, , handwriting, , , pl. xxv. literary and editorial work, , , , , _see also_ forward translations. mansion, colard, partner, - , _see also_ mansion. marriage, , merchant, - governor of merchant adventurers, name, various spellings, our blessed lady assumption, member of fraternity of, personal history, _et seq._ poetical attempts, , politics, , portrait, illumination erroneously called, press, _periods_: before , - - , - - , - - , - - , - _products_: list of books printed by or for caxton, - list of books printed by de worde, with caxton's types, lost productions, , number of books printed, , pamphlets, , , - reprints in later years, signatures first used, , statement in _recuyell_, , _see also_ titles of individual books. translations: _art and craft to know well to die_, _blanchardyn and eglantine_, _book of good manners_, _book which the knyght of the tour made_, _eneydos_, _game of the chess_, _godfrey of bologne_, _golden legend_ (most important), _jason_, _metamorphoses_, _mirrour of the world_, _oxford_ (_life of robert, earl of_), _reynard the fox_, _recuyell of the hystories of troye_, _vitas patrum_, _winifred_ (_life of st._). _see also_ these titles in general alphabet. types. _see_ forward, in general alphabet, types. westminster press, , _et seq._, - continued by de worde, - , will, , cessolis, jacobus de. _liber de ludo scacchorum_. _see game and playe of the chess._ chap-book, _four sons of aymon_ in form of, charles the bold, marriage with princess margaret, _charles the great, life of_, translated and printed by caxton, , , chartier alain. _see curial._ chartres, church of. _manual_ and _statutes_, _chastising of god's children_, printed with caxton's type by de worde, , , chaucer, geoffrey, poems early printed by caxton, list, with collations, poems printed by a. myllar, translation of _boeccius_, , _see also_, in general alphabet, _canterbury tales_, _hous of fame_, _queen anelida_, _temple of brass_, _troilus and creside_. _chorle and the bird_ (lidgate, j.), printed by caxton, , , christine de pisan, character and attainments, , _see also fayts of arms, morale proverbes._ chronological arrangement of caxton's books not determined, _chronicles of england_, printed by caxton, second edition, , collations, reprinted by g. leeu, , church, daniel, _churl and the bird._ _see_ chorle. cicero, m. t. _of old age and friendship_, translated from _de senectute_ and _de amicitia_; printed by caxton, collation, collations of caxton's books, - of de worde's books, collectors of caxtons: american private collector owns finest copy, only two unique caxtons outside england, , made-up copies of little value to, _see also_ names of individual collectors,--as, bamburgh castle; bedford library institute; bodleian library; british museum; cambridge university; congregational library; copenhagen royal library; devonshire, duke of; edward iv.; eton college; george iii.; george iv.; ghent, university of; göttingen university library; harleian library; heber, w.; hedrington, r; herbert, w.; holland, colonel; jersey, lord; lambeth palace library; leicester, earl of; lenox library, new york; lincoln minster; magdalene college (cambridge); mary, queen of england; merton college (oxford); miller, c.; moore, bishop; newton, lord; osborne, t.; perde, w.; peterborough, earl of; pope; ripon cathedral; roxburghe, j., duke of; st. alban's grammar school; st. john's college, oxford; selden collection; shrewsbury school; smith, richard; spencer, lord; trinity college, dublin; tutet; windsor, royal library at; york cathedral. _also_ under titles of individual books. cologne, controversy as to caxton's learning to print there, - _commemoratio lamentationis beatae mariae virginis_, printed by caxton, , , commonest caxtons, , _confessio amantis_ (gower, j.), printed by caxton, , congregational library, london, copy of _servitium_, _consolatio peccatorum._ _see_ jacobus de theramo. copenhagen, royal library. copy of _book of good manners_, copland, robert, assistant of de worde, and translator of _dictes_, , copland, william, printer of _four sons_, , _cordyale_, translated by lord rivers, from _quatre derrenieres choses_; printed by caxton, , , , , for french edition, _see quatre derrenieres choses_. cotton, archdeacon, remarks on caxton's _indulgence_ type, croppe, gerard, separation from caxton's daughter, , crucifixion, wood-cut, pl. xxii. _curia sapientiae_ (lidgate j.), printed by caxton, , _curial_ (chartier, a.), printed by caxton, dates: definite date, first book printed with, in england, none in caxton's books, - (excepting _statutes_), variations in style as to, , _de amicitia._ _see_ cicero. _de consolatione philosophiae. see_ boethius. _de nobilitate_ (bonaccursus de montemagno), printed by caxton, _de proprietatibus rerum. see_ bartholomaeus anglicus. _de quattuor novissimis. see quatre derrenieres choses._ _de senectute. see_ cicero. death-bed prayers, printed by caxton, , deguilleville, guillaume, _see also pilgrimage of the soul._ _description of britain_, printed by caxton, , devices, caxton's, , , pl. xvi. de worde's, devonshire, duke of. copies of: _parvus cato_, _recuyell_, _vocabulary_, - overtures for _morte d'arthur_, dibden, censured by blades, description of _bartholomaeus_, persuaded dean of lincoln to sell caxtons, remarks on _treatise of love_ and _chastising_, _dialogue of salomon and marcolphus_, printed by g. leeu, _dictes or sayengis of the philosophres_, printed by caxton, , , , , fac-simile pl. iv. second edition, reprinted, translated by scrope, collations, dickinson's _list of printed service books_, _dictionary of national biography_, list of caxton's books in, dies used by caxton on bindings, , pl. xxvi. _directorium sacerdotum_, or _pica_ (maydeston, c.), printed by caxton, , reprinted, collation, disraeli, isaac, sneers at caxton, , _doctrinal of sapience_, translated and printed by caxton, , _donatus melior_ (donatus, ae.), printed by caxton, , douce collection, bodleian library, dunbar, stories by, edward iv., copy of _godfrey of bologne_, grants charter to mercer's company, , authorizes translation of _jason_, _l'ordre de chevallerie_, written for, proclamation concerning rhodes, elizabeth, wife of edward iv, _elizabeth of hungary, revelations of st._, _eneydos, boke of_, translated and printed by caxton, , pl. xix. england, caxton first printer of, first dated book in, only two unique caxtons outside, , english language, caxton's remarks on changes in, , pl. xix. first printed book in, services of caxton to, , english nation in the low countries. _see_ merchant adventurers. _erasmus, life of st._, added by caxton to _golden legend_, _esope, fables of. see fables of aesop._ estenay, john, sacrist of westminster, evil-merodach, wood-cut of, _fables of aesop_, printed by caxton, , , fac-simile pls. xii., xiii. collation, _faits et prouesses du chevalier jason. see jason._ fairfax, bryan, copy of _morte d'arthur_, fastolfe, _sir_ john, _fayts of arms_ (christine de pisan), translated and printed by caxton, collation, ferrara, duke of, _see also sex epistolae._ _festial. see liber festialis._ _festum transfigurationis jesu christi. see servitium._ _festum visitationis beatae mariae virginis. see servitium._ _fifteen oes_, printed by caxton, cut of crucifixion for, pl. xxii. collation, flanders, caxton in, flemish families in kent, flemish goods prohibited in england, _four sons of aymon, history of_, printed by caxton, collation, printed by copland, folios, caxton's early, _et seq._ fraternity of our blessed lady assumption, _fructus temporum_, printed by julyan notary, gairdner discovers record of caxton's marriage, gallopes, jean de, _game and playe of the chess_ (cessolis, j. de), translated and printed by caxton, - , fac-simile pl. viii. second edition, collations, george i. presents caxton pamphlets to cambridge, george iii., copy of _directorium_, george iv., copy of _fables of aesop_, germany, origin of printing in, title-pages used in, ghent, oration at, , ghent, university of, copy of _commemoratio_, gibbon, criticism of caxton, , gigliis, john, _see also indulgence._ _godfrey of bologne, history of_, translated and printed by caxton, , göttingen university library, copy of _infancia salvatoris_, _of treatise of love_, _golden legend_ (voragine, j. de), translated and printed by caxton, second edition, , copies left to caxton's son-in-law, , , introduction, french and latin version used in, third edition, reprint by de worde, - date of caxton's death in colophon (?), collations, , _governal of helthe_, printed by caxton, gower, john, , _see also confessio amantis._ granton, john, debtor to wm. craes of bruges, guild of st. john, gutenberg, invention of movable type, halberstadt. hecht-heine library, copy of _sex epistolae_, harleian library, copy of _infancia salvatoris_, heber, book-collector, , hedrington, robert, collector of caxtons, henry vii., founded almonry, loaned caxton manuscript of _fayts_, _statutes_, printed by caxton. _see also statutes._ herbert, w., bibliographer, higden, ralph, , , _see also polycronicon._ _history of blanchardyn and eglantine. see blanchardyn._ _history of jason. see jason._ _history of reynard the fox. see reynard._ _history of the four sons of aymon. see four sons, etc._ _history of the knight paris and the fair vienne. see paris._ holdsworth, dr., holford, col., copy of _game of the chess_, of _godfrey of bologne_, holkham, copy of _speculum_, , holland, caxton in, _horae ad usum sarum_, printed by caxton, found in binding of _boethius_, , wood-cuts intended for, _fifteen oes_, supplement to, collations, _horse, the shepe and the goose_ (lidgate, j.), printed by caxton, , collation, _hous of fame_ (chaucer, g.), printed by caxton, collation, illustrations. _see_ wood-cuts. _image of pity_, , pl. xiv., _indulgence_ of john kendale, printed by caxton, , , _indulgence_ of john de gigliis, printed by caxton, , , , pl. xviii. collations, _infancia salvatoris_, printed by caxton, , collation, initials, wood-cut a, used by caxton, , pl. xiii. blank spaces usually left for, first used in england, intended for _life of st. katherine_, printed by de worde, jacobus de cessolis. _see_ cessolis. jacobus de theramo. _consolatio peccatorum_, printed by veldener, jacobus magnus. _see_ legrand, jacques. _jason, faits et prouesses du chevalier_ (lefevre, r.), printed by c. mansion, , _jason, history of_ (lefevre, r.), translated and printed by caxton, - , reprinted by g. leeu, jerome, st. _vitas patrum_, colophon, jersey, earl of. copy of _recuyell_ sold, library sold, john of westphalia, printer, john of trevisa, _katherine, life of st._, printed with caxton's type by w. de worde, , , pl. xxiii. kendale, john, _indulgence_ of. _see indulgence._ kent, weald of, birthplace of caxton, , _king apolin of tyre_, printed by de worde in , knight of the tour. _see_ la tour-landry, g. könnecke, archivist at marburg, lambarde, william. _perambulation of kent_, lambeth palace library, copy of _book of good manners_, manuscript of _dictes_, landry, geoffrey de la tour-. _see_ la tour-landry. la tour-landry, geoffrey, _see also booke which the knyght of the toure made._ large, robert, master of caxton, , laurentius de saona. _margarita eloquentiae_, or, _nova rhetorica_. _see margarita._ _lectura super institutiones._ _see_ angelus de aretio. leeu, gerard, printer of antwerp. dutch edition of _reynard_, reprint of _paris and vienne_, _history of jason_, _chronicles of england_, , , lefevre, raoul, , _see also recueil des histoires de troyes_ and _recuyell_, etc. _legenda secundum usum sarum_, printed for caxton, probably by maynial, , , pl. xvii. collation, "legends" bequeathed by caxton, legrand, jacques (jacobus magnus), _see also book of good manners._ leicester, earl of. copy of _propositio_, lenox library, new york, copy of _caton_, le roy, g., printer at lyons, lettou, john, first london printer, , lewis de bretaylles, _liber de ludo scacchorum_ (cessolis, j. de). _see game of chess._ _liber festivalis_, or _festial_ (mirk, j., comp.), printed by caxton, , pl. ix. second edition, collation, lidgate, john, , , _see also chorle and the bird_, _curia sapientiae_, _horse, the shepe and the goose_, _life of our lady_, _pilgrimage of the soul_, _stans puer ad mensam_, _temple of glass_. _life of charles the great. see charles the great._ _life of our lady_ (lidgate, j.), printed by caxton, , _life of st. katherine of senis. see katherine._ _life of the holy and blessed virgin st. winifred. see winifred._ lincoln minster, copies of _recuyell_, _reynard_, sale of caxtons, linton, mr., suggestion as to metal blocks, list of caxton's books, with collations, - _little john. see book of courtesy._ _livre des eneydes_, printed at lyons, , by g. le roy, lloyd, mr., of wygfair, library sold, , london, john lettou first printer of, , louvain, printing at, _lover's confession. see confessio amantis._ low countries, caxton governor of the english nation in, lumley, lord, autograph, lydgate. see lidgate. _lyf of st. katherin. see katherine, life of st._ machlinia, william de, london printer, madden, note on caxton at weidenbach, made-up copies of caxtons, , magdalene college, cambridge. pepysian collection, copy of _reynard the fox_, manuscript colophon of _metamorphoses_, , pls. xxiv., xxv. malory, sir thomas. _see morte d'arthur_. mancinellus, revision of donatus, _manipulus curatorum. see doctrinal of sapience._ mansion, colard, illuminator and writer of manuscripts, , press at bruges established, partner of caxton, , , printed alone, , , manuscript preferred to printing for presentation, margaret, lady, mother of henry vii., patron of caxton, , margaret, queen, _margarita eloquentiae_ or _nova rhetorica_ (laurentius de saona), printed by caxton, , martens, thierry, printer, mary, queen of england, copy of _psalter_, - maydeston, clement, _see also directorium._ maynial, or maynyal, printer for caxton, , , , pl. xvii. medal, earliest known english, _meditaciones sur les sept pseaulmes_, printed by c. mansion, , _memorare novissima. see quatre derrenieres choses._ mercers' company, caxton a member of, mention of, merchant adventurers, or "english nation in the low countries," caxton governor of, , , merchant's mark in caxton's device, , merton college, oxford, copy of _canterbury tales_, _metamorphoses of ovid_, a lost product of caxton's press, , pls. xxiv., xxv. mielot, jean, mirk, john. _see liber festivalis._ _mirrour of the world_ (vincentius), translated and printed by caxton, , , fac-simile pls. vi., vii. reprinted, , collations, _missale secundum usum sarum_, printed for caxton by maynial, , montemagno, bonaccursus. _see_ bonaccursus. moore, bishop, collector of caxtons, _morale proverbes of cristyne_ (christine de pisan), translated by earl rivers, printed by caxton, , , _morte d'arthur_ (malory, sir t.), printed by caxton, - , mutilation of caxtons, , myllar, andrew, first printer of scotland, _new testament. apocrypha. infancia salvatoris. see infancia._ newton, lord, copy of _missale_, notary, julyan, printer, _nova rhetorica. see margarita eloquentiae._ number of books printed by caxton, , o, fifteen prayers commencing with. _see fifteen oes._ obray, william, governor of merchant adventurers, _of old age and friendship._ _see_ cicero, m. t. oldys on handwriting of caxton, _order of chivalry_, printed by caxton, , _ordinale secundum usum sarum_, printed by caxton, , , , pl. v. _orologium sapientiae_, part of _book of divers ghostly matters_, _q. v._ os, gotfried van, osborne, thomas, bookseller. copy of _infancia salvatoris_, _morte d'arthur_, osterly, copy of _morte d'arthur_, ovid. _metamorphoses. see metamorphoses._ oxford, earl of. copies of _charles the great_ and _paris and vienne_, library sold, _oxford, life of robert, earl of_, translated by caxton, oxford, press at, pamphlets printed by caxton rare, , , - parchment not used as binding material by caxton, _paris and the fair vienne_, translated and printed by caxton, collation, reprinted by g. leeu, parker, archbishop, books bequeathed to corpus christi, _parvus cato._ _see_ cato. pepysian library. _see_ magdalene college. perde, william, copy of _polycronicon_, peterborough, earl of, copy of _godfrey_, petrus carmelianus, editor of _sex epistolae_, "philosopher," wood-cut, pl. viii. _pica. see directorium sacerdotum; also ordinale secundum usum sarum._ _pilgrimage of the soul_ (deguilleville, g.), translated by lidgate, and printed by caxton, , pisan, christine de. _see_ christine. pitt, moses, _polycronicon_ (higden, r., compiler), printed by caxton, , , pope, american collector, copy of _morte d'arthur_, pratt, william, mercer, _prayers, death-bed. see death-bed prayers._ premierfait, laurence de, prices, highest, paid for a caxton, _see also_ under names of individual books. printing, brito reputed inventor of, , introduced into europe, into england, , prior, robert, reputed author of _life of st. winifred_, proctor, robert, discovery of _donatus melior_, _propositio johannis russell_, printed by caxton, , , _psalter_, printed by caxton, with signatures, , pynson, richard, not apprenticed to caxton, reprinted _servitium_, quartos, almost all early ones unique, _quatre derrenieres choses_, also called _cordiale, memorare novissima_, or _de quattuor novissimis_, printed by caxton and mansion, collation, for english translation printed later by caxton, _see cordyale_. _quattuor sermones_, printed by caxton, , _queen anelida and the false arcyte_ (chaucer, g.), printed by caxton, , quires of eight leaves, caxton's books in, record office, document concerning caxton's daughter, _recueil des histoires de troyes_ (lefevre, r.), translated by caxton, , , , printed by mansion, , _recuyell of the historyes of troye_ (lefevre, r.), translated by caxton, , manuscript presented to duchess of burgundy, printed by caxton, , , , - , fac-simile pl. ii. collation, prices, - red ink, caxton's method of printing in, , red pale, sign of the, _reynard the fox_, translated and printed by caxton, , , reprinted, , collations, reynes, john, binding by, rhodes, besieged by turks, richard ii., command to poet gower, ripon cathedral, copy of _vocabulary_, - rivers, lord, illuminated portrait of, translator of: _dictes_, , _quatre derrenieres choses_, rood and hunte, oxford printers, roxburghe, john, duke of, copy of _blanchardyn and eglantine_, _royal book_, translated and printed by caxton, sold for £ , , binding lined with _indulgences_, collation, _rule of st. benet_, part of _book of divers ghostly matters_, _q. v._ russell, john. _propositio johannis russell. see propositio._ st. alban's grammar school, copy of _boethius_, - , press, st. john's, bedford, church library, st. john's college, oxford, copy of _canterbury tales_, st. margaret's church, westminster, "bureyng of mawde caxston", salisbury, church of. _hours_, _legends_, _missal_, _ordinale_. _see_, respectively, _horae_, _legenda_, _missale_, _ordinale_, _ad usum sarum_. saona, laurentius de. _nova rhetorica. see margarita eloquentiae._ sarum, church of. _see_ salisbury. scotland, andrew myllar first printer of, scott, sir walter, comment on _morte d'arthur_, scott, mr., of british museum, remark on caxton's will, scrope, translator of _dictes_, selden collection, _sermones, quattuor. see quattuor sermones._ _servitium_, or _festum de transfiguratione jesu christi_, printed by caxton, , , pl. xxi. _servitium_, or _festum de visitatione beatae mariae virginis_, printed by caxton, reprinted by de worde and pynson, , , _sex epistolae_, edited by petrus carmelianus, printed by caxton, shrewsbury school, copy of _confessio amantis_, shrewsbury, john talbot, earl of, signatures adopted by caxton, , sixtus iv. _indulgence_, _sex epistolae_, , skelton, john, assisted caxton in translation, smith, richard, copy of _godfrey of bologne_, somerset, margaret, duchess of, _somme des vices et vertus_ (la). for english translation, _see_ royal book. _sophologium_, _speculum vitae christi_ (bonaventura, st.), printed by caxton, , fac-simile pl. xv. second edition, wood-cut intended for, collations, printed by de worde, spencer, lord, collection of caxtons at manchester, copies of: _blanchardyn and eglantine_, with manuscript note, _dictes_, _eneydos_, _four sons of aymon_, _game of the chess_, _golden legend_, _propositio_, , _recueil_, printed by mansion, _recuyell_, _reynard_, supplied missing leaves for _canterbury tales_, _stans puer ad mensam_ (lidgate, j.), printed by caxton, , _statutes_ of henry vii., printed by caxton, , stow, john, description of "almonesrye," _etc._, , strype, rev. john, life of archbishop parker, taylor, watson, sale, _temple of brass_ (chaucer, g.), printed by caxton, , _temple of glas_ (lidgate, j.), printed by caxton, , theological and liturgical books printed by caxton, thorney, roger, title-page first used at westminster press, tour-landry. _see_ la tour-landry. trade regulations in england, translations made by caxton. _see before under_ caxton. _treatise of love_, printed with caxton's type by de worde, , _treatise on pestilence_ (canutus), title-page prefixed, trinity college, dublin, copy of _indulgence_, , triphook, bookseller, _troilus and creside_ (chaucer, g.), printed by caxton, , turks, crusade against, tutet, copy of _chronicles_, _twelve profits of tribulation_, part of _book of divers ghostly matters_, _q. v._ type, invention of movable, types, caxton's no. , _et seq._, pl. ii. no. , , , pl. iv. recast, no. *, , pls. vi.-viii. no. , , pls. iii., v. no. , , recast, _et seq._ no. *, pls. ix.-xi. de worde's modification, , pl. xxiii. no. , , pls. xv., xxi. no. , , pls., xix., xx. no. , , , pl. xviii. no. , pl. xx. caxton's types used by mansion, , by de worde, - , chronological arrangement of caxton's books by, , smallest used. _see_ no. . upsala university library, copy of _margarita eloquentiae_, utrecht, printing at, vander haeghen, dr. ferdinand, veldener, john, printer at louvain, , vellum, copy of _doctrinal of sapience_ printed on, not used by caxton for bindings, venetians, letters in interest of, vincentius. _mirrour of the world. see mirrour._ vineis, r. de. _life of st. katherine of senis. see katherine._ virgilius. _eneydos. see eneydos._ visitation, feast of, _see also servitium._ _vitas patrum_ (st. jerome), translated by caxton, printed by de worde, _vocabulary in french and english_, printed by caxton, , voragine, jacques de. _golden legend. see golden legend._ waste sheets found in bindings, , weald of kent, birthplace of caxton, , weidenbach, monastery of, westminster abbey, caxton's will possibly preserved in, westminster press, conducted by caxton, - list of books printed by caxton, - continued by de worde, - list of books printed by de worde, white knights sale, , windsor royal library, copy of _doctrinal of sapience_, _fables of aesop_, _winifred, life of the holy and blessed virgin st._, translated and printed by caxton, , women, caxton adds to _dictes_ chapter on, wood-cuts. a, first wood-cut initial used in england, , caxton's first illustrations, not engraved abroad, doing double duty, special cuts mentioned: crucifixion, pl. xxii. caxton's device, , , pl. xvi. de worde's device, "figure of a philosopher", , pl. viii. transfiguration, special mention of illustrated books: _cato parvus et magnus_, d ed., _canterbury tales_, , pl. x. _directorium_, _fables of aesop_, , pls. xii., xiii. _fifteen oes_, , pl. xxii. _game of chess_, d ed., , pl. viii. _golden legend_, _image of pity_, , pl. xiv. _mirrour_, , , pls. vi., vii. _speculum_, , , pl. xv. wool trade, abbots of westminster in, worde, wynkyn de, printer. birth, _etc._, , device, , printed books with caxton's type, _et seq._, , _also ars moriendi_, - _four sons of aymon_, _king apolyn of tyre_, _polycronicon_, _speculum_, quatrain about caxton at cologne, , pl. i. remark on caxton's death in _vitas patrum_, wood-cut used by, pl. xxii. york cathedral, copy of _chorle_, d ed., _horse_, zel, ulric, printer at cologne, printed for the caxton club by r. r donnelley & sons company at the lakeside press, chicago [illustration] [advertisement pasted into the front of this book: with a genuine leaf printed by w. caxton preserved at end. caxton (william), by e. gordon duff. _with full-plates of facsimiles of specimens of his work, etc._ to, orig. boards, uncut. _chicago, the caxton club_, . (see illustration, plate no. xvii.) the above is one of a few special copies, each of which contains a genuine original leaf (contained in a pocket at end), from a copy of the first edition of chaucer's "canterbury tales," printed by caxton, and formerly in lord ashburnham's library, having been purchased for this purpose by the caxton club. the author has compiled an extremely interesting biography of the first english printer, avoiding, as far as possible, the merely mechanical bibliographical details (which have been relegated in an abridged form to an appendix), and has confined himself to a more general description of the books, especially of those not hitherto correctly or fully described, and is able to add to the bibliographical list some discoveries and corrections, since blades published his great work in . ] transcriber's note: _ _ represents italic text = = represents bold text ^ indicates a superscript. characters after ^ are to be treated as superscript until the next space or punctuation mark, unless overridden by braces. the spelling in parts of this book is from the th century, some centuries before spelling rules existed. the text is as printed. sundry missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. both hyphenated and non-hyphenated variants of many words occur in this book. all have been retained. illustrations which interrupted paragraphs have been moved to more convenient positions between paragraphs, and index page numbers amended, if necessary. page : 'plait' corrected to 'plaît'. "tôt ou tard, s'il plait à dieu, sur william caxton...." page : ' ' corrected to 'a'. "cordyale fol. [a-i^ , k^ ]; leaves. leaves , blank. page : 'ed. ' added to nd entry, as for similar entries above and below. "lidgate (john). the horse, the sheep and the goose to [ ] [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. leaf blank. lidgate (john). the horse, the sheep and the goose. ed. to [ ] [a^ , b^ ]; leaves. leaf blank." page : 'somerest' corrected to 'somerset'. "somerset, margaret, duchess of, " armenia and the armenians a list of references in the new york public library compiled by ida a. pratt under the direction of richard gottheil, ph.d. new york note this list contains titles of works in the new york public library on march , . the books and articles mentioned are in the reference department, in the central building of the library at fifth avenue and forty-second street. reprinted. with additions. october from the bulletin of the new york public library of march-may printed at the new york public library form p- [x- - c] table of contents page prefatory note bibliography periodicals description and geography archaeology numismatics art history general works massacres works in armenian relating to other countries biography social life economics and industries folklore and mythology law science geology and natural history language inscriptions history of literature literature poetry fiction and drama other literature translations from european languages armenian church mechitharists missions armenian question armenians in other countries index armenia and the armenians a list of references prefatory note by richard gottheil, ph.d. chief of the oriental division few people have been the subject of so much pity and commiseration as have the armenians. and few have deserved such pity as fully as have they. a remarkable race, they have had an uncommon history. they have always written and spoken an indo-european language, one that belongs to that large number of which the sanskrit is an early and prominent representative. according to their traditions, they are also of indo-european race; though evidently intermixed with semitic and other blood. historically, they come to our notice at first in ancient phrygia; and, peculiarly enough, seem to have reversed the general order and to have travelled towards the rising sun instead of towards the west. the empire of the hittites was breaking up, and the armenians appear to have settled in the upper reaches of the euphrates, to have extended their quarters into the region of lakes van and urmia and to have made their home around mt. ararat. unfortunately, the armenians were never able to hold out long as an independent kingdom. in antiquity the greater powers of greece, of seleucid syria, of persia and of rome were at hand, ready to prevent the assertion of any rights that might controvert their own. at one time, it is true, that which historians call armenia major and armenia minor--the caucasus regions south of the mountains and north of mesopotamia--were ruled by independent kings, especially under tigranes ii, termed the great ( - b. c.), who extended his power to take in a good deal of the former kingdom of assyria, the northwest corner of persia, the province of azerbaijan, a territory said to have covered some , square miles and to have contained some , , inhabitants. his royal city was called after his own name--tigranocerta; and it is sufficient to record cicero's saying that "tigranes made the republic of rome tremble before his powers." but rome's watchful eye was envious of such power, and under lucullus, in b. c., armenian independence was put down--not to be raised again for many centuries. at a later date she became the playball between byzantium and persia, who in their continued strife swarmed up and down her land carrying destruction in their wake. weakened as she thus was, she was in no condition to withstand the onslaughts made upon her by the arab hordes that swarmed up through northern mesopotamia in a.d. but, withal, her people held firmly to their heritage. from time to time attempts at freedom were made and independent kings ruled for a nonce and after a fashion. vartan did this in from until under the byzantines. ashot i was semi-independent in under the auspices of arab overlords. but such attempts as these were not productive of good. they opened the way for internal strife and for the entry of those tartar hordes in the eleventh century that were destined finally to overrun the whole country. here again the tenacity of the armenians told its tale. small independent kingdoms were established at ani, in georgia and near lake van. but the coming of toghril beg soon ended their existence. in , the turks drove the byzantines out of armenia and began that series of depredations and plunder through which they have made their name infamous. in , jenghiz khan was there; and when the turks were at rest, the kurds were ready to supplement their work. an exodus was begun, the first of many the armenians have had to suffer during their long and tragic history. multitudes were driven out of the country into poland, into moldavia and galicia,--even around the north of the caspian sea, where in lemberg, an important colony was founded. some wandered to the south and founded settlements in the mountains of cilicia which were able to exist for some years, although they were looked at askance by byzantium because of their peculiar church government. in , the country was conquered by the ottomans; but so strong is the desire of the armenians for freedom that a small body of them withdrew into the recesses of the taurus mountains and refused--with success--down to the present day, to pay taxes to the government at constantinople. the armenians were overrun by tamerlane in , by the sultan selim i in , by the persians in and . it was therefore natural that, when the russian armies came upon the scene and offered to release the christian peoples from the yoke of the turk they were received with joy. etchmiadzin, which for a time had been persian, became russian by the treaty of turkman-chai in . whatever fault we may in truth find with the manner in which the former russian government treated its subject peoples, very little can be said against its method of dealing with the armenians. it is true that a strong attempt at russification was commenced during the closing years of the nineteenth century. this went so far that in , under the governorship of prince galitzin, many armenian schools were taken over, and in much armenian church property was condemned. but nothing was done to disturb the daily life of the armenians who grew numerous and flourished in that part of the caucasus that was under russian surveillance. the plain of erivan and the valley of the araxes river are their chief residing places. here, though in close contact with tartars, lazes and kurds, they have preserved their separate existence, and have cherished with ardor the details of their older life. etchmiadzin was originally a religious settlement--a monastery encircled by high battlements. but for the armenians it is not only a religious center. it is more than this. it has become a national rallying point towards which all armenians look with a peculiar attachment and affection. one would have imagined that such tenacity in holding on to what they considered to be the truth would have received the recognition it deserved on the part of the leading political forces in europe. but that was asking too much. the lot of the armenians who were under turkish overlordship gradually grew worse. it is true that the draft treaty of san stefano called for "improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by armenians," and guaranteed "their security from kurds and circassians." but the final berlin treaty of had whittled this down to a simple promise of reform "for the protection of christian and other subjects of the porte." this meant, of course, that nothing was to be done. turkey was astute enough to know this; and the great arbiter of fate in the europe of his time, bismarck, had said openly that the germans had no care for armenian reforms. soon the massacres commenced that unfortunately carried the tale of armenian sufferings all over the world. beginning at mush, in , they have lasted with more or less continuity down to our own day. unfortunately, such place-names as erzerum ( ) and adana ( ) are too familiar to our ears. the hope was felt and openly expressed that the coming of the young turk would bring a change in the treatment of the armenians; but enver, talaat, and djavid have certainly done their best to prove that though the turk may change from "old" to "young" he still remains a turk. "the first phase of ottoman policy towards subject peoples was neglect; the hamidian was attrition; but the young turkish phase is extermination." the report presented in by viscount bryce on "the treatment of the armenians in the ottoman empire," is the severest indictment that could be presented against a people and against their political backers. from , to , , of these armenians are said, on reliable authority, to have perished. at an early date the armenians accepted christianity. they themselves believe that the new faith was preached to them by the apostles thaddai and bartholomew. but it was not until the year that gregory the illuminator persuaded their king tiridates officially to accept christianity for the state and the people as a whole. and just as they have preserved their national identity, so they have kept themselves apart as a church--called the "gregorian," after the saint mentioned above. they followed the decisions of the council of nicea ( ) of constantinople ( ) and of ephesus ( ), but refused to regard the council of chalcedon as legally convened; and at a synod of their own, composed of armenian and georgian bishops, held at driune in , the armenians definitely wedded themselves to the council of ephesus and the theological doctrines propounded there. the armenian church stands thus, in no connection either with the greek or the roman church. in the th century, it is true, a certain bishop mekhitar, of sebaste, joined the roman hierarchy and established at venice the mekitarist monastery that has done some excellent literary and educational work, and that in turkey a kotolik milleti (catholic nation), was established in , through roman influence. but neither have any connection with the armenian church as such. the oriental character of this church may be seen from the fact that its weekly day of rest lasts from saturday sun-down up to sunday evening. at an equally early date the armenians showed a taste for literary expression, and so eager are they for education that in the year , and under all the circumstances of turkish oppression, they had no less than , armenian schools in the ottoman empire, giving instruction to , pupils. their script is said to have come to them from a certain syrian daniel and to have been enlarged and perfected by their own saint mesrob in , who added the vowel signs after the manner of the greek system. it was to this same mesrob, assisted by sahak (isaac; - ), to whom the armenians owe the translation of both the old and new testament into their tongue. much of the older literature is composed of translations from greek and from syriac authors, but, in a certain sense, a national literature was growing up--though, as was natural, it was largely theological in character. yet valuable historical works were written by moses of khorene, by mesrob, and in the twelfth century, by nerses shnorhali. some poetry has also been written, though this, too, is chiefly of a religious turn. printing in armenia was introduced by the patriarch mikhael of sebaste ( - ) though some years prior to this--in --a press that used armenian type had been set up in venice. the first armenian book to be printed in england dates from the year ; the first to be put out in russia from ; but it was not until that an armenian book left the press in america. in quite modern times large quantities of armenian literature have been published dealing with a great variety of topics. wherever they are, the armenians are in the forefront of those who work and strive; they have large capacity and when they will once again be settled in their ancient home in asia minor and in northern mesopotamia, to which , are ready to return at a moment's notice, we shall look forward to a development that will be as remarkable as it will be thorough. prior to the calamities of this war, armenian historians reckoned the number of their fellow-racials to be , , --of whom , , were in the turkish empire. the following list deals with the various subjects to which reference has been made in these pages. whatever excellence it has is due to the care and vigilance of miss pratt. i am also beholden to mr. v. h. kalendarian for the help he has given in verifying the transliteration of the armenian titles. list of works on armenia and the armenians order of arrangement bibliography. periodicals. description and geography. archaeology. numismatics. art. history: general works. massacres. works in armenian relating to other countries. biography. social life. economics and industries. folklore and mythology. law. science. geology and natural history. language. inscriptions. history of literature. literature: poetry. fiction and drama. other literature. translations from european languages. armenian church. mechitharists. missions. armenian question. armenians in other countries. bibliography alishanian, gheuont. table bibliographique. (in his: sissouan. venise, . f°. p. - .) �*onk aucher, g. bollettino: armeno. (rivista degli studi orientali. roma, - . °. v. . p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa baronian, sukias. see bodleian library, oxford university. basmadjian, k. j. la presse arménienne en turquie. (revue du monde musulman. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa bibliotheca hagiographica orientalis; ediderunt socii bollandiani. bruxellis: apud editores, . xxiii, p. °. (subsidia hagiographica. [v.] .) *oab bibliothèque nationale, paris. catalogue des manuscrits arméniens et géorgiens de la bibliothèque nationale par frédéric macler. paris: e. leroux, . xxx, p., l., facs. °. *oab blackwell, alice stone. bibliography. (in her: armenian poems. boston, . °. p. - .) *onp bodleian library, oxford university. catalogue of the armenian manuscripts in the bodleian library by the rev. sukias baronian and f. c. conybeare. oxford: clarendon press, . viii p., col., l. f°. (catalogi codd. mss. bibliothecae bodleianae pars xiv.) �*oab british museum.--department of oriental printed books and manuscripts. a catalogue of the armenian manuscripts in the british museum, by frederick cornwallis conybeare ... to which is appended a catalogue of georgian manuscripts in the british museum, by j. oliver wardrop ... london: the trustees, . viii p., l., p., l. f°. �*oab brosset, marie félicité. activité littéraire des géorgiens et des arméniens, en russie, en transcaucasie et en crimée. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, - . f°. tome , col. - ; tome , col. - ; tome , col. - ; tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, - . tome , p. - ; tome , p. - , - , - , *oaa. conybeare, frederick cornwallis. see bodleian library, oxford university; also british museum.--department of oriental printed books and manuscripts. deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. armenisch. (in: katalog der bibliothek. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oab dwight, harrison gray otis. catalogue of all works known to exist in the armenian language, of a date earlier than the seventeenth century. (american oriental society. journal. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa finck, franz nikolaus. katalog der armenischen handschriften des herrn abgar joannissiany zu tiflis. leipzig: n. kapamadjian, . xxiii, p. °. *onk imprimerie arménienne de saint-lazare. catalogue des livres de l'imprimerie arménienne de saint-lazare. venise: institut des mékhitharistes, . p. °. *onk p.v. ---- tzoutzag krots. [catalogue of books.] - . venise: institut des mékhitharistes, . p.l., p. °. *onk p.v. ---- ---- - . venise: institut des mékhitharistes, . p.l., p. °. *onk p.v. kalemkiar, gregoris. eine skizze der literarisch-typographischen thätigkeit der mechitharisten-congregation in wien aus anlass des jährigen regierungs-jubiläums ... kaiser franz joseph i. wien: mechitharisten-congregations-buchdruckerei, . p.l., p. °. *gd karamianz, n. verzeichniss der armenischen handschriften der königlichen bibliothek zu berlin. berlin: a. asher & co., . viii, p., facs. f°. (königliche bibliothek zu berlin. die handschriften-verzeichnisse. bd. .) ��*oab karekin, paul. bibliographie arménienne. haïgagan madenakidutiun. venice, . , p. °. *onk langlois, victor. les journaux chez les arméniens. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa lynch, h. f. b. bibliography. (in his: armenia. london, . °. v. . p. - .) *r-bby macler, frédéric. indications bibliographiques. (in his: autour de l'arménie. paris, . °. p. iii-xvi.) bbx ---- notices de manuscrits arméniens vus dans quelques bibliothèques de l'europe centrale. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- rapport sur une mission scientifique en arménie russe et en arménie turque, juillet-octobre . paris: imprimerie nationale, . p., pl. °. (france.--ministère de l'instruction publique et des beaux-arts. nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires. nouvelle série, fasc. .) *en ---- see also bibliothèque nationale, paris. mordtmann, j. h. armenische drucke von smyrna und constantinopel. zusammengestellt von j. h. mordtmann. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. wissenschaftlicher jahresbericht... leipzig, . °. , p. - .) *oaa mueller, friedrich. die armenischen handschriften des klosters von aryni (arghana). [wien, .] p. °. *onk repr.: kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte, philos.-hist. cl. bd. , abhandl. . *ef. ---- die armenischen handschriften von sewast (siwas) und senqus. [wien. .] p. °. *onk repr.: kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte, philos.-hist. cl. bd. , abhandl. , *ef. patkanov, keropé petrovich. catalogue de la littérature arménienne, depuis le commencement du iv. siècle jusque vers le milieu de xvii. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- bibliograficheskii ocherk armianskoi istoricheskoi literatury. (travaux de la troisième session du congrès international des orientalistes. st. pétersbourg, - . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa a bibliography of armenian historical literature. petermann, julius heinrich. litteratura armeniaca. (in his: brevis linguae armeniacae grammatica. carolsruhae, . °. p. - .) *oac richardson, ernest cushing. armenia. (in his: an alphabetical subject index ... to periodical articles on religion. new york [cop. ]. °. p. - .) *r-za and *p rockwell, william walker. armenia. a list of books and articles with annotations by w. w. rockwell. new york: american committee for armenian and syrian relief, . p. °. *onk salemann, c. armenien. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. wissenschaftlicher jahresbericht ... von october, bis december, . leipzig, . °. heft , p. - .) *oaa sarghissian, basile. grand catalogue des manuscrits arméniens de la bibliothèque des pp. mekhitharistes de saint-lazare. v. . venise, . f°. �*onk title from cover. armenian title-page. the schrumpf collection of armenian books. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa streck, maximilian. armenia. bibliography. (in: encyclopaedia of islam. leyden, . °. v. , p. - .) �*ogc wardrop, j. oliver. see british museum.--department of oriental printed books and manuscripts. periodicals ararat. a searchlight on armenia, v. , no. - , - ; v. -v. , no. (july, aug., oct., -nov., ). london, - . °. *onk armenia. see new armenia. the armenian herald. published by the armenian national union of america, v. -date (dec, -date). boston, -date. °. *onk armenian relief association. bulletin, no. - . new york, . °. sht asbarez. the arena. an armenian weekly, v. , no. -date (jan. , -date). fresno, cal., -date. f°. ��*onk the azad, an armenian semi-monthly periodical, v. , no. - (jan. -nov. , ). new york, . f°. �*onk azk. the nation, v. , no. -date (sept. , -date). boston, -date. f°. ��*onk banaser. revue littéraire & scientifique publiée sous la direction de k. j. basmadjian. v. - , no. . paris, - . °. *onk basmadjian, k. j., editor. see banaser. cilicia. weekly periodical, v. , no. -date (jan. , -date). new york, -date. °. *onk eritassard hayastan, an armenian weekly, v. , no. -v. , no. , - , -v. , no. , -v. , no. , -v. , no. , - , , v. , no. - . new york, - . f°. ��*onk the friend of armenia, new series, no. - , - (july, oct., . april, -jan., ). london, - . °. �*onk gabriel, m. s., editor. see haik. gaghapar. no. - , - , - , - , - . tiflis, - . f°. ��*onk gégharvest (l'art). revue littéraire et artistique arménienne. directeur-rédacteur: g. levonian. , no. . tiflis, . f°. �*onk the gotchnag. armenian weekly, v. -date (jan. , -date). new york, -date. °. *onp haik. m. s. gabriel, editor, no. - (jan. -dec. , ). new york, . f°. ��*onk hairenik. the oldest, largest and leading armenian newspaper, in u. s. a. v. , no. -date (sept. , -date). boston, -date. f°. ��*onk levonian, g., editor. see gégharvest. mourdj. no. (dec, ). tiflis, . °. *onk national armenian relief committee. helping hand series, v. , no. --date (sept., -date). worcester, mass., -date. °. shs new armenia, v. - , no. ; v. -date (oct., -date). boston and new york, -date. ° and f°. �*onk title varies: oct., -sept., , armenia; feb.-april, , oriental world; dec, -date, new armenia. la voix de l'arménie. revue bi-mensuelle. année , no. -date (march, -date). paris, -date. °. *onk description and geography abbott, k. e. notes of a tour in armenia in . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa abich, hermann. die besteigung des ararat am . juli durch h. abich. (in: beiträge zur kenntniss des russischen reiches. st. petersburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *qfb ---- hauteurs absolues du système de l'ararat et des pays environnants. (société de géographie bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa ---- vergleichende chemische untersuchungen der wasser des caspischen meeres, urmia- und van-see's. pl. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires: sciences mathématiques et physiques. saint pétersbourg, . f°. série , tome , p. - .) *qcb ainsworth, william francis. travels and researches in asia minor, mesopotamia, chaldea and armenia. london: j. w. parker, . v. °. bbr alaux, louis paul. the armenian schools in the ottoman empire. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk alischan, léonce. see alishanian, gheuont. alishanian, gheuont. sissouan; ou, l'arméno-cilicie: description géographique et historique avec carte et illustrations. traduit du texte arménien. publié sous les auspices de son ex. noubar pacha. venise: s. lazare, . viii, p., map, pl. f°. �*onk ---- topographie de la grande arménie, par le r. p. léonce alischan; traduite de l'arménien par m. Éd. dulaurier. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa brosset, marie félicité. examen critique de quelques passages de la description de la grande-arménie du p. l. alichan, relatifs à la topographie d'ani. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. allen, thomas gaskell, and w. l. sachtleben. across asia on a bicycle. the journey of two american students from constantinople to peking. london: t. f. unwin, . xii, p. °. bbf der ararat. (ausland. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - , - .) �kaa the armenians and the eastern question. [by "an armenian."] [london: gilbert & rivington, .] p. °. *onk p.v. arzruni, andreas. reise nach süd-kaukasien. (gesellschaft für erdkunde. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa azhderian, antranig. the turk and the land of haig; or, turkey and armenia, descriptive, historical and picturesque. new york: the mershon co. [ .] xiv, - p., port. °. bbx baker, g. percival. an ascent of ararat. (alpine journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) psl banks, edgar j. to the summit of mount ararat. (open court. chicago, . °. v. , p. - .) *da banse, ewald. die türkei; eine moderne geographie... braunschweig: g. westermann, . p.l., p., folded map, pl. °. *opk barton, james levi. daybreak in turkey. boston: pilgrim press [ ]. p.l., - p., pl. °. gib ---- who are the armenians? (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk basmadjian, k. j. quelles étaient les frontières de l'arménie ancienne? (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- souvenir d'ani. paris, . pl., plan. °. *onm the text, in armenian and in french, is on the back of the plates. belck, waldemar. beiträge zur alten geographie und geschichte vorderasiens. leipzig: e. pfeiffer, . p.l., p. °. kcb belin, françois a. extrait du journal d'un voyage de paris à erzeroum. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa bell, mark s. around and about armenia. (scottish geographical magazine. edinburgh, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa bent, j. theodore. travels amongst the armenians. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da bierbaum, paul willi. streifzüge im kaukasus und in hocharmenien ( ). zürich: o. füssli, . p., pl. °. (orell füssli's wanderbilder. no. - .) psk binder, henry. au kurdistan, en mesopotamie et en perse ... paris: maison quantin, . p.l., p., port. °. bbv black, george fraser. the gypsies of armenia. liverpool, . p. °. qod p.v. repr.: gypsy lore society. journal, new series, v. , p. - , qox. blau, otto. vom urumia-see nach dem van-see. map. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. , p. - .) kaa bliss, edwin munsell. armenia. (in: the new schaff-herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge. new york [cop. ]. f°. v. , p. - .) *r-zab bluhm, julius. routen im türkischen armenien. (zeitschrift für allgemeine erdkunde. berlin, . °. neue folge, bd. , p. - .) kaa boré, eugène. arménie. p. (in: jean m. chopin, russie. paris, . °. v. .) gld brant, james. journey through a part of armenia and asia minor, in the year . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa ---- notes of a journey through a part of kurdistan, in the summer of . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa brosset, marie félicité. note sur le village arménien d'acorhi et sur le couvent de st. jacques. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb ---- notice sur edchmiadzin. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb ---- rapport sur la de partie du voyage du p. sargis dchalaliants dans la grande-arménie. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin de la classe historico-philologique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- rapports sur un voyage archéologique dans la géorgie et dans l'arménie, exécuté en - . livr. - and atlas. st. pétersbourg: impr. de l'académie impériale des sciences, - . v. ° and ob. °. bbv and �bbv atlas has title: atlas du voyage archéologique dans la transcaucasie. ---- see also john of crimea. brosset, marie félicité, and p. a. jaubert. description des principaux fleuves de la grande-arménie, d'après le djihan-numa de kiatib tchélébi, par m. amédée jaubert, avec la traduction d'un fragment arménien du docteur indjidjian, par m. brosset. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa broussali, jean. l'arménie. (revue française de l'étranger et des colonies. paris, . °. tome , p. - , - .) kaa bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. the ascent of ararat. (alpine journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) psl ---- on armenia and mount ararat. (royal geographical society. proceedings. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa ---- transcaucasia and ararat, being notes of a vacation tour in the autumn of , by james bryce. th ed. rev., with a supplementary chapter on the recent history of the armenian question. london: macmillan and co., . xix, p., map, pl. °. psk ---- see also tchobanian, archag. buxton, harold. see buxton, noel, and harold buxton. buxton, noel, and harold buxton. travel and politics in armenia, with an introduction by viscount bryce, and a contribution on armenian history and culture by aram raffi. new york: macmillan co., . xx, p., map, pl. °. bby chantre, b. a travers l'arménie russe. karabagh. vallée de l'araxe. massif de l'ararat. (tour du monde. paris. - . f°. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) �kba voulzie, g. a travers l'arménie russe. pl. (revue française de l'étranger et des colonies. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa chantre, ernest. l'ararat. (annales de géographie paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa ---- de beyrouth à tiflis à travers la syrie, la haute-mésopotamie et le kurdistan. (tour du monde. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) �kba ---- mission scientifique de mr. ernest chantre dans la haute mésopotamie, le kurdistan et le caucase ... [lyon?] . mounted photographs in portfolio. °. �*ofx ---- premiers aperçus sur les peuples de l'arménie russe. (société d'anthropologie de lyon. bulletin. lyon, . °. v. , p. - .) qoa ---- rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l'asie occidentale et spécialement dans les régions de l'ararat et du caucase. (archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires. paris, . °. série , tome , p. - .) *en chantres reisen am ararat. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - , - .) �kaa chikhachov, piotr aleksandrovich. asie mineure; description physique, statistique et archéologique de cette contrée, par p. de tchihatcheff. partie - . paris: gide et j. baudry, - . v. in . °. kcb and �kcb partie . géographie physique comparée. text and atlas. partie . climatologie et zoologie. partie . botanique. v. partie . géologie. v. partie published by l. guérin. ---- reisen in kleinasien und armenien, - ... gotha: j. perthes, . viii, p., map. °. (petermanns mitteilungen. ergänzungsband , heft .) kaa childs, w. j. across asia minor on foot. new york: dodd, mead & co., . xvi, p., pl., port. °. bbs chopin, j. de l'origine des peuples habitant la province d'arménie. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. . col. - .) *qcb the condition of armenia. (speaker. london, . f°. new series, v. , p. - .) *da conybeare, frederick cornwallis. armenia and the armenians. (national review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. - , - , �*onk. cooley, w. d., translator. see parrot, friedrich. creagh, james. armenians, koords and turks. london: s. tinsley & co., . v. °. bbp cuinet, vital. la turquie d'asie. géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée de chaque province de l'asie-mineure. paris: e. leroux, - . v. °. kcb curtis, william eleroy. around the black sea; asia minor, armenia, caucasus, circassia, daghestan, the crimea, roumania. new york: hodder & stoughton, . p. ., - p., map, pl. °. bbs curzon, robert. see zouche ( . baron), robert curzon. dale, darley. armenia and the armenians. (american catholic quarterly review. philadelphia, . °. v. , p. - .) *da dalyell, robert a. o. earthquake of erzerûm, june, . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa damas, andré de. coup d'oeil sur l'arménie à propos d'une mission de la compagnie de jésus ouverte en asie mineure par les ordres du pape léon xiii. lyon: delhomme et briguet, . p. ., vi, p., charts. °. bbx davey, richard. the sultan and his subjects. new york: e. p. dutton & co., . v. °. gip ---- turkey and armenia. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da develay, albert. autour des lacs de van et d'ourmiah. (revue scientifique. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) oa deyrolle, théophile. voyage dans le lazistan et l'arménie. (tour du monde. paris, - . f°. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) �kba dingelstedt, v. the armenians or haikans; an ethnographical sketch. (scottish geographical magazine. edinburgh, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa diran, a. etchmiadzin. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk the dispersion of the armenian nation. from the english blue book. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. . p. - .) �*onk the distribution of the armenian nation. from the english blue book. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. , .) �*onk dolens, noël. ce que l'on voit en arménie. (tour du monde. paris, - . f°. nouvelle série, v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) �kba dominian, leon. the peoples of northern and central asiatic turkey. maps. (american geographical society. bulletin. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa dubois de montpéreux, frédéric. voyage autour du caucase, chez les tcherkesses et les abkhases, en colchide, en géorgie, en arménie, et en crimée; avec un atlas géographique, pittoresque, archéologique, géologique... tome - and atlas. paris: gide, - . v. ° and f°. bbv and ���bbv dulaurier, Édouard. commerce, tarif des douanes et condition civile des étrangers dans le royaume de la petite arménie au moyen âge. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- ethnographie de l'arménie. (société d'ethnographie. actes. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- Étude sur l'organisation politique, religieuse et administrative du royaume de la petite-arménie. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also alishanian, gheuont. edschmiatsin. pl. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - .) �*oaa edwards, b. b. ascent of mount ararat. (biblical repository and quarterly observer. andover, . °. v. , p. - .) *da erk-ura, die armenische kolonie auf dem berge ararat. (ausland. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) �kaa excursions in armenia. (fraser's magazine. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da flandin, eugène. souvenirs de voyage en arménie et en perse. l'arménie. (revue des deux mondes. paris, . °. nouvelle période, v. , p. - .) *dm ---- ueber alt- und neuarmenien. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - .) �kaa freshfield, douglas william. early ascents of ararat. (alpine journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) psl ---- travels in the central caucasus and bashan including visits to ararat and tabreez and ascents of kazbek and elbruz. london: longmans, green and co., . xiii p., l., p., maps, pl. °. psk friederichsen, maximilian hermann. die grenzmarken des europäischen russlands, ihre geographische eigenart und ihre bedeutung für den weltkrieg. hamburg: l. friederichsen & co., . p. °. *qg ---- russisch armenien und der ararat. pl. (geographische gesellschaft in hamburg. mittheilungen. hamburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa gaidzakian, ohan. illustrated armenia and the armenians. boston: b. h. aznive, . p., pl., ports. . ed. °. bby gatteyrias, j. a. l'arménie et les arméniens. paris: léopold cerf, . p. °. bby ghisleri, arcangelo. l'armenia e gli armeni. (emporium. roma, . °. v. , p. - .) maa gooch, george peabody. who are the armenians? a survey. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk graves, john temple. the armenian nation. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk gregory, g. marcar. see tchobanian, archag. grothe, hugo. der russisch-türkische kriegsschauplatz (kaukasien und armenien). mit abbildungen und kartenskizzen im text. leipzig: veit & co., . p. °. (kriegsgeographische zeitbilder. heft .) btze guinness, walter. impressions of armenia and kurdistan. (national review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da hamilton, william j. extracts from notes made on a journey in asia minor in . map. (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa ---- researches in asia minor, pontus and armenia; with some account of their antiquities and geology. london: j. murray, . v. °. bbr handbook for travellers in asia minor, transcaucasia, persia, etc., edited by ... sir c. w. wilson. london: j. murray, . xii, , p., maps. °. (murray's handbooks.) kcb ---- london: j. murray, . xii, , p., maps, plans. °. (murray's handbooks.) kcb heneage, charles, translator. see thielmann, max franz guido, freiherr von. hepworth, george hughes. through armenia on horseback. new york: e. p. dutton & co., . xii, p., map, pl., port. °. bby hodgetts, edward arthur brayley. round about armenia; the record of a journey across the balkans, through turkey, the caucasus, and persia. london: s. low, marston and co., ltd. [ .] xii p., l., p., map. °. bby hoffmeister, eduard von. durch armenien; eine wanderung und der zug xenophons bis zum schwarzen meere; eine militär-geographische studie. leipzig: b. g. teubner, . viii p., l., - p., maps, pl. °. bby bibliography, p. vii-viii. hommaire de hell, adèle. les arméniennes à constantinople. (revue de l'orient. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa howel, thomas. a journal of the passage from india, by a route partly unfrequented, through armenia and natolia, or asia minor. to which are added, observations and instructions, for the use of those who intend to travel, either to or from india, by that route. london: the author [ ]. p.l., p., map. °. bbr huebschmann, heinrich. die altarmenischen ortsnamen. (indogermanische forschungen. strassburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa huntington, ellsworth. through the great cañon of the euphrates river. (geographical journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa hyvernat, henry. armenia, past and present. (catholic world. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- see also mueller-simonis, paul, and henry hyvernat. in türkisch-armenien. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - , - , - .) �kaa injijian, ghougas. see brosset, marie félicité, and p. a. jaubert. ischchanian, b. die armenische bevölkerung in der türkei. (nord und süd. breslau, . °. bd. , p. - .) *df jaubert, pierre amédée. voyage en arménie et en perse, fait dans les années et .... suivi d'une notice sur le ghilan et le mazenderan par m. le colonel trézel. paris: pélicier, . p.l., xii, p., l., map in pocket, pl., ports. °. bby ---- see also brosset, marie félicité, and p. a. jaubert. jenkins, hester donaldson. armenia and the armenians. (national geographic magazine. washington, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa johansson, karl ferdinand. om de nyaste upptäckterna i armenien. (ymer. stockholm, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa john of crimea. description des monastères arméniens d'haghbat et de sanahin, par l'archimandrite jean de crimée, avec notes et appendice par m. brosset. p.l., p. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires. st. pétersbourg, . f°. série , tome , no. .) *qcb armenian and russian texts. kiepert, heinrich. Über die lage der armenischen hauptstadt tigranokerta. map. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. monatsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee kinneir, john macdonald. armenia. (in his: a geographical memoir of the persian empire. london: j. murray, . f°. p. - .) �*ona ---- journey through asia minor, armenia and koordistan, in the years and ; with remarks on the marches of alexander, and retreat of the ten thousand. london: john murray, . p.l., v-xii, p. °. bbr klaproth, julius heinrich. description de l'arménie russe d'après les notions publiées en russie. (nouvelles annales des voyages. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa ---- opisanie rossiiskoi armenii. (biblioteka dlia chteniia. st. petersburg, . °. , v. , part , p. - .) *qca description of russian armenia. knapp, grace h. see ussher, clarence douglas. kolenati, friedrich anton. reiseerinnerungen. dresden: r. kuntze, - . v. °. bby theil . die bereisung hocharmeniens und elisabethopols, der schekinschen provinz und des kasbek im central-kaukasus. theil . die bereisung circassien's. kotschy, theodor. neue reise nach klein-asien. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, - . °. bd. , p. - , - ; bd. , p. - .) kaa l., j. l'arménie et les arméniens. conférence de m. minas tchéraz. (société de géographie de marseille. bulletin. marseille, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa langlois, victor. les populations arméniennes indépendantes du mont taurus. le zéithun, hatchin et le giawourdagh. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- voyage dans la cilicie et dans les montagnes du taurus exécuté pendant les années - ... paris: b. duprat, . x, p., map, pl., port. °. bbr ---- voyage à sis, capitale de l'arménie au moyen âge. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa lanin, e. b. armenia, and the armenian people. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da layard, sir austen henry. discoveries in the ruins of nineveh and babylon; with travels in armenia, kurdistan and the desert: being the result of a second expedition undertaken for the trustees of the british museum. london: j. murray, . xxiv, p., maps, plans, pl. °. *ocn ---- ---- new york: harper & brothers, . xvi, p., maps, plans, pl. °. *ocn ---- ---- new york: g. p. putnam & co., . xxii p., l., p., map, plans. pl. °. *ocn lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. armenien, einst und jetzt: reisen und forschungen. hrsg. mit unterstützung des königlich preussischen kultusministeriums, der averhoff-stiftung und der bürgermeister kellinghusen-stiftung zu hamburg, der rudolf virchow-stiftung zu berlin sowie befreundeter förderer. bd. . berlin: b. behr, . °. bby bd. . vom kaukasus zum tigris und nach tigranokerta. longuinoff, d. ascension de l'ararat. (société de géographie. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa lynch, henry finnis blosse. armenia: travels and studies, v. - . london: longmans, green and co., . °. *r-bby reviewed by f. f. k. lehmann-haupt in petermanns mitteilungen, bd. , p. - , kaa; also by ira m. price in the dial, v.- , p. - , *da. tonapetian, p. h. f. b. lynch and his book. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk turkey and armenia. (quarterly review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da a review of lynch's armenia, earl percy's the highlands of asiatic turkey and sir chas. eliot's turkey in europe. lynch, henry finnis blosse. the ascent of mount ararat. (scribner's magazine. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in mountain climbing, , p. - , psk. mccoan, james carlile. our new protectorate. turkey in asia, its geography, races, resources, and government. london: chapman and hall, . v. °. bbo macler, frédéric. autour de la cilicie. zêÿthoun (notes d'ethnographie arménienne). (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa maksimov, sergyei v. armianckii narod. (in his: sobranie sochinenii. st. petersburg, . °. v. , p. - .) *qdb the armenian people. markoff, anatolius vladimirovich. russian armenia and the prospects for british trade therein. (journal of the society of arts. london, . °. v. , p. - .) va markoff, e. eine besteigung des grossen ararat. (ausland. stuttgart, . f°. jahrg. , p. - .) �kaa marquart, josef. eransahr nach der geographie des ps. moses xorenac`i. mit historisch-kritischem kommentar und historischen und topographischen excursen. berlin: weidmann, . p. °. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen. philologisch-historische klasse. neue folge, bd. , nr. .) *ee martyr, bishop of arzendjan. relation d'un voyage fait en europe et dans l'océan atlantique, à la fin du quinzième siècle, sous le règne de charles viii, par martyr, évêque d'arzendjan, dans la grande arménie, écrite par lui-même en arménien, et traduite en français par m. saint-martin. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa maunsell, francis richard. eastern turkey in asia and armenia. (scottish geographical magazine. edinburgh, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa menant, joachim. a travers l'arménie russe. (nouvelle revue. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *dm mexborough ( . earl), john charles george savile. notes on a journey from erz-rúm, by músh, diyár-bekr, and bíreh-jik to aleppo, in june, . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa mexborough ( . earl), john horace savile. half round the old world; being some account of a tour in russia, the caucasus, persia, and turkey, - . london: edward moxon & co., . p.l., p., map. °. btyb millingen, frederick. wild life among the koords. london: hurst and blackett, . xiii, p., map, pl. °. bbv monteith, william. journal of a tour through azerdbijan and the shores of the caspian. (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa ---- notes sur la position de plusieurs anciennes villes situées dans les plaines d'ararat et de nakktchévan et sur les bords de l'araxe. (nouvelles annales des voyages. paris, . °. série , tome , p. - .) kaa morgan, jacques jean marie de. les arméniens. (revue de paris. paris, . °. année , tome , p. - .) *dm morier, james. a journey through persia, armenia, and asia minor, to constantinople, in the years and ; in which is included some account of the proceedings of his majesty's mission, under sir harford jones ... to the court of persia ... london: longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . xvi p., l., p., maps, pl. °. �bcr ---- a second journey through persia, armenia, and asia minor to constantinople, between the years and ; with a journal of the voyage by the brazils and bombay to the persian gulf; together with an account of the proceedings of his majesty's embassy, under sir gore ouseley. london: longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, . xx, p., maps, pl. °. �bcr moses of chorene. see marquart, josef; also patkanov, kerope petrovich. mounsey, augustus henry. a journey through the caucasus and the interior of persia. london: smith, elder & co., . xi, p., map. °. gmv mueller-simonis, paul, and henry hyvernat. du caucase au golfe persique à travers l'arménie, le kurdistan et la mésopotamie par p. müller-simonis suivie de notices sur la géographie et l'histoire ancienne de l'arménie et les inscriptions cunéiformes du bassin de van par h. hyvernat. washington: université catholique d'amérique, . viii, p., maps, pl. °. (relation des missions scientifiques de h. hyvernat et p. müller-simonis. - .) �bbv bibliographie, p. - . la nation arménienne, son passé, son présent, son avenir politique et religieux. paris: bureaux des oeuvres d'orient [ ]. p.l., p. °. bbh p.v. extr.: revue illustrée de la terre sainte et de l'orient chrétien. nolde, eduard, baron. reise nach innerarabien, kurdistan und armenien, . braunschweig: f. vieweg und sohn, . xv, p., map, port. °. *ofw notice de la ville d'Érivan, capitale de l'arménie russe. traduit du russe. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa osman bey, originally frederick millingen. see millingen, frederick. palgrave, william gifford. eastern christians. (in his: essays on eastern questions. london, . °. p. - .) gie the armenians, p. - . parrot, friedrich. journey to ararat. translated by w. d. cooley. london: longman, brown, green, and longmans [ ]. xii, p., map. °. (world surveyed in the nineteenth century, v. .) psk ---- ---- new york: harper & bros., . xi, - p., map, pl. °. bby patkanov, kerope petrovich. armianskaia geografiia vii vieka po r. kh. pripycyvavshaiasia moiseiu khorenskomu. st. petersburg: akademiya nauk, . xxviii, , p. °. *qfp the armenian geography of the seventh century, a. d., attributed to moses khorensky. pears, sir edwin. turkey and its people. london: methuen & co., ltd. [ .] vi p., l., p. °. *r-gip peterson, wilhelm. aus transkaukasien und armenien. reisebriefe. leipzig: duncker & humblot, . x, p. °. bbo pichon, jules. itinéraire de djoulfa à roudout-kalé, par l'arménie, la géorgie, l'imérétie et la mingrélie. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - .) *oaa pitton de tournefort, joseph. relation d'un voyage du levant, fait par ordre du roy. contenant l'histoire ancienne & moderne de plusieurs isles de l'archipel, de constantinople, des côtes de la mer noire, de l'arménie, de la géorgie, des frontières de perse & de l'asie mineure ... enrichie de descriptions & de figures d'un grand nombre de plantes rares, de divers animaux, et de plusieurs observations touchant l'histoire naturelle. paris: imprimerie royale, . v. °. *opk ---- ---- lyon: anisson et posuel, . v. °. bvx ---- ---- london: d. midwinter, . v. °. bvx pollington, viscount. see mexborough ( . earl), john charles george savile; and mexborough ( . earl), john horace savile. porter, robert ker. travels in georgia, persia, armenia, ancient babylonia ... during the years , , , and . london: longman, hurst, rees, orme, and brown, - . v. °. �bbv powers, harriet g. in armenian villages. (chautauquan. meadville, . °. v. , p. - .) *da price, m. philips. a journey through turkish armenia and persian khurdistan. (manchester geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa radde, gustav. briefe von dr. gustav radde über seine bereisung von hoch-armenien, . (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa ---- die ebene des oberen frat. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa ---- karabagh. bericht über die im sommer im russischen karabagh von dr. gustav radde und dr. jean valentin ausgeführte reise. gotha: j. perthes, . p.l., p., map. °. (petermanns mitteilungen. ergänzungsband , nr. .) kaa ---- vier vorträge über den kaukasus gehalten im winter / in den grösseren städten deutschlands. gotha: j. perthes, . vi, p., maps. °. (petermanns mittheilungen. ergänzungsband , nr. .) kaa ---- see also reisen im armenischen hochland; also reisen in hoch-armenien; also vorlaeufiger bericht. raffi, aram. from london to armenia. (ararat. london, - . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - , - .) *onk ---- the land of armenia. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , - .) *onk ---- see also buxton, noel, and harold buxton. rassam, hormuzd. asshur and the land of nimrod: being an account of the discoveries made in the ancient ruins of nineveh, asshur, sepharvaim, calah, babylon, borsippa, cuthah, and van, including a narrative of different journeys in mesopotamia, assyria, asia minor, and koordistan. with an introduction by robert w. rogers. cincinnati: curts & jennings, . xvi, p., map, plans, pl., port. °. *ocn reclus, Élisée. asiatic turkey. (in his: universal geography. london, n. d. °. v. , p. - .) kan reisen im armenischen hochland, ausgeführt im sommer von dr. g. radde und dr. g. siewers. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, - . °. bd. , p. - , - ; bd. , p. - .) kaa reisen in hoch-armenien, ausgeführt im sommer von dr. g. radde und dr. g. siewers. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - , - .) kaa rey, f. c. les périples des côtes de syrie et de la petite arménie. map. (société de l'orient latin. archives de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oba rikli, martin. natur- und kulturbilder aus den kaukasusländern und hocharmenien von teilnehmern der schweizerischen naturwissenschaftlichen studienreise, sommer , unter leitung von m. rikli. zürich: o. füssli, . viii, p., pl. °. gmv riseis, g. de. traverso l'armenia russa. (nuova antologia. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) nna ritter, karl. die erdkunde im verhältniss zur natur und zur geschichte des menschen, oder allgemeine, vergleichende geographie, als sichere grundlage des studiums und unterrichts in physikalischen und historischen wissenschaften, von carl ritter ... zweite stark vermehrte und umgearbeitete ausgabe. theil - . berlin: g. reimer, - . v. °. kc the latter part of theil and theil treat of armenia. rogers, robert w. see rassam, hormuzd. rohrbach, paul. armenier und kurden. (gesellschaft für erdkunde. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa ---- vom kaukasus zum mittelmeer. eine hochzeits- und studienreise durch armenien. mit abbildungen im text. leipzig: b. g. teubner, . vi p., l., p., pl. °. bby roussel, thérèse. souvenirs d'une française en arménie. (tour du monde. paris, . f°. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) �kba saad, l. zwei türkische städtebilder aus der gegenwart. (petermanns mitteilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa erzerum and trapezunt. sachtleben, william lewis. see allen, thomas gaskell, and w. l. sachtleben. safrastian, a. s. armenia: her people and history. (ararat. london, - . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - .) *onk saint-martin, jean antoine. see martyr, bishop of arzendjan. schaffer, franz xavier. cilicia. gotha: j. perthes, . pl., p., maps. °. (petermanns mitteilungen. ergänzungsband , heft .) kaa schilder, siegmund. eine zweiglinie der bagdadbahn nach südarmenien. (Österreichische monatsschrift für den orient. wien, . f°. jahrg. , p. - .) �*oaa schulz, Éd. mémoire sur le lac de van et ses environs. facs. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa schweiger-lerchenfeld, a. von. armenia and the armenians. (chautauquan. meadville, pa., . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- erzerum und erzingdjan. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. v. , p. - .) �kaa seidlitz, n. von. pastuchows besteigung des alagös. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - .) �kaa ---- pastuchows besteigung des ararats. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - .) �kaa ---- see also selenoy, g. l., and n. von seidlitz. selenoy, g. l., and n. von seidlitz. die verbreitung der armenier in der asiatischen türkei und in transkaukasien. map. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa seylaz, louis. l'ascension du mont ararat. (tour du monde. paris, . f°. nouvelle série, année , p. - .) �kba shiel, j. notes on a journey from tabriz, through kurdistan, via van, bitlis, se'ert and erbil, to suleimaniyeh, in july and august, . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa shoemaker, michael myers. the heart of the orient. saunterings through georgia, armenia, persia, turkomania and turkestan to the vale of paradise. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xiii, p., map, pl. °. bbs sievers, g. see reisen im armenischen hochland; also reisen in hoch-armenien; also vorlaeufiger bericht. sievers, wilhelm. asien. leipzig: bibliographisches institut, . xi, p., maps, pl. . ed. °. (allgemeine länderkunde.) kc sijalski. erinnerungen aus armenien. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - , - .) �kaa slousch, nahum. le caucase, l'arménie et l'azerbeidjan d'après les auteurs arabes, slaves et juifs. (revue du monde musulman. paris, . °. tome , p. - ; tome , p. - , - ; tome , p. - .) *oaa southgate, horatio, bishop. narrative of a tour through armenia, kurdistan, persia and mesopotamia, with an introduction and occasional observations upon the condition of mohammedanism and christianity in those countries. new york: d. appleton & co., . v. °. bbr streck, maximilian. das gebiet der heutigen landschaften armenien, kurdistân und westpersien nach den babylonisch-assyrischen keilinschriften. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. weimar, berlin, - . °. bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - .) *ocl strecker, wilhelm. beiträge zur geographie von hoch-armenien. maps. (gesellschaft für erdkunde. zeitschrift. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - , - .) kaa ---- notizen über das obere zab-ala-gebiet und routiers von wan nach kotur. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. , p. - .) kaa stuart, robert. the ascent of mount ararat in . (royal geographical society. proceedings. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa suter, henry. notes on a journey from erz-rúm to trebizond, by way of shebbkháneh, kará hisár, sivás, tókát and sámsún, in october, . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa taylor, j. g. journal of a tour in armenia, kurdistan and upper mesopotamia, with notes of researches in the deyrsim dagh, in . (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa ---- travels in kurdistan, with notices of the sources of the eastern and western tigris, and ancient ruins in their neighbourhood. (royal geographical society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa tchélébi, kiatib. see brosset, marie félicité, and p. a. jaubert. tchihatcheff, p. de. see chikhachov, piotr aleksandrovich. tchobanian, archag. the armenian nation. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- l'arménie, son histoire, sa littérature, son rôle en orient. conférence faite le mars à la salle de la société de géographie.... paris: société du mercure de france, . p. . ed. °. bbx ---- the people of armenia; their past, their culture, their future. translated by g. marcar gregory.... with introduction by the right honourable viscount bryce. london: j. m. dent & sons, ltd., . xi, p. °. bbx telfer, j. buchan. armenia and its people. (journal of the society of arts. london, . °. v. , p. - .) va texier, charles félix marie. description de l'arménie, la perse et la mésopotamie, publiée sous les auspices des ministres de l'intérieur et de l'instruction publique. partie - . paris: firmin didot frères, - . v. f°. ���*on ---- itinéraires en arménie, en kurdistan et en perse. (société de géographie. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa ---- notice sur erzéroum, fragment d'un journal de voyage, - . (société de géographie. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa ---- notice géographique sur le kourdistan. (société de géographie. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa ---- renseignements archéologiques et géographiques sur quelques points de l'asie-mineure, de l'arménie et de la perse. (société de géographie. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) kaa thielmann, max franz guido, freiherr von. le caucase, la perse et la turquie d'asie d'après la relation de m. le baron de thielmann par le baron ernouf. paris: e. plon et cie., . p.l., p., map, pl. °. bbv ---- journey in the caucasus, persia, and turkey in asia. translated by charles heneage. london: john murray, . v. °. bbv tozer, henry fanshawe. turkish armenia and eastern asia minor. london: longmans, green, and co., . xiv p., l., p., map, pl. °. bby trézel. see jaubert, pierre a. trowbridge, tillman c. armenia and the armenians. [new haven, .] p. °. zng p.v. repr.: new englander, v. , p. - , *da. tschihatscheff, p. v. see chikhachov, piotr aleksandrovich. turkey--a past and a future. maps. (round table. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) sea ubicini, jean henri abdolonyme. les arméniens. (in his: lettres sur la turquie. paris: j. dumaine, - . °. partie , p. - .) gio ussher, clarence douglas. an american physician in turkey; a narrative of adventures in peace and in war, by clarence d. ussher, m.d., grace h. knapp, collaborating.... boston and new york: houghton mifflin company, . xiv p., l., p., map, pl. °. wzo ussher, john. a journey from london to persepolis; including wanderings in daghestan, georgia, armenia, kurdistan, mesopotamia and persia. london: hurst & blackett, . p.l., v-xiii p., l., - p., pl. °. stuart and �bcr valentin, jean. see radde, gustav. vecchi, felice de. escursione lungo il teatro della guerra attuale dal danubio alle regioni caucasee. brano d'un viaggio nell' armenia, persia, arabia ed indostan fatto negli anni , da f. de vecchi e g. osculati, descritto da f. de vecchi. milano: c. wilmant, . p.l., - p., pl. °. �gio villari, luigi. fire and sword in the caucasus. london: t. f. unwin, . p., pl. °. *r-gmv ---- the land of ararat. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. a visit to mount ararat. (fraser's magazine. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da vivien de saint martin, louis. note sur le site d'armavir, la plus ancienne cité royale de l'arménie. sur le site de l'ancienne artaxata. (nouvelles annales des voyages. paris, . °. série , tome , p. - .) kaa vizetelly, edward. a winter ride in armenia. (english illustrated magazine. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da volland. beiträge zur ethnographie der bewohner von armenien und kurdistan. (archiv für anthropologie. braunschweig, . °. neue folge, bd. , p. - .) qoa von trapezunt nach erzerum. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - , - .) �kaa vorlaeufiger bericht über die im jahre ausgeführten reisen in kaukasien und dem armenischen hochlande von dr. g. radde und dr. g. sievers. (petermanns mittheilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa wagner, m. mittheilungen eines deutschen reisenden aus dem russischen armenien. (ausland: stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - .) �kaa westarp, eberhard joachim, graf von. routenaufnahmen in armenien und kurdistan. map. (petermanns mitteilungen. gotha, . °. jahrg. , halbband , p. - .) kaa ---- unter halbmond und sonne; im sattel durch die asiatische türkei und persien. berlin: h. paetel verlag [ ]. vii, p., map, pl. . ed. °. (allgemeiner verein für deutsche literatur. veröffentlichungen. bd. , abt. .) bbs who are the armenians? (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk wilbraham, richard. travels in the trans-caucasian provinces of russia, and along the southern shore of the lakes of van and urumiah in the autumn and winter of . london: john murray, . p.l., vii-xviii, p., map, pl. °. bbv and stuart wilson, sir c. w. see handbook for travellers in asia minor. wuensch, josef. meine reise in armenien und kurdistan. (kaiserlich königlich geographische gesellschaft. mittheilungen. wien, . °. bd. , p. - , - .) kaa ---- die quelle des westlichen tigrisarmes und der see gölldschik. (kaiserlich königlich geographische gesellschaft. mittheilungen. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa yorke, vincent w. a journey in the valley of the upper euphrates. (geographical journal. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) kaa zimmerer, h. armenien. (asien. berlin, . f°. jahrg. , p. - , - , - .) �bba zouche ( . baron), robert curzon. armenia: a year at erzeroom, and on the frontiers of russia, turkey and persia. london: j. murray, . p.l., iii-xiv, p., map, pl. . ed. °. bby ---- ---- new york: harper & bros., . p.l., v-xiv p., l., - p., map. °. bby archaeology abich, hermann. sur les ruines d'ani. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin: classe historico-philologique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb adadourian, haig. the armenian coat of arms and the truths it displays. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk archaeologische bemerkungen über armenien. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. , - , - , .) �kaa bachmann, walter. kirchen und moscheen in armenien und kurdistan. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, . p.l., p., map, plan, pl. f°. (deutsche orient-gesellschaft. wissenschaftliche veröffentlichungen. heft .) �*oaa belck, waldemar. archäologische forschungen in armenien. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- armenien im altertum und in der jetztzeit. (frankfurter verein für geographie und statistik. jahresbericht. frankfurt am main, . °. jahrg. - , p. - .) kaa ---- armenische expedition. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- aus den berichten über die armenische expedition. (zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- das reich der mannäer. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- die rusas-stele von topsanä (sidikan). briefliche mittheilungen des hrn. dr. w. belck an hrn. rud. virchow. (zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- untersuchungen und reisen in transkaukasien, hoch-armenien und kurdistan. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. . p. - , - ; bd. , p. - , - .) �kaa ---- see also roesler, emil, and waldemar belck. belck, waldemar, and f. f. k. lehmann-haupt. bericht über die armenische forschungsreise der w. belck und c. f. lehmann. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- bericht über eine forschungsreise durch armenien. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee ---- reisebriefe von der armenischen expedition. (geographische gesellschaft in hamburg. mittheilungen. hamburg, - . °. bd. , p. - , - ; bd. , p. - .) kaa ---- vorläufiger bericht über die im jahre erzielten ergebnisse einer forschungsreise durch armenien. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. nachrichten: philol.-hist. klasse. göttingen, . °. , p. - .) *ee ---- weiterer bericht über die armenische expedition. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- zweiter vorbericht über eine forschungsreise in armenien. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee cumont, eugène. see cumont, franz, and eugène cumont. cumont, franz, and eugène cumont. voyage d'exploration archéologique dans le pont et la petite arménie. [bruxelles: h. lamertin, .] - p., maps. sq. °. (studia pontica. [v. .]) *onm dwight, harrison gray otis. armenian traditions about mt. ararat. (american oriental society. journal. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa dzotsikian, s. m. aus ma ani kaghakin. [an account of the city of ani.] new york, . p. °. *onk hin havadk gam hetanosagan gronk hahots. [ancient belief or the pagan religion of armenia.] venice, . p.l., p., l. °. *onp hittite--armenian? a theory. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk huntington, ellsworth. mittheilungen aus englischen briefen des hrn. ellsworth huntington über armenische alterthümer. [Übersetzt von c. f. lehmann.] (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- weitere berichte über forschungen in armenien und commagene. [uebersetzt von c. f. lehmann.] (zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa injijian, ghougas. hnakhosoutiun. [armenian antiquities.] venice, . v. °. *onm kachouni, manouel. hnakhosoutiun hahasdani. [an abridgement for schools of ghougas injijian's hnakhosoutiun.] venice, . p.l., p. °. *onm jensen, peter. hittiter und armenier. strassburg: k. j. trübner, . xxvi, p., map, tables. °. *ocze khanikof, n. voyage à ani, capitale de l'arménie, sous les bagratides. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) mta krahmer, d. die altarmenische hauptstadt ani. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. v. , p. - .) �kaa langlois, victor. fragment d'un voyage en cilicie. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- les monuments de la cilicie aux différentes époques. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- rapport sur l'exploration archéologique de la cilicie et de la petite-arménie... paris: imprimerie impériale, . p., pl. °. *c p.v. ---- les ruines de lampron en cilicie. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. bericht über den von ihm erledigten abschnitt der armenischen expedition: reise von rowanduz bis alaschgert. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- von der deutschen armenischen expedition. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- weiterer bericht über den fortgang der armenischen expedition. (zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- see also belck, waldemar, and f. f. k. lehmann-haupt; also huntington, ellsworth. morgan, jacques jean marie de. mission scientifique au caucase, études archéologiques & historiques. paris: e. leroux, . v. in . °. qpx tome . les premiers âges des métaux dans l'arménie russe. tome . recherches sur les origines des peuples du caucase. ---- note sur les nécropoles préhistoriques de l'arménie russe. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) mta ---- note sur l'usage du système pondéral assyrien dans l'arménie russe, à l'époque préhistorique. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) mta ---- les stations préhistoriques de l'alagheuz (arménie russe). (revue de l'École d'anthropologie de paris. paris, . °. année , p. - .) qoa murad, friedrich. ararat und masis. studien zur armenischen altertumskunde und litteratur. heidelberg: c. winter, . p.l., p. °. *onm roesler, emil, and waldemar belck. archäologische thätigkeit im jahre in transkaukasien. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa saint-martin, jean antoine. notice sur le voyage littéraire de m. schulz en orient, et sur les découvertes qu'il a faites récemment dans les ruines de la ville de sémiramis en arménie. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa schulz, Éd. see saint-martin, jean antoine. spiegel, friedrich. eranische alterthumskunde. leipzig: w. engelmann, - . v. °. *om tchéraz, minas. homère et les arméniens. (mélanges charles de harlez. leyde, . °. p. - .) *oac the temple of muzazir in armenia. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa virchow, rudolf. entdeckungen in armenien. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- forschungsreise unserer armenischen expedition belck-lehmann. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- Über die armenische expedition belck-lehmann. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - .) qoa ---- ueber den ursprung der bronzecultur und über die armenische expedition. (deutsche gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. correspondenz-blatt. münchen, . °. bd. , p. - .) qoa ---- ---- (anthropologische gesellschaft in wien. mittheilungen. sitzungsberichte. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) qoa ---- see also belck, waldemar. numismatics brosset, marie félicité. monographie des monnaies arméniennes. pl. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb langlois, victor. lettre à m. ch. lenormant ... sur les monnaies des rois arméniens de la dynastie de roupène. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. année , p. - , - , - .) mta ---- numismatique de l'arménie [dans l'antiquité]. p.l., xx, p., pl. (in: bibliothèque historique arménienne; ou, choix des principaux historiens arméniens traduits en français par Édouard dulaurier. paris: c. rollin, . °.) �mhm ---- numismatique de l'arménie au moyen âge. paris: c. rollin, . xii, p., pl. °. mil soret, frédéric. numismatique de l'arménie au moyen-âge. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa marcar, samuel. description of a copper coin of leo, king of armenia. (madras journal of literature and science. madras, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha mohammed-bey. lettre à m. victor langlois sur la légende arabe d'une monnaie bilingue d'héthum, roi chrétien d'arménie. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. année , p. - .) mta sibilian, clément. numismatique arménienne. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber unedirte münzen der armenisch-rubenischen dynastie in kilikien. pl. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ef art abdullah, séraphin, and frédéric macler. Études sur le miniature arménienne. facs., pl. (revue des études ethnographiques et sociologiques. paris, . °. , p. - , - .) qoa alishanian, gheuont. zartangark avedarani mlké takouhuoh. [on the decorations of the manuscript of the gospels called mlké takouhuoh.] venice, . p., facs., pl. f°. ��*onn ayvazian, hovhannes, dzovangarich hishadagau hisnamiah kordzouneoutian. [hovhannes ayvazian, marine painter. souvenir of his fifty years activity.] venice, . p. °. �*onp basmadjian, k. j. armenia, the home of grecian architecture. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. armenian legends and poems, illustrated & compiled by zabelle c. boyajian ... with an introduction by the right hon. viscount bryce ... and a contribution on "armenia: its epics, folksongs and mediaeval poetry," by aram raffi. london: j. m. dent & sons, ltd. [ .] xvi, p., col'd pl. f°. �*onp bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. see boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. coulon, henri. l'art et l'arménie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk gégharvest (l'art). revue littéraire et artistique arménienne. directeur-rédacteur: g. levonian. , no. . tiflis, . f°. �*onk levonian, g. see gégharvest. macler, frédéric. miniatures arméniennes. vies du christ, peintures ornementales (xe au xviie siècle). paris: p. geuthner, . p.l., p., pl. f°. �*ism ---- see also abdullah, séraphin, and frédéric macler. marshall, annie c. armenian embroideries. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk mauclair, camille. vartan mahokian, the armenian marine painter. (from the french of camille mauclair.) (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk raffi, aram. see boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. stuart-browne, d. m. armenian exhibits in the victoria and albert museum. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk wartabet, zaven. tébi kegharvesti haireniku. [a visit to the fatherland of art. a treatise on the art and architecture of constantinople and parts of asia minor.] baku, . p., l. °. *onp history general works see also massacres abaza, v. a. istoriia armenii. st. petersburg: i. skorokhodov, . ix, p. °. *qb history of armenia. abbruzzese, antonio. le relazioni fra l'impero romano e l'armenia, a tempo di augusto, a. c.-- d. c. (rivista di storia antica. padova, - . °. nuova serie, anno , p. - , - ; anno , p. - .) baa ---- le relazioni fra l'impero romano e l'armenia a tempo di tiberio e di caligola. (bessarione. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- le relazioni politiche fra l'impero romano e l'armenia da claudio a traiano.... (bessarione. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) *oaa abdullah, séraphin. vérification d'une date de l'ère arménienne [ ère chrétienne]. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa achguerd, k. s. see nersès, patriarch of constantinople. adontz, n. armeniia v epokhu iustiniana. politicheskoe sostoianie na osnovie nakhararskago stroia. st. petersburg: tip. imperatorskoi akademii nauk, . xiv, p. °. *qg armenia in the age of justinian. agathangelos. agathange. histoire du règne de tiridate et de la prédication de saint gregoire l'illuminateur, traduite pour la première fois en français sur le texte arménien accompagné de la version grecque, par victor langlois. (in: victor langlois, collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onq ---- agathangelus neu hrsg. von paul de lagarde. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ee ---- badmoutiun. [a history of armenia; together with sermons by gregory the illuminator.] venice, . p. °. *onq lagarde, paul anton de. erläuterungen zu agathangelus und den akten gregors von armenien. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ee meillet, antoine. remarques sur le texte de l'historien arménien agathange. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa sarkisian, h. parsék. akatankéghos ev ur pazmatarian kaghdnikn. [a critique of agathangelos and his pazmatarian kaghdnikn.] venice, . , p. °. *onq akulian, aram. einverleibung armenischer territorien durch byzanz im xi. jahrhundert; ein beitrag zur vorseldschukischen periode der armenischen geschichte. grüningen: j. wirz, . p. °. *onk p.v. . 'ali ibn abi talib, caliph. see avtaliantz, john, baron. allen, e. see stuermer, harry. amfiteatrov, aleksandr valentinovich. armeniia i rim. petrograd: "prosvyeshcheniye" [ ]. p.l., p. °. *qg armenia and rome. apcar, diana. the turkish constitution and armenia. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk arakel of tabriz. see brosset, marie félicité. arakélian, h. les rapports des arméniens avec l'occident au moyen âge et après. (verhandlungen des xiii. internationalen orientalisten-kongresses. leiden: e. j. brill, . °. p. - .) *oaa arisdaguès de lasdiverd. histoire d'arménie par le vartabed arisdaguès de lasdiverd traduite pour la première fois sur l'édition des ... mekhitharistes de saint-lazare et accompagnée de notes par m. Évariste prud'homme. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, - . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - ; tome , p. - , - , - , - ; tome , p. - .) *oaa armenian huntchakist party.--central committee. a memorial to the powers. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk the armenian people and the ottoman government. from the english blue book. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk the armenians. (armenia. boston, - . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk die armenischen unruhen und die pläne auf einführung von reformen in der türkei. (das staatsarchiv. sammlung der officiellen actenstücke zur geschichte der gegenwart. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) xba l'armeno-veneto. compendio storico e documenti delle relazioni degli armeni coi veneziani. primo periodo, secoli xiii-xiv. parte - . venezia: stab. tip. armeno, s. lazzaro, . °. bbx parte . compendio storico. parte . documenti. arzanov, d. zamiechaniia ob armenii i armianakh (viestnik evropy. moscow, . °. . no. - , p. - .) *qca notes about armenia and the armenians. ---- istoricheskii vzgliad na armeniiu i georgiiu. (viestnik evropy. moscow, . °. , no. - , p. - .) *qca historical sketch of armenia and georgia. aslan, kévork. Études historiques sur le peuple arménien. paris: g. dujarric, . p.l., viii-xxv p., l., - p. °. bbx aucher, john baptist. see eusebius pamphilus, bishop of caesarea. aukerian, mëgërdich. see eusebius pamphilus, bishop of caesarea. avdall, johannes. see avtaliantz, john. avtaliantz, john, baron. a covenant of ali, fourth caliph of baghdad, granting certain immunities and privileges to the armenian nation. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , part , p. - .) *oha ---- memoir of a hindu colony in ancient armenia. by johannes avdall. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha ---- note on the origin of the armenian era, and the reformation of the haican kalendar. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha ---- singular narrative of the armenian king arsaces and his contemporary sapor, king of persia; extracted from the armenian chronicles. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha ---- see also chamchian, michael; also moses of chorene. basmadjian, k. j. histoire moderne des arméniens, depuis la chute du royaume jusqu'à nos jours ( - ); les guerres russo-turques, les guerres russo-persanes, les guerres perso-turques, les soulèvements des arméniens, la question d'orient et principalement la question arménienne.... préface par j. de morgan. paris: j. gamber, . viii, p., l., map. °. *onq ---- les lusignans de poitou au trône de la petite arménie. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- a survey of ancient armenian history. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk baynes, norman h. rome and armenia in the fourth century. (english historical review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) baa bedrosian, sahag. see vahram of edessa. berberov, r. die armenier. (in: russen über russland. frankfurt a. m., . °. p. - .) gly berchem, max van. see lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. bicknell, ernest percy. red cross and red crescent. (survey. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) sha blackwell, alice stone. the battle of avarair. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk bogdanov, artemy. memoirs of the life of artemi, of wagarschapat, near mount ararat in armenia: from the original armenian [or rather russian] written by himself. london: treuttel & würtz, . x, p., pl. °. bbx brosset, marie félicité. des historiens arméniens des xviie et xviiie siècles. arakel de tauriz, registre chronologique, annoté par m. brosset. p.l., p. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , no. .) *qcb ---- Études sur l'historien arménien mkhithar d'aïrivank, xiiie s.; ire et iie parties, de la création du monde au commencement de l'ère chrétienne; iiie partie, jusqu'en de j.-c. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- Études sur l'historien arménien oukhtanès, xe s. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- examen d'un passage de l'historien arménien oukhtanès, relatif à la prétendue conquête "de l'ibérie" par nabuchodonosor. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- listes chronologiques des princes et métropolites de la siounie, jusqu'à la fin du xiiie siècle. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- notice sur l'historien arménien thoma ardzrouni, xe siècle. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - ; tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , - , *oaa. ---- notice des manuscrits arméniens appartenant à la bibliothèque de l'institut asiatique établi près le ministère des affaires Étrangères. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - , - .) *qcb ---- projet d'une collection d'historiens arméniens inédits. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, - . f°. v. , col. - ; v. , col. - .) *qcb ---- revue de la littérature historique de l'arménie. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- sur l'histoire ancienne de l'arménie, d'après les textes hiéroglyphiques et cunéiformes. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- sur l'histoire composée en arménien par thoma ardzrouni, xe s. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. browne, j. gordon. tartars and armenians. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da brunhes, jean. le rôle ancien de l'arménie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. see buxton, noel, and harold buxton; also hacobian, avetoon pesak. budushcheye ustroistvo armenii ... budushchee ustroistvo armenii po offitsiad'nym diplomaticheskim dokumentam oranzhevoi knigi, traktuiushei reform v armenii. petrograd: "osvobozhdeniye," . p. °. (diplomaticheskii arkhiv. tom .) *qg p.v. the future of armenia, according to diplomatic documents. burchardi, gustav. der zweifel und das böse. eine botschaft der sasaniden an die armenier. (geist des ostens. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *oaa buxton, harold. see buxton, noel, and harold buxton. buxton, noel, and harold buxton. travel and politics in armenia, with an introduction by viscount bryce and a contribution on armenian history and culture by aram raffi. new york: macmillan co., . xx, p., map, pl. °. bby cappelletti, giuseppe. l'armenia. firenze: stamperia e fonderia fabris, . v. in . °. bby ---- see also elisha, vartabed. carlier, Émilie. en arménie. journal de la femme d'un consul de france. (revue des deux mondes. paris, . °. période , v. , p. - .) *dm chahan de cirbied, jacques. détails sur la situation actuelle du royaume de perse. paris: imprimerie royale, . l. °. *omz armenian, french and persian texts. ---- mémoire sur le gouvernement et sur la religion des anciens arméniens, par m. cirbied. (société royale des antiquaires de france. mémoires. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) da chahnazarian, garabed v. see ghévont, vartabed. chakijian, ephrem. badmoutiun hahots. [a history of armenia.] vienna, . p.l., , p. °. *onq chakmakjian, h. h. armenia's place in the family of nations. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ---- badmoutiun hahots. [the political history of the armenian people from ancient times down to , together with a short account of armenian literature.] boston, . p.l., p., map. °. *onq chalathianz, gregor. see khalathianz, grigori abramovich. chalatiantz, b. see khalathianz, bagrat. chamchian, michael. badmoutiun hahots. [a history of armenia from the creation to the end of the eighteenth century.] venice, - . v. °. *onq ---- history of armenia by father michael chamich; from b. c. to the year of christ , or of the armenian era, translated from the original armenian by johannes avdall. to which is appended a continuation of the history by the translator from the year to the present date. calcutta: h. townsend, . v. °. *onq chantre, ernest. les arméniens, esquisse historique et ethnographique. (société d'anthropologie de lyon. bulletin. lyon, . °. v. , p. - .) qoa chesney, francis rawdon. the russo-turkish campaigns of and with a view of the present state of affairs in the east. with an appendix containing the diplomatic correspondence between the four powers, and the secret correspondence between the russian and english governments. new york: redfield, . p.l., xiii-xxiv, - p., maps. °. glk chesney, g. m. a winter campaign in armenia. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da clark, william. armenian history. (new englander. new haven, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *da constitution nationale des arméniens traduite de l'arménien sur le document original par m. e. prud'homme. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, - . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - , - .) *oaa coumryantz, a. see vogel, charles, and a. coumryantz. the cradle of history. (eclectic magazine. new york, . °. , p. - .) *da daghbaschean, h. gründung des bagratidenreiches durch aschot bagratuni. berlin: mayer & müller, . xi p., l., p. °. bbx des coursons, r. de, vicomte. la rebellion arménienne; son origine, son but. paris: librairie du service central de la presse, . p. °. bbh p.v. desimoni, cornelio. actes passés en , et à l'aïas (petite arménie) et à beyrouth par devant des notaires génois. (société de l'orient latin. archives de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oba dolens, noël, and a. khatch. histoire des anciens arméniens. publié par l'union des étudiants arméniens de l'europe. genève, . p. °. bbx dulaurier, Édouard. considérations sur les plus anciennes origines de l'histoire arménienne. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- littérature arménienne. bibliothèque historique arménienne; ou, choix et extraits des historiens arméniens. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- recherches sur la chronologie arménienne technique et historique; ouvrage formant les prolégomènes de la collection intitulée bibliothèque historique arménienne. tome . paris: imprimerie impériale, . °. �*onq tome . chronologie technique. ---- see also matthew of edessa; also michael i., patriarch of the jacobites. egli, emil. feldzüge in armenien, von - n. chr. ein beitrag zur kritik des tacitus. (in: max büdinger, untersuchungen zur römischen kaisergeschichte. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) bwh eliot, sir charles norton edgecumbe. turkey in europe. london: e. arnold, . vii, p., folded maps. new ed. °. *opq elisha, vartabed. yeghishei vartabedi vasn vartanah yev hahots baderazmin. [elisha on vartan and the battle of the armenians.] venice, . p., pl. °. *onq ---- ---- venice, . p., pl. °. *onq ---- the history of vartan, and of the battle of the armenians: containing an account of the religious wars between the persians and armenians; by elisæus, bishop of the arnadunians. translated from the armenian by c. f. neumann. london: oriental translation fund, . p.l., xxiv, p. °. �*oag ---- histoire de vartan et de la guerre des arméniens. traduction nouvelle accompagnée de notes historiques et critiques par victor langlois. (in: victor langlois, collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) �*onq ---- eliseo, storico armeno del quinto secolo, versione del prete giuseppe cappelletti. venezia: tipografia di alvisopoli, . p. °. bbx ---- soulèvement national de l'arménie chrétienne au ve siècle, contre la loi de zoroastre, sous le commandement du prince vartan le mamigonien. ouvrage écrit par Élisée vartabed, contemporain ... traduit en français par ... grégoire kabaragy garabed. paris: [p. renouard,] . p.l., xix, p., l., map. °. znv Émin, jean baptiste. recherches sur le paganisme arménien. [traduction du russe, par m. a. de stadler.] (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also faustus of byzant. engelhardt, Édouard. la turquie et le tanzimat; ou, histoire des réformes dans l'empire ottoman depuis jusqu'à nos jours. paris: a. cotillon et cie., - . v. °. gib eschavannes, e. d'. les familles d'orient. histoire de la famille de lusignan. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - , - ; tome , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- les rois d'arménie au xive siècle. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - .) *oaa eusebius pamphilus, bishop of caesarea. eusebii pamphili caesariensis episcopi chronicon bipartitum nunc primum ex armeniaco textu in latinum conversum adnotationibus auctum graecis fragmentis exornatum opera p. jo. baptistae aucher ... pars - . venetiis: typis coenobii pp. armenorum in insula s. lazari, . v. °. ��ba faustus of byzant. faustus de byzance. bibliothèque historique en quatre livres, traduite pour la première fois de l'arménien en français, par jean-baptiste emine. (in: victor langlois, collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onq menevischean, p. g. faustus von byzanz und dr lauer's deutsche uebersetzung. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa filler, ernst. quaestiones de leontii armenii historia. lipsiae: b. g. teubner. . p.l., - p. °. bbh p.v. fonton, félix. la russie dans l'asie-mineure; ou, campagnes du maréchal paskévitch en et ; et tableau du caucase, envisagé sous le point de vue géographique, historique et politique. paris: leneveu, . v. ° and f°. bbp and �bbp france.--ministère des affaires Étrangères. documents diplomatiques. . affaires arméniennes; projets de réformes dans l'empire ottoman, - . paris: imprimerie nationale, . xix, p. f°. �xbi ---- documents diplomatiques. . affaires arméniennes (supplément) - . paris: imprimerie nationale, . xv, p. f°. �xbi die franzoesischen gelbbücher über armenien und die zustände in der türkei, - . auszüge. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - , - , - .) �*oaa fresneaux, marcel. trait d'union. arménie-france; leurs relations depuis les temps les plus reculés. vannes: lafolye frères, . p.l., ( ) - p., l. °. bbx at head of title: docteur t. aslan. furneaux, henry. the roman relations with parthia and armenia from the time of augustus to the death of nero. (in his: annals of tacitus. oxford, . °. v. , p. - .) bwh gabrielian, mugurdich chojhauji. armenia, a martyr nation; a historical sketch of the armenian people from traditional times to the present tragic days. new york: fleming h. revell co. [ .] p., map. °. bbx galanus, clemens. historia armena, ecclesiastica, & politica, nunc primum in germania excusa, & ad exemplar romanum diligenter expressa. coloniæ, . p.l., p., l. °. bbx garabed, grégoire kabaragy. see elisha, vartabed. gatteyrias, j. a. Élégie sur les malheurs de l'arménie, et le martyre de saint vahan de kogthen, épisode de l'occupation arabe en arménie, traduit pour la première fois de l'arménien littéral sur l'édition des... méchitaristes par m. j. a. gatteyrias. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ghambashidze, d. georgia and armenia as allies. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ghazarian, mkrtitsch. armenien unter der arabischen herrschaft bis zur entstehung des bagratidenreiches. nach arabischen und armenischen quellen. marburg: n. g. elwert, . p. °. *onq repr.: zeitschrift für armenische philologie, bd. , p. - , *onl. ghésarian, samuel. see lazar of pharbe. ghévont, vartabed. histoire des guerres et des conquêtes des arabes en arménie par l'éminent ghévond, vardabed arménien écrivain du huitième siècle traduite par garabed v. chahnazarian. paris: librairie de ch. meyrueis et cie., . xv, p. °. *onq glen, james. see hubboff, prince. great britain.--foreign office. turkey. , no. . further correspondence respecting the affairs of turkey. london: harrison and sons [ ]. xviii, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. no. ( ). despatch from the marquis of salisbury inclosing a copy of the treaty signed at berlin, july , . london: harrison and sons [ ]. p.l., p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd article cedes to russia the territories of ardahan, kars and batoum.... articles and treat of reforms in the provinces inhabited by armenians and of religious liberty. ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence respecting the condition of the population in asia minor and syria. london: harrison and sons [ ]. v. p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. - , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence respecting the commission sent by the porte to inquire into the condition of the vilayet of aleppo. london: harrison and sons [ ]. vii, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asia minor and syria. london: harrison and sons [ ]. vii, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . further correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asia minor and syria. (in continuation of "turkey no. , .") london: harrison and sons [ ]. ix, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . further correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asia minor and syria. (in continuation of "turkey no. , .") london: harrison and sons [ ]. ix, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. no. ( ). correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asiatic turkey, - . london: harrison and sons [ ]. v, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. no. ( ). correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asiatic turkey, and the trial of moussa bey. in continuation of "turkey no. , ." london: harrison and sons [ ]. iii, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. no. ( - ). correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asiatic turkey, and the proceedings in the case of moussa bey. in continuation of "turkey no. ( )." london: harrison and sons [ ]. v, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. - , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . further correspondence respecting the condition of the populations in asiatic turkey. (in continuation of "turkey no. , .") london: harrison and sons [ ]. iv, p., l. f°. *sdd and ��xbi ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence respecting the introduction of reforms in the armenian provinces of asiatic turkey. london: harrison and sons [ ]. xi, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence relating to the asiatic provinces of turkey. - . london: harrison and sons [ ]. xv, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence relating to the asiatic provinces of turkey. reports by vice-consul fitzmaurice from birejik, ourfa, adiaman, and behesni. london: harrison and sons [ ]. p.l., p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence relating to the asiatic provinces of turkey: - . (in continuation of "turkey no. , .") london: harrison and sons [ ]. xxiv, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence respecting the asiatic provinces of turkey. london: harrison and sons [ ]. viii, p. f°. *sdd and �xbi greene, francis vinton. the russian army and its campaigns in turkey in - . new york: d. appleton and co., . v. °. gln gregory, g. marcar. see tchobanian, archag. gregory of armenia, called illuminator. see agathangelos. gregory the priest. chronique de grégoire le prêtre. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. greiffenhag, andré m. see hethoum, prince of gorigos. guiragos of kantzag. extrait de l'histoire d'arménie (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. hacobian, avetoon pesak. armenia and the war; an armenian's point of view, with an appeal to britain and the coming peace conference. with a preface by the rt. hon. viscount bryce. london: hodder & stoughton, . xx, p. °. btze ---- ---- new york: g. h. doran co. [ ?] xvi p., l., - p. °. btze hagopian, hovhan. the relations of the armenians and the franks during the reign of leon ii, - . [boston: "armenia" publishing co., .] p. °. bac p.v. repr.: armenia, v. , no. , p. - , no. , p. - , �*onk. ---- the russification of the armenians. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk henderson, bernard william. the chronology of the wars in armenia, a. d. - . (classical review. london, . °. v. , p. - , - , - .) �rba henry, james dodds. baku; an eventful history. london: archibald constable & co., ltd. [ .] viii, p., map, pl. °. glr herold, a. ferdinand. l'amitié de la france et de l'arménie ( - ). (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk hethoum, prince of gorigos. chronographie d'héthoum, seigneur de gôrigos, ouvrage inédit du moine aithon, auteur de l'histoire des tatars; traduit pour la première fois sur le texte arménien de l'édition de venise ... par victor langlois. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- histoire orientale; ou, des tartares de haiton ... qui comprend, premièrement, une succincte & agréable description de plusieurs roiaumes ou païs orientaux, selon l'état dans lequel ils se trouvoient environ l'an . secondement, une relation de beaucoup de choses remarquables, qui sont arrivées aux peuples de ces païs & nations. le tout décrit par la main de n. salcon, & traduit suivant l'édition latine de a. m. greiffenhag. (recueil de divers voyages curieux, faits en tartarie. leide, . °. v. , cols., l., map.) reserve ---- ---- (in: p. bergeron, voyages faits principalement en asie dans les xii, xiii, xiv, xv siècles. la haye, . °. v. , cols., l., map.) reserve and �bbe ---- historia orientalis haythoni armenii: et hvic svbiectvm marci pavli veneti itinerarium, item fragmentum è speculo historiali vincentij beluacensis eiusdem argumenti. [edited by r. reineccius.] helmaestadii: [i. lucius,] . p.l., f., l., table. °. reserve ---- the historie of ayton, or anthonie the armenian, of asia, and specially touching the tartars. (in: samuel purchas, purchas his pilgrimes. london, . f°. part , p. - .) �kbc ---- relation de hayton, prince d'arménie.... (in: louis de backer, l'extrême orient au moyen âge. paris, . °. p. - .) bbb ---- table chronologique de héthoum, comte de gorigos. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. hrasdan, saven. sind die armenier kriegerischen geistes bar? ports. (geist des ostens. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *oaa hubboff, prince. genealogical catalogue of the kings of armenia. translated from the armenian into the russian language by lazar kooznets. translated from the russian into english and compared with the original armenian manuscript by james glen. p. (oriental translation fund. miscellaneous translations. london, . °. v. .) *oag hyvernat, henry. see mueller-simonis, paul, and henry hyvernat. injijian, ghougas. hnakhosoutiun. [armenian antiquities.] venice, . v. °. *onm kachouni, manouele. hnakhosoutiun hahasdani. [an abridgement for schools of ghougas injijian's hnakhosoutiun.] venice, . p.l., p. °. *onm institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. tome . paris: imprimerie impériale, . f°. ��btr contents: préface; introduction; le royaume de la petite arménie ou la cilicie au temps des croisades; tableaux généalogiques et dynastiques; matthew of edessa, extraits de la chronique; gregory the priest, chronique; basil, oraison funèbre de baudouin; nerses the graceful, patriarch of armenia, Élégie sur la prise d'Édesse; gregory dgha, patriarch of armenia, Élégie sur la prise de jérusalem par saladin; michel syrus, extrait de sa chronique; guiragos of kantzag, extrait de l'histoire d'arménie; vartan the great, extrait de l'histoire universelle; samuel of ani, extrait de la chronographie; hethoum, prince of gorigos, table chronologique; vahram of edessa, chronique rimée des rois de la petite arménie; chant populaire sur la captivité de léon; hethoum ii, king of armenia, poème; nerses of lambron, extraits de l'ouvrage intitulé: réflexions sur les institutions de l'église et explication du mystère de la messe; sempad, constable of armenia, chronique du royaume de la petite arménie; martiros of crimea, liste rimée des souverains de la petite arménie; mkhithar of dashir, relation de sa conférence avec le légat du pape; appendice, continuation de l'histoire du royaume de la petite arménie; chartes arméniennes; index. armenian texts with french translations. isaverdentz, hagopos. histoire de l'arménie par le r. p. jacques dr. issaverdens, mékhithariste de venise: enrichie de nombreuses figures exécutées aux frais de mr. jean arathoon de batavia. venise: imprimerie de s. lazare, . p., pl. ob. °. �*onq jean vi, patriarch of armenia. histoire d'arménie par le patriarche jean vi dit jean catholicos traduite de l'arménien en français par m. j. saint-martin. paris: imprimerie royale, . p.l., iii-xlviii, p. °. *onq jean ouosk'herdjan. mémoire de jean ouosk'herdjan, prêtre arménien de wagarchabad, pour servir à l'histoire des événemens qui ont eu lieu en arménie et en géorgie à la fin du dix-huitième siècle et au commencement du dix-neuvième, suivi de vingt-huit anciennes inscriptions arméniennes, traduit de l'arménien. (in: j. h. klaproth, mémoires relatifs à l'asie. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oac kalenderian, vahan h. the armenians as soldiers. (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk kennedy, j. the indians in armenia, b. c.- a. d. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa khalathianz, bagrat. ueber den ursprung der armenischen fürstentümer. auszug. (verhandlungen des xiii. internationalen orientalisten-kongresses. leiden: e. j. brill, . °. p. - .) *oaa ---- der ursprung der armenischen fürstentümer. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa khalathianz, grigori abramovich. was artasches von armenien der besieger des krösus? von gregor chalathianz. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa khaniji, anton. mukhtasar tawarikh al-arman. [a short history of armenia, translated into arabic from the armenian.] jerusalem, . p.l., p., l. °. *onq khatch, a. see dolens, noël, and a. khatch. khungian, t. b. glimpses from ancient armenia. (american antiquarian. chicago, . °. v. , p. - .) hba kiepert, heinrich. Über älteste landes- und volksgeschichte von armenien. map. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. monatsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee klaproth, julius heinrich. aperçu des entreprises des mongols en géorgie et en arménie dans le xiiie siècle. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- extrait du derbend-nâmeh, ou de l'histoire de derbend. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also jean ouosk'herdjan. kohler, charles. lettres pontificales concernant l'histoire de la petite arménie au xive siècle. (in: florilegium; ou, recueil de travaux d'érudition dédiés à monsieur le marquis melchior de vogué. paris, . °. p. - .) �*oac kooznets, lazar. see hubboff, prince. kurkjian, vahan m. the armenian kingdom of cilicia. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk lagarde, paul anton de. see agathangelos. lagov, n. m., compiler. armeniia; ocherki proshlago, prirody, kul'tury i pr. sostavil n. m. lagov. petrograd: n. p. karbasnikov, . viii, p. °. *qg p.v. armenia: her past, nature and culture. langlois, victor. collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie publiée en français sous les auspices de son excellence nubar-pacha.... paris: firmin didot frères, fils et cie., - . v. °. �*onq tome . historiens grecs et syriens traduits anciennement en arménien. tome . historiens arméniens du cinquième siècle. ---- considérations sur les rapports de l'arménie avec la france au moyen âge. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- documents pour servir à une sigillographie des rois d'arménie au moyen âge. (revue archéologique. paris, . °. année , p. - .) mta ---- une fête à la cour de léon ii, roi d'arménie, au xiiie siècle. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- lettre à monsieur l'académicien brosset, sur quelques points d'histoire politique, religieuse et civile des arméniens et des franks, à l'époque des croisades. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- lettre à m. l'académicien brosset, sur la succession des rois d'arménie de la dynastie de roupen et de la maison de lusignan, d'après les sources orientates et occidentales. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg. . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- place de l'arménie dans l'histoire du monde. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also agathangelos; also elisha, vartabed; also hethoum, prince of gorigos; also michael i., patriarch of the jacobites; also sempad, constable of armenia. lazar of pharbe. histoire d'arménie traduite pour la première fois en français et accompagnée de notes historiques et critiques par le p. samuel ... ghésarian. (in: victor langlois, collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) �*onq lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. die einwanderung der armenier im zusammenhang mit den wanderungen der thrakier und iranier. (verhandlungen des xiii. internationalen orientalisten-kongresses. leiden: e. j. brill, . °. p. - .) *oaa ---- materialien zur älteren geschichte armeniens und mesopotamiens. mit einem beitrage, arabische inschriften aus armenien und diyarbekr, von max van berchem. berlin, . p., pl. °. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen: philologisch-historische klasse. neue folge, bd. , nr. .) *ee ---- religionsgeschichtliches aus kaukasien und armenien. (archiv für religionswissenschaft. tübingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) zaa lenormant, françois. sur l'ethnographie et l'histoire de l'arménie avant les achéménides. (in his: lettres assyriologiques. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *ock léon iii, king of armenia. décret ou privilège de léon iii, roi d'arménie, en faveur des génois, en l'année ; tiré des archives de gènes par j. de saint-martin. (institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. notices et extraits des manuscrits. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *eo léon vi, king of armenia. basmadjian, k. j. léon vi of lusignan. [a history of the last king of armenia.] paris, . , p., l., fac., pl., port. °. �*onq léon vi is frequently referred to as léon v. carrière, auguste. la rose d'or du roi d'arménie léon v. (revue de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oba langlois, victor. notice sur le chrysobulle, octroyé par léon v, roi d'arménie, aux siciliens, en . (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. saint martin, jean antoine. recherches sur la vie et les aventures de léon, dernier roi des arméniens. (institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. mémoires. paris, . °. tome , partie , p. - .) *eo schlumberger, gustave. bulles d'or et sceau des rois léon ii (i) et léon vi (v) d'arménie. pl. (revue de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oba tournebize, françois. léon v de lusignan dernier roi de l'arméno-cilicie. (Études publiées par des pères de la compagnie de jésus. paris, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *dm lohmann, ernst. im kloster zu sis. ein beitrag zu der geschichte der beziehungen zwischen dem deutschen reiche und armenien im mittelalter. striegau: r. urban [ ]. p., l. °. �bbx maccoll, malcolm. armenia and the transvaal. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da macler, frédéric. les arméniens en turquie. (revue du monde musulman. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- pseudo-sebêos, texte arménien traduit et annoté par frédéric macler. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- rapport sur une mission scientifique en arménie russe et en arménie turque, juillet-octobre, . paris: imprimerie nationale, . p., pl. °. (france.--ministère de l'instruction publique et des beaux-arts. nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques et littéraires. nouvelle série, fasc. .) *en ---- russia and the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- see also maribas the chaldean. mai, angelo. see samuel of ani. maribas the chaldean. extraits de la chronique de maribas kaldoyo (mar abas katina?). essai de critique historico-littéraire par frédéric macler. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa marr, n. kavkazskii kul'turnyi mir i armeniia. (zhurnal ministerstva narodnago prosvieshcheniia. petrograd, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca a treatise on caucasian culture and armenia. martiros of crimea. liste rimée des souverains de la petite arménie. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. matthew of edessa. chronique de matthieu d'Édesse ( - ) avec la continuation de grégoire le prêtre jusqu'en .... (in: bibliothèque historique arménienne; ou, choix des principaux historiens arméniens traduits en français. par Édouard dulaurier. paris: e. thorin [ ]. p.l., xxvii, p., l. °.) *oag ---- [extraits de la chronique.] expéditions de nicéphore phocas et de jean zimiscès dans la mésopotamie, la syrie et la palestine. récit de la première croisade. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. michael i, patriarch of the jacobites. chronique de michel le grand, patriarche des syriens jacobites. traduite pour la première fois sur la version arménienne du prêtre ischôk, par victor langlois. venise: typographie de l'académie de saint-lazare, . p.l., p. °. �*odr ---- extrait de la chronique de michel le syrien. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. ---- extrait de la chronique de michel le syrien comprenant l'histoire des temps écoulés depuis l'année viiie du règne de l'empereur justin ii, jusqu'à la seconde année du règne de léon iii, l'isaurien; traduit de l'arménien par Éd. dulaurier. (journal asiatique. paris, - . °. série . v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa mkhithar of aïrivank. see brosset, marie félicité. monteith, william. kars and erzeroum: with the campaigns of prince paskiewitch in and ; and an account of the conquests of russia beyond the caucasus, from the time of peter the great to the treaty of turcoman chie and adrianople. london: longman, brown, green and longmans, . xvi, p., pl. °. glf mordtmann, andreas david. see wakidi, abu 'abd allah muhammad ibn 'umar al-. morgan, jacques jean marie de. the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the rise and fall of armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk moses of chorene. badmoutiun hahots. [history of armenia.] venice, . p.l., p., pl. °. *onq ---- mosis chorenensis historiæ armeniacæ libri iii. accedit ejusdem scriptoris epitome geographiæ. præmittitur præfatio quæ de literatura, ac versione sacra armeniaca agit; et subjicitur appendix, quæ continet epistolas duas armeniacas; primam, corinthiorum ad paulum apostolum; alteram, pauli apostoli ad corinthios; nunc primum ex codice ms. integrè divulgatas. armeniacè ediderunt, latinè verterunt, notisque illustrârunt gulielmus & georgius, gul. whistoni filii.... londini: apud joannem whistonum, . p.l., xxiv, p., map. °. �*onq ---- histoire d'arménie en trois livres, traduction nouvelle accompagnée de notes historiques, critiques et philologiques: (in: victor langlois, collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) �*onq ---- storia di mosè corenese versione italiana illustrata dai monaci armeni mechitaristi ritoccata quanto allo stile da n. tommaséo. venezia: tipografia armena di san lazzaro, . xxii, p., l. °. *onq ---- ---- venezia: tipografia armena di san lazzaro, . xviii, p., l. . ed. °. *onq ---- see also saint-martin, jean antoine. anderson, william. notes on the geography of western afghanistan. [appendix. notes by johannes avdall, on the extracts proposed from the work of moses khorenensis.] (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha carrière, auguste. la légende d'abgar dans l'histoire d'arménie de moïse de khoren. (in: École des langues orientales vivantes. centenaire - . recueil de mémoires. paris: imprimerie nationale. . f°. p. - .) �*oaf gildemeister, johann. pseudokallisthenes bei moses von khoren. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa khalathianz, grigori abramovich. armianskii epos v istorii armenii moiseia khorenskago. opyt kritiki istochnikov. moscow: v. gatzuk, . parts in . °. *qb a commentary on the armenian history of moses of chorene. ---- nachalo kriticheskago izucheniia istorii armenii moiseia khorenskago. (zhurnal min. narodn. prosv. st. petersburg, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca ---- zur erklärung der armenischen geschichte des moses von chorene. von gregor chalathiantz. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa langlois, victor. Étude sur les sources de l'histoire d'arménie de moïse de khoren. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. pichard, c. e. essai sur moïse de khoren, historien arménien du ve siècle de l'ère du christ et analyse succincte de son ouvrage sur l'histoire d'arménie; accompagné de notes et commentaires et suivi d'un précis géographique. paris: a. lemerre, . p., l. °. *onq saint-martin, jean antoine. notice sur la vie et les écrits de moyse de khoren, historien arménien. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa mueller-simonis, paul, and henry hyvernat. du caucase au golfe persique à travers l'arménie, le kurdistan et la mésopotamie par p. müller-simonis suivie de notices sur la géographie et l'histoire ancienne de l'arménie et les inscriptions cunéiformes du bassin de van par h. hyvernat. washington: université catholique d'amérique, . viii, p., maps, pl. °. (relation des missions scientifiques de h. hyvernat et p. müller-simonis, - .) �bbv muravyev, andrei nikolayevich. gruziia i armeniia. st. petersburg: tip. iii otdyeleniya, . v. °. *qg georgia and armenia. nersès, patriarch of constantinople. les arméniens de turquie. rapport du patriarche arménien de constantinople à la sublime porte; traduit de l'arménien par k. s. achguerd. paris: e. leroux, . p.l., p. °. *onr neumann, carl friedrich. see elisha, vartabed; also vahram of edessa. nève, félix. Étude sur thomas de medzoph, et sur son histoire de l'arménie au xve siècle. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- exposé des guerres de tamerlan et de schah-rokh dans l'asie occidentale, d'après la chronique arménienne inédite de thomas de medzoph. p. (académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de belgique. mémoires couronnés. bruxelles, . °. tome , no. .) *em niebuhr, barthold georg. see wakidi, abu 'abd allah muhammad ibn 'umar al-. norman, charles boswell. armenia, and the campaign of . london: cassell, petter & galpin [ ]. xx, p., maps, plans. °. bbx o'connor, thomas power. see williams, william llewelyn. orpélian, e. see saint-martin, jean antoine. oukhtanes. see brosset, marie félicité. papazian, bertha s. the tragedy of armenia, a brief study and interpretation, with an introduction by secretary james l. barton. boston, chicago: the pilgrim press [cop. ]. xii p., l., p. °. bbx chapters - reprinted in the armenian herald, v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , *onk. pavlovitch, michel. la russie et les arméniens. (revue politique internationale. paris, . °. . partie , p. - .) sea pis'ma iz armenii. (moskovskii telegraf. moscow, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca letters from armenia. prud'homme, Évariste. see arisdaguès de lasdiverd; also constitution nationale; also zénob of klag. raffi, aram. the armenian nation. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the armenians and persia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the english and the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- see also buxton, noel, and harold buxton. rawlinson, george. parthia. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xx, p., maps, pl. °. (story of the nations.) *omv ---- the sixth great oriental monarchy; or, the geography, history and antiquities of parthia. london: longmans, green & co., . xiii p., l., p., maps, pl. °. stuart ---- ---- new york: dodd, mead & co. [ -?] xiii p., l., p., maps, pl. °. *omv ---- the story of parthia. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xx, p., map. °. (story of the nations.) *omv reinach, théodore. mithridate eupator, roi de pont. paris: firmin-didot et cie., . p.l., v-xvi, p., map, pl. °. (bibliothèque d'archéologie, d'art et d'histoire ancienne.) bbp reineck, reinerus. see hethoum, prince of gorigos. robert, ulysse. la chronique d'arménie de jean dardel, évêque de tortiboli. (société de l'orient latin. archives de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oba robinson, emily j. armenia and the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the truth about armenia. (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk rockwell, william walker, editor. the deportation of the armenians, described from day to day by a kind woman somewhere in turkey; edited by w. w. rockwell.... new york: american committee for armenian and syrian relief, . p. °. btze p.v. rolin-jacquemyns, gustave. actual position of armenia and the armenians under treaties of . (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenia, the armenians and treaties. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - , - .) *onk ---- armenia under the treaty of paris of . (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- l'arménie, les arméniens et les traités. (revue de droit international et de législation comparée. bruxelles, - . °. tome , p. - ; tome , p. - .) xba ---- diplomatic remonstrances. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- legal position of turkish armenia under the treaties of san stefano and berlin, and the anglo-turkish convention of the th june, . (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- period from to . (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- review of consular reports. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk roth, karl. armenien und deutschland. leipzig: veit & comp., . p. °. (länder und völker der türkei; schriften des deutschen vorderasienkomitees. heft .) gic russia.--ministerstvo inostrannykh dyel. sbornik diplomaticheskikh dokumentov. reformy v armenii. noiabria goda-- maia goda. petrograd: gosudarstvennaya tipografiya, . p. °. *qg a collection of diplomatic documents dealing with reforms in armenia. russia and armenia. the orange book. (ararat. london, - . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - .) *onk safrastian, a. s. dashnaksuthiun--its past and present. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk saint-martin, jean antoine. discours sur l'origine et l'histoire des arsacides. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- fragments d'une histoire des arsacides. ouvrage posthume de m. j. saint-martin. publié sous les auspices du ministère de l'instruction publique. paris: imprimerie nationale, . v. °. *omv ---- histoire des révolutions de l'arménie, sous le règne d'arsace ii, pendant le . siècle. (journal asiatique. paris, - . °. série , v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - .) *oaa ---- mémoires historiques et géographiques sur l'arménie, suivis du texte arménien de l'histoire des princes orpélians par e. orpélian, archevêque de siounie, et de celui des géographies attribuées à moyse de khoren et au docteur vartan, avec plusieurs autres pièces relatives à l'histoire d'arménie; le tout accompagné d'une traduction françoise et de notes explicatives. paris: imprimerie royale, - . v. °. *onq ---- see also jean vi, patriarch of armenia; also léon iii, king of armenia. salcon, nicolas de. see hethoum, prince of gorigos. samuel of ani. extrait de la chronographie de samuel d'ani. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. ---- samuelis presbyteri aniensis temporum usque ad suam ætatem ratio e libris historicorum summatim collecta. opus ex haicanis quinque codicibus ab joanne zohrabo doctore armenio diligenter exscriptum atque emendatum joannes zohrabus et angelus maius primum conjunctis curis latinitate donatum notisque illustratum ediderunt. (in: j. p. migne, patrologiæ cursus completus.... series græca. paris, . °. tomus , col. - .) zel brosset, marie félicité. samouel d'ani; revue générale de sa chronologie (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. finck, franz nikolaus, editor. kleinere mittelarmenische texte; hrsg., mit einleitung und glossen versehen von f. n. finck. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, - . °. bd. , p. - , - , - , - ; bd. , p. - .) *onl the chronicle of samuel of ani. sandwith, humphry. how the turks rule armenia. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- a narrative of the siege of kars and of the six months' resistance by the turkish garrison under general williams to the russian army: together with a narrative of travels ... in armenia and lazistan. london: j. murray, . ix, p., maps, pl. °. bbx sempad, constable of armenia. chronique du royaume de la petite arménie. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. ---- extrait de la chronique de sempad, seigneur de babaron, connétable d'arménie, suivi de celle de son continuateur, comprenant l'histoire des temps écoulés depuis l'établissement des roupéniens en cilicie, jusqu'à l'extinction de cette dynastie. traduit pour la première fois de l'arménien, sur les éditions de moscou et de paris par victor langlois. p.l., p. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires. st. pétersbourg, . f°. série , tome , no. .) *qcb siebert, wilbur henry. armenia and turkey. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk sobraniye aktov. sobranie aktov, otnosiashikhsia k obozrieniiu istorii armianskago naroda. moscow: lazarevykh institut vostochnykh yazykov, . v. °. *qb a collection of facts relating to the history of the armenian people. stadler, a. de. see Émin, jean baptiste. streck, maximilian. armenia. (in: encyclopaedia of islam. leyden, . °. v. , p. - .) �*ogc stubbs, william, bishop of oxford. the medieval kingdoms of cyprus and armenia. (in his: seventeen lectures on the study of medieval and modern history and kindred subjects.... oxford, . °. p. - .) baf stuermer, harry. two war years in constantinople; sketches of german and young turkish ethics and politics.... translated from the german [by] e. allen and the author. new york: george h. doran co. [ .] xiv p., l., - p. °. btze svasley, miran. anglo-armenian relations from the xii to xiv centuries. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted in the armenian herald, v. , p. - , dec., , *onk. ---- armenia in and before . (armenia. boston, - . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk sykes, sir mark, bart. the caliphs' last heritage; a short history of the turkish empire. london: macmillan and co., ltd., . xii, p., folded maps, plans, pl., port. °. *opq tchobanian, archag. l'arménie; son histoire, sa littérature, son rôle en orient. conférence faite le mars à la salle de la société de géographie.... paris: société du mercure de france, . p. . ed. °. bbx ---- the people of armenia; their past, their culture, their future. translated by g. marcar gregory.... with introduction by the right honourable viscount bryce. london: j. m. dent & sons, ltd., . xi, p. °. bbx teza, emilio. cose armene. (reale istituto veneto. atti. venezia, . °. tomo , parte , p. - .) *er thomas the arzrunian. see brosset, marie félicité. thomas of medzoph. see nève, félix. thopdschian, hagob. armenien vor und während der araberzeit. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl ---- die inneren zustände von armenien unter asot i. (ausgenommen die geschichte des armenischen naxararowt 'iwns und der armenischen kirche). (berlin.--universität: seminar für orientalische sprachen. mitteilungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , abteilung , p. - .) *oaa ---- politische und kirchengeschichte armeniens unter asot i. und smbat i. (berlin.--universität: seminar für orientalische sprachen. mitteilungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , abteilung , p. - .) *oaa thoumaian, g. armenian-kurdish relations. (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- a historical sketch of russia's relations with armenia. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk ---- the kurds in their relation to armenia. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk ---- the relations of armenia with england. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the relations of armenia with england in the middle ages. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ---- russia's relations with armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk tommaséo, niccolò. see moses of chorene. tournebize, françois. histoire politique et religieuse de l'arménie. depuis les origines des arméniens jusqu'à la mort de leur dernier roi (l'an ).... paris: librairie a. picard et fils [ ?]. p.l., p., maps. °. bbx transmigration des arméniens d'aderbéidjan sur le territoire russe. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa turabian, hagop. the armenian social-democratic hentchakist party. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - ; v. , p. - .) *onk tutundjian, télémaque. du pacte politique entre l'état ottoman et les nations non-musulmanes de la turquie. dissertation pour le doctorat présentée à la faculté de droit de l'université de lausanne. lausanne: g. vaney-burnier, . p., l. °. *opq ubicini, jean henri abdolonyme. de l'état moral et politique de l'arménie turque. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- empire ottoman. les arméniens sous la domination ottomane. fragment historique. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. [série ,] tome , p. - .) *oaa vahram of edessa. chronique rimée des rois de la petite arménie. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. ---- vahram's chronicle of the armenian kingdom in cilicia during the time of the crusades. translated from the original armenian with notes and illustrations by charles f. neumann. london: oriental translation fund, . xix p., l., - p. °. (c. f. neumann, translations from the chinese and armenian.) *oag ---- chronique du royaume arménien de la cilicie à l'époque des croisades composée par vahram rapoun et traduite sur l'original arménien par sahag bedrosian. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - , - .) *oaa vartan the great. see saint-martin, jean antoine. vartooguian, armayis p. armenia's ordeal. a sketch of the main features of the history of armenia; and an inside account of the work of american missionaries among armenians, and its ruinous effect. new york, . v, p., pl. °. bbx vérité sur le mouvement révolutionnaire arménien et les mesures gouvernementales. constantinople, . p. °. btze p.v. villari, luigi. the armenians and the tartars. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. ---- the armeno-tartar hostilities. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. ---- fire and sword in the caucasus. london: t. f. unwin, . p., pl. °. *r-gmv ---- russia and the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. ---- russian bureaucracy and the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. vincentius, bellovacensis. see hethoum, prince of gorigos. vogel, charles, and a. coumryantz. le peuple qui souffre; l'arménie, ses origines, son passé, son avenir? préface par jean jullien. paris: dorbon-ainé [cop. ]. xiii, - p., l. °. bbx vziatie arzeruma (pis'ma iz aremnii). (moskovskii telegraf. moscow, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca capture of erzeroum. wakidi, abu 'abd allah muhammad ibn 'umar al-. geschichte der eroberung von mesopotamien und armenien von mohammed ben omar el wakedi. aus dem arabischen übersetzt und mit anmerkungen begleitet von b. g. niebuhr. hrsg. und mit zusätzen und erläuterungen versehen von dr. a. d. mordtmann. hamburg, . xxi, p., map. °. �*ofl wheeler, alfred a. the russians in armenia. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da whiston, george. see moses of chorene. whiston, william. see moses of chorene. williams, charles. the armenian campaign: a diary of the campaign of , in armenia and koordistan. london: c. kegan paul & co., . xx, p., maps. °. bbx williams, william llewelyn. the ancient kingdom of greater armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . ---- armenia: past and present; a study and a forecast.... with an introduction by t. p. o'connor, m. p. london: p. s. king & son, ltd., . xi, p., folded maps. °. bbx ---- the kingdom of lesser armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . ---- under the heel of the turk. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . zavak. armenia: a chronological treatise. b. c. -a. d. . (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - .) *onk ---- armenia. a monograph. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk zénob of klag. histoire de darôn. [translated by Évariste prud'homme.] (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa zohrabian, john. see samuel of ani. massacres the adana massacres: who is responsible? the parliamentary commission to adana. interview with an armenian deputy. change in the tone of the turkish press. the central government acts promptly. decision to bring the chief offenders, including high officials, to trial. constantinople, turkey, . p. °. gic p.v. american armenian relief fund. the cry of armenia. [new york: american armenian relief fund in cooperation with the american committee for armenian and syrian relief, .] p. °. btze p.v. american committee for armenian and syrian relief. more material for your sermon on bible lands, to-day, a. d. . [new york, .] p. nar. °. btze p.v. articles by henry morgenthau, oscar s. straus, and others. ---- a national test of brotherhood; america's opportunity to relieve suffering in armenia, syria, persia and palestine. [new york, ?; p. °. btzw p.v. andreasian, dikran. comment un drapeau sauva quatre mille arméniens. paris: fischbacher [ ]. p. °. btze p.v. apcar, diana agabeg. betrayed armenia. yokohama: japan gazette press, . p.l., - p., l., pl. °. bbx ---- in his name. yokohama: japan gazette press, . p., l., - p., l., pl. °. bbx ---- on the cross of europe's imperialism, armenia crucified. yokohama: [fukuin prtg. co., ltd.,] . viii, p., l. °. bbx ---- peace and no peace. yokohama: japan gazette press, . p.l., p., l. °. yfx p.v. ---- the peace problem. yokohama: japan gazette press, . p.l., p., l. °. yfx p.v. ---- the truth about the armenian massacres. yokohama: japan gazette, . p. °. bbh p.v. argyll ( . duke), george douglas campbell. our responsibilities for turkey. facts and memories of forty years. london: j. murray, . p. °. gie ---- see also armenia. armenia. letter from the duke of argyll, &c. documentary and historical evidence of england's responsibility for the horrors inflicted by the turks upon the armenian people. manchester: "guardian" printing works, . p. °. bbh p.v. the armenian deportations. from the english blue book. (new armenia. new york, - . f°. v. , p. - , - , - , - , ; v. , p. - .) �*onk armenian documents. [no.] - . (armenian herald. boston, - . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - .) *onk the armenian massacre. (hartford seminary record. hartford, . °. v. , p. - .) zisf the assassination of armenia. the turkish program of annihilation described by government representatives, teachers, missionaries, and other eyewitnesses. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva les atrocités en arménie. (l'asie française. paris, . °. année , p. - .) �bba barby, henry. au pays de l'épouvante, l'arménie martyre. préface de m. paul deschanel.... paris: a. michel [ ]. p.l., v, p., pl., ports. °. btze an account, with official documents, of the massacre, resistance and deportation of the armenians in the european war. benoit, lucien. les massacres d'adana. relations de missionnaires. (Études par des pères de la compagnie de jésus. paris, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *dm bliss, edwin munsell. turkey and the armenian atrocities. a graphic and thrilling history of turkey--the armenians, and the events that have led up to the terrible massacres ... in armenia.... by rev. e. m. bliss, assisted by rev. c. hamlin, e. a. grosvenor.... with an introduction by f. e. willard. new york: hibbard & young [cop. ]. p.l., , v-xv, - p., map, pl., port. sq. °. bbx ---- turkey and the armenian atrocities; a reign of terror. from tartar huts to constantinople palaces. centuries of oppression--moslem and christian--sultan and patriarch--broken pledges followed by massacre and outrage. the red cross to the rescue. with an introduction by frances e. willard. n. p.: edgewood pub. co. [cop. .] p.l., , v-xv, - p., map, port. °. bbx and *onq bresnitz von sydacoff, philipp franz. abdul hamid und die christenverfolgungen in der türkei. aufzeichnungen nach amtlichen quellen. berlin: f. luckhardt [pref. ]. iv, p. . ed. °. bbx brézol, georges. les turcs ont passé là. recueil de documents, dossiers, rapports, requêtes, protestations, suppliques et enquêtes, établissant la vérité sur les massacres d'adana en . paris: l'auteur, . vi, - p., map, ports. °. *opq bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. the armenian massacres. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- see also great britain.--foreign office. miscellaneous. no. ( ); also toynbee, arnold joseph. burns, john. see the massacres in turkey. carlier, Émilie. au milieu des massacres; journal de la femme d'un consul de france en arménie. paris: f. juven [ ]. p.l., - p., port. °. *onq chambers, l. p. the massacre of armenia. (queen's quarterly. kingston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da the constantinople massacre. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da der-hagopian, nishan. persecuted armenia. (century. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da dzotsikian, s. m. debi pergutiun. [a story of the armenian massacres, republished from the newspaper "aspares."] fresno, cal., . p.l., p. °. *onp einstein, lewis. the armenian massacres. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. - , - , �*onk. etesioh sosgali tebkl yev oghperkoutiun godoradzin etesioh. [etesia's horrible circumstances; or, the tragedy of the massacres at etesia. written by an armenian of that city.] schumla, bulgaria, . , p., pl. °. *onq fa'iz al-husain. l'arménie martyre, par faiz el-ghassein. (in: la domination ottomane. genève, . . ed. °. p. - .) bbx ---- martyred armenia, by fà'iz el-ghusein ... translated from the original arabic.... new york: g. h. doran co., . vii p., l., p. °. btze p.v. ---- die türkenherrschaft und armeniens schmerzensschrei, von scheik faiz el-ghassein. zürich: art. institut o. füssli, . p., map. °. bbx des martyrium armeniens, p. - . ferriman, z. duckett. the young turks and the truth about the holocaust at adana in asia minor, during april, . written and compiled in april, , by the author of "turkey and the turk." [london? .] vi p., l., p., map. °. bbx germany, turkey, and armenia; a selection of documentary evidence relating to the armenian atrocities from german and other sources. london: j. j. keliher & co., ltd., . p.l., p. °. btze gibbons, helen davenport. the red rugs of tarsus; a woman's record of the armenian massacre of . new york: century co., . xiv p., l., p. °. bbx ---- les turcs ont passé par là! journal d'une américaine pendant les massacres d'arménie. traduit de l'anglais par f. de jessen, préface de fr. thiébault-sisson. paris: berger-levrault, . xviii, p., l., ports. °. bbx a translation of the preceding. gibbons, herbert adams. the blackest page of modern history; events in armenia in , the facts and the responsibilities. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . p. °. btze sources, p. - . ---- "la page la plus noire de l'histoire moderne." les derniers massacres d'arménie, les responsabilités, par herbert adams gibbons.... traduit de l'anglais. [paris: berger-levrault, .] p. °. (pages d'histoire, - . [fasc.] .) btze gladstone, william ewart. see the massacres in turkey. great britain.--foreign office. miscellaneous no. ( ). the treatment of armenians in the ottoman empire - . documents presented to viscount grey of fallodon, secretary of state for foreign affairs, by viscount bryce. with a preface by viscount bryce. london: sir j. causton and sons, . xlii, p., map. °. xbi and *onq ---- turkey. , no. . correspondence relating to the asiatic provinces of turkey. part i. events at sassoon, and commission of inquiry at moush. london: harrison and sons [ ]. xv, p., map. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd relates to the armenian massacres of . ---- ---- part ii. commission of inquiry at moush: procès-verbaux and separate depositions. london: harrison and sons [ ]. , p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd relates to the armenian massacres of . greene, frederick davis. the armenian crisis in turkey; the massacre of , its antecedents and significance with a consideration of some of the factors which enter into the solution of this phase of the eastern question. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xix, p., map, pl. °. bbx ---- armenian massacres; or, the sword of mohammed, containing a complete and thrilling account of the terrible atrocities and wholesale murders committed in armenia by mohammedan fanatics, including a full account of the turkish people, their history, government, manners, customs and strange religious belief. to which is added: the mohammedan reign of terror in armenia, edited by henry davenport northrop. [philadelphia:] american oxford pub. co. [cop. .] xviii, p., folded map, pl., port. °. bbx p. - identical with correspondingly paged matter in the author's rule of the turk. ---- the rule of the turk. a revised and enlarged edition of the armenian crisis. new york: g. p. putnam's sons, . xix, p., map, pl. °. bbx bibliography, p. - . gregory, daniel seelye. the armenians in the eastern question. the armenian crisis and massacres. (in his: the crime of christendom. new york [cop. ]. °. p. - .) gie griselle, eugène. une victime du pangermanisme; l'arménie martyre. paris: bloud & gay, . p. °. ("pages actuelles," - . no. - .) btze grosvenor, e. a. see bliss, edwin munsell. hamlin, cyrus. the genesis and evolution of the turkish massacre of armenian subjects. (american antiquarian society. proceedings. worcester, . °. v. , p. - .) iaa ---- the martyrdom of armenia. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva ---- see also bliss, edwin munsell. harris, helen b. see harris, james rendel, and helen b. harris. harris, james rendel, and helen b. harris. briefe von schauplatz der letzten massacres in armenien. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - , - , - , - .) �*oaa ---- letters from the scenes of the recent massacres in armenia. new york: f. h. revell co. [ ?] xii p., l., p., map, pl. °. bby howard, william willard. horrors of armenia: the story of an eye-witness. new york: armenian relief association, . p. °. bbh p.v. jessen, f. de. see gibbons, helen davenport. khungian, t. b. massacres in turkey. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ksan gakhaghannir. [twenty gallows.] providence, . p., l. °. *onq maccoll, malcolm. the constantinople massacre and its lesson. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- malcolm maccoll; memoirs and correspondence; edited by g. w. e. russell. london: smith, elder & co., . p.l., p., port. °. an les massacres d'arménie. (l'asie française. paris, . °. année , p. - .) �bba the massacres in turkey. [no.] - . (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da . by dr. j. guinness rogers. . by the earl of meath. . by john burns. . by prof. h. anthony salmoné. . by hon. w. e. gladstone. meath ( . earl), reginald brabazon. see the massacres in turkey. meda, filippo. la storia documentata delle ultime stragi in armenia. (nuova antologia. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) nna morgenthau, henry. ambassador morgenthau's story, by henry morgenthau, formerly american ambassador to turkey. garden city, new york: doubleday, page & co., . xv, p., pl. °. btze mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). adanahi chartu yev badaskhanadouneru. [the adana massacres.] boston, . , p. °. *onq ---- the truth about the adana massacres. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk nazarbek, avetis. zeitun. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da niepage, martin. the horrors of aleppo, seen by a german eyewitness; a word to germany's accredited representatives by dr. martin niepage, higher grade teacher in the german technical school at aleppo, at present at wernigerode. london: t. f. unwin, ltd. [ ?] p. °. btze p.v. northrop, henry davenport. see greene, frederick davis. pinon, rené. la suppression des arméniens: méthode allemande--travail turc. paris: perrin et cie., . p.l., p. °. btze this was published anonymously in the revue des deux mondes, période , tome , p. - , feb., , *dm. political papers for the people. edited by w. t. stead, no. . london: "review of reviews" office, . p.l., - p. °. bbh p.v. no. . the haunting horrors in armenia. price, morgan philips. war & revolution in asiatic russia. london: g. allen & unwin, ltd. [ .] ( ) p., folded maps. °. btze quillard, pierre. l'extermination d'une race. (la contemporaine. paris, . °. no. , p. - .) *dm ---- les nouveaux massacres d'arménie. (revue. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *dm ramsay, sir william mitchell. two massacres in asia minor. [london, .] p. °. zng p.v. repr.: contemporary review, v. , p. - , *da. raynolds, george c. thrilling experiences in van. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva red cross, united states.--american national red cross. report. america's relief expedition to asia minor under the red cross. washington, . p., map, pl. °. wzx roberts, chalmers. a mother of martyrs. (atlantic monthly. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da rogers, james guinness. see the massacres in turkey. rohrbach, paul. deutschland unter den armeniern. (preussische jahrbücher. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) *df russell, george william erskine. see maccoll, malcolm. salmoné, habib anthony. see the massacres in turkey. seropian, moushek. see mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). shepard, fred douglas. personal experience in turkish massacres and relief work. (journal of race development. worcester, - . °. v. , p. - .) qoa situation in russian armenia. massacres in bakou. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk speer, robert elliott. the armenian massacres. (in his: missions and modern history. new york [ ]. °. v. , p. - .) zkvf stead, william thomas, editor. see political papers. the story of an armenian refugee. (national magazine. boston, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *da the story of a nation's martyrdom, n. p. [ ?] l., pl. °. bac p.v. tchéraz, minas. les martyrs arméniens devant la conférence de la haye. (revue des revues. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *dm tchobanian, archag. la femme arménienne; conférence faite à paris le janvier , suivie de poèmes de mlle. s. vahanian, mme. z. essaïan, mme. ch. kourghinian, de maximes et conseils des vieilles mères rustiques d'arménie, du récit de l'épisode de djebel-moussa, par une rescapée, et du cri d'une arménienne. paris: b. grasset, . p.l., p., l. °. btze p.v. , no. toynbee, arnold joseph. armenian atrocities; the murder of a nation ... with a speech delivered by lord bryce in the house of lords. london: hodder & stoughton, . p., double map. °. btze p.v. ---- ---- new york: g. h. doran co. [ .] p., double map. °. bbx ---- de armeniska grymheterna: ett mördat folk. jämte ett tal i engelska överhuset av lord bryce. london: eyre & spottiswoode, ltd., . p.l., p., map. °. btze p.v. ---- las atrocidades en armenia; el exterminio de una nación, precedido de un discurso pronunciado por lord bryce en la cámara de los lores. paris: t. nelson & sons [ ?]. p. map. °. bbx ---- "the murderous tyranny of the turks," with a preface by viscount bryce.... london: hodder & stoughton, . p. °. btze p.v. , no. troshine, yvan. a bystander's notes of a massacre. the slaughter of armenians in constantinople. (scribner's magazine. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ussher, clarence douglas. the armenian atrocities and the jihad. (moslem world. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa veselovski, yuri. dieti obezdolennago kraia. (viestnik vospitaniia. moscow, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) *qca atrocities committed upon turkish armenians, as described in armenian literature. works in armenian relating to other countries acogh'ig de daron, Étienne. histoire universelle par Étienne açogh'ig de daron traduite de l'arménien et annotée par e. dulaurier. partie . paris: e. leroux, . °. (École des langues orientales vivantes. publications, série , v. .) *oaf chahan de cirbied, jacques. see davoud zadour de melik schahnazar. davoud zadour de melik schahnazar. notices sur l'état actuel de la perse, en persan, en arménien et en français, par myr-davoud-zadour de melik schahnazar ... et mm. langlès ... chahan de cirbied.... paris: imprimerie royale, . p.l., p., pl. °. *omz dirohyan, hagop v. hamarod tasakirk unthanour badmoutian. [brief course in general history.] venice, . v. in . °. *onq dulaurier, Édouard. l'histoire des croisades d'après les chroniques arméniennes. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- les mongols d'après les historiens arméniens; fragments traduits sur les textes originaux par m. Éd. dulaurier. (journal asiatique. paris, - . °. série , v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also acogh'ig de daron, Étienne. khalathianz, grigori abramovich. Über die armenische version der weltchronik des hippolytus. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa langlès, louis mathieu. see davoud zadour de melik schahnazar. patkanov, keropé petrovich. essai d'une histoire de la dynastie des sassanides, d'après les renseignements fournis par les historiens arméniens par m. k. patkanian; traduit du russe par m. Évariste prud'homme. (journal asiatique. paris, . o. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa petermann, julius heinrich. beiträge zu der geschichte der kreuzzüge aus armenischen quellen. (königliche akademie der wissenschaften zu berlin. philologische und historische abhandlungen. berlin, . o. , p. - .) *ee prud'homme, Évariste. see patkanov, keropé petrovich. vartan the great. extrait de l'histoire universelle de vartan le grand. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . fo. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. brosset, marie félicité. analyse critique de la vseobshchaia istoriia de vardan, édition princeps du texte arménien et traduction russe par m. n. emin, par m. brosset. p.l., p. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires. st. pétersbourg, . fo. série , tome , no. .) *qcb biography abuhaiatian, hagop. pastor hagop abuhaiatian von urfa. eine selbstbiographie. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . o. , p. - , - .) �*oaa anderson, antony. hovsep pushman: an appreciation. (new armenia. new york, . fo. v. , p. - .) �*onk avtaliantz, john, baron. a short memoir of mechithar ghosh, the armenian legislator. by johannes avdall. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . o. v. , p. - .) *oha barrès, maurice. tigran yergat. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. . p. - .) �*onk brosset, marie félicité. notice sur le diacre arménien zakaria ghabonts, auteur des mémoires historiques sur les sofis, xve-xviie s. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . fo. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- le prétendu masque de fer arménien, ou autobiographie d'avétik, patriarche de constantinople, avec pièces jusificatives [sic] officielles. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, - . fo. tome , col. - ; tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , - . *oaa. chirol, sir valentíne. a great armenian [nubar pasha]. (ararat. london, . o. v. , p. - .) *onk conybeare, frederick cornwallis. see wardrop, marjory, and j. o. wardrop. holynski, aleksander jan joachim. nubar pacha devant l'histoire. paris: e. dentu [ ]. p.l., viii, p. o. bla kassabian, dr. mihran k. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk maghak-teopileantz, madteos v. gensakroutiun yérévéli arants. [a biographical dictionary.] venice, . v. o. *onk mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). madteos ii izmirlian. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk n., w., and s. m. hovannes aivazovsky. a biographical sketch. (new armenia. new york, . fo. v. , p. - .) �*onk najib makhluf. nubar pasha. [a life of nubar pasha.] cairo, . p., pl. o. *ofs arabic text. neumann, carl friedrich. mémoire sur la vie et les ouvrages de david, philosophe arménien du . siècle de notre ère et principalement sur ses traductions de quelques écrits d'aristote. (journal asiatique. paris, . o. série , v. , p. - , - .) *oaa s., a. g. general yeprem khan. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk seropian, moushek. see mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). sevasly, mrs. marie. bedros atamian. (armenian herald. boston, . o. v. , p. - .) *onk tcheraz, minas. kamar-katiba. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. . p. - .) �*onk kamar-katiba was the pseudonym of raphael patkanian. ---- saiat-nova. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- saïat-nova, sa vie et ses chansons. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa tchobanian, archag. gregory of narek. from the french of arshag tchobanian. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk thoumaian, g. an armenian diplomat in the service of napoleon a hundred years ago. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk mir-david khan. vittoria aganoor pompily. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) *onk wardrop, john oliver. see wardrop, marjory, and j. o. wardrop. wardrop, marjory, and j. o. wardrop. life of st. nino. [the armenian version of djouanshêr translated by f. c. conybeare.] oxford: clarendon press, . p. °. (studia biblica et ecclesiastica. v. , part .) *yip yeremian, simeon. azkahin temker kraked hayer. [biographies of armenian writers.] part - . venice, - . v. °. *onp social life adger, john bailey. my life and times, - . richmond, va.: presbyterian committee of publication [ ]. p., ports. °. an b., e. an armenian wedding. (leisure hour. london, . °. , p. - .) *da barkley, henry c. a ride through asia minor and armenia: giving a sketch of the characters, manners and customs of both the mussulman and christian inhabitants. london: j. murray, . x, p. °. bbs barton, james levi. armenian qualifications for success. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk bedickian, s. v. how the armenians keep the new year and christmas. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk blackwell, alice stone. armenian virtues. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk burgin, g. b. the armenian at home. (cassell's family magazine. london, . °. may, , p. - .) *da dadian, mek. b. la société arménienne contemporaine. les arméniens de l'empire ottoman. (revue des deux mondes. paris, . °. période , v. , p. - .) *dm dan, demeter. glaube und gebräuche der armenier bei der geburt, hochzeit und beerdigung. (zeitschrift für österreichische volkskunde. wien, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) �zba distribution des prix du collège arménien de paris. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, - . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa dulaurier, Édouard. les arméniens en autriche, en russie et en turquie. la société arménienne au xixe siècle. (revue des deux mondes. paris, . °. année , tome , p. - .) *dm dzotsikian, s. m. arnutiun. [an account of social life and customs among the armenians.] paris, . p. °. *onk elton, l. m., translator. see nazarbek, avetis. garnett, lucy mary jane. an armenian wedding. (argosy. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- the women of turkey and their folk-lore. london: d. nutt, . p.l., p. °. snh keworkian, komitas. armeniens volkstümliche reigentänze. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl kurkjian, vahan. the armenian benevolent union. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk macfarlane. moeurs arméniennes. demande de mariage. (nouvelles annales des voyages. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa nazarbek, avetis. through the storm. pictures of life in armenia. translated by mrs. l. m. elton, with a prefatory note by f. york powell. london: john murray, . xxvii, p. °. bby ohanian, armene. en arménie (mon enfance). (mercure de france. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *dm petermann, julius heinrich. ueber die musik der armenier. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - and p. music.) *oaa société de sunie formée à smyrne, pour la propagation de l'instruction morale et des lumières parmi la nation arménienne. [réglemens actuels.] smyrne: w. griffitt, . p. °. bbh p.v. t., a. b. the armenian christmas and new year. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk terzian, paul. religious customs among the armenians. (catholic world. new york, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *da economics and industries france.--direction de commerce extérieur. rapports commerciaux des agents diplomatiques et consulaires de france. paris, - . °. tlg commerce d'erzeroum. . p. series -date, no. . commerce du vilayet de diarbékir. . p. series - , no. . situation commerciale, agricole, économique et industrielle du vilayet d'erzeroum. . p. series - , no. . situation commerciale et industrielle du vilayet de siwas. . p. series -date, no. . situation économique et mouvement commercial d'erzeroum. . p. series -date, no. . situation économique du vilayet d'erzeroum. . p. series -date, no. . situation économique du vilayet de siwas. . p. series -date, no. . . p. series -date, no. . great britain.--foreign office. diplomatic and consular reports. annual series. london, - . °. tlg report on the trade, etc., of the consular district of erzeroum. . p.l., p., l. no. . . p.l., p. no. . . p.l., ( ) p. no. . . p.l., p. no. . . p.l., ( ) p. no. . . p.l., p., l. no. . . p.l., ( ) p. no. . . p.l., p. no. . . p. no. . . ( ) p. no. . . p. no. . . p. no. . . ( ) p. no. . . ( ) p. no. . . ( ) p. no. . . p. no. . . ( ) p., map. no. . . p., l., map. no. . . ( ) p. no. . . p., l. no. . . p. no. . . p., l. no. . . p., l. no. . report on the trade of the vilayets of van and hekkiari. / . p.l., p., l. no. . kachouni, manouel v. bardizbanoutiun. [gardening.] venice, . p., l. °. *onpa ---- bdghapanoutiun. [fruit-raising.] venice, . p., l. °. *onpa ---- gatnapanoutiun. [dairying.] venice, . p., l. °. *onpa ---- meghouapoudzoutiun. [bee-culture.] venice, . p. °. *onpa langlois, victor. du commerce, de l'industrie et de l'agriculture de la karamanie (asie-mineure). (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa macgregor, john. turkish armenia. (in his: commercial statistics. london, . . ed. °. v. , p. - .) tl morgan, jacques jean marie de. armenian activities. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk nalpandian, mikahel. yergrakordzoutiunu orbes oughigh janabarh. [agriculture.] boston, . p.l., - p. °. *onpa turkish empire. salnamah. [official report of the vilayet of bitlis.] bitlis, . p. °. *opk ---- salnamah. [official report of the vilayet of diarbekir.] diarbekir, . p.l., p., table. °. *opk ---- salnamah. [official report of the vilayet of erzerum for the year a. h.] erzerum, . p. °. *opk ---- salnamah. [official report of the vilayet of sivas.] sivas, . p., l., pl., tables. °. *opk ---- salnamah. [official report of the vilayet of van.] van, . p. °. *opk varandian, mikael. armenian aptitudes. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk das vilayet erzerum. (germany.--reichsamt des innern. berichte über handel und industrie. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) tlg folklore and mythology bolton, henry carrington. armenian folk-lore, n. t.-p. [boston, .] - p. o. zbg p.v. repr.: journal of american folk-lore, v. , p. - , hba. c., e. armenian folk songs. (fraser's magazine. london, . o. new series, v. , p. - .) *da collins, f. b., translator. armenian folk-tales. the youth who would not tell his dream. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk gelzer, heinrich. zur armenischen götterlehre. (königlich sächsische gesellschaft der wissenschaften. berichte über die verhandlungen: philol.-hist. classe. leipzig, . o. bd. , p. - .) *ee haïgazn, Édouard. légendes et superstitions de l'arménie. (revue des traditions populaires. paris, . o. v. , p. - .) zba harris, james rendel. notes from armenia; in illustration of the golden bough. (folk-lore. london, . o. v. , p. - .) zba huet, g. les contes populaires d'arménie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . o. année , p. - .) *onk keljik, bedros a. see zartarian, r. lalayantz, erwand. légendes et superstitions de l'arménie. (revue des traditions populaires. paris, . o. v. , p. - , - , - .) zba lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. religionsgeschichtliches aus kaukasien und armenien. (archiv für religionswissenschaft. tübingen, . o. bd. , p. - .) zaa negelein, julius von. der armenische volksglaube. (globus. braunschweig, . fo. v. , p. - .) �kaa seklemian, a. g. armenian folk-tales. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the bald-headed orphan. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the betrothed of destiny. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his the golden maiden, p. - . ---- armenian folk-tales. the bird of luck. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. father myriad. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. julita. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the man and the snake. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. nahabed's daughter. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the poor widow's son. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his the golden maiden, p. - . ---- armenian folk-tales. prince pari and the beasts. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. reed-maid. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. reynard and bruno. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. shapoor, the hunter's son. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the shepherd and the shepherdess. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the snake child. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk ---- armenian folk-tales. the youngest of the three. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk reprinted from his the golden maiden, p. - . ---- armenian folk-tales. zoolvisia. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his the golden maiden, p. - . ---- the fisherman's son. an armenian fairy tale. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the golden maiden and other folk tales and fairy stories told in armenia. introduction by alice stone blackwell. cleveland: the helman-taylor co., . xxi, p., pl. o. zbio ---- unseen beauty. an armenian folk-tale. (new armenia. new york, . fo. v. , p. - .) �*onk tchéraz, minas. notes sur la mythologie arménienne. (transactions of the ninth international congress of orientalists. london, . o. v. , p. - .) *oaa wilhelm, eugene. analogies in the iranian and armenian folklore. (in: spiegel memorial volume. bombay, . o. p. - .) �*oma wingate, mrs. j. s. armenian folk-tales. (folk-lore. london, - . o. v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - .) zba ---- armenian folk-tales. translated by mrs. j. s. wingate. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenian stories. translated by mrs. j. s. wingate. (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk zartarian, r. how death came to earth. an armenian folk-lore. [translated by bedros a. keljik.] (armenia. new york, . o. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk law aptowitzer, v. beiträge zur mosaischen rezeption im armenischen recht. wien: a. hölder, . p. o. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. bd. , abh. .) *ef ---- zur geschichte des armenischen rechtes. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . o. bd. , p. - .) *oaa avtaliantz, john. on the laws and law-books of the armenians. by johannes avdall. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . o. v. , part , p. - .) *oha basmadjian, k. j. see nerses of lambron. bischoff, ferdinand. das alte recht der armenier in lemberg. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . o. bd. , p. - .) *ef brosset, marie félicité. détails sur le droit public arménien, extraits du code géorgien du roi wakhtang, et traduits du géorgien par m. brosset. (journal asiatique. paris, . o. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa karst, josef. armenisches rechtsbuch ediert und kommentiert von josef karst. strassburg: k. j. trübner, . v. in . fo. �*onp bd. . sempadscher kodex aus dem . jahrhundert oder mittelarmenisches rechtsbuch ... hrsg. und übersetzt von josef karst. bd. . sempadscher kodex aus dem . jahrhundert in verbindung mit dem grossarmenischen rechtsbuch des mechithar gosch aus dem . jahrhundert ... erläutert von josef karst. klidschian, arsen. das armenische eherecht und die grundzüge der armenischen familienorganisation. stuttgart: druck der union deutsche verlagsgesellschaft, . iv, p. o. snv bibliography, p. - . nerses of lambron. kaghakahin orenk. [political laws, translated by k. j. basmadjian.] paris: banaser, . p. o. *onk supplement to banaser, v. . science basmadjian, k. j. les livres de médecine chez les arméniens. (journal asiatique. paris, . o. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa brosset, marie félicité. notice sur un manuscrit arménien nouvellement acquis pour la bibliothèque impériale publique. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . fo. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. a manuscript, treating of astronomy and astrology, the author of which is unknown. dirohyan, hagop v. ousoumn pnagan ev pnapanagan kidoutiants. [study of natural and physical science.] venice, . p.l., p. o. *onpa dwight, william b. american bank notes and dr. seropyan. (new armenia. new york, . fo. v. , p. - .) �*onk gabrielian, m. s. serahin aroghzapanoutiun. [sex hygiene.] boston, . p.l., - p., l., pl. o. *onpa hampartsoumian, hovnan a. arouyesd madaharoutian. [hypnotism.] lynn, mass., . p.l., p. o. *onpa hampoian, h. a. see hampartsoumian, hovnan a. kachouni, manouel v. arouisdapanoutiun gam shdimaran kidiliats. [technology or applied science.] venice, . p. °. *onpa mkhithar. mechithar's des meisterarztes aus her "trost bei fiebern." nach dem venediger drucke vom jahre zum ersten male aus dem mittelarmenischen übersetzt und erläutert von dr. med. ernst seidel. leipzig: j. a. barth, . v p., l., p., l. °. �*onp at head of title-page: gedruckt mit unterstützung der puschmann-stiftung an der universität leipzig. pilibbosian, hapet m. kordznagan aroghzapanoutiun. [practical hygiene.] boston, . p., l. °. *onpa seidel, ernst. see mkhithar. varzhabedian, m. a. veneragan akhder ev abaka hay serountu. [the future of the armenian race.] new york, . p.l., - p. °. *onpa geology and natural history abich, hermann. der ararat, in genetischer beziehung betrachtet. pl. (deutsche geologische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) pta ---- ein cyclus fundamentaler barometrischer höhenbestimmungen auf dem armenischen hochlande. p. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires. st. pétersbourg, . f°. série , v. .) *qcb ---- die fulguriten im andesit des kleinen ararat, nebst bemerkungen über östliche einflüsse bei der bildung elektrischer gewitter. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche classe. wien, . °. bd. , abtheilung , p. - .) *ef ---- geologische skizzen aus transkaukasien. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin: classe physico-mathématique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb ---- [observations sur le mont ararat.] pl. (société géologique de france. bulletin. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) pta ---- Über die lage der schneegränze und die gletscher der gegenwart im kaukasus. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb ---- ueber das steinsalz und seine geologische stellung im russischen armenien. pl. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires: sciences mathématiques et physiques. saint pétersbourg, . f°. série , tome , p. - .) *qcb ---- vergleichende grundzüge der geologie des kaukasus wie der armenischen und nordpersischen gebirge. pl. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires: sciences mathématiques et physiques. saint pétersbourg, . f°. série ., tome , p. - .) *qcb ---- zur geologie des südöstlichen kaukasus. bemerkungen von meinen reisen im jahre . (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb bonney, t. g. notes on some rocks from ararat. (geological magazine. london, . °. new series, decade , v. , p. - .) pta buhse. vorläufiger botanischer bericht über meine reise durch einen theil armeniens in den monaten april und mai . (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin: classe physico-mathématique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb chikhachov, piotr aleksandrovich. asie mineure; description physique, statistique et archéologique de cette contrée, par p. de tchihatcheff. partie - . paris: gide et j. baudry, - . v. in . °. kcb and �kcb partie published by l. guérin. partie . géographie physique comparée. text and atlas. partie . climatologie et zoologie. partie . botanique. v. partie . géologie. v. ---- sur l'orographie et la constitution géologique de quelques parties de l'asie mineure et de l'arménie. (institut de france.--académie des sciences. comptes rendus. paris, . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - , - .) *eo forel, f. a. les échantillons de limon dragués en dans les lacs d'arménie. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb gylling, hjalmar. notes on the microscopical structure of some eruptive rocks from armenia and the caucasus. (mineralogical magazine. london, . °. v. , p. - .) pwa hughes, thomas mckenny. notes on some volcanic phenomena in armenia. (nature. london, . °. v. , p. - .) oa kharajian, hagop a. regional geology and mining of armenia. new york: nerso press, . p., folded diagr., folded maps. °. pvr bibliography, p. - . loftus, william kennett. on the geology of portions of the turko-persian frontier, and of the districts adjoining. map. (geological society of london. quarterly journal. london, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) pta mcgregor, p. j. c. notes on birds observed at erzerum. (ibis. london, . °. series , v. , p. - .) qma martens, e. v. aufzählung der von dr. alexander brandt in russisch-armenien gesammelten mollusken. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb oswald, felix. armenien. Übersetzung von otto wilckens. heidelberg: c. winter, . p., charts, diagr. °. (handbuch der regionalen geologie. bd. , abt. , heft .) pvx bibliography, p. - . ---- zur tektonischen entwicklungsgeschichte des armenischen hochlandes. (petermanns mitteilungen. gotha, . °. jahrg. , halbband , p. - , - , - .) kaa saparian, hamazasb. pousapanoutiun. [botany.] venice, . p. °. *onpa ---- yergrapanoutiun. [geology.] venice, . p.l., p. °. *onpa schaffer, franz x. grundzüge des geologischen baues von türkisch-armenien und dem östlichen anatolien. map. (petermanns mitteilungen. gotha, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa sieger, robert. die schwankungen der armenischen seen. (globus. braunschweig, . f°. bd. , p. - .) �kaa ---- die schwankungen der hocharmenischen seen seit in vergleichung mit einigen verwandten erscheinungen. (kaiserlich königlich geographische gesellschaft. mittheilungen. wien, . °. bd. , p. - , - , - .) kaa strecker, wilhelm. ueber die wahrscheinliche ältere form des wan-sees. (gesellschaft für erdkunde. zeitschrift. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) kaa tristram, h. b. ornithological notes of a journey through syria, mesopotamia, and southern armenia in . (ibis. london, . °. series , v. , p. - .) qma wachter, wilhelm. die kaukasisch-armenische erdbebenzone. (zeitschrift für naturwissenschaften. stuttgart, . °. bd. , p. - .) pqa wagner, moriz. aus dem tagebuch eines deutschen naturforschers in armenien [moriz wagner]. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - .) �kaa ---- beiträge zur kenntniss der naturverhältnisse im türkisch-armenischen hochlande. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - .) �kaa wilckens, otto. see oswald, felix. yeremian, simeon. nor gentanapanoutiun ev martagazmoutiun badmagan ev ngarakragan. [an historical and descriptive treatise on zoology and physiology.] venice, . p.l., p. °. *onpa ---- nor hankapanoutiun ngarakragan ev badmagan. [a descriptive and historical treatise on mineralogy.] venice, . p.l., p. °. *onpa zahn, gustav w. von. die stellung armeniens im gebirgsbau von vorderasien unter besonderer berücksichtigung der türkischen teile. berlin: e. s. mittler & sohn, . vi p., l., p., maps. °. (berlin.--universität: institut für meereskunde und geographisches institut. veröffentlichungen. heft .) kaa language adjarian, h. classification des dialectes arméniens. paris: h. champion, . p.l., p., map. °. (École pratique des hautes études. bibliothèque: sciences historiques et philologiques. fasc. .) *en ---- lautlehre des van-dialekts. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - , - .) *onl ---- s. mesropi ev krerou kiudi badmoutian aghpiurnern ou anonts knnoutiunu. [the history of st. mesrop and the discovery of the armenian alphabet.] paris: banaser, . p. °. *onk supplement to banaser, v. . aganoon, arratoon isaac. a dissertation on the antiquity of the armenian language. with some notes and observations by the late t. m. dickenson. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa agop, joannes. grammatica latina, armenice explicata. romæ: typis sacræ-congregationis de propaganda fide, . p., l. °. *onl bound with his: puritas haygica; seu, grammatica armenica. romæ, . °. ---- puritas haygica; seu, grammatica armenica. romæ: typis sacræ congregationis de propaganda fide, . p.l., p., l. °. *onl ---- puritas linguæ armenicæ. romæ: ex typographia sacræ congregationis de propaganda fide, . p. °. *onl bound with his: puritas haygica; seu, grammatica armenica. romæ, . °. alphabetum armenum cum oratione dominicali; salutatione angelica; initio evangelii s. johannis, et cantico poenitentiae. [edited by g. c. amaduzzi.] romae: typis sacræ congregationis de propaganda fide, . p. °. rah p.v. amaduzzi, g. c. see alphabetum armenum. arachin tasakirk mangants. [first reader for children.] new york, . p. °. *onl aucher, paschal. see aukerian, haroutiun. aukerian, haroutiun. a dictionary english and armenian by father paschal aucher. with the assistance of j. brand. venice: s. lazarus, - . v. °. *r-*onl v. . a dictionary armenian and english by john brand. with the assistance of father paschal aucher. ---- dictionnaire abrégé français-arménien par le p. paschal aucher ... aux dépens de m. garabied duz. [venise: académie arménienne de s. lazare,] - . v. °. *onl tome . dictionnaire abrégé arménien-français. ---- a grammar armenian and english. by father paschal aucher. venice: armenian academy, . p.l., p., l. °. *onl ---- grammar english and armenian by father paschal aucher. venice: armenian academy, . p.l., p., l. °. *onl aukerian, haroutiun, and g. g. n. byron, . baron byron. a grammar, armenian and english, by p. paschal aucher and lord byron. venice: printed in the armenian monastery of st. lazarus, . p. °. *onl aukerian, mëgërdich. see avedikian, gabriele, khatchadroh surmelian and mëgërdich aukerian. avdall, johannes. see avtaliantz, john. avedikian, gabriele, khatchadroh surmelian and mëgërdich aukerian. nor parkirk haigasyian lezui. [new dictionary of the armenian language.] venice, - . v. °. �*onl avtaliantz, john, baron. authors of armenian grammars, from the earliest stages of armenian literature up to the present day. by johannes avdall. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , part , p. - .) *oha ---- on the invention of the armenian alphabet. by johannes avdall. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha baumgartner, adolf. ueber das buch "die chrie." (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa bedrossian, matthias. new dictionary armenian-english. venice: s. lazarus armenian academy, - . xxx, p., table. °. *r-*onl bellaud. essai sur la langue arménienne. paris: imprimerie impériale, . viii, p. °. *onl beshgeturian, azniv. arachnort anklierin lezvin. [guide to the english language.] boston: hairenik press, . p. °. *onl blau, otto. ueber-karta, -kerta in ortsnamen. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa boetticher, paul. see lagarde, paul anton de. brand, john. see aukerian, haroutiun. brockelmann, karl. ein assyrisches lehnwort im armenischen. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. weimar, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ocl ---- die griechischen fremdwörter im armenischen. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ein syrischer text in armenischer umschrift. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa brosset, marie félicité. variétés arméniennes. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. bugge, sophus. beiträge zur etymologischen erläuterung der armenischen sprache. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung. gütersloh, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa ---- etruskisch und armenisch. sprachvergleichende forschungen. reihe . christiania: h. aschehoug & co., . xviii, p. °. rie byron ( . baron), george gordon noel byron. lord byron's armenian exercises and poetry. venice: in the island of s. lazzaro, . p., l. °. nci p.v. ---- see also aukerian, haroutiun, and g. g. n. byron, . baron byron. calfa, ambroise. dictionnaire arménien-français et français-arménien. paris: l. hachette et cie., . p.l., vi p., l., p., l. °. *onl arménien-français only. chahan de cirbied, jacques. grammaire de la langue arménienne; ou l'on expose les principes et les règles de la langue, d'après les meilleurs grammairiens, et les auteurs originaux et suivant les usages particuliers de l'idiome haïkien; rédigée ... par j. ch. cirbied. paris: Éverat, . p.l., lxxxii, p. °. *onl reviewed by j. zohrab in journal asiatique, tome , p. - ; tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- see also denis of thrace. chakmakjian, h. h. armeno-american letter writer containing a large variety of model letters adapted to all occasions: letters of friendship, letters of congratulation and condolence, letters of love, business letters. examples from great authors. boston: e. a. yeran [ ]. p. °. *onl charpentier, jarl. kleine beiträge zur armenischen wortkunde. (indogermanische forschungen. strassburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa ciakciak, emmanuele. dizionario italiano-armeno-turco. venezia, . , p., pl. °. *onl cirbied, j. see chahan de cirbied, jacques. delatre, louis. place de l'arménien parmi les langues indo-européennes. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa denis of thrace. grammaire de denis de thrace, en grec, en arménien et en français, accompagnée de notes et d'éclaircissemens par m. cirbied. (société royale des antiquaires de france. mémoires. paris, . °. tome , p. v-xxxii, - .) da bourgeois, h. la grammaire arménienne de denis de thrace. (revue de linguistique et de philologie comparée. chalon-sur-saone, . °. v. , p. - .) raa dickenson, t. m. see aganoon, arratoon isaac. dirr, a. praktisches lehrbuch der ostarmenischen sprache. wien: a. hartleben [ ]. viii p., l., p., table. °. (die kunst der polyglottie. teil .) *onl dulaurier, Édouard. see patkanov, keropé petrovich. dwight, harrison gray otis. kéraganoutun ankghiaren yev hahérén. [a grammar english and armenian.] smyrna, . p. °. *onl dwight, harrison gray otis, and elias riggs. orthography of armenian and turkish proper names. (american oriental society. journal. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa esoff, g. d'. aperçu de l'étude de la langue arménienne en europe. (actes du huitième congrès international des orientalistes. leide, . °. partie , section , fasc. , p. - .) *oaa finck, franz nikolaus. lehrbuch der neuostarmenischen litteratursprache. unter mitwirkung von stephan kanajeanz bearbeitet von f. n. finck. vagarschapat: druckerei des klosters s. etschmiadsin, . p.l., x, p. °. *onl ---- see also zeitschrift für armenische philologie. gardthausen, v. ueber den griechischen ursprung der armenischen schrift. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa gauthiot, robert. note sur l'accent secondaire en arménien. (banaser. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk gjandschezian, esnik. beiträge zur altarmenischen nominalen stammbildungslehre. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl ---- see also zeitschrift für armenische philologie. gleye, arthur. ugro-finnischer einfluss im armenischen. (keleti szemle. budapest, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa gray, louis herbert. on certain persian and armenian month-names as influenced by the avesta calendar. (american oriental society. journal. new haven, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa gulian, kevork h. elementary modern armenian grammar. london: d. nutt, . vi p., l., p. °. (method gaspey-otto-sauer.) *onl hagopian, hovhan. a pocket dictionary (english-armenian). boston: "ararat" publishing co., . p. °. *onl hanusz, johann. beiträge zur armenischen dialectologie. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, - . °. v. , p. - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa huebschmann, heinrich. armeniaca. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, - . °. bd. , p. - , - ; bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- armeniaca. (indogermanische forschungen. strassburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa ---- armeniaca. (strassburger festschrift zur xlvi. versammlung deutscher philologen und schulmänner. strassburg: k. j. trübner, . °. p. - .) *c ---- armenische grammatik. theil . leipzig: breitkopf & härtel, . xxii p., l., p. °. (bibliothek indogermanischer grammatiken. bd. , theil .) *onl theil . armenische etymologie. ---- iranisch-armenische namen auf karta, kert, gird. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- die semitischen lehnwörter im altarmenischen. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig. . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber aussprache und umschreibung des altarmenischen. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber die stellung des armenischen im kreise der indogermanischen sprachen. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa isaverdentz, hagopos. an easy method of learning english for the use of armenians. part - . venice: armenian typography of st. lazaro, . , . p. °. *onl title from cover. joannissiany, abgar. see zeitschrift für armenische philologie. junker, heinrich. zur flexion der altarmenischen demonstrativa. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung auf dem gebiete der indogermanischen sprachen. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa kanajeanz, stephan. see finck, franz nikolaus. karamianz, n. einundzwanzig buchstaben eines verlorenen alphabets. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa karst, josef. aussprache und vokalismus des kilikisch-armenischen. erster teil einer historisch-grammatischen darstellung des kilikisch-armenischen. strassburg: k. j. trübner, . p.l., p., l. °. *onl ---- beruehrungspunkte in der pluralbildung des armenischen und der kaukasischen sprachen. (verhandlungen des xiii. internationalen orientalisten-kongresses. leiden: e. j. brill, . °. p. - .) *oaa ---- historische grammatik des kilikisch-armenischen. strassburg: k. j. trübner, . xxiii, p., tables. °. *onl meillet, antoine. remarques sur la grammaire historique de l'arménien de cilicie de m. j. karst. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl karst, josef. das trilingue medizinalglossar aus ms. der wiener mechitharisten-bibliothek. hrsg. und erläutert von j. karst. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl kraelitz-greifenhorst, friedrich von. sprachprobe eines armenisch-tatarischen dialektes in polen. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- studien zum armenisch-türkischen. wien: a. hölder, . p.l., p. °. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften in wien. sitzungsberichte: philosophisch-historische klasse. bd. , abhandl. .) *ef lagarde, paul anton de. armenische studien. göttingen: dieterich, . p.l., p. °. �*onl repr.: königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen. bd. , *ee. ---- vergleichung der armenischen consonanten mit denen des sanskrit. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa langlois, victor. mémoire sur les origines de la culture des lettres en arménie. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris. - . °. nouvelle série, tome . p. - .) *oaa lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. vorschlæge zur sammlung der lebenden armenischen dialekte. (verhandlungen des xiii. internationalen orientalisten-kongresses. leiden: e. j. brill, . °. p. - .) *oaa lidén, evald. armenische studien. göteborg: w. zachrisson, . p. °. (göteborgs högskolas årsskrift. bd. .) nima lusignan, guy de. nouveau dictionnaire illustré français-arménien. paris: typographie morris père et fils, - . v. °. �*onl manandian, agop. see zeitschrift für armenische philologie. margoliouth, david samuel. the syro-armenian dialect. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa martin, paulin. des signes hiéroglyphiques dans les manuscrits arméniens. facs. (congrès international des orientalistes. compte-rendu de la première session. paris: maisonneuve & cie., . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa maxudianz, m. le parler arménien d'akn (quartier bas). paris: p. geuthner, . xi, p. °. *onl bibliography, p. - . meillet, antoine. de quelques archaïsmes remarquables de la déclinaison arménienne. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl ---- notes sur la conjugaison arménienne. (banaser. paris, . °. v. . p. - .) *onk ---- observations sur la graphie de quelques anciens manuscrits de l'Évangile arménien. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- recherches sur la syntaxe comparée de l'arménien. (société de linguistique de paris. mémoires. paris, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. . p. - .) raa mirianischvili, pierre. sur le rapport mutuel entre le géorgien et l'arménien. (revue de linguistique et de philologie comparée. chalon-sur-saone, . °. v. , p. - .) raa msériantz, lévon. notice sur la phonétique du dialecte arménien de mouch. (actes du onzième congrès international des orientalistes. paris, . °. section , p. - .) *oaa mueller, friedrich. armeniaca. [no.] - . (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, - . °. bd. , p. - ; bd. . p. - ; bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - ; bd. , p. - .) *ef ---- beiträge zur conjugation des armenischen verbums. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ef ---- beiträge zur declination des armenischen nomens. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ef ---- beiträge zur lautlehre der armenischen sprache. [part - .] (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, - . °. bd. . p. - ; bd. , p. - : bd. , p. - .) *ef ---- nicht-mesropische schriftzeichen bei den armeniern. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber die stellung des armenischen im kreise der indogermanischen sprachen. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ef ---- ueber den ursprung der vocalzeichen der armenischen schrift. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- zur geschichte der armenischen schrift. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- zur wortbildungslehre der armenischen sprache. (orient und occident. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- zwei sprachwissenschaftliche abhandlungen zur armenischen grammatik. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ef munkácsi, bernhard. Über die "uralten armenischen lehnwörter" im türkischen. (keleti szemle. budapest, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa patkanov, keropé petrovich. recherches sur la formation de la langue arménienne.... mémoire traduit du russe par m. Évariste prud'homme; revu sur le texte original et annoté par m. Édouard dulaurier. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber die stellung der armenischen sprache im kreise der indo-europäischen. (russische revue, monatschrift für die kunde russlands. st. petersburg. . °. year , p. - .) *qca patrubány, l. von. zur armenischen wortforschung. (indogermanische forschungen. strassburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa pedersen, holger. armenisch und die nachbarsprachen. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung auf dem gebiete der indogermanischen sprachen. gütersloh, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa ---- les pronoms démonstratifs de l'ancien arménien. avec un appendice sur les alternances vocaliques indo-européennes. københavn: b. luno. . p. °. (kongeligt dansk videnskabernes selskab. skrifter. række . historisk og filosofisk afdeling. bind , [no.] .) *eh ---- zur armenischen sprachgeschichte. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung auf dem gebiete der indogermanischen sprachen. gütersloh, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa petermann, julius heinrich. brevis linguae armeniacae grammatica, litteratura, chrestomathia cum glossario. in usum praelectionum et studiorum privatorum. carolsruhae: h. reuther, . xi, , p. . ed. °. (porta linguarum orientalium. pars .) *oac ---- grammatica linguae armeniacae. berolini: g. eichler, . xii, p., tables. °. *onl ---- ueber den dialect der armenier von tiflis. (koeniglich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. abhandlungen: philol.-hist. klasse. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *ee a pocket dictionary of the english, armenian and turkish languages. venice: printed at the press of the armenian college of s. lazarus, . v. °. *opf pratt, andrew t. on the armeno-turkish alphabet. (american oriental society. journal. new haven, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa prud'homme, Évariste. see patkanov, keropé petrovich. riggs, elias. a brief grammar of the modern armenian language as spoken in constantinople and asia minor. [preface signed e. riggs.] smyrna: w. griffitt, . p. °. *onl ---- inverted construction of modern armenian. (american oriental society. journal. new haven, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also dwight, harrison gray otis, and elias riggs. schroeder, johan joachim. hoc est joh. joachimi schröderi thesaurus linguae armenicae, antiquae et hodiernae, cum varia praxios materia, cujus elenchum sequens pagella exhibet. amstelodami, . p.l., , p., l. °. *onl seklemian, a. g. the armenian alphabet. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk settegast, franz. armenisches im "daurel e beton." (zeitschrift für romanische philologie. halle, . °. bd. , p. - .) rdta surmelian, khatchadroh. see avedikian, gabriele, khatchadroh surmelian and mëgërdich aukerian. tavitian, s. de l'...(È), ou du positif de l'être, qui est l'objet de la science positive. de l'unité des lettres ou du principe de la voix et de son harmonie absolue, qui constituent l'objet des sciences logique, musique et mathématique. paris: p. schmidt, . p. °. *onk p.v. tiryakian, h. hahyéreni zeghdzoumneru. [armenian abused.] new york, . p. °. *onl torossian, bedros r. self-instructor in the english language, according to the latest pedagogical system, based on new york state education department's six year elementary course of english. new york: violet press, . , p. . ed. °. *onl also armenian title-page. vosgian, gomidass a. artserén parkirk. [an armenian-french dictionary.] constantinople: h. matteosian, . p.l., p., l. °. *onl windischmann, friedrich h. h. die grundlage des armenischen im arischen sprachtstamme. (königlich bayerische akademie der wissenschaften. abhandlungen: philos.-philol. classe. münchen, . °. bd. , abth. , p. - .) *ee yeran, edward a. armenian-english conversation illustrated, comprising every-day conversation, letter writing, grammar, english armenian reader, and useful informations. boston: yeran press [cop. ]. p. . ed. °. *onl zanolli, almo. singolare accezione del vocabolo armeno "tirakan." (società asiatica italiana. giornale. firenze, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- studio sul raddoppiamento allitterazione e ripetizione nell' armeno antico. (società asiatica italiana. giornale. firenze, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa zeitschrift für armenische philologie. unter mitwirkung von abgar joannissiany hrsg. von franz nikolaus finck, esnik gjandschezian und agop manandian. bd. - . marburg: n. g. elwert, - . °. *onl zposaran mangants. [recreation for children, or reading lessons in religious poetry and instruction, and in natural history; translated from english into the classical armenian language by a native under the supervision of j. b. adger; with a vocabulary giving definitions in the modern dialect.] smyrna: h. hallock, . p.l., p., pl. °. rmz and *onl inscriptions contains in addition to articles on the van inscriptions a few on inscriptions in modern armenian characters. basmadjian, k. j. note on the van inscriptions. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa ---- une nouvelle inscription arméniaque ou vannique. (actes du onzième congrès international des orientalistes. paris, . °. section , p. - .) *oaa ---- une nouvelle inscription vannique trouvée à qizil-qalé. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- la plus ancienne inscription arménienne. pl. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- quelques observations sur l'inscription de kelischin. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- la stèle de zouarthnotz. (recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *obkg belck, waldemar. eine in russisch-armenien neu aufgefundene, wichtige chaldische inschrift. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- die keil-inschriften in der tigris-quellgrotte und über einige andere ergebnisse der armenischen expedition. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- die kelischin-stele und ihre chaldisch-assyrischen keilinschriften. mit einer karte und drei tafeln. freienwalde a. o.: m. rüger, . p.l., col., map, pl. sq. °. (anatole. zeitschrift für orientforschung. heft .) �*oaa ---- mittheilungen über armenische streitfragen. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa belck, waldemar, and f. f. k. lehmann-haupt. chaldische forschungen. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin. - . °. jahrg. , p. - ; jahrg. , p. - ; jahrg. , p. - .) qoa . der name "chalder." . hrn. sayce's neuester artikel über die inschriften von van. . bauten und bauart der chalder. . eine canal-inschrift argistis i. . eine chaldische backstein-inschrift. . tiglatpileser iii. gegen sardur von urartu. . zur frage nach dem ursprünglichen standort der beiden assyrischen inschriften sardur's, sohnes des lutipris. ---- inuspuas, sohn des menuas. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ocl ---- mittheilung über weitere ergebnisse ihrer studien an den neugefundenen armenischen keilinschriften. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- ein neuer herrscher von chaldia. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. weimar, . °. bd. , p. - , - .) *ocl ---- Über die kelishin-stelen. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- ueber neuerlich aufgefundene keilinschriften in russisch und türkisch armenien. (zeitschrift für ethnologie. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) qoa bertin, george. abridged grammars of the languages of the cuneiform inscriptions containing: i. a sumero-akkadian grammar; ii. an assyro-babylonian grammar; iii. a vannic grammar; iv. a medic grammar; v. an old persian grammar. london: trübner & co., . viii, p. °. (trübner's collection of simplified grammars. no. .) *oco brosset, marie félicité. de quelques inscriptions arméniennes, remarquables au point de vue chronologique. fac. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- explication de diverses inscriptions géorgiennes, arméniennes et grecques. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mémoires: sciences politiques, histoire et philologie. st. pétersbourg, . sq. °. série , v. , p. - .) *qcb ---- note sur les inscriptions arméniennes de bolghari. pl. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb ---- notice sur la plus ancienne inscription arménienne connue. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin de la classe historico-philologique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- rapport sur diverses inscriptions, recueillies par mm. jules kästner et ad. berger. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. brosset, marie félicité, and e. kunik. notice sur deux inscriptions cunéiformes, découvertes par m. kästner dans l'arménie russe. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. carrière, auguste. inscriptions d'un reliquaire arménien de la collection basilewski publiées et traduites par a. carrière. pl. (École des langues orientales vivantes. publications. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaf série , v. . mélanges orientaux. foy, willy. zur xerxes-inschrift von van. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa guthe, h. mosaiken mit armenischer inschrift auf dem Ölberge. (deutscher palaestina-verein. mittheilungen und nachrichten. leipzig, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *pwc guyard, stanislas. Études vanniques. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- les inscriptions de van. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- inscriptions de van, les estampages de m. deyrolle. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- note sur quatre mots des inscriptions de van. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- note sur quelques particularités des inscriptions de van. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- note sur quelques passages des inscriptions de van. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa hincks, edward. on the inscriptions at van. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa jensen, peter. die hittitisch-armenische inschrift eines syennesis aus babylon. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- die sitze der "urarto-chalder" zur zeit tiglatpileser's i nach belck und lehmann. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. weimar, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ocl belck, waldemar, and f. f. c. lehmann-haupt. zu jensen's bemerkungen betreffs der sitze der chalder. (zeitschrift für assyriologie. weimar, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ocl kunik, e. see brosset, marie félicité, and e. kunik. langlois, victor. inscriptions grecques, romaines, byzantines et arméniennes de la cilicie recueillies par victor langlois.... paris: a. leleux, . iv, p., l., pl. °. �*onm ---- note sur l'inscription arménienne d'un bélier sépulcral à djoulfa. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. bericht über die ergebnisse der von dr. w. belck und dr. c. f. lehmann / ausgeführten forschungsreise in armenien. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee ---- "chaldisch" und "armenisch." (recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie. paris, . f°. année , p. - .) *obkg ---- chaldische nova. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- entgegnung auf hrn. belck's einsendung "über die keil-inschriften der tigris-grotte und über einige andere ergebnisse der armenischen expedition." (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- eine neue ausgabe der auf russischem gebiet gefundenen chaldischen keilinschriften. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- neugefundene menuas-inschriften. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- die neugefundene steleninschrift rusas' ii. von chaldia. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa belck, waldemar. die steleninschrift rusas' ii. argistihinis von etschmiadzin. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. em schlusswort. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa lehmann-haupt, ferdinand friedrich karl. der tigris-tunnel. (berliner gesellschaft für anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. verhandlungen. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) qoa ---- zwei unveröffentlichte chaldische inschriften. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig. . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- zwei unveröffentlichte keilschrifttexte. (hilprecht anniversary volume. leipzig, . °. p. - .) *ock ---- see also belck, waldemar, and f. f. k. lehmann-haupt. macler, frédéric. mosaïque orientale. . epigraphica., . historica. paris: p. geuthner, . p., . °. *oal mordtmann, andreas david. entzifferung und erklärung der armenischen keilinschriften von van und der umgegend. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ---- ueber die keilinschriften von armenien. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa morgan, jacques jean marie de, and j. v. scheil. la stèle de kel-i-chin. (recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *obkg mueller, david heinrich. drei neue inschriften von van. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also wuensch, josef, and d. h. mueller. mueller, friedrich. bemerkungen über zwei armenische keil-inschriften. wien: aus der k. k. hof- und staatsdruckerei, . p.l., p., fac. °. *onm repr.: kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. cl. bd. , p. - , *ef. ---- zwei armenische inschriften aus galizien und die gründungs-urkunde der armenischen kirche in kamenec podolsk. p., fac. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte: philos.-hist. classe. wien, . °. bd. , abh. .) *ef patkanov, keropé petrovich. de quelques inscriptions de van. facs. (muséon. louvain, . °. v. , p. - .) zaa ---- sur l'écriture cunéiforme arméniaque et les inscriptions de van. (congrès international des orientalistes. compte-rendu de la première session. paris: maisonneuve & cie., . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa patkanov, keropé petrovich, and a. h. sayce. de quelques nouvelles inscriptions cunéiformes découvertes sur le territoire russe. fac. (muséon. louvain, . °. v. , p. - .) zaa robert, louis de. Étude philologique sur les inscriptions cunéiformes de l'arménie. paris: e. leroux, . p.l., p. f°. �*onm sandalgian, joseph. asorisdaniah eu barsig sebakir artsanakroutiunk. [a treatise on assyrian and persian cuneiform inscriptions with extracts from them relating to the history of ararat.] vienna, . p., l. °. *onq ---- l'idiome des inscriptions cunéiformes urartiques. rome: loescher et co., . p. °. *onm ---- les inscriptions cunéiformes urartiques transcrites avec une triple traduction interlinéaire en arménien classique, en latin et en français, suivies d'un glossaire et d'une grammaire. mémoire présenté à l'académie des inscriptions de france. venise (ile de st.-lazare): imprimerie-librairie des pp. mékhitharistes, . l, p., l., map. °. *onm saulcy, louis félicien joseph caignart de. recherches sur l'écriture cunéiforme assyrienne. inscriptions de van. [lettres à m. eugène burnouf. signed f. de saulcy.] paris: firmin didot frères, . p.l., p., pl. °. *oco sayce, archibald henry. the cuneiform inscriptions of van. (royal asiatic society. journal. london. - . °. new series, v. , p. - ; , p. - ; , p. - .) *oaa ---- the cuneiform inscriptions of van. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, - . °. , p. - ; , p. - .) *oaa ---- the cuneiform inscriptions of van, deciphered and translated. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- deux nouvelles inscriptions vanniques. fac. (muséon. louvain, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) zaa ---- fresh contributions to the decipherment of the vannic inscriptions. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa ---- the great inscription of argistis on the rock of van. (records of the past. london [ ]. °. new series, v. , p. - .) *ock ---- inscription of menuas, king of ararat, in the vannic language. (records of the past. london [ ]. °. new series, v. , p. - .) *ock ---- les inscriptions vanniques d'armavir. (muséon. louvain, . °. v. , p. - .) zaa ---- monolith inscription of argistis, king of van. (records of the past. london [ ]. °. new series, v. , p. - .) *ock ---- a new inscription of the vannic king menuas. pl. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa ---- a new vannic inscription. (royal asiatic society. journal. london, . °. , p. - .) *oaa ---- on the cuneiform inscriptions of van. (zeitschrift für vergleichende sprachforschung. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) raa ---- see also patkanov, keropé petrovich, and a. h. sayce. scheil, jean vincent. inscription vannique de melasgert. (recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *obkg ---- note sur l'expression vannique "gunusâ haubi." (recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes. paris, . °. année , p. .) *obkg ---- see also morgan, jacques jean marie de, and j. v. scheil. schulz, Éd. mémoire sur le lac de van et ses environs. facs. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa wuensch, josef, and d. h. mueller. die keil-inschrift von aschrut-darga. entdeckt und beschrieben von josef wünsch, publicirt und erklärt von david heinrich müller. pl. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. denkschriften: philosophisch-historische klasse. wien, . f°. bd. , abtheilung , p. - .) *ef history of literature arnot, robert. the armenian literature. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. - , �*onk. baumstark, anton. die christlichen literaturen des orients. leipzig: g. j. göschen, . v. °. (sammlung göschen. nr. - .) *oat bd. , p. - . das christliche schrifttum der armenier und georgier. brockelmann, karl, and others. geschichte des christlichen litteraturen des orients. von c. brockelmann, johannes leipoldt, franz nikolaus finck, enno littmann. leipzig: c. f. amelang, . viii, p. °. (die litteraturen des ostens in einzeldarstellungen. bd. , abteilung .) *oat p. - . finck, f. n. geschichte der armenischen litteratur. cayol, henri. littérature arménienne. (journal asiatique de constantinople. constantinople, . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa chalatianz, bagrat. die armenische literatur des . jahrhunderts. eine skizze. (neue heidelberger jahrbücher. heidelberg, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) eaa chanazarian, g. v. la littérature arménienne. (revue orientale et américaine. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) *oaa finck, franz nikolaus. see brockelmann, karl, and others; also schmidt, erich, and others. garo, chahen. modern armenian literature. (poet-lore. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da harnack, adolf. forschungen auf dem gebiete der alten grusinischen und armenischen litteratur. (königlich preussische akademie der wissenschaften. sitzungsberichte. berlin, . °. , p. - .) *ee macler, frédéric. la chaire d'arménien à l'École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes. (revue internationale de l'enseignement. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) ssa minas. armenian literature. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk neumann, carl friedrich. versuch einer geschichte der armenischen literatur, nach den werken der mechitaristen frei bearbeitet. leipzig: j. a. barth, . xii, p. °. *onp nève, félix. l'arménie chrétienne et sa littérature. louvain: c. peeters, . vii, p. °. *onk petermann, julius heinrich. ueber einige neuere erscheinungen der armenischen litteratur. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. zeitschrift. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa raffi, aram. armenia: its epics, folksongs and mediaeval poetry. (in: z. c. boyajian, armenian legends and poems. london [ ]. f°. p. - .) �*onp schmidt, erich, and others. die orientalischen literaturen. mit einleitung: die anfänge der literatur und die literatur der primitiven völker. berlin: b. g. teubner, . ix, p. °. (die kultur der gegenwart. teil , abteilung .) *oat p. - . finck, f. n. die armenische literatur. schrumpf, g. a. on the progress of armenian studies. (transactions of the ninth international congress of orientalists. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa sukias somal, placido. quadro della storia letteraria di armenia. venezia: dalla tipografia armena di s. lazzaro, . xix, p., l. °. *onp thumajan, johann. die geschichte der classisch-armenischen schriftsprache. (verhandlungen des vii. internationalen orientalisten-congresses. arische section. wien: a. hölder, . °. p. - .) *oaa veselovski, yuri. armianekaia poeziia vieka i eia proiskhozhdenie. (russkaia mysl'. moscow, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca armenian poetry of the nineteenth century. ---- k kharakteristikie novoi armianskoi literatury. (viestnik vospitaniia. moscow, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) *qca new armenian literature. ---- literaturnoe tvorchestvo turetskikh armian. (viestnik evropy. petrograd, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca literature of the turkish armenians. zavak. the earliest armenian printing press. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk literature poetry alishan, leo m. see alishanian, gheuont. alishanian, gheuont. armenian popular songs translated into english by leo m. alishan, d. d. venice: s. lazarus, . p.l., p., l. °. *onp ---- ---- venice: s. lazarus, . p., l. . ed. °. *onp ---- the lily of shavarshan. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk leist, arthur. pater leo alischan. (in his: litterarische skizzen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. bd. . antreassian, khorene m. see katchoony, h. armenian poems. metrical version by robert arnot. (in: armenian literature. london [cop. ]. °. p. - .) *ocy arnot, robert. see armenian poems. beshigtashlian, mëgërdich. kertouadzner ou jarer. [a collection of his poetry and speeches.] paris, . p., l. °. *onp leist, arthur. mkrtitsch beschiktaschlian. (in his: litterarische skizzen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. bd. . blackwell, alice stone. armenian poems rendered into english verse by alice stone blackwell. boston, . p.l., xii. - p., l. °. *onp ---- see also alishanian, gheuont; also damadian, mihran; also hayrig, chrimian; also kourghinian, shoushanik; also patkanian, raphael: also portoukalian, m.; also raffi; also tchobanian, archag; also tourian, bedros; also yarjanian-siamanto, atom; also yergat, tigran. boré, eugène. Élégie sur la prise de constantinople, poëme inédit et extrait du manuscrit arménien de la bibliothèque royale. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. armenian legends and poems, illustrated & compiled by zabelle c. boyajian ... with an introduction by the right hon. viscount bryce ... and a contribution on "armenia: its epics, folksongs and mediaeval poetry," by aram raffi. london: j. m. dent & sons, ltd. [ .] xvi, p., col'd pl. f°. �*onp bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. see boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. chant populaire sur la captivité de léon, fils du roi héthoum i. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. contes & chants arméniens recueillis, transcrits et traduits par djelali avec préface et note explicative par paul passy. fasc. . paris, . °. *onp p.v. damadian, mihran. furfurcar. translated by alice stone blackwell. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. .) �*onk djelali. see contes & chants. dulaurier, Édouard. le chants populaires de l'arménie. (revue des deux mondes. paris, . °. nouvelle période, tome , p. - .) *dm ---- Études sur les chants historiques et les traditions populaires de l'ancienne arménie d'après une dissertation de j. b. Émin. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa Émin, jean baptiste. see dulaurier, Édouard. green, g. m. see raffi. gregory dgha, patriarch of armenia. Élégie du patriarche grégoire dgha catholicos d'arménie ... sur la prise de jérusalem par saladin. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. hayrig, chrimian. the soldier's lament. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk hethoum ii, king of armenia. poëme de héthoum ii, roi d'arménie. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. katchoony, h. to the martyrs of adana. [translated by khorene m. antreassian.] (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. .) �*onk khrimean, mekertich. a meeting of kings. translation of a posthumous work by khrimean hairik. versified by a. g. sheridan. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk text and translation. kourghinian, shoushanik. the eagle's love. to the nightingale. rendered into english verse by alice stone blackwell. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk koutchak, nahabed. vieux chants arméniens. (la revue blanche. paris, . °. v. , p. - .) *dm lalayantz, erwand. les anciens chants historiques et les traditions populaires de l'arménie. (revue des traditions populaires. paris, . °. v. , p. - , - , - .) zba miller, miss frank. armenian popular songs. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk mourey, gabriel. see tchobanian, archag, translator. natalie, shahan. songs of love and hate. the agony of my faith, love, prayers, to thee, flames of hate, persecuted rhapsodist. boston: hairenik press, . p., l. °. *onp nerses the graceful, patriarch of armenia. Élégie sur la prise d'Édesse par les musulmans, par nersès klaietsi, patriarche d'arménie; publiée pour la première fois, en arménien par j. zohrab. ouvrage publié par la société asiatique. paris: dondey-dupré père et fils, . p.l., , p. °. *onp ---- Élégie sur la prise d'Édesse. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. avtaliantz, john, baron. memoir of the life and writings of st. nierses clajensis, surnamed the graceful, pontiff of armenia. (asiatic society of bengal. journal. calcutta, . °. v. , p. - .) *oha passy, paul. see contes & chants. patkanian, raphael. cradle song from the armenian of raphael patkanian. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the woe of araxes. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. .) �*onk portoukalian, m. the armenian girl. from the armenian.... rendered into english verse by alice stone blackwell. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. .) �*onk raffi. the lake of van. from the armenian of raffi. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. - , p. - .) �*onk ---- the lake of van. translated by g. m. green. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. .) �*onk raffi, aram. see boyajian, zabelle c., compiler. sheridan, a. g. see khrimean, mekertich. siamanto. see yarjanian-siamanto, atom. tcheraz, minas. poètes arméniens. bédros tourian. gamar-kathipa. saïath-nova. guévork dodokhiantz. mikaël nalbandiantz. corène de lusignan. paris: e. leroux, . xi, p. °. *onp tchobanian, archag. armenia's lullaby. (asiatic review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- armenian poems rendered into english verse by alice stone blackwell. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the armenian poetry. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the epic of armenia. translated from the french by alice stone blackwell. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ---- haï etcher. [a collection of armenian poems, illustrated from objects in the convent at etchmiadzin and from old illuminated manuscripts.] paris, . p., l., p., pl. °. *onp ---- lullaby for mother armenia. from the armenian of archag tchobanian. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. - , �*onk; and in armenian herald, v. , p. - , *onk. ---- naghash hovnathan ashoughe yev hovnathan hovnathanian nigaritche. [the armenian troubadour naghash hovnathan and a complete collection of his works; illustrated by pictures drawn by his grandson hovnathan hovnathanian.] paris, . p., l., pl. °. *onp ---- poèmes. aurore. la caravane des heures. angoisse. visions. dans la nuit. sur la colline. traduction française. préface de pierre quillard. paris: société du mercure de france, . xii, p. °. *onp ---- poèmes arméniens, anciens et modernes. traduits par archag tchobanian et précédés d'une étude de gabriel mourey sur la poésie et l'art arméniens. paris: a. charles, . p. °. *onp buss, kate. archag tchobanian. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk marshall, annie c. arshag tchobanian. a biographical sketch. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk torossian, aram. armenian poetry. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. . p. - .) *onk tourian, bedros. complaints. repentance. [translated from the armenian by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- little lake. from the armenian. [translated by] alice stone blackwell. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. .) �*onk ---- wishes for armenia. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. , �*onk. tcheraz, minas. bedros tourian. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. . p. - .) �*onk ---- vie et poésies de bédros tourian. (muséon. louvain, . °. v. , p. - .) zaa tsutsag hishadagarani movsisi zohrabiants artsakhétsvo. [a collection of armenian poetry.] part . moscow, . p. °. *onp yarjanian-siamanto, atom. song of the knight. from the armenian of siamanto. rendered into english verse by alice stone blackwell. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the starving. [translated by alice stone blackwell.] (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk blackwell, alice stone. an armenian poet: siamanto. (poet lore. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da torossian, aram. atom yarjanian-siamanto. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk yeran, edward arakel. zhoghovrtahin yérkaran. [popular songs.] boston, n. d. p., l. °. *onp yergat, tigran. poete mourant. the dying poet. translated by alice stone blackwell. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk zohrabian, john. see nerses the graceful, patriarch of armenia. fiction and drama aharonian, avedis. armenische erzählungen, von awetis aharonean. Übersetzt von agnes finck-gjandschezian. leipzig: p. reclam, jun. [ .] p. °. (universal-bibliothek. nr. .) *onp ---- guteton da lakto. armena rakonto de a. agaronjan tradukis georgo davidov. budapest: nagy sándor könyvnyomdájából [ ]. p. °. (esperanta universala biblioteko. armena serio , no. .) rax p.v. ---- honor, from the armenian of avedis aharonian translated by arshag mahdesian. (outlook. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- materi; razskazy. avtorizovannyi perevol s armianskago vardgesa, s predisloviem kriia [aleksieevicha] veselovokago. [tales.] moscow: v. antik & co. [ --?] ( ) p. °. (universal'naia biblioteka. no. .) *qb p.v. ---- vers la liberté. l'abime. traduit de l'arménien par m. chamlian et e. s. altiar. préface de a. f. herold. paris: e. leroux, . xix, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. v. .) *onk ajcatur. armena fabelo. kollektis georgo davidov. budapest: neuwald i. utódai könyvnyomdájából [ ]. p. °. (esperanta universala biblioteko. armena serio , no. .) rax p.v. altiar, elias sarkis. see aharonian, avedis. antreassian, khorene m. see raffi. apellian, aleksandir. boedi yrazi. [the poet's dream. a modern armenian drama in one act.] tiflis, . p. °. *onp arakélian, hambartzoum. contes et nouvelles; traduit de l'arménien oriental par aram eknayan. préface de frédéric macler. paris: e. leroux, . xxv, p., l., port. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. v. .) *onk armenian literature; comprising poetry, drama, folk-lore, and classic traditions; translated into english for the first time; with a special introduction by robert arnot. london: colonial press [cop. ]. viii p., l., - p., fac. rev. ed. °. *ocy contents: proverbs and folk-lore; translated by f. b. collins. the vacant yard; translated by f. b. collins. armenian poems; metrical version, by r. arnot. david of sassun, national epos of armenia; translated by f. b. collins. the ruined family, by g. sundukianz; translated by f. b. collins. ---- new york: colonial press [cop. ]. p.l., viii p., l., - p., fac., pl. rev. ed. °. (the world's great classics.) *ocy bound with: babylonian and assyrian literature. armenische bibliothek. hrsg. von abgar joannissiany. bd. - . leipzig: wilhelm friedrich [ - ]. °. *onk contents: bd. . r. patkanian, drei erzählungen. bd. . a. leist, litterarische skizzen. bd. . raffi, bilder aus persien und türkisch-armenien. bd. . g. a. khalathianz, märchen und sagen. bd. - . p. proschianz, sako. bd. . k. sundukianz, die ruinirte familie. bd. - . d. sabrijian, zwei jahre in abyssinien. arnot, robert. see armenian literature. baronian, hagop h. maitre balthasar; comédie en trois actes. introduction et traduction par j. m. silnitzky. paris: e. leroux, . xlv, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. v. .) *onk bibliography, p. vi-vii. barrileah, a. h. ara keghetsig badmagan vibasanoutiun. [ara the pretty. an historical romance.] venice, . p., l., pl. °. *onp berberian, m. see veselovski, y., and m. berberian, editors. calfa, corène. arschag ii. tragédie arménienne. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - , - ; tome , p. - , - , - .) *oaa chalatianz, grikor. see khalathianz, grigori abramovich. chamlian, missak. see aharonian, avedis. chirvanzadê, pseud. of alexandre movissian. la possédée; traduit de l'arménien par a. tchobanian. préface de frédéric macler. paris: e. leroux, . xiii, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. [v. .]) *onk colangian, Édouard. see zartarian, roupen. collins, f. b., translator. the vacant yard. an armenian story. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - ; v. . p. - , - .) �*onk ---- see also armenian literature; also sundukianz, kapriel. davidov, georg. see aharonian, avedis; also ajcatur. eknayan, aram. see arakélian, hambartzoum. essayan, grigor. see zartarian, roupen. gjandschezian, agnes finck. see aharonian, avedis. hagopian, hagop melik. see raffi. haroutiunian, hovhannes. "vor megoun yedeven." ["whom shall we follow after?" a drama in five acts.] boston, . p. °. *onp joannissiany, abgar, editor. see armenische bibliothek. khalathianz, grigori abramovich. märchen und sagen. mit einer einleitung von grikor chalatianz. leipzig: wilhelm friedrich [ ]. xxxvii p., l., p. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. .) *onk lalajan, johannes, translator. see proschianz, pertsch. leist, arthur, translator. see patkanian, raphael. macler, frédéric, translator. contes arméniens. traduits de l'arménien moderne par f. macler. paris: e. leroux, . p.l., p. °. (collection de contes et chansons populaires. tome .) zbg ---- contes et légendes de l'arménie; traduits et recueillis par f. macler. préface de r. basset. paris: e. leroux, . xv, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. v. .) *onk ---- see also petite bibliothèque arménienne. mahdesian, arshag. see aharonian, avedis. mangouni, n. hatsi hamar. [armenian stories.] boston, . p. °. *onp marr, n. sbornik pritch vardana, materialy dlia istorii sredneviekovoi armianskoi literatury. st. petersburg: akademiya nauk, . v. in . °. *qct medieval armenian literature. reviewed by f. c. conybeare in folk-lore, v. , p. - , zba. melik, alexander. khordagwadz yerginkner. [an historical novel.] boston: hairenik press, . p.l., - p. °. *onp mourier, j., translator. contes et légendes du caucase traduits par j. mourier. paris: maisonneuve & c. leclerc, . p.l., p., l. °. zbg p.v. contes géorgiens. contes mingréliens. contes arméniens. movissian, alexandre. see chirvanzadê, pseud. of alexandre movissian. patkanian, raphael. drei erzählungen. aus dem armenischen übertragen von arthur leist. leipzig: wilhelm friedrich [ ]. iv, p. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. .) *onk leist, arthur. raphael patkanian. (in his: litterarische skizzen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. bd. . petite bibliothèque arménienne. publiée sous la direction de f. macler. v. - . paris: e. leroux, - . °. *onk contents: v. . chirvanzadê, la possédée. v. . m. tcheraz, nouvelles orientales. v. . f. macler, contes et légendes de l'arménie. v. . a. aharonian, vers la liberté. v. . r. zartarian, clarté nocturne. v. . h. h. baronian, maitre balthasar. v. . h. arakélian, contes et nouvelles. proschianz, pertsch. sako. roman in zwei bänden. aus dem armenischen übersetzt von johannes lalajan. leipzig: w. friedrich [ ]. v. in . °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. - .) *onk raffi. bilder aus persien und türkisch-armenien. aus dem armenischen übersetzt von leo rubenli. leipzig: wilhelm friedrich [ ]. p.l., p. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. .) *onk ---- jelaleddin. a picture of his invasion. from the armenian of raffi. [translated by khorene m. antreassian.] (armenia. boston, - . °. v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. . p. - ; v. , no. , p. - ; no. , p. - ; no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- dzhalaleddin. perevod s armianskago n. bataturovoi. s predisloviem kriia veselovskago. moscow: v. antik & co. [ --?] p. °. (universal'naia biblioteka. no. .) *qb p.v. jelaleddin. translated from the armenian. ---- khent. [a romance.] vienna, . p.l., p., pl. °. *onp ---- schön-vartig ("geghetzig vartig"). eine novelle raffis. deutsch von dr. h. trg. schorn. (geist des ostens. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *oaa boyajian, zabelle c. raffi: the armenian national writer. (contemporary review. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da burchardi, gustav. raffi, der schöpfer der neuarmenischen literatur. (geist des ostens. münchen, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) *oaa raffi commemoration. armenia's greatest writer, reformer and champion. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk rubenli, leo. see raffi; also sundukianz, kapriel. rushdooni. the sixth-and-a-half cousin's inheritance. from the armenian of rushdooni. translated and arranged by a. timourian. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk saint-martin, jean antoine. analyse d'une tragédie arménienne; représentée à léopol, le avril . [sainte ripsime.] (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa schorn, h. trg. see raffi. shishmanian, hovsep. toros livoni. [armenian stories.] boston, . p. °. *onp silnitzky, j. m. see baronian, hagop h. sumpad purad. pande pand. [from prison to prison. a romance.] part - . constantinople, . p., pl. °. *onp sundukianz, kapriel. the ruined family. by gabriel sundukianz. translated by f. b. collins. (in: armenian literature. london [cop. ]. °. p. - .) *ocy ---- the ruined family. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - , no. , p. - , no. , p. - , no. . p. - , no. , p. - ; v. , no. , p. - , no. . p. - .) �*onk ---- die ruinirte familie. lustspiel in drei aufzügen, aus dem armenischen von leo rubenli. leipzig: w. friedrich [ ]. p.l., p. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. .) *onk leist, arthur. gabriel sundukianz. (in his: litterarische skizzen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. bd. . tcheraz, minas. nouvelles orientales; préface de frédéric macler. paris: e. leroux, . xviii, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. [v. .]) *onk ---- l'orient inédit; légendes et traditions arméniennes, grecques et turques, recueillies et traduites. paris: e. leroux, . p.l., - p. °. (collection de contes et chansons populaires. tome .) zbg marshall, annie c. minas tcheraz. a biographical sketch. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk tchobanian, archag. la vie et le rêve; poèmes en prose, contes, fantaisies. lettre-préface de Émile verhaeren. paris: société du mercure de france, . vii p., l., p., l. °. *onp ---- see also chirvanzadê, pseud. of alexandre movissian; also zartarian, roupen. timourian, a. see rushdooni. tlgadintsi. see haroutiunian, hovhannes. veselovski, y., and m. berberian, editors. armianskie belletristy sbornik. moscow: n. kushnerov, . p. °. *qda a collection of armenian fiction. wlislocki, heinrich von. märchen und sagen der bukowinaer und siebenbürger armenier. aus eigenen und fremden sammlungen übersetzt von dr. heinrich von wlislocki. hamburg: verlagsanstalt und druckerei actien-gesellschaft, . viii, p. °. zbim zartarian, roupen. clarté nocturne, traduit de l'arménien par archag tchobanian, Édouard colangian, et grigor essayan; préface de gaston bonet-maury. paris: e. leroux, . xx, p., l. °. (petite bibliothèque arménienne. v. .) *onk other literature adanson, karl ludwig. see injijian, ghougas. aharonian, avedis. mother armenia, forgive me. translated by missak turpanjian. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk alelouia yerousaghem. [a description of jerusalem by a pilgrim.] constantinople, . p., l. illus. °. *onp alishanian, gheuont. deux descriptions arméniennes des lieux saints de palestine. (société de l'orient latin. archives de l'orient latin. paris, . °. tome , documents, p. - .) *oba assises d'antioche reproduces en français et publiées au sixième centenaire de la mort de sempad le connétable, leur ancien traducteur arménien, dédiées à l'académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres de france par la société mekhithariste de saint-lazare. venise: imprimerie arménienne médaillée, . xxiii, p. °. �*onp augustin badjétsi. itinéraire du très-révérend frère augustin badjétsi, évêque arménien de nakhidchévan, de l'ordre des frères-prêcheurs, à travers l'europe; écrit, en langue arménienne, de sa propre main, ainsi que l'a reconnu et attesté le révérend frère antoine najari, son parent et son neveu, apracounétsi, envoyé du roi de perse au roi très-chrétien.... traduit sur le manuscrit arménien ... par m. brosset jeune. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - , - .) *oaa avakian, hovhannes, and bedros hovnanian, editors. koharnir hai kraganoutian. [gems of armenian literature.] boston: hairenik press, . p., l. °. *onp aznavor, cherubino. see injijian, ghougas. basil. oraison funèbre de baudouin, comte de marasch et de kéçoun. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. bayan, g. armenian proverbs and sayings translated into english by g. bayan. venice: academy of s. lazarus, . p. °. *onk p.v. bittner, maximilian. der vom himmel gefallene brief christi in seinen morgenländischen versionen und rezensionen. p., pl. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. denkschriften: philosophisch-historische klasse. wien, . °. bd. , abh. .) *ef brosset, marie félicité. extrait du manuscrit arménien no. de la bibliothèque royale, relatif au calendrier géorgien, traduit par brosset. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- sur deux rédactions arméniennes, en vers et en prose, de la légende des saints baralam = varlaam et ioasaph = iosaphat. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- see also augustin badjétsi. carrière, auguste. un version arménienne de l'histoire d'asséneth. (École des langues orientales vivantes. publications. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaf chalatianz, bagrat. see khalathianz, bagrat. conybeare, frederick cornwallis. the barlaam and josaphat legend in the ancient georgian and armenian literatures. (folk-lore. london, . °. v. , p. - .) zba ---- see also the key of truth. conybeare, frederick cornwallis, and others. the story of ahikar from the syriac, arabic, armenian, ethiopic, greek and slavonic versions by f. c. conybeare, j. rendel harris, and agnes smith lewis. london: c. j. clay & sons, . lxxxviii, p., l., p. °. *oat armenian text, p. - . translation of the armenian text, p. - . damadian, m. ramgavaroutiun. [democracy.] alexandria, . p., l. °. *onp dashian, hagopos, vartabed. vartabedutune arakelotz anvaveragan ganonatz madiane. tought hagopa ar gotrados ev ganonk tattéi. [the canons of the apostles in old armenian.] vienna, . p., l., p., l. °. *onn ---- zur abgar-sage. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - , - , - .) *oaa dulaurier, Édouard. cosmogonie des perses d'après eznig, auteur arménien du ve siècle. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa eznig. see dulaurier, Édouard; also wickering, armand de. gjandschezian, agnes finck. see photios. gjandschezian, esnik. see gregory magistros; also photios. gregory of armenia, called illuminator. die akten gregors von armenien neu hrsg. von p. de lagarde. (königliche gesellschaft der wissenschaften zu göttingen. abhandlungen. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ee lagarde, paul anton de. vita gregorii armeni. (in his: onomastica sacra. gottingae, . °. p. - .) *yip gregory magistros. ein brief des gregor magistros an den emir ibrahim. hrsg. von esnik gjandschezian. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl ---- ein brief des gregor magistros an den patriarchen petros. hrsg. von esnik gjandschezian. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl khalathianz, grigori abramovich. fragmente iranischer sagen bei grigor magistros. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa langlois, victor. mémoire sur la vie et les écrits du prince grégoire magistros, duc de la mésopotamie, auteur arménien du xi siècle. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa gregory of nazianzen. (nonnos.) die scholien zu fünf reden des gregor von nazianz. hrsg. von agop manandian. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl harris, james rendel. see conybeare, frederick cornwallis, and others. histoire de pharmani asman. traduite de l'arménien sur le manuscrit conservé à la bibliothèque nationale de paris, par frédéric macler. (société des traditions populaires. revue des traditions populaires. paris, . °. v. , p. - , - .) zba hovnanian, bedros. see avakian, hovhannes, and bedros hovnanian, editors. injijian, ghougas. description du bosphore ... traduite de l'arménien en français par f. martin. paris: j. b. sajou, . p., l. °. *onp ---- nachrichten über den thrazischen bosporus, oder die strasse von constantinopel vom dr. ingigian; aus dem armenischen übersetzt und von k. l. adanson aus dem französischen übersetzt.... weimar: verlag des landes-industrie-comptoirs, . viii, p., l. °. (in: m. c. sprengel, bibliothek der neuesten und wichtigsten reisebeschreibungen. bd. .) kbd ---- villeggiature de' bizantini sul bosforo tracio opera del p. luca ingigi tradotta dal p. cherubino aznavor. venezia: tipografia di s. lazzaro, . xxiii, p., l., map, pl. °. gio joannissiany, abgar. armenische sprichwörter. (das ausland. augsburg, . f°. jahrg. , p. - .) �kaa ---- sprichwörter. (in: g. a. khalathianz, märchen und sagen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. bd. . kalemkiar, gr. die siebente vision daniels. (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *oaa the key of truth: a manual of the paulician church of armenia. the armenian text, edited and translated with illustrative documents and introduction by fred. c. conybeare. oxford: clarendon press, . cxcvi, p., l. °. zfe khalathianz, bagrat. die armenische heldensage. (verein für volkskunde. zeitschrift. berlin, . °. jahrg. , p. - , - , - .) yaa lagarde, paul anton de. see gregory of armenia, called illuminator. leist, arthur. litterarische skizzen. leipzig: wilhelm friedrich [ ]. p.l., p. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. .) *onk contents: ein volkssänger. raphael patkanian. pater leo alischan. mkrtitsch beschiktaschlian. abowian. die kongregation der mechitaristen. erzbischof gabriel aiwasowski. gabriel sundukianz. das armenische zeitungswesen. ein vater seines volkes. lewis, agnes smith. see conybeare, frederick cornwallis. and others. macler, frédéric. un document arménien sur l'assassinat de mahomet par une juive. (mélanges hartwig derenbourg, - . paris, . °. p. - .) *oac ---- notre-dame de bitlis. texte arménien traduit et annoté par frédéric macler. pl. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , tome , p. - .) *oaa ---- see also histoire de pharmani asman; also mkhithar gosh. manandian, agop. see gregory of nazianzen. martin, françois. see injijian, ghougas. mkhithar gosh. choix de fables arméniennes attribuées à mkhithar goch, traduites par f. macler. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa brosset, marie félicité. rapport de m. brosset sur un manuscrit arménien. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin de la classe historico-philologique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. parechanian, hagop k. tirahauad khilkin hauadatsial ullalou jampan. [the infidel spirit.] boston, . p. °. *onp photios. der brief des photios an aschot und dessen antwort. uebersetzt von agnes finck und esnik gjandschezian. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl prud'homme, Évariste. see vartan the great. sabrijian, dimoteos. deux ans de séjour en abyssinie; ou, vie morale, politique et religieuse des abyssiniens par le r. p. dimothéos, légat de ... le patriarche arménien auprès de théodore roi d'abyssinie. traduit par ordre de ... isaïe, patriarche arménien de jérusalem. livre - . jérusalem: typographie arménienne du couvent de saint-jacques, . v. in . °. blm ---- zwei jahre in abyssinien oder schilderung der sitten und des staatlichen und religiösen lebens der abyssinier von sr. hochw. pater timotheus, legat sr. eminenz des armenischen patriarchen bei könig theodor von abyssinien. teil - . leipzig: wilhelm friedrich, n. d. °. (armenische bibliothek. bd. - .) *onk saint-martin, jean antoine. see vartan the great. schmid, johann michael, translator. geschichte des apostels thaddaeus und der jungfrau sanducht. aus dem altarmenischen übersetzt. (zeitschrift für armenische philologie. marburg, . °. bd. , p. - .) *onl sempad, constable of armenia. see assises d'antioche. srapian, moses, translator. das martyrium des hl. pionius. aus dem altarmenischen übersetzt von pater moses srapian. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa terzagian, hagop k. parlamentagan ganonner ev zhoghovavaroutiun. [parliamentary rules.] boston, . p., l. °. *onp teza, emilio. il libro dei sette savi nella letteratura armena. (reale istituto veneto. atti. venezia, . °. tomo , parte , p. - .) *er armenian text, pages. turpanjian, missak. see aharonian, avedis. vark nahabedats ev markareits. [bible stories in armenian.] smyrna, . p.l., p. °. *ono vartan the great. choix de fables de vartan en arménien et en français. [edited and translated by j. a. saint-martin.] ouvrage publié par la société asiatique de paris. paris: dondey-dupré père et fils, . xii, p. °. *onp ---- extraits du livre intitulé solutions de passages de l'Écriture sainte, écrites à la demande de héthoum i, roi d'arménie par le vardapet vardan; traduits de l'arménien vulgaire sur le texte original par m. Évariste prud'homme. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa varteresian, hapet. mer poghoknern ou tashnagtzoutean tirku anonts hanteb. [our protests and the position that the tashnagtzoutean has taken towards them.] boston, . p., pl. °. *onp vetter, paul. das buch tobias und die achikar-sage. (theologische quartalschrift. tübingen, - . °. jahrg. , p. - , - ; jahrg. , p. - , - .) zea wickering, armand de. eznig de gog'ph, évêque de pakrévant, auteur arménien du cinquième siècle et son traducteur français. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa zavak. armenian proverbs. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk translations from european languages alishanian, gheuont. see american sacred songs. american sacred songs. translated into the armenian language [by father leo alishan]. st. lazarus--venice, . p. °. *onp aristotle. see conybeare, frederick cornwallis. aucher, john baptiste. see ephraim the syrian. aukerian, haroutiun. see milton, john. aukerian, mëgërdich. see ephraim the syrian. avidaranian, h., translator. jarakaitk arevelian. [rays from the orient. a book useful for every class of men. translated from the sanskrit.] part . shumla, bulgaria, . °. *onp bagratouni, arsen gomidas. see homer; also horace; also virgil. bunyan, john. krisdianosin ou krisdinein jamportoutiuni. [pilgrim's progress; translated into armenian.] part - . smyrna, . p., l., p., l., p., pl. °. *neh ---- ---- new york, . p., pl. °. *neh calfa, ambroise. see fénélon, françois de salignac de la mothe. conybeare, frederick cornwallis. a collation with the ancient armenian versions of the greek text of aristotle's categories, de interpretatione, de mundo, de virtutibus et vitiis and of porphyry's introduction. oxford: clarendon press, . p.l., xxxviii p., l., p., fac. °. (anecdota oxoniensia. classical series. v. , part .) yaem ---- a collation of the old armenian version of plato's laws, book iv-vi. (american journal of philology. baltimore, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) raa ---- on the ancient armenian version of plato. (american journal of philology. baltimore, . °. v. , p. - .) raa ---- on the old armenian version of plato's apology. (american journal of philology. baltimore, . °. v. , p. - .) raa ---- on the old armenian version of plato's laws. (american journal of philology. baltimore, . °. v. , p. - .) raa paton, w. r. critical notes on plato's laws, iv-vi. (american journal of philology. baltimore, . °. v. , p. - .) raa dante alighieri. asdouadzahin gadagirkoutiun. divina commedia. ii. purgatorio tradotto in prosa dal p. arsenio gazikian. venezia, . p.l., p. °. *onp dashian, hagopos. see secundus, the sophist of athens. dirohean, atanas v. see georgius, pisida. emerson, frederick. mdavor ev kravor touapanoutiun. [an arithmetic compiled from emerson's north american arithmetic by c. hamlin.] constantinople, . , p. °. *onpa ephraim the syrian. srpouin yéprémi. [the writings of saint ephraim translated into armenian.] venice, . v. in . °. *onp ---- evangelii concordantis expositio facta a sancto ephraemo doctore syro. in latinum translata a ... ioanne baptista aucher, mechitarista, cujus versionem emendavit, adnotationibus illustravit et edidit georgius moesinger. venetiis: libraria mechitaristarum in monasterio s. lazari, . p.l., xii, p. °. *odm erkér ou yéghanagnér. [a hymn-book with music for the use of sunday schools.] constantinople, . p. °. *onp fénélon, françois de salignac de la mothe. les aventures de télémaque de fénélon traduction arménienne par ambroise calfa. paris, . p.l., . p., pl. °. *onp funduklian, k. see shakespeare, william. gallaudet, thomas h. abashkharatsvits. [a book on repentance. translated from english into armenian.] smyrna, . , p. °. *onp gazikian, arsen ghazaros. see dante alighieri; also tasso, torquato; also virgil. georgius, pisida. vetsoreahk keorkah bisiteah. [hexameron translated into armenian by atanas v. dirohean.] venice, . p. °. *onp greek and armenian texts. hamlin, c. see emerson, frederick. harnack, adolf. see irenaeus, bishop of lyons. hauff, wilhelm. badouoh yediuen gam likhtunshtain. ["lichtenstein" translated from german into armenian by vahan mesrob.] boston, n. d. p.l., , p., l., pl. °. *onp homer. iliagan. [the iliad translated into armenian verse by arsen gomidas bagratouni.] venedig, . p.l., p., l. °. *onp horace. arvésd kertoghagan. [quintus horatius flaccus' ars poetica; translated into pleasing metre with explanatory notes by arsen gomidas bagratouni.] venice, . p., l. °. �*onp bound with: virgil. mshagagank. venice, . °. hugo, victor. innsoun yerek. [ninety-three, translated from french into armenian by avedis kouyoumjian.] boston, . p.l., p., l., port. °. *onp ingersoll, robert green. inch e gronu? [what is religion? translated from english into armenian by liumen.] boston, . p.l., - p. °. *onp international bible students association. [scenario of the photo-drama of creation translated into armenian under the title taderangark sdeghdzakordzoutian.] brooklyn: international bible students association, . , p. nar. °. *onn paged in duplicate. irenaeus, bishop of lyons. armenische irenaeusfragmente mit deutscher Übersetzung nach dr. w. lüdtke zum teil erstmalig hrsg. und untersucht von hermann jordan. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, . viii p., l., p. °. (texte und untersuchungen zur geschichte der altchristlichen literatur. reihe , bd. , heft .) ze ---- des heiligen irenäus schrift zum erweise der apostolischen verkündigung ... in armenischer version entdeckt, hrsg., und ins deutsche übersetzt von ... karapet ter-mekerttschian und erwand ter-minassiantz. mit einem nachwort und anmerkungen von adolf harnack. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, . viii, , p. °. (texte und untersuchungen zur geschichte der altchristlichen literatur. reihe , bd. , heft .) ze jordan, hermann. see irenaeus, bishop of lyons. koran. mouhammed. kouran. [the koran translated into armenian by hagop kourbetian.] varna: iravounk, . , p. °. *ogd kourbetian, hagop, translator. see koran. kouyoumjian, avedis. see hugo, victor. lerch, p. ueber eine armenische bearbeitung der "sieben weisen meister." (orient und occident. göttingen, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa liumen. see ingersoll, robert green. luedtke, w. see irenaeus, bishop of lyons. mesrob, vahan. see hauff, wilhelm. milton, john. mildovni trakhd gorouseal. [paradise lost; translated into armenian by haroutiun aukerian.] venice, . p.l., - p., pl. °. *onp moesinger, georg. see ephraim the syrian. mueller, friedrich. ueber die armenische bearbeitung der "sieben weisen meister." (vienna oriental journal. vienna, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa nemesius. see teza, emilio; also zanolli, almo. payson, edward. hokeshah mdadzoutiunk. [salutary thoughts of the world and the church. translated from english into armenian.] smyrna, . , p. °. *ono petermann, julius heinrich. ueber das verhältniss der armenischen uebersetzung der briefe des ignatius zu der von herrn cureton herausgegebenen syrischen version derselben. (deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. jahresbericht. leipzig, . °. p. - .) *oaa plato. see conybeare, frederick cornwallis. porphyry. see conybeare, frederick cornwallis. rollin, charles. badmoutiun hrovmeagan. [histoire romaine; translated into armenian.] v. - . venice, - . °. �*onq russell, charles taze. [the millennial dawn; translated from english into armenian under the title hazaramiai arshaloisu.] v. . brooklyn, n. y.: international bible students' association, . °. *onp v. . the plan of the ages. armenian title: asdoudzo dzrakiru. secundus, the sophist of athens. das leben und die sentenzen des philosophen secundus des schweigsamen in altarmenischer Übersetzung von jacobus dashian. p. (kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften. denkschriften: philosophisch-historische klasse. wien, . f°. bd. , abhandlung .) *ef shakespeare, william. andonios ev gleobadra. [antony and cleopatra; translated into armenian by k. funduklian (parnak).] paris, . , p. °. *onp sue, eugène. taparagan heryah. le juif errant [translated into armenian]. constantinople, . , p., l., pl. °. *onp tasso, torquato. yerousaghem azadeal. [jerusalem delivered, translated into armenian by arsen ghazaros gazikian.] venice, . , p., pl. °. *onp ter-mekerttschian, karapet. see irenaeus, bishop of lyons. ter-minassiantz, erwand. see irenaeus, bishop of lyons. teza, emilio. nemesiana. sopra alcuni luoghi della natura dell'uomo in armeno. (reale accademia dei lincei. rendiconti: classe di scienze morale, storiche e filologiche. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) *er thomas à kempis. hamahédévumin krisdosi. [imitatio christi.] amsterdam [ ]. p., pl. °. *onp ---- ---- romae: typis sacræ congreg. de propaganda fide, . p.l., p., l. °. *onp upham, thomas cogswell. darerk imatsagan pilisopayoutian. [elements of mental philosophy translated from english into armenian.] smyrna, . p., ., p. °. *onp vartabedoutiun krisdonagan usd haiots. [christian catechism translated into armenian.] amsterdam, . p. °. *onp p.v. virgil. b. virkileah maroni yeneagan. [the aeneid, translated into armenian by arsen gazikian.] venice, . p.l., p., l., pl. °. *onp ---- mshagagank. [publius virgilius maro's georgica. translated into pleasing metre, with explanatory notes, by arsen gomidas bagratouni.] venice, . , p., l., pl. °. �*onp whiting, george backus. jrak hokvoh. [light of the soul. a tract on self-examination, translated from english into armenian.] smyrna, . p. °. *onp p.v. zanolli, almo. osservazioni sulla traduzione armena del "peri physeôs anthrôpou" di nemesio. (società asiatica italiana. giornale. firenze, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - .) *oaa armenian church translations of the bible are not included in this list. armenian church. garkavorootun hasaragatz aghotitz. [regular service-book of the armenian church.] venice, . , p. °. *onp ---- liturgia armena trasportata in italiano per cura del p. g. avedichian. seconda edizione adorna di rami. venezia: tipografia di s. lazzaro, . p., l., pl. °. *onp ---- liturgie de la messe arménienne traduite en français de la version italienne par monseigneur lapostolest. venise: imprimerie des méchitaristes de saint lazare, . p.l., p., pl. °. zhkd ---- rituale armenorum being the administration of the sacraments and the breviary rites of the armenian church together with the greek rites of baptism and epiphany edited from the oldest mss. by f. c. conybeare ... and the east syrian epiphany rites translated by the rev. a. j. maclean. oxford: clarendon press, . xxxv, p., fac. °. zhkd armenians taking stock of their national church. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva arpee, leon. the armenian awakening; a history of the armenian church, - . chicago: university press, . xi, p. °. znv asgian, g. la chiesa armena e l'arianesimo. (bessarione. roma, - . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- la s. sede e la nazione armena. (bessarione. roma, - . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - ; v. , p. - ; serie , v. , p. - , - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , - .) *oaa aukerian, mëgërdich, vartabed. liagadar vark ev vgayapanoutiun srpots. [vitae sanctorum ecclesiae armeniacae.] venetiis, - . v. °. *ono avedikian, gabriele. see armenian church. bayan, g. see ter israel. blackwell, alice stone. the progress in the armenian church. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk boré, eugène. de l'arménie. de l'action directe et puissante du christianisme sur la société arménienne.... (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa brosset, marie félicité. notice historique sur les couvents arméniens de haghbat et de sanahin. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin scientifique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. v. , col. - .) *qcb ---- notice sur le couvent arménien de kétcharhous, à daratchitchag. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin de la classe historico-philologique. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. ---- sur les couvents arméniens d'haghbat et de sanahin. (imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. bulletin. st. pétersbourg, . f°. tome , col. - .) *qcb reprinted in imperatorskaya akademiya nauk. mélanges asiatiques. st. pétersbourg, . tome , p. - , *oaa. conybeare, frederick cornwallis. see armenian church; also sahak, patriarch. dadian, boghos. l'église d'arménie. déclaration adressée à mgr. sibour, archevêque de paris, relativement aux inculpations qui sont faites à l'église arménienne. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa the day of peril of the armenian church in russia. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - ; v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk de kay, charles. the suppression of a faith. (outlook. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da dowling, theodore edward. the armenian church, by archdeacon dowling.... with an introduction by the lord bishop of salisbury.... london: society for promoting christian knowledge, . xvi, - p., fac., pl., ports. °. znv duchesne, louis marie olivier. l'arménie chrétienne dans l'histoire ecclésiastique d'eusèbe. (in: mélanges nicole. recueil de mémoires de philologie classique.... genève, . °. p. - .) btgp dulaurier, Édouard. histoire dogmes, traditions et liturgie de l'église arménienne orientale avec des notions additionnelles sur l'origine de cette liturgie, les sept sacrements, les observances, la hiérarchie ecclésiastique, les vêtements sacerdotaux et la forme intérieure des églises, chez les arméniens. paris: a. franck, . p.l., vii, - p. . ed. °. znv ---- ---- ouvrage traduit du russe et de l'arménien par Édouard dulaurier. paris: a. durand, . p.l., vii, - p. . ed. °. znv dwight, harrison gray otis. christianity in turkey; a narrative of the protestant reformation in the armenian church. [a review of this book.] (eclectic review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da ---- see also selim iii, sultan of turkey. ebersolt, jean. les anciennes églises d'arménie et l'effort arménien. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ecclesiae armeniacae canones selecti. (in: angelo mai, scriptorum veterum nova collectio. romae, . °. v. . p. - .) �nrd epiphanius of cyprus. ekthesis prôtoklêsiôn patriarchôn te kai mêtropolitôn armenisch und griechisch hrsg. von franz nikolaus finck. marburg: n. g. elwert, . p. °. *onp esteves pereira, francisco maria. see vida de s. gregorio. finck, franz nikolaus. see epiphanius of cyprus; also nilus doxapatrius. fischer, hans. das kloster des hl. thaddäus. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - .) �*oaa fortescue, edward francis knottesford. the armenian church founded by st. gregory the illuminator. being a sketch of the history, liturgy, doctrine, and ceremonies, of this ancient national church. with an appendix by the rev. s. c. malan. london: j. t. hayes [ ]. p., pl. °. znv galanus, clemens.... conciliationis ecclesiae armenae cvm romana ex ipsis armenorvm patrvm et doctorvm testimoniis. in duas partes, historialem & controuersialem diuisæ. romae: typis sacræ congregationis de propaganda fide, - . v. f°. �znv armenian and latin texts. gelzer, heinrich. die anfänge der armenischen kirche. (königlich sächsische gesellschaft der wissenschaften. berichte über die verhandlungen: philol.-hist. classe. leipzig, . °. bd. , p. - .) *ee ---- armenien. (in: j. j. herzog, realencyklopädie für protestantische theologie und kirche.... leipzig, . . ed. °. bd. , p. - .) *r-zeb gregory, g. marcar, translator. see ormanian, malachia. gregory of bysantium, metropolitan of chios. yearnings after unity in the east.... with remarks thereon by george williams. london: rivingtons, . iv, p. °. (eastern church association. occasional paper, no. .) zng hamarod zhamakirk hahasdaneahts sa yegeghetsuoh. [brief breviary.] boston, . p. °. *onp isaacus. see sahak, patriarch. kent, w. h. the ancient church of armenia. (dublin review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da langlois, victor. mémoire sur les archives du catholicosat arménien de sis, en cilicie. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa lapostolest, f. x. see armenian church. lichti, otto. see yeshu' bar shushan. maclean, arthur john. see armenian church. malan, solomon c. see fortescue, edward francis knottesford. mémoire de la mission d'erzeron. (in: lettres édifiantes. lyon, . °. v. , p. - .) kbc missirian, g. m. the national churches of the east. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk reprinted from the boston evening transcript, dec. , . mkhithar of dashir. relation de la conférence tenue entre le docteur mekhithar de daschir, envoyé du catholicos constantin i, et le légat du pape à saint-jean-d'acre, en . (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. monier. lettre du père monier, de la compagnie de jésus, au père fleuriau, de la même compagnie. (in: lettres édifiantes. lyon, . °. v. , p. - .) kbc neale, john mason. a history of the holy eastern church. part . general introduction. london: j. masters, . v. °. znb nerses the graceful, patriarch of armenia. preces sancti nersetis clajensis armeniorum patriarchae viginti quatuor linguis editae. venetiis: in insula s. lazari, . p.l., p., port. °. zhr ---- preces sancti nierses, armeniorum patriarchae, turcice, graece, latine, italice et gallice redditae. venetiis: in insula s. lazari, . p. °. *ono nerses of lambron. extraits de l'ouvrage intitulé réflexions sur les institutions de l'église et explication du mystère de la messe. lettre adressée au roi léon ii. (in: institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens. paris, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��btr armenian text with french translation. nève, félix. l'hymnologie arménienne. (muséon. louvain, . °. v. , p. - .) zaa nilus doxapatrius. taxis tôn patriarchikôn thronôn. armenisch und griechisch hrsg. von franz nikolaus finck. marburg: n. g. elwert, . p.l., p. °. �*onp ormanian, malachia. the armenian church. (armenia. new york, - . °. v. , no. , p. - , no. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - .) �*onk ---- the armenian conversion to christianity. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the church of armenia, her history, doctrine, rule, discipline, liturgy, literature, and existing condition by malachia ormanian, formerly armenian patriarch of constantinople. translated from the french edition by g. marcar gregory ... with an introduction by the right rev. j. e. c. welldon. london: a. r. mowbray & co., ltd. [pref. .] xxxii, p. °. znv ---- l'église arménienne: son histoire, sa doctrine, son régime, sa discipline, sa liturgie, sa littérature, son présent. paris: e. leroux, . p.l., x, p. °. znv ---- unionist tendencies of the armenian church. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk peirce, louise fagan. see peirce, william f., and louise f. peirce. peirce, william f., and louise f. peirce. the armenian church. (the new world. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da proclus, saint, patriarch of constantinople. ein briefwechsel zwischen proklos und sahak. aus dem armenischen übersetzt von p. aristaces vardanian. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa ricaut, paul. the present state of the greek and armenian churches, anno christi, . london: john starkey, . p.l., p. °. znb sahak, patriarch. the armenian canons of st. sahak catholicos of armenia ( - a.d.). [translated by f. c. conybeare.] (american journal of theology. chicago, . °. v. , p. - .) zea ---- isaaci magnæ armeniæ catholici oratio invectiva adversus armenios. (in: andreas gallandius, bibliotheca veterum patrum. venetiis, . f°. v. , p. - .) ��zel ---- narratio de rebus armeniæ. (in: j. p. migne, patrologiæ cursus completus ... series græca. paris, . °. tomus , col. - .) zel ---- sancti patris nostri isaaci magnæ armeniæ catholici, oratio invectiva adversus armenios. (in: j. p. migne, patrologiæ cursus completus ... series græca. paris, . °. tomus , col. - .) zel ---- see also proclus, saint, patriarch of constantinople. samuel, polykarp. see vrthanes kherthol. schreiber, ellis. the armenian church. (american catholic quarterly review. philadelphia, . °. v. , p. - .) *da selim iii, sultan of turkey. translation of an imperial berât issued by sultân selim iii a. h. , appointing the monk hohannes patriarch of all the armenians of turkey, with notes by rev. h. g. o. dwight. (american oriental society. journal. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa serpos, giovanni de. compendio storico di memorie cronologiche concernenti la religione e la morale della nazione armena suddita dell'impero ottomano.... tomo - . venezia: nella stamperia di carlo palese, . v. °. bbx t., a. b. the armenian christmas and new year. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk tchéraz, minas. l'église arménienne, son histoire, ses croyances. (muséon. louvain, . °. tome , p. - .) zaa ter israel. le synaxaire arménien de ter israel publié et traduit par ... g. bayan ... [partie] - . paris: firmin-didot & cie., . °. (patrologia orientalis. tome , fasc. ; tome , fasc. .) �*oac [partie] . mois de navasard. [partie] . mois de hori. ter-mekerttschian, karapet. see timothy, bishop of alexandria. ter-minassiantz, erwand. die armenische kirche in ihren beziehungen zu den syrischen kirchen bis zum ende des . jahrhunderts. nach den armenischen und syrischen quellen bearbeitet von e. ter-minassiantz. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, . xii, p. °. (texte und untersuchungen zur geschichte der altchristlichen literatur. n. f. bd. , heft .) ze ---- see also timothy, bishop of alexandria. theorianus. theoriani disputatio secunda cum nersete patriarcha generali armeniorum. (in: j. p. migne, patrologiæ cursus completus ... series græca. paris, . °. tomus , col. - .) zel ---- theoriani orthodoxi disputatio cum armeniorum catholico. (in: j. p. migne, patrologiæ cursus completus ... series græca. paris, . °. tomus , col. - .) zel timothy, bishop of alexandria. timotheus Älurus' des patriarchen von alexandrien widerlegung der auf der synode zu chalcedon festgesetzten lehre. armenischer text mit deutschem und armenischem vorwort, zwei tafeln und dreifachem register hrsg. von ... karapet ter-mekerttschian und ... erwand ter-minassiantz. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, . ix, v-xxxv, p., facs. °. *onp tondini de quarenghi, c. notice sur le calendrier liturgique de la nation arménienne. (bessarione. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - ; serie , v. . p. - .) *oaa tourian, kevork g. the armenian christmas. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk vardanian, aristaces. see proclus, saint, patriarch of constantinople. veyssière de la croze, mathurin. histoire du christianisme d'ethiopie et d'arménie. la haie: veuve le vier & p. paupie, . p.l., p., pl. °. znz vida de s. gregorio, patriarcha da armenia. conversão dos armenios ao christianismo. versão ethiopica publicada por f. m. esteves pereira. [lisboa, .] p. °. *oee villari, luigi. the clergy at etchmiadzin. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. ---- a visit to etchmiadzin. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his fire and sword in the caucasus. vollmer, philipp. the armenian church. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva vrthanes kherthol. die abhandlung "gegen die bilderstürmer." aus dem armenischen übersetzt von p. polykarp samuel. (wiener zeitschrift für die kunde des morgenlandes. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) *oaa williams, george. see gregory of bysantium, metropolitan of chios. williams, william llewelyn. armenia: past and present; a study and a forecast.... with an introduction by t. p. o'connor, m.p. london: p. s. king & son ltd., . xi, p., folded maps. °. bbx ---- the armenian church. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - , - . ---- the armenian church and the schism in christendom. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . ---- the struggle of the armenian church. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . wilson, samuel graham. the armenian church in its relation to the russian government. (north american review. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da yeshu' bar shushan. das sendschreiben des patriarchen barschuschan an den catholicus der armenier. by otto lichti. (american oriental society. journal. new haven, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa young, george. communautés des arméniens grégoriens. [patriarcat arménien catholique.] (in his: corps de droit ottoman. oxford, . °. v. , p. - .) *ogm zavak. armenian church music. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk mechitharists aharonian, avedis. the armenian academy at venice. an impression of the place and of its members. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ---- a visit to st. lazare. from the armenian. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk aukerian, haroutiun. a brief account of the mechitaristican society founded on the island of st. lazaro. [translated by alexander goode.] venice: armenian academy, . p., pl., port. °. zmtb p. box compendiose notizie sulla congregazione de monaci armeni mechitaristi di venezia. [venezia: tipografia armena di s. lazzaro,] . p., pl. °. *onr cover title: vita del servo di dio mechitar, fondatore dell'ordine de' monaci armeni benedettini detti mechitaristi, venezia, . goode, alexander. see aukerian, haroutiun. kalemkiar, gregoris. eine skizze der literarisch-typographischen thätigkeit der mechitharisten-congregation in wien aus anlass des jährigen regierungs-jubiläums ... kaiser franz joseph i. wien: mechitharisten-congregations-buchdruckerei, . p.l., p. °. *gd langlois, victor. la congrégation mékhitariste et le couvent arménien de saint-lazare de venise. (revue de l'orient, de l'algérie et des colonies. paris, . °. nouvelle série, tome , p. - .) *oaa leist, arthur. die kongregation der mechitaristen. (in his: litterarische skizzen. leipzig [ ]. °. p. - .) *onk armenische bibliothek. no. . mechitharisten-kongregation in wien. huschardzan. festschrift aus anlass des jährigen bestandes der ... kongregation ... ( - ), und des . jahrganges der philologischen monatsschrift "handes amsorya" ( - ). hrsg. von der mechitharisten-kongregation unter mitwirkung der mitarbeiter der monatsschrift und zahlreicher armenisten. wien: mechitharisten-kongregation, . p.l., p., pl., port. f°. ��*onk missions american board of commissioners for foreign missions. historical sketch of the missions ... in european turkey, asia minor and armenia. new york: j. a. gray, . p., l. °. zkvn p.v. barton, james levi. euphrates college. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- what america has done for the armenians. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk conder, josiah. see smith, eli, and h. g. o. dwight. dwight, harrison gray otis. see smith, eli, and h. g. o. dwight. greene, joseph k. leavening the levant. boston: pilgrim press, . xii, p., maps, pl. °. zkvn knapp, grace higley. the mission at van; in turkey in war time, by grace higley knapp, with a chapter by clarence d. ussher, m. d., on the future of the mission at van. new york: privately printed, . p., port. °. btze p.v. national armenian relief committee. brands from the burning. [new york,] n. d. p. °. shs ---- save the remnant. [new york,] n. d. p. °. shs ---- the wards of christendom. [new york,] n. d. p. °. shs pfeiffer, e. die anfänge der protestantischen kirche in armenien - . (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - , - .) �*oaa richter, julius. protestant missions in turkey and armenia. (in his: a history of protestant missions in the near east. new york: f. h. revell co. [ .] °. p. - .) zkvi smith, eli, and h. g. o. dwight. missionary researches in armenia: including a journey through asia minor, and into georgia and persia, with a visit to the nestorian and chaldean christians of oormiah and salmas. to which is prefixed, a memoir on the geography and ancient history of armenia, by the author of "the modern traveller" [josiah conder]. london: g. wightman, . lxxii, p., map. °. bby ---- researches of the rev. e. smith and rev. h. g. o. dwight in armenia: including a journey through asia minor, and into georgia and persia, with a visit to the nestorian and chaldean christians of oormiah and salmas. boston: crocker and brewster, . v. °. bby terzian, paul, bishop of tarsus and adana. the church in armenia. (catholic world. new york. . °. v. , p. - .) *da ussher, clarence d. see knapp, grace higley. west, maria a. the romance of missions; or, inside views of life and labor in the land of ararat. with an introduction by mrs. charles.... new york: a. d. f. randolph & co. [cop. .] , p. °. zkvn white, g. e. morning light in asia minor. (missionary review of the world. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) zkva armenian question a., d. g. armianskii vopros v turtsii. (iz perepiski s stambul'skim publitsistom.) (russkaia mysl'. moscow, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca armenian question in turkey. abbott, lyman. the armenian question. [new york: national armenian relief committee,] n. d. p. °. shs apcar, diana agabeg. russian occupation of armenia. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- what the german foreign minister has said. "the powers," the christians of the east, and the turk. russian occupation of armenia. open letter to the right honorable h. h. asquith. yokohama, . broadsides mounted on leaves. °. bbx two of the broadsides are reprinted from the far east, may , and july , ; and one reprinted from the japan gazette, june , . armenia and her claims. memorandum on armenia and her claims to freedom and national independence presented to the democratic mid-europe union by dr. g. pasdermadjian ... and by miran sevasly. part - . (armenian herald. boston, - . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk part . turkish armenia and the armenians in turkey. part . the situation of the armenians, including transcausasia and turkey, prior to the present world war. armenia and the powers: from behind the scenes. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da armenia rediviva. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk the armenian aspirations and revolutionary movements. album, no. . n. p. [ .] l. ob. °. *onk title from cover. title also in turkish, german and french. the armenian question. [signed diplomatist.] (new review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da the armenian question. [signed an eastern statesman.] (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da the armenian question in the house of commons. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - , - .) �*onk the armenian troubles and where the responsibility lies, by a correspondent. new york: [j. j. little & co.,] . p. °. bbh p.v. arpee, leon. armenia and the peace conference. (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk barre, andré. l'esclavage blanc (arménie et macédoine). paris: l. michaud [ ]. p. °. (in his: collection d'histoire contemporaine.) gih benjamin, samuel greene wheeler. the armenians and the porte. (atlantic monthly. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da benson, edward frederic. crescent and iron cross. london: hodder and stoughton, . x, p., maps. °. btze ---- ---- new york: george h. doran co. [ .] vii p., l., - p., maps. °. btze bishop, isabella lucy bird. the shadow of the kurd. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *da blunt, wilfrid scawen. turkish misgovernment. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da bowles, thomas gibson. the cyprus convention. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da bratter, c. adolf. die armenische frage. berlin: concordia deutsche verlags-anstalt, g. m. b. h., . p. °. btze p.v. bryce ( . viscount), james bryce. the armenian question. (century. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da ---- die armenische frage in den letzten jahren. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - .) �*oaa translated from his transcaucasia and ararat, london, . ---- the future of armenia. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da translated in la voix de l'arménie, année , p. - , *onk. ---- the future of asiatic turkey. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in armenia, v. , no. , p. - , jan., , �*onk. ---- transcaucasia and ararat, being notes of a vacation tour in the autumn of . th ed. rev., with a supplementary chapter on the recent history of the armenian question. london: macmillan and co., . xix, p., map, pl. °. psk morton, oliver t. mr. james bryce on the armenian question. (dial. chicago, . °. v. , p. - .) *da buxton, harold. side-lights on the armenian question. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da buxton, noel. the russians in armenia. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da cavendish, lucy c. f., lady. the peril of armenia. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in armenia, v. , p. - , �*onk. charmetant, felix. das sterbende armenien und das christliche europa. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - .) �*oaa clinch, bryan j. the christians under turkish rule. (american catholic quarterly review. philadelphia, . °. v. , p. - .) *da collet, c. d. the new crusade against the turk. (imperial and asiatic quarterly review. woking, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa contenson, ludovic, baron de. the movement for armenian emancipation. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- la question arménienne. (comité de l'asie française. bulletin mensuel. paris, . °. année , p. - .) �bba ---- les réformes en turquie d'asie; la question arménienne, la question syrienne. paris: plon-nourrit & cie., . p.l., vii, p., map. °. *onq coulon, henri. l'héroïsme des arméniens. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk der-hagopian, nishan. and what of armenia? (forum. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da dicey, edward. nubar pasha and our asian protectorate. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da dillon, emile joseph. armenia: an appeal. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- armenia and the turk. poetic justice. russia's solution of the armenian problem. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- the condition of armenia. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- the fiasco in armenia. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da diplomatische aktenstücke zur armenischen frage. (der christliche orient. westend-berlin, . °. , p. - , - .) �*oaa doumergue, Émile. ce que la suisse a fait pour l'arménie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk dzotsikian, s. m. haigagank. [the armenians and their national aspirations.] providence, . p.l., p. °. *onp the eastern question. (blackwood's edinburgh magazine. edinburgh, . °. v. , p. - .) *da einstein, lewis david. inside constantinople; a diplomatist's diary during the dardanelles expedition, april-september, , by lewis einstein. london: j. murray, . xvi, p. °. btze engelhardt, Édouard. l'angleterre et la russie à propos de la question arménienne. (revue de droit international et de législation comparée. bruxelles, . °. tome , p. - .) xba ---- l'enquête arménienne. (revue française de l'étranger et des colonies. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa england's policy in turkey. (fortnightly review. london, . . new series, v. , p. - .) *da geffcken, f. heinrich. turkish reforms and armenia. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ghulam-us-saqlain. the mussalmans of india and the armenian question. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da gladstone, william ewart. mr. gladstone on the armenian question. (christian literature. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da gobat, albert. protection of the armenians; appeal to sir edward grey. [yokohama, ?]. broadside mounted. °. bbx repr.: japan gazette, june , . bound with: d. a. apcar, what the german foreign minister has said. grabowsky, adolf. die armenische frage. (zeitschrift für politik. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - .) sea great britain.--foreign office. turkey. , no. . correspondence relative to the armenian question, and reports from her majesty's consular officers in asiatic turkey. london: harrison and sons [ ]. xxiv, p. f°. (great britain.--parliament. sessional papers. , v. .) *sdd gulesian, m. h. england's hand in turkish massacres. (arena. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da harris, walter b. an unbiassed view of the armenian question. (blackwood's edinburgh magazine. edinburgh, . °. v. , p. - .) *da hart, albert bushnell. free armenia. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk havemeyer, john c. the relation of the united states to armenia. an open letter to the president from j. c. havemeyer. [yonkers, .] p. °. bbh p.v. repr.: the new york times. haweis, hugh reginald. a persian on the armenian massacres. (new century review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da herrick, george f. armenians and american interests under russia. (american review of reviews. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da heyfelder, o. die armenier und ihre zukunft. (deutsche rundschau. wien, . °. jahrg. , p. - .) kaa hoberg, otto. die armenische frage und der weltkrieg. (nord und süd. breslau, . °. bd. , p. - .) *df houghton, louise seymour. the armenian uprising. (outlook. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da how to save alive the orphan children of martyrs in armenia. [new york: national armenian relief committee, ?] p. °. bbh p.v. howard, mary. the worst sufferer of the war. what hope is there for the remnants of massacred armenia? (asia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*oaa howerth, ira w., translator. see tchobanian, archag. ismail kemal, bey. armenia and the armenians. (fortnightly review. new york, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da k armianskomu voprosu v turtsii. (sovremennyi mir. petrograd, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca concerning the armenian problem in turkey. kélékian, diran. la turquie et son souverain: la crise actuelle, ses origines, sa solution. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da khalil khalid efendi. the armenian question. (imperial and asiatic quarterly review. woking, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa kovalevski, maksim. armiaiskii vopros. (viestnik evropy. petrograd, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca the armenian question. ---- armianskii vopros. (viestnik evropy. st. petersburg, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca the armenian question. léart, marcel. the history of the armenian question. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- la question arménienne à la lumière des documents. paris: a. challamel, . p., map. °. *onq lecarpentier, g. la nouvelle question d'arménie. (revue des sciences politiques. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) sea leroy-beaulieu, anatole. les arméniens et la question arménienne; conférence faite par m. anatole leroy-beaulieu ... à l'hôtel des sociétés savantes, le juin, . paris: clamaron-graff, . p. °. bbx levine, isaac don. armenia resurrected. (asia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*oaa little, edward campbell. armenia and turkey. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk reprinted from the congressional record, march , . lord rosebery's second thoughts. [signed diplomaticus.] (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da lynch, henry finnis blosse. the armenian question. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - ; v. , p. - , - .) *da ---- the armenian question: europe or russia? (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da mcdermot, george. the great assassin and the christians of armenia. (catholic world. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da macler, frédéric. autour de l'arménie. paris: e. nourry, . p.l., iii-xvi, p., l. °. bbx ---- the beginnings of the armenian movement. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk mahdesian, arshag. armenia, her culture and aspirations. [worcester, mass., .] - p. °. *onq repr.: journal of race development, v. , p. - , qoa. reprinted in new armenia, v. , p. - , - , �*onk. malcolm, james aratoon. an armenian's cry for armenia. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- a cry for armenia. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk mangasarian, m. m. armenia and turkey. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenia's impending doom: our duty. (forum. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da manifestations franco-anglo-italiennes. pour l'arménie et la macédoine: mm. m. berthelot, charmetant.... préface de victor bérard, introduction de pierre quillard, rapport de francis de pressensé. paris: société nouvelle de librairie & d'édition, . p.l., vi-xxx, p. °. bbx marbeau, Édouard. l'arménie et l'opinion publique. (revue française de l'étranger et des colonies. paris, . °. tome , p. - .) kaa meyners d'estrey, guillaume henry jean, comte. caucase et arménie. avenir de la question d'orient. (annales de l'extrême orient. paris, - . °. tome , p. - , - , - , - .) *owb morgan, jacques jean marie de. armenia and europe. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- l'arménie instrument de paix mondiale. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- essai sur les nationalités. paris: berger-levrault, . xi, p., l. °. bbx and btze partie . le problème des nationalités. partie . les arméniens. ---- the fate of the armenians. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- la transcaucasie et l'arménie clés des indes. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk moritz, bernhard. die armenisch-kurdische frage. (grenzboten. berlin, . °. jahrg. , bd. , p. - .) *df mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). europe's duty to armenia. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk murad, bey. la force et la faiblesse de la turquie. les coupables et les innocents. genève: j. mouille, . p. . ed. °. gic p.v. o'connor, thomas power. armenia and her future. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- armenia: united and autonomous. (asia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*oaa o'shea, john j. unhappy armenia. (catholic world. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da our obligations to armenia. (macmillan's magazine. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da pasdermadjian, g. why armenia should be free. armenia's rôle in the present war. (armenian herald. boston, - . °. v. , p. - , - .) *onk the peace congress and the armenian question. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk pears, sir edwin. turkey and the war. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da peterson, theodore. turkey and the armenian crisis. (catholic world. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da pignot, Émile. l'arménie et la question des nationalités. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk pinon, rené. l'arménie et la capitulation maximaliste. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- aux neutres. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- l'avenir de la transcaucasie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- d'où peut naître une arménie indépendante? (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- l'indépendance de l'arménie. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- un plaidoyer turc sur la question des massacres. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk ---- la résurrection de l'asie occidentale. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk pressensé, francis de. the turks in armenia. (chautauquan. meadville, pa., . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- see also manifestations franco-anglo-italiennes. price, m. philips. the problem of asiatic turkey. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da probyn, john webb. armenia and the lebanon. london: eastern question association [ ?]. p. °. (papers on the eastern question. no. .) bbh p.v. la question arménienne. les massacres d'adana. [signed un ancien diplomate.] (nouvelle revue. paris, . °. série , tome , p. - .) *dm quillard, pierre. see manifestations franco-anglo-italiennes. rafiüddin ahmad. a moslem view of abdul hamid and the powers. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ramsay, sir william mitchell. the armenian atrocities. (christian literature. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da rassam, hormuzd. the armenian difficulty. results of a local enquiry. (imperial and asiatic quarterly review. woking, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- the armenian question. (imperial and asiatic quarterly review. woking, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa robinson, emily j. the case of our ally armenia. (asiatic review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- a new armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the regeneration of armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the truth about armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk rohrbach, paul. aus turan und armenien. studie zur russischen weltpolitik. (preussische jahrbücher. berlin, . °. bd. , p. - , - , - ; bd. , p. - , - , - .) *df ---- a contribution to the armenian question. (forum. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da safir efendi. the armenian agitation. (imperial and asiatic quarterly review. woking, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *oaa safrastian, a. s. the existing position in armenia. (asiatic review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- germany and armenia. (ararat. london, - . °. v. , p. - , - , - , - .) *onk ---- russia and armenia. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk salmoné, h. anthony. the real rulers of turkey. (nineteenth century. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da santini, felice. la questione armena e gli armeni in turchia. (nuova antologia. roma, . °. serie , v. , p. - .) nna scatcherd, f. r. armenia's true interests and sympathies in the great war. (asiatic review. london, . °. series , v. , p. - .) *oaa ---- the armenian question. (asiatic review. london, . °. series , v. , p. - .) *oaa sevasly, miran. the armenian question. (new review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da shahid bey, sadik. islam, turkey and armenia, and how they happened. by sadik shahid bey. turkish mysteries unveiled. [st. louis: c. b. woodward co., cop. .] p., l. °. *onq siebert, wilbur henry. independence for armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the justice of granting autonomy to armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk stein, robert. armenia must have a european governor. (arena. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da stevenson, francis s. armenia. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da stride, w. k. the immediate future of armenia: a suggestion. (forum. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da symonds, arthur g. armenia. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk tchobanian, archag. armenia's loyalty to the allies. (armenian herald. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk ---- the armenian question and europe. [translated from the french by ira w. howerth.] (international monthly. burlington, vt., . °. v. , p. - .) *da reprinted in armenia, v. , no. , p. - , �*onk. thoumaian, g. the hour has struck. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the last chance. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da ---- turkey and armenia. (contemporary review. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da tonapetean, p. russian and british policy towards armenia. (ararat. london, - . °. v. , p. - , - ; v. , p. - , - , - ; v. , p. - .) *onk toynbee, arnold joseph. the position of armenia. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk the two eastern questions. [signed w.] (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da upton, edgar w. can armenia be kept alive as a nation? (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk varandian, mikael. armenia and the armenian question. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- l'arménie et la question arménienne. avec une préface de victor bérard. laval: g. kavanagh et cie. [pref. .] p. °. bbx varaztad, puzant. the armenian question. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk vernes, maurice. l'avenir de l'arménie et de l'asie occidentale. (la voix de l'arménie. paris, . °. année , p. - .) *onk villari, luigi. the anarchy in the caucasus. a new phase of the armenian question. (fortnightly review. london, . °. new series, v. , p. - .) *da vorontzov-dashkov, i. i. iz zapisok. (golos minuvshago. moscow, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca memoirs. watson, william. the purple east. a series of sonnets on england's desertion of armenia. london: john lane, . p., pl. . ed. °. ncm ---- ---- chicago: stone & kimball, . p. °. ncm wheeler, everett pepperrell. armenian independence. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk williams, aneurin. armenia: is it the end? (contemporary review. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) *da williams, william llewelyn. armenian aspirations. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . ---- the modern problem. (new armenia. new york, . f°. v. , p. - .) �*onk reprinted from his armenia: past and present, p. - . zarzecki, s. la question kurdo-arménienne. (revue de paris. paris, . °. , v. , p. - .) *dm armenians in other countries avdyeyev. armiane v avstro-vengrii. (kavkazskii viestnik. tiflis, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - ; no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca the armenians in austria and hungary. ---- armiane v rumynii. (kavkazskii viestnik. tiflis, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca the armenians in rumania. bedikian, dikran m. the armenian-american and the question of immigration. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. - , p. - .) �*onk bent, j. theodore. notes on the armenians in asia minor. (manchester geographical society. journal. manchester, . °. v. , p. - .) kaa berberov, r. i. polozhenie armian v rossii. (russkaia mysl'. moscow, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca the position of the armenians in russia. bischoff, ferdinand. urkunden zur geschichte der armenier in lemberg. hrsg. von ferdinand bischoff. (archiv für kunde österreichischer geschichts-quellen. wien, . °. bd. , p. - .) faa cons, emma. armenian exiles in cyprus. (contemporary review. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *da contenson, ludovic de. les arméniens du caucase. (correspondant. paris, . °. nouvelle série, v. , p. - .) *dm goehlert, vinzent. die armenier in europa und insbesondere in oesterreich-ungarn. (ausland. stuttgart, . °. v. , p. - .) �kaa gulesian, m. h. the armenian refugees. (arena. boston, . °. v. , p. - .) *da khakhanof, alexandre. la situation des arméniens dans le royaume de géorgie. (journal asiatique. paris, . °. série , v. , p. - .) *oaa marshall, annie c. the armenians in america. (armenia. boston, . °. v. , no. , p. - .) �*onk ---- a visit to the armenian church and to ter-maroukian's studio at paris. (armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). americahai daretsoitse, . [armeno-american year-book, .] boston, [ ]. , p. °. *onk ---- manchestry hai kaghoutu. [the armenian colony in manchester, england.] boston, . , p., l., pl. °. *onr ob armianakh, starinnykh poselentsakh pol'shi. (viestnik evropy. moscow, . °. , no. - , p. - .) *qca the armenians in poland. pavlovich, m. rossiia i armianskii narod. (sovremennik. st. petersburg, . °. , no. , p. - .) *qca russia and the armenian people. pisemski, a. astrakhanskie armiane. pz putevykh zapisok. p. (biblioteka dlia chteniia. st. petersburg, . °. , v. .) *qca the armenians of astrakhan. sazonov, a. n. nieskol'ko tsyfr ob armianakh na kavkazie. (russkaia mysl'. moscow, . °. , no. , [part ,] p. - ; no. , [part ,] p. - .) *qca statistics of the armenians in the caucasus. seropian, mouchek. see mouchek yebiscobos (seropian). seth, mesrovb j. history of the armenians in india, from the earliest times to the present day. london: luzac & co., . xxii p., l., p., fac. °. *onr tchobanian, archag. la france et le peuple arménien. paris: imprimerie berger-levrault, . p. °. *onr thoumaian, g. the armenians in egypt. (new armenia. new york, . °. v. , p. - .) �*onk ---- the armenians in india. (ararat. london, . °. v. , p. - .) *onk index a a., d. g. armyanski vopros v turtzii, . abaza, v. a. istoriya armenii, . abbott, k. e. notes of tour in armenia, . abbott, lyman. armenian question, . abbruzzese, antonio: le relazioni fra l'impero romano e l'armenia, a tempo di augusto, . le relazioni fra l'impero romano e l'armenia a tempo di tiberio, . le relazioni politiche fra l'impero romano e l'armenia da claudio a traiano, . abdullah, séraphin. vérification d'une date, . abdullah, séraphin, and f. macler. Études sur la miniature arménienne, . abich, hermann: der ararat, . die besteigung des ararat, . ein cyclus fundamental barometrischer höhenbestimmungen auf dem armenischen hochlande, . die fulguriten im andesit des kleinen ararat, . geologische skizzen aus transkaukasien, . hauteurs absolues du système de l'ararat, . [observations sur le mont ararat], . sur les ruines d'ani, . Über die lage der schneegränze und die gletscher der gegenwart im kaukasus, . ueber das steinsalz und seine geologische stellung im russischen armenien, . vergleichende chemische untersuchungen der wasser des caspischen meeres, . vergleichende grundzüge der geologie des kaukasus wie der armenischen und nordpersischen gebirge, . zur geologie des südöstlichen kaukasus, . abuhaiatian, hagop. pastor hagop abuhaiatian von urfa, . acogh'ig de daron, Étienne. histoire universelle, . adadourian, haig. armenian coat of arms, . adana massacres, . adger, j. b. my life and times, . adjarian, h.: classification des dialectes arméniens, . lautlehre des van-dialekts, . s. mesropi ev krerou kiudi badmoutian aghpiurnern ou anonts knnoutiunu, . adontz, n. armeniya v epokhu yustiniana, . aganoon, a. i. dissertation on antiquity of armenian language, . agathangelos: agathange. histoire du règne de tiridate, . agathangelus neu hrsg. von p. de lagarde, . badmoutiun, . agop, joannes: grammatica latina, armenice explicata, . puritas haygica, . puritas linguæ armenicæ, . aharonian, avedis: armenian academy at venice, . armenische erzählungen, . guteton da lakto, . honor, . materi; razskazy, . mother armenia, . vers la liberté, . visit to st. lazare, . ainsworth, w. f. travels and researches in asia minor, . ajcatur. armena fabelo, . akulian, aram. einverleibung armenischer territorien durch byzanz im xi. jahrhundert, . alaux, l. p. armenian schools, . alelouia yerousaghem, . alishanian, gheuont: armenian popular songs, . deux descriptions arméniennes des lieux saints de palestine, . the lily of shavarshan, . sissouan, . table bibliographique, . topographie de la grande arménie, . zartangark avedarani mlké takouhuoh, . allen, t. g., and w. l. sachtleben. across asia, . alphabetum armenum, . american armenian relief fund. cry of armenia, . american board of commissioners for foreign missions. historical sketch of missions ... in asia minor and armenia, . american committee for armenian and syrian relief: more material for sermon on bible lands, . national test of brotherhood, . american sacred songs, . amfiteatrov, a. v. armeniya i rim, . anderson, antony. hovsep pushman, . anderson, william. notes on geography, . andreasian, dikran. comment un drapeau sauva quatre mille arméniens, . apcar, d. a.: betrayed armenia, . in his name, . on cross of europe's imperialism, armenia crucified, . peace and no peace, . peace problem, . russian occupation of armenia, . truth about armenian massacres, . turkish constitution and armenia, . what german foreign minister has said, . apellian, aleksandir. boedi yrazi, . aptowitzer, v.: beiträge zur mosaischen rezeption im armenischen recht, . zur geschichte des armenischen rechtes, . arachin tasakirk mangants, . arakélian, hambartzoum: contes et nouvelles, . les rapports des arméniens avec l'occident, . ararat, . der ararat, . archaeologische, bemerkungen über armenien, . argyll ( . duke), g. d. campbell. our responsibilities for turkey, . arisdaguès de lasdiverd. histoire d'arménie, . armenia. letter from duke of argyll, &c., . armenia and her claims, . armenia and powers, . armenia rediviva, . armenian aspirations and revolutionary movements, . armenian church: garkavorootun hasaragatz aghotitz, . liturgia armena trasportata in italiano, . liturgie de la messe arménienne, . rituale armenorum, . armenian deportations, . armenian documents, . armenian herald, . armenian huntchakist party.--central committee. memorial, . armenian literature, . armenian massacre, . armenian people and ottoman government, . armenian poems, . armenian question, . armenian question in house of commons, . armenian relief association. bulletin, . armenian troubles, . armenians, . armenians and eastern question, . armenians taking stock of their national church, . armenische bibliothek, . die armenischen unruhen, . l'armeno-veneto, . arnot, robert. armenian literature, . arpee, leon: armenia and peace conference, . armenian awakening, . arzanov, d.: istoricheski vzglyad na armeniyu i georgiyu, . zamyechaniya ob armenii i armyanakh, . arzruni, andreas. reise nach süd-kaukasien, . asbarez, . asgian, g.: la chiesa armena e l'arianesimo, . la s. sede e la nazione armena, . aslan, kévork. Études historiques sur le peuple arménien, . assassination of armenia, . assises d'antioche, . les atrocités en arménie, . aucher, g. bollettino: armeno, . augustin badjétsi. itinéraire, . aukerian, haroutiun: brief account of mechitaristican society, . dictionary english and armenian, . dictionnaire abrégé français-arménien, . grammar armenian and english, . grammar english and armenian, . aukerian, haroutiun, and g. g. n. byron, . baron byron. grammar, armenian and english, . aukerian, mëgërdich, vartabed. liagadar vark ev vgayapanoutiun srpots, . avakian, hovhannes, and bedros hovnanian, editors. koharnir hai kraganoutian, . avdyeyev: armyane v avstro-vengrii, . armyane v rumynii, . avedikian, gabriele, khatchadroh surmelian and mëgërdich aukerian. nor parkirk haigasyian lezui, . avidaranian, h., translator. jarakaitk arevelian, . avtaliantz, john, baron: authors of armenian grammars, . covenant of ali, . memoir of hindu colony in ancient armenia, . memoir of life and writings of st. nierses clajensis, . note on origin of armenian era, . on invention of armenian alphabet, . on laws and law-books of armenians, . short memoir of mechithar ghosh, . singular narrative of armenian king arsaces, . ayvazian hovhannes, . azad, . azhderian, antranig. turk and land of haig, . azk, . b b., e. armenian wedding, . bachmann, walter. kirchen und moscheen in armenien, . baker, g. p. ascent of ararat, . banaser, . banks, e. j. to summit of mount ararat, . banse, ewald. die türkei, . barby, henry. au pays de l'épouvante, l'arménie martyre, . barkley, h. c. ride through asia minor and armenia, . baronian, h. h. maitre balthasar, . barre, andré. l'esclavage blanc (arménie et macédoine), . barrès, maurice. tigran yergat, . barrileah, a. h. ara keghetsig badmagan vibasanoutiun, . barton, j. l.: armenian qualifications for success, . daybreak in turkey, . euphrates college, . what america has done for armenians, . who are armenians? . basil. oraison funèbre de baudouin, . basmadjian, k. j.: armenia, home of grecian architecture, . histoire moderne des arméniens, . léon vi, . les livres de médecine chez les arméniens, . les lusignans, . note on van inscriptions, . une nouvelle inscription arméniaque, . une nouvelle inscription vannique, . la plus ancienne inscription arménienne, . la presse arménienne, . quelles étaient les frontières de l'arménie ancienne?, . quelques observations sur l'inscription de kelischin, . souvenir d'ani. . la stèle de zouarthnotz, . survey of ancient armenian history, . baumgartner, adolf. ueber das buch "die chrie," . baumstark, anton. die christlichen literaturen des orients, . bayan, g. armenian proverbs, . baynes, n. h. rome and armenia, . bedickian, s. v. how armenians keep new year and christmas, . bedikian, d. m. armenian-american and question of immigration, . bedrossian, matthias. new dictionary armenian-english, . belck, waldemar: archäologische forschungen in armenien, . armenien im altertum, . armenische expedition, . aus den berichten über die armenische expedition, . beiträge zur alten geographie, . eine in russisch-armenien neu aufgefundene, wichtige chaldische inschrift, . die keil-inschriften in der tigris-quellgrotte, . die kelischin-stele, . mittheilungen über armenische streitfragen, . das reich der mannäer, . die rusas-stele von topsanä, . die steleninschrift rusas' ii, . untersuchungen und reisen in transkaukasien, . belck, waldemar, and f. f. k. lehmann-haupt: bericht über die armenische forschungsreise, . bericht über eine forschungsreise durch armenien, . chaldische forschungen, . inuspuas, sohn des menuas, . mittheilung über weitere ergebnisse ihrer studien an den neugefundenen armenischen keilinschriften, . ein neuer herrscher von chaldia, . reisebriefe von der armenischen expedition, . Über die kelishin-stelen, . ueber neuerlich aufgefundene keilinschriften in russisch und türkisch armenien, . vorläufiger bericht über die im jahre erzielten ergebnisse einer forschungsreise durch armenien, . weiterer bericht über die armenische expedition, . zu jensen's bemerkungen betreffs der sitze der chalder, . zweiter vorbericht über eine forschungsreise in armenien, . belin, f. a. extrait du journal d'un voyage de paris à erzeroum, . bell, m. s. around and about armenia, . bellaud. essai sur la langue arménienne, . benjamin, s. g. w. armenians and porte, . benoit, lucien. les massacres d'adana, . benson, e. f. crescent and iron cross, . bent, j. t.: notes on armenians in asia minor, . travels amongst armenians, . berberov, r.: die armenier, . polozheniye armyan v rossii, . bertin, george. abridged grammars of languages of cuneiform inscriptions, . beshgeturian, azniv. arachnort anklierin lezvin, . beshigtashlian, mëgërdich. kertouadzner ou jarer, . bibliotheca hagiographica orientalis, . bibliothèque nationale, paris. catalogue des manuscrits arméniens, . bicknell, e. p. red cross and red crescent, . bierbaum, p. w. streifzüge im kaukasus und in hocharmenien, . binder, henry. au kurdistan, . bischoff, ferdinand: das alte recht der armenier in lemberg, . urkunden zur geschichte der armenier in lemberg, . bishop, i. l. b. shadow of kurd, . bittner, maximilian. der vom himmel gefallene brief christi, . black, g. f. gypsies of armenia, . blackwell, a. s.: armenian poems, . armenian poet: siamanto, . armenian virtues, . battle of avarair, . bibliography, . progress in armenian church, . blau, otto: ueber-karta, -kerta in ortsnamen, . vom urumia-see nach dem van-see, . bliss, e. m.: armenia, . turkey and armenian atrocities, . turkey and armenian atrocities; a reign of terror, . bluhm, julius. routen im türkischen armenien, . blunt, w. s. turkish misgovernment, . bodleian library, oxford university. catalogue of armenian mss., . bogdanov, artemy. memoirs of life of artemi, . bolton, h. c. armenian folklore, . bonney, t. g. notes on some rocks from ararat, . boré, eugène: arménie, . de l'arménie, . Élégie sur la prise de constantinople, . bourgeois, h. la grammaire arménienne de denis de thrace, . bowles, t. g. cyprus convention, . boyajian, z. c.: armenian legends and poems, , . raffi, . brant, james: journey through part of armenia, . notes of journey through part of kurdistan, . bratter, c. a. die armenische frage, . bresnitz von sydacoff, p. f. abdul hamid und die christenverfolgungen in der türkei, . brézol, georges. les turcs ont passé la, . british museum.--department of oriental printed books and mss. catalogue of armenian mss., . brockelmann, karl: ein assyrisches lehnwort im armenischen, . die griechischen fremdwörter im armenischen, . ein syrischer text in armenischer umschrift, . brockelmann, karl, and others. geschichte des christlichen litteraturen des orients, . brosset, m. f.: activité littéraire des géorgiens et des arméniens, . analyse critique de la vseobshchaya istoriya de vardan, . de quelques inscriptions arméniennes, . des historiens arméniens, . détails sur le droit public arménien, . Études sur l'historien arménien mkhithar, . Études sur l'historien arménien oukhtanès, . examen critique de quelques passages de la description de la grande-arménie, . examen d'un passage de l'historien arménien oukhtanès, . explication de diverses inscriptions géorgiennes, arméniennes et grecques, . extrait du manuscrit arménien ... relatif au calendrier géorgien, . listes chronologiques des princes et métropolites de la siounie, . monographie des monnaies arméniennes, . note sur les inscriptions arméniennes de bolghari, . note sur le village arménien d'acorhi, . notice historique sur les couvents arméniens de haghbat et de sanahin, . notice des manuscrits arméniens, . notice sur le couvent arménien de kétcharhous, . notice sur le diacre arménien zakaria ghabonts, . notice sur edchmiadzin, . notice sur l'historien arménien thoma ardzrouni, . notice sur un manuscrit arménien, . notice sur la plus ancienne inscription arménienne connue, . le prétendu masque de fer arménien, . projet d'une collection d'historiens arméniens inédits, . rapport sur diverses inscriptions, . rapport ... sur un manuscrit arménien, . rapport sur la de partie du voyage du p. sargis dchalaliants, . rapports sur un voyage archéologique dans la géorgie et dans l'arménie, . revue de la littérature historique de l'arménie, . samouel d'ani, . sur les couvents arméniens d'haghbat et de sanahin, . sur deux rédactions arméniennes ... de la légende des saints baralam-varlaam et ioasaph-iosaphat, . sur l'histoire ancienne de l'arménie, . sur l'histoire composée ... par thoma ardzrouni, . variétés arméniennes, . brosset, m. f., and p. a. jaubert. description des principaux fleuves de la grande-arménie, . brosset, m. f., and e. kunik. notice sur deux inscriptions cunéiformes, . broussali, jean. l'arménie, . browne, j. g. tartars and armenians, . brunhes, jean. le rôle ancien de l'arménie, . bryce ( . viscount), james bryce: armenian massacres, . armenian question, . die armenische frage, . ascent of ararat, . future of armenia, . future of asiatic turkey, . on armenia, . transcaucasia and ararat, , . budushcheye ustroistvo armenii, . bugge, sophus: beiträge zur etymologischen erläuterung der armenischen sprache, . etruskisch und armenisch, . buhse. vorläufiger botanischer bericht über meine reise durch einen theil armeniens, . bunyan, john. krisdianosin ou krisdinein jamportoutiuni, . burchardi, gustav: raffi, . der zweifel und das böse, . burgin, g. b. armenian at home, . buss, kate. archag tchobanian, . buxton, harold. side-lights on armenian question, . buxton, noel. russians in armenia, . buxton, noel, and harold buxton. travel and politics in armenia, , . byron ( . baron), g. g. n. byron. lord byron's armenian exercises and poetry, . c c., e. armenian folk songs, . calfa, ambroise. dictionnaire arménien-français, . calfa, corène. arschag ii, . cappelletti, giuseppe. l'armenia, . carlier, Émilie: au milieu des massacres, . en arménie, . carrière, auguste: inscriptions d'un reliquaire arménien, . la légende d'abgar, . la rose d'or, . un version arménienne de l'histoire d'asséneth, . cavendish, l. c. f., lady. peril of armenia, . cayol, henri. littérature arménienne, . chahan de cirbied, jacques: détails sur la situation actuelle du royaume de perse, . grammaire de la langue arménienne, . mémoire sur le gouvernement ... des anciens arméniens, . chakijian, ephrem. badmoutiun hahots, . chakmakjian, h. h.: armenia's place, . armeno-american letter writer, . badmoutiun hahots, . chalatianz, bagrat. die armenische literatur des . jahrhunderts, . chambers, l. p. massacre of armenia, . chamchian, michael: badmoutiun hahots, . history of armenia, . chanazarian, g. v. la littérature arménienne, . chant populaire sur la captivité de léon, . chantre, b. a travers l'arménie russe, . chantre, ernest: l'ararat, . les arméniens, . de beyrouth à tiflis, . mission scientifique dans la haute mésopotamie, . premiers aperçus sur les peuples de l'arménie russe, . rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l'asie occidentale, . chantres. reisen am ararat, . charmetant, felix. das sterbende armenien und das christliche europa, . charpentier, jarl. kleine beiträge zur armenischen wortkunde, . chesney, f. r. russo-turkish campaigns of and , . chesney, g. m. winter campaign in armenia, . chikhachov, p. a.: asie mineure, , . reisen in kleinasien und armenien, . sur l'orographie et la constitution géologique de quelques parties de l'asie mineure et de l'arménie, . childs, w. j. across asia minor, . chirol, sir valentine. a great armenian [nubar pasha], . chirvanzadê, pseud. of alexandre movissian. la possédée, . chopin, j. de l'origine des peuples habitant la province d'arménie, . ciakciak, emmanuele. dizionario italiano-armeno-turco, . cilicia, . clark, william. armenian history, . clinch, b. j. christians under turkish rule, . collet, c. d. new crusade against turk, . collins, f. b., translator: armenian folk-tales, . vacant yard, . compendiose notizie sulla congregazione de monaci armeni mechitaristi, . condition of armenia, . cons, emma. armenian exiles in cyprus, . constantinople massacre, . constitution nationale des arméniens, . contenson, ludovic, baron de: les arméniens du caucase, . movement for armenian emancipation, . la question arménienne, . les réformes en turquie d'asie, . contes & chants arméniens, . conybeare, f. c.: armenia and armenians, . barlaam and josaphat legend, . collation with ancient armenian versions of greek text of aristotle's categories, . collation of old armenian version of plato's laws, . on ancient armenian version of plato, . on old armenian version of plato's apology, . on old armenian version of plato's laws, . conybeare, f. c., and others. story of ahikar, . coulon, henri: l'art et l'arménie, . l'héroïsme des arméniens, . cradle of history, . creagh, james. armenians, koords and turks, . cuinet, vital. la turquie d'asie, . cumont, franz, and eugène cumont. voyage d'exploration archéologique dans le pont et la petite arménie, . curtis, w. e. around black sea, . d dadian, boghos. l'église d'arménie, . dadian, m. b. la société arménienne contemporaine, . daghbaschean, h. gründung des bagratidenreiches, . dale, darley. armenia and armenians, . dalyell, r. a. o. earthquake of erzerûm, . damadian, mihran: furfurcar, . ramgavaroutiun, . damas, andré de. coup d'oeil sur l'arménie, . dan, demeter. glaube und gebräuche der armenier bei der geburt, hochzeit und beerdigung, . dante alighieri. asdouadzahin gadagirkoutiun, . dashian, hagopos, vartabed: vartabedutune arakelotz anvaveragan ganonatz madiane, . zur abgar-sage, . davey, richard: sultan and his subjects, . turkey and armenia, . davoud zadour de melik schahnazar. notices sur l'état actuel de la perse, en persan, en arménien et en français, . day of peril of armenian church, . de kay, charles. suppression of faith, . delatre, louis. place de l'arménien parmi les langues indo-européennes, . denis of thrace. grammaire ... en grec, en arménien et en français, . der-hagopian, nishan: persecuted armenia, . what of armenia, . des coursons, r. de, vicomte. la rebellion arménienne, . desimoni, cornelio. actes passés en , et à l'aïas, . deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft. armenisch, . develay, albert. autour des lacs de van et d'ourmiah, . deyrolle, théophile. voyage dans le lazistan et l'arménie, . dicey, edward. nubar pasha and our asian protectorate, . dillon, e. j.: armenia: an appeal, . armenia and turk, . condition of armenia, . fiasco in armenia, . dingelstedt, v. armenians, . diplomatische aktenstücke zur armenischen frage, . diran, a. etchmiadzin, . dirohyan, h. v.: hamarod tasakirk unthanour badmoutian, . ousoumn pnagan ev pnapanagan kidoutiants, . dirr, a. praktisches lehrbuch der ostarmenischen sprache, . dispersion of armenian nation, . distribution of armenian nation, . distribution des prix du collège arménien de paris, . dolens, noël. ce que l'on voit en arménie, . dolens, noël, and a. khatch. histoire des anciens arméniens, . dominian, leon. peoples of asiatic turkey, . doumergue, Émile. ce que la suisse a fait pour l'arménie, . dowling, t. e. armenian church, . dubois de montpéreux, frédéric. voyage autour du caucase, . duchesne, l. m. o. l'arménie chrétienne dans l'histoire ecclésiastique d'eusèbe, . dulaurier, Édouard: les arméniens en autriche, en russie et en turquie, . les chants populaires, . commerce, tarif des douanes et condition civile des étrangers dans le royaume de la petite arménie, . considérations sur les plus anciennes origines de l'histoire arménienne, . cosmogonie des perses d'après eznig, . ethnographie de l'arménie. . Étude sur l'organisation politique, religieuse et administrative du royaume de la petite-arménie, . Études sur les chants historiques, . l'histoire des croisades d'après les chroniques arméniennes, . histoire, dogmes, traditions et liturgie de l'église arménienne, - . littérature arménienne, . les mongols d'après les historiens arméniens, . recherches sur la chronologie arménienne, . dwight, h. g. o.: armenian traditions about mt. ararat, . catalogue of all works in armenian of date earlier than th century, . christianity in turkey, . kéraganoutun ankghiaren yev hahérén, . dwight, h. g. o., and elias riggs. orthography of armenian and turkish proper names, . dwight, w. b. american bank notes and dr. seropyan, . dzotsikian, s. m.: arnutiun, . aus ma ani kaghakin, . debi pergutiun, . haigagank, . e eastern question, . ebersolt, jean. les anciennes églises d'arménie, . ecclesiae armeniacae canones selecti, . edschmiatsin, . edwards, b. b. ascent of mount ararat, . egli, emil. feldzüge in armenien, . einstein, l. d.: armenian massacres, . inside constantinople, . eliot, sir c. n. e. turkey in europe, . elisha, vartabed: eliseo, storico armeno del quinto secolo, . histoire de vartan, . history of vartan, . soulèvement national de l'arménie chrétienne, . yeghishei vartabedi vasn vartanah, . emerson, frederick. mdavor ev kravor touapanoutiun, . Émin, j. b. recherches sur le paganisme arménien, . engelhardt, Édouard: l'angleterre et la russie à propos de la question arménienne, . l'enquête arménienne, . la turquie et le tanzimat, . england's policy in turkey, . ephraim the syrian: evangelii concordantis expositio, . srpouin yéprémi, . epiphanius of cyprus. ekthesiz protoklesion patriarchon te kai metropoliton, . eritassard hayastan, . erk-ura, . erkér ou yéghanagnér, . eschavannes, e. d': les families d'orient, . les rois d'arménie au xive siècle, . esoff, g. d'. aperçu de l'étude de la langue arménienne en europe, . etesioh sosgali tebkl yev oghperkoutiun godoradzin etesioh, . eusebius pamphilus, bishop of caesarea. eusebii pamphili caesariensis episcopi chronicon, . excursions in armenia, . f fa'iz al-husain: l'arménie martyre, . martyred armenia, . die türkenherrschaft und armeniens schmerzensschrei, . faustus of byzant. bibliothèque historique, . fénélon, f. de. les aventures de télémaque, . ferriman, z. d. young turks and truth about holocaust at adana, . filler, ernst. quaestiones de leontii armenii historia, . finck, f. n.: katalog der armenischen handschriften, . kleinere mittelarmenische texte, . lehrbuch der neuostarmenischen litteratursprache, . fischer, hans. das kloster des hl. thaddäus, . flandin, eugène: souvenirs de voyage en arménie, . ueber alt- und neuarmenien, . fonton, félix. la russie dans l'asie-mineure, . forel, f. a. les échantillons de limon dragués en dans les lacs d'arménie, . fortescue, e. f. k. armenian church, . foy, willy. zur xerxes-inschrift von van, . france.--direction de commerce extérieur. rapports commerciaux, . france.--ministère des affaires Étrangères. documents diplomatiques, , - . die franzoesischen gelbbücher über armenien, . freshfield, d. w.: early ascents of ararat, . travels in central caucasus and bashan, . fresneaux, marcel. trait d'union. arménie-france, . friederichsen, m. h.: die grenzmarken des europäischen russlands, . russisch armenien, . friend of armenia, . furneaux, henry. roman relations with parthia and armenia, . g gabrielian, m. c. armenia, . gabrielian, m. s. serahin aroghzapanoutiun, . gaghapar, . gaidzakian, ohan. illustrated armenia, . galanus, clemens: conciliationis ecclesiae armenae cvm romana, . historia armena, . gallaudet, t. h. abashkharatsvits, . gardthausen, v. ueber den griechischen ursprung der armenischen schrift, . garnett, l. m. j.: armenian wedding, . women of turkey, . garo, chahen. modern armenian literature, . gatteyrias, j. a.: l'arménie et les arméniens, . Élégie sur les malheurs de l'arménie, . gauthiot, robert. note sur l'accent secondaire en arménien, . geffcken, f. h. turkish reforms and armenia, . gégharvest, , . gelzer, heinrich: die anfänge der armenischen kirche, . armenien, . zur armenischen götterlehre, . georgius, pisida. vetsoreahk keorkah bisiteah, . germany, turkey, and armenia, . ghambashidze, d. georgia and armenia as allies, . ghazarian, mkrtitsch. armenien unter der arabischen herrschaft, . ghévont, vartabed. histoire des guerres et des conquêtes des arabes en arménie, . ghisleri, arcangelo. l'armenia e gli armeni, . ghulam-us-saqlain. mussalmans of india and armenian question, . gibbons, h. a.: blackest page of modern history, . "la page la plus noire de l'histoire moderne," . gibbons, h. d.: red rugs of tarsus, . les turcs ont passé par là! . gildemeister, johann. pseudokallisthenes, . gjandschezian, esnik. beiträge zur altarmenischen nominalen stammbildungslehre, . gladstone, w. e. mr. gladstone on armenian question, . gleye, arthur. ugro-finnischer einfluss im armenischen, . gobat, albert. protection of armenians, . goehlert, vinzent. die armenier in europa und insbesondere in oesterreich-ungarn, . gooch, g. p. who are armenians? . gotchnag, . grabowsky, adolf. die armenische frage, . graves, j. t. armenian nation, . gray, l. h. on certain persian and armenian month-names, . great britain.--foreign office: diplomatic and consular reports. annual series. report on trade, . miscellaneous no. ( ). treatment of armenians, . turkey. , no. . correspondence relating to asiatic provinces of turkey, . turkey. , no. . correspondence relative to armenian question, . [various documents relating to the armenians], - . greene, f. d.: armenian crisis in turkey, . armenian massacres, . rule of turk, . greene, f. v. russian army and its campaigns in turkey, . greene, j. k. leavening the levant, . gregory, d. s. armenians in eastern question, . gregory of armenia, called illuminator. die akten, . gregory of bysantium, metropolitan of chios. yearnings after unity in east, . gregory dgha, patriarch of armenia. Élégie, . gregory magistros: ein brief des gregor magistros an den emir ibrahim, . ein brief des gregor magistros an den patriarchen petros, . gregory of nazianzen. (nonnos.) die scholien zu fünf reden des gregor, . gregory the priest. chronique, . griselle, eugène. une victime du pangermanisme, . grothe, hugo. der russisch-türkische kriegsschauplatz, . guinness, walter. impressions of armenia, . guiragos of kantzag. extrait de l'histoire d'arménie, . gulesian, m. h.: armenian refugees, . england's hand in turkish massacres, . gulian, k. h. elementary modern armenian grammar, . guthe, h. mosaiken mit armenischer inschrift, . guyard, stanislas: Études vanniques, . les inscriptions de van, . inscriptions de van, les estampages de m. deyrolle, . note sur quatre mots des inscriptions de van, . note sur quelques particularités des inscriptions de van, . note sur quelques passages des inscriptions de van, . gylling, hjalmar. notes on microscopical structure of some eruptive rocks from armenia, . h hacobian, a. p. armenia and war, . hagopian, hovhan: pocket dictionary, . relations of armenians and franks, . russification of armenians, . haïgazn, Édouard. légendes et superstitions de l'arménie, . haik, . hairenik, . hamarod zhamakirk hahasdaneahts sa yegeghetsuoh, . hamilton, w. j.: extracts from notes made on journey in asia minor, . researches in asia minor, pontus and armenia, . hamlin, cyrus: genesis and evolution of turkish massacre, . martyrdom of armenia, . hampartsoumian, h. a. arouyesd madaharoutian, . handbook for travellers in asia minor, . hanusz, johann. beiträge zur armenischen dialectologie, . harnack, adolf. forschungen auf dem gebiete der alten grusinischen und armenischen litteratur, . haroutiunian, hovhannes. "vor megoun yedeven," . harris, j. r. notes from armenia, . harris, j. r., and h. b. harris: briefe von schauplatz der letzten massacres in armenien, . letters from scenes of recent massacres, . harris, w. b. unbiassed view of armenian question, . hart, a. b. free armenia, . hauff, wilhelm. badouoh yediuen gam likhtunshtain, . havemeyer, j. c. relation of united states to armenia, . haweis, h. r. persian on armenian massacres, . hayrig, chrimian. soldier's lament, . henderson, b. w. chronology of wars in armenia, . henry, j. d. baku, . hepworth, g. h. through armenia, . herold, a. f. l'amitié de la france et de l'arménie, . herrick, g. f. armenians and american interests under russia, . hethoum, prince of gorigos: chronographie, . histoire orientale, . historia orientalis, . historie of ayton, . relation de hayton, . table chronologique, . hethoum ii, king of armenia. poëme, . heyfelder, o. die armenier und ihre zukunft, . hin havadk gam hetanosagan gronk hahots, . hincks, edward. on inscriptions at van, . histoire de pharmani asman, . hittite--armenian? . hoberg, otto. die armenische frage und der weltkrieg, . hodgetts, e. a. b. round about armenia, . hoffmeister, e. von. durch armenien, . holynski, a. j. j. nubar pacha devant l'histoire, . homer. iliagan, . hommaire de hell, adèle. les arméniennes à constantinople, . horace. arvésd kertoghagan, . houghton, l. s. armenian uprising, . how to save alive orphan children of martyrs, . howard, mary. worst sufferer of war, . howard. w. w. horrors of armenia. . howel, thomas. journal of passage from india ... through armenia, . hrasdan, saven. sind die armenier kriegerischen geistes bar? . hubboff, prince. genealogical catalogue of kings of armenia, . huebschmann, heinrich: die altarmenischen ortsnamen, . armeniaca, - . armenische grammatik, . iranisch-armenische namen auf karta, kert, gird, . die semitischen lehnwörter im altarmenischen, . ueber aussprache und umschreibung des altarmenischen, . ueber die stellung des armenischen im kreise der indogermanischen sprachen, . huet g. les contes populaires d'arménie, . hughes, t. mck. notes on some volcanic phenomena in armenia, . hugo, victor. innsoun yerek, . huntington, ellsworth: mittheilungen aus englischen briefen ... über armenische alterthümer, . through great cañon of euphrates river, . weitere berichte über forschungen in armenien, . hyvernat, henry. armenia, . i imprimerie arménienne de saint-lazare: catalogue des livres, . tzoutzag krots, . in türkisch-armenien, . ingersoll, r. g. inch e gronu, . injijian, ghougas: description du bosphore, . hnakhosoutiun, , . nachrichten über den thrazischen bosporus, . villeggiature de' bizantini sul bosforo, . institut de france.--académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. recueil des historiens des croisades. documents arméniens, . international bible students association. scenario of photo-drama of creation, . irenaeus, bishop of lyons: armenische irenaeusfragmente, . des heiligen irenäus schrift zum erweise der apostolischen verkündigung, . isaverdentz, hagopos: easy method of learning english, . histoire de l'arménie, . ischchanian, b. die armenische bevölkerung in der türkei. . ismail kemal, bey. armenia and armenians, . j jaubert, p. a. voyage en arménie, . jean vi, patriarch of armenia. histoire d'arménie, . jean ouosk'herdjan. mémoire, . jenkins, h. d. armenia and armenians, . jensen, peter: hittiter und armenier. . die hittitisch-armenische inschrift, . die sitze der "urarto-chalder" zur zeit tiglatpileser's i, . joannissiany, abgar: armenische sprichwörter, . sprichwörter, . johansson, k. f. om de nyaste upptäckterna i armenien, . john of crimea. description des monastères arméniens d'haghbat, . junker, heinrich. zur flexion der altarmenischen demonstrativa, . k k armyanskomu voprosu v turtzii, . kachouni, m. v.: arouisdapanoutiun gam shdimaran kidiliats, . bardizbanoutiun, . bdghapanoutiun, . gatnapanoutiun, . meghouapoudzoutiun, . kachouni, manouele. hnakhosoutiun hahasdani, , . kalemkiar, gregoris: die siebente vision daniels, . eine skizze der literarisch-typographischen thätigkeit der mechitharisten-congregation in wien, , . kalenderian, v. h. armenians as soldiers, . karamianz, n.: einundzwanzig buchstaben eines verlorenen alphabets, . verzeichniss der armenischen handschriften der königlichen bibliothek, . karekin, paul. bibliographie arménienne, . karst, josef: armenisches rechtsbuch, . aussprache und vokalismus des kilikisch-armenischen, . beruehrungspunkte in der pluralbildung, . historische grammatik des kilikisch-armenischen, . das trilingue medizinalglossar aus ms., , . kassabian, dr. mihran k., . katchoony, h. to martyrs of adana, . kélékian, diran. la turquie et son souverain, . kennedy, j. indians in armenia. . kent, w. h. ancient church of armenia, . keworkian, komitas. armeniens volkstümliche reigentänze, . key of truth, . khakhanof, alexandre. la situation des arméniens dans le royaume de géorgie, . khalathianz, bagrat: die armenische heldensage, . ueber den ursprung der armenischen fürstentümer, . der ursprung der armenischen fürstentümer, . khalathianz, g. a.: armyanskii epos v istorii armenii moiseya khorenskago, . fragmente iranischer sagen, . märchen und sagen, . nachalo kriticheskavo izucheniya istorii armenii moiseya khorenskago, . Über die armenische version der weltchronik des hippolytus, . war artasches von armenien der besieger des krösus? . zur erklärung der armenischen geschichte des moses von chorene, . khalil khalid efendi. armenian question, . khaniji, anton. mukhtasar tawarikh al-arman, . khanikof, n. voyage à ani, . kharajian, h. a. regional geology and mining of armenia, . khrimean, mekertich. meeting of kings, . khungian, t. b.: glimpses from ancient armenia, . massacres in turkey, . kiepert, heinrich: Über älteste landes- und volksgeschichte von armenien, . Über die lage der armenischen hauptstadt tigranokerta, . kinneir, j. m.: armenia, . journey through asia minor, armenia and koordistan, . klaproth, j. h.: aperçu des entreprises des mongols en géorgie et en arménie, . description de l'arménie russe, . extrait du derbend-nâmeh, . opisaniye rossiskoi armenii, . klidschian, arsen. das armenische eherecht, . knapp, g. h. mission at van, . kohler, charles. lettres pontificales concernant l'histoire de la petite arménie, . kolenati, f. a. reiseerinnerungen, . koran. mouhammed. kouran, . kotschy, theodor. neue reise nach klein-asien, . kourghinian, shoushanik. eagle's love, . koutchak, nahabed. vieux chants arméniens, . kovalevski, maksim. armyanski vopros, . kraelitz-greifenhorst, f. von: sprachprobe eines armenisch-tatarischen dialektes in polen, . studien zum armenisch-türkischen, . krahmer, d. die altarmenische hauptstadt ani, . ksan gakhaghannir, . kurkjian, v. m.: armenian benevolent union, . armenian kingdom of cilicia, . l l., j. l'arménie et les arméniens, . lagarde, p. a. de: armenische studien, . erläuterungen zu agathangelus, . vergleichung der armenischen consonanten mit denen des sanskrit, . vita gregorii armeni, . lagov, n. m., compiler. armeniya, . lalayantz, erwand: les anciens chants historiques et les traditions populaires, . légendes et superstitions de l'arménie, . langlois, victor: collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'arménie, . la congrégation mékhitariste, . considérations sur les rapports de l'arménie avec la france, . documents pour servir à une sigillographie des rois d'arménie, . du commerce, de l'industrie et de l'agriculture de la karamanie, . Étude sur les sources de l'histoire d'arménie, . une fête à la cour de léon ii, . fragment d'un voyage en cilicie, . inscriptions grecques, romaines, byzantines et arméniennes de la cilicie, . les journaux chez les arméniens, . lettre à monsieur ... brosset, sur quelques points d'histoire politique, . lettre à m. brosset, sur la succession des rois d'arménie, . lettre à m. ch. lenormant, . mémoire sur les archives du catholicosat arménien de sis, . mémoire sur les origines de la culture des lettres en arménie, . mémoire sur la vie et les écrits du prince grégoire magistros, . les monuments de la cilicie, . note sur l'inscription arménienne d'un bélier sépulcral à djoulfa, . notice sur le chrysobulle, . numismatique de l'arménie, . numismatique de l'arménie au moyen âge, . place de l'arménie dans l'histoire, . les populations arméniennes indépendantes du mont taurus, . rapport sur l'exploration archéologique de la cilicie, . les ruines de lampron, . voyage dans la cilicie, . voyage à sis, . lanin, e. b. armenia and armenian people, . layard, sir a. h. discoveries in ruins of nineveh and babylon; with travels in armenia, . lazar of pharbe. histoire d'arménie, . léart, marcel: history of armenian question, . la question arménienne, . lecarpentier, g. la nouvelle question d'arménie, . lehmann-haupt, f. f. k.: armenien, . bericht über die ergebnisse der von w. belck und c. f. lehmann ... ausgeführten forschungsreise in armenien, . bericht über den von ihm erledigten abschnitt der armenischen expedition, . "chaldisch" und "armenisch," . chaldische nova, . die einwanderung der armenier, . entgegnung auf hrn. belck's einsendung "über die keil-inschriften der tigris-grotte," . materialien zur älteren geschichte armeniens, . eine neue ausgabe der auf russischem gebiet gefundenen chaldischen keilinschriften, . neugefundene menuas-inschriften, . die neugefundene steleninschrift rusas' ii, . religionsgeschichtliches aus kaukasien und armenien, , . ein schlusswort, . der tigris-tunnel, . von der deutschen armenischen expedition, . vorschläge zur sammlung der lebenden armenischen dialekte, . weiterer bericht über den fortgang der armenischen expedition, . zwei unveröffentlichte chaldische inschriften, . zwei unveröffentlichte keilschrifttexte, . leist, arthur: gabriel sundukianz, . die kongregation der mechitaristen, . litterarische skizzen, . mkrtitsch beschiktaschlian, . pater leo alischan, . raphael patkanian, . lenormant, françois. sur l'ethnographie et l'histoire de l'arménie, . léon iii, king of armenia. décret ou privilège ... en faveur des génois, . léon vi, king of armenia. [history of and articles on], . lerch, p. ueber eine armenische bearbeitung der "sieben weisen meister," . leroy-beaulieu, anatole. les arméniens et la question arménienne, . levine, i. d. armenia resurrected, . lidén, evald. armenische studien, . little, e. c. armenia and turkey, . loftus, w. k. on geology of portions of turko-persian frontier, . lohmann, ernst. im kloster zu sis, . longuinoff, d. ascension de l'ararat, . lord rosebery's second thoughts, . lusignan, guy de. nouveau dictionnaire illustré français-arménien, . lynch, h. f. b.: armenia, . armenian question, . armenian question: europe or russia? . ascent of mount ararat, . bibliography, . m mccoan, j. c. our new protectorate, . maccoll, malcolm: armenia and transvaal, . constantinople massacre, . malcolm maccoll; memoirs and correspondence, . mcdermot, george. great assassin and christians of armenia, . macfarlane. moeurs arméniennes, . macgregor, john. turkish armenia, . mcgregor, p. j. c. notes on birds observed at erzerum, . macler, frédéric: les arméniens en turquie, . autour de l'arménie, . autour de la cilicie, . beginnings of armenian movement, . la chaire d'arménien, . contes arméniens, . contes et légendes, . un document arménien, . indications bibliographiques, . miniatures arméniennes, . mosaïque orientale, . notices de manuscrits arméniens, . notre-dame de bitlis, . pseudo-sebêos, . rapport sur une mission scientifique en arménie, , . russia and armenians, . maghak-teopileantz, m. v. gensakroutiun yérévéli arants, . mahdesian, arshag. armenia, . maksimov, s. v. armyanski narod, . malcolm, j. a.: armenian's cry for armenia, . cry for armenia, . mangasarian, m. m.: armenia and turkey, . armenia's impending doom, . mangouni, n. hatsi hamar, . manifestations franco-anglo-italiennes, . marbeau, Édouard. l'arménie et l'opinion publique, . marcar, samuel. description of copper coin of leo, . margoliouth, d. s. syro-armenian dialect, . maribas the chaldean. extraits de la chronique, . markoff, a. v. russian armenia, . markoff, e. eine besteigung des grossen ararat, . marquart, josef. eransahr nach der geographie des ps. moses xorenac'i, . marr, n.: kavkazskii kulturnyi mir i armeniya, . sbornik pritch vardana, materialy dlya istorii srednevyekovoi armyanskoi literatury, . marshall, a. c.: armenian embroideries, . armenians in america, . arshag tchobanian, . minas tcheraz, . visit to armenian church and to ter-maroukian's studio, . martens, e. v. aufzählung der von dr. a. brandt in russisch-armenien gesammelten mollusken, . martin, paulin. des signes hiéroglyphiques dans les manuscrits arméniens, . martiros of crimea. liste rimée des souverains de la petite arménie, . martyr, bishop of arzendjan. relation d'un voyage fait en europe, . les massacres d'arménie, . massacres in turkey, . matthew of edessa: chronique, . extraits de la chronique, . mauclair, camille. vartan mahokian, . maunsell, f. r. eastern turkey, . maxudianz, m. le parler arménien d'akn, . mechitharisten-kongregation in wien. huschardzan, . meda, filippo. la storia documentata delle ultime stragi in armenia, . meillet, antoine: de quelques archaïsmes remarquables de la déclinaison arménienne, . notes sur la conjugaison arménienne, . observations sur la graphie de quelques anciens manuscrits de l'Évangile arménien, . recherches sur la syntaxe comparée de l'arménien, . remarques sur la grammaire historique de l'arménien, . remarques sur le texte de l'historien arménien agathange, . melik, alexander. khordagwadz yerginkner, . mémoire de la mission d'erzeron, . menant, joachim. 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la vie et les écrits de moyse de khoren, . notice sur le voyage littéraire de m. schulz en orient, . recherches sur la vie et les aventures de léon, . salemann, c. armenien, . salmoné, h. a. real rulers of turkey, . samuel of ani: extrait de la chronographie, . samuelis presbyteri aniensis temporum usque ad suam ætatem ratio e libris historicorum summatim collecta, . sandalgian, joseph: asorisdaniah eu barsig sebakir artsanakroutiunk, . l'idiome des inscriptions cunéiformes urartiques, . les inscriptions cunéiformes urartiques, . sandwith, humphry: how turks rule armenia, . narrative of siege of kars, . santini, felice. la questione armena e gli armeni in turchia, . saparian, hamazasb: pousapanoutiun, . yergrapanoutiun, . sarghissian, basile. grand catalogue des manuscrits arméniens, . sarkisian, h. p. akatankéghos ev ur pazmatarian kaghdnikn, . saulcy, l. f. j. c. de. recherches sur l'écriture cunéiforme assyrienne, . sayce, a. h.: cuneiform inscriptions of van, . deux nouvelles 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southgate, horatio, bishop. narrative of tour through armenia, . speer, r. e. armenian massacres, . spiegel, friedrich. eranische alterthumskunde, . srapian, moses, translator. das martyrium des hl. pionius, . stein, robert. armenia must have european governor, . stevenson, f. s. armenia, . story of armenian refugee, . story of nation's martyrdom, . streck, maximilian: armenia, . armenia. bibliography, . das gebiet der heutigen landschaften armenien, kurdistân und westpersien, . strecker, wilhelm: beiträge zur geographie von hoch-armenien, . notizen über das obere zab-ala-gebiet, . ueber die wahrscheinliche ältere form des wan-sees, . stride, w. k. immediate future of armenia, . stuart, robert. ascent of mount ararat, . stuart-browne, d. m. armenian exhibits, . stubbs, william, bishop of oxford. medieval kingdoms of cyprus and armenia, . stuermer, harry. two war years in constantinople, . sue, eugène. taparagan heryah, . sukias somal, placido. quadro della storia letteraria di armenia, . sumpad purad. pande pand, . sundukianz, kapriel: ruined family, . die ruinirte familie, . suter, henry. notes on journey from erz-rúm to trebizond, . svasley, miran: anglo-armenian relations from xii to xiv centuries, . armenia in and before , . armenian question, . sykes, sir mark, bart. caliphs' last heritage, . symonds, a. g. armenia, . t t., a. b. armenian christmas, , . tasso, torquato. yerousaghem azadeal, . tavitian, s. de l' ... (É), ou du positif de l'être, . taylor, j. g.: journal of tour in armenia, . travels in kurdistan, . tcheraz, minas: bedros tourian, . l'église arménienne, . homère et les arméniens, . kamar-katiba, . les martyrs arméniens devant la conférence de la haye, . notes sur la mythologie arménienne, . nouvelles orientales, . l'orient inédit, . poètes arméniens, . saiat-nova, . saiat-nova, sa vie et ses chansons, . vie et poésies de bédros tourian, . tchobanian, archag: armenia's loyalty to allies, . armenia's lullaby, . armenian nation, . armenian poems, . armenian poetry, . armenian question and europe, . l'arménie, , . epic of armenia, . la femme arménienne, . la france et le peuple arménien, . gregory of narek, . haï etcher, . lullaby for mother armenia, . naghash hovnathan, . people of armenia, , . poèmes, . poèmes arméniens, . la vie et le rêve, . telfer, j. b. armenia and its people, . temple of muzazir, . ter israel. le synaxaire arménien, . ter-minassiantz, erwand. die armenische kirche in ihren beziehungen zu den syrischen kirchen, . terzagian, h. k. parlamentagan ganonner ev zhoghovavaroutiun, . terzian, paul, bishop of tarsus and adana: church in armenia, . religious customs among armenians, . texier, c. f. m.: description de l'arménie, . itinéraires en arménie, . notice sur erzéroum, . notice géographique sur le kourdistan, . renseignements archéologiques et géographiques, . teza, emilio: cose armene, . il libro dei sette savi nella letteratura armena, . nemesiana, . theorianus: theoriani disputatio secunda cum nersete, . theoriani orthodoxi disputatio cum armeniorum catholico, . thielmann, m. f. g., freiherr von: le caucase, la perse et la turquie d'asie, . journey in caucasus, persia, and turkey in asia, . thomas à kempis. hamahédévumin krisdosi, . thopdschian, hagob: armenien vor und während der araberzeit, . die inneren zustände von armenien unter asot i, . politische und kirchengeschichte armeniens, . thoumaian, g.: armenian diplomat in service of napoleon, . armenian-kurdish relations, . armenians in egypt, . armenians in india, . historical sketch of russia's relations with armenia, . hour has struck, . kurds in their relation to armenia, . last chance, . relations of armenia with england, . relations of armenia with england in middle ages, . russia's relations with armenia, . turkey and armenia, . thumajan, johann. die geschichte der classisch-armenischen schriftsprache, . timothy, bishop of alexandria. timotheus Älurus' des patriarchen von alexandrien widerlegung der auf der synode zu chalcedon festgesetzten lehre, . tiryakian, h. hahyéreni zeghdzoumneru, . tonapetian, p.: h. f. b. lynch and his book, . russian and british policy towards armenia, . tondini de quarenghi, c. notice sur le calendrier liturgique, . torossian, aram: armenian poetry, . atom yarjanian-siamanto, . torossian, b. r. self-instructor in english language, . tourian, bedros: complaints, . little lake, . wishes for armenia, . tourian, k. g. armenian christmas, . tournebize, françois: histoire politique et religieuse de l'arménie, . léon v, . toynbee, a. j.: armenian atrocities, . de armeniska grymheterna, . las atrocidades en armenia, . "murderous tyranny of turks," . position of armenia, . tozer, h. f. turkish armenia, . transmigration des arméniens d'aderbéidjan sur le territoire russe, . tristram, h. b. ornithological notes of journey through syria ... and southern armenia, . troshine, yvan. bystander's notes of massacre, . trowbridge, t. c. armenia, . tsutsag hishadagarani movsisi zohrabiants artsakhétsvo, . turabian, hagop. armenian social-democratic hentchakist party, . turkey and armenia, . turkey--past and future, . turkish empire. salnamah, . tutundjian, télémaque. du pacte politique entre l'état ottoman et les nations non-musulmanes de la turquie, . two eastern questions, . u ubicini, j. h. a.: les arméniens, . de l'état moral et politique de l'arménie turque, . empire ottoman, . upham, t. c. darerk imatsagan pilisopayoutian, . upton, e. w. can armenia be kept alive as a nation? . ussher, c. d.: american physician in turkey, . armenian atrocities and jihad, . ussher, john. journey from london to persepolis, . v vahram of edessa: chronique rimée des rois de la petite arménie, . chronique du royaume arménien de la cilicie, . vahram's chronicle of armenian kingdom in cilicia, . varandian, mikael: armenia and armenian question, . armenian aptitudes, . l'arménie et la question arménienne, . varaztad, puzant. armenian question, . vark nahabedats ev markareits, . vartabedoutiun krisdonagan usd haiots, . vartan the great: choix de fables, . extrait de l'histoire universelle, . extraits du livre intitulé solutions de passages de l'Écriture sainte, . varteresian, hapet. mer poghoknern ou tashnagtzoutean tirku anonts hanteb, . vartooguian, a. p. armenia's ordeal, . varzhabedian, m. a. veneragan akhder ev abaka hay serountu, . vecchi, f. de. escursione lungo il teatro della guerra, . vérité sur le mouvement révolutionnaire arménien, . vernes, maurice. l'avenir de l'arménie, . veselovski, yuri: armyanekaya poeziya vyeka i eya proiskhozhdeniye, . dyeti obezdolennago kraya, . k kharakteristikye novoi armyanskoi literatury, . literaturnoye tvorchestvo turetzkikh armyan, . veselovski, yuri, and m. berberian, editors. armyanskiye belletristy sbornik, . vetter, paul. das buch tobias, . veyssière de la croze, mathurin. histoire du christianisme d'Éthiopie et d'arménie, . vida de s. gregorio, . das vilayet erzerum, . villari, luigi: anarchy in caucasus, . armenians and tartars, . armeno-tartar hostilities, . clergy at etchmiadzin, . fire and sword in caucasus, , . land of ararat, . russia and armenians, . russian bureaucracy and armenians, . visit to etchmiadzin, . virchow, rudolf: entdeckungen in armenien, . forschungsreise unserer armenischen expedition, . Über die armenische expedition belck-lehmann, . ueber den ursprung der bronzecultur, . virgil: b. virkileah maroni yeneagan, . mshagagank, . visit to mount ararat, . vittoria aganoor pompily, . vivien de saint martin, louis. note sur le site d'armavir, . vizetelly, edward. winter ride in armenia, . vogel, charles, and a. coumryantz. le peuple qui souffre; l'arménie, . la voix de l'arménie, . volland. beiträge zur ethnographie der bewohner von armenien, . vollmer, philipp. armenian church, . von trapezunt nach erzerum, . vorlaeufiger bericht über die im jahre ausgeführten reisen in kaukasien, . vorontzov-dashkov, i. i. iz zapisok, . vosgian, g. a. artserén parkirk, . voulzie, g. a travers l'arménie russe, . vrthanes kherthol. die abhandlung "gegen die bilderstürmer," . vzyatiye arzeruma (pisma iz aremnii), . w wachter, wilhelm. die kaukasisch-armenische erdbebenzone, . wagner, moriz: aus dem tagebuch eines deutschen naturforschers in armenien, . beiträge zur kenntniss der naturverhältnisse, . mittheilungen eines deutschen reisenden aus dem russischen armenien, . wakidi, abu 'abd allah muhammad ibn 'umar al-. geschichte der eroberung von mesopotamien und armenien, . wardrop, marjory, and j. o. wardrop. life of st. nino, . wartabet, zaven. tébi kegharvesti haireniku, . watson, william. purple east, . west, m. a. romance of missions, . westarp, e. j., graf von: routenaufnahmen in armenien, . unter halbmond und sonne, . wheeler, a. a. russians in armenia, . wheeler, e. p. armenian independence, . white, g. e. morning light in asia minor, . whiting, g. b. jrak hokvoh, . who are armenians? . wickering, armand de. eznig de gog'ph, . wilbraham, richard. travels in trans-caucasian provinces of russia, . wilhelm, eugene. analogies in iranian and armenian folklore, . williams, aneurin. armenia: is it the end? . williams, charles. armenian campaign, . williams, w. l.: ancient kingdom of greater armenia, . armenia: past and present, , . armenian aspirations, . armenian church, . armenian church and schism in christendom, . kingdom of lesser armenia, . modern problem, . struggle of armenian church, . under heel of turk, . wilson, s. g. armenian church in its relation to russian government, . windischmann, f. h. h. die grundlage des armenischen im arischen sprachstamme, . wingate, mrs. j. s.: armenian folk-tales, . armenian stories, . wlislocki, h. von. märchen und sagen der bukowinaer und siebenbürger armenier, . wuensch, josef: meine reise in armenien, . die quelle des westlichen tigrisarmes, . wuensch, josef, and d. h. mueller. die keil-inschrift von aschrut-darga, . y yarjanian-siamanto, atom: song of knight, . starving, . yeran, e. a.: armenian-english conversation illustrated, . zhoghovrtahin yérkaran, . yeremian, simeon: azkahin temker kraked hayer, . nor gentanapanoutiun ev martagazmoutiun badmagan ev ngarakragan, . nor hankapanoutiun ngarakragan ev badmagan, . yergat, tigran. poete mourant, . yeshu' bar shushan. das sendschreiben des patriarchen barschuschan an den catholicus der armenier, . yorke, v. w. journey in valley of upper euphrates, . young, george. communautés des arméniens grégoriens, . z zahn, g. w. von. die stellung armeniens im gebirgsbau von vorderasien, . zanolli, almo: osservazioni sulla traduzione armena, . singolare accezione del vocabolo armeno "tirakan," . studio sul raddoppiamento allitterazione e ripetizione nell' armeno antico, . zartarian, roupen: clarté nocturne, . how death came to earth, . zarzecki, s. la question kurdo-arménienne, . zavak: armenia: chronological treatise, . armenia: a monograph, . armenian church music, . armenian proverbs, . earliest armenian printing press, . zeitschrift für armenische philologie, . zénob of klag. histoire de darôn, . zimmerer, h. armenien, . zouche ( . baron), robert curzon. armenia, . zposaran mangants, . generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) transcriber's notes: minor punctuation inconsistencies have been silently corrected. a list of other changes made can be found at the end of the book. footnotes were sequentially numbered and placed at the end of each chapter. the page headers of the book on the odd numbered pages have been marked as [header]. for this text version, diacritical marks that cannot be represented in plain text are shown in the following manner: ligature [oe] is encoded as oe. p. : [o] o with macron above (doucement). [e] e with macron above (doucement). p. : [^] upside down v. mark up: _italics_ =bold= publications of the university of manchester french series no. iii the french language in england published by the university of manchester at the university press (h. m. mckechnie, secretary) lime grove, oxford road, manchester longmans, green & co. london: paternoster row new york: - fourth avenue and thirtieth street chicago: prairie avenue and thirty-fifth street bombay: hornby road calcutta: old court house street madras: mount road the teaching and cultivation of the french language in england during tudor and stuart times with an introductory chapter on the preceding period by kathleen lambley, m.a. _lecturer in french in the university of durham_ _sometime assistant lecturer in french in the university of manchester_ manchester at the university press lime grove, oxford road longmans, green & co. london, new york, bombay, etc. publications of the university of manchester no. cxxix _all rights reserved._ preface the present work, begun during the author's tenure of a faulkner fellowship in the university of manchester, and completed in subsequent years, is an endeavour to trace the history of the teaching and use of french in england during a given epoch, ending with the revocation of the edict of nantes and the revolution of , which events mark the beginning of a new period in the study of the french language in this country. no attempt has been made to treat the wider topic of french influence in england in its literary and social aspects (this has already been done by competent hands), though this side of the question is naturally touched upon occasionally by way of reference or illustration. i gladly take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to professor l. e. kastner, at whose suggestion this investigation was undertaken, for his generous assistance, and the unfailing interest he has shown in my work during the whole course of its preparation. i am likewise considerably indebted to dr. phoebe sheavyn for helpful criticism and advice, to professor tout for kindly reading through the introductory chapter, and to mr. j. marks for a careful revision of the proofs and many useful indications. i owe a great deal to my father also, whose sympathetic advice and encouragement did much to lighten my task. nor can i close this list of acknowledgments without recording my obligation to the secretary of the press, mr. h. m. mckechnie, for the valuable assistance he has so freely given me during the progress of this volume through the press. kathleen lambley. durham, _january _. table of contents part i introductory chapter i page the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries french grammars in mediaeval england--the use of the french language--latin, french, and english vocabularies--french at the universities--popularity of french in the thirteenth century--ceases to be a vernacular in england--treatises for teaching french--a treatise on french verbs--the _orthographia gallica_--the _tractatus orthographiae_--t. h. parisiis studentis--walter de bibbesworth--french in the schools and universities--the fourteenth century--treatises on french--the _nominale_--model letters--recovery of english in the second half of the fourteenth century--deterioration of anglo-french--english in official documents and correspondence--decline in use of french. chapter ii the fifteenth century triumph of continental french over anglo-french--"doux françois de paris" a foreign language--standard of french taught in england--_femina_--treatises on grammar--barton's _donait_--epistolaries--books of conversation in french--the cambridge manuscript in french and english--first printed books for teaching french--dialogues in french and english--caxton, wynkyn de worde, and pynson--french by conversation--approaching improvement in the standard of french taught in england--palsgrave's grammar. part ii tudor times chapter i the french language at court and among the nobility french at the court of the tudors--english neglected by foreigners--latin a spoken language--defective pronunciation of the english--interest in modern languages awakened--french holds the first place--its use in correspondence and in official documents--the french of henry viii., his courtiers, and the ladies--of anne boleyn and the other queens--of the royal family, edward, mary, and elizabeth--french tutors--bernard andré--french grammars--alexander barclay's _introductory_--practice and theory--pierre valence, tutor to the earl of lincoln--his _introductions in french_--fragment of a grammar at lambeth--french humanists as language masters--bourbon and denisot--england and the _pléiade_. chapter ii french tutors at court--giles duwes--john palsgrave--jean bellemain french tutors at court--john palsgrave and giles duwes--palsgrave's _esclarcissement_--the pronunciation of french--his second and third books--the vocabulary--the _introductorie_ of duwes--his dialogues--the methods of the two teachers--dates of composition and editions--attitude of the two teachers to each other--duwes on english teachers of french--palsgrave's claims--palsgrave's acquaintance with french literature--incidents in duwes's career in england--his royal pupils--palsgrave's teaching career--mary tudor his pupil--the duke of richmond, gregory cromwell, etc.--palsgrave in the north, at oxford, and in london--jean bellemain, tutor to edward vi.--the king's french exercises--intercourse with calvin--bellemain on french orthography--french tutor to elizabeth--her translations from the french--a. r. chevallier. chapter iii the influence of religious refugees on the teaching of french in england--openings for them as teachers--demand for text-books--french schools in england and scotland effects of the persecution of the protestants on the teaching of french in england--protestant refugees--registers and returns of aliens--french churches in london--reception and treatment of foreigners--incivility of the common people--courtesy of the gentry--refugees received into english families--french in polite education--french tutors and text-books--converse with foreigners--shakespeare's french--professional schoolmasters--no opening in the grammar schools--french schools--du ploich's school--his treatise in french and english and method of teaching--his works in manuscript--claude holyband--his _french schoolemaister_ and _french littleton_--his french school--holyband as private tutor--his method of teaching--schools in connection with the french churches--schools at canterbury and elsewhere--saravia's school at southampton--joshua sylvester--place of french in the public schools of scotland--in the parish and private schools--no french grammars produced in scotland. chapter iv huguenot teachers of french--other classes of french teachers--rivalries in the profession--the "dutch" and english teachers importance of the huguenot teachers in london--st. paul's churchyard the centre of the profession--the group of normans--robert fontaine--jacques bellot--his french and english grammars, and _jardin de vertu_--the _french methode_--g. de la mothe--his french alphabet and method of teaching--french teachers from the netherlands--roman catholic schoolmasters--objections raised against french teachers--the right of the english to teach french--john eliote--his attack on french teachers--his love of rabelais and debt to french literature--his 'merrie vaine'--the _ortho-epia gallica_ and his other works. chapter v methods of teaching french--latin and french--french and english dictionaries--study of french literature usual methods of learning french--reading and translation--pronunciation--rules of grammar--importance of 'practice'--latin and french text-books--contrast of methods--grammar and practice--books in french and english--french by translation--french dictionaries--holyband's dictionaries--dictionary printed by harrison--a place given to french in some latin dictionaries--veron--baret--john higgins--french-latin dictionaries--cotgrave's great french-english dictionary--sherwood's english-french dictionary--howell's editions of cotgrave--the reading of french literature--attitude of french teachers--favourite authors--histories and memoirs of military life for soldiers and statesmen. chapter vi french at the universities latin the language of the universities--retention of the use of french formulae--modern languages read--french a relaxation from 'severer studies'--french tutors and french grammars--morlet's _janitrix_--french grammars written in latin--antonio de corro--john sanford--wye saltonstall--henry leighton--french grammarians and teachers at oxford--robert farrear--pierre bense--french teachers at cambridge--gabriel du grès at cambridge and oxford--on the teaching of french--french at the universities at the time of the restoration--the french of the universities and of the fashionable world--french at the inns of court--one-sidedness of the university curriculum--steps taken to supplement it. chapter vii the study of french by english travellers abroad travel in france and on the continent--in the suite of ambassadors--children in france--course of studies--girls in france--objections to children being sent to france--france and italy--protests against travel--prejudices against travel--preference for france--necessity of the french language--the travelling tutor--the age for travel--literati as travelling tutors--travel without a governor--books on travel--'methods' of travel--the study of french--dallington and moryson--study of french before travel--french 'by rote'--language masters for travellers--french grammars for travellers--charles maupas of blois and his son--antoine oudin--other grammars--père chiflet--the 'exercises'--travellers at the universities--at the protestant academies--geneva--isaac casaubon--the 'idle traveller'--the 'beau'--affectations of newly returned travellers--commendation and censure of travel. chapter viii the study of french among merchants and soldiers merchants and the study of french--text-books for merchants--relations with the netherlands--the 'book from anvers'--barlement's book of dialogues--meurier's manuals for teaching french to the english in antwerp--the study of french in the netherlands--french for soldiers--the verneys--john wodroeph--the difficulty of the french language--necessity of rules as well as practice--_the marrow of the french tongue_. part iii stuart times chapter i french at the courts of james i. and charles i.--french studied by the ladies--french players in london--english generally ignored by foreigners the french language in england in the time of the early stuarts--in the royal family--french tutors--john florio--guy le moyne--massonet--sir robert le grys--french among the ladies--erondelle's _french garden_ for english ladies--his dialogues--his career as a teacher--his earlier works--the french queen of england--french plays in london--the english language neglected by foreigners--english literature ignored in france--english players abroad--the study of english--english grammars for foreigners in england--french teachers and merchants further the study of english--provision for teaching english in the netherlands and in france. chapter ii french grammars--books for teaching latin and french--french in private institutions robert sherwood, teacher of french and english--his school and _french tutour_--william colson, another english teacher--his 'method' and writings--maupas's french grammar in england--william aufeild--how to study french--the _flower de luce_--laur du terme on the teaching of french--paul cogneau's french grammar--his method--continued use of the sixteenth-century french grammars--latin and french--latin school-books adapted to teaching french--books for teaching latin and french together--the _janua_ of comenius--wye saltonstall--de grave--french in private institutions--the _museum minervae_--gerbier's academy--french in schools for ladies. chapter iii the "little blois" in london the blois group of french teachers--claude mauger and his french grammar--its popularity and development--mauger's letters--other writings--life in london--teaches english--mauger's method of teaching--mauger at paris--the demand for his grammar abroad--paul festeau--his french and english grammars--editions and contents--pierre lainé--his french grammar--encouragement of the study of french literature. chapter iv the french teaching profession and methods of studying the language vogue of french romances in england--dorothy osborne--pepys on french literature--his french books--french text-books and the _précieux_ spirit--william herbert--his criticism of the french teaching profession--rivalry among teachers--need for protection--herbert's later works--his early career in england--quarrels with a minister of the french church--english gentry at the french church--pepys a regular attender--french teachers encourage the practice--the method of 'grammar and rote'--french 'by rote'--examples of how french was studied--latin by grammar--calls for reform--the case against grammar--french taught on the 'right method'--attempts to teach latin on the same lines as french--contrast between the learning of latin in england 'by grammar' and of french in france 'by rote.' chapter v the tour in france the protestant schools and academies--a group of english students at saumur--travellers at the french universities--a method of travel--attitude of the french teachers to the tour in france--guide books--routes followed--favourite resorts for study--_auberges_ and _pensions_--language masters in france--grammars for travellers--howell's instructions for travellers--suitable books for students--the 'grand' and 'petit' tour in france--paris--inexperienced young travellers--sir john reresby in france. chapter vi gallomania after the restoration gallomania in england after the restoration--the royal family in france--their knowledge of the language--english courtiers and gentry in france--men of letters in france--french and the french at the english court after the restoration--french 'salons' london--french valets, cooks, dancing masters, tailors--the french language--french among the ladies--the 'frenchified' lady--the 'beaux' or english 'monsieurs'--french influence at the theatre--popularity of french actors in london. chapter vii the teaching of french and its popularity after the restoration french grammars after the restoration--pierre de lainé, tutor to the children of the duke of york--the _princely way to the french tongue_--guy miège--his dictionaries--his french grammars--his method of teaching--rote and grammar--miège's other works--other french grammars--pierre berault--the universality of french--supremacy over latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy--position of french in the educational world--the classics read in french--'all learning now in french'--french recognized by writers on education--projects for reformed schools--numerous french schools in and about london--villiers' school at nottingham--academies for ladies--academies for training gentlemen in the necessary social accomplishments and for business--effects of the revocation of the edict of nantes. appendices i chronological list of manuals and grammars for teaching french to the english ii bibliography, arranged alphabetically, of manuals for teaching the french language to the english, from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the end of the stuart period index part i introductory chapter i the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the first important grammar of the french language was printed in england and written by an englishman. this enterprising student was john palsgrave, "natyf de londres et gradué de paris," whose work, entitled _l'esclarcissement de la langue francoyse_, was published in . it is an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages, full of elaborate, detailed and often obscure rules, written in english in spite of the french title. it was no doubt the solid value and exhaustiveness of palsgrave's work which won for it the reputation of being the earliest grammar of the french language.[ ] yet palsgrave himself informs us that such was not the case, though he claims to be the first to lay down 'absolute' rules for the language. the kings of england, he declares, have never ceased to encourage "suche clerkes as were in theyr tymes, to prove and essay what they by theyr dylygence in this matter myght do." "this like charge," he continues, "have dyvers others had afore my dayes ... many sondrie clerkes have for their tyme taken theyr penne in hande.... some thyng have they in writing lefte behynde them concerning into this mater, for the ease and furtheraunce as well of suche as shilde in lyke charge after them succede, as of them whiche from tyme to tyme in that tong were to be instructed ... takyng light and erudition of theyr studious labours whiche in this matter before me have taken paynes to write.... i dyd my effectuall devoire to ensertche out suche bokes as had by others of this mater before my tyme ben compyled, of which undouted, after enquery and ensertche made for them dyvers came into my handes as well suche whose authors be yet amongst us lyveng, as suche whiche were of this mater by other sondrie persons longe afore my dayes composed." the living predecessors to whom palsgrave refers--authors of short works of small philological value, but of great interest to-day as evidence of the wide use of the french language in england--were likewise acquainted with earlier works on the subject. giles duwes, tutor in french to henry viii. and other members of the royal family, frequently invokes the authority of the 'olde grammar.' the poet alexander barclay, in his french grammar of , informs us that "the said treatyse hath ben attempted of dyvers men before my dayes," and that he had "sene the draughtes of others" made before his time; moreover, in times past, the french language "hath ben so moche set by in england that who hath ben ignorant in the same language hath not ben reputed to be of gentyll blode. in so moche that, as the cronycles of englande recorde, in all the gramer scoles throughout englande small scolars expounded theyr construccyons bothe in frenche and englysshe." thus the french grammarians in england in the early sixteenth century were acquainted with, and to some extent indebted to, a series of mediaeval treatises on the french language,--a type of work which, even at the time they wrote, was unknown on the continent.[ ] that england, before other countries, took on herself the study of the french language, was the result of events which followed the conquest. from that time french had taken its place by the side of english as a vernacular. it was the language of the upper classes and landed gentry, the cultivated and educated; english was used by the masses, while all who read and wrote knew latin, the language of clerks and scholars. for nearly three centuries after the conquest almost all writings of any literary value produced in england were in french, though the bulk of composition was in latin; english never ceased to be written, but was used in minor works for the most part. it is not surprising, therefore, to find that from an early date latin was at times construed or translated into french[ ] as well as english in the grammar schools, both languages serving as vernaculars. there are still extant examples of this custom,[ ] dating from the twelfth century; for instance, a version of the psalter, in which the french words are placed above the latin without any regard to the order of the french sentence.[ ] others are found in some of the first vocabularies written for the purpose of teaching latin,[ ] which consist of lists of words grouped round subjects and arranged, as a rule, in sentence form. two of these works seem to have been particularly well known, judging from the number of manuscripts still in existence--those of the english scholars, alexander neckam ( - ) and john de garlande, both of whom were indebted to france for most of their learning. neckam, who in had attained celebrity as a professor of the university of paris, was the author of a latin vocabulary--_de utensilibus_--which was glossed in anglo-french.[ ] in this he enumerates the various parts of a house and the occupations and callings of men, and gives scenes from feudal and agricultural life. the _dictionarius_ (_c._ ) of john de garlande, a student of oxford and paris, and one of the first professors of toulouse university, deals roughly with the same topics.[ ] it is glossed in both french and english--the sign of a later period--as was also a latin vocabulary or _nominale_ of the names of plants,[ ] dating from a little later in the same century, though probably existing in earlier manuscripts. at the universities a decided preference for french was shown in the rare occasions on which the use of a vernacular was allowed. the speaking of french was encouraged in some of the colleges at both oxford and cambridge, chiefly those belonging to the second set of foundations.[ ] the scholars and fellows of oriel could use either latin or french in their familiar conversation and at meals. similar injunctions were in force at exeter and queen's. among the cambridge colleges[ ] the statutes of peterhouse allow french to be used for "just and reasonable cause"; at king's it was permitted on occasion, and at clare hall french was countenanced only if foreigners were present as visitors. at pembroke, founded by a frenchwoman, mary de valence, special favour was shown to frenchmen in the election of fellows, provided that their total number did not exceed a quarter of the whole body.[ ] the cosmopolitanism of the mediaeval centres of learning encouraged a number of such french students to come to england. in , for instance, owing to the disturbed state of the university of paris, henry iii. invited the paris students to come to england and take up their abode wheresoever they pleased;[ ] no doubt those who accepted his invitation settled at one or other of the two english universities. we also find in the treaty of bretigny ( ) a clause to the effect that the subjects of the french and english kings should henceforth be free to resume their intercourse and to enjoy mutually the privileges of the universities of the two countries, "comme ils povoient faire avant ces presentes guerres et comme ils font a present."[ ] on the other hand, the english frequented the french universities in large numbers; at paris in the thirteenth century they formed one of the four nations which composed the university.[ ] the authors of the early latin vocabularies, alexander neckam and john de garlande, were both connected with the university of paris, while most of the other english scholars of the period were indebted for much of their learning to the same great centre. many, no doubt, could have written with garlande: anglia cui mater fuerat, cui gallia nutrix matri nutricem praefero mente meam.[ ] in the thirteenth century french was still widely used in england. the fact that the fusion between conquerors and conquered was then complete,[ ] and that at the same time french was very popular on the continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in england stronger. it was then that the italian brunetto latini wrote his _livres dou tresor_ ( ), in french rather than in his native tongue, because french was "plus delitable et plus commune à toutes gens." during the same century french came to be used in correspondence on both sides of the channel.[ ] little by little it was recognized as the most convenient medium for official uses, and the language most generally known in these sections of society which had to administer justice.[ ] in the second half of the thirteenth century robert of gloucester complained that there was no land "that holdeth not to its kindly speech save englonde only," admitting at the same time, however, that ignorance of french was a serious disadvantage. an idea of the extent to which the language was current in england may be gathered from the fact that in edward i. caused letters from the pope to be translated into french so that they might be understood by the whole army,[ ] and in the previous year the author of the _miroir des justices_ wrote in french as being the language "le plus entendable de la comun people." french, indeed, appears to have been used among all classes, save the very poorest;[ ] some of the french literature of the time was addressed more particularly to the middle classes.[ ] nevertheless, as the thirteenth century advanced, french began to hold its own with some difficulty. while it was in the unusual position of a vernacular gradually losing its power as such, there appeared the earliest extant treatise on the language. this, and those that followed it, were to some extent lessons in the vernacular; yet not entirely, as may be judged from the fact that they are set forth and explained in latin, the language of all scholarship. the first work on the french language, dating from not later than the middle of the thirteenth century, is in the form of a short latin treatise on french conjugations,[ ] in which a comparison of the french with the latin tenses is instituted.[ ] as it appeared at a time when french was becoming the literary language of the law, and was being used freely in correspondence, it may have been intended mainly for the use of clerks. a treatise of considerably more importance composed towards the end of the century, appears to have had the same purpose. that he did not intend it exclusively for clerks, however, the author showed by adding rules for pronunciation, syntax and even morphology as well as for orthography. like most of the early grammatical writings on the french language, this _orthographia gallica_ is in latin. the obscurity of many of its rules, however, called forth commentaries in french which appeared during the fourteenth century, and exceed the size of the original work. the _orthographia_ was a very popular work, as the number of manuscripts extant and the french commentary prove. the different copies vary considerably, and there is a striking increase in the number of rules given; from being about thirty in the earliest manuscript, they number about a hundred in the latest.[ ] it opens with a rule that when the first or middle syllable of a french word contains a short _e_, _i_ must be placed before the _e_, as in _bien_, _rien_, etc.--a curious, fumbling attempt to explain the development of latin free short _e_ before nasals and oral consonants into _ie_. on the other hand, continues the author, _e_ acute need not be preceded by _i_, as _tenez_. it is not surprising that these early writers, in spite of much patient observation, should almost always have failed to grasp fundamental laws, and group a series of corresponding facts into the form of a general rule. we continually find rules drawn up for a few isolated examples, with no general application. the most striking feature in the treatment of french orthography in this work is the continual reference to latin roots, and the clear statement of the principle that, wherever possible, the spelling of french words should be based on that of latin. the _orthographia_ does not by any means limit its observations to spelling; there are also rules for pronunciation, a subject which in later times naturally held a very important place in french grammars written for the use of englishmen, while orthography became one of the chief concerns of french grammarians. that orthography received so much attention at this early period in this country, is explained by the fact that these manuals were partly intended for "clerks," who would frequently have to write in french. as to the pronunciation, we find, amongst others, the familiar rule that when a french word ending in a consonant comes before another word beginning with a consonant, the first consonant is not pronounced. an _s_ occurring after a vowel and before an _m_, writes the author, in another rule, is not pronounced, as in _mandasmes_, and _l_ coming after _a_, _e_, or _o_, and followed by a consonant is pronounced like _u_, as in _m'almi_, _loialment_, and the like. a list of synonyms[ ] is also given, which throws some light on the english pronunciation of french at this period, and there are also a few hints for the translation of both latin and english into french. nor are syntax and morphology neglected; rules concerning these are scattered among those on orthography and pronunciation, with the lack of orderly arrangement characteristic of the whole work. thus we are told to use _me_ in the accusative case, and _moy_ in all other cases; that we should form the plural of verbs ending in _t_ in the singular by adding _z_, as _il amet_, _il list_ become _vous amez_, _vous lisez_; that when we ask any one for something, we may say _vous pri_ without _je_, but that, when we do this, we should write _pri_ with a _y_, as _pry_, and so on. the claim of the _orthographia gallica_ to be the first extant work on french orthography, has been disputed by another treatise, also written in latin, and known as the _tractatus orthographiae_. more methodically arranged than the _orthographia_, this work deals more particularly with pronunciation and orthography.[ ] it opens with a short introduction announcing that here are the means for the youth of the time to make their way in the world speedily and learn french pronunciation and orthography. each letter of the alphabet is first treated in turn,[ ] and then come a few more general observations. like the author of the _orthographia_, the writer of the _tractatus_ would have the spelling of french words based on that of latin whenever possible. he claims that his own french is "secundum dulce gallicum" and "secundum usum et modum modernorum tam partibus transmarinis quam cismarinis." though he apparently places the french of england and the french of france on the same footing, it is noteworthy that he carefully distinguishes between the two. the _tractatus orthographiae_ bears a striking resemblance to another work of like nature, which is better known--the _tractatus orthographiae_ of canon m. t. coyfurelly, doctor in law of orleans[ ]--and for some time it was thought to be merely a rehandling of coyfurelly's treatise which did not appear till somewhere about the end of the fourteenth century, if not later. but coyfurelly admits that his work was based on the labours of one 't. h. parisii studentis,' and there appears, on examination,[ ] to be no doubt as to the priority of the anonymous _tractatus_ described above, which, on the contrary, is evidently the treatise rehandled by coyfurelly, and the work of 't. h. student of paris.' besides being the original which coyfurelly recast in his _tractatus_, it also appears that t. h. may reasonably dispute with the author of the _orthographia gallica_, the honour of being the first in the field. his work shows no advance on the rules given for pronunciation in the _orthographia_, while the orthography is of a decidedly older stamp. at about the same time as these two treatises on orthography, probably a few years earlier, there was composed a work of similar purpose but very different character. it is of particular interest, and shows that, towards the end of the thirteenth century, french was beginning to be treated as a foreign language; the french is accompanied by a partial english gloss, and the author states that "touz dis troverez-vous primes le frauncois et pus le engleys suaunt." the author, gautier or walter de bibbesworth,[ ] was an englishman, and appears to have mixed with the best society of the day. he was a friend of the celebrated statesman of the reign of edward i., henry de lacy, earl of lincoln. the only work by which his name is known to-day, in addition to the treatise in question, is a short piece of anglo-norman verse,[ ] written on the occasion of the expedition of edward i. to the holy land in , shortly before he came to the throne. we gather from letters of protection granted him in that year that bibbesworth himself took part in this venture. in this poem he is pictured discussing the crusade with lacy, and trying to persuade his friend to take part in it. the name of bibbesworth also occurs several times[ ] in official documents of no special interest, and as late as a writ of privy seal was addressed to the chancellor suing for a pardon under the great seal to w. de bibbesworth, in consideration of his good services rendered in scotland, for a breach of the park of robert de seales at ravenhall, and of the king's prison at colchester.[ ] bibbesworth, however, interests us less as a crusader or a disturber of public order, than as the author of a treatise for teaching the french language, entitled _le treytyz qe mounsire gauter de bibelesworthe fist a ma dame dyonisie de mounchensy[ ] pur aprise de langwage_. the large number of manuscripts still in existence[ ] suggest that it was a popular text-book among the children of the higher classes of society. the treatise reproduces, as might be expected, the chief characteristics of the vocabularies for teaching latin. in addition to giving a collection of words and phrases arranged in the form of a narrative, it also incidentally aims at imparting some slight grammatical information. its contents are of a very practical character, and deal exclusively with the occurrences and occupations of daily life. beginning with the new-born child, it tells in french verses how it is to be nursed and fed. rime was no doubt introduced to aid the memory, as the pupil would, in all probability, have to learn the whole by heart. the french is accompanied by a partial interlinear english gloss, giving the equivalent of the more difficult french words. this may, perhaps, be taken as an indication of the extent to which french was regarded as a foreign language.[ ] after describing the life of the child during its earliest infancy, bibbesworth goes on to tell how it is to be taught french as soon as it can speak, "that it may be better learned in speach and held up to scorn by none": quaunt le enfes ad tel age ke il set entendre langage, primes en fraunceys ly devez dire coment soun cors deyt descrivere, pur le ordre aver de moun et ma, toun et ta, soun et sa, _better lered_ ke en parlole seyt meut apris _scorned_ e de nul autre escharnys. in accordance with this programme the parts of the human body, which almost invariably forms the central theme in this type of manual, are enumerated. special care is taken to distinguish the genders and cases, to teach the children "kaunt deivunt dire _moun_ et _ma_, _soun_ et _sa_, _le_ et _la_, _moy_ et _jo_ . . .," and to explain how the meaning of words of similar sound often depends on their gender: _lippe and an hare_ vous avet la levere et le levere, _a pound_ _a book_ et la livere et le livere. la levere si enclost les dens; le levere en boys se tent dedens; la livere sert en marchaundye; le livere nous aprent clergye. throughout bibbesworth seizes every opportunity to point out distinctions of gender of this kind, regardless, it appears, of the difference between the definite and indefinite articles. when the pupil can describe his body, the teacher proceeds to give him an account of "all that concerns it both inside and out" ("kaunt ke il apent dedens et deores"), that is of its clothing and food: vestet vos draps mes chers enfauns, chaucez vos brays, soulers, e gauns; mettet le chaperoun, covrez le chef, etc. --a passage which illustrates the practical nature of the treatise, bibbesworth's aim being to teach children to know the properties of the things they see ("les propretez des choses ke veyunt"). when the child is clothed, bibbesworth next feeds him, giving a full account of the meals and the food which is provided, and, by way of variety, at the end of the dinner, he teaches his pupil the names given to groups of different animals, and of the verbs used to describe their various cries. ("homme parle, cheval hennist," etc.). by this time the child is ready to observe nature, and to learn the terms of husbandry,[ ] and the processes by which his food is produced. from the fields he passes to the woods and the river, where he learns to hunt and to fish, subjects which naturally lead to the introduction of the french names of the seasons, and of the beasts and birds that are supposed to present themselves to his view. during the whole of this long category the verse form is maintained, and the intention of avoiding a vocabulary pure and simple is manifest. how superior this method was to the more modern lists of words separated from the context is also evident. besides giving a description of all the objects with which the child comes in contact, and of all the actions he has to perform, as well as examples for the distinctions of genders and of _moy_ and _jo_--difficulties for which he makes no attempts to draw up rules--bibbesworth claims for his work that it provides gentlemen with adequate instruction for conversational purposes ("tot le ordre en parler e respoundre ke checun gentyshomme covent saver"). and as he did not wish to neglect any of the items of daily life, he finally gives a description of the building of a house and various domestic arrangements, ending with a description of an old english feast with its familiar dish, the boar's head: au primer fust apporté _a boris heued_ la teste de un sengler tot armé, _the snout_ _wit baneres of flurs_ e au groyn le colere en banere; e pus veneysoun, ou la fourmenté; assez par my la mesoun _tahen of gres tyme_ de treste du fermeyson. pus avyent diversetez en rost, eit checun autre de cost, _cranes_, _pokokes_, _swannes_ grues, pounes, e cygnes, _wilde ges_, _gryses_ (_porceaus_), _hennes_, owes, rosées, porceus, gelyns; au tercez cours avient conyns en gravé, et viaunde de cypre enfundré, de maces, e quibibes, e clous de orré, vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plenté. _wodekok_ pus avoyunt fesauns, assez, et perdriz, _feldefares larkes_ grives, alowes, e pluviers ben rostez; e braoun, e crispes, e fritune; ke soucre roset poudra la temprune. apres manger avyunt a graunt plenté blaunche poudre, ou la grosse dragé, et d'autre nobleie a fusoun, ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun; kar de fraunceis i ad assez, de meynte manere dyversetez, dount le vous fynys, seynurs, ataunt a filz dieu vous comaund. ici finest la doctrine monsire gauter de byblesworde. as time went on a conscious effort was made to retain the use of the french language in england. higden, writing at about the middle of the fourteenth century,[ ] informs us that english was then neglected for two reasons: "one is bycause that children than gon to schole lerne to speke first englysshe and then ben compelled constrewe ther lessons in frenssh"; "also gentilmens children ben lerned and taught from theyr yougthe to speke frenssh.[ ] and uplandish men will counterfete and likene them self to gentilmen and arn besy to speke frensshe for to be more sette by. wherefor it is sayd by a common proverbe jack wold be a gentilmen if he coude speke frensshe." at the university of oxford, likewise, the grammar masters were enjoined to teach the boys to construe in english and in french, "so that the latter language be not forgotten."[ ] the same university gave some slight encouragement to the study of french. there were special teachers who, although not enjoying the privileges of those lecturing in the usual academic subjects, were none the less recognised by the university. they had to observe the statutes, and to promise not to give their lessons at times which would interfere with the ordinary lectures in arts. the french teachers were under the superintendence of the masters of grammar, and had to pay thirteen shillings a year to the masters in arts to compensate them for any disadvantage they might suffer from any loss of pupils; if there was only one teacher of french he had to pay the whole amount himself. as for those learning "to write, to compose, and speak french," they had to attend lectures in rhetoric and grammar--the courses most akin to their studies[ ]--and to contribute to the maintenance of the lecturers in these subjects, there being no ordinary lectures in french. in the meantime, more treatises for teaching french appeared; bibbesworth's book soon found imitators, and early in the new century an anonymous author, clearly an englishman, made free use of bibbesworth in a treatise called _the nominale sive verbale in gallicis cum expositione ejusdem in anglicis_.[ ] this anonymous writer[ ] however, thought it necessary to make the interlinear english gloss much fuller than bibbesworth had done, which shows that french had become more of a foreign language in the interval between the two works. he also placed the english rendering after the french, instead of above it. the later work differs further from the earlier in the order of the subject headings, as well as by the introduction of a few new topics. enumerating the parts of the body,[ ] as bibbesworth had done, the author proceeds to make his most considerable addition to the subjects introduced by bibbesworth in describing "la noyse et des faitz que homme naturalment fait": homme parle et espire: _man spekyth & vndyth._ femme teinge et suspire: _woman pantyth & syketh._ homme bale et babeie: _man dravelith & wlaffyth._ femme bale et bleseie: _woman galpyth & wlispyth._ he then describes all the daily actions and occupations of men: homme va a la herce: _man goth at the harewe._ femme bercelet berce: _woman childe in cradel rokkith...._ enfant sa lessone reherce: _his lessone recordeth_, and so on for about lines. other additions are of little importance, and, for the rest, the author treats subjects first introduced by bibbesworth, though the wording often differs to a certain extent.[ ] when, towards the end of the thirteenth century, french began to be used in correspondence, need for instruction in french epistolary art arose; and early in the fourteenth century guides to letter-writing in french, in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters, were produced.[ ] the letters themselves are given in french, but the accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in latin. french and latin have changed rôles; in earlier times latin had been explained to school children by means of french. forms for addressing members of the different grades of society are supplied, from epistles to the king and high state and ecclesiastical dignitaries down to commercial letters for merchants, and familiar ones for private individuals. women, too, were not forgotten; we find similar examples covering the same range--from the queen and the ladies of the nobility to her more humble subjects. each letter is almost invariably followed by its answer, likewise in french. some contain interesting references to the great men or events of the day, but those of a more private nature possess a greater attraction, and throw light on the family life of the age. a letter from a mother to her son at school may be quoted:[ ] salut avesque ma beniçon, tres chier filz. sachiez que je desire grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat: car vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon poynt le dieu merci. et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour de ces lettres demy marc pur diverses necessaires que vous en avez a faire sans escient de vostre pere. et vous pri cherement, beau tres doulz filz, que vous laissez tous mals et folyes et ne hantez mye mauvaise compagnie, car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant damage, avant que vous l'aperceiverez. et je vous aiderai selon mon pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra. dieus vous doint sa beniçon, car je vous donne la mienne. . . . from about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent with the prerogative of the french language in england becomes prominent. the loss of the greater part of the french possessions, and the continued state of hostilities with france during the reign of edward iii. brought home forcibly to the english mind the fact that the french were a distinct nation, and french a foreign tongue. this tardy recovery is sufficient proof of the strong resistance which had to be overcome. chaucer is the greatest representative of the new movement. "let frenchmen endite their quaint terms in french," he exclaims, "for it is kindly to their mouths, but let us show our fantaisies in suche words as we learned from our dames' tongues." his contemporary, gower, was less quick to discern the signs of the times. of the four volumes of his works, two are in latin, one in french, and one in english; but the order in which he uses these languages is instructive--first french, then latin, and lastly english. some writers made a compromise by employing a mixture of french and english.[ ] french, however, continued to hold an important place in prose writings until the middle of the fifteenth century; but such works are of little literary value. the reign of french as the literary language of england, as chaucer had been quick to discern, was approaching its end. the same period is marked by a growing disrespect for anglo-french as compared with the french of france. the french of england, cut off from the living source, had developed apart, and often with more rapidity than the other french dialects on the continent. what is more, the language brought by the invaders was not a pure form of the norman dialect; men from various parts of france had joined in william's expedition. the invaders, always called 'french' by their contemporaries, brought in a strong picard element; and in the twelfth century there was a similar angevin influence. moreover, during norman and angevin times, craftsmen and others immigrated to england, each bringing with him the dialectal peculiarities of his own province.[ ] thus no regular development of anglo-french was possible, and it can hardly be regarded as an ordinary dialect, notwithstanding its literary importance.[ ] this disparity in the quality of anglo-french is illustrated in a remarkable way by the literature of the period. those who had received special educational advantages, or had travelled on the continent, spoke and wrote french correctly; others used forms which contrasted pitiably with continental french. moreover, the fourteenth century saw the triumph of the Île de france dialect in france; the other dialects ceased, as a rule, to be used in literature,[ ] and this change was not without effect on anglo-french, which shared their degradation. chaucer lets us know the poor opinion he had of the french of england; his prioress speaks french "full fayre and fetisly," but after the scole of stratford atte bowe, for french of paris was to her unknowe. william langland admits that he knew "no frenche in feith, but of the ferthest ende of norfolke."[ ] as early as the thirteenth century english writers had felt bound to apologize as englishmen for their french. nor were their excuses superfluous in many cases; william of wadington, the author of the _manuel des pechiez_, for example, wrote:[ ] de le françois ne del rimer ne me doit nuls hom blamer, car en engleterre fu né et nurri lenz et ordiné. such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on. even gower, whose french was comparatively pure,[ ] owing no doubt to travel in france in early life, deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in french for "tout le monde en general," and to ask pardon if he has not "de françois la faconde": jeo suis englois si quier par tiele voie estre excusé. at about the same time the anonymous author of the _testament of love_ finds fault with the english for their persistence in writing in bad french, "of which speech the frenchmen have as good a fantasy as we have in hearing of frenchmen's english."[ ] the notoriety of the french of englishmen reached france. indeed this was a time when the english were more generally known in france than they were to be for several hundreds of years afterwards--until the eighteenth century. englishmen filled positions in their possessions in france, and during the long wars between the two countries in the reign of edward iii., many of the english nobility resided in that country with their families. montaigne refers to traces of the english in guyenne, which still remained in the sixteenth century: "il est une nation," he writes in one of his essays, "a laquelle ceux de mon quartier ont eu autrefois si privée accointance qu'il reste encore en ma maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage."[ ] the opinions formed by the french of the english were naturally anything but flattering. we find them expressed in songs of the time.[ ] but the recriminations were mutual, and the english had already hit upon the epithet which for centuries they applied to frenchmen, and most other foreigners indiscriminately: franche dogue dit un anglois. vous ne faites que boire vin, si faisons bien dist le françois, mais vous buvez le lunnequin. (bière.)[ ] even in the _roman de renart_ we come across traces of familiarity with english ways, and also of the english language.[ ] it is not surprising, then, that anglo-french was a subject of remark in france, especially when we remember that already in the thirteenth century the provincial accents of the different parts of france herself had been the object of some considerable amount of raillery.[ ] the english, says froissart, a good judge, for he spent many years in england, "disoient bien que le françois que ils avoient apris chies eulx d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de france estoit."[ ] and this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful store for facetious remarks and parodies of all kinds. in the _roman de jehan et blonde_, the young frenchman's rival, the duke of gloucester, is made to appear ridiculous by speaking bad french; and one of the tricks played by renart on ysengrin, in the _roman de renart_, is to pretend he is an englishman:[ ] ez vos renart qui le salue: "godehelpe," fait il, "bel sire! non saver point ton reson dire." and ysengrin answers: et dex saut vos, bau dous amis! dont estes vos? de quel pais? vous n'estes mie nés de france, ne de la nostre connoissance. a _fabliau_ of the fourteenth century[ ] pictures the dilemma of two englishmen trying to make their french understood in france; one of them is ill and would have some lamb: si tu avez un anel cras mi porra bien mengier ce croi. his friend sets out to try to get the 'anel' or 'lamb'; but no one understands him, and he becomes the laughing-stock of the villagers. at last some one gives him a 'small donkey' instead of the desired 'agnel,' and out of this he makes a dish for the invalid who finds the bones rather large. in the face of a reputation such as this it is no wonder that the english found additional encouragement to abandon the foreign language and cultivate their own tongue. english was also beginning to make its way into official documents.[ ] in the king's speech at the opening of parliament was pronounced in english, and in the following year it was directed that all pleas in the courts of justice should be pleaded and judged in english, because french was "trope desconue en ledit realme." despite that, the act was very tardily obeyed, and english progressed but slowly, french continuing to be written long after it ceased to be spoken in the law courts. there were a few public documents issued in english at the end of the century, but the acts and records of parliament continued to be written in french for many years subsequently. english first made its way into the operative parts of the statutes, and till the formal parts were still written in french and latin. protests were made to henry viii. against the continued use of french, "as thereby ys testyfied our subjectyon to the normannys"; yet it was not before the eighteenth century that english was exclusively used in the law courts, and for many years french, in its corrupt form, remained the literary language of the english law. till the seventeenth century works on jurisprudence and reports on cases were mainly written in french. _les cases de gray's inn_ shows french in accounts of discussions on difficult legal cases as late as .[ ] sir john fortescue ( ?- ), lord chief justice of the king's bench, in his _de laudibus legum angliae_, suggests that this law french is more correct at bottom than ordinary spoken french, which, he contends, is much "altered by common use, whereas law french is more often writ than spoken." in later times no such illusions prevailed. swift thus estimates the value of the three languages of the english law:[ ] then from the bar harangues the bench, in english vile, and viler french, and latin vilest of the three. at about the same time as swift wrote, the 'frenchified' lady, then in fashion, who prided herself on her knowledge of the "language à la mode" is described as being able to "keep the field against a whole army of lawyers, and that in their own language, french gibberish."[ ] and long after french ceased to be used in the law many law terms and legal and official phrases remained, and are still in use to-day.[ ] anglo-french also lingered in some of the religious houses after it had fallen into discredit elsewhere, and continued to do so in some cases till the time of their dissolution. the rules and accounts of the nunneries were more often in french than not.[ ] and john ap rhys, visitor of monasteries in the reign of henry viii., wrote to cromwell regarding the monastery of laycock in wiltshire, that he had observed one thing "worthy th'advertisement; the ladies have their rule, th'institutes of their religion and the ceremonies of the same written in the frenche tongue, which they understand well and are very perfyt in the same, albeit that it varieth from vulgar frenche that is now used, and is moche like the frenche that the common lawe is written in."[ ] during this same period english began to be used occasionally in correspondence; but here again its progress was slow. some idea of the extent to which french was utilized for that purpose may be gathered from the fact that three extant letters of william de wykeham, addressed to englishmen, are all in that tongue. not till the second and third decades of the fifteenth century were english and french employed in correspondence to an almost equal extent, and during the following years, especially in the reign of henry vi., english gradually became predominant.[ ] french remained in use longer in correspondence of a public and official nature, but became more and more restricted to foreign diplomacy. towards the middle of the fourteenth century, at the beginning of the long wars with france, french lost ground in england in yet another direction. edward iii. is said to have found it necessary to proclaim that all lords, barons, knights, burgesses, should see that their children learn french for political and military reasons;[ ] and when trevisa translated higden's _polychronicon_, he wrote in correction of the earlier chronicler's description of the teaching of french in the grammar schools of england:[ ] "this maner was moche used before the grete deth ( ). but syth it is somdele chaunged. now (_i.e._ ) they leave all frensch in scholes, and use all construction in englisch. wherin they have advantage on way that they lerne the soner ther gramer. and in another disadvantage. for nowe they lerne no frenssh ne can none, whiche is hurte for them that shall passe the see," and thus children of the grammar schools know "no more french than knows their lefte heele." thus the custom of translating latin into french passed out of use early in the second half of the fourteenth century. no doubt there had been signs of the approaching change in the preceding period, and it is of interest here to notice that while neckham's latin vocabulary, which dates from the second half of the twelfth century, is glossed in french alone, that of garlande, which belongs approximately to the third decade of the following century, is accompanied by translations in both french and english. in the universities, however, where french had been slower in gaining a foothold, it remained longer; in the fifteenth century teachers of french were still allowed to lecture there as they had done previously, but it is to be noticed that in all the colleges founded after the black death ( ), from which the change in the grammar schools is dated, the regulations encouraging the speaking of french in hall are absent. the change appears also to have affected the higher classes, who did not usually frequent the grammar schools and universities, but depended on more private methods of instruction. trevisa here again adds a correction to the earlier chronicle, and informs us that "gentylmen haveth now myche lefte for to teach their children frensch." we thus witness the gradual disappearance of the effects of the norman conquest in the history of the use of the french language in england. the conquest had made norman-french the language of the court, and to some extent, of the church; it had brought with it a french literature which nearly smothered the national literature and replaced it temporarily; it had led to the system of translating latin into french as well as into english in the schools. in the later fourteenth century french was no longer the chief language of the court, and the king spoke english and was addressed in the same tongue. in the church the employment of french had been restricted and transitory, though, as has been mentioned, it lingered in some of the monasteries until the sixteenth century; yet latin never found in it a serious rival in this sphere, and the ecclesiastical department of the law never followed the civil in the adoption of the use of french. how french lost ground in the other spheres has already been traced: in all these cases its employment may be regarded as a direct result of the conquest. this great event had also indirect results. french became the official language of england, and the favourite medium of correspondence in the thirteenth century, when the fusion between the two races was complete. but it is highly improbable that french would have spread in these directions if the conquest had not in the first place made french the vernacular of a considerable portion of englishmen, and that the most influential. with its use in official documents and in correspondence, may be classed the slight encouragement french received at oxford. in all these spheres it remained longer than it had done where its status had been a more direct result of the conquest. meanwhile the desire to cultivate and imitate the french of france had been growing stronger and stronger; and when, towards the end of the fourteenth century, the older influences were getting feebler, and in some cases had passed away, the influence of the continental french, especially the french of paris, now supreme over the other dialects, became more and more marked. and it is this language which henceforth englishmen strove to learn, gradually relinquishing the corrupt idiom with which for so long their name had been associated. footnotes: [ ] this was the opinion of ames: "this seems to be the first grammar of the french language in our own country, if not in europe." dibdin, herbert ames's _typographical antiquities_, , iii. p. . [ ] the grammar of jacques sylvius or dubois appeared in , a year after palsgrave's. no attempt at a theoretical treatment of the french language appeared in france in the middle ages. there are, however, two provençal ones extant. (f. brunot, "le français à l'étranger," in l. petit de julleville's _histoire de la langue et de la littérature française_, ii. p. .) [ ] one of the chief effects of the conquest in the schools is said to have been the substitution of norman for english schoolmasters (leach, _schools of mediaeval england_, , p. ). [ ] the majority of early latin vocabularies extant, however, are accompanied by english translations (cp. t. wright, _volume of vocabularies_, vols., ), as was also the comparatively well-known _promptorium parvulorum_ (_c._ ), camden soc., . [ ] the text is given in l. e. menger's _anglo-norman dialect_, columbia university press, , p. . the psalms, together with cato, ovid, or possibly virgil, formed the usual reading material in the grammar schools. cp. rashdall, _universities of europe in the middle ages_, oxford, , ii. p. . [ ] adam du petit pont (_d._ ) wrote an epistle in latin, many words of which were glossed in french. but there is no evidence that it was used in england. it was published by e. scheler in his _trois traités de lexicographie latine du e et e siècles_, leipzig, . [ ] ed. t. wright, _volume of vocabularies_, i. , and scheler, _op. cit._ both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by paul meyer (_romania_, xxxvi. ). [ ] it has been published five times: ( ) at caen by vincent correr in (_romania_, _ut supra_); ( ) h. géraud, in _documents inédits sur l'histoire de france_: "paris sous philippe le bel d'après les documents originaux," ; ( ) kervyn de lettenhove, ; ( ) t. wright, _volume of vocabularies_, i. pp. _sqq._; ( ) scheler, _trois traités de lexicographie latine_. [ ] wright, _op. cit._ pp. - . [ ] _statutes of the colleges of oxford_, vols., oxford and london, ; a. clark, _colleges of oxford_, , p. ; h. c. maxwell lyte, _history of the university of oxford_, , pp. - . [ ] _documents relating to the universities and colleges of cambridge_, , ii. p. ; j. bass mullinger, _the university of cambridge_, ; g. peacock, _observations on the statutes of the university of cambridge_, , p. . [ ] j. heywood, _early cambridge university and college statutes_, , ii. p. . [ ] c. h. cooper, _annals of cambridge_, cambridge, , i. p. . [ ] rashdall, _op. cit._ ii. p. _n._ [ ] rashdall, _op. cit._ i. pp. _et seq._ later the english nation was known as the german; it included all students from the north and east of europe. on the english in the university of paris see ch. thurot, _de l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l'université de paris_, paris, ; and j. e. sandys, "english scholars of paris, and franciscans of oxford," in _the cambridge history of english literature_, i., , chap. x. pp. _et seq._ [ ] quoted, e. j. b. rathery, _les relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la france et l'angleterre_, paris, , p. . [ ] a writer of about says it was impossible to tell who were normans and who english ("dialogus de scaccario": stubbs, _select charters_, th ed., , p. ). [ ] "discours sur l'état des lettres au e siècle," in the _histoire littéraire de la france_, xvi. p. . [ ] d. behrens, in h. paul's _grundiss der germanischen philologie_, strassbourg, , pp. - ; freeman, _norman conquest_, v. , pp. _sqq._; maitland, "anglo-french law language," in the _cambridge history of english literature_, i. pp. _sqq._, _history of english law_, , pp. _sqq._, and _collected papers_, , ii. p. . at the universities, where latin was the usual language of correspondence, letters and petitions were often drawn up in french (oxford hist. soc., _collectanea_, st series, , pp. _sqq._). [ ] bateson, _mediaeval england_, , p. . [ ] maitland, _collected papers_, , ii. p. . [ ] such are bozon's _contes moralisés_ (_c._ ), ed. p. meyer, in the _anciens textes français_, . in his introduction meyer lays stress on the widespread use of french in england at this time, and its chance of becoming the national language of england, an eventuality which, he thinks, might have been a benefit to humanity. [ ] ms. at trinity col. cambridge (r. . ). [ ] paul meyer calls it the work of a true grammarian (_romania_, xxxii. p. ). [ ] there are four mss. extant. these have been collated and published by j. sturzinger in the _altfranzösische bibliothek_, vol. viii., heilbronn, ; cp. _romania_, xiv. p. . the earliest ms. is in the record office, and was published by t. wright in haupt and hoffman's _altdeutsche blaetter_ (ii. p. ). diez quoted from this edition in his _grammaire des langues romanes_, rd ed. i. pp. , _sqq._ the three other mss. are in the brit. mus., camb. univ. libr. and magdalen col. oxon., and belong to the three succeeding centuries. portions of the magdalen col. ms. are quoted by a. j. ellis, in his _early english pronunciation_, pp. - , and by f. génin, in his preface to the french government reprint of palsgrave's grammar, . it is the british museum copy, made in the reign of edward iii., which contains the french commentary. [ ] early english writers on the french tongue were fond of drawing attention to the opportunities for punning afforded by the language. [ ] edited by miss m. k. pope in the _modern language review_ (vol. v., , pt. ii. pp. _sqq._), from the brit. mus. addit. ms. , ff. - ; it also exists at all souls, oxford (ms. f. ), and at trinity col. cambridge (ms. b . , ); in the last ms. the introduction of the two preceding ones is lacking (cp. meyer, _romania_, xxxii. p. ). [ ] for instance, we are told that _a_ is sounded almost like _e_ as in _savez vous faire un chauncoun . . ._; that the phrases _a_, _en a_, _i a_ which mean one and the same thing when they come from the latin _habet_, should be written without _d_; that _aura_, _en array_ should be written without _e_ in the middle, and sounded without _u_, as _aray_, _en array_, though the english include the _e_. [ ] published by stengel, in the _zeitschrift für neufranzösische sprache und literatur_, , pp. - . [ ] miss pope, _ut supra_. [ ] his name has provoked some discussion as to its correct form. it is frequently written as biblesworth, and one ms. gives it the form of bithesway; the correct form, however, is bibbesworth, the name of a manor in the parish of kempton (herts), of which walter was the owner (p. meyer, _romania_, xv. p. , and xxx. p. _n._; w. aldis wright, _notes and queries_, , th series, viii. p. ). [ ] printed from the ms. in the bodleian, in wright and halliwell's _reliquiae antiquae_, i. p. . [ ] _calendar of patent rolls, - _, pp. , , . he received exemption from being put on assizes or juries in . [ ] _calendar of patent rolls, - _, p. . [ ] she died in ; her father was one of the leaders on the king's side at the battle of lewes ( ). [ ] there are many mss. in the british museum; others at oxford and cambridge, and one in the library of sir th. phillips at cheltenham. the best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of t. wright, _volume of vocabularies_, i. pp. - , which is the one here quoted, and which reproduces arundel ms. , collated with sloane ms. . p. meyer has given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his _recueil d'anciens textes--partie française_, no. (cp. _romania_, xiii. p. ). [ ] in the vocabularies written in imitation of bibbesworth at later dates, the english gloss is fuller, and in the latest one complete, as french became more and more a foreign language. [ ] "pus to le frauncoys com il en court en age de husbonderie, com pur arer, rebiner, waretter, semer, sarcher, syer, faucher, carier, batre, moudre, pestrer, briser," etc. [ ] _polychronicon_, lib. , cap. (ed. babington and lumly, rolls publications, , - , vol. ii. pp. _sqq._). [ ] cp. the thirteenth-century romance in which jehan de dammartin teaches french to blonde of oxford (ed. le roux de lincy, camden soc., ). [ ] f. anstey, _monumenta academica_, , p. . [ ] anstey, _op. cit._, , p. . [ ] published from a ms. in cambridge university library (ee , ), by skeat, in the _transactions of the philological society_ ( - ). [ ] the ms. in which the work is preserved dates from about , but is probably copied from an earlier one. [ ] "corps teste et hanapel _body heuede and heuedepanne_ et peil cresceant sur la peal. _and here growende on the skyn_," etc. [ ] how close the resemblance is between the two works may be judged by the following quotations: par le gel nous avons glas, et de glas vient verglas. (nominale.) pur le gel vous avomus glas, et pluvye e gele fount vereglas. (bibbesworth.) and it is in words almost identical with those of bibbesworth that the author describes the difference in the meaning of some words according to their gender: la levere deit clore les dentz. _the lippe._ le levere en boys se tient de deynz. _the hare._ la livre sert a marchauntz. _the pounde._ le livere aprent nous enfauntz. _the boke._ [ ] the earliest of these mss. dates from the second decade of the fourteenth century. these epistolaries are found in the following mss.: harleian and , addit. , in the brit. mus.; ee , in cantab. univ. library; b . , in trinity col. camb.; at all souls, oxford, and magdalen col. oxford (cp. stürzinger, _altfranzösiche bibliothek_), viii. pp. xvii-xix. the introductions to these letters were edited in a griefswald dissertation ( ), by w. uerkvitz. [ ] stengel, _op. cit._ pp. - . [ ] _romania_, iv. p. , xxxii. p, . [ ] w. cunningham, _growth of english industry and commerce_, cambridge, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] l. menger, _anglo-norman dialect_; behrens, _art. cit._ pp. _sqq._; brunot, _histoire de la langue française_, i. pp. _sqq._, . [ ] brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] jusserand, _histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, . p. n. [ ] brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] p. meyer commends gower's french (_romania_, xxxii. p. ). [ ] t. r. lounsbury, _studies in chaucer_, london, , p. . [ ] livre ii. ch. xii. [ ] as in those of olivier basselin. [ ] eustache deschamps, _oeuvres_, ed. crapelet, p. , quoted by rathery, _op. cit._ p. (cp. also _english political songs_, ed. t. wright. camden soc., ). [ ] jusserand, _op. cit._ p. n. the fourteenth branch of the _roman_ is specially mentioned: cp. brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. , n. . [ ] brunot, _op. cit._ i. . it is not rare to find english pronunciation of french ridiculed in france, and englishmen represented as talking a sort of gibberish; cp. _romania_, xiv. pp. , , and brunot, _op. cit._ p. n. [ ] behrens, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] ed. e. martin, , l. _sqq._ [ ] _recueil général et complet des fabliaux_, ed. montaiglon et raynaud, ii. p. . [ ] maitland, _collected papers_, , ii. p. ; freeman, _op. cit._ p. ; brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] f. watson, _religious refugees and english education_, london, , p. . there are numerous entries of such works in the _stationers' register_. [ ] answer to dr. lindsey's epigram, _works_, ed. , i. p. . [ ] [h. dell], _the frenchified lady never in paris_, london, . [ ] pepys in his diary notes the use of french in such phrases, and the abbé le blanc (_lettres d'un français sur les anglais_, à la haye, ) was also struck by the custom. [ ] bateson, _mediaeval england_, p. ; warton, _history of english poetry_, p. n. [ ] ellis, _original letters_, rd series, , i. p. xi. [ ] m. a. e. green (_née_ wood), _letters of royal and illustrious ladies_, london, ; _the paston letters_, new edition by j. gairdner, vols., london, - ; h. ellis, _original letters_, rd series, london, ; j. o. halliwell-phillipps, _letters of the kings of england_, london, ; c. l. kingsford, _english historical literature in the fifteenth century_, oxford, , pp. _et seq._; hallam, _literature of europe_, th ed., london, , i. p. . [ ] "que tout seigneur, baron, chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes villes mesissent cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs enfans le langhe françoise, par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus costumier ens leurs gherres" (froissart, quoted by behrens, _op. cit._ p. n.). [ ] higden, _ut supra_. chapter ii the fifteenth century these great changes which took place in the status of french in england did not, however, affect fundamentally the popularity of the language: they had to do with anglo-french alone. french, as distinct from this and as a foreign language, received more attention than ever before, especially from the higher classes, and from travellers and merchants. it was the language of politeness and refinement in the eyes of englishmen, not only as a result of the conquest, but for its inherent qualities; and so it retained this position when it gave way to english or latin in other spheres where its predominance had been due, either directly or indirectly, to the conquest. french had enjoyed a social reputation in england before the arrival of the invaders,[ ] and had already made some progress towards becoming the language which the english loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues, and to which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did to their own. "doulz françois," writes an englishman at the end of the fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language,[ ] is the most beautiful and gracious language in the world, after the latin of the schools,[ ] "et de tous gens mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre; quar dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des angels du ciel, pour la grant doulceur et biaultée d'icel"--a more eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of brunetto latini. another writer of the same period informs us that "les bones gens du roiaume d'engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire, entendre et parler droit françois," and that he himself thinks it is very necessary for the english to know the "droict nature de françois," for many reasons.[ ] for instance, that they may enjoy intercourse with their neighbours, the good folk of the kingdom of france; that they may better understand the laws of england, of which a great many are still written in french; and also because "beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en françois," and the lords and ladies of england are very fond of writing to each other in the same tongue.[ ] as a result of the altered circumstances which were modifying the attitude of the english, there is a corresponding change in the standard of the french which the manuals for teaching that language sought to attain. all the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge of the french of paris, "doux françois de paris" or "la droite language de paris," as it was called, in contrast with the french of stratford-atte-bowe and other parts of england. those authors of treatises for teaching french of whose lives we have any details, had studied french in france, at paris, orleans, or some other university town. the fact that many of their productions still contain numbers of words belonging to the norman and other dialects does not diminish the importance and significance of their more ambitious aims. these pioneer works on the french language, written in england by englishmen without the guidance of any similar work produced in france, were bound to contain archaisms as well as anglicisms.[ ] fluency in speaking french was the chief need of the classes of society in which the demand for instruction was greatest. correctness in detail was only of secondary importance, and grammar, though desirable, was not considered indispensable. the importance of speaking french naturally brought the subject of pronunciation to the fore. no doubt most of the early teachers shared the opinions of their successors, that rules and theoretical information were of little avail in teaching the sounds of the language, compared with the practice of imitation and repetition; nevertheless, many of them attempted to supply some information on the subject. when, in the second decade of the fifteenth century, another writer based a new treatise for teaching french on the vocabulary of bibbesworth, which had then been current for well over a century, the chief point in which it differed from its original was precisely in the provision of guidance to facilitate pronunciation. this new treatise was styled _femina_,[ ] because just as the mother teaches her young child to speak his native tongue, so does this work teach children to speak french naturally.[ ] it covers almost exactly the same ground as the vocabulary of bibbesworth, but, as in the case of the earlier imitation of the same work, the _nominale_, the order of arrangement varies, and the whole is permeated with a lively humour which makes it at least equal in interest to the work on which it is based. the french lines are octosyllabic and arranged in distichs, each pair being followed by an english translation, which is given in full, contrary to the practice in the earlier works of the same kind. the author endeavours to teach the french of france[ ] as distinguished from that of england, and, although he lavishes provincialisms from the local dialects of france--norman, picard, walloon--in the main they are french provincialisms, and many of them may be due to errors on the part of the scribe. to assist pronunciation notes are provided at the bottom of the page, giving pseudo-english equivalents of the sounds of words written otherwise in the text. the treatise opens with an exhortation to the child to learn french that he may speak fairly before wise men, for "heavy is he that is not taught": cap: primum docet rethorice loqui de assimilitudine bestiarum. a b beau enfaunt pur apprendre c d en franceis devez bien entendre ffayre chyld for to lerne in french ye schal wel understande e coment vous parlerez bealment, et devaunt les sagez naturalment. how ye schal speke fayre, and afore ye wysemen kyndly. f g ceo est veir que vous dy, h i hony est il qui n'est norry. that ys soth that y yow say hevy ys he that ys not taugth k l parlez tout ditz com affaites m et nenny come dissafaites spekep alway as man ys tauth and not as man untauth. parlez imprimer de tout assemblé n o dez bestez que dieu ad formé. spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle of bestes that god hath y maked. (_a_) beau debet legi bev, (_b_) enfaunt, (_c_) fraunceys, (_d_) bein, (_e_) belement, (_f_) ce, (_g_) cet vel eyztt, (_h_) iil, (_i_) neot, (_k_) toutdiz, (_l_) afetes, (_m_) dissafetes, (_n_) beetez, (_o_) dv et non dieu. the subsequent chapters deal with the same subjects as in bibbesworth, and sometimes the wording is almost identical. the concluding chapter, "de moribus infantis," is taken from another source, and gives admonitions for discreet behaviour, quoting the moral treatise of the pseudo-cato, the proverbs of solomon, and the like. the passage in which _femina_ deals with the upbringing of the child may be of interest, as showing how the later author repeats the earlier, while altering the wording; and as throwing some light on the way french was then learnt: et quaunt il court en graunt age mettez ly apprendre langage. and when he runs in great age[ ] put him to learn language. en fraunceys a luy vous devez dire comez il doit soun corps discrire. in french to him ye shall say how first he shall his body describe. et pur ordre garder de moun et ma, toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino. and for order to kepe of mon and ma, toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth. quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino. to femynyn gender and moun to masculyn. cy que en parle soit bien apris, et de nule homme escharnis. so that in speach he be well learned, and of no man scorned. at the end is a 'calendar,' or table of words arranged alphabetically in three parallel columns. the first gives the orthography of the word, the second the pronunciation, and the third the explanation of its meaning and construction, which usually takes the form of an english equivalent. in the meanwhile the grammatical study of french was not neglected. there are still extant numerous small treatises[ ] dealing with different aspects of french grammar, chiefly the flexions, and belonging to the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. the conjugation of verbs receives special attention, and there are several manuscripts providing paradigms and lists of the chief parts of speech--often very incorrect, and of more value as showing the interest taken in french in england than as illustrating any development in the history of the conjugations of french verbs. the usual verbs described in these fragmentary works[ ] are _amo_, _habeo_, _sum_, _volo_, _facio_, and the french paradigms are generally accompanied by latin ones, on which they are naturally based, and which were intended to help the student to understand the french ("cum expositione earundem in latinis"). the two most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list mentioned above. of these the first, the _liber donati_,[ ] gives examples of law french rather than literary french;[ ] but the other, written in french, endeavours to teach "douce françois de paris"--_cy comence le donait soloum douce franceis de paris_.[ ] the _donait_ belongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one r. dove, who also wrote some _regulae de orthographia gallica_ in latin,[ ] which show considerable resemblance to those of the earlier _orthographia gallica_. the same is true of some of the rules devoted to orthography in the _liber donati_, which also owes something to the work of 't. h., student of paris,' either in the original form, or, more probably, in the recast, due to canon coyfurelly. in this respect, coyfurelly continues the efforts of the earlier writer to purify english spelling of french--efforts which at this time would meet with more success than was the case earlier.[ ] another topic touched on in the _regulae_ of r. dove is the formation of the plural of nouns, and of the feminine of adjectives. the substance of one of these rules may be quoted, as an example of the failure of these early writers to grasp general principles. all nouns ending in _ge_, like _lange_, says the grammarian, take _s_ in the plural, as _langes_; all nouns ending in _urc_, as _bourc_, have _z_ or _s_ in the plural and drop the _c_, as _bours_; all nouns ending in _nyn_, as _conyn_, take _s_ in the plural, as _chemyns_; all nouns ending in _eyn_, as _peyn_, form their plural by adding _s_, as _peyns_. such is the rule for the formation of the plural of nouns, and that for the feminine of adjectives, which follows, is on the same lines. pronouns also received some attention from these early grammarians. the _liber donati_[ ] contains a few remarks on the personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns, giving the different forms for the singular and plural and the various cases; thus it tells us that _jeo_ and sometimes _moy_ are used for _i_ (_ego_) in the nominative case, and in other cases _moy_ or _me_ in the singular, while _nous_ is used for the plural in all cases, and so forth. we thus see that the verbs, nouns and pronouns received consideration, varying in degree, at the hands of these pioneers in french grammar. neither were the indeclinable parts of speech neglected; at the end of the _liber donati_ there is a list of some of these as well as of the ordinal and cardinal numbers in both latin and french, while the _donait_ gives the numbers only. some manuscripts contain lists of adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions in latin and french.[ ] others give lists of the cardinal and ordinal numbers in french, and one adds to these a nomenclature of the different colours.[ ] the names of the days, months, and feast-days were another favourite subject. of these small treatises that which nearest approaches the form of a comprehensive grammar is the _liber donati_, which includes observations on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. but there appeared at the beginning of the fifteenth century, before , a more comprehensive treatise of some real value--the _donait françois pur briefment entroduyr les anglois en la droit langue du paris et de pais la d'entour_,[ ] a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth century.[ ] the origin of this _donait_ is interesting. a certain englishman, john barton, born and bred in the county of cheshire, but a student of paris, and a passionate lover of the french language, engaged some good clerks to compose the _donait_, at his own great cost and trouble, for the benefit of the english, who are so eager ("embrasez") to learn french.[ ] judging from the lines with which barton closes his short but communicative preface, the work was intended mainly for the use of young people--the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles," 'hungering' to learn french: "pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre cest donait scachez qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like barton, write in french. most of the early treatises on french grammar which appeared in england are written in latin. latin appears to have been the medium through which french was learnt and explained to a large extent, although in the case of the riming vocabularies english was used for teaching the young children for whom these nomenclatures were chiefly written. but grammar, probably intended to be learnt by older students, was usually studied in latin, which was also found to be a help in learning french. students are told to base french orthography on that of latin, and there are constant references from french words to their latin originals. the _donait soloum douce franceis de paris_ is apparently the only work of any importance written in french before that of barton. english was not used for this purpose before the sixteenth century, when it was almost invariably employed, even by frenchmen. a grammar such as barton's would, no doubt, be read and translated with the help of a tutor; and it is highly probable that the children for whom it was intended would have previously acquired some practical knowledge of french from some such elementary treatise as bibbesworth's vocabulary. moreover, french was so generally in use in the higher classes of society, and had been for so long a kind of semi-national tongue, that it would hardly be approached as an entirely foreign language, as in later times. in writing a french grammar in french, barton and those who followed the same course merely adopted for the teaching of french a method in common use in the teaching of latin. the advisability of writing french grammars in french was a question, as we shall see, much discussed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as well as in much more recent times. the clerks employed by barton made free use of the observations on french grammar which had appeared previously. but their work had an additional value; the rules are stated with considerable clearness and are usually correct.[ ] the opening chapters deal with the letters and their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a series of questions and answers: quantez letters est il? vint. quellez? cinq voielx et quinse consonantez. quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? le premier vouyel est _a_ et serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde est _e_ et serra sonné en la gorge, le tiers est _i_ et serra sonné entre les joues, le quart est _o_ et serra sonné du palat de la bouche, le quint est _u_ et serra sonné entre les levres. to these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants, and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) treating the avoidance of hiatus between two consonants and the effects of certain vowels and consonants on each other's pronunciation. next come a few observations on the parts of speech; for "apres le chapitre des lettres il nous fault dire des accidens." instead of giving a number of isolated instances as rules for the formation of the plural, the general rule for the addition of _s_ to the singular is evolved and emphasized by this advice: "pour ceo gardez vous que vous ne mettez pas le singuler pour le pulier (pluriel) ne a contraire, si come font les sots." further, we must avoid imitating the 'sottez gens,' to whom frequent reference is made, in using one person of a tense for another, and saying _je ferra_ for _je ferray_.[ ] in this section of the work the rules follow each other without any orderly arrangement.[ ] at about the same time an english poet is said to have written a french grammar, as another poet, alexander barclay, actually did later. an early bibliographer[ ] includes in his list of lydgate's works one entitled _praeceptiones linguae gallicae_, in one book, of which no further trace remains to-day. lydgate, however, was well acquainted with french; he made the customary foreign tour, besides visiting paris again on a later occasion in attendance on noble patrons, and put his knowledge of the language to the test by translating or adapting several works from the french, like most contemporary writers.[ ] the same early authority informs us that, as soon as lydgate returned from his travels, he opened a school for the sons of noblemen, possibly at bury st. edmunds. probably lydgate wrote a french grammar for the use of these young noblemen, who would certainly have to learn the language; and, after serving their immediate purpose, these rules, we may surmise, were lost and soon forgotten. in the fifteenth century, instruction in french epistolary style of all degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching french appeared--the _manière de langage_ or model conversation book, intended for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical knowledge of french. contrary to the custom, prevalent at this later period, of providing english translations, the earliest of these contain no english gloss, but simply the french text without any attempt at even the slight grammatical instruction provided in the vocabularies. their sole purpose was to give the traveller or wayfarer a supply of phrases and expressions on the customary topics; grammatical instruction could be sought elsewhere. the earliest of these[ ] is the first work for teaching french to which a definite date can be assigned. a sort of dedication at the end is dated from bury st. edmunds, "la veille du pentecote, ." we have not the same definite information as to the author.[ ] the anglicisms make it clear that he was an englishman, while the references to orleans and its university, and the trouble there between the students and the townspeople in , suggest that he was a student of that university, then much frequented by the english and other foreigners, especially law students. he may have been canon m. t. coyfurelly, doctor of law of orleans,[ ] and author of the contemporary recasting of t. h.'s treatise on french orthography. the author tells us he undertook his task at the request of a "tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had learnt french "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not be perfect. indeed his french is full of anglicisms; _que homme_ is written for 'that man'; _oeuvrer_ for 'worker'; _que_ for 'why,' and so on; there are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders, _au homme_, _de les_ for _des_, _de le_ for _du_. this "manière" must have enjoyed a very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of various dates, still in existence. and, in modern times, it presents a greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which it was written. it opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write "doulz françois": a noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et saint esperit, amen. ci comence la maniere de language qui t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon l'usage et la coustume de france. primiers, au commencement de nostre fait et besogne nous prierons dieu devoutement et nostre dame la benoite vierge marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la glorieuse compaigne du saint reaume de paradis celeste, ou dieux mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience, grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz françois. then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which recalls the old riming vocabularies. this, however, is the only portion in which conversation is sacrificed to vocabulary. in the rest of the work, though the vocabulary is increased by alternative phrases wherever possible, it is never allowed to encroach too much on the conversation. the second chapter presents a scene between a lord and his page, in which the page receives minute instructions for commissions to the draper, the mercer, and upholsterer--an excellent opportunity of introducing a large choice of words. conversation for travellers is the subject of the third chapter, the most important, and certainly the most interesting in the whole book. it tells, "coment un homme chivalchant ou cheminant se doit contenir et parler sur son chemin qui voult aler bien loin hors de son pais." after witnessing the preparations for the journey, the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an imaginary journey in france. dialogue and narrative alternate, and the lord talks with his page janyn or whiles away the time with songs: et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "mes amys, il est bien pres de nuyt," vel sic: "il sera par temps nuyt." doncques respont janyn au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere: "vrayement mon seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: "vous dites vray"--"je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. coment vous est avis?"--"ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon seigneur." "janyn!"--"mon signeur?"--"va devant et prennez nostre hostel par temps."--"si ferai-je, mon seigneur." et s'en vait tout droit en sa voie, et quant il sera venu a l'ostel il dira tout courtoisement en cest maniere. "hosteler, hosteler," etc. the page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his evening meal and diversions--another opportunity for the introduction of songs--and his departure in the morning towards Étampes and orleans. more humble characters appear in the next chapter: "un autre manière de parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et oeuvrers de mestiers." here we have conversations between members of the working classes. a gardener and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work, and finally go and dine together; a baker talks with his servant, and so gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade, just as the gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. a merchant scolds his apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market: doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest maniere,--'mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de aussi bon marché comme nul autre. ore regardez, biau sire, comment vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il; and after some bargaining he sells his goods. in the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. a chapter of more interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks of society: quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout courtoisement ainsi: "mon signour dieux vous donne boun matin et bonne aventure," vel sic: "sire dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne estraine, mon amy, dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." et a midi vous parlerez en cest maniere: "monsieur dieux vous donne bon jour et bonnes heures"; vel sic: "sire, dieu vous beneit et la compaignie!" a peitaille vous direz ainsi: "dieux vous gart!" . . . et as oeuvrers et labourers vous direz ainsi: "dieux vous ait, mon amy," and so on. one traveller asks another whence he comes and where he was born, and the other says he comes from orleans, where there is a fierce quarrel between the students and the townspeople; and was born in hainaut, where they love the english well, and there is a saying that "qui tient un henner (hennuyer) par la main, tient un englois par le cuer." we are next taught how to speak to children: "quant vous verez un enfant plorer et gemir, vous direz ainsi: qu'as tu, mon enfant," and comfort him, and when a poor man asks you for alms, you shall answer, "mon amy, se je pourroi je vous aidasse tres volantiers. . . ." from this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and wayfarers--how to inquire the road, and to go on a pilgrimage to the tomb of st. thomas-à-becket. the work closes with a gathering of companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of life and interest. last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty: il est hony qui pouveres est, and a _fatrasie_ in prose. another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was intended chiefly for the use of children, _un petit livre pour enseigner les enfantz de leur entreparler comun françois_.[ ] it was not the first of its kind. the metrical vocabularies of bibbesworth and his successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. there is also some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by children; the commentary was added to the _orthographica gallica_ because the rules were somewhat obscure "pour jeosne gentz," and barton, in his introduction, mentions the "chiers enfantz" and "tresdoulez puselles," as those whom his grammar particularly concerns. in the _petit livre_, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and specially suited to children. the dialogue lacks the interest of the earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases pure and simple. the work opens abruptly with the words: "pour ce sachez premierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et la esté. le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so on to the other divisions of the year and time. the children are then taught the numbers in french, the names of the coins, and those of the persons and things with which they come into daily contact. then follow appropriate terms for addressing and greeting different persons, and the author even goes so far as to provide the child with a stock of insulting terms for use in quarrels. the rest of the treatise does not appear to be intended for children. there are conversations in a tavern, lists of salutations, familiar talk for the wayside and for buying and selling, all of which has little special interest, and is designed apparently to meet the needs of merchants more than any other class. in the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which enables us to date the work. the traveller tells the hostess of the captivity of richard ii. as a recent event: "dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'angleterre est osté."--"quoy desioie!"--"par ma alme voir."--"et les anglois n'ont ils point de roy donques?"--"marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de lancastre, que est nepveu a celluy que est osté."--"voire?"--"voire vraiement."--"et le roygne que fera elle?"--"par dieu dame, je ne sçay, je n'ay pas esté en conceille."--"et le roy d'angleterre ou fust il coronné?"--"a westmynstre."--"fustez vous la donques?"--"marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."--"et ou serra il a nouvel?"--"par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en escoce." the authorship is not so easy to ascertain. the manual may be due to canon t. coyfurelly, probable author of the earlier and better-known work also.[ ] the many mistakes and anglicisms, such as _quoy_ for _quelle_ ('what') and the exclamatory 'marie' in the quotation just given, show it to be the work of an englishman. another book of conversation appeared in ,[ ] as may be gathered from its first two chapters, in which a person fresh from the wars in france tells of the siege of harfleur and the battle of agincourt, and announces the return of the victorious english army. the rest of the dialogues are represented as taking place in and about oxford. there is the usual tavern scene. travellers from tetsworth arrive at an oxford inn, and are present at the evening meal and diversions. the hostess describes the fair at woodstock and the articles bought and sold there; her son, a boy of twelve years, wants to be apprenticed in london; he goes to the school of will kyngesmylle, where writing, counting, and french are taught. one of the merchants calls the lad and questions him as to his knowledge of french: "et que savez vous en fraunceys dire?--sir je say moun noun et moun corps bien descrire.--ditez moy qu'avez a noun.--j'ay a noun johan, bon enfant, beal et sage et bien parlant engleys, fraunceys et bon normand, beneyt soit la verge que chastie l'enfant et le bon maistre qui me prist taunt! je pri a dieu tout puissant nous graunte le joye tous diz durant!" the lad then proceeds to give proof of his knowledge by naming the parts of his body and his clothing, always, it appears, the first things learnt. this reference to the teaching of french in the school of an oxford pedagogue shows that, though french had at this time lost all standing in the grammar schools, it was still taught in private establishments.[ ] it seems highly probable that will kyngesmylle was the author of this work, and that he used his text-book as a means of self-advertisement, a method very common among later teachers of french. at the close comes a chapter belonging to another work of the same type, which is only preserved in this fragment; no doubt other such works existed and have been entirely lost. it is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical manual for teaching french--the metrical vocabulary--with which they had something in common. at any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures extant after _femina_ ( ). the 'manières' provided in their dialogues much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever possible, groups of words on the same topics--the body, its clothing, houses, and men's occupations. further, the vocabularies, which had never departed from the type instituted by bibbesworth in the thirteenth century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the middle ages, and so had fallen behind the times. the 'manières de langage' were more in keeping with the new conditions. towards the end of the century (and perhaps at the beginning of the sixteenth century) we come to a manual,[ ] which, while resembling the 'manières' in most points, reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies. for instance, the french is arranged in short lines, which, however, do not rime, and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain; and these are followed by a full interlinear english gloss, as in the later vocabularies. the subject matter, however, is similar to that of the early conversation books. first comes gossip at taverns and by the wayside: ditez puisse ie savement aler? saie may i saufly goo? ye sir le chemyn est sure assez. yes sir the wey is sure inough. mes il convent que vous hastez. but it behoveth to spede you. sir dieu vous donne bon aventure. sir god geve you good happe. sir a dieu vous commaunde. sir to god i you betake. sir dieu vous esploide. sir god spede you. sir bon aventure avez vous. sir good chaunce have ye. sir par saint marie cy est bon servise. sir by saint marie her is good ale. sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres. sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne. dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous. dame i wil not doo bifor you. sir vous ferrez verrement. sir ye shal sothely. after some disconnected discourse on inquiring the time, asking the way, etc., we again return to the tavern: dame dieu vous donne bon jour. dame god geve you good daie. dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons? dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes? sir quant longement voudrez demourer? sir how long wol ye abide? dame nous ne savons point. dame we wote not. et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table? and what wil ye geve a daie for your table? dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour? dame what wol ye take for the daie? sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour. sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc. next comes the usual scene between buyers and sellers, followed by another inn scene of greater length. after attending to their horses, the travellers sup and spend the night at the inn, and set out the next morning after reckoning with their hostess. the manuscript ends abruptly in the midst of a list of salutations. the nature of the french[ ] betrays the author's nationality; he was evidently an englishman. as to the english, the quaint turn given to many of the phrases is usually explained by the writer's desire to give a literal translation of the french; many of the inaccuracies in both versions are probably due to careless work on the part of the scribe. merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which there was a demand for instruction in french. in addition to the large part assigned to them in the 'manières de langage,' and in the epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature, there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures, receipts and other documents of similar import. they are usually called 'cartularies,' are accompanied by explanations in latin, and may be looked upon as the first text-books of commercial french.[ ] one author explains their origin and aim by this introductory remark:[ ] "pour ceo qe j'estoie requis par ascunz prodeshommez de faire un chartuarie pour lour enfantz enformer de faire chartours, endenturs, obligations, defesance, acquitancez, contuaries, salutaries, en latin et franceys ensemblement . . . fesant les chartours, escripts munimentz a de primes en latyn et puis en franceys." more emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in french among the merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were designed chiefly for their use. the first of these may be classed with the new development of the 'manières de langage,' comprising dialogues in french and english, although it does not exactly answer to this description.[ ] it was issued from the press of william caxton in about , and at least one other edition appeared at a later date.[ ] in form it is a sort of narrative in french, with an english translation opposite. the aim of the work is stated clearly in an introductory passage which informs the reader that "who this book shall learn may well enterprise merchandise from one land to another and to know many wares which to him shall be good to be bought, or sold for rich to become." caxton thus recommends the book to the learner: tres bonne doctrine rygt good lernyng pour aprendre for to lerne briefment fransoys et engloys. shortly frenssh & englyssh. au nom du pere in the name of the fadre et du filz and of the soone et du sainte esperite and of the holy ghost veul comnencier i wyll begynne et ordonner ung livre, and ordeyne this book, par le quel on pourra by the which men shall mowe raysonnablement entendre resonably understande françoys et anglois, frenssh and englissh, du tant comme cest escript of as moche as this writing pourra contenir et estendre, shall conteyne & stratche, car il ne peut tout comprendre. for he may not all comprise. mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera but that which cannot be founden declairé en cestui declared in this pourra on trouver ailleurs shall be founde somwhere els en aultres livres. in other bookes. mais sachies pour voir but knowe for truthe que es lignes de cest aucteur that in the lynes of this auctour sount plus de parolles et de raysons ben moo wordes & reasons comprinses, et de responses comprised, & of answers que en moult d'aultres livres. than in many other bookes. qui ceste livre vouldra aprendre who this booke shall wylle lerne bien pourra entreprendre may well enterprise merchandises d'un pays a marchandise fro one land to l'autre, anoothir, et cognoistre maintes denrées and to know many wares que lui seroient bon which to him shall be good to be achetés bought ou vendues pour riche devenir. or sold for rich to become. aprendes ce livre diligement, lerne this book diligently, grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement. grete prouffyt lieth therein truly. the 'doctrine' itself opens with a list of salutations with the appropriate answers. a house and all its contents come next, then its inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship: or entendes petys et grands, je vous dirai maintenant dune autre matere la quele ie commence. se vous estes mariés et vous avez femme et vous ayez marye, se vous maintiens paisiblement que vos voisins ne disent de vous fors que bien: ce seroit vergoigne. se vous aves pere et mere, si les honnourés tousiours; faictes leur honneur;. . . si vous aves enfans, si les instrues de bonnes meurs; le temps qu'ilz soient josnes les envoyes a l'escole aprendre lire et escripre. . . . at the end of the category come the servants and their occupations, which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there. we then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to merchandise of all kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and fête-days. after an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades. this takes the form of an alphabetical list of christian names, each of which is made to represent one of the trades, beginning with adam the ostler: "for this that many words shall fall or may fall which be not plainly heretofore written, so shall i write you from henceforth divers matters of all things, first of one thing, then of another, in which chapter i will conclude the names of men and women after the order of a, b, c." the baker may be selected as a fair example: ferin le boulengier fierin the baker vend blanc pain et brun. selleth whit brede and brown. il a sour son grenier gisant he hath upon his garner lieng cent quartiers de bled. one hundred quarters of corn. il achete a temps et a heure, he byeth in tyme and at hour, si qu'il n'a point so that he hath not du chier marchiet. of the dere chepe (high buying prices). at last the author, "all weary of so many names to name, of so many crafts, so many offices, so many services," finds relief in certain considerations of a religious order: "god hath made us unto the likeness of himself, he will reward those who do well and punish those who do not repent of their sins, and attend the holy services: if ye owe any pilgrimages, so pay them hastily; when you be moved for to go your journey, and ye know not the waye, so axe it thus." the usual directions for inquiring the way follow with the description of the arrival at an inn, and the customary gossip. the reckoning and departure on the following morning afford an opportunity of including a further list of flemish and english coins together with the numerals; and caxton concludes his work by commending it to the reader with a prayer that those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it: cy fine ceste doctrine, here endeth this doctrine, a westmestre les loundres at westmestre by london en formes impressée, in fourmes enprinted, en le quelle ung chaucun in the whiche one everish pourra briefment aprendre may shortly lerne françois et engloys. french and english. la grace de sainct esperit the grace of the holy ghosst veul enluminer les cures wylle enlyghte the hertes de ceulx qui le aprendront, of them that shall lerne it, et nous doinst perseverance and us gyve perseverans en bonnes operacions, in good werkes, et apres cest vie transitorie and after lyf transitorie la pardurable ioye et glorie! the everlasting ioye and glorie! the short introduction and epilogue were most probably the composition of caxton himself. the rest of the book is drawn from a set of dialogues in french and flemish, first written at the beginning of the fourteenth century, called _le livre des mestiers_ in reference to its main chapter.[ ] this would possibly be known to merchants trading with bruges and other centres of the low countries; and when we notice the numerous points of resemblance between it and the english manuals of conversation, the first of which did not appear before the end of the same century, it seems very probable that the flemish original had some influence on the works produced in england. caxton was a silk mercer of london, and his business took him to the towns of the low countries, especially bruges, where the english merchants had a large commercial connexion. there, no doubt, he became acquainted with the _livre des mestiers_, and probably improved his knowledge of french by its help, for he studied and read the language a good deal during his long sojourn abroad. there also he probably added an english column to his copy of the french-flemish phrase-book, as a sort of exercise rather than with any serious intention of publication; and when he had set up his press at westminster, remembering the need he had felt for french, in his own commercial experience, and the little book which had assisted him, he would decide to print it. caxton's copy of the _livre des mestiers_ belonged, no doubt, to a later date than the one extant to-day,[ ] probably to the beginning of the fifteenth century. it must have been fuller, and have had different names attached to the characters, so that, as the names are still arranged in alphabetical order, it is difficult, at a glance, to distinguish the identity of the two texts. caxton's rendering of the french is often inaccurate, owing perhaps to the influence of the flemish version from which he seems to have made his translation.[ ] moreover, at the early date at which caxton, probably, added the english column to the _livre des mestiers_, his knowledge of french had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of french works into english. he himself tells us in the prologue to the _recuyell of the histories of troy_ of raoul le fèvre (bruges, )--the first of his translations from the french, and, indeed, the first book to be printed in english--that his knowledge of french was not by any means perfect. with the exception of the introductory and closing sentences, caxton made few additions to his original. he did indeed supply the names of english towns, coins, bishoprics, and so on; but, on the whole, the setting of the work is foreign; bruges, not london, is the centre of the action, and no doubt the place where the original was composed. not long after the publication of caxton's doctrine another work of like character and purpose appeared. it claims to be "a good book to learn to speak french for those who wish to do merchandise in france, and elsewhere in other lands where the folk speak french." the atmosphere is entirely english, and consequently its contents bear a closer resemblance to its english predecessors. in the arrangement of the dialogue it is identical with the cambridge conversation book, except that the english lines come before the french, and not the french before the english.[ ] the four subjects round which the dialogue turns, namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "manières de langage." for the rest it follows in the steps of its english predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. in one point, however, the work differs from the latest development of the old "manière de langage," as preserved in the cambridge dialogues in french and english; the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a french version added, and finally commercial letters in french and english. the work is thus made much more comprehensive than any of its type which had as yet appeared, and includes samples, so to speak, of all the practical treatises for teaching french which had appeared in the middle ages. it was printed separately by the two chief printers of the time, both foreigners: richard pynson, a native of normandy and student of paris, who came to england and began printing on his own account about - ; and wynkyn de worde, a native of alsace, and apprentice to caxton, with whom he probably came to england from bruges in , and to whose business he succeeded in .[ ] although neither of the printers dated their work, it seems probable that the earliest edition was issued by pynson. there is a unique copy of his edition in the british museum; it is without title-page, pagination, or catch-words, and the colophon reads simply "per me ricardum pynson." the colophon of wynkyn's work, of which there is a complete copy in the grenville library (british museum),[ ] and a fragment of two leaves in the bodleian, is slightly more instructive and runs as follows: "here endeth a lytyll treatyse for to lern englyshe and frensshe. emprynted at westmynster by my wynken de worde." now as wynkyn moved from westminster in to set up his shop in the centre of the trade in fleet street, opposite to that of his rival pynson, his edition of the work must have appeared before that date, because it was issued from what had been caxton's house in westminster. on the other hand, the type used by pynson is archaic,[ ] and the work is evidently one of the earliest issued from his press. it is inferior to wynkyn's edition from the technical point of view. a headline is all there is by way of title; while in wynkyn's copy we find a separate title-page, containing the words, "here begynneth a lytell treatyse for to lern englishe and frensshe," and a woodcut of a schoolmaster seated in a large chair, with a large birch-rod in his left hand, and, on a stool at his feet, three small boys holding open books. this particular woodcut was a favourite in school-books of the period;[ ] it appears, for instance, in a little treatise entitled _pervula_, giving instructions for turning english into latin, which wynkyn de worde printed about .[ ] moreover, each page of wynkyn's edition has a descriptive headline, "englysshe and frensshe," which is not found in pynson's. the text also is in many places more accurate than that of the norman printer, and gives the impression of having been corrected here and there. it is therefore probable that pynson first printed the treatise shortly after ,[ ] and that another edition was issued by wynkyn de worde during the period intervening between the date of the issue of pynson's edition and the end of the century. a remnant, consisting of one page of yet another edition, is preserved in the british museum, and shows some variations in spelling from the two other texts. this little book, then, seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity during its short life. on the whole it is more elementary in character than the 'doctrine' of caxton. the first things taught are the numbers and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases. the opening passage is very much like that written by caxton for his work: here is a good boke to lerne to speke frenshe. vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys. in the name of the fader and the sone en nom du pere et du filz and of the holy goost, i wyll begynne et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer to lerne to speke frensshe, a apprendre a parler françoys, soo that i maye doo my marchandise affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise in fraunce & elles where in other londes, en france et ailieurs en aultre pays, there as the folk speke frensshe. la ou les gens parlent françoys. and fyrst i wylle lerne to reken by lettre. et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . . next come the cardinal numbers and a vocabulary of words "goode for suche as use marchaundyse": of gold & sylver. d'or et d'argent. of cloth of golde. de drap d'or. of perles & precyous stones. de perles et pieres precieuses. of velvet & damaskes. de velours et damas etc. . . . and so on for nearly a page, in which the names of various cloths, spices, and wines are provided. then follows another "manner of speeche" in a list of salutations arranged in dialogue form: other maner of speche in frensshe. autre magniere de langage en françoys. syr, god gyve you good daye. sire, dieu vous doint bon iour. syr, god gyve you goode evyn. sire, dieu vous doint bon vespere. syr, god gyve you goode nyght & goode reste. sire, dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos. syr, how fare ye? sire, comment vous portez vous? well at your commaundement. bien a vostre commandement. how fare my lorde & my lady? coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame? ryght well blessyd be god. tres bien benoit soit dieu. syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde, sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour, i praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym, je vous prie que me recomandez a lui, and also to my lady his wyfe. et aussi a ma dame sa femme. syr, god be wyth you. sire, dieu soit avecques vous. yet another favourite subject is next introduced--a conversation on buying and selling: other maner of speche to bye and selle. aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter. syr, god spede you. sire, dieu vous garde. syr, have ye not good cloth to sell? sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre? ye syr ryght good. ouy sire tres bon. now lette me see it and it please you. or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest. i shall doo it with a good wyll. je le feray voulentiers. holde, here it is. tenez sire, le veez cy. now saye how moche the yerde is worthe or me dites combyen l'aune vault. ten shelynges. dix solz. forsothe ye set it to dere. vrayment vous le faictez trop cher. i shall gyve you eyght shelynges. je vous en donneray huyt soulz. i wyll not, it is to lytell. non feroy, cest trop pou. the yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges, l'aune vous coustra neuf soulz, yf that ye have it. si vous l'airez. ye shall have it for no lasse. vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains. the merchant has also to be able to ask for directions on his way, and to gossip with the landlady of the wayside inn; the phrases necessary for these purposes are recorded in the next "manner of speech," where, as in the first treatise of , the scene is laid in france: for to aske the waye. pour demander le chemin. frende, god save you. amy, dieu vous sauve. whiche is the ryght waye quelle est la voye droite for to goo from hens to parys? pour aller d'icy a paris? syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande. sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main. now saye me, my frende, or me ditez, mon amy, yf that any good lodginge y a il point de bon logis be betwixt this and the next vyllage? entre cy et ce prochayn village? there is a ryght good one. il en y a ung tres bon. ye shall be there ryght well lodged, vous serez tres bien logé, ye & also your horse. vous et aussi vostre chevaul. my frende, god yelde it you, mon ami, dieu vous le rende, and i shall doo an other tyme et ie feraye ung aultre foiz as moche for you and i maye. autant pour vous se ie puis. god be with you. dieu soit avecques vous. the passage proceeds to describe, always in the form of a dialogue, the traveller's arrival at the inn, his entertainment there, and his departure: dame, shall i be here well lodged? dame, seroy ie icy bien logé? ye syr, ryght well. ouy sire, tres bien. nowe doo me have a good chambre or me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre and a good fyre, et bon feu, and doo that my horse et faites que mon chevaul maye be well governed, puisse estre bien gouverné, and gyve hym good hay and good otes. et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine. dame, is all redy for to dyne? dame, est tout prest pour aller digner? ye syr, whan it please you. oui sire, quant il vous plaise. syr, moche good do it you. sire, bon preu vous face. i praye you make good chere je vous prie faictez bonne chere and be mery, i drynke to you. et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous. now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner. hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner. i shall tell you with a good wyll. je vous le diray voulentiers. ye have in alle eyght shelyngs. vous avez en tout huyt solz. nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy. or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy. do my horse come to me. or me faittz venir mon cheval. is he sadled and redy for to ryde? est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher? ye syr, all redy. ouy sire, tout prest. now fare well and gramercy. or adiu et grandmercy. here the 'manière de langage' ends. it is followed by a list of nouns arranged under headings. the enumeration begins with the parts of the body,[ ] followed by the clothing and armour--a list containing valuable information on the fashions of the time; then come the natural phenomena, the sun, the stars, water, the winds, and so on; the products of the earth and the food they supply, and finally, the names of the days of the week. with the exception of the last page, each word is preceded by a possessive adjective or an article indicating its gender. the english rendering is sometimes placed above the french word, sometimes opposite. after the vocabulary, which covers nearly five pages, comes the courtesy book in english and french, occupying the next seven pages. it is a reprint of the _lytylle chyldrenes lytil boke_,[ ] which contains a set of maxims for discreet behaviour at meals, in which children are told not to snatch meat from the table before grace is said; not to throw bones on the floor; nor pick their teeth with their knife; nor do many other things, which, when we remember that such books were intended for the instruction of the gentry, throw interesting sidelights on contemporary manners. the inclusion of such precepts for children in a text-book for teaching french was not without precedent; in the last of the series of riming vocabularies, _femina_ ( ), there is a collection of moral maxims taken, in this instance, from the ancient writers, and printed in latin, french, and english. in conclusion, the author reverts to the more strictly commercial side of the treatise, with two letters, given in both french and english. one is from an apprentice who writes to his master reporting on some business he is transacting at paris, and asking for more money. in the second a merchant communicates to his 'gossip' the news of the arrival at london and southampton of ships laden with rich merchandise, and proposes that they should "find means and ways in this that their shops shall be well stuffed of all manner of merchandise." in both these letters the english comes first: _a prentyse wryteth to his mayster, fyrste in englysshe and after in frensshe._[ ] ryght worshypful syr, i recommaunde me unto you as moche as i may, and please you wete that i am in ryght goode helth thanked be god. to whome i praye that so it may be of you and of all your good frendes. as for the mater for the whiche ye sent me to parys, i have spoken with kynges advocate the which sayd to me i must go to the kynge and enfourme his royalle majeste thereof, and have specyal commaundement. therfore consyderynge the tyme i have taryed at parys in the pursute of this and the grete coste and expence done bycause of this. please you for to knowe that for to pursue that mater unto the kyng, the which is at monthason next tours, and for to go thyder it is nedefull to sende me some monye and with the grace of god i shalle do suche dylygence that i shall gete your hertes desyre. no more wryte i to you at this tyme but god have you in hys protectyon. wryten hastely the xix daye of this moneth. tres honnoré sire, ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis, et plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne santé la marcy dieu au quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys. quant pour la matiere pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a parys, g'ay parlé avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiesté de ce et ay un specyal commandement. pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a paris en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de ce. plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy, le qyel est a monthason pres tours, et pour aller la il est mestier de m'enuoyer de l'argent. et avecques la grace de dieu je feray telle diligence que aurez ce que vostre cueur desire. aultre chos ne vous escripz a ceste foiz mays que dieu vous ayt en sa protection. escript hastivement le dixneufieme jour du moys. and so ends this interesting little book.[ ] the texts of the two complete editions are in the main identical. the arrangement of the matter on the pages is different, and the spelling of the words, both french and english, varies considerably. slips which occur in pynson's text, such as the rendering of 'neuf' by 'ten,' or the accidental omission of a word in the french version, are sometimes corrected in wynkyn's version. on the other hand, similar mistakes, though much fewer in number, are found in wynkyn's edition and not in pynson's; while yet others are common to both the printers. dialect forms are scattered through the two editions with equal capriciousness. both texts contain a few anglo-normanisms. pynson's shows numerous characteristics of the north-eastern dialects, picard or lorrain, but at times there is a picard form in wynkyn's version, where the pure french form occurs in the other. apart from such variations, the wording of the two editions is usually similar. in cases where it differs, the improvements are found in wynkyn's edition, in spite of the fact that, as a general rule, the output of pynson's press reaches a higher literary level than that of the more business-like alsatian. this exception may, no doubt, be explained by the fact that pynson was the first to print the _good book to learn to speak french_.[ ] yet here again mistakes are sometimes common to both texts, as, for instance, the rendering of the lines: for the clerks that the seven arts can sythen that courtesy from heaven came, by the french: pour les clers qui les sept arts savent puisque courtoisie de paradis vint, in which the wrong interpretation of the english 'for' (conjunction) and 'sythen' (taken as meaning 'since,' not 'say') destroys the sense. on the whole, the impression conveyed by the perusal of the two editions is that the work is a compilation of treatises already in existence in manuscript. neither the letters nor the vocabulary present any strikingly new features. the origin of the courtesy book is known, and it is even possible that the fragment of one leaf preserved belongs, not to another edition of the _good book to learn to speak french_, but to an earlier edition of the courtesy book in french and english, printed probably by caxton, with the intention of imparting a knowledge of polite behaviour and of the favourite language of polite society at the same time. the fact that it reproduces the original courtesy book more fully than does either of the complete texts of wynkyn and pynson, suggests that it belonged to some such edition, or to an edition of the _good book_ earlier than either of these. as to the dialogues, they may have belonged to the group of conversational manuals, which were, no doubt, fairly numerous. caxton, while maintaining that his 'doctrine' contains more than "many other books," adds: "that which cannot be found declared in it, shall be found elsewhere in other books." that such practical little books shared the fate of the great majority of school manuals is not surprising. the hypothesis that the work is a compilation of older treatises would, moreover, explain the variations in the quality of the french. the dialogues and letters, it would appear, were in the first place written by englishmen. pynson corrected them here and there, without, however, eliminating all the anglicisms, archaisms, and provincial forms; and when they passed through the hands of wynkyn they underwent still further emendation. the english version contains gallicisms, just as the french contains anglicisms,[ ] which were, however, probably due to a desire to make the english tally with the french. this same supposition also makes it easier to understand how it came about that the treatise was printed by the two rival printers within the space of a few years, and explains how it was they repeated the same obvious mistakes. thus, of the matter found in the mediaeval treatises for teaching french, grammar rules alone are unrepresented in this _good book_. its aim is entirely practical. it seeks to teach those who wish to "lerne to _speke_ frensshe" for practical purposes, that is, "to do their merchaundise," and there is no mention of any deeper or wider knowledge of the language. that the work was intended for the use of children as well as for merchants is shown by the introduction of the courtesy book, and, in the later edition, of the favourite frontispiece for children's school-books described above. but these do not form a vital part of the work itself, and are mere supplements, added probably with the intention of increasing the public to which the book would appeal. the children who used it, we may assume, would probably be of the class of the boy, "john, enfant beal et sage," who appears in the 'manière' of , and learns french that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being apprenticed to a london merchant. to such children the apprentice's letter quoted above would be of much interest. grammar did not hold a very large place in the teaching of french at this time. practice and conversation were the usual methods of acquiring a knowledge of spoken french, and no doubt such books as those of caxton and of pynson and wynkyn de worde found many eager students. the two editions of the first and the three editions of the second with which we are acquainted, all of which probably appeared in the course of the last decade of the fifteenth century, bear testimony to this. reference has already been made to the probable existence of numerous works of a similar scope in manuscript, and later in print. such were the "little pages, set in print, with no precepts," to which claude holyband, the most popular french teacher of london in the second half of the sixteenth century, refers with contempt; he accuses them of wandering from the 'true phrase' of the language, and of teaching nothing of the reading and pronunciation, "which is the chiefest point to be considered in that behalf," and hence of serving but little to the "furtherance of the knowledge of the french tongue." yet, though such was the case in all these early works, they seem, without exception, to have enjoyed great popularity at the time they were written, when to speak french fluently was an all-important matter. the difficulty of this accomplishment was realised to the full. we find it expressed in a few disconnected sentences added in french probably at the beginning of the sixteenth century, at the end of the 'manière de langage' of : "we need very long practice before we are able to speak french perfectly," says the anonymous writer, evidently an englishman, "for the french and english do not correspond word for word, and the fine distinctions are difficult to seize." he proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue in making progress in french, and quotes the case of an unfortunate man, good fellow though he might otherwise be, who lacked this faculty: "il ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu'à une vache de porter une selle, a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afilée, et pour cela n'entremette il pas à parler entre les fraunceis." in the early part of the sixteenth century, however, french began to be studied with more thoroughness in england. communication with france and the tour in france were no longer fraught with the same dangers and difficulties, and favoured the use of a purer form of french. fluent was no longer sufficient without correct pronunciation and grammar. the standard of french taught was also raised by the arrival of numerous frenchmen, who made the teaching of their language the business of their lives. further, the spread of the art of printing had rendered french literature more accessible, and supplied a rich material from which the rules of the language might be deduced. and so it became possible for john palsgrave, the london teacher and student of paris, to complete the first great work on the french language, in which, however, he did not forget to render due homage to his humble predecessors,[ ] then fast passing into oblivion. footnotes: [ ] freeman, _norman conquest_, ii., , pp. _sqq._, _sqq._ [ ] _manière de langage_, ; cp. _infra_, p. . [ ] "doulz françois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde." [ ] jehan barton, _donait françois_, _c._ . [ ] "afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a dire les bones gens du roiaume de france, et ainsi pour ce que les leys d'engleterre pour le graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en françois, et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les dames en mesme roiaume d'engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en romance--tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus englois de scavoir la nature de françois." [ ] which no doubt became more numerous, as english, rather than latin, became the medium through which french was learnt. thus we find _pour honte_ written for 'for shame'; _il est haut temps_, for 'it is high time'; _quoi_ ('why') for _pourquoi_; _de les_ for _des_, and so on. [ ] edited from a unique ms. in trinity college, cambridge, by w. aldis wright, for the roxburghe club, (camb. univ. press). g. hickes published part of the first chapter, with remarks on its philological value, in his _linguarum veterum septentrionalium thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus_, oxford, , i. pp. - . [ ] "liber iste vocatur femina quia sicut femina docet infantem loqui maternam, sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui gallicum prout infra patebit." [ ] p. meyer, _romania_, xxxii. pp. _et seq._ [ ] the english spelling, very corrupt in the original, is here modernized. [ ] these mss. have been described and classified by j. stürzinger, _altfranzösische bibliothek_, viii. pp. v-x. [ ] brit. mus. harl. ms. ; addit. ms. , and camb. univ. libr. ms. ee , . [ ] camb. univ. libr. mss. dd , . and gg , . [ ] p. meyer, _romania_, xv. p. . [ ] brit. mus. sloane ms. , pp. - . [ ] brit. mus. sloane ms. , fol. . [ ] there is a fragment, very indistinct, on french pronunciation in the brit. mus. ms. harl. : _modus pronunciandi dictiones in gallicis_. [ ] cp. also the brit. mus. addit ms. , fol. . [ ] camb. univ. libr. ms., ee , ; oxford, all souls, ms. . [ ] brit. mus. ms. harl. ; ms. addit. (preceding the observations on pronouns and verbs mentioned above); camb. univ. libr., ee , ; oxford magdalen college, ms. , and all souls, ms. . [ ] published by stengel, _op. cit._ pp. - , from ms. of all souls, oxford. [ ] brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] "a le honneur de dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les saintez de paradis, je johan barton, escolier de paris, née et nourie toutes foiez d'engleterre en la conté de cestre, j'ey baillé aus avantdiz anglois un donait françois pur les briefment entroduyr en la droit language du paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en engleterre on appelle doulce france. et cest donat je le fis la fair a mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language avantdite." [ ] brunot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] "cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant françois on ne mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens, disantz ainsi _je ferra_ pour _je ferray_. . . ." [ ] we pass from the numbers of nouns to the person of verbs, then to the genders and kinds (proper, appellative) of nouns and their cases, six in number on the analogy of latin, which is naturally the basis of the terminology of this work and all others for many years after; then come observations on the degrees of comparison, after which we return to the verbs, and their moods and tenses. the following sections deal with the parts of speech; the four indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections) are merely mentioned. nouns, adjectives, and pronouns receive some attention, but the chief subject is the verb: "cy maintenant nous vous baillerons un exemple coment vous fourmeres touz les verbs françois du monde, soient-ils actifez, soient-ils passivez, en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient. et ceste exemple serra pour cest verbe _jeo aime_. . . ." but the verbs are not classified, and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples. in the list of impersonal verbs which closes the treatise, english is sometimes used to explain their meaning: "me est avis, _me seemth_." [ ] j. bale, _illustrium maioris britanniae scriptorum summarium_. ipswich, , p. . [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] preserved in a considerable number of mss.: brit. mus. (harl. , addit. ), oxford (all souls, ), camb. univ. libr. (bd , ), and in sir thomas philipps's library at cheltenham (ms. no. ). the earliest (harl. ) was published by p. meyer in the _revue critique_, , pp. - . [ ] the name of kirmington, which occurs at the end, is no doubt that of the copyist. [ ] _athenaeum_, oct. , : article by stengel. [ ] published by stengel, _op. cit._ pp. - . [ ] stengel, _athenaeum_, oct. , . coyfurelly also rehandled the _tractatus orthographiae_ of 't. h., student of paris.' [ ] ed. paul meyer, _romania_, xxxii. pp. - . it exists in three mss.; at the end of _femina_ in camb. univ. libr. (dd , ), at trinity col. camb. (b . , ), and in the brit. mus. (addit. ). [ ] french, however, still had some standing at oxford at this date. [ ] preserved in cambridge university library. [ ] containing such anglicisms as the rendering of 'already' by _tout prest_. [ ] such collections exist in mss. harl. and addit. , brit. mus.; and in ee , , camb. univ. libr. [ ] harl. ; cp. stürzinger, _op. cit._ p. xvi. [ ] early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what category it belonged to: for some time it was called a _book for travellers_; then a _vocabulary in french and english_ (blades, _life and typography of wm. caxton_, - ), and finally by the more appropriate title of _dialogues in french and english_. [ ] caxton's edition contains ff. , with about lines on a page. there are three complete texts extant (at ripon cathedral, rylands library, and bamborough castle), and one fragmentary one (in the duke of devonshire's library). the ripon copy was reprinted for the early english text society in , by h. bradley (extra series lxxix.). the other edition, of which a fragment exists in the bodleian, was probably printed by wynkyn de worde (w. c. hazlitt, _handbook ... to the literature of great britain_, , p. ). [ ] published from a ms. in the bibliothèque nationale, by m. michelant: _le livre des mestiers, dialogues français-flamands, composés au e siècle par un maître d'école de la ville de bruges_. paris, . [ ] h. bradley: introduction to the edition of caxton's _dialogues_. [ ] caxton's arrangement of the french and english in opposite columns is no doubt accounted for by the fact that he wrote the english version by the side of the french in his copy of the original phrase book. [ ] e. g. duff, _a century of the english book trade_, bibliographical soc., ; and _handlists of books printed by london printers_, bibliog. soc., , ad nom. the work is here given the inappropriate title of a "vocabulary in french and english." [ ] it was to have been reprinted by h. b. wheatley in a collection of early grammars, for the early english text society. [ ] w. c. hazlitt, _bibliographical collections and notes_, rd series, london, , p. . [ ] for instance, the _cato cum commento_ ( ), _stans puer ad mensam_ ( ), and _vulgaria stanbrigi_ (_c._ ). [ ] "what shalt thou do when thou haste an englyssh to be made in latine? i shall reherce myn englyssh fyrst, ones, twyces, and loke out my princypal verbe, and aske hym this questyon _who_ or _what_. and that worde that answeryth to the questyon shall be the nomynatif case to the verbe." [ ] in the british museum catalogue wynkyn's edition is dated ? and pynson's ?; the year ? is also put forward as the date for the fragmentary edition. w. c. hazlitt dates wynkyn's edition at about the year , and pynson's at about - (_bibliographical collections_, _ut supra_, and _handbook_, london, , p. ). [ ] my heres. mes cheveulx. my browes. mez sourcieulx. myn eres. mez oreilles. myn teeth. mez dens. my forhede. mon front. myn eyen. mez yeulx. my nose. mon nez. my tong. ma langue . . . etc. [ ] published by e. j. furnivall, _manners and meals in olden time_, , pp. _sqq._ the ms. used by the compiler of the french manual was no doubt of a later date than the one here printed. [ ] pp. - _in fine_. [ ] it contains quarto leaves, of the size of the time, with usually lines to a page. [ ] thus in pynson's edition the order of the personal pronouns before the verb is often inverted ("le vous diray," "le vous rende"), while it is correct in wynkyn's; and some lines of the french version of the courtesy book are almost unintelligible, whereas their meaning is clearly expressed by wynkyn. [ ] such phrases as "say me my friend" for _dites-moi mon ami_; "do me have a good chamber" for _faites-moi avoir une bonne chambre_. [ ] in addition to the works already mentioned, some reference to these mediaeval treatises is also found in an article by h. oelsner, in the _athenaeum_ (feb. , ); in a. way's edition of the _promptorium parvulorum_ (camden soc., , no. ; appendix, pp. xxvii _sqq._ and pp. lxxi _sqq._); ellis, _original letters_, rd series, ii. p. . part ii tudor times chapter i the french language at court and among the nobility at the beginning of the sixteenth century the gradual changes which brought about the extinction of anglo-french were complete to all intents and purposes; this corrupt form of the language lingered only in a few religious houses and the law courts. the french spoken at the english court in the middle ages had remained purer than elsewhere; for centuries the kings of england were as much attached to france as to england; they had spent much of their time in france and fought for the french crown as their natural right, not as englishmen in strife with frenchmen. from the thirteenth century, however, english was understood, though not widely spoken, at court. it progressed gradually until, two centuries later, in the reign of henry vi., it was used more frequently than french. by the sixteenth century french was an entirely foreign language at the english court, and it was round the court circles that developed the new and more serious study of the language which then arose--a study which led to the production of so important a work as john palsgrave's _l'esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_. it will therefore be well to consider the extent to which french was used among the nobility and gentry of the time. the personal ascendancy of the tudors and the pomp of their court began to attract the attention of foreigners, and to excite their curiosity. consequently numerous travellers made their way to the english capital; and later in the same period religious persecution, raging on the continent, drove many protestants, frequently men of distinction, to seek refuge in england. what language would these visitors employ in their intercourse with their hosts? english is excluded from the purview, because at this time, and indeed for some time after, our language received no recognition, and certainly no homage from any foreigner, and but scant deference from english scholars themselves.[ ] several foreign visitors in london have left an account of their impressions on hearing this entirely unknown and strange language spoken. thus nicander nucius, the greek envoy at the court of henry viii., says of the english that "they possess a peculiar language, differing in some measure from all others"; although it is "barbarous," he finds in it a certain charm and attraction, and judges it "sweeter" than german or flemish.[ ] others formed a less favourable opinion.[ ] the physician girolamo cordano, for instance, when he first heard englishmen speaking, thought they were italians gone mad and raving, "for they inflect the tongue upon the palate, twist words in the mouth, and maintain a sort of gnashing with the teeth." the dutchman, immanuel von meteren, gathered the impression that english is broken german, "not spoken from the heart as the latter, but only prattling with the tongue." we have, however, to recollect that, among the learned, latin was in general use as a spoken language; it was the ideal of the humanists to make latin the universal language of the educated world. erasmus was able to live several years in england, and in familiar intercourse with englishmen, without feeling the necessity for learning english or using any other modern language; but he mingled almost entirely with scholars, such as grocyn, linacre, latimer, colet, and more--men with whom henry viii. loved to surround himself. still, the great dutchman was an exception even amongst humanists, who nearly all, at some period in their lives, forsook latin for their native tongue. moreover, latin was not fluently or colloquially spoken by the majority of the english nobility and gentry. the poet, alexander barclay, tells us that "the understandyne of latyn," in the early years of the sixteenth century, was "almost contemned by gentylmen."[ ] [header: the speaking of latin] "i have not these twenty years used any latin tongue,"[ ] said latimer at his trial for heresy in --a striking testimony on the lips of one whose natural sympathies were towards humanism. some years later the great huguenot scholar, hubert languet, wrote to his young english friend, sir philip sidney--then newly returned from continental travel--to express his apprehension lest the young man should forget all his latin at the english court and entirely give up the practice of it; he urges him to do his best to prevent this, and maintain his latin along with his french. languet affirms that he has never heard sidney pronounce a syllable of french incorrectly, and wishes his pronunciation of latin were as perfect.[ ] sidney, however, does not appear to have considered latin of as much importance to a courtier as french: "so you can speake and write latine not barbarously," he wrote to his brother robert in ,[ ] "i never require great study ordinarily in ciceronianisme, the cheife abuse of oxford." no doubt sidney voices a general sentiment in this verdict. it is increasingly clear that the supremacy of latin was beginning to be questioned on all sides, and, while latin remained to a large extent the language of scholars, it was not generally employed in society. further, when the english did speak latin, foreigners had considerable difficulty in understanding them, on account of their notoriously bad pronunciation. the great scholar scaliger, who was in england in , tells that he once listened to an englishman talking latin for a quarter of an hour, and at last excused himself, saying that he did not understand english![ ] to the same effect is the observation of tom coryat, the traveller, who, on his journey on the continent,[ ] found his latin so little understood, that he had to modify his pronunciation. at a later date, when the grand duke of tuscany, cosmo iii., visited the two english universities,[ ] he was unable to understand the latin speeches and orations with which he was greeted. a latin comedy which the cambridge students performed in his honour was equally unintelligible to him. "to smatter latin with an english mouth," wrote milton in a well-known passage, "is as ill a hearing as law french." at the same time a quickened interest in modern languages generally was felt in england as in other countries. two of these, italian and spanish, entered the arena to challenge the supremacy of french in the world of fashion and intellect. the real issue of the contest, however, was never in doubt. the renaissance and the new humanism appeared for a time to favour the italian rival,[ ] but the inherent merits of french, with its particular genius for precision and clarity, easily won the day. those circles--often very brilliant circles--of distinguished men and women for whom the renaissance was as the dawn of a new day, often made italian a more serious object of study than french; but though it was widely learned for the sake of its literature, it was never so widely spoken or so universally popular as french. italian, and to a minor degree spanish, were indeed seriously cultivated by the tudor group of distinguished linguists,[ ] and so became a sort of fashion, which, spreading to more frivolous circles, soon degenerated into mere affectation. these dilettanti had been at a great feast of languages and stolen the scraps, to use shakespeare's words. such affectation was naturally felt to be dangerous. while roger ascham renders due homage to the linguistic attainments of his queen,[ ] he finds it necessary to reproach the young gentlemen of the day with their deficiency in this respect. [header: interest in modern languages] professional teachers of modern languages likewise complain of the lack of seriousness on the part of many of their pupils. john florio,[ ] for example, bewails the fact that when they have learned two words of spanish, three words of french, and four words of italian, they think they have enough, and will study no more; and a french teacher[ ] expresses the same thought in almost identical terms; according to him they learn a little french one day, then a bit of italian and a snatch of spanish, and think themselves qualified for an embassy to the grand turk. shakespeare's falconbridge, the young baron of england, may be taken as a fair example of such dilettantism.[ ] thus italian was never a really dangerous rival to french, which had struck its roots deep into the english soil long before italian influence reached our shores. not only was this the case, but french was also widely known throughout europe. even in the early years of this period, the poet alexander barclay, himself the author of a french grammar, affirms that french was spoken even by the turks and saracens. the french themselves are said to have been in love with their own language, and, as a result, to have neglected latin;[ ] when the english ambassador at paris, sir amias poulet, sent to england for a chaplain for his household, he wrote: "yt were to be wished that he had at the least some understandinge in the french tongue for his better conference with the frenche ministers, whereof many are not best able to utter there mynde in lattyn."[ ] we may therefore safely conclude that french was the language commonly spoken by englishmen in their intercourse with foreigners, although latin was sometimes used in conversation, and italians were occasionally addressed in their own tongue. english was so little used in the court and its circles that foreigners were apt to forget that england had a language of her own; one of them considers it a merit in henry viii. that he was able to speak english! in london, indeed, the use of french was so common that several foreign observers deemed the fact worthy of note. nicander nucius, the greek envoy who visited london in , remarks[ ] that, for the most part, the english use the french language, besides having a great admiration for everything else french--an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any other class than the nobility, as his relations would be almost wholly restricted to that class. when the duke of württemberg visited the court of elizabeth, where he found ample occasion to exercise his own admirable knowledge of french, he left on record the fact that many english courtiers understood and spoke french very well. the spread of french at the english court attracted the attention of frenchmen also, and several years after nicander's account, peletier du mans states that in england, at least among the princes and their courts, french is spoken on all occasions.[ ] french was also not infrequently used in correspondence. apart from such diplomatic correspondence as exists, numerous examples of the interchange of private letters in french among the english nobility have come down to us. even among scholars latin was by no means the only medium of communication. in the sixteenth century the chief scholars of the two countries corresponded with each other, and, though englishmen never wrote in their native tongue, frenchmen did occasionally use their own language rather than latin. bacon wrote in french to the marquis of effiat, and hotman, on the other hand, in french to camden: "me sentant detraqué de l'usage de la langue latine, je vous escris cette lettre en françois pour renouveller avec vous notre amitié ancienne et correspondance."[ ] john calvin corresponded with edward vi. and protector somerset in french, and henry iv. of france carried on a voluminous correspondence in his own language with his "tres chere et tres aimée bonne soeur," elizabeth, as well as with her chief ministers.[ ] [header: french regarded with special favour] french was thus more than a mere accomplishment for the english gentleman, and soon became an absolute necessity for all those who desired employment under the crown. it is true that an interpreter might be had, but the practice was looked upon with great disfavour as very unsuitable where private negotiations had to be conducted. the necessity for a knowledge of french on the part of a minister of state may be gathered from the large number of petitions and other documents addressed to them in that language and preserved among the state papers.[ ] a rather curious instance of the favour with which the use of french was regarded in official circles is supplied by the case of a scotch prisoner in london, who, when he desired leave on parole, on the ground of ill-health, was advised to make his application in french, "to shew his scholarship."[ ] copies of proclamations, issued in foreign countries, were frequently translated into french before being sent to the english government; and time after time we find a lack of knowledge of french regarded as a serious disqualification for diplomatic or other public service. one young gentleman regrets that he "cannot be engaged on any work of importance as he does not know french." the drawbacks arising from an inadequate knowledge of the language appear from the case of a certain thomas thyrleby who writes from valance to wriothesly in telling him how much discouraged he is concerning his knowledge of french. he says he went with the bishop of winchester and brian to the constable that morning at eight o'clock, and that he could understand them, but not the grand master's answer, except by conjecture, guessing at a word here and there; after dinner he had audience of the french king and bore away never one word but "l'empereur, l'empereur" often rehearsed; and he feels he must diligently apply himself to learn the language or the king will be ill served when he is left alone.[ ] the tudors appear to have regarded the study of french with much favour. the first king of this line had lived for many years in france and was strongly imbued with french tastes.[ ] he encouraged frenchmen to visit england, and appointed one of them, bernard andré, his poet laureate and historiographer as well as tutor to his sons. there were also troupes of french comedians and minstrels who performed at court from time to time.[ ] the king always received with favour at his court those who were fluent in the french tongue. no doubt stephen hawes secured the king's patronage partly by his facility in the use of this language, and partly from his really profound knowledge of french literature, of which the king also was an eager student. yet this first of the tudor kings belongs rather to the middle ages and the old learning than to the renaissance. not until we reach the period of henry viii., a distinct favourer of the new learning, do we enter fully into the spirit of the new movement. in a true sense henry may be called the first king of england, for england was his real home, and while using the ancient title "king of france," he had no truly filial attachment to the country. he may thus be taken as a fair example of the attitude of the cultivated english noble towards foreign languages. he spoke french fluently though he had never been in france, and also conversed in latin with ease; italian he understood, but made no attempt to speak. he always addressed foreigners in either french or latin.[ ] an admirer of french fashions, he copied in such matters his friend and rival, the french king, even allowing his beard to grow when he heard that francis wore one, and having his hair dressed "short and straight after the french fashion." when the venetian ambassador, piero pasqualigo, came from paris to london in , henry eagerly seized the opportunity to institute a comparison between himself and the french king. pasqualigo, meeting henry at greenwich, writes how he on one occasion beheld his majesty mounted on a bay frieslander, and dressed entirely in green velvet; directly the envoy came in sight, he began to make his horse to curvet and perform such feats, that pasqualigo says he thought himself looking upon mars. he came into our tent, the narrator continues, and, addressing me in french, said, "talk with me a while."[ ] [header: henry viii.'s knowledge of french] henry then proceeded to question him about francis and to induce him to draw comparisons between himself and the french king. the ambassador remarks that henry spoke french "very well indeed." the campaign of supplies another example of the ease with which henry spoke french. the english king was accompanied by brandon, duke of suffolk, who later incurred the royal anger by his presumption in marrying henry's sister mary, the dowager of france. on the present occasion, however, the king's knowledge of french was of great service to suffolk, who found some difficulty in pressing his suit with the lady margaret of savoy, owing to his ignorance of that language. the duke had half seriously removed a ring from the lady's finger, and, as she particularly desired to reclaim it, and he refused to return it, she called him a thief; but he could not understand the word "larron," so she was forced to call upon the king to explain.[ ] there are extant several examples of henry's compositions in french. much of his private correspondence was written in this tongue; and he also essayed to write verses in french, possibly in imitation of francis i. their quality may be judged from the following specimens:[ ] adieu madam et ma mastres, adieu mon solas et mon joy, adieu jusque vous revoy, adieu vous diz par graunt tristesse. or: helas madam cel qe je metant [j'eme tant], soffre qe soie voutre humble svant [servant]; ie seray [vous] a tousiours e tant que ie vivray alt n'airay qe vous.[ ] we gather from henry's spelling of french that he had learnt the language chiefly by ear. there is a curious example of the fluency with which the king and his courtiers spoke french, in a scene described by wolsey's gentleman usher and afterwards dramatized by shakespeare.[ ] the cardinal was among the few at the court of henry viii. who did not speak french with ease. during a banquet he was giving at the palace of whitehall, henry and a band of courtiers landed unexpectedly at the whitehall stairs, disguised as foreign noblemen. wolsey sent the lord chancellor to bid them welcome, because he could not speak french himself.[ ] the visitors were introduced, and passed for a time as foreigners, the lord chancellor acting as their interpreter to wolsey. at last the royal joker and his companions disclosed their identity amidst a tumult of exclamations, and then joined in the festivities.[ ] the ladies of the court rivalled the noblemen in their knowledge of french. when the french ambassadors with their brilliant suite, who had come to england for the ratification of peace in , were entertained in great state at greenwich, all the ladies and gentlewomen were able to converse in good french with their french partners, "which delighted them much to heare the ladies speake to them in their owne language."[ ] it is not surprising, therefore, to find french holding an important place in the education of women of high birth. the princess mary tudor, one of the most attractive figures at the english court, had, like the king her brother, been early initiated in the difficulties of the french language.[ ] at the age of twelve she pronounced in french her betrothal vows to the prince of castile ( ); and when it fell to her lot to marry louis xii. of france, she continued still more to apply herself to the study of the language. she was able to write to her future husband in his own tongue,[ ] and even occasionally made use of it in her correspondence with her brother, the english king. [header: french among the ladies] henry's first queen did little to forward french tastes and never modified her natural preference for all things spanish, but with the advent of queen anne boleyn french acquired a powerful and enthusiastic patroness. anne was entirely french by education and tastes. she had been brought up by a french governess,[ ] and had from an early age used the french language in her correspondence with her father during his absences at the court and elsewhere. it was her fluency in this language which led to her rapid advancement on her arrival at court. she was soon chosen to accompany the king's sister mary to france, and just before her appointment wrote to her father in french, telling him that the presence of the queen of france would inspire her with a still greater desire to speak french well.[ ] anne stayed in france several years, first in the service of mary during the few months she was queen of france, then in that of her successor, queen claude, consort of francis i., and finally in the more lively household of margaret of alençon, afterwards queen of navarre. on her return to the english court she became maid of honour to queen katherine, and her skill in dress and her french manners[ ] did much to promote the taste for french fashions. the famous elizabethan antiquary camden asserts that anne's french jollity first attracted to her the notice of henry. at any rate the courtship was largely carried on in french. out of the seventeen love letters of henry to anne boleyn, which are preserved in the vatican library, more than half are in french.[ ] one of these may be quoted as an example of the english king's powers in french prose. it was written to anne during one of the absences she deemed expedient to make from the court: ma maitresse et amie, moy et mon coeur s'en remettent en vos mains, vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace, et que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminué. car pur augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande pitié, car l'absence leur fait assez, et plus que jamais je n'eusse pensé . . . vous asseurant que de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande. et quand je pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il m'est presque intollerable, s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye de votre indissoluble affection vers moi, et pour le vous rementevoir alcune fois cela, et voyant que personellement je ne puis estre en votre presence, chose la plus approchante a cela qui m'est possible au present, je vous envoye, c'est-a-dire ma picture mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja sçavez, me souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit. c'est de la main de--votre serviteur et amy, h. r. of henry's other queens, jane seymour and katherine howard were both ardent admirers of the french language. the former had, like anne boleyn, completed her education at the french court. henry's chief objection to anne of cleves was her lack of french refinements. we know from the french ambassador marillac that henry was ill pleased at anne's german costume and made her dress in the french style,[ ] which, according to the same authority, had been favoured by queen katherine howard and all her ladies. moreover, the new queen could speak neither french[ ] nor english, and her own language was displeasing to the king's ears; consequently he refused to converse much with her by means of an interpreter.[ ] as for katharine parr, she was one of the most distinguished linguists of her time, and did much to encourage the studies of the royal family. french was one of the principal studies of henry viii.'s children. it appears to have been the only modern foreign language with which edward vi. was acquainted; he is said to have been "in the french and latin tongues singularly perfect."[ ] mary, on the other hand, knew spanish as well as she did french. this is, however, accounted for by the fact that she was early destined to become the wife of the emperor charles v. [header: french studied in the royal family] the emperor had even tried to persuade henry to allow his daughter to be brought up in spain. his request was refused, but a promise was given that the princess should be educated in all points as a spanish lady.[ ] in addition to this, her mother, katherine of aragon, superintended her early education, and her attendants were all spanish. thus spanish was for a time almost her native tongue. yet french was by no means neglected, especially after the spanish marriage was broken off. fresh impetus was given to this study by the possibility of a french match, when in negotiations for a union with the dauphin, son of francis i., were set on foot. on the testimony of marillac, mary spoke and wrote french well; the ambassador had seen letters of hers written in french at the time of her mother's divorce.[ ] the princess was also well acquainted with latin, and understood italian, though, like many others, she did not attempt to speak it.[ ] elizabeth alone of the royal family spoke italian with almost as much ease as she did french.[ ] "french and italian she speaks like english," wrote her tutor, roger ascham, "latin with fluency, propriety, and judgment"; and in addition she had some knowledge of greek. when queen, she retained her early fancy for italian, and prided herself on using no other language in the presence of italians.[ ] the scotch ambassador, sir james melville, a very competent judge, remarks that she spoke it "raisonable weill."[ ] french, however, was her usual means of intercourse with other foreigners, even when, like melville, they spoke english. the queen commended melville's french. "she said my french was gud," he writes in his memoirs, where he likewise gives his own opinion of the queen's attainments in the language: "hir maiestie culd speak as gud frenche as any that had never bene out of the contrie, but yet she laiketh the use of the frenche court language, quhilk was frank and schort and had oft tymes twa significations, quhilk discreit and famylier frendes tok always in the best part."[ ] if not idiomatic, the queen's french is generally allowed to have been fluent. her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing; she spoke with a drawl, and, according to m. drizanval, resident in london for the french king,[ ] she constantly repeated the phrase "_paar dieu, paar maa foi_" in a ridiculous tone. another visitor, the duke of württemberg, records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate speech in french,[ ] which, as usual, was the language in which he addressed her. towards the end of her reign the queen still practised the use of french and italian. in the german hentzner, travelling in england, describes how he saw elizabeth "as she went along in all her state and magnificence," and how "she spoke very graciously first to one then to another (whether foreign ministers or those who attend for different reasons) in english, french, and italian."[ ] she also wrote french with some ease. one of her earliest literary efforts was a translation from the french of margaret of navarre's _miroir de l'ame pécheresse_. she likewise composed devotions and prayers in french--a habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years. at the time when her marriage with the duke of alençon, her "little frog," as she calls him, was under discussion, the queen compiled a curious little volume, containing six prayers, written on vellum in a very neat hand; in addition to devotions in french and english there are others in italian, latin, and greek. in the front of this work there is a miniature of the duke, and at the end, one of elizabeth.[ ] other examples of her compositions in french are found in her correspondence, where this language holds a considerable place. it thus appears that the majority of the english nobility and gentry spoke and understood french at least tolerably well. [header: french tutors and french grammars] we are led to ask how they came by their knowledge, and what facilities there were in england for learning french, seeing that many of them never visited france. in the sixteenth century private tuition played a large part in the education of the gentry; and the professional tutor was, in many cases, a frenchman, who would naturally further the study of his native tongue. the court itself encouraged the custom of employing french tutors by engaging several in its midst; and as, at this time, the court became a powerful factor in english social life, and the chief means of entering the service of the state, noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage endeavoured to adapt themselves to court requirements. french tutors were to be found in all the chief families of the time. Étienne pasquier remarks that there was no noble family in england without its french tutor to instruct the children in the french language.[ ] this condition of things was still further developed a few years later when religious persecution in france and the netherlands drove increasingly large numbers of protestant refugees to take asylum in england. all traces of the majority of these tutors have been lost; those of whom anything is known were, for the most part, either the authors of manuals for teaching french, or had won repute as writers or humanists before leaving their native land. one of these humanists was bernard andré, familiarly called "master barnard," the blind poet--an infirmity to which he frequently refers. he was a native of toulouse, and probably came to england with henry vii., his patron.[ ] it is a curious fact that soon after his accession henry appointed this frenchman, author of verses in french and latin but never a line in english, poet laureate of england. in addition to this he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour. for a time andré was engaged as a tutor at oxford, and in was chosen as governor to prince arthur, and probably had much to do with the education of his brother, afterwards henry viii. appointed historiographer royal, he began in this capacity to write his patron's life. like so many other men of education, andré was in holy orders; he received preferment from time to time, and was finally presented to the living of guisnes near calais, which he resigned in , having attained an "extreme old age." in the early sixteenth century, as in the middle ages, england took the initiative in the production of french grammars.[ ] the numbers which appeared are so many testimonies to englishmen's interest in the french language. the chief and best known of these grammars is the great work of john palsgrave ( ), already mentioned, which stands out in contrast with the slight treatises which had previously appeared on the subject in england. considering the time when it was written and the irregular and unsettled condition of the language with which it deals, it is truly remarkable for its fulness and comprehensiveness. almost alone of its predecessors and its immediate successors, it answered more than a merely temporary and professional purpose, and is still of very great value to the student of the english and french languages at that time, and a great storehouse of obsolete words in both languages. perhaps the very reason which makes it so valuable to the student of to-day hindered its success in the sixteenth century; most students of french then preferred the shorter and more practical manuals. palsgrave had a very exalted idea of the french tongue; he desired to place it on a level with the "three perfect tonges"--latin, greek, and hebrew--and to make it a fourth and classical tongue, by drawing up "absolute" rules for its use. palsgrave's grammar acquires additional importance from the fact that no similar work had been produced in france. it is the first systematized attempt to formulate rules for the french language, or indeed for any modern tongue. only one year later, however, sylvius or dubois published his _in linguam gallicam eisagoge_ ( ). in the address to henry viii., which precedes his work, palsgrave speaks of the "great nombre of clerkes, whiche before season of this mater have written nowe sithe the beginnyng of your most fortunate and most prosperous raigne." all these "clerkes," he says, have treated chiefly of two things, which they judged specially useful to the english--the pronunciation of french, and "wherein the true analogie of the two tongues did rest." [header: barclay's "introductory"] no doubt many of these treatises were in manuscript and are among the lost treasures of the sixteenth century. yet some have come down to us. palsgrave mentions three writers by name, alexander barclay, petrus vallensys, and giles duwes, copies of whose works are still in existence. the earliest of these grammars--so far as is known the first french grammar ever printed--was the work of alexander barclay, well known as a prolific writer and poet, who devoted much of his time to translation and did much to make contemporary french literature known in england. barclay had spent a time "full of foly and unprofytable stody" at some university, possibly paris; he had travelled, and was well acquainted with french; from his youth upwards, he says, he had been exercised in the two languages of french and english. it was late in his literary career, when he had "withdrawen" his pen from its "olde dylygence," that he undertook to compose a grammar of the french language, at the request of the duke of norfolk, lord treasurer of england, and of "certain other gentlemen." the work appeared in [ ] under the title of _here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche compyled by alexander barclay, compendiously at the commandement of the right hye excellent and myghty prynce, th. duke of northfolke_. the printer, robert coplande, himself a good french scholar, composed some lines on the coat of arms of the duke in french, and printed them at the beginning of the book; at the end he placed a translation of lambert danneau's _traité des danses_, also from his own pen.[ ] barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and concise as possible; his rules, so far as they go, are stated very clearly; he plunges straight away into his subject without any preliminary observations: "_je_ in frenche," he begins, "is as moche to say in english as i, _tu_, thou, _il_, he, _nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ or _els_: we may use sometyme _ceux_ for this worde _ilz_. if we answere to a question by this worde 'i' usynynge no verbe withall then shall not '_ie_' be set for 'i' but '_moy_,' as in this example, '_qui fist ce livre_' ... if i sholde answere saynge i, addynge no verbe withall, i must say '_moy_,' and not '_ie_.'" after giving similar rules for the second person singular, he proceeds to explain how, when the words _nous_, _vous_, _ilz_ are placed before a verb beginning with a consonant, their last consonant is not pronounced, although it remains in the spelling; but if they come before a verb beginning with a vowel, the consonants are pronounced. he then turns to the conjugation of the two auxiliaries and some of the most common irregular verbs, to show "how these pronouns are ioyned with verbes." on the back of folio he begins his "introductory of orthography or true wrytynge wherby the diligent reder may be infourmed truly and perfytely to wryte and pronounce the frenche tunge after the dyvers customes of many contress of france." barclay, then, does not adopt an exclusive attitude towards provincial accents; he rather calls attention to them,[ ] though probably merely stating facts and drawing distinctions with no intention of teaching provincial forms. palsgrave, on the other hand, deals only with the french spoken between the seine and the loire, which he regarded as the only pure french. barclay's attitude to dialectal forms may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from the mediaeval treatises, especially the _donait françois_ of john barton. his debt was early noted by palsgrave, who wrote: "i have sene an olde boke written in parchment, in all thynges lyke to his sayd _introductory_, whiche, by conjecture, was not unwritten this hundred yeares."[ ] so freely, indeed, and so carelessly did barclay use his sources, that he did not even trouble to modernize the spelling, which contains many obsolete forms; in this connexion palsgrave, who criticizes barclay very severely when occasion arises,[ ] remarks on his use of _k_ for _c_. having exemplified the pronunciation of some of the french letters by comparison with english sounds,[ ] barclay suddenly[ ] passes to the consideration of the number and gender of nouns,[ ] besides supplying a short list of nouns beginning with the first two letters of the alphabet. after this digression he concludes his observations on the pronunciation,[ ] and proceeds to give an alphabetical vocabulary of nouns,[ ] adjectives and verbs, apparently the earliest known attempt at an alphabetical french-english vocabulary; the earlier method of arranging words under headings is discarded, though it continued to be the usual form adopted in most french grammars until the end of the eighteenth century. barclay's vocabulary consists of a list of words pure and simple, with no indication of gender or flexions. the _introductory_ ends with lists of ordinal numerals, days, seasons, and so on, together with words of learned origin common to both languages "amonge eloquent men," and, last of all, pieces of prose composition in both french and english, arranged in alternate lines.[ ] as is usual in these early grammars, there is an obvious lack of orderly arrangement, and the work, as a whole, gives the impression of being a collection of rough notes rather than a carefully planned treatise. barclay does not, however, make any claim to completeness, nor pretend to lay down "absolute" rules as palsgrave claimed to do. he shared the opinion, common at that time among frenchmen, that it was impossible to formulate anything like adequate rules for the french language. the sketchy nature of his rules may be judged by that given for the position of the objective pronoun: "oft times that thynge whiche cometh before the verbe in englyshe commyth after it in frenche as il m'a fait tort . . . je ne me puis lever." he was of opinion that rules were not of much use in learning french: that language is best learnt by "custome and use of redynge and spekynge, by often enquirynge and frequentynge of company of frenchmen and of suche as have perfytnes in spekynge the sayd language." this opinion prevailed throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in england, and, as a result, rules are reduced to a minimum in manuals for teaching french. "who so desyreth to knowe more of the sayd language, must provyde for mo bokes made for the same intent," barclay notes at the end of his short and interesting treatise. charles, duke of suffolk, the husband of mary, sister to henry viii. and dowager queen of france, was soon to make the necessary provision. this "syngular good lorde," says palsgrave, "by cause that my poore labours required a longe tracte of tyme, hath also in the meane season encouraged maister petrus vallensys, scole maister to his excellent yong sonne the erle of lyncolne to shewe his lernynge and opinion on this behalfe." such was the origin of the _introductions in frensche for henry the yonge erle of lyncoln (childe of greate esperaunce) sonne of the most noble and excellent princesse mary (by the grace of god, queen of france etc.)_,[ ] which is undated and anonymous, but clearly the work of petrus vallensys or pierre valence, french tutor to the earl of lincoln, and must have been written sometime in the third decade of the century.[ ] valence is said to have taught french after a "wonderesly compendious facile prompte and ready waye,"[ ] and gregory cromwell, whom he also counted among his pupils, is reported to have made good progress under his direction. [header: pierre valence, teacher of french] pierre valence was one of the natives of normandy, so numerous in england at this time that the fact was commented on by Étienne perlin, a french priest who visited england at the end of the reign of edward vi. he describes them as being "du tout tres mechans et mauditz françois," worse than all the english, which, according to him, is a very grave charge.[ ] the date at which valence came to england is unknown, but he is said to have studied at cambridge in or about .[ ] he was in all probability a refugee for religious reasons. he is known to have held lutheran opinions, and, whilst at cambridge, caused a disturbance by defacing a copy of the pope's general indulgence, which had been set up over the gates of the schools. vigorous but ineffectual attempts were made to discover the writer, against whom the chancellor pronounced sentence of excommunication. valence is alleged finally to have acknowledged the act as his, to have expressed contrition, and to have been absolved. there are several points of contact between this man and his greater contemporary, john palsgrave: both were students at cambridge, possibly at the same time, though palsgrave was the senior; both had as their pupil the son of mr. secretary cromwell--the one for french and the other for latin; both were protégés of the dowager queen of france (sister of henry viii. and palsgrave's pupil for french) and of her husband the duke of suffolk. in valence received a grant of letters of denization,[ ] and ultimately became domestic chaplain and almoner to dr. goodrich, bishop of ely, and appears to have maintained this position under the bishop's successor. he was still living in , since, in that year, he visited some heretics in ely jail, and conjured them to stand loyally by the truth of the gospel.[ ] among the works of "dyvers clerkes" on the french language, to which palsgrave refers, is probably to be reckoned a short treatise bearing the date . this work is only known by a fragment consisting of two leaves now preserved in the library at lambeth.[ ] these pages are of quarto size and bear the signature "b. b." the right-hand page is in french, the left in english; the former is in roman characters, the latter in black letter. although these two pages contain the date, and the last is not full, they do not appear to be the end of the work, as the writer refers to what is to come hereafter.[ ] one gathers from internal evidence that the author was a foreigner--no doubt a frenchman. he speaks, for instance, of the "gentz englois" as though he was not one of them; and it appears to be quite certain that the work was originally composed in french, and translated into english rather carelessly, and probably by another hand, for in the version it is rendered almost unintelligible by the translation of the french illustrative examples as well as the text itself. the contents are of a light and entertaining character. the author holds that many rules do but "trouble and marre" the understanding. he counsels students rather to follow the example of good writers as likely to be more helpful. he treats entirely of the pronunciation, and devotes special attention to the difficulties of the english,[ ] laying emphasis on the importance of placing the accent on the right syllable. the rules are put in an amusing way, thus: "_a_ should be pronounced fro the botom of the stomake and all openly, _e_ a lytell higher in the throte there properly where the englishman soundeth his _e_; _i_, in the roundnesse of the lippes; _u_, in puttynge a lytell of wynde out of the mouthe." further uses of the vowel _a_ are thus set forth: it may be placed before all verbs, in the infinitive mood, and before all manner of nouns and pronouns, as "to robert," "to may," and so on. again, "it betokeneth 'have' when it cometh of the latin verb _habeo_." the consonants are next dealt with and disposed of in much the same way. some attention is also given to the question, then much discussed, whether the etymological consonants in the words where they are not pronounced should be retained or not. the author's opinion was that every letter in a word ought to be sounded, yet he feels himself utterly unable to struggle against custom, and falls back on the rule "go as you please": [header: two french poets teach french] "pronounce ech one as he shal please, for to difficyl it is to correct olde errours." among the french teachers in england at this time were also two frenchmen of considerable literary distinction--nicolas bourbon, the latin poet and well-known scholar, friend of rabelais and marot; and nicolas denisot, who likewise held an important place among french humanists, and finished his literary education under daurat, the famous hellenist. bourbon came to england under the protection of anne boleyn, who appears to have taken a special interest in him;[ ] she had, he tells us, procured his liberation from imprisonment. bourbon was for some time a private tutor in paris, and soon after he regained his freedom he crossed to england, intending to continue his work there. he had a cordial welcome, and invariably speaks of his stay and treatment in london with gratitude. his latin verses[ ] show him to be acquainted with the chief englishmen who gathered round the court, where he occupied his leisure by writing satirical verses against the queen's enemies, especially sir thomas more,[ ] and in eulogizing cromwell, cranmer, and the reform party then in power. it was on the recommendation of the king and queen, he informs us, that he was engaged as french tutor in several families of distinction, including the carews, norrisses, and harveys. john dudley, duke of northumberland, was one of his patrons, and from him robert dudley, afterwards earl of leicester, together with his brothers, learnt french as children. bourbon left england in , on hearing of the death of his father. he had probably been in the country at least two years, and, perhaps happily for himself, left it a year before the fall of his patroness anne boleyn. at a somewhat later date, , the elegant poet and artist nicolas denisot arrived in england, driven from paris by an unfortunate love affair.[ ] his nephew, jacques denisot, declares he was "fort bien accueilliz dans la cour d'angleterre où son estime et sa reputation estoit deja cogneue." he mixed with the writers and politicians[ ] of the day, and attracted the notice of the court by writing verses in honour of the young king, edward vi.[ ] he soon found himself in the distinguished position of french and latin tutor to the three daughters of the protector somerset,--anne, margaret, and jane,--who were destined shortly to become famous in paris as his pupils, and to form an important link in the literary relations of the two countries. calvin corresponded with one of denisot's pupils, the lady anne; and in he wrote requesting her to use her knowledge of french in transmitting to her mother an expression of his gratitude for a ring he had received from that lady, he being unable to do so, on account of his ignorance of english.[ ] in this same year, , denisot's engagement in the house of somerset came to an end rather abruptly, probably on account of some misunderstanding with the duke. he returned to france after spending three years in england, and thence kept up a friendly correspondence with his former pupils. on the death of queen margaret of navarre, whom, no doubt, denisot had taught them to admire, the sisters composed four hundred latin distichs in her honour, and sent them to their former master, who welcomed them with enthusiasm, and published them in . in the following year the verses appeared again, accompanied by french, italian, and greek translations, and verses from the pen of ronsard, du bellay, and other literary friends of denisot.[ ] it is a striking fact that before the pléiade was fully known in france, the fame of some of its members had reached england, where a particular interest would be taken in this development of the work of the three princesses. ronsard, denisot's intimate friend, wrote one of his earliest odes in honour of denisot's pupils, in which he celebrates the intellectual union of france and england: [header: the plÉiade in england] denisot se vante heuré d'avoir oublié sa terre et passager demeuré trois ans en angleterre. . . . . les espritz d'angleterre et de la france bandez d'une ligue ont pris le fer contre l'ignorance, et (que) nos roys se sont faitz d'ennemys amys parfaitz tuans la guerre cruelle par une paix mutuelle. herberay des essarts, the translator of the famous _amadis_, wrote a letter in praise of the princesses, which was printed at the beginning of margaret's "tombeau." with full justice has denisot been called the "ambassador" of the french renaissance in england. footnotes: [ ] it was, however, an english scholar, richard mulcaster, headmaster of merchant taylors' school ( ) and of st. paul's school ( ), who boldly urged that the english language was a subject worthy of study by englishmen, though this was not till , when his _elementarie_ was published. [ ] _the second book of the travels of nicander nucius_, , camden society, london, , p. . [ ] w. b. rye, _england as seen by foreigners_, london, , _passim_. [ ] translation of sallust's _bellum jugurthinum_: dedication to the duke of norfolk. [ ] _remains_, parker society, p. . quoted by j. j. jusserand, _histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, paris, , p. , n. . [ ] _the correspondence of sir philip sidney and hubert languet_, ed. w. a. bradly, boston, , pp. and . [ ] _sidney papers_, ed. a. collins, in _letters and memorials of state_, vols., london, , vol. i. pp. - . [ ] _letters of descartes_, quoted by e. j. b. rathery, _les relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la france et l'angleterre . . ._ paris, . [ ] which provided the material for that "bonnie bouncing book," as ben jonson called it--coryat's _crudities: hastily gobled up in five months' travells in france_, etc. . [ ] rye, _op. cit._ pp. xxxv-xxxvii. [ ] l. einstein, _the italian renaissance in england_, new york, . [ ] the tudor group of distinguished linguists includes the names of many women. the chronicler harrison remarks that it is a rare thing to hear of a courtier that has but his own language, and to tell how many ladies are skilled in french, spanish, and italian is beyond his power (_holinshed's chronicle_, , i. p. ). nicholas udal writes in the same strain in his dedication to queen katherine parr of his translation of erasmus's _paraphrase of the gospels_; we are told that a great number of noble women at that time in england were given to the study of human sciences and of strange tongues; and that it was a common thing to see "young virgins so nouzled and trained in the study of letters that thei willingly set all other vain pastymes at nought for learnynge's sake." amongst the most accomplished of such "queens and ladies of high estate and progeny" were queen katherine parr and lady jane grey. mulcaster in his _positions_ ( ) praises english ladies for their fondness of serious study, and so does the italian teacher torriano in his _italian reviv'd_ ( ), p. . many examples of fluent linguists are found in ballard's _memoirs of several ladies of great britain_, nd ed., . [ ] elizabeth's command of foreign languages was constantly a subject of remark. dr. william turner in the dedication of his _herbal_ ( ) to the queen, addresses her thus: "as to your knowledge of latin and greek, french, italian, and others also, not only your own faythful subiectes, beynge far from all suspicion of flattery, bear witness, but also strangers, men of great learninge, in their books set out in latin tonge, give honourable testimonye." best known of these learned observers was scaliger (_scaligeriana_, cologne, , p. ). similar eulogies in verse were left by french poets: ronsard, _elegies, mascarades et bergeries_ ( ), reproduced in _le bocage royal_ ( ); jacques grévin, _chant du cygne_; du bartas, _second week_; and agrippa d'aubigné; also by john florio, _first frutes_, , ch. xiii. [ ] _first frutes_, , ch. i. [ ] john eliote, _ortho-epia gallica_, . [ ] _merchant of venice_, act i. scene . [ ] cp. brunot, _histoire de la langue française_, ii. pp. _sqq._ dallington in his _view of france_ remarks on the same neglect. in _the abbot and the learned woman_, erasmus praises the latter for studying the classics and not, as was usual, confining herself to french (_colloquia_, leiden, ). [ ] _copy book of sir amias poulet's letters_, roxburghe club, , p. . [ ] _the second book of the travels of nicander nucius_, camden soc., , p. . [ ] _dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion françoese departi en deus livres_, lyon, . [ ] peiresc wrote in french to the scholars selden and camden, who answered in latin. other french scholars who maintained a correspondence with englishmen are de thou, jérôme bignon, duchesne, du plessis mornay, h. estienne, hubert languet, pibrac, and the sainte-marthe brothers. [ ] _lettres missives de henri iv_, tom., paris, . for an example of elizabeth's french in her intercourse with her neighbours, see rathery, _les relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la france et l'angleterre_, paris, , p. n.; _unton correspondence_, roxburghe club, , _passim_. [ ] see the _calendars of state papers_ for the period. [ ] _calendar of state papers_, domestic, - , p. . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, vol xiii. pt. i. no. . [ ] henry vii.'s mother, the countess of richmond, was also an accomplished french scholar; she translated several works from the french, and encouraged others to follow her example. [ ] j. p. collier, _annals of the english stage_, , vol. i. pp. , , . [ ] cp. rye, _op. cit._ pp. , . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, ed. brewer, vol. ii. no. ; rawdon brown, _four years at the court of henry viii._, , vol. i. pp. - and . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, vol. i. p. xxiii. [ ] _songs, ballads, and instrumental pieces composed by king henry viii._, oxford, . barclay says in his _eclogues_ that french minstrels and singers were highly favoured at court. jamieson, _life and writings of barclay_, , p. . [ ] "je serai à [vous] toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai que vous." [ ] _henry viii._, act i. scene . [ ] wolsey spoke latin well. like charles ii. he considered it diplomatic to affect ignorance of french at times. such is his advice to those who accompanied him on his embassy to france: "the nature of the frenchmen is such that at their first meeting they will be as familiar with you as if they had knowne you by long acquaintance, and will commune with you in their french tongue as if you knew every word. therefore use them in a kind manner, and bee as familiar with them as they are with you: if they speake to you in their natural tongue, speake to them in english, for if you understand not them, no more shall they you." puttenham, in his _arte of english poesie_, advises ambassadors and messengers not to use foreign languages of which they have not perfect command, lest they commit blunders similar to that of the courtier who said of a french lady, "elle chevauche bien,"--blunders which might have serious results in diplomatic transactions. [ ] _the negociations of th. wolsey, the great cardinal of england, containing his life and death. composed by one of his own servants, being his gentleman usher_ (g. cavendish?), london, . [ ] _negociations of th. wolsey_, _ut supra_. [ ] m. e. a. green, _lives of the princesses of england_, - , v. p. . [ ] green's _letters of royal and illustrious ladies_, . see also ellis, _original letters_, st series, vol. i. p. . [ ] _life of anne boleyn_, in strickland's _lives of the queens of england_, london, , ii. pp. , . [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, nd series, vol. ii. p. . anne's french spelling is curious and suggests that, like henry viii., she learnt french mainly by ear: "mons. je antandue par vre lettre que aves envy que tout onnete feme quan je vindre à la courte et ma vertisses que rene prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy, de quoy me regoy bien fort de pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete, cela me ferra a voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais." [ ] a french poem of the time, preserved in ms. and quoted by rathery, _op. cit._ p. , celebrates anne's french accomplishments--_traité pour feue dame anne de boulant, jadis royne d'angleterre, l'an _: "la tellement ses graces amenda que ne l'eussiez oncques jugée angloise en ses fachons, ains naïve françhoise. elle sçavoit bien danser et chanter, et ses propos sagement agencer, sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens pour divertir les tristes pensemens." [ ] pub., with english translation, in the _harleian miscellany_, vol. iii., , pp. - . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, xv. , and xvi. . [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, series , vol. ii. p. . [ ] strickland, _lives of the queens_, , ii. p. . [ ] this is the testimony of girolamo cordano, a physician and astrologer of milan who was called upon to exercise his art on the young king of england in . rye, _england as seen by foreigners_, pp. lxviii _sqq._ [ ] strickland, _op. cit._ ii. pp. - . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, xvi. no. . [ ] ellis, _original letters_, rd series, ii. p. . [ ] one of elizabeth's italian masters was baptista castiglione, a religious refugee in . elizabeth, however, had acquired some knowledge of italian before ; in that year she addressed a letter in italian to queen katharine parr (printed in g. howard's _lady jane grey and her times_, ). other italian letters of the queen are published in green's _letters of royal and illustrious ladies_, . [ ] account of the venetian ambassador at the court of mary--michel giovanni. rye, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] _memoirs of his own life, - _, bannatyne club, , p. . elizabeth's dutch he pronounces "not gud," and later says that neither the king of france nor the queen of england could speak dutch (p. ). [ ] _memoirs of his own life, - _, bannatyne club, , p. . [ ] j. nichols, _progresses of queen elizabeth_, - , i. p. x. [ ] rye, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] rye, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] the ms. was reproduced in facsimile in . the prayers in french begin thus: "mon dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les tresors de ta grande misericorde envers moy ta tres humble servante, m'ayant de bon matin retirée des profonds abismes de l'ignorance naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand soleil de justice . . . etc." [ ] _lettres_, amsterdam, , liv. i. p. . [ ] an account of the little that is known of andré's life is given in gairdner's _memorials of henry vii._, pp. viii _et seq._ [ ] of foreign countries, the netherlands seem to have come next to england in zeal for the study of french, and germany takes the next place. countries in which sister romance tongues were spoken, italy and spain, were apparently entirely dependent on practice for learning french. [ ] the printing was completed by robert coplande on the nd march . the book consists of sixteen leaves of the folio size of the time, in black letter, with signatures a-b in sixes and c in fours. there is a unique copy in the bodleian. [ ] bale, _scriptorum britanniae summarium_, , p. , and pits, _relationes historicae de rebus anglicis_, , p. , attribute to barclay a work called _de pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_. this suggests that possibly the _introductory_ was first written in latin. [ ] time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the country, as _piecha_ for _pieça_ in certain districts; _jeo_ and _ceo_ for _je_ and _ce_ in picard and gascon; the writing of the names of dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular, as _luy papes de rome_. [ ] _l'esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_, bk. i. ch. xxxv. [ ] "there is a boke which goeth about in this realme, intitled _the introductory to write and pronounce french_, compyled by alexander barclay. i suppose it is sufficient to warne the lerner that i have red over that boke at length, and what my opinion is therein it shall well apeare in my boke's self, though i make thereof no further expresse mencion." [ ] thus the vowel _a_ is sometimes a letter, sometimes a word. in the former case it is often sounded like english _a_; when it is a word _d_ should not be added. this section of the work is reprinted in a. j. ellis's _early english pronunciation_, early engl. text soc., , etc., pt. iii. pp. _sqq._ [ ] on the back of folio . [ ] "howsoever the singular number end, the plural number must end in _s_ or _z_." such is the rule for the formation of the plural. as for the genders, he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into rules. [ ] on folio vº. [ ] folios - . the vocabulary begins with the letter m, and after proceeding to the end of the alphabet, resumes at the beginning--an arrangement probably due to some blunder on the part of the printer. [ ] both deal with agricultural subjects; the first gives the life of a grain of wheat, and the second may explain itself: "dieu sauve la charue, god save the ploughe, et celui qui la mane. and he the whiche it ledeth. primierement hairois la terre, firste ere the grounde, apres semer le blé ou l'orge. after sow the whete or barley. les herces doivent venir apres, the harrowes must come after, le chaclir oster l'ordure. the hoke to take away wedes, en aoust le foyer ou faucher, in august reap it or mowe it, d'une faucille ou d'une faux." there is no english rendering of the last line. [ ] in the library of the marquis of bath. [ ] the earl was born in . [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, st series, i. pp. - . [ ] _description des royaulmes d'angleterre et d'escosse_, paris, . [ ] c. h. and t. cooper, _athenae cantabrigienses_, vol. i., , p. . [ ] _list of denizations, - _, huguenot society publications viii. [ ] _athenae cantab._ _ut supra_. [ ] s. r. maitland, _list of some of the early printed books in the archiepiscopal library at lambeth_, , pp. _et seq._ [ ] "'_a_' also betokeneth 'have' or 'has,' when it cometh of this verbe in latin, _habeo_, as hereafter ye may see." [ ] "sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz englois que leur fault accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot françois quelque mot que ce soit (rime exceptée) ce que la langue engleshe ne permet, car la ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade,' le françois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes et 'breade' iii sillebes." [ ] j. a. jacquot, _notice sur nicolas bourbon de vandoeuvre_, troyes et paris, . bourbon was born in , and died in . he went to paris in , leaving behind him in his native town a reputation won by his latin verses. on his return from england, queen margaret of navarre entrusted to him the education of her daughter, jeanne, who was the mother of henry iv. [ ] _nicolai borbonii vandoperani lingonenis_ [greek: paidagôgeion], lugduni, . [ ] j. h. marsden, _philomorus_, nd ed., , p. . [ ] clement jugé, _nicolas denisot du mans, - _, paris and le mans, . [ ] he also began his work as a secret agent in the service of france, and it is said that calais was recovered by the french in , from a plan which denisot submitted to the duc de guise. [ ] there was a ms. copy of latin poems by denisot in the library of edward vi. (nichols, _literary remains_, .) [ ] j. bonnet, _récits du seizième siècle_, , p. . [ ] _le tombeau de marguerite de navarre faict premierement en distiques latins par les trois soeurs, princesses en angleterre: depuis traduits, en grec, italien et françois par plusieurs des excellentz poetes de la france. avecques plusieurs odes, hymnes, cantiques, epitaphes sur le mesme subiect._ paris, . chapter ii french tutors at court--giles duwes--john palsgrave--jean bellemain the two most popular french tutors at the court of henry viii. were undoubtedly giles duwes and john palsgrave. palsgrave is the only one of these early french tutors who is well known to-day as a writer on the french tongue. he was a londoner, and received his education at cambridge and paris. giles duwes was a frenchman and seems to have enjoyed a greater popularity in his own day. he had been teaching french at the english court for over ten years when palsgrave received his first appointment there, as french tutor to the king's "most dere and entierly beloved" sister mary, afterwards queen of france. both teachers were protégés of henry viii., and taught in the royal family--duwes was tutor to the king himself; and both were authors of grammars of the french language. that of palsgrave has been mentioned already. it appeared in under the title of _l'esclarcissement de la langue françoyse_. duwes's was not published till three years later approximately, at the request of his pupil, princess mary, afterwards queen of england. it was called _an introductorie for to learne to rede, to prononce and to speke french trewly, compyled for the rigid high excellent and most vertuous lady mary of englande, daughter to our most gracious soveraign, lorde kyng henry the eight_.[ ] his treatise is a small quarto of leaves, forming a striking contrast to palsgrave's enormous folio[ ] of over pages. the contents and style of the two books are as different as their size. [header: john palsgrave's french grammar] like all the french grammarians of the time, palsgrave opens his work with rules for the pronunciation, and the whole of the first book is devoted to an elaborate study of this subject. earlier writers had treated it very slightly, if at all, trusting that the student would find some opportunity of learning the sounds of the language by mixing with those who spoke it. we are told[ ] that as a result there was no means of acquiring a good pronunciation, save in early youth by practice and use for a year or two. and it came to be supposed in a manner a thing impossible; "in so much that whereas there be hundreds in this realm, which with a little labour and the aid of latin, do so perfectly understand this tongue that they be able to translate at the first sight anything out of the french tongue into ours, yet have they thought the thing so strange to leave the consonants unsounded whiche they saw written in such books as they studied, that they have utterly neglected the frenchmen's manner of pronunciation, and so read french as their fantasy or opinion did lead them and, by that means, perceiving in themselves a want and swerving from the truth, which they wot not how to amend, utterly leave to speak or exercise the language as a thing which they despair of."[ ] one of the chief difficulties of these early students then was the numerous consonants found in french words for etymological reasons, and which were not pronounced. other difficulties were found in the accentuation of vowel sounds. the english were in the habit of placing the accent on the wrong syllable, saying _doucement_ instead of _doucement_, and of not giving the vowel its full and pure sound, both mistakes being due to peculiarities of their native tongue. "we must leave that kind of reading and pronouncing if we will sound the french tongue aright," says palsgrave, "for the french in their pronunciation do chiefly regard three things: to be armonious in theyr speking, to be brefe and sodayne in soundyng of theyr words, avoydyng all manner of harshenesse in theyr pronunciation, and thirdly to gyve every worde that they abyde and reste upon theyr most audible sounde." there is something solemn about his assurance of the successful results to be attained by the study of his rules: "whereas nowe the very grounde and consyderation of the frenchmen in this behalf ones knowen, it hath been proved by experience that it is but a senyghts labour, or, at the most, a fournyghtes to lerne this poynt concernyng to theyr pronounciatyon an to be sure herof for ever." palsgrave devotes attention to each letter of the alphabet in turn, and seeks to elucidate the value of the sounds by reference to contemporary english or italian, and by attempting to give the position of the vocal organs.[ ] _a_, he says, has two diverse sounds. "sometimes he is sounded as in english, and sometimes like the diphthong _au_ and a little in the nose. the most usual pronunciation given it by the french, is the same as those who speak the best english, that is like the italian sound _a_, or those of the english who sound the latin tongue aright. when _m_ or _n_ follow the vowel it is pronounced as _au_ and somewhat in the nose, _chambre_ being sounded _chaumbre_," etc. more general topics are also touched on--the accent, the length of vowels, and the intonation which is so "brief, so sudden and so hard." in his second book,[ ] palsgrave treats what he calls the second difficulty of the french tongue--the accidence of the nine parts of speech. throughout, constant reference is made to the third book, "whiche is a very comment expositour unto my second." this last book deals with the more syntactical side of the subject, and was added on the model of theodore gaza's greek grammar. it occupies by far the largest portion of the whole work,[ ] and besides giving elaborate and often obscure rules to govern every french inflexion,[ ] includes an english-french alphabetical vocabulary which reaches the size of a dictionary. this vocabulary is arranged according to the parts of speech, and numerous phrases and idioms illustrative of different uses of the words are freely given. [header: the "introductorie" of giles duwes] nothing like it in dimensions had yet appeared, and, contrary to custom, the english is placed before the french. duwes's manual, on the other hand, opens with an acrostich in french with an interlinear english translation containing the author's name--giles duwes or de vadis,--followed by a short address in verse to the princess mary, "filleule a saincte marie" (also in french, accompanied by an english interlinear version), and lists of french words beginning with each of the letters of his royal pupil's name. the grammar itself is written in english, for duwes was one of the few frenchmen of the time who knew english; neither bourbon nor denisot, though they lived in england some years, and taught french to english pupils, knew our language; and no doubt they helped to continue the long-standing relation between the teaching of latin and the teaching of french. duwes's work is divided into two books, the first of which is devoted to rules of grammar. he dismisses the pronunciation with seven short and inadequate rules, and proceeds to give his pupil a copious vocabulary of words and phrases, in which the english word is printed over the french one. the headings with which the earlier vocabularies have made us familiar are again utilized, though with variety in detail, and many passages are reminiscent of the mediaeval nomenclatures. after his pupil has gained a knowledge of pronunciation, and acquired a good vocabulary, duwes proceeds to give him an insight into the grammar of the language. he treats the parts of speech, with the exception of the verb, in a very summary fashion; thus, with regard to the gender of pronouns, all he has to say is that those ending in _a_ are feminine, and those ending in _on_ or _e_ are masculine. "but there be certain names of the feminine, which do require the pronouns masculine, that must be accepted (excepted), as _mon ame_; _me_ and _se_ be indifferent." he devotes nearly the whole of his space to a lengthy and elaborate treatment of the french verb, which he divides into two conjugations, according as there is not or is an _s_ before the termination _-ons_ of the first person plural, present indicative! thus the forms _aimons_, _avons_, _batons_, _donons_ prove the verbs _aimer_, _avoir_, _batir_, _donner_ to belong to the first conjugation; and similarly the forms _baisons_, _taisons_, etc., indicate that these verbs belong to the second conjugation--an arrangement not at all conducive to lucidity. a considerable part of his work is occupied by the conjugation of verbs of all sorts, in a variety of forms and both negatively and interrogatively. he usually adopts the practice, frequent in modern text-books, of attaching words to the verbs as he conjugates them, and so providing them with a context. thus he writes _j'ai grand desir_, and not simply the verb form _j'ai_. a knowledge of french verbs was, in duwes's opinion, the key to the knowledge of the french language.[ ] the second book occupies more than half the volume. it contains practical exercises in the form of "letters missive in prose and in rime, also diverse communications by way of dialogue, to receive a messenger from the emperor, the french king or any other prince, also other communications of the propriety of meat, of love, of peace, of wars, of the exposition of the mass, and what man's soul is, with the division of time and other conceits." each exercise is provided with an interlinear english translation, and all, as may be gathered from their subject matter, were in the first place written specially for the use of the princess mary. they deal with the daily events of her life, and, though occasionally public affairs are touched on, these exercises are of greatest interest in disclosing the affectionate relations existing between mary and her tutor. whenever possible, duwes introduces alternative phrases as well as variations of number and gender, and this attention to his pupil's vocabulary and knowledge of the flexions often encumbers his sentences. as for the english version, it gives a word-for-word rendering of the french, without regard to the natural order of words in an english sentence. the methods of the two teachers seem to have been as different as their works. everything tends to prove that duwes's manner of teaching was practical, light, and entertaining, and at the same time efficient--a rare combination of good qualities. [header: his method] henry viii.'s skill in french has already been noticed, and duwes's other pupils seem to have been equally accomplished. in his opinion, a good vocabulary and a thorough knowledge of the verbs were the two essentials in teaching french. to learn french quickly, he thinks, the student must practise turning the verbs in all possible ways, affirmatively, negatively, and interrogatively--a principle of repetition. in this way he acquires fluency of speech and is able to "make diverse and many sentences with one word, and perconsequent come shortly to the french speach." for instance, thirty-six variations may be got in one tense, by turning each person in six different ways, "that is to say, the affirmative three ways, and the negative likewise." duwes reaches this large total by giving the following forms of each person: "i have, have i?, why have i?" for the singular of affirmation, "i have not, have i not?, why have i not?" for the singular of negation, and so on with other persons and the corresponding plural forms. he further counsels the student to practise similar variations in the same tense, by means of the use of the pronouns _me_, _te_, _se_; "for the first person, i have me, i have thee, i have him, and we turn it, we shall have, have i me, have i thee, have i him. then putting why before it we shall have, why have i me," etc., and so on, on lines exactly similar to the example for thirty-six variations. apparently such exercises were the mainstay of his grammatical instruction, for rules of grammar are reduced to a minimum. practice held a higher place than theory in duwes's estimation, and his attitude towards attempts to draw up rules for the french language was very sceptical; to be complete, the numbers of such rules would be infinite, and, what is more, rules are of more use to the teacher than to the learner. palsgrave, on the contrary, had a firm belief in the value and soundness of grammar rules. he seems to have been the first to advocate the learning of french chiefly by means of grammar. the earliest treatises had been intended more to correct the french of those who read them than to teach the language; and though in later times the rules were intended to impart a knowledge of the language, they were not put in the first place, and it was always felt that they were very secondary to "custom and the use of reading and speaking." before palsgrave's grammar appeared, declares his enthusiastic pupil andrew baynton, englishmen did in a manner despair of learning french except by an "importune and long continued exercise and that begun in young and tender age." sir thomas elyot in _the boke of the governour_, which appeared a year after palsgrave's grammar, seems to regret this interference with long-standing custom, by means of which french was "brought into as many rules and figures and as long a grammar as is latin or greek."[ ] he was afraid that the "sparkes of fervent desire of learnynge" should be "extincte with the burdone of grammar, lyke as a lytell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small stickes: so that it can never come to the principale logges where it shuld longe bourne in a great pleasaunt fire." many years elapsed, however, before the deadening effect of too much grammar, apprehended by elyot, was felt in the teaching of french. palsgrave's method of teaching, therefore, was the reverse of that of his fellow-worker, although he professes a desire to induce his pupils not only to love their studies, but to be merry over them.[ ] it appears that he was fond of making his pupils learn rules by heart,[ ] while the dynamic of his method was translation from english into french--an exercise not very popular amongst teachers at this time. so great was his faith in his rules that he felt that the student might, with their aid, even dispense with the assistance of a teacher. by an attentive study of the first book the reader "shal undouted attayne to the right and naturall pronunciation of this sayde tonge." and he assures the student that by reading the general information in the introduction to his first two books, and by learning by heart the three perfect verbs in his second book (_je parle_, _je convertis_, _je fais_, representatives of the three conjugations into which palsgrave arranges french verbs) and the three irregulars (_j'ai_, _je suis_, and _je m'en vais_), he will know french tolerably well, and be able, with the help of the vocabulary in the third book, to translate from english into french, and "so incontinente accustome hym to have theyr common speache"; and, again using the vocabulary, he will be able to read any french author by his own study, without help or teacher, if he knows the second book perfectly. [header: his dialogues in french and english] however, he advises those who desire to attain perfection, or to qualify themselves for foreign service, to read and study the whole of the three books. palsgrave seems to assign the priority to duwes by mentioning him as one of his immediate predecessors, although duwes's work was not published until after palsgrave's. yet it is improbable that the debt on either side was anything but trifling. duwes had been teaching many years before we first hear of palsgrave. as he taught he drew up grammatical rules for the use of his pupils; and when he was tutor to the princess mary, she requested him to collect together and publish the material he had used in teaching the king, her father, as well as other members of the royal family.[ ] according to palsgrave, diverse noblemen supported the princess's request. thus most of the rules published in duwes's grammar had been composed very many years before they were published, for duwes had then been teaching for over thirty years. and no doubt palsgrave, who was also employed at court, had opportunities of seeing them in manuscript. as to the dialogues and other practical exercises, they were all specially written for the use of the princess, and so are of later date than most of the rules. duwes had doubtless composed for the benefit of his earlier pupils similar exercises, which remained in manuscript form and were lost. some idea of the dates at which the dialogues were written and of the period during which duwes was engaged in teaching the princess may be gathered from references to topical events which occur in the text. for instance, mention is made of a peace newly proclaimed throughout the kingdoms of france and england, which was, no doubt, that of , when england joined with france to counteract the excessive power of spain. we also find a somewhat vague reference to a possible marriage for the princess with a "king or emperor," and remember that it was in that negotiations for her marriage with charles v. were broken off, and others for an alliance with the french king, francis i., begun. another circumstance points to this same period. one of the dialogues takes place at tewkesbury park; it was in that mary was created princess of wales, and sent to ludlow to hold her court there, and in november of the same year six of her council addressed a letter to wolsey from tewkesbury. duwes is not mentioned by name in a list of the princess's household appointed on this occasion, probably because he was already in her service; and it is interesting to note that the countess of salisbury, her lady governess, had instructions "without fatigacion or weariness to intende to her learninge of latine tongue and french," as well as her music, dancing and diet.[ ] in may , mary had returned to london, and took part in the festivities given at greenwich in honour of the french ambassadors who had come to ask for her hand on behalf of the french king's second son, henry, duke of orleans. we may therefore conclude that duwes's grammar rules were composed at various dates from the beginning of the century, and the dialogues probably between the years and . palsgrave, on the other hand, began his great work when henry viii. appointed him french tutor to his sister mary, the future queen of france, in . he had "conceyved some lyttle hope and confidence" by receiving such a noble charge, and thought it a convenient occasion for showing his gratitude by means of his works. several years later he completed "two sondrie bookes" on the subject, which he offered in manuscript to his former pupil, the dowager queen of france, and her husband the duke of suffolk. on their advice and encouragement he undertook to enlarge these and to add a third, and present the whole to the king. in , palsgrave had planned the whole of the three books, for in that year he made a contract with the printer, richard pynson, in which it is stipulated that "the sayd richarde, his executors and assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez lesclarcissement de la langue françoys,' contayning iii sondrye bokes, where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding and speking, and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the perfection of the saide tong, with ii vocabulistes, oone begynnyng with english nownes and verbes expownded in frenshe, and a general vocabulist contayning all the wordes off the frenshe tong expound in englishe." pynson undertook to begin at once and to print every whole working day, at the rate of a sheet a day, interrupting the work for nothing save a royal order. [header: popularity of duwes] the third book was not fully written when the first two passed into the hands of the printer, as palsgrave constantly refers in it to the mistakes made already by the printer in his second book,--mistakes unavoidable in so "newe and unaccustomed worke." he also seems to have modified his plan for the vocabulary; in that which actually appeared in the third book there is a separate english-french dictionary for each part of speech--noun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, and interjection. in the meantime, pynson died, and the book was completed by john hawkins, this being the only known production of his press. the two writers, then, were both engaged on their work for a great many years. duwes was the first in the field, but he wrote with no view to publication, merely to satisfy the needs of his pupils. palsgrave, on the other hand, from the very first intended to publish his work, and had great ambitions. although he no doubt saw some of duwes's manuscript, his debt was of the slightest character, if it can be called a debt at all. the respective size of the two volumes is enough to prove this. duwes's small treatise, however, seems to have enjoyed a greater popularity than that of palsgrave;[ ] the latter did not reach a second edition, whereas the former went through three in rapid succession. this was no doubt largely due to its conciseness and practical nature, which would appeal to the student, discouraged at the sight of palsgrave's immense work. the first edition (as far as is known) of duwes's _introductorie_ must have appeared at least three years after palsgrave's _esclarcissement_. the first two editions, printed, one by thomas godfray, and the other by nicholas bourman for john reyns at the sign of the george in paul's churchyard, were published during the years when anne boleyn was queen, and after the birth of the princess elizabeth, as they both contain a "laude and prayse" of the king, queen anne, and her daughter. this leaves a period of under three years for the publication of the two editions, seeing that elizabeth was born in september , and anne was put to death on the th of may , jane seymour becoming queen in her stead on the th. the third edition[ ] appeared after duwes's death in , as perhaps the second edition may have done also. the dedication to anne is omitted, and a new one inserted, addressed to henry alone. the second part is here said to be "newly corrected and amended"; but it is difficult to find in what the corrections consist, for, with the exception of slight variations of spelling, the edition is identical with the two earlier ones. it was issued from the press of john waley, who began to practise his trade as printer in about the year .[ ] most probably, then, this edition appeared in the last months of the reign of henry viii. ( ), and was one of the earliest works issued from waley's press. it is hardly likely that he would have inserted the "laude and prayse" of the king if the work had appeared after his majesty's death. several reasons combine to explain how it was that palsgrave's work does not appear to have been as widely used as that of duwes.[ ] while his book was still in the press, alarming rumours as to its size began to circulate, and caused the great demand there had been for the work previously to diminish noticeably. some of palsgrave's pupils made efforts to stop the report, one of whom was andrew baynton, already mentioned, a favourite courtier of henry viii. and vice-chamberlain to three of his queens. "the labour needed to master the book is not in proportion to his size!" he wrote indignantly to three distinguished fellow-students, who helped him to contradict the rumour. on the contrary, he argues, it may rather be thought too small; it is as complete as can be expected when we consider that it is the first of its kind: clerks have laboured for years at latin grammar and still find something new; french grammar, then, cannot be expected to attain completeness in this first attempt. but "he that will seek, may find and in a brief time attain to his utterest desire." palsgrave deemed it wise to publish this letter as a prefatory notice to his grammar; it may, indeed, have been written in the first place with that object in view. [header: sale of palsgrave's grammar] he also judged it expedient to explain how students, not wishing to study the whole, might learn enough french to serve their purpose by selecting and learning certain sections of the grammar.[ ] moreover, palsgrave himself restricted the sale of his book. on account of "his great labours, the ample largeness of the matter, and the great difficulty of the enterprise," as well as its "great costs and charges" (for he had the work printed at his own expense), he was anxious to keep his grammar for himself, his friends, and his pupils, "lest his profit by teaching the french tongue might be minished by the sale of the same to such persons as besides him were disposed to study the french tongue." his chief aim was to keep his book out of the hands of rival teachers, who might use it for their own ends. yet this attitude conflicts strangely with palsgrave's generous declaration in his epistle to the king, expressing the hope that by means of his poor labours on this occasion "the frenche tongue may hereafter by others the more easely be taught, and also be attayned unto by suche as for their tyme therof shal be desyrous." nor was this the only precaution taken by palsgrave to ensure safety and fair dealing for his grammar. he obtained from henry viii., to whom he dedicated the work, a privilege for seven years,[ ] the king being greatly "moved and stirred by due consideration of his said long time and great diligence about this good and very necessary purpose employed." the fact that palsgrave altered his original contract with pynson twice[ ] shows how careful he was in all his proceedings. he wished to be sure of having complete control of the copies which were printed. he did not trust the "sayd richarde" further than he could help, and intended to see that pynson "used good faith" in his dealings with him. pynson was to give palsgrave six copies to present to the king and his friends. the rest were to be left at pynson's house, in a room of which palsgrave kept the key, and to be sold only to such as palsgrave desired. when pynson had paid himself,[ ] the remaining books were to be given to palsgrave, either to take away or leave, as he willed. a striking example of the difficulty there was in obtaining palsgrave's grammar is illustrated by the case of stephen vaughan. again and again he begged palsgrave to let him have a copy, but palsgrave would not grant this favour at any price; and it is easy to form an idea, from vaughan's persistence, of the great value attached to the grammar among serious students; so great and unparalleled a work was credited with almost supernatural powers. finally, in despair, vaughan wrote to his patron cromwell, asking him to use his influence with the french teacher in obtaining this "jewell."[ ] cromwell had received one of palsgrave's presentation copies, and, as a last resort, vaughan begs him to let him have this. it is to be hoped that the young man succeeded in getting a copy. at any rate he seems to have made good progress in the french language.[ ] it is not surprising to find that the fashionable court tutors were personally acquainted with each other. palsgrave seems to have had a great respect for duwes, and to have set a high value on the opinions of "that singular clerk." he feels he "cannot too much praise his judgment concerning the french tongue." and he quotes duwes's authority on the subject of mean verbs, a matter about which he had consulted him personally. we thus see that palsgrave probably was more indebted to duwes in this direct way, than by any help he received from such manuscripts as came into his hands. "maister gyles," who was librarian to the king, also showed palsgrave a very old text of the _roman de la rose_ in the guildhall, "to shewe the difference betweene tholde romant tong and the right french tong." the _roman de la rose_ was a text frequently quoted by palsgrave in support and illustration of his rules. thus palsgrave has nothing but praise for duwes, and no doubt duwes took a friendly interest in his younger rival, though he could not bring himself to excuse what seemed to him his presumption in attempting to write rules for a language not his own. [header: duwes on english teachers of french] like many frenchmen of the time, duwes firmly believed that it was not possible to draw up anything like infallible rules for the french language, and that englishmen should presume, not only to teach it, but to do this also, appeared to him preposterous. would it not seem strange, he cries, to see a frenchman endeavouring to teach the germans their own language? why should it be considered less strange for englishmen to teach french and lay down rules and principles for the french language, a thing very few of those who have the language "by nature" are able to do? that these presumptuous englishmen may be well read, and possess a good knowledge of french--"au moins pour non estre natif du territoire et pais"--does not alter the case; for art, though it follow nature closely, can never overtake her. duwes himself, he tells us, had been teaching his language for over thirty years, he had searched and worked hard, but had never been able to find these so-called infallible rules--for it is not possible to do so. yet there are englishmen who claim to have done this great thing, though they have been studying french for but a short time. with greek and latin the matter is different. the rules of these languages have grown up through the ages, and are the common property of all nations. this tirade against english writers on the french language is evidently aimed at palsgrave and his predecessors, all those who since the beginning of henry's "well-fortuned reign of this thing had written"--but above all at palsgrave and his ambitious aspirations. duwes's half-ironical assumption of humility as to the value of his own rules, although the fruit of over thirty years' experience in teaching, is probably meant as a rebuke to palsgrave, who claimed to have "reduced the french tongue under a rule and grammar certain," and to have laid down "rules certain and precepts grammatical like as the other three perfect tongues." and when duwes expresses, time after time, his intention of avoiding all prolixity and 'super-fluity' of words, we are also led to think that he is perhaps directing his remarks at palsgrave's wordy rules and the size of his work. duwes may have been a little annoyed at being anticipated in publication by his younger rival. but it is still more likely he resented, as a frenchman, that the honour of having first produced a great work on the french language should be generally ascribed to an englishman. for palsgrave, with very natural and just pride, laid claim to this honour, and was supported by his contemporaries. andrew baynton, in the letter already mentioned, speaks of his "master" as being "the first author of our nation or of the french mennes selfe that hath so farre waded in all maner thinges necessary to reduce that tong under rules certayne." the french, it is true, were beginning to take some interest in their own language, and a french writer of the time, geoffrey tory of bourges, had urged the necessity of reducing the french language to rules in his _champ fleury_ ( ). "would to god," he cried, "that some noble soul would busy himself in drawing up and writing rules for our french tongue!"[ ] palsgrave was acquainted with tory's work, and thought he had realized tory's ideal and "done the thynge which by the testimony of the excellent clerke, maister geffroy tory de bourges (a late writer of the french nation) in his boke entituled _champ fleury_, was never yet amongst them of that contraes self hetherto so moche as ones effectually attempted." leonard coxe, the principal of reading college, a popular philological writer of the time, also connects the names of tory and palsgrave in some latin verses that were printed at the beginning of the grammar. the short interval which elapsed between the appearance of the two volumes renders it impossible for palsgrave to have got his first suggestion from tory, and makes it very improbable that tory had even the smallest influence on his work.[ ] tory had begun his work in . before this date palsgrave had already completed two books of his grammar. he notes, however, as a coincidence, that tory and himself quote the same french authors. [header: pupils of duwes] throughout his grammar, palsgrave continually alludes to the authority of french authors, for he studied french a great deal in books. it would not indeed have been possible to produce so comprehensive a work in england without constant reference to french writers, who, owing to the spread of printing, were becoming more and more accessible. palsgrave refers most frequently to alain chartier and jean lemaire de belges, while guillaume de lorris (_roman de la rose_), octovian de st. gelais, jean meschinot, guillaume alexis, and froissart are all consulted and quoted--a list in which, it will be noticed, the name of no contemporary french poet figures. palsgrave was not content with simply referring to his authorities; he sought to awake an interest in french literature by quoting selections in verse and prose, with guides for pronunciation. apparently duwes's attack on palsgrave was only one of many. much before this palsgrave had complained of unreasonable opposition from his contemporaries, and the "unpleasantness" to which he had to submit. one should not, however, attach too much importance to such complaints, for they seem to have been more or less habitual among writers of the day. duwes appears to have suffered in a similar way, judging by the acrostic which closes his first book, and contains an unusually vehement attack on the "correcteurs et de toutes oeuvres repreveurs," those "grosses gens de rudes affections, ivrognes bannis de vray sentement." it is hard to imagine whence came such severe criticism; probably from other french teachers, but most certainly not from court circles, where both these teachers enjoyed the greatest popularity. nearly all the members of the royal family for two generations learnt french from duwes. he counted among his pupils henry viii. when prince, his elder brother arthur, his sister margaret, who became queen of scotland, and his daughter mary, afterwards queen of england, besides many english noblemen. there is also evidence that henry's favourite sister mary, afterwards queen of france, learnt the first principles of french from duwes before she became the pupil of palsgrave. his favourite scholar, however, appears to have been the princess mary, afterwards queen, at whose request he published his observations on the french language. when duwes began to teach her he was an old man, and a little inclined to melancholy. he was beginning to feel the effects of the english climate and complains bitterly of his chief enemies, december and january: par luy (decembre) ay fait pleurs et soupirs mains, ja ne sera que ne m'en remembre, luy et janvier mont tollu ung membre qui me fera que tant que je vivray en grant doulleur doresavant iray; pourquoy je crains qu'en grant melancolie, en fin fauldra que j'en perde la vie. gout, his chief affliction, often nailed him to his chair, and prevented him from attending his pupil--a greater sorrow, he says, than to suffer sickness and danger. on one occasion he was so ill that he feared he would not see the princess again, and sent a letter, asking pardon if ever he had rebuked her in his lessons. his whole consolation "lies in the hope that spring, seeing him in such a piteous state, will take pity on him." mary seems to have returned fully the affection of her old master. he was her almoner and treasurer, and she playfully called him her "adopted husband." duwes spent a great deal of his time with his pupil, and his "adopted wife" appears to have become impatient when his gout or any other reason kept him from her. in one of the dialogues she is shown rebuking him for his absence one evening: _mary._ comment giles, vous montrés bien qu'avés grant cure et soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absentés ainsy de moy. _gyles._ certes madame, il me semble que suis continuellement ici. _mary._ voire, et ou estiés vous hier a soupper je vous prie. _gyles._ veritablement, madame, vous avez raison, car je m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication. _mary._ je vous prie, beau sire, faictes nous parçonniere de vostre communication, car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon purpos. _gyles._ certes, madame, elle estoit de la paix, laquelle (come on disoit) est proclamée par tout ce royaume. . . . then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of peace. love, the nature of the soul, and the meaning of the celebration of mass were other topics on which they had long conversations; and they would accompany their supper--for the princess begged her master to dine with her as often as possible, in order to talk french--by discourse on health and diet, in the course of which duwes gave the princess much friendly advice. [header: queen mary's french studies] his eloquence on the subject suggests that when he calls himself a "doctor" he means a doctor of medicine. thus mary's practice in the language was not by any means limited to regular lessons, and these lessons were always kept in close contact with her daily life. she is taught how to receive a messenger from the king, her father, or from any foreign potentate, in french, or how to accept presents from noble friends. duwes sometimes used his lessons as a means of conveying to mary messages from different members of her household. lady maltravers exhorts her to study french seriously that reports of her ability may not be belied, and that she may be able to speak french with the king her father, and her future husband, "whether king or emperor"; and her carver, john ap morgan, writes to her when she is ill, to express his hopes for her speedy recovery. when duwes's gout prevented him from waiting on the princess, he would send her a poem of his own composition, in french with an interlinear english version--duwes wrote singularly crude and inharmonious verses--which the princess learnt by heart by way of lesson. or he would excuse his absence in a letter, which, he assures her, "will not be of small profit" to her if she learns it. such were the relations of duwes with his favourite pupil. little else is known of his life beyond the fact that he taught french for nearly forty years in the highest ranks of english society. he himself tells us that he was a frenchman, and in all probability he was a native of picardy, for his name is of picard origin, and there are a few traces of picardisms in his work. we also know that he was librarian to both henry vii. and henry viii.,[ ] and that in he was appointed a gentleman waiter in the princess mary's household, and his wife one of the ladies-in-waiting;[ ] that, curiously enough, he was a student of alchemy and wrote a latin dialogue, _inter naturam et filium philosophiae_, dated from the library at richmond ( ), and dedicated to his friend "n. s. p. d.";[ ] that he died in , about two years after the publication of his _introductorie_; and that he was buried in the parish church of st. olave in old jury, where he was inscribed as "servant to henry vii. and henry viii., clerke to their libraries, and schoolmaster of the french tongue to prince arthur, and to the ladie mary"--a by no means complete list of his illustrious pupils. among duwes's earliest pupils had been henry's sister mary, afterwards queen of france. this princess, however, was to continue her study of the language under john palsgrave, and the first we hear of palsgrave as a teacher of french is on the occasion of his appointment by henry viii. as tutor to his sister, probably towards the end of , when negotiations for the princess's marriage with the prince of castile, afterwards charles v., were in progress.[ ] and when at last it fell to the lot of the princess to marry, not the emperor, but the french king, louis xii., in , palsgrave remained in her service, and accompanied her to france in the capacity of almoner. like the majority of her english followers, he was soon dismissed from her service. yet mary did not forget her former tutor. from time to time she wrote to wolsey, seeking to obtain preferment for him;[ ] like many other men of his standing, palsgrave was in holy orders, and became later chaplain to the king. in november the queen of france wrote to wolsey to beg his favour on behalf of palsgrave that he may continue at "school."[ ] from this we may conclude that palsgrave was continuing the studies he had begun at an earlier date at the university of paris. he calls himself "gradué de paris" in , and no doubt also, his work on the french language was making headway. how long he remained in france is uncertain, but we are told that on his return he was in great demand as a teacher of french and latin to the young english nobility and gentry.[ ] sir thomas more, writing to erasmus in , mentions that palsgrave is about to go to louvain to study there. this second sojourn at a foreign university was not of long duration, for erasmus, in a letter dated july the same year, informs tunstall that palsgrave had started for england.[ ] palsgrave was soon to receive from the king a second important appointment as tutor. [header: palsgrave's pupils] on the formation of the household of his natural son, henry fitzroy, duke of richmond, in , when his "worldly jewel," as henry called the young duke, was made lieutenant-general of the north, the king entrusted palsgrave with the charge of bringing him up "in virtue & learning."[ ] palsgrave was allowed three servants and an annual stipend of £ : : . he took great pains with his young pupil's education, and the king seems to have approved of his method.[ ] such was not the case with gregory cromwell, who, it appears, shared the lessons of the duke. when gregory went to cambridge under john cheking's care, the latter wrote to cromwell that he had to unteach his charge all he had learnt, and that if such be palsgrave's style of teaching, he does not think he will ever make a scholar.[ ] palsgrave declares that he suffered much, when in the north, from poverty and calumny.[ ] his friend, sir thomas more, lent him money, and palsgrave begged him to continue to help him to "tread underfoot" that horrible monster poverty. he also petitions his constant patroness the dowager queen of france and her husband the duke of suffolk. all he has to live by and pay his debts and maintain his poor mother is little more than £ .[ ] among palsgrave's other pupils of note were thomas howard, brother to the earl of surrey; my lord gerald, probably the brother of the fair geraldine, the object of lord surrey's passionate sonnets; charles blount, son and heir of lord montjoie; thomas arundel, who later lost his head for conspiring with the duke of somerset against northumberland, and andrew baynton, who has been mentioned already: all students of french, who were acquainted with his book before it was published, and knew his "hole intente and consyderation therein," and who called palsgrave "our mayster" with a certain amount of pride. the year after the publication of his grammar, palsgrave went to oxford, where he was incorporated m.a. and took the degree of b.d.[ ] he was, however, back in london in the following year, taking pupils into his house and visiting others daily. he had, for instance, promised to serve mr. baynton and mr. dominico in the house of the latter till candlemas. of the pupils who were "with him," the "best sped child for his age" was william st. loe, afterwards sir william and captain of elizabeth's guard. palsgrave seems to have suffered much from interruptions in his pupils' studies caused by visits to their mothers, or by their leaving london on account of the unhealthiness of the city. he writes to william st. loe's father that if he takes his son away for either of these reasons the child will not "recover this three years what he has lost in one," and moreover he will have "killed a schoolmaster," for palsgrave vows he will never teach any more. he also writes that after spending a little time at cambridge, where he could take the degree of d.d., he intends to keep school in black friars, and have with him mr. st. loe's son, mr. russell's son (who is a good example of what results from interruption of studies by a visit home), the younger brother of mr. andrew baynton, and mr. norice's son, of the privy chamber.[ ] at cambridge, also, he would be able to get an assistant, as at present the strenuous and continuous application to teaching is ruining his health. nothing else is known of palsgrave's teaching career. he seems to have spent a good deal of time towards the end of his life at one or other of the rectories[ ] to which he was collated by archbishop cranmer, and where, no doubt, he continued to receive pupils till the time of his death in . palsgrave's great french grammar was not his only professional work. he also published a text-book for the use of students of latin. this was a latin comedy, acolastus,[ ] which had made its way into english schools. palsgrave added an english translation of his own, and the whole appeared in , with a dedication to the king. he says it is a translation according to the method of teaching latin in grammar schools, "first word for word, and then according to the sense." [header: edward vi.'s french exercises] palsgrave had also announced his intention of publishing a book of french proverbs; he had written in his grammar: "there is no tongue more aboundante of adages or darke sentences comprehendyng great wysdome. but of them i differ at this time to speake any more, intendyng by goddes grace to make of thes adages a booke aparte." there is, however, nothing to show that he ever realized this intention, even partially. another french teacher in the royal family was jean bellemain, tutor to edward vi. edward refers to his french master in the passage in his diary[ ] in which he gives an account of his education. speaking of himself in the third person, he writes: "he was brought up until he came to six years old among the women. at the sixth year of his age he was brought up in learning by master dr. cox, who was after his almoner, and john chepe, m.a., two well-learned men, who sought to bring him up in learning of tongues, of scripture, philosophy and all liberal sciences: also john belmaine, french man, did teach him the french language." it appears from a letter of dr. cox to secretary paget, that the prince had his first lesson in french on october , .[ ] his teacher was a zealous protestant, a friend and correspondent of calvin, and he had probably some influence on the religious opinions of his pupil. the three french exercises in the king's hand which are still in existence show that he made rapid progress in the language.[ ] they all bear on religious subjects, showing how carefully bellemain attracted the attention of his young pupil to this matter. all were written after his accession to the throne ( ), and were dedicated to his uncle, protector somerset. the first two are very similar in composition. edward made a collection of texts out of the bible in english, bearing on two subjects, idolatry and faith. he then proceeded to turn these from english into french as an exercise in translation. after they had been corrected by his master, the king had them transcribed into a paper book--the first consisting of twenty pages, the second of thirty-five--and sent them to the protector.[ ] the first was written when edward had been learning french for about a year (in ), and the second shortly afterwards. the third exercise is much longer than the two earlier ones, and differs from them in being not a translation, but a composition of edward's own in french. it is entitled, _a l'encontre des abus du monde_, and was begun on december , , and finished on march of the following year, so that its composition occupied edward for over three months. the manuscript is corrected throughout by bellemain, who makes the interesting entry at the end, that the young king, who was then not yet twelve, had written the whole without the help of any living person. bellemain seems to have been very proud of his pupil's performance; he sent a copy of it to calvin as "flowers whose fruit would be seen in due season."[ ] calvin in turn sent bellemain observations on the composition for him to transmit to his pupil, and advised its publication, which edward would not hear of.[ ] bellemain remarks that edward took great delight in calvin's works, and from time to time the french tutor acted as a medium of communication between the two, as in the case just mentioned. calvin did not scruple to give the young monarch advice on religious subjects,[ ] while cranmer invited him to write to the young king. bellemain himself made a translation of the english liturgy of , and sent it to calvin to have his opinion on it.[ ] besides these three exercises, two of edward's french letters have also survived. one is addressed to queen katharine parr and the other to the princess elizabeth. in the former he compliments the queen, whom he more usually addressed in latin, on her beautiful handwriting.[ ] [header: jean bellemain] the other is to elizabeth, who, it appears, had written to him in french, inviting him to reply in the same language. he takes her advice: puisque vous a pleu me rescrire, tres chere et bien aymée soeur, je vous mercie de bien bon cuer, et non seullement de vostre lettre, mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example, laquelle, ainsy que j'espere, me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant. priant dieu vous avoir en sa garde. de titenhanger, jour de decembre et l'an de nostre seigneur, .--vostre frere, edwardus. prince. a ma treschere et bien aymée soeur elizabeth.[ ] we see from the date of this letter that edward had been learning french nearly three months when it was written. bellemain's salary as french tutor to the king was £ : : per quarter. in he received an annuity of fifty marks for life; in a lease for twenty-one years of the parsonages of minehead and cotcombe, county somerset; in a lease of the manor of winchfield in hampshire;[ ] and in a grant of letters of denization.[ ] he stayed in england until the king's death in , and was present at his funeral. no doubt, with his religious sympathies, he would find the england of mary's time an uncongenial home, and leave it at as early a date as possible. bellemain did not compose any treatise on the french language. he says that he had long nourished the hope of writing some rules for french pronunciation and orthography; but he changed his mind, thinking it mere folly to attempt to give rules for that which was not yet fixed and certain. in a translation into french of the greek epistle of basil the great to st. gregory upon solitary life, which he dedicated to the princess elizabeth,[ ] he expresses his opinion upon the new style of french orthography, then promoted by certain writers, with whom he did not agree on most points. these writers[ ] wished to make the orthography tally with the pronunciation and to discard the letters which are not pronounced; they would thus change the spelling still used for the most part by scholars and courtiers, and which in bellemain's opinion is preferable to that proposed by the so-called reformers. he argues that an alteration of the spelling of french would necessitate a corresponding change in latin, where the letters have the same sound and meaning, a thing which appears ridiculous to the merest observer. besides, the derivative consonants are useful, as they serve to distinguish words of identical sound but different meaning and derivation, and to indicate the length of the preceding vowel. on the other hand, letters have been added by versifiers merely to suit their rimes, and these writers have done more than any others to corrupt french orthography. of what avail is it, asks bellemain, to compose rules on a subject so much in dispute? for these reasons he abstained from increasing the number of works on the french language produced in england. in the dedication to elizabeth of his translation of basil the great's epistle to st. gregory, bellemain shows that he was familiar with the books which the princess read, and also expresses his desire that she will not let her french be corrupted by the so-called reformed orthography she may meet in some of these books.[ ] thus bellemain took an interest in elizabeth's french, and it is highly probable that he was her tutor in that language.[ ] [header: queen elizabeth's knowledge of french] in the year , when he began to teach edward french, the princess elizabeth shared for some time her brother's studies. it is said that they began with religious instruction in the morning, and the rest of the forenoon, breakfast alone excepted, was devoted to the languages, science, and moral learning. edward then went to his outdoor exercises and elizabeth to her lute or viol.[ ] no doubt, then, she received lessons from the french tutor until she left her brother in december. elizabeth, however, had made considerable progress in the language some years before this date, and before , so that it is extremely likely that bellemain had been teaching her for several years before he was appointed french tutor to edward, perhaps owing to his success with elizabeth. at any rate there does not seem to be any trace of any other french tutor to the princess, and the fact that he received an annuity of £ for life suggests that he had already rendered some service in the royal family. the scholar leland praised elizabeth's skill in french and latin when he saw her at ampthill with her brother, and already in she had completed the first composition in which she exerted her early activity in the french language. this was a translation of margaret of navarre's _miroir de l'ame pecheresse_,[ ] which she called _the miroir or glasse of the synneful soul_, and dedicated to queen katharine parr.[ ] it was published in under the title, _a godly meditacyon of the christian soule concerning a love towards god and hys christe, compyled in frenche by lady margarete, quene of naver, and aptly translated into englysh by the right vertuous lady elizabeth, daughter of our late soverayne kynge henri the viii._[ ] the translation itself is not very good, and the style is awkward. but elizabeth was only eleven years old when she undertook it, and observes apologetically that she "joyned the sentences together as well as the capacite of (her) symple witte and small lerning coulde expende themselves." in the following year ( ) she translated some prayers and meditations written in english by the queen, katharine parr, into latin, french, and italian, and dedicated them to her father.[ ] of greater interest is a little book the princess wrote in french, and also offered to the king--a translation into french of the _dialogus fidei_ of erasmus, thus inscribed: "a treshaut trespuissant et redoubté prince henry viii de ce nom, roy d'angleterre, de france et d'irlande, défenseur de la foy, elizabeth sa treshumble fille rend salut et obedience." this treatise, composed before the death of the king in ,[ ] was preserved in the library at whitehall, and often attracted the attention of foreign visitors in london.[ ] thus elizabeth was well accomplished in french before the reign of edward vi. it was while her brother was king that the great hebrew scholar, antony rudolph chevallier, commonly called monsieur antony, was for a short time her tutor in french. chevallier was a norman who had studied hebrew under vatable at paris, and had been forced to take refuge in england on account of his religious opinions. he studied at cambridge and lived for a year in the house of archbishop cranmer,[ ] who brought him to the notice of the young king (then famous for his patronage of foreign scholars of the reform) and of protector somerset, who appointed him tutor to the princess elizabeth.[ ] on the death of edward vi., chevallier, like bellemain, left england. he taught hebrew at strasburg and geneva, where he came into contact with english student refugees under the reign of mary i., and made the acquaintance of calvin. he returned to england in the reign of elizabeth ( ) to solicit the queen's help for the french protestants. he received a good welcome, and in was made a lecturer in hebrew at cambridge, where "he was accounted second to none in the realme." he returned to france before the massacre of st. bartholomew ( ), and died as a result of the hardships he suffered in making his escape. [header: religious opinions of french tutors] it is a curious fact that the religious opinions of the french tutors in henry viii.'s family were reflected in the reigns of their pupils--the protestant edward vi., the roman catholic mary, and the protestant elizabeth. both duwes and bellemain allowed the subject of religion to make its way into their lessons, and they probably exercised some influence, differing in degree, on the religious convictions of their pupils. footnotes: [ ] first edition. printed at london, by th. godfray, _c._ . sig. a-ea in fours. [ ] both these grammars were reprinted by génin, in the _collection des documents inédits sur l'histoire de france_. ii. _histoire des lettres et sciences_. paris, . [ ] by andrew baynton, in a letter prefixed to palsgrave's grammar. [ ] palsgrave in his grammar. [ ] both palsgrave's and duwes's observations on the pronunciation of french are utilized by m. thurot: _de la prononciation française depuis le commencement du_ e _siècle d'après les témoignages des grammairiens_. tom. paris, . for further treatment of palsgrave's grammar, see a. benoist, _de la syntaxe française entre palsgrave et vaugelas_. paris, . [ ] the second book begins on folio xxxi. and ends on folio lix. in the third book the pagination begins anew: folio to folio . [ ] four hundred and seventy-three folios, while the first and second books together occupy only fifty-nine folios. [ ] the fulness, originality, and exhaustive character of the work may be illustrated by the treatment of such a point as the agreement of the past participle with its subject, when used with the auxiliary _avoir_. "... yet when the participle present followeth the tenses of _je ay_, it is not ever generall that he shall remain unchaunged, but ... yf the tenses of _je ay_ have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve, the participle for the most part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre, and in such sentences not remayne unchaunged. helas, i have loved her, _helas je l'ay aimée_ ..." etc. [ ] duwes's plan is as comprehensive as palsgrave's, as is seen by the following table: "in the first part shal be treated of rules, that is to say, howe the fyve vowelles must be pronounced in redynge frenche, and what letters shal be left unsounde, and the course thereof. "the second part shal be of nounes, pronounes, adverbes, participles, with verbes, propositions, and coniunctions. "also certayne rules for coniugation. "item fyve or syx maners of coniugations with one verbe. "item coniugations with two pronounes and with thre and finally combining or ioinyng verbes together." [ ] _the boke of the governour ..._ ed. h. h. s. croft, , vol. i. p. . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ iv. . [ ] _ibid._ iv. . [ ] ". . . m'a comandé et enchargé de reduire et mectre en escript la maniere coment g'ay procedé envers ses dictz progeniteurs et predecesseurs, coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay (tellement quellement) instruit et instruis iournellment. . . ." [ ] _privy purse expenses of the princess mary_, ed. f. madden, , pp. xli-xliii. [ ] "duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquissé la petite grammaire de lhomond: palsgrave avait laborieusement compilé la grammaire des grammaires: l'in-folio fut étouffé par l'in- vo. cela se voit souvent dans la littérature où le quatrain de st. aulaire triomphe de la pucelle de chapelain" (génin's introduction). it seems an exaggeration to use the word "étouffer." at any rate the victory was not final. palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day, like that of duwes. [ ] there are copies of all three editions in the bodleian. the british museum contains one copy of bourman's edition, and two of waley's (the third). génin used godfray's edition in his reprint. [ ] e. g. duff, _a century of the english book trade_, bibliog. society, . [ ] there are, however, a larger number of palsgrave's one edition extant than of duwes's three. this is, no doubt, because its size and value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which school-books are usually treated. there is a copy of the _esclarcissement_ in the bibliothèque mazarine at paris; two in the british museum; one in the bodleian, one in cambridge university library, and one in the rylands library. [ ] _supra_, p. . [ ] dated september , twenty-second year of his reign (_i.e._ ). [ ] there were three drafts of the indenture with pynson, _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ iii. , iv. . the first two were probably drawn up in . the last is dated january , . the first two were printed by dr. furnivall for the philological society, . the third draft is in cromwell's hand, corrected by palsgrave. there is a clause that pynson shall not print more than the given number-- --until that number is sold. pynson seems to have printed only the first two parts of leaves. after this there comes a third part, with a fresh numbering of leaves from to . the printing was finished july , , by j. hawkins. [ ] at the rate of s. d. a ream. [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, rd series, vol. ii. p. . [ ] he found it useful in diplomatic service. he writes to his patron: "i am well asseyed here and my little knowledge of french well exercised" (brussels, nov. , ), _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ xiii. pt. ii. no. . [ ] "o devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a dieu que quelque noble coeur s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige françois! ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles. s'il n'y est mis et ordonné on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue françoise pour la plus grande part sera changée et pervertie" (folio , verso). tory sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his _champ fleury_ was intended only as an introduction. [ ] génin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually appeared. he draws this conclusion from the date of the king's privilege, twenty-second year of henry viii., who came to the throne in ; + = . this leaves palsgrave a longer period to gather what he could from tory's work, says génin. but the twenty-second year of the reign of henry viii. began in april , and the printing of palsgrave's work was completed on the th of july. [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ i. nos. and . [ ] _ibid._ vi. no. . duwes also received numerous grants of money and licences to import gascon wine. [ ] printed in _theatrum chemicum_, ursel, , vol. ii. pp. - , and reprinted in j. j. manget's _bibliotheca chemica_, geneva, , vol. ii. two copies of an english translation are in the bodleian (ashmole mss.). see _dict. nat. biog._ [ ] he is called "schoolmaster to my lady princess of castile," in the book of payments, march , _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ ii. no. . [ ] _ibid._ ii. . [ ] _ibid._ i. . [ ] bale, _britanniae scriptorum_, , fol. . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ ii. pt. , . [ ] j. g. nichols, _memoir of the duke of richmond_, , camden society, _miscellany_, iii. pp. xxiii-xxiv; also _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ iv. , and v. , , , . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ iv. . [ ] _ibid._ iv. : letter dated july , . [ ] _ibid._ iv. , . [ ] "instructions for syr wm. stevynson, what he shall do for one john palsgrave with the frenche queenes grace and the duke of suffolk her espouse": _ibid._ v. . [ ] wood, _athen. oxon._ ed. bliss, i. . [ ] _letters and papers_, v. - : letter dated oct. , . [ ] palsgrave received ecclesiastical preferment from time to time. amongst others, he was collated to the prebend of portpoole in st. paul's cathedral by bishop fitzjames in , and to the rectory of st. dunstan-in-the-east by cranmer in , and to that of wadenhoe, northamptonshire, in , by the same archbishop. (thompson cooper in the _dict. nat. biog._) [ ] written by a dutch contemporary, fullonius, in . [ ] j. g. nichols, _literary remains of edward vi._, roxburghe club, , p. . [ ] _ibid._ p. lxxviii. [ ] these have been printed by j. g. nichols in his _literary remains_, p. _et seq._ the ms. of the first is at trin. col. cantab. r , , of the second in the brit. mus. addit. ms. , and of the third at biblio. pub. cantab. dd , , and brit. mus. addit. . nichols uses the text of the first of these. [ ] "apres avoir noté en ma bible en anglois plusieurs sentences qui contredisent a toute ydolatrie, a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en l'ecriture françoise, je me suis amusé a les translater en ladite langue françoise, puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret, lequel de tres bon coeur je vous offre" (_literary remains ..._, p. ). [ ] "lettre inédite de bellemain": _bulletin de la soc. de l'hist. du protestantisme français_, vol. xv., , pp. - . [ ] it was, however, translated into english and published in (two copies in the brit. mus.), and reprinted by rev. j. duncan in (no copy known), and by the religious tract soc., _vol. of writings of ed. vi._, etc. [ ] calvin wrote to edward vi. in french: "c'est grand chose d'estre roy, mesme d'un tel pays. toutesfois je ne doubte pas que vous n'estimez sans comparaison mieux d'estre chrestien. c'est doncq un privilege inestimable que dieu vous a faict, sire, que vous soiez roy chrestien, voire que luy servez de lieutenant pour ordonner et maintenir le royaulme de j. christ en angleterre" (_bulletin_, _ut supra_). [ ] there is a copy of this in brit. mus. royal mss. , a xiv. [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, ser. , vol. i. p. , and translated in halliwell's _letters of the kings of england_, ii. . [ ] j. c. nichols, _literary remains_, p. . [ ] _ibid._ p. li. [ ] huguenot soc. publications, vol. viii. ad nom. [ ] brit. mus. royal mss. , e . the whole consists of only eighteen small leaves, of which five are occupied by the dedication. no date is attached. the dedication continues: ". . . s'ainsy estoit (tresnoble et tresillustre dame) que i'attendisse le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a vostre excellence, certes, madame, i'estime que ce ne seroit de long temps: car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit monstrer de nouveau a celle a qui rien n'est caché, soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l'europe: soit en la congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et autres liberales sciences. puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres antiques se peuent trouver que n'ayez leuz ou au moins desquels n'ayez ouy aucunement parler, ioint aussy qu'estes maintenant comme en lieu solitaire, ie vous vueil seulement ramentevoir une epistre de basile le grand que i'estime qu'avez autres fois leue: en laquelle il recommande fort la vie solitaire ou au moins exempte des cures et solicitudes de ce monde: et ce a intention de pouoir induire celuy a qui il l'envoioit a la contemplation de dieu et de la vie future: qui sont les choses ausquelles devons le plus penser durant que sommes en ce monde comme estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre. . . ." [ ] sylvius ( ) had proposed a new system of orthography based on etymology and pronunciation. meigret, however, was the chief exponent of the reformers, who sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation (in his _traité touchant le comun usage de l'escriture françoise_, and , and other works). meigret was supported by peletier du mans (_dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation françoese_, ) and others, and bitterly attacked by the opposing party. the question, once opened, continued to be discussed until the decision of the academy (founded ) settled the matter. brunot, _op. cit._ ii. pp. _sqq._ [ ] "ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que paraventure, en lisant tant de diversitéz d'impressions comme pourriez faire en ceste langue, ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant; mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent quant a cela." [ ] stevenson, _cal. of state papers_, foreign series, - , p. xxv, takes it for granted that bellemain was elizabeth's tutor in french. [ ] strickland, _lives of the queens of england_, : life of elizabeth, iii. pp. , . [ ] first printed at alençon, . [ ] this is at present in the bodleian library. it has an embroidered cover, probably by the princess herself. see cyril davenport, _english embroidered bookbindings_, london, , p. . it was reprinted in . [ ] there are two copies of this rare little volume in the brit. mus. another edition, varying considerably from the first, occurs in bentley's _monuments of the nations_, iv., london, (stevenson, _ut supra_, p. xxvi). it was republished in . [ ] see davenport, _ut supra_, p. . the original is in the brit. mus. [ ] this little work appears to have been lost. [ ] such as hentzer the german, in ; justus zinzerling, ; peter eisenburg the dane, . see rye, _england as seen by foreigners_, pp. , , , . [ ] d. c. a. agnew, _protestant exiles from france ..._, rd ed., , vol. i. p. . [ ] haag, _la france protestante_, and cooper, _athen. cant._ i. . agnew, _op. cit._, does not mention that chevallier was tutor to elizabeth. chapter iii the influence of religious refugees on the teaching of french in england--openings for them as teachers--demand for text-books--french schools in england and scotland religion, the question of all questions in the sixteenth century, was destined, incidentally, to exercise a great influence on the teaching of french in england. the conflicts resulting from the fierce hatreds aroused by the reformation compelled many protestants to seek asylum from the triumphant catholic reaction abroad, and england was the land to which many of them fled.[ ] among these refugees were many who took upon themselves the task of teaching their native tongue to the english. the second half of the sixteenth century was the time when this influence was most strongly felt, although it is not altogether negligible in the years immediately preceding. in france the reformation had at first been favourably received at court, but in the third decade of the century persecution began to drive some protestants from their native land. they made their way to england with some trepidation at this early date,[ ] for henry viii., in spite of his breach with rome, had but little sympathy with the protestants, although he refused on several occasions to surrender fugitive heretics to the french king.[ ] [header: foreigners in england] on the accession of edward vi. in , however, england became a more hospitable abode for the protestants, driven from france in increasing numbers by the persecutions sanctioned by henry ii., whose reign coincided with that of edward. when mary came to the throne all protection extended to these fugitives was withdrawn, and we find many of their protectors fleeing in their turn "to the church and christian congregation, then dispersed in foreine realmes, as to the safest bay."[ ] the return of the english government to protestantism in the reign of elizabeth coincided with the period of increased persecution on the continent. refugees arrived in great numbers, not only huguenots from france, but also subjects of philip ii., dutch, flemings, and walloons, fleeing from the cruelties of alva.[ ] these inhabitants of the low countries came to england in greater numbers than the huguenots.[ ] many of them, such as the walloons and burgundians, spoke french; and, while the chief teachers of the time were drawn from the huguenots, a large group of these french-speaking netherlanders also joined the profession. to these two classes of french teachers must be added a third, the roman catholics, who formed the largest proportion of the foreigners in england.[ ] the number of foreigners, augmented by the arrival of the refugee dutch and french, created a situation which required serious consideration. these foreigners now formed a large fraction of the general population--probably about one in twenty of the inhabitants of london.[ ] it became indispensable to keep some record of them, especially as there was a danger that spies and roman catholic emissaries might enter the country under the guise of refugees, and the overcrowding resulting from the arrival of so many aliens was becoming a serious matter. in earlier reigns the names of strangers in london had been registered; but in the time of elizabeth a census, both numerical and religious, was taken more systematically, and at more and more frequent intervals. in these returns of aliens dwelling in london,[ ] the names of many french teachers are preserved. frequently their profession is stated, and we are told what church they attended and whether or not they were denizens, as well as the part of london in which they dwelt, and, in the lay subsidies, the amount they had to pay towards the heavy taxes levied on strangers. other names are preserved in the lists of the grants of letters of denization.[ ] this grant made the precarious position of foreigners in england more secure. denization became almost indispensable to any one wishing to exercise a craft or trade. these letters gave the recipient much the same privileges as a native, except that he was still subject to special taxation.[ ] only those intending to settle in england would trouble to take out letters of denization; and that many of these foreigners' stay in england was only temporary is shown by the fact that, when the number of strangers was greatest, as after the st. bartholomew massacre, there is no marked increase in the number of denizations granted. means for registering the protestant section of the community of foreigners were provided through the dutch and french churches in london.[ ] in , edward vi. had granted the dissolved monastery of the austin friars to the foreigners as a place of worship; some months later, owing to their increase in numbers, they were allowed the use of another building--st. antony's hospital in threadneedle street. the congregation was divided, the dutch part remaining in the original church, while the french and the walloons and other french-speaking refugees moved to threadneedle street. both churches, each with two pastors,[ ] were under the control of a superintendent. but when, in the time of elizabeth, the churches rose to new life, after their suppression in the reign of mary, the superintendent was replaced by the archbishop of canterbury. [header: reception of refugees in england] this change, however, did not prevent the refugee congregations from enjoying many of their former liberties, for in the time of elizabeth the archbishops, who had themselves experienced the hardships of exile in the reign of mary, took a particular interest in the cause of the refugees. the english, indeed, complained, not entirely without reason, that the foreigners were allowed greater religious freedom than they themselves. as french and dutch refugees settled in different parts of the country, similar churches arose in these settlements. by the end of the reign of elizabeth there were french-walloon churches in existence at canterbury, glastonbury, sandwich, southampton, rye, and norwich. in all strangers were ordered to repair either to their own church or to the english parish church. these injunctions were renewed in the time of elizabeth and became a useful means of checking the number of refugees in london. from time to time, during this reign, the archbishop requested the ministers of the foreign churches to send him a list of their communicants. foreigners who did not attend any church were not allowed to apply for the privilege of letters of denization. thus the aliens who arrived in england in such large numbers in the second part of the sixteenth century had many restrictions placed upon them, especially if they were engaged in any craft or trade which might arouse the commercial jealousy of the english. in the teaching profession such rivalry would not be felt to the same extent, though it did actually exist. in any circumstance, however, all the exiles had to endure the hatred and insults of the common people, from which, nearly two centuries later, voltaire only escaped without injury thanks to his ready wit. riots such as those of evil may day ( ) were directed mainly against foreign traders, but all foreigners, especially frenchmen, were a continual butt for the insults of the mob. nicander nucius remarks that the common people in england do not entertain one kindly sentiment towards the french. "ennemis du françois" is one of the epithets applied to the english by de la porte in his collection of epithets (paris, ) on the different nations. the french priest, Étienne perlin, who was in england during the last two years of the reign of edward vi., and thoroughly hated the country, calling it "la peste d'un pays et ruine," speaks bitterly of the contrast between the courteous reception the english receive in france, and the greeting of the french in england with the cry, "french dogue": "it pleaseth me not that these churls being in their own country spit in our faces, and they being in france are treated with honour, as if they were little gods."[ ] all foreign visitors to england are at one in their complaints of the lack of courtesy among the people. the great scholar casaubon says he was more insulted in london than he ever was in paris; stones were thrown at his window day and night, and once he was wounded in the street on his way to pay his respects at court.[ ] all these visitors, nevertheless, recognize that the english nobility and gentry and those in authority are "replete with benevolence and good order," and as courteous and affable as the people are uncivil.[ ] and thus we find foreigners, especially refugees, welcomed to chairs at the english universities, and foreign students having their fees refunded on showing they had suffered "for religion," and receiving ecclesiastical preferment.[ ] most of the chief families in the realm, we are told, received refugees into their midst. laurence humphrey[ ] exhorts these noble families to fulfil the sacred duty of hospitality towards strangers, especially religious exiles, whose sufferings many of them had themselves experienced in the reign of mary, and to provide them with necessary livings, admit them to fellowships, and allow them yearly stipends. "which well i wot, the noblest prince edward of happy memory most liberally did both in london and either university, whom some dukes, nobles, and bishops imitated, chiefly the reverend father and late primate of england ... thomas cranmer, archbishop of canterbury.... amongst the nobles not the least praise earned henry gray, marquis of dorset, and duke of suffolk now a noble citizen of heaven, who liberally relieved many learned exiles. the like may be said of many others." cranmer had entertained at lambeth pierre alexandre and "diverse other pious frenchmen," including antony rudolph chevallier, who was tutor to elizabeth for a short time. [header: tutors in private families] matthew parker, his successor to the see in the time of elizabeth, followed his example and declared it to be a christian duty to befriend "these gentle and profitable strangers." cecil, walsingham, and other dignitaries of the time also became their protectors, and, recognizing the advantages, both intellectual and commercial, which accrued to the country, sought by all means to ward off the hostile measures demanded from time to time by the english _bourgeoisie_. one french teacher of the time, g. de la mothe, says that so great was the affection of the english nobility and gentry for the french that few of them were without a frenchman in their houses. thus pierre baro, a native of Étampes and student of civil law who came to england at the time of the st. bartholomew massacre, was "kindly entertained in the family of lord burghley, who admitted him to eat at his own table." subsequently he went to trinity college, cambridge, and became lady margaret professor of divinity at that university on the recommendation of his patron, besides being admitted to the degrees of bachelor and licentiate of civil law, and doctor of divinity ( ).[ ] lord buckhurst had for a time in his house claude de sainliens or holyband, the most popular french teacher of the time, and several other strangers; while sir nicholas throckmorton gave shelter to two burgundians, one dutchman, and four frenchmen, "whose names cannot be learned."[ ] in many instances we know that these refugees taught french when thus received into noble families, and it is extremely probable that such was almost always the case, for french was one of the chief studies of the higher classes of society and held an important place in the courtly education of the time. this partiality for the language was called one of the rare vocations which distinguished the english nobility. an idea of the intellectual accomplishments necessary to a young gentleman of the time may be gathered from the programme drawn up for gregory, the son of mr. secretary cromwell;[ ] this comprises "french, latin, writing, playing at weapons, casting of accounts, pastimes of instruments." wilson, the author of the earliest treatise on rhetoric in english,[ ] varies this scheme slightly; he commends the gentleman "for his skill in french, or italian, or cosmography, laws, histories of all countries, gifts of inditing, playing on instruments, painting, and drawing." lord ossory, duke of ormond, for example, rode very well, was a good tennis-player, fencer, and dancer, understood music and played well on the guitar and on the lute; french he spoke elegantly, while he read italian with ease--a careful and significant distinction between the two languages--and, in addition, he was a good historian and well versed in romances.[ ] thus a place had to be assigned to french in the education of gentlemen. thomas cranmer,[ ] for instance, wrote to cromwell in , making suggestions for the establishment of a college in the cathedral church at canterbury, to provide for the instruction of forty students "in the tongues, in sciences, and in french"--a proposal which came to nothing, but is none the less important, as being the first attempt to reinstate french in an educational institution. in the sixteenth century the long-standing custom among gentlemen of sending their sons to the houses of noblemen for education was still practised to some extent, and french was taught in these little communities.[ ] the usual subjects of study were reading, probably writing, and languages, chiefly latin and french. sir thomas more and roger ascham were both educated in this way. more, at the age of three, was sent to the house of john morton, the chancellor, where he learnt french, latin, greek, and music. ascham spent his early years in the house of sir humphrey wingfield, who "ever loved and used to have many children in his house."[ ] sir henry wotton was "pleased constantly to breed up one or more hopeful youths which he picked out of eton school, and took into his own domestic care."[ ] it was also customary for young peers to become royal wards. in sir nicholas bacon devised a plan for their "bringing up in virtue and learning" which he submitted to cecil. [header: french in education of gentry] according to these articles,[ ] the wards were to attend divine service at six in the morning, then to study latin till eleven; nothing is said of breakfast, but an hour is allowed for dinner; from noon till two o'clock they were to be with the music master, from two to three with the french master, and from three to five with the latin and greek masters. the rest of the evening was devoted to prayers, honest pastimes, and music under the direction of a master. no doubt cecil put this advice into practice. some years later, sir humphrey gilbert drew up an admirable scheme for the "erection of an academy in london for the education of her majesty's wards, and others, the youth of nobility and gentlemen," which was laid before the queen, probably in . although this scheme was never carried out, it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects most likely to be taught. gilbert's plan is very extensive. french, of course, is included in the curriculum--"also there shall be one teacher of the french tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same £ . also he shall be allowed one usher, of the yearly wage of £ ." gilbert urges also the teaching of other modern languages--italian, to which he assigns about as large a place as to french, and spanish and high dutch, to which less importance is attached.[ ] french, then, was a recognized part of the education of the nobility and gentry. italian, it will be noticed, was also considered desirable, but chiefly for reading purposes.[ ] in the elizabethan era italian literature had perhaps more influence on english writers than that of france, although it not infrequently reached england through a french medium. but when the first enthusiasm of the early days of the renaissance had burnt itself out, italian was not cultivated generally, except by those specially interested in literature or by those who had special reasons for learning it. nor was spanish much studied, except for practical purposes and the government services; richard perceval, for instance, put his excellent knowledge of the language at the disposal of lord burghley for the purpose of deciphering the packets containing the first intelligence of the armada.[ ] neither language could be a dangerous rival to french, which alone was studied generally, and by ever-increasing numbers. it was in private tuition that those frenchmen desirous of teaching their language, or driven to do so by stress of circumstances, would find the readiest opening and the largest demand for their services. turning to the various registers of aliens, the earliest notices we find of french tutors are in the grant of letters of denization for the year .[ ] in that year one, john verone, a french and latin tutor to the children of william morris, a gentleman usher to the king, received the grant, as did also a certain honorie ballier, a frenchman who had been ten years in england, and was engaged in teaching his language to the children of the lord admiral, lord lisle, duke of northumberland. yet another teacher received the same privilege in this year--john veron, one of the "eminentest preachers" of the time, and the author of various religious controversial works. he gained considerable preferment in the anglican church, and once preached before the queen at the cross in st. paul's churchyard,--"a bold as well as an eloquent man," and a perfect master of the english tongue.[ ] in the earlier part of his life in england, where he arrived about , veron had been engaged in teaching gentlemen's children; a task in which, say his letters of denization ( ), he "doth yet continue with intent ever so to persevere." veron manifested his interest in the teaching of latin and french by publishing a latin, french, and english dictionary in , the first dictionary, published in england, in which a place is given to french. it is based on the latin-french dictionary of robert Éstienne,[ ] with the addition of a column in english, and entitled _dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis latina, anglica, et gallica conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit joannes veron_.[ ] the impetus imparted to the teaching of french by the arrival of these large numbers of refugees naturally led to an increased production of books for teaching the language. [header: text-books for teaching french] nearly all the grammars written in the second half of the sixteenth century are the work of frenchmen,[ ] the english, after their first initiative, soon giving place to the french writers on the language, although not without some protest. some of these teachers no doubt made use of one or other of the grammars which had appeared in french; many of them taught without any such help, and a few were able to use one or other of the grammars which had already been published in england, while yet others set to work to compile text-books of their own. as many of them were, or had been, employed in noblemen's houses, and had composed their grammars from material used in teaching in these noble families, it was easy for most of them to find patrons for their works,[ ] and thus secure a greater measure of success by offering them to the public under the protection of some well-known and powerful name, which would "shadow these tender plants" from the "over violent rays of reproachful censurings." to dedicate a grammar to some famous pupil, with praise of his rare knowledge of french acquired by means of its contents and the excellent method employed by his tutor, the author, was a very good form of self-advertisement, freely used by the french teachers of the time. among patrons of french grammars were edward vi. and particularly elizabeth, who is, says one of these writers, "le vray port de retraite et asyle asseuré de ceux qui, faisans profession de l'evangile, souffrent ores persecution soubs la tyrannie de l'antichrist"; another adds that she has "des estrangers les coeurs a volonté." lord burghley, sir henry wallop, sir philip wharton, and other influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of french teachers. these french grammars which appeared in the second half of the sixteenth century are of a decidedly more popular kind than those of palsgrave and duwes, and appeal to a larger public. the earlier grammars were written for the special use of royalty and the highest ranks of the nobility. barclay, however, differs from his rivals in having a wider aim; his grammar is intended for the "pleasure of all englysshe men as well gentylmen marchauntes, as other common people that are not expert in the sayd langage." palsgrave also, by way of epilogue, expresses the hope that the "nobility of the realm and all other persons, of whatever state and condition whatsoever, may in their tender age, by means of it the sooner acquire a knowledge of french by their great pains and study"; but it is clear that the size and price of his book, not to mention the restrictions he placed on its sale, would prevent it from fulfilling any such aim. in this new series of french text-books there appeared nothing which could compare in importance with the great work of palsgrave; they were all the hasty product of teachers, and intended to meet a pressing practical demand. the authors had not the time, even if they had had the ability, to produce any comprehensive study of the language, and, consequently, their works are of more value as showing how french was taught in england, and its popularity here, than as a store of philological material for the historical grammarian. rules of grammar are usually reduced to as small a compass as possible; and the largest part of the volumes is occupied by dialogues in french and english, which give lively and often dramatic pictures of contemporary family life, and of the busy london streets of the time. a place is also given to familiar phrases, collections of proverbs, and golden sayings. the public to which such text-books appealed was wider, including merchants and commoners, as well as the gentry. nor was the demand for tutors in the language confined to the higher classes. at this time the great middle classes were rising to wealth and prominence, and demanding a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters. "as for gentlemen, they be made good cheap in england," writes sir thomas smith,[ ] in reference to the democratic movement. in this new class of englishman, the teachers of french recruited a large number of their pupils. and so the french teacher who visited a clientèle of pupils became a familiar figure in the london of the later sixteenth century. the numerous french-speaking inhabitants of london, occupied in various trades and crafts in the city, were, so to speak, his unconscious collaborators, for the proportion of such foreigners in london was large enough to have some influence on the spread of the knowledge of french. [header: shakespeare's knowledge of french] we have an instance of this indirect influence in the case of shakespeare. from he lodged for about six years, and possibly longer, in the house of a huguenot, one christopher montjoy, who lived in silver street, cripplegate[ ]--a well-to-do neighbourhood, and the resort of many foreigners. montjoy was one of the french head-dressers who were in such demand at that time. his wife, daughter, and also his apprentice, stephen bellot, formed the rest of the household, with whom shakespeare seems to have lived on fairly intimate terms; he acted as a mediator in arranging a marriage between montjoy's daughter and bellot, and, some years later, was drawn into a family quarrel concerning a dowry which bellot claimed and montjoy refused to pay; in bellot took the matter into the court of requests, and shakespeare was one of the witnesses summoned. finally the matter was referred to the consistory of the french church, which decided in bellot's favour.[ ] it was no doubt during his sojourn in the house of this huguenot family that he improved his knowledge of french, of which he gives evidence in his works.[ ] the two plays in which he uses the language most freely--_henry v._ and _the merry wives of windsor_--were produced during the early time of his residence with montjoy, whose name is given to a french herald in _henry v._ in _the merry wives_ the french physician, doctor caius, speaks a mixture of broken english and french,[ ] and in _henry v._ french is introduced freely into a number of the scenes,[ ] while one, in which katharine of france receives a lesson in english from her french maid, is entirely in french, and is here quoted for convenience' sake:[ ] (enter _katharine_ and _alice_.) _kath._ alice, tu as esté en angleterre, et tu parles bien le langage. _alice._ un peu, madame. _kath._ je te prie, m'enseignez; il fault que j'apprenne à parler. comment appellez-vous la main en anglois? _alice._ la main? elle est appellée de hand. _kath._ de hand. et les doigts? _alice._ les doigts? ma foy, j'oublie les doigts; mais je me soubviendra. les doigts? je pense y qu'ils sont appellez de fingres; ouy, de fingres. _kath._ la main, de hand; les doigts, de fingres. je pense que je suis le bon escholier. j'ay gagné deux mots d'anglois vistement. comment appellez-vous les ongles? _alice._ les ongles? nous les appellons, de nails. _kath._ de nails. escoutez: dites-moy, si ie parle bien: de hand, de fingres, et de nails. _alice._ c'est bien dict, madame; il est fort bon anglois. _kath._ dites-moi l'anglois pour le bras. _alice._ de arm, madame. _kath._ et le coude. _alice._ d'elbow. _kath._ d'elbow. je m'en fais la répétition de tous les mots que vous m'avez appris dès à present. _alice._ il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense. _kath._ excusez-moy, alice; escoutez: de hand, de fingre, de nails, de arm, de bilbow. _alice._ de elbow, madame. _kath._ o seigneur dieu! je m'en oublie; de elbow. comment appelez-vous le col? _alice._ de nick, madame. _kath._ de nick: et le menton? _alice._ de chin. _kath._ de sin. le col, de nick: le menton, de sin. _alice._ ouy. saulve vostre honneur, en vérité vous prononcez les mots aussi droict que les natifs d'angleterre. _kath._ je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre, par la grace dieu, et en peu de temps. _alice._ n'avez vous pas desjà oublié ce que je vous ay enseigné? _kath._ non, je réciteray a vous promptement. de hand, de fingre, de mails-- _alice._ de nails, madame. _kath._ de nails, de arme, de ilbow. _alice._ saulve vostre honneur, de elbow. _kath._ ainsi dis-je; de elbow, de nick, et de sin: comment appelez-vous le pied and la robbe? _alice._ de foot, madame; et de coun. _kath._ de foot, et de coun? o seigneur dieu! ce sont mots de son maulvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames d'honneur d'user. je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les seigneurs de france, pour tout le monde. il fault de foot, et de coun, neant-moins. je reciteray une aultre fois ma leçon ensemble: de hand, de fingre, de nails, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun. _alice._ excellent, madame! _kath._ c'est assez pour une fois; allons-nous à disner. it is not surprising, remembering shakespeare's friendship with the huguenots, to find him quoting from the genevan bible in the same play.[ ] [header: french neglected in grammar schools] when he composed it, he must have had a strong inclination to write french, as he sometimes uses the language rather inconsistently, making the dauphin, for instance, speak french one moment and english the next. on the whole, shakespeare's french seems to have been fairly correct grammatically, if not quite idiomatic.[ ] it contains just enough mistakes and anglicisms to make it extremely unlikely that he received help from any frenchman; for example, we find the princess katharine of france saying, "je suis semblable _a les_ anges." on other occasions, when englishmen are speaking, shakespeare purposely makes their french incorrect and clumsy. that he could read french is shown by the fact that some of the originals on which he based his plays were not translated into english.[ ] moreover, he probably read montaigne in the original, unless, like cornwallis, florio allowed him to see his translation in manuscript--a rather remote possibility, as the french would be easier of access. no doubt many others besides shakespeare owed a good deal of their knowledge of french to direct intercourse with frenchmen, a means of improvement strongly advocated by the professional teachers of the time. "get you acquainted with some frenchman" is their cry. in addition to the refugees, students or men belonging to no particular craft or profession who took up the teaching of their language on their arrival in england, there were also professional schoolmasters--french, flemish, and walloon. many of the latter, we may surmise, were no doubt driven from their country by the edict issued by margaret, duchess of parma, in . one clause was particularly directed against schoolmasters who might teach any error or false doctrine. none of these teachers, however, would find any opening in the grammar schools, which were then "little nurseries of the latin tongue." the memorizing of latin grammar, with the study of rhetoric in the latin writers, both in verse and prose, formed almost the whole of the curriculum.[ ] in the books on education of the time the study of french was equally ignored. these works, however, are mainly from the pen of pedants, and have but little bearing on practical education.[ ] for them french was not a 'learned' tongue, in spite of the efforts of palsgrave to secure its recognition as such. but it is not difficult to reconcile the general prevalence of the study of french with its absence from the grammar schools. at this time, and throughout the seventeenth century, there was a great division between scholastic education and social requirements.[ ] the school and educational writers, in refusing to recognize french, held aloof from the social needs of the day: "non vitae sed scholae discimus"; and in retaining the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the middle ages they ignored the new spirit of nationalism which called modern languages into prominence. the school had little, if any, effect in retarding the progress of french, which came to be looked upon in the light of an 'extra,' to be studied privately and with the help of tutors. many scholars of the public or grammar schools had a private tutor who would teach them french when occasion served. such, for instance, was the case with sir philip sidney. fulke grenville and sidney both entered shrewsbury school at the age of ten, in the year . two years later a letter of sir henry sidney informs us that he had received two letters from his son, one in latin and the other in french, "whiche i take in good parte, and will you to exercise that practice and learning often: for that will stand you in most steade, in that profession of lyf that you are born to live in."[ ] apparently, then, sidney had received lessons in french either at home or out of school hours. he had also, in all probability, had a french tutor before he went to shrewsbury. french, however, was not entirely neglected in all schools. as the grammar schools were "latin" schools, there arose in the second half of the sixteenth century a considerable number of private "french" schools, where this language received special attention. [header: private french schools] the earliest of these owed their origin to the refugees, both professional schoolmasters and others. st. paul's churchyard, the busy centre of city life, was the quarter round which many of these schools were grouped. there they were most likely to get a good clientèle, partly, it may be, among those boys attending st. paul's school who desired, like sir philip sidney, to extend their studies. in st. paul's churchyard, also, lived the chief booksellers, who generally seem to have cultivated friendly relations with french teachers, especially those whose books they were commissioned to sell. frequently they acted as agents for the teachers, who in their grammars advise prospective pupils to "inquire" at the bookseller's. and, at this time, when indications of address were given by reference to the nearest place of importance, printers' signs are frequently used to locate the situation of french schools. at least one of these schools seems to have been very well known, for in the printer w. wright, senior, gave as his address, "neare to the french school."[ ] all of them, however, did not owe their origin to the french refugees. we hear, for instance, of a certain john love, an englishman, son of the steward of the jesuit college founded by the english catholics at douay, who had a french school near st. paul's, at the end of the century. but he was suspect, as it was feared he might be an "intelligenceer."[ ] among the earliest, however, if not the first of these french schools, was that of peter du ploich, a frenchman, and no doubt a refugee; at any rate the text-book for teaching french which he published shows his strong sympathy with the protestants. this was entitled _a treatise in english and frenche right necessary and profitable for al young children_, and was first issued in about from the press of richard grafton, who had "privilege de l'imprimer seul."[ ] of this schoolmaster's life little is known.[ ] from his little french text-book, "right necessary to come to the knowledge of the same," we learn that he kept his school at the sign of the rose in trinity street; that he was married, and probably received some of his pupils into his house; and that he taught french, latin, and writing. probably religious instruction also formed part of the curriculum, as it did in the other schools of the time; both henry viii. and edward vi. issued orders that the paternoster, the ten commandments, and the apostles' creed should be taught to children.[ ] not only du ploich but other french teachers of the time provided religious formularies in their books for teaching the language, and in - the printer william griffith received a licence to print a catechism in latin, french, and english.[ ] the catechism, litany, suffrages, and prayers occupy a large part of du ploich's _treatise_, which is of quarto size, and consists of about fifty leaves.[ ] all these formularies are given in both french and english, arranged in two columns on each page.[ ] then come three familiar dialogues which constitute the third, fourth, and fifth chapters of the book. the first of these gives us a lively picture of family life at the time. from the street, where we meet friends and are taught how to greet and address them, we pass into the house, where we are spectators of the family repast and of the arrival of the guests, and hear conversation on many subjects in which du ploich finds an opportunity for self-advertisement by mentioning his school and address. a child reads a passage from the new testament, and the meal is preceded and followed by lengthy thanksgivings, which, however, do not interfere with the joviality and conviviality of the host. sir, you make no good chere. mons., vous ne faictes pas bonne chere. you say nothing. vous ne dictes rien. what sholde i say? que diroys-ie? i cannot speake frenche. je ne sais pas parler françois. i understande you not. je ne vous entens pas. o god, what say you? o dieu, que dictes-vous? you speake as well as i doo vous parlez aussy bien que je fais and better. et mieus aussy. pardon me. pardonnez moy. it pleaseth you to say so. il vous plaist de dire ainsy . . . etc. [header: peter du ploich] the next two dialogues deal with subjects characteristic of these books for teaching french--asking the way, the arrival and entertainment at an inn, and finally, buying, selling, and bargaining--all topics useful for merchants and merchants' apprentices, from whose ranks du ploich probably recruited a number of his pupils. "l'aprentif" is the word he uses in speaking of his pupils, though there is no proof to show that he employed it in any special sense. then comes a fifth chapter containing the following headings: "pour demander le chemin," "aultre communication en chevauchant," "pour aller coucher," "pour soy descoucher," and beginning thus: sir, we be oute of monsieur, nous somes hors de our way. nostre chemin. we be not. non sommes. but we be. si sommes. we go well. nous allons bien. we doo not. non faisons. but we doo, abyde. si faisons, attendez. beholde there cometh a woman. voyla une femme qui vient. we will aske her nous voulons lui demander whiche is the way. ou est le droict chemin. good wife, shew me m'amie, monstre moy the ryghte way le droict chemin d'icy here hence to the nexte towne. au prochain village. streyghte before you. tousiours devant vous. upon whiche hande? a quelle main? on the lefte hande. a la main gauche, etc. in the sixth chapter the merchants leave the inn in the early morning to transact their business: wil we go see if we voulons nous aller veoir sy nous can bye some thyng? pourrons acheter quelque chose? that shold be wel done, ce seroit bien faict, but it is yet too tymely. mais il est encore trop tempre. by your licence it is tyme. pardonnez moy il est temps. have you any eglyshe cloth? avez vous dez draps d'engleterre? ye, what colour. ouy, quelle couleur . . . etc. at the end come the names of the figures, necessary for such transactions, and finally information and advice in verse form, without any english rendering, "pour gens de finance": toy qui est receveur du roy je te prie entens et me croy. reçoy avant que tu escripves, escriptz avant que tu delivres, de recevoir faitz diligence et fais tardifve delivrance. en tes clers pas tant ne te fie que veoir te fais souvent oublie. regarde souvent en ton papier quant, quoy, combien il fault payer. prens lettres quy soyent vaillables, aye parrolles amiables, et soys diligent de compter. ainsy pourras plus hault monter. du ploich seems to have brought with him to england a genevan "a b c," or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children, such as was common in france as well as in england. the next section of his treatise treats of the french a b c in words identical with those of an _a b c françois_ printed at geneva in . this is followed by a few very slight rules in english, which tell us not to pronounce the last letter of a french word, except _s_, _t_, and _p_, when the next word begins with a consonant; to neglect a vowel at the end of a word when the following word begins with another vowel; also that the accusative precedes the verb; that after _au_, _ou_, _i_, and _eu_, _l_ is not sounded; that the consonants _sp_, _st_, and _ct_ should not be separated in pronunciation; and that the negative is formed by placing _ne_ before the verb and _pas_ or _point_ after it. to this scanty grammatical information, which bears considerable resemblance to that contained in some previous works,[ ] the eighth and last chapter adds the conjugation of the two auxiliaries in latin, english, and french. the treatise closes with a latin poem addressed to "preceptor noster du ploich" by john alexander, one of his pupils, and with a table of contents. no doubt french was the basis of the whole of the instruction given by du ploich in his school. his pupils learnt to write from this french text-book, and memorized the latin verbs with the french verbs. the fact that du ploich places his few grammar rules at the end of the work, and after the practical reading-exercises, shows what slight importance he attached to them. he would, we may assume, refer his pupils to them as occasion arose, but practical exercises and conversation formed the chief part of his lessons. he made free use of english in explaining the meaning of the french, and throughout his book he sacrifices the english phrase in order to render more closely the meaning of the french, for which he duly apologizes: "that none blame or reprove this sayd translacion thus made in englishe because that it is a litle corrupt. [header: du ploich's method of teaching] for the author hath done it for the better declaryng of the diversitie of one tounge to the other, and it is turned almost worde for worde and lyne for lyne, that it may be to his young scholars more easy and lyght." du ploich was thoughtful for his young pupils. "a little at a time, and that done well" was his motto. on this method, he says, the child will learn more in a week than he would do in two months by attempting a great deal at the beginning. the master should repeat the lesson two or three times before allowing the child to say it, and be ready to explain difficulties, and not wait for the child to guess. if not, the pupil will lose patience and the little courage he possesses. du ploich would have the verbs learnt on the plan already advocated on a larger scale by duwes, that is, he advises the student to practise them negatively and interrogatively as well as in the usual affirmative form. some time later, probably after du ploich's death, or when he had left england, there appeared another edition of his grammar. this was printed by john kingston, and finished on the fourteenth day of april .[ ] an important change in the arrangement of the chapters distinguishes it from the edition of ; in the later edition the chapter on the alphabet and grammar is placed at the beginning, although in both issues the chapter on the two auxiliaries closes the work. kingston--for he was probably responsible for the change--thus yielded to the tendency, which became stronger and stronger as time advanced, of placing theoretical before practical instruction. in addition to slight variations, other differences between the two works are the omission of the verses for "gens de finance," and of the latin poem addressed to du ploich by one of his pupils. _the little treatise in english and french_ was not the only work produced by du ploich during his residence in england. on its completion he turned his attention to the composition of a work on the estate of princes, which he called a _petit recueil tresutile et tresnecessaire de l'etat dez princes, dez seigneurs temporelz et du commun peuple, faict par pierre du ploych_.[ ] this _recueil_ is written in french. its subject matter is not of much interest, but the latin verses with which it closes inform us that du ploich had a law degree (licentiatus legum). he dedicated the manuscript, which is not dated, to the "roy tres puissant eduard sixieme de ce nom," who graciously received it and rewarded du ploich's industry by a generous gift.[ ] this favourable reception encouraged the french teacher to present another work to his "soverain lord and master" in the course of the following year. this second manuscript is shorter than the earlier _recueil_;[ ] it bears the title of _petit recueil des homaiges, honneurs et recognoissances deubz par les hommes a dieu le createur, avec certaines prieres en la recognoissance de soy mesme_. at the end occurs a passage of some interest in which du ploich expresses his intention of providing the work, unworthy as it is, with an english translation, as soon as he finds time and opportunity for such an undertaking, for he has not english "de nature."[ ] this rendering, he says, will be "mot pour mot et ligne pour ligne, affin d'augmenter les couraiges des professeurs." we may infer from this that he thought of having the work printed in french and english for the use of students. a french school very similar to that of du ploich, but of which we have more details, was kept by claude de sainliens, de sancto vinculo, or, as he anglicized it, holyband. a native of moulins and a huguenot, holyband probably sought refuge in england from the persecutions. in he is said to have been in england seven years;[ ] hence he must have begun his long career in london as a teacher of french in the year . in he took out letters of denization.[ ] holyband was not exactly a scholar, but rather a man of broad interests, sustained by extraordinary vitality, and before he had been in england three years he had published two books for teaching french, which became very popular, and continued to be reprinted for nearly a century. there is no extant copy of the earliest edition of the first of these, but it appeared most probably in . [header: claude holyband] the earliest copy known is dated , and bears the title, _the french schoolemaister, wherin is most plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the french tongue_. the contents of this little book are of the kind which became characteristic of works for teaching french. it opens with rules for pronunciation and grammar in english, of little value or originality, and purposely made as concise as possible. these are followed by dialogues, collections of proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, and graces before meat, and a large vocabulary. the dialogues are by far the most interesting portion of the work. like those of du ploich, they show a close connexion between the teaching of french and the daily concerns of life. they give us a picture of the busy london of the time, and especially of st. paul's churchyard, as well as lively family scenes, together with the usual wayside and tavern conversation. we see the boy setting off to school in the morning, threading his way through the busy streets, and again see him return to the hearty and hospitable family dinner, during which he finds occasion to speak of his french studies. these dialogues are given in french and english arranged on opposite pages. their dramatic interest may be gathered from the opening passage, where we listen to the servant hurrying the boy off to school: hau françois, levez vous et allez ho francis, arise and go to a l'eschole: vous serez battu, schoole: you shall be beaten, car il est sept heures passées: for it is past seven: abillez vous vistement. make you ready quickly. dites voz prieres, puis vous say your prayers, then you aurez vostre desiuner: shall have your breakfast: sus, remuez vous. go to, stirre. marguerite, baillez moy mes chausses. margaret, give me my hosen. despeschez vous ie vous prie: où est dispatch i pray you: where is mon pourpoint? apportez me iartieres my doublet? bring my garters et mes souliers: and my shoes: donnez moy ce chausse-pied. give me that shooing-horne. que faites vous là? what do you there? que ne vous hastez vous? why make you no haste? prenez premierement une chemise blanche, take first a cleane shirt, car la vostre est trop sale: for yours is too foule: n'est elle pas? is it not? hastez vous donc, make haste then, car ie demeure trop. for i do tarry too long. elle est encore moite, attendez un peu it is moist yet, tarry a litle que ie la seiche au feu: that i may drie it by the fire: i'auray tost fait. i will have soone done. je ne sauroye tarder si longuement. i cannot tarry so long. allez vous en, ie n'en veux point. go your way, i will none of it. vostre mere me tancera your mother will chide me si vous allez a l'eschole if you go to school sans vostre chemise blanche. without your clean shirt. and after quarrelling with margaret, and using rather bad language, francis receives his parents' blessing, and starts off to school. unfortunately we are not spectators of his doings there. whether holyband had opened his french school or not when he composed the _french schoolemaister_ is uncertain; but the school was evidently in full swing at the time his second work appeared, about a year later, in . the contents of the new work, _the french littleton, a most easie, perfect, and absolute way to learn the french tongue_, are much the same as those of the _french schoolemaister_. there is, however, one important difference between the two works. in the _schoolemaister_ the rules precede the practical exercises, but this order is reversed in the _littleton_. in the first work holyband does not appear to have fully evolved his method of teaching french. by the time he wrote the _french littleton_ he was able to lay down principles, based, no doubt, on experience, and consequently he attached a higher value to the second of his works, and used it himself in teaching. the _french schoolemaister_ was intended more for the use of private pupils. it was described as a "perfect way" of learning french without any "helpe of maister or teacher,[ ] set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo studie privately in their own study or houses." holyband himself does not seem to have given it much attention after its first appearance. nevertheless it enjoyed as great a popularity and went through as many editions, or nearly so, as its author's more favoured work. other french teachers made up for holyband's neglect by editing it themselves in the early seventeenth century. so great indeed was its success that in a tax of per cent was levied on each edition for the benefit of the poor.[ ] we may perhaps conclude from this that those who studied french privately were numerous. the value of the _french littleton_ is more educational; it expounds all the favourite theories of its author. the name is taken from the popular work on english law, the text-book for all law-students, littleton's _tenures_. while the _french schoolemaister_ was a small octavo, the _littleton_ was printed to the size of a tiny pocket-book, in mo. [header: holyband's french grammars] first come practical exercises in the form of dialogues in french and english,[ ] but of less lively interest than those of the _schoolemaister_. they deal, however, with the same subjects,[ ] only, as we read them we do not forget, as we were inclined to do in the earlier book, that we are reading exercises intended for school use. then follow proverbs, golden sayings, prayers, the creed, the fifth chapter of the acts of the apostles, a treatise on the iniquity of dancing (_traité des danses_), and finally a vocabulary less comprehensive and of less value than that of the _french schoolemaister_. the _french littleton_ derives additional interest from the fact that in it holyband sets forth a new system for rendering the pronunciation of french easier to the english. he realized the difficulties placed in their way by the many unsounded letters present in certain french words. he had no desire, however, to join the extremists, who advocated the omission of all such consonants in orthography as well as in pronunciation. holyband considered such letters an essential part of the word, and often a useful indication of the pronunciation of vowels and of the derivation. he therefore proposed a compromise which he thought would please both parties: he retains the unsounded letters, but distinguishes them from those which were pronounced by placing a small cross below them,[ ] a device adopted in later editions of the _french schoolemaister_ also. a short quotation from the conversation for travellers and merchants will show how holyband applied his method: monsieur ou pikez vous si bellement? sir whither ride you so softly? x a londres to london à la foire de la berthelemy. to barthelomews faire. x je vay au landi à paris, je vay i go to landi to paris, à rouen. to rouen. et moy aussi: allons ensemble: and i also: let us go together: x je suy bien aise i am very glad d'avoir trouvé compagnie. to have found company. allons de par dieu: let us go in god's name: x picquons un peu, let us pricke a littell, j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas là i fear we shall not come thither x x x de jour, car le soleil by daylight: the sunne x s'en va coucher. goeth downe. mais où logerons nous? où est but where shall we lodge? where is x x x le meilleur logis? la meilleure the best lodging? the best x hostelerie? inne? ne vous souciez pas de cela: care you not for that: it is x x c'est au grand marché a l'enseigne at the great market, at the sign x x de la fleur de lis, vis à vis of the flower deluce, right over de la croix. against the crosse. je suy joyeux d'estre arrivé, car i am glad that i am arrived, for x x certes g'ay bon appetit: truly i have a good stomacke: j'espère de faire à ce soir i hope to make to-night x souper de marchant. a marchauntes supper. nous disons en nostre pais we say in our country, x x que desiuner that hunters de chasseurs, disner d'advocats, breakefast, lawyers dinner, x x x souper de supper of marchants et collacion de moynes marchauntes, and monkes drinking x x est is xx la meilleure chere qu'on sauroit the best cheere that one can x x faire, make, et pour vivre en epicurien. and to live like an epicure. x et on dit en nostre paroisse and they say in our parish x x que jeunes that young x medecins font les cymetieres phisitions make the churchardes x bossus crooked et vieux procureurs, procès tortus: and old attornies sutes to go awry, x x mais au but on the contraire que jeunes procureurs et contrary that young lawyers, x vieux medecins, jeune chair, olde phisitions, young flesh, x et vieil poisson sont les meilleurs. and old fishe be the best. x x x x x or bien, irons nous acheter well shall we go and buy ce qu'il that whiche nous faut? nous demourons trop. we doe lack? we tarie to long. x x roland que ne te leves-tu? ouvre roland, why doest thou not rise? x ouvre open la boutique: est tu encore au lit? the shop: are you yet a bed? x x tu aimes bien la plume: si mon thou loveth the fethers well: if my x maistre descend, et qu'il ne treuve maister commeth downe and find not x x x la boutique ouverte, the shop opened, x il se courroucera. he will be angry. messieurs, monsieur, madame, sirs, sir, my lady, mesdames, mademoiselle, maistres, gentlewoman, que demandez vous? que cerchez vous? what lack you? what seek you? x x qu'acheteriez vous volontiers? what would you buy willingly?... x x the most interesting of the dialogues in the _french littleton_, however, is that in which we have a picture of holyband's school, which was first opened in st. paul's churchyard at the sign of lucrece--the shop of the printer thomas purfoote. here we see children arriving for their lessons early in the morning, each with his own books and other materials. the schoolroom seems to have been a lively place; the scholars are represented as fighting, pulling each other's hair, tearing their books, and indulging in other pranks of the kind. holyband sought to keep order by means of a birch, and one of the many offences which called it into action was the speaking of english. [header: holyband's french school] in this little school of his, holyband appears to have laboured at the task he set himself of leading the english nation "comme par la main au cabinet de (nostre) langue françoyse," under excellent conditions. the whole atmosphere seems to have been french. the curriculum, however, was not confined to this one language. holyband had to safeguard his interests by instructing his pupils in the subjects taught in the ordinary english schools, and so we find him teaching latin, writing, and counting, as well as french, and probably by means of french. with some of his pupils holyband studied terence, vergil, horace, the _offices_ of cicero, and with others, cato, the _pueriles confabulatiunculae_, and latin grammar, according to their capacity. yet others learnt reading, writing, and french only. morning school, which closed with prayer at eleven, was devoted chiefly to the study of latin. the afternoon was given over entirely to french; and it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that other scholars came then specially for instruction in french. the pupils returned for afternoon work at mid-day, and began by translating french into english and then retranslated the english back into french, using, we may be sure, holyband's _french littleton_. next came a little practice in vocabulary, in which "maister claude" asked them the french for various english words. grammar was not neglected, but questions concerning it do not appear to have been invited until some difficulty in the text rendered it necessary. the pupils were also required to decline various nouns and verbs which occurred in the text. the auxiliaries they were expected to learn by heart. not until five o'clock did the long french lesson draw to a close, and then the scholars lit their torches or lanterns and set off home after being dismissed with evening prayers. before their departure, they received instructions to read the lesson for the following day six or seven times after supper. by doing this, their master assured them, it would appear easy on the morrow, and be learnt without effort. holyband informs us that his charges were one shilling a week or fifty shillings a year. he allows that this was more than the fees asked for in most schools, but justifies the higher charge by the superior instruction imparted. at any rate his school was very prosperous. in , when it had been in existence for at least two, and perhaps three years, we find him assisted by an usher, one john henrycke, said to be a frenchman.[ ] he was, no doubt, the jehan henry "maistre d'eschole," who wrote a dizain in praise of holyband's _french schoolemaister_ ( ), where, in rather questionable french, he summoned the students of france to devote all their attention to "ce poli et belle oeuvre," and not to read des ravaudeurs le reste, qui souloyent quelques regles escrire, mais, au vray indignes de les lire. holyband, as we have noticed, was a very active and somewhat restless person, never staying long in one place, and it is difficult to follow him in his frequent changes of residence. for a time he removed his school to lewisham, then outside london. here, sometime before , he had an interview with queen elizabeth, who perhaps visited his school as she passed through the village, for the head boy, harry edmondes, pronounced a discourse before her majesty. in holyband had given up his french school, and entered the ranks of french private tutors, living in the house of a patron. he was one of the aliens dwelling in salisbury court, the residence of lord buckhurst, and, no doubt, was engaged in teaching french to the younger children of his protector. he had previously come into contact with this noble family, and had probably received some assistance from this quarter on his arrival in england, and may have taught french to the eldest son, robert sackville, now at oxford,[ ] to whom he dedicated both his early works. when we first hear of holyband he was already married and had children. his wife died probably before he went to salisbury court. two years later he married an englishwoman, anne smith,[ ] and had resumed his french school in st. paul's churchyard, but his address was now at the sign of the golden bell, for the printer thomas purfoote had moved his sign to newgate market. [header: holyband's teaching career] here he remained for some time, until at the earliest, and probably somewhat later. he also attended the french church. at this period of his life he again turned his attention to writing on the french language, and collecting together notes which he had no doubt compiled in past years. in three new works on french appeared from his pen. one was a _treatise for declining verbs_--a subject which he calls "the second chiefest worke of the frenche tongue"--written at the request of several gentlemen and merchants. the book itself is of little value, and did not by any means share the popularity of his earliest books. still, two other editions appeared, one in and the other much later, in . the second of these works, dealing with french pronunciation on much the same lines as the _french littleton_, was even less popular. it was intended for the "learned," and consequently written in latin--_de pronuntiatione linguae gallicae_.[ ] holyband was also becoming more ambitious in his dedications; probably through lord buckhurst, the queen's cousin on his mother's side, he was able to dedicate his treatise "ad illustrissimam simulque doctissimam elizabetham anglorum reginam." at the end holyband added a dialogue in three different kinds of spelling--the new, the old, and his own--as well as a latin sermon on the resurrection. a french-english dictionary was the third of these works, published in , with the title: _the treasurie of the french tong, teaching the way to varie all sorts of verbs, enriched so plentifully with wordes and phrases (for the benefit of the studious in that language), as the like hath not before bin published._ many years later, in , holyband again gave proof of his deep interest in french lexicography by the publication of his _dictionarie french and english, published for the benefit of the studious in that language_, based on his earlier work, but on a much larger scale.[ ] meanwhile he had had an opportunity to extend his knowledge and to refresh his mind by a long journey on the continent. once more he had yielded to his love of change and movement, and entered the service of another powerful patron, lord zouche, to whom he dedicated his dictionary of . in the dedication we are told how he had undertaken a "long, lointain, penible et dangereux voyage" with his noble protector, who was to him "plutot pere ou baston de vieillesse que non pas maistre, seigneur ou commandeur." thus we may conclude that, when lord zouche crossed to hamburg by sea in march , intending to qualify himself for public service on the continent, as well as to "live cheaply," holyband accompanied him, and, no doubt, found many opportunities for serious study. they proceeded to heidelberg, where their names were inscribed on the matriculation register of the university in may.[ ] zouche then travelled to frankfort, basle ( ), altdorf ( ), and thence to vienna ( ), and on to verona, returning to england in .[ ] after the publication of this last of his works in , we lose sight of holyband in his rôle of teacher of french. he was, however, still in england in , when he dedicated a new edition of his _french littleton_ to a new patron, lord herbert of swansea. thereafter he is not mentioned, and subsequent editions of his most popular works--the _schoolemaister_ and _french littleton_--were issued without his supervision. probably he had returned to his native country, for in the last of his published works he assumes the title of "gentilhomme bourbonnais," which suggests that he had come into the possession of some property in his native province, where his name was still known in the seventeenth century.[ ] certain it is that he did not remain in england. there is no further trace of his children, of whom he had at least four.[ ] thus silently, as if forgetful of his former habits, he slipped out of sight after he had spent nearly forty years teaching his language in england. he won the praise of the scholar richard mulcaster, soon to be appointed head of st. paul's school, near which holyband had so long had his own modest establishment; and the poet george gascoigne wrote a sonnet in his honour: [header: holyband's method of teaching french] the pearl of price which englishmen have sought so farre abroade, and cost them there so dere, is now founde out within our country here, and better cheape amongst us may be bought. i mean the french that pearle of pleasant speech, which some sought for, and bought it with their lives, with sicknesse some, yea some with bolts and gives, but all with payne this peerlesse pearle did seeke. now holyband, a friendly french indeede, hath tane such paynes, for everie english ease, that here at home we may this language learne, and for the price he craveth no more meede but thankfull harts to whome his pearles may please. oh, thank him then, that so much thanke dothe earne. holyband, like his predecessor du ploich, was an advocate of the practical teaching of languages. a perfect knowledge of french, in his eyes, consisted in being able to read and pronounce the language accurately. thus the first thing to be done by those desiring to study the language is to begin to read at once. the learner must not "entangle himself at the first brunte" with rules; but, "after he hath read them over, let him take in hand the dialogues, and as occasion requireth he shall examine the rules, applying their use unto his purpose."[ ] he must first "frame his tongue by reading them aloud, noting carefully which letters are not pronounced, looking for the reasons why they are lefte in the rules of pronunciation," so that "when he shall happen uppon other bookes printed without these caracters he may remember which letters ought to be uttered and which ought not." in these rules[ ] holyband endeavours to explain french sounds by comparison with english sounds. his treatment of the letter _a_ may be given as an example of his method. "sound our _a_," he says,[ ] "as you sound the first sillable in laurence, or augustine in english. when _a_ is joined with _in_ it loseth his sound, or at the least it is very little heard: as _pain_, _hautain_.... pronounce then as if they were written thus: _pin_, _hautin_.... but if _e_ followeth _n_, then _i_ goeth more towards _n_, thus: _balaine_, _semaine_ ...," and then he proceeds to describe in like fashion the sounds of the diphthong _ai_. his treatment of the sound _gn_ is quaint and interesting. "when you find any word written with _gn_, remember how you pronounce these english words, _onion_, _minion_, _companion_, and such like: so melting _g_, and touching smoothly the roofe of the mouth with the flat of the tongue, say: _mignon_, _oignon_, _compagnon_; say then, _cam-pa-gne_, _campa-gnie_, and not _cam-pag-ne_, _campag-nie_, separating _g_ from _n_; but rather sound them as if they were written thus in your english tongue, _campaine_, _campanie_." such rules alone, however, were of little value in holyband's opinion, and we cheerfully agree with him. the reader must be very circumspect in his use of them, and his teacher a very skilful frenchman, "or else all will go to wracke." he seems to have thought that much more depended on the tutor than on rules. no doubt he fully shared the opinion stated earlier by duwes, that rules are of more use to the teacher than the learner. "oh how busie is this tongue," he says of french, "and into what maze doth the learner enter which doth take it in hand: therefore let his tutor be sevenfold skilfull." we are prepared, then, to find holyband agreeing with henry viii.'s tutor on another point--the teaching of french and writing of french grammars by the english. to him it appeared obvious that "it is not the part of a stranger, except he be learned and of a long continuance in france, to give precepts concerning the pronunciation of the (french) tongue: yea neither of the best frenchmen, be he never so learned or eloquent in the same, except he hath practised the premises by teaching or otherwise by a long and diligent observation." there can be no question of committing rules to memory; they merely serve to throw light on the reading matter. yet the practice of memorizing is not neglected. there were two purposes for which it was called into use, the verbs, chiefly the two auxiliaries, and vocabulary, to which holyband attached much importance. according to holyband himself, his method had excellent results. he was especially proud of the pronunciation of his pupils. in teaching this he followed a plan which strikes the modern reader as curious, but which had already been employed in an early sixteenth-century grammar, that of the poet alexander barclay. according to this plan he taught his scholars the main characteristics of the different dialects of france, as well as the pure french in which they were encouraged to speak. his reason for doing so was to put them on their guard against the variety of dialects, chiefly picard and walloon, spoken by the numerous refugees scattered all over london. [header: french church schools] when new scholars came to his school from "other french schools," he assures us that on hearing them speak and pronounce any letter incorrectly, his own pupils "spie the faultes as soone as i, yea they cannot abide it: and which is more they will discerne whether the maister which taught them first was a burgonian, a norman, or a houyet." the reading, which holyband made the basis of his language teaching, was always explained by means of english renderings. in his dialogues he makes no attempt to retain the purity of the english phrase. english for him was merely a vehicle for interpreting to his young scholars the meaning of the french, "for i do not pretend to teach them any other thing then the french tongue," and so he begs his readers not to "muse" at the english of his book, but to take the french with such goodwill as it is offered. it will be noticed that on this point, as on many others--placing the rules after the practical exercises, for instance--holyband resembles du ploich, and no doubt he was acquainted with the _treatise_ of his less well known fellow-teacher. the points of resemblance between the dialogues of the two works are sufficient proof of this, although du ploich's cannot compare with holyband's in interest. another work which had some influence on his dialogues was the _linguae latinae exercitatio_ of the great spanish scholar and educationist vives--a book containing latin dialogues, dealing with the life of the schoolboy at home and at school, at work and at play. this was a very popular school-book in the sixteenth century, and was most likely used by holyband in the latin lessons at his own school. he also incorporated the latin dialogues of vives in a work which he called the _campo di fior, or flowery field of four languages, italian, latin, french and english_, giving the dialogues in these four languages. this work appeared in , when he was probably still teaching in st. paul's churchyard.[ ] besides these french schools kept by private individuals, there were others in connexion with the french churches. after the foundation of the french church in threadneedle street, other churches had arisen in different parts of the country. the education of the children attending these institutions had to be seen to, and very soon schools were established under the supervision of the churches themselves.[ ] although these schools were primarily intended for the instruction of the children of the refugees, they also undertook to teach those "who would wish to learn the french language." just as some english attended the services of the french church, so also some sent their children to the school associated with it. and it must be remembered that to some englishmen the french church presented greater attractions than the english church did at that time; for there naturally grew up a bond of sympathy between the protestant refugees and the english nonconformists, many of whom sought in the french church, with its genevan discipline, a form of worship not sanctioned by the english church. others attended these churches for the same reason as the "italianate gentleman," censured by roger ascham,[ ] went to the italian church: "to heare the (french) tongue naturally spoken, not to heare god's doctrine trewly preached." this was a practice strongly advocated by many of the french teachers of the time. the number of englishmen of both kinds must have been considerable. in elizabeth issued an order forbidding the french church to give communion to those english who, by curiosity or dislike for their own ceremonies, wished to receive it in the french church. the church in threadneedle street took steps to limit the number of its english adherents. these were required to produce evidence of a sober life, and of loyalty to their own church, before they were allowed to communicate.[ ] english names are not uncommon in the threadneedle street registers. even members of the nobility stood as sponsors to the children of the french strangers, for instance, the marquis of hamilton, the earl of pembroke, and the countess of bedford, in the year .[ ] the french church at southampton also had numerous english members and communicants,[ ] while at canterbury a rule was made that all the english connected with the church should know french; on one occasion, a person was refused as a sponsor on account of his ignorance of that tongue.[ ] [header: french school at canterbury] considering the esteem in which the french churches were held by many englishmen, we may assume that some of the latter were glad to take advantage of the willingness of the french church to receive their children into its schools. the refugees, on their part, did not always send their children to their own schools. the sons of the wealthier strangers would go to the english grammar schools, and thence, in many cases, to the university.[ ] the subjects taught in these french church schools were, no doubt, much the same as those of the private french schools, including religious instruction, writing, reading, arithmetic, and possibly music. the curriculum appears to have been of quite an elementary nature. as to the teachers, they were required to be of sober life, and members of the french church. they had to be appointed by the minister and presented to the bishop. they also were required to give the minister an account of the books they read to the children, and of the methods followed, and be willing to adopt the advice of their superiors "sans rien entreprendre à leur fantaisie." further, it was their duty to conduct the children to church on sunday for the catechism.[ ] such were the regulations laid down in the second discipline, drawn up on the restoration of the french church after the accession of elizabeth. when this was revised some years later, in , a few changes were made. the presentation to the bishop was dispensed with, and the teachers were no longer obliged to conduct the children to the catechism: they had only to prepare them to answer it. and the ministers, on their side, were required to visit the schools, accompanied by the elders and deacons, at least four times a year; their attention was specially called to "those who teach languages."[ ] the french teachers attached to the church at canterbury are those of whom we have most detailed information. in one of the articles of a petition, which the group of refugees there addressed to the city authorities, in the reign of elizabeth, they crave that permission may be given to the schoolmaster whom they have brought with them to teach both their own youth and also other children who desire to learn the french tongue.[ ] their request appears to have been well received, as a french church and school were established not long after. among the names of the petitioners was that of vincent primont, teacher of youth, who seems to have been the first schoolmaster of this little community. he was a refugee from normandy, and arrived at rye in .[ ] to the office of schoolmaster, which he held for many years, was added that of reader to the congregation--a post he resigned in , owing to some action of the consistory which did not meet with his approval. the last mention we have of him, as schoolmaster, occurs in december , when a member of the congregation was reproved for allowing his workmen to set a bad example to master vincent's scholars. he probably filled his position for some time after this date. in august , however, another teacher, nicholas du buisson, obtained permission "to go from house to house to teach children," and in received a small quarterly allowance for taking charge of the children at the services in the temple.[ ] the demand for teachers apparently increased considerably at this time; in we hear of a third schoolmaster, paul le pipre, who had already been teaching for some time previous to this date. le pipre several times took steps to defend his monopoly and prevent the admission of other schoolmasters. in he opposed the application of jan roboem or jean robone, who sought permission to hold school. roboem, who had been reader in the french protestant church at dieppe, fled thence to rye in , in company with his wife and two children.[ ] he was in very poor estate on arriving at canterbury, and the consistory of the french church at last prevailed on le pipre to agree to his admission, promising him that if any disadvantage accrued to him thereby it should be remedied. roboem was therefore told he might put his notice on the door of the temple--the usual form of advertisement--whenever he pleased.[ ] he did not, however, keep it there long, moving to london in the same year. he is no doubt to be identified with the john robonin, "schoolmaster of the french tongue," who was living in the "warde of chepe," and attending the french church, at the end of .[ ] [header: paul le pipre] paul le pipre was again approached in with regard to the appointment of another schoolmaster, probably a successor to robonin. he was told that another teacher was necessary, and that one had come forward, a destitute refugee, who wished for permission to teach in order to earn his living. le pipre replied "that he held to his agreement with the church, namely that he could not leave without giving three months' notice." ultimately it was decided "that the aforesaid should not be permitted to keep school, both on account of the agreement and because he was not as yet sufficiently known to be of the religion." this teacher, whose name is not given, was, however, allowed to instruct "certain married people, and others grown up and over fourteen years of age who did not go to paul's school, in consideration of his poverty."[ ] paul le pipre retained the position he was so unwilling to share with a colleague, for many years after this. the last we hear of him is in september , when he was censured by the consistory for holding school on sunday. french schools likewise arose in other provincial towns, where french churches had been established. there were also, it appears, similar private schools, with the primary object of teaching french to the english, and unconnected with the churches. at any rate, french and walloon schoolmasters arrived in some of these towns. at rye in , for instance, we come across nicholas curlew and martin martin, fugitives from dieppe,[ ] though probably, like vincent primont and john robone, they did not settle in the town. at norwich, in , was a pierre de rieu of lille who had arrived ten months before, and in francis boy and john cokele.[ ] at dover, in the same year, francis rowland and nicholas rowsignoll, both french schoolmasters, had "come out of france by reason of the late troubles yet continuing."[ ] and lastly, at southampton, we hear in of nicholas chemin, who, in , was refused communion at the church on account of his causing some disturbance in the congregation; of a m. du plantin, dit antoine ylot, in , and of a pierre de la motte, 'mestre d'escolle,' in .[ ] no doubt most of these schoolmasters taught under the auspices of the french churches. m. du plantin was one of a large number of ministers who took refuge in england, and his school was probably a french church school, for seven of his young scholars are mentioned as communicants. many french pastors like him, no doubt, took to the teaching profession during their stay in england, their numbers being far in excess of the ministers needed in the churches. the famous reformer, john utenhove of ghent, was in tutor to the son of a london gentleman.[ ] valerand poullain, a converted priest, who, after being pastor at strasburg, came to england, for a time held a similar post in the household of the earl of derby;[ ] he afterwards became minister of the french church at glastonbury on the recommendation of utenhove. another minister, jean louveau, sieur de la porte, spent the time of exile from his church of roche bernard, after the massacre of st. bartholomew, in teaching languages in london, and there were many others in like case.[ ] at southampton there was a french school of special interest. its teacher, like du plantin, was a pastor, though the school does not seem to have had any close connexion with the french church. this schoolmaster and divine was the once famous dr. adrian saravia, a learned refugee from flanders. he became later professor of divinity at leyden and an intimate friend of casaubon; and when he took refuge in england for a second time in , he enjoyed some ecclesiastical preferment, and was one of the translators of the authorised version of the bible.[ ] during his first sojourn in england, however, he was engaged on a more humble task. he first arrived at southampton in about ,[ ] after having been for some years headmaster of a grammar school in guernsey. saravia's school at southampton was limited to sixteen or twenty youths of good family. it was a rule that all the scholars should speak french. any one who used english, "though only a word," was obliged to wear a fool's cap at meals, and continue to wear it until he caught another in the same fault.[ ] [header: french school at southampton] two englishmen, who later became well known as translators, acquired their knowledge of french in this school. one was joshua sylvester, famous for his translation of du bartas, and the other robert ashley, who turned louis le roy's _de la vicissitude ou variété des choses de l'univers_ ( ) into english ( ). sylvester informs us that he learnt his french at saravia's school "in three poor years, at three times three years old"; "i have never been in france," he writes to his uncle, william plumb, "whereby i might become so perfect." elsewhere he expresses his affection for his master and his debt of gratitude to him: my saravia, to whose revered name mine owes the honour of du bartas' fame. sylvester did not put his knowledge of french into practice only by translations into english. he also wrote some original verses in french; the sonnet with which he offered to james i. his translation of the works of du bartas, a poet for whom the king had a great admiration, will show his skill in a difficult art: voy, sire, ton saluste habillé en anglois (anglois, encore plus de coeur que de langage:) qui, connaissant loyall ton royale héritage, en ces beaux liz dorez au sceptre des gaulois (comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects françois), cy à tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct hommage (de ton heur et grandeur éternal temoinage). miroir de touts heros, miracle de tous roys, voy (sire) ton saluste, ou (pour le moins) son ombre, ou l'ombre (pour le moins) de ses traicts plus divins qui, ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre, s'esclairciront aux raiz de tes yeux plus benins. doncques d'oeil benin et d'un accueil auguste, reçoy ton cher bartas, et voy, sire, saluste.[ ] another of sylvester's contemporaries at saravia's school was sir thomas lake,[ ] who became secretary of state in the reign of james i., and is said to have read latin and french to queen elizabeth towards the end of her reign. his french accent, unlike that of his schoolfellows, seems to have left much to be desired. in he incurred much ridicule by reading the french contract of marriage at the wedding of the princess elizabeth to the elector with a very bad accent. saravia, it seems, encouraged his pupils to attend the french church. two of their names occur in the registers of the church for the year , viz. nicholas essard and nicholas carye, both probably englishmen. saravia himself and his wife were also regular attenders; in and again in he stood godfather at baptisms. the latest mention of him occurs in . usually the descriptive title "minister" is added after his name.[ ] he is mentioned in the town records under the year as master of the grammar school, and in the following year the town paid s. "for four yardes of broade cloth for a gowne for mr. adrian saravia the schoolmaster at s. the yarde."[ ] apparently he had abandoned his private school, although it is very likely that he continued to take private pupils into his house, and that the grammar school scholars had ample opportunity to learn french; but it is hardly probable that he introduced the language into the grammar school curriculum, where, no doubt, latin retained its usual supremacy.[ ] thus we see that in the england of the sixteenth century french had no footing in the ordinary schools, but was taught in a growing number of small private schools kept by frenchmen, french-speaking refugees from the netherlands, and sometimes by englishmen. in scotland, on the other hand, french received more recognition in the grammar schools, although it did not form part of the ordinary curriculum, which was based on latin, as in england. yet in several schools its use was distinctly encouraged on lines which, we may conclude, were followed at southampton grammar school in saravia's time. for instance, the boys of aberdeen grammar school, in the middle of the sixteenth century, were enjoined to address each other in french, while the use of the vernacular was forbidden. in the famous grammar school of perth, when john rowe, the reformer, was master there, and many of the scholars boarded with him, we are informed that "as they spake nothing in the schoole and fields but latine so nothing was spoken in his house but french." it is of interest to note that in this school french is put side by side with the ancient tongues, as palsgrave had wished. [header: french in the schools of scotland] after meals a selection from the bible was read; if from the old testament, in hebrew, if from the new testament, in latin, greek, or french.[ ] turning to the more elementary education, we find french holding a still larger place in some of the parish schools of scotland, where it was taught as part of the regular course by the side of latin. an interesting account of one of these schools has been left by james melville, in his diary.[ ] he records that in , at the age of seven, he, together with his elder brother, was sent to a school kept by a kinsman, minister at logie, a few miles from montrose. this "guid, lerned, kind man" attended to the children's education, while his sister was "a verie loving mother" to them, and to a "guid number of gentle and honest mens berns of the country about," who also were at the school. "ther we lerned," he continues, "to reid the catechisme, prayers and scripture, to rehers the catechisme and prayers par coeur.... we lerned ther the rudiments of the latin grammar, with the vocables in latin and french, also divers speitches in frenche, with the reading and right pronunciation of that toung." melville also assures us that his master had "a verie guid and profitable form of resolving the authors," and that he treated them "grammaticallie, bothe according to etymologie and syntaxe"; but, unfortunately, he gives us no further details on the teaching of french. after spending five years at this school, where, he admits, he learnt but little, "for his understanding was yet dark," he went to the grammar school at montrose. there, although he had a french protestant refugee, pierre de marsilliers, to teach him greek, he does not appear to have had occasion to continue his study of the french tongue. in scotland, as in england, there were also special schools for teaching french. for instance, the french schoolmaster nicholas langlois, or inglishe, who came to england in , and in was installed in blackfriars, london, with his wife and two children,[ ] moved to scotland in about . he opened a french school in edinburgh, which was subsidized by the town council, and where he taught french, arithmetic and accounts until the time of his death in . the town council of aberdeen also showed itself favourable to french schools; in it granted to a certain alexander rolland a licence "to teach a french school," and allowed him "for that effect to put up one brod or signe befoir his schoole door." yet in spite of the fact that french received greater recognition in the schools of scotland than it did in those of england, there is nothing to show that the same general interest was taken in the study of the language. while in england large numbers of grammars and other text-books were published, there is only one notice of the production of a similar work in scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. this solitary work, which a certain william nudrye received a licence to print in ,[ ] was entitled _ane a b c for scottes men to read the frenche toung, with an exhortation to the nobles of scotland to favour their old friends_. the plea that french was learnt by the help of french grammars imported from france, or on conversational methods, or yet again in france by direct intercourse with frenchmen, may be applied with as much force to england as to scotland, though it is not improbable that in scotland such methods were relied on to a greater extent; the friendly relations which existed between scotland and france from the thirteenth century onwards encouraged large numbers of scots to seek instruction in france, just as it led some frenchmen to the scottish centres of learning.[ ] french tutors were said to be as common in scotland as in england; a spanish ambassador reported to ferdinand and isabella as early as that "there is a good deal of french education in scotland, and many speak the french language." yet the fact remains that while one small french a b c appears to have been the only work on the language issued in scotland, there was a whole series of such works published in england. footnotes: [ ] sources for the history of the persecutions: l. batiffol, _the century of the renaissance_, london, ; d. c. a. agnew, _protestant exiles from france_, rd ed., , vol. i.; j. s. burn, _the history of the french, walloon, dutch, and other foreign protestant refugees settled in england_, london, ; s. smiles, _the huguenots, their settlements, churches, and industries in england and ireland_, london, . [ ] early refugees also came in small numbers from italy where the inquisition was established in ; and a few others from spain, where it was set up in . their arrival in england imparted some slight impetus to the study of their respective languages; cp. f. watson, _the beginnings of the teaching of modern subjects in england_, london, , chapters xii. and xiii. [ ] _huguenot society publications_, xv., ; f. w. cross, _history of the walloon and huguenot church at canterbury_ (introduction). [ ] l. humphrey, _the nobles or of nobilitye_, london, , nd book. [ ] see a. rahlenbeck, "les réfugiés belges au me siècle en angleterre," in the _revue trimestrielle_, oct. . [ ] the following numbers show the proportion of the netherlanders to the french: in , flemish to french; in , to . [ ] _huguenot soc. pub._ i., - ; o. j. w. moens, _the walloons and their church at norwich_, ch. ix. [ ] w. besant, _london in the time of the tudors_, london, , pp. , , . the population of london is taken as about , . [ ] _hug. soc. pub._ x., - , parts. [ ] _hug. soc. pub._ viii., : _letters of denization and acts of naturalisation for aliens in england_, - , ed. w. page. [ ] naturalization by act of parliament, which gave additional rights, such as that of succession to and bequeathment of real property, was in general of more advantage to englishmen born abroad than to foreigners. [ ] on the french churches in england, see f. de schickler, _les Églises du refuge en angleterre_, tom., paris, . [ ] the first ministers appointed to the french church were françois pérussel, dit la rivière, and richard vauville. perlin visited the french church: "la prechoit un nommé maistre françoys homme blond, et un autre nommé maistre richard, homme ayant barbe noire" (_description des royaulmes d'angleterre et d'escosse_, paris, , p. ). perlin was one of the few frenchmen who came to england at this time. [ ] _op. cit._ p. . perlin also says that the english tried several times to set fire to the french church. [ ] see accounts in rye, _england as seen by foreigners_. [ ] this was naturally not without exceptions. for instance, sir nicholas bacon, father of francis, was noted for his support of the attempt to drive all the french from the country after the st. bartholomew massacre (_archaeologia_, xxxvi. p. ). [ ] f. foster watson, "religious refugees and english education," _proceedings of the huguenot society_, london, . [ ] _the nobles or of nobilitye_, _ut supra_. [ ] _athenae cantab._ ii. . a certain l. t. attacked baro about a sermon of his on the text in the third chapter of the epistle to the romans, twenty-eighth verse (brit. mus. catalogue). [ ] _hug. soc. pub._ x. pt. iii. p. . [ ] ellis, _original letters_, st series, i. pp. - . [ ] _arte of rhetorique_ ( ), ed. g. h. mair, , p. . [ ] _lord herbert of cherbury's autobiography_, ed. sir s. lee ( nd ed. ), p. , n. [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, xiv. pt. ii. no. ; and _works_, parker society, i. p. . [ ] e. j. furnivall, _manners and meals in olden time_, pp. ix et seq. [ ] ascham, _toxophilus_, quoted by nichols: _literary remains ..._, p. xl. [ ] _reliquiae wottoniae_, london, ("life of sir henry wotton"), n.p. [ ] j. payne collier, in _archaeologia_, vol. xxxvi. pp. _et seq._ [ ] _queene elizabeth's academy_, ed. furnivall, early english text society, . [ ] this purpose is expressly stated in the earliest grammar for teaching italian to the english, dated : _the principal rules of italian grammar, with a dictionary for the better understandynge of boccace, petrarcha, and dante_ (also in and ). cp. f. watson, _modern subjects_, chapter xii. [ ] cp. f. watson, _modern subjects_, chapter xiii.; and j. g. underhill, _spanish literature in england of the tudors_, new york, . [ ] _hug. soc. pub._ viii.: list of denizations. [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _thesaurus linguae latinae_, , the first of latin-french dictionaries. [ ] printed by t. wolfe. [ ] the first french grammar for teaching french to the germans, mentioned in stengel's _chronologisches verzeichniss französischer grammatiken_ (oppeln, ), was the work of a frenchman du vivier, schoolmaster at cologne, and was published in . [ ] cp. ph. sheavyn, _the literary profession in the elizabethan age_, manchester, , chap. i. [ ] _de republica anglorum_, ed. l. alston, camb., , p. . [ ] c. w. wallace, "new shakespeare discoveries," _harper's magazine_, , and _university studies_, nebraska, u.s.a.; sir s. lee, _life of shakespeare ..._, new ed., london, , pp. , . [ ] unfortunately the registers of the threadneedle street church, previous to , have been lost. it would have been interesting to have found shakespeare brought into contact with this church by his huguenot friends. [ ] a list of french words and phrases used by shakespeare is given in a. schmidt's _shakespeare lexicon_, vols., berlin, , p. . [ ] act i. sc. ; act ii. sc. ; and other scenes in which the doctor appears. [ ] act iii. sc. ; act iv. sc. , sc. , sc. ; act v. sc. . [ ] act iii. sc. . [ ] act iii. sc. . the quotation from peter ii. bears closest resemblance to the edition of the bible issued at geneva, ; h. r. d. anders, _shakespeare's books_, berlin, , p. . [ ] often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in pronunciation; as when pistol takes the french soldier's "bras" ('arm') for english 'brass,' a possibility at this period when the final _s_ was still sounded (thurot, _prononciation française_, ii. pp. - ; anders, _op. cit._ pp. - .) [ ] anders, _op. cit._ p. _et seq._ [ ] cp. a. f. leach, _english grammar schools of the reformation_, : f. watson, _the english grammar schools up to _, cambridge, , and _the curriculum and text-books of english schools in the first half of the seventeenth century_, bibliog. soc., . [ ] the author of the _institution of a gentleman_, and , mentions the "knowledge of tongues as necessary to gentlemen," but he does not seem to have meant modern languages. william kemp, in his _education of children in learning_, , names the ancient tongues, especially latin, and other writers do the same. for a list of similar works, cp. watt, _bibliotheca britannica_, under "education." [ ] cp. j. w. adamson, _pioneers in modern education_, cambridge, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] _sidney papers_, ed. a. collins; _letters and memorials of state_, vol. i. p. . [ ] e. arber, _transcript of the registers of the company of stationers, - _, v. p. . [ ] _calendar of state papers, domestic: addenda, - _, p. . [ ] _handlists of books printed by london printers, - _, bibliog. soc., : grafton, p. . [ ] there is no trace of du ploich's name in any of the registers of aliens published by the hug. soc. the only trace of a name resembling his is that of peter de ploysse, butcher, in breadstreet ward (lay subsidies, ). [ ] f. watson, _grammar schools_, pp. _et seq._ [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, i. p. . [ ] sig. a-n in fours. [ ] french in roman type, english in black letter. [ ] especially the lambeth fragment, and the _introductorie_ of duwes. [ ] sig. a-i in fours. like the first edition, this is preserved in a unique volume in the brit. mus. the copy of kingston's edition is not complete, wanting all before signature a . [ ] brit. mus. royal mss. , e xxxvii., quarto leaves. [ ] edward had the ms. placed in his library. nichols, _literary remains_, p. cccxxxiv. [ ] royal mss. , e xxiii., quarto leaves. [ ] "et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois, a cause que je ne l'ay de nature. mais a mon simple entendement, ayant l'opportunité et le loisir, l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray." [ ] _returns of aliens in london_, hug. soc. pub. x. [ ] _lists of denizations_, hug. soc. pub., ad nom. (a sancto vinculo). other details of his life are given in miss l. e. farrer's _la vie et les oeuvres de claude de sainliens_, paris, . [ ] yet in this work holyband refers several times to the necessity of having a good tutor. [ ] farrer, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] as in the _french schoolemaister_, french and english are arranged on opposite pages, the french in roman characters, and the english in black letter. [ ] des escholiers et l'eschole--pour voyageurs--du logis, du poidz, vendre et acheter, pour marchans. [ ] sylvius ( ) had placed a small vertical line over final unsounded consonants. [ ] hug. soc. pub. x. pt. iii. p. . the name john henricke occurs frequently in the registers of aliens. there was a john henryke, a "dutchman," who, in , was living in broadstreet ward, and had been three weeks in england; and, in , in st. mary alchurch parish, when he is said to have been five years in england, and to be a native of barowe in brabant and nineteen years old. in one of the same name was living in blackfriars and had two servants (hug. soc. pub. x. pt i. p. ; pt. ii. pp. , ). in a john hendricke from the dominion of the bishop of liége received letters of denization (hug. soc. pub. viii. ad nom.). it does not seem likely that holyband employed one of the walloons, whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid. [ ] foster, _alumni oxonienses_, ad nom. [ ] farrer, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] c. livet, _la grammaire française et les grammairiens du e siècle_, paris, , pp. _et seq._ [ ] for his sources, etc., see farrer, _op. cit._ pp. _et seq._ [ ] schickler, _Églises du refuge_, i. p. . [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] farrer, _op. cit._ p. . miss farrer suggests that holyband was connected with the family of thuillier de saint lyens of moulins (_op. cit._ pp. , ). [ ] latin poem in the _campo di fior_, . [ ] in the _schoolemaister_, on the contrary, the exercises follow the rules, "to the end that i may teache by experience and practice that which i have shewed by arte." [ ] the philological side of holyband's work has been fully treated by farrer, _op. cit._ [ ] in the _schoolemaister_. the rules of the _french littleton_ are much the same, only less quaintly worded. [ ] holyband was the author of a work for teaching italian: _the italian schoolmaster_, , and again in , , and . [ ] schickler, _Églises du refuge_, iii. pp. - . the members of the church attended to the interests of the schools, and donations were made from time to time. cp. for instance, schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] _the scholemaster_, ed. arber, , p. . [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] _registers of threadneedle street, london_, hug. soc. pub. ix. [ ] _registre de l'Église wallonne de southampton_, hug. soc. pub. iv., . in three baptisms were performed by mr. hopkins, an english minister. [ ] _registre de l'Église de cantorbéry_, hug. soc. pub. v. pt. i., . [ ] w. j. c. moens (_the walloons and their church at norwich_, hug. soc. pub. i., - , p. ) enumerates eighteen sons of strangers at norwich who went to the grammar school and thence to cambridge. [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] _ibid._ p. . [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. ; f. w. cross, _history of the walloon and huguenot church at cantuar_, hug. soc. pub. xv., , p. . [ ] w. j. hardy, _foreign refugees at rye_, proceedings hug. soc. ii., - , p. . [ ] cross, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] hardy, _op. cit._ p. (cp. durrant cooper, _refugees in sussex_, sussex archaeological collections, xiii., ). the name is here written john robone. [ ] f. w. cross, _ut supra_. [ ] cross, _ut supra_; schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] hug. soc. pub. x. [ ] hardy, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] moens, _the walloons and their church at norwich_; w. durrant cooper, _lists of foreign protestants and aliens resident in england, - _, camden soc., . [ ] g. h. overend, _strangers at dover_, p. ; and d. cooper, _lists of foreign protestants_. [ ] _registre de l'Église wallonne de southampton_, hug. soc. pub. iv. [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. . [ ] _ibid._ i. . [ ] for example, john veron, j. r. chevallier, mentioned above. [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] in letters of denization were granted him (hug. soc. pub. viii., ad nom.). [ ] ms. memoir of robert ashley (sloane, ); cp. sylvester's _works_, ed. grosart, , i. p. x. [ ] _works_, ed. grosart, i. p. . see also i. p. lvii, and ii. pp. , , . [ ] ?- . _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _registre de l'Église wallonne de southampton_, hug. soc. pub. iv., . [ ] j. s. davids, _history of southampton_, southampton, , p. . [ ] another fleming, thomas hylocomius, a native of brabant, was master of st. alban's grammar school, - (watson, _protestant refugees_, pp. - ). but there is nothing to show that he encouraged the study of french. [ ] authorities for the use of french in scotch schools are: j. strong, _secondary education in scotland_, oxford, , pp. _et seq._, , ; t. p. young, _histoire de l'enseignement primaire et secondaire en Écosse_, paris, , pp. _et seq._, pp. _et seq._; j. grant, _burgh schools of scotland_, london and glasgow, , pp. , ; f. michel, _les Écossais en france et les français en Écosse_, , ii. p. . [ ] _autobiography and diary of mr. james melville, minister of kilrenny and professor of theology in the university of st. andrews_, ed. r. pitcairn (wodrow soc., edinburgh, ), pp. _et seq._ [ ] his daughter esther, who married a scotch minister kello, became famous for her calligraphy. some of her work, preserved in the bodleian, was admired by hearne (_collections and recollections_, oxf. hist. soc., , i. p. ). [ ] d. murray, _some early grammars, etc., in use in scotland_, in the proceedings of the royal philos. soc. of glasgow, xxxvii. pp. - . in the _list of books printed in scotland before _, by h. g. aldis (edinburgh bibliog. soc., ), there is not one book on the french language amongst the titles recorded. [ ] pasquier, _letters_, amsterdam, , lib. i. p. . chapter iv huguenot teachers of french--other classes of french teachers--rivalries in the profession--the "dutch" and english teachers we have seen that some of the refugees who came to england as a result of the persecutions in france and the netherlands were professional schoolmasters; others joined the profession on their arrival, through force of circumstances, or as a means of repaying hospitality. the lot of such teachers varied considerably. some lived and taught in gentlemen's families; others thrived by waiting on a private aristocratic clientèle; others gained a more precarious livelihood under less powerful patronage; and yet others opened private schools, often with decided success. many of these teachers[ ] were denizens, and had long teaching careers, chiefly in london; a certain abraham bushell, for instance, a native of "rotchell," had been a "schoolmaster of the french tongue" in london for twenty-two years in , during which time he had attended the french church. many other french teachers were members of the french church, which naturally, seeing that it fostered a french school itself, took a particular interest in the french schoolmasters generally. thus in all french schoolmasters having schools in london were summoned before the consistory, which was seeking to ascertain how many belonged to the church, and also what book they used in teaching the children. eight were ready to conform to the church and its discipline;[ ] a ninth, one gilles berail, refused to conform, on the plea that he attended the english parish church and understood english as well as french. with the exception of holyband, the chief huguenot teachers who gathered round st. paul's churchyard would seem to have been normans. one of these was robert fontaine, a friend of holyband. he had a long and varied career in england as a teacher of french. arriving in , he remained in england during the reign of mary, modifying his religious convictions to suit the exigencies of the time. he returned to his former faith early in the reign of elizabeth, and expressed contrition for his "falling off to idolatry."[ ] he attended the french church faithfully in the early time of its revival, but he appears to have gone more frequently to the anglican church in later years, and possibly his sympathies were more in that direction. the favourite neighbourhood, st. paul's churchyard, was the scene of his activities, and there he lived for many years with one of his countrymen, mr. bowry, a purse-maker. in he had been living seventeen years in the vicinity of the cathedral, and in , the latest mention of him in the returns of aliens, he was still in the same district, and appears to have been very prosperous. some of this group of normans added to their activities that of writing books for teaching french--an occupation for which fontaine, presumably, had not time or inclination. one such author was jacques bellot, a "gentleman of the city of caen in normandie," who came to england in , or the end of , probably driven from his native land by the persecutions. he was received into the household of sir philip wharton, third baron of that name, and in a surprisingly short time produced a french grammar, which he dedicated to his patron, with an expression of his gratitude. bellot, it appears, had already a considerable connexion. his work is preceded by numerous commendatory poems, after the fashion of the time. the poet thomas newton of chester wrote two of these, one in latin and the other in english, laying stress on the debt due by his countrymen to these french grammarians: [header: jacques bellot] thankes therefore great and threefold thankes are due by right to those, whose travaile, toyle and penne dothe breake the yce for others to ensue, by rules and practice for us englishmen, an easye way, a methode most in use amonge the learn'de t' enduce to knowledge sure. other verses are written in french by john and william wroth, no doubt two of the numerous sons of the politician sir thomas wroth. this new work, entitled _the french grammar, or an introduction orderly and methodically by ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples, teachinge the french tongue_, differs from the popular books of holyband, and also from most other french manuals, in that it deals with grammar alone. it opens with the usual observations on pronunciation. each letter is taken in turn, and the position of the organs necessary to produce it is given. the author makes no attempt to compare the french sounds with the english equivalents. he had probably not yet had time to master the intricacies of english pronunciation, although the whole book is written in english; and he also, no doubt, made free use of grammars written in france. he tells us, for instance, that "_c_ ought to be pronounced with the tongue against the roof of the mouth, and the mouth somewhat open"; that "_f_ is pronounced holding the nether lip against the upward teeth"; and that "_h_ is but aspiration, which loseth his sound after _e_ feminine, and also after every consonant." then, after a few general observations and lists of numbers, months, and other familiar words, we reach the second part of the grammar, which deals with the eight parts of speech. each is defined and commented on in turn. the wording is often quaint; for instance, verbs are defined as "words which be declined with modes and tenses, and are betokenynge doing." this second book treats of the accidence. in the third we pass to the consideration of syntax with the following warning: dire, _sy ay_ (quoy qu'usage on en face) n'est point parlé en courtois et bien nay: bien seant n'est aussy, dire, _non ay_: _sauf votre honneur_, ou bien _sauf votre grace_ seroient trouvéz de trop meilleure grace. _je ne l'ay fait_, est trop desordonné: _pardonnez moy_, seroit mieux ordonné, car grand fureur douce parolle efface. _nous estions_, _nous y pensons_, faut dire, non, _j'estions_, on ne s'en fait que rire, ne _j'y pensons_, tout cela est repris. les bons françois ne parlent point ainsy. acunement pris ne doit estre aussy _petit_, pour _peu_, ny _peu_ pour _petit_ pris. this part of the work is not extensive, and consists of a miscellaneous collection of observations; we are, for instance, told that the antecedent governs its relative, that the adjective agrees with its noun, and we are supplied also with rules for the gender and number, the negative, and so on. to this bellot adds a fourth book, which is perhaps the most curious part of the work. it deals with french versification. we are first favoured with a description of the structure of various forms of poems, such as the "chant royal," the "ballade," the sonnet, rondeau, "dixain," and so on, each accompanied by an example, by way of illustration. the various forms of rime are next described and exemplified; and some of the complicated forms dear to the "rhétoriqueurs" find a place here. this is followed by a description of the various kinds of metres, again with examples; and finally rhythm, colour or "lizière," the caesura, elision, the "coupe féminine," and the use of the apostrophe are treated. such is this little treatise on the "french poeme," which shows incidentally that bellot had not yet learned the lesson enforced by the _pléiade_ more than twenty years before he wrote. what strikes one most, perhaps, in bellot's grammar is that he makes no attempt to deal with the difficulties which the french language presents to the english in particular. no comparison of the two languages is instituted; no emphasis is laid on points in which they differ. were it not written in english, it might be taken for a study of the language on the model of those produced in france. considering that the work was published in the year of his arrival in england, it seems almost certain that he had begun his study before his arrival, and translated it himself, or had it translated into english. this would account for its unusual character. bellot opens and closes his grammar with apologies. he repudiates all claim to completeness, and writes, he says, merely to provoke the "learned" to do better. "yet the worke is not so leane and voide of fruite, but there is in it some taste. the bee gathereth honey from the smallest flowers, and so may the wise man from this small work." some time after the publication of his grammar, he joined the group of french teachers dwelling in the neighbourhood of st. paul's churchyard. he was there in , and made the acquaintance of holyband, who had then resumed his french school in that locality. in the following year he wrote a quatrain and a sonnet in praise of holyband's latest work, the _campo di fior_ ( ): goustez anglois, gent bien heureuse, les fleurs qu'en vostre isle argenteuse vous donne holybande pour un gage. it is not certain how bellot employed his time there. he may have had a school, or have taught privately. in any case he was a member of the french church, and in the returns of aliens he calls himself a "schoolmaster" and a "teacher of children."[ ] but the title on which he is most insistent is that of "gentleman." he is a "gentilhomme cadomois," or a gentleman of caen, and usually attaches the abbreviation g.c. to his name. his attitude to the usual type of french teacher is distinctly supercilious. he prided himself on belonging to the "noblesse instruite et de savoir," and had the reputation of teaching elegant french. in he dedicated to no less a person than françois de valois,[ ] brother to henry iii., a work for teaching english to foreigners. like holyband, he gave his book the title of "schoolmaster": _maistre d'escole anglois pour les naturelz françois, et autre estrangers qui ont la langue françoyse, pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue angloise_.[ ] the work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar, given in opposite columns in french and english; it was evidently written in french in the first place, and then somewhat carelessly translated into english, for in the english column the illustrative examples are given in french. this produces a curious effect, and involves such statements as: "_quand_ should be pronounced as _houen_" (when), etc. in the dedication he refers to his "misfortune," by which, presumably, he means his exile.[ ] bellot was busily occupied in the production of other text-books also during his residence in paul's churchyard. the _maistre d'escole anglois_ appeared in january , and in was followed by a third work, in the form of a collection of moral dicta, entitled _le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences, avec le sens d'icelles, recueillies de plusieurs autheurs_,[ ] and intended to be used as a "reader." it was published by the french refugee printer thomas vautrollier, who, at the same time, issued a new edition of holyband's _french littleton_. the works of the two friends were of the same size, and are bound together in the copy preserved in the british museum. holyband, with his long-standing reputation, may have been able to further bellot's interests. in he had dedicated his latin work on french pronunciation to the queen, and in the following year bellot obtained the same favour for his little work. he accordingly opened his book with six french sonnets in honour of her majesty, celebrating her generous reception of strangers, not omitting to beg her protection for the "garden": reçoy donc ce jardin: te plaise a l'appuyer de ta faveur royalle: et pren le jardinier en ta protection contre la gent hargneuse: alors il tachera (sans appouvrir la france) l'angleterre enrichir d'oeuvres d'autre importance, pour façonner l'anglois au françoys, en son estre, alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu. . . . the whole of the _jardin_ is printed in french and english; each maxim or saying is accompanied by explanations of the most difficult words, by means of synonyms, paraphrases, and definitions, as in the following example: la memoire du prodigue est nulle. of the prodigall ther is no memory. prodigue est:-- prodigal is:-- un degasteur, un rioteux et a wastefull, a riotious and un excessif depenseur, an outrageous spender, un consomme-tout, qui degaste a spendall that will lavishe et depense où il n'en est and spende where nul besoin et a l'endroit de it needeth not and upon whom qui n'en a besoin. it needeth not. memoire est:-- memory is:-- une souvenance, une resconte pensée, a remembrance, and having in minde, une chose non mise en oubly. a not forgetting. le moral:-- the meaning:-- la renommée et fame du the prodigall mans fame and renown prodigue ne dure ny continue long endureth nor continueth temps: si tost qu'il est mort not long; as sone as he is gone et passé il est oublié and dead he is forgotten et hors de toute souvenance. and out of all remembrance. cicero en paradox dit:-- cicero in paradox saith:-- les prodigues employent et prodigall men employ and degastent leurs biens en wast their goods upon choses dont ils ne peuvent thinges whereof they can not laisser qu'une courte memoire leave but a short memory de eux, ou point du tout. of them, or none at all. [header: normans in england] it will be noticed that bellot had not fully mastered the english idiom, although he had written an english grammar. the rest of the "beautiful flowers of vertue" which he planted in his "garden" are similar in character and treatment. he characteristically closes his little book with a prayer, which he quaintly compares to a fence to keep the "goats" from harming the "flowers." in bellot was still living near st. paul's churchyard. but after this date we lose all trace of him until , when the printer robert robinson received a licence to print "a booke intytuled a grammar in frenche and englishe, the auttour is james bellot."[ ] this second french grammar was known as _the french methode_.[ ] to the numerous band of normans in england also belonged, perhaps, g. de la mothe, who wrote the letter "n" after his name. de la mothe was another refugee for the sake of religion, and he speaks with gratitude of the generous welcome he received in england.[ ] he tells us that the cruel civil wars in france had "burnt the wings of his studies" and ruined his fortune.[ ] on his arrival in england, he began his career as a teacher of french in the same way as many others; he became a tutor in a noble family, and shortly after produced a book for teaching french. he was first appointed french tutor to the son of sir henry wallop, lord chief justice of ireland and a prominent patron of the refugees, on the return of his lordship to england in . de la mothe was also received, at some date before , into the midst of another important english family, the wenmans, of thame park, oxfordshire. he taught french to the girls, and early in , if not before, was at oxford with the eldest son, richard wenman,[ ] afterwards sir richard, and his brothers. de la mothe had in the meantime written a french text-book which he called _the french alphabet, teaching in a very short time by a most easie way, to pronounce french naturally, to read it perfectly, to unite it truly, and to speak it accordingly, together with a treasure of the french tongue_.[ ] he divided it into two parts, which he dedicated to each of his patrons--the first to sir henry wallop and the second to sir richard wenman's mother, at whose request he had undertaken the work. de la mothe acknowledges his debt of gratitude to both, and also to the country which had received him so hospitably, in terms which contain something more than the usual trite expressions. the _french alphabet_ was licensed to the printer richard field in ,[ ] but no copy of this earliest edition has been preserved. field succeeded to vautrollier's successful business, and in this same year showed his friendship for his fellow-townsman[ ] shakespeare, by printing the first work he published, _venus and adonis_. it is of course pure conjecture to suggest that shakespeare saw and even read the little book printed by his friend. whether this be so or not, it was perhaps through field and his huguenot connexions--he had married vautrollier's widow--that shakespeare became acquainted with the family of christopher montjoy. [header: g. de la mothe, n.] a new edition of the _alphabet_ appeared in , from the press of edward alde. at this date de la mothe had joined the group of teachers in st. paul's churchyard. he taught at the "signe of the helmet," and "there you shall finde him ever willing to show you any favour or curtesie he may; and most ready to endeavour himselfe to satisfie you in all that can be possible for hime to doe." the sign of the helmet was the address of the bookseller thomas chard.[ ] any one desirous of becoming acquainted with the author for his better furtherance in the french tongue could also make enquiries at the sign of st. john the evangelist in fleet street, beneath the conduit, where lived the printer and bookseller hugh jackson, commissioned to sell the book--further instances of the friendly relations between the french teachers and the printers and booksellers of the time, through whom these teachers would, no doubt, get a large proportion of their clientèle. the huguenot sympathies of many of the printers, such as vautrollier and field, account in part for this cordial feeling. after the edition of his work we hear nothing further of de la mothe. although the name occurs frequently in the returns of aliens, none can be identified with him. he probably seized an early opportunity of returning to his native land. his manual, however, did not disappear with him. second in popularity only to the works of holyband in the sixteenth century, it enjoyed numerous editions in the seventeenth.[ ] excepting the omission of de la mothe's advertisement, all the later editions are identical. they were issued from the press of field's successor, george miller.[ ] it is difficult to understand how the edition came to be printed by edward alde, though his work was evidently countenanced by de la mothe. the _french alphabet_ is a very practical little work. it contains rules for pronunciation and familiar dialogues in the usual style. the whole is given in french and english arranged on opposite pages. his treatment of pronunciation is much the same as holyband's, and he sometimes transcribes freely from his active contemporary's work.[ ] he explains the sounds chiefly by comparison with english, giving the nearest equivalent to each letter. after the letters he deals with the syllables and then the words. the rules are arranged in the form of dialogues between master and pupil: sir, will it please you do me monsieur, vous plaist il me faire so much favour (or would tant de faveur (ou voudriez you take the pain) to vous prendre la peine) de teach me to speak french? m'apprendre a parler françois? with all my heart, if tres volontiers, si vous you have a desire to it. en avez envie. i desire nothing more. je ne desire rien plus. if you desire it you si vous le desirez vous shall learn it quickly, l'apprendez bien, if you please to take s'il vous plaist de prendre some pain. un peu de peine. there is nothing though never so hard il n'y a rien si difficile but by labour it may be made easie. qui par labeur ne soit facile. you say true, vous dites vray, i believe you. je vous en croy. . . . how do you pronounce comment prononcez vous the letter a? la lettre a? a is pronounced plaine and long as a se prononce ouvert et long comme this english word awe, to be in awe, ce mot anglois awe, to be in awe, as ma, ta, sa, la, comme ma, ta, sa, la, bat, part, blanc, etc. bat, part, blanc, etc. and the next lesson takes the following form: [header: his french alphabet] sir, can you say your lesson? monsieur, sçaves vous vostre leçon? have you learnt to pronounce your avés vous apprins a prononcer vos letters? lettres? yea, as well as i can. ouy, le mieux qu'il m'est possible. i have done nothing but study it je n'ay fait autre chose qu'estudier. since you did heare me yesterday depuis que vous me feistes dire hier. it is very well done, c'est tresbien fait, i am glad then. i'en suis bien aise. go to, let me heare you how you do or aus, que je voye comment vous pronounce. prononcez. i will, i am content. je le veux, i'en suis content. say then, begin, speak dites, doncq, commencez, parlez aloud. haut. pronounce distinctly. softly, prononcez distinctement. tout beau, make no haste, open your ne vous hastez point, ouvrez la mouth. bouche. that is very well, that is well voyla qui est bien, cela est bien said. dit. repeat it once again. repetez encore une fois derechef. do i pronounce it well? yea, prononce-je bien? ouy, you pronounce well. vous prononcez bien. help me, i pray you. aydez moy, je vous prie. how do you pronounce that letter? comment se prononce ceste lettre? before we go any further devant que passer oultre you must il faut que vous pronounce perfectly your letters. prononciez vos lettres parfaitement. now that you can tell your letters maintenant que vous sçavez vos well, lettres, learne your syllables, apprenez vos syllables, say after me. dictes après moy. after dealing with the sounds of the french language, de la mothe passes to more general considerations. he touches on the much-discussed question of the reform of the orthography, and expresses his strong disapproval of all attempts to make it tally with the pronunciation. then he deals with the pronunciation of the law french of the english,[ ] which he puts down to such fanciful experiments. lawyers write their french as they pronounce it, and pronounce it as they write it, so that it is now quite corrupt. he next proceeds to give his pupils a short history of the chief romance tongues, french, italian, and spanish, and finally of the english language. the remainder of the first part of the _alphabet_ is occupied by short familiar dialogues on the usual subjects--greetings, the weather, the divisions of time, buying and selling, and the occurrences of daily life--as follows: _for to aske the way._ _pour demander le chemin._ how many miles to london? combien y a il d'icy à londres? ten leagues, twenty miles. dix lieues, vingt mil. what way must we keep? quel chemin faut il tenir? which is the shortest où est le plus court way to goe to rye? chemin d'icy à rye? keepe alwayes the great way. suyvez tousjours le grand chemin. do not stray neither to the right ne vous fourvoyez ny à dextre nor to the left hand. ny à sinestre. what doe i owe you now? combien vous doy-je maintenant? two shillings. here it is. deux sols. les voylà. bring me my horse. amenez moy mon cheval. will you take horse? vous plaist il monter à cheval? yea, i hope i shall not alight ouy, j'espere que je ne descendrez till i be come to london. que je ne soys arrivé à londres. god be with you. farewell. adieu. bonne vie et longue. at the end of these dialogues comes the second part of de la mothe's book, entitled the _treasure of the french tongue_. it consists of a collection of french and english proverbs and golden sayings, "diligently gathered and faithfully set in order after the alphabeticall manner, for those that are desirous of the french tongue." these early teachers of french were fond of such collections. they usually included proverbs in their grammar books, and palsgrave, as we have seen, hoped to publish a separate work on them. his intention seems to have been first fully realised by de la mothe, although holyband had included a smaller list in both his popular text-books. from de la mothe's _french alphabet_, more than from any other of these early works, we can form a fairly adequate idea of the method of teaching french prevalent at the time. much importance was attached to pronunciation and to reading, which were made the first subject of study. rules were felt to be desirable for learning the sounds, but more stress was laid on the services of a good teacher; "for do not think," says de la mothe, "that my book is by itself to make thee a good frenchman." his own method was to make his pupils repeat the sounds after him. he believed that the acquirement of a good pronunciation depended on a mastery of each separate sound in the language. according to him, any one who can pronounce each letter correctly must, perforce, enunciate words correctly, and on the same plan, sentences also; a rather questionable theory this, but we must remember that de la mothe took for granted the daily attendance of a french tutor. the understanding of the language de la mothe regards as the second stage in the pupil's progress. this he considers a natural consequence of a perfect command of the pronunciation and reading of the language. lastly comes the speaking of the language, which, according to him, results from understanding it. de la mothe does not only expound his theories; he also gives fairly detailed information as to how they may be put into practice. after engaging a good teacher, the student should learn to pronounce his letters and syllables perfectly. then he may begin to read, very slowly at first, at the rate of from three to four lines a day, "or more or less according as your capacity can reach or your patience permit." [header: his method for learning french] each word should be spelt four or five times, and in the spelling and reading the pupil should "not let passe any letter or syllable without bringing them to the trial of his rules." when you can "read truly and pronounce perfectly, then go about to english it." first translate the french passages into english, with the help of the word for word translation provided, then copy out the french into a book provided for the purpose, close the _alphabet_ and attempt to translate your copy into english at sight, correcting the version by referring again to the _alphabet_. next proceed to retranslate the english back into french on a similar method. "continue this order for a month, every day repeating three or four times, both your letters and your syllables, and reading and englishing as many times your old from the beginning till your latter lesson." ... "being once able to reade and pronounce perfectly with your rules, two or three leaves of your book, at most, i can assure you that there is not any french book though never so hard, but you shall be able to reade it and pronounce it as truly as can be wished. for in less than one leaf of your book, all your rules are to be observed, three or four times at least. for there is not a word but in it is one or two rules to be noted." when the learner has thus fully mastered the rules of pronunciation, he may go forward speedily, translating from english into french, and from french into english, and revising constantly. "this is the only ready way to learn to read and pronounce, to write and speak french." not a single day should be allowed to pass without exercises of this kind, and "you shall find in less than five or six weeks your labour and dilegence afford you much profit, and advancement, that you will wonder at it, and much greater than i dare promise you." those who have made some progress in the language, de la mothe advises to make the acquaintance of some frenchman, if possible, "to the end that you may practice with him by daily conference together, in speech and talk, what you have learned. and if you be in place where the frenchmen have a church for themselves, as they do in london, get you a french bible or a new testament, and every day go both to their lectures and sermons. the one will confirm and strengthen your pronunciation, and the other cause you to understand when one doth speak." and, finally, if you wish to understand the hardest and most "eloquent" french, and to speak it naturally, you must not neglect reading, but provide yourself with a french dictionary, and the hardest book you can find, and set about translating it, on the method already described. if the student will not take the pains to translate the book, he should at least read it carefully, and write out a list of the hardest words and of appropriate phrases "to serve his turn, either to speak or write when he has need of them." although de la mothe makes no mention of grammar, when he describes his method of teaching, he did not consider it unnecessary. indeed he declares it is not possible to speak french perfectly without such rules, which he no doubt used for purposes of reference, as he did the rules of pronunciation. he even promises to produce shortly a _french tutor_, "that will teach you in so short and easie a way as may be, both by the perfect knowledge of the parts of your speeches, and syntaxe, not only to speak perfectly, but also to know if one doth not speak well, to reprove him when he doth speak ill, and to teach him to amend his bad speech: a thing which yet before has never been taught. the promise is great, but the performance shall not be less if this be acceptable to you." unfortunately this promise does not seem to have been kept. that his _alphabet_ did not prove "acceptable" cannot be the reason. most probably de la mothe left england before he had time to show his gratitude to the english nobility by the production of this second book. we have seen that these teachers of french did not always look upon each other as rivals. bellot wrote verses in honour of holyband, who was a friend of fontaine, another of the group of french teachers in st. paul's churchyard. but such friendly relations were not general. the teachers just mentioned belonged to what formed, no doubt, the highest rank of the profession. bellot calls himself a "gentilhomme," and so does holyband; and both refer to criticism and attacks upon them by other french teachers.[ ] holyband calls attention to the unscrupulousness of many of them, who take money in advance and do nothing to earn it; and expresses his contempt for his critics--frenchmen ignorant of english, burgundians, or englishmen who do not know french thoroughly. [header: friendships and rivalries] the many french-speaking schoolmasters from the netherlands--chiefly walloons and burgundians--and the english teachers of french formed separate groups apart from the huguenots. yet another group was recruited from the ranks of the roman catholics. the burgundians, who did not come from burgundy, but from that portion of the netherlands which had been under the rule of the house of burgundy, formed a very considerable proportion of the foreign population of london. in there were only forty-four of them in london, but by their number had risen to four hundred and twenty-four--almost as many as the total number of french in the city.[ ] the walloons were still more numerous, and no doubt outnumbered the french. such instructors were an obstacle in the way of those desirous of raising the standard of the french taught in england. against the peculiarities of the french spoken in the netherlands, holyband is constantly warning his pupils. "you shall know them," he says, "at the pronunciation of _c_, as the proper mark of their language," for they sound it as the english _sh_ or the french _ch_, saying _shela_ for _cela_.[ ] warnings were also given against the barbarisms of the picard dialect. of the many "dutch" teachers in london--an epithet which usually includes the flemings and walloons--it is impossible to say which actually taught french.[ ] apparently those who attended the french church taught that language; a certain gouvert hawmells, for example, a native of antwerp, who came to england in --"for religion"--is specially mentioned as a teacher of the french language; in he was living with his family in the house of one thomas grimes in st. margaret's parish. he attended the french church and was not a denizen.[ ] apparently his case was not an exceptional one. what is more, there were in london french schoolmistresses from the low countries. marry lemaire, "by trade a french schoolmistress," was a native of antwerp and came to england in ; for over forty years she kept school in southwick. another french schoolmistress, anness deger, born in tournay, came to england some ten years earlier, and in was still practising her "trade" in tenter abbey. her qualifications were not of the first order; in the register of aliens she was unable to sign her name, for which she substituted a cross. there was also a "goodwife frances schoolmistress, in popinjay alley," mentioned in and , but whether she taught french or not is not specified. although the chief french teachers who were responsible for the manuals of the second half of the sixteenth century were huguenots, it is extremely probable that roman catholic teachers were in the majority. when a census of the foreigners dwelling in london was taken in , only out of a total of had come to england on religious grounds.[ ] naturally the proportion of protestants greatly increased as the persecutions grew more severe, until the passing of the edict of nantes in their favour in . then it probably again decreased; in the time of charles i. there were at least five french papists to one french protestant.[ ] these roman catholic teachers were as a matter of course regarded as suspect by those in authority, and jesuit priests teaching in noble english families, or those conversant with them, were carefully watched.[ ] the suspicions aroused by the john love who had a french school in st. paul's churchyard have already been noticed. this feeling became particularly strong after the gunpowder plot ( ). in the "constitutions, laws, statutes, decrees and ordinances" of the bury st. edmunds town council of an article was inserted "to prevent the infectinge of youth in poperie by schoolmasters."[ ] [header: classes of french teachers] the constables of every ward in the borough had to certify the aldermen, recorder, and justices of the peace, of the names of all persons "that do keep any school for the teaching of youth to write, read, or understand the english, latin, french, italian and spanish tongues, upon pain to forfeit for every default s. d." this notification had to be made quarterly. others than the master or usher of the free grammar school, wishing to teach any of these languages, had to obtain special licence; and any one sending his children to a school kept by a teacher who had no licence was liable to forfeit for every week the sum of s. d. fear of proselytism was not the only incentive which aroused the animosity of certain sections of the english public. many young englishmen received much of their education from french tutors, frequently refugees, who taught them the usual subjects as well as french. one objection raised against them was that they corrupted their pupils' english if they spoke and wrote english themselves, as they did almost without exception. thus they "pul downe with one hand more than they can build with the other," wrote th. morrice in .[ ] such complaints, however, cannot have been very general or have had much effect on the lot of french teachers. a further attack was to come from another quarter. in the early years of the sixteenth century, as in the middle ages, englishmen had held an important place in the french teaching profession. they had been called to important positions as tutors, and had written grammars of the language. after the appearance of palsgrave's grammar, however, we hear no more of these english teachers of french, driven into the background, no doubt, by the great invasion of french teachers. probably duwes's earlier attack had helped either to turn public favour from the native teachers or to discourage them. holyband, too, had endorsed the opinion of duwes somewhat later, and expressed the little importance he attached to their criticisms. to acquire the true french pronunciation and idiom, he declares, it is necessary to learn from a frenchman. towards the end of the sixteenth century, however, an english teacher of french came forward, and energetically took up the defence of his fellow-teachers of english birth. this was john eliote, a man of boisterous spirits and a lover of good wine--a taste which he had acquired in france, where he had lived many years. there, if the dialogue he wrote for the help of students of french may be taken as autobiographical, he had spent three years in the college of montagu at paris, taught for a year in the collège des africains at orleans, lived for ten months at lyons, and spent a year amongst the benedictine monks. on the murder of henri iii. in , eliote returned to england, strongly imbued with a love for the country in which he had lived so long. "surely for my part," he writes, "france i love well, frenchmen i hate not, and unto you i sweare by s. scobe cap de gascongne, that i love a cup of new gascon or old orleans wine, as well as the best french of you all. which love, you must know, was engendered in the sweet soile of fraunce, where i paissed like a bon companion, with a steele at my girdle, till the friars (a canker of the cursed convent) fell to drawing of naked knives, and kild indeed the good king henrie of france, the more the pitye. since which time i retired myself among the merrie muses, and by the worke of my pen and inke, have dezinkhornifistibulated a fantasticall rapsody of dialoguisme, to the end that i would not be found an idle drone among so many famous teachers and professors of noble languages, who are very busy daily in devising and setting forth new bookes & instructing our english gentry in this honourable citie of london." this "fantasticall rapsody" was published in , and entitled the _ortho-epia gallica. eliot's fruits for the french enriched with a double new invention, which teacheth to speake truly, speedily, voluably the french tongue. pend for the practice, pleasure and profit of all english gentlemen, who will endevour by their owne paine, study, and diligence, to attain the naturall accent, the true pronunciation and swift and glib grace of this noble, famous and courtly language._[ ] it was dedicated to the young sir robert dudley,[ ] son of the famous earl of leicester, whom eliote possibly instructed in the french tongue. eliote had taken up the teaching of french, "that most ticklish of all tongues," on his return to england, and in his book he speaks of his long practice in learning and teaching the language. he proceeds, in the first place, to make fun of the "learned professors of the french tongue in the city of london." [header: english teachers of french] he burlesques the dedicatory epistles of his predecessors, especially that of bellot,[ ] and declares he is fully aware that, to be in the fashion, he ought to "dilate in some good speeches of the dignitie of the french tongue, and then show what ease this book of mine shall bring to the learning of the french, more than other bookes have done heretofore." but he must first ask pardon for his presumption in writing on this subject. "do no blame me," he says, addressing the "gentle doctors of gaule," as he called them, "if because i would not be found a loyterer in mine own countrie, amongst so many virtuously occupied, i have put my pen to paper: if i have bene busie, labourd, sweat, dropt, studied, devised, fought, bought, borrowed, turned, translated, mined, fined, refined, interlined, glossed, composed, and taken intollerable toil to shew an easie entrance and introduction to my deare countrimen, in your curious and courtesan french tongue, to the end to advance them as much as may bee, in the knowledge of all virtuous and noble qualities, to the which they are all naturally adicted." he is quite ready to have his book criticised as the work of an englishman, and challenges these "gentle doctors" "to be ready quickly to cavill at his booke." "i beseech you," he continues, "heartily calumniate my doings with speede, i request you humbly controll my method as soone as you may, i earnestly entreat you hisse at my inventions, i desire you to peruse my periodicall punctuations, find fault with my pricks, nicks, and tricks, prove them not worth a pin, not a point, not a pish: argue me a fond, foolish, frivolous, and phantasicall author, and persuade every one that you meet, that my booke is a false, fained, slight, confused, absurd, barbarous, lame, imperfect, single, uncertaine, childish, piece of work, and not able to teach and why so? forsooth because it is not your owne but an englishman's doing. faile you not to do so, if you love me, and would have me do the like for you another time." while admitting that there may be a few good french teachers amongst the refugees, he outlines a picture of the ordinary type which is far from flattering; and we gather that he had himself studied french with several refugees. he implies that the french teachers receive money in advance, and then do nothing else but "take their eases and, as the renowned poet saith, saulter, dancer, faire les tours, boire vin blanc et vermeil, et ne rien faire tous les jours que conter escuz au soleil. mercurie the god of cunning, and dis the father of french crowns are their deities." they care nothing for the progress of their scholars; all they do is to give them a short lesson of half an hour, in which they read and construe about half a page of french. they are equally indifferent to the troubled state of their country, provided they themselves are comfortable and well provided with french wines. "messires, what newes from france, can you tell?" he asks them, "still warres, warres. a heavy hearing truly, yet if you be in good health, have many scholars, get good store of crowns, and drink good wine, i doubt not but you shall do well, and i desire the good god of heaven to continue it so still. have they had a fruitful vintage in france this year, or no? me thinks our bordeaux wines are very deare, and in good faith i am very sorry for it. but they will be at a more reasonable reckoning, if these same loftie leaguers would once crouch and come to some good composition ... that we may safely fetch their deifying liquer, which dieth quickly our flegmaticke faces into a pure sanguine complexion." the style of the introduction is maintained throughout the rest of the book. eliote says he wrote the whole "in a merrie phantasicall vaine to confirme and stir up the wit and memorie of the learner," and "diversified it with a varietie of stories no lesse authenticall than the devices of lucian's dialogues." he admits that he had turned over some french authors, and where he "espied any pretie example that might quicken the capacitie of the learner," he "presumed to make a peece of it flie this way, to set together the frame of (his) fantasticall comedie ... and out of every one (he) had some share for the better ornament of (his) worke." eliote was well acquainted with french literature. he considered marot the best poet, and gave ronsard the second place only. he also read du bartas, belleau, desportes, and other sixteenth-century writers. but most of his admiration was reserved for rabelais, "that merrie grig," and it is clear that he modelled his style on that of the great french humorist. like rabelais, he occasionally affects a sort of gibberish, coins words, and, like him also, he strings words together and is fond of exaggeration. numerous passages in the _ortho-epia gallica_ are reminiscent of famous incidents in _gargantua_ and _pantagruel_. like panurge, he defends debts and debtors: "quoy! debtes! o chose rare et antiquaire. il n'est bon chrestien qui ne doibt rien," and, in the style of rabelais, he assures us that his book contains "profound and deep mysteries, ... and very worthie the reading, and such as i thinke you have not had performed in any other book that is yet extant.... doest thou see what a sea, what a gulfe there is? thou hadst need of theseus' thread to guide thee out of that labyrinth." the _ortho-epia gallica_ forms a striking contrast to palsgrave's rather austere _esclarcissement_, the last work on the french language composed by an englishman before that of eliote. [header: john eliote] the dialogues occupy nearly the whole volume. the first few pages, however, contain a table of french sounds with their pseudo-english equivalents. the pronunciation was, in eliote's opinion, one of the chief difficulties of this difficult language, "deemed a jewel, so dearly bought, and so much desired by all"; and he considered that, with the help of ramus and peletier for the pronunciation, he had succeeded in reducing "the gulf of difficulties into a small stream" by "sounding the french by our english alphabet." he arranges his dialogues, which he calls _le parlement de babillards, id est, the parlaiment of prattlers_, into three groups. the first of these consists of three long dialogues on the method of learning foreign languages, on the excellence of writers in both ancient and modern tongues, and on travel through the chief towns of europe. the first dialogue ends with the quotation from du bartas in praise of queen elizabeth and her accomplishments, accompanied by a translation in english verse by eliote himself. the second part, styled "_m. eliote's first booke_," is of a much more elementary character than the one just described. eliote had referred elsewhere to a work entitled _the scholler_, in which he propounded a "general method of learning and teaching all languages contrived by nature and art, conformable to the precepts of aristotle." this, or part of it, evidently formed the first part of the _ortho-epia gallica_, where it is separately paged.[ ] in his first and second books, which thus form the second and third parts of the work, he expounds "his double new invention, which teacheth englishmen to speake truly, speedily and volubly the french tong." the first part of this "invention" consists in placing by the side of the french and english a third column, giving the french in pseudo-english equivalents--"the true pronunciation of each word wholly and certain little stripes (called approches) between the sillables that are to be spoken roundly and glib in one breath." the twelve dialogues of eliote's first book are fairly simple in character, and some of them were probably suggested by vives's _exercitatio_. their subject matter does not differ much from earlier dialogues, but their treatment is decidedly original. the following quotation is taken from the first dialogue: hau garcon ho garssoon what boy dors tu dortu slepeth thou vilain? debout, veelein? deboo, villain? up, debout, ie te deboo, ie te up, i shall reveilleray tantost reue-lheré tant-tot shall wake thee soon avec un bon baton. tavec-keun boon batoon. with a good cudgell. je me leve, monsieur. ie me léveh moonseewr. i rise sir. quelle heure est-il? qel-heur et-til? what o'clock is it? il est six heures. il-é see-zewres. it is six o'clock. donnez moy mes donné moe' mes give me my chausses de velours shosséh de veloor my green velvet verd. vert. breeches. lesquelles? le-keles? which? c'est tout un; mes set-toot-tewn; mes it is all one; my chausses rondes de shosseh roondeh de round red satin rouge. . . . sateen roz-eh. . . . satin ones, etc. there are twelve dialogues in all, but only each alternate one is accompanied by this curious guide to pronunciation.[ ] in the second book and third part the dialogues are longer and more numerous, dealing with the different trades and occupations--"les devis familiers des mesters fort delectables a lyre." they do not, however, confine themselves to the characters usually introduced into similar dialogues; besides the mercer, the draper, the shoemaker, the innkeeper, and so on, we have the armourer, the robber, the debtor, the apothecary, and other characters which offer ample scope for treatment in the rabelaisian vein, of which eliote was so fond. some suggest that eliote was acquainted with holyband's works. this book contains the second part of his "double new invention." the french and english are printed on opposite pages, and in the margin the sounds of the most difficult french letters are indicated, thus: _ai_ sound _e_ _ay_ sound _e_ _am_ sound _ein_ _aine_ sound _eineh_, and so on. this table he describes "as mercurie's finger to direct thee in thy progress of learning," and he repeats it on the margin of every pair of opposite pages. [header: the "ortho-epia gallica"] after these twenty dialogues comes the "conclusion of the parlaiment of prattlers," which depicts a group of friends walking by the thames and st. paul's, "prattling, chatting, and babbling." the arrangement is the same as in the previous dialogues, and the work closes with a quotation from du bartas's praise of france: o mille et mille fois terre heureuse et féconde, o perle de l'europe! o paradis du monde! france je te salue, o mère des guerriers. in his dialogue called _the scholar_, incorporated in the first part of the _ortho-epia_, eliote explains his 'new' method of learning languages, by nature and art. by "nature" he means the acquirement of a vocabulary of all created things, by use and common practice; and by "art" the rules and precepts for combining these into sentences, and also the authority of learned men. such rules chiefly concern nouns, verbs, and pronunciation, "in which the greatest mystery of all languages consists." thus, although he gives no grammatical information in his _ortho-epia gallica_, he recognized its importance. before introducing his pupils to the method of "nature and art," eliote would have them well grounded in nouns and verbs, and able to translate dialogues, comedies in verse, and prose writings. he attached much importance to translation from english into french, just as palsgrave did. he directs the student to make out the meaning of the french first by comparing it with the english column, and then to cover over the french version, and attempt to translate the english into french. "this i have learned by long experience to be the readiest way to attaine the knowledge of any language, that we of englishmen make french, and not of french learn english." as to the theory of "nature and art," it seems to have been little more than the method, common at the time, of making practice the basis of the study of french, and confirming this by rules as need for them arose. in addition to the _ortho-epia gallica_,[ ] eliote also wrote a _survey or topographical description of france_, collected from sundry approved authors. this was published in , and dedicated to sir john pickering, keeper of the privy seal. he also translated from french into english[ ] a number of unimportant works, mostly of topical interest, one of them being dedicated to robert, earl of essex. little else is known of him, except that he was born in warwickshire in , and entered brasenose college, oxford, on the th of december , at the age of eighteen years.[ ] he tells us that he held the degree of doctor of divinity, but there is no record of his having taken any such degree there. robert greene was among his friends, and he wrote a sonnet in questionable french on greene's _perimedes or the black smith_, with which it was published in . these are all the details we possess concerning this amusing and striking figure among the french teachers of the sixteenth century. footnotes: [ ] the names of many have been lost, owing to the incompleteness of the records, or to the fact that no profession is indicated. a few are known from other sources to have been schoolmasters or private tutors; cp. huguenot society publications, vol. x., _returns of aliens dwelling in london_; vols. viii., xviii., _letters of denization_. [ ] evrard erail, onias ganeur, charles bod, robert fontaine, charles darvil d'arras, jean vaquerie, baudouin mason, and adrian tresol (schickler, _Églises du refuge_, i. p. ). of these names only that of robert fontaine is found in the _returns of aliens_. charles darvil and adrian tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the church in . baudouin mason received letters of denization in , and adrian tresol, a netherlander, in . in there were three other schoolmasters connected with the church: adrian tressel, john preste of rouen, and nicolas langlois or inglish. all these, however, are mentioned in the _returns of aliens_. [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] _returns of aliens_, hug. soc. pub. x. pt. ii. pp. , . [ ] duc d'alençon, who died in . [ ] printed by henry dizlie for thomas purfoote. reprinted by t. spiro in the _neudrucke frühneuenglischer grammatiken, herausgegeben von r. brotanek_, bd. , halle, . it contains pages, vo. [ ] bellot's name does not occur in the registers (vol. i., lymington, ). [ ] º, pp. . [ ] _stationers' register_, th february . [ ] hazlitt, _handbook_, , p. . [ ] perhaps he was a member of the la motte fouqué family whose name became so closely connected with the protestant cause in france. in rené la motte left saintonge and went to normandy, where he died, leaving two sons and three daughters. cp. crottet, _history of the reformed church in saintonge_, quoted by t. f. sanxay, _the sanxay family_, . [ ] "estant donc refugié a l'ombre favorable du sceptre de sa serenissime majesté, qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseuré de ceux qui faisans profession de l'evangile souffrent ores persecution soubs la tyrannie de l'antichrist, j'ay tasché de tout mon pouvoir de faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble nation qui maintenant nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux, afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude. . . . or entre toutes les belles et rares vertus dont la noblesse angloise se rend tant renommée par tout le monde, admirée des estrangiers, et honorée en son pays, est l'estude des bonnes lettres, et cognoissance des langues, qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il s'en trouve peu parmi eux, non seulement entre les seigneurs et gentilhommes, qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins, mais aussi entre les dames et damoiselles, exercise veritablement louable, par lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans lequel nulle autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estimé. or c'est ce qui, outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les traicter, leur faict faire tant d'estat des françois, si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy." [ ] who first went to oxford in . foster, _alumni oxonienses_, ad nom. [ ] _containing the rarest sentences, proverbs, parables, similies, apothegmes and golden sayings of the most excellent french authors as well poets as orators._ [ ] arber, _register of the company of stationers_, ii. . miss farrer in her book on holyband takes this entry, _l'alphabet françois avec le tresor de la langue françoise_, to refer to another edition of holyband's _treasurie_, which, she assumes, was prevented and superseded by the publication of his dictionary in . [ ] field was born at stratford in the same year as shakespeare; cp. s. lee, _life of shakespeare_, pp. _et seq._ [ ] _a dictionary of printers and booksellers, - _, bibliog. soc., : index of london addresses. [ ] , , , , . [ ] in the work was made over to miller by field's widow. arber, _transcript_, iv. . [ ] how closely, may be judged by comparing the following selection with the description of holyband's rules on p. , _supra_. how do you pronounce g before n? comment prononcez vous g devant n? gn is hardly pronounced by gn se prononce difficilement par englishmen. les anglois. notwithstanding if they will take toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre heed garde how they do pronounce _minion_ ... comment ils prononcent minion, onion, companion, it will be more easy for them to il leur sera plus aisé de pronounce it: for though we le prononcer: car encore que nous do write the selfesame words escrivions ces mesmes mots with gn, par gn, neverthelesse there is small neantmoins il y a peu de difference between difference de their pronunciation and ours: leur prononciation a la nostre: let them take heed only seulement qu'ils prennent garde à to sound g mettre g in the same syllable that n is, en la mesme syllable que n, and then they et ils shall not finde any hardnesse ne trouveront aucune difficulté in his pronunciation, en sa prononciation, as mignon ... mi-gnon. comme mi-gnon. . . . [ ] "et pourroit a bon droict estre comparé a quelques vieilles masures d'un bastiment où il a tant creu de ronces et espines, qu'à grand peine il apert que jamais il y ait eu de maisons. car devant qu'on eust trouvé l'imprimerie, on l'a tant de fois coppié, et chaque écrivain l'escrivant à la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe françoise, que maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloigné du vray françois que ce françois de vos loix." [ ] bellot frequently refers to the _gent hargneuse_ and the "aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent à detracter les oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tiré de leurs boutiques, iaçoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et hapelourdes." [ ] _returns of aliens_, hug. soc. pub. x. pt. i. pp. xii, xiv. [ ] and again: "or vous noterés qu'en tous les noms terminés en _ent_, _t_ n'est pas exprimé en la fin: quant aux verbes, il est prononcé, mais bien doucement: donnés vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les bourgignons qui expriment leur _t_ si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en font trois: comme quand nous disons _ils mangent_ . . . le walon dira; _ilz mangete_." and yet again: "sounde _ch_ as _sh_ in english: you shall not follow in this the picard or bourgignions, for they doo pronounce _ch_ like _k_, say _kien_ for _chien_." [ ] french was widely used in the spanish netherlands, and there was hardly any opening for the teaching of any of the germanic languages in england at this early time, when they were only learnt in exceptional cases. there were no doubt a few such teachers, here and there. we are told that in london "there be also teachers and professors of the holy or hebrew language, of the caldean, syriack or arabicke or tartary languages, of the italian, spanish, french, dutch and polish tongues. and here be they which can speake the persian and the morisco, and the turkish and the muscovian language, and also the sclavonian tongue, which passeth through seventeen nations. and in divers other languages fit for ambassadors and orators, and agents for merchants, and for travaylors and necessarie for all commerce or negociation whatsoever." buck, _the third universitie of england_, , ch. xxxvii. "of languages." the earliest work for teaching dutch to englishmen was probably the _dutch tutor_ of ; cp. f. watson, _modern subjects_, ch. xv. john minsheu taught a number of languages in london, and wrote a _ductor in linguas_ ( ), in eleven languages. [ ] hug. soc. pub. x. pt. ii. p. . [ ] _returns of aliens_, hug. soc. pub. x. pt. i. p. xi. [ ] moens, _the walloons and their church at norwich_, hug. soc. pub. i. p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., addenda, - _, p. . [ ] _victoria county histories: suffolk_, ii. p. . [ ] _apologie for schoolmasters._ [ ] sm. to, pp. - , and - . printed by j. wolfe. licence dated dec. . preface dated april . [ ] born ; at oxford in . [ ] bellot, in his quality of "gentleman," compares his labours to those of diogenes rolling his tub up and down a hill, in order not to be idle while the corinthians were busy preparing to defend their city against philip of macedon. eliote takes up the theme and turns it to ridicule. [ ] the first part is paged from to , and has signatures a-l in fours. in _eliote's first booke_ the pagination begins afresh at p. and continues to p. at the end of the work: it has signatures _c-y_ in fours. [ ] palsgrave had accompanied his french quotations with similar indications: "au diziesme an de mon doulant exil avdiziemavndemoundoulauntezil." [ ] he announces his intention of producing a book called _de natura et arte linguae gallicae_. [ ] _advice given by a catholike gentleman to the nobilitie & commons of france_, lond., ; _newes sent unto the lady princesse of orange_, ; _discourses of warre and single combat ..._ from the french of b. de loque, . [ ] foster, _alumni oxon._, ad nom. chapter v methods of teaching french--latin and french--french and english dictionaries--study of french literature eliote gives some information concerning the fees charged by french teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century. he asserts that the usual charge was a shilling a week,[ ] but we are left in doubt as to how many lessons this entitled the student to. he affirms, probably not seriously, that he would charge a gentleman £ a year, and a lord from £ to £ . we are indebted to him also for an account, very prejudiced, no doubt, of the usual method employed by french teachers generally. this consisted, according to him, in reading a page of french and then translating it. fortunately we are enabled, by means of the french text-books that have come down to us, to draw a fuller picture of the french lessons of the time. it has been seen that as a rule these books contained four parts--rules of pronunciation, rules of grammar, reading exercises, and a vocabulary. they are generally written throughout in french and english (in parallel columns[ ]), the reason of this being the importance attached to reading and to double translation, from french into english and english into french. in the english version the idiomatic phrase is sacrificed in order to give a more literal rendering of the french, and also, possibly, because these frenchmen were incapable of writing any other. as is to be expected, translation from french into english was the more usual exercise. translation from english into french, however, was by no means neglected, and appears to have been recommended principally by english teachers of french, and more especially by palsgrave and eliote. edward vi.'s french exercises, it will be remembered, are translations from english into french, or free composition in french. in addition to reading and translating, much importance was attached to pronunciation. it was generally considered best to learn the sounds of the language by repetition after a teacher with a good accent; but rules were thought necessary to confirm the knowledge thus acquired. as to rules of grammar, there was no question of learning the language by means of them. a grammar was treated as a book of reference, just as a dictionary. thus the student usually learnt the pronunciation by reading the french aloud with his tutor, referring to the rules of pronunciation whenever necessary, and then translating and retranslating the dialogues, grammar being supplied as the need for it was felt. although these early teachers strictly limited the place of grammar, they almost all agree in emphasizing its importance within the limits indicated. grammar rules were reduced to a minimum. attention was called to what were considered important general rules, but those with numerous exceptions, it is argued, were better learnt by "use" and persistent reading, "so as not to weary with long discourses which would be necessary to explain things learnt better by practice than by rule." the dialogue form in which almost all the reading material is given, and the proverbs and familiar phrases, show the importance attached to a practical and colloquial knowledge of the language. the teaching of french was of a decidedly business-like nature, and closely in touch with the concerns of life. one of the chief reasons for this, no doubt, was that it was learnt for social or other immediate requirements. the fact that french was not taught in the grammar schools undoubtedly assisted it to maintain its close connexion with practical life. it is only about a century and a half later, when french began to gain a foothold in these schools, that it was taught more and more on grammatical lines, and less and less as a living language. latin, although most of the school statutes of the time encourage the scholars to speak it, was taught chiefly on grammatical lines.[ ] the memorizing of latin grammar was a foremost subject even in the middle ages.[ ] [header: latin and french] in the sixteenth century the latin grammar usually known as lily's was the prescribed national grammar, with rules of accidence in english and of syntax in latin.[ ] familiar dialogues in the style of those for french were also used, the chief difference between the latin and french dialogues being that the latin are separate and complete works in themselves, and are not, as a rule, provided with an english translation. they were memorized as the grammar was. from the dialogues, or colloquies as they were called, dealing with typical occurrences of life, the latin scholar passed on to the reading of school authors--cato, cicero, ovid, virgil, terence, etc.[ ] nor was vocabulary neglected, for in the schools of the renaissance the practice of learning so many words a day, prevalent in the middle ages, was still in vogue. it thus appears that the books generally used in teaching latin were not without some influence in determining the types of manuals employed for teaching french. the practice of including religious formulae, which we find in some books, was sanctioned by their place in the national latin grammar, while it is clear that the latin colloquia of the time had considerable influence on the french dialogues. in the early sixteenth century the dialogues of the scholar vives,[ ] who received honours at both oxford and cambridge during his short stay in england, were much in vogue. like the french dialogues of the time, they kept closely in touch with the interests of the pupils and dealt with such topics as rising in the morning, going to school, returning home, and children's play and meals, and students' chatter. similar works were the _sententiae pueriles_,[ ] a book for beginners, first published at leipzig in , and containing a collection of familiar phrases rather than dialogues, and the _pueriles confabulatiunculae_ by evaldus gallus. in the second half of the sixteenth century two other manuals of conversation were added to those already in use in england: the _colloquia_ of mathurin cordier, first published in latin in , and castellion's _sacred dialogues_ based on the scriptures, printed in latin at basle, in .[ ] with the text-books, however, all close resemblance between the teaching of latin in grammar schools and the teaching of french ends. as we have seen, reading, pronunciation, and conversation were the main concerns of the french student; translation held a large place and grammar rules a subsidiary one. the grammar-school boy, on the contrary, would first gain an elementary knowledge from rules written in english, and memorize the vocabulary and phrases; learn his latin grammar, and then parse and construe[ ] the usual school authors.[ ] the sons of the aristocracy and well-to-do classes probably learnt by a more practical method, as they were able to have private tutors, who devoted all their time to providing the necessary atmosphere. as late as , when latin was less used colloquially, the writer cleland, a great advocate of the teaching of french, condemns the practice of those parents who have their children brought up to speak latin only; they neglect their mother tongue and the language of elegance, french, and soon forget their latin when once removed from their tutor's care.[ ] that such cases were the exception rather than the rule, even in the early sixteenth century, may be gathered from the two great educational writers of the time, sir thomas elyot and roger ascham. both the _governour_ ( ) and the _scholemaster_ are protests against the common school usage of placing grammar in the first place, and a summons to base the study of the language on the reading of authors. they believed with quintilian that "longum et difficile iter est per praecepta, breve et efficax per exempla." colet in his _aeditio_ had laid down the same principle, to the effect that the "reading of good books, dyligent information of taught masters, studious advertence and taking heed of learners, hearing eloquent men speak, and finally busy imitation with the tongue and pen, more availeth shortly to get the true eloquent speech than all the tradition of rule and precepts of masters"; [header: grammar and translation] and he adds, "men spoke not latin because such rules were made, but contrariwise because men spoke such latin, upon that followed the rules and so were made."[ ] yet it seems that the force of tradition prevailed, and that these precepts were only put into practice in exceptional cases. it is striking to notice how close was the resemblance between the actual methods used by french teachers and those advocated by would-be reformers of the teaching of latin. colet's words express almost exactly the sentiments and practice of holyband, de la mothe, and other french teachers; and the same is true of elyot and ascham. "nothing can be more convenient," writes elyot in referring to students of latin, "than by little and little to train and exercise them in the speaking of latin, informing them to know first the names in latin of all the things that come in sight, and to name all the parts of their bodies, and giving them somewhat that they covert or desire in most gentle manner to teach them to ask it again in latin." he even goes so far as to say that the pupil may "as sone speake good latin" on this method "as he may do pure frenche,"[ ] thereby showing that he probably derived suggestions from the prevalent methods of teaching french. elyot, however, realized that the use of latin as a familiar tongue was not as practicable in schools as in many noble families, where it might well happen that the pupil would have "none other persons to serve him or keep hym company but suche as can speake latine elegantly." how successful the sole use of latin could be in such circumstances is exemplified in the well-known case of montaigne. ascham, like elyot, recognized the exceptional conditions required for such a method. he believed the "dailie use of speaking" would be the best way of learning the language if the child could only hear it spoken perfectly, but failing this he considered the practice dangerous.[ ] it is probable, however, that in the best french schools, and certainly in that of holyband, this ideal was realized in the case of french. as regards the respective importance of reading and grammar, the french teachers of the time appear to have put into practice the ideas of the reformers. all agree that grammar rules should be as few as possible, and be taught in connexion with reading. the general method of french teachers was to refer to the rule as the need for it arose in reading. ascham also pleads for the study of grammar, "so hardlie learned by the scholar in all common scholes," along with authors; and the educational reformer mulcaster, in his _elementarie_ of , writes that grammar is best learnt by being applied to the matter, and that the child's mind should not be clogged with rules. elyot differs slightly from them in detail but not in principle. he allows grammar to precede the study of authors, provided it is reduced to the smallest possible amount. "grammar," he says, "being but an introduction to the study of authors," care should be taken "not to detain the child too longe in that tedious labour, for a gentyll wytte is there with some fatigate," and "hit in a maner mortifieth his corage" before he "cometh to the most swete and pleasant readinge of olde authors."[ ] both these views as regards grammar--that of ascham and mulcaster, and that of elyot--were prevalent among french teachers of the time. there are only small differences in detail; the general principles are identical. in the matter of translation, "most common and most commendable of all other exercises of youth,"[ ] there is a striking resemblance between the method of double translation common among french teachers, and the same method set out by ascham, who marks the transition from oral to written methods of teaching latin.[ ] in the case of de la mothe, the resemblance is so clear and close that we are led to believe he was acquainted with the work of elizabeth's tutor,[ ] published in , over twenty years before the _french alphabet_. ascham's system consisted of the double translation of a model book, and it is interesting to compare it with the method of de la mothe. the pupil has first to parse and translate the latin into english; "after this the child must take a paper booke, and sitting in some place where no man shall prompe him, by him self, let him translate into englisshe his former lesson. [header: books in french and english] then showing it to his master, let the master take from him his latin booke, and pausing an houre, at the least, than let the childe translate his owne englishe into latin againe, in an other paper booke." and when this is done, the master should compare it with the original latin, "and laie them both togither."[ ] there was thus much in common between the teaching of latin and the teaching of french. the dialogues, which form so important a feature in the french text-books of the time, were certainly indebted to the latin colloquia, although they also continue the tradition of the mediaeval french conversation-books. the latin dialogues of vives had much influence on the french, and holyband based one of his books, the _campo di fior_, on the _exercitatio_ translated in french, italian, and english. eliote also acknowledged his debt to the spanish scholar. in other cases the debt was almost inevitable and probably unconscious; for the french teachers, who often taught latin as well, would use such books daily, and had moreover probably acquired their own knowledge of latin from them. holyband, we have seen, read the _sententiae pueriles_ with his pupils. the importance attached to reading and double translation by teachers of french led to the appearance of a great number of books in french and english, on the lines of bellot's _jardin de vertu_. for instance, part of the _semaines_ of du bartas, the most popular french poet in england in the sixteenth century, was published in this form in , and again in , on the occasion of the marriage of charles i. this translation is due to william l'isle of wilbraham,[ ] the pioneer in the study of anglo-saxon, who dedicated it in the first place to lord howard of effingham, earl of nottingham, lord admiral, and subsequently to charles i. it is entitled _part of du bartas, english and french, and in his own kinde of verse, so near the french englished, as may teach englishmen french, or a frenchman english. sequitur victoria junctos_,[ ] and consists of the first two days of the _second week_, with the french and english arranged on opposite pages, followed by an english translation of the commentary of simon goulart de senlis. guy du faur, sieur de pibrac, was another french writer widely read in england, and his _quatrains_ were frequently commended by french teachers to their scholars. they were translated into english verse by sylvester, the translator of du bartas, and published with the french original in . sylvester dedicated the quatrains to prince henry, and the copy in the british museum contains an epigram in english in the handwriting of his brother, afterwards charles i., and a manuscript dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator.[ ] the quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of sylvester's works. about this time prince henry made sylvester a groom of his chamber, and gave him a small pension of £ a year.[ ] the story goes that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first "poet pensioner," and it seems that sylvester took advantage of his position to encourage his royal patron's french studies. many other works of the kind appeared in french and in english.[ ] the educational writer charles hoole tells us that masters frequently taught languages by using interlinearies, "not to speak of their construing the french and spanish bible by the help of an english one."[ ] lord herbert of cherbury, philosopher and gallant, ambassador in france in the time of james i., learnt french, italian, and spanish, on this translation method, whilst living in the university or at home. he mastered them, he assures us, without the help of a tutor, solely by means of latin or english books translated into those languages, and of dictionaries.[ ] [header: french and english dictionaries] de la mothe advised his advanced pupils to read difficult french books with the help of a dictionary, and there was some supply of works of this kind at the disposal of lord herbert and other students of the language. it is true that the widespread use of books in both languages diminished the demand for such manuals, which may not have been easy to acquire. yet there was a considerable choice of such works. holyband had produced two french-english dictionaries, in and respectively, in which he referred to "those which broke the ice before him." there had appeared in an anonymous _dictionarie frenche and english_,[ ] printed by henry bynneman for lucas harrison. this work, which does not confine itself to words only, but includes phrases as well, was no doubt known to holyband. its author had probably drawn largely on an earlier dictionary, already mentioned, in which a place was given to french--the latin, english, and french dictionary of john veron ( ). the inclusion of french in such a work is a striking testimony to the importance of french at that time. but when a second edition of veron's dictionary was prepared by ralph waddington, in , he "of purpose thought good to leave out the french, both because (he) saw it was not necessary for english students of latin, as for that maister barret hath five years since set forth an alvearie sufficient to instruct those which are desirous to travel in th'understanding of the french tongue." this "alvearie" appeared in , two years after the french-english dictionary printed for harrison. it was entitled "_an alvearie or triple dictionarie in english, latin and french, very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three languages ..._" and was dedicated to wm. cecil, lord burghley, then chancellor of cambridge university. baret had been teaching at cambridge for eighteen years "pupils studious of the latin tongue," and part of their daily task was to translate some piece of english into latin "for the more speed and easie attayning of the same." at last, "perceiving what great trouble it was to come runnying to (him) for every word they missed,"[ ] he made them collect each day a number of latin words and phrases, together with their english equivalents. within a year or two they had gathered together a great volume of work, to which, "for the apt similitude between the good scholers and diligent bees in gathering them wax and honey into their hive," baret gave the title of _alvearie_. at first he had no intention of publishing the work, but when he went to london he was finally persuaded to do so, and received help from many of his old pupils who were then at the inns of court, and from several of the best scholars in various english schools. how baret first thought of adding french to his dictionary is not known. he owns that he did not trust his own skill in this matter, although he had formerly "travelled in divers countries beyond the seas both for languages and for learning"; but that he "used the help of m. chaloner and m. claudius." by 'm. claudius,' baret possibly meant holyband, who was often called "maistre claude." m. chaloner may have been the author of the french-english dictionary published by harrison in . according to the custom of the time, baret's dictionary was preceded by a number of commendatory addresses, one of which was by the head-master of merchant taylors' school, richard mulcaster. in the dictionary itself, every english word is first explained, and then its equivalent in latin and french given. at the end are tables of the latin and french words "placed after the order of the alphabet, whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie. and so as to turn them backwards againe into englishe when they reade any latin or french authors and doubt of any harde worde therein." baret had "gone to god in heavenlie seates" before the close of , when there appeared a posthumous second edition of the _alvearie_. in this final form greek has a place by the side of the other languages, and the title runs, _an alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing four sundrie tongues, namely, english, latine, greeke, and frenche, newlie enriched with varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs, and divers lightsome observations of grammar_. but there is no table of the greek words, as for the latin and french. such was the third dictionary of french words which appeared before holyband's.[ ] [header: french in latin dictionaries] the place given to french in these early latin dictionaries is worthy of notice. no doubt french first entered the schools in this indirect way. both veron's and baret's works were used in schools; and baret's dictionary is included in the list of books mentioned by charles hoole as being specially useful to schoolboys.[ ] there are at least two other school vocabularies in which french was introduced, both due to the poet and compiler john higgins, who is said to have been "well read in classick authors, and withall very well skilled in french."[ ] the first of his lexicographical works was a new and revised edition of _huloet's dictionarie_,[ ] which occupied him two years. it appeared in ,[ ] a year before baret's work. higgins calls himself "late student in oxforde," and dedicates the volume to sir john peckham. this edition by higgins is so much altered that it is almost a new work. one of the chief changes was the addition of a french version to the latin and english, "by whiche you may finde the latin or french of anye englishe woorde you will." for the french, higgins seems to have drawn chiefly on the latin-french dictionary of robert estienne, which had already been published in french, english, and latin by jean veron, in . higgins also acknowledges his debt to thierry, whose french-latin dictionary appeared twelve years later in . there was a close relationship between french-latin and french-english dictionaries. french is first found side by side with english, in one of these french-latin dictionaries--that of veron; and in subsequent years the french-english dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the french-latin lexicons. those due to robert Éstienne and to thierry were probably the sources from which the author of the french-english dictionary of drew his material; while holyband based his _treasurie_ ( ), and his dictionary ( ), respectively, on the augmented editions of thierry's work due to nicot, which appeared in and .[ ] the second lexicographical work of higgins, published in , was a translation, entitled _nomenclator or remembrancer of adrianus junius, physician, divided into two tomes_. it professed to supply the appropriate names and apt terms for all things under their convenient titles, in latin, greek, french, and english.[ ] the english column was added by higgins. thus by the end of the sixteenth century there had appeared in england three french-english dictionaries, and several others in which french found a place by the side of the classical languages. and we may add to these the french-latin dictionaries on which they were usually based, for it seems extremely likely that those students of french who knew latin--and practically all of them would know this chief and first of school subjects--used the french-latin lexicons as well, in their study of french, when other means were not available. early in the seventeenth century, in , holyband's french dictionary of was succeeded by the celebrated french-english dictionary of randle cotgrave,[ ] which occupies in the seventeenth century the place that palsgrave's _esclarcissement_ does in the sixteenth among the works on the french language produced in england. although cotgrave's work is on a much larger scale than holyband's, and much superior to it,[ ] there is a close connexion between the two. in the _stationers' register_ cotgrave's is entered as a dictionary in french and english first collected by holyband, and since augmented and altered by cotgrave.[ ] but the work which no doubt was of most help to cotgrave was another french-latin dictionary, aimar de ranconnet's _tresor de la langue françoise_, revised by nicot ( ).[ ] he had, moreover, read all sorts of books, old and new, in all dialects, where he found words not heard of for hundreds of years, which he included in his book, to be used or left as the reader thought fit. j. l'oiseau de tourval,[ ] a parisian, and friend of cotgrave, who wrote in french an epistle prefixed to the dictionary, thought it advisable to assure the reader that none of these words were of cotgrave's invention, observing at the same time that it would be well to revive some of these obsolete and provincial terms. [header: cotgrave's dictionary] he also adds that cotgrave had sent to france in his eager search for words. m. beaulieu, secretary to the british ambassador at paris, was no doubt cotgrave's collaborator in this quest, as cotgrave tells us elsewhere[ ] that he had received valuable help from m. beaulieu, as well as from a certain mr. limery. cotgrave dedicated his dictionary to wm. cecil, lord burghley, "his very good lord and maister," whose secretary he was. he declares that he would have produced a more substantial work to offer to his patron had not his eyes failed him and forced him "to spend much of their vigour on this bundle of words." he also offered a copy to the eldest son of james i., prince henry, and received from him a gift of £ .[ ] the price of the dictionary seems to have been s. cotgrave sent two copies to m. beaulieu at paris, and wrote requesting payment of s., which they cost him; for, he says, "i have not been provident enough to reserve any of them and therefore am forced to be beholden for them to a base and mechanicall generation, that suffers no respect to weigh down a private gain."[ ] cotgrave's dictionary was much superior to anything of the sort which had yet appeared. in addition to giving the meaning of each french word in english, with an indication of its gender in the case of nouns, and, in the case of adjectives, of the formation of the feminine form, cotgrave supplied a collection of illustrative phrases, idioms, and proverbs. at the end are found "briefe directions for such as desire to learne the french tongue," giving a succinct treatment of the pronunciation of the letters, followed by a description of the various parts of speech. this really remarkable work, which is still of considerable utility to the modern student, reigned supreme throughout the greater part of the seventeenth century. a second edition was issued in , when cotgrave was still alive. the only change in this issue is the addition of a "most copious dictionarie of the english set before the french by r. s. l." this r. s. l. was robert sherwood, londoner, who taught french and english in london, and also had a french school for a time. he gave his dictionary the title of _dictionarie anglois et françois pour l'utilité de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues_,[ ] and addressed it to the "favorables lecteurs françois, alemans et autres." the english reader he advises to look for fuller information as to "the gender of all french nouns, and the conjugation of all french verbs" in cotgrave's dictionary; the small space to which he was limited did not allow him to provide such information. like cotgrave, sherwood closes with rules of grammar, in the form of observations on english pronunciation and on the english verbs. sherwood's work is the earliest of the english-french dictionaries. both baret and higgins had placed english before french, and no doubt sherwood made use of their works, as well as of english-latin dictionaries. baret, however, gives an indication of the greater demand there was for french-english vocabularies, by supplying a table of french words at the end of his work. moreover, the object of sherwood's lexicon was less to facilitate translation from english to french than to teach english to foreigners. in cotgrave's dictionary was issued in a revised and augmented edition by james howell, the famous letter-writer.[ ] this edition is preceded by a lengthy essay on the french language, tracing its growth from the earliest times, and taken, without acknowledgement, from pasquier's _recherches_. howell had already put much of the same matter in a series of letters addressed to the earl of clare in his _epistolae ho-elianae_,[ ] and repeated it in his glossary of english, french, italian, and spanish, the _lexicon tetraglotten_ ( ). he quotes several examples of old french in both prose and verse, and adds on his own account a praise of richelieu and the academy recently founded by the cardinal. [header: james howell] he also discusses the question as to where the best french was spoken--at the court, among scholars at the university, or lawyers at the courts of parliament--and is inclined to share the general opinion of the day, which made the court the supreme arbiter in matters of language. cotgrave, it has been seen, included all sorts of words in his dictionary. howell thought it necessary to distinguish obsolete and provincial words, and, accordingly, with the help of "a noble and knowing french gentleman," he marked such terms with a small cross. he also initiated another change by placing the grammar before the dictionary instead of after it, as cotgrave did: "for a dictionary which contains the whole bulk of a language to go before the grammar is to make the building precede the basis. therefore it was held more consentaneous to reason, and congruous to order that the grammar should be put here in the first place, for art observes the method of nature to make us creep before we go." he likewise made a few additions to cotgrave's rules, and appended a dialogue in french and english, "consisting of some of the extraordinary and difficult criticall phrases which are meer gallicismes, and pure idiomes of the french tongue"; and also a passage of french prose, in the old spelling and also according to the reformed orthography introduced by the academy. in appeared another edition of cotgrave, still further enlarged by howell.[ ] some years previously copies of the edition of , "with blank pages sown between the leaves," had been sent by the printer "to knowing persons, true lovers of the french," who were invited to enter on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was not in the dictionary; by means of this plan several hundred additional words were gathered together, many being "new invented terms, which the admired mons. scudéry, and other late romancers have so happily publisht in their printed volumes." after howell's death there appeared yet another issue of his edition of cotgrave, in .[ ] the printer employed the same means to increase the number of words as had been so successfully adopted in . the appearance of french dictionaries naturally facilitated the reading of french literature, which in its turn had much influence on the spread of the knowledge of the language. lord herbert of cherbury, it has been seen, gained his first knowledge of french by reading it with the help of a dictionary. and, in spite of the fact that french literature was widely read in translations,[ ] there were many who preferred to read it in the original. the number of french books in private libraries is enough to show this. one translator of the time felt it necessary to apologize for offering an english version ( ) "of the french knight lisander and his lady calista," contrary to the fashion of the time, "which is all french."[ ] further testimony is found in the many french books which were printed in england,[ ] in addition to the books in both french and english. and many english writers of the time introduced french freely into their own english compositions.[ ] almost all englishmen of education could read french, and many, no doubt, learnt it as herbert did. [header: study of french literature] milton, who differed from most of his countrymen in his decided preference for italian, taught both languages to his two pupils and nephews, edward and john philips, on this method of reading. for italian they read giovanni villani's _history_, and for french "a great part of pierre davity, the famous geographer of france in his time."[ ] in fashionable circles the case was the same, and french romances and collections of _nouvelles_ were much in vogue. lady brilliana harley, for instance, who later distinguished herself by defending her castle in herefordshire against the royalists, spent much of her time reading french literature. she wrote asking her son, then at magdalen college, oxford ( - ), to send her books in french, as she "had rather reade any thinge in that tounge than in inglisch."[ ] she would even while away days of sickness by translating passages of calvin, whom the english protestants, yielding to the general prejudice in favour of all things french, followed in preference to luther. not infrequently, moreover, works in other languages were read in french versions, just as such versions were frequently the medium of translation; drummond of hawthornden read _orlando furioso_ and the _azolani_ of bembo in french, as well as the works of the swiss theologian and follower of zwingli, thomas erastus.[ ] among the most eager advocates of the reading of french literature were naturally the french teachers of the time. one of the chief objections raised against holyband's system of distinguishing the unpronounced letters was that the student would be at a loss when he came to read french books. holyband, however, protested that such was not the case, and that "the cavillation of these ignorantes who measure other men's wit according to their owne" was in contradiction to his experience, which daily showed him the contrary. as to his reading, holyband would first have the learner "reade halfe a score chapters of the new testament, because it was both easie and profitable:[ ] then let him take in hand any of the works of monsieur de launay, otherwise called pierre boaystuau, as the best and the most elegant writer of our tongue. his workes be _le theatre du monde_, the tragicall histories, the prodigious histories. sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently translated. philippe de commins, when he is corrected is very profitable and wise." the _nouveau testament_ of de bèze, boiasteau's _théâtre du monde_, and sleidan's _commentaries_[ ] were all books well known in england, and holyband himself prepared an edition of boiasteau.[ ] an additional reason, according to him, for retaining the unsounded consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the french language. he also advised the perusal of marot's works, of the _amadis_ of herberay des essarts, of françois de belleforest's _histoire universelle du monde_, of the _vies et morales de plutarque_, in amyot's version, and of the collection of stories, on the plan of the _decameron_, which its author, jacques yver, had entitled _le printemps_ ( ),[ ] by way of contrast with his own name. evidently holyband's choice of french literature was influenced to some extent by his religious sympathies. it is curious that he makes no mention of ronsard, who was much read in england, and one of the favourite authors of the queen. bellot in his grammar had similar if not identical ambitions. he sought to enable his pupils to read the _amadis_ of des essarts, marot, de bèze, du bellay's lyrics, froissart, ronsard, collet[ ] and jodelle "racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre cruelle." pibrac and du bartas have already been mentioned as favourite authors. it was to encourage his pupils to take delight in the "profound learning and flowing sweetness of the french poets, especially the divine works of that matchlesse du bartas," that a french teacher of the seventeenth century, pierre erondell, printed at the end of his book for teaching the language, the new testament story of the centurion, rendered by himself into french verse. "this poor work," he quaintly writes, will encourage learners to read better ones, "because everything is better known by his contrarye and the sweet sweeter, after that the mouth hath tasted of the sharpe sower." naturally writings of a religious character were much in favour with these teachers. [header: authors usually read] holyband advised the reading of de bèze's new testament, and several times we hear of "the french bible" being printed in england.[ ] the liturgy in french[ ] was also printed, and would be useful to english students of french attending the french church. french teachers were not the only zealous advocates of the reading of french literature. most of the writers on polite education of the time give similar advice, although for different reasons. "for statesmen, french authors are the best," wrote francis osborne in his _advice to a son_,[ ] "and most fruitful in negociations, and memoirs left by public ministers, and by their secretaries published after their deaths." cleland names the works of the many learned historiographers of france he would have the future diplomat and aspirant to the services of the state read: "engerrand of munstrellet, philip of commines, the lord of haillant, who is both learned and profitable and pleasant in my conceit. the commentaries of bellay and the inventorie of john serres, newlie printed and worthie to be read, both for the good and compendious compiling of the storie and also for the french eloquence wherin he floweth. for militarie affairs, yee maie read the lord of noue, who is somwhat difficil for some men, and also the commentaries of the l. monluc, which are good both for a young souldier, and an old captaine."[ ] bodin was another of the authors specially recommended. sir philip sidney counsels his brother robert to read him with particular attention, and james howell[ ] includes him in a list of "good french writers," which varies slightly from that of cleland: "for the general history of france, serres is one of the best, and for the modern times, d'aubigni, pierre mathieu, and du pleix: for the politicall and martiall government du haillan, de la noue, bodin, and the cabinet: touching commines, who was contemporary with machiavel, 'twas a witty speech of the last queen mother of france that he made more heretiques in policy than luther ever did in religion. therefore he requires a reader of riper years." footnotes: [ ] this was the fee charged by holyband in his french school. [ ] the interlinear arrangement used in the middle ages had been abandoned in all but a few exceptional cases. these teachers no doubt agreed with the pedagogue john brinsley, the chief exponent of the method of translation, that interlinears were confusing because the eye catches the two languages simultaneously. [ ] f. watson, _english grammar schools_, cambridge, , pp. _sqq._ j. e. sandys, "education in shakespeare's england," in _shakespeare's england_, i. pp. _sqq._ [ ] cp. rashdall, _universities of europe in the middle ages_, ii. p. . [ ] article on lily in _dict. nat. biog._, and watson, _grammar schools_, pp. _sqq._ [ ] cp. w. lilly's _history of his life_, "autobiographies," i., london, , pp. , ; _the autobiography of adam martindale_, chetham soc., , pp. , , and similar diaries and memoirs. [ ] published at brabant, ; cp. f. watson, _tudor schoolboy life_, . [ ] by leonard culman. [ ] less widely used were the _dialogues_ of john posselius, a german philosopher. they treat of the school and the study of the classical tongues. they were printed in london in latin and english in , as _dialogues conteyning all the most familiar and usefull words of the latin tongue_. [ ] which took the form of translating: "for all your constructions in grammar scholes be nothing els but translations," ascham, _the scholemaster_ ( ), ed. arber, , p. . [ ] c. hoole, _an advertisement touching ... school books_, . [ ] _institution of a young nobleman_, , p. . [ ] quoted by f. watson, _grammar schools_, p. . [ ] _the boke named the governour_, ed. crofts, , i. p. . [ ] _the scholemaster_ ( ), ed. arber, london, , p. . [ ] elyot, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] ascham, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] f. watson, _grammar schools_, p. . "much writing breedeth ready speaking," was one of his precepts. [ ] ascham himself got his ideas mainly from cicero (_de oratore_). [ ] _the scholemaster, ed. cit._ p. . ascham also suggests the use of a third paper book, in which a collection of the different forms of speech and phrases should be made from the material read. [ ] ?- , the second of the five sons of edmund lisle of tanbridge in surrey, _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] this is the title of the edition, printed by john hoviland. that of was printed by l. bollifant for r. wilkins, and entitled _babilon a part of du bartas his second weeke_ (pyne, _list of books_, - , i. p. ); cp. _stationers' register_, iii. (_a booke called the colonyes of bartas with the commentarye of s. g. s. englished and enlarged by wm. l'isle_, ). [ ] this is a copy bound separately from the rest of the edition of sylvester's _divine weekes_, with which it was issued. [ ] s. lee, in _dict. nat. biog._ [ ] a long list may be compiled from the _registers of the stationers' company_. j. wolfe and r. field, both printers of french grammars, received many licences to print books in french and english. see also upham, _french influence in english literature_, new york, (appendix i., pp. - ). many of these works are on religious topics; others belong to no particular category, in the style of bellot's _jardin de vertu_; many on topical subjects, such as news-letters and pamphlets on the french wars, were printed in french more to appeal to a larger public than to give instruction in the language. [ ] _an advertisement touching ... school books_, . [ ] _autobiography_, ed. s. lee, nd ed., , p. . [ ] hazlitt, _bibliog. collections_, iv. . in newbury and denham received licence to print "the dictionary in french and english, in to, and all other dictionaries french and english in quarto," _stationers' register_, ii. . [ ] "knowing then of no other dictionary to help us, but sir thomas eliot's _librarie_, which was come out a little before." [ ] on holyband's debts to these works see miss e. farrer's _la vie et les oeuvres de claude de sainliens_, pp. _sqq._ [ ] f. watson, _grammar schools_, p. . [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _abcedarium anglico-latinum_, london, . [ ] folio, printed by thomas marshe. [ ] farrer, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] first appeared at leyden in . higgins' edition was printed for ralph newberie and henrie denham, vo. [ ] _a dictionarie of the french and english tongues._ london, printed by a. islip, , folio. [ ] cp. _revue des deux mondes_, , v. p. . [ ] _stationers' register_, iii. . [ ] farrer, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] himself a good linguist, who translated some of james i.'s compositions into french, and was for many years in the service of the english foreign office; cp. s. lee, _beginnings of french translations from the english_. transactions of the bibliog. soc. vii., . [ ] in an autograph letter; cp. _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _rolls of expenses of prince henry_, "revels at court," ed. p. cunningham, new shakespeare soc., (preface). [ ] harl. mss. , quoted _dict. nat. biog._ at the end of one of the brit. mus. copies is the ms. inscription: "mr. james winwood, his book and sent him out of england by john more the th may [ ]." evidently cotgrave's work made its way rapidly into france. [ ] printed by adam islip, to. [ ] _a french english dictionary, compil'd by mr. randle cotgrave, with another in english and french. whereunto are newly added the animadversions and supplements etc. of james howell, esquire._ london, printed by w. h. for rd. whitaker ... to. sherwood's dictionary was printed by susan islip. [ ] ninth ed., , pp. _sqq._ [ ] _a french and english dictionary composed by mr. randle cotgrave, with another in english and french. whereunto are added sundry animadversions with supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed; with accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use. together with a dialogue consisting of all gallicisms, with additions of the most useful and significant proverbs, with other refinements according to cardinall richelieu's late academy. for the furtherance of the young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the french this work is exposed to publick...._ printed by wm. hunt in pye corner. [ ] title same as in . "printed for anthony dolle, and are to be sold by th. williams at the golden ball in hosier lane." [ ] many important literary productions in different languages came into england through the medium of a french version--for instance, plutarch, _amadis_, the _politics_ of aristotle. cp. upham, _french influence in english literature_, p. . the influence of senecan tragedy reached england through the intermediary of the "french seneca," robert garnier (schelling, _elizabethan drama_, ii. pp. _sqq._ and p. ). in licence was granted n. bulter to print an english translation from french of so popular a work as ovid's _metamorphoses_ (_stationers' register_, iii. ). [ ] the _histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de lysandre et de caliste_ ( ) was the work of d'audigier. [ ] thus the _préau des fleurs meslées, contenant plusieurs et differentz discours_ of françois voilleret, sieur de florizel, was printed in london in (?), and dedicated to the prince of wales. in it was licensed to be printed in french and english, provided the english translation be approved. in a french translation of bacon's _essays_ was published at london, and in field received a licence to print a french translation of camden's _annals_ (originally in latin) by j. bellequent, avocat au parlement de paris (_stationers' register_, iv. ). [ ] as did shakespeare (cp. schmidt, _shakespeare lexicon_, berlin, , vol. ii.) and several of the lesser poets. french refrains were also sometimes used, as in greene's _never too late_ (infida's song): "wilt thou let thy venus di, n'oseres vous mon bel amy? adon were unkinde say i, je vous en prie, pitie me: n'oseres vous mon bel, mon bel, n'oseres vous, mon bel amy?" see s. lee, _french renaissance in england_, oxford, , p. . sylvester even ventured to write poems in french. [ ] _lives of ed. and john philips, nephews of milton_ ( ), reprinted by william godwin, , pp. - . [ ] _letters_, camden soc., , p. , and _passim_. [ ] upham, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] in the new testament and a book of prayers in french were printed by thomas gaultier. _handlist of books_, bibliographical society, . [ ] the german historian's commentary, _de statu religionis et reipublicae carolo quinto caesare_, appeared in latin in , and in french in . [ ] _le théâtre du monde . . . revue et corrigé par c. de sainliens_, . printed by george bishop and dedicated to "the scotch ambassador, jacques de betoun, archevesque de glasco." [ ] which was very popular. it reached twelve editions before the end of the century. [ ] no doubt the poet claude collet. [ ] cp. _stationers' register_, iii. . another work of a religious nature was the _catechisme ou instruction familiere sur les principaus points de la religion chrestienne_ (par m. dielincourt), _stationers' register_, iii. . [ ] _stationers' register_, ii. , . [ ] , pp. - . [ ] _institution of a young nobleman_, p. . [ ] _directions for forreine travel_ ( ), ed. arber, , p. . chapter vi french at the universities the universities set the grammar schools the example by neglecting the study of french and other subjects necessary to a polite education. even the limited encouragement given to the modern language at the universities during the middle ages no longer existed in the sixteenth century. at this date latin reigned supreme at oxford and cambridge, and its use was rigorously enforced. the students were required "to speak in latin at public places" or otherwise "incur the penalty contained in the statute regarding this point."[ ] it is true that these regulations were not always obeyed; fynes moryson says that scholars in the universities shun occasions of speaking latin. but it was none the less the chief language cultivated at the universities,[ ] where no modern languages received official recognition. the mediaeval custom of using french on various academic occasions had not, however, disappeared without leaving a few traces. some of the french forms of procedure favoured in the middle ages, probably owing to the influence of the university of paris, were still in use at cambridge in the seventeenth century. the books of two cambridge beadels, beadel stokys (_c._ ) and beadel buck ( ),[ ] show that on several occasions these officials were instructed to use french during public ceremonies. thus, at the solemn exercise of determination, one of the beadels gave thanks for the money he and his fellows received, in the following terms: [header: french and italian read] "noter determiners je vous remercie de le argent que vous avez donner a moy et a meis companiouns, pourquoy je prie a dieu que il vous veuille donner tres bonne vie et en la fin la joye de paradise." in similar "stratford-atte-bowe" french they summoned the lecturers in the 'schools' to be present on commencement day: "nostre seigneur doctor, une parolle sil vous plaist, nostres peres de nostres seigneurs commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement en l'église de nostre dame." and throughout the ceremonies[ ] in arts and theology similar french formulae, often interspersed with latin, were frequently used, though they had probably passed out of use by the beginning of the eighteenth century. but even at that time the summons to dinner at new college still retained a trace of the old custom; two choristers walked from the chapel door to the garden gate crying, "tempus est vocando, mangez tous seigneurs." yet modern languages were not entirely neglected by all university students. gabriel harvey, in an interesting letter to a certain mr. wood, says that the students of cambridge have "deserted thomas aquinas and the whole rabblement of schoolmen for modern french and italian works such as commines and machiavell, paradines in frenche, plutarche in frenche, and i know not how many outlandish braveryes of the same stamp." "you can not stepp into a schollars studye," he adds, "but (ten to on) you shall litely finde open either bodin _de republica_ or le royes exposition uppon aristotles politiques, or some other like frenche or italian politique discourses."[ ] thus we may safely conclude that french and to a less extent italian books were widely read at the universities. no doubt, those who learnt italian did so with the help of a dictionary or an english translation, like lord herbert of cherbury. but there were additional opportunities for learning the more popular language. french tutors and french grammars were not unknown at both oxford and cambridge. but it was at oxford that they were by far the more numerous. the tutors taught french privately to those of the students who were willing to learn. and holyband in dedicating his _french schoolemaister_ ( ) to the young robert sackville, then a student at oxford, throws light on the attitude taken towards that language: "not that you shuld leave off your weightier and worthier studies in the universitie, but when your mind is amazed and dazled with long readinge, you may refresh and disport you in learninge this [french] tongue." protestant refugees formed an important section of the little band of private french tutors at oxford. many huguenots, frequently scholars of distinction, settled at the english centres of learning. some were promoted to positions in the university,[ ] on which they had a very beneficial influence, just as others received preferment in the english church. the french tutors were among the humbler and more numerous exiles who "taught privately," as the seventeenth-century historian of the university, anthony à wood, tells us. apart from those who actually taught french, the presence of considerable numbers of frenchmen[ ] cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of french at cambridge, as well as at oxford. in addition, several french tutors accompanied their pupils to the university, and spent some time with them there. such, no doubt, was the case of peter du ploich who, for some unknown reason, was residing in barnard college (now st. john's), oxford, early in the second half of the sixteenth century. another well-known french tutor, g. de la mothe, accompanied his pupil richard wenman to oxford, some time between and . about ten years before, we come across a famous protestant, jean hotman, sieur de villiers st. paul, resident at oxford with his pupils, the sons of lord poulet, english ambassador at paris; while attending to the education of his charges he completed his own, and received the degree of doctor. subsequently he became secretary to leicester, and was thus brought into contact with the english court.[ ] the younger pierre du moulin likewise remained with his pupil richard boyle when at oxford.[ ] [header: french grammars printed at oxford] among tutors who spent a short time at oxford, and then joined the larger and more successful group of language teachers in london, was john florio,[ ] well known as a writer of books for teaching italian, and himself of italian parentage, though born in london. in about he became tutor for french and italian to emmanuel, son of richard barnes, bishop of durham, and to several other oxford students. he was, we are told, a "very useful man in his profession." shortly after, he removed to london, where he enjoyed favour at court. of more importance, however, is the group of private tutors who settled at oxford, found a clientèle among the university students, and frequently wrote and published french grammars for the use of their pupils. there was evidently some demand for instruction in french at oxford early in the sixteenth century. the bookseller john donne enters a book called _frans and englis_ twice in the register of books he sold in ;[ ] this may have been either caxton's book in french and english, or the similar collection of dialogues printed by pynson and wynkyn de worde in turn. the first book for teaching french printed at oxford was due to a frenchman called pierre morlet, a native of auteuil, who taught french at oxford in the last decade of the sixteenth century. his _janitrix sive institutio ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem acquirendum_ was issued from the press of joseph barnes in .[ ] the dedication, dated from broadgates hall the th of march of the same year, is addressed to morlet's former pupil, sir robert beal. this rare little treatise contains a few observations on the pronunciation of the letters, followed by a concise treatment of each part of speech in turn. it is preceded by a number of commendatory verses in latin and greek, tributes from morlet's pupils, students of the various colleges. morlet had previously prepared a revised edition of jean garnier's french grammar, which was published at jena in ,[ ] no doubt before his coming to england. as might be expected, most of the early oxford french grammars, written for the use of oxonians, differ from those published at london in that they are composed in latin. they differ further in containing no practical exercises and restricting their contents to rules of grammar. all the french grammars published at oxford were not due to frenchmen. in a spanish refugee, antonio de corro, resident at christ church, after acting as minister of the spanish church in london, had anticipated morlet by adding a few rules on french pronunciation and accidence to his spanish grammar,[ ] written in his own language. this was subsequently translated into english in by j. thorius, also of christ church, and printed in london as _the spanish grammer with certaine rules teaching both the spanish and french tongues_. several grammars were likewise produced by englishmen resident at oxford, and teaching the french language. among others was john sanford, or sandford, chaplain of magdalen college, and the author of the french grammar which succeeded morlet's. sanford wrote in latin, and entitled his work _le guichet françois, sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam gallicam_. it was published by joseph barnes in ,[ ] and dedicated to dr. bond, president of magdalen. sanford compiled his observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various french grammars published in both france and england; he drew largely on morlet, as well as bellot and holyband; and made equally free with de bèze, pillot, and ramus. he varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in french. in he was teaching french to that "hopefull young gentleman mr. william grey, son to the rt. honourable arthur lord grey of wilton," and found "good contentement" in his "happy progresse therein." called away temporarily by other duties, sanford made an english translation of the latin work, which he addressed to his young charge "as a pledge of my duteous love towards your good deserts, and as my substitute to supplie my absence, being willing also for your sake to make a publicke use therof." the _janicula_ appeared in its new form, much abridged as well as translated, in , under the title of _a briefe extract of the former latin grammar_.[ ] it is significant that although this english translation was printed by barnes at oxford, it was mainly intended for a london public, and was "to be sold in paules church yard at the signe of the crowne by simon waterson." [header: saltonstall and leighton] sanford retained his position at magdalen for some years after the appearance of his grammars. in about he was travelling abroad as chaplain to sir john digby, whose acquaintance he had made when sir john was a student at balliol.[ ] other well-known english teachers of french at oxford were wye saltonstall and henry leighton. wye saltonstall came of a noble family in essex. he was educated at queen's college, oxford, where "his descent and birth being improved by learning, flatter'd him with a kinder fortune than afterwards he enjoyed his life being all _tristia_." he is said to have then gone to gray's inn, holborn, without taking a degree at oxford, and afterwards to have become a perfect master of french, which he had acquired during his travels. in he returned to oxford for purposes of study and converse with learned men. there he taught latin and french, and was still living in good repute in and after.[ ] henry leighton, on the other hand, had not so good a reputation at the university. he is said to have been a man of debauched character, and to have obtained the degree of m.a. in anything but a straightforward manner; when charles i. created more than seventy persons m.a. on the st of november , leighton, who then bore a commission in the king's army, contrived to have the degree conferred on himself by presenting himself at dusk, when the light was very low, though his name was not on the list. when the king's cause declined, leighton, who had received the greater part of his education in france, and was an accomplished french scholar, settled at oxford as a teacher of french, and had a room in st. john's college. apparently he continued to teach french until , the year of his death.[ ] he was the author of a french grammar written in latin, called _linguae gallicae addiscendae regulae_, printed in ,[ ] and again in . beginning with rules for the pronunciation of each letter, the author passes to observations on the articles, nouns, pronouns, and verbs; he then returns to the pronunciation, gives fuller rules for the more difficult sounds, and closes with a list of irregular verbs.[ ] leighton says he published his work at the request of his friends. he dedicated it (in french) to henry o'brien, baron of ibrecken, only son of the earl of thomond, expressing, in words very like those used by holyband on a similar occasion, the hope that this "divertissement," as he calls the grammar, may help to while away time not occupied by more serious and important studies. thus we see that the general attitude towards the study of french was still, in the middle of the seventeenth century, very much what it had been in the preceding century. in the meantime other grammars had appeared from the pens of french sojourners at oxford. one, robert farrear, a teacher of french, wrote a grammar in english for the use of his pupils, _the brief direction to the french tongue_, printed at oxford in . nothing further is known of its author. anthony à wood[ ] informs us that in the title of the book farrear inscribed himself m.a., but "whether he took that degree or was incorporated therein in oxford" he could not discover. the works on french which appeared at oxford were not all formal grammars of the type described. pierre bense, a native of paris, who taught italian and spanish as well as french, was the author of the _analogo-diaphora seu concordantia discrepans et discrepantia concordans trium linguarum gallicae, italicae et hispanicae_, commended by edward leigh in his _foelix consortium or a fit conjuncture of religion and learning_ ( ). this comparison of the resemblances and differences in the grammar of the three languages is dedicated to the university of oxford, and was printed at the author's own expense in .[ ] as to bense himself we are told that he was partly bred "in good letters" at paris, and then, coming to england, "he went by letters commendatory to oxon where being kindly received and entertained, became a sojourner there, was entred into the public library, and taught for several years the french, italian and spanish tongues." for the rest we must be content to add with wood: "what other things he hath written i know not, nor any thing else of the author."[ ] [header: gabriel du grÈs] as yet no french grammars had appeared at cambridge, and french teachers do not seem to have made their presence felt there.[ ] in , however, one of the best known of this group of university french tutors arrived at cambridge--gabriel du grès, a native of saumur, and a member of a good family from angers. he arrived in england as a refugee on account of his protestant faith, received a warm welcome at cambridge, and taught french to several of the students in various colleges.[ ] in the fifth year of his residence, the liberality of his pupils enabled him to publish his _breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae compendium in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur_ ( ), a work on the same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of morlet.[ ] it is preceded by latin verses addressed to the author by members of different colleges, and is dedicated to the students of the university, especially those engaged in the study of french. this grammar of du grès appears to be the only work of its kind printed at cambridge before the eighteenth century.[ ] shortly after its publication du grès joined the group of french tutors at oxford,[ ] and this removal points to the more ready openings offered there to those of his profession. when he published his _dialogi gallico-anglico-latini_[ ] at oxford in , he was teaching french in that "most illustrious and famous university." these dialogues are dedicated to charles, prince of wales. twenty-one in number, they deal with the usual familiar topics, greetings and the ordinary civilities, visiting and table talk, the house and its contents, man and the parts of his body, wayfaring, a journey to france, and so forth, many being of much interest on account of the light they throw on the customs of the time. considerable space is devoted to instructions for writing letters. a second edition appeared in , enlarged with "necessary rules for the pronunciation of the french tongue, very profitable unto them that are desirous of it," giving a pseudo-english equivalent of the sound of each french letter, and followed by a few general rules for reading french and a table of the auxiliary and regular verbs. this little book, which has more in common with the productions of the london teachers than with the oxford manuals, enjoyed a greater popularity than those of du grès's rivals. in a third edition appeared, without the additions found in the second. he was also the author of an interesting little work in english on the duke of richelieu,[ ] printed in london in . probably du grès had removed to london at that date; in the second edition of his grammar, printed, like the first, by leonard lichfield at oxford, he describes himself as "late teacher of the same in oxford." in his dialogues du grès gives some account of his ideas on the teaching of french:[ ] commençons à l'abécé. escusez moy. entendez moy, oyez moy, prononcer les lettres. remarquez bien comment je prononce les voyelles, et principalement _u_, car il est bien malaisé a prononcer à vous autres mm. les anglois, comme aussi _e_ entre les consonnes. prononcez apres moy. voilà qui va bien. prononce-je bien? fort bien. essayez encore une fois. ce mechant _u_ me donne bien de la peine. il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre _th_ ou _ch_ nous en donne. il est malaisé d'avoir la proprieté de votre langue. l'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le temps, etc. he agreed with most of the french teachers of the day in attaching much importance to conversational practice and reading. he also recommended a certain amount of memorising and the study of grammar; general rules and rules of syntax he considered indispensable; but for pronunciation he thought practice of more avail than rules. it is possible, he admits, to learn french by rote, without any grammar rules. but it is not the best way in his opinion. without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish good french from bad, nor can he translate, write letters, or read; and reading, thought du grès, was an essential condition if the cultivation of french in england was to be maintained. [header: french at cambridge] those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no longer hear french spoken daily. as for those who promise to teach french in a short time, they are nothing but mountebanks. du grès held that a man of moderate intellect could, with hard work, learn to understand an ordinary french author in three or four months. he had had, he declares, some pupils at cambridge who learnt to read and speak fairly well in four months and others who learnt practically nothing in a whole year. at the end of the seventeenth century the status of french at the universities had undergone no marked change. at the time of the restoration, a certain philemon fabri petitioned williamson for an appointment as professor of french eloquence at oxford, "he having held a similar situation at strasburg"; he supported his request by an address to the king in french verses, entitled _le pater noster des anglais au roi_. apparently fabri did not receive the desired position.[ ] at cambridge we find still less encouragement given to the study of french than at oxford. during the commonwealth, guy le moyne, formerly french tutor to charles i., lived at cambridge, and no doubt continued to teach french there, as he had done in london and at court.[ ] at the restoration he petitioned charles ii. to let him have the fellowship at pembroke hall reserved for frenchmen.[ ] le moyne was then seventy-two years old, and wished, he said, to end his days at cambridge.[ ] at cambridge, as at oxford, there were also french tutors in charge of particular pupils. many of these were french protestants. thus the famous pierre du moulin, arriving in england as a destitute refugee in , was received into the service of the countess of rutland, who sent him to cambridge as tutor to her son. there he remained until , continuing his own studies as well as attending to those of his young charge. he thoroughly disliked his position, and seized the first opportunity of leaving it.[ ] we also hear of herbert palmer, president of queen's college ( - ), who had learnt french almost as soon as he could speak, and could preach in french as well as in english.[ ] he won considerable distinction as a college tutor, but whether he placed his knowledge of french at the service of students, as sanford and leighton did at oxford, is not specified. yet, even at oxford, the efforts of this band of french teachers were not on a large enough scale to have any very noticeable effect. some gentlemen who, like sanford's pupil, william grey, had gone to the university to make themselves "fit for honourable imployments hereafter," took advantage of such opportunities as there were of studying french. thus henry smith, while acting as tutor to mr. clifford, learnt french himself, and wrote to williamson in that language.[ ] and no doubt the french tutors found enough pupils among those who were drawn more towards the fashionable than the scholastic world. but the inability of the young oxford student to speak french when in polite london circles was a subject of comment in the seventeenth century as the language became more and more widely cultivated. to speak french was even considered incompatible with a university education, to judge from this passage in one of farquhar's comedies:[ ] _sir h. wildair._ canst thou danse, child? _bantu._ oui, monsieur. _lady lurewell._ heyday! french too! why, sure, sir, you could never be bred at oxford! to the same intent pepys relates[ ] how an oxford scholar, "in a doctor of lawe's gowne," whom he met at dinner at the spanish ambassador's, sat like a fool for want of french, "though a gentle sort of scholar"; nor could he speak the ambassador's language, but only latin, which he spoke like an englishman. pepys, on the other hand, was very pleased at the display he was able to make of his own french on this occasion. the famous diarist was a competent judge, and spoke and wrote the language with ease. unfortunately we know nothing of how he acquired this knowledge, beyond the fact that he had not been to france.[ ] [header: one-sidedness of university education] he often criticizes the french of those he meets, and a certain dr. pepys, according to him, "spoke the worst french he had ever heard from one who had been beyond sea." pepys's brother spoke french, "very plain and good," and mrs. pepys, the daughter of a refugee huguenot, was as familiar with that language as with english.[ ] thus the universities, like the schools, failed to keep in touch with practical life by their neglect of the broader education necessary to persons of quality and fashion. at the inns of court, where gentlemen usually spent some time on leaving the university,[ ] or where they sometimes went instead of to the university,[ ] the state of things was somewhat better. some knowledge of french was indispensable to those studying the law, and the position of the inns, almost all of them within the boundaries of the ward of farringdon without, the favourite abode of the french teachers, was such as to offer exceptional facilities for the study of the language. when robert ashley was at the inner temple he studied spanish, italian, and dutch, as well as french. we are told[ ] that in earlier times "knights, barons, and the greatest nobility of the kingdom often placed their children in those inns of court, not so much to make the laws their study, much less to live by the profession ... but to form their manners and to preserve them from contagion of vice." there, could be found "a sort of gymnasium or academy fit for persons of their station, where they learn singing and all kinds of music, dancing, and other such accomplishments and diversions ... as are suitable to their quality and such as are usually practiced at court." french was, without doubt, one of these accomplishments. towards the end of the seventeenth century the inns of court were still much in favour, and gentlemen's sons could enjoy there good company and the innocent recreations of the town, as well as improve themselves in the "exercises." clarendon calls the inns of court the suburbs of the court itself. none the less, the gentleman with a university education, even when it was followed by residence at one of the inns of court, was felt to be inadequately equipped. almost invariably he sought on the continent the polite accomplishments and knowledge of languages, which were necessary qualifications for high employment at court, in the army, and elsewhere. travel came to be regarded as "an especial part"[ ] of the education of a gentleman, and as such occupies an important place in the educational treatises of the time. the usual course advised for the sons of gentlemen was an early study of greek and latin, followed by residence at one of the universities and at the inns of court, and, finally, "travel beyond seas for language and experience" and the study of such arts as could not be easily acquired in england. in some cases gentlemen were educated quite independently of the english schools and universities[ ]--at home with private tutors, and in france. lady brilliana harley, for instance, feared that her son would not find much good company at oxford. "i believe," she wrote, "that theare are but feawe nobellmens sonne in oxford, for now, for the most part, they send theaire sonnes into france when they are very yonge, theaire to be breed."[ ] footnotes: [ ] j. heywood, _cambridge statutes_ (sixteenth century), london, , p. . [ ] cooper, _annals of cambridge_, , iii. p. ; mullinger, _history of the university of cambridge_, iii. p. . [ ] printed in peacock's _observations on the statutes of the university of cambridge_, (appendix). [ ] cp. c. wordsworth, _scholae academicae_, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] _letter book of gabriel harvey_ ( - ), camden soc., , pp. - . the tutor of john hall, author of the _horae vacivae_ ( ), testified to his pupil's attainments in french, spanish, and italian literature. mullinger, _history of the university of cambridge_, ii. p. . [ ] one, jean verneuil, became underlibrarian of the bodleian in . cp. schickler, _les Églises du refuge_, i. p. ; foster watson, _religious refugees and english education_, hug. soc. proceedings, ; agnew, _protestant exiles_, i. ch. v. and pp. , , , , ; ii. pp. , , ; smiles, _the huguenots_, ch. xiv. [ ] there were also numerous french protestant students at the university of edinburgh; cp. schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ i. p. . [ ] wood, _fasti oxonienses_ (bliss), ii. . [ ] wood, _athenae oxon._ (bliss), ii. . [ ] oxford historical society: _collectanea_, i., , pp. _sqq._ [ ] vo, pp. . [ ] e. stengel, _chronologisches verzeichnis französischer grammatiken_, oppeln, . [ ] f. madan, _oxford books, - _, - , i. p. ; ii. p. . another spanish grammar, by d'oyly, had appeared at oxford in . [ ] to, leaves. [ ] printed by joseph barnes, to, leaves. [ ] he visited spain, and wrote _an entrance to the spanish tongue_ ( ). while at oxford he had composed _an introduction to the italian tongue_ ( ). cp. wood, _athenae oxon._ (bliss), ii. ; c. plummer, _elizabethan oxford_, ox. hist. soc., , p. xxviii; _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] wood, _athen. oxon._ (bliss), ii. ; foster, _alumni oxon._, ad nom. [ ] wood, _fasti oxon._ (bliss), ii. , ; _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] º, pp. . [ ] in the copy in the cambridge univ. library these are accompanied by a ms. translation into latin. some additional rules in latin are written on the last blank leaf. [ ] _athenae oxon._ (bliss), ii. . [ ] printed by william turner, º, pp. . [ ] _athenae oxon._ (bliss), ii. . [ ] valence, french tutor to the earl of lincoln, had studied at cambridge early in the sixteenth century. [ ] "eandem linguam in celeberrima cantabrigiensi academia docens." [ ] sm. vo, pp. . [ ] cp. r. bowes, _catalogue of books printed at cambridge, - _. [ ] the statement of wood (_athenae oxon._ iii. ), that du grès had studied at oxford before going to cambridge, is probably incorrect. [ ] vo, pp. , printed by leonard lichfield. [ ] _jean arman du plessis, duke of richelieu and peere of france his life_, etc., followed by a translation, "out of the french copie," of _the will and legacies of the cardinall richelieu ... together with certaine instructions which he left the french king. also some remarkable passages that hath happened in france since the death of the said cardinall._ [ ] he charged s. a month for an hour's lesson daily. [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] le moyne also translated _the articles of agreement between the king of france, the parlaiment and parisians. faithfully translated out of the french original copy._ london, . [ ] in the middle ages, pembroke college gave preference to frenchmen in the election of fellows; cp. _supra_, p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] "autobiographie de pierre du moulin," _bulletin de la société de l'histoire du protestantisme français_, vii. pp. _sqq._ [ ] mullinger, _history of the university of cambridge_, , iii. p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., _, p. . evelyn (_diary_, ed. wheatly, , ii. p. ) describes verses written in latin, english, and french by oxford students and added to _newes from the dead_, an account of the restoration to life of one anne green, executed at oxford, . [ ] _sir harry wildair_, act iii. sc. ; cp. mockmode in the same dramatist's _love and a bottle_. [ ] _diary_, th may . [ ] he long looked forward to a journey there--a hope which was not fulfilled until his failing eyesight had compelled him to stop writing his diary. [ ] she spent some time in france, until her father ordered her back to england on account of her leaning towards roman catholicism. many times she expressed a wish to go and live in france. [ ] cp. shakespeare, _ henry iv._ act iii. sc. : "he's at oxford still, is he not? a' must then to the inns a' court shortly." [ ] higford (_institution of a gentleman_, , p. ) blames those of his countrymen who neglect the inns of court. [ ] j. fortescue, _de laudibus legum angliae ... translated into english ... with notes by selden_, new ed., , p. . [ ] higford, _the institution of a gentleman_, , p. . [ ] perlin says of the english in the middle of the sixteenth century, referring no doubt to the nobility: "ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou bien peu aux deux universités, et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux lettres, sinon qu'à toute marchandise et à toute vanité" (_description des royaulmes d'angleterre et d'escosse_, p. ). [ ] _letters_ ( ), camden soc., , p. . nearly half a century later, chancellor clarendon wrote: "i doubt our universities are defective in providing for those exercises and recreations, which are necessary even to nourish and cherish their studies, at least towards that accomplished education which persons of quality are designed to; and it may be want of those ornaments that may prevail with many to send their sons abroad, who since they cannot attain the lighter with the more serious breeding, chuse the former which makes a present shew, leaving the latter to be wrought out at leisure" (_miscellaneous works_, , p. ). chapter vii the study of french by english travellers abroad one of the favourite methods of learning french was a sojourn in france. to speak the language well a visit there was considered imperative, and to speak it "as one who had never been out of england"[ ] was synonymous with speaking it badly. consequently a journey to france was common among the young gentry and nobility of the time. moreover, those who pursued their travels further, and undertook the grand tour as many gentlemen did on leaving the university, invariably visited france first, and spent the greater part of their time there. eighteen months in france, nine or ten in italy, five in germany and the low countries, was considered a suitable division of a three years' tour. most young englishmen of family and fortune spent some time on the continent. sir francis walsingham, said by one of his contemporaries to have been the most accomplished linguist of his day,[ ] had acquired his proficiency abroad, as had also lord burghley, who wrote to walsingham from france in to report on his progress in the language.[ ] both ministers in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in france. a certain charles danvers wrote to walsingham from paris, in french, to show his progress and thank him for his favours.[ ] and burghley gave one andrew bussy a monthly allowance of £ to enable him to study french at orleans, where, according to his own account, he took great pains to make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his return.[ ] it was generally held that travel was "useful to useful men,"[ ] and that "peregrination" well used was "a very profitable school, a running academy."[ ] many young english gentlemen went to the french court in the train of an ambassador,[ ] or with a private tutor;[ ] henry viii. sent his natural son, the duke of richmond, palsgrave's pupil, to the french court, in the care of lord surrey the poet. richard carew, the friend of camden, was sent to france with sir henry nevill, ambassador to henri iv., and bacon visited paris in his early youth in the suite of the diplomat lord poulet. the last-mentioned ambassador had several young englishmen in his charge. of few, however, could he make so favourable a report as he did of the son of sir george speake: "i am not unacquainted with your son's doings in parris," he wrote to sir george, "and cannot comend him inoughe unto you aswell for his dilligence in study as for his honest and quiett behaviour." one of these young travellers, a mr. throckmorton, he was particularly glad to be rid of; the young man "got the french tongue in good perfection," we are informed, but he was of flippant humour, and before he left for england, poulet told him his mind freely, and forbade him to travel to italy, as he intended to do later, without the company of "an honest and wyse man." the ambassador had kept him and his man in food during the whole of his stay in paris, and, besides, provided him with a horse, which he had also "kept att his chardges."[ ] children too were often sent abroad for education. thomas morrice, in his _apology for schoolmasters_ ( ), commends "the ancient and laudable custom of sending children abroad when they can understand latin perfectly"; for then they learn the romance languages all the more easily, "because the italian, french and spanish borrow very many words of the said latin, albeit they do chip, chop and change divers letters and syllables therein." [header: english gentry at the french court] and thomas peacham[ ] tells us in the early seventeenth century that as soon as a child shows any wildness or unruliness, he is sent either to the court to act as a page or to france, and sometimes to italy. the number of english children in france was, we may assume, considerable; and when the news of the terrible massacre of st. bartholomew reached england, one of its most noticeable effects was to fill with concern and apprehension all parents who had children in france. "how fearfull and carefull the mothers and parents that be here be of such yong gentlemen as be there, you may easely ges," wrote elizabeth's secretary of state to sir francis walsingham, the english ambassador at paris.[ ] among these "yong gentlemen" was sir philip sidney, then newly arrived at the french court, whom walsingham himself sheltered in the ambassador's quarters during that awful night. james basset, the son of lord lisle, deputy at calais for henry viii., was sent to paris in the autumn of to complete his education, after having been for some time in the charge of a tutor in england. there he went to school with a french priest, whom he soon left for the college of navarre. he appears to have attended the college daily, and boarded with one guillaume le gras, who, in june , wrote to lady lisle that her son would soon be able to speak french better than english. "i think when he goes to see you," writes the frenchman to her ladyship who did not understand french, "he will need an interpreter to speak to you." james himself wrote to tell his mother how he was progressing "at the large and beautiful college of navarre, with pierre du val his master and preceptor."[ ] the following letter[ ] giving details on the course pursued by a young english gentleman studying french in paris may no doubt be taken as fairly typical. "in the forenoone ... two hours he spends in french, one in reading, the other in rendryng to his teacher some part of a latin author by word of mouth.... in the afternoon ... he retires himself into his chamber, and there employs two other hours in reading over some latin author; which done, he translates some little part of it into french, leaving his faults to be corrected the morrow following by his teacher. after supper we take a brief survey of all.... m. ballendine [apparently the teacher] hath commended unto us paulus aemilius in french, who writeth the history of the country. his counsell we mean to follow." girls also were occasionally sent to france for purposes of education. two of james basset's young sisters, anne and mary, spent some time in that country. to prevent their hindering each other's progress, anne was committed to the care of a m. and mme. de ryon, at pont de remy, while mary was sent to abbeville to a m. and mme. de bours. both girls wrote letters in french to their mother, lady lisle, and it appears that they had almost forgotten their mother tongue. when anne returned to england, where she became maid of honour to jane seymour, she had to apologize to her mother for not being able to write in english, "for surely where your ladyship doth think that i can write english, in very deed i cannot, but that little that i can write is french,"[ ] and mary wrote to her sister philippa in french expressing her wish to spend an hour with her every day in order to teach her to speak french. in france the two sisters acquired, besides french, the usual accomplishments befitting their sex--needlework, and playing on the lute and virginals.[ ] the traveller fynes moryson did not unreservedly approve of the custom of sending children "of unripe yeeres" to france; "howsoever they are more to be excused who send them with discreet tutors to guide them with whose eyes and judgments they may see and observe.... children like parrots soone learne forraigne languages and sooner forget the same, yea, and their mother tongue also." he relates how a familiar friend of his "lately sent his sonne to paris, who, after two yeeres returning home, refused to aske his father's blessing after the manner of england, saying _ce n'est pas la mode de france_."[ ] milton in the same vein deplores the fact that his compatriots have "need of the monsieurs of paris to take their hopeful youth into their slight and prodigal custodies and send them over back again transformed into mimics, apes and kickshows."[ ] [header: english children in france] "my countrymen in england," wrote sir amias poulet from paris in , "would doe god and theire countreye good service if either they woulde provide scolemasters for theire children at home, or else they woulde take better order of their educacion here, where they are infected with all sortes [of] pollucions bothe ghostly and bodylie and find manie willinge scolemasters to teache theme to be badd subiects."[ ] nor were such sentiments confined to individual cases. queen elizabeth was constantly making inquiries concerning her subjects beyond the seas generally, often for political reasons or on account of her protestant fears of popery. she found "noe small inconvenience to growe into the realm" by the number of children living abroad "under colour of learning the languages." in she ordered a list of such "children" to be sent to her with the names of their parents or guardians and tutors,[ ] and there were frequent examinations of subjects suspected of desiring to go abroad; in the mayor of chester writes to burghley to know what he is to do with two boys, aged fifteen and seventeen, who have been brought before him on suspicion of intending to travel into france to learn the language, and thence into spain. the objections raised against the journey to france were few, however, in comparison with those alleged as regards italy. italy held a place second only to france in the grand tour on the continent, and in the early sixteenth century the first enthusiasm awakened by the renaissance attracted many englishmen there. scholars, such as linacre and colet, set the example. then others, including most literary men of the time, made their way as pilgrims to the centre of the revived learning, passing through france on their way.[ ] soon the journey became largely a matter of fashion. this rapid development of the custom of continental travel was looked upon as a danger in matters political and religious; popish plots were suspected and foreign intrigues of all kinds feared. in elizabeth's time leave "to resort beyond seas for his better increase in learning, and his knowledge of foreign languages"[ ] was not freely granted to any who might apply. lord burghley would often summon before him applicants for licences to travel, and look carefully into their knowledge of their own country,[ ] and if this proved insufficient, would advise them to improve it before attempting to study other countries.[ ] voluble were the protests against foreign travel which were made in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. france and above all italy were made responsible for all the vices of the english. it was urged that trade and state negotiations were the only adequate reasons for travel abroad. "we are moted in an island, because providence intended us to be shut off from other regions," bishop joseph hall affirms, in his _quo vadis: a juste censure of travel as it is commonly undertaken by gentlemen of our own nation_ ( ). so strong were the prejudices of some of these critics that the grandfather of the royalist sir arthur capell wrote--in --a pamphlet containing _reasons against the travellinge of my grandchylde arthur capell into the parts beyond the sea_, in which he draws an alarming picture of the dangers of infection from popery, and seeks to prove that the time could be much better spent at home.[ ] the chronicler harrison went so far as to assert that the custom would prove the ruin of england.[ ] and even the courtly lyly could write: "let not your mindes be carried away with vaine delights, as travailing into farre and straunge countries, wher you shall see more wickednesse then learn virtue and wit."[ ] but it was italy much more than france that excited the fears of these alarmists. there was a common saying at the time that an englishman italianate was a devil incarnate. "i was once in italy myself," wrote roger ascham,[ ] "but i thank god my abode there was but nine dayes"--in which he saw more wickedness than he had beheld during nine years in london. "suffer not thy sons to pass the alpes, for they shall learn nothing there but pride, blasphemy and atheism; [header: protests against foreign travel] and if by travelling they get a few broken languages, that will profit them no more than to have the same meat served in divers dishes," was the advice of lord burghley.[ ] many were the precautions taken to prevent english subjects from travelling to rome of all places. travellers who were suspected of such intentions or who had travelled abroad without permission were rigorously examined. one such traveller confessed that he went to brittany and france to see the countries and learn the language, but swore he had never been to rome or spoken to the papist cardinal allen.[ ] many passports issued for the grand tour stipulated specifically that the traveller should not repair to rome.[ ] george carleton gave expression to the general feeling when he wrote to his brother dudley, afterwards lord dorchester: "i like your going to france much better than if you had gone to italy."[ ] "france is above all most needful for us to mark," was the advice sir philip sidney sent to his brother robert on his travels.[ ] sir john eliot gave similar injunctions to his sons.[ ] france was, he said, a country full of noble instincts and versatile energy; and what his own experience had been, he recommended his sons to profit by. some friend had warned them of possible dangers in france. heed them not, says eliot; any hazard or adventure in france they will find repaid by such advantages of knowledge and experience as observation of the existing troubles there is sure to convey. but he will not allow them even to enter spain; and the italian territories of the church they must avoid as dangerous: "stagnant and deadly are the waters in the region of rome, not clear and flowing for the health-seeking energies of man." he thought, however, that some parts of italy might be visited with profit. to attempt to learn the italian language before some knowledge of french had been acquired, was not discreet. "besides it being less pleasant and more difficult to talk italian first," he writes, "it was leaving the more necessary acquirement to be gained when there was, perchance, less leisure for it. whereas by attaining some perfection in french, and then moving onward, what might be lost in italy of the first acquirement, would be regained in france as their steps turned homeward." not only were fears of roman catholicism and corrupt manners directed more specifically toward italy than france, but the french language was considered a much more necessary acquirement than italian. it was generally agreed that the country most requisite for the english to know was france, "in regard of neighbourhood, of conformity in government in divers things and necessary intelligence of state."[ ]. "french is the most useful of languages--the richest lading of the traveller next to experience--italian and spanish not being so fruitful in learning," remarks francis osborne in his _advice to a son_.[ ] thus the main object of study of the traveller in france was usually the language itself, and next to that the polite accomplishments. those who continued their travels into italy were attracted chiefly by the country and its antiquities. when addison was in france, after a short stay in paris in [ ] he settled for nearly a year at blois to learn the language, living in great seclusion, studying, and seeing no one but his teachers, who would sup with him regularly. in he returned to paris, qualified to converse with boileau and malebranche. but he spent his time in italy very differently, living in fancy with the old latin poets, taking horace as his guide from naples to rome, and virgil on the return journey: there was no question of settling down in a quiet town to study italian. the experience of lord herbert of cherbury at the end of the sixteenth century and of evelyn in the middle of the seventeenth was of a similar nature. though travellers continued to include italy in their tour, the feeling in favour of france became stronger and stronger. it reached its climax in the latter half of the seventeenth century, when clarendon wrote: "what parts soever we propose to visit, to which our curiosity usually invites us, we can hardly avoid the setting our feet first in france." and he invites travellers, on returning there after visiting italy, to stay in paris a year to "unlearn the dark and affected reservation of italy." [header: the travelling tutor] as for germany, he thinks they have need to remain two years in france that they may entirely forget that they were ever in germany![ ] the sons of gentlemen setting out on the grand tour were usually accompanied by a governor or tutor,[ ] and the need for such a guide was generally recognized by writers on travel; all urge the necessity of his being acquainted with the languages and customs of the countries to be visited. "that young men should travaile under some tutor or grave servant, i allow well: so that he be such a one that hath the language and hath been in the countrey before," wrote bacon. and if any one was not able or did not wish to "be at the charges of keeping a governor abroad" with his son, he was advised[ ] to "join with one or two more to help to bear the charges: or else to send with him one well qualified to carry him over and settle him in one place or other of france, or of other countries, to be there with him or months, leave him there after he hath set him in a good way, and then come home." we also gather from gailhard's _the compleat gentleman_ that it was "a custom with many in england to order travelling to their sons, as emetick wine is by the physician prescribed to the patient, that is when they know not what else to do, and when schools, universities, inns of court, and every other way hath been tried to no purpose: then that nature which could not be tamed in none of these places, is given to be minded by a gouvernor, with many a woe to him."[ ] the suitable age for the grand tour, as distinct from the shorter journey in france, was the subject of much discussion. it was usually undertaken between the ages of sixteen and twenty, and occupied from three to five years. some, and among them locke,[ ] agreed with gailhard in thinking that travel should not come at the end. they argued that languages were more easily learnt at an earlier age, and that children were then less difficult to manage. others, regarding travel as a necessary evil,[ ] held that, at a later age, travellers are less receptive of evil influences and the snares of popery. this was the current opinion. in many cases, especially in later times, the travelling tutor was a frenchman. many englishmen, however, found in this capacity an opportunity for travel which they might not otherwise have had. for example, ben jonson visited paris in as tutor to the son of sir walter raleigh, and became better known there as a reveller than as a poet.[ ] in the same way ben jonson's friend, the poet aurilian townsend, accompanied lord herbert of cherbury on his foreign tour in , and was of much help to him on account of his fluent knowledge of french, italian, and spanish.[ ] the time-serving politician sir john reresby travelled with a mr. leech, a divine and fellow of cambridge.[ ] and the philosopher thomas hobbes spent as travelling tutor in the cavendish family many years which he calls the happiest time of his life. he visited france, germany, and italy. for a time he left the cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of sir gervase clifton, with whom he remained eighteen months in paris. it was while travelling with his pupils that hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of paris.[ ] addison was offered a salary of £ to be tutor to the duke of somerset, who desired him "to be more of a companion than a governor," but did not accept the offer.[ ] in some cases the travelling tutor had several pupils. thus mr. cordell, the friend of sir ralph verney, was tutor to a party of englishmen.[ ] on the other hand, sir philip sidney travelled without a governor. [header: books on travel] at frankfort, in the house of the protestant printer andreas wechel, he began his life-long friendship with the huguenot scholar hubert languet, who, to some degree, supplied his needs. languet, however, expresses his regret that sidney had no governor, and when the young englishman continued his journey into italy they kept up a correspondence, in the course of which languet sent sidney much good advice. at his instigation sidney practised his french and latin by translating some of cicero's letters into french, then from french into english, and finally back into latin again, "by a sort of perpetual motion."[ ] john evelyn the diarist also travelled without a governor, while the eldest son of lord halifax first made the grand tour in the usual fashion, and afterwards returned to his uncle, henry savile, english ambassador at paris, without the "encumbrance" of a governor. savile superintended his nephew's reading, providing him with books on such subjects as political treaties and negotiations, and warning him against "nouvelles" and other "vain _entretiens_."[ ] the practice of travelling abroad called forth many books on the subject, often written by travellers desiring to place their experience at the service of others. such books usually include indications of the routes to be followed and the places to be visited, and sometimes advice as to the best way of studying abroad. some, such as those of coryat, fynes moryson, and purchas,[ ] are descriptions of long journeys. others deal more especially with the method of travel.[ ] a few were written for the particular use of some traveller of high rank; for instance, when the earl of rutland set out on his travels in , his cousin essex sent him letters of advice, which circulated at court, and were published as _profitable instructions for travellers_ in .[ ] further information was supplied in the treatises on polite education.[ ] the subject of travel was thus continually under consideration, and the different books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which deal with this topic are of great interest. robert dallington, the author of an early guide to france,[ ] thought it necessary, seeing the few teachers there were in france, to "set downe a course of learninge." "i will presume to advise him," he says of the traveller to france, "that the most compendious way of attaining the tongue is by booke. i mean for the knowledge, for as for the speaking he shall never attaine it but by continuall practize and conversation: he shall therefore first learne his nownes and verbs by heart, and specially the articles, and their uses, with the two words _sum_ and _habeo_: for in these consist the greatest observation of that part of speech." he also urges the future traveller to engage a frenchman to assist him, chiefly, no doubt, with reading and pronunciation. this "reader," as dallington calls him, "shall not reade any booke of poetrie at first, but some other kinde of stile, and i thinke meetest some moderne comedie. let his lecture consist more in questions and answers, either of the one or the other, then in the reader's continued speech, for this is for the most part idle and fruitlesse: by the other many errors and mistakings either in pronunciation or sense are reformed. after three months he shall quit his lectures, and use his maister only to walk with and discourse, first the one and then the other: for thus shal he observe the right use of the phrase in his reader, heare his owne faults reproved and grow readie and prompt in his owne deliverie, which, with the right straine of the accent, are the two hardest things in language." he should also read much in private, and "to this reading he must adde a continuall talking and exercising of his speech with all sorts of people, with boldnesse and much assurance in himselfe, for i have often observed in others that nothing hath more prejudiced their profiting then their owne diffidence and distrust. [header: a "method of travel"] to this i would have him adde an often writing, either of matter of translation or of his owne invention, where againe is requisite the reader's eye, to censure and correct: for who so cannot write the language he speaks, i count he hath but halfe the language. there, then, are the two onely meanes of obtaining a language, speaking and writing, but the first is the chiefest, and therefore i must advertise the traveller of one thing which in other countries is a great hinderer thereof, namely, the often haunting and frequenting of our own countrimen, whereof he must have a speciall care,[ ] neither to distaste them by a too much retirednesse[ ] nor to hinder himselfe by too much familiaritie." a few years later fynes moryson[ ] offered equally sound advice to the traveller "for language." "goe directly to the best citie for the puritie of language," he tells him, and first "labour to know the grammar rules, that thy selfe mayst know whether thou speaketh right or no. i meane not the curious search of those rules, but at least so much as may make thee able to distinguish numbers, cases, and moodes." moryson thought that by learning by ear alone students probably pronounced better, but, on the other hand, with the help of rules, "they both speake and write pure language, and never so forget it, as they may not with small labour and practice recover it again." the student, he adds, should make a collection of choice phrases, that "hee may speake and write more eloquently, and let him use himselfe not to the translated formes of speech, but to the proper phrases of the tongue." for this purpose he should read many good books, "in which kind, as also for the instruction of his soule, i would commend unto him the holy scriptures, but that among the papists they are not to be had in the vulgar tongue, neither is the reading of them permitted to laymen. therefore to this purpose he shall seeke out the best familiar epistles for his writing, and i thinke no booke better for his discourse then amadis of gaule.... in the third place i advise him to professe pythagoricall silence, and to the end he may learne true pronunciation, not to be attained but by long observation and practice, that he for a time listen to others, before he adventure to speake." he should also avoid his fellow-countrymen, and, having observed these rules, "then let him hier some skilfull man to teach him and to reprove his errors, not passing by any his least omission. and let him not take it ill that any man should laugh at him, for that will more stirre him up to endevour to learne the tongue more perfectly, to which end he must converse with weomen, children and the most talkative people; and he must cast off all clownish bashfulnesse, for no man is borne a master in any art. i say not that he himselfe should rashly speake, for in the beginning he shall easily take ill formes of speaking, and hardly forget them once taken." the learning of french in england before going abroad did not, as a rule, enter into the plan of writers on the subject of travelling. moryson, however, realized that "at the first step the ignorance of language doth much oppresse (the traveller) and hinder the fruite he should reape by his iourney." and bacon went a step further when he wrote that "he that travaileth into a country, before he hath some entrance into the language, goeth to schoole, and not to travaile.... if you will have a young man to put his travaile into a little roome, and in a short time to gather much, this you must doe. first, as was said, he must have some entrance into the language before he goeth. then he must have such a servant, or tutor, as knoweth the country."[ ] later writers usually agree that it would be of benefit to have "something of the french"[ ] before leaving england, "though it were only to understand something of it and be able to ask for necessary things," or to have "some grammatical instruction in the language, as a preparation to speaking it."[ ] and indeed many travellers had some previous knowledge of french. sir philip sidney, for instance, could manage a letter in french when he was at school at shrewsbury; lord herbert of cherbury had studied the language with the help of a dictionary; sir john reresby, at a later date, had learnt french at a private school, though, like many students nowadays, he could not speak the language on his arrival in france. [header: studies previous to travel] several went abroad to "improve" themselves in french, and no doubt the phrase "to learn the french tongue"[ ] often meant to learn to speak it. in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, however, many of those who studied french seriously in england did not go to france. among these were the ladies, to whose skill mulcaster[ ] draws the attention of travellers, as a proof that languages can be learnt as well at home as abroad; and not a few of the younger sons of noblemen,[ ] as well as the prosperous middle class--the frequenters of the french schools in st. paul's churchyard, and the pupils of du ploich and holyband, neither of whom makes any reference to the tour in france. the "common practice" in the sixteenth century among young travellers was to proceed to france knowing no french. they fully expected to learn the language there, with no further exertion than living in the country. they are constantly warned of the futility of such expectations. dallington, fynes moryson, and others lay much emphasis on the necessity of some serious preliminary study of grammar and reading of good literature. french teachers in england compared the poor results obtained in france by these leisurely methods with those achieved by their own efforts in england. no doubt they found the practice of learning french by residence in france a serious rival to their own methods. de la mothe,[ ] for instance, declares he knows english ladies and gentlemen who have never left england and yet speak french incomparably better than others who have been in france three or four years trying to pick up the language by ear, as most travellers do. another french teacher[ ] writes: "i have knowne three gentlemen's sonnes, although i say it that should not say it, who can testify yet, that in their return from france (after they had remained foure yeares at paris, spending a great deal of money) perused my rules but six moneths and did confesse they reaped more good language in that short space i taught them then in all the time they spent in france. and sundry others i have helped who never saw france, and yet could talke, read and write better language in one yeare than those who have bene at paris two yeares, learning but the common phrase of the countrie, shacking off a litle paines to learne the rules." while holding that french could be better learnt in england with rules than in france without any such assistance, the french teachers of london admitted that the language could perhaps be best learnt in france, but only with the help of a good teacher and serious study, as in england. however, there were hardly any language teachers in france, according to them, while in england it was easy to find many good ones. dallington more specifically bewails the fact that the traveller finds a "great scarcitie" of such tutors, and directs him to a certain m. denison, a canon of st. croix in orleans, after whom he may inquire, "except his good acquaintance or good fortune bring him to better." there was indeed little provision for the serious study of french in france before the end of the sixteenth century. most travellers, we are told, "observed only for their owne use." few frenchmen took up the teaching of their own language to foreigners as a profession, and those who taught from time to time or merely upon occasion rarely proved successful. yet the earliest grammars produced in france were intended largely for the use of foreigners. special attention is paid to points which usually offered difficulty to foreigners, such as the pronunciation and its divergencies from the orthography.[ ] sylvius or du bois, writing in latin,[ ] remarks that his principles may serve the english, the italians and spaniards, in short, all foreigners; no doubt those he had chiefly in mind were the numbers of english and other foreign students at the university of paris. [header: language teachers in france] when the earliest grammar written in french appeared, its author, louis meigret,[ ] sought to justify his use of the vernacular by suggesting that foreign students should first learn to understand french by speaking and reading good french literature, instead of depending on latin for the first stages. he had noticed the peculiarities of the english pronunciation of french, especially the habit of misplacing the accent; "they raise the voice on the syllable _an_ in _angleterre_, while we raise it on the syllable _ter_: so that french as spoken by the english is not easily understood in france." from other grammarians foreigners always received some attention. pillot[ ] and garnier[ ] both wrote in latin with a special view to foreigners; and peletier,[ ] who used french, retains all the etymological consonants, that strangers may find latin helpful in understanding french. not before the end of the sixteenth century, however, do we hear of the first important language teacher in france--charles maupas of blois, a surgeon by profession, who spent most of his life, more than thirty years, teaching french to "many lords and gentlemen of divers nations" who visited his native town. he was "well known to be a famous teacher of the french tongue to many of the english and dutch nobility and gentry." for his english pupils maupas showed particular affection.[ ] and from them he received in turn numerous proofs of friendship. among the englishmen who learnt french under his care was george villiers, duke of buckingham, who, at about the age of eighteen, travelled into france, where "he improved himself[ ] well in the language for one that had so little grammatical foundation, but more in the exercises of that nobility for the space of three years and yet came home in his naturall plight, without affected formes (the ordinary disease of travellers)."[ ] maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's attainments in the french language, and some years later he gratefully dedicated to the duke his french grammar, first issued publicly in . maupas's _grammaire françoise contenant reigles tres certaines et adresse tres asseurée a la naïve connoissance et pur usage de nostre langue. en faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux_, was first privately printed in .[ ] he had not originally intended it for publication. the work grew out of the notes and observations he compiled in order to overcome his pupils' difficulties. as these rules increased in number and importance, many students began to make extracts from them; others made copies of the whole, a "great and wearisome labour." finally, maupas, touched by this keenness, resolved to have a large number of copies printed. he distributed these among his pupils and their friends, till, contrary to his expectation, he found he had none left. it was then that the first public edition was issued at lyons in , and was followed by six others, which were not always authorized. a latin edition also appeared in . maupas insists on the necessity of employing a tutor. "let them come to me," he says, addressing foreigners desirous of learning french, "if it is convenient."[ ] to learn the language by ear and use alone is impossible. the small outlay required to engage a teacher saves much time and labour. as to the grammar, it should be read again and again, and in time all difficulties will disappear; it will be of great use even to those already advanced in french. he undertook to teach and interpret the grammar in french itself, without having recourse to the international language latin, the usual medium of teaching french to travellers; he tells us that many of his pupils were ignorant of latin, and that the practice of interpreting the grammar in french had been adopted by many of his fellow-teachers in other towns. the great advantage of this method was, he thought, that reading and pronunciation are learnt conjointly with grammar, the phrases and style of the language together with its rules and precepts. besides, the student must read some book; and a grammar was, in his opinion, preferable to the little comedies and dialogues usually resorted to for this purpose. he did not, however, forget that some light reading was a greater incentive to the learner, and in practice used both. maupas died in , when a new edition of his grammar was in preparation. his son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had bestowed on his father. apparently the younger charles maupas continued to teach his father's clientèle for some time. [header: charles maupas of blois] in he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter. we are told vaguely that this comedy, entitled _les desguisez: comedie françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par charles maupas a bloys_, was the work of one of the _beaux esprits_ of the period.[ ] maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where to procure more. he was induced to have it printed on seeing the great labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it for their own use. for the benefit of students who had no tutor, he added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words. maupas's _grammaire et syntaxe françoise_ is still looked on with respect.[ ] the reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no relations with the court, then the supreme arbiter in matters of language. but the grammar passed into oblivion in the course of time, as more modern manuals took its place. maupas's hope that it would be used by foreign students of french as long as the language was held in esteem was not to be fulfilled. his grammar was superseded by that of antoine oudin--_grammaire françoise rapportée au langage du temps_, paris, . oudin's original intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. but as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes, besides much confusion, repetition, and pedantry. he felt no compunction in telling the reader that he had enormously improved all he had borrowed from maupas--although he is careful to note that he has no intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his opinion on several points. he had a great advantage over maupas in having spent all his life in close connexion with the court; his father, césar, had been interpreter to the french king, and antoine succeeded him in that office. he also appears to have had continual relations with foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them "very considerable benefits." his grammar was certainly much used by foreign students, although it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a popularity in england as that of maupas. oudin's _curiositez françoises_ ( ) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.[ ] _l'eschole françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de l'oraison_ (paris, ), by jean baptiste du val, avocat en parlement at paris and french tutor to marie de medicis, was also intended partly for the use of foreigners. he seeks to console foreign students coping with the difficulties of french pronunciation and orthography, by assuring them that though the french themselves may be able to speak correctly, they cannot prescribe rules on this score. as for his grammar, the student will learn more from it in two hours than from any other in two weeks. he also takes up a supercilious attitude, natural in one who exercised his profession in the precincts of the court, towards anything that resembled a provincial accent; better no teacher at all than one with a provincial accent. among other grammars of similar purport is that of masset in french and latin, _exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue françoyse, mis en latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers_ ( );[ ] and to the same category belongs also the _praecepta gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem necessaria tum suevissima tum facillima_ ( ), by philippe garnier, who, after teaching french for many years in germany, settled down at orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.[ ] another work widely used by travellers, and well known in england, was the _nouvelle et parfaite grammaire françoise_ ( ) of laurent chiflet, the zealous jesuit and missionary, which continued to be reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the highest reputation among foreign students of french. [header: french grammars for travellers] the swiss muralt relates how he and a friend were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the palais, the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying, "ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils demandent? donnez leur la grammaire de chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur faut."[ ] chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. in the first place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading a short passage every day with a french master, and the verbs most commonly in use committed to memory. then the other parts of speech and the rules of syntax should be studied briefly; but care should be taken not to neglect reading, and to practise writing french, in order to become familiar with the orthography. one of his chief recommendations is to avoid learning isolated words; words should always be presented in sentence form, which is a means of learning their construction and of acquiring a good vocabulary at the same time. the rest of the method consists in translating from latin or some other language into french, and in conversing with a tutor who should correct bad grammar or pronunciation. when once a fair knowledge of french is acquired, it should be strengthened by reading and reflecting upon some good book every day. such reading is the shortest way of learning the language perfectly. excellence and fluency in speaking may be attained by repeating or reciting aloud the substance of what has been read.[ ] the acquisition of the french language was not the only ambition of the english gentleman abroad. his aim was also to acquire those polite accomplishments in which the french excelled--dancing, fencing, riding, and so on. for this purpose he either frequented one of the "courtly" academies or engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it was felt, served as a kind of language master.[ ] we are indebted to dallington[ ] for an account of the cost of such a course abroad. "money," he says, "is the soule of travell. if he travel without a servant £ sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: if he maintain both these charges, he can be allowed no less than £ : and to allow above £ were superfluous and to his hurt. the ordinary rate of his expense is gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his dancing, no less his reading, and crowns monthly his riding except in the heat of the year. the remainder of his £ , i allow him for apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other extraordinary expenses." some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other of the french universities. john palsgrave and john eliote, the two best known english teachers of french in the sixteenth century, had both followed this course. palsgrave was a graduate of paris, and john eliote, after spending three years at the college of montague in paris, taught for a year in the collège des africains at orleans. the religious question had much influence in determining the plan of study in france. the university towns of rheims and douay were the special resorts of english catholics.[ ] on the suppression of the religious houses in england and the persecution of the english roman catholics, english seminaries arose at paris, louvain, cambrai, st. omer, arras, and other centres in france. english roman catholics flocked to the french universities and colleges, and there is in existence a long list of english students who matriculated at the university of douay. on the other hand, the schools,[ ] colleges,[ ] and academies[ ] founded by the huguenots offered many attractions to protestant england. the colleges had much in common with the modern french lycée, and the chief subjects taught were the classical languages. they did not take boarders, with the exception of that at metz, and the students lived _en pension_ with families in the town. the same is true of the academies, institutions of university standing. they were eight in number, and situated at nîmes, montpellier, saumur, montauban, die, sedan, orthez (in the principality of béarn[ ]), and geneva. some englishmen and many scotchmen[ ] held positions in the protestant colleges and academies. [header: british students at french universities] many english protestants, during their enforced sojourn on the continent during the reign of mary, took advantage of their exile to study at one or other of the protestant academies, as well as to perfect their knowledge of french. a great number flocked to geneva, including the protestant author michael cope, who frequently preached in french.[ ] of the colleges, that of nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners. montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was protestant. among the academies in france, saumur, montauban,[ ] and sedan were much frequented by english travellers. saumur in particular quickly attained to celebrity; its rapid growth may be partly accounted for by the fact that duplessis mornay, governor of the town in , naturally became a zealous patron of the academy. three years after its foundation the number of foreign students was considerable, and throughout the seventeenth century students from england, scotland, holland, and switzerland thronged to the town. the academy at geneva likewise was very popular.[ ] though not french, it was largely attended by french students, who had some influence in raising the standard of the french spoken in the town, which was rather unsatisfactory in the sixteenth century. it greatly improved in the following century, and when the revocation of the edict of nantes ( ), which dealt the death-blow to the french protestant foundations, drove many students to geneva, their influence in all directions was still more strongly felt. some years before, in , the regents were enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne jurent ou diabloyent," but in poulain de la barre, a doctor of the sorbonne, could say that "à geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de france."[ ] the protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of arts and theology. at geneva[ ] there were lectures in law, theology, philosophy, philology, and literature; the teaching was chiefly in latin, but sometimes in french. at the end of the sixteenth century a riding school, known as the _manège de la courature_, on the same lines as the polite academies of france, was started. the instruction given at geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies. nîmes and montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[ ] of the many englishmen who went to geneva, as to other protestant centres, not all attended lectures at the academies. some went merely to learn french, "the exercises and assurance of behaviour," as the general belief in england was that they did so with less danger in the towns tempered by a calvinistic atmosphere. among the englishmen who visited geneva in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century we find the names of henry withers, roger manners, fifth earl of rutland, robert devereux, third earl of essex, the son of elizabeth's unfortunate favourite, and others. thomas bodley, the celebrated founder of the oxford library, followed all the courses at the university in . it was considered a great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors; anthony bacon, the elder brother of the great bacon, had the good fortune to be received into the house of de bèze. casaubon likewise received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town with a special recommendation to him. these included the young henry wotton, then on the long tour on the continent, during which he acquired the remarkable knowledge of languages which qualified him for the position of ambassador which he subsequently occupied. in wotton wrote to lord zouch: "here i am placed to my great contentment in the house of mr. isaac casaubon, a person of sober condition among the french." the learned professor soon became very fond of wotton, so far as to allow him to get into debt for his board and lodging, and the young man left geneva without paying his debts, leaving casaubon to face his numerous creditors in the town. casaubon was in despair; but fortunately the episode ended satisfactorily, for wotton lived up to his character, and paid his debts in full as soon as he was able.[ ] [header: the affected traveller] when later casaubon was at paris ( - ) and his fame was widespread, most travellers and scholars passing through the city seized any opportunity of visiting him. coryat relates his visit to the great humanist as the experience he enjoyed above all others. lord herbert of cherbury was also among the english travellers received by casaubon into his house at this period. "and now coming to court," writes lord herbert, "i obtained licence to go beyond sea, taking with me for my companion mr. aurilian townsend ... and a man to wait in my chamber, who spoke french, two lacqueys and three horses.... coming now to paris through the recommendation of the lord ambassador i was received to the house of that incomparable scholar isaac casaubon, by whose learned conversation i much benefited myself. sometimes also i went to the court of the french king henry iv., who, upon information of me in the garden of the tuileries, received me with much courtesy, embracing me in his arms, and holding me some while there."[ ] by the side of the serious traveller we are introduced to the frivolous type, travelling merely as a matter of fashion. these "idle travellers," as they were called, were the cause of most of the objections raised against the journey to france and the longer tour on the continent--apart from questions of religion and politics. few such travellers "scaped bewitching passing over seas."[ ] when lord herbert of cherbury arrived in paris he remarked on the great number of englishmen thronging about the ambassador's mansion. they had, most of them, studied the language and fashions in some quiet provincial town, such as orleans or blois, and returned to paris full of affectations. herbert draws a picture[ ] of one such "true accomplish'd cavalere": now what he speaks are complimental speeches that never go off, but below the breeches of him he doth salute, while he doth wring and with some strange french words which he doth string, windeth about the arms, the legs and sides, most serpent like, of any man that bides his indirect approach. many travellers did not follow moryson's advice "to lay aside the spoone and forke of italy, the affected gestures of france, and all strange apparrell" on their return to england. their affectation of foreign languages and customs proved disagreeable to many of their countrymen. the frenchified traveller and his untravelled imitators were known as _beaux_ or _mounsiers_. nash speaks of the "dapper mounsieur pages of the court," and shakespeare of the young gallants who charm the ladies with a french song and a fiddle, and fill the court with quarrels, talks, and tailors.[ ] when the english nobles and gentlemen who had held official appointments at tournai returned to england, after lingering some time at the french court, the chronicler hall[ ] declares they were "all french in eating, drinking, yea in french vices and brages, so that all estates of england were by them laughed at." the english _beau_ thought it his duty to despise english ways, fashions, and speech, and to ape and dote upon all things french:[ ] he struts about in cloak of fashion french. his girdle, purse, and sword are french; his hat is french; his nether limbs are cased in french costume. his shoes are french. in short from top to toe he stands the frenchman. above all, he loves to display his "sorry french" and chide his french valet in public, and if he speak though but three little words in french, he swells and plumes himself on his proficiency. and when his french fails him, as it soon does, he coins words for himself which he utters with "widely gaping mouth, and sound acute, thinking to make the accent french": with accent french he speaks the latin tongue, with accent french the tongue of lombardy, to spanish words he gives an accent french, german he speaks with the same accent french, all but the french itself. the french he speaks with accent british. thus the _beau_ cannot be ranked among the genuine students of french. would you believe when you this monsieur see that his whole body should speak french, not he? asks ben jonson.[ ] [header: "french-italianate" gentlemen] we have a picture, in glapthorne's _the ladies' privilege_, of a travelled gallant who undertakes to teach french to a young gentleman desiring thereby to be "for ever engallanted." they confer on rudiments; "your french," says the gallant, "is a thing easily gotten, and when you have it, as hard to shake off, runnes in your blood, as 'twere your mother language." until you have enough of the language to sprinkle your english with it, answer with a shrug, or a nod, or any foreign grimace.[ ] the author of the _treatyse of a galaunt_ bemoans the fact that "englysshe men sholde be so blynde" as to adopt the "marde gere" of the french.[ ] many were the outbursts of patriotic indignation roused by the affectation of the newly returned travellers, who "brought home a few smattering terms, flattering garbes, apish cringes, foppish fancies, foolish guises and disguises and vanities of neighbour nations."[ ] in the sixteenth century france was not exclusively responsible for the fopperies of the english _beau_, who might often be described as "french italianate."[ ] he spoke his own language with shame and lisping.[ ] nothing "will down but french, italian and spanish."[ ] "farewell, monsieur traveller," says rosalind to jacques, "look you lisp, and wear strange suits; disable all the benefits of your own country; be out of love with your nativity, and almost chide god for making you that countenance you are."[ ] the affected _beau_ will "wring his face round about as a man would stirre up a mustard pot and talke english through the teeth."[ ] he sprinkles his talk with overseas scraps. "he that cometh lately out of france will talke french-english, and never blush at the matter, and another chops in with english italianated."[ ] and what profit has he from the journey on which he has gathered such evil fruit? nothing but words, and in this he exceeds his mother's parrot at home, in that he can speak more and understands what he says.[ ] and this is often no more than to be able to call the king his lord "with two or three french, italian, spanish or such like terms."[ ] his attire, like his tongue, speaks french and italian.[ ] he censures england's language and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than confess beer a good drink. in time the _beau_ forgot what little he had learnt of italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as the _english monsieur_, or the _gentleman à la mode_. there were two very different attitudes towards the journey to france, as there were two types of traveller, the serious and the flippant. the prejudiced and insular-minded asked with nash:[ ] "what is there in france to be learned more than in england, but falsehood in fellowship, perfect slovenry, to love no man but for my pleasure, to swear _ah par la mort dieu_ when a man's hands are scabbed. but for the idle traveller (i mean not for the soldier), i have known some that have continued there by the space of half a dozen years, and when they come home, they have hid a little weerish lean face under a broad hat, kept a terrible coil in the dust in the street in their long cloaks of gray paper, and spoke english strangely. nought else have they profited by their travel, save learned to distinguish the true bordeaux grape and know a cup of neat gascoigne wine from wine of orleans." the opposite view is expressed in the message george herbert sent to his brother at paris:[ ] "you live in a brave nation, where except you wink, you cannot but see many brave examples. bee covetous then of all good which you see in frenchmen whether it be in knowledge or in fashion, or in words; play the good marchant in transporting french commodities to your own country." footnotes: [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ vol. xvi. no. . [ ] sir rt. naunton, _fragmenta regalia_, , p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom.: add., - _, p. . [ ] _ibid._ p. . a certain charles doyley wrote in similar terms from rouen. [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] _purchas pilgrimes_, . [ ] howell, _epistolae ho-elianae_. [ ] as did sir james melville (_memoirs_, bannatyne club, , p. ), "to learn to play upon the lut, and to writ frenche," at the age of fourteen. similarly, barnaby fitzpatrick, edward vi.'s youthful favourite and proxy for correction, was sent to paris to study fashions and manners (nichols, _literary remains_, p. lxx). [ ] the practice was also very common in scotland, especially when the reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as schoolmasters. gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to france in the care of what they considered suitable tutors. the assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved. see young, _histoire de l'enseignement en Écosse_, p. . [ ] _copy book of sir amias poulet's letters_, roxburghe club, , pp. , . [ ] _the compleat gentleman_ ( ), , p. . [ ] ellis, _original letters_, rd series, iii. . [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ vol. viii. ; vol. ix. ; vol. xii. pt. i. , etc. [ ] dated . ellis, _original letters_, nd series, iii. . [ ] green, _letters of royal and illustrious ladies of great britain_, london, , ii. pp. _et seq._ [ ] _letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._ vol. xiii. pt. i. . [ ] _itinerary_, , pt. iii. bk. i. p. . [ ] _of education._ to master samuel hartlib. [ ] _copy book_, p. . [ ] _state papers, dom., - _, p. ; and _ - _, p. . in a list of some english subjects residing abroad was sent to the queen (_ibid., addenda, - _, p. .) [ ] greene left an account of his impressions of france and italy in his _never too late_ (works, ed. grosart, viii. pp. _sqq._). [ ] frequently the wording in passports (_cal. state papers_). [ ] there were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country. "what is it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home?" asks higford. see also penton, _new instructions to the guardian_, ; and f. b. b. d., _education with respect to grammar schools and universities_, . [ ] ellis, _original letters_ ( rd series, iv. p. ), publishes one of the licences which had to be obtained. [ ] reprinted by lady t. lewis, _lives from the pictures in the clarendon galleries_, , i. p. . [ ] _description of britaine_, , lib. . ch. iv. [ ] _euphues_, ed. arber, , p. . [ ] _scholemaster_, ed. arber, , p. . mulcaster was also eloquent on the evil result of travel (_positions_, ). [ ] _instructions for youth ..._, by sir w. raleigh, etc., london, , p. . [ ] who founded the english seminary at douay. [ ] see entries in _cal. of state papers_. [ ] march , (_cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. ). [ ] _correspondence with hubert languet_, , p. . [ ] letter dated september , (j. forster, _sir john eliot, a biography_, london, , i. pp. , ). [ ] j. howell, _instructions for forreine travel_, (ed. arber, ), p. . [ ] , p. . [ ] spence's _anecdotes_, , p. ; _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _a dialogue concerning education_, in _miscellaneous works_, london, , pp. _et seq._ [ ] cp. entries of passports, in the _cal. state papers_. the necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the traveller was himself ignorant of languages (_the gentleman's companion, by a person of quality_, , p. ). [ ] gailhard, _the compleat gentleman_, , p. . [ ] gailhard, _op. cit._ pp. , . a gentleman, he thinks, should be sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course. [ ] _some thoughts on education_, . [ ] walker, _of education, especially of young gentlemen_, , th ed. [ ] _notes on ben jonson's conversations with william drummond of hawthornden_ ( ), shakespeare soc., , pp. , . [ ] _autobiography_, ed. sir sidney lee ( nd ed., ), p. . [ ] _memoirs of sir john reresby_, ed. j. j. cartwright, , p. . [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] addison was well acquainted with french literature and criticism. he frequently quotes boileau, racine, corneille, and also bouhours and lebossu. his _tragedy of cato_ is closely modelled on the french pattern. see a. beljame, _le public et les hommes de lettres en angleterre au e siècle_, , p. . [ ] _memoirs of the verney family_, , iii. p. . [ ] _the correspondence of philip sidney and hubert languet_, ed. w. a. bradly (boston, ), p. . [ ] _savile correspondence_, camden soc., , pp. , . o. walker, in his _of education_, differs from other writers in proposing that young gentlemen should travel without a governor. [ ] in the same category may be placed the _traveiles of jerome turler_, a native of saxony, whose work was translated into english in the year of its appearance ( ). it was specially intended for the use of students. [ ] t. palmer, _essay on the means of making our travels into forran countries more profitable and honourable_, ; t. overbury, _observations in his travels_, (france and the low countries). william bourne's _treasure for travellers_ (london, ) has no bearing on travel from the language point of view. of special interest are dallington's _method for travell, shewed by taking the view of france as it stoode in the yeare of our lorde _, london ( ?), and his _view of france_, london, . other works are _a direction for english travellers_, licensed for printing in (arber, _stationers' register_, iv. ); neal's _direction to travel_, ; bacon's _essay on travel_, ; howell's _instructions for forreine travel_, . [ ] the versatile master of the ceremonies to charles i., sir balthazar gerbier, wrote his _subsidium peregrinantibus or an assistance to a traveller in his convers with-- . hollanders. . germans. . venetians. . italians. . spaniards. . french_ ( ), in the first place as a _vade mecum_ for a princely traveller, the unfortunate duke of monmouth. it claimed to give directions for travel, "after the latest mode." cp. also _a direction for travailers taken by sir j. s._ (sir john stradling) _out of_ (the _epistola de peregrinatione italica of_) _j. lipsius, etc._, london. . [ ] list in watt's _bibliographia britannia_, (heading _education_); and in _cambridge history of english literature_, ix. ch. xv. (bibliography). [ ] _method for travell_, , and _view of france_, . [ ] the constant warnings against mixing with englishmen abroad show how numerous the latter must have been. "he that beyond seas frequents his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand--language," wrote francis osborne in his _advice to a son_ ( ). [ ] as did lord lincoln, who "sees no english, rails at england, and admires france." [ ] _itinerary_, . [ ] bacon, _essay on travel_, . [ ] gailhard, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] s. penton. _new instructions to the guardian_, , p. . [ ] cp. entries of passports to france in the _calendar of state papers_. [ ] _positions_, . [ ] it appears from a deleted note in the ms. of defoe's _compleat english gentleman_ that travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons (ed. k. bülbring, london, ). [ ] _french alphabet_, : "car la plus part de ceux qui vont en france apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de temps. au contraire ceux qui apprennent en angleterre, s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en bref. d'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le françois qu'on apprend en france par routine. car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. ceux qui apprennent du vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme j'ay dict) que les autres." [ ] wodroeph, _spared houres of a souldier_, . [ ] livet, _la grammaire française et les grammairiens au e siècle_, , p. . [ ] _in linguam gallicam isagoge_, . [ ] _le traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise_, , ; cp. livet, _op. cit._ pp. _sqq._ [ ] _gallicae linguae institutio latino sermone conscripta_ ( , , , , etc.). [ ] _institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae_ ( , , , ). [ ] _dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres_, . [ ] "j'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation angloise que de nul aultre." [ ] villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of french. from the age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors. [ ] _reliquiae wottonianae_, london, , p. . [ ] º, pp. . [ ] "etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre, employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin, que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin, viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre." [ ] it differs from _les desguisez_, a comedy written by godard in . [ ] e. winkler, "la doctrine grammaticale d'après maupas et oudin," in _beihefte zur zeitschrift für romanische philologie_, heft , . [ ] towards the end of his career, oudin was appointed to teach louis xiv. spanish and italian; he was the author of several manuals for teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the german language is included. [ ] printed with nicot's edition of aimar de ranconnet's _thresor de la langue françoyse_, paris, . [ ] garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in french, spanish, italian, and german in . [ ] _lettres sur les anglais et sur les français_ (end of seventeenth century), , p. . [ ] another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was _le vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. par le sieur de palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy._ . [ ] gailhard, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] _method for travell_, . [ ] _records of the english catholics_, i. pp. _et sqq._; f. c. petre, _english colleges and convents established on the continent ..._, norwich, ; g. cardon, _la fondation de l'université de douai_, paris, . [ ] cp. p. _infra_. [ ] cp. account by m. nicolas, in _bulletin de la société de l'histoire du protestantisme français_, iv. pp. _sqq._ and pp. _sqq._ twenty-five such colleges are named. [ ] _bulletin_, i. p. ; ii. pp. , , _sqq._; also articles in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and bourchenin's _Études sur les académies protestantes_. [ ] suppressed as early as . [ ] driven from scotland, in many cases, by james i.'s attempt to introduce the english liturgy into the scottish churches. robert monteith, author of the _histoire des troubles de la grande bretagne_, was professor of philosophy at saumur for four years (_dict. nat. biog._). [ ] he composed in french _a faithful and familiar exposition of ecclesiastes_, geneva, ; cp. _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] cp. nicolas, _histoire de l'ancienne académie de montauban_, montauban, . [ ] there was an early academy at lausanne which emigrated to geneva and assured the latter's success ( ); cp. h. vuilleumier, _l'académie de lausanne_, lausanne, . [ ] _essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la ville de genève_, . quoted by borgeaud, _histoire de l'université de genève_, , p. . [ ] c. borgeaud, _op. cit._ [ ] they were united at nîmes in , and finally suppressed in . [ ] pattison, _isaac casaubon_, oxford, , pp. - , . on the english at geneva, cp. _ibid._ p. . [ ] _autobiography_, ed. sir s. lee ( nd ed., ), p. . [ ] t. scot, _philomythie_, london, . [ ] _satyra_ (addressed to ben jonson), . _poems of lord herbert of cherbury_, ed. j. churton collins, london, . [ ] _henry viii._, act i. sc. . [ ] a. t. thomson, _memoirs of the court of henry viii._, london, , i. p. . [ ] epigram by sir th. more: translated from latin by j. h. marsden, _philomorus_, nd ed., , p. . [ ] _english monsieur: works_, london, , viii. p. . cp. other satires and epigrams of the time: hall, _satires_, lib. iii. satire ; _skialetheia_, , no. ; h. parrot, _laquei_, , no. ; _scourge of villanie_, ed. grosart, , p. . [ ] h. glapthorne, "the ladies' privilege," _plays and poems_, , ii. pp. _sqq._ it was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to "live like a king," "teaching tongues" (t. scot, _philomythie_, ). [ ] ? colophon: "here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt. emprinted at london in the flete st. at the sygne of the sonne by wynkyn de worde." alex. barclay, andrew borde, skelton and others, all satirize the mania for french fashions. every opportunity of getting the latest french fashion was eagerly seized. thus lady lisle, wife of henry viii.'s deputy at calais, constantly sent her friends in england articles of dress "such as the french ladies wear" (_letters and papers of the reign of henry viii._, i. ). moryson says the english are "more light than the lightest french." [ ] purchas, _pilgrimes_, . [ ] sylvester, _lacrymae lacrymarum: works_ (ed. grosart), ii. p. . [ ] sir t. overbury, _characters_, : "the affected traveller." [ ] george pettie, _civile conversation_, (preface to translation of guazzo's work). [ ] _as you like it_, act iv. sc. . [ ] nash, _pierce pennilesse_, quoted by j. j. jusserand, _the english novel in the time of shakespeare_, , p. . [ ] wilson, _arte of rhetorique_ ( ), ed. g. h. mair, , p. . [ ] hall, _quo vadis_, . [ ] humphrey, _the nobles or of nobilitye_, london, . [ ] overbury, _characters_, . [ ] _the unfortunate traveller_ ( ), works, ed. mckerrow, ii. p. . [ ] _letters_ ( ), ed. warner, _epistolary curiosities_, , p. . chapter viii the study of french among merchants and soldiers merchants, always a very important and influential class in england, claim a place by the side of the higher classes as learners of french. they were continually in need of foreign languages, and french was certainly the most useful, and, for those trading with france and the netherlands, quite indispensable. as to their own language, we are told that when english merchants were out of england "it liketh them not, and they do not use it."[ ] those sons of gentlemen and others who wished to engage in trade were usually apprenticed to merchants. for instance, sir william petty (b. ) first went to school where he got a smattering of latin and greek, and, at the age of twelve, was bound apprentice to a sea captain. at fifteen he went to caen in normandy aboard a merchant vessel, and began to trade there with such success that he managed to maintain and educate himself. he learnt french and perfected himself in latin, and had enough greek to serve his turn. thence he travelled to paris and studied anatomy.[ ] sylvester, no doubt, had many opportunities of putting to the test the french he first learnt in saravia's school when later in life he became a merchant adventurer. it appears that many merchants belonged to the class of travellers who picked up the language abroad by mixing with those who spoke it. fynes moryson accuses merchants, women, and children of neglecting any serious study of languages and "rushing into rash practice." "they doe many times," he admits, "pronounce the tongue and speake common speeches more gracefully than others, but they seldome write the tongue well, and alwaies forget it in short time, wanting the practice." the many practical little manuals of conversation which had appeared in the middle ages, and the "litle pages set in print without rules or precepts" which succeeded them, would certainly encourage this "rushing into rash practice"; such, indeed, was their aim. the majority of merchants acquired their french, we may be sure, either by the help of such little handbooks, intended to be learnt by heart, or simply by "ear." dialogues for merchants are provided in almost all french text-books of the time, giving phrases for buying and selling and enquiring the way. barclay describes his grammar ( ) as particularly useful to merchants. there was, moreover, a very popular little book specially intended for that class--_a plaine pathway to the french tongue, very profitable for marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly devided into nineteen chapters_, which appeared first in , and in at least one,[ ] and probably several other editions.[ ] the aim of the book would explain how it has come about that only one copy has survived the wear and tear of the demands made upon it. again james howell dedicated his edition of cotgrave's dictionary ( ) to the nobility and gentry, and to the "merchant adventurers as well english as the worthy company of dutch here resident and others to whom the language is necessary for commerce and foren correspondence." books such as those of holyband and du ploich were written for the use of the middle class, and, no doubt, for merchants also; and a later writer, john wodroeph, describes his collection of common phrases as "more profitable for the merchants than for the loathsome curtier who cannot digest such coarse meats." dutch merchants are mentioned by howell in the dedication of cotgrave's dictionary, and the close relations, existing between england and the netherlands in the time of elizabeth, possibly account for the fact that the netherlanders took some part in instructing the english, chiefly merchants, in the french tongue. it has already been seen how unfavourably the huguenot teachers in england criticized their fellow-teachers of french from the low countries, and we are not surprised to find that the latter contented themselves with teaching the language orally, and avoided the risk of committing their views to paper. [header: french text-books for merchants] in the netherlands, however, no such compunction was felt, and some manuals composed there made their way to england. at an early date one was reprinted in london. holyband, the chief of the group of huguenot teachers, was quickly up in arms against it. "je ne diray rien," he writes in , "d'un nouveau livre venu d'anvers, et dernierement imprimé à londres, à cause que, ne gardant ryme ne raison, soit en son parler, phrase, orthographe, maniere de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat; et cependant qu'il pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti, que si nos chartiers d'orleans, bourges ou de bloys avoyent oui gazouiller l'autheur d'icelluy, ilz le renvoyeroient bailler entre ses geais, apres luy avoir donné cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses échines." let this writer teach his jargon to the flemings, the burgundians, and the people of hainault; it is a true saying that a good burgundian was never a good frenchman. "lesquelles choses considerées," concludes the irate holyband, "i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra point de manger ses glands, ayans trouvé le pur froment." what was this book newly come from antwerp? probably an edition of a very popular collection of phrases and conversations, written originally in french and flemish in the early years of the sixteenth century, by a schoolmaster of antwerp, noel de barlement or barlaiment.[ ] by the middle of the century the work had appeared in four languages. in it was printed at louvain in flemish, french, latin, and spanish, and in it appeared at antwerp in flemish, french, italian, and spanish. in a london printer, edward sutton, received licence to print "a boke intituled italian, frynshe, englesshe and laten,"[ ] and in a "boke intituled frynsche, englysshe and duche" was licensed to john alde.[ ] both of these volumes, we may safely conclude, were adaptations of the flemish handbook, and either may have been the "book from anvers" reviled by holyband. another english edition of the work was issued in , a few years after holyband's attack, by george bishop, who received licence to print a _dictionarie colloques ou dialogues en quattre langues, fflamen, ffrançoys, espaignol et italien_, "with the englishe to be added thereto."[ ] this vocabulary of barlement probably enjoyed considerable popularity in england in its foreign editions also. it was widely used by english merchants and travellers after it had been adapted to their use by the addition of english to its columns; and they would, no doubt, bring copies back with them from the netherlands. the earliest edition in which english has a place was probably that of , entitled _colloques or dialogues avec un dictionaire en six langues, flamen, anglois, alleman, françois, espagnol et italien. tres util a tous marchands ou autres de quelque estat qu'ils soyent, le tout avec grande diligence et labeur corrigé et mis ensemble. a anvers _. by the end of the century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added. there are copies of two further editions of the work issued in england in the first half of the seventeenth century. the first included four languages and appeared in , under the title of _the {english french}{latine dutch} scholemaster or an introduction to teach young gentlemen and merchants to travell or trade. being the only helpe to attaine to those languages_. it was printed for michael sparke, who issued another edition in eight languages in as _new dialogues or colloquies or a little dictionary of eight languages. a booke very necessary for all those that study these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected and made fit for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially those that desire to attain to the use of the tongues._ michael sparke recommends the convenience of this portable little volume: "and if parents use to send their children beyond the sea to learne the language and to gaine the learning of forraine nations, judge what may be said of the benefit of this booke (i had almost said of the necessity of it) which being read doth by daily experience furnish the reader with a full and perfect knowledge of divers tongues." he also tells you "in your eare" that "since the worke has been published in england and the netherlands," not so perfect an edition has appeared. turning to the contents of the little handbook, we are at once struck by the close resemblance between its dialogues and those of the french text-books produced in england--still further evidence of the use of the book in our country. [header: the dialogues of barlement] its contents, which in all the varied forms in which it appeared are fundamentally the same, are divided into two parts. the first consists of four chapters, and opens with table talk very similar to that of the english-french dialogues, especially those of du ploich. there is a passage, for example, in which the schoolboy speaks of his school, found in varying form in several of the early manuals produced in england: peter is that your son? pierre est cela vostre filz? ye it is my sonne. ouy c'est mon filz. it is a goodly child. c'est un bel enfant. god let him alwayes dieu le laisse tousiours prosper in vertue. prosperer en bien. i thanke you cousen. je vous remercie cousin. doth he not goe to schoole? ne va-il point a l'escole? yes, he learneth to speake french. ouy, il apprend a parler françois. doth he? fait-il? it is very well done. c'est tres bien fait. john can you jean sçavez vous bien speake good french? parler françois? not very well, cousen, ne point fort bien, mon cousin, but i learne. mais ie l'apprends. where go you to schoole? ou allez vous a l'escole? in the lombarde street. en la rue de lombarts. have you gone avez vous longuement long to schoole? allé à l'escole? about halfe a yeare. environ un demy an. learn you also to write? apprenez vous aussi a escrire? yea, cousen. ouy, mon cousin. that is well done, c'est bien fait, learne alwayes well. apprenez tousiours. well cousen, if it please god. bien mon cousin, s'il plait a dieu. the second chapter deals with buying and selling; the third with counting, demanding payment of debts, and so on; and the fourth gives specimens of commercial letters and documents. the second part contains an alphabetical vocabulary of common words, followed by directions for reading and speaking french, in the guise of a slight grammar. a few rules for pronunciation and the different parts of speech are accompanied by advice to seek fuller information in other french grammars. then come a few rules for the other languages--italian, spanish, and flemish. so popular was this handbook in england that it was reprinted without much alteration, and no modernization, at the beginning of the nineteenth century: _the dialogues in six languages latin, french, german, spanish, italian, and english_, appeared at shrewsbury in . we are informed that "this book contains common forms of speach, one being a literal translation of the other, and as near as the idiom of the language will bear, so that they correspond almost word for word, and will be found extremely useful for beginners." the second part of the work, although mentioned in the table of contents, is omitted. a similar polyglot manual, which was probably less well known in england, was the _vocabulaire de six langues, latin, françois, espagniol, italien, anglois et aleman_, printed at venice, probably in --an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages (antwerp, , and venice, ) in which english had no place. this handbook passed through several other editions,[ ] and no doubt became fairly well known in england through the intermediary of the numerous italian merchants who came to london, and the english traders and travellers visiting italy; editions which appeared at rouen in and would also be easily obtainable. the dictionary is described as a very useful vocabulary for those who wish to learn without going to school--artisans, women, and especially merchants. the first part consists of a vocabulary, arranged under fifty-five headings, dealing with the usual subjects, beginning with the heavens; the second contains a list of verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns, together with a collection of phrases and idioms. the interesting dialogue of the flemish vocabulary is lacking. in the second half of the sixteenth century there lived at antwerp a language master, gabriel meurier, who counted many english among his pupils. meurier was a native of avesnes in hainault, where he was born in about . but for many years he taught languages--french, spanish, flemish, and italian--at antwerp, which had by this time supplanted bruges as the chief trading centre of the low countries. his pupils were largely merchants, and his first work on the language, the _grammaire françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue_, ,[ ] was dedicated to "messeigneurs et maistres, les gouverneurs et marchans anglois." [header: gabriel meurier] in was issued at antwerp another work specially for the use of the english--_familiare communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the inglishe nation desirous and nedinge the ffrench language_, dedicated to his most honoured lord, john marsh, governor of the english nation, and intended for the use of "marchands, facteurs, apprentifs, and others of the english nation." these dialogues on subjects specially useful to merchants are divided into seventeen chapters, giving familiar talk for the members of the different trades with lists of their merchandise, directions for travellers, the names of different artisans and tradesmen, instructions for collecting debts, receiving money and writing receipts. meurier teaches his pupils the words used daily by merchants at the exchange, and then the degrees of kinship, numbers, coins, the days and feast days, the parts of the body and clothing, food and table talk, and, finally, commercial notes and letters.[ ] another edition of the book was published at rouen in , being intended, in this case, to teach both french and english. the title given to it was _a treatise for to learne to speake frenshe and englishe together with a form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for all marchants that do occupy trade or marchandise_. meurier also composed numerous other books which have no direct bearing on the teaching of french to englishmen. they were almost all written for the use of merchants, whom they sought to instruct in french and flemish, and sometimes in spanish and italian as well. that the english were always in the author's mind is shown by the fact that he sometimes explains pronunciation by comparison with english sounds. he also did important lexicographical work. he prepared french-flemish vocabularies in and , and in his french-flemish dictionary was published at anvers. this dictionary is said to have been one of the sources which helped cotgrave to compile his famous work, and meurier seems to have outdone the later writer in collecting rare and obsolete words.[ ] there were thus many faculties for learning french in the netherlands. francis osborne wrote regarding the study of french abroad:[ ] "for the place i say france, if you have a purse, else some town in the netherlands or flanders, that is wholesome and safe: where the french may be attained with little more difficulty then at paris, neither are the humours of the people so very remote from your owne." thus the netherlanders taught french to the english both in their own country[ ] and in england. the connexion was a long-standing one. caxton had taken his french and english dialogues from a flemish text-book, and in later times, as has been seen, flemish works were published in england, and had some influence on the dialogues of the english manuals of french. the debt, however, was not all on one side. holyband's _french schoolemaister_, for instance, was adapted to the use of flemings and printed at rotterdam in ,[ ] and in was published at the end of the _grammaire flamende et françoise_ (rouen) of jan louis d'arsy. moreover, the grammar of the seventeenth-century french teacher whose popularity equalled that of holyband in the sixteenth century--claude mauger--was published in the low countries at the same time as in england. another link between the teaching of french in the netherlands and in england is found in the book by john wodroeph--an interesting figure among teachers of french. he spent many years in the netherlands, and in his french text-book he adapted what he called his "court and country dialogues" from some french-flemish ones written for the instruction of the court of nassau in the former language. writing of the importance of a knowledge of french, he emphasises its usefulness to the nobility. but, he adds, it is still more profitable to merchants, for, excepting latin, it is the most widely used language in christendom, and, "si j'osoye dire," much more useful. wodroeph was a soldier, and soldiers, like merchants, gave much impetus to the study of french. [header: french in military circles] in barlement's book of dialogues, soldiers are ranked with merchants, travellers, and courtiers as those to whom the knowledge of languages is most necessary: "soit que quelcun face merchandise ou qu'il hante la court, ou qu'il suive la guerre, ou qu'il aille par villes et champs." the wars raging almost incessantly in france and the low countries attracted numbers of englishmen. the army was an opening for younger sons, and so "some to the wars to try their fortunes there." judging from the epigrams and satires of the time, the swaggering gallant home from the wars was a familiar figure in london. this sworded and martial _beau_ is he that salutes each gallant he doth meete with "farewell sweet captaine fond heart _adieu_"; one who hath served long in france, and is returned filthy full of french, and who, at night when leaving the inn, "thinking still he had been sentinell of warlike brill, crys out _que va la? zounds que?_ and stabs the drawer with his syringe straw."[ ] those who were moved by the spirit of adventure and liked the picturesque crowded to the camp of henry iv. of france who counted many admirers in this country. one of these, dudley carleton, afterwards lord dorchester, writes from the king's camp in that he is busy studying french, though "mars leaves little room for mercury." later he perfected his knowledge by studying at paris, and wrote thence to john chamberlain, the letter writer, to tell him how one sir john brooke, with coppinger, a kentish gentleman, "lately come to learn the language," are the "logs in our french school."[ ] unfortunately we have no more details of this little group of englishmen studying french at paris. one of the englishmen who served in normandy in with the troops sent by queen elizabeth to help henry iv. against the league kept a daily journal from the th of august till the th of december following.[ ] this soldier, sir thomas coningsby, a friend of sir philip sidney, acted as muster master to the english detachment, and was in frequent intercourse with henry before rouen. an interesting example of how the army and service abroad offered opportunities for the study of french is found in the memoirs of the verney family. the three younger sons of sir edmund verney ( - ) all became soldiers. tom took service in the army of france, while edmund ( - ), after studying at oxford, joined the army of the states in flanders ( ). when in winter quarters at utrecht, he "made up for his former idleness," and studied for seven or eight hours a day for many months to improve his knowledge of french and latin. his frenchman, he writes to tell his father, is the same that was sir humphry sidenham's; he "warrants i shall speak it perfectly before we draw into the field, and truly, i am confident i shall."[ ] he was reading plutarch's _lives_ in french. edmund was soon after killed in the civil war. his younger brother, harry, was intended from his youth for a soldier, and early sent to paris to study french. there he seems to have spoilt his english without making any very rapid progress in french, for french grammar had a powerful rival in horses and dogs--his chief interest in life. "pleade for me in my behalfe to my father," he implores his eldest brother, "if i have not write in french so well as he expects, but howsoever, i presume a line to testifie some little knowledge in the same, and hope in time to expresse myselfe more radier, as the old proverbe is ... _il fault du temps pour apprendre_." harry verney later took part in the thirty years' war, and was present at the recapture of breda by the prince of orange in .[ ] it was during the thirty years' war also that john wodroeph served in the netherlands. he tells us in that he had been "following the uncertaine warres" for "these seven years past." during this period of service, "by the spared dayes and houres of (his) watch and guarde," he composed a book for teaching french, to which he gave the title of _the spared houres of a souldier in his travells or the true marrowe of the french tongue_. it was printed at dort, near rotterdam, in , and dedicated to the prince of wales, afterwards charles i. wodroeph was a "gentleman," and we gather from the interest he shows in scotland that he hailed from that country. [header: john wodroeph] at both the beginning and the end of his book are several poems of all sorts dedicated to courtiers who had followed james from scotland to england--the duke of lennox, earl ramsey, james, lord of hay, and others. he also addresses the elector palatine and his queen, elizabeth, james i.'s daughter. many other poems, some in french and some in english, are written in honour of the lords of the states-general and of sundry flemish gentlemen. all these give this work, written in the midst of the british army abroad, a strong local colour. in addition, wodroeph wrote poems to celebrate the virtues and learning of numerous scottish and english officers--colonel william brog, colonel robert henderson, captain roger orme, captain edwards, captain drummond, and john monteith, his very kind captain. to many of these and other "sons of gentlemen" wodroeph had taught french, when his military duties permitted, and he mentions captain drummond as being among his most enthusiastic pupils. he also addresses lines to his very good friend john cameron, the scotch theologian and the minister of the french church at bordeaux, one of the many scotchmen who held important scholastic positions in france. these verses must have been written between and , the period when cameron was at bordeaux. later cameron became professor of divinity at saumur and montauban. he spoke french with unusual purity, and also wrote some of his theological treatises in french.[ ] apart from its martial atmosphere, this curious volume has also a strong calvinistic flavour, another indication of wodroeph's scottish sympathies. he wrote many "godly songs" in french, to be sung to various psalm tunes, and even introduced the spirit into his grammar itself. his verbs are "truly formed and constructed after the order of geneva, which retaineth alwaies entirely the true marrow, method and rules of verbs, or any other part of speech, both in their bibles, psalms, and other godly books: forsaking all new corruptions, of poets, and other vaine toyes, threatening to deface the old authority of the orthographie." moreover, a godly gentleman, "maister john douglas, minister of the word of god to the english and scotch troopers within utrecht," persuaded him to undertake the translation into french of sir william alexander's _doomesday_, which at this date embraced four books or "houres," subsequently extended to twelve. _doomesday_, thought wodroeph, would be greatly "liked of in france, yea, even as well as a second du bartas." he was, however, unable to complete his task, "finding the style so excellent and so high, and also somewhat harsh, to agree with french verse, because that our english tongue (and chiefly by this extraordinary poet) can affoorde more sense and matter with ten of its syllables than ever i have been able to construe with twelve or thirteen of the french. therefore i was constrained to leave it off, partly for want of tyme and commoditie, and partly that it was so constrained." the one 'houre' he completed was included in his book, with an apology and the expression of the hope that "any kind french poet would end out the rest, and also help these few rude lines which are translated in haste out of his week and shallow braine." wodroeph wrote french, both verse and prose, with remarkable ease. in addition to the poems already mentioned, there are many others scattered through his works. one of these, "chanson spirituelle de la vie des vertueux hommes," is written to the tune of desportes' song, "o nuit, jalouse nuit, contre moy conjurée." he tells us that whenever possible he used french in correspondence in preference to english. he spoke the language with equal fluency, and assures us that he did so with greater facility than english. he had not acquired this mastery of the language without much study, but by "many cold winter nights sitting at it," and by much practice. he appears to have been fairly widely read in french literature, and shared the admiration felt by many of his countrymen for du bartas and the _quatrains_ of pibrac. thus wodroeph was perfectly conscious of the many difficulties offered by the french language, and censured in strong terms those who pretend to teach it in a short space of time. "i have shamefully heard say a teacher (in my tyme) that he could give rules, that any might read and write and understand the french language in six weeks. o what a weake ground should hee build therein! yea not in sixteene months, hee and his gentle teaching! unlesse he dazell his eyes much, and straine his memory out of her limits." [header: method of study] at an earlier date, holyband had deplored the existence of the many "thornie and inepte bookes" claiming to give a knowledge of the language, and wodroeph, in his turn, shows the small esteem in which he held the many "small wares" by which it is impossible to prove a good speaker. he had seen very many treatises on verbs, "confused (for want of space), confusing those who read them," and so many pamphlets and books making believe "by wordes rather than by effects that the french tongue can be truly learned by the same." no doubt most of these little pamphlets are among the many school-books of which all trace has been lost. there is, however, mention of one, _a shorte method for the declyning of ffrench verbes_, by j. s., licensed in to the printer, richard field.[ ] wodroeph, therefore, earnestly begs the student of french not to fancy he can "spare the marrow of his famous braines" and pick french up by ear alone, as many seek to do. he must, on the contrary, be prepared "to storm the citadel of grammar, and do as the valiant captaine, that is to say, besiege the strongest houldes which commande over the lesser and weaker sort." "loving reader," he writes, "if i could persuade thee to believe what profit the diligent and serious man doth reape learning the true methode of french tongue and what advantage he gaineth above him who thinketh to obtaine the said tongue by the eare only: truly thou wouldest use thine earnest diligence and celeritie perusing these rules." otherwise learners will speak "scurvily, harshly and painfully, that they make the frenches take their sport at them, even as the english do at the welshes ... taking sometyme the male for the female, and the hand for the foote; applying to the woman that which should apply to the man: and to the leg which ought apply to the arme: as _la garçon_, _le femme_, _ma sieur_, and _mon dame_: ... o what language this is in the eares of the frenches! i think truely it should make père coton him selfe to laugh at it, who said in a sermon (the king and queen present), that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares tyme, yea and any man else." verbs are a special difficulty, and there "be many that can never speake true french for lack of knowing their methode. for where it ought to be spoken thus: _il y eut_ or _il y avait un homme là_, some will say _il fut_, _il estoit un homme là_. fine french! and so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and tenses, whereat the frenches take often their sport." thus those who have learnt no grammar "go wallowing in the painefull and muddy mire of confused and backward broyles, doubting and fearing (without any assurance) what words to speak first in framing their phrases." but wodroeph, in spite of the great emphasis he laid on the study of rules, fully recognizes the importance and value of practice. "i do not meene (for all this)," he writes, "to condemne common practice of the tongue by the eare, but do praise both wayes; esteeming (nevertheless) the method of the rules for the better and surer way, as i have certainlie found (and many others), by myne owne experience practicing them bothe." "certes il vous faut parler tousiours," he says, "soit-il ou en bien ou en mal." to make progress "il vous faut frequenter, hanter, accoynter, accoster, discourir, babiller, caquetter, baiser, lecher, parler hardiment et discretement, aymer, rire, gausser, jouer, vous rejouir, et jouir de leurs bonnes faveurs et graces: et principalement ès compagnies honestes: asçavoir, parmi les seigneurs et dames, damoiselles honestes, pudiques matrones, femmes et filles de vertu et d'honneur; captaines et dignes chefs de guerre, là où il y a tousiours quelque chose a esplucher, si c'est de leurs prouesses, entreprises, ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables . . . sans vous esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette." wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience. moreover, a bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of french: "si vous n'estes hardi prompt, diligent, et vigilent, vous n'apprendrez pas la langue françoise par songe . . . mais cela vient par grande peine, diligence et priere a dieu. certes, . . . si un homme estoit marié a une femme françoise . . . il me semble qu'il apprendroit plustost en disant, mme, ou m'amie, permettez moy que ie vous recerche en tout honeur et mariage . . . a celle fin de vous faire ma chere moitié, et fidele espouse: que par ce moyen, ie puisse et avoir vostre alliance et apprendre vostre language, autrement, madame, il me cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps, de peine et de mes moyens." wodroeph's book for teaching french is one of the most comprehensive. he assures the student that it lacks "nothing to make him a perfect frenchman but the birth and delygence though he never read any other." it fills more than five hundred folio pages. [header: "the spared houres of a souldier"] putting his theories into practice, he begins with rules of pronunciation and grammar, "set downe by god's helpe as i have practiced in my time and by the tracke of best authours, which have professed this tongue heretofore." his debt to holyband makes it evident that he ranked the popular sixteenth-century teacher among these. he would have the student pay special attention to three things: first the pronunciation, which, as was usual, he bases on comparison with english sounds; then the genders, learning every noun with its article "to lead to the same in right gender"; and, finally, and most important of all, the verbs, which should be committed to memory. in his grammar he follows the usual order, treating each part of speech in turn. he endeavours to avoid all superfluous rules, fearing the "loathsomeness of the unlearned." the rules occupy about a hundred pages. then follows a most comprehensive collection of practical exercises, intended for all sorts and conditions--courtiers, merchants, and the middle classes, "the learned and the unlearned." the dialogues are accompanied by a verbatim english translation. in the introductory ones the reader is referred to the margin for the pronunciation of the most difficult words, where it is given in english spelling. the "true english phrase" is added in the footnote where necessary. wodroeph was strongly in favour of sacrificing if need be the purity of the english for the sake of rendering the meaning of the french clearer. he did not pretend, he says, to teach his countrymen their "own ornate english." "verbatim, therefore, sometimes must be had, because it is requisite that it should not always be closed up in a phrase, but showed bare, as it fals very often: then (nil thou wilt thou) thou must have a coat to cover it, that is to say his true signification, or else thou must leave it, and run to the dictionarie, and dazle thy eyes there awhile, and be even so wise as thou wast before; for sometymes they are not to be found at all in it, and sometymes it will fall in some tense of some mood which no dictionarie can yield: yea even thousands." the first section of the dialogues, that accompanied by the guides to pronunciation, deals with familiar subjects, more useful than elegant and more profitable for the middle classes and merchants than for the "loathsome courtier." "thou hast in this booke all household stuffe and other pretty necessary words meete for thy dailie use in this tongue. also an introduction to frame all common and ordinarie phrases pertaining to a house: as of victuals, dressing, voyaging through the land. also the partes and cloathing of a man, his body, all in remarkable phrases; whereof i will shew thee vively, yea every member, from the crowne of the head unto the foot." though wodroeph's dialogues are on a much larger scale than usual in french manuals, they treat of much the same topics. he advises the student to read this first set of dialogues several times, as much to get a good foundation of common talk, as to learn the pronunciation by means of the guides provided. they are followed by lists of common phrases to be learnt by heart, "every day one or two, for ordinarie use," and to facilitate an early use of french in conversation, and also by french idioms "very necessary for translations of this tongue into any other." after about sixty pages of this introductory matter we pass to what wodroeph calls "the first booke of familie dialogues, wherein is treated of all kinds of common necessary phrases as well for the use of the fields, labourage and contries, as for all sortes of home affaires for a house"--all accompanied by a verbatim english translation. these dialogues comprise conversations between members of most ranks of society, from a king and queen, ladies and gentlemen, to family scenes, and discussions between various tradesmen and peasants, not forgetting the schoolmaster and his pupil and the military officer and his subordinates; for, whenever occasion arises, wodroeph introduces military talk. this section of the work closes with a list of the proper terms in which to address the higher and lower classes. next come the dialogues taken from _le verger des colloques recréatifs_, offered by a walloon to prince henry of nassau, for his furtherance in the same tongue in his younger years. wodroeph claims to have purified this book, written in "scurvie wallons language." it had already been adapted to the instruction of the english in the italian language, by john florio in his _second frutes_. these dialogues are naturally more of the courtly type, and are concerned with the daily occurrences of the life of a gentleman. they are followed by _the springwell of honour and vertue_, a collection of moral sayings and counsels, "composed both by ancient and moderne philosophers not only for the benefit of the corrupted youth, but also for all folkes, of all qualities, and chiefly for the yong gentilitie." [header: end of wodroeph's career] wodroeph explains how this collection came to have a place in his book: "being once invited to supper of a worthy and virtuous gentleman (one who had showed me much favour for clearing his eldest sone of some doubts of the french tongue), i saw that hee (his owne selfe) did copie some theames out of this same worke ... for to instruct one of his children being (for that present) at the french schoole; i entreated him to lend it me for a tyme, who did it willingly until i had viewed it, and corrected the french and read it all out." the _springwell_ is divided into three bookes: the first deals with the "means of acquiring honour and vertue"; the second with the old subject of the six or, as shakespeare has it, seven ages of man; and the third with the worship of god and our duty to our neighbours. after sundry poems, addressed to english, scottish, and flemish gentlemen, and the translation of sir william alexander's _first hour_, given in both french and english, come directions for writing letters, with thirty-six epistles in french and english, and themes gathered out of french authors for the use of some of his pupils, "before i made them frame any letters: very profitable to begin with and out of the best and purest french." finally we have the usual proverbs, so much in favour at this period, "picked" from those of the learned mathurin cordier, and "sundry other authours and writers." the work closes with "a thankesgiving (of the authour) unto god for his helpe in the finishing of this worke," and the quotation of wodroeph's device--"vers dieu c'est le meilleur." in a second edition of this curious volume appeared in london, under the title of _the marrow of the french tongue_. this edition is said to be "revised and purged of much gross english" which had made its way into the former edition, printed abroad. it is considerably abridged, and lacks the living interest of the dort edition. the actual instructions for the french tongue remain intact, but all the little chatty autobiographical scraps, and observations to the "loving reader," as well as the addresses to officers, which gave such a characteristic personal touch to the earlier edition, are here omitted, and the work is about one hundred and seventy pages shorter. the dedication to charles stuart, now newly crowned charles i., still stands. wodroeph had no doubt returned to england, where he was known to several of the prominent men of the time. in he had mentioned favours received from james, lord of hay, at hampton court, sixteen years before. we may presume that he continued to teach french among the higher classes of society after his return, though there does not appear to be any further trace of him. footnotes: [ ] florio, _first frutes_, . [ ] j. aubrey, _brief lives_ (ed. a. clark, oxford, ), ii. p. . [ ] a fragment of one leaf, the title page, leaving no date; british museum, harl. mss. . [ ] arber, _transcript of the stationers' register_, iii. ; iv. and . [ ] _vocabulaire de nouveau ordonné et derechief recorigé pour aprendre legierement a bien lire, escripre, et parler françoys et flameng_, anvers, (e. stengel, _chronologisches verzeichnis_, p. n.; and michelant, _livre des mestiers_, introduction). [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, i. . [ ] _ibid._ i. . [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, ii. . [ ] cp. ch. beaulieux, "liste de dictionnaires, lexicographes et vocabulaires français antérieurs au thrésor de nicot" ( ), in _mélanges de philologie offerts à ferdinand brunot_, paris, . [ ] cp. e. stengel, "Über einige seltene französische grammatiken," in _mélanges de philologie romane dédiés à carl wahlund_. macon, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] of similar import, no doubt, were the _boke of copyes englesshe, ffrynshe and italion_, licensed to vautrollier in - (_stationers' register_, i. ); and the _bills of lading english, french, italian, dutch_, licensed to master bourne in (_ibid._ iv. ). [ ] h. vaganey, _le vocabulaire français du seizième siècle_, paris, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] _advice to a son_, , p. . [ ] cp. _cal. state papers, dom., - _, pp. , . at a later date a. de la barre, a schoolmaster of leyden, published a _methode ou instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers qui desirent apprendre la manière de composer ou écrire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye prononciation de la langue françoise_, leyden, . in he issued, also at leyden, a book probably intended as reading material for his pupils, and called _les leçons publiques du sieur de la barre, prises sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de ce temps_. [ ] farrer, _la vie et les oeuvres de claude de sainliens_, bibliography. [ ] g. s. rowlands, _the letting of humour's blood in the head-vaine_ ( ). edinburgh, . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. ; _ - _, pp. , . [ ] printed in the _camden miscellany_, vol. i., , pp. _sqq._ [ ] _memoirs of the verney family_, i. . [ ] during the commonwealth there were many english troops in the service of france, and the duke of york, afterwards james ii., spent much of his first exile in serving under turenne. [ ] cp. _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. an englishman, gilbert primrose, was for a time minister at bordeaux (till ), and afterwards of the threadneedle street church, london (_dict. nat. biog._). [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, iv. . part iii stuart times chapter i french at the courts of james i. and charles i.--french studied by the ladies--french players in london--english generally ignored by foreigners the coming of the stuarts strengthened considerably the connexion between france and england. french was widely used at the court of james i. the king himself does not appear to have been well acquainted with other foreign languages than french and latin, both of which he employed freely in conversation[ ] and correspondence.[ ] in one or other of these tongues he conversed with the learned foreigners he loved to gather at his court, such as isaac casaubon[ ] and the famous protestant preacher, pierre du moulin, minister of charenton. the latter has left an account[ ] of the warm welcome he received from the english monarch; he tells us that at meal times he usually stood behind his majesty's chair and conversed with him. james requested du moulin to write an answer to cardinal du perron's pamphlet concerning the power of the pope over monarchs, in which he had been attacked. du moulin complied, and his work was printed at london in as the _declaration du sérénissme roy jacques i_. he also preached in french before james at the chapel royal at greenwich, and received marks of distinction from the university of cambridge, which conferred the degree of d.d. upon him.[ ] an idea of the extent to which french was used in intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners may be gathered from the _finetti philoxenus_, a series of observations by sir john finett, knight and master of the ceremonies to the two first stuart kings of england, touching the reception and precedence, treatment and audience of foreign ambassadors. the french language was making important progress at this time, and latin was rapidly losing ground. james was the last king of england to employ latin in familiar conversation, and this is partly accounted for by his pedantic turn of mind. the spread of the use of french in england was hastened too by its growing popularity all over europe. the flemish mellema, in his flemish-french dictionary of , says french is used everywhere in europe and the east.[ ] to be unacquainted with french was accounted a great deficiency in a gentleman. it was said of the language that _qui langue a jusqu'à rome va_,[ ] and in england the general conviction was that "no nobleman, gentleman, soldier, or man of action in business between nation and nation can well be without it."[ ] james seems to have acquired his knowledge of french chiefly by means of intercourse with the many frenchmen at the scottish court, one of whom, jérôme grelot, was among the young noblemen who shared his studies.[ ] he also read much french literature, however, and later took a great interest in the language studies of his children. they were constantly required to send him letters in french and latin to allow him to judge of their progress. "sir," wrote the princess elizabeth, afterwards queen of bohemia, "l'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre plus longue que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre majesté."[ ] the king's eldest son, henry, made acquaintance with french at a very early age. in , when only seven years old, he addressed a letter in french to the states-general of holland. he calls this epistle "les primices de nostre main,"[ ] and probably received some help in its composition. he also wrote in french to henry iv., who had recommended to him his riding master, m. st. antoine,[ ] and to the dauphin, offering him two _bidets_.[ ] [header: french studies of the stuart family] at this time many of the riding-masters in england were italians, but almost all the dancing-masters were frenchmen.[ ] the young prince, however, had a french master for both these exercises.[ ] one of his language masters was john florio, best known by his translation of montaigne's _essais_, published in , who taught both french and italian and was the author of several books for teaching the latter. florio had spent many of his earlier years at oxford, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century was in london, teaching languages, and well acquainted with many of the chief men of the day. it is uncertain at what date he became tutor to prince henry,[ ] but in he was appointed reader in italian to queen anne, and in the following year "gentleman extraordinary and groom of the privy chamber." his royal pupil was a great lover of pibrac's _quatrains_, popular among teachers of french. the prince wrote to his mother in , sending her a copy of one of the quatrains, and telling her that if she likes he will undertake to learn the whole by heart before the end of the year; and, in reminding his father of a promise to give ecclesiastical preferment to his tutor, mr. adam newton, he quotes one of them as appropriate:[ ] tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire recompenser celui qui t'a soigné en ton enfance et qui t'a enseigné a bien parler et sur tout a bien faire. prince charles, afterwards charles i., seems to have been the most accomplished of james's family in so far as french is concerned. he was able to carry on a conversation in it with his father and the duke john ernest of saxe-weimar when he was thirteen years old.[ ] evidence of his fluency is provided by the well-known episode of his visit to spain to see the infanta. the queen of spain, daughter of henry iv. and sister of henrietta maria, was delighted when the english prince, on his arrival at the spanish court, addressed her in her native idiom. she warned him not to speak to her again without permission, as it was customary to poison all gentlemen suspected of gallantry towards the queen of spain. she managed to obtain leave to speak with charles, however, and had a long conversation with him in her box at the theatre, in the course of which, it is said, she confided to him her desire for his marriage with her sister.[ ] when charles married henrietta she was quite ignorant of english, and his knowledge of french was again put to the test. he was also called upon to employ french with his mother-in-law, marie de medecis, during her stay in england. his letters to her show how accomplished a writer of french he was. he possessed a more elegant style than his french wife, thanks largely to guy le moyne,[ ] who was also french tutor to the duke of buckingham[ ] and other members of the nobility. among the french masters employed in the family of charles i. was peter massonnet, a native of geneva, who attended the princes, charles (ii.) and james (ii.), in the capacity of sub-tutor, writing-master, and french teacher. we have no details as to how he taught them, nor do we know if charles learnt from one or other of the french manuals which had been dedicated to him. massonnet received a salary and pension from charles i., in whose service he remained for thirty-two years, first as french tutor to his children and then, in the time of his adversity, as clerk to the patents, and foreign secretary. during the commonwealth he spent some time at oxford, and was created d.med. on the th of april , being described as second or under tutor to james, duke of york.[ ] at the time of the restoration massonnet was in a very destitute condition. his pension had not been paid during the troubled period of the civil wars and the commonwealth, and to crown all he was outlawed for debt. he had to petition charles ii., his former pupil, several times for the payment of his salary and arrears before his appeal had any real effect. from time to time he received instalments, but in he was still "the saddest object of pity of all the king's servants, and ready to perish."[ ] [header: french tutors at court] in sir robert le grys, groom of the chamber to james i. and charles i.,[ ] offered his services as tutor to prince charles (ii.), then three years old. he undertook to make latin the prince's mother tongue by the age of seven, using an easy method, not "dogging his memory with pedantic rules, after the usual fashion." french was to be the language first studied, and italian and spanish also entered the programme.[ ] what sort of reception these proposals met with is not known, but in may of the same year sir robert was granted the office of captain of the castle of st. mewes for life.[ ] another tutor, named lovell, taught french and latin to two of charles i.'s children during the civil war. he was employed at penhurst by the countess of leicester, to whose care the children had been committed.[ ] ladies were among the most eager lovers of the french language at the court of the early stuarts, and were noted for their proficiency in that tongue. we hear that wealthy ladies go to court, "and there learn to be at charge to teach the paraquetoes french."[ ] not only was he that could not _parlee_ not considered a gentleman, but the ladies had to talk french if they wished to play a part at court. french had entirely supplanted euphuism, the high-flown, bombastic speech which had held sway in polite circles after the appearance of lyly's _euphues_ in . "now a lady at court who speaks no french," wrote th. blount in ,[ ] "is as little regarded as she who did not parley euphuisme" in the earlier days. girls, to be considered well brought up, had to "speak french naturally at fifteen, and be turned to spanish and italian half a year later."[ ] it is improbable that spanish was learnt in any but a few exceptional cases. italian, however, was fairly widely learnt for purposes of reading as we may conclude from the title of a book printed at london in by adam islip--_the necessary, fit and convenient education of a young gentlewoman, italian, french, and english_.[ ] john evelyn's favourite daughter, mary, was as familiarly acquainted with french as with english. her knowledge of italian was limited and characteristic of the general attitude taken up towards that language; she understood it, and was able "to render a laudable account of what she read and observed." his other daughter, susanna, was also a good french scholar, but apparently knew no italian, though she had read most of the greek and roman authors. sir ralph verney, who dissuaded women from deep study, recognised that french was indispensable, and encouraged them to read french romances especially. while italian was sometimes read, french was almost always spoken in polite circles. milton's avowed preference for italian forms a noticeable exception to the general rule, and even he acquired some knowledge of french at an early age.[ ] there were also many more facilities for learning french than there were for italian. it is certain--some of the dialogues of the french text-books prove it--that many ladies picked up a conversational knowledge of the language from their french maids. this was how the young daughters of lord strafford acquired their knowledge, as we see from the following account of their progress which he sent to their grandmother: "nan, i think, speaks french prettily ... the other (arabella) also speaks, but her maid, being of guernsey, her accent is not good."[ ] women, however, had had at all times no small influence on the production of french text-books. one of the first written in england, the _treatyz_ of walter de bibbesworth, was composed in the first place for the use of lady dionysia de mounchensy. [header: ladies study french] the two chief grammars of the early sixteenth century, the _introductorie_ of duwes and the _esclarcissement_ of palsgrave, both owed their origin to royal princesses, and early in the seventeenth century there appeared a grammar written specifically to enable women to "match old holliband" and "_parlee_ out their part" with men--_the french garden for english ladyes and gentlewomen to walke in, or a summer dayes labour_, by peter erondell or arundell, a native of normandy, and one of the group of refugee huguenots, who taught the french language in london. erondell informs us he had long felt the urgent need of such a book in his own teaching experience. "it is to be wondered," he writes, "that among so many which (and some very sufficiently) have written principles concerning our french tongue (making the dialogues of divers kinds), not one hath set forth any respecting or belonging properly to women, except in the french alphabet,[ ] but as good never a whit as never the better; not that i finde faulte with it, but it is so little, as not to contayne scarce a whole page, so that it is to be esteemed almost as nothing. i knowe not where to attribute the cause, unles it be to forgetfulnes in them that have written of it. for seeing that our tongue is called _lingua mulierum_, and that the english ladyes and gentlewomen are studious and of a pregnant spirits, quicke concertes and ingeniositie, as any other country whatsoever, me thinketh it had been a verie worthie and specious subject for a good writer to employ his pen." accordingly erondell undertook "to break the yce first," as he puts it. he opens his _garden_ with some rules of pronunciation in english, "as a gate through the which wee must (and without the which we cannot) enter into our french garden." he acknowledges that he has selected these rules "out of them which have written thereof." many are taken from de la mothe's _french alphabet_, and holyband, as well as bellot, are also reckoned amongst those "which have written best of it." on one point, however, erondell claims to make an observation "never noted before in any book." this had to do with the change in pronunciation of the diphthong _oi_.[ ] "whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce these words _connoistre_ ... as it is written by _oi_ or _oy_; now since fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus, _conètre_." erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number. "he wishes the student to learn by heart" the first two verbs _avoir_ and _estre_, and for the rest to "help him selfe by the treatise that m. holliband made thereof,[ ] as being the best (french and english) that i have yet seen, notwithstanding it is not amisse to make you knowe our persons and the number of our conjugations, which m. bellot, in his _french guide_,[ ] saith to be sixe, and i can number no more." in dealing with grammar, erondell claims to correct a gross error common in england--the use of _de_ for the preposition _from_ before a masculine noun preceded by _le_; "because that in english it is said ... _i come from the country_, so the english students do commonly say, insteade of _je viens du pays_, ... _je viens de le pays_.... but why should i finde faulte in the english students," says erondell, "whereas i my selfe have heard the french teachers (i mean of our language) commit commonly that error?" erondell's grammar rules occupy but ten pages. they contain a few observations on the gender and number of nouns, on verbs, notes on _du_, _au_, _de la_, _a la_, _en_, _y_, and on the negative and degrees of comparison. he considers that the rules usually contained in french text-books are too many. except for a few indispensable rules, "without the which our language can never be intelligiblie spoken," the rest are "rather a trouble and discouragement to the student then any furtherance." he compiled his book "for them of judgement and capacity only, which may far sooner attaine to the perfect knowledge of our tongue, by reason of cutting off those over-many rules, wherein the student was overmuch entangled." his first idea, indeed, had been to make a set of dialogues for women without any rules, but he realised that to do this would have been like building a "house without a doore"; "and so, the gate being wider open, they may walke in who will." gentlemen also may find some "flowers" to please them, and the garden is an "arbour for the child": who with the busie mother now and then may prattle of each point, in phrases milde the witty boies, of bookes of sport and play, the pretty lasses of their worke all day. the dialogues, thirteen in number, and all of considerable length, form the main part of the work. as usual they are in french and english, and, in addition, the pronunciation of the more difficult french words is given in english spelling in the margin. [header: peter erondell] they deal with the events in the daily life of a lady, from her rising in the morning till bed-time. the first portrays the lady, who is of a rather pedantic turn of mind, rising and dressing. the second introduces her two daughters and their french governess. there is much talk on the education of children, and we are spectators of the french tutor's (erondell) arrival and of the french lesson, which forms the fourth dialogue. each of the two girls in turn reads in french and then translates. the more advanced is given some english to translate into french, and the beginner is asked to conjugate certain french verbs. this is how the lesson opens: sister charlotte i pray you goe, ma soeur charlotte, je vous prie fetch our bookes, bring our allez querir nos livres, apportez french garden, and all our nostre jardin francois, et tous other bookes: nos aultres livres: now in the name of god let us begin. or ça commençons au nom de dieu. mistres fleurimond read first: mlle. f. lisez premierement: speake somewhat louder parlez un peu plus haut to th' end i may heare afin que j'oye if you pronounce well: si vous prononcez bien: say that worde againe. dites ce mot la derechef. wherefore do you sounde pourquoy prononcez vous that s? cette s la? doe you not knowe that it must be ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut left? well, it is well said, laisser? et bien, c'est bien dit, read with more facilitie, lisez avec plus de facilité, without taking such paines. sans tant vous peiner. construe me that, what is that? traduisez moy cela, qu'est cela? do you understand that? tell me entendez vous cela? dites m'en the signification in english--truly la signification en anglois--certes sir i cannot tell it, mons. je ne le scauroye dire, i understand it not, je ne l'entend point, i beseech you tell it me, je vous supplie de me le dire, and i will remember it against et je le retiendray pour une another time--give me your paper autre fois--baillez moy vostre and i will write it, to th' end papier et ie l'escripray, afin you forget it not ... etc. que vous ne l'oubliez. . . . at the end of her lesson, florimond has to point out her younger sister's mistakes; for, says erondell, "in teaching others, one learns oneself." his rule for learning to read was, "observe your rules and read as you do in english"--a method which explains his system of guides to pronunciation. from the dialogues the student passes to the reading of french literature. the girls' french tutor came between seven and eight in the morning, the dancing-master at nine, the singing-master at ten, and another music-master at four in the afternoon. in the following dialogues the lady visits first the nursery, and next her sons and their tutors. she is then pictured receiving guests, going out shopping, presiding at the dinner-table,[ ] and taking part in the conversation. finally, in the evening, the company take a walk by the thames, and the thirteenth and last dialogue "treateth of going to bed, prayers (including the creed), and night-clothes." in order to give students an introduction to french verse as well as prose, erondell adds to his book the story of the centurion in the new testament put into french verse by himself. he does not provide any english translation, and considers that the pupil who has progressed so far in the study of the language can very well do without it. for the same reason he here omits, as he does in the last dialogue also, the guides to pronunciation. for a time erondell had been tutor in the barkley family, and dedicated the _garden_ to the lady elizabeth barkley, with an expression of his gratitude for the many favours he had received from her. the verses on the centurion are dedicated to thomas norton, of norwood, whom he calls his "très intime et très honoré amy." as was usual at this time, erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems, including lines by william herbert, author of _cadwallader_, and by nicholas breton. there is also a sonnet by the "sieur de mont chrestien, gentilhomme françois," possibly the famous antoine de montchrétien, who in about was forced to leave france on account of a duel, and visited both england and holland. erondell appears to have been many years in england before he produced his _garden_. at this date he had a large clientèle, including "many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and worship." in about he engaged an assistant to help him, one john fabre, a frenchman, "born in the precinct of guyand, a town of turnon"; in fabre was still "professeing the teaching of the french tongue with mr. peter arundell."[ ] in addition to compiling the _french garden_, erondelle prepared four new editions of holyband's _french schoolemaister_. although they are said to be "newly corrected and emended by p. erondell," he made no noticeable changes. the first of these editions appeared in , and the others in , , and . this last date is the latest at which we hear of him. [header: erondell's works] the earliest notice we have of erondell is found in , when he published a _declaration and catholic exhortation to all christian princes to succour the church of god and realme of france_,[ ] faithfully translated out of french, and printed side by side with the original--another of the many similar pamphlets in french and english. he had thus been in england at least twenty years when his book for teaching french was published, and its tardy appearance led one of his admirers to ask: swift erondell, why hast thou been so slowe whose nature is to bring the summer in? in earlier years erondell had no doubt made use of holyband's works; he evinces a high esteem for the sixteenth-century teacher, and shows intimate acquaintance with his _schoolemaister_ and his _treatise on verbs_. it is an interesting fact that until the middle of the seventeenth century and probably much later holyband's sixteenth-century french was still being taught in england; as late as the _french schoolemaister_ was among the books advertised for sale by thomas passenger at the sign of the three bibles on london bridge.[ ] the great changes taking place in the evolution of the french language reached england but slowly. erondell translated another french work into english.[ ] one day richard hakluyt, the geographer, brought him the whole volume of the navigations of the french nation to the west indies to translate. from this erondell selected the _nova francia, or the description of that part of new france, which is one continent with virginia, described in the three late voyages ... made by m. de monto, m. du pont grave, and m. de poutrincourt, into the countries called by the french men la cadre, lying to the southwest of cape breton ..._, which was published in and dedicated to the "bright starre of the north, henry, prince of great britaine." the arrival of the french queen of england, henrietta maria, in , gave further stimulus to the already strong french influence at the court. when she came she knew no english, and for many years after her arrival waywardly refused to study the language. her numerous suite of french ladies and gentlemen, including mme. georges, the duc and duchesse de chevreuse, and père sancy, shared her ignorance, as indeed did practically all foreigners. the english court was thus called upon to exercise its french to the uttermost. the small french colony in london managed to make itself very unpopular, not only with the king but also with the whole court. their ignorance of english and english ways caused them to commit blunders which prejudiced people against them. such was the case when henrietta and her suite strolled, chattering and making a great noise, through an assembly of english people listening to a sermon. the preacher asked if he must stop, but no notice was taken, and soon the whole retinue returned in the same fashion, evidently not understanding a word of what was going on.[ ] within a year of their arrival, however, most of the french attendants were dismissed. four years after the arrival of the french queen, who had a passion for the theatre, a french company arrived in london and acted before an english audience.[ ] they first played a farce at blackfriars on the th of november, but did not meet with much success, being "hissed, hooted, and pipinpelted." this hostile reception was partly due to the fact that women[ ] took part in the acting--a thing hitherto unknown in england--and partly because the play was a "lascivious and unchaste comedye," and the company was formed of "certain vagrant french players who had beene expelled from their owne country." no wonder that they gave "just offence to all vertuous and well disposed persons in the town." yet the french actors were not discouraged. they waited a fortnight, and then obtained a licence to play at the red bull. this second attempt does not appear to have been more successful than the first. after some three weeks had elapsed, however, the company decided to make a last effort. this time they acted at the fortune, but with so little success, that the master of the revels refunded them half his fee "in respect of their ill-fortune." the failure of the venture was due largely to its novelty, and the popular dislike of the french. [header: french players in london] though we are told that there was a "great resort" to the french plays,[ ] apparently people went more for the sake of rioting than for the pleasure of hearing the french plays. the stormy reception of did not, however, hinder other french actors from coming to our country. in a new company arrived, this time under the special patronage of the queen.[ ] they first played before her majesty, who recommended them to the king. through his influence they were allowed the use of the cockpit theatre in whitehall. there, on the th of february, they presented a french comedy called _mélise_--either corneille's _mélite_, or more probably du rocher's comic pastoral, _la mélize, ou les princes reconnus_.[ ] the king, queen, and court were present. the acting met with approval and the players received £ . there was no repetition of the riotous behaviour which had characterised the performances of , probably because there were no women in the company, and also because the players were specially patronised by the court and the aristocracy. a few days after the king gave orders to the master of the revels, sir henry herbert, brother of lord herbert of cherbury, that the french company should be allowed to act at drury lane theatre on the two sermon days of each week during lent, and through the whole of passion week, when they would avoid rivalry with beeston's english players, who did not perform on those days. sir henry herbert, himself a good french scholar, tells us he "did all these courtesies to the french gratis," wishing to render the queen his mistress an acceptable service. the french actors now enjoyed increasing popularity. when, at the end of lent, they had to relinquish the cockpit, drury lane, to the english players, their services were still in demand. on easter monday they acted before the court in a play called _le trompeur puny_, no doubt the tragi-comedy of that name by georges de scudéry.[ ] their success was even greater than on the occasion of the court performance of _mélise_, and on the th of april following, they presented _alcimedor_,[ ] under the same circumstances, and "with good approbation." these three plays acted at the court are the only part of their repertoire that is named in the record of the master of the revels. on the th of may they received £ for three plays acted at the cockpit, probably that in whitehall, where they first acted _mélise_ before the court, nearly four months earlier, and not the cockpit, drury lane, where they had played during lent. the question now arose of providing the french players with a special theatre of their own. arrangements were made for converting part of the riding school in drury lane into a play-house, and on the th of april the king signified to sir henry herbert his royal pleasure that "the french comedians should erect a stage, scaffolds and seats, and all other accommodations." on the th of may following a warrant was granted to josias d'aunay and hurfries de lau (so sir herbert spells their names)[ ] and others, empowering them to act at the new theatre "during pleasure." how long the french company, whose director was josias floridor, continued to act in london is not known. but it is a striking fact that in there was a regular french theatre established in the city, and its presence must have had considerable effect. the french company under floridor again appeared before the court, in december ; we do not know what they played, beyond the fact that it was a tragedy. on the twenty-first of the same month, the pastoral of _florimène_ was acted in french at whitehall by the french ladies who attended the queen. the king, the queen, prince charles, and the elector palatine, were present, and the performance was a great success. the queen did not persist in her obstinate refusal to learn english. when she had been in the country about seven years, she began to study the language seriously. mr. wingate was her tutor, and her love of the theatre was put to practical use by the performance of long masques and pastorals in english in which she took part. it is not surprising that henrietta maria was ignorant of english, for our language was practically unknown in france in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. [header: english ignored on the continent] italian and spanish were the fashionable modern foreign languages in france. english was either entirely ignored or regarded as barbarous, and since french was widely spoken at the english court, and latin was used by scholars, the need for it was not felt.[ ] no foreign ambassador ever knew english. of the frenchmen who visited england,[ ] only a few learnt the language. chief among these were the french teachers, the pioneers among frenchmen in the study of the english tongue. of individuals, the sieur de la hoquette, man of letters and traveller, is said to have visited england to see bacon, and learnt english in order to read the chancellor's works in the original. he discussed bacon's works and english novels with j. bignon, and was surprised to find that scholar acquainted with them. jean doujat also knew english, as did la mothe le vayer, who married a scotchwoman, and also perhaps regnier desmarais, who draws a few comparisons with it in his grammar.[ ] but these were isolated exceptions. among the languages in which panurge addresses pantagruel on their first meeting, english has a place, but is hardly recognisable in its scottish dress.[ ] and the maréchal de villars relates in his memoirs[ ] that the duc de la ferté, "quand il avait un peu bu," would break out in english to the great astonishment and amusement of all who were present. there is a tradition that corneille kept a copy of the english translation of the _cid_, which he showed to his friends as a curiosity. yet the general ignorance of english outside england did not discourage english actors from making professional tours abroad. they seem to have enjoyed considerable popularity in germany and the low countries,[ ] where they played at first in english. no doubt dancing, mimicry, and music had much to do with their success, and the clown probably took advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time. however, the actors soon learnt some german by mixing with german actors. a band of english acrobats had performed at paris in . some years later, in , a troupe of english comedians hired the hôtel de bourgogne,[ ] the only theatre in paris, from the _confrérie de la passion_, who usually played there. the english actors, at whose head was one jehan sehais, got into trouble for playing outside the hôtel, contrary to the privileges of the _confrérie_, and had to pay an indemnity. how much these actors made use of their language for attracting an audience is not certain. at a somewhat later date, another company played at fontainebleau before henry iv. and his son, afterwards louis xiii. the "wild dramas" acted by the english players seem to have made a great impression on the young prince, who afterwards would amuse himself by dressing as a comedian and crying in a very loud voice, "toph, toph, milord!" pacing about with great strides in the fashion of the english actors.[ ] but it is highly probable that these few words were all the english the future king of france could muster. like the language, english literature was generally ignored in france. those men of letters who wrote latin--more, camden, selden, etc.--were known under their latin names. in the early years of the seventeenth century, however,[ ] the french began to take an interest in english literature, and a few translations of prose works appeared, though english poetry and drama remained unnoticed. the first french version of an english work was that of bishop hall's _characters of vertues and vices_ which appeared in , and again in and , and may have had some influence on la bruyère's _caractères_. [header: neglect of english] it is also interesting to note that this enterprising translator was no other than j. l'oiseau de tourval, parisien, who wrote so enthusiastically of cotgrave's dictionary, which appeared in the following year ( ).[ ] in the course of the next twenty years about a score of other translations saw the light, including versions of greene's _pandosta_ ( ), of sidney's _arcadia_, and of bacon's _essays_. the translation of the _arcadia_ was the subject of a violent literary quarrel. two versions came out at the same time, and both claimed priority. one was due to j. baudouin, who had lived two years in england learning the language. he was also responsible for the translation of bacon.[ ] his rival was one mlle. chappelain. "english is a language that will do you good in england, but past dover it is worth nothing," wrote john florio the language teacher, in his _first frutes_ ( ). and more than half a century later english was still despised in foreign countries. while french was of use "in all furthest parts of europe," english still served "but in the brittaine lland,"[ ] and even there did not receive due homage. english, we are told by an indignant upholder of the claims of our language,[ ] was left for him who drives the plough; all the scholars, all the courtiers you passed in the street, were good scholars in foreign tongues; many of them chatted french as glibly as parrots, but could not write a single english line without a solecism. but in the meantime the study of english had had its advocates.[ ] richard mulcaster has already been mentioned as the first englishman who emphatically urged that english should be studied as thoroughly as foreign languages. "what reason is it," he asked, "to be acquainted abrode and a stranger at home? to know foreign things by rule, and our own but by rote? if all other men had been so affected, to make much of the foren and set light by their own, we should never by comparing have discerned the better. they proined their own speche, both to please themselves and to set us on edge." this was in . scholars took up the defence of the claims of english against french, just as they did the claims of latin. camden seeks to prove that english contains as many greek words as french,[ ] and so is as worthy of respect. and osborne, in his _advice to a son_, tells the young diplomat to employ an interpreter in his dealings with these foreigners who refused to recognize the value of english, "it being too much an honouring of their tongue, and undervaluing of your owne, to propose yourself a master therein, especially since they scorn to learn yours." there were, however, a few facilities for learning english at the disposal of foreigners, in addition to residence in england. the marriage of charles i. with henrietta maria had been hailed both in france and england by books which taught the languages of the two countries conjointly, and so strengthened the new bond between them. in england appeared a new edition of du bartas, in french and english, for teaching "an englishman french, or a frenchman english." wodroeph's _marrow of the french tongue_ ( ), which saw the light at the same time, was said to be "aussi utile pour le françois d'apprendre l'anglois que pour l'anglois d'apprendre le françois," though only the dialogues in french and english could serve this purpose, as, indeed, they might in any other french text-book.[ ] this notice is evidently added merely as a concession to topical events; it had not figured in the earlier edition ( ). in france, on the other hand, was published a work in which english was treated more seriously. this was a _grammaire angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. qui peut aussi aider aux anglois pour apprendre la langue françoise: alphabet anglois contenant la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons_, dedicated to henrietta maria, and probably arranged by one of the professors of the collège de navarre, from which it is dated. we are informed that the princess, and those intending to accompany her to her new home, studied english daily. these lessons, if they were really given, were no doubt a matter of form, and we may judge from the results that they were not taken seriously. [header: english grammars] this grammar issued in was not original; it had appeared at rouen in ,[ ] and before that date there had been several other editions. the edition was enlarged and corrected by a certain e. a., who, for about ten years previously, had spent much of his time translating french pamphlets on topical events and similar works from french into english.[ ] e. a., who was probably the original compiler of the work, dedicated it to queen elizabeth. he says he had collected the material from different authors in the leisure time allowed him by his studies. in its contents the work resembles the usual french manuals produced in england. it opens with rules for the pronunciation of english, followed by grammar rules for the same language, all given in french and english. then come the dialogues, taken textually and without acknowledgement from holyband's _french littleton_, and one dialogue specially for courtiers, which may have been original.[ ] the book closes with the vocabulary of holyband's _french schoolemaister_. the grammatical part of the work is also taken from one of the productions of the french teachers in england--the _maistre d'escole anglais_ ( ), written by jacques bellot for teaching english to foreigners in england and dedicated to a member of the royal family of france. bellot protests against the general neglect of the english language, rich enough in his opinion to rank with the most famous living tongues. he claims to be the first to draw up precepts for teaching it. there is little exaggeration in bellot's claim, for hardly any works on english had as yet been written, and these were chiefly treatises on the orthography, more scholastic than pedagogic in intention.[ ] at the close of the year in which bellot's work was published, however, appeared the first work on english by an englishman, designed to give instruction to foreigners as well as his own countrymen. this was william bullocker's _booke at large for the amendment of orthographie for english speech_, to which was added "a ruled grammar ... for the same speech to no small commoditie of the english nation, not only to come to easie, speedie and perfect use of our owne language, but also to their easie and speedie and readie entrance into the secrets of other languages, and easie and speedie pathway to all strangers, to use our language, heretofore very hard unto them." two years later came mulcaster's _elementarie_, urging the claims of the vernacular, and expounding his method for teaching it. other grammars followed, some in latin, some in english,[ ] but in hardly any of them is any attention paid to foreigners--a striking contrast with those published in france, in which foreigners were always an important consideration. in , however, appeared sherwood's english-french dictionary, of which, it is said, the french were "great buyers." towards the middle of the seventeenth century foreigners received more and more attention in such books, as english became better known. simon daines's _orthoepia anglicana_,[ ] for instance, intended for the use of both natives and foreigners, was published in , as was also _the english grammar made by ben jonson for the benefit of all strangers out of his observation of the english language now spoken and in use_.[ ] ben jonson had made a collection of grammars, and he speaks of a most ancient work written in the saxon tongue and character. "the profit of grammar is great to strangers, who have to live in communication and commerce with us," he wrote, "and it is honourable to ourselves." in another work of like aim was issued under one of the usual florid titles affected at that time: _the english primrose far surpassing others of this kind that ever grew in any english garden._ it professed to teach "the true spelling, reading and writing of english," and was "planted" by richard hodges, schoolmaster in southwark, "for the exceeding great benefit both of his own countrymen and strangers." similarly j. wharton's grammar of claimed to be "the most certain guide that ever yet was extant" for strangers that desire to learn our language. [header: english grammars for foreigners] thus travellers to england would find some provision for learning english. in the early seventeenth century several french teachers in london undertook to teach english to foreigners, and these were the earliest professional teachers of the language. they had all learnt english after their arrival in the country on very practical methods, an experience which must have reacted on their methods of teaching french. most of them wrote english with ease, if not always idiomatically. as time advanced, especially in the latter part of the seventeenth century, they composed several english grammars for teaching the language to their pupils. merchants as well as french teachers were pioneers in advancing the study of english by foreigners. in george mason, one of the merchants in london skilled in the french tongue, wrote a _grammaire angloise, contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la prononciation, orthographie et construction de nostre langue, en faveur des estrangers qui en sont desireux_, but especially, he tells us, for the use of "noz françois tant a leur arrivée en ce pais, que en leur demeure en iceluy." this english grammar[ ] is written in french, and gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech. it is followed by dialogues[ ] in french and english, in the usual style, bearing much resemblance to the latin colloquies and the dialogues of de la mothe's _french alphabet_. a new edition was issued at london in . the earliest conversation books in french and english printed by caxton, wynkyn de worde, and pynson are called books for teaching english as well as french. they were indeed equally adapted for either language, but it is very improbable that at this early date even the most enterprising merchants learnt english. yet the first foreigners to recognize the importance of english were merchants. english was given a place by the side of latin, french, spanish, italian, and german in the edition of the polyglot dictionary for the use of merchants and travellers, printed at venice in ,[ ] and at a later date in the polyglot collection of dialogues which developed from the french and flemish dialogues of noel de barlement; not, however, till , when the book had been in vogue for about three-quarters of a century. gabriel meurier, schoolmaster of antwerp, who taught french to many of the numerous english merchants always in the town, was acquainted with our language, but does not appear to have had any opening for teaching it, as he did french, flemish, italian, and spanish. at a later date, however, we find an englishman gaining his livelihood by teaching his own language in the netherlands. in he published at amsterdam _the english schole-master; or certaine rules and helpes, whereby the natives of the netherlands may be in a short time, taught to read, understand and speake the english tongue, by the helpe whereof the english may be better instructed in the knowledge of the dutch tongue, than by any vocabulars, or other dutch and english books, which hitherto they may have had for that purpose_. this work contains an english grammar, followed by selections from the scriptures, moral and familiar sayings, proverbs, dialogues, letters in english and dutch. the "vocabulars" to which he refers furnished him with most of his dialogues. a new edition appeared in . rouen, ever a busy centre for merchants, was the place where provision for teaching english was first made in france. editions of the polyglot dictionary, which included english in the edition of venice in , were printed at rouen in and , and again at paris in . the edition of e. a.'s english grammar appeared at rouen, as had probably the earlier editions. this compilation of the english grammar of bellot and the dialogues of holyband was in vogue for a very long time. in addition to the paris issue on the occasion of the marriage of henrietta maria with charles i. ( ), editions appeared at rouen in , , , , and most probably at other dates also; another was issued at london, . perhaps the first book for teaching english printed in france was a _traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et anglois_, published at rouen in , apparently an early edition of meurier's work, printed at rouen in as a _traité pour apprendre a parler françois et anglois, ensemble faire missives, obligations,_ etc., and again at rouen in . it was long before english won recognition from foreigners other than merchants. not until the eighteenth century was it learnt for the sake of its literature, and as a means of intercourse with the people who spoke it. this state of things made it incumbent on englishmen to equip themselves with some foreign tongue, and they naturally chose french, the most universal language at that time. footnotes: [ ] see accounts in rye, _england as seen by foreigners_. [ ] j. o. halliwell, _letters of the kings of england_, london, . [ ] rye, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] "autobiographie," _bull. de la soc. de l'hist. du protestantisme français_, vii. pp. _sqq._ [ ] another famous frenchman at the court of james i. was theodore mayerne the court doctor (cp. _table talk of bishop hurd_, ox. hist. soc. collectanea, ser. , p. ); also jean de schelandre and montchrétien among men of letters. james refused to give audience to the poet théophile de viau, exiled for his daring satires. boisrobert, st. amant, voiture, likewise visited england at this period. [ ] thurot, _prononciation française_, i. p. xiv. [ ] gerbier, _interpreter of the academy_, . [ ] aufeild: translation of maupas's _grammar_, . [ ] young, _l'enseignement en Écosse_, p. . [ ] ellis, _original letters_, st series, iii. . [ ] t. birch, _life of henry prince of wales_, london, , p. . [ ] on henry's death, st. antoine became equerry to his brother charles (rye, _op. cit._ p. ). [ ] ellis, _orig. letters_, ser. , iii. . [ ] "the french fashion of dancing is most in request with us" (dallington, _method for travell_, ). [ ] his dancing-master was a m. du caus. there were other frenchmen in his service. cp. "roll of expenses of prince henry," _revels at court_, ed. p. cunningham, new sk. soc., . [ ] j. aubrey, _brief lives_, ed. clark, , i. p. ; wood, _athen. oxon._ (bliss). [ ] t. birch, _op. cit._ pp. , , . [ ] rye, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] _mémoires de madame de motteville_, in petitot et monmerqué, _collection des mémoires relatifs à l'histoire de france_, tom. , , pp. - . [ ] _cal. state papers, - _, p. ; cp. p. , _supra_. [ ] probably the second duke, whom charles, out of friendship for his father, the first duke, brought up in his own family. [ ] foster, _alumni oxon._, ad nom. [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, pp. , , ; _ - _, p. ; shaw, _calendar of treasury books, - _, pp. , , . [ ] he received the order of knighthood from charles i. in . [ ] _cal. state papers, _, p. . [ ] le grys translated several works from latin into english. he died early in ; cp. _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] e. godfrey, _english children in olden time_, new york, , p. . [ ] davenant, _the wits_, act ii.; cp. upham, _french influence in english literature_, p. . [ ] preface to lyly's _euphues_, . [ ] t. middleton, _more dissemblers among women_, act i. sc. ; cp. upham, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] watt, _bibliotheca britannica_, , ad nom. [ ] probably before he left school (masson, _life of milton_, , i. p. ). [ ] e. godfrey, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] de la mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's clothing. [ ] thurot, _prononciation française_, pp. , . [ ] _treatise for declining french verbs_, , , and . [ ] perhaps this is bellot's _french methode_ of , of which there is no copy in the british museum, the bodleian, or cambridge university library. there is no trace of his having written a third grammar called the _french guide_; in his french grammar of the verbs are arranged in five conjugations. [ ] this section in particular bears a close resemblance to the _exercitatio_ of vives. see dialogue , in f. watson's _tudor schoolboy life_. [ ] in broad street ward; see cooper, _list of aliens_, camden soc., ; hug. soc. pub., x. pt. iii. p. . [ ] lambeth library, vo, b-e in fours. hazlitt, _bibliog. collections and notes_, ii. . [ ] it is included in almost all the sale catalogues of private libraries at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century. [ ] erondell was probably also responsible for numerous other translations from french into english; cp. p. , note , _infra_. [ ] strickland, _lives of the queens of england_, , iv. p. . [ ] j. payne collier, _history of english dramatic poetry, and annals of the stage_, , i. pp. _sqq._; f. g. fleay, _a chronicle history of the english stage_, , p. . [ ] "not women but monsters," wrote the puritan prynne in his _histriomastrix_, , p. . [ ] prynne, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] payne collier, _op. cit._ ii. pp. _sqq._; fleay, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] the former was first acted in france in and the latter in ; cf. upham, _french influence in english literature_, p. . [ ] scudéry's work is in verse; a king and queen of england figure among the characters. it was first performed in france in . [ ] probably a tragi-comedy by du ryer, acted in ; upham, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] diary, reprinted: malone's _historical account of the english stage_, in an edition of shakespeare's works, completed by boswell, , iii. pp. , . herbert makes many of his entries in french. [ ] meurier, _communications familières_, . [ ] while the english visited france in great numbers, very few frenchmen came to england, except those engaged on diplomatic missions, or exiles. thus, ronsard, jacques grévin, brantôme, bodin, in the sixteenth century; schelandre, d'assoucy, boisrobert, le pays, pavillon, voiture, malleville, and a few others in the early seventeenth century, spent a short time in england. among scholars, peiresc, henri estienne, justel, bochart, and casaubon visited our country. st. amant was twice in england, and on the occasion of his second visit wrote a satirical poem, _albion_, in which he gave vent to his dislike of the people and the country (_oeuvres_, ed. livet, , vol. ii.). guide-books to england were few, and far from giving a good impression of the country. see jusserand, _shakespeare in france_, pp. , . [ ] rathery, _relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la france et l'angleterre_, pp. - , sqq. [ ] "lord ghest tholb be sua virtiuff be intelligence, aff yi body schal biff be naturall rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur ..." (_oeuvres de rabelais_, ed. c. marty laveaux, i. ). [ ] petitot et monmerqué, _collection des mémoires_, tom. , paris, . [ ] a. cohn, _shakespeare in germany in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries_, london, , pp. xxviii, cxxxiv, cxxxv. [ ] jusserand, _shakespeare in france_, , pp. _sqq._; e. soulié, _recherches sur molière_, paris, , p. . [ ] _journal de jean hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de louis xiii, - _, paris, . quoted by jusserand, _op. cit._ p. n. one of louis's tutors was an englishman, richard smith. [ ] s. lee, "the beginnings of french translations from the english," _proceedings of the bibliog. soc._ viii., , pp. - . [ ] tourval was for long engaged on turning james i.'s compositions into french, and complains of not receiving any reward nor even his expenses. [ ] he also translated godwin's _man in the moon_, , which had some influence on cyrano de bergerac. he was probably the jean baudouin who studied at edinburgh in . [ ] gerbier, _interpreter of the academy_, . [ ] t. b. squire, in simon daines's _orthoepia anglicana_, reprinted by r. brotanek in _neudrucke frühneuenglischer grammatiken_, bd. iii., . [ ] by the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for learned subjects to be treated in english. ascham apologised for using english in his _toxophilus_ ( ), but in his _scholemaster_ ( ) he used it as a matter of course. [ ] jusserand, _histoire littéraire du peuple anglais_, , p. . [ ] florio makes the same claim in his _first frutes_ for teaching italian and english. [ ] _grammaire angloise et françoise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise et françoise._ a rouen, chez la veuve oursel, , vo. the brit. mus. copy contains ms. notes of a french student. [ ] in he translated three letters of henry of navarre, and in following years a continuous series of similar works; in the _politicke and militarie discourse_ of la noue; in the _discourse concerning the right which the house of guise have to the crown of france_, etc. his latest translation appears to have been louis xiii.'s _declaration upon his edicts for combats_, . this e. a. may have been identical with erondell (or, as sometimes written, arundel), who gives his name as "p. erondell (e. a.)" in his translation of the _declaration and catholic exhortation_ ( ). [ ] it bears a strong resemblance to the first dialogue in erondell's _french garden_. [ ] such as the works of sir thomas smith, john cheke, john hart, all of which appeared before . [ ] by p. greenwood ( ), ed. coote ( ), a. gill ( ), j. herves ( ), ch. butler ( ). some are reprinted by brotanek, _op. cit._; cp. f. watson, _modern subjects_, chap. i. [ ] reprinted by brotanek, _op. cit._ vol. iii., . [ ] _works_, , vol. ix. pp. _sqq._ [ ] reprinted by r. brotanek, _op. cit._ heft i., , pp. . [ ] pp. _sqq._ [ ] it had no place in the earlier editions of and . chapter ii french grammars--books for teaching latin and french--french in private institutions one of the most noted teachers of english as well as of french was robert sherwood, who in completed his english-french dictionary which was appended to the new edition of cotgrave's work issued in that year.[ ] sherwood was born in norfolk,[ ] although he later called himself a londoner. in july he entered corpus christi college, cambridge, and graduated b.a. in . he then moved to london and opened a language school in st. sepulchre's churchyard, where he continued to teach for many years. he also taught english to many french, german, danish, and flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited london. to these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in , as well as the second edition of his french grammar in , expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce an english grammar "toute entière," for only the practical exercises in french and english could be of use to them in their study of english. his french grammar was intended "for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen, scollers and others desirous of the said language." we gather that sherwood's school was limited entirely to the higher classes, and was very different from holyband's noisy and bustling establishment. the first edition of sherwood's _french tutour_, as he called his grammar, saw the light in ,[ ] just before he graduated at cambridge. he had probably worked at it as well as at his dictionary during his residence there, and appears to have taught french to private pupils. how he first acquired his knowledge of french, we do not know. he may have spent some years in france before going to cambridge, since he would not find much opportunity of studying the language there. his work is little more than a translation of selections from the french grammar of charles maupas of blois ( ). perhaps he studied the language with maupas himself, of whom he speaks with great respect. in parts of his grammar, however, sherwood drew on his own "long experience" in teaching french. the second edition of the _french tutour_ ( ) is said to be carefully corrected and enlarged. in it sherwood follows the usual order of treatment. first come rules of pronunciation, then of grammar, which show "the nature and use of the articles, a thing of no small importance in this language: also the way to find out the gender of all nounes: the conjugation of all the verbs regular and irregular; and after which followeth a list of most of the indeclinable parts (which commonly do much hinder learners) alphabetically englished; with a most ample syntax of all the parts of speech." this section closes with an alphabetical index "interpreting such nounes and verbes as are unenglished in the grammar." the practical exercises are in the form of "three dialogues and a touch of french compliments," in french and english, arranged in two parallel columns on a page. the first deals with familiar talk by the wayside, depicting travellers on their road to london, and, on their arrival, taking lodgings at the black swan in holborn, doing their shopping, and taking their evening meal. the other two dialogues treat of less familiar subjects; and, on the whole, sherwood's book was not of a popular kind, but was intended for the "learned." one describes the exercises and studies of the nobility, dancing, riding, fencing, hunting, geography, cosmography, and so forth; and the other turns on the subject of travel in foreign countries, in which sherwood emphasizes the necessity for the traveller of "some good and fundamental beginning in the language of the country whither he goeth." the _tutour_ closes with a selection of french compliments from the book of m. l. miche on french courtesy, to which sherwood added an english version. another englishman also ventured in the early years of the seventeenth century to write on the french language--william colson, who called himself a professor of literal and liberal sciences. he had spent many years abroad as [header: william colson] travelling companion to young english gentlemen, "as well learning as teaching such laudable arts and qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise." seemingly he spent some time in the low countries, and he may have found his pupils among the english troops serving there, as in he published at liége a book in french on arithmetic which also provides military information. before he had returned to london, where he composed a similar work in english, dedicated to the lords of the privy council.[ ] he tells us that on his return from his travels he wrote "certaine litteral workes," mostly on the teaching of languages, and like an earlier english writer, john eliote, evolved a special method which he called "arte locall or the arte of memorie." he expounds his "method," which is very vague and obscure in its application, in one of his french text-books which appeared in london in and was called _the first part of the french grammar, artificially deduced, into tables by arte locall, called the arte of memorie_. colson desired to reconcile the old orthography with the new, as holyband had done earlier, by means of a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters, and of a triple distinction of characters, roman, italian, and english. roman type was to stand for the _proper_ pronunciation, that is, letters which are pronounced as they are written; the italian for the _improper_, that is, letters which are not given their usual pronunciation; and finally the letters written but not sounded were to be printed in black letter. in his reformed alphabet he divides the letters into seven vowels and eighteen consonants, and subdivides the consonants into semivowels and mutes. he gives each letter its usual name, and then its special name according to his own scheme, as follows: a e' e o i y v | h | s z x i | l r n m | a é e o i y u | éh | és éz éx éi | él ér én ém | proper names | | | | speciall names | he | sé zé xé ié | lé ré né mé | \_____________/ \__________________________/ aspiration semivowels f [^] b p : d t g k | c q éf é[^] éb ép : éd ét ég ék | éc éq | fé [^]é bé pé : dé té gé ké | cé qé \________________________________/ mutes \______________________________/ vowels consonants \___________________________________________________________/ elements and letters and all the said alphabet is briefly contained in these five artificiall words to be learnt by heart:--haeiou--sezexeie--lereneme--fe[^]ebepe-- detegeke. after treating of the letters, colson proceeds to deal with the other three chief parts of grammar--"the sillible, the diction, and the locution" (the last two dealing with accidence and syntax respectively) in a similarly intricate and obscure style. it is difficult to imagine what can have been his reasons for his scheme of complicated divisions and sub-divisions, more like a puzzle than anything else. yet he appears to have been serious, and assures us that once his reformed alphabet is mastered "the perfect pronunciation, reading, and writing of the french tongue is gotten in the space of one month or thereabouts." it is not surprising that his attempted reform passed quite unheeded. this _first part of the french grammar_, which is dedicated to "the worshippfull, worthie and vertuous gentleman, m. emanuel giffard, esquire," seems to be the only one of colson's works on the french language which has survived. at its close is a large folding sheet, containing the table of his reformed alphabet, dedicated to sir michael stanhope and sir william cornwallis by their affectionate servant. the date is . colson informs us that he had also compiled a french grammar divided into four parts, after a new method. he likewise refers to "all his bookes tending to the instruction of the french tongue," such as his "booke of the declination of nouns, and conjugation of verbes," and his "three repertories of the english, french, and latine tongues, compounded by arte locall for aiding the memorie in learning most speedily the words of the foresaide tongues by heart in halfe time": his "repertoire of all syllables in general and of all french words in particular containing the art to learn them easily by heart in verie short time and with little labour to the great contentment of him which is desirous of the french tongue, all reduced into tables by art locall as before said": and "other works of ours shortly to be printed tending to the knowledge of the foresaid tongues, in which works is set downe by art and order local (called the art of memory) most easy and brief rules to learne the foresaid bookes by heart." most of these, no doubt, were short pamphlets, perhaps in the shape of the large folding sheet inserted at the end of the grammar of , and so stood but little chance of survival. at this same period the popular french grammar of charles maupas, well known to many travellers to france, was translated into english by william aufeild and published in . [header: william aufeild] maupas's grammar, first printed at blois in , had won a considerable reputation in england, and was not without noticeable influence on the french grammars published in london. sherwood, who had made free use of maupas, praised him very highly. james howell, in his edition of cotgrave's dictionary, advises students to seek fuller grammatical information in maupas's grammar, "the exactest and most scholarlike of all." william aufeild, the translator of the book--"the best instructions for that language by the consent of all that know the book, that were ever written"--considers that it excels all the french grammars ever produced in england: "all of them put together do not teach half so well the idiom of the french tongue as this one doth." we are assured that the work was in great demand when it first appeared in england, and that a great number of the nobility and gentry were commonly taught by means of it. finding that the fact that it was written in french was a great drawback, as it could only be used by those who already understood french, aufeild decided to translate it into english, and dedicated his work to the young duke of buckingham,[ ] son of the duke to whom maupas had offered the original. aufeild tells that he had been studying french for ten years when he undertook his task. he called the translation _a french grammar and syntaxe, contayning most exact and certaine rules for the pronunciation, orthography, construction and use of the french language_.[ ] to adapt the work to the use of the english, the translator placed a small cross under letters not pronounced in the french word, thus adopting holyband's plan. these letters were also printed in a different type, "that better notice might be taken of them." he also endeavours to give the sounds of the french alphabet in english spelling, so that if the student "pronounce the one like an englishman, he must needs pronounce the same sounds, written after the french manner, like a frenchman." this, he says, is the only invention which he claims as his own in the whole work. "the examples as well as the text, are englished to save the reader so many lookings in his dictionary"; and the word to which the rule has special reference is printed in different type from the rest of the example. occasionally the text is expanded by additional explanations, included in parentheses. aufeild advises the student of french to read the whole grammar through first, in order to get a general notion of the language. it is vain, he argues, to begin learning rules for the pronunciation of a language of which you are totally ignorant. especially is this so in the case of the "unlearned," that is, those unacquainted with latin grammar. for instance, "you shall find that in all the third persons plural of verbes ending in _-ent_, _n_ is not pronounced," and so on. now, "unless a man can distinguish an adverbe from a verbe," he says, "or till he know how the plurall number is made of the singular how shall he know ... when to leave out _n_ before _t_?" "in my opinion," he adds, "it is but a dull and wearisome thing for a man to take a great deale of paines, in learning to pronounce what he understandeth not." clearly his ideal was a preliminary grounding in the general principles of grammar. when you have a general knowledge of the whole language you may begin at the pronunciation and "so goe through it againe in order as it lieth." in the second reading the student should take into account the less important rules which are omitted in the first perusal. aufeild's final piece of advice is at variance with the general practice among teachers of the time. he would have the pupil postpone all attempts at speaking the language until the last stages: "be not too greedy," he warns the reader, "to be thought a speaker of french before you are sure you understand what you read." the best known teacher of italian in the seventeenth century, torriano, was of the same opinion: "for the avoiding of a vulgar error or fault very predominant in many, namely of being over hasty to be speaking of a language, before it be well understood, i thought not amiss to produce the quotation of one mr. wm. aufeild.... i jump with him that they who are last at speaking speak the best and surest and so much i find by my experience among my scholars."[ ] many years before, roger ascham had expressed the same view with regard to the teaching of latin. [header: aufeild's advice to students] he admitted that the "dailie use of speaking was the best method," but only provided the learner could always hear the language spoken correctly and avoid "the habit of the evil choice of words, and crooked forming of sentences"; but as it is, _loquendo male loqui discunt_, and he advises the postponement of speaking until some progress had been made.[ ] considering aufeild's ideas as to the speaking of french, we quite expect to find him condemning attempts to pick up the language without the help of rules; "for if with rules, you shall be often at a loss, certainly you shall stick at every word without them." it may be that "they which take another way, may speake more words in halfe a yeare then you shall in twelve month; but in a year's space you may, with diligence and industry, speake better (and after a while more) than another shall doe all his life time, unless there be a vast disparity between your abilities of mind." his attitude as to the respective importance of grammatical study and its practical application was not in keeping with that of maupas, of whom he said, "i know not whom you can equal to him." maupas had written his grammar in french instead of the international language, latin, because he advocated the study of the grammar in the french language itself; he taught reading and pronunciation by means of reading the grammar in french. aufeild, on the contrary, considered it a drawback that when english students travelled into france they had to learn enough french to converse with their teachers before they could learn of their teachers how to converse with others. this was the reason which induced him to translate the grammar, although in doing so he, no doubt unconsciously, set at nought maupas's principal reason for writing it in french. we know of no other french grammar produced in france which was specially favoured by english learners of french. but no doubt many englishmen, besides those who travelled, studied from french grammars. english travellers returning from france would, no doubt, bring back grammars which might also arrive through other channels. even in the time of elizabeth foreign books had been freely imported into england, and the foreign trade of the stationers of london was very extensive. that the early french grammars were known in england is shown by their influence on those produced in england, although in many cases this is more readily explained by the circumstance that they were the work of frenchmen newly arrived from france. however, it is not likely that these french grammars were ever widely used in england for learning the language, when books in english were ready to hand and easier to use. in scotland, on the other hand, where such books were not in existence, they were probably more widely employed. both countries, scotland in particular, made free use of foreign text-books for the teaching of latin; but the case is hardly the same for the international language. in the meantime the production of french grammars in england continued uninterruptedly. _the flower de luce planted in england_ was the title of a grammar which appeared in . this work was due to one laur du terme, of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a frenchman and a protégé of bacon, then lord chancellor. du terme had evidently been in england long enough to acquire some knowledge of english, in which he wrote his grammar. after imploring his patron to water his 'flower' with a few drops of favourable approbation, he proceeds to address the gentle reader in these words: "looke not in this treatise, for any eloquent words, nor polished sentences, for i doe not go about to begge any favour nor insinuate into any man's love by coloured and misticall phrases.[ ] neither do i intend to teach my masters, but in requitall of your kind curtesie in teaching mee this little english i have, do in the same set downe suche precepts as i find best for the pronouncing, understanding, and speaking of the french tongue." these precepts he selected from other grammars "used by many both teachers and learners, yet i presume this will be as agreeable as any were yet, and in brief containing more than ever i saw yet in english." the pronunciation is explained by comparison with english sounds, and then each part of speech is treated in turn; constant analogies with latin occur, and he also gives a list of french suffixes with their latin roots, and endeavours to introduce the latin gerund and supine into french grammar, not being of those who sought to delatinize french grammar. for the verbs he refers the student to the rules given by cotgrave at the end of his dictionary, "very profitable for every learner to reade," where they are arranged in four conjugations, "while some authors make three, some five, some six, and little enough for the understanding of all the verbs." [header: laur du terme] he makes no claim to completeness--"and if by chance i have applied a rule instead of an exception or an exception instead of a rule, the teacher may easily mend it, and your courteous censure in reciprocall of the good-will i beare unto you i hope will excuse it. reade it over, but not slightly, consider every rule and way every word in it." du terme's aim in his rules is to be brief and plain. he desired them to be regarded in the light of a reference book. the student was to begin to read from the very first. the _flower de luce_ does not provide the usual stock of reading-exercises, and du terme advises the student to use "any good french author he likes best; and what word soever he goes about to reade, let him looke upon his rules concerning the pronunciation of the letters, how they are pronounced in several places, first the vowell, then what consonants are before and after, and, having compared and brought all the rules concerning those letters together, he shall easily finde the true pronunciation of any word." the sounds of the language should be thoroughly mastered at the outset: "bestow rather five days in learning five vowels, then to learne and passe them over in a day, as being the chief and only ground of all the rest, without the which you shall loose your labour, not being able to pronounce one diphthongue unless you pronounce the vowels well, perfectly, neatly and distinctly, without confounding one with another. the which case you must observe in the consonants." for the proper understanding of the matter read, he recommends the use of "some bookes that are both english and french, as the bible, the testament, and many others that are very common in england." he admits that this method is slow and difficult at first, "yet notwithstanding, after a little labour, will prove exceeding easie, as by experience hath been tryed: in so much as some have learned perfectly to reade and understande the most part in less than the quarter of a year, onely applying themselves unto it one hour and a half in a day." paul cougneau or cogneau, another french teacher of london, also wrote a french grammar at this period. he called it _a sure guide to the french tongue_, and published it in . cogneau had no mean opinion of his book. "it hath in some things a peculiar way, not commonly traced by others," he tells us. "in the beginning are rules of pronunciation, then for the declension of articles, nouns and pronouns, and in the end the conjugation of diverse verbs, both personal and impersonal ... and throughout the whole book there is so great a multiplicity of various phrases congested as no one book for the bulk contains more. all which besides are set forth with plainness as fit it for the capacity even of the meanest. much pains hath been employed about it, and i hope not without great benefit and profit in the right use of it, and consequently not unworthy of the kind acceptance which i heartily wish." but the work has little value or originality, in spite of its interest to the modern reader. the rules occupy thirty pages only. they are taken mainly from holyband and de la mothe. the nouns, articles, and pronouns receive very meagre treatment, but the auxiliaries and verbs, the regular and a few irregular verbs, are fully conjugated at the end of the book, being arranged in sentence form, as in many modern text-books: j'ay bien dormi ceste nuit. tu as trop mangé. il a trop bu, etc. the practical exercises, which fill the next three hundred pages, reproduce the dialogues of the same sixteenth-century writers--the only two who retained their popularity in the seventeenth. the exercises of the _french schoolemaister_, the _french littleton_, and the _french alphabet_ are all repeated without any acknowledgement. like du terme, cogneau attached much importance to pronunciation and reading. he held that pronunciation was best learnt with the help of a teacher, and that rules were not of much use in this case. "i have observed," he writes, "how many of my countrymen have taken great pains and labour to show the english how to pronounce the french letters, by letters; but these men labour in vain: for i know that the true pronunciation of any tongue whatsoever cannot be taught so: nor none can learn it so; i mean, to speak it well and truly as it ought to be: to learn to understand it by such rules, one may in time and with great pains, but, as i have said, never to speak it well and perfectly, without he be taught by some master. i say not that the rules are unprofitable, no, for they are very profitable being well used, and the learner being well directed to understand them aright; but, as i have said, so i say still, that whosoever will learn this noble and famous tongue, must chuse one that can speak good french, and one that hath a good method in teaching, and the first thing to learn of him must be to pronounce perfectly our letters, and give every one its due sound and pronunciation." the student should undertake nothing until he has mastered the sounds of the letters and syllables. [header: paul cogneau] then he may pass to the reading, "and in that reading learn to spell perfectly, for it is that which will perfect thee, so that thou wilt be able to correct many frenchmen both in their speaking and writing, if thou wilt take pains to learn it perfectly and be as perfect in it as in thy native tongue. if thou dost mark well what i have said, and do it, and if thou hast a good teacher, thou maiest learn the french tongue easily in a year." cogneau gives his grammar rules in both french and english, and evidently intended them to form part of the reading material on which the student was to begin as soon as he had mastered the french sounds. from these he proceeds to the dialogues. "thou must learn this book perfectly, to read the french in english and also the english in french perfectly, and i durst warrant that whosoever shall learn this book perfectly will be a perfect frenchman, and shall be able both to speak and write the french tongue much better than the most part of frenchmen." the only differences, then, between the methods advocated by laur du terme and cogneau are that the first would have the student learn the pronunciation by reading, and the second from the lips of a master before the student begins to read; and that cogneau adopts the method of double translation, so strongly urged by de la mothe, while du terme mentions only translation of french into english. in fact, cogneau's method was probably suggested by the sixteenth-century teachers. cogneau's _guide_ was in vogue for a number of years. in a french teacher, guillaume herbert, who appears to have had no mean opinion of his own abilities, edited the fourth edition. he describes the earlier form of the work as a "blind" guide rather than a sure one, but now that it has been revised by him "both masters and scholars may with more confidence venture upon it as the most correct book now extant of this kind and in these tongues, and i dare promise them that if i live to see and oversee the next edition, i will so purge and order it that every reader may (if ingenious and ingenuous) give it deservedly the name of a sure guide." it is difficult to see in what the improvements he boasts of consist, for his is little more than a reprint of the earlier editions. with herbert's edition the popularity of the _sure guide_ came to an end, no doubt owing to the appearance of more recent works. william aufeild complained, not without reason, that most professors teach only what other men "have set downe to their hand in english many years agoe," and it is undeniable that several of the sixteenth-century french grammars continued to be used in england as late as the middle of the seventeenth century. holyband was specially in favour, and so was de la mothe. peter erondell, it has been seen, prepared new editions of the _french schoolemaister_ in , , , and . another french professor, james giffard, was responsible for other editions in , , , , , and it appears to have been printed again in ; this giffard was probably the jacques giffard who attended the threadneedle street church;[ ] he is said to have been a native of the isle of sark, and in he married elizabeth guilbert of guernsey. editions of the _french littleton_ saw the light in , , , , , and . none of these editions contains any very noticeable alterations. the new editions of de la mothe's _french alphabet_ ( , , , , and ) are merely reprints of the first edition of . thus it came about that the french of the sixteenth century was still taught in england in the seventeenth, regardless of the great changes which had been accomplished in the language in the meantime. the first half of the seventeenth century was also a period during which french began to receive greater recognition in the educational world. latin, it is true, retained its supremacy in the grammar school; but it is significant that a considerable number of latin school-books were adapted to teaching french, and helped to swell the number of such manuals at the service of students. thus french gained a place by the side of latin, and some went so far as to question the supremacy of latin as the "learned" tongue of europe. in thomas morrice[ ] deemed it necessary to refute the "error" of those of his countrymen who placed french before latin--"a most absurd paradox" in his opinion, for "french was never reckoned a learned tongue; it belongs by right to one country alone, where the people themselves learn latin." such protests had little effect. in the first years of the century we have the earliest recognition of french as distinct from other modern languages, at the hands of a writer on education; [header: french makes headway] j. cleland held that a young gentleman's tutor should be skilled in the french as well as the latin tongue, because "it is most used now universallie,"[ ] and that the student, after translating english into latin, should proceed to turn his latin into french, "that he may profit in both the tongues together."[ ] it was indeed by no means uncommon for french and english tutors to give instruction in both these tongues. denisot, palsgrave, holyband, and many other french teachers had done so. joseph rutter, tutor to the son of the earl of dorset, at whose request he translated the _cid_ into english, is said to have made his pupil his collaborator in this task, and probably taught him french as well as latin, and his case does not appear to have been exceptional. evelyn, the diarist, learnt the rudiments of latin from a frenchman named citolin, and probably picked up some french at the same time; travel abroad and his marriage with the daughter of sir richard browne, english ambassador at paris, who from her youth upwards had lived in france, gave him opportunities for improving his knowledge of the language, in which he was soon able to converse with ease.[ ] evelyn's son richard also studied the two languages together; when he died in , at the early age of five, he was able to say the catechism and pronounce english, latin, and french accurately, also "to read an script, to decline nouns and conjugate all regular and most of the irregular verbs." he had likewise "learn'd _pueriles_, got by heart almost the entire vocabulary of latine and french primitives and words, and could make congruous syntax, turne english into latine and _vice versa_, construe and prove what he read, and did the government and use of relatives, verbs, substantives, elipses, and many figures and tropes, and made a considerable progress in comenius's _janua_, began himself to write legibly, and had a strong passion for greek."[ ] the manuals for teaching latin and french together, either latin school-books with french added, or works specially written for giving instruction in the two languages, probably resulted from this connexion. at an early date french had found a place in several latin dictionaries.[ ] soon afterwards it made its way into some of the latin colloquia and school authors. in the printer john wyndet received a licence to print the dialogues of corderius in french and english.[ ] there is also a notice of an edition of castellion's _sacred dialogues_ in the same two languages.[ ] aesop's _fables_ were printed in english, french, and latin in , with the purpose of rendering the acquisition of these languages easier for young gentlemen and ladies; each fable is accompanied by an illustration due to francis barlow, and followed by a moral reflection. thomas philpott was responsible for the english version, and robert codrington, m.a., a versatile translator of the time, for the latin and french. at least two other editions appeared in and . another favourite author was published in the same three languages at a later date--the _thoughts of cicero ... on ( ) religion, and ( ) man.... published in latin and french by the abbé olivet, to which is now added an english translation, with notes_ (_by a. wishart_) ( and ). of these few examples of latin and french text-books, two are known only by hearsay. it is likely that others, adapted to the same purpose, have disappeared without leaving any trace at all; as such school-books were usually printed with a privilege, their names are not preserved in the registers of the company of stationers. little wonder that such manuals, subjected to the double wear and tear of teaching both latin and french, have been entirely lost. the one volume which has come down to us is aesop's _fables_ in french, latin, and english, and its survival is explained by the elaborate and costly form in which it was issued. in was published the _janua linguarum quadralinguis_ of jean barbier, a parisian. the work, originally written in spanish and latin ( ) for the use of spaniards, was in time adapted to teaching latin and incidentally spanish to the english, by the addition of an english translation in . the fact that french was added two years later by barbier is not without significance. foremost among books for teaching french and latin together, however, was the famous _janua linguarum_ of comenius, from which evelyn's son learnt his latin, and presumably his french also. it was printed in england in english, french, and latin, in the very year in which it had first come out at leszna in latin and german ( ). [header: books for teaching latin and french] in this form it was given the title of _porta linguarum trilinguis reserata et aperta, or the gate of tongues unlocked and opened_. the _janua_ contains a thousand sentences, dealing with subjects encyclopaedic in plan, beginning with the origin of the world, and ending with death, providence, and the angels. the intervening chapters treat of the earth and its elements, animals, man, his life, education, occupations, afflictions, social institutions, and moral qualities. j. a. anchoran, licentiate in divinity, a friend of robert codrington and apparently a frenchman, was responsible for the edition of the _porta linguarum_ in english, french, and latin. he declares he prepared it "in behalf of" the young prince charles (ii.), then about a year old, and of "british, french and irish youth." his efforts proved successful; there were two issues of the work in , and other editions appeared in , , and . with the second and following editions was bound an index to the french and latin words contained in the _porta linguarum_, entitled: _clavis ad portam or a key fitted to open the gates of tongues wherein you may readily find the latine and french for any english word, necessary for all young scholars._ it was dedicated to the schoolmasters and ushers of england, and printed at oxford, being the work of wye saltonstall, teacher of latin and french in that university. yet another brief treatise was commonly bound with the edition of the _porta linguarum_--_the pathway to the gate of tongues, being the first instruction for little children_, intended as an introduction to comenius, but chiefly to give instruction in french. it was due to one of the french teachers in london, jean de grave, no doubt the son of the "jean de grave natif d'amsterdam" who came to england in the early years of the seventeenth century and died some time before . de grave was a member of the french church, and in was twice threatened with expulsion owing to his sympathy with the brownists; but he saved the situation by recanting.[ ] de grave's _pathway_ to comenius opens with a table of the numbers, the catechism, graces, and prayers, all given in latin, english, and french. the main section gives the conjugation of the four regular verbs (_j'aime_, _je bastis_, _je voy_, _je li_) and of _aller_, _avoir_, _estre_, _il faut_ and _on aime_, in french accompanied by english and latin equivalents in parallel columns. de grave makes a point of omitting all the compound tenses usually introduced into french verbs on the model of the latin ones, as such forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs _avoir_ and _estre_; thus french rather than latin was in the author's mind: "or m'a semblé qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et industrieux, pourveu qu'il soit homme lettré et bien entendu en la grammaire françoise, pourra instiller peu à peu en leur esprit, plus par diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui n'apporte aucun profit." he agreed with most of the french teachers of the time that few rules and much practice under the guidance of a good master, was the best way of learning french. in the first half of the seventeenth century also, the private institutions in which french had a place increased considerably in number, especially during the latter years of the reign of charles i. and the commonwealth. there were several projects, of which a few were actually realized for a time, for founding academies in england on the model of those in france. their aim was to provide instruction in modern languages and polite accomplishments, in order to counterbalance the one-sidedness of the universities, and save parents the expense of sending their children abroad, and protect the latter from the dangers to which they might be exposed in foreign countries. in the accomplished courtier sir francis kynaston founded the _museum minervae_ at his house in bedford square, covent garden. latin, french, and italian were the chief languages of the curriculum. no foreigner was allowed to act as either regent or professor. a regulation stipulated that "noe gentleman shall speak in the forenoon to the regent about any businesse, but either in italian, french, or latin; but if any gentleman be deficient in all these languages, then shall he deale with some professour or other to speak unto the regent for him in the morning, but in the afternoon free accesse shall be granted to all that have any occasion to conferre with him."[ ] a certain michael mason was the professor of languages. the academy was short-lived, and probably did not survive its founder, who died at the beginning of the civil war. [header: french in private academies] on the th of july , another academy of similar nature but wider scope was opened by the adventurous sir balthazar gerbier in his house at bethnal green. in he published a prospectus, which appeared in several different forms, announcing to "all fathers of noble families and lovers of vertue" that "sir balthazar gerbier, knight, erects an academy wherein forraigne languages, sciences and all noble exercises shall be taught ... whereunto shall serve several treatises set forth by the said sir b. g. in the forraigne languages aforesaid, the english tongue being joyned thereunto ... whiche treatises shall be continually at mistresse allen's shop at the signe of the crown in pope's head alley neere the olde exchange, london." gerbier's intention was to teach the sciences and languages simultaneously, and by means of each other. french seems to have been the only foreign language which received special treatment at his hands. he was the author of _an introduction to the french tongue_, a work of very slight value, treating of the pronunciation and parts of speech and followed by a lengthy and wearisome dialogue between three travellers. carrying out his expressed aim, he wrote several pamphlets on the subjects of polite education in french accompanied by a literal english translation.[ ] every saturday afternoon a public lesson was read in the academy, "as well concerning the grounds and rules of the aforesaid languages, as touching the sciences and exercises, which will give much satisfaction to all fathers of noble families and lovers of vertue." there was also an "open lecture" by which the deserving poor were to be instructed gratis, on due recommendation. gerbier is also said[ ] to have started an academy for languages at whitehall. none of his efforts, however, met with much response. the private academy as such was an institution which never really took root in england. moreover, gerbier was not a gifted man. the works he wrote for use in his academy have very little value, and his lectures were severely criticised. walpole calls one of them, typical of the rest, "a most trifling superficial rhapsody." several other schemes[ ] for courtly academies were never realised at all. such were those of prince henry, son of james i., and of lord admiral buckingham. a play of the commonwealth period, brome's _new academy_ ( ), gives an amusing picture of one of these institutions and introduces us to a group of pushing french men and women who profess _inter alia_ to "teach the french tongue with great alacrity." private schools, on the contrary, were better patronised. there were undoubtedly numerous french schools in the style of those of the sixteenth century; wodroeph refers to one, without giving any details, and the language school kept by sherwood was well known. in many instances also french found a place in other private schools alongside the more usual studies. sir john reresby, for example, was sent at the age of fifteen to a school at enfield chase, where he was instructed in latin, french, writing, and dancing. there he stayed two years and "came to a very passable proficiency in latin, greek, french, and rhetoric."[ ] the elder brother of thomas ellwood, milton's amanuensis, also learnt french and latin at a private school at hadley, near barnet in hertfordshire, before going with thomas to learn latin and some greek at the free school of thame.[ ] such schools seem to have been relatively numerous at the time of the commonwealth. one was kept by edward wolley, d.d. of oxford, who had been domestic chaplain to charles i., and taken refuge in france on his sovereign's death. after spending seven years abroad as chaplain to charles ii. in exile, he returned to england and opened a school at hammersmith. in the protector issued stringent orders against "scholemasters who are or shall be ignorant, scandalous, insufficient or negligent." many royalists were affected, and it was no doubt as a result of this measure that in wolley had to petition cromwell to allow him to continue his "painful employment" of instructing youth in latin, greek, french, and other commendable exercises. he pleads that since his return from france he has demeaned himself irreproachably, and that he causes "the holy scriptures to be read and religious duties to be daily used" in his school, and takes the children to church on sunday; [header: french in private schools] moreover "they have always spoken with honour and reverence of his highness."[ ] among the few royalist and episcopal schoolmasters who were not affected by the measure of was samuel turberville, a "very good schoolmaster," who kept school in kensington. sir ralph verney's second son jack, afterwards apprenticed to a merchant, spent three years there ( - ), and turberville commends his "amendement in writing, the mastery of his grammar and an indifferent latin author, his preservation of the ffrench, and the command of his violl."[ ] sir ralph verney's son had previously acquired french in france, and wrote it fluently though not always correctly.[ ] his fellow-pupils, we are told, called him the "young mounseer." there were also numerous schools for young ladies and gentlewomen in and about london and elsewhere. one french teacher, paul festeau, advertises the french boarding-school of monsieur de la mare at marylebone, where girls were taught "to write, to read, to speak french, to sing, to dance, to play on the guitar and the spinette."[ ] m. de la mare was a protestant, and a reader at the french church. his wife was a good mother to the girls, we are told, and his daughter spoke french with much elegance. another french teacher, pierre berault, mentions the pension for young ladies kept by his friend m. papillon in charles street, near st. james's square. french, writing, singing, dancing, and designing were the subjects of study. in other cases schools for girls and young ladies were attended by a visiting french master. the most popular french teacher of the time, claude mauger of blois, was employed for some time after his arrival in england as french teacher to the young ladies of mrs. kilvert's once famous academy. this practice became more and more widespread as the seventeenth century advanced, and was very common in the eighteenth century, as it still is nowadays. footnotes: [ ] see p. , _supra_. [ ] _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _catalogue of books of some learned men deceased_, . it was licensed to the printer humphrey lownes on rd january (arber, _stationers' register_, iv. ). [ ] general treasury of accounts, london, . [ ] guy le moyne was probably his french tutor; cp. p. , _supra_. [ ] _written in france by charles maupas of bloys. translated into english with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us english, together with a preface and an introduction wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better understanding of it._ [ ] _italian reviv'd_, . [ ] _the scholemaster_, ed. arber, , p. ; cp. p. , _supra_. [ ] is this a reference to eliote's _ortho-epia gallica_? [ ] _threadneedle street french church registers_, hug. soc. pub. xiii. pts. i. and ii. the earliest mention of giffard occurs in , and the latest in . [ ] _apologie for schoolmasters._ [ ] cleland, _institution of a young nobleman_, , pp. - . [ ] _ibid._ p. . [ ] his first literary attempt was a translation ( ) from the french of la mothe le vayer's essay on liberty and servitude. [ ] _diary_, january , . [ ] cp. pp. _sqq._, supra. [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, ii. ; iii. . an edition in french and latin was printed in london as late as the eighteenth century. [ ] r. clavell, _catalogue of books printed in london, - _. [ ] schickler, _Églises du refuge_, i. . his name occurs frequently in the _threadneedle street church registers_, hug. soc. pub. ix. and xiii. [ ] _the constitution of the museum minervae_, . charles i. granted £ from the treasury, and kynaston himself provided books and other material. [ ] _the interpreter of the academy for forrain languages and all noble sciences and exercises_, . [ ] pepys, _diary_, ed. wheatley, iv. p. n. [ ] oxford historical soc., , _collectanea_, series , pt. vi. pp. _sqq._ john dury proposes a special class of schools for languages, which should teach the classics to those desiring "learning," and modern languages to those intended for commerce (_reformed school_, , quoted by f. watson, _modern subjects_, p. xxvii). [ ] _memoirs of sir john reresby_, , p. ; and _memoirs and travels_, ed. a. ivatt, london, , p. xv. [ ] _ellwood's autobiography_, london, , p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . on the restoration, wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment, and finally became bishop of clonfert. he published an english translation from the french of scudéry's _curia politiae_, in , and other works in english, of no special interest. see _dict. nat. biog._, ad nom. [ ] _memoirs of the verney family_, iii. p. . [ ] he usually wrote home in french. in the following extract he asks for a taper, then in fashion among his school-mates: "je vous prie de m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortillée, car tous les garçons en ont pour brullay (_sic_) et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy." [ ] two parents discuss the school in a dialogue: où allez vous? whither are you going? je m'en vais voir ma fille. i am going to see my daughter. en quel lieu? in what place? a maribone. at maribone. que fait elle là? what doth she do there? comment, ne sçavez vous pas what, do you not know that i que je l'ay mise en pension? have put her at a boording school? chez qui? with whom? chez un nommé mons. de la at one mons. de la mare that mare qui tient escole françoise. keeps a french school. vrayement, je n'en sçavois rien. truly, i did not know it. qu'apprend elle là? what does she learn there? elle apprend à écrire, à lire, she learns to write, to read, à parler françois, à chanter, to speak french, to sing, à danser, à jouer de la guitare, to dance, to play on the guitar, et de l'épinette. and the spinette. chapter iii the "little blois" in london in the second half of the seventeenth century we come across a band of french teachers in london, which corresponds, in importance, to that which grouped itself round claude holyband in the vicinity of st. paul's churchyard at the same period in the sixteenth century. at its head was claude mauger, a native of blois. mauger had as long a teaching experience in london as holyband; he arrived in about , and we do not hear the last of him till the first decade of the next century. he was forced to quit his native town by "intestine distempers," probably an allusion to the persecutions which broke out there in the middle of the century. he appears to have been a huguenot. before coming to england he had been a student at orleans, and for seven years had taught french to travellers, "the flowre of all europe," at blois,[ ] where some years previously maupas had laboured at the same task; among his pupils was gustavus adolphus, prince of mecklenburg. on arriving in england, mauger exercised the same profession. and several others, driven from blois like himself, gathered around him as friends, admirers, and fellow-workers. among these, he tells us, he reckons master penson and master festeau as specially good masters of language. of penson nothing is known, save that he wrote some lines addressed to mauger's critics. festeau, however, is mentioned elsewhere by mauger with high commendation, and the two seem to have been close friends. he came to england about the same time as mauger, and may have accompanied him. these members of the "little blois" in london prided themselves on teaching the accent of blois, "where the true tone of the french tongue is found, by the unanimous consent of all frenchmen." the accent of blois had already been recommended by some of the earlier french teachers. charles maupas was its foremost champion. fate had been very unkind to him before his arrival in england, mauger tells us. but he soon forgot his sorrows in his busy and successful life in london. pupils flocked to him, and, as we saw, he was called upon by mrs. margaret kilvert to teach french in her academy for young gentlewomen--a place, according to him, "which needs nothing, only a name worthy to expresse its excellency." at the same time he was busy writing a french grammar, which appeared in , and was dedicated to mrs. kilvert--_the true advancement of the french tongue, or a new method and more easie directions for the attaining of it than ever yet have been published_, preceded by verses addressed to no less than fifty of his lady pupils. it does not differ materially as regards its contents from previous works of the kind and had apparently been first written in french, for mauger says his work "hath now put on a language to which it was before a stranger." rules of grammar and pronunciation occupy the first hundred and twenty pages, and the remaining half of the book comprises reading exercises in french and english, and a vocabulary. the sound of each letter is explained, then the declinable parts are treated in turn, and followed by a few scattered rules of syntax. the whole is a little incoherent, and lacks order. mauger was evidently acquainted with the work of his fellow-townsman charles maupas. the second section of mauger's grammar begins with lists of anglicisms to be avoided,[ ] and then of "certaine francisms," or french idioms, and of familiar french phrases for common use. the dialogues turn chiefly on the study of french, and include discussions between students of french, talk of travel in france, and polite and gallant conversations between french and english ladies and gentlemen. considering mauger's many women pupils, it is not surprising to find a considerable part of his book devoted to them: two ladies discuss french and their french teacher, criticise the french accent of their friends, or receive visits or lessons from their french, music, or dancing masters. [header: claude mauger] and as the two latter, especially the dancing-master, were usually french, they did much to assist the language tutor. french maids are also often introduced, and represented as instructing their mistresses in the french language as well as in french fashions. it is no doubt mrs. kilvert's academy that is referred to in the following dialogue: mon père, je vous prie, donnés moy i pray, father, give me vostre bénédiction. your blessing. ma fille, soyés la bien revenue. daughter, you are welcome home. comment se porte how does mme. votre maîtresse? your mistress? mons. elle se porte bien. she is very well, sir. n'avés vous point oublié votre have you not forgot your anglois? english quite? non, mon père. no, sir. je croy que vous parlés extrêmement i suppose you speak french bien. excellently well by this time? j'entends beaucoup mieux que i understand it better than je ne parle. i can speak it. laquelle est la plus sçavante de vous which of you two is the best deux? proficient? c'est ma soeur.--je ne pense pas. my sister, sir.--i don't believe that. expliqués moy ce livre là en render me some of that book back françois. into french. que signifie cela en françois? what's that in french? entendés vous cette sentence là? do you understand that sentence? ouy, mons. yes, sir. vous avez bien profité. . . . you have made good proficiency.... sçavez vous travailler en ouvrages? have you learnt any needlework there? vostre luth n'est pas d'accord. . . . your lute is out of tune.... et vous, ma fille, vous ne dites but you, daughter, have you rien? nothing to say? j'attendois vos ordres. i expect your commands. qu'avez vous appris? what have you learnt? approchez vous de moy. come nearer to me. dancés une courante. dance me a courante. in another dialogue a french gentleman compliments an english lady on her french: où avés vous appris à parler françois, mademoiselle? monsieur, je ne parle pas, je ne fais que bégayer. je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussiés françoise. il est impossible à une angloise de posséder vostre langue. vous m'excuserés, il s'en trouve beaucoup. j'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une dame qui parle aussi nettement qu'une françoise. je voy que vous avez inclination pour le françois. fort grande. vous avez l'accent fort pur et net. de qui apprenés vous? d'un françois nouvellement arrivé qui est de blois. il est vray que la pureté du langage se trouve là, non pas seulement l'accent, mais la vraye phrase. tout le monde le dit. vostre langue est fort difficile. je voudrois parler aussi bien que vous. there is only one dialogue on a subject usually contained in french manuals--phrases for buying and selling. the vocabulary, which closes the book, is of a more usual kind. it is arranged under headings, beginning with the godhead and ending with a list of things necessary in a house. this book of mauger's enjoyed a greater and longer-lived popularity than any that had yet appeared. edition followed edition until the end of the first decade of the eighteenth century, and it continued to be plagiarised for another fifty years. its success can hardly have been due to the scholastic value of its rules, which are few and confused, but rather to its practical nature and lively dialogues. mauger constantly revised his grammar; of the earliest editions, no two are identical. in each case he wrote new dedications, new addresses to the reader, new dialogues, and varied the form of the grammar rules. the second edition is much more typical than the first. mauger had been ill in , and had not been able to correct the proofs himself. this task he entrusted to a friend (perhaps festeau), who "betrayed his expectation, and corrected it not exactly." he was likewise unable to add the english column to the dialogues, a task which was undertaken by the corrector of the press. in the case of the second edition, however, he attended "three times a day at the presse," that he might correct it according "to the expectation of those who will honour it with their reading." he called it _mr. mauger's french grammar_, and this was the title under which it continued to be published. mauger dedicated the second edition to colonel bullar, mentioning the many favours heaped upon him by that officer. he again addresses french verses to numerous english ladies, his pupils. the grammar rules are much the same; the chief change in this part is the addition of a latin translation to the english, "for to render it generally useful to strangers" visiting london, "which is this day accounted one of the most glorious cities of the world." that mauger provided for the teaching of french to foreign visitors to england shows how important a place the study of the language held in our country, and we know that he numbered a few foreigners among his many students of the language. in this second edition he attempted, as holyband had done before him, to adapt the orthography to the pronunciation, but without success. [header: mauger's french grammar] "i had thought," he writes, "for your greater advantage, to have fitted the writing to the pronunciation, but having found that i could not do so, without an absolute totall subverting of the foundations of the language, i had rather teach you to read and speak together than to show you how to speak without being able to read, or to read without knowing how to speak. they might say nevertheless that it would prevent many difficultyes if we did write as we speak." mauger decided to follow the rules of the french academy, instead of his own _caprichio_ which would "teach you to speak french without being able to read any other book than that i should present you with": for "our language," he said, "which is so highly esteemed by all strangers for its noble etymologies of greeke and latine, will not suffer itself to be so dismembered by the ignorance of those which profess it, not having one letter which doth not distinguish one word from another, the singular number from the plurall, the masculine gender from the foeminine, or which makes not a syllable long or short." the dialogues are new, but very similar to those of the first edition, the chief change being the introduction of a long and "exact account of the state of france, ecclesiastical, civil, and military as it flourisheth at present under king louis xiv.," which was brought up to date in each subsequent edition. in following years the dialogues become more numerous; they number eighty in the sixth edition ( ). each new issue promises additions, "of the last concern to the reader." a new feature in the sixth and seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules, entitled _le parterre de la langue françoise_. the verses were written at the request of the duke of mecklenburg, his former pupil, and arranged in the form of a dialogue between mauger and the duke, who first addresses his master: le langage françois est si plein de merveilles que ses charmans appas, ravissans nos oreilles, nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs, et pour en admirer les beautéz et les fleurs. mais, pour nous l'acquérir il faut tant d'artifice, qu'en ses difficultés il estreint nos delices, estouffe nos desseins, traverse le plaisir qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir réussir. les articles _de la_, _de_, _du_, sont difficiles. si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles, ils nous font bégayer presques à tous momens, et ternissent l'éclat de nos raisonnemens. and mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he will from the "parterre." additional matter was introduced in in the shape of short rules for the pronunciation of english, which in the following editions were developed into a short english grammar, written in french dialogues. later mauger modified the arrangement of his french grammar rules, giving them in parallel columns of french and english, in the form of question and answer. the section dealing with the parts of speech is recast in the form of a conversation between a french master and his lady pupil. as to the dialogues, which are all "modish"--there is not a word in them but is "elegant"--they were divided into two categories, one elementary and the other advanced. in the twelfth edition, for instance, we have forty-six dialogues, in the style of those of the earlier editions, and then ten longer and more difficult ones. mauger made hardly any changes in the issues that followed the twelfth, and in this shape it passed down to the eighteenth century. in the course of its development it had grown to nearly twice its original size. mauger's popularity as a teacher of french grew apace with his grammar. the commendatory poems, one by john busby, which are prefixed to the first two editions, show that even at that early date he was held in high esteem by many influential englishmen; and each new edition was offered to some new patron. mauger also published a collection of letters in french and english, which he considered "a great help to the learner of the french tongue," for "those who understand it with the help of the english, are capable of explaining afterwards any french author, being written on several subjects." the _lettres françoises et angloises de claude mauger sur toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres_ were dedicated to sir william pulteney. they were first issued in , and again in , with the addition of fifty letters. many are addressed to gentlemen of note who had been his students at blois, and continued to correspond with him for the purpose of practice in french. "puisque vous désirez que je continue à vous écrire des lettres françoises," he wrote to the count of praghen in , "pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est tant usitée dans toutes les cours de l'europe, je reçois vos ordres avec joye." others are addressed to pupils in london, including some of his large clientèle of ladies. [header: mauger's french and english letters] for instance, he writes to a certain mrs. gregorie: ayant ouï dire que vous estes allée a la campagne pour quinze jours, durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature déploye ce qu'elle a de plus beau, j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous écrire cette lettre en françois pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous apprenez avec tant de diligence. je suis bien aise que vous vous y adonniez si bien, car, comme vous avez la mémoire admirable, vous en viendriez bien tost à bout. he seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils' french by writing to them in the language.[ ] among his young english pupils was william penn, the quaker, to whom he wrote a letter dated : je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si dieu m'ayant fait si heureux de vous monstrer le françois que vous apprenez si bien, je n'en témoignois de la joye, en faisant voir à tout le monde, que l'honneur que vous me faites de vous servir de moy, pour vous l'acquérir est tres grand. en effet monsieur, n'est-ce pas un bon-heur? car je perdrois mon credit si dieu ne me suscitoit de tems en tems des personnes comme vous, qui par leur diligence et capacité avec l'aide de ma méthode le soutiennent. . . . j'ay bien de la satisfaction qu'elle [_i.e._ l'angleterre] sçache que vous m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui vous manquoit, qui est si estimée, et si usitée par toute la terre. terre. . . . whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a question of some uncertainty, which we are inclined to answer in the affirmative. in any case, they provided him with an excellent opportunity of advertising himself by calling attention to some of his well-known pupils. many were addressed to friends in france, where he seems to have had a very good connexion. he closes his collection with a short selection of commercial letters. mauger was the author of several other short works--a _livre d'histoires curieuses du temps_, destined for his pupils' reading; a _tableau du jugement universal_ ( ), which sold so well that there were very few copies left at the end of the year; and a latin poem of one hundred and four lines, entitled _oliva pacis_, celebrating the declaration of peace between louis x. of france and philip ii. besides many influential friends, he seems to have had several relatives in london.[ ] one of these was a master keyser, his brother-in-law, a dutch gentleman and painter, who lived in "long aker between the maidenhead and the three tuns tavern," and acted as a sort of agent for claude. mauger himself lived "in great queen street, over against well's street, next door to the strong water shop," in . before he had moved to "within two doors of master longland, a farrier in little queen st., over against the guy of warwick near the king's gate in holborn"; and in to "shandois street, over against the three elmes, at master saint andré's." it was probably about the year that he began to teach english to foreigners visiting england. he had the honour "of helping a little to the english tongue both the french ambassadors, ladyes, ambassadresses and several great lords, who come daily from the court of france to the court of england." with many of these he had much familiar intercourse, and it was at their request that he wrote his rules for the english language. one of his letters is addressed to the sharp-witted courtin, and others to the marquis de sande and monseigneur colbert's surgeon. some of the numerous french nobility, "who come daily from the court of france to the court of england," attracted by the gay and frenchified court of charles ii., also studied english under mauger. he describes his method of teaching as discursive, "avec raisonnement." practice and reading are the chief exercises. in one of his dialogues a lady pupil describes her french lesson;[ ] it consisted in reading, with special attention to the pronunciation, and telling a story in french, no doubt a repetition of the matter read. for the pronunciation, mauger considered "the living voice of a master better than all that can be set down in writing"; but none the less he provided rules for acquiring the true accent of blois. he took little interest in grammar, but fully realized the necessity of guiding rules; "some man perhaps," he writes, "will answer me that he speaketh his naturall tongue well enough, without all these rules. i confesse he may speak reasonably well, because it is a natural thing for him to do. but you needs must confesse that a latine schollar, who hath been acquainted with all such rules of grammar, speaketh better than such a one." mauger would have the student first master his rules, and then begin "by all means" to read, "pour joindre la pratique à la speculation des règles." [header: mauger's method of teaching] he no doubt intended the student to attempt to speak at the outset with the guidance of a french master, whom he held absolutely indispensable. the following talk between two students throws light on the practical methods advocated: apprenez-vous encore le françois? do you learn french still? ouy, je n'y suis pas encore parfait. yes, i am not yet perfect in it. et moi je continue aussi. and i continue also. je commence à l'entendre. i begin to understand it. j'entens tout ce que je lis. i understand all i read. avez vous un valet de pié françois? have you a french foot boy? ouy, monsieur. yes, sir. l'entendez-vous bien? do you understand him well? fort bien. very well. quel autheur lisez vous? what author do you read? je lis l'_histoire de france_. i read the _french history_. l'avez-vous leüe? have you read it? je l'ay leüe en anglois. i have read it in english. je l'acheteray. i will buy it. ou la pourray-je trouver? where shall i find it? partout. everywhere. avez-vous leüe l'_illustre have you read the _illustrious parisienne_? parisien_? allez-vous au sermon? do you go to sermon? ouy, monsieur. yes, sir. qui est-ce qui prêche? who preaches? c'est un habile homme. 'tis an able man. avez-vous le dictionnaire de miège?[ ] have you miège's dictionary? ouy, je l'ay. yes, i have it. voulez-vous me le prêter? will you lend it me? il est à votre service. it is at your service. je vous remercie. i thank you. la langue françoise n'est-elle pas is not the french tongue belle? fine? je l'aime fort. i love it extreamly. elle est fort à la mode. 'tis very modish. "my dialogues," writes mauger, "are so useful and so fit to learn to speak, that one may easily attain the french tongue by the assistance of a master, if he will take a little pains on his side." he also advises his pupils to read the lengthy heroical romances so popular at the time--_l'astrée_, and the enormous folios of de gomberville, la calprenède, mlle. de scudéry, and other romances of the same type--as well as the works of corneille, balzac, and le grand. with antoine le grand, mauger claims personal acquaintance, and recommends his works with special emphasis, giving his pupils notice of a book newly published by him: "there is a french book newly printed at paris called _l'epicure spirituel_, written in good french by m. antony le grand, author of _l'homme sans passions_. you may have it at mr. martyn's shop [mauger's publisher] at the sign of the bell in st. paul's churchyard." he also advocates, for purposes of translation, the reading of the bible and common prayers in french, books specially suitable owing to the ease with which english renderings could be found; and adds further that "at mr. bentley's shop, in russel st. in covent garden, you may be furnished with french bibles, french common prayers, french testaments, and french psalms." these would be of special use to his own students, as he encouraged them to frequent the french church for the benefit of hearing the language. as for mauger himself, although he appears to have professed the protestant religion and to have come first to england as a refugee for the sake of his principles, he does not seem to have given much attention to religious matters. neither does he manifest any particular interest in the french church,[ ] other than as an excellent place for his pupils to accustom themselves to the sounds of the french language. after he had spent some thirty years in england we find him moving to paris, where he was constantly with "some of the ablest gentlemen of port royal," who assured him that his french grammar and his letters in french and english were in their library. this break in mauger's long teaching career in england occurred some time about , after the appearance of the eighth edition of his grammar in . he now took up his residence in the fashionable quarter of paris, usually frequented by foreigners, the faubourg st. germain, where he taught french to english travellers, and english to any one wishing to learn it. this change of abode modified his exclusive attitude towards the blois accent. at an earlier date he had acknowledged that "after blois the best pronunciation is got at orleans, saumur, tours, and the court," and in he writes, "je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la cour," and tells us that he had daily intercourse with french courtiers "tant ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs, à qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de monstrer la langue angloise." he also read all the latest books, and carried on a correspondence with learned men in paris, among others antoine le grand. but in the same year that he was praising the french of paris, he wrote, encouraging a noble englishman to take up the study of french in england: [header: mauger in paris] "si vos affaires ne vous permettent pas d'aller à paris, pour vous y adonner, de quoy vous souciez-vous si vous avez blois dans londres qui est la source? en effet sa prononciation ne change jamais: de plus à cause du commerce qu'il y a entre les deux cours, l'une communique à l'autre sa pureté. et je dy assurément qu'il y a icy quantité de personnes qui parlent aussi bien à la mode qu'au faubourg saint germain. et comme les fonteines font couler leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre, vous trouverez des maîtres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi purement que sur les lieux." however, when he had himself spent two years in paris, he gave up praising the merits of blois, and always describes himself as "late professor of languages at paris," which he now called "the centre of the purity of the french tongue, where the true french phrase is to be found." from this time on his grammar claims to contain everything that can be desired in order to learn french as spoken at the court of france, and "all the improvements of that famous language as it is now flourishing at the court of france." during his stay at paris, which extended from about to , the popularity of his grammar in england did not diminish. four editions were printed in london after having been corrected by himself at paris--the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth. the last was dedicated to the young earl of salisbury, who had studied french with mauger when on the usual continental tour. three motives, he states, induced him to return to england, "after having gathered the finest flowers of the french tongue at paris to enrich my workes withall for the better satisfaction of those that learn it: the first the extream love which i bear to this generous country,[ ] that has obliged me so much as to approve so generally of my books, that for her sake they are received very well beyond sea, and especially in france. the second, to correct the thirteenth edition my self exactly, many faults of printing having crept into the four last editions which were printed here in my absence though i corrected them at paris. the third to see my relations and friends." after his return to england, he composed his _book of curious stories of the times_ in french and english for the use of his pupils. the new editions of his grammar, however, are identical with the thirteenth, which itself bears very great resemblance to the twelfth issued while mauger was still at paris. how many years he continued to superintend the new issues of his grammar is not certain; the nineteenth edition of is the last described as "corrected and enlarged by the author." again and again he refers to the popularity of his book in england, and the "unexpressible courtesies" he received at the hands of his english patrons. "this grammar sells so well," he wrote in the sixth edition ( ), "as you may see, being printed so often, and many thousands every time, that i cannot but acknowledge the kindness of this generous nation towards me in raising its credit both at home and abroad, in so much that other nations, following the general approbation concerning it of so wise a people, use it as commonly everywhere beyond the sea, as they do here in london, and in all the dominions of his majesty of great britain." it was also looked on with much favour in france. in a french edition, called the thirteenth, was printed at bordeaux. but it was in the netherlands that the grammar received almost as warm a welcome as in england. the book thus forms another link between the study of french in england and the low countries. in this dutch edition of the grammar was issued for the thirteenth time, and in for the fifteenth, both at the hague. it was usually published with an english grammar of more importance than the short one added by mauger to the english editions--that of festeau, mauger's friend and fellow-townsman. their combined work was known as the _nouvelle double grammaire françoise-angloise et angloise-françoise par messieurs claude mauger et paul festeau, professeurs de langues à paris et à londres_. the two grammars are followed by mauger's dialogues and a collection of twenty-one "plaisantes et facetieuses histoires pour rire," in french and english, entitled _l'ecole pour rire_. the growing popularity of english from the beginning of the reign of william of orange, the editor tells us in , induced him to add the english grammar to the french grammar of mauger, and he chose festeau's because it was in as high favour for learning english as mauger's was for learning french. [header: paul festeau] paul festeau was the author of a french as well as an english grammar,[ ] and, like mauger, he taught english to foreign visitors in london, as well as french to english people. indeed his career bears a close resemblance to that of mauger, of whom he seems to have been a sort of protégé. like mauger he had taught at blois, and the two teachers probably came to england together; at any rate they arrived at much the same time. he enjoyed a greater popularity than mauger as a teacher of english, and was also looked upon with respect as a teacher of french.[ ] festeau's french grammar, first published in , occupies an important second place among the french text-books produced in the third quarter of the seventeenth century. it was dedicated to colonel russel, of the king's guard, who had learnt french under festeau's guidance. as a grammar it is fuller and more clearly arranged than mauger's, and, in main outline, there is much similarity between the two. the rules, which occupy the first two hundred pages, are written in english and provide information on pronunciation and on each part of speech in turn. each is accompanied by a considerable number of illustrative examples, which, festeau thought, were of great help in impressing the rule on the memory, and of more use than dialogues. he also included dialogues in his work, and was attacked on account of their prolixity. he argued, in reply, that "if the reader pleases to consider the store of phrases in the body of the work amongst the rules which do contain near two hundred pages, he will very well apprehend that, when a scholar hath learnt all these phrases without book in learning the rules, he needs not at all burden his memory with many dialogues: for ... i have found by experience that those who have learned them were able afterwards to translate french into english, with the aid of a dictionary and i do maintain that it is not necessary to learn such abondance of dialogue by heart, it is enough to read and english them, and next to that to explain them from english into french, and so doing the words and phrases do insensibly make an impression in the memory and the discreet scholar goeth forward with a great deal of ease. as for young children i yield that it is good they should continue the dialogues: but after they have learned short phrases, they must of necessity learn long ones, otherwise they could never attain to the capacity of joyning words together. beside when a master doth teach his scholar, he must not ask him a whole long phrase at once, he must divide it in parts according to the distinction of points. as for instance, if i will ask this long phrase of a child | quand on a gaigné une fois | le jeu attire insensiblement | en esperance de gaigner davantage |. i will ask it him at three several times." festeau gives the pupil the english in three separate phrases, and requires him to give the french rendering. "them that will take the pains to peruse it," to use festeau's own words in describing his grammar, "will observe a very new method, clear and intelligible rules to the least capacities, fine remarks upon all the parts of speech and particularly upon the gender of nouns, and the use of moods and tenses. they will find the difficulties of the particles, _en_, _on_, and _que_ explained, which give commonly so much trouble to the learner, they will see the use and good order of impersonal verbs, as well active as passive, likewise also of the reciprocal and reflected verbs. finally they will see familiar dialogues on divers sorts of subjects, very useful and profitable for them that desire to speak properly: no barbarous kind of words and phrases as are found in some other grammars, by reason that the author professes to speak and to write his own language well." a vocabulary of thirty pages, in the style of mauger's, and rules for the accents and the length of the vowels fill the rest of the volume. this was how the work stood in the third edition, which, festeau explains, "might rightly be said the fourth, seeing that there was fifteen hundred copies drawn off the second edition, and two thousand of this, whereas they use to draw but a thousand at most: and considering the time it first came out, it seems that it sells pretty well. if some other former grammars have had more editions, it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them: we can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold, and when this hath been in the light as long, no doubt but (especially being better known) it may have as many editions." [header: pierre lainÉ] possibly he was referring to mauger's popularity, and the two friends may have become rivals during the latter part of their stay in england. on similar grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be called the tenth, as two thousand copies were drawn of the four last editions. mauger, however, states that "many thousand" copies of his grammar were drawn at every edition. by this time festeau's grammar had acquired a considerable reputation. "the approbation that it hath received," he writes, "of the most learned of the nation, who have esteemed it the neatest, the easiest and most correct, is not a small advantage to it: it is that which hath encouraged me to bring it to a better perfection." there is, however, very little difference between the half score or so editions which were issued. like mauger, festeau soon began to modify his attitude towards the blois accent. in , while still advertising himself proudly as a "native of blois, where the true tone of the french tongue is found by the unanimous consent of all frenchmen," he claims to teach the "elegancy and purity of the french tongue as it is now spoken at the court of france." however, it is uncertain whether festeau went to paris or not. at the time when he first wrote of court french he was teaching in london, and we are informed that "if any gentleman have occasion for the author of this grammar, his lodging is in the strand near st. clement's, at mr. john king's house, at the sign of the wounded heart." he was still there in . in we see him requesting any "gentleman or others desiring to speak with him to inquire for him in haughton street, next door to the joyner's arms, near claire market," or at mr. loundes, his bookseller and publisher. at about this time he began to teach mathematics as well as, and by means of french; he was prepared to instruct gentlemen in all its branches. it was at the request of several gentlemen, with whom he "did often discourse of the same in french," that he added to the fourth edition of his grammar a long dialogue covering the whole field of mathematics, and giving "a clear and fair idea thereof." another french tutor who flourished at the same time as mauger, and who wrote a french grammar which, like his, appeared during the commonwealth, was peter lainé. lainé is not very communicative as regards himself; he does not even tell us from what part of france he came. all we know of him is that he was a protégé of robert paston, to whom he dedicated his book, and who, no doubt, had been his pupil for french. of his grammar he writes, "i here expose to thy view a work which might rather be counted an errata than a book"--a state of things for which both himself and the printer were to blame. for his part, he says, he does not write for the sake of seeing his name in print, or because he fancies he excels others. "i rather count myself inferior to the least of them. but the urgent importunities of some persons whom i have had, and still have the honour to inform in french, have made me undertake it to satisfie their desires, and my gratitude." his sympathy with the protestants emerges clearly from the contents of his grammar. apparently he did not belong to the blois group. he differs from them in adopting the new orthography in which many of the unsounded letters were omitted. it was a pity to spoil the purity and elegance of the pronunciation by the old orthography, he thought; moreover the clear resemblance between the orthography and the pronunciation renders the language easier to foreigners; "seeing that we both write and speak any vulgar tongue to be understood and to entertain society, it is in my judgement, not only convenient but even necessary to bring as near a conformity betwixt the tongue and the pen, as may without prejudice to the material grounds of our language, afford all the facility that is possible to those that are strangers to it." it is curious to recall that peletier, and other earlier writers, had, on the contrary, retained the etymological consonants of the old orthography, with the idea that the foreigner's latin would thereby be of greater service to him. lainé's _compendious introduction to the french tongue, teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain briefly and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof_, is very similar to mauger's grammar in the distribution of the matter. rules for the pronunciation, which as usual are briefly explained by means of comparison with english sounds, are followed by observations on each part of speech in turn;[ ] finally come familiar phrases "to be used at the first learning of french," ten long dialogues, and a vocabulary, all in french and english. [header: lainÉ's dialogues] the book closes with what lainé calls "an alphabetical rule for the true and modern orthography of that french now spoken, being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed"--an alphabetical list of words. the grammatical section of the work is written in english. in the dialogues he purposely adapts the english to the french phrase. "i have been more careful," he explains, "in the whole course of the treatise, to observe the french, then the english phrase: to the end i might make its signification more intelligible, to vary less from the sense, and to afford most delight and more facility to the learner." according to him, the first thing to be learned by the student of french are the sounds of the language. he should commit to memory as many of the familiar phrases as he can easily retain, and from them pass to the "dialogical discourses." their substance is much the same as in mauger--polite and gallant conversations mainly between students of french, talk and guidance for travellers in france, etc. the following specimen is from a dialogue between an english gentleman and his language master: quel beau livre est-ce là? what fine book is that? mons., c'est le romant comique. sir, it is the comic romance. qui en est l'autheur? who is the author of it? mons. c'est mons. scarron. sir, it is mr. scarron. est-il fort célèbre? is he very famed? est il fort estimé? is he much esteemed? mons., c'est un esprit sublime et sir, it is a sublime and transcendant. transcendant wit. de quoi traite cet ouvrage? what doth this work deal on? mons., il n'est plein que sir, it is full but de drolleries facesieuses. . . . of pleasant drolleries.... lisons un peu: faites moi let us read a little: do me la faveur de m'antandre the favour to understand me lire. read. prononcez hardiment; pronounce boldly; observez vos accents. observe your accents. ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude. take no ill habit. lisés distinctement. read distinctly. vou lisez trop vîte. you read too fast. notre langue est ennemi de la our tongue is enemy to précipitation. precipitation. lainé evidently intended that the dialogues, at least some of them, should be committed to memory, as well as read and translated; "after that," he continues, "as his sufficiency shall permit, he may proceed to reading any histories, among which the holy writ ought to have the pre-eminence, had not divine providence, and the eternal spirit that dictated it, purposely rejected the affected smoothness and polishedness of the style." we recall, as we reflect on this strange reason for rejecting the holy scriptures as reading material, the unenviable reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style. as the bible is left us "for divine study only," lainé advises his pupils to make use of moral histories for purposes of reading. many, he says, have been produced of late years. nor did he limit his pupils' choice to these; he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at the time--_artamène ou le grand cyrus_ and _clélie_ by mlle. de scudéry, _cassandre_ and _cléopâtre_ by la calprenède; also the _poésies spirituelles_ of corneille, the commentaries of caesar in french, and scarron's _roman comique_. lighter fare could be found in the _gazette françoise_. footnotes: [ ] "which city, lying in the very middle of france, is the most famous for the true pronunciation of the language." [ ] "what are you doing? you must not render this in french, _qu'estes vous en faisant?_ but thus, _que faites-vous?_" ... and so on. [ ] the practice was a common one at the time. thus sir charles cotterel wrote in italian to mrs. katherine philipps, who thanks him for the care he takes to improve her in italian by writing to her in that language. letter of april , , in _letters of orinda to poliarchus_, . [ ] one of his letters (no. ) is addressed to adrien mauger ( ), bachelor of divinity, claude's nephew, whom he calls the head of the family, and who apparently lived at blois. [ ] his fee was s. a month, for three lessons a week. [ ] cp. p. , _infra._ [ ] the names mauger and maugier occur frequently in the registers of the threadneedle street church, but none can be connected with claude. [ ] "l'angleterre que j'aime infiniment," he writes in his twelfth edition. [ ] the first edition appeared in . the second edition was advertised in (arber, _term catalogues_, i. ). [ ] "de tous les professeurs de la langue françoyse, festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas. si tu es éloquent dans nostre langue angloise, dans la tienne, pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas?" thus wrote one of his pupils, mr. p. hume, probably the famous statesman and covenanter. [ ] pp. - . lainé retains the usual six latin cases; the verbs are divided into four conjugations; the indeclinables are given in lists. a vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are masculine or feminine is included. chapter iv the french teaching profession and methods of studying the language from their very first appearance the voluminous french romances of the time enjoyed great popularity in england,[ ] partly, perhaps, on account of the lack of a supply of similar works in the vernacular. several english translations appeared, but many preferred to read them in the original. their importance in the eyes of the french teachers may also have increased their vogue. they were especially affected by charles i.; and when on the eve of his death, he was distributing a few of his favourite possessions among his friends, he left the volumes of la calprenède's _cassandre_ to the earl of lindsey.[ ] later on, pope describing, in his _rape of the lock_, the adventurous baron in quest of the much-coveted lock, pictures him imploring love for help, and declares he to love an altar built of twelve vast french romances neatly gilt. among the most eager readers of french romances was dorothy osborne. we are enabled to trace part of her course in reading from the charming letters she wrote to sir william temple, her future husband. they are full of references to things french, and replete with french words; she uses english words in a french sense: _injury_ with her means _insult_; and she writes to explain that when she said _maliciously_ she really meant "a french _malice_, which you know does not signify the same thing as an english one." a little note sent to temple when she was in london, shortly before their marriage, evidently in answer to one from him, may be quoted as a specimen of her french, and her total disregard of spelling and grammar: je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres moins confuse, au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer sous ma fennestre m'ont tourmentés de tel façon que je doubt fort si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore; je ne suis pourtant pas en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en voy ausi tost que je serai habillée voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre satisfaction; apres je viendré vous rendre conte de nos affairs et quoy qu'il en sera vous ne sçaurois jamais doubté que je ne vous ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde.[ ] the french romances were dorothy's constant companions, and her letters are full of criticisms of and references to her favourite passages. she sent the volumes to temple by instalments,[ ] as she finished them, pressing him for his opinion. _le grand cyrus_ seems to have been her favourite. she had also a great admiration for _ibraham ou l'illustre bassa_, which, like _polexandre et cléopâtre_ and the four volumes of _prazimène_, was her "old acquaintance." _parthenissa_, the english romance in the french style by lord broghill, did not meet with her approval. "but," she confides to temple, "perhaps i like it worse for having a piece of _cyrus_ by me that i am highly pleased with, and that i would fain have you read. i'll send it you." as for the english translations of her favourites, she had no patience with them. they are written in a language half french and half english, and so changed that dorothy, their old friend, hardly recognizes them in this strange garb. french romances were not the only french interest dorothy osborne and temple had in common. they had first become acquainted while travelling to france, the osbornes on their way to join their father at st. malo, and temple setting out on the usual "tour." temple, apparently, lingered with his new friends in france, until his father, hearing of this, ordered him to paris.[ ] there he evidently acquired the knowledge of french which dorothy playfully declares a necessary qualification for _her_ husband: for she could not marry one who "speaks the french he has picked up out of the old laws"; [header: pepys's french books] or, the other extreme, the "travelled monsieur whose head is all feather inside and out, that can talk of nothing but dances and duels, and has courage enough to wear slashes when every one else dies with cold to see him."[ ] another instance of the popularity of these romances and other french writings is found in pepys's _diary_.[ ] both pepys and more particularly his wife, who was the daughter of a french refugee, were great readers of the romances. pepys himself seems to have found them a little tiresome, and relates how on a certain occasion mrs. pepys wearied him by telling him long stories out of the _grand cyrus_, and how he hurt her feelings by checking her outpourings. she would sit up till past midnight reading _cyrus_ or _polexandre_. he would often stop at his bookseller's to buy french books for his wife, including _l'illustre bassa_ in four volumes, and _cassandre_. one evening she read to him the epistle of _cassandre_, which he pronounced "very good indeed." when they went to see dryden's _evening love, or the mock astrologer_, mrs. pepys recognized at once its debt to _l'illustre bassa_, and on the following afternoon "she read in the _l'illustre bassa_ the plot of yesterday's play, which is exactly the same." his french books seem to have been a great source of interest to pepys, and to have served him on many occasions. being ill, "taking physique all day," he beguiled the time by reading "little french romances." he appears to have been particularly attracted by sorbière's _voyage en angleterre_, which on its appearance caused some indignation at the english court. pepys read the book in the year of its publication ( ).[ ] unfortunately he has not left us a very full account of the other french books he knew. however, on the st may , he writes that he went "by water to redriffe, reading a new french book my lord bruncker did give me to-day, _l'histoire amoureuse des gaules_" [by the comte de bussy], "being a pretty libel against the amours of the court of france." another volume which pleased pepys was a "pretty" work, _la nouvelle allégorique_, "upon the strife between rhetorique and its enemies, very pleasant." his choice of french literature was wide, ranging from du bartas, which he judged "very fine as anything he had seen," to helot's "idle roguish book," _l'eschole des filles_, which he burnt, "that it might not stand in the list of books, nor among them to disgrace them if it be found."[ ] at both allestry's and martin's, pepys's booksellers, there was a great variety of french and foreign books, which often tempted him. "to my new bookseller's, martin's," he writes on the th january - , "and there did meet with fournier the frenchman, that hath wrote of the sea and navigation,[ ] and i could not but buy him." he was much interested in french treatises on music,[ ] and sent to france for mersenne's _l'harmonie universelle_, which he could not get at his bookseller's. pepys's friend, william batelier, brought him "one or two printed musick books of songs"[ ] from france, among other french books. "home," he again notes, on the th january , "and there i find will batelier hath also sent the books which i made him bring me out of france, among others _l'estat de france_, _marnix_, _etc._,[ ] to my great content, and so i was well pleased with them and shall take a time to look them over ... but my eyes are now too much out of tune to look upon them with any pleasure." and when his failing eyesight prevented him from reading with ease, his wife, batelier, and his brother-in-law, balty st. michel, would read to him in french as well as in english. he got balty to read to him out of sorbière's _voyage en angleterre_, and under the date the th of january - we find this entry: "i spent all the afternoon with my wife and will batelier talking, and then making them read, and particularly made an end of mr. boyle's _book of formes_, which i am glad to have over, and then fell to read a french discourse which he hath brought over with him for me." [header: polite conversation fashionable] no doubt the polite french literature which the french teachers recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the character of the dialogues which form part of their manuals. mauger, festeau, and lainé all include polite conversations in their dialogues, and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling, wayside and tavern talk. polite conversation was the fashion, and coteries for fostering it grew up in england on the model of those in france. mrs. katherine philipps, generally known as "the matchless orinda," is perhaps the most prominent of the ladies who tried, without any permanent success it is true, to introduce the refinements of the french _salons_ into england.[ ] each member of the "society of friendship" she gathered round her assumed fanciful names in the style of those affected by the adherents of the parisian salons. "orinda" was of course a great reader of french literature, and knew french perfectly. she is chiefly remembered for her translations of some of corneille's plays into english.[ ] french books of conversation, such as mlle. de scudéry's _conversations sur divers sujets_[ ] or the similar volume by clerombault, which was rendered into english by a "person of honour" [ ], also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time, though they had no direct influence on the dialogues specially written for students of french. but, like them, they turn on such subjects as the pleasures, the passions, the soul, love, beauty, merit, and so forth. thus the french teachers of the time, in introducing a new style into their dialogues, undoubtedly yielded, to some extent at all events, to the tastes of their numerous lady pupils. a large proportion of mauger's pupils were ladies. he praised their accent, and considered it clearer and more correct than that of their brothers. and in the later editions of his treatise the grammar rules are given in the form of a conversation between a lady and her french master. another french teacher of the time, the author of a collection of dialogues in which the new style is the dominating feature, also shows a decided preference for his lady pupils. this writer was william or guillaume herbert, the author of the _french and english dialogues in a more exact and delightful method then any yet extant_. the thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all, with the exception of the first which is autobiographical, written in the _précieux_ style, full of points and conceits,[ ] and all, with the same exception, are very alike and a little wearisome. herbert says he does not write for every one, but for "les plus subtils." and in his first dialogue, which gives a free account of his condition and opinions, he proceeds to ridicule the traditional style of the french and english dialogues. a stranger addresses a friend of the author: pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter? parce qu'il n'a rien à vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour acheter; et que les autres faiseurs de livres françois en ce pais ont tout vendu et tout acheté avant qu'il allât au marché. pourquoi ne dit-il rien du manger et du boire? pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir, faute d'appétit, et que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precédé l'ont fait pour lui, nommant fidèlement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portées à la table de leurs maîtres. qui lèche les plats, en peut bien parler. pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des habits, et de la mode, du lever et du coucher, de la chambre et du lit? parce que nos maîtres, qui ont été valets de chambre ou laquais, lui ont épargné ce travail, comme leur étant plus propre qu'à lui. pourquoi se tait-il des merciers, des tailleurs et des cordonniers? parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que n'étant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient guère d'eux et s'en soucie encore moins. pourquoi laisse-t-il les ministres, les médecins et les jurisconsultes, sans faire attention d'eux? parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas: et assez de langue pour parler pour eux-mêmes. et toutefois il en parle à la dérobée, sans leur donner un discours à part, quoiqu'il honore ces professions-là, et aime fort passionément plusieurs personnes de ces trois états, pour leurs rares mérites. n'a-t-il rien des apoticaires, des chirurgiens et des barbiers? pas un seul mot, monsieur, parce qu'il se sert rarement des premiers, et que, par la grâce de dieu, il n'a ni playes ni ulcères ni vérole pour les seconds, et que, les derniers le tenant à la gorge, il n'oseroit parler. il pourroit dire quelque chose des parens et des alliéz. qu'en diroit-il, les siens lui étant si peu courtois? s'il parloit d'eux, ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs. [header: state of the teaching profession] herbert, it will be seen, had not a very high opinion of the social origin or ability of the majority of his fellow-teachers. he was a very unwilling member of the profession. he does not style himself "professor of the french language" on the title-page of his dialogues, although he taught both in his house and away from home, because few people care to boast of their cross, and his cross was--to be reduced to belong to a profession "que tant de valets, de mécaniques, et d'ignorants rendent tous les jours méprisable." he draws a far from flattering picture of the common sort of french teacher. he is a "brouillon," a shuffling fellow, who boasts, dresses well, and intrudes everywhere, cringing and offering his services at a cheaper price than the genuine teachers. he can hardly write seven or eight lines of french correctly. yet men such as this, says herbert, pass for first-class teachers, and some take upon themselves to correct and write books. what is more, they count many pupils, even among the nobility. yet another cause of annoyance to herbert was what seemed to him the presumption of the blois fraternity. it is the fashion, he remarks scornfully, to say you come from blois. and you do so if you happen to come from normandy. he is not ashamed of his province, though he takes good care not to advertise it needlessly; brittany (of which he was evidently a native) is better than blois, according to him. thus we may conclude that herbert was one of the 'enemies' to whom members of the blois group frequently allude. festeau refers to them as being ignorant and envious persons, while mauger describes them foaming with envy and jealousy, and trying to harm him in the eyes of his pupils, as well as casting aspersions on his grammar;[ ] but he did not regard what they said, england having raised his grammar so high that "their envy cannot reach to it." and mauger goes on to censure a certain section of the french teaching profession, "broken frenchmen," who make their pupils speak rapidly, but not distinctly. "have a speciall care," he exclaims, "that you have not to do with those that are not true frenchmen as your normans or gascons. i confesse that a norman that is a man of some quality or one that hath seen the world or that is a good scholar may possibly have the right accent, but any other that hath not such parts can never give the true accent." herbert retorted that the blois clique tried to persuade every one that bretons and normans cannot speak correct french. he naturally resented such assertions, and was not himself nearly so exclusive in the list of those who were not "good frenchmen." he merely states that the english are greatly mistaken in their estimation of the french living here, "considering as such all those that speak their tongue, so that the high germans, switzers of the french tongue, danes, swedes, dutch, walloons, and those of geneva pass for good french in the opinion of many, although in truth there are not here two naturall french 'mongst ten, which are taken for such, and who for their profit would gladly go for such." there was every need, thought herbert, of protecting the profession from these incompetent teachers. before a tutor is engaged he should be made to translate a passage from a good author from english into french, and then from french into english, and both the pieces should be examined by competent judges of both languages; for, according to him, a teacher must know english, or some other language with which the scholar is acquainted, such as latin, so that there may be some foundation on which to build the new edifice. beyond the importance he attached to translation, we know little of herbert's ideas on the teaching of french. he devotes more space to criticizing the teachers. he does tell us, however, that french orthography is best learnt by transcribing french passages, by which operation it impresses itself on the mind without effort. he was also an advocate of much and careful reading. grammatical rules he considered necessary, and he had intended to publish a grammar together with his dialogues, but he was prevented from doing so by illness. he hoped, however, to issue it a few months later, but apparently he was again prevented from carrying out his design. [header: guillaume herbert] yet two years after the appearance of his dialogues he published another work but of quite a different character--_considerations on the behalf of foreiners which reside in england, and of the english who are out of their own country, to allay the tempest which is too often raised in the minds of the vulgar sort, and to sweeten the bitterness of a bilious or cholerick humour against strangers_, in which he showed "that of all the nations of europe, the english and french should love one another best, as well for their vicinity as for the great commerce that is 'mongst them in time of peace, and for their consanguinitie, there being in this country thousands of families which are descended from the french, and as many or more in france whose progenitours are english." these 'considerations,' twenty in number, are mainly a plea in favour of the foreign churches in england and of the liberty of aliens to trade and work in this country, with an allusion to the "good usage of neighbouring nations" towards the english fugitives of mary's reign. they are dated from the charterhouse, june , and appear to have been the only work herbert published after his _dialogues_. he had, however, previously shown his interest in the teaching of french by editing in the fourth edition of cogneau's _sure guide to the french tongue_,[ ] which consisted largely of the style of dialogue which he ridiculed at a later date. herbert had had a long career in england before we first hear of him as a teacher of french. he had composed treatises in french and in english, both of which he wrote with equal facility. his language gives no clue to his nationality, but, as we saw, we may conclude from his autobiographical dialogue that he was a native of brittany. he was, no doubt, the william herbert, native of france, who received a grant of letters of denization in . at that date he was living at pointington, somerset, and was married to an englishwoman, frances sedgwicke. in the previous year he had prepared for the press a work in french called _la mallette de david_.[ ] how he spent his time in pointington is not clear, but in he was tutor to the sons of montague bertie, second earl of lindsey. on the death of his wife in he moved to london, and published a number of devotional works in english, which he had composed at pointington, chiefly for the benefit of his wife and children. he refers to the unfavourable reception of these compositions in his french and english dialogues, which he hoped would meet with a better fate. herbert also took a great interest in the foreign churches of london. he dedicated his _quadripartit devotion_ of to the "learned, pious, and reverend pastors, elders, and deacons of all the french and dutch congregations in england." at a later date he published a biting pamphlet against a french pastor, jean despagne,--the _réponse aux questions de mr. despagne adressées à l'eglise françoise de londres_ ( ), accusing "le ridicule despagne" of blasphemy and immorality, as well as criticising his french. in this work herbert agrees with lainé in omitting a number of superfluous letters, with the intention of facilitating reading for foreigners, though he was opposed to too many changes, for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography. the _dialogues_ and the _considerations in behalf of strangers_ were the two works issued subsequently to the attack on despagne, and with them ends all we know of the career of herbert, critic of the french teaching profession, and earliest advocate of the "registration" of teachers. the jean despagne attacked so bitterly by herbert was none the less a welcome guest in this country, and was the only truly french minister in london during the commonwealth. english as well as french, attracted by his excellent sermons, gathered round him. thus he co-operated in a sense, and no doubt unconsciously, with mauger and the other french teachers of the time, who were busy encouraging their pupils to attend the french church. despagne was minister, not of the old church of threadneedle street, but of a new congregation in westminster, which met at first in durham house in the strand, and when that was pulled down, at the chapel in somerset house ( ).[ ] he held aloof from the older church, and went so far as to criticise calvin. he was attacked and accused of schism, but was protected by his powerful patrons, chief among whom was the earl of pembroke. an important group of the royalist english nobility and gentry found in despagne a means of satisfying their religious needs when the anglican church was in abeyance. among them was the diarist john evelyn, who heard despagne preach in the savoy church. [header: the french churches] another adherent, and a very faithful one, was a certain henry brown, who, in his english translation of one of despagne's works,[ ] speaks of the great resort of the english nobility and gentry to the "excellent sermons and doctrines" of the french pastor. many continued to attend after the restoration, evelyn among others; as late as he remarks that "a 'stranger' preached at the savoy french church, the liturgie of the church of england being now used altogether, as translated into french by dr. durell." the savoy church had been authorized by charles ii. at the restoration on condition that the english liturgy in french should be used. the threadneedle street church, on the contrary, continued to use the calvinistic 'discipline,' and regarded with jealousy and suspicion the church rising in westminster. it refused all co-operation, and endeavoured to bring about the suppression of the new church. the savoy church benefited on account of its situation in the fashionable residential quarter, while threadneedle street was away in the city. consequently many members of the english aristocracy and gentry continued to frequent the westminster church even after the restoration. the use of the anglican liturgy was no doubt an additional attraction. when service was opened there in , by j. durel,[ ] among the english present were the duke and duchess of ormond, the countess of derby and her daughters, the earl of stafford, and the dukes of newcastle and devonshire. indeed the english gentry seem to have occupied the attention of the french churches just as much as the refugees themselves. the threadneedle street church felt the advantages of its westminster rival in this respect, and at the restoration, offered to establish a french sabbath lecture at westminster for those of the english gentry and french protestants who found threadneedle street too remote, hoping by this means to prevent division by having a separate church there.[ ] the threadneedle street church, however, was not without its english adherents. pepys went from time to time to both french churches, but more frequently to threadneedle street, as far as can be gathered from his diary, where he does not always specify which of the churches is meant. "at last i rose," he writes on the th september , "and with tom to the french church at the savoy, where i never was before; a pretty place it is; and there they have the common prayer book read in french, and which i never saw before, the minister do preach with his hat off, i suppose in further conformity with our church." pepys as a rule went to the anglican church in the morning, and to the french in the afternoon. he usually has a very good word for the sermon, though on one occasion it was so "tedious and long that they were fain to light candles to baptize the children by." there were also services held at the french ambassador's, which many of the nobility attended, as well as french sermons at court from time to time. evelyn was present on one of these occasions: "at st. james's chapel preached, or rather harangued, the famous orator, monsieur morus, in french. there were present the king, the duke, the french ambassador lord aubigny, the earl of bristol, and a world of roman catholics, drawn thither to hear this eloquent protestant." this was on the th of january . at a much later date, september , he heard another frenchman, "who preached before the king and queene in that splendid chapell next st. george's hall." it appears therefore that the practice, common among french teachers, of urging their pupils to go to the french church, met with some response, as did their advice as regards the reading of french literature. on both these points the teachers of the middle of the seventeenth century are at one with those of the sixteenth, and, as a general rule, there is very little difference between the methods used in the two centuries. reading remained the basis of the teaching; dialogues were committed to memory and translated into english, less importance being attached to retranslation into french in later times. as for pronunciation, the teachers of the seventeenth century realised the inadequacy of teaching it by comparison with english sounds; they laid all the more emphasis on the services of a good tutor, continuing, none the less, to supply certain rules, though not without a warning. as time went on, more importance was attached to the grammar, which, though still limited in theory to essential general rules, was often studied in the first place, and not left till need for it arose in practice. the general opinion is thus expressed by james howell: "what foundations are to material fabriques the same is grammar to a language. [header: french by "grammar and rote"] if the foundation be not well laid, 'twill be but a poor tottring superstructure; if grammatical rules go not before, there is no language can be had in perfection. yet there are no precepts so punctuall, but much must be left to observation, which is the grand mistresse that guides and improves the understanding in the research and poursute of all humane knowledge, _quod deficit in praecepto, suppleat observatio._" students who learnt on this method, called a combination of "grammar and rote," would read aloud with their tutor, chiefly for practice in pronunciation; study the principal grammar rules and commit to memory the vocabulary of familiar phrases, and a few short dialogues; read and translate[ ] french dialogues, and then pass to the favourite french authors; sometimes they would translate from english into french, or write french letters; finally they would converse as much as possible with their tutor, repeat stories they had read in french, and seize every opportunity of speaking the language and hearing it spoken. such was the method employed by the more serious french teachers of the time. there were, however, others, and apparently very many, who taught "by rote" alone without any grammar rules--a common method of learning modern languages. "in england, the french, spanish, and italian languages are not the languages of our country, and spoke only by few persons, yet 'tis evident they are taught in london, and several other places in the kingdom, purely by conversation." "for it is well known," argues a writer on education,[ ] "that there are grammars writ for the french, italian, and spanish languages, and yet notwithstanding, these languages are learned by conversation ... little children, who know not what grammar means, are bred up to speak foreign languages fluently and correctly.... there are some indeed, in england that teach modern languages by grammar. but this is not at all necessary, as is unanswerably evident from those persons who perfectly learn them without it. however, those who reach the modern languages by grammar only teach their scholars so much of it as to know how to decline nouns and verbs and understand some few rules. for as for the languages themselves, they are generally taught not by books but conversation, which is found by experience to be much the readiest, easiest, and best method of teaching them.... some by great application have learn'd french or italian in half a year's time by conversation, and indeed any foreign tongue is ordinarily taught in a year or a year and a half. and such as are two years in learning any of them are accounted either very negligent or else very incapable of retaining them.... men who know little or nothing of french, italian, or spanish, quickly learn any one of these languages only by going twice or thrice a week to a club where they are obliged to speak it." how common such practical methods of learning french were may be gathered from the fact that the few memoirs and similar writings which give any detail on the subject invariably mention them. for instance, the mother of mrs. hutchinson, the wife of the regicide and governor of nottingham, was sent to board in the house of a refugee minister in order to learn french.[ ] as to mrs. hutchinson herself, she had a french nurse, and was taught to speak english and french together.[ ] others had tutors. thus the mother of lady anne halkett, the royalist and writer on religious subjects, paid masters to teach lady anne and her sister "to write, speak french, play on the lute and virginals and dance";[ ] and margaret cavendish, duchess of newcastle, held up by mrs. makin as an example to "all ingenious and vertuous ladies," also had tutors for the polite accomplishments, and refers to her language lessons as "prating."[ ] she acquired a good knowledge of french, became attendant to queen henrietta maria, and accompanied her in her exile in france. [header: french by conversation] an example of the opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of french, "in any leisure hour," as milton said of italian, is found in the letters of robert loveday, the translator of part of la calprenède's _cléopâtre_. loveday lived during the commonwealth as a dependent in the house of lady clinton at nottingham, where, he says, french "was familiarly spoken by the best sort of the family."[ ] he therefore had every opportunity of learning the language, and was much helped by an old italian gentleman, skilled in french, who was living in the house on the same footing as himself. as a result of his application he was able to translate several french works into english "in those empty spaces of time which were left by those that command me at my disposall." he procured a copy of cotgrave's dictionary and asked a friend in london to make enquiries at the booksellers if there was "any new french book of indifferent volume that was worth the translating and not enterprised by any other."[ ] loveday hoped by this means to give "larger scope to (his) narrow condition" at nottingham. one of his first enterprises was the translation of a "mad fantastick dream" he met with in sorel's _francion_, which he sent to his brother; but his chief work was a rendering of the first three parts of _cléopâtre_, which was hardly of the "indifferent size" he writes of. the several parts appeared in , , and respectively, under the title of _hymen's praeludia, or love's masterpiece_, and were dedicated to his "ever-honoured lady" lady clinton. in the complete version, the fourth, fifth, and sixth parts are also ascribed to loveday. thus practical methods gained a firm hold in the teaching of french; when grammar was studied, it was within limited boundaries, and only so far as desirable for practical purposes. in the teaching of latin, on the other hand, more and more importance was attached to the study of grammar, which took the foremost place, literature being regarded as little more than a collection of illustrative examples of the rules.[ ] grammar had become "a full swolen and overflowing stream, which, by a strong hand, arrogates to itself (and hath well-nigh gotten) the whole traffic in learning, especially of languages."[ ] the use of the grammar and reading books in latin alone was another practice which engaged the attention of the reformers.[ ] "a book altogether in latin is a mere barbarian to our children," wrote charles hoole,[ ] who published many of the popular latin school-books with english translations, in the style of those which are always present in the french text-books. his opinion was that "no language is more readily got than by familiar discourse in it, and ability therein is in no way sooner gained then by comparing the tongue we learn with that we know, and asking how they call this or how they say that in another language, which we are able to express in our own." a writer of the time[ ] thus describes "that wild goose chase usually led": "ordinarily boys learn a leaf or two of the pueriles, twenty pages of corderius, a part of esop's fables, a piece of tullie, a little of ovid, a remnant of virgil, terence, etc. ... to read the accidence, to get it without book, is ordinarily the work of one whole year. to construe the grammar and to get it without book is at least the task of two years more, and then, it may be, it is little understood until a year or two more is spent in making plain latin ... when it is all done, besides declining nouns and forming verbs and getting a few words, there is very little advantage to the child." and a french teacher,[ ] writing at about the same time, has left a very similar picture. [header: grammatical study of languages] he describes how the child slaves till the age of fifteen or sixteen, forced to learn against his will a little latin and greek, with little result after seven or eight years of hardship. "not per cent really know either; they are buried under a _fatras_ of words and rules, which stun the memory and overturn the judgment, and all under the rule of the rod." such is the learning of a foreign language "by grammar." the feeling of dissatisfaction with the usual method of teaching latin in grammar schools, however, seems to have been general in the seventeenth century, and many were the protests and appeals for reform. "no man can run speedily to the mark of languages that is shackled and ingiv'd with grammar precepts," wrote joseph webbe,[ ] who draws a careful distinction between the grammar-latin thus acquired and what he calls latin-latin,[ ] that is, "such as the best approved authors wrote and left us in their books and monuments of use and custom," as distinct from "that latin which we now make by grammar rules, and their collection out of that custom and those authors was to make us write and speak such latin as that custom and those authors did, which was latin-latin, but it succeeded not." consequently there arose a belief that "practice"--in speaking, reading, and writing the language--should take its place by the side of grammar. writers pleaded, in the style of elyot and ascham, for the teaching of latin on more practical lines, quoting montaigne's experience.[ ] thomas grantham[ ] opened a private school, in which he sought to deliver youth from their "great captivity" and the hardship and uselessness of learning grammar word for word without book and in latin, which the boy does not understand, "just as if a man should teach one an art in french when he understands not french." grantham, on the contrary, taught his scholars to understand the rules first, and by repeatedly applying them they came to know them without book, whether they would or no. similar was the method of the french teachers, who often carried the idea further, and taught their pupils the rules as need for them arose in practice. john webster thus puts the case for and against learning by "rule." "as for grammar," he says,[ ] "which hath been invented for the more certain and facile teaching and obtaining of languages, it is very controvertible whether it perform the same in the surest, easiest and shortest way or not, since hundreds speak their mother tongue and other languages very perfectly, use them readily, and understand them excellent well, and yet never knew or were taught any grammar rules, nor followed the wayes of conjugations and declensions, noun or verb. and it is sufficiently known that many men, by their own industry, without the method or rules of grammar, have gotten a competent understanding in divers languages: and many unletter'd persons will, by use and exercise, without grammar rules, learn to speak and understand some languages in far shorter time than any do learn them by method and rule, as is clearly manifest by those that travel.... and again, if we conceive that languages learnt by use and exercise render men ready and expert in the understanding and speaking of them, without any aggravating or pushing the intellect and memory, when that which is gotten by rule and method, when we come to use and speak it, doth exceedingly rack and excruciate the intellect and memory: which are forced at the same time, not only to find fit words agreeable to the present matter discoursed of, and to put them into a good rhetorical order, but must at the same instant of speaking, collect all the numerous rules of number, case ... as into one centre, where so many rayes are united and yet not confounded, which must needs be very perplexive and gravaminous to memorative faculty: and therefore none that attains languages by grammar do ever come to speak and understand them perfectly and readily, until they come to a perfect habit in the exercitation of them, and so thereby come to lose and leave the use of those many and intricate rules, which have cost us so many pains to attain to them, and so to justifie the saying that we do but _discere dediscenda_." those who learn by "use and exercitation," on the other hand, acquire languages more quickly and with better results. if the study of grammar is insisted on, it should be made very brief. the indeclinables require no rules, but are learnt by use. [header: locke on the teaching of french] of the declinables the only ones that present any difficulties are the noun and the verb, regular and irregular. as to the irregulars, they are best learnt by "use," as rules only "render the way more perplexed and tedious. and the way of the regulars is facile and brief, being but one rule for all." many others wrote in a similar strain,[ ] advocating the teaching of latin on lines widely used in the teaching of french. several actually specified the modern language, which was first mentioned in books on education in this connexion. thomas grantham, in his _brain breaker's breaker_ ( ), points out that many young gentlemen and ladies learn to speak french in half a year without grammar, and argues that the same purpose could be achieved with latin and greek in a twelvemonth. similarly george snell argued that latin might be learnt "in as short a time as a monsieur can teach french,"[ ] for the pronunciation, so great a task in learning the living tongue, is of no importance in the dead language. at a somewhat later date, when french had made more headway in the scholastic world, locke plainly states that people are accustomed to the right way of teaching french, "which is by talking it into children by constant conversation, and not by grammatical rules,"[ ] and proposes that the same method should be applied to latin. "when we so often see a frenchwoman teach an english girl to speak and read french perfectly in a year or two, without any rule of grammar, or anything else but prattling to her, i cannot but wonder how gentlemen have overseen this way for their sons, and thought them more dull and incapable than their daughters."[ ] elsewhere locke again draws comparisons between the teaching of latin and that of french,[ ] and a french teacher of the early part of the eighteenth century recognized the importance of this tribute when he published a grammar intended to confirm the knowledge acquired by "practice."[ ] yet all these proposals and protests do not seem to have had much effect on the teaching of latin. in a few cases, however, experiments were attempted, usually in connexion with french. several were made with the _janua_ of comenius, which had early been adapted to the teaching of french as well as latin. the theories of comenius himself had no doubt inspired the english reformers. he had written that rules are thorns to the understanding, that no one ever mastered a language by precept alone, though it is often done by practice; rules, however, should not be entirely discarded.[ ] j. t. philipps, who was later tutor to the duke of cumberland, son of george ii., relates[ ] how he taught both latin and french on practical lines with the help of comenius. his pupil first got a good notion of the latin tongue by studying the verbs and nouns, and then learning the latin column of the _janua linguarum_. "i likewise at som leisure hours," continues philipps, "taught him to read french and when he had good the pronunciation, he labour'd for some time, as he did before in the latin, to make himself master of the french verbs and nouns, and then began to learn the sentences in another column of the _janua linguarum_, which, by the assistance of the latin, he mastered in a very short time. so that before the end of the first year, he could read fontaine's _fables_ from french into english, and give me an account of the french minister's text which he heard, and part of the sermon; [header: languages learnt without grammar] for i charg'd him never to miss the french church, that he might the better accustom himself to the true accent of that tongue.... i spent an hour every sunday morning all the time the boy was with me, to read over several short catechisms or systems in divinity both in french and latin."[ ] the learned mrs. bathsua makin, who had been governess to the daughters of charles i., and later kept a school at tottenham high cross, also advocated the use of the _janua linguarum_ for learning latin and french. the young ladies of her school learnt ten latin sentences of the _janua_ a day thoroughly, spending "but six hours a day in their books." by the end of six months they had a fair knowledge of the language, and turned to french: "if the latin tongue may be learnt in months, where most of the words are new, then the french may be learnt in three, by one that understands latin and english, because there is not above one word of ten of the french tongue, that may not fairly, without force, be reduced to the latin or english."[ ] we are also told[ ] of a boy of seven who spoke latin, french, and english with equal facility, "by reason that his father talked to him in nothing but latin, and his mother, who was a frenchwoman, in nothing but french, and the rest of the family in nothing but english." and the rev. henry wotton of corpus christi, cambridge, has left an account of how, when he undertook the education of his son, "leaving off the accidence in that method that ordinarily children are trained up in, (he) immediately thought with (him)self to make an experiment whether children of his years might not be taught the latin tongue as ordinarily children are taught the french and italian, and without the torture of grammar, to make them, by reading a latin book, to understand nouns and verbs, declensions and moods, and that without the vast circuit, that ordinarily takes up or years, as preparatory to read any latin author."[ ] evelyn bears witness to the success of wotton's experiment. he saw the young william wotton in london at the age of eleven, and pronounced him "a miracle."[ ] to evelyn also we are indebted for an account of another case of similar precocity due to the same method. he relates how he and pepys saw a child of twelve, the son of one dr. clench, "who was perfect in the latine authors, spake french naturally, and possessed amazing knowledge. his tutor was a frenchman, who had not troubled him to learn even the rules of grammar by heart, but merely read to him, first in french, and then in latin."[ ] in no case, however, was the contrast between the prevalent methods of teaching latin and french so marked as in the learning of latin in grammar schools, and of french in france by "rote" or with the help of a few general grammar rules; the older the student, the more necessary were grammar rules considered. richard carew, for instance, was struck by the fact that he learnt more french without rules in three-quarters of a year in france than he had learnt latin in more than thirteen years' strenuous study of grammar. he had gone to france on leaving the university. on his arrival he was at a loss for words, knowing nothing of the language; but after a short stay, spent in the midst of french people, talking and reading nothing but french, he surmounted the difficulties of the language with surprising ease, and wished students of latin to benefit by his experience.[ ] the two languages, indeed, were not infrequently studied together by the considerable number of english children who were sent to france for purposes of education. footnotes: [ ] "it is most astonishing that there ever could have been people idle enough to write and read such endless heaps of the same stuff. it was, however, the occupation of thousands in the last century, and is still the private though disavowed amusement of young girls and sentimental ladies," wrote chesterfield in the eighteenth century (_letters to his son_, , p. ). even johnson read and enjoyed these lengthy romances. [ ] jusserand, _the english novel in the time of shakespeare_, p. . [ ] _letters from dorothy osborne to sir wm. temple, - _, london, , p. . [ ] he in turn passed them on to lady diana rich. [ ] t. p. courtney, _memoirs of the life, works and correspondence of sir wm. temple_, london, , i. p. . [ ] _letters_, p. ; ep. goldsmith, _essay on the use of language_: "if again you are obliged to wear a flimsy stuff in the midst of winter, be the first to remark that stuffs are very much worn at paris." [ ] pepys used cotgrave's dictionary; _diary_, february , - . [ ] this book was very widely read in england. but there does not seem to have been an english translation of it before (pepys's _diary_, oct. , , ed. wheatley, ). [ ] _diary_, jan. , feb. and , - . [ ] _l'hydrographie contenant la théorie et la pratique de toutes les parties de la navigation_, . [ ] he read descartes's _musicae compendium_, but did not think much of it. [ ] pepys relates how one evening penn and he fell to discoursing about some words in a french song mrs. pepys was singing--_d'un air tout interdict_: "wherein i laid twenty to one against him, which he would not agree to with me, though i know myself in the right as to the sense of the word, and almost angry we were, and were an houre and more upon the dispute, till at last broke up not satisfied, and so home." [ ] _les résolutions politiques ou maximes d'État_, par jean de marnix, baron de potes, bruxelles, . [ ] cp. e. gosse, _seventeenth century studies_, ; j. j. jusserand, _the english novel in the time of shakespeare_, p. . [ ] d. canfield, _corneille and racine in england_, . how common was the presence of frenchmen in english families of high standing may be gathered from orinda's statement that "one, legrand, a frenchman belonging to the duchess of ormond, has by her order set the fourth [song in _pompey_ to music], and a frenchman of my lord orrery's the second" (_letters of orinda to poliarchus_, london, , letter dated jan. , ). [ ] fifth ed., amsterdam, . translated into english by f. spence, london, . queen henrietta maria had done much to foster the spirit of the _astrée_ and the hôtel de rambouillet in england: cp. j. b. fletcher, "précieuses at the court of charles i.," in the _journal of comparative philology_, vol. i. . [ ] between ladies and "cavaliers." herbert explains that by "cavalier" he means _galant homme_. here is a specimen of their style: "_cavalier_: la voilà, je la vois.--_dame_: que voyez-vous, mons.?--je vois la gloire du beau sexe, l'ornement de ce siècle, et l'objet de mes affections.--vous voyez ici bien des choses.--toutes ces choses sont en une.--c'est donc une merveille.--dites, ma chère dame, la merveille des merveilles.--je le pourrois dire après vous, car votre bel esprit ne se sauroit tromper.--il se peut bien tromper, mais non pas en ceci.--je veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci: il faut pourtant que je voye cette gloire, cet ornement et cet objet, pour en pouvoir juger.--vous ne les sauriez voir que par réflexion.--je ne vous entens pas.--approchez-vous de ce miroir, et vous verrez ce que je dis. qu'y voyez-vous, ma belle?--je vous y vois, monsieur.--voilà une belle réponse.--belle ou laide, elle est vraye.--elle l'est effectivement: mais n'y voyez-vous rien que moi?--je m'y vois aussi bien que vous.--vous voyez donc cette illustre merveille, etc." [ ] "il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intérêts, qui les (_i.e._ his works) décrient hautement, non pas tant par malice que par jalousie, quelques-uns étant des personnes intéressées qui sont de ma profession, ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent à redire à tout ce que les autres font, pour faire paroître ce qu'ils n'ont point, s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit, quand on les entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites." [ ] see p. , _supra_. [ ] arber, _stationers' register_, iv. . [ ] schickler, _Églises du refuge_, ii. pp. - , and . despagne became a denizen in (hug. soc. pub. xviii.). cp. also haag, _la france protestante_, ad nom., and the _bulletin de la société de l'histoire du protestantisme français_, viii. pp. _et seq._ he died in . [ ] _harmony of the old and new testament_, , brown's preface. [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. . [ ] _cal. of state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] that translation was not always the means of interpretation is shown by the following passage from mauger; a stranger questions one of his pupils: entendez-vous tout ce que vous lisés? j'en entends une partie. entendez-vous bien le sens? fort bien, monsieur. probably french was not 'construed' word for word, as latin was, the clause, on the contrary, being made the starting-point. "construing word for word is impossible in any language," wrote joseph webbe in his _petition to the high court of parliament_, quoting as an example the "barbarous english of the frenchman, '_i you pray, sir_,' for _je vous prie, monsieur_." [ ] _an essay on education_, london, . [ ] _memoirs of the life of colonel hutchinson_, ed. c. h. firth, london. , i. p. . [ ] _ibid._ p. . [ ] _autobiography of lady anne halkett, - , _, camden society, , p. . [ ] _the lives of wm., duke of newcastle and of his wife margaret ... written by the thrice noble and illustrious princess margaret, duchess of newcastle_, ed. m. a. lower, , p. . [ ] _loveday's letters, domestick and forrain to several persons ..._, london, , p. . [ ] _letters_, p. . cp. also pp. , , , , etc. it is evident from the letter of dorothy osborne quoted above, p. , that she had learnt french chiefly by ear. several of the inaccuracies, such as the use of the past participle for the infinitive, would not be noticeable in pronunciation. [ ] f. watson, _grammar schools_, pp. _sqq._ [ ] j. webbe, _an appeale to truth in the controversie between art and verse about the best and most expedient course in languages_, . [ ] there was a strong feeling at this period in favour of a freer use of english in the teaching of latin, chiefly on account of the time such a course would save. thus milton recognized the mistake of spending a great number of years in learning one language "making two labours of one by learning first the accidence, then the grammar in latin, ere the language of those rules be understood." the remedy, he thought, was the use of a grammar in english (a. f. leach, "milton as schoolboy and schoolmaster," _proceedings of the british academy_, iii. ). snell (_right teaching of useful knowledge_, ), mrs. makin or m. lewis (?) (_essay to revive the antient education of gentlewomen_, ), and others also argued that english should be the groundwork of the teaching of latin. most of the english grammars produced in the seventeenth century claim to be useful to scholars as an introduction to the rudiments of latin; and it was on this footing, no doubt, that english grammar first made its way into the schools. chief among these, perhaps, was j. poole's _english accidence for attaining more speedily the latin tongue, so that every young child, as soon as he can read english, may by it turn any sentence into latin. published by authority, and commended as generally necessary to be made use of in all schooles of this commonwealth_, london, . for a list of english grammars cp. f. watson, _modern subjects_, chap. i. lily's grammar came to be almost always used with the english rendering by wm. hume. cp. watson, _grammar schools_, p. . [ ] _an advertisement ... touching school books_, . [ ] _an essay to revive the antient education of gentlewomen_, london, (by mrs. makin or mark lewis). [ ] g. miège, _a new french grammar_, , p. . [ ] _appeale to truth_, , p. . [ ] _petition to the high court of parliament, in behalf of auncient and authentique authours, for the universall and perpetuall good of every man_, . [ ] _essais_, liv. i., ch. xxv. [ ] cp. _the brain breaker's breaker, or the apologie of th. grantham for his method of teaching_, . [ ] _the examination of academies, wherein is discussed ... the matter, method and customes of academick and scholastick learning, and the insufficiency thereof discovered and laid open_, , p. . [ ] thus sir wm. petty, in his _advice to s. hartlib for the advancement of some particular parts of learning_ ( ), argues that languages should be taught by "incomparably more easy wayes then are now usuall." an anonymous "lover of his nation" proposed that children should learn latin as they do english, by having no other language within their hearing for two years; and similarly with other languages (watson, _modern subjects_, p. ). ch. hoole, teacher at a private grammar school in london, also proposes that latin should be learnt by speaking and hearing it spoken, and attributes the unsatisfactory knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of english in schools (_new discoverie of the old art of teaching schooll_, ). the french teacher miège suggests that latin should be taught in special schools, on the same lines as french was taught in the french ones (_french grammar_, ). in was published _the way of teaching the latin tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their mother tongue_; and in had appeared a work translated from the french, called _an examen of the way of teaching the latine tongue to little children by use alone_. among other publications of similar import are: _an essay on education, showing how latin, greek, and other languages may be learn'd more easily, quickly and perfectly than they commonly are_, ; and _an essay upon the education of youth in grammar schools in which the vulgar method of teaching is examined, and a new one proposed for the more easy and speedy training up of youth, to the knowledge of the learned languages ..._, by j. clarke, master of the public grammar school in hull (london, ). [ ] _right teaching of useful knowledge to fit scholars for some honest profession_, london, , p. . [ ] locke, _some thoughts concerning education_ ( ), ed. j. w. adamson, in _educational writings of locke_, london, , p. . [ ] _op. cit._ p. . [ ] "why does the learning of latin and greek need the rod, when french and italian need it not?" (_op. cit._ p. ). and again, "those who teach any of the modern languages with success never amuse their scholars to make speeches or verses either in french or italian, their business being language barely and not invention" (_op. cit._ p. ). [ ] j. palairet, _new royal french grammar_, the hague, . [ ] languages, he held, were best learnt by rules of a simple nature, comparison of the points of difference and resemblance between the known and unknown language, and exercises on familiar subjects. [ ] _a compendious way of teaching ancient and modern languages ..._, nd edition, london, , pp. _et seq._ [ ] he would then learn italian and spanish on the same plan. [ ] _an essay to revive the antient education of gentlewomen ..._, . [ ] _essay on education_, . the case of queen elizabeth, who is said to have learnt only one or two latin rules, is also quoted. [ ] _an essay on the education of children in the first rudiments of learning, together with a narrative of what knowledge wm. wotton, a child of years of age, had attained unto upon the improvement of those rudiments in the latin, greek and hebrew tongues._ reprinted, london, , p. . [ ] _diary_, july , . [ ] _ibid._, jan. , . [ ] for this purpose he wrote _the true and readie way to learne the latin tongue, expressed in an answer to the question whether the ordinary way of teaching latin by rules of grammar be best_, . chapter v the tour in france and now methinks i see a youth advance ready prepared to make the tour of france. _satire against the french_, . when, in the middle of the seventeenth century, england was torn in twain by civil war and party quarrels, even the puritans willingly sent their children to be brought up in france. it was at this period that thomas grantham, a severe critic of the usual method of teaching latin in grammar schools,[ ] wrote this significant passage: "let a boy of seven or eight years of age be sent out of england into france: he shall learn in a twelvemonth or less to write and speak the french tongue readily, although he keep much company with english, read many english books, and write many english letters home, and all this with pleasure and delight." the number of english children in france at this period was considerable.[ ] at st. malo, for instance, when proceedings were taken against the english in the town, the chief victims were the "english boys sent to learn french."[ ] the memoirs of the verney family afford a detailed picture of one of the numerous families of royalist sympathies, cut off from english public school and university life, and brought up in france. sir ralph verney had taken the side of parliament in the long struggle, but in went into voluntary exile in france rather than sign the covenant. he settled at blois with his family, and procured french tutors for his boys. apparently he had some trouble at first, one of the tutors being dismissed "for drinking, lying and seeking to proselytise." finally the education of the boys was entrusted to the protestant pastor, m. testard, who received foreign pupils. the young students worked hard at latin and french under the minister's supervision. testard reported of edmund, the elder, "il fait merveille. . . . je luy raconte une histoire en français, il me la rend extempore en latin."[ ] and one day mme. testard found the young john hard at work in bed in the early morning with two books in french and latin. the children wrote in french to their mother when she was absent in england making valiant and finally successful attempts to get the sequestration taken off sir ralph's estate. and when, after her death, sir ralph sought to divert his mind by travelling in italy, edmund,[ ] then aged thirteen, wrote this letter--which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method: plust à dieu qu'il vous donnast la pensée de retourner à blois. les jours me semblent des années tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme dans un desert de solitude; car quoy est cequi me peut desormais plaire dans cette ville, comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie, et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables, puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au monde et qu'il m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis privé de l'honneur de sa presence, au reste, graces a dieu, nous nous porte fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne manqueray jamais à mon devoir, c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et demeureray aternellement, votre tres humble et fidel fils, edmond verney. sir ralph had also in his charge two girls, his young cousins, whom their mother had entrusted to him: "sweet nephew, i have after a long debate with my selfe sent my tow gurles where i shall desier youre care of them, that they may be tought what is fite for them as the reding of the french tong, and to singe, and to dance and to right and to playe of the gittar."[ ] sir ralph regarded france as "the fittest place to breed up youth." [header: sir ralph verney's views] "i wish peace in france for my children's sake," he wrote to m. du val, a french tutor. after bringing up his own family there, he would have liked to send his grandchildren to france with a sober and discreet governor, rather than to any school in england; but his son edmund thought the advantage of learning to speak french fluently did not compensate for the loss of english public school life, which he himself had never enjoyed. sir ralph soon became a versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost of living and education in france. he considered £ a year a proper allowance for an english youth to be boarded in a good french family, and that homes in which there were children were best, on account of the continual prattle of the young inmates. the families of french pastors were naturally preferred; and as the pastors were in the habit of taking french pupils also,[ ] no doubt the young english boys found suitable companions. the protestant schools,[ ] established wherever possible by the french reformers in the vicinity of their churches, were also in favour with english parents. these schools, in which the subjects usually taught were reading, writing, arithmetic, and the catechism, were for obvious reasons looked on with suspicion by the government; one by one they were dispersed, especially when the feeling against the protestants became more acute towards the middle of the seventeenth century. thus the schools of rouen were closed in ; and shortly afterwards sir ralph verney wrote, in reply to an inquiry about a school, that rouen is a very unfit place, as no protestant masters are allowed to keep school there; moreover, living is dear in the town, and the accent of the inhabitants bad. in some cases, when the schools had been closed or converted into jesuit establishments, the ejected schoolmasters gave private lessons, or received a few _pensionnaires_ in their homes. even this was forbidden in . and two years later the revocation of the edict of nantes dealt the severest blow of all. regarding the protestant academies,[ ] sir ralph sent the following report to his friends in england: "there are divers universities at sedan, saumur, geneva and other fine places, as i am told at noe unreasonable rate, and not only protestant schoolmasters, but whole colleges of protestants."[ ] many young englishmen were sent to one or other of these towns, either to attend lectures at the academies, or, more often, to study french and the "exercises" privately, in a protestant atmosphere. sir orlando bridgman, a friend of sir ralph verney, after letting his son study with two other english boys under a m. cordell at blois, intended to send him either to saumur or poitiers, then to paris, and so to the inns of court,[ ] and sir thomas cotton sent his sons to saumur to perfect themselves in french.[ ] in the middle of the seventeenth century, sir joseph williamson, the future statesman and diplomat of the reign of charles ii., was living at saumur with several young englishmen in his care.[ ] after graduating at oxford, he had left england in the capacity of tutor to a young man of quality, possibly one of the sons of the marquis of ormonde. at saumur, williamson kept a book of notes relating to the studies of his pupils and containing the letters which he wrote to their parents in answer to inquiries concerning their progress. he and his pupils lived _en pension_ in a private house in the town, "with very civil company,"--"the best way to get the language which is much desired." on the whole williamson's pupils do not seem to have made as rapid progress as either he himself or their parents desired. one anxious father writes to ask williamson to let his son practise writing french daily; another exhorts his son to devote himself seriously to learning french by reading good authors and conversing. the academies of montauban and sedan, though they never attained a popularity equal to that of saumur, were not neglected, and attracted many foreign students. the academy at montauban was moved to puy laurens in , where it remained until its suppression at the time of the revocation. in henry savile, english ambassador at paris, informed his brother, lord halifax, that there are only two protestant universities in france, at saumur and puy laurens, and that of these saumur is beyond dispute the better.[ ] [header: travellers at french universities] from this we see that these two academies were then the best known;[ ] no doubt the rest, which had never been quite so popular, were much enfeebled by the hostile edicts which preceded the revocation. lord halifax at first intended to send his sons to the college at chastillon. savile, however, stopped them when they arrived at paris, as he had heard that the only teaching given at the college was reading, writing, and the catechism--the curriculum of the protestant schools. in the end the boys were sent with their governor to the academy at geneva. on their return to england in , one of them went to complete his education at the university and the other to the academy which was opened that year by the frenchman m. foubert, who had set up as a teacher of the "exercises" in london. other travellers spent some time at one of the french universities. the university of paris usually counted a considerable number of english among its students, and clarendon tells us that those who have been there "mingle gracefully in all companies." the universities of bordeaux, poitiers, and montpellier were also favourite resorts. montpellier particularly, with its "gentle salutiferous air," attracted those suffering from the "national complaint."[ ] when will allestry was there in , he spent the greater part of his time learning french, and what leisure he had he employed in studying the institutions.[ ] orleans, famous for the study of law, was also much patronised. the custom of studying in french universities, however, did not meet with general approval in england. sir balthazar gerbier pronounced it "no less than abusing the universities of oxford and cambridge and the famous free schools of this realme to withdraw from them the sons of noble families and those that are lovers of vertue." the same opinion is voiced by samuel penton, master of exeter hall, oxford, who did not omit even the protestant academies from his condemnation. "the strangeness of new faces, language, manners and studies may prove perhaps uneasie, and then their great want of discipline to confine him to prayers, exercises and meals is dangerous: all he will have to do is to keep in touch with a lecturer, and what is learned from him, most young gentlemen are so civil as to leave behind them when they return."[ ] the governors who usually accompanied young travellers, especially those of high birth, were not infrequently frenchmen. we are told that it was a rare sight to see a young english nobleman at a foreign court with a governor of his own nation,[ ] though some preferred an english governor, and cautioned travellers against foreign tutors. samuel penton warns us that if the young traveller is committed, for cheapness or curiosity, to a foreigner instead of an english governor, "there are some in the world who without a fee will tell you what that is like to come to."[ ] one of the english governors, j. gailhard, who was tutor abroad to several of the nobility and gentry, including the earl of huntingdon, lord hastings, and sir thomas grosvenor, lays down "a method of travel" which is of special interest, as it is the one which he followed with his own pupils.[ ] his view was that, if possible, the traveller should have some knowledge of french before setting out on his travels. the first thing he should do on arriving at paris is to go to the famous protestant temple at charenton, and there give thanks for his safe journey so far--whether he understand french or not. he will do well to make but a short stay at paris, where his progress will be hindered by the great number of his countrymen there. the best places to reside in are the towns along the valley of the loire, where there are plenty of good masters to be had. perhaps angers is the best. the student is further urged to keep a diary, and talk as much as possible--"with speaking we learn to speak." the masters for the riding and fencing exercises, dancing and music, are to be looked upon as so many additional language teachers. although "of ten words he could not speak two right, yet let him not be ashamed and discouraged at it: for it is not to be expected he should be a master before he hath been a scholar." the language master should teach his pupil to read, write and spell correctly, and to speak properly. [header: guide-books for travellers] the material for reading must be carefully chosen; romances, such as those of scudéry, are often dangerous; it is better to use books which give instruction in such subjects as history, morality, and politics. every evening there should be a repetition of what has been learnt during the day. gailhard also draws attention to the necessity of respecting and observing the customs of the places visited: "here in england, the manner is for the master of the house to go in before a stranger, this would pass for a great incivility in france; so here the lady or mistress of the house uses to sit at the upper end of the table, which in france is given to strangers. so if we be many in a company we make no scruple to drink all out of a glass, or a tankard, which they are not used to do, and if a servant would offer to give them a glass before it was washed every time they drink, they would be angry at it. here when a man is sneezing we say nothing to him, but there they would look upon't as a want of civility. again, we in england upon a journey, use to ask one another how we do, but in france they do no such thing--amongst them that question would answer to this, 'what aileth you that you look so ill?'" the attitude of the french teachers in england towards the foreign tour gradually changed. they no longer saw in it a rival institution, depriving them of many of their pupils, but, on the contrary, a means of giving the finishing touch to the results of their own efforts in england. all strongly advise their pupils to go to france, and most of them add directions for travel in their text-books.[ ] mauger's dialogues include "most exact instructions for travel, very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into france," and lainé's grammar is "enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of quality that intend to travel into france, leading them as by the hand to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom." as the tour in france increased in popularity, the directions furnished by french teachers were supplemented by guide-books properly so called; towards the end of the seventeenth century books such as _the present state of france_ and _the description of paris_ were to be had at every bookseller's in london.[ ] as early as sir robert dallington had written his _view of france_, in which he refers to a book called the _french guide_, which "undertaketh to resemble eche countrie to some other thing, as bretaigne to a horse-shoe, picardy to a neat's toung etc., which are but idle and disproportioned comparisons." peter heylyn, chaplain at the courts of charles i. and charles ii., was the author of two popular books of this type: _france painted to the life by a learned and impartial hand_,[ ] and _a full relation of two journeys, the one in the mainland of france, the other in some of the adjacent islands_.[ ] some of these guides are descriptions of the country, others are relations of journeys made there; to the first category belongs _a description of france in its several governments by j. s. gent_ ( ), and to the second, _a journey to paris in the year by dr. martin lister_. some include advice as to the course of study to be followed. and as italy was still frequently included in the tour, travellers were sometimes supplied with information regarding that country.[ ] so popular did the tour in france become in the seventeenth century that guide-books for travellers were produced on the spot. the earliest french books of this kind had not been specially designed for the use of foreign visitors; they were as a rule descriptions of the towns and their geographical positions, or notices on their history and antiquities.[ ] in time, however, they assumed a character more particularly adapted to strangers.[ ] [header: routes usually followed] one of the best known and most popular was _le voyage de france, dressé pour l'instruction et commodité tant des français que des étrangers_, first published in . the author, c. de varennes, gives directions for the study of french. he thinks oudin's grammar the most profitable, on account of the manner in which it deals with the chief difficulties of foreigners, and paris and orleans the best towns for study. for the rest, the help of a tutor should be enlisted, and the student should converse as much as possible with children, and with persons of learning and ability; he should also read widely, preferably dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels; and write french, for which exercise he will find much help in the _secrétaire de la cour_ and the _secrétaire à la mode_,[ ] collections of letters and "compliments," which, we may say incidentally, enjoyed a popularity greatly exceeding their merit. the short tour in france grew in popularity as the seventeenth century advanced, and many were content to spend the whole of their sojourn abroad there, without undertaking the longer continental tour. others went to france to prepare themselves for the longer tour. naturally the tour in france alone engaged the attention of french teachers. we are told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than £ . "if you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand opportunities of following your end: you go to get french, and it would be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance with any englishman there. to converse with their learned men will be beside your purpose too, if you go for so short a time: they talk the worst for conversation and you had rather be with the ladies."[ ] the chief routes which french masters in england advised their pupils to take were those from dover to boulogne and from rye to dieppe, whence it was usual to proceed through rouen to paris.[ ] locke, for instance, landed at boulogne when on his way to the south of france; thence he made his way to paris, chiefly on foot.[ ] "if paris be heaven (for the french with their usual justice, extol it above all things on earth)," he writes after a night spent at poy, "poy certainly is purgatory on the way to it." his impressions of tilliard were more favourable: "good mutton, and a good supper, clean linen of the country, and a pretty girl to lay it (who was an angel compared with the fiends of poy) made us some amends for the past night's suffering." it was on the same route to paris that the norman claude du val, afterwards notorious on the english highways, first came into contact with the english as he was journeying to paris to try his fortune there. at rouen he met a band of young englishmen on their way to paris with their governors, to learn the exercises and to "fit themselves to go a-wooing at their return home; who were infinitely ambitious of his company, not doubting but in those two days' travel (from rouen to paris) they should pump many considerable things out of him, both as to the language and customs of france: and upon that account they did willingly defray his charges." when the young englishmen arrived at paris and settled in the usual quarter, the faubourg st. germain, du val attached himself to their service, and betook himself to england on the restoration, which drained paris of many of its english inhabitants.[ ] many travellers, however, agreed with the french teachers that paris was not a suitable place for serious study of french, both on account of the many distractions it offered and of the great number of english people resident there. it therefore became customary with the more serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where the accent was good. the french teacher wodroeph tells us as much: "mais, monsieur, je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez à la cour à paris pour y apprendre nostre langue françoise. mais mieux il vous vaut d'aller à orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour et baiser les dames et damoiselles. . . . parquoy je vous conseille mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller à orleans là où vous apprendrez la vraye methode de la langue vulgaire."[ ] the towns in the valley of the loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study.[ ] orleans, blois, and saumur seem to have been the most popular. [header: loire towns favoured] for instance, james howell, after spending some time in paris, where he lodged near the bastille--"the part furthest off from the quarters where the english resort," for he wished "to go on to get a little language"[ ] as soon as he could--went to orleans to study french; he describes it as "the most charming town on the loire, and the best to learn the language in the purity." the town was never without a great abundance of strangers.[ ] the fame of blois and its teachers was widespread; and bourges, tours, angers, and caen were noted for the purity of their french. saumur and other towns in which the protestants were powerful were also much frequented. john malpet, afterwards principal of gloucester hall, oxford, spent two years in france with his pupil, lord falkland, visiting orleans, blois, and saumur.[ ] john evelyn visited paris, blois, orleans, and lyons, and finally settled at tours, where he engaged a french master and studied the language diligently for nineteen weeks. while studying in one or other of these towns, english travellers usually lodged in hotels, _auberges_, or _pensions_,[ ] and sometimes with french families. one of their chief difficulties appears to have been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places. gabriel du grès suggests that when english students are thus thrown together they should come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay a fine. a further though less serious impediment was the speaking of latin, still considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as john brinsley.[ ] for this reason travellers "for language" are advised to frequent the company of women and children, and "polite" society, rather than that of scholars. it is a great inconvenience, observes du grès, if your landlord can speak latin. the majority of travellers, however, do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment in this respect; on the contrary, those with little previous knowledge of french found their latin of use in their first french lessons if they studied the language "grammatically" with a master. french teachers in england usually recommended suitable _pensions_ to their students. gabriel du grès, for instance, gives a list of such lodgings at saumur, his native town; mauger, of those of blois, orleans, and other towns in the loire valley.[ ] in like manner they addressed their pupils to recommendable academies for instruction in the polite accomplishments and military exercises. however, for the most part they advised their pupils to go to private masters, who would attend to their french as well as the "exercises." the house of m. doux, who had a riding school at blois, was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those desiring to learn french, on account of his daughters, who spoke "wondrously well," as was also that of a certain m. dechaussé, who kept an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride. what is more, french teachers in england, no longer regarding their fellow-workers in france as rivals but rather as collaborators, as we have seen, not infrequently entertained friendly relations with them, and even went so far as to direct pupils to them. claude mauger, for instance, sent as many of his pupils as possible to m. gaudrey at paris, the author of verses in praise of mauger's _tableau du jugement universel_. this change of attitude is probably explained by the fact that in the seventeenth century french was studied more seriously in england than in the sixteenth century; and students on their arrival in france had often had preliminary instruction under the care of a french tutor in england; clarendon significantly states that in france "we quickly _renew_ the acquaintance we have had with the language by the practice and custom of speaking it." students going abroad for purposes of study are therefore addressed to m. nicolas, an excellent master at paris, m. le fèvre, an _avocat en parlement_ at orleans, and others. we are also informed that _abbés_ were fond of teaching their language to strangers, especially the english.[ ] moreover, several french teachers in england had previously exercised their profession in france. the most popular of all, claude mauger, had spent seven years teaching french at blois. [header: french grammars for travellers] many years later, when he had made his reputation as a successful teacher of french in london, he went for a time to paris, where he settled in the faubourg st. germain, and was busily occupied in teaching french to travellers, among others to the earl of salisbury. he also tells us that his books were very popular in france, and used by the great majority of english students there. several of the french teachers in france wrote books for the use of their pupils. mauger himself quotes the authority of "all french grammarians that are professors in france for the teaching of travellers the language." yet in the seventeenth century, when the french language became one of the chief preoccupations of polite society as well as of scholars, many grammars paid no attention to teaching the language to foreigners. there were, however, several well-known teachers of languages at paris who wrote grammars specially for their use. alcide de st. maurice, the author of the _guide fidelle des estrangers dans le voyage de france_ ( ), composed a grammar called _remarques sur les principales difficultez de la langue françoise_ ( ), which has little value, and is compiled chiefly from vaugelas and ménage. his chief aim was to overcome the usual difficulties--pronunciation and orthography. several years previously he had written a collection of short stories inspired by the _decameron_. the _fleurs, fleurettes et passetemps ou les divers caractères de l'amour honneste_, as he called them, were published at paris in , and were no doubt intended as reading matter for his pupils. a work called the _nova grammatica gallica_, written in latin and french for the use of foreigners, appeared at paris in . it is mainly compiled from chiflet and other french grammarians. a certain m. mauconduy was responsible for the grammar, which was on much the same lines as that of maupas. the french theologian m. de saint-amour, of the sorbonne, addressed several foreigners to mauconduy, who issued for their use daily _feuillets volants_, containing remarks on the language. his pupils made rapid progress, and usually knew french fairly well in three months, we are told. another of these teachers, denys vairasse d'allais,[ ] lived, like mauger, in the faubourg st. germain, and like him taught english as well as french. he had spent some time in england in his youth, and perhaps taught french there. he also corresponded with pepys, the famous diarist. vairasse had a particular affection for his english pupils, and they appear to have been in the majority. he was a strong advocate of the study of grammar, and condemned attempts to learn french "by imitation" alone. his _grammaire méthodique contenant en abrégé les principes de cet art et les regles les plus necessaires de la langue françoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle_ appeared at paris in .[ ] in it he criticizes severely all the french grammars for the use of strangers produced either in france or in foreign countries. shortly afterwards the grammar was abridged and translated into english as _a short and methodical introduction to the french tongue composed for the particular benefit of the english_, printed at paris in . this french grammar published in english at paris is a striking testimony to the importance of the english as students of french. rené milleran, like vairasse d'allais, taught english as well as french. he was a native of saumur, but spent most of his life at paris teaching languages, and for a time acted as interpreter to the king. he composed for the use of his pupils a french grammar entitled _la nouvelle grammaire françoise, avec le latin à coté des exemples devisée en deux parties_ (marseilles, ), which is no doubt a first edition of his _les deux gramaires fransaizes_ (marseilles, ), in which he expounds his new system of orthography. his collection of letters, _lettres familieres galantes et autres sur toutes sortes de sujets, avec leurs responses_, of which the third edition appeared in , enjoyed a great popularity, like most similar collections at this time: successive editions appeared right into the eighteenth century. this, he says, was the first work which won for him the favour of so many foreign noblemen. his method was to give the students copies of the letters in either latin or their own language, and to let them translate them into french. he announced an edition of the letters with english, german, and latin translations for the use of his pupils, but it does not appear to have been published. like most writers connected with the court, milleran calls attention to the purity of his style, and announces that no other books give such exact rules for the language of the court. a special feature of his work was the selection of letters by members of the french academy. [header: howell's advice to travellers] nor was the more familiar side neglected: there are numerous letters to and from students of french, reporting on their progress in the language, with mutual congratulations on improvement in style, etc. it is said of milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity, and few will agree with de linière, the satirist and enemy of boileau, who wrote in praise of milleran: cet homme en sa grammaire étale autant de sçavoir que varron, et dans ses lettres il égale balzac, voiture et cicéron. not a few english travellers dispensed with the services of a tutor in france. among these was james howell, who studied french at paris, orleans, and poissy, where he endangered his health by too close application; he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of baron altham. he put his knowledge of french to the test by translating his own first literary production, _dodona's grove_. this, he says, he submitted to the new _académie des beaux esprits_, founded by richelieu, which gave it a public expression of approbation.[ ] the translation was printed at paris in under the title of _dendrologie ou la forêt de dodone_. howell left instructions for travellers, based on his own experience of study abroad, and typical of the theories current at the time. he advises[ ] the student who has settled in some quiet town to choose a room looking on to the street, "to take in the common cry and language"; to keep a diary during the day, and in the evening to write an essay from this material, "for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes, and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else." he should avoid the company of his countrymen, "the greatest bane of english gentlemen abroad," and frequent cafés and ordinaries,[ ] and engage a french page-boy "to parley and chide withal, whereof he shall have occasion enough."[ ] howell strongly felt the necessity of travelling in france at an early age in order to gain a good pronunciation, "hardly overcome by one who has past the minority ... the french tongue by reason of the huge difference betwixt their writing and speaking will put one often into fits of despair and passion." he draws a grotesque picture of "some of the riper plants" who "overact themselves, for while they labour to _trencher le mot_, to cut the word as they say, and speake like naturall frenchmen, and to get the true genuine tone ... they fall a lisping and mincing, and so distort and strain their mouths and voyce so that they render themselves fantastique and ridiculous: let it be sufficient for one of riper years to speak french intelligibly, roundly, and congruously, without such forced affectation." it is equally important to avoid bashfulness in speaking: "whatsoever it is, let it come forth confidently whether true or false sintaxis; for a bold vivacious spirit hath a very great advantage in attaining the french, or indeed any other language." the student will also do well to repair sometimes "to the courts of pleading and to the publique schools. for in france they presently fall from the latine to dispute in the vulgar tongue." he should also combine the study of grammar--that of maupas is the best--with his practical exercises, and begin a course of reading, making notes as he goes on. the most suitable books are those dealing with the history of france, such as serres and d'aubigné. much judgment is needed in the choice of books on other subjects, "especially when there is such a confusion of them as in france, which, as africk, produceth always something new, for i never knew week pass in paris, but it brought forth some new kinds of authors: but let him take heed of tumultuary and disjointed authors, as well as of the frivolous and pedantique." however, "there be some french poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially du bartas, and 'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to ronsard and desportes, and the late théophile.[ ] and touching poets, they must be used like flowers, some must only be smelt into, but some are good to be thrown into a limbique to be distilled." the student is likewise admonished to make a collection of french proverbs, and translate from english into french--the most difficult task in learning the language, "for to translate another tongue into english is not hard or profitable." [header: usual course] finally, "for sundayes and holydayes, there bee many treasuries of devotion in the french tongue, full of patheticall ejaculations, and heavenly raptures, and his closet must not be without some of these.... peter du moulin hath many fine pieces to this purpose, du plessis, allencour and others. and let him be conversant with such bookes only on sundayes and not mingle humane studies with them. his closet must be his rendez-vous whensoever hee is surprized with any fit of perverseness, as thoughts of country or kindred will often affect one." having acquired some knowledge of french in this retirement, "hee may then adventure upon paris, and the court, and visit ambassadours," and go in the train of some young nobleman. in addition he should enter into the life of the town, read the weekly gazettes and newspapers, "and it were not amisse for him to spend some time in the new academy, erected lately by the french cardinall richelieu, where all the sciences are read in the french tongue which is done of purpose to refine and enrich the language." he may also frequent one of the divers academies in paris, for private gentlemen and cadets. it was also customary to make either the _grand_ or the _petit tour_ of france, after the period of studious retirement. the _grand tour_ included lyons, marseilles, toulouse, bordeaux, and paris; the _petit tour_, paris, tours, and poitiers.[ ] paris, we can guess, was the chief attraction to most young englishmen of family and fortune. dryden thus describes the education of a young gentleman of fashion:[ ] "your father sent you into france at twelve years old, bred you up at paris, first at a college and then at an academy." much importance was attached to a course of study at the university there, and many recognized the advantages gained therefrom. but on the other hand there were not a few complaints of the dangers of lack of discipline and the company of dissolute scholars, and still more, of the neglect of all serious study. clarendon[ ] assures us that many english travellers never saw the university nor knew in what part of paris it stood; but "dedicate all that precious season only to dancing and other exercises, which is horribly to misspend it"; with the result that when such a traveller returns to england, all his learning consists in wearing his clothes well, and he has at least one french fellow to wait upon him and comb his periwig. he is a "most accomplish'd harlequin:"[ ] drest in a tawdrey suit, at paris made, for which he more than twice the value paid. french his attendants, french alone his mouth can speak, his native language is uncouth. if to the ladies he doth make advance, his very looks must have the air of france. such being the case, admiral penn thought well to send his son william to france[ ] in the hope that the brilliant life there would make him forget the quaker sympathies formed at oxford.[ ] the plan succeeded for the time being; penn returned "a most modish person, a fine gentleman, with all the latest french fashions," and pepys[ ] reports that he perceived "something of learning he hath got, but a great deale, if not too much of the vanity of the french garbe and affected manner of speech and gait. i fear all real profit he hath made of his travel will signify little." no doubt many "raw young travellers" did "waste their time abroad in gallantry, ignorant for the most part of foreign languages, and no recommendation to their own country."[ ] costeker in _the compleat education of a young nobleman_ pictures what the young traveller abroad often is, and what he might be. to begin with, "the utmost of his thoughts and ideas are confined to the more fashionable part of dress." then, "according to custom, our beau is designed to travel; the tour proposed is to france, italy and spain. were i to act the part of an impartial inquisitor i would ask for what? why, most undoubtedly, i might expect to be answered, to see the world again and perfect his studies, and by that means compleat the fine gentleman. thus equiped with a fine estate, little learning, and less sense, and intirely ignorant of all languages but his own, he launches into a foreign nation, without the least knowledge of his own, where the sharpers will find him out, discover his intellects, and make the most of him; they besiege him with fulsome adulation, against which his feminine refined understanding is too weak to resist. [header: sir john reresby in france] i will not dwell long upon the subject of his stay there, supposing he has made his tour, and seen all the most remarkable and wondrous curiosities of those nations, he returns a little better than he went, except for smattering a little of the tongues, and can give us but as bad and imperfect an account of their nation as he was capable of giving them of ours; all the advantage he brings from thence is their modes and vices ... the incommoding a french peruke unmans the bow at once."[ ] and next to himself he "loves best anyone who will call him a _bel esprit_." how different a picture from that of the traveller which is painted as a model to young englishmen: at the age of twenty he goes abroad for two years, after having acquired a true knowledge of his own nation and made himself master of french and latin. he is capable of learning more in a month than another ignorant of languages can in twelve. "i am confident were all our young noblemen educated in this manner the french court would no longer bee esteem'd the residence of politeness and belles lettres but must then yield to the british one in many degrees, by reason our young gentlemen would not only be perfect masters in their exterior but intellectual perfections, and england will then be fam'd for the excellency of manners and politeness as it is now for the incomparable beauty of the ladies."[ ] sir john reresby's account of how he spent his time abroad may be given as a fairly typical example.[ ] he went to france, in company with mr. leech, his governor, in . they travelled from rye to dieppe, and thence to paris, passing through rouen. their stay at paris was very short, as reresby found the great resort of his countrymen there a great "prevention" to learning the language. "i stayed no longer in paris," he tells us, "than to get my clothes, and to receive my bills of exchange, and so went to live in a pension or boarding house at blois.... i employed my time here in learning the language, the guitar and dancing, till july, and then, there having been some likelihood of a quarrel between me and a dutch gentleman in the same house, my governour prevailed with me to go and live at saumur[ ].... at saumur in addition to the exercises i learnt at blois, i learned to fence, and to play of the lute. besides that i studied philosophy and the mathematicks, with my governor, who read lectures of each to me every other day. after eight months' stay i had got so much of the language to be able to converse with some ladies of the town, especially the daughters of one m. du plessis.... in the month of april i began to make the little tour or circuit of france, and returned to saumur after some six weeks' absence. in july, i went (desirous to avoid much english company resident at saumur) to le mans, the capital town of mayence, with the two mr. leeches and one mr. butler. we lodged, and were in pension at the parson's or minister's house; there were there no strangers. there were several french persons of quality that lived there at that time, as the marquis de cogne's widow, the marquis de verdun, and several others, who made us partakers of the pastimes and diversions of the place. all that winter few weeks did pass, that there were not balls three times at the least, and we had the freer access by reason that the women were more numerous than the men. i stayed there till april , and then returned to saumur with my governor alone." after staying there for some time, reresby dismissed his governor and made a tour in italy. footnotes: [ ] _discourse in derision of the teaching in free schools_, . [ ] one john gifford, for instance, obtained permission to spend seven years in france in order to educate his family there (_cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. ). mr. storey sent his grandson starky to france to learn the language (_ibid., - _, p. ). [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., _, p. . care was taken to prevent english students abroad from going to roman catholics; in francis cottington made a successful application for the remission of a forfeiture he incurred by going to paris without a licence and living three months in the house of a papist (_cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. ). [ ] _memoirs of the verney family_, i. pp. , . [ ] among the books he read were monluc's _commentaires_, the _secrétaire à la mode_, and the _secrétaire de la cour_ (_memoirs of the verney family_, iii. p. ). [ ] _memoirs_, iii. p. . [ ] an edict of restricted the number of such pupils allowed to french pastors to two. [ ] an account of the schools of the french protestants is given by m. nicolas in the _bulletin de l'histoire du protestantisme français_, vol. iv. pp. _et seq._ [ ] cp. pp. _sqq._, _supra_. the names of many famous families are found in the registers of geneva university--the pembrokes, montagus, cavendishes, cecils, etc. borgeaud, _l'académie de genève_, p. . [ ] _memoirs_, i. p. . [ ] _verney memoirs_, vol. i. p. . [ ] _cal. of state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] _ibid., - _, pp. , , , , . [ ] _savile correspondence_, camden society, , pp. , _sqq._, . [ ] when the academy of saumur was suppressed in , the town lost about two-thirds of its inhabitants. [ ] locke was one of those who went to the south of france "carrying a cough with him"; cp. his journal in king, _life of locke ... with extracts from his ... journal_, , i. pp. _sqq._, nov. -march . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] _new instructions to the guardian_, , p. . [ ] cooper, _annals of cambridge_, iv. . [ ] _new instructions to the guardian_, , p. . [ ] _the compleat gentleman or directions for the education of youth as to their breeding at home and travelling abroad_, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] eliote seems to have been the first to have described the grand tour--in his grammar, _ortho-epia gallica_ ( ). sherwood followed his example in . after the middle of the century such dialogues assume a more educational and guide-like and less descriptive form. [ ] lister, _a journey to paris in the year _, p. . lister had previously visited france in about . in he visited the aged mlle. de scudéry and the daciers, and frequented the french theatres. [ ] second edition, . [ ] london, . another edition appeared in , entitled _the voyage of france, or a compleat journey through france_. [ ] as in _a tour in france and italy made by an english gentleman_ (j. clenchy), and , reprinted in _a collection of voyages_, , vol. i.; and _remarks on the grand tour of france and italy lately performed by a person of quality_ (w. bromley), and (when it was entitled _remarks made in travels through france and italy with many public inscriptions. lately undertaken by a person of quality_). cp. pp. _sqq._, supra. [ ] for instance: _le guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous les pays et contrées du royaume de france . . . par c. estienne_, paris, , ; lyons, . _les antiquitez et recherches des villes, chasteaux, et places plus remarquables de toute la france_, e éd., . l. coulon, _le fidèle conducteur pour le voyage de france montrant exactement les routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque ville, et les distances d'icelles avec un dénombrement des batailles qui s'y sont données_, paris, . [ ] as _le guide fidelle des étrangers dans le voyage de france_, paris, (by aloide de st. maurice); _les délices de la france ou description des provinces et villes capitales d'icelles_, leyde, ; _le gentilhomme étranger voyageant en france, par le baron g.d.n._, --borrowed, without acknowledgement, from _le guide fidelle_ of . cp. a. babeau, _les voyageurs en france depuis la renaissance jusqu'à la révolution_, paris, , chapter v. [ ] by la serre. the former, which first appeared in , went through fifty editions. [ ] lockier, in spense's _anecdotes_, , p. . [ ] _journal_, p. . [ ] riding on horseback was the more usual mode of travelling, the horses being hired from town to town; cp. locke's _journal_, p. . wherever possible, travellers went from one town to another by water--as from one of the loire towns to another. [ ] _the memoirs of m. du val ... intended as a severe reflexion on the too great fondness of english ladies towards french valets which at that time was a common complaint_, london, , harleian miscellany, iii. p. . [ ] _spared houres of a souldier_, . [ ] moryson mentions orleans as a good town; edward leigh, blois and orleans (_foelix consortium_, ); evelyn, blois and bourges; lookier, orleans and caen. [ ] _epistolae ho-elianae_, th ed., , p. . [ ] heylyn, _voyage of france_, , p. . [ ] he kept a diary in latin ( - ); cf. wood, _athenae oxon._ (bliss), iii. . [ ] gailhard, _the compleat gentleman_, . [ ] who, in his _ludus literarius_, urges boys to practise speaking latin "to fit them if they shall go beyond the seas, as gentlemen who go to travel, factors for merchants, and the like." [ ] he tells us that at rouen the english usually went to an inn kept by a certain mr. madde; at dieppe, madame godard's house was very popular; at paris, the best hotel was the "ville de venize." at orleans, good lodging was found at the "croix blanche," kept by one m. richard, and at the house of m. marishall laisné. [ ] j. rutledge, _mémoire sur le caractère, et les moeurs des français comparés à ceux des anglais_, , p. . [ ] vairasse was born _c._ , probably at allais. [ ] another grammar of similar intent was that of ruau, _la vraie methode d'enseigner la langue françoise aux estrangers expliquée en latin_, paris, . [ ] _epistolae ho-elianae_, th ed., , p. . [ ] _instructions for forreine travel_, , ed. arber, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] bacon had many years before advised the traveller to keep a diary: and further "let him sequester himself from the company of his countrymen, and diet in such places where there is a good company of the nation where he travaileth" (_essay on travel_). [ ] a huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet (lainé, _french grammar_, ). [ ] _i.e._ théophile de viau. [ ] st. maurice, _guide fidelle_, . [ ] _limberman or the kind keeper_, act i. sc. . [ ] _on education._ miscellaneous works, , pp. - . [ ] _satire against the french_, . [ ] webb, _the penns and penningtons of the seventeenth century in their domestic and religious life_, , p. . [ ] gibbon, on the contrary, was sent to the house of a pastor of lausanne, in the hope that he would abjure the doctrines of roman catholicism, which he had affected at the same university. [ ] _diary_, august and , ; august , . [ ] d. fordyce, _dialogues on education_, , i. p. . [ ] _the compleat education of a young nobleman_, , pp. and . [ ] costeker, _op. cit._ pp. - . [ ] _memoirs of sir john reresby, - _, london, , pp. _sqq._, and _memoirs and travels of sir john reresby_, london, , p. . [ ] travelling by boat on the loire, as was usual, and passing by tours. they were accompanied by a band of french men and women who, says reresby, tried to make the journey more pleasant by singing, and made it less so. chapter vi gallomania after the restoration the french teachers of london at the time of the restoration, chief amongst whom were claude mauger, paul festeau, pierre lainé, and guillaume herbert, all urged students to travel in france as a means of completing the knowledge of french acquired in england; yet at the same time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the facilities for learning the language in england, especially after the restoration, when, to use mauger's words, there was a little france in london, as well as a little england in paris; "there being so great a correspondence between the two courts of england and france that we see here continually the lords of the latter, as they see at paris persons of quality of the former, besides an infinity of others going and coming from thence." this indeed was the period in which francomania reached its height in england. during the commonwealth the english court and many of the nobility and gentry had sojourned in france, and returned thence imbued with admiration for everything french. this admiration was intensified by the universal popularity of the french language and french fashions. gentlemen from all parts of europe repaired to france to learn the language and "frenchify" their manners. france was the country to which english gentlemen resorted "to get their breeding"; and the chancellor clarendon held that their manners were much improved by the contact. on the other hand, french men and women of the same class came to the english court in larger numbers than ever before. some returned with their english friends at the restoration. others followed later, for the english court offered more attractions to pleasure-seekers than did the french court, now under the influence of madame de maintenon. the indignation and dismay aroused in france by the execution of charles i.[ ] made the welcome offered to the royalist emigrants all the warmer in the first instance. we are told that paris, and indeed all france, was full of loyal fugitives.[ ] the exiled english court was sheltered at the louvre and the palais royal in turn.[ ] the queen arrived in her native land in , and shortly afterwards came prince charles, then about sixteen years old, and james, the young duke of york. mlle. de montpensier, the grand-daughter of henry iv., remarks on the french of the two young princes. james, she thought, spoke the language with ease, and very well indeed, and mademoiselle was no lenient critic.[ ] but charles had not drawn as much profit from the lessons received in england.[ ] he found the pronunciation an almost insuperable difficulty, stammered and hesitated, and during the early part of his stay remained almost mute for want of words. mademoiselle says he could not utter one intelligible sentence in french, though he understood all she said to him. charles, however, soon felt the benefit of his sojourn abroad. when he returned to france from holland in , he had already made much progress and answered the french king readily in french, when that monarch inquired about the horses and dogs of the prince of orange. he was ready enough to talk of hunting in french, but when the queen wished to know about the progress of his affairs, and to talk of serious matters, he excused himself, declaring he could not speak french.[ ] he would also sit silent for long periods in mlle. de montpensier's presence, and only ventured to convey his compliments to her through lord jermyn, one of the chief counsellors of charles i., who remained in the service of the queen during her exile in france. [header: the english court in france] but the princess was delighted to see a great improvement in his speaking of the language at the time of his return from the expedition into scotland, and the fatal battle of worcester. he forgot his shyness and spoke french well, relating to her the thrilling story of his escape, and how he was "furieusement ennuyé" in scotland, where they think it a sin to listen to a violin. he was also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in french, and on these occasions, she remarks, he spoke the language particularly well.[ ] charles is even said to have gone incognito to several french reformed churches during his stay in france. the presence of cromwell's ambassador prevented his going to the famous church of charenton, but he went to others. on one occasion he listened to the sermon in the protestant church of la rochelle, in company with the duke of ormond, and expressed his satisfaction to one or two of the congregation to whom he revealed his identity.[ ] many other englishmen improved their french during their enforced stay on the continent. most of the high officials of the court of charles i., the courtiers, nobles, and gentlemen round the king, spent the greater part of the interregnum in paris, although some of them were disturbed by the french understanding with cromwell in . john evelyn[ ] enumerates most of the distinguished englishmen he met in france,[ ] and remarks on the number of french courtiers who paid their respects to the king (charles ii.); he himself kissed his majesty's hand at st. germain's. french courtiers had free intercourse with the english at concerts, festivals, and other entertainments.[ ] they also met at the academies so fashionable at the time. on the th march , for instance, evelyn witnessed a "triumph" in mr. del campo's academy, where "divers of the french and english noblesse, especially my lord of ossory, and richard, sons to the marquis of ormond (afterwards duke), did their exercises on horseback in noble equipage before a world of spectators and great persons, men and ladies." and again, on the th of may, he writes, "we were invited by the noble academies to a running, where were many brave horses, gallants and ladies, my lord stanhope entertaining us with a collation." the king's brother, the young duke of gloucester, set the example by daily attending one of these academies. sir john reresby, that time-serving politician, has also left an account of his journey in france during the commonwealth. on his arrival at paris in he saw the king, the duke of york, and prince rupert playing at billiards in the palais royal; "but was incognito, it being crime sufficient the waiting upon his majesty to have caused the sequestration of his estates."[ ] reresby was again in france in , and was well received by henrietta maria. almost alone of the english exiles, sir edward hyde, the chancellor, who found the discomforts of the exiled court very great, failed to become a fluent speaker of french, chiefly because he was unable to overcome the difficulties of the pronunciation. after the restoration he was the one high official of the english court who did not speak the language with fluency. it was not till the time of his exile in france, after his disgrace in , that he mastered the language sufficiently to read its literature; but he still found "many inconveniences" in speaking it.[ ] men of letters formed a considerable section of the english colony in france. waller, denham, cowley, davenant, hobbes, killigrew, shirley, fanshawe, crashaw, etc., and later roscommon, rochester, buckingham, wycherley, vanbrugh, and others lived in france, and some mixed freely in french literary circles, then centring round the hôtel de rambouillet, and such names as those of malherbe, vaugelas, corneille, bossuet, scudéry, la calprenède. english literature of the restoration gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and literature of their hosts.[ ] waller, for instance, after spending some time at rouen, moved to paris, where he lived "in great splendour and hospitality."[ ] [header: english men of letters in france] cowley, who had followed the queen to paris, became secretary to lord jermyn, afterwards earl of st. albans, and deciphered the letters which passed between the king and queen of england. the dramatist davenant was twice in france, where he remained several years on his second visit. hobbes, who for many years acted as a travelling tutor, made his mark in the philosophic circles of paris, and knew mersenne, sorbière, and gassendi. he fled to paris during the civil wars, and for a time was engaged in teaching arithmetic to the prince of wales.[ ] among the many children sent to france for education during the civil war and commonwealth were several future literary men. both vanbrugh and wycherley were brought up in this way. at the age of fifteen wycherley was "sent for education to the western parts of france, either to saintonges or the angoumois. his abode there was either upon the banks of the charente, or very little remov'd from it. and he had there the happiness to be in the neighbourhood of one of the most accomplish'd ladies of the court of france, mme. de montausier, whom voiture has made famous by several very ingenious letters, the most of which were writ to her when she was a maid, and call'd mlle. de rambouillet. i have heard mr. wycherley say he was often admitted to the conversation of that lady, who us'd to call him the little hugenot: and that young as he was, he was equally pleased with the beauty of her mind, and with the graces of her person."[ ] one of the young royalists who received his education in france during the commonwealth so completely mastered the french language that he gained an important place among french men of letters: the famous anthony hamilton, the author of short stories in french[ ]--masterpieces in the light vein[ ]--and of the well-known life of his gallant brother-in-law, the comte de grammont, which gives a vivid picture of the life at the court of charles ii. hamilton has been placed second only to voltaire as a representative of the _esprit français_.[ ] at the restoration, hamilton returned to england with the rest of the english emigrants, together with a considerable number of frenchmen who had attached themselves to the english court. he was followed two years later by the hero of his _mémoires_,[ ] the comte de grammont, who pronounced the english court so like that of france in manners and conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another country.[ ] french was the language freely used by the english emigrants on their return to london, and by others in imitation of them. "french is the most in use," wrote william higford in the year of the restoration, "a most sweet tongue called the woman's tongue, and as i think for the address from the servant to the mistress, and from the servant to the soveraigne, there is no sweeter nor more civil."[ ] the use of the french language was spreading all over europe, but nowhere was it so popular as in england: "indeed it is most alamode and best pleases the ladies and we cannot deny but messieurs of france are excellent wits."[ ] the presence of so many of these _messieurs_ in london intensified the already strong french atmosphere. several famous names occur in the list of french ladies and gentlemen who took up their abode in england at this time. shortly before de grammont, st. evremond had arrived in england, where he spent over thirty years, and died in . both played important parts in the social life of the time. de grammont especially was very popular. [header: french courtiers in london] he received a warm welcome at court, where he met many old friends and was overwhelmed with hospitality; to make an engagement with him it was necessary to see him a fortnight beforehand. he himself added to the court festivities by giving french entertainments in the parisian style. at the numerous festivities held in honour of de grammont, st. evremond[ ] was almost invariably one of the guests. he soon became the centre of a _coterie_, half english and half french, including his literary companion the dutchman vossius, canon of windsor, the french doctor le fèvre, professor of chemistry to charles ii.,[ ] and the learned huguenot henri justel, who had charge of the royal library at st. james's. what contributed most to reconcile st. evremond to his life in england, however, was the arrival of hortense mancini, duchesse de mazarin, niece of the cardinal. the french ambassador courtin said england was the refuge of french wives who had quarrelled with their husbands, and the duchesse was one of these.[ ] in her _salon_ st. evremond met the most distinguished englishmen and foreign ministers of the day. he saw her daily, and she inspired much of his best work. there, too, met french catholics, huguenots, and englishmen, free from all religious prejudice, and talked of the subjects which interested them most. another of mazarin's nieces, the duchesse de bouillon,[ ] was also in london for a time, and received in her _salon_ waller, st. evremond, and others; at one time there was a possibility of la fontaine joining her circle. la fontaine seems to have felt some interest in england and the english, who, he says, pensent profondément; leur esprit, en cela, suit leur tempérament, creusant dans les sujets, et forts d'expériences, ils étendent partout l'empire des sciences. to mrs. harvey, sister of lord montagu and friend of the duchess of mazarin, he dedicated his fable _le renard anglais_. both st. evremond and the duchess of mazarin ended their days in england.[ ] st. evremond enjoyed the favour of three english kings. charles ii. gave him a pension, and when william iii. dined with one of his courtiers, he is said to have always stipulated that the french writer should be of the party, as he took great delight in his conversation. though st. evremond received permission in to return to his native land, he did not avail himself of the offer, preferring to remain in the midst of his english friends, who were accustomed to his ways and manners and his peculiarities.[ ] but during the whole of his thirty years' stay in england he made no attempt to speak english. french was the language in which he and the rest of his countrymen carried on their daily intercourse with their hosts. pepys also refers frequently to the frenchmen he met in london.[ ] on one occasion at the cockpit his attention was diverted from the stage by a group of loquacious frenchmen in a box, who, not understanding english, were amusing themselves by asking a pretty lady, who knew both languages, what the actors said. "lord! what sport they made!" says pepys. on another occasion at whitehall he met a very communicative frenchman with one eye, who shared a coach with him, and told him the history of his own life "without asking." covent garden, we are told, was the favourite resort of the french residents, "nearer the court, than the exchange."[ ] their presence, however, was not confined to court circles; for the french were beginning to take an interest in england and to visit the country,[ ] although, as yet, their curiosity had not extended to the language. in a few cases english was studied. mauger even tells us that several of his contemporaries learnt it in france. it is certain that some employed the services of the french teachers of london, who were willing to teach their newly acquired language to their countrymen; for this purpose the practice of attaching english grammars to french ones--a combination first instituted by mauger, who urged the french and english to avail themselves of this opportunity of exchanging lessons--became more and more common as the seventeenth century drew to its close. [header: french valets and "femmes de chambre"] in the meanwhile guide-books[ ] and relations of travel in england appeared. the writer of one of these, m. payen,[ ] remarks on the great number of strangers, especially frenchmen, in london.[ ] at the time of the restoration, however, the chief significance of their presence lies in the need they created for the english to speak french. the great demand for everything french, including the language, offered an opening for many frenchmen in london; for all the men and women of fashion were not in the position of de grammont, who sent his valet, thermes, to france every week to bring back the latest fashions from paris. "nothing will go down with the town now," writes a contemporary author, "but french fashions, french dancing, french songs, french servants, french wines, french kickshaws, and now and then french sawce come in among them, and so no doubt but french doctors may be in esteem too."[ ] in almost every book written at the time there is some reference to the mania for french fashions. and some time later the abbé le blanc relates how, on one occasion in england, a self-satisfied englishman taunted him thus: "il faut que votre pays soit bien pauvre, puisque tant de gens sont obligés de le quitter pour chercher à vivre en celui-ci. c'est vous qui nous fournissez de maîtres à danser, de perruquiers, de tailleurs, et de valets de chambre: et nous vous devons cette justice, pour la frisure ou pour le menuet, les françois l'emportent sur toutes les autres nations. je ne comprens pas comment on aime si fort la danse dans un pays où l'on a si peu sujet de rire. n'est-il pas triste, par exemple, de ne cultiver vos vignes que pour nous?"[ ] regarding the french _valets_ and _femmes de chambre_ in london, the abbé writes: "il n'est pas étonnant que l'on trouve en angleterre tant de domestiques françois. a londres on se plaît à parler notre langue, on copie nos usages, on imite nos moeurs: ils entretiennent du moins dans nos manières ceux qui les aiment: et les anglois les payent à proportion de l'utilité qu'ils en retirent."[ ] we are told that the french lackey was "as mischievous all the year as a london apprentice on shrove tuesday";[ ] yet he was indispensable: his lordship's valet must be bred in france, or else he is a clown without pretence: the english blockheads are in dress so coarse, they're fit for nothing but to rub a horse. her ladyship's ill manner'd or ill bred, whose woman confident or chamber maid, did not in france suck in her first breath'd air, or did not gain her education there.[ ] french cooks were also in great demand, and it was a point of gentility to dine at one of the french ordinaries. thus briske, in shadwell's _humourists_, is condemned as "a fellow that never wore a noble or polite garniture, or a white periwig, one that has not a bit of interest at chatelin's, or ever ate a good fricacy, sup, or ragoust in his life"; for now, "like the french we dress, like frenchmen eat." "substantial beef" is "boil'd in vain," and "our boards are profaned with fricassee":[ ] our cooks in dressing have no skill at all, french cooks are only of the modish stamp. pepys did not care for the new french restaurants. at the most popular, chatelin's,[ ] he says, they serve a "damned base dinner at the charge of s. d." he preferred the old english ordinaries where english food was given a french name. yet he admits that at the french houses the table is covered and the glasses clean, all in the french manner; and when he dined with his patrons of the admiralty, he usually was given a "fine french dinner."[ ] [header: the french tailor] as to the french dancing-master, he is a "very paladin of france when he comes into england once, where he has the regimen of the ladies leges and is the sole pedagoge of their feet, teaching them the french language, as well as the french pace."[ ] french music was also the vogue. we are told that during the reign of charles ii. "all musick affected by the beau mond ran in the ffrench way."[ ] john bannester, the first violin to the king, is said to have lost his post[ ] for having upheld, within the hearing of his majesty, that the english musicians were superior to the french. soon after the restoration, charles on one occasion gave great umbrage to the english musicians by making them stop their performance and bidding the french music play instead. in the same way the french tailor is "the king of fashions and emperor of the mode, not onely in france, but most of its neighboring nations, and his laws are received where the king of france's will not pass";[ ] and thus the french now give us laws for pantalons, the length of breeches and the gathers, port-cannons, periwigs and feathers.[ ] there was a french peddling woman at court, mlle. le boord, who "us'd to bring peticoates, and fanns and baubles out of france to the ladys,"[ ] and whose opinion had great weight. de grammont won the favour of the english ladies by having french trinkets sent them from france. "let the fashion be french, 'tis no matter what the cloth be."[ ] travellers from france were beset with questions as to the latest mode. some devotees were said to receive weekly letters from france providing information on this subject.[ ] at one moment charles protested against the rage for french fashions by adopting a simple garment after the persian style, which was first worn at court on the th october . divers gentlemen went so far as to wager that his majesty would not persist in this change; and when louis xiv. retorted by ordering his pages to be attired in the same persian garb, charles withdrew. "it was a comely and manly attire," writes evelyn, "too good to hold, it being impossible for us in good earnest to leave the monsieurs' vanities long."[ ] francomania indeed was carried to extremes: and as some pupils have been known in time to put their tutors down, so ours are often found t'ave got more tricks than ever they were taught.[ ] we are told of an "english captain that threw up his commission because his company would not exercise after the french discipline."[ ] dryden even accuses the french of influencing the course of english politics:[ ] the holy league begot our cov'nant; guisards got whig, whate'er our hot-brain'd sheriffs did advance, was like our fashions, first produced in france, and when worn out, well scourg'd and bannish'd there. sent over, like their godly beggars, here. a french patent was said to authorize any crime.[ ] "now what a devil 'tis should make us so dote on these french," says flecknoe,[ ] and another writer adds:[ ] our native speech we must forget e'er long to learn the french that much more modish tongue. their language smoother is, hath pretty aires, but ours is gothick if compar'd with theirs. the french by arts of smooth insinuation are now become the darlings of the nation. [header: french spoken at court] the example was set at court, where french was commonly in use, and where to be able to speak it well was a necessity and proof of good breeding. "mark then, i makes 'em both speak french to show their breeding," says the author boyes of his two kings in buckingham's _rehearsal_.[ ] sir john reresby first attracted notice at court by his fluent french. "it was this summer," he writes in , "that the duke of york first took any particular notice of me. i happened to be in discourse with the french ambassador and some other gentlemen of his nation, in the presence at whitehall, and the duke joined us, he being a great lover of the french tongue and kind to those who spoke it. the next night he talked with me a long while as he was at supper with the king."[ ] and reresby, with a keen eye for his own advancement, took advantage of this to secure the patronage of the duke. he also tells us that the king, duke, and french ambassador were very often merry and intimate together at louise de kerouaille's (now duchess of portsmouth) lodgings,[ ] where french alone would be used, for it was an unknown thing for a french ambassador to speak english. there was not a courtier[ ] who did not speak french with ease, clarendon alone excepted. the ladies of the court were equally well versed in the language. when de grammont, who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in france, came to make that of the ladies, he needed no interpreter, for all knew french--"assez pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le françois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait à leur dire."[ ] amongst them was miss hamilton, anthony's sister, who became de grammont's wife,[ ] and was much admired at the court of louis xiv. the accomplishments of miss stuart may be quoted as typical of the rest: "elle avoit de la grâce, dansoit bien, parloit françois mieux que sa langue naturelle: elle étoit polie, possédoit cet air de parure après lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe guères à moins de l'avoir pris en france dès sa jeunesse."[ ] the least gifted lady of the court was miss blake, who "n'entendoit presque point le françois." when the countess of berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of the queen's dressers, the fact that she had been twelve years in france, and could speak french exceedingly well, was mentioned as her chief qualification.[ ] the portuguese queen[ ] was indeed out of place in her frenchified court. she could not speak french, and spanish was her means of intercourse with charles ii. and the duke of york, who both spoke this language fairly well, and were able to act as interpreters between their french mother and the young queen. catherine's portuguese attire was the subject of much amusement, and her efforts to induce the ladies of the court to adopt it were of no avail. james ii., when he was an exile in france for the second time, told the nuns of chaillot that she had endeavoured to prevail on king charles to use his influence with them: "but the ladies dressed in the french fashions and would not hear of any other, constantly sending artificers and dressmakers to paris to import the newest modes, as they do to this very day."[ ] the country ladies caught the fashion as it was going out in london.[ ] in many cases the passion for all things french became a mania with the ladies, as is frequently pictured in the drama of the time.[ ] a frenchified lady would have a french maid, "born and bred in france, who could speak english but brokenly," with whom she would talk a mixture of broken french and english; while many a one like melantha of dryden's _marriage à-la-mode_,[ ] doted on any new french word: "as fast as any bullion comes out of france, she coins it into english, and runs mad in new french words."[ ] [header: the frenchified lady] she importunes those returned from the tour in france, or who have correspondence with parisians, to know the latest words used in paris. her maid supplies her daily with a store of french words: _melantha._ ... you _sot_ you, come produce your morning's work.... o, my venus! or words to serve me a whole day! let me die, at this rate i cannot last till night! come read your words.... _philotis._ _sottises._ _melantha._ _sottises, bon._ that's an excellent word to begin withal: as for example, he or she said a thousand _sottises_ to me. proceed. _philotis._ _figure_: as what a _figure_ of a man is there! _naïve_ and _naïveté_. _melantha._ _naïve!_ as how? _philotis._ speaking of a thing that was naturally said: it was so _naïve_. or such an innocent piece of simplicity: 'twas such a _naïveté_. and as melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions, she bestows gifts on her maid at each new word. a new catechism[ ] for the ladies was invented on these lines: --of what nation are you? --english by birth: my education _à la mode de france_. --who confirms you? --mademoiselle the french mantua maker. we are told that the frenchified lady was educated in a french boarding-school, by a french dancing master, a french singing master, and a french waiting woman. "before i could speak english plain," she tells us, "i was taught to jabber french: and learnt to dance before i could go: in short i danced french dances at , sang french at , spoke it at , and before could talk nothing else." among the gentlemen _à la mode_, "to speak french like a magpie" was also the fashion: we shortly must our native speech forget and every man appear a french coquett. upon the tongue our english sounds not well, but--oh, monsieur, la langue françoise est belle;[ ] wrote a satirist of the time. and so the francomaniacs, designated as _beaux_ or english _monsieurs_, became the subject for satire and ridicule. their french was often not of a very high standard. pepys met one of the _monsieurs_, "full of his french," and pronounced it "not very good." many, no doubt, had to be content "t' adorn their english with french scraps." and while they idly think t' enrich, adulterate their native speech: for, though to smatter ends of greek or latin be the rhetorique of pedants counted and vainglorious, to smatter french is meritorious, and to forget their mother tongue or purposely to speak it wrong.[ ] butler says that "'tis as ill breeding now to speak good englis, as to wrote good englis,[ ] good sense or a good hand," and "not to be able to swear a french oath, nor use the polite french word in conversation," debarred one from polite society. the town spark or _beau garzion_ is frequently introduced in the comedies of the time. not being master of his own language, he intermingles it with scraps of french that the ladies may take him for a man of parts and a true linguist.[ ] such is sir foppington, who walks with one eye hidden under his hat, with a toothpick in prominence, and a cane dangling at his button;[ ] and sir novelty fashion, who prefers the title of _beau_ to that of right honourable;[ ] and the _monsieur_ of paris of wycherley's _gentleman dancing master_, "mightily affected with french language and fashions," preferring the company of a french valet to that of an english squire, and talking "agreeable ill englis." etherege's sir fopling flutter[ ] presents us with a telling picture of what was considered good breeding and wit at the court of charles ii. [header: the english "monsieur"] sir fopling is "a fine undertaking french fop, arrived piping hot from paris," bent on imitating the people of quality in france and on speaking a mixture of french and english. "his head stands for the most part on one side, and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when she lolls at stretch in her coach, or leans her head carelessly against the side of a box in the playhouse." he judges everything according to what is done at paris, and english music and dancing make him shudder. and as it was _à la mode_ to be attended by a young petit garçon who from his cradle was an arch fripon,[ ] he walks about with a train of french valets. mr. frenchlove of james howard's "english monsieur" ( ) is likewise "a frenchman in his second nature, that is in his fashion, discourse and clothes"; he cannot discover a _divertissement_ in the whole of london, but finds "some comfort that in this vast beef-eating city, a french house may be found to eat at." the french ordinaries held an important place in the daily round of the _beau_. his toilet occupied the whole of the early part of the day. he would then go to the french ordinary,[ ] where he boasts of his travels to the untravelled company, and if they receive this well, plies them with "more such stuff, as how he, simple fellow as he seems to be, had interpreted between the french king and the emperor." or, if his accomplishments will not stand this strain, "flings some fragments of french or small parcels of italian about the table."[ ] he may then take the promenade or _tour à la mode_, where he salutes with _bon meen_, and has a hundred _jolly rancounters_ on the way.[ ] he usually ended his day at the play. and here again he would find the desired french atmosphere. many translations or adaptations of french plays were acted,[ ] and the english drama of the period is so full of french words and phrases that it is hardly intelligible to any one without a good knowledge of french.[ ] the frenchified gallants and ladies, the french valets, and other french characters introduced so freely into the plays, offered ample opportunity for the use of french words.[ ] dryden, alone, is responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such words.[ ] as literature was fashionable at the time, most of the dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen _à la mode_ with strong french tastes. sedley, for instance, had a great reputation in the world of fashion. wycherley and vanbrugh had both been educated in france. etherege had probably resided many years in paris. cibber, who always played the part of the fop in his own plays, went twice to france specially to study the airs and graces of the french _petit-maître_,--at no better place, however, than a _table d'auberge_, the abbé le blanc tells us:[ ] "il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modèles, il n'étoit à portée d'en voir d'autres: si même il n'a pas aussi bien imité ceux-ci que les anglois se le sont persuadé, je n'en suis pas surpris: il m'a avoué de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour suivre la conversation." it is unlikely, however, that cibber's french was as scanty as the _abbé_ reports. at any rate his daughter charlotte, afterwards mrs. clarke, tells us that she understood the alphabet in french before she was able to speak english.[ ] the prologues and epilogues of the restoration plays are frequently addressed to the gallants, and often in a language which would appeal to them; for instance, a french marquis speaks the epilogue in farquhar's _constant couple_: ... vat have you english, dat you call your own, vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne, vidout it come from france, dat will go down? picquet, basset: your vin, your dress, your dance, 'tis all, you zee, tout à-la-mode de france. [header: french plays in london] the francomaniacs of the time would find still more to their taste at the french play. during nearly twenty years after the restoration, london was hardly ever without a company of french players. the beaux and gallants flocked to see "a troop of frisking monsieurs," and cry "ben" and "keep time to the cadence of the french verses":[ ] old english authors vanish and give place to these new conquerors of the norman race, wrote dryden, protesting against the caprice of the town for the french comedians; and he adds elsewhere:[ ] a brisk french troop is grown your dear delight, who with broad bloody bills, call you each day, to laugh and break your buttons at their play. there was a great rush to the french plays, both tragedies and comedies. valets went hours in advance to reserve a place for their masters. there is no need, says dryden, to seek far for the reason of their popularity,--they are french, and that is enough. people go to show their breeding and try to laugh at the right moment. the english dramatist insinuates that the comedians let in their own countrymen free of charge that they might lead the applause, and give the cue to the ladies. the english court and its followers had evidently acquired a taste for french plays during their sojourn abroad. immediately after the restoration a french company settled in london, and the king became their special patron and protector. in he made a grant of £ to jean channoveau to be distributed among the french comedians,[ ] and in they obtained permission to bring from france their stage decorations and scenery. it seems to have always been the king's "pleasure" that "the clothes, vestments, scenes, and other ornaments proper for and directly designed for their own use about the stage should be imported customs free."[ ] the earliest troupe of french actors, under jean channoveau, acted at the cockpit in drury lane; and there, on the th august , pepys took his wife to see a french comedy. he carried away a very bad impression of the play, describing it as "ill done, the scenes and company and everything else so nasty and out of order and poor, that (he) was sick all the while in (his) mind to be there." he vented his ill humour on a friend of mrs. pepys whom she had met in france; and "that done, there being nothing pleasant but the foolery of the farce, we went home." french comedies were also acted at court. evelyn, who went very little to the theatre, witnessed one of these on the th december , but makes no observation on it. in the _playhouse to be let_ of davenant, who directed the duke's company playing at dorset gardens,[ ] figures a frenchman who has brought over a troupe of his countrymen to act a farce. the french actor bellerose is said to have made a fortune by playing in london.[ ] another of these actors who ventured to london was henri pitel, sieur de longchamp, who came in with his wife and two daughters.[ ] he stayed nearly two years in england, and shone at the court of charles ii. charles himself is said not to have missed one of the french plays,[ ] at which his mistress, louise de kerouaille, duchess of portsmouth, mme. mazarin, the french ambassador, and many courtiers were always present. in the "prince's french players" were again expected in england,[ ] no doubt the same troupe, directed by pitel and known as _les comédiens de son altesse sérénissime m. le prince_. footnotes: [ ] expressed in the _lettres_ of guy patin, and numerous pamphlets published at the time. [ ] evelyn, _diary_, sept. , . [ ] in the _journal de voyage de deux jeunes hollandais à paris, - _ (ed. a. p. faugère, nd ed., paris, ), there is some information concerning the exiled court. the teacher lainé mentions a lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his _dialogues_. [ ] _mémoires_, vols., paris, , i. pp. , , , etc. [ ] _supra_, pp. _sqq._ [ ] after the restoration he would also try to get out of a difficult situation on the same plea. he talked french freely to mlle. de kerouaille. however, when the french ambassador, courtin, wished to discuss with him the negotiations with the dutch, he excused himself on the ground that he had forgotten nearly all his french since his return to england, and asked for delay to reflect on anything proposed in that language. he offered the same excuse for his council, but courtin retorted that many of them spoke french as well as english. cp. j. j. jusserand, _a french ambassador at the court of charles ii._, london, , p. . [ ] "il me disoit des douceurs, à ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous écoutoient et parloit si bien françois, en tenant ces propos-là, qu'il n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l'amour étoit plutôt françois que de toute autre nation. car, quand le roi parloit sa langue (la langue de l'amour) il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent qu'avec moi: car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien" (_mémoires_, _ed. cit._ i. p. ). [ ] _lettre de m. de l'angle à un de ses amis touchant la religion du sérénissime roy d'angleterre_, geneva?, , p. . [ ] evelyn was in france in , on his way to study anatomy at padua, and again in - on his return, and yet again in . [ ] lord high treasurer cottington, sir ed. hyde, etc.; cp. _diary_, aug. and , sept. , , , oct. , , , etc. [ ] thus the king invited the prince of condé to supper at st. cloud ... "where i saw a famous (tennis) match betwixt mons. saumaurs and colonel cooke, and so returned to paris." evelyn, _diary_, sept. , . [ ] _memoirs of sir john reresby of thribergh, bart., m.p. for york, etc., - _, ed. j. j. cartwright, london, , pp. , (cp. pp. _sqq._, supra). [ ] sir henry craike, _life of edward, earl of clarendon_, , ii. pp. _sqq._ [ ] w. harvey-jellie, _les sources du théâtre anglais à l'époque de la restauration_, paris, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] evelyn visited waller several times. [ ] evelyn met hobbes at paris in september . [ ] dennis, _original letters, familiar, moral and critical_, london, , i. p. . at a later date he was again in france for reasons of health. the king gave him £ to pay the expenses of a journey to the south of france. he was at montpellier from the winter of to the spring of . [ ] ". . . cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus délicates ressources en grâce, en malice plaisante et en ironie." cf. sayous, _histoire de la littérature française à l'étranger_. [ ] "hamilton dans le conte (says sayous, _op. cit._) l'emporte sur voltaire qui eut été le premier, si au lieu de se jeter dans les allégories philosophiques il s'était abandonné, comme notre Écossais, au plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume." [ ] the scotch chevalier de ramsay ( - ), the friend of fénelon, also wrote french with remarkable purity. his best known work is _les voyages de cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie_ (paris, ; london, ). at a later date thomas hales ( ?- ), known as d'hèle, d'hell, or dell, a french dramatist of english birth, also made himself a name in french literature (sylvain van de weyer, _les anglais qui ont écrit en français_, miscellanies, philobiblon soc., , vol. i.). [ ] hamilton, _mémoires du comte de grammont. histoire amoureuse de la cour de charles ii_, ed. b. pifteau, paris, , preface. voltaire often quoted the beginning of _le bélier_ as a model of style. [ ] "il trouvoit si peu de différence aux manières et à la conversation de ceux qu'il voyoit le plus souvent, qu'il ne lui paroissoit pas qu'il eut changé de pais. tout ce qui peut occuper un homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui l'entrainoient, come si les plaisirs de la cour de france l'eussent quitté pour l'accompagner dans son exil" (_mémoires_, _ed. cit._ p. ). grammont had been banished from the french court on account of a presumptuous love affair. [ ] _institution of a gentleman_, london, , p. . the book first appeared as _institutions, or advice to his grandson_, in . [ ] j. smith, _grammatica quadralinguis_, . [ ] sayous, _op. cit._ ii. ch. iv. [ ] evelyn once accompanied his majesty "to m. favre to see his preparation for the composition of sir walter raleigh's rare cordial," when the chemist made a learned discourse in french on the nature of each ingredient. [ ] _revue historique_, xxix., sept.-oct. , p. . [ ] j. j. jusserand, _shakespeare in france_, london, , pp. , , . mme. d'aulnoy, the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the _mémoires de la cour d'angleterre_, was also among the french ladies in london at this time. [ ] st. evremond was buried at westminster at the age of ninety-one. the duchess died at chelsea in . [ ] in a letter to justel he spoke of the thames as "nostre thamise." [ ] evelyn's diary, likewise, is full of mentions of meetings with frenchmen. [ ] sorbière, _relation d'un voyage en angleterre . . ._, paris, , p. . [ ] cp. ch. bastide, _anglais et français du e siècle_, paris, . [ ] jusserand, _shakespeare in france_, p. , note . [ ] _les voyages de m. payen_, paris, . [ ] mauger calls london "une des merveilles du monde. on y vient de tous côtez, pour admirer sa magnificence." [ ] _the ladies' catechism_, . [ ] j. b. le blanc, _lettres d'un français_, à la haye, , iii. p. . [ ] _ibid._ i. p. . mrs. pepys assisted lady sandwich to find a french maid (_diary_, nov. , ), and was herself very desirous of one. the prejudiced rutledge writes nearly a century later: "as the lower classes of the french are so completely qualified for domestics, it is not surprising that such numerous colonies of french _valets de chambre_, cooks and footmen are planted all over europe: and that the nobility and fashionable people of so many countries shew an avowed propensity to prefer them even to their fellow natives" (_account of the character and manners of the french_, , pt. ii. p. ). [ ] flecknoe, _characters ..._ ( ), london, , p. . "they (the french) have gained so much influence over the english fops that they furnish them with their french puppydogs for _valets de chambre_" (_french conjuror_, ). addison (_spectator_, no. ) says he remembers the time when some well-bred englishwomen kept a _valet de chambre_ "because, forsooth, they were more handy than one of their own sex." [ ] _satire on the french_, . reprinted as the _baboon à la mode_, . [ ] _satirical reflections_, , rd pt. [ ] cp. wycherley, _country wife_, act i. sc. . [ ] _diary_, oct , ; may , ; may , ; feb. , march and , . [ ] flecknoe, _characters_, p. . pepys describes a french dance at court (_diary_, nov. , ), which was "not extraordinarily pleasing." he much admired the dancing of the young princess mary, taught by a frenchman (_diary_, march , ). the _maîtres d'armes_ were often italians and spaniards. there were protests against the french and italian singing and dancing "taught by the dregs of italy and france" (_satirical reflections_, ). [ ] pepys's _diary_, ed. h. b. wheatley, v. p. , note, and vi. p. . [ ] a frenchman was appointed in his place; cp. _cal. of state papers, - _, p. ; _ - _, pp. , . children were sent to france to learn music. pepys did not like the "french airs" (_diary_, july , ; june , ). [ ] flecknoe, _characters_, p. . french gardeners (_cal. state papers, - _, pp. , ) and french barbers were also in favour. pepys went to the french pewterer's (march , - ). [ ] s. butler, _hudibras_. [ ] evelyn, _diary_, march . [ ] vincent, _young gallants' academy_, . [ ] cp. sedley, _mulberry garden_ (sir j. everyoung: "which is the most à la mode right revered spark? points or laces? girdle or shoulder belts? what say your letters out of france?"). there is hardly a comedy of the time without some such references to french fashions; cp. etherege, _sir fopling flutter_; shadwell, _humours of the army_, etc. [ ] evelyn, _diary_, oct. , . evelyn had himself written a pamphlet called _tyrannus or the mode_, an invective against "our overmuch affecting of french fashion," in which he praised the comeliness and usefulness of the persian style of clothing. this he had presented to the king: "i do not impute to this discourse the change whiche soone happen'd, but it was an identity that i could not but take notice of" (_diary_, oct. and , ). [ ] butler, _satire on our ridiculous imitation of the french_; "a l'étranger on prend plaisir à enchérir sur toutes les nouveautez qui leur viennent de france. . . ." muralt (_lettres_, ). [ ] _french conjuror_, . [ ] _duc de guise_, prologue; cp. prologue to _albion and albanius_: "then 'tis the mode of france without whose rules none must presume to set up here as fools." [ ] french money was said to be most successful in bribes. farquhar, _constant couple_, iv. . [ ] flecknoe, _characters_, p. . [ ] _satire against the french_, . [ ] acted ; act ii. sc. . [ ] _mémoires_, _ed. cit._ pp. - . [ ] _ibid._ p. . [ ] lord rutherford, for instance, begs pardon for his english, being more accustomed to the french tongue (_cal. of state papers, - _, p. ). [ ] hamilton, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] the story goes that grammont was leaving england without marrying miss hamilton, when her brother overtook him and told him he had forgotten something, whereat he realized his oversight and returned to repair it. it is said that this incident supplied molière with the subject of his _mariage forcé_. [ ] hamilton, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] _cal. state papers, dom., - _, p. . [ ] two grammars for teaching portuguese greeted the new queen. one was a _portuguese grammar_ in french and english by mr. la mollière, a french gentleman, (_register of the company of stationers_, ii. ); and the other, j. howell's _grammar for the spanish or castilian tongue with some special remarks on the portuguese dialect_, with a description of spain and portugal by way of guide. it was dedicated to the queen. [ ] fragment of the journal of the convent of chaillot, in the secret archives of france, hôtel de soubise. quoted by strickland in _lives of the queens_, , iv. p. . [ ] cp. sedley, _mulberry garden_. [ ] such as lady lurewell of farquhar's _constant couple_; lady fanciful in vanbrugh's _provoked wife_; brome's _damoiselle_ ( ); or mrs. rich in _the beau defeated_ ( ?). [ ] _the frenchified lady never in paris_ was the name given her by henry dell in his play, based on dryden's and printed and . [ ] there is a book called _the art of affectation_ teaching ladies to speak "in a silly soft tone of voice and use all the foolish french words which will infallibly make your person and conversation charming" (etherege, _sir fopling flutter_). [ ] _the ladies' catechism_, ? [ ] _satire against the french_, , p. . [ ] _satire on our ridiculous imitation of the french_; chalmers, _english poets_, viii. p. . [ ] cp. swift, _poem written in a lady's ivory table book_ ( ): "here you may read, here in beau-spelling--tru tel deth." [ ] _character of the beau_, . [ ] cibber, _careless husband_, act i. sc. . [ ] cibber, _love's last shift or the fool in fashion_. sedley's sir charles everyoung, ned estridge, and harry modish are all "most accomplished monsieurs," as are clodis in cibber's _love makes a man or the fop's fortune_; sir harry wildair in farquhar's play of that name; lord foppington of vanbrugh's _relapse or virtue in danger_; bull junior in dennis's _a plot and no plot_; clencher, senior, the prentice turned beau in farquhar's _constant couple_; mrs. behn's _sir timothy tawdry_; crowne's _sir courtly nice_, etc. in appeared a work called _the compleat beau_. [ ] _sir fopling flutter or the man of mode_, . supposed to be a portrait of the then notorious beau hewitt. [ ] _satire against the french_, . [ ] _character of the beau_, . most of the accomplished "monsieurs" frequented the french houses (sedley, _mulberry garden_). act ii. sc. of wycherley's _love in a wood_, and act ii. sc. of his _gentleman dancing master_, both take place in a french house. cp. _character of the town gallant_, . [ ] vincent, _young gallants' academy_, , p. . [ ] flecknoe, _characters_, . the edition of his _aenigmatical characters ..._, , contains a description in french of the _tour à la mode_: ". . . c'est une bataille bien rangée où l'on ne tire que des coups d'oeillades, et où les premiers ayant fait leur descharge, ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres" . . ., etc. (p. ). [ ] charles ii. openly avowed his preference for the french drama. dryden wrote his _essay of dramatic poesy_, "to vindicate the honour of our english writers from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the french before them." pepys saw many of the french plays acted in english. cp. h. mcafee, _pepys on the restoration stage ..._, yale univ. press, . [ ] a. beljame, _le public et les hommes de lettres au e siècle_, paris, , p. . [ ] as in etherege's _comical revenge or love in a tub_, _sir fopling flutter_, and the plays of cibber, vanbrugh, mrs. behn, shadwell, farquhar, wycherley, etc.; _the french conjuror_, ; _the beau defeated_, ?, etc. [ ] a. beljame, _quae e gallicis verbis in anglicam linguam johannes dryden introduxerit_, paris, . on french influence in restoration drama, see charlanne, _l'influence française en angleterre_, pp. _sqq._ [ ] _lettre à m. de la chaussée_: _lettres_, , ii. p. . [ ] _narrative of her life, written by herself_, pub. in series of autobiographies, london, , vol. vii. p. . most of the writers of the time were able to write some french. flecknoe, for instance, wrote some of his _characters_ in the language, and wrote a french dedication of his poems ( ), "à la plus excellente de son sexe." [ ] dryden, "prologue spoken at the opening of the new house, march, ," _works_, ed. scott and saintsbury, x. p. . [ ] "prologue to arviragus and phihera by l. carlell, revival," _works_, x. . [ ] shaw, _calendar of treasury books, - _, p. . [ ] _ibid., - _, pp. , , , etc.; _ - _ (vol. v.), pp. , ; _ _ (vol. vii.), p. . [ ] charles had granted two privileges: one to henry killigrew, who directed the king's company acting at drury lane, and the other to sir william davenant, who directed the duke's company. the rival companies united in . [ ] chardon, _la troupe du roman comique dévoilée et les comédiens de la campagne au e siècle_, le mans, , p. . [ ] chardon, _op. cit._ p. . [ ] _revue historique_, xxix., sept.-oct. , p. . [ ] _historical mss. commission reports_, v. p. . french dancers and singers also attracted the english from the performances of their own actors; cp. cibber, epilogue to _the careless husband_, and farquhar, preface to _the inconstant_. chapter vii the teaching of french and its popularity after the restoration in the meantime french grammars were being published in england in considerable numbers.[ ] so plentiful were they that there was "scarce anything to be seen anywhere but french grammars." the manuals of mauger and festeau were still in vogue, and that of mauger was frequently reedited. among new grammarians figures the tutor to the children of the duke of york (james ii.), pierre de lainé, who may possibly have been identical with the pierre lainé who published a grammar in .[ ] his french grammar, written in the first place for the lady mary (afterwards mary ii.), was published in ,[ ] when the princess was about five years old. it was subsequently placed at the service of the lady anne, afterwards queen, and a second edition appeared in , with the title: _the princely way to the french tongue as it was first compiled for the use of her highness the lady mary and since taught her royal sister the lady anne etc. by p. d. l. tutor for the french to both their highnesses_.[ ] "before you begin anything of letters or rules," says lainé, "you may learn how to call in french these few things following. ma tête, say maw tate my head mes cheveuz, say maysheveu my hair," and so on for the parts of the body, the numbers, days, and months, with similar guides to pronunciation. he then proceeds to treat of the sounds of letters and syllables, based on comparison with english. these rules occupy less than a fifth of the book; the remainder contains practical exercises. first come familiar phrases and dialogues, strongly religious in tone, including prayers, the catechism, commandments, etc., and conversation specially suited to royal princesses. a chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue is followed by rules of grammar, likewise in dialogue form. lastly come the _fables_ of aesop put into "burlesque french" for the use of her highness the lady mary when a child, and models of letters suitable for children, and accompanied by answers. in later years lainé spent some time at paris as secretary[ ] to sir henry savile, the english envoy at the french court, who did so much to prepare a favourable reception in england for the refugees at the time of the revocation of the edict of nantes.[ ] lainé was the first teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the order in council of the th july .[ ] shortly afterwards the same privilege was bestowed on francis cheneau, whose _french grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the french tongue in a short time_, was licensed for printing in .[ ] for many years cheneau continued to teach french, and in time added latin, english, and italian to his repertory. he describes himself as a native of paris, "formerly slave and governor of the isles of nacsia and paros in the archipelago." at the time of the appearance of his second work on the french language, in , he was "living in his house in old fish st. next door to the faulcon in london," where could be seen his short grammars for latin, italian, and english. the most versatile compiler of french manuals at this period was guy miège, a native of lausanne, who came to england at the time of the restoration. for two years he was employed in the household of lord elgin, and was then appointed under-secretary to the earl of carlisle, ambassador extraordinary to russia, sweden, and denmark. after spending three years abroad with the embassy, he travelled in france on his own account from till , preparing a _relation of the three embassies_ in which he had taken part. [header: the dictionaries of guy miÈge] his book was published in , on his return to london. he then settled in england as a teacher of french and geography, and wrote many works for teaching the language. the first was _a new dictionary french and english and english and french_ ( ), dedicated to charles lennox, duke of richmond. as usual, this french-english dictionary is based on a french-latin one--in this case that of pomey. miège was also closely acquainted with howell's edition of cotgrave's dictionary, last published in ; but he held it very defective in retaining so many obsolete words, and in not being adapted to the "present use and modern orthography--which indeed is highly pretended to in the last edition thereof, but so performed that the title runs away with all the credit of it." he looked upon cotgrave "as a good help indeed for reading of old french books (a thing which few people mind)." for his own part, his design was to teach the latest court french, and he made a point of omitting all the provincial and obsolete words cotgrave had searched out so carefully, words "that offend the eyes and grate the ears, but the rubbish of the french tongue." to "season the naturall dulness of the work" he included many proverbs, descriptions, and observations in both the english and french parts. considering that "the way to understand the bottom of a language is to learn how the derivatives are formed from their primitives and the compounds from their simples,"[ ] he arranged all the derivatives after their respective primitives; that nothing might be wanting, however, he placed them in their alphabetic order also, with a reference to the necessary primitive. miège's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary raised such a storm at its first appearance[ ] that he felt himself bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such words, which he called _a dictionary of barbarous french or a collection, by way of alphabet, of obsolete, provincial, misspelt, and made words in french, taken out of cotgrave's dictionary with some additions_. it was, he said, "performed for the satisfaction of such as read old french." by the time of its publication in , however, the storm raised by his first work had died away. miège continued his lexicographical labours. in appeared _a short french dictionary english and french, with another in french and english_, a work of no ambitious aims, containing a list of words pure and simple, with no descriptions or observations, intended for beginners, travellers, and those who could not afford the price of the larger one, and, above all, for foreigners reading english. the english were too eager and advanced in the study of french to find much help in so slight a work, but foreigners evidently adopted the dictionary; editions appeared at the hague in , (the fifth), and ;[ ] another was issued at rotterdam as late as . for the use of english students and those desiring to study either language more thoroughly, miège prepared, during many years of hard work, an enlarged edition of his first french dictionary of , which, he tells us, was compiled under great disadvantages; "the publick was in haste for a french dictionary, and they had it accordingly, hurried from the design to the composition, and from under my pen to the press." the new work, on a much larger scale, was known as _the great french dictionary, in two parts_, and published in , eleven years after the appearance of its nucleus, the _new french dictionary_ ( ). it gives words according to both their old and modern orthography, "by which means the reader is fitted for any sort of french book," and, writes miège, "although i am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words, yet i thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them, lest they should be missed by such as read old books." each word is accompanied by explanations, proverbs, phrases, "and as the first part does, here and there, give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of france, so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much wanted, to wit, an insight into the constitution of england...." in the _great dictionary_ miège abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives under their primitives, because it had made his former work "swarm with uneasy references"; he followed the alphabetical order strictly, "but in such a manner that, where a derivative is remote from its primitive, i show its extraction within a parenthesis." [header: miÈge's french grammars] each of the two sections of the _great dictionary_ is preceded by a grammar of the language concerned. first comes the _grounds of the french tongue_, before the french-english dictionary, and then a _méthode abrégée pour apprendre l'anglois_. this french grammar was a reprint of one of those which miège had compiled while working at his dictionaries. in miège tells us that he had "put forth two french grammars, both of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons. the one is short and concise, fitted for all sorts of learners, but especially new beginners; the other is a large and complete piece, giving a curious and full account of the french tongue. to this is annexed a copious vocabulary and a long train of useful dialogues." the more advanced of these grammars was the first to appear, being published in under the title of _a new french grammar, or a new method for learning the french tongue_. after dealing with pronunciation, he passes to the accidence and syntax, with special attention to his favourite theory of the importance of a knowledge of primitives and derivatives. he is much indebted to the grammars of vaugelas and chiflet, especially in his observations on letter-writing, on repetition of words, and on style. the second half of the book contains a vocabulary, arranged under the usual headings, and familiar dialogues, without which he dare not offer the work to a public "so well convinced of their usefulness, as to the speaking part of a language"; therefore, "though it were something against the grain," he included such exercises, "exceeding even mr. mauger's in number." the one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are followed by four more advanced ones in french alone, "for proficient learners to turn into english." the first deals with the education of children, and the others with geography, a subject miège taught in either french or english "as might be most convenient." the elementary grammar had been issued about [ ] as _a short and easie french grammar fitted for all sorts of learners; according to the present use and modern orthography of the french with some reflections on the ancient use thereof_. in the vocabulary and dialogues of the earlier grammar were, each of them, issued separately, probably to facilitate their use with this second grammar. in appeared the _grounds of the french tongue or a new french grammar_,[ ] which miège incorporated in his _great french dictionary_ in the following year. in general outline its contents resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before. it is, however, an entirely new work. most of the rules differ,[ ] and the vocabulary and dialogues are new. he breaks away from the old tradition of introducing the latin declension of nouns into french grammars.[ ] the _grounds of the french tongue_ is about a hundred pages shorter than the grammar of , and on the whole it is less interesting from the point of view of the student of french. the second part, called the _nouvelle nomenclature françoise et angloise_, which might be obtained apart from the grammar, had originally appeared in as part of miège's _nouvelle méthode pour apprendre l'anglois_.[ ] consequently the dialogues are more suited to the student of english than to the student of french, as they deal chiefly with life in england and the impressions of a frenchman in london, including an account of the coffee-houses, the penny post, the churches, english food and drink, and so forth. lastly, in about ,[ ] appeared _miège's last and best french grammar, or a new method to learn french, containing the quintessence of all other grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language_. a second edition was issued in . the work was based on his first grammar ( ), which thus benefited by his long experience as a writer on the french language and teacher of that tongue. miège held that french was best learnt by a combination of the methods of rote and grammar, either being insufficient without the other; as for attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote, "'tis properly building in the air. [header: best method of study] for whatever progress one makes that way, unless he sticks constantly to it, the language steals away from him, and, like a building without a foundation, it falls insensibly." englishmen who learn french by ear in france soon find the fluency of which they are so proud slipping away from them after their return to england;[ ] and even frenchmen who have never studied their language grammatically begin to lose the purity of phrase after they have been some time in england. accordingly "a great care ought to be taken to pitch upon the best sort of grammar and to make choice of a skilful master. now a skilful master must be first such a one as can speak the true modern french: a thing few people can boast of, besides courtiers and scholars, so nice a language it is." therefore the student should not waste his time, as many do, with the common sort of teachers, who speak, for the most part, but a corrupt and provincial french, and yet are patronized by many. in the second place, the teacher should be a man of some learning; and in the third, he should have "some skill in the english tongue, not that he should use much english with his scholars,[ ] but because, without it, 'tis impossible he can teach by the grammar, or explain the true meaning of words." lastly, he should himself be thoroughly acquainted with the grammar, and be able to find out what should be learnt "by rote, what by heart, and what passages need not at all be learnt." but, when all is done, "there is an art in teaching not to be found amongst all men of knowledge." thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill and judgement of the teacher. miège declares against overburdening the memory with abstruse and difficult rules. in most cases it is enough if the learner understands the rule; there is no need to confine him to the author's words or to make him learn long lists of exceptions. "the best thing to exercise his memory in, besides the general and most necessary rules, is to learn a good store of words with their signification. and then, whether he comes to read french, or to hear it spoke, one word doth so help another, that by degrees, he will find out the meaning." as for the dialogues, only a few, and those of a familiar type, should be learnt "without book." "an analysis is the best use they can be put to, but some teachers will find it too hard a task." the best way, therefore, is "to lay a good foundation with grammar rules, and to raise the superstructure by practice"; the more adventurous the learner is in speaking french the better. if, however, "one be so very averse from grammar rules as to look upon them as so many bug bears, my opinion is that he may begin by rote, provided he make good at last his proficiency that way, with the help of a choice grammar. and then the rules will appear to him very plain, easy and delectable." in miège was receiving pupils for french and geography at his lodging in penton street, leicester square, and we are told that in he was taking in _pensionnaires_ in dean's yard, near westminster abbey. towards the end of his teaching career in england he appears to have been on very friendly terms with another teacher of french, francesco casparo colsoni, an italian minister, who also taught italian and english. colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages,[ ] called _the new trismagister_ ( ), in which he drew freely from the works of mauger, festeau, and his friend miège. in the meantime other manuals appeared, including a translation of a grammar which was first published at paris in [ ]--_a french grammar, teaching the knowledge of that language.... published by the academy for the reformation of the french tongue_ ( ), printed in parallel columns of english and the original french. _a very easie introduction to the french tongue_ was published in about , which claimed to be "proper for all persons who have bad memories." a certain john smith, m.a., j. g. d'abadie, formerly of the royal musketeers and for a time teacher of french at oxford, jacob villiers, who had a french school at nottingham, and jean de kerhuel, a french minister,[ ] all published grammars at about the same time.[ ] [header: pierre berault] among the more interesting french teachers of the period is pierre berault, a french monk who was converted to protestantism when he was on the point of setting out for england to work among the refugees as a jesuit emissary.[ ] on the nd of april he "abjured all the errors of the church of rome" in the french church of the savoy, london, and subsequently devoted himself to teaching french. until nearly the end of the century he lived in various parts of london, "waiting upon any gentlemen or gentlewomen who have a mind to learn french," and using, according to his own account, a very sound method. at the same time he was busy with his pen. he began with a compilation setting forth his religious principles,[ ] and with books on moral and religious subjects, in french and english for the benefit of learners.[ ] later he wrote _a new, plain, short and compleat french and english grammar_ ( ), which had an "extraordinary sale and reception," and passed through numerous editions. berault's motto as regards the teaching of french was _omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci_,--a fit combination of grammar rules and practical exercises. the grammar, which occupies less than half the book, begins with an explanation of grammatical terms for the benefit of those ignorant of latin; it then deals shortly with the pronunciation and the declinable parts of speech;[ ] lastly come a few rules of syntax and short vocabularies of the indeclinables. the reading exercises open with the catechism, creeds, commandments, and prayers. the dialogues, accompanied, contrary to custom, by an interlinear translation, are at first very simple, and arranged in syllables for the benefit of beginners, but they become more difficult. the following is a dialogue between a french tutor and his scholar: good morrow, sir, how do you do? bonjour, monsieur, comment vous portez vous? very well to serve you. fort bien pour vous servir. do you teach the french tongue? enseignez-vous la langue françoise? yes sir, and the latin also. ouy, monsieur, et aussi la latine. will you teach me these two tongues? voulez vous m'enseigner ces deux langues? i will do it willingly. je le feray volontiers. * * * * * what method do you hold? quel méthode voulez-vous tenir? because you understand latin parce que vous entendez la langue latine i will begin by the pronunciation je commenceray par la prononciation which you can learn in two lessons. que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leçons. then i will teach you the nouns, puis je vous enseigneray les noms, pronouns, verbs and other parts of speech. pronoms, verbes et autres parties d'oraison. and afterwards the rules of syntax. et ensuite les règles de composition. how long will i be in learning all that? combien seray-je à apprendre tout cela? but little time if you will follow me. peu de temps si vous voulez me suivre. berault added a selection of cordier's colloquies in french and english to his work, as well as the usual proverbs, idioms and polite letters, and a vocabulary. the letters have no english translation, berault believing that "whoso will peruse this grammar, he will not only be able to explain them but any other french book whatsoever." accordingly he supplied a list of what he considered suitable modern french books, all of which could be obtained from one or other of the french booksellers in london. in the second half of the seventeenth century the position of the french language in england was further strengthened by its growing popularity all over europe. "i have visited," wrote the dramatist chappuzeau in ,[ ] "every part of christendom with care. [header: french and latin] it has been easy for me to observe that to-day a prince with only the french language which has spread everywhere, has the same advantages that mithridates had with twenty-two." the french language was regarded as "one of the chiefest qualifications of accomplished persons," and "the common language of all well-bred people, and the most generally used in the commerce of civil life." bayle states that in many parts of europe there were people who spoke and wrote french as purely as the french themselves, and that in many foreign towns all the men and women of quality and many of the common people spoke french with ease. writers of the time are unanimous in describing french as the universal language; and most french teachers write in the style of guy miège to the effect that "the french tongue is in a manner grown universal in europe ... and of all the parts of europe next to france none is more fond of it than england." thus, in the second half of the seventeenth century, french was in a position to dispute its ground with latin. france herself set the example. french was the language used at court, while latin was used only by scholars. significant it is that in louis xiv., in consequence of charpentier's _défense de la langue françoise pour l'inscription de l'arc de triomphe_, replaced the latin inscriptions on his triumphal arches by others in french. replying to charpentier's essay, a jesuit, p. lucus, wrote a treatise in defence of latin.[ ] charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes, _de l'excellence de la langue françoise_ ( ), and finally won the day. in this he refers to the universality of french, and draws attention to the advantages which would result to science if it were studied in that language. the long quarrel of the ancients and moderns, which first reached england from france, also shows the spirit of the times. and bayle asserts as evidence of the supremacy of french that: "veut-on qu'un libelle courre bien le monde, aussitôt on le traduit en françois, lors même que l'original est en latin: tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si commun en europe aujourd'hui que la langue françoise."[ ] in england french had long been a rival to latin as the most commonly used foreign tongue, and after the restoration it was generally recognized, among courtiers, men of fashion, ministers of state, and diplomats, as the more convenient means of intercourse. only scholars and the universities continued to uphold the traditional supremacy of the latin tongue, and even at the universities latin had passed out of colloquial use before the restoration, though still used in disputations and other prescribed exercises.[ ] the victory of french in the world of fashion was an easy one. it had "long since chased latin from the gallant's head," declares sedley,[ ] and ravenscroft in his prologue to the _english lawyer_,[ ] in which a jargon made up of latin and english predominates, thus addresses the gallants: gallants, pray what do you doe here to-day? which of you understands a latine play?... this age defies th' accomplishments of schools, the town breeds wits, the colleges make fools. samuel vincent,[ ] instructing the gallant how to behave at an ordinary, warns him to "beware how (he) speaks any latin there: your ordinaries most commonly have no more to do with latin, than a desparate town or garrison hath."[ ] latin also lost what ground it held as the official language. milton had been latin secretary during the commonwealth, but after the restoration french was the language used. "since latin hath ceased to be a language, if ever it was any, which i am not sure of, at least in this present age," wrote lord chancellor clarendon,[ ] "the french is almost naturalised through europe, and understood and spoken in all the northern courts and hath nearly driven the dutch out of its own country, and almost sides the italian in the eastern parts, where it was scarce known in the last age." french, therefore, had little to fear from latin as the language of intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners in england; and still less from english, which was not to receive any recognition at the hands of foreigners for years to come. [header: french in the scholastic world] considering the almost universal popularity of french, and the general neglect of english, most englishmen were obliged to agree with clarendon that it was "too late sullenly to affect an ignorance" of that language because the french "will not take the pains to understand ours," and we may gain much by being conversant in theirs. he adds "it would be a great dishonour to the court if, when ambassadors come thither from neighbour princes, no body were able to treat with them, or converse with those who accompany them in no other language but english, of which not one of them understand one word; not to mention how the king shall be supplied with ministers, or secretaries of state, or with persons fit to be sent ambassadors abroad," if those who aspire to such rank are not acquainted with the necessary foreign language. before the restoration, french, in spite of the important place it held in the world of polite education, had received very little recognition at the hands of educational writers. cleland alone, in his _institution of a nobleman_ ( ), had treated it seriously. after , however, its widespread use and popularity rendered this omission no longer possible, and at this time occurs a break in the tradition of classical scholarship.[ ] the case for french was put most forcibly and with greatest effect by locke in his _thoughts on education_. referring to the young scholar, he writes: "as soon as he can speak english, 'tis time for him to learn some other language. this no body doubts of, when french is proposed ... because french is a living language, and to be used more in speaking, that should be first learned, that the yet pliant organs of speech might be accustomed to a due formation of those sounds and he get the habit of pronouncing french well, which is the harder to be done the longer it is delay'd. when he can speak french well, (which on conversational methods is usually in a year or two), he should proceed to latin."[ ] for the same reasons clarendon would have french learnt first, by "rote," "without the formality or method of grammar."[ ] even in the world of scholarship the traditional deference shown to ancient learning received some check, and the educational value of the ancient languages was called in question. some believed that "a gentleman might become learned by the only assistance of modern languages." evelyn wrote a discourse on the subject at the request of sir samuel tuke for the duke of norfolk; unfortunately it was lost, "to his griefe"[ ] and ours. it contained, he told pepys, "a list of authors and a method of reading them to advantage ... nor was [he] without some purpose of one day publishing it, because 'twas written with a vertuous designe of provoking our court fopps and for encouragement of illustrious persons who have leisure and inclinations to cultivate their minds beyond a farce, a horse, a whore and a dog, which, with very little more are the confines of the knowledge and discourse of most of our fine gentlemen and beaux." learning, he felt, would assume a more attractive form in the eyes of the majority, if it were attained through modern languages. defoe likewise thought latin and greek were not indispensable to scholarship, and considered it a pity to lock up all learning in the dead languages.[ ] hobbes even went so far as to suggest in his _behemoth_ (_c._ ) that it would be well to substitute french, dutch, and italian for latin, greek, and hebrew at the universities. others recommended that the classics should be read in french translations, and it is probable that men of fashion at the time read them in this form, if at all. sedley implies that to read terence in latin was a mark of ill-breeding.[ ] the fashionable etherege, who knew neither latin nor greek, had a large number of french translations of classical plays amongst his books.[ ] and at a somewhat later date the abbé le blanc remarks[ ] that the english have become so fond of french that they prefer to read even cicero in that language. he writes to tell olivet how eagerly his translations are received in england. "celle des tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec m. le père bouhour a été goûtée en angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en état de juger des beautés de l'original et de la fidélité avec laquelle chacun de vous les a rendues." the readiness with which the english read french books also attracted the abbé's attention.[ ] [header: proposals for reformed schools] it was no new thing for french literature to be widely appreciated in england. but before the restoration it had received but little recognition as a profitable subject of study, except for students of statecraft and military tactics. in , however, one writer[ ] takes a new step in stating that "all learning is now in french," and goes on to say that if it were in english "those dead languages would be of little use, only in reference to the scriptures." similarly mary astell, the author of _a serious proposal to the ladies_ ( ), urges the ladies, who most of them know french, to study french philosophy, descartes and malebranche, rather than restrict themselves to idle novels and romances. and when locke was in paris in he bought the best class-books and manuals in french and latin for the use of lord shaftesbury's grandson. the many english gentlemen who had french tutors were frequently taught not only the french language, but other subjects from french text-books. there were, moreover, several proposals for reformed schools,[ ] in which french was given a place by the side of latin. in the ideal school as pictured by clarendon, the master is well acquainted with the french language; and "those that teach the exercises" are frenchmen, both that the scholars "may be accustomed to that language, and retain what they are supposed to have learnt before, and because they do teach all exercises best."[ ] thomas tryon, the "pythagorean," proposed a school in which there was to be a tutor for french and latin, or one for each language, and a music master.[ ] the scholars should begin at an early age, and nothing but french and latin be spoken in their hearing. the school should stand apart, so that the pupils have no intercourse with "wild" children. in about a year they learn french and latin by conversation, and then other subjects with the help of these languages. newcomers soon pick up a colloquial knowledge of the language by mixing with their schoolfellows. when they speak the languages perfectly, then is the time, says tryon, to study the grammar; "for to speak is one thing, and the art or reason of speaking is another. the first must be done by imitation and practice, the other is the work of time, and must be improved by degrees. they that learn the art of speaking before they can speak invert the true method ... for the reason and philosophy of speaking is a great art and the work of time, and not at all to be taught to children." before studying rules the learners should not only speak, but read perfectly. after learning the letters they should read daily for two or three hours, "in any book that treats of temperance and vertue." notwithstanding the increased importance attached to french in all spheres, the modern language received no status in the grammar schools, where the sole aim pursued was "to make good latin and greek scholars and minute philosophers."[ ] on the other hand, the private institutions in which the language was taught naturally increased very greatly in number. many huguenot refugees opened schools in and about london, and one french observer was struck by their number.[ ] some arose in provincial towns. at nottingham, for instance, an englishman, jacob villiers, had a school of some importance. villiers himself was a well-known citizen. his name appears in the charter of as one of the chief councillors of the town; and he was one of "the council of eighteen" who were displaced by an order of the privy council of th february .[ ] he was described on his gravestone in st. mary's churchyard as a descendant of a collateral branch of the family of the great favourite of james i. and charles i. the family "continued still in nottingham" in the middle of the eighteenth century.[ ] villiers's french school was flourishing some years before the first mention of him as a public character. [header: french school at nottingham] he had acquired his knowledge of french abroad, having travelled for many years in france[ ] and germany, where he gave english lessons and received favours from the prince elector palatine, elder brother of prince rupert. it was no doubt after his return that he opened his school for gentlemen and ladies. he also completed a book on the french and english languages, which was published in london in , "to gratify the ladies and gentlemen his scholars, and all such who have a mind so to be." his chief aim was to encourage the french and english to learn each other's language by pointing out the close affinity between them. the _vocabularium analogicum, or the englishman speaking french, and the frenchman speaking english, plainly shewing the nearness or affinity betwixt the english, french and latin_,[ ] contains a vocabulary of similar words in the three languages--"a verbal eccho repeating words thrice and that without any considerable variation"--which occupies the main part of the work.[ ] it is preceded by rules for pronouncing french, taken, without acknowledgement, chiefly from wodroeph, and followed by selections from pierre de lainé's _royal french grammar_ of . learners of french are advised to master the pronunciation first, and to engage a french master. a collection of familiar phrases and commendatory and other french verses, some of them also taken from wodroeph, close the volume. several schools or academies in which young ladies studied french, as well as philosophy and other serious subjects, were started at this time, such as that kept by mrs. bathsua makin, a learned englishwoman of the day, who for some time was governess to the daughters of charles i. subsequently she opened a school for gentlewomen, first at putney ( ) and afterwards at tottenham high cross, "where, by the blessing of god, gentlewomen may be instructed in the principles of religion, and in all manner of sober and vertuous education. more particularly in all things ordinarily taught in other schools as works of all sorts, dancing, musick, singing etc." half their time was employed in acquiring these arts and the other half in learning the latin and french tongues. "gentlewomen of eight or nine years old, that can read well, may be instructed in a year or two, according to their parts, in the latin and french tongues, by such plain and short rules, accommodated to the grammar of the english tongue, that they may easily keep what they have learned, and recover what they shall lose." those wishing to pursue their studies further could learn other languages, greek, hebrew, italian, or spanish, or could study astronomy, geography, and other subjects. the usual fee was £ a year, but more was charged if the pupil made good progress. parents were advised to apply for details at mr. mason's coffee house in cornhill, near the royal exchange, on tuesday, or on thursdays at the bolt and tun in fleet street, from three to six in the afternoon.[ ] mary astell, another learned englishwoman, to whom we have already alluded, came forward with a proposal advocating a scheme of study for women, in the retirement of an establishment "more academic than monastic." she urges her sex to study rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, and, as most of them know french, to read descartes and malebranche, and not idle novels and romances. the project ultimately fell to the ground, however, chiefly on account of the opposition of bishop burnet, who condemned it as a popish design. shortly afterwards defoe, who "would deny women no sort of learning," proposed an academy for women,[ ] in which they should be taught "all sorts of breeding suitable to both their genius and their quality, and in particular music and dancing, which it would be cruelty to bar the sex of, because they are their darlings: but besides this they should be taught languages, as particularly french and italian; and i would venture the injury of giving a woman more tongues than one." as to reading, history is the best subject. there are traces of other academies in which modern languages and the "exercises" were the chief studies.[ ] at the end of _musick or a parley of instruments_, a musical entertainment performed by the students of one of these academies, is an advertisement of the curriculum; instruction in french and italian was given by foreigners, and mathematics, music, and the "exercises" received attention. [header: french in private institutions] mark lewis, the friend of mrs. makin,[ ] taught like her in a school or "gymnasium" at tottenham high cross, where "any person, whether young or old, as their quality is, may be perfected in the tongues by constant conversation." the school flourished about , and there was then "an apartment for french," while italian and spanish were "to receive attention hereafter."[ ] lewis's method of teaching so pleased the earl of anglesey, then lord privy seal, that he sent his grandsons to the school, and enabled lewis to secure letters patent for his method. a similar academy was kept by a certain mr. banister in chancery lane near the pump. there was a wide choice of studies, including latin, greek, and french, for the languages, and the usual "exercises." any person that desired could be accommodated in mr. banister's house "with diet and lodging at reasonable rates, ... or they may come thither at set times and be instructed in the things before mentioned." the academy kept by thomas watts in little tower street differed from the majority in aiming at qualifying young gentlemen for business. writing, arithmetic, and merchants' accounts were taught, as well as mathematics and experimental philosophy: a master resident in the house gave lessons in french, a language absolutely necessary to business men, and "so far universal that the place is not known where 'tis not spoken." accordingly it received special attention; and "as a just notion of grammar, so the opportunity of frequent conversation, is absolutely necessary, if one would ever arrive at any perfection in this language," watts, therefore, not only "fix'd on a master capable of doing the first, but entertained him constantly in his house, where all those young gentlemen that learn french are obliged always to speak it, and have their master daily to converse with."[ ] some academies confined themselves chiefly to the exercises. but even then the atmosphere was french. such was the academy opened in london in by m. foubert, a frenchman lately come from paris. he was helped by a royal grant, and seems to have been fairly successful. on his arrival his goods were delivered at the house of m. lainé,[ ] probably the french teacher of that name. as time went on such schools became more and more numerous and the demand for instruction in french increased. the language was no longer limited chiefly to certain classes: the gentry, merchants, soldiers, and others requiring it for practical purposes. it came to be regarded as a necessary part of a liberal education. the ever-growing call for teachers of french was met by the great invasion of protestant refugees caused by the renewal of the fierce persecutions which culminated in the revocation of the edict of nantes in . the reception of the fugitives was doubtful under james ii., who looked upon them with disfavour, but could not, for political reasons, refuse them hospitality. with the advent of william of orange in , however, their position was assured, and they became ardent supporters of the new monarch. they arrived in such multitudes, says a contemporary, that it was impossible to calculate their number; there was hardly an english family of standing in which one or more refugees did not find a home--often a permanent one. from this time dates a new period in the teaching of french in england, dominated by the influence of these refugees, from whose ranks the chief tutors and schoolmasters were recruited, and whose french grammars and manuals continued, in some cases, to be used till the end of the eighteenth century, and even later. footnotes: [ ] a play called _the french schoolmaster_ appeared in (fleay, _chronicle of english drama_, , ii. p. ). [ ] there are, however, no points of resemblance between that work and the grammar which appeared about twelve years later. [ ] catalogue of the library of dean smallwood, . [ ] cp. arber, _term catalogues_, i. . anne was three years younger than mary. [ ] schickler, _les Églises du refuge_, ii. p. . [ ] _savile correspondence_, camden society, , _passim_. [ ] huguenot society publications, xviii. p. . [ ] _stationers' register_, iii. p. . [ ] such was also the opinion of j. minsheu, author of the _ductor in linguas_ ( ): "i have always found that the true knowledge and sure holding of them in our memories, consisted in the knowing of them by their causes, originalls and etymologies, that is by their reasons and derivations." [ ] his work suffered in having to strive against cotgrave's long settled reputation. [ ] the third edition appeared, like the first, at london, . [ ] arber, _term catalogues_, i. . [ ] vo: pp. , . printed for th. bassett.... [ ] for instance, that for the gender of nouns, in , states that those ending in "e" or "x" are masculine, and the rest feminine; in , those ending in "e" and "ion" are feminine and the rest masculine; in both cases long lists of exceptions are given. [ ] "to follow the old road i should now decline a noun or two with these articles, and six cases to be sure, to wit, the nominative, accusative, dative, vocative, and ablative, whether our language can afford them or not. but why should i perplex the learned with so improper and needless a thing? for the distinction of cases is come from the variable termination of one and the same noun. a thing incident (i confess) to the latine tongue, but not to our vulgar speech." [ ] a second edition of miège's english grammar appeared in . [ ] arber, _term catalogues_, iii. , . [ ] but if they have been grounded in the principles before travelling, they make quicker progress, and do not lose their knowledge. [ ] "car il n'y a rien de tel pour apprendre une langue que de l'entendre parler." [ ] later he added rules for spanish to his work. colsoni also wrote _le guide de londres pour les estrangers_ ( st edition, ), and several works chiefly on topical subjects, of little interest. in his _guide_ was followed by richard baldwin's _booke for strangers_. [ ] and again in . [ ] who translated one of tillotson's sermons into french ( ). [ ] see bibliography. [ ] schickler, _op. cit._ ii. p. . [ ] _the church of rome evidently proved heretick_ ( ); _the church of england evidently proved the holy catholick church_ ( ). towards the end of his career he wrote a _discourse of the trinitie ... etc._ ( ). berault calls himself a french minister, and he served as chaplain on several of his majesty's ships during the war with france at the end of the century. [ ] _le véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en françois et en anglois_ ( ), and the _bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques_ ( ), dedicated to anne stuart, afterwards queen. [ ] berault is behind the times in retaining most of the latin cases and tenses. his grammar, on the whole, is fuller and more detailed than most of its kind. [ ] _le théâtre françois_ ( ). ed. monval, , p. . jean blaeu, in translating from english into french ed. chamberlain's _present state of england_ ( ), states: "je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en anglois que j'ay jugé qu'il méritoit de paroistre dans la langue françoise, comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestienté qu'aucune autre" ( ). jusserand, _shakespeare in france_, p. , note. [ ] _de monumentis publicis latine inscribendis._ goujet, _bibliothèque françoise_ ( - ), i. p. . [ ] bayle, _oeuvres_, iv. p. , quoted by charlanne, _l'influence française en angleterre_, pt. ii. p. . [ ] f. watson, _grammar schools_, p. . [ ] epilogue to _bellamira_. [ ] london, . [ ] _young gallants' academy_, , p. . [ ] a little later swift wrote that "the current opinion prevails that the study of latin and greek is loss of time...." (_works_, , ii. p. ). [ ] _a dialogue ... concerning education_, miscellaneous works, london, , p. . [ ] even the universities had to give some recognition to the modern language. a professorship of modern history and modern languages was founded at both universities in . cp. cooper, _annals of cambridge_, iv. . [ ] "some thoughts," _educational writings of locke_, , p. . [ ] the same opinions are voiced by later writers, such as costeker, _education of a young nobleman_, , p. ; and the author of a pamphlet _on education_, . [ ] evelyn, _diary_, dec. , . [ ] _the compleat gentleman_ ( ), ed. k. d. bülbring, . [ ] epilogue to _bellamira_. [ ] _works_, ed. a. wilson, verity, london, , preface. [ ] le blanc, _lettres d'un français_, à la haye, , ii. p. . [ ] he tells maupertuis of the great success of his _de la figure de la terre_ ( ) in england, where it was awaited with impatience and received with acclamation (_lettres_, ii. ). [ ] _an essay to revive the antient education of gentlewomen_ (mrs. makin or mark lewis). [ ] french no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly. thus charles hoole in (_a new discoverie of the old art of teaching school_) recommends the dialogues of du grès for their private reading; perhaps, however, he was thinking more of the latin than of the french part. [ ] _miscellaneous works_, , pp. - . [ ] _a new method of educating children ..._, . [ ] th. sheridan, _plan of education_, , p. . [ ] m. misson, _mémoires et observations d'un voyageur en angleterre_, à la haye, , p. . [ ] information supplied by j. potter briscoe, esq., of nottingham. [ ] c. deering, _an historical account of the ancient and present state of the town of nottingham_, nottingham, , p. . [ ] he remarks on the desire to learn english expressed by several french persons he met, chiefly huguenots. [ ] printed by j. d. for jonathan robinson at the golden lion, and george wells, at the sun in paul's churchyard. vo, pp. . [ ] pp. - . [ ] _an essay to revive the antient education of gentlewomen ..._, london, . [ ] _essay on projects_ ( ), london, , pp. _sqq._ [ ] cp. loveday, _letters_, , p. . [ ] lewis also interviewed parents any thursday in the afternoon between three and six o'clock, at the bolt and tun in fleet street. [ ] _model for a school for the better education of youth_, and advertisement at the end of his _plan and short rules for pointing periods ..._ (_c._ ). [ ] advertisement in _an essay on the proper method for forming the man of business_, th ed., , pp. - . [ ] _calendar of state papers, treasury books, - _, pp. , . appendices appendix i chronological list of manuals and grammars for teaching french to the english i the middle ages _a. manuscripts_ * indicates that there are also other manuscripts of later date. henry iii. ( - ): _c._ short treatise on french verbs (trinity college, cambridge, r. , ). edward i. ( - ): * le treytyz ke moun sire gautier de bibelesworthe fist a ma dame dionisie de mounchensy pur aprise de langwage (ed. t. wright, "volume of vocabularies," ). * tractatus orthographiae of t. h. parisii studentis (ed. m. k. pope, "modern language review," april ). _c._ * orthographia gallica (ed. j. stürzinger, "altfranzösische bibliothek," viii., heilbronn, ). edward ii. and edward iii. ( - ): commentaries in french on the orthographia gallica (ed. stürzinger, _ut supra_). epistolaries, or collections of model letters (mss. harl. , harl. , addit. brit. mus.; ee , , camb. univ. libr.; b . , , trinity col. camb.; , all souls, oxon.; , magdalen col.). cartularies, or collections of bills, indentures, etc. (harl. ; ee , , camb. univ. libr.; addit. ). undated vocabularies and verb tables and fragments on grammar (ee , , camb. univ. libr.; harl. , addit. , brit. mus.; , magdalen col., oxon.). _c._ nominale sive verbale in gallicis cum expositione eiusdem in anglicis (ed. skeat, "transactions of the philological soc.," - ). richard ii. ( - ): tractatus orthographiae of coyfurelly, doctor in law of orleans (ed. stengel, "zeitschrift für neufranzösische sprache und literatur," vol. i., ). * maniere de language (ed. p. meyer, "revue critique," ). petit livre pour enseigner les enfanz de leur entreparler comun francois (ed. stengel, _op. cit._). _c._ donait francois pur briefment entroduyr les anglois et la droit language de paris et de pais la d'entour fait aus despenses de johan barton par pluseurs bons clercs du language avandite (ed. stengel, _op. cit._). conjugation of verbs, by r. dove. le donait soloum douce franceis de paris (sloane mss. ). _c._ liber donati (mss. dd , , gg , , camb. univ. libr.; addit. brit. mus.). femina. liber iste vocatur femina, quia sicut femina docet infantemloqui maternam, sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui gallicum prout infra patebit (ed. w. a. wright, roxburghe club, ). maniere de language (ed. p. meyer, "romania," xxxii., ). john lydgate, praeceptiones linguae gallicae, li. . (bale, "scriptores britanniae," fol. .) _c._ ? dialogues in french and english (ms. ii. , , camb. univ. libr.). _b. printed books_ _c._ tres bonne doctrine pour aprendre briefment francoys et engloys. printed by william caxton. b.l. to. (ed. h. bradley, "early english text society," extra series, lxxix., .) another edition. fragment of one leaf in the bodleian. _c._ ? here is a good boke to lerne to speke french. b.l. to. colophon: per me richardum pynson. _c._ ? here beginneth a lytell treatyse for to lerne englisshe and frensshe. b.l. to. colophon: here endeth a lytyll treatyse for to lerne englysshe and frensshe. emprinted at westmynster by my wynken de worde. another edition. fragment of one leaf in the british museum. b.l. to. ii tudor and stuart times barclay. the introductorie to wryte and to pronounce frenche. ? valence. introductions in frensche.... fragment of grammar in lambeth library. palsgrave. lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse. _c._ duwes. an introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. _c._ duwes. an introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. _c._ duwes. an introductorie for to lerne ... french trewly. veron. dictionariolum puerorum.... ? du ploich. a treatise in english and frenche.... ? traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys. g. meurier. la grammaire françoise. . . . (barlement.) a boke intituled italion, frynsshe, englysshe latin. ane a.b.c. for scottes men to read the frenche toung.... meurier. communications familieres. holyband. the french schoolemaister. holyband. the french littleton. (barlement.) a boke intituled ffrynshe, englysshe and duche. a dictionarie french and english. higgins. huloets dictionarie ... the french thereunto annexed. holyband. the french schoolemaister. baret. an alvearie ... in englishe, latin and french. * a plaine pathway to the french tongue. ledoyen de la pichonnaye. a plaine treatise to larne ... french. bellot. the french grammer. du ploich. a treatise in english and frenche, new ed. holyband. french littleton. (barlement.) dictionaire . . . en quattre langues. ? holyband. french schoolemaister. holyband. a treatise for declining of verbs. holyband. de pronuntiatione linguae gallicae. holyband. the treasurie of the french tong. baret. alvearie ... new ed. holyband. french littleton. bellot. le jardin de vertu. holyband. french schoolemaister. holyband. campo di fior. higgins. the nomenclator or remembrancer of adrianus junius. bellot. the french methode. ? holyband. french schoolemaister. de corro. the spanish grammer with certeine rules teaching ... french. holyband. french littleton. corderius. dialogues in french and english. de la mothe. the french alphabet. holyband. french littleton. holyband. a dictionarie french and english. eliote. ortho-epia gallica. e. a. grammaire angloise et françoise. de la mothe. french alphabet. morlet. janitrix ... ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem. holyband. french littleton. the necessary ... education of a young gentlewoman, italian, french and english. holyband. a treatise for declining of verbs. a short syntaxis of the french tongue. holyband. french littleton. sanford. le guichet françois. sanford. a briefe extract of the former grammar ... in english. erondell. the french garden. holyband. french schoolemaister. holyband. french littleton. cotgrave. a dictionarie of the french and english tongues. holyband. french schoolemaister. the declining of frenche verbes (holyband?). the french a.b.c. holyband. french schoolemaister. jean barbier. janua linguarum quadralinguis. farrear. a brief direction to the french tongue. laur du terme. the flower de luce. holyband. french schoolemaister. colson. the first part of the french grammar. wodroeph. the spared houres of a souldier in his travels. j. s. a shorte method for the declyning of ffrench verbes. sherwood. the french tutour. holyband. french littleton. de la mothe. french alphabet. wodroeph. the true marrow of the french tongue. l'isle. part of du bartas, french and english. grammaire angloise et françoise. holyband. french littleton. anchoran. comenius's janua linguarum. holyband. french schoolemaister. de la mothe. french alphabet. cotgrave. french-english dictionary, with sherwood's english-french dictionary. holyband. french littleton. de la mothe. french alphabet. anchoran. comenius's janua linguarum. saltonstall. clavis ad portam. de grave. the pathway to the gate of tongues. sherwood. the french tutour, nd ed. aufeild. a french grammar and syntaxe. cogneau. a sure guide to the french tongue. holyband. french schoolemaister. du grÈs. breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae compendium. (barlement.) the english, latine, french, dutch scholemaster. bense. analogo diaphora ... trium linguarum, gallicae, hispanicae et italicae. anchoran. comenius's janua. de la mothe. french alphabet. holyband. french littleton. grammaire angloise et françoise. du grÈs. dialogi gallico-anglico-latini. anchoran. comenius's janua. (barlement.) new dialogues or colloquies ... meurier. a treatise for to learne to speake frenshe and englishe. holyband. treatise for declining of french verbs. holyband. french schoolemaister. gostlin. aurisodinae linguae gallicae. cogneau. sure guide ... de la mothe. french alphabet. gerbier. an introduction of the french tongue. holyband. french schoolemaister. cotgrave. french dictionary. cogneau. sure guide. du grÈs. dialogi ... mauger. true advancement of the french tongue. holyband. french schoolemaister. lainÉ. a compendious introduction to the french tongue. mauger. french grammar, nd ed. cogneau. sure guide. mauger. french grammar, rd ed. leighton. linguae gallicae addiscendae regulae. du grÈs. dialogi ... cotgrave. dictionary. herbert. french and english dialogues. howell. lexicon tetraglotton. mauger. french grammar, th ed. leighton. ... regulæ. Æsop's fables in english, french and latine. ? castellion's sacred dialogues ... french and english. mauger. french grammar, th ed. festeau. french grammar. de lainÉ. princely way to the french tongue. holyband. french schoolemaister. grammaire françoise et angloise. grammaire françoise et angloise. mauger. grammar, th ed. mauger. lettres françoises et angloises. festeau. grammar, nd ed. mauger. grammar, th ed. cotgrave. dictionary. a french grammar ... published by the academy. smith. grammatica quadralinguis. a very easie introduction to the french tongue. festeau. grammar, rd ed. d'abadie. a new french grammar. mauger. grammar (the english edition). mauger. lettres, nd ed. de lainÉ. princely way, nd ed. grammaire françoise et angloise. miÈge. a new dictionary, french and english. miÈge. a new french grammar. mauger. grammar, th ed. festeau. grammar, th ed. grammaire françoise et angloise. miÈge. dictionary of barbarous french. villiers. vocabularium analogicum. berault. chemin du ciel. mauger. grammar, th ed. miÈge. short and easie french grammar. vairesse d'allais. short and methodical introduction. miÈge. a short french dictionary. kerhuel. grammaire françoise. mauger. grammar, th ed. cheneau. french grammar. festeau. grammar, th ed. berault. bouquet . . . de plusieurs veritez theologiques. mauger. grammar, th ed. Æsop's fables in english, french and latine. miÈge. grounds of the french tongue. miÈge. great french dictionary. berault. new ... french and english grammar. colsoni. the new trismagister. mauger. grammar, th ed. miÈge. short french dictionary, rd ed. mauger. grammar, th ed. colsoni. a new grammar of three languages. miÈge. short french dictionary. berault. grammar, nd ed. _c._ lane. french grammar. ? grolleau. compleat french tutor. festeau. grammar, th ed. berault. grammar, rd ed. eloquent master of languages. boyer. compleat french master. mauger. grammar, th ed. colsoni. new and accurate grammar [new edition]. miÈge. last and best french grammar. berault. french and english grammar. mauger. french grammar. mauger. french grammar [new edition]. boyer. french master, nd ed. ? vaslet. nomenclator trilinguis. boyer. royal french dictionary. appendix ii bibliography, arranged alphabetically, of manuals for teaching the french language to the english, from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the end of the stuart period a., e.: grammaire angloise et françoise pour facilement et promptement aprendre la langue angloise et françoise. revûë et corrigée tout de nouveau d'une quantité de fautes qui étoient aux précédentes impressions par e. a. augmentée en cette dernière édition d'un vocabulaire anglois et françois. rouen, . cp. sub "anonymous works," grammaire angloise et françoise. Æsop: cp. codrington. anchoran, j. a.: porta linguarum trilinguis reserata et aperta, sive seminarium linguarum et scientiarum omnium, hoc est compendiaria latinam, anglicam, gallicam (et quamvis aliam) linguam una cum artium et scientiarum fundamentis sesquianni spatio ad summum docendi et perdiscendi methodus sub titulis centum periodis mille comprehensa. the gate of tongues unlocked and opened.... london, george millar for michael sparke, . another issue, george millar for the author, . another ed.: porta linguarum ... j. a. anchorani ... th. cotes sumptibus m. sparke, . rd ed. anna griffin sumptibus m. sparke. london, . th ed. e. griffin for m. sparke, . anonymous works (arranged chronologically): de la prosodie, etc. (fragment in the lambeth library dated .) (barlement.) a boke intituled italion, frynsshe, englysshe and laten. london, ed. sutton, . another ed.: a boke intituled ffrynsshe, englysshe and duche. london, john alde, . another ed.: dictionaire, colloques ou dialogues en quattre langues, flamen, ffrançoys, espaignel et italien, with the englishe to be added thereto. george bishop, . another ed.: the english}{french latine }{dutch scholemaster, or an introduction to teach young gentlemen and merchants to travell or trade. being the only helpe to attaine to those languages. london, for michael sparke, . another ed.: new dialogues or colloquies and a little dictionary of eight languages. a booke very necessary for all those that study these tongues either at home or abroad, now perfected and made fit for travellers, young merchants and seamen, especially those that desire to attain to the use of the tongues. london, printed for michael sparke, . ane a, b, c for scottes men to read the frenche toung with ane exhortatioun to the noblis of scotland to favour thair ald friendis. licensed to wm. nudrye, . a dictionarie french and english. . col.: imprinted at london by henry bynneman for lucus harrison. an. .[ ] a plaine pathway to the french tongue, very profitable for marchants and also all other which desire the same, aptly devided into nineteen chapters. the contents whereof appear in the next page. printed in london by thomas east, . another ed. newly corrected. london, by th. east (date unknown). corderius. dialogues in french and english. john wyndet, . grammaire angloise et françoise . . . revûë et corrigée . . . par e. a. (_q.v. sub_ a., e.) another ed.: grammaire angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise. qui peut aussi aider aux anglois pour apprendre la langue françoise. alphabet anglois contenant la prononciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons. paris, . another ed. rouen, . another ed. rouen, . another ed. rouen, . another edition. london, . the necessary, fit and convenient education of a young gentlewoman, italian, french and english. adam islip, . a short syntaxis in the french tongue. º. london, . the french a. b. c. licensed to rd. field, . the declining of frenche verbes. rd. field, (another edition of holyband's treatise for declining of verbs?). (sébastien châteillon.) sacred dialogues translated out of latin into french and english for the benefit of youth. sold by r. hom and j. sims. (date unknown, between and ?) a french grammar teaching the knowledge of that language, how to read and write it perfectly without any other precedent study than to have learnt to read only. published by the academy for reformation of the french tongue. london. printed by w. g. for wm. copper at the sign of the pelican in little britain, . a very easie introduction to the french tongue, or a very brief grammar, proper for all persons who have bad memories. containing all the principal grounds for the more speedy practice of discourse. also many peculiar phrases; with a very useful dialogue for young factors. vo. sold by j. sims at the king's head in cornhill, _c._ . aufeild, william: a french grammar and syntaxe contayning most exact and certaine rules for the pronunciation, orthography, construction and use of the french language. written in french by charles maupas, of bloys. translated into english with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us english; together with a preface and an introduction wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better understanding of it, by w. a. london, printed for rich. mynne, dwelling in little britaine at the signe of st. paul, . barbier, jean: janua linguarum quadralinguis, or the gate to the latine, english, frenche and spanish tongues. london, .[ ] barclay, alexander: here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche, compyled by alexander barclay, compendiously at the commandement of the right hye excellent and myghty prynce thomas, duke of northfolke. [col.] imprynted at london in the flete strete at the sygne of the rose garlande by robert coplande, , the yere of our lord mcccccxxi ye xxii day of marche. baret, john: an alvearie or triple dictionarie in englishe, latin, and french. very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three languages. also by the two tables at the ende of this booke they may contrariwise finde the most necessarie latin or french words, placed after the order of an alphabet, whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie. and so to turne them backwardes againe into englishe when they reade any latin or french authors and doubt of any harde worde therein. london, henry denham, . a new edition: an alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing four sundrie tongues, namelie, englishe, latine, greeke and frenche. newlie enriched with a varietie of wordes, phrases, proverbs and divers lightsome observations of grammar. by the tables you may contrariwise finde out the most necessarie wordes placed after the alphabet, whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie. which tables also serving for lexicons, to lead the learner unto the english of such hard wordes as are often read in authors, being faithfullie examined, are truelie numbered. verie profitable for such as be desirous of anie of those languages. london, henry denham, . barlement. cp. entry under "anonymous works." bellot, jacques: the french grammer, or an introduction orderly and methodically, by ready rules, playne preceptes and evident examples, teachinge the frenche tongue: made and very commodiously set forth for their sakes that desire to attayne the perfecte knowledge of the same language, by james bellot, gentleman of caen in normandy. imprinted at london in fleet street by th. marshe, . le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs, plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de plusieurs autheurs, et mises en lumiere par j. b. gent. cadomois. imprimé à londres par th. vautrollier, . the french methode. london, . bense, pierre: analogo diaphora seu concordantia discrepans et discrepantia concordans trium linguarum gallicae, hispanicae et italicae. unde innotescat, quantum quaque a romanae linguae, unde ortum duxere, idiomate deflexerit; earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide et succinte delineantur. operâ et studio petri bense, parisini, apud oxon. has linguas profitentis. oxoniae. excudebat guilielmus turner impensis authoris, . berault, pierre: a new, plain, short and compleat french and english grammar. wherby the learner may attain in few months to speak and write french correctly as they do now in the court of france, and wherein all that is dark, superfluous and deficient in other grammars is plain, short and methodically supplied. also very useful to strangers that are desirous to learn the english tongue: for whose sake is added a short but very exact english grammar. omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulce. london, . second edition, _c._ . third edition, with additions, . fourth edition, . another edition: a new and compleat french and english grammar, plainly showing the shortest and easiest way to understand, speak, and write spedily those languages, but especially the french. containing above twenty pleasant and useful dialogues translated into english by sir r. l'estrange, and here rendered into french with several others, almost word for word. to which is added a short but exact english grammar. also a french and english dictionary, where the parts of speech are ranged separately. comprehending all that's necessary for any persons that have a desire to learn either language, by peter berault, french minister, lately chaplain of her majesty's ships kent, victory, scarborough, and dunkirk. london, . le véritable et assuré chemin du ciel en françois et en anglois. london, . bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez théologiques propres pour instruire toutes sortes de personnes, particulierement pour consoler une ame dans ses troubles. london, . beyer, guillaume: la vraye instruction des trois langues la françoise, l'angloise et la flamende. proposée en des règles fondamentales et succinctes. un assemblage des mots les plus usités, et des colloques utiles et récréatifs; où hormis d'autres discours curieus, le gouvernement de la france se réduit. historiquement et politiquement mise en trois langues. seconde ed. augmentée. dordrecht, . (date of first edition unknown.) chÂteillon (or castellion), s. cp. entry under "anonymous works." cheneau, franÇois: francis cheneau's french grammar, enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the french tongue in a very short time. licensed to ch. mearne, _c._ . the perfect french master teaching in less than a month to turn any english into french by rule and figure, alphabetically, in a method hitherto altogether unknown in europe. with the regular and irregular verbs. by mr. cheneau of paris, professor of the latin, english, french, italian tongues, formerly slave and governor of the isles of nacsia and paros in the archipelago, now living in his house in old fish st. next door to the faulcon in london. where may be seen his short grammars for all these tongues, after the same way. w. botham for the author. london, . codrington, robert: Æsop's fables, with his life in english, french and latine. the english by tho. philipott, esq., the french and latine by rob. codrington, m.a. illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures. by francis barlow, and are to be sold at his house, the golden eagle in new street near shoe lane, - . another ed. london, . another ed. [london], . cogneau, paul: a sure guide to the french tongue, teaching by a most easy way to pronounce it naturally, to reade it perfectly, write it truly and speke it readily. together with the verbes personal and impersonal and useful sentences added to some of them, most profitable for all sorts of people to learn. painfully gathered and set in order after the alphabetical way, for the better benefit of those that are desirous to learn the french, by me paul cogneau. london, . another ed. [london] . another ed. [london] . fourth ed., exactly corrected, much amplified, and better ordered. (by wm. herbert, _q.v._) london, . colson, william: the first part of the french grammar, artificially reduced into tables by arte locall, called the arte of memorie. contayning (after an extraordinary and most easy method) the pronunciation and orthographie of the french tongue according to the new manner of writing, without changing the originall or old, for the understanding of both by a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters and by a triple distinction of characters (roman, italian and english) representing unto the eye three sorts of pronunciation distinguished by them. proper, signified by a roman character: improper, noted by an italian: and superfluous, marked by an english.... and as most amply is declared in the explication of the foresaid reformed alphabet, and letters in it otherwise ordered, and named then heretofore, and two otherwise shaped ... for _j_ and _v_ consonants. in which is taught, the universall knowledge of the four materiall parts of grammar ... for the better understanding of the rules of the triple pronunciation aforesaid. also the artificiall and generall declination terminative of nounes and verbes. lately compiled by william colson of london, professor of litterall and liberall sciences. london, printed by w. stansby, . colsoni, francisco casparo: the new trismagister. or the new teacher of three languages by whom an italian, an english and a french gentleman may learn to discourse together, each in their several languages: in four parts. (i.) the italian learns to speak english. (ii.) the english and italian gentlemen learn to speak french. (iii.) the french and the english gentlemen learn to speak italian. (iv.) the frenchman learns to speak english. . another edition: a new and accurate grammar whereby french and italian, the spaniard and the portuguese may learn to speak english well, with rules for the learning of french, italian, and spanish. nouvelle et curieuse grammaire par laquelle. . . . par f. colsoni, m.(a). et maitre des dites langues demeurant dans falcon court en lothbury. vo. printed for s. manship at the ship in cornhill, _c._ . comenius. cf. entry under "anonymous works." corderius. cf. entry under "anonymous works." corro, antonio de: the spanish grammer, with certeine rules teaching both the spanish and french tongues. by which they that have some knowledge in the french tongue may the easier attaine to the spanish, and likewise they that have the spanish with more facilitie learne the french: and they that are acquainted with neither of them, learne either or both. made in spanish by m. anthonie de corro, translated by john thorius, graduate in oxeford. london, . cotgrave, randle: a dictionarie of the french and english tongues, compiled by randle cotgrave. london, . another ed. ... whereunto is also annexed a most copious dictionary of the english set before the french, by r. s. l. (robert sherwood, londoner, _q.v._) london, . another ed. ... whereunto are newly added the animadversions and supplements of james howell, esquire. inter eruditos cathedram habeat polyglottes. london, . another ed. ... whereunto are added sundry animadversions, with supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed: with accurate castigations throughout the whole work, and distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use. together with a large grammar, a dialogue consisting of all gallicisms, with additions of the most significant proverbs, with other refinements according to cardinal richelieu's late academy. for the furtherance of young learners, and the advantage of all others that endeavour to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the french language, this work is exposed to publick, by james howell, esqr. london, . another ed. london, . d'abadie, j.g.: a new french grammar, containing at large the principles of that tongue, or the most exact rules, criticall observations, and fit examples for teaching with a good method and attaining the french tongue as the witts or the gentlemen of the french academy speak and pronounce it at this present time. composed for the use of the english gentry by j.g. d'abadie, esq. oxford, printed by h. hall, printer to the university, for j. crosby, . de grave, jean: the pathway to the gate of tongues, being the first instruction for little children, with a short manner to conjugate french verbes. ordered and made latine, french and english by jean de grave, professor of the french tongue in the city of london. oxford, . (bound with second ed. of comenius's porta linguarum. london, .) de la mothe, n., g.: the french alphabet, teaching in a very short time, and by a most easie way, to pronounce french naturally, to read it perfectly, to write it truly and to speak it accordingly. together with the treasure of the french tongue, containing the rarest sentences, proverbs, parobles, similies, apothegmes, and golden sayings of the most excellent french authors, as well poets as oratours. the one diligently compiled and the other painfully gathered and set in order, after the alphabetical maner, for the benefit of those that are desirous of the french tong. printed by e. alde, and are to be solde by h. jackson, dwelling in fleet street, beneath the conduit at the sign of st. john evangelist, . first edition. london, richard field, (no copy known). another edition. london, geo. miller, . another edition. london, geo. miller, . another edition. london, geo. miller, . another edition. london, geo. miller, . another edition. london, a. miller, . de la pichonnaye, ledoyen: a plaine treatise to larne in a shorte space of the french tongue. london, h. denham, . de sainliens, claude. cf. holyband. du grÈs, gabriel: breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae compendium in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur, per gabrielem du grès, gallum, eandem linguam in celeberrima cantabrigiensi academia edocentem. cantabrigiae. impensis authoris amicorum gratiâ. . dialogi gallico-anglico-latini, per gabrielem dugrès linguam gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima oxoniensi academia (haud ita pridem privatim) edocentem. oxoniae, l. lichfield, . editio secunda, priori emendatior. oxoniae, . editio tertia. oxoniae, . du ploich, pierre: a treatise in english and frenche right necessary and proffitable for al young children (the contentes whereof apere in a table at the ende of this boke), made by peter du ploiche, teacher of the same dwelling in trinitie lane at the signe of the rose. richard grafton, [ ?] another ed. imprimé à londre par jean kingston, la xiiii. auvril, . du terme, laur: the flower de luce, planted in england, or a short treatise and brieffe compendium wherein is contained the true and lively pronunciation and understanding of the french tongue. compiled by laur du terme, teacher of the same. london, printed by nicholas okes, . duwes, giles: an introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce, and to speke frenche trewly, compyled for the right high excellent and most vertuous lady, the lady mary of englande, daughter to our most gracious soverayn lorde kyng henry the eight. printed at london by thomas godfray, cum privilegio a rege indulto, [ ?] another ed. printed at london by nicolas bourman for john reyns in paules churchyarde at the signe of the george. [ ?] another ed., newly corrected and amended. printed by john waley, [ ?] eliote, john: ortho-epia gallica. eliot's fruits for the french. enterlaced with a double new invention, which teacheth to speke truely, speedily and volubly the french tongue. pend for the practice, pleasure and profit of all english gentlemen who will endevour by their owne paine, studie and dilligence to attaine the naturall accent, the true pronunciation, and swift and glib grace of that noble, famous and courtly language. natura et arte. london, printed by john wolfe, . erondell, pierre: the french garden for english ladyes and gentlewomen to walke in or a sommer dayes labour. being an instruction for the attayning unto of the french tongue: wherein for the practise thereof are framed thirteene dialogues in french and english, concerning divers matters, from the rising in the morning till bedtime. also the historie of the centurion mencioned in the gospell: in french verses. which is an easier and shorter methode then hath beene yet set forth to bring the lovers of the french tongue to the perfection of the same. by peter erondell, professor of the same language. london, printed for ed. white, . cf. holyband, french schoolemaister. farrear, robert: a brief direction to the french tongue. oxford, . festeau, paul: a new and easie french grammar, or a compendious way how to read, speak and write french exactly, very necessary for all persons whatsoever. with variety of dialogues. whereunto is added a nomenclature english and french. london. printed for th. thornycroft and are to be sold at the eagle and child near worcester house in the strand, . second ed., c. . [another ed.]: paul festeau's french grammar, being the newest and exactest method now extant for the attaining to the purity of the french tongue. augmented and enriched with several choice and new dialogues.... the third ed., diligently corrected, amended and much enlarged with the rules of the accent, by the author, native of blois, and now professor of the french tongue in london. london, . [another ed.]: paul festeau's french grammar being the newest and exactest method ... for the attaining of the elegancy and purity of the french tongue as it is now spoken at the court of france. augmented and enriched with several choice and new dialogues, furnished with rich phrases, proverbs and sentences, profitable and necessary for all persons. together with a nomenclature english and french, and the rules of quantity. the fourth ed., diligently corrected, amended and very much enlarged by the author, native of blois, a city in france where the true tone of the french tongue is found by the unanimous consent of all frenchmen. london, . fifth ed. . another ed., _c._ . another ed. . another ed., _c._ . another ed., corrected and enlarged by the author, _c._ . gerbier, sir balthazar: an introduction of the french tongue, (in) "the interpreter of the academie for forrain languages and all noble sciences and exercises." the first part. london, . giffard, james. cf. holyband, french schoolemaister. gostlin: aurisodinae linguae gallicae. vo. london, . grave. cf. de grave. grolleau: grolleau's compleat french tutor. (date unknown, some time after .) herbert, william: french and english dialogues. in a more exact and delightful method then any yet extant. london, . cf. cogneau. higgins, john: huloet's dictionarie, corrected and amended and set in order and enlarged with many names of men, townes, beastes, foules, fishes, trees, shrubbes, herbes, fruites, places, instrumentes, etc. in eche place fit phrases gathered out of the best latin authors. also the french thereunto annexed, by which you may finde the latin or frenche of anye englishe woorde you will. by john higgins, late student in oxeforde. londoni, in aedibus thomae marshij, anno . the nomenclator or remembrancer of adrianus junius, physician, divided into two tomes, conteining proper names, and apt termes for all thinges under their convenient titles, which within a few leaves doe follow. written by the said adrianus junius in latine, greek, french, and other forrein tongues, and now in english by john higgins. with a full supplie of all such words as the last inlarged edition affoorded; and a dictional index, conteining above principall words with their numbers directly leading to their interpretations. of special use for all scholars and learners of the same languages. london, . holyband, claude, or de sainliens: the french schoolemaistr, wherein is most plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the french tongue, without any helpe of maister or teacher: set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo studie privately in their owne study or houses: unto the which is annexed a vocabularie for al such woordes as bee used in common talkes: by m. claudius hollybande, professor of the latin, french and englishe tongues. imprinted at london, by william how for abraham veale, . first ed. (no copy known). another ed. (date unknown; after .) another ed.: the french schoolemaister of claudius hollybande. newly corrected.... london, . another ed. newly corrected by c. hollyband. london. (date unknown.) another ed.: the french schoolemaister, wherein is most plainely shewed the true and perfect way of pronouncing the french tongue, to the furtherance of all those which would gladly learne it. first collected by mr. c. h., and now newly corrected and amended by p. erondelle, professor of the said tongue. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed.: the french schoolemaister.... first collected by mr. c. h. ... and now ... corrected ... by james giffard. london, . another ed. ... newly corrected and amended by james giffard, professor of the said tongue. london, . another ed. ... new corrected, amended and much enlarged, with severall quaint proverbes and other necessary rules, by james giffard, professor of the said tongue. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed.: the french schoolmaster teaching easily that language. london, . the french littelton, a most easie, perfect and absolute way to learne the frenche tongue. newly set forth by claude holliband, teaching in paules churchyarde by the signe of the lucrece. let the reader peruse the epistle to his owne instruction. imprinted by t. vautrollier: london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed.: set forth by claudius holliband, teaching in pauls churchyard at the sign of the golden ball. london, . another ed. ... london, . another ed. ... by claudius holliband, gentilhomme bourbonnois. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . a treatise for declining of verbs which may be called the second chiefest worke of the frenche tongue: set forthe by claudius hollyband, teaching at the signe of the golden ball in paules church yarde. london, . another ed. london, . another ed. london, . de pronuntiatione. claudii a sancto vinculo de pronuntiatione linguæ gallicæ libri duo. ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam elizabetham anglorum reginam. t. vautrollerius; londoni. . the treasurie of the french tong: teaching the waye to varie all sortes of verbes. enriched so plentifully with wordes and phrases (for the benefit of the studious in that language) as the like hath not before bin published. gathered and set forth by c. hollyband. for the better understanding of the order of the dictionarie peruse the preface to the reader. london, . campo di fior, or the flowery field of four languages, italian, latin, french and english. london, . a dictionarie french and english. published for the benefite of the studious in that language. gathered and set forth by claudius hollyband. london, . howell, james: lexicon tetraglotton, and english, french, italian, spanish dictionary. whereunto is adjoined a large nomenclature of the proper terms (in all four) belonging to several arts and sciences, to recreations, to professions both liberal and mechanick etc. divided into fifty-two sections. with another vocabulary of the choicest proverbs.... london. printed by j. g. for cornelius bee at the king's arms in little brittaine, . cf. cotgrave. huloet. cf. higgins. kerhuel, jean de: grammaire françoise, composée par jean de kerhuel, professeur de la ditte langue. a french grammar.... vo. printed for j. wickins at the miter in fleet street, . lainÉ, pierre: a compendious introduction to the french tongue. teaching with much ease, facility and delight, how to attain and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof. illustrated with several elegant expressions and choice dialogues, useful for persons of quality that intend to travel into france, leading them, as by the hand, to the most noted and principal places of that kingdom. whereunto is annexed an alphabetical rule for the true and modern orthography of that french now spoken, being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed. by peter lainé, a teacher of the said tongue now in london. london. printed by t. n. for anthony williamson at the queen's arms in st. paul's churchyard, near the west end. . lainÉ, pierre de: the princely way to the french tongue, as it was first compiled for the use of her highness the lady mary and since taught her royal sister the lady anne. to which is added a chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue. together with a longer explication of the french grammar, choice fables of Æsop in burlesque french, and lastly some models of letters french and english, by p.d.l. nd ed. london. printed by j. macock for h. herrington etc., . first ed. . (no copy known.) leighton, henry: linguæ gallicæ addiscendæ regulæ. collectæ opera et industria h. leighton, a.m. hanc linguam in celeberrima academia oxoniensi edocentis. oxoniae, . another ed. . lisle of wilbraham, wm.: part of du bartas, english and french, and in his owne kinde of verse, so near the french englished, as may teach an englishman french, or a frenchman english. sequitur victoria junctos. by wm. l'isle of wilburgham, esquier for the king's body. london. printed by john hoviland, . mauger, claude: the true advancement of the french tongue, or a new method, and more easie directions for the attaining of it, then ever yet have been published. whereunto are added many choice and select dialogues, containing not onely familiar discourses, but most exact instructions for travell, in a most elegant style and phrase, very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into france. also a chapter of anglicismes, wherein those errors which the english usually commit in speaking french are demonstrated and corrected. by claudius mauger, late professor of the french tongue at blois, and now teacher of the said tongue here in london. london. printed by tho. roycroft for j. martin and j. allestry at the bell in st. paul's churchyard, . another ed.: mr. mauger's french grammar. enriched with severall choise dialogues containing an exact account of the state of france, ecclesiastical, civil, and military, as it flourisheth at present under king louis the xivth. also a chapter of anglicisims, with instructions for travellers into france. the second edition, enlarged and most exactly corrected by the authour, late professor at blois. london. printed by r. d. for john martin and j. allestree at the bell in st. paul's churchyard, . third ed. london, . another ed. ... enriched with new short dialogues. containing for the most part an exact account of england's triumphs, with the state of france ... as it flourisheth now since cardinal mazarin's death. with a most curious and most ingenious addition of french verses upon the rules. also a chapter of anglicisms, with instructions for travellers into france. fourth ed. exactly corrected, enlarged and perused by the great care and diligence of the author, late publick professor of blois, in france, for all travellers. london. printed for john martin ... . fifth ed. london, . another ed. ... enlarged and enriched with new dialogues, both familiar and high with compliments, and the exact pronunciation. all digested in a most admirable order, with the state of france.... also a chapter of anglicisms and francisms. with french verses containing all the rules of the french tongue. as likewise the generall rules of the english pronunciation. sixth ed. exactly corrected by the author.... london. printed for j. martin at the sign of the bell, and james allestry at the rose and crown in paul's churchyard, . another ed.: la grammaire françoise de claude mauger expliquée en anglois, latin et en françois, enrichie de regles plus courtes et plus substantielles qu'auparavant, comme du regime des verbes, de la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes leurs personnes, d'un traité de l'accent etc. et à la fin, d'un abrégé des regles generales de la langue angloise, en dialogues françois, outre ce qui étoit dans la sixième édition. la e. éd. reveue et corrigée par l'autheur . . . à londres. londres. imprimée par t. roycroft pour jean martin et se vendent à l'enseigne de la cloche au cymitière de sainct paul. . claudius mauger's french grammar, etc. another ed., with additions: the "english edition." london, printed by john martyn, c. . eighth ed. londres, j. martyn, . tenth ed. corrected by the author, now professor of the languages at paris. london, . eleventh ed. london, t. harrison, c. . twelfth ed. . . . avec des augmentations de mots à la mode d'une nouvelle methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour s'acquirir ce beau language comme on le parle à present à la cour de france. où on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition de cette langue, sçavoir, une très parfaite pronuntiation, la conjugaison de tous les verbes irreguliers, des regles courtes et substantielles, ausquelles sont ajoutez un vocabulaire et une nouvelle grammaire angloise pour l'utilité de tant d'estrangers qui ont envie de l'apprendre. la douzième édition exactement corrigée par l'autheur à present professeur des langues à paris. londres. r. e. pour r. bently et s. magnes demeurant dans russel st. au covent gardin. . thirteenth ed. ... corrected by the author, late at paris and now at london. london, . fourteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the author. london. sold by t. guy at the oxford arms in lombard street. . sixteenth ed. ... exactly corrected and enlarged by the authour. late professor of the languages at paris. london. r. e. for r. bently in russel st. in covent gardin, . eighteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the author. london, for t. guy, . nineteenth ed. ... corrected and enlarged by the author, late professor of the languages at paris. london, r. wellington, . twentieth ed. ... faithfully corrected from all the errors in the former by a french minister. london, r. wellington, . twenty-first ed. ... with additions. london, r. wellington, . mauger's letters. written upon several subjects, faithfully translated into english, for the greater facility of those who have a desire to learn the french tongue. corrected and revised by the author, formerly professor of french at bloys, now at london. london, . another ed.: lettres françoises et angloises de claud mauger sur toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation de lettres nouvelles, dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernières et grandes revolutions de l'europe. très exactement corrigée, polies et écrites, dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour, dans lesquelles la pureté et l'élégance des deux langues s'accordent mieux qu'auparavant. très utiles à ceux qui aspirent au beau language, et sont curieux de sçavoir de quelle manière ils doivent parler aux personnes de quelque qualité qu'elles soient. outre quantité de billets à la fin du livre, qui sont très necessaires pour le commerce. la seconde édition. londres, imprimée par tho. roycroft et se vendent chez samuel lowndes vis à vis de l'hostel d'exeter dans la strand. . meurier, gabriel: la grammaire françoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue par gabriel meurier. . . . anvers, . traicté pour apprendre a parler françoys et angloys. rouen, etienne colas, . communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la nation angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage françois, par g. meurier. familiare communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche language, by gabriel meurier. en anvers. . . . chez pierre de keerberghe sus le cemitiere nostre dame a la croix d'or. . another ed.: traité pour apprendre a parler françois et anglois: ensemble un formulaire de faire missives, obligations, quittances, lettres de change, necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent trafiquer. a treatise for to learne to speake frenshe and englische, together with a form of making letters, indentures, and obligations, quittances, letters of exchange, verie necessarie for all marchants that do occupy trade of marchandise. a rouen, chez jacques cailloué, tenant sa boutique dans la court du palais. . miÈge, guy: a new dictionary french and english with another english and french according to the present use and modern orthography of the french, inrich'd with new words, choice phrases and apposite proverbs. digested into a most accurate method and contrived for the use of both english and foreiners, by guy miège, gent. london. printed by t. dawks for t. basset at the george near clifford's inn in fleet street, . a new french grammar or a new method for learning of the french tongue. to which are added for a help to young beginners a large vocabulary, and a store of familiar dialogues, besides four curious discourses of cosmography in french for proficient learners to turn into english. by guy miège, gent., author of the new french dictionary, professor of the french tongue and of geography. london. th. basset.... . a dictionary of barbarous french or a collection by way of alphabet of obsolete, provincial, misspelt and made words in french. taken out of cotgrave's dictionary with some additions. a work much desired and now performed for the satisfaction of such as read old french. by guy miège, gent., author of the new french dictionary. london, for th. basset, .[ ] a short and easie french grammar, fitted for all sorts of learners: according to the present use and modern orthography of the french, with some reflections on the ancient use thereof. london, th. basset, . a large vocabulary english and french for the use of such as learn french or english. london, th. basset, . one hundred and fifteen dialogues french and english fitted for the use of learners. london, th. basset, . a short french dictionary, english and french with another in french and english, according to the present use and modern orthography, by guy miège, gent. london, for th. basset, . another ed. london, . another ed. the hague, . fifth ed. the hague, . another ed. . another ed. rotterdam, . the grounds of the french tongue, or a new french grammar according to the present use and modern orthography. digested into an easy, short and accurate method with a vocabulary and dialogues. london, for th. basset, . the great french dictionary in two parts. the first part french and english. the second english and french. according to the ancient and modern orthography: wherein each language is set forth in its greatest latitude. the various senses of words both proper and figurative are orderly digested, and illustrated with apposite phrases and proverbs. the hard words explained: and the proprieties adjusted. to which are prefixed the grounds of both languages in two discourses, the one english, the other french, by guy miège, gent. london, for th. basset, . miège's last and best french grammar, or a new method to learn french, containing the quintessence of all other grammars, with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language.... london, w. freeman and a. roper, . another ed., the second. london, j. freeman, . morlet, pierre: janitrix sive institutio ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem acquirendam. authore petro morleto gallo. oxoniae, excudebat josephus barnesius, . palsgrave, john: lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse compose par maistre jehan palsgrave angloys natyf de londres et gradue de paris. . [col.] the printing fynysshed by johan hawkyns, the xviii daye of july. the yere of our lorde god m.c.c.c.c.c. and xxx. s., j.: a short method for the declyning of ffrench verbes etc., by j. s., _c._ . saltonstall, wye: clavis ad portam, or a key fitted to the gates of tongues. wherein you may readily find the latine and french for any english word, necessary for all young schollers. [oxford?] printed by wm. turner, . (bound with the edition--london--of anchoran's comenius.) sanford, john: le guichet françois. sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam gallicam. oxoniae. excudebat josephus barnesius, . a briefe extract of the former latin grammar, done into english for the easier instruction of the learner. at oxford. printed by joseph barnes, and are to be sold in paules churchyard at the signe of the crowne by simon waterson. . sherwood, robert: the frenche tutour, london, humphrey lownes, (no copy known). the french tutour by way of grammar exactly and fully teaching all the most necessary rules for the attaining of the french tongue, whereunto are also annexed three dialogues; and a touch of french compliments all for the furtherance of gentlemen, schollers and others desirous of the said language. second ed. carefully corrected and enlarged by robert sherwood, londoner. london, printed by robert young, . dictionnaire anglois-françois. . cf. cotgrave. smith, j.: grammatica quadrilinguis, or brief instructions for the french, italian, spanish and english tongues, with the proverbs of each language fitted for those who desire to perfect themselves therein. by j. smith, m.a. printed for j. clarke at the star, in little britain, and j. lutton at the anchor in poutry. london, . thorius, j. cf. corro. vairasse d'allais, denys: a short and methodical introduction to the french tongue, composed for the particular benefit and use of the english. paris, . valence, pierre: introductions in frensche for henry the yonge erle of lyncoln (childe of greate esperaunce), sonne of the most noble and excellente pryncesse mary (by the grace of god queene of france etc.). [no date or place.] veron, john: dictionariolum puerorum, tribus linguis, latina, anglica et gallica conscriptum. latino gallicum nuper ediderat rob. stephanus parisiis, cui anglicam interpretationem adiecit joannes veron. london, john wolfe, . villiers, jacob: vocabularium analogicum, or the englishman speaking french, and the frenchman speaking english. plainly showing the nearness or affinity betwixt the english, french and latin. alphabetically digested. with new and easy directions for the attaining of the french tongue, comprehended in rules of pronouncing, rules of accenting and the like. to which is added the explanation of mounsieur de lainé's french grammar by way of dialogue set forth for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be proficients in the same language. the like not extant. by jacob villiers, master of a french school in nottingham. london, printed by j. d. for jonathan robinson, at the golden lion, and george wells, at the sun in st. paul's church yard, . wodroeph, john: the spared houres of a souldier in his travels, or the true marrowe of the french tongue, wherein is truly treated (by ordre) the nine parts of speech, together with two rare and excellent bookes of dialogues, the one presented to that illustrious prince count henry of nassau, in his younger yeares for his furtherance in this tongue, newly reviewed and put in pure french phrase (easie and delightfull) from point to point; and the other formed and made (since) by the authour himselfe. added yet an excellent worke, very profitable for all the ages of man, called the springwell of honour and vertue, gathered together very carefully, both by ancient and moderne philosophers of our tyme. with many godly songs, sonets, theames, letters missives, and sentences proverbiales: so orderly, plain and pertinent, as hath not (formerly) beene seene in the most famous ile of great britaine. by john wodroephe, gent. les heures de relasche. . . . imprimé à dort, par nicolas vincentz, pour george waters, marchant libraire, demeurant près le marché au poisson, à l'enseigne des manchettes dorées. . second edition: the marrow of the french tongue, containing: . rules for the true pronunciation of every letter as it is written or spoken. . an exact grammar containing the nine parts of speech of the french tongue. . dialogues on french and english, fitted for all kind of discourse for courtiers, citizens, and countrymen, in their affairs at home or travelling abroad. with variety of other helps to the learner as phrases, letters missive, sentences, proverbes, theames, and in both languages. so exactly collected and compiled by the great paines and industry of m. john wodroephe, that the meanest capacity either french or englishman, that can but reade, may in a short time by his owne industry without the helpe of any teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages. ce livre est aussi utile pour le françois d'apprendre l'anglois que pour l'anglois d'apprendre le françois. the second edition. reviewed and purged of much gross english, and divers errors committed in the former edition printed at dort. london. printed for rd. meighen at the signe of the leg in the strand, and in st. dunstan's churchyard in fleet street, . footnotes: [ ] licensed to harrison (arber, _stationers' register_, i. ); assigned over to th. woodcock by harrison's widow, (_ibid._ ii. ). [ ] based on bathe's _janua linguarum_ in latin and spanish, . [ ] sometimes bound with the dictionary of . index _the names of those who taught french or wrote french grammars are marked with an asterisk._ *a., e., , *abadie, j. g. d', a b c of geneva, _a b c for scottes men_, académie française, _n._, , , , , , , academies, _sq._, , _sq._, , _sq._; academies in france, , , _sq._; protestant academies in france, _sq._, _sq._ addison, joseph, , , _n._ aesop, in french, , aimar de ranconnet, , _n._ alexander, sir wm., , alexandre, pierre, alexis, guillaume, allen, cardinal, _amadis de gaule_, , _n._, , amyot, jacques, , *anchoran, j. a., ancients and moderns, quarrel of, *andré, bernard, , , angers, , , anglo-french, _sq._, anne, queen of england, , _n._ anne of cleves, anvers, _sq._, , , arithmetic, , , ascham, roger, , , , , , , , , _n._, , ashley, robert, , astell, mary, , aubigné, agrippa d', _n._, , *aufeild, wm., _n._, _sq._, aulnoy, mme. d', _n._ auteuil, bacon, anthony, bacon, francis, , _n._, _n._, , , _n._, , , , , _n._ bacon, nicholas, _n._, balzac, guez de, , banister's academy, *barbier, jean, *barclay, alexander, , , , , _n._, _sq._, , , , *baret, james, _sq._, , barkley, lady elizabeth, *barlement, noel de, _sq._, , baro, pierre, *barton, jehan, _n._, _sq._, , basset, james, , *baudouin, jean, bayle, pierre, baynton, andrew, _n._, , , , , beal, sir robert, _beau, character of the_, _n._, _n._ _beau, the compleat_, _beau, the defeated_, _n._, _n._ beaux, _sq._, , , _sq._, _n._, _sq._, , belleau, remi, belleforest, françois de, *bellemain, jean, _sq._, , bellerose, *bellot, jacques, _sq._, , , , _n._, , , , , , *bense, pierre, *berail, gilles, *berault, pierre, , _sq._ bèze, théodore de, , , , *bibbesworth, walter de, _sq._, , , , , bignon, jérôme, _n._, blois, , _sq._, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , blount, th., *bod, charles, _n._ bodin, jean, , . _n._ bodley, sir th., boiasteau, pierre, , boileau, , _n._, boisrobert, _n._, _n._ boleyn, anne, , , , booksellers and french teachers, , , bossuet, bouhours, le père, _n._, bouillon, duchesse de, *bourbon, nicolas, , bourges, , *boy, francis, boyle, richard, bozon, nicolas, _n._ brantôme, _n._ bretons: teach french, , brinsley, john, _n._, brome, rd., , _n._ buck _third universitie_, _n._ buckingham, george villiers, first duke, , , , , ; second duke, , bullar, colonel, burghley, wm. cecil, lord, , , , , , , , burgundians, , , , _sq._, busby, john, *bushell, abraham, bussy, le comte de, butler, mr., butler, samuel, _n._, _n._, _n._ caen, , , , calvin, jean, , , , , , , camden, wm., , , _n._, , , cameron, john, _campo di fior_, _n._, , , canterbury, french school at, _sq._ capell, sir arthur, carew, richard, , carleton, dudley, , cartularies, casaubon, isaac, , , _sq._, , _n._ castellion, dialogues of, , castiglione, baptista, _n._ catechism, in french, , , , , , , _catechism, the ladies'_, _n._, caxton, wm., _sq._, , , , , , , , chamberlain, john, _champ fleury_, chappuzeau, charenton, , , charles i., , , _n._, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , _n._, , , , , , charles ii., _n._, , , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _n._, charpentier, chartier, alain, chaucer, geoffrey, , cheking, john, *chemin, nicholas, *cheneau, francis, chesterfield, lord, _n._ *chevallier, a. r., , , _n._ *chiflet, laurent, _sq._, , children and study of french, , , _sq._, , , _sq._, , , _sq._, , _sq._, , _sq._, , , _n._, , church, use of french in the, churches: foreign, in england: dutch, _sq._; french, _sq._, _sq._, , _sq._, , , , , , , , _sq._, , ; italian, ; walloon, ; protestant, in france, . _see_ charenton cibber, colley, _n._, , _n._ clarendon, ed. hyde, earl of, , _n._, , , , , , , , , , cleland, james, , , , clinton, lady, *codrington, rt., , *cogneau, paul, _sq._, *cokele, john, colet, john, , , , collège de navarre, , colleges: in france, ; english roman catholic, in france, ; protestant, in france, , collet, claude, *colson, wm., _sq._ *colsoni, f. c., comedians. _see_ theatre comenius, , _sq._, , commercial french, , , , _n._, , , , . _see_ merchants commines, philippe de, , , commonwealth, , , , , , , , coningsby, sir th., cooks, french, cordano, girolamo, , _n._ *cordell, m., cordier, mathurin, , , , , corneille, pierre, _n._, , , , , , corneille, th., cornwallis, sir wm., , correspondence: use of french in, , , , , _sq._, , , , , _n._, _sq._, , *corro, antonio de, coryat, tom, , , cosmo iii. of tuscany, costeker, j. l., , *cotgrave, randle, _sq._, , , , , , , _n._, , cotterel, sir ch., _n._ courtesy book, , courtin, french ambassador, , _n._, cowley, , coxe, leonard, *coyfurelly, canon, , , cranmer, , , , cromwell, secretary, , , , , , cromwell, gregory, , , *curlew, nicholas, daines, simon, _n._, dallington, sir rt., _n._, _n._, _sq._, , , , _n._, dancing, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , dancing-master: french, , , , danneau, lambert, *darvil d'arras, ch., _n._ davenant, sir wm., _n._, , , defoe, daniel, _n._, , *deger, anness, *de la barre, _n._ *de la mare, *de la mothe, g., , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , de la porte: epithets, *denisot, nicolas, _sq._, , descartes, , despagne, jean, , desportes, , , dialects, french, , , , , , , , dialogues: french, _sq._, _sq._, _sq._, , , , _sq._, , _sq._, _sq._, , , , _sq._, , , , , , _n._, _sq._, , , _sq._, , , , , , , ; latin, , , , dictionaries: french and english, , , , , _sq._, , , , , _sq._; latin, influence on french, , , , , , digby, sir john, diplomacy: use of french in, , , , , , _n._, _n._, , , doctors, french, _n._, _donait_, _sq._, douay, , _n._, doujat, jean, *dove, r., drama: french influence, , drummond of hawthornden, , _n._ dryden, , , , , , du bartas, _n._, , , , , , , , , , , du bellay, , *du buisson, *du grès, gabriel, _sq._, , , _n._ du moulin, pierre, senior, , du moulin, pierre, junior, , du perron, cardinal, *du plantin, , du plessis, duplessis-mornay, _n._, , *du ploich, _sq._, , , , , , dutch, _sq._, , _n._, , , _sq._, , , . _cp._ netherlands _dutch tutor_, _n._ *du terme, laur, _sq._, , du val, claude, *du val, j. b., *du val, m., du val, pierre, *duwes, giles, , , _sq._, , , _n._, , , , edward vi., king, , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , _n._ effiat, marquis d', _elementarie_, _n._, , eliot, sir john, *eliote, john, , _sq._, , , , _n._, _n._ elizabeth, queen, _n._, , , , , , _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _n._ elizabeth stuart, princess, , , , ellwood, th., elyot, sir th., , , , , _n._, english language, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , _sq._, , , , , _n._, , , _n._, , ; taught in france, , , ; broken english, , _sq._, , , ; grammars of the, , _sq._, , , , _n._, , , english literature, _n._, _sq._ englishmen: judged by foreigners, , _sq._, ; write in french, , _n._, _n._ english teachers of french, , , , , , , _sq._, , epistolaries, _sq._, , *erail, evrard, _n._ erasmus, , _n._, _n._, , *erondell, pierre, , _sq._, _n._, _n._, _esclarcissement, l'_, , , _n._, _sq._, , . _see_ palsgrave essex, rt. devereux, earl of, estienne, h., _n._, _n._ estienne, rt., , etherege, sir george, _n._, _n._, , , eton, _euphues_, _n._, evelyn, john, , , , , , , , , , _n._, , _n._, , _n._, _n._, _n._, _n._, , , "exercises," , , , expenses of travellers, , , *fabre, john, *fabri, philémon, farquhar, george, , _n._, _n._, _n._, , _n._ *farrear, rt., fashions, french, , , _sq._, , _n._, . , , , , , , fees of french teachers, , , _n._, _n._ _femina_, _sq._, _n._, , fencing, , , , , , _n._ *festeau, paul, , , , _sq._, , , , , field, rd., , finett, sir john, flecknoe, rd., _n._, _n._, , _n._, _n._ flemings, , , _n._, , , . _cp._ netherlands flemish, , , _sq._, , , *florio, john, , , , _n._, , , , _n._ *fontaine, rt., _n._, , foreigners visit england, , , , , , _sq._, _sq._, , _sq._, , , , , , _sq._ foubert's academy, , _france, survey of_, françois i. of france, , , , , françois de valois, _frans and englis_, _french alphabet_, _sq._, , _n._, , , , _french conjuror_, _n._, _n._, _n._ _french garden_, _sq._ _french littleton_, _sq._, , _sq._, , , , _french methode_, , _n._ _french schoolemaister_, _sq._, , _sq._, , , , , , , _french schoolmaster_, _n._ _french tutor_, _french tutour_, _sq._ froissart, , , , gailhard, j., , _n._, , _n._ _galaunt, treatyse of a_, gallants. _see_ beaux *ganeur, onias, _n._ garlande, john de, , , garnier, jean, garnier, philippe, garnier, robert, _n._ gascoigne, george, gascons, geneva, _sq._, , , _n._, , _gentleman's companion_, geography, , , , *gerbier, sir balthazar, _n._, _n._, _n._, , german language, , _n._, , _n._, _n._, , _sq._, , , germans, _n._, germany, , , gibbon, _n._ *giffard, james, gilbert, sir humphrey, glapthorne: _the ladies' privilege_, goldsmith, _n._ gomberville, de, _good boke to lerne frenshe_, _sq._, _sq._ governors. _see_ tutors _governour, the_, , , _n._ gower, , grammar: rules of french, , , , _sq._, _sq._, , , _n._, _sq._, , , _sq._, _sq._, _sq._, , , , , grammont, le comte de, , , , grantham, th., , , *grave, jean de, _sq._ greek, _n._, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _n._, , _n._, , , greene, rt., , _n._, , grelot, jérôme, grenville, fulke, grévin, jacques, _n._, _n._ grey, lady jane, _n._, _n._ grey, lord of wilton, , grocyn, guide-books for travellers: in england, _n._, , , , _n._; in france, _sq._, _sq._ *h. t., parisiis studentis, , hainault, , , hakluyt, rd., halkett, lady anne, hall (chronicler), hall, joseph, , _n._, , hamilton, anthony, _sq._, hamilton, miss, harley, lady brilliana, , harrison (chronicler), _n._, harrison, lucus, , harvey, gabriel, hawes, stephen, *hawmells, gouvert, hebrew, , _n._, henrietta maria, _sq._, _sq._, , , _n._, , , henry iii. of france, henry iv. of france, , , , , , , henry vii. of england, , , henry viii. of england, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _n._ henry stuart (prince), , , _sq._, *henry, jean, hentzner (traveller), , _n._ herberay des essarts, , _n._, , herbert, george, *herbert, guillaume, , _sq._, herbert, sir henry, , herbert, wm. (poet), herbert of cherbury, lord, , , , , , , , , herbert of swansea, lord, heylyn, peter, , _n._ higden: _polychronicon_, , higford, wm., , _n._, _n._, *higgins, john, _sq._, hobbes, , , , *holyband, , , _sq._, , , , , _n._, , _n._, , , , , , _n._, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , hoole, charles, _n._, , , , _n._, _n._ hotman, françois, *hotman, jean, howard, katherine, howell, james, _sq._, , _n._, _n._, _n._, , , , , , _n._, huguenot. _see_ refugees _huloet's dictionarie_, hume, p., humphrey: _the nobles_, _n._, , _n._ hutchinson, mrs., inns of court, , , , , , _institution of a gentleman_ (higford), , _n._, _n._, _institution of a nobleman_ (cleland), , , , institutions, educational. _see_ academies, colleges, schools, universities italian, , , , , , , , , , , , , _n._, , , , , , , , _n._, , , , , , , _n._, _sq._, _sq._, , , _sq._, , _n._, , , , , _n._, , , _n._, , _n._, , , , , , , italy, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , james i., , , _n._, _n._, , _sq._, _n._, , james ii., _n._, , , , , , _jardin de vertu_, , , _n._ jermyn, lord, earl of st. albans, , jodelle, Étienne, jonson, ben, , , justel, henri, , _n._ katherine of aragon, , katherine of braganza, *kerhuel, jean de, kerouaille, mlle. de, duchess of portsmouth, _n._, , killigrew, henry, , _n._ kilvert, mrs., , , kynaston, sir francis, la bruyère, la calprenède, , , , , , la fontaine, , *lainé, pierre, _sq._, , , , _n._, , _n._ *lainé, pierre de, _sq._, , lake, sir th., lambeth fragment, _sq._, _n._ la mothe le vayer, , _n._ langland, wm., *langlois or inglishe, _sq._, _n._ languet, hubert, , _n._, , la serre, _n._, latimer, , latin and french, , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , _n._, _sq._, , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , ; use and study of, _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , ; text-books, _n._, , , , , , , , latini, brunetto, , law french, , , , , , le blanc, abbé, _n._, , , le fèvre (chemist), le fèvre, raoul, le grand, antoine, , *le grys, sir rt., leicester, rt. dudley, earl of, , , leicester, countess of, leigh, ed., , _n._ *leighton, hy., _sq._, *lemaire, mary, lemaire de belges, le mans, *le moyne, guy, , , _n._ *le pipre, paul, _sq._ le roy, louis, letters: model french, , , , , _sq._, , , , lewis, mark, _n._, _n._, _n._, lewisham, french school at, _liber donati_, _sq._ lily's grammar, , _n._ linacre, , lincoln, earl of, lindsey, montagu bertie, earl of, lisle, lady, , , _n._ _see_ basset lisle of wilbraham, lister, martin, literature, french, study of, , , , , _sq._, , _n._, , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _livre des mestiers_, _sq._ locke, , , , _n._, , , l'oiseau de tourval, , lorris, g. de, louis xii. of france, , louis xiii. of france, , louis xiv. of france, _n._, , *louveau, jean, sieur de la porte, *love, john, , loveday, rt., , *lydgate, john, lyly, john, , maids, french, , , , , , , maintenon, mme. de, makin, mrs. bathsua, , _n._, , _n._, , malebranche, , , malherbe, malpet, john, _manière de langage_, _n._, _sq._, , , , , , margaret of navarre, , , , margaret of savoy, margaret of scotland, marie de medicis, , marillac (ambassador), , marot, clément, , , marseilles, marsilliers, pierre de, *martin, martin, mary i. of england, , , , , , _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , mary ii. of england, _n._, , mary tudor, queen of france, , , , , , , , , , *mason, baudouin, _n._, _n._ mason, george, *masset, jean, *massonnet, peter, _sq._ mathematics, , , , , *mauconduy, *mauger, claude, , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _n._, , , , , , _n._, , , *maupas, charles, _sq._, , , _sq._, , , , , *maupas, junior, _sq._ maupertuis, _n._ mayerne, théodore, _n._ mazarin, duchesse de, , mecklenburg, duke of, , meigret, louis, _n._, melville, james, melville, sir james, , _n._ ménage, gilles, merchants: study of french by, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , _n._, _sq._, , , meschinot, jean, meteren, immanuel von, methods of studying french, , , _sq._, , , _sq._, _sq._, , _sq._, _sq._, , , _sq._, _sq._, , , _sq._, , , _sq._, , _sq._, , _sq._, , , , _sq._, , , , _sq._, _sq._, _sq._ *meurier, gabriel, _sq._, _n._, , middleton, th., _n._ *miège, guy, , _n._, _n._, _sq._, , *milleran, rené, _sq._ milton, , , , , , , _n._, minsheu, j., _n._, _n._ misson, m., _n._ molière, monluc, , _n._ montaigne, , , , , montauban, , , , montausier, mme. de., montchrétien, , montjoy, christopher, , montpellier, , , , , _n._ montpensier, mlle. de, , more, sir th., , , , , , , *morlet, pierre, , , morrice, th., , , moryson, fynes, _itinerary_, , , , _sq._, , , _n._, , _n._ motteville, mme. de, _n._ mulcaster, rd., _n._, _n._, , , , _n._, , , muralt, , _n._ music, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; french music, , , nantes, edict of, , , , , , nash, , _n._, neckam, alexander, , , netherlands, , , _n._, , , , , , ; french taught in the netherlands, _sq._; teachers from the netherlands, , newcastle, margaret cavendish, duchess of, , new testament: in french, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , newton, th., nicot, , , _n._, _n._ nîmes, , , _nomenclator_, of adrian junius, _nominale_, , normans in england, , , , , , , , , norton, th., nottingham: french school at, nucius, nicander, , , ordinaries, , , , orleans, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _orthographia gallica_, _sq._, orthography, french, _sq._, _sq._, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , osborne, dorothy, _sq._, _n._ osborne, francis, , , _n._, , ossory, lord, duke of ormond, , *oudin, antoine, _sq._, oudin, césar, overbury, sir th., , _n._, _n._ *palairet, j., palmer, herbert, palmer, t., *palsgrave, j., _sq._, , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , _n._, , , , , , , *papillon, parker, matthew, parr, katherine, _n._, , , , pasqualigo, piero, pasquier, Étienne, , _n._, passports, , , _n._ paston, rt., pastors: french, , , , , , , , , _n._ patin, guy, _n._ peacham, th., peiresc, _n._ peletier du mans, , _n._, , , penn, wm., , _n._, *penson, m., penton, samuel, _n._, _n._, , pepys, samuel, _n._, , _sq._, _sq._, , , , , _n._, , _n._, , pepys, mrs., , , perlin, Étienne, , _n._, , _n._, _n._ pettie, george, _n._ petty, sir. wm., , _n._ *philippe, j. t., philipps, katherine, _n._, pibrac, _n._, , , , picard, , , pillot, , pléiade, , poitiers, , , pope, alex., port royal, portuguese grammar, _n._ _positions_, _n._, _n._, _n._ poulet, sir amias, , , , *poullain, valerand, prayers in french, , , , , , , , , précieuses, , *preste, john, _n._ *primont, vincent, , pronunciation, of french, _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , _sq._, , , protestants. _see_ refugees proverbs, , , , , , , , , _purchas pilgrimes_, , , _n._ purfoote, th., , puttenham _arte of poesie_, _n._ pynson, rd., _sq._, _sq._, , _sq._, _sq._, , rabelais, , , , racine, raleigh, sir walter, _n._, , _n._ rambouillet, mlle. de, rambouillet, hôtel de, ramus, petrus, , ramsay, chevalier de, _n._ ravenscroft, ed., readers: in french and english, , , , _n._, , , , , , , _n._ reading. _see_ methods refugees, , , _sq._, , , , _sq._, , , _sq._, , _sq._, , , , _sq._, , , , register of aliens, , , régnier-desmarais, religious houses: use of french in, , religious instruction in french, , . _cp._ new testament, prayers reresby, sir john, , , , , , rheims, rhétoriqueurs, richelieu, cardinal, , , richmond, hy. fitzroy, duke of, , riding, , , , *rieu, pierre de, *robone, jean, , *rolland, alexander, roman catholics (teachers), , , , _roman de jehan et blonde_, _roman de la rose_, , _roman de renart_, , romances, french, , , , , , , _sq._, , , , ronsard, _n._, , , , _n._, rouen, _n._, , , , , , , , , , rowe, john, *rowland, francis, *rowsignoll, nicholas, russel, colonel, rutland, roger, th earl of, rutledge, j., _n._, _n._ rutter, joseph, sackville, rt., , saint amant, _n._, _n._ saint amour, m. de, saint gelais, octovian de, saint Évremond, , _sq._ saint malo, *saint maurice, alcide de, _n._, , _n._ st paul's churchyard, , , , , , , , , , , , , salons, , *saltonstall, wye, , *sanford, j., _sq._, *saravia, adrian, _sq._, saumur, , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._ savile, sir hy., , _sq._, scaliger, , _n._ scarron: _roman comique_, , schelandre, jean de, _n._, _n._ scholars: attitude to french, , , _sq._, , , , , _sq._ _scholemaster, the_, _n._, , _n._, _n._, _n._, _n._ _schoolmasters, apologie for._ _see_ morrice schoolmistresses, schools: grammar schools and french, , , , , , _sq._, , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , _n._, ; private schools and french, , , , , , _sq._, _sq._; french schools, _sq._, _sq._, _sq._, _sq._, _n._, , , , , , , , , , ; french church schools, _sq._, ; protestant schools in france, , , ; scotch schools and french, _sq._ scotland: french in schools of scotland, _sq._; tutors, _n._; french grammars in scotland, , scudéry, georges de, , , _n._ scudéry, mlle, de, , , , , , , _n._, sedley, ch., _n._, _n._, _n._, _n._, , _n._, selden, john, _n._, seymour, anne, jane, and margaret, seymour, jane (queen), , , shadwell, th., , _n._, _n._ shakespeare, , , , _sq._, , _n._, _n._, , , , _n._ sheridan, _n._ *sherwood, rt., , , _sq._, , , _n._ shrewsbury school, , sidenham, sir humphrey, sidney, sir philip, , , , , , , _sq._, , , singing, , , , , , _n._, singing-master, french, smith, hy., *smith, john, m.a., smith, sir th., , _n._ snell, george, _n._, soldiers and french, , , _sq._, , somerset, protector, , , , , sorbière: _voyage en angleterre_, , , , _n._ sorel: _francion_, southampton: french school at, spain, , , spaniards, _n._ spanish, , , _sq._, , , _n._, , , , _n._, , _n._ , , , , , _n._, _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , _n._, stanhope, sir michael, strafford, lord, suffolk, brandon, duke of, , , , , swift, , _n._, _n._ swiss teachers, , sylvester, joshua, , , _n._, _n._, sylvius, _n._, , _n._, _n._, tailors, french, , teachers of french criticised, , , , _sq._, temple, sir wm., , theatre: french comedians in england, , _sq._, ; frenchmen at the cockpit, ; english players abroad, thierry, j., *thorius, torriano, _n._, tory, geoffrey, toulouse, tours, , , , _n._ townsend, a., , _tractatus orthographiae_, , translations: french, of english and latin writings, , , , _n._, , , , , _n._, travel and travellers, _sq._, , , , _n._, , _sq._, _sq._, , , , , , , , , _sq._, , , _sq._, , , _n._, *tresol, adrian, _n._, _n._ *tressol, a., _n._ trevisa, john of, tryon, th., _sq._ turberville, s., turler, jerome: _traveiles_, _n._ turner, dr. wm., _n._ tutors, travelling, , , , , , , , , , , udal, nicholas, _n._ universities, english: and the french language, , , , , _n._, , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , , , _n._, universities, french: english students at, , , , , , , , , , , , utenhove, john, *vairasse d'allais, denys, _sq._ *valence, pierre, , _sq._, _n._ valets, french, , , , , , , , , , , vanbrugh, sir john, , , _n._, _n._, vaquerie, jean, _n._ *varennes, c. de, vaugelas, , , vaughan, stephen, vautrollier, th., , , , _n._ verneuil, jean, _n._ verney, sir ralph, , , , , _sq._ veron, john, , _n._, , verone, john, versification, french, viau, théophile de, _n._, villars, maréchal de, *villiers, jacob, , _sq._ vincent, samuel, _n._, _n._, vives, , , , , _n._ vocabularies, , _sq._, , , , , , , , , , , , _sq._, _n._, , , , , , , , , voiture, _n._, _n._, , voltaire, , _n._, vossius, waddington, ralph, wadington, wm. of, waiting-women, french. _see_ maids walker, o.: _of education_, _n._, _n._ waller, edmund, , walloons, , , , , , wallop, sir hy., , walsingham, , , watts, th., webbe, joseph, , _n._, webster, john, wenman, sir rd., , wharton, sir philip, , william iii., , , william of wykeham, williamson, sir joseph, , , wilson: _arte of rhetorique_, , _n._ withers, hy., *wodroeph, _n._, , , _sq._, , , , wolley, ed., d.d., wolsey, cardinal, , , , women, and study of french, , , , _n._, , , , , , _sq._, , , , , , , _n._, , , , _sq._, , , _sq._; 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[_in the press._ the manchester university press lime grove, oxford road longmans, green & company london, new york, bombay, etc. transcriber's notes: corrections: "lord burghly" which appears from p. to p. was normalised to "lord burghley" as elsewhere in the book. the first line indicates the page or the note number and original text, the second the corrected text. p. x: travelers at the french universities travellers at the french universities. p. : il dira tout courtoisenent il dira tout courtoisement. p. : le roy d'angliterre est osté le roy d'angleterre est osté. p. : maris, oy, il y avoit tant de presse marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse. p. : a wastefull, a riotious and and an outrageous spender a wastefull, a riotious and an outrageous spender. p. : deligently gathered and faithfully set diligently gathered and faithfully set. p. : qe-heur et-til? qel-heur et-til? p. : a thing easily gotton a thing easily gotten. p. : for instance sir willam petty for instance sir william petty. p. : lesquelles choses considererées lesquelles choses considerées. p. : de leurs prouesses, entreprinses de leurs prouesses, entreprises. p. : accomodated to the grammar accommodated to the grammar. p. : qui peut aissi qui peut aussi. p. : of nacsia and paros in the archipeligo of nacsia and paros in the archipelago. p. : ou hormis d'autres discours curieus où hormis d'autres discours curieus. p. : se vendent a l'enseigne se vendent à l'enseigne. n. : e. j. furnival e. j. furnivall. n. : the picard or bourgonions the picard or bourgignions. n. : h. glapthorne, "the ladies privilege" h. glapthorne, "the ladies' privilege." errata list: p. : "pernes" should be "prenez" ("sir pernes le hanappe"). p. : "comnencier" should be "commencier" ("veul comnencier"). p. , n. : "the boke of the governour" appears as "the boke named the governour" in n. . p. : "sir thomas more, writing to erasmus in " should be "sir thomas more, writing to erasmus in ." p. - : the small cross below the unsounded letters in the quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation. the original has been retained. p. , n. : liége should be liège. p. : "to read an script" should be "to read a script." n. , : author "e. j. furnivall" should be "f. j. furnivall." n. : "congnoissance" should be "cognoissance" ("la congnoissance des histoires"). a selected bibliography of virginia, - [illustration: a trve re- lation of such occur- rences and accidents of noate as hath hapned in virginia since the first planting of that collony, which is now resident in the south part thereof, till the last returne from thence. _written by captaine_ smith _coronell of the said collony, to a worshipfull_ friend of his in england. [illustration: ship] _london_ printed for _iohn tappe_, and are to bee solde at the grey- hound in paules-church-yard, by _w.w._ ] a selected bibliography of virginia, - by =e. g. swem= librarian emeritus, william and mary college =john m. jennings= director, virginia historical society with the collaboration of =james a. servies= reference librarian of william and mary college =virginia th anniversary celebration corporation williamsburg, virginia= copyright© by virginia th anniversary celebration corporation, williamsburg, virginia jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, number foreword this bibliography is a modest collection of titles relating to the life of seventeenth-century virginia in its broadest interpretation. it has been compiled with the need in mind of the general reader and of the student who is just beginning research in the alluring field of early virginia history. numerous titles have been omitted for the reason that the number of pages allotted to this booklet requires forbearance and retrenchment. the earnest purpose of the compilers has been to include a good representation of those books and contributions in periodicals that have stood the test of time. again, yielding to the demands of economy, the titles have been reduced in length from the full style followed in standard catalogue entries. there is enough information included in each title to enable the consultant to judge of the contents of the book to which the title refers, and to learn its date and size; enough to whet his historical appetite and to cause him to hasten with joy to the nearest college or reference library, where he will receive a happy welcome and be shown the books he wishes in original edition, in reprint, or in reproduced form of photostat, microfilm, microcard, or microsheet. the arrangement of titles has been designed for browsing: secondary works are arranged by author under certain general subjects; primary materials, following collections of original narratives, by date from "before " to . the senior editors wish to acknowledge the cordial cooperation of miss spotswood hunnicutt, and to extend to our collaborator, mr. james a. servies, reference librarian of william and mary college, warm gratitude and high praise for the characteristic industry and enthusiasm he has displayed in every step of this compilation. his rare gift of discerning bibliographical values has been constantly in evidence. table of contents foreword v bibliographies and guides secondary works u. s. history--including history of the south virginia history--including local history sixteenth-century virginia seventeenth-century virginia general special topics jamestown social life, education economics law and politics agriculture indians bacon's rebellion, religion the negro biography fiction and drama primary works collections before - - - - - - - - - - bibliographies and guides =abbot, william w.= a virginia chronology, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =association for preservation= of virginia antiquities. yearbook. richmond, -date. =brock, robert a.= virginia, - [with a critical essay on the sources of information]. in: winsor, narrative and critical history, v. , p. - . =brown university.= john carter brown library. bibliotheca americana; catalogue of the ... library. providence, r. i., - . v. =cole, george w.= a catalogue of books relating to the discovery and early history of north and south america forming a part of the library of e. d. church. n. y., . v. =eames, wilberforce.= a bibliography of captain john smith. n. y., . p. [=kennett, white=]. bibliothecae americanae primordia. an attempt towards laying the foundation of an american library. london, . p. =kingsbury, susan m.= an introduction to the records of the virginia company of london with a bibliographical list of the extant documents. washington, . p. reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =new york (city).= public library. list of works in the new york public library relating to virginia. n. y., . p. =phillips, philip l.= list of books relating to america in the register of the london company of stationers, from - . am. hist. assoc., report ( ), v. , p. - . ____ virginia cartography; a bibliographical description. washington, . p. (smithsonian institution publication, no. ) =sabin, joseph.= bibliotheca americana. a dictionary of books relating to america, from its discovery to the present time. n. y., - . v. =stanard, william g.= the colonial virginia register. albany, n. y., . p. ____ the virginia archives. am. hist. assoc., report, , v. , p. - . =swem, earl g.= bibliography of virginia. richmond, - . v. ____ maps relating to virginia in the virginia state library. richmond, . [ ]- p. (virginia state library, bulletin, v. , nos. - .) ____ virginia historical index. roanoke, va., - . v. =torrence, william c.= a trial bibliography of colonial virginia. richmond, - . v. (virginia state library, th- th report, - .) =virginia historical society.= catalogue of the manuscripts. richmond, . p. =virginia state library.= calendar of transcripts [in the virginia state library]. richmond, . , xliv p. =winsor, justin.= maryland and virginia [with a critical bibliography]. in his: narrative and critical history, v. , p. - . secondary works =u. s. history--including history of the south= =andrews, charles m.= the colonial period of american history. new haven, conn., - . v. ____ our earliest colonial settlements, their diversities of origin and later characteristics. n. y., . p. =avery, elroy m.= a history of the united states and its people. cleveland, - . v. =bancroft, george.= a history of the united states. boston, - . v. =beer, george l.= the old colonial system, - . n. y., . v. ____ the origins of the british colonial system, - . n. y., . p. =bolton, herbert e. and t. m. marshall.= the colonization of north america, - . n. y., . p. =bond, beverly w.= the quit-rent system in the american colonies. new haven, conn., . p. =bozman, john l.= the history of maryland, from its first settlement in , to the restoration, in . baltimore, . v. =bristol and america=, a record of the first settlers in the colonies of north america, - . london, . p. =the cambridge history= of the british empire, v. , the old empire from the beginnings to . cambridge, . p. =chalmers, george.= political annals of the present united colonies, from their settlement to the peace of . book , london, . p. book published in n. y. hist. soc., collections (publication fund ser.), ( ), - . =channing, edward.= a history of the united states. n. y., - . v. v. , "the planting of a nation in the new world, - ." v. , "a century of colonial history, - ." =chatterton, edward k.= english seamen and the colonization of america. london, . p. =chitwood, oliver p.= a history of colonial america. nd ed. n. y., . p. =crane, verner w.= the southern frontier, - . durham, n. c., . p. =craven, wesley f.= the southern colonies in the seventeenth century, - . baton rouge, la., . p. [=crouch, nathaniel=] a seventeenth century survey of america. [a reprint of "the english empire in america," rd ed., .] prepared by the personnel of the work projects administration, san francisco, calif., . p. =dodd, william e.= the old south; struggles for democracy. n. y., . p. =douglass, william.= a summary, historical and political, of the first planting, progressive improvements, and present state of the british settlements in north america, boston, . v. =doyle, john a.= english colonies in america. n. y., - . v. v. , "virginia, maryland and the carolinas." =eggleston, edward.= the transit of civilization from england to america in the seventeenth century. n. y., . p. =gayley, charles m.= shakespeare and the founders of liberty in america. n. y., . p. [=hall, fayr=] a short account of the first settlement of the provinces of virginia, maryland, new-york, new-jersey, and pennsylvania, by the british. london, . p. reprinted [n. y., ] p. =hart, albert b.=, ed. american history told by contemporaries. n. y., - . v. =hotten, john c.= the original lists of persons of quality; emigrants; religious exiles; political rebels; serving men sold for a term of years; apprentices; children stolen; maidens pressed; and others who went from great britain to the american plantations, - . london, . p. =hubbell, jay b.= the south in american literature, - . [durham, n. c.] . p. =ingram, arthur f. w.= the early english colonies; a summary [of a lecture] transcribed by sadler phillips. milwaukee, wis., . p. =jernegan, marcus w.= laboring and dependent classes in colonial america, - . chicago [ ] p. =johnson, edgar a. j.= american economic thought in the seventeenth century. london, . p. =johnston, mary.= pioneers of the old south; a chronicle of english colonial beginnings. new haven, conn., . p. (chronicles of america, v. ) =keith, william.= the history of the british plantations in america. with a chronological account of the most remarkable things, which happen'd to the first adventurers ... part . virginia. london, . p. =labaree, leonard w.= royal government in america; a study of the british colonial system before . new haven, conn., . p. =lodge, henry c.= a short history of the english colonies in america. [rev. ed.] n. y., . p. =morris, richard b.= government and labor in early america. n. y., . p. ____ studies in the history of american law, with special reference to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. n. y., . p. =morse, jarvis m.= american beginnings: highlights and sidelights of the birth of the new world. washington [ ] p. =osgood, herbert l.= the american colonies in the seventeenth century. n. y., - . v. =piercy, josephine k.= studies in literary types in seventeenth century america ( - ). new haven, conn., . p. (yale studies in english, v. ) =priestley, herbert i.= the coming of the white man, - . n. y., . p. =robertson, william.= the history of america, books ix. and x. containing the history of virginia to the year ; and of new england to the year . philadelphia, . p. first printed , often reprinted. =the south= in the building of the nation. richmond [ - ]. v. =trevelyan, george m.= england under the stuarts. th ed. london, . p. =tyler, lyon g.= the cavalier in america. [richmond, .] p. =tyler, moses c.= a history of american literature during the colonial time. n. y., . v. =wertenbaker, thomas j.= the first americans, - . n. y., . p. (a history of american life, v. ) =wilson, woodrow.= a history of the american people. [new ed.] n.y., . v. =winsor, justin=, ed. narrative and critical history of america. boston, - . v. =wissler, clark= [and others]. adventurers in the wilderness. new haven, conn., . p. (pageant of america, v. ) =virginia history--including local history= =abernethy, thomas p.= three virginia frontiers. baton rouge, la., . p. (the w. l. fleming lectures in southern history, louisiana state univ., ) =andrews, matthew p.= virginia, the old dominion. n. y., . p. =armes, ethel m.= stratford hall, the great house of the lees. richmond, . p. =association for the= preservation of virginia antiquities. the old lighthouse at cape henry, virginia; an account of early efforts to establish a lighthouse at entrance to chesapeake bay, , , . norfolk, . p. =beverley, robert.= the history of virginia. nd ed. london, . p. reprinted: richmond, . p.; chapel hill, n. c., . p. first ed.: london, . =boddie, john b.= colonial surry. richmond, . p. =bruce, philip a.= [and others] history of virginia. chicago, . v. "colonial period, by philip a. bruce," v. . ____ the virginia plutarch. chapel hill, n. c., . v. =burk, john d.= the history of virginia, from its first settlement to the commencement of the revolution. petersburg, va., . v. documents, &c. [relating to bacon's rebellion], v. , p. - . papers relating to the mission for procuring a more perfect charter [ - ], v. , appendix, p. xxxiii-lxii. =campbell, charles.= history of the colony and ancient dominion of virginia. philadelphia, . p. =chandler, julian a. c. and travis b. thames.= colonial virginia. richmond, . p. ____ makers of virginia history. n. y. [ ] p. =clark, charles b.= the eastern shore of maryland and virginia. n. y., [ ] v. =conway, moncure d.= barons of the potomack and the rappahannock. n. y., . p. =cooke, john e.= virginia; a history of the people. [new ed.] boston, . p. =fiske, john.= old virginia and her neighbors. boston, . v. =foote, william h.= sketches of virginia, historical and biographical. [ st ser.] philadelphia, . p. =gilliam, sara k.= virginia's people. a study of the growth and distribution of the population of virginia from to . [richmond] . p. =glenn, thomas a.= some colonial mansions and those who lived in them, with genealogies of the various families mentioned [ser. ]. philadelphia, . p. =goodwin, rutherfoord.= a brief & true report concerning williamsburg in virginia: being an account of the most important occurrences in that place from its first beginning to the present time.... d ed. williamsburg [ ] p. =howe, henry.= historical collections of virginia. charleston, s. c., . p. =howison, robert r.= a history of virginia, from its discovery and settlement by europeans to the present time. philadelphia, . v. =ingle, edward.= local institutions of virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. - ) =johnston, frederick.= memorials of old virginia clerks ... from to the present time. lynchburg, . p. =jones, hugh.= the present state of virginia, from whence is inferred a short view of maryland and north carolina. ed. by richard l. morton. chapel hill, n. c., [ ] p. first published in ; reprinted n. y., . p. =kibler, j. luther.= the cradle of the nation; ... jamestown, williamsburg and yorktown. richmond, . p. =martin, joseph.= a new and comprehensive gazetteer of virginia, and the district of columbia ... to which is added a history of virginia from its first settlement to the year [by w. h. brockenbrough]. charlottesville, va., . p. =maury, richard l.= the huguenots in virginia. [n.p., ?] p. =meade, william.= old churches, ministers and families of virginia. philadelphia, . v. =page, thomas n.= the old dominion; her making and her manners. n. y., . p. =pritts, joseph.= mirror of olden time border life; embracing a history of the discovery of america ... also, history of virginia, embracing its first settlement, the progressive movements of civilization and the establishment of civil government ... [ nd ed.] abingdon, va., . p. =robinson, morgan p.= a complete index to stith's history of virginia. richmond, . p. ____ virginia counties. richmond, . p. (virginia state library, bulletin, v. , no. - ) =stanard, mary n.= colonial virginia, its people and customs. philadelphia, . p. =starkey, marion l.= the first plantation; a history of hampton and elizabeth city county, virginia, - . [hampton, va.], . p. =stith, william.= the history of the first discovery and settlement of virginia. williamsburg, va., . , p. reprinted: n. y., . , p. [=tyler, lyon g.=] history of york county in the seventeenth century. tyler's quarterly, ( ), - . =virginia. dept. of= conservation. a hornbook of virginia history; comp. by j. r. v. daniel. [richmond, ] p. ____ state historical markers of virginia. th ed. richmond [ ] p. =weddell, alexander w.= (ed.) a memorial volume of virginia historical portraiture, - . richmond, . =wertenbaker, thomas j.= the old south; the founding of american civilization. n. y., . p. =whitelaw, ralph t.= virginia's eastern shore. richmond, . v. =willis, carrie.= the story of virginia. rev. ed. n. y., . p. =willison, george f.= behold virginia: the fifth crown. n. y., [ ] p. =writers' program, virginia.= virginia; a guide to the old dominion. n. y. [ ] p. =sixteenth-century virginia= =lewis, clifford m. and albert j. loomie.= the spanish jesuit mission in virginia, - . chapel hill, n. c., . p. =lorant, stefan=, ed. the new world; the first pictures of america by john white and jacques le moyne and engraved by theodore de bry, with contemporary narratives of the huguenot settlement in florida, - , and the virginia colony, - . n. y., . p. =mook, maurice a.= the aboriginal population of tidewater virginia. am. anthropologist (new ser.), ( ), - . =sams, conway w.= the conquest of virginia: the first attempt. norfolk, va., . p. =tarbox, increase n.= sir walter ralegh and his colony in america. including the charter of queen elizabeth in his favor, march , , with letters, discourses, and narratives of the voyages made to america at his charges, and descriptions of the country, commodities, and inhabitants. boston, . p. (prince society publications, v. ) =seventeenth-century virginia= --=general=-- =alvord, clarence w. and lee bidgood.= the first explorations of the trans-allegheny region by the virginians, - . cleveland, . p. =ames, susie m.= studies of the virginia eastern shore in the seventeenth century. richmond, . p. =andrews, matthew p.= the soul of a nation; the founding of virginia and the projection of new england. n. y., . p. =boddie, john b.= seventeenth-century isle of wight county, virginia. chicago [ ] p. =brittingham, joseph b.= the first trading post at kicotan (kecoughtan) hampton, virginia. hampton, . p. =brown, alexander.= the first republic in america; an account of the origin of this nation, written from the records then ( ) concealed by the council, rather than from the histories then licensed by the crown. boston, . p. ____ the genesis of the united states. a narrative of the movement in england, - , which resulted in the plantation of north america by englishmen. boston, . v. "brief biographies," v. , p. - . ____ new views of early virginia history, - . liberty, va., . p. =bruce, philip a.= the economic and social life of virginia in the seventeenth century. in: the south in the building of the nation, v. , p. - . =chandler, julian a. c.= the beginnings of virginia, - . in: the south in the building of the nation, v. , p. - . =cheyney, edward p.= some conditions surrounding the settlement of virginia. am. hist. rev., ( ), - . =craven, wesley f.= dissolution of the virginia company; the failure of a colonial experiment. n. y., . p. ____ the virginia company of london, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =dodd, william e.= the emergence of the first social order in the united states. am. hist. rev., ( ), - . [=ellyson, james t.=] the london company of virginia; a brief account of its transactions in colonizing virginia. n. y., . p. =forman, henry c.= the architecture of the old south: the medieval style, - . cambridge, mass., . p. ____ virginia architecture in seventeenth century. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =green, bennett w.= how newport's news got its name. richmond, . p. =greer, george c.= early virginia immigrants [ - ] richmond, . p. =hartwell, henry.= the present state of virginia, and the college, by henry hartwell, james blair, and edward chilton [ ]. ed. by hunter d. farish. williamsburg, va., . lxxiii, p. =henry, william w.= the settlement at jamestown, with particular reference to the late attacks upon captain john smith, pocahontas, and john rolfe. va. hist. soc., proceedings, , p. - . =jefferson, thomas.= notes on the state of virginia [ ]. ed. by william peden. chapel hill, n. c., . p. "articles agreed on & concluded at james cittie in virginia [ ]," p. - . "an act of indempnitie made att the surrender of the countrey [ ]," p. - . =jester, annie l. and martha w. hiden=, eds. adventurers of purse and person. virginia, - . [n.p.] . p. =kingsbury, susan m.= a comparison of the virginia company with the other english trading companies of the th and th centuries. am. hist. assoc., report, , v. , p. - . =lefroy, sir john h.= memorials of the discovery and early settlement of the bermudas or somers islands, - . london, - . v. =mason, george c.= the case against henricopolis. va. mag., ( ), - . =mook, maurice a.= the ethnological significance of tindall's map of virginia, . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ virginia ethnology from an early relation [an analysis of archer's "a relatyon of the discovery of our river"] w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =morison, samuel e.= the plymouth colony and virginia. va. mag., ( ), - . =morton, richard l.= struggle against tyranny and the beginning of a new era, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =neill, edward d.= early settlement of virginia and virginiola, as noticed by poets and players in the time of shakspeare, with some letters on the colonization of america, never before printed. minneapolis, minn., . p. ____ the english colonization of america during the seventeenth century. london, . p. ____ english maids for virginia planters. ships arriving at jamestown, from the settlement of virginia until the revocation of charter of london company. new england hist. and gen. register, ( ), - , - . ____ history of the virginia company of london. albany, n. y., . p. ____ virginia, as a penal colony. historical mag. (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ virginia carolorum: the colony under the rule of charles the first and second ... - . albany, n. y., . p. ____ virginia company of london. extracts from their manuscript transactions. washington, . p. ____ virginia governors under the london company. saint paul, minn., . p. ____ the virginia lotteries. virginia slaveholders, feb., . new england hist. and gen. register, ( ), - . ____ virginia vetusta, during the reign of james the first. albany, n. y., . p. =phillips, philip l.= some early maps of virginia and the makers, including plates relating to the first settlement of jamestown. va. mag., ( ), - . =sainsbury, w. noel.= the first settlement of french protestants in america [ ]. antiquary, ( ), - . =sams, conway w.= the conquest of virginia: the second attempt ... - . norfolk, va., . p. ____ the conquest of virginia; the third attempt, - . n. y., . p. =stanard, mary n.= the story of virginia's first century. philadelphia, . p. =stanard, william g.= some emigrants to virginia. memoranda in regard to several hundred emigrants to virginia during the colonial period. richmond, . p. =stephenson, n. w.= some inner history of the virginia company. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =swem, earl g.=, ed. jamestown th anniversary historical booklets. williamsburg, . v. contents: ) e. g. swem, j. m. jennings and j. a. servies, a selected bibliography of virginia, - . ) w. w. abbot, a virginia chronology, - . ) b. c. mccary, captain john smith's map of virginia. ) s. m. bemiss, the three charters of the virginia company of london. ) w. f. craven, the virginia company of london, - . ) c. e. hatch, the first seventeen years at jamestown, - . ) w. e. washburn, virginia under charles i, and cromwell, - . ) t. j. wertenbaker, bacon's rebellion, . ) r. l. morton, struggle against tyranny and the beginning of a new era, - . ) g. m. brydon, the faith of our fathers; religion in virginia, - . ) h. c. forman, virginia architecture in seventeenth century. ) w. s. robinson, mother earth; land grants in virginia, - . ) james wharton, the bounty of the chesapeake; fishing in colonial virginia, - . ) lyman carrier, agriculture in virginia, - . ) s. m. ames, reading, writing and arithmetic in virginia, - . ) t. j. wertenbaker, the government of virginia in the seventeenth century. ) a. l. jester, domestic life in virginia, - . ) b. c. mccary, indians in seventeenth century virginia. ) m. w. hiden, how justice grew; the counties of virginia; an abstract of their formation. ) melvin herndon, the sovereign remedy; tobacco in colonial virginia. ) t. p. hughes, medicine in virginia, - . ) c. w. evans, some notes on shipping and shipbuilding in colonial virginia. ) j. p. hudson, jamestown commodities in the seventeenth century. [t., j. w.] =the records of= the london company for the first colony in virginia. historical magazine, ( ), - . =torrence, william c.=, comp. virginia wills and administrations, - . richmond [ ] p. =traylor, robert l.= some notes on the first recorded visit of white men to the site of the present city of richmond, virginia. richmond, . p. =tyler, lyon g.= england in america, - . n. y., . p. ____ london company records. am. hist. assoc., report ( ), v. , p. - . =washburn, wilcomb e.= virginia under charles i, and cromwell, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =waterman, thomas t.= domestic colonial architecture of tidewater virginia. n. y., . p. =wertenbaker, thomas j.= the government of virginia in the seventeenth century. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) ____ virginia under the stuarts, - . princeton, n. j., . p. =wise, jennings c.= ye kingdome of accowmacke; or, the eastern shore of virginia in the seventeenth century. richmond, . p. =wright, louis b.= the first gentlemen of virginia. san marino, calif., . p. =yardley, john h. r.= before the mayflower. n. y., . p. =seventeenth-century virginia= --=special topics=-- =jamestown= =caywood, louis r.= excavations at green spring plantation. yorktown, va., . p. =cotter, john l. and j. p. hudson.= new discoveries at jamestown. washington, . p. =forman, henry c.= the bygone "subberbs of james cittie." w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ jamestown and st. mary's, buried cities of romance. baltimore, . p. =gookin, warner f.= the first leaders at jamestown [ - ]. va. mag., ( ), - . =gregory, george c.= jamestown first brick state house. va. mag., ( ), - . =hatch, charles e.= the first seventeen years at jamestown, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) ____ jamestown, virginia; the town site and its story. [washington, ] p. =riley, edward m.= and =charles e. hatch=, eds. james towne in the words of contemporaries. washington, . p. =tyler, lyon g.= the cradle of the republic: jamestown and james river. [ nd ed.] richmond, . p. =yonge, samuel h.= the site of old "james towne," - . richmond, . p. =social life, education= =ames, susie m.= reading, writing and arithmetic in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) [=armstrong, mrs. f. m.=] the syms-eaton free school. benjamin syms, ; thomas eaton, . [n.p., n.d.] p. =blanton, wyndham b.= medicine in virginia in the seventeenth century. richmond [ ] p. =bruce, philip a.= institutional history of virginia in the seventeenth century; an inquiry into the religious, moral, educational, legal, military, and political condition of the people. n. y., . v. ____ social life of virginia in the seventeenth century. an inquiry into the origin of the higher planting class, together with an account of the habits, customs, and diversions of the people. nd. ed. lynchburg, va., . p. =buck, james l. b.= the development of public schools in virginia, - . richmond [ ] p. (va. state board of educ., bulletin, v. , no. ) =campbell, helen j.= the syms and eaton schools and their successors. w & m quar. (series ), ( ), - . =comenius in england=; the visit of jan amos komensky (comenius), the czech philosopher and educationalist, to london, in - ; its bearing on the origins of the royal society, on the development of the encyclopedia, and on plans for the higher education of the indians of new england and virginia. ed. by robert f. young. london, . p. =crozier, william a.= virginia colonial militia, - . n. y., . p. =hughes, thomas p.= medicine in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =jester, annie l.= domestic life in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =land, robert h.= henrico and its college. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =mccabe, w. gordon.= the first university in america, - . va. mag., ( ), - . =mcmurtrie, douglas c.= the first printing in virginia; the abortive attempt at jamestown, the first permanent press at williamsburg, the early gazettes, and the work of other virginia typographic pioneers. vienna, . p. =neill, edward d.= history of education in virginia during the seventeenth century. washington, . p. ____ a study of the virginia census of . new england hist. and gen. register, ( ), - , - , - . =powell, william s.= books in the virginia colony before . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =shurtleff, harold r.= the log cabin myth; a study of the early dwellings of the english colonists in north america. cambridge, mass., . p. =smart, g. k.= private libraries in colonial virginia. am. literature, ( ), - . =tyler, lyon g.= the college of william and mary in virginia: its history and work, - . richmond, . p. =wertenbaker, thomas j.= patrician and plebeian in virginia. charlottesville, va., . p. ____ the planters of colonial virginia. princeton, n. j., . p. =economics= =andrews, charles m.= british committees, commissions, and councils of trade and plantations, - . baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , nos. - ) =ballagh, james c.= white servitude in the colony of virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , nos. - ) =barnes, viola f.= land tenure in the english colonial charters of the seventeenth century. in: essays in colonial history presented to charles m. andrews, new haven, conn., , p. - . =bassett, john s.= the relation between the virginia planter and the london merchant. am. hist. assoc., report ( ), v. , p. - . =bruce, kathleen.= virginia iron manufacture in the slave era. n. y., . p. =bruce, philip a.= economic history of virginia in the seventeenth century. n. y., . v. =evans, cerinda w.= some notes on shipping and shipbuilding in colonial virginia. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =handlin, oscar, and mary handlin.= origins of the southern labor system [ - ] w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =harrington, jean c.= glassmaking at jamestown, america's first industry. richmond [ ] p. =harrison, fairfax.= virginia land grants: a study of conveyancing in relation to colonial politics. richmond, . p. =hatch, charles e.= glassmaking in virginia, - . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - , - . =hudson, j. p.= jamestown commodities in the seventeenth century. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =judah, charles b.= the north american fisheries and british policy to . urbana, ill., . p. =macpherson, david.= annals of commerce, manufactures, fisheries, and navigation. london, . v. =read, thomas t.= gold and the virginia colony. columbia university quarterly, ( ), - . =ripley, william z.= the financial history of virginia, - . n. y., . p. (columbia univ. studies in hist., econ., and pub. law, v. , no. ) =robinson, w. stitt.= mother earth; land grants in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =smith, abbot e.= colonists in bondage: white servitude and convict labor in america. - . chapel hill, n. c., . p. =wharton, james.= the bounty of the chesapeake; fishing in colonial virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =williams, lloyd h.= pirates of colonial virginia. richmond, . p. =law and politics= =allen, john w.= english political thought, - (v. , - ). london, . p. =ames, susie m.= the reunion of two virginia counties. journal of southern history, ( ), - . =birch, thomas.= the court and times of james the first. london, . v. =brown, alexander.= english politics in early virginia history. boston, . p. =chandler, julian a. c.= the history of suffrage in virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. - ) =chitwood, oliver p.= justice in colonial virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. - ) =chumbley, george l.= colonial justice in virginia; the development of a judicial system, typical laws and cases of the period. richmond, . p. =crump, helen j.= colonial admiralty jurisdiction in the seventeenth century. london, . p. =flippin, percy s.= financial administration of the colony of virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. ) ____ the royal government in virginia, - . n. y., . p. (columbia univ. stud. in hist., econ., and pub. law, v. , no. ) =fuller, hugh n.= [and others] criminal justice in virginia. n. y., . p. =gordon, armistead c.= the laws of bacon's assembly. [charlottesville, va., ] p. =hannay, david.= the great chartered companies. london, . p. =harper, lawrence a.= the english navigation laws: a seventeenth-century experiment in social engineering. n. y., . p. =hatch, charles e.= the oldest legislative assembly in america & its first state house. [rev. ed.] washington, . p. =henry, william w.= the first legislative assembly in america. am. hist. assoc., report, , p. - . =hiden, martha w.= how justice grew; the counties of virginia: an abstract of their formation. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =karraker, cyrus h.= the seventeenth-century sheriff; a comparative study of the sheriff in england and the chesapeake colonies, - . chapel hill, n. c., . p. =latané, john h.= the early relations between maryland and virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. - ) =neill, edward d.= the earliest contest in america on charter-rights, begun a.d. , in virginia legislature. macalester college, contributions (ser. ), ( ), - . =porter, albert o.= county government in virginia, a legislative history, - . n. y., . p. =prince, walter f.= the first criminal code of virginia. am. hist. assoc., report ( ), v. , p. - . =scott, arthur p.= criminal law in colonial virginia. chicago, . p. =agriculture= =arents, george.= the seed from which virginia grew. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ tobacco; its history illustrated by the books, manuscripts and engravings in the library of george arents, jr.; bibliographic notes by jerome e. brooks. n. y., - . v. =cabell, nathaniel f.= early history of agriculture in virginia. washington [n.d.] p. =carrier, lyman.= agriculture in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =craven, avery o.= soil exhaustion as a factor in the agricultural history of virginia and maryland, - . urbana, ill., . p. =gray, lewis c.= history of agriculture in the southern united states to . washington, . v. (carnegie institution publication, no. ) =herndon, melvin.= the sovereign remedy; tobacco in colonial virginia. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =robert, joseph c.= the story of tobacco in america. n. y., . p. =tatham, william.= an historical and practical essay on the culture and commerce of tobacco. london, . p. =indians= =bushnell, david i.= the five monacan towns in virginia, . washington, . p. ____ indian sites below the falls of the rappahannock, virginia. washington, . p. (smithsonian misc. collections, v. , no. ) ____ the monahoac tribes in virginia, . washington, . p. (smithsonian misc. collections, v. , no. ) ____ virginia--from early records. am. anthropologist (new ser.), ( ), - . =mccary, ben c.= indians in seventeenth-century virginia. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =mooney, james.= the powhatan confederacy, past and present. am. anthropologist (new ser.), ( ), - . =morrison, alfred j.= the virginia indian trade to . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =neill, edward d.= massacre at falling creek, virginia, march , / . magazine of am. hist., ( ), - . =robinson, w. stitt.= indian education and missions in colonial virginia. journal of southern history, ( ), - . =willoughby, charles c.= the virginia indians in the seventeenth century. am. anthropologist, ( ), - . =bacon's rebellion, = =bayne, howard r.= a rebellion in the colony of virginia. [n. y., ] p. (society of colonial wars in the state of n. y., historical papers, no. ) =brent, frank p.= some unpublished facts relating to bacon's rebellion on the eastern shore of virginia, gleaned from the court records of accomac county. va. hist. soc., collections (new ser.), ( ), - . =lane, john h.= the birth of liberty; a story of bacon's rebellion. richmond, . p. =stanard, mary n.= the story of bacon's rebellion. n. y., . p. =stearns, bertha m.= the literary treatment of bacon's rebellion in virginia. va. mag., ( ), - . =ware, william.= a memoir of nathaniel bacon. in: jared sparks, library of american biography, boston, , ser. , v. , p. - . =wertenbaker, thomas j.= bacon's rebellion, . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) ____ torchbearer of the revolution, the story of bacon's rebellion and its leader. princeton, n. j., . p. =religion= =anderson, james s. m.= the history of the church of england in the colonies and foreign dependencies of the british empire. nd ed. london, . v. =brydon, george m.= the faith of our fathers; religion in virginia, - . williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) ____ virginia's mother church and the political conditions under which it grew. richmond, - . v. =colonial churches=; a series of sketches of churches in the original colony of virginia. richmond, . p. =cross, arthur l.= the anglican episcopate and the american colonies. n. y., . p. =edmundson, william.= a journal of the life, travels, sufferings and labour of love in the work of the ministry. nd ed. london, . p. description of virginia in , p. - . =goodwin, edward l.= the colonial church in virginia. milwaukee, wis. [ ] p. =goodwin, william a. r.= the records of bruton parish church; ed. by mary frances goodwin. richmond, . p. =hawkins, ernest.= historical notices of the missions of the church of england in the north american colonies, previous to the independence of the united states. london, . p. [=hawks, francis l.=] a narrative of events connected with the rise and progress of the protestant episcopal church in virginia. to which is added ... the journals of the conventions in virginia from the commencement to the present time. n. y., . , p. =little, lewis p.= imprisoned preachers and religious liberty in virginia. lynchburg, va., . p. =mcilwaine, henry r.= the struggle of protestant dissenters for religious toleration in virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and pol. sci., ser. , no. ) =mason, george c.= colonial churches of tidewater virginia. richmond, . p. =miller, perry.= religion and society in the early literature: the religious impulse in the founding of virginia [ - ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ the religious impulse in the founding of virginia: religion and society in the early literature [ - ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =pennington, edgar l.= the church of england in colonial virginia; pt. , - . hartford, conn., . p. =perry, william s.= historical collections relating to the american colonial church. v. , virginia. [hartford, conn.] . p. ____ the history of the american episcopal church, - . boston, . v. =seiler, william h.= the church of england as the established church in seventeenth-century virginia [ - ] journal of southern history, ( ), - . =thomas, r. s.= the old brick church, near smithfield, virginia. built in . va. hist. soc., collections (new ser.), ( ), - . ____ the religious element in the settlement at jamestown in . petersburg, va., . p. =the negro= =ballagh, james c.= a history of slavery in virginia. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., extra vol., ) =phillips, ulrich b.= american negro slavery. n. y., . p. =russell, john h.= the free negro in virginia, - . baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. science, ser. , no. ) =writers' program.= virginia. the negro in virginia. n. y., . p. =biography= =adams, henry.= captain john smith. north american review, ( ), - . =baxter, james p.= memoir of sir ferdinando gorges. in: sir ferdinando gorges and his province of maine, boston, , v. , p. - . (prince society publications, no. ) =boddie, john b.= edward bennett of london and virginia. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =burnyeat, john.= john burnyeat, - [a missionary in the american colonies]. va. mag., ( ), - . =chatterton, edward k.= captain john smith. n. y., . p. =claiborne, john h.= william claiborne of virginia. n. y., . p. =davis, richard b.= george sandys, poet-adventurer; a study in anglo-american culture in the seventeenth century. n.y., . p. =edwards, edward.= the life of sir walter raleigh. based on contemporary documents ... together with his letters now first collected. [london] . v. =fletcher, john g.= john smith--also pocahontas. n. y., [ ] p. =glenn, keith.= captain john smith and the indians. va. mag., ( ), - . =hale, nathaniel c.= virginia venturer, a historical biography of william claiborne, - ; the story of the merchant venturers who founded virginia, and the war in the chesapeake. richmond [ ] p. =harlow, vincent t.= ed. the voyages of captain william jackson ( - ). london, . p. =harrison, fairfax.= henry norwood ( - ), treasurer of virginia, - . va. mag., ( ), - . =heck, earl l. w.= augustine herrman, beginner of the virginia tobacco trade. [richmond] . p. =henry, william w.= the rescue of captain john smith by pocahontas. potters american monthly, ( ), - ; ( ), - . =herndon, john g.= the reverend william wilkinson of england, virginia, and maryland [ ?- ]. va. mag., ( ), - . =lee, cazenove g. jr.=, lee chronicle, a history of the lees of virginia. n. y., . p. =lee, edmund j.= lee of virginia, - . philadelphia [ ] p. =morse, jarvis m.= john smith and his critics. journal of southern history, ( ), - . =motley, daniel e.= life of commissary james blair, founder of william and mary college. baltimore, . p. (johns hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. science, ser. , no. ) =neill, edward d.= captain john smith, adventurer and romancer. macalester college, contributions (ser. ), ( ), - . ____ memoir of rev. patrick copland, rector elect of the first projected college in the united states. n. y., . p. ____ pocahontas and her companions; a chapter from the history of the virginia company of london. albany, n. y., . p. =peckard, peter.= memoirs of the life of mr. nicholas ferrar. cambridge, . p. =pennington, edgar l.= commissary blair. hartford, conn., . p. =poindexter, charles.= captain john smith and his critics. richmond, . p. =pring, james h.= captaine martin pringe, the last of the elizabethan seamen. plymouth [eng.], . p. =robertson, wyndham.= pocahontas, alias matoaka, and her descendants ... historical notes by r. a. brock. richmond, . p. =sheppard, william l.= the princess pocahontas; her story. from the original authorities. richmond, . p. =shirley, john w.= george percy at jamestown, - . va. mag., ( ), - . =smith, bradford.= john smith, his life and legend. philadelphia, . p. =smyth, clifford.= captain john smith and england's first successful colony in america. n. y., . p. =southall, james p. c.= captain john martin of brandon on the james. va. mag., ( ), p. - . =stewart, robert a.= the first william byrd of charles city county, virginia. va. mag., ( ), - , - . =syme, ronald.= john smith of virginia. n. y., . p. =webster, mrs. m. m.= pocahontas. a legend, with historical and traditionary notes. philadelphia, . p. =fiction and drama= =behn, aphra.= the widdow ranter, or the history of bacon in virginia. a tragi-comedy. london, . p. =benet, stephen vincent.= western star. n. y. [ ]. p. [illustration: virginia. a sermon preached at =white-chappel, in the= presence of many, honourable and worshipfull, the adventurers and plan- ters for =virginia=. april, . pvblished for the benefit =and vse of the colony, planted,= and to bee planted there, and for the ad- uancement of their =chris- tian= purpose. by =william symonds=, preacher at saint =saviours= in southwarke. =ivde. . .= haue compassion of some, in putting of difference: and other save with feare, pulling them out of the fire. london: printed by =i. windet= for =eleazar edgar=, and _william welby_, and are to be sold in paules church- yard at the signe of the windmill. . ] [illustration: =nova britannia=. offring most excellent fruites by planting in =virginia= exciting all such as be well affected to further the same. [illustration: ship] =london= printed for =samvel macham=, and are to be sold at his shop in pauls church-yard, at the signe of the bul-head. . ] [illustration: nevves from virginia. =the lost flocke triumphant=; with the happy arrival of that famous and worthy knight s^r thomas gates: and the well reputed and valient cap- taine m^r christopher new- porte, and others, into virginia. with the manner of their distresse in the iland of devils (otherwise called bermoothawes) where they remained weeks, and builded two pynaces, in which they returned unto virginia. by =r. rich, gent.=, one of the voyage. london: printed by edw. allde, and are to be solde by john wright, at christ-church dore. . ] [illustration: a trve discovrse of the present estate of =vir- ginia=, and the successe of the affaires there till the of _iune_, . _together_. with a relation of the seuerall english townes and fortes, the assu- red hopes of that countrie and the peace _concluded with the indians_. the christening of _powhatans_ daughter _and her marriage with an english-man_. written by =raphe hamor= the yon- ger, late secretarie in that colony. _alget, qui non ardet._ [illustration] printed at london by =iohn beale= for =wil- liam welby= dwelling at the signe of the _swanne in pauls church-yard_ . ] [illustration: the generall historie of virginia, new-england, and the summer isles: with the names of the adventurers, planters, and governours from their first beginning an: to this present . +with the procedings of those severall colonies and the accidents that befell them in all their journyes and discoveries.+ also the maps and descriptions of all those countryes, their commodities, people, government, customes, and religion yet knowne. _=divided into sixe bookes.=_ +by captaine iohn smith, sometymes governour in those countryes & admirall of+ new england. london. printed by i.d. and i.h. for +michael sparkes+. . thomas l. williams, photo ] [illustration: virginia impartially examined, and left to publick view, to be considered by all iudi- cious and honest men. under which title, is compre- hended the degrees from to , wherein lyes the rich and healthfull countries of _roanook_, the now plantations of _virginia_ and _mary-land_. looke not upon this =booke=, as those that are set out by private men, for private ends; for being read, you'l find, the publick good is the authors onely aime. for this piece is no other then the adventurers or planters faithfull steward, disposing the ad- venture for the best advantage, advising people of all degrees, from the highest master, to the meanest servant, how suddenly to raise their fortunes. peruse the table, and you shall finde the way plainely layd downe by =william bvllock=, gent. _ april, ._ _imprimatur_, hen: whaley. _london_: printed by _john hammond_, and are to be sold at his house over-against s. _andrews_ church in _holborne_. . ] [illustration: virginia: more especially the south part thereof, richly and truly valued: _viz._ the fertile _carolana_, and no lesse excellent isle of _roa- noak_, of latitude from . to . degr. relating the meanes of raysing infinite profits to the adventu- rers and planters. _the second edition, with addition of_ the discovery of silkworms. with their benefit. and implanting of mulberry trees. also the dressing of vines, for the rich trade of ma- king wines in virginia. _together with_ the making of the saw-mill, very usefull in _virginia_, for cutting of timber and clapbord to build with- all, and its conversion to many as profitable uses. by _e. w._ gent. _london_, printed by _t. h._ for _john stephenson_, at the signe of the sun below ludgate. . ] [illustration: publick good without private interest. or, a compendious _remonstrance_ of the present sad state and condition of the english colonie in virginea. with a modest =declaration= of the severall causes (so far as by the rules of right, reason, and religious obser- vation may be collected) why it hath not prospered better hitherto as also, a submissive suggestion of the most prudentiall probable wayes, and meanes, both divine and civill (that the inexpert remembrancer could for the present recall to minde) for its happyer improvement and advancement for the future. humbly presented to his highness the lord _protectour_, by a person zealously devoted, to the more effectual propagating of the gospel in that nation, and to the inlargement of the honour and benefit, both of the said colonie, and this whole nation, from whence they have been transplanted. _qui sibi solium se natum putat, secum solus semper vivat, hoc solum habent homines cum deo commune, aliu bene facere synes._ to do good, and to communicate, forget not: for with such sacrifices, god is well pleased, _heb._ . v. . _london_, printed for _henry marsh_, and are to be sold at the crown in s. _paul_'s church-yard. . ] =cooke, john e.= my lady pokahontas. a true relation of virginia. writ by anas todkill, puritan and pilgrim. boston, . p. [=davis, john=] captain smith and princess pocahontas, an indian tale. philadelphia, . p. ____ the first settlers of virginia, an historical novel. nd ed. n. y., . p. =freeman, mary e. w.= the heart's highway; a romance of virginia in the seventeenth-century. n. y., . p. =goodwin, mrs. maud (wilder).= the head of a hundred, being an account of certain passages in the life of humphrey huntoon, sometime an officer in the colony of virginia. boston, . p. ____ white aprons; a romance of bacon's rebellion, virginia, . boston, . p. =johnston, mary.= prisoners of hope; a tale of colonial virginia. boston, . p. ____ to have and to hold. boston, . p. =tucker, henry st. g.= hansford; a tale of bacon's rebellion. richmond, . p. primary works =collections= =andrews, charles m.=, ed. narratives of the insurrections, - . n. y., . p. =the aspinwall papers.= virginia [ - ]. mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . john harvey, a brief declaration of the state of virginia, , p. - ; thomas yong, voyage to virginia and delaware bay and river in , p. - ; virginias deploured condition, , p. - . =bemiss, samuel m.= the three charters of the virginia company of london and seven related documents. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =brigham, clarence s.=, ed. british royal proclamations relating to america, - . worcester, mass., . p. (am. antiq. soc. transactions, v. ) =brock, robert a.= documents, chiefly unpublished, relating to the huguenot emigration to virginia. richmond, . p. (va. hist. soc., collections, n.s., v. ) =brown university.= john carter brown library. three proclamations concerning the lottery for virginia, - . providence, r. i., . , p. contents: [ ] by his majesties councell for virginia, . [ ] a declaration for the certaine time of drawing the great standing lottery, . [ ] by the king [a proclamation], . =catterall, helen t.=, ed. judicial cases concerning american slavery and the negro. washington, - . v. (carnegie inst., publication no. ) v. : "cases from the courts of england, virginia, west virginia, and kentucky." =colonial records= of virginia. richmond, . p. contents: ) the first assembly of virginia, held july , . ) list of the livinge and the dead in virginia, feb. , . ) a briefe declaration of the plantation of virginia, during the first twelve years. ) a list of the number of men, women and children, inhabitants in the several counties within the collony of virginia, in . ) a letter from charles ii, acknowledging the receipt of a present of virginia silk, . .) a list of the parishes in virginia, . =copland, patrick.= letters of patrick copland [ , ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =donnan, elizabeth=, ed. documents illustrative of the history of the slave trade to america. washington, - . v. v. , " - ." v. , "southern colonies." =fitzhugh, william.= letters of william fitzhugh [ - ]. va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ). =fleet, beverley and l. o. duvall=, comps. virginia colonial abstracts, v. - ; ser. , v. -richmond, (?)-date. titles touching the seventeenth century follow: ____ acchawmacke, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ accomacke county, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ charles city county court orders, - . richmond [ - ] v. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. - ) ____ huntington library data, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ lancaster county [court records] - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ lancaster county, record book . - , pages - . richmond [n.d.] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ lower norfolk county, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ northumberland co. record of births, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ northumberland county records. - . richmond [ ?] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ northumbria collectanea, - . richmond [ - ] v. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. - ) ____ richmond county records, - . richmond [ - ] v. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. - ) ____ virginia company of london, - ; ed. by lindsay o. duvall. [n.p., ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, ser. , v. ) ____ westmoreland county, - . richmond [ ] p. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. ) ____ york county, - . richmond [ - ] v. (virginia colonial abstracts, v. - ) =force, peter=, comp. tracts and other papers, relating principally to the origin, settlement, and progress of the colonies in north america, from the discovery of the country to the year . washington, - . v. vol. , no. , [robert johnson] nova britannia, ; no. [robert johnson] the new life of virginea, ; no. , [thomas mathew] the beginning, progress, and conclusion of bacon's rebellion; no. , mrs. anne cotton, an account of our late troubles in virginia; no. , sir william berkeley, a list of those that have been executed for the late rebellion; no. , a narrative of the indian and civil wars in virginia. vol. , no. , extract from a manuscript collection of annals relative to virginia, ; no. , a description of the province of new albion, ; no. , a perfect description of virginia, ; no. , virginia and maryland, or, the lord baltamore's printed case, . vol. , no. , [virginia company of london] a true declaration of the estate of the colonie in virginia, ; no. , [william strachey, ed.] for the colony in virginea britannia. lawes divine, morall and martiall, &c., ; no. , virginia company of london, a declaration of the state of the colonie, ; no. , virginia company of london, orders and constitutions, - ; no. , nathaniel shrigley, a true relation of virginia and maryland, ; no. , [henry norwood] a voyage to virginia, ; no. , [edward williams] virginia, more especially the south part thereof, richly and truly valued, ; no. , john clayton, letter ... to the royal society, ; no. [samuel hartlib] the reformed virginian silk-worm, ; no. , john hammond, leah and rachel, or, the two fruitfull sisters virginia, and maryland; no. , [robert greene] virginia's cure, or, an advisive narrative concerning virginia, . vol. , no. - ; v. , no. - , - reprinted: american colonial tracts monthly, v. , no. - , v. , no. - , rochester, n. y., - . =great britain.= privy council. acts of the privy council of england, colonial series, v. , a.d. - . london, . p. ____ public record office. calendar of state papers, colonial series, america and west indies [ - ] london, - . v. =hakluyt, richard.= the principal navigations, voyages, traffiques, and discoveries of the english nation. ed. by edmund goldsmid. edinburgh, - . v. =hale, edward e.=, ed. original documents ... illustrating the history of sir walter raleigh's first american colony, and the colony at jamestown. am. antiq. soc., transactions, ( ), - . [archer] a relatyon of the discovery of our river [ ], p. - . =hall, clayton c.=, ed. narratives of early maryland, - . n. y., . p. "the lord baltemore's case, ," p. - ; "virginia and maryland, or the lord baltamore's printed case uncased and answered, ," p. - ; "leah and rachel," by john hammond, , p. - . =hayward, nicholas=, nicholas george, and joseph taylor. old letters from virginia county records [ - ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =hazard, ebenezer.= historical collections; consisting of state papers, and other authentic documents. philadelphia, - . v. "articles agreed on and concluded at james cittie in virginia [ ]," v. , p. - . "articles for the surrendering of virginia to the subjection of the parliament of the commonwealth of england [ ]," v. , p. - . "an act of indempnitie made att the surrender of the countrey [ ]," v. , p. - . [an act prohibiting trade with the barbados, antego, bermudas, and virginia, ] v. , p. - . =hening, william w.=, ed. the statutes at large; being a collection of all the laws of virginia ... [through the session of ]. richmond, - . v. indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =jensen, merrill=, ed. english historical documents; american colonial documents to . n. y., . p. (english historical documents, v. ) =kingsbury, susan m.=, ed. the records of the virginia company of london. washington, - . v. v. - , "the court book" [april , to june , ]; v. - , documents, - . =labaree, leonard w.=, ed. royal instructions to british colonial governors, - . n. y., . v. =letters of the= byrd family [to ]. va. mag., ( ), - , - . [=list of tracts= relating to virginia in the library of dorchester house, london, with a facsimile of a letter of captain john smith] mass. hist. soc., proceedings (ser. ), ( ), - . =the lower norfolk= county, virginia antiquary; ed. by edward w. james. baltimore, - . v. indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =lower norfolk= county records, - . va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =miscellaneous colonial= documents [ - ], from the originals in the virginia state archives. va. mag., ( ), - . contents: papers in regard to capt. thomas gardner [ - ]. proceedings of virginia council, aug. . order in regard to fort, . proceedings of a court martial, oct. , . =notes from the= records of stafford county, virginia, order books [ - ]. va. mag., ( ), - , - , - , - . =nugent, nell m.= cavaliers and pioneers; abstracts of virginia land patents and grants, - . vol. , - [all published] richmond, . p. =purchas, samuel.= purchas his pilgrimes. in five bookes. london, . v. reprinted as hakluytus posthumous, or purchas his pilgrimes. glasgow, . v. =randolph, edward.= edward randolph; including his letters and official papers from the new england, middle, and southern colonies in america. boston, - . v. (prince society publications, v. - , - ) =randolph manuscript=; virginia seventeenth-century records. va. mag., ( ), - , continued to ( ), - . =sackville, lionel c.=, st duke. lord sackville's papers respecting virginia, - . am. hist. rev., ( ), - , - . =smith, john.= capt. john smith, travels and works; ed. by edward arber. edinburgh, . v. [virginia company of london] instructions by way of advice, for the intended voyage to virginia [ ], v. , p. xxxiii-xxxvii. tindall, robert. robert tindall, gunner to prince henry. letter to the prince, june , v. , p. xxxviii-xxxix. [archer, gabriel] a relayton of the discovery ... may- june , v. , p. xl-lv. percy, george. observations gathered out of a discourse of the plantation of the southerne colonie in virginia, , v. , p. lvii-lxxiii. wingfield, edward m. a discourse of virginia, v. , p. lxxiv-xci. archer, gabriel. letter from james town, august , v. , p. xciv-xcvii. ratcliffe, john. letter to the earl of salisbury, october , v. , p. xcviii-xcix. spelman, henry. relation of virginea, v. , p. ci-cxiv. smith, john. a true relation [ ], v. , p. - . a map of virginia, , v. , p. - . a description of new england, , v. , p. - . the generall historie of virginia, , v. , p. - ; v. , p. - . the true travels, , v. , p. - . =some virginia= colonial records [ ?- ]. va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =stewart, robert a.= excerpts from the charles city county records ( - ). va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =stewart, mrs. victor w.= notes from surry county records of the seventeenth century. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =stock, leo f.=, ed. proceedings and debates of the british parliaments respecting north america. washington, - . v. (carnegie inst. of washington, publication no. ) v. : - . v. : - . =thurloe, john.= a collection of the state papers of john thurloe ... containing authentic memorials of the english affairs from the year , to the restoration of king charles ii. london, . v. =tyler, lyon g.=, ed. narratives of early virginia, - . n. y., . p. contents: observations by master george percy, . a true relation, by capt. john smith, . description of virginia and proceedings of the colonie by captain john smith, . the relation of the lord de-la-ware, . letter of don diego de molina, . letter of father pierre biard, . letter of john rolfe, . proceedings of the virginia assembly, . letter of john pory, . the generall historie of virginia by captain john smith, , the fourth booke. the virginia planters' answer to captain butler, . the tragical relation of the virginia assembly, . the discourse of the old company, . =tyler's quarterly= historical and genealogical magazine. richmond, - . v. v. - , indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =virginia.= calendar of virginia state papers and other manuscripts ... preserved in the capitol at richmond. richmond, - . v. v. , - . indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =virginia= (colony). council. council papers, - . va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . ____ executive journals of the council of colonial virginia. vol. (june , -june , ). richmond, . p. ____ legislative journals of the council of colonial virginia [ - ]. richmond, - . v. ____ minutes of the council and general court of colonial virginia, - , - . richmond, . p. =virginia= (colony) house of burgesses. journals, - / . richmond, . p. ____ journals, / - . richmond, . p. ____ journals, / - / . richmond, . p. =virginia company of= london. abstract of the proceedings of the company, - ; prepared by conway robinson, ed. by r. a. brock. richmond, - . v. (virginia hist. soc., collections, new ser., v. - ). =virginia historical register=, and literary companion; ed. by william maxwell. richmond, - . v. indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =virginia in = [to / ]. [abstracts from the english public record office and the mcdonald and dejarnette papers, virginia state library, by w. n. sainsbury.] va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =virginia magazine of= history and biography, v. -to date. richmond, -to date. v. - , indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =virginia papers=, - . [collected by john smith of nibley, one of the early colonizers of virginia.] n. y. public library, bulletin, ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =william and mary= college quarterly historical magazine; ed. by lyon g. tyler [ser. ] williamsburg, va., - . v. second series, ed. by e. g. swem, williamsburg, va., - . v. third series, ed. by r. l. morton, and others, williamsburg, va., -to date. ser. - , v. , indexed in e. g. swem, virginia historical index. =wright, irene a.=, ed. spanish policy toward virginia, - . am. hist. rev., ( ), - . =wyatt, sir francis.= documents of sir francis wyatt, governor, - . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =before = =canner, thomas.= a relation of the voyage made to virginia, in the _elizabeth_ of london, a barke of fiftie tunnes by captaine bartholomew gilbert, in the yeere . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =hariot, thomas.= a brief and true report of the new found land of virginia [ ; de bry ed., , with engravings of john white's drawings]. n. y., . p., l. reprinted: london, . p.; london, . p.; n. y., . l.; [monroe, n. c., n.d.] p.; ann arbor, mich., . p. =pring, martin.= scheeps-togt van martin pringe, gedaan in 't jaar . van bristol na 't noorder-gedeelte van virginien. leyden, . p. =percy, george.= observations gathered out of a discourse of the plantation of the southerne colonie in virginia by the english, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . reprinted: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. lvii-lxxiii; brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - ; tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =stoneman, john.= the voyage of m. henry challons, intended for the north plantation of virginia, , taken by the way, and ill used by the spaniards. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =virginia. charter.= part of the first patent granted by his maiestie for the plantation of virginia, aprill the tenth, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= instructions by way of advice, for the intended voyage to virginia [ ]. in: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. xxxiii-xxxvii. reprinted: neill, history of the london company of virginia, p. - . - [=archer, gabriel=] capt. newport's discoveries, virginia, may [ ]. a relatyon of the discovery of our river, from james forte into the maine. am. antiq. soc., trans., v. , ( ), p. - . includes "the description of the now-discovered river and country of virginia; with the liklyhood of ensuing ritches," p. - . "a brief description of the people," p. - . the "relatyon" itself is reprinted in john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. xl-lv. =tindall, robert.= robert tindall, gunner to prince henry. letter to the prince, june . in: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. xxxviii-xxxix. reprinted: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =virginia. council, .= coppie of a letter from virginia, dated d of june, . in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =ford, worthington c.= tyndall's map of virginia [ ]. mass. hist. soc., proc., ( ), - . includes facsimile reproduction. =smith, john.= the copy of a letter sent to the treasurer and councell of virginia, [ ?]. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ a true relation of such occurrences and accidents of noate as hath hapned in virginia since the first planting of that collony, which is now resident in the south part thereof, till the last returne from thence. london, . p. reprinted: boston, . p.; smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. - ; tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =wingfield, edward m.= a discourse of virginia [ ]; ed. with notes by charles deane. boston, . p. reprinted: am. antiq. soc., transactions, ( ), - ; john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. lxxiv-xci. [=archer, gabriel=] a letter of m. gabriel archar, touching the voyage of the fleet of ships, which arrived at virginia, without sir tho. gates, and sir george summers, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . reprinted: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. xciv-xcvii; brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =crashaw, william.= a sermon preached in london before the right honorable the lord la warre, lord governour and captaine generall of virginea, and others of his majesties counsell for that kingdome, and the rest of the adventurers in that plantation ... febr. , . london, . p. [=gray, robert=] a good speed to virginia. london, . p. reprinted: n. y., . p. [=johnson, robert=] nova britannia. offring most excellent fruites by planting in virginia. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p.; n. y., . p. =price, daniel.= sauls prohibition staide; or, the apprehension and examination of saule. and to the inditement of all that persecute christ with a reproofe of those that traduce the honourable plantation of virginia. london, . p. =ratcliffe, john.= captain john ratcliffe _alias_ sickelmore. letter to the earl of salisbury, october . in: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. xcviii-xcix. =symonds, william.= virginia. a sermon preached at white-chappel, in the presence of ... the adventurers and planters for virginia, . april. . london, . p. =spelman, henry.= relation of virginia, . london, . p. reprinted: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. ci-cxiv. =virginia company of london.= [advertising the enterprise under the new charter. london? ] broadside. in: brown, first republic, p. - . ____ instructions, orders and constitucions to sir thomas west, knight, lord la warr. [ ?] in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . ____ instruccions, orders and constitucions to sir thomas gates, knight, governor of virginia. . in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company of london, v. , p. - . ____ a letter from the councill and company of the honourable plantation in virginia to the lord mayor, alderman and companies of london [ ?]. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . - =argall, sir samuel.= the voiage from james towne to seeke the ile of bermuda, and missing the same, his putting over toward sagadahoc and cape cod, and so back againe to james towne, begun the nineteenth of june, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =de la warr, thomas west=, rd lord. lorde de la warr to the right honorable ... the earl of salisbury, . in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . [=jourdain, silvester=] a discovery of the barmudas, otherwise called the ile of divels; by sir thomas gates, sir george sommers, and captayne newport, with divers others. london, . in: force tracts, v. , no. , p. - . reprinted n. y., . p. =the proceedings of= the english colony in virginia, from the beginning of the plantation , till anno , somewhat abridged. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =rich= [=richard=] newes from virginia ( ). london, . p. reprinted: neill, early settlement of virginia and virginiola, p. - ; [boston, ] p. (americana series, photostat, no. ); [n. y., ] p. =strachey, william.= a true repertory of the wracke, and redemption of sir thomas gates, knight; upon, and from the ilands of the bermudas: his coming to virginia, and the estate of that colonie then, and after, under the government of the lord la warr, july , . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= by the counsell of virginea [notice that the ship _hercules_ is now preparing to make a supply to the colony of virginia] [london? ] broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. . ____ a publication by the counsell of virginea, touching the plantation there. london, . broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ a true and sincere declaration of the purpose and ends of the plantation begun in virginia. london, . p. reprinted: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ a true declaration of the estate of the colonie in virginia, with a confutation of such scandalous reports as have tended to the disgrace of so worthy an enterprise. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =virginia. council, .= letter of the governor and council of virginia to the virginia company of london. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =dale, sir thomas.= letter to lord salisbury, . in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ sir thomas dale to the president and counsell of the companie of adventurers and planters in virginia [ ]. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =de la warr, thomas west=, rd lord. the relation of the right honourable the lord de la warre. london, . p. reprinted: n. y. [ ?] p.; [london, ] p.; tyler, narratives of early virginia, - ; brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =depositions of= john clarke and others, at havana, . am. hist. rev., ( ), - . =virginia company of london.= by the counsell of virginea. [that a fleet of good ships would soon be ready to sail for virginia.] london, . broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. . =whitaker, alexander.= whitaker to crashaw ... . in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =experiences on journey= to america. accurate transcript from the booke of proceedings and accidents of the first permanent english settlement in america [ ] connecticut mag., ( ), - . reprinted: journal of am. hist., ( ), - . [=johnson, robert=] the new life of virginea: declaring the former successe and present estate of that plantation, being the second part of nova britannia. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p.; mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . =mccary, ben c.= captain john smith's map of virginia [ ]. williamsburg, . (jamestown th anniversary historical booklet, no. .) =percy, george.= "a trewe relacyon." virginia from - . tyler's quarterly, ( ), - . =the proceedings and accidents= of the english colony in virginia, extracted from the authors following, by william simons, doctour of divinitie [ ] in: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. - . =the proceedings of= the english colonie in virginia since their first beginning from england in the yeere of our lord , till this present , with all their accidents that befell them in their journies and discoveries. by w. s. oxford, . in: john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. - . reprinted: tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =smith, john.= the description of virginia by captaine john smith, inlarged out of his written notes. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . ____ a map of virginia. with a description of the countrey, the commodities, people, government and religion. oxford, , , p. reprinted: smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. - ; tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . contents: [vocabulary of indian words.] the description of virginia. the proceedings of the english colonie in virginia ... till this present . [=strachey, william=, ed.] for the colony in virginea britannia. lawes divine, morall and martiall. london, . , p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p.; photostat americana, ser. , no. , boston, . ____ the historie of travell into virginia britania ( ); ed. by louis b. wright and virginia freund. london, . xxxii, p. also ed. by r. h. major, london, . p. =argall, sir samuel.= a letter touching his voyage to virginia, and actions there, written to nicholas hawes, june, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . reprinted: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =dale, sir thomas.= sir thomas dale's letter to sir thomas smith, . extract in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . [=jourdain, silvester=] a plaine description of the barmudas, now called sommer ilands. with the manner of their discoverie anno . london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =virginia company of london.= a broadside [concerning the lottery] . in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ by his majesties councell for virginia [on the lottery to be held may , ] london, . broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - ; john carter brown library, three proclamations. =whitaker, alexander.= good newes from virginia. london, . , p. reprinted: [n. y., ] , p. ____ part of a tractate written at henrico in virginia, . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =dale, sir thomas.= a letter of sir thomas dale, and another of master whitakers, from james towne in virginia, june , . and a piece of a tractate, written by the said master whitakers from virginia the yeere before. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =hamor, ralph.= notes of virginia affaires in the government of sir thomas dale and of sir thomas gates till anno . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . ____ a true discourse of the present estate of virginia, and the successe of the affaires there till the of june, . together with a relation of the severall english townes and fortes, the assured hopes of that countrie and the peace concluded with the indians. the christening of powhatans daughter and her marriage with an english-man. london, . p. reprinted: albany, n. y., . p. =rolfe, john.= the coppie of the gentle-mans letters to sir thomas dale, that after married powhatans daughter, containing the reasons moving him thereunto [ ] in: tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =virginia company of london.= the reply of the virginia council, , in defense of argall. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . ____ a declaration for the certain time of drawing the great standing lottery. london, . broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - , - ; also in john carter brown library, three proclamations. =rolfe, john.= a true relation of the state of virginia lefte by sir thomas dale, knight, in may last, . from original manuscript in the library of henry c. taylor, esq. edited by j. c. wylie, f. l. berkeley, jr., and john m. jennings. new haven, conn., . p. printed earlier in southern literary messenger, ( ), - ; reprinted va., historical register, ( ), - . =smith, john.= captain john smith to queen anne [ ?] in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= a briefe declaration of the present state of things in virginia [ ] in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =rolfe, john.= letter of john rolfe [to edwin sandys, june], . va. mag., ( ), - . =virginia company of london.= by his majesties councell for virginia [relating the good condition of the colony at the return of sir thomas dale] [london? ] broadside. in: brown, genesis of the u. s., v. , p. - . =adventurers to virginia= [ ?]. in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= instructions to george yeardley, . in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =of the lottery=: sir thomas dales returne: the spaniards in virginia. of pocahontas and tomocomo: captaine yerdley and captaine argoll (both since knights) their government; the lord la-warrs death, and other occurrents till anno . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =pory, john.= letter of john pory, secretary of virginia, to sir dudley carleton. in: tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =virginia. assembly, .= a reporte of the manner of proceedings in the general assembly convened at james citty in virginia, july , . n. y., hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . reprinted: colonial records of virginia, p. - ; tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - ; kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= a note of the shipping, men, and provisions sent to virginia. london, . p. reprinted: brown, first republic, p. ; va. mag., ( ), - ; kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =yate, ferdinando.= yate's account of a voyage to virginia in . n. y. public library, bulletin, ( ), - . reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . - [=butler, nathaniel=] historye of the bermudaes or summer islands [ -?] ed. from a ms. in the sloane collection, british museum, by j. h. lefroy. london, . p. (hakluyt soc., works, no. ) [=bonoeil, john=] observations to be followed, for the making of fit roomes, to keepe silke-wormes in: as also, for the best manner of planting of mulberry trees, to feed them. london, . p. "a valuation of the commodities growing and to be had in virginia, rated as they are worth," p. - . =chester, anthony.= scheeps-togt van anthony chester, na virginia. gedaan in het jaar . leyden, . p. translation by c. e. bishop in w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =james i.= king of great britain. by the king [a proclamation discontinuing the lotteries for the benefit of the colony of virginia] london, . broadside. reprinted: brown univ., john carter brown library, three proclamations; kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =purchas, samuel.= the estate of the colony, a.d., . in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= a declaration of the state of the colonie and affaires in virginia. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . , p. kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . ____ a note of the shipping, men and provisions sent and provided for virginia [london? ]. in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . ____ orders and constitutions, partly collected out of his maiesties letters patents, and partly ordained upon mature deliberation by the treasuror, counceil and companie of virginia. anno and . in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. ____ treasuror, councell, and company for virginia. [on the condition of the colony.] [london, ] broadside. reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =greevous grones for= the poore. done by a well-willer, who wisheth, that the poore of england might be so provided for, as none should neede to go a begging within this realme. london, . p. =news from virginia= in letters sent thence , partly published by the company, partly transcribed from the originals with letters of his maiestie, and of the company, touching silke-workes. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =rolfe, john.= the will of john rolfe [jamestown, march, . edited] by jane carson. va. mag., ( ), - . =a true relation of a= sea fight between two great and well appointed spanish ships, or men of warre; and an english ship ... going for virginia [ ] in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . reprinted: brown, first republic, p. - . =the answers of= divers planters ... unto a paper intituled the unmasked face of our colony in virginia. . in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =the barbarous massacre= committed by the savages on the english planters, march the two and twentieth, , after the english accompt. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . [=bonoeil, john=] his maiesties gracious letter to the earle of south-hampton, treasurer, and to the councell and company of virginia heere; commanding the present setting up of silke-works, and planting of vines in virginia. london, . p. =brinsley, john.= a consolation for our grammar schooles: or, a faithfull and most comfortable incouragement, for laying of a sure foundation of all good learning in our schooles, and for prosperous building thereupon. more especially for all those of the inferiour sort, and all ruder countries and places; namely, for ireland, wales, virginia, with the sommer ilands. london [ ] p. reprinted: n. y., . p. =butler, nathaniel.= the unmasked face of our colony in virginia as it was in the winter of the yeare . in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =copland, patrick.= a declaration how the monies (viz. seventy pound eight shillings sixe pence) were disposed, which was gathered (by m. patrick copland, preacher in the royall james) at the cape of good hope, (towards the building of a free schoole in virginia) of the gentle men and marriners in the said ship ... london, , [ ] p. reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . ____ virginia's god be thanked; or, a sermon of thanksgiving for the happie successe of the affayres in virginia this last yeare. london, . p. =donne, john.= a sermon upon the viii. verse of the i chapter of the acts of the apostles. preach'd to the honourable company of the virginian plantation, novemb. . london, . p. =virginia company of london.= the inconveniences that have happened to some persons which have transported themselves from england to virginia. london, . broadside. in: brown, first republic, - . =waterhouse, edward.= a declaration of the state of the colony and affaires in virginia. london, . p. reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =an answere to= a declaracion of the present state of virginia, may, . in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =a forme of polisie= to plant and governe many families in virginia [ ]. am. hist. rev., ( ), - . reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =newton, arthur p.=, ed. a new plan to govern virginia, . am. hist. rev., ( ), - . =a note of provisions= necessarie for every planter or personall adventurer to virginia: and accidents since the massacre. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =purchas, samuel.= of virginia. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =notes taken from= letters which came from virginia [ ]. in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =smith, john ( - ).= the generall history of virginia, the somer iles, and new england, with the names of the adventurers and their adventures.... [a prospectus]. [n.p., ?] p. =the virginia planters'= answer to captain butler, . in: neill, virginia company of london, - . reprinted: kingsbury, records of the virginia company of london, v. , p. - ; tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =wyatt, sir francis.= letter of sir francis wyatt [ ?]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =good news from= virginia, sent from james his town by a gentleman in that country. london [ ?]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =harvey, john.= a brief declaration of the state of virginia, . mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . =james i.= king of great britain. a proclamation concerning tobacco [restraining importation of tobacco except from virginia and the somers islands] london, . p. reprinted: hazard, historical collections, v. , p. - . =quo warranto and= proceedings, by which the virginia company was dissolved [ - ]. in: kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - ; translation from latin, - . =argall, sir samuel.= briefe intelligence from virginia letters, a supplement of french-virginian occurants, and their supplantation by sir samuel argal, in right of the english plantation [in the year ]. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =virginia's verger:= or, a discourse shewing the benefits which may grow to this kingdome from american english plantations, and specially those of virginia and summer islands. in: purchas his pilgrimes, v. , p. - . =smith, john.= the generall historie of virginia, new-england, and the summer isles. london, . p. reissued , , , , . reprinted, richmond, . v.; london, , v.; glasgow, , v.; edinburgh, , v. =virginia.= assembly, . the tragical relation of the virginia assembly, . in: tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - . =charles i=, king of great britain. by the king: a proclamation for setling the plantation of virginia [ ]. with an intro. by thomas c. johnson. charlottesville, va., . p. =considerations touching= the new contract for tobacco, [london] . p. reproduced: americana series, no. (photostat). =james i.= king of great britain. a proclamation for the utter prohibiting the importation and use of all tobacco which is not the proper growth of the collonyes of virginia and the sommer islands, or one of them [ ]. in: hazard, historical collections, v. , p. - . =virginia company of london.= the discourse of the old company, . va. mag., ( ), - , - . reprinted: tyler, narratives of early virginia, p. - ; kingsbury, records of the virginia company, v. , p. - . =hulsius, levinus.= zwantzigste schifffahrt, oder grundliche ... beschreibung desz newen engellands ... der landtschafft virginia, und der insel barmuda. franckfurt, . von der landtschafft virginia, p. - . =smith, john.= the true travels, adventures and observations of captaine john smith, in europe, asia, africke, and america: beginning about the yeere , and continued to this present . london, . p. reprinted: richmond, . v.; in his: travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , - ; n. y., . p. - =charles i=, king of great britain. by the king; a proclamation concerning tobacco. london [ ]. broadside. reprinted: richmond, . =fleet, henry.= a brief journal of a voyage made in the bark "_warwick_" to virginia [ ]. in: neill, english colonization of america, p. - . =smith, john.= advertisements for the unexperienced planters of new-england, or any where; or, the path-way to experience to erect a plantation. london, . p. reprinted: mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - ; john smith, travels and works, ed. by arber, v. , p. - . =smith, john.= the last will and testament of captain john smith [ ]; with some additional memoranda relating to him [by charles deane]. cambridge, mass., . p. reprinted: mass. hist. soc., proceedings ( ), p. - . [=sandys, george=, trans.] ovid's metamorphosis englished, mythologiz'd, and represented in figures. oxford, . p. =yong, thomas.= voyage to virginia and delaware bay and river in . mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . [=goodborne, john=] a virginian minister's library, ; ed. by r. g. marsden. am. hist. rev., ( ), - . =somerby, h. g.= passengers for virginia, . new england hist. and gen. register, ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - , and ( ), - . =hiden, martha w.= accompts of the _tristram and jane_ [a ship arriving at virginia, ]. va. mag., ( ), - . - =extract from a= manuscript collection of annals relative to virginia [in ]. force tracts, v. , no. . p. =a servant in= england to his master in virginia [ ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =vries, david pietersz de.= voyages from holland to america, a.d. to , trans. from the dutch by henry c. murphy. n. y., . p. reprinted: n. y. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . =castell, william.= a short discoverie of the coasts and continent of america, from the equinoctiall northward, and of the adjacent isles. london, . p. =lewis, clifford=, ed. some recently discovered extracts from the lost minutes of the virginia council and general court, - . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =great britain.= two ordinances of the lords and commons assembled in parliament [ , ]. whereby robert earle of warwick is made governor in chief, and l. high admirall of all those islands and other plantations ... within the bounds, and upon the coasts of america. london, . [boston, ] p. (americana series photostat, no. ) =a description of the= province of new albion. and a direction for adventurers with small stock to get two for one, and good land freely: and for gentlemen, and all servants, labourers and artificers to live plentifully ... . force tracts, v. , no. . p. =bullock, william.= virginia impartially examined, and left to publick view, to be considered by all judicious and honest men. london, . p. [=norwood, henry=] a voyage to virginia [ ]. in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =a perfect description= of virginia: being, a full and true relation of the present state of the plantation.... also, a narration of the countrey, within a few dayes journey of virginia, west and by south. [london, ] mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. - =scisco, louis d.= exploration of in southern virginia. tyler's quar., ( ), - . =williams, edward.= virgo triumphans: or, virginia richly and truly valued; more especially the south part thereof: viz. the fertile carolana, and no lesse excellent isle of roanoak, of latitude from to degr. relating the meanes of raising infinite profits to the adventurers and planters. london, . , p. ____ virginia: more especially the south part thereof, richly and truly valued. nd ed. london, . p. first edition entitled: virgo triumphans; or, virginia richly and truly valued. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. ____ virginia's discovery of silke-wormes with their benefit. and the implanting of mulberry trees. also the dressing and keeping of vines, for the rich trade of making wines there. together with the making of the saw-mill, very usefull in virginia, for cutting of timber and clapbord, to build withall. london, . p. part of his virginia: more especially the south part thereof, richly and truly valued. =an act prohibiting= trade with the barbada's, virginia, bermudas and antego. london, . in: a collection of several acts of parliament, - , ed. by h. scobell, london, . reprinted: hazard, historical collections, v. , p. - . =an act of= indempnitie made att the surrender of the countrey [march , ]. in: jefferson, notes on virginia; ed. by peden, p. - . reprinted: hazard, historical collections, v. , p. - . =an act for= increase of shipping, and encouragement of the navigation of this nation. in: a collection of several acts of parliament, - , ed. by h. scobell, london, . reprinted: william macdonald, ed., select charters and other documents illustrative of american history, - , n. y., , p. - . =articles agreed on= & concluded at james cittie in virginia for the surrendering and settling of that plantation under the obedience & government of the common wealth of england by the commissioners of the councill of state ... & by the grand assembly ... of that countrey [ ]. in: jefferson, notes on virginia, ed. by peden, p. - . reprinted: hazard, historical collections, v. , p. - . =beschrijvinghe van virginia=, nieuw nederlandt, nieuw engelandt, en d'eylanden bermudes, berbados en s. christoffel. amsterdam, . p. [=bland, edward=, and others] the discovery of new brittaine. began august , anno. dom. ... from fort henry, at the head of appamattuck river in virginia, to the fals of blandina, first river in new brittaine. london, . p. reprinted: n. y., . p.; alvord and bidgood, the first explorations of the trans-allegheny region, p. - ; ann arbor, mich., . , p. =copy of a petition= from the governor and company of the summer islands, with annexed papers ... with a short collection of ... passages from the original to the dissolution of the virginia company, and a large description of virginia. london, . , p. =somers islands company.= copy of a petition from the governor and company of the sommer islands. with annexed papers ... and a large description of virginia, with the several commodities thereof. london, . p. [=wodenoth, arthur=] a short collection of the most remarkable passages from the originall to the dissolution of the virginia company. london, . p. =berkeley, sir william.= the speech of the hon. william berkeley ... to the burgesses in the grand assembly at james towne on the of march / . va. mag., ( ), - . [=hartlib, samuel=] glory be to god on high, peace on earth, good will amongst men. a rare and new discovery of a speedy way, and easie means, found out by a young lady in england, she having made full proofe thereof in may, anno , for the feeding of silk-worms in the woods, on the mulberry-tree-leaves in virginia. [london] . p. =withington, lothrop.= surrender of virginia to the parliamentary commissioners, march, / . va. mag., ( ), - . =the lord baltemore's= case, concerning the province of maryland. adjoyning to virginia in america. with full and clear answers to all material objections, touching his rights, jurisdiction, and proceedings there. london, . p. reprinted: hall, narratives of early maryland, - . [=hartlib, samuel=] the reformed virginian silk-worm, or, a rare and new discovery of a speedy way, and easie means, found out by a young lady in england, she having made full proof thereof in may, anno . london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =virginia and maryland.= or, the lord baltamore's printed case, uncased and answered. showing the illegality of his patent and usurpation of royal jurisdiction and dominion there. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p.; hall, narratives of early maryland, - . =hammond, john.= leah and rachel or, the two fruitfull sisters virginia, and maryland; their present condition, impartially stated and related. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p.; hall, narratives of early maryland, p. - . [=gatford, lionel=] publick good without private interest. or, a compendious remonstrance of the present sad state and condition of the english colonie in virginea. london, . [paris, ] , p. =gorges, ferdinando.= america painted to the life. the true history of the spaniards proceedings in the conquests of the indians ... an absolute narrative of the north parts of america, and of the discoveries and plantations of our english in virginia, new-england, and berbadoes. london, - . pts. in v. pt. "a briefe narration of the originall undertakings of the advancement of plantations into the parts of america," reprinted: j. p. baxter, ed., sir ferdinando gorges and his province of maine, v. , p. - . - =bland, john.= to the kings most excellent majesty; the humble remonstrance of john blande of london, merchant, on the behalf of the inhabitants and planters in virginia and mariland. [london? ?] [boston, ] p. (photostat americana, ser. , no. ) [=grave, john=] a song of sion. written by a citizen thereof, whose outward habitation is in virginia. [london, ] p. [=greene, robert=] virginia's cure: or, an advisive narrative concerning virginia. discovering the true ground of that churches unhappiness, and the only true remedy. london, . p. reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =virginia.= general assembly. the lawes of virginia now in force: collected out of the assembly records, and digested into one volume. revised and confirmed by the grand assembly held at james-city, by prorogation, the d of march, . london, . p. =berkeley, sir william.= a discourse and view of virginia. london, . [norwalk, conn., ] , p. =scarburgh, edmond.= document presented by c. c. harper, esq., from the committee on the library, enclosing col. edmond scarburgh's account of proceedings in an expedition from virginia to annamessecks and manokin, pursuant to an act of the grand assembly of virginia, in the year . annapolis, md., . p. =moray, alexander.= letters written from ware river in mockjack bay, virginia, feb. , . w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . [=ludwell, thomas=] a description of the government of virginia [ ]. va. mag., ( ), - . =attacks by the= dutch on the virginia fleet in hampton roads in . va. mag., ( ), - . =strange news from= virginia, being a true relation of a great tempest in virginia, by which many people lost their lives, great numbers of cattle destroyed, houses, and in many places whole plantations overturned, and whole woods torn up by the roots. london, . p. =shrigley, nathaniel.= a true relation of virginia and maryland; with the commodities therein. london, . in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =revel, james.= "the poor unhappy transported felon's sorrowful account of his fourtteen years transportation, at virginia, in america [ ?- ?]" reprinted, with introductory notes by john m. jennings. va. mag., ( ), - . - [=fallows, robert.=] the expedition of batts and fallam. john clayton's transcript of the journal of robert fallam. a journal from virginia, beyond the apailachian mountains, in sept. . sent to the royal society by mr. clayton, and read aug. , , before the said society. in: alvord and bidgood, the first explorations of the trans-allegheny region, p. - . reprinted: am. anthropologist (new ser.), ( ), - . ____ the journal & relation of a new discovery made behind the apuleian mountains to the west of virginia [ ]. in: documents relative to the col. hist. of the state of n. y., v. ( ), p. - . =ogilby, john.= america: being the latest, and most accurate description of the new world; containing the original of the inhabitants, and the remarkable voyages thither. london, . p. =lederer, john.= the discoveries of john lederer, in three several marches from virginia to the west of carolina ... from the original edition of . cincinnati, o., . p. reprinted: charleston, s. c., . p.; rochester, n. y., . p. =an account of= the advantage of virginia for building ships. communicated by an observing gentleman. royal society of london, philos. trans., apr. , , p. - . =phillips, philip l.= the rare map of virginia and maryland [ ] by augustine herrman. washington, . p. =the kid-napper trapan'd=: or, the treacherous husband caught in his own trap. being a pleasant and true relation of a man in this town that would have sold his wife to virginia. london, . p. =bacon, nathaniel.= proclamations of nathaniel bacon [ ]. va. mag., ( ), - . =bacon's rebellion= [accounts by william sherwood and philip ludwell]. va. mag., ( ), - . =berkeley, sir william.= a list of those that have been executed for the late rebellion in virginia. in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =cotton, mrs. anne.= an account of our late troubles in virginia. written in . in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =glover, thomas.= an account of virginia ... reprinted from the philosophical transactions of the royal society, june , . oxford, . p. =grantham, sir thomas.= an historical account of some memorable actions, particularly in virginia [ ]. london, . richmond, . p. =the history of= bacon's and ingram's rebellion in virginia, in and . mass. hist. soc., proceedings ( ), - . reprinted: cambridge, mass., . p.; andrews, narratives of the insurrections, p. - . [=mathew, thomas=] the beginning, progress, and conclusion of bacon's rebellion in virginia in the years and . in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. reprinted: andrews, narratives of the insurrections, p. - . =more news from= virginia; a further account of bacon's rebellion reproduced in facsimile with an intro. by thomas p. abernethy. charlottesville, va., . p. =a narrative of= the indian and civil wars in virginia, in the years and . in: force tracts, v. , no. . p. a corrected version published in with title: the history of bacon's and ingram's rebellion. =a true narrative= of the rise, progress, and cessation of the late rebellion in virginia, most humbly and impartially reported by his majestyes commissioners appointed to enquire into the affaires of the said colony [signed by john berry and francis moryson]. va. mag., ( ), - . reprinted: andrews, narratives of the insurrections, p. - . =virginias deploured condition=; or an impartiall narrative of the murders comitted by the indians there, and of the ... outrages of mr. nathaniell bacon, junr., . mass. hist. soc., collections (ser. ), ( ), - . =wertenbaker, thomas j.= (ed.) the virginia charter of . va. mag., ( ), - . =articles of peace= between the most serene and mighty prince charles ii ... and several indian kings and queens, &c. concluded the th day of may, . london, . p. reprinted: va. mag., ( ), - . =most excellent majesty.= . [a treaty between the colony of virginia and several indian tribes.] [boston, ] p. (photostat americana, ser. , no. ) =proposals in regard= to virginia [ ]. va. mag., ( ), - . =strange news from= virginia; being a full and true account of the life and death of nathanael bacon esquire, who was the only cause and original of all the late troubles in that country. with a full relation of all the accidents which have happened in the late war there between the christians and indians. london, . p. - =banister, john.= some observations concerning insects made in virginia, a.d. , with remarks on them by mr. james petiver. royal society of london, philos. trans., no. , march-april, , p. - . =godwin, morgan.= the negro's & indians advocate suing for their admission into the church: for a persuasive to the instructing and baptizing of the negro's and indians in our plantations.... to which is added, a brief account of religion in virginia. london, . p. =jones, lewis h.= some recently discovered data relating to capt roger jones who came to the colony of virginia with lord culpeper in , including several letters written by him while a captain in the british navy. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =the vain prodigal= life, and tragical penitent death of thomas hellier ... who for murdering his master, mistress and a maid, was executed according to law at westover in charles city, in the country of virginia. london, . p. =godwin, morgan.= a supplement to the negro's & indians advocate: or, some further considerations and proposals for the effectual and speedy carrying of the negro's christianity in our plantations ... london, . p. [=purvis, john=] a complete collection of all laws of virginia now in force. london [ ?] p. =byrd, william=, - . capt. byrd's letters [ - ]. va. hist. register, ( ), - , - ; ( ), - , - . ____ letters of william byrd, first [ ]. va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =godwin, morgan.= trade preferred before religion, and christ made to give place to mammon: represented in a sermon relating to the plantations. london, . p. [=durand=, ____ of dauphiné] a huguenot exile in virginia; or, voyages of a frenchman exiled for his religion [ ] ... introductions and notes by gilbert chinard. n. y., . p. portions printed earlier [richmond] . p. =clayton, john.= a letter ... to dr. grew, in answer to several queries relating to virginia, sent to him by that learned gentleman, . royal society of london, philos. trans., ( ), - . ____ john clayton [to dr. grew(?), april , ]. w & m quar. (ser. ), ( ), - . =custis, john= ( - ). letters of john custis, . colonial soc. mass. publications, ( ), - . =page, john.= a deed of gift to my dear son, captain matt. page, one of his majesty's justices for new kent county, in virginia. . philadelphia, . p. =clayton, john.= a letter ... to the royal society, may , , giving an account of several observables in virginia, and in his voyage thither, more particularly concerning the air. mr. clayton's second letter, containing his farther observations in virginia. a continuation of mr. john clayton's account of virginia. his letter to the royal society giving a farther account of the soil, and other observables of virginia. a continuation of mr. clayton's account of virginia. in: edmund halley, miscellanea curiosa, nd ed., london, , v. , p. - . reprinted: force tracts, v. , no. . p. =james ii.= king of great britain. septima pars patentium de anno regni regis jacobi secundi quarto, sept. , [ ]. [reaffirming the grant of the northern neck in virginia to lord culpeper.] [london? ] p. - =banister, john.= the extracts of four letters [from virginia, - ] to dr. lister, communicated by him to the publisher. royal society of london, philos. trans., no. , march , p. - . [=ludwell, philip=] an alphabeticall abridgment of the laws of virginia [prepared in ]. va. mag., ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =rudman, rev. andrew john.= diary of rev. andrew rudman, july , -june , ; ed. by luther anderson. german american annals, ( ), - ; continued to ( ), - . =an essay upon the= government of the english plantations on the continent of america ( ). an anonymous virginian's proposals for liberty under the british crown, with two memoranda by william byrd. ed. by louis b. wright. san marino, calif., . p. =virginia.= acts of assembly, passed in the colony of virginia, from , to . v. . london, . p. =byrd, william.= the writings of colonel william byrd of westover in virginia, esqr.; ed. by john s. bassett. n. y., . p. transcriber's notes this book contains th century text which may use different orthography from modern english. this book contains a number of illustrations reproducing the title pages of original pamphlets and books. for the plain text version, these have been transcribed "as is" within [illustration] tags. in the plain text version of this book, the following markup has been used: - italic surrounded by _ - small caps surrounded by = - decorative font surrounded by + - superscript text prefixed by ^ a number of printer's errors and inconsistencies have been corrected. research indicates that the copyright on this book was not renewed. a hundred and sixty books by washington authors some other writers who are contributors to periodical literature lines worth knowing by heart in paper thirty-five cents in cloth fifty cents printed for the compiler copyright by susan whitcomb hassell everett, wash. printers lowman & hanford co. seattle contents page a hundred and sixty books history - travel and description - scientific and technical - fiction - juvenile - poetry - unclassified prose - other writers - lines worth knowing by heart - index to writers - foreword our state literature is strongest in local lines. first in early history and narration of personal adventure. fortunately our most important histories are written by men who have long been residents. meany, lyman, durham, snowden and bagley have themselves been a part of the story and have learned much at first-hand. their pages have a flavor of personal interest which some histories lack. the adventures of today become the history of tomorrow. even the most commonplace narration of experience in a new country has its value. those original documents, whether diary, letters, memoir or autobiography are the delight of one who has the true historian's instinct. the mythology of the tribes that eighty years ago held possession of this territory is native romance, a literary asset which has been well developed. lyman has collected the myths and legends of the peoples on the columbia. williams tells those that cluster about mount rainier. meany, curtis and other historians have enlivened their text by these romances and miss judson has made the field her own. a second treasure supply of the state lies in its natural wonders and beauties. what other state can boast of charms so varied? no other country has scenery surpassing in grandeur our mountains and forests, or more beautiful than our inland sea with its emerald shores and islands. williams is not alone in exploiting this rich treasure. a score of others have found in it the source of mood for their songs or the frame for a story or romance. in philosophic essay and the higher forms of pure belles-lettres the proportion of writings is not so large as in the old literary centers. thought and time are still requisitioned for the founding of institutions. few are the leisure-class people who pursue writing as an art. yet one who cares to investigate will discover that no other state while so young has shown a richer output of literature, in content, in scope or in character. perhaps this first published list will add to the number of those who do care to investigate. perhaps too it will result in a wider acquaintance among those who are following the same undying art. some day washington writers will band together for mutual benefit. history = . blazing the way.= ( .) emily inez denny. pioneer home-life pictured by the daughter of the early settler who wrote no. . = . columbia river, its history, its myths, its scenery, its commerce.= ( .) william dennison lyman. fully descriptive and reciting personal adventures. professor lyman, long-time teacher of history in whitman college, has lived his whole life in the country he describes. the book contains many indian legends. eighty illustrations. = . the conquerors.= ( .) rev. a. atwood. dedicated to jason lee and the pioneer missionaries who laid the foundations of american institutions in old oregon. much about lee whose missionary labors antedated marcus whitman's by two years. to some extent it touches the so-called whitman controversy, a discussion due in part to the fact that the admirers of whitman claimed too much for a patriot whose services needed no exaggeration. it has the endorsement of the washington state historical society. = . glimpses in pioneer life on puget sound.= ( .) same author. a history of the methodist episcopal church on the pacific coast. = . david s. maynard and catherine t. maynard.= ( .) t. w. prosch. biography of two of the immigrants of . mrs. maynard is honored in seattle as the founder of a free reading room which grew into the young men's christian association of the city. = . gettysburg.= ( .) captain r. k. beecham. an account of the great battle. acknowledged to be most complete and accurate as to facts and it is written with the fire of a patriot and a poet. the veteran returns to visit the battle-field where as a youth half a century before he fought for the flag. through his eyes and memories the reader sees events. = . history of puget sound country.= ( .) colonel william farland prosser. the late president of the state historical society compiled this work in two large volumes, a painstaking and valuable reference work. = . history of seattle.= ( .) clarence b. bagley. three large volumes. very comprehensive. the third volume is wholly biographical. = . in the beginning.= ( .) same author. a sketch of events in western washington while it was still a part of old oregon. published separately, also in the edition of meeker's "pioneer reminiscences." = . history of the state of washington.= ( .) edmond s. meany. the most accurate and complete history of the state. in some measure it covers the whole pacific slope. it is intended for school use but will interest any one who likes to study or read history. the story is divided into discovery, exploration, occupation, territorial days and statehood, each treated clearly and fully. the author, professor of history in the university of washington, is a hero-worshipper and extolls the daring of the adventurer and the patience and courage of the pioneer. = . vancouver's discovery of puget sound.= ( .) same author. largely the journal of the discoverer with extensive notes, many portraits and biographies of the men whose names were given to geographic features of the northwest. a most important piece of historic research. a fitting supplement to this work is = . a new vancouver journal on the discovery of puget sound, by a member of the chatham's crew.= ( .) edited by professor meany. = . united states history for schools.= ( .) shows the development of america as part of world history. this has met with general approval as a text-book. = . history of washington, the rise and progress of an american state.= ( - .) clinton a. snowden. four elegant volumes in half-leather and rich in illustrations. two later volumes issued as supplements are wholly biographical. = . the iron way.= ( .) sarah pratt carr. the story of the building of the central pacific, the first transcontinental railway. = . the cost of empire.= same author. the record of the whitman massacre. it was made the basis of the opera "narcissa" of which mrs carr's daughter, mary carr moore, wrote the music. = . life of isaac ingalls stevens.= ( .) hazard stevens. the two volumes contain much information about the early indian wars, councils and treaties. they show the simplicity of official form during the life of the first governor of the territory. = . marcus whitman, pathfinder and patriot.= ( .) rev. myron eells. the author is son of rev. cushing eells, founder of whitman college and personal friend and co-worker with whitman. = . fathers eells, or the results of years of missionary labor in washington and oregon=, by the same author, is a biography of the father. = . memoirs of orange jacobs.= ( .) written by himself after a life of eighty years, fifty-six of them spent in oregon and washington. it contains a good account of the seattle fire of . = . pioneer days on puget sound.= ( and .) arthur a. denny. an interesting autobiography and valuable for its story of the founding of seattle. = . pioneer reminiscences of puget sound, the tragedy of leschi. ( .) ezra meeker. an account of the coming of the first whites, their encounters with the red race, the first treaties with the indians, the war that followed, and the cruise of the author on puget sound fifty years ago. one edition contains bagley's in the beginning. = . the ox team; or the old oregon trail.= ( .) the story of a slow and eventful journey by ox team from the middle west to this territory more than sixty years ago. mr. meeker and his oxen have been a conspicuous feature of several western expositions and are a picturesque relic of the fast-fading pioneer life. today, ezra meeker, eighty-four years old, is crossing the continent in a "schoonermobile," a motor car built on the lines of the old-time prairie schooner. it contains a bed, a stove and a hunting outfit. he is retracing the journey of the ox cart. = . russian expansion on the pacific, - , an account of the expeditions made by the russians along the pacific.= frank alfred golder. in january the author was sent to st. petersburg to catalogue the materials in the russian archives relating to america. the work was done for the carnegie institute, department of historical research. professor golder is one of the few american historians who are familiar with the russian language and his selection was complimentary to him and to the state college. = . the siwash, their life, legends and tales.= ( .) j. a. costello, an old resident of puget sound. the material was gathered chiefly from the indians themselves. this book contains a good description of chief seattle. out of print. = . spokane and the inland empire.= ( .) mr. n. w. durham. in three large volumes. = . syllabus of continental european history from fall of rome to .= ( .) oliver huntington richardson. = . tillicum tales of thurston county.= ( .) mrs. george blankenship. full of historical material of more than local value and interest. = . washington and its swedish population.= ( .) ernst teofil skarsteadt. the author has been a resident of the state fourteen years. as newspaper man and contributor to eastern journals he has well covered the life of his fellow-countrymen in this state. he has written on subjects sociological, historical, agricultural and biographical. = . our heroes of the pen.= mr. skarsteadt considers this his most valuable work. travel and description books on alaska would fill a long shelf. three are particularly entertaining and rich in description. = . alaska, an empire in the making.= ( .) john jasper underwood. written after fourteen years continuous residence in alaska and the yukon territory. the writer, a newspaper man, sees things from the impersonal viewpoint of the journalist with a keen appetite for news. for a time he ran the "farthest north" newspaper, which sold for "ivory, gold-dust and skins." these words are characteristic of his wide-sweeping vision: "here is a land of , miles of coastline and with , miles of navigable waterways." the united states bureau of education has put this on the list as a standard work on alaska. = . alaska, its meaning to the world, its resources, its opportunities.= ( .) charles r. tuttle. a good deal of space is given to the history of the government railway legislation. it lauds the energy of the seattle chamber of commerce which conducted a successful lobby in washington city during the anxious months while the alaska railway bill hung fire in congress. = . alaska, the great country.= ( .) ella higginson. this third book is by a lady whom many love to call "our foremost story-teller and sweetest singer." it is most personal, crowded with real adventures, some of them humorous, which the reader shares vividly. mrs. higginson says, "no one writer has ever described alaska. no one writer can ever describe it, but each must do his share according to the spell the country casts upon him." her description is bright and fascinating. she is now revising it and bringing it up to date for a new edition. = . american fur trade of the far west.= ( .) hiram martin chittenden. = . yellowstone national park, historical and descriptive.= same author. no. is a history of the pioneer trading posts and early fur companies of the missouri river and rocky mountains and of overland commerce. no. is the author's best known work. a fifth edition was published in . no man has had a better opportunity to know the yellowstone than gen. chittenden who was in charge of the government work there and no writer more evenly combines the scientific mind of the practical engineer with the charm of a poetic and artistic observer. to read this is next best to seeing the park. = . the city that made itself; a literary and pictorial record of the building of seattle.= ( .) welford beaton. printed in a choice leatherbound silk-lined finely illustrated edition of three hundred copies which readily found their way to the libraries of the well-to-do. the book tells of the hills that have been laid low, of the valleys that have been filled, the tide flats that have been redeemed, of the street car lines and electric development. one chapter on the "ladies library association" shows how women laid the foundation of the public library. another chapter describes the architecture of the metropolis "from log cabin to sky scraper." = . fifteen thousand miles by stage.= ( .) carrie adell strahorn. a woman's unique experience during thirty years of pathfinding and pioneering from the missouri river to the pacific and from alaska to mexico. an unusually interesting narration of the days when travel was beset with different if not more dangers than today. the book is put out attractively with illustrations. = . guardians of the columbia.= ( .) john h. williams. = . the mountain that was god.= ( .) same author. = . yosemite and the high sierras.= ( .) same author. they are books of rare value, occupying a field by themselves. they are full of fascinating word pictures of mountain scenes. the first is of mt. hood, mt. adams and mt. st. helens. the city librarian of a massachusetts city wrote to mr. williams "we have a radiopticon in our library. i shall mount the illustrations from your book and use the text for short talks on the mountains." no. pictures rainier which is called "rainier-tacoma." john muir wrote "the glorious mountain is indebted to you for your magnificent book and so is every mountaineer." this contains the "flora of the mountain slopes" by j. b. flett. the third book is dedicated to the sierra club with an introductory poem by robert service. = . the north american indian.= ( - .) edward s. curtis. it is doubtful if any book which has to do with our state has attracted to it so much notice as these ten volumes of indian lore illustrated by superb photographs taken by the author. he spent years in getting first hand acquaintance with some of the tribes and in securing the pictures which have made him famous. theodore roosevelt wrote the preface and j. pierpont morgan subscribed $ , as an advance guarantee. = . rambles in colonial byways.= ( .) rufus rockwell wilson. = . romance of feudal chateaux.= ( .) elizabeth williams champney. this is one of a delightful series written in part before the author was a resident of the state. the others are = . romance of french abbeys.= ( .) = . romance of italian villas.= ( .) = . romance of renaissance chateaux.= ( .) = . romance of bourbon chateaux.= ( .) = . romance of roman villas.= ( .) = . romance of imperial rome.= ( .) mrs. champney also wrote great grandmothers' girls in new france and three vassar girls. = . romance of old belgium, from caesar to kaiser.= ( .) elizabeth williams champney and frere champney. a choice story full of the romance of truth. the illustrations are from rubens' paintings, photographs and original pen and ink drawings. = . seven weeks in hawaii.= ( .) minnie leola crawford. = . seven weeks in the orient.= ( .) same author. vacation letters, written by a business girl who was enjoying her trip to the full, were sent to the mother at home. they were passed on to be read by friends who saw that there was more than a personal interest in them and insisted on their publication. a chicago publisher readily accepted them. another vacation trip led to the second volume. the style is sprightly and original and photographs of the author's own taking illustrate both books. = . seven years on the pacific slope.= ( .) mrs. hugh fraser and hugh c. fraser. the writers lived in okanogan county in a little village on the methow river near its junction with the columbia. they tell of ordinary events but give a clear picture of the development of that region from to . = . reminiscences of a diplomatist's wife.= ( .) either alone or in collaboration mrs. fraser has published ten volumes. scientific and technical = . birds of washington.= william leon dawson and john hooper bowles. two elegant volumes describing species. there are three hundred original halftone illustrations. an analytical key for identification, by lynds jones. = . digest of the decisions of the supreme court of washington.= arthur remington. two volumes and supplement. = . remington and ballinger's annotated codes and statutes of washington.= two volumes and supplement. ( .) = . remington's codes and statutes of washington.= ( .) two volumes. = . elementary flora of the northwest.= ( .) theodore christian frye and george b. rigg. = . encyclopaedia of practical horticulture.= ( .) granville lowther and william worthington. three large volumes. = . english literature from widsith to the death of chaucer. a source book.= ( .) allen rogers benham. it pictures the literary world in which englishmen lived from early times to the year and represents ten years' work by the author. = . essentials of character.= ( .) edward o. sisson. a practical study of education in moral character. = . flora of the state of washington.= ( .) charles v. piper. published by the smithsonian institution. based on study of plants of the state during a period of twenty years. the most complete and accurate outline of the flora of the state. = . flora of the northwest coast.= ( .) charles v. piper and rolla kent beattie. = . forests and reservoirs in relation to stream-flow.= hiram m. chittenden. = . law, legislative and municipal reference libraries.= john b. kaiser. an elaboration of lectures delivered before library classes in the university of illinois. valuable to the student of library work and to library investigators. = . memorabilia mathematica.= ( .) robert edouard moritz. it contains no mathematics at all but a remarkable collection of facts and sayings and incidents about mathematics and mathematicians. of its selections a surprising number are interesting and many are even humorous. = . multiple money standard.= ( .) j. allen smith. = . spirit of the american government.= ( .) same author. = . outlines of general chemistry.= ( .) horace g. byers. = . parliamentary procedure.= ( .) adele m. fielde. = . political primer for new york city and state.= ( .) same author. the first book, which had been used by many classes in parliamentary law, was reprinted in seattle in . chinese fairy stories has also been reprinted. miss fielde has issued more than , pieces of literature intended for the education of washington women. the most of them have been distributed without cost. her chosen subjects were social hygiene, temperance, and direct legislation. in earlier years she wrote on the life of the ant. = . practical treatise on sub-aqueous foundations.= ( .) charles evan fowler. = . principles of education.= ( .) frederick elmer bolton. = . refutation of the darwinian theory of the origin of mankind.= john c. stallcup. = . regulation.= ( .) w. g. barnard. a series of essays on political economy. an optimistic view of the difficulties of the economic situation, encouraging the student to believe that "there is a remedy for every evil." there are chapters on land, wages, interest, profits and money. fiction = . black bear.= ( .) william h. wright. = . grizzly bear.= ( .) same author. = . the bridge of the gods.= frederick balch. the writer grew up in klickitat county. when a boy he resolved to write about the indians of the columbia and began collecting material by haunting their camps for days at a time. a lady who has lived in the state sixty-four years says "it is the only story that tells accurately of the early life of those indians." = . chaperoning adrienne; through the yellowstone.= ( .) alice harriman. this lady has distinguished herself in several ways, first as poetess and contributor to magazines, then as book publisher. other books she wrote are stories of montana, men two counties, besides poems and one juvenile work. her house has a number of first class books to its credit. she brought out lafcadio hearne's temptations of st. anthony. she took special pride in bringing out books on western topics, as the narratives of the two dennys and the story which become the opera narcissa. = . club stories.= ( .) members of federated clubs. written in competition for a prize offered by the state federation of women's clubs. of twenty-two stories submitted the twelve receiving highest rank were published. the scene of each is laid in washington so they are full of local color and have a value apart from their literary merit. first prize was won by mrs. robert j. fisher. = . every child.= ( .) gertrude fulton tooker. the author had previously published a few poems but when she was busier than ever before in her life, caring for two children, she found time to write this pleasing allegory. it deserves a welcome by all people who remember the visions and dreams of child-life. = . forest orchid and other stories.= ( .) ella higginson. = . from the land of the snow pearls.= ( .) same author. = . mariella of out-west.= ( .) same author. these are the stories of one who is widely known as our first story writer. her name became known when she won, over a thousand competitors, a mcclure prize for five hundred dollars. that story was "the takin' in of old miss lane," . since then she has written scores of stories which have appeared in many different magazines. she has handled some types which are accepted in the far east as representative of the west and are not complimentary to the good taste and social polish of this longitude. but no author of the state has been ranked so high by the reviewers and critics. all her literary work has been done in this state. she shows constantly increasing strength. = . ginsey krieder.= sarah endicott ober, nom de plume, huldah herrick. = . little tommy, or ma'am duffy's lesson.= ( .) same author. = . stacy's room, or one year's building.= ( .) same author. = . happy valley.= ann shannon monroe. tells of homesteading experiences in the sage-brush country where the author lived the life of a settler. she first attracted attention by her story, making a business woman, which appeared in saturday evening post. it is said that she has a hand in the editorial columns of the ladies home journal. = . heart of the red firs.= ( .) ada woodruff anderson. = . strain of white.= ( .) same author. = . rim of the desert.= ( .) same author. the last of these three has scenes laid in alaska, on the sound, at scenic and in the wenatchee valley. the development of the desert by irrigation into the fertile fields and the productive orchard, the tragedy of homesickness and starvation in alaska, the fatal avalanche in the cascades in the winter of - at wellington, all are woven into the story. it includes also an attack on the roosevelt-pinchot conservation policy which reflects the sentiment somewhat widely held on the pacific coast. these features have helped to give the story a wide reading near home but it is a good seller the country over. very speedily it reached a fourth edition and in its first year sales reached fifty thousand. mrs. anderson is the daughter of a washington pioneer. those who know her tell us that her home-making and family-raising are as successful as her story-writing. some one said "she is good for several things and good at them all." = . the hired man.= florence roney weir. = . busher's girl.= same author. = . in hampton roads.= ( .) charles eugene banks. a novel of the civil war. = . child of the sun.= ( .) same author. = . man with a scar.= ella holly and jessie hoskins; noms de plume, warren and alice fones. a little story from the christian science viewpoint. = . mary of magdala.= ( .) harriette gunn roberson. a fascinating story of rome and alexandria and jerusalem. told with real dramatic power. mrs. roberson has for two years edited a page in one of the publications of the baptist church under the title, heart talks to girls on making the most of life. as speaker on the chautauqua platform she has made many friends through the northwest. = . preliminaries and other stories.= ( .) cornelia atwood pratt comer. = . the daughter of a stoic.= ( .) same author, before marriage. = . a daughter of martyrs.= ( .) same author. these are short story collections. mrs. corner has of late done a good deal of magazine work of a high order, her contributions usually appearing in the atlantic. once when asked for a biography she replied, "i really haven't any. i doubt if any one ever got along so comfortably with so little biography since the world began." of the town where she used to live she said, "it was a kind of a town which drives one into the inner world in search of excitement." when a publisher asked for a photograph she wrote "i have no photographs of myself except some very old ones in storage and no time to get any new ones." = . a rocky mountain sketch.= lou gertrude diven. it introduces some characters drawn beautifully and clearly as by a master of fiction, yet there is evidence that compels the reader to feel that it is a true narrative. many stories and essays by mrs. diven are in print. = . tillicum tales.= ( .) seattle writers' club. a collection of short stories contributed by members of the club. = . unrest, a story of the struggle for bread.= ( .) w. r. parr. a tale of industrial order, the subject treated from a socialistic standpoint. = . the woman who went to alaska.= mrs. mary l. kellogg. she has written several books on alaska under the nom de plume may kellogg sullivan. her home is near matanuska in southwestern alaska where she has spent seven seasons. juvenile = . billy tomorrow.= ( .) sarah pratt carr. = . billy tomorrow in camp.= ( .) same author. = . billy tomorrow stands the test.= same author. the scene of each of the series is laid in washington. = . fingers that see.= ( .) nancy buskett. dedicated to her blind friends all over the world. it is the story of a blind girl. one learns to love the child who asks, "can people who see, see 'round corners?" and says, "lovin' isn't just feelin'. its sometimes doin' things for people." the author was once musical director in a school for the blind. at another time she edited the cynthia grey department in four northwestern dailies. = . his tribute.= ( .) florence martin eastland. illustrates the value of good cheer. = . matt of the waterfront.= ( .) same author. a story of patriotism. both have a seattle setting. = . montana the land of shining mountains.= ( .) katherine berry judson. the early history of montana, intended for school children. = . early days in old oregon.= ( .) this, miss judson's latest book, contains much material from sources never before made accessible. = . mrs. spring fragrance.= ( .) edith m. eaton (sui sin far, nom de plume). chinese stories told in a charming way. = . redcoat and redskin.= alice harriman. a boy's story of the early days of the royal northwest mounted police of canada. = . the yankee doodle book.= ( .) gertrude d. best. (nom de plume gertrude optimus.) for very little people. when the author wanted to buy some christmas books for her little friends she did not find what she liked. she was not pleased with the idea of filling children's heads with nonsense rhymes, good only to be forgotten, and the crazy pictures of children's books were not all of them to her liking. like the president of a california university, she too made a book for little people. he did it by writing rhymes still more nonsensical and impossible. she did it by putting into jingle form some facts of united states history. the pictures are attractive and true to period. the rhymes are as catchy as simple simon and jack horner, but when a child has sung these over for a few weeks he knows for keeps some people and some happenings in american history. poetry = . blue grass ballads.= william lightfoot visscher. = . harp of the south.= same author. = . in childland straying.= ( .) carrie shaw rice. her most popular poems are where the rhododendrons grow, and the rare old, fair old state of washington, read before the state press association. = . lyrics of fir and foam.= alice rollit coe. = . quiet music.= ( .) charles eugene banks. = . where brooks go softly.= ( .) same author. mr. banks is more than "the poet." he is a polished writer of essays, and a discriminating critic of the drama and the stage. = . the silesian horseherd.= ( .) a translation by oscar augustus fechter from the german of max mueller. = . songs from puget sea.= ( .) herbert bashford. written while mr. bashford was state librarian. = . song of the city.= anna louise strong. = . storm songs.= same author. these volumes contain poems revealing a strong character and a finely trained mind. miss strong has written many other verses and many essays, among them on the eve of home rule and psychology and prayer. she has been director of child welfare exhibits in american cities and in dublin, ireland. at present, - , she is exhibit expert connected with the children's bureau, u. s. department of labor. = . songs o' the sound.= alice harriman. = . songs of the olympics.= same author. = . told in the garden.= ( .) alice lockhart hughes. lyrics by mrs. hughes have been set to music by mrs. h. h. a. beach, sans souci and de koven. = . voice of april land.= ella higginson. = . when the birds go north again.= same author. this contains the four-leaf clover, her best known poem, which has been set to music by several composers and sung the country over. unclassified prose = . among student friends.= ( .) martha e. libby. = . alaskaland, a curious contradiction.= ( .) mrs. isabel ambler gilman. now a practicing lawyer in alaska. a collection of prose and poetry some of which had appeared in northwest journal of education, westerner, post-intelligencer, alaska-yukon magazine and alaska papers. = . by order of the prophet, a tale of utah.= ( .) alfred hylas henry. = . the danger in the movement toward direct legislation.= same author. = . clean and strong.= rev. e. a. king. = . friendship.= margaret goodrich. = . life's common way.= same author. these are collections of well chosen sentiments. the first was re-published a few months ago. = . george dana boardman pepper.= ( .) a biography. frederick morgan padelford. the life of a new england college president. it is one of many works which have earned for professor padelford a high place in the list of authors of pure literature. = . samuel osborn, janitor, a sketch.= ( .) same author. = . early sixteenth century lyrics.= ( .) same author. = . greek essays on the study and use of poetry.= same author. = . translations from scaliger's poetics.= ( .) same author. = . old english musical terms.= ( .) same author. the atlantic monthly published the pedigree of pegasus; cornhill magazine, browning out west and did browning whistle or sing?; suwanee review published the simple life as shakespeare viewed it; and american journal of sociology the civic control of architecture. = . hawaiian idylls of love and death.= ( .) herbert h. gowen. eleven myths, beautifully told "in the hope that the sketches may show that touch of nature which makes the whole world kin, which obliterates the distinction between white and black, between east and west, between the man of yesterday and the man of today." dr. gowen is a thorough scholar and a literary artist. during twenty years' residence in the state he has written oriental history, theology, travel, biography, fiction, (chinese), and poetry. = . outline history of china.= ( .) covers the country from the earliest times to the recognition of the republic. = . the life of adele m. fielde=, in preparation by helen norton stevens. as a permanent memorial to miss fielde, four thousand copies will be placed in public and college libraries, women's headquarters, and educational centers for girls and young women. the remaining one thousand copies will be sold by subscription. = . the mark in europe and america.= dr. enoch a. bryan. = . myths and legends of the pacific northwest.= catherine berry judson. the author is first authority in this romantic field, at least as a collector. this book treats especially of the legends of washington and oregon. = . myths and legends of alaska.= ( .) same author. = . myths and legends of california and old southwest.= ( .) same author. = . myths and legends of the great plains.= ( .) same author. = . when forests are ablaze.= same author. is dedicated to the mountaineers, whose aim it is "to preserve the beauties of the pacific northwest and who are yearly appalled by the havoc of forest fires." = . the old home.= ( .) susan whitcomb hassell. memories of home and village life in the early years of iowa and of grinnell college. = . prophets of the soul: the pioneers of life.= ( .) dr. lester l. west. sermons, like editorials and addresses and quantities of other good literature, are not included in these outlines even when published in book form. here is an exception. one christmas some friends of dr. west brought out a volume of his sermons,--five of them--under this title. they are the work of a poetic mind, choice in literary finish and with a strong spiritual appeal. = . story of a mother-love.= ( .) annette fitch-brewer. this tells a remarkable experience. when mr. and mrs. brewer were divorced the court gave the custody of their one child to the father. the mother fought, not the divorce, but for a share at least in the care of her boy. while he was spending a few days with her she fled. for five years she evaded the father's efforts to trace them while he spent large sums in detective work posting photographs of the two all over the country as "fugitives from justice." finally the arm of the law reached her, living in a little village under an assumed name. the law took the boy from his mother and in her loneliness she wrote this book. it is the experience of a bright observer who wandered thousands of miles with all her senses on the alert. = . that something.= ( .) william witherspoon woodbridge. a progressive form of mental science put in a new and original style. the writer believes in himself. what is rarer, he is teaching other people to believe in themselves. the book has met with great results. the publisher reports sales to every state in the union but three and a larger sale than any book ever published west of chicago. = . skooting skyward.= ( .) an earlier book by the same writer met with moderate success, perhaps because of the atrocious josh billings spelling which should have been buried with its originator. = . war or peace.= ( .) hiram martin chittenden. a philosophical treatment of the theme. a splendidly optimistic, logical and sane chapter is on "the future hope." = . ye towne gossip.= ( .) kenneth c. beaton. a sparkling book, the first publication in book form by "k. c. b." he made a wide acquaintance by fourteen years of newspaper work in the state. then in the daily post-intelligencer developed this form which gave him fame. many readers turned first each morning to his column on the third page to see what "k. c. b." had to say. that little morning story was always an appeal to the heart, sometimes as a fountain of tears, sometimes as a wellspring of joy. a friend writes of him "he is a temperamental freak in that he is an emotional britisher and is not the least bit ashamed of his emotions." other writers throughout the state are men and women whose pens have brought them distinction though their names have not appeared on the back of a book. some are contributors, occasional or regular, to periodical literature. some are regular staff-writers. the three we name first are on the p.-i. tom dillon wrote for mother's day an exquisite prayer which was widely copied and was read into the congressional record of . full of fine feeling. joseph blethen has published many short stories and wrote the libretto for "the alaskan," an opera produced in new york city. jack bechdolt has had boys' adventure stories in the youth's companion, articles in technical world, popular mechanics and leslie's. from general editor of a sunday edition and author of feature stories in this state he has recently been called to become feature editor of the kansas city star. frederick ritchie bechdold has had articles in mcclure, american magazine and harpers weekly. bernice e. newell, a newspaper woman of many years experience, has written exquisite bits of prose and verse. the mountain, a poem first published in review of reviews was later bound constituting the first book published in tacoma. she was regular contributor to the northwest magazine and has been in sunset, woman's home companion and the kindergarten. bertha knatvold mallett has written for colliers and century. i. newton greene has done feature and special stories for harpers weekly, success, life, technical world, smart set, and pacific motor boat. human interest stories. editorials. r. p. wood has appeared in life and in the london daily mail. warren judson brier, who has done substantial literary work before coming to the west, recently had published in the national magazine the incarceration of ambrose broadhead, a strong appeal for needed reform. he has now in preparation an american literature designed for class-room use. adele m. ballard, of town crier staff, has won an enviable reputation as art and music critic and is often quoted by chicago and new york journals. writes short stories, verses and special articles which have appeared in the lady, (london), collier's and reedy's mirror. her poems, pierrot and the concert, are of high order. ruth dunbar, formerly on seattle times, has contributions in woman's home companion and vogue, and is now on the staff of every week, new york city. m. pelton white has contributed to over fifty publications, collier's and various magazines, women's and children's periodicals, farm journals and religious publications. an order for forty children's stories was recently finished. last year's sales numbered fifty-three. goldie funk robertson has been most successful in her articles on child problems and home economics. she is now on the staff of the mothers' magazine, and has made frequent contributions to woman's home companion, life, table talk, etude and modern priscilla, sometimes using the names jane wakefield and louise st. clair. sara byrne goodwin, in competition with hundreds of story writers, took a ladies home journal prize. rosalind larson won an american magazine prize. elizabeth young wead has contributed articles to lippincott's, the independent, and country gentleman. she has just ready for publication a lineage book of the van patten family. anna brabham osborne won a prize in the club stories contest. in ten years she has sold sixty-four short stories, seven serials, and nine feature articles. they appear in the youths' companion, overland magazine, new england magazine, american magazine, christian endeavor world and the various church publications for young people. harry l. dillaway, lover of birds and bears, has contributed to shield's magazine, recreation, and pacific sportsman. for a syndicate of papers he edited "bird-lore," creating an interest which culminated in a great bird-house building contest by children. pictures of this enterprise were shown in the ladies home journal of july, . harry j. miller's humorous verses easily find their way into many newspapers of the state. lines worth knowing: the evergreen pine the rivers to the ocean flow, the sunsets burn and flee; the stars come to the darkling sky, the violets to the lea; but i stay in one lone sweet place and dream of the blue sea. the harebell blooms and is away, the salmon spawns and dies; the oriole nests and is on the wing, calling her sweet good-bys.... but i, when blossom and fruit are gone, yearn, steadfast, to the skies. i am a prayer and a praise, a sermon and a song; my leaf-chords thrill at the wind's will to nocturnes deep and strong; or the sea's far lyric melodies echo and prolong. when april newly decks my form in silken green attire, i light my candles, tall and pale, with holy scarlet fire-- and straight their incense mounts to god, pure as a soul's desire. my branches poise upon the air, like soft and level wings; my trembling leaves the wind awakes to a harp of emerald strings-- or thro' the violet silences a golden vesper sings. i am a symbol and a sign.... thro' blue or rose or gray; thro' rain and dark; thro' storms of night; thro' opaline lights of day-- slowly and patiently up to god i make my beautiful way. --higginson. enshrined "my son" .... her tone was soft with wistfulness-- "would now be twenty-one ... if he had lived." a silence fell ... and thought sped swiftly back through years of fulness and content-- save for one gray thread of loneliness. for she had never parted company with him, who left her arms bereft of her man-child. "and so," again she spoke, "i watch the youths who grow apace with him in years, and all their winning traits i seize upon, invest my son with them, and love all youth the more because i too hold in my heart a vivid memory." again the silence fell ... i turned away-- for i had glimpsed the sanctuary of a mother's soul, in which a spirit was enshrined for all eternity. --adele m. ballard long hours we toiled up through the solemn wood, beneath moss-banners stretched from tree to tree; at last upon a barren hill we stood, and, lo, above loomed majesty. --herbert bashford night on the mountain thou hear'st the star songs clear, when all is silent here, and i, asleep. spheres, ringing music rare through upper realms of air, 'round thy crowned head, may dare their vigils keep. --bernice e. newell "great mountain, who once to a pagan race meant god, make us to realize our shame, that, failing to sing praises to thy wondrous form, we stoop to quarrel o'er a name." --anon. "the mountain-lover does not always gaze at rainier and olympus. he has learned that the foot-hills have a charm and an interest of their own. and they too point upward." --club stories up, my heart the dark, dark night is gone, the lark is on the wing, from black and barren fields he soars, eternal hope to sing. and shall i be less brave, than you sweet lyric thing? from deeps of failure and despair up, up, my heart, and sing. the dark, dark year is gone; the red blood of the spring will quicken nature's pulses soon, so up, my heart, and sing. --ella higginson that something a man's success depends alone on that something. that something of his soul. abraham lincoln found it and it warmed the cold floor on which he lay and studied. it added light to the flickering glow of the wood fire, that he might see to read. it spurred him on and on and on. that something is an awful force. it made of a puny corsican the ruler of the world. it made of a thin-chested bookkeeper the money king of his age. it made of edison the great man of a great country. it made carnegie. it made woodrow wilson. it made roosevelt. it can make you. and it is now in your soul. awake it now. "that something." "no, it can't be done, it can't be done," murmured the professor. "i have drunk deeply of the cup of life, and i am now drinking of the dregs. the cup is filled but once, and when it's gone there's nothing left but old age and poverty." "you fool," cried randolph, leaning forward and shaking the little man roughly. "you almost had that something within your power, and now you sing it back to sleep with your silly song of pessimism. it's the false philosophy, that such as you sing, which has kept men in the ruts of their own digging for centuries past. wake man, wake that something within your soul." --w. w. woodbridge the game "i win," cried death with a triumphant grin. "my body, yes, but not the soul within." --harriman my mother--a prayer for the body you gave me, the bone and the sinew, the heart and the brain that are yours, my mother, i thank you. i thank you for the light in my eyes, the blood in my veins, for my speech, for my life, for my being. all that i am is from you who bore me. for your smile in the morning and your kiss at night, my mother, i thank you. i thank you for the tears you shed over me, the songs that you sung to me, the prayers you said for me, for your vigils and ministerings. all that i am is by you who reared me. for the faith you had in me, the hope you had for me, for your trust and your pride, my mother, i thank you. i thank you for your praise and your chiding, for the justice you bred into me and the honor you made mine. all that i am you taught me. for the times that i hurt you, the times i had no smile for you, the caresses that i did not give you, my mother forgive me. for your lessons i did not learn, for your wishes i did not heed, for the counsels i did not obey, my mother, forgive me. forgive me my pride in my youth and my glory in my strength that forgot the holiness of your years and the veneration of your weakness,--for my neglect, for my selfishness, for all the great debts of your love that i have not paid, mother, sweet mother, forgive me. and may the peace and the joy that passeth all understanding be yours, my mother, forever and ever. amen. --tom dillon it is not too much to believe that a permanent organization can be formed which will take over to itself the whole business of the regulation of international affairs. --chittenden "why should we ridicule, think very droll, indian legends and carved totem pole, when we, in blindness are equally odd in misconception of life and of god?" --harriman a new leaf he came to my desk with a quivering lip,-- the lesson was done, "dear teacher, i want a new leaf," he said, "i have spoiled this one." i took the old leaf, stained and blotted, and gave him a new one, all unspotted, and into his sad eyes' smiled; "do better now, my child." i went to the throne with a quivering soul,-- the old year was done, "dear father, hast thou a new leaf for me? i have spoiled this one." he took the old leaf, stained and blotted, and gave me a new one all unspotted, and into my sad heart smiled, "do better, now, my child." --carrie shaw rice the toiler's fear there is one thing i fear. not death, nor sharp disease, nor loss of friends i hold most dear, nor pain nor want,--not these. but the life of which men say, "the world has given him bread, and what gives he to the world as pay for the loaf on which he fed?" --anna louise strong the only territory the united states has ever acquired by discovery, exploration and settlement; the only territory that cost us nothing in cash by way of purchase, or by the use of military, or naval force. --snowden don't worry don't hurry or worry; be still and keep cool, for hurry and worry but make you time's fool. don't b'lieve what they tell you 'bout time's flowing stream, 'tis eternity now, dear, all else is a dream. don't seek for a heaven in far distant skies. it lies all around you just open your eyes. henry victor morgan. toot, toot, toot, everything a-quiver toot, toot, toot, look up the north river. toot, toot, toot, something new afloat. toot, toot, toot, the first steamboat. yankee doodle book. "if we believe that people are mostly dishonest, ungenerous, selfish, gossiping, troublesome, we would better be looking at ourselves and trying to find out what is the matter with us." --lou g. diven "i venture to say that if there is one lesson written more plainly than any other across the pages of human history it is this, that god cannot be forgotten with impunity,--but for all that the popular tendency is to leave god out of account. i plead for the bringing of god back into touch with human life." --keator optigrams the good we can think of is always possible. to dole out a few turkeys at christmas is good; but to have a social order where every man can buy his own turkey is vastly better. real sympathy is motional as well as emotional; energetic, as well as pathetic, taking no pleasure in "tears, idle tears." some people seem to enjoy giving publicity to their disappointments. women understand men better than men understand women. the only personalities who hold permanently the devotion and admiration of humanity are the idealists. you can preach the gospel through a handshake, a glance, a laugh, a lifting word. what we don't know, never frightens us; it is what we half-know which is the fertile seed-plot of fear. golf is an artificial substitute for man's native need for work in the open air. what we really care for in people is not their social standing nor the fashionableness of their haberdashery, but their kindness, reliability and integrity. god has no stepchildren. naked, brutal force has never settled anything yet. stoning stephen to death only gave him a more distinguished immortality. we do not want "peace at any price." we want to pay justice, truth, trust and good will for it. --hugh elmer brown a little cloud of blue came out and settled on the sod. then one cried "oh, forget-me-nots." one bowed and murmured, "god." --higginson authors named in text place where part or all of literary work was done anderson, ada woodruff, seattle, atwood, rev. a., seattle, bagley, clarence b., seattle, , , balch, frederick h., ballard, adele m., seattle, , ballinger, richard a., seattle, banks, charles eugene, seattle, , barnard, w. g., seattle, bashford, herbert, tacoma, , beaton, kenneth c., seattle, beaton, welford, seattle, beattie, rolla kent, pullman, bechdolt, frederick ritchie, seattle, bechdolt, jack, seattle, beecham, r. k., everett, benham, allen rogers, seattle, best, gertrude d., everett, , blankenship, mrs. george, olympia, blethen, joseph, olympia, bolton, frederick elmer, olympia, bowles, john hooper, tacoma, brier, prof. warren judson, everett, brown, hugh elmer, seattle, bryan, dr. enoch a., pullman, buskett, nancy, seattle, byers, horace g., seattle, carr, sarah pratt, seattle, , champney, elizabeth williams, seattle, champney, frere, seattle, chittenden, general hiram martin, seattle, , , , club women of washington, coe, alice rollit, seattle, comer, cornelia atwood pratt, seattle, costello, j. a., crawford, minnie leola, tacoma, curtis, edward s., seattle, , dawson, william leon, seattle, denny, arthur a., seattle, denny, emily inez, seattle, dillaway, harry, everett, dillon, thomas j., seattle, , diven, lou gertrude, olympia, , dunbar, ruth, olympia, durham, n. w., spokane, , eastland, florence martin, seattle, eaton, edith m., seattle, eells, myron, twana, fechter, oscar augustus, north yakima, fielde, adele m., seattle, , fisher, mrs. robert j., seattle, fitch-brewer, annette, lake stevens, flett, e. b., longmire's, fones, warren and alice (noms de plume), fowler, charles evan, seattle, fraser, mrs. hugh, winthrop, fraser, hugh c., winthrop, frye, theodore christian, seattle, gilman, isabel ambler, olympia, golder, frank alfred, pullman, goodrich, margaret, seattle, goodwin, sara byrne, seattle, gowen, herbert h., seattle, greene, i. newton, everett, harriman, alice, seattle, , , , , hassell, susan whitcomb, everett, henry, alfred hylas, north yakima, herrick, huldah (nom de plume), higginson, ella, bellingham, , , , , , holly, ella, spokane, hoskins, jessie, spokane, hughes, alice lockhart, seattle, jacobs, orange, seattle, judson, katharine berry, seattle, , , , kaiser, john b., tacoma, keator, rt. rev. f. w., tacoma, kellogg, mary l., seattle, king, rev. e. a., north yakima, knatvold, bertha (mallett), tacoma, larson, rose, north yakima, libby, martha e., spokane, lowther, granville, north yakima, lyman, william dennison, walla walla, , mallett, bertha knatvold, tacoma, meany, edmond s., seattle, , meeker, ezra, puyallup, , miller, harry j., everett, monroe, ann shannon, tacoma, morgan, henry victor, tacoma, moritz, robert edouard, seattle, newell, bernice e., tacoma, , ober, sarah endicott, optimus, gertrude (nom de plume), osborne, anna brakham, puyallup, padelford, frederick morgan, seattle, , parr, w. r., granite falls, piper, charles v., pullman, , prosch, t. w., seattle, prosser, colonel william farland, seattle, remington, arthur, olympia, rice, carrie shaw, tacoma, , richardson, oliver huntington, seattle, rigg, george b., seattle, roberson, harriett gunn, spokane, robertson, mrs. goldie funk, olympia, seattle writers' club, sisson, edward o., seattle, skarsteadt, ernst teofil, east sound, smith, j. allen, seattle, snowden, clinton a., tacoma, , , stallcup, john c., tacoma, stevens, hazard, stevens, helen norton, seattle, strahorn, carrie adell, spokane, strong, anna louise, seattle, , sui sin far (nom de plume), sullivan, may kellogg (nom de plume), tooker, gertrude fulton, seattle, tuttle, charles r., seattle, underwood, john jasper, seattle, visscher, william lightfoot, tacoma, washington state federation of women's clubs, wead, elizabeth young, orting, weir, florence roney, seattle, west, dr. lester l., everett, white, m. pelton, seattle, williams, john h., tacoma, , wilson, rufus rockwell, seattle, wood, r. p., everett, woodbridge, william witherspoon, tacoma, , worthington, william, north yakima, wright, william h., spokane, writers' club of seattle, transcriber's notes: text in bold is surrounded with equals signs: =bold=. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. project gutenberg (this file was produced from images generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) the kingdom of georgia notes of travel in a land of women, wine, and song to which are appended historical, literary, and political sketches, specimens of the national music, and a compendious bibliography by oliver wardrop with illustrations and maps london sampson low, marston, searle, & rivington limited st. dunstan's house, fetter lane, fleet street, e.c. to professor james bryce, m.p., these notes are dedicated (by permission), with heartfelt gratitude and profound respect. preface. there were four of us--two frenchmen, an italian, and an englishman. we had ridden from damascus to baalbek, and had seen the ruins; after dinner, we were lying on heaps of cushions on the floor, in a hostelry little known to europeans. for some minutes the bubbling of our narghilés was the only sound that broke the stillness of the night. then the ex-cuirassier spoke out in a strong voice--the voice of a man accustomed to command--"gentlemen! i propose that we solemnly pass a vote of censure on the late m. de lamartine." "bravo!" was our unanimous cry; and the vote was carried, nemine contradicente. a rider was added, to the effect that poets should be discouraged from writing books of travel. "surely a strange proceeding!" says the reader. let me explain. we had been shut up in damascus for a long time by heavy snow-storms which blocked the roads; the most interesting book we had was lamartine's "voyage en orient," and we had read the long description of baalbek over and over again, until we almost knew it by heart. need i say that the reality disappointed us? if we had never read lamartine's book, we should have been delighted with the place; but having read it, we wanted the poet's eyes in order to see the temples as he saw them. but what has all this to do with georgia? simply this: the following pages are not written by a poet, and, gentle sir, if you ever pass a vote of censure on the writer of them, it will not be for the reason that he has painted things and places in a rose-coloured atmosphere. in publishing these notes i have had but one object--to excite the curiosity of my fellow-countrymen; the means of gratifying this curiosity are indicated in the bibliographical section. georgia is practically unknown to the british public; well-educated people know that the country is famous for its beautiful women, but they are not very sure whether those charming creatures live under persian, turkish, or russian rule, while not one person in a thousand knows that the georgians and circassians are distinct peoples. if you suggest that transcaucasia is a good place for a holiday, you meet with a look of blank astonishment--it is just as if you had said the sooloo islands, or vladivostok. when you explain that georgia is now a part of the russian empire, you hear stereotyped remarks about police and passports. the intending visitor need have no anxiety on this score; even in moscow a foreigner is seldom or never put to any inconvenience, in the caucasus he almost forgets that he has such a thing as a passport. there is no reason why georgia should not become as popular a resort as norway or switzerland. it is not so far away as people imagine--you can go from london to tiflis, overland, in a week; it is at least as beautiful as either of the countries just named; it has the great advantage of being almost unknown to tourists; there is none of the impudent extortion which ruffles our tempers nearer home, and it is, after all, a cheaper place to travel in than scotland. all these circumstances ought to have an influence on the holiday-maker in search of health and recreation. the botanist, the geologist, the archæologist, the philologist will all find there mines of rich materials yet unknown to their respective sciences. the mountaineer knows the country already, through mr. freshfield's excellent book; the sportsman knows it too, thanks to mr. wolley. artists will get there a new field for the brush, the pencil, and the camera. but, after all, georgia's chief attraction lies in its people; the georgians are not only fair to look upon, but they are essentially a lovable people; it is a true proverb that says, "the armenian's soul is in his head, the georgian's in his eyes;" to live among such gay, open-hearted, open-handed, honest, innocent folk is the best cure for melancholy and misanthropy that could well be imagined. the language will occur to most people as a difficulty. either russian or georgian carries the traveller from the black sea to the caspian, even turkish is pretty well known; in the larger towns one can always find hotels where french or german is understood, and where interpreters can be hired. those who have travelled know that a very slight knowledge of a language is sufficient for all practical purposes, and such a knowledge of georgian could be picked up in a week or so; russian is more difficult, both in grammar and pronunciation. it may be a consolation to some, to know that a lady, mme. carla serena, who travelled alone, and spent a long time in the wildest part of the caucasus, could not speak a dozen words of russian or georgian. let me clearly repeat what i said in the first paragraphs of this preface: in the following plain, matter-of-fact record of travel my aim has not been to give immediate pleasure, but rather to show how and where pleasure may be obtained. autumn is the best season for a visit, and spring is the next best time. my hearty thanks are due to mr. w. r. morfill, for his kindness in reading through the chapters on the history and literature of georgia. o. w. oxford, september, . note. in transcribing proper names i have tried to preserve the original orthography as far as possible. a should be pronounced as in father. e should be pronounced like a in made. i should be pronounced as in machine. u should be pronounced as in rude. ch should be pronounced as in church. kh should be pronounced like ch in scottish and german. s should be pronounced as in sun. z should be pronounced as in amaze. g should be pronounced as in gun. y should be pronounced as in yellow contents. page batum to tiflis tiflis the georgian military road between tiflis and vladikavkaz the kakhetian road--tiflis to signakh signakh a trip across the alazana signakh to telav, and thence to tiflis the history of georgia the language and literature of georgia the political condition of the kingdom of georgia appendix. bibliography statistics specimens of georgian vocal music list of illustrations. a few illustrations and the map at the end of the volume are not available in the scan-set used to prepare this ebook. several other illustrations still contain the perforated library markings. tiflis frontispiece maps of transcaucasian railway and military road to face page a georgian wrestler saint nina ananur dariel fort and ruins of tamara's castle dariel vladikavkaz an arba a street in signakh georgian national costume the city wall, telav queen tamara irakli ii rustaveli prince ilia chavchavadze prince ivané machabeli bishop gabriel of kutaïs map of georgia at the end. the kingdom of georgia. batum to tiflis. one morning in april, , after a five days' passage from odessa, we entered the harbour at batum. batum (hôtel imperial, hôtel de france, hôtel d'europe) is a town of , inhabitants, mostly georgians; it consists of an ancient asiatic quarter, dirty and tumble-down looking, and a european one only seven years old. its situation at the foot of the mountains is lovely beyond all description. the place has a decidedly "far west" look about it, everything seems half-finished; the streets are broad and, with a few exceptions, unpaved, the depth of the mud varies from three or four inches to half a yard, heaps of rotting filth furnish food for numerous pigs, and in the best thoroughfares ducks find convenient lakes on which to disport themselves. i took an early opportunity of presenting myself at the british vice-consulate, a small, two-storey cottage, the lower half of which is of brick, the upper of corrugated iron sheets. mr. demetrius r. peacock, the only representative of british interests in the caucasus, is a man whose services deserve fuller recognition. it would be hard to find a post where more diplomatic tact is required, yet he contrives to make himself respected and admired by all the many races with which he is in daily contact. mr. peacock was born in russia, and has spent most of his life in that empire, but he is nevertheless a thorough englishman. in tiflis i heard a good story about him. on one occasion the french consul-general jokingly said to him, "why, peacock, you are no englishman, you were born in russia." to which our representative replied, "our saviour was born in a stable, but for all that he did not turn out a horse." although batum is not very attractive as a town, it is at any rate far preferable to poti or sukhum, and it has undoubtedly a splendid future before it. even at the present time the exports amount to nearly , tons, chiefly petroleum, manganese ores, wool, cotton, maize, tobacco, wine, fancy woods, &c. it is essentially a city of the future; and its inhabitants firmly believe that it will yet be a powerful rival of odessa in trade, and of the crimean coast-towns as a watering-place. at present we should hardly recommend it to invalids; the marshes round about are gradually being drained; but they still produce enough malaria to make the place dangerous to europeans; the drinking-water, too, is bad. the harbour is fairly well sheltered, but rather small; yet, to the unprofessional eye, there seems no reason why it might not easily be enlarged if necessary. the entrance is protected by a fortification in the form of an irregular rectangle, lying on the s.w. corner of the bay, behind the lighthouse. the earthworks, about seventy or eighty feet high, and lined with masonry, cover a piece of ground apparently about paces long by paces broad; a broad-gauge railway surrounds the fortress. when i was there the work was being pushed forward very rapidly, and preparations were being made to fix a heavy gun close to the lighthouse--at that time there were only about a dozen guns of small calibre in position. in the town there is absolutely nothing to attract the stranger's attention; a few mosques and churches, petroleum refineries, half a dozen european shops, some half-finished public buildings, and the embryo of a public garden on the shore serve as an excuse for a walk; but if the traveller happens to hit upon a spell of wet weather, he will soon have seen all he wants to see of batum, and will get out of its atmosphere of marsh gas and petroleum as soon as possible. the only daily train leaves at eight o'clock in the morning; the station, although it is a terminus of so much importance, is a wretched wooden building, a striking contrast to the one at baku, which would not disgrace our own metropolis. the railway skirts the sea for about thirty miles, and on the right lies a range of hills covered with a luxuriant growth of fine forest-trees and thick undergrowth gay with blossoms; in the neighbourhood of the town there are already many pretty villas. the rain of the previous few weeks had made the woods wonderfully beautiful, and the moist air was heavy with fragrance; i never saw such a wealth of plant life before. at samtredi, where the lines from batum and poti meet, we leave guri and mingreli behind us and enter imereti. on the left we now have a fine broad plain, and near us flows the rion, the ancient phasis. the country is far more thickly populated than guri or mingreli, or any other part of trans-caucasia, but it could easily support a much larger number if the ground were properly worked. i was amazed when i saw, for the first time, five pairs of oxen dragging one wooden plough, but the sight of this became familiar to me before i had lived long in georgia. at the roadside stations (i need hardly say that our train stopped at all of them) i saw some fine faces--one poor fellow in a ragged sheepskin cloak quite startled me by his resemblance to dante alighieri. from the station of rion, on the river of that name, a branch line runs northward to kutaïs, none other than the cyta in colchis whence jason carried off medea and the golden fleece. kutaïs (hôtel de france, hôtel colchide, hôtel d'italie) is a beautiful town of , inhabitants, almost all georgians. the ruins of an old castle on the other side of the river show where the town stood a century ago, and from this point the best view of kutaïs is obtained. abundance of good building-stone, a rich soil, and plenty of trees, render the capital of imereti a charming sight; its elevation of about feet makes its atmosphere cool and bracing compared with that of the coast-towns. the traveller who wishes to become acquainted with georgian town-life cannot do better than stay in kutaïs a month or two. about five miles off is the monastery of gelati, built in the tenth century, and renowned as the burial-place of the glorious queen tamara. from kutaïs a journey may be made to svaneti, the last caucasian state conquered by russia, and even now only nominally a part of the tsar's dominions; mr. wolley's book, "savage svanetia," will give the intending visitor some idea of the sport that may be had in that wild region. the road across the caucasus from kutaïs to vladikavkaz is much higher and wilder than the famous dariel road, and i much regret that i had not time to travel by it. pursuing our journey from rion to the eastward we soon reach kvirili, which is about to be connected by a branch line of railway with chiaturi, the centre of the manganese district; at present all the ore is carried down to the main line, a distance of twenty-five miles, in the wooden carts called arbas. passing through glens of wondrous beauty, adorned with picturesque ruins of ancient strongholds, we at length arrive at the mountain of suram, feet above black sea level, the watershed which separates the valley of the kura, with its hot summers and cold winters, from the more temperate region drained by the rion. the railway climbs very rapidly to the summit of the pass, but it comes down still more rapidly; there is a slope of one in twenty for a distance of a thousand feet; at the bottom is the town of suram with its fine old castle. we now follow the course of the kura all the way to tiflis, passing mikhailovo (whence a road runs to borzhom, the most fashionable summer-resort in trans-caucasia) and gori, a good-sized town, near which is the rock city of uphlis tsikhe. it is half past nine at night before mtzkhet, the ancient capital of georgia, is reached, and at a quarter past ten we enter tiflis, ten hours from kutaïs, and fourteen hours from batum. our journey is not yet ended, however, for it takes half an hour to drive from the station to the fashionable quarter of the town where the hotels are situated. tiflis. the best hotels are kavkaz, rossiya, london; all pretty good. if the traveller intends to make a prolonged stay, he can easily find furnished apartments and dine at a restaurant (e.g. the french restaurant d'europe, opposite the palace). the best plan of all is to board with a georgian family; but without good introductions it is somewhat difficult to do this. although beef only costs - / d. a pound and chickens d. each, living is dear in tiflis; the necessaries of life, except house-rent and clothing, are cheap, and one need not, like alexandre dumas, pay three roubles for having his hair cut, but the "extras" are heavy, and if the visitor is not disposed to spend his roubles with a free hand and a light heart, he will meet with a poor reception, for the georgian hates nothing more than meanness, a vice from which he firmly believes englishmen to be free. tiflis takes its name from the hot medicinal springs, for which it has been famous for fourteen centuries at least; in georgian it is called tphilisi, which philologists assert to be derived from a root akin to or identical with the indo-european tep; the meaning of toeplitz and tiflis is thus the same. in the fifth century king vakhtang gurgaslan founded tiflis, and began to build the cathedral of sion, which still stands in the midst of the city. the castle, situated on a high, steep rock, near the kura, is older than the city itself, and its construction is attributed to the persians. tiflis has shared in all the triumphs and misfortunes which have befallen georgia, and the history of the capital would only be a repetition of the history of the nation. the city is built on both sides of the kura, at an elevation of feet, between two ranges of steep, bare hills, which rise to a height of feet, and hem it in on all sides, thus it lies at the bottom of a deep rock basin, and this accounts for the terrible heat which renders it such an unpleasant dwelling-place in july and august. the river kura is crossed by several fine bridges, the best of which is named after prince vorontsov, who during his governorship did great things for trans-caucasia, and gained for himself the lasting gratitude of all the peoples committed to his care. the population of , consists not only of georgians, but of russians (civil servants and soldiers), armenians (traders and money-lenders), persians, tatars, and a few europeans, viz. germans (colonists from suabia), frenchmen (milliners, hotel-keepers), &c. although the english residents might be counted on one's fingers, it seems a pity that her majesty's consulate should have been closed in ; surely great britain has in georgia interests at least equal to those of france, germany, belgium, and the other nations which have representatives in tiflis. the effect which tiflis produces on the mind of the stranger is perfectly unique; its position, its surroundings, the varied nature of its street-life, the gaiety and simplicity of its social life, all combine to form a most powerful and most pleasurable impression. if the reader will mentally accompany me, i shall take him through some of the more interesting quarters, and endeavour to give him some idea of the place. first of all, starting from the fashionable district called salalaki, let us climb the rocky road which leads to the ruins of the castle, whence we obtain the finest view of the city. the best time to enjoy the panorama is evening, and in summer no one would ever think of making the toilsome ascent much before sunset. from these crumbling walls one looks over a vast expanse of house-tops and church spires, through the midst of which winds the muddy kura. at our feet lies the old town, a labyrinth of narrow, crooked streets, stretching from the square of erivan down to the waterside, where stands the cathedral of sion. quite near at hand the river becomes very narrow, and advantage of this circumstance has been taken by building a bridge, which leads to the citadel of metekh (now used as a prison) and the large asiatic quarter called avlabar. on this side of the river, forming a continuation of the range of hills on which we are standing, rises the holy mount (mtatsminda), and perched high up near its summit is the pretty white church of st. david, behind which rises a wall of bare, black rock; half-way between it and the river is the governor's palace, with its extensive gardens, just at the beginning of the golovinskii prospekt, a long boulevard with fine shops and public buildings; between the boulevard and the river lies the municipal garden, named after alexander i. turning our eyes towards the other side of the kura, beyond avlabar, we see, on the hill facing st. david's, a large block of buildings used as a military depôt, arsenal, and barracks, and still farther on, on the river bank, is a thick green belt which we recognize as the gardens of mikhailovskaya street, ending in the splendid park called mushtaïd. crossing the ridge, we now turn our back on the city and descend into the botanical garden, situated in a sheltered ravine, a delightful place for an evening stroll; on the opposite side of the ravine is a tatar village with a lonely graveyard. the erivan square is the great centre of activity; in its midst is the caravanserai, a vast rectangular building full of shops, not unlike the gostinoï dvor, in petersburg, but poorer. from that corner of the square in which is the hôtel du caucase, runs palace street, all one side of which is occupied by the caravanserai of the late mr. artsruni, a wealthy armenian, and behind, in a fine garden, is the georgian theatre; both the garden and the theatre belong to the land bank of the nobles, an institution which deserves the attention of all who are interested in the iverian nation. the bank was founded in in order to aid farmers to work their lands by advancing them money at the lowest possible rate of interest; all the profits are spent in the furtherance of philanthropic schemes and in the encouragement of national education. it is a significant fact that the more intelligent members of georgian society should have chosen this mode of activity in preference to any other, but the reason of their choice is apparent; from the bitter experience of the last hundred years they have learnt that although munificence is one of the noblest of the virtues, extravagance and ostentation are hurtful, and they have, therefore, wisely determined to do all they can to improve the economic condition of the country. the public meetings of the shareholders give an opportunity for discussion and speech-making, and it is in this "gruzinskii parlament" (as the russians have nicknamed it) that prince chavchavadze has gained for himself the not unmerited title of the "georgian gambetta." i was an occupant of the ladies' gallery at one of these assemblies, and i shall never forget the impression produced upon me by the sight of these handsome, warlike asians in their picturesque garb, conducting their proceedings exactly in the same order as british investors do every day in the city of london. try and imagine the heroes of the elizabethan age at cannon street hotel discussing the current dividend of the s.e.r., and you will have some idea of my feelings. only those who have lived the life of the people in trans-caucasia know what a terrible curse the money-lending community are. a local proverb says, "a greek will cheat three jews, but an armenian will cheat three greeks," and the georgian, straightforward, honest fellow, is but too often cruelly swindled by the artful children of haïk. when the fraud is very apparent the armenian often pays for his greed with all the blood that can be extracted from his jugular vein. during my stay in tiflis, a certain wild young prince, avalov, had made himself popular by slaughtering a few armenians; his latest exploit made so much stir that a prosecution was talked of; but avalov was no dweller in towns, he spent his time merrily out in the greenwood, and it would have needed a company of kazaks to arrest him. while the authorities were deliberating, the prince sent a polite message to say that if they tried to make matters unpleasant for him, he would, with god's help, devote the remainder of his natural life to running amuck of every "salted" armenian (a reference to their habit of salting children as soon as they are born) that crossed his path. another young nobleman got three years' imprisonment for "perforating" an insulting usurer, and the cruelty of the sentence was much spoken of; a lady said to me, "just fancy, that fine young fellow imprisoned among common criminals for killing a rascal of an armenian," as who should say for killing a dog. let it be clearly understood that i say nothing against the armenian nation; i have the strongest admiration for their undoubted literary and administrative talent, and for the energy with which they resist all attempts to destroy their national spirit. the armenian not being a money-lender or trader, is a citizen of which any country might be proud; but the usurer, whether he be jew, armenian, or briton, is a most despicable character, and, unfortunately, the peculiar conditions under which the armenians have lived for many centuries have necessarily made shylocks of a large percentage of them. continuing our walk, we emerge from palace street into the wide golovinskii prospekt, which takes its name from golovin, a former governor of the caucasus. on the left lies the palace, a fine modern building in the european style, and on the right is the caucasian museum, in which the student will find geological, zoological, ethnographical, entomological, botanical, archeological, and numismatic collections of the highest interest. on the walls of the staircase are several large pictures, the most interesting of which are, a portrait of queen tamara, copied from the painting at gelati, and "the arrival of the argonauts in colchis," the figures in which are all portraits, the grand duke nicholas mikhailovich being represented as jason. there is also a very large collection of photographs, comprising all that is worth seeing in the caucasus and in persia. in the same block of buildings is the public library, in which will be found most of the literature relating to the country, and a fair number of books on general subjects. the library is at the corner of the prospekt and baronovskaya street, and turning down the latter, the first turning on the right brings us to the post office, facing which is a girls' grammar school. the traveller who happens to pass that way when the lessons for the day are over (and he might do worse if he likes to see pretty young faces), will be surprised, unless he has been in russia, to see that all the children are dressed alike, regardless of age, complexion, and taste; he will be still more surprised when he hears that if one of these uniforms is seen out after p.m., the fair wearer is severely punished, it being the opinion of the tsar's minister of education that school-girls, and school-boys too, should after that hour be at home preparing their tasks for next day. the school accommodation is lamentably inadequate; in the government of tiflis there are only about children at school for every , of the population, in the government of kutaïs only . returning to golovinskii prospekt, we pass on the right the staff headquarters of the army of the caucasus, the best restaurant in the city, some good shops, and then arrive at the aleksandrovskii garden, which slopes down to the river bank; its shady walks are thronged every evening when a military band performs. near its extreme corner, and almost on the waterside, is the russian theatre; although the house is a small one and only used as a makeshift until the new theatre is finished, it is a very pleasant place to spend an evening; good companies from petersburg and moscow play during the season, and i saw some of the stars of the profession there. unfortunately, there is a preference for translations of french and german pieces with which the european is already familiar, but russian plays are not totally ignored. i once saw a version of "le monde où l'on s'ennuie" which was in the smallest details of gesture and property a photographic reproduction of the comedy as i have seen it on the classic boards of the théâtre français--but there was one startling innovation, bellac was described on the programme as an abbé (sic!). the great charm of the tifliskii theatre is, however, its open air crush-room, a fine large garden where a band plays between the acts, and where refreshments may be partaken of and smoking indulged in. the new theatre on golovinskii prospekt is a handsome edifice which was still unfinished at the time of my visit. the farther you get from the erivan square the less aristocratic does the boulevard become, the only other building of note in that part of it being the cadets' college; the opening of the new theatre will, however, make a great difference, and in a few years the dirty little beershops on the left will doubtless disappear, and golovinskii prospekt will be one of the finest streets in the world. its situation is a splendid one, and is not unworthy of comparison with that of princes' street, edinburgh; the holy mount, rising black and steep to a considerable height, and adorned with the pretty white church of st. david, might not inaptly be said to be to tiflis what the castle hill is to the modern athens. at the end of the boulevard is the posting-station, whence we can return to our starting-place by tram-car. all the main thoroughfares of the city are now laid with tram-lines, the construction of which is due to a belgian company which is paying very good dividends. thursday afternoon is the best time for visiting the church of st. david, for a service is then held and large numbers of women attend. proceeding from salalaki along laboratornaya, which is parallel to the boulevard and is the most select street in tiflis, we reach the street of the holy mount (mtatsmindskaya), a steep, roughly-paved thoroughfare which leads up to st. david's place, and a winding mountain path takes us thence to the church. st. david was a syrian monk who came to georgia in the sixth century, and lived a hermit's life among the woods which at that time covered the hill. tradition says that the daughter of a wealthy man who lived near there, finding herself in an interesting condition, thought the best way of getting out of the difficulty would be to accuse the saint of being the cause of this state of affairs. the holy man, naturally, objected, and having made his accuser appear in an assembly of the people, he proved his innocence by making the unborn child say audibly who was its father. whereupon, in answer to the prayers of the saint, the child was converted into a stone, which the damsel brought forth immediately. this stone was made the foundation of a church. david then asked that a spring of living water of fructifying virtue might be made to flow; this fountain is still visible, and its water is largely used by married ladies; the climb of twenty minutes from st. david's place is so toilsome that even the most bitter malthusian would hasten to quench his thirst there; as far as i know, it is the only water in tiflis fit for human consumption. every pious lady who visits the shrine carries a stone or brick up the hill with her, and it is from these that the church was built and is still kept in repair. there is another interesting custom in which maidens and matrons alike take part; after adoring the picture of the virgin, the suppliant silently walks round the building three times, unwinding as she goes a reel of thread, fit symbol of the boundlessness of her love and veneration for the immaculate mother of god. then picking up one of the pebbles with which the ground is covered, she rubs it against the plastered wall, and with beating heart waits to see if it will stick--if it does, then her prayer has been heard, the lass will have a sweetheart, the wife will have a son. the church is of modern construction, but its design differs in no respect from the ancient byzantine style, specimens of which may be seen all over georgia. the interior is like that of any other greek church, and on the walls there are some quaint but rather crude pictures. the mass is, of course, in georgian, and the choral service strikes rather strangely on western ears, although not wanting in melody. just below the church is a monument bearing the inscription in russian: "aleksandr sergeyevich griboyedov, born january th, , killed in teheran, january th, . thy mind and thy deeds will never die in the memory of russia, but why did my love outlive thee?" the story of griboyedov's life is a sad but interesting one. by birth, education, and talents he was fitted to become one of the most brilliant members of russian society, but he was early infected with the restless critical spirit of the century, and at the age of seventeen he had already thought out the plot of his great comedy goré ot uma, which is a bitter satire on the fashionable life of his day. in his patriotism led him to join in the national defence, but he never saw active service; like his brother officers he enlivened the monotony of barrack life with the wildest dissipation and folly; for instance, we read that he galloped up two flights of stairs and into a ball-room, that he took advantage of his position as organist in a polish church, to strike up a well-known comical tune in the midst of high mass. but he soon abandoned this unsatisfactory life, went to petersburg in , turned his attention to dramatic literature, and produced some successful pieces. in we find him in persia as secretary to the embassy at tavriz; there he led a solitary life and studied the persian language, he read all the poetical literature of the country, and himself wrote persian lyrics. in he took a year's leave of absence, and employed much of the time in revising his great work; it was his aim to make his verse "as smooth as glass," and he sometimes re-wrote a phrase a dozen times before it pleased him. when it was at length finished, the severe censure prevented its representation, and it was many years after the poet's death before the full text of the play was heard in russia. after taking part in a war against the caucasian mountaineers, the persian war gave him an opportunity of exhibiting a bravery bordering on recklessness, and when erivan had been stormed it was through his skilful diplomacy that russia obtained such favourable terms of peace, although the british minister aided persia with his counsels. in he left petersburg with the rank of ambassador at the persian court. before leaving he expressed to his friends the most gloomy forebodings, he was sure that he would not return to russia alive. at tiflis, however, he found temporary relief from his mournful feelings in the society of nina chavchavadze, daughter of prince alexander chavchavadze, the poet, a lady whom he described as a "very madonna of murillo;" he married her, and she went with him as far as tavriz, he promising to come back to her as soon as possible. he had no sooner reached teheran, than his enemies at the court of the shah began to excite popular feeling against him, and an incident soon occurred which gave some excuse for an attack on the embassy. an armenian prisoner who had risen to the dignity of chief eunuch in the shah's household, and two women, an armenian and a german, from the harem of a powerful personage, fled to the russian ambassador and asked him to assist them to return to russian territory. griboyedov insisted that, according to the treaty of peace, all prisoners had a right to freedom, and he refused to give up the refugees. on the th of january, , a mad, yelling crowd of , men made an attack on the embassy. griboyedov, sword in hand, led out his handful of horsemen and was immediately killed; only one member of the embassy escaped death. it was griboyedov's wish that he should be buried in georgia, and they chose this romantic spot which the poet had loved so much during his stay in tiflis. the beautiful nina remained faithful to her husband's memory, and mourned for him eight-and-twenty years, until she was carried up the winding path to share his grave. the view from the churchyard is a splendid one; the whole city, with its wonderful diversity of form and colour, lies at your feet; on the right you can see far along the kakhetian road, and on the left the great highway to vladikavkaz follows the winding course of the kura. in the evening we often climbed to the top of a bare crag not far from the church, carrying with us a large earthenware flagon of wine, a roast leg of mutton, fruit, cucumbers, and other delicacies, and spreading out our cloaks on the ground lay there making merry, singing and telling tales until long after midnight; the lights of the town below us seemed like a reflection of the bright stars above us, and the music and laughter of many a jovial group came up the hillside to mingle with our own. after descending the hill, we cross the boulevard at the publishing office of kavkaz, the official organ, and skirting the alexandrovskii garden, soon reach the finest bridge in the town, vorontsovskii most, from which we get an interesting view of the waterside part of the asiatic quarter; most of the houses have balconies overhanging the river, and one is involuntarily reminded of the tiber banks at rome. on the other side of the bridge, in a small square, is a statue of prince vorontsov, governor of the caucasus, from to . during my stay the good people of that district were astonished one morning to see the prince's head surmounted by a tall, well-worn sheepskin hat, such as the lesghians wear; the effect was exceedingly ridiculous, and the youthful revellers who, at considerable risk of breaking their necks, were the authors of the joke, were well rewarded for their pains by the laughter of all who passed that way, for your georgian is a merry fellow. turning to the right, we traverse peski, a quarter very different from salalaki. here we see small open-fronted oriental shops in which dark persians ply their trades, making arms, saddlery, jewellery, selling carpets, and doing a hundred other things all before the eyes of men and in the open air. there is a strange confusion of tongues and dresses; a smart little grammar-school girl rubs shoulders with a veiled mussulman woman, and occasionally you see the uniform of a russian officer elbowing his way through a crowd of lesghians, armenians, georgians, persians; through the midst of all this confusion runs the tram-car. we are not beyond all the influences of civilization, for, besides the tram-way, we see on a sign-board the legend "deiches bir" (? deutsches bier), over the picture of a flowing tankard. we cross the narrow bridge and pay a visit to the baths. perhaps the reader knows something of the so-called turkish bath, and imagines that the baths of tiflis are of the same sort? there is certainly some similarity between the two, but there are profound differences; the treatment to which the visitor is subjected at a turkish bath in constantinople is not to be compared with what the persian shampooer puts you through in tiflis. he goes through a whole course of gymnastics with you, during which he jumps on your chest, on the small of your back, doubles you up as if you were a fowl ready for cooking, and, besides removing every particle of your epidermis, performs sundry other experiments at which the novice stares aghast. at the end of it all you make up your mind that it is not so terrible as it looks, and as you feel wonderfully refreshed you resolve to return again before long. the water is of a heat of about ° fahr., and is impregnated with sulphur and other substances which give it a healing virtue; it is to these springs that tiflis owes its existence, and they have always been of much importance in the daily life of the people. formerly it used to be the fashion for ladies of rank to hire baths and dressing-rooms for a whole day, spending the time in perfuming themselves, staining their finger tips, dressing the hair, and performing a dozen other ceremonies of the toilette, concluding with dinner, but the growth of european habits has rendered this custom less common. the cathedral of sion is, as we said before, as old as the city itself, but, of course, it has suffered considerably at the hands of destroyers and restorers. its style is the same as that of all the other churches in georgia, and it doubtless served as a pattern for most of them. the inside has been tastefully decorated in modern times, and produces a pleasing effect, although it seems small to anybody who is familiar with the cathedrals of europe. in front of the altar is the cross of st. nina, formed of two vine branches bound together with the saint's hair; this cross has always been the most sacred relic in georgia. there is also a modest tomb, which contains the body of prince tsitsishvili, a georgian who was appointed governor of the caucasus by alexander i., and who, after a glorious career, was foully murdered outside the walls of baku by the treacherous khan of that city. from the cathedral the way to the european quarter leads through the so-called armenian bazar, one of the most interesting parts of the city. old arms, coats of mail, helmets and shields, such as are still used by the khevsurs up in the mountains, silver ornaments and many other interesting trifles, may be purchased here, but nothing of great value is offered for sale, and the jewellery, with the exception of filigree work from akhaltsikhe (which is hard to get and very expensive) is not very good. on the birthday of the tsarevich, i was walking down to the cathedral in order to be present at high mass, when i saw an incident thoroughly characteristic of the arbitrary proceedings of the russian police. a burly gorodovoi, clad in white uniform and fully armed, was forcing the asiatic shopkeepers in the bazar to close their premises in order to do honour to the son of the autocrat. i remembered how i had seen the turkish soldiery in jerusalem perform a similar task a few months before, when the young prince of naples entered the holy city; it is true that the turks went a step further than the muscovites, for they drove the people out into the main street, and refused to let them go home until the evening, but the idea was the same in both cases. the best native tailor of tiflis lives in this neighbourhood, and i had the honour of having a circassian suit made for me by him; it fitted like a glove. i may say that, although a great many people in tiflis wear european dress, in the country it is almost unknown. i found that for travelling there is nothing better than the circassian garb; it stands a great deal of rough usage, and always looks respectable. mushtaid is the finest promenade in the city. it is situated at the west end, and is approached by the mikhailovskaya, a long, straight street, with fine gardens on either side of it. some of the best restaurants in the city are in these vine-shaded gardens, and one of them is devoted to wrestling matches. it was my good fortune to be present at a famous contest in which the kakhetian champion, grdaneli, fought a certain bold imeretian professor of the fancy art. the performance was highly interesting, and it was gratifying to learn from the bills that the proceeds were to be for the benefit of a young man who wanted to study at petersburg, but had not the necessary means. the inner ring was formed of country gentlemen and officers, all sitting cross-legged on the ground; behind them, tier above tier, were at least a thousand spectators, breathless with expectation. a primitive band, consisting of a drum and a zurna (an instrument which sounds like the bagpipes), played a warlike air, to the sound of which the heroes danced round the arena amid the frantic applause of the crowd. both men were fine fellows, but grdaneli was a very hercules, and withal amiable-looking; he was the favourite, and justified his reputation of being invincible by utterly demolishing the western man in a very short space of time. every incident of the battle called forth from the bystanders loud yells of praise and encouragement which might have been heard miles off. the two best clubs have summer quarters in mikhailovskaya street, by the waterside--the kruzhok (near the vera bridge) and the georgian club (nearer vorontsovskii bridge); both have concert-rooms and gardens attached to them, and the famous dance called lesginka may be seen there with its accompaniment of hand-clapping. the costumes worn by both sexes are picturesque and rich, and one meets people of all nationalities including political exiles from poland, russian officers and officials, german professors and representatives of many other races besides georgians. all arms must be left at the entrance. georgian music is very unlike our own, and at first it strikes the european as loud, wild, discordant, positively unpleasant, but when one is accustomed to it, it is very agreeable. before i had heard many of the national melodies, i was very much astonished when an accomplished lady told me that her reason for preferring the georgian club to the kruzhok was, that at the former asiatic music was performed; but i can now understand her liking for the music of her country. in the appendix i have written down a few melodies which will not, i think, grate harshly on english ears. the beauty of the georgian women has been called in question by some travellers, but these are nearly all men whose acquaintance with the people has been extremely limited. the favourite observation of these critics is a stereotyped phrase about "undeniably good features, but want of animation." surely alexandre dumas the elder knew a beautiful face when he saw it; he says: "la grèce, c'est galatée encore marbre; la géorgie, c'est galatée devenue femme." mushtaid, the town garden, owes nearly all its charms to nature, the walks and open spaces are neatly kept, but nearly the whole area is a forest in the recesses of which we may lie undisturbed for hours, looking down on the turbid waters of kura and listening to the rustling of the leaves above and around. every evening its avenues are crowded with carriages and horsemen; beautiful faces, tasteful toilettes, gay uniforms all combine to form a charming picture. fancy fairs are occasionally held, at which the visitor may mingle with all the social celebrities, lose his money in raffles, buy things he doesn't want--in short enjoy himself just as if he were at home. but i doubt whether many frequenters of bazaars in england have seen such an acrobatic feat as was performed in mushtaid last summer; an individual in tights hung himself by the neck on the upper end of an inclined wire, stretched over the heads of the spectators, and slid down it at lightning speed, firing half a dozen pistol-shots as he went. no week passes without a popular fête of some kind, for the georgians are as fond of gaiety as any nation in the world. from the above brief sketch the reader will see that tiflis is a city where one can live for a long time without suffering from ennui. although the immediate neighbourhood looks bare and uninviting, there are, within a few miles, many beautiful spots well worth a visit. the climate has been much abused by some writers, and it must be admitted that during the months of july and august the heat is very trying, but in my opinion tiflis is a healthy place; since the great plague of ninety years ago it has been pretty free from epidemics, and although fever and dysentery kill a good many people every year, the victims are nearly all residents of low-lying parts of the city, where no european would live if he could help it. during the warm weather there are often storms, characterized by all the grandeur that might be expected in a region of great mountains so near the tropics; after one of these the steep streets become foaming torrents. the sheltered position of the city protects it from the terrible gusts of wind which make the plain to the eastward almost uninhabitable, and the storms seldom cause any more serious damage than broken windows and flooded houses. hitherto all the town water was obtained from the kura, and delivered to the consumer from bullock-skins, but a well has now been dug a little below st. david's, whence the dwellers on the right bank will get a supply of a liquid which is not tepid, not opaque, not evil-smelling, and not semi-solid. the georgian military road between tiflis and vladikavkaz. the part which rivers have played in the history of civilization is well illustrated by this road. the aragva, flowing southward from gudaur, and the terek, running northward from it, have formed the highway along which countless crowds of asiatics have penetrated into europe. between the two streams there is a distance of some ten miles, forming a huge but not insurmountable barrier, the virtual removal of which did not take place until our own times. it was general yermolov who, in , succeeded in making the road practicable for troops of all kinds; but from the poet puskhin's "journey to erzerum" ( ), we learn that there was still room for improvement. the traveller had to go with a convoy of soldiers and a cannon, he dare not lag behind for fear of the mountaineers, provisions and lodgings were scarce and bad, the roads were impassable for carriages, the rate of speed was sometimes only ten miles a day. when we read pushkin's account, and the one given by lermontov, in "a hero of our times," we can only ask ourselves, "what was the road like before yermolov?" during the wars with kasi-mullah and shamil, it became indispensable to effect great improvements, and, at length, about five-and-twenty years ago, under the governorship of prince bariatinskii, the road was finished, and is now one of the finest in the world, besides being one of the highest--the simplon is only feet above sea-level, while the dariel road is nearly feet higher. the total distance from tiflis to vladikavkaz is miles, and the distance can be done comfortably in less than twenty hours. during the summer horses are kept in readiness at the stations, in the winter the number is reduced by about . two stage coaches start from each end every day, but as they run during the night also, much of the beauty of the scenery is lost by those who avail themselves of this mode of conveyance; besides, it is difficult to get an outside seat unless you book it a long time in advance. it is far better to travel by troïka, as you are then free to stop when you like and as long as you like, and you get an uninterrupted view of the country through which you pass. about the middle of june, having previously obtained a formidable-looking document by which alexander alexandrovich, autocrat of all the russias, commanded all postmasters to supply me with horses immediately on demand, i set out on my journey over the frosty caucasus, accompanied by a young russian friend. the troïka had been ordered for four a.m., but, of course, it did not turn up till half-past five. for the information of those who have never been in russia, i may say that a troïka is a team of three horses harnessed abreast in a vehicle of unique construction called a teliezhka. the form of the cart is like a longitudinal section of a beer barrel; it is large enough to contain an ordinary travelling trunk; it is of wood, has neither sides nor springs, and there are four wheels; the seat is made by slipping a piece of rope through a couple of rings on either side, and laying your cloak and a pillow on the rope; the driver sits on the front edge of the cart; the whole affair is invariably in the last stage of decay. the shafts are so long that the horses cannot kick the bottom out of the thing, and the horse in the centre has his head swung up in a wooden frame. the driver is always asleep or drunk, or both, but he never lets the reins fall, and at regular intervals mechanically applies the whip to his steeds; he only wakes up when there is a shaky bridge to cross, and, regardless of the notice "walking pace!", first crosses himself and commends his soul to the saints, then gallops over the creaking structure at racing speed. as we clattered down the steep rocky streets which lead to the boulevard, i had not much time to look round; all my attention was necessary to preserve myself from falling out of the cart, the jolting was terrible. however, by the time we had got to the outskirts of the town the road became much smoother; the driver got down and released the clappers of the bells above the middle horse's head, and we rattled along merrily to the tune of eight miles an hour. just outside the city an imposing cruciform monument marks the spot where the late tsar's carriage was overturned without injuring his majesty. passing the sakartvelo gardens, where the good people of tiflis often dine in vine-covered bowers by the river-side, we cross the vera, an important tributary of the kura, and then enter a broad plain which continues for many miles to the westward. on the other side of the kura we see mushtaid; a little farther on is the pretty german colony of alexandersdorf, with its poplar avenues, neat houses, and modest little white church. all the german colonies in the caucasus seem to be exactly alike, and they do not in any respect differ from german villages in the fatherland; the colonists altogether ignore the people of the country in which they have settled, and, although they make a comfortable livelihood, their isolated condition and the absence of all european influence must make their lives very narrow and joyless. some of these colonies were founded in order to set before the native peasantry examples of good agriculture and farm management, but this worthy object has not been attained, and the teutons are looked upon with feelings generally of indifference, sometimes of positive ill-will. high on the hills behind the colony stands the white monastery of st. antony, a favourite place for picnics. in the cliffs on the left of our road are numerous holes, variously conjectured to be troglodyte dwellings (like those at uphlis tsikhe), rock tombs, places of refuge in time of war, provision stores, &c. before us we see the road winding up between the hills in a northerly direction, and after crossing the transcaucasian railway and then the kura we arrive at the post-house of mtzkhet, not far from the village of that name. mtzkhet, if we are to believe local traditions, is one of the oldest cities on earth, for the story goes that it was founded by a great-grandson of the patriarch noah. be that as it may, there are unmistakable signs that a greek or roman town existed here at a remote date, and antiquaries generally agree in identifying mtzkhet with the acrostopolis of the romans, the headquarters of pompey after he had defeated mithridates and subdued iberia and albania. no better spot could have been chosen, for its position at the junction of the aragva and the kura commands the two great roads of the country and makes it the key of transcaucasia. mtzkhet, the ancient capital of georgia, was always a place of much importance in the annals of the kingdom; now it is a wretched village of some hundreds of inhabitants. it was here that st. nina began her work of converting the nation, and we propose to give a brief account of the legends relating to this event. tradition says that at the beginning of our era there lived in mtzkhet a wealthy jew named eleazar, who frequently made journeys to jerusalem on business. on the occasion of one of these visits he became possessed of the tunic of our lord, which he brought home with him as a present to his daughter. she, expecting a valuable gift, ran out to meet him, and with an angry expression snatched from his hands the precious relic, of which she little knew the worth; she fell dead on the spot, but no force could take the garment from her hands, so it was buried with her, and from her grave there soon grew up a tall cedar, from the bark of which oozed a fragrant myrrh, which healed the sick. now about three centuries later, that is in the third century of our era, st. nina was born in cappadocia. when she was twelve years of age her parents proceeded to jerusalem, and gave themselves up to religious work, leaving the maiden under the care of a devout old woman, who taught her to read the scriptures. nina was very anxious to learn what had become of christ's tunic, and said to her teacher, "tell me, i pray thee, where is that earthly purple of the son of god now kept?" to which the venerable matron replied that it had been taken to a heathen land called iveria, far away to the northward, and that it lay buried there in the city of mtzkhet. one night the blessed virgin appeared to the damsel in a dream, and said to her, "go to the iverian land, preach the gospel of the lord jesus, and he will reward thee. i will be thy guard and guide," and with these words she handed to her a cross made of vine branches. when nina awoke and saw in her hands the wondrous cross she wept for joy, and after reverently kissing the holy gift she bound the two loose sticks together with her own long hair. this cross has always been the palladium of georgia, and is still preserved in the sion cathedral at tiflis. now it so happened that at this time seven-and-thirty maidens, fleeing from the persecutions of diocletian, left jerusalem to spread the good tidings in armenia; st. nina went with them as far as vashgarabada, and then pursued her journey alone. as she was entering the city of mtzkhet, the king of georgia, marian, with all his people, went out to a hill in the neighbourhood to offer human sacrifices to idols, but in answer to her prayer a mighty storm arose and destroyed the images. she took up her abode in a cell in the king's garden, and soon became well-known as a healer of the sick. at length the queen fell ill, and st. nina, having made her whole in the name of jesus, converted the georgian court to christianity, and in a.d. baptized all the people of the city. over the spot in the royal garden where her cell had been, the king built the samtavr church, which still exists, and lies to the left of the post-road. it was then revealed to st. nina that the tunic, the object of her search, lay buried under a cedar in the middle of the town; the tree was cut down and the robe was found in the hands of the dead girl. on the spot where the cedar stood king marian built, in , the cathedral of the twelve apostles; the cedar was replaced by a column, and this column is said to drip myrrh occasionally, even in these degenerate days of ours. the sacred garment was preserved in the cathedral until the seventeenth century, when shah abbas sent it as a present to the tsar of russia, mikhail fedorovich. it was solemnly deposited in the cathedral of the assumption at moscow, where i saw it last autumn. having evangelized kartli, st. nina proceeded to kakheti, where she met with the same success, and died at bodbé, near signakh; her tomb is in a monastery overlooking one of the finest landscapes in all kakheti. the cathedral of the twelve apostles is the chief place of interest in mtzkhet. the original church was of wood, but in it was replaced by a stone edifice, which stood until the invasion of tamerlane. the existing church was built in the fifteenth century. a stone wall, with ruined towers, encloses a rectangular piece of ground, in which stands the cathedral, a fine building about seventy paces long by twenty-five paces broad. it is in the byzantine style, and the interior is divided into three parts by two rows of columns. here lie buried the last kings of georgia and their families, the patriarchs of the church, and other illustrious persons. the post-house at mtzkhet was a pleasant surprise to me, but i found nearly all the stations on this road equally comfortable; in many of them there are bed-rooms, a dining-room, a ladies' room, and one can get white bread and european food. those who have travelled on post-roads in russia will readily understand my surprise. leaving mtzkhet, our road follows the aragva along a smooth valley between forest-clad hills; the scenery reminded me very much of some of the dales of thelemarken in norway. the soil is rich and well cultivated, and here, as elsewhere, we saw a whole herd of oxen dragging one wooden plough. this valley is one of the most feverish places on the whole road, and the people attribute this to a yellow weed (carlina arcaulis), of which there is a great abundance; strange to say, other places where the plant flourishes have the same unpleasant reputation for unhealthiness, the explanation is doubtless to be found in the fact that this weed grows best in a damp soil. tsilkani is the next station, but there is no village there. while waiting for horses we saw in the yard a camel; there are plenty of these amiable animals in tiflis, but i did not think they went so far north as the aragva. the scenery continues to be of the same character as far as the station of dushet, some distance from the garrison-town of that name, which lies in rectangular regularity on the hillside, like a relief map; it is a place of some military importance on account of its position at the entrance of the narrow part of the valley, but it is as uninteresting as any russian provincial town. near it is a lake, said to cover a caucasian sodom; the traveller looks at the lake with more attention than he would bestow upon it if it were in switzerland, for lakes, like waterfalls, are very rare in the caucasus. soon after leaving dushet we climb a rather steep hill--the wilder part of the road is about to begin. on our left is a huge, antique-looking edifice with towers and battlements, which we feel sure has a romantic history, but we are disappointed to learn that the place is only a modern imitation. at a pretty spot on the river-bank near here i met on my return a party of about fifty prisoners on their way to siberia; they were, as a rule, honest enough looking fellows, and i could not help feeling pity for them when i remembered how many cases i knew of in which innocent men had been ruined in mind and body, by exile for crimes with which they had no connection. the road crosses a range of green hills, and passing through scenery very like that of kakheti, descends to the aragva again at ananur, the most picturesque village on the whole road, although the surrounding landscape is tame compared with that to the northward. ananur lies in a pretty little valley, amid well-wooded hills. at the southern end of the village, perched on a rising ground, is a partly ruined wall with towers and battlements, within which are two churches, one of them still used for divine service, the other a mouldering heap of moss-grown stones. the post-house is at the farther end of the village, and while the horses are being changed we have time to return to the ruins, about a quarter of an hour's walk; by the roadside are several little shops in which furs of all the wild animals of the country may be bought for a trifle; there is also a small barrack. we now climb up to the citadel, and as we enter we cannot help thinking of some of the scenes of blood which have taken place here, even as late as a century and a half ago, when giorgi, the eristav (or headman) of aragva, defended the castle against the eristav of ksan. when the place had been taken and all the garrison slain, giorgi and his family fled to the old church, thinking that no christian would violate the right of sanctuary, but the conqueror heaped up brushwood round the building and burnt it down; only one of the ill-fated family escaped alive. the door by which we are admitted lies on the side farthest removed from the road; it leads us through a square tower into the citadel proper, which occupied a piece of ground about one hundred paces long and forty paces broad; formerly it used to stretch down to the very bank of the river, where a ruined tower may still be seen. on entering we see immediately on the left the ruined house of the eristav giorgi; straight in front of us is a well-preserved tower, on the left of which may be seen the ruins of the old church, on the right is the modern church. the old church is, of course, quite ruined; it is only about five-and-twenty paces in length by fifteen paces broad. there still exist fragments of painting and carving which would doubtless prove highly interesting to those who are acquainted with the history of byzantine art. the building is said to date from the fourth century. there is also a small underground chapel which is fairly well preserved. the larger church was built by the eristav giorgi in ; it is thirty paces long by twenty paces broad, and is an enlarged copy of the older sanctuary; the stone of which it is built is yellowish. it is a very fine specimen of georgian architecture. beautifully carved in the stone, on each side of the building, is a gigantic cross of vine branches (the cross of st. nina). the decorative work is excellent throughout, both in design and workmanship; but the figures of animals, &c., are very poor indeed. ananur is connected with the darkest page in the mournful latter-day history of georgia. the persians had taken tiflis in , and reduced it to a smouldering heap of ruins. king irakli, with a few servants, had escaped almost by a miracle, and had taken refuge in the mountain fastness of ananur; abandoned by his cowardly, faithless children, betrayed by his most trusted dependents and allies, sick in body and weary in mind, the old man of seventy-seven was a sight sad enough to make angels weep. "in the old, half ruined monastery of ananur, in an ancient cell which used to stand in the corner of the monks' orchard, one might have seen a man dressed in a rough sheepskin cloak, sitting with his face turned to the wall. that man, once the thunderbolt of all transcaucasia, was the king of georgia, irakli ii. near him stood an old armenian servant. 'who is that sitting in the corner?' asked those who passed by. 'he whom thou seest,' replied the armenian, with a sigh, 'was once a man of might, and his name was honoured throughout asia. his people never had a better ruler. he strove for their welfare like a father, and for forty years kept his empire together; but old age has weakened him, and has brought everything to ruin. in order to prevent quarrels after his death, he determined to divide his kingdom among his children while he still lived, but his hopes in them were deceived. he who was chief eunuch of tamas khuli khan when irakli was a leader of the persian army, now marched against him in his feeble old age. his own children refused to help him and their native land, for there were many of them, and each thought he would be striving, not for himself, but for his brother's good. the king of georgia had to ask the help of the king of imereti, but if thou hadst been in tiflis thou hadst seen how shamefully the imeretians behaved. irakli, with but a handful of men, fought gallantly against a hundred thousand, and lost his throne only because his children pitilessly forsook him, leaving him to be defeated by a wretched gelding. his ancient glory is darkened, his capital in ruins, the weal of his folk is fled. under yon crumbling wall thou seest the mighty king of georgia hiding from the gaze of all men, helpless and clothed in a ragged sheepskin! his courtiers, all those who have eaten his bread and been pressed to his bosom, have left him; not one of them has followed his master, excepting only me--a poor, despised armenian.'" from ananur the road rises along the aragva valley, which is well cultivated, thanks to a fine system of artificial irrigation. on our left, about a couple of versts from the station, we see high up on a hill the ruined castle and church of sheupoval, where a grandson of the eristav giorgi shared the fate of the rest of his family; the place was burnt down with all its inhabitants. as we pass along the road we meet several pleasant-looking wayfarers, all armed with long, wide dagger, and many carrying in addition sword and rifle; this highway is, however, perfectly safe as far as brigands are concerned, the carrying of weapons is merely a custom which means little more than the use of a walking-stick in our country. several handsome ossets, as they pass, courteously salute us with the phrase, "may your path be smooth!" a peculiarly appropriate wish in such a region. when we go through a little village, pretty children run out to look at us, but they never beg, indeed i never saw or heard of a georgian beggar, although there is much poverty among the people. all along the road, wherever there is a coign of vantage one sees it topped by the ruins of a four-sided tapering tower, standing in the corner of a square enclosure; every foot of ground has its history of bloodshed and bravery, a history now long forgotten, save for the dim traditions of the peasantry. the stage between ananur and pasanaur ( versts), is the longest on the whole road, and, although it presents no engineering difficulties such as those which were met with farther to the northward, it is, nevertheless, a toilsome journey for the horses, as it rises about feet. i shall never forget the pleasant emotions i felt on making the night journey from pasanaur to ananur; although there was no moon, the stars shone with a brightness that is unknown in northern latitudes, and lighted up the strange, beautiful landscape; the glittering snow-peaks behind, the silvery stream at our side, the green forests and the lonely ruins made up a picture of surpassing loveliness and weirdness. fort gudomakarsk is soon visible, and we know that the station is not far off. i may as well say that almost all the so-called forts between tiflis and vladikavkaz are insignificant, neglected-looking places, merely small barracks; they formerly served to keep the mountaineers in order, but now there is really very little necessity for maintaining a garrison in them. pasanaur (which in old persian means "holy hill") is situated in a very narrow part of the valley, amid thick woods. the station is a pretty one, and, like that at ananur, so comfortable that the traveller who has to spend a night there need not be pitied. the only building of interest in the village is a modern church in the russian style of architecture, which looks as if it had been painted with laundry blue; for ugliness it can compare with any church in muscovy. to the eastward of pasanaur live the khevsurs, pshavs and tushes, peoples probably having a common origin, and speaking a language akin to georgian. their number is variously estimated, from twenty to thirty thousand. they live in a very primitive way, and the khevsurs still clothe themselves in chain armour and helmets; this circumstance, added to the fact that they have long been christians, has given rise to the supposition that they are descended from a party of crusaders who lost their way in trying to return to europe overland, and settled in these valleys. their country is among the wildest in the whole range, and their villages are perched high up among the rocks, like eagles' nests. the khevsurs live chiefly on the scanty products of agriculture; the pshavs and tushes are pastoral peoples, in winter they drive their flocks down into kakheti, and when the snow among the mountains begins to melt they return to their native valleys. all these tribes are wild and brave to the highest degree; from the earliest times they have formed part of the georgian kingdom, and have distinguished themselves in many a battle against the infidel. the christianity of this region is not so elaborate as that of rome or byzantium, but i suppose it is quite as reasonable as that of the russian muzhik or the english farm-labourer; they have made a saint of queen tamara, and they worship the god of war and several other deities in addition to the god christ. irakli ii. tried to reform their theology, but they replied, "if we, with our present worship, are firm in our obedience and loyalty to the king, what more does he ask of us?" there are now many orthodox greek churches in the villages, but the people totally ignore their existence. after leaving pasanaur the road bends to the westward, leaving on the right a high table-shaped mountain of granite which has for a long time seemed to bar our progress; we still keep close to the aragva, and the scenery becomes bolder, and the soil more barren; here and there we see high up on the face of the rock a cluster of osset houses; from the valley they look like small dark holes in the cliffs. pushkin has described them as "swallows' nests," and no happier name could have been chosen. the ossets call themselves ir or iran, the tatars and georgians call them oss or ossi. according to official accounts they number over , , about half of them being on each side of the caucasus. the majority of them profess the christian religion, but , are mahometans, and a considerable number are idolaters. their traditions say that they came from asia across the ural, and used at one time to dwell in the plain to the north of the caucasus, but were gradually driven into the mountains by stronger peoples. in the reign of queen tamara most of them embraced christianity, and tamara's second husband was an osset; they remained tributary to georgia until the beginning of the present century, and a traveller who visited tiflis about a hundred years ago says that irakli's bodyguard was composed of ossets "who never washed." the ossets were the first caucasian people to settle down quietly to russian rule, and they have never given any serious trouble, if we except their share in the imeretian rising of . the stories about the ossets being a teutonic people are as absurd as the assertion that there are in the crimea northmen who speak dutch. they live in a wretched manner, in houses built of loose stones, without mortar; but their physique is good, and their faces are handsome and engaging. after another long climb of feet we reach mleti. here, indeed, we have come to the end of the valley--we are at the bottom of a deep well with sides as bare and steep as walls, on the top glitters the everlasting snow. the engineering difficulties which we have hitherto encountered are as nothing compared with those before us. to our right rises a precipice over three thousand feet high, up which the road climbs in a series of zigzags. soon after leaving mleti we saw the sun set behind the silvery peaks to the west, and within half an hour it was dark; our driver was drunk and fast asleep, and we had occasionally to seize the reins in order to keep the horses from going too near the fenceless edge of the abyss. the distance to gudaur is only fourteen and a half versts, but nearly the whole ascent has to be done at walking pace; slowly we rose up the hillside, gazing silently now up at the glistening chain above us, now down into the gloomy valley behind us, where a fleecy waterfall shone in the starlight; we saw no wayfarers all the time, and no sound came to break the stillness of the summer night. at last we reached the tableland at the top, and were soon in the station-house of gudaur, almost feet above sea-level. although there were only patches of snow here and there on the ground near us, the air was very cool; only a few days ago we had been simmering in tiflis in a heat of over ° fahr., and now we saw the thermometer down at freezing-point. i knew that as far as comfort went mleti was a much better place than gudaur to spend the night at, but i was eager to enjoy the delightful intoxication of the mountain air as soon and as long as possible, and i did enjoy it thoroughly. after a very rough and hasty supper and a short walk on the edge of the plateau, we entered the common room, and wrapping ourselves up in our burkas, sought out the softest plank on the floor, and were soon sleeping the sleep of innocence. several travellers arrived during the night, for when we rose at dawn we found the room full. leaving our companions to snore in peace, we ordered the horses, and were soon on our way to the pass. on the grassy plain were feeding large flocks of goats and sheep, the latter with strange, large, fatty protuberances on either side of the tail. to the right is a remarkable-looking green hill of pyramidal shape, and beyond it an old castle looks down from an inaccessible crag. the scenery of the pass itself is imposing, but it is seen to better advantage when one comes in the opposite direction, i.e. from vladikavkaz to tiflis; in that case one leaves a scene of the wildest desolation for the luxuriant beauty of the aragva valley and kartli; on the northward journey it is, of course, the reverse. the road sinks very rapidly to a depth of almost feet; the long snow-sheds remind us that even at the present day a winter journey over the cross mountain is a serious undertaking; traffic is often stopped for several days at a time by avalanches, and in spring the rivers sometimes wash away the bridges and large pieces of the road. at the foot of the mountain we meet the foaming terek, a river almost as muddy as the kura, and following its course reach a vast plain, on the east side of which stands kobi. near kobi station there are two villages; the larger of the two lies under the shadow of a perpendicular rock on the one side, on the other side it is flanked by a rugged crag, on the top of which may be seen the ruins of a church and a castle. by the roadside are curious monumental tablets, painted with hieroglyphs of various kinds, among which the rising sun generally occupies the chief place. all round kobi there are numerous medicinal springs of all kinds, and the station-house is intended to accommodate a few patients. there may come a day when kobi will be as fashionable as kissingen, but in the meantime it is not the sort of place that one would recommend to an invalid. on the score of originality nothing can be said against the environs of kobi; when we looked round we could not help thinking of the phrase "riddlings of creation," which we have heard applied to the scottish highlands; it does, indeed, look as if some of the materials left over after the creation of our earth, had been left here in disordered heaps, to give us some idea of chaos. the road now follows the course of the terek, and the scenery is indescribably grand; straight before us lies snowy kazbek in all its rugged wildness, here and there are ruined towers, and about the middle of the stage a turn in the road brings us to an aul, or village, of mediæval appearance, by the side of which is a little copse, a rarity in this bleak district. the basaltic rocks present many fantastic shapes and colours to the eye; in several places i saw what looked like huge bundles of rods, reminding me of the giant's causeway. before reaching the station we were met by children who offered for sale all sorts of crystals, pieces of quartz and other pretty geological specimens. kazbek station is a very comfortable inn, where one can dine well, and is to be recommended as a place for a prolonged stay. the mountain, generally called kazbek, rises from the valley in one almost unbroken mass, reaching a height of , feet above sea-level; the georgians call it mkhinvari (ice mountain), and the ossets, christ's peak; kazbek is really the name of the family who own this part of the country, and is wrongly applied to the mountain. this peak, like ararat, enjoys the reputation of being inaccessible, and our countrymen, freshfield, moore, and tucker, who climbed to the top, without much difficulty, in june, , were not believed when they told the story of their ascent. on the mountain the sportsman can occasionally get a shot at a tur (aurochs, Ægoceros pallasii); but if he is unwilling to expose himself to the necessary danger and fatigue, he can for a few roubles buy a pair of horns at the station. those who invade the realm of the mountain spirit should not fail to visit devdorak glacier, the easiest way of making the ascent; there they will see a place where the native hunters make sacrifices of tur horns to propitiate the spirit, who might otherwise throw blocks of ice down on their heads. there is a popular legend to the effect that on the summit of mkhinvari is the tent of the patriarch abraham, within which, in a cradle held up by an unseen hand, lies the child jesus asleep; outside there grows some wheat of wonderful size, beside the tree of life; round the cradle are heaps of treasures. under the reign of king irakli ii., a priest and his son started for the summit in order to see these wonders; the boy returned alone, bearing samples of the material of the tent, some big grains of wheat, &c., the soles of his boots were covered with silver coins which had stuck to them--unfortunately it was found that the coins were quite modern! as is well known, mkhinvari is generally identified with the story of prometheus, although the mountain does not correspond with the description given by Æschylus. early travellers even went so far as to assert that they had seen the very chains with which the hero was bound, and there is a local legend to the effect that a giant still lies there in fetters. when i approached the mountain from kobi i could not help being reminded of prometheus. i saw a gigantic black space of irregular form with snow all round it; an imaginative mind found in this irregular tract a considerable resemblance to the human shape. no traveller should leave kazbek without making a pilgrimage to the monastery of st. stephen, which stands on the top of an isolated hill about feet above the station. at sunset the view is wonderfully beautiful. tradition says that the monastery was built by three kings, but does not give their names; in any case the building is of considerable antiquity. service is held in the church three times a year. the interior has been spoiled by that fiend the "restorer." from the church you look over a wide, uninhabited valley to the giant mountain, and on turning round you see the river terek, on the banks of which are the station and village; on either hand stretch dark cavernous-looking valleys. beyond the terek is the home of the ingushes, a people who frequently carry off the cattle of their more settled neighbours, and give the small garrison of kazbek some amusement in hunting them down. after leaving kazbek, we see on our right the manor-house of the princely family from which the place takes its name, a family which has produced, and doubtless will yet produce, sons which will be an honour to georgia; the house is a fine two-storey edifice, and there is a pretty chapel attached to it. in a few minutes we reach the mad ravine, so called from a torrent of terrible impetuosity, which has formed one of the most serious obstacles to the construction of the road. we now enter dariel, the pass from which the road takes its name, one of the grandest spots on earth. according to philologists, dariel is derived from an old persian word meaning gate (cf. der-bend, thuer, door, slav dver, &c.), and in fact it was here that the ancient geographers placed the site of the famous caucasian gates; but surely there is something to be said in favour of the local tradition which connects the place with darius i. of persia. as for the gates, it is, of course, impossible to say definitely whether they ever existed or not, at all events there are several points where it would not have been very difficult to construct them. at the entrance of the ravine, on the left bank of the terek, stands a high rock, on which may be seen the ruins of a castle, said to have been founded in b.c., but doubtless having a still longer history. this castle is always associated with the name of a certain wicked queen tamara, a mythical creation of the popular fancy, and lermontov has written a very pretty poem based on the legend. it is said that this tamara (not to be confounded with the good tamara), was very beautiful, and that she used to invite all the handsome young men who passed that way to come up and live with her, promising them all the delights that heart could wish for; after one night of bliss the unfortunate gentleman was deprived of his head, and was then thrown down into the terek, which bore away his body. if the legend is not wrong in saying that the river carried away the corpses, the frolicsome monarch must have been comparatively constant during the summer months, or else the pile of wantons would soon have become large enough to frighten all the passion out of intending visitors, for in the month of june, terek would not float a respectably-sized cat. by the road-side is dariel fort, a romantic-looking place with old-fashioned battlemented towers; a few kazaks are quartered here, and must find the time hang very heavily on their hands. when you reach this fort it looks as if it were impossible to go beyond it, a mighty wall stretches right across the path; but the road follows the course of the river, indeed it is built in the river-bed, and winds along between awful cliffs whose summits are lost in the clouds, and whose flanks are seldom or never touched by a ray of sunlight. we sometimes hear of places where a handful of men could keep back an army, this is one of them; a touch would send down upon the road some of the heavy, overhanging masses of rock, and effectually close the pass. about fifty years ago an avalanche fell here, from the glacier of devdorak, and it was two years before the rubbish was all cleared away. when the new road is blocked by snow or carried away by floods, the old road, high up near the snow-line, has to be used. the scenery of this pass has been described by pushkin, lermontov, and many others, but it is one of the few places that do not disappoint the traveller, however much he may have expected. it must not be forgotten that the road through this narrow gorge is the only passable one that crosses the caucasian range; there are, it is true, one or two other tracks, but they are not practicable for wheeled carriages. in the most gloomy part of the defile the road crosses by a bridge to the left bank of the terek, and a few versts farther on we emerge into comparatively open ground at lars. i had, as usual, given my podorozhnaia (road-pass) to a stable-boy, with a request to get the horses ready without delay, and was sitting drinking tea, when i was astonished to hear behind me the long unfamiliar tones of my native language; i was still more surprised when i saw that the speaker was the starosta, or superintendent of the station (the government inspector, or smatritel, is the real chief). he told me that he had seen from my pass that i was english, and had taken the liberty to come and have a chat with me. he spoke english fluently, and has spent five years in london, has travelled in the united states, and is altogether a very pleasant fellow; he had only been at lars a year and a half, and during all that time had not seen an englishman. we parted very good friends, expecting to meet again when i returned from vladikavkaz. the village of lars, north of the post-house, is inhabited, among others, by some of the tagaur ossets, descended from tagaur, an individual who at a remote period was heir to the armenian throne, and fled to the mountains for fear of his younger brothers. their royal descent leads them to think themselves superior to the poor folk among whom they dwell, and they are cordially disliked by the latter. just outside the village is one of the towers which are so common all along the road; it doubtless yielded a handsome revenue to its owner in the good old days when every traveller had to pay a heavy toll for the privilege of passing one of these fortresses. we still keep close to the terek, which comes rushing down from dariel with a fall of one foot in every thirty. pushkin, comparing the terek with imatra, in finland, unhesitatingly declares the superiority of the former in grandeur. of course the surrounding scenery in the two cases is quite different, but as far as the rivers themselves are concerned, i must dissent from the poet, for i know no part of the terek worthy of comparison with the fall of the wuokses at imatra, which is the very materialization of the idea of irresistible, pitiless power. although the valley is now a little wider than it was a few miles to the south, the scenery still has the same grandeur and sternness until we pass between the rocks that come down close to either bank of the river, and come out into the plain in which stands fort djerakhovsk, a rectangular edifice, about feet long, which is fully garrisoned. we are not quite clear of the mountains, however, until we have passed balta, and have got within five versts of vladikavkaz. before us stretches a smooth, green plain as far as the eye can reach; the contrast is most striking; it is as if we had been suddenly transported from switzerland to holland. vladikavkaz, versts from tiflis, lies at the foot of the caucasus, at a height of feet. the best hotel is the pochtovaya, at the post-station; the frantsiya is also good. vladikavkaz means, in russian, "master of the caucasus" (cf. vladivostok, vladimir, &c.--root vlad is akin to german walt-en, gewalt); the cherkesses (circassians) call it kapkai, "gate of the mountains." it has a population of over , souls, chiefly russians, cherkesses, georgians, armenians, persians, besides a strong garrison. a fortress was built here in , but the town never became a trading centre of much importance until the war with shamil; even now one is astonished to see how little activity them is in a place through which nearly all the overland traffic between europe and western asia passes. several chimney stalks bear witness to the existence of industry, but the only manufactory of any size is a spirit distillery. the silver work of vladikavkaz is renowned throughout the whole caucasus, and is much used for dagger hilts and sheaths, belts, &c. the city is built on the banks of the terek, which is here crossed by several bridges; the best quarter is on the right bank, where there are cool, shady gardens by the waterside, and a very respectable-looking boulevard. a few of the streets are fairly well paved, and there are one or two comfortable-looking houses with pleasant grounds; but on the whole the place is not one that anybody would care to settle down in. were it not for the frequency with which one sees asiatic costumes, and hears asiatic tongues, and the fact that the frosty caucasus may be seen, apparently perpendicular, rising to its loftiest points, it would be easy to imagine oneself in some provincial town not versts from moscow, instead of being versts from it. when you have lounged in the gardens, and on the boulevard, visited the cathedral, which is still in course of construction, the market, the military school, and the old fortress, you have obtained all the diversion that is to be had in vladikavkaz, unless you are fortunate enough to find the little theatre open, and the best thing to be done is to take the morning train to the mineral waters station ( versts in nine hours) for the town called five mountains (pyatigorsk), about twenty versts from the railway, which for almost a hundred years has enjoyed the reputation of being the most fashionable inland watering-place in the russian empire. the kakhetian road--tiflis to signakh. a few days after my return from vladikavkaz, i made preparations for leaving tiflis. it was near the end of june, and the unbearable heat had driven away nearly all those who were free to go; all the highways leading out of the city were crowded with carts and carriages of every description, carrying household goods and passengers. my friends had contracted with some molokans (russian heretics), belonging to the colony of azamburi, for the removal of their furniture to signakh; the carriers had promised to come to our house at four o'clock in the morning, but it was nine o'clock before they put in an appearance, and then their carts were half full of other people's goods, a direct violation of the agreement. if any man ever needed the patience which is proverbially ascribed to the patriarch job, it is the man who has business dealings with the muscovite muzhik. you may assail him with all the abuse which your knowledge of his language will permit, you may strike him, you may calmly endeavour to persuade him with the most lucid logic--it is all to no purpose; taking off his cap to scratch his head, he looks at you with an assumption of childlike simplicity, and replies with a proverb more remarkable for its laconism than for its applicability to the matter under discussion. in this case we wrangled for a long time, and then, being unwilling to risk a stroke of apoplexy by getting into a rage, appealed to the majesty of the law, represented by a stalwart policeman, at whose command the carts were emptied forthwith, the contents being deposited on the roadside, and our effects were soon put in their place, and the whole caravan rattled down the hillside about two hours before noon. an hour later a four-horse carriage with springs arrived, and the four of us, my georgian host, a russian lady and gentleman, and myself, set out for kakheti. after descending through the narrow streets which lie between the erivan square and the river, we crossed the busy bridge, and mounted the steep bank on the other side, passing through the liveliest part of the persian quarter. by the time we had got clear of the suburb called the dogs' village, with its camels and caravanserais, we had overtaken the waggons; exchanging friendly salutations with our volunteer baggage-guard, we were soon rolling along the smooth, dusty road in the direction of orkhevi. on our right, down by the side of the kura, lay naftluk, with its beautiful vineyards and orchards, and beyond it the road to akstafa and erivan; on the distant southern horizon were the blue mountains of armenia. on our left hand rose a range of bare-looking hills of no great height. the region through which the kakhetian road passes is a flat, waterless, almost uninhabited steppe; the winds which sometimes sweep across it are so violent that it is the custom to seek shelter from them by building the houses in the ground, with the roof on a level with the road. twenty years ago the "society for the re-establishment of orthodox christianity in the caucasus" obtained from the late tsar a large concession of land near kara yazi, and spent , roubles on the construction of a canal for irrigation (mariinskii kanal); the scheme was never completely carried out, and the results obtained have not hitherto been such as to encourage the society, although a few nestorians, assyrian christians, have been induced to settle in this unhealthy land. there are still unmistakable signs of the fact that in ancient times all this steppe was watered from the kura by an elaborate system of irrigation, which must have made the country very fertile; now the whole tract is an almost unbroken wilderness, where the antelope wanders, unharmed by any hunter. at orkhevi there is nothing but the station-house, and those whose only experience of posting has been derived from the military road between tiflis and vladikavkaz, are likely to be unpleasantly surprised at the primitive appearance of this traveller's rest. a bare, dirty room, with two wooden benches and a table, the walls tastefully decorated with official notices, among which the most prominent is one in four languages warning farmers against the phylloxera, thereon portrayed in all the various phases of its development. such is my remembrance of orkhevi. the only refreshment obtainable is a samovar (tea-urn) of boiling water, from which you can make your own tea if you have the necessary ingredients with you. a former journey along this road had already made me familiar with all the little discomforts and privations which must be undergone by the visitor to kakheti, so i was not disappointed. none of the stations are any better all the way to signakh, and he who does not bring with him his own food for the journey is likely to have a very good appetite by the time he reaches his destination. the sun had now reached the meridian, and beat down upon us with terrible force, for our carriage was an open one; we were half-choked with the dust, a thick white layer of which covered us from head to foot; on either side lay bare, brown fields, baked hard as stone, and deeply fissured; no water anywhere; the only thing which broke the monotony of the scene was the occasional passage of a train of arbas, laden with huge, bloated-looking ox-skins, full of wine. the arba is the national vehicle of georgia, and is said to have been used as a chariot by the ancient kings; it is constructed entirely of wood; there is not so much as a nail or pin of metal in it; the wheels are generally made of one piece of timber, and for this reason the arba is allowed to travel on the highways without paying the tolls which are imposed on carts with tires; a pair of oxen draw the cart, and the creaking of it may be heard afar off. parched with thirst, and almost stifled with dust, we were glad to reach vaziani, where we spread our cloaks under an oak-tree by the side of a spring, and proceeded to make a good lunch, after which we slept for a while. in the afternoon we left vaziani, and soon passed through the prosperous german colony of marienfeld, with its neat, homely cottages, shaded by fine poplar-trees. the vicinity of the river iora makes this a very fertile spot, cool and inviting even in the middle of summer. a little before reaching marienfeld we saw, on the left, the road to telav, and the kakhetian hills now seem to slope down very quickly to meet our road, but we know that we shall have to travel many a weary verst before we reach them. in the evening, at about six o'clock, we arrived at azamburi, a russian village not far from the station of sartachali. it had been agreed that we should spend the night here, so we alighted at the postoyalii dvor, or inn. azamburi is exactly like any other russian village, a long, dirty, double row of wretched hovels. each farmer has his house and buildings arranged round a square courtyard, in the midst of which lie carts, pigs, agricultural produce, and filth of all kinds. the inhabitants are molokans; some account of the religious opinions of these people will be found in mr. d. m. wallace's well-known work on russia; they have no priests nor sacraments, neither smoke nor drink, do not swear, and pay great reverence to the bible, a copy of which may be seen on a shelf in the living-room of every house. they are not at all attractive, either in physiognomy or conversation; their awful stupidity and ugliness are all the more powerfully felt from the contrast which the native population presents to them. their choice of a piece of ground for colonization would be inexplicable did we not remember their peculiar religious convictions; they have chosen the very worst place in the whole plain; the only drinking water in the neighbourhood is very bad, so bad that the tea made from it is almost undrinkable, even by people accustomed to kura water. quite near the village are stinking, stagnant marshes, which must make the place terribly unhealthy. after dinner we went outside to smoke, for the molokan will not suffer the mildest cigarette in his house, and even in the depth of winter the visitor who smokes must burn his weed in the open air. returning along the road for some little distance, followed by a crowd of children, who, evidently, had never before seen a lady in european dress, we mounted a little hill, whence we saw in the distance our baggage-waggons slowly approaching. in re-entering the village we overtook a farmer with an english reaping-machine; this man was less taciturn than his neighbours, and of his own accord entered into conversation with us; he was loud in his praises of the reaper, and said that the man who invented a certain part of it (a patent screw, i think) ought to be "kissed behind the ear." we tried to interest him in a pet idea of our own, viz., that village communities should buy machinery collectively, but we regret to say that we could not make a convert of him. it was nine o'clock before our young friend, prince giorgi, arrived with the goods under his charge; and while we were at supper much merriment was caused by his vain endeavours to check himself in the use of the word chort (the devil!), a pet expression of his, but strictly forbidden in the houses of all good molokans. the night being fine, although the air was cool, we made up our minds to sleep outside rather than risk the onslaughts of the molokan fleas, and we chose for our bivouac a thrashing-floor about a hundred yards from the house; here we lay down, wrapped in our burkas, and smoked and chatted until we fell asleep. but we were not to have a quiet night; we were roused by the attack of some ferocious dogs; we beat them off several times, but the numbers ever increased, until all the canine population of azamburi was howling round us. we were on foot at three o'clock, and, waking up the drivers, got the horses harnessed and started for kakabeti. in the early morning air flitted beautiful birds with wings as brilliant as those of butterflies, and butterflies as big as birds. it was not so terribly hot as i had found it some weeks before, when i passed through kakabeti in the afternoon, but it was still close enough to make us long for a breath of the mountain air. this region is swampy, and the fevers make it uninhabitable. kakabeti offers nothing of interest. the same wearisome plain stretches all the way to kajereti, near which is the hospitable abode of one of the andronikov family. we spent four hours there, and did not leave the station until an hour after noon. passing the inviting-looking post-road to bakurtsikhe, on our left, we kept to the plain for a while; then rapidly rising to the village of nukriani, signakh came into view at the top of the hill, and the lovely woodlands at our feet seemed all the more beautiful on account of the bare, monotonous character of the parched plain where we had spent the last two days. descending by a zigzag road, we entered the town, and, passing along the main street, through the market-place, soon reached the very edge of the steep, high hill which rises from the alazana valley. signakh. our new home turned out to be a very delightful place,--large, lofty rooms, two balconies; at the back, vineyards and gardens stretching far down the hillside. the view was more beautiful than any i had ever seen or imagined. the house was built on the edge of a deep, narrow ravine, the steep sides of which were covered with vines and mulberry-trees all the way down to the alazana valley, a smooth, fertile plain thirty miles broad. on the opposite side of the ravine, to the left, stood a very extensive fortification with ruined towers, a stronghold of some importance during the war with shamil; behind this could be seen the armenian church and the outskirts of the town. straight in front lay the grand caucasian mountains, rising like a wait from the plain, their glittering snow-clad tops dividing the dark forests on their flanks from the deep blue of the summer sky. in the midst of the plain flowed the silvery alazana, in its winding course dividing the cultivated land on this side from the virgin forest beyond. along the nearer edge lay scattered hamlets with their neat little white churches; farther off might be seen a wood, which we always thought of as that of the sleeping beauty. from the heights of signakh it does not look large, but it is six miles in diameter, and the underwood is so thick that it can only be penetrated by cutting a path with axes; it is full of all sorts of wild beasts and dangerous reptiles. in the distance on the left may be seen the mountains on which telav is situated; to the extreme right a few huts on the river bank indicate the position of the alazana bridge, and beyond this begins the long sandy steppe which stretches in unbroken barrenness to the caspian. signakh is versts to the eastward of tiflis, and stands about feet above the plain of the alazana. the population is over , , the majority being armenian shop-keepers, usurers, &c. the name signifies "city of refuge," and the place was founded and fortified in the last century, in order to serve as a retreat for the country people in times of lesghian raids. the fortress consists of a very large piece of ground enclosed by high walls, with towers at regular intervals, and the whole city used to be within these walls. the post-road to bakurtsikhe runs through the stronghold, and about sunset all the wealth and beauty of signakh may be seen promenading on the highway, for this is "the boulevard;" on sunday afternoon wrestling goes on merrily to the sound of the pipe and drum. at present the military importance of signakh is almost at an end, but if russia should ever find herself involved in a great war we might probably hear something of the doings of the lesghians in that region. the garrison is very small. the club is the centre of all the social life of signakh, and on saturday evenings there are informal dances, to which the stranger looks forward as a welcome break in the monotony of provincial life. the gostinnitsa "nadezhda" (hope inn), which we nicknamed "grand hôtel de kakhétie," is dirty and uninviting to a degree which europeans could hardly imagine possible; but it is the best hostelry in the town. the court-house is just opposite the inn, and i remember spending a very interesting evening there on one occasion, watching the trial of georgians, tatars, armenians, by a russian justice of the peace in a gorgeous uniform. the cases were settled with a rapidity to which the high court of chancery is a stranger. altogether, signakh is a dirty but highly picturesque little town; its streets are narrow, crooked, and ill-paved, the shops, as is usual in the east, are small, open rooms, in which saddlers, tailors, and smiths may be seen plying their respective trades; all round about the town are beautiful hills covered with oak, walnut, and other tall forest-trees. the only other place it reminded me of was amalfi, and even in this case the resemblance was but slight. on one of the neighbouring hills, at bodbé, is the monastery of st. nina. this venerable relic stands in one of the finest pieces of scenery in all kakheti, and is surrounded by a thick forest, which has from the earliest times been protected from destruction by a popular tradition, declaring that he who breaks off a branch therein will die within the same year. the monastery was originally built by king mirian immediately after the death of the apostle of georgia, and her tomb may still be seen in the present church, which, according to an inscription on one of the walls, was restored by a certain king giorgi, after the country had been laid waste by tamerlan. in the sacristy are many old manuscripts, amongst which there are doubtless some of great historical interest, but, as far as i know, they have not yet been catalogued. on the occasion of my visit to bodbé i passed a wine-shop, where three or four georgians were making merry; they pressed me to stay and drink with them, but, offering them my thanks, i begged to be excused on the ground of want of time. on my return they came out, hat in hand, to the middle of the road, and presented me with a goblet, which i could not refuse to drain without giving serious displeasure to my kind entertainers. this little incident is a very good illustration of the georgian character: when the georgian is merry, everybody else must share his jollity or he is unhappy. i have seen a squire quite unnecessarily leave a scene of revelry for a minute or two in order to heap up food in his horse's manger, so that the faithful beast might share in the universal joy. a trip across the alazana. bakurtsikhe--kartuban--lagodekh. by daily excursions among the sloping vine-clad hills i soon made myself familiar with kakheti, the garden of georgia; at kodalo i had shared the munificent hospitality of the andronikovs, at bakurtsikhe that of the vachnadzes; but i had never been in the wild country beyond the alazana, and it was with pleasure that i accepted the invitation of the princes vachnadze to accompany them on their yearly visit to their estates at kartuban, on the river kabalo, at the foot of the mountains on the other side of the plain. accordingly, on a certain bright summer morning our cavalcade might have been seen winding down the steep main street of signakh. the first halting-place was to be bakurtsikhe, seventeen versts from signakh, where we had been invited to meet a large company of kakhetian squires and ladies at dinner. our path, for some miles after leaving the town, lay in the dry bed of a torrent. the remembrance of the wild, beautiful scenery of that narrow gorge still fills me with delightful emotions. it was the scene of so many pleasant rides--in the fierce heat of the noonday sun, in the cool of evening, after midnight on stormy nights, when we had returned homewards drenched with rain, our path illumined only by dazzling flashes of lightning. as we picked our way among the stones we met many a courteous gentleman, most of them clad in the same circassian garb as ourselves, but not a few, especially the older men, in the true national garb--a short tunic, with long flaps of cloth hanging from the shoulders; a dress said to resemble the ancient polish costume. each raised his tall papakh of astrakhan fur, and, with graceful bow, saluted us, after the manner of the country, with the word gamardjwéba, which is, being interpreted, "i wish thee the victory," to which we answered gaguimardjos--"may god grant thee the victory." these salutations are as eloquent as a dozen volumes of history. i never heard them without thinking of the sad but glorious past of the georgian kingdom, nobly holding its own, unaided, and witnessing for christ and his cross against all the hosts of islam, performing prodigies of valour that would have added to the fame of greece or rome. god grant thee the victory, brave georgia! emerging from the glen, we joined the post road at anaga, and our impatient horses set off at a gallop. on we sped through the well-kept vineyards of a russian capitalist, count sheremetiev, who threatens to ruin all the poor squires of the district by selling his wines under cost price. at a little village, about half-way between signakh and bakurtsikhe, two of us had far outstripped the rest, and were racing neck to neck when my companion's horse cast a shoe; so leaving him at a roadside smithy, i went on alone. the fierce summer sun stood high in the blue arch of heaven; on my left were vine-clad crags; to the right, beyond the river, rose the white peaks of the mountain wall between me and europe. but i thought not of europe. i forgot kindred, country, humanity--everything. my horse and i were one, and we were merged in that great, living ocean of life--our mother earth. my pulse beat in harmony with the heart of nature herself, keeping time with the rippling rills, the whisper of the wandering airs to the leaves of the trembling trees. i had entered a blissful nirvana, in which all consciousness of self was swallowed up in the world's soul. i had ridden half a mile beyond the point whence i should have ascended by a bridle-path to our host's house, before the cool shade of a cliff aroused me from my state of forgetfulness. it was on the summit of this cliff that my friends had recently met their tenants to discuss some little differences that had arisen between them. honest folk do not like law-courts--especially russian law-courts--so the good kakhetians decided to settle their dispute in the old-fashioned, orthodox manner. a couple of horses were killed, and a good many men on either side were pretty severely hacked and bruised; but the landlords came off victorious. they, nevertheless, agreed to grant certain concessions to the farmers, so all left the field of battle delighted with one another. it is only just to say that this case was an exceptional one. the relations between the gentry and peasantry are excellent; they are on terms of such affectionate familiarity that the latter always address their prince by his pet name. soon after noon we were all enjoying the hospitality of our friend. when i say hospitality, i am not using the word in its conventional sense; a georgian displays towards his guest such courtesy and kindness as are unknown among european peoples. other friends soon arrived, and at three o'clock, the usual dinner-hour, a score of us sat down to dine in a shady arbour on the hillside. the dishes were purely oriental; rich pilavi (rice cooked with fruits, pistachio nuts, &c.), shishlik (a choice cut of mutton roasted on a silver skewer over a yard long, on which it is served up), and many another delicacy, the thought of which makes my mouth water even now. the wine deserves special mention. kakheti has one of the finest soils in the world for grape-growing, and any kind of wine, including fine champagne, can be produced there. unfortunately, the people in general have not yet become acquainted with the methods by which wine has to be "manipulated" in order to make it at once agreeable to a european palate. some of the best brands are not, however, open to this objection, and are largely sold in petersburg and moscow, but they are not so well known as they deserve to be. merchants discourage the introduction of new wines, as our australian and south african fellow-subjects know to their cost; but the day will undoubtedly come when caucasian vintages will be known and appreciated. the drinking habits of the georgians are interesting. a toastmaster (tolumbash) is always chosen, and it is his duty to propose the health of each guest in turn. to those who do not drain their glasses before the time for the next toast has arrived, the tolumbash cries alaverdi! to which the laggard replies, yakhsheol, and immediately finishes the draught, in order to escape the penalty of swallowing a large hornful of liquor at a breath. these words are of tatar origin, and commemorate a brave tatar named alaverdi, who fell in a battle between the georgians and persians. the glasses contain a quarter of a pint, and the stranger who sits down with a score of friends is somewhat apprehensive as to the condition in which he will leave the table. luckily, the wine is nothing but pure grape-juice, and a person with a tolerably strong head can dispose of two or three quarts of it without feeling much the worse. each toast is accompanied by the singing of a grand old song called mraval djamier ghmerthma inebos (may god grant thee many years), to which the person thus honoured must sing the reply, madlobeli vart (i thank you). i have transcribed the song in the appendix. the ladies drink water scarcely coloured with wine. our dinner lasted more than two hours, and concluded with some miscellaneous toasts, among which those of england and her queen were received with the greatest enthusiasm. then, after tea, the guests amused themselves with music and dancing, and nightfall found us all, young and old, chasing one another about on the hillside in the games of cat-and-mouse and blindman's buff. it was past midnight before we retired to rest; some of us lay on the low, carpet-covered takhti, or divans, which in georgia replace beds, while those who preferred it slept out on the green, wrapped up in their cloaks. it had been arranged that we should start for the alazana on the following morning at four o'clock, in order to escape the terrible midday heat of the low-lying plains by the river-side; but when we rose we found that a couple of the horses had disappeared, and this delayed us for two or three hours. at length we started, and, waving farewells to all our good friends at bakurtsikhe, we proceeded down the long slope to the plain. there were six of us, besides a servant, and we were armed to the teeth, after the manner of the country, with daggers, pistols, swords, and rifles--not an unnecessary precaution, for we saw ploughmen with a double-barrelled gun slung over the shoulder, and sword and dagger at the girdle, while a man stood at the end of the furrow ready to give the alarm. these fertile lands are only half tilled. the wild lesghian marauders come down upon the farms, and steal all that can be carried away, and in the event of a war they would simply burn up the whole country to the very gates of tiflis. it was a weary journey down to the river-bank, and we did not reach the ferry until noon. the ferryman lives in a hut a good way from the river, and it was only after firing half a dozen shots in the air that we succeeded in attracting his attention. that half-hour of waiting among the reeds, with the sun right overhead, was the warmest half-hour i ever spent. at length the ferry-boat, a long tree-trunk with the inside burnt out of it, came across the stream, and we took our saddles and bridles and laid them in it. the horses had, of course, to swim, and it was a long and difficult task to get them all over. the current is very strong, and it was a subject for congratulation that none of them were carried away by it. excepting at the ferry, the banks are so steep that it is impossible to land. when all had safely reached the other side we lay down under the shade of the trees, and lunched off cucumbers and coarse bread, washed down by the white kakhetian wine, of which we carried a full sheepskin. the hottest part of our day's work was over; instead of burnt, shadowless plains we should now have the sunless forest to ride through until we reached our halting-place for the night. but we well knew that we should not be in clover for the rest of the day, for we had often been told that this wood was infested by a horse-fly of a very malignant character, and as we rode along the northward path we had an opportunity of making the acquaintance of the insect in question. within a mile of the bank we were surrounded by swarms of them, and the horses, becoming more and more restless, at last went perfectly mad with pain, while the blood dripped plentifully from their flanks. to think of holding them in by bit and bridle was out of the question, the only thing to be done was to let them gallop ahead and to keep a sharp look-out for the many boughs that overhung the scarcely perceptible track. although georgia is not in the tropics, this was a truly tropical forest with all its luxuriant and beautiful vegetation; walnut and other fancy woods abound, but they are allowed to fall and rot unutilized; the undergrowth on either hand is so thick as to be impenetrable; on all sides are masses of strange, bright flowers, making the air heavy with perfume, and birds of dazzling plumage sit chattering on every tree. about an hour before sunset we reached the river kabalo, a swift, shallow mountain stream, which we forded, and then rode up a fine glade to the encampment of my friends' tatar herdsmen. about a score of families live there all the summer in large tents, which are not altogether devoid of comfort; in the interior may be seen carpeted divans, gold and silver ornaments are not uncommon, and the copper household utensils are thoroughly artistic in shape and beautifully engraved. we dismounted at the chief man's tent, and, lying down on the greensward, waited impatiently for dinner. the fare was abundant and good, as was to be expected in a country so rich in game and fish, and we slaked our thirst with cool kumiss (fermented mare's milk). the tatars are fine, bold-looking fellows; there is in their faces a look of wild freedom that is extremely attractive to one who has spent the most of his life in cities. i believe that if i had stayed a week or two in that camp on the kabalo, i should have been content to renounce civilized life altogether. a very houri, a gazelle of the wilderness, a sixteen-year old maiden in red tunic and wide trousers, with long dark hair in countless tiny braids and pretty little white bare feet and ankles, cast timid glances in our direction, and lovely, languorous eyes said as plainly as possible, "fly to the desert! fly with me" ... and many other things which the curious reader may find recorded in the works of the late mr. thos. moore. at nightfall we rode away, accompanied by a few tatars, to visit the large herds of horses and cattle which feed near here, and then proceeded to the little cluster of cottages where the georgian farm-labourers live, about a couple of miles higher up the river. we were received by the steward, a greek from cilicia, and after chatting merrily over our tea for a few hours, we spread our burkas on the ground and slept as well as the clouds of fierce mosquitoes would allow us to do, under the starlit sky, lulled by the music of the stream. about an hour before dawn the cold aroused us all, and after a bath in the icy waters of the kabalo, and a hasty breakfast, we visited the farm-buildings. tobacco is the chief commodity produced, but its cultivation is at present rather unprofitable; i saw three hundred bales of the finest leaves of last year's growth lying in the store unsold; it is quite equal to turkish, and can be bought at a ridiculously low price, but it is not yet known in europe, even in russia "batumskii tabak" has only recently been introduced, although it is far superior to that which is grown on the don. georgian landowners cannot afford to push the sale of their wares in europe, but i am sure that if english firms would send out buyers they would not regret it, unless they dealt with the wily armenian middle-man instead of the georgian producer. the fear of the lesghian robber-bands prevents any great outlay of capital in the development of such a district, and, indeed, nobody in georgia has much capital to spare, so the greater part of the estate i am speaking of, hundreds of square miles in extent, is a pathless forest. by eight o'clock we were in the saddle. the path rises through thick woodlands to the summit of a hill crossed by a narrow, rocky pass which has an unpleasant reputation as being the haunt of brigands; only a few weeks before, a party of travellers had been attacked there, two of their number were wounded, and they were all relieved of their purses, jewellery, and arms. we were within half a mile of the top when we perceived a lesghian prowling about a little in advance of us. we halted, unslung our fire-arms and loaded, then extending for attack, as far as the nature of of the country would allow, we went forward at a quick walking pace. we soon caught sight of three more lesghians, but this was evidently the whole force, for they contented themselves with looking at us from a distance, and seeing that the odds were in our favour, they galloped away into the depths of the forest, and left us to pursue our journey unmolested. climbing to the summit of the hill, we enjoyed a splendid view of the alazana valley from the opposite side to that whence we had been accustomed to see it; behind us rose the white peaks of the caucasus, looking very near in the clear morning air. a little way off the blue smoke rising from among the trees showed us where our friends, the highwaymen, were cooking their breakfast. to the eastward, almost at the foot of the hill, lay the russian military colony of mikhailovka, to which we descended. mikhailovka is fairly prosperous compared with other russian colonies in transcaucasia, but to a european it does not seem an arcadia; it is one wide, straggling street of poor, dirty-looking farmhouses. the colonists have to struggle with fever and ague, not to speak of lesghians, and altogether do not seem to enjoy their life very much. mikhailovka is the point at which the military road from signakh turns to the eastward, and about five miles farther on arrives at lagodekh, the staff head-quarters of an army corps, into which we rode about an hour before noon. lagodekh is a place of some size, with wide, clean streets and large grassy squares, planted with fine trees, the houses are neat and comfortable-looking. swift mountain streams run through it and supply delicious water. the public buildings comprise barracks, hospital, stores, a fine church of red sandstone, a modest club-house, bazar, &c. we made our way to the quarters of an officer of the th, whose hospitality we enjoyed until evening. in spite of the terrible heat, our host showed us everything worth seeing. the park is the great attraction, it is beautifully kept, and contains a fine long avenue of tall poplars; in the middle of it is a pavilion with the garrison ball-room, and near the entrance may be seen a small cemetery where there is a real, old-fashioned ghost, which, under the semblance of a white lady carrying a cross, affrights the local tommy atkins every year in the month of june. i commend this sprite to the attention of the psychical research society, and i am quite willing to proceed to lagodekh and spend a month there in investigating the matter--at the society's expense. the troops suffer a good deal in the summer months, and there are many casualties from apoplexy, dysentery, and other complaints. early in the afternoon we sat down to dinner, and did full justice to the fare. my neighbour on the right was the brother of a charming lady whom i had met in tiflis, and it so happened that he had that very day received from her a letter in which i was spoken of, for englishmen are rare birds in these lands. this gentleman had wandering proclivities almost as strong as my own, and he informed me that he thought of travelling overland by merv to india, "where the english pay private soldiers as much as the russians pay a captain." after dinner we all slept for an hour, and then, the heat having slightly diminished, we started for mikhailovka. a bear hunt was to take place on the following day, and we were urgently pressed to stay and take part in it, but we had to be back in signakh within the next twenty-four hours, and were therefore obliged to deny ourselves this pleasure. before we were clear of lagodekh somebody had the unfortunate idea of starting a wild gallop, but the spot was badly chosen, for a sudden turn in the road brought us to a river with a wide, stony bed. the leading horse threw his rider into the very middle of the stream, i was deposited on a heap of big stones on the other side; all the rest, warned by our mishap, escaped. it took over an hour to catch the runaway horses, and when we reached mikhailovka i felt as if i had passed through a thrashing-mill, every bone was aching. our camping-ground was under a large oak-tree, behind a peasant's house, and we lay there on the ground, a prey to the mosquitoes, until early morning. at half-past four we were in the saddle, and after a stirrup-cup of russian vodka, galloped down the smooth, well-kept military road towards the alazana, occasionally glancing back at the beautiful hill country behind us. i felt all my many bruises with double force after the night's rest, and it was as much as i could do to keep my seat, not to speak of emulating the exploits of my companions, who were amusing themselves with shots at the hares and feathered game with which the country abounds. at length, at about eight o'clock, we reached the chiauri bridge, a shaky-looking wooden structure. there is a wretched little wine-shop, where we dismounted for breakfast. a fine fish of fifteen pounds' weight, with some of the coarse, indiarubber-like bread of the country, formed the solid part of the meal; i need not say what the liquid part of it was; we emptied our sheepskin and then fell back on mine host's supplies. the river, in summer at least, is sluggish and dirty, and has an evil smell of decaying vegetable matter, very suggestive of malarial fever; if our acquaintance with the alazana had been confined to this portion of it, we should have been at a loss to understand the high praise which has been bestowed on it by all the sweet singers of rustaveli's land. we spent a couple of hours in rest and refreshment, and then started for home across the broad plain yellow with ripe grain. noon saw us begin the toilsome ascent of the hills of signakh, and an hour later we were lying on our balcony dreamily smoking cigarettes of kartuban tobacco, while we mentally retraced every step of our delightful journey among the fair scenes which now lay spread at our feet. signakh to telav, and thence to tiflis. my stay in kakheti was so pleasant that i found it very hard to leave. my good friends there insisted that i should marry a georgian lady and settle down as a country squire, to grow wine and drink it among them for the remainder of my natural life; when i finally decided upon the day for my departure they pressed me to stay, at least, until the vintage-time, but i still had much ground to go over, and i had made up my mind to return to england before winter set in. one morning in july i said good-bye to signakh, and set out in a post-cart for telav. as far as bakurtsikhe the road was quite familiar to me; it had never seemed so beautiful as it did when i said farewell to it. then came kalaki, which like bakurtsikhe, is full of members of the vachnadze family, and gurdjani, one of the villages belonging to the andronikovs. the andronikovs are descended from a byzantine prince who fled to georgia during the reign of queen tamara; they have always been distinguished for bravery and munificence, the two virtues which are most appreciated in this country; in the present century they have produced a general worthy to rank with any who have ever served the tsars. i may say, in passing, that it is astonishing to find what a large percentage of the great military leaders in the russian army have been and are of georgian birth. another curious circumstance is that some of the best families in georgia are of foreign origin; the bagrats, the royal family, were once hebrews, and claim to be descended from david, the son of jesse; the orbelianis, the second family in the kingdom, came from china; the andronikovs, as we have just remarked, were originally greeks. near gurdjani is akhtala, a muddy hollow in which are slime baths, resorted to by persons suffering from rheumatism, scrofula, and many other diseases; the baths are simply round holes full of mud, in the middle of which an evil-smelling gas slowly bubbles up; the largest bath of all is reserved for cattle. i need hardly say that all the bathing goes on al fresco, for nobody has thought of building a hydropathic establishment in this remote corner of the caucasus. akhtala has, of course, its legend. it is said that a farmer was once working in his vineyard on the feast of the transfiguration, when a passer-by asked him why he was not at church on so holy a day. the scoffer replied that he had seen enough of transfigurations, he and his wife had been transfigured into old people, and their children into men and women; the wayfarer, who was none other than our lord, said, "well, you shall see yet another transfiguration," whereupon the ground opened, and belched forth a liquid mass, which swallowed up the vineyard, with the sinner and all his household. the road continues to run parallel to the alazana, and the next station is mukuzani, seventeen versts from bakurtsikhe, near which is the flourishing town of velistsikhe. all this region is a fertile, well-cultivated plain, and there are many villages renowned for their wines; the peasants of the telav district are much wealthier than those near signakh. akuri, fourteen versts from mukuzani, is the last station. the city of telav is now visible on the top of a hill straight in front, and it has a very picturesque appearance. about half a dozen miles beyond akuri, in a beautiful valley, is tsinondal, formerly the home of prince david chavchavadze, but now the property of alexander alexandrovich, autocrat of all the russias, for whom a vast palace was being built at the time of my visit. the tsar would be far safer here than at gachina, for there are no anarchists among the georgians, and i cannot account for the rumour that it was proposed to exile a large number of the young nobles, in order to assure the monarch's safety during his sojourn in the caucasus. tsinondal is famous as the scene of one of the most dramatic incidents of the war with shamil, viz., the capture of princesses chavchavadze and orbeliani in july, . on account of rumours of lesghian raids the chavchavadze family had not left tiflis for their estates until the month of july. they arrived safely at tsinondal, and were soon joined by nina chavchavadze's sister, princess varvara orbeliani, whose husband had just been killed while fighting against the turks. they were but newly settled in their summer quarters, when prince chavchavadze received orders to go and take the command of a fortress some distance from home. before leaving, he reassured his family by telling them that reinforcements were about to be sent to telav, and that the alazana was so high that the enemy could not cross it. in a few days the prince wrote to his wife to say that he was besieged by a force of five or six thousand lesghians, but had no fear of the place being taken; if he thought it advisable for his family to leave tsinondal, he would let them know. meanwhile the lesghians were nearer than was imagined, and the flames from burning villages in the neighbourhood soon warned the family that no time was to be lost. first of all the peasants came and begged the princess to fly to the woods with them; then the gentry of the district offered their aid for the same purpose, but these offers were declined; her husband had told her to stay there, and there she would stay. at length, the advance of the enemy had proceeded so far in the direction of tsinondal, that the princess consented to have all her plate and jewels packed up one night, ready for flight on the morrow; but it was too late. soon after dawn the lesghians were in the gardens of the castle. the family doctor and a handful of servants gallantly held the gate for a few minutes, but they were soon shot down, and the place was in the hands of the wild men of the mountains. the women and children sought refuge in a garret, whence they heard the smashing of mirrors, pianos, and other furniture. a few lesghians soon discovered the hiding-place of the terrified family, and each seized a woman or child as his share of the booty. as they bore away their prisoners the staircase broke under their weight, and all fell in a confused heap on the lower floor. then there was a murderous fight for the possession of the ladies; their garments were torn to shreds, and some of them were wounded. the conquerors picked up the senseless victims from a heap of dead lesghians, and forced them to mount on horseback behind them. the passage of the alazana was accomplished with great danger, and when they reached the other side the half-naked ladies were wet, chilled, and miserable. strange to tell, princess baratov, a beautiful girl of eighteen, had not lost any article of dress, and was as richly attired as if she had been on her way to a ball. but poor mdme. drançay, the french governess, had nothing left but a chemise and a corset. a handful of georgians attempted a rescue; the lesghians mistook them for the skirmishers in advance of an army, and fled. princess nina chavchavadze had an infant in her arms, and after riding for some distance she was so wearied that the baby fell and was trampled under the horses' feet. she would have leaped after it, but her captor held her fast, and another man coolly cut the child's throat. finding the number of prisoners too large, the lesghians killed sixty of them on the road. all the villages on the way were burned, and their inhabitants butchered. then they mounted through a thick forest and up among the mountains to pokhalski, where shamil was staying with an army of ten thousand men. there they were joined by a new prisoner, niko chavchavadze, who, with thirty georgians, had held a castle for three days against five hundred lesghians, and only surrendered when he had not a cartridge left. shamil ordered the princess to write to tiflis saying that all the prisoners would be handed over to russia in exchange for his son, djemal eddin, and a fair ransom. in the meantime the ladies had to make themselves veils of muslin, and they lived in the harem of shamil. they were, however, treated honourably, and they always had the highest respect for the great warrior and prophet. eight months elapsed before the negotiations were concluded, and on the th of march, , the exchange took place at kasafiurte. djemal eddin, shamil's son, had since his early youth been held as a hostage at petersburg. he was a most amiable man; had become perfectly russian in his way of life, and spoke russian, french, and german fluently; he was colonel of a regiment, and aide-de-camp to the tsar. it was with deep regret that he left civilization to return to the wild life of his native mountains, and in he died of a broken heart. mounting the sloping tsivi hills, the road enters telav by the boulevard, at one end of which is the inn; but on my applying for lodgings i was told that the house was under repair, and travellers could not be entertained. i was recommended to go to "the club." at the club the room offered me was so dirty and cheerless that i decided to make the post-house my headquarters. it was only one o'clock in the afternoon, and i determined to have an early dinner. in a town like telav, thought i, it will be possible to get something to eat. i first addressed myself to the postmaster, who replied that boiling-water was the only refreshment he could offer me, but held out the hope that i might get dinner in the town. i wandered up and down the streets for an hour, hungry, thirsty, and hot, and then found a dirty eating-house where i refreshed myself with vodka, eggs, wine, and bread. it took three quarters of an hour to boil the eggs! i leave the reader to imagine whether my first impressions of telav were favourable or not. i returned to the station and slept. it was beginning to get cooler before i went to examine the objects of interest in the town. telav, the capital of the ancient kingdom of kakheti, lies in a very strong position on two hills, about feet above the alazana. it was founded by king grigal i., first king of kakheti, destroyed by the persians under shah abbas in the sixteenth century, and rebuilt by irakli ii. the present population is about eight or nine thousand. in going from the post-house to the centre of the town i passed through a gateway in the old wall, which used to surround the whole city, and is of great antiquity. on the left is the palace of irakli ii., now used as a grammar-school for young gentlewomen, and in it may be seen the room where the old hero died, on january th, . there are a couple of interesting old churches, containing curious pictures and ornaments of a certain artistic value. the main street is well paved, and has a long arcade under which are the chief shops. telav is much more cheerful than signakh, although the population is smaller, and there are comparatively few armenians. from a low bridge across the dry bed of a torrent, one gets a splendid view over the alazana to the caucasian range and the country of the tushes. when i had seen all the sights of telav, i felt bored to death, and was just preparing to leave the boulevard for a walk in the country, when a handsome boy of fourteen, in a cadet's uniform, ran up and welcomed me effusively. it was young prince m----, whom i had met in tiflis. he was soon followed by his father, a retired colonel, who has done good service for the great white tsar, and has been wounded more than once. although i had only seen him once or twice before, he reproached me for not coming to take up my quarters at his house, and repeatedly urged me to stay a few days with him. but i had made up my mind to leave for tiflis early on the following morning. we took a walk in the park called nadikari, given to the town by the vakhvakhovs, and enjoyed enchanting views of the alazana dale and the mountains. returning to my friend's house, we supped, and sat over our wine until past midnight. when i left for the post-house the grey-headed warrior and his pretty son embraced me and wished me every good thing. they insisted upon sending with me a servant who carried wine and bread for my journey. at four o'clock on the following morning i left my wooden couch, and seated myself in the stage-coach for tiflis. i only had two companions, an armenian trader of the most objectionable description, and a georgian schoolmaster on his way to odessa for a holiday. the latter was a very jolly fellow, and intelligent withal. he was an ardent champion of the doctrines of the first revolution, and of the modern principle of nationality. he soon entered into conversation with me. my unmistakably foreign accent immediately roused his curiosity, and when i told him that i was english he steadfastly refused to believe me, asserting that i was a mingrelian. the road passes through a few villages, and then, as it mounts by the side of the river, the houses become scarcer. on the right are many square holes in the face of a steep cliff; they are said, like those between tiflis and mtzkhet, to have been used as places of refuge in time of war, and they are approached from a monastery on the top of the hill. on the left is the monastery of the mother of god, a favourite resort of the people of telav. the track then runs along the bottom of the valley, on the right bank of the river turdo, amid rich woodland scenery. it takes a long time to mount to the summit of gambori. this winding road had only recently been opened to traffic, and there is no posting yet. the best means of conveyance is the daily coach, and it is a slow and uncomfortable vehicle. i had been advised to make a good meal at gambori station, and, as the coach waits there for half an hour, i entered the dukhan, or wine-shop, with this object in view. alas! nothing was to be had but vodka, tobacco, and matches! beyond gambori the scenery becomes quite english-looking for a time. there is abundance of game of all kinds, and i saw two fine deer run across the road behind us. climbing to a grassy knoll, bare of trees, we arrived at length at the pass of gambori, deservedly called cold mountain ( feet above sea level, and thirty-four versts from telav), and, leaving kakheti behind us, descended into the valley of the iora and the province of kartli. passing the ruined castle of verena, built in the fifth century by king gurgaslan, we enjoy an ever-changing view of indescribable loveliness all the way to lager. lager, as the name indicates, is a military post, and is of some importance on account of its position, about half-way between tiflis and telav; it is the summer quarters of a brigade. the garrison was not at that time very large, but there was some talk of increasing it; indeed, we met a couple of hundred men and half a dozen guns only a few versts beyond the village. the heat was terrible, and we could not help pitying the poor soldiers, who were cursing and sweating as they toiled up the mountain side. the radical schoolmaster began to descant on the advantages of universal disarmament, but he was interrupted by a good little peasant woman from the russian colony at lager, who replied that it was certainly very hard, but "if we had not a large army the english would come and make slaves of us all." the next station was udjarma, a fortress of great importance from the third century to the fifteenth, but now an uninteresting place, chiefly remarkable for the fact that the village graveyard is on the top of a very steep, isolated hill. from this point the road becomes dull; it crosses a bare, windy plain, and is as wearisome as the signakh road, which it meets near vaziani. the white church of st. david's was soon seen glittering in the sun; then orkhevi was passed, and not long after sunset we entered tiflis, hot, dusty, tired, and hungry, after our journey of versts. i spent two days in tiflis, where the heat had by that time become stifling; then i regretfully doffed my circassian garb, and again submitted to the bondage of the stiff linen collar. on the afternoon of the third day i was in baku. the history of georgia. georgian history may be said to begin with pharnavaz, the first king of the country, who reigned in the third century b.c. it is to him that the invention of the ordinary civil alphabet is commonly attributed. from this remote date down to the present time we have an almost unbroken narrative, the trustworthiness of which is proved by its agreement with the annals of other lands. those who are specially interested in the early history will find in the sequel such bibliographical references as will enable them to satisfy their curiosity; but the present sketch will be confined to the more modern period, beginning in the eleventh century a.d. in david ii., of the bagratid line, descended, if we are to believe tradition, from david the psalmist (note the harp and the sling in the royal arms of georgia), as well as from pharnavaz, came to the throne. during the reigns of his immediate predecessors the land had been mercilessly laid waste by the seldjukid turks; but the successes of the crusaders, and the temporary decline of the mahometan power in the east, enabled him to raise his country to a very high position. having boldly attacked the turks, and driven them out of every part of his dominions, he set himself to rebuild cities, fortresses, and churches, purged the state and the church of many abuses, and liberally encouraged education. these deeds have won for him the name of david the renewer. georgia enjoyed prosperity for the next hundred years, and then came the zenith of the national glory. in queen tamara succeeded her father, and reigned twenty-eight years, the happiest and most glorious period in the history of the country. the queen had the good fortune to be surrounded by wise counsellors and brave generals, but it is chiefly to her own virtues that her success is to be ascribed. the military exploits in which she was engaged spread her fame throughout the whole of asia. erzerum, dovin, trebizond, sinope, samsun, kars, and ani saw the triumph of the georgian arms, the renowned rokn eddin was signally defeated, and the persians were terror-stricken by her expedition to khorassan. yet she did not neglect home affairs; she was the orphan's mother, the widow's judge. religion was the moving force in everything that she did; when a large booty was captured, a portion of it was always set aside for the blessed virgin, and churches soon sprang up in every village. she daily spent much time in prayer, and made garments for the poor with her own fair, queenly hands. there is a tradition to the effect that she every day did as much work as would pay for her food, and although this is probably an exaggeration, it serves to show what the character of the queen was. her literary talents were of no mean order; when she had won a battle, she could, like deborah, tell forth her triumph in a sweet, glad song to the lord of hosts, and one, at least, of these psalms is still preserved; but it is chiefly as the inspirer and patroness of poets that she is famous. such fragments of her correspondence as we have before us reveal the fact that she was no mean diplomatist. one of them especially breathes forth a noble spirit of fearless faith. rokn eddin had raised an army of , men, and was preparing to march against georgia. before setting out he sent an ambassador to the queen, asking her to renounce christianity and become his wife, and concluding the letter with the threat that if she would not submit, he would come and make her his mistress. the ambassador who proposed such insolent terms would have been killed by tamara's courtiers if she had not protected him. she wrote back calmly, expressing her trust in god, and declaring her determination to destroy rokn eddin and his infidel hosts. she finishes with a truly womanly touch: "knowing how careless your men are, i do not return this by your messenger, but send one of my own servants with it." not contented with driving the mahometans out of her own land, she sent ambassadors to the christian communities in alexandria, libya, mount sinai, jerusalem, cyprus, greece, and rumania, to offer them help if they needed it; and in order to secure orthodoxy in the theology of her people, she commanded that a great disputation should be held between the doctors of the georgian and armenian churches. her private life was not free from trouble. three years after her accession she was prevailed upon to marry a russian prince, bogoliubovskoi, who had been driven out of his dominions in muscovy. this individual conducted himself towards his consort in a shameful manner, and, after enduring his indignities for a long time, she complained to the ecclesiastical authorities, who granted her a divorce. she had no children by her first husband, so the nobles of the kingdom pressed her to marry again, in order that she might have an heir. her beauty and her fame brought her suitors from the most distant lands. mahometans renounced their religion for her, and there were many that died for love of her. she chose prince david soslan, an osset, who, by his bravery and devotion, proved himself worthy to possess such a pearl among women, and she bore him a son, called giorgi lasha, in , and a daughter, rusudan, in . bogoliubovskoi, although he had been treated far beyond his deserts, twice invaded georgia, but without success. in , wearied by her continual campaigns, and sorrow-stricken at the death of her husband and her greatest general, tamara died, and left the throne to her son, giorgi lasha, at that time eighteen years of age. the young king was no sooner crowned than ganja revolted, and this was soon followed by a still greater calamity, the invasion of genghis khan. giorgi led , troops against the mongols, but was defeated. in the meantime the shah of persia had asked for the hand of the beautiful rusudan, and the shah of shirvan made a like demand. giorgi promised his sister to the latter, but he died in . rusudan now became queen, and rejected both suitors in favour of mogit eddin, lord of erzerum. the sultan of khorassan thereupon desolated georgia and took tiflis, and the persians and mongols together made terrible havoc for a time. rusudan at last submitted to the mongols, and sent her son to the great khan as a hostage. georgia had now sunk very low indeed, and in , on the death of rusudan, her son, david iv., and her nephew, david v., divided the kingdom between them. henceforth kartli and imereti were independent. for the next years we read of nothing but battles, sieges, raids, and in king alexander completely destroyed the unity of the kingdom by dividing it among his three sons. he gave kartli to vakhtang, imereti to dimitri, kakheti to giorgi. in course of time mingreli, guri, apkhazi, svaneti, all revolted, and the land became the prey of turks and persians alternately, although even in its distracted condition, its people never lost their bravery, and were always respected by their enemies. now and then the mahometans succeeded in conquering one or other of the provinces, but it was never long before they were driven out again, and fire and sword carried into their own land. towards the end of the sixteenth century we find the country divided between the two great mahometan powers, who had long made it their battle-field. mingreli, guri, saatabago, and imereti were held by the turks; kartli, kakheti, somkheti, and kartuban voluntarily submitted to persia, and were, in consequence, repeatedly devastated by the tatar allies of the ottoman empire. in king alexander ii. of kakheti sent ambassadors to the tsar feodor ivanovich, asking for help, and a treaty was signed, according to which the russian monarch agreed to protect kakheti against the turks, and to send troops to the caucasus for this purpose. shah abbas the great made no objection to this treaty, for he himself was anxious to gain the alliance of the muscovites against turkey. early in the seventeenth century king giorgi of kartli also sought russian protection, and it is probable that russia and georgia would have been brought into very intimate connection by royal marriages, &c., if the death of tsar boris godunov, and that of king giorgi, who was poisoned by order of shah abbas, had not broken off the negotiations. the persian shah, suspecting king alexander of kakheti of a treasonable correspondence with the turks, sent against him his (alexander's) own son, konstantin, who had been brought up at the persian court, and had embraced islam. this apostate mercilessly killed his father and brother; but the nobles rose against him, and almost annihilated his army, whereupon he fled to the lesghians, and offered to allow them to plunder tiflis for three days if they would help him. they agreed. the nobles were defeated, and the land was again given up to the devastating infidels. king teimuraz of kakheti, grandson of alexander, in , from a hiding-place in the mountains, sent an embassy to the tsar mikhail feodorovich, beseeching him to have pity on his georgian fellow-christians. the tsar requested shah abbas to cease from persecuting the georgians, and his wish was granted in the most friendly way possible. not only was teimuraz allowed to return to kakheti, but kartli also was given to him, and remained a part of his kingdom until , when it was taken from him and given to rostom, a mahometan. in rostom took kakheti also, and teimuraz was obliged to seek refuge at the court of imereti, whence he proceeded to moscow to ask for help; but in consequence of the war then being waged against poland, the tsar could not spare any troops. teimuraz returned to georgia, and was taken prisoner by the shah. imereti was at this time governed by king bagrat, who came to the throne at the age of fifteen, his stepmother, daredjan, being appointed regent. daredjan endeavoured to gain the love of the young king, who was already married to her niece, and on his refusal to listen to her incestuous proposals, she had his eyes put out, and married vakhtang dshudshuna, whom she proclaimed king. assisted by the pasha of akhaltsikhe, the loyal imeretians replaced bagrat the blind on the throne, and then the eyes of vakhtang were put out, and he and daredjan were imprisoned. on the death of rostom, in , vakhtang iv., of the mukhran family, became king of kartli and kakheti, and reigned till . when he died his son giorgi usurped the throne of kartli, leaving only kakheti to his elder brother archil, who journeyed to moscow, but did not get the desired aid from russia. he then returned to the caucasus, five times succeeded in obtaining the crown of imereti, and five times was deposed. he died in russia in . in vakhtang v. came to the throne of kartli. the first seven years of his reign were spent as a prisoner in ispahan. in there was a fresh invasion of turks, and, thinking his kingdom irrevocably lost, he fled to russia, where he died. shah nadir usurped the crown of persia in , and freed kartli and kakheti from the turkish yoke. a little before his accession, in , russia had renounced in favour of persia all right to the land between the terek and the kura. nadir ingratiated himself with the georgian nobility, and always gave them the post of honour in the victorious campaigns for which his reign is famous. almost all the great warriors of the land accompanied him on his indian march of conquest, and his especial favourite was irakli, the son of teimuraz, king of kartli and kakheti. an interesting story is told concerning the young warrior, in connection with this expedition. kandahar having been taken in , nadir was marching towards scinde, when he arrived at a certain column bearing an inscription which foretold death to those who went beyond it. irakli, at that time only nineteen years of age, solved the difficulty by ordering the stone to be placed on the back of an elephant, which was led before the army. scinde was conquered, and irakli was richly rewarded. the shah endeavoured to persuade the young prince to renounce the christian religion, but neither threats nor caresses prevailed. india having been conquered, nadir dismissed irakli in , and then invaded central asia, taking balkh, bokhara, samarkand, whence he returned to the caucasus and made war on the lesghians. irakli continued to distinguish himself by great bravery. on the aragva he defeated turks and lesghians, was the first to cross the swollen river under a heavy musketry fire, and killed the leader of the enemy with his own hand. for this service nadir bestowed upon him the kingdom of kakheti in . in shah nadir was assassinated, and a period of anarchy began in persia. aga mahmad khan, the chief eunuch, usurped the dignity of shah. teimuraz and irakli saved erivan from the persians in , and this city paid tribute to georgia until , when the people, not wishing to fall into the hands of russia, invited persia to take the place. in irakli, with men, signally defeated , persians at karaboulakh and again saved erivan; then granja was taken, the lesghians were dispersed, and an alliance was made with the cherkesses. teimuraz went to russia in ; tsaritsa elizabeth received him with great honour, and promised to send troops to georgia, but she died in , and teimuraz only survived her about a fortnight. irakli now succeeded to the throne of kartli, and thus reunited this kingdom to kakheti. the catholicos antoni, the most learned georgian of his time, was recalled from exile in russia and made patriarch; he founded at tiflis and telav schools where the "new philosophy" of bacmeister was taught, translated many educational works into his native tongue, reformed the church and encouraged literature. a plot was formed against the king's life in , under the following circumstances: elizabeth, irakli's sister, had been married for three years to a certain giorgi, son of dimitri amilakhorishvili, who, for physical reasons, had been unable to consummate the marriage. elizabeth applied for and obtained a divorce. dimitri thought himself insulted in the person of his son, and he and his friends began to conspire with paata, a natural son of vakhtang v., who had been educated in russia and england, and had just arrived in georgia from the persian court. paata was to kill irakli and proclaim himself king. the conspiracy was discovered in time, and all those who had taken part in it were punished with death or mutilation. solomon, king of imereti, had, in the meantime, been driven from his throne by the treachery of some of his nobles, who delivered kutais, shorapan and other fortresses to the turks. he appealed to catherine of russia for help. count todleben arrived in the caucasus with men in , and kutais was taken back, and imereti freed from the oppression of the turks. in the following year a great plague devastated the whole of transcaucasia, died in tiflis alone. the holy spear from the armenian convent at edchmiadzin was brought out, and the plague ceased; whereupon the lesghians demanded that the precious relic should be sent to them also; a spear was made exactly like the holy one, and it produced the same beneficent effect. todleben was succeeded by sukhotin, and in , peace having been restored, the russians returned homeward. but no sooner were they gone than the turks again invaded imereti; king solomon, however, defeated them with great slaughter, killing many with his own hand. irakli's kingdom enjoyed comparative peace and prosperity for a time, and advantage was taken of this to disband the regular army and organize a militia, for the defence of the country against the raids of the irrepressible lesghians. the king and his sons set an example to the people by subjecting themselves to the same discipline as private individuals, and those who did not present themselves for service were sought out and beaten with sticks. in the khan of erivan refused to pay tribute, and strongly fortified the city; the georgians took the place and carried off several armenians, who were removed to tiflis, gori, and signakh, where they now constitute the trading and money-lending community. in happened the terrible catastrophe which was to bring about the ruin of georgia--the destruction of tiflis by the shah aga mahmad. the persians marched through armenia in great force, and reached the banks of the kura without meeting with any serious opposition. their advanced guard was attacked by the georgians just outside the city, and was defeated on the th of september. speaking of this battle, the shah himself said, "i never saw so valorous a foe." on the following day the main body arrived, and tiflis was taken by storm. king irakli was so overcome with grief that he must have fallen into the hands of the enemy had not a few faithful nobles forcibly removed him from the captured city and conveyed him to mtiuleti, on the aragva. almost all the georgian artillery, thirty-five guns, was taken, and the city and its environs were burnt to the ground. for six days the work of destruction went on; women and young children were barbarously murdered, and the stench of rotting corpses made the place uninhabitable. a persian historian says, "the brave persian army showed the unbelieving georgians what is in store for them at the day of judgment." all this havoc might have been prevented if russia had sent the troops which she had solemnly promised by her treaties with irakli, for the shah had been making preparations for the invasion four months before it took place, and both russia and georgia were well aware of this. prince giorgi, unworthy son of such a father, had been repeatedly ordered to bring his army to tiflis, but he refused. no sooner did he hear of the fall of the capital than he prepared to flee from signakh, although the place was strongly fortified, and there were many armed men there; but the inhabitants refused to let him go, and it was only by bribing his guards that he succeeded in escaping to telav. not one of irakli's sons served him in the hour of his need. mtzkhet was captured and burnt, but the famous cathedral was spared, at the entreaty of the khan of nakhitshevan, who remonstrated against the desecration of the tomb of so many of georgia's brave kings. from mtiuleti, irakli proceeded to ananur. the shah sent after him men, guided by one of the king's own courtiers, but they were defeated. aga mahmad then offered to give up all the prisoners as well as the citadel of tiflis if irakli would renounce his treaty with russia, and become tributary to persia; but irakli would not hear of any terms, however favourable, which would force him to be false to his alliance with russia, although she, on her part, had forsaken him. he quickly assembled an army and marched to the southward, met the persians between kodjori and krtsani and defeated them, re-taking tiflis on the th of october. a large russian force now arrived and took derbent, shemakha, baku, and several other fortresses in daghestan, but the death of the empress catherine in put an end to the campaign, for tsar paul recalled all the troops from transcaucasia. in aga mahmad khan was again marching against georgia, when he was fortunately assassinated, like his predecessor nadir. plague and famine came to slay those who had escaped the sword of the persians, and, worst of all, the great irakli died in january, , at the age of eighty, after a career almost unparalleled in history. frederick of prussia might well say, "moi en europe, et en asie l'invincible hercule, roi de géorgie." giorgi now succeeded to the throne, and entered into negotiations with persia, but tsar paul heard of the proposed alliance and outbid the shah. a treaty was signed, confirming the throne to the bagratid dynasty for ever, and promising military aid whenever it might be necessary. alexander, the king's brother, now raised a revolt, which was put down with the help of the russians; after all he had a grievance, for irakli's will declared that he was to succeed giorgi, while the russians had persuaded the king to appoint as his heir his son david, a major-general in the russian army. alexander now appealed to persia for aid, which he obtained, and in a three hours' battle at kakabeti, on the iora, he and omar khan, with an army of , men, were defeated. giorgi died in , and georgia was then formally incorporated in the russian empire. general knorring, the first governor, proceeded to the country with , men, and in the following year, under tsar alexander i., the annexation was confirmed. in prince tsitsishvili, a georgian, succeeded knorring. by his advice all the royal family were summoned to russia, "in order to prevent civil dissensions," and this removal was accompanied by a very unfortunate incident. queen maria, widow of giorgi, refused to go; general lazarev proceeded early one morning to the queen's sleeping apartments with some soldiers and attempted to force her to accompany him; she killed him with a dagger which she had concealed under her dress, and her young son and daughter stabbed some of the soldiers. they were, of course, overpowered and carried off; at dariel, in the narrowest part of the pass, a few tagaur ossets made a vain attempt at a rescue. queen maria was kept imprisoned in a convent at voronezh for seven years, and never saw her native land again. tsitsishvili set himself to improve the condition of the country as much as possible. he began the military road over the caucasus in . he succeeded in persuading king solomon of imereti to acknowledge the tsar as his suzerain, but solomon soon began to intrigue with the turks again. after taking gandja by storm, and subduing a rising of the mountaineers under pharnavaz and iulon, sons of irakli, tsitsishvili marched against baku, where he was treacherously murdered by the khan of that city in . count gudovich was now appointed commander-in-chief, and his courtesy won for him the friendship of the georgian people. kakheti voluntarily submitted to his rule. he defeated the turks in several battles, but was unsuccessful in his attack on erivan, where he lost men. he was then recalled and made governor-general of moscow. general tormasov was the next ruler of georgia, and he continued the war against the turks, who were aided by king solomon of imereti. poti was taken in , and princess nina of mingreli, who was allied to the russians, herself led her troops to the assault. sukhum was also taken. king solomon was persuaded to go to a certain village in kartli to sign a treaty of peace with russia. the russians treacherously seized him by night, and carried him off to prison in tiflis, but he escaped in disguise, and fled to akhaltsikhe, where he was received by the turks with great honour. he returned to imereti, and the whole country rose in his favour. there were revolts in kakheti, and even among the ossets, but they were soon crushed by force of numbers. then came a plague which carried off vast numbers of victims in imereti. tormasov was replaced by paulucci, who, after a few months, was, in his turn, superseded by rtishtshef. in took place the famous storming of lenkoran, on the caspian, by general kotliarevski, followed by the gulistan treaty of peace, which was signed on behalf of persia by sir gore ouseley, british ambassador at teheran. king solomon died at trebizond in , and with him ended the troublous existence of imereti as an independent kingdom. in about three and a half centuries thirty kings had sat on the imeretian throne, twenty-two of them were dethroned (one of them, bagrat the blind, eight times), seven died a violent death, three were blinded. yermolov became governor-general in , and soon afterwards the chechens and daghestanians began to give the russians serious trouble. then the clergy raised a national movement in imereti, in which guri and apkhazi joined, and in mingreli, hitherto faithful, the dadian's brother revolted. all these efforts to shake off the russian yoke were, of course, fruitless, and they ended in with the capture of zakatali from the lesghians. then the cherkesses (circassians) broke into rebellion, and in persia again declared war against russia and marched , men into georgia. aided by the lesghians and the kakhetians, under alexander, son of irakli, they were at first successful, but the tide turned, and erivan, tavriz, and other places saw russia victorious. paskevich succeeded yermolov in , and the peace of turkmenchai having been concluded with persia, war was declared against turkey. the russians took kars, poti, akhalkalaki, akhaltsikhe, bayazid from the turks, and in the belligerents signed the treaty of adrianople. in kasi-mullah began his revolt, and brought about a general rising among the mahometan peoples of the caucasus. baron rosen, who took the command of the army in , captured gimri, and kasi-mullah was killed. golovin ( ), neidhart ( ), and prince vorontsov ( - ) enjoyed comparative peace, and were able to turn their attention to the internal condition of the country. prince vorontsov especially deserves credit for his honest and painstaking efforts to ameliorate the economic situation of georgia, and it flatters our national pride to remember that that statesman was english by birth and education, if not by blood. the pacification of daghestan did not, as was expected, follow the death of kasi-mullah. a greater prophet and warrior arose to take the place of the vanquished hero of gimri. shamil, after carrying on a guerilla warfare for about ten years, raised the whole of the eastern caucasus in , and continued to inflict a series of crushing defeats on the russian generals who were sent to oppose him. the declaration of war with turkey in raised the hopes of the lesghians, but the utter incapacity of the turkish leaders in armenia prevented the realization of those hopes. everybody is familiar with the incidents of shamil's career down to the capture at gunib in ; but it seems to me that too little attention has been devoted to the remarkable religious system which inspired the murids to their marvellous deeds of valour. it is surely a noteworthy fact that the mysticism of the sufis should have been found to be compatible with a purely militant faith like islam. during the last thirty years little of interest has happened in georgia. the appointment of the grand duke mikhail nikolaevich to the lieutenancy of the caucasus in , the gradual freeing of the serfs, the construction of railway and telegraph lines of communication, the founding of one or two banks, schools, and other establishments of public utility, are the chief events which the annalist has to chronicle. "free" svaneti was conquered a few years ago, and, for the present, russia's supremacy is undisputed as far as the frontiers of turkey and persia. even the last war between russia and turkey was not accompanied by any visible commotion among the peoples of the caucasus. there is as yet no history of georgia in the sense in which we now understand the word. those works which are dignified with the name are merely more or less trustworthy collections of materials, which in their present form produce only a feeling of bewilderment in the reader. we trust that a man worthy of the task will seriously take the annals of his nation in hand, and present them to the world in an intelligible form; and we also cherish the hope that he will not finish his task without being able to chronicle the new birth of a strong, independent state worthy to maintain the fame of irakli and tamara. the language and literature of georgia. the origin of the kartlian or kartvelian language is still involved in some doubt, but the general opinion of philologists seems to be that it does not belong to the indo-european family, although it has been powerfully influenced by zend, sanskrit, persian, and armenian. the ancient speech of the country is preserved to us in the ecclesiastical rituals and books of devotion, which are written in characters differing very considerably from the civil alphabet, the "war hand," the invention of the latter being ascribed to king pharnavaz i., a contemporary of alexander the great. the khutsuri, or ecclesiastical character, bears a striking resemblance to armenian; an excellent specimen of it may be seen in the british museum library, in the famous moscow bible of , recently purchased. the number of letters is the same in both alphabets, viz. thirty-eight, and the modern alphabet is as follows:-- a b g d e v z é (short) th (not english th but t followed by sound of h) i (english ee) c l m n i (short) o p zh r s t u (oo) vi (vee) ph (p followed by sound of h) k gh (guttural) _ (something like a guttural k) sh ch tz dz ts dch kh khh j h ho the orthography is purely phonetic. there is very little difference between the language of the sacred books and that of to-day, not nearly so much as between anglo-saxon and english; but many foreign words have been introduced in modern times. the earliest specimens of georgian literature which have come down to us are translations of the scriptures, and theological works written under the influence of the greek clergy, who, until the eleventh century, occupied almost all the high ecclesiastical offices in the land. in the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era the relations between georgia and greece were of the most intimate character. the young nobles of the court of king david the renewer and his immediate successors frequented the schools of athens, and brought back with them platonic and aristotelian teachings which exerted a very powerful influence on the intellectual and social life of that period, and prepared the way for the golden age of georgian literature, which dawned on the accession of queen tamara. sulkhan orbeliani, in the preface to his dictionary, compiled early in the eighteenth century, says that he consulted translations of proklus, platonicus, nemesis, aristotle, damascenus, plato, porphyry, and many other greek writers. if these mss. were still extant, they might prove valuable to classical scholars. during the stormy times that soon followed, the countless lyrical pieces which were produced were nearly all lost, but the epic which is now looked upon as the greatest masterpiece in the language has escaped with but a few mutilations. this is "the man in the panther's skin" (vepkhvis tkaosani) by shota rustaveli. history tells us very little about shota rustaveli. we only know that he was born in the village of rustavi, near akhaltsikhe, that he received his education in athens, returned to his native land, where he wrote his great work, was secretary to queen tamara, then became a monk, and died in the monastery of the holy cross, near jerusalem, where his portrait may still be seen. tradition says that the poet was passionately enamoured of his royal mistress, and this assertion seems to be borne out by many passages in the poem. during nearly seven centuries of ceaseless struggles for freedom, the georgians have kept this great work fresh in their minds. it has inspired them with hope and courage in the darkest hours, and at the present day it is as great a favourite as it ever was. not only are many of its verses household words in cottage and hall, but there are not a few georgians, especially among the women, who know every word of it by heart; indeed, there was a time when no woman was allowed to marry unless she could repeat the whole poem. the reason for this extraordinary popularity is to be found in the fact that the poem is a thoroughly national one in its smallest details. although the heroes and heroines are described as arabians, indians, chinese, they are all georgians to the very finger tips. the plot is of the simplest description possible. rostevan, a patriarchal eastern king, who has renounced the throne of arabia in favour of his daughter tinatina, is out hunting one day with avtandil, one of his generals, when he sees a weeping youth of wondrous beauty, dressed in a panther's skin. the king orders his guards to seize the stranger, but the latter kills several of them and mysteriously escapes, whereupon the old king falls into a fit of sadness so deep that tinatina at length promises her hand to the knight who will satisfy her father's curiosity. avtandil sets out to seek the man in the panther's skin, wanders about for three years, meeting with wondrous adventures, before he finds the object of his search, who turns out to be tariel, a young knight enamoured of nestan daredjan, daughter of the king of india, and then returns to claim the hand of his queen. in avtandil we have a christian chevalier of the east who is worthy of comparison with our rolands and red cross knights, while tariel is a wild mussulman, whose passion drives him to excesses worthy of amadis of gaul. the interest is powerfully sustained all through the poem, and its dramatic unity is never lost sight of; yet, however interesting the narrative may be, it is chiefly as a picture of life in georgia in the days of tamara that "the man in the panther's skin" is valuable. tinatina, who is none other than tamara herself, is described as follows:-- "one daughter only had the aged king, and she was fair as is the eastern sun. he upon whom her gaze but once did rest was ravish'd of his heart and soul and thought." tinatina is a beautiful type of womanhood, such as we might expect to find in the literature of western europe, but hardly in a little country standing alone amid the wild hordes of asia. her wisdom, her strength of character, the purity and loyalty of her love, have made her the model of many a generation of rustaveli's countrywomen, who have ever behaved nobly alike in joy and sorrow. avtandil is thus portrayed:-- "a prince's son was avtandil, the very first 'mong all the bravest warriors of the aged king his form was slender as the cypress-tree, and clear and beauteous was his piercing glance. though young, his soul was true and strong as adamant is hard. the fire from tinatina's eyes had long set his young heart aflame with strong desire, and stricken him with wounds that never heal'd. many a day he hid his burning love, and sunder'd from his mistress, all the red fled from his roselike, tender cheeks; but soon as fate did bring him near to her again, the wildly beating heart crimson'd his face, and all his aching wounds did gape afresh. thus hidden love doth torture youthful breasts." from "the man in the panther's skin" we learn that the ideal hero of rustaveli's times was distinguished for bravery, truthfulness, loyalty to promises, self-sacrifice, munificence, and burning love. "falsehood's the root of all the thousand ills that curse our race. lying and faithlessness twin sisters are. why should i try to cheat my fellow-man? is this the use to which my learning should be put? ah, no! far other aims our hearts inspire, we learn, that we may near the angelic choir." the most famous line in the whole poem is, perhaps, the one which says:-- "a glorious death is better than a life of shame." and many a warrior has sought death, in the hour of defeat, with these words on his lips. another verse which has become proverbial is:-- "that which thou dost on other's wants bestow, is thine, while that thou hoardest is all lost to thee." the ideas of love expressed by rustaveli are partly of the ovidian type, without any of the indelicacy of the latin poet. but he had not studied plato for nought, and we see in his work traces of those metaphysical theories which s. bonaventura, dante, and many of their contemporaries and successors found in christianity. in the last strophe we have a prophecy, conscious or unconscious, of the evil days that were about to dawn. "their deeds are ended, like a dream at night. with them their golden age has ended too. far other days have dawn'd. such is that old deceiver time; he makes that which at first did everlasting seem as short as is the twinkling of an eye." as far as style is concerned, we find that rustaveli strikingly resembles the european writers of his own time, to wit the troubadours, and we can easily imagine that his career was not unlike that of some of those sweet singers who enjoyed the favour of the noble ladies of france and italy. among the great poets of europe, ariosto and tasso are, perhaps, the ones who are most akin to rustaveli. the platonism of the latter furnishes another ground of resemblance, in addition to the similarity of theme. the poem in its present form consists of about quatrains. there are sixteen syllables in each line, and the four lines end with the same rhyme. the rhythm is due to the accents, as in english verse, and may be called hexametric, i.e. there are in each line six feet, divided into two sets of three by means of the cæsura; the fourth line invariably begins with the particle i, which does not count as a syllable. as far as i know, the poem has not been translated into any european language; although fragments and abstracts of it have been published in russian and polish magazines, and i have seen the name of "rostavvelo" quoted in one of gioberti's works. by the publication of a carefully collated text, about a year ago, georgian critics have prepared the way for those who may wish to make the national epic known to european readers. among the contemporaries of rustaveli may be mentioned the following:-- chakhrukhadze, the author of the "tamariani," a long poem in honour of queen tamara; it is composed entirely of epithets, thus:-- "tamartsknari, shesatsknari, khmanarnari, pirmtsinari, mse mtsinari, sachinari, tskalimknari, momdinari," i.e. "tamara, the mild, the pleasing, the sweetly speaking, the kindly smiling, the sunlike shining one, the majestic, the gently moving, like a full river." shavteli was even more highly prized than rustaveli, but his greatest work is lost. khoneli and tmokveli, the former in "daredjaniani," the latter in "visramiani" and "dilariani," have left us romances of chivalry and adventure which are still much admired, and are well worthy of comparison with the best european literature of the same class. about the same time the national chronicle, called "kartlis tzkhovreba," i.e. georgia's life, was written. this period of literary activity was brought to an abrupt close by the terrible invasion of genghis khan, and for about four centuries the incessant wars in which the country was engaged gave plenty of opportunity for acting romances, but little time for writing them. towards the end of the seventeenth century prince sulkhan orbeliani described his "journey through europe," and wrote a collection of fables and folk-tales, lately published in russian. orbeliani had lived at the court of louis xiv., and was very friendly with la fontaine, who is indebted to the georgian prince for some of his fables. his greatest service to his country was, however, the compilation of a dictionary, containing , words, which has formed the basis for all later lexicographical works. in king vakhtang vi. opened a printing office in tiflis, and issued the chief poems and romances of the tamarian period at such a price as to make them attainable by all his subjects. irakli ii., of glorious memory, continued to act as the augustus of georgian literature, and in the catholicos antoni it found a mæcenas or pollio. the chief writers of the eighteenth century were prince vakhusht, son of vakhtang vi., who compiled a "history of georgia" and a "geography of georgia," and the catholicos antoni, who published many educational and religious works. guramoshvili and savatnava sang the triumphs of irakli in powerful lyrics which are still familiar to every peasant. the following serenade belongs to this period; it was copied down by pushkin in , and he says of it, "there is in it a certain oriental inconsequence which is not altogether devoid of poetical worth." "soul newly born in paradise! soul made for my delight! from thee, thou deathless one, i wait for life. from thee, thou flowery springtide, moon but two weeks old, from thee, my guardian angel, i wait for life. with joyous smiles thy face doth shine. i would not change thy glance against the throne of all the world. from thee i wait for life. rose of the mountain, wet with the dew of dawn! nature's chief favourite! hidden treasure house! from thee i wait for life." it was not, however, until the present century was well begun, that georgian poetry abandoned the "oriental inconsequence" to which i have just referred; the literary awakening which began about sixty or seventy years ago was largely due to the work of western poets, such as byron, with whom the georgians became familiar chiefly through pushkin and lermontov. prince alexander chavchavadze ( - ), a general in the russian service, was the founder of the modern school; his song is all of love and wine. the influence of western romanticism is still more clearly visible in the earlier productions of baratashvili ( - ), but he succeeded in throwing off the gloomy misanthropy of his youth, and had the courage to acknowledge that he had been deluded by that "evil spirit" of byronism. to prince giorgi eristavi fell the task of familiarizing his countrymen with the poetical literature of europe. he was exiled to poland for his share in a plot against the russian government, and spent his leisure in studying mickiewicz, schiller, petrarch, and pushkin, selections from whose works he published in his native tongue. on his return to tiflis he founded a national theatre, for which he himself wrote many comedies. with eristavi sentimentalism died, and the poets who succeeded him sought inspiration in patriotic ideals. prince grigor orbeliani ( - ), sang the past splendour of his fatherland, and bewailed the low estate to which it had fallen. in his "ode to tamara's portrait" he beseeches the great queen to look down with pity on georgia, and bless her sons with strength and wisdom; he despairingly asks:-- "shall that which once was wither'd, ne'er again enjoy the fragrance of its former bloom? shall that which fell, for ever fallen remain, o'erwhelm'd in an unchanging, cruel doom?" his lines on the death of irakli ii. breathe the same spirit:-- "ah! full of splendour were the fateful days that saw the quenching of thy quickening light, thou sun of georgia, yet thy dazzling rays still lighten up the darkness of our night. "thine all-o'erpowering sword, whose mighty blows scatter'd like chaff the bravest of the brave, shall never more affright thy country's foes-- georgia's fame lies buried in thy grave." orbeliani had a warm heart for the poor and suffering, and his "lopiana the fisherman" and "bokuladze the musha" (a musha is a carrier of heavy burdens) are masterpieces in their way. while orbeliani's eyes are ever turned regretfully to the past, akaki tsereteli (born ) looks hopefully forward to the future:-- "ah no! our love is not yet dead, it only sleeps awhile...." in elegant yet forcible lyrics he invites his countrymen to manfully follow the path of progress. tsereteli has written a great historical poem called "torniki," and is, besides, an orator and publicist of the first rank. of the same school is prince ilia chavchavadze (born ), who is in many respects the most remarkable man that georgia possesses. all his poems, and indeed all his work, whether as a poet, a novelist, a journalist, an orator, or a financier, breathe a spirit of the loftiest patriotism. the return of spring and the awakening of bird and flower to fuller life are to him a reminder of the long-delayed awakening of his beloved land; his elegies on the kura, the aragva, the alazana are all full of the same feeling. it is, however, in "lines to the georgian mother" that he most clearly expresses his ideas; after reminding the matrons of georgia how they have served their country in times past, cheerfully sending their sons forth to the fight and sustaining their courage in the hour of misfortune, he says:-- "... but why should we shed idle tears for glory that will ne'er return? the ever-flowing stream of years leaves us no time to idly mourn. "'tis ours to tread an untried path, 'tis ours the future to prepare. if forward thou dost urge thy sons, then answer'd is my earnest prayer. "this is the task that waits for thee, thou virtuous mother of our land, strengthen thy sons, that they may be their country's stay with heart and hand. "inspire them with fraternal love, freedom, equality and right, teach them to struggle 'gainst all ill, and give them courage for the fight." chavchavadze's tales and poems have done more than anything else to awaken the georgian people to a sense of the duties they have to perform in the altered conditions under which they now live. his poem, "memoirs of a robber," which portrayed the lazy country squires who lived on the toil of their serfs, made a powerful impression on the class it was meant for; and the tale, "is that a man?" which describes the life of a young noble who spends his whole time in eating, drinking, sleeping and folly, brought a blush to the faces of hundreds of his countrymen, and prompted them to seek a worthier mode of existence. at first, the more conservative part of the nobility were bitterly opposed to the radical ideas of chavchavadze, but he has now succeeded in bringing round the majority of them to his way of thinking. he is editor of a daily paper, iveria, which is read by all classes of society, and most of his time is spent between his journalistic duties and the management of the nobles' land bank, an institution founded for the relief of the farmers. besides those i have mentioned, chavchavadze has written many other works; with the following extract from "the phantom" i conclude this brief notice of him:-- "o georgia, thou pearl and ornament of the world. what sorrow and misfortune hast thou not undergone for the christian faith! tell me, what other land has had so thorny a path to tread? where is the land that has maintained such a fight twenty centuries long without disappearing from the earth? thou alone, georgia, couldst do it. no other people can compare with thee for endurance. how often have thy sons freely shed their blood for thee! every foot of thy soil is made fruitful by it. and even when they bowed under oppression they always bravely rose again. faith and freedom were their ideals." the novel of social life is represented by prince kazbek, a young and energetic writer, many of whose productions have appeared as serials in the newspapers. the best writer of historical novels is rtsheuli; his "queen tamara" is a great favourite with the people. the national theatre is kept well supplied with new and original comedies by tsagareli and others, and prince ivané machabeli, who, as far as i know, is the only georgian who can read english literature in the original, has translated some of shakspeare's plays; these always draw a full house, and are thoroughly appreciated. leaving out of the question "king lear," which has a special interest for the people, on account of its reminding them of irakli ii., this hearty admiration for shakspeare is somewhat remarkable; in my opinion it is to be explained by the fact that the georgian people are in almost the same state of intellectual and social development as were our forefathers in the days of queen elizabeth, and they can, therefore, the more fully enter into our great poet's way of thinking. besides the essential part of his work, the effect of which on the minds of men will always be the same, there is an accessory part, a tone, an atmosphere, which more particularly belongs to the early part of a period of transition from feudalism to freedom, from faith to rationalism, from the activity of war to the activity of peace; ten or a dozen generations have lived in england since this stage in our history was reached; in georgia there still live men who were born in the age of chivalry and adventure. prince machabeli, in spite of the fact that he is only about thirty years of age, is, perhaps, after prince ilia chavchavadze, the man who enjoys the greatest influence among his fellow-countrymen. his studies at the university of paris, and his intimate acquaintance with the intellectual and social life of europe, have enabled him to bring the younger generation at least to a fuller appreciation of the superiority of the west over the east; everything which savours of asia is now rigidly proscribed or ridiculed, and romano-germanic ideals prevail. as the editor of droeba (time), a capital daily paper, machabeli had an opportunity of spreading his opinions throughout the country, but an imprudent article brought about the suppression of the journal by the censure. this notice would be incomplete without a brief reference to the venerable bishop gabriel of kutais, whose homilies are at once elegant in style and simple in doctrine; they have had a very powerful influence on the georgian people, and their author is sincerely loved by all his countrymen. an english translation of his earlier sermons has been published by the rev. s. c. malan. the popular literature of georgia is rich in folk-tales, fables, ballads, riddles, &c., and would well repay an attentive study (v. bibliography). the political condition of the kingdom of georgia. it is well known that there are within the russian frontiers peoples not inferior in historical importance or intellectual development to the regnant race, and we might reasonably suppose that russophobes would give us some information about those nations which would probably be their allies in the struggle which they profess to consider inevitable. yet the course of action likely to be adopted by poland, finland, or georgia, in case of an anglo-russian war, is hardly ever discussed, and when a passing reference is made to the matter, the most erroneous ideas are expressed. as far as i know, the only living english statesman who knows anything at all about the condition of the caucasus, is professor james bryce, who, in a work published in , records the impressions received during a short visit made in the previous year. his remarks are interesting in the highest degree, and exhibit a rare keenness of insight; yet that part of them which refers more particularly to georgia is open to three very serious objections. . the shortness of the author's stay forced him to come to conclusions which a longer experience would have modified very considerably. he himself frankly acknowledged this in many places. . mr. bryce did not come into contact with any prominent georgians; he was, therefore, obliged to depend upon foreigners for information about the political condition of the country and the aspirations of the native population. this is why he said so little about georgia in the last chapter of his book. in that chapter the place of honour is reserved for the armenians, whose recognized champion our illustrious fellow-countryman has now become. . there has, of late, been a great change in the country. the georgia of to-day is not the georgia of . certain causes, which will be touched upon in the present article, have, in the meantime, brought about an awakening as sudden as it is complete. there is one englishman who could accurately describe the political condition of transcaucasia, and it is a subject for congratulation that he is her majesty's vice-consul at batum. when the british government wakes up to a recognition of the fact that we have interests to protect in the region between the black sea and the caspian, the consulate in tiflis (abolished in , "because the objects for which it was founded were not accomplished") may, perhaps, be re-established, and in that case no more able and sympathetic consul could be chosen than mr. d. r. peacock, who for so many years has upheld the honour of our flag in the fever-stricken swamps of poti and batum. the writer of the present article is well aware of his unfitness for the task he has set himself, yet he feels sure that the result of his unprejudiced observation cannot fail to be interesting; if he only succeeds in provoking adverse criticism he will be satisfied, for thereby attention will be drawn to a question the discussion of which must lead to a far better understanding of many points of vital importance. at the very outset it is necessary to remove from the mind of the reader an opinion which is almost universally held in europe, and which is, perhaps, the chief cause of that apathy with which politicians look upon the caucasus. it is generally believed, even by some of those who have been in the country, that transcaucasia is inhabited by a vast number of tribes, more or less wild, having nothing in common but the doubtful benefits of russian rule. nothing could be more misleading. students of ethnography may amuse themselves by making elaborate investigations into the origin and characteristics of the khevsur, the svan, the pshav, the osset, it is sufficient for us to know that all these peoples are, politically at least, georgians, and have fought under the kartvelian kings since the days of william the conqueror. between the caucasus, the black sea, the caspian, and the frontiers of turkey and persia, there are only three native peoples who deserve our consideration, viz.:-- the various lesghian tribes in the e., numbering about , , the armenians, in the s., numbering about , the georgians, in the w., numbering over , , the latter total is made up as follows:-- (a) kartlians, kakhetians, and ingiloitsi , (b) highlanders, i.e. khevsurs, pshavs, tushes , (c) imeretians and gurians , (d) adjartsi, kobuletsi (in valleys near artvin) , (e) mingrelians , (f) lazes (near batum). the majority are still in turkey , (g) svans , to these may be added:-- the apkhazi (near sukhum) , and the ossets (south of the caucasus) , there are also many georgians in turkey, and a few in persia. the numerous local appellations given above mean no more than yorkshireman, cornishman, or aberdonian do to us. if i succeed in impressing upon my readers the fact that there is a politically homogeneous region stretching from the steppe of baku to the black sea, my labour will not have been fruitless. it is a significant fact that the pure georgian language is now far more generally spoken than it has been for many centuries, and that the dialects are rapidly disappearing. this is due in a great measure to the growth of a taste for literature, which is fostered by the newspapers and other periodical publications. there are, besides, many schools where the language is taught, for the georgians have hitherto escaped the fate of the armenians, whose schools were closed after the recent insurrection, and a society exists in tiflis for the dissemination of the national literature among the peasants. all this has helped to produce a national feeling, stronger than any that has existed since the fatal partition of the kingdom in the fifteenth century. the petty jealousies between kartlian, kakhetian and imeretian have been forgiven and forgotten, and when georgia's voice is again heard in asia she will speak with that authority which belongs only to a united, patriotic people. in order to understand the state of political feeling in georgia during the present century, it is necessary to remember what her previous history has been. during a long period, stretching back to ages of which we have only fragmentary records, the country had ever been at war; often conquered, still more often conquering, never crushed, this brave little state maintained its existence for a thousand years, alone in the very midst of those fierce fanatics whose fame made all allied europe quake. at length, rent by civil war and ravaged by the infidel, it wisely resolved to throw itself into the hands of a christian power able and willing to protect and avenge. after availing themselves of russia's help, it was but natural that the georgians should seek the repose of which they were so much in need; and, though they were ever ready to fight against the common foe, yet, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, they busied themselves little with the internal administration of their land. indeed, there was no call for such interference as long as they were under the mild and beneficent rule of that ideal tsar, alexander i., represented by such worthy lieutenants as tsitsishvili and yermolov. they continued to live thus contentedly and, it must be confessed, lazily for about two generations; only ten years ago it used to be said in tiflis, "if you see a shopkeeper asleep, he is sure to be a georgian." this sleepiness is now at an end. opinions may differ as to the cause of the awakening; harsh measures on the part of russia, whose policy in transcaucasia has been becoming more and more irritating ever since the removal of prince vorontsov, in , and culminating last year in the enforcement of military service, have undoubtedly had some effect of this kind, but unless there had been a simultaneous progress in the intellectual and social development of the nation, this overbearing legislation might have been sullenly submitted to without complaint. there can be little doubt of the fact that the excessive precautions taken by the police, with a view to put down political agitation of any kind, have produced the very thing they are intended to prevent. a country squire in talking to me, one day, about a little market-town near his home, said, "they have posted a gendarme there. until he came nobody ever bothered about politics. now there is nothing else talked of." some time ago the young georgian nobles who were serving in the russian army became infected with the doctrines of revolutionary socialism, and not a few suffered for their imprudence (e.g. the famous tsitsianov, in ); at the present time the national feeling has become so strong as to leave no room for these ideas. nevertheless, during my stay in tiflis, last summer, a rumour was rife to the effect that a large number (a hundred or two) of young noblemen were about to be exiled, in view of the visit of the tsar, who was expected to arrive at his new palace at tsinondal, near telav, in the autumn. the fact that this report was believed by the parties interested, is a powerful testimony to the arbitrary character of the proceedings of the russian police. in the rural districts the people only know russia as a foreign power that sends them tax-collectors, justices of the peace, and other civil servants, who perform obnoxious functions in a manner not calculated to conciliate the ratepayers. it is notorious that the chinovnik has an unpleasant reputation, even among his fellow-countrymen, and those who consent to a temporary exile in transcaucasia are not precisely the flower of the profession, although their behaviour to europeans leaves little to be desired. the justices of the peace, as in poland, are directly appointed by the minister of justice at petersburg; all the evidence has to be translated into the official language, and this accentuates the natural feeling of the litigants that they are being tried by foreign laws arbitrarily imposed from without. the personal character of the judges is, in many cases, not such as to inspire respect for the law; the arrogant, bullying tone of these personages is intolerable at any time, but especially when aggravated by alcoholism. i shall never forget one scene in particular at which i was present; a fine, tall mountaineer came humbly to present a petition to a puny, besotted judge, who was a guest at the house where i was staying; the representative of law and order was drunk, hopelessly drunk, and treated the suppliant in such a manner that i blushed to be in his company; i feared that the petitioner would take summary revenge for the insult, but he restrained his wrath; as he turned away there was on his face a look of hellish hatred, and i do not think that he will trouble the court again as long as he has a sharp kinjal of his own wherewith to settle disputes. whatever may be the cause of the awakening, there cannot be any doubt of its reality. nevertheless, it is hard to give any definite description of the channels into which the national activity is finding its way. in any case it may be safely said that the georgian people are not likely to imitate the imprudent conduct of their neighbours the armenians, who have, more than once, unseasonably provoked popular movements which they had not the power to bring to a happy issue. the character of the georgians is too frank and open for the hatching of plots; however strong their feelings may be, they know how to wait until an opportunity arrives for the satisfaction of those feelings; the perfect unanimity in the aims of the people renders an elaborate organization unnecessary. it is interesting to notice that the political ideals of the country are borrowed from western europe. excepting in japan, perhaps, there is no such instance of a people passing directly from feudalism to liberalism. the grandsons of absolute monarchs, the men who little more than a quarter of a century ago were large slaveholders, are now ardent champions of the democratic idea, and loudly proclaim the freedom, the equality, the brotherhood, of prince and peasant, master and man. this is not the only case in which georgia has turned her back on asia and opened her arms to europe--parisian fashions, german rationalism, english sport and other products of our civilization are beginning to have an influence; however, it is a consolation to remember that the women, in every country the more conservative and, at the same time, more patriotic half of the community, may be counted upon to restrain their husbands and sons from a too hasty advance in the slippery paths of modern progress. it must not be supposed that the georgian people are forgetful of what russia has done for them in protecting them against persia and turkey; they have no hatred for their slav fellow-subjects, indeed, it is hard to imagine how any one could dislike such an amiable individual as the average russian, not being an official; but on the other hand, it must be remembered that this military aid is the only benefit georgia has ever received. it is true that roads have been made, but their construction was only undertaken in order to facilitate the movement of troops, and they are practically worthless for the purposes of trade. the industrial and commercial development of the country has been wholly neglected; and, at the instigation of the late editor of the moscow news, the transit of foreign merchandise was prohibited. at the present time a few russian capitalists are endeavouring to get a footing beyond the caucasus, but they experience some difficulty in doing so, for the georgians prefer to avail themselves of the services of european investors; among others, the rothschilds have not been slow to see that transcaucasian wines, ores and oils are worth attention. should russia ever become involved in a great war, georgia would undoubtedly declare her independence, and endeavour to seize the dariel road; the armenians and lesghians would also revolt, each in their own way. it is idle to speculate as to the result of such a movement, but it may interest the reader to know that it took an army of more than a quarter of a million men to conquer the lesghians alone, in the time of shamil. the russians put so little confidence in the loyalty of their caucasian army, that they took care to send a large part of it to poland in january last, when there seemed to be a prospect of war with austria. this was a prudent measure; but, after all, it does not matter so very much whether georgian soldiers mutiny in georgia or poland, poles in poland or georgia, the essential point at which diplomats hostile to russia would aim is, of course, to bring about perfectly simultaneous action on the part of all the enemies of that power, both at home and abroad. it is superfluous to add that the georgian troops are the flower of the russian army; every schoolboy can ride and shoot like a trained man; their officers are especially good, and there are at present many generals who are worthy successors of andronikov, bagration and loris melikov. the sympathy with which the armenian national movement has been regarded in western europe encourages the georgians to hope that a like feeling will be manifested towards them when the time is ripe for action. it is especially upon england that their hopes are fixed, for they are well aware of the fact that the existence of a strong, independent state between the black sea and the caspian would be an enormous advantage to our country. the possibility of armenians, georgians and lesghians consenting to combine into one homogeneous state is not to be thought of; but there is no reason why the descendants of the three sons of targamos, great-great-grandson of noah, should not, if they were free, form a defensive alliance for the protection of common interests; the lesghians have, in past times, done good service against both persians and turks. in any case, georgia has a frontier which she is quite able to defend, and she could always count upon the assistance of the mountaineers on the northern side of the caucasus. the cherkesses (circassians), whose hatred of russia is well known, have almost all migrated to asia minor. it is sincerely to be hoped that the present good feeling between the georgian and russian peoples may continue. if they were kindly treated, and trusted with some measure of local government, i am sure that the christian peoples of the caucasus would never cause the tsar's ministers any trouble; but if an attempt be made to crush the national spirit, the descendants of the men who fought under irakli will, at least, show despots how men can die. appendix. bibliography. the standard work on transcaucasian bibliography is miansarov (m.), bibliographia caucasica et transcaucasica. s. pbg., - , vo, pp., refs. it is rather scarce, as the edition was limited to copies. only one volume has been published, although a second was promised. most of the works mentioned are in russian or armenian, and as far as european publications are concerned, miansarov is very incomplete. in the following pages i have referred to comparatively few russian books. after miansarov, the following, among many others, may with advantage be consulted:-- catalogue de la section des russica, published by bibl. imp. publ. de st. pbg., . vols. vo. semenov (p.), geografichsko-statistichskii slovar rosiiskoi imperii. pbg., - . vols. to. stuckenberg (j. ch.), versuch eines quellen-anzeigers ... fuer das studium der geographie ... des russischen reichs. pbg., - . vols. vo. i am fully conscious of the shortcomings of this essay, and shall be glad to find it extended and corrected by later writers, to whom it may serve as a groundwork. works of special interest are marked *. geography, travels, and miscellaneous literature. * brosset (m. f.), description géographique de la géorgie par le tsarévitch wakhoucht. texte géorgien suivi d'une traduction française. avec cartes lith. s. pbg. acad. scient., . to. wakhoucht wrote to the local authorities all over the country, asking each for information about his own district; the present standard work was the result of his inquiries. ancient geography. cf. apollonius rhodius, strabo, plinius, arrianus, ptolemæus, c. rommel's caucasiarum regionum et gentium straboniana descriptio. lipsiæ, . vo. luenemann (g. h.), descriptio caucasi. lipsiæ, . to. carli (joh. rinaldi), de expeditione argonautorum in colchidem. venet., . vols. to. vivien de st. martin (louis), mémoire historique sur la géographie ancienne du caucase. paris, . ---- ----, etude géographique sur le caucase de strabon. in etudes de géogr. anc. paris, . preller (e.), bedeutung des schwarzen meeres fuer die handel und verkehr der alten welt. dorpat, . vo. mediæval geography. stephanus byzantinus, massudi, abulfeda. defrémery, fragments de géographes et d'historiens arabes et persans inédits, relatifs aux anciens peuples du caucase. in nouv. journ. asiat., - . paris. rubruquis ( ) in navigantium atque itinerantium bibliotheca, by john harris, d.d., continued by j. campbell. vols. in fol. london, . in this collection will be found other records of travel in georgia. barbaro (josafat), viaggio alla tana e nella persia ( ). in ramusio's raccolta di viaggi. venetia, . contarini (ambroise), voyage de perse ( ). in bergeron's collection de voyages. paris, . sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. hakluyt (richd.), the principall navigations, voiages, and discoveries of the english nation in ... the empire of russia, the caspian sea, georgia ... london, . fol. also . vols. fol. new edition, london, - . to. jenkinson (anthony), early voyages and travels to russia and persia, by a. j. and other englishmen (in reign of queen elizabeth). hakluyt soc. london, . vols. vo. zampi (giuseppe maria), relatione della cholchida. . lamberti (arcangelo), relatione della cholchida, hoggi detta mengrellia, nella quale si tratta dell' origine, costumi e cose naturali di quei paesi. nd edition. napoli, . to. olearius (adam), the voyages and travels of the ambassadors sent by frederick, duke of holstein, to the great duke of muscovy and the king of persia ... in - . translated from the dutch by j. davies. london, . vols. fol. dapper (olfert), asia ... beneffens en volkome beschryving van geheel persie, georgie, mengrelie en andere gebuur-gewesten. amsterdam, . fol. ----, german edition. nuernberg. translated by beern. vols. fol. . novikov, drevnaya rossiiskaya biblioteka. s. pbg., . vo. for travels of russian ambassadors to georgia in seventeenth century. moreri (ludvig), relations nouvelles du levant, ou traité de la religion, du gouvernement et des coutumes des perses, des arméniens et des gaures. lyon, . mo. bruin (c. de) (dutch painter), voyages au levant. delft, . fol. ---- ----, voyages dans la moscovie et la perse. amsterdam, . vols. fol. and paris, . vols. to. struys (jean), voyages en muscovie, en tatarie, en perse, etc. amsterdam, . vols. mo. tavernier, six voyages ... en perse ( - ). rouen, . chardin (sir john), the travels of sir john chardin into persia. london, . fol. vols. tournefort (pitton de), rélation d'un voyage du levant, contenant l'histoire ancienne et moderne de ... l'arménie, de la géorgie ... paris and lyon, . vols. to. amsterdam, . english edition, london, . dutch edition, amsterdam, . evliya (effendi), travels in europe, asia, and africa in the seventeenth century. translated from the turkish by j. von hammer. london, . eighteenth century. lerch (joh. jacob), zweite reise nach persien. in buesching's magazin. . reineggs (jacob), beschreibung des kaukasus. gotha, - . vo. and some other works. sketches in pallas's nordische beitraege, etc. a general, historical, and topographical description of mount caucasus. translated by ch. wilkinson. london, . (reineggs was a diplomatic agent of the russian court, and induced the ossets to submit, besides preparing the way for the annexation of georgia.) gueldenstaedt (joh. ant.), geografichskoie i statistichskoie opisanié gruzii (geographical and statistical description of georgia). s. pbg., . vo. ---- ----, reisen nach georgien und imerethi, ausg. von j. von klaproth. berlin, . vo. ---- ----, beschreibung der kaukasischen laender, ausg. von j. von klaproth. berlin. . vo. peyssonnel (french consul in smyrna), traité sur le commerce de la mer noire. paris, . vols. vo. memoir of a map of the countries comprehended between the black sea and the caspian; with an account of the caucasian nations, and vocabularies of their languages. london, . to. howell, journal of the passage from india through armenia, &c. wilford (francis), on mount caucasus. in asiatic researches. london, . potocki (jean), voyage dans les steps d'astrakhan et du caucase (in ) publié par klaproth. paris, . vo. voyages historiques et géographiques dans les pays situés entre la mer noire et la mer caspienne. paris, . biberstein (maréchal de), tableau des provinces situées sur la côte occidentale de la mer caspienne, entre les fleuves térek et kour. s. pbg., . to. mémoires historiques et géographiques sur les pays situés entre la mer noire et la mer caspienne. paris, . to. natolien, georgien ... in historischer, geographischer ... politischer hinsicht. berlin and leipzig, . vo. nineteenth century. zass (de), description du caucase, avec le précis historique et statistique de la géorgie. s. pbg., . vo. langen (jacob), opisanié kavkaza s kratkim istorichskim i statistichskim opisaniem gruzii (description of the caucasus, with a short historical and statistical description of georgia). translated from the french of j. l. s. pbg., . rommel (v. c.), die voelker des kaukasus. weimar, . lagorio, extrait du journal d'un voyage en mingrélie. in annales des voyages. paris, . ----, bemerkungen ueber mingrelien. in minerva. . clarke (e. d.), voyages en russie etc., trad. de l'anglais. paris, . vols. vo. i have not seen the english original. morier (john), journey through persia. london, . to. ---- ----, second journey through persia ... with an account of the embassy of sir gore ouseley. london, . to. kinneir, geographical memoir of the persian empire, interspersed with an account of manners and customs. london, . to. ----, journey through asia minor, armenia, &c. london, . vo. colchis oder mingrelien. in hormayr's archiv. . drouville, voyage en perse. s. pbg., . vols. vo. with atlas. freygang (wilhelm and frederica), lettres sur le caucase et la géorgie. hambourg, . vo. engelhardt (moritz von) and parrot (friedr.), reise in die krymm und den kaukasus. berlin, . parrot also wrote reise nach ararat. berlin, . translated by w. d. cooley, london, n.d. vo. kotzebue (moritz von), reise nach persien im jahre . johnson (john), a journey from india to england through persia, georgia.... london, . to. ker-porter (sir robt.), travels in georgia, persia, armenia, ancient babylonia, &c., during the years - . london, . vols. to. lumsden (thos.), a journey from merut in india to london, through arabia, persia, armenia, georgia.... london, . vo. gamba (jacques francois), voyage dans la russie méridionale, et particulièrement dans les provinces situées au-delà du caucase, fait depuis jusqu'en . with an atlas. tom. paris, . vo. lyall (robt.), travels in russia, the crimea, and georgia. london, . vols. vo. asiatic journal. london. former and present state of the road over mount caucasus, ; visit to the caucasian wall, ; the caucasian nations, ; and other articles. bronievskii, puteshestvié na kavkazié (journey in the caucasus). moskva, . vols. vo. henderson, biblical researches and travels in russia, including ... the passage of the caucasus. london, . vo. halen (d. juan van), dos años en rusia. valencia, . vo. also mémoires. paris and bruxelles, . vols. vo. ----, narrative of d. juan van halen's imprisonment ... his campaign with the army of the caucasus. translated from the spanish. london, . vols. vo. another edition in . klaproth (julius von), voyage au mont caucase. paris, . vo. ----, extraits d'une topographie de la géorgie. paris, n. d. vo. and several other works. seristori (comte), notes sur les provinces russes au-delà du caucase. odessa, . vetter (j. c. w.), meine reise nach grusien. leipzig, . rottiers, itinéraire de tiflis à constantinople. bruxelles, . jaeger (b.), reise von st. petersburg in die krim und die laender des kaukasus. leipzig, . vo. pushkin (a. s.), puteshestvié v erzerum (journey to erzerum). . lermontov (m. y.), geroi nashevo vremeni (a hero of our times). - . kupfer, voyage dans les environs du mont elbrous. s. pbg. acad. scient., . jaeger (b.), versuch einer darstellung des natuerlichen reichthums ... der russischen laender jenseit des kaukasus. leipzig, . vo. marigny (e. t. de), portulan de la mer noire. odessa, . guibal (paul), industrie et économie des abazes in courrier de la nouvelle russie. dec., . odessa. armstrong (t. b.), travels in russia and turkey.... itinerary through ... georgia. london, . vo. budberg (leonh., freiherr von), galerie der neuesten reisen von russen durch russland. s. pbg., . l. s. (cte.) (? seristori), notes statistiques sur le littoral de la mer noire. vienne, . vo. pp. nouv. annales des voyages. paris. many articles. nouv. journal asiatique. paris. description géographique du ghouria. . and many other articles. annalen der erdkunde. blick auf georgien. . georgien und seine umgebung. . and other articles. eichwald (carl eduard von), reise auf dem caspischen meere und in den caucasus. stuttgard, - . bde. vo. a scientific work. mignan, journal of a tour through georgia.... asiatic society. bombay, . smith (eli) and dwight (h.), missionary researches in armenia, including a journey ... into georgia. london, . vo. conolly (arthur), journey to the north of india overland. london, . vols. vo. famin (césar), region caucasienne in univers pittoresque. paris, n. d. vo. caucasien in weltgemaeldegallerie. stuttgard, . vo. hammer (joseph von), schwarzes meer. wien, . evetskii (orest), statistichskoé opisanié kavkaza (statistical description of the caucasus). s. pbg., . obozrenie russkikh vladenii za kavkazom (description of the russian possessions beyond the caucasus). s. pbg., . vols. vo. an official publication. zubov, kartina kavkazskavo kraya (picture of the caucasian land). s. pbg., - . vols. vo. ----, shest pisem o gruzii i kavkazié (six letters about georgia and the caucasus). moskva, . vo. besse, voyage en crimée, au caucase, etc. paris, . vo. belanger (ch.), voyage aux indes par ... la géorgie. paris, . vo. with atlas. spencer (edm.), travels in the western caucasus. london, . vols. vo. fragmens de lettres écrites de tiflis en géorgie. in bibl. univ. de genève, . wilbraham (capt. richard), travels in the transcaucasian provinces. london, . vo. *dubois de montpéreux (frédéric), voyage autour du caucase. paris, - . tom. vo. a well-written work. i am indebted to dubois for many bibliographical notes. the same author published an atlas in five parts in folio, neuchatel, , to illustrate his book (part , ancient geography; part , picturesque views; part , architecture; part , archeology; part , geology). hamilton (walter), researches in asia minor, armenia, &c. london, . vols. vo. southgate, horatio. narrative of a tour through armenia. new york, . mo. samuel (j.), the remnant found, or the place of israel's hiding discovered ... the result of personal investigation during a missionary tour in georgia. london, . vo. teule (jul. c.), pensées ... extraites du journal des mes voyages dans ... les provinces russes, géorgiennes et tartares du caucase.... paris, . vols. vo. hommaire de hell, voyage à la mer caspienne. paris, . vols. cameron (geo. poulett), personal adventures and excursions in georgia. london, . vols. vo. cf. united service journal. london, - . hagemeister, zakavkazskie ocherki (transcaucasian sketches). s. pbg., . vo. novie (new) do. do. s. pbg., . joselian (plato), opisanié shiomgvimskoi pustini v gruzii (description of the desert of shiomgvim in georgia). tiflis, . mo. ---- ----, puteviya zapiski po kakhetii (travel notes from kakheti). tiflis, . mo. suzannet (cte. de), souvenirs de voyage. les provinces du caucase. paris, . vo. danilevskii (n.), kavkaz i evo gorskie zhiteli (the caucasus and its mountaineers). moskva, . vo. ---- ----, der kaukasus. physisch-geographisch, statistisch, ethnographisch und strategisch. leipzig, . vo. kolenati, die ersteigung des kasbek. in russ. archiv. s. pbg., . wagner (moritz), reise nach kolchis und nach den deutschen kolonien jenseits des kaukasus. leipzig, . vo. and der kaukasus und das land der kosaken. te. ausg. leipzig, . bde. vo. translated into english as travels in persia, georgia, and koordistan. london, . vols. vo. *stackelberg (count ernst von), le caucase pittoresque, dessiné d'après nature par le prince g. gagarine; avec une introduction et un texte explicatif par le comte e. s. paris, - . fol. *---- ----, scènes, paysages, moeurs et costumes du caucase, dessinés d'après nature par le prince g. gagarine, et accompagnés d'un texte par le comte e. s. paris, , etc. fol. bodenstedt (fr.), tausend und ein tag im orient. berlin, . vols. vo. marmier (x.), du danube au caucase. paris, . vo. haxthausen (august, baron v.), transcaucasia. translated into english by j. e. taylor. london, . vo. golovine (ivan), the caucasus. london, . vo. spencer (edm.), turkey, russia, the black sea. london, . vo. thuemmel (a. r.), bunte bilder aus dem kaukasus. nuernberg, - . vols. vo. borozdin (k. a.), zakavkazskiya vospominaniya. mingrelia i svanetia s do g. s. pbg. *dumas (alexandre), le caucase. paris, . to. a charming book. gille (f.), lettres sur le caucase.... paris, . vo. cf.-- bocage (v. a. b. du), rapport fait à la société de géographie. paris, . vo. chodzko (general), die neuesten hoehenmessungen im kaukasus. in petermann's mittheilungen. gotha, . ---- ----, die russischen aufnahmen im kaukasus. ibid., . moynet, voyage à la mer caspienne et à la mer noire. in charton's "tour du monde," . er. sém. paris. blanchard, voyage de tiflis à stavropol. in charton's "tour du monde," . er. sém. paris. lapinskii (t.), die bergvoelker des kaukasus. hamburg, . vols. vo. bianchi (a. de), "viaggi in armenia ... e lazistan. milano, . vo. ruepprecht, barometrische hoehenbestimmungen im caucasus, - . in mém. de l'acad. de sc. s. pbg., . bergé (adolphe), voyage en mingrélie. paris, . vo. ussher (john), a journey from london to persepolis; including wanderings in ... georgia. london, . vo. stebnitzky, uebersicht der kaukasischen statthalterschaft. in petermann's mittheil. gotha, . petzholdt, der kaukasus. leipzig, . vols. vo. *radde (dr. gustav, curator of caucasian museum, and corresponding member of r.g.s., london), bericht ueber die biologisch-geographischen untersuchungen in den kaukasus-laendern. tiflis, . to. ---- ----, reisen und forschungen im kaukasus im . in petermann's mittheil. gotha, . to. ---- ----, vier vortraege ueber dem kaukasus. ibid., . ---- ----, die drei langenhochthaeler imeritiens. tiflis. ---- ----, das kaukasische museum in tiflis. in jahresbericht des vereins fuer erdkunde. dresden, . ---- ----, die chews'uren und ihr land. cassel, . vo. abich (hermann), geologische beobachtungen auf reisen in den gebirgslaendern zwischen kur und araxes. tiflis, . to. and other geological works. becker (a.), reise nach dem kaukasus. moskau, . vo. schlotheim, vier monate in grusien. hermansburg, . vo. favre, notes sur quelques glaciers de la chaîne du caucase. in bibl. universelle de génève, janv., . vereschaguine (basile), voyage dans les provinces du caucase. in charton's "tour du monde." paris, . to. *freshfield (douglas w.), travels in the central caucasus and bashan. london, . vo. contains an account of the famous ascent of mkhinvari (mt. kazbek). cf. mr. freshfield's lecture before the royal geographical society, london, march , . cunynghame (a.), travels in the eastern caucasus. london, . vo. mounsey (aug. h.), a journey through the caucasus. london, . vo. lyons (f. a.), adventures in lazistan. in bates's illustrated travels. london, . dilke (ashton), an article on transcaucasia in the fortnightly review. london, . grove (f. c.), the frosty caucasus. london, . vo. (account of ascent of elbruz in .) bunbury (e. h.), art. caucasus in encyc. brit. vol. v. . thielmann (baron max von), journey in the caucasus. translated by dr. c. hemeage. london, . vols. in . vo. ernouf, le caucase, le perse et la turquie d'asie. d'après la relation de m. le baron de thielmann. paris, . vo. schneider, vorlaeufiger bericht ueber im laufe des sommers in transkaukasien ausgefuehrte reisen. in "isis." . fuchs (p.), ethnologische beschreibung der osseten. in "ausland." . bernoville (raphael), la souanétie libre. illustr. paris, . to. also notes d'un voyage au caucase. in revue catholique de bordeaux, oct. . telfer (j. b., commander r.n.), the crimea and transcaucasia. london, . vols. vo. *bryce (prof. james), transcaucasia and ararat. london, . vo. bakradse (d.), das tuerkische grusien. aus d. russischen uebers. v. n. v. seidlitz. in russ. revue. . call (g. v.), eisenbahnen im kaukasus. in oesterr. monatsschrift fuer d. orient. wien, . kohn (a.), kaukasien und seine bewohner. in "grenzboten." . reisen im kaukasus gebiet. in "ausland." . travels in the caucasus. in edinburgh review. january, . cole (g. r. f.), transcaucasia. in fraser's magazine. december, . schweizer-lerchenfeld (a. v.), lazistan und die lazen. in monatsschrift fuer d. orient. wien, . karsten (k.), natur- und kulturbilder aus transkaukasien. in "aus allen welttheilen." . smirnow (m.), aperçu sur l'ethnographie du caucase. in revue d'anthropologie. paris, . kaukasische skizzen. in russ. revue. s. pbg., . art. georgia in encyc. brit. vol. x. . only remarkable for its typographical errors. vivien de saint-martin (louis), nouveau dictionnaire de géographie universelle. paris, . to. art. caucase and géorgie. also his nouv. annales des voyages. serena (mme. carla), articles in charton's "tour du monde." paris. to. iméréthi, . mingrélie, . kakhétie, . samourzakan, abkasie, . seidlitz (n. v.), die voelker des kaukasus. in russische revue. . vide also petermann's mittheilungen and russ. revue passim. reclus (elisée), nouvelle géographie universelle. paris, t. vi., . to. morrison (m. a.), caucasian nationalities. in journal of royal asiatic society. london, . wolley (clive phillips, formerly british vice-consul at kertch). sport in the crimea and caucasus. london, . vo. ---- ----, savage svanêtia. vols. london, . vo. koch (c.), wanderungen im oriente. weimar, - . vols. vo. ---- ----, die kaukasische militaerstrasse. leipzig, . vo. ---- ----, nachklaenge orientalischer wanderungen. erfurt, . vo. koechlin-schwartz (a.), un touriste au caucase. paris, . mo. bayern (fr.), contribution à l'archéologie du caucase. lyon, . wanderer (an english officer), notes on the caucasus. london, . vo. sobolsky (w.), spuren primitiver familienordnungen bei den kaukasischen bergvoelkern. in russ. revue. . vladikin, putevoditel po kavkazu (guide to the caucasus). moskva, . vols. vo. chantre (ernest), recherches anthropologiques dans le caucase. paris and lyon, . vols. to. erckert (r. von), der kaukasus und seine voelker. leipzig, . vo. ethnography. kovalevskii, customs of the ossetes. in journ. r. asiat. soc., july, . translated by e. delmar morgan, m.r.a.s. kavkaz, spravochnaya kniga. tiflis, . mo. weidenbaum (e.), putevoditel po kavkazu (guide to the caucasus). tiflis, . an official publication. a good guide on the principle of those of murray is much wanted, but murray's guide to russia, th edition, , gives very little information about the caucasus. *sbornik svdenii o kavkazié, tiflis, vols., to, beginning , contains a mass of interesting and useful information. vol. i. . monograph on the ossets, by pfaff. collection of georgian, armenian, and tatar proverbs, &c.--vol. ii. . statistical and economic condition of the ossets, by pfaff. serfdom in georgia at the beginning of the present century by kalantarov. railway routes to india.--vol. iii. . exhaustive treatise on viniculture in the caucasus.--vol. iv. and v. - . statistics.--vol. vi. . tiflis according to the census of march , . also contains a brief historical account of the city.--vol. vii. . and vols. viii. and ix. . statistics. *sbornik materialov dlya opisaniya myestnostei i plemen kavkaza. the sixth volume was published in tiflis this year. for archeology vide-- akti of the kavkazskaya arkhéografichskaya kommissiya of tiflis, from . in fol. also the zapiski and izvestiya of the obshchestvo lyubiteléi kavkazskoi arkhéologii of tiflis. former, from , in fol.; latter, from , in vo. the best map is that of the general staff. five versts to the inch. history. general. *brosset (m. f.), histoire de la géorgie (two volumes of georgian text, and six volumes of french translation and notes). s. pbg. (acad. scient.), - . to. m. brosset has written a great many books and articles on georgian history, published by the imperial academy of sciences in s. pbg.; some of them may still be purchased. cf. bibliographie analytique des ouvrages de m. marie-félicité brosset ... par m. laurent brosset. s. pbg., . joselian (plato), istoriya gruzinskoi tserkvi. s. pbg., . translated into english under the title of "a short history of the georgian church," translated from the russian by the rev. s. c. malan. london, . vo. ---- ----, razlichniya naimenovaniya gruzin (on the various appellations of the georgians). tiflis, . mo. ---- ----, istorichskii vzglad na sostoyanie drevnei gruzii (historical glance at the condition of ancient georgia). in zhurnal ministerstva narodn. prosv. s. pbg., . cf. also his periodical zakavkazskii vestnik from . tiflis. baratov (prince sulkhan), istoriya gruzii. s. pbg., , &c. vo. david (tsarevich of georgia), kratkaya istoriya o gruzii. s. pbg., . mo. barataiev, numizmatichskie fakti gruzinskavo tsarstva (georgian numismatics). s. pbg., . vo. villeneuve (de), la géorgie. paris, . vo. breitenbauch (georg aug. von), geschichte der staaten von georgien. memmingen, . thin vo. reineggs (jacob), kurzer auszug der geschichte von georgien. published in p. s. pallas's neue nordische beitraege, iii. bd., s. pbg., . vo. *evgeny (bolkovitinov, metropolitan of kiev), georgien, oder historisches gemaelde von grusien, aus dem russischen uebers. von f. schmidt. riga, . vo. a capital little book. malcolm (sir john), history of persia. nd edition. london, . vo. fraser, an historical and descriptive account of persia. edinburgh, . mo. kazem-beg, derbend nâmeh, or the history of derbend. translated from the turkish (into english). s. pbg., . to. early history. ditmar (t. j.), von den kaukasischen voelkern der mythischen zeit. berlin, . vo. ritter (carl), die vorhalle europaeischer voelkergeschichten vor herodotus, um den kaukasus und an den gestaden des pontus, eine abhandlung zur alterthumskunde. berlin, . vo. the copy in the british museum is lettered "ritter's wahnsinn," and we must own that we think the book more interesting than instructive. neumann (carl), die hellenen im skythenlande. berlin, . vo. shea (d.), mir khwand. history of the early kings of persia from kaiomars to ... alexander the great. london. oriental translation fund. . vo. procopius, de bello persico ... de bello gothico. continued down to a.d. by agathias. constantinus porphyrius (x. cent, a.d.), de administrando imperio. boyer, de muro caucasico. in vol. i. of comment. de l'acad. de sciences. s. pbg. polybius, de bello persico. lib. i., cap. xii. et passim. ruffinus, historia ecclesiastica. lib. i., cap. x. conversion of georgia. saint-martin (jean antoine), mémoires historiques et géographiques sur l'arménie. tom. paris, and . vo. ashik (anton), bosforskoye tsarstvo s yevo paleografichskimi i nadgrobnimi pamyatnikami, raspisnimi vasami, planami, kartami i vidami (the kingdom of the bosphorus, with its paleographic and monumental remains, inscribed vases, plans, maps, and views). odessa, - . three parts. to. neumann (c. f.), elisha vartabed. the history of vartan, and of the battles of the armenians. . vo. and vahram's chronicle of the armenian kingdom in cilicia. . vo. published by oriental translation fund. london. d'ohsson (chév.), des peuples du caucase au xe. siècle. paris, . lebeau (charles), histoire du bas empire. corrigée et augm. par m. de saint-martin et continuée par m. brosset jeune. tom. paris, - . vo. vivien de saint-martin (louis), recherches sur les populations primitives et les plus anciennes traditions du caucase. paris, . vo. stritter (j. g.), memoriæ populorum olim ad danubium, pontum euxinum, paludem mæotidem, caucasum, mare caspium, et inde magis ad septentriones, incolentium, e scriptoribus historiæ byzantinæ erutæ et digestæ. petropoli, - . vols. to. (vol. iv. refers to georgian history.) modern history. klaproth (j. von), aperçu des entreprises des mongols en géorgie ... dans le xiii. siècle. paris, . vo. comte l. s. (? seristori), memoria sulle colonie del mar nero nei secoli di mezzo. pp. vo. (n. d.) an account of the genoese trading colonies. dorn (b.), beitraege zur geschichte der kaukasischen laender und voelker, aus morgenlaendischen quellen. esp. iii. bd. (geschichte der georgier), which contains a work by a mahometan writer named iskender munshi, and a history of the szafid dynasty; it deals with the period - . acad. scient. s. pbg., . to. *perepiska na inostrannikh yazikakh gruzinskikh tsarei s rosiiskimi gosudaryami ot g. do g. (correspondence in foreign languages between the kings of georgia and the sovereigns of russia from to .) acad. scient. s. pbg., . to. hanway (jonas), the revolutions of persia during the present century (being the second volume of the historical account of the british trade over the caspian). nd edition. london, . to. der allerneueste staat von casan ... georgien und vieler andern dem czaren, sultan und schach ... unterthanen tartarn landschaften ... nuernberg, . vo. van der quelle (philander--pseudonym), leben und thaten des persischen monarchen schach nadyr. leipzig, . vo. peyssonnel (french consul in smyrna), histoire des troubles dans la géorgie. (? paris, .) vo. translated into german, also into english as a continuation of hanway's history. london, . to. ouosk' herdjan (jean), mémoire pour servir à l'histoire des événemens qui ont eu lieu en arménie et en géorgie à la fin du xviiie. siècle et au commencement du xixe. trad. de l'arménien par j. klaproth. paris, . vo. cirbied (j.), histoire arménienne; details sur les changements politiques en géorgie et en arménie dans les premières années du xixe. siècle. (? paris, .) vo. rottiers (col.), notice biographique sur marie, dernière reine de géorgie. journal asiatique. tom. . paris, . *zubov, podvigi russkikh voisk v stranakh kavkazskikh v - (the exploits of the russian army in the caucasian countries from to ). s. pbg., - . ten vols. vo. with portraits and plans. ----, kartina voini s persieiu (a picture of the war with persia). s. pbg., . vo. fonton (félix de), la russie dans l'asie mineure. histoire de la campagne du maréchal paskewitch. paris, . vo. with atlas. urquhart (david), progress and present position of russia in the east. london, . vo. and second edition "continued to the present time." london, . vo. hommaire de hell, situation des russes dans le caucase. paris, . vo. holland (thomas erskine), lecture on the treaty relations of russia and turkey from - . london and oxford, . vo. haxthausen (august, baron von), the tribes of the caucasus, with an account of shamyl. translated by j. e. taylor. london, . mo. moser (l.), der kaukasus, seine voelkerschaften ... nebst einer charakteristik schamils. wien, . vo. our dangerous neighbour over the way, and two questions upon the caucasus. london, . vo. *bodenstedt (friedrich martin), die voelker des kaukasus und ihre freiheitskaempfe gegen die russen. bde. te. ausg. berlin, . vo. wagner (dr. friedr.), schamyl als feldherr, sultan und prophet. leipzig, . vo. english translation by l. wraxall. london, . vo. douhaire (p.), les russes au caucase. prise de schamyl. paris, . vo. *dubrovin, istoriya voini i vladichestva russkikh na kavkazié (history of the war and supremacy of the russians in the caucasus). vols. s. pbg., . the first volume is introductory, and contains an excellent ethnographical account of the country. baumgarten (g.), sechzig jahre des kaukasischen krieges. nach russischen originalen.... leipzig, . vo. dulaurier, la russie dans le caucase. in revue des deux mondes. paris, - . boys (a. du), le caucase depuis shamyl. in le contemporain. paris, août, . the following periodical publications should also be consulted:-- the official newspaper kavkaz. - . tiflis. kavkazskii sbornik. - . vols. vo. tiflis. a series of articles chiefly referring to russian military exploits in the caucasus during the present century. for georgian jurisprudence, cf.-- sbornik zakonov gruzinskavo tsarya vakhtanga vi. (collection of the laws of the georgian king vakhtanga vi.), izd. a. s. frenkelya, pod redak. d. z. bakradze. tiflis, . bagaturov (s. j.), lichniya i pozemelniya prava v drevnei gruzii (personal and agrarian laws in ancient georgia). tiflis, . dareste, an art. in journ. des savants. paris, . kovalevskii, arts. in vestnik yevropi. language and literature. georgian grammars and dictionaries--comparative philology. alphabetum ibericum sive georgianum. romæ, . vo. paolini (stefano), dittionario giorgiano e italiano, composto da s. p. con l'aiuto del m. r. p. d. niceforo irbachi giorgiano. roma (propag.), . to. maggi (francesco maria), syntagmatwn linguarum orientalium quæ in georgiæ regionibus audiuntur. romæ, . fol. and . fol. hyde (thomas, d.d.), historia religionis veterum persarum .... oxonii, . to. and . to. contains georgian alphabet. tlulcaanti (david), dottrina cristiana per uso delle missioni della giorgia, tradotta dalla lingua italiana in lingua civile giorgiana. roma, . vo. and . vo. vocabularium catherinæ. nos. , , , &c. s. pbg. varlaamov, kratkaya gruzinskaya grammatika. s. pbg., . hervas, vocabolario poliglota, p. , &c. madrid. witsen, nord en oost tartarye ii., , . firalov, samouchitel, soderzhashchii v sebé grammatiku, razgovori, nravoucheniya i lexikon, na rossiiskom i gruzinskom yazikakh (grammar, dialogues, moral precepts, and dictionary in russian and georgian). s. pbg., . vo. vater (j. s.), vergleichungstafeln der europaeischen stamm-sprachen ... grusinische grammatik, nach maggio, ghai und firalow ... halle, . vo. klaproth (h. j. v.), kaukasische sprachen. halle and berlin, . vo. ---- ----, vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne. paris (soc. asiat.), . vo. ---- ----, sur la langue géorgienne. in journal asiat. paris, . brosset (m. f.), l'art libéral ou grammaire géorgienne. paris, . vo. ---- ----, Éléments de la langue géorgienne. paris, . vo. soulkhanoff (a.), vocabulaire méthodique géorgien-français-russe. s. pbg., . vo. *chubinov (david), gruzinsko-russo-frantsuzkii slovar. dictionnaire géorgien-français-russe avec un abrégé de la grammaire géorgienne par m. brosset. s. pbg., . to. ---- ----, kratkaya gruzinskaya grammatika. s. pbg., . vo. ---- ----, russko-gruzinskii slovar. vnov sostavlenii po noveishim russkim slovaryam. s. pbg., . vo. bopp, kaukasische glieder des indo-europaeischen sprachstamms. berlin, . mueller (f. c. j.), zur conjugation des georgischens verbums. wien, . vo. schiefner (prof.), report on the languages of the caucasus. in transactions of philological society. london, . gatteyrias (j. a.), etudes linguistiques sur les langues de la famille géorgienne. in revue de linguistique. paris, juillet, . tsagareli (prof.), georgische inschrift aus jerusalem. in zeitschrift des palestina-vereins. . *---- ----, examen de la littérature relative à la grammaire géorgienne. s. pbg., . peacock (d. r.), original vocabularies of five west caucasian languages (georgian, mingrelian, lazian, svanetian, and apkhazian). journal of royal asiatic society, , pp. - . osset, mingrelian, abkhazian, svanetian, and lazian languages. sjögren (a. j.), ossetische sprachlehre (also published in russian). s. pbg. (acad. scient.), . to. ---- ----, ossetische studien. s. pbg. (acad. scient.), . to. schiefner (a.), ossetinskie texti (osset texts). s. pbg. (acad. scient.), . vo. ---- ----, versuch ueber die thusch-sprache. s. pbg. (acad. scient.), . to. and other works. mueller (f. c. j.), ueber die stellung des ossetischen. wien, . vo. ---- ----, beitraege zur lautlehre des ossetischen. wien, . vo. miller (vsyevolod, professor at moscow), ossetinskie etyudi. bartolomaei (lieut.-gen.), lushnu anban. svanetskaya azbuka (svanetian primer with georgian and russian translation. includes a large vocabulary, lord's prayer, colloquial phrases, &c.). tiflis, . to. pp. klaproth (j. de), détails sur le dialecte géorgien usité en mingrélie. in journ. asiat. paris, . rosen, sprache der lazen. berlin, . ----, abhandlungen ueber das mingrelische. berlin, . ----, ueber das suanische und abchasische. berlin, . georgian literature.--translations and criticisms. *brosset, articles, lectures, &c., published by acad. scient. s. pbg. in their periodical and other publications. *leist (arthur), georgische dichter. leipzig, . mo. a collection of modern lyrics translated into german verse. ---- ----, georgian, natur, sitten u. bewohner. leipzig, . (last chapter contains a short history of georgian literature, which i freely used in writing the present work.) *evgeny (bolkovitinov), georgien, oder historisches gemaelde von grusien, aus dem russischen uebers. von f. schmidt. riga, . vo. alter (franz c.), ueber georgianische litteratur. wien, . vo. *gulak (n. i.), o barsovoi kozhé rustaveli. (two lectures in russian on rustaveli's "man in the panther's skin.") tiflis, . vo. État actuel de la littérature géorgienne. in nouv. journ. asiat. vol. i., p. . gabriel (bishop of imereti), sermons, &c. translated from the georgian by s. c. malan, vicar of broadwindsor. london, . vo. orbeliani (prince sulkhan), kniga mudrosti i lzhi. (a russian translation of a collection of georgian fables and folk tales of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.) perevod i obyasneniya a. tsagareli. s. pbg. (acad. scient.), . vo. bebur b ... gruzinskiya narodniya skazki. s. pbg., . vo. (a collection of folk tales, &c., chiefly from guri.) mueller (w.), prometheische sagen im kaukasus. in russische revue. . bleçki (r. v.), das schloss der tamara. eine kaukasische sage. s. pbg., . vo. tsagareli (prof.), svedeniya o pamyatnikakh gruzinskoi pismennosti (information concerning the monuments of georgian literature). s. pbg., . vo. morfill (w. r.), an article on georgian literature in "the academy," july , . mr. morfill has catalogued the georgian library presented to the indian institute at oxford by the rev. s. c. malan, with whom he shares the honour of being the only georgian scholar in england, and he will shortly publish a history of russia, a chapter of which will be devoted to georgia. statistics. all the following figures are from official papers, and they refer to the year . they must not be too implicitly believed:-- a. statistics of population. area in sq. km. total population. government of tiflis , , government of kutais , , population of the chief towns in georgia:-- government of tiflis. government of kutais. akhaltzikhe. , batum , akhalkalaki , kutais , gori , poti , dushet , sukhum , signakh , telav , tiflis , it will be seen that the urban population is very small. b. trade and agriculture ( ). total trade of transcaucasia (value in roubles at, say d. per rouble):-- exports. imports. total. , , , , , , rbl. trade of the interior of russia and transcaucasia with persia:-- exports. imports. total. , , , , , , rbl. transit trade through transcaucasia:-- from asia to europe. from europe to asia. total , , , , , traffic returns of transcaucasian railway. total weight of goods carried, , , puds (ton = puds). to batum and poti, for export, , , puds. viz. , , pd. petroleum and its products. , , pd. grain. , , pd. miscellaneous goods. goods imported from abroad and despatched from batum and poti by railway, , , pd. bread stuffs produced in transcaucasia:-- wheat , , puds. barley , , puds. maize , , puds. millet , , puds. rice , , puds. oats , puds. potatoes , , puds. total , , puds. wine.--the total annual production of wine in transcaucasia was about , , gallons, of which about , , gallons in the government of kutais. the transcaucasian rwy. carried a weight of , puds from stations in the government of kutais; , puds from stations in the government of tiflis. (as there is no railway to kakheti, the wine from that district comes to the capital by road, in carts.) two hundred thousand puds were sent to batum, presumably for export (chiefly to france, where it is "manipulated" and sold as burgundy). sundry goods despatched by transcaucasian railway. from stations in the from stations in govt. of kutais. the govt. of tiflis. puds. puds. manganese ore , , chiefly to great -- britain timber , , dried raisins -- , palm wood , -- walnut wood , , walnuts , , tobacco , , silk and cocoons -- , wool -- , fruits , , raw hides , , manufactured hides , , c. education ( ). no. of schools. higher lower private elementary total no. gymnasia, municipal. schools. schools. of &c. schools. government of tiflis government of kutais no. of pupils. boys. girls. total. for every , inhabitants there are-- schools. pupils. government of , , , · tiflis government of , , , · kutais specimens of georgian vocal music. .--the river aragva. .--the singer. .--avtandil's song. .--drinking song (p. ).